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+{"text":"\\section{Background}\n\nAn $m$-by-$n$ matrix $A$ is \\textit{totally positive} (TP) or \\textit{totally nonnegative} (TN) if all of its minors (determinants of square submatrices) are positive or nonnegative, respectively. Na\\\"ively, a matrix has exponentially many minors that must be checked to verify it is TP or TN. However, due to Fekete's Theorem, only the \\textit{contiguous} minors, that is, minors whose row and column index sets are consecutive, must be checked to verify total positivity. Even better, only the \\textit{initial minors} (contiguous minors whose row or column set includes 1) need to be checked \\cite{totallynonnegative}. The number of initial minors in an $m$-by-$n$ matrix is precisely $mn$, and calculating determinants may be done in $O(n^{2.373})$ time, so this means there is a polynomial time algorithm for checking total positivity \\cite{detcomplexitynew}. In Section~\\ref{dodgson}, we demonstrate a simple cubic-time algorithm to check total positivity based on Dodgson condensation.\n\nA \\textit{partial matrix} is one in which some entries are unspecified and free to be chosen. A \\textit{completion} of a partial matrix is a choice of values for the unspecified entries, resulting in a conventional matrix of the same size. The \\textit{TP completion problem} asks for which partial matrices there exists a completion that is TP \\cite{totallynonnegative}. A partial matrix is \\textit{partial TP} if all of its minors that consist only of specified entries are positive. Clearly a necessary condition for there to be a TP completion of a partial matrix is that the partial matrix is partial TP. This is not sufficient in general. In Section~\\ref{main}, we prove that determining if a partial matrix is partial TP lies in the complexity class co-NP-complete, in stark contrast to the case for conventional matrices. We actually prove a more general result for strongly and weakly sign regular matrices that includes checking partial TP and TN as special cases.\n\nFinally, in Section~\\ref{algs}, we provide an algorithm for checking partial TP which runs in exponential time in the number of unspecified entries and polynomial time in the size of the partial matrix. This generalizes to any matrix property which is inherited by all submatrices.\n\nOur principal observation about the complexity of checking partial TP is clearly relevant to the solution of TP completion problems.\n\n\\section{TP in Cubic Time}\n\\label{dodgson}\n\nDodgson condensation is a method for computing the determinant of a matrix by repeatedly applying the Desnanot-Jacobi-Sylvester identity\n\\[ \\det(M)=\\frac{\\det(M_1^1)\\det(M_n^n)-\\det(M_1^n)\\det(M_n^1)}{\\det(M_{1,n}^{1,n})}, \\]\nin which $M$ is an $n$-by-$n$ matrix and $M_{a_1,a_2,...}^{b_1,b_2,...}$ denotes the submatrix obtained by deleting rows $a_1,a_2,...$ and columns $b_1,b_2,...$. Dodgson condensation calculates the determinants of ever-larger contiguous minors until the determinant of the whole matrix is found, as follows:\n\\begin{enumerate}\n    \\item Set $A\\gets M$.\n    \\item Let matrix $B$ be $(n-1)$-by-$(n-1)$ with entries $b_{i,j}=a_{i,j}a_{i+1,j+1}-a_{i,j+1}a_{i+1,j}$. Evidently, the entries of $B$ are the contiguous $2$-by-$2$ minors of $M$.\n    \\item Let matrix $C$ be $(n-2)$-by-$(n-2)$ with entries $c_{i,j}=(b_{i,j}b_{i+1,j+1}-b_{i,j+1}b_{i+1,j})\/a_{i+1,j+1}$. In light of the identity mentioned above, the entries of $C$ are the contiguous $3$-by-$3$ minors of $M$.\n    \\item Set $A\\gets B$ and $B\\gets C$, and repeat step 3 to obtain a new matrix $C$ of dimension one less than before. This matrix consists of the contiguous minors of $M$ one size greater than before. Do this until the resulting matrix is $1$-by-$1$. Its entry is the determinant of the original matrix $M$.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\nIf ever an interior entry of the previous matrix is zero, step 2 is ill-defined. However, note that we compute every contiguous minor of the matrix at some point in the algorithm, so if any entry of any of the matrices is nonpositive, we can immediately conclude the original matrix was not TP. If instead the above algorithm terminates with all entries encountered positive, then all contiguous minors of the original matrix were positive, and it is TP. It is clear that we may apply the same algorithm on non-square matrices, stopping when we obtain a matrix with either only one row or only one column.\n\nAnalysis of the complexity of this algorithm is straightforward. To get the contiguous $(k+1)$-by-$(k+1)$ minors from the contiguous $k$-by-$k$ minors, this algorithm performs two multiplications, one subtraction, and one division per $(k+1)$-by-$(k+1)$ minor. If the matrix is $m$-by-$n$ with $m\\le n$, there are $(m-k)(n-k)$ such minors, and the largest minors are $m$-by-$m$ (so the largest value of $k$ is $m-1$). Therefore the asymptotic runtime is given by\n\\[ \\sum_{k=1}^{m-1}(m-k)(n-k)c, \\]\nwith $c$ the cost of performing the arithmetic operations. This sum is $(3m^2n-m^3-3mn+m)\\cdot c\/6$, which is $O(m^2n)$. For square matrices this is cubic time.\n\nNote there is no general analogue to Fekete's Theorem for total nonnegativity, so the cubic time algorithm presented here cannot be straightforwardly adapted to get a cubic time algorithm for determining TN. There are non-TN matrices where all contiguous minors have nonnegative determinant, such as the one below:\n\\[ \\begin{bmatrix}\n1 & 0 & 1 \\\\\n1 & 0 & 0\n\\end{bmatrix}. \\]\n\n\\section{Partial TP is Co-NP-complete}\n\\label{main}\n\nA matrix is called \\textit{weakly sign regular} (WSR) with signature $(e_i)$, $e_i\\in\\{-1,1\\}$ for all $i$, if all of its $k$-by-$k$ minors $A$ satisfy $e_kA \\ge 0$ for all $k$. If the minors satisfy $e_kA > 0$ for all $k$, the matrix is \\textit{strictly sign regular} (SSR). Partial matrices are partial WSR if their $k$-by-$k$ specified minors satisfy $e_kA \\ge 0$ for all $k$ and similarly for partial SSR. Note that TP (TN) is the special case of SSR (WSR) with $e_i=1$ for all $i$.\n\nA \\textit{biclique} is an induced subgraph of a bipartite graph that is a complete bipartite graph; a biclique is \\textit{balanced} if it has the same number of vertices in both parts. The \\textsc{balanced biclique} problem asks if there is a balanced biclique in a given bipartite graph with at least $2k$ for given integer $k$. The \\textsc{balanced biclique} problem is shown to be NP-complete in \\cite{npcomplete} by a transformation from the \\textsc{clique} problem.\n\nWe reduce the \\textsc{balanced biclique} problem to instances of the complement of \\textsc{partial $(e_i)$-SSR} and \\textsc{partial $(e_i)$-WSR}, the problems of checking if a given partial matrix is partial SSR\/WSR with a fixed signature $(e_i)$. This shows that \\textsc{partial $(e_i)$-SSR} and \\textsc{partial $(e_i)$-WSR} are co-NP-hard. It is easy to show they are also co-NP, so they are co-NP-complete. As special cases, both \\textsc{partial TN} and \\textsc{partial TP} are also co-NP-complete.\n\nFirst, we recall a known fact that may be found in \\cite{ando} and elsewhere. It may be proven inductively by ``bordering'' \\cite{totallynonnegative}.\n\n\\begin{lemma}\n\\label{lem}\nFor any positive integers $m$ and $n$ and signature $(e_i)$, there exists an $m$-by-$n$ SSR (WSR) matrix with signature $(e_i)$.\n\\end{lemma}\n\nWe then have our main theorem:\n\n\\begin{theorem}\nBoth \\textsc{partial $(e_i)$-SSR} and \\textsc{partial $(e_i)$-WSR} are co-NP-complete for any signature $(e_i)$.\n\\begin{proof}\n\\textbf{Co-NP-hard:} Given a bipartite graph $G$ with parts $U=\\{u_1,u_2,\\dots,u_m\\}$ and $V=\\{v_1,v_2,\\dots,v_n\\}$ and an integer $k$, we construct a particular $m$-by-$n$ partial matrix $M$. First, let $X$ be an $m$-by-$n$ SSR matrix with signature $(f_i)=(e_1,e_2,\\dots, e_{k-1},-e_k,-e_{k+1},\\dots)$. If $\\{v_i,u_j\\}$ is an edge of $G$, let $m_{ij}$ be specified and equal to $x_{ij}$; otherwise let $m_{ij}$ be unspecified.\n\nNow $G$ contains a balanced biclique of size $k$ or greater if and only if $M$ has a $k$-by-$k$ specified minor $A$. This minor, if it exists, satisfies $f_kA>0$. This means $M$ is \\textit{not} partial SSR (or WSR) with signature $(e_i)$, since it has a $k$-by-$k$ minor with $-e_kA\\not>0$ ($-e_kA\\not\\ge0$). Thus, \\textsc{partial $(e_i)$-SSR (WSR)} is co-NP-hard.\n\n\\textbf{Co-NP:} Given a partial matrix $M$ which is not partial SSR (WSR) with a given signature $(e_i)$, one can provide a witness $k$-by-$k$ minor $A$ that can be computed in polynomial time which does not satisfy $e_kA>0$ ($e_kA\\ge0$), so \\textsc{partial $(e_i)$-SSR (WSR)} is co-NP.\n\nWe conclude \\textsc{partial $(e_i)$-SSR (WSR)} is co-NP-complete.\n\\end{proof}\n\\end{theorem}\n\nOf interest is a special case of this theorem:\n\n\\begin{cor}\nBoth \\textsc{partial TP} and \\textsc{partial TN} are co-NP-complete.\n\\begin{proof}\nThe \\textsc{partial TP} problem is precisely the \\textsc{partial $(1,1,\\dots)$-SSR} problem, and the \\textsc{partial TN} problem is precisely the \\textsc{partial $(1,1,\\dots)$-WSR} problem.\n\\end{proof}\n\\end{cor}\n\n\\section{Algorithms for Checking Partial TP}\n\\label{algs}\n\nConsider a partial matrix with one unspecified entry at the $(i,j)$ position. Any submatrix with only specified entries that includes row $i$ cannot include column $j$ due to this unspecified entry, and similarly if it includes column $j$ then it cannot include row $i$. This means to check if this partial matrix is partial TP, it is sufficient to check if the two conventional matrices formed by removing row $i$ or column $j$ are TP. These matrices are denoted $M_i$ and $M^j$, following the notation in Section~\\ref{dodgson}.\n\nThis generalizes to the case of general partial matrices:\n\n\\begin{theorem}\nIf a partial matrix $M$ has an unspecified entry at the $(i,j)$ position, then it is partial TP if and only if the two partial matrices $M_i$ and $M^j$ are partial TP.\n\\begin{proof}\nAny fully specified square submatrix of $M$ must lie entirely within $M_i$ or $M^j$ (or both), since it cannot include the $(i,j)$ entry. Hence if both of these partial matrices are partial TP, any specified square submatrix of $M$ has positive determinant, so $M$ is partial TP. The converse is trivial.\n\\end{proof}\n\\end{theorem}\n\nThis immediately gives a recursive algorithm to check partial TP:\n\\begin{enumerate}\n    \\item If the partial matrix $M$ has no unspecified entries, then check if it is TP using the cubic time algorithm presented previously.\n    \\item Otherwise, say the $(i,j)$ entry is unspecified. Recursively check $M_i$ or $M^j$ for partial TP; the original matrix is partial TP if and only if both submatrices are partial TP.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\nIt is clear this algorithm runs in time $O(2^xn^3)$, where $x$ is the number of unspecified entries in the partial matrix, since each unspecified entry generates at most two subproblems with at most $x-1$ unspecified entries, for a total of at most $2^x$ subproblems. Consequently, if $x\\le c\\log n$ for a fixed $c$, this algorithm runs in polynomial time, with the degree depending on $c$. It is also worth noting that the number of specified minors of an $m$-by-$n$ partial matrix is at most $\\sum_{k=1}^{\\min(m,n)}\\binom{m}{k}\\binom{n}{k}=\\binom{m+n}{n}-1\\le 2^{m+n}$, so this algorithm is only faster than brute-force checking every specified minor in the case that there are relatively few unspecified entries.\n\nIt is also clear that this generalizes to the case of checking partial SSR or partial WSR for any sign signature, including partial TN, or indeed to any matrix property that is inherited by all submatrices. If one has an algorithm to check a matrix for such a property $P$ that runs in time $O(f(n))$, then the appropriate modification of the above algorithm will check partial matrices for ``partial $P$'' in time $O(2^xf(n))$.\n\nFurthermore, one can connect this result to the bipartite graph construction of the previous section. A \\textit{maximal biclique} is a bliclique that is not a subgraph of any larger bliclique. Then we have the following more general theorem:\n\n\\begin{theorem}\nLet $G$ be the bipartite graph corresponding to a partial matrix $M$. Then $M$ is partial TP iff each of the submatrices corresponding to the maximal blicliques of $G$ are TP.\n\n\\begin{proof}\nEach fully specified square submatrix of $M$ corresponds to a balanced biclique in $G$. Each balanced biclique is either maximal or a subgraph of a larger biclique, so if all of the maximal bicliques correspond to TP submatrices of $M$, then every specified minor is positive, by virtue of being a minor of a TP submatrix. The converse is trivial.\n\\end{proof}\n\\end{theorem}\n\nTherefore any algorithm to enumerate maximal bicliques of a bipartite graph translates into an algorithm for efficiently checking partial TP, simply by checking for TP in each maximal biclique (and it will also inherit a cubic factor from this check).\n\nThis is a generalization of the algorithm presented earlier in this section because that algorithm may be obtained from the observation that, if vertices $a_i$ and $b_j$ in bipartite graph $G$ do not have an edge between them, the set of maximal bicliques of $G$ is the union of the sets of maximal bicliques in $G-a_i$ and $G-b_j$.\n\n\\bibliographystyle{alpha}\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Nuclear Bulge\\ X-ray sources}\n\nThe \\citet{wang02} and \\citet{muno03} \\textit{Chandra}\\ surveys of the Nuclear Bulge\\\nrevealed a large population of weak, hard point-like X-ray sources\\ that could\naccount for up to 10\\% of the previously observed ``diffuse'' X-ray\nemission from the Nuclear Bulge.  Numerous studies have tried to characterise\nthese newly discovered X-ray sources\\ of the Nuclear Bulge\\ surveys based on their X-ray\nproperties. \\citet{pfah02} suggest that a large fraction may be\nwind-accreting neutron stars with high mass\ncompanions. \\citet{muno03,muno06} and \\citet{ruit06} propose that they\ncould be white dwarfs accreting from main sequence counterparts\n(cataclysmic variables, polars and intermediate\npolars). \\citet{will03} and \\citet{liu06} believe them to be neutron\nstars with low mass companions and \\citet{wu07} have speculated that\nthey could be isolated neutron stars and black holes accreting from\nthe interstellar medium. However, the weak nature of the sources means\nthat positive identification of the majority of the sources is\nimpossible based solely on the X-ray data. Identification of the\nstellar counterparts to these X-ray sources\\ we will allow the differentiation\nbetween these possibilities.\n\nAs shown in \\citet{band05}, to identify candidate counterparts to\nX-ray sources\\ in the Nuclear Bulge, very high resolutions imaging is required\nto avoid issues of confusion due to the high stellar density of the\nregion. In addition to that, the extremely high, variable extinction\ntowards the Nuclear Bulge requires these observations to be performed\nin the near-infrared\\ or longer wavelengths. Previously, only the DENIS and\n2MASS\\ surveys had observed the Nuclear Bulge\\ entirely in the near-infrared, however as\nwill be shown, their depth and resolution is insufficient for the\npurposes of identifying the counterparts to the majority of the Nuclear Bulge\\\nX-ray sources.\n\n\\section{The UKIDSS-GPS}\n\nThe (United Kingdom Infrared Deep Sky Survey - Galactic Plane Survey)\nUKIDSS-GPS is one of the five near infrared Public Legacy Surveys that\nare being undertaken by the UKIDSS consortium, using the Wide Field\nCamera on the United Kingdom Infrared Telescope\n\\citep{luca07}. Surveying the Northern Galactic Plane and the Nuclear Bulge\\ in\n$J$, $H$ and $K$ bands, integration times of 80s, 80s and 40s\nrespectively achieve median 5-$\\sigma$ depths of $J=19.77$, $H=19.00$\nand $K=18.05$ (Vega system) for the most recent Data Release 2\n\\citep[DR2; ][]{warr07}. The resolution of the UKIDSS-GPS observations\nare 0.2\\arcsec, an order of magnitude better than the 2MASS\\ survey,\nwith a similar positional accuracy of $\\sim 0.1\\arcsec$.\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n  \\begin{center}\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.99\\textwidth]{gosling_a1_fig1.eps}\n    \\caption[]{Near-infrared images of the Nuclear Bulge. {\\it Left}: $\\sim\n    2\\deg \\times 2\\deg$ false 3-colour image of the Nuclear Bulge\\ in the near-infrared\\\n    (blue for $J$-band observations, green for $H$-band and red for\n    $K$-band) containing $\\sim 4,500,000$ point sources. The white box\n    is the approximate location of the images displayed on the {\\it\n    right}. {\\it Top-right}: old 2MASS\\ 3-colour image of the region\n    indicated. {\\it Bottom-right}: the equivalent image from the new\n    UKIDSS-GPS survey demonstrating the vast improvement in both\n    resolution and depth of the images. The white circle is the\n    1\\arcsec\\ radius error circle of one of the \\textit{Chandra}\\ Nuclear Bulge\\ X-ray sources\\\n    demonstrating the scale of the images. }\n    \\label{f:nbimage}\n  \\end{center}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nIn the Nuclear Bulge, the crowding of this extremely dense stellar region\ncoupled with the high level of intervening extinction reduces the\ncompletion limit of the survey to $J=18.5$, $H=16.0$ and $K=14.5$ with\ndetection limits of $J=20.5$, $H=19.5$ and $K=18.0$. Despite this, the\n$\\sim 2\\deg \\times 2\\deg$ region shown in Figure \\ref{f:nbimage}\ncontains $\\sim 4,500,000$ point sources. As such it is the first\nsurvey covering the entire Nuclear Bulge\\ to have the resolution and depth to\nallow the identification of candidate counterparts to the majority of\nthe Nuclear Bulge\\ X-ray sources.\n\n\\section{X-ray source\\ counterparts}\n\nWe used the TOPCAT program to identify candidate counterparts to the\nX-ray sources. We used a larger $0.3\\arcsec$ positional error for the\nUKIDSS-GPS Nuclear Bulge\\ source positions, than the stated accuracy of\n$0.1\\arcsec$, to account for the confusion in the Nuclear Bulge caused\nby the very high stellar density. The ``out-of-the-box'' \\textit{Chandra}\\\npositional error is $1\\arcsec$, though this can be considerably larger\n(up to $9\\arcsec$) in some cases due to image distortion in the outer\nregions of the \\textit{Chandra}\\ array and\/or to the very low S\/N of the\nfaintest sources detected. For the purpose of this study, we discarded\nall X-ray sources\\ for which the X-ray positional errors were greater than\n$3\\arcsec$ radius; for error circles greater than this size, the\nnumber of candidate counterparts is sufficiently high (5-30 stars) to\nrender meaningless any attempt at astrometric matching between the\nnear-infrared\\ and X-ray catalogs. We used the $0.3\\arcsec$ positional error\nfor the UKIDSS-GPS source positions, along with the derived positional\nerrors from the \\citet{muno03} and \\citet{muno06} X-ray source\\ catalogues to\nset a maximum separation of $3.3\\arcsec$ between and X-ray source\\ and a star\nthat can be considered a match.\n\n\\begin{table*}\n  \\begin{center}\n    \\caption[Number of X-ray source counterparts]{The numbers of\n    candidate counterparts to the \\citet{muno06} catalogue of X-ray\n    sources from the \\citet{wang02} \\textit{Chandra}\\ observation of the\n    Nuclear Bulge. The number of counterparts has been broken down in\n    to X-ray sources\\ with positional errors of $0\\arcsec - 1\\arcsec$,\n    $1\\arcsec - 2\\arcsec$, $2\\arcsec - 3\\arcsec$ and the total numbers\n    on the bottom row. }\n      \\vspace{5mm}\n    \\begin{tabular}{c|rrrr|r}\n      \\hline\n      \\hline\n      X-ray error size & \\multicolumn{5}{c}{Number of candidate counterparts} \\\\\n      (arcsec) & 1 & 2 & 3 & $\\geq 4$ & Total \\\\\n      \\hline\n      $0\\arcsec - 1\\arcsec$ &  523 &  110 &   49 &   27 &  709 \\\\\n      $1\\arcsec - 2\\arcsec$ &  600 &  153 &   58 &   43 &  854 \\\\\n      $2\\arcsec - 3\\arcsec$ &  245 &   78 &   44 &   33 &  400 \\\\\n      \\hline\n      $0\\arcsec - 3\\arcsec$ & 1368 &  341 &  151 &  103 & 1963 \\\\\n      \\hline\n      \\hline\n    \\end{tabular}\n    \\label{t:ncounterparts}\n  \\end{center}\n\\end{table*}\n\nOf the 4256 X-ray sources\\ in the \\citet{muno03, muno06} catalogues, 3963\nX-ray sources\\ have positional errors of less than $3\\arcsec$. From these, we\nfound 3076 candidate counterparts to 1963 of the X-ray sources. There are 1368\nX-ray sources\\ with only one candidate counterpart, 341 with two candidate\ncounterparts, 151 with three and 103 with 4 or more candidate\ncounterparts. Table \\ref{t:ncounterparts} gives a breakdown of the\nnumbers of counterparts for X-ray sources\\ with error circles of $0\\arcsec -\n1\\arcsec$, $1\\arcsec - 2\\arcsec$ and $2\\arcsec - 3\\arcsec$. As can be\nseen, for X-ray sources\\ with positional errors of $0\\arcsec - 2\\arcsec$, the\nmajority of these have only one candidate counterpart, whereas\nthose with $1\\arcsec - 2\\arcsec$ errors have a slightly larger\nproportion with 2 candidate counterparts. As might be expected, it is\nthe sources with the larger error circles, $2\\arcsec - 3\\arcsec$,\nwhich have a much larger proportion with multiple candidate\ncounterparts.\n\nFigure \\ref{f:xrscolmag} shows colour magnitude diagrams (CMDs) of the\ncandidate counterparts compared to a representative sample of Nuclear\nBulge stars from the UKIDSS-GPS DR2\\ catalogue. From the diagrams it can be seen\nthat the X-ray sources\\ follow the general trend of the overall stellar\ndistribution but with some differences to their specific\ndistribution. For instance, the CMDs containing $J$-band data reveal a\nhigh proportion of the candidate counterparts to be in the local,\nmain-sequence arm of the CMDs. The majority of the remaining candidate\ncounterparts in all three CMDs are consistent with red giants at a\nGalactic Centre distance with variable levels of extinction (see\nposter contribution by Gosling et al. for details of the Nuclear Bulge\\\nextinction).\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n  \\begin{center}\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.3\\textwidth]{gosling_a1_fig2.eps}\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.3\\textwidth]{gosling_a1_fig3.eps}\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.3\\textwidth]{gosling_a1_fig4.eps}\n    \\caption[]{Colour magnitude diagrams (CMDs) of the candidate\n      counterparts to the \\textit{Chandra}\\ X-ray sources\\ ({\\it red} points) overlaid\n      on a representative sample of the Nuclear Bulge stellar\n      population ({\\it black} points). From left to right the diagrams\n      are $H\\ vs\\ J\\!-\\!H$, $K\\ vs\\ J\\!-\\!K$ and $K\\ vs\\ H\\!-\\!K$\n      respectively. There is an increase in the number of candidate\n      counterparts in the $K\\ vs\\ H\\!-\\!K$ CMD as the $H$ and $K$-band\n      observations are less affected by the extinction towards the\n      Nuclear Bulge.}\n    \\label{f:xrscolmag}\n  \\end{center}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nFigure \\ref{f:xrscolmag} also demonstrates the increase in candidate\ncounterparts that occurs when sources with photometry in the $H$ and\n$K$-band is compared to those for which there is photometry in all 3\nor $J$ and $H$-bands. There is a large amount of extinction towards\nthe Nuclear Bulge\\ (see additional poster contribution of Gosling et al. for\nfurther details), This extinction has a greater effect on shorter\nwavelengths and so is most likely to obscure a source in the $J$ band.\nThis is also apparent in the increase in sources being predominately\nthose with large values of $H\\!-\\!K$ indicating high levels of\nextinction.\n\n\\section{The next stages}\n\nIdentifying the candidate counterparts to the Nuclear Bulge\\ X-ray sources\\ is only the\nfirst step in understanding this population. To better understand\nthem, it will be necessary to identify the true companion to each of\nthe X-ray sources\\ where possible. In order to do this, we intend to search\nfor accretion signatures in the candidate counterparts. We are\nundertaking a narrow-band Brackett-$\\gamma$ ({\\rm Br-}\\ensuremath{\\gamma}, a known accretion\nsignature) imaging survey of the Nuclear Bulge\\ to identify sources with {\\rm Br-}\\ensuremath{\\gamma}\\\nexcess, and will also follow-up the candidate counterparts with near-infrared\\\nmulti-object spectroscopy using the FLAMINGOS-2 instrument soon to be\ncommissioned on Gemini South. We will also compare our catalogue of\ncandidate counterparts to the \\textit{Spitzer}\\ catalogue of point sources of\n\\citet{rami07} to increase our wavelength coverage of these sources\nand to identify those with spectra indicating that they are likely to\nbe in accreting or X-ray emitting systems.\n\n\\section{Conclusions}\n\nWe have presented an initial matching of the source positions of the\n\\textit{Chandra}\\ Nuclear Bulge\\ surveys of \\citet{wang02} and \\citet{muno03} to the new\nUKIDSS-GPS near-infrared\\ survey of the Nuclear Bulge. In doing so, we have identified\ncandidate counterparts to $\\sim50\\%$ of the X-ray sources\\ in this extremely\ncrowded and heavily extincted region. We show that these candidate\ncounterparts are consistent with the overall stellar distribution of\nobservations towards the Nuclear Bulge\\ although the relative proportions of the\npopulations are different.\n\nCandidate counterparts that are observed in the $J$-band have a higher\ntendency to be foreground sources and those observed only in the $H$\nand $K$-bands are more likely to be Nuclear Bulge\\ sources. This is most likely\nto be an effect of the high levels of extremely spatially variable\nextinction (see additional poster contribution by Gosling et al. for\nfurther details) towards the Nuclear Bulge.\n\nFurther observations including narrow-band {\\rm Br-}\\ensuremath{\\gamma}\\ imaging and near-infrared\\\nspectroscopy using the FLAMINGOS-2 instrument as well as comparison to\nother datasets such as the \\textit{Spitzer}\\ observations of the Nuclear Bulge\\ will be\nused to better identify the true companions to these X-ray sources\\ and so\ngain an understanding as to the nature of the Nuclear Bulge\\ X-ray source\\ population.\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\\label{INTRO}\n\nIn the present work we consider a generalization of general relativity (GR) \\cite{Einstein:1916vd} with cosmological constant in the Einstein-Cartan (EC) formalism \\cite{Utiyama:1956sy,Kibble:1961ba,Sciama:1964wt,Zanelli:2005sa}, \\emph{i.e.}, where the fundamental variables are the vierbein and the spin-connection instead the metric tensor and the affine-connection as in the Palatini formalism \\cite{Bergmann:1980wt,Ferraris1982}. In this generalization, the usual Einstein-Hilbert action \\cite{DeSabbata:1986sv} is supplemented by a quadratic curvature term and a quadratic torsion term. \n\nSpecifically, we study vacuum static and spherically symmetric solutions of this model by considering the case of vanishing torsion. Because we are considering the EC formalism, the action provides two field equations, one for the vierbein and another for the spin-connection. First, we show that a de Sitter spacetime is an exact vacuum solution of these equations. This is a non-trivial result since the system of equations is over-determined for vanishing torsion. After that, we obtain a perturbative solution around the Schwarzschild-de Sitter solution by neglecting the spin-connection equation, which is equivalent to impose vanishing torsion at the action level. It is important to be clear that, to obtain such solution, the curvature squared term is treated as perturbation around the usual Einstein term with cosmological constant. Hence, it the the generalized Einstein equation which is perturbed instead a perturbed solution around a fixed background. \n\nStatic and spherically symmetric solutions in alternative gravity models is a recurrent subject of investigation \\cite{Stelle:1977ry,Seifert:2007fr,Sebastiani:2010kv,Lu:2015psa}. In particular, K.~Stelle investigated this subject in a quite general higher derivative scenario in the metric formalism \\cite{Stelle:1977ry}. Hence, Stelle's work encompasses the contributions of quadratic curvature terms. Nevertheless, we call attention to the main differences between \\cite{Stelle:1977ry} and the present paper: First, our work is performed in the EC formalism instead of the metric formalism. Second, as already explained, our perturbed solution is a deformation around the Schwarzschild-de Sitter spacetime obtained by considering the quadratic curvature term as a perturbation while Stelle's result is a perturbed solution around the Minkowski background obtained by imposing a perturbation on the solution.\n\nIt is worth mentioning that, although our main motivation is the action originated as an emergent gravity in a quantum gauge theory scenario \\cite{Sobreiro:2011hb,Sobreiro:2012dp,Sobreiro:2010qf,Sobreiro:2016fks}, our analysis and discussions are general enough to encode any gravity theory as above described. Nevertheless, we will refer to the model \\cite{Sobreiro:2011hb,Sobreiro:2012dp,Sobreiro:2010qf,Sobreiro:2016fks} whenever we find it elucidative. Perhaps, the most important general motivation would be the recent detection of gravitational waves by the \\textit{Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory} (LIGO) collaboration \\cite{Abbott:2016blz}. Such discover brings a new era on black hole physics as well as the possibility to test alternative solutions derived of modified theories of gravity that should expand the horizons of the well-known Einstein's gravitational theory.\n\nThis work is organized as follows: In Sec.~\\ref{odesys} we define the model and the respective field equations and specify them for static and spherically symmetric variables. The exact solution is discussed in Sect.~\\ref{exacsol}. In Sec.~\\ref{pertsol} we provide the perturbative solution. In Sect.~\\ref{therm}, a the thermodynamical aspects of the solutions are briefly discussed. Finally, our final considerations are displayed in Sect.~\\ref{rmks}.\n\n\\section{Action and field equations}\\label{odesys}\n\nLet us consider the following gravity action,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{ym-map-grav-obs}\n S_{\\mathrm{grav}}=\\frac{1}{16\\pi G}\\int \\bigg(\\frac{3}{2\\Lambda^2}R^{\\mathfrak{a}}_{~\\mathfrak{b}}\\star R_{\\mathfrak{a}}^{~\\mathfrak{b}} + T^\\mathfrak{a}\\star T_\\mathfrak{a}-\\frac{\\epsilon}{2}\\varepsilon_\\mathfrak{abcd} R^\\mathfrak{ab} e^\\mathfrak{c}e^\\mathfrak{d} + \\frac{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}{12}\\varepsilon_\\mathfrak{abcd}e^\\mathfrak{a}e^\\mathfrak{b}e^\\mathfrak{c}e^\\mathfrak{d}\\bigg)~.\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $R^\\mathfrak{a}_{~\\mathfrak{b}} = d \\omega^\\mathfrak{a}_{~\\mathfrak{b}}+\\omega^{\\mathfrak{a}}_{~\\mathfrak{c}} \\omega^\\mathfrak{c}_{~\\mathfrak{b}}$ is the curvature 2-form, $T^\\mathfrak{a}=d e^\\mathfrak{a}+\\omega^\\mathfrak{a}_{~\\mathfrak{b}}e^\\mathfrak{b}$ is the torsion 2-form, $\\omega^\\mathfrak{a}_{~\\mathfrak{b}}$ is the spin connection 1-form, and $e^\\mathfrak{a}$ is the vierbein 1-form. Moreover, $\\star$ stands for the Hodge dual operator, $G$ is the Newton constant, $\\widetilde{\\Lambda}$ is the cosmological constant, and $\\Lambda$ is a mass parameter.  The corresponding vacuum field equations are easily obtained. For the vierbein, we get\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:eq_mov1}\n\\frac{3}{2\\Lambda^2}R^{\\mathfrak{bc}} \\star (R_{\\mathfrak{bc}}e_{\\mathfrak{a}})+ T^{\\mathfrak{b}}\\star\\left(T_{\\mathfrak{b}}e_{\\mathfrak{a}}\\right)+\\mathrm{D}\\star T_{\\mathfrak{a}}- \\varepsilon_{\\mathfrak{abcd}}\\left( R^{\\mathfrak{bc}}e^{\\mathfrak{d}} - \\frac{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^{2}}{3}e^{\\mathfrak{b}}e^{\\mathfrak{c}}e^{\\mathfrak{d}}\\right) = 0~,\n\\end{equation}\nwhile for the spin connection, we obtain,\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:eq_mov2}\n\\frac{3}{\\Lambda^2}D\\star R_{\\mathfrak{a}\\mathfrak{b}} \n+e_{\\mathfrak{b}} \\star T_{\\mathfrak{a}}\n-e_{\\mathfrak{a}} \\star T_{\\mathfrak{b}} -\\varepsilon_{\\mathfrak{abcd}} T^{\\mathfrak{c}} e^{\\mathfrak{d}} = 0~.\n\\end{equation}\nEqs.~\\eqref{eq:eq_mov1} and Eq.~\\eqref{eq:eq_mov2} are coupled nonlinear differential equations and thus, highly difficult to solve without any special insight. For this reason, we proceed with the simplest case where torsion is set to vanish. Hence, Eqs.~\\eqref{eq:eq_mov1} and Eq.~\\eqref{eq:eq_mov2} reduce to\\footnote{It is worth mentioning that the action \\eqref{ym-map-grav-obs} describes an emergent gravity associated to an $SO(5)$ Yang-Mills theory \\cite{Sobreiro:2011hb}. However, the field equations \\eqref{eq:eq_mov1mod} and \\eqref{eq:eq_mov2mod} are general enough to describe any gravity theory with a Riemann squared curvature in the action. Whenever is relevant, we will comment about the model developed in \\cite{Sobreiro:2011hb} and the results here found.}\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\frac{3}{2\\Lambda^2}R^{\\mathfrak{bc}} \\star (R_{\\mathfrak{bc}}e_{\\mathfrak{a}}) - \\varepsilon_{\\mathfrak{abcd}}\\left(R^{\\mathfrak{bc}} e^{\\mathfrak{d}} - \\frac{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^{2}}{3}e^{\\mathfrak{b}}e^{\\mathfrak{c}}e^{\\mathfrak{d}}\\right) &=& 0~, \\label{eq:eq_mov1mod}\\\\\n\\frac{3}{\\Lambda^2}D\\star R_{\\mathfrak{a}\\mathfrak{b}} &=& 0~.\\label{eq:eq_mov2mod}\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\nOur aim is to solve equations  \\eqref{eq:eq_mov1mod} and  \\eqref{eq:eq_mov2mod} for static and spherically symmetric conditions. To do so, we will consider two different situations:\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item First, we consider both equations \\eqref{eq:eq_mov1mod} and  \\eqref{eq:eq_mov2mod} and find an exact solution, corresponding to a strong influence of the quadratic curvature term. The result we find is the usual de Sitter solution with an effective cosmological constant given by a mix between $\\Lambda$ and $\\widetilde{\\Lambda}$.\n\n\\item Second, by taking $\\Lambda$ as a huge quantity\\footnote{This situation is consistent with the results of \\cite{Assimos:2013eua,Sobreiro:2016fks} where 1- and 2-loop explicit computations predict a huge value for $\\Lambda$ in the effective gravity model constructed in \\cite{Sobreiro:2011hb}.} when compared to the quadratic curvature term, we treat this term as a perturbation. The perturbed solution is a deformation of the usual Schwarzschild-de Sitter solution. To obtain such solution, the equation \\eqref{eq:eq_mov2mod} is neglect because it is a pure perturbation in $\\Lambda^{-2}$. This situation is equivalent to set $T=0$ at the action \\eqref{ym-map-grav-obs} before the computation of the field equations.\n\\end{itemize}\n\nEqs.~\\eqref{eq:eq_mov1mod} and \\eqref{eq:eq_mov2mod}, in Schwarzschild coordinates,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{spheric-symm}\ne^0=e^{\\alpha(r)}\\mathrm{d}t~~~,~~~e^1=e^{\\beta(r)}\\mathrm{d}r ~~~,~~~e^2=r\\mathrm{d}\\theta~~~,~~~e^3=r \\sin\\theta \\mathrm{d}\\phi~,\n\\end{equation}\ncan be recasted as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{edo-t}\n\\sigma\\left[2\\left(\\frac{e^{-2\\beta}\\partial_r\\beta}{r}\\right)^2+\\left(\\frac{1-e^{-2\\beta}}{r^2}\\right)^2\\right]+2\\left(\\frac{e^{-2\\beta}\\partial_r\\beta}{r}\\right)+\\frac{1-e^{-2\\beta}}{r^2}+3\\lambda =0~,\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{edo-r}\n\\sigma\\left[2\\left(\\frac{e^{-2\\beta}\\partial_r\\alpha}{r}\\right)^2+\\left(\\frac{1-e^{-2\\beta}}{r^2}\\right)^2\\right]-2\\left(\\frac{e^{-2\\beta}\\partial_r\\alpha}{r}\\right)+\\frac{1-e^{-2\\beta}}{r^2}+3\\lambda =0~,\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{eqnarray}\\label{edo-theta-phi}\n& &\\sigma\\left\\{\\left[e^{-(\\alpha+\\beta)}\\partial_r\\left(e^{-\\beta}\\partial_r  e^{\\alpha}\\right)\\right]^2+\\left(\\frac{e^{-2\\beta}\\partial_r\\alpha}{r}\\right)^2+\\left(\\frac{e^{-2\\beta}\\partial_r\\beta}{r}\\right)^2\\right\\}+\\nonumber\\\\\n&& -e^{-(\\alpha+\\beta)}\\partial_r\\left(e^{-\\beta}\\partial_r e^{\\alpha}\\right)-\\frac{e^{-2\\beta}\\partial_r\\alpha}{r}+\\frac{e^{-2\\beta}\\partial_r\\beta}{r}+3\\lambda=0~,\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{edo-scalarcurv}\n\\partial_r \\mathcal{R}=0~,\n\\end{equation}\nfor $\\mathfrak{a}=0~$, $\\mathfrak{a}=1~$ and $\\mathfrak{a}=2$, respectively. In Eq.~\\eqref{edo-scalarcurv}, $\\mathcal{R}$ stands for the scalar curvature. We notice that differential equations obtained for $\\mathfrak{a}=2$ and $\\mathfrak{a}=3$ are identical. The constants in Eqs.~\\eqref{edo-t}, \\eqref{edo-r} and \\eqref{edo-theta-phi} are $\\sigma\\equiv -3\/(2\\Lambda^2)$ and $\\lambda\\equiv -\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2\/3$.\nThe combination of Eqs.~\\eqref{edo-t} and \\eqref{edo-r} leads to the following constraint\n\\begin{equation}\n\\partial_r\\left[\\alpha(r)+\\beta(r)\\right] \\left\\{\\partial_r\\left[\\beta(r)-\\alpha(r)\\right] +\\frac{r}{\\sigma}e^{2\\beta(r)}\\right\\}=0~,\n\\end{equation}\nwhich allows two possibilities:\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item $\\partial_r\\left(\\alpha(r)+\\beta(r)\\right)=0 \\Rightarrow \\alpha(r)+\\beta(r)=f(t)$ - Thus, we have freedom to re-scale the time coordinate with simply $f(t)=0$.\n\\item $\\partial_r\\beta(r)+\\partial_r\\alpha(r) +\\sigma^{-1}r\\exp(2\\beta(r))=0$ - This condition is unusual and quite complicated since it is a coupled non-linear differential equation for $\\alpha(r)$ and $\\beta$.\n\\end{itemize}\nWe will stick to the first possibility, which is the usual relation in General Relativity and impose $\\alpha(r)=-\\beta(r)$.\n\n\n\\section{Exact solution}\\label{exacsol}\n\nIn order to solve analytically the system of equations \\eqref{edo-t}-\\eqref{edo-scalarcurv}, we start by subtracting Eq.~\\eqref{edo-r} from Eq.~\\eqref{edo-theta-phi}, obtaining\\footnote{The partial derivatives were changed to ordinary ones, since $\\beta$ is only $r$-dependent.},\n\\begin{equation}\\label{nde-tminustheta}\n\\left(\\frac{\\ddot{h}}{2}+\\frac{1-h}{r^2}\\right)\\left[\\sigma\\left(\\frac{\\ddot{h}}{2}-\\frac{1-h}{r^2}\\right)-1\\right]=0~,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere, the condition $\\alpha+\\beta=0$ was employed. Moreover, we have defined $e^{-2\\beta(r)}\\equiv h$ and $\\dot{h}\\equiv dh\/dr$. Eq.~\\eqref{nde-tminustheta} can be decomposed in two independent differential equations where only one must be zero. First, we have\n\\begin{equation}\\label{exact-edo01}\nr^2\\ddot{h}+2h-2\\left(1+\\frac{r^2}{\\sigma}\\right)=0~,\n\\end{equation}\nwhose solution is\n\\begin{equation}\nh(r)=1+\\frac{r^2}{2\\sigma}+\\sqrt{r}\\left[c_1\\cos\\left(\\frac{\\sqrt{7}}{2}\\ln r\\right)+c_2\\sin\\left(\\frac{\\sqrt{7}}{2}\\ln r\\right)\\right]~,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $c_1$ and $c_2$ are integration constants. It turns out that this solution does not satisfy the whole differential equation system \\eqref{edo-t}-\\eqref{edo-scalarcurv}.\n\nThe second possibility is\n\\begin{equation}\\label{exact-edo02}\nr^2\\ddot{h}-2h+2=0~,\n\\end{equation}\nwhose solution is given by\n\\begin{equation}\nh(r)=1+c_3r^2+\\frac{c_4}{r}~,\\label{hhhh}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $c_3$ and $c_4$ are integration constants. It is a straightforward computation to show that we must have $c_4=0$ and $c_3\\neq0$ in order to the solution \\eqref{hhhh} satisfy the system \\eqref{edo-t}-\\eqref{edo-scalarcurv}. Moreover, there are two possible values for the constant $c_3$, namely $\\Upsilon_p$ and $\\Upsilon_m$,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\\label{Ypm}\n\\Upsilon_p &=& \\frac{\\Lambda^2}{3} \\left[1 + \\sqrt{1-2\\frac{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}{\\Lambda^2}}\\right]~,\\nonumber\\\\\n\\Upsilon_m &=& \\frac{\\Lambda^2}{3} \\left[1 - \\sqrt{1-2\\frac{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}{\\Lambda^2}}\\right]~.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nHence\n\\begin{eqnarray}\\label{exact-sol-pm}\ne^{-2\\beta_p} &=& 1-\\Upsilon_p r^2~,\\nonumber\\\\\ne^{-2\\beta_m} &=& 1-\\Upsilon_m r^2~.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nThe solutions \\eqref{exact-sol-pm} satisfy the system of differential equations \\eqref{edo-t}-\\eqref{edo-scalarcurv}, simultaneously. This is an important and necessary verification since this system of equations is over-determined. From \\eqref{Ypm}, it is clear that $\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2$ cannot exceed $\\Lambda^2\/2$, otherwise, the solution founded is inconsistent. Moreover, if $2\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2=\\Lambda^2$, only one solution is allowed $\\Upsilon_m=\\Upsilon_p$.\n\nNow, if we assume that $\\Lambda^2$ has a large value and $\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2$ has a small value\\footnote{This is consistent, for instance, with the explicit values $\\Lambda^2\\approx 7.665\\times 10^{31}\\textrm{TeV}^2\\gg\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2\\approx 1.000\\times 10^{-92}\\textrm{TeV}^2$ found in \\cite{Assimos:2013eua,Sobreiro:2016fks}.}, we can expand \\eqref{Ypm} to find\n\\begin{eqnarray}\\label{Yappr}\n\\Upsilon_s &\\approx &\\frac{1}{3}\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2~,\\nonumber\\\\\n\\Upsilon_b &\\approx &\\frac{2}{3}\\Lambda^2~.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nThe first case, $\\Upsilon_s$ has a narrow value if we take $\\widetilde{\\Lambda}$ as its observational value. On the other hand, the second case stems for a de Sitter-like space with a very small radius, since $\\Lambda^2$ is very big. Hence, we have a weak curvature regime for $\\Upsilon_s$ and a strong one for $\\Upsilon_b$.\n\nObviously, all usual properties of de Sitter spacetime are maintained\\footnote{An alternaltive and simple way to find the solution \\eqref{exact-sol-pm} is to directly deal with equation \\eqref{eq:eq_mov1} in form notation and try an \\emph{ansatz} solution of the form\n\\begin{equation}\nR^{\\mathfrak{ab}}=\\zeta e^{\\mathfrak{a}} e^{\\mathfrak{b}}\\;,\\label{ap1}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\zeta$ is a constant mass parameter. The solution \\eqref{ap1} is a natural choice since we have the usual cosmological constant term in \\eqref{eq:eq_mov1}. The direct substitution of \\eqref{ap1} in \\eqref{eq:eq_mov1} leads to the characteristic equation for $\\zeta$,\n\\begin{equation}\n\\frac{3}{2\\Lambda^2}\\zeta^2-\\zeta+\\frac{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}{3}=0\\;,\\label{ap2}\n\\end{equation}\nproviding $\\zeta=\\Upsilon_{p,m}$. Hence, solution \\eqref{ap1} is an alternative covariant form of the curvature associated with solution \\eqref{exact-sol-pm}.}.\n\n\\section{Perturbative solution}\\label{pertsol}\n\nFrom this point, we consider the quadratic curvature to be a small perturbation in Eq.~\\eqref{edo-t}. For that, we multiply Eq.~\\eqref{edo-t} by $\\lambda$, then\n\\begin{equation}\\label{edo-t-pert}\n\\eta\\left[2\\left(\\frac{e^{-2\\beta}\\partial_r\\beta}{r}\\right)^2+\\left(\\frac{1-e^{-2\\beta}}{r^2}\\right)^2\\right]+\\lambda\\left[2\\left(\\frac{e^{-2\\beta}\\partial_r\\beta}{r}\\right)+\\frac{1-e^{-2\\beta}}{r^2}+3\\lambda\\right] =0~.\n\\end{equation}\nIn this form, Eq.~\\eqref{edo-t-pert} can be solved analytically through the employment of perturbation theory if $\\eta\\equiv\\sigma\\lambda\\equiv\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2\/2\\Lambda^2$ is a very small dimensionless parameter. Hence, the quadratic term can be treated as a perturbation around the term proportional to $\\lambda$. It is evident that the term proportional to $\\lambda$ is the usual Einstein equation with cosmological constant $\\widetilde{\\Lambda}$. For simplicity, let $u(r)=1-e^{-2\\beta}$ and take all derivatives as ordinary ones. So, we rewrite Eq.~\\eqref{edo-t-pert} as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{edo-t-u}\n\\eta\\left[\\frac{1}{2}{\\dot{u}}^2+\\left(\\frac{u}{r^2}\\right)^2\\right] + \\lambda\\left(r\\dot{u} + u + 3\\lambda r^2\\right)=0~.\n\\end{equation}\nA perturbative solution of Eq.~\\eqref{edo-t-u} has the general form\n\\begin{equation}\\label{SPert-geral}\nu(r)=u_0(r) + \\eta u_1(r) + \\eta^2 u_2(r) + \\eta^3 u_3(r) + \\cdots~.\n\\end{equation}\nSubstituting \\eqref{SPert-geral} in the Eq.~\\eqref{edo-t-u}, and split order by order in $\\eta$, we find an infinite set of descent coupled equations\n\\begin{eqnarray}\\label{hierarq-pert-u}\n\\frac{d}{dr}(r u_0)+3\\lambda r^2 &=& 0~,\\nonumber\\\\\n\\frac{d}{dr}(r u_1) + \\frac{1}{2\\lambda}\\left(\\frac{du_0}{dr}\\right)^2 + \\frac{u_0^2}{\\lambda r^2} &=& 0~,\\nonumber\\\\\n\\frac{d}{dr}(r u_2)+\\frac{1}{\\lambda}\\left(\\frac{du_0}{dr} \\frac{du_1}{dr}\\right) + \\frac{2u_0 u_1}{\\lambda r^2} &=& 0~,\\nonumber\\\\\n\\frac{d}{dr}(r u_3) + \\frac{1}{2\\lambda}\\left(\\frac{du_1}{dr}\\right)^2 + \\frac{u_1^2}{\\lambda r^2} +\\frac{1}{\\lambda}\\left(\\frac{du_0}{dr}\\frac{du_2}{dr}\\right) + \\frac{2u_0 u_2}{\\lambda r^2} &=& 0~,\\nonumber\\\\\n\\frac{d}{dr}(r u_4) + \\frac{1}{\\lambda}\\left(\\frac{du_0}{dr} \\frac{du_3}{dr}\\right) + \\frac{2u_0 u_3}{\\lambda r^2} + \\frac{1}{\\lambda}\\left(\\frac{du_1}{dr} \\frac{du_2}{dr}\\right) + \\frac{2u_1 u_2}{\\lambda r^2} &=& 0~,\\nonumber\\\\\n&\\vdots&\\;.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nWith such hierarchy of equations \\eqref{hierarq-pert-u}, we can solve, iteratively, all the equations above. Starting with the zeroth order, we obtain\n\\begin{equation}\nu_0 = \\frac{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}{3} r^2 + \\frac{2GM}{r}~,\n\\end{equation}\nwhich is the usual Schwarzschild-de Sitter solution \\cite{Gibbons:1977mu,Cardoso:2003sw,Faraoni:2015ula}, obviously, since this is the situation for $\\eta=0$. Hence, the integration constant at the $1\/r$ term is obtained from the Newtonian limit. Solving iteratively the rest of the equations \\eqref{hierarq-pert-u}, we find the following solution (at fourth order), \n\\begin{eqnarray}\\label{pert-sol-4th}\ne^{-2\\beta}&\\approx & 1-\\frac{2GM}{r}-\\frac{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}{3}r^2-\\eta\\left(\\frac{\\mathcal{C}_{12}}{r}+\\mathcal{C}_{11}r^2+\\frac{\\mathcal{C}_{13}}{r^4}\\right)- \\eta^2\\left(\\frac{\\mathcal{C}_{22}}{r}+\\mathcal{C}_{21}r^2+\\frac{\\mathcal{C}_{23}}{r^4}+\\frac{\\mathcal{C}_{24}}{r^7}\\right)\\nonumber\\\\\n&-&\\eta^3\\left(\\frac{\\mathcal{C}_{32}}{r}+\\mathcal{C}_{31}r^2+\\frac{\\mathcal{C}_{32}}{r^4}+\\frac{\\mathcal{C}_{34}}{r^7}+\\frac{\\mathcal{C}_{35}}{r^{10}}\\right) - \\eta^4\\left(\\frac{\\mathcal{C}_{42}}{r}+\\mathcal{C}_{41}r^2+\\frac{\\mathcal{C}_{43}}{r^4}+\\frac{\\mathcal{C}_{44}}{r^7}+\\frac{\\mathcal{C}_{45}}{r^{10}}+\\frac{\\mathcal{C}_{46}}{r^{13}}\\right)+\\ldots\\nonumber\\\\\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere the constants $C_{k\\ell}$ can be arranged as\\footnote{The solution \\eqref{pert-sol-4th} can be generalized to all orders in a very concise form given by\n\\begin{equation}\\label{pert-sol-gen}\ne^{-2\\beta}=1-\\sum_{k=0}^{\\infty}\\eta^k\\sum_{\\ell=1}^{k+2}\n\\mathcal{C}_{k\\ell}r^{5-3\\ell}~~,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere the general constants $\\mathcal{C}_{k\\ell}$ depend on the previous order constants. In particular, the $\\mathcal{C}_{k2}$, with $k=0,1,2,\\dots$, stand for the actual integration constants.}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathcal{C}_{k\\ell}\\equiv\\left(\\begin{array}{cccccc}\\label{CIs}\n\\frac{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}{3} & 2GM  &  & & & \\\\\n\\frac{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}{3} & \\mathcal{C}_{12}  & \\frac{6G^2M^2}{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2} & & & \\\\\n2\\frac{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}{3} & \\mathcal{C}_{22} & \\frac{6GM}{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}\\Omega_1 & -\\frac{36G^3M^3}{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^4} &  & \\\\\n5\\frac{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}{3} & \\mathcal{C}_{32} & \\frac{9}{2\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}\\Omega_2 & \\frac{54G^2M^2}{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^4}\\Omega_4 & \\frac{312G^4M^4}{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^6} & \\\\\n14\\frac{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}{3} & C_{42}  &  -\\frac{3}{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}\\Omega_3 & \\frac{3GM}{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}\\Omega_5 & \\frac{54G^2M^2}{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^4}\\Omega_6 & -\\frac{3564G^5M^5}{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^8}\n\\end{array}\\right)\n\\end{equation}\nwhere the index $k$ (line) and $\\ell$ (column) run along the discrete intervals $[0,\\infty]$ and $[1,k+2]$, respectively, and\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\Omega_1 &=& \\mathcal{C}_{12}-2GM~,\\nonumber\\\\\n\\Omega_2 &=& \\left[\\mathcal{C}_{12}^2 + 4GM\\left(6GM-2\\mathcal{C}_{12}-\\mathcal{C}_{22}\\right)\\right]~,\\nonumber\\\\\n\\Omega_3 &=&\\left[\\mathcal{C}_{12}\\left(\\mathcal{C}_{12}+ \\mathcal{C}_{22}-12GM\\right)- 2GM\\left(2\\mathcal{C}_{22}+ \\mathcal{C}_{32}-20GM\\right)\\right]~,\\nonumber\\\\\n\\Omega_4 &=& \\left(8GM-3\\mathcal{C}_{12}\\right)~,\\nonumber\\\\\n\\Omega_5 &=& \\left[3\\mathcal{C}_{12}^2-2GM\\left( 12\\mathcal{C}_{12}+3\\mathcal{C}_{22}-24GM\\right)\\right]~,\\nonumber\\\\\n\\Omega_6 &=& 2\\left(\\mathcal{C}_{12}-3GM\\right)~.\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\nThe differential equation Eq.~\\eqref{edo-theta-phi} can be solved for $\\alpha$ once we have $\\beta$. The result is consistent with the condition $\\alpha=-\\beta$. Moreover, as discussed before, Eq.~\\eqref{edo-scalarcurv} can be neglected. Simple consistency checks are: the limits $\\eta\\rightarrow 0$ and $\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2=0$, providing a pure Schwarzschild solution; the limits $M=0$ and $\\eta\\rightarrow 0$ result in a de Sitter spacetime solution; and, as already seen, the limit $\\eta\\rightarrow 0$ provides the Schwarzschild-de Sitter solution.\n\nIt is interesting to take the limit $r\\gg 2GM$ in the solution \\eqref{pert-sol-4th}. The result is immediate,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{pert-ds-far}\ne^{-2\\beta}\\approx\\left(1-\\tilde{\\Upsilon} r^2\\right)~,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere\n\\begin{equation}\\label{Y-far}\n\\tilde{\\Upsilon}\\approx \\frac{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}{3}+\\eta\\left(\\frac{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}{3}\\right)+\\eta^2\\left(2\\frac{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}{3}\\right)+\\eta^3\\left(5\\frac{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}{3}\\right)+\\eta^4\\left(14\\frac{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}{3}\\right)+\\dots~,\n\\end{equation}\nwhich is a perturbatively asymptotically de Sitter spacetime, as expected. Remarkably, the relation \\eqref{Y-far} can be written as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{Y-notrunc}\n\\widetilde{\\Upsilon}=\\left(\\sum_{w=0}^\\infty \\eta^w a_w\\right)\\frac{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}{3}~,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere\n\\begin{equation}\na_w=\\frac{(2w)!}{(w+1)!w!}\n\\end{equation}\nare the Catalan numbers\\footnote{Named after the discovery of the sequence of natural numbers by the Belgian mathematician Eug\\`ene C. Catalan $(1814-1894)$, which made several contributions to combinatorial mathematics \\cite{Weisstein}.}. Moreover, by setting $\\eta=0$ in \\eqref{Y-far} we find $\\tilde{\\Upsilon}=\\Upsilon_s$. Hence, we have an asymptotic relation between the perturbative solution and the exact one.  Further, by expanding the constant $\\Upsilon_p$ in \\eqref{Ypm} for small $\\widetilde{\\Lambda}\/\\Lambda$, we get the same expression \\eqref{Y-notrunc}. Hence, we have consistency between the exact and perturbative solution for small $\\widetilde{\\Lambda}\/\\Lambda$.\n\nFor the next sections, for the sake of simplicity, we attain ourselves to the first order correction in $\\eta$. Thus, the solution \\eqref{pert-sol-4th} is reduced to \n\\begin{equation}\\label{pert-sol-1st} \ne^{-2\\beta} \\approx 1-\\frac{\\mathcal{C}_{02}}{r}-\\mathcal{C}_{01}r^2-\\eta\\left(\\frac{\\mathcal{C}_{12}}{r}+\\mathcal{C}_{11}r^2+\\frac{\\mathcal{C}_{13}}{r^4}\\right)~.\n\\end{equation}\nwhere the explicit form of the constants are displayed in \\eqref{CIs}.\n\n\\subsection{Horizons}\\label{ehor1}\n\nEq.~\\eqref{pert-sol-1st} can be used to determine the horizons by solving $e^{-2\\beta}=0$\n\\cite{Cardoso:2003sw,Faraoni:2015ula,Bhattacharya:2010vr,Wald:1984rg}. Thus, we must solve the following perturbed algebraic equation\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq-hor-1st}\nr^3\\left(r-\\mathcal{C}_{02}-\\mathcal{C}_{01}r^3\\right)\n-\\eta\\left(\\mathcal{C}_{11}r^6+\\mathcal{C}_{12}r^3 + \\mathcal{C}_{13}\\right)=0~,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere the constants $\\mathcal{C}$'s are listed in \\eqref{CIs}. The solution can be taken as a perturbative one of the form\n\\begin{equation}\\label{r-hor-1st}\nr\\approx r_0+\\eta r_1~.\n\\end{equation}\nSubstituting Eq.~\\eqref{r-hor-1st} in Eq.~\\eqref{eq-hor-1st} we obtain a system of two algebraic equations. At zeroth order, already with the substitution of constants $\\mathcal{C}$s, we have\n\\begin{equation}\\label{cubeq-0}\nr_0^3-\\frac{3}{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}r_0+\\frac{6GM}{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}=0~,\n\\end{equation}\nand, at first order,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{cubeq-1}\nr_0^3\\left(1+3\\mathcal{C}_{01}r_0^2\\right)r_1-\\mathcal{C}_{13}r_0^3-\\mathcal{C}_{11}r_0^6 - \\mathcal{C}_{13}=0~,\n\\end{equation}\nwhich we left with the constants $\\mathcal{C}$'s for the sake of simplicity. The polynomial discriminant of the Eq.~\\eqref{cubeq-0} is easily computed\n\\begin{equation}\n\\Delta=\\frac{108}{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^6}\\left(1-9G^2M^2\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2\\right)~,\n\\end{equation}\nwhich is important to determine the nature of the roots of Eq.~\\eqref{cubeq-0}. If, and only if $\\Delta>0$, Eq.~\\eqref{cubeq-0} has three real roots. Such condition implies that $3GM\\tilde{\\Lambda}<1$, since $\\tilde{\\Lambda}$, $G$ and $M$ are positive quantities. By applying the trigonometric method to find all the roots of Eq.~\\eqref{cubeq-0}, it is found only two different positive roots, namely,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\\label{Hroots-0}\nr_{01} &=& \\frac{1}{\\tilde{\\Lambda}}\\left(c_\\xi+\\sqrt{3}s_\\xi\\right)~,\\nonumber\\\\\nr_{02} &=& \\frac{1}{\\tilde{\\Lambda}}\\left(c_\\xi-\\sqrt{3}s_\\xi\\right)~,\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere $c_\\xi\\equiv\\cos\\xi$, $s_\\xi\\equiv\\sin\\xi$ and $\\xi=1\/3\\arccos\\left(3GM\\tilde{\\Lambda}\\right)$. The third root is $r_{03}=-\\left(r_{01}+r_{02}\\right)$, which is essentially negative and it is not physical. Since $0<3GM\\tilde{\\Lambda}<1\\;\\Rightarrow\\;0<\\arccos\\left(3GM\\tilde{\\Lambda}\\right)<\\pi\/2$ we have $r_{01}>r_{02}>0$. Accordingly, $r_{01}$ stands for the cosmological horizon and $r_{02}$ stands for the mass distribution event horizon.\n\nNow, the substitution of Eq.~\\eqref{Hroots-0} in Eq.~\\eqref{cubeq-1} provides\n\\begin{equation}\\label{Hroots-1}\nr_{1\\ell}=\\frac{1}{3\\left(1-\\frac{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}{3} r_{0\\ell}^2\\right)} \\left(-\\frac{6G^2M^2}{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}\\frac{1}{r_{0\\ell}^3}+\\mathcal{C}_{12}+\\frac{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}{3} r_{0\\ell}^3\\right)~,\n\\end{equation}\nwith $\\ell=1$ or $\\ell=2$. Hence, the form of the horizons at first order are\\footnote{We point out that the horizons depend on the integration constant $C_{12}$, which may depend explicitly on the mass $M$. The qualitative\/quantitative behaviour of such horizons and the respective thermodynamical quantities is directly bounded by $C_{12}$. In the next steps we are assuming that $C_{12}$ has a linear dependence on $M$, so all graphs in this paper are plotted under this assumption. This is a natural hypothesis since $C_{12}$ appear as a factor of the pure Schwarzschild term correction $\\sim 1\/r$. Nevertheless, it may be ajusted by employing more sophisticated boundary conditions. A complete analysis of this fine tuning is left for future investigation \\cite{Silveira:2017xxx}.}\n\\begin{eqnarray}\\label{HZs}\nr_b &=& \\frac{1}{\\tilde{\\Lambda}}\\left\\{\\left(c_\\xi -\\sqrt{3}s_\\xi\\right)+\\eta \\frac{\\sec(3\\xi)}{6}\\left[-\\frac{18G^2M^2\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}{\\left(c_\\xi-\\sqrt{3}s_\\xi\\right)^2}+3\\mathcal{C}_{12} \\left(c_\\xi-\\sqrt{3}s_\\xi\\right) +  \\left(c_\\xi-\\sqrt{3}s_\\xi\\right)^4\\right]\\right\\} ~,\\nonumber\\\\\nr_c &=& \\frac{1}{\\tilde{\\Lambda}}\\left\\{\\left(c_\\xi + \\sqrt{3}s_\\xi\\right)+ \\eta \\frac{\\sec(3\\xi)}{6}\\left[-\\frac{18G^2M^2\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}{\\left(c_\\xi+\\sqrt{3}s_\\xi\\right)^2}+3\\mathcal{C}_{12} \\left(c_\\xi+\\sqrt{3}s_\\xi\\right) +  \\left(c_\\xi+\\sqrt{3}s_\\xi\\right)^4\\right]\\right\\}~,\\nonumber\\\\\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere $r_b$ is the event horizon and $r_c$ is the cosmological one. It is obvious that the limit $\\eta\\rightarrow 0$ recovers the two horizons for a Schwarzschild-de Sitter spacetime. The behavior of $r_b$ and $r_c$ are qualitatively displayed\\footnote{The $\\eta$ parameter, according to \\cite{Assimos:2013eua,Sobreiro:2016fks} is very small, providing no actual difference in the plots. For this reason we overestimate $\\eta$ for the sake of comparison. The same observation holds for all the plots in this work.} in Figure~\\ref{graphrb} and Figure~\\ref{graph-rc}, respectively. We observe that the increasing of $M$ implies on the increasing of $r_b$, as expected. On the other hand, $r_c$ decreases as $M$ increases.\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\t\\centering\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=0.6\\textwidth]{rb.png}\n\t\t\\caption{Event horizon related to the mass spherical distribution. $r_b(x(M))$ is in units of $\\tilde{\\Lambda}^{-1}$ and $3GM\\tilde{\\Lambda}\\equiv x $. The dashed curve represents the event horizon behavior of a standard black hole and the thick curve represents the perturbative horizon. For the thick curve we adopted $\\eta=10^{-1}$.}\n\\label{graphrb}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n  \\centering\n   \\includegraphics[width=0.6\\textwidth]{rc.png}\n\t\\caption{Cosmological horizon. $r_c(x(M))$ is in units of $\\tilde{\\Lambda}^{-1}$, $3GM\\tilde{\\Lambda}\\equiv x$ and $\\eta=10^{-1}$. The dashed curve represents the cosmological horizon obtained from the Schwarzschild-de Sitter geometry. The thick curve is the cosmological horizon with the correction from the quadratic term contribution.}\n\\label{graph-rc}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\subsection{Singularities}\n\nIt is a straightforward calculation to find the possible singularities in the perturbative solution \\eqref{pert-sol-1st} by computing the Kretschmann invariant, the scalar curvature and the Ricci tensor squared, namely,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\\label{K-invar}\n\\mathcal{R}^{\\alpha\\beta\\gamma\\delta} \\mathcal{R}_{\\alpha\\beta\\gamma\\delta}&=&\n\\frac{48G^2M^2}{r^6}+\\frac{8\\tilde{\\Lambda}^4}{3}+\n\\eta\\left[\\left(4G^2M^2+\\frac{24G^3M^3}{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}\\right)\\frac{12}{r^6}+\\frac{1440G^3M^3}{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2r^9}+ \\frac{16\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}{r^6}\\right]~,\\nonumber\\\\\n\\mathcal{R}&=&4\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2+\\eta\\left(4\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2 + \\frac{36G^2M^2}{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2r^6}\\right)\\;,\\nonumber\\\\\n\\mathcal{R}^{\\alpha\\beta}\\mathcal{R}_{\\alpha\\beta}&=& 4\\tilde{\\Lambda}^4+\\eta\\left(\\frac{72G^2M^2}{r^6}+8\\tilde{\\Lambda}^4\\right)\\;.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nIt is then clear that a physical singularity exists at $r=0$, as expected. Interestingly, the perturbative contributions to $\\mathcal{R}$ and $\\mathcal{R}^{\\alpha\\beta}\\mathcal{R}_{\\alpha\\beta}$ are singular, while their zeroth order terms are not,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\\label{scalar-ricci-invar}\n\\lim_{r\\rightarrow 0}\\mathcal{R}&\\rightarrow &\\eta\\infty\\nonumber\\\\\n\\lim_{r\\rightarrow 0}\\mathcal{R}^{\\alpha\\beta}\\mathcal{R}_{\\alpha\\beta}&\\rightarrow &\\eta\\infty ~.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nThe physical singularity expressed by \\eqref{K-invar} and \\eqref{scalar-ricci-invar} are in agreement with the standard results obtained in the Einsteinian gravity.\n\n\\newpage\n\n\\section{Some thermodynamical aspects}\\label{therm}\n\nIn order to improve our analysis for the solutions found so far, we will express the main thermodynamical quantities related to the horizons. For this goal, we need to compute the surface gravities defined through\\footnote{Since the Killing field is just $r$-dependent, we can use this simplified expressions rather than the general formula $\\zeta^\\mathfrak{a}\\nabla_\\mathfrak{a}\\zeta^\\mathfrak{b}= \\kappa\\zeta^\\mathfrak{b}$, where $\\zeta^\\mathfrak{a}$ is the Killing vector field normal to the horizon.} \\cite{Cardoso:2003sw}\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\kappa_{b}&=&-\\frac{1}{2}\\frac{d}{dr}u(r)\\Bigr|_{r=r_b}~,\\label{surf-grav-bh}\\\\\n\\kappa_{c}&=&\\frac{1}{2}\\frac{d}{dr}u(r)\\Bigr|_{r=r_c}~,\\label{surf-grav-cosm}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere $f(r)\\equiv e^{-2\\beta}$. This quantity is directly related to the Hawking temperature,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{T-hor}\nT=\\frac{\\kappa}{2\\pi}~,\n\\end{equation}\nThe second law of the thermodynamics of black holes states that the area of the surface of the event horizon can not decrease under any physical process \\cite{Wald:1984rg}. Such entropy is calculated by\n\\begin{equation}\\label{S-hor}\nS=\\frac{A}{4G}\\equiv\\frac{\\pi r^2}{G}~,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $r$ is the horizon radius and $A$ is the area of this surface. In this section, the aim is to compare our results with those from the standard literature on black holes and cosmological horizons \\cite{Gibbons:1977mu,Wald:1984rg}.\n\nThe exact solution brings the similar results for the entropy to the de Sitter spacetime with a simple shift from $\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2$ to $\\Upsilon$. In the region $r\\gg 2GM$, it is remarkable that we connect both perturbative and exact entropies up to corrections in $\\eta$. Of course, in the limit $\\eta\\rightarrow 0$, both entropies are matched.\n\n\\subsection{Surface gravities and entropies of the perturbative solutions}\\label{Thermo-pert}\n\nWe calculate the surface gravities related to each horizon and we analyze their behaviors under the change of the mass $M$. In the perturbative case we have two horizons, $r_b$ and $r_c$, which are explicitly written in \\eqref{HZs}. Let us start the analysis with the event horizon. From Eq.~\\eqref{surf-grav-bh} we find\n\\begin{equation}\\label{surf-grav-bh-a}\n\\kappa_b\\approx -\\frac{1}{3}\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2 r_{02} + \\frac{2GM}{r_{02}^2} + \\eta\\left[-2GM\\frac{r_{12}}{r_{02}^3} -\\frac{1}{3}\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2r_{12} + \\frac{GM}{r_{02}^2}-\\frac{1}{3}\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2 r_{02} - \\frac{12G^2M^2}{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}\\frac{1}{r_{02}^5} \\right]~.\n\\end{equation}\nThe behavior of $\\kappa_b$ are qualitatively displayed in Figure~\\ref{graphkb}. We observe that the increasing of $M$ implies on the decreasing of $\\kappa_b$. Accordingly, from Eq.~\\eqref{T-hor}, it is clear that the temperature $T_b=\\kappa_b\/2\\pi$ has the same behavior as $\\kappa_b$.\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\t\\centering\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=0.6\\textwidth]{kb.png}\n\t\t\\caption{Surface gravity in the event horizon of the mass spherical distribution $M$. The dashed and thick curves stand for the standard surface gravity of a black hole and the perturbative surface gravity, respectively. For the thick curve we adopted $\\eta=10^{-3}$.}\n\\label{graphkb}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFor the cosmological horizon, Eq.~\\eqref{surf-grav-cosm} provides\n\\begin{equation}\\label{surf-grav-c}\n\\kappa_c\\approx \\frac{1}{3}\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2 r_{01} - \\frac{2GM}{r_{01}^2} + \\eta\\left[2GM\\frac{r_{11}}{r_{01}^3} +\\frac{1}{3}\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2r_{11} - \\frac{GM}{r_{01}^2}+\\frac{1}{3}\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2 r_{01} + \\frac{12G^2M^2}{\\tilde{\\Lambda}^2}\\frac{1}{r_{01}^5} \\right]~.\n\\end{equation}\nThe plot of the cosmological horizon surface gravity, as function of $M$, is displayed in Figure~\\ref{graph-kc}. The behavior of the surface gravity is essentially the same in both cases. According to Eq.~\\eqref{T-hor}, the respective temperature $T_c=\\kappa_c\/2\\pi$ have the same qualitative behavior as the cosmological horizon.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\t\\centering\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=0.6\\textwidth]{kc.png}\n\t\t\\caption{Surface gravity of the cosmological horizon. $r_c(x(M))$ is in units of $\\tilde{\\Lambda}^{-1}$, $3GM\\tilde{\\Lambda}\\equiv x$ and $\\eta=10^{-2}$. The dashed curve represents the surface gravity to the cosmological horizon obtained from the Schwarzschild-de Sitter geometry. The thick curve is the cosmological horizon with the correction from the quadratic term contribution.}\n\\label{graph-kc}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\newpage\n\nThe entropies can be computed from Eq.~\\eqref{S-hor}, providing\\footnote{We will not display the full expressions to the entropies \\eqref{S-rb} and \\eqref{S-rc} due to their extension.}\n\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nS_{b}&=&\\frac{\\pi r_b^2}{G}\\approx \\frac{\\pi r_{01}^2}{G}\\left[1+2\\eta\\left(\\frac{r_{11}}{r_{01}}\\right)^2\\right]~,\\label{S-rb}\\\\\nS_c&=&\\frac{\\pi r_c^2}{G}\\approx \\frac{\\pi r_{02}^2}{G}\\left[1+2\\eta\\left(\\frac{r_{12}}{r_{02}}\\right)^2\\right]~,\\label{S-rc}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere $r_{11}$ and $r_{12}$ correspond to the corrections due to the quadratic curvature term of the horizons. It is clear from the plots that $S_b$ increases with the mass while $S_c$ decreases with the mass. We remark that entropy behaviors are in agreement with \\cite{Gibbons:1977mu,Frolov:1981mz}, of course, with a small deviation due the perturbative approximation. The plots with the qualitative behavior of such entropies are displayed in Figure~\\ref{graph-sb} and Figure~\\ref{graph-sc}.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\t\\centering\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=0.6\\textwidth]{sb.png}\n\t\t\\caption{Entropy of the event horizon of the mass spherical distribution. $S_b(x(M))$ is in units of $\\tilde{\\Lambda}^{-1}$, $3GM\\tilde{\\Lambda}\\equiv x$ and $\\eta=10^{-2}$. The dashed curve represents the entropy to the standard black hole horizon obtained from the Schwarzschild-de Sitter geometry. The thick curve is the entropy with the correction from the quadratic term contribution.}\n\t\t\\label{graph-sb}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\t\\centering\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=0.6\\textwidth]{sc.png}\n\t\t\\caption{Entropy of the cosmological horizon. $S_c(x(M))$ is in units of $\\tilde{\\Lambda}^{-1}$, $3GM\\tilde{\\Lambda}\\equiv x$ and $\\eta=10^{-1}$. The dashed curve represents the entropy to the standard cosmological horizon obtained from the Schwarzschild-de Sitter geometry. The thick curve is the entropy with the correction from the quadratic term contribution.} \\label{graph-sc}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\section{Conclusions}\\label{rmks}\n\nIn this work we found static spherically symmetric solutions to a generalized gravity action in the EC formalism for vanishing torsion situations. The model, described by the action \\eqref{ym-map-grav-obs}, is composed by the usual EH term, the cosmological constant term, a curvature squared term, and a quadratic torsion term. Our results are summarized here:\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item The coupled system of differential equations \\eqref{edo-t}-\\eqref{edo-scalarcurv} is exactly solved. The result is a de Sitter spacetime described by \\eqref{exact-sol-pm} with two possible effective cosmological constants described in \\eqref{Ypm}. Both cases are compositions of the parameters $\\tilde{\\Lambda}$ and $\\Lambda$. This result is important since the system \\eqref{edo-t}-\\eqref{edo-scalarcurv} is over-determined.\n\n\\item For the case where $\\tilde{\\Lambda}\\ll\\Lambda$, the effective cosmological constants are simplified (at first order) to Eq.~\\eqref{Yappr}. Hence, two regimes are possible, one with a strong curvature and another with a weak curvature.\n\n\\item By treating the the quadratic curvature term as a perturbation when compared do the rest of the terms, a perturbative solution is found. For that, Eq.~\\eqref{edo-scalarcurv} can be neglected (this situation corresponds to the case where torsion is set to zero at the action level). Hence, the smaller system  system \\eqref{edo-t}-\\eqref{edo-theta-phi} is not over-determined. The solution \\eqref{pert-sol-4th} is a deformation of the usual Schwarzschild-de Sitter solution.\n\n\\item The appropriate limits of the perturbative solution are all consistent. In particular, at the limit $r\\rightarrow\\infty$, the asymptotic spacetime is a de Sitter spacetime. The same spacetime is obtained from the exact solution for $\\tilde{\\Lambda}\\ll\\Lambda$. See \\eqref{pert-ds-far}-\\eqref{Y-notrunc}.\n\n\\item The usual singularity $r=0$ is present at the perturbative solution and no other singularities appear.\n\n\\item The horizons are obtained as perturbed deformations of the usual event and cosmological horizons of the Schwarzschild-de Sitter spacetime, namely \\eqref{HZs}.\n\n\\item Moreover, the surface gravities and entropies associated to the horizons are also computed. The results are perturbations around the usual surface gravities and entropies of the Schwarzschild-de Sitter spacetime. See \\eqref{surf-grav-bh-a}-\\eqref{S-rc}.\n\n\\item It is also discussed the qualitative behavior of the horizons, surface gravities and entropies as functions of the mass $M$ of the matter distribution. In all cases, the bigger the mass the better is the agreement between the perturbative solution and the Schwarzschild-de Sitter one. The deviations, \\emph{i.e.}, the perturbative corrections, are stronger as the mass decreases.\n\\end{itemize}\n\nAt this point it is convenient to compare our perturbative solution \\eqref{pert-sol-4th} with the one encountered by K.~S.~Stelle in \\cite{Stelle:1977ry}. In that work, a general theory of gravity in the second order formalism with higher derivative terms (quadratic terms in the Riemman tensor, Ricci tensor and scalar curvature) is considered. A perturbative static and spherically symmetric solution is found.  At first sight one could argue that our result should be just a particular case of Stelle`s result for a suitable choice of parameters. However, our result is strongly different. First of all, the result in \\cite{Stelle:1977ry} is a perturbation around Minkowski spacetime. Their field equations are not perturbed equations as ours. As a consequence, their perturbed functions are different from ours. In fact, our perturbations consist on corrections of the Schwarzschild-de Sitter solution due to the quadratic curvature term while the solution in \\cite{Stelle:1977ry} is a perturbation around the Minkowski spacetime, independently of the magnitude of the higher order derivative terms. Hence, to our knowledge, our results are genuine novel solutions. Moreover, it is known that the field equations in the second order formalism are significantly different from the equations obtained in the first order formalism \\cite{Exirifard:2007da,Borunda:2008kf,Capozziello:2010ih}, except for the special case of GR.\n\nThe study of static spherically symmetric solutions within action \\eqref{ym-map-grav-obs} inside the matter distribution is currently under investigation for a perfect fluid distribution \\cite{Silveira:2017xxx}. Moreover, solutions for spherically symmetric matter distributions in the presence of electromagnetic fields and rotation will be analyzed as well.\n\nFinally, let us remark that the generalization of our results by considering non-vanishing torsion will also be studied. In this case, the system \\eqref{eq:eq_mov1}-\\eqref{eq:eq_mov2} have more degrees of freedom, a property that opens possibility of new solutions than the ones here found.\n\n\\section*{Acknowledgments}\n\nThe Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient\\'ifico e Tecnol\\'ogico (CNPq-Brazil), The Coordena\\c c\\~ao de Aperfei\\c coamento de Pessoal de N\\'ivel Superior (CAPES), the Pr\\'o-Reitoria de Pesquisa, P\\'os-Gradua\\c c\\~ao e Inova\\c c\\~ao (PROPPI-UFF) and Centro Brasileiro de Pesquisas F\\'isicas are acknowledge for financial support.\n\n\n\n\n\\bibliographystyle{unsrt}\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\\label{sec:1}\nIn a series of recent experiments\n\\cite{rai04,rai02,cze01,yuk98,rai02a,bon03} significant\ndifferences had been found between the low-energy cross sections\nof the $d+d\\rightarrow t+p$ reaction when the target nuclei are\nembedded in a metallic or an insulator environment. Apparently,\nthe source of this effect is the conduction electron distribution\nin the metallic lattice and its screening effects on the Coulomb\nbarrier around the incident and target nuclei \\cite{ass87,ass87a}.\nHints for similar behavior were found also in the electron capture\nrate of Be$^{7}$ \\cite{nir07,wan06}. While in some of these\nexperiments temperature dependence was also claimed\n\\cite{rai04,rai02}, no such dependence was found in others\n\\cite{nir07,sev07}.\n\nThis phenomenon can be briefly introduced as follows: The\ntransparency, $T(E_{k})$, of a potential barrier to an incident\nparticle having energy $ E_{k}$ is given by \\cite{fer49},\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq1}\n\\ T(E_{k})=\\exp \\left\\{ -2\\int_{r_{N}}^{b}\\sqrt{\\frac{2M}{\\hbar ^{2}}%\n\\left[ E_{p}(r)-E_{k}\\right] \\,}dr\\right\\}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $M$ is the reduced mass of the two particles, $r_{N}$ - the\nnuclear radius, $b$ - the classical turning point (CTP) and\n$E_{p}(r)=ze\\,V(r)$ is the potential energy of the incident\nparticle in the potential, $V(r)$, generated by the target\nnucleus. $Ze$ and $ze$ are charges of the target and incident\nnuclei, respectively.\n\nIf a pure Coulomb potential is substituted for the interaction potential, $%\nV(r)=V_{C}(r)=Ze\\,\/\\,r,$ Eq. (1) reproduces the Sommerfeld factor,\n\n\\begin{eqnarray}\\label{eq2}\nT_{C}(E_{k}) &=& \\exp \\left\\{\n-2\\int_{r_{N}}^{b}\\sqrt{\\frac{2M}{\\hbar\n^{2}}\\left[ \\frac{Zze^{2}}{r}-E_{k}\\right] \\,}dr\\right\\} \\\\\n  &=& \\exp \\left\\{ -2\\pi \\eta\n\\right\\} \\nonumber\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq3}\n\\eta (E_{k})=\\,\\frac{Zz\\,e^{2}}{\\hbar v_{k}}\n\\end{equation}\nIn (\\ref{eq3}) $v_{k}=\\sqrt{2E_{k}\/M}$ is the velocity of the\nincident particle. If the target nucleus is embedded in a solid\ntarget, the potential generated by nearby electrons, in addition\nto the bare Coulomb potential, has to be included as well,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq4}\nV(r)=V_{n}(r)+V_{e}(r)=\\frac{Ze}{r}+V_{e}(r)\n\\end{equation}\n\nFor low energy reactions the electronic part of the potential,\n$V_{e}(r)$, has a small but important contribution to the total\npotential. This contribution is amplified by the exponential\nfactor of the transparency.\n\nIn general, the electronic potential generated in a metallic\nlattice by the conduction electrons is a slowly varying function.\nEven for low energy particles the CTP of the projectile is so\nclose to the target nucleus that one can fairly assume that along\nthe integration path in (\\ref{eq1}) the electronic potential\npractically equals its value at the target nucleus, $V_{e}(r)\\cong\nV_{e}(0)$. When this approximation is inserted back into\n(\\ref{eq1}) it gets the form,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq5}\nT(E_{k})\\cong \\exp \\left\\{ -2\\int_{r_{N}}^{b}\\sqrt{\\frac{2M}{\\hbar\n^{2}}\\left[ \\frac{Zz\\,e^{2}}{r}+zeV_{e}(0)-E_{k}\\right]\n\\,}dr\\right\\}\n\\end{equation}\n\nThis is equivalent to a reaction in a pure Coulomb potential with\nthe kinetic energy, $E_{k}$, replaced by $E_{k}+U_{e}$, where\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq6}\nU_{e}=ze\\,|V_{e}(0)| ~~~~~~~~(V_{e}(0)<0)\n\\end{equation}\n\nThe authors of Ref. \\cite{rai04} tried to explain the experimental\nresults by means of the Debye statistical model, which neglects\nthe electrons degeneracy. A difficulty of their treatment is also\nthe point that under the experimental conditions the Debye radius\nis significantly smaller than the atomic radius, therefore the\nbasic assumptions of the model are not satisfied.\n\nThe aim of the present paper is to compute the electrons spatial\ndistribution in insulator and metallic environments for the\n$d+d\\rightarrow t+p$ reaction $(Z=z=1)$, using a three-dimensional\nThomas-Fermi (TF) model, which accounts for the electrons'\ndegeneracy, therefore presumably better describing the experimental\nconditions in a solid host of local high\ndensity conditions (\"strongly-coupled plasma\").\nUsing the TF model we try\nto infer the change in the transparency between metallic and\ninsulating environments. To illustrate our method, we shall focus\non the case of deuterium embedded in a copper lattice for which\nexperimental results are available \\cite{rai04}.\n\n\\section{The model}\\label{sec:2}\n\\subsection{Basic data}\\label{subsec:2.1}\nIn the experiment, Ref. \\cite{rai04}, the deuterium atoms consist\nonly a small part of the target - about 11 copper atoms for each\ndeuterium atom \\cite{rai04} - one can, therefore, safely assume\nthat the presence of the deuterium atoms does not significantly\nmodify the copper lattice properties.\n\nOur first step is to find the volume available for the deuterium\natoms. This is carried out by means of the QEOS method\n\\cite{mor88}, which is frequently used to find the\nequation-of-state of various materials, and was found to give\naccurate results. For our purposes its main advantage is that QEOS\ncan provide the volume per atom separately for each component in a\nmixture of materials. Assuming a deuterium\/copper solid material\nwith 9\\% deuterium and 91\\% copper at 8.93 $g\/cm^{3}$ (solid\ncopper specific gravity), QEOS predicts that the volumes of the\ndeuterium (copper) atoms in the target are $\nVol_{D\\,}\\,(Vol_{Cu})=1.79\\,(11.7)^{.}10^{-24}\\;\\,cm^{3}\/atom$,\n\\textit{i.e.} , the average volume available for a copper atom is\nby a factor of $\\sim $ 6.5 larger than that of a deuterium atom.\nIf these atomic volumes are assumed to have the shape of a\nspherical enclosure, called in the following the \\textit{Ion\nSphere }(IS)\\textit{, }then the corresponding IS radii are $\nR_{i,D}\\,(R_{i,Cu})=0.717\\,(1.36)\\,10^{-8}\\,cm.$\n\nThe atomic structure of copper is $[Ar]\\,3d^{10}\\,4s$. In a pure\ncopper metal lattice there are at most 11 electrons per atom in\nthe conduction band. Their average density is\n$n_{e}=11\\,\/\\,11.7^{.}10^{-24}=9.4^{.}10^{23}\n\\,electrons\\,\/\\,cm^{3}$. If the small amount of deuterium atoms\ndoes not significantly change this distribution, then the same\ndensity prevails within the deuterium IS as well, generating\n$n_{e}Vol_{D\\,}=9.4^{.}10^{23} \\times 1.79^{.}10^{-24}=1.7$ extra\nelectrons inside the deuterium IS. Thus, together with its own\nelectron, the deuterium IS contains, on the average, $ N_{e}=2.7$\nelectrons. Changing the Cu\/D target density by $\\pm 10\\%$ changes\nthis quantity only by $\\pm $5\\%. In our computations we have used\n$N_{e}$, the number of electrons in the deuterium IS, as an\nadjustable parameter.\n\n\\subsection{The modelling of the electronic potential in insulating and\nmetallic environments}\\label{subsec:2.2} The electronic potential\nof a free deuterium atom in high density insulating environment\nwas calculated by the computer program RELDIR, which solves the\nrelativistic Dirac equation of a deuterium (or any other) atom in\na finite radius Ion Sphere with any number of free electrons\nwithin the IS. The results of this computation are the bound and\nfree electrons wavefunctions, their spatial density, and the\ncorresponding potentials.\n\nAs a first step, the computation was carried out for a solid\ndensity deuterium lattice, which is known to be an insulator,\n(0.202$\\,g\/cm^{3},$ 6.08$^{.}10^{22}\\,atoms\\,\/\\,cm^{3}$,\n$R_{i}=1.58^{.}10^{-8}cm$). From the result of RELDIR for the\nelectronic potential one obtains $U_{e}=20\\,eV$, in accordance\nwith the experimental results of Ref. \\cite{rai04} in an\ninsulating environment. This result was used as the basic\nreference for comparison.\n\nThe evaluation of the electronic potential near a deuterium atom\nembedded in a metallic lattice was carried out by means of the\nThomas-Fermi (TF) model in conjunction with the Born-Oppenheimer\n(BO) approximation. Owing to the high density environment, a\nFermi-Dirac statistics for the electrons, as used by the TF model,\nprovides a better approximation for the electrons spatial and\nenergy distributions inside the copper lattice than the Debye\nmodel \\cite{rai04,rai02} which is more appropriate for\nweakly-coupled low-density matter. In this context, the physical\nmeaning of the BO approximation is that nearby electrons rapidly\nadjust their local distribution to any change in the nuclei\npositions, so that the electron distribution depends only on the\ninstantaneous distance between the two nuclei, but not on their\nrelative motion.\n\nThe TF model for the electrons consists of a set of three\nequations. The first one is the Poisson equation,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq7}\n\\overrightarrow{\\mathbf{\\nabla }}V_{e}(\\mathbf{r})=4\\pi\ne\\,n_{e}(\\varepsilon_{F};\\mathbf{r})\n\\end{equation}\nwhose solution is the electronic potential, $V_{e}(\\mathbf{r})$,\nwhen the electrons spatial density,\n$n_{e}(\\varepsilon_{F};\\mathbf{r}),$ is known. In (\\ref{eq7})\n$\\varepsilon_{F}$ is the Fermi energy. The second equation is the\nFermi-Dirac distribution of the electrons inside the IS,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\\label{eq8}\nn_{e}(\\varepsilon_{F};\\mathbf{r})=\\frac{1}{2\\pi ^{2}}\\,\\left(\n\\frac{2m_{e}\\,kT}{\\hbar ^{2}}\\right) ^{3\/2}\\, \\nonumber \\\\ \\times\nF_{1\/2}\\left( \\frac{\\varepsilon\n_{F}+eV(\\mathbf{r)}}{kT};\\left\\vert\n\\frac{eV(\\mathbf{r)}}{kT}\\right\\vert \\right)\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhich provides the electron density as function of the total\npotential $V( \\mathbf{r})=V_{n}(\\mathbf{r})+V_{e}(\\mathbf{r}).$ In\n(\\ref{eq8}), $kT$ \\ is the temperature of the target material\n($=300\\,K)$ in energy units, and,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq9}\nF_{1\/2}\\left( x;\\beta \\right) =\\int_{\\beta }^{\\infty }\\frac{\ny^{1\/2}\\,dy}{1+\\exp \\left\\{ y-x\\right\\} }\n\\end{equation}\nis the \\textit{incomplete Fermi-Dirac integral } \\cite{sal98}. The\nboundary condition applied to Eqs. (\\ref{eq7}) and (\\ref{eq8}) is\nGauss' theorem, $\\oint_{IS\\,surface}\\mathbf{E}\n^{.}\\mathbf{dS}=4\\pi e\\,N_{e}$. Finally, the Fermi energy,\n$\\varepsilon_{F}$, is computed from the condition that the total\ncharge inside the IS equals $ N_{e}$,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq10}\nN_{e}=\\int_{IS\\;\\mbox{volume}}n_{e}(\\varepsilon_{F};\\mathbf{r}\n)\\,d^{3}r\n\\end{equation}\n\nSimultaneous solution of Eqs. (\\ref{eq8})-(\\ref{eq10}) yields the\nelectronic potential, $ V_{e}(\\mathbf{r})$, the electron density,\n$n_{e}(\\varepsilon_{F};\\mathbf{r} ) $, and the Fermi energy,\n$\\varepsilon_{F}$. When these solutions are inserted back into\n(\\ref{eq1}) and (\\ref{eq4}), one finds the CTP, $b(N_{e},E_{k})$,\nand the transparency, $T(N_{e},E_{k})$ as function of the number\nof electrons inside the IS and the incident particle's kinetic\nenergy.\n\n\\subsection{Computational details}\\label{subsec:2.3}\nThe solution of (\\ref{eq7}) can be rewritten as \\cite{sal94},\n\\begin{eqnarray}\\label{eq11}\nV_{e}(r,\\theta ,\\varphi ) = -e\\int \\int\n\\int_{IS\\;\\mbox{volume}}\\frac{ n_{e}(r^{\\prime },\\theta ^{\\prime\n})}{\\left\\vert \\mathbf{r-r}^{\\prime }\\right\\vert }d^{3}r \\\\\n    = -e\\int_{r_{N}}^{R_{i}}r^{\\prime 2}\\,dr^{\\prime\n}\\,\\int_{\\theta =0}^{\\pi }\\sin \\theta ^{\\prime }\\,d\\theta ^{\\prime\n}\\, \\nonumber \\\\ \\times \\int_{\\varphi =0}^{2\\pi }d\\varphi ^{\\prime\n}\\,\\frac{n_{e}(r^{\\prime },\\theta ^{\\prime })}{ \\left\\vert\n\\mathbf{r-r}^{\\prime }\\right\\vert } \\nonumber\n\\end{eqnarray}\nObviously, the electron distribution has cylindrical symmetry\naround the line connecting the two nuclei, therefore\n$n_{e}(r^{\\prime },\\theta ^{\\prime })$ is independent of $\\varphi\n^{\\prime }.$ Moreover, the charge distribution has also a\nreflection symmetry around the plane perpendicular to this line at\nhalfway between the nuclei. Using these symmetry properties, the\nintegration over $\\varphi ^{\\prime }$ can be carried out\nanalytically, thereby reducing the triple integral in (\\ref{eq11})\nto a double one, see details in Ref. \\cite{sal94}. Finally,\ntransforming the coordinate system center onto the target nucleus,\nEq. (\\ref{eq11}) gets the form,\n\\small{\n\\begin{eqnarray}\\label{eq12}\nV_{e}(R,\\mu ) = -4e\\int_{r_{N}}^{R_{i}}R^{\\prime 2}\\, dR^{\\prime\n}\\, \\int_{\\mu =  \\mu _{\\min }}^{1}d\\mu ^{\\prime }\\,n_{e}(R^{\\prime\n},\\mu ^{\\prime })\\, \\nonumber \\\\\n\\times \\left[\\frac{1}{\\sqrt{A_{-}+B}}K\\left( \\sqrt{\\frac{\n2B}{A_{-}+B}}\\right) + \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{A_{+}+B}}K\\left(\n\\sqrt{\\frac{2B}{A_{+}+B }}\\right) \\right] \\nonumber\\\\\n\\end{eqnarray}\n}\n\\begin{eqnarray}\\label{eq13}\n A_{\\pm } = \\left[ \\left( b\/2+R\\cos \\theta \\right) \\pm\n\\left( b\/2+R^{\\prime }\\cos \\theta ^{\\prime }\\right) \\right] ^{2}\n\\nonumber \\\\\n + ~(R\\sin \\theta )^{2}+\\left( R^{\\prime\n}\\sin \\theta ^{\\prime }\\right) ^{2}\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq14}\nB=2R\\,R^{\\prime }\\,\\sin \\theta \\,\\sin \\theta ^{\\prime }\n\\end{equation}\n\nIn (\\ref{eq12}) $R$ is the radial distance of the field point from\nthe target nucleus, $\\mu =\\cos \\theta $, $K(x)$ is the Jacobi\nelliptic integral \\cite{abr72}, and $\\mu _{\\min }=\\max \\left(\n-b\\,\/\\,2R^{\\prime },\\,-1\\right) .$ The reduction of the triple\nintegral in (\\ref{eq11}) to the shape of (\\ref{eq12}) reduced the\ncomputational resources and improved the accuracy of the numerical\nprocedure.\n\nThe numerical process was greatly complicated by the fact that the\nCTP, $b$, not only depends on the electron density,\n$n_{e}(\\varepsilon_{F};\\mathbf{r} ) $, but also determines it. It\nwas, therefore, necessary to carry out a doubly iterative method\nfor the computations. The internal iterations calculated the\nelectron density and potential through equations\n(\\ref{eq12})-(\\ref{eq14}) and (\\ref{eq8})-(\\ref{eq10}). When these\nhave been found, a second iterative procedure was applied to solve\n$b$ from the condition,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq15}\nE_{p}(b)=E_{k}\n\\end{equation}\n\nThis double iterative method was continued until convergence was\nachieved for all the parameters.\n\n\\section{Results}\\label{sec:3}\n\\subsection{The electron density}\\label{sec:3.1}\nFigure~\\ref{fig:1} shows the density of the electrons around the\nincident and the target nuclei, when the center-of-mass energy of\nthe two nuclei is 4000~eV. The figure clearly shows the\npolarization of the electrons near the nuclei. We recall that the\nTF model predicts that the electron density diverges as $r^{-3\/2}$\nnear the nucleus \\cite{sal98}.\n\\begin{figure}[h]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=\\columnwidth]{Fig_1}\n\\caption{The distribution of the electrons around the two nuclei.}\n\\label{fig:1}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThe TF model predicts an accumulation of the electrons along the\nline connecting the nuclei, with a saddle point at halfway between\nthem, a fact which enhances the screening effect.\n\n\\subsection{The electronic potential}\\label{sec:3.2}\nFigure~\\ref{fig:2} shows the spatial distribution of the\nelectronic potential in the same region as in Fig.~\\ref{fig:1}. In\nthe interesting part of the field, \\textit{i.e.} in the space\naround the two nuclei, the potential has very slow variation,\nwhich justifies the approximation $V_{e}(r)\\cong V_{e}(0)$, to an\naccuracy of a few percents.\n\\begin{figure}[h]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=\\columnwidth] {Fig_2}\n\\caption{The distribution of the electronic potential, $V_{e}(r)$,\naround the two nuclei.} \\label{fig:2}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThe value of the potential on the nuclei, $U_{e}=|eV_{e}(0)|$, is\ndisplayed on Fig.~\\ref{fig:3}. This is, in fact, the quantity that\nis measured experimentally. The figure shows that $U_{e}$ fits\nexcellently a linear behavior as function of $N_{e}$, with a small\ncontribution from the incident energy,\n\\begin{figure}[h]\n\\centering\n \\includegraphics[width=3in] {Fig_3}\n\\caption{The value of the electronic potential, $V_{e}(r)$, on the\ntarget nucleus.}\\label{fig:3}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq16}\n3D:U_{e} = |eV_{e}(0)| = 27.2\\,N_{e}+80.3 +\n3.1^{.}10^{-4}E_{k}\\,~~eV\n\\end{equation}\n\nThe last term is always less than 4\\% in the range of interest. In\norder to compare the importance of a 3D modelling, we have\ndeveloped also a one-dimensional TF program that solves the same\nproblem in a radially symmetrical environment. The results of this\nprogram is also plotted on Fig.~\\ref{fig:3}. The TF 1D code\nyielded,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq17}\n1D:U_{e}=|eV_{e}(0)|=27.2\\,N_{e}\\,+33.6 ~eV\n\\end{equation}\n\nThe difference between these two results originates from the fact\nthat the electrons accumulation between the nuclei in a 3D model\nis larger than in the 1D case. This difference clearly indicates\nthe importance of a three-dimensional treatment of the problem.\n\nFor $N_{e}=3$, $E_{k}=4000\\,eV$ \\ Eq. (16) gives $U_{e}=163\\,eV$.\nThis has to be compared to the experimental result, $U_{e}=470\\pm\n50\\,eV$, which is by a factor of $2.9\\pm 0.3$ larger than the\nresult of the TF 3D model. It has also to be compared to\n$U_{e}=20\\,\\,eV$ as computed from RELDIR for the insulator case,\nsee above.\n\n\\subsection{The Fermi energy}\\label{sec:3.3}\nThe Fermi energy, $\\varepsilon_{F}$, strongly depends on the\nnumber of electrons in the IS, $N_{e}$, and is, of course,\nindependent on the incoming particle's energy. The behavior of\n$\\varepsilon_{F}$ vs. $N_{e}$ is illustrated in Fig.~\\ref{fig:4}.\nWithin the range of our computations $\\varepsilon_{F}$ turned out\nto be a linear function of $N_{e}$,\n\\begin{figure}[b]\n\\centering\n \\includegraphics[width=3in] {Fig_4}\n\\caption{Fermi energy as function of the number of electrons\ninside the ion sphere, for 3D and 1D Thomas-Fermi\nsimulations.}\\label{fig:4}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq18}\n3D:\\quad \\varepsilon_{F}=-43.7+38.8\\,N_{e}\\qquad (eV)\n\\end{equation}\nwith a hint for a slight quadratic curvature. For the 1D case we\nhave found a significantly higher result,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq19}\n1D:\\quad \\varepsilon_{F}=-15.9+35.3\\,N_{e}\\qquad (eV)\n\\end{equation}\n\nIt should be emphasized, that the Fermi energy is positive (except\nfor the case of $N_{e}=1,$ namely, the case of an isolated\ndeuterium atom), and is much higher than the target temperature\n($\\varepsilon_{F}\\gg kT=300\\,K=0.025\\,eV)$, for all the cases.\nThis means that at the temperatures of the experiments (room\ntemperature and below) there is no reason for measurable\ntemperature variations. In fact, we have repeated our computations\nwith $T=3000\\,K$ , but this order of magnitude change in the\ntemperature modified the results by less than 0.5\\% - as expected.\n\n\\subsection{The classical turning point}\\label{sec:3.4}\nThe CTP fits, with excellent accuracy, a function of the form,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq20}\nb\\,\/\\,a_{0}=\\frac{e^{2}\\,\/\\,a_{0}}{E_{k}+U_{e}}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $e^{2}\/\\,a_{0}=27.211\\,eV$, ($a_{0}$ is the Bohr radius).\nThis has exactly the form of \\ the Coulomb CTP, with the\nprojectile's kinetic energy modified according to Eq. (5). Fitting\nthe computational results to the form of (20) provides,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq21}\nU_{e}=27.7\\,N_{e}+76.4+5.76^{.}10^{-4}\\,E_{k}\\quad eV\n\\end{equation}\n\nThe agreement of this $U_{e}$ with the values obtained from the\nelectronic potential, Eqs. (\\ref{eq16}), can be regarded as very\ngood. The difference between the two results stems from the fact\nthat $|eV_{e}(\\mathbf{r})|$ is not exactly constant along the line\nconnecting the two nuclei. And again, this result is in\ndiscrepancy with the experimental value, but is much higher than\nthe insulator case.\n\n\\subsection{The transparency}\\label{sec:3.5}\nAt low impact energies the screened astrophysical factor, $S(E)$,\nis enhanced relative to the unscreened one by\n $T(E)\/T_{C}(E)$ \\cite{rai04}, see Eqs. (\\ref{eq1}) and\n(\\ref{eq2}). Fig.~\\ref{fig:5} shows our results for this factor as\nfunction of the center of mass energy for the $d+d\\rightarrow t+p$\nreaction, when the target deuterium is embedded in a copper\n\\begin{figure}[b]\n\\centering\n \\includegraphics[width=3in] {Fig_5}\n\\caption{Comparison between the results of the 3D TF model\nfor the astrophysical factor, S(E), of the reaction $d+d \\rightarrow\nt+p$, when the target nuclei are embedded in a copper substrate,\nand the experimental results. The experimental points are taken from\n\\cite{rai04}. The dotted line presented the theoretically extrapolated\n\"bare nucleon\" S(E) factor}.\\label{fig:5}\n\\end{figure}\nlattice. The experimental results of Ref. \\cite{rai04} are also\ndisplayed in Fig.~\\ref{fig:5}. The dashed curve represents the\nbare $S(E)$ factor \\cite{rai04}. While we note that the value\n$N_{e}$ = 3 is a reasonable estimate for the conducting electrons in\nthe deuterium IS embedded in Cu, even for $N_{e}$ = 8 the 3-dimensional\nTF model underestimates the experimental low-energy\nincrease of the astrophysical factor.\nThe low $U_{e}$ predicted by the model relative to the experiment is another\nmanifestation of the same fact.\nIn fact, one needs 11 conduction electrons inside the deuterium IS\nto get agreement with the experimental results.\n\nIn the range of the energies used in our computations $U_{e}\\leq\n0.1E$. Denoting $\\xi =U_{e}\\,\/\\,E,$ $\\xi $ can be assumed to be a\nsmall quantity. Using first order expansion, an analytical\nestimate can be developed for the change in the value of\n$T(E)\\,\/\\,T_{C}(E)$ caused by a change $b\\rightarrow b\\,\/\\,(1+\\xi\n)$ in the CTP, see Eq. (\\ref{eq20}). The ratio of the screened to\nCoulomb transparencies becomes,\n\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq22}\nT(E)\\,\/\\,T_{C}= exp\\left\\{ \\delta G\\right\\}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq23}\n\\delta G=G-G_{C}=2e^{2}\\sqrt{\\frac{2M}{\\hbar ^{2}}}\\frac{\\xi\n}{\\sqrt{ E}}\\left( \\frac{\\pi }{4}-\\sqrt{\\frac{\\xi }{2}}\\right)\n\\end{equation}\nFor $E=4000\\,eV,$ $N_{e}=3$ and $U_{e}=163$ $eV$ this formula\npredicts,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq24}\nT(E)\\,\/\\,T_{C}= exp\\left\\{ \\delta G\\right\\} =1.45\n\\end{equation}\nin contrast to the experimental result of $T(E)\\,\/\\,T_{C}\\approx\n2.0\\pm 0.2\\,.$\n\n\\section{Discussion}\\label{sec:4}\nIn this paper we present computational results from a\nthree-dimensional TF model about the modification of low-energy\ncross-section for the $d+d\\rightarrow t+p$ reaction, when the\ntarget nucleus is embedded in a copper lattice. Our computational\nresult of $U_{e}=163\\,eV$ is lower by a factor of $\\sim $3 from\nthe experimental result of $U_{e}=470\\pm 50\\,eV,$ but still is\nsubstantially higher than the cross-section in an insulator (solid\ndeuterium lattice), $U_{e}=20\\,\\,eV.$\n\nIn order to see whether such a difference holds true for other\ntarget lattices as well, in Fig.~\\ref{fig:6} we plotted the\nresults of all the experiments in metal lattices published in Ref.\n\\cite{rai04} in comparison to ours. The 3D TF results in the\nfigure may be shifted $\\pm 5\\%$ up or down, due to differences in\nthe local IS volume of the deuterium in the various lattices.\nFigure~\\ref{fig:6} exhibits a consistent difference between the\ncomputational and the experimental results. As the Thomas-Fermi is\na highly successful model, well fitted to high density matter,\nthis insistent difference is of some surprise.\n\\begin{figure}[b]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=3in] {Fig_6}\n\\caption{The experimental values of $U_{e}$, drawn from the results of\n \\cite{rai04}, compared to the predictions of the 3D TF model.}\n \\label{fig:6}\n\\end{figure}\n\nObviously, the central reason for the disagreement is the\nelectronic potential on the target nucleus, see Eq. (\\ref{eq6}).\nIn our opinion, the semiclassical nature of the TF model cannot be\nthe reason for this difference, because the quantum mechanical\nbehavior of the conduction electrons seems to be unimportant in\nthe present problem.\n\nOn the other hand, the TF model assumption of a perfect spherical\nsymmetry, and the target nucleus location at the center of a\nwell-defined ion sphere, may oversimplify the real situation. In\nthe experiment, the deuterium nuclei are implanted into the metal\nlattice by bombardment of $10\\,keV$ deuterons into the metal foil\n\\cite{rai02}. It is well known that this technique does not\nnecessarily deposit the stopped deuterium into a spherically\nsymmetrical environment.\n\nAnother contribution to the discrepancy may be the local\nconduction electron density fluctuations around the target\nnucleus. As the transparency depends exponentially on the local\nelectron potential, a small number of nuclei, with an\ninstantaneous large electron screening, has greater influence on\nthe cross-section than the other nuclei with the average\nelectronic screening.\n\nFinally, it is possible that QEOS underestimates the deuterium IS\nvolume under the specific experimental conditions. Larger IS\nvolume, with more conduction electrons, may have better agreement\nwith the experiment.\n\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\nWaves injected into plasma can be amplified, extracting energy from the plasma. \nSimilarly, internal modes within the plasma can grow by extracting energy from the plasma.\nThere are multiple and distinct ways in which this energy can be accessed, and the open question is how much energy can possibly be accessed. \nThe ground state of the system can be defined as the state of least energy accessible respecting any constraints. \nThe free energy or the accessible energy can then be defined as the difference between the initial state energy and the ground state energy.\n\nIn his classic work,\\cite{Gardner1963} Gardner calculated the free energy when plasma could be rearranged while preserving the six-dimensional phase space densities or volumes. \nIf the distribution is divided into separate phase space volumes, the volume preservation constraint means that it is not possible to rearrange the system to any lower-energy state than the one in which the lowest-energy regions of phase space are occupied by the most-populated available phase space elements. \nEach volume carries with it its initial number of particles, so putting that volume in a six-dimensional location of lower energy preserves that volume phase space density as well. \nThis is known as Gardner restacking, representing a particular phase space rearrangement.\nThe fully restacked phase space is the ground state subject to phase space conservation; the releasable energy is known as the Gardner free energy. \n\n\nThis problem was approached using variational techniques by Dodin and Fisch.\\cite{Dodin2005}\nDodin and Fisch also calculated the free energy,  including the additional constraint that the total current be preserved.  \nThe free energy respecting current conservation, of course, would be less than the Gardner free energy.\nRecently, Helander  calculated the free energy, conserving like Gardner the six-dimensional phase space densities, but conserving as well other quantities, particularly those quantities that affect the motion of individual particles in phase space.\\cite{Helander2017ii, Helander2020} \nFor example, in a magnetized system,  quantities like the first or second adiabatic invariants $\\mu$ and $J$ might be conserved. \nThe free energy constrained by conservation of the adiabatic invariants of the motion, of course, would similarly be less than the Gardner free energy.\n\nHowever, even under Hamiltonian dynamics,  rearrangements of plasma can appear not to conserve phase space volume, when the distribution functions are viewed with  finite granularity. \nViewed at finite granularity,  waves can diffuse particles.\\cite{Kennel1966}  \nImportantly, these diffusive wave-particle interactions can release particle energy to the waves.\\cite{Fisch1992}\nThe  energy accessible via diffusive operations in phase space  is less than that accessible via restacking. \nThe property of free energy constrained by phase space diffusion was first posed by Fisch and Rax.\\cite{Fisch1993}\n\n\nThe operation of  diffusing particles between volumes in phase space, rather than  interchanging these volumes, has actually had  applicability to a rather wide range of problems.\nMathematical treatments of rearrangement by diffusion describe theories of income inequality,\\cite{Dalton1920} altruism,\\cite{Thon2004} and physical chemistry.\\cite{Horn1964, Zylka1985}\nThe maximal extractable energy under diffusive phase space rearrangements in plasma was  addressed by Hay, Schiff, and Fisch. \\cite{Hay2015, Hay2017}\n\nHelander's recent calculation of the plasma free energy obeying phase space conservation, with the motion of individual particles constrained by adiabatic invariants, now points to a natural generalization: the free energy under  diffusion in phase space, but with the motion of individual particles similarly constrained by adiabatic invariants.\nThis paper will discuss that generalization. \nLest this be thought to be an academic exercise, we note that it is realized, for instance, in the quasilinear theory of plasma waves and instabilities with frequencies below the cyclotron frequency. \nThe available energies subject to both diffusion and adiabatic motion constraints should be more limited than the available energy subject only to either constraint. \n\nThe paper is organized as follows: \nSection~\\ref{sec:availableEnergies}  describes these different available energies. \nSection~\\ref{sec:discreteModel} introduces a simple, discrete model which illustrates the different ways in which these energies can be extracted. \nSection~\\ref{sec:inhomogeneousField} shows how that simple model can be modified  to describe a more concrete plasma system. \nFinally, Section~\\ref{sec:discussion} discusses the context and implications of these ideas. \n\n\\section{The Four Classes of Available Energy} \\label{sec:availableEnergies}\n\nLet $\\Delta W_\\text{G}$ denote the accessible energy in Gardner's restacking problem, in which phase space volume conservation is the only restriction. Let $\\Delta W_{\\text{G}|\\mu}$ denote Helander's available energy for the version of this problem in which one or more conservation law constraints are included. Let $\\Delta W_\\text{D}$ denote the maximum extractable energy in the variant of Gardner's problem in which phase space elements must be diffusively averaged rather than being exchanged (``restacked\"). Finally, let $\\Delta W_{\\text{D}|\\mu}$ denote the maximum extractable energy for the diffusive problem with conservation laws. \n\nHere, a ``diffusive exchange\" refers to an operation in which the populations $f_a$ and $f_b$ of two equal-volume regions of phase space are mixed so that both populations are $(f_a + f_b) \/ 2$ after the exchange. \nThere is no requirement that these two elements be adjacent in phase space; in fact, microscopically local flows can give rise to apparently non-local diffusive processes.\\cite{Fisch1993} \nThis kind of exchange can describe any process that tends to equalize the populations of different regions of phase space, regardless of the details of the microscopic dynamics. \nThis equalization could, for instance, be the result of quasilinear diffusion but could equally well result from more complicated transport processes in phase space involving finite-Kubo-number effects, L\\'evy flights, etc. \n\nThis leaves us with four distinct available energies. \nThe condition for the plasma to be in a ground state is the same in the restacking and diffusion problems: for any pair of equal-volume phase space elements with different populations, the higher-population element must occupy a region of phase space with no more energy than the lower-population element. If there is a conserved quantity $\\mu$ (or, in general, a vector of conserved quantities $\\ensuremath{\\boldsymbol\\mu}$), then the condition is identical except that it is only necessary to consider pairs of phase space elements with the same values of $\\mu$ (or $\\ensuremath{\\boldsymbol\\mu}$). \n\nAlthough Gardner restacking, even with constraints, leads to a unique ground state, that is not the case with diffusive exchange.\nIt is possible through diffusive exchange to reach more than one possible ground state from the same initial configuration. \nThese ground states will often have different energies. \nNote that  $\\Delta W_\\text{D}$ and $\\Delta W_{\\text{D}|\\mu}$ are defined as the maximum possible extractable energy, \nwhich is the difference between the initial energy and the energy of the lowest-energy accessible ground state. \n\nGiven the same initial phase space configuration, diffusive exchange and restacking will typically not lead to the same ground state. The extractable energy will differ too.\nIt is clear that the available energies without additional conservation-law restrictions will always be at least as large as their restricted counterparts. That is, \n\\begin{gather}\n\\Delta W_{\\text{G}|\\mu} \\leq \\Delta W_\\text{G} \\\\\n\\Delta W_{\\text{D}|\\mu} \\leq \\Delta W_\\text{D} \\, . \n\\end{gather}\nMoreover, phase space restacking can always access at least as much energy as diffusive exchanges can (strictly more, if they are nonzero). To see this, note that both kinds of exchange move the system toward the same ground state condition, where the most highly populated phase space volumes are at the lowest energies, but that diffusive exchanges reduce the difference between the more- and less-highly populated phase space volumes. This reasoning is equally applicable with and without conservation laws, so it follows that \n\\begin{gather}\n\\Delta W_\\text{D} \\leq \\Delta W_\\text{G} \\\\\n\\Delta W_{\\text{D}|\\mu} \\leq \\Delta W_{\\text{G}|\\mu} \\, , \n\\end{gather}\nwith equality holding only when both sides vanish. \n\n\\section{Simple Discrete Model} \\label{sec:discreteModel}\n\nIn order to get an intuitive sense for the four available energies -- that is, the restacking energy with and without a conservation law and the diffusive-exchange energy with and without a conservation law -- it is helpful to construct a simple model that shows concretely how the different energies can play out. \n\n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{gridTikzFigure.pdf}\n\t\\caption{Schematic of a simple discrete system, with varying energy and some additional coordinate $\\mu$. } \n\t\\label{fig:grid}\n\\end{figure}\n\nTo that end, consider a collection of discrete states, indexed by their energies and by some coordinate $\\mu$, as shown schematically in Figure~\\ref{fig:grid}. Associate the states in the $n$th column with energy $\\epsilon_n$, with $\\epsilon_i \\leq \\epsilon_j$ $\\forall i < j$. One could construct a grid of this kind with any number of columns and rows. Physically, previous work presents the discrete version of these problems in two ways.\\cite{Fisch1993, Hay2015, Hay2017} First, it can model an intrinsically discrete physical system, like transitions between atomic energy levels stimulated by lasers. Second, it can model a system with continuous phase space (e.g., a plasma) being mixed with some finite granularity. \n\nIn this scenario, it is straightforward to understand the four available energies described in Section~\\ref{sec:availableEnergies}. If $\\mu$ is conserved, different rows are not allowed to interact, and the total available energy (either $\\Delta W_{\\text{G}|\\mu}$ or $\\Delta W_{\\text{D}|\\mu}$) is the sum of the available energies of the individual rows, considered independently. If $\\mu$ is not conserved, then either the diffusive or the Gardner energy minimization problem must consider the system as a whole. \n\nWhen constructing examples of this kind, it quickly becomes apparent that conservation laws affect the outcome of diffusive and Gardner relaxation in qualitatively different ways. Consider the following phase-space configuration, with two energy levels (with the left-hand column corresponding to a lower energy) and two different values of $\\mu$:\n\\begin{gather*}\n\\begin{array}{|c|c|}\n\\hline\n0 & 1 \\\\ \\hline\n0 & 0 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{array} \\; .\n\\end{gather*}\nSuppose the separation between the two energy levels is $\\varepsilon$. Then $\\Delta W_{\\text{G}|\\mu} = \\Delta W_\\text{G} = \\varepsilon$ and $\\Delta W_{\\text{D}|\\mu} = \\varepsilon \/ 2$. If $\\mu$ is not conserved,, the lowest diffusively accessible energy can be reached by the sequence \n\\begin{gather}\n\\begin{array}{|c|c|}\n\\hline\n0 & 1 \\\\ \\hline\n0 & 0 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{array} \\rightarrow \n\\begin{array}{|c|c|}\n\\hline\n1\/2 & 1\/2 \\\\ \\hline\n0 & 0 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{array} \\rightarrow \n\\begin{array}{|c|c|}\n\\hline\n1\/2 & 1\/4 \\\\ \\hline\n1\/4 & 0 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{array}\n\\end{gather}\nso that $\\Delta W_\\text{G} = (3\/4) \\varepsilon$. At this point, we note that there is a qualitative difference between discrete and continuous systems. In the example just given, the ground state contradicts a theorem by Gardner that the distribution function can only depend on energy alone. This contradiction is a consequence of the fact that energetically neutral exchanges are possible between the two low-energy boxes in the diagram. It disappears if the distribution function is required to be a smooth function of a continuous energy variable.  \n\nThis example worked because, in the absence of any $\\mu$ constraint, diffusive processes can take advantage of the additional phase space to more efficiently transfer material (or quanta, etc., depending on how this model is interpreted physically) more efficiently from high-energy to low-energy states. One might imagine that this a special property of phase space that is initially unoccupied. However, similar behavior appears when the initial population configurations for each $\\mu$ are the same. Consider, for example, the following $2 \\times 2$ system: \n\\begin{align*}\n\\begin{array}{|c|c|}\n\\hline \n0 & 1 \\\\ \\hline\n0 & 1 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{array} \\; .\n\\end{align*}\nSuppose, as before, that the rows correspond to different values of $\\mu$ and that the columns correspond to energy states that are separated by some energy $\\varepsilon$. Three of the four measures of available energy are immediately clear: $\\Delta W_{\\text{G}|\\mu} = \\Delta W_\\text{G} = 2 \\varepsilon$ and $\\Delta W_{\\text{D}|\\mu} = \\varepsilon$. \n\nHay, Schiff, and Fisch showed\\cite{Hay2015} that there are only a finite number of candidates for the optimal sequence of diffusive steps to relax a system to equilibrium. After enumerating all possible candidates, it is possible to show that the lowest possible energy state accessible through diffusive steps can be reached by the sequence \n\\begin{align*}\n&\\begin{array}{|c|c|}\n\\hline \n0 & 1 \\\\ \\hline\n0 & 1 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{array} \\rightarrow\n\\begin{array}{|c|c|}\n\\hline \n0 & 1 \\\\ \\hline\n1\/2 & 1\/2 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{array} \\rightarrow \n\\begin{array}{|c|c|}\n\\hline \n0 & 3\/4 \\\\ \\hline\n3\/4 & 1\/2 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{array} \\\\\n&\\hspace{120 pt} \\rightarrow \n\\begin{array}{|c|c|}\n\\hline \n1\/4 & 3\/4 \\\\ \\hline\n3\/4 & 1\/4 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{array} \\rightarrow \n\\begin{array}{|c|c|}\n\\hline \n1\/2 & 1\/2 \\\\ \\hline\n3\/4 & 1\/4 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{array} \\; , \n\\end{align*}\nso $\\Delta W_\\text{D} = (5\/4) \\varepsilon$. \n\nIt seems that there is some qualitative way in which increasing the number of accessible states improves the diffusive available energy without necessarily improving the Gardner available energy. However, it is nontrivial to write down a strong condition relating $\\Delta W_{\\text{G}|\\mu}$, $\\Delta W_\\text{G}$, $\\Delta W_{\\text{D}|\\mu}$, and $\\Delta W_\\text{D}$ that captures this intuition. \n\nOne might expect, after looking at a number of examples involving small systems, that $\\Delta W_{\\text{D}|\\mu} \/ \\Delta W_\\text{D}$ would always be less than or equal to $\\Delta W_{\\text{G}|\\mu} \/ \\Delta W_\\text{G}$ (in other words, that restricting the size of accessible phase space would always have a fractionally more severe impact on the energy accessible via diffusive exchange). In fact, this inequality holds for any system with two energy levels (a $2 \\times N$ grid of states). \n\nTo see this, first note that in a $2 \\times N$ system, $\\Delta W_{\\text{D}|\\mu} = (1\/2) \\Delta W_{\\text{G}|\\mu}$. If only two cells can be exchanged, then it is either favorable to exchange them (in which case the Gardner exchange moves the difference between the cells' populations from one to the other and the diffusive exchange accomplishes half that) or it is not (in which case neither does anything). \n\nNow consider the same system without any $\\mu$ constraints. It is possible to divide the initial population values $\\{f_{ij}\\}$ into the $N$ largest and $N$ smallest values -- or, more precisely, into equally large sets $A$ and $B$ such that for any $a \\in A$ and $b \\in B$, $f_a \\geq f_b$. These sets can then be subdivided into the elements starting in the lower-energy state ($A_0$ and $B_0$) and those starting in the higher-energy state ($A_1$ and $B_1$). $A_1$ and $B_0$ will have the same number of elements, so every element of $A_1$ can be paired with one unique element of $B_0$. If each of these pairs are exchanged, then all members of $A$ will be in the lower-energy state, and the system will be in a ground state, having released energy $\\Delta W_\\text{G} = ||A_1|| \\varepsilon$. \n\nIf those same pairs of cells are diffusively averaged rather than being exchanged, the released energy will be $(1\/2) \\Delta W_\\text{G}$. This will often not be the optimal diffusive strategy, but it demonstrates that $\\Delta W_\\text{D} \\geq (1\/2) \\Delta W_\\text{G}$, which is enough to show (for the $2 \\times N$ case) that $\\Delta W_{\\text{D}|\\mu} \/ \\Delta W_\\text{D} \\leq \\Delta W_{\\text{G}|\\mu} \/ \\Delta W_\\text{G}$. \n\nHowever, this inequality does not always hold for systems with more than two allowed energy levels. Proving for a particular case that $\\Delta W_{\\text{D}|\\mu} \/ \\Delta W_\\text{D} > \\Delta W_{\\text{G}|\\mu} \/ \\Delta W_\\text{G}$ is often somewhat involved; given the other three available energies, it requires establishing an \\textit{upper} bound for $\\Delta W_\\text{D}$. Consider the following configuration, with three energy levels and two allowed values for $\\mu$:\n\\begin{align*}\n\\begin{array}{|c|c|c|}\n\\hline\nX+1 & X & 0 \\\\ \\hline\n0 & 2 & 1 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{array} \\; .\n\\end{align*}\nSuppose the three columns correspond to energies $0$, $\\varepsilon$, and $2 \\varepsilon$, and consider the limit where $X \\rightarrow \\infty$. \n\nWhen $\\mu$ conservation is enforced, the upper row is in its ground state, does not contribute to $\\Delta W_{\\text{G}|\\mu}$ or $\\Delta W_{\\text{D}|\\mu}$. The contribution from the lower row gives $\\Delta W_{\\text{G}|\\mu} = 3 \\varepsilon$. Applying the criteria for extremal sequences from Hay, Schiff, and Fisch\\cite{Hay2015} for a three-level system, and checking all possible candidates, it is possible to show that the optimal sequence respecting $\\mu$ conservation is \n\\begin{align*}\n\\begin{array}{|c|c|c|}\n\\hline\nX+1 & X & 0 \\\\ \\hline\n0 & 2 & 1 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{array} \\rightarrow \n\\begin{array}{|c|c|c|}\n\\hline\nX+1 & X & 0 \\\\ \\hline\n1\/2 & 2 & 1\/2 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{array} \\rightarrow\\begin{array}{|c|c|c|}\n\\hline\nX+1 & X & 0 \\\\ \\hline\n5\/4 & 5\/4 & 1\/2 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{array} \\; ,\n\\end{align*}\nso that $\\Delta W_{\\text{D}|\\mu} = (7\/4) \\varepsilon$. \n\nIn the absence of $\\mu$ conservation, the Gardner available energy is $\\Delta W_\\text{G} = (X + 1) \\varepsilon$. In the limit where $X$ is very large, the only thing that will determine $\\Delta W_\\text{D}$ will be the fraction of $X$ that can be moved from the second column to the first. There is no strategy that can move more than half of the content of one cell to another using diffusive exchanges; in other words, $\\lim_{X \\rightarrow \\infty} \\Delta W_\\text{D} = (X\/2) \\varepsilon$. Then, for this example, $\\Delta W_{\\text{D}|\\mu} \/ \\Delta W_\\text{D} > \\Delta W_{\\text{G}|\\mu} \/ \\Delta W_\\text{G}$. \n\n\\section{Example:  Inhomogeneous Magnetic Field} \\label{sec:inhomogeneousField}\n\nIn many scenarios, the kind of simple phase-space grid considered in the previous section may need to be modified. However, much of the intuition remains the same. \nOne case that was discussed by Helander\\cite{Helander2017ii} for the continuous restacking problem was a plasma in an inhomogeneous magnetic field, with conservation of the first adiabatic invariant $\\mu = m v_\\perp^2 \/ 2 B$. \nTo illustrate the four free energies, consider for simplicity the case where the physical volume is divided into two halves:  one in which $B = B_0 = \\text{const}$;  and another in which $B = B_1 = \\text{const}$, with $B_1 > B_0$. \nSuppose the field is straight and its direction does not vary, and suppose the energy in the direction parallel to the field can be ignored. \nFor simplicity, we consider a discrete version of this system.  The discrete version can be constructed by averaging the plasma distribution function over  finite regions of phase space, and then restricting the Gardner and diffusive exchange operations to act on these macroscopic regions. \n\nThere are two major ways in which this scenario differs from those discussed in Section~\\ref{sec:discreteModel}. First, for any given $\\mu$, the volume of accessible phase space is now proportional to $B$. This can be shown by calculating the appropriate Jacobian determinant. Intuitively, it can be understood in terms of the geometry of phase space when $\\mu$ is conserved. For a given $B$ and a given $\\mu$ (or a given small range in $\\mu$), the allowed region in phase space traces out a circle (or thin ring) in the $v_\\perp = v_x \\times v_y$ plane. If $\\mu$ is held fixed and $B$ is changed from $B_0$ to $B_1$, then the region transforms to become a ring with a larger radius, with a correspondingly larger phase-space volume. The discrete system is composed of a series of boxes with equal phase-space volumes. Therefore, for any given $\\mu$, there will be a larger number of phase-space boxes on the higher-field, higher-energy side of the system than on the lower-field, lower-energy side. \n\nIn addition, there is now a coupling between the invariant $\\mu$ and the energy $\\varepsilon$. \nFor any given value of $B$, $\\varepsilon \\propto \\mu$. \nMoreover, if a particle has energy $\\varepsilon_0$ on the lower-field side, and if it is then moved to the higher-field side without changing $\\mu$, it must then have energy $\\varepsilon_1 = \\mu (B_1 \/ B_0) \\varepsilon_0$. When $\\mu$ is conserved this is a two-energy-level system, but for different values of $\\mu$ the difference between the two energy levels will be different. \nAs a result, for this scenario,  analogous  to Figure~\\ref{fig:grid}, Figure~\\ref{fig:newGrid} represents the magnetic field constraint. \n\n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{newGridTikzFigure.pdf}\n\t\\caption{Schematic of the discrete restacking problem for a spatial region divided between an area with constant field $B_0$ and an area with constant field $B_1 = 2 B_0$. Dashed lines separate different values of $\\mu$. For each value of $\\mu$, the single box occupies the phase space on the low-field side and the pair of boxes occupy the phase space on the high-field side.} \n\t\\label{fig:newGrid}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThis picture can be used to illustrate the behavior discussed by Helander. \nFor example, if $\\mu$ is conserved, then any distribution that is a function of $\\mu$ alone is a ground state, and such states will have spatial densities that are proportional to $B$. \nThis is in some sense counterintuitive, since for any given $\\mu$ a higher field means a higher energy. \nHowever, the intuition can be restored with reference to Figure~\\ref{fig:newGrid}. \nIf $f$ is a function of $\\mu$ alone, then each of the boxes in a given row must have the same population. \nIt is then clear that distributions of this kind will give up no energy not only under $\\mu$-conserving exchanges, but also under $\\mu$-conserving diffusive exchanges. \n\nMoreover, it is clear why the total spatial density variations in such a state must be proportional to $B$: there are proportionally more boxes on the higher-field side than on the lower-field side for each choice of \n$\\mu$, and therefore there must be a proportionally higher total population (in other words, the sum of the population over all $\\mu$ for a given side of the system will be proportional to $B$). \nHelander also showed that $f = f(\\mu)$ ground states will have temperatures proportional to $B(\\mathbf{x})$. \nThis can be understood in terms of Figure~\\ref{fig:newGrid} in a similar way. \nSuppose $f = f(\\mu)$. Then if the distribution function has some structure at an energy $\\varepsilon$ on the low-field side, it must have the same structure at energy $(B_1\/B_0) \\varepsilon$ on the high-field side, since for a given $\\mu$ the low-field and high-field regions of phase space have energies proportional to their local values of $B$. \nGiven that the density of volumes is higher in the high field region proportionately to $(B_1\/B_0)$, it follows that the pressure in high field regions is then  $(B_1\/B_0)^2$ the pressure of the low field region. \n\nThis is, of course, only one particular ground state, which occurs when all accessible states have equal occupation for each $\\mu$.  \nIt is also possible to release free energy when the initial states are populated differently in such a way that there is population inversion, $(\\partial f \/ \\partial \\epsilon)_\\mu \\ge 0$. \nIn that case, for example with the higher B states populated equally but not the lower B state, representable by  $(0,1,1)$, then  the restacking solutions give one $\\varepsilon$ free energy, whereas the diffusive solution allows only $(3\/4) \\varepsilon$ free energy (where $\\varepsilon$ is the energy gap between the states). More generally, the difference between the diffusive and restacking solutions is similar to what was discussed in Section~\\ref{sec:discreteModel}. However, the details do turn out somewhat differently. For instance, recall the first example from Section~\\ref{sec:discreteModel}:\n\\begin{gather*}\n\\begin{array}{|c|c|}\n\\hline\n0 & 1 \\\\ \\hline\n0 & 0 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{array} \\; .\n\\end{gather*}\nIt is possible to construct a six-cell analog of this, with one populated cell on the high-field side and two possible choices of $\\mu$, with a structure along the lines of the first two rows of Figure~\\ref{fig:newGrid}. \nIt might look something like this: \n\\begin{align*}\n\\begin{array}{|c|}\n\\hline 0 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{array}\n\\begin{array}{|c|}\n\\hline 1 \\\\ \n\\hline 0 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{array}& \\\\\n&\\begin{array}{|c|}\n\\hline 0 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{array}\n\\begin{array}{c}\n~\n\\end{array}\n\\begin{array}{|c|}\n\\hline 0 \\\\\n\\hline 0 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{array}\n\\end{align*}\nor this: \n\\begin{align*}\n\\begin{array}{|c|}\n\\hline 0 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{array}\n\\begin{array}{|c|}\n\\hline 0 \\\\ \n\\hline 0 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{array}& \\\\\n&\\begin{array}{|c|}\n\\hline 0 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{array}\n\\begin{array}{c}\n~\n\\end{array}\n\\begin{array}{|c|}\n\\hline 1 \\\\\n\\hline 0 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{array} \\; .\n\\end{align*}\nBut now the solutions will be different. For instance, it now makes a difference to all four available energies whether the populated cell was for the larger or smaller value of $\\mu$, since these now have different energies and different gaps between their energies and the low-field states at the same $\\mu$. \n\nNow consider an example in which, for the second-lowest choice of $\\mu$, the high-field states (marked red in Fig.~\\ref{fig:newGrid_marked}) are occupied with populations normalized to 1 each, and the rest of phase space is unoccupied. \nThis is analogous to the second example in Section~\\ref{sec:discreteModel}. In this example, if each discrete box has a width $\\Delta \\mu$ in $\\mu$ space, the bright green box has energy $(1\/2) B_0 \\Delta \\mu$, the yellow box has energy $(3\/2) B_0 \\Delta \\mu$, and each red box has energy $3 B_0 \\Delta \\mu$. \n\nIf $\\mu$ conservation is enforced, then the populations in the red boxes can only exchange with the box marked yellow in Fig.~\\ref{fig:newGrid_marked}. The resulting diffusive free energy is $\\Delta W_{\\text{D}|\\mu} = (9\/8) B_0 \\Delta \\mu$. In the absence of a $\\mu$ constraint, computing $\\Delta W_\\text{D}$ involves the red, yellow, green, and teal boxes. It is straightforward to find a bound on $\\Delta W_\\text{D}$ by considering only exchanges between the red, yellow, and bright green boxes: $\\Delta W_\\text{D} \\geq (21\/8) B_0 \\Delta \\mu$. \nThus, the release of the constraint on the $\\mu$ invariance makes substantially more energy available. \nThis case provides some practical insight into $\\alpha$-channeling; this will be discussed in Section~\\ref{sec:discussion}. \n\nThe system in this section has included only the component of the kinetic energy from motion perpendicular to the field. The qualitative behavior would be much the same if the parallel component were included. The phase space structure for any given $v_{||}$ would be identical to the one shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:newGrid}, but with an offset in energy depending on the value of $v_{||}$. However, there would be significant differences: the energy of a state would no longer be a function of $\\mu$ and $B$ alone, so for any given $\\mu$ a range of energies would be accessible on both the low- and high-field sides. \n\n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{newGridTikzFigure_marked.pdf}\n\t\\caption{This version of Fig.~\\ref{fig:newGrid} has cells marked with different colors in order to make the last example in Section~\\ref{sec:inhomogeneousField} clearer.} \n\t\\label{fig:newGrid_marked}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\section{Summary and Discussion} \\label{sec:discussion}\n\nThe key point of this paper is primarily one of  classification. There are in fact four free energies that are of interest in plasma:   the unconstrained restacking energy ($\\Delta W_\\text{G}$), \nthe restacking energy with conservation laws ($\\Delta W_{\\text{G}|\\mu}$),  the diffusive-exchange energy ($\\Delta W_\\text{D}$),  and the diffusive-exchange energy with conservation laws ($\\Delta W_{\\text{D}|\\mu}$). \nThe first three of these had been discussed previously in the literature.  \nThe last is first  described here. \n\nThis classification is primarily of academic interest, at least insofar as  any detailed calculation of the energy is concerned. \nIn practice, because accessing the full range of excitations is impractical, the full free energy will not be made available in any of of these categories.\nThus, for example, the precise Gardner restacking energy is not important as a quantity so much as it is important as a concept.  \nAs a concept, it exposes the fundamental physics of free energy under  phase space conservation.  \nAs a quantity, it does gives a useful measure of how much energy is {\\it in principle} extractable, thus constructing a measure of success in extracting energy, or a measure of concern if the energy were lost to instabilities.\nSimilar arguments can be made for the worth of classifying the other free energies.\n\nHowever, it is worth pointing out that, in recognizing the fourth free energy here, namely the diffusive-exchange energy with conservation laws ($\\Delta W_{\\text{D}|\\mu}$), certain subtleties required quite careful attention in applying constraints to diffusive processes, as highlighted by the examples given.\nFor example, in the case of applying the $\\mu$-conservation constraint in an inhomogeneous magnetic field $B$, the density of states needed to be recognized as proportional to $B$.  \nThis led to a very different, and somewhat non-intuitive, calculation  for the free energy under diffusion but respecting $\\mu$-conservation. \n\nIn fact, apart from its academic interest, this example may have an important application in $\\alpha$-channeling.  \nIn the case of $\\alpha$-channeling, $\\alpha$-particles are diffused from the hot tokamak center by waves, which in doing so extract the $\\alpha$-particle energy.\\cite{Fisch1992}\nHowever, generally one wave does not have all the necessary wave characteristics to accomplish this on its own.\nIt turns out that two waves, even if each is without necessary wave characteristics, together might be able to accomplish efficient energy extraction.\\cite{Fisch1995}\nIn this regard, waves, such as the ion Bernstein wave, that break $\\mu$ invariance\\cite{Fisch1995ii} were proposed in combination with low-frequency waves that respect $\\mu$ invariance to extract a substantial fraction of the $\\alpha$-particle energy.\\cite{Herrmann1997}\n\nThe strategy that achieved the most energy extraction (of about 61\\%) featured diffusion by the ion Bernstein wave confined to an outer region, in keeping with a realistic spatial deployment of  this wave.\nIn other regions, the low frequency waves dominated the diffusion.  \nThis strategy, while giving quite favorable results, was by no means necessarily optimal, since the space of wave parameters to search is extremely large.\n\nNote that waves that do not break the $\\mu$ invariant can diffuse $\\alpha$-particles from the tokamak center, where they are born energetic, to the low-field side of the tokamak. \nThus, in conserving $\\mu$, the $\\alpha$-particles advantageously lose perpendicular energy. \nHowever, as discussed in Section IV, the density of states at any given $\\mu$ is higher in the tokamak center where the magnetic field is larger than on the periphery where the magnetic field is smaller. This statement pertains even though the phase space on tokamaks is six-dimensional (since it includes the parallel velocity) rather than the four-dimensional phase space considered for simplicity in Section~\\ref{sec:inhomogeneousField}. In either case, the diffusion to lower magnetic fields, when respecting the $\\mu$ invariance, whether in four or six dimensions, will be to states less dense, and therefore the energy extraction will be less efficient than when diffusion occurs to states equally dense. \nIn the last example considered in the previous section, where the magnetic fields on either side of the system differed by a factor of two and the system began with a population of particles on the high-field side, the extractable energy under diffusion and respecting $\\mu$ invariance was less than half of the extractable energy when $\\mu$ invariance was not respected. \n\nMuch of the previous work on two-wave $\\alpha$-channeling has rested on the intuition that a high-frequency, non-$\\mu$-conserving wave could help to extract the energy from $\\alpha$-particles while a low-frequency, $\\mu$-conserving wave could accomplish spatial diffusion. The work presented here suggests a second motivation for combining such waves: that breaking $\\mu$ conservation may also allow diffusive processes to more efficiently extract energy. \nIn other words, there emerges the interesting suggestion  that a greater amount of energy may become available by arranging for breaking the  $\\mu$ invariance even in regions where the low-frequency waves dominate the diffusion.  \nSince the parameter space of wave possibilities is quite large, such an intuition may prove valuable in optimizing the  $\\alpha$-channeling effect.\nAt present, this is a speculation, not a proved result. \nA rigorous proof would require a much more specialized analysis of the initial conditions and phase-space geometry associated with $\\alpha$-channeling, which goes beyond the intended scope of this paper. \nIn addition, of course, it would be important to show that such a scheme can work for specific wave implementations.\n\nThe above example shows how consideration of the new, fourth free energy identified here leads to useful, possibly practical, physical intuitions regarding extractable energy under wave diffusion by different waves. \nHowever, in the end, the major interest of this classification remains an academic understanding for the fundamental ways in which energy may be released in different plasma systems. \n\n\n\n\n\\begin{acknowledgements}\nThis work was supported by  US DOE grants  DE-AC02-09CH11466 and DE-SC0016072. \nOne of the authors (PH) would like to acknowledge the splendid hospitality of the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory. \n\\end{acknowledgements}\n\n\\section*{Data Availability Statement}\n\nData sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.\n\n\\bibliographystyle{apsrev4-1} \n\t","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
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+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\nQuantum computing is highly promising for simulating\nchallenging molecules and materials \\cite{bauer2020quantum,mcardle2020quantum}. It is most likely beneficial for systems with the presence of strong correlations where perturbative techniques fail\\cite{cao2019quantum,motta2021emerging}. Unfortunately, current quantum hardware that is called noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) is limited due to noise and decoherence\\cite{de2021materials}. The variational quantum eigensolver (VQE) has been proposed as a low-depth quantum algorithm \\cite{peruzzo2014variational,mcclean2016theory,kandala2017hardware} to take advantage of NISQ computers. It is a hybrid quantum-classical method that must be carried out on quantum and classical computers. On the quantum computer, quantum states depending on a set of variational parameters are prepared, and the expectation value of the Hamiltonian is then measured. Since most operations on a quantum computer are unitary, unitary coupled-cluster (UCC) wavefunction \\cite{bartlett1989alternative,taube2006new,romero2018strategies,anand2022quantum} has been proposed as a low-circuit-depth state-preparation ansatz for VQE. Next, the set of variational variables is optimized on classical computers, and the loop is repeated until converged. \n\nHowever, the VQE applicability is limited by the dimensionality of many-body systems associated with the number of variational variables and the circuit depths. Recently, many methodologies have been developed to reduce the resources required in VQE. Grimsley and co-workers proposed the adaptive-VQE (ADAPT-VQE) ansatz\\cite{grimsley2019adaptive} that is progressively built by subsequently incorporating into it the operators that contribute most to minimizing the VQE energy towards the ground-state energy. Later on, several groups have extended  ADAPT-VQE to make the algorithm more efficient\\cite{tang2021qubit,zhang2021mutual}. While ADAPT-VQE was shown to outperform standard ansatz, its iterative nature makes calculations more costly. Freericks and co-workers, on the other hand, have devised the factorized UCC ansatz for VQE\\cite{fac-UCC,xu2022decomposition} that employs a Taylor expansion in the small amplitudes, trading off circuit depth for additional measurements. Strong correlations were considered by performing the expansion about a small set of UCC factors that are treated exactly. \n\nAlternatively, one can reduce the dimensionality of the many-body Hamiltonian used in VQE by partitioning the whole system into smaller active spaces that can be handled by quantum computing. Karol and co-workers have employed the downfolding framework based on the double UCC (DUCC) to construct effective active-space Hamiltonians \\cite{bauman2019downfolding,kowalski2021dimensionality} that integrate out high-energy Fermionic degrees of freedom while being capable of reproducing exact energy of quantum systems. To this end, one needs to define subsets of excitations either entirely within the subsets considered or involving some external orbitals. The approach can capture the effect of the whole orbital space in small-size active spaces\\cite{metcalf2020resource,chladek2021variational}. Inspired by the divide-and-conquer technique in classical quantum chemistry, Nakagawa and co-workers proposed a method called deep VQE\\cite{fujii2022deep,mizuta2021deep}. In the first step of this method, the whole system is divided into much smaller subsystems, each of which is solved independently using VQE. In the next step, the ground states of subsystems are used as a basis with reduced degrees of freedom to construct an effective Hamiltonian considering the inter-subsystem interactions. The resulting effective Hamiltonian is finally solved using VQE. \n\nQuantum embedding frameworks, such as density matrix embedding theory (DMET)\\cite{mineh2022solving,tilly2021reduced,ralli2022scalable}, dynamical mean-field theory (DMFT)\\cite{keen2020quantum,bauer2016hybrid}, and density functional embedding theory\\cite{ralli2022scalable,gujarati2022quantum}, have been employed to make quantum computation feasible for real molecules and materials. Recently, Rossmannek et al. have demonstrated the performance of the VQE embedding into classical mean-field methods, including Hartree-Fock (HF) and density functional theory (DFT)\\cite{rossmannek2021quantum}. Those authors restricted the quantum computation to a critical subset of molecular orbitals, whereas the remaining electrons provide the embedding potential computed using classical mean-field theories. The proposed embedding schemes obtained significant energy corrections to the HF and DFT reference for several simple molecules in their strongly correlated regime and larger systems of the oxirane size. However, most of those calculations were limited to a minimal basis. It may be interesting to explore the performance of the active-space VQE approach on larger basis sets.\n\nIn the present work, we propose an active-space VQE approximation where VQE is naturally embedded in a correlated mean-field reference. To this end, we start from the UCC ansatz and divide the total excitation operator into internal and external contributions accordingly to the active-inactive partitioning of the orbital space. For the inactive space, instead of HF and DFT, we employ our recently-developed correlated mean-field theory called one-body second-order M{\\o}ller-Plesset perturbation theory (OBMP2)\\cite{OBMP2-JCP2013,tran2021improving}. Unlike standard MP2, OBMP2 is self-consistent, meaning that it can bypass challenges caused by the non-iterative nature of standard MP2. For the active space, we employ VQE to solve the effective Hamiltonian composing of the bare Hamiltonian and a potential caused by the internal-external interaction. Details of the procedure are given in Section~\\ref{sec:theo}. We demonstrate the performance of our approach by considering different systems with singlet and doublet ground states in Section~\\ref{sec:result}. We examine the accuracy in predicting both energy and density matrix (by evaluating dipole moment). We show that the active-space VQE with the correlated reference outperforms the standard active-space VQE. \n\n\\section{Theory}{\\label{sec:theo}}\n\\subsection{Variational quantum eigensolver: UCC ansatz}\n\nVQE relies on the variational principle, which states that the ground-state energy $E_0$ is always less than or equal to the expectation value of Hamiltonian $\\hat{H}$  calculated with the trial wavefunction $\\left|\\psi\\right>$\n\\begin{align}\n    E_0 \\leq \\frac{\\left<\\psi\\right| \\hat{H} \\left|\\psi\\right>}{\\left<\\psi\\right|\\left|\\psi\\right>}\n\\end{align}\nwith the molecular Hamiltonian as\n\\begin{align}\n  \\hat{H} = \\hat{h} + \\hat{v} =  \\sum_{pq}h^{p}_{q} \\hat{a}_{p}^{q} + \\tfrac{1}{2}\\sum_{pqrs}g^{p r}_{q s}\\hat{a}_{p r}^{q s}\\label{eq:h1}\n\\end{align}\nwhere $\\left\\{p, q, r, \\ldots \\right\\}$ indices refer to general ($all$) sin orbitals. The objective of the VQE is to minimize the expectation value of the Hamiltonian with respect to $\\left|\\psi\\right>$. \n\nTo implement this optimization problem on the quantum computer, one has to start by defining a wavefunction ansatz that can be expressed as a series of quantum gates. To this end, we express $\\left|\\psi\\right>$ as the application of a parametrized unitary operator $U(\\boldsymbol \\theta)$ to an initial state $\\left|\\boldsymbol 0 \\right>$ for $N$ qubits, with $\\boldsymbol \\theta$ representing a set of parameters varying values in $\\left(-\\pi, \\pi\\right]$. Given that trial wavefunctions, $\\left|\\psi\\right>$, are necessarily normalized, we can now write the VQE optimization problem as follows.\n\\begin{align}\n    E_{\\text{VQE}} = \\min_{\\boldsymbol \\theta} \\left<\\boldsymbol 0\\right| U^\\dagger(\\boldsymbol \\theta) \\hat{H} U(\\boldsymbol \\theta) \\left|\\boldsymbol 0\\right> \\label{eq:E-vqe}\n\\end{align}\n\nThe unitary coupled cluster (UCC) ansatz is perhaps the most widely-used ansatz for VQE and given as.\n\\begin{align}\n    \\left|\\psi_\\text{UCC} \\right> = e^{\\hat{A}} \\left|\\boldsymbol 0\\right>,\n\\end{align}\nwhere $\\left|\\boldsymbol 0 \\right>$ is the HF reference and $\\hat{A}$ is an anti-Hermitian combination of particle-hole excitation and de-excitation:\n\\begin{align}\n    \\hat{A} &= \\hat{T} - \\hat{T}^\\dagger \\label{eq:A_op}\\\\\n    \\hat{T} &= \\sum_{i}^{occ}\\sum_{a}^{vir} T_{i}^{a} \\hat{a}_a^i + \\sum_{ij}^{occ}\\sum_{ab}^{vir} T_{ij}^{ab} \\hat{a}_{ab}^{ij} + ... \\label{eq:T_exc} \n\\end{align}\nwhere $\\left\\{i, j, k, \\ldots \\right\\}$ indices refer to occupied ($occ$) spin orbitals and\n$\\left\\{a, b, c, \\ldots \\right\\}$ indices refer to virtual ($vir$) spin orbitals. \nThe amplitudes $T_{i}^{a}$ and $T_{ij}^{ab}$ are parameterized into rotation angles $\\boldsymbol\\theta$ that are the variationally optimized. Because the computational cost scales exponentially with the system size, the excitation operator is usually truncated at single and double excitations, resulting in UCC singles and doubles (UCCSD).\n\nVQE employs HF wavefunction as a reference, and orbitals are fixed during calculation. However, it is well-known that HF orbitals are not optimal for correlated methods. Recently, several works have proposed the orbital-optimized VQE (OO-VQE) method, in which orbitals are optimized by making the energy stationary with respect to orbital rotation parameters\\cite{sokolov2020-ooVQE,mizukami2020-ooVQE,yalouz2021-SA-ooVQE,ratini2022-WAHTOR}. This approach requires the orbital gradient of VQE energy, demanding additional computational costs.    \n\n\\subsection{Correlated mean-field theory: OBMP2}{\\label{sec:obmp2}}\nLet us recap the OBMP2 theory, whose formulation details are presented in Refs.~\\citenum{tran2021improving} and ~\\citenum{OBMP2-JCP2013}. The OBMP2 approach was derived through the canonical transformation \\cite{CT-JCP2006,CT-JCP2007,CT-ACP2007,CT-JCP2009,CT-JCP2010,CT-IRPC2010}, in which an effective Hamiltonian that includes dynamic correlation effects is achieved by a similarity transformation of the molecular Hamiltonian $\\hat{H}$ using a unitary operator $e^{\\hat{A}}$ :\n\\begin{align}\n\\hat{\\bar{H}} = e^{\\hat{A}^\\dagger} \\hat{H} e^{\\hat{A}},\n\\label{Hamiltonian:ct}\n\\end{align}\nwith the anti-Hermitian excited operator $\\hat{A}$ defined as in Eq~\\ref{eq:A_op}. In OBMP2, the cluster operator $\\hat{A}$ is modeled such that including only double excitation. \n\\begin{align}\n  \\hat{A} = \\hat{A}_\\text{D} = \\tfrac{1}{2} \\sum_{ij}^{occ} \\sum_{ab}^{vir} T_{ij}^{ab}(\\hat{a}_{ab}^{ij} - \\hat{a}_{ij}^{ab}) \\,, \\label{eq:op1}\n\\end{align}\nwith the MP2 amplitude \n\\begin{align}\n  T_{i j}^{a b} =  \\frac{g_{i j}^{a b} } { \\epsilon_{i} + \\epsilon_{j} - \\epsilon_{a} - \\epsilon_{b} } \\,, \\label{eq:amp}\n\\end{align}\nwhere $\\epsilon_{i}$ is the orbital energy of the spin-orbital $i$. Using the Baker\u2013Campbell\u2013Hausdorff transformation, the OBMP2 Hamiltonian is defined as\n\\begin{align}\n  \\hat{H}_\\text{OBMP2} = \\hat{H}_\\text{HF} + \\left[\\hat{H},\\hat{A}_\\text{D}\\right]_1 + \\tfrac{1}{2}\\left[\\left[\\hat{F},\\hat{A}_\\text{D}\\right],\\hat{A}_\\text{D}\\right]_1.\n \\label{eq:h2}\n\\end{align}\nwith\n\\begin{align}\n  \\hat{H}_\\text{HF} &= \\hat{F} + C = \\hat{h} + \\hat{v}_{\\text{HF}} +C \\label{eq:h1hf}\n\\end{align}\nWhere $\\hat{h}$ is the one-electron Hamiltonian defined in Eq~\\ref{eq:h1}. The HF potential $\\hat{v}^{\\text{HF}}$ and the constant $C$ is given as:\n\\begin{align}\n    \\hat{v}_{\\text{HF}} &= \\sum_{pq}^{all}\\sum_{i}^{occ}\\left(g^{p i}_{q i} - g^{p i}_{i q} \\right) \\label{eq:vhf}\\\\\n    C &=  \\,\\, \\sum_{ij}^{occ} \\left(g^{ij}_{ji} - g_{ij}^{ij} \\right) \\,. \n\\end{align}\nIn Eq.\\ref{eq:h2}, commutators with the subscription 1, $[\\ldots]_1$, involve one-body operators and constants that are reduced from many-body operators using the cumulant approximation\\cite{cumulant-JCP1997,cumulant-PRA1998,cumulant-CPL1998,cumulant-JCP1999}. Doing some derivation, we eventually arrive at the OBMP2 Hamiltonian as follows\n\\begin{align}\n  \\hat{H}_\\text{OBMP2} = & \\,\\, \\hat{H}_\\text{HF} + \\hat{V}_\\text{OBMP2} \\label{eq:h4}\n\\end{align}\nwhere $\\hat{v}_\\text{OBMP2}$ is a correlated potential composing of one-body operators. The working expression is given as\n\\begin{align}\n\\hat{V}_{\\text{OBMP2}} = &  \\overline{T}_{i j}^{a b} \\left[ f_{a}^{i} \\,\\hat{\\Omega}\\left( \\hat{a}_{j}^{b} \\right) \n  + g_{a b}^{i p} \\,\\hat{\\Omega} \\left( \\hat{a}_{j}^{p} \\right) - g^{a q}_{i j} \\,\\hat{\\Omega} \\left( \\hat{a}^{b}_{q} \\right) \\right] \\nonumber \\\\  &- 2 \\overline{T}_{i j}^{a b}g^{i j}_{a b} \n   + \\,f_{a}^{i}\\overline{T}_{i j}^{a b}\\overline{T}_{j k}^{b c} \\,\\hat{\\Omega} \\left(\\hat{a}_{c}^{k} \\right) \\nonumber \\\\ \n     &+  f_{c}^{a}T_{i j}^{a b}\\overline{T}_{i l}^{c b} \\,\\hat{\\Omega} \\left(\\hat{a}^{l}_{j} \\right) + f_{c}^{a}T_{i j}^{a b}\\overline{T}_{k j}^{c b} \\,\\hat{\\Omega} \\left(\\hat{a}^{k}_{i} \\right) \\nonumber \\\\ \n     &-  f^{k}_{i}T_{i j}^{a b}\\overline{T}_{k l}^{a b} \\,\\hat{\\Omega} \\left(\\hat{a}_{l}^{j} \\right)\n     -  f^{p}_{i}T_{i j}^{a b}\\overline{T}_{k j}^{a b} \\,\\hat{\\Omega} \\left(\\hat{a}^{p}_{k} \\right) \\nonumber \\\\ \n     & +  f^{k}_{i} T_{i j}^{a b}\\overline{T}_{k j}^{a d} \\,\\hat{\\Omega}\\left(\\hat{a}_{b}^{d} \\right) +  f_{k}^{i}T_{i j}^{a b}\\overline{T}_{k j}^{c b} \\,\\hat{\\Omega} \\left(\\hat{a}_{a}^{c} \\right) \\nonumber \\\\ \n     &-  f_{c}^{a}T_{i j}^{a b}\\overline{T}_{i j}^{c d} \\,\\hat{\\Omega} \\left(\\hat{a}^{b}_{d} \\right) \\,\n     - f_{p}^{a}T_{i j}^{a b}\\overline{T}_{i j}^{c b} \\,\\hat{\\Omega} \\left(\\hat{a}^{p}_{c} \\right) \\nonumber \\\\\n     & - 2f_{a}^{c}{T}_{i j}^{a b}\\overline{T}_{i j}^{c b} +  2f_{i}^{k}{T}_{i j}^{a b}\\overline{T}_{k j}^{a b}. \\label{eq:vobmp2} \n\\end{align}\nwith $\\overline{T}_{ij}^{ab} = {T}_{ij}^{ab} - {T}_{ji}^{ab}$, the symmetrization operator $\\hat{\\Omega} \\left( \\hat{a}^{p}_{q} \\right) = \\hat{a}^{p}_{q}  + \\hat{a}^{q}_{p}$, and the Fock matrix \n\\begin{align}\n    f_p^q = h_p^q + \\sum_{i}^{occ}\\left(g^{p i}_{q i} - g^{p i}_{i q} \\right).\n\\end{align}\nNote that, for convenience, we have used Einstein's convention in Eq.~\\ref{eq:vobmp2} to present the summations over repeated indices. We rewrite $\\hat{H}_\\text{OBMP2}$ (Eqs. \\ref{eq:h2} and \\ref{eq:h4}) in a similar form to Eq. \\ref{eq:h1hf} for $\\hat{H}_\\text{HF}$ as follows:\n\\begin{align}\n  \\hat{H}_\\text{OBMP2} = & \\hat{\\bar{F}} + \\bar{C} \\label{eq:h5}\n\\end{align}\nwith $\\hat{\\bar{F}} =  \\bar{f}^{p}_{q} \\hat{a}_{p}^{q}$.\n$\\bar{f}^{p}_{q}$ is so-called {\\it correlated} Fock matrix and written as\n\\begin{align}\n\\bar{f}^{p}_{q} &= f^{p}_{q} + v^{p}_{q}. \\label{eq:corr-fock\n\\end{align}\n$v^{p}_{q}$ is the matrix representation of the one-body operator $\\hat{V}_{\\text{OBMP2}}$, serving as the correlation potential altering the uncorrelated HF picture. We update the MO coefficients and energies by diagonalizing the matrix $\\bar{f}^{p}_{q}$, leading to orbital relaxation in the presence of dynamic correlation effects. The OBMP2 method is implemented within a local version of PySCF\\cite{pyscf-2018}. \n\\subsection{VQE with OBMP2 reference}\n\nWe can see that both UCC and OBMP2 are formulated using a unitary exponential operator $e^{\\hat{A}}$ (Eqs~\\ref{eq:A_op} and \\ref{eq:op1}), implying that one can combine these two naturally. Partitioning the whole orbital space into active and inactive spaces, one can decompose excitation operators into internal and external contributions as:\n\\begin{align}\n    \\hat{A} = \\hat{A}_{\\text{int}} + \\hat{A}_{\\text{ext}}.\n\\end{align}\nHere, the internal (int) defines excitations within active space, and the external (ext) is the remaining excitations involving at least one inactive space orbital.  \n\nThe total energy can be written as:\n\\begin{align}\n    E &= \\left< \\boldsymbol 0 \\right| e^{\\hat{A}^\\dagger} \\hat{H}  e^{\\hat{A}} \\left| \\boldsymbol 0 \\right> \\\\\n      &=  \\left< \\boldsymbol 0 \\right| e^{\\hat{A}_{\\text{int}}^\\dagger} e^{\\hat{A}_{\\text{ext}}^\\dagger} \\hat{H} e^{\\hat{A}_{\\text{ext}}} e^{\\hat{A}_{\\text{int}}}  \\left| \\boldsymbol 0 \\right>\n\\end{align}\nIn the standard active space approximation, the external contribution is zero. Here, we treat it using OBMP2 described in the subsection~\\ref{sec:obmp2}. We arrive then at \n\\begin{align}\n    E &= \\left< \\boldsymbol 0 \\right| e^{\\hat{A}_{\\text{int}}^\\dagger} \\hat{H}^{\\text{act}}_{\\text{eff}}  e^{\\hat{A}_{\\text{int}}}  \\left| \\boldsymbol 0 \\right> + E_{\\text{OBMP2}}^{\\text{ext}} \\label{eq:ene-part}\n\\end{align}\nwhere $\\hat{H}^{\\text{act}}_{\\text{eff}}$ is the effective Hamiltonian within the active space including the bare Hamiltonian $\\hat{H}^{\\text{act}}$ and an effective one-body potential $v^{\\text{act}}_{\\text{eff}}$ from the remaining electrons outside this space: \n\\begin{align}\n    \\hat{H}^{\\text{act}}_{\\text{eff}} &=  \n    \\hat{H}^{\\text{act}} +  \\hat{v}^{\\text{act}}_{\\text{eff}},\\\\\n    \\hat{v}^{\\text{act}}_{\\text{eff}} &= \\hat{v}^{\\text{act}}_{\\text{HF}} + \\hat{V}^{\\text{act}}_{\\text{OBMP2}}.\n\\end{align}\nIn the present implementation, we have not included $\\hat{V}_{\\text{OBMP2}}^{\\text{act}}$ in the active-space Hamiltonian. Instead, the active-inactive interaction is buried in the external contribution determined by: \n\\begin{align}\n E_{\\text{OBMP2}}^{\\text{ext}} = E_{\\text{OBMP2}}^{\\text{tot}} - E_{\\text{OBMP2}}^{\\text{act}}   \n\\end{align} \nwith $E_{\\text{OBMP2}}^{\\text{tot}}$ the total OBMP2 energy of the whole system and $E_{\\text{OBMP2}}^{\\text{act}}$ the OBMP2 energy of the active space. \n\nCalculations start by running OBMP2 for the whole system and selecting active space using OBMP2 orbitals. VQE is then used for the active space with the effective Hamiltonian. We use UCC with doubles (UCCD) as the ansatz in the present work. The total double-excitation amplitude for the whole system $T_2$ is the summation of internal and external contributions: \n\\begin{align}\n T_2 = T_2^{\\text{int}}+T_2^{\\text{ext}}. \\label{eq:total-amp}  \n\\end{align}\nThe density matrix needed for properties is then evaluated using the total amplitude. It is essential to remind that, unlike standard MP2, the OBMP2 amplitude is relaxed through a self-consistency, bypassing issues caused by the non-self-consistent nature of standard MP2. The classical calculation is carried out using PySCF\\cite{pyscf-2018}, and the quantum part is done using the Qiskit package\\cite{Qiskit}.\n\n\\section{Results and discussion}{\\label{sec:result}}\n\\subsection{Full-space VQE with OBMP2 orbitals}\n\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n  \\includegraphics[width=8cm,]{H4chain-sto.png}\n  \\caption{Potential energy curves of H$_4$ chain in STO-6G. VQE was performed for the full orbital space.}\n  \\label{fig:h4c-sto}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n  \\includegraphics[width=8cm,]{LiH-sto.png}\n  \\caption{Potential energy curves of LiH in STO-6G. VQE was performed for the full orbital space.}\n  \\label{fig:lih-sto}\n\\end{figure}\n\nSeveral authors have shown that orbital relaxation is important to reduce VQE errors \\cite{sokolov2020-ooVQE,mizukami2020-ooVQE,yalouz2021-SA-ooVQE,ratini2022-WAHTOR}. In these studies, the energy of VQE is minimized concerning both cluster amplitudes and orbitals, resulting in a self-consistency that demands higher computational costs than standard VQE. It is thus interesting to examine whether correlated orbital reference preoptimized using a lower-level method can improve the accuracy of ``single-shot'' VQE. Here, we performed VQE only once on OBMP2 orbitals that are relaxed in the presence of dynamical correlation at the MP2 level. In fact, since MP2 is the first-order amplitude truncation of coupled-cluster doubles (CCD), one can consider OBMP2 is an approximation to orbital-optimized CCD (OO-CCD) \\cite{mizukami2020-ooVQE,sokolov2020-ooVQE}.\n\nIn Figure~\\ref{fig:h4c-sto}, we plot the potential energy curves of the H$_4$ chain in the STO-6G basis. VQE with the UCCD solver for the entire orbital space was performed using HF and OBMP2 orbitals. While both cases are almost identical and close to the FCI reference when $R < 1.5$\\r{A}, errors become more prominent as stretching the distance. Noticeably, VQE with the OBMP2 orbitals is better than that with the HF orbitals, and its error is twice smaller than the HF counterpart. We consider another example, LiH in the STO-6G basis. As shown in Figure~\\ref{fig:lih-sto}, VQE again benefits from correlated orbital reference. In general, OBMP2 orbital reference can help to reduce VQE errors without any additional costs. Using OBMP2 orbitals as a basis may be a good approximation to OO-CCD.   \n\n\\subsection{Active-space VQE with restricted OBMP2}\n\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n  \\includegraphics[width=8cm,]{H4chain-ccpvdz.png}\n  \\caption{Potential energy curves of H$_4$ chain in cc-pVDZ. VQE was performed in the active space of four orbitals.}\n  \\label{fig:h4c-dz}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n  \\includegraphics[width=8cm,]{H4square-ccpvdz.png}\n  \\caption{Potential energy curves of H$_4$ square in cc-pVDZ. VQE was performed in the active space of four orbitals .}\n  \\label{fig:h4s-dz}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThis subsection considers the active-space approximation for molecules with the ground state singlet. The restricted OBMP2 is used as the reference for VQE.    \n\n\\begin{figure*}[t]\n  \\includegraphics[width=14cm,]{LiH-ccpvdz.png}\n  \\caption{Potential energy curves of LiH in cc-pVDZ with different active spaces for VQE.}\n  \\label{fig:lih-dz}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nFigure~\\ref{fig:h4c-dz} represents potential energy curves of H$_4$ chain in cc-pVDZ. VQE was performed within an active space of four orbitals. For comparison, we also plot HF and OBMP2 curves. Due to the lack of dynamic correlation outside the active space, VQE is far from the FCI reference. While OBMP2 is better than VQE around equilibrium, its errors are significantly larger than VQE errors at long distances. Also, the VQE curve is much more parallel to FCI than OBMP2, resulting from a proper description of static correlation in VQE. Capturing dynamical correlation outside the active space, VQE-in-OBMP2 dramatically outperforms VQE and yields errors relative to FCI much smaller than those of VQE. Interestingly, the non-parallelity error (NPE), defined as the difference between the minimum and maximum errors, is smaller for VQE-in-OBMP2 than VQE.   \n\nThe next system we consider is the H$_4$ ring as depicted in the inset of Figure~\\ref{fig:h4s-dz}. We analyze the change of energy when the four atoms move along the circumference with radius $R=1.8$\\r{A} by varying the angle $\\theta$. The square geometry corresponds to $\\theta = 90^{\\circ}$.  We perform VQE calculation within the active space of four valence orbitals. For comparison, we also present the CCSD result. As we can see in Figure ~\\ref{fig:h4s-dz}, while CCSD agrees very well with the FCI reference for $\\theta$ far from $90^{\\circ}$, it fails to predict the convexity of the energy around $90^{\\circ}$. In contrast, VQE with UCC ansatz can properly describe the energy profile, which is consistent with the work of Sokolov {\\it et al.} \\cite{sokolov2020-ooVQE}. Harsha {\\it et al.} showed that the variational UCC is superior to standard CC, particularly when strong electron correlation is involved\\cite{harsha2018difference}. Due to the lack of dynamical correlation outside the active space, there is a large up-shift of the VQE curve with a maximum error of 40 mHa. When the correlation outside the active space is taken into account, VQE-in-OBMP2 can significantly improve upon standard VQE with a maximum error four times smaller than VQE.  \n\nWe now examine the systematic improvement with respect to the size of the active space. To this end, we consider LiH in cc-pVDZ and gradually enlarge the active space by adding $\\sigma$-type orbitals. Here, the core orbital Li $1s$ is not included in the active space and treated at the (correlated) mean-field level. All results are summarized in Figure~\\ref{fig:lih-dz}. We can see a systematic improvement when the size of the active space increases. However, the largest active space of seven orbitals is still insufficient for standard VQE to achieve satisfying accuracy. While retaining the systematic improvement with respect to the size of active space, VQE-in-OBMP2 can dramatically reduce errors. Its NPEs are also smaller than those of standard VQE. With the largest active space considered here, VQE-in-OBMP2 can approach closer to the FCI reference with a maximum error of 6 mHa.    \n\n\\subsection{Active-space VQE with unrestricted OBMP2}\n\n\\begin{figure*}[t!]\n  \\includegraphics[width=8cm,valign=t]{CH_pes_dz.png}\n  \\includegraphics[width=8cm,valign=t]{CH_dipole_dz.png}\n  \\caption{Left: potential energy curves of CH with the ground state doublet. Right: The change of CH dipole moment. The basis set is cc-pVDZ. VQE was performed in the active space of five orbitals.}\n  \\label{fig:ch-pes-dip}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nThis subsection considers two systems with the ground state doublet (e.g., having one unpaired electron): CH and H$_2$O$^+$. The unrestricted HF (UHF) and OBMP2 (UOBMP2) are used as the reference for VQE. In addition to potential energy curves, we also calculate dipole moments that are a direct measure of the density matrix. The cc-pVDZ basis set is used for all calculations. \n\nFigure~\\ref{fig:ch-pes-dip} represents the potential energy curves and dipole moments of CH from different methods and their errors relative to the CCSD reference. VQE is performed in the active space of five orbitals, composed of C $2s2p$ and H $1s$. Although unrestricted HF (UHF) can describe the dissociation adequately, a large NPE is observed due to a bump at the unrestricted point 1.5\\r{A}. Standard VQE performed on UHF can reduce errors and parallel the curve to the FCI reference. When VQE is performed with the UOBMP2 reference, the errors in energy dramatically decrease. We plot the change of dipole moments by stretching the C--H bond in the right panel of Figure~\\ref{fig:ch-pes-dip}. All the methods yield curves that behave similarly to the CCSD reference. VQE-in-OBMP2 predicts dipole moment closer to the CCSD reference than standard VQE for $R < 1.5 \\r{A}$, indicating the importance of dynamic correlation in the accurate prediction of density-related properties. However, its errors are still significant in the stretched regime, demanding the enlargement of the active space to get more accurate dipole moments. \n\\begin{figure*}[t!]\n  \\includegraphics[width=8cm,valign=t]{H2O_pes_dz.png}\n  \\includegraphics[width=8cm,valign=t]{H2O_dipole_dz.png}\n  \\caption{Left: potential energy curves of H$_2$O$^+$ with the ground state doublet. Right: The change of H$_2$O$^+$ dipole moment. The basis set is cc-pVDZ. VQE was performed in the active space of six orbitals.}\n  \\label{fig:h2o-pes-dip}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nLet us now consider H$_2$O$^+$ for which VQE is performed in the active space of six orbitals composed of O $2s2p$ and H $1s$. Its potential energy curves and dipole moments evaluated using different methods are depicted in Figure~\\ref{fig:h2o-pes-dip}. As for the potential energy curves, although VQE with six orbitals in the active space does not significantly improve UHF, it makes the curve more parallel to the CCSD reference, in particular, at the unrestricted point ($R \\approx 1.3 \\r{A}$). When combined with UOBMP2, VQE yields the curve much closer to the reference and further reduces NPE. As for dipole moments, the VQE-in-OBMP2 curve is overall closest to the CCSD reference. It agrees very well with CCSD for short distances ($R < 1.5\\r{A}$). However, it deviates from the reference at long distances, requiring a larger active space for VQE.    \n\n\\section{Conclusion}\nWe have proposed an active space approximation in which VQE is naturally embedded in a correlated mean-field reference derived from the UCC ansatz. By partitioning the whole orbital space into active and inactive spaces, we divided the total excitation operator in the UCC ansatz into internal and external contributions. The inactive space is treated using OBMP2, a correlated mean-field theory recently developed by us. The effective Hamiltonian for the active space is derived as the sum of the bare Hamiltonian in the active space and a potential describing the internal-external interaction. Considering different systems with singlet and doublet ground states in the minimal and larger basis sets, we demonstrated the accuracy of our approach in predicting energies and dipole moments. We show that the VQE with the OBMP2 reference significantly improves upon the standard active-space VQE with the uncorrelated HF reference. \n\nOur proposed approach is generally applicable to different types of UCC ansatz, such as generalized UCC\\cite{lee2018generalized}, paired UCC\\cite{lee2018generalized,stein2014seniority}, and pair-natural orbital-UCC\\cite{kottmann2021reducing}. We believe it is useful to study real chemistry and materials on quantum computers. Further work is planned to develop more sophisticated schemes of active-space selection to treat systems with large active spaces. For example, one can split the active space into smaller subspaces and treat them independently using VQE as has been done in quantum embedding methods \\cite{welborn2016bootstrap,wouters2016practical,seet-jctc2016,seet-jpcl2017}. In the current work, orbitals are only optimized in OBMP2, and VQE is performed as a \"single-shot\" calculation. We are now implementing a fully self-consistent scheme, in which the total amplitude (Eq.~\\ref{eq:total-amp}) is used to construct correlated Fock (Eq.~\\ref{eq:corr-fock}). Molecular orbitals and orbital energies are then relaxed in the presence of both UCC and MP2 correlations. We hope to report these results in near-future publications.\n\n\\section*{Acknowledgments}\nThis work is supported by the Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology (VAST) under the grant number CSCL14.01\/22-23.  \n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\nIf a random walk is started in a known state and run for several steps, one may examine the probabilities that it is now in each possible state. A likelihood order is a partial order on the state space, so that if one state is larger than another, then the random walk is always more likely to be in the former state than the latter, after any number of steps. The main result of this paper is that for any Coxeter system $(W,S)$, the weak Bruhat order is a likelihood order for the simple random walk on $W$ generated by $S \\cup \\{1_W\\}$. \n\n\\begin{Theorem}\n\\label{the:main}\nFor any Coxeter system $(W,S)$, consider the simple random walk on $W$, starting at the identity, and at each step multiplying on the right by an element of $S$ or by the identity, each with probability $\\frac{1}{|S|+1}$. Then for any $n$, and any two states $w$ and $w'$, if $w \\leq_B w'$ then the probability that the random walk is at $w$ after $n$ steps is at least the probability that it is at $w'$. \n\\end{Theorem}\n\nIn type A, this result describes a partial order for the (appropriately lazy) adjacent transposition walk on the symmetric group. For analysis of the mixing time of this walk, see Section 4 of \\cite{Compgroups}. The adjacent transposition walk is a special case of the interchange process \\cite{Interchange}.\n\nLikelihood orders can describe the most and least likely states of a random walk. In particular, if a random walk has uniform stationary distribution, then the separation distance from the stationary distribution depends only on the probability of being at the least likely state. Thus, knowing which state is the least likely, together with a lower bound on the probability of being at that state, produces an upper bound on the separation distance mixing time. Upper bounds on separation distance give upper bounds on total variation distance, so upper bounds on total variation mixing times follow. \n\nLower bounds on mixing times are obtained by analysing a set of unlikely states. Knowledge of which states are the least likely via a likelihood order can inform the choice of such a set. For instance, see Section 4 of \\cite{Thumb}.\n\nSome results regarding likelihood orders for various random walks on the symmetric group $S_n$ are given in \\cite{MeganLikelihood} and \\cite{MeganInvolutions}. These likelihood orders are shown to hold after enough steps (for example, after $O(n^2)$ steps). Likelihood orders have also been considered by Diaconis and Isaacs in \\cite{DiaconisIsaacs}, where they prove that for any symmetric random walk on a group, after any even number of steps the most likely state is the initial one. They also give likelihood orders for several random walks on the cycle.\n\n\\section{Preliminaries}\n\nIn this section, some necessary background results are recalled. Section \\ref{sec:cayley} defines Cayley graphs and a useful family of their symmetries, and Section \\ref{sec:distances} discusses the sets of vertices in the Cayley graph which are closer to one end of a given edge than to the other. Section \\ref{sec:bruhat} defines the weak Bruhat order.\n\nA Coxeter system $(W,S)$ is a group $W$ together with a presentation of a certain form.\n\n\\begin{Definition}\nA \\emph{Coxeter presentation} is a presentation of the form $$\\pres{s_1,s_2,\\dots,s_n}{\\{s_i^2\\}_{i=1}^n, \\{(s_is_j)^{m_{ij}}\\}_{i \\neq j}}$$ where each $m_{ij}, i \\neq j$ is either a positive integer at least two, or $\\infty$, indicating the lack of that relation. \n\\end{Definition}\n\nA good example of a Coxeter group is the symmetric group $S_n$, which has the Coxeter presentation $$S_n = \\left\\langle s_1, s_2, \\dots, s_{n-1}\\left|\\begin{array}{lcl}\ns_i^2 & \\text{for each} & 1 \\leq i \\leq n-1 \\\\\n(s_is_{i+1})^3 & \\text{for each} & 1 \\leq i \\leq n-2 \\\\\ns_is_js_i^{-1}s_j^{-1} & \\text{if} & |i-j| > 1 \\\\\n\\end{array}\\right.\\right\\rangle.$$ \n\nIn this presentation, the generator $s_i$ represents the transposition $(i \\; i+1)$. This presentation has $m_{ij} = 3$ when $|i-j|=1$ and $m_{ij} = 2$ for $|i-j|>1$.\n\n\\subsection{Cayley graphs}\n\\label{sec:cayley}\n\nGiven a group $W$ and a generating set $S$, the Cayley graph $\\Gamma(W,S)$ is defined as follows\n\n\\begin{Definition}\nThe graph $\\Gamma(W,S)$ has a vertex for each element of $W$, and for each $w \\in W$ and each $s \\in S$, there is an edge from $w$ to $ws$. It will often be convenient to label the edge $(w,ws)$ by the generator $s$.  \n\\end{Definition} \n\nIn the present setting, groups will always be generated by elements of order two, so Cayley graphs will be undirected.\n\nIt will be necessary to have the following results regarding certain symmetries of Cayley graphs.\n\n\\begin{Definition}\nConsider a Cayley graph $\\Gamma(W,S)$. For any $x \\in W$, let $L_x$ be the left multiplication map on $\\Gamma(W,S)$ which takes $w$ to $xw$, for each $w \\in W$.\n\\end{Definition}\n\n\\begin{Proposition}\nFor any Cayley graph $\\Gamma(W,S)$ and any $x \\in W$, the map $L_x$ is an automorphism of $\\Gamma(W,S)$. Further, $L_x$ preserves the edge labels of $\\Gamma(W,S)$.\n\\end{Proposition}\n\\begin{proof}\nThe map $L_{x^{-1}}$ is the inverse of $L_x$, so $L_w$ is a bijection. To check that $L_x$ preserves edges of $\\Gamma(W,S)$, observe that for each edge $(w,ws)$ of $\\Gamma(W,S)$, the image under $L_x$, $(xw,xws)$, is also an edge of $\\Gamma(W,S)$, and that these two edges have the same label.\n\\end{proof}\n\nRandom walks on the group $W$ can be understood via the Cayley graph. In particular, if a random walk is defined by at each step multiplying by an element of $S$, then consider the set of paths in $\\Gamma(W,S)$ of length $n$ which start at the identity. The probability $P^n(w)$ that the walk is at $w$ after $n$ steps is equal to the proportion of these paths which end at $w$. Lazy walks can be considered by including $1_W$ in $S$.\n\n\\subsection{Distances in $\\Gamma(W,S)$}\n\\label{sec:distances}\n\nIt will be important to understand relative distances in the Cayley graphs of Coxeter groups. Consider the Cayley graph with the usual graph metric --- that is, each edge has length $1$, and the distance $d(w,x)$ between two vertices $w$ and $x$ is the number of edges in the shortest path connecting them. As usual in the theory of Coxeter groups, $l(w)$ will denote the distance from the identity $d(1_W,w)$. Equivalently, $l(w)$ is the fewest number of generators which can be multiplied to produce $w$.\n\nFor this section, fix $w \\in W$ and $s \\in S$, with $l(w) < l(ws)$. That $l(w) < l(ws)$ is not used in this section, but is consistent with how these results will be used in Section \\ref{sec:main}.\n\n\\begin{Definition}\n\\label{def:colours}\nLet $\\Gamma(W,S)$ be the Cayley graph of a Coxeter system $(W,S)$. For the fixed adjacent vertices $w$ and $ws$ of $\\Gamma(W,S)$, colour each vertex of $\\Gamma(W,S)$ white if it is closer to $w$ than to $ws$ and black if it is closer to $ws$ than to $w$. \n\\end{Definition}\n\n\\begin{Proposition}\nEach vertex of $\\Gamma(W,S)$ is coloured white or black, but not both.\n\\end{Proposition}\n\\begin{proof}\nEach vertex of $\\Gamma(W,S)$ has at most one colour, because it cannot be both closer to $w$ than to $ws$ and the reverse. To show that each vertex is coloured, it is sufficient to show that no vertex can be equidistant from $w$ and $ws$.\n\nThe Coxeter relations of $(W,S)$ each have even length, so $\\Gamma(W,S)$ is a bipartite graph, and hence the distances from any vertex to $w$ and $ws$ have opposite parities. Thus each vertex is coloured, completing the proof.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\begin{Definition}\nContinuing from Definition \\ref{def:colours}, colour grey each edge which connects a white vertex to a black vertex. \n\\end{Definition}\n\n\\begin{Lemma}\n\\label{lem:greydist}\nIf $(x,xt)$ is a grey edge, with $x$ white and $xt$ black, then $d(x,w) = d(xt,ws)$. (The generator $t$ may be equal to $s$, but need not be.)\n\\end{Lemma}\n\\begin{proof}\nThe two vertices $w$ and $ws$ are adjacent, as are the vertices $x$ and $xt$. The vertex $x$ is white, and $xt$ is black. Thus, the following relations between distances hold \n\\begin{align*}\nd(x,w) + 1 &= d(x,ws) \\\\ \nd(xt,ws) + 1 &= d(xt,w) \\\\\nd(x,ws) &= d(xt,ws) \\pm 1\\\\\nd(xt,w) &= d(x,w) \\pm 1\\\\\n\\end{align*} \nAdding these four equations, each of the two $\\pm$ signs must be a plus. Thus $d(x,w) = d(xt,ws)$, as required.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\begin{Lemma}\n\\label{lem:greypath}\nUnder the conditions of Lemma \\ref{lem:greydist}, $w^{-1}x = sw^{-1}xt$.\n\\end{Lemma}\n\\begin{proof}\nLet $\\boldsymbol{\\omega}$ be a reduced word for $w^{-1}x$. From Lemma \\ref{lem:greydist}, $l(sw^{-1}xt) = l(w^{-1}x)$. Thus, $s\\boldsymbol{\\omega} t$ is a word of length two greater than the minimum length of any equivalent word. By the deletion condition (Section 1.7 of \\cite{Humphreys}), there is a reduced word for $sw^{-1}xt$ which can be obtained by deleting two letters from $s\\boldsymbol{\\omega} t$. However, Lemma \\ref{lem:greydist} also implies that the words $s\\boldsymbol{\\omega}$ and $\\boldsymbol{\\omega} t$ are reduced, so the two letters removed from the word $s\\boldsymbol{\\omega} t$ must be the initial $s$ and the final $t$. Therefore $s\\boldsymbol{\\omega} t$ and $\\boldsymbol{\\omega}$ are equivalent words, so $w^{-1}x = sw^{-1}xt$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\begin{Proposition}\n\\label{prop:greyflip}\nThe map $L_{wsw^{-1}}$ interchanges the endpoints of any grey edge.\n\\end{Proposition}\n\\begin{proof}\nLet $(x,xt)$ be a grey edge, with $x$ white and $xt$ black. The image $L_{wsw^{-1}}(x)$ is\n\\begin{align*}\nL_{wsw^{-1}}(x) &= wsw^{-1}x \\\\\n& = wssw^{-1}xt \\text{   (by Lemma \\ref{lem:greypath})} \\\\\n& = xt \\\\\n\\end{align*}\nThe map $L_{wsw^{-1}}$ is an involution, so $L_{wsw^{-1}}(xt) = x$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\begin{Corollary}\nAny vertex of $\\Gamma(W,S)$ is adjacent to at most one grey edge.\n\\end{Corollary}\n\\begin{proof}\nThe function $L_{wsw^{-1}}$ is well defined. If any vertex were adjacent to more than one grey edge, then Proposition \\ref{prop:greyflip} implies that $L_{wsw^{-1}}$ is multivalued, a contradiction.\n\\end{proof}\n\nThe results in this section are not new --- they are standard facts about the geometry of $\\Gamma(W,S)$, proven again here to draw out the key pieces. The set of grey edges is commonly referred to as a wall, and could be defined as the set of edges preserved by the reflection $L_{wsw^{-1}}$.\n\n\\subsection{The weak Bruhat order}\n\\label{sec:bruhat}\n\nLet $(W,S)$ be a Coxeter system. The (right) weak Bruhat order on $(W,S)$ is defined as follows (Chapter 3 of \\cite{Bjorner}).\n\n\\begin{Definition}\nLet $w$ and $w'$ be elements of $W$. Then $w \\leq_B w'$ if there is a reduced word for $w$ which can be multiplied on the right by elements of $S$ to produce a reduced word for $w'$.\t\n\\end{Definition}\n\nAn equivalent formulation in terms of the Cayley graph of $(W,S)$ is\n\n\\begin{Definition}\nLet $w$ and $w'$ be elements of $W$. Then $w \\leq_B w'$ if there is a minimal length path in $\\Gamma(W,S)$ from the identity element $1_W$ to $w'$ which passes through $w$.\t\n\\end{Definition}\n\nThese two definitions are equivalent because edges in the Cayley graph $\\Gamma(W,S)$ correspond to multiplication on the right by an element of $S$.\n\n\\section{Proof of main result}\n\\label{sec:main}\n\nThe main result of this paper is that the weak Bruhat order arises as a likelihood order for random walks on $(W,S)$.\n\n\\begin{repTheorem}{the:main}\nFor any Coxeter system $(W,S)$, consider the simple random walk on $W$, starting at the identity, and at each step multiplying on the right by an element of $S$ or by the identity, each with probability $\\frac{1}{|S|+1}$. Then for any $n$, and any two states $w$ and $w'$, if $w \\leq_B w'$ then the probability that the random walk is at $w$ after $n$ steps is at least the probability that it is at $w'$. \n\\end{repTheorem}\n\nTo prove Theorem \\ref{the:main}, it suffices to consider $w$ and $w'$ which are adjacent --- that is, when $w' = ws$ for some $s \\in S$, with $l(w) < l(ws)$. If the result is true for adjacent vertices, then the general case follows by induction. Thus, the theorem reduces to the following proposition.\n\n\\begin{Proposition}\n\\label{prop:likelihood}\nLet $w \\in W$ and $s \\in S$, with $l(ws) > l(w)$. Then for any $n$, $P^n(ws) < P^n(w)$.\n\\end{Proposition}\n\\begin{proof}\nLet $\\cP$ be the set of paths of length $t$ from the identity $1_W$ to $w$, with each step being either the identity or an element of $S$. Let $\\cP'$ be the set of paths of length $t$ from $1_W$ to $ws$. To prove this proposition, it suffices to construct an injection from $\\cP'$ to $\\cP$. Consider an element $\\alpha$ of $\\cP'$, and write it as $$\\alpha = (1_W=a_0,a_1,a_2,\\dots,a_n=ws).$$\n\nThe path $\\alpha$ starts at a point closer to $w$ than to $ws$, because $l(ws) > l(w)$, and $\\alpha$ ends at $ws$, which is closer to $ws$ than to $w$. Thus at some point, $\\alpha$ crosses from a vertex closer to $w$ to a vertex closer to $ws$ --- that is, this path crosses a grey edge. Given $\\alpha$, let $i$ be the last time at which $\\alpha$ either just crossed a grey edge or just stayed in place on an endpoint of a grey edge. Using $\\oplus$ to denote concatenation, define the sequence of vertices \n\\begin{align*}\nf(\\alpha) &= (a_j)_{j=0}^{i-1} \\oplus (L_{wsw^{-1}}(a_j))_{j=i}^{n} \\\\\n &= (1_W=a_0,a_1,\\dots,a_{i-1},L_{wsw^{-1}}(a_i),L_{wsw^{-1}}(a_{i+1}),\\dots,L_{wsw^{-1}}(a_n)) = w.\\\\\n\\end{align*}\n\nThat is, the sequence $f(\\alpha)$ is identical to $\\alpha$ up until time $i-1$, and from time $i$ onwards, it is reflected by $L_{wsw^{-1}}$. \n\n\\begin{Proposition}\nThe sequence $f(\\alpha)$ is a path. That is, each two consecutive entries are either adjacent in the graph $\\Gamma(W,S)$, or equal.\n\\end{Proposition}\n\\begin{proof}\nIt must be checked that each two consecutive entries in $f(\\alpha)$ are either adjacent in the graph $\\Gamma(W,S)$, or equal. This is immediate for each consecutive pair except for $a_{i-1}$ and $L_{wsw^{-1}}(a_i)$.\n\nBy the definition of $i$, the vertex $a_i$ is a black vertex adjacent to exactly one grey edge, and $a_{i-1}$ is one of the two endpoints of that edge. From Proposition \\ref{prop:greyflip}, $L_{wsw^{-1}}(a_i)$ is either equal to $a_{i-1}$ or connected to $a_{i-1}$ by this grey edge.\n\\end{proof}\n\nThe map $L_{wsw^{-1}}$ interchanges $ws$ and $w$, so $f$ is a function from $\\cP'$ to $\\cP$. All that remains is to show that $f$ is an injection. The function $f$ is an involution, because it applies $L_{wsw^{-1}}$ to the part of the path from time $i$ onwards, the map $L_{wsw^{-1}}$ is an involution, and moving from $\\alpha$ to $f(\\alpha)$ does not change the definition of $i$ (but rather interchanges the two cases in the definition of $i$).\n\nThus $f$ is an involution from $\\cP'$ to $\\cP$, so there are at least as many paths of length $n$ from $1_W$ to $w$ as from $1_W$ to $ws$, completing the proof of Proposition \\ref{prop:likelihood}.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\begin{Corollary}\nFor any Coxeter system $(W,S)$ and the corresponding random walk described by Theorem \\ref{the:main}, the most likely element after $n$ steps is the identity. If $W$ is finite, then the least likely element is the longest element. Here, most and least likely are not necessarily strict.\n\\end{Corollary}\n\n\\begin{Example}\nConsider the random walk on $S_4$ generated by the adjacent transpositions $(1 \\; 2)$, $(2 \\; 3)$, and $(3 \\; 4)$, as well as the identity. For any $n$, the most likely element after $n$ steps is the identity and the least likely is the reversal $(1 \\; 4)(2 \\; 3)$. Theorem \\ref{the:main} does not address the relative likelihoods of the transpositions $s = (1 \\; 2)$ and $t = (2 \\; 3)$, but both are more likely than $(1 \\; 3) = sts = tst$.\n\\end{Example}\n\n\\begin{Example}\nTake the simple random walk on the square grid $\\Z \\times \\Z$ generated by $(\\pm 1,0)$, $(0,\\pm 1)$ and $(0,0)$. This is a relabelling of the Cayley graph of the Coxeter group $$D_\\infty \\times D_\\infty = \\pres{s,t,u,v}{s^2,t^2,u^2,v^2,susu,svsv,tutu,tvtv}.$$ For any $n$, the most likely element after $n$ steps is the identity $(0,0)$, and the next most likely are the four adjacent vertices (which are equally likely, by symmetry). The vertex $(1,3)$ is always more likely than $(2,3)$, but Theorem \\ref{the:main} doesn't address the relative likelihoods of $(1,3)$ and $(2,2)$.\n\\end{Example}\n\n\\begin{Example}\nFinally, consider the simple random walk on a $d$--regular tree, with laziness $\\frac{1}{d+1}$. This is the Cayley graph of the free product of several copies of the group $\\Z \/ 2\\Z$. For any $n$, the most likely vertex after $n$ steps is the initial vertex, the next most likely are the adjacent vertices, then the vertices at distance two, and so on.\n\\end{Example}\n\nTheorem \\ref{the:main} may be strengthened to not require that all generators have equal probability.\n\n\\begin{Theorem}\nFor any Coxeter system $(W,S)$, consider a random walk on $W$, starting at the identity, and at each step multiplying on the right by an element $s \\in S$ or by the identity, with probabilities $p_s$ or $p_{\\text{id}}$. As long as each $p_s$ is less than $p_{\\text{id}}$, the conclusion of Theorem \\ref{the:main} holds.\n\\end{Theorem}\n\\begin{proof}\nThe only part of the proof that must be changed is the proof of Proposition \\ref{prop:likelihood}, comparing the probabilities of the states $ws$ and $w$, for $w \\in W$ and $s \\in S$ with $l(ws) > l(w)$. With this choice of $s$, divide the probability of multiplying by $1_W$ into two parts, of probabilities $p_s$ and $p_{\\text{id}} - p_s$. Where the proof of Proposition \\ref{prop:likelihood} pairs up the events of multiplying by $s$ or by $1_W$, use only the first of these parts, which is an event of equal probability to that of multiplication by $s$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\bibliographystyle{hplain}\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\\label{I}\nHydrologists have studied air-water flow in soils, mainly using the so-called Richards approximation. At least two\nhypotheses are physically required for this model to be applicable: the water pressure in the saturated region must\nbe larger than the atmospheric pressure and all the unsaturated regions must have a boundary connected to the\nsurface. However, in many situations, these hypotheses are not satisfied and a more general two-phase flow model\nmust be considered. This work explores the limit of this general model as the viscosity of the air tends to zero,\nwhich is one of the hypotheses required in the Richards model. To that purpose we prove the existence of a weak\nsolution of the two-phase flow problem and prove estimates which are uniform in the air viscosity. In this paper, we\nassume that the air and water phases are incompressible and immiscible. The geometric domain is supposed to be\nhorizontal, homogeneous and isotropic. Our starting point is the following two-phase flow model, which one can\ndeduce from Darcy's law\n$$(\\cal{TP})\\left\\{\\begin{array}{ll}\n&u_t -div(k_w(u)\\nabla(p)) = s_w\\nonumber\\\\\n&(1-u)_t - div(\\Frac{1}{\\mu} k_a(u)\\nabla(p + p_c(u))) = s_a, \\nonumber\n\\end{array}\\right.$$\nwhere $u$ and $p$ are respectively the saturation and the pressure of the water phase, $k_w$ and $k_a$ are\nrespectively the relative permeabilities of the water and the air phase, $\\mu$ is the ratio between the viscosity of\nthe air phase and that of the water phase, $p_c$ is the capillary pressure, $s_w$ is an internal source term for the\nwater phase and $s_a$ is an internal source term for the air phase; these source terms are used to represent\nexchanges with the outside. We suppose in particular that the physical functions $k_w$, $k_a$ and $p_c$ only depend\non the saturation $u$ of the water phase, and that $ k_w(1) = k_a(0) = 1$. The aim of this paper is the study of the\nlimit of the two-phase flow problem as $\\mu \\downarrow 0$.\\\\\n$\\\\ $\nThe classical Richards model as formulated by the\nengineers is given by\n$$({\\cal{R}})\\left\\{\\begin{array}{ll}\n&u_t -div(k_w(u)\\nabla p) = s_w\\nonumber\\\\\n&u=p_c^{-1}(p_{atm}-p). \\nonumber\n\\end{array}\\right.$$\nwhere the properties of capillary pressure $p_c=p_c(u)$ are describes in hypothesis $(H_8)$ below. For the existence\nand uniqueness of the solution of Richards model together with suitable initial and boundary conditions as well as\nqualitative properties of the solution and methods for numerical approximations we refer to \\cite{AL}, \\cite{HW},\n\\cite{P}, \\cite{RPK}. In this article, we will show that the singular limit as $\\mu\\downarrow 0$ of the two phase\nflow problem $(\\cal{TP})$ has the form\n$$({\\cal{FBP}})\\left\\{\\begin{array}{ll}\n&u_t -div(k_w(u)\\nabla p) = s_w\\nonumber\\\\\n&u=1\\mbox{ or }\\nabla(p+p_c(u))=0\\mbox{ a.e. in }\n\\Omega\\times(0,T). \\nonumber\n\\end{array}\\right.$$\nWe remark that a solution of $({\\cal{R}})$ with $u > 0$ satisfies $({\\cal{FBP}})$. \\\\\n$\\\\ $ This paper is organized as follows. In Section 2 we present a complete mathematical formulation of the\nproblem, and state the main mathematical results, which include a precise formulation of the singular limit problem.\nWe give a sequence of regularized problems in Section 3, and prove the existence of a classical solution. In Section\n4 we present a priori estimates, which are uniform in an extra regularization parameter $\\delta$ and in the air\nviscosity $\\mu$. In Section 5, we let $\\delta\\downarrow 0$ and prove that the solution converges to a solution of\nthe two phase flow problem. We study its limiting behavior as the air viscosity $\\mu$ tends to zero in Section 6.\nFinally in Section 7 we propose a finite volume algorithm in a one\ndimensional context and present a variety of numerical solutions.\\\\\n\n\\section{Mathematical formulation and main results}\\label{I}\nWe consider the two-phase flow problem\n$$\n\\vgl=0\\vglb=0 \\mbox{$(S^{\\mu})$} \\left\\{ \\eqalijna{ &u_t =div\\bigg(k_w(u)\\nabla p\\bigg)+f^{\\mu}(c)\\overline s-f^{\\mu}(u)\\underline s,\n~~~~~&\\mbox{ in }Q_T,\\cr &(1-u)_t = div\\bigg(\\Frac{1}{\\mu}k_a(u)\\nabla(p+p_c(u))\\bigg)\\cr &~~~~~~~~~~~~~~+\n(1-f^{\\mu}(c))\\overline s-(1-f^{\\mu}(u))\\underline s,~~~~&\\mbox{ in }Q_T,\\cr  &\\Int_{\\Omega} p(x,t)dx=0,&\\mbox{ for }t \\in (0,T),\\cr &\\nabla\np.n=0, &\\mbox{ on }\\partial \\Omega \\times (0,T),\\cr &\\nabla (p+p_c(u)).n=0, &\\mbox{ on }\\partial \\Omega \\times\n(0,T),\\cr &u(x,0)=u_0(x),&\\mbox{ for }x \\in \\Omega, } \\right. \\eqno\\eqalijnb{\\latexeqno{n1}\\cr\\nonumber\\cr\n              \\latexeqno{n2} \\cr\n                \\latexeqno{n4} \\cr\\latexeqno{n3} \\cr \\latexeqno{n5} \\cr \\latexeqno{CImu} \\cr\n                 }\n$$\nwhere $T$ is a positive constant, $Q_T:=\\Omega \\times (0,T)$ and where we suppose that\n$$\\begin{array}{lll}\n&(H_1) &\\Omega \\mbox{ is a smooth bounded domain of ${\\mathrm {I\\mkern-5.5mu R\\mkern1mu}}^N$ where the space dimension $N$ is arbitrary},\\\\\n&(H_2) &u_m\\in(0,1),\\\\\n&(H_3) &c\\in L^\\infty({\\Omega}\\times(0,T)) \\mbox{ and }u_m\\leq c \\leq 1,\\\\\n&(H_4) &u_0\\in L^\\infty({\\Omega}) \\mbox{ and }u_m\\leq u_0 \\leq 1,\\\\\n&(H_5) &\\overline s\\in L^2(\\Omega),~~\\overline s\\geq 0,~~\\underline s\\in L^2(\\Omega),~~\\underline s\\geq 0\\mbox{ and }\\Int_{\\Omega}(\\overline s(x)-\\underline s(x))dx=0,\\\\\n&(H_6) &k_w\\in C^2([0,1]),~~k_w'\\geq 0,~~k_w(0)=0,~~k_w(1)=1\\mbox{ and }k_w(u_m)>0,\\\\\n&(H_7) &k_a\\in C^2([0,1]),~~k_a'\\leq 0,~~k_a(1)=0,~~k_a(0)=1\\mbox{ and }k_a(s)>0\\mbox{ for all }s\\in[0,1),\\\\\n&(H_8) &p_c\\in C^0([0,1])\\cup C^3([0,1)),~~p_c'<0\\mbox{ and }\\sup_{s\\in[0,1)}(-k_a(s)p_c'(s))<+\\infty,\\\\\n&(H_9) &\\mu\\in(0,1].\n\\end{array}$$\nIn this model, $u$ and $p$ are respectively the saturation and the pressure of the water phase, $k_w$ and $k_a$ are\nrespectively the mobilities of the water phase and the mobility of the non-water phase and $p_c$ is the capillary\npressure. We assume in particular that the permeability functions $k_w$, $k_a$ and the capillary pressure $p_c$ only\ndepend on the saturation $u$ of the water phase. Here, we suppose that the flow of the water phase in the reservoir\nis driven by an injection term $f^\\mu(c)\\overline s$ and an extraction term $f^\\mu(u) \\underline s$ where $\\overline s$ and $\\underline s$ are given\nspace dependent functions, $c$ is the saturation of the injected fluid; if $c=1$, only water will be injected, if\n$c=0$, only air will be injected, whereas a mixture of water and air will be injected if $0 < c < 1$. The function\n$f^\\mu$ is the fractional flow of the water phase, namely\n\\begin{equation}\\label{deffmu}\nf^{\\mu}(s)=\\Frac{k_w(s)}{M^\\mu(s)}, \\mbox{ with\n}M^\\mu(s)=k_w(s)+\\Frac{1}{\\mu}k_a(s).\n\\end{equation}\nIn particular, we remark that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{fmucroissante}\nf^{\\mu}(s) \\mbox{ is non decreasing. }\n\\end{equation}\nNext we introduce a set of notations, which will be useful in the sequel.\n\\begin{equation}\\label{defg}\ng(s)=-\\Int_0^sk_a(\\tau)p_c'(\\tau)d\\tau,\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{defzeta}\n\\zeta(s)=\\Int_0^s\\sqrt{k_a(\\tau)}p_c'(\\tau)d\\tau,\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{Q}\n{\\cal{Q}}^\\mu(s)=\\Int_0^s f^{\\mu}(\\tau)p_c'(\\tau)d\\tau,\n\\end{equation}\nand\n\\begin{equation}\\label{R}\n{\\cal{R}}^\\mu(s)=\\Int_0^s\\Frac{k_a(\\tau)}{k_a(\\tau)+\\muk_w(\\tau)}p_c'(\\tau)d\\tau,\n\\end{equation}\nfor all $s\\in[0,1]$. This implies in particular that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{P+Q} {\\cal{R}}^\\mu(s)+{\\cal{Q}}^\\mu(s)=p_c(s)-p_c(0), \\mbox{ for all }s\\in[0,1].\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{definition} The pair $(u^{\\mu},p^{\\mu})$ is a weak solution of Problem $(S^\\mu)$ if\n$$\\begin{array}{lll}\n&u^{\\mu}\\in L^\\infty({\\Omega}\\times(0,T)),~~~~&\\mbox{with~}0\\leq u^{\\mu}\\leq 1 \\mbox{ in }Q_T,\\\\\n&&\\\\\n&p^{\\mu}\\in L^2(0,T;H^1({\\Omega})),~~~~&\\Int_\\Op^{\\mu}(x,t)dx=0 \\mbox{~for~almost~every~} t \\in (0,T),\\\\\n&&\\\\\n&g(u^{\\mu})\\in L^2(0,T;H^1({\\Omega})),&\\\\\n\\end{array}$$\nwith\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega}u^{\\mu} \\varphi_t dxdt=&\n\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega}k_w(u^{\\mu})\\nablap^{\\mu}.\\nabla \\varphi dx dt\n-\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega}\\bigg(f^{\\mu}(c)\\overline s-f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu})\\underline s \\bigg) \\varphi dxdt\\nonumber\\\\\n&&-\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega} u_0(x)\\varphi(x,0)dx,\\label{defsol1}\n\\end{eqnarray}and\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&&\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega}\\bigg(1-u^{\\mu}\\bigg)\\varphi_tdxdt=\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega}\\Frac{1}{\\mu}k_a(u^{\\mu})\\bigg(\\nablap^{\\mu}+\\nabla p_c(u^{\\mu})\\bigg).\\nabla \\varphi dx dt\\nonumber\\\\\n&&-\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega}\\bigg((1-f^{\\mu}(c))\\overline s-(1-f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}))\\underline s\\bigg)\n\\varphi dx dt-\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega}\n\\bigg(1-u_0(x)\\bigg)\\varphi(x,0)dx,~~~~\\label{defsol2}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nfor all $\\varphi$ in ${\\cal{C}}:=\\{w\\in W_2^{2,1}(Q_T), w(.,T)=0 \\mbox{ in }\\Omega \\}.$\n\\end{definition}\n$\\\\ $ Our first result, which we prove in Section \\ref{Existencesolution}, is the following\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{thexistence}\nSuppose that the hypotheses $(H_1)-(H_9)$ are satisfied, then there exists a weak solution $(u^{\\mu},p^{\\mu})$ of Problem\n$(S^\\mu)$.\n\\end{theorem}\nNext we define the discontinuous function $\\chi$ by $$\\chi(s):=\\left\\{\\begin{array}{ll}0&\\mbox{ if }s\\in[0,1)\\\\\n1&\\mbox{ if }s=1,\\end{array}\\right.$$ as well as the graph\n$$H(s):=\\left\\{\\begin{array}{lll}&0&\\mbox{ if }s\\in[0,1)\\\\ &[0,1]&\\mbox{ if }s=1.\\end{array}\\right.$$\nThe main goal of this paper is to prove the following convergence result,\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{thlim}\nSuppose that the hypotheses $(H_1)-(H_9)$ are satisfied, then there\nexists a subsequence $((u^{\\mu_n},p^{\\mu_n}))_{n\\in N}$ of\nweak solutions of Problem $(S^{\\mu_n})$ and functions $u$, $p$, $\\hat f$ such that\n$$\\begin{array}{ll}\n&u\\in L^\\infty(Q_T),~~~0\\leq u\\leq 1\\mbox { in }Q_T,\\\\\n&\\\\\n&\\hat f\\in L^\\infty(Q_T),~~~0\\leq \\hat f\\leq 1\\mbox { in }Q_T,\\\\\n&\\\\\n&p\\in L^2(0,T;H^1({\\Omega})),\\\\\n&\\\\\n&k_a(u)\\nablap_c(u)\\in L^2({\\Omega}\\times(0,T)),\\\\\n\\end{array}$$\nand\n$$\\begin{array}{ll}\n&(u^{\\mu_n})_{n\\in N}\\mbox{ tends to }u\\mbox{ strongly in }L^2(Q_T),\\\\\n&(p^{\\mu_n})_{n\\in N}\\mbox{ tends to }p\\mbox{ weakly in }L^2(0,T;H^1({\\Omega})),\\\\\n\\end{array}$$\nas $\\mu_n$ tends to zero and\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega} u \\varphi_tdxdt =&\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega}k_w(u)\\nabla p.\\nabla \\varphi dxdt-\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega}\\bigg(\\chi(c)\\overline s-\\hat f\\underline s \\bigg) \\varphi dxdt\\nonumber\\\\\n&&-\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega} u_0(x)\\varphi(x,0)dx,\\label{sollim1}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nfor all $\\varphi \\in{\\cal{C}}$, where $\\hat f(x,t)\\in H(u(x,t))$\nfor $(x,t)\\in Q_T$. Moreover we also have that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{lim1}\n\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega} \\bigg[k_a(u)\\bigg]^2\\bigg[\\nabla p+\\nabla p_c(u)\\bigg]^2dxdt=0\n\\end{equation}\nand\n\\begin{equation}\\label{lim2}\n\\Int_{\\Omega} p(x,t) dx=0, \\mbox{ for almost every }t\\in(0,T).\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{theorem}\nFormally, $u$ satisfies the following limit problem\n$$\n\\left\\{\n\\begin{array}{ll}\nu_t =div\\bigg(k_w(u)\\nabla p \\bigg)+ \\chi(c)\\bar s - \\hat\nf\\underline{s},\n~~&\\mbox{ in }Q_T, \\\\\n\\nabla u.n=0, &\\mbox{ on }\\partial \\Omega \\times (0,T),\\\\\nu(x,0)=u_0(x),~~&\\mbox{ for }x \\in \\Omega.\n\\end {array}\n\\right.\n$$\nMore precisely the following corollary holds\n\\begin{corollary}\\label{thcoro} Suppose that $u<1$ in ${\\cal O}=\\cup_{t\\in[\\tau,T]}\\Omega_t$, where $\\tau >0$\nand $\\Omega_t$, for $t\\in[\\tau,T]$, are smooth subdomains of ${\\Omega}$\nand ${\\cal O}$ is a smooth domain of $\\Omega\\times[\\tau,T]$ and that $u=1$ in\n$Q_T\\setminus\\overline{\\cal{O}}$ then\n$$p(x,t)=-p_c(u(x,t))+constant(t), \\mbox{ for all }(x,t)\\in {\\cal O}$$ and $u$ satisfies\n$$\n\\left\\{\n\\begin{array}{ll}\nu_t =-div\\bigg(k_w(u)\\nabla p_c(u)\\bigg)+ \\chi(c)\\bar s, ~~&\\mbox{ in } {\\cal O}, \\\\\n\\Frac{\\partial u}{\\partial n}=0,&\\mbox{ on }\\partial {\\cal O}\\cap\n\\bigg(\\partial\\Omega\\times(0,T)\\bigg),\\\\\nu=1, &\\mbox{ elsewhere on }\\partial {\\cal O},\\\\\nu(x,0)=u_0(x),&\\mbox{ for }x \\in \\Omega.\n\\end {array}\n\\right.\n$$\n\\end{corollary}\n$\\\\ $ Finally we remark that another form of the limit problem involves a parabolic equation, which is close to the\nstandard Richards equation. Indeed if we set $\\phi(s):=p_c(0)-p_c(s)$ and denote by $\\beta$ the inverse function of\n$\\phi$, the function $v:=\\phi(u)$ is a weak solution of the problem\n$$\n\\left\\{\n\\begin{array}{ll}\n\\beta(v)_t =div\\bigg(k_w(\\beta(v))\\nabla v \\bigg)+ \\chi(c)\\bar s -\n\\hat f\\underline{s},\n~~&\\mbox{ in }Q_T, \\\\\n\\nabla \\beta(v).n=0, &\\mbox{ on }\\partial \\Omega \\times (0,T),\\\\\n\\beta(v)(x,0)=u_0(x),~~&\\mbox{ for }x \\in \\Omega,\n\\end {array}\n\\right.\n$$\nwith $\\hat f\\in H(\\beta(v))$.\n\\setcounter{equation}{0}\n\\section{Existence of a solution of an approximate problem $(S^{\\mu}_{\\delta})$ of Problem\n$(S^{\\mu})$}\\label{Existencesolution}\nLet $\\delta$ be an arbitrary positive constant. In order to prove the\nexistence of a solution of Problem $(S^{\\mu})$ we introduce a\nsequence of regularized problems $(S^{\\mu}_{\\delta})$, namely\n$$\n\\vgl=0\\vglb=0 \\mbox{$(S^{\\mu}_{\\delta})$} \\left\\{ \\eqalijna{ &u_t~~ =\ndiv\\bigg(k_w(u)\\nabla p\\bigg)+f^{\\mu}(c_\\d)\\overline s_\\delta\\cr\n&~~~~~~~~-f^{\\mu}(u)\\bigg(\\underline s_\\delta+\\displaystyle {\\Int \\kern -0.961em -}_{\\Omega}(\\overline s_\\delta-\\underline s_\\delta )dx\\bigg),\n~~&\\mbox{ in }\\Omega \\times (0,T),\\cr &(1-u)_t\n=div\\bigg(\\Frac{1}{\\mu}k_a(u)\\nabla(p+p_c(u))\\bigg)+\\bigg(1-f^{\\mu}(c_\\d)\\bigg)\\overline s_\\delta~~\\cr\n&~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-\\bigg(1-f^{\\mu}(u)\\bigg)\\bigg(\\underline s_\\delta+\\displaystyle {\\Int \\kern -0.961em -}_{\\Omega}(\\overline s_\\delta-\\underline s_\\delta\n)dx\\bigg), &\\mbox{ in }\\Omega \\times (0,T),\\cr &\\Int_{\\Omega}\np(x,t)dx=0,&\\mbox{ for }t\\in(0,T),\\cr\n &\\nabla p.n=0, &\\mbox{ on }\\partial \\Omega\n\\times (0,T),\\cr &\\nabla (p +p_c(u)).n=0, &\\mbox{ on }\\partial\n\\Omega \\times (0,T),\\cr &u(x,0)=u_{0}^\\delta(x),& \\mbox{ for }x \\in\n\\Omega,\\cr } \\right. \\eqno\\eqalijnb{\\nonumber\\cr\\latexeqno{1d}\\cr\n\\nonumber\\cr\n              \\latexeqno{2d} \\cr\n               \\latexeqno{3d} \\cr\n                \\latexeqno{4d} \\cr   \\latexeqno{5d} \\cr\\latexeqno{CId} \\cr\n                 }\n$$\nwhere  $u_{0}^\\delta$, $c_\\delta$, $\\overline s_\\delta$ and $\\underline s_\\delta$ are smooth functions such that $u_{0}^\\delta$ tends to $u_0$ in\n$L^2(\\Omega)$ and $c_\\delta$, $\\overline s_\\delta$ and $\\underline s_\\delta$ tend respectively to $c$, $\\overline s$ and $\\underline s$ in $L^2(Q_T)$, as\n$\\delta\\downarrow 0$. In particular we suppose that there exists a positive constant $C$ such that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{sdeltaborne}\n\\underline s_\\delta\\geq 0,~~\\overline s_\\delta\\geq 0 \\mbox{ and }\\Int_{\\Omega} \\underline s_\\delta^2+\\Int_{\\Omega} \\overline s_\\delta^2 \\leq C.\n\\end{equation}\nMoreover we suppose that $u_{0}^\\delta$, $c_\\delta$ satisfy\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&0<u_m\\leq u_0^\\delta \\leq 1-\\delta<1 &\\mbox{ in }{\\Omega}\\label{CIdeltaborne}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nand\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&0<u_m\\leq c_\\delta \\leq 1-\\delta<1 &\\mbox{ in }Q_T.\\label{Cdeltaborne}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nAdding up (\\ref{1d}) and (\\ref{2d}) we deduce the equation\n\\begin{equation}\\label{7d}\n-div\\bigg(M^\\mu(u)\\nabla p +\\Frac{1}{\\mu}\nk_a(u)\\nabla(p_c(u))\\bigg)=\\overline s_\\delta-\\underline s_\\delta-\\displaystyle {\\Int \\kern -0.961em -}_{\\Omega}(\\overline s_\\delta-\\underline s_\\delta\n)dx.\n\\end{equation}\nWe formulate below an equivalent form of Problem $(S^{\\mu}_\\delta)$.\nTo that purpose we define the global pressure, ${\\cal{P}}$, by\n$${\\cal{P}} := p + {\\cal{R}}^\\mu(u) = p + \\Int_0^u \\frac{k_a(\\tau)}{k_a(\\tau)+\\muk_w(\\tau)}p_c'(\\tau)d\\tau,$$\nso that (\\ref{7d}) gives\n\\begin{equation}\\label{tn1d}\n-div\\bigg(M^\\mu(u)\\nabla {\\cal{P}}\n\\bigg)=\\overline s_\\delta-\\underline s_\\delta-\\displaystyle {\\Int \\kern -0.961em -}_{\\Omega}(\\overline s_\\delta-\\underline s_\\delta )dx.\n\\end{equation}\nWe rewrite the equation (\\ref{1d}) of Problem $(S^{\\mu}_\\delta)$ as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{tn2d}\nu_t =\\Delta\\psi^\\mu(u)+div\\bigg(f^{\\mu}(u)M^\\mu(u)\\nabla {\\cal{P}}\\bigg)\n+f^{\\mu}(c_\\delta)\\overline s_\\delta - f^{\\mu}(u)\\bigg(\\underline s_\\delta+\\displaystyle {\\Int \\kern -0.961em -}_{\\Omega}(\\overline s_\\delta-\\underline s_\\delta\n)dx\\bigg),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere\n\\begin{equation}\\label{phi}\n\\psi^\\mu(s)=-\\Frac{1}{\\mu}\\Int_0^s\\Frac{k_a(\\tau)k_w(\\tau)}{M^\\mu(\\tau)}p_c'(\\tau)d\\tau\n\\end{equation}\nis continuous on $[0,1]$ and differentiable on $[0,1)$.\nMultiplying (\\ref{tn1d}) by $f^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_\\delta)$ and adding the result\nto (\\ref{tn2d}) we deduce that\n$$\nu_t =\\Delta\\psi^\\mu(u)+M^\\mu(u)\\nablaf^{\\mu}(u).\\nabla {\\cal{P}}+\\bigg(f^{\\mu}(c_\\delta)-f^{\\mu}(u)\\bigg)\\overline s_\\delta.\n$$\nThis yields a problem equivalent to $(S^{\\mu}_\\delta)$, namely\n$$\n\\vgl=0\\vglb=0 \\mbox{$(\\tilde S^{\\mu}_{\\delta})$} \\left\\{ \\eqalijna{ & u_t\n=\\Delta\\psi^\\mu(u)+M^\\mu(u)\\nablaf^{\\mu}(u).\\nabla {\\cal{P}}+[f^{\\mu}(c_\\delta)-f^{\\mu}(u)]\\overline s_\\delta,\n&\\mbox{ in }\\Omega \\times (0,T),\\cr &\n - div\\bigg(M^\\mu(u)\\nabla{\\cal{P}}\\bigg)\n = \\overline s_\\delta -\\underline s_\\delta -\\displaystyle {\\Int \\kern -0.961em -}_{\\Omega}(\\overline s_\\delta-\\underline s_\\delta )dx,&\\mbox{ in\n}\\Omega \\times (0,T), \\cr\n&\\Int_{\\Omega}{\\cal{P}}(x,t)dx=\\Int_{\\Omega}{\\cal{R}}^\\mu(u(x,t))dx,&\\mbox{ for }t\\in(0,T),\\cr\n &\\nabla {\\cal{P}}.n=0, &\\mbox{ on }\\partial \\Omega\n\\times (0,T),\\cr &\\nabla \\psi^\\mu(u).n=0, &\\mbox{ on }\\partial \\Omega\n\\times (0,T),\\cr &u(x,0)=u_{0}^\\delta(x),& \\mbox{ for }x \\in \\Omega.\\cr\n} \\right. \\eqno\\eqalijnb{\\latexeqno{t1d}\\cr\n              \\latexeqno{t2d} \\cr\n               \\latexeqno{t3d} \\cr\n                \\latexeqno{t4d} \\cr \\latexeqno{t5d} \\cr\\latexeqno{tCId} \\cr\n                 }\n$$\n\\noindent\nIn order to prove the existence of a smooth solution of\n$(S^{\\mu}_{\\delta})$, we introduce the set\n$${\\cal{K}}:=\\{u\\in C^{1+\\alpha,\\frac{1+\\alpha}{2}}(\\overline Q_T),~~u_m\\leq u\\leq 1-\\delta\\},$$\nwhere $\\alpha\\in(0,1)$, and we prove the following result\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{leexistencetildeeps} Assume $(H_1)-(H_9)$ then there exists\n$(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta},{\\cal{P}}^\\mu_{\\delta})$ solution of $(\\tilde S^{\\mu}_{\\delta})$ such\nthat\n$$u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}\\in C^{2+\\alpha,\\frac{2+\\alpha}{2}}(\\overline Q_T),~~u_m\\leq u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}\\leq 1-\\delta$$ and\n${\\cal{P}}^\\mu_{\\delta}$, $\\nabla {\\cal{P}}^\\mu_{\\delta}$ $\\in C^{1+\\alpha,\\frac{1+\\alpha}{2}}(Q_T)$ and $\\Delta{\\cal{P}}^\\mu_{\\delta} \\in\nC^{\\alpha,\\frac{\\alpha}{2}}(Q_T)$.\n\\end{lemma}\n{\\underline{Proof}}:  Let $T^1$ be the map defined for all $V\\in {\\cal{K}}$ by $T^1(V)=W$, where $W$ is the unique solution of the\nelliptic problem,\n$$\n(Q^{1}_V)\\left\\{\n\\begin{array}{lll}\n& -div\\bigg(M^\\mu(V)\\nabla W\\bigg)=\\overline s_\\delta-\\underline s_\\delta-\\displaystyle {\\Int \\kern -0.961em -}_{\\Omega}(\\overline s_\\delta-\\underline s_\\delta )dx,~~\n&\\mbox{ in }\\Omega \\times (0,T),\\\\\n&\\Int_{\\Omega} W(x,t)dx=\\Int_{\\Omega}{\\cal{R}}^\\mu(V(x,t))dx,&\\mbox{ for }t\\in (0,T),\\\\\n&\\nabla W.n=0, &\\mbox{ on }\\partial \\Omega \\times (0,T).\n\\end{array}\\right.$$\nBy standard theory of elliptic system (see \\cite{Lellip} Theorem 3.2 p 137), we have that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{n8e}\n|W|^{1+\\alpha,\\frac{1+\\alpha}{2}}_{Q_T}+|\\nabla\nW|^{1+\\alpha,\\frac{1+\\alpha}{2}}_{Q_T}\\leq\nD_1|V|^{1+\\alpha,\\frac{1+\\alpha}{2}}_{Q_T}+D_2.\n\\end{equation}\nFor $W$ solution of $(Q^{1}_V)$ we consider $T^2$ defined by $T^2(W)=\\hat V$, where $\\hat V$ is the solution of the\nparabolic problem,\n$$\n(Q^{2}_W)\\left\\{\n\\begin{array}{lll}\n&\\hat V_t=\\Delta\\psi^\\mu_\\varepsilon(\\hat V)+M^\\mu(\\hat\nV)\\nablaf^{\\mu}(\\hat V).\\nabla W +[f^{\\mu}(c_\\delta)-f^{\\mu}(\\hat V)]\\overline s_\\delta,\n&\\mbox{ in }\\Omega \\times (0,T),\\\\\n&\\nabla \\psi^\\mu_\\varepsilon(\\hat V).n=0, &\\mbox{ on }\\partial \\Omega \\times (0,T),\\\\\n&\\hat V(x,0)=u_0^\\delta(x),&\\mbox{ in }\\Omega. \\end{array}\\right.$$\n\\noindent\n>From the standard theory of parabolic equations, we have that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{n8f}\n|\\hat V|^{2+\\alpha,\\frac{2+\\alpha}{2}}_{Q_T}\\leq\nD_3\\bigg(|W|^{1+\\alpha,\\frac{1+\\alpha}{2}}_{Q_T}+|\\nabla W|^{1+\\alpha,\\frac{1+\\alpha}{2}}_{Q_T}\\bigg) + D_4.\\label{n8ebis}\\\\\n\\end{equation}\nMoreover defining by $\\cal L$ the parabolic operator arising in\n$(Q^2_W)$, namely\n$${\\cal {L}}(\\hat V)(x,t):=\\hat V_t-\\Delta\\psi^\\mu_\\varepsilon(\\hat V)\n-M^\\mu(\\hat V)\\nablaf^{\\mu}(\\hat V).\\nabla W\n-[f^{\\mu}(c_\\delta)-f^{\\mu}(\\hat V)]\\overline s_\\delta,$$ we remark that\n(\\ref{fmucroissante}), the property (\\ref{Cdeltaborne}) of\n$c_\\delta$ and the fact that, by (\\ref{sdeltaborne}), $\\overline s_\\delta$ is positive imply that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{calO}\n{\\cal {L}}(u_m)\\leq 0\\mbox{ and }{\\cal {L}}(1-\\delta)\\geq 0.\n\\end{equation}\nSetting $T:=T^2\\circ T^1$, the inequalities (\\ref{calO}) ensure that $T$ maps the convex set ${\\cal{K}}$ into\nitself. Moreover we deduce from (\\ref{n8f}) that $T({\\cal{K}})$ is relatively compact in ${\\cal{K}}$.\n\\\\Next, we check that $T$ is continuous. Suppose that a sequence $(V_m)_{m\\inN}$ converges to a limit $V\\in\n{\\cal{K}}$ in $C^{1+\\alpha,\\frac{1+\\alpha}{2}}(\\overline Q_T)$, as $m\\rightarrow\\infty$. Since $(V_m)_{m\\inN}$ is bounded\nin $C^{1+\\alpha,\\frac{1+\\alpha}{2}}(\\overline Q_T)$, it follows from (\\ref{n8e}) that the sequence\n$(W_m:=T^1(V_m))_{m\\inN}$, where $W_m$ is the solution of $(Q^1_{V_m})$, is bounded in\n$C^{1+\\alpha,\\frac{1+\\alpha}{2}}(\\overline Q_T)$, so that as $m\\rightarrow\\infty$, $W_m$ converges to the unique solution\n$W$ of Problem $(Q^1_V)$ in $C^{1+\\beta,\\frac{1+\\beta}{2}}(\\overline Q_T)$ for all $\\beta\\in(0,\\alpha)$. Moreover $W\\in\nC^{1+\\alpha,\\frac{1+\\alpha}{2}}(\\overline Q_T)$. Further it also follows from (\\ref{n8e}) that $(\\nabla\nW_m)_{m\\inN}$ is bounded in $C^{1+\\alpha,\\frac{1+\\alpha}{2}}(\\overline Q_T)$, so that the solution $\\hat V_m=T^2(W_m)$ of\nProblem $(Q^2_{W_m})$ is bounded in $C^{2+\\alpha,\\frac{2+\\alpha}{2}}(\\overline Q_T)$. Since $\\hat V_m=T^2(W_m)=T(V_m)$,\n$(T(V_m))_{m\\inN}$ converges to the unique solution $\\hat V$ of Problem $(Q^2_{W})$ in\n$C^{2+\\beta,\\frac{2+\\beta}{2}}(\\overline Q_T)$ for all $\\beta\\in(0,\\alpha)$, as $m\\rightarrow\\infty$, so that $\\hat\nV=T^2(W)=T^2\\circ T^1(V)$. Therefore we have just proved that $(T^2\\circ T^1(V_m))_{m\\inN}$ converges to $T^2\\circ\nT^1(V)$ in $C^{2+\\beta,\\frac{2+\\beta}{2}}(\\overline Q_T)$ for all $\\beta\\in(0,\\alpha)$, as $m\\rightarrow\\infty$, which\nensures the continuity of the map $T$. It follows from the Schauder fixed point theorem that there exists a solution\n$(u^{\\mu}_\\delta,{\\cal{P}}^\\mu_\\delta)$ of $(\\tilde{S}^{\\mu}_{\\delta})$ such that\n$$u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}\\in K\\cap C^{2+\\alpha,\\frac{2+\\alpha}{2}}(\\overline Q_T) \\mbox{ and ${\\cal{P}}^\\mu_{\\delta}$, $\\nabla {\\cal{P}}^\\mu_{\\delta}$, $\\in C^{1+\\alpha,\\frac{1+\\alpha}{2}}(Q_T)$,\n$\\Delta {\\cal{P}}^\\mu_{\\delta} \\in C^{\\alpha,\\frac{\\alpha}{2}}(Q_T)$.}$$ $\\\\\n$ This concludes the proof of Lemma \\ref{leexistencetildeeps}.\nMoreover we deduce from Lemma \\ref{leexistencetildeeps} the\nexistence of a solution of $(S^{\\mu}_{\\delta})$, namely\n\n\\begin{corollary}\\label{leexistenceeps}\nAssume the hypotheses $(H_1)-(H_9)$ then there exists $(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta},p^{\\mu}_{\\delta})$ solution of $(S^{\\mu}_{\\delta})$ such that\n$u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}\\in C^{2+\\alpha,\\frac{2+\\alpha}{2}}(\\overline Q_T)$,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{borneu}\nu_m\\leq u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,t)\\leq 1-\\delta\n\\end{equation}\nand $p^{\\mu}_{\\delta}$, $\\nabla p^{\\mu}_{\\delta}$ $\\in C^{1+\\alpha,\\frac{1+\\alpha}{2}}(Q_T)$, $\\Delta p^{\\mu}_{\\delta} \\in\nC^{\\alpha,\\frac{\\alpha}{2}}(Q_T)$.\n\\end{corollary}\n\n\\setcounter{equation}{0}\n\\section{A priori Estimates}\nIn view of (\\ref{fmucroissante}) and (\\ref{borneu}) we deduce the following bounds\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&&0=f^{\\mu}(0)\\leq f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,t))\\leq 1=f^{\\mu}(1),\\label{Eb1}\\\\\n&&0=f^{\\mu}(0)\\leq f^{\\mu}(c_{\\delta}(x,t))\\leq 1=f^{\\mu}(1),\\label{Eb1bis}\\\\\n&&0<k_w(u_m)\\leq k_w(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,t))\\leq k_w(1)=1,\\label{Eb2}\\\\\n&& 0=k_a(1)\\leq k_a(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,t))\\leq k_a(0)=1,\\label{Eb2bis}\\\\\n&&0<k_w(u_m)\\leq M^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}),\\label{Eb3}\\\\\n&&p_c(1)\\leq p_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,t))\\leq p_c(0),\\label{Eb4}\\\\\n&& p_c(1)-p_c(0)\\leq {\\cal{R}}^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,t))\\leq 0,\\label{Eb5}\\\\\n&& p_c(1)-p_c(0)\\leq {\\cal{Q}}^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,t))\\leq 0,\\label{Eb6}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nfor all $(x,t)\\in\\Omega\\times(0,T)$. Next we state some essential\na priori estimates.\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{leest1} Let $(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta},p^{\\mu}_{\\delta})$ be a solution of Problem $(S^\\mu_\\delta)$. There exists a positive constant $C$, which only depends on\n$\\Omega$, $k_w$, $k_a$ and $T$ such that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{Est1}\n\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega} k_a(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})|\\nablap^{\\mu}_{\\delta}+\\nabla\np_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})|^2dxdt\\leq C\\mu,\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{Est1.1}\n\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega} |\\nablap^{\\mu}_{\\delta}|^2dxdt\\leq C,\n\\end{equation}\nand\n\\begin{equation}\\label{Est1.2}\n0\\leq -\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega} \\nabla\ng(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}).\\nablap_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})dxdt\\leq C,\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{Est1.2bis}\n\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega} |\\nabla\\zeta(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})|^2dxdt\\leq C,\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{Est1.2ter}\n\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega} |\\nabla g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})|^2dxdt\\leq C.\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{lemma}\n{\\underline{Proof}}:  We first prove (\\ref{Est1}). Multiplying (\\ref{tn1d}) by ${\\cal{P}}=p^{\\mu}_{\\delta}+{\\cal{R}}^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})$ and integrating the\nresult on $Q_T=\\Omega\\times(0,T)$ we obtain\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&\\Int_{Q_T}M^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})|\\nabla(p^{\\mu}_\\delta+{\\cal{R}}^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_\\delta))|^2\\leq\n\\Frac{1}{h}\\Int_{Q_T}(\\overline s_\\delta-\\underline s_\\delta)^2\n+h\\Int_{Q_T}(p^{\\mu}_{\\delta}+{\\cal{R}}^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}))^2,\\label{E1}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nfor all $h>0$. Moreover we have by Poincar\\'e-Wirtinger inequality\nthat\n$$\\Int_{Q_T}(p^{\\mu}_{\\delta}+{\\cal{R}}^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}))^2\\leq C_1\\bigg[\\Int_{Q_T}|\\nabla(p^{\\mu}_{\\delta}+{\\cal{R}}^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}))|^2+\n\\bigg(\\Int_{Q_T}p^{\\mu}_{\\delta}+{\\cal{R}}^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\bigg)^2 \\bigg].$$ Using\n(\\ref{3d}) and (\\ref{Eb5}), it follows that\n$$\\Int_{Q_T}(p^{\\mu}_{\\delta}+{\\cal{R}}^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}))^2\\leq C_1\\Int_{Q_T}|\\nabla(p^{\\mu}_{\\delta}+{\\cal{R}}^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}))|^2+ C_2,$$\nwhich we substitute into (\\ref{E1}) with $h=\\Frac{k_w(u_m)}{2C_1}$ to deduce, also in view of (\\ref{sdeltaborne})\nand (\\ref{Eb3}), that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{E2}\n\\Int_{Q_T}|\\nabla(p^{\\mu}_{\\delta}+{\\cal{R}}^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}))|^2\\leq C_3\\mbox{ and\n}\\Int_{Q_T}|p^{\\mu}_{\\delta}+{\\cal{R}}^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})|^2\\leq C_3.\n\\end{equation}\nFurthermore multiplying (\\ref{1d}) by $p^{\\mu}_{\\delta}$ and (\\ref{2d}) by $p^{\\mu}_{\\delta}+p_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})$, adding up both\nresults and integrating on $Q_T$ we obtain\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&-\\Int_{Q_T}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})_tp_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})+\\Int_{Q_T}\nk_w(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})|\\nablap^{\\mu}_{\\delta}|^2+\\Frac{1}{\\mu}k_a(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\big|\\nablap^{\\mu}_{\\delta}+\\nabla\np_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\big|^2=I,~~~~\\label{E3}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere\n$$\\begin{array}{ll}\nI:=&\\Int_{Q_T}\\bigg[f^{\\mu}(c_\\delta)\\overline s_\\delta-f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\bigg(\\underline s_\\delta +\\displaystyle {\\Int \\kern -0.961em -}_{\\Omega}(\\overline s_\\delta-\\underline s_\\delta )\\bigg)\\bigg]p^{\\mu}_{\\delta} dxdt\\\\\n&+\\Int_{Q_T}\\bigg[(1-f^{\\mu}(c_\\delta))\\overline s_\\delta-\\bigg(1-f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\bigg)\\bigg(\\underline s_\\delta+\\displaystyle {\\Int \\kern -0.961em -}_{\\Omega}(\\overline s_\\delta-\\underline s_\\delta )\n\\bigg)\\bigg](p^{\\mu}_{\\delta}+p_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}))dxdt.\n\\end{array}\n$$\nWe check below that first term on the left-hand-side of (\\ref{E3}) and $I$ are bounded. Denoting by ${\\cal{P}}_c$ a\nprimitive of $p_c$ we have that\n$$\\Int_{Q_T}p_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})_t=\\Int_{\\Omega}\\Int_0^T\\Frac{\\partial}{\\partial\nt}\\big[{\\cal{P}}_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\big].$$ Since ${\\cal{P}}_c$ is continuous and $u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}$ is bounded this gives\n\\begin{equation}\\label{E4}\n\\bigg|\\Int_{Q_T}p_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})_tdxdt\\bigg|\\leq C_4.\n\\end{equation}\nMoreover we have using (\\ref{3d}) and (\\ref{P+Q}) that\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&I=&\\Int_{Q_T}\\bigg(p^{\\mu}_{\\delta}+{\\cal{R}}^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\bigg)(\\overline s_\\delta-\\underline s_\\delta)\ndxdt\\\\\n&&-\\Int_{Q_T}{\\cal{R}}^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\bigg[f^{\\mu}(c_\\delta)\\overline s_\\delta-f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\underline s_\\delta+\\bigg(1-f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_\\delta)\\bigg)\\bigg( \\displaystyle {\\Int \\kern -0.961em -}_{\\Omega}(\\overline s_\\delta-\\underline s_\\delta) \\bigg)\\bigg] dxdt\\nonumber\\\\\n&&+\\Int_{Q_T}\\bigg[(1-f^{\\mu}(c_\\delta))\\overline s_\\delta-\\bigg(1-f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\bigg)\\bigg(\\underline s_\\delta\n+\\displaystyle {\\Int \\kern -0.961em -}_{\\Omega}(\\overline s_\\delta-\\underline s_\\delta) \\bigg)\n\\bigg]\\bigg[{\\cal{Q}}^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})+p_c(0)\\bigg] dxdt.\\nonumber\n\\end{eqnarray}\nIn view of $(H_5)$, (\\ref{sdeltaborne}), (\\ref{Eb1}),\n(\\ref{Eb1bis}), (\\ref{Eb5}) and (\\ref{Eb6}) we obtain\n$$\nI\\leq C_5\\Int_{Q_T}|p^{\\mu}_{\\delta}+{\\cal{R}}^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})|^2+ C_6.\n$$\nThis together with (\\ref{E2}) yields $I\\leq C_5C_3+C_6$. Substituting this into (\\ref{E3}) and also using (\\ref{E4})\nwe obtain that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{E5}\n\\Int_{Q_T} k_w(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})|\\nablap^{\\mu}_{\\delta}|^2+\\Frac{1}{\\mu}k_a(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\big|\\nablap^{\\mu}_{\\delta}+\\nabla\np_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\big|^2dxdt\\leq C_7,\n\\end{equation}\nwhich implies (\\ref{Est1}).\nIn view of (\\ref{Eb2}), we also deduce from (\\ref{E5}) the estimate (\\ref{Est1.1}). \\\\\nNext we prove (\\ref{Est1.2}). By the definition (\\ref{defg}) of $g$, we obtain from (\\ref{7d}) that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{E5b}\n-div\\bigg(M^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\nablap^{\\mu}_{\\delta}\\bigg)\n+\\Frac{1}{\\mu}\\Delta g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})=\\overline s_\\delta-\\underline s_\\delta-\\displaystyle {\\Int \\kern -0.961em -}_{\\Omega}(\\overline s_\\delta-\\underline s_\\delta)dx.\n\\end{equation}\nMultiplying (\\ref{E5b}) by $f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})$ and subtracting the result from $(\\ref{1d})$ we deduce that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{E5t}\n(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})_t=\\Frac{1}{\\mu}f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\Delta\ng(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})+div\\bigg(k_w(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\nabla p^{\\mu}_{\\delta}\\bigg)\n-f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})div\\bigg(M^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\nabla(p^{\\mu})\\bigg)+ \\overline s_\\delta\\big[f^{\\mu}(c_\\delta)-f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\big].\n\\end{equation}\nMoreover using the definition (\\ref{deffmu}) of $f^{\\mu}$ and $M^\\mu$ we note that\n$$\n\\begin{array}{lll}\n&div\\bigg(M^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\nabla p^{\\mu}_{\\delta}\\bigg)&=\ndiv\\bigg(k_w(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\nabla p^{\\mu}_{\\delta}\\bigg)\\\\\n&&=M^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\nabla(f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})).\\nablap^{\\mu}_{\\delta}\n+f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})div\\bigg(M^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\nabla(p^{\\mu})\\bigg),\n\\end{array}\n$$\nwhich we substitute into (\\ref{E5t}) to obtain\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})_t-\\Frac{1}{\\mu}f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\Delta\ng(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})- M^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\nabla(f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})).\\nablap^{\\mu}_{\\delta}\n=\\overline s_\\delta\\big[f^{\\mu}(c_\\delta)-f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\big].\\label{E6}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nWe set\n\\begin{equation}\\label{defD}\nD^\\mu(a):=p_c(a)f^{\\mu}(a)-{\\cal{Q}}^\\mu(a),\n\\end{equation}\nfor all $a\\in[0,1]$, so that by the definition (\\ref{Q}) of ${\\cal{Q}}^\\mu$ we have $\\nabla\nD^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})=p_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\nabla(f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}))$. Substituting this into (\\ref{E6}), which we have multiplied\nby $p_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})$, we deduce that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{E7}\np_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})_t -\\Frac{1}{\\mu}f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})p_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\Delta\ng(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})-M^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\nabla\nD^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}).\\nablap^{\\mu}_{\\delta}=p_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\overline s_\\delta\\big[f^{\\mu}(c_\\delta)-f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\big].\n\\end{equation}\nMultiplying (\\ref{E5b}) by $D^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})$, adding the result\nto (\\ref{E7}) and also using the fact that\n$$div\\bigg(M^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})D^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\nablap^{\\mu}_{\\delta}\\bigg)=\nM^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\nabla D^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}).\\nablap^{\\mu}_{\\delta}\n+D^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})div\\bigg(M^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\nablap^{\\mu}_{\\delta}\\bigg),$$\nwe deduce that\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&p_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})_t-\\Frac{1}{\\mu}\\bigg(f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})p_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})-D^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\bigg)\\Delta\ng(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\n-div\\bigg(M^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})D^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\nablap^{\\mu}_{\\delta}\\bigg)\n\\nonumber\\\\\n&=p_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\overline s_\\delta\\bigg[f^{\\mu}(c_\\delta)-f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\bigg]+\nD^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\bigg(\\overline s_\\delta-\\underline s_\\delta-\\displaystyle {\\Int \\kern -0.961em -}_{\\Omega}(\\overline s_\\delta-\\underline s_\\delta)\\bigg). \\label{E8}\\end{eqnarray} Integrating (\\ref{E8})\non $Q_T$ and using the fact that the definition (\\ref{defD}) of $D^\\mu$ implies\n$$p_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})-D^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})={\\cal{Q}}^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}),$$\nwe obtain\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\Int_{Q_T}p_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})_tdxdt\n-\\Frac{1}{\\mu}\\Int_{Q_T}{\\cal{Q}}^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\Delta\ng(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})dxdt=J,\\label{E9}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere\n$$\n\\begin{array}{ll}\nJ:=&\\Int_{Q_T}p_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\overline s_\\delta\\big[f^{\\mu}(c_\\delta)-f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\big]dxdt\\\\\n&+\\Int_{Q_T}\\bigg(p_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})-{\\cal{Q}}^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\bigg)\n\\bigg(\\overline s_\\delta-\\underline s_\\delta-\\displaystyle {\\Int \\kern -0.961em -}_{\\Omega}(\\overline s_\\delta-\\underline s_\\delta)\\bigg)dxdt.\n\\end{array}\n$$\nIt follows from (\\ref{Eb1}), (\\ref{Eb1bis}), (\\ref{Eb4}), (\\ref{Eb6}) and\n(\\ref{sdeltaborne}) that $|J|\\leq C_8$. Substituting this\ninto (\\ref{E9}) and also using (\\ref{E4}) we obtain that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{E11}\n0\\leq -\\Frac{1}{\\mu}\\Int_{Q_T}\\nabla{\\cal{Q}}^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}).\\nabla(\ng(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}))dxdt\\leq C_9.\n\\end{equation}\nFurthermore we remark that\n$$\n\\Frac{1}{\\mu}f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\geq \\Frac{k_w(u_m)}{2},\n$$\nwhich together with (\\ref{E11}) and the fact that $\\nabla {\\cal{Q}}^\\mu(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})=f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\nablap_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})$\nyields\n\\begin{equation}\\label{E12}\n0\\leq -\\Int_{Q_T}\\nablap_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\nabla(g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}))dxdt\\leq C_{10}.\n\\end{equation}\nBy the definition (\\ref{defzeta}) of $\\zeta$, we have $-\\nablap_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\nabla\ng(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})=|\\nabla\\zeta(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})|^2$. This together with (\\ref{E12}) implies (\\ref{Est1.2}) and\n(\\ref{Est1.2bis}), which in view of (\\ref{Eb2bis}) gives (\\ref{Est1.2ter}). This completes the proof of Lemma\n\\ref{leest1}. $\\\\ $$\\\\ $ In what follows we give estimates of differences of space translates of $p^{\\mu}_{\\delta}$ and\n$g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})$. We set for $r\\in{\\mathrm {I\\mkern-5.5mu R\\mkern1mu}}^+$ sufficiently small:\n$$\\Omega_r=\\{x\\in\\Omega,~~B(x,2r)\\subset\\Omega\\}.$$\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{leest2} Let $(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta},p^{\\mu}_{\\delta})$ be a solution of Problem $(S^\\mu_\\delta)$;\nthere exists a positive constant $C$ such that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{Est2}\n\\Int_0^T\\Int_{{\\Omega}_r}\\bigg|p^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x+\\xi,t)-p^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,t)\\bigg|^2(x,t)dxdt\\leq\nC\\xi^2\n\\end{equation}\nand\n\\begin{equation}\\label{Est2.2}\n\\Int_0^T\\Int_{{\\Omega}_r}\\bigg|g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(x+\\xi,t)-g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(x,t)\\bigg|^2dxdt\\leq\nC\\xi^2,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\xi\\in{\\mathrm {I\\mkern-5.5mu R\\mkern1mu}}^N$ and $|\\xi|\\leq 2r.$\n\\end{lemma}\n{\\underline{Proof}}:  The inequalities (\\ref{Est2}) and (\\ref{Est2.2}) follow from (\\ref{Est1.1}) and (\\ref{Est1.2ter})\nrespectively. $\\\\ $$\\\\ $ Next we estimate differences of time translates of $g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})$.\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{leest3} Let $(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta},p^{\\mu}_{\\delta})$ be a solution of Problem $(S^\\mu_\\delta)$ then\nthere exists a positive constant $C$ such that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{Est3}\n\\Int_0^{T-\\tau}\\Int_{{\\Omega}}\\big[g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(x,t+\\tau)-g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(x,t)\\big]^2dxdt\\leq\nC\\tau,\n\\end{equation}\nfor all $\\tau\\in(0,T)$.\n\\end{lemma}\n{\\underline{Proof}}:  We set\n$$A(t):=\\Int_{\\Omega}[g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(x,t+\\tau)-g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(x,t)]^2dx.$$\nSince $g$ is a non decreasing Lipschitz continuous function with the Lipschitz constant $C_g$ we have that\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nA(t)&\\leq&  C_g\\Int_{\\Omega}[g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,t+\\tau))-g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,t))][u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,t+\\tau)-u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,t)]dx\\nonumber\\\\\n&\\leq & C_g\\Int_{\\Omega}[g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,t+\\tau))-g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,t))]\\left[\\Int_t^{t+\\tau}(u^{\\mu}_\\delta)_t(x,\\theta)d\\theta\\right]dx\\nonumber\\\\\n&\\leq&  C_g\\Int_{\\Omega}\\Int_t^{t+\\tau}\\bigg[g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,t+\\tau))-g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,t))\\bigg]\\nonumber\\\\\n&~~~&~\\bigg[div(k_w(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})\\nablap^{\\mu}_{\\delta})+f^{\\mu}(c_\\delta)\\overline s_\\delta-f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}_\\delta)\n\\bigg(\\underline s_\\delta+\\displaystyle {\\Int \\kern -0.961em -}_{\\Omega}(\\overline s_\\delta(y)-\\underline s_\\delta(y))dy\\bigg)\\bigg](x,\\theta) d\\theta dx,\\nonumber\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere we have used (\\ref{1d}). Integrating by parts this gives\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&A(t)\\leq\nC_g\\bigg\\{\\Int_t^{t+\\tau}\\Int_{\\Omega}\\bigg|k_w(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(x,\\theta)\\nablap^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,\\theta)\n\\nabla g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(x,t+\\tau)\\bigg|dxd\\theta \\nonumber\\\\\n&+\\Int_t^{t+\\tau}\\Int_{\\Omega}\\bigg|k_w(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(x,\\theta)\\nablap^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,\\theta)\\nabla\ng(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(x,t)\\bigg|\ndxd\\theta \\nonumber\\\\\n&+\\bigg|\\Int_{\\Omega}\\bigg[g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(x,t+\\tau)-g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(x,t)\\bigg]K(x,t,\\tau)dx\n\\bigg|\\bigg\\},\\label{Est20}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere\n\\begin{equation}\\label{defK}\nK(x,t,\\tau):=\\Int_t^{t+\\tau}\\bigg(f^{\\mu}(c_\\delta(x,\\theta))\\overline s_\\delta(x)-\nf^{\\mu}(u_\\delta(x,\\theta))\\bigg[\\underline s_\\delta(x)+\\displaystyle {\\Int \\kern -0.961em -}_{\\Omega}(\\overline s_\\delta(y)-\\underline s_\\delta(y))dy\\bigg]\\bigg)d\\theta.\n\\end{equation}\nNext we estimate the right hand side of (\\ref{Est20}). Using (\\ref{Eb2}) we have that\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&&\\Int_t^{t+\\tau}\\Int_{\\Omega}\\bigg|k_w(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(x,\\theta)\\nablap^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,\\theta)\n\\nabla g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(x,t+\\tau)\\bigg|dxd\\theta\\nonumber\\\\\n&&\\leq\n\\Frac{1}{2}\\bigg(\\Int_t^{t+\\tau}\\Int_{\\Omega}|\\nablap^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,\\theta)|^2dxd\\theta+\n\\Int_t^{t+\\tau}\\Int_{\\Omega}|\\nabla\ng(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(x,t+\\tau)|^2dxd\\theta\\bigg)\\nonumber\\\\\n&&\\leq\n\\Frac{1}{2}\\bigg(\\Int_t^{t+\\tau}\\Int_{\\Omega}|\\nablap^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,\\theta)|^2dxd\\theta+\n\\tau\\Int_{\\Omega}|\\nabla g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(x,t+\\tau)|^2dx\\bigg).\n\\label{Est21}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nSimilarly we have that\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&&\\Int_t^{t+\\tau}\\Int_{\\Omega}\\bigg|k_w(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(x,\\theta)\\nablap^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,\\theta)\\nabla\ng(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(x,t)\\bigg|dxd\\theta\\nonumber\\\\\n&&\\leq \\Frac{1}{2}\\bigg(\\Int_t^{t+\\tau}\\Int_{\\Omega}|\\nablap^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,\\theta)|^2dxd\\theta+ \\tau\\Int_{\\Omega}|\\nabla\ng(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(x,t)|^2dx\\bigg). \\label{Est22}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nMoreover using (\\ref{Eb1}) and (\\ref{Eb1bis}) we obtain from the definition (\\ref{defK}) of $K$ that\n$$|K(x,t,\\tau)|\\leq\n\\Int_t^{t+\\tau}\\bigg[|\\overline s_\\delta|+|\\underline s_\\delta|+\\displaystyle {\\Int \\kern -0.961em -}_{\\Omega}|\\overline s_\\delta-\\underline s_\\delta|dx\\bigg]d\\theta\\leq\n\\bigg[|\\overline s_\\delta|+|\\underline s_\\delta|+\\displaystyle {\\Int \\kern -0.961em -}_{\\Omega}|\\overline s_\\delta-\\underline s_\\delta|dx\\bigg]\\tau.$$ This together with $(\\ref{sdeltaborne})$ and the fact\nthat the function $g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})$ is bounded uniformly on $\\mu$ and $\\delta$ yields\n\\begin{equation}\\label{Est22.2}\n\\bigg|\\Int_{\\Omega}\\bigg[g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(x,t+\\tau)-g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(x,t)\\bigg]K(x,t,\\tau)\\bigg|dx\\leq \\tilde C\\tau.\n\\end{equation}\nSubstituting (\\ref{Est21}), (\\ref{Est22}) and (\\ref{Est22.2}) into (\\ref{Est20}) we deduce that\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nA(t)&\\leq\n&C_g\\bigg(\\Int_t^{t+\\tau}\\Int_{\\Omega}|\\nablap^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,\\theta)|^2dxd\\theta+\n\\Frac{\\tau}{2}\\Int_{\\Omega}|\\nabla\ng(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(x,t+\\tau)|^2dx\\nonumber\\\\\n&&+ \\Frac{\\tau}{2}\\Int_{\\Omega}|\\nabla g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})(x,t)|^2dx+\\tilde C\\tau\\bigg), \\nonumber\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhich we integrate on $[0,T-\\tau]$ to obtain\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\Int_0^{T-\\tau}A(t)dt&\\leq &C_g \\bigg(\n\\Int_0^{T-\\tau}\\Int_t^{t+\\tau}\\Int_{\\Omega}|\\nablap^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,\\theta)|^2dxd\\theta\ndt+\n\\tau \\Int_0^{T}\\Int_{\\Omega}|\\nabla g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})|^2dxdt+\\tilde C\\tau T\\bigg)\\nonumber\\\\\n&\\leq &C_g \\bigg( \\tau\\Int_0^{T}\\Int_{\\Omega}|\\nablap^{\\mu}_{\\delta}(x,\\theta)|^2dxd\\theta + \\tau \\Int_0^{T}\\Int_{\\Omega}|\\nabla\ng(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta})|^2dxdt+\\tilde C\\tau T\\bigg).\\nonumber\n\\end{eqnarray}\nIn view of (\\ref{Est1.1}) and (\\ref{Est1.2ter}) we deduce (\\ref{Est3}), which completes the proof of Lemma\n\\ref{leest3}.\n\\setcounter{equation}{0}\n\\section{Convergence as $\\delta\\downarrow 0$.}\\label{deltavers0}\nLetting $\\delta$ tend to 0, we deduce from the estimates given in Lemmas \\ref{leest1} and \\ref{leest2} the existence of\na weak solution of Problem $(S^\\mu)$. More precisely, we have the following result,\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{ledelta=0}\nThere exists a weak solution $(u^{\\mu},p^{\\mu})$ of Problem $(S^\\mu)$, which satisfies\n\\begin{equation}\\label{Est1delta=0} \\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega} \\bigg[k_a(u^{\\mu})\\bigg]^2\\bigg[\\nablap^{\\mu}+\\nabla\np_c(u^{\\mu})\\bigg]^2dxdt\\leq C\\mu,\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{Est1.1delta=0}\n\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega} |\\nablap^{\\mu}|^2dxdt\\leq C,\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{Est1.2delta=0}\n\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega} |\\nabla g(u^{\\mu})|^2dxdt\\leq C,\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{Est2.2delta=0}\n\\Int_0^T\\Int_{{\\Omega}_r}\\big[g(u^{\\mu})(x+\\xi,t)-g(u^{\\mu})(x,t)\\big]^2dxdt\\leq\nC\\xi^2,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\xi\\in{\\mathrm {I\\mkern-5.5mu R\\mkern1mu}}^N$ and $|\\xi|\\leq 2r$. Moreover the following estimate of differences of time translates holds\n\\begin{equation}\\label{Est3delta=0}\n\\Int_0^{T-\\tau}\\Int_{{\\Omega}}\\big[g(u^{\\mu})(x,t+\\tau)-g(u^{\\mu})(x,t)\\big]^2dxdt\\leq\nC\\tau,\n\\end{equation}\nfor all $\\tau\\in(0,T)$.\n\\end{lemma}\n{\\underline{Proof}}:  We deduce from (\\ref{Est1.1}), (\\ref{Est2.2}) and (\\ref{Est3}) that there exist functions $\\hat g^\\mu$ and\n$p^\\mu$ and a subsequence $((u^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n},p^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n}))_{n\\in N}$ of weak solutions of Problem $(S^{\\mu}_{{\\delta_n}})$ such\nthat\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&&(g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n}))_{n\\in N}\\mbox{ tends to }\\hat g^\\mu\\mbox{ strongly in }L^2(Q_T), ~~~~~~\\label{borneudelta=0.a}\n\\\\\n&&(p^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n})_{n\\in N}\\mbox{ tends to }p^\\mu\\mbox{ weakly in }L^2(0,T;H^1({\\Omega})),\\nonumber\n\\end{eqnarray}\nas $\\delta_n$ tends to zero. Thus for a subsequence, which we denote again by $\\delta_n$, we have that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{borneudelta=0.b}\n(g(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n}))_{n\\in N}\\mbox{ tends to }\\hat g^\\mu\\mbox{ for almost }(x,t)\\in Q_T.\n\\end{equation}\nUsing the fact that g is bijective we deduce that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{borneudelta=0.c} (u^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n})_{n\\in N} \\mbox{ tends to $u^\\mu:=g^{-1}(\\hat g^\\mu)$ strongly in $L^2(Q_T)$ and almost everywhere in }Q_T,\n\\end{equation}\nas $\\delta_n$ tends to zero. Moreover we have in view of (\\ref{Est1.2ter}) and (\\ref{borneudelta=0.a}) that $\\nabla\ng(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n})$ tends to $\\nabla g(u^{\\mu})$ weakly in $L^2(Q_T)$ as $\\delta_n\\downarrow 0$, so that by the\ndefinition (\\ref{defg}) of $g$\n\\begin{equation}\\label{cvfaible1}\nk_a(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n})\\nabla p_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n}) \\mbox{ tends to $k_a(u^{\\mu})\\nabla p_c(u^{\\mu})$ weakly in $L^2(Q_T)$ as\n$\\delta_n\\downarrow 0$.}\n\\end{equation}\nLetting $\\delta_n$ tend to 0 in (\\ref{borneu}) we deduce that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{borneudelta=0.1}\nu_m\\leq u^{\\mu}(x,t)\\leq 1. \\end{equation} Moreover we deduce from\n(\\ref{3d}) that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{delta=0.2}\n\\Int_\\Op^{\\mu}(x,t)dx=0, \\mbox{ for almost every } t \\in (0,T).\n\\end{equation} Multiplying (\\ref{1d}) by $\\varphi\\in{\\cal{C}}$,\nintegrating by parts and letting $\\delta_n$ tend to 0 we obtain\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega} u^\\mu \\varphi_tdxdt =&\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega}k_w(u^\\mu)\\nabla p^\\mu.\\nabla \\varphi dxdt-\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega}\\bigg( f^\\mu(c)\\overline s- f^\\mu(u^\\mu)\\underline s \\bigg) \\varphi dxdt\\nonumber\\\\\n&&-\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega} u_0(x)\\varphi(x,0)dx,\\label{delta=0.3}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere we have used that $u_{0}^\\delta$ tends to $u_0$ in $L^2(\\Omega)$ and that $c_\\delta$, $\\overline s_\\delta$ and $\\underline s_\\delta$ tend\nrespectively to $c$, $\\overline s$ and $\\underline s$ in $L^2(Q_T)$ as $\\delta\\downarrow 0$. Similarly, multiplying (\\ref{2d}) by\n$\\varphi\\in{\\cal{C}}$, integrating by parts and letting $\\delta_n$ tend to 0 we deduce that\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&&\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega}\\bigg(1-u^{\\mu}\\bigg)\\varphi_tdxdt=\\Frac{1}{\\mu}\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega}\\bigg(k_a(u^{\\mu})\\nablap^{\\mu}+\\nabla g(u^{\\mu})\\bigg).\\nabla \\varphi dx dt\\nonumber\\\\\n&&-\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega}\\bigg((1-f^{\\mu}(c))\\overline s-(1-f^{\\mu}(u^{\\mu}))\\underline s\\bigg) \\varphi dx dt-\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega}\n\\bigg(1-u_0(x)\\bigg)\\varphi(x,0)dx,~~\\label{delta=0.4}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhich since $\\nabla g(u^{\\mu})=k_a(u^{\\mu})\\nabla p_c(u^{\\mu})$ coincides with (\\ref{defsol2}). Next we prove\n(\\ref{Est1delta=0}). We first check that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{cvfaible2}\nk_a(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n})\\nabla p^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n}\\mbox{ tends to }k_a(u^{\\mu})\\nabla p^{\\mu} \\mbox{ weakly in }L^2(Q_T),\n\\end{equation}\nas $\\delta_n$ tends to 0. Let $\\varphi\\in L^2(Q_T)$, we have that\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\bigg|\\Int_{Q_T} \\bigg(k_a(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n})\\nabla p^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n}-k_a(u^{\\mu})\\nabla p^{\\mu}\\bigg)\\varphi ~dxdt\\bigg| \\leq\n|I^1_{\\delta_n}|+|I^2_{\\delta_n}|,\\label{delta=0.4bis}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere\n$$\nI^1_{\\delta_n}:= \\Int_{Q_T} \\bigg(k_a(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n})-k_a(u^{\\mu})\\bigg) \\nabla p^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n}\\varphi~dxdt\n$$and\n$$I^2_{\\delta_n}=\\Int_{Q_T}\nk_a(u^{\\mu})\\varphi\\bigg(\\nabla p^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n} -\\nabla p^{\\mu}\\bigg)~dxdt.\n$$\nUsing the fact that $\\nabla p^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n}$ converges to $\\nabla p^{\\mu}$ weakly in $L^2(Q_T)$ as $\\delta_n\\downarrow\n0$, we deduce, since $k_a(u^{\\mu})\\varphi\\in L^2(Q_T)$, that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{delta=0.4ter}\n\\mbox{ $|I^2_{\\delta_n}|$ tends to $0$ as $\\delta_n\\downarrow 0$.}\n\\end{equation}\nMoreover we have by (\\ref{Est1.1}) that\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n|I^1_{\\delta_n}|&&\\leq \\bigg(\\Int_{Q_T} \\bigg|k_a(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n})-k_a(u^{\\mu})\\bigg|^2\\varphi^2dxdt\\bigg)^{1\/2}\n\\bigg(\\Int_{Q_T}|\\nabla p^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n}|^2dxdt\\bigg)^{1\/2} \\nonumber\\\\&&\\leq C\\bigg(\\Int_{Q_T}\n\\bigg|k_a(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n})-k_a(u^{\\mu})\\bigg|^2\\varphi^2dxdt\\bigg)^{1\/2}.\\nonumber\n\\end{eqnarray}\nSince $\\bigg|k_a(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n})-k_a(u^{\\mu})\\bigg|^2\\varphi^2\\leq 4\\varphi^2$ and since $k_a(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n})$ tends\nto $k_a(u^{\\mu})$ almost everywhere, we deduce from the Dominated Convergence Theorem that $I^1_{\\delta_n}$ tends to\n$0$ as $\\delta_n\\downarrow 0$. This with (\\ref{delta=0.4ter}) implies (\\ref{cvfaible2}), which with\n(\\ref{cvfaible1}) gives that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{cvfaible3}\nk_a(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n})\\bigg[\\nabla p^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n}+\\nabla p_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n})\\bigg]\\mbox{ tends to\n}k_a(u^{\\mu})\\bigg[\\nabla p^{\\mu}+\\nabla p_c(u^{\\mu})\\bigg] \\mbox{ weakly in }L^2(Q_T).\n\\end{equation}\nThe functional $v\\mapsto \\Int_{Q_T}v^2dxdt$ is convex and lower semi continuous from $L^2(Q_T)$ to $\\overline R$\ntherefore it is also weakly l.s.c. (see \\cite{B} Corollary III.8) and thus we deduce from (\\ref{Eb2bis}),\n(\\ref{Est1}) and (\\ref{cvfaible3}) that\n$$\n\\begin{array}{lll}\n\\Int_{Q_T}\\bigg[k_a(u^{\\mu})\\bigg]^2\\bigg[\\nabla p^{\\mu} +\\nabla p_c(u^{\\mu})\\bigg]^2dxdt\n&\\leq& \\liminf_{\\delta_n\\downarrow 0\n}\\Int_{Q_T}\\bigg[k_a(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n})\\bigg]^2\\bigg[\\nabla p^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n} +\\nabla\np_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n})\\bigg]^2dxdt\\\\\n&\\leq& \\liminf_{\\delta_n\\downarrow 0}\\Int_{Q_T}k_a(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n})\\bigg[\\nabla p^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n} +\\nabla\np_c(u^{\\mu}_{\\delta_n})\\bigg]^2dxdt \\\\\n&\\leq &C\\mu,\n\\end{array}\n$$ which coincides with (\\ref{Est1delta=0}). Finally, we deduce\nrespectively from (\\ref{Est1.1}), (\\ref{Est1.2ter}), (\\ref{Est2.2}) and (\\ref{Est3}) the estimates\n(\\ref{Est1.1delta=0}), (\\ref{Est1.2delta=0}), (\\ref{Est2.2delta=0}) and (\\ref{Est3delta=0}). This concludes the\nproof of Lemma \\ref{ledelta=0}.\n\n\\setcounter{equation}{0}\n\\section{Convergence as $\\mu\\downarrow 0$.}\\label{muvers0}\nThe goal of this section is to prove Theorem \\ref{thlim}. We first deduce from the estimates (\\ref{Est1.1delta=0}),\n(\\ref{Est2.2delta=0}) and (\\ref{Est3delta=0}) that there exists a couple of functions $(u,p)$ and a subsequence\n$((u^{\\mu_n},p^{\\mu_n}))_{n\\in N}$ such that $$\\begin{array}{ll}\n&(u^{\\mu_n})_{n\\in N}\\mbox{ tends to }u\\mbox{ strongly in }L^2(Q_T)\\mbox{ and almost everywhere in }Q_T ,\\\\\n&(p^{\\mu_n})_{n\\in N}\\mbox{ tends to }p\\mbox{ weakly in }L^2(0,T;H^1({\\Omega})),\\\\\n\\end{array}$$\nas $\\mu_n$ tends to zero. Moreover since\n$$0\\leq f^{\\mu_n}(u^{\\mu_n})\\leq 1,$$\nthere exists a function $\\hat f\\in L^2(Q_T)$ with $0\\leq \\hat f\\leq 1$ and a subsequence\n$(f^{\\mu_{n_m}}(u^{\\mu_{n_m}}))_{n_m\\in N}$ of $(f^{\\mu_{n}}(u^{\\mu_{n}}))_{n\\in N}$ such that\n$(f^{\\mu_{n_m}}(u^{\\mu_{n_m}}))_{n_m\\in N}$ tends to $\\hat f$ weakly in $L^2(Q_T)$ as $\\mu_{n_m}$ tends to zero.\nMoreover we deduce respectively from (\\ref{borneudelta=0.1}) and (\\ref{delta=0.2}) that $0\\leq u\\leq 1$ and that\n$$\\Int_\\Omega p(x,t)dx=0,\\mbox{ for almost every }t\\in(0,T),$$\nwhich gives (\\ref{lim2}). As it is done in Section \\ref{muvers0} in the proof of (\\ref{Est1delta=0}), one can first\ncheck that\n$$\nk_a(u^{\\mu_{n_m}})(\\nabla p^{\\mu_{n_m}} +\\nabla p_c(u^{\\mu_{n_m}}))\\mbox{ tends to }k_a(u)(\\nabla p +\\nabla\np_c(u))\\mbox{ weakly in }L^2(Q_T),\n$$\nas $\\mu_{n_m}\\downarrow 0$ and then deduce from (\\ref{Est1delta=0}) the estimate (\\ref{lim1}). Furthermore letting $\\mu_{n_m}$ tends to zero into\n(\\ref{delta=0.3}) we obtain, since $\\lim_{\\mu_{n_m}\\downarrow 0}f^{\\mu_{n_m}}(s)=\\chi(s)$ for all $s\\in[0,1]$, that\n$$\n\\begin{array}{ll}\n\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega} u \\varphi_tdxdt =&\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega}k_w(u)\\nabla p.\\nabla \\varphi dxdt-\\Int_0^T\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega}\\bigg(\\chi(c)\\overline s-\\hat f\\underline s \\bigg) \\varphi dxdt\\nonumber\\\\\n&-\\displaystyle \\Int _{\\Omega} u_0(x)\\varphi(x,0)dx,\n\\end{array}\n$$\nwhich coincides with (\\ref{sollim1}) and concludes the proof of Theorem \\ref{thlim}.\n\n\\setcounter{equation}{0}\n\\section{Numerical simulations}\n\\subsection{The saturation equation and the numerical algorithm}\nIn this section we present numerical simulations in one space dimension. To that purpose we apply the finite volume\nmethod, which we present below. To begin with, we rewrite the equations (\\ref{n1}) and (\\ref{n2}) in the case that\n$\\Omega=(0,1)$; this gives for $(x,t)\\in(0,1)\\times(0,T)$\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&&u^\\mu_t =\\partial_x\\bigg(k_w(u^\\mu)\\partial_x\np^\\mu\\bigg)+f^{\\mu}(c)\\overline s-f^{\\mu}(u^\\mu)\\underline s, ~~\\label{D1} \\\\\n&&(1-u^\\mu)_t =\n\\partial_x\\bigg(\\Frac{1}{\\mu}k_a(u^\\mu)\\partial_x(p^\\mu+p_c(u^\\mu))\\bigg)+ (1-f^{\\mu}(c))\\overline s-(1-f^{\\mu}(u^\\mu))\\underline s.~~\\label{D2}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nAdding up both equations and using the boundary conditions (\\ref{n3}) and (\\ref{n5}) we obtain\n\\begin{equation}\\label{D3}\n\\partial_x p^\\mu=-\\Frac{k_a(u^\\mu)}{k_a(u^\\mu)+\\muk_w(u^\\mu)}\\partial_x(p_c(u^\\mu)).\n\\end{equation}\nSubstituting (\\ref{D3}) into (\\ref{D1}) yields\n\\begin{equation}\\label{D4}\nu^\\mu_t\n=-\\partial_x\\bigg[f^{\\mu}(u^\\mu)\\Frac{k_a(u^\\mu)}{\\mu}\\partial_x(p_c(u^\\mu))\\bigg]+f^{\\mu}(c)\\overline s-f^{\\mu}(u^\\mu)\\underline s.\n\\end{equation}\nMoreover we deduce from (\\ref{D3}) and the definition (\\ref{R}) of ${\\cal{R}}^\\mu$ that $\\partial_x\np^\\mu=-\\partial_x({\\cal{R}}^\\mu(u^\\mu))$, so that in view of (\\ref{n4}) we have\n\\begin{equation}\\label{D5}\np^\\mu(x,t)=-{\\cal{R}}^\\mu(u^\\mu)(x,t)+\\Int_0^1{\\cal{R}}^\\mu(u^\\mu)(y,t)dy.\n\\end{equation}\nIn the sequel, we compare numerically the solution $u^\\mu$ of (\\ref{D4}) with the solution $u$ of the limit equation\nin the case that $u<1$, namely\n\\begin{equation}\\label{D5.b}\nu_t =-\\partial_x\\bigg(k_w(u)\\partial_xp_c(u)\\bigg)+ \\chi(c)\\bar s.\n\\end{equation}\nWe discretize the time evolution equation (\\ref{D4}) together with the initial condition and the homogeneous Neumann\nboundary condition. The time explicit finite volume scheme is defined by the following equations in which ${\\cal{K}}>0$ and\n${\\cal{J}}>0$ denote respectively  the time and the space step. \\\\\n(i) The discrete initial condition is given for $i\\in\\{0,...,[1\/{\\cal{J}}]\\}$ by\n\\begin{equation}\\label{Condinitialdiscre}\n[U^\\mu]_i^{0}=u^\\mu(i{\\cal{J}},0).\n\\end{equation}\n(ii) For $i\\in\\{0,...,[1\/{\\cal{J}}]\\}$ and for $n\\in\\{0,...,[T\/{\\cal{K}}]\\}$ the discrete equation is given by\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\Frac{1}{{\\cal{K}}}\\bigg([U^\\mu]_i^{n+1}-[U^\\mu]_i^{n}\\bigg)&=&\n[F^\\mu]_{i+1}^n-[F^\\mu]_i^n\n+f^{\\mu}(C_i^n)\\overline{S}_i^n-f^{\\mu}([U^\\mu]_i^n)\\underline{S}_i^n,\\label{D6}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere\n$$[F^\\mu]_i^n=-\\Frac{1}{{\\cal{J}}}\\bigg(p_c([U^\\mu]_{i+1}^n)-p_c([U^\\mu]_{i}^n\\bigg)\n\\Frac{k_w([U^\\mu]_{i+1}^n)k_a([U^\\mu]_{i}^n)}{\\muk_w([U^\\mu]_{i+1}^n)+k_a([U^\\mu]_{i}^n)}.$$\n\n\\noindent(iii) For $n\\in\\{0,...,[T\/{\\cal{K}}]\\}$ the discrete Neumann condition is defined  by\n\\begin{equation}\\label{Condborddiscre}\n[F^\\mu]_0^{n}=0 \\mbox{ and } [F^\\mu]_{[1\/{\\cal{J}}]}^{n}=0.\n\\end{equation}\nThe numerical scheme (\\ref{Condinitialdiscre})-(\\ref{Condborddiscre}) allows to build an approximate solution,\n$u_{{\\cal{J}},{\\cal{K}}}:[0,1]\\times[0,T]\\rightarrow {\\mathrm {I\\mkern-5.5mu R\\mkern1mu}}$ for all $i\\in\\{0,...,[1\/{\\cal{J}}]\\}$ and all $n\\in\\{0,...,[T\/{\\cal{K}}]\\}$, which is\ngiven by\n\\begin{equation}\\label{schema}\nu_{{\\cal{J}},{\\cal{K}}}(x,t)=u_i^n,\\mbox{ for all }x\\in(i{\\cal{J}},(i+1){\\cal{J}}]\\mbox{ and\nfor all }t\\in (n{\\cal{K}},(n+1){\\cal{K}}].\n\\end{equation}\nIn order to also compute the pressures, we propose the following\ndiscrete equation corresponding to (\\ref{D5})\n\\begin{equation}\\label{D7}\n[P^\\mu]_i^{n}=-{\\cal{R}}([U^\\mu]_i^{n})+{\\cal{J}}\\Sigma_{j=1}^{[1\/{\\cal{J}}]}{\\cal{R}}([U^\\mu]_j^{n}).\n\\end{equation}\nFinally, setting $p^\\mu_g(x,t)=p^\\mu(x,t)+p_c(u^\\mu)(x,t)$ we\ndeduce that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{D8}\n([P_g^\\mu])_i^{n}=-{\\cal{R}}([U^\\mu]_i^{n}+p_c([U^\\mu]_i^{n})\n+{\\cal{J}}\\Sigma_{j=1}^{[1\/{\\cal{J}}]}{\\cal{R}}([U^\\mu]_j^{n}),\n\\end{equation}\nfor all $i\\in\\{0,...,[1\/{\\cal{J}}]\\}$ and all $n\\in\\{0,...,[T\/{\\cal{K}}]\\}$.\nSimilarly we propose a finite volume scheme corresponding to the\nequation (\\ref{D5.b}), namely\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\Frac{1}{{\\cal{K}}}\\bigg(U_i^{n+1}-U_i^{n}\\bigg)= F_{i+1}^n-F_i^n\n+\\chi(C_i^n)\\overline{S}_i^n\\label{D6},\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere\n$$F_i^n=-\\Frac{1}{{\\cal{J}}}\\bigg(p_c(U_{i+1}^n)-p_c(U_{i}^n\\bigg)\nk_w(U_{i+1}^n),$$ for all\n$(i,n)\\in\\{0,...,[1\/{\\cal{J}}]\\}\\times\\{0,...,[T\/{\\cal{K}}]\\}$.\n\n\\subsection{Numerical tests}\nFor the numerical computation we take $\\mu=10^{-8}$, $p_c(z)=0,1\\sqrt{1-z}$, $k_a(z)=(1-z)^2$, $k_w(z)=\\sqrt z$ and\n$\\overline s(z)=\\delta_0(z)$, $\\underline s(z)=\\delta_1(z)$, where $\\delta_a$ is the Dirac function at the point $a$. Furthermore\n$u^\\mu$ is\ngiven by the line with crosses, $p^\\mu_g$ is given by the lines with diam and the limit function $u$ corresponds to the continuous line.\\\\\n$\\\\ $ \\underline{\\bf{First test case}:} The case that $c=0,7$ and\n$u_0=1$ on $[0,1]$. We obtain at $t=0,01$ the following pictures\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[width=0.5\\hsize]{test1articlet_0_01}\\\\\n\\it{Figure 1 : t=0,01}\n\\end{center}\nWe note that, for $\\mu$ small, the functions $u$ and $u^\\mu$ are very close. Here we only start with water and\ninject a mixture of water and air. The air immediately invades the whole domain. Figure 1 illustrates the result\nwhich we proved in this paper, namely that $u^\\mu$ tends to the solution $u$ of the limit equation (\\ref{D5.b}) as\n$\\mu$ tends to 0 and moreover that the pressure\n$p^\\mu_a$ is constant. This is indeed the case since $u<1$.\\\\\n$\\\\ $\n\\underline{\\bf{Second test case}:} The case that $c=0,7$ and\n$u_0(x)=\\left\\{\\begin{array}{ll} 0,1\\mbox{ on }[0,1\/3]\\\\0,7\\mbox{\non }(1\/3,1]\\end{array}\\right.$. We obtain the following pictures\nfor $t=0,01$ and for $t=0,1$ respectively\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[scale=0.4]{test2articlet_0_01}\\\\\n\\it{Figure 2 : t=0,01}\n\\end{center}\n$\\\\ $\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[scale=0.4]{test2articlet_0_1}\\\\\n\\it{Figure 3 : t=0,1}\n\\end{center}\nThe injection of a mixture of water and air $(c=0.7)$ takes place in a region of low water saturation. We first\nremark that both functions $u^\\mu$ and $u$ evolve very slowly. Here again we have that $u(x,t)<1$ for all\n$(x,t)\\in(0,1)\\times(0,T)$ and we remark that the graphs of the two functions $u^\\mu$ and $u$ nearly\ncoincide.\\\\\n$\\\\ $ \\underline{\\bf{Third test case}:} The case that $c=1$ and\n$u_0(x)=\\left\\{\\begin{array}{ll} 0,1\\mbox{ on }[0,1\/3]\\\\0,7\\mbox{\non }(1\/3,1]\\end{array}\\right.$. We obtain the following pictures\nfor $t=0,01$ and for $t=0,1$ respectively\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[scale=0.4]{test2articlet_0_01_c_1}\\\\\n\\it{Figure 4 : t=0,01}\n\\end{center}\n$\\\\ $\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[scale=0.4]{test2articlet_0_1_c_1}\\\\\n\\it{Figure 5 : t=0,1}\n\\end{center}\nHere only water is injected; note that the saturation $u^{\\mu}$ evolves rather fast.\n\n\\newpage \\noindent\n{\\Large\\bf Acknowledgement} \\\\\n\\vspace{0.05 cm} \\\\\nWe would like to thank Professor Rapha\\`ele Herbin from the University of Provence for her interest in this work.\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\\label{sec-intro}\n\nThe rotational period of an asteroid is a physical property that is important in a wide range of planetary science and space exploration contexts.   A rotational period measurement is essential to the characterization of the rotational state~\\citep[e.g.,][]{prav02}, which informs our understanding of an asteroid's interior and morphology~\\citep[e.g.,][]{Sche15AIV}, dynamical evolution through the Yarkovsky and YORP effects~\\citep[e.g.,][]{Vokr15AIV,gree20}, and the formation and evolution of binaries, triples, and pairs~\\citep[e.g.,][]{Marg15AIV,Wals15AIV}.  Spin rate distributions place bounds on the dynamical and collisional evolutions of the main belt of asteroids~\\citep[e.g.,][]{bott15AIV}, and therefore the characteristics of the near-Earth asteroid population, which governs the history of impact cratering in the inner solar system and affects planetary defense efforts.  Spin periods also provide useful initial conditions when modeling the shape~\\citep[e.g.,][]{Ostr02,Benn15AIV,Dure15AIV} and thermophysical properties~\\citep[e.g.,][]{Delb15AIV} of asteroids.\nIn these contexts, the availability of a small number of candidate spin periods is extremely valuable.  One can test the model with each trial period and promptly identify the correct period.  This fact motivated in part our inclusion of secondary spin period solutions in our results, in addition to our primary, best-fit period solutions.\n\n\n\nSeveral approaches have been used to measure the rotational periods of asteroids with high precision, including Earth-based~\\citep[e.g.,][]{prav02} or space-based~\\citep[e.g.,][]{hora18} photometric observations or a combination of the two~\\citep[e.g.,][]{dure18}, as well as Earth-based radar observations~\\citep[e.g.,][]{ostr06,naid15dp}.  Optical lightcurve photometry based on wideband measurements of the sunlight reflected by the asteroid is the most common approach.\nHere we use infrared lightcurves to determine asteroid spin periods.\n\n\n\nDuring its six-month primary mission, the WISE spacecraft~\\citep{wrig10} conducted a whole-sky infrared survey at four infrared bands (W1--4) centered at 3.4, 4.6, 12, and 22 $\\mu$m.   All four detectors were simultaneously exposed, producing up to four independent photometric measurements.  The high-quality, multi-band IR observations of $\\sim$100,000 asteroids have been used to estimate asteroid diameters and albedos~\\citep[e.g.,][]{main15AIV}.  Improved algorithms applied to a curated set of thousands of asteroids yielded refined estimates as well as estimates for asteroids not previously analyzed~\\citep{myhr22}.\n\n\n\n\nBoth the cadence and length of an asteroid lightcurve observing campaign determine the parameters that can be reliably recovered from the observations.  Durations on the order of days\/months\/years, such as survey data from the Palomar Transient Factory (PTF) \\citep{wasz15}, provide an opportunity to sample the object at different phase angles and to recover parameters of the phase function \\citep{muin10}.  Densely sampled observations that span at least a complete rotational cycle provide the best opportunity to determine the spin period.  WISE observations of asteroids present a challenge for lightcurve analyses because they take place over short intervals with sparse cadence, typically yielding only $\\sim$16 observations over a $\\sim$36-hour interval~\\citep{wrig10}.  Nevertheless, most asteroids experience a few rotations in 36 hr, such that WISE data can in principle be used to estimate the spin periods of thousands of asteroids.\n\n\\citet{dure15} combined sparse photometry, including WISE data, to derive the spin period of\none asteroid.  \\citet{hanu15} combined WISE thermal infrared data and other data to obtain shape models and spin periods of\nsix asteroids.  Their work has since been expanded to derive 1451 spin periods for asteroids observed by WISE \\citep{dure18}.  Here, we use the well-curated data set of ~\\citet{myhr22} from the fully cryogenic phase of the WISE mission to estimate spin periods for hundreds of asteroids.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThe Lightcurve Database (LCDB) \\citep{lcdb} is a compilation of most known lightcurve measurements from various sources.  Each lightcurve is assigned a quality code\nbetween 0 (incorrect) and 3 (best) by the database curators to convey the confidence level in the uniqueness and accuracy of the rotational period estimate.\nWe used the LCDB to evaluate the reliability of our solutions and to train a machine learning reliability classifier.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Methods}\n\\label{sec-methods}\n\n\n\\subsection{Overview}\n\\label{sec-overview} \n\n\n\n\n\n\nOur methods closely follow those of \\citet{wasz15}, who used sparse photometry from the Palomar Transient Factory (PTF) to determine $\\sim$9,000 reliable asteroid spin periods. Their method is conceptually straightforward. For each trial period, one fits a Fourier series model \\citep[][Equation 1]{harr89} to the observed flux values and computes the sum of squares of the flux residuals. The Fourier series is truncated after the second harmonic, a simplification that rests on the assumption that the object is approximately ellipsoidal in shape.  It is also consistent with the fact that the second harmonic dominates asteroid lightcurves with amplitudes greater than 0.4 magnitudes \\citep[][]{harr14}. Although this model is insufficient to capture the full details of the lightcurve, it is adequate to recover the spin period in most instances, as can be verified by comparing the solutions to high-quality (quality code 3- or above) solutions published in the lightcurve database (LCDB) \\citep{lcdb}.  A similar method was also used by \\citet{chan17} to determine 2780 reliable asteroid rotation periods from the PTF.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\citet{wasz15}'s method is directly applicable to WISE photometry, which typically contains\nat least $\\sim$16 observations of each asteroid\nwith a nominal 1.59 hr cadence \nover a $\\sim$36 hr period. \nAlthough this observational\nmode prevents the determination of spin periods for fast ($P<$ 3.17 hr) and\nslow ($P>$ 72 hr) rotators, \nmost asteroids have spin periods that are amenable to characterization with this technique.\nBased on reliable LCDB statistics (quality code 3- or higher) and the range of diameters (0.28--72.2 km) in the \\citet{myhr22} sample, we estimate that fewer than 17\\% of asteroids in our sample have a spin period smaller than 3.17 hr.\n\n\\citet{wasz15} were able to fit for a photometric phase function because their observations were obtained over a wide range of phase angles.  In contrast, WISE observations typically span a narrow range of phase angles and we did not attempt to evaluate the phase function.  Phase angles remained nearly constant during the short observation intervals, and phase angle effects were absorbed by the zeroth-order coefficient of the Fourier series, i.e., mean magnitude.\n\nWe compared our method to results obtained with the more traditional Lomb-Scargle periodogram \\citep{press92} (Sections~\\ref{methods-ls} and \\ref{res-ls}).\n\n\\subsection{Data Set}\n\\label{sec-data} \n\n\n\\subsubsection{Initial Data Set}\n\\label{sec-data-gold4}\n\nWe used the carefully curated data set of \\citet{myhr22}, who eliminated measurements with artifacts, low signal-to-noise ratio (S\/N), poor photometric quality, saturation, questionable PSF fits, background confusion, problematic near-conjunction conditions, or large discrepancies between ephemeris predictions and reported position.  Their data set provides high-quality flux measurements in all four infrared bands for 4420 asteroids.  For a small fraction (6\\%, 265 asteroids),\nWISE observations were obtained in distinct (almost always two) epoch clusters separated by more than 30 days.\nWe determined independent solutions for each cluster of observations because they were obtained at different phase angles.\nAlthough our analysis is done on individual clusters, we may refer to the clusters as asteroids for ease of presentation.\n\n\n\\subsubsection{Assignment of Flux Uncertainties}\n\\label{sec-sigma}\n\nBoth \\citet{hanu15} and \\citet{myhr18empirical} have shown that uncertainties reported by the WISE pipeline underestimate actual flux uncertainties.  \\citet{hanu15} used $\\sim$400 pairs of asteroid detections observed in quick succession ($\\sim$11 s) to quantify actual flux uncertainties in W3 and W4.  They found that uncertainties reported in the WISE database underestimate actual uncertainties by factors 1.4 and 1.3 in W3 and W4, respectively.  \\citet{myhr18empirical} expanded this analysis to bands W1--W4 and included a much larger number of pairs (7834, 11202, 125318, and 59049 in  W1--W4, respectively).  Here, we further expanded the number of pairs and fit Gaussians to the distributions of Z values $(Z=(f_1 - f_2)\/\\sqrt{\\sigma_1^2+\\sigma_2^2})$ \\citep[][Equation 3]{myhr18empirical} after removing $\\sim$1\\% of pairs with $|Z|>5$.  The elimination is required because the tails of the distributions are non-Gaussian even though the cores of the distributions are well approximated by Gaussians.  We list the correction factors in all four bands for completeness (Table \\ref{tab-factors}).  We assigned uncertainties to the flux measurements by multiplying the uncertainties reported in the WISE database with the relevant correction factor.\n\n\\begin{table}[h]\n  \\begin{center}\n    \\begin{tabular}{lrrr}\n    %\n\n    Band & Number of pairs & Correction factor & Median $\\sigma$ (corrected) \\\\\n    \\hline\n W1 & 29936  & 1.224 & 0.195 \\\\\n W2 & 34462  & 1.120 & 0.132 \\\\\n W3 & 170232 & 1.479 & 0.035 \\\\\n W4 & 120225 & 1.218 & 0.058 \\\\\n  \\end{tabular}\n    \\caption{Correction factors that are required to convert flux uncertainties reported in the WISE pipeline to actual uncertainties.  The second column shows the number of remaining pairs after elimination of $\\sim$1\\% of pairs with uncharacteristically large flux differences.\n      %\n      %\n      %\n      %\n      The last column shows the median flux uncertainties in magnitude units after correction.\n      }\n    \\label{tab-factors}\n\\end{center}  \n  \\end{table}\n\n\n\\subsubsection{Band Selection}\n\\label{sec-band-selection} \n\n\nWe focus on observations in W4 for two reasons.  First, thermal emission from asteroids is stronger, S\/N is higher, and the number of observations in the curated data set is higher in W3 and W4 than in W1 and W2.  \nSecond, the observation cadence of the original and curated WISE data \nis generally non-uniform, with time intervals as small as 11~s, a most common time interval of 1.59 hr, a frequent time interval of 2 $\\times$ 1.59 hr = 3.17 hr, and occasional time intervals at higher multiples of 1.59 hr.\nW4 observations provide the best observational cadence, whereas W3 observations have a\nhigher fraction\nof asteroids with a longer cadence (Figure \\ref{fig-w3-cadence}), which increases the susceptibility to aliasing difficulties (Section {\\ref{sec-alias}}). \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[hbt]\n\\begin{center}\n  \\begin{tabular}{cc}\n    \\includegraphics[width=3in]{plots\/WISE_Cadance_W3.pdf} & \\includegraphics[width=3in]{plots\/WISE_Cadance_W4.pdf}\n  \\end{tabular}\n    %\n  \\caption{Histograms of W3 (left) and W4 (right) sampling intervals in the \\citet{myhr22} data set.}\n  %\n\\label{fig-w3-cadence}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\nWe are not concerned with thermal lags or differences in lightcurve amplitudes compared to optical lightcurves, as they are inconsequential to the determination of spin periods. In addition, \\citet{dure18} demonstrated that thermal lightcurves in W3 and W4 are qualitatively consistent with optical lightcurves.  \n\nWhile multiband lightcurve fits could in principle be envisioned, their utility in the context of spin period determinations with WISE data is limited because the exposures in the four bands are simultaneous, such that they sample roughly the same rotational phase.  The determination of phase lags among observations in the four WISE bands is potentially informative but beyond the scope of the current work.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\subsubsection{Data Selection Filters}\n\\label{sec-data-prefilters}\n\nWe applied several preprocessing filters in order to identify lightcurves most suitable for rotational period determination. Each observation cluster must pass all of the following filters to qualify for analysis, otherwise it is discarded.\nFirst, we focus on\nlightcurves that have at least 12 data points in W4.\nSecond, we eliminated\nlightcurves where the peak-to-peak variation in flux magnitude W4$_{{\\rm red}} < 0.3$ mag,\nwhere we used magnitudes reduced to the values that would be observed at an asteroid-sun distance $r_{\\rm as}$ = 1 au and asteroid-observer distance $r_{\\rm ao}$ = 1 au.\nThis filter eliminates low-amplitude lightcurves, which may be ambiguous with respect to spin period determination \\citep{harr14}.\nThis filter effectively eliminates very slow rotators, which are not considered in our analysis anyway (Section \\ref{sec-fit}).\nThird, we eliminated any\nlightcurve that does not have an adequate observation cadence.  Specifically, we required at least one time interval between consecutive observations to fall in the range 1.55--1.58 h, which corresponds to the WISE spacecraft orbital period \\citep{wrig10}.  Observation clusters that have a longer (3.10--3.16 h)\nminimum sampling interval are more susceptible to severe aliasing (Section \\ref{sec-alias}) and are discarded.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThe filtered data set contains a total of 3061 asteroids, with 3225 observation epochs and 57,532 W4 photometric measurements.  In this data set, 164 (5.3\\%) out of the 3061 asteroids contain two observation clusters, and none have more than 2 observation clusters.\n\nOn average, an observation cluster contains 16 data points and spans 36 hr.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{table}[h]\n  \\begin{center}\n    \\begin{tabular}{lr}\n    W4 flux observations & 57,532 \\\\ %\n    %\n %\n     Median flux uncertainty & 0.067  \\\\ %\n     Median number of data points per cluster & 16 \\\\\n     Median observation span of clusters & 1.522 days\\\\\n\n  \\end{tabular}\n    %\n      \\caption{Characteristics of filtered data set}\n  \\label{tab-preproc-stats}\n\\end{center}  \n  \\end{table}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Fitting Procedure}\n\\label{sec-fit}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nAn effective method for identifying periodicities in sparse data is a ``period scan'', where a model lightcurve is fitted to the data for a range of trial spin periods and a measure of the misfit (i.e., fit dispersion) is evaluated at each trial period \\citep{harr12}.  The misfit metric is the usual sum of squares of residuals:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\chi^2 = \\sum_{i=1}^{N} \\frac{(O_i - C_i)^2}{\\sigma_i^2},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $O_i$ is the $i$-th observation, $C_i$ is the $i$-th computed (modeled) value, $\\sigma_i$ is the uncertainty associated with the $i$-th observation, and the index $i$ ranges from 1 to $N$, the total number of observations.  The observations are the reduced flux magnitudes (Section \\ref{sec-data-prefilters}), the uncertainties are the magnitude uncertainties from the WISE database multiplied by the relevant correction factors (Section \\ref{sec-sigma}), and the computed values are obtained by fitting a second-order Fourier model to the data similar to \\citet{wasz15}'s formulation.  Specifically, \n\\begin{equation}\n  C_i = A_{0,0}\n      + A_{1,1} \\sin{\\left(\\frac{2\\pi}{P} t_i\\right)}\n      + A_{2,1} \\cos{\\left(\\frac{2\\pi}{P} t_i\\right)}\n      + A_{1,2} \\sin{\\left(\\frac{4\\pi}{P} t_i\\right)}\n      + A_{2,2} \\cos{\\left(\\frac{4\\pi}{P} t_i\\right)},\n      \\label{eq-fourier}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $t_i$ is the light-time corrected epoch of the $i$-th observation, $P$ is the trial spin period, and the $A_{i,j}$ are the five adjustable Fourier coefficients.\n\n\n\nWe considered a range of evenly spaced rotational frequencies between $f$ = 0 and 7.57 rotations per day, where $f_{\\rm max}$~=~7.57 rot\/day ($P \\simeq 3.17$ h) represents the fastest rotation that can be\nNyquist sampled with the WISE observational cadence (Section \\ref{sec-alias}).\nHowever, we showed that it is possible to recover the periods of fast rotators by taking advantage of the mirroring properties of aliased signals.\nWe did not attempt to recover rotational frequencies that exceed 11 rotations per day, which correspond approximately to the rotational frequency at which centrifugal acceleration at the equator exceeds the acceleration due to self-gravity for typical asteroid densities, the so-called spin barrier at $P\\simeq 2.2$ hr \\citep{prav02}.  The overwhelming majority of asteroids detected by WISE and included in our data set are large and experience fewer than 11 rotations per day.\n\n\n\nThe least-squares minimizer is an ordinary linear least-squares solver that follows \\citet[][tar.gz file]{wasz15}, except that we do not fit for phase curve parameters.\nWe also computed the reduced chi-squared metric $\\chi^2_\\nu = \\chi^2 \/ (N-5)$, where the number of degrees of freedom $\\nu = N-5$ represents the number of data points minus the number of free model parameters. %\n\nThe discrete Fourier transform of a time series with duration $T$ yields a frequency resolution of $1\/T$.  In this work, we chose to increase the frequency resolution by an oversampling factor of 10 in order to better resolve peaks in the %\nperiod scan.  The number of trial frequencies was therefore set to $10 \\times T \\times f_{\\rm max}$.\n\n\nWe used an iterative procedure similar to \\citet{wasz15}\nwhere an increasingly large ``cosmic error'' is added to the observation uncertainties.\nThe cosmic error is initialized as 0.002 mag in the first iteration and is multiplied by 1.5 in each subsequent iteration. %\nThe purpose of the cosmic error is to inflate the measurement uncertainties in order to reflect the model's inability to accurately represent asteroid lightcurves with a Fourier series truncated at the second harmonic.  The cosmic error does not\naffect the periodicities identified in the lightcurve, but it does affect the confidence intervals assigned to the period estimates. \n\n\nWe followed \\citet{wasz15} and \\citet{harr14} in preferring double-peaked folded lightcurves. \nTo identify the number of peaks in the lightcurve, we generated a synthetic folded lightcurve with the fitted Fourier coefficients and candidate period, sampled it with 10,000 points, and analyzed the samples with Matlab's built-in function {\\tt find\\_peaks}\\footnote{https:\/\/www.mathworks.com\/help\/signal\/ref\/findpeaks.html}.\nFor each double-peaked solution, we computed the heights of each peak relative to the lightcurve's global minimum.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThere are two possible paths to convergence.  At the end of each iteration, the solution with the lowest $\\chi^2_\\nu$ is selected if and only if it satisfies three conditions: (1) the folded lightcurve is double-peaked;\n(2) the height of the highest peak is at least twice that of the lowest peak; and (3) $\\chi^2_\\nu < 3$.  If conditions (1) or (2) are not satisfied, the solution at half-frequency is considered and is adopted if it satisfies the same three conditions.  Otherwise, the cosmic error is increased\nand the next iteration begins.\nIf the cosmic error reaches 0.1 mag, the fit is deemed unsuccessful.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Aliasing}\n\\label{sec-alias}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThe cadence of observations determines the sampling intervals between consecutive photometric measurements.\nThe Nyquist sampling criterion requires that at least two samples of a periodic signal be obtained per cycle in order to identify the periodicity unambiguously.\nApart from the fortuitous double detections obtained $\\sim$11 s apart (Section \\ref{sec-sigma}), the smallest sampling interval in WISE data is approximately 1.59 hr, which is dictated by WISE's $\\sim$15 daily orbital revolutions \\citep{wrig10}.\nAsteroids sampled with the 1.59 hr cadence and rotation periods larger than 3.17 hr ($f <$7.57 rot\/day) are usually Nyquist sampled, i.e., suffer no aliasing.\n\nAssuming uniform sampling, the signatures of asteroids with rotation periods between 1.59 hr and 3.17 hr appear aliased in the period scan in a predictable manner, specifically:\n\\begin{equation}\n  %\n  f_{\\rm alias} = 2 f_{\\rm Nyq} - f_{\\rm spin},\n  \\label{eq-nyquist}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $f_{\\rm Nyq}$ = 7.57 rot\/day is the critical Nyquist frequency or folding frequency, $f_{\\rm spin}$ is the underlying true rotational frequency, and $f_{\\rm alias}$ is the aliased frequency.\nFor example, an asteroid rotating at the spin barrier of 2.2 h (10.9 rot\/day) exhibits signatures at 2.2 h (10.9 rot\/day) and 6.97 h (3.4 rot\/day).  \nAbsent additional information, a period scan may yield inconclusive results with respect to these two solutions. \nHowever, folding about the 7.57 rot\/day axis remains limited because only about 17\\% of asteroids in our sample experience rotation rates that exceed 7.57 rot\/day (Section \\ref{sec-overview}).\nThe overwhelming majority of asteroids detected by WISE and included in our data set are large and experience fewer than 11 rotations per day.\n\n\nIt is frequent\nfor the interval between consecutive W4 measurements to be 3.17 hr instead of the nominal cadence of 1.59 hr, e.g., when poor-quality flux measurements are eliminated.  As a result, we also expected and observed\n(Section~\\ref{sec-results})\nfolding of the periodogram about  $f_{\\rm Nyq'}$ = 3.78 rot\/day.\nThe folded frequency happens to be correct in a substantial fraction of cases, which we used to our advantage as it is calculable and therefore recoverable with no loss of precision.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nWe found that the aliasing behavior is complicated by non-uniform sampling in the WISE data.  \nAdditional aliasing considerations are described in Appendix~\\ref{app-aliasing}.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{S\/N Calculations}\n\\label{sec-snr}\nA period scan may return multiple peaks with low misfit values.  S\/N metrics are useful in determining whether a peak is likely to represent a genuine rotational signature as opposed to a noise artifact.  We adopted two S\/N metrics.  One metric follows \\citet{wasz15} and quantifies the height of the peak with respect to the median misfit in terms of an estimation to the standard deviations of the misfit variations:\n\\begin{equation}\n  S\/N_{\\rm W} = \\frac{|\\chi^2_{\\rm min} - \\chi^2_{\\rm median}|}{(\\chi^2_{84\\%} - \\chi^2_{16\\%})\/2}, \n  %\n  \\label{eq-snrw}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere the denominator includes percentiles of the misfit distribution corresponding to $\\pm$1 standard deviations from the median.\nThe second metric follows \\citet{harr12} and associates the misfit outside of minima, which we approximated by $\\chi^2_{95\\%}$, to the quadratic sum of the amplitude of lightcurve variation ($a$) and the noise in the data ($n$).  It also associates the minimum misfit to the square of the single-point data scatter after removal of the signal ($n^2$), and assigns an overall noise level to the solution equal to $n\/\\sqrt{\\nu} = n\/\\sqrt{(N-5)}$.  We have\n\\begin{equation}\n  (a^2 + n^2) = \\chi^2_{95\\%} \/ N,\n\\end{equation}\n  \\begin{equation}\n    n^2 = \\chi^2_{\\rm min} \/ N,\n\\end{equation}\n  \\begin{equation}\n    {\\rm signal} = a =  \\sqrt{(\\chi^2_{95\\%} - \\chi^2_{\\rm min}) \/ N}\n  \\end{equation}\n  \\begin{equation}\n    {\\rm noise} = n' = \\sqrt{\\chi^2_{\\rm min} \/ N} \/ \\sqrt{(N - 5)}\n  \\end{equation}\n  \\begin{equation}\n    S\/N_{\\rm H} = a\/n' = \\sqrt{\\frac{\\chi^2_{95\\%} - \\chi^2_{\\rm min}}{\\chi^2_{\\rm min} }} \\sqrt{(N - 5)}\n    \\label{eq-snrh}\n  \\end{equation}\n\n\\subsection{Assignment of Spin Period Uncertainties}\n\\label{sec-uncertainties}\n\nOnce the best-fit peak was identified, we assigned a 1$\\sigma$ uncertainty to the fitted period by computing the periods corresponding to a constant chi-square boundary \\citep[][Section 15.6]{press92}.  Specifically, we computed the periods at which\n$ \\chi^2 = \\chi^2_{\\rm min} + \\Delta\\chi^2(68.3\\%, \\nu=5) = \\chi^2_{\\rm min} + 5.86$, where  $\\chi^2_{\\rm min}$ is the minimum misfit.\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Post-processing Filters}\n\\label{sec-post-fit-filters}\nBecause the duration and cadence of WISE observations are not optimal for the unambiguous determination of spin periods, it was important to\nremove solutions that are\nlikely unreliable.\nWe applied the following filters:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n    %\n    %\n    \n    %\n        %\n        %\n        %\n    \n    %\n    \n    %\n        %\n        \n    %\n    \n    %\n\n    %\n\n  %\n\n\n    \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n(1) Reject slow rotators.  \nWe required observations over at least 180 degrees of rotational phase and rejected any solution with a best-fit period that is two or more times longer than the data span.\n\n\n\n\n(2) Reject anomalously high amplitude lightcurves.\nWe eliminated solutions where the peak-to-peak amplitude of the fitted solution was three or more times larger than the peak-to-peak amplitude of the observations.\nThe peak-to-peak amplitude of the lightcurve was determined numerically while evaluating the lightcurve with the best-fit Fourier coefficients.  \n\n\n\n  %\n(3) Reject low S\/N solutions.  \n  Low S\/N solutions are likely spurious and were eliminated.  In practice, we found that the S\/N formulation of \\citet{harr12} was more effective than that of \\citet{wasz15}, perhaps due in part to the relatively small number of (noisy) observations. \n  %\n  Solutions were rejected when $(S\/N)_{\\rm H} < 5$.\n  %\n  %\n  %\n  \n  %\n  The solutions that passed all of the above filters are reported below. \n  %\n  %\n  We have evidence that most of these solutions are accurate\n  %\n  (Section~\\ref{sec-results}),\n  but we also expect a fraction of aliased or incorrect solutions in this set.\n\n\n  %\n  %\n\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Machine Learning Reliability Classifier} \n\\label{sec-ml}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\citet{wasz15} pioneered the usage of a machine learning (ML) classifier to improve the reliability of asteroid lightcurve fits.\nThey applied a random forest (RF) algorithm, which is \na supervised machine learning algorithm that utilizes an ensemble of weak decision tree predictors to increase prediction power. \nThe hypothesis underpinning a machine learning classifier is that certain appropriately chosen features associated with a lightcurve solution jointly carry non-trivial information regarding the reliability of the solution.  Given a labeled training set that includes both the values of the features and a reliability indicator, an ML algorithm can be trained to detect relations within the feature space and predict a reliability indicator for lightcurve solutions that do not have a reliably known period (i.e., solutions that are not in the training set).\nA Random Forest classifier makes predictions via a majority voting process by its ensemble of decision trees. For each sample, the classifier generates a probability derived from the voting process, then makes a binary prediction (i.e., reliable or unreliable) on the basis of a user-defined probability threshold. \n\\citet{wasz15}'s classifier was trained with about 1000 lightcurves with known reference periods and improved the overall\nsuccess rate \nfrom $\\sim$66\\% to $\\sim$80\\% for 19,000 lightcurves. %\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nBecause our work also involved the analysis of thousands of sparse lightcurve, we initially applied an RF algorithm in an attempt to identify the most reliable lightcurve solutions.  The RF classifier was able to provide a modest improvement to the success rate of our primary solutions (from 55\\% to 70\\%), but it also marked correct solutions as incorrect.  Because the recovery of spin periods among our three solutions was so high (88\\%) and the performance of the RF classifier was limited, we ultimately decided against providing a potentially flawed reliability indicator.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Lomb-Scargle Periodogram}\n\\label{methods-ls}\n\n\n\n\nThe Lomb-Scargle (LS) periodogram \\citep{Lomb76,Scar82} is a standard algorithm that enables the analysis of periodicities in unevenly sampled time series, \nsuch as asteroid lightcurves. \nWe explored the performance of the LS periodogram\nas an alternative to our default pipeline.  Our LS pipeline follows the implementation in standard libraries and does not include iterative adjustment of uncertainties, requirement for double-peaked solutions, and post-fit filters implemented in our default pipeline.\n\n\n\n\nWe used the generalized LS algorithm of \\citet{zech09} as implemented in the astropy package\\footnote{https:\/\/docs.astropy.org\/en\/stable\/timeseries\/lombscargle.html}.  This implementation takes observational uncertainties into account and enables the estimation of a floating mean.\nWe deployed both first-order and second-order LS periodograms.\n\nIn the first-order LS implementation, we followed \\citet{McNeill19}\nand set the estimated rotational period at twice the best-fit LS period to conform to the double-peak nature of asteroid lightcurves.\nWe admitted only solutions with a false-alarm probability (FAP) less than 10\\%. %\n\nThe second-order LS implementation is similar to the periodogram calculation used in our default pipeline but does not include any post-fit filter.  \n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Results}\n\\label{sec-results}\n\n\\subsection{Default pipeline}\n\nWe present the period solutions that successfully converged in the Fourier fitting algorithm and passed the post-fit filters (Section~\\ref{sec-post-fit-filters}). \nThe period solutions of 2008 ($\\sim$62\\%) out of the initial 3225 lightcurves fulfilled both inclusion criteria.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTo test the reliability of our results, we compared our spin period estimates to high-quality (quality code 3- or higher) rotational periods published in the LCDB.\nWe quantified the fraction of solutions that were within 5\\% of the LCDB solution, which are deemed to be accurate solutions.\nAt the time of writing, there were 752 solutions (representing 702 unique asteroids) among our 2008\nsolutions with a suitable LCDB estimate.\nWe refer to this set of solutions as the `LCDB reference group'.\n\n\n\n\n\n %\n\n\nIn the LCDB reference group, the fitted period was found to be accurate (within 5\\%) in\n55\\% of the cases. Notably, the relative errors of the fitted periods exhibit a bimodal distribution (Figure \\ref{fig-accuracy-histogram}).\nThe two\nmodes bifurcate at a fractional error of approximately 5\\%,\nwhich provides a posteriori justification for selecting a 5\\% threshold for accuracy.\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[hbt]\n \\begin{center}\n     \\includegraphics[width=4in]{plots\/period_relative_error.pdf}\n     %\n     \\caption{Histogram of fractional accuracy in spin period obtained by comparing our period solutions to the corresponding LCDB reference periods.  The left and right clusters correspond to the accurate and inaccurate period estimates, respectively. The red line denotes the 5\\% accuracy threshold.}\n     %\n\\label{fig-accuracy-histogram}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\nOur spin period solutions are listed in Table~\\ref{tab-results}.  Figure~\\ref{fig-suc-mode-1} illustrates an example of a favorable situation with a short (1.59 hr) cadence and relative long (6 days) duration, which yields a solution with high S\/N and no aliasing.  We found that it is possible to successfully recover the spin period even when the observation span is comparable to the spin period (Figure~\\ref{fig-suc-mode-3}).  Our analysis also identified correct spin periods in situations where the minimum $\\chi^2$ value is not markedly different from other competing solutions  (Figure~\\ref{fig-suc-mode-2}).  When multiple periodogram peaks have comparable $\\chi^2$ values, the potential for an incorrect solution exists.\n\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[p]\n \\begin{center}\n     \\includegraphics[width=7in]{plots\/mode_s_1_296.pdf}\n     \\caption{\n       %\n       Spin period solution for asteroid 296 obtained from 35 W4 observations spanning 6 days.  \n       The period solution at 4.543 $\\pm$ 0.014 hr is in good agreement with the LCDB value of 4.5385 hr.\n       The data exhibit short (1.59 h) sampling intervals over a long observation span, and the periodogram is free of aliases.\n     }\n\\label{fig-suc-mode-1}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}[p]\n \\begin{center}\n     \\includegraphics[width=7in]{plots\/mode_s_3_2715.pdf}\n     \\caption{\n       %\n        %\n         %\n         %\n       Spin period solution for asteroid 2715 obtained from 16 W4 observations spanning 1.5 days.\n       The period solution at 33.19 $\\pm$ 2.19 hr is in good agreement with the LCDB value of 33.62 hr.\n       The correct solution was identified despite a data observation span that is only slightly longer than the spin period.\n     }\n\\label{fig-suc-mode-3}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}[p]\n \\begin{center}\n     \\includegraphics[width=7in]{plots\/mode_s_2_2812.pdf}\n     \\caption{\n       %\n       Spin period solution for asteroid 2812 obtained from 14 W4 observations spanning 1.2 days.\n       The period solution at 7.74 $\\pm$ 0.30 hr is in good agreement with the LCDB value of 7.7 hr.\n       The correct solution was identified despite a relatively low S\/N and the presence of competing solutions with similar but larger $\\chi^2$ values.\n            }\n\\label{fig-suc-mode-2}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}[p]\n \\begin{center}\n     \\includegraphics[width=3in]{plots\/pp_x_plot.pdf}\n     \\caption{\n              Best-fit rotational frequency (this work) vs.\\ LCDB\n              rotational frequency for the LCDB reference group.  The\n              dashed grey line is at f = 3.783 rot\/day, which is the\n              expected folding frequency for a 3.17 hr cadence and the\n              predominant aliasing mode.  Most of the best-fit\n              solutions (55\\%) are accurate (green dots).  The\n              solutions mirrored about 3.78 rot\/day (dark blue dots)\n              are also accurate in 27\\% of the cases, and the\n              solutions mirrored about 7.57 rot\/day (light blue dots)\n              are accurate in 6\\% of the cases.  The inaccurate\n              solutions (red dots) represent 12\\% of the cases.\n               The combination of best-fit and\n              mirrored solutions yields an aggregate success rate of\n       %\n       88\\%.\n}\n\\label{fig-pp-x-plot}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nWe validated our\nresults by plotting our best-fit results against LCDB values for the LCDB reference group (Figure \\ref{fig-pp-x-plot}).\nIn frequency space, which reveals folding behavior, the structure of the solutions is\nstriking.  Most of the inaccurate solutions are in fact aliases of the\ncorrect frequencies folded about the f = 3.783 rot\/day axis or, less frequently, the f~=~7.57 rot\/day axis.\nFigures~\\ref{fig-fail-mode-1} and \\ref{fig-fail-mode-2} illustrate two examples.\n\\begin{figure}[p]\n \\begin{center}\n     \\includegraphics[width=7in]{plots\/mode_f_1_4715.pdf}\n     \\caption{\n     %\n     %\n     %\n     %\n       Spin period solution for asteroid 4715 obtained from 23 W4 observations spanning 3.6 days.\n       The best-fit, primary period solution at 4.962 $\\pm$ 0.01 hr (4.84 rot\/day) is an alias (mirrored around f = 3.78 rot\/day) of the presumed correct LCDB value of 8.8129 hr (2.72 rot\/day).  The secondary period solution at 8.7930 hr is accurate.\n          }\n          \\label{fig-fail-mode-1}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}[p]\n \\begin{center}\n     \\includegraphics[width=7in]{plots\/mode_f_2_6485.pdf}\n     \\caption{\n       %\n       %\n       %\n       %\n       Spin period solution for asteroid 6485 obtained from 22 W4 observations spanning 5.2 days.\n       The best-fit, primary period solution at 3.31 $\\pm$ 0.035 hr (7.25 rot\/day) is an alias (mirrored around f = 3.78 rot\/day) of the presumed correct LCDB value of 75.56 hr (0.318 rot\/day).  The secondary period solution at 75.4453 hr is accurate.\n}\n\\label{fig-fail-mode-2}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}[hbt]\n \\begin{center}\n     \\includegraphics[width=7in]{plots\/mode_f_3_10721.pdf}\n     \\caption{\n       %\n       %\n       %\n       %\n            Spin period solution for asteroid 10721 obtained from 18 W4 observations spanning 1.8 days.\n            The period solution at 3.2721 $\\pm$ 0.031 hr (7.33 rot\/day) is an alias (mirrored around f = 7.57 rot\/day) of the presumed correct LCDB value of 3.0675 hr (7.82 rot\/day).  The tertiary period solution at 3.0514 hr is accurate.\n}\n\\label{fig-fail-mode-3}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFor this reason, we list both the best-fit frequency and its mirror values in Table~\\ref{tab-results}.  One of these solutions is correct (within 5\\%) in\n88\\% (659\/752)\nof the cases in the LCDB reference group.  We posit that the accuracy rate is similar for asteroids that are not in the LCDB reference group.\nThe best-fit, secondary (mirrored about 3.78 rot\/day), and tertiary (mirrored about 7.57 rot\/day) solutions are accurate in 55\\%, 27\\%, and 6\\% of the cases,  respectively.\n\nInaccurate solutions that are not mirrors of correct values are visible outside of the X pattern on Figure~\\ref{fig-pp-x-plot}.\n\nA number of solutions deemed to be inaccurate cluster near the accurate solutions along the blue diagonal, especially at low frequencies.  This behavior indicates that our 5\\% criterion is a conservative metric of accuracy, and that additional solutions are in fact close to the correct value.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n  \n  \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{deluxetable}{rrrrrrrrrrrrrrr}\n  %\n    \\tablecaption{Spin period solutions for 1929 asteroids. \\label{tab-results}}\n\n\\tablehead{\n  %\n\\colhead{Object} & \\colhead{$D$} & \\colhead{span} & \\colhead{idx} & \\colhead{$A$} & \\colhead{$P$} & \\colhead{$\\sigma_P$} & \\colhead{$f$} & \\colhead{$f_{\\xleftrightarrow{1}}$} & \\colhead{$P_{\\xleftrightarrow{1}}$} & \\colhead{$f_{\\xleftrightarrow{2}}$} & \\colhead{$P_{\\xleftrightarrow{2}}$} & \\colhead{$P_{\\rm LCDB}$} & \\colhead{$U$} & \\colhead{flag} \\\\  \n\\colhead{      } & \\colhead{(km)} & \\colhead{(hr)} & \\colhead{       } & \\colhead{(mag)} & \\colhead{(hr)} & \\colhead{(hr)}       & \\colhead{(rot\/d)} & \\colhead{(rot\/d)} & \\colhead{(hr)} &  \\colhead{(rot\/d)} & \\colhead{(hr)}     & \\colhead{(hr)}         & \\colhead{}  & \\colhead{}  \n  }\n\n\n\\startdata\n131 & 30.6 & 109.5 & 1 & 0.358 & 5.1919 & 0.019 & 4.6226 & 2.9436 & 8.1532 & 10.5774 & 2.2690 & 5.1812 & 3 & 1 \\\\\n155 & 44.6 & 93.7 & 1 & 0.234 & 5.2919 & 0.016 & 4.5352 & 3.0310 & 7.9183 & 10.6648 & 2.2504 & 7.9597 & 3 & 2 \\\\\n170 & 35.4 & 181.0 & 1 & 0.360 & 13.0199 & 0.250 & 1.8433 & 5.7229 & 4.1937 & 9.4433 & 2.5415 & 13.1200 & 3 & 1 \\\\\n180 & 24.8 & 96.9 & 1 & 0.493 & 23.6223 & 0.477 & 1.0160 & 6.5502 & 3.6640 & 8.6160 & 2.7855 & 23.8660 & 3 & 1 \\\\\n183 & 30.7 & 90.5 & 1 & 0.395 & 11.7553 & 0.095 & 2.0416 & 5.5246 & 4.3442 & 9.6416 & 2.4892 & 11.7700 & 3 & 1 \\\\\n183 & 30.8 & 106.4 & 2 & 0.431 & 11.8183 & 0.115 & 2.0307 & 5.5354 & 4.3357 & 9.6308 & 2.4920 & 11.7700 & 3 & 1 \\\\\n239 & 42.9 & 90.5 & 1 & 0.392 & 18.4676 & 0.263 & 1.2996 & 6.2666 & 3.8298 & 8.8996 & 2.6968 & 18.4707 & 3 & 1 \\\\\n244 & 10.9 & 20.6 & 1 & 1.151 & 3.2773 & 0.083 & 7.3230 & 0.2432 & 98.6986 & 7.8770 & 3.0469 & 129.5100 & 3- & 0 \\\\\n251 & 33.8 & 100.0 & 1 & 0.486 & 20.0040 & 0.301 & 1.1998 & 6.3664 & 3.7698 & 8.7998 & 2.7273 & 20.2160 & 3 & 1 \\\\\n254 & 12.4 & 39.7 & 1 & 0.765 & 6.9642 & 0.188 & 3.4462 & 4.1200 & 5.8252 & 11.0462 & 2.1727 & 5.8949 & 3 & 2 \\\\\n...    & ...  & ...   &...&  ...    &  ...  & ...    & ...    & ...     & ...     & ... & ...\\\\\n223431 & 5.8 & 119.1 & 1 & 0.214 & 30.5368 & 0.975 & 0.7859 & 6.7803 & 3.5397 & 8.3859 & 2.8619 &  &  &  \\\\\n230118 & 0.9 & 581.1 & 1 & 0.635 & 29.9524 & 0.113 & 0.8013 & 6.7649 & 3.5477 & 8.4013 & 2.8567 &  & &  \\\\\n232382 & 1.0 & 535.0 & 2 & 0.192 & 67.7217 & 2.077 & 0.3544 & 7.2118 & 3.3279 & 7.9544 & 3.0172 &  &   &  \\\\\n249958 & 5.3 & 134.9 & 1 & 0.231 & 6.8153 & 0.031 & 3.5215 & 4.0447 & 5.9337 & 11.1215 & 2.1580 &  &  &  \\\\\n256155 & 3.1 & 134.9 & 1 & 0.549 & 15.6910 & 0.117 & 1.5295 & 6.0367 & 3.9757 & 9.1295 & 2.6288 &  &  &  \\\\\n307840 & 6.8 & 335.1 & 1 & 0.367 & 16.0317 & 0.150 & 1.4970 & 6.0692 & 3.9544 & 9.0970 & 2.6382 &  &  &  \\\\\n318081 & 5.9 & 42.9 & 1 & 0.410 & 3.6023 & 0.029 & 6.6623 & 0.9039 & 26.5523 & 8.5377 & 2.8111 &  & &  \\\\\n366774 & 0.9 & 58.8 & 1 & 0.327 & 3.4972 & 0.037 & 6.8625 & 0.7037 & 34.1075 & 8.3375 & 2.8786 &   &  & \\\\\n386720 & 1.0 & 141.3 & 1 & 0.806 & 4.6034 & 0.015 & 5.2136 & 2.3526 & 10.2013 & 9.9864 & 2.4033 &  &  &  \\\\\n\\enddata \n\\tablecomments{For each object, we show the diameter $D$ (km), observation span (hr), index of the cluster of observations analyzed, the best-fit period $P$ (hr), the peak-to-peak magnitude variation of the fitted lightcurve $A$\n  %\n  for the primary (best-fit) period solution, the primary period uncertainty $\\sigma_P$ (hr), the best-fit rotational frequency $f$ (rot\/d), the first alternate rotational frequency\n  %\n  $f_{\\xleftrightarrow{1}}$ (rot\/d) found by folding the best-fit frequency about 3.78 rot\/day, \n  the first alternate period\n  %\n  $P_{\\xleftrightarrow{1}}$ (hr), the second alternate rotational frequency\n  %\n  $f_{\\xleftrightarrow{2}}$ (rot\/d) found by folding the best-fit frequency about 7.56 rot\/day, \n  the second alternate period\n  %\n  $P_{\\xleftrightarrow{2}}$\n  (hr), the LCDB reference period $P_{\\rm LCDB}$ (hr), if known, the corresponding quality code $U$, and a flag indicating agreement for objects in the LCDB Reference Group.\nThe flag is 1 if the best-fit period matches $P_{\\rm LCDB}$ within 5\\%, 2 if the first mirror period matches, 3 if the second mirror period matches, and 0 if none of the three periods match $P_{\\rm LCDB}$. \n(This table is available in its entirety in \\href{https:\/\/ucla.box.com\/s\/49z4fr6pdaalfssg7qhngb30vrwjl9f0}{machine-readable} and \\href{https:\/\/ucla.box.com\/s\/5muceha0gyj7ynsnysfwjt4uxgln7c8t}{CSV} forms in the online journal. A portion is shown here for guidance regarding its form and content.)}\n\\end{deluxetable}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Lomb-Scargle Pipeline}\n\\label{res-ls}\n\n\n\nAs in our default pipeline, we generated three candidate period solutions for each fitted lightcurve (primary: LS solution, secondary: mirror across 3.78 rot\/day, tertiary: mirror across 7.57 rot\/day).  We compared the accuracy of the LS pipeline to our default pipeline by computing the number of solutions that are within 5\\% of the high-quality (3\/3-) LCDB solutions (Table \\ref{tab-LS_results}).\n\n\n\n\\begin{table}[h]\n  \\begin{center}\n    \\begin{tabular}{lrrr}\n    %\n\n    Accuracy flag & LS first order & LS second order & Default pipeline \\\\\n    \\hline\n 0 (inaccurate) &  91 (12\\%)  & 518 (52\\%) &  93 (12\\%) \\\\\n 1 (primary)    &  320 (43\\%) & 316 (32\\%) & 414 (55\\%) \\\\\n 2 (secondary)  &  286 (39\\%) & 105 (11\\%) & 203 (27\\%) \\\\\n 3 (tertiary)   &  33 (5\\%)   & 56 (6\\%)   & 42 (6\\%) \\\\\n Aggregate accuracy & 88\\%   & 48\\%      &  88\\% \\\\\n Number of reference solutions & 730 & 995 & 752  \\\\\n \n \n  \\end{tabular}\n    \\caption{ Number of accurate solutions with the Lomb-Scargle and default pipelines.\n      }\n    \\label{tab-LS_results}\n\\end{center}  \n  \\end{table}\n\n\nThe first-order LS solutions have an aggregate accuracy comparable to the default pipeline solutions. However, the primary LS solutions were accurate only in 43\\% of the cases, compared to 55\\% in the default pipeline. \nThe second-order LS solutions have a lower accuracy rate than the default pipeline solutions, both for primary solutions and in aggregate. The lower performance of the LS algorithm demonstrates the importance of the\niterative algorithm and post-fit filters in our default, \\citet{wasz15}-inspired pipeline.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\FloatBarrier\n\\section{Discussion}\n\\label{sec-discussion}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n \n\n\n\n\\citet{prav02} reviewed the rotation periods of asteroids as a function of diameter and found that the spin distribution\nis Maxwellian for large asteroids ($>$40 km) and strongly non-Maxwellian for smaller asteroids, with an excess of both slowly rotating and rapidly rotating asteroids.\nThe WISE data set can potentially inform these studies because it can yield estimates of both diameter and spin period (Figure~\\ref{fig-period_diam_accurate_fit_period}).\n\n\\begin{figure}[hbt]\n \\begin{center}\n     \\includegraphics[width=4.5in]{plots\/fig10.pdf}\n     %\n          \\caption{Period vs.\\ diameter diagram for the 659 light curves in the LCDB reference group where one of our spin period solutions matched the LCDB to 5\\%.  Only the spin period solutions that match the LCDB value are plotted, with color-coding indicating our primary, secondary, or tertiary solutions. The red dashed line at $P=$ 3.17 hr corresponds to the upper range of trial frequencies explored in the fitting process. The grey dashed line at $P=$ 2.2 hr illustrates the spin barrier. Diameters are from  \\citet{myhr22}.}\n\\label{fig-period_diam_accurate_fit_period}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\n\n\nWe can evaluate the accuracy of our method as function of asteroid diameter and LCDB period (Figure \\ref{fig-period_diam_lcdb_ref_period}).\nDiameter does not have an apparent influence on the accuracy of our method.\nHowever, spin period does affect our ability to recover a correct solution with the WISE data.  We found that the spin periods of both slowly rotating ($P > \\sim$100 hr) and rapidly rotating  ($P < \\sim$2.5 hr) asteroids are generally not recoverable.\n\n\\begin{figure}[hbt]\n  \\begin{center}\n    %\n    %\n     \\includegraphics[width=4.5in]{plots\/fig11.pdf}\n     %\n          \\caption{LCDB Period vs.\\ diameter \\citep{myhr22} for the 752 lightcurves in the LCDB Reference Group. Our spin period solutions are color-coded according to four possible outcomes: primary solution is accurate, secondary solution is accurate, tertiary solution is accurate, or none are accurate.  The red dashed line at $P=$ 3.17 hr corresponds to the upper range of trial frequencies explored in the fitting process. The grey dashed line at $P=$ 2.2 hr illustrates the spin barrier.  Diameters are from  \\citet{myhr22}.}\n\\label{fig-period_diam_lcdb_ref_period}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\n\nThe distribution of lightcurve amplitudes in our data set is instructive (Figure~\\ref{fig-amp-histogram}).  Our distribution underestimates the proportion of low-amplitude lightcurves, because our sample selection enforced a pre-fit filter, which required a magnitude variation of at least 0.3 mag in the observed fluxes.  Likewise, one of our post-fit filters eliminated some high-amplitude lightcurve solutions, but it did so only when the data themselves did not exhibit a large magnitude variation.\nWe found that 50\\%, 8.8\\%, 2.2\\%, 1\\%, and 0.25\\% of solutions have amplitudes larger than 0.5 mag, 1 mag, 1.5 mag, 2 mag, and 2.5 mag, respectively.\n\\begin{figure}[hbt]\n  \\begin{center}\n     \\includegraphics[width=4.5in]{plots\/amp_histogram.pdf}\n          \\caption{Histogram of peak-to-peak lightcurve amplitudes.}\n\\label{fig-amp-histogram}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Conclusions}\n\\label{sec-conclusions}\nWe devised a procedure similar to that of \\citet{wasz15} that enables the determination of thousands of asteroid spin periods from WISE data.  Despite WISE's suboptimal observation and cadence for asteroid spin measurements,\none of our\nsolutions is accurate 88\\% of the time when compared to a high-quality control group of 752 spin periods.  We obtained primary, secondary, and tertiary spin period estimates for 2008 observation clusters representing 1929 unique asteroids.  Among those, 1205 asteroids do not currently have a high-quality spin period estimate.  Our\nprimary, secondary, or tertiary \nsolution for\nover a thousand asteroids is expected to be accurate at the 5\\% level or better and can greatly facilitate shape or thermal modeling work.\n\n\n\\acknowledgments\n\nWe thank Alan Harris for useful discussions.\n\n\nAL thanks Breann Sitarski for her helpful feedback on this work and the related research presentations, as well as her mentorship throughout his undergraduate studies.\n\nAL was funded in part by the Joe and Andrea Straus Endowment for Undergrad Opportunity\nand the Donald Carlisle Undergrad Research Endowed Fund.\nEW was funded in part by the Nathan P. Myhrvold Graduate Fellowship.\n\nThis publication makes use of data products from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, which is a joint project of the University of California, Los Angeles, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory\/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.\n\n\\software{\nNumPy \\citep{numpy},\nSciPy \\citep{scipy},\npandas \\citep{pandas},\nMatplotlib \\citep{mpl}\n}\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\n\nIt is widely believed that very few galaxies exist today that have not been formed or shaped in some way by an interaction with another galaxy. \\citet{Toomre_77} identified 11 galaxies that exhibit characteristics of on-going mergers, and arranged them in a chronological order, illustrating how spiral galaxies can merge to produce ellipticals. It is now the view of many astronomers that this process, whilst not the only mechanism to create these systems, plays a vital role in the production of elliptical galaxies. The 11 systems within the `Toomre' sequence, alongside other examples of on-going mergers, have been studied in great detail over a range of wavelengths to try and characterise exactly how these systems evolve. When studying these merging galaxies, X-ray observations are of particular importance, as they are able to probe the dusty nucleus of the system, which can be obscured at other wavelengths, allowing the nature of the point source population to be established. Also imaging of the soft X-ray emission permits the diffuse hot gas to be mapped out. This gives important information about the hot gaseous component associated with the strong starburst, and  allows galactic-winds outflowing from the system to be observed, enabling constraints to be placed on the energetics of these outflows.\n\nX-ray observations were initially carried out with the {\\em Einstein Observatory}, providing limited spatial resolution. This instrument was followed by \\emph{ROSAT}, which greatly improved the sensitivity of the observations, allowing the X-ray properties of these merging galaxies to be probed. A study of a sample of interacting systems was carried out by \\citet{Read_98} (from here on RP98), where the X-ray luminosity and properties of the diffuse gas were investigated with \\emph{ROSAT}, alongside the point source population. In this study it was found that the normalised X-ray luminosity of these systems, broadly speaking, followed the normalised \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ luminosity, peaking at the time of coalescence. It was also found that the young merger-remnant systems within the sample exhibited low X-ray luminosities, with no indication from the later stage systems in their sample that these systems would increase in X-ray luminosity. However, it was noted that the $\\sim$1 Gyr system, NGC 7252, still hosts a large amount of molecular gas, in the form of tails and loops, and given more time to evolve, the X-ray properties could resemble those of a mature elliptical galaxy at a greater dynamical time. The main limitation of this study, due to the \\emph{ROSAT}\\ observations, was the inability to disentangle the point sources from the diffuse gas, particularly at larger distances. \n\nWith the next generation of X-ray observatories this issue was addressed with an increase in spatial resolution. This improvement, provided by \\emph{Chandra}, has allowed the investigation of both the diffuse gas and the point source population of galaxies to be carried out in greater detail. The ability to disentangle these two components is vital when investigating interacting and merging galaxies, as studies have shown that both of these components have different evolutionary timescales \\citep{Read_01}. It is therefore important to be able to study both of these separately, to fully understand how they evolve.\n\nFrom observing a selection of interacting galaxy systems, at different stages of evolution, the processes involved in the merging of galaxies pairs can be characterised. In the following sections we will describe the sample we have selected, and investigate the behaviour of the X-ray emission as the galaxies evolve from two spiral galaxies, through to relaxed merger-remnants. Section \\ref{sec:sample} outlines the selection criteria we have used and gives a brief description of each system. In section \\ref{sec_data_red} we present the results from  new \\emph{Chandra}\\ observations of Mkn 266 and Arp 222. Correlations and evolution of X-ray emission across the whole sample is presented in section \\ref{sec_evol}, and discussed in section \\ref{sec:dis}. Conclusions are given in section \\ref{sec:con}.\n\n\\section{The Sample}\n\\label {sec:sample}\n\nTo gain a better understanding of galaxy evolution it is important to compare similar systems that are undergoing the same transformation. By compiling a sample of these galaxies, the evolution of the systems' X-ray properties can be investigated. In this paper we have a sample of nine interacting and post-merger systems, carefully selected to ensure that they are representative of galaxies undergoing a major merger. The nine systems were selected using the following criteria;\n\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item \nAll systems have been observed with {\\em Chandra}.\n\\item \nSystems comprise of, or, originate from, two similar mass, gas rich, spiral galaxies.\n\\item\nMulti-wavelength information is available for each system.\n\\item\nThe absorbing column is low, maximising the sensitivity to soft X-ray emission.\n\\item\nA wide chronological sequence is covered; from detached pairs to merger-remnants.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\nOnce the nine systems to study had been selected, the issue of merger age had to be addressed. This is one of the main problems when working with a chronological study such as this, and a number of different methods are required to solve this problem. Firstly the point of nuclear coalescence was assigned to be at time 0. From this, the time taken until nuclear coalescence for each pre-merger system can then be estimated. These timescales were derived with a combination of N-body simulations, such as \\citet{Mihos_96}, and dynamical age estimates, where the length and faintness of tidal tails, as well as nuclei separation, were used \\citep{Toomre_72}. For post-merger systems, assigning an age estimate was done by making the assumption that the last widespread episode of star formation within the system took place at the time of nuclear coalescence. Stellar population synthesis models were then used to calculate these timescales, therefore giving a good merger age estimate \\citep{Bruzual_93}. In the following sub-sections a brief description of the nine merger examples, and their X-ray properties, are presented in chronological order.\n\n\\subsection{Arp 270}\n\nThe earliest example of an interacting system in our sample is Arp 270 (also NGC 3395\/3396). This comprises two spiral galaxies of comparable mass \\citep{Hern_01}, separated by 12\\,kpc at a distance of 28 Mpc (assuming \\ensuremath{H_{\\mathrm{0}}}\\ = 75\\,km s$^{-1}$\nMpc$^{-1}$, and accounting for Virgocentric in-fall). These galaxies are connected by an optical bridge which is thought to have formed during the systems first perigalactic passage which occurred approximately 5$\\times$10$^8$ years ago.\n \nA 20 ks \\emph{Chandra}\\ observation of the system was made in 2001 and is discussed in detail in \\citet{Brassington_05}, the contours of adaptively smoothed 0.3$-$8.0\\,keV X-ray contours overlaid on an optical image are shown in Figure \\ref{fig:arp270_optic_con}. From this observation 16 point sources are detected, 7 of which are classified as {\\em Ultraluminous X-ray Sources} (ULX's), with \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\\ $\\ge 1\\times$10$^{39}$erg s$^{-1}$ \\citep{Soria_05b}. The diffuse gas emits at a global temperature of $\\sim$0.5 keV and shows no evidence of hot gaseous outflows as are seen in later stage systems (RP98). The galaxy pair, although in a very early stage of interaction, already show increased levels of \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ compared to quiescent galaxies, indicating that there is enhanced star formation taking place. The numerical simulations of \\citet{Mihos_96} suggest that a system such as Arp 270 will coalesce in $\\sim$650 Myrs.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{images\/arp270_opt_xcon.ps}\n  \\hspace{0.1cm}\n  \\caption{The early merger system Arp 270. Contours of adaptively smoothed 0.3$-$8.0\\,keV X-ray data from {\\em Chandra} ACIS-S overlaid on an optical image from the Palomar 5m telescope. }\n  \\label{fig:arp270_optic_con}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsection{The Mice}\n\nThe Mice (also Arp 242, NGC  4676A\/B) is another early stage merger system, lying second in the evolutionary sequence proposed by \\citet{Toomre_72}. At a distance of 88 Mpc, the two detached spiral galaxies are again connected by a tidal bridge and, in addition to this feature, exhibit large tidal tails, a consequence of the galaxies interacting as they have passed each other. \\citet{Read_03} reports on a 30.5\\,ks \\emph{Chandra}\\ observation of the system, the adaptively smoothed 0.2$-$10.0\\,keV X-ray contours overlaid on an optical image are shown in Figure \\ref{fig:mice_opt_con}. \n\nFive ULXs are detected in association with the galaxies, these sources have been found to be coincident with regions of ongoing star formation, both within the nuclei of the galaxies and also in the tidal tails. The structure of the diffuse X-ray gas in both nuclei suggests that this system is at a more advanced stage of evolution than Arp 270. This is indicated by the morphology of the gas, a soft, thermal plasma, which extends out of the minor axis of both galaxies, suggesting that these features are starburst driven winds. As in Arp 270, the Mice emits an enhanced level of \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}, again indicating that this system has enhanced star formation taking place, this emission is particularly high in the nuclei of the galaxies. \n\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{images\/mice_opt_xcon.ps}\n  \\hspace{0.1cm}\n  \\caption{The Mice, contours of adaptively smoothed 0.2$-$10.0\\,keV X-ray data from {\\em Chandra} ACIS-S overlaid on an optical image from WFPC2 on board the {\\em HST}. }\n  \\label{fig:mice_opt_con}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsection{The Antennae}\n\nThe Antennae, NGC 4038\/4039, or Arp 244, is probably the most famous example of a galaxy pair undergoing a major merger, and, lying at a distance of 19 Mpc, is also the nearest. A deep integrated \\emph{Chandra}\\ observation of 411\\,ks has been made of this system, enabling the nature of both the point source population and the diffuse gas to be investigated \\citep{Fabbiano_04, Zezas_04}, Fig \\ref{fig:ant_opt_con} shows the full band (0.3$-$6.0 keV) X-ray contours overlaid on an optical image. \n\nDue to the depth of the observation, sources were detected down to a luminosity of 2$-$5 $\\times$10$^{37}$erg s$^{-1}$. This resulted in a detection of 120 point sources, 12 of these have been confirmed as ULXs. The integrated observation comprises 7 separate pointings, enabling the variability of the point sources to be investigated.\n\nOut of the 12 ULXs, 4 emit below 1 $\\times$10$^{39}$ erg s$^{-1}$, the lower luminosity threshold for a source to be classified as a ULX, in at least one observation. Further, one of the sources was observed in only one pointing, indicating that it is likely to be a transient, providing further evidence that ULXs are a heterogeneous class, comprising of contributions from X-ray binary systems, transient sources and also, possibly, intermediate mass black holes (IMBHs). \n\nThe quality of the data has also lead to detailed mapping of the diffuse gas, investigating both the temperature and metallicity variation of the ISM. 21 separate regions of the diffuse gas have been analysed, spectral fitting of these regions reveal that there is a variation in temperature of the diffuse gas from 0.2 to 0.9 keV and metallicities vary from regions of sub-solar abundances to areas of emission displaying super-solar abundances, notably in both the nuclear regions and two hotspots in the northern loop of the disc (R1 and R2 reported in \\citet{Fabbiano_03b}). \n\nThe morphology of the gas reveals that there are large scale diffuse features; two large faint X-ray loops extending to the South of the system and a low-surface-brightness halo in the region surrounding the stellar discs extending out to $\\sim$18\\,kpc from the nucleus of NGC 4039. The two loops have temperatures ranging from 0.29 to 0.34 keV and the low surface brightness halo has a nominal temperature of 0.23 keV. This cooler larger scale emission may be the aftermath of a superwind, possibly from the first encounter of the two systems, which took place $\\sim$2$-$5 $\\times$10$^8$ years ago. The star formation rates within the two nuclei are 2.1 \\ensuremath{\\Msol~\\pyr}\\ and 1.7 \\ensuremath{\\Msol~\\pyr}\\ and in the region where the discs overlap has been found to be 5.0 \\ensuremath{\\Msol~\\pyr}\\ \\citep{Mihos_93}.\n\n\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{images\/ant_opt_xcon.ps}\n  \\hspace{0.1cm}\n  \\caption{The Antennae, contours of adaptively smoothed 0.3$-$6.0\\,keV X-ray data from {\\em Chandra} ACIS-S overlaid on an optical image from the UK Schmidt telescope. }\n  \\label{fig:ant_opt_con}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsection{Mkn 266}\n\nThe next system within this sample, Markarian 266 (also NGC 5256), is a double nucleus system with a large gaseous envelope. Here, a summary of the galaxy properties are presented, with the full analysis and results of a recent \\emph{Chandra}\\ observation detailed in section \\ref{sec:mkn266}. \n\nThis system lies at a distance of 115 Mpc and has an X-ray luminosity of 7.32 $\\times$10$^{41}$erg s$^{-1}$. The two nuclei, originating from the progenitors, are thought to comprise a LINER with a powerful starburst component, to the north of the system, and a Seyfert type 2 to the South \\citep{Mazzarella_88}. In addition to these sources, an area of enhanced emission has been detected between these nuclei, it is thought that this is caused by the collision of the two discs. Prior to a 20\\,ks \\emph{Chandra}\\ observation of Mkn 266, made in 2001, this feature had not been seen in X-rays before. But, due to {\\em Chandra's} superior spatial resolution, it is now possible to distinguish this feature. This can be seen in Figure \\ref{fig:mkn_266_opt_con}, where the adaptively smoothed, full band X-ray contours (0.3$-$8.0\\,keV) overlaid on an image from WFPC2, on board The {\\em Hubble Space Telescope (HST)} are shown.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{images\/mkn266_opt_xcon.ps}\n  \\hspace{0.1cm}\n  \\caption{Mkn 266, contours of adaptively smoothed 0.3$-$8.0\\,keV X-ray data from {\\em Chandra} ACIS-S overlaid on an optical image from WFPC2 on board the {\\em HST}. }\n  \\label{fig:mkn_266_opt_con}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn addition to the central emission from the colliding galaxies, a large X-ray gas cloud can be seen to the North of the system. From a \\emph{ROSAT}\\ observation it was proposed that this feature is a superwind, driven by the effect of the starburst's supernovae and stellar winds from the centre of the system \\citep{Wang_97}. \\citet{Kollatschny_98} argue that an X-ray `jet', arising from a centrally powered superwind, is unlikely due to both the non-radial geometry of the emission and also the bright X-ray emission of the feature. They suggest that the most plausible mechanism to explain the `jet' is from excitation by hot post-shock gas, although they do not conclude where the energy to power this feature would arise from.  From the \\emph{Chandra}\\ observation we speculate that the northern emission observed could also arise from star formation taking place in a tidal arm that has been stripped from the galaxy during an earlier interaction. The exact nature of this emission is discussed in detail in section \\ref{sec:mkn266_northern}.\n\n\\subsection{NGC 3256}\n\nThe most X-ray luminous system in our sample, NGC 3256, is a powerful ultraluminous infrared galaxy (ULIRG), lying at a distance of 56 Mpc. This merger system, like Mkn 266, has one common gaseous envelope containing the nuclei from its two parent galaxies. \\citet{Lira_02} report on a 28\\,ks \\emph{Chandra}\\ observation made in 2000. Contours of adaptively smoothed 0.2$-$8.0\\,keV X-ray emission overlaid on an optical image of the system are shown in Figure \\ref{fig:ngc3256_opt_con}. \n\nThe total X-ray luminosity of NGC 3256 is 7.87$\\times$ 10$^{41}$ \\ensuremath{\\erg~\\ps}\\ with $\\sim$70\\% of the X-ray luminosity arising from the diffuse emission. 14 discrete X-ray sources were detected in this system, all of which have been classified as ULXs. Due to the high source detection threshold of this observation (\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}=1.4$\\times$10$^{39}$erg s$^{-1}$) fainter point sources were not detected. Both galaxy nuclei are clearly detected in X-rays. The Northern nucleus is a site of intense star formation, and UV spectra \\citep{Lipari_00} show strong absorption lines, implying the presence of massive young stars. The Southern nucleus is heavily obscured and appears to be less active then the Northern nucleus. It has been suggested that it hosts an AGN, although there is no clear evidence of this provided in the X-ray data. The soft diffuse emission of the system can be described by two thermal components with a harder tail. The thermal plasma components exhibit temperatures of 0.6 keV and 0.9 keV and the hard component is thought to arise from a contribution from the lower luminosity X-ray point source population. \n\nA kinematic study of the system \\citep{English_03} suggests that NGC 3256 is currently experiencing the starburst that just precedes the final core collision and, given the close proximity of the two nuclei, it is likely that this system has undergone more than one perigalactic approach. Assuming that the two tidal tails formed during the last closest-encounter, the time that has elapsed since then can be estimated. This characteristic timescale was calculated to be 500 Myr and it is thought that coalescence will take place in $\\sim$200 Myr.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{images\/ngc3256_opt_xcon.ps}\n  \\hspace{0.1cm}\n  \\caption{NGC 3256, contours of adaptively smoothed 0.3$-$8.0\\,keV X-ray data from {\\em Chandra} ACIS-S overlaid on an optical image from WFPC2 on board the {\\em HST}. }\n  \\label{fig:ngc3256_opt_con}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsection{Arp 220}\n\nThe double nuclear system, Arp 220 (IC 4553\/4, UGC 09913) is a prototypical ULIRG, lying at a distance of 76 Mpc. The two nuclei have a separation of less than 0.5 kpc and are just at the point of coalescence. This complicated, dusty system has the highest value of \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ in our sample, which arises from the large reservoir of hot gas within the system. The mechanism by which this gas is heated is still currently under debate. Both the presence of a heavily shrouded AGN and intense nuclear starbursts have been suggested, along with a combination of both these energy sources contributing to the heating mechanism. A 60 ks \\emph{Chandra}\\ observation of the system was made in 2000, and from these data both the nuclear and the extended emission have been analysed \\citep{Clements_02,McDowell_03}. Figure \\ref{fig:arp220_opt_con} shows the 0.2$-$1.0 keV adaptively smoothed X-ray emission, overlaid on an optical image.\n\nThe system hosts 4 ULXs, including the nuclei, no other point sources are detected. Three distinct regimes of large diffuse gas structures are observed; the circumnuclear region, a plume region and, further out, diffuse lobe regions. The circumnuclear region has both compact, hard nuclear emission that resides in the 1 kpc at the centre of the system and softer, more extended emission. It has been suggested that the hard component of this region arises from a significant point source population, emitting at a luminosity lower than $\\sim 5 \\times 10 ^{39}$ \\ensuremath{\\erg~\\ps}, the sensitivity threshold for this observation. Although, this could also be a AGN, albeit one emitting at a low luminosity.\n\nThe plume regions extend to the northwest and southeast of the system with a projected tip to tip length of $\\sim$10 kpc, these features are clearly seen in Figure \\ref{fig:arp220_opt_con}. The spectrum of the plumes include both hot (1$-$5 keV) and cooler (0.25 keV) thermal contributions. It is likely that these regions are associated with a superwind extending from the nuclear region as a consequence of the vigorous star formation that is taking place at the centre of the system. Beyond the plumes, two large, low surface brightness lobe regions have been observed extending from 10$-$15 kpc on either side of the nuclear region. These regions have been found to be cooler than the plumes (0.2$-$1.0 keV), although, due to the low number of counts, higher temperature gas residing in these regions cannot be ruled out. \n\nIt was noted by \\citet{Heckman_96} that the plumes and lobes are ``misaligned'' by 25\\ensuremath{^\\circ}$-$30\\ensuremath{^\\circ}, they suggest that this could be due to a change in orientation of the system as the encounter has progressed. \\citet{McDowell_03} propose that this misalignment is actually a consequence of the lobes being produced not by the superwinds in the system, but are a product of the merger itself. Tentative evidence to support this scenario is presented in an INTEGRAL observation by \\citet{Colina_04}.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{images\/arp220_opt_xcon.ps}\n  \\hspace{0.1cm}\n  \\caption{Arp 220, contours of adaptively smoothed 0.2$-$1.0\\,keV X-ray data from {\\em Chandra} ACIS-S overlaid on an optical image from the Palomar 5m telescope. }\n  \\label{fig:arp220_opt_con}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsection{NGC 7252}\n\nNGC 7252, the first example of a merger-remnant galaxy in our sample, is a proto-typical merger galaxy at a distance of 63 Mpc. The central part of the system, a single relaxed body, displays an r$^{1\/4}$ optical surface brightness profile typical of elliptical galaxies \\citep{Schweizer_82}. In addition to this relaxed nucleus, the galaxy exhibits complex loops and ripples, notably two long tidal tails, indicative of the merger history of this system.  From both {\\em UBVI} images taken with the WCFPT instrument on the {\\em HST} \\citep{Miller_97} and N-body simulations \\citep{Hibbard_95}, it has been estimated that nuclear coalescence took place $\\sim$1 Gyr ago.\n\nA 28 ks \\emph{Chandra}\\ observation, along with an \\emph{XMM-Newton}\\ observation is reported in \\citet{Nolan_04}. Figure \\ref{fig:ngc_7252_opt_con} shows the 0.3$-$7.0 keV adaptively smoothed \\emph{Chandra}\\ X-ray contours overlaid on an optical image. A total of nine ULXs are detected within the optical confines of this system, a further 5 sources are also detected but at a lower significance ($<3\\sigma$). The hot, diffuse gas of the system has been found to be fairly symmetrical and has an X-ray luminosity of 2.42$\\times$10$^{40}$ \\ensuremath{\\erg~\\ps}. This is low when compared to luminosities from typical elliptical galaxies (\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\\ $\\sim$10$^{41-42}$ \\ensuremath{\\erg~\\ps}). The low luminosity of this system is possibly due to the young age of the galaxy and, over much longer timescales, X-ray halo regeneration may increase the mass and hence luminosity of the gas within this system to levels seen in typical elliptical galaxies. From spectral modelling of the \\emph{XMM-Newton}\\ data the X-ray emission from the nuclear region is found to emit at 0.72 keV and 0.36 keV. There is also a harder contribution that can be fitted with a power law, and it is expected that this is due to a lower luminosity point source population. \n\nDuring the nuclear coalescence of NGC 7252 the star formation rate at the centre of the galaxy would have been massively enhanced. Now, as the reserve of gas becomes depleted, the star formation rate has fallen to one third of the value it would have been at its peak \\citep{Mihos_93}, although its \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ is still enhanced when compared to normal quiescent galaxies.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{images\/ngc7252_opt_xcon.ps}\n  \\hspace{0.1cm}\n  \\caption{NGC 7252, contours of adaptively smoothed 0.3$-$7.0\\,keV X-ray data from {\\em Chandra} ACIS-S overlaid on an optical image from the LCO 2.5m telescope. }\n  \\label{fig:ngc_7252_opt_con}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsection{Arp 222}\n\nArp 222, or NGC 7727, is a post merger galaxy at a slightly more advanced stage of evolution than NGC 7252 \\citep{Georgakakis_00}. A CO observation \\citep{Crabtree_94} indicates that these systems are very similar in morphology and both host young cluster populations, however, Arp 222 seems to have a much smaller molecular gas content than NGC 7252. From a K-band observation \\citep{Rothberg_04} it has been found that the optical surface brightness profile of Arp 222 follows the de Vaucouleurs r$^{1\/4}$ law, indicating that violent relaxation has taken place since the merger. From analysing the discrete structure of the galaxy, plumes extending from the nucleus were identified, these features indicate that the system has still not fully relaxed into a mature elliptical galaxy.\n\nA 19 ks \\emph{Chandra}\\ observation of the post merger-remnant was carried out in 2001, and analysis and results from this observation are given in section \\ref{sec:arp222}. Figure \\ref{fig:arp222_opt_con} shows the 0.3$-$8.0 keV adaptively smoothed X-ray emission overlaid on an optical image. From this observation 15 point sources were detected, two of which are classified as ULXs. The X-ray luminosity of the diffuse gas in this system is 6.52 $\\times$10$^{39}$\\ensuremath{\\erg~\\ps}, much lower than the X-ray luminosity emitted from NGC 7252. This is likely to be due to the smaller gas content of Arp 222, which, as can be seen in Figure \\ref{fig:arp222_opt_con}, does not extend to the optical confines of the galaxy. From spectral modelling the global temperature of the diffuse gas in this system has been found to be 0.60 keV.\nThe \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ value of the system is much lower than that of the previous systems and is similar to values seen in elliptical galaxies. \n\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{images\/arp222_opt_xcon.ps}\n  \\hspace{0.1cm}\n  \\caption{Arp 222 Contours of adaptively smoothed 0.3$-$8.0\\,keV X-ray data from {\\em Chandra} ACIS-S overlaid on an optical image from the UK Schmidt telescope. }\n  \\label{fig:arp222_opt_con}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsection{NGC 1700}\n\nThe final system in our sample, NGC 1700, is a protoelliptical galaxy with a best age estimate of $\\sim$3 Gyr \\citep{Brown_00}. This galaxy possesses a kinematically distinct core and boxy isophotes at larger radii, it also contains two symmetrical tidal tails, a good indicator that this system formed through the merger of two, comparable mass, spiral galaxies. It has been suggested that it is the presence of these tidal features that causes the 'boxiness' of the galaxy \\citep{Brown_00}. A 42 ks \\emph{Chandra}\\ observation was made of the system in 2000, and the results of this are reported in \\citet{Statler_02}. Figure \\ref{fig:ngc1700_opt_con} shows the 0.3$-$0.8 keV adaptively smoothed X-ray emission overlaid on an optical image of NGC 1700.\n\nFrom this observation, 36 point sources are detected, 6 of which are classified as ULXs \\citep{Diehl_06}. The diffuse X-ray gas is well modelled by a single temperature thermal plasma at a temperature of 0.43 keV and has an X-ray luminosity of 1.47$\\times 10^{41}$ \\ensuremath{\\erg~\\ps}, similar to that of a mature elliptical galaxies. The change in morphology of the diffuse X-ray gas from the central elliptical region to the outer boxy region, can clearly be seen in Figure \\ref{fig:ngc1700_opt_con}. \\citet{Statler_02} suggest that the flattening of the isophotes is a consequence of an elliptical-spiral interaction, not a spiral-spiral merger as suggested by \\citet{Brown_00}. They argue that an interaction involving a preexisting elliptical with a hot ISM, would lead to the channelling of the already hot gas into the systems common potential well. This gas, at sufficiently low densities, would then settle into a rotationally flattened cooling disc, as is observed. Currently, neither these two scenarios, nor the suggestion that the system could have formed from a 3-body interaction \\citep{Statler_96}, can be ruled out. \n\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{images\/ngc1700_opt_xcon.ps}\n  \\hspace{0.1cm}\n  \\caption{NGC 1700 Contours of adaptively smoothed 0.3$-$0.8\\,keV X-ray data from {\\em Chandra} ACIS-S overlaid on an optical image from the UK Schmidt telescope. }\n  \\label{fig:ngc1700_opt_con}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\section{{\\em Chandra} Observations and Data Analysis of Mkn 266 and Arp 222}\n\\label{sec_data_red}\n\nObservations of Mkn 266 and Arp 222 were carried out with the ACIS-S camera on board the {\\em Chandra} X-ray Observatory. Mkn 266 was observed on 2nd November 2001 with a total observation time of 19.7\\,ks and Arp 222 was observed on 18th December 2001 with a total observation time of 19.0\\,ks. The initial data processing to correct for the motion of the\nspacecraft and apply instrument calibration was carried out with the\nStandard Data Processing (SDP) at the {\\em Chandra} X-ray Center\n(CXC). The data products were then analysed using the CXC CIAO\nsoftware suite (v3.2)\\footnote{http:\/\/asc.harvard.edu\/ciao} and\nHEASOFT (v5.3.1). The data were reprocessed, screened for bad pixels, and time filtered to remove periods of high background (when\ncounts deviated by more than 5$\\sigma$ above the mean). This\nresulted in a corrected exposure time of 18.5ks for Mkn 266 and 18.8\\,ks for Arp 222. The full data analysis and results from these two observations are detailed in the following subsections.\n\n\\subsection{Mkn 266}\n\\label{sec:mkn266}\n\\subsubsection{Overall X-ray Structure}\n\\label{mkn:sec_struc}\n\nA 0.3$-$8.0\\,keV (from here on referred to as `full band') {\\em Chandra}\nimage was created from the cleaned events file and adaptively smoothed\nusing the CIAO task {\\em csmooth} which uses a smoothing kernel to\npreserve an approximately constant signal to noise ratio across the\nimage, which was constrained to be between 2.6 and 4. In Figure\n\\ref{fig:mkn_rgb} both the optical image from the {\\em HST} with the full band X-ray contours overlaid (left) and the `true colour' image of the galaxy system (right) are shown. The `true colour' image was created by combining three separate smoothed images in three energy bands; 0.3$-$0.8 keV, 0.8$-$2.0 keV and 2.0$-$8.0 keV, using the same smoothing scale for each image. These energy bands correspond to red, green and blue respectively. From these images it can be seen that the system is comprised of two separate regions of X-ray emission. To the South of the images the central emission from the interacting galaxies can be seen. This comprises of the two nuclei from the progenitor galaxies, a LINER to the North and a Seyfert 2 to the South, contained within a common gaseous envelope and a region of enhanced emission between the two nuclei. This region is coincident with a radio source reported in \\citet{Mazzarella_88}. It is likely that this enhanced emission is due to the interaction of the two galaxy discs. To the North of the images diffuse gas is detected and shows some correlation with emission seen in the {\\em HST} image. The nature of this emission is discussed in detail in section \\ref{sec:mkn266_northern}.\n\nFrom the `true colour' image it can be seen that the north-east nucleus emits in all three energy bands, whilst the south-west nuclear emission is not as hard. There is also some enhanced X-ray emission in the central region between the two nuclei. The X-ray emission surrounding these nuclei appears to be soft and diffuse with some suggestion of a super-bubble to the south-east of the system.\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n  \\begin{minipage}{0.5\\linewidth}\n  \\vspace{0.7cm}\n  \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{images\/mkn266_main.ps}\n\n\n  \\end{minipage}\\vspace{0.05\\linewidth}\n  \\begin{minipage}{0.38\\linewidth}\n\n  \\hspace{0.1\\linewidth}\n  \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{images\/mkn_rgb.ps}\n\n  \\end{minipage}\n  \\caption{Left, contours of adaptively smoothed 0.3$-$8.0\\,keV X-ray data from {\\em Chandra} ACIS-S overlaid on an optical image from WFPC2 on board the {\\em HST}. The black box indicates the plate boundary of the {\\em HST} image. Right shows the `true colour' image of Mkn 266. Red corresponds to 0.3$-$0.8 keV, green to 0.8$-$2.0 keV and blue to 2.0$-$8.0 keV.}\n  \\label{fig:mkn_rgb}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\\subsubsection{Point Source Spatial and Spectral Analysis}\n\\label{mkn:sec_source_ps}\n\nDiscrete X-ray sources were detected using the CIAO tool {\\em\nwavdetect}. This was run on the full band\nimage, over the 2, 4, 8, 16 pixel wavelet scales (where pixel\nwidth is 0.1\\ensuremath{^{\\prime\\prime}}), with a significance threshold of\n$2.5\\times10^{-5}$, which corresponds to one spurious source over a\n200 $\\times$ 200 pixel grid, the size of our image. Only 4 sources were\ndetected in this range; the two nuclei and two regions in the diffuse northern feature. Both the regions in the northern emission contained less than 30 counts and had large detection regions of r$\\ge$3.5\\arcsec\\ and so were not defined as point sources. Instead, a spectrum was extracted from a region file containing all the northern emission. These two detections, along with the extraction and background extraction regions for the 2 nuclei, are shown in Figure \\ref{fig:mkn_reg}.\n\nThe two detected nuclear sources were extracted using the source\nregion files created by {\\em wavdetect}. The size of each region was\nselected to ensure that as many source photons as possible were\ndetected whilst minimising contamination from nearby sources and\nbackground. The background files were defined as a source free annulus surrounding and concentric with each source region\nfile, to account for the variation of diffuse emission, and to\nminimise effects related to the spatial variation of the CCD response. \n\nThe source spectra for the two nuclei were created using the CIAO tool {\\em psextract} and fitted in XSPEC (v11.3.1). Due to the low number of counts in this observation the Cash statistic \\citep{Cash_79} was used in preference to \\ensuremath{\\chi^2}\\ when modelling the data. Both sources were well fitted with an absorbed thermal model plus an absorbed power law, the absorption component was fixed at the value out of our Galaxy (1.68 $\\times 10 ^{20} $ atom cm$^{-2}$). The data were restricted to 0.3$-$6.0 keV, as energies below this have calibration uncertainties, and the spectra presented here do not have significant source flux above 6.0 keV. The parameters from these best fit models can be seen in Table \\ref{tab:mkn266_ps}; where columns 2 and 3 give the right ascension and declination (J2000), column 4 the count rate, column 5 the source significance, column 6 the Galactic value of \\ensuremath{N_{\\mathrm{H}}}, column 7 $kT$, column 8 metallicity, column 9 power law photon index ($\\Gamma$) and columns 10 and 11 give the observed and intrinsic (i.e. corrected for absorption) luminosities. \n\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\hspace{0.1\\linewidth}\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{images\/mkn_reg.ps}\n  \\hspace{0.1cm}\n  \\caption{Adaptively smoothed 0.3$-$8.0\\,keV X-ray data from {\\em Chandra} ACIS-S of Mkn 266, with {\\em wavdetect} point source denoted  with an ``X''. Extraction and background region files for source A and B are also shown. }\n  \\label{fig:mkn_reg}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{table*}\n\\centering\n\\caption[]{Sources detected in the 0.3$-$6.0 keV band within the Mkn 266 with a summary of point source spectral fits. Errors on the spectral\nfits parameters are given as 1\\( \\sigma \\) for 1 interesting parameter\nfrom XSPEC. An F denotes that the value has been frozen.\n\\label{tab:mkn266_ps}}\n\\begin{tabular}{c@{}c@{}c@{}c@{}c@{}c@{}cccc@{}c@{}}\n\\noalign{\\smallskip}\n\\hline\nSource   & RA & Dec. & Count Rate & Sig. & \\multicolumn{4}{c}{Spectral Fit     } & \\multicolumn{2}{c}{Luminosity (0.3$-$6.0 keV)   }  \\\\\n       &  & &  & & \\ensuremath{N_{\\mathrm{H}}} & kT & Z & $\\Gamma$  \n       & \\multicolumn{2}{c}{(10\\(^{41} \\) erg s\\(^{-1} \\)) }    \\\\ \n       & & &($\\times 10^{-2}$ count s$^{-1}$) & ($\\sigma$) & ($\\times 10 ^{20} $ atom cm$^{-2}$) & (keV) & (\\ensuremath{\\mathrm{Z}_{\\odot}}) & & Observed & Intrinsic   \\\\      \n  \\\\ \\hline\n  \n  \n\nA  & 13:38:17.84 & +48:16:41.2 & 1.90$\\pm$0.11 & 41.8 & 1.68 F & 0.80$^{+0.07}_{-0.11}$ & 0.59$^{+1.50}_{-0.24}$ & 0.02$^{+0.25}_{-0.21}$ & 3.41 $\\pm 0.17$ & 3.47 $\\pm 0.17$ \\\\\nB  & 13:38:17.36 & +48:16:32.5 & 0.90$\\pm$0.08 & 18.7 & 1.68 F & 0.88$^{+0.08}_{-0.10}$ & 0.30 F                 & 1.13$^{+0.49}_{-0.64}$ & 0.98 $\\pm 0.07$ & 1.04 $\\pm 0.07$ \\\\ \n\n\\noalign{\\smallskip}\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{table*}\n\nFrom this table it can be seen that source A, the LINER, exhibits a remarkably flat power law of 0.02$^{+0.25}_{-0.21}$. It is likely that part of the contribution to this component arises from unresolved point sources but the very flat slope of this fit suggests that some of the hard component is either heavily absorbed or dominated by reflection \\citep{Levenson_04,Matt_00}. By including an absorber for the power law component we can allow for this extra absorption, however, due to the low number of counts, when including this component the fit becomes unconstrained.\n\nIt is likely that the cause of this heavy obscuration is due to the strong starburst in this region. An observation by \\citet{Sanders_86} found that Mkn 266 is rich in CO, indicating that this system contains a massive, warm reservoir of molecular gas to fuel this starburst, and the dynamic conditions that concentrate this material also serve to further obscure the LINER. The MEKAL component of the fit to this source arises from this starburst, which contributes  5.7$\\times$10$^{40}$\\ensuremath{\\erg~\\ps}\\ to the total intrinsic luminosity of source A. \n\nSource B, the southern nucleus, emits at a temperature of 0.88 keV and has a power law slope of 1.13. This thermal component is likely to arise from the diffuse emission surrounding the nucleus, and the value of $\\Gamma$ is consistent with the interpretation of this nucleus being a Seyfert 2 \\citep{Cappi_05}. In previous X-ray surveys it has been found that up to $\\sim$75\\% of Seyfert 2 objects are heavily obscured with \\ensuremath{N_{\\mathrm{H}}}\\ $\\ge$10$^{23}$atom cm$^{-2}$ \\citep{Risaliti_99}. With the data we have from this observation the two component model describes the spectrum well, and, due to the limited number of counts, a more complex model with an additional absorption component would over-fit the data. In addition to this, \\citet{Cappi_05} have found from a recent survey of nearby Seyfert galaxies, that these sources possess the entire range of \\ensuremath{N_{\\mathrm{H}}}\\ from 10$^{20}$atom cm$^{-2}$ to 10$^{24}$atom cm$^{-2}$, fairly continuously. Indicating that, although the southern nucleus could be heavily obscured, it is also possible that the two component model described here is good indication of the properties of this source. \n\\subsubsection{Diffuse Emission Spatial and Spectral Analysis}\n\\label{mkn:sec_source_dif}\n\nFrom the `true colour' image of Mkn 266 it is clear that the galaxy contains significant amounts of diffuse gas, in both the northern feature and also surrounding the central galaxy. To investigate the nature of this diffuse emission, spectra were extracted from these two separate regions using the CIAO tool {\\em acisspec}, and fitted in XSPEC. Once again, due to the low number of counts, the Cash statistic was used when modelling the data.  \n\nThe diffuse gas contained within the galaxy is not well described by a single temperature fit, and is better modelled with two temperature components. It is likely that the hotter gas contributing to this model arises from the enhanced emission seen between the two nuclei. To investigate this, the extraction region was divided into two separate parts; one, smaller region, to probe the impact area, where it is likely that the two discs have collided, and a second, larger region, covering the rest of the galaxy, but which excludes the inner impact region and the northern diffuse region. These, along with the extraction region for the northern diffuse emission and the associated background regions, are shown in Figure \\ref{fig:mkn_diff}. The two separate regions, diffuse 1 and diffuse 2, are both well described with single component MEKAL fits, exhibiting the same temperatures that were fitted in the two temperature model. The northern region is also well described with a single component MEKAL fit. The parameters from the best fit models for these regions, along with their X-ray luminosities, are shown in Table \\ref{tab:mkn_diff}.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\hspace{0.1\\linewidth}\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{images\/mkn_diff.ps}\n  \\hspace{0.1cm}\n  \\caption{Adaptively smoothed 0.3$-$8.0\\,keV X-ray data from {\\em Chandra} ACIS-S of Mkn 266, with extraction and background region for the diffuse gas shown. The background region files are selected to be source free annuli, surrounding and concentric with each extraction region file.}\n  \\label{fig:mkn_diff}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{table*}\n\\centering\n\\caption[]{Summary of the spectral fits of the diffuse gas regions in Mkn 266. Errors on the spectral\nfits parameters are given as 1\\( \\sigma \\) for 1 interesting parameter\nfrom XSPEC. An F denotes that the value has been frozen.\n\\label{tab:mkn_diff}}\n\\begin{tabular}{cccccc}\n\\noalign{\\smallskip}\n\\hline\nDiffuse Region  & \\ensuremath{N_{\\mathrm{H}}} \t\t\t\t\t& kT  \t& Z \t\t& \\multicolumn{2}{c}{Luminosity (0.3$-$6.0 keV)}  \\\\\n       \t\t& ($\\times 10 ^{20} $ atom cm$^{-2}$) \t& (keV) & (\\ensuremath{\\mathrm{Z}_{\\odot}})\t& \\multicolumn{2}{c}{(10$^{40}$ erg s$^{-1}$)} \\\\\n\t\t&\t\t\t\t\t&\t&\t\t& Observed & Intrinsic   \\\\      \n  \\hline\n  \n  \n\nDiffuse 1  \t& 1.68 F \t\t\t\t& 0.52$^{+0.06}_{-0.06}$ & 0.23$^{+0.05}_{-0.03}$ \t&  9.88 $\\pm 0.50$ & 10.92 $\\pm 0.50$ \\\\\nDiffuse 2\t& 1.68 F \t\t\t\t& 1.07$^{+0.06}_{-0.09}$ & 0.22$^{+0.15}_{-0.08}$ \t&  8.10\t$\\pm 0.49$ & 9.83  $\\pm 0.53$ \\\\\nDiffuse 3  \t& 1.68 F \t\t\t\t& 0.30$^{+0.02}_{-0.03}$ & 0.30F\t \t\t&  6.10 $\\pm 0.49$ & 6.90  $\\pm 0.55$ \\\\\n\n\n\\noalign{\\smallskip}\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{table*}\n\nFrom this table it can be seen that the diffuse gas within the galaxy system, diffuse 1, exhibits a temperature of 0.52 keV, a fairly typical temperature for gas in interacting galaxies (RP98). The impact region, diffuse 2, has a higher temperature of 1.07 keV. This is, within errors, the same temperature attained from the higher temperature contribution from the two component MEKAL fit of the combined spectrum for diffuse 1 and diffuse 2, indicating that the higher temperature from this fit was a consequence of the gas arising from this impact area. \n\nThe northern emission appears spectrally distinct from the surrounding diffuse gas and has been found to emit at a cooler temperature of 0.30 keV. With this \\emph{Chandra}\\ data it has also been found that this region has a much lower luminosity than the one derived in \\citet{Kollatschny_98}, who report on a \\emph{ROSAT}\\ HRI observation of the galaxy and find the X-ray luminosity of this region to be 3.1$\\times$10$^{41}$ \\ensuremath{\\erg~\\ps}, as opposed to  6.9$\\times$10$^{40}$ \\ensuremath{\\erg~\\ps}, as reported in this work. However, in \\citet{Kollatschny_98} this X-ray luminosity is derived from assuming that the relative number of HRI counts is directly proportional to their share of the integrated X-ray flux, with the total luminosity of the system being derived from the \\emph{ROSAT}\\ PSPC observation of the system and consequently has large uncertainties associated with it.\n\n\\subsubsection{Nature of the Northern Emission}\n\\label{sec:mkn266_northern}\n\nThe origin of the diffuse emission to the north of the system is still the subject of debate. There have been a number of suggestions as to how this feature has been formed. From HRI and PSPC observations with \\emph{ROSAT}, \\citet{Wang_97} suggest that it is an outflow, driven by the mechanical energy of the supernovae and stellar winds in the starburst. A subsequent paper \\citep{Kollatschny_98}, investigating both the HRI observation and optical B,V,R-images of Mkn 266, argued that the scenario proposed by \\citet{Wang_97} is unlikely, due to both the high luminosity of the `jet' and also its non-radial geometry. They instead suggest that the mechanism that gives rise to the `jet' is excitation by hot post-shock gas, although they do not conclude where the energy to power this feature would arise from.\n\nA tridimensional spectrophotometric study by \\citet{Ishigaki_00} investigated the H{$\\alpha$}, [O~\\textsc{iii}] and [S~\\textsc{ii}] emission-lines within Mkn 266. Figure \\ref{fig:mkn_266_halpha} shows the H{$\\alpha$}\\ contours from this observation, overlaid on the full band, adaptively smoothed, \\emph{Chandra}\\ X-ray emission. As can be seen, the enhanced regions of H{$\\alpha$}\\ in the northern region are coincident with the two X-ray regions detected with {\\em wavdetect} (see Figure \\ref{fig:mkn_reg}). Some caution should be exercised when interpreting this plot due to the uncertainty in the astrometry, which we conservatively estimate to be 2\\ensuremath{^{\\prime\\prime}}\\ (1.1 kpc). Even so, the correlation between the X-ray and H{$\\alpha$}\\ is striking, suggesting that this region to the north of the system is a site of star formation, possibly a tidal arm that has been stripped from the southern progenitor during the merger process. This interpretation is strengthened by the fact that both the {\\em HST} (Figure \\ref{fig:mkn_rgb}) and H{$\\alpha$}\\ emission seem to connect with the dust lanes around the southern nucleus \\citep{Ishigaki_00}.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.95\\linewidth]{images\/mkn266_halpha.ps}\n  \\hspace{0.1cm}\n  \\caption{Adaptively smoothed 0.3$-$8.0\\,keV X-ray data from {\\em Chandra} ACIS-S of Mkn 266. H{$\\alpha$}\\ contours from \\citet{Ishigaki_00} are overlaid. }\n  \\label{fig:mkn_266_halpha}\n\\end{figure}\n\nAs shown in the previous section, the luminosity arising from the diffuse gas within the northern feature is 6.9$\\times$10$^{40}$ \\ensuremath{\\erg~\\ps}. Given that our spectral fit to the data indicates that this emission arises from a thermal component, and both the {\\em HST} and H{$\\alpha$}\\ emission indicate that there is star formation within this region, the origin of these X-rays could come from supernovae. Making some assumptions about the geometry of the emitting region of this northern feature the thermal energy of the gas can be derived. First the volume, $V$, of the diffuse northern emission has been assumed to be an ellipsoid, with symmetry about the longer axis. The fitted emission measure is equal to $\\eta n_\\mathrm{e}^{2}V$\nand can be used to infer the mean particle number density $n_\\mathrm{e}$, with\nthe filling factor, $\\eta$, assumed to be 1. This factor represents the fraction of volume filled by the emitting gas. Although we have assumed this to be 1 in our calculations, there is evidence from hydrodynamical simulations to suggest this value could be $\\le$2 per cent \\citep{Strickland_00b}. The mean electron density is then used to derive the total gas mass $M_\\mathrm{gas}$, which then leads to the thermal energy $E_\\mathrm{th}$ of the hot gas. From these assumptions $E_\\mathrm{th}$ has been calculated to be between 6.72$\\times 10^{54}$ \\ensuremath{\\mbox{erg}}\\ (for $\\eta$=0.02) and 3.36$\\times 10^{56}$ \\ensuremath{\\mbox{erg}}\\ (for $\\eta$=1).\n\nBy deriving the supernova rate, \\ensuremath{r_{\\mathrm{SN}}}, for this region, the energy arising from supernovae can be calculated. \\citet{Davies_00} calculate \\ensuremath{r_{\\mathrm{SN}}}\\ for the LINER in Mkn 266, using the relation derived in \\citet{Condon_90} \n\\begin{equation}\nL_{\\mathrm{NT}}[\\mathrm{WHz^{-1}}]\\sim1.3\\times 10^{23}(\\upsilon[\\mathrm{GHz}])^{-0.8}r_{\\mathrm{SN}}[\\mathrm{yr^{-1}}],\n\\label{eq:sn}\n\\end{equation}\nand the 20 cm radio continuum \\citep{Mazzarella_88}. Where $L_{\\mathrm{NT}}$ is the calculated power and $\\upsilon$ is the frequency of the observation. From this they calculate \\ensuremath{r_{\\mathrm{SN}}}\\ to be 0.45 SNyr$^{-1}$. \n\nFor the northern diffuse emission, \\citet{Mazzarella_88} find a power of 8.9$\\times 10^{21}$WHz$^{-1}$, using this value and the above equation we find \\ensuremath{r_{\\mathrm{SN}}}\\ =0.05 SNyr$^{-1}$ for this region. From \\citet{Mattila_01} it has been found that it is more appropriate to use \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ to calculate \\ensuremath{r_{\\mathrm{SN}}}\\ in starburst galaxies but, as we only have \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ for the whole system, we would greatly overestimate the supernova rate, and consequently, we will use the rate of 0.05 SNyr$^{-1}$ we have derived from the 20 cm continuum data.\n\nFrom \\citet{Davies_00}, models of the star formation timescales have been derived for the LINER. And, although these models give a fairly poorly constrained age (20-500 Myr), by making the assumption that this is a proxy for the timescales of star formation taking place in the northern diffuse emission, the number of supernovae formed in this time can be estimated. Given that we also make the assumption that a massive star takes $\\sim 1\\times$10$^{7}$ yr to evolve into a supernova, we calculate the number of SNe formed in this time to be $5\\times10^5 - 2.5\\times10^7$. If each supernova releases $\\sim1\\times 10^{51}$ \\ensuremath{\\mbox{erg}}, the total thermal energy available will be between $\\sim5\\times 10^{56}$ \\ensuremath{\\mbox{erg}}\\ to $\\sim2.5\\times 10^{58}$ \\ensuremath{\\mbox{erg}}, thus demonstrating that the observed luminosity in the northern diffuse emission could arise from the contribution of star formation alone. \n\nThe reason that both \\citet{Wang_97} and \\citet{Kollatschny_98} prefer an outflow scenario to that of tidal stripping to explain this northern feature is due to the presence of optical emission in a highly excited state within this feature. These line ratios, coupled with the electron temperature calculated for this region, cannot be explained by thermal collisional ionisation, and are likely to arise through either photoionisation or shock excitation. \\citet{Wang_97} and \\citet{Kollatschny_98} both suggest that these shocks arise from a `jet', outflowing from the central galaxy. However, \\citet{Ishigaki_00} propose that the northern emission is photoionised by radiation from the Seyfert nucleus and therefore, excitation by shocks is not required to explain the high excitation emission lines that are observed. \n\nThe present study adds further evidence to this debate. With the higher resolution provided by \\emph{Chandra}, the structure of the northern emission can now be resolved. From this it can be seen that the northern feature is curved, and the X-ray emission appears to be `clumpy', with the two most intense areas of X-ray emission coincident with the H{$\\alpha$}\\ emission (see Figure \\ref{fig:mkn_266_halpha}). These are not features which indicate a superwind. Furthermore, the morphology of this region traces that of the optical emission, which is highly suggestive that these two features are connected. Consequently, we propose that the most likely source of this X-ray emission is star formation taking place within a tidal arm that has been stripped out from one of the progenitors during the merger of the two galaxies.\n\n\\subsubsection{The South East Extension}\n\nTo the south east of the central galaxy region there is some suggestion of X-ray extension, which appears to be coincident with filaments seen in the {\\em HST} image, just beginning to break out of the galactic disc (Figure \\ref{fig:mkn_rgb}). Given the low count statistics in this observation we cannot extract spectra for this region alone. But, from the morphology of the X-ray emission, coupled with the H{$\\alpha$}\\ emission, there is some indication that this region is a site of star formation just on the point of break-out from the gaseous envelope of the central system. This scenario is preferred to the one suggested in the case of the northern emission as there is additional evidence of an outflow feature from the starburst region around the LINER \\citep{Ishigaki_00}. This outflow could be beginning to sweep the dust out of the galaxy, indicating that this system is in the stage just prior to the outbreak of large-scale galactic winds throughout the system. Of course, alternatively, this feature could be a small scale version of the northern emission, particularly given its coincidence with optical emission seen with the {\\em HST}. However, without spectral information to investigate the nature of this object, neither scenario can be ruled out.\n\n\\subsection{Arp 222}\n\\label{sec:arp222}\n\\subsubsection{Overall X-ray Structure}\n\nA full band adaptively smoothed \\emph{Chandra}\\ image of Arp 222 was produced using the same tools and techniques as described in section \\ref{mkn:sec_struc}. In Figure \\ref{fig:222_gal} both the optical image from the UK Schmidt telescope, with the smoothed full band X-ray contours overlaid (left), and the `true colour' image (right) of Arp 222 is shown. The true colour image was produced using the same methods as described in section \\ref{mkn:sec_struc}.\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n  \\begin{minipage}{0.58\\linewidth}\n  \\vspace{0.7cm}\n  \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{images\/arp222_main.ps}\n\n\n  \\end{minipage}\\vspace{0.03\\linewidth}\n  \\begin{minipage}{0.385\\linewidth}\n\n  \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{images\/arp222_rgb.ps}\n\n  \\end{minipage}\n  \\caption{Left, contours of adaptively smoothed 0.3$-$8.0\\,keV X-ray data from {\\em Chandra} ACIS-S overlaid on an optical image from the UK Schmidt telescope. Right shows the `true colour' image of Arp 222. Red corresponds to 0.3$-$0.8 keV, green to 0.8$-$2.0 keV and blue to 2.0$-$8.0 keV.\n  \\label{fig:222_gal}}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nFrom these images it can be seen that there is some diffuse gas at the centre of the galaxy, but this emission does not extend out to the optical confines of the system. In addition to the diffuse gas, a number of point sources are found through out the galaxy. From the `true colour' image, the white appearance of the nucleus indicates that it emits in all three energy bands, whilst the other point sources can be seen to be softer.\n\n\\subsubsection{Spatial and Spectral Analysis}\n\nX-ray point sources were searched for using the CIAO tool {\\em wavdetect}. This was run on the full band image, over the 2, 4, 8, 16 pixel wavelet scales (where pixel width is 0.5\\ensuremath{^{\\prime\\prime}}), with a significance threshold of 2.8$\\times$10$^{-6}$, which corresponds to one spurious source over a 600 $\\times$ 600 pixel grid, the size of our image. 24 sources were detected in this full band range, these were then limited to those that lie within the $D_{25}$ ellipse of the galaxy, reducing the number to 15 detected sources. These regions, along with the $D_{25}$ ellipse are shown in Figure \\ref{fig:arp222_ps}. From using the \\emph{Chandra}\\ Deep Field South number counts \\citep{Giacconi_01} we estimate 2 to 3 of these sources to be background objects. \n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\hspace{0.1\\linewidth}\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{images\/arp222_reg.ps}\n  \\hspace{0.1cm}\n  \\caption{Adaptively smoothed 0.3$-$8.0\\,keV X-ray data from {\\em Chandra} ACIS-S of Arp 222, with point sources detected by {\\em wavdetect} indicated. The D$_{25}$ ellipse is also shown.}\n  \\label{fig:arp222_ps}\n\\end{figure}\n\nSpectra for the point sources were extracted using the CIAO tool {\\em psextract} with region and background region files selected in the same way as described in section \\ref{mkn:sec_source_dif}. Of the 15 detected sources, only one, source 5, emitted sufficient counts to be modelled individually, the other 14 sources were fitted simultaneously.  The spectrum of the diffuse gas was extracted with the CIAO tool {\\em acisspec}, from a region file centred on source 5, with a radius of 45\\ensuremath{^{\\prime\\prime}}. The background region file was defined to be a source free annulus surrounding and concentric with the region file. Once again, due to the low number of counts, the Cash statistic was used in preference to \\ensuremath{\\chi^2}. Both the combined sources and source 5 were well described by single component, power law models. And, from this combined fit model, the luminosities for each individual source were derived. The diffuse gas was well fitted by a single component MEKAL model. These spectral fits are summarised in Table \\ref{tab:arp222}, where column 1 gives the source identification number,  columns 2 and 3 give the right ascension and declination (J2000), column 4 the Galactic value of \\ensuremath{N_{\\mathrm{H}}}, column 5 $kT$, column 6 metallicity, column 7 $\\Gamma$ and columns 8 and 9 give the observed and intrinsic luminosities. \n\n\\begin{table*}\n\\centering\n\\caption[]{A summary of the best fit parameters for the diffuse gas and point sources detected in the 0.3$-$6.0 keV band within Arp 222. Errors on the spectral fits parameters are given as 1\\( \\sigma \\) for 1 interesting parameter\nfrom XSPEC. An F denotes that the value has been frozen.\n\\label{tab:arp222}}\n\\begin{tabular}{cccc@{}cccc@{}c@{}}\n\\noalign{\\smallskip}\n\\hline\nSource   & RA & Dec. & \\multicolumn{4}{c}{Spectral Fit     } & \\multicolumn{2}{c}{Luminosity (0.3$-$6.0 keV)   }  \\\\\n       &  & & \\ensuremath{N_{\\mathrm{H}}} & kT & Z &$\\Gamma$ \n       & \\multicolumn{2}{c}{(10\\(^{39} \\) erg s\\(^{-1} \\)) }    \\\\ \n       & & & ($\\times 10 ^{20} $ atom cm$^{-2}$) & (keV) & (\\ensuremath{\\mathrm{Z}_{\\odot}}) &  & Observed & Intrinsic   \\\\      \n  \\\\ \\hline\n  \n  \n\n1  & 23:40:00.61 & -12:17:10.2 & 2.75 F & - & - & 1.72F & 0.99 $\\pm 0.17$ & 1.07 $\\pm 0.17$ \\\\\n2  & 23:39:57.01 & -12:16:33.0 & 2.75 F & - & - & 1.72F & 0.31 $\\pm 0.16$ & 0.32 $\\pm 0.16$ \\\\ \n3  & 23:39:55.95 & -12:16:47.3 & 2.75 F & - & - & 1.72F & 0.19 $\\pm 0.07$ & 0.21 $\\pm 0.08$ \\\\\n4  & 23:39:54.37 & -12:16:59.1 & 2.75 F & - & - & 1.72F & 0.45 $\\pm 0.11$ & 0.48 $\\pm 0.12$ \\\\\n5  & 23:39:53.67 & -12:17:31.6 & 2.75 F & - & - & 2.15$^{+0.37}_{-0.36}$ & 1.74 $\\pm 0.21$ & 1.97 $\\pm 0.24$ \\\\\n6  & 23:39:52.84 & -12:17:36.8 & 2.75 F & - & - & 1.72F & 0.37 $\\pm 0.11$ & 0.40 $\\pm 0.12$ \\\\\n7  & 23:39:52.97 & -12:18:01.5 & 2.75 F & - & - & 1.72F & 0.20 $\\pm 0.09$ & 0.21 $\\pm 0.09$ \\\\\n8  & 23:39:52.67 & -12:17:21.1 & 2.75 F & - & - & 1.72F & 0.43 $\\pm 0.11$ & 0.46 $\\pm 0.12$ \\\\\n9  & 23:39:51.67 & -12:18:19.6 & 2.75 F & - & - & 1.72F & 0.52 $\\pm 0.14$ & 0.54 $\\pm 0.15$ \\\\\n10 & 23:39:51.31 & -12:18:30.0 & 2.75 F & - & - & 1.72F & 0.35 $\\pm 0.11$ & 0.37 $\\pm 0.11$ \\\\\n11 & 23:39:51.15 & -12:17:48.8 & 2.75 F & - & - & 1.72F & 0.38 $\\pm 0.11$ & 0.42 $\\pm 0.13$ \\\\\n12 & 23:39:50.57 & -12:16:53.7 & 2.75 F & - & - & 1.72F & 0.28 $\\pm 0.09$ & 0.30 $\\pm 0.10$ \\\\\n13 & 23:39:51.18 & -12:15:57.6 & 2.75 F & - & - & 1.72F & 0.30 $\\pm 0.12$ & 0.31 $\\pm 0.13$ \\\\\n14 & 23:39:49.36 & -12:18:24.4 & 2.75 F & - & - & 1.72F & 0.38 $\\pm 0.11$ & 0.40 $\\pm 0.12$ \\\\\n15 & 23:39:45.63 & -12:17:41.2 & 2.75 F & - & - & 1.72F & 0.21 $\\pm 0.12$ & 0.55 $\\pm 0.13$ \\\\\n\\\\\nDiffuse  & 23:39:53.67 & -12:17:31.6 & 2.75 F & 0.60$^{+0.07}_{-0.06}$ & 0.08$^{+0.06}_{-0.02}$ & - & 5.48 $\\pm$ 0.28 & 6.52 $\\pm$ 0.33 \\\\\n\n\\noalign{\\smallskip}\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{table*}\n\nFrom this table it can be seen that the best-fit spectral index for the combined sources is $\\Gamma$=1.72, a typical value for XRBs in, what can be described as, a low\/hard state \\citep{Soria_03}. For the central source, source 5, the best fit model has shown that the spectral state is much softer, with $\\Gamma$=2.15. This value is consistent with it also being an XRB, but this time in a high\/soft state \\citep{Colbert_04}  This source, along with source 1, has been found to be a ULX. Given the quiescent nature of the galaxy, and that the time since the last episode of widespread star formation has been shown to be $\\sim$1.2 Gyr ago \\citep{Georgakakis_00}, this indicates that these sources are likely to arise from low mass X-ray binaries (LMXRBs), not HMXRBs as has been seen in younger merger systems within this sample.\n\nThe amount of diffuse gas within the system is smaller than in mature elliptical galaxies, and, as mentioned previously, does not extend out to the optical confines of the system. The temperature of the gas, 0.6 keV, has been found to be comparable to that of other interacting systems, but the diffuse gas exhibits a lower X-ray luminosity (6.52$\\times 10^{39}$ \\ensuremath{\\erg~\\ps}) than the other systems within this sample. The low gas content of Arp 222 is further seen from CO observations of the galaxy \\citep{Crabtree_94}. From this \\emph{Chandra}\\ observation it can be seen that this system is X-ray faint and does not currently resemble a mature elliptical galaxy, although may at a greater dynamical age.\n\n\\section{The Evolution of Merging Galaxies}\n\\label{sec_evol}\n\n\\subsection{Multi-wavelength Evolution Sequence}\n\nTo gain a greater understanding of the merger process of galaxy pairs, in addition to the X-ray luminosity of each system, B-band, K-band and FIR luminosities have been obtained to study how each of these luminosity diagnostics evolve along the chronological sequence. In the case of systems where the X-ray luminosity has been obtained from the literature, the stated band has been converted into the 0.3$-$6.0 band used in this paper by assuming canonical models of the two X-ray components. For the diffuse gas, a MEKAL model with a gas temperature of 0.5 keV has been assumed, and for the point source population a power law model with a photon index of 1.5 has been adopted.\n\nThese luminosities are given in Table \\ref{tab:merger:props} where; column 1 gives the system name, column 2 the distance to the object, column 3 the merger age, with nuclear coalescence being defined as 0 Myr, column 4 the total (0.3$-$6.0 keV) intrinsic X-ray luminosity from the \\emph{Chandra}\\ observation, column 5 gives the percentage of luminosity arising from the diffuse gas (\\%{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{diff}}}}), column 6 \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}, column 7 \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{B}}}\\ and column 8 \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}.\n\n\\begin{table*}\n\n\\centering\n\n\\caption[]{The fundamental properties of all the systems within this sample. Columns are explained in the text.\n\\label{tab:merger:props}}\n\\begin{tabular}{cccccccc}\n\\noalign{\\smallskip}\n\\hline\n\nGalaxy \t\t& Distance\t& Merger Age\t& \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\t\t\t& \\%L$_{diff}$\t& Log \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\t\t\t& Log \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{B}}} \t& Log \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}} \\\\\nSystem \t\t& \t\t&\t\t& (0.3$-$6.0 keV)\t&\t\t& \t\t\t\t&\t\t&\t    \\\\\n       \t\t& (Mpc)\t\t& (Myr)\t\t& ($\\times10^{40}$\\ensuremath{\\erg~\\ps}) & \t\t& (\\ensuremath{\\erg~\\ps})   \t\t& (\\ensuremath{\\erg~\\ps})\t& (\\ensuremath{\\erg~\\ps})    \\\\\n \n\\noalign{\\smallskip}\n\\hline\n\nArp 270\t\t& 28\t\t& -650 \t\t& 2.95\t\t\t&\t28\t&43.63\t\t\t\t&43.72\t\t&43.37\t    \\\\\nThe Mice\t& 88\t\t& -500 \t\t& 6.01\t\t\t&\t31\t&44.12\t\t\t\t&44.07\t\t&44.04\t    \\\\\nThe Antennae\t& 19\t\t& -400 \t\t& 6.97\t\t\t&\t54\t&43.95\t\t\t\t&43.98\t\t&44.64\t    \\\\\nMkn 266\t\t& 115\t\t& -300 \t\t& 73.18\t\t\t& \t41\t&44.75\t\t\t\t&44.30\t\t&44.38\t    \\\\\nNGC 3256\t& 56\t\t& -200 \t\t& 87.70\t\t\t&\t80\t&45.19\t\t\t\t&44.42\t\t&45.22\t    \\\\\nArp 220\t\t& 76\t\t& 0    \t\t& 23.70\t\t\t&\t44\t&45.50\t\t\t\t&43.97\t\t&44.78\t    \\\\\nNGC 7252\t& 63\t\t& 1000 \t\t& 6.17\t\t\t&\t31\t&44.00\t\t\t\t&44.40\t\t&44.61\t    \\\\ \nArp 222\t\t& 23\t\t& 1200 \t\t& 1.46\t\t\t&\t45\t&$\\geq$42.37\t\t&43.92\t\t&44.84\t    \\\\\nNGC 1700\t& 54\t\t& 3000 \t\t& 17.58\t\t\t&\t83\t&42.91\t\t\t\t&44.32\t\t&45.15\t    \\\\\n\n\n\\noalign{\\smallskip}\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{table*}\n\nThe FIR luminosities are calculated using the\nexpression \\citep{Devereux_89}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:lfir}\n\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}} =3.65 \\times 10^5[2.58S_{60 \\mu m}+S_{100\\mu m}]D^2\\ensuremath{\\mathrm{L}_{\\odot}},\n\\label{equ:lfir}\n\\end{equation}\nwith {\\em IRAS} 60- and 100-$\\mu$m fluxes taken from the {\\em IRAS}\nPoint Source Catalogue \\citep{Moshir_90}. The optical (B) luminosities\nwere calculated as in \\citet{Tully_88}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathrm{log} \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{B}}}\\, (\\ensuremath{\\mathrm{L}_{\\odot}}) =12.192-0.4B_\\mathrm{T}+2\\mathrm{log}D,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $B_\\mathrm{T}$ is the blue apparent magnitude and $D$ is the\ndistance in Mpc. Values of blue apparent magnitude were taken from\n\\citet{Dev_91} (the value for The Mice was taken from NGC 2000.0\n\\citep{Dreyer_88}). The values of \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}\\ are derived using the relation given in \\citet{Seigar_05}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathrm{log} \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}=11.364-0.4K_\\mathrm{T}+\\mathrm{log}(1+Z)+2\\mathrm{log}D,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $K_\\mathrm{T}$ is the K-band apparent magnitude, $Z$ is the galaxy redshift and $D$ is the distance in Mpc. Apparent K-band magnitudes were taken from the 2MASS survey.\n\nTo calculate the value of \\%{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{diff}}}} for each system, the contribution to the luminosity of the diffuse gas that arises from unresolved low luminosity point sources had to be estimated and removed. This was done in a number of ways; in the case of systems for which we have access to the reduced data (The Mice, Mkn 266 and Arp 222), an additional power law component with a photon index of 1.5 was included in the spectral fit of the diffuse emission. It was then assumed that the luminosity of this component arises from unresolved point sources within the system. Additionally, for Mkn 266, it was assumed that the MEKAL component of the point source fits arises from the diffuse gas surrounding the LINER and Seyfert. In the cases of Arp 270 and NGC 7252, estimates of the contribution of the unresolved point sources to the total diffuse luminosity has already been made in \\citet{Brassington_05} and \\citet{Nolan_04}, respectively.\n\nFor the systems we have taken from the literature, the `Universal Luminosity Function' (ULF), derived by \\citet{Grimm_03}, was used to predict the flux from unresolved low luminosity sources. The predicted XRB luminosity function is\n\\begin{equation}\nN(>L)=5.4\\mathrm{SFR}(L_{38}^{-0.61}-210^{-0.61}),\n\\label{equ:sfr}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $L_{38}$ = $L\/10^{38}$ erg s$^{-1}$ and  the factor 210 arises\nfrom the upper luminosity cut-off of 2.1$\\times 10^{40}$ erg\ns$^{-1}$. \nSFR was estimated from the population of brighter point sources detected above the completeness limit from the \\emph{Chandra}\\ observations. \nIn the case of The Antennae, point sources were detected down to a luminosity of 5$\\times10^{37}$erg s$^{-1}$ and therefore no correction was required for this system.\n\nAs mentioned previously, one of the main difficulties in compiling an evolutionary sequence such as this, is assigning an age to each of these systems. The way in which these estimates were made is described in section \\ref{sec:sample}, but another important point that was not discussed is that when constructing an evolutionary sample, the absolute timescale of the merger process must be considered. From N-body simulations \\citep{Mihos_96} it is clear that from the first initial strong interaction between equal-mass mergers, through to their nuclear coalescence, takes $\\sim$700 Myr. What is not so well defined is the amount of time that elapses between coalescence and the relaxation of the galaxy into a system resembling a mature elliptical galaxy. Within the sample presented here, this issue has been addressed by selecting a greater dynamical range than has previously been studied. By doing this it is hoped that the transition between young merger remnants to relaxed mature ellipticals can be observed, and therefore a more complete picture of the merger process can be obtained. \n\nAlthough these merger systems are being compared to establish a single evolutionary sequence, it should be remembered that nine individual systems, not nine examples of one merger at different stages of its evolution, are being looked at. Consequently, although the trends that have been identified here should be a good indicator of how X-ray emission evolves during the merger process, due to the careful selection criteria outlined in section \\ref{sec:sample}, it is likely that other merger pair systems will exhibit different X-ray properties. These variations are likely to arise due to the unique interaction parameters associated with each merger system, as well as the variation of gas content and mass of individual galaxies within each system.\n\nWith the multi-wavelength luminosities that have been collected for each system (Table \\ref{tab:merger:props}), the evolution of the galaxy properties along the merger process has been investigated. The activity levels, a proxy for star formation normalised by galaxy mass, is indicated by {\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}}\/{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}}. To investigate the variation of {\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}}, scaled by galaxy mass for each system, both the B-band and the K-band luminosities, {\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}}\/{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{B}}}} and {\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}}\/{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}} have been used. Both of these have been used as normalisation values as \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{B}}}\\ can become greatly enhanced during periods of star formation due to the presence of young stars, indicating that \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}\\ is likely to provide a more reliable tracer of galaxy mass. Therefore, by plotting \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\\ against both of these values, how great this effect is can be observed.   \n\nThese ratios are shown in Figure \\ref{fig:evol}, where, not only the luminosity ratios, but also the percentage of luminosity arising from diffuse gas (\\%{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{diff}}}}), as a function of merger age have been plotted. {\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}}\/{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}} (solid line), {\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}}\/{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{B}}}} (dot-dash line) and {\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}}\/{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}} (dashed line) have been normalised to the typical spiral galaxy, NGC 2403. Whilst \\%{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{diff}}}} (dotted line) is plotted on the right-hand y-axis of the plot, as an absolute value, where \\%{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{diff}}}} for NGC 2403 is 12\\%. The horizontal lines to the right of the plot indicate {\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}}\/{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}}, {\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}}\/{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{B}}}}, {\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}}\/{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}} and \\%{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{diff}}}} for NGC 2434, a typical elliptical galaxy \\citep{Diehl_06}. \n\n\\begin{figure*}\n  \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{images\/evolution.ps}\n  \\caption {The evolution of X-ray luminosity in merging galaxies. Shown are {\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}}\/{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}} (solid line), {\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}}\/{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{B}}}} (dot-dash line), {\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}}\/{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}} (dashed line) and \\%{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{diff}}}}, plotted as a function of merger age, where 0 age is defined to be the time of nuclear coalescence. All luminosity ratios ({\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}}\/{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}}, {\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}}\/{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{B}}}} and {\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}}\/{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}}) are normalised to the spiral galaxy NGC 2403. \\%{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{diff}}}} is plotted on a linear scale, shown on the right-hand y-axis of the plot and is an absolute value. \\%{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{diff}}}} for NGC 2403 is 12\\%. The horizontal lines to the right of the plot indicate {\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}}\/{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}}, {\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}}\/{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{B}}}}, {\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}}\/{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}} and \\%{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{diff}}}} for NGC 2434, a typical elliptical galaxy.}\n  \\label{fig:evol}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nThe system NGC 2403 was selected to represent a typical spiral galaxy. This system was chosen due to its close proximity (D=3.2 Mpc), the fact that it does not have a high level of star-forming activity and that it does not host an AGN \\citep{Schlegel_03}. NGC 2434, was selected to represent a typical elliptical galaxy. At a distance of 22 Mpc, this system is close enough to enable the point source population to be disentangled from the hot gas, allowing this diffuse emission to be modelled \\citep{Diehl_06}, this systems also exhibits the quiescent levels of star formation normally associated with such galaxies. Table \\ref{tab:typical} shows the properties for both of these systems, with columns as in Table \\ref{tab:merger:props}.\n\n\\begin{table*}\n\n\\centering\n\n\\caption[]{Properties of the typical spiral (NGC 2403) and the typical elliptical (NGC 2434) used in Figure \\ref{fig:evol}. Columns as in Table \\ref{tab:merger:props}.\n\\label{tab:typical}}\n\\begin{tabular}{ccccccc}\n\\noalign{\\smallskip}\n\\hline\n\nGalaxy \t\t& Distance\t& \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\t\t\t& \\%L$_{diff}$\t& Log \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\t& Log \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{B}}} \t& Log \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}} \\\\\nSystem \t\t& \t\t&(0.3$-$6.0)\t\t\t&\t\t& \t\t&\t\t&\t    \\\\\n       \t\t& Mpc\t\t&($\\times10^{40}$\\ensuremath{\\erg~\\ps})& \t\t& (\\ensuremath{\\erg~\\ps})   \t\t& (\\ensuremath{\\erg~\\ps})\t& (\\ensuremath{\\erg~\\ps})   \\\\\n \n\\noalign{\\smallskip}\n\\hline\n\nNGC 2403\t& 3\t\t& 0.29\t\t\t&\t12\t& 42.21\t\t& 43.22\t\t&43.49\t    \\\\\nNGC 2434\t& 22\t\t& 4.82\t\t\t&\t76\t& 41.96\t\t& 43.54\t\t&44.49\t    \\\\\n\n\n\\noalign{\\smallskip}\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{table*}\n\nAnother factor that must be considered when plotting these luminosity ratios is the AGN that is hosted by Mkn 266. This is the only system within the sample that has a confirmed AGN, and as such, it is expected to be significantly more luminous than the other systems. Therefore, the values of {\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}}\/{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{B}}}}, {\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}}\/{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}} and \\%{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{diff}}}} have been calculated for Mkn 266, both including and excluding the contribution from the Seyfert. As shown in Table \\ref{tab:mkn266_ps}, this nucleus is not a powerful AGN, instead it is close to the Seyfert-LINER borderline, and therefore, the total value of \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\\ only reduces by 14\\% if it is excluded, with the value of \\%{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{diff}}}} rising to 48\\%. When the reduced luminosity is used to derive the luminosity ratios for Mkn 266, the change in Figure \\ref{fig:evol} is very small, and the overall trends exhibited by these ratios are preserved.\n\n\\subsection{Arp 220: the Normalisation of the Universal Luminosity Function}\n\\label{sec:ulf}\n\n\\citet{Grimm_03} considered a number of SFR indicators for each galaxy within their sample. This was done, as there is considerable scatter in the SFR estimates obtained from different indicators. To calculate an `adopted' SFR for each galaxy, indicators that deviated significantly from the other values were disregarded, and the remaining indicators were averaged to give a final value used in subsequent calculations. \n\nIn the present work, the SFR was estimated from the brighter point sources, detected from the \\emph{Chandra}\\ observations. To further investigate the normalisation of the ULF, SFR indicators, derived from \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}, using the expression \\citep{Rosa_02}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathrm{SFR}_\\mathrm{FIR}=4.5 \\times 10^{-44}L_\\mathrm{FIR}(\\mathrm{erg~s}^{-1}),\n\\end{equation}\nhave also been used to estimate the luminosity arising from the unresolved point sources. This ULF correction, using the SFR indicator derived from \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}, has been calculated for the most active system within our sample, Arp 220. From this correction, a luminosity of 5.05$\\times$10$^{41}$erg s$^{-1}$, has been derived for the low luminosity (\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\\ $\\le 5\\times$10$^{39}$erg s$^{-1}$) point sources. This value is almost two times greater than the {\\em total} observed luminosity of Arp 220 (see Table \\ref{tab:merger:props}), indicating that using \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ as a SFR in the ULF must greatly overestimate the point source population for this system. To ensure that the value calculated in equation \\ref{equ:lfir} was consistent with other observations, additional \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ values were obtained (Log \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}=45.86, \\citet{David_92} and Log \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}=45.54, \\citet{Liu_95}). Averaging these values gives Log \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ = 45.73 for Arp 220, similar to the value given in Table \\ref{tab:merger:props}.  \n\nTo investigate this further, we compare the observed population of brighter sources with that predicted using the ULF. From the \\emph{Chandra}\\ observation, 4 sources with \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}} $\\ge 5\\times$10$^{39}$erg s$^{-1}$ are detected in Arp 220. Using the SFR derived from \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ in equation \\ref{equ:sfr}, the bright point source population is estimated to be ten times larger, with 41 discrete sources predicted. This demonstrates that, in the case of Arp 220, when using \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ as the SFR indicator, the ULF greatly overestimates the whole point source population. {\\ensuremath{L_{\\ensuremath{\\mathrm{H}{\\alpha}}}}} values for this galaxy were also used to calculate the SFR of the system \\citep{Young_96,Colina_04} but, due to the very dusty nature of this object, are subject to large extinction effects, leading to greatly reduced SFRs with values as little as 0.55, which, given the merger status of this system, is unlikely to be a true measure of the SFR.\n\nTo investigate the reliability of using the \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ SFR indicator to normalise the ULF, the detected point source populations (with \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\\ $\\le 2.1\\times10^{40}$ erg s$^{-1}$) from the \\emph{Chandra}\\ observations were used to derive SFRs from equation \\ref{equ:sfr} for a number of galaxies in our sample; these values are plotted against the \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ derived SFR values in Figure \\ref{fig:sfr}. Only seven of the nine systems have been included in this figure, as the ULF is only a measure of the HMXRB population, and, it is likely that the stellar populations from the two older merger-remnants are dominated by LMXRBs.\n\\begin{figure}[h]\n  \\hspace{0.8cm}\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{images\/sfr_ratio.ps}\n  \\caption{A plot of the SFR indicated by \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ and the SFR derived from equation \\ref{equ:sfr}, with the solid line indicating unity. Arp 222 and NGC 1700 have not been included in this plot as their point source populations are likely to be dominated by LMXRBs.}\n  \\label{fig:sfr}\n\\end{figure}\nFrom Figure \\ref{fig:sfr}, it can be seen that at high levels of the\n\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ SFR indicator, the SFR derived from equation \\ref{equ:sfr} is\nmuch smaller, indicating that, in very active star-forming systems,\nthe prediction of the point source population, when using the \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\\nSFR value, does not represent the observed X-ray population well. \n\nThis relationship between \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\\ and SFR was also investigated in\n\\citet{Gilfanov_04b}, where active systems in the HDF-N  were used to\nprobe the ULF at high values of SFR. From this work it was found that,\nfor higher levels of star formation, the observed X-ray luminosities\nfrom these galaxies do follow the \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}-SFR relation. However, the\ncalculated SFR for all of these systems were derived from 1.4 GHz, {\\ensuremath{L_\\nu}} SFR\nindicators only, not \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ SFR indicators. This suggests that the discrepancy\nbetween \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ SFR, and the observed values derived from the\n\\emph{Chandra}\\ observations, are a consequence of the normalisation\nindicator chosen, and do not arise from non-linearity of the ULF at high values of SFR.\n\nThere are a number of reasons why the SFRs inferred from the X-ray observations and \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ values might differ so greatly for systems in the most active phases. It could simply be that, for dusty, active systems such as these, \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ is a poor tracer of SFR, becoming greatly enhanced due to the large amounts of gas residing in the galaxy. This would indicate that it is the \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ SFR indicator, not the SFR from the ULF, that is incorrect. However, this explanation is unlikely, as studies have shown that, whilst {\\ensuremath{L_{\\ensuremath{\\mathrm{H}{\\alpha}}}}} and {\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{UV}}}} are susceptible to extinction caused by the presence of dust in star-forming regions, \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ does not vary with gas content, and scales well with both extinction corrected {\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{UV}}}} and radio continuum emission in dusty starbursts \\citep{Buat_96,Buat_92}.\n\nAlternatively, the discrepancy between the predicted and observed values could be a consequence of the age of the stellar population. If the starburst has only recently taken place, it is plausible that, whilst \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ has had enough time to become massively enhanced, the X-ray point source population has not yet evolved into HMXRBs. The consequence of this would be that the X-ray luminosity arising from the point source population is lower than the SFR, indicated by \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}, would predict. \\citet{Wilson_05} recently reported on an optical study of Arp 220 which has detected two populations of young massive star clusters. The age of the youngest of these populations has been found to be 5$-$10 Myr, indicating that enough time has elapsed since the last starburst for HMXRBs to form ($\\sim1-$10 Myr). It is therefore unlikely that a lag between \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ and \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\\ is the reason for the difference in the SFR values shown in Figure \\ref{fig:sfr}.\n\nAnother reason that the SFR derived from equation \\ref{equ:sfr} is lower than expected, when compared to the \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ SFR, could simply be that the X-ray observations are not detecting all the point sources in very active galaxies due to obscuration, and, those that are being detected have greatly reduced luminosities. To investigate this, the optical obscuration in Arp 220 \\citep{Shioya_01} has been converted into an absorbing column density, giving \\ensuremath{N_{\\mathrm{H}}} = 2.2$\\times 10 ^{22} $ atom cm$^{-2}$, a value which is actually somewhat smaller than the modelled value given in \\citet{Clements_02} of 3$\\times 10 ^{22} $ atom cm$^{-2}$. This demonstrates that the stated luminosities in \\citet{Clements_02} are reliable values, and all the point sources with \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}} $\\ge 5\\times$10$^{39}$erg s$^{-1}$ (the stated lower luminosity point source detection threshold) should have been detected in this system. \n\nA final explanation for the difference between the predicted and observed SFR indicators for systems close to the point of nuclear coalescence, could arise from a physical change in the birth of stellar systems. These merging galaxies provide extreme examples of violent star formation, and it is therefore possible that the most recent starburst has resulted in the birth of a stellar population with a different Initial Mass Function (IMF). \n\nThe IMF, the distribution of masses with which stars are formed, has long been a contentious issue, with a variety of different models used to explain the observed stellar populations \\citep{Larson_86,Larson_98}. It was initially proposed that the IMF was a universal function with a power law form, regardless of formation time or local environment \\citep{Salpeter_55}.  But, it has also been argued that the IMF varies, and was more top-heavy at earlier times \\citep{Rieke_80}. \n\nFrom the most recent observations it is thought that the Salpeter IMF,\nwith a lower mass flattening between 0.5 \\ensuremath{\\mathrm{M}_{\\odot}}\\ and 1.0 \\ensuremath{\\mathrm{M}_{\\odot}}, can be\nconsidered a reasonable approximation for large regions of starburst\ngalaxies \\citep{Elmegreen_05}, with some suggestion of small\nvariations with environment, with denser and more massive star\nclusters producing more massive stars compared to intermediate mass\nstars \\citep{Elmegreen_04,Shadmehri_04}. This more top-heavy IMF has\nthe effect of generating greater numbers of supernova remnants, black\nholes, and HMXRBs, as well as higher amounts of \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ per unit mass\nof stars formed, therefore leading to an increase in both \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\\ and\n\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}. However, the\nlevel of enhancement of \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}, relative to the increase in HMXRBs formed, is\ndependent on the shape of the IMF. \n\nIn the galaxy systems close to the point of nuclear coalescence\npresented in this sample,\nthe X-ray binary population is dominated by HMXRBs, meaning that \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\\\nwill scale with the number of massive stars produced, whereas \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\\nwill scale\nwith the main sequence luminosity of those stars. As the IMF flattens,\n\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ will rise more steeply, a consequence of the strong mass to\nluminosity dependence, $M \\propto L^{3.5}$. Therefore, when\nusing \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ values to derive the SFR for these system, this value will be\noverestimated.\n\n\n\n\nIf this interpretation is correct, it could explain why there appears to be a deficit of X-ray binaries in the \\emph{Chandra}\\ observations of the systems close to the point of coalescence. In actual fact, what is being seen here is an overestimated SFR, derived from the massively enhanced \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}, as can be seen in Figure \\ref{fig:sfr}.\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Discussion: X-ray Evolution}\n\\label{sec:dis}\n\nThe first thing to note from Figure \\ref{fig:evol} is that Arp 270, even though an early stage system, is already exhibiting enhanced star formation activity, as measured by \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}\\ (see \\citet{Read_01}), compared to the typical spiral system, NGC 2403. This activity increases up to the point of nuclear coalescence, after which there is a steady drop in \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}\\ until the merger-remnant systems, $\\sim$1 Gyr after coalescence. From this point the activity value levels off to that of a typical elliptical system. \n\nThe evolution of the X-ray luminosity is different to that of \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}. There is initially a rise, as seen with the star formation activity, but this peaks $\\sim$300 Myr before coalescence takes place, whilst \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}\\ is still increasing. From this peak it drops until the young merger-remnants, as is the case for \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}. But, instead of levelling off, the X-ray luminosity once again begins to rise, with the total X-ray luminosity of the 3 Gyr system beginning to resemble that of a mature elliptical galaxy.\n\nBoth \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{B}}}\\ and \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}\\ broadly exhibit the same variations. One notable exception is the value of \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{B}}}\\ for Mkn 266. This relatively small value is due the massive enhancement of \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{B}}}\\ from this system's AGN \\citep{Risaliti_04}, which \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}\\ is not susceptible to, therefore indicating that \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}\\ is a more reliable tracer of galaxy mass than \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{B}}}, and will exhibit less scatter.\n\nThe evolution of \\%{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{diff}}}} also shows an increased value for Arp 270, when compared to the typical spiral system. This value then steadily rises,  up to a point $\\sim$200 Myr prior to nuclear coalescence. This trend line then drops until the young merger-remnant systems, once again rising, with the 3 Gyr system exhibiting a similar value of \\%{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{diff}}}} to that of the typical elliptical, NGC 2434.\n\n\\subsection{Previous X-ray Studies}\n\\label{sec:RP98}\n\nIn RP98 it was found that the X-ray luminosity of the sample generally followed the same patterns as the star formation activity, with the peak of \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{B}}}\\ being coincident with nuclear coalescence. Also in the RP98 study, the sample of post-merger systems was limited, with a baseline extending out to only 1.5 Gyr after nuclear coalescence. Consequently, no rise in the X-ray luminosity of post-merger systems was observed, because, as shown in the present study, there is a strong suggestion that systems require a much greater relaxation time before they begin to exhibit properties seen in mature elliptical galaxies. This idea is further strengthened by a study of post-merger ellipticals \\citep{Osul_01}, where a long term trend ($\\sim$10 Gyr) for \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{B}}}\\ to increase with dynamical age was found.\n\nThe reason that the peak in \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\\ has been found at two different merger ages in these studies could be due to the different observatories that were used. \\emph{Chandra}\\ has greater spatial resolution than \\emph{ROSAT}, and is able to disentangle background galaxies from the target object with much greater accuracy. It is therefore possible that these objects were included in the previous \\emph{ROSAT}\\ work as diffuse features, leading to a different peak value of \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}. However, both samples include the famous merger system, The Antennae, and the system at coalescence, Arp 220, and the X-ray luminosities from both of these systems are comparable between \\emph{ROSAT}\\ and \\emph{Chandra}. Indicating that this discrepancy does not arise from a difference between these two observatories. \n\nAnother difference between RP98 and the current work, that could account for the differing merger ages of peak \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}, is the selection of systems within each study. In our sample we include two systems between The Antennae and Arp 220; Mkn 266 and NGC 3256, in RP98 there is only one, NGC 520. This system is highlighted in RP98 as being X-ray faint, not exhibiting the X-ray properties that one would expect, given its large \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}\\ ratio. They suggest that this galaxy does not appear to be on the same evolutionary path as the rest of their sample and, possibly, will not evolve into an elliptical galaxy.\n\nA recent study of NGC 520 with \\emph{Chandra}\\ \\citep{Read_05}, has indicated that this system comprises one gas-rich and one gas-poor galaxy, not two gas rich spirals as has been selected within this sample. This lack of gas in the second galaxy has resulted in a `half merger' being induced in this system, and hence appears underluminous in X-rays. Therefore, it is likely that the peak X-ray luminosity was missed in the RP98 sample due to the galaxy selection. In the present study, use of the selection criteria outlined in section \\ref{sec:sample} has meant that only systems that are gas rich have been included, ensuring that comparable systems in the merger sequence have been selected. Consequently, the systems presented in this sample are more likely to be representative of the typical merger evolution.\n\n\\subsection{The X-ray Luminosity Peak and the Impact of Galactic Winds}\n\\label{sec:galWs}\n\nFrom the X-ray luminosities of the systems within this sample it has been seen, for the first time, that both \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}\\ and \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{B}}}\\ peak $\\sim$300 Myr before nuclear coalescence takes place. This result, given that the normalised star formation rate is still increasing at this time, is initially surprising, as one would expect the X-ray luminosity to increase with increasing \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}. However, from looking at the morphology of the hot diffuse gas, it is clear that the systems emitting very high levels of \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}\\ are also experiencing outflows from starburst-driven winds. We propose that this relative reduction in X-ray luminosity, for these very active systems, is a consequence of these large scale diffuse outflows.\n\nStarburst-driven winds are responsible for the transport of gas and energy out of star-forming galaxies. The energetics of these galactic winds were investigated by \\citet{Strickland_00b}, where hydrodynamical simulations were compared to the observations of the galactic wind of M82. From this work it was shown that the majority of the thermal and kinetic energy of galactic winds is in a hot volume-filling component of the gas, which is very difficult to probe due to its low emissivity, a consequence of the low density of this component.\n\nWithin our sample, the system that represents the peak X-ray luminosity is Mkn 266. In section \\ref{sec:mkn266} the results from the \\emph{Chandra}\\ observation of this system are presented and tentative evidence suggesting that this system is just about to experience galaxy wide diffuse outflows is found. If this interpretation is correct, it seems probable that the lower values of \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{B}}}\\ and \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}, for NGC 3256 and Arp 220, the most active systems in this sample, are a consequence of their extensive galactic winds, which have allowed the density, and hence the emissivity, of the hot gas to drop.\n\n\\subsection{Halo Regeneration in Low \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\\ Systems}\n\\label{sec:halo}\n\nAnother interesting result from this survey is the increase in \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\\ in the older merger-remnants. In previous studies (e.g. RP98) post-merger systems have been found to be X-ray faint when compared to elliptical galaxies. In our study the merger sequence has been extended to include a 3 Gyr system, and, by doing so, it has been shown that these underluminous systems appear to increase in \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\\ as they age. Given that these merger-remnants have been shown to be quiescent, this increase in \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\\ is not due to any starburst activity within the system. Coupling this, with the increase in \\%{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{diff}}}}, indicates that diffuse X-ray gas is being produced, leading to the creation of X-ray haloes, as observed in mature elliptical galaxies. \\citet{Osul_01} investigated the relationship between {\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}}\/{\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{B}}}} and spectroscopic age in post-merger ellipticals and found that there was a long term trend ($\\sim$10 Gyr) for {\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}} to increase with time. The mechanism by which the regeneration of hot gas haloes in these galaxies is explained, is one in which an outflowing wind to hydrostatic halo phase is driven by a declining SNIa rate. \\citet{Osul_01} argue that a scenario in which gas, driven out during the starburst, infalls onto the\nexisting halo is not the dominant mechanism in generating X-ray haloes as this mechanism would only take $\\sim$1$-$2 Gyr and would therefore not produce the long-term trend they observe. The time baseline from the sample studied in the present paper is not sufficient to allow us to discriminate between these two possibilities.\n\n\\subsection{The Behaviour of the X-ray Point Source Population}\n\\label{sec:compare}\n\nFrom the \\emph{Chandra}\\ observations in this study, the behaviour of the\npoint source population during the merger process has been\ncharacterised for the first time. In Figure \\ref{fig:lx_lps} the total\nluminosity, as well as its two components, the luminosity arising from\nthe point source population (\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{src}}}) and the diffuse gas contribution\n(\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{diff}}}), have been normalised by \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}\\ and plotted against star\nformation activity (\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}).\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{images\/point_lfir.ps}\n  \\caption{Plot indicating how \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}\\ and the two components that contribute to \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}\\ (the point source contribution (\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{src}}}) and the diffuse gas contribution (\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{diff}}})) scale with \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}.}\n  \\label{fig:lx_lps}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFrom this figure it can be seen that the total \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}, whilst\nshowing a general trend of increasing with \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}, exhibits a large\namount of scatter, peaking at the merger system Mkn 266, and then dropping at high values of \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}. Decomposing\n\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}\\ into separate source and diffuse contributions to\n\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}, it can be seen that the scatter arises\nprimarily from the diffuse component, whilst the drop in\n\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}\\ at high \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}, is a consequence of both \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{diff}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}\\ and\n\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{src}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}\\ falling steeply. Using the Kendall Rank coefficient, it was found\nthat the point source component, \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{src}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}, shows a correlation of\n2.5$\\sigma$ with \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}. Fitting a single power law to these data gives\na logarithmic index of 0.93$\\pm$0.28.\n\nHowever, from visual inspection of Figure \\ref{fig:lx_lps}, a single\npower law trend does not represent the behaviour adequately.\nAt high values of \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}, the very active\nsystems in this sample actually exhibit declining values of\n\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}\\ as \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}\\ increases. In section\n\\ref{sec:ulf}, we proposed the possibility that these systems close to\nnuclear coalescence have a value of \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ enhanced relative to that in\nless extreme environments, due to a change in the IMF. Under this\nhypothesis, the corresponding points in Figure \\ref{fig:lx_lps} will have\nbeen shifted strongly to the right, which could account for the\nnegative slope \nseen in all three curves at high \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}.\nThe idea that the change in behaviour relates to \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}, rather than\n\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}, is attractive since, given the very different\nmechanisms responsible for generating the source and diffuse\ncomponents of \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\\ (X-ray binaries and supernova-heated gas\nrespectively), it is hard to envisage any process which could\nsimultaneously change the behaviour of both.\n\n\n\\section{Conclusions}\n\\label{sec:con}\n\nFrom a sample of nine interacting and merging galaxies, the evolution of X-ray emission, ranging from detached spiral pairs through to merger-remnant systems, has been investigated. As part of this survey, results from the analysis of two \\emph{Chandra}\\ observations, Mkn 266 and Arp 222, have also been presented. Here we summarise the results from these \\emph{Chandra}\\ observations and then draw the main conclusions from the survey:\n\n\\subsection{Mkn 266 and Arp 222}\n\n\\begin{itemize}\n\n\\item{The luminous merger system, Mkn 266, has been shown to contain two nuclei, with X-ray luminosities of 3.47$\\times$10$^{41}$\\ensuremath{\\erg~\\ps}\\ and 1.04$\\times$10$^{41}$\\ensuremath{\\erg~\\ps}. In addition, an area of enhanced X-ray emission has been detected between them. This is coincident with a radio source and is likely a consequence of the collision between the two discs from the progenitors. A region of diffuse emission is detected to the north of the system. It is probable that this arises from a spiral arm that has been stripped out of the system during the merger. To the south east of the nucleus, a region of extended emission has been detected, indicating that this system could be on the verge of large-scale galactic winds breaking out. This system has the highest \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}\\ ratio of any of the galaxies within our sample.} \n\n\\item{ 15 discrete X-ray sources have been detected in Arp 222, two of which are classified as ULXs. This merger-remnant system has been shown to be X-ray faint when compared to both other systems within this sample and the typical elliptical galaxy NGC 2434. The diffuse gas of Arp 222 has been modelled with a temperature of 0.6 keV and, even though optical and CO observations are consistent with those of elliptical galaxies, the X-ray luminosity of Arp 222 does not resemble that of a mature elliptical.}\n\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\\subsection{The X-ray Evolution of Merging Galaxies}\n\n\\begin{itemize}\n\n\\item{The most striking result from this work is the time at which \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{B}}}\\ and \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}\/\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{K}}}\\ peak. It was previously believed that this was coincident with nuclear coalescence, but here we find the peak $\\sim$300 Myr before this coalescence takes place. We suggest that subsequent drop in X-ray emission is a consequence of large-scale diffuse outflows breaking out of the galactic discs, reducing the hot gas density and allowing the escape of energy in kinetic form.}\n\n\\item{This study has also demonstrated that, in the systems close to the point of coalescence, \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ is massively enhanced when compared to the X-ray binary luminosity of these systems. We suggest here that the high level of \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ result from a change in the IMF in these exceptional starbursts. With the production of more massive stars compared to intermediate mass stars in these galaxies leading to larger values of \\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{FIR}}}\\ per unit mass of stars formed. }\n\n\\item{At a time $\\sim$1 Gyr after coalescence, the merger-remnants in our sample are X-ray faint when compared to typical X-ray luminosities of mature elliptical galaxies. However, we see evidence that these systems will start to resemble typical elliptical galaxies at a greater dynamical age, given the properties of the 3 Gyr system within our sample. This supports the idea that halo regeneration will take place within low {\\ensuremath{L_{\\mathrm{X}}}} merger-remnants. We caution that, with only one older, more relaxed, system within our sample, our conclusions on this point are necessarily tentative. To fully understand how young merger-remnants evolve into typical elliptical systems, the period in which this transformation takes place needs to be studied in greater detail.}\n\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\n\\section{Acknowledgements}\n\nWe thank the \\emph{Chandra}\\ X-ray Center (CXC) Data Systems and Science\nData Systems teams for developing the software used for the reduction (SDP) and analysis (CIAO). We would also like to thank the anonymous referee for helpful comments\nwhich improved this paper, and Steve Diehl for providing us with the X-ray information for NGC 1700 and NGC 2403. \n\nThis publication has made use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a collaboration between The University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center (JPL\/ Caltech). Funding is provided by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation.\n\nNJB acknowledges the support of a PPARC studentship.\n\n\n\n\n\\label{lastpage}\n\n\\bibliographystyle{mn2e}\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
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+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\nModelling dynamical systems is a common problem in science and engineer, and there are many applications related to such a modelling, e.g. robot navigation, natural language processing, speech recognition, etc.~\\cite{ICML2013_hamilton13}. Many approaches have been devoted to modelling systems, such as Hidden Markov Models~(HMM) for uncontrolled dynamical systems and Partially Observable Markov Decision Processes~(POMDPs) for controlled systems. However, such latent-state approaches usually suffer from local minima and require some assumptions~\\cite{Singh04predictivestate}. Predictive State Representations~(PSRs) offer an effective approach for modelling partially dynamical systems~\\cite{Littman01predictiverepresentations}. Unlike the latent-state approaches, PSRs use a vector of predictions about future events, called tests, to represent the state. The tests can be executed on the systems and are fully observable. Compared to the latent-state approaches, PSRs have shown many advantages, such as the possibility of obtaining a global optimal model, more expressive power and less required prior domain knowledge, etc.~\\cite{LiuAAMAS15}.\n\nThere are two main problems in PSRs. One is the learning of the PSR model; the other is the application of the learned model, including predicting and planning~\\cite{Rosencrantz04learninglow,Liu14inaccuratePSR}. The state-of-the-art technique for addressing the learning problem is the spectral approach~\\cite{Boots-2011b}. Spectral methods treat the learning problem as the task of computing a singular value decomposition~(SVD) over a submatrix $H_s$ of a special type of matrix called the Hankel matrix~\\cite{Hsu_aspectral}. Under the strong assumptions that the rows $H$ and columns $T$ of $H_s$ are sufficient and the entries of the matrix can be estimated accurately, it has been proven that the spectral approach for learning PSRs is statistically consistent and the learned parameters can converge to the true parameters~\\cite{Boots-2011b}. However, for the sufficient assumption, it usually means a very large number of rows or columns of the $H_s$ matrix, which almost fails in practice~\\cite{kulesza2015spectral}. At the same time, the computation complexity of the SVD operation on $H_s$ is $O(|T|^2|H|)$~($|T|$ and $|H|$ is the number of the columns and rows in the matrix respectively), for large set of $T$ and $H$, such an operation is also prohibitively expensive. Also, for the spectral approach, to obtain the model parameter,  one should estimate and manipulate two observable matrices $P_{T,H}$, $P_{H}$, and $|A|\\times|O|$ observable matrices $P_{T,ao,H}$~\\cite{Liu16IJCAI}. Although Denis {\\em et al.}~\\cite{DBLP:conf\/icml\/DenisGH14} showed that the concentration of the empirical $P_{T,H}$ around its mean does not highly depend on its dimension, which gives a hope for alleviating the statistical problem when using large set of $T$ and $H$ as the accuracy of the learned model is directly connected to the concentration, manipulating these matrices is still too expensive to afford in large systems.\n\nThus, in practice, taking the computational constraints into account, it is needed to find only a finite set of columns of the Hankel matrix before the spectral methods can be applied. While different sets of columns usually lead to variant accuracy of the learned model, in this paper, we first introduce a concept of model entropy and show the high relevance between the entropy and the accuracy of the learned model, then for the columns selection problem, we call it basis selection in spectral learning of PSRs, an approach is proposed by using the model entropy as the guidance. We finally show the effectiveness of the proposed approach by executing experiments on {\\em PocMan}, which is one benchmark domain in the literature.\n\nWe organize the remainder of this paper as follows. We briefly review the background and define notations in Section 2. We propose the approaches for basis selection in Section 3. We provide comparative results in Section 4 . Finally we conclude the paper in Section 5.\n\n\n\\section{Preliminaries}\n\nPredictive state representations~(PSRs) represent state by using a vector of predictions of fully observable quantities~(tests) conditioned on past events~(histories), denoted $b(\\cdot)$. For discrete systems with finite set of observations $O=\\{o^1,o^2,\\cdots,o^{|O|}\\}$ and actions $A=\\{a^1,a^2,\\cdots,a^{|A|}\\}$, at time $\\tau$, a \\emph{test} is a sequence of action-observation pairs that starts from time $\\tau + 1$. Similarly, a \\emph{history} at $\\tau$ is a sequence of action-observation pairs that starts from the beginning of time and ends at time $\\tau$, which is used to describe the full sequence of past events. The prediction of a length-$m$ test $t$ at history $h$ is defined as $p(t|h)=p(ht)\/p(h)=\\prod^m_{i=1}Pr(o_i|ha_1o_1\\cdots a_i)$~\\cite{Singh04predictivestate}.\n\nThe underlying dynamical system can be described by a special bi-infinite matrix, called the Hankel matrix~\\cite{Balle:2014ML}, where the rows and columns correspond to all the possible tests $T$ and histories $H$ respectively, the entries of the matrix are defined as $P_{t,h}=p(ht)$ for any $t \\in T$ and $h \\in H$, where $ht$ is the concatenation of $h$ and $t$~\\cite{Boots-2011b}. The rank of the Hankel matrix is called the linear dimension of the system. When the rank is finite, we assume it is $k$, in PSRs, the state of the system at history $h$ can be represented as a prediction vector of $k$ tests conditioned at $h$. The $k$ tests used as the state representation is called the minimal {\\em core tests} that the predictions of these tests contain sufficient information to calculate the predictions for all tests, and is a \\emph{sufficient statistic}~\\cite{Singh04predictivestate,LiuAAMAS15}. For linear dynamical systems, the minimal core tests can be the set of tests that corresponds to the $k$ linearly independent columns of the Hankel matrix~~\\cite{LiuAAMAS15}.\n\nA PSR of rank $k$ can be parameterized by a reference condition state vector $b_* = b(\\epsilon)\\in \\mathbb{R}^k$, an update matrix $B_{ao} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{k \\times k}$ for each $a \\in A$ and $o \\in O$, and a normalization vector $b_\\infty \\in \\mathbb{R}^k$, where $\\epsilon$ is the empty history and $b_\\infty^T B_{ao} = 1^T$~\\cite{Hsu_aspectral,Boots-2011b}. In the spectral approach, these parameters can be defined in terms of the matrices $P_\\mathcal{H}$, $P_{\\mathcal{T,H}}$, $P_{\\mathcal{T},ao,\\mathcal{H}}$ and an additional matrix $U \\in \\mathbb{R}^{T \\times d}$ as shown in Eq.~\\ref{equ:spectral}, where $\\mathcal{T}$ and $\\mathcal{H}$ are the set of all possible tests and histories respectively, $U$ is the left singular vectors of the matrix $P_{\\mathcal{T,H}}$, $^T$ is the transpose and $\\dag$ is the pseudo-inverse of the matrix~\\cite{Boots-2011b}.\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{split}\n& b_* = U^TP_{\\mathcal{H}}1_k, \\\\\n& b_{\\infty} = (P^T_{\\mathcal{T,H}})^{\\dag}P_\\mathcal{H}, \\\\\n& B_{ao} = U^TP_{\\mathcal{T},ao,\\mathcal{H}}(U^TP_{\\mathcal{T,H}})^\\dag.\n\\end{split}\n\\label{equ:spectral}\n\\end{equation}\n\nUsing these parameters, after taking action $a$ and seeing observation $o$ at history $h$, the PSR state at next time step $b(hao)$ is updated from $b(h)$ as follows~\\cite{Boots-2011b}:\n\n\\begin{equation}\nb(hao) = \\frac{B_{ao}b(h)}{b_\\infty^TB_{ao}b(h)}.\n\\end{equation}\n\nAlso, the probability of observing the sequence $a_1o_1a_2o_2 \\cdots a_no_n$ in the next $n$ time steps can be  predicted by~\\cite{kulesza2015spectral}:\n\n\\begin{equation}\nPr[o_{1:t}||a_{1:t}] = b_{\\infty}^TB_{a_no_n} \\cdots B_{a_2o_2}B_{a_1o_1}b_*.\n\\end{equation}\n\nUnder the assumption that the columns and rows of the submatrix $H_s$ of the Hankel matrix are sufficient, when more and more data are included, the law of large numbers guarantees that the estimates $\\hat P_\\mathcal{H}$, $\\hat P_\\mathcal{T,H}$, and $\\hat P_{\\mathcal{T},ao,\\mathcal{H}}$ converge to the true matrices $P_\\mathcal{H}$, $P_\\mathcal{T,H}$, and $P_{\\mathcal{T},ao,\\mathcal{H}}$, the estimates $\\hat b_*$, $\\hat b_{\\infty}$, and $\\hat B_{ao}$ converge to the true parameters $b_*$, $b_{\\infty}$, and $B_{ao}$ for each $a \\in A$ and $o \\in O$, that the learning is consistent~\\cite{Boots-2011b}.\n\n\\section{Basis Selection via Model Entropy}\nAs the assumption that the columns and rows of the submatrix $H_s$ are sufficient is really strong~(usually means a very large set of columns and histories of the matrix), which almost fails in reality. At the same time, due to the computation and statistics constraints, we can only manipulate a limited finite set of tests\/histories. As different sets of columns~(tests) or rows~(histories) usually cause different model accuracy, which requires us to select the finite set of tests and rows~(histories) of the matrix for applying the spectral approach. In practice, as all possible training data is used to generate the histories, how to select the tests, i.e., the basis selection, is the crucial problem. In this section, we first introduce the concept of model entropy, then show the high relevance between the entropy and the model accuracy, finally we propose a simple search method for selecting the bases.\n\n\\noindent{\\bf Model Entropy}. Given a set of tests $X=\\{x_1, x_2, \\cdots, x_i\\}$, if it includes the set of core tests and the number of possible $p(X|\\cdot)$ is finite, Proposition~\\ref{pro:mdp} holds~\\cite{Liu16IJCAI}.\n\\begin{pro}\nThe Markov decision process~(MDP) model built by using $p(X|\\cdot)$ as state representation and the action-observation pair $\\langle ao \\rangle$ as action is deterministic.\n\\label{pro:mdp}\n\\end{pro}\nIn practice, it is difficult for $X$ to include the set of core tests. At any time step, the prediction vector $p(X|\\cdot)$ may actually correspond to several PSR states. In such cases, the transition from $p(X|h)$ to $p(X|hao)$ usually becomes stochastic and the less information is included in $X$, the more stochastic the transition will usually be. Inspired by the concept of Shannon entropy that measures information uncertainty~\\cite{shannon48}, to quantify the stochasticity, a concept of model entropy for each set of tests $X$ is defined in  Eq.~\\ref{equ:entropy}~\\cite{Liu16IJCAI}.\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{small}\nE(X) = -\\sum_{a \\in \\mathcal{A}_{PP}} \\frac{1}{r(T^a)} \\sum_{i=1}^{r(T^a)} \\sum_{j=1}^{c(T^a)}T(s_i,a,s_j)\\log T(s_i,a,s_j),\n\\end{small}\n\\label{equ:entropy}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $T$ is the state-transition function of the MDP using $p(X|\\cdot)$ as state representation and $\\langle ao \\rangle$ as action, $\\mathcal{A}_{PP}=A \\times O$ the set of action-observation pairs in the original system, $r(T^a)$ and $c(T^a)$  the number of rows and columns of the state-transition matrix $T^a$ respectively.\n\n\\noindent{\\bf Relevance between Model Entropy and Basis Selection}. When selecting the set of tests for applying spectral methods, the tests containing more information should be selected as the more information included in the set of tests, the higher accuracy the learned PSR model will usually be. According to Eq.~\\ref{equ:entropy}, the less information is included in the set of tests $X$, the more stochastic the state transition will be, and the higher the model entropy is. So for the basis selection problem, the set of tests with lowest model entropy should be selected.\n\n\\noindent{\\bf Basis Selection via Model Entropy}. Using the model entropy as the guidance, we propose a simple local search algorithm for searching the set of tests used for spectral learning of PSRs, which is shown in Algorithm~\\ref{Algo:selecting}. Starting with a default $T$ of the desired size, we iteratively sample a set of new tests and consider using it to replace the tests in $T$. If the replacement is a reduction in terms of the entropy value, then we keep it. After a fixed number of rounds, we stop and return the current $T$. In the algorithm, the entropy $E(T)$ for each candidate set of tests $T$ is calculated as follows~(We name this procedure as $EntropyLearn(D,T)$): We first generate an original randomly action-observation sequences $D$ as the training data for calculating the entropy. Then the data is translated into the form of $\\langle$action-observation$\\rangle$-$p(T|\\cdot)$ sequences. For example, a sequence $d=\\langle a_1o_1a_2o_2 \\cdots a_ko_k \\rangle$ is converted into $d'=\\langle a_1o_1 \\rangle p(T|a_1o_1)\\langle a_2o_2\\rangle p(T|a_1o_1a_2o_2) \\cdots \\langle a_ko_k\\rangle p(T|a_1o_1a_2o_2 \\cdots a_ko_k)$, where $p(T|\\cdot)$ can be estimated using the training data. Due to the sampling error, it is unlikely that any of these estimated $p(\\hat{T}|\\cdot)$ will be exactly the same, even if the true underlying $p(T|\\cdot)$ are identical. Statistical tests or linearly independent techniques can be used to estimate the number of distinct underlying $p(T|\\cdot)$ and cluster the estimated $p(\\hat{T}|\\cdot)$ corresponding to the same true prediction vector into one group(state)~\\cite{TalvitieS11,Liu14inaccuratePSR}. Subsequently, we compute the state-transition functions in the transformed data and build the MDP model. Finally, the entropy $E(T)$ of a set of tests $T$ can be calculated according to Eq.~\\ref{equ:entropy}.\n\n\\begin{algorithm}[tb]\n   \\caption{Search for sets of $k$ tests $T$ that approximately minimize $E(T)$ }\n   \\label{Algo:selecting}\n  \n\\begin{algorithmic}[1]\n   \\STATE {\\bfseries Input:} dataset $D$, initial $T$ of size $k$, number of size $n < k$, distributions $p_T$ over candidate tests, number of rounds $r$, entropy value $EV$, an entropy threshold $E_{th}>0$, number of iteration $iterNum$.\n   \\STATE {\\bfseries Initialize:} $EV := EntropyLearn(D,T)$.\n   \\FOR{$i=1$ {\\bfseries to} $r$}\n   \\FOR{$j=1$ {\\bfseries to} $iterNum$}\n   \\STATE {Sample a set of $n$ tests $T_s$ $\\not \\in T \\sim p_T$}\n   \\STATE {$T^{'}$ $\\leftarrow$ a set of $n$ test in $T$}\n   \\STATE {$EV_T := EntropyLearn(D,T \\setminus T^{'} \\cup T_s)$}\n   \\IF{$EV - EV_T > E_{th}$}\n   \\STATE $EV := EV_T$\n   \\STATE $T := T \\setminus T^{'} \\cup T_s$\n   \\STATE {\\bfseries break}\n   \\ENDIF\n   \\ENDFOR\n   \\ENDFOR\n   \\STATE {\\bfseries Output:} $T$\n\\end{algorithmic}\n\\end{algorithm}\n\n\n\\section{Experimental Results}\nWe evaluated the proposed technique on {\\em PocMan}~\\cite{Silver10monte-carloplanning,JMLR:hamilton14}, a partially observable version of the video game {\\em PacMan}. The environment is extremely large that has 4 actions, 1024 observations and an extremely large number of states~(up to $10^{56}$).\n\n\\subsection{Experimental Setting}\n\\noindent{\\bf Evaluated Methods}.\nWe compared our approach~(Entropy-based) with the bound-based approach~\\cite{kulesza2015spectral}, which is the most related technique with our method that both the approaches address the same basis selection problem. The two approaches both first select a set of tests, then spectral method is applied by using these tests. Also, iterative approaches are used in both approaches for selecting the sets of tests. The main difference between our approach and the work of~\\cite{kulesza2015spectral} is the guidance used for selecting the set of tests. While our approach uses the model entropy as the guidance, the key idea in~\\cite{kulesza2015spectral} is that as in the limiting-case, the singular values of the learned transformed predictive state representations~(TPSR) parameters are bounded, then under an assumption that the smaller the singular values of the learned parameters are, the more accuracy the learned PSR model will be, they just select the tests that can cause smaller singular values of the learned PSR parameters. However, no any formal guarantees are provided for such an approach.\n\nA uniformly random generated  sequence with length $200,000$ was used as the training sequence for both approaches. And to calculate the entropy of a candidate set of tests $T_c$, a randomly generated 5,000-length action-observation sequence $d$ was used. For each test $t \\in T_c$, $p(t|\\cdot)$ was estimated by executing $act(t)$ 100 times, where $act(t)$ is the action sequence in test $t$. The entropy thresholds for our approaches are 0.06, 0.04, and 0.02 for different number of tests as the entropy value usually decreases with the increase of the number of tests~(For number of tests 100 and 150, the threshold used is 0.06; for number of tests 200 and 250, the threshold is 0.04; and for number of tests 300, the threshold is 0.02). The number of rounds for both approaches is 10. In each round, we iteratively sample a set of new tests of size 20 and use it to replace 20 tests in $T$, the iterative number in each round is also 10. \\iffalse if the replacement is an reduction in terms of the entropy value or the bound in 10 iterations~(the reduction no less than the threshold for our approach), then we keep it and go to next round, otherwise, we also go to next round.\\fi After a fixed number of rounds, we stop and return the current $T$.\n\n\\noindent{\\bf Performance Measurements.}\nWe evaluated the learned models in terms of prediction accuracy, which is measured by the difference between the true predictions  and the predictions given by the learned model over a test data sequence~(for {\\em PocMan}, we cannot obtain the true predictions, Monte-Carlo rollout predictions  were used~\\cite{JMLR:hamilton14}).\n\nTwo error functions were used in the measurement. One is the average one-step prediction error per time step on the test sequence as shown in Eq.~\\ref{eqn:f1}:\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\frac{1}{L} \\sum_{t=1}^L |p(o_{t+1}|h_t,a_{t+1})-\\hat{p}(o_{t+1}|h_t,a_{t+1})|.\n\\label{eqn:f1}\n\\end{equation}\n$p(\\cdot)$ is the probability calculated from the true POMDP model or the Monte-Carlo rollout prediction and $\\hat{p}(\\cdot)$ the probability obtained from the learned model. $|\\cdot|$ refers to the absolute value. $L$ is the length of the test sequence used in the experiments. For the average four-step prediction error, the same equation with predicting four steps ahead $\\hat{p}(o_{t+1}o_{t+2}o_{t+3}o_{t+4}|h_ta_{t+1}a_{t+2}a_{t+3}a_{t+4})$ was used.\n\n\\subsection{Performance Evaluation}\n\nIn this section, for each algorithm, we report the performance results as the mean error over 10 trials. For each trial, a uniform randomly generated test sequence with length $L=20,000$ was used for testing the accuracy of the learned model.\n\nTwo kinds of experiments were conducted. The first experiment is to evaluate the prediction performance by fixing the number of tests as 100, and ran Algorithm~\\ref{Algo:selecting} 10 rounds. For each round, we reported the average one and four prediction errors for both approaches, the results are shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:fix}.  The number at each point in Fig.~\\ref{fig:fix} is the average entropy~(for our approach) or the average largest singular values~(for the bound-based approach) in the corresponding round, which also shows that for the entropy-based approach, a higher entropy value results in a lower prediction accuracy while there are no relevance between the singular values and the prediction accuracy. The second experiment is to evaluate the prediction performance by varying the number of tests. For each number of tests, both approaches were ran 10 rounds, and the final results for both one and four-step errors after 10 rounds were reported in Fig.~\\ref{fig:vary}. For this experiment, we also reported the initial results~(Initial) without the replacement of the tests.\n\n\\begin{figure*}[!ht]\n\\begin{minipage}{6.0in}\n\\begin{minipage}{3in}\n\\includegraphics[width=0.8\\textwidth]{pocmaniterone.pdf}\n\\centerline{{\\scriptsize $(a)$}}\n\\end{minipage}\n\\begin{minipage}{3in}\n\\includegraphics[width=0.8\\textwidth]{pocmaniterfour.pdf}\n\\centerline{{\\scriptsize $(b)$}}\n\\end{minipage}\n\\end{minipage}\n\\caption{{\\small ($a$) One-step; ($b$) four-step prediction error of 10 rounds for fix number of tests}}\n\\label{fig:fix}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\\begin{figure*}[!ht]\n\\begin{minipage}{6.0in}\n\\begin{minipage}{3in}\n\\includegraphics[width=0.8\\textwidth]{pocmantestone.pdf}\n\\centerline{{\\scriptsize $(a)$}}\n\\end{minipage}\n\\begin{minipage}{3in}\n\\includegraphics[width=0.8\\textwidth]{pocmantestfour.pdf}\n\\centerline{{\\scriptsize $(b)$}}\n\\end{minipage}\n\\end{minipage}\n\\caption{{\\small ($a$) One-step; ($b$) four-step prediction error of different number of tests}}\n\\label{fig:vary}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nAs can be seen from Figs.~\\ref{fig:fix} and~\\ref{fig:vary}, both for the one-step and four-step predictions, and both for the two kinds of experiments, in  all the cases, our algorithm performs very well and outperforms the bound-based approaches. Considering the error reported is only the prediction error for one time step, the improvement on prediction accuracy on a long sequence is remarkable. Meanwhile, for the first kind of experiment, as the number of rounds increases, our algorithm reduces its prediction error while the bound-based approaches with increasing rounds do not improve their performances and are very unstable. What also can be seen from the experimental results is that with the increase of the number of tests, for all the approaches, the prediction accuracy of the obtained PSR model also increases, which demonstrates the importance of including more tests in the learning of the models.\n\n\\section{Conclusion}\n\nHow to choose the bases is a very important problem in spectral learning of PSRs. However, until now, there are very little work that can address this issue successfully. In this paper, by introducing the model entropy for measuring the model accuracy and showing the close relevance between the entropy and model accuracy, we propose an entropy-based basis selection strategy for spectral learning of PSRs. Several experiments were conducted on the PocMan environment, and the results show that compared to the state-of-the-art bound-based approach, our technique is more stable and achieved much better performance.\n\n\\acks{This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 61375077).}\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\\label{intro}\nSerre \\cite{Serre} developed the theory of $p$-adic and mod $p$ modular\nforms and  produced several interesting results.\nIn his theory, the Ramanujan operator\n$\\theta :f=\\sum a_nq^n \\longmapsto \\theta (f):=\\sum n\\,a_nq^n$\nplayed an important role. The notion of such operator was extended\nto the case of Siegel modular forms. The theta operator (generalized\nRamanujan operator) on Siegel modular forms is defined by\n$$\n\\varTheta : F=\\sum_T a(T)q^T \\longmapsto \n\\varTheta (F):=\\sum_T\\text{det}(T)\\cdot a(T)q^T,\n$$\nwhere $F=\\sum a(T)q^T$ is the Fourier expansion (generalized $q$-expansion)\nof $F$.\n\nFor a prime number $p$, the theta operator acts on the algebra of mod $p$\nSiegel modular forms (cf. B\\\"{o}cherer-Nagaoka \\cite{B-N}). In our study, we found Siegel\nmodular forms $F$ which satisfy the property\n$$\n\\varTheta (F) \\equiv 0 \\pmod{p}.\n$$\nThe space consisting of such Siegel modular forms is called the {\\it mod $p$\nkernel of the theta operator}. In this terminology, we can say that the Igusa cusp form\nof weight 35 is an element of the the mod 23 kernel of the \ntheta operator (cf. Kikuta-Kodama-Nagaoka \\cite{K-K-N}). Moreover the theta series attached to \nthe Leech lattice is also in the mod 23 kernel of the theta operator \n(cf. Nagaoka-Takemori \\cite{N-T}).\n\nThe main purpose of this paper is to extend the notion of the theta operator\nto the case of Hermitian modular forms and, to give some examples of Hermitian \nmodular forms which are in the mod $p$ kernel of the theta operator.\nThe first half concerns the Eisenstein series. Let \n$\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}})$ be the Hermitian modular group\nof degree 2 with respect to an imaginary quadratic number field $\\boldsymbol{K}$.\nKrieg \\cite{Krieg} constructed a weight $k$ Hermitian modular form \n$F_{k,\\boldsymbol{K}}$ which coincides with the weight $k$ Eisenstein series\n$E_{k,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)}$ for $\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}})$.\n\nThe first result says that the Hermitian modular form $F_{p+1,\\boldsymbol{K}}$\nis in the mod $p$ kernel of the theta operator under some condition\non $p$, namely\n$$\n\\varTheta (F_{p+1,\\boldsymbol{K}}) \\equiv 0\\pmod{p}\n\\quad (\\text{cf. Theorem \\ref{main1}}).\n$$\nAs a corollary, we can show that the weight $p+1$ Hermitian Eisenstein\nseries $E_{p+1,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)}$ satisfies\n$$\n\\varTheta( E_{p+1,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)}) \\equiv 0 \\pmod{p}\n$$\nif the class number of $\\boldsymbol{K}$ equals one.\n\nIn the remaining part, we give various examples which are in the mod $p$\nkernel of the theta operator. The first example we show is related to the\ntheta series attached to positive definite, even unimodular Hermitian lattice \nover the Gaussian field.\nLet $\\mathcal{L}$ be a positive definite, even unimodular Hermitian lattice of rank\n$r$ with the Gram matrix $H$. We denote the corresponding Hermitian theta series\nof degree $n$ by $\\vartheta_{\\mathcal{L}}^{(n)}=\\vartheta_H^{(n)}$. It is known\nthat the rank $r$ is divisible by 4 and $\\vartheta_{\\mathcal{L}}^{(n)}$ becomes a\nHermitian modular form of weight $r$. \nIn the case $r=12$, we have a positive definite, even integral Hermitian lattice\n$\\mathcal{L}_{\\mathbb{C}}$ of rank 12, which does not have any vector of\nlength one. In this paper we call it the Hermitian Leech lattice. \nThe theta series attached to $\\mathcal{L}_{\\mathbb{C}}$ satisfies\n$$\n\\varTheta (\\vartheta_{\\mathcal{L}_{\\mathbb{C}}}^{(2)}) \\equiv\n0 \\pmod{11}\n\\quad (\\text{cf. Theorem \\ref{mod11cong}}).\n$$\n\nThe next example is connected with the Hermitian theta constant. \nLet $\\mathcal{E}$ be a set of mod 2 even characteristics of degree 2 (cf. $\\S$ \\ref{thetaconstant}).\nWe consider the theta constant $\\theta_{\\boldsymbol{m}}$\\,$(\\boldsymbol{m}\\in\\mathcal{E})$.\nIt is known that the function\n$$\n\\psi_{4k}:=\\frac{1}{4}\\sum_{\\boldsymbol{m}\\in\\mathcal{E}}\\theta_{\\boldsymbol{m}}^{4k}\n$$\ndefines a Hermitian modular form of weight $4k$ (cf. Freitag \\cite{Freitag}).\nThe final result can be stated as\n$$\n\\varTheta (\\psi_8) \\equiv 0 \\pmod{7},\\qquad\n\\varTheta (\\psi_{12}) \\equiv 0 \\pmod{11}\n\\quad (\\text{cf. Theorem \\ref{thetaconstantth}}).\n$$\n\nOur proof is based on the fact that the image of a weight $k$ modular form of the theta\noperator is congruent to a weight $k+p+1$ cusp form mod $p$ (cf. Theorem 2.7) and then\nwe use the Sturm bound (Corollary 2.6).\n\\section{Hermitian modular forms}\n\\label{Sect.2}\n\\subsection{Notation and definition}\n\\label{Sect.2.1}\nThe Hermitian upper half-space of degree $n$ is defined by\n$$\n\\mathbb{H}_n:=\\{\\,Z\\in Mat_n(\\mathbb{C})\\,\\mid\\, \\frac{1}{2i}(Z-{}^tZ)>0\\,\\},\n$$\nwhere ${}^t\\overline{Z}$ is the transposed complex conjugate of $Z$.\nThe space $\\mathbb{H}_n$ contains the Siegel upper-half space of degree\n$n$\n$$\n\\mathbb{S}_n:=\\mathbb{H}_n\\cap {\\rm Sym}_n(\\mathbb{C}).\n$$\nLet $\\boldsymbol{K}$ be an imaginary quadratic number field with discriminant\n$d_{\\boldsymbol{K}}$ and ring of integers $\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}$.\nThe Hermitian modular group\n$$\n\\Gamma^n(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}):=\\left\\{\\, M\\in\n{\\rm Mat}_{2n}(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}})\n\\,\\mid\\,\n{}^t\\overline{M}J_nM=J_n:=\n\\begin{pmatrix}0 & -1_n \\\\ 1_n & 0\\end{pmatrix}\\,\\right\\}\n$$\nacts on $\\mathbb{H}_n$ by fractional transformation\n$$\n\\mathbb{H}_n\\ni Z\\longmapsto M\\langle Z\\rangle:=\n(AZ+B)(CZ+D)^{-1},\\;\nM=\\begin{pmatrix}A&B\\\\ C&D\\end{pmatrix}\n\\in \\Gamma^n(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}).\n$$\n\nLet $\\Gamma \\subset \\Gamma^n(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}})$ be a\nsubgroup of finite index and $\\nu_k$\\,$(k\\in\\mathbb{Z})$ an abelian character\nof $\\Gamma$ satisfying $\\nu_k\\cdot\\nu_{k'=}\\nu_{k+k'}$.\nWe denote by $M_k(\\Gamma,\\nu_k)$ the space of Hermitian modular forms\nof weight $k$ and character $\\nu_k$ with respect to $\\Gamma$. Namely\nit consists of holomorphic functions $F:\\mathbb{H}_n\\longrightarrow\\mathbb{C}$\nsatisfying\n$$\nF\\mid_kM(Z):={\\rm det}(CZ+D)^{-k}F(M\\langle Z\\rangle)=\\nu_k(M)\\cdot F(Z)\n$$\nfor all $M=\\binom{*\\,*}{CD}\\in \\Gamma$. When\n$\\nu_k$ is trivial, we write it by $M_k(\\Gamma)$ simply. The subspace\n$S_k(\\Gamma,\\nu_k)$ of cusp forms is characterized by the condition\n$$\n\\Phi\\left(F\\mid_k\\begin{pmatrix}{}^t\\overline{U}&0\\\\ 0& U\\end{pmatrix}\\right)\n\\equiv 0,\\quad\n(U\\in GL_n(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}})),\n$$\nwhere $\\Phi$ is the Siegel operator. A modular form $F\\in M_k(\\Gamma,\\nu_k)$\nis called {\\it symmetric} if\n$$\nF({}^t\\!Z)=F(Z).\n$$\nWe denote by $M_k(\\Gamma,\\nu_k)^{\\rm sym}$ the subspace consisting of symmetric\nmodular forms. Moreover\n$$\nS_k(\\Gamma,\\nu)^{\\rm sym}:=M_k(\\Gamma,\\nu_k)^{\\rm sym}\\cap\nS_k(\\Gamma,\\nu_k).\n$$\nIf $F\\in M_k(\\Gamma,\\nu_k)$ satisfies the condition\n$$\nF(Z+B)=F(Z)\\qquad {\\rm for\\; all} \\;B\\in Her_n(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}),\n$$\nthen $F$ has a Fourier expansion of the form\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{Fourier}\nF(Z)\n=\\sum_{0\\leq H\\in\\Lambda_n(\\boldsymbol{K})}\na(F;H)\\text{exp}(2\\pi i\\text{tr}(HZ)),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere\n$$\n\\Lambda_n(\\boldsymbol{K}):=\\{\\,H=(h_{jl})\\in Her_n(\\boldsymbol{K})\\,\\mid\\,\nh_{jj}\\in\\mathbb{Z},\\;\\sqrt{d_{\\boldsymbol{K}}}\\,h_{jl}\\in\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\\,\\}.\n$$\n\nWe assume that any $F\\in M_k(\\Gamma,\\nu_k)$ has the Fourier expansion above.\nFor any subring $R\\subset\\mathbb{C}$, we write as\n$$\nM_k(\\Gamma,\\nu_k)_R:=\\{\\,F\\in M_k(\\Gamma,\\nu_k)\\,\\mid\\,\na(F;H)\\in R\\;\\;(\\forall H\\in\\Lambda_n(\\boldsymbol{K}))\\,\\}.\n$$\nIn the Fourier expansion (\\ref{Fourier}), we use the abbreviation\n$$\n\\boldsymbol{q}^H:=\\text{exp}(2\\pi i\\text{tr}(HZ)).\n$$\nThe generalized $\\boldsymbol{q}$-expansion $F=\\sum a(F;H)\\boldsymbol{q}^H$\ncan be considered as an element in a formal power series ring\n$\\mathbb{C}[\\![\\boldsymbol{q}]\\!]$ (cf. Munemoto-Nagaoka \\cite{M-N}, p.248) from which we have\n$$\nM_k(\\Gamma,\\nu_k)_R \\subset R[\\![\\boldsymbol{q}]\\!].\n$$\n\nLet $p$ be a prime number and $\\mathbb{Z}_{(p)}$ the local ring at $p$, namely, \nring of $p$-integral rational numbers. For \n$F_i\\in M_{k_i}(\\Gamma,\\nu_{k_i})_{\\mathbb{Z}_{(p)}}$\\,\n($i=1,2$), we write $F_1 \\equiv F_2 \\pmod{p}$ when\n$$\na(F_1;H) \\equiv a(F_2;H) \\pmod{p}\n$$\nfor all $H\\in\\Lambda_n(\\boldsymbol{K})$.\n\\subsection{Hermitian modular forms of degree 2}\n\\label{Sect.2.2}\nIn the rest of this paper, we deal with Hermitian modular forms of degree 2.\n\\subsubsection{Eisenstein series}\n\\label{Sect.2.2.1}\nWe consider the Hermitian Eisenstein series of degree 2.\n$$\nE_{k,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)}(Z)\n:=\\sum_{M=\\binom{*\\,*}{CD}}\\text{det}^{k\/2}(M)\\,\\text{det}(CZ+D)^{-k},\n\\quad Z\\in \\mathbb{H}_2,\n$$\nwhere $k>4$ is even and $M=\\binom{*\\,*}{CD}$ runs over a set\nof representaives of \n$\\left\\{\\binom{*\\,*}{0\\,*}\\right\\}\\backslash \\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}})$.\nThen\n$$\nE_{k,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)}\\in\nM_k(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}),\\text{det}^{-k\/2})_{\\mathbb{Q}}^{\\text{sym}}.\n$$\nMoreover, $E_{4,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)}\\in\nM_4(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}),\\text{det}^{-2})_{\\mathbb{Q}}^{\\text{sym}}$ is constructed by the Maass\nlift (Krieg \\cite{Krieg}). For an even integer $k\\geq 4$, $E_k^{(1)}=\\Phi (E_{k,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)})$\nis the normalized Eisenstein series Eisenstein series of weight $k$ for $SL_2(\\mathbb{Z})$.\n\\subsubsection{Structure of the graded ring in the case \n$\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(i)$}\n\\label{Sect.2.2.2}\nIn this section, we assume that $\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(i)$. In \\cite{K-N},\nthe authors defined some Hermitian cusp forms\n$$\n\\chi_8\\in S_8(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}))_{\\mathbb{Z}}^{\\text{sym}},\nF_{10}\\in S_{10}(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}),\\text{det}^5)_{\\mathbb{Z}}^{\\text{sym}},\nF_{12}\\in S_{12}(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}))_{\\mathbb{Z}}^{\\text{sym}},\n$$\ncharacterized by\n$$\n\\chi_8\\mid_{\\mathbb{S}_2}\\equiv 0,\\quad\nF_{10}\\mid_{\\mathbb{S}_2}=6X_{10},\\quad\nF_{12}\\mid_{\\mathbb{S}_2}=X_{12},\n$$\nwhere $X_k$\\,($k=10,12$) is Igusa's Siegel cusp form of weight $k$ \nwith integral Fourier coefficients (cf. Kikuta-Nagaoka \\cite{K-N}).\n\\begin{Thm}\n\\label{structure}\nLet $\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(i)$. The graded ring\n$$\n\\bigoplus_{k\\in\\mathbb{Z}}\nM_k(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}),\\text{det}^{k\/2})^{\\text{sym}}.\n$$\nis generated by\n$$\nE_{4,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)},\\quad\nE_{6,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)},\\quad\n\\chi_8,\\quad\nF_{10}, \\;\\;\\text{and}\\;\\;\nF_{12}.\n$$\n\\end{Thm}\nFor the proof, we should consult, for example, Kikuta-Nagaoka \\cite{K-N}.\n\\begin{Rem}\n$E_{4,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)}\\in M_4(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}))_{\\mathbb{Z}}^{\\text{sym}} $,\n$E_{6,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)}\\in M_6(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}),\\text{det}^{3})_{\\mathbb{Z}}^{\\text{sym}} $.\n\\end{Rem}\n\\subsubsection{Sturm bound}\n\\label{Sect.2.2.3}\nSturm gave some condition of $p$-divisibility of the Fourier coefficients of modular form. \nLater the bound is studied in the case of modular forms with several variables.\nFor example, the first author \\cite{C-C-K} studied the bound for Hermitian modular\nforms of degree 2 with respect to \n$\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(i)$ and $\\mathbb{Q}(\\sqrt{3}\\,i)$. However the statement\nis incorrect. We correct it here.\n\nWe assume that $\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(i)$ and use an abbreviation\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{abb}\n[m,a+bi,n]:=\\begin{pmatrix}m & \\frac{a+bi}{2}\\\\ \\frac{a-bi}{2} & n \\end{pmatrix}\n\\in\\Lambda_2(\\boldsymbol{K}).\n\\end{equation}\nWe define a lexicographic order for the different element elements\n$$\nH=[m,a+bi,n],\\quad H'=[m',a'+b'i,n']\n$$\nof $\\Lambda_2(\\boldsymbol{K})$ by\n\\begin{align*}\nH \\succ H'\\quad\\Longleftrightarrow\\quad & (1)\\; \\text{tr}(H) > \\text{tr}(H')\\quad \\text{or}\\\\\n                                      & (2)\\; \\text{tr}(H)=\\text{tr}(H'),\\;m>m'\\quad \\text{or}\\\\\n                                     & (3)\\;  \\text{tr}(H)=\\text{tr}(H'),\\;m=m',\\;a>a'\\quad \\text{or}\\\\\n                               & (4)\\; \\text{tr}(H)=\\text{tr}(H'),\\;m=m',\\;a=a',\\;b>b'.\n\\end{align*}\nLet $p$ be a prime number and \n$F\\in M_k(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}))_{\\mathbb{Z}_{(p)}}$.\nWe define the order of $F$ by\n$$\n\\text{ord}_p(F):=\\text{min}\\{\\,H\\in\\Lambda_2(\\boldsymbol{K})\\,\\mid\\,\na(F;H)\\not\\equiv 0 \\pmod{p}\\,\\},\n$$\nwhere the ``minimum'' is defined in the sense of the above order. If\n$F \\equiv 0 \\pmod{p}$, then we define $\\text{ord}_p(F)=(\\infty)$. In the case of\n$\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(\\sqrt{3}\\,i)$, we can also define the order in a similar\nway.\n\nIt is easy to check that\n\\begin{Lem}\n\\label{order}\nThe following equality holds.\n$$\n{\\rm ord}_p(FG)={\\rm ord}_p(F)+{\\rm ord}_p(G).\n$$\n\\end{Lem}\nThen we have\n\\begin{Thm}\n\\label{sturm}\nLet $k$ be an even integer and $p$ a prime number with $p\\geq 5$.\nLet $\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(i)$ or $\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(\\sqrt{3}\\,i)$.\nFor $F\\in M_k(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}),\\nu_k)_{\\mathbb{Z}_{(p)}}^{\\text{sym}}$,\nassume that\n$$\n{\\rm ord}_p(F)\\succ\n\\begin{cases}\n\\displaystyle\n\\left[ \\left[\\frac{k}{8}\\right],2 \\left[\\frac{k}{8}\\right], \\left[\\frac{k}{8}\\right]\\right] & \n\\text{if $\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(i)$}\n\\vspace{2mm}\n\\\\\n\\displaystyle\n\\left[\\left[\\frac{k}{9}\\right],2\\left[\\frac{k}{9}\\right], \\left[\\frac{k}{9}\\right]\\right] & \n\\text{if $\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(\\sqrt{3}\\,i)$}\n\\end{cases},\n$$\nThen we have ${\\rm ord}_p(F)=(\\infty)$, i.e., $F \\equiv 0\\pmod{p}$.\nHere\n$$\n\\nu_k=\n\\begin{cases}\n{\\rm det}^{k\/2} & \\text{if $\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(i)$}\\\\\n{\\rm det}^{k} & \\text{if $\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(\\sqrt{3}\\,i)$}\n\\end{cases}\n$$\nand $[x]$ inside of the bracket means the greatest integer such that $\\leq x$.\n\\end{Thm}\n\\begin{Rem}\nFor \n$\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(i)$ (resp. $\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(\\sqrt{3}\\,i)$)\nthe matrix $\\left[ [\\frac{k}{8}],2[\\frac{k}{8}],[\\frac{k}{8}] \\right]$\\;\n$\\left(\\text{resp.} \\left[ [\\frac{k}{9}],2[\\frac{k}{9}],[\\frac{k}{9}] \\right]\\right)$\nis the maximum of the elements in $\\Lambda_2(\\boldsymbol{K})$ of the form\n$\\left[ [\\frac{k}{8}],*,[\\frac{k}{8}] \\right]\\geq 0$\\;\n(resp. $\\left[ [\\frac{k}{9}],*,[\\frac{k}{9}] \\right]\\geq 0$).\n\\end{Rem}\n\\begin{proof} {\\it of Theorem \\ref{sturm}}\nLet $\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(i)$. We use the induction\non the weight $k$. \nWe can confirm that it is true for small $k$.\nSuppose that the statement is true for any $k$ with $k<k_0$.\nWe shall prove that the statement is true for the weight $k_0$.\n\nLet $\\text{ord}_p(F)=[m_0,\\alpha_0,n_0]\\succ\n\\left[ [\\frac{k}{8}],2 [\\frac{k}{8}], [\\frac{k}{8}]\\right]$.\nApplying Theorem \\ref{structure} to \n$F$, we can write as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{expression}\nF=P(E_{4,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)},E_{6,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)},F_{10},F_{12})+\\chi_8\\cdot G,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere\n$$\nP\\in\\mathbb{Z}_{(p)}[x_1,x_2,x_3,x_4]\\;\\; \\text{and}\\;\\;\nG\\in M_{k-8}(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}),\\nu_{k-8})_{\\mathbb{Z}_{(p)}}^{\\text{sym}}.\n$$\nNow we recall that\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{restriction}\na(F\\mid_{\\mathbb{S}_2};[m,r,n])=\n\\sum_{\\substack{a+bi\\in\\mathbb{Z}[i]\\\\ r=2a\\\\ 4mn-(a^2+b^2)\\geq 0}}\na(F;[m,a+bi,n]).\n\\end{equation}\nRestricting both sides of (\\ref{expression}) to $\\mathbb{S}_2$, we obtain\n$$\nF\\mid_{\\mathbb{S}_2}=P(G_4,G_6,6X_{10},X_{12}),\n$$\nwhere $G_k$ is the Siegel Eisenstein series of weight $k$ and $X_k$ is Igusa's\ncusp form appeared in $\\S$ \\ref{Sect.2.2.2}. The identity (\\ref{restriction}) implies\nthat\n$$\n\\text{ord}_p(F\\mid_{\\mathbb{S}_2})\\succ\n\\left[\\left[\\frac{k}{8}\\right],2\\left[\\frac{k}{8}\\right], \\left[\\frac{k}{8}\\right]\\right].\n$$\nIn particular, we have\n$$\n\\text{ord}_p(F\\mid_{\\mathbb{S}_2})\\succ\n\\left[\\left[\\frac{k}{10}\\right],r, \\left[\\frac{k}{10}\\right]\\right]\n$$\nfor any $r\\in\\mathbb{Z}$. By Theorem 2.4 in Kikuta-Kodama-Nagaoka \\cite{K-K-N}, we have\n$F \\equiv 0 \\pmod{p}$. Therefore $P \\equiv 0 \\pmod{p}$ as a polynomial and\nhence\n$$\nF \\equiv \\chi_8\\cdot G \\pmod{p}. \n$$\nBy Lemma \\ref{order}, $\\text{ord}_p(G)=[m_0-1,\\alpha_0-(1+i),n_0-1]$ because\nof $\\text{ord}_p(\\chi_8)=[1,1+i,1]$. It follows that\n\\begin{align*}\n\\text{ord}_p(G) & =[m_0-1,\\alpha_0-(1+i),n_0-1]\\\\\n                   & \\succ \\left[\\left[\\frac{k_0}{8}\\right]-1,2\\left[\\frac{k_0}{8}\\right]-(1+i), \\left[\\frac{k_0}{8}\\right]-1\\right]\\\\\n                 \n                  & \\succ \\left[\\left[\\frac{k_0-8}{8}\\right],2\\left[\\frac{k_0-8}{8}\\right],\n\\left[\\frac{k_0-8}{8}\\right]\\right].\n\\end{align*}\nBy the induction hypothesis, we have $G \\equiv 0\\pmod{p}$. This completes the proof\nin the case $\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(i)$. \\\\\nThe proof in the case of\n$\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(\\sqrt{3}\\,i)$ is almost the same as the case $\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(i)$.\n\\end{proof}\n\\begin{Cor}\n\\label{sturmcorollary}\nAssume that $\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(i)$ (resp. $\\mathbb{Q}(\\sqrt{3}\\,i)$) and\n$p$ is a prime number with $p\\geq 5$. If a Hermitian modular form\n$F\\in M_k(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}),\\nu_k)_{\\mathbb{Z}_{(p)}}^{{\\rm sym}}$\nsatisfies\n$$\na(F;H) \\equiv 0 \\pmod{p}\n$$\nfor all $H\\in\\Lambda_2(\\boldsymbol{K})$ with \n${\\rm tr}(H)\\leq 2 \\displaystyle \\left[\\frac{k}{8}\\right]$ {\\rm (}resp.\n${\\rm tr}(H)\\leq 2 \\displaystyle \\left[\\frac{k}{9}\\right]${\\rm )}, then\n$$\nF \\equiv 0 \\pmod{p}.\n$$\n\\end{Cor}\n\\subsection{Theta operator}\n\\label{Sect.2.3}\nWe recall that the Fourier expansion of Hermitian modular form\ncan be regarded as an element of certain formal power series ring\n$\\mathbb{C}[\\![\\boldsymbol{q}]\\!]$. The {\\it theta operator}\nover $\\mathbb{C}[\\![\\boldsymbol{q}]\\!]$ is defined as\n$$\n\\varTheta : F=\\sum a(F;H)\\boldsymbol{q}^H \\longmapsto\n\\varTheta (F):=\\sum a(F;H)\\cdot \\text{det}(H)\\boldsymbol{q}^H.\n$$\nIn the case that $n=1$, the theta operator is equal to the Ramanujan\noperator, which produces several interesting results (cf. Serre \\cite{Serre}).\nIt should be noted that $\\varTheta (F)$ is not necessarily a Hermitian\nmodular form even if $F$ is.\n\nWe fix a prime number $p$. If $F\\in M_k(\\Gamma,\\nu_k)_{\\mathbb{Z}_{(p)}}$\nsatisfies\n$$\n\\varTheta (F) \\equiv 0 \\pmod{p},\n$$\nthen we call $F$ an element of {\\it the mod $p$ kernel of the theta operator}.\nAssume that $F=\\sum a(F;H)\\boldsymbol{q}^H\\in M_k(\\Gamma,\\nu_k)_{\\mathbb{Z}_{(p)}}$.\nIf there is an integer $r$\\,($r<n$) such that\n$$\na(F;H) \\equiv 0 \\pmod{p}\n$$\nholds fro all $H\\in\\Lambda_n(\\boldsymbol{K})$ with $\\text{rank}(H)>r$, then\n$F$ is called a {\\it mod $p$ singular Hermitian modular form} (e.g. cf. B\\\"{o}cherer-Kikuta \\cite{B-K}). \nIt is obvious that,\nif $F$ is a mod $p$ singular Hermitian modular form, then $F$ is an element of\nmod $p$ kernel of the theta operator.\n\nThe main purpose of this paper is to give some examples of Hermitian modular\nform in the mod $p$ kernel of the theta operator in the case that $n=2$.\n\\subsubsection{Basic property of theta operator}\n\\label{Sect.2.3.1}\nAs we stated above, the image $\\varTheta (F)$ is not necessarily a Hermitian\nmodular form. However the following result holds:\n\\begin{Thm}\n\\label{thetamodp}\nAssume that $\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(i)$ and $p$ is a prime number such\nthat $p\\geq 5$. For any \n$F\\in M_k(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}),{\\rm det}^{k\/2})_{\\mathbb{Z}_{(p)}}^{\\text{sym}}$, there is a cusp form\n$$\nG\\in S_{k+p+1}(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}),{\\rm det}^{(k+p+1)\/2})_{\\mathbb{Z}_{(p)}}^{{\\rm sym}}\n$$ \nsuch that\n$$\n\\varTheta (F) \\equiv G \\pmod{p}.\n$$\n\\end{Thm}\n\\begin{proof}\nA corresponding statement in the case of Siegel modular forms can be found\nin B\\\"{o}cherer-Nagaoka \\cite{B-N}, Theorem 4. The proof here follows the same line.\nWe consider the normailized Rankin-Cohen bracket $[F_1,F_2]$ for\n$F_i\\in M_{k_i}(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}),\\text{det}^{k_i\/2})_{\\mathbb{Z}_{(p)}}^{\\text{sym}}$\\\\\n$(i=1,2)$\n(e.g. cf. Martin-Senadheera \\cite{M-S}). We can show that $[F_1,F_2]$ becomes\na Hermitian cusp form\n$$\n[F_1,F_2]\\in S_{k_1+k_2+2}\n(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}),\\text{det}^{(k_1+k_2+2)\/2})\n_{\\mathbb{Z}_{(p)}}^{\\text{sym}}.\n$$\nIf $p$ is a prime number such that $p\\geq 5$, then there is a Hermitian\nmodular form $G_{p-1}\\in M_{p-1}(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}),\\text{det}^{(p-1)\/2})_{\\mathbb{Z}_{(p)}}^{\\text{sym}}$ \nsuch that\n$$\nG_{p-1} \\equiv 1 \\pmod{p}\\quad (\\text{cf. {\\rm Kikuta-Nagaoka} \\cite{K-N}. Proposition 5}).\n$$\nFor a given $F\\in M_k(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}),\\text{det}^{k\/2})_{\\mathbb{Z}_{(p)}}^{\\text{sym}}$, we have\n$$\n\\varTheta (F) \\equiv [F,G_{p-1}] \\pmod{p}.\n$$\nHence we may put\n$$\nG:=[F,G_{p-1}]\\in  S_{k+p+1}(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}),\\text{det}^{(k+p+1)\/2})_{\\mathbb{Z}_{(p)}}^{\\text{sym}}.\n$$\n\\end{proof}\n\\begin{Ex}\n\\label{ex.1}\n$$\n\\varTheta (E_{4,\\boldsymbol{K}}) \\equiv 5E_{4,\\boldsymbol{K}}\\cdot \\chi_8+2F_{12}\n\\pmod{7}.\n$$\n\\end{Ex}\n\\section{Eisenstein case}\n\\label{Sect.3}\nIn this section we deal with the Hermitian modular forms related to the Eisenstein series\nof degree 2.\n\\subsection{Krieg's result}\n\\label{Sect.3.1}\nWe denote by $h_{\\boldsymbol{K}}$ the class number of $\\boldsymbol{K}$ and\n$w_{\\boldsymbol{K}}$ the order of the unit group of $\\boldsymbol{K}$.\n\nGiven a prime $q$ dividing $D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}:=-d_{\\boldsymbol{K}}$ define the $q$-factor $\\chi_q$ of \n$\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}$ (cf. Miyake \\cite{Miyake}, p.80). Then $\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}$ can be\ndecomposed as\n$$\n\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}=\\prod_{q\\mid D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}}\\chi_q.\n$$\nWe set\n$$\na_{D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}}(\\ell):=\\prod_{q\\mid D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}}(1+\\chi_q(-\\ell)).\n$$\nLet $D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}=mn$ with coprime $m$,\\,$n$. We set\n$$\n\\psi_m:=\\prod_{\\substack{q:\\text{prime}\\\\ q\\mid m}}\\chi_q,\\qquad\n\\psi_1:=1.\n$$\nFor $H\\in\\Lambda_2(\\boldsymbol{K})$ with $H\\ne O_2$, we define\n$$\n\\varepsilon (H):=\\text{max}\\{ \\ell\\in\\mathbb{N}\\,\\mid\\, \\ell^{-1}H\\in\n\\Lambda_2(\\boldsymbol{K})\\}.\n$$\nKrieg's result is stated as follows:\n\\begin{Thm}\n\\label{Krieg}\n{\\rm (Krieg \\cite{Krieg})}\\;\nAssume that $k \\equiv 0 \\pmod{w_{\\boldsymbol{K}}}$ and $k>4$.\nThen there exists a modular form\n$F_{k,\\boldsymbol{K}}\\in M_k(\\Gamma_2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}))_{\\mathbb{Q}}^{{\\rm sym}}$\nwhose Fourier coefficient $a(F_{k,\\boldsymbol{K}};H)$ is given by\n$$\na(F_{k,\\boldsymbol{K}};H)=\n\\begin{cases}\n\\displaystyle\\frac{4k(k-1)}{B_k\\cdot B_{k-1,\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}}}\n\\sum_{0<d\\mid\\varepsilon (H)}d^{k-1}\nG_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\\left(k-2;\\frac{D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\\cdot{\\rm det}(H)}{d^2} \\right)\n{\\rm if}\\; H>0,\\\\\n\\displaystyle\n-\\frac{2k}{B_k}\\sum_{0<d\\mid \\varepsilon (H)}d^{k-1}\n\\quad {\\rm if\\; rank}(H)=1,\\\\\n1 \\quad {\\rm if}\\; H=O_2,\n\\end{cases}\n$$ \nwhere $B_m$(resp. $B_{m,\\chi}$) is the Bernoulli (resp. the generalized Bernoulli)\nnumber and\n$$\nG_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(s;N):=\n\\frac{1}{a_{D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}}(N)}\n\\sum_{0<d\\mid N}\n\\sum_{\\substack{mn=D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\\\\ (m,n)=1}}\\psi_m(-N\/d)\\psi_n(d)d^s.\n$$\n\\end{Thm}\n\\begin{Rem}\nIn \\cite{Krieg}, Krieg stated that the modular form $F_{k,\\boldsymbol{K}}$ coincides with the\nweight $k$ Hermitian Eisenstein series (in his notation $E_2^k$) for any\n$\\boldsymbol{K}$. However it is known that it is true only for the case \n$h_{\\boldsymbol{K}}=1$.\n\\end{Rem}\n\nThe first main result is as follows:\n\\begin{Thm}\n\\label{main1}\nLet $F_{k,\\boldsymbol{K}}$ be the Hermitian modular form introduced in Theorem \\ref{Krieg}.\nIf $p>3$ is a prime number such that $\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(p)=-1$ and\n$h_{\\boldsymbol{K}} \\not\\equiv 0 \\pmod{p}$, then\n$$\n\\varTheta (F_{p+1,\\boldsymbol{K}}) \\equiv 0 \\pmod{p}.\n$$\n\\end{Thm}\n\\begin{Cor}\n\\label{cor1}\nAssume that $h_{\\boldsymbol{K}}=1$ and $p>3$ is a prime number such\nthat $\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(p)=-1$.\nThen the weight $p+1$ Hermitian Eisenstein series $E_{p+1,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)}$ satisfies\n$$\n\\varTheta (E_{p+1,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)}) \\equiv 0 \\pmod{p}.\n$$\n\\end{Cor}\n\\begin{Rem}\n{\\rm (1)}\\;\nIn the above theorem, the weight condition $k=p+1 \\equiv 0 \\pmod{w_{\\boldsymbol{K}}}$\nis automatically satisfied.\nIn fact, \nin the case $\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(i)$, the condition $\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(p)=-1$\nimplies $p \\equiv 3 \\pmod{4}$. Then $p+1 \\equiv 0 \\pmod{4}$. In the case \n$\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(\\sqrt{3}\\,i)$, it follows from \nthe condition $\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(p)=-1$ that $p \\equiv -1 \\pmod{3}$. Since $p$ is odd,\nwe have $p+1 \\equiv 0 \\pmod{6}$. Since $w_{\\boldsymbol{K}}=2$ in the other cases,\n$p+1 \\equiv 0 \\pmod{w_{\\boldsymbol{K}}}$ is obvious.\n\\\\\n{\\rm (2)}\\; It is known that there are infinitely many $\\boldsymbol{K}$ and $p$ satisfying\n$$\n\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(p)=-1\\;\\; \\text{and}\\;\\;\nh_{\\boldsymbol{K}} \\not\\equiv 0 \\pmod{p}\n$$\n{\\rm (e.g. cf. Horie-Onishi \\cite{H-O})}.\\\\\n{\\rm (3)}\\; Our interest is to construct an element of mod $p$ kernel of the theta operator with the possible minimum weight \n(i.e., the weight is its filtration. For the details on the filtration \nof the mod $p$ modular forms, see Serre \\cite{Serre}). \nIf we do not restrict on the weight, we can construct some trivial examples in several ways. \nFor example, the power $F^p$ of a modular form $F$ is such a trivial example. \nIf $F$ is of weight $k$, then its weight is $pk$ and this is too large.\nWe suppose that the possible minimum weight is $p+1$ for mod $p$ non-singular cases\n(cf. B\\\"{o}cherer-Kikuta-Takemori \\cite{B-K-T}).\n\\end{Rem}\nFor the proof of the theorem, it is sufficient to show the following:\n\\begin{Prop}\n\\label{prop1}\nAssume that\n$p>3$ is a prime number such that $\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(p)=-1$ and\n$h_{\\boldsymbol{K}} \\not\\equiv 0 \\pmod{p}$. Let $a(F_{k,\\boldsymbol{K}};H)$\nbe the Fourier coefficient of $F_{k,\\boldsymbol{K}}$ at $H$. If ${\\rm det}(H)\\not\\equiv 0\\pmod{p}$,\nthen\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{star}\na(F_{p+1,\\boldsymbol{K}};H) \\equiv 0 \\pmod{p}.\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{Prop}\n\\begin{proof}\nBy Theorem \\ref{Krieg}, the Fourier coefficient $a(F_{p+1,\\boldsymbol{K}};H)$ is expressed as\n$$\na(F_{p+1,\\boldsymbol{K}};H)=\\frac{4(p+1)p}{B_{p+1}\\cdot B_{p,\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}}}\n\\sum_{0<d\\mid \\varepsilon (H)}d^p\\,G_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\\left(p-1;\\frac{D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\\cdot\\text{det}(H)}{d^2} \\right)\n$$\nfor $H>0$. First we look at the factor\n$$\nA:=\\frac{4(p+1)p}{B_{p+1}\\cdot B_{p,\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}}}.\n$$\nBy Kummer's congruence relation, we obtain\n\\begin{align*}\n& \\displaystyle \\bullet\\quad\\frac{B_{p+1}}{p+1} \\equiv \\frac{B_2}{2}=\\frac{1}{12} \\pmod{p}\n\\vspace{2mm}\n\\\\\n& \\displaystyle \\bullet\\quad\\frac{B_{p,\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}}}{p}\n\\equiv (1-\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(p))B_{1,\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}}                                                                         \n = (1-\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(p))\\frac{-2h_{\\boldsymbol{K}}}{w_{\\boldsymbol{K}}}\n                                                                              \\pmod{p}.\n\\end{align*}\nSince $p>3$, $\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(p)=-1$, and $h_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\\not\\equiv 0\\pmod{p}$, the factor $A$ is a $p$-adic unit.\n\nNext we shall show that, if $\\text{det}(H)\\not\\equiv 0\\pmod{p}$, then the factor\n$$\nB:=\\sum_{0<d\\mid \\varepsilon (H)}d^p\\,G_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\\left(p-1;\\frac{D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\\cdot\\text{det}(H)}{d^2} \\right)\n$$\nsatisfies \n$$\nB \\equiv 0 \\pmod{p}.\n$$\nWe note that\n$$\n\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\\left(\\frac{D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\\cdot\\text{det}(H)}{d^2} \\right)=0\\;\\;\\text{or}\\;\\; -1.\n$$\nTherefore, it is sufficient to show that, if $p\\nmid N$, $\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(N)=0$ or $-1$, then\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{starstar}\nG_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(p-1,N) \\equiv 0 \\pmod{p}.\n\\end{equation}\nTo prove the congruence relation (\\ref{starstar}), we need a kind of product formula for $G_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(s,N)$.\nLet $S=S_{\\boldsymbol{K}}$ be the set of prime number which ramifies in $\\boldsymbol{K}$. For $N\\in\\mathbb{N}$,\nwe decompose $N$ as\n$$\nN=N_1\\cdot N_2,\\qquad N_1=\\prod_{\\substack{q\\in S\\\\ q\\mid N}}q^{\\beta_q},\\quad N_2=\\prod_{\\substack{q\\notin S\\\\ q\\mid N}}q^{\\beta_q}.\n$$\n\\begin{Lem}\n\\label{lemma2}\nNotation is as above. We have\n\\begin{align*}\n& \\sum_{0<d\\mid N}\\sum_{\\substack{mn=D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\\\\ (m,n)=1}}\\psi_m(-N\/d)\\psi_n(d)d^s\\\\\n&=\\prod_{q\\mid N_2}\\sum_{t=0}^{\\beta_q}\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(q)^tq^{st}\\cdot\n            \\sum_{\\substack{mn=D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\\\\ (m,n)=1}}\\psi_m(-1)\\psi_m(N_2)\\cdot\\prod_{\\substack{q\\mid m\\\\ q\\mid N_1}}\\psi_n(q)^{\\beta_q}q^{s\\beta_q}\\\\\n&\\quad \\cdot \\prod_{\\substack{q\\mid n\\\\ q\\mid N_1}} \\psi_m(q)^{\\beta_q}.  \n\\end{align*}\n\\end{Lem}\n\\begin{proof} We have\n\\begin{align*}\n& \\sum_{0<d\\mid N}\\psi_m(-N\/d)\\psi_n(d)d^s\n=\\psi_m(-1)\\prod_{q\\mid N}\\sum_{t=0}^{\\beta_q}\\psi_m(q^{\\beta_q-t})\\psi_n(q^t)q^{st}\\\\\n& =\\psi_m(-1)\\prod_{q\\mid N_2}\\psi_m(q)^{\\beta_q}\\sum_{t=0}^{\\beta_q}\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(q)^tq^{st}\n\\cdot\\prod_{\\substack{q\\mid m\\\\ q\\mid N_1}}\\psi_n(q)^{\\beta_q}q^{s\\beta_q}\n\\cdot \\prod_{\\substack{q\\mid n\\\\ q\\mid N_1}} \\psi_m(q)^{\\beta_q}.\n\\end{align*}\nTaking a summation over $m$ (and $n$), we obtain the desired formula. \n\\end{proof}\n\nWe return to the proof of (\\ref{starstar}). From the above lemma, we obtain\n\\begin{align*}\n& G_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(p-1,N)\\\\\n& =\\frac{1}{a_{D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}}(N)}\\prod_{q\\mid N_2}\\sum_{t=0}^{\\beta_q}\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(q)^tq^{t(p-1)}\n     \\cdot \\sum_{\\substack{mn=D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\\\\ (m,n)=1}}\\psi_m(-1)\\psi_m(N_2)\\\\\n& \\cdot \\prod_{\\substack{q\\mid m\\\\ q\\mid N_1}}\\psi_n(q)^{\\beta_q}q^{(p-1)\\beta_q}\\cdot\\prod_{\\substack{q\\mid n\\\\ q\\mid N_1}}\\psi_m(q)^{\\beta_q}.\n\\end{align*}\nUsing this formula, we study the $p$-divisibility of $G(p-1,N)$ separately.\n\\vspace{2mm}\n\\\\\n(i)\\; The case $\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(N)=\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(N_2)=-1.$\\\\\nIn this case, there is a prime number $q\\mid N_2$\nsuch that $q\\notin S$, \n$\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(q)=-1$, and $\\beta_q$ is odd.\nFor this prime number $q$, we have\n$$\n\\sum_{t=0}^{\\beta_q}\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(q)^tq^{(p-1)t} \\equiv \\sum_{t=0}^{\\beta_q}(-1)^t=0 \\pmod{p}.\n$$\nThis implies that $G_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(p-1,N) \\equiv 0 \\pmod{p}$ for this $N$.\\\\\n(ii)\\; The case $\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(N)=0$.\\\\\nIn this case, there is a prime number $q\\in S$ with $q\\mid N$. We may assume that $\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(N_2)=1$.\n(If  $\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(N_2)=-1$, then the proof is reduced to the case (i).) In this case, we obtain\n\\begin{align*}\n& \\sum_{\\substack{mn=D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\\\\ (m,n)=1}}\\psi_m(-1)\\psi_m(N_2)\n   \\prod_{\\substack{q\\mid m\\\\ q\\mid N_1}}\\psi_n(q)^{\\beta_q}q^{(p-1)\\beta_q}\n\\prod_{\\substack{q\\mid n\\\\ q\\mid N_1}}\\psi_m(q)^{\\beta_q}\\\\\n& \\equiv\n  \\sum_{\\substack{m\\mid D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\\\\ (m,D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\/m)=1}}\\psi_m(-1)\\psi_m(N_2)\n   \\prod_{\\substack{q\\mid m\\\\ q\\mid N_1}}\\psi_{D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\/m}(q)^{\\beta_q}\\prod_{\\substack{q\\mid (D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\/m)\\\\ q\\mid N_1}}\\psi_m(q)^{\\beta_q} \\\\\n& =\\sum_{\\substack{m\\mid D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\\\\ (m,D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\/m)=1}}\n   \\{ \\psi_m(-1)\\psi_m(N_2)+\\psi_{D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\/m}(-1)\\psi_{D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\/m}(N_2)\\}\\\\\n&\\qquad \\cdot \\prod_{q\\mid m}\\psi_{D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\/m}(q)^{\\beta_q}\\prod_{q\\mid (D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\/m)}\\psi_m(q)^{\\beta_q}\\times\\frac{1}{2} \\pmod{p}.\n\\end{align*}\nSince $\\psi_m(-1)=-\\psi_{D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\/m}(-1)$ and $\\psi _m(N_2)=\n\\psi_{D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\/m}(N_2)$ (because $\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(N_2)=1$),\nwe obtain\n$$\n\\sum_{\\substack{m\\mid D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\\\\ (m,D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\/m)=1}}\n \\{ \\psi_m(-1)\\psi_m(N_2)+\\psi_{D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\/m}(-1)\\psi_{D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\/m}(N_2)\\}=0.\n$$\nThis shows that $G_{\\boldsymbol{K}}(p-1,N)\\equiv 0 \\pmod{p}$ again in this case.\nWe complete the proof of (\\ref{starstar}).\n\\end{proof}\nThe second result of this section is related to the mod $p$ singular Hermitian modular forms.\n\\begin{Thm}\n\\label{modpsingular}\nAssume that $p>3$ is a prime number such that\n$p \\equiv 3 \\pmod{4}$ and $\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(\\sqrt{p}\\,i)$. Let $F_{k,\\boldsymbol{K}}$\nbe the Hermitian modular form introduced in Theorem \\ref{Krieg}. Then the modular form\n$F_{\\frac{p+1}{2},\\boldsymbol{K}}$ is a mod $p$ singular Hermitian modular form.\n\\end{Thm}\n\\begin{proof}\nFrom Theorem \\ref{Krieg}, we have\n$$\na(F_{\\frac{p+1}{2},\\boldsymbol{K}};H)\n=\\frac{(p+1)(p-1)}{B_{\\frac{p+1}{2}}\\cdot B_{\\frac{p-1}{2},\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}}}\n\\sum_{0<d\\mid\\varepsilon (H)}d^{\\frac{p-1}{2}}\nG_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\\left(\\frac{p-3}{2},\\frac{D_{\\boldsymbol{K}}\\cdot\\text{det}(H)}{d^2}\\right)\n$$\nfor $H>0$. Since the factor of the summand on the right-hand side is rational integer,\nit is sufficient to show\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{bigstar}\n\\frac{(p+1)(p-1)}{B_{\\frac{p+1}{2}}\\cdot B_{\\frac{p-1}{2},\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}}}\n                      \\equiv 0 \\pmod{p}.\n\\end{equation}\nWe have the following result:\n\\begin{Lem}\n\\label{lemma3}\nAssume that \n$p>3$, $p \\equiv 3 \\pmod{4}$, and $\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(\\sqrt{p}\\,i)$. \nThen we have\n$$\n{\\rm (i)}\\;B_{\\frac{p+1}{2}}\\not\\equiv 0\\pmod{p}\n\\qquad\\qquad\n{\\rm (ii)}\\; p\\cdot B_{\\frac{p-1}{2},\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}} \\equiv -1 \\pmod{p}.\n$$\n\\end{Lem}\n\\begin{proof}\n(i) The statement $B_{\\frac{p+1}{2}}\\not\\equiv 0\\pmod{p}$ can be found in, for example,\nWashington \\cite{Washington}, p.86, Exercise 5.4.\\\\\n(ii)\\; The congruence $p\\cdot B_{\\frac{p-1}{2},\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}} \\equiv -1 \\pmod{p}$\nis a special case of the theorem of von Staudt-Clausen for the generalized Bernoulli\nnumbers. For the proof see Carlitz \\cite{Carlitz}, Theorem 3.\n\\end{proof}\nWe return to the proof of (\\ref{bigstar}). From the above lemma, we have\n$$\nB_{\\frac{p+1}{2}}\\cdot B_{\\frac{p-1}{2},\\chi_{\\boldsymbol{K}}}\\in \\frac{1}{p}\\mathbb{Z}_{(p)}^\\times. \n$$\nThis implies (\\ref{bigstar}).\n\\end{proof}\n\\section{Theta series case}\n\\label{Sect.4}\nIn this section we construct Hermitian modular forms in the mod $p$ kernel of\ntheta operator defined from theta series.\n\nFor a positive Hermitian lattice $\\mathcal{L}$ of rank $r$, we associate the\n{\\it Hermitian theta series}\n$$\n\\vartheta_{\\mathcal{L}}^{(n)}(Z)=\\vartheta_H^{(n)}(Z)=\n\\sum_{X\\in\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(r,n)}}\\text{exp}(\\pi i\\text{tr}({}^t\\overline{X}HXZ)),\n\\quad Z\\in\\mathbb{H}_n,\n$$\nwhere $H$ is the corresponding Gram matrix of $\\mathcal{L}$.\n\nIn the rest of this paper, we assume that\n$$\n\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(i).\n$$\n\\subsection{Theta series for unimodular Hermitian lattice of rank 8}\n\\label{rank8}\nWe denote by $\\mathcal{U}_r(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}})=\\mathcal{U}_r(\\mathbb{Z}[i])$\nthe set of even integral, positive definite unimodular Hermitian matrices of rank $r$ over\n$\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}=\\mathbb{Z}[i]$. It is known that $4\\mid r$.We denote by \n$\\widetilde{\\mathcal{U}}_r(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}})$ the set of unimodular equivalence\nclasses. It is also known that \n$|\\widetilde{\\mathcal{U}}_8(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}})|=3$.\nWe fix a set of representatives $\\{ H_1,H_2,H_3\\}$, in which $H_i$ have the following\ndata:\n$$\n|\\text{Aut}(H_1)|=2^{15}\\cdot 3^5\\cdot 5^2\\cdot 7,\\quad\n|\\text{Aut}(H_2)|=2^{22}\\cdot 3^2\\cdot 5\\cdot 7,\\quad\n|\\text{Aut}(H_3)|=2^{21}\\cdot 3^4\\cdot 5^2,\n$$\n(cf. http:\/\/www.math.uni-sb.de\/ag\/schulze\/Hermitian-lattices\/).\n\nThe following identity is a special case of Siegel's main formula for Hermitian\nforms:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{mainformula}\n\\frac{\\vartheta_{H_1}^{(2)}}{2^{15}\\cdot 3^5\\cdot 5^2\\cdot 7}+\n\\frac{\\vartheta_{H_2}^{(2)}}{2^{22}\\cdot 3^2\\cdot 5\\cdot 7}+\n\\frac{\\vartheta_{H_3}^{(2)}}{2^{21}\\cdot 3^4\\cdot 5^2}\n=\\frac{61}{2^{22}\\cdot 3^5\\cdot 5\\cdot 7}E_{8,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\frac{61}{2^{22}\\cdot 3^5\\cdot 5\\cdot 7}$ is the mass of the genus of the\nunimodular Hermitian lattices in rank 8. The space\n$M_8(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}),\\nu_8)^{\\text{sym}}=\nM_8(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}))^{\\text{sym}}$ is spanned by \n$(E_{4,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)})^2$ and $\\chi_8$ (cf. Theorem \\ref{structure}).\n\\begin{Lem}\n\\label{span}\nWe have the following identities\n$$\n\\vartheta_{H_1}^{(2)}=(E_{4,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)})^2-5760\\chi_8,\\;\\;\n\\vartheta_{H_2}^{(2)}=(E_{4,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)})^2-3072\\chi_8,\\;\\;\n\\vartheta_{H_1}^{(2)}=(E_{4,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)})^2.\n$$\n\\end{Lem}\n\\begin{proof}\nThe above identities come from the following data:\n\\begin{align*}\n& \\begin{cases}\n   a(\\vartheta_{H_1}^{(2)};[1,0,1])=120960,\\\\\n   a(\\vartheta_{H_1}^{(2)};[1,1+i,1])=0,\n   \\end{cases}\n\\begin{cases}\n   a(\\vartheta_{H_2}^{(2)};[1,0,1])=131712,\\\\\n   a(\\vartheta_{H_2}^{(2)};[1,1+i,1])=2688,\n   \\end{cases}\n\\\\\n& \\begin{cases}\n   a(\\vartheta_{H_3}^{(2)};[1,0,1])=144000,\\\\\n   a(\\vartheta_{H_3}^{(2)};[1,1+i,1])=5760.\n   \\end{cases}\n\\end{align*}\nThe calculations of the Fourier coefficients were done by Till Dieckmann.\n\\end{proof}\n\\begin{Thm}\n\\label{mod7}\nWe have $\\vartheta_{H_i}^{(2)}\\in M_8(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}))_{\\mathbb{Z}}^{\\text{sym}}$ ($i=1,2,3$) and\n$$\n\\varTheta(\\vartheta_{H_1}^{(2)}) \\equiv \\varTheta(\\vartheta_{H_2}^{(2)})\n\\equiv 0 \\pmod{7}.\n$$\n\\end{Thm}\n\\begin{proof}\nThe first statement is a consequence of the unimodularity of $H_i$.\nBy (\\ref{mainformula}), we see that\n$$\n4\\vartheta_{H_1}^{(2)} \\equiv 5\\cdot 61E_{8,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)} \\pmod{7}.\n$$\nMoreover by Lemma \\ref{span}, we have\n$$\n\\vartheta_{H_1}^{(2)} \\equiv \\vartheta_{H_2}^{(2)} \\pmod{7}.\n$$\nSince $\\varTheta(E_{8,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)}) \\equiv 0 \\pmod{7}$ (cf. Corollary \\ref{cor1}),\nwe obtain\n$$\n\\varTheta(\\vartheta_{H_1}^{(2)}) \\equiv \\varTheta(\\vartheta_{H_2}^{(2)})\n\\equiv 0 \\pmod{7}.\n$$\n\\end{proof}\n\\subsection{Theta series for unimodular Hermitian lattice of rank 12}\n\\label{HermitianLeech}\nIt is known that there is a unimodular Hermitian lattice \n$\\mathcal{L}_{\\mathbb{C}}\\in\\mathcal{U}_{12}(\\mathbb{Z}[i])$\nwhich does not have any vector of length one.\nThe transfer of this lattice to $\\mathbb{Z}$ is the Leech lattice\n(cf. http:\/\/www.math.uni-sb.de\/ag\/schulze\/Hermitian-lattices\/).\nFor this lattice, we have\n$$\n\\vartheta_{\\mathcal{L}_{\\mathbb{C}}}^{(2)}\\mid_{\\mathbb{S}_2} =\n\\vartheta_{\\text{Leech}}^{(2)},\n$$\nnamely, the restriction of Hermitian theta series $\\vartheta_{\\mathcal{L}_{\\mathbb{C}}}^{(2)}$\nto the Siegel upper half-space coincides with the Siegel theta series\n$\\vartheta_{\\text{Leech}}^{(2)}$ attached to the Leech lattice. \n\n\nWe fix the lattice\n$\\mathcal{L}_{\\mathbb{C}}$ and call it here the {\\it Hermitian Leech lattice}.\n\\begin{Thm}\n\\label{mod11cong}\nLet $\\mathcal{L}_{\\mathbb{C}}$ be the Hermitian Leech lattice.\nThe attached Hermitian theta series \n$\\vartheta_{\\mathcal{L}_{\\mathbb{C}}}^{(2)}\n\\in M_{12}(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}))_{\\mathbb{Z}}^{\\text{sym}}$\nsatisfies the following congruence relations.\n\\vspace{2mm}\n\\\\\n{\\rm (1)}\\; $\\varTheta(\\vartheta_{\\mathcal{L}_{\\mathbb{C}}}^{(2)}) \\equiv 0 \\pmod{11}$.\n\\vspace{2mm}\n\\\\\n{\\rm (2)}\\; $\\vartheta_{\\mathcal{L}_{\\mathbb{C}}}^{(2)} \\equiv 1 \\pmod{13}$.\n\\end{Thm}\n\\begin{proof}\n(1)\\, By Theorem \\ref{thetamodp}, there is a Hermitian cusp form\n$$\nG\\in S_{12+11+1}(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}})_{\\mathbb{Z}_{(11)}}^{\\text{sym}}\n=S_{24}(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}})_{\\mathbb{Z}_{(11)}}^{\\text{sym}}\n$$ \nsuch that\n$$\n\\varTheta(\\vartheta_{\\mathcal{L}_{\\mathbb{C}}}^{(2)}) \\equiv G \\pmod{11}.\n$$\nBy Table 2, we see that\n$$\na(\\varTheta(\\vartheta_{\\mathcal{L}_{\\mathbb{C}}}^{(2)});H) \\equiv\na(G;H) \\pmod{11}\n$$\nfor any $H\\in\\Lambda_2(\\boldsymbol{K})$ with $\\text{rank}(H)=2$ and\n$\\text{tr}(H)\\leq\\displaystyle 2\\left[\\frac{24}{8}\\right]=6$. Applying Sturm's\nbound (Corollary \\ref{sturmcorollary}), we obtain\n$$\n\\varTheta(\\vartheta_{\\mathcal{L}_{\\mathbb{C}}}^{(2)}) \\equiv G \\equiv 0 \\pmod{11}.\n$$\n(2)\\, We can confirm\n$$\n\\Phi(\\vartheta_{\\mathcal{L}_{\\mathbb{C}}}^{(2)})\n=(E_4^{(1)})^3-720\\Delta \\equiv E_{12}^{(1)} \\equiv 1 \\pmod{13},\n$$\nwhere $\\Phi$ is the Siegel operator and \n$\\Delta=\\frac{1}{1728}((E_4^{(1)})^3-(E_6^{(1)})^2)$ is Ramanujan's weight 12 cusp\nform for $SL_2(\\mathbb{Z})$. This shows that\n$$\na(\\varTheta(\\vartheta_{\\mathcal{L}_{\\mathbb{C}}}^{(2)});H) \\equiv\na(\\varTheta(E_{12,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)});H) \\pmod{13}\n$$\nfor any $H\\in\\Lambda_2(\\boldsymbol{K})$ with $\\text{rank}(H)\\leq 1$. Considering\nthis fact and Table 2, we see that this congruence relation holds for any\n $H\\in\\Lambda_2(\\boldsymbol{K})$ with $\\text{rank}(H)\\leq 2$. Applying Sturm's\nbound again, we obtain\n$$\n\\vartheta_{\\mathcal{L}_{\\mathbb{C}}}^{(2)} \\equiv E_{12,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)}\n\\equiv 1 \\pmod{13}.\n$$\n\\end{proof}\nIn this section,\nwe constructed Hermitian modular forms in the mod $p$ kernel of the theta\noperator by theta series attached to unimodular Hermitian lattices. \nBy the results above,\nit is expected that, if $p$ is a prime number such that $p \\equiv 3 \\pmod{4}$,\nthen there is a unimodular lattice $\\mathcal{L}$ of rank $p+1$ such that\n$$\n\\varTheta(\\vartheta_{\\mathcal{L}}^{(2)}) \\equiv 0 \\pmod{p}.\n$$\n\\subsection{Theta constants}\n\\label{thetaconstant}\nIn the previous sections, we gave examples of Hermitian modular form in the mod $p$\nkernel of the theta operator. In this section we give another example.\n\nThe Hermitian\n{\\it theta constant} on $\\mathbb{H}_2$ with characteristic $\\boldsymbol{m}$\nover $\\boldsymbol{K}=\\mathbb{Q}(i)$ is defined by\n\\begin{align*}\n\\theta_{\\boldsymbol{m}}(Z) &=\\theta(Z;\\boldsymbol{a},\\boldsymbol{b})\\\\\n&:=\\sum_{\\boldsymbol{g}\\in\\mathbb{Z}[i]^{(2,1)}}\\text{exp}\n\\left[\n\\frac{1}{2}\\left(Z\\left\\{\\boldsymbol{g}+\\frac{1+i}{2}\\boldsymbol{a}\\right\\}\n+2\\text{Re}\\frac{1+i}{2}{}^t\\boldsymbol{b}\\boldsymbol{a}\\right)\n\\right],\n\\quad Z\\in \\mathbb{H}_2,\n\\end{align*}\nwhere $\\boldsymbol{m}=\\binom{\\boldsymbol{a}}{\\boldsymbol{b}}$, \n$\\boldsymbol{a},\\,\\boldsymbol{b}\\in\\mathbb{Z}[i]^{(2,1)}$, $A\\{ B\\}={}^t\\overline{B}AB$.\nDenote by $\\mathcal{E}$ the set of even characteristic of degree 2 mod 2\n(cf. \\cite{Freitag}), namely, \n$$\n\\mathcal{E}=\n\\left\\{\n\\begin{pmatrix}0\\\\0\\\\0\\\\0\\end{pmatrix},\n\\begin{pmatrix}0\\\\0\\\\0\\\\1\\end{pmatrix},\n\\begin{pmatrix}0\\\\0\\\\1\\\\0\\end{pmatrix},\n\\begin{pmatrix}0\\\\0\\\\1\\\\1\\end{pmatrix},\n\\begin{pmatrix}0\\\\1\\\\0\\\\0\\end{pmatrix},\n\\begin{pmatrix}0\\\\1\\\\1\\\\0\\end{pmatrix},\n\\begin{pmatrix}1\\\\0\\\\0\\\\0\\end{pmatrix},\n\\begin{pmatrix}1\\\\0\\\\0\\\\1\\end{pmatrix},\n\\begin{pmatrix}1\\\\1\\\\0\\\\0\\end{pmatrix},\n\\begin{pmatrix}1\\\\1\\\\1\\\\1\\end{pmatrix}\n\\right\\}\n$$\n\\begin{Thm}\n{\\rm (Freitag \\cite{Freitag})}\\; Set\n$$\n\\psi_{4k}(Z):=\\frac{1}{4}\\sum_{\\boldsymbol{m}\\in\\mathcal{E}}\\theta_{\\boldsymbol{m}}^{4k}(Z),\n\\quad (k\\in\\mathbb{N}),\n$$\nThen\n$$\n\\psi_{4k}\\in M_{4k}(\\Gamma^2(\\mathcal{O}_{\\boldsymbol{K}}))_{\\mathbb{Z}}^{\\text{sym}}.\n$$\n\\end{Thm}\n\\begin{Rem}\n(1)\\, $\\psi_4=E_{4,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)}$.\\\\\n(2)\\,$F_{10}=2^{-12}\\displaystyle\\prod_{\\boldsymbol{m}\\in\\mathcal{E}}\\theta_{\\boldsymbol{m}}$,\nwhere $F_{10}$ is a Hermitian modular form given in $\\S$ \\ref{Sect.2.2.2}.\n\\end{Rem}\n\\begin{Thm}\n\\label{thetaconstantth}\nThe following congruence relations holds.\n\\vspace{2mm}\n\\\\\n{\\rm (1)}\\; $\\varTheta (\\psi_8) \\equiv 0\\pmod{7}$.\n\\vspace{2mm}\n\\\\\n{\\rm (2)}\\; $\\varTheta (\\psi_{12}) \\equiv 0 \\pmod{11}$.\n\\end{Thm}\n\\begin{proof}\nThe form $\\psi_8$ can be expressed as\n$$\n\\psi_8=\\frac{14}{75}(E_{4,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)})^2+\\frac{61}{75}E_{8,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)}.\n$$\nSince $\\varTheta(E_{8,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)}) \\equiv 0 \\pmod{7}$, we obtain\n $\\varTheta (\\psi_8) \\equiv 0\\pmod{7}$.\\\\\n(2)\\, We have the following expression.\n\\begin{align*}\n& \\vartheta_{\\mathcal{L}_{\\mathbb{C}}}^{(2)}\n   =a_1\\psi_{12}+a_2(E_{4,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)})^3\n+a_3E_{4,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)}E_{8,\\boldsymbol{K}}\n+a_4E_{12,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)},\\\\\n&\na_1=\\frac{1470105}{8511808},\\quad\na_2=\\frac{167218051}{638385600},\\quad\na_3=-\\frac{147340193}{212795200},\\\\\n&\na_4=\\frac{802930253}{638385600},\n\\end{align*}\nwhere $\\mathcal{L}_{\\mathbb{C}}$ is the Hermitian Leech lattice as before.\nIt should be noted that $a_2 \\equiv a_3 \\equiv 0\\pmod{11}$, and $a_1\\not\\equiv 0\\pmod{11}$.\nSince \n$\\varTheta (\\vartheta_{\\mathcal{L}_{\\mathbb{C}}}^{(2)}) \\equiv \n\\varTheta(E_{12,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)}) \\equiv 0\\pmod{11}$, we obtain\n$$\n\\varTheta (\\psi_{12}) \\equiv 0 \\pmod{11}.\n$$\n\\end{proof}\n\\section{Tables}\nIn this section, we summarize tables which are needed in the proof of our statements\nin the previous sections.\n\\subsection{Theta series for rank 8 unimodular Hermitian lattices}\nWe introduced Hermitian theta series $\\vartheta_{H_i}^{(2)}$ in $\\S$ \\ref{rank8}.\nThe following table gives some examples of Fouirer coefficients of  $\\vartheta_{H_i}^{(2)}$\n$(i=1,2)$ and $\\vartheta_{[2,2,4]}^{(2)}$.\n\\begin{table*}[hbtp]\n\\caption{Fourier coefficients of hermitian theta series (rank 8)}\n\\label{tab.1}\n\\begin{center}\n\\begin{tabular}{llll} \\hline\n$H$       & 4det$(H)$  &  $a(\\vartheta_{H_1}^{(2)};H)$   &  $a(\\vartheta_{H_2}^{(2)};H)$     \\\\ \\hline\n$[0,0,0]$      & $0$           &         $1$                          &                  $1$ \\\\ \\hline\n$[1,0,0]$       & $0$           &         $480$                       &               $480$  \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,0,0]$       & $0$           &      $61920$                       &                $61920$  \\\\ \\hline\n$[3,0,0]$       & $0$           &  $1050240$                      &                  $1050240$ \\\\ \\hline\n$[4,0,0]$       & $0$           &  $7926240$                       &                $7926240$  \\\\ \\hline\n$[1,1+i,1]$     & $2$ &         $0$                          &        $2688=2^7\\cdot 3\\cdot 7$ \\\\ \\hline\n$[1,1,1]$       & $3$ &  $26880=2^8\\cdot 3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7$&  $21504=2^{10}\\cdot 3\\cdot 7$       \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,2,1]$      & $4$           &  $120960=2^7\\cdot 3^3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7$&  $131712=2^7\\cdot 3\\cdot 7^3$  \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,1+i,1]$    & $6$ & $1505280=2^{11}\\cdot 3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7^2$   & $1483776=2^{10}\\cdot 3^2\\cdot 7\\cdot 23$  \\\\ \\hline\n$[3,2+i,1]$     & $7$ & $3663360=2^9\\cdot 3^3\\cdot 5\\cdot 53$   & $3717120=2^{11}\\cdot 3\\cdot 5\\cdot 11^2$  \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,0,1]$      & $8$          &   $8346240=2^7\\cdot 3^4\\cdot 5\\cdot 7\\cdot 23$ & $8217216=2^7\\cdot 3^2\\cdot 7\\cdot 1019$\\\\ \\hline\n$[2,2+2i,2]$    & $8$        &  $8346240=2^7\\cdot 3^4\\cdot 5\\cdot 7\\cdot 23$ & $8561280=2^7\\cdot 3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7^3\\cdot 13$\\\\ \\hline\n$[3,1+i,1]$     & $10$ & $30965760=2^{15}\\cdot 3^3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7$  & $30992640=2^8\\cdot 3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7\\cdot 1153$  \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,2+i,2]$     & $11$& $55883520=2^8\\cdot 3^4\\cdot 5\\cdot 7^2\\cdot 11$ & $55716864=2^{10}\\cdot 3\\cdot 7\\cdot 2591$ \\\\ \\hline\n$[4,2+i,1]$    & $11$&  $55883520=2^8\\cdot 3^4\\cdot 5\\cdot 7^2\\cdot 11$ & $55716864=2^{10}\\cdot 3\\cdot 7\\cdot 2591$ \\\\ \\hline\n$[3,0,1]$       & $12$           &    $67751040=2^7\\cdot 3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7\\cdot 71^2$   &  $68353152=2^7\\cdot 3\\cdot 7\\cdot 59\\cdot 431$ \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,2,2]$      & $12$           & $96875520=2^{10}\\cdot 3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7\\cdot 17\\cdot 53$& $96789504=2^{10}\\cdot 3\\cdot 7^2\\cdot 643$ \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,1+i,2]$     & $14$ & $240537600=2^{12}\\cdot 3^4\\cdot 5^2\\cdot 29$& $240752640=2^{11}\\cdot 3\\cdot 5\\cdot 17\\cdot 461$ \\\\ \\hline\n$[4,1+i,1]$    & $14$ &  $240537600=2^{12}\\cdot 3^4\\cdot 5^2\\cdot 29$& $240752640=2^{11}\\cdot 3\\cdot 5\\cdot 17\\cdot 461$  \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,1,2]$      & $15$& $358095360=2^9\\cdot 3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7\\cdot 6661$ & $358041600=2^{11}\\cdot 3^3\\cdot 5^2\\cdot 7\\cdot 37$ \\\\ \\hline\n$[4,1,1]$       & $15$&$358095360=2^9\\cdot 3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7\\cdot 6661$ & $358041600=2^{11}\\cdot 3^3\\cdot 5^2\\cdot 7\\cdot 37$ \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,0,2]$      & $16$           & $544440960=2^7\\cdot 3^3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7^2\\cdot 643$& $544612992=2^7\\cdot 3\\cdot 7\\cdot 11\\cdot 113\\cdot 163$ \\\\ \\hline\n$[4,0,1]$      & $16$           & $528958080=2^7\\cdot 3^3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7\\cdot 4373$ &  $527753856=2^7\\cdot 3\\cdot 7\\cdot 196337$ \\\\ \\hline                                  \n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{table*}\n\\newpage\n\\subsection{Theta series for rank 12 unimodular Hermitian lattice}\nThe table deals with the Fourier coefficients for theta series\n$\\vartheta_{\\mathcal{L}_{\\mathbb{C}}}^{(2)}$ where $\\mathcal{L}_{\\mathbb{C}}$\nis the Hermitian Leech lattices introduced in $\\S$ \\ref{HermitianLeech}.\n\\begin{table*}[hbtp]\n\\caption{Non-zero Fourier coefficients $a(\\vartheta_{\\mathcal{L}}^{(2)};H)$ with rank$(H)=2$ and tr$(H)\\leq 6$}\n\\label{tab.2}\n\\begin{center}\n\\begin{tabular}{lll} \\hline\n$H$       & 4det$(H)$  &  $a(\\vartheta_{\\mathcal{L}}^{(2)};H)$    \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,0,2]$    & $16$   &  $8484315840=2^6\\cdot 3^5\\cdot 5\\cdot 7\\cdot 11\\cdot 13\\cdot 109$       \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,1,2]$    & $15$   &  $4428103680=2^{15}\\cdot 3^3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7\\cdot 11\\cdot 13$             \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,2,2]$    & $12$   &  $484323840=2^9\\cdot 3^3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7^2\\cdot 11\\cdot 13$               \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,1+i,2]$  & $14$   &  $2214051840=2^{14}\\cdot 3^3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7\\cdot 11\\cdot 13$             \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,2+i,2]$  & $11$   &  $201277440=2^{14}\\cdot 3^3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7\\cdot 13$                      \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,2+2i,2]$ & $8$    &  $8648640=2^6 \\cdot 3^3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7\\cdot 11\\cdot 13$                  \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,0,3]$    & $24$   &  $480449249280=2^{14}\\cdot 3^3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7^2\\cdot 11\\cdot 13\\cdot 31$ \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,1,3]$    & $23$   &  $314395361280=2^{15}\\cdot 3^3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7\\cdot 11\\cdot 13\\cdot 71$   \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,2,3]$    & $20$   &  $77491814400=2^{14}\\cdot 3^3\\cdot 5^2\\cdot 7^2\\cdot 11\\cdot 13$        \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,1+i,3]$  & $22$   &  $201679994880=2^{15}\\cdot 3^4\\cdot 5\\cdot 7\\cdot 13\\cdot 167$          \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,2+i,3]$  & $19$   &  $46495088640=2^{14}\\cdot 3^4\\cdot 5\\cdot 7^2\\cdot 11\\cdot 13$          \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,2+2i,3]$ & $16$   &  $8302694400=2^{12}\\cdot 3^4\\cdot 5^2\\cdot 7\\cdot 11\\cdot 13$           \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,0,4]$    & $32$   &  $8567040081600=2^6 \\cdot 3^3\\cdot 5^2\\cdot 7\\cdot 11\\cdot 13\\cdot 19\\cdot 10427$ \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,1,4]$    & $31$   &  $6230341877760=2^{15}\\cdot 3^4\\cdot 5\\cdot 7^2\\cdot 11\\cdot 13\\cdot 67$ \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,2,4]$    & $28$   &  $2254596664320=2^{10}\\cdot 3^4\\cdot 5\\cdot 7\\cdot 11\\cdot 13\\cdot 5431$ \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,4,4]$    & $16$   &  $8484315840=2^6 \\cdot 3^5\\cdot 5\\cdot 7\\cdot 11\\cdot 13\\cdot 109$       \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,1+i,4]$  & $30$   &  $4487883079680=2^{14}\\cdot 3^3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7\\cdot 11\\cdot 13\\cdot 2027$ \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,2+i,4]$  & $27$   &  $1565334650880=2^{14}\\cdot 3^3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7^2\\cdot 11\\cdot 13\\cdot 101$ \\\\ \\hline\n$[2,2+2i,4]$ & $24$   &  $482870868480=2^9 \\cdot 3^3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7^2\\cdot 11\\cdot 13\\cdot 997$    \\\\ \\hline\n$[3,0,3]$    & $36$   &  $27374536949760=2^{16}\\cdot 3^3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7\\cdot 11^2\\cdot 13\\cdot 281$ \\\\ \\hline\n$[3,1,3]$    & $35$   &  $20648247459840=2^{15}\\cdot 3^3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7\\cdot 11\\cdot 13\\cdot 4663$ \\\\ \\hline\n$[3,2,3]$    & $32$   &  $8431662919680=2^{12}\\cdot 3^3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7\\cdot 11\\cdot 13\\cdot 15233$ \\\\ \\hline\n$[3,3,3]$    & $27$   &  $1539504046080=2^{15}\\cdot 3^2\\cdot 5\\cdot 7^2\\cdot 11\\cdot 13\\cdot 149$ \\\\ \\hline\n$[3,1+i,3]$  & $34$   &  $15436369428480=2^{16}\\cdot 3^4\\cdot 5\\cdot 7^2\\cdot 11\\cdot 13\\cdot 83$ \\\\ \\hline\n$[3,2+i,3]$  & $31$   &  $6137351700480=2^{16}\\cdot 3^5\\cdot 5\\cdot 7^2\\cdot 11^2\\cdot 13$        \\\\ \\hline\n$[3,3+i,3]$  & $26$   &  $1053888675840=2^{16}\\cdot 3^3\\cdot 5\\cdot 7^2\\cdot 11\\cdot 13\\cdot 17$  \\\\ \\hline\n$[3,2+2i,3]$ & $28$   &  $2218479943680=2^{15}\\cdot 3^4\\cdot 5\\cdot 7\\cdot 11\\cdot 13\\cdot 167$ \\\\ \\hline\n$[3,3+2i,3]$ & $23$   &  $309967257600=2^{16}\\cdot 3^3\\cdot 5^2\\cdot 7^2\\cdot 11\\cdot 13$       \\\\ \\hline\n$[3,3+3i,3]$ & $18$   &  $26568622080=2^{16}\\cdot 3^4\\cdot 5\\cdot 7\\cdot 11\\cdot 13$            \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{table*}\nAny non-zero Fourier coefficient $a(\\vartheta_{\\mathcal{L}_{\\mathbb{C}}}^{(2)};H)$ \nwith rank$(H)=2$ and tr$(H)\\leq 6$\ncoincides with one in the above list.\n\nThe calculation is based on the following expression:\n$$\n\\vartheta_{\\mathcal{L}_{\\mathbb{C}}}^{(2)}:=\n\\frac{7}{12}(E_{4,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)})^3\n+\\frac{5}{12}(E_{6,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)})^2\n-10080E_{4,\\boldsymbol{K}}^{(2)}\\chi_8-60480F_{12}.\n$$\n\\newpage\n\n\n\n\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\n\\section{Introduction}\n\\subsection{Motivation}\nThere is growing interest in combining observational and experimental data to draw causal conclusions  \\citep{hartman2015sate,athey2020combining,YangDing2020,Chen2021,Oberst2022,rosenman2020combining}. Experimental data from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are considered the gold standard for causal inference and can provide unbiased estimates of average treatment effects. However, the scale of the experimental data is usually limited and the trial participants might not represent those in the target cohort. For example, the recruitment criteria for an RCT may prescribe that participants must be less than 65 years old and satisfy certain health criteria, whereas the target population considered for treatment may cover all age groups. This problem is known as the lack of transportability \\citep{pearl2011transportability,rudolph2017robust}, generalizability \\citep{cole2010generalizing,hernan2011compound,dahabreh2019extending}, representativeness \\citep{campbell1957factors} and external validity \\citep{rothwell2005external,westreich2019target}. By contrast, observational data usually has both the scale and the scope desired, but one can never prove that there is no hidden confounding. Any unmeasured confounding in the observational data may lead to a biased estimate of the causal effect. When it comes to estimating the causal effect in the target population, combining obervational and experimental data provides an avenue to exploit the benefits of both.\n\n\n\n\nExisting literature has proposed several methods of integrating RCT and observational data to address the issue of the RCT population not being representative of the target cohort. \\cite{kallus2018removing}, considered the case where the supports do not fully overlap, and proposed a linear correction term to approximate the difference between the causal estimates from observational data and experimental data caused by hidden confounding.\\par\n\n\nSometimes even though the domain of observational data overlaps with the experimental data, sub-populations with certain traits may be over- or under-represented in the RCT compared to the target cohort. This difference can lead to a  biased estimate of the average treatment effect, and as a result, the causal conclusion may not be generalizable to the target population. In this case, reweighting the RCT population to make it applicable\nto the target cohort is a common choice of remedy \\citep{hartman2015sate,andrews2017weighting}. In particular, Inverse Probability of Sampling Weighting (IPSW) has been a popular estimator for reweighting \\citep{cole2008constructing,cole2010generalizing,stuart2011use}. In this paper, we base our theoretical results \non the IPSW estimator. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Design Trumps Analysis}\nMost of the existing literature, including those discussed above, focuses on the analysis stage after RCTs are completed, and propose methods to analyse the data as given. This means, the analysis methods, including reweighting through IPSW, are to passively deal with the RCT data as they are. However, the quality of the causal inference is largely predetermined by the data collected. `Design trumps analysis' \\citep{rubin2008objective}; a carefully designed experiment benefits the causal inference by far more than the analysis that follows. Instead of marginally improving through analyses, we focus on developing a strategy for the design phase, specifically the selection of RCT participants with different characteristics \n, to fundamentally improve the causal inference.\\par\n\n\nWhen designing an RCT sample to draw causal conclusions on the target cohort, a heuristic strategy that practitioners tend to opt for is to construct the RCT sample that looks exactly like a miniature version of target cohort. For example, suppose that we want to examine the efficacy of a drug on a target population consisting $30\\%$ women and $70\\%$ men. If the budget allows us to recruit 100 RCT participants in total, then the intuition is to recruit exactly $30$ females and $70$ males. This intuition definitely works, yet, is it efficient? We refer to the efficiency of the reweighted causal estimator for the average treatment effect in the target population, and specifically, its variance \\footnote[1]{We note that the efficiency of an unbiased estimator  $T$ is formally defined as $e(T) = \\frac{\\mathcal{I}^{-1}(\\theta)}{var(T)}$, that is, the ratio of its lowest possible variance over its actual variance. For our purpose, we do not discuss the behaviour of the Fisher information of the data but rather focus on reducing the variance of the estimators. With slight abuse of terminology, in this paper, when we say that one estimator is more efficient than another, we mean that the variance of the former is lower. Similarly, we say that an RCT sample is more efficient if it eventually leads to an estimator of lower variance.}.\n\nIn fact, we find that RCTs following the exact covariate distribution of the target cohort do not necessarily lead to the most efficient estimates after reweighting. Instead, our result suggests that the optimal covariate allocation of experiment samples is the target cohort distribution adjusted by the conditional variability of potential outcomes. Intuitively, this means that an optimal strategy is to sample more from the segments where the causal effect is more volatile or uncertain, even if they do not make up a large proportion of the target cohort. \n\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Contributions}\nIn this work, we focus on the common practice of generalizing the causal conclusions from an RCT to a target cohort. We aim at fundamentally improving the estimation efficiency by improving the selection of individuals into the trial, that is, the allocation of a certain number of places in the RCT to individuals of certain characteristics. We derive the optimal covariate allocation that minimizes the variance of the causal estimate of the target cohort. Practitioners can use this optimal allocation as a guide when they decide `who' to recruit for the trial. We also formulate a deviation metric that quantifies how far a given RCT allocation is from optimal, and practitioners can use this metric to decide when they are presented with several candidate RCT allocations to choose from.\\par\nWe develop variations of the main results to cater for various practical scenarios such as where the total number of participants in the trial is fixed, or the total recruitment cost is fixed while unit costs can differ, or with different precision requirements: best overall precision, equal segment precision or somewhere in between. In this paper, we provide practitioners with a clear strategy and versatile tools to select the most efficient RCT samples.   \n\n\n\n\\subsection{Outline} \nThe remainder of this paper is organized at follows: In Section~\\ref{sec:1setup}, we introduce the problem setting, notations, provide the main assumptions and provide more details on the IPSW estimator that we consider. In Section~\\ref{sec:2res}, we derive the optimal covariate allocation for RCT samples to improve estimation efficiency, propose a deviation metric to assess candidate experimental designs and illustrate how this metric influences estimation efficiency. Section~\\ref{sec:3estimate} provides an estimate of the optimal covariate allocation and the corresponding assumptions to ensure consistency. Section~\\ref{sec:4pras} extends the main results and propose design strategies under other practical scenarios like heterogeneous unit cost and same precision requirement. In Section~\\ref{sec:5numerical}, we use two numerical studies, a synthetic simulation and a semi-synthetic simulation with real-word data, to corroborate our theoretical results.\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Setup, Assumptions and Estimators} \\label{sec:1setup}\n\n\\subsection{Problem Setup and Assumptions}\nIn this paper, we based our notations and assumptions on the potential outcome framework \\citep{rubin1974estimating}. We assume to have two datasets: a RCT and an observational data. We also make the assumption that the target cohort of interest is contained in the observational data. \\par\nDefine $S \\in \\{0,1\\} $ as the sample indicator where $s = 1$ indicates membership of the experimental data and $s = 0$ the target cohort, where $T \\in \\{0,1\\}$ as the treatment indicator and $t = 1$ indicates treatment and $t = 0$ indicates control. Let $Y_{is}^{(t)}$ denotes potential outcome for a unit $i$ assigned to data set $s$ and treatment $t$. We define $X$ as a set of observable pre-treatment variables, which can consist discrete and\/or continuous variables. Let $n_0$, $n_1$, $n = n_0 + n_1$ denote the number of units in the target cohort, RCT, and the combined dataset, respectively. We use $f_1(x)$ and $f_0(x)$ to denote the distribution of $X$ in the RCT population and target cohort, respectively. \n\nThe causal quantity of interest here is the average treatment effect (ATE) on the target population, denoted by $\\tau$ .\n\\begin{dfn} (ATE on target cohort)\n$$\n \\tau := \\mathbb{E} \\left [Y^{(1))} - Y^{(0)} \\mid S = 0 \\right].\n$$\n\\end{dfn}\nWe also define the CATE on the trial population, denoted by $\\tau(x)$.\n\\begin{dfn} (CATE on trial population)\n$$\n \\tau(x) := \\mathbb{E} \\left [Y^{(1)} - Y^{(0)} \\mid X = x, S = 1 \\right].\n$$\n\\end{dfn}\n\n\n\nTo ensure an unbiased estimator of the ATE on the target population after reweighting the estimates from the RCT, we need to make several standard assumptions.\n\\begin{assumption}(Identifiability of CATE in the RCT data)\n\\label{assump::identifiability1}\nFor all the observations in the RCT data, we assume the following conditions hold.\n\\begin{itemize}\n   \n    \\item[(i)] \n    Consistency: $Y_{i} = Y_{i1}^{(t)}$ when $T=t$ and $S=1$;\n   \n     \\item[(ii)] Ignorability:  $Y_{i}^{(t)} \\indep T \\mid (X, S =1)$;\n     \\item[(iii)] Positivity: $0 < \\mathbb{P}(T=t \\mid X, S =1) < 1$ for all $t \\in \\{0,1\\}$.\n   \n   \n\\end{itemize}\n\\end{assumption}\nThe ignorability condition assumes that the experimental data is unconfounded and the positivity condition is guaranteed to hold in\nconditionally randomized experiments.The igonrability and positivity assumptions combined is also referred to as strong ignorability. Under Assumption~\\ref{assump::identifiability1}, the causal effect conditioned on $X = x$ in the experimental sample can be estimated without bias using:\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\n\\hat \\tau(x) &=& \\frac{ \\sum_{S_i=1,X_i = x} \\frac{T_i Y_i}{e(x)} - \\frac{(1-T_i) Y_i }{ 1-e(x)}}{\\sum_{S_i=1,X_i = x} 1},\n\\end{eqnarray*}\nwhere $e(x) = \\mathbb{P}(T=1 \\mid X=x, S=1)$ is the probability of treatment assignment in the experimental sample. This estimator is also known as the Horvitz-Thompson estimator \\citep{horvitz1952generalization}, which we will provide more details later in this section.\n\nTo make sure that we can `transport' the effect from the experimental data to the target cohort, we make the following transportability assumption.\n\\begin{assumption}(Transportability) \n\\label{assump::transport}\n$Y^{(t)} \\indep S \\mid (X, T=t)$.\n\\end{assumption}\nAssumption~\\ref{assump::transport} can be interpreted from several perspectives, as elaborated in \\cite{hernan2010causal}. First, it assumes that all the effect modifiers are captured by the set of observable covariates $X$. Second, it also ensures that \nthe treatment $T$ for different data stays the same. If the assigned treatment differs between the study population and the target population, then the magnitude of the causal effect of treatment will differ too. Lastly, the transportability assumption prescribes that there is no interference across the two populations. That is, treating one individual in one population does not interfere with the outcome of individuals in the other population.\\par\n\n\nFurthermore, we require the trial population fully overlaps with the the target cohort, so that we can reweight the CATE in the experimental sample to estimate the ATE in the target cohort. That is, for each individual in the target cohort, we want to make sure that we can find a comparable counterpart in the experimental sample with the same characteristics. \n\n\\begin{assumption}\n(Positivity of trial participation) \n\\label{assump::positivity}\n$0 < \\mathbb{P}(S=1 \\mid T=t, X = x) < 1$ for all $x \\in \\text{supp}(X\\,|\\, S=0) $.\n\\end{assumption}\nIn Assumption~\\ref{assump::positivity}, $\\text{supp}(X\\,|\\, S=0)$ denotes the support of the target cohort, in other words, the set of values that $X$ can take for individuals in the target cohort. Mathematically, $x \\in \\text{supp}(X\\,|\\, S=0)$ is equivalent to $\\mathbb{P}\\left(\\|X-x\\| \\leq \\delta \\mid S =  0\\right)>0$, $\\forall \\delta>0$. Assumption~\\ref{assump::positivity} requires that the support of the experimental sample includes the target cohort of interest.\n\n\\subsection{Estimators and related work}\nInverse Propensity (IP) weighted estimators were proposed by \\cite{horvitz1952generalization} for surveys in which subjects are sampled with unequal probabilities.\n\\begin{dfn}(Horvitz-Thompson estimator)\n\\begin{align*}\n    \\widehat Y^{(t)}_{\\text{HT}} &=  \\frac{1}{n_1} \\sum_{i=1}^{n_1} \\frac{I(T_i=t) Y_i}{\\mathbb{P}\\left(T_i = t \\,|\\, X = X_i \\right)},\\\\ \n    \\hat{\\tau}_{\\text{HT}} &=  \n    \\widehat Y^{(1)}_{\\text{HT}} -  \n    \\widehat Y^{(0)}_{\\text{HT}} = \\frac{1}{n_1} \\sum_{i=1}^{n_1} \\frac{T_i Y_i}{e\\left(X_i\\right)} - \\frac{(1- T_i) Y_i}{1- e\\left(X_i\\right)},\n\\end{align*}\n\\end{dfn}\nwhere the probability of treatment $e(X_i)$ is assumed to be known as we focus on the design phase of experiments. In practice, we can extend the Horvitz-Thompson estimator by replacing $e(x)$ with an estimate $\\hat{e}(x)$, for example the Hajek estimator \\citep{hajek1971comment} and the difference-in-means estimator.\n\n\\begin{dfn} (Augmented Inverse Propensity Weighted estimator)\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\n   \\widehat Y^{(1)}_{\\text{AIPW}} &=&\\frac{1}{n_1} \\sum_{i=1}^{n_1}\\left[\\hat{m}^{(1)}\\left(X_i\\right)+\\frac{T_i}{\\hat{e}\\left(X_i\\right)}\\left(Y_i-\\hat{m}^{(1)}\\left(X_i\\right)\\right)\\right], \\\\\n  \\widehat Y^{(0)}_{\\text{AIPW}}&=&\\frac{1}{n_1} \\sum_{i=1}^{n_1}\\left[\\hat{m}^{(0)}\\left(X_i\\right)+\\frac{(1-T_i)}{1- \\hat{e}\\left(X_i\\right)}\\left(Y_i-\\hat{m}^{(0)}\\left(X_i\\right)\\right)\\right], \\\\\n  \\hat{\\tau}_{\\text{\\text{AIPW}}} & =& \\frac{1}{n_1} \\sum_{i=1}^{n_1} \\frac{T_i(Y_i-\\hat{m}^{(1)}(X_i))}{\\hat{e}\\left(X_i\\right)} - \\frac{(1-T_i)(Y_i-\\hat{m}^{(0)}(X_i)))}{1-\\hat{e}\\left(X_i\\right)} + \\hat{m}^{(1)}(X_i) - \\hat{m}^{(0)}(X_i),\n\\end{eqnarray*}\nwhere $m^{(t)}(x)$ denotes the average outcome of treatment $t$ given covariate $X = x$, that is, $m^{(t)}(x)=\\mathbb{E} [Y \\mid T=t, X=x, S =1]$, and $\\hat{m}^{(t)}(x)$ is an estimate of $m^{(t)}(x)$ \\citep{robins1994correcting}. \n\\end{dfn}\nThe estimator $\\hat{\\tau}_{\\text{AIPW}}$ is doubly robust: $\\hat{\\tau}_{\\text{AIPW}}$ is consistent if either (1) $\\hat{e}\\left(X_i\\right)$ is consistent or (2) $\\hat{m}^{(t)}(x)$ is consistent.\n\n\\begin{dfn}(Inverse Propensity Sample Weighted (IPSW) estimator)\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\n\\hat{\\tau}_{\\text{IPSW}}^* &=& \\frac{1}{n_1} \\sum_{i \\in \\{i:S_i = 1\\}} w\\left(X_i\\right){\\left(\\frac{Y_i A_i}{e(X_i)}-\\frac{Y_i\\left(1-A_i\\right)}{1-e(X_i)}\\right)},\n\\\\\nw(x) &=& \n\\frac{f_0(X)}{f_1(X)}.\n\\end{eqnarray*}\n\\end{dfn}\nWe can see that the IPSW estimator extends the Horvitz-Thompson estimator by adding a weight $w(x)$, which is the ratio between the probably of observing an individual with characteristics $X = x$ in the trial population that in the target population \\citep{stuart2011use}\\footnote[2]{The definition of the weight $w(x)$ differs slightly from that in \\cite{stuart2011use}, where $w(x)$ is defined as $\\frac{P\\left(S =1 \\mid X=x\\right)}{P\\left(S = 0 \\mid X = x\\right)}$. That is, the ratio of the distribution of being selected into the trail over being selected into the target cohort. This definition is based on the problem setting where there is a super population which the target cohort and trial cohort are sampled from. Our definition here agrees with that in \\cite{colnet2022reweighting}.}. We use an asterisk in the notation to denote that it is an oracle definition where we assume both $f_1(X)$ and $f_0(X)$ are known, which is probably unrealistic.  The IPSW estimator of average treatment effect on target cohort is proven to be unbiased under Assumptions~\\ref{assump::identifiability1}--~\\ref{assump::positivity}.\\par \nA concurrent study of high relevance to our work by \\cite{colnet2022reweighting} investigated performance of IPSW estimators. In particular, they defined different versions of IPSW estimators, where $f_1(X)$ and $f_0(X)$ are either treated as known or estimated, and derived the expressions of asymptotic variance for each version. They concluded that the semi-oracle estimator, where $f_1(X)$ is estimated and $f_0(X)$ is treated as known, outperforms the other two versions giving the lowest asymptotic variance.\n\n\\begin{dfn}\\label{dfn:semioracleIPSW}(Semi-oracle IPSW estimator, \\cite{colnet2022reweighting})\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\n\\hat{\\tau}_{\\text{IPSW}} &=& \\frac{1}{n_1} \\sum_{i \\in \\{i:S_i = 1\\}} \\frac{f_0(X_i)}{\\hat{f_1}(X_i)}{\\left(\\frac{Y_i A_i}{e(X_i)}-\\frac{Y_i\\left(1-A_i\\right)}{1-e(X_i)}\\right)}, \\text{ and} \\\\\n\\hat{f_1}(x) &=& \\frac{1}{n_1} \\sum_{S_i=1} \\mathbbm{1}_{X_i = x}.\n\\end{eqnarray*}\n\\end{dfn}\n\n The re-weighted ATE estimator we use in this paper, $\\hat{\\tau}$, coincides with their semi-oracle IPSW estimator defined above, where $f_1(X)$ is estimated from the RCT data.\n\n\\section{Main Results}\n\\label{sec:2res}\nIn this section, we start with the case where the number of possible covariate values is finite and derive the optimal covariate allocation of RCT samples that minimizes the variance of the ATE estimate, $\\hat{\\tau}$. We then develop a deviation metric, $\\mathcal{D}(f_1)$, that quantifies how much a candidate RCT sample composition with covariate distribution $f_1$ deviates from the optimal allocation. We prove that this deviation metric, $\\mathcal{D}(f_1)$, is proportional to the variance of $\\hat{\\tau}$ therefore it can be used as a metric for selection. Finally, we derive the above results in presence of continuous covariates.\n\\label{sec:theoreticalresults}\n\n\\subsection{Variance-Minimizing RCT Covariate Allocation}\nWe first consider the more straight-forward case, where the number of possible covariate values is finite. \nRecall that $e(x)$ denotes the propensity score,\nWe assume that the exact value of $e(x)$ is known for the RCT.\n\n\nWhen units in the experimental dataset cover all the possible covariate values, for $m=1,\\ldots,M$, recall the Horvitz-Thompson inverse-propensity weighted estimators \\citep{horvitz1952generalization} of CATE:\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\n\\hat \\tau(x_m) &=& \\frac{ \\sum_{S_i=1,X_i = x_m} \\frac{T_i Y_i}{e(x_m)} - \\frac{(1-T_i) Y_i }{ 1-e(x_m)}}{\\sum_{S_i=1,X_i = x_m} 1}.\n\\end{eqnarray*}\n\n\nDiscrete covariates can be furthered divided into two types: ordinal, for example, test grade,  and categorical such as  blood type. For ordinal covariates, we can construct a smoother estimator by applying kernel-based local averaging:\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\n    \\hat \\tau_\\text{K} (x_m) = \\frac{\\frac{1}{n_1 h^k} \\sum_{S_i=1} \\left( \\frac{T_i Y_i}{ e (X_i)} - \\frac{(1-T_i) Y_i}{1- e (X_i)}\\right) K \\left(\\frac{X_i -x_m}{h}\\right)}{\\frac{1}{n_1  h^k} \\sum_{S_i = 1}  K\\left(\\frac{X_i -x_m}{h}\\right)},\n\\end{eqnarray*}\nwhere $K(\\cdot)$ is kernel function and $h$ is the smoothing parameter. Conceptually, the kernel function measures how individuals with covariates in proximity to $x_m$ influence the estimation of $\\hat \\tau_\\text{K} (x_m)$.\nThis kernel-based estimator works even if the observational data does not fully overlap with the experimental data. The estimator $\\hat\\tau_\\text{K}$ is inspired by \\cite{abrevaya2015cate}, who used it to estimate the CATE. Specifically, if the covariate is ordinal and the sample size of a sub-population with a certain covariate value is small or even zero, we can consider $\\hat \\tau_\\text{K}(x)$, as it applies local averaging so that each CATE is informed by more data.\n\n\nTo study the variance of CATE estimates $\\hat \\tau(x_m)$ and $\\hat \\tau_\\text{K} (x_m)$, we define the following terms:\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\n    \\sigma_\\psi^2(x) &=& \\mathbb{E}\\left[ \\left( \\psi(X,Y,T) - \\tau(x) \\right)^2 \\mid X=x, S=1 \\right],\\\\\n    \\psi(x,y,t) &=& \\frac{t(y-m^{(1)}(x))}{e(x)} - \\frac{(1-t)(y-m^{(0)}(x))}{1-e(x)} + m^{(1)}(x) - m^{(0)}(x).\n   \n\\end{eqnarray*}\nThe random vector $\\psi(X,Y,T)$ is the influence function of the AIPW estimator \\citep{bang2005doubly}. Term $\\sigma_\\psi^2(x)$ measures the conditional variability of the difference in potential outcomes given covariate $X = x$, and $m^{(t)}(x)$ denotes the average outcome with treatment $t$ given covariate $X = x$.\n\n\\begin{assumption}\\label{con::clt}\nAs $n$ goes to infinity, $n_1\/n$ has a limit in $(0,1)$.\n\\end{assumption}\nAssumption~\\ref{con::clt} suggests that when we consider the asymptotic behavior of our estimators, sample sizes for both experimental data and observational data go to infinity, though usually there is more observational samples than experimental samples.\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{thm::fclt}\nUnder Assumption~\\ref{con::clt}, for $m=1,\\ldots, M$, we have\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\n\\sqrt {n_1} (\\hat \\tau(x_m) - \\tau(x_m)) &\\stackrel{d}{\\rightarrow}& N \\left( 0, \\frac{\\sigma_\\psi^2(x_m)}{f_1(x_m)} \\right),\\\\\n\\sqrt{n_1  h} (\\hat \\tau_\\text{K} (x_m) - \\tau(x_m)) &\\stackrel{d}{\\rightarrow}&\n\\mathcal{N} \\left( 0, \\frac{\\Vert K \\Vert_2^2 \\sigma_\\psi^2(x_m) }{f_1(x_m)} \\right),\n\\end{eqnarray*}\nwhere $\\Vert K \\Vert_2 = (\\int K(u)^2 du)^{1\/2}$.\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\nTheorem~\\ref{thm::fclt} shows the asymptotic distribution of the two CATE estimators for every possible covariate value. Complete randomization in experiments ensures that $\\hat \\tau(x)$ is unbiased. Based on the idea of IPSW estimator, we then construct the following two reweighted estimators for ATE:\n$$\n    \\hat \\tau = \\sum_{m=1}^M f_0(x_m) \\hat \\tau(x_m), \\quad\n    \\hat \\tau_\\text{K} = \\sum_{m=1}^M f_0(x_m) \\hat \\tau_\\text{K}(x_m).\n$$\nIt is easy to see that the $\\hat{\\tau}$ above is the same as the semi-oracle IPSW estimator defined in Definition~\\ref{dfn:semioracleIPSW} once we substitute in the expression of $\\hat{\\tau}(x_m)$.\n\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{thm::covreal}\nUnder Assumption~\\ref{assump::identifiability1}--\\ref{con::clt}, we have\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\n    n_1 \\text{var}(\\hat \\tau) &=& \\sum_{m=1}^M f_0^2(x_m)\\frac{\\sigma_\\psi^2(x_m)}{f_1(x_m)},\\\\\n    n_1 h \\text{var}_\\text{a}(\\hat \\tau_\\text{K}) &=& \\Vert K \\Vert_2^2 \\sum_{m=1}^M f_0^2(x_m)\\frac{\\sigma_\\psi^2(x_m)}{f_1(x_m)},\n\\end{eqnarray*}\nwhere $\\text{var}_\\text{a}(\\cdot)$ denotes the asymptotic variance. For $m=1, \\ldots, M$, the optimal covariate RCT distribution to minimize both $\\text{var}(\\hat \\tau)$ and $\\text{var}_\\text{a}(\\hat \\tau_\\text{K})$ is \n\\begin{eqnarray*}\n    f_1^*(x_m) = \\frac{f_0(x_m) \\sigma_\\psi(x_m)}{\\sum_{j=1}^M f_0(x_j) \\sigma_\\psi(x_j) }.\n\\end{eqnarray*}\n\\end{theorem}\nTheorem~\\ref{thm::covreal} indicates that even if the covariate distribution of experimental data is exactly the same as that of the target cohort, it does not necessarily produce the most efficient estimator. The optimal RCT covariate distribution also depends on the conditional variability of potential outcomes. In fact, $f_1^*$ is essentially the target covariate distribution adjusted by the variability of conditional causal effects. This result suggests that we should sample relatively more individuals from sub-populations where the causal effect is more volatile, even if they do not take up a big proportion of the target cohort. Moreover, the two estimators, $\\hat{\\tau}$ and $\\hat \\tau_\\text{K}$, share the same optimal covariate weight no matter whether local averaging is applied. \n\nIn practice, if the total number of samples is fixed, experiment designers can select RCT samples with covariate allocation identical to $f_1^*$ to improve the efficiency of IPSW estimate.\n \n\\subsection{Deviation Metric}\n\n\\begin{corollary}\\label{cor::Dmetrix}\nUnder Assumption~\\ref{assump::identifiability1}--\\ref{con::clt}, we have\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\n    n_1 \\text{var}(\\hat \\tau) &= & \n   \n    \\left( \\sum_{m=1}^M f_0(x_m) \\sigma_\\psi(x_m)  \\right)^2 \\times\n    \\left\\{ \\mathcal{D}(f_1) + 1\\right\\}\n    \\\\\n    n_1 h \\text{var}_\\text{a}(\\hat \\tau_\\text{K}) &= & \n   \n    \\Vert K \\Vert_2^2 \\left( \\sum_{m=1}^M f_0(x_m) \\sigma_\\psi(x_m)  \\right)^2 \\times\n    \\left\\{ \\mathcal{D}(f_1) + 1\\right\\},\n\\end{eqnarray*}\nwhere $\\text{var}_{1}(\\cdot) = \\text{var}_{X \\mid S=1}(\\cdot)$, and we define\n$$\n\\mathcal{D}(f_1) = \\text{var}_{1} \\left( \\frac{f_1^*(X)}{f_1(X)}\\right)\n$$\nas the deviation metric of experiment samples as it measures the difference between the optimal covariate distribution $f_1^*$ and the real covariate distribution $f_1$. We have $\\mathcal{D}(f_1) \\geq 0$, and $\\mathcal{D}(f_1^*) = 0$ if and only if the real covariate distribution of experiment samples is identical to the optimal one, i.e. ${f_1^*(x)} = {f_1(x)}$ for $\\forall x \\in \\{ x_1, \\ldots, x_M \\}$.\n\\end{corollary}\n\nAccoring to Corollary~\\ref{cor::Dmetrix}, the variance of $\\hat \\tau$ depends on two parts: the first part $ \\sum_{m=1}^M f_0(x_m) \\sigma_\\psi(x_m)$ depends on the true distribution of the target population, while the second part $\\mathcal{D}(f_1)$ is a measure of the deviation of the RCT sample allocation $f_1$ compared to the optimal variability-adjusted allocation $f_1^*$, and can thus reflect the representativeness of our RCT samples.\nAs Corollary~\\ref{cor::Dmetrix} shows, the variance of IPSW estimator for the population, $\\hat \\tau$, is proportional to $\\mathcal{D}(f_1)$. \n\nThe deviation metric equips us with a method to compare candidate experiment designs. To be specific, if experiment designers have several potential plans for RCT samples, they can choose one with the smallest deviation metric to maximize the estimation efficiency.\n \n\\subsection{Including Continuous Covariates}\n\nFor continuous covariates, for instance, body mass index (BMI), we apply stratification based on propensity score. By considering an appropriate partition of the support $\\{A_1, \\ldots, A_L\\}$ with finite $L \\in \\mathbb{N}$, we can turn it into the discrete case above. \n\n\\begin{assumption}\\label{con::cont}\nFor $l = 1, \\ldots, L$, and $x, x^\\prime \\in A_l$, we have\n\\begin{itemize}\n    \\item[(i)] $\\Pr(T=1 \\mid X=x) = \\Pr (T=1 \\mid X = x^\\prime)$;\n    \\item[(ii)] $\\mathbb{E}(Y^{(1)} -Y^{(0)} \\mid X=x, S=1 ) = \\mathbb{E}(Y^{(1)} -Y^{(0)} \\mid X=x^\\prime, S=1)$.\n\\end{itemize}\n\\end{assumption}\n\nAssumption~\\ref{con::cont} assumes that units within each stratum share the same propensity score and CATE. This is a strong but reasonable condition if we make each stratum $A_l$ sufficiently small. Under Assumption~\\ref{con::cont}, let $\\hat\\tau(A_l)$, $\\hat\\tau_\\text{K}(A_l)$, $\\sigma_\\psi^2(A_l)$, $e(A_l)$ denote the causal effect estimate, causal effect estimate with kernel-based local averaging, variance of influence function, propensity score, that are conditioned on $X \\in A_l$. Let $f_0(A_l) = \\Pr(X \\in A_l \\mid S=0)$ and $f_1(A_l) = \\Pr(X \\in A_l \\mid S=1)$. We can then construct two IPSW estimators:\n$$\n    \\hat \\tau = \\sum_{l=1}^L f_0(A_l) \\hat \\tau(A_l), \\quad\n    \\hat \\tau_\\text{K} = \\sum_{l=1}^L f_0(A_l) \\hat \\tau_\\text{K}(A_l).\n$$\n\nAs shown in Corollary~\\ref{thm::covc}, we have similar results to Theorem~\\ref{thm::covreal}, but instead of the optimal covariate distribution, we derive the optimal probability on each covariate set $A_l$.\n\n\\begin{corollary}\\label{thm::covc}\nUnder Assumption~\\ref{assump::identifiability1}--~\\ref{con::cont}, we have\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\n    n_1 \\text{var}(\\hat \\tau) &=& \\sum_{l=1}^L f_0^2(A_l)\\frac{\\sigma_\\psi^2(A_l)}{f_1(A_l)},\\\\\n    n_1 h \\text{var}_\\text{a}(\\hat \\tau_\\text{K}) &=& \\Vert K \\Vert_2^2 \\sum_{l=1}^L f_0^2(A_l)\\frac{\\sigma_\\psi^2(A_l)}{f_1(A_l)}.\n\\end{eqnarray*}\nFor $l=1, \\ldots, L$, the optimal distribution on each covariate set to minimize both $\\text{var}(\\hat \\tau)$ and $\\text{var}_\\text{a}(\\hat \\tau_\\text{K})$ is \n\\begin{eqnarray*}\n    f_1^*(A_l) = \\frac{f_0(A_l) \\sigma_\\psi(A_l)}{\\sum_{j=1}^L f_0(A_j) \\sigma_\\psi(A_j) }.\n\\end{eqnarray*}\nMoreover,\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\n    \\sum_{l=1}^L f_0^2(A_l)\\frac{\\sigma_\\psi^2(A_l)}{f_1(A_l)}\n      &=& \n    \\left( \\sum_{l=1}^L f_0(A_l) \\sigma_\\psi(A_l)  \\right)^2 \\times\n    \\left\\{ \\mathcal{D}(f_1) + 1\\right\\},\n\\end{eqnarray*}\nwhere $A(x) = \\{ A: x \\in A; A \\in \\{A_1, \\ldots, A_L\\}\\}$.\n\\end{corollary}\n\n\n\n\n\n\nIn the sections that follow, for simplicity, we illustrate our method in the scenario where the covariates are all discrete with finite possible values. The results can easily be extended to include continuous covariates following the same logic as descibed in this section.\n\n\\section{Estimating Conditional Variability}\n\\label{sec:3estimate}\nThe optimal covariate allocation derived above can benefit the planning of the composition of RCT samples. However, it's difficult, or impossible, to estimate the conditional variability of potential outcomes prior to RCTs being carried out. In this section, we provide a practical strategy using information from the observational data to estimate the theoretical optimal covariate distribution, and derive conditions under which our strategy yields consistent results.\n\nIn completely randomized experiments, we can show that\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\n\\sigma_\\psi^2(x) = \\frac{1}{e(x)} \\text{var}(Y^{(1)} \\mid X=x) + \\frac{1}{1-e(x)} \\text{var}(Y^{(0)} \\mid X=x).\n\\end{eqnarray*}\nTo estimate $\\sigma_\\psi^2(x)$ by observational data, $\\forall x$, let\n\n\\begin{align*}\n\\widehat Y^{(0)}(x) &= \\frac{\\sum_{S_i=0,T_i=0} Y_i}{\\sum_{S_i=0,T_i=0} 1 }, \\quad&\n\\widehat Y^{(1)}(x) &= \\frac{\\sum_{S_i=0,T_i=1} Y_i}{\\sum_{S_i=0,T_i=1} 1 },\\\\\n\\widehat S^{(0)}(x) &= \\frac{\\sum_{S_i=0,T_i=0} \\left(Y_i - \\widehat Y^{(0)}(x) \\right)^2}{\\sum_{S_i=0,T_i=0} 1 - 1}, \\quad&\n\\widehat S^{(1)}(x) &= \\frac{\\sum_{S_i=0,T_i=1} \\left(Y_i - \\widehat Y^{(1)}(x) \\right)^2}{\\sum_{S_i=0,T_i=1} 1 - 1}.\n\\end{align*}\n\nWe can then estimate the conditional variability of potential outcomes, the optimal covariate distribution and the deviation metric of RCT samples from observational data as follows\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\n\\hat{\\sigma}_\\psi^2(x) &=& \\frac{1}{e(x)}\\widehat S^{(1)}(x) + \\frac{1}{1-e(x)}\\widehat S^{(0)}(x)\\\\\n\\hat f_1^*(x_m) &= &\\frac{f_0(x_m) \\hat\\sigma_\\psi(x_m)}{\\sum_{j=1}^M f_0(x_j) \\hat\\sigma_\\psi(x_j) },\\\\\n\\widehat{\\mathcal{D}}(f_1) &=& \\text{var}_{1} \\left( \\frac{\\hat f_1^*(X)}{f_1(X)}\\right).\n\\end{eqnarray*}\n\n\nAssumption~\\ref{cond::prop} below ensures the consistency of the estimated conditional variance of potential outcomes $\\hat{\\sigma}_\\psi^2(x)$. The main problem of estimating $\\hat{\\sigma}_\\psi^2(x)$ from observational data is the possibility of unobserved confounding. Instead of assuming unconfoundedness, \nour Assumption~\\ref{cond::prop} is weaker and requires that the expectation of estimate $\\hat{\\sigma}_\\psi^2(x)$ \nis proportional to the target conditional variability, which is a weaker condition.\n\\begin{assumption}\\label{cond::prop}\nFor $\\forall x$, suppose\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\n&& \\frac{1}{e(x)}\\text{var}{(Y^{(1)} \\mid X=x, T=1, S=0)} + \\frac{1}{1-e(x)}\\text{var}{(Y^{(0)} \\mid X=x, T=0, S=0)} \\\\\n&=& c \\left[ \\frac{1}{e(x)}\\text{var}{(Y^{(1)} \\mid X=x, S=0)} + \\frac{1}{1-e(x)}\\text{var}{(Y^{(0)} \\mid X=x, S=0)} \\right],\n\\end{eqnarray*}\nwhere $c>0$ is an unknown constant.\n\\end{assumption}\nThe left-hand side of the equation above is the conditional variance of observed outcomes that can be estimated from the observational data, and the right-hand side is the theoretical conditional variance of potential outcomes that we want to approximate. Assumption~\\ref{cond::prop} requires these two quantities to be proportional, rather than absolutely equal. Intuitively, the assumption supposes that the covariate segments in the observational data that exhibit high volatility in observed outcomes, also have high variance in their potential outcomes, although it is not required that the absolute levels of variance have to be the same.\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{thm::asyocd}\nUnder Assumption~\\ref{con::clt} and Assumption~\\ref{cond::prop}, $\\forall x$ we have\n$$\n    \\hat f_1^*(x) \\rightarrow f_1^*(x), \\quad \\widehat{\\mathcal{D}}(f_1) \\rightarrow \\mathcal{D}(f_1).\n$$\nThus, $\\hat f_1^*(x)$ and $\\widehat{\\mathcal{D}}(f_1)$ are consistent. \n\\end{theorem}\n\nBased on Thereom~\\ref{thm::asyocd}, we propose a novel strategy to select efficient RCT samples. Specifically, we select the candidate experimental design with covariate allocation $f_1$ that minimizes the estimate of deviation metric $\\widehat{\\mathcal{D}}(f_1)$. By contrast, a naive strategy prefers the candidate experimental design with $f_1 = f_0$, which mimics exactly the covariate distribution in the target cohort. If the conditional variability of potential outcomes $\\sigma_\\psi^2(x)$ vary widely according to $x$. Our strategy can lead to much more efficient treatment effect estimator compared to the naive strategy.\n\n\\section{Practical Scenarios}\n\\label{sec:4pras}\n\\subsection{Heterogeneous Unit Cost}\nWe also consider the experimental design with a cost constraint and heterogeneous cost for different sub-populations. The goal is to find the optimal sample allocation for RCT that minimizes the variance of the proposed estimator subject to a cost constraint. For $m = 1, \\ldots, M$, let $C_m$ denote the cost to collect a sample in the sub-population with $X = x_m$. \n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{thm::cost}\nUnder the cost constraint that\n$$\n    \\sum_{m=1}^M C_m \\left( \\sum_{S_i=1, X_i = x_m} 1 \\right) = C,\n$$\nthe optimal sample allocation $f_1(X)$ that minimizes $\\text{var}(\\hat \\tau)$ is\n$$\n    f_1^{\\text{c},*} (x_m) = \\frac{f_0(x_m)\\sigma_\\psi(x_m)\/\\sqrt{C_m}} {\\sum_{i=1}^M f_0(x_i)\\sigma_\\psi(x_i)\/\\sqrt{C_i}}\n$$\nfor $m = 1, \\ldots, M$. Here we use the superscript $c$ to denote the cost constraint.\n\\end{theorem}\n\nTheorem~\\ref{thm::cost} suggests that the optimal RCT covariate allocation under the given cost constraint is the covariate allocation of target cohort adjusted by both the heterogeneous costs for sub-populations and the conditional variability of potential outcomes. Intuitively, compared to the case without heterogeneous costs, we should include more RCT samples with lower unit cost.\n\n\n\\subsection{Different Precision Requirements}\nTheorem~\\ref{thm::covc} shows the optimal sample allocation to maximize the efficiency of average treatment effect estimator for the target cohort. If we require the same precision for estimators in each domain, we need the sample allocation as follows:\n$$\n    f_1^{\\text{s},*}(x_m) = \\frac{ \\sigma^2_\\psi(x_m)}{\\sum_{j=1}^M  \\sigma^2_\\psi(x_j) },\n$$\nwhere we use the superscript s to denote the requirement of same precision for the CATE estimate in each segment.\n\nIntuitively, to take both objectives into consideration, we propose a compromised allocation that falls between the two optimum allocations $\\forall k \\in [0,1]$:\n$$\n    f_1^{k,*}(x_m) = \\frac{f_0^k(x_m) \\sigma^{2-k}_\\psi(x_m)}{\\sum_{j=1}^M f_0^k(x_j) \\sigma^{2-k}_\\psi(x_j) }.\n$$\n\n\n\\begin{corollary}\\label{prop::1}\nIf for $m = 1, \\ldots, M$, \n$$\n    f_0(x_m) = \\frac{\\sigma_\\psi(x_m)}{\\sum_{j=1}^M \\sigma_\\psi(x_j)},\n$$\nwe have for $\\forall k \\in [0,1]$,\n$$\n    f_1^*(X) = f_1^{\\text{s},*}(X) = f_1^{k,*}(X).\n$$\n\nThe deviation metric for sample allocation under same precision strategy and compromise strategy are\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\n    \\mathcal{D}(f_1^{\\text{s},*}) &=& \\text{var}_1\\left( \\frac{f_0(X)}{\\sigma_\\psi(X)} \\right) \\left( \\frac{\\sum_{m=1}^M \\sigma^2_\\psi(x_m)}{\\sum_{m=1}^M f_0(x_m) \\sigma_\\psi(x_m)} \\right)^2,\\\\\n    \\mathcal{D}(f_1^{k,*}) &=& \\text{var}_1\\left( \\frac{f_0(X)}{\\sigma_\\psi(X)} \\right)^{1-k} \\left( \\frac{\\sum_{m=1}^M f_0^{k}(x_m) \\sigma^{2-k}_\\psi(x_m)}{\\sum_{m=1}^M f_0(x_m) \\sigma_\\psi(x_m)} \\right)^2,\n\\end{eqnarray*}\nrespectively.\n\\end{corollary}\n\n\\section{Numerical Study}\n\\label{sec:5numerical}\n\\subsection{Simulation}\nIn this section, we conduct a simulation study to illustrate how representativeness of experiment samples influences the estimation efficiency of average treatment effect for a target cohort, and demonstrate how the representativeness metric $\\mathcal{D}(f_1)$ can facilitate the selection from candidate RCT sample designs. We set the size of observational dataset $n_0 = 10000$ and the size of experimental dataset $n_1 = 200$. For the units in the observational data, we draw covariates $x$ from $\\{1, 2, 3\\}$ with probability 0.3, 0.2 and 0.5 respectively. We then set\n\\begin{align*}\n    Y^{(0)} = 2X + X^4\\epsilon, \\quad Y^{(1)} = 1 - X  + \\epsilon, \\text{ then,}\\\\\n    Y^{(1)} - Y^{(0)} = 1 -3X + (X^4 -1)\\epsilon,\n\\end{align*}\nwhere $\\epsilon \\sim \\mathcal{N}(0,1)$. We can then compute the conditional variability of potential outcomes $\\sigma^2_\\psi(x)$ and thus the optimal covariate distribution $f^*_1$ from the true population. Our model engenders distinctive conditional variability $\\sigma^2_\\psi(x)$ given different $x$, making the optimal covariate distribution $f_1^*$ very different from the target covariate distribution $f_0$.\n\nFor experimental data, we simulate 100 different candidate experimental sample designs. In each design, we randomly draw experiment samples from the target cohort with probability\n$$\n    \\Pr(S=1 \\mid X=x) = \\frac{e^{p_x}}{e^{p_1} + e^{p_2} + e^{p_3}},\n$$\nwhere $p_1, p_2, p_3$ are i.i.d. samples drawn from standard normal distribution. We can then compute the real covariate distribution $f_1(x)$ and the repressiveness metric $\\mathcal{D}(f_1)$. To estimate the efficiency of average treatment effect estimator, we conduct 1000 experiments for each design. In each experiment, the treatment for each unit follows a Bernoulli distribution with probability 0.5. The simulation result is shown in Fig~\\ref{fig:sim}. The relationship between the variance and representativeness can be fit into a line, which is consistent with our result that $\\text{var}(\\hat \\tau) \\propto \\mathcal{D}(f_1)$. The red line shows the value $R(f_1)$ for the naive strategy mimicking exactly the target cohort distribution, which is not zero, and we can see that it is not the optimal RCT sample and does not produce the most efficient causal estimator. \n\n\n\\begin{figure}\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width = 0.5\\textwidth]{OS1.pdf}\n    \\caption{How the deviation metric of experiment samples $\\mathcal{D}$ correlates with the estimated variance of the $\\hat{\\tau}$. The red line marks the deviation metric $\\mathcal{D}$ of a trial sample selected following the na\\\"ive strategy.}\n    \\label{fig:sim}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFor the case with heterogeneous unit cost, we set the costs for sub-populations with covariate $X$ being 1, 2, 3 to be 20, 30, 40, respectively. The total capital available is 30000. Instead of randomly drawing experiment samples from the target cohort with a fixed number of total subjects, we randomly assign capitals for different sub-populations with a fixed amount of total cost. Given the budget assigned to each sub-population, we then draw subjects randomly from the sub-population, where the amount of subjects can be determined by the assigned budget. The simulation result is illustrated by Figure~\\ref{fig:simc}. We can see that under the cost constraint, experiment samples that follow a distribution closer to $f_1^{c,*}$ lead to causal estimator with better efficiency.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width = 0.5\\textwidth]{OS2.pdf}\n    \\caption{How the the deviation metric of experiment samples with cost constraint \n   \n    influences the variance of $\\hat{\\tau}$.}\n    \\label{fig:simc}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsection{Real Data Illustration}\nWe use the well-cited Tennessee Student\/Teacher Achievement Ratio (STAR) experiment to assess how covariate distribution of experiment samples influences the estimation efficiency of average treatment effect for target cohort. STAR is a randomized experiment started in 1985 to measure the effect of class size on student outcomes, measured by standardized test scores. Similar to the exercise in \\cite{kallus2018removing}, we focus a binary treatment: $T=1$ for small classes (13-17 pupils), and $T=0$ for regular classes (22-25 pupils). Since many students only started the study at first grade, we took as treatment their class-type at first grade. The outcome $Y$ is the sum of the listening, reading, and math standardized test at the end of first grade. We use the following covariates $X$ for each student: student race ($X_1 \\in \\{ 1, 2 \\}$) and school urbanicity ($X_2 \\in \\{1,2,3,4\\}$). We exclude units with missing covariates. The records of 4584 students remain, with 1733 assigned to treatment (small class, $T=1$), and 2413 to control (regular size class, $T=0$). Before analysis we fill the missing outcome by linear regression based on treatments and two covariates so that both two potential outcomes $Y_0$ and $Y_1$ for each student are known.\n\nWe simulate 500 candidate experiment sample allocations. For each allocations, we select $n_1 = 500$ experiment units from the dataset with probability\n$$\n    \\Pr(S=1 \\mid X=x) = \\frac{e^{p_{x_1x_2}}}{e^{p_{11}} + e^{p_{12}} + e^{p_{13}}+ e^{p_{14}}+ e^{p_{21}}+ e^{p_{22}}+ e^{p_{23}}+ e^{p_{24}}}.\n$$\nwhere $p_{11}, p_{12}, p_{13}, p_{14}, p_{21}, p_{22}, p_{23}, p_{24}$ are i.i.d. samples drawn from standard normal distribution. We can then compute the real covariate distribution $f_1(x)$ and the repressiveness of the experiment samples $\\mathcal{D}(f_1) = \\text{var}_1 (f_1^*(X) \/ f_1(X))$. To estimate the efficiency of average treatment effect estimator, we conduct 200 experiments for each design. In each experiment, the treatment follows a Bernoulli distribution with probability $1733\/4584 = 0.378$. The simulation result is shown in Fig~\\ref{fig:real}. The relationship between the variance and the deviation metric $\\mathcal{D}(f)$ can be fit into a line, which is consistent with our result that $\\text{var}(\\hat \\tau) \\propto \\mathcal{D}(f_1)$.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width = 0.5\\textwidth]{sim2.pdf}\n    \\caption{How the deviation metric of experiment samples $\\mathcal{D}$ correlates with the estimated variance of the $\\hat{\\tau}$. The red line marks the deviation metric $\\mathcal{D}$ of a trial selected following the na\\\"ive strategy.}\n    \\label{fig:real}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\section{Conclusion}\nIn this paper, we examine the common procedure of generalizing causal inference from an RCT to a target cohort. We approach this as a problem where we can combine an RCT with an observational data. The observational data has two roles in the combination: one is to provide the exact covariate distribution of the target cohort, and the other role is to provide a means to estimate the conditional variability of the causal effect by covariate values.\n\nWe give the expression of the variance of Inverse Propensity Sampling Weights estimator as a function of covariate distribution in the RCT. We subsequently derive the variance-minimizing optimal covariate allocation in the RCT, under the constraint that the size of the trial population is fixed.  Our result indicates that the optimal covariate distribution of the RCT does not necessarily follow the exact distribution of the target cohort, but is instead adjusted by the conditional variability of potential outcomes. Practitioners who are at the design phase of a trial can use the optimal allocation result to plan the group of participants to recruit into the trial. \\par\nWe also formulate a deviation metric quantifying how far a given RCT allocation is from optimal. The advantage of this metric is that it is proportional to the variance of the final ATE estimate so that when presented with several candidate RCT cohorts, practitioners can compare and choose the most efficient RCT according to this metric.\\par\nThe above results depend on the estimation of conditional variability of the causal effect by covariate values, which remains unknown. We propose to estimate it using the observational data and outline mild assumptions that needs to be met. \nIn reality, practitioners usually have complex considerations when designing a trial, for instance cost constraints and precision requirements. We develop variants of our main results to apply in such practical scenarios. Finally, we use two numerical studies to corroborate our theoretical results.  \n\n\n\n\n\\bibliographystyle{abbrvnat}\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction }\n\nThe Standard Electroweak Model  based on gauge group $ SU(2)\\times U(1)$ gives a good  description of electroweak processes.\nOne of the unsolved problems is the origin of electroweak symmetry breaking.  \nIn the standard formulation the scalar field (Higgs boson)  performs this task via Higgs mechanism,  which  generates a mass terms for vector bosons. \nSufficiently artificial Higgs mechanism  with its imaginary bare mass is a naive relativistic analog of the  phenomenological description of superconductivity \\cite{Sh-09}.\nHowever, it is not yet \nexperimentally verified whether electroweak symmetry is broken by such a Higgs mechanism, or by something else.\n The emergence  of  large number  Higgsless models  \\cite{C-05}--\\cite{MT-08} was stimulated by difficulties with Higgs boson. These models are mainly based on extra dimensions of different types or  larger gauge groups. \nA finite electroweak model without a Higs particle which is used  a regularized quantum field theory \\cite{E-66},\\cite{E-67} was developed in\n\\cite{MT-08}. \n \n \n \nOne of the important ingredient of the Standard  Model is the simple group $ SU(2)$. More then fifty years  in physics it is well known \nthe notion of group contraction \\cite{IW-53}, i.e. limit operation, which transforms, for example, a simple or semisimple group to a non-semisimple one. From general point of view\nfor better understanding of a physical system it is  useful to  investigate  its properties for limiting values of their physical parameters.\nIn partucular, for a gauge model one of the similar limiting case corresponds to a  model with contracted gauge group.\nThe gauge theories for non-semisimple groups which Lie algebras admit invariant non-degenerate metrics was considered in \\cite{NW-93},\\cite{T-95}.\n\n\n\nIn the present paper a modified formulation  of the Higgsless Electroweak Model and its limiting case for contracted gauge group \n $ SU(2;j)\\times U(1)$ is regarded.\nFirstly we observe that the quadratic form $\\phi^\\dagger\\phi=\\phi_1^*\\phi_1+\\phi_2^*\\phi_2=R^2$\nof the complex matter field $\\phi \\in {\\bf C}_2$ is invariant with respect to gauge group transformations \n$ SU(2)\\times U(1)$ and we can restrict fields on the quadratic form  without the loss of gauge invariance of the model. This quadratic form define three dimensional sphere in four dimensional Euclidean space of the real components of $\\phi,$ where the noneuclidean spherical geometry is realized.\n\nSecondly we introduce the {\\it free} matter field Lagrangian in this spherical field space, which along with the standard gauge field Lagrangian form the full Higgsless Lagrangian of the model. Its second order terms reproduce the same fields as the Standard Electroweak Model but without the remaining real dynamical Higgs field. The vector bosons masses are automatically generated and are given by the same formulas as in the Standard Electroweak Model, so there is no need in special mechanism of spontaneous symmetry breaking.\nThe  fermion Lagrangian of the Standard Electroweak Model are modified  by replacing of the  fields $\\phi$ with the restricted on the quadratic form fields  in such a way that its second order terms provide the electron mass and neutrino remain massless.\n\nWe recall the definition and properties of the contracted group $SU(2;j)$ in Sec. 2. \nIn Sec. 3, we step by step modify\nthe main points of the Electroweak Model for the gauge group $SU(2;j)\\times U(1)$.\nWe find transformation properties\nof gauge and matter fields under contractions. After that we obtain the Lagrangian of the contracted model  from the noncontracted  one  by the substitution of the transformed  fields.   \nThe limiting case of the modified Higgsless  Electroweak Model is regarded in Sec. 4.  \nWhen contraction parameter tends to zero $j \\rightarrow 0$ or takes nilpotent value $j=\\iota$ the field space is fibered \\cite{Gr-09} in such a way that electromagnetic, Z-boson and electron fields are in the base whereas charged W-bosons and neutrino fields are in the fiber.\nWithin framework of the limit model the base fields can be interpreted as an external ones with respect to the fiber  fields\n  in the sence that the fiber  fields   do not effect on the base fields. \nThe field interactions are simplified under contraction.\nSec. 5 is devoted to the conclusions.\n\n\n\\section{Contracted Special Unitary group  $SU(2;j)$ }\n\nLet us regard  two dimensional complex fibered vector space $\\Phi_2(j)$ with one dimensional base $\\left\\{\\phi_1\\right\\}$\nand one dimensional fiber $\\left\\{\\phi_2\\right\\}$ \\cite{Gr-94}. This space has two hermitian forms: first  in the base $\\bar{\\phi_1}\\phi_1=|\\phi_1|^2$ and second in the fiber  $\\bar{\\phi_2}\\phi_2=|\\phi_2|^2,$ where bar denotes complex conjugation. Both forms can be written by one formula\n\\begin{equation}\n\\phi^\\dagger(j)\\phi(j)=|\\phi_1|^2+ j^2|\\phi_2|^2,\n\\label{g1}\n\\end{equation}  \nwhere $\\phi^\\dagger(j)=(\\bar{\\phi_1},j\\bar{\\phi_2}), $\nparameter $j=1, \\iota$ and $\\iota$ is nilpotent unit $\\iota^2=0.$  \nFor nilpotent unit the following heuristic rules be fulfiled: \n1) division of a real or complex numbers by $\\iota$ is not defined, i.e. for a real or complex $a$ the expression $\\frac{a}{\\iota}$\nis defined only for $a=0$, \n2) however identical nilpotent units can be cancelled $\\frac{\\iota}{\\iota}=1.$\n \n\n The special unitary group $SU(2;j)$ is defined as a transformation group of $\\Phi_2(j)$ which keep invariant the hermitian form (\\ref{g1}), i.e.\n$$ \n\\phi'(j)=\n\\left(\\begin{array}{c}\n\\phi'_1 \\\\\nj\\phi'_2\n\\end{array} \\right)\n=\\left(\\begin{array}{cc}\n\t\\alpha & j\\beta   \\\\\n-j\\bar{\\beta}\t & \\bar{\\alpha}\n\\end{array} \\right)\n\\left(\\begin{array}{c}\n\\phi_1 \\\\\nj\\phi_2\n\\end{array} \\right)\n=u(j)\\phi(j), \\quad\n$$\n\\begin{equation}\n\\det u(j)=|\\alpha|^2+j^2|\\beta|^2=1, \\quad  u(j)u^{\\dagger}(j)=1.\n\\label{g3}\n\\end{equation}  \n\n The fundamental representation of the one-parameter subgroups of  $SU(2;j)$  are easily obtained\n\\begin{equation}\nu_1(\\alpha_1;j)=e^{\\alpha_1T_1(j)}=\\left(\\begin{array}{cc}\n\t\\cos \\frac{j\\alpha_1}{2} & i\\sin \\frac{j\\alpha_1}{2} \\\\\ni\\sin \\frac{j\\alpha_1}{2}\t & \\cos \\frac{j\\alpha_1}{2}\n\\end{array} \\right),\n\\label{g4}\n\\end{equation}  \n\\begin{equation}\nu_2(\\alpha_2;j)=e^{\\alpha_2T_2(j)}=\\left(\\begin{array}{cc}\n\t\\cos \\frac{j\\alpha_2}{2} & \\sin \\frac{j\\alpha_2}{2} \\\\\n-\\sin \\frac{j\\alpha_2}{2}\t & \\cos \\frac{j\\alpha_2}{2}\n\\end{array} \\right),\n\\label{g5}\n\\end{equation}  \n\\begin{equation}\nu_3(\\alpha_3;j)=e^{\\alpha_3T_3(j)}=\\left(\\begin{array}{cc}\n\te^{i\\frac{\\alpha_3}{2}} & 0 \\\\\n0\t & e^{-i\\frac{\\alpha_3}{2}}\n\\end{array} \\right).\n\\label{g6}\n\\end{equation}  \nThe corresponding generators \n$$    \n  T_1(j)= j\\frac{i}{2}\\left(\\begin{array}{cc}\n\t0 & 1 \\\\\n\t1 & 0\n\\end{array} \\right)=j\\frac{i}{2}\\tau_1, \\quad \nT_2(j)= j\\frac{i}{2}\\left(\\begin{array}{cc}\n\t0 & -i \\\\\n\ti & 0\n\\end{array} \\right)=j\\frac{i}{2}\\tau_2,\n$$\n\\begin{equation} \nT_3(j)= \\frac{i}{2}\\left(\\begin{array}{cc}\n\t1 & 0 \\\\\n\t0 & -1\n\\end{array} \\right)=\\frac{i}{2}\\tau_3, \n\\label{g7}\n\\end{equation} \nwith $\\tau_k$ being  Pauli matrices, \nare subject of commutation relations\n$$  \n[T_1(j),T_2(j)]=-j^2T_3(j), \\quad [T_3(j),T_1(j)]=-T_2(j), \n$$\n\\begin{equation} \n [T_2(j),T_3(j)]=-T_1(j),\n\\label{g8}\n\\end{equation}\n and form the Lie algebra $su(2;j)$ with the general element\n\\begin{equation} \n T(j)=\\sum_{k=1}^{3}a_kT_k(j)= \\frac{i}{2}\\left(\\begin{array}{cc}\n\ta_3 & j(a_1-ia_2) \\\\\n\tj(a_1+ia_2) & -a_3\n\\end{array} \\right)=-T^{\\dagger}(j).\n\\label{g8-1}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\n \nThere are two more or less equivalent way of group contraction. We can put the contraction parameter equal to the nilpotent unit $j=\\iota$  or  tend it to zero $j\\rightarrow 0$.  Sometimes it is  convenient to use the first (mathematical) approach, sometimes the second (physical) one. For example, the matrix $u(j)$  (\\ref{g3}) has non-zero nilpotent non-diagonal elements for $j=\\iota$,\nwhereas for $j\\rightarrow 0$ they are formally equal to zero. Nevertheless both approaches lead to the same final results.\n \nLet us describe the contracted group $SU(2;\\iota)$ in detail. For $j=\\iota$ it follows from (\\ref{g3}) that \n$\\det u(\\iota)=|\\alpha|^2=1,$ i.e. $\\alpha=e^{i\\varphi},$ therefore\n\\begin{equation} \nu(\\iota)= \n\\left(\\begin{array}{cc}\ne^{i\\varphi}\t & \\iota\\beta   \\\\\n-\\iota\\bar{\\beta}\t & e^{-i\\varphi}\n\\end{array} \\right), \\quad\n\\beta=\\beta_1+i\\beta_2 \\in {\\bf C}. \n\\label{g9}\n\\end{equation}\nFunctions of nilpotent arguments are defined by their Taylor expansion, in particular, \n$\\cos\\iota x=1,\\;\\sin\\iota x=\\iota x.$ Then one-parameter subgroups of  $SU(2;\\iota)$ take the form \n\\begin{equation}\nu_1(\\alpha_1;\\iota)  \n=\\left(\\begin{array}{cc}\n\t1 & \\iota i\\frac{\\alpha_1}{2} \\\\\n\t\\iota i\\frac{\\alpha_1}{2} & 1\n\\end{array} \\right), \\quad\nu_2(\\alpha_2;\\iota)  \n=\\left(\\begin{array}{cc}\n1 & \\iota \\frac{\\alpha_2}{2} \\\\\n-\\iota \\frac{\\alpha_2}{2}\t & 1\n\\end{array} \\right).\n\\label{g11}\n\\end{equation}  \nThe third subgroup does not changed and is given by (\\ref{g6}).\nThe simple group $SU(2)$ is contracted to the non-semisimple  group $SU(2;\\iota)$, which is isomorphic to the real  Euclid group $E(2).$\nFirst two generators of the Lie algebra $su(2;\\iota)$ are commute $[T_1(\\iota),T_2(\\iota)]=0$ and the rest commutators are given by (\\ref{g8}). For the general element (\\ref{g8-1})          \nof $su(2;\\iota)$ the corresponding group element of $SU(2;\\iota)$ is as follows \n\\begin{equation} \nu(\\iota)=e^{T(\\iota)}=\n\\left(\\begin{array}{cc}\ne^{i\\frac{a_3}{2}}\t & \\iota i\\frac{\\bar{a}}{a_3}\\sin \\frac{a_3}{2}   \\\\\n\\iota i\\frac{a}{a_3}\\sin \\frac{a_3}{2} & e^{-i\\frac{a_3}{2}}\n\\end{array} \\right), \\quad a=a_1+ia_2\\in C.\n\\label{g12}\n\\end{equation}  \n \n \nThe actions of the unitary group $U(1)$ and the electromagnetic subgroup $U(1)_{em}$ \nin the   fibered  space $\\Phi_2(\\iota)$ are given by the same matrices as on the space $\\Phi_2$, namely\n\\begin{equation}\nu(\\beta)=e^{\\beta Y}=\\left(\\begin{array}{cc}\n\te^{i\\frac{\\beta}{2}} & 0 \\\\\n0\t & e^{i\\frac{\\beta}{2}}\n\\end{array} \\right), \\quad\nu_{em}(\\gamma)=e^{\\gamma Q}=\\left(\\begin{array}{cc}\n\te^{i\\gamma} & 0 \\\\\n0\t & 1\n\\end{array} \\right),\n\\label{g13}\n\\end{equation}  \nwhere $Y=\\frac{i}{2}{\\bf 1}, \\; Q=Y+T_3.$\n\nRepresentations of groups $SU(2;\\iota), U(1), U(1)_{em}$   are linear ones,  that is they are realised  by linear operators in  the   fibered  space $\\Phi_2(\\iota)$.\n\n\\section{ Electroweak Model for $SU(2;j)\\times U(1)$ gauge group}\n\n\nThe fibered space $\\Phi_2(j)$  can be obtained from $\\Phi_2$ by \nsubstitution $\\phi_2 \\rightarrow j\\phi_2$ in (\\ref{g1}),  \nwhich induces another ones for Lie algebra $su(2)$ generators\n$T_1 \\rightarrow jT_1,\\; T_2 \\rightarrow jT_2,\\;T_3 \\rightarrow T_3. $\nAs far as the gauge fields take their values in Lie algebra, we can substitute gauge fields instead of transformation of generators, namely\n\\begin{equation}\nA_{\\mu}^1 \\rightarrow jA_{\\mu}^1, \\;\\; A_{\\mu}^2 \\rightarrow jA_{\\mu}^2,\\; \\;A_{\\mu}^3 \\rightarrow A_{\\mu}^3, \\;\\;\nB_{\\mu} \\rightarrow B_{\\mu}.\n\\label{eq28}\n\\end{equation}  \n         \n         \n         \n         \n        \nThese substitutions in the  Lagrangian $L$ of the\nHiggsless Electroweak Model \\cite{Gr-07}\ngive rise to the  Lagrangian $L(j)$\n\nof the contracted  model \nwith $U(2;j)=SU(2;j)\\times U(1)$ gauge group\n\\begin{equation}\nL(j)=L_A(j) + L_{\\phi}(j),\n\\label{eq1}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere\n$$  \n L_A(j)=\\frac{1}{2g^2}\\mbox{tr}(F_{\\mu\\nu}(j))^2 + \\frac{1}{2g'^2}\\mbox{tr}(\\hat{B}_{\\mu\\nu})^2= \n $$\n \\begin{equation}\n=  -\\frac{1}{4}[j^2(F_{\\mu\\nu}^1)^2+j^2(F_{\\mu\\nu}^2)^2+(F_{\\mu\\nu}^3)^2]-\\frac{1}{4}(B_{\\mu\\nu})^2\n\\label{eq2}\n\\end{equation}\nis the gauge fields Lagrangian\nand\n\\begin{equation}   \n  L_{\\phi}(j)= \\frac{1}{2}(D_\\mu \\phi(j))^{\\dagger}D_\\mu \\phi(j)           \n\\label{eq3}\n\\end{equation}  \nis the {\\it free} (without any potential term) matter field Lagrangian (summation on the repeating Greek indexes is always understood).  \nHere $D_{\\mu}$ are the covariant derivatives\n \\begin{equation}\nD_\\mu\\phi(j)=\\partial_\\mu\\phi(j) + g\\left(\\sum_{k=1}^{3}T_k(j)A^k_\\mu \\right)\\phi(j) + g'YB_\\mu\\phi(j),\n\\label{eq4}\n\\end{equation} \nwhere $T_k(j)$ are given by (\\ref{g7})\n and \n$Y=\\frac{i}{2}{\\bf 1}$ is generator of $U(1).$ \nTheir actions on components of $\\phi(j)$ are given by\n$$\nD_\\mu \\phi_1=\\partial_\\mu \\phi_1 + \\frac{i}{2}(gA_\\mu^3+g'B_\\mu)\\phi_1 + j^2\\frac{ig}{2}(A_\\mu^1-iA_\\mu^2)\\phi_2,\n$$\n\\begin{equation}\nD_\\mu \\phi_2=\\partial_\\mu \\phi_2 - \\frac{i}{2}(gA_\\mu^3-g'B_\\mu)\\phi_2 + \\frac{ig}{2}(A_\\mu^1+iA_\\mu^2)\\phi_1.\n\\label{eq5}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\n\nThe gauge fields \n$$ \nA_\\mu (x;j)=g\\sum_{k=1}^{3}T_k(j)A^k_\\mu (x)=g\\frac{i}{2}\\left(\\begin{array}{cc}\n\tA^3_\\mu  & j(A^1_\\mu -iA^2_\\mu ) \\\\\nj(A^1_\\mu + iA^2_\\mu ) & -A^3_\\mu \n\\end{array} \\right),\n$$\n\\begin{equation}\n \\hat{B}_\\mu (x)=g'YB_\\mu (x)=g'\\frac{i}{2}\\left(\\begin{array}{cc}\n\tB_{\\mu} & 0 \\\\\n0 & B_{\\mu}\n\\end{array} \\right)\n\\label{eq6-a}\n\\end{equation}\n take their values in Lie algebras $su(2;j),$  $u(1)$ respectively,  and the stress tensors are\n$$ \nF_{\\mu\\nu}(x;j)={\\cal F}_{\\mu\\nu}(x;j)+[A_\\mu(x;j),A_\\nu(x;j)]=\n$$\n$$\n=g\\frac{i}{2}\\left(\\begin{array}{cc}\n\tF^3_\\mu  & j(F^1_\\mu -iF^2_\\mu ) \\\\\nj(F^1_\\mu + iF^2_\\mu ) & -F^3_\\mu \n\\end{array} \\right), \n$$\n\\begin{equation} \nB_{\\mu\\nu}=\\partial_{\\mu}B_{\\nu}-\\partial_{\\nu}B_{\\mu},         \n\\label{eq7-a} \n\\end{equation}\nor in components \n$$\nF_{\\mu\\nu}^1={\\cal F}_{\\mu\\nu}^1  + g(A_\\mu^2A_\\nu^3-A_\\mu^3A_\\nu^2), \\quad\nF_{\\mu\\nu}^2={\\cal F}_{\\mu\\nu}^2 +g(A_\\mu^3A_\\nu^1-A_\\mu^1A_\\nu^3),\n$$\n\\begin{equation}\nF_{\\mu\\nu}^3={\\cal F}_{\\mu\\nu}^3 + j^2g(A_\\mu^1A_\\nu^2-A_\\mu^2A_\\nu^1),\n\\label{eq8-a} \n\\end{equation}\nwhere ${\\cal F}_{\\mu\\nu}^k=\\partial_\\mu A_\\nu^k-  \\partial_\\nu A_\\mu^k. $ \n\n\n\nThe Lagrangian   $L(j)$ (\\ref{eq1}) describe  massless fields. \nIn a standard approach to generate   mass terms for the vector bosons the \"`sombrero\"' potential is added to the matter field Lagrangian \n$  L_{\\phi}(j=1)$ (\\ref{eq3}) and after that the Higgs mechanism is used.\nThe different way  \n\\cite{Gr-07}  is based on the fact that the quadratic form $\\phi^{\\dagger}\\phi=\\rho^2$\nis invariant with respect to gauge transformations. This quadratic form define the 3-dimensional sphere $S_3$ of the radius $\\rho>0$ in the target space $\\Phi_2$ which is  ${\\bf C_2}$ or ${\\bf R_4}$ if real components are counted. In  other words  the radial coordinates $R_{+}\\times S_3$ are introduced in ${\\bf R_4}.$ \nThe vector boson masses are  generated by the  transformation of Lagrangian $L(j=1)$ (\\ref{eq1}) to the   coordinates on the sphere $S_3$ and are the same as in the standard model. \nHiggs boson field does not appeared if the  sphere radius  does not depend on the space-time  coordinates $\\rho=R=const$ \\cite{Gr-07}. For $\\rho\\neq const$ the real positive massless scalar field --- analogy of dilaton or kind of Goldstone mode --- is presented  in the model  \\cite{F-08}.\n\n\n\n\nThe complex  space $\\Phi_2(j)$ can be regarded as 4-dimensional real  space ${\\bf R}_4(j)$. \n Let us introduce the real fields   \n\\begin{equation}   \n\\phi_1=r(1+i\\psi_3), \\quad  \\phi_2=r(\\psi_2+i\\psi_1).   \n\\label{eq7}\n\\end{equation} \nThe substitution $\\phi_2 \\rightarrow j\\phi_2$  induces the following substitutions \n \\begin{equation}\n\\psi_1 \\rightarrow j\\psi_1,\\;\\psi_2 \\rightarrow j\\psi_2,\\;\\psi_3 \\rightarrow \\psi_3,\\; r\\rightarrow r\n\\label{eq7-1}\n\\end{equation} \nfor the real fields. \n\n \n For the real fields the form (\\ref{g1}) is written as\n$r^2(1 + \\bar{\\psi}^2(j))=R^2, $ where $\\bar{ \\psi}^2(j)=j^2(\\psi_1^2+ \\psi_2^2)+\\psi_3^2,$ therefore \n\\begin{equation}   \nr=\\frac{R}{\\sqrt{1 + \\bar{ \\psi}^2(j)}}.   \n\\label{eq9}\n\\end{equation} \nHence there are    \nthree independent real fields $\\bar{\\psi}(j)=(j\\psi_1,j\\psi_2,\\psi_3).$ These fields  belong to the space $ \\Psi_3(j) $\nwith noneuclidean  geometry which is realized  on the 3-dimensional \"`sphere\"'  of the radius $R$ in the 4-dimensional  space \n${\\bf R}_4(j)$. The fields $\\bar{\\psi}(j)$ are intrinsic Beltrami coordinates on $ \\Psi_3(j)$. The space $ \\Psi_3(j=1)\\equiv S_3 $\nhas non degenerate spherical geometry, but  $ \\Psi_3(j=\\iota) $ is fibered space of constant curvature with 1-dimensional base $\\{\\psi_3\\}$ and 2-dimensional fiber $\\{\\psi_1,\\psi_2\\}$ \\cite{Gr-09}, so-called semi-spherical space  \\cite{P-65}, which can be interpreted as nonrelativistic $(1+2)$ kinematic with curvature or Newton kinematic  \\cite{Gr-90}.\n\n\nThe {\\it free}  Lagrangian (\\ref{eq3}) is transforms to \n     the {\\it free} gauge invariant matter field Lagrangian $L_\\psi(j) $ on $ \\Psi_3(j) $, which is defined with the help of the metric tensor $g_{kl}(j)$ \\cite{Gr-07} of  the  space $ \\Psi_3(j) $\n$$ \ng_{11}=\\frac{1+\\psi_3^2+j^2\\psi_2^2}{(1+\\bar{\\psi}^2(j))^2}, \\quad\ng_{22}=\\frac{1+\\psi_3^2+j^2\\psi_1^2}{(1+\\bar{\\psi}^2(j))^2}, \\quad\ng_{33}=\\frac{1+j^2(\\psi_1^2+\\psi_2^2)}{(1+\\bar{\\psi}^2(j))^2}, \n$$\n$$\ng_{12}=g_{21}=\\frac{-j^2\\psi_1 \\psi_2}{(1+\\bar{\\psi}^2(j))^2},\\;\ng_{13}=g_{31}=\\frac{-j\\psi_1 \\psi_3}{(1+\\bar{\\psi}^2(j))^2},\\;\ng_{23}=g_{32}=\\frac{-j^2\\psi_2 \\psi_3}{(1+\\bar{\\psi}^2(j))^2}\n$$\n in the form   \n$$\nL_\\psi(j)=\\frac{R^2}{2}\\sum_{k,l=1}^3g_{kl}(j)D_\\mu\\psi_k(j)D_\\mu\\psi_l(j)=\n$$\n\\begin{equation}\n=\\frac{R^2\\left[(1+\\bar{\\psi}^2(j))(D_{\\mu}\\bar{\\psi}(j))^2-(\\bar{\\psi}(j),D_{\\mu}\\bar{\\psi}(j))^2\\right] }{2(1+\\bar{\\psi}^2(j))^2}.\n\\label{eq10}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\nThe covariant derivatives  (\\ref{eq4}) are obtained from the  the representations of generators for the algebras $su(2),$ $u(1)$ in the space $\\Psi_3$ \\cite{Gr-07} with the help of the substitutions (\\ref{eq7-1}) \n$$\nT_1\\bar{\\psi}(j)=\\frac{i}{2}\\left(\\begin{array}{c}\n-j(1+j^2\\psi_1^2)\t \\\\\n j(\\psi_3-j^2\\psi_1\\psi_2)  \\\\\n -j^2(\\psi_2+\\psi_1\\psi_3)\n\\end{array} \\right), \\quad\nT_2\\bar{\\psi}(j)=\\frac{i}{2}\\left(\\begin{array}{c}\n-j(\\psi_3+j^2\\psi_1\\psi_2) \\\\\n -j(1+j^2\\psi_2^2)\\\\\n \tj^2(\\psi_1-\\psi_2\\psi_3)\n\\end{array} \\right),\n$$\n$$ \nT_3\\bar{\\psi}(j) =\\frac{i}{2}\\left(\\begin{array}{c}\nj(-\\psi_2+\\psi_1\\psi_3)\t\\\\\nj(\\psi_1+\\psi_2\\psi_3) \\\\\n 1+\\psi_3^2\n\\end{array} \\right), \\quad\nY\\bar{\\psi}(j) =\\frac{i}{2}\\left(\\begin{array}{c}\n-j(\\psi_2+\\psi_1\\psi_3)\t\\\\\n j(\\psi_1-\\psi_2\\psi_3) \\\\\n -(1+\\psi_3^2)\n\\end{array} \\right)\n$$\nand are as follows: \n$$ \nD_\\mu \\psi_1=\\partial_\\mu \\psi_1  - \\frac{g'}{2}(\\psi_2+\\psi_1\\psi_3)B_\\mu +  \n$$\n$$\n+\\frac{g}{2}\\left[-(1+j^2\\psi_1^2)A_\\mu^1 -(\\psi_3+j^2\\psi_1\\psi_2)A_\\mu^2-(\\psi_2-\\psi_1\\psi_3)A_\\mu^3 \\right], \n$$ \n$$  \n  D_\\mu \\psi_2=\\partial_\\mu \\psi_2  + \\frac{g'}{2}(\\psi_1-\\psi_2\\psi_3)B_\\mu + \n  $$\n  $$\n  +\\frac{g}{2}\\left[(\\psi_3-j^2\\psi_1\\psi_2)A_\\mu^1 -(1+j^2\\psi_2^2)A_\\mu^2 + (\\psi_1+\\psi_2\\psi_3)A_\\mu^3 \\right], \n$\n$$\n  D_\\mu \\psi_3=\\partial_\\mu \\psi_3 - \\frac{g'}{2}(1+\\psi_3^2)B_\\mu +\n  $$\n \\begin{equation} \n  +\\frac{g}{2}\\left[-j^2(\\psi_2+\\psi_1\\psi_3)A_\\mu^1 +j^2(\\psi_1-\\psi_2\\psi_3)A_\\mu^2+(1+\\psi_3^2)A_\\mu^3 \\right]. \n\\label{eq11}\n\\end{equation}  \nThe gauge fields Lagrangian (\\ref{eq2}) does not depend on the fields $\\phi$ and therefore remains unchanged.\nSo the full Lagrangian (\\ref{eq1}) is given by the sum of (\\ref{eq2}) and (\\ref{eq10})\n\nFor  small fields, the second order part of the   Lagrangian (\\ref{eq10}) is written as\n\\begin{equation}  \nL_\\psi^{(2)}(j)=\\frac{R^2}{2}\\left[(D_\\mu \\bar{\\psi}(j))^{(1)}\\right]^2 = \n\\frac{R^2}{2}\\sum_{k=1}^3\\left[(D_\\mu \\psi_k(j))^{(1)}\\right]^2 , \n\\label{eq12}\n\\end{equation} \nwhere linear terms in covariant derivates (\\ref{eq11}) have the form\n$$\n(D_\\mu \\psi_1)^{(1)}= \\partial_\\mu\\psi_1-\\frac{g}{2}A_\\mu^1= -\\frac{g}{2}\\left(A_\\mu^1-\\frac{2}{g}\\partial_\\mu\\psi_1\\right) =-\\frac{g}{2}\\hat{A}_\\mu^1,\n$$\n$$  \n(D_\\mu \\psi_2)^{(1)}= \\partial_\\mu\\psi_2-\\frac{g}{2}A_\\mu^2= \n-\\frac{g}{2}\\left(A_\\mu^2-\\frac{2}{g}\\partial_\\mu\\psi_2\\right)= -\\frac{g}{2}\\hat{A}_\\mu^2,\n$$\n$$ \n(D_\\mu \\psi_3)^{(1)}=\\partial_\\mu\\psi_3+\\frac{g}{2}A_\\mu^3-\\frac{g'}{2}B_\\mu=\n\\frac{1}{2}\\sqrt{g^2+g'^2}Z_\\mu.\n$$\nThe new fields \n$$ \nW^{\\pm}_\\mu = \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{2}}\\left(\\hat{A}^1_\\mu \\mp i \\hat{A}^2_\\mu \\right), \\quad\n Z_\\mu =\\frac{gA^3_\\mu-g'B_\\mu + 2\\partial_\\mu \\psi_3}{\\sqrt{g^2+g'^2}}, \\quad \n A_\\mu =\\frac{g'A^3_\\mu+gB_\\mu}{\\sqrt{g^2+g'^2}}\n$$\nare transformed as \n$$\nW^{\\pm}_\\mu \\rightarrow j W^{\\pm}_\\mu,\\; Z_\\mu  \\rightarrow Z_\\mu,\\; A_\\mu \\rightarrow  A_\\mu  \n$$ \nand Lagrangian (\\ref{eq12}) is rewritten as follows\n$$ \n   L_{\\psi}^{(2)}=\n  j^2 \\frac{R^2g^2}{4}W^{+}_\\mu W^{-}_\\mu +\\frac{R^2(g^2+g'^2)}{8}\\left(Z_\\mu \\right)^2.\n$$\n\nThe quadratic  part of the full Lagrangian \n$$   \nL_0(j)= L_A^{(2)}(j) + L_{\\psi}^{(2)}(j)= \n$$\n$$ \n=  - \\frac{1}{4}({\\cal F}_{\\mu\\nu})^2 -\\frac{1}{4}({\\cal Z}_{\\mu\\nu})^2 +\\frac{m_Z^2}{2}\\left(Z_\\mu \\right)^2  +\nj^2\\left\\{ -\\frac{1}{2}{\\cal W}^{+}_{\\mu\\nu}{\\cal W}^{-}_{\\mu\\nu} + m_{W}^2W^{+}_\\mu W^{-}_\\mu \\right\\} \\equiv\n$$ \n\\begin{equation} \n\\equiv L_b + j^2 L_f,\n\\label{neq1}\n\\end{equation} \nwhere \n\\begin{equation} \nm_W=\\frac{Rg}{2}, \\quad m_Z=\\frac{R}{2}\\sqrt{g^2+g'^2},\n\\label{eq13}\n\\end{equation}\nand  \n$\n{\\cal Z}_{\\mu\\nu}=\\partial_\\mu Z_\\nu-\\partial_\\nu Z_\\mu, \\; \n{\\cal F}_{\\mu\\nu}=\\partial_\\mu A_\\nu-\\partial_\\nu A_\\mu, \\; \n{\\cal W^{\\pm}}_{\\mu\\nu}=\\partial_\\mu W^{\\pm}_\\nu-\\partial_\\nu W^{\\pm}_\\mu \\; \n$  \nare abelian stress tensors  \n describes all the experimentally verified parts of the standard Electroweek Model \n but does not include the scalar Higgs field. \n  \nThe   interaction part of the full Lagrangian in the first degree of approximation is given by\n$$ \nL_{int}^{(1)}(j)=j^2\\left[L_{A}^{(3)} + L_{\\psi}^{(3)}\\right],\n$$\nwhere the third order terms of the gauge field Lagrangian (\\ref{eq2}) are\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\n L_A^{(3)} =-\\frac{g}{\\sqrt{g^2+g'^2}}\\left\\{i\\left( \\mathcal{W}_{\\mu\\nu}^-W_\\mu^+ - \\mathcal{W}_{\\mu\\nu}^+W_\\mu^- \\right)\\left(g'A_\\nu+gZ_\\nu \\right) -  \\right. \\nonumber\\\\\n-\\frac{\\sqrt{2}}{g}\\left(g'A_\\mu+gZ_\\mu \\right)    \n \\left[\\mathcal{W}_{\\mu\\nu}^+(\\partial_{\\nu}\\psi_2-i\\partial_{\\nu}\\psi_1) + \\mathcal{W}_{\\mu\\nu}^- (\\partial_{\\nu}\\psi_2+i\\partial_{\\nu}\\psi_1) \\right]-  \\nonumber\\\\\n-\\frac{2ig}{\\sqrt{g^2+g'^2}}\\left(\\mathcal{W}_{\\mu\\nu}^-W_\\mu^+ - \\mathcal{W}_{\\mu\\nu}^+W_\\mu^- \\right)\\partial_{\\nu}\\psi_3 - \\nonumber\\\\\n-\\frac{2\\sqrt{2}}{\\sqrt{g^2+g'^2}}\\left[\\mathcal{W}_{\\mu\\nu}^+(\\partial_{\\nu}\\psi_2-i\\partial_{\\nu}\\psi_1)  +  \\mathcal{W}_{\\mu\\nu}^-(\\partial_{\\nu}\\psi_2+i\\partial_{\\nu}\\psi_1) \\right]\\partial_{\\nu}\\psi_3 + \\nonumber\\\\\n+\\left(g'\\mathcal{F}_{\\mu\\nu}+ g\\mathcal{Z}_{\\mu\\nu}\\right)\n  \\left\\{\\frac{i}{4}\\left[\\left(W_{\\mu}^+ \\right)^2 - \\left(W_{\\mu}^- \\right)^2 \\right]  +\n\\frac{4}{g^2}\\partial_{\\mu}\\psi_1\\partial_{\\nu}\\psi_2 +  \\right. \\nonumber\\\\\n\\left. \\left. \n+ \\frac{\\sqrt{2}}{g}\\left[W_\\mu^+ (\\partial_{\\nu}\\psi_2-i\\partial_{\\nu}\\psi_1) + W_\\mu^- (\\partial_{\\nu}\\psi_2+i\\partial_{\\nu}\\psi_1) \\right]  \\right\\} \\right\\} \\nonumber\\\\\n\\end{eqnarray*}\nand those of the matter field Lagrangian (\\ref{eq10}) are\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\n L_\\psi^{(3)}= \\frac{R^2g}{2\\sqrt{2}}\\left\\{\nW_{\\mu}^+\\left[\\psi_3(\\partial_\\mu \\psi_2 - i\\partial_\\mu \\psi_1) -\n\\frac{g^2-g'^2}{g^2+g'^2}(\\psi_2 -i\\psi_1) \\partial_\\mu \\psi_3 + \\right. \\right. \\nonumber\\\\\n\\left.  + \\frac{g'\\left(gA_{\\mu}-g'Z_{\\mu} \\right)}{\\sqrt{g^2+g'^2}}(\\psi_2 -i\\psi_1) \\right] \n+W_{\\mu}^-\\left[\\psi_3(\\partial_\\mu \\psi_2 + i\\partial_\\mu \\psi_1) - \\right.\\nonumber\\\\\n\\left.  - \\frac{g^2-g'^2}{g^2+g'^2}(\\psi_2 +i\\psi_1) \\partial_\\mu \\psi_3 +  \n \\frac{g'\\left(gA_{\\mu}-g'Z_{\\mu} \\right)}{\\sqrt{g^2+g'^2}}(\\psi_2 +i\\psi_1) \\right]+ \\nonumber\\\\\n\\left.+\\frac{1}{g}\\sqrt{g^2+g'^2}Z_{\\mu}\\left(\\psi_1\\partial_\\mu \\psi_2 - \\psi_2\\partial_\\mu \\psi_1 \\right)\n\\right\\}. \n\\end{eqnarray*}\n\nThe fermion Lagrangian of the standard Electroweek Model\nis taken in the form \\cite{R-99}\n\\begin{equation} \nL_F=L_l^{\\dagger}i\\tilde{\\tau}_{\\mu}D_{\\mu}L_l + e_r^{\\dagger}i\\tau_{\\mu}D_{\\mu}e_r -\nh_e[e_r^{\\dagger}(\\phi^{\\dagger}L_l) +(L_l^{\\dagger}\\phi)e_r],\n\\label{eq14}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere\n$\nL_l= \\left(\n\\begin{array}{c}\n\te_l\\\\\n\t\\nu_{e,l}\n\\end{array} \\right)\n$\nis the $SU(2)$-doublet,  $e_r $ the $SU(2)$-singlet, $h_e$ is constant and $e_r, e_l, \\nu_e $ are two component Lorentzian spinors. \nHere $\\tau_{\\mu}$ are Pauli matricies, \n$\\tau_{0}=\\tilde{\\tau_0}={\\bf 1},$ $\\tilde{\\tau_k}=-\\tau_k. $ \nThe covariant derivatives $D_{\\mu}L_l $ are given by (\\ref{eq4}) with $L_l$ instead of \n$\\phi$ and $D_{\\mu}e_r=(\\partial_\\mu + ig'B_\\mu)e_r. $\n The convolution on the inner indices of $SU(2)$-doublet is denoted by $(\\phi^{\\dagger}L_l)$.\n\nThe matter field $\\phi$  appears in Lagrangian (\\ref{eq14}) only in mass terms. \nWhen the gauge group $SU(2)$ is contracted to $SU(2;j)$ and the matter field is fibered to $\\phi(j)$\nthe same  take place with doublet $L_l$, namely,  the first component $\te_l$ does not changed, but the second component is multiplied by contraction parameter: $\\nu_{e,l} \\rightarrow j\\nu_{e,l}$. \nWith the use of  (\\ref{eq7}),(\\ref{eq9}) and these substitution the mass terms are rewritten in the form\n$$\nh_e[e_r^{\\dagger}(\\phi^{\\dagger}(j)L_l(j)) +(L_l^{\\dagger}(j)\\phi(j))e_r]=\n\\frac{h_eR}{\\sqrt{1+\\bar{\\psi}^2(j)}}\\left\\{e_r^{\\dagger}e_l + e_l^{\\dagger}e_r + \\right.\n$$\n\\begin{equation} \n\\left.  +i\\psi_3\\left(e_l^{\\dagger}e_r - e_r^{\\dagger}e_l \\right) + \nij^2 \\left[\\psi_1\\left(\\nu_{e,l}^{\\dagger}e_r - e_r^{\\dagger}\\nu_{e,l} \\right)+\ni\\psi_2\\left(\\nu_{e,l}^{\\dagger}e_r + e_r^{\\dagger}\\nu_{e,l} \\right)\\right]\n\\right\\},\n\\label{n1-1}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere\nthe $SU(2)$-singlet $e_r $ does not transforms under contraction.\n\n\n\\section{Limiting case  of  Higgsless Electroweak Model}\n\n\nAs it was mentioned the vector boson masses are automatically (without any Higgs mechanism) generated by the  transformation of the free Lagrangian  of the standard Electroweak Model  to the Lagrangian (\\ref{eq1}),(\\ref{eq2}),(\\ref{eq10}) expressed in some coordinates on the sphere $\\Psi_3(j)$. \nAnd this statement is true for both values of contraction parameter $j=1,\\iota$.\nWhen contraction parameter tends to zero $j^2\\rightarrow 0$, then the contribution  of W-bosons fields to the quadratic part of the Lagrangian (\\ref{neq1}) will be small in comparison  with the contribution  of Z-boson and electromagnetic fields. \nIn other words the limit Lagrangian  includes only   Z-boson and electromagnetic fields. Therefore charded W-bosons fields does not effect on these fields.\nThe  part $L_f$ form a new Lagrangian for W-bosons fields and their interactions with other fields. \nThe appearance of two Lagrangians $L_b$ and $L_f$ for the limit model is in correspondence with two hermitian forms of fibered  space $\\Phi_2(\\iota)$, which are invariant under the action of  contracted gauge group $SU(2;\\iota)$. \n Electromagnetic  and Z-boson fields can be regarded  as external fields with respect to the W-bosons fields. \n\nIn mathematical language   the  field space $\\left\\{ A_{\\mu}, Z_{\\mu}, W_{\\mu}^{\\pm}\\right\\}$\nis fibered after contraction $j=\\iota$ to the base $\\left\\{ A_{\\mu}, Z_{\\mu}\\right\\}$ and the fiber \n$\\left\\{W_{\\mu}^{\\pm}\\right\\}.$ \n(In order to avoid terminological misunderstanding let us stress that we  have in view locally trivial fibering, which\nis defined by the projection $pr:\\; \\left\\{ A_{\\mu}, Z_{\\mu}, W_{\\mu}^{\\pm}\\right\\} \\rightarrow \\left\\{ A_{\\mu}, Z_{\\mu}\\right\\}$ in the field space. \nThis fibering is understood in the context of  semi-Riemannian geometry \\cite{Gr-09} and has nothing to do with the principal fiber bundle.)\nThen $L_b$ in (\\ref{neq1}) presents Lagrangian in the base and $L_f$ is Lagrangian in the fiber.  In general, properties of a fiber are depend on a points of a base and not the contrary.\nIn this sense fields in the base are external one with respect to fields in the fiber. \n\nThe fermion Lagrangian (\\ref{eq14})\nfor nilpotent value of the contraction parameter $j=\\iota $ is also splited on electron part in the base and neutrino part in the fiber. \nThis means that in the limit model electron field is external one relative to neutrino field.\nThe mass terms (\\ref{n1-1}) for $j=\\iota $ are\n\\begin{equation}\nh_e[e_r^{\\dagger}(\\phi^{\\dagger}(\\iota)L_l(\\iota)) +(L_l^{\\dagger}(\\iota)\\phi(\\iota))e_r]\n=\\frac{h_eR}{\\sqrt{1+\\psi_3^2}} \\left[ e_r^{\\dagger}e_l^{-} + e_l^{- \\dagger}e_r  \n  +i\\psi_3\\left(e_l^{- \\dagger}e_r - e_r^{\\dagger}e_l^{-} \\right) \\right]. \n\\label{n1}\n\\end{equation}\nIts  second order terms \n$ h_eR\\left(e_r^{\\dagger}e_l^{-} + e_l^{- \\dagger}e_r \\right)$ \nprovide  the electron mass $m_e=h_eR $ and neutrino  remain massless.\n\n\nLet us note that field interactions in contracted model are more simple as compared with the standard Electroweak Model due to nullification of some terms.\n\n\n\n\\section{Conclusions} \n\n\nThe modified formulation of the Electroweak Model with the gauge group $SU(2)\\times U(1)$ based on\nthe 3-dimensional spherical geometry in the target space is suggested. This model describes all experimentally observed fields and does not include the (up to now unobserved) scalar Higgs field. \nThe {\\it free} Lagrangian in the spherical matter field space is used instead of Lagrangian  with\nthe   potential  of the special \"`sombrero\"' form.\nThe  gauge field Lagrangian is the standard one. \nThere is no need in Higgs   \nmechanism since the vector field  masses are generated automatically.\n\n\nWe have discussed the limiting case of the modified Higgsless Electroweak Model, which corresponds to the contracted gauge group $SU(2;j)\\times U(1)$, where $j=\\iota$ or $j \\rightarrow 0$.\nThe masses of the all experimentally verified particles involved in the Electroweak Model remain the same under contraction, but interactions of the fields are changed in two aspects. \nFirstly  all field interactions become more simpler due to nullification of some terms in Lagrangian.  \nSecondly  interrelation  of the fields become more complicated. All fields are divided on two classes: fields in the base\n(Z-boson,  electromagnetic and electron) and fields in the fiber (W-bosons and neutrino). \nThe base  fields  can be interpreted as  external ones with respect to the fiber fields, i.e.  Z-boson,  electromagnetic and electron fields can interact with W-bosons and neutrino fields, but  W-bosons and neutrino fields do not effect on these fields within framework of the limit model.\n\n\nThis work has been supported in part \nby the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, grant 08-01-90010-Bel-a\nand the program \"`Fundamental problems of nonlinear dynamics\"' of Russian Academy of Sciences.  \n\n\n\n\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\nThe \\emph{competition graph} $C(D)$ of a digraph $D$ is an undirected graph which\nhas the same vertex set as $D$ and which has an edge $xy$\nbetween two distinct vertices $x$ and $y$\nif and only if for some vertex $z \\in V$,\nthe arcs $(x,z)$ and $(y,z)$ are in $D$.\n\nLet $d$ be a positive integer.\nFor $x = (x_1,x_2,\\ldots, x_d)$,\n$y = (y_1,y_2,\\ldots, y_d) \\in \\mathbb{R}^d$,\nwe write\n$x \\prec y$\nif $x_i<y_i$ for each $i=1, \\ldots, d$.\nFor a finite subset $S$ of $\\mathbb{R}^d$,\nlet $D_S$ be the digraph defined by $V(D_S) = S$ and\n$A(D_S) = \\{(x,v) \\mid v, x \\in S,\nv \\prec x \\}$.\nA digraph $D$ is called a \\emph{$d$-partial order}\nif there exists a finite subset $S$ of $\\mathbb{R}^d$\nsuch that $D$ is isomorphic to the digraph $D_S$.\nA $2$-partial order is also called a \\emph{doubly partial order}.\nCho and Kim~\\cite{CK05} studied the competition graphs of doubly partial orders\nand showed that interval graphs are exactly the\ngraphs having partial order competition dimensions at most two.\nSeveral variants of competition graphs of doubly partial orders\nalso have been studied\n(see \\cite{KKR07, KLPPS09, KLPS14, LW09, PLK11, PS13, WL10}).\n\nChoi {\\it et al.} \\cite{pocdim} introduced the notion of the partial order competition dimension of a graph.\n\n\\begin{Defi}\nFor a graph $G$,\nthe \\emph{partial order competition dimension} of $G$, denoted by $\\dim_{\\text{{\\rm poc}}}(G)$,\nis the smallest nonnegative integer $d$\nsuch that $G$ together with $k$ isolated vertices is the competition graph of\na $d$-partial order $D$ for some nonnegative integer $k$,\ni.e.,\n\\[\n\\dim_{\\text{{\\rm poc}}}(G) :=\n\\min \\{d \\in \\mathbb{Z}_{\\geq 0} \\mid\n\\exists k \\in \\mathbb{Z}_{\\geq 0}, \\exists S \\subseteq \\mathbb{R}^d\n\\text{ s.t. } G \\cup I_k = C(D_S) \\},\n\\]\nwhere $\\mathbb{Z}_{\\geq 0}$ is the set of nonnegative integers\nand $I_k$ is a set of $k$ isolated vertices.\n\\end{Defi}\n\n\nChoi {\\it et al.} \\cite{pocdim} studied graphs\nhaving small partial order competition dimensions,\nand gave characterizations of graphs with partial order competition dimension $0$, $1$, or $2$\nas follows.\n\n\\begin{Prop}\\label{prop:dim0}\nLet $G$ be a graph.\nThen, $\\dim_{\\text{{\\rm poc}}}(G)= 0$ if and only if $G = K_1$.\n\\end{Prop}\n\n\\begin{Prop}\\label{prop:dim1}\nLet $G$ be a graph.\nThen, $\\dim_{\\text{{\\rm poc}}}(G)= 1$ if and only if\n$G = K_{t+1}$ or\n$G = K_t \\cup K_1$ for some positive integer $t$.\n\\end{Prop}\n\n\\begin{Prop}\\label{prop:dim2}\nLet $G$ be a graph.\nThen, $\\dim_{\\text{{\\rm poc}}}(G) = 2$\nif and only if\n$G$ is an interval graph which is neither $K_s$ nor $K_t \\cup K_1$\nfor any positive integers $s$ and $t$.\n\\end{Prop}\n\n\\noindent\nChoi {\\it et al.} \\cite{pocdim} also gave some families of graphs with partial order competition dimension three.\n\n\\begin{Prop}\\label{prop:cycle}\nIf $G$ is a cycle of length at least four, then\n$\\dim_{\\text{{\\rm poc}}}(G) = 3$.\n\\end{Prop}\n\n\\begin{Thm}\\label{thm:tree}\nLet $T$ be a tree.\nThen $\\dim_{\\text{{\\rm poc}}}(T) \\leq 3$,\nand the equality holds if and only if $T$\nis not a caterpillar.\n\\end{Thm}\n\n\n\nIn this paper, we study the partial order competition dimensions of chordal graphs.\nWe thought that most likely candidates for the family of graphs having partial order competition dimension\nat most three are chordal graphs since both trees and interval graphs, which are chordal graphs,\nhave partial order competition dimensions at most three.\nIn fact,\nwe show that chordal graphs have partial order competition dimensions at most three\nif the graphs are diamond-free.\nHowever, contrary to our presumption,\nwe could show the existence of\nchordal graphs with partial order competition dimensions greater than three.\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Preliminaries}\n\nWe say that two sets in $\\mathbb{R}^d$ are \\emph{homothetic}\nif they are related by a geometric contraction or expansion.\nChoi {\\it et al.}~\\cite{pocdim} gave a characterization of\nthe competition graphs of $d$-partial orders.\nWe state it in the case where $d=3$.\n\n\\begin{Thm} [\\hskip-0.0025em \\cite{pocdim}]\\label{thm:intersectiongeneral}\nA graph $G$ is the competition graph of a $3$-partial order\nif and only if\nthere exists a family $\\mathcal{F}$ of homothetic open equilateral   triangles\ncontained in the plane $\\{x=(x_1,x_2,x_3) \\in \\mathbb{R}^3 \\mid x_1+x_2+x_3 = 0 \\}$ and\nthere exists a one-to-one correspondence $A: V(G) \\to \\mathcal{F}$\nsuch that\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item[{\\rm ($\\star$)}]\ntwo vertices $v$ and $w$ are adjacent in $G$ if and only if\ntwo elements $A(v)$ and $A(w)$ have the intersection containing the closure $\\triangle(x)$\nof an element $A(x)$ in $\\mathcal{F}$.\n\\end{itemize}\n\\end{Thm}\n\n\\noindent\nChoi {\\it et al.}~\\cite{pocdim} also gave a sufficient condition for\na graph being the competition graph of a $d$-partial order.\nWe state their result in the case where $d=3$.\n\n\\begin{Thm}[\\hskip-0.0025em \\cite{pocdim}]\\label{thm:closed}\nIf $G$ is the intersection graph of\na finite family of homothetic closed equilateral triangles,\nthen $G$ together with sufficiently many new isolated vertices\nis the competition graph of a $3$-partial order.\n\\end{Thm}\n\n\\noindent\nBy the definition of the partial order competition dimension of a graph,\nwe have the following:\n\n\\begin{Cor}\\label{cor:closed}\nIf $G$ is the intersection graph of\na finite family of homothetic closed equilateral triangles,\nthen $\\dim_{\\text{{\\rm poc}}}(G) \\leq 3$.\n\\end{Cor}\n\n\\noindent\nNote that the converse of Corollary \\ref{cor:closed} is not true\nby an example given by Choi {\\em et al.}~\\cite{pocdim}\n(see Figure~\\ref{counterexample}).\nIn this context, one can guess that it is not so easy to show that\na graph has partial order competition dimension greater than three.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\psfrag{a}{$v_1$}\n\\psfrag{b}{$v_2$}\n\\psfrag{c}{$v_3$}\n\\psfrag{d}{$v_4$}\n\\psfrag{e}{$v_5$}\n\\psfrag{f}{$v_6$}\n\\psfrag{g}{$v_7$}\n\\psfrag{A}{$A^2(\\mathbf{v}_1)$}\n\\psfrag{B}{$A^2(\\mathbf{v}_2)$}\n\\psfrag{C}{$A^2(\\mathbf{v}_3)$}\n\\psfrag{D}{$A^2(\\mathbf{v}_4)$}\n\\psfrag{E}{$A^2(\\mathbf{v}_5)$}\n\\psfrag{F}{$A^2(\\mathbf{v}_6)$}\n\\psfrag{G}{$A^2(\\mathbf{v}_7)$}\n\\psfrag{h}{$G$}\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[height=5cm]{Counterexample.eps}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{A subdivision $G$ of $K_5$ and a family of homothetic equilateral triangles making\n$G$ together with $9$ isolated vertices into\nthe competition graph of a $3$-partial order, which is given in \\cite{pocdim}}\n\\label{counterexample}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThe correspondence $A$ in Theorem~\\ref{thm:intersectiongeneral} can be precisely described as follows:\nLet $\\mathcal{H}:=\\{x = (x_1, x_2, x_3) \\in \\mathbb{R}^3\n\\mid x_1 + x_2 + x_3 = 0 \\}$\nand $\\mathcal{H}_+ := \\{x = (x_1, x_2, x_3) \\in \\mathbb{R}^3 \\mid x_1 + x_2 + x_3 > 0 \\}$.\nFor a point $v=(v_1, v_2, v_3) \\in \\mathcal{H}_+$,\nlet $p_{1}^{(v)}$, $p_{2}^{(v)}$, and $p_{3}^{(v)}$\nbe points in $\\mathbb{R}^3$ defined by\n$p_{1}^{(v)} := (-v_2-v_3, v_2, v_3)$,\n$p_{2}^{(v)} := (v_1, -v_1-v_3, v_3)$, and\n$p_{3}^{(v)} := (v_1, v_2, -v_1-v_2)$,\nand let $\\triangle(v)$ be the convex hull of the points\n$p_{1}^{(v)}$, $p_{2}^{(v)}$, and $p_{3}^{(v)}$, i.e.,\n$\n\\triangle(v) := \\text{{\\rm Conv}}(p_{1}^{(v)},p_{2}^{(v)},p_{3}^{(v)})\n= \\left\\{ \\sum_{i=1}^3 \\lambda_i p_{i}^{(v)}\n\\mid \\sum_{i=1}^3 \\lambda_i=1, \\lambda_i \\geq 0 \\ (i=1,2,3) \\right\\}.\n$\nThen it is easy to check that $\\triangle(v)$ is an closed equilateral triangle\nwhich is contained in the plane $\\mathcal{H}$.\nLet $A(v)$ be the relative interior of the closed triangle $\\triangle(v)$, i.e.,\n$\nA(v) := \\text{rel.int}(\\triangle(v))\n= \\left\\{ \\sum_{i=1}^3 \\lambda_i p_{i}^{(v)}\n\\mid \\sum_{i=1}^3 \\lambda_i=1, \\lambda_i > 0 \\ (i=1,2,3) \\right\\}.\n$\nThen\n$A(v)$ and $A(w)$ are homothetic for any $v,w \\in \\mathcal{H}_+$.\n\nFor $v \\in \\mathcal{H}_+$ and $(i,j) \\in \\{(1,2),(2,3),(1,3)\\}$,\nlet $l_{ij}^{(v)}$ denote the line through\nthe two points $p^{(v)}_{i}$ and $p^{(v)}_{j}$, i.e.,\n$\nl_{ij}^{(v)} := \\{ x \\in \\mathbb{R}^3 \\mid\nx = \\alpha p^{(v)}_{i} + (1 - \\alpha) p^{(v)}_{j}, \\alpha \\in \\mathbb{R} \\},\n$\nand let $R_{ij}(v)$ denote the following region:\n\\[\nR_{ij}(v) := \\{ x \\in \\mathbb{R}^3 \\mid\nx = (1-\\alpha - \\beta)p^{(v)}_{k} + \\alpha p^{(v)}_{i} + \\beta p^{(v)}_{j} ,\n0 \\leq \\alpha \\in \\mathbb{R}, 0 \\leq \\beta \\in \\mathbb{R}, \\alpha + \\beta \\geq 1 \\},\n\\]\nwhere $k$ is the element in $\\{1,2,3\\} \\setminus \\{i,j\\}$;\nfor $k \\in \\{1,2,3\\}$, let $R_{k}(v)$ denote the following region:\n\\[\nR_{k}(v) := \\{ x \\in \\mathbb{R}^3 \\mid\nx = (1 + \\alpha + \\beta)p^{(v)}_{k} - \\alpha p^{(v)}_{i} - \\beta p^{(v)}_{j},\n0 \\leq \\alpha \\in \\mathbb{R}, 0 \\leq \\beta \\in \\mathbb{R} \\},\n\\]\nwhere $i$ and $j$ are elements such that\n$\\{i,j,k\\} = \\{1,2,3\\}$.\n(See Figure~\\ref{region} for an illustration.)\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\psfrag{A}{ $p^{(v)}_{1}$}\n\\psfrag{B}{ $p^{(v)}_{2}$}\n\\psfrag{C}{ $p^{(v)}_{3}$}\n\\psfrag{D}{ $\\triangle(v)$}\n\\psfrag{E}{ $R_{23}(v)$}\n\\psfrag{F}{ $R_3(v)$}\n\\psfrag{G}{ $R_{13}(v)$}\n\\psfrag{H}{ $R_1(v)$}\n\\psfrag{I}{ $R_{12}(v)$}\n\\psfrag{J}{ $R_2(v)$}\n\\psfrag{K}{ $l_{12}^{(v)}$}\n\\psfrag{L}{ $l_{13}^{(v)}$}\n\\psfrag{M}{ $l_{23}^{(v)}$}\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[height=5cm]{region3.eps}\n\\end{center}\n\\vskip-1em\n\\caption{The regions determined by $v$. By our assumption, for any vertex $u$ of a graph considered in this paper, $p_1^{(u)}$, $p_2^{(u)}$, $p_3^{(u)}$ correspond to $p_1^{(v)}$, $p_2^{(v)}$, $p_3^{(v)}$ respectively.\n}\n\\label{region}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIf a graph $G$ satisfies $\\dim_{\\text{{\\rm poc}}}(G) \\leq 3$, then, by Theroem~\\ref{thm:intersectiongeneral}, we may assume that $V(G) \\subseteq \\mathcal{H}_+$ by translating each of the vertices of $G$ in the same direction and by the same amount.\n\n\\begin{Lem}\\label{lem:not-incl1}\nLet $D$ be a $3$-partial order and\nlet $G$ be the competition graph of $D$.\nSuppose that $G$ contains an induced path $uvw$ of length two.\nThen neither $A(u) \\cap A(v) \\subseteq A(w)$ nor $A(v) \\cap A(w) \\subseteq A(u)$.\n\\end{Lem}\n\n\\begin{proof}\nWe show by contradiction.\nSuppose that $A(u) \\cap A(v) \\subseteq A(w)$ or $A(v) \\cap A(w) \\subseteq A(u)$.\nBy symmetry, we may assume without loss of generality that $A(u) \\cap A(v) \\subseteq A(w)$.\nSince $u$ and $v$ are adjacent in $G$,\nthere exists a vertex $a \\in V(G)$ such that\n$\\triangle(a) \\subseteq A(u) \\cap A(v)$\nby Theorem~\\ref{thm:intersectiongeneral}.\nTherefore\n$\\triangle(a) \\subseteq A(w)$.\nSince $\\triangle(a) \\subseteq A(u)$,\n$u$ and $w$ are adjacent in $G$ by Theorem~\\ref{thm:intersectiongeneral},\nwhich is a contradiction to the assumption that\n$u$ and $w$ are not adjacent in $G$.\nHence the lemma holds.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\begin{Defi}\nFor $v,w \\in \\mathcal{H}_+$,\nwe say that $v$ and $w$ are\n\\emph{crossing} if\n$A(v) \\cap A(w) \\neq \\emptyset$,\n$A(v) \\setminus A(w) \\neq \\emptyset$, and\n$A(w) \\setminus A(v) \\neq \\emptyset$.\n\\end{Defi}\n\n\\begin{Lem}\\label{lem:not-incl2}\nLet $D$ be a $3$-partial order and\nlet $G$ be the competition graph of $D$.\nSuppose that $G$ contains an induced path $xuvw$ of length three.\nThen $u$ and $v$ are crossing.\n\\end{Lem}\n\n\\begin{proof}\nSince $u$ and $v$ are adjacent in $G$, there exists a vertex $a \\in V(G)$\nsuch that $\\triangle(a) \\subseteq A(u) \\cap A(v)$\nby Theorem~\\ref{thm:intersectiongeneral}.\nTherefore $A(u) \\cap A(v) \\neq \\emptyset$.\nIf $A(v) \\subseteq A(u)$, then $A(v) \\cap A(w) \\subseteq A(u)$,\nwhich contradicts Lemma~\\ref{lem:not-incl1}.\nThus $A(v) \\setminus A(u) \\neq \\emptyset$.\nIf $A(u) \\subseteq A(v)$, then $A(x) \\cap A(u) \\subseteq A(v)$,\nwhich contradicts Lemma~\\ref{lem:not-incl1}.\nThus $A(u) \\setminus A(v) \\neq \\emptyset$.\nHence $u$ and $v$ are crossing.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\\begin{Lem}\\label{lem:intersecting3}\nIf $v$ and $w$ in $\\mathcal{H}_+$ are crossing,\nthen $p_k^{(x)} \\in \\triangle(y)$ for some $k \\in \\{1,2,3\\}$\nwhere $\\{x,y\\} = \\{v,w\\}$.\n\\end{Lem}\n\n\\begin{proof}\nSince $v$ and $w$ are crossing,\nwe have\n$A(v) \\cap A(w) \\neq \\emptyset$,\n$A(v) \\setminus A(w) \\neq \\emptyset$, and\n$A(w) \\setminus A(v) \\neq \\emptyset$.\nThen one of the vertices of the triangles $\\triangle(v)$ and $\\triangle(w)$\nis contained in the other triangle, thus the lemma holds.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\\begin{Defi}\nFor $k \\in \\{1,2,3\\}$,\nwe define a binary relation $\\stackrel{k}{\\rightarrow}$ on $\\mathcal{H}_+$ by\n\\[\nx \\stackrel{k}{\\rightarrow} y\n\\quad \\Leftrightarrow \\quad\n\\text{ $x$ and $y$ are crossing, and }  p_k^{(y)} \\in \\triangle(x)\n\\]\nfor any $x, y \\in \\mathcal{H}_+$.\n\\end{Defi}\n\n\\begin{Lem}\\label{lem:transitive}\nLet $x,y,z \\in \\mathcal{H}_+$.\nSuppose that $x \\stackrel{k}{\\rightarrow} y$\nand $y \\stackrel{k}{\\rightarrow} z$ for some $k \\in \\{1,2,3\\}$\nand that $x$ and $z$ are crossing.\nThen $x \\stackrel{k}{\\rightarrow} z$.\n\\end{Lem}\n\n\\begin{proof}\nSince $x \\stackrel{k}{\\rightarrow} y$, $p_l^{(x)} \\not\\in R_i(y) \\cup R_{ij}(y) \\cup R_j(y)$ for each $l \\in \\{1,2,3\\}$,\nwhere $\\{i,j,k\\} = \\{1,2,3\\}$\nSince $y \\stackrel{k}{\\rightarrow} z$, $p_l^{(z)} \\in R_i(y) \\cup R_{ij}(y) \\cup R_j(y)$ for each $l \\in \\{i,j\\}$.\nSince $x$ and $z$ are crossing, $p_k^{(z)} \\in \\triangle(x)$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\\begin{Defi}\nFor $k \\in \\{1,2,3\\}$,\na sequence $(v_1, \\ldots, v_m)$ of $m$ points in $\\mathcal{H}_+$, where $m \\geq 2$,\nis said to be \\emph{consecutively tail-biting in Type $k$}\nif $v_i \\stackrel{k}{\\rightarrow} v_j$ for any $i < j$\n(see Figure~\\ref{consecutive}).\nA finite set $V$ of points in $\\mathcal{H}_+$\nis said to be \\emph{consecutively tail-biting}\nif there is an ordering $(v_1, \\ldots, v_m)$ of $V$\nsuch that $(v_1, \\ldots, v_m)$ is consecutively tail-biting.\n\\end{Defi}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\psfrag{A}{ $A(v_1)$}\n\\psfrag{B}{ $A(v_2)$}\n\\psfrag{C}{ $A(v_3)$}\n\\psfrag{D}{ $A(v_4)$}\n\\psfrag{E}{(a)}\n\\psfrag{F}{(b)}\n\\psfrag{G}{(c)}\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[height=5cm]{consecutive1.eps} \\hskip2.5em\n\\includegraphics[height=5cm]{consecutive2.eps} \\hskip2.5em\n\\includegraphics[height=5cm]{consecutive3.eps}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{The sequences $(v_1,v_2,v_3,v_4)$ in (a), (b), (c) are consecutively tail-biting of Type 1, 2, 3, respectively.}\n\\label{consecutive}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\section{The partial order competition dimensions of diamond-free chordal graphs}\\label{sec:chordal}\n\n\nIn this section, we show that\na chordal graph has partial order competition dimension at most three\nif it is diamond-free.\n\n\nA \\emph{block graph} is a graph such that each of its maximal $2$-connected subgraphs\nis a complete graph.\nThe following is well-known.\n\n\\begin{Lem}[\\hskip-0.0025em {\\cite[Proposition 1]{BM86}}]\\label{lem:blockchara}\nA graph is a block graph\nif and only if the graph is a diamond-free chordal graph.\n\\end{Lem}\n\nNote that\na block graph having no cut vertex is a disjoint union of complete graphs.\nFor block graphs having cut vertices, the following lemma holds.\n\n\\begin{Lem}\\label{lem:blockgraph}\nLet $G$ be a block graph having at least one cut vertex.\nThen $G$ has a maximal clique that contains exactly one cut vertex.\n\\end{Lem}\n\n\\begin{proof}\nLet $H$ be the subgraph induced by the cut vertices of $G$.\nBy definition, $H$ is obviously a block graph, so $H$ is chordal and there is a simplicial vertex $v$ in $H$.\nSince $v$ is a cut vertex of $G$, $v$ belongs to at least two maximal cliques of $G$.\nSuppose that each maximal clique containing $v$ contains another cut vertex of $G$.\nTake two maximal cliques $X_1$ and $X_2$ of $G$ containing $v$\nand let $x$ and $y$ be cut vertices of $G$ belonging to $X_1$ and $X_2$, respectively.\nThen both $x$ and $y$ are adjacent to $v$ in $H$.\nSince $G$ is a block graph,\n$X_1 \\setminus \\{v\\}$ and $X_2 \\setminus \\{v\\}$\nare contained in distinct connected components of $G-v$.\nThis implies that $x$ and $y$ are not adjacent in $H$,\nwhich contradicts the choice of $v$.\nTherefore there is a maximal clique $X$ containing $v$\nwithout any other cut vertex of $G$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\\begin{Lem}\\label{lem:blockgraph2}\nEvery block graph $G$ is the intersection graph\nof a family $\\mathcal{F}$ of homothetic closed equilateral triangles\nin which every clique of $G$ is consecutively tail-biting.\n\\end{Lem}\n\n\\begin{proof}\nWe show by induction on the number of cut vertices of $G$.\nIf a block graph has no cut vertex, then it is a disjoint union of complete graphs and the statement\nis trivially true as the vertices of each complete subgraph can be formed as a sequence which is consecutively tail-biting (refer to Figure~\\ref{consecutive}).\n\nAssume that the statement is true for any block graph $G$ with $m$ cut vertices where $m \\geq 0$.\nNow we take a block graph $G$ with $m+1$ cut vertices.\nBy Lemma~\\ref{lem:blockgraph},\nthere is a maximal clique $X$ that contains exactly one cut vertex, say $w$.\nBy definition, the vertices of $X$ other than $w$ are simplicial vertices.\n\nDeleting the vertices of $X$ other than $w$\nand the edges adjacent to them,\nwe obtain a block graph $G^*$ with $m$ cut vertices.\nThen, by the induction hypothesis, $G^*$ is the intersection graph of a family ${\\cal F}^*$\nof homothetic closed equilateral triangles satisfying the statement.\nWe consider the triangles corresponding to $w$.\nLet $C$ and $C'$ be two maximal cliques of $G^*$ containing $w$.\nBy the induction hypothesis,\nthe vertices of $C$ and $C'$ can be ordered as\n$v_{1}, v_{2}, \\ldots, v_{l}$ and $v'_{1}, v'_{2}, \\ldots, v'_{l'}$, respectively,\nso that $v_{i} \\stackrel{k}{\\rightarrow} v_{j}$ if $i < j$, for some $k \\in \\{1,2,3\\}$ and\nthat $v'_{i'} \\stackrel{k'}{\\rightarrow} v'_{j'}$ if $i' < j'$, for some $k' \\in \\{1,2,3\\}$.\n\nSuppose that $\\triangle(v_i) \\cap \\triangle(v'_j) \\neq \\emptyset$ for $v_i$ and $v'_j$ which are distinct from $w$.\nThen $v_i$ and $v'_j$ are adjacent in $G^*$, which implies the existence of a diamond in $G$\nsince maximal cliques have size at least two.\nWe have reached a contradiction to Lemma~\\ref{lem:blockchara} and so $\\triangle(v_i) \\cap \\triangle(v'_j) = \\emptyset$ for any $i,j$.\nTherefore there is a segment of a side on $\\triangle(w)$ (with a positive length) that does not intersect with the triangle assigned to any vertex in $G^*$ other than $w$\nsince there are finitely many maximal cliques in $G^*$ that contain $w$.\nIf the side belongs to $l_{ij}^{(w)}$ for $i,j \\in \\{1,2,3\\}$,\nthen we may order the deleted vertices and assign the homothetic closed equilateral triangles\nwith sufficiently small sizes to them\nso that the closed neighborhood of $v$ is consecutively tail-biting in Type $k$ for $k \\in \\{1,2,3\\} \\setminus \\{i,j\\}$\nand none of the triangles intersects with the triangle corresponding to any vertex other than $w$ in $G^*$.\nIt is not difficult to see that the set of the triangles in $\\mathcal{F}^*$\ntogether with the triangles just obtained is the one desired for $\\mathcal{F}$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\\begin{Thm}\nFor any diamond-free chordal graph $G$, $\\dim_{\\text{{\\rm poc}}}(G) \\leq 3$.\n\\end{Thm}\n\n\\begin{proof}\nThe theorem follows from\nCorollary~\\ref{cor:closed}\nand Lemma~\\ref{lem:blockgraph2}.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\n\\section{Chordal graphs having partial order competition dimension greater than three}\\label{sec:dimpocmorethanthree}\n\nIn this section,\nwe present infinitely many chordal graphs $G$\nwith $\\dim_{\\text{{\\rm poc}}}(G) > 3$.\nWe first show two lemmas which will be repeatedly used\nin the proof of the theorem in this section.\n\n\\begin{Lem}\\label{lem:3triangles}\nLet $D$ be a $3$-partial order and\nlet $G$ be the competition graph of $D$.\nSuppose that $G$\ncontains a diamond $K_4-e$ as an induced subgraph,\nwhere $u$, $v$, $w$, $x$ are the vertices of the diamond and $e=vx$.\nIf the sequence $(u, v, w)$ is consecutively tail-biting in Type $k$ for some $k \\in \\{1,2,3\\}$,\nthen $p_i^{(x)} \\in R_i(v)$ and $p_j^{(x)} \\notin R_j(v)$ hold or $p_i^{(x)} \\notin R_i(v)$ and $p_j^{(x)} \\in R_j(v)$ hold where $\\{i,j,k\\} = \\{1,2,3\\}$.\n\\end{Lem}\n\n\\begin{proof}\nWithout loss of generality, we may assume that $k=3$.\nWe first claim that $p_1^{(x)} \\in R_1(v) \\cup R_2(v) \\cup R_{12}(v)$.\nSuppose not.\nThen $p_1^{(x)} \\in R:=\\mathcal{H} \\setminus (R_1(v) \\cup R_2(v) \\cup R_{12}(v))$.\nSince $A(x)$ and $A(v)$ are homothetic, $A(x) \\subseteq R$.\nThus $A(w) \\cap A(x) \\subseteq A(w) \\cap R$.\nSince $(u,v,w)$ is consecutively tail-biting in Type 3, $A(w) \\cap R \\subseteq A(v)$.\nTherefore $A(w) \\cap A(x)\\subseteq A(v)$, which contradicts Lemma~\\ref{lem:not-incl1}.\nThus $p_1^{(x)} \\in R_1(v) \\cup R_2(v) \\cup R_{12}(v)$.\nBy symmetry, $p_2^{(x)} \\in R_1(v) \\cup R_2(v) \\cup R_{12}(v)$.\n\nSuppose that both $p_1^{(x)}$ and $p_2^{(x)}$ are in $R_{12}(v)$.\nSince $A(x)$ and $A(v)$ are homothetic, $A(x) \\cap R \\subseteq A(v)$.\nBy the hypothesis that $(u,v,w)$ is consecutively tail-biting in Type 3,\nwe have $A(u) \\subseteq R$. Therefore $A(x) \\cap A(u) \\subseteq A(x) \\cap R$.\nThus $A(x) \\cap A(u) \\subseteq A(v)$, which contradicts Lemma~\\ref{lem:not-incl1}.\nTherefore $p_1^{(x)} \\in R_1(v) \\cup R_2(v)$ or $p_2^{(x)} \\in R_1(v) \\cup R_2(v)$.\nSince $p_1^{(x)} \\in R_2(v)$ (resp. $p_2^{(x)} \\in R_1(v)$) implies\n$p_2^{(x)} \\in R_2(v)$ (resp. $p_1^{(x)} \\in R_1(v)$), which is impossible, we have\n$p_1^{(x)} \\in R_1(v)$ or $p_2^{(x)} \\in R_2(v)$.\n\nSuppose that both $p_1^{(x)} \\in R_1(v)$ and $p_2^{(x)} \\in R_2(v)$ hold.\nThen $A(v) \\subseteq A(x)$ since $A(v)$ and $A(x)$ are homothetic.\nThen $A(u) \\cap A(v) \\subseteq A(x)$, which contradicts Lemma~\\ref{lem:not-incl1}.\nHence $p_1^{(x)} \\in R_1(v)$ and $p_2^{(x)} \\notin R_2(v)$ hold or $p_1^{(x)} \\notin R_1(v)$ and $p_2^{(x)} \\in R_2(v)$ hold.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\psfrag{t}{\\small $t$}\n\\psfrag{u}{\\small $u$}\n\\psfrag{v}{\\small $v$}\n\\psfrag{w}{\\small $w$}\n\\psfrag{x}{\\small $x$}\n\\psfrag{y}{\\small $y$}\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics{config.eps}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{The graph $\\overline{\\mathrm{H}}$}\n\\label{fig:config}\n\\end{figure}\n\nLet $\\overline{\\mathrm{H}}$ be the graph on vertex set $\\{t,u,v,w,x,y\\}$ such that $\\{t,u,v,w\\}$ forms a complete graph $K_4$, $x$ is adjacent to only $t$ and $v$, and $y$ is adjacent to only $u$ and $w$ in $\\overline{\\mathrm{H}}$\n(see Figure~\\ref{fig:config} for an illustration).\n\n\\begin{Lem}\\label{lem:4triangles}\nLet $D$ be a $3$-partial order and let $G$ be the competition graph of $D$.\nSuppose that $G$ contains the graph $\\overline{\\mathrm{H}}$ as an induced subgraph and\n$(t, u, v, w)$ is consecutively tail-biting in Type $k$ for some $k \\in \\{1,2,3\\}$.\nThen, for $i,j$ with $\\{i,j,k\\} = \\{1,2,3\\}$,\n$p_i^{(x)} \\in R_i(u)$ implies $p_j^{(y)} \\in R_j(v)$.\n\\end{Lem}\n\n\\begin{proof}\nWithout loss of generality, we may assume that $k=3$.\nIt is sufficient to show that $p_1^{(x)} \\in R_1(u)$ implies $p_2^{(y)} \\in R_2(v)$.\nNow suppose that $p_1^{(x)} \\in R_1(u)$.\nSince $(t,u,v,w)$ is a tail-biting sequence of Type 3,\n$(t,u,v)$ and $(u,v,w)$ are tail-biting sequences of Type 3.\nSince $\\{t,u,v,x\\}$ induces a diamond and\n$(t,u,v)$ is a consecutively tail-biting sequence of Type 3,\nit follows from Lemma~\\ref{lem:3triangles} that\n$p_1^{(x)} \\in R_1(u)$ and $p_2^{(x)} \\not\\in R_2(u)$ hold or $p_1^{(x)} \\notin R_1(u)$ and $p_2^{(x)} \\in R_2(u)$ hold.\nSince $p_1^{(x)} \\in R_1(u)$, it must hold that $p_1^{(x)} \\in R_1(u)$ and $p_2^{(x)} \\not\\in R_2(u)$.\nSince $A(u)$ and $A(x)$ are homothetic and $p_1^{(x)} \\in R_1(u)$,\nwe have $A(u) \\subseteq A(x) \\cup R_{23}(x)$.\n\nSince $\\{u,v,w,y\\}$ induces a diamond and\n$(u,v,w)$ is a consecutively tail-biting sequence of Type 3, it follows from Lemma~\\ref{lem:3triangles} that  $p_1^{(y)} \\in R_1(v)$ and $p_2^{(y)} \\not\\in R_2(v)$ hold or $p_1^{(y)} \\not\\in R_1(v)$ and $p_2^{(y)} \\in R_2(v)$ hold.\nWe will claim that the latter is true as it implies $p_2^{(y)} \\in R_2(v)$.\nTo reach a contradiction, suppose the former, that is,  $p_1^{(y)} \\in R_1(v)$ and $p_2^{(y)} \\not\\in R_2(v)$.\nSince $A(v)$ and $A(y)$ are homothetic and $p_1^{(y)} \\in R_1(v)$, we have $A(v) \\subseteq A(y) \\cup R_{23}(y)$.\nWe now show that $A(x) \\cap A(v) \\subseteq A(y)$.\nTake any $a \\in A(x) \\cap A(v)$.\nSince $A(v) \\subseteq A(y) \\cup R_{23}(y)$, we have $a \\in A(y) \\cup R_{23}(y)$.\nSuppose that $a \\not\\in A(y)$. Then $a \\in R_{23}(y)$.\nThis together with the fact that $a \\in A(x)$\nimplies $A(y) \\cap R_{23}(x) = \\emptyset$.\nSince $A(u) \\subseteq A(x) \\cup R_{23}(x)$, we have\n\\begin{align*}\nA(u) \\cap A(y)\n&\\subseteq (A(x) \\cup R_{23}(x)) \\cap A(y) \\\\\n&= (A(x) \\cap A(y)) \\cup (R_{23}(x)) \\cap A(y)) \\\\\n&= (A(x) \\cap A(y)) \\cup \\emptyset \\\\\n&= A(x) \\cap A(y) \\subseteq A(x).\n\\end{align*}\nTherefore $A(u) \\cap A(y) \\subseteq A(u) \\cap A(x)$.\nSince $u$ and $y$ are adjacent in $G$,\nthere exists $b \\in V(G)$ such that\n$\\triangle(b) \\subseteq A(u) \\cap A(y)$.\nThen $\\triangle(b) \\subseteq A(u) \\cap A(x)$,\nwhich is a contradiction to the fact that $u$ and $x$ are not adjacent in $G$.\nThus $a \\notin R_{23}(y)$ and so $a \\in A(y)$.\nHence we have shown that $A(x) \\cap A(v) \\subseteq A(y)$.\nSince $x$ and $v$ are adjacent in $G$,\nthere exists $c \\in V(G)$ such that\n$\\triangle(c) \\subseteq A(x) \\cap A(v)$.\nThen $\\triangle(c) \\subseteq A(v) \\cap A(y)$,\nwhich is a contradiction to the fact that $v$ and $y$ are not adjacent in $G$.\nThus we have $p_1^{(y)} \\not\\in R_1(v)$ and $p_2^{(y)} \\in R_2(v)$.\nHence the lemma holds.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\\begin{Defi}\\label{def:expansion}\nFor a positive integer $n$,\nlet $G_n$ be the graph obtained from the complete graph $K_n$\nby adding a path of length $2$\nfor each pair of vertices of $K_n$,\ni.e.,\n$V(G_n) = \\{ v_i \\mid 1 \\leq i \\leq n \\}\n\\cup \\{ v_{ij} \\mid 1 \\leq i < j \\leq n \\}$\nand\n$E(G_n) = \\{ v_i v_j \\mid 1 \\leq i < j \\leq n \\}\n\\cup \\{ v_i v_{ij} \\mid 1 \\leq i < j \\leq n \\}\n\\cup \\{ v_j v_{ij} \\mid 1 \\leq i < j \\leq n \\}$.\n\\end{Defi}\n\n\\begin{Defi}\nFor a positive integer $m$,\nthe \\emph{Ramsey number} $r(m,m,m)$\nis the smallest positive integer $r$\nsuch that any $3$-edge-colored complete graph $K_r$ of order $r$\ncontains a monochromatic complete graph $K_m$ of order $m$.\n\\end{Defi}\n\n\n\\begin{Lem}\\label{lem:tail}\nLet $m$ be a positive integer at least $3$ and\nlet $n$ be an integer greater than or equal to\nthe Ramsey number $r(m,m,m)$.\nIf $\\dim_{{\\rm poc}}(G_n) \\leq 3$,\nthen\nthere exists a sequence\n$(x_1, \\ldots, x_m)$ of vertices of $G_n$\nsuch that $\\{ x_1, \\ldots, x_m \\}$\nis a clique of $G_n$\nand that any subsequence\n$(x_{i_1}, \\ldots, x_{i_l})$ of $(x_1, \\ldots, x_m)$\nis consecutively tail-biting,\nwhere $2 \\leq l \\leq m$\nand $1 \\leq i_1 < \\cdots < i_l \\leq m$.\n\\end{Lem}\n\n\n\\begin{proof}\nSince the vertices $v_i$ and $v_j$ of $G_n$\nare internal vertices of an induced path\nof length three by the definition of $G_n$,\nit follows from Lemma \\ref{lem:not-incl2} that\nthe vertices $v_i$ and $v_j$ of $G_n$\nare crossing.\nBy Lemma \\ref{lem:intersecting3}, for any $1 \\leq i < j \\leq n$,\nthere exists $k \\in \\{1,2,3\\}$ such that\n$v_i \\stackrel{k}{\\rightarrow} v_j$ or $v_j \\stackrel{k}{\\rightarrow} v_i$.\nNow we define an edge-coloring\n$c:\\{v_iv_j \\mid 1 \\leq i<j \\leq n\\} \\to \\{1,2,3\\}$\nas follows:\nFor $1 \\leq i < j \\leq n$,\nwe let $c(v_iv_j) = k$ so that\n$v_i \\stackrel{k}{\\rightarrow} v_j$ or $v_j \\stackrel{k}{\\rightarrow} v_i$.\nThen, by the definition of $r(m,m,m)$,\n$K_n$ contains a monochromatic complete subgraph $K$ with $m$ vertices.\n\nSuppose that the edges of $K$ have color $k$, where $k \\in \\{1,2,3\\}$.\nWe assign an orientation to each edge $xy$ of $K$ so that $x$ goes toward $y$\nif $x \\stackrel{k}{\\rightarrow} y$.\nIn that way, we obtain a tournament $\\overrightarrow{K}$ with $m$ vertices.\nIt is well-known that every tournament has a directed Hamiltonian path.\nTherefore, $\\overrightarrow{K}$ has a directed Hamiltonian path.\nLet $x_1 \\rightarrow x_2 \\rightarrow \\cdots \\rightarrow x_m$ be\na directed Hamiltonian path of $\\overrightarrow{K}$.\nThen, by Lemma~\\ref{lem:transitive}, $x_i \\stackrel{k}{\\rightarrow} x_j$ for any $i < j$.\nThus\nany subsequence\n$(x_{i_1}, \\ldots, x_{i_l})$ of $(x_1, \\ldots, x_m)$\nis consecutively tail-biting,\nwhere $2 \\leq l \\leq m$\nand $1 \\leq i_1 < \\cdots < i_l \\leq m$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\nSince the graph $G_n$ is chordal,\nthe following theorem shows the existence of chordal graphs\nwith partial order competition dimensions greater than three.\nGiven a graph $G$ and a set $X$ consisting of six vertices in $G$,\nwe say tha\n\\emph{$X$ induces an $\\overline{\\mathrm{H}}$} if it induces a subgraph of $G$ isomorphic to $\\overline{\\mathrm{H}}$.\n\n\\begin{Thm}\nFor $n \\geq r(5,5,5)$, $\\dim_{{\\rm poc}}(G_n) > 3$.\n\\end{Thm}\n\n\\begin{proof}\nWe prove by contradiction.\nSuppose that $\\dim_{{\\rm poc}}(G_n) \\leq 3$\nfor some $n \\geq r(5,5,5)$.\nBy Lemma~\\ref{lem:tail},\n$G_n$ contains\na consecutively tail-biting sequence $(v_1, \\ldots, v_5)$ of five vertices in Type $k$\nsuch that $\\{v_1, \\ldots, v_5\\}$ is a clique of $G_n$\nand that\n$(v_{i_1}, v_{i_2}, v_{i_3})$\nis a consecutively tail-biting sequence for any $1 \\leq i_1 < i_2 < i_3 \\leq 5$\nand\n$(v_{i_1}, v_{i_2}, v_{i_3}, v_{i_4})$\nis a consecutively tail-biting sequence for any $1 \\leq i_1 < i_2 < i_3 < i_4 \\leq 5$.\nWithout loss of generality, we may assume that $k=3$.\n\nSince $\\{v_1,v_2,v_3,v_{13}\\}$ induces a diamond and\n$(v_1,v_2,v_3)$ is a consecutively tail-biting sequence of Type 3,\nit follows from Lemma~\\ref{lem:3triangles} that\n$p_1^{(v_{13})} \\in R_1(v_2)$ and $p_2^{(v_{13})} \\not\\in R_2(v_2)$ hold or $p_1^{(v_{13})} \\notin R_1(v_2)$ and $p_2^{(v_{13})} \\in R_2(v_2)$ hold.\n\nWe first suppose that $p_1^{(v_{13})} \\in R_1(v_2)$ and $p_2^{(v_{13})} \\not\\in R_2(v_2)$.\nSince $\\{v_1,v_2,v_3,v_4,v_{13},v_{24}\\}$ induces an $\\overline{\\mathrm{H}}$ and\n$(v_1,v_2,v_3,v_4)$ is a consecutively tail-biting sequence of Type 3,\nit follows from Lemma~\\ref{lem:4triangles} and $p_1^{(v_{13})} \\in R_1(v_2)$ that\n$p_2^{(v_{24})} \\in R_2(v_3)$.\nSince $\\{v_1,v_2,v_3,v_5,v_{13},v_{25}\\}$ induces an $\\overline{\\mathrm{H}}$ and\n$(v_1,v_2,v_3,v_5)$ is a consecutively tail-biting sequence of Type 3,\nit follows from Lemma~\\ref{lem:4triangles} and $p_1^{(v_{13})} \\in R_1(v_2)$ that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eqn:three}\np_2^{(v_{25})} \\in R_2(v_3).\n\\end{equation}\nSince $\\{v_2,v_3,v_4,v_5,v_{24},v_{35}\\}$ induces an $\\overline{\\mathrm{H}}$ and\n$(v_2,v_3,v_4,v_5)$ is a consecutively tail-biting sequence of Type 3,\nit follows from Lemma~\\ref{lem:4triangles} and $p_2^{(v_{24})} \\in R_2(v_3)$ that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eqn:four}\np_1^{(v_{35})} \\in R_1(v_4).\n\\end{equation}\nSince $\\{v_1,v_3,v_4,v_{14}\\}$ induces a diamond and\n$(v_1,v_3,v_4)$ is a consecutively tail-biting sequence of Type 3,\nit follows from Lemma~\\ref{lem:3triangles} that\n$p_1^{(v_{14})} \\in R_1(v_3)$ and $p_2^{(v_{14})} \\not\\in R_2(v_3)$ hold or $p_1^{(v_{14})} \\notin R_1(v_3)$ and $p_2^{(v_{14})} \\in R_2(v_3)$ hold.\nSuppose that $p_1^{(v_{14})} \\in R_1(v_3)$ and $p_2^{(v_{14})} \\not\\in R_2(v_3)$.\nSince $\\{v_1,v_3,v_4,v_5,v_{14},v_{35}\\}$ induces an $\\overline{\\mathrm{H}}$ and\n$(v_1,v_3,v_4,v_5)$ is a consecutively tail-biting sequence of Type 3,\nit follows from Lemma~\\ref{lem:4triangles} and $p_1^{(v_{14})} \\in R_1(v_3)$ that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eqn:four-2}\np_2^{(v_{35})} \\in R_2(v_4).\n\\end{equation}\nSince $\\{v_3,v_4,v_5,v_{35}\\}$ induces a diamond and\n$(v_3,v_4,v_5)$ is a consecutively tail-biting sequence of Type 3,\nit follows from Lemma~\\ref{lem:3triangles} that\n$p_1^{(v_{35})} \\in R_1(v_4)$ and $p_2^{(v_{35})} \\notin R_2(v_4)$ hold or  $p_1^{(v_{35})} \\notin R_1(v_4)$ and $p_2^{(v_{35})} \\in R_2(v_4)$ hold,\nwhich is a contradiction to the fact that both (\\ref{eqn:four}) and (\\ref{eqn:four-2}) hold.\nThus\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eqn:five}\np_1^{(v_{14})} \\not\\in R_1(v_3) \\text{ and } p_2^{(v_{14})} \\in R_2(v_3).\n\\end{equation}\nSince $\\{v_1,v_2,v_4,v_{14}\\}$ induces a diamond and\n$(v_1,v_2,v_4)$ is a consecutively tail-biting sequence of Type 3,\nit follows from Lemma~\\ref{lem:3triangles} that\n$p_1^{(v_{14})} \\in R_1(v_2)$ and $p_2^{(v_{14})} \\notin R_2(v_2)$ hold or $p_1^{(v_{14})} \\notin R_1(v_2)$ and $p_2^{(v_{14})} \\in R_2(v_2)$ hold.\nSuppose that $p_1^{(v_{14})} \\not\\in R_1(v_2)$ and $p_2^{(v_{14})} \\in R_2(v_2)$.\nSince $\\{v_1,v_2,v_4,v_5,v_{14},v_{25}\\}$ induces an $\\overline{\\mathrm{H}}$ and\n$(v_1,v_2,v_4,v_5)$ is a consecutively tail-biting sequence of Type 3,\nit follows from Lemma~\\ref{lem:4triangles} and $p_2^{(v_{14})} \\in R_2(v_2)$ that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eqn:six}\np_1^{(v_{25})} \\in R_1(v_4).\n\\end{equation}\nBy (\\ref{eqn:three}) and (\\ref{eqn:six}),\nsince $A(v_4)$ and $A(v_{25})$ are homothetic,\nwe have\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eqn:six-2}\np_2^{(v_{25})} \\in R_2(v_4).\n\\end{equation}\nSince $\\{v_2,v_4,v_5,v_{25}\\}$ induces a diamond and\n$(v_2,v_4,v_5)$ is a consecutively tail-biting sequence of Type 3,\nit follows from Lemma~\\ref{lem:3triangles} that\n$p_1^{(v_{25})} \\in R_1(v_4)$ and $p_2^{(v_{25})} \\notin R_2(v_4)$ hold or $p_1^{(v_{25})} \\notin R_1(v_4)$ and $p_2^{(v_{25})} \\in R_2(v_4)$ hold,\nwhich is a contradiction to the fact that both (\\ref{eqn:six}) and (\\ref{eqn:six-2}) hold.\nThus\n$p_1^{(v_{14})} \\in R_1(v_2)$ and $p_2^{(v_{14})} \\not\\in R_2(v_2)$.\n\nSince $A(v_3)$ and $A(v_{14})$ are homothetic,\nwe have\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eqn:five-2}\np_1^{(v_{14})} \\in R_1(v_3),\n\\end{equation}\ncontradicting (\\ref{eqn:five}).\n\nIn the case where $p_1^{(v_{13})} \\not\\in R_1(v_2)$ and $p_2^{(v_{13})} \\in R_2(v_2)$, we also reach a contradiction by applying a similar argument.\n\nHence, $\\dim_{{\\rm poc}}(G_n) > 3$ holds for any $n \\geq r(5,5,5)$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
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+{"text":"\n\\section{Introduction}\n\nOne of the major achievements of HERA was the experimental evidence that \namong the whole set of $\\gamma^* p \\to X$ deep inelastic scattering events, almost 10\\%  are diffractive (DDIS), of the form $\\gamma^* p \\to X Y$ with a rapidity gap between the proton remnants $Y$\nand the hadrons $X$\ncoming from the fragmentation region of the initial virtual photon~\\cite{Chekanov:2004hy-Chekanov:2005vv-Chekanov:2008fh,\nAktas:2006hx-Aktas:2006hy-Aaron:2010aa-Aaron:2012ad-Aaron:2012hua}.\nDiffraction can be theoretically described according to several approaches, important for phenomenological applications. The first approach involves\na {\\em resolved} Pomeron contribution (with a parton distribution function inside the Pomeron),  while the second one\nrelies on a  {\\em direct} Pomeron contribution involving the coupling of a Pomeron with the diffractive state. The diffractive states can be modelled in perturbation theory by a  $q \\bar{q}$ pair (for moderate $M^2$, where $M$ is the invariant mass of the  diffractively produced state $X$) or by higher Fock states as a $q \\bar{q} g$ state for larger values of $M^2$. Based on such a model, with\n a two-gluon exchange picture for the Pomeron,  a good description of HERA data for diffraction could be achieved~\\cite{Bartels:1998ea}. One of the important features of this approach is that the $q \\bar{q}$ component with a longitudinally polarized photon plays a crucial role in the region of small\ndiffractive mass $M$, although it is a\ntwist-4 contribution.\nIn the direct components considered there, the $q \\bar{q} g$ diffractive state has been studied in two particular limits. The first one, valid for very large $Q^2$, corresponds to a collinear approximation in which the transverse momentum of the gluon is assumed to be much smaller than the transverse momentum of the emitter~\\cite{Wusthoff:1995hd-Wusthoff:1997fz}. \nThe second one~\\cite{Bartels:1999tn,Bartels:2002ri}, valid for very large $M^2$, is based on the assumption of a strong ordering of longitudinal momenta, encountered in BFKL equation~\\cite{Fadin:1975cb-Kuraev:1976ge-Kuraev:1977fs-Balitsky:1978ic}. Both these approaches were combined in order to describe HERA data for DDIS~\\cite{Marquet:2007nf}. \n\nBased on these very successful developments led at HERA\nin order to understand the QCD dynamics with diffractive events, \nit would be appropriate to look for similar hard diffractive events at LHC. \nThe idea there is to adapt the concept of  photoproduction of diffractive jets, which  was performed at HERA~\\cite{Chekanov:2007rh,Aaron:2010su}, now with a flux of\nquasi-real photons in ultraperipheral collisions (UPC)~\\cite{Baltz:2007kq-Baur:2001jj}, relying on the notion of equivalent photon approximation. In both cases, \n the hard scale is provided by the invariant mass of the tagged jets.\n\nWe here report on our computation~\\cite{Boussarie:2014lxa} of the $\\gamma^* \\to q \\bar{q} g$ impact factor at tree level with an arbitrary number of $t$-channel gluons described within the Wilson line formalism, also called QCD shockwave approach~\\cite{Balitsky:1995ub-Balitsky:1998kc-Balitsky:1998ya-Balitsky:2001re}. As an aside, we rederive the $\\gamma^* \\to q \\bar{q}$ impact factor. In particular, the \n$\\gamma^* \\to q \\bar{q} g$ transition is computed without any soft or collinear approximation for the emitted gluon, in contrast with the above mentioned calculations. These results provide necessary generalization of building blocks for inclusive DDIS as well as for two- and three-jet diffractive production. Since the results we derived can account for an arbitrary number of $t$-channel gluons, this could allow to include higher twist effects which are suspected to be rather important in DDIS for $Q^2 \\lesssim 5$ GeV$^2$~\\cite{Motyka:2012ty}. \n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Formalism}\n\nAs stated before, we use Balitsky's shockwave formalism. \nIts application shows that this method is very powerful in determining evolution equations and impact factors at next-to-leading order for inclusive processes~\\cite{Balitsky:2010ze-Balitsky:2012bs}, at semi-inclusive level for $p_t$-broadening in $pA$ collisions~\\cite{Chirilli:2011km-Chirilli:2012jd} or in the evaluation of the triple Pomeron vertex beyond the planar limit~\\cite{Chirilli:2010mw}, when compared with usual methods based on summation of contributions of individual Feynman diagrams computed in momentum space. It is an effective way of estimating the effect of multigluon exchange. Its formulation in coordinate space makes it natural in view of describing saturation~\\cite{GolecBiernat:1998js-GolecBiernat:1999qd}.\nOne introduces Wilson lines as \n\\begin{equation}\nU_{i}=U_{\\vec{z}_{i}}=U\\left(  \\vec{z}_{i},\\eta\\right)  =P \\exp\\left[{ig\\int_{-\\infty\n}^{+\\infty}b_{\\eta}^{-}(z_{i}^{+},\\vec{z}_{i}) \\, dz_{i}^{+}}\\right]\\,.\n\\label{WL}%\n\\end{equation}\nThe operator $b_{\\eta}^{-}$ is the external shock-wave field built from slow gluons \nwhose momenta are limited by the longitudinal cut-off defined by the rapidity $\\eta$\n\\begin{equation}\nb_{\\eta}^{-}=\\int\\frac{d^{4}p}{\\left(  2\\pi\\right)  ^{4}}e^{-ip \\cdot z}b^{-}\\left(\np\\right)  \\theta(e^{\\eta}-|p^{+}|).\\label{cutoff}%\n\\end{equation}\nWe use the light cone gauge\n$\\mathcal{A}\\cdot n_{2}=0,$\nwith $\\mathcal{A}$ being the sum of the external field $b$ and the quantum field\n$A$%\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathcal{A}^{\\mu} = A^{\\mu}+b^{\\mu},\\quad b^{\\mu}\\left(  z\\right)  =b^{-}(z^{+},\\vec{z}\\,) \\,n_{2}%\n^{\\mu}=\\delta(z^{+})B\\left(  \\vec{z}\\,\\right)  n_{2}^{\\mu}\\,,\\label{b}%\n\\end{equation}\nwhere\n$B(\\vec{z})$ is a profile function.\nThe dipole operator \n$\\mathbf{U}_{12}=\\frac{1}{N_{c}}\\rm{tr}\\left(  U_{1}U_{2}^{\\dagger}\\right)  -1$\nwill be used extensively. \n\n\n\\section*{Impact factor for $\\gamma\\rightarrow q\\bar{q}$ transition}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\scalebox{.89}{\\begin{tabular}{cc}\n\\raisebox{3.75cm}{\\includegraphics[scale=0.5]{qqbar.pdf}} &\n\\includegraphics[scale=0.65]{NLO.pdf}\n\\end{tabular}}\n\\caption{Left: diagram for $\\gamma\\rightarrow q\\bar{q}$ transition. Right: the 4 diagrams for $\\gamma\\rightarrow q\\bar{q}g$ transition.}\n\\label{Fig:diagrams}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFor $q \\bar{q}$ production one can write, after projection on the color singlet state and subtraction of the non-interacting term\n\\begin{equation}\nM_{0}^{\\alpha}=N_c \\int d\\vec{z}_{1}d\\vec{z}_{2}F\\left(  p_{q},p_{\\bar{q}}%\n,z_{0},\\vec{z}_{1},\\vec{z}_{2}\\right)  ^{\\alpha} \\mathbf{U}_{12}\\,.\n\\label{M0int}%\n\\end{equation}\nDenoting $Z_{12} = \\sqrt{x_{q}x_{\\bar{q}}\\vec{z}_{12}^{\\,\\,2}}$, we get for a longitudinal photon\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\label{FL}\nF\\left(  p_{q},p_{\\bar{q}},k,\\vec{z}_{1},\\vec{z}_{2}\\right)  ^{\\alpha\n}\\varepsilon_{L\\alpha}=\\theta(p_{q}^{+})\\,\\theta(p_{\\bar{q}}^{+})\\frac\n{\\delta\\left(  k^{+}-p_{q}^{+}-p_{\\bar{q}}^{+}\\right)  }{(2\\pi)^{2}}%\ne^{-i\\vec{p}_{q}\\cdot \\vec{z}_{1}-i\\vec{p}_{_{\\bar{q}}}\\cdot\\vec{z}_{2}}\n(-2i)\\delta_{\\lambda_{q},-\\lambda_{\\bar{q}}}\\,x_{q}x_{\\bar{q}}%\n\\,Q\\,K_{0}\\left(Q \\, Z_{12}\\right)\\,,\n\\end{eqnarray}\nand for a transverse photon\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\label{FT}\nF(  p_{q},p_{\\bar{q}},k,\\vec{z}_{1},\\vec{z}_{2})  ^{j}%\n\\varepsilon_{Tj}\\!=\\theta(p_{q}^{+})\\,\\theta(p_{\\bar{q}}^{+})\\frac{\\delta(\nk^{+}\\!\\!-\\!p_{q}^{+}\\!-p_{\\bar{q}}^{+}\\!)  }{(2\\pi)^{2}}e^{-i\\vec{p}_{q}\\cdot\\vec\n{z}_{1}-i\\vec{p}_{_{\\bar{q}}}\\cdot\\vec{z}_{2}}\n\\delta_{\\lambda_{q},-\\lambda_{\\bar{q}}}( x_{q}-x_{\\bar{q}%\n}+s\\lambda_{q})  \\frac{\\vec{z}_{12} \\cdot \\vec{\\varepsilon}_{T}}{\\vec{z}_{12}^{\\,\\,2}}\nQ \\,Z_{12} K_{1}(Q\\, Z_{12})\\,.\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\n\\section*{Impact factor for $\\gamma\\rightarrow q\\bar{q}g$ transition}\n\nFor $q \\bar{q} g$ production, projecting on the color singlet state and subtracting the non-interacting term again, one can write\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\nonumber \nM^{\\alpha} &=& N_c^2 \\int d\\vec{z}_{1}d\\vec{z}_{2}d\\vec{z}_{3} \\, F_{1}\\left(  p_{q},p_{\\bar{q}}%\n,p_{g},z_{0},\\vec{z}_{1},\\vec{z}_{2},\\vec{z}_{3}\\right)  ^{\\alpha}\\frac{1}{2}\n\\left( \\mathbf{U}_{32} + \\mathbf{U}_{13} - \\mathbf{U}_{12} + \\mathbf{U}_{32}\\mathbf{U}_{13} \\right)\n\\\\\n&+& N_c \\int d\\vec{z}_{1}d\\vec{z}_{2} \\, F_{2}\\left(  p_{q},p_{\\bar{q}},p_{g},z_{0}%\n,\\vec{z}_{1},\\vec{z}_{2}\\right)  ^{\\alpha}\\frac{N_{c}^{2}-1}{2N_{c}} \\mathbf{U}_{12}\\,.\n\\label{F2tilde}%\n\\end{eqnarray}\nThe first and the second line of this equation correspond respectively to the two last diagrams of the first line and to the second line of diagrams of Fig.~\\ref{Fig:diagrams}.\nFor a longitudinally polarized photon, they read\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&&\\hspace{-1cm}F_{1}\\left(  p_{q},p_{\\bar{q}},p_{g},k,\\vec{z}_{1},\\vec{z}_{2},\\vec{z}%\n_{3}\\right)  ^{\\alpha}\\varepsilon_{L\\alpha}=2\\,Q\\,g\\,\\delta(k^{+}-p_{g}^{+}-p_{q}%\n^{+}-p_{_{\\bar{q}}}^{+})\\theta(p_{g}^{+}-\\sigma)\\frac{e^{-i\\vec{p}_{q} \\cdot %\n\\vec{z}_{1}-i\\vec{p}_{_{\\bar{q}}} \\cdot \\vec{z}_{_{2}}-i\\vec{p}_{g} \\cdot \\vec{z}_{3}}}%\n{\\pi\\sqrt{2p_{g}^{+}}}\n\\nonumber \\\\\n&\\times&\\delta_{\\lambda_{q},-\\lambda_{\\bar{q}}}\\left\\{  (x_{_{\\bar{q}}}%\n+x_{g}\\delta_{-s_{g}\\lambda_{q}})x_{q}\\frac{\\vec{z}_{32} \\cdot \\vec{\\varepsilon}%\n_{g}^{\\,\\,\\ast}}{\\vec{z}_{32}^{\\,\\,2}}-(x_{q}+x_{g}\\delta_{-s_{g}%\n\\lambda_{\\bar{q}}})x_{_{\\bar{q}}}\\frac{\\vec{z}_{31} \\cdot \\vec{\\varepsilon}%\n_{g}^{\\,\\,\\ast}}{\\vec{z}_{31}^{\\,\\,2}}\\right\\} K_{0}(QZ_{123}) \\,,\\\\\n\\label{F1eL}%\n\\label{resF2L}\n&&\\hspace{-1cm}\\tilde{F}_{2}\\left(  p_{q},p_{\\bar{q}},p_{g},k,\\vec{z}_{1},\\vec{z}_{2}\\right)\n^{\\alpha}\\varepsilon_{L\\alpha}=4ig \\, Q\\,\\theta(p_{g}^{+}-\\sigma)\\delta(k^{+}%\n-p_{g}^{+}-p_{q}^{+}-p_{_{\\bar{q}}}^{+})\\frac{e^{-i\\vec{p}_{q} \\cdot \\vec{z}%\n_{1}-i\\vec{p}_{_{\\bar{q}}} \\cdot \\vec{z}_{2}}}{\\sqrt{2p_{g}^{+}}}%\n\\nonumber \\\\\n&&\\times\\delta_{\\lambda_{q},-\\lambda_{\\bar{q}}}\\frac{x_{q}\\left(  x_{g}%\n+x_{\\bar{q}}\\right)  \\left(  \\delta_{-s_{g}\\lambda_{q}}x_{g}+x_{\\bar{q}%\n}\\right)  }{x_{\\bar{q}} \\, x_g }\\frac{\\vec{P}_{\\bar{q}} \\cdot %\n\\vec{\\varepsilon}_{g}^{\\,\\,\\ast}}{\\vec{P}_{\\bar{q}}^2}\\,e^{-i\\vec{p}_{g} \\cdot \\vec{z}_{2}}K_{0}%\n(QZ_{122})-\\left(  q\\leftrightarrow\\bar{q}\\right)  ,\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhile for a transversally polarized photon, we have \n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&&\\hspace{-.7cm}F_{1}\\left(  p_{q},p_{\\bar{q}},p_{g},k,\\vec{z}_{1},\\vec{z}_{2},\\vec{z}%\n_{3}\\right)  ^{\\alpha}\\!\\varepsilon_{T\\alpha}=\\!-2i\\,g\\,Q\\delta(k^{+}-p_{g}^{+}%\n-p_{q}^{+}-p_{_{\\bar{q}}}^{+})\\theta(p_{g}^{+}-\\sigma)\n\\frac{e^{-i\\vec{p}_{q} \\cdot \\vec{z}_{1}-i\\vec{p}_{_{\\bar{q}}} \\cdot \\vec{z}_{_{2}%\n}-i\\vec{p}_{g} \\cdot \\vec{z}_{3}}}{\\pi Z_{123}\\sqrt{2p_{g}^{+}}}\\delta_{\\lambda\n_{q},-\\lambda_{\\bar{q}}}K_{1}(QZ_{123})\\\\\n&&\\hspace{-.8cm}\\times\\left\\{  \\frac{\\left(  \\vec{z}%\n_{23} \\cdot \\vec{\\varepsilon}_{g}^{\\,\\,\\ast}\\right)  \\left(  \\vec{z}_{13} \\cdot %\n\\vec{\\varepsilon}_{T}\\right)  }{\\vec{z}_{23}{}^{2}}x_{q}\\left(  x_{q}%\n-\\delta_{s\\lambda_{\\bar{q}}}\\right)  \\left(  x_{\\bar{q}}+x_{g}\\delta\n_{-s_{g}\\lambda_{q}}\\right)  +\\frac{\\left(  \\vec{z}_{23} \\cdot \\vec{\\varepsilon}_{g}^{\\,\\,\\ast}\\right)\n\\left(  \\vec{z}_{23} \\cdot \\vec{\\varepsilon}_{T}\\right)  }{\\vec{z}_{23}{}^{2}}%\nx_{q}x_{\\bar{q}}\\left(  x_{\\bar{q}}+x_{g}\\delta_{-s_{g}\\lambda_{q}}%\n-\\delta_{s\\lambda_{q}}\\right)  \\right\\}  -\\left(  q\\leftrightarrow\\bar\n{q}\\right) \\, ,\\nonumber\\\\\n\\label{F1eT}%\n\\label{resF2tildeT}\n&&\\hspace{-.8cm}\\tilde{F}_{2}\\left(  p_{q},p_{\\bar{q}},p_{g},k,\\vec{z}_{1},\\vec{z}_{2}\\right)\n^{\\alpha}\\varepsilon_{T\\alpha}=-4g\\,\\theta(p_{g}^{+}-\\sigma)\\,\\delta(k^{+}%\n-p_{g}^{+}-p_{q}^{+}-p_{_{\\bar{q}}}^{+})\\frac{e^{-i\\vec{p}_{q} \\cdot \\vec{z}%\n_{1}-i\\vec{p}_{_{\\bar{q}}} \\cdot \\vec{z}_{2}}}{\\sqrt{2p_{g}^{+}}}\\delta_{\\lambda\n_{q},-\\lambda_{\\bar{q}}}%\n\\nonumber \\\\\n&&\\times  \n\\frac{\\left(  \\delta\n_{\\lambda_{\\bar{q}}s}-x_{q}\\right)  \\left(  \\delta_{-s_{g}\\lambda_{q}}%\nx_{g}+x_{\\bar{q}}\\right)}{x_{\\bar{q}} \\, x_g}  \n\\frac{\\vec{P}_{\\bar{q}} \\cdot %\n\\vec{\\varepsilon}_{g}^{\\,\\,\\ast}}{\\vec{P}_{\\bar{q}}^2}\n\\frac{\\vec{z}_{12} \\cdot \\vec{\\varepsilon}_{T}}{\\vec{z}_{12}^2} \n\\, Q \\, Z_{122}\nK_{1}(QZ_{122})e^{-i\\vec{p}_{g} \\cdot \\vec{z}_{2}%\n}-\\left(  q\\leftrightarrow\\bar{q}\\right)  \\,. \n\\end{eqnarray}\nWe denote \n$ F_{2}\\left(  p_{q},p_{\\bar{q}},p_{g},z_{0},\\vec{z}_{1},\\vec{z}_{2}\\right)^{\\alpha}\\!=\\!\\tilde{F}_{2}\\left(  p_{q},p_{\\bar{q}},p_{g},z_{0},\\vec{z}_{1}%\n ,\\vec{z}_{2}\\right)  ^{\\alpha}\\!+\\!\\int d\\vec{z}_{3}\\,F_{1}\\left(  p_{q},p_{\\bar{q}%\n },p_{g},z_{0},\\vec{z}_{1},\\vec{z}_{2},\\vec{z}_{3}\\right)  ^{\\alpha}\\!.$\n\n\n\\section*{2- and 3-gluon approximation}\n\n\nLet us notice that the dipole operator $\\mathbf{U}_{ij}$ is of order $g^2$. Hence for only two or three exchanged gluons one can neglect the quadrupole term in the amplitude $M^{\\alpha}$ and get \n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\label{M3gBis}\nM^{\\alpha} \\overset{\\mathrm{g^3}}{=}   \\frac{1}{2}\\int d\\vec{z}_{1}d\\vec{z}%\n_{2} \\mathbf{U}_{12}  \\left[ \\left(  N_{c}^{2}-1\\right)\n\\tilde{F}_{2}\\left(  \\vec{z}_{1},\\vec{z}%\n_{2}\\right) ^{\\alpha} + \\int d\\vec{z}_{3} \\left\\{  N_{c}^{2}F_{1}\\left(\n\\vec{z}_{1},\\vec{z}_{3},\\vec{z}_{2}\\right)^{\\alpha} +N_{c}^{2}F_{1}\\left(  \\vec{z}_{3},\\vec{z}%\n_{2},\\vec{z}_{1}\\right)  ^{\\alpha} -  F_{1}\\left(  \\vec{z}_{1},\\vec{z}_{2},\\vec{z}_{3}\\right)  ^{\\alpha} \\right\\} \\right].\n %\n\\end{eqnarray}\nFor $\\vec{p}_q=\\vec{p}_g=\\vec{p}_{\\bar{q}}=\\vec{0}$, those integrals can be performed analytically. Otherwise they can be expressed as a simple convergent integral over $[0,1]$ that can be performed numerically for any future phenomenological study. \n\n\\section*{Conclusion}\n\nThe measurement of dijet production in DDIS was recently performed~\\cite{Aaron:2011mp}, and a precise comparison of \ndijet versus triple-jet production, which has not been  performed yet at HERA~\\cite{Adloff:2000qi}, would be very useful to get a deeper understanding of the QCD mechanism underlying diffraction. Recent investigations of the azimuthal distribution of dijets in diffractive photoproduction performed by ZEUS~\\cite{Guzik:2014iba} show sign of a possible need for a 2-gluon exchange model, which is part of the shock-wave mechanism. Our calculation could be used for phenomenological studies of those experimental results.\nA similar and very complementary study could be performed at LHC with UPC events. One should note that getting a full quantitative first principle analysis of this would  require an evaluation of virtual corrections to the $\\gamma^* \\rightarrow q\\bar{q}$ impact factor, which are presently under study~\\cite{Boussarie:prep}.\n\nDiffractive open charm production was measured at HERA~\\cite{Aktas:2006up} \nand studied in the large $M$ limit based on the direct coupling between a Pomeron and a $q \\bar{q}$ or a $q\\bar{q}g$ state, with massive quarks~\\cite{Bartels:2002ri}. Such a program could also be performed at LHC, \nagain based on UPCs and on\nthe extension of the above mentioned impact factors to the case of a massive quark. This could be further extended \nto $J\/\\Psi$  production, which are copiously produced at LHC.\n\n\n\\begin{theacknowledgments}\nA. V. G.  acknowledges support of president grant MK-7551.2015.2 and\nRFBR grant 13-02-01023. This work was partially supported by the PEPS-PTI PHENODIFF,\nthe PRC0731 DIFF-QCD, the Polish Grant NCN No. DEC-2011\/01\/B\/ST2\/03915, the ANR PARTONS (ANR-12-MONU-0008-01), the COPIN-IN2P3 Agreement\nand the Joint Research Activity Study of Strongly Interacting Matter (acronym HadronPhysics3,\nGrant Agreement n.283286) under the Seventh Framework Programme of the\nEuropean Community\n\\end{theacknowledgments}\n\n\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\\label{sec:Introduction}\n\nOhta-Kawasaki (OK) model is introduced in \\cite{OhtaKawasaki_Macromolecules1986} and has been extensively applied for the study of phase separation of diblock copolymers, which\nhave generated much interest in materials science in the past years due to their remarkable ability for self-assembly into nanoscale ordered structures \\cite{Hamley_Wiley2004}. Diblock copolymers are chain molecules made by two different segment species, say $A$ and $B$ species. Due to the chemical incompatibility, the two species tend to be phase-separated; on the other hand, the two species are connected by covalent chemical bonds, which leads to the so-called microphase separation. The OK model can describe such microphase separation for diblock copolymers via a free energy functional:\n\\begin{align}\\label{functional:OK}\nE^{\\text{OK}}[\\phi] = \\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} \\dfrac{\\epsilon}{2}|\\nabla\\phi|^2 + \\dfrac{1}{\\epsilon}W(\\phi)\\ \\text{d}x + \\dfrac{\\gamma}{2}\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} |(-\\Delta)^{-\\frac{1}{2}}(f(\\phi)-\\omega)|^2\\ \\text{d}x,\n\\end{align}\nwith a volume constraint\n\\begin{align}\\label{eqn:Volume}\n\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} (f(\\phi) - \\omega)\\ \\text{d}x = 0.\n\\end{align}\nHere $\\mathbb{T}^d = \\prod_{i=1}^d [-X_i, X_i] \\subset \\mathbb{R}^d, d = 2, 3$ denotes a periodic box and $0<\\epsilon \\ll 1$ is an interface parameter that indicates the system is in deep segregation regime. $\\phi = \\phi(x)$ is a phase field labeling function which represents the concentration of $A$ species. By the assumption of incompressibility for the binary system, the concentration of $B$ species can be implicitly represented by $1-\\phi(x)$. Function $W(\\phi) = 18(\\phi^2-\\phi)^2$ is a double well potential which enforces the phase field function $\\phi$ to be equal to 1 inside the interface and 0 outside the interface. Near the interfacial region, the phase field function $\\phi$ rapidly but smoothly transitions from 0 to 1. A new term of $f(\\phi) = 3\\phi^2 - 2\\phi^3$ is introduced in the free energy functional to resemble $\\phi$ as the indicator for the $A$ species. The first integral in (\\ref{functional:OK}) is a local surface energy which represents the short-range interaction between the chain molecules and favors the large domain; while the second integral in (\\ref{functional:OK}) is a term for the long-range (nonlocal) repulsive interaction with $\\gamma >0$ being the strength of the repulsive force. Finally, $\\omega\\in(0,1)$ is the relative volume of the $A$ species.\n\nTo study the microphase separation and the pattern formation of the diblock copolymer, we consider the $L^2$ gradient flow dynamics of the OK model. On the other hand, to relax the volume constraint (\\ref{eqn:Volume}), we can incorporate a penalty term into (\\ref{functional:OK}) and change it into an unconstrained one:\n\\begin{align}\\label{functional:pOK}\nE^{\\text{pOK}}[\\phi] = \\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} \\dfrac{\\epsilon}{2}|\\nabla\\phi|^2 + \\dfrac{1}{\\epsilon}W(\\phi)\\ \\text{d}x + \\dfrac{\\gamma}{2}\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d}  |(-\\Delta)^{-\\frac{1}{2}}(f(\\phi)-\\omega)|^2\\ \\text{d}x + \\dfrac{M}{2}\\left[ \\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d}  f(\\phi)-\\omega\\ \\text{d}x \\right]^2,\n\\end{align}\nwhere $M\\gg1$ is a penalty constant. Then we can consider the corresponding penalized $L^2$ gradient flow dynamics with given initial $\\phi(x,t=0) = \\phi_0$, which thereafter is called penalized Allen-Cahn-Ohta-Kawasaki (pACOK) equation:\n\\begin{align}\\label{eqn:pACOK}\n\\dfrac{\\partial}{\\partial t} \\phi = \\epsilon\\Delta\\phi - \\dfrac{1}{\\epsilon}W'(\\phi) - \\gamma(-\\Delta)^{-1}(f(\\phi)-\\omega)f'(\\phi) - M\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} (f(\\phi)-\\omega)\\ \\text{d}x\\cdot f'(\\phi).\n\\end{align}\n\nOur main contribution in this paper is threefold. Firstly, the new form of $f(\\phi)$ guarantees that the pACOK equation is maximum principle preserving (MPP), namely, if the initial data is bounded $0\\le\\phi_0\\le1$, then $0\\le\\phi(x)\\le1$ for any later time. Secondly, we adopt a linear splitting method to the pACOK equation and then apply a semi-implicit scheme for the numerical simulations. This scheme treats the linear terms implicitly but all the nonlinear and nonlocal terms explicitly, and with proper choice for the splitting constant, it inherits the MPP property at both time-discrete and fully-discrete levels. Besides, just as the energy dissipation law (energy stability) is obeyed by the continuous $L^2$ gradient flow (\\ref{eqn:pACOK}), the proposed numerical scheme also successfully inherits the energy stability at both time-discrete and fully-discrete levels. Thirdly, the error estimate analysis is carried and the rate of convergence is verified by numerical simulations.\n\nThe inclusion of a new nonlinear term $f(\\phi)$ in the OK model makes the key novelty in this paper. On one hand, this term $f(\\phi)$ accounts for mimicking the behavior of $\\phi$ as the indicator for the $A$-rich region, so it satisfies the condition:\n\\begin{align}\\label{eqn:f_condition}\nf(0) = 0, \\quad f(1) = 1.\n\\end{align}\nOn the other hand, in order to pin the phase field label $\\phi$ at 1 and 0 inside and outside the $A$-$B$ interface, respectively, we set an extra condition\n\\begin{align}\\label{eqn:f'_condition}\nf'(0) = 0, \\quad f'(1) = 0.\n\\end{align}\nso that the evolution of the pACOK dynamics (\\ref{eqn:pACOK}) only updates the phase field $\\phi$ near the interface but not in the away-from-interface region. This will help maintain $\\phi$ as a desired tanh profile better than simply taking $f(\\phi) = \\phi$.  See \\cite{Zhao_2018CMS, WangRenZhao_CMS2019, XuZhao_JSC2019} for the numerical comparisons between linear and nonlinear choices of $f(\\phi)$. The polynomial of the smallest degree satisfying both conditions (\\ref{eqn:f_condition}) and (\\ref{eqn:f'_condition}) is\n\\begin{align}\\label{eqn:f}\nf(\\phi) = 3\\phi^2 - 2\\phi^3.\n\\end{align}\nIn some scenario, a polynomial of higher degree might be required. For instance, in the study of energy stable numerical scheme based on operator splitting, one needs to perform a linear extension for the nonlinearity $f$ up to second order continuous derivative, then the minimal degree has to be fifth \\cite{XuZhao_JSC2019}. The real magic that $f(\\phi)$ in (\\ref{eqn:f}) plays is that it preserves the maximum principle. The key observation is that $f'$ and $W'$ share a common factor $\\phi - \\phi^2$, such that any possible growth on $\\phi$ (which potentially breaks the MPP) can be safely killed by the double well potential term to save the MPP. See the proof of Theorem \\ref{theorem:MPP_continuous} for details.\n\n\n\nThe MPP is an important property held by the Allen-Cahn equation. It says that if the initial data is bounded between 0 and 1, then the solution remains between 0 and 1 for any later time. In recent years, efforts have been devoted to investigate the MPP numerical schemes for the Allen-Cahn equation. Tang and Yang studied a first order implicit-explicit scheme for the MPP property for the Allen-Cahn equation in \\cite{TangYang_JCM2016}. They further extended the results to the generalized Allen-Cahn equation in \\cite{ShenTangYang_CMS2016}. Later, some attempts have been made to study second order MPP schemes for fractional-in-space Allen-Cahn equation \\cite{HouTangYang_JSC2017} and nonlocal Allen-Cahn equation \\cite{DuJuLiQiao_SINA2019}. Recently some adaptive second order MPP schemes have been considered for the Allen-Cahn equation \\cite{LiaoTangZhou_SINA2019} and time-fractional Allen-Cahn equation \\cite{LiaoTangZhou_JCP2019}.\n\nIn this paper, as a first attempt, we will explore the MPP scheme for an Allen-Cahn type dynamics with a long-range interaction term. The new ingredient in the MPP scheme is inspired by the continuous MPP property, namely, the nonlinear function $f(\\cdot)$ which satisfies the condition (\\ref{eqn:f'_condition}). However two things are different between the continuous  and the discrete settings.  One is that $f(\\cdot)$ has to be linearly extended to 0 and 1 in the continuous case but not in the discrete case. See the equation (\\ref{eqn:f_extension}) and the related discussion. The other is that in the continuous case, $f(\\cdot)$ has to be of the smallest degree to satisfy (\\ref{eqn:f'_condition}) in order to be well controlled by the double well potential $W$, while in the discrete case, any polynomial $f(\\cdot)$ satisfying (\\ref{eqn:f'_condition}) (and (\\ref{eqn:f_condition})) would do the trick. Allowing weaker conditions for the discrete schemes is due to the fact  that the MPP of $\\phi(t)$ in the continuous pACOK dynamics depends on the entire history before $t$; while the discrete MPP of $\\phi^{n}$ only depends on the $k$ previous states $\\{\\phi^{j}\\}_{j=n-k}^{n-1}$ (in this paper, we focus on the the case of $k=1$). See the proofs of Theorem \\ref{theorem:MPP_continuous}, Theorem \\ref{theorem:MPP_semi} and Theorem \\ref{theorem:MPP_fully} for details. This indeed provides much flexibility on choosing $f(\\cdot)$ to exploit various discrete MPP schemes for Allen-Cahn type dynamics with long-range interactions.\n\nFor the discrete MPP schemes, the Lemma \\ref{lemma:MPP_condition} (for the time-discrete case) and Lemma \\ref{lemma:MPP_condition2} (for the fully-discrete case) play the key role which will be crucial for the analysis of not only the first order MPP scheme in this paper but also potentially for other higher order ones. Plus, these two lemmas suggest that the nonlocal terms might have to be treated explicitly in order to satisfy the discrete MPP.\n\n\nOur work is by no mean an additional extension of the existing work on MPP by changing from one model to another. This work has potential wider impact on many other applications. Indeed, we further extend this model to binary systems with various long-range interactions. See Section \\ref{section:GeneralFramework} for the detailed discussion on the extension. Our work could provide a general framework to explore the MPP numerical schemes for other applications such as the micromagnetic model for garnet films \\cite{CondetteMelcherSuli_MathComp2010} , FitzHugh-Nagumo system\\cite{RenTruskinovsky_Elasticity2000} , implicit solvation model\\cite{Zhao_2018CMS} etc.\n\n\nSince discrete energy stability is a byproduct when exploring the MPP schemes, we briefly review some of the existing work for the energy stable numerical methods. The energy stable schemes, first studied by Du and Nicolaides in \\cite{DuNicolaides_SINA1991} for a second order accurate unconditionally stable time-stepping scheme for the Cahn-Hilliard equation, has been extensively studied for various $L^2$ and $H^{-1}$ gradient flow dynamics such as the standard Allen-Cahn and Cahn-Hilliard equations \\cite{ShenYang_DCDSA2010}, phase field crystal model \\cite{WiseWangLowengrub_SINA2009, HuWiseWangLowengrub_JCP2009}, modified phase field crystal model \\cite{WangWise_SINA2011}, and epitaxial thin film growth model \\cite{ChenCondeWangWangWise_JSC2012} etc. Several popular numerical schemes adopted by the community are listed below. One is the convex splitting method \\cite{Eyre_Proc1998} in which the double well potential $W(\\phi)$ is split into the sum of a convex function and a concave one, and the convex part is treated implicitly and the concave one is treated explicitly. However, a nonlinear system usually needs to be solved at each time step which induces high computational cost. Another widely adopted method is the stabilized semi-implicit method \\cite{XuTang_SINA2006,ShenYang_DCDSA2010} in which $W(\\phi)$ is treated explicitly. A linear stabilizing term is added to maintain the energy stability.  Another recent method is the IEQ method \\cite{ChengYangShen_JCP2017, Yang_JCP2016} in which all nonlinear terms are treated semi-implicitly, the energy stability is preserved and the resulting numerical schemes lead to a symmetric positive definite linear system to be solved at each time step. A variation of the IEQ method, which is called SAV method, is well studied in the last couple of years \\cite{ShenXuYang_SIAMReview2019}. For a more comprehensive review on the topics of the modeling and numerical methods of phase field approach, we refer the interested readers to \\cite{DuFeng_Handbook2020}.\n\nSome conventional notations adopted throughout the paper are collected here. We will denote by $\\|\\cdot\\|_{L^p}$ and $\\|\\cdot\\|_{H^s}$ the standard norms for the periodic Sobolev spaces $L^p_{\\text{per}}(\\mathbb{T}^d)$ and $H^s_{\\text{per}}(\\mathbb{T}^d)$. The standard $L^2$ inner product will be denoted by $\\langle \\cdot, \\cdot \\rangle$. In order to make the MPP satisfied by the pACOK equation (\\ref{eqn:pACOK}), the nonlinear function $f$ needs to be extended to $\\tilde{f}$ as follows:\n\\begin{align}\\label{eqn:f_extension}\n\\tilde{f} =\n\\begin{cases}\n0, \\hspace{0.64in} s < 0; \\\\\n3s^2 - 2s^3, \\quad 0 \\le s \\le 1; \\\\\n1, \\hspace{0.64in} s > 1.\n\\end{cases}\n\\end{align}\nWe still use $f$ to denote such an extension for the brevity of notations. Indeed, the extension of $f$ is only used for the proof of the MPP property for the continuous pACOK equation (\\ref{eqn:pACOK}). For the time-discrete and fully-discrete pACOK equations, the unextended $f(s) = 3s^2 - 2s^3$ suffices to guarantee the MPP and energy stability, see the proofs of Theorem \\ref{theorem:MPP_continuous}, Theorem \\ref{theorem:MPP_semi} and Theorem \\ref{theorem:MPP_fully} for the details. We take\n\\[\nL_{W''}: = \\|W''\\|_{L^{\\infty}[0,1]}, \\quad L_{f''}: = \\|f''\\|_{L^{\\infty}[0,1]}, \\quad L_{f'} = \\|f'\\|_{L^{\\infty}[0,1]}.\n\\]\nNext, $\\|(-\\Delta)^{-1}\\|$ denotes the optimal constant such that $\\|(-\\Delta)^{-1}f\\|_{L^{\\infty}}\\le C \\|f\\|_{L^{\\infty}}$, namely, it is the norm of the operator $(-\\Delta)^{-1}$ from $L^{\\infty}(\\mathbb{T}^d)$ to itself. We will take $[\\![ n]\\!]$ to be the set of integers $\\{1,2,\\cdots, n\\}$. Lastly, we denote $\\tilde{\\omega} = \\max\\{\\omega, 1-\\omega\\}$.\n\nThe rest of the paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, we will prove the MPP property for the continuous pACOK dynamics. In Section 3, a first order time-discrete numerical scheme will be studied which inherits the MPP and energy stability. In Section 4, we will conduct analysis of MPP and energy stability for the fully-discrete scheme. The error estimate will be carried as well. The extension of the MPP to  general binary systems with long-range interactions is discussed in Section 5.  We will present some numerical results to support our theoretical findings in Section 6, followed by a summary in Section 7. In the appendix, we present the wellposedness of the pACOK equation and the $L^{\\infty}$ bound for the weak solution of the pACOK equation.\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{MPP for the continuous pACOK dynamics}\n\nIn this section, we will prove that the continuous pACOK equation (\\ref{eqn:pACOK}) satisfies the MPP, and one can see the critical role that $f(\\phi)$ plays in the theory. Note that in this section, $f(\\cdot)$ represents the extended version (\\ref{eqn:f_extension}).\n\n\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{theorem:MPP_continuous}\nThe pACOK equation (\\ref{eqn:pACOK}) is MPP, namely, if $0\\le \\phi_0 \\le 1$, then $0\\le \\phi(t) \\le 1$ for any $t>0$, provided that $\\phi_0\\in H^1(\\mathbb{T}^d)$ and\n\\begin{align}\\label{eqn_MPPcondition_continuous}\n\\frac{\\epsilon\\tilde{\\omega}}{6}\\Big[ \\gamma\\|(-\\Delta)^{-1}\\| + M |\\mathbb{T}^d|  \\Big] \\le 1.\n\\end{align}\n\\end{theorem}\n\\begin{proof}\nMultiplying on the two sides of (\\ref{eqn:pACOK}) by $2\\phi-1$, one has\n\\begin{align*}\n\\dfrac{\\partial}{\\partial t} (\\phi^2-\\phi) =&\\ \\epsilon \\Delta(\\phi^2-\\phi) - 2\\epsilon|\\nabla\\phi|^2 - \\dfrac{36}{\\epsilon}(\\phi^2-\\phi)(2\\phi-1)^2 \\\\\n&- \\gamma(-\\Delta)^{-1}(f(\\phi)-\\omega)\\cdot 6(\\phi-\\phi^2)(2\\phi-1) - M\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} (f(\\phi)-\\omega)\\ \\text{d}x\\cdot 6(\\phi-\\phi^2)(2\\phi-1)\n\\end{align*}\nMultiplying on the two sides of the above equation by $(\\phi^2-\\phi)^+$ and taking integral over $\\mathbb{T}^d$, one has\n\\begin{align*}\n&\\dfrac{1}{2}\\dfrac{\\partial}{\\partial t} \\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} |(\\phi^2-\\phi)^+|^2\\ \\text{d}x \\\\\n=&\\ -\\epsilon \\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} |\\nabla(\\phi^2-\\phi)^+|^2\\ \\text{d}x - 2\\epsilon \\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} |\\nabla\\phi|^2 (\\phi^2-\\phi)^+\\ \\text{d}x  - \\dfrac{36}{\\epsilon}\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d}|(\\phi^2-\\phi)^+|^2 (2\\phi-1)^2\\ \\text{d}x \\\\\n& + 6\\gamma \\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} (-\\Delta)^{-1}(f(\\phi)-\\omega) |(\\phi^2-\\phi)^+|^2(2\\phi-1)\\ \\text{d}x  + 6M\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} (f(\\phi)-\\omega)\\ \\text{d}x \\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} |(\\phi^2-\\phi)^+|^2(2\\phi-1)\\ \\text{d}x \\\\\n=&\\ -\\epsilon \\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} |\\nabla(\\phi^2-\\phi)^+|^2\\ \\text{d}x - 2\\epsilon \\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} |\\nabla\\phi|^2 (\\phi^2-\\phi)^+\\ \\text{d}x  - \\dfrac{36}{\\epsilon}\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d}|(\\phi^2-\\phi)^+|^2 \\Big( (2\\phi-1)^2 - (A+B)(2\\phi-1) \\Big)\\ \\text{d}x\n\\end{align*}\nwhere\n\\[\nA = \\dfrac{\\gamma\\epsilon}{6}(-\\Delta)^{-1}(f(\\phi)-\\omega), \\quad B = \\dfrac{M\\epsilon}{6}\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d}(f(\\phi)-\\omega)\\ \\text{d}x.\n\\]\nWhen $\\phi^2-\\phi\\ge0$, one has $|2\\phi-1| \\ge 1$. Note that the condition (\\ref{eqn_MPPcondition_continuous}) implies $\\|A\\|_{L^{\\infty}} + |B|\\le 1$, therefore $(2\\phi-1)^2 - (A+B)(2\\phi-1)\\ge0$, which implies that\n\\[\n\\dfrac{1}{2}\\dfrac{\\partial}{\\partial t} \\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} |(\\phi^2-\\phi)^+|^2\\ \\text{d}x \\le 0.\n\\]\nTaking integral for time from 0 to $t$ leads\n\\[\n\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} |(\\phi^2-\\phi)^+|^2(t)\\ \\text{d}x \\le \\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} |(\\phi^2-\\phi)^+|^2(0)\\ \\text{d}x.\n\\]\nIf $0\\le \\phi(0) \\le 1$, $\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} |(\\phi^2-\\phi)^+|^2(0)\\ \\text{d}x=0$, then\n\\[\n\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} |(\\phi^2-\\phi)^+|^2(t)\\ \\text{d}x \\le 0 \\Rightarrow 0\\le \\phi(t) \\le 1,\n\\]\nwhich completes the proof.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\n\\begin{remark}\nThe wellposedness of the pACOK equation (\\ref{eqn:pACOK}) can be well established by using the standard minimization movement scheme, see Theorem \\ref{theorem:wellposedness} in the Appendix for the related discussion.\n\\end{remark}\n\n\n\\begin{remark}\nFor the condition (\\ref{eqn_MPPcondition_continuous}), it is theoretically easy to achieve due to the smallness of the interfacial width $\\epsilon$, though the long-range repulsion strength $\\gamma$ and the penalty constant $M$ are supposed to be large.\n\\end{remark}\n\n\\begin{remark}\nThe extension of $f$ is critical in order to bound the $A$ term as\n\\[\n\\|A\\|_{L^{\\infty}} \\le \\frac{\\gamma\\epsilon}{6} \\|(-\\Delta)^{-1}\\|\\cdot \\|f(\\phi)-\\omega\\|_{L^{\\infty}} \\le \\frac{\\gamma\\epsilon}{6} \\|(-\\Delta)^{-1}\\|\\cdot \\tilde{\\omega}.\n\\]\nOn the other hand, in the 2d case, one can still have the MPP held for non-extended $f(\\phi)$ by showing that $\\|f(\\phi)\\|_{L^{\\infty}} \\le C$ for some generic constant $C$ which depends on $\\|\\phi_0\\|_{H^1(\\mathbb{T}^2)}, \\epsilon^{-1}, \\omega, \\gamma$ and $M$. See the Theorem \\ref{theorem: Linfity} in the Appendix for the $L^{\\infty}$ bound for the 2d weak solution $\\phi$. Then $A$ is still bounded as\n\\[\n\\|A\\|_{L^{\\infty}} \\le \\frac{C\\gamma\\epsilon}{6} \\|(-\\Delta)^{-1}\\|\\tilde{\\omega}.\n\\]\nHowever, to bound the quantity $\\|A\\|_{L^{\\infty}}+|B|$ by 1, one has to take sufficiently small value of $\\gamma$, which is theoretically acceptable but unrealistic in applications.\n\\end{remark}\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Time-discrete Scheme: MPP and Energy Stability}\n\n\n\n\n\nNow we will consider a semi-discrete scheme for the pACOK equation (\\ref{eqn:pACOK}), and show that such a scheme satisfies the MPP and energy stability under some conditions. Given time interval $[0,T]$ and an integer $N>0$, we take the uniform time step size $\\tau = T\/N$ and $t_n = n\\tau$ for $n=0,1,\\cdots,N$. Let $\\phi^n(x) \\approx \\phi(t_n,x)$ be the temporal semi-discrete approximation of the solution $\\phi$ at $t_n$. Given initial data $\\phi^0 = \\phi_0$ and a splitting constant (or stabilizer) $\\kappa > 0$, we consider the following stabilized time-discrete scheme:\n\\begin{align}\\label{eqn:pACOK_SemiImplicit}\n\\left(\\dfrac{1}{\\tau}+\\dfrac{\\kappa}{\\epsilon}\\right)(\\phi^{n+1}-\\phi^n)  = &\\ \\epsilon\\Delta\\phi^{n+1} - \\dfrac{1}{\\epsilon}W'(\\phi^n) \\nonumber\\\\\n& - \\gamma(-\\Delta)^{-1}(f(\\phi^n)-\\omega)f'(\\phi^n) - M\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} (f(\\phi^n)-\\omega)\\text{d}x\\cdot f'(\\phi^n),\n\\end{align}\nwhich can be rewritten as\n\\begin{align}\\label{eqn:pACOK_SemiImplicit2}\n\\left(\\left(1+\\dfrac{\\tau\\kappa}{\\epsilon}\\right)I - \\tau\\epsilon\\Delta \\right)\\phi^{n+1} = &\\left(1+\\dfrac{\\tau\\kappa}{\\epsilon}\\right)\\phi^n - \\dfrac{\\tau}{\\epsilon}W'(\\phi^n) \\nonumber\\\\\n&- \\tau\\gamma(-\\Delta)^{-1}(f(\\phi^n)-\\omega)f'(\\phi^n) - \\tau M\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} (f(\\phi^n)-\\omega)\\text{d}x\\cdot f'(\\phi^n).\n\\end{align}\nA simple calculation reveals that the eigenvalues of the operator $(1+\\tau\\kappa\\epsilon^{-1})I - \\tau\\epsilon\\Delta$ on the left hand side of (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_SemiImplicit2}) are all positive. Therefore the scheme is unconditionally uniquely solvable.\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{MPP for time-discrete scheme}\n\n\n\n\nIn this section, we will show that the scheme (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_SemiImplicit2}) is MPP. To this end, we begin with a lemma.\n\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{lemma:MPP_condition}\nLet\n\\[\n\\mathcal{F}(\\psi) = \\left(1+\\dfrac{\\tau\\kappa}{\\epsilon}\\right)\\psi - \\dfrac{\\tau}{\\epsilon}W'(\\psi) - \\tau\\gamma(-\\Delta)^{-1}(f(\\psi)-\\omega)f'(\\psi) - \\tau M\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} (f(\\psi)-\\omega)\\emph{d}x f'(\\psi).\n\\]\nIf $\\psi(x)\\in [0,1]$, then we have\n\\[\n\\max_{\\psi\\in[0,1]} \\mathcal{F}(\\psi) = 1+\\dfrac{\\tau\\kappa}{\\epsilon} ; \\quad \\min_{\\psi\\in[0,1]} \\mathcal{F}(\\psi) = 0,\n\\]\nprovided that\n\\begin{align}\\label{eqn:MPP_condition}\n\\frac{1}{\\tau}+ \\dfrac{\\kappa}{\\epsilon} \\ge \\dfrac{L_{W''}}{\\epsilon}  + \\tilde{\\omega}L_{f''} \\Big(\\gamma\\|(-\\Delta)^{-1}\\|+M|\\mathbb{T}^d| \\Big).\n\\end{align}\n\\end{lemma}\n\\begin{proof}\nNote that $f(\\cdot)$ satisfies $f'(0) = f'(1) = 0$, it follows that for $\\psi\\equiv 0$, $\\mathcal{F}(\\psi) = 0$; for $\\psi\\equiv 1$, $\\mathcal{F}(\\psi) = 1+\\tau\\kappa\/\\epsilon$. For any other $\\psi$ such that $0\\le \\psi \\le 1$ and any $x\\in\\mathbb{T}^d$, one has\n\\begin{align*}\n\\mathcal{F}(\\psi(x)) & =  \\mathcal{F}(0) + \\left(1+\\dfrac{\\tau\\kappa}{\\epsilon}\\right)\\psi(x) - \\frac{\\tau}{\\epsilon}\\psi(x)W''(\\xi_0)  \\\\\n& \\quad - \\tau\\gamma \\Big( (-\\Delta)^{-1}(f(\\psi)-\\omega) \\Big)(x) \\cdot \\psi(x) f''(\\eta_0) - \\tau M \\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} (f(\\psi)-\\omega ) \\text{d}x \\cdot \\psi(x) f''(\\eta_0) \\\\\n& \\ge \\mathcal{F}(0) +  \\left(1+\\dfrac{\\tau\\kappa}{\\epsilon}\\right)\\psi(x) - \\dfrac{\\tau}{\\epsilon}\\psi L_{W''} - \\tau\\gamma\\psi\\|(-\\Delta)^{-1}\\|\\tilde{\\omega}L_{f''} - \\tau M \\psi |\\mathbb{T}^d| \\tilde{\\omega} L_{f''} \\ge  \\mathcal{F}(0),\n\\end{align*}\nwhere $\\xi_0, \\eta_0 \\in (0,\\psi(x)) \\subset (0,1)$ are constants obtained from Taylor expansion. On the other hand,\n\\begin{align*}\n\\mathcal{F}(1-\\psi(x)) & =  \\mathcal{F}(1) - \\left(1+\\dfrac{\\tau\\kappa}{\\epsilon}\\right)\\psi(x) + \\frac{\\tau}{\\epsilon}\\psi(x)W''(\\xi_1) \\\\\n&\\quad + \\tau\\gamma \\Big( (-\\Delta)^{-1}(f(1-\\psi)-\\omega)\\Big)(x)\\cdot\\psi(x) f''(\\eta_1) + \\tau M \\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d}(f(1-\\psi)-\\omega)\\text{d}x\\cdot \\psi(x) f''(\\eta_1) \\\\\n& \\le \\mathcal{F}(1)  -\\left(1+\\dfrac{\\tau\\kappa}{\\epsilon}\\right)\\psi(x) + \\dfrac{\\tau}{\\epsilon}\\psi(x) L_{W''} + \\tau\\gamma\\psi(x)\\|(-\\Delta)^{-1}\\| \\tilde{\\omega}L_{f''} - \\tau M \\psi |\\mathbb{T}^d| \\tilde{\\omega}L_{f''} \\le \\mathcal{F}(1),\n\\end{align*}\nwhere $\\xi_1, \\eta_1 \\in (1-\\psi(x), 1) \\subset (0,1)$ are constants by Taylor expansion. Consequently we have the desired bounds for $\\mathcal{F}(\\psi)$.\n\\end{proof}\n\nNow we present the MPP property for the scheme (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_SemiImplicit}) or (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_SemiImplicit2}).\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{theorem:MPP_semi}\nThe stabilized time-discrete semi-implicit scheme (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_SemiImplicit}) or (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_SemiImplicit2}) is MPP, namely\n\\[\n0\\le \\phi^0 \\le 1 \\Rightarrow 0\\le \\phi^n \\le 1, \\quad \\forall n \\in [\\![ N]\\!].\n\\]\nprovided that the condition (\\ref{eqn:MPP_condition}) holds.\n\\end{theorem}\n\\begin{proof}\nWe can prove the result by induction. Assume that $0\\le \\phi^n \\le 1$, and $\\phi^{n+1}$ is obtained by the scheme (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_SemiImplicit2}). Assume $\\phi^{n+1}$ reaches the maximal value at $x^*$, then $-\\tau\\epsilon\\Delta\\phi^{n+1}(x^*)\\ge0$, and\n\\[\n\\left(1+\\dfrac{\\tau\\kappa}{\\epsilon}\\right) \\phi^{n+1}(x^*) \\le \\mathcal{F}(\\phi^n(x^*)) \\le 1+\\dfrac{\\tau\\kappa}{\\epsilon} \\Rightarrow \\phi^{n+1} \\le 1.\n\\]\nSimilarly let $x_*$ be a minimal point for $\\phi^{n+1}$, then  $-\\tau\\epsilon\\Delta\\phi^{n+1}\\le0$, and\n\\[\n\\left(1+\\dfrac{\\tau\\kappa}{\\epsilon}\\right) \\phi^{n+1}(x_*) \\ge \\mathcal{F}(\\phi^n(x_*)) \\ge 0\\Rightarrow \\phi^{n+1} \\ge 0.\n\\]\nwhich completes the proof.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\begin{remark}\nNote that the condition (\\ref{eqn:MPP_condition}) holds for sufficiently large stabilizer $\\kappa$ no matter what value of $\\tau>0$. Therefore the stabilized semi-implicit scheme (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_SemiImplicit}) or (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_SemiImplicit2}) is unconditionally MPP for sufficiently large $\\kappa$.\n\\end{remark}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Energy stability for time-discrete scheme}\n\nWhile the stabilized semi-discrete scheme (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_SemiImplicit2}) is MPP, it is also energy stable as shown in the following theorem.\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{theorem:EnergyStability}\nAssume the initial $\\phi^0$ satisfies $0\\le \\phi^0\\le 1$, then the stabilized semi-implicit scheme (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_SemiImplicit}) or (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_SemiImplicit2}) is unconditionally energy stable in the sense that\n\\begin{align}\nE^{\\emph{pOK}}[\\phi^{n+1}] \\le E^{\\emph{pOK}}[\\phi^{n}]\n\\end{align}\n provided that\n\\begin{align}\\label{eqn:ES_condition}\n\\frac{\\kappa}{\\epsilon} \\ge \\frac{L_{W''}}{\\epsilon} + (L_{f'}^2+\\tilde{\\omega}L_{f''})\\Big(\\gamma\\|(-\\Delta)^{-1}\\| + M |\\mathbb{T}^d|\\Big).\n\\end{align}\n\\end{theorem}\n\\begin{proof}\nTaking the $L^2$ inner product with $\\phi^{n+1}-\\phi^{n}$ on the two sides of (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_SemiImplicit}) , we have\n\\begin{align}\\label{eqn:estimate1}\n&\\dfrac{1}{\\tau} \\|\\phi^{n+1} - \\phi^{n}\\|_{L^2}^2 \\nonumber\\\\\n= &\\  - \\dfrac{\\kappa}{\\epsilon}\\|\\phi^{n+1} - \\phi^{n}\\|_{L^2}^2   \\underbrace{-\\epsilon \\langle \\nabla\\phi^{n+1}, \\nabla\\phi^{n+1} - \\nabla\\phi^{n} \\rangle }_{\\text{I}} \\underbrace{ - \\epsilon^{-1} \\langle W'(\\phi^{n}), \\phi^{n+1} - \\phi^{n}\\rangle }_{\\text{II}} \\nonumber\\\\\n& \\underbrace{ -\\gamma \\left\\langle (-\\Delta)^{-1}(f(\\phi^n)-\\omega)f'(\\phi^n), \\phi^{n+1}-\\phi^{n} \\right\\rangle }_{\\text{III}}  \\underbrace{ -M \\textstyle{\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d}} (f(\\phi^n)-\\omega)\\text{d}x \\left\\langle f'(\\phi^n), \\phi^{n+1}-\\phi^{n} \\right\\rangle }_{\\text{IV}}.\n\\end{align}\nUsing the identity $a\\cdot (a-b) = \\frac{1}{2}|a|^2 - \\frac{1}{2}|b|^2 + \\frac{1}{2}|a-b|^2$ and $b\\cdot (a-b) = \\frac{1}{2}|a|^2 - \\frac{1}{2}|b|^2 - \\frac{1}{2}|a-b|^2$, we have:\n\\begin{align*}\n\\text{I} =&\\ - \\frac{\\epsilon}{2} \\left( \\|\\nabla\\phi^{n+1}\\|_{L^2}^2 - \\|\\nabla\\phi^{n}\\|_{L^2}^2 + \\|\\nabla\\phi^{n+1}-\\nabla\\phi^n\\|_{L^2}^2 \\right); \\\\\n\\text{II} =& - \\epsilon^{-1}\\left\\langle 1, W'(\\phi^n)(\\phi^{n+1}-\\phi^n) \\right\\rangle = -\\epsilon^{-1}\\left\\langle 1, W(\\phi^{n+1}) \\right\\rangle + \\epsilon^{-1} \\left\\langle 1, W(\\phi^{n}) \\right\\rangle + (2\\epsilon)^{-1} W''(\\xi^n) \\|\\phi^{n+1}-\\phi^n\\|_{L^2}^2 ; \\\\\n \\text{III} =&\\ -\\gamma \\Big\\langle (-\\Delta)^{-1}(f(\\phi^{n})-\\omega), f(\\phi^{n+1}) - f(\\phi^{n}) \\Big\\rangle + \\dfrac{\\gamma}{2} \\Big\\langle (-\\Delta)^{-1}(f(\\phi^{n})-\\omega), f''(\\eta^n)(\\phi^{n+1} - \\phi^{n})^2 \\Big\\rangle \\\\\n \\quad=&\\ -\\dfrac{\\gamma}{2} \\left( \\|(-\\Delta)^{-\\frac{1}{2}}(f(\\phi^{n+1})-\\omega)\\|_{L^{2}}^2 - \\|(-\\Delta)^{-\\frac{1}{2}}(f(\\phi^{n})-\\omega)\\|_{L^{2}}^2 - \\|(-\\Delta)^{-\\frac{1}{2}}(f(\\phi^{n+1})-f(\\phi^n))\\|_{L^{2}}^2 \\right) \\\\\n& \\ + \\dfrac{\\gamma}{2} \\Big\\langle (-\\Delta)^{-1}(f(\\phi^{n})-\\omega), f''(\\eta^n)(\\phi^{n+1} - \\phi^{n})^2\\Big\\rangle ;\\\\\n \\text{IV} = & -\\dfrac{M}{2}\\left( \\left| \\textstyle{\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d}} ( f(\\phi^{n+1}) - \\omega ) \\text{d}x \\right|^2 -\n                                                 \\left| \\textstyle{\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d}} ( f(\\phi^{n})     - \\omega ) \\text{d}x \\right|^2 -\n                                                 \\left| \\textstyle{\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d}} ( f(\\phi^{n+1}) - f(\\phi^n)  \\text{d}x \\right|^2\n                                                  \\right)& \\\\\n& + \\dfrac{M}{2} \\left( \\textstyle{\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d}} ( f(\\phi^{n})     - \\omega ) \\text{d}x\\right) f''(\\eta^n) \\|\\phi^{n+1}-\\phi^n\\|_{L^2}^2      .\n\\end{align*}\nwhere $\\xi^n$ and $\\eta^n$ are between $\\phi^n$ and $\\phi^{n+1}$. Note that the condition (\\ref{eqn:ES_condition}) implies  (\\ref{eqn:MPP_condition}), Theorem \\ref{theorem:MPP_semi} gives $\\phi^n,\\phi^{n+1} \\in [0,1]$, consequently $\\xi^n, \\eta^n \\in (0,1)$. Therefore, we do not need the extension of $f$ as in (\\ref{eqn:f_extension}) to perform Taylor expansion above. Finally, inserting the equalities for I--IV back into (\\ref{eqn:estimate1}) and noting that $|f'|<L_{f'}, |f''|\\le L_{f''}$ and $\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d}| f(\\phi)-\\omega | dx \\le  \\tilde{\\omega} |\\mathbb{T}^d|$, it follows that\n\\begin{align*}\n&\\dfrac{1}{\\tau}\\|\\phi^{n+1}-\\phi^n\\|_{L^2}^2 + \\frac{\\epsilon}{2}\\|\\nabla\\phi^{n+1}-\\nabla\\phi^n\\|_{L^2}^2 + E^{\\text{pOK}}[\\phi^{n+1}] - E^{\\text{pOK}}[\\phi^n] \\\\\n=& -\\frac{\\kappa}{\\epsilon}\\|\\phi^{n+1}-\\phi^n\\|_{L^2}^2 + \\dfrac{W''(\\eta^n)}{2\\epsilon}\\|\\phi^{n+1}-\\phi^n\\|_{L^2}^2  \\\\\n& + \\dfrac{\\gamma}{2}\\|(-\\Delta)^{-\\frac{1}{2}}(f(\\phi^{n+1})-f(\\phi^n))\\|_{L^{2}}^2 + \\dfrac{\\gamma}{2} \\left\\langle (-\\Delta)^{-1}(f(\\phi^{n})-\\omega), f''(\\eta^n)(\\phi^{n+1} - \\phi^{n})^2\\right\\rangle \\\\\n& + \\dfrac{M}{2}\\left| \\textstyle{\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d}} (f(\\phi^{n+1}) - f(\\phi^n))\\text{d}x\\right|^2 +  \\dfrac{M}{2} \\left( \\textstyle{\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d}} ( f(\\phi^n) -\\omega )\\text{d}x\\right) f''(\\eta^n) \\|\\phi^{n+1}-\\phi^n\\|_{L^2}^2 \\\\\n\\le& -\\frac{\\kappa}{\\epsilon}\\|\\phi^{n+1}-\\phi^n\\|_{L^2}^2\n       + \\frac{L_{W}}{2\\epsilon}\\|\\phi^{n+1}-\\phi^n\\|_{L^2}^2  \\\\\n& + \\frac{\\gamma}{2}L_{f'}^2 \\|(-\\Delta)^{-1}\\| \\|(\\phi^{n+1}-\\phi^n)\\|_{L^2}^2\n   + \\frac{\\gamma}{2} \\tilde{\\omega}L_{f''}\\|(-\\Delta)^{-1}\\|  \\|\\phi^{n+1}-\\phi^n\\|_{L^2}^2\\\\\n& + \\frac{M}{2} L_{f'}^2  |\\mathbb{T}^d|   \\|\\phi^{n+1}-\\phi^n\\|_{L^2}^2\n+ \\frac{M}{2}  \\tilde{\\omega} L_{f''} |\\mathbb{T}^d|   \\|\\phi^{n+1}-\\phi^n\\|_{L^2}^2 \\\\\n= & \\left(-\\frac{\\kappa}{\\epsilon} +\\frac{L_W}{2\\epsilon} + \\frac{1}{2}(L_{f'}^2+ \\tilde{\\omega}L_{f''})\\Big(\\gamma\\|(-\\Delta)^{-1}\\| + M |\\mathbb{T}^d| \\Big)  \\right)  \\|\\phi^{n+1}-\\phi^n\\|_{L^2}^2 \\le 0,\n\\end{align*}\nwhere the last inequality is true given the condition (\\ref{eqn:ES_condition}). Consequently it leads to the energy stability.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Error estimate for time-discrete scheme}\\label{subsection:errorestimate_timediscrete}\n\nNow we perform an error estimate for the time-discrete scheme (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_SemiImplicit}). Assume that the condition (\\ref{eqn:ES_condition}) holds (and consequently the MPP condition (\\ref{eqn:MPP_condition}) holds), and the initial $\\phi^0$ is bounded $0\\le\\phi^0\\le1$ (and consequently $0\\le\\phi^n\\le1$ for any $n\\in [\\![ N]\\!]$).\n\nSubtracting equation (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_SemiImplicit}) from the original equation (\\ref{eqn:pACOK}) at time $t_{n+1}$ and denoting the error by $\\tilde{e}^n = \\phi(t_n) - \\phi^n$, one has\n\\begin{align}\n&\\dfrac{1}{\\tau}(\\tilde{e}^{n+1} - \\tilde{e}^n) - \\epsilon \\Delta \\tilde{e}^{n+1}  \\nonumber\\\\\n= &\\  R^{n+1} - \\dfrac{\\kappa}{\\epsilon}(\\tilde{e}^{n+1}-\\tilde{e}^n)\n                    + \\dfrac{\\kappa}{\\epsilon}\\Big[\\phi(t_{n+1})-\\phi(t_n)\\Big]\n                    - \\dfrac{1}{\\epsilon}\\Big[ W'(\\phi(t_{n+1})) - W'(\\phi^n) \\Big] \\nonumber \\\\\n  &  - \\gamma\\Big[ (-\\Delta)^{-1}(f(\\phi(t_{n+1}))-\\omega)f'(\\phi(t_{n+1}))\n                               - (-\\Delta)^{-1}(f(\\phi^n)-\\omega)f'(\\phi^n)\\Big]      \\nonumber \\\\\n  &  - M\\Big[ \\left(\\textstyle{\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d}} (f(\\phi(t_{n+1}))-\\omega) \\text{d}x\\right) f'(\\phi(t_{n+1}))\n                   -\\left(\\textstyle{\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d}} (f(\\phi^n)-\\omega) \\text{d}x\\right) f'(\\phi^n)\\Big] .\n\\end{align}\nwhere $R^{n+1} = \\dfrac{\\phi(t_{n+1})-\\phi(t_n)}{\\tau} -\\phi_t(t_{n+1})$ has the following estimate \\cite{ShenYang_DCDSA2010}:\n\\[\n\\|R^{n+1}\\|_{H^s}^2 \\le \\dfrac{\\tau}{3}\\int_{t_n}^{t_{n+1}} \\|\\phi_{tt}(t)\\|_{H^s}^2 dt,\\quad s = -1, 0.\n\\]\nTaking the $L^2$ inner product with $\\tilde{e}^{n+1}$, it follows that\n\\begin{align}\\label{eqn:estimate2}\n& \\dfrac{1}{2\\tau}(\\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2}^2 - \\|\\tilde{e}^{n}\\|_{L^2}^2 + \\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}-\\tilde{e}^n\\|_{L^2}^2) + \\epsilon \\|\\nabla \\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2}^2 \\nonumber\\\\\n= & \\ \\underbrace{\\langle R^{n+1}, \\tilde{e}^{n+1} \\rangle}_{\\text{I}}\n         - \\dfrac{\\kappa}{\\epsilon} \\left(\\dfrac{1}{2}\\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2}^2 - \\dfrac{1}{2}\\|\\tilde{e}^{n}\\|_{L^2}^2 + \\dfrac{1}{2}\\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}-\\tilde{e}^n\\|_{L^2}^2 \\right) \\nonumber\\\\\n   &    + \\underbrace{\\dfrac{\\kappa}{\\epsilon}\\langle\\phi(t_{n+1})-\\phi(t_n), e^{n+1}\\rangle}_{\\text{II}}\n          \\underbrace{ - \\dfrac{1}{\\epsilon}\\langle W'(\\phi(t_{n+1})) - W'(\\phi^n), e^{n+1}\\rangle}_{\\text{III}} \\nonumber\\\\\n     &  \\underbrace{ -  \\gamma \\Big\\langle (-\\Delta)^{-1}(f(\\phi(t_{n+1}))-\\omega)f'(\\phi(t_{n+1}))\n                               - (-\\Delta)^{-1}(f(\\phi^n)-\\omega)f'(\\phi^n), e^{n+1}  \\Big\\rangle}_{\\text{IV}} \\nonumber\\\\\n     & \\underbrace{ - M \\Big\\langle  \\left( \\textstyle{\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d}} (f(\\phi(t_{n+1}))-\\omega) \\text{d}x\\right) f'(\\phi(t_{n+1}))\n                   -\\left( \\textstyle{\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d}} (f(\\phi^n)-\\omega) \\text{d}x\\right) f'(\\phi^n), e^{n+1} \\Big\\rangle }_{\\text{V}}.\n\\end{align}\nFor the term I, we have\n\\begin{align*}\n\\text{I}\n& \\le \\|R^{n+1}\\|_{H^{-1}}\\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{H^1}\n \\le \\dfrac{1+\\frac{|\\mathbb{T}^d|}{4\\pi^2}}{2\\epsilon} \\|R^{n+1}\\|_{H^{-1}}^2\n + \\dfrac{\\epsilon}{2\\left[1+\\frac{|\\mathbb{T}^d|}{4\\pi^2}\\right]}\\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{H^1}^2 \\\\\n&\\le \\dfrac{1+\\frac{|\\mathbb{T}^d|}{4\\pi^2}}{2\\epsilon} \\|R^{n+1}\\|_{H^{-1}}^2\n+ \\dfrac{\\epsilon}{2}\\|\\nabla \\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2}^2\n\\le \\dfrac{1+\\frac{|\\mathbb{T}^d|}{4\\pi^2}}{2\\epsilon} \\dfrac{\\tau}{3}\\int_{t_n}^{t_{n+1}}\\|\\phi_{tt}(t)\\|_{H^{-1}}^2 dt\n+ \\dfrac{\\epsilon}{2}\\|\\nabla \\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2}^2.\n\\end{align*}\nNote that\n\\begin{align*}\n&\\| \\phi(t_{n+1}) - \\phi(t_n) \\|_{L^2}^2 \\le \\tau \\int_{t_n}^{t_{n+1}} \\|\\phi_t(t)\\|_{L^2}^2 dt ; \\\\\n& \\|\\phi(t_{n+1}) - \\phi^n\\|_{L^2} \\le \\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2} + \\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1} - \\tilde{e}^n\\|_{L^2} + \\| \\phi(t_{n+1}) - \\phi(t_n)\\|_{L^2} ;\n\\end{align*}\nthe terms II and III become\n\\begin{align*}\n\\text{II}\n\\le\\ &\\dfrac{\\kappa}{\\epsilon} \\| \\phi(t_{n+1}) - \\phi(t_n) \\|_{L^2} \\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2}\n \\le \\dfrac{\\kappa}{\\epsilon} \\left( \\dfrac{1}{2} \\| \\phi(t_{n+1}) - \\phi(t_n) \\|^2_{L^2} + \\dfrac{1}{2}\\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|^2_{L^2} \\right) \\\\\n \\le\\ & \\dfrac{\\kappa}{\\epsilon} \\left( \\dfrac{\\tau}{2} \\int_{t_n}^{t_{n+1}} \\|\\phi_t(t)\\|_{L^2}^2 \\text{d}t + \\dfrac{1}{2}\\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|^2_{L^2} \\right) \\\\\n\\text{III}\n\\le\\ & \\frac{L_{W''}}{\\epsilon}\\|\\phi(t_{n+1})-\\phi^n\\|_{L^2}\\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2} \\\\\n\\le\\ & \\frac{L_{W''}}{\\epsilon} \\left(\\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2}^2 + \\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}-\\tilde{e}^n\\|_{L^2}\\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2} +\\| \\phi(t_{n+1}) - \\phi(t_n) \\|_{L^2} \\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2} \\right) \\\\\n\\le\\ & \\frac{L_{W''}}{\\epsilon} \\left(\\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2}^2 +\\dfrac{1}{4} \\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}-\\tilde{e}^n\\|_{L^2}^2 + \\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2}^2 +\\dfrac{\\tau}{2} \\int_{t_n}^{t_{n+1}} \\|\\phi_t(t)\\|_{L^2}^2 dt + \\dfrac{1}{2} \\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2}^2 \\right) \\\\\n\\le\\ & \\frac{L_{W''}}{\\epsilon} \\left(\\dfrac{1}{4} \\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}-\\tilde{e}^n\\|_{L^2}^2  +\\dfrac{\\tau}{2} \\int_{t_n}^{t_{n+1}} \\|\\phi_t(t)\\|_{L^2}^2 dt +  \\dfrac{5}{2} \\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2}^2 \\right).\n\\end{align*}\nFurthermore, term IV gives\n\\begin{align*}\n\\text{IV} =\\ &-\\gamma \\Big( \\left\\langle (-\\Delta)^{-1}(f(\\phi(t_{n+1}))-f(\\phi^n))f'(\\phi(t_{n+1})), \\tilde{e}^{n+1} \\right\\rangle \\\\\n       & + \\left\\langle (-\\Delta)^{-1}(f(\\phi^n)-\\omega)(f'(\\phi(t_{n+1})-f'(\\phi^n)), \\tilde{e}^{n+1} \\right\\rangle \\Big) \\\\\n\\le\\  & \\gamma L_{f'}^2 \\|(-\\Delta)^{-1}\\| \\|\\phi(t_{n+1})-\\phi^n\\|_{L^2}\\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2}   + \\gamma \\tilde{\\omega}L_{f''}\\|(-\\Delta)^{-1}\\| \\|\\phi(t_{n+1})-\\phi^n\\|_{L^2}\\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2} \\\\\n\\le\\ & \\gamma(L_{f'}^2+\\tilde{\\omega}L_{f''})\\|(-\\Delta)^{-1}\\| \\left( \\dfrac{1}{4} \\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}-\\tilde{e}^n\\|_{L^2}^2  +\\dfrac{\\tau}{2} \\int_{t_n}^{t_{n+1}} \\|\\phi_t(t)\\|_{L^2}^2 dt +  \\dfrac{5}{2} \\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2}^2 \\right)\n\\end{align*}\nSimilar as IV, term V has the estimate\n\\begin{align*}\n\\text{V} \\le M (L_{f'}^2 + \\tilde{\\omega}L_{f''} ) |\\mathbb{T}^d| \\left( \\dfrac{1}{4} \\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}-\\tilde{e}^n\\|_{L^2}^2  +\\dfrac{\\tau}{2} \\int_{t_n}^{t_{n+1}} \\|\\phi_t(t)\\|_{L^2}^2 dt +  \\dfrac{5}{2} \\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2}^2 \\right) .\n\\end{align*}\nInserting the estimates for terms I-V, then combining all the terms involving $\\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}-\\tilde{e}^n\\|_{L^2}^2$ and $(\\tau \\int_{t_n}^{t_{n+1}} \\|\\phi_t(t)\\|_{L^2}^2 dt +  5 \\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2}^2)$, and note that $\\pm \\frac{\\kappa}{2\\epsilon}\\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2}^2$ are canceled, we have\n\\begin{align*}\n& \\dfrac{1}{2\\tau}(\\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2}^2 - \\|\\tilde{e}^{n}\\|_{L^2}^2 + \\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}-\\tilde{e}^n\\|_{L^2}^2) + \\frac{\\epsilon}{2} \\|\\nabla \\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2}^2 \\\\\n\\le\\ & \\dfrac{1+\\frac{|\\mathbb{T}^2|}{4\\pi^2}}{2\\epsilon} \\dfrac{\\tau}{3}\\int_{t_n}^{t_{n+1}}\\|\\phi_{tt}(t)\\|_{H^{-1}}^2 dt + \\dfrac{\\kappa}{2\\epsilon}\\|\\tilde{e}^n\\|_{L^2}^2 - \\dfrac{\\kappa}{2\\epsilon}\\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}-\\tilde{e}^n\\|_{L^2}^2 + \\dfrac{\\kappa}{2\\epsilon}\\tau\\int_{t_n}^{t_{n+1}}\\|\\phi_t(t)\\|_{L^2}^2\\text{d}t \\\\\n& + \\Big(\\dfrac{L_{W''}}{\\epsilon} + (L_{f'}^2 + \\tilde{\\omega}L_{f''}) \\big(\\gamma\\|(-\\Delta)^{-1}\\|+M|\\mathbb{T}^d| \\big) \\Big) \\left( \\dfrac{1}{4} \\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}-\\tilde{e}^n\\|_{L^2}^2  +\\dfrac{\\tau}{2} \\int_{t_n}^{t_{n+1}} \\|\\phi_t(t)\\|_{L^2}^2 dt +  \\dfrac{5}{2} \\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2}^2 \\right).\n\\end{align*}\nProvided that the condition (\\ref{eqn:ES_condition}) holds, then\n\\begin{align*}\n& \\dfrac{1}{2\\tau}(\\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2}^2 - \\|\\tilde{e}^{n}\\|_{L^2}^2 + \\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}-\\tilde{e}^n\\|_{L^2}^2) + \\frac{\\epsilon}{2} \\|\\nabla \\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2}^2 \\\\\n\\le\\ & \\dfrac{1+\\frac{|\\mathbb{T}^2|}{4\\pi^2}}{2\\epsilon} \\dfrac{\\tau}{3}\\int_{t_n}^{t_{n+1}}\\|\\phi_{tt}(t)\\|_{H^{-1}}^2 dt + \\dfrac{\\kappa}{2\\epsilon}\\|\\tilde{e}^n\\|_{L^2}^2 + \\dfrac{\\kappa}{2\\epsilon}\\tau\\int_{t_n}^{t_{n+1}}\\|\\phi_t(t)\\|_{L^2}^2\\text{d}t  + \\dfrac{\\kappa}{\\epsilon} \\left(  \\dfrac{\\tau}{2} \\int_{t_n}^{t_{n+1}} \\|\\phi_t(t)\\|_{L^2}^2 dt +  \\dfrac{5}{2} \\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2}^2 \\right).\\\\\n= \\ &  \\dfrac{1+\\frac{|\\mathbb{T}^2|}{4\\pi^2}}{2\\epsilon} \\dfrac{\\tau}{3}\\int_{t_n}^{t_{n+1}}\\|\\phi_{tt}(t)\\|_{H^{-1}}^2 dt + \\dfrac{\\kappa}{\\epsilon}\\tau\\int_{t_n}^{t_{n+1}}\\|\\phi_t(t)\\|_{L^2} + \\dfrac{\\kappa}{2\\epsilon}(\\|\\tilde{e}^n\\|_{L^2}^2 + 5\\|\\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2}^2)\n\\end{align*}\nDropping the $\\|\\nabla \\tilde{e}^{n+1}\\|_{L^2}^2$ term on left hand side, multiplying $2\\tau$ on both sides, and summing up the above inequality from 0 to $n-1$, we find\n\\begin{align*}\n\\|\\tilde{e}^n\\|_{L^2}^2 - \\|\\tilde{e}^0\\|_{L^2}^2\n\\le \\dfrac{1+\\frac{|\\mathbb{T}^2|}{4\\pi^2}}{3\\epsilon} \\tau^2 \\|\\phi_{tt}\\|_{L^2(0,T; H^{-1})}^2\n+ 2\\tau^2 \\dfrac{\\kappa}{\\epsilon} \\|\\phi_t\\|_{L^2(0,T;L^2)}^2  + \\tau \\dfrac{\\kappa}{\\epsilon} \\Big( \\|\\tilde{e}^0\\|_{L^2}^2 + 6\\sum_{k=1}^{n-1}\\|\\tilde{e}^k\\|_{L^2}^2 + 5\\|\\tilde{e}^n\\|_{L^2}^2 \\Big).\n\\end{align*}\nNote that $\\tilde{e}^0 = 0$, hence the last inequality becomes\n\\begin{align*}\n(1-5\\tau\\kappa\/\\epsilon)\\|\\tilde{e}^n\\|_{L^2}^2\n\\le \\ &\\dfrac{1+\\frac{|\\mathbb{T}^2|}{4\\pi^2}}{3\\epsilon} \\tau^2 \\|\\phi_{tt}\\|_{L^2(0,T; H^{-1})}^2\n+ 2\\tau^2 \\dfrac{\\kappa}{\\epsilon}  \\|\\phi_t\\|_{L^2(0,T;L^2)}^2   + 6\\tau \\dfrac{\\kappa}{\\epsilon}  \\sum_{k=1}^{n-1}\\|\\tilde{e}^k\\|_{L^2}^2.\n\\end{align*}\nIf $\\tau \\le \\epsilon\/(10\\kappa)$, we obtain\n\\begin{align*}\n\\|\\tilde{e}^n\\|_{L^2}^2\n\\le \\ &\\dfrac{1+\\frac{|\\mathbb{T}^2|}{4\\pi^2}}{3\\epsilon} 2\\tau^2 \\|\\phi_{tt}\\|_{L^2(0,T; H^{-1})}^2\n+ 4\\tau^2 \\dfrac{\\kappa}{\\epsilon}  \\|\\phi_t\\|_{L^2(0,T;L^2)}^2   + 12\\tau \\dfrac{\\kappa}{\\epsilon}  \\sum_{k=1}^{n-1}\\|\\tilde{e}^k\\|_{L^2}^2.\n\\end{align*}\nThe discrete Gronwall inequality leads to\n\\begin{align}\n\\|\\tilde{e}^n\\|_{L^2}^2 \\le e^{12T\\kappa\/\\epsilon} \\left( \\dfrac{1+\\frac{|\\mathbb{T}^2|}{4\\pi^2}}{3\\epsilon\/2}  \\|\\phi_{tt}\\|_{L^2(0,T; H^{-1})}^2 + \\dfrac{4\\kappa}{\\epsilon} \\|\\phi_t\\|_{L^2(0,T;L^2)}^2 \\right)\\tau^2.\n\\end{align}\n\nWe summarize the above discussion as the following theorem:\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{theorem:error_semidiscrete}\nGiven $T>0$ and an integer $N>0$ such that $\\tau = \\frac{T}{N}$ and $t_n = n\\tau$ for $n=0,1,\\cdots, N$. Assume that $\\phi_t \\in L^2(0,T; L^2)$ and $\\phi_{tt} \\in L^2(0,T; H^{-1})$, then for $\\kappa$ satisfying the energy stability condition (\\ref{eqn:ES_condition}), if the time step size  $\\tau \\le \\epsilon\/(10\\kappa)$, we have\n\\begin{align}\\label{eqn:errorestimate_time}\n\\|\\phi(t_n) - \\phi^n\\|_{L^2} \\le \\tilde{C}\\tau, \\quad \\forall n \\in [\\![ N]\\!]\n\\end{align}\nwhere $\\tilde{C} = e^{6T\\kappa\/\\epsilon} \\Big( \\frac{1+\\frac{|\\mathbb{T}^d|}{4\\pi^2}}{3\\epsilon\/2}  \\|\\phi_{tt}\\|_{L^2(0,T; H^{-1})}^2 + \\frac{4\\kappa}{\\epsilon} \\|\\phi_t\\|_{L^2(0,T;L^2)}^2 \\Big)^{\\frac{1}{2}} $ is a constant independent of $\\tau$ and $N$.\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Fully-discrete Scheme: Maximum Principle Preservation and Energy Stability}\n\nIn this section, we propose a fully-discrete scheme by discretizing the spatial operators by a second order finite difference approximation. To this end, we adopt some notations for the finite difference approximation. For the brevity of notations, we will focus the discussion on the 2D case, which can be easily extended to 3D formulation.\n\n\\subsection{Second order finite difference scheme for spatial discretizaiton}\n\nWe consider $\\mathbb{T}^2 = \\prod_{i=1}^2 [-X_i,X_i] \\subset \\mathbb{R}^2$. Let $N_1, N_2$ be positive even integers. Take $h_i = \\frac{2X_i}{N_i}, i=1,2$ and $\\mathbb{T}^2_h = \\mathbb{T}^2\\ \\cap (\\otimes_{i=1}^2 h_i\\mathbb{Z})$. We define the index set:\n\\begin{align*}\nS_h &= \\left\\{ (k_1,k_2)\\in\\mathbb{Z}^2 | 1\\le k_i \\le N_i, i=1,2 \\right\\}.\n\\end{align*}\nDenote by $\\mathcal{M}_h$ the collection of periodic grid functions on $\\mathbb{T}^2_h$:\n\\begin{align*}\n\\mathcal{M}_h = \\left\\{ f: \\mathbb{T}^2_h\\rightarrow\\mathbb{R} | f_{k_1+m_1N_1, k_2+m_2N_2} =f_{k_1,k_2}, \\forall (k_1,k_2)\\in S_h, \\forall (m_1,m_2)\\in \\mathbb{Z}^2 \\right\\}.\n\\end{align*}\nFor any $f,g\\in\\mathcal{M}_h$ and $\\textbf{f} = (f^1,f^2)^T, \\textbf{g} = (g^1,g^2)^T\\in\\mathcal{M}_h\\times\\mathcal{M}_h$, we define the discrete $L^2$ inner product $\\langle\\cdot,\\cdot\\rangle_h$, discrete $L^2$ norm $\\|\\cdot\\|_{h,L^2}$ and discrete $L^{\\infty}$ norm $\\|\\cdot\\|_{h, L^{\\infty}}$ as follows:\n\\begin{align*}\n\\langle f, g\\rangle_h &= h_x h_y \\sum_{(i,j)\\in S_h} f_{ij} g_{ij}, \\quad \\|f\\|_{h,L^2} = \\sqrt{\\langle f, f \\rangle_h}, \\quad \\|f\\|_{h, L^{\\infty}} = \\max_{(i,j)\\in S_h} |f_{ij}| ; \\\\\n\\langle \\textbf{f}, \\textbf{g}\\rangle_h &= h_x h_y \\sum_{(i,j)\\in S_h} \\left( f_{ij}^1 g_{ij}^1 + f_{ij}^2 g_{ij}^2 \\right), \\quad  \\|\\textbf{f}\\|_{h,L^2} = \\sqrt{\\langle \\textbf{f}, \\textbf{f}\\rangle_h}.\n\\end{align*}\nLet $\\mathring{\\mathcal{M}}_h = \\{f\\in\\mathcal{M}_h | \\langle f, 1 \\rangle_h = 0\\}$ be the collections of all periodic grid functions with zero mean.\n\nWe define the second order central difference approximation of the Laplacian operator $\\Delta$ as a discrete linear operator $\\Delta_h: \\mathring{\\mathcal{M}}_h \\rightarrow \\mathring{\\mathcal{M}}_h$\n\\begin{align}\n\\Delta_h u = f: \\Delta_h u_{ij} = \\frac{1}{h_1^2}(u_{i-1,j} - 2u_{ij} + u_{i+1,j}) + \\frac{1}{h_2^2}(u_{i,j-1} - 2u_{ij} + u_{i,j+1})\n\\end{align}\nwhere the periodic boundary condition applies when the the indices $i \\notin [\\![ N_1]\\!]$ or $j \\notin [\\![ N_2]\\!]$. Note that $\\Delta_h: \\mathring{\\mathcal{M}}_h \\rightarrow \\mathring{\\mathcal{M}}_h$ is one-to-one, it is safe to define its inverse $(\\Delta_h)^{-1}: \\mathring{\\mathcal{M}}_h \\rightarrow \\mathring{\\mathcal{M}}_h$\n\\begin{align}\n(\\Delta_h)^{-1} f = u \\quad \\text{if and only if} \\quad \\Delta_h u = f.\n\\end{align}\nWe denote by $\\|(-\\Delta_h)^{-1}\\|$ the optimal constant such that $\\|(-\\Delta_h)^{-1}f\\|_{h,L^\\infty}\\le C \\|f\\|_{h,L^\\infty}$, namely, the norm of the operator $(-\\Delta_h)^{-1}$ from $L^{\\infty}(\\mathring{\\mathcal{M}}_h)$ to itself.\n\n\nGiven the discrete Laplacian operator $\\Delta_h$ defined above, and denote $\\Phi^{n}\\approx \\phi(x,t_n)|_{\\mathbb{T}^2_h}$ the numerical solution, we arrive at the following first order fully-discrete semi-implicit scheme for the pACOK equation (\\ref{functional:pOK}): for $\\forall n \\in [\\![ N]\\!]$, find $\\Phi^{n+1} = (\\Phi_{ij}^{n+1}) \\in \\mathcal{M}_h$ such that\n\\begin{align}\\label{eqn:pACOK_FullDiscrete}\n\\left(\\dfrac{1}{\\tau}+\\dfrac{\\kappa_h}{\\epsilon}\\right)(\\Phi^{n+1}-\\Phi^n)  = \\epsilon\\Delta_h\\Phi^{n+1} - \\dfrac{1}{\\epsilon}W'(\\Phi^n) &- \\gamma(-\\Delta_h)^{-1}(f(\\Phi^n)-\\omega) \\odot f'(\\Phi^n) \\nonumber \\\\\n&- M \\langle f(\\Phi^n)-\\omega, 1 \\rangle_h \\text{d}\\mathbf{x} f'(\\Phi^n),\n\\end{align}\nwith $\\Phi^0 = (\\Phi_{ij}^0) = \\phi_0|_{\\mathbb{T}^2_h}$ being the given intial data, and $\\kappa_h$ the stabilization constant. Here $\\text{d}\\mathbf{x} = h_1h_2$ and $\\odot$ represents pointwise multiplication. The scheme can be reformulated as\n\\begin{align}\\label{eqn:pACOK_FullDiscreteII}\n\\left(\\left(1+\\dfrac{\\tau\\kappa}{\\epsilon}\\right)I - \\tau\\epsilon\\Delta_h\\right)\\Phi^{n+1} = \\left(1+\\dfrac{\\tau\\kappa}{\\epsilon}\\right)\\Phi^{n}  - \\dfrac{\\tau}{\\epsilon}W'(\\Phi^n) & - \\tau\\gamma(-\\Delta_h)^{-1}(f(\\Phi^n)-\\omega)\\odot f'(\\Phi^n) \\nonumber \\\\\n&- \\tau M \\langle f(\\Phi^n)-\\omega, 1 \\rangle_h \\text{d}\\mathbf{x} f'(\\Phi^n),\n\\end{align}\nfrom which the unconditional unique solvability can be guaranteed by realizing the positivity of all the eigenvalues of the operator\n$\\left( 1+ \\tau\\kappa\\epsilon^{-1} \\right) I - \\tau \\epsilon \\Delta_h$ on the left hand side of (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_FullDiscreteII}).\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Maximum principle preservation for fully-discrete scheme}\n\nIn this section, we will show that the full-discrete scheme (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_FullDiscrete}) is MPP under a condition similar to (\\ref{eqn:MPP_condition}). To this end, a discrete counterpart of Lemma \\ref{lemma:MPP_condition}  is needed.\n\n\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{lemma:MPP_condition2}\nLet $\\Psi\\in\\mathcal{M}_h$ be such that $0\\le\\Psi\\le 1$, and define $\\mathcal{F}_h: \\mathcal{M}_h \\rightarrow \\mathcal{M}_h$ as follows:\n\\[\n\\mathcal{F}_h(\\Psi) = \\left(1+\\dfrac{\\tau\\kappa_h}{\\epsilon}\\right)\\Psi - \\dfrac{\\tau}{\\epsilon}W'(\\Psi) - \\tau\\gamma(-\\Delta_h)^{-1}(f(\\psi)-\\omega)\\odot f'(\\Psi) - \\tau M \\langle f(\\psi)-\\omega,1 \\rangle\\emph{d}\\mathbf{x} f'(\\Psi),\n\\]\nthen we have\n\\[\n\\max_{0\\le\\Psi\\le 1} \\{\\mathcal{F}_h(\\Psi)\\}= 1+\\dfrac{\\tau\\kappa_h}{\\epsilon} ; \\quad \\min_{0\\le\\Psi\\le 1} \\{ \\mathcal{F}_h(\\Psi) \\} = 0,\n\\]\nprovided that\n\\begin{align}\\label{eqn:MPP_condition2}\n\\frac{1}{\\tau} + \\dfrac{\\kappa_h}{\\epsilon} \\ge \\dfrac{L_{W''}}{\\epsilon} + \\tilde{\\omega}L_{f''}\\Big(\\gamma\\|(-\\Delta_h)^{-1}\\| + M|\\mathbb{T}^2| \\Big).\n\\end{align}\n\\end{lemma}\n\nThe proof of Lemma \\ref{lemma:MPP_condition2} is similar to that of Lemma \\ref{lemma:MPP_condition}. The only difference is that the Laplacian operator $-\\Delta$ is replaced by a discrete Laplacian operator $-\\Delta_h$, and the integral term $\\int (f(\\psi)-\\omega) \\text{d}x$ is replaced by the Riemann sum. We therefore omit the details.\n\nNow we present the MPP for the fully-discrete sheme (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_FullDiscrete}) or (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_FullDiscreteII}).\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{theorem:MPP_fully}\nThe stabilized fully-discrete scheme (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_FullDiscrete}) or (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_FullDiscreteII}) is MPP provided that the condition (\\ref{eqn:MPP_condition2}) holds.\n\\end{theorem}\n\\begin{proof}\nAssume that $0\\le \\Phi^n \\le 1$, and $\\Phi^{n+1}$ is obtained by the scheme  (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_FullDiscrete}). Assume $\\Phi^{n+1}$ reaches the maximal value at the index $(i^*,j^*)$, then\n\\[\n(\\Delta_h\\Phi^{n+1})_{i^*j^*} =  \\frac{(\\Phi^n)_{i^*-1,j^*}+(\\Phi^n)_{i^*+1,j^*}-2(\\Phi^n)_{i^*j^*}}{h_1^2} + \\frac{(\\Phi^n)_{i^*,j^*-1}+(\\Phi^n)_{i^*,j^*+1}-2(\\Phi^n)_{i^*j^*}}{h_2^2}  \\le 0,\n\\]\nand\n\\[\n\\left(1+\\dfrac{\\tau\\kappa_h}{\\epsilon}\\right) (\\Phi^{n+1})_{i^*j^*} \\le \\Big(\\mathcal{F}_h((\\Phi^n)\\Big)_{i^*j^*} \\le 1+\\dfrac{\\tau\\kappa}{\\epsilon} \\Rightarrow \\Phi^{n+1} \\le 1.\n\\]\nSimilarly let $(i_*, j_*)$ be the index for the smallest component of $\\Phi^{n+1}$, then\n\\[\n(\\Delta_h\\Phi^{n+1})_{i_*j_*} =  \\frac{(\\Phi^n)_{i_*-1,j_*}+(\\Phi^n)_{i_*+1,j_*}-2(\\Phi^n)_{i_*j_*}}{h_1^2} + \\frac{(\\Phi^n)_{i_*,j_*-1}+(\\Phi^n)_{i_*,j_*+1}-2(\\Phi^n)_{i_*j_*}}{h_2^2}  \\ge 0,\n\\]\nand\n\\[\n\\left(1+\\dfrac{\\tau\\kappa_h}{\\epsilon}\\right) (\\Phi^{n+1})_{i_*j_*} \\ge \\Big(\\mathcal{F}_h((\\Phi^n)\\Big)_{i_*j_*} \\ge 0 \\Rightarrow \\Phi^{n+1} \\ge 0,\n\\]\nwhich completes the proof.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Energy stability for fully-discrete scheme}\n\nWhile the stabilized fully-discrete scheme (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_FullDiscrete}) is MPP, it is also energy stable for the discrete OK energy functional defined below:\n\\begin{align}\\label{eqn:discreteEnergy}\nE_h^{\\text{pOK}}[\\Phi] = & -\\frac{\\epsilon}{2} \\langle \\Delta_h\\Phi,\\Phi \\rangle_h + \\frac{1}{\\epsilon} \\langle W(\\Phi),1\\rangle_h + \\frac{\\gamma}{2} \\Big\\langle (-\\Delta_h)^{-1}(f(\\Phi)-\\omega), (f(\\Phi)-\\omega) \\Big\\rangle_h \\nonumber \\\\\n& + \\frac{M}{2} \\Big( \\langle f(\\Phi^n)-\\omega, 1 \\rangle_h \\text{d}\\mathbf{x} \\Big)^2.\n\\end{align}\n\n\n\n\\begin{theorem}\nAssume the initial $\\Phi^0$ satisfies $0\\le \\Phi^0\\le 1$, then the stabilized fully-discrete semi-implicit scheme  (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_FullDiscrete}) or (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_FullDiscreteII}) is unconditionally energy stable in the sense that\n\\begin{align}\nE_h^{\\emph{pOK}}[\\Phi^{n+1}] \\le E_h^{\\emph{pOK}}[\\Phi^{n}]\n\\end{align}\n provided that\n\\begin{align}\\label{eqn:discreteES_condition}\n\\frac{\\kappa_h}{\\epsilon} \\ge \\frac{L_{W''}}{\\epsilon} + (L_{f'}^2+\\tilde{\\omega}L_{f''})\\Big(\\gamma\\|(-\\Delta_h)^{-1}\\| + M |\\mathbb{T}^2|\\Big).\n\\end{align}\n\\end{theorem}\n\\begin{proof}\nThe proof is similar to that of Theorem \\ref{theorem:EnergyStability}. To see how the discrete operators apply in the proof, we will still show it in details. Taking the discrete $L^2$ inner product with $\\Phi^{n+1}-\\Phi^{n}$ on the two sides of (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_FullDiscrete}), we have\n\\begin{align}\\label{eqn:estimate2}\n&\\dfrac{1}{\\tau} \\|\\Phi^{n+1} - \\Phi^{n}\\|_{h, L^2}^2 \\nonumber\\\\\n= &\\  - \\dfrac{\\kappa_h}{\\epsilon}\\|\\Phi^{n+1} - \\Phi^{n}\\|_{h,L^2}^2   +\\underbrace{\\epsilon \\langle \\Delta_h\\Phi^{n+1}, \\Phi^{n+1} - \\Phi^{n} \\rangle_h }_{\\text{I}} \\underbrace{ - \\epsilon^{-1} \\langle W'(\\Phi^{n}), \\Phi^{n+1} - \\Phi^{n}\\rangle_h }_{\\text{II}} \\nonumber\\\\\n& \\underbrace{ -\\gamma \\left\\langle (-\\Delta_h)^{-1}(f(\\Phi^n)-\\omega)f'(\\Phi^n), \\Phi^{n+1}-\\Phi^{n} \\right\\rangle_h }_{\\text{III}}  \\underbrace{ -M \\langle f(\\Phi^n)-\\omega, 1\\rangle\\text{d}\\textbf{x} \\left\\langle f'(\\Phi^n), \\Phi^{n+1}-\\Phi^{n} \\right\\rangle_h }_{\\text{IV}}.\n\\end{align}\nUsing the identity $a\\cdot (a-b) = \\frac{1}{2}|a|^2 - \\frac{1}{2}|b|^2 + \\frac{1}{2}|a-b|^2$ and $b\\cdot (a-b) = \\frac{1}{2}|a|^2 - \\frac{1}{2}|b|^2 - \\frac{1}{2}|a-b|^2$, we have:\n\\begin{align*}\n\\text{I} =&\\ \\frac{\\epsilon}{2} \\Big( \\Big\\langle \\Delta_h\\Phi^{n+1}, \\Phi^{n+1} \\Big\\rangle_h - \\Big\\langle \\Delta_h\\Phi^{n}, \\Phi^{n} \\Big\\rangle_h + \\Big\\langle \\Delta_h(\\Phi^{n+1}-\\Phi^{n}), \\Phi^{n+1}-\\Phi^n \\Big\\rangle_h \\Big); \\\\\n\\text{II} =& -\\epsilon^{-1}\\left\\langle 1, W(\\Phi^{n+1}) \\right\\rangle_h + \\epsilon^{-1} \\left\\langle 1, W(\\Phi^{n}) \\right\\rangle_h + (2\\epsilon)^{-1} W''(\\xi^n) \\|\\Phi^{n+1}-\\Phi^n\\|_{h, L^2}^2 ; \\\\\n \\text{III} =&\\ -\\gamma \\Big\\langle (-\\Delta_h)^{-1}(f(\\Phi^{n})-\\omega), f(\\Phi^{n+1}) - f(\\Phi^{n})\\Big\\rangle_h + \\dfrac{\\gamma}{2} \\Big\\langle (-\\Delta_h)^{-1}(f(\\Phi^{n})-\\omega), f''(\\eta^n)(\\Phi^{n+1} - \\Phi^{n})^2\\Big\\rangle_h \\\\\n \\quad=&\\ -\\dfrac{\\gamma}{2} \\Big( \\Big\\langle (-\\Delta_h)^{-1}(f(\\Phi^{n+1})-\\omega), f(\\Phi^{n+1})-\\omega \\Big\\rangle_{h} - \\Big\\langle (-\\Delta_h)^{-1}(f(\\Phi^{n})-\\omega), f(\\Phi^{n})-\\omega \\Big\\rangle_{h}  \\\\\n& \\hspace{0.4in} - \\Big\\langle (-\\Delta_h)^{-1}(f(\\Phi^{n+1})-f(\\Phi^{n})),f(\\Phi^{n+1})-f(\\Phi^{n}) \\Big\\rangle_{h} \\Big)   \\\\\n& \\ + \\dfrac{\\gamma}{2} \\Big\\langle (-\\Delta_h)^{-1}(f(\\Phi^{n})-\\omega), f''(\\eta^n)(\\Phi^{n+1} - \\Phi^{n})^2\\Big\\rangle_h ;\\\\\n \\text{IV} = & -\\dfrac{M}{2}\\Big( \\left(\\langle f(\\Phi^{n+1}) - \\omega, 1 \\rangle_h  \\text{d}\\textbf{x} \\right)^2 -\n                                                 \\left(\\langle f(\\Phi^{n}) - \\omega, 1 \\rangle_h  \\text{d}\\textbf{x} \\right)^2 -\n                                                 \\left(\\langle f(\\Phi^{n+1}) - f(\\Phi^{n}), 1 \\rangle_h  \\text{d}\\textbf{x} \\right)^2\n                                                  \\Big)& \\\\\n& + \\dfrac{M}{2} \\langle f(\\Phi^{n}) - \\omega, 1 \\rangle_h  \\text{d}\\textbf{x} f''(\\eta^n) \\|\\Phi^{n+1}-\\Phi^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2,\n\\end{align*}\nwhere $\\xi^n$ and $\\eta^n$ are between $\\Phi^n$ and $\\Phi^{n+1}$ due to the smoothness up to 2nd order derivative for $f$ and $W$. Note that the condition (\\ref{eqn:discreteES_condition}) implies  (\\ref{eqn:MPP_condition2}), owing to Theorem \\ref{theorem:MPP_fully}, $\\Phi^n,\\Phi^{n+1} \\in [0,1]$, therefore $\\xi^n, \\eta^n \\in (0,1)$. Finally inserting the equalities for I--IV back into (\\ref{eqn:estimate2}) and noting that $|f'|<L_{f'}, |f''|\\le L_{f''}$ and $|\\langle f(\\Phi^{n})-\\omega, 1\\rangle_h  \\text{d}\\textbf{x}| \\le \\tilde{\\omega}|\\mathbb{T}^d|$, it follows that\n\\begin{align*}\n&\\dfrac{1}{\\tau}\\|\\Phi^{n+1}-\\Phi^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2 + \\frac{\\epsilon}{2}\\Big\\langle -\\Delta_h(\\Phi^{n+1}-\\Phi^{n}), \\Phi^{n+1}-\\Phi^n\\Big\\rangle_h + E_h^{\\text{pOK}}[\\Phi^{n+1}] - E_h^{\\text{pOK}}[\\Phi^n] \\\\\n=& -\\frac{\\kappa_h}{\\epsilon}\\|\\Phi^{n+1}-\\Phi^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2 + \\dfrac{W''(\\eta^n)}{2\\epsilon}\\|\\Phi^{n+1}-\\Phi^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2  \\\\\n& + \\dfrac{\\gamma}{2} \\Big\\langle (-\\Delta_h)^{-1}(f(\\Phi^{n+1})-f(\\Phi^n)), f(\\Phi^{n+1}-f(\\Phi^n)) \\Big\\rangle_h + \\dfrac{\\gamma}{2} \\Big\\langle (-\\Delta_h)^{-1}(f(\\Phi^{n})-\\omega), f''(\\eta^n)(\\Phi^{n+1} - \\Phi^{n})^2\\Big\\rangle_h \\\\\n& + \\dfrac{M}{2} \\Big( \\langle f(\\Phi^{n+1}) - f(\\Phi^n), 1 \\rangle_h \\text{d}\\textbf{x} \\Big)^2 +  \\dfrac{M}{2}  \\langle f(\\Phi^n) -\\mathbb{T}^d, 1 \\rangle_h \\text{d}\\textbf{x}  f''(\\eta^n) \\|\\Phi^{n+1}-\\Phi^n\\|_{h, L^2}^2 \\\\\n\\le& -\\frac{\\kappa_h}{\\epsilon}\\|\\Phi^{n+1}-\\Phi^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2\n       + \\frac{L_{W}}{2\\epsilon}\\|\\Phi^{n+1}-\\Phi^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2  \\\\\n& + \\frac{\\gamma}{2}L_{f'}^2 \\|(-\\Delta_h)^{-1}\\| \\|(\\Phi^{n+1}-\\Phi^n)\\|_{h,L^2}^2\n   + \\frac{\\gamma}{2}\\tilde{\\omega}L_{f''}\\|(-\\Delta_h)^{-1}\\| \\|\\Phi^{n+1}-\\Phi^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2\\\\\n& + \\frac{M}{2} L_{f'}^2  |\\mathbb{T}^2|   \\|\\Phi^{n+1}-\\Phi^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2\n+ \\frac{M}{2} \\tilde{\\omega}L_{f''} |\\mathbb{T}^2|   \\|\\Phi^{n+1}-\\Phi^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2 \\\\\n= & \\left(-\\frac{\\kappa_h}{\\epsilon} +\\frac{L_{W''}}{2\\epsilon} + \\frac{1}{2}(L_{f'}^2+\\tilde{\\omega}L_{f''})\\left(\\gamma\\|(-\\Delta)^{-1}\\| + M |\\mathbb{T}^2|\\right)  \\right)  \\|\\Phi^{n+1}-\\Phi^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2 \\le 0,\n\\end{align*}\nwhere the last inequality is due to the condition (\\ref{eqn:discreteES_condition}). Consequently it leads to the energy stability.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Error estimate for fully-discrete scheme}\n\nNow we perform the error estimate for the fully-discrete scheme (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_FullDiscrete}). To begin with, we assume that the condition (\\ref{eqn:discreteES_condition}) for the discrete energy stability holds (and therefore the discrete MPP condition (\\ref{eqn:MPP_condition2}) holds). We assume that the initial data $\\Phi^0$ is bounded $0\\le \\Phi^0 \\le 1$ (and therefore $0\\le \\Phi^n \\le 1$ for $\\forall n \\in [\\![ N]\\!]$).\n\nFor the rest of this section, we simply denote by $\\phi(t_n)$ the true solution $\\phi(x,t_n)$ limited on $\\mathbb{T}^2$. Then $\\phi(t_n)$ solves the following discrete equation:\n\\begin{align*}\\label{eqn:LTE}\n\\Big( \\frac{1}{\\tau} + \\frac{\\kappa_h}{\\epsilon} \\Big) (\\phi(t_{n+1})-\\phi(t_n)) = &\\ \\epsilon \\Delta_h \\phi(t_{n+1}) - \\frac{1}{\\epsilon} W'(\\phi(t_n))  \\\\\n&- \\gamma(-\\Delta_h)^{-1}(f(\\phi(t_n))-\\omega)\\odot f'(\\phi(t_n)) \\\\\n& - M  \\langle f(\\Phi^n)-\\omega, 1 \\rangle_h \\text{d}\\mathbf{x} f'(\\phi(t_n)) + \\Gamma^{n+1}\n\\end{align*}\nwhere $\\Gamma^{n+1}$ is the local truncation error and satisfies:\n\\begin{align}\n\\|\\Gamma^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^{\\infty}} \\le C_1(\\tau + h_1^2 + h_2^2)\n\\end{align}\nfor some $C_1\\ge 0$ depending only on $\\phi, T, |\\mathbb{T}^2|$ but not on $\\tau, h_1$ and $h_2$. More precisely, Taylor expansion results in the estimate\n\\begin{align*}\n\\|\\Gamma^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^{\\infty}} \\le C\\Big( \\tau\\|\\phi_{tt}\\|_{L^{\\infty}(0,T;L^{\\infty})} + (h_1^2 + h_2^2)\\|\\phi\\|_{L^{\\infty}(0,T;C^4)}   \\Big),\n\\end{align*}\ntherefore\n\\begin{align*}\nC_1 \\le  \\|\\phi_{tt}\\|_{L^{\\infty}(0,T;L^{\\infty})} + \\|\\phi\\|_{L^{\\infty}(0,T;C^4)}.\n\\end{align*}\nSubstract (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_FullDiscreteII}) from (\\ref{eqn:LTE}), and let $e^n = \\phi(t_{n}) - \\Phi^n$, one has:\n\\begin{align*}\n\\Big( \\frac{1}{\\tau} + \\frac{\\kappa_h}{\\epsilon} \\Big) (e^{n+1}-e^{n}) = &\\ \\epsilon \\Delta_h e^{n+1}  -\\epsilon^{-1} \\Big(W'(\\phi(t_n))-W'(\\Phi^n)\\Big) \\\\\n&  -\\gamma\\Big( (-\\Delta_h)^{-1}(f(\\phi(t_n))-\\omega)\\odot f'(\\phi(t_n)) - (-\\Delta_h)^{-1}(f(\\Phi^n)-\\omega)\\odot f'(\\Phi^n) \\Big)  \\\\\n& -M \\Big( \\langle f(\\phi(t_n))-\\omega, 1 \\rangle_h \\text{d}\\mathbf{x} f'(\\phi(t_n)) - \\langle f(\\Phi^n)-\\omega, 1 \\rangle_h \\text{d}\\mathbf{x} f'(\\Phi^n) \\Big) + \\Gamma^{n+1}.\n\\end{align*}\nTaking the discrete $L^2$ inner product by $e^{n+1}$ on the two sides yields\n\\begin{align*}\n&\\underbrace{\\Big( \\frac{1}{\\tau} + \\frac{\\kappa_h}{\\epsilon} \\Big) \\langle e^{n+1}-e^{n}, e^{n+1} \\rangle_h}_{\\text{I}} \\\\\n= &\\ \\epsilon \\langle \\Delta_h e^{n+1}, e^{n+1} \\rangle_h \\underbrace{ -\\epsilon^{-1} \\Big\\langle W'(\\phi(t_n))-W'(\\Phi^n), e^{n+1} \\Big\\rangle_h }_{\\text{II}} \\\\\n& \\underbrace{ -\\gamma \\Big\\langle (-\\Delta_h)^{-1}(f(\\phi(t_n))-\\omega)\\odot f'(\\phi(t_n)) - (-\\Delta_h)^{-1}(f(\\Phi^n)-\\omega)\\odot f'(\\Phi^n), e^{n+1} \\Big\\rangle_h }_{\\text{III}} \\\\\n&\\underbrace{ -M \\Big\\langle \\langle f(\\phi(t_n))-\\omega, 1 \\rangle_h \\text{d}\\mathbf{x} f'(\\phi(t_n)) -\\langle f(\\Phi^n)-\\omega, 1 \\rangle_h \\text{d}\\mathbf{x} f'(\\Phi^n), e^{n+1} \\Big\\rangle_h}_{\\text{IV}}+ \\langle \\Gamma^{n+1}, e^{n+1} \\rangle.\n\\end{align*}\nTerms I and II become\n\\begin{align*}\n\\text{I} &= \\frac{1}{2}\\Big( \\frac{1}{\\tau} + \\frac{\\kappa_h}{\\epsilon} \\Big)\\Big( \\|e^{n+1}\\|_{h, L^2}^2  -  \\|e^{n}\\|_{h, L^2}^2 +  \\|e^{n+1} - e^n\\|_{h, L^2}^2  \\Big); \\\\\n\\text{II} &\\le L_{W''}(2\\epsilon)^{-1}\\Big( \\|e^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2 + \\|e^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^2}^2 \\Big);\n\\end{align*}\nFurthermore, term III gives\n\\begin{align*}\n\\text{III} = \\ &-\\gamma \\Big( \\Big\\langle (-\\Delta_h)^{-1}(f(\\phi(t_{n}))-f(\\Phi^n))\\odot f'(\\phi(t_{n})), e^{n+1} \\Big\\rangle \\\\\n       & + \\Big\\langle (-\\Delta_h)^{-1}(f(\\Phi^n)-\\omega)\\odot (f'(\\phi(t_{n})-f'(\\Phi^n)), e^{n+1} \\Big\\rangle \\Big) \\\\\n\\le\\  & \\gamma L_{f'}^2 \\|(-\\Delta_h)^{-1}\\| \\|e^n\\|_{h, L^2}\\|e^{n+1}\\|_{h, L^2}   + \\gamma \\tilde{\\omega}L_{f''}\\|(-\\Delta_h)^{-1}\\| \\|e^n\\|_{h, L^2}\\|e^{n+1}\\|_{h, L^2} \\\\\n\\le\\ & \\dfrac{1}{2}\\gamma(L_{f'}^2+\\tilde{\\omega}L_{f''})\\|(-\\Delta_h)^{-1}\\| \\Big( \\|e^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2 + \\|e^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^2}^2 \\Big).\n\\end{align*}\nSimilar as III, term IV has the estimate\n\\begin{align*}\n\\text{V} = \\dfrac{1}{2} M (L_{f'}^2+\\tilde{\\omega}L_{f''}) |\\mathbb{T}^2| \\Big( \\|e^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2 + \\|e^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^2}^2 \\Big)\n\\end{align*}\nInserting the estimates for terms I-IV and combine all the terms, we have\n\\begin{align*}\n& \\dfrac{1}{2\\tau}(\\|e^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^2}^2 - \\|e^{n}\\|_{h,L^2}^2 + \\|e^{n+1}-e^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2) + \\epsilon \\langle -\\Delta_h e^{n+1}, e^{n+1} \\rangle_h \\\\\n\\le\\ & - \\dfrac{\\kappa_h}{2\\epsilon}(\\|e^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^2}^2 - \\|e^{n}\\|_{h,L^2}^2 + \\|e^{n+1}-e^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2)  \\\\\n& + \\frac{1}{2}\\Big(\\dfrac{L_{W''}}{\\epsilon} + (L_{f'}^2 + \\tilde{\\omega}L_{f''}) \\big(\\gamma\\|(-\\Delta_h)^{-1}\\|+M|\\mathbb{T}^2| \\big) \\Big) \\Big( \\|e^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2 + \\|e^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^2}^2 \\Big) \\\\\n& + \\frac{1}{2}\\Big(\\|\\Gamma^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^2}^2 + \\|e^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^2}\\Big).\n\\end{align*}\nOwing to the condition (\\ref{eqn:discreteES_condition}), the estimate further becomes\n\\begin{align*}\n& \\dfrac{1}{2\\tau}(\\|e^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^2}^2 - \\|e^{n}\\|_{h,L^2}^2 + \\|e^{n+1}-e^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2) + \\epsilon \\langle -\\Delta_h e^{n+1}, e^{n+1} \\rangle_h \\\\\n\\le\\ & - \\dfrac{\\kappa_h}{2\\epsilon}\\Big(\\|e^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^2}^2 - \\|e^{n}\\|_{h,L^2}^2 + \\|e^{n+1}-e^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2\\Big) + \\frac{\\kappa_h}{2\\epsilon}\\Big( \\|e^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2 + \\|e^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^2}^2 \\Big) \\\\\n& + \\frac{1}{2}\\Big(\\|\\Gamma^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^2}^2 + \\|e^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^2}\\Big) \\\\\n=\\  & \\frac{\\kappa_h}{\\epsilon} \\|e^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2 - \\frac{\\kappa_h}{2\\epsilon} \\|e^{n+1}-e^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2 + \\frac{1}{2}\\Big(\\|\\Gamma^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^2}^2 + \\|e^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^2}\\Big) .\n\\end{align*}\nMultiplying $2\\tau$ on two sides, dropping the term involving $\\|e^{n+1}-e^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2$, and note that $\\langle -\\Delta_h e^{n+1}, e^{n+1} \\rangle_h \\ge 0$, the above inequality becomes\n\\begin{align*}\n\\|e^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^2}^2 - \\|e^{n}\\|_{h,L^2}^2  \\le \\frac{2\\kappa_h}{\\epsilon} \\tau \\|e^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2 +  \\tau \\|e^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^2}  + \\tau \\|\\Gamma^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^2}^2  .\n\\end{align*}\nSumming over $n$ and use $e^0 = 0$, we obtain\n\\begin{align*}\n\\|e^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2 & \\le \\frac{2\\kappa_h}{\\epsilon}\\tau \\sum_{j=0}^{n-1} \\|e^j\\|_{h,L^2}^2 + \\tau \\sum_{j=1}^{n} \\|e^j\\|_{h,L^2}^2 + n\\tau \\|\\Gamma^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^2}^2 \\\\\n& \\le \\tau \\|e^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2 + \\left(1+\\frac{2\\kappa_h}{\\epsilon}\\right) \\tau \\sum_{j=1}^{n-1}\\|e^j\\|_{h,L^2}^2 + T \\|\\Gamma^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^2}^2\n\\end{align*}\nIf the step size $\\tau$ is sufficiently small, say $\\tau \\le 1\/2$, then the above inequality becomes\n\\begin{align*}\n\\|e^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2  \\le  \\left(1+\\frac{2\\kappa_h}{\\epsilon}\\right) 2\\tau \\sum_{j=1}^{n-1}\\|e^j\\|_{h,L^2}^2 + 2T \\|\\Gamma^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^2}^2,\n\\end{align*}\nwhich lead to\n\\begin{align*}\n\\|e^n\\|_{h,L^2}^2 \\le e^{(1+2\\kappa_h\\epsilon^{-1})2\\tau(n-1)}2T\\|\\Gamma^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^2}^2 \\le e^{2T(1+2\\kappa_h\\epsilon^{-1})}2T |\\mathbb{T}^2| C_1^2(\\tau+h_1^2 + h_2^2)^2 = C^2(\\tau+h_1^2 + h_2^2)^2\n\\end{align*}\nowing to the Gronwall inequality and the fact that $\\|\\Gamma^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^2}^2 \\le |\\mathbb{T}^2| \\|\\Gamma^{n+1}\\|_{h,L^{\\infty}}^2$.\n\nSummarizing the above discussion lead to the following theorem:\n\\begin{theorem}\nGiven $T>0$ and an integer $N>0$ such that $\\tau = T\/N$ and $t_n = n\\tau$ for $n=0,1,\\cdots,N$. Assume the initial value $\\phi_0$ is smooth, periodic and bounded $0\\le \\phi_0 \\le 1$, and the exact solution $\\phi(x,t)$ is sufficiently smooth. Let the stabilization constant $\\kappa_h$ satisfy the condition (\\ref{eqn:discreteES_condition}). We denote by $\\{\\Phi^n\\}_{n=1}^N = \\{(\\Phi_{ij}^n)\\}_{n=1}^N$ the approximate solution calculated by the scheme (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_FullDiscrete}) with $\\Phi^0 = \\phi_0|_{\\mathbb{T}^2}$. If the step size $\\tau$ is sufficiently small, we have\n\\begin{align}\n\\|\\phi(t_n) - \\Phi^{n}\\|_{h,L^2} \\le C (\\tau + h_1^2 + h_2^2), \\quad n \\in [\\![ N]\\!],\n\\end{align}\nwhere $C>0$ is some generic constant which depends on $\\phi, T, \\kappa_h, \\epsilon, \\gamma, M, |\\mathbb{T}^2|$ but is independent of $\\tau, h_1, h_2$.\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{MPP schemes for a general Allen-Cahn type model}\\label{section:GeneralFramework}\n\nOur study on MPP can be extended into a more general setting. Consider a general Allen-Cahn type dynamics:\n\\begin{align}\\label{eqn:generalAC}\n\\dfrac{\\partial}{\\partial t} \\phi = \\epsilon\\Delta\\phi - \\dfrac{1}{\\epsilon}W'(\\phi) - \\mathcal{L}(f(\\phi)-\\omega)f'(\\phi) - M\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} (f(\\phi)-\\omega)\\ \\text{d}x\\cdot f'(\\phi),\n\\end{align}\nwhere $\\mathcal{L}$ is a positive semi-definite linear operator from $L^{\\infty}(\\mathbb{T}^d)$ to $L^{\\infty}(\\mathbb{T}^d)$ with the norm denoted by $\\|\\mathcal{L}\\|$. The last term on the right hand size counts for a possible volume constraint (\\ref{eqn:Volume}) when necessary. For instance, if $\\mathcal{L} = (-\\Delta)^{-1}$,  then the volume constraint (\\ref{eqn:Volume}) is necessary, and it recovers the pACOK dynamics (\\ref{eqn:pACOK}). If $\\mathcal{L} = (I - \\gamma^2\\Delta)^{-1}$, then the volume constraint is unnecessary, and we set $M = 0$. This general dynamics can be viewed as the $L^2$ gradient flow dynamics associated to the free energy functional\n\\begin{align}\\label{eqn:generalframework}\nE^{\\text{ge}}[\\phi] = \\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} \\frac{\\epsilon}{2}|\\nabla\\phi|^2 + \\frac{1}{\\epsilon}W(\\phi)\\ \\text{d}x + \\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} |\\mathcal{L}^{\\frac{1}{2}}(f(\\phi)-\\omega)|^2\\ \\text{d}x + \\frac{M}{2}\\Big( \\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} f(\\phi)-\\omega\\ \\text{d}x \\Big)^2,\n\\end{align}\nwhere depending on the different form of the operator $\\mathcal{L}$, we might or might not need the volume constraint.\n\nHere are some examples which fit into the general framework described above.\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item In the micromagnetic model for garnet films \\cite{CondetteMelcherSuli_MathComp2010} with $d = 2$, the operator $\\mathcal{L}$ is being characterized by its eigenvalues $\\lambda(k) = \\frac{1-\\exp(-\\delta|k|)}{\\delta|k|}$. Here $\\delta>0$ corresponds to the relative film thickness. There is no volume constraint in this model.\n\n\\item A nonlocal geometric variational problem studied by \\cite{RenTruskinovsky_Elasticity2000} takes $\\mathcal{L} = (I - \\gamma^2\\Delta)^{-1}$ with no volume constraint. This problem can lead to the FitzHugh-Nagumo system \\cite{ChenChoiHuRen_SIMA2018}.\n\n\\item We can consider a positive semi-define linear operator $\\mathcal{L}$ which is the inverse of the following nonlocal operator $\\mathcal{K}: L^2(\\mathbb{T}^d) \\rightarrow L^2(\\mathbb{T}^d)$\n\\begin{align*}\n\\mathcal{K}: v(x) \\longmapsto \\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} K(x-y) (v(x) - v(y))\\ \\text{d}y,\n\\end{align*}\nin which the kernel $K$ is nonnegative, radial, $\\mathbb{T}^d$-periodic with bounded second moment \\cite{Du_Book2020}. This can be viewed as a nonlocal OK model for the diblock copolymer system.\n\n\\item One example that cannot fit into the general framework (\\ref{eqn:generalframework}) but still satisfy the MPP property is  the phase field variational implicit solvation model (pVISM), in which the free energy is formulated as \\cite{Zhao_2018CMS}:\n\\[\nE^{\\text{pVISM}}[\\phi] = \\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} \\frac{\\epsilon}{2}|\\nabla\\phi|^2 + \\frac{1}{\\epsilon}W(\\phi)\\ \\text{d}x + \\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} f(\\phi(x)) U(x;X)\\ \\text{d}x.\n\\]\nHere $X = (x_1,\\cdots, x_m)$ are the locations of the $m$ solute atoms, and $U$ is the potential between the solute atoms $X$ and solvent molecules $x$ (for instance, water). The phase field $\\phi$ labels the solvent  so that the nonlocal interaction by $U$ takes integral only in the solvent region. The potential $U$ in pVISM typically consists of two parts, the solute-solvent van der Waals interaction and the electrostatic interaction.  Additionally, the potential $U$ is cut off as a constant near the solute atoms $X$ so that it remains bounded. See \\cite{Zhao_2018CMS} and the references therein for the detailed discussion. In the next section, we will use pVISM as an example to show that choosing $f(\\phi) = 3\\phi^2 - 2\\phi^3$ make the MPP while $f(\\phi) = \\phi$ violates the MPP. See Subsection \\ref{subsection:pVISM} for the details.\n\\end{itemize}\n\nIn this general setting, the $L^2$ gradient flow dynamics always hold the MPP as in the following theorem.\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{theorem:generalMPP_continuous}\nThe general $L^2$ gradient flow dynamics (\\ref{eqn:generalAC}) is maximum principle preserving, namely, if $0\\le \\phi_0 \\le 1$, then $0\\le \\phi(t) \\le 1$ for any $t>0$, provided that\n\\begin{align}\\label{eqn_MPPcondition_continuous_generalsetting}\n\\frac{\\epsilon\\tilde{\\omega}}{6}\\Big[ \\|\\mathcal{L}\\| + \\tilde{M} |\\mathbb{T}^d|  \\Big] \\le 1,\n\\end{align}\nwhere $\\tilde{M} = M$ if there is a volume constraint (\\ref{eqn:Volume}), and $\\tilde{M} = 0$ if there is no volume constraint.\n\\end{theorem}\nThe proof is identical to that of theorem \\ref{theorem:MPP_continuous} by replacing $\\gamma(-\\Delta)^{-1}$ by $\\mathcal{L}$, so we omit it.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Numerical simulations}\n\n\nIn this section, some numerical examples will be presented to validate the proposed schemes. Moreover some interesting patterns arising from the OK model will be shown. To begin with, let us briefly explain how to implement the numerical scheme (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_FullDiscreteII}). The implementation is as follows:\n\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item At the $n$-th step, take the Discrete Fourier Transform(DFT) on the right hand side $\\widehat{RHS}_{jk}$;\n\\item Calculate the DFT of $\\Phi^{n+1}$ as $\\hat{\\Phi}^{n+1}_{jk} = \\frac{\\widehat{RHS}_{jk}}{\\left(1+\\frac{\\tau\\kappa}{\\epsilon}\\right) + \\frac{4}{h_1^2}\\sin^2\\left(\\frac{j\\pi h_1}{2X_1}\\right) + \\frac{4}{h_2^2}\\sin^2\\left(\\frac{k\\pi h_2}{2X_2}\\right) }$;\n\\item Take the inverse DFT of $\\hat{\\Phi}^{n+1}_{jk}$ to obtain $\\Phi^{n+1}$ and move to the $(n+1)$-th step;\n\\end{enumerate}\n\nNow we solve the pACOK equation (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_FullDiscreteII}) coupled with periodic boundary condition. In this section, we fix $\\mathbb{T}^2 = [-1,1)^2 \\subset \\mathbb{R}^2$ and $N = N_1 = N_2 = 256$ unless stated otherwise. We set the stopping criteria for the time iteration by:\n\\begin{align}\n\\dfrac{\\|\\Phi^{n+1}-\\Phi^{n}\\|_{h,L^{\\infty}}}{\\tau} \\le \\text{TOL} = 10^{-3}.\n\\end{align}\nThe penalty constant is taken to be sufficiently large $M \\gg 1$. We take a sufficiently large value of $\\kappa_h>0$ to fulfill the energy stability condition (\\ref{eqn:discreteES_condition}) (and therefore fulfill the MPP condition (\\ref{eqn:MPP_condition2})), say $\\kappa_h = 2000$. Other parameters such as $\\epsilon, \\gamma, \\tau, \\omega$ might vary for different simulations.\n\n\\subsection{Rate of convergence}\n\nWe first of all test the convergence rates and the spatial accuracy of the scheme (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_FullDiscreteII}). For this numerical experiment, we fix $\\omega = 0.1$, and take a round disk as the initial data $\\Phi^0 = 0.5 + 0.5\\tanh(\\frac{r_0-r}{\\epsilon\/3})$ with $r_0 = \\sqrt{\\omega|\\mathbb{T}^2|\/\\pi}+0.1$.  The simulation is performed until $T = 0.02$. For the rate of convergence, we take the solution generated by the scheme (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_FullDiscreteII}) with $\\tau = 10^{-6}$ and $N=2^8$ (consequently $h = h_1 = h_2 = \\frac{2X_1}{N}=\\frac{1}{128}$) as the benchmark solution. Then we take several values of step size larger than $\\tau = 10^{-6}$, each is the half of the previous one, and compute the discrete $L^2$ error between the numerical solutions with larger step sizes and the benchmark one. Table \\ref{table:convergence_rates} presents the errors and the convergence rates based on the data at $T = 0.02$ for the scheme (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_FullDiscreteII}) with time step sizes being halved from $\\tau = 10^{-4}$ to $10^{-4}\/16$. We test the convergence rates for three different values of $\\epsilon = 5h, 10h $ and $20h$. $\\gamma = 100$ is fixed. We can see from the table that the numerically computed convergence rates all tend to approach the theoretical value 1.\n\n\\label{table:convergence_rates}\n\\begin{table}[H]\n\\begin{center}\n\\begin{tabular}{ccccccc}\n\n   & \\multicolumn{2}{c}{$\\epsilon = 5h$} &\\multicolumn{2}{c}{$\\epsilon = 10h$} &\\multicolumn{2}{c}{$\\epsilon = 20h$}  \\\\ \\hline\n$\\tau $ & Error & Rate & Error & Rate & Error & Rate \\\\ \\hline\n1e-4\/$2^0$ & 1.936e-1 & --- & 1.555e-1 & --- & 5.902e-2 & --- \\\\\n\n1e-4\/$2^1$ & 1.542e-1& 0.33 & 9.465e-2 & 0.72 & 2.376e-2 & 1.31\n\t \t \\\\\n1e-4\/$2^2$ & 1.076e-1 & 0.52 & 4.858e-2& 0.96 & 9.233e-3 & 1.36\n\t \t \\\\\n1e-4\/$2^3$ & 6.423e-2 & 0.74 & 2.247e-2& 1.11 & 3.752e-3 & 1.29\n\t\t \\\\\n1e-4\/$2^4$ & 3.270e-2 & 0.97 & 9.787e-3 & 1.20 & 1.556e-3  & 1.27\n\t \t \\\\ \t\n1e-6 (BM)  & --- & ---& --- & ---& --- & ---\\\\ \\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{The errors and the corresponding convergence rates at time $T=0.02$ by the scheme (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_FullDiscreteII}) for different values of $\\epsilon$. In this simulation, $\\omega = 0.1, \\gamma = 100, M = 1000, \\kappa_h = 2000, N = 256$.}\n\\end{table}\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Comparison between $f(\\phi) = 3\\phi^2 - 2\\phi^3$ and $f(\\phi) = \\phi$ regarding to MPP} \\label{subsection:pVISM}\n\nIn this section, we show an example to see the effect of $f(\\phi) = 3\\phi^2 - 2\\phi^3$ on MPP. We consider the 1D pVISM system with $f(\\phi) = 3\\phi^2 - 2\\phi^3$, which holds the MPP theoretically, and with $f(\\phi) = \\phi$, the traditional choice which might lose the MPP. The parameters are taken as $L_x = 5, N = 1024, \\epsilon = 50h, \\kappa_h = 2000$. The solute atom $X = {(0)}$ (i.e. single solute atom system), and the potential function $U(x;X)$ reads:\n\\[\nU(x;X) = \\rho_{\\text{w}}\\cdot \\frac{1}{4\\epsilon_{\\text{LJ}}}\\bigg[\\Big(\\frac{\\sigma_0}{x_{\\text{cut}}}\\Big)^{12} - \\Big(\\frac{\\sigma_0}{x_{\\text{cut}}}\\Big)^{6}\\bigg] + \\frac{Q^2}{8\\pi\\epsilon_0}\\Big( \\frac{1}{\\epsilon_{\\text{w}}} - \\frac{1}{\\epsilon_{\\text{m}}}\\Big)\\frac{1}{x_{\\text{cut}}^2}.\n\\]\nHere $\\rho_{\\text{w}} = 0.0333 \\mathring{\\text{A}}^{-3}$ is the constant solvent (water) density, $\\epsilon_{\\text{LJ}} = 0.3 k_{\\text{B}}T$ is the depth of the Lennard-Jones potential well associated with the solute atom, $\\sigma_0 = 3.5 \\mathring{A}$ is the finite distance at which the Lenard-Jones potential of the solute atom is zero, $x_{\\text{cut}} = \\max\\{|x|,2.5\\}$ is the cutoff distance of $x$ from solute atom, $Q = 1e$ is the partial charge of the solute atom, $\\epsilon_0 = 1.4321\\times 10^{-4} e^2\/(k_{\\text{B}}T\\mathring{\\text{A}})$ is the vacuum permittivity, $\\epsilon_{\\text{m}} = 1$ is the relative permittivity of the solute, and $\\epsilon_{\\text{w}} = 80$ is the relative permittivity of the solvent. See \\cite{Zhao_2018CMS} for the model details.\n\nFigure \\ref{fig:pVISM} depicts the numerical equilibrium by taking $f(\\phi) = 3\\phi^2 - 2\\phi^3$ and $f(\\phi) = \\phi$ in the pVISM system. One can see that for the model with $f(\\phi) = 3\\phi^2 - 2\\phi^3$, the numerical equilibrium remains bounded between 0 and 1, the same as  the theoretical prediction. On the contrary, if $f(\\phi) = \\phi$, the numerical equilibrium becomes smaller than 0 inside the interface, and greater than 1 outside the interface. Of course, the violation of MPP can be mitigated by letting $\\epsilon \\rightarrow 0$ by the $\\Gamma$-convergence theory \\cite{LiZhao_SIAM2013}. However, in real applications, especially in the 3d simulations, $\\epsilon$ has to remain relatively large to reduce the computational cost. Therefore, the choice of $f(\\phi) = 3\\phi^2 - 2\\phi^3$ is advantageous of keeping the hyperbolic tangent profile of $\\phi$, bounding $0\\le \\phi \\le 1$ and localizing the forces only near the interfaces even for a relatively large $\\epsilon$.\n\n\\begin{figure}[!htbp]\n\\centerline{\n\\includegraphics[width=150mm]{Figures\/pVISM.eps}\n }\n\\caption{Numerical comparison between the model with $f(\\phi) = 3\\phi^2 - 2\\phi^3$ and the one with $f(\\phi) = \\phi$ for the pVISM system. The model with $f(\\phi) = 3\\phi^2 - 2\\phi^3$ holds the MPP, while the MPP is violated when taking $f(\\phi) = \\phi$.}\n\\label{fig:pVISM}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\\subsection{1D coarsening dynamics and MPP}\n\n\n\nIn this section, we verify the MPP and energy stability for the numerical scheme (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_FullDiscreteII}) for the 1D case. We take a piecewise constant function as the initial, with the constant values generated randomly between 0 and 0.8. In the simulation, the parameter values are $T = 1000, \\omega = 0.3, \\gamma = 500, M = 2000, \\tau = 10^{-3}, \\kappa = 2000$. Figure \\ref{fig:1dcoarsening_gamma500} shows the coarsening dynamics in which the system experiences phase separation from the random initial, then bumps appear from coarsening, evolve into same size, and finally are separated in equal distance.  The light blue curve (values labeled on the left $y$-axis) records the discrete $L^{\\infty}$ norm for the solution $2\\Phi^n-1$ (note that $|2\\Phi^n-1|\\le 1$ is equivalent to  $0\\le \\Phi^n \\le 1$), which clearly implies the boundedness of $\\Phi^n$ between 0 and 1. The red curve (values labeled on the right $y$-axis) represents the discrete energy $E_h^{\\text{pOK}}[\\Phi^n]$ in (\\ref{eqn:discreteEnergy}) which is monotonically decreasing. Indicated by different colors, the four insets correspond to the four snapshots at $t = 0, 10, 500, 1000$ of the coarsening dynamics.\n\nNow we fix all parameter values as they are in Figure \\ref{fig:1dcoarsening_gamma500} but change $\\gamma = 2000$, a larger value than it was. As $\\gamma$ represents strength of the long-range repulsive interaction, we expect that a larger $\\gamma$ generates more bumps. This is verified by Figure \\ref{fig:1dcoarsening_gamma2000} in which the system still start from a randomly generated initial, but end up with six equally-sized equally-separated bumps. Meanwhile MPP and energy stability are still held as expected.\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[!htbp]\n\\centerline{\n\\includegraphics[width=150mm]{Figures\/OK_1d_kappa500.eps}\n }\n\\caption{A 1D coarsening dynamics process with a small repulsive strength $\\gamma$. In this simulation, the parameter values are $T = 1000, \\omega = 0.3, \\gamma = 500, M = 2000, \\tau = 10^{-3}, \\kappa = 2000$. The light blue curve records the discrete $L^{\\infty}$ norm for the solution $\\Phi^n$, which is clearly bounded between 0 and 1. The red curve represents the discrete energy $E_h^{\\text{pOK}}[\\Phi^n]$ in (\\ref{eqn:discreteEnergy}) which is monotonically decreasing. The four insets are snapshots at different times.}\n\\label{fig:1dcoarsening_gamma500}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[!htbp]\n\\centerline{\n\\includegraphics[width=150mm]{Figures\/OK_1d_kappa2000.eps}\n }\n\\caption{A 1D coarsening dynamics process with a large repulsive strength $\\gamma$. In this simulation, the parameter values are $T = 1000, \\omega = 0.3, \\gamma = 2000, M = 2000, \\tau = 10^{-3}, \\kappa = 2000$.}\n\\label{fig:1dcoarsening_gamma2000}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{2D coarsening dynamics and MPP}\n\nIn this section, we solve the equation (\\ref{eqn:pACOK_FullDiscreteII}) in 2D and explore the corresponding discrete MPP and discrete energy stability.  We take a $256\\times 256$ mesh grid and $T = 100, \\omega = 0.15, \\gamma = 2000, M = 10^{4}, \\tau = 2\\cdot 10^{-4}, \\kappa = 2000$. Similar as in the 1D case, a 2D random initial is generated on a coarse grid. The coarsening dynamics is presented in Figure \\ref{fig:2dcoarsening_gamma1000} in which the random initial is phase separated within a very short time period, resulting in a group of bubbles with different sizes, then the tiny bubbles disappear, other bubbles evolves into equal size, and eventually all the equally-sized bubbles become equally distanced, forming a hexagonal pattern in the 2D domain $\\mathbb{T}^2$. Just like the 1D case, we see that the 2D coarsening dynamics also enjoy the MPP property and energy stability in the discrete sense as the theory predicts in the previous sections. The insets are snapshots taken at $t = 0, 1, 10, 100$, each of which has a colored title indicating the corresponding colored marker on the two curves.\n\nWhen the value of $\\gamma$ become larger, say $\\gamma = 2000$, but other parameter values are fixed, the stronger long-range repulsive interaction between bubbles lead to more bubbles of equal size and equal distance. This result is depicted in Figure \\ref{fig:2dcoarsening_gamma2000} in which the MPP and energy stability are still held.\n\n\\begin{figure}[!htbp]\n\\centerline{\n\\includegraphics[width=150mm]{Figures\/OK_2d_kappa1000.eps}\n }\n\\caption{A 2D coarsening dynamics process with a small repulsive strength $\\gamma$. In this simulation, the parameter values are $T = 100, \\omega = 0.15, \\gamma = 1000, M = 10^4, \\tau = 2\\cdot10^{-4}, \\kappa = 2000$. The light blue curve is the discrete $L^{\\infty}$ norm of $2\\Phi^n-1$ which implies the bound of $\\Phi^n$ between 0 and 1, while the red curve indicates the monotonic decay of the discrete energy $E_h^{\\text{pOK}}$. The four insets are snapshots at different times. }\n\\label{fig:2dcoarsening_gamma1000}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}[!htbp]\n\\centerline{\n\\includegraphics[width=150mm]{Figures\/OK_2d_kappa2000.eps}\n }\n\\caption{A 2D coarsening dynamics process with a large repulsive strength $\\gamma = 2000$. Other parameters are the same as that for Figure \\ref{fig:2dcoarsening_gamma1000}. Larger $\\gamma$ lead to more bubbles forming hexagonal pattern.}\n\\label{fig:2dcoarsening_gamma2000}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Summary}\n\nIn this paper, we explore the MPP property for the pACOK equation and propose a first order stabilized linear semi-implicit scheme which inherits the MPP and the energy stability in the discrete level. The third order polynomial $f(\\phi) = 3\\phi^2 - 2\\phi^3$ plays a key role in the proof of MPP for the system. We prove the MPP and energy stability in the semi-discrete and fully-discrete level  in which the nonlinear terms $W$ and $f$ need not to be extended to have bounded second order derivative.\n\nIn the numerical experiments, we test the rate of convergence for the proposed scheme. We also show that in some examples, a traditional choice of $f(\\phi) = \\phi$ could violate the MPP. When $\\omega \\ll 1$, the pACOK dynamics displays pattern of hexagonal bubble assemblies. When the repulsive long-range interaction becomes stronger, there will be more bubbles appearing in the hexagonal equilibria.\n\nThis work can be extended along several directions. Firstly, we can study for higher order MPP schemes for the pACOK equation, or generally binary systems with long-range interactions. Secondly, we can further consider the MPP scheme for ternary systems, or a more general system of $N+1$ constituents in which $N$ phase field functions $\\{\\phi_j\\}_{j=1}^N$ are introduced to represent the densities of the $N$ constituents, and the $(N+1)$-th one is implicitly represented by $1- \\sum_{j=1}^N \\phi_j$.\n\nIn this paper, we mainly explore the numerical scheme for $L^2$ gradient flow dynamics based on operator splitting technique. Some other numerical methods, such as exponential time differencing based schemes, could be alternative choices for the MPP scheme, which will also be considered in the future.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Appendix}\\label{s:Appendix}\n\nIn the appendix, we briefly discuss the wellposedness of the pACOK dynamics (\\ref{eqn:pACOK}) and the $L^{\\infty}$ bound for the solution of (\\ref{eqn:pACOK}).\n\n\\begin{definition}\nLet $d = 2$ or 3. We call $\\phi(t,x)$ a global weak solution to problem (\\ref{eqn:pACOK}) if for any $T>0$, $\\phi(t,x)$ satisfies\n\\[\n\\phi \\in C([0,T]; L^p(\\mathbb{T}^d)) \\cap L^{\\infty}(0,T; H^1(\\mathbb{T}^d)) \\cap L^{2}(0,T;H^2(\\mathbb{T}^d)), \\quad p \\in [2,6)\n\\]\nand the initial condition $\\phi(0,x) = \\phi_0(x)$. Further, for any $t\\in(0,T]$, any test function $w\\in L^2(\\mathbb{T}^d)$, it holds\n\\begin{align*}\n&\\frac{\\text{d}}{\\text{d}t} \\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} \\phi(t,x) w(x) \\ \\text{d}x \\\\\n= & \\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} \\bigg[\\epsilon\\Delta\\phi - \\dfrac{1}{\\epsilon}W'(\\phi) - \\gamma(-\\Delta)^{-1}(f(\\phi)-\\omega)f'(\\phi) - M\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^d} (f(\\phi)-\\omega)\\ \\text{d}x\\cdot f'(\\phi) \\bigg] w(x) \\text{d}x\n\\end{align*}\nin the distributional sense in $(0,T)$.\n\\end{definition}\n\nWith the definition of the weak solution for the problem (\\ref{eqn:pACOK}), we are now ready to state the theorem for its wellposedness.\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{theorem:wellposedness}\nLet $d = 2$ or 3, and the initial data $\\phi_0\\in H^1(\\mathbb{T}^d)$. Then there exists a unique global weak solution $\\phi$ to the problem (\\ref{eqn:pACOK}). Further, the free energy $E^{\\emph{pOK}}$ in (\\ref{functional:pOK}) decreases as time evolves.\n\\end{theorem}\nThe proof is a standard procedure by following De Giorgi's minimizing movement scheme \\cite{Ambrosio_Rend1995,DeGiorgi_RMA1993}. We have a preprint discussing the wellposedness of a more complicated ternary system with long-range interaction, for which the proof of Theorem \\ref{theorem:wellposedness} can be viewed as a straightforward application. Therefore we will omit the proof here and recommend the readers to refer to \\cite{JooXuZhao_Preprint2020} for the details.\n\nOur next result is regarding to the $L^{\\infty}$ bound for the weak solution $\\phi(t,x)$ of the problem (\\ref{eqn:pACOK}), which can be achieved by De Giorgi's iteration \\cite{Chen_Book2003,WuYinWang_Book2006}. Note that in this case, the result holds only for $d = 2$. To begin with, we need an algebraic lemma. Without causing any confusions, we point out that the notations $M, h, k, d, \\alpha, \\beta$ picked below are exclusively for Lemma \\ref{lemma-algebra}, and might not mean the same as they are used elsewhere.\n\n\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{lemma-algebra}\nLet $\\mu(t)$ be a nonnegative, non-increasing function on $[k_0, +\\infty)$ that satisfies\n\\begin{equation}\\label{growth-condition}\n\\mu(h)\\leq\\Big(\\frac{M}{h-k}\\Big)^{\\alpha}\\mu(k)^{\\beta}, \\quad\\forall h>k\\geq k_0,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $M>0$, $\\alpha>0$, $\\beta>1$ are all constants. Then we can find a constant $d>0$ such that\n$$\n  \\mu(h)=0, \\quad\\forall h\\geq k_0+d.\n$$\n\\end{lemma}\n\\begin{proof}\nTo begin with, let\n\\[\nk_s=k_0+d-\\frac{d}{2^s}, \\quad\\forall s\\in\\mathbb{Z}^+,\n\\]\nwhere $d$ is defined to be\n\\begin{align}\\label{definition-d}\nd=M2^{\\frac{\\beta}{\\beta-1}}\\mu(k_0)^{\\frac{\\beta-1}{\\alpha}}.\n\\end{align}\nTake $h = k_{s+1}$ and $k = k_s$ in (\\ref{growth-condition}), it yields the recursive relation\n\\begin{equation}\\label{recursive}\n\\mu(k_{s+1})\\leq\\frac{M^{\\alpha}2^{(s+1)\\alpha}}{d^{\\alpha}}\\mu(k_s)^{\\beta}, \\quad\\forall s\\in\\mathbb{Z}^+.\n\\end{equation}\n\nNext we claim that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{claim}\n\\mu(k_s)\\leq\\frac{\\mu(k_0)}{r^s}, \\quad\\forall s\\in\\mathbb{Z}^+,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $r>0$ is a constant defined as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{definition-r}\nr=2^{\\frac{\\alpha}{\\beta-1}}>1.\n\\end{equation}\nOnce \\eqref{claim} is verified, the proof of Lemma \\ref{lemma-algebra} is done by simply passing $s\\rightarrow \\infty$\nand using the assumption that $\\mu$ is non-increasing.\n\nWe finally prove (\\ref{claim}) by induction. Suppose (\\ref{claim}) is valid for $s$, then we obtain from (\\ref{definition-d}), (\\ref{recursive}) and (\\ref{definition-r}) that\n\\begin{align}\n\\mu(k_{s+1})\\leq\\frac{M^{\\alpha}2^{(s+1)\\alpha}}{d^{\\alpha}}\\frac{\\mu(k_0)^\\beta}{r^{\\beta{s}}}\n = \\frac{M^{\\alpha}2^{(s+1)\\alpha}}{M^{\\alpha}r^{\\beta}\\mu(k_0)^{\\beta-1}}\\frac{\\mu(k_0)^\\beta}{r^{\\beta{s}}}\n = \\dfrac{\\mu(k_0)}{r^{s+1}} \\dfrac{r^{s+1}2^{(s+1)\\alpha}}{r^{\\beta(s+1)}}\n = \\frac{\\mu(k_0)}{r^{s+1}}\n\\end{align}\nHence \\eqref{claim} is also valid if $s$ is replaced by $s+1$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\nNow we can present our result regarding to the $L^{\\infty}$ bound for the weak solution to the problem (\\ref{eqn:pACOK}) with initial data $\\phi_0$ in 2D.\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{theorem: Linfity}\nFor any $\\phi_0\\in H^1(\\mathbb{T}^2)\\cap L^\\infty(\\mathbb{T}^2)$ and $T>0$, the unique weak solution\n\\[\n \\phi\\in L^\\infty(0, T; H^1(\\mathbb{T}^2))\\cap L^2(0, T; H^2(\\mathbb{T}^2))\n\\]\nto the problem (\\ref{eqn:pACOK}) satisfies\n\\begin{equation}\n\\|\\phi\\|_{L^\\infty([0,T]\\times\\mathbb{T}^2)}\\leq\\|\\phi_0\\|_{L^\\infty}+C^\\ast,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $C^\\ast>0$ is a constant that only depends on $\\|\\phi_0\\|_{H^1}, \\epsilon^{-1}, \\omega, \\gamma$ and $M$.\n\\end{theorem}\n\\begin{proof}\nLet us denote\n\\[\n  l=\\|\\phi_0\\|_{L^\\infty},\n\\]\nthe test function\n\\[\n\\xi(t,x)=(\\phi(t,x)-k)^+\\chi_{[t_1,t_2]},\\quad\\forall k>l\\ \\text{and}\\ t_2>t_1\n\\]\nand\n\\[\n\\tilde{F}(\\phi)=-\\frac{1}{\\epsilon}W'(\\phi)-\\gamma(-\\Delta)^{-1}\\big(f(\\phi)-\\omega\\big)f'(\\phi)-M\\Big(\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^2}(f(\\phi) - \\omega)\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\\Big)f'(\\phi)\n\\]\nThen it is immediate to check for any $p>2$, there exists $M_1>0$ that only depends on $p$, $\\|\\phi_0\\|_{H^1}$, and coefficients of the equation, such that\n\\[\n\\|\\tilde{F}(\\phi(t))\\|_{L^p}\\leq M_1, \\quad\\forall t\\in [0, T].\n\\]\nConsider $\\xi$ as a test function for the weak solution $\\phi$, we obtain that\n\\begin{align}\\label{integral-equality-1}\n&\\iint_{[0, T]\\times\\mathbb{T}^2}\\partial_t(\\phi-k)^+(\\phi-k)^+\\chi_{[t_1,t_2]}\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\\mathrm{d}{t}+\\iint_{[0, T]\\times\\mathbb{T}^2}\\big|\\nabla(\\phi-k)^+\\big|^2\\chi_{[t_1,t_2]}\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\\mathrm{d}{t}\\nonumber\\\\\n=&\\iint_{[0, T]\\times\\mathbb{T}^2}\\tilde{F}(\\phi)(\\phi-k)^+\\chi_{[t_1,t_2]}\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\\mathrm{d}{t}.\n\\end{align}\nIf we denote\n\\[\n\\mathrm{I}_k(t)=\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^2}|(\\phi(t,x)-k)^+|^2\\,\\mathrm{d}{x},\n\\]\nwe get from \\eqref{integral-equality-1} that\n\\begin{align}\\label{integral-inequality-1}\n\\frac12\\Big[\\mathrm{I}_k(t_2)-\\mathrm{I}_k(t_1)\\Big]+\\int_{t_1}^{t_2}\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^2}\\big|\\nabla(\\phi-k)^+\\big|^2\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\\mathrm{d}{t}\n\\leq\\int_{t_1}^{t_2}\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^2}\\big|\\tilde{F}(\\phi)\\big|(\\phi-k)^+\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\\mathrm{d}{t}.\n\\end{align}\n\nSuppose $\\mathrm{I}_k(t)$ attains its maximum value at $s\\in [0, T]$ (assume $s>0$ without loss of generalization). Then\n\\[\n\\mathrm{I}_k(s)-\\mathrm{I}_k(s-\\eps)\\geq 0,\n\\]\nfor any $0<\\eps<s$, hence we derive from \\eqref{integral-inequality-1} that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{integral-inequality-2}\n\\int_{s-\\eps}^{s}\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^2}\\big|\\nabla(\\phi-k)^+\\big|^2\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\\mathrm{d}{t}\n\\leq\\int_{s-\\eps}^{s}\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^2}\\big|\\tilde{F}(\\phi)\\big|(\\phi-k)^+\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\\mathrm{d}{t}.\n\\end{equation}\nLet us divide both sides of \\eqref{integral-inequality-2} by $\\eps$ and send $\\eps\\rightarrow 0^+$, it yields\n\\begin{equation}\\label{key-inequality-1}\n\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^2}\\big|\\nabla(\\phi(s,x)-k)^+\\big|^2\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\\leq \\int_{\\mathbb{T}^2}\\big|\\tilde{F}(\\phi(s,x))\\big|(\\phi(s,x)-k)^+\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\n\\end{equation}\n\nLet us denote\n$$\n  \\varphi(t,x)=(\\phi(t,x)-k)^+, \\quad\\overline{\\varphi}(t)=\\frac{1}{|\\mathbb{T}^2|}\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^2}\\varphi(t,x)\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}.\n$$\nBy Sobolev embedding, Poincare's inequality and Young's inequality, we have\n\\begin{align}\\label{Sobolev-embedding}\n\\Big(\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^2}|\\varphi(s, x)|^p\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\\Big)^{\\frac{2}{p}}\n&\\leq C\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^2}|\\varphi(s,x)|^2\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}+C\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^2}|\\nabla\\varphi(s,x)|^2\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\\nonumber \\\\\n&\\leq C\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^2}|\\varphi(s,x)-\\overline{\\varphi}(s)|^2\\,dx+C\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^2}|\\overline{\\varphi}(s)|^2\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}+C\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^2}|\\nabla\\varphi(s,x)|^2\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\\nonumber \\\\\n&\\leq C\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^2}|\\nabla\\varphi(s,x)|^2\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}+C\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^2}|\\varphi(s,x)|^2\\,\\mathrm{d}{x},\n\\end{align}\nwhere $C>0$ is a generic constant. If we further denote\n$$\n  F(t,x)=|\\tilde{F}(\\phi(t,x))|+|\\varphi(t, x)|,\n$$\nthen $\\forall p>2$ we get\nafter combining \\eqref{key-inequality-1} with \\eqref{Sobolev-embedding} that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{key-inequality-2}\n\\Big(\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^2}|\\varphi(s, x)|^p\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\\Big)^{\\frac{2}{p}}\\leq C\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^2}F(s, x)|\\varphi(s,x)|\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}.\n\\end{equation}\nNote that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{bound-F}\n\\|F(t)\\|_{L^p}\\leq M_2, \\quad\\forall t\\in [0, T].\n\\end{equation}\n\nNext, we denote\n$$\n  B_k(t)=\\{x\\in\\mathbb{T}^2: \\phi(t, x)>k\\}.\n$$\nThen it follows from \\eqref{key-inequality-2} and  H\\\"{o}lder's inequality that\n$$\n  \\Big(\\int_{B_k(s)}|\\varphi(s, x)|^p\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\\Big)^{\\frac{2}{p}}\\leq C\\int_{B_k(s)}F(s, x)|\\varphi(s,x)|\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\n  \\leq C\\Big(\\int_{B_k(s)}|\\varphi(s, x)|^p\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\\Big)^{\\frac{1}{p}}\\Big(\\int_{B_k(s)}|F(s, x)|^q\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\\Big)^{\\frac{1}{q}} ,\n$$\nwhere $q$ is the H\\\"older conjugate of $p$. It further implies\n\\begin{equation}\\label{key-inequality-3}\n\\Big(\\int_{B_k(s)}|\\varphi(s, x)|^p\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\\Big)^{\\frac{1}{p}}\\leq C\\Big(\\int_{B_k(s)}|F(s, x)|^q\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\\Big)^{\\frac{1}{q}},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $C>0$ only depends on $p$, $\\|\\phi_0\\|_{H^1}$, and coefficients of equation (\\ref{eqn:pACOK}). As a consequence, for any $1<m<p-1$ and its H\\\"older conjugate $m'$, it follows from \\eqref{key-inequality-3} that\n\\begin{align}\\label{key-inequality-4}\n\\Big(\\int_{B_k(s)}|\\varphi(s, x)|^p\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\\Big)^{\\frac{1}{p}}\n\\leq C\\Big(\\int_{B_k(s)} 1^m\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\\Big)^{\\frac{1}{mq}}\\Big(\\int_{\\mathbb{T}^2}|F(s, x)|^{m'q}\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\\Big)^{\\frac{1}{m'q}}\n\\leq C|B_k(s)|^{\\frac{p-1}{mp}}\n\\end{align}\n\nTo conclude, on one hand, using H\\\"{o}lder inequality and \\eqref{key-inequality-4} yield\n\\begin{align}\\label{direction-1}\n\\mathrm{I}_k(t)\\leq\\mathrm{I}_k(s)\\leq \\Big(\\int_{B_k(s)}|\\varphi(s, x)|^p\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\\Big)^{\\frac{2}{p}}|B_k(s)|^{\\frac{p-2}{p}}\n\\leq C|B_k(s)|^{\\frac{2p-2}{mp}+\\frac{p-2}{p}}, \\quad\\forall t\\in [0, T].\n\\end{align}\nOn the other hand\n\\begin{align}\\label{direction-2}\n(h-k)^2|B_h(t)|\\leq\\int_{B_h(t)}\\big|(\\phi-k)^+\\big|^2\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\\leq\\int_{B_k(t)}\\big|(\\phi-k)^+\\big|^2\\,\\mathrm{d}{x}\\leq\\mathrm{I}_k(t), \\quad\\forall h>k,\\,t\\in [0, T]\n\\end{align}\ndue to the fact that $\\varphi\\geq h-k$ on $B_h(t)$ and $B_h(t)\\subset B_k(t)$. Therefore, if we denote\n$$\n  \\mu(k)=\\sup_{t\\in[0, T]}|B_k(t)|,\n$$\nwe get from \\eqref{direction-1} and \\eqref{direction-2} that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{iterative-inequality}\n\\mu(h)\\leq \\Big(\\frac{C}{h-k}\\Big)^2\\mu(k)^{\\frac{2p-2}{mp}+\\frac{p-2}{p}}.\n\\end{equation}\nNote that\n$$\n  \\frac{2p-2}{mp}+\\frac{p-2}{p}>1\n$$\nby the choice of $m$, $p$, hence using Lemma \\ref{lemma-algebra} we know that\n$$\n  \\mu(l+C^\\ast)=\\sup_{t\\in [0, T]}|B_{k+C^\\ast}(t)|=0,\n$$\nwhich indicates\n\\begin{equation}\n\\phi(t, x)\\leq l+C^\\ast, \\quad\\forall (t, x)\\in [0, T]\\times\\mathbb{T}^2.\n\\end{equation}\nHence the proof is complete.\n\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Acknowledgements}\n\nX. Xu's work is supported by a grant from the Simons  Foundation through grant No. 635288;\nY. Zhao's work is supported by a grant from the Simons Foundation through Grant No. 357963.\n\n\n\n\n\\newpage\n\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\nThe detection of the primordial B-mode power spectrum by the BICEP2 collaboration confirms\nthe existence of primordial gravitational wave, and the observed B-mode power\nspectrum gives the constraint on the tensor-to-scalar ratio\nwith $r=0.20^{+0.07}_{-0.05}$ at $1\\sigma$ level for the lensed-$\\Lambda$CDM model \\cite{Ade:2014xna}.\nFurthermore, $r=0$ is disfavored  at $7.0\\sigma$ level. The new constraints on $r$\nand the spectral index $n_s$ exclude a wide class of inflationary models.\nFor the inflation model with non-minimal coupling with gravity \\cite{Kallosh:2013tua}, a universal\nattractor at strong coupling was found with $n_s=1-2\/N$ and $r=12\/N^2$. This model is inconsistent\nwith the BICEP2 result $r\\gtrsim 0.1$ at $2\\sigma$ level\nbecause the BICEP2 constraint on $r$ requires the number of e-folds $N=\\sqrt{12\/r}\\lesssim \\sqrt{120}\\approx 11$\nwhich is not enough to solve the horizon problem. If we require $N=50$,\nthen $r=0.0048$, so the model is excluded by the BICEP2 result. For the small-field inflation\nlike the hilltop inflation with the potential $V(\\phi)=V_0[1-(\\phi\/\\mu)^p]$ \\cite{Albrecht:1982wi,Boubekeur:2005zm},\n$r\\sim 0$, so the model is excluded by the BICEP2 result.\n\nWithout the running of the spectral index, the combination of {\\em Planck}+WP+highL data gives\n$n_s=0.9600\\pm 0.0072$ and $r_{0.002}<0.0457$ at the 68\\% confidence level for\nthe $\\Lambda$CDM model \\cite{Ade:2013zuv,Ade:2013uln} which is in tension\nwith the BICEP2 result. When the running of the spectral index is included in the data fitting,\nthe same combination gives $n_s=0.957\\pm 0.015$, $n_s'=dn_s\/d\\ln k=-0.022^{+0.020}_{-0.021}$\nand $r_{0.002}<0.263$ at the 95\\% confidence level \\cite{Ade:2013zuv,Ade:2013uln}.\nTo give a consistent constraint on $r$\nfor the combination of {\\em Planck}+WP+highL data and the BICEP2 data, we require\na running of the spectral index $n_s'<-0.002$ at the 95\\% confidence level.\nFor the single field inflation, the spectral index $n_s$ for the\nscalar perturbation deviates from the Harrison-Zel'dovich value of $1$ in the order of $10^{-2}$, so\n$n_s'$ is in the order of $10^{-3}$. The explanation of large $r$ and $n_s'$ is a challenge to\nsingle field inflation. In light of the BICEP2 data, several attempts were proposed to explain the large value\nof $r$ \\cite{Lizarraga:2014eaa,Harigaya:2014qza,Contaldi:2014zua,Collins:2014yua,Byrnes:2014xua,Anchordoqui:2014uua,Harigaya:2014sua,\nNakayama:2014koa,Zhao:2014rna,\nCook:2014dga,Kobayashi:2014jga,Miranda:2014wga,Masina:2014yga,Hamada:2014iga,Hertzberg:2014aha,\nDent:2014rga,Joergensen:2014rya,Freese:2014nla,Ashoorioon:2014nta,Ashoorioon:2013eia,\nChoudhury:2014kma,Choudhury:2013iaa,Hotchkiss:2011gz,BenDayan:2009kv}.\nIn this Letter, we use the chaotic and natural inflation models to\nexplain the challenge.\n\n\\section{Slow-roll Inflation}\n\nThe slow-roll parameters are defined as\n\\begin{gather}\n\\label{slow1}\n\\epsilon=\\frac{M_{pl}^2V_\\phi^2}{2V^2},\\\\\n\\label{slow2}\n\\eta=\\frac{M_{pl}^2V_{\\phi\\phi}}{V},\\\\\n\\label{slow3}\n\\xi=\\frac{M_{pl}^4V_\\phi V_{\\phi\\phi\\phi}}{V^2},\n\\end{gather}\nwhere $M^2_{pl}=(8\\pi G)^{-1}$, $V_\\phi=dV(\\phi)\/d\\phi$, $V_{\\phi\\phi}=d^2V(\\phi)\/d\\phi^2$\nand $V_{\\phi\\phi\\phi}=d^3V(\\phi)\/d\\phi^3$. For the single field inflation, the spectral indices,\nthe tensor-to-scalar ratio and the running are\ngiven by\n\\begin{gather}\n\\label{nsdef}\nn_s-1\\approx 2\\eta-6\\epsilon,\\\\\n\\label{rdef}\nr\\approx 16\\epsilon\\approx -8n_t,\\\\\n\\label{rundef}\nn_s'=dn_s\/d\\ln k\\approx 16\\epsilon\\eta-24\\epsilon^2-2\\xi.\n\\end{gather}\nThe number of e-folds before the end of inflation is given by\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{efolddef}\nN(t)=\\int_t^{t_e}Hdt\\approx \\frac{1}{M_{pl}^2}\\int_{\\phi_e}^\\phi\\frac{V(\\phi)}{V_\\phi(\\phi)}d\\phi,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere the value $\\phi_e$ of the inflaton field at the end of inflation is defined by $\\epsilon(\\phi_e)=1$.\nThe scalar power spectrum is\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{power}\n\\mathcal{P}_{\\mathcal{R}}=A_s\\left(\\frac{k}{k_*}\\right)^{n_s-1+n_s'\\ln(k\/k_*)\/2},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere the subscript ``*\" means the value at the horizon crossing, the scalar amplitude\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{power1}\nA_s\\approx \\frac{1}{24\\pi^2M^4_{pl}}\\frac{\\Lambda^4}{\\epsilon}.\n\\end{equation}\nWith the BICEP2 result $r=0.2$, the energy scale of inflation is $\\Lambda\\sim 2.2\\times 10^{16}$GeV.\n\nFor the chaotic inflation with the power-law potential $V(\\phi)=\\Lambda^4(\\phi\/M_{pl})^p$ \\cite{linde83}, the slow-roll parameters\nare $\\epsilon=p\/(4N_*)$, $\\eta=(p-1)\/(2N_*)$ and $\\xi=(p-1)(p-2)\/(4N^2_*)$. The spectral index $n_s=1-(p+2)\/(2N_*)$,\nthe running of the spectral index $n_s'=-(2+p)\/(2N_*^2)=-2(1-n_s)^2\/(p+2)<0$ and the tensor-to-scalar ratio $r=4p\/N_*=8p(1-n_s)\/(p+2)$.\nWe plot the $n_s-r$ and $n_s-n_s'$ relations in Figs.\n\\ref{pwrnsr} and \\ref{pwrrun} for $p=1$, $p=2$, $p=3$ and $p=4$. In Fig. \\ref{pwrnsr}, we also show the points with\n$N_*=50$ and $N_*=60$. From Figs. \\ref{pwrnsr} and \\ref{pwrrun}, we see that $r$ increases with the power $p$, but\n$|n_s'|$ decreases with the power $p$. Therefore, it is not easy to satisfy both the requirements $r\\gtrsim 0.1$ and\n$n_s'<-0.002$. The chaotic inflation with $2<p<3$ is marginally consistent with the\nobservation at the 95\\% confidence level.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htp]\n\\centerline{\\includegraphics[width=0.45\\textwidth]{pwrnsrgao.eps}}\n\\caption{The $n_s-r$ diagrams for the chaotic inflation with $p=1$, $p=2$, $p=3$ and $p=4$. The 68\\% and 95\\% confidence contours\nfrom the {\\em Planck}+WP+highL data \\cite{Ade:2013zuv,Ade:2013uln} and the {\\em Planck}+WP+highL+BICEP2 data \\cite{Ade:2014xna}\nfor the $\\Lambda$CDM model are also shown.}\n\\label{pwrnsr}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}[htp]\n\\centerline{\\includegraphics[width=0.45\\textwidth]{pwrrungao.eps}}\n\\caption{The $n_s-n_s'$ diagrams for the chaotic inflation with $p=1$, $p=2$, $p=3$ and $p=4$.\nThe 95\\% confidence contour for the $\\Lambda$CDM model\nfrom the {\\em Planck}+WP+highL data \\cite{Ade:2013zuv,Ade:2013uln} is also shown.}\n\\label{pwrrun}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFor the natural inflation with the potential $V(\\phi)=\\Lambda^4[1+\\cos(\\phi\/f)]$ \\cite{Freese:1990rb}, the slow-roll parameters are\n\\begin{gather}\n\\label{pngbsl1}\n\\epsilon=\\frac{M^2_{pl}}{2f^2}\\left[\\frac{\\sin(\\phi\/f)}{1+\\cos(\\phi\/f)}\\right]^2,\\\\\n\\label{pngbsl2}\n\\eta=-\\frac{M^2_{pl}}{f^2}\\frac{\\cos(\\phi\/f)}{1+\\cos(\\phi\/f)},\\\\\n\\label{pngbsl3}\n\\xi=-\\frac{M^4_{pl}}{f^4}\\left[\\frac{\\sin(\\phi\/f)}{1+\\cos(\\phi\/f)}\\right]^2=-\\frac{2M^2_{pl}}{f^2}\\epsilon.\n\\end{gather}\nInflation ends when $\\epsilon\\sim 1$, so\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{pngbphie}\n\\frac{\\phi_e}{f}=\\arccos\\left[\\frac{1-2(f\/M_{pl})^2}{1+2(f\/M_{pl})^2}\\right],\n\\end{equation}\nand the number of e-folds before the end of inflation is\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{pngbn}\nN_*=\\frac{2f^2}{M^2_{pl}}\\ln\\left[\\frac{\\sin(\\phi_e\/2f)}{\\sin(\\phi_*\/2f)}\\right].\n\\end{equation}\nCombining Eqs. (\\ref{nsdef})-(\\ref{rundef}) with (\\ref{pngbsl1})-(\\ref{pngbsl3}), we\nplot the $n_s-r$ and $n_s-n_s'$ relations for the natural inflation with $f=5M_{pl}$, $f=7M_{pl}$,\n$f=10M_{pl}$ and $f=20M_{pl}$ in Figs. \\ref{pngbnsr} and \\ref{pngbrun}. In Fig. \\ref{pngbnsr},\nwe also show the points with $N_*=50$ and $N_*=60$. The results show that both $r$ and $|n_s'|$ increase\nwith the global symmetry breaking scale $f$. However, there is an upper limit on $|n_s'|$\nwhich is only marginally consistent with the observation at the 95\\% confidence level.\nWhen $f\/M_{mp}\\gg 1$, the potential can be approximated by $V(\\phi)=\\Lambda^4(\\phi\/f-\\pi)^2\/2$\nwhich is the power-law potential with $p=2$, this is the reason for the upper limit on $n_s'$.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htp]\n\\centerline{\\includegraphics[width=0.45\\textwidth]{pngbnsrgao.eps}}\n\\caption{The $n_s-r$ diagrams for the natural inflation with $f=5M_{pl}$, $f=7M_{pl}$, $f=10M_{pl}$ and $f=20M_{pl}$.\nThe 68\\% and 95\\% confidence contours\nfrom the {\\em Planck}+WP+highL data \\cite{Ade:2013zuv,Ade:2013uln} and the {\\em Planck}+WP+highL+BICEP2 data \\cite{Ade:2014xna}\nfor the $\\Lambda$CDM model are also shown.}\n\\label{pngbnsr}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}[htp]\n\\centerline{\\includegraphics[width=0.45\\textwidth]{pngbrungao.eps}}\n\\caption{The $n_s-n_s'$ diagrams for the natural inflation with $f=5M_{pl}$, $f=7M_{pl}$, $f=10M_{pl}$ and $f=20M_{pl}$.\nThe 95\\% confidence contour for the $\\Lambda$CDM model\nfrom the {\\em Planck}+WP+highL data \\cite{Ade:2013zuv,Ade:2013uln} is also shown.}\n\\label{pngbrun}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\section{Conclusions}\n\nFor a single inflaton field with slow-roll, the tensor-to-scalar ratio $r\\approx 16\\epsilon$ which is linear\nwith the slow-roll parameter $\\epsilon$, but the running of the spectral index $n_s'$ depends on the second\norder slow-roll parameters, so $n_s'$ is at most in the order of $10^{-3}$. The BICEP2 and the {\\em Planck}\ndata constrain $n_s'=-0.0221^{+0.011}_{-0.0099}$\nand $r=0.20^{+0.07}_{-0.05}$ at the $1\\sigma$ confidence level. Both the chaotic and natural inflation\nare inconsistent with the observation at the $1\\sigma$ level. The chaotic inflation with $2<p<3$\nand the natural inflation with $f\\gtrsim 10M_{pl}$ are\nmarginally consistent with the observation at the 95\\% confidence level.\nIn conclusion, it is a challenge to simultaneously explain $r$ as large as $0.2$ and $n_s'$ as large as $-0.01$\nfor single field inflation. Unless the {\\em Planck} and the BICEP2 data can be reconciled without\nlarge $n_s'$, the challenge to single field inflation remains.\n\n\\begin{acknowledgments}\nThis work was partially supported by\nthe National Basic Science Program (Project 973) of China under\ngrant No. 2010CB833004, the NNSF of China under grant No. 11175270,\nthe Program for New Century Excellent Talents in University under grant No. NCET-12-0205\nand the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities under grant No. 2013YQ055.\n\\end{acknowledgments}\n\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\nThe mathematical modelling of active matter has received growing interest recently, motivated by novel structures in physics and biology on the one hand (cf. \\cite{bechinger2016active,desai2017modeling,elgeti2015physics,Gompper:2020dj,schmidt2019light,tailleur2008,zottl2016emergent}), but also active matter in a wider sense of agent systems like humans or robots (cf. \\cite{bellomo2010modelling,Burger2016:sidestepping,Cirillo2020:ActivePassive,CPT2014,nelson2010microrobots,nava2018markovian,elamvazhuthi2019mean}). In many of these systems a key issue is the interplay of the particles' own activity with crowding effects, which leads to the formation of complex and interesting patterns. In this chapter we aim at unifying a variety of models proposed for such systems, discuss the derivation of macroscopic equations from different microscopic paradigms, and highlight some of their main properties.\n\nFirst we would like to emphasise that the definition of active particles varies in the literature e.g. between condensed matter, life sciences and engineering and we that will adopt a generous point of view in this chapter.\nWe will discuss models for actual active matter systems, but also systems that might be considered passive (or force-driven) in the physics literature but have been used to model active matter systems. A common feature of these models is that the particles have a preferred direction of motion and can use energy to move there; the  preferred direction can however also change in time. This setting includes models for multiple species (with fixed directions or biases) and systems with boundary conditions that impose steady currents. From a mathematical point of view we can distinguish whether models exhibit a gradient flow structure (cf. \\cite{AGS2008}) or not, respectively whether there are stationary solutions with vanishing flux. In the case of a gradient flow structure there is a natural entropy-energy functional to be dissipated (cf. \\cite{CJMTU2001}), in the other cases such functionals may increase (linearly) in time or it is not apparent what the correct choice of the functional is. We shall see in particular that gradient flow structures are destroyed if particles change directions completely randomly, while there is an active transport in that direction. \n\nIn the following we will consider models with a finite number of preferred directions or a continuum of it. While the former has been proposed and investigated in many applications like pedestrian dynamics or cell motility, continuum directions received far less attention in the mathematical literature. In the continuum case one can consider angular diffusion and derive an equation for the density of particles in the phase-space of spatial and angular variables. We discuss different microscopic models, either based on Brownian motions with hard sphere potentials or on lattice based models with size exclusion, which allow to derive appropriate macroscopic partial differential equations for the phase-space density. These PDEs have a rather similar structure - all have a nonlinear transport term and additional diffusion terms in space and angle (or possibly nonlocal diffusion for the latter). This general structure allows us to define a general entropy functional and investigate the long time behaviour.\n\n\nThis chapter is organised as follows: We present several microscopic models for active particles and their corresponding mean-field limits using different coarse-graining procedures in Section \\ref{sec:active}. Section \\ref{s:nonact} discusses the respective modelling approaches and limiting equations for externally activated particles (systems that would be considered passive in the physics literature). We then present a general formulation of all these models and state their underlying properties, such as energy dissipation or a possible underlying gradient flow structure in Section \\ref{sec:gen_structure}. The important role of boundary conditions on the behaviour of these systems is discussed in Section \\ref{s:bc}. Section \\ref{sec:applications} presents several examples of active and externally activated particle models in the life and social sciences. Numerical experiments illustrating the dynamics and behaviour of the respective dynamics are presented in Section \\ref{sec:numerics}.\n\nThroughout this chapter we use the notion of particles or agents interchangeably. Furthermore we discuss the respective models on the line or in $\\mathbb{R}^2$, with the obvious generalisation for three dimensions. We will also keep the presentation informal, assuming that all functions satisfy the necessary requirements to perform all limits and calculations.\n\n\\section{Models for active particles} \\label{sec:active}\n\n\nHere we discuss microscopic models for active particles and their corresponding macroscopic kinetic models using different coarse-graining procedures. The key ingredients of active particles is that, in addition to their positions, they have an orientation that determines the self-propulsion direction. We subdivide these models into continuous, discrete or hybrid random walks depending on how the position and the orientation of each particle is represented. \n\n\\subsection{Continuous random walks} \\label{sec:continuous_walks}\n\nWe consider $N$ identical Brownian particles with free translational diffusion coefficient $D_T$ moving in a periodic box $\\Omega \\subset \\mathbb R^2$ with unit area. Each particle has a position ${\\bf X}_i(t)$ and an orientation $\\Theta_i(t)$ with $t>0$, $i = 1, \\dots, N$, that determines the direction ${\\bf e}(\\Theta_i) = (\\cos \\Theta_i, \\sin \\Theta_i)$ of self-propulsion at constant speed $v_0$. The orientation $\\Theta_i$ also undergoes free rotational diffusion with diffusion coefficient $D_R$. \nIn its more general form, particles interact through a pair potential $u(r, \\varphi)$ with total potential energy \n\\begin{align}\\label{e:U}\n    U = \\chi\\sum_{1\\le i<j \\le N} u(|{\\bf X}_i - {\\bf X}_j|\/\\ell, |\\Theta_i - \\Theta_j|),\n\\end{align}\nwhere $\\chi$ and $\\ell$ represent the strength and the range in space of the potential $u$, respectively. The coupled equations of motion are:\n\\begin{subequations}\n\t\\label{sde_model}\n\\begin{align}\n\\label{sde_x}\n\t\\mathrm{d} {\\bf X}_i &= \\sqrt{2 D_T} \\mathrm{d} {\\bf W}_i - \\nabla_{{\\bf x}_i} U\\mathrm{d} t + v_0 {\\bf e}(\\Theta_i) \\mathrm{d} t,\\\\\n\t\\label{sde_angle}\n\t\\mathrm{d} \\Theta_i &= \\sqrt{2 D_R} \\mathrm{d} W_i - \\partial_{\\theta_i} U\\mathrm{d} t.\n\\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\nWe note that isotropic pair potentials ($u = u(r)$ only) are more commonly used in the literature \\cite{Bialke:2013gw,Keta:2021fl}. Equations \\eqref{sde_model} are complemented with identically and independently distributed initial conditions, $({\\bf X}_i(0), \\Theta_i(0)) \\sim f_0({\\bf x},\\theta)$ and periodic boundary conditions on $\\Upsilon = \\Omega \\times [0, 2\\pi)$ (we will discuss alternative boundary conditions later in section \\ref{s:bc}).\n\nThe starting point for all is to define the joint probability density for $N$ particles evolving according to the SDEs \\eqref{sde_model}, that is $F_N(\\vec \\xi, t)$ with $\\vec \\xi = (\\xi_1, \\dots, \\xi_N)$ and $\\xi_i = ({\\bf x}_i, \\theta_i)$. Using the Chapman--Kolmogorov equation, we obtain\n\\begin{equation} \\label{N_eq}\n\t\\partial_t F_N(\\vec \\xi, t) = \\sum_{i=1}^N \\nabla_{{\\bf x}_i} \\cdot \\left[ D_T \\nabla_{{\\bf x}_i} F_N -v_0{\\bf e}(\\theta_i) F_N + \\nabla_{{\\bf x}_i} U(\\vec \\xi) F_N \\right] + \\partial_{\\theta_i} \\left[ D_R \\partial_{\\theta_i } F_N  + \\partial_{\\theta_i} U(\\vec \\xi) F_N\\right],\n\\end{equation}\nfor $t \\ge 0, \\vec \\xi \\in \\bar \\Upsilon$, where $\\bar \\Upsilon \\subseteq \\Upsilon^N$ is the domain of allowed configurations (more on this below). \n\nThe goal is to obtain a macroscopic model for the one-particle density $f(\\xi, t)$, that we can describe by picking the first particle since all particles are identical, i.e.\n\\begin{align}\n\tf(\\xi_1,t) = \\int_{\\Upsilon^N} F_N(\\vec \\xi) \\delta(\\xi - \\xi_1) \\mathrm{d} \\vec \\xi.\n\\end{align}\nTo this end, keeping in mind all the particles are indistinguishable, we integrate \\eqref{N_eq} with respect to $\\xi_2, \\dots, \\xi_N$. Using periodicity, all the terms for $i\\ge 2$ in the right-hand side of \\eqref{N_eq} vanish, and we are left with:\n\\begin{subequations}\n\t\\label{general_macro}\n\\begin{equation} \\label{1_eq}\n\t\\partial_t f(\\xi_1, t) = \\nabla_{{\\bf x}_1} \\cdot \\left[ D_T \\nabla_{{\\bf x}_1} f - v_0{\\bf e}(\\theta_1) f + {\\bf U}_T(\\xi_1,t) \\right] + \\partial_{\\theta_1} \\left[ D_R \\partial_{\\theta_1 } f  + U_R(\\xi_1,t)\\right],\n\\end{equation}\nwith \n\\begin{align} \\label{interaction_G}\n&\\begin{aligned}\n\t{\\bf U}_T(\\xi_1,t) &= \\chi \\int_{\\Upsilon^{N-1}} F_N(\\vec \\xi, t) \\sum_{i=2}^N \\nabla_{{\\bf x}_1} u(|{\\bf x}_1-{\\bf x}_i|\/\\ell,|\\theta_1 -\\theta_i|) \\mathrm{d} \\xi_2, \\dots, \\mathrm{d} \\xi_N \\\\\n\t&= \\chi (N-1) \\int_{\\Upsilon} F_2(\\xi_1,\\xi_2,t) \\nabla_{{\\bf x}_1} u(|{\\bf x}_1-{\\bf x}_2|\/\\ell,|\\theta_1 -\\theta_2|) \\mathrm{d} \\xi_2,\n\t\\end{aligned}\\\\\n&\\begin{aligned}\n\tU_R(\\xi_1,t) &= \\chi \\int_{\\Upsilon^{N-1}} F_N(\\vec \\xi, t) \\sum_{i=2}^N \\partial_{\\theta_1} u(|{\\bf x}_1-{\\bf x}_i|\/\\ell,|\\theta_1 -\\theta_i|) \\mathrm{d} \\xi_2, \\dots, \\mathrm{d} \\xi_N \\\\\n\t&= \\chi (N-1) \\int_{\\Upsilon} F_2(\\xi_1,\\xi_2,t) \\partial_{\\theta_1} u(|{\\bf x}_1-{\\bf x}_2|\/\\ell,|\\theta_1 -\\theta_2|) \\mathrm{d} \\xi_2,\n\t\\end{aligned}\n\\end{align}\nusing that particles are undistinguishable, where $F_2$ is the two-particle density\n$$\nF_2(\\xi_1,\\xi_2,t) = \\int_{\\Upsilon^{N-2}} F_N(\\vec \\xi,t) \\mathrm{d} \\xi_3 \\dots \\mathrm{d} \\xi_N.\n$$\n\\end{subequations}\n\n\n\nDepending on the scalings $\\chi, \\ell$ of the interaction potential $u$, we can expect different macroscopic limits of \\eqref{sde_model}. On the one end we can consider long-range weak repulsive interactions, and obtain a mean-field limit equation. On the other extreme, we can consider short and strong repulsive interactions (even hard-core interactions such as $u(r) = +\\infty$ if $r<1$, and 0 otherwise), which lead to local nonlinear PDE models.\n\n\\subsubsection{Mean-field scaling}\nThe mean-field scaling corresponds to $\\chi = 1\/N$ and $\\ell = O(1)$ so that we have a weak and long range interaction in the limit of $N\\to \\infty$. In this limit, one expects propagation of chaos leading to \n$$\nF_2(\\xi_1, \\xi_2, t) \\approx f(\\xi_1,t) f(\\xi_2, t).\n$$\nSubstituting this into \\eqref{general_macro} we arrive at\n\\begin{subequations}\n\t\\label{mfa_model}\n\\begin{equation}\n\t\\label{1_mfa}\n\t\\partial_t f(\\xi_1, t) = \\nabla_{{\\bf x}_1} \\cdot \\left[ D_T \\nabla_{{\\bf x}_1} f -v_0 {\\bf e}(\\theta_1) f +  f \\nabla_{{\\bf x}_1} \\mathcal U \\right] + \\partial_{\\theta_1} \\left[ D_R \\partial_{\\theta_1 } f  + \\partial_{\\theta_1} \\mathcal U\\right],\n\\end{equation}\nwith interaction term, taking $N\\to \\infty$,\n\\begin{equation} \\label{U_functional}\n\t\\mathcal U(f) = \\int_\\Upsilon f(\\xi_2,t) u(|{\\bf x}_1-{\\bf x}_2|\/\\ell,|\\theta_1 -\\theta_2|) \\mathrm{d} \\xi_2.\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{subequations}\n\nIn the case of an isotropic interaction potential, the term $\\partial_{\\theta_1} \\mathcal U$ in \\eqref{1_mfa} drops and the interaction term \\eqref{U_functional} can be simplified to\n\\begin{equation} \\label{U_functional_red}\n\t\\mathcal U(f) = \\int_\\Omega \\rho({\\bf x}_2,t) u(\\|{\\bf x}_1-{\\bf x}_2\\|\/\\ell) \\mathrm{d} {\\bf x}_2,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\rho$ is the spatial (macroscopic) density\n\\begin{align}\\label{local_rho}\n\t\\rho({\\bf x},t) &= \\int_0^{2\\pi} f({\\bf x},\\theta,t) ~\\mathrm{d}\\theta.\n\\end{align}\nThe spatial density describes the probability that a particle is at position ${\\bf x}$ at time $t$ irrespective of its orientation. We obtain the following equation for $\\rho$ by integrating \\eqref{1_mfa} with the potential \\eqref{U_functional_red} with respect to $\\theta \\in [0, 2 \\pi)$ and using periodicity:\n\\begin{equation}\n\t\\label{mfa_rho}\n\t\\partial_t \\rho({\\bf x}_1, t) = \\nabla_{{\\bf x}_1} \\cdot \\left[ D_T \\nabla_{{\\bf x}_1} \\rho -v_0 {\\bf p} +  \\rho \\nabla_{{\\bf x}_1} \\mathcal U \\right].\n\\end{equation}\nThis equation is not closed as it depends on the polarisation ${\\bf p}$ (also known as the order parameter):\n\\begin{align}\\label{polarisation}\n\t{\\bf p}({\\bf x},t) = \\int_0^{2\\pi} {\\bf e}(\\theta) f({\\bf x},\\theta,t) ~\\mathrm{d}\\theta.\n\\end{align}\nThe polarisation gives the average orientation of particles at position ${\\bf x}$ at any given time $t$. \n\n\\subsubsection{Excluded-volume interactions}\\label{sec:evi}\nExcluded-volume interactions are very common in biological applications and arise from the impenetrability between cells, bacteria, animals, etc. These are very strong and short-range interactions, whereby an individual only interacts locally in the range of its body size. For these reasons, the mean-field scaling is not suitable to model such interactions, which are often modelled using singular short-range potentials ($\\ell \\ll 1$ in \\eqref{e:U}) or even hard-core potentials. Examples of interactions potentials used in the literature to model excluded-volume interactions include inverse power-law potentials (such as the Lennard-Jones potentials), exponential potentials (e.g. the Morse potential), or the Yukawa potential.\n\nThe following model, proposed by \\cite{Speck:2015um}, includes excluded-volume interactions via a short-range interaction potential $u(r)$:\n\\begin{align}\\label{model2}\n\\partial_t f + \\nabla \\cdot ( v_e(\\rho) f {\\bf e}(\\theta)) &= D_e(\\phi) \\Delta f + D_R \\partial_{\\theta}^2 f,\n\\end{align}\nwhere $f = f(r, \\theta, t)$,  $D_e(\\phi)$ is an effective diffusion depending on how crowded the system is (given by $\\phi$),  and  $v_e = v_0 (1 - \\phi \\rho)$ is a nonlinear effective speed. The hydrodynamic equations for the spatial density $\\rho$ and the polarisation ${\\bf p}$ are obtained by integrating \\eqref{model2},\n\\begin{align} \\label{model2:rho}\n\t\\partial_t \\rho + \\nabla \\cdot ( v_e(\\rho) {\\bf p}) &= D_e(\\phi) \\Delta \\rho,\\\\\n\t\\partial_t {\\bf p} + \\nabla P(\\rho) & = D_e(\\phi) \\Delta {\\bf p} - {\\bf p},\n\\end{align}\nwith so-called pressure $P(\\rho) = v_e(\\rho) \\rho \/2$. \nThis model displays a motility-induced phase transition \\cite{Speck:2015um}: at low densities ($\\phi \\rho$ small), the effective swimming speed is close to the free speed $v_0$, whereas at high densities, the effective swimming goes to zero. The result is a phase separation, which regions of high density where particles are trapped and do not move, and very dilute areas with fast speeds. This is shown via a linear stability analysis as well as numerical simulations of the microscopic system using the repulsive Weeks-Chandler-Andersen (WCA) potential (which corresponds to a truncated and shifted upwards Lennard--Jones potential). Through an adiabatic approximation, they cast equation \\eqref{model2:rho} into a gradient-flow of an effective free energy of the form of a conventional Ginzburg-Landau function. According to \\cite{Speck:2015um}, this is consistent with   ``the mapping of active phase separation onto that of passive fluids with attractive interactions through a global effective free energy''.\n\n\nAn alternative derivation of a macroscopic model for active Brownian particles is considered in \\cite{Bruna:2021tb} using the hard-core interaction potential, $u(r) = +\\infty$ for $r<\\epsilon$ and 0 otherwise. In this case, the microscopic model changes from \\eqref{sde_model} to\n\\begin{subequations}\n\t\\label{sde_model_hc}\n\\begin{align}\n\\label{sde_x_hc}\n\t\\mathrm{d} {\\bf X}_i &= \\sqrt{2 D_T} \\mathrm{d} {\\bf W}_i + v_0 {\\bf e}(\\Theta_i) \\mathrm{d} t, \\qquad |{\\bf X}_i -{\\bf X}_i| > \\epsilon, \\forall j\\ne i, \\\\\n\t\\label{sde_angle_hc}\n\t\\mathrm{d} \\Theta_i &= \\sqrt{2 D_R} \\mathrm{d} W_i.\n\\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\nThis represents particles as hard disks of diameter $\\epsilon$: particles only sense each other when they come into contact, and they are not allowed to get closer than $\\epsilon$ to each other (mutual impenetrability condition). In comparison with the mean-field scaling, here instead the scaling is $\\chi = 1, \\ell = \\epsilon \\ll 1$ so that each particle only interacts with the few particles that are within a distance $O(\\epsilon)$, the interaction is very strong. Using the method of matched asymptotics, from \\eqref{sde_model_hc} one obtains to order $\\phi$ the following model:\n\\begin{align}\\label{model3}\n\\partial_t f + v_0\\nabla \\cdot \\left[ f (1-\\phi \\rho) {\\bf e}(\\theta) + \\phi {\\bf p} f\\right] &= D_T \\nabla \\cdot \\left[ (1- \\phi \\rho) \\nabla f + 3 \\phi f \\nabla  \\rho \\right]  + D_R \\partial_{\\theta}^2 f.\n\\end{align}\nHere $\\phi$ is the effective occupied area $\\phi = (N-1)\\epsilon^2 \\pi\/2$. Model \\eqref{model3} is obtained formally in the limit of $\\epsilon$ and $\\phi$ small. \nNote that this equation is consistent with the case $N=1$: if there is only one particle, then $\\phi = 1$ and we recover a linear PDE (no interactions). The equation for the spatial density is\n\\begin{equation}\n\\partial_t \\rho + v_0 \\nabla \\cdot  {\\bf p}  = D_T \\nabla \\cdot \\left[ (1+ 2\\phi \\rho) \\nabla \\rho \\right],\n\\end{equation}\nwhich indicates the collective diffusion effect: the higher the occupied fraction $\\phi$, the higher the effective diffusion coefficient.  \nWe note that, due to the nature of the excluded-volume interactions, models \\eqref{model2} and \\eqref{model3} are obtained via approximations (closure at the pair correlation function and matched asymptotic expansions, respectively) and no rigorous results are available. A nice exposition of the difficulties of going from micro to macro in the presence of hard-core non-overlapping constraints is given in \\cite{Maury:2011eu}. In particular, they consider hard-core interacting particles in the context of congestion handling in crowd motion. In contrast to \\eqref{sde_model_hc}, the dynamics involve only position and are deterministic. Collisions can then be handled via the projection of velocities onto the set of feasible velocities. In \\cite{Maury:2011eu} they do not attempt to derive a macroscopic model from the microscopic dynamics but instead propose a PDE model for the population density $\\rho({\\bf x},t)$ that expresses the congestion assumption by setting the velocity to zero whenever $\\rho$ attains a saturation value (which they set to one). \n\n\\subsection{Discrete random walks}\\label{sec:discrete}\n\nNext we discuss fully discrete models for active particles with size exclusion effects. We start by considering a \nsimple exclusion model for active particles on a one-dimensional lattice, which has been investigated in \\cite{kourbane2018exact}. The brief description of the microscopic lattice model is as follows: $N$ particles of size $\\epsilon$ evolve on a discrete ring of $1\/\\epsilon$ sites, with occupancy $\\phi = \\epsilon N \\le 1$. Each lattice is occupied by at most one particle (thus modelling a size exclusion), and particles can either be moving left ($-$ particles) or right ($+$ particles). The configuration can be represented using occupation numbers $\\sigma_i$ at site $i$ with values in $\\{-1, 0, 1\\}$. \nThe dynamics combine three mechanisms: \n\\begin{enumerate}[label=(\\alph*)]\n\t\\item Diffusive motion: for each bond $(i, i+1)$, $\\sigma_i$ and $\\sigma_{i+1}$ are exchanged at rate $D_T$.\n\t\\item Self-propulsion and size exclusion: for each bond $(i, i+1)$, a $+$ particle in $i$ jumps to $i+1$ if $\\sigma_{i+1} = 0$; or a $-$ particle in $i+1$ jumps to $i$ if $\\sigma_i = 0$ at rate $\\epsilon v_0$.\n\t\\item Tumbling: particles switch direction $\\sigma_i \\to - \\sigma_i$ at rate $\\epsilon^2 \\lambda$. \n\\end{enumerate}\nRescaling space and time as $\\epsilon i$ and $\\epsilon^2 t$ respectively, and starting from a smooth initial conditions, the macroscopic equations can be derived exactly as \\cite{kourbane2018exact}\n\\begin{align} \\label{model_lattice1D}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\partial_t f_+ + v_0\\partial_x [f_+ (1-\\phi \\rho)] &= D_T\\partial_{xx} f_+ + \\lambda (f_- - f_+), \\\\\n\\partial_t f_- - v_0\\partial_x [f_- (1-\\phi \\rho)] &= D_T\\partial_{xx} f_- + \\lambda (f_+ - f_-),\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{align}\nwhere $f_+$ and $f_-$ are the probability densities corresponding to the $+$ and $-$ particles, respectively, and $\\rho = f_+ + f_-$. \nIntroducing the number densities\n\\begin{align}\\label{number_densities}\nr({\\bf x},t) = N f_+({\\bf x},t), \\qquad b({\\bf x},t) = N f_-({\\bf x},t),\n\\end{align}\nwhich integrate to $N_1$ and $N_2$ respectively, we can rewrite \\eqref{model_lattice1D} as \n\\begin{align}\\label{model_lattice1D_number_densities}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\partial_t r + v_0\\partial_x [r (1-\\bar \\rho)] &= D_T\\partial_{xx} r + \\lambda (b - r), \\\\\n\\partial_t b - v_0\\partial_x [b (1- \\bar\\rho)] &= D_T\\partial_{xx} b + \\lambda (r - b),\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{align}\nwith $\\bar \\rho = \\epsilon (r + b)$.\nOne can also consider the same process in higher dimensions with a finite set of orientations ${\\bf e}_k, k = 1, \\dots, m$. The most straightforward generalisation of \\eqref{model_lattice1D} is to consider a two-dimensional square lattice with $m=4$ directions, namely ${\\bf e}_1 = (1,0), {\\bf e}_2 = (0,1), {\\bf e}_3 = (-1,0), {\\bf e}_4 = (0,-1)$ (see Fig.~1 in \\cite{kourbane2018exact}). In this case, the configuration would take five possible values, $\\sigma_i= \\{-1, -i, 0, i, 1\\}$ and the resulting macroscopic model would consist of a system of four equations for the densities of each subpopulations\n\\begin{equation} \\label{lattice2D}\n\t\\partial_t f_k + v_0\\nabla \\cdot [f_k (1-\\phi \\rho) {\\bf e}_k] = D_T \\Delta f_k + \\lambda (f_{k+1} + f_{k-1} - 2 f_k), \\qquad k = 1, \\dots,4\n\\end{equation}\nwhere now $\\phi = \\epsilon^2 N$, $f_k({\\bf x},t)$ stands for the probability density of particles going in the ${\\bf e}_k$ direction, and $\\rho = \\sum_k f_k$. Periodicity in angle implies that $f_5=f_1, f_{-1} = f_4$. \n\nNote how the model in \\cite{kourbane2018exact} differs from an asymmetric simple exclusion processes (ASEP) in that particles are allowed to swap places in the diffusive step (see (a) above). As a result, the macroscopic models \\eqref{model_lattice1D} and \\eqref{lattice2D} lack any cross-diffusion terms. We can also consider an actual ASEP process, in which simple exclusion is also added to the diffusive step, that is, point (a) above is replaced by\n\\begin{enumerate}[label=(\\alph*')]\n\t\\item Diffusive motion: a particle in $i$ jumps to $i+ 1$ at rate $D_T$ if $\\sigma_{i+ 1} = 0$ (and similarly to $i-1$).\n\\end{enumerate}\nIn this case, the resulting macroscopic model is\n\\begin{equation} \\label{ASEP_2D}\n\t\\partial_t f_k + v_0\\nabla \\cdot [ f_k (1- \\phi \\rho) {\\bf e}_k] = D_T \\nabla \\cdot [(1- \\phi \\rho) \\nabla f_k + \\phi f_k \\nabla \\rho] + \\lambda (f_{k+1} + f_{k-1} - 2 f_k), \\qquad k = 1, \\dots,4.\n\\end{equation}\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Hybrid random walks}\\label{sec:hybrid}\n\nIn the previous two subsections we have discussed models that consider both the position and the orientation as continuous, or discrete. Here we discuss hybrid random walks, that is, when positions are continuous and orientations finite, or vice-versa.\n\nThe first hybrid model we consider is an active exclusion process whereby the orientation is a continuous process in $[0, 2 \\pi)$ evolving according to a Brownian motion with diffusion $D_R$, \\eqref{sde_angle}, while keeping the position evolving according to a discrete asymmetric exclusion process (ASEP) \\cite{Bruna:2021tb}. The advantage of this approach is to avoid the anisotropy imposed by the underlying lattice. \nHere we present the model in two-dimensions so that we can compare it to the models presented above.  \n\nWe consider a square lattice with spacing $\\epsilon$ and orientations ${\\bf e}_k, k=1, \\dots, 4$ as given above. A particle at lattice site ${\\bf x}$ can jump to neighbouring sites ${\\bf x}+\\epsilon {\\bf e}_k$ if the latter is empty at a rate $\\pi_k(\\theta)$ that depends on its orientation $\\theta$, namely \n\\begin{equation*}\n\t\\pi_k(\\theta) = \\alpha_\\epsilon \\exp(\\beta_\\epsilon {\\bf e}(\\theta) \\cdot {\\bf e}_k),\n\\end{equation*}\nwhere $\\alpha_\\epsilon = D_T \/\\epsilon^2$ and $\\beta_\\epsilon = v_0 \\epsilon\/(2 D_T)$. Therefore, the diffusive and self-propulsion mechanisms in \\eqref{model_lattice1D} are now accounted for together: jumping in the direction opposite to your orientation reduces the rate to $\\sim \\alpha_\\epsilon(1-\\beta_\\epsilon)$, whereas the there is a positive bias $\\sim \\alpha_\\epsilon(1+\\beta_\\epsilon)$ towards jumps in the direction pointed to by ${\\bf e}(\\theta)$. The tumbling (point 3 above) is replaced by a rotational Brownian motion. \nTaking the limit $\\epsilon\\to 0$ while keeping the occupied fraction $\\phi =N \\epsilon^2$ finite one obtains the following macroscopic model for $f = f({\\bf x},\\theta,t)$\n\\begin{align} \\label{model_hy}\n\\partial_t f + v_0\\nabla \\cdot [ f (1- \\phi \\rho) {\\bf e}(\\theta)] &= D_T \\nabla \\cdot ( (1- \\phi \\rho) \\nabla f + \\phi f \\nabla \\rho)  + D_R \\partial_{\\theta}^2 f.\n\\end{align}\nThis model can be directly related to the fully discrete model \\eqref{ASEP_2D}: they are exactly the same if one considers \\eqref{ASEP_2D} as the discretised-in-angle version of \\eqref{model_hy} by identifying \n$$\nD_R \\partial_\\theta^2 f_k \\approx D_R \\frac{f_{k+1} + f_{k-1} - 2 f_k}{(2\\pi\/m)^2}, \n$$\nthat is, $\\lambda = D_R m^2\/(2 \\pi^2)$, where $m$ is the number of orientations in the fully discrete model.\n\n\n\nThe other possible hybrid model is to consider a continuous random walk with interactions in space \\eqref{sde_x}, while only allowing a finite number of orientations,  $\\Theta_i \\in \\{\\theta_1, \\dots, \\theta_m\\}$. In its simplest setting, we can consider that $\\theta_k$ are equally spaced in $[0, 2\\pi)$ and a constant switching rate $\\lambda$ between the neighbouring angles. The $N$ particles evolve according to the stochastic model:\n\\begin{subequations} \\label{hybrid2}\n\\begin{align}\n\\label{hybrid_x}\n\\mathrm{d} {\\bf X}_i &= \\sqrt{2 D_T} \\mathrm{d} {\\bf W}_i - \\nabla_{{\\bf x}_i} U\\mathrm{d} t + v_0 {\\bf e}(\\Theta_i) \\mathrm{d} t,\\\\\n\\label{hybrid_angle}\n\\Theta_i &= \\{\\theta_k\\}_{k=1}^m, \\quad \\theta_k \\xrightarrow{\\ \\lambda \\ } \\theta_{k+ 1}\\pmod{2\\pi}, \\quad \\theta_k \\xrightarrow{\\ \\lambda \\ } \\theta_{k- 1}\\pmod{2\\pi}.\n\\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\nIf we assume exclude-volume interactions through a hard-core potential, the resulting model is \\cite{Wilson:2018fg}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{model_wilson}\n\t\\partial_t f_k + v_0\\nabla \\cdot \\left[ f_k (1-\\phi \\rho) {\\bf e}_k + \\phi {\\bf p} f_k\\right] = D_T \\nabla \\cdot \\left[ (1- \\phi \\rho) \\nabla f_k + 3 \\phi f_k \\nabla  \\rho \\right]  + \\lambda \\left ( f_{k+1} + f_{k-1} -2 f_k \\right),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\rho = \\sum_{k=1}^m f_k$, ${\\bf p} = \\sum_{k=1}^m f_k {\\bf e}(\\theta_k)$, and ${\\bf e}_k = {\\bf e}(\\theta_k)$. \nThe density $f_k({\\bf x},t)$ represents the probability of finding a particle at position ${\\bf x}$ at time $t$ with orientation $\\theta_k$ (naturally, we identify $f_{m+1} = f_1$ and $f_{-1} = f_m$). Here $\\phi = (N-1) \\epsilon^2 \\pi\/2$ represents the effective excluded region as in \\eqref{model3}. We note how this model is consistent with the continuous model \\eqref{model3}, in that if we had discretised angle in \\eqref{model3} we would arrive at the cross-diffusion reaction model \\eqref{model_wilson}. \n\nA variant of the hybrid model \\eqref{hybrid2} is to allow for jumps to arbitrary orientations instead of rotations of $2\\pi\/m$, namely, from $\\theta_k$ to $\\theta_{j}\\pmod{2\\pi}$, $j\\ne k$, at a constant rate $\\lambda$ independent of the rotation. This is a convenient way to model the tumbles of a run-and-tumble process, such as the one used to describe the motion of \\emph{E. Coli} \\cite{Berg:1993ug}, see also \\S \\ref{sec:biological_transport}. In this case, the reaction term in \\eqref{model_wilson} changes to \n\\begin{equation}\\label{hybrid3}\n\t\\partial_t f_k + v_0\\nabla \\cdot \\left[ f_k (1-\\phi \\rho) {\\bf e}(\\theta_k) + \\phi {\\bf p} f_k\\right] = D_T \\nabla \\cdot \\left[ (1- \\phi \\rho) \\nabla f_k + 3 \\phi f_k \\nabla  \\rho \\right]  + \\lambda  \\sum_{j \\ne k } \\left( f_{j} - f_k \\right).\n\\end{equation}\n\nWe may generalise the jumps in orientation by introducing a turning kernel $T(\\theta, \\theta')$ as the probability density function for a rotation from $\\theta'$ to $\\theta$. That is, if $\\Theta_i(t)$ is the orientation of the $i$th particle at time $t$ and the jump occurs at $t^*$, \n$$\nT(\\theta, \\theta') \\mathrm{d} \\theta = \\mathbb P\\left \\{ \\theta \\le \\Theta_i(t^*_+) \\le \\theta + \\mathrm{d} \\theta \\ |  \\ \\Theta_i(t^*_-) = \\theta' \\right \\}.\n$$\nClearly for mass conservation we require that $\\int T(\\theta, \\theta') \\mathrm{d} \\theta = 1$. \nThe jumps may only depend on the relative orientation $\\theta - \\theta'$ in the case of a homogeneous and isotropic medium, in which case $T(\\theta, \\theta') \\equiv  T(\\theta-\\theta')$. This is the case of the two particular examples above: in \\eqref{model_wilson}, the kernel is \n$$\nT(\\theta, \\theta') = \\frac{1}{2} \\left [ \\delta(\\theta -\\theta'- \\Delta) + \\delta(\\theta-\\theta' + \\Delta) \\right], \\qquad \\Delta = \\frac{2\\pi}{m},\n$$\nwhereas the rotation kernel in \\eqref{hybrid3} is\n$$\nT(\\theta, \\theta') = \\frac{1}{m-1} \\sum_{k = 1}^{m-1} \\delta(\\theta -\\theta' + k\\Delta), \\qquad  \\Delta = \\frac{2\\pi}{m},\n$$\nwhere the argument of the delta function is taken to be $2\\pi$-periodic. If the turning times $t^*$ are distributed according to a Poisson process with intensity $\\lambda$, the resulting macroscopic model for the phase density $f = f({\\bf x},\\theta,t)$ with a general turning kernel $T$ becomes\n\\begin{equation}\\label{run-tumble-cont}\n\t\\partial_t f + v_0\\nabla \\cdot \\left[ f (1-\\phi \\rho) {\\bf e}(\\theta) + \\phi {\\bf p} f\\right] = D_T \\nabla \\cdot \\left[ (1- \\phi \\rho) \\nabla f + 3 \\phi f \\nabla  \\rho \\right]  -\\lambda f +  \\lambda  \\int_0^{2\\pi} T(\\theta,\\theta') f({\\bf x},\\theta',t) \\mathrm{d} \\theta '.\n\\end{equation}\nWe note that the microscopic process associated with \\eqref{run-tumble-cont} is continuous (and not hybrid) if the support of $T$ has  positive measure.\n\n\n\n\\section{Models for externally activated particles}\\label{s:nonact}\n\nIn this section we go from active to passive particles and consider models with time reversal at the microscopic level. As mentioned in the introduction, the defining factor of active matter models is the self-propulsion term, which makes them out-of-equilibrium. Mathematically, this can be expressed by saying that even the microscopic model lacks a gradient-flow structure (either due to the term ${\\bf e}(\\theta)$ in the transport term, see \\eqref{model3}, or the reaction terms in \\eqref{model_lattice1D}, \\eqref{lattice2D},  see section \\ref{sec:gen_structure}).\n \nIn the previous section we have seen the role the orientation $\\theta$ plays. If it is kept continuous, the resulting macroscopic model is of kinetic type for the density $f({\\bf x},\\theta,t)$. If instead only a fixed number $m$ of orientations are allowed, then these define a set of $m$ species, whereby all the particles in the same species have the same drift term. This motivates the connection to cross-diffusion systems for passive particles, which are obtained by turning off the active change in directions in the models of section \\ref{sec:active} and look at the resulting special cases. This is a relevant limit in many applications, such as in pedestrian dynamics (see section \\ref{sec:pedestrian}).\nOnce the orientations are fixed, we are left with two possible passive systems: either originating from a spatial Brownian motion or a spatial ASEP discrete process. \n\n\\subsection{Continuous models}\nThe starting point is the microscopic model \\eqref{sde_model} taking the limit $D_R \\to 0$. We could still keep the interaction potential as depending on the relative orientations, which would lead to different self- and cross-interactions (which might be useful in certain applications). Here for simplicity we assume interactions are all the same regardless of the orientations:\n\\begin{subequations}\n\t\\label{sde_model_passive}\n\\begin{align}\n\\mathrm{d} {\\bf X}_i &= \\sqrt{2 D_T} \\mathrm{d} {\\bf W}_i - \\nabla_{{\\bf x}_i} U\\mathrm{d} t + v_0 {\\bf e}(\\Theta_i) \\mathrm{d} t,\\\\\n\\Theta_i(t) &= \\theta_k, \\qquad \\text{if } i \\in \\mathcal I_k, \\qquad k = 1,\\dots, m,\n\\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\nwhere $\\mathcal I_k$ is the set of particles belonging to species $k$. The number of particles in each species is $|\\mathcal I_k| = N_k$.\n\nThe mean-field limit of \\eqref{sde_model_passive} is given by (taking $N = \\sum_k N_k \\to \\infty$ as in \\eqref{1_mfa})\n\\begin{equation}\n\t\\label{mfa_passive}\n\t\\partial_t f_k({\\bf x}, t) = \\nabla_{{\\bf x}} \\cdot \\left[ D_T \\nabla_{\\bf x} f_k -v_0 {\\bf e}(\\theta_k) f_k +  f_k \\nabla_{{\\bf x}} (u \\ast \\rho)  \\right],\n\\end{equation}\nand $\\rho({\\bf x},t) = \\sum_k f_k$. For consistency with the active models, here we do not take $f_k$ to be probability densities but to integrate to the relative species fraction, whereas as before the total density $\\rho$ has unit mass:\n\\begin{equation} \\label{normalisation_passive}\n\t\\int_\\Omega f_k({\\bf x},t)  \\mathrm{d} {\\bf x} = \\frac{N_k}{N},\\qquad \\int_\\Omega \\rho({\\bf x},t) \\mathrm{d} {\\bf x} = 1.\n\\end{equation}\nThus $f_k = f_k({\\bf x},t)$ describes the probability that a particle is at position ${\\bf x}$ at time $t$, \\emph{and} is in the $\\mathcal I_k$ set.\n\nThe microscopic model \\eqref{sde_model_passive} with the interaction term $U$ replaced by a hard-core potential for particles with diameter $\\epsilon$ can be dealt with via the method of matched asymptotics. In this case, the resulting cross-diffusion model is\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:MF_cross_diff_sys}\n\t\\partial_t f_k + v_0\\nabla \\cdot \\left[ f_k {\\bf e}_k  + \\phi_{kl}({\\bf e}_l - {\\bf e}_k) f_k f_l \\right] &= D_T \\nabla \\cdot \\left[ (1 + \\phi_{kk} f_k) \\nabla f_k + \\phi_{kl} (3 f_k \\nabla f_l - f_l \\nabla f_k) \\right], \\qquad l \\ne k,\n\\end{align}\nwhere $\\phi_{kk} = (N_k -1) N\/N_k \\epsilon^2 \\pi$, $\\phi_{kl} = N\\epsilon ^2 \\pi \/2$ for $l\\ne k$, and $f_k({\\bf x},t)$ are defined as above. \nThis model was first derived in \\cite{Bruna:2012wu} for just two species but in a slightly more general context, whereby particles many have different sizes and diffusion coefficients\n(also, note that in \\cite{Bruna:2012wu}, \\eqref{eq:MF_cross_diff_sys} appears written in terms of probability densities). \nEquation \\eqref{eq:MF_cross_diff_sys} can be directly related to model \\eqref{model_wilson} with $\\lambda = 0$ if in both models we assume $N_k$ large enough such that $N_k - 1 \\approx N_k, N-1 \\approx N$: \n\\begin{equation}\\label{cross-diff_num_den}\n\t\\partial_t f_k + v_0\\nabla \\cdot \\left[ f_k (1-\\phi \\rho) {\\bf e}(\\theta_k) + \\phi {\\bf p} f_k\\right] = D_T \\nabla \\cdot \\left[ (1- \\phi \\rho) \\nabla f_k + 3 \\phi f_k \\nabla  \\rho\t \\right],\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\phi = N \\epsilon^2 \\pi\/2$, $\\rho = \\sum_k f_k$, and ${\\bf p} =\\sum_k f_k {\\bf e}(\\theta_k)$. Model \\eqref{cross-diff_num_den} is the cross-diffusion system for red and blue particles studied in \\cite{BBRW2017} in disguise. First, set the number of species to $m=2$ and define the number densities\n\\begin{align}\\label{number_densitiesb}\nr({\\bf x},t) = N f_1({\\bf x},t), \\qquad b({\\bf x},t) = N f_2({\\bf x},t),\n\\end{align}\nwhich integrate to $N_1$ and $N_2$ respectively. Then define the potentials $V_r = - (v_0\/D_T) {\\bf e}(\\theta_1) \\cdot {\\bf x}$ and $V_b = - (v_0\/D_T) {\\bf e}(\\theta_2) \\cdot {\\bf x}$. In terms of these new quantities, system \\eqref{cross-diff_num_den} becomes\n\\begin{subequations}\\label{e:aa_cross_sys}\n\\begin{align}\n\\partial_t r &= D_T \\nabla \\cdot \\left[ (1+ 2\\varphi r - \\varphi b) \\nabla r  + 3\\varphi r \\nabla b  + r \\nabla V_r + \\varphi r b \\nabla (V_b - V_r)  \\right],\\\\\n\\partial_t b &= D_T \\nabla \\cdot \\left[ (1+2\\varphi b - \\varphi r) \\nabla b  + 3\\varphi  b \\nabla r  + b \\nabla V_b + \\varphi  r b \\nabla (V_r -  V_b)  \\right],\n\\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\nwhere $\\varphi = \\epsilon^2 \\pi\/2$.\nThis is exactly the cross-diffusion system for particles of the same size and diffusivity studied  in \\cite{BBRW2017} for $d=2$ (see Eqs.  (11) in \\cite{BBRW2017}).\\footnote{We note a typo in \\cite{BBRW2017}: the coefficient $\\beta$ below system (11) should have read $\\beta = (2d-1)\\gamma$.} \n\n\\subsection{Discrete models}\\label{sec:discrete_passive}\n\n\nIn this category there are discrete processes in space without changes in orientations. The most well-known model in the context of excluded-volume interactions is ASEP, which was used above in combination of either continuous change in angle, see \\eqref{model_hy}, or discrete jumps, see \\eqref{ASEP_2D}. We obtain the corresponding passive process by either setting $D_R$ or $\\lambda$ to zero, respectively. The resulting model in either case is\n\\begin{align} \\label{model3_passive}\n\\partial_t f_k + v_0\\nabla \\cdot [ f_k (1- \\phi \\rho) {\\bf e}(\\theta_k)] &= D_T \\nabla \\cdot [(1- \\phi \\rho) \\nabla f_k + \\phi f_k \\nabla \\rho], \\qquad k = 1, \\dots, m,\n\\end{align}\nwhere $f_k$ satisfy \\eqref{normalisation_passive} as before, and $\\phi = N \\epsilon^2$. We notice three differences with its continuous passive counterpart \\eqref{cross-diff_num_den}: in the latter, the effective occupied fraction $\\phi$ has a factor of $\\pi\/2$, the coefficient in the cross-diffusion term $f_k \\rho$ has a factor in three, and the transport term has an additional nonlinearity that depends on the polarisation.\nThe cross-diffusion system \\eqref{model3_passive} was derived in \\cite{Simpson:2009gi} and analysed in \\cite{Burger:2010gb} for two species ($m=2$). Specifically, if we introduce the number densities $r, b$ and general potentials $V_r, V_b$ as above, it reads\n\\begin{subequations}\n\\label{eq:MF_cross_diff}\n\\begin{align}\n\\partial_t r &= D_T \\nabla \\cdot \\left[(1-\\bar \\rho) \\nabla r +  r \\nabla \\bar \\rho + r (1- \\bar \\rho) \\nabla V_r \\right]\\\\\n\\partial_t b &= D_T \\nabla \\cdot \\left[(1-\\bar \\rho) \\nabla b +  b \\nabla \\bar \\rho + b (1-\\bar \\rho) \\nabla V_b \\right],\n\\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\nwhere $\\bar \\rho = \\epsilon^2 (r+b) = \\epsilon^2 (N_1 f_1 + N_2 f_2)$ (compare with (3.7)-(3.8) in \\cite{Burger:2010gb}).\\footnote{In the system (3.7)-(3.8) of \\cite{Burger:2010gb}, $r$ and $b$ are volume concentrations, thus having a factor of $\\epsilon^2$ compared to those used in \\eqref{eq:MF_cross_diff}, and the diffusivities of the two species are $1$ and $D$ instead of $D_T$ for both.} \n\n\\section{General model structure}\\label{sec:gen_structure}\n\nWe now put the models presented in the previous sections into a more general picture. We assume that $f = f({\\bf x}, \\theta, t)$, where $\\theta$ is a continuous variable taking values in $[0, 2\\pi)$ or a discrete variable taking values $\\theta_k$ for $k = 1, \\dots, m$ (ordered increasingly on $[0,2\\pi)$).  In the latter case we shall also use the notation $f_k({\\bf x},t) = f({\\bf x},\\theta_k,t).$ We also recall the definition of the space density $\\rho$ and the polarisation  $\\mathbf{p}$:\n \\begin{align*}\n     \\rho({\\bf x},t) = \\int_0^{2\\pi} f({\\bf x}, \\theta, t ) \\, \\mathrm{d} \\mu(\\theta) \\quad \\text{and} \\quad \\mathbf{p}({\\bf x},t) = \\int_0^{2\\pi} {\\bf e}(\\theta) f({\\bf x}, \\theta, t) \\, \\mathrm{d} \\mu(\\theta),\n \\end{align*}\n where the integral in $\\theta$ is either with respect to the Lebesgue measure for continuum angles or with respect to a discrete measure (a finite sum) for discrete angles.\n \nThe models presented have the following general model structure:\n\\begin{equation}\n \\label{eq:genform}\n     \\partial_t f + v_0 \\nabla \\cdot ( f  ((1-\\phi \\rho) {\\bf e}(\\theta) + a\\phi \\mathbf{p} f)) = \n      D_T \\nabla \\cdot \\left(   \\mathcal{B}_1(\\rho ) \\nabla f + \\mathcal{B}_2(f) \\nabla \\rho \\right) + D_R \\Delta_\\theta   f.\n\\end{equation}\nwith $a \\in \\lbrace 0,1 \\rbrace$. In \\eqref{eq:genform} the derivative operator $\\nabla$ is the standard gradient with respect to the spatial variable $x$, while the Laplacian $\\Delta_\\theta$ is either the second derivative $\\partial_{\\theta \\theta}$ with respect to $\\theta$ in the continuous case,  the second order difference\n$$ \\Delta_\\phi f = {\\cal D}^2f =  (f_{k+1} + f_{k-1} - 2f_k) $$\nwith cyclic extension of the index $k$, or the graph Laplacian with uniform weights\n$$ \\Delta_\\phi f = {\\cal D}_G f =  \\sum_{j \\neq k} (f_j - f_k). $$ \nLet us mention that similar structures and results hold true for graph Laplacians with other non-negative weights.\nWe provide an overview of the respective differential operators and constants for most of the presented models in Table \\ref{tab:my_label}.\n\n \\setlength{\\tabcolsep}{12pt}\n\\renewcommand{\\arraystretch}{1.2}\n\n \\begin{table}[ht]\n     \\centering\n     \\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|}\n          \\hline\n        Eq. Nr. & $\\Delta_{\\theta}$ &$a$ & $\\mathcal{B}_1$ & $\\mathcal{B}_2$ & $D_R$   \\\\\n          \\hline\n          \\eqref{model2}   & $\\partial_{\\theta \\theta}$ &  $0 $ & 1 &  0 & $> 0$ \\\\\n          \\hline\n            \\eqref{model3} & $\\partial_{\\theta \\theta}$ & $1$ &$(1-\\phi \\rho)$ & $3 \\phi f$ & $> 0$ \\\\\n            \\hline \n            \\eqref{lattice2D} & ${\\cal D}^2$ &  $0$ & 1 & 0 & $=\\lambda>0$ \\\\\n            \\hline \n            \\eqref{ASEP_2D} & ${\\cal D}^2$ & $0$ & $(1-\\phi\\rho)$ & $\\phi f$ & $=\\lambda>0$\\\\\n            \\hline\n            \\eqref{model_hy} & $\\partial_{\\theta \\theta}$ &  $0$& $(1-\\phi \\rho)$& $\\phi f$ & $ > 0$ \\\\\n            \\hline \n            \\eqref{model_wilson} &  ${\\cal D}^2$ &  $1$& $(1-\\phi \\rho)$ & $3 \\phi f$ &  $> 0$\\\\\n            \\hline \n            \\eqref{hybrid3} &  ${\\cal D}_G$ &  $1$& $(1-\\phi \\rho)$ & $3 \\phi f$ &  $> 0$\\\\\n            \\hline\n            \\eqref{eq:MF_cross_diff_sys} & &  $0$ & $(1-\\phi \\rho)$ & $3\\phi f$ & 0\\\\\n            \\hline\n            \\eqref{model3_passive} & &  $0$ & $(1-\\phi \\rho)$ & $\\phi f$ & 0 \\\\\n        \\hline\n     \\end{tabular}\n     \\caption{Table recasting most models in the general form of \\eqref{eq:genform}.}\n     \\label{tab:my_label}\n \\end{table}\n \n\\paragraph{Small and large speed}\n \nNatural scaling limits for the general system \\eqref{eq:genform} are the ones for large and small speed, i.e. $v_0 \\rightarrow 0$ and $v_0 \\rightarrow \\infty$, respectively. The first case is rather obvious, since at $v_0=0$ the model is purely diffusive, i.e. \n$$  \\partial_t f   = \n      D_T \\nabla \\cdot (   \\mathcal{B}_1(f,\\rho ) \\nabla f + \\mathcal{B}_2(f,\\rho) \\nabla \\rho) + D_R \\Delta_\\theta   f.$$\nThe model can then be written as a gradient flow structure (respectively a generalised gradient structure in the case of discrete angles, see for example \\cite{M2011,PRST2020}) for an entropy of the form \n \\begin{equation}\n{\\cal E}(f) = \\int \\int f \\log f ~\\mathrm{d} {\\bf x} ~\\mathrm{d} \\theta +  \nc \\int (1-\\rho) \\log (1 -\\rho) ~\\mathrm{d} {\\bf x},\n\\end{equation}\nwith $c  \\in \\{0,1,3\\}$ corresponding to the coefficients of ${\\cal B}_2$.\nIn the case of small $v_0$ the gradient flow structure is broken, but we still expect the diffusive part to dominate. In particular we expect long-time convergence to a unique stationary solution. \n\nIn the case $v_0 \\rightarrow \\infty$ there are two relevant time scales. At a small time scale, i.e. $\\tau = \\frac{L}{v_0}$, where $L$ is a typical length scale,  the evolution is governed by the first order equation\n$$\\partial_t f +  \\nabla \\cdot ( f  ((1-\\phi \\rho) {\\bf e}(\\theta) + a\\phi \\mathbf{p} f)) =  0 .$$\nThe divergence of the corresponding velocity field \n$u = ((1-\\phi \\rho) {\\bf e}(\\theta) + a\\phi \\mathbf{p}$ is given by\n$$ \\nabla \\cdot u = - \\phi \\nabla \\rho \\cdot {\\bf e}(\\theta) + a \\phi \\nabla \\cdot \\mathbf{p}. $$\nIn particular in the case of $a=0$ we see that the question of expansion or compression of the velocity field is determined by the angle between $\\nabla \\rho$ and the unit vector ${\\bf e}(\\theta)$. Unless $\\nabla \\rho = 0$, the velocity field is compressible for a part of the directions and expansive for the opposite directions. A consequence to be expected is the appearance of patterns with almost piecewise constant densities. Inside the structures with constant densities ($\\nabla \\rho = 0$) the velocity field is incompressible, while the compression or expansion arises at the boundaries of such regions. This is rather described by a large time scale, i.e. the equation without time rescaling. Then one expects a slow interface motion, which is also observed in numerical simulations. In a simple case with only one direction this has been made precise in \\cite{burger2008asymptotic}.\n \n\\paragraph{Small and large rotational diffusion}\n\nThe limit of small rotational diffusion $D_R=0$ corresponds to a more standard nonlinear Fokker-Planck system with a given linear potential. \n$$     \\partial_t f + v_0 \\nabla \\cdot ( f  ((1-\\phi \\rho) {\\bf e}(\\theta) + a\\phi \\mathbf{p})) = \n      D_T \\nabla \\cdot (   \\mathcal{B}_1(f,\\rho ) \\nabla f + \\mathcal{B}_2(f,\\rho) \\nabla \\rho). $$\nModels of this kind have been investigated previously, see for example \\cite{Burger:2010gb, BHRW2016}. They tend to develop patterns such as jams or lanes, depending on the initial condition. This happens in particular for large speeds $v_0$.\n\nThe case of large rotational diffusion $D_R \\rightarrow \\infty$ will formally lead to $f$ being constant with respect to $\\theta$ at leading order. The corresponding equation at leading order can thus be obtained by averaging \\eqref{eq:genform} in $\\theta$. Since $f$ does not depend on $\\theta$ the polarisation is zero, that is\n$$ \\mathbf{p} = \\int_0^{2\\pi} f   {\\bf e}(\\theta) ~ \\mathrm{d} \\theta = 0, $$\nand the transport term drops out in all the models. Indeed the nonlinear diffusion terms in any case average to linear diffusion with respect to $x$. Hence, the evolution of $f$ at leading order is governed by a linear diffusion equation. \n\n\n\n\\subsection{Wasserstein gradient flows}\n\nWe have seen in the previous subsection that several models for externally activated particle have an underlying gradient flow structure, which should ideally be maintained in the mean field limit. Adams et al. \\cite{ADPZ2011} showed in their seminal work that then the Wasserstein metric arises naturally in the mean-field limit (under suitable scaling assumptions). However, this limit is only well understood in a few cases (for example for point particles) and rigorous results are often missing. In case of excluded-volume effects, as discussed in subsections \\ref{sec:evi} and \\ref{sec:hybrid}, the only known rigorous continuum models are derived in 1D \\cite{Rost1984, BV2005, Gavish:2019tu}, with only approximate models for higher space dimension. We will see that these approximate mean-field limits often lack a full gradient flow structure, but are sufficiently close to it. In the following we give a brief overview on how Wasserstein gradient flows and energy dissipation provides useful a-priori estimates that can be used in existence proofs or when studying the long time behaviour of solutions. These techniques are particularly useful for systems with cross diffusion terms, for which standard existence results do not necessarily hold.\n\nWe will briefly outline the main ideas for functions $f = f({\\bf x}, \\theta, t)$ where $\\theta$ is either continuous or taking discrete values $\\theta_k$ with $k = 1, \\ldots m$. We say that a mean-field model has a Wasserstein gradient flow structure if it can be written as\n \\begin{align}\n \\label{e:w2sys}\n    \\partial_t f({\\bf x}, \\theta, t)    &=\n    \\nabla \\cdot \\left( \\mathcal{M}(f) \\nabla_{{\\bf x}, \\theta}\n    \\partial_f \\mathcal{E}\n    \\right),\n \\end{align}\n where $\\mathcal{M}$ is the mobility operator and $w = \\partial_f \\mathcal{E}$ the variational derivatives of an entropy\/energy functional $\\mathcal{E}$ with respect to $f$. Note that for discrete $\\theta_k$, $k=1, \\ldots m$ the mobility $\\mathcal{M}$ is a positive definite matrix in $\\mathbb{R}^{m \\times m}$ and $\\partial_f \\mathcal{E}$ is replaced by the vector $\\partial_{f_k} \\mathcal{E}$. We have seen possible candidates for energies in the previous subsection - the usually comprise negative log entropy terms of the particle distribution and the total density (corresponding to linear and non-linear diffusion) as well as potentials (relating to the operators $\\mathcal{B}_1$ and $\\mathcal{B}_2$).\n \nIf the system has a Wasserstein gradient flow structure \\eqref{e:w2sys} then the entropy $\\mathcal{E}$ changes in time as\n\\begin{align}\\label{e:entropydiss}\n    \\frac{d \\mathcal{E}}{dt} = \\int_{\\Omega} \\partial_t f \\cdot w \\, \\mathrm{d} {\\bf x} = -\\int_{\\Omega} \\bar{\\mathcal{M}}(w) \\lvert \\nabla w \\rvert^2 \\, \\mathrm{d} {\\bf x},\n    \\end{align}\n    where $\\bar{\\mathcal{M}}$ is the transformed mobility matrix. If $\\bar{\\mathcal{M}}$ is positive definite, then the energy is dissipated. In the next subsection we will define an entropy for the general model \\eqref{eq:genform} and show that the system is dissipative for several of the operator choices listed in Table \\ref{tab:my_label}. \n\nNote that these entropy dissipation arguments are mostly restricted to unbounded domains and bounded domains with no-flux or Dirichlet boundary conditions. It is possible to generalise them in the case of non-equilibrium boundary conditions, as such discussed in Section \\ref{s:bc}, but a general theory is not available yet. We will see in the next subsection that entropy dissipation may also hold for systems, which do not have a full gradient flow structure. \n    \nSince system \\eqref{e:w2sys} is dissipative, we expect long time convergence to an equilibrium solution. The respective equilibrium solutions $f_\\infty$ to \\eqref{e:w2sys} then correspond to minimisers of the entropy $\\mathcal{E}$. To show exponential convergence towards equilibrium it is often helpful to study the evolution of the so-called relative entropy, that is\n\\begin{align*}\n    \\mathcal{E}(f, f_{\\infty}) := \\mathcal{E}(f) - \\mathcal{E}(f_{\\infty}).\n\\end{align*}\nIn general one wishes the establish so-called entropy-entropy dissipation inequalities for the relative entropy\n\\begin{align*}\n    \\frac{d\\mathcal{E}}{dt} \\leq -c \\mathcal{E},\n\\end{align*}\nwith $c>0$. Then Gronwall's lemma gives desired exponential convergence. This approach is also known as the Bakry-Emery method, see \\cite{BE1985}.\n\n We discussed the challenges in the rigorous derivation of mean-field models in the previous sections and how often only formal or approximate limiting results are available. These approximate mean-field models are often 'close' to a full gradient flow, meaning that they only differ by higher order terms (which were neglected in the approximation). This closeness motivated the definition of so-called asymptotic gradient flow, see \\cite{BBRW2017}. A dynamical system of the form \n \\begin{align}\\label{e:agf}\n     \\partial_t z = \\mathcal{F}(z; \\epsilon)\n \\end{align}\n has a an asymptotic gradient flow structure of order $k$ if \n \\begin{align*}\n     \\mathcal{F}(z; \\epsilon) + \\sum_{j=k+1}^{2k} \\epsilon^j \\mathcal{G}_j(z) = -\\mathcal{M}(z; \\epsilon) \\mathcal{E}'(z, \\epsilon),\n \\end{align*}\n for some parametric energy functional $\\mathcal{E}.$ For example, \\eqref{eq:MF_cross_diff_sys} exhibits a GF structure if the red and blue particles have the same size and diffusivity, but lacks it for differently sized particles (a variation of the model not discussed here). The closeness of AGF to GF can be used to study for example its stationary solutions and the behaviour of solution close to equilibrium, see \\cite{ABC2018, ARSW2020, BBRW2017}.\n \n\\subsection{Entropy dissipation}\\label{sec:entropydiss}\n\nNext we investigate the (approximate) dissipation of an appropriate energy for the general formulation \\eqref{eq:genform}. The considered energy functional is motivated by the entropies of the scaling limits considered before. In particular we consider\n \\begin{equation}\n{\\cal E}(f) = \\int \\int f \\log f + V({\\bf x},\\theta) f ~\\mathrm{d} {\\bf x}~\\mathrm{d} \\mu(\\theta) + \nc \\int (1-\\rho) \\log (1 -\\rho) ~\\mathrm{d} {\\bf x},\n\\end{equation}\nfor which the models can be formulated as gradient flows in the case $D_R=0$ with $c \\in \\{0,1,3\\}$ chosen  appropriately. For simplicity we set $\\phi = 1$ as well as $D_T=1$ in the following in order to shorten the computations. As before, we interpret integrals in $\\theta$ with respect to the Lebesgue measure for continuum angles and with respect to the discrete measure (sum) in case of a finite number of directions. We recall that the potential $V$ is given by  \n$$\nV({\\bf x}, \\theta) = - v_0 \\, {\\bf e}(\\theta) \\cdot {\\bf x} = - v_0\\, (\\cos \\theta_k x + \\sin \\theta_k y).\n$$\nIn the following we provide a formal computation assuming sufficient regularity of all solutions. We have\n\\begin{align*}\n    \\frac{d \\mathcal{E}}{dt} &= \\int \\int \\partial_t f  ( \\log f + V - c \\log(1-\\rho)) ~\\mathrm{d} {\\bf x}~\\mathrm{d} \\theta \\\\\n    &= - \\int \\int \\nabla  ( \\log f + V - c\\log(1-\\rho))  \n  (-  v_0   ( f  ((1-\\rho) {\\bf e}(\\theta) + a \\mathbf{p} f)) + \n      (   \\mathcal{B}_1(f,\\rho ) \\nabla  f + \\mathcal{B}_2(f,\\rho) \\nabla \\rho)) \n      ~\\mathrm{d} {\\bf x}~\\mathrm{d} \\theta\\\\\n    & \\phantom{=} + D_R \\int \\int    ( \\log f + V -c \\log(1-\\rho))   \\Delta_\\theta f ~\\mathrm{d} {\\bf x}~\\mathrm{d} \\theta\n\\end{align*}\n\nLet us first investigate the last term.\nSince $\\rho$ is independent of $\\theta$, we have using the properties of the generalised Laplacian $\\Delta_\\theta$ with periodic boundary conditions\n$$ \\int     \\log(1-\\rho) \\Delta_\\theta f~d\\theta  = \n\\log(1-\\rho) \\int      \\Delta_\\theta f~d\\theta = 0.$$\nUsing the fact that $\\Delta_\\theta {\\bf e}(\\theta)$ is uniformly bounded in all cases, we find\n\\begin{align*}\n    \\int \\int    ( \\log f + V - c\\log(1-\\rho))   \\Delta_\\theta f ~d{\\bf x}~d\\theta &= \n    - \\int \\int {\\cal F}_\\theta(f) - v_0 \\Delta_\\theta {\\bf e}(\\theta) {\\bf x} f ~d{\\bf x}~d\\theta, \\\\\n    &\\leq C |v_0| \\int |x| f~d{\\bf x}~d\\theta = C |v_0| \\int |x| \\rho~d{\\bf x},\n\\end{align*}\nwhere ${\\cal F}_\\theta(f) \\geq 0$ is the Fisher information with respect to the  generalised Laplacian $\\Delta_\\theta$ \n$$ {\\cal F}_\\theta(f) = \\left\\{ \\begin{array}{ll} \\frac{|\\partial_\\theta f|^2}f & \\text{for }\\partial_{\\theta \\theta} \\\\\n\\frac{|f_{k+1}-f_k|^2}{M(f_k,f_{k+1})}& \\text{for } {\\cal D}^2 \\\\\n\\sum_j \\frac{|f_{j}-f_k|^2}{M(f_j,f_k)}  & \\text{for } {\\cal D}_G\n\\end{array} \\right. , $$\nwhere \n$$M(f,g) = \\frac{f-g}{\\log(f) - \\log(g)}$$\nis the logarithmic mean. \n\nNow we further investigate the first term for the models with $a =0$, where for appropriate choice of $c$ we can achieve\n\\begin{align*}\n\\int \\int \\nabla  ( \\log f + V - c\\log(1-\\rho))  (\n   v_0    f  (1- \\rho) {\\bf e}(\\theta) -   & (   \\mathcal{B}_1(f,\\rho ) \\nabla f + \\mathcal{B}_2(f,\\rho) \\nabla \\rho)    )~d{\\bf x}~d\\theta  \\\\\n &= - \\int \\int  f(1-\\rho)  |\\nabla  ( \\log f + V - c\\log(1-\\rho)) |^2~d{\\bf x}~d\\theta  \\leq 0.\n\\end{align*}\nOverall we finally find\n$$ \\frac{d \\mathcal{E}}{dt} \\leq C ~|v_0|~\\int |{\\bf x}| \\rho~d{\\bf x} \\leq  C ~|v_0|~ \\sqrt{\\int |{\\bf x}|^2 \\rho~d{\\bf x}} . $$\nThus, the growth of the entropy in time is limited by the second moment. Note that for $a=1$ one can employ analogous reasoning to obtain the above negative term. However it is unclear how to control the  additional term \n$\\int \\int \\nabla  ( \\log f + V - c\\log(1-\\rho))  \n   v_0   {\\bf p} f ~d{\\bf x}~d\\theta$.\\\\\n The obtained bounds provide useful a-priori estimates, which can be used in existence results and to study the long-time behaviour, see for example \\cite{BSW2012, J2015}.\n\n\n\n\\section{Boundary effects}\\label{s:bc}\n\n\n\nSo far, we have concentrated on the dynamics on domains with periodic boundary conditions, thus neglecting its effects entirely. In the following we will outline how boundaries as well as inflow and outflow conditions can be included in all models on the micro- as well as macroscopic level. We remark that the continuous random walks models are difficult to treat on bounded domains. Thus we only mention a few aspects and comment in more detail on the time-discrete situation which is easier to tackle, see remark \\ref{rem:time_discrete}.\n\n\n\\subsubsection*{Mass conserving boundary conditions} We first discuss conditions that conserve the total mass, i.e. the number of particles for discrete models, or the integral of the density for continuous ones, in a given domain.\nIn case of the coupled SDE model \\eqref{sde_model}, we are interested in conditions that ensure that particles remain inside the domain. Intuitively, particles need to be reflected whenever they hit the boundary. However, as we are dealing with a problem that is continuous in time, we have to ensure that the particle path remains continuous. In his seminal paper \\cite{Skorokhod1961_bounded} Skorokhod solved this problem by introducing an additional process that increases whenever the original process hits the boundary, see \\cite{Pilipenko2014_reflection} for a detailed discussion. \nFor the microscopic models on a lattice, such boundary conditions \ncorrespond to allowing only jumps into domain whenever a particle is located at the boundary. \nFor the macroscopic models, mass conservation corresponds to no-flux boundary conditions that are implemented by setting the normal flux over the boundary to zero, i.e. \n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:noflux}\n{\\bf J} \\cdot {\\bf n} = 0 \\text{ a.e. in } \\Upsilon \\times (0,T),\n\\end{align}\nwhere, using the general form \\eqref{eq:genform}, the flux density is given as \n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:J_general}\n    {\\bf J} =v_0  ( f  ((1-\\phi \\rho) {\\bf e}(\\theta) + a\\phi \\mathbf{p})) -      D_T (  \\mathcal{B}_1(\\rho ) \\nabla f + \\mathcal{B}_2(f) \\nabla \\rho).\n\\end{align}\n\n\n\\subsubsection*{Flux boundary conditions}\nApart from periodic or no-flux boundary conditions, there is also the possibility for boundary conditions that allow for the in- or outflow of particles (mass) via the boundary. Such effects are of particular interest in the context of this chapter, since they yield an active system even if the motion of the particles within the domain is purely passive (i.e. due to diffusion). \n\nFor the SDE model \\eqref{sde_model}, such boundary conditions correspond to partially reflecting or radiation conditions.\nIntuitively, once a particle reaches the boundary it is, with a certain probability, either removed or otherwise reflected, see \\cite{grebenkov2006partially} and \\cite[Section 4]{Lions1984}.\nFor the discrete models of section \\ref{sec:discrete} let us consider first the special case of a single species which yields the setting of a asymmetric simple exclusion process (ASEP) with open boundary conditions, the paradigmatic models in non-equilibrium thermodynamics, \\cite{chou2011_nonequilibrium}. \nThe dynamics of such a process is well understood and can be solved explicitly, \\cite{Derrida1993:TASEP,derrida1998_exactly} (see also \\cite{Wood2009:TASEP_boundary}). \nWe denote by $\\alpha$ and $\\beta$ the rates by which particles enter (at the left boundary) or exit (at the right boundary) the lattice. Then, the  key observation here is that in the steady state, system can be in one of three distinct states, characterised by the value of the one-dimensional current and the density as follows\n\\begin{itemize}\n    \\item \\emph{low density} or \\emph{influx limited} meaning the density takes the value $\\alpha$ and the flux $\\alpha(1-\\alpha)$; occurs whenever $\\alpha < \\min\\{\\beta, 1\/2\\}$\n    \\item \\emph{high density} or \\emph{outflux limited} meaning density $1-\\beta$ and flux $\\beta(1-\\beta)$; occurs whenever $\\beta < \\min\\{\\alpha, 1\/2\\}$\n    \\item \\emph{maximal density} or \\emph{maximal current} if the density is $1\/2$ and the flux $1\/4$; occurs whenever $\\alpha > 1\/2$ and $\\beta > 1\/2$.\n    \\end{itemize}\n   \nA similar behaviour can be verified for the macroscopic, on-lattice model \\eqref{eq:MF_cross_diff} (or also \\eqref{model_lattice1D_number_densities} with $\\lambda =0$) for a single species on the domain $\\Omega = [0,L]$, which reduces to a single equation for the unknown density $r$, i.e.\n\\begin{align*}\n    \\partial_t r + \\partial_x j = 0 \\text{ with } j = -D_T \\partial_x r + r(1-r) \\partial_x V.\n\\end{align*}\nWe supplement the equation with the flux boundary conditions \n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:inoutflux}\n    -j \\cdot n = \\alpha (1- r) \\text{ at } x = 0 \\text{ and } j \\cdot n = \\beta r \\text{ at } x = L,\n\\end{align}\nsee \\cite{Burger2016}. Indeed, one can show that for positive $D_T> 0$, stationary solutions are close to one of the regimes and as $D_T \\to 0$, they obtain the exact values for flux and density. Interestingly, for positive $D_T$ it is possible to enter the maximal current regime for values of $\\alpha$ and $\\beta$ strictly less than $1\/2$. The long time behaviour of these equations, using entropy--entropy-dissipation inequalities, has been studied in \\cite{Burger2016}.\n\nFor the kinetic models \\eqref{model3} and \\eqref{model_hy}, a similar condition can be formulated for the unknown quantity $f$. However, as $f$ depends not only on $\\bf{x}$ and $t$ but also on the angle $\\theta$, the coefficients may also depend on it. In the most general situation we obtain\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:flux_bc}\n  {\\bf J} \\cdot {\\bf n} =-  \\alpha(\\theta, {\\bf n})  {(1- \\phi\\rho)} +  \\beta(\\theta, {\\bf n})f,\n\\end{align}\nwith ${\\bf J}$ defined in \\eqref{eq:J_general}.\nHere, the choice of the functions $\\alpha$ and $\\beta$ is subject to modelling assumptions or properties of microscopic stochastic models for the in- and outflow. Typically one has a separation into inflow- and outflow regions, which means that $\\alpha$ is supported on inward pointing directions ${\\bf e}(\\theta \\cdot n) > 0$, while $\\beta$ is supported outward pointing directions ${\\bf e}(\\theta \\cdot n) > 0$.\n\n\n\n\\subsubsection*{Other boundary conditions}\nLet us also discuss other types of boundary conditions. Homogeneous Dirichlet boundary conditions can be applied to all types of models: for the SDE \\eqref{sde_model}, one has to remove a particle once it reaches the boundary. The same holds for the discrete random walk models. For the macroscopic models, one sets the trace at the boundary to zero. Finally, also mixed boundary conditions are possible, combining the effects described above on different parts of the boundary.\n\n\\begin{remark}[Boundary conditions for discrete time random walks] \\label{rem:time_discrete}\nWe briefly comment on the situation for time-discrete random walks, that is when the SDE \\eqref{sde_model} is replaced by the time-discrete system\n\\begin{subequations}\n\t\\label{sde_model_discrete}\n\\begin{align}\n\\label{sde_x_discrete}\n\t{\\bf X}_i(t+\\Delta t) &= {\\bf X}_i(t) + \\Delta t\\sqrt{2 D_T} \\zeta_i - \\Delta t \\nabla_{{\\bf x}_i} U + \\Delta t v_0 {\\bf e}(\\Theta_i),\\\\\n\t\\label{sde_angle_discrete}\n\t\\Theta_i(t + \\Delta t) &= \\Theta_i(t) + \\Delta t\\sqrt{2 D_R} \\bar \\zeta_i - \\Delta t\\partial_{\\theta_i} U,\n\\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\nfor some time step size $\\Delta t > 0$ and where $\\zeta_i, \\, \\bar \\zeta_i$ are normally distributed random variables with zero mean and unit variance. To implement boundary conditions, one has to calculate the probability that ${\\bf{X}}_i(t + \\Delta t) \\notin \\Omega$ (considering also the case that the particles leaves the domain but moves back into it within the time interval $[t, t+\\Delta t]$), see \\cite{Andrews2004_time_discrete} for detailed calculations in the case of pure diffusion. If a particle is found to have left the domain, it can either be removed with probability one (corresponding to homogeneous Dirichlet boundary conditions) or less than one, called a partially reflective boundary condition (corresponding to Robin boundary conditions). In our setting, this probability can depend on the current angle of the particle, $\\Theta_i(t)$, allowing for additional modelling. \nIt is also possible to add a reservoir of particles at the boundary to implement flux boundary conditions in the spirit of \\eqref{eq:flux_bc} by prescribing a probability to enter the domain. In the case of excluded volume, the probability to enter will depend on the number of particles close to the entrance.\n\\end{remark}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Active crowds in the life and social science}\\label{sec:applications}\n\n\\subsection{Pedestrian dynamics} \\label{sec:pedestrian}\n\nA prominent example of active and externally activated dynamics in the context of socio-economic applications is the motion of large pedestrian crowds. There is an extensive literature on mathematical modelling for pedestrians in the physics and the transportation community, which is beyond the scope of this paper. We will therefore review the relevant models in the context of active crowds only and refer for a more comprehensive overview to \\cite{CPT2014, MF2018}. \n\n\\paragraph{Microscopic models for pedestrian flows}\nMicroscopic off-lattice models are the most popular approach in the engineering and transportation research literature. Most software packages and simulations are based on the so called social force model by Helbing  \\cite{Helbing1995:social,Helbing2000:social}. The social force model is a second order SDE model, which does not take the form of active models considered here. However, it is easy to formulate models for pedestrians in the context of active particles satisfying \\eqref{sde_model}. For example, assume that all pedestrians move with the same constant speed in a desired direction $\\Theta_d$  avoiding collisions with others. Then their dynamics can be described by the following second order system:\n\\begin{subequations}    \n\\label{e:activepedestrians}\n\\begin{align}\n    \\mathrm{d} {\\bf X}_i &= -\\nabla_{{\\bf X}_i} U \\mathrm{d} t  + v_0 \\frac{e(\\Theta_i)- \\Theta_d}{\\tau}dt + \\sqrt{2 D_T}\\, \\mathrm{d} {\\bf W}_i\\\\\n    \\mathrm{d} \\Theta_i &= -\\partial_{\\Theta_i} U \\mathrm{d} t + \\sqrt{2D_R}\\,\\mathrm{d}{\\bf W}_i.\n\\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\nThe potential $U$ takes the form \\eqref{e:U}, where the pairwise interactions $u$ should be related to the likelihood of a collision. One could for example consider\n\\begin{align*}\n    u(\\lvert {\\bf X}_i - {\\bf X}_j \\rvert\/\\ell, \\Theta_i - \\Theta_j) = C \\frac{\\Theta_i - \\Theta_j}{\\lvert {\\bf X}_i - {\\bf X}_j\\rvert},\n\\end{align*}\nwhere $C \\in \\mathbb{R}^+$ and $\\ell$ relates to the personal comfort zone. Another possibility corresponds to a Lennard Jones type potential to model short range repulsion and long range attraction. \nAnother popular microscopic approach are so-called cellular automata, which correspond to the discrete active and externally activated models discussed before. In cellular automata a certain number of pedestrians can occupy discrete lattice sites and individuals move to available (not fully occupied) neighbouring sites, with transition rates. These transition rates may depend on given potentials, as discussed in the previous sections, which relate to the preferred direction.\n\nThere is also a large class of microscopic on-lattice models, so called cellular automata, see \\cite{Kirchner2002:Cellular}, which relate to the microscopic discussed in Section \\ref{sec:discrete_passive}. In cellular automata pedestrians move to neighbouring sites at given rates, if these sites are not already occupied. Their rates often depend on an external given potential, which relates to the desired direction $\\Theta_d$. Cellular automata often serve as the basis for the macroscopic pedestrian models, which will be discussed in the next paragraph, see for example \\cite{BMP2011, Burger2016:sidestepping}. \n\n\\paragraph{Macroscopic models for pedestrian flows}\nMean field models derived from microscopic off-lattice approaches have been used successfully to analyse the formation of directional lanes or aggregates in bi-directional pedestrian flows. This segregation behaviour has been observed in many experimental and real-life situations. Several models, which fall into the category of externally activated particles introduced in section \\ref{sec:discrete_passive}, were proposed and investigated in this context. These models take the form \\eqref{eq:MF_cross_diff}, in which the densities $r$ and $b$ relate to different directions of motion. For example in the case of bi-directional flows in a straight corridor 'red particles' correspond to individuals moving to the right, while blue ones move to the left. We will see in section \\ref{sec:numerics} that we can observe temporal as well as stationary segregated states. Depending on the initial and inflow conditions directional lanes or jams occur. Then the gradient flow structure can then be used to investigate the stability of stationary states using for example the respective entropy functionals. Due to the segregated structure of stationary solutions, one can also use linear stability analysis around constant steady states to understand for example the formation of lanes, see \\cite{Pietschmann2011:lane}.\n\nMore pronounced segregated states and lanes can be observed when allowing for side-stepping. In the respective microscopic on lattice models, individuals step aside when approached by a member of the other species. The respective formally derived mean-field model has a perturbed gradient flow structure, which can be used to show existence of solutions, see \\cite{Burger2016:sidestepping}. \nMore recently, a model containing both and active and a passive species has been introduced, \\cite{Cirillo2020:ActivePassive}\n\n\n\\subsection{Transport in biological systems}\\label{sec:biological_transport}\nAnother example where active particles play an important role are transport process in biological systems. We will discuss two important types of such processes in the following - chemotaxis and transport in neurons. \n\n\\subsubsection*{Chemotaxis}\n\nWe consider bacteria in a given domain that aim to move along the gradient of a given chemical substance, called chemo-attractant and modelled by a function $c:\\Omega \\to  \\mathbb{R}_+$. Due to their size, bacteria cannot sense a gradient by, say, comparing the value of $c$ at their head with that at their tail. \nThus, they use a different mechanism based on comparing values of $c$ at different time instances and different points in space, called run-and-tumble. In a first step, they perform a directed motion into a fixed direction (run), then rotate randomly (tumble). These two steps are repeated, however, the probability of tumbling depends on $c$ as follows: If the value of $c$ is decreasing in time, bacteria tumble more frequently as they are not moving up the gradient. If the value of $c$ increased, they turn less often. \nRoughly speaking, this mechanism reduces the amount of diffusion depending on the gradient of $c$. Here, we consider a slightly different idea that fits into the hybrid random walk model introduced in \\eqref{hybrid2}, assuming $D_T$ to be small (run) and the rate of change for the angle depends on $c$. To this end $\\lambda$ is taken different for each angle (thus denoted by $\\lambda_k$) and is assumed to depend on the difference of the external signal $c$ at the current and past positions, only. Denoting by $t_k$, $k=1,2, \\ldots$ the times at which the angle changes, at time $t_n$ we  have $\\lambda_k  = \\lambda_k((c(\\mathbf{X}_i(t_n))-c(\\mathbf{X}_i(t_{n-1}))$.\nAdditionally, we introduce a fixed base-line turning frequency $\\bar\\lambda$, and consider\n$$\n\\lambda_k = \\bar \\lambda +  (c(\\mathbf{X}_k(t_{n-1})) - c(\\mathbf{X}_k(t_n))),\n$$ \nNow going from discrete to time-continuous jumps, i.e. $t_{n} - t_{n-1} \\to 0$, and appropriate rescaling, we obtain via the chain rule\n$$\n\\lambda_k = \\bar \\lambda -  \\dot{\\mathbf{X}}_k\\cdot \\nabla c(\\mathbf{X}_i).\n$$\nHowever, due to the stochastic nature of the equation governing the evolution $\\mathbf{X}_k$, its time derivative is not defined. Thus, as a modelling choice, we replace this velocity vector by $v_0 {\\bf e}(\\theta_k)$, i.e. the direction of the active motion of the respective particle. This is also motivated by the fact that for $D_T=0$ and $U=0$ in \\eqref{hybrid_x}, this is exact. We obtain\n$$\n\\lambda_k = \\bar \\lambda -  v_0{\\bf e}(\\theta_k)\\cdot \\nabla c(\\mathbf{X}_i).\n$$\nIn the particular case on one spatial dimension with only two possible angles (denoted by $+$ and $-$) and for $v_0=1$ this reduces to\n$$\n\\lambda_\\pm = \\bar\\lambda \\mp \\partial_x c,\n$$\nwhich is exactly the model analysed in \\cite{Ralph:2020cj}. There, it was also shown that using an appropriate parabolic scaling, one can obtain a Chemotaxis-like model with linear transport but non-linear diffusion in the diffusive limit.\n\n\\subsubsection*{Transport in neurons}\nAnother interesting example are transport processes within cells and we focus on the example of vesicles in neurons. Vesicles are small bubbles of cell membrane that are produced in the cell body (soma) and are then transported along extensions of the cell called axons. The transport itself is carried out by motor proteins that move along microtubules and are allowed to change their direction of motion. \nThis situation can be modelled using the discrete random walks from section \\ref{sec:discrete} by considering the one-dimensional case which, in the macroscopic limit, yields equations \\eqref{model_lattice1D}. \nSince we are now dealing with two species $f_-$ and $f_+$, denoting left- and right-moving complexes, we also have to adopt our boundary conditions as follows: Denoting by $j_+$ and $j_-$ the respective fluxes,\n\\begin{align*}\n    -j_+ &= \\alpha_+ (1-\\phi\\rho),  \\quad j_- = \\beta_- f_- \\qquad\\text{ at } x = 0,\\\\\n    -j_- &= \\alpha_- (1-\\phi\\rho),  \\quad j_+ = \\beta_+ f_+ \\qquad\\text{ at } x = 1.\n\\end{align*}\nSystem \\eqref{model_lattice1D} has, to the best of our knowledge, not yet been considered with these boundary conditions. From an application point of view, it is relevant to study whether these models are able to reproduce the almost uniform distribution of motor complexes observed in experiments, see \\cite{Bressloff2015_democracy, Bressloff2016_exclusion} for an analysis.\n\nMore recently, the influence of transport in developing neurites has been studied in \\cite{humpert_role_2019} with an emphasis on the mechanism that decides which of the growing neurites becomes an axon. To model this situation, the concentration of vesicles at some and growth cones is modelled separately by ordinary differential equations which are connected to to instances of \\eqref{eq:MF_cross_diff} via flux boundary conditions. \n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Numerical simulations}\\label{sec:numerics}\n\n\nIn the following, we present numerical examples in one spatial dimension comparing a subset of models presented above. All simulations are based on a finite element discretisation in space (using P$1$ elements). The time discretisation is based on the following implicit-explicit (IMEX) scheme \n\\begin{equation*}\n      \\frac{f^{n+1} - f^n}{\\tau} + v_0 \\nabla \\cdot ( f  ((1-\\phi \\rho^n) {\\bf e}(\\theta) + a\\phi \\mathbf{p} f)) = \n      D_T \\nabla \\cdot (   \\mathcal{B}_1(\\rho^n ) \\nabla f^{n+1} + \\mathcal{B}_2(f^n) \\nabla \\rho^{n+1}) + D_R \\Delta_\\theta   f^n,\n\\end{equation*}\nin which the superscript index $n$ refers to the $n$th time step, that is $t^n = n \\tau$, $\\tau>0.$\nHere transport and rotational diffusion are taken explicitly, while in the diffusive part terms of second order are treated implicitly. Thus, in every time step, a linear system has to be solved. All schemes were implemented using the finite element library NgSolve, see \\cite{Sch\u00f6berl1997}. \n\nWe will illustrate the behaviour of solutions for  models \\eqref{model_lattice1D_number_densities}, \\eqref{e:aa_cross_sys}, \\eqref{eq:MF_cross_diff}, in case of in- and outflux \\eqref{eq:inoutflux}, no-flux \\eqref{eq:noflux} or periodic boundary conditions in case of two species, referred to as red $r$ and blue $b$ particles. We use subscript $r$ and $b$, when referring to their respective in- and outflow rates as well as diffusion coefficients. Note that while for the models \\eqref{ASEP_2D}, \\eqref{eq:MF_cross_diff}, the one-dimensional setting is meaningful, for model \\eqref{e:aa_cross_sys}, the simulations are to be understood as two-dimensional but with a potential that is constant in the second dimension.\nFor all simulations, we discretised the unit interval into $150$ elements and chose time steps of size $\\tau = 0.01$.\n\\subsubsection*{Flux boundary conditions} Figures \\ref{fig:Regime2} and \\ref{fig:Regime3} show density profiles for the respective models at time $t=0.5,\\, 2,\\, 3, \\, 30$. In figure \\ref{fig:Regime2}, we chose rather low rates (in particular below $1\/2$) and with $\\alpha_r > \\beta_r$ as well as $\\alpha_b < \\beta_b$ which resulted in species $r$ being in a outflux limited and species $b$ an influx limited phase. We observe that for these low rates, all models are quite close to one another, yet with different shapes of the boundary layers. Model \\eqref{model_lattice1D_number_densities}, having a linear diffusion term, showing a different slope as \\eqref{eq:MF_cross_diff} where cross-diffusion seems to play a role an \\eqref{e:aa_cross_sys} being in between.\n\nIn figure \\ref{fig:Regime3} we chose rates above $1\/2$ to obtain the maximal-current phase. There, interestingly, it turns our that the dynamics of model \\eqref{e:aa_cross_sys} shows a completely different behaviour. This constitutes an interesting starting point for further analytical considerations on the phase behaviour. Figure \\ref{fig:mass} displays the evolution of the total mass of the respective species for different in- and outflow rates. We observe that the reaction-diffusion \\eqref{model_lattice1D_number_densities} and the lattice based cross diffusion system \\eqref{eq:MF_cross_diff} show a similar quantitative behaviour in several in- and outflow regimes, while the cross-diffusion system obtained via asymptotic expansion \\eqref{e:aa_cross_sys} behaves only qualitatively similar.\n\\subsubsection*{Periodic boundary conditions}\nFor periodic boundary conditions, noting that the velocity is constant, thus periodic, we expect constant stationary solutions whose value is determined by the initial mass. This is indeed observed in figure \\ref{fig:periodic}. However, for earlier times, their dynamics differs substantially, in particular for \\eqref{eq:MF_cross_diff}, the influence of cross-diffusion (\"jams\") is most pronounced.\n\n\\subsubsection*{Confining potential}\nFinally in figure \\ref{fig:confined}, we consider the situation of no-flux conditions together with a confining potential $V(x) = (x-\\frac{1}{2})^2$. Here we observe very similar behaviour for all models, probably due to the fact that the transport term dominates the dynamics. \n\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure}\n    \\centering\n    \\subfigure[$t=0.5$]{\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.23\\textwidth]{{figures\/Regime2DensitiesAtTime_t=0.50}.pdf}\n    }\n    \\subfigure[$t=2$]{\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.23\\textwidth]{{figures\/Regime2DensitiesAtTime_t=2.00}.pdf}\n    }\n    \\subfigure[$t=3$]{\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.23\\textwidth]{{figures\/Regime2DensitiesAtTime_t=3.00}.pdf}\n    }\n    \\subfigure[$t=200$]{\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.23\\textwidth]{{figures\/Regime2DensitiesAtTime_t=200.00}.pdf}\n    }\n    \\caption{Flux boundary conditions with: $\\lambda = 0.01$, $D_r = 0.1,\\,  D_b = 0.1,\\, \\alpha_r = 0.02, \\, \\beta_r = 0.01, \\, \\alpha_b = 0.01, \\, \\beta_b = 0.02$ which yields the influx-limited phase for species $r$ and outflux-limited for $b$.}\n    \\label{fig:Regime2}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\begin{figure}\n    \\centering\n    \\subfigure[$t=0.5$]{\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.23\\textwidth]{{figures\/Regime3DensitiesAtTime_t=0.50}.pdf}\n    }\n    \\subfigure[$t=2$]{\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.23\\textwidth]{{figures\/Regime3DensitiesAtTime_t=2.00}.pdf}\n    }\n    \\subfigure[$t=3$]{\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.23\\textwidth]{{figures\/Regime3DensitiesAtTime_t=3.00}.pdf}\n    }\n    \\subfigure[$t=200$]{\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.23\\textwidth]{{figures\/Regime3DensitiesAtTime_t=200.00}.pdf}\n    }\n    \\caption{Flux boundary conditions with: $\\lambda = 0.01$, $D_r = 0.1,\\,  D_b = 0.1,\\, \\alpha_r = 0.6, \\, \\beta_r = 0.8, \\, \\alpha_b = 0.7, \\, \\beta_b = 0.9$ which yields the maximal current phase.}\n    \\label{fig:Regime3}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure}\n    \\centering\n   \n   \n   \n    \\subfigure[$\\alpha_r=0.02$, $\\beta_r=0.01$, $\\alpha_b=0.01$,  $\\beta_b=0.02$]{\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.275\\textwidth]{{figures\/Regime2Mass}.pdf}\n    }\n    \\hspace{0.2cm}\n    \\subfigure[$\\alpha_r=0.6$, $\\beta_r=0.8$,   $\\alpha_b=0.7$,  $\\beta_b=0.9$]{\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.275\\textwidth]{{figures\/Regime3Mass}.pdf}\n    }\n        \\hspace{0.2cm}\n    \\subfigure[$\\alpha_r=0.1$, $\\beta_r=0.2$,   $\\alpha_b=0.2$,\\quad $\\beta_b=0.4$]{\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.275\\textwidth]{{figures\/Regime4Mass}.pdf}\n    }\n    \\caption{Evolution of the total mass for different flux boundary conditions and with $D_r=D_b = 0.1$ and $\\lambda = 0.01$ in all cases.}\n        \\label{fig:mass}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure}\n    \\centering\n    \\subfigure[$t=0$]{\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.23\\textwidth]{{figures\/PeriodicDensitiesAtTime_t=0.00}.pdf}\n    }\n    \\subfigure[$t=0.4$]{\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.23\\textwidth]{{figures\/PeriodicDensitiesAtTime_t=0.50}.pdf}\n    }\n    \\subfigure[$t=1$]{\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.23\\textwidth]{{figures\/PeriodicDensitiesAtTime_t=1.00}.pdf}\n    }\n    \\subfigure[$t=3.9$]{\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.23\\textwidth]{{figures\/PeriodicDensitiesAtTime_t=3.90}.pdf}\n    }\n    \\caption{Periodic boundary conditions with $D_r=D_b = 0.01$ and  $\\lambda = 0.01$. All models converge to constant stationary solution.}\n    \\label{fig:periodic}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n    \\centering\n    \\subfigure[$t=0$]{\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.23\\textwidth]{{figures\/Regime6DensitiesAtTime_t=0.00}.pdf}\n    }\n    \\subfigure[$t=0.5$]{\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.23\\textwidth]{{figures\/Regime6DensitiesAtTime_t=0.50}.pdf}\n    }\n    \\subfigure[$t=2$]{\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.23\\textwidth]{{figures\/Regime6DensitiesAtTime_t=2.00}.pdf}\n    }\n    \\subfigure[$t=10$]{\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.23\\textwidth]{{figures\/Regime6DensitiesAtTime_t=10.00}.pdf}\n    }\n    \\label{fig:confined}\n    \\caption{No flux boundary conditions with  $D_r =  D_b = 0.1$, $\\lambda = 0.01$ and an confining potential  $V_r = V_b = 5(x-0.5)^2$. }\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\n\\section*{Acknowledgements}\nThe work of MTW was partly supported by the Austrian Academy of Sciences New Frontier's grant NFG-0001. JFP thanks the DAAD for support via the PPP project 57447206. MBu  acknowledges partial financial support by European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 777826 (NoMADS) and the German Science Foundation (DFG) through CRC TR 154 \"Mathematical Modelling, Simulation and Optimization using the Example of Gas Networks\", Subproject C06. Maria Bruna was partially supported by a Royal Society University Research Fellowship (grant number URF\/R1\/180040) and a Humboldt Research Fellowship from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation.\n\n\\printbibliography\n\\end{document}\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\nModern High Energy Physics (HEP) experiments are designed to detect large amount of data with very high rate. In addition to that weak signatures of new physics must be searched in complex background condition. In order to reach these achievements, new computing paradigms must be adopted. A novel approach is based on the use of high parallel computing devices, like  Graphics Processing Units (GPU), which delivers such high performance solutions to be used in HEP. In particular, a massive parallel computation based on General Purpose Graphics Processing Units (GPGPU)~\\cite{nvidia} could dramatically speed up the algorithms for charged particle tracking and fitting, allowing their use for fast decision taking and triggering. \nIn this paper we describe a tracking recognition algorithm based on the Hough Transform~\\cite{hough:paper,hough:hep1,hough:hep2} and its implementation on Graphics Processing Units (GPU). \n\n\n\n\n\\section{Tracking with the Hough Transform}\n\nThe Hough Transform (HT) is a pattern recognition technique for features extraction in image processing, and in our case we will use a HT based algorithm to extract the tracks parameters from the hits left by charged particles in the detector. A preliminary result on this study has been already presented in~\\cite{tipp}. Our model is based on a cylindrical multi-layer silicon detector installed around the interaction point of a particle collider, with the detector axis on the beam-line. \nThe algorithm works in two serial steps. In the first part, for each hit having coordinates $(x_H,y_H,z_H)$ the algorithm computes all the circles in the $x-y$ transverse plane passing through that hit and the interaction point, where the circle equation is $x^2+y^2-2Ax-2By=0$, and $A$ and $B$ are the two parameters corresponding to the coordinates of the circle centre. The circle detection is performed taking into account also the longitudinal ($\\theta$) and polar ($\\phi$) angles. For all the $\\theta$, $\\phi$, $A$, $B$, satisfying the circle equation associated to a given hit, the corresponding $M_H(A,B,\\theta,\\phi)$ Hough Matrix (or Vote Matrix) elements are incremented by one. After computing all the hits, all the $M_H$ elements above a given threshold would correspond to real tracks. Thus, the second step is a local maxima search among the $M_H$ elements.\n\n\nIn our test, we used a dataset of 100 simulated events ($pp$ collisions at LHC energy, Minimum Bias sample with tracks having transverse momentum $p_T>500$ MeV), each event containing up to 5000 particle hits on a cylindrical 12-layer silicon detector centred on the nominal collision point. The four hyper-dimensions of the Hough space have been binned in $4 \\times 16 \\times 1024 \\times 1024$ along the corresponding $A,B,\\theta,\\phi$ parameters. \n\n\nThe algorithm performance compared to a $\\chi^2$ fit method is shown in Fig.~\\ref{hough:perf}: the $\\rho=\\sqrt{A^2+B^2}$ and $\\varphi=\\tan^{-1}(B\/A)$ are shown together with the corresponding resolutions.\n\n\\begin{figure}[h]\n\\centerline{\\includegraphics[width=.8\\textwidth]{rinaldi_lorenzo_fig1.pdf}}\n\\caption{Hough Transform algorithm compared to $\\chi^2$ fit. (a) $\\rho$ distribution; (b) $\\varphi$ distribution; (c) $\\rho$ resolution; (d) $\\varphi$ resolution. }\\label{hough:perf}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\section{SINGLE-GPU implementation}\n\n\nThe HT tracking algorithm has been implemented in GPGPU splitting the code in two kernels, for Hough Matrix filling and searching local maxima on it. Implementation has been performed both in CUDA~\\cite{nvidia} and OpenCL~\\cite{opencl}. GPGPU implementation schema is shown in Fig.~\\ref{GPGPU:schema}. \n\n\n\n\nConcerning the CUDA implementation, for the $M_H$ filling kernel, we set a 1-D grid over all the hits, the grid size being equal to the number of hits of the event. Fixed the ($\\theta,\\phi$) values, a thread-block has been assigned to the $A$ values, and for each $A$, the corresponding $B$ is evaluated. The $M_H(A,B,\\theta,\\phi)$ matrix element is then incremented by a unity with an {\\tt atomicAdd} operation. The $M_H$ initialisation is done once at first iteration with {\\tt cudaMallocHost} (pinned memory) and initialised on device with {\\tt cudaMemset}. \nIn the second kernel, the local maxima search is carried out using a 2-D grid over the $\\theta,\\phi$ parameters, the grid dimension being the product of all the parameters number over the maximum number of threads per block ($N_{\\phi} \\times N_{\\theta} \\times N_A \\times N_B$)\/{\\tt maxThreadsPerBlock}, and 2-D threadblocks, with {\\tt dimXBlock}=$N_A$ and {\\tt dimYBlock=MaxThreadPerBlock}\/$N_A$. Each thread compares one $M_H(A,B,\\theta,\\phi)$ element to its neighbours and, if the biggest, it is stored in the GPU shared memory and eventually transferred back. With such big arrays the actual challenge lies in optimizing array allocation and access and indeed for\nthis kernel a significant speed up has been achieved by tuning matrix access in a coalesced fashion, thus allowing to gain a crucial computational speed-up.\n\\begin{figure}[hb]\n\\centerline{\\includegraphics[width=.6\\textwidth]{rinaldi_lorenzo_fig2.pdf}}\n\\caption{GPGPU implementation schema of the two Hough Transform algorithm kernels.}\\label{GPGPU:schema}\n\\end{figure}\nThe OpenCL implementation has been done using a similar structure used for CUDA. Since in OpenCL there is no direct pinning memory, a device buffer is mapped to an already existing $memallocated$ host buffer ({\\tt clEnqueueMapBuffer}) and dedicated kernels are used for matrices initialisation in the device memory. The memory host-to-device buffer allocation is performed concurrently and asynchronously, saving overall transferring time. \n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{SINGLE-GPU results}\n\n\n\\begin{footnotesize}\n\\begin{table}[h]\n\\centerline{\\begin{tabular}{ | l | c | c | c |}\n\\hline\nDevice & NVIDIA & NVIDIA & NVIDIA \\\\\nspecification & GeForce GTX770 & Tesla K20m & Tesla K40m \\\\\n\\hline\nPerformance (Gflops) & 3213 & 3542 & 4291 \\\\\nMem. Bandwidth (GB\/s) & 224.2 & 208 & 288 \\\\\nBus Connection & PCIe3 & PCIe3 & PCIe3 \\\\\nMem. Size (MB) & 2048 & 5120 & 12228 \\\\\nNumber of Cores & 1536 & 2496 & 2880 \\\\\nClock Speed (MHz) & 1046 & 706 & 1502 \\\\\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}}\n\\caption{Computing resources setup.}\n\\label{tab:gpus}\n\\end{table}\n\\end{footnotesize}\n\nThe test has been performed using the NVIDIA~\\cite{nvidia} GPU boards listed in table~\\ref{tab:gpus}. The GTX770 board is mounted locally on a desktop PC, the Tesla K20 and K40 are installed in the INFN-CNAF HPC cluster. \n\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[h]\n\\centerline{\\includegraphics[width=1.05\\textwidth]{rinaldi_lorenzo_fig3.pdf}}\n\\caption{Execution timing as a function of the number of analysed hits. (a) Total execution time for all devices; (b) Total execution time for GPU devices only; (c) $M_H$ filling time for all devices; (d) $M_H$ filling timing for GPU devices only; (e) local maxima search timing for all devices; (f) local maxima search timing for GPU devices only; (g) device-to-host transfer time (GPUS) and I\/O time (CPU). }\\label{allgpu}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\nThe measurement of the execution time of all the algorithm components has been carried out as a function of the number of hits to be processed, and averaging the results over 100 independent runs. The result of the test is summarised in Fig.~\\ref{allgpu}.\nThe total execution time comparison between GPUs and CPU is shown in Fig.~\\ref{allgpu}a, while in Fig.~\\ref{allgpu}b the details about the execution on different GPUs are shown. The GPU execution is up to 15 times faster with respect to the CPU implementation, and the best result is obtained for the CUDA algorithm version on the GTX770 device. The GPUs timing are less dependent on the number of the hits with respect to CPU timing.\n\n\nThe kernels execution on GPUs is even faster with respect to CPU timing, with two orders of magnitude GPU-CPU speed up, as shown in Figs.~\\ref{allgpu}c and \\ref{allgpu}e. When comparing the kernel execution on different GPUs (Figs.~\\ref{allgpu}d) and~\\ref{allgpu}f), CUDA is observed to perform slightly better than OpenCL. Figure~\\ref{allgpu}g shows the GPU-to-CPU data transfer timings for all devices together with the CPU I\/O timing, giving a clear idea of the dominant part of the execution time.\n\n\n\n\\section{MULTI-GPU implementation}\n\n\n\nAssuming that the detector model we considered could have multiple readout boards working independently, it is interesting to split the workload on multiple GPUs. We have done this by splitting the transverse plane in four sectors to be processed separately, since the data across sectors are assumed to be read-out independently. \nHence, a single HT is executed for each sector, assigned to a single GPU, and eventually the results are merged when each GPU finishes its own process. The main advantage is to reduce the load on a single GPU  by using lightweight Hough Matrices and output structures. Only CUDA implementation has been tested, using the same workload schema discussed in Sec. 3, but using four $M_H(A,B,\\theta)$, each matrix processing the data of a single $\\phi$ sector.\n\\begin{figure}[h]\n\\centerline{\\includegraphics[width=.8\\textwidth]{rinaldi_lorenzo_fig4.pdf}}\n\\caption{Execution timing as a function of the number of the hits for multi-GPU configuration. (a) Total execution time; (b) $M_H$ filling timing; (c) local maxima search timing; (d) device-to-host transfer time.}\\label{multigpu}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\subsection{MULTI-GPU results}\n\nThe multi-GPU results are shown in Fig.~\\ref{multigpu}. The test has been carried out in double configuration, separately, with two NVIDIA Tesla K20 and two NVIDIA Tesla K40. The overall execution time is faster with double GPUs in both cases, even if timing does not scale with the number of GPUs. An approximate half timing is instead observed when comparing kernels execution times. On the other hand, the transferring time is almost independent on the number of GPUs, this leading the overall time execution.\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Conclusions}\n\nA pattern recognition algorithm based on the Hough Transform has been successfully implemented on CUDA and OpenCL, also using multiple devices. The results presented in this paper show that the employment of GPUs in situations where time is critical for HEP,\nlike triggering at hadron colliders, can lead to significant and encouraging speed-up. Indeed the problem by itself offers wide room for a parallel approach to computation: this is reflected in the results shown where the speed-up is around 15 times better than what achieved with a normal CPU. There are still many handles for optimising the performance, also taking into account the GPU architecture and board specifications. \nNext steps of this work go towards an interface to actual experimental frameworks, including the management of the experimental data structures and testing with more graphics accelerators and coprocessor.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{footnotesize}\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
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+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\\label{sect:Intro}\n\n\n\n\n \n\nHS RS imaging has gradually become one of the most vital achievements in the field of RS since the 1980s \\cite{c173}. Varied from an initial single-band panchromatic image, a three-band color RGB image, and a several-band multispectral (MS) image, an HS image contains hundreds of narrow and continuous spectral bands, which is promoted by the development of spectral imaging equipment and the improvement of spectral resolutions. The broader portion of the HS spectrum can scan from the ultraviolet, extend into the visible spectrum, and eventually reach in the near-infrared or short-wave infrared \\cite{9395693}. Each pixel of HS images corresponds to a spectral signature and reflects the electromagnetic properties of the observed object. This enables the identification and discrimination of underlying objects, especially some that have a similar property in single-band or several-band RS images (such as panchromatic, RGB, MS) in a more accurate manner. As a result, the wealthy spatial and spectral information of HS images has extremely improved the perceptual ability of Earth observation, which makes the HS RS technique play a crucial role in the fields like precision agriculture (e.g., monitoring the growth and health of crops), space exploration (e.g., searching for signs of life on other planets), pollution monitoring (e.g., detection of the ocean oil spill), and military applications (e.g., identification of military targets) \\cite{c1,c172,9174822}. \n\nOver the past decade, massive efforts have been made to process and analyze HS RS data after the data acquisition. Initial HS data processing considers either a gray-level image for each band or the spectral signature of each pixel. From one side, each HS spectral band is regarded as a gray-level image, and the traditional 2-D image processing algorithms are directly introduced band by band \\cite{c175,c176}. From another side, the spectral signatures that have similar visible properties (e.g., color, texture) can be used to identify the materials \\cite{c174}. Furthermore, extensive low-rank (LR) matrix-based methods are employed to explore the high correlation of spectral channels with the assumption that the unfolding HS matrix has a low rank \\cite{c20,c177,c178}. Given an HS image of size h\u00d7v\u00d7z, the recovery of an unfolding HS matrix (hv\u00d7z) usually requires the singular value decomposition (SVD), which leads to the computational cost of $O(h^2 v^2 z+ z^3)$ \\cite{c30,c31,c32}. In some typical tensor decomposition-based methods, the complexity of the tensor singular value decomposition (t-SVD) is about $O(hvzlogz+ hv^2z)$ \\cite{c28,c34,c61}. Compared to matrix forms, tensor decompositions achieve excellent performances with a tolerable increment of computational complexity. However, these traditional LR models reshape each spectral band as a vector, leading to the destruction of the inherent spatial-spectral completeness of HS images. Correct interpretations of HS images and the appropriate choice of the intelligent models should be determined to reduce the gap between HS tasks and the advanced data processing technique. Both 2-D spatial information and 1-D spectral information are considered when an HS image is modeled as a three-order tensor.\n\n   \n\n\n\\begin{figure*}[htp!]\n\t\\begin{center}\n   \n    \\includegraphics[width = 1\\textwidth]{TLFORHSI.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[houston]{A taxonomy of main tensor decomposition-based methods for HS data processing. }\n\t\\label{fig:TLreference}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\n\nTensor decomposition, which originates from Hitchcock's works in 1927 \\cite{c179}, touches upon numerous disciplines, but it has recently become prosperous in the fields of signal processing, machine learning, data mining and fusion over the last ten years \\cite{c181,c182,c183}. The early overviews focus on two common decomposition ways: Tucker decomposition and CANDECOMP\/PARAFAC (CP) decomposition. In 2008, these two decompositions were first introduced into HS restoration tasks to remove the Gaussian noise \\cite{c25,c26}. The tensor decomposition-based mathematical models avoid converting the original dimensions, and also to some degree, enhance the interpretability and completeness for problem modeling. Different types of prior knowledge (e.g, non-local similarity in the spatial domain, spatial and spectral smoothness) in HS RS are considered and incorporated into the tensor decomposition frameworks. However, on the one hand, additional tensor decomposition methods have been proposed recently, such as block term (BT) decomposition, t-SVD \\cite{c184}, tensor train (TT) decomposition \\cite{c185}, and tensor ring (TR) decomposition \\cite{c126}. On the other hand, as a versatile tool, tensor decomposition related to HS image processing has not been reviewed until. In this article, we mainly present a systematic overview from the perspective of the state-of-the-art tensor decomposition techniques for HS data processing in terms of the five burgeoning topics previously mentioned, as presented in Fig. \\ref{fig:TLreference}. \n\n\n\\begin{figure}[htp!]\n\t\\begin{center}\n    \\includegraphics[width = 0.45\\textwidth]{papernumber.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[houston]{The number of journal and conference papers that published in IEEE Xplore on the subject of \"hyperspectral\" and \"tensor decomposition\" within different time periods. }\n\t\\label{fig:Visio-papernum}\n\\end{figure}\nFig. \\ref{fig:Visio-papernum} displays the dynamics of tensor decompositions used for HS data processing in the HS community. The listed numbers contain both scientific journal and conference papers published in IEEE Xplore, which regards \"hyperspectral\" and \"tensor decomposition\" as the main keywords in abstracts. To highlight the increasing trend of number of publications, time period has been divided into four equal time slots (i.e., 2007-2010, 2011-2014, 2015-2018, 2019-2022(05 January)).\nIn this article, we mainly present a systematic overview from the perspective of the state-of-the-art tensor decomposition techniques for HS data processing in terms of the five burgeoning topics previously mentioned. \n\n\\noindent\n\\hangafter=1\n\\setlength{\\hangindent}{2em}\n(1) To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time to provide a comprehensive survey of the state-of-the-art tensor decomposition techniques for processing and analyzing HS RS images. More than 100 publications in this field are reviewed and discussed, most of which were published during the last five years.\n\n\\noindent\n\\hangafter=1\n\\setlength{\\hangindent}{2em}\n(2) For each HS topic, major representative works are scrupulously presented in terms of the specific categories of tensor decomposition. We introduce and discuss the pure tensor decomposition-based methods and their variants with other HS priors in sequence. The experimental examples are performed for validating and evaluating theoretical methods, followed by a discussion of remaining challenges and further research directions.\n\n\n\\noindent\n\\hangafter=1\n\\setlength{\\hangindent}{2em}\n(3) This article makes a connection between tensor decomposition modeling and HS prior information. Tab. \\ref{tab:tab1} summarizes with the publication years, brief description, and prior information. Either beginners or experiencers are expected to obtain certain harvest pertinent to the tensor decomposition-based frameworks for HS RS. The available codes are also displayed in Tab. \\ref{tab:tab1} for the sake of repeatability and further studies.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{table*}[!htbp]\n\\centering\n\\caption{Tensor decomposition-based approaches for HS RS.}\n\\resizebox{\\textwidth}{!}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c|c|c}\n\\cline{1-6}\nCategory &Years & Methods & Brief Description & Prior Information & Code Links\\\\\n\\hline\nRstoration & 2008 & LRTA \\cite{c25} & Tucker decomposition & Spectral correlation & \\\\\nDenoising& 2008 & PARAFAC \\cite{c26} & CP decomposition & Spectral correlation & \\\\\n& 2013 & R1TD \\cite{c59} & Rank-1 Tensor decomposition & Spectral correlation & \\\\\n&2017& LRTR \\cite{c28} & TNN & Spectral correlation & \\\\\n&2019 & NTRM \\cite{xue2019nonconvex} & Logarithmic TTN & Spectral correlation &\\\\\n&2020 & 3DTNN \/ 3DLogTNN \\cite{c61}& Three-directional TNN \/ Log-based TNN &Spectral correlation & https:\/\/yubangzheng.github.io\/homepage\/ \\\\\n&2014& TDL & Tucker decomposition with dictionary learning & Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity & http:\/\/www.cs.cmu.edu\/~deyum\/ \\\\\n&2018 & NSNTD \\cite{c71} & Non-local similarity based nonnegative tucker decomposition &  Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity & \\\\\n&2019 & GNWTTN \\cite{c67} & Global and non-local weighted TTN &Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity & \\\\\n&2015& NLTA-LSM \\cite{c65} & Tensor decomposition with laplacian scale mixture & Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity & \\\\\n& 2016  &ITS\\cite{c63} & CP + Tucker decomposition &Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity & https:\/\/gr.xjtu.edu.cn\/web\/dymeng\/3 \\\\\n&2019 & NLR-CPTD \\cite{xue2019nonlocal} & CP + Tucker decomposition &Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity  &\\\\\n&2017& LLRT \\cite{chang2017hyper} & hyper-Laplacian prior + Unidirectional LR tensor &  Non-local similarity + Spectral smoothness &https:\/\/owuchangyuo.github.io\/publications\/LLRT \\\\\n&2019 & NGmeet \\cite{he2019non}& Spectral subspace-based unidirectional LR tensor & Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity &https:\/\/prowdiy.github.io\/weihe.github.io\/publication.html\\\\\n&2020& WLRTR \\cite{c116} & Weighted Tucker decomposition & Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity & https:\/\/owuchangyuo.github.io\/publications\/WLRTR \\\\\n& 2020 & NLTR \\cite{c64} & Nonlocal TR decomposition & Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity  &https:\/\/chenyong1993.github.io\/yongchen.github.io\/\\\\\n& 2018 & TLR-TV \\cite{c77} & TNN + 2DTV \/ 3DTV & Spectral correlation + Spatial $\\&$ Spectral smoothness & \\\\\n& 2018 & SSTV-LRTF \\cite{c34} & TNN + SSTV & Spectral correlation + Spatial-Spectral smoothness & \\\\\n& 2021 & MLR-SSTV \\cite{8920965} & Multi-directional weighted TNN + SSTV  & Spectral correlation + Spatial-Spectral smoothness &\\\\\n&2018& LRTDTV \\cite{c36} & 3DwTV + Tucker decomposition & Spectral correlation + Spatial-Spectral smoothness & https:\/\/github.com\/zhaoxile\\\\\n&2021 &TLR-$L_{1\\--2}{\\rm SSTV}$ \\cite{c84} & $L_{1\\--2}{\\rm SSTV}$ + Local-patch TNN&Spectral correlation + Spatial-Spectral smoothness& \\\\\n&2019 &LRTDGS \\cite{c78}& Weighted group sparsity-regularized TV + Tucker decomposition& Spectral correlation + Spatial-Spectral smoothness &https:\/\/chenyong1993.github.io\/yongchen.github.io\/ \\\\\n&2019 & LRTF$L_0$ \\cite{c81}& $l_0$ gradient constraint + LR BT decomposition & Spectral correlation + Spatial-Spectral smoothness & http:\/\/www.xiongfuli.com\/cv\/ \\\\\n&2021&TLR-${l_0}\\text{TV}$ \\cite{c82}&${l_0}\\text{TV}$ + LR tensor & Spectral correlation + Spatial-Spectral smoothness &https:\/\/github.com\/minghuawang666\/TLR-L0TV\\\\\n& 2019  & SNLRSF \\cite{c72}&  Subspace-based non-local LR and sparse factorization & Spectral correlation + Non-local tensor subspace  & https:\/\/github.com\/AlgnersYJW\/\\\\\n&2020 & LRTF-DFR \\cite{c86}& double-factor-regularized LR tensor factorization & Subspace spectral correlation + spatial \\& spectral constraints & https:\/\/yubangzheng.github.io\/homepage\/\\\\\n&2021 &DNTSLR \\cite{c88}&  Difference continuity + Non-local tensor subspace  &  Spectral correlation + Non-local tensor subspace & \\\\\n\\cline{2-6}\nDeblurring&2020& WLRTR \\cite{c116} & Weighted Tucker decomposition & Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity & https:\/\/owuchangyuo.github.io\/publications\/WLRTR \\\\\n&2021& OLRT \\cite{c117} & Joint spectral and non-local LR tensor & Non-local similarity +Spectral smoothness & https:\/\/owuchangyuo.github.io\/publications\/OLRT \\\\\n\\cline{2-6}\nInpaninting & 2015  &  TMac \\cite{c118}& LR TC by parallel matrix factorization (TMac)  & Spectral correlation&   \\\\\n& 2015 & TNCP \\cite{c119} & TNN + CP decomposition             & Spectral correlation  & \\\\\n& 2017 & AWTC \\cite{c121} & HaLRTC with well-designed weights  & Spectral correlation & \\\\\n& 2019 & LRRTC \\cite{c130}& logarithm of the determinant + TTN & Spectral correlation  & \\\\\n& 2020 & LRTC \\cite{c123,c124} & t-SVD             & Spectral correlation   & \\\\\n& 2019 & TRTV \\cite{c128} &  TR decomposition + spatial TV     & Spectral correlation + Spatial smoothness  & \\\\\n&2020& WLRTR \\cite{c116} & Weighted Tucker decomposition & Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity & https:\/\/owuchangyuo.github.io\/publications\/WLRTR \\\\\n& 2021 & TVWTR \\cite{c129}& Weighted TR decomposition + 3DTV   & Spectral correlation + Spatial Spectral smoothness& https:\/\/github.com\/minghuawang666\/TVWTR \\\\\n\\cline{2-6}\nDestriping& 2018 & LRTD \\cite{c132}& Tucker decomposition + Spatial \\& Spectral TV & Spectral correlation + Spatial Spectral smoothness &  https:\/\/github.com\/zhaoxile?tab=repositories \\\\\n& 2018 & LRNLTV \\cite{c135} & Matrix nuclear norm + Non-local TV & Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity &\\\\\n& 2020 & GLTSA \\cite{c133}  & Global and local tensor sparse approximation & Sparisity + Spatial \\& Spectral smoothness& \\\\\n&2020& WLRTR \\cite{c116} & Weighted Tucker decomposition & Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity & https:\/\/owuchangyuo.github.io\/publications\/WLRTR \\\\\n\\hline\nCS  & 2017 & JTenRe3-DTV \\cite{c97} & Tucker decomposition + weighted 3-D TV & Spectral correlation + Spatial \\& Spectral smoothness & https:\/\/github.com\/andrew-pengjj\/Enhanced-3DTV\\\\\n& 2017 & PLTD \\cite{c101}       & Non-local Tucker decomposition             & Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity      & \\\\\n& 2019 & NTSRLR \\cite{c99}      & TNN + Tucker decomposition                 & Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity      &  \\\\\n& 2020 & SNLTR \\cite{c90}       & TR decomposition + Subspace representation & Non-local similarity + +Spectral smoothness  & \\\\\n& 2015 & 3D-KCHSI \\cite{c106}   & KCS with independent sampling dimensions   & Spectral correlation &   \\\\\n& 2015 & T-NCS \\cite{c95}       & Tucker decomposition                       & Spectral correlation & \\\\\n& 2013 & NBOMP \\cite{6797642}   & KCS with a tensor-based greedy algorithm   & Spectral correlation & \\\\\n& 2016 & BOSE \\cite{7544443}    & KCS with beamformed mode-based sparse estimator & Spectral correlation &\\\\\n& 2020 & TBR \\cite{c107}        & KCS with multi-dimensional block-sparsity  & Spectral correlation &\\\\\n\\hline\nAD & 2015 & LTDD \\cite{c110} & Tucker decomposition + Umixing & Spectral correlation & \\\\\n& 2016 & TenB \\cite{c111} & Tucker decomposition + PCA & Spectral correlation & \\\\\n& 2019 & TDCW \\cite{c139} & Tucker decomposition + Clustering & Spectral correlation & \\\\\n& 2020 & TEELRD \\cite{c113} & Tucker decomposition + Endmember extraction & Spectral correlation + Subspace Learning &\\\\\n& 2019 & LRASTD \\cite{c115} & Tucker decomposition +TNN & Spectral correlation + Subspace Learning & \\\\\n& 2018 & TPCA \\cite{c112} &  TPCA + Fourier transform & Spectral correlation  & \\\\ \n& 2020 & PTA \\cite{c114}  & TRNN + Spatial TV & Spectral correlation + Spatial smoothness & https:\/\/github.com\/l7170\/PTA-HAD \\\\\n& 2022 & PCA-TLRSR \\cite{minghuaTC} & weighted TNN + Multi-subspace & Spectral correlation + Subspace & https:\/\/github.com\/minghuawang666\/ \\\\\n\\hline\nSR & 2018 & STEREO \\cite{c145} & CP decomposition & Spectral correlation & https:\/\/github.com\/marhar19\/HSR\\_via\\_tensor\\_decomposition \\\\\n& 2020 & NCTCP \\cite{c152} & Nonlocal coupled CP decomposition & Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity & \\\\\n& 2018 & SCUBA \\cite{c151} & CP decomposition with matrix factorization &Spectral correlation & \\\\\n& 2018 & CSTF \\cite{c146} & Tucker decomposition & Spectral correlation & https:\/\/github.com\/renweidian\/CSTF \\\\\n& 2021 & CT\/CB-STAR \\cite{c155} & Tucker decomposition with inter-image variability & Spectral correlation + Spatial Spectral Variability & https:\/\/github.com\/ricardoborsoi\n\\\\\n& 2021 & CNTD \\cite{c170} & Nonnegative Tucker decomposition & Spectral correlation &\\\\\n& 2018 & CSTF-$l_2$ \\cite{c147} & Tucker decomposition & Spectral correlation &\\\\\n& 2020 & SCOTT \\cite{c153} & Tucker decomposition + HOSVD & Spectral correlation & https:\/\/github.com\/cprevost4\/HSR$\\_$Software\\\\\n& 2020 & NNSTF \\cite{c154} & Tucker decomposition + HOSVD & Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity& \\\\\n& 2020 & WLRTR \\cite{c116} & Weighted Tucker decomposition & Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity & https:\/\/owuchangyuo.github.io\/publications\/WLRTR \\\\\n& 2017 & NLSTF \\cite{c156} & Non-local sparse Tucker decomposition &Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity & https:\/\/github.com\/renweidian\/NLSTF \\\\\n& 2020 & NLSTF-SMBF \\cite{c157} & Non-local sparse Tucker decomposition &Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity & https:\/\/github.com\/renweidian\/NLSTF \\\\\n& 2020 & UTVTD \\cite{c160} & Tucker decomposition + Unidirectional TV &Spectral correlation + Spatial-Spectral smoothness & https:\/\/liangjiandeng.github.io\/ \\\\\n& 2020 & NLRTD-SU \\cite{c158} & Non-local Tucker decomposition + SU +3-DTV & Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity + Spatial-Spectral smoothness \\\\\n& 2018 & SSGLRTD \\cite{c159} & Spatial\u2013spectral-graph Tucker decomposition & Spectral correlation + Local geometry & \\\\\n& 2021 & gLGCTD \\cite{c161} & Graph Laplacian-guided Tucker decomposition & Spectral correlation + Local geometry & \\\\\n& 2019 & NN-CBTD \\cite{c163} & BT decomposition & Spectral correlation & \\\\\n& 2021 & BSC-LL1 \\cite{c138} & BT decomposition &Spectral correlation & https:\/\/github.com\/MengDing56 \\\\\n& 2021 & GLCBTD \\cite{c164} & Graph Laplacian-guided BT decomposition & Spectral correlation + Local Geometry \\\\\n& 2019 & LTTR \\cite{c148} & Non-local TT decomposition &  Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity &https:\/\/github.com\/renweidian\/LTTR \\\\\n& 2021 & NLRSR \\cite{c162} & Non-local TT decomposition & Spatial-Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity\\\\\n& 2022 & CTRF \\cite{c150} & Coupled TR decomposition & Spectral correlation & \\\\\n& 2020 & HCTR \\cite{c149} & High-Order Coupled TR decomposition & Spectral correlation + Local Geometry & \\\\\n& 2021 & FSTRD \\cite{c169} & TR decomposition + TV &Spectral correlation + Spatial-Spectral smoothness & \\\\\n& 2021 & LRTRTNN \\cite{c171} & Non-local TR decomposition + TNN & Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity&\\\\\n& 2019 & LTMR \\cite{c165} & Subspace based LR multi-Rank  &  Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity &https:\/\/github.com\/renweidian\/LTMR \\\\\n& 2021 & FLTMR \\cite{c166} & LTMR with a Truncation Concept &  Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity& \\\\\n& 2019 & NPTSR \\cite{c8} & Non-local tensor sparse representation & Spectral correlation + Non-local similarity& \\\\\n& 2019 & TV-TLMR \\cite{c168} & Tucker decomposition + TV &  Spectral correlation + Spatial-Spectral smoothness & \\\\\n& 2021 & LRTA-SR \\cite{c167} & TTN & Spectral correlation & \\\\\n\\hline \nSU& 2007 & NTF-SU \\cite{c190,c191} & CP decomposition & Spectral correlation & \\\\\n& 2020 & ULTRA-V \\cite{c212} & CP decomposition & Spectral correlation & https:\/\/github.com\/talesimbiriba\/ULTRA-V\\\\\n& 2017 & MVNTF \\cite{c192} & BT decomposition & Spectral correlation & https:\/\/gitSUb.com\/bearshng\/mvntf \\\\\n& 2019 & NTF-TV \\cite{c193} & TV + BT decomposition&\tSpectral correlation + Spatial-Spectral smoothness &\thttp:\/\/www.xiongfuli.com\/cv\/ \\\\\n& 2021 & SPLRTF \\cite{c194}\t&LR + sparsity + BT decomposition &\tSpectral correlation & \\\\\t\n& 2019 & svr-MVNTF \\cite{c195} &  BT decomposition\t& Spectral correlation + Local Geometry \\\\\n& 2020 & SCNMTF \\cite{c196}\t& BT decomposition + NMF &\tSpectral correlations& \\\\\n& 2021 & NLTR \\cite{c197} & TV + Non-local LR &\tSpectral correlations+ Nonlocal similarity+ Spatial-Spectral smoothness\t& \\\\\n& 2021 & BUTTDL1 \\cite{c208} & sparsity + Tucker decomposition & Spectral correlations \\\\\n& 2021 & SeCoDe \\cite{c198} & Convolution operation + BT decomposition &\tSpectral correlations +  Spatial-Spectral smoothness &\thttps:\/\/gitSUb.com\/danfenghong\/IEEE\\_TGRS\\_SeCoDe \\\\\n& 2020 & WNLTDSU \\cite{c210} & Weighted non-local LR + TV & Spectral correlation + Sparsity + Spatial smoothness & https:\/\/github.com\/sunlecncom\/WNLTDSU\\\\\n& 2021 & NL-TSUn \\cite{c210} &  Non-local LR + Joint sparsity & Spectral correlation + Sparsity & \\\\\n& 2021 & LRNTF\\cite{c204} &\tBT decomposition &\tSpectral correlations &\thttps:\/\/gitSUb.com\/LinaZhuang\/HSI\\_nonlinear\\_unmixing\\_LR\\-NTF \\\\\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}}\n\\label{tab:tab1}\n\\end{table*}\n\n \n\\section{Notations and Preliminaries}\n\\label{sect:Notations}\nIn this section, we introduce some notations and preliminaries. For clear description, the notations are list in Table \\ref{tab:tab0}. The main abbreviations used in this article are given in Table \\ref{tab:abbreviation}.\n\n\n\n\\begin{table}[!htbp]\n\\centering\n\\caption{The notations used in the paper}\n\\begin{spacing}{1.3}\n\\scalebox{0.75}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c|c}\n\\hline\n\\cline{1-2}\n\\cline{1-2}\nNotation&Description\\\\\n\\hline\n\n\\cline{1-2}\n$x$ &scalars\\\\\n$\\textbf{x}$ & vectors\\\\\n$\\textbf{X}$ & matrices\\\\\n$vec(\\textbf{X})$ & $vec(\\textbf{X}$) stacks the columns of $\\textbf{X}$\\\\\n$\\mathcal{X} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times z}$ & tensors with 3-modes\\\\\n$\\mathcal{X}_{h_i,v_i,z_i}$ & the ($h_i,v_i,z_i$)-element of $\\mathcal{X}$\\\\\n$\\mathcal{X}(i,:,:)$, $\\mathcal{X}(:,i,:)$ and $\\mathcal{X}(:,:,i)$ & the $i^{th}$ horizontal, lateral and frontal slices \\\\\n $||\\mathcal{X}||_1=\\sum_{h_i,v_i,z_i}{|\\mathcal{X}_{h_i,v_i,z_i}|}$ & $l_1$ norm\\\\\n $||\\mathcal{X}||_F= \\sqrt{\\sum_{h_i,v_i,z_i}{|\\mathcal{X}_{h_i,v_i,z_i}|^2}}$  & Frobenius norm\\\\\n ${\\sigma}_i(\\textbf{X})$ & the singular values of matrix $\\textbf{X}$ \\\\\n   $||\\textbf{X}||_* = \\sum_i {\\sigma}_i(\\textbf{X})$ & nuclear norm\\\\   \n $||\\textbf{x}||_2 = \\sqrt{\\sum_i {|\\textbf{x}_i|^2}}$  & $l_2$ norm \\\\\n  $ \\hat{\\mathcal{X}}=$fft$(\\mathcal{X},[],3)$ &  Fourier transformation of $\\mathcal{X}$ along mode-3\\\\\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n}\n\\end{spacing}\n\\label{tab:tab0}\n\\end{table}\n\n\\begin{table}[!htbp]\n\\centering\n\\caption{Main abbreviations used in the paper}\n\\begin{spacing}{1.3}\n\\scalebox{0.75}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c|c}\n\\hline\n\\cline{1-2}\n\\cline{1-2}\nAbbreviation &Full name\\\\\n\\hline\nAD  & Anomaly detection\\\\\nCP  & CANDECOMP\/PARAFAC\\\\\nCS  & Compressive sensing\\\\\nBT  & Block term\\\\\nHS  & Hyperspectral\\\\\nLMM & Linear mixing model\\\\\nLR  & Low-rank\\\\\nNMF & Nonnegative matrix factorization\\\\\nRS  & Remote sensing\\\\\nSNN & The sum of the nuclear norm\\\\\nSU  & Spectral unmixing\\\\\nTNN & Tensor nuclear norm\\\\\nTV  & Total variation\\\\\nTT & Tensor train\\\\\nTTN & Tensor trace norm\\\\\nTR & Tensor ring\\\\\n1-D & One dimensional\\\\\n2-D & Two dimensional\\\\\n3-D & Three dimensional\\\\\n4-D & Four dimensional\\\\\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n}\n\\end{spacing}\n\\label{tab:abbreviation}\n\\end{table}\n\n$\\textbf{Definition 1}$ (T-product \\cite{c43}): The T-product of two three-order tensors $\\mathcal{A} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{n_1 \\times n_2 \\times n_3}$ and $\\mathcal{B} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{n_2 \\times n_4 \\times n_3}$ is denoted by $\\mathcal{C} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{n_1 \\times n_4 \\times n_3}$:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:product}\n\\mathcal{C}(i,k,:)= \\sum_{j=1}^{n_2} \\mathcal{A}(i,j,:) \\star \\mathcal{B}(j,k,:)\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\star$ represents the circular convolution between two tubes.\n\n$\\textbf{Definition 2}$ (Tensor $n$-mode product \\cite{c181}): The $n$-mode product of a tensor $\\mathcal{A} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{r_1  \\times r_2  \\times ...   \\times r_N }$ and a matrix $\\mathbf{B} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{ B \\times r_n}$ is the tensor $\\mathcal{X} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{r_1  \\times r_2  \\times ... r_{n-1} \\times B \\times r_{n+1} ...   \\times r_N } $ defined by\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{eq:sec-product}\n\\mathcal{X} = \\mathcal{A} \\times_n \\mathbf{B}\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nThe unfolding matrix form of Eq.(\\ref{eq:sec-product}) is\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{eq:sec-product2}\n\\mathbf{X}_{(n)} = \\mathbf{B}  \\times \\mathbf{A}_{(n)}  \n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\n\n$\\textbf{Definition 3}$ (Four Special tensors \\cite{c27}):\n\nConjugate transpose: The conjugate transpose of a three-order tensor $ \\mathcal{X}\\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times z}$ is the tensor $ {\\rm conj}(\\mathcal{X})=\\mathcal{X}^*  \\in \\mathbb{R}^{v \\times h \\times z}$, which can be obtained by conjugately transposing each front slice and reversing the order of transposed frontal 2 through $z$.\n\nIdentity tensor: The identity tensor denoted by $\\mathcal{I}\\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times z}$ is the tensor whose first frontal slice is an identity matrix and all other frontal slices are zero.\n\nOrthogonal tensor: A three-order tensor $\\mathcal{Q}$ is orthogonal if it satisfies $\\mathcal{Q}^* * \\mathcal{Q}= \\mathcal{Q} * \\mathcal{Q}^*=\\mathcal{I}$.\n\nF-diagonal tensor: A three-order tensor $\\mathcal{S}$ is f-diagonal if all of its slices are diagonal matrices.\n\n$\\textbf{Definition 4}$ (First Mode-$k$ Unfolding\/matricization \\cite{c181}): This operator noted unfold$(\\mathcal{X},k)$ converts a tensor $\\mathcal{X} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{I_1 ... I_k \\times I_{k+1} ...I_N }$ into a matrix $\\textbf{X}_{(k)} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{I_k \\times I_1..I_{k-1}I_{k+1}...I_N }$. Inversely, fold($\\textbf{X}_{(k)}, k$) denotes the folding of the matrix into a tensor.\n\n\n$\\textbf{Definition 5}$ (Second Mode-$k$ Unfolding\/matricization \\cite{c126}): For a tensor $\\mathcal{X} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{I_1 ... I_k \\times I_{k+1} ...I_N }$, its second Mode-$k$ Unfolding matrix represented by $\\textbf{X}_{<k>} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{I_k \\times I_{k+1}...I_N I_1..I_{k-1} }$. The inverse operation is matrix folding (tensorization).\n\n\n\n$\\textbf{Definition 6}$ (Mode-$k$ permutation \\cite{c29}):  \nFor a three tensor $\\mathcal{X} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{ I_1 \\times I_2 \\times  ... \\times I_N }$, this operator noted by $\\mathcal{X}^k$=permutation($\\mathcal{X}$, $k$) changes its permutation order with $k$ times and obtain a new tensor $\\mathcal{X}^k \\in \\mathbb{R}^{ I_k \\times ...  \\times I_N \\times I_1 \\times  ... \\times I_{k-1} } $. The inverse operator is defined as $\\mathcal{X}$ = ipermutation($\\mathcal{X}^k$, $k$). For example, three mode-$k$ permutation of an HS tensor $\\mathcal{X}^1\\in \\mathbb{R}^{  h \\times v \\times z }$ can be written as\n$\\mathcal{X}^1\\in \\mathbb{R}^{v \\times z \\times h}$, $\\mathcal{X}^2\\in \\mathbb{R}^{z \\times h \\times v}$, $\\mathcal{X}^3\\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times z}$. \n\n\n$\\textbf{Definition 7}$ (Tensor Trace Norm (TTN) \\cite{c44}) It is the sum of the nuclear norm (SNN) of the mode-$k$ unfolding matrix for a $3$-way HS tensor:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:tracenorm}\n||\\mathcal{X}||_{\\rm SNN}:=\\sum_{k=1}^{3} \\alpha _k ||\\textbf{X}_{(k)}||_*\n\\end{equation}\nwhere weights $\\alpha_k$ satisfy $\\alpha_k \\geq 0 (k=1,2,3)$ and $\\sum_{k=1}^{3} \\alpha_k =1$. \n\n$\\textbf{Definition 8}$ (Tucker decomposition \\cite{c181,c186,c187}): The Tucker decomposition of an $N$-order tensor $\\mathcal{X} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{I_1 \\times I_2 \\times  ... \\times I_N}$ is defined as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{eq:Tucker1}\n\\mathcal{X}= \\mathcal{A} \\times_1 \\mathbf{B}_1 \\times_2 \\mathbf{B}_2 ... \\times_N \\mathbf{B}_N\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mathcal{A} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{r_1 \\times r_2 \\times... \\times r_N}$ stands for a core tensor and $\\mathbf{B}_n \\in \\mathbb{R}^{I_n \\times r_n}, n=1,2,..,N$ represent factor matrices. The Tucker ranks are represented by ${\\rm rank}_{\\rm Tucker}(\\mathcal{X}) = [r_1, r_2,..., r_N] $.\n\n\n$\\textbf{Definition 9}$ (CP decomposition \\cite{c180,c181,c188}):\nThe CP decomposition of an $N$-order tensor $\\mathcal{X} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{I_1 \\times I_2 \\times  ... \\times I_N} $ is defined as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{eq:CP1}\n \\mathcal { X }=\\sum_{r=1}^{R} \\tau_r \\mathbf{b}^{(1)}_{r} \\circ \\mathbf{b}^{(2)}_{r} \\circ ... \\circ \\mathbf{b}^{(N)}_{r} \n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\tau_r$ are non-zero weight parameters, and $\\mathbf{b}^{(1)}_{r} \\circ \\mathbf{b}^{(2)}_{r} \\circ ... \\circ \\mathbf{b}^{(N)}_{r} $ denotes a rank-one tensor with $\\mathbf{b}^{(n)}_{r} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{I_n}$. The CP rank denoted by ${\\rm rank}_{\\rm CP}(\\mathcal{X}) = R $ is the sum number of rank-one tensors.\n\n$\\textbf{Definition 10}$ ( BT decomposition \\cite{c213}) \nThe BT decomposition of an three-order tensor $\\mathcal{X} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times z} $ is defined as\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    \\label{eq:BTD1}\n    \\mathcal{X} = \\sum_{r=1}^{R} \\mathcal{G}_r \\times_1 \\mathbf{A}_r \\times_2 \\mathbf{B}_r \\times_3 \\mathbf{C}_r\n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mathcal{G} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{L_h \\times L_v \\times L_z}$, $\\mathbf{A}_r \\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times L_h}$, $\\mathbf{B}_r \\in \\mathbb{R}^{v \\times L_v}$, and $\\mathbf{C}_r \\in \\mathbb{R}^{z \\times L_z}$. Each of $R$ component tensors can be expressed by rank ($L_h$, $L_v$, $L_z$) Tucker decomposition. BT decomposition can be regarded as the combination of Tucker and CP decomposition. On the hand, Eq. (\\ref{eq:BTD1}) becomes Tucker decomposition when $R=1$. On the other hand, when each component is represented by a rank ($L$, $L$, $1$) tensor, Eq. (\\ref{eq:BTD1}) is written by\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    \\label{eq:BTD2}\n    \\mathcal{X}  =\\sum_{r=1}^{R} \\mathbf{A}_{r} \\cdot \\mathbf{B}_{r}^{T} \\circ \\mathbf{c}_{r} \n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere the matrix $\\mathbf{A}_{r} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times L_r}$ and the matrix $\\mathbf{B}_{r} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{v \\times L_r}$ are also rank-$L$. If rank-$L$ $\\mathbf{E}_{r} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v}$ is factorized as $\\mathbf{A}_{r} \\cdot \\mathbf{B}_{r}^{T}$. Eq. (\\ref{eq:BTD2}) can be rewritten as\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    \\label{eq:BTD3}\n           \\mathcal{X} =\\sum_{r=1}^{R} \\mathbf{E}_{r} \\circ \\mathbf{c}_{r} \n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\n$\\textbf{Definition 11}$ (Tensor Nuclear Norm (TNN) \\cite{c123}) Let $\\mathcal{X}=\\mathcal{U} * \\mathcal{S} * \\mathcal{V}^{*}$ be the t-SVD of $\\mathcal{X} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times z}$, TNN is the sum of singular values of $\\mathcal{X}$, that is,\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:TNN}\n||\\mathcal{X}||_*:=\\sum_{k=1}^{z} \\mathcal{S}(k,k,1),\n\\end{equation}\nand also can be expressed as the sum of nuclear norm of all the frontal slices of $\\hat{\\mathcal{X}}$ :\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:TNN2}\n||\\mathcal{X}||_*:=\\sum_{k=1}^{z} ||\\hat{\\mathcal{X}}(:,:,k)||_*.\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\begin{figure*}[htb]\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width = 1\\textwidth]{Visio-TD.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[restoration]{ Illustration to show six tensor decompositions of third-order tensor: (a) Tucker decomposition, (b) CP decomposition, (c) BT decomposition, (d) t-SVD, (e) TT decomposition, (f) TR decomposition. }\n\t\\label{fig:td}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nFor more intuitively understanding the above mentioned tensor decompositions, examples for third-order tensor are shown in Fig. \\ref{fig:td}, which benefits the consequent tensor decomposition-based researches of third-order HS data.\n\n$\\textbf{Definition 12}$ (t-SVD \\cite{c123}) $\\mathcal{X} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times z}$ can be factorized as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:tsvd}\n\\mathcal{X}=\\mathcal{U} * \\mathcal{S} * \\mathcal{V}^{*}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mathcal{U} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times h \\times z}$, $\\mathcal{V} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{v \\times v \\times z}$ are orthogonal tensors and $\\mathcal{S} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times z}$ is a f-diagonal tensor. The details of t-SVD are described in the Algorithm \\ref{alg:tsvd1}.\n\\begin{algorithm}[htb]\n\t\\caption{t-SVD} \\label{alg:tsvd1}\n\t\\begin{algorithmic}[1]\n\t\t\\REQUIRE $\\;  \\mathcal{X}\\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times z}$\\\\\n\t\t\\NoDo\n        \\STATE $ \\hat{\\mathcal{X}}=$fft$(\\mathcal{X},[],3)$;\n\t\t\\NoDo \\FOR{$i=0,1,\\dots, [\\frac{z+1}{2}]$}\n\t\t\\STATE $ [\\hat{\\mathcal{U}}(:,:,i), \\hat{\\mathcal{S}}(:,:,i), \\hat{\\mathcal{V}}(:,:,i)]=$SVD$(\\hat{\\mathcal{X}}(:,:,i))$;\t\t\n\t\t\\ENDFOR\n\t\t\\NoDo \\FOR{$i= [\\frac{z+1}{2}+1],\\dots,z$}\n\t\t\\STATE $ \\hat{\\mathcal{U}}(:,:,i)=$conj($\\hat{\\mathcal{U}}(:,:,z-i+2)$);\n\t\\STATE $ \\hat{\\mathcal{S}}(:,:,i)=(\\hat{\\mathcal{S}}(:,:,z-i+2)$)\n\t\\STATE$ \\hat{\\mathcal{V}}(:,:,i)=$conj($\\hat{\\mathcal{V}}(:,:,z-i+2)$);\t\t\n\t\t\\ENDFOR\n\t\t\\STATE $\\mathcal{U} =$ifft$(\\hat{\\mathcal{U}},[],3)$, $\\mathcal{S} =$Ifft$(\\hat{\\mathcal{S}},[],3)$,$ \\mathcal{V}=$fft$(\\hat{\\mathcal{V}},[],3)$;\n\t\t\\ENSURE $\\mathcal{U},\\mathcal{S},\\mathcal{V}$.\n\t\\end{algorithmic}\n\\end{algorithm}\n\n\n$\\textbf{Definition 13}$ ( TT decomposition \\cite{c185}) The TT decomposition of an $N$-order $\\mathcal{X} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{I_1 \\times I_2 \\times  ... \\times I_N} $ is represented by cores $\\mathcal{G} = \\{ \\mathcal{G}^{(1)},..., \\mathcal{G}^{(N)} \\}$, where $\\mathcal{G}^{(n)} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{ r_{n-1} \\times I_n \\times r_n} $, $n=1,2,...,N$, $r_0 = r_N =1$. The rank of TT decomposition is defined as $ {\\rm rank}_{\\rm TT}(\\mathcal{X}) =[r_0,r_1,...,r_{N}]$. Each entry of the tensor $\\mathcal{X}$ is formulated as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:ttd}\n\\mathcal{X}(i_1,...,1_N) = \\mathcal{G}^{(1)}(:,i_1,:)\\mathcal{G}^{(2)}(:,i_2,:)...\\mathcal{G}^{(N)}(:,i_N,:).\n\\end{equation}\n\n$\\textbf{Definition 14} $ (TR decomposition \\cite{c126}): The purpose of TR decomposition is to represent a high-order $\\mathcal{X}$ by multi-linear products of a sequence of three-order tensors in circular form. Three-order tensors are named TR factors $\\{\\mathcal{G}^{(n)}\\}^N_{n=1} = \\{\\mathcal{G}^{(1)}, \\mathcal{G}^{(2)},...,\\mathcal{G}^{(N)}\\}$, where $\\mathcal{G} ^{(n)}\\in \\mathbb{R}^{r_n \\times I_n \\times r_{n+1}}$, $n=1, 2, ..., N$, $r_0 =r_N$. In this case, the element-wise relationship of TR decomposition with factors $\\mathcal{G}$ can be written as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:TR1}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\mathcal{X}(i_1, i_2,...,i_N) &= {\\rm Tr}(\\mathcal{G}^{(1)}(:,i_1,:)\\mathcal{G}^{(2)}(:,i_2,:)...\\mathcal{G}^{(N)}(:,i_N,:))\\\\\n&= {\\rm Tr}(\\prod_{i=1}^{N} \\mathcal{G}^{(n)}(:,i_n,:))\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}  \nwhere ${\\rm Tr}$ denotes the matrix trace operation.\n\n\n\n\n\n$\\textbf{Definition 15} $ (Multi-linear Product \\cite{c16}): Given two TR factors $\\mathcal{G}^{(n)}$ and $\\mathcal{G}^{(n+1)}$, their multi-linear product $\\mathcal{G}^{(n,n+1)} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{r_n \\times I_n I_{n+1}\\times r_{n+1}}$ is calculated as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:multilinear}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\mathcal{G}^{(n,n+1)}(:,I_n(i_k -1) +j_k,:)=\\mathcal{G}^{(n)}(:,i_k,:)\\mathcal{G}^{(n+1)}(:,j_k,:)\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}  \nfor $i_k = 1,2,...,I_n, j_k = 1, 2,...,I_n+1$.\n\nFrom the above $\\textbf{Definition 15} $, the multi-linear product of all the TR factors can be induce as $[\\mathcal{G}] = \\prod^N_{n=1}\\mathcal{G}^{(n)} = \\mathcal{G}^{(1,2,...,n)} = \\{ \\mathcal{G}^{(1)},\\mathcal{G}^{(2)},...,\\mathcal{G}^{(n)}\\} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{r_1 \\times I_1 I_2... I_n \\times r_1}$. The TR decomposition can be rewritten as $\\mathcal{X} = \\Phi({\\mathcal{G}})$, where $\\Phi$ is a dimensional shifting operator $\\Phi: \\mathbb{R}^{r_1 \\times I_1 I_2...I_n \\times r_1} \\rightarrow \\mathbb{R}^{I_1 \\times I_2 \\times...\\times I_n}$. \n\n$\\textbf{Lemma 1} $ (Circular Dimensional Permutation Invarience \\cite{c126}): If the TR decomposition of $\\mathcal{X}$ is $\\mathcal{X} = \\Phi(\\mathcal{G}^{(1)},\\mathcal{G}^{(2)},...,\\mathcal{G}^{(N)})$, ${\\stackrel{\\leftarrow}{\\mathcal{X}}}^n \\in \\mathbb{R}^{I_n \\times I_{n+1} \\times ... \\times I_1 \\times ... \\times I_{n-1}} $ is defined as circular shifting the dimensions of $\\mathcal{X}$ by $n$, we obtain the following relation:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:circluar}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\stackrel{\\leftarrow}{\\mathcal{X}}^n = \\Phi( \\mathcal{G}^{(n)},\\mathcal{G}^{(n+1)},...,\\mathcal{G}^{(N)},\\mathcal{G}^{(1)},\\mathcal{G}^{(2)},...,\\mathcal{G}^{(N)})\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}  \n\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure*}[htb]\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[height=9cm]{Visio-denoising_framework.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[restoration]{A schematic diagram of HS image restoration. }\n\t\\label{fig:denoisingfr}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\n\n\n$\\textbf{Definition 16} $ (Mixed $l_{1,0}$ pseudo-norm \\cite{c41}): Given a vector $\\textbf{y} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{m}$ and index sets $\\theta_1,...,\\theta_i,...,\\theta_n (1 \\leq n \\leq m)$ that satisfies \n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item Each $\\theta_i$ is a subset of {1,...,m},\n\\item $\\theta_i \\cap \\theta_l = \\emptyset$ for any $i \\neq l$,\n\\item $\\cup^n_{i=1}\\theta_i ={1,...,m}$,\n\\end{itemize}\nthe mixed $l_{1,0}$ pseudo-norm of $y$ is defined as:\n\\begin{equation}\n||\\textbf{y}||^{\\theta}_{1,0} = ||(||\\textbf{y}_{\\theta_1}||_1,...,||\\textbf{y}_{\\theta_i}||_1,...||\\textbf{y}_{\\theta_n}||_1)||_0,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\textbf{y}_{\\theta_i}$ denotes a sub-vector of $\\textbf{y}$ with its entries specified by $\\theta_i$ and $|| \\cdot ||_0$ calculates the number of the non-zero entries in ($\\cdot$).                                                                         \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{HS Restoration}\n\\label{sect:restoration}\n\n\nIn the actual process of HS data acquisition and transformation, external environmental change and internal equipment conditions inevitably lead to noises, blurs, and missing data (including clouds and stripes) \\cite{GRSM2022,li2021progressive} which degrade the visual quality of HS images and the efficiency of the subsequent HS data applications, such as a fine HS RS classification for crops and wetlands \\cite{5779697,9598903} and the refinement of spectral information for target detection \\cite{zhangTD2012,2009OE}. Fig. \\ref{fig:denoisingfr} depicts the HS RS degradation and Restoration. Therefore, HS image restoration appears as a crucial pre-processing step for further applications. \n\nMathematically, an observed degraded HS image can be formulated as follows\n \\begin{equation}\n\t\\begin{split}\n\t\t\\label{eq:degrade}\n\\mathcal{T}=M(\\mathcal{X}) + \\mathcal{S} + \\mathcal{N}\n\t\\end{split}\n\\end{equation} \nwhere $\\mathcal{T} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times z}$, $\\mathcal{X} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times z}$, $\\mathcal{S} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times z}$ and $\\mathcal{N} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times z}$ represents an observed HS image, the restored HS image, the sparse error and additive noise, respectively, and $M(\\cdot)$ denotes different linear degradation operators for different HS restoration problems: (a) when $M(\\cdot)$ is a blur kernal also called as point spread function (PSF), Eq. (\\ref{eq:degrade}) becomes HS deblurring problem; \n(b) when $M(\\cdot)$ is a binary operation, i.e., 1 for original pixels, and 0 for missing data, Eq. (\\ref{eq:degrade}) turns into the HS inpainting problem;\n(c) when $M(\\mathcal{X})$ keeps $\\mathcal{X}$ constant, i.e., $M(\\mathcal{X}) = \\mathcal{X}$, Eq. (\\ref{eq:degrade}) is reformulated as the HS destriping problem ($\\mathcal{T}=\\mathcal{X} + \\mathcal{S}$) or HS denoising problem (only consider Gaussian noise $\\mathcal{T}=\\mathcal{X} + \\mathcal{N}$ or consider mixed noise $\\mathcal{T}=\\mathcal{X} + \\mathcal{S} + \\mathcal{N}$). The HS restoration task is to estimate recovered HS images $\\mathcal{X}$ from the given HS images $\\mathcal{T}$. This ill-posed problem suggests that extra constraints on $\\mathcal{X}$ need to be enforced for the optimal solution of $\\mathcal{X}$. These additional constraints reveal the HS desired property and various types of HS prior information, such as non-local similarity, spatial and spectral smoothness, and subspace representation. The HS restoration problem can be summarized as \n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    \\label{eq:summ}\n     \\underset{\\mathcal{X}}{ \\min } \\frac{1}{2} ||  \\mathcal{T} - M(\\mathcal{X}) - \\mathcal{S}  ||^2_F + \\tau f(\\mathcal{X}) + \\lambda g(\\mathcal{S})\n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $f(\\mathcal{X})$ and $g(\\mathcal{S})$ stand for the regularizations to explore the desired properties on the recovered $\\mathcal{X}$ and sparse part $\\mathcal{S}$, respectively. $\\tau$ and $\\lambda$ are regularization parameters.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{HS Denoising}\n\\label{sect:HS_Denoising}\nThe observed HS images are often corrupted by mixed noise, including Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise, and dead-line noise. Several noise types of HS images are shown in Fig. \\ref{fig:Visio-noisyHSI}. \n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[height=3.2cm]{Visio-noisyHSI.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[washington]{HS data sets with different noise types: (a) the Urban data set, (b) the Indian Pines data set, (c) the Salinas data set. }\n\t\\label{fig:Visio-noisyHSI}\n\\end{figure}\nThe wealthy spatial and spectral information of HS images can be extracted by different prior constraints like LR property, sparse representation, non-local similarity, and total variation. Different LR tensor decomposition models are introduced for HS denoising. Consequently, one or two kinds of other prior constraints are combined with these tensor decomposition models.\n\n\n\n\\subsubsection{LR Tensor Decomposition}\n\\label{sect:LRT}\n \nIn this section, the LR tensor decomposition methods are divided into two categories: 1) factorization-based approaches and 2) rank minimization-based approaches. The former one needs to predefine rank values and update decomposition factors. The latter directly minimizes tensor ranks and updates LR tensors.\n \n$\\textbf{(1) Factorization-based approaches}$ \n\nTwo typical representatives are used in the HS image denoising literature, namely, Tucker decomposition and CP decomposition. Renard \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c25} considered Gaussian noise and suggested a LR tensor approximation (LRTA) model to complete an HS image denoising task:\n \\begin{equation}\n\t\\begin{split}\n\t\t\\label{eq:lrta}\n&\\underset{\\mathcal{X}}{\\textrm{min}}\\;||\\mathcal{T} - \\mathcal{X} ||^2_F \\\\ \n&{\\rm s.t.} \\; \\mathcal{X}= \\mathcal{A} \\times_1 \\mathbf{B}_1 \\times_2 \\mathbf{B}_2 \\times_3 \\mathbf{B}_3\n\t\\end{split}\n\\end{equation} \n\n Nevertheless, users should manually pre-define the multiple ranks along all modes before running the Tucker decomposition-related algorithm, which is intractable in reality. In Eq. (\\ref{eq:lrta}), the Tucker decomposition constraint is easily replaced by other tensor decomposition, such as CP decomposition. Liu \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c26} used a Parallel Factor Analysis (PARAFAC) decomposition algorithm and still assumed that HS images were corrupted by white Gaussian noise. Guo \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c59} presented an HS image noise-reduction model via rank-1 tensor decomposition, which was capable of extracting the signal-dominant features. However, the smallest number of rank-1 factors is served as the CP rank, which needs high computation cost to be calculated. \n\n $\\textbf{(2) Rank minimization approaches}$ \n \n The tensor rank bounds are rarely available in many HS noisy scenes. To avoid the occurrence of rank estimation, another kind of methods focus on minimizing the tensor rank directly, which can be formulated as follows:\n  \\begin{equation}\n\t\\begin{split}\n\t\t\\label{eq:rank_mini}\n&\\underset{\\mathcal{X}}{\\textrm{min}}\\;  {\\rm rank}(\\mathcal{X}) \\\\ \n&{\\rm s.t.} \\; \\mathcal{T}= \\mathcal{X} + \\mathcal{S} +  \\mathcal{N} \\\\\n\t\\end{split}\n\\end{equation} \nwhere ${\\rm rank(\\mathcal{X})}$ denotes the rank of HS tensor $\\mathcal{X}$ and includes different rank definitions like Tucker rank, CP rank, TT rank, and tubal rank. Due to the above rank minimizations belong to non-convex problems, these problems are NP-hard to compute. Nuclear norms are generally used as the convex surrogate of non-convex rank function. Zhang \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c27} proposed a tubal rank related TNN to characterize the 3-D structural complexity of multi-linear data. Based on the TNN, Fan \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c28} presented an LR Tensor Recovery (LRTR) model to remove Gaussian noise and sparse noise:\n  \\begin{equation}\n\t\\begin{split}\n\t\t\\label{eq:LRTR}\n&\\underset{\\mathcal{X},\\mathcal{S},\\mathcal{N}}{\\textrm{min}}\\;  ||\\mathcal{X}||_* + \\lambda_1 || \\mathcal{S}||_1 + \\lambda_2 ||\\mathcal{N}||_F^2 \\\\ \n&{\\rm s.t.} \\; \\mathcal{T}= \\mathcal{X} + \\mathcal{S} +  \\mathcal{N} \\\\\n\t\\end{split}\n\\end{equation} \n\nXue \\textit{et al}. \\cite{xue2019nonconvex} applied a non-convex logarithmic surrogate function into a TTN for tensor completion and (tensor robust principal component analysis) TRPCA tasks. \nZheng \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c61} explored the LR properties of tensors along three directions and proposed two tensor models: a three-directional TNN (3DTNN) and a three-directional log-based TNN (3DLogTNN) as its convex and nonconvex relaxation. Although these pure LR tensor decomposition approaches utilize the LR prior knowledge of HS images, they are hardly effective to suppress mixed noise due to the lack of other useful information. \n\n\\subsubsection{Other priors regularized LR Tensor Decomposition}\n\\label{sect:OLRT}\nVarious types of priors are combined with an LR tensor decomposition model to optimize the model solution including non-local similarity, spatial and spectral smoothness, spatial sparsity, subspace learning. \n\n$\\textbf{ (1) Non-local similarity }$\n\nAn HS image often possesses many repetitive local spatial patterns, and thus a local patch always has many similar patches across this HS image \\cite{c66}. Peng \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c62} designed a tensor dictionary learning (TDL) framework. In Fig. \\ref{fig:nonlocal}, an HS image is segmented into 3-D full band patches (FBP). The similar FBPs are clustered together as a 4-D tensor group to simultaneously leverage the non-local similarity of spatial patches and the spectral correlation. TDL is the first model to exploit the non-local similarity and the LR tensor property of 4-D tensor groups, as shown in Fig. \\ref{fig:nonlocal} (b). Instead of a traditional alternative least square based tucker decomposition, Bai \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c71} improved a hierarchical least square based nonnegative tucker decomposition method. Kong \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c67} incorporated the weighted tensor norm minimization into the Tucker decompositions of 4-D patches. \n\n\n\\begin{figure*}[htb]\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[height=10cm]{Visio-nonlocal.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[nonlocal]{Flowchart of non-local LR tensor-based methods. }\n\t\\label{fig:nonlocal}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\nDiffer from references \\cite{c62,c71,c67}, other works \\cite{c65,c63,xue2019nonlocal,chang2017hyper,he2019non,c64} obtained a 3-D tensor by stacking all non-local similar FBPs converted as matrices with a spatial mode and a spectral mode in Fig. \\ref{fig:nonlocal}(d). Based on a non-local similar framework, Dong \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c65} proposed a Laplacian Scale Mixture (LSM) regularized LR tensor approximation method for denoising.\nXie \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c63} conducted a tensor sparsity regularization named intrinsic tensor sparsity (ITS) to encode the spatial and spectral correlation of the non-local similar FBP groups. With the non-local similarity of FBPs, $\\mathcal{X}$ is estimated from its corruption $\\mathcal{T}$ by solving the following problem \n  \\begin{equation}\n\t\\begin{split}\n\t\t\\label{eq:ITS}\n \\min _{\\mathcal{X}} \\Lambda (\\mathcal{X})+\\frac{\\gamma}{2}\\|\\mathcal{T}_{i}-\\mathcal{X}_i \\|_{F}^{2}\n\t\\end{split}\n\\end{equation} \nwhere the sparsity of a tensor $\\mathcal{X}$ is $\\Lambda (\\mathcal{X})=t\\|\\mathcal{A}\\|_{0}+(1-t) \\prod_{i=1}^{N} {\\rm rank}(X_{(i)})$ and $\\mathcal{A}$ is the core tensor of $\\mathcal{X}$ via the Tucker decomposition $\\mathcal{X}= \\mathcal{A} \\times_1 \\mathbf{B}_1 \\times_2 \\mathbf{B}_2 \\times_3 \\mathbf{B}_3$. Xue \\textit{et al}. \\cite{xue2019nonlocal}  presented a non-local LR regularized CP tensor decomposition (NLR-CPTD) algorithm. However, the Tucker or CP decomposition-related methods are subject to the heavy computational burden issues. \n\nChang \\textit{et al}. \\cite{chang2017hyper} discovered the LR property of the non-local patches and used a hyper-Laplacian prior to model additional spectral information. He \\textit{et al}. \\cite{he2019non} developed a new paradigm, called non-local meets global (NGmeet) method, to fuse the spatial non-local similarity and the global spectral LR property. Chen \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c64} analyzed the advantages of a novel TR decomposition over the Tucker and CP decompositions. The proposed non-local TR decomposition method for HS image denoising is formulated as:\n  \\begin{equation}\n\t\\begin{split}\n\t\t\\label{eq:TR}\n\\min _{\\mathcal{X}_{i}, \\mathcal{G}_{i}} \\frac{1}{2}\\|\\mathcal{T}_{i}-\\mathcal{X}_{i}\\|_{F}^{2} \\quad \\text { s.t. } \\; \\mathcal{X}_{i}=\\Phi([\\mathcal{G}_{i}])\n\t\\end{split}\n\\end{equation} \n\nThe non-local similarity-based tensor decomposition methods focus on removing Gaussian noise from corrupted HS images and unavoidably cause a computational burden in practice.\n\n$\\textbf{(2) Spatial and spectral smoothness }$\n\nHS images are usually captured by airborne or space-borne platforms far from the Earth's surface. The low measurement accuracy of imaging spectrometers leads to low spatial resolutions of HS images. In general, the distribution of ground objects varies gently. Moreover, high correlations exist between different spectral bands. HS images always have relatively smoothing characteristics in the spatial and spectral domains. \n\nAn original TV method was first proposed by Rudin \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c76} to remove the noise of gray-level images due to the ability to preserve edge information and promote piecewise smoothness. The HS image smoothness can be constrained by either an isotropic TV norm or an anisotropic TV norm \\cite{c35}. The obvious blurring artifacts are hardly eliminated in the denoised results of the isotropic model \\cite{c75}. Thus, anisotropic TV norms for HS image denoising are investigated in this paper.\nWe take the Washington DC (WDC) data set as a typical example to depict the gradient images along three directions in Fig. \\ref{fig:sstv1}. The smoothing areas and edge information of gradient images are much clearer than the origin. \n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[height=2.5cm]{Visio-spatialspectral-smoothness.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[washington]{The spatial smooth properties of Washington DC: (a) original band, (b) the gradient image along the spatial horizontal direction, (c) the gradient image along the spatial vertical direction, (d) the gradient image along the spectral direction. }\n\t\\label{fig:sstv1}\n\\end{figure}\n\nInspired by the TV applications to gray-level images, the 2-D spatial TV norm of $\\mathcal{X}$ is easily introduced to an HS image in a band-by-band manner \\cite{c30}. This simple band-by-band TV norm is defined as follows:\n  \\begin{equation}\n\t\\begin{split}\n\t\t\\label{eq:TV}\n\t\t|| \\mathcal{X} ||_{\\rm TV} = ||D_h \\mathcal{X} ||_1 + ||D_v \\mathcal{X} ||_1\n\t\t\t\\end{split}\n\\end{equation} \nwhere $D_h$ and $D_v$ stand for first-order linear difference operators corresponding to the horizontal and vertical directions, respectively. These two operator are usually defined as:\n  \\begin{equation}\n\t\\begin{split}\n\t\\label{eq:dh}\n||D_h \\mathcal{X} ||_1 =\\left\\{\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\mathcal{X}(i,j+1,k)-\\mathcal{X}(i,j,k) ,\\quad &  \\quad 1 \\leq j < v \\\\\n0, \\quad &\\quad j=v\n\\end{aligned}\n\\right.\n\\end{split}\n\\end{equation}\n\n  \\begin{equation}\n\t\\begin{split}\n\t\\label{eq:dv}\n\t||D_v \\mathcal{X} ||_1 =\\left\\{\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\mathcal{X}(i+1,j,k)-\\mathcal{X}(i,j,k) ,\\quad &  \\quad 1 \\leq i < h \\\\\n0, \\quad &\\quad i=h\n\\end{aligned}\n\\right.\n\\end{split}\n\\end{equation}\n\nTo enforce the spatial piecewise smoothness and the spectral consistency of HS images, a 3DTV norm \\cite{c35} and a SSTV norm \\cite{c19} are formulated, respectively:\n  \\begin{equation}\n\t\\begin{split}\n\t\t\\label{eq:3DTV}\n\t\t|| \\mathcal{X} ||_{\\rm 3DTV} = ||D_h \\mathcal{X} ||_1 + ||D_v \\mathcal{X} ||_1 + ||D_z \\mathcal{X} ||_1\n\t\t\t\\end{split}\n\\end{equation} \n  \\begin{equation}\n\t\\begin{split}\n\t\t\\label{eq:SSTV}\n||\\mathcal{X}||_{\\rm{SSTV}} = ||D_z(D_h \\mathcal{X}) ||_1 +||D_z(D_v \\mathcal{X}) ||_1\n\t\t\t\\end{split}\n\\end{equation} \nwhere $||D_z \\mathcal{X} ||_1$ is a 1-D finite-difference operator along the spectral direction and is defined as:\n  \\begin{equation}\n\t\\begin{split}\n\t\\label{eq:dz}\n\t||D_z \\mathcal{X} ||_1 =\\left\\{\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\mathcal{X}(i,j,k+1)-\\mathcal{X}(i,j,k) ,\\quad &  \\quad 1 \\leq i < h \\\\\n0, \\quad &\\quad k=z\n\\end{aligned}\n\\right.\n\\end{split}\n\\end{equation}\n\nConsidering the degrade model with mixed noise, Chen \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c77} integrated both the 2DTV and the 3DTV regularizations into the TNN. Fan \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c34} injected the above SSTV norm into LR tensor factorization. Wang \\textit{et al}. \\cite{wang2020hyperspectral} used an SSTV term in a multi-directional weighted LR tensor framework. Based on the different contributions of the three gradient terms to the 3DTV regularization, Wang \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c36} proposed the TV-regularized LR tensor decomposition (LRTDTV) method:\n  \\begin{equation}\n\t\\begin{split}\n\t\\label{eq:LRTDTV}\n&\\min _{\\mathcal{X}, \\mathcal{S}, \\mathcal{N}} \\tau\\|\\mathcal{X}\\|_{\\mathrm{3DwTV}}+\\lambda\\|\\mathcal{S}\\|_{1}+\\beta\\|\\mathcal{N}\\|_{F}^{2} \\\\\n&\\text { s.t. } \\mathcal{T}=\\mathcal{X}+\\mathcal{S}+\\mathcal{N} \\\\\n&\\mathcal{X}=\\mathcal{A} \\times_{1} \\mathbf{B}_{1} \\times_{2} \\mathbf{B}_{2} \\times_{3} \\mathbf{B}_{3}, \\mathbf{B}_{i}^{T} \\mathbf{B}_{i}=\\mathbf{I}(i=1,2,3)\n\\end{split}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere the 3DwTV term is defined as:\n  \\begin{equation}\n\t\\begin{split}\n\t\t\\label{eq:3DwTV}\n\t\t|| \\mathcal{X} ||_{\\rm 3DwTV} = w_1||D_h \\mathcal{X} ||_1 + w_2||D_v \\mathcal{X} ||_1 + w_3||D_z \\mathcal{X} ||_1\n\t\t\t\\end{split}\n\\end{equation} \n\nZeng \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c84} integrating the advantages of both a global $L_{1\\--2}{\\rm SSTV}$ and the local-patch TNN.\nChen \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c78} exploited the row sparse structure of gradient images and proposed a weighted group sparsity-regularized TV combined with LR Tucker decomposition (LRTDGS) for HS mixed noise removal. \n\n\nDue to mentioned TV norms just penalizing large gradient magnitudes and easily blurring real image edges, a new $l_0$ gradient minimization was proposed to sharpen image edges \\cite{c37}. Actually, $l_1$ TV norm is a relaxation form of the $l_0$ gradient. Xiong \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c81} and Wang \\textit{et al}. \\cite{8920965} applied the $l_0$ gradient constraint in an LR BT decomposition and Tucker decomposition, respectively. However, the degrees of smoothness of this $l_0$ gradient form are controlled by a parameter, without any physical meaning. To alleviate this limitation, Ono \\cite{c41} proposed a novel $l_0$ gradient projection, which directly adopts a parameter to represent the smoothing degree of the output image. Wang \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c82} extended the ${l_0}\\text{TV}$ model into an LR tensor framework (TLR-${l_0}\\text{TV}$) to preserve more information for classification tasks after HS image denoising. The optimization model of TLR-${l_0}\\text{TV}$ is formulated as:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:mlr-l0htv}\n\\begin{aligned}\n&\\underset{\\mathcal{X},\\mathcal{S}}{\\textrm{min}}\\; \\sum_{k=1}^{m} \\alpha _k   E_k(\\mathcal{X})_{\\omega} +\\lambda\\|\\mathcal{S}\\|_1 +\\mu \\|\\mathcal{T}-\\mathcal{X}-\\mathcal{S}\\|_F^2,\\\\\n&s.t. \\  ||{B} D \\mathcal{X} ||^{\\theta}_{1,0} \\leq \\gamma,\n\\end{aligned}\t\n\\end{equation}\nwhere the functions $E_k(\\mathcal{X})_{\\omega}$ are set to be $||\\textbf{X}_{(k)}||_{\\omega,*}$ in the WSWNN-$l_0$TV-based method and $||\\mathcal{X}^k||_{\\omega,*}$ in the WSWTNN-$l_0$TV-based method. Operator ${B}$ forces boundary values of gradients to be zero when $ i = h $ and $j = v $. Operator $D$ is an operator to calculate both horizontal and vertical differences. Compared with many other TV-based LR tensor decompositions, TLR-${l_0}\\text{TV}$ achieves better denoising performances for mixed noise removal of HS images. In particular, HS classification accuracy is improved more effectively after denoising by TLR-l0TV.\n\n\n$\\textbf{(3) Subspace representation}$\n\nAs Fig. \\ref{fig:subspace} shows, an unfolding matrix $\\mathbf{X}$ of a denoised HS image can be projected into a orthogonal subspace, i.e., $\\mathbf{X} = \\mathbf{E}\\mathbf{Z}$. $\\mathbf{E} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{z \\times l}$ represents the basis of the subspace $S_l$ and $\\mathbf{Z} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{l \\times hv}$ denotes the representation coefficient of $\\mathbf{X}$ with respect to $\\mathbf{E}$. $\\mathbf{E}$ is reasonably assumed to be orthogonal, i.e., $\\mathbf{E}^{T} \\mathbf{E} =\\mathbf{I}$ \\cite{6736073}. \n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[height=4cm]{subspace.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[nonlocal]{A schematic diagram of the subspace representation. }\n\t\\label{fig:subspace}\n\\end{figure}\n\nCao \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c72} combined a LR and sparse factorization with the non-local tensor constraint of subspace coefficients, dubbed SNLRSF. Each spectral band of an observed HS image $\\mathcal{T} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times z}$ is reshaped as each row of an HS unfolding matrix $\\mathbf{T} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{z \\times hv}$. The spectral vectors is assumed to lie in a $l$-dimensional subspace $S_l$ ($l \\ll z$), and the optimization model can be written as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:SNLRSF}\n\\begin{aligned}\n&\\underset{\\mathbf{E}, \\mathbf{Z}, \\mathcal{L}_{i}, \\mathbf{S}}{\\arg \\min } \\frac{1}{2}\\|\\mathbf{T}-\\mathbf{E Z}-\\mathbf{S}\\|_{F}^{2}+\\lambda_{2}\\|\\mathbf{S}\\|_{1} \\\\\n&+\\lambda_{1} \\sum_{i}\\left(\\frac{1}{\\delta_{i}^{2}}\\left\\|\\Re_{i} \\mathbf{Z}-\\mathcal{L}_{i}\\right\\|_{F}^{2}+ ||\\mathcal{L}_i ||_{\\rm TTN} \\right) \\quad \\text { s.t. } \\quad \\mathbf{E}^{T} \\mathbf{E}=\\mathbf{I}\n\\end{aligned}\t\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\Re_{i} \\mathbf{Z}$ is divided into three steps: 1) reshape the reduced-dimensionality coefficient image $\\mathbf{Z} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{l \\times hv}$ as a tensor $\\mathbf{Z} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times l}$; 2) segment the tensor $\\mathbf{Z}$ as an overlapped patch tensor $\\mathbf{Z}_i \\in \\mathbb{R}^{p \\times p \\times l}$; and 3) cluster $d$ similar patches in a neighborhood area by computing Euclidean distance.\n\n\n\nFrom one side, a spectral LR tensor model is explored according to the fact that spectral signatures of HS images lie in a low-dimensional subspace. From another side, a non-local LR factorization is employed to take the non-local  similarity along the spatial direction into consideration. Following the line of SNLRSF, Zheng \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c86}  employed LR matrix factorization to decouple spatial and spectral models. The group-sparse structure of HS images is introduced on spatial difference images (SpatDIs). A continuity constraint was applied in the spectral factor to promote the group sparsity of SpatDIs and the spectral continuity of HS images. Sun \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c88} projected the noisy HS images into a non-local tensor subspace spanned by a spectral difference continuous basis. The continuity of the restored HS data is significantly promoted by this difference regularization.\n\n\\subsubsection{Experimental results and analysis}\n\\label{sect:experiment_denoising}\n\\begin{figure*}[htb]\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[height=3.3cm]{gaussian-result.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[pavia80]{The different methods for Gaussian noise removal. (a) Original HS image, (b) Gaussian noise, (c) LRTA, (d) TDL, (e) ITS, (f) LLRT, (g) NGmeet.  }\n\t\\label{fig:Visio-denoising_gaussian}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure*}[htb]\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[height=3.5cm]{mixed-result.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[pavia80]{The different methods for mixed noise removal. (a) Original HS image, (b) Mixed noise, (c) LRTR, (d) LRTDTV, (e) LRTDGS, (f) 3DTNN, (g) TLR-$L_0$TV  }\n\t\\label{fig:Visio-denoising_mixed}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nAn HS subimage is selected from the Pavia University data set and is normalized to $[0,1]$. The zero-mean Gaussian noise of noise variance $0.12$ is added into each band and shown in Fig. \\ref{fig:Visio-denoising_gaussian} (b). In a mixed noise case, the same Gaussian noise is also adopted. Each band is corrupted by the salt and pepper noise with a proportion of $0-20\\%$. Dead-lines are randomly added from band $61$ to band $80$, with the width of stripes generated from $1$ to $3$, and the number of stripes randomly selected from $3$ to $10$. In addition, bands $61-70$ are corrupted by some stripes with the number randomly selected from $20$ to $40$. Four different quantitative quality indices are chosen: the mean of peak signal-to-noise ratio (MPSNR), the mean of structural similarity (MSSIM), relative dimensional global error in synthesis (ERGAS), and the mean spectral angle distance (MSAD). Larger MPSNR and MSSIM values indicate better-denoised image quality. These two indices pay attention to the restoration precision of spatial pixels. In contrast, smaller ERGAS and MSAD values illustrate better performances of denoised results. \n\nFor Gaussian noise removal, all the competing approaches achieve good results to some degree in Fig. \\ref{fig:Visio-denoising_gaussian}, in which the enlarged subregions are delineated in red boxes. But residual noise remains in the result denoised by LRTA. Compared with TDL, ITS fails to preserve detailed spatial information. LLRT provides a rather similar result with NGmeet. Consistent with the visual observation, NGmeet outperforms the other methods and obtains the highest metric values among the denoising models in Tab. \\ref{tab:tab-gaussiannoise}. The non-local LR tensor methods including ITSReg, TDL, and LLRT gain better performances than LRTA, due to the formers exploiting two types of HS prior knowledge. The LRTA method is the fastest one among all the competing algorithms since LRTA just considers the spectral correlation. \n\nFig. \\ref{fig:Visio-denoising_mixed} shows the restoration results by five different methods under a heavy noise case. Dead-lines remaining in the images denoised by LRTR and 3DTNN are more obvious than the ones restored by LRTDTV and LRTDGS. The LR tensor-based model is employed in LRTR and 3DTNN, yet LRTDTV, LRTDGS, and TLR-$L_0$TV considered two kinds of prior knowledge: spectral correlation and spatial-spectral smoothness. LRTDTV and LRTDGS are more sensitive to dead-lines than TLR-$L_0$TV, leading to more or fewer artifacts in the denoised results. TLR-$L_0$TV removes most of the mixed noise and preserves image details like texture information and edges. To further evaluate the differences among competing denoising methods, we calculate four quality indices and show them in Tab. \\ref{tab:tab-mixednoise}, with the best results in bold. TLR-$L_0$TV obtains the highest denoising performance among all the approaches. For MPSNR, LRTDTV and LRTDGS are slightly larger than 3DTNN, whereas the SSIM and ERGAS values of LRTDTV and LRTDGS are better than those of 3DTNN. LRTR and LRTDGS are the first and second faster, but they hardly handle the complex mixed noise case with some dead-lines retaining. \n\n\n\n\\begin{table}[!htbp]\n\\centering\n\\caption{Quantitative comparison of different selected algorithms for Gaussian noise removal.}\n\\begin{spacing}{1.0}\n\\scalebox{0.93}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c|ccccc}\n\\cline{1-6}\n&  \\multicolumn{5}{|c}{Gaussian noise removal} \\\\\n\\hline\nIndex &  LRTA & TDL & ITS & LLRT & NGmeet \\\\\n\\hline\nPSNR    & 32.14  & 34.54  & 34.38  & \\underline{35.96}  &  $\\mathbf{37.06}$ \\\\\n \nSSIM    & 0.9097 & {0.9484} & 0.9466 & \\underline{0.9637} &  $\\mathbf{0.9707}$\\\\\n \nERGAS   & 5.7044 & 4.3392 & 4.3981 & \\underline{4.0462} &  $\\mathbf{3.2344}$\\\\\n \nMSAD    & 6.6720 & 5.0701 & 5.0912 & \\underline{4.2402} &  $\\mathbf{3.7804}$ \\\\\n \nTIME(s) & $ \\mathbf{1.48} $  & \\underline{13.77}   & 650.49 & 506.84 & 29.58   \\\\\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n}\n\\label{tab:tab-gaussiannoise}\n\\end{spacing}\n\\end{table}\n \n \n  \\begin{table}[!htbp]\n\\centering\n\\caption{Quantitative comparison of different selected algorithms for mixed noise removal.}\n\\begin{spacing}{1.0}\n\\scalebox{0.8}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c|ccccc}\n\\cline{1-6}\n&  \\multicolumn{5}{|c}{Mixed noise removal} \\\\\n\\hline\nIndex & LRTR & LRTDTV & LRTDGS & 3DTNN & TLR-$L_0$TV\\\\\n\\hline\nMPSNR  & 26.89   & \\underline{30.76}   & \\underline{30.76}   & 30.20  & $\\mathbf{31.59}$\\\\\n \nMSSIM  & 0.8157  & 0.8821  & 0.7852 & \\underline{0.8945} &  $\\mathbf{0.8973}$ \\\\\n \nERGAS & 10.8842 & 7.8154  & 9.5527 & \\underline{7.4915} &  $\\mathbf{7.1748}$\\\\\n \nMSAD  & 9.9624  & \\underline{7.3689}  & 10.4568 & 7.4712 &  $\\mathbf{7.2055}$\\\\\n \nTIME(s) & $\\mathbf{19.67}$ & 35.29   & \\underline{25.11}  & 44.25 & 325.67 \\\\\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n}\n\\label{tab:tab-mixednoise}\n\\end{spacing}\n\\end{table}\n\n\n \\iffalse \n \\begin{table*}[!htbp]\n\\centering\n\\caption{A quantitative comparison of different selected algorithms for Gaussian \/ mixed noise removal.}\n\\begin{spacing}{1.0}\n\\scalebox{0.8}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c|ccccc|ccccc}\n\\cline{1-11}\n& \\multicolumn{5}{|c}{Gaussian noise removal} & \\multicolumn{5}{|c}{Mixed noise removal} \\\\\n\\hline\nIndex &  LRTA & TDL & ITS & LLRT & NGmeet & LRTR & LRTDTV & LRTDGS & 3DTNN & TLR-$L_0$TV\\\\\nMPSNR    & 32.14  & 34.54  & 34.38  & \\underline{35.96}  &  $\\mathbf{37.06}$  & 26.89   & \\underline{30.76}   & \\underline{30.76}   & 30.20  & $\\mathbf{31.59}$\\\\\n \nMSSIM    & 0.9097 & \\underline{0.9484} & 0.9466 & 0.9637 &  $\\mathbf{0.9707}$ & 0.8157  & 0.8821  & 0.7852 & \\underline{0.8945} &  $\\mathbf{0.8973}$ \\\\\n \nERGAS   & 5.7044 & 4.3392 & 4.3981 & \\underline{4.0462} &  $\\mathbf{3.2344}$ & 10.8842 & 7.8154  & 9.5527 & \\underline{7.4915} &  $\\mathbf{7.1748}$\\\\\n \nMSAD    & 6.6720 & 5.0701 & 5.0912 & \\underline{4.2402} &  $\\mathbf{3.7804}$ & 9.9624  & \\underline{7.3689}  & 10.4568 & 7.4712 &  $\\mathbf{7.2055}$\\\\\n \nTIME(s) & $ \\mathbf{1.48} $  & \\underline{6.14}   & 650.49 & 506.84 & 29.58  & $ \\mathbf{19.67} $  & 35.29   & \\underline{25.11}  & 44.25 & 325.67 \\\\\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n}\n\\label{tab:tab3}\n\\end{spacing}\n\\end{table*}\n\\fi\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure*}[htb]\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[height=3.1cm]{Visio-deblur.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[wdc]{ OLRT for different blur cases. (a) Original WDC image, (b) the light Gaussian blur on WDC ($8 \\times 8$, Sigma = 3) and corresponding deblurred image (c), (d) the heavy Gaussian blur on WDC ($17 \\times 17$, Sigma = 7) and corresponding deblurred image (e), (f) the Uniform blur and corresponding deblurred image (g). }\n\t\\label{fig:Visio-deblur}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\\begin{table*}[!htbp]\n\\centering\n\\caption{A quantitative evaluation of OLRT for different blur cases.}\n\\begin{spacing}{1.0}\n\\scalebox{0.93}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c|ccccc}\n\\cline{1-6}\nBlur cases &  MPSNR & MSSIM & ERGAS & MSAD & TIME(s) \\\\\n\\hline\nGaussian blur (8*8, Sigma = 3) & 43.50 & 0.9912 & 1.5910 & 1.9486 &314.50 \\\\\nGaussian blur (17*17, Sigma = 7) & 39.63 & 0.9807 & 2.5407 & 3.0819 &305.70 \\\\\n Uniform blur & 39.39 & 0.9784 & 2.9332 & 3.8355 & 314.28 \\\\\n   \n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n}\n\\label{tab:tab-deblur}\n\\end{spacing}\n\\end{table*}\n\n\n\\subsection{HS Deblurrring} \n\\label{sect:HS_Deblurring}\n\nThe atmospheric turbulence or fundamental deviation of some imaging systems often blur HS images during the data acquisition process, which unfortunately damages the high-frequency components and the edge features of HS images. HS deblurring aims to recover sharp latent images from blurred ones. Chang \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c117} discussed the LR correlations along HS spatial, spectral, and non-local similarity modes and proposed a unified optimal LR tensor (OLRT) framework for multiple HS restoration tasks. But a matrix nuclear norm is used to constrain the LR property of unfolding non-local patch groups. Consequently, Chang \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c116} proposed a weighted LR tensor recovery (WLRTR) algorithm with a reweighted strategy. Considering spectral correlation and non-local similarity, the HS deblurring optimization problem can be formulated as follows\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    \\label{eq:WLRTR}\n &\\underset{\\mathcal{X}, \\mathcal{A}_{i}, \\mathbf{B}_{j}}{ \\min }   \\frac{1}{2}\\|\\mathcal{T}-M( \\mathcal{X} ) \\|_{F}^{2}+\\\\\n &\\eta \\sum_{i}\\left(\\left\\|\\mathcal{R}_{i} \\mathcal{X}-\\mathcal{A}_{i} \\times_{1} \\mathbf{B}_{1} \\times_{2} \\mathbf{B}_{2} \\times_{3} \\mathbf{B}_{3}\\right\\|_{F}^{2}\\right.\\left.+\\sigma_{i}^{2}\\left\\|\\boldsymbol{w}_{i} \\circ \\mathcal{A}_{i}\\right\\|_{1}\\right) \n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $w_i$ is a reweighting factor inversely proportional to singular values of $\\mathcal{L}_i$ with $\\mathcal{L}_i = \\mathcal{A}_{i} \\times_{1} \\mathbf{B}_{1} \\times_{2} \\mathbf{B}_{2} \\times_{3} \\mathbf{B}_{3}$, and higher-order SVD (HOSVD) is applied to see the different sparsities of higher-order singular values, i.e., LR property. The last term $\\|\\mathcal{Y}-M( \\mathcal{X} ) \\|_{F}^{2}$ is a data fidelity item, which can be replaced by $ || \\mathcal{T} - M(\\mathcal{X}) - \\mathcal{S} - \\mathcal{N} ||^2_F$ for HS inpainting, destriping, and denoising problems.  \n\n\nAn experimental example is given to display the deblurred performances of OLRT for the Gaussian blur with different levels and the uniform blur on the WDC data set. Fig. \\ref{fig:Visio-deblur} shows the visual results under different blur cases. The specific texture information is hardly distinguished in the three blurred images shown in Fig. \\ref{fig:Visio-deblur} (b), (d), and (f). The optimal LR tensor prior knowledge of OLRT reliably reflects the intrinsic structural correlation of HS images, which benefits the recovery of structural information and image edges. The quantitative results under different blur cases are reported in Tab. \\ref{tab:tab-deblur}.\n\n\\subsection{HS Inpainting}\n\\label{sect:HS_Inpainting}\n\n\nIn this section, we introduce and discuss LR tensor-based methods for HS inpainting. These methods are also suitable for missing data recovery of high-dimensional RS (HDRS) images. \nRS images such as HS, MS, and multi-temporal images often from missing data problems, such as dead pixels, thick clouds, and cloud shadows, as shown in Fig. \\ref{fig:Visio-missingdata}. The goal of inpainting is to estimate the missing data from observed images, which can be regarded as a tensor completion problem. \n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[height=3.2cm]{missing-data.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[md]{ Examples of RS data with missing information. (a) Reflectance of Aqua MODIS band 6 with sensor failure. (b) Digital number values of Landsat ETM+ with the SLC-off problem. (c) Digital number\nvalues of a Landsat image with cloud obscuration. }\n\t\\label{fig:Visio-missingdata}\n\\end{figure}\n\nLR tensor completion theory has been successfully applied for HS inpainting \\cite{c117,c116,c118,c119,c120,c130,c131}. Liu \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c119} suggested a trace norm regularized CP decomposition for missing data recovery. Ng \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c121} learned from high-accuracy LR tensor completion (HaLRTC) \\cite{c120} for recovering the missing data of HDRS and proposed an adaptive weighted TC (AWTC) method. The proposed AWTC model is expressed as\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n       \\label{eq:AWTC}\n       \\underset{\\mathcal{X}}{ \\min } \\frac{\\eta}{2} ||  \\mathcal{T} - M(\\mathcal{X})   ||^2_F + \\sum_{i=1}^3 w_i || \\mathbf{X}_{(i)}||_*\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}    \nwhere $w_i$ is well-designed parameter related to the singular values of $\\mathbf{X}_{(i)}$.\nXie \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c130} proposed a LR regularization-based TC (LRRTC), fusing the logarithm of the determinant with a TTN. With the definitions of a new TNN and its t-SVD \\cite{c123},  Wang \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c124} and Srindhuna \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c125} proposed new low-tuba-rank TC methods to estimate the missing values in HDRS images. Consequently, a novel TR decomposition is formulated to represent a high-dimensional tensor by circular multi-linear products on a sequence of third-order tensors \\cite{c126}. Based on the TR theory, He \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c128} fused the spatial TV into the TR framework and developed two solving algorithms: ALM and ALS. Similarly, Wang \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c129} incorporated a 3DTV regularization into a novel weighted TR decomposition framework. The proposed TV-WTV model is formulated as:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:TVWTR}\n\\begin{aligned}\n&\\underset{\\mathcal{X},[\\mathcal{G}]}{\\textrm{min}}\\; \\sum^N_{n=1}\\sum^3_{i=1} \\theta_i ||\\textbf{G}^{(n)}_{(i)}||_*+ \\frac{\\lambda}{2}||\\mathcal{X} - \\Phi([\\mathcal{G}])||^2_F+\\tau||\\mathcal{X}||_{\\rm 3DTV} \\\\\n&s.t.\\; \\mathcal{X}_{\\Omega}=\\mathcal{T}_{\\Omega}\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\n\nFor HS image inpainting tasks, we test three methods: HaLRTC, LRTC, and TVWTR on the random missing data problem and the  text removal problem. A subimage is chosen from the Houston 2013 data set for our experimental study. Fig. \\ref{fig:Visio-inpainting1} shows the results of the Houston2013 data set before and after recovery under ratio = $80\\%$. Although missing pixels disappear in the results of HaLRTC and LRTC, these methods produce more or fewer artifacts in the top-right corner of the zoomed area. The TVWTR method performs the best among all the compared algorithms and recovers the details like the red square center of the zoom area. In Fig. \\ref{fig:Visio-inpainting2}, original HS bands are corrupted by different texts that do not appear randomly as in previous cases. The text corruption is eliminated by three tensor decomposition-based algorithms. Few text artifacts exist in the enlarged area of LRTC. Due to the consideration of the spectral correlation and the spatial-spectral smoothness, TVWTR provides the best result with reconstructing most information of the original image.\n\nThe corresponding quantitative results of two inpainting tasks are reported in Tab. \\ref{tab:tab-inpainting}. Taking account of two types of prior knowledge, TVWTR gives a significantly fortified performance under two cases, as compared with the other competing methods. HaLRTC and LRTC are the fastest and second-fastest among all the comparing methods.\n\n\\begin{figure*}[htb]\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[height=6cm]{inpainting_results.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[houston]{ The inpainting results by different methods under $80\\%$ missing ratio. (a) Original Houston2013 image, (b) Missing, (c)  HaLRTC, (d) LRTC, (e) TVWTR. }\n\t\\label{fig:Visio-inpainting1}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\\begin{figure*}[htb]\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[height=6cm]{inpainting_text_results.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[houston]{ Inpainting results by different methods for the text removal case. (a) Original Houston2013 image, (b) Missing, (c)  HaLRTC, (d) LRTC, (e) TVWTR. }\n\t\\label{fig:Visio-inpainting2}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\\begin{table*}[!htbp]\n\\centering\n\\caption{A quantitative evaluation of different methods for inpainting.}\n\\begin{spacing}{1.0}\n\\scalebox{0.93}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c|ccc|ccc}\n\\cline{1-7}\n&  \\multicolumn{3}{c}{Missing data ($80\\%$)} &  \\multicolumn{3}{|c}{Text removal} \\\\\n\\hline\nIndex & HaLRTC & LRTC & TVWTR&  HaLRTC & LRTC & TVWTR \\\\\n\\hline\n MPSNR & 36.54  & 38.49 & $\\mathbf{49.05}$ & 50.29 & 53.39& $\\mathbf{57.31}$ \\\\\n MSSIM & 0.9391 & 0.9555 & $\\mathbf{0.9947}$ & 0.9965 & 0.9975 & $\\mathbf{0.9991}$ \\\\\n ERGAS & 4.5703 & 3.7704 & $\\mathbf{1.0211}$ & 1.0108 & 1.1345 & $\\mathbf{0.4012}$\\\\ \n MSAD  & 5.3845 & 4.6162 & $\\mathbf{1.3792}$ & 1.2424 &1.1134 & $\\mathbf{0.5497}$\\\\\n TIME(s) &$\\mathbf{9.34}$ & 23.74 & 347.46 & $\\mathbf{8.38}$ & 24.90 & 345.66\\\\\n   \n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n}\n\\label{tab:tab-inpainting}\n\\end{spacing}\n\\end{table*}\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{HS Destriping}\n\\label{sect:HS_Destriping}\nIn the past three decades, plenty of airborne and space-borne imaging spectrometers have adopted a whiskbroom sensor or a pushbroom sensor commonly. The former one is built with linear charge-coupled device (CCD) detector arrays. The corresponding HS imaging systems scans the target pixel by pixel and then acquires a spatial image by track scanning with a scan mirror forward motion \\cite{c134}. The latter one contains area CCD arrays. A pushbroom sensor scans the target line by line, one direction of which is utilized for spatial imaging, and the other for spectral imaging. The incoherence of the system mechanical motion and the failure of CCD arrays lead to the non-uniform response of neighboring detectors, mainly generating stripe noise. The  periodic or noneriodic stripes generally distributed along the scanning direction have a certain width and length. The values of stripes are brighter or darker than their surrounding pixels. The inherent property of stripes, i.e., $g(\\mathcal{S})$ should be considered in the HS destriping model. \n\nChen \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c132} were the first to develop a LR tensor decomposition for an MS image destriping task. The high correlation of the stripe component along the spatial domain is depicted by a LR Tucker decomposition. The final minimization model for solving the destriping problem is expressed as follows:\n \\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n\\min _{\\mathcal{X}, \\mathcal{S}, \\mathcal{A}, \\mathbf{B}_{i}} & \\frac{1}{2}\\|\\mathcal{Y}-\\mathcal{X}-\\mathcal{S}\\|_{F}^{2}+\\eta_{1}\\left\\|D_{h} \\mathcal{X}\\right\\|_{1}+\\eta_{2}\\left\\|D_{z} \\mathcal{X}\\right\\|_{1} \\\\\n&+\\lambda\\|\\mathcal{S}\\|_{2,1} \\\\\n\\text { s.t. } \\mathcal{S}=& \\mathcal{A} \\times_{1} \\mathbf{B}_{1} \\times_{2} \\mathbf{B}_{2} \\times_{3} \\mathbf{B}_{3}, \\mathbf{B}_{i}^{T} \\mathbf{B}_{i}=\\mathbf{I}(i=1,2,3)\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\|\\mathcal{S}\\|_{2,1} = \\sum^z_{k=1} \\sum^v_{j=1} \\sqrt{\\sum^h_{i_1} \\mathcal{S}_{i,j,k}^2 } $.\n\nCao \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c135} implemented the destriping task by the matrix nuclear norm of stripes and non-local similarity of image patches in the spatio-spectral volumes. WLRTR and OLRT \\cite{c117,c116} are also effective for a HS destriping task. Chang \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c117} simultaneously considered the LR properties of the stripe cubics and non-local patches. The OLRT algorithm is reformulated for modeling both the recovered and stripe components as follows\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n&  \\min _{\\mathcal{X}, \\mathcal{L}_{i}^{j}, \\mathcal{S}} \\frac{1}{2}\\|\\mathcal{T}-\\mathcal{X}-\\mathcal{S}\\|_{F}^{2}+\\rho \\operatorname{rank}_{1}(\\mathcal{S}) \\\\\n&+\\omega_{j} \\sum_{j} \\sum_{i}(\\frac{1}{\\delta_{i}^{2}}\\|\\mathcal{R}_{i}^{j} \n\\mathcal{X}-\\mathcal{L}_{i}^{j}\\|_{F}^{2}+\\operatorname{rank}_{j} (\\mathcal{L}_{i}^{j}) )\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\n\nIn \\cite{c133}, an HS destriping model is transformed to a tensor framework, in which the tensor-based non-convex sparse model used both $l_0$ and $l_1$ sparse priors to estimate stripes from noisy images.\n\n\n\\begin{figure*}[htb]\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[height=6cm]{destriping.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[houston2018]{The destriping results by different methods. (a) Original Houston 2018 image, (b) nonperiodic stripes, (c) WLRTR, (d) LRTD. }\n\t\\label{fig:Visio-destriping}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\n\n \n\nWe take an example with nonperiodic stripes of intensity 50 and stripe ratio 0.2, which is presented in Fig. \\ref{fig:Visio-destriping} (b). Fig. \\ref{fig:Visio-destriping} (c) and (d) display the destriping results of WLRTR and LRTD. The stripes are estimated and removed correctly by WLRTR and LRTD since both models consider non-local similarity and spectral correlation. Considering the third type of prior knowledge-- spatial and spectral smoothness, LRTD moderately preserves more details like clear edges than WLRTR. The quantitative comparison is in accordance with the above-mentioned visual results. Tab. \\ref{tab:tab-destriping} performs destriping results with four quantitative indices. LRTD achieves higher evaluation values than WLRTR.\n\n \\begin{table}[!htbp]\n\\centering\n\\caption{A quantitative comparison of different selected algorithms for destriping.}\n\\begin{spacing}{1.0}\n\\scalebox{0.8}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c|cccc}\n\\hline\n & MPSNR & MSSIM & ERGAS & MSAD \\\\\n\\hline\nWLRTR & 39.77 & 0.9844 &7.7883 & 5.1765\\\\\nLRTD  & $\\mathbf{47.87}$ & $\\mathbf{0.9912}$ & $\\mathbf{3.8388}$ & $\\mathbf{1.1276}$\\\\\n\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n}\n\\label{tab:tab-destriping}\n\\end{spacing}\n\\end{table}\n\\subsection{Future challenges}\n\\label{sect:challenges_restoration}\n\nVarious tensor optimization models have been developed to solve the HS restoration problem and show impressive performances. Nevertheless, these models still can be further improved for future work:\n\n\nAs the prior information is efficient to find the optimal solution, novel tensor-based approaches should utilize as many types of priors as possible. Therein, how best to design a unified framework to simultaneously non-local similarity, spatial and spectral smoothness, and subspace representation is a crucial challenge.\n\nThe addition of different regularizations leads to the manual adjustment of corresponding parameters. For example, a noise-adjusted parameter pre-definition strategy needs to be studied to enhance the robustness of tensor optimization models. \n\n It is worth noting that we are usually blind to the location of the stripes or clouds. The locations of the stripes or mixed noise between the neighbor bands are often different and need to be estimated. How best to predict the degradation positions and design blind estimation algorithms deserves further study in following research.\n\nDue to some HS images containing hundreds of spectral bands, the high dimensions of an HS tensor cause a time-consuming problem. The model complexity of tensorial models should be reduced with the guarantee of efficiency and accuracy of HS restoration. \n\n\\section{HS CS}\n\\label{sect:HSI-CS}\nTraditional HS imaging techniques are based on the Nyquist sampling theory for data acquisition. A signal must be sampled at a rate greater than twice its maximum frequency component to ensure unambiguous data \\cite{c108,c109}. This signal processing needs a huge computing space and storage space. Meanwhile, the ever-increasing spectral resolution of HS images also leads to the high expense and low efficiency of transmission from airborne or space-borne platforms to ground stations. The goal of CS is to compressively sample and reconstruct signals based on sparse representation to reduce the cost of signal storage and transmission. In Fig. \\ref{fig:Visio-cs}, based on the image-forming principle of a single pixel camera which uses the digital micromirror device (DMD) to accomplish the CS sampling, an HS sensor can span the necessary wavelength range and record the intensity of the light reflected by the modulator in each wavelength \\cite{c215}. Since the CS rate can be far lower than the Nyquist rate, the limitation of high cost caused by the sheer volume of HS data will be alleviated. A contradiction usually exists between the massive HS data and the limited bandwidth of satellite transmission channel. HS images can be compressed first to reduce the pressure on channel transmission. Therefore, the HS CS technique is conducive to onboard burst transmission and real-time processing in RS \\cite{c223}.\n\n\\begin{figure*}[htb]\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[height=6cm]{Visio-cs-fra.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[restoration]{A schematic diagram of HS CS. }\n\t\\label{fig:CSfr}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nCS of HS images aims to preciously reconstruct an HS data $\\mathcal{X} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times z}$ from a few compressive measurements $\\textbf{y} \\in \\mathbb{R}^m$ by effective HS CS algorithms. The compressive measurements $\\textbf{y}$ can be formulated by:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:y1}\n\\textbf{y} = \\Psi (\\mathcal{X})\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\Psi$ is a measurement operator instantiated as $\\Psi= \\textbf{D} \\cdot \\textbf{H} \\cdot \\textbf{P}$, where $\\textbf{D}$ is a random downsampling operator, $\\textbf{H}$ is a random permutation matrix, $\\textbf{P}$ is a WalshHadamard transform and the mapping of $\\Psi$ is $ \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times z} \\rightarrow \\mathbb{R}^m$ (the sampling ratio $m=hvz$). The strict reconstruction of $\\mathcal{X}$ from $\\mathbf{y}$ will be guaranteed by the CS theory when $\\Psi$ satisfies the restricted isometry property (RIP). This compressive operator has been successfully adopted for various HS CS tasks \\cite{c100,c92,c93,c94}. However, operator $\\Psi$ can be replaced with real \ndemands. Apparently, it is an ill-posed inverse problem to directly recover $\\mathcal{X}$ from Eq. (\\ref{eq:y1}). The extra prior information needs to be investigated to optimize the HS CS problem. The HS CS task can be generalized the following optimization problem:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:hs_cs}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\underset{\\mathcal{X}}{\\textrm{min}}\\;&\\|\\textbf{y}-\\Psi (\\mathcal{X})\\|_F^2  + \\lambda F(\\mathcal{X}),\n\\end{aligned}\t\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $F(\\mathcal{X})$ denotes the additional regularization term to use different types of HS prior information such as spectral correlation, spatial and spectral smoothness, and non-local similarity. \n\n\n\n\\subsection{Tensor decomposition-based HS CS reconstruction methods}\n\\label{sect:TD-CS}\n\n\n\nTucker decomposition-based methods have aroused wide attention for HS CS. Tucker decomposition was first introduced into the compression of HS images to constrain the discrete wavelet transform coefficients of spectral bands \\cite{c96}. Most of the following works try to study the Tucker decomposition-based variants for HS CS \\cite{c100,c97,c98,c99,c95,c214}. \n\n$\\textbf{(1) Tucker decomposition with TV}$\n\nIn one earlier work \\cite{c100}, a 2-D TV norm has been penalized in an LR matrix framework, which robustly recovers a large-size HS image when the sampling ratio is only 3\\%. A spectral LR model is rarely enough to depict the inherent property of HS images. \nJoint tensor Tucker decomposition with a weighted 3-D TV (JTenRe3-DTV) \\cite{c97} injected a weighted 3-D TV into the LR Tucker decomposition framework to model the global spectral correlation and local spatial\u2013spectral smoothness of an HS image. Considering the disturbance $\\mathcal{E}$, the JTenRe3-DTV optimization problem for HS CS can be expressed as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:TDTV_cs}\n\\begin{aligned}\n&\\min _{\\mathcal{X}, \\mathcal{E}, \\mathcal{C}, \\mathbf{U}_{i}} \\frac{1}{2}\\|\\mathcal{E}\\|_{F}^{2}+\\lambda\\|\\mathcal{X}\\|_{3{\\rm DwTV}} \\\\\n&\\text { s.t. } \\mathbf{y}=\\Psi(\\mathcal{X}), \\mathcal{X}=\\mathcal{A} \\times_{1} \\mathbf{B}_{1} \\times_{2} \\mathbf{B}_{2} \\times_{3} \\mathbf{B}_{3}+\\mathcal{E}\n\\end{aligned}\t\n\\end{equation}\nIn \\cite{c102}, the LR tensor constraint of Eq.(\\ref{eq:TDTV_cs}) was replaced by the TNN. \n\n$\\textbf{  (2) Tucker decomposition with non-local similarity}$\n\nThe Tucker decomposition methods with non-local similarity either cluster similar patches into a 4-D group or unfold 2-D patches into a 3-D group.  \nDu \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c101} represented each local patch of HS images as a 3-D tensor and grouped similar tensor patches to form a 4-D tensor per cluster. Each tensor group can be approximately decomposed by a sparse coefficient tensor and a few matrix dictionaries. \nXue \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c99} unfolded a series of 3-D cubes into 2-D matrices along the spectral modes and stacked these matrices as a new 3-D tensor. The spatial sparsity, the non-local similarity, and the spectral correlation were simultaneously employed to obtain the proposed model\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:TDNON_cs}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\min _{\\mathbf{x}, \\mathcal{A}_{p}, \\mathbf{B}_{1 p}, \\mathbf{B}_{2 p}, \\mathbf{B}_{3 p}} &\\sum_{p=1}^{P} \\frac{\\lambda_{1}}{2}\\left\\|\\mathcal{X}_{p}-\\mathcal{A}_{p} \\times_{1} \\mathbf{B}_{1 p} \\times_{2} \\mathbf{B}_{2 p} \\times_{3} \\mathbf{B}_{3 p}\\right\\|_{F}^{2}\\\\\n&+\\lambda_{2}\\left\\|\\mathcal{A}_{p}\\right\\|_{1}+\\lambda_{3} L(\\mathcal{X}_{p}) \\\\\n\\text { s.t. } \\mathbf{y}=\\Phi \\mathbf{x}, \\mathcal{X}_{p}&=\\mathcal{A}_{p} \\times_{1} \\mathbf{B}_{1 p} \\times_{2} \\mathbf{B}_{2 p} \\times_{3} \\mathbf{B}_{3 p}, \\\\\n\\mathbf{B}_{i p}^{T} \\mathbf{B}_{i p}= \\mathbf{I}&(i=1,2,3)\n\\end{aligned}\t\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $p = 1, . . . P$, and $P$ denotes the group number, $\\mathbf{x} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{hvz}$ denotes the vector form of X, $L(\\mathbf{X})$ is the TTN of $\\mathcal{X}$,\n\n\n$\\textbf{(3) TR-based methods}$\n\nUnlike the Tucker decomposition methods \\cite{c101,c99} which directly captured the LR priror in the original image space at the cost of high computation, a novel subspace-based non-local TR decomposition (SNLTR) approach projected an HS image into a low-dimensional subspace \\cite{c90}. The non-local similarity of the subspace coefficient tensor is constrained by a TR decomposition model. The SNLTR model is presented as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:SNLTR-cs}\n\\begin{aligned}\n&\\min _{\\mathbf{E}, \\mathbf{Z}, \\mathcal{L}_{i}, \\mathcal{G}_{i}} \\frac{1}{2}\\|\\mathbf{y}-\\Psi(\\mathbf{E} \\mathbf{Z})\\|_{F}^{2}+\\lambda \\sum_{i}\\left(\\frac{1}{2}\\left\\|\\Re_{i} \\mathbf{Z}-\\mathcal{L}_{i}\\right\\|_{F}^{2}\\right) \\\\\n&\\text { s.t. } \\mathbf{E}^{T} \\mathbf{E}=\\mathbf{I}, \\quad \\mathcal{L}_{i}=\\Phi\\left(\\left[\\mathcal{G}_{i}\\right]\\right)\n\\end{aligned}\t\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\subsection{HS Kronecker CS methods}\n\\label{sect:TD-KCS}\n\nUnlike the current 1-D or 2-D sampling strategy, Kronecker CS (KCS) comprises Kronecker-structured sensing matrices and sparsifying bases for each HS dimension \\cite{c214,8000407}. Based on multidimensional multiplexing, Yang \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c106} used a tensor measurement and a nonlinear sparse tensor coding to develop a self-learning tensor nonlinear CS (SLTNCS) algorithm. The sampling process and sparse representation can be represented as the model based on Tucker decomposition. Generally, an HS image $\\mathcal{X} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{n_1 \\times n_2 \\times n_3} $ can be expressed as the following Tucker model:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:KCS}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\mathcal{X}=\\mathcal{S} \\times_{1} \\Phi_{1} \\times_{2} \\Phi_{2} \\times_{3} \\Phi_{3}\n\\end{aligned}\t\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mathcal{S} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{m_1 \\times m_2 \\times m_3} $ stands for an approximate block-sparse tensor in terms of a set of three basis matrices {$\\Phi_{j} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{ k_j \\times k_j}$}, with $m_j \\ll k_j, j=1,2,3 $.\n\nIn the context of KCS, three measurement or sensing matrices denoted by $\\Psi_j, j=1,2,3$ of size $n_j \\times k_j$ with $n_j \\ll k_j$ are used to reduce the dimensionality of the measurement tensor. The compressive sampling model is given as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:KCS-psi}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\mathcal{Y}&=\\mathcal{X} \\times_{1} \\Psi_{1} \\times_{2} \\Psi_{2}\\times_{3} \\Psi_{3} \\\\\n&=\\mathcal{S} \\times_{1} \\mathbf{Q}_{1} \\times_{2} \\mathbf{Q}_{2} \\times_{3} \\mathbf{Q}_{3}\n\\end{aligned}\t\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mathbf{Q}_j = \\Phi_j \\Psi_j, j=1,2,3$.\n\nZhao \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c106} designed a 3-D HS KCS mechanism to achieve independent samplings in three dimensions. The suitable sparsifying bases were selected and the corresponding optimized measurement matrices were generated, which adjusted the distribution of sampling ratio for each dimension of HS images. Yang \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c95} constrained the nonzero number of the Tucker core tensor to explore the spatial-spectral correlation. To address the issue of the computational burden on the data reconstruction of early HS KCS techniques, researchers have proposed several tensor-based methods such as the tensor-form greedy algorithm, N-way block orthogonal matching pursuit (NBOMP) \\cite{6797642}, beamformed mode-based sparse estimator (BOSE) \\cite{7544443} and Tensor-Based Bayesian Reconstruction (TBR) \\cite{c107}. The TBR model exploited the multi-dimensional block-sparsity of tensors, which was more consistent with the sparse model in HS KCS than the conventional CS methods. A Bayesian reconstruction algorithm was developed to achieve the decoupling of hyperparameters by a low-complexity technique. \n\n \n\n\n\\subsection{Experimental results and analysis}\n\\label{sect:experiment_cs}\n\nAn HS data experiment is employed to validate the effectiveness of tensor-based models on HS CS with four different sample ratios i.e. $1\\%$, $5\\%$, $10\\%$, $20\\%$. The Reno data set selected for HS CS experiments is size of $150 \\times 150 \\times 100$. The randomly permuted Hadamard transform is adopted as the compressive operator. Tab. \\ref{tab:tab-cs} compares the reconstruction results by SLNTCS and JTenRe3DTV. They have quality decays with sample ratios decreasing, but SLNTCS obtains poorer results than JTenRe3DTV in lower sampling ratios. \n\nIn the light of visual comparison, one representative band in the sampling ratio $10\\%$ is presented in Fig. \\ref{fig:Visio-cs}. The basic texture information can be found in the results of two HS CS algorithms. As shown in the enlarged area, SLNTCS causes some artifacts, but JTenRe3DTV produces a more acceptable result with the smoothing white area than SLNTCS.\n\n\n \\begin{table}[!htbp]\n\\centering\n\\caption{A quantitative comparison of different selected algorithms for HS CS.}\n\\begin{spacing}{1.0}\n\\scalebox{0.8}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c|c|cccc}\n\\hline\nMethod & Index & $1\\%$ & $5\\%$ & $10\\%$ & $20\\%$ \\\\\n\\hline\nSLNTCS & MPSNR & 18.70 & 24.44 &27.72  & 32.14 \\\\\n& MSSIM &  0.3273 & 0.6593   &  0.8047 & 0.9159\\\\\n& ERGAS &  23.3411 & 12.1203 & 8.3119  & 5.0263\\\\\n& MSAD  &  22.0.35 & 11.2031 & 7.6354  & 4.6003\\\\\n\\hline\nJTenRe3DTV  & MPSNR & 27.91 & 34.54 & 36.28 & 37.41 \\\\\n& MSSIM & 0.8116 & 0.9443 & 0.9638 & 0.9709\\\\\n& ERGAS & 8.2422 & 4.0139 & 3.2990 & 2.9124\\\\\n& MSAD  & 7.5545 & 3.5703 & 2.9233& 2.5723\\\\\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n}\n\\label{tab:tab-cs}\n\\end{spacing}\n\\end{table}\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[height=5.2cm]{Visio-cs-exp.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[houston]{ Inpainting results by different methods under $10\\%$ sampling ratio. (a) Original Reno image, (b) SLNTCS, (c) JTenRe3DTV. }\n\t\\label{fig:Visio-cs}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsection{Future challenges}\n\\label{sect:challenges_cs} \nThe low acquisition rate of CS inspires a novel development potentiality for HS RS. Many tensor-based methods have been proposed to achieve remarkable HS CS reconstruction results at a lower sampling ratio. However, here we briefly point out some potential challenges.\n\nSome novel tensor decomposition approaches need to be explored. In the past research works, Tucker decomposition has been successfully applied for HS CS. But with the development of the tensorial mathematical theory, many tensor decomposition models have been proposed and introduced in other HS applications. Therefore, how best to find more appropriate tensor decomposition for HS CS is a vital challenge. \n\nNoise degradation usually has a negative influence in HS CS sampling and reconstruction, which is hardly ignored in the real HS CS real imaging process. As a result, considering the noise interference and enhancing the robustness of noise in the CS process remain challenging.\n\n\\section{HS AD}\n\\label{sect:HSI-AD}\n\n\n HS AD aims to discover and separate the potential man-made objects from observed image scenes, which is typically constructive for defense and surveillance developments in RS fields, such as mine exploration and military reconnaissance. For instance, aircrafts in the suburb scene and vehicles in the bridge scene are usually referred to as anomalies or outliers. In Fig. \\ref{fig:Visio-AD}, AD can be regarded as an unsupervised two-class classification problem where anomalies occupy small areas compared with their surrounding background. The key to coping with this problem is to exploit the discrepancy between anomalies and their background. Anomalies commonly occur with low probabilities and their spectral signatures are quite different from neighbors.\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[height=7.5cm]{Visio-AD.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[AD]{A schematic diagram of HS image anomaly detection. }\n\t\\label{fig:Visio-AD}\n\\end{figure}\n\nHS images containing two spatial dimensions and one spectral dimension are intrinsically considered as a three-order tensor. Tensor-based approaches have been gradually attaching attention for HS AD in recent years. Tucker decomposition is the first and essential type of tensor-decomposition methods used for HS AD. Therefore, in the following sections, we mainly focus on the Tucker decomposition-based methods and a few other types of tensor-based methods.\n\n\\subsection{Tensor decomposition-based HS AD methods}\n\\label{sect:TD_ad}\n\n$\\textbf{ (1) Tucker decomposition-based methods }$\n\n An observed HS image $\\mathcal{T}$ can be decomposed into two parts by Tucker decomposition, i.e.,\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n     \\mathcal{T} = \\mathcal{X} + \\mathcal{S}\n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mathcal{X}$ is LR background tensor and $\\mathcal{S}$ is the sparse tensor consisting of anomalies. The Tucker decomposition for AD is formulated as the following optimization\n\\begin{equation}\n\t\\begin{split}\n\t\\label{eq:Tucker-AD}\n\t\\left\\{\\begin{array}{l}\n\\mathcal{X}=\\mathcal{A} \\times_{1} \\mathbf{B}_{1} \\times_{2} \\mathbf{B}_{2} \\times_{3} \\mathbf{B}_{3} \\\\\n\\mathcal{S}=\\mathcal{T}-\\mathcal{X}\n\\end{array}\\right.\n\\end{split}    \n\\end{equation}\n\nMany Tucker decomposition-based variants have been studied to improve the AD accuracy. Li \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c110} proposed a LR tensor decomposition based AD (LTDD) model, which employed Tucker decomposition to obtain the core tensor of the LR part. The final spectral signatures of anomalies is extracted by an unmixing approach. After the Tucker decomposition processing, Zhang \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c111} utilized a reconstruction-error-based method to eliminate the background pixels and remain the anomaly information. Zhu \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c139} advocated a weighting strategy based on tensor decomposition and cluster weighting (TDCW). In TDCW, Tucker decomposition was adopted to obtain the anomaly part. K-means clustering and segmenting, were assigned as post-processing steps to achieve a performance boost.\nSong \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c113} proposed a tensor-based endmember extraction and LR decomposition (TEELRD) algorithm, where Tucker decomposition and k-means are employed to construct a high-quality dictionary.\n\nBased on Tucker decomposition, Qin \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c115} proposed a LR and sparse tensor decomposition (LRASTD). The LRASTD can be formulated as\n\\begin{equation}\n\t\\begin{split}\n\t\\label{eq:LRASTD}\n&\t\\min_{\\mathcal{A},\\mathcal{S}} || \\mathcal{A} ||_* + \\beta ||\\mathcal{A} ||_1 +  \\lambda || \\mathcal{S} ||_{2,2,1}\\\\\n & {\\rm s.t.} \\quad\t\\mathcal{X}=\\mathcal{A} \\times_{1} \\mathbf{B}_{1} \\times_{2} \\mathbf{B}_{2} \\times_{3} \\mathbf{B}_{3} + \\mathcal{S}\n\\end{split}    \n\\end{equation}\nwhere $|| \\mathcal{S} ||_{2,2,1} = \\sum^z_{k=1} || \\mathcal{S}(:,:,k) ||_F$.\n\n$\\textbf{ (2) Other Tensor-based methods }$\n\n Chen \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c112} presented a TPCA-based pre-processing method to separate a principal component part and a residual part. Li \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c114} proposed a prior-based tensor approximation (PTA) approach, where the background was constrained by a truncated nuclear norm (TRNN) regularization and a spatial TV. The proposed PTA can be expressed as\n \\begin{equation}\n     \\begin{aligned}\n&\\arg \\min _{\\mathcal{X}, \\mathcal{S}} \\frac{1}{2}\\left(\\left\\|\\mathbf{D}_{H} \\mathbf{X}_{(1)}\\right\\|_{F}^{2}+\\left\\|\\mathbf{D}_{v} \\mathbf{X}_{(2)}\\right\\|_{F}^{2}\\right)+\\alpha\\left\\|\\mathbf{X}_{3}\\right\\|_{r}+\\beta\\left\\|\\mathbf{S}_{3}\\right\\|_{2,1} \\\\\n&\\text { s.t. }\\left\\{\\begin{array}{l}\n\\mathcal{Y}=\\mathcal{X}+\\mathcal{S} \\\\\n\\mathcal{X}_{1}=\\operatorname{unfold}_{1}(\\mathcal{X}) \\\\\n\\mathcal{X}_{2}=\\operatorname{unfold}_{2}(\\mathcal{X}) \\\\\n\\mathcal{X}_{3}=\\operatorname{unfold}_{3}(\\mathcal{X}) \\\\\n\\mathcal{S}_{3}=\\operatorname{unfold}_{3}(\\mathcal{S})\n\\end{array}\\right.\n\\end{aligned}\n \\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mathbf{D}_{H} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{(h-1) \\times h}$ and $\\mathbf{D}_{v} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{(v-1) \\times v}$ are defined as\n$\\mathbf{D}_{H}=\\left[\\begin{array}{ccccc}\n1 & -1 & & & \\\\\n& 1 & -1 & & \\\\\n& & \\ddots & \\ddots & \\\\\n& & & 1 & -1\n\\end{array}\\right]$\\\\\nand\n$\\mathbf{D}_{v}=\\left[\\begin{array}{ccccc}\n1 & -1 & & & \\\\\n& 1 & -1 & & \\\\\n& & \\ddots & \\ddots & \\\\\n& & & 1 & -1\n\\end{array}\\right]$\n\nWang \\textit{et al}. \\cite{minghuaTC} proposed a novel tensor LR and sparse representation method with a PCA pre-processing step, namely PCA-TLRSR, which was the first time to expand the concept of Tensor LR representation in HS AD and exploited the 3-D inherent structure of HS images. Assisted by the multi-subspace learning of the tensor domain and the sparsity constraint along the joint spectral-spatial dimensions, the LR background and anomalies are separated in a more accurate manner.\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Experimental results and analysis}\n\\label{sect:experiment_ad}\n\nHerein, we take an example of PTA on three HS data sets for AD. The San Diego data set \\cite{c216} was captured by the Airborne Visible\/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) sensor over the San Diego airport, CA, USA. Three flights are obviously observed in the selected region with the size $100 \\times 100 \\times 189$. The Airport-1 and Airport-2 \\cite{c217} were also acquired by AVIRIS sensor. As shown in the second column of Fig. \\ref{fig:AD-exp}, flights are regarded as anomalies in different airport scenes.  \n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[height=8.5cm, angle = 90]{AD-EXP2.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[AD]{Original HS images, ground-truth maps, detection maps, and AUC curves of PTA on different data sets. }\n\t\\label{fig:AD-exp}\n\\end{figure}\n\nAs the detection maps of Fig. \\ref{fig:AD-exp} display, most of flights are clearly detected by PTA. Except for the visual observation of resulted anomaly maps, the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve \\cite{c218} and the area under the ROC curve (AUC) \\cite{c219} are employed to quantitatively assess the detection accuracy of the tensor-based method. The ROC curve plots the varying relationship of the probability of detection (PD) and false alarm rate (FAR) for extensive possible thresholds. The area under this curve is calculated as AUC, whose ideal result is 1. PTA is capable to achieve a high detection rate and low FAR. The AUC values derived from PTA is higher than 0.9.\n\n\\subsection{Future challenges}\n\\label{sect:challenges_ad} \n\nTucker decomposition-based models have been well developed by researchers, yet other types of tensor decompositions are rarely investigated in the HS AD community. In other words, how best to introduce other novel tensor decomposition frameworks into AD is a key challenge.\n\nAlthough most anomalies are successfully detected, some background pixels like roads and roofs usually remain. The more complex background and the fewer targets make the difficulty of AD increase. To solve this problem, researchers need to explore multiple features and suitable regularizations.\n\nThe background and anomalies are often modeled as the LR part and the sparse part of HS images. The 3-D inherent structure of HS images is exploited by tensor decomposition-based methods. The spatial sparsity and the 3-D inherent structure of anomalies should be considered by a consolidated optimization strategy.\n\n\n \\section{HS-MS fusion}\n\\label{sect:HSI-SR}\n\n\\begin{figure*}[htb]\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[height=8cm]{SR-fr2.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[unmixing]{Illustration of HS and MS fusion. }\n\t\\label{fig:Visio-sr-fr}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nHS images provide abundant and varied spectral information, yet hardly contain high-spatial resolution owing to the limitations of sun irradiance \\cite{c140}, and imaging systems \\cite{c141}. On the contrary, MS images are captured with low-spectral resolution and high-spatial resolution. HS and MS fusion aims to improve the spatial resolution of HS images with the assistance of MS images and generate final HS images with high-spatial resolution and original spectral resolution. The high-quality fused HS images benefit for the in-depth recognition and \ninsight of materials, which contributes to many RS real applications, such as object classification and change detection of wetlands and farms \\cite{7182258,7895167,8961105,gu2019superpixel,hong2021graph,chen2022fccdn,hong2022Spectral}.\n\nFig. \\ref{fig:Visio-sr-fr} depicts an HS and MS fusion process to generate an HR-HS image. Suppose that a desired high-spatial-spectral resolution HS (HR-HS) image, a low-resolution HS (LR-HS) image, and a high-resolution MS (HR-MS) image are denoted by $\\mathcal{X} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{ H \\times V \\times B}$, $\\mathcal{Y} \\in  \\mathbb{R}^{ h \\times v \\times B}$ and $\\mathcal{Z} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{ H \\times V \\times b}$ ($H \\gg h$, $V \\gg v$, $B \\gg b$), respectively. A LR-HS image is seen as a spatially downsampled and blurring version of $\\mathcal{X}$, and a HR-MS image is the spectrally downsampled version of $\\mathcal{X}$. The two degradation models are expressed as follow\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    \\label{eq:HSR}\n    \\mathbf{Y}_{(3)} =  \\mathbf{X}_{(3)} \\mathbf{R} + \\mathbf{N}_h\n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    \\label{eq:HSR2}\n    \\mathbf{Z}_{(3)} = \\mathbf{G}  \\mathbf{X}_{(3)} + \\mathbf{N}_m\n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mathbf{R} = \\mathbf{B} \\mathbf{K}$, $\\mathbf{B}$ denotes a convolution blurring operation. $\\mathbf{K}$ is a spatial downsampling matrix, and $\\mathbf{G}$ represents a spectral-response function if a MS image sensor, which can be regarded as a spectral downsampling matrix. $\\mathbf{N}_h$ and $\\mathbf{N}_m$ stand for noise.\n\nAccording to references \\cite{c142,c143,c144}, $\\mathbf{R}$ and $\\mathbf{G}$ are assumed to be given in advance of solving the HS SR problem \n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    \\label{eq:HSR-pro}\n    \\min_{\\mathcal{X}} ||\\mathbf{Y}_{(3)} -  \\mathbf{X}_{(3)} \\mathbf{R} ||^2_F +\n    ||\\mathbf{Z}_{(3)} - \\mathbf{G}  \\mathbf{X}_{(3)} ||^2_F + \\tau f ({\\mathcal{X}})\n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere the first and second F-norm are data-fidelity terms with respect with models (\\ref{eq:HSR}) and (\\ref{eq:HSR2}), $f ({\\mathcal{X}})$ represents the prior regularization  pertinent to the desired property on the HR-HS ${\\mathcal{X}}$. \nIn the next section, we review currently advanced HS SR methods from two categories: tensor decomposition and prior-based tensor decomposition models.\n\n\n\\subsection{Tensor Factorizations for SR}\n\\label{sect:TDforSR} \n\n\\subsubsection{CP Decomposition Model}\n\n Initially, Kanatsoulis \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c145} employed a coupled CP decomposition framework for HS SR. The CP decomposition of an HR-HS tensor $\\mathcal{X}$ can be expressed as\n \\begin{equation}\n     \\begin{aligned}\n     \\label{eq:sr-cp}\n      {\\mathcal { X }} &=\\sum_{r=1}^{R} \\mathbf{a}_{r} \\circ \\mathbf{b}_{r} \\circ  \\mathbf{c}_{r} \\\\\n      & =\\llbracket  \\mathbf{A},  \\mathbf{B},  \\mathbf{C} \\rrbracket\\\\\n     \\end{aligned}\n \\end{equation}\nwhere the latent LR factors are $\\mathbf{A}= [\\mathbf{a}_1,...,\\mathbf{a}_r ]$, $\\mathbf{B}= [\\mathbf{b}_1,...,\\mathbf{b}_r ]$, and $\\mathbf{C}= [\\mathbf{c}_1,...,\\mathbf{c}_r ]$.\n In \\cite{c145}, the coupled CP decomposition gave the following assumption\n  \\begin{equation}\n     \\begin{aligned}\n     \\label{eq:sr-cp-assum}\n      {\\mathcal { Y }} \n       =\\llbracket  \\mathbf{P}_1 \\mathbf{A},  \\mathbf{P}_2 \\mathbf{B},  \\mathbf{C} \\rrbracket;\n             {\\mathcal { Z }} \n       =\\llbracket   \\mathbf{A},  \\mathbf{B},  \\mathbf{P}_3 \\mathbf{C} \\rrbracket\n     \\end{aligned}\n \\end{equation}\n where $\\mathbf{P}_1 \\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times H} $, $\\mathbf{P}_2 \\in \\mathbb{R}^{v \\times V} $, and $\\mathbf{P}_3 \\in \\mathbb{R}^{b \\times B} $ are three linear degradation matrices. The identifiability of HS SR based on the algebraic properties of CP decomposition is guaranteed under relaxed conditions. However, LR properties of different dimensions are treated equally, which is rarely suitable for real HS SR. Subsequently, Kanatsoulis \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c151} a SR cube algorithm (SCUBA) that combined the advantages of CP decomposition and matrix factorization. Xu \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c152} improved CP decomposition-based method by adding a non-local tensor extraction module. \n \n\n \n \n\n\\subsubsection{Tucker Decomposition Model}\n\n Li \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c146} extended a coupled sparse tensor factorization (CSTF) approach, in which the fusion problem was transformed into the estimation of dictionaries along three modes and corresponding sparse core tensor. When a tensor $\\mathcal{X}$ is decomposed by Tucker decomposition\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    \\label{eq:sr-tucker}\n    \\mathcal{X}=\\mathcal{W} \\times_{1} \\mathcal{A} \\times_{2} \\mathcal{B} \\times_{3} \\mathcal{C}\n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\n\nThe LR-HS and HR-HS degradation models are rewritten as\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    \\label{eq:sr-tucker2}\n    \\mathcal{Y}&=\\mathcal{W} \\times_{1}(\\mathbf{P}_{1} \\mathbf{A}) \\times_{2}(\\mathbf{P}_{2} \\mathbf{B}) \\times_{3} \\mathbf{C} \\\\\n    &=\\mathcal{W} \\times_{1}\\mathbf{A}^* \\times_{2}\\mathbf{B}^*\\times_{3} \\mathbf{C} \\\\\n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    \\mathcal{Z}&=\\mathcal{W} \\times_{1}\\mathbf{A} \\times_{2} \\mathbf{B} \\times_{3} (\\mathbf{P}_{3}\\mathbf{C} )\\\\\n    &=\\mathcal{W} \\times_{1}\\mathbf{A} \\times_{2} \\mathbf{B} \\times_{3} \\mathbf{C}^*\n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mathbf{A}^* = \\mathbf{P}_{1} \\mathbf{A}$, $\\mathbf{B}^* = \\mathbf{P}_{2} \\mathbf{B}$, and $\\mathbf{C}^* = \\mathbf{P}_{3}\\mathbf{C}$ are the downsampled dictionaries along three modes. Taking the sparsity of core tensor $\\mathcal{W}$, Li \\textit{et al}. formulated the fusion problem as follows\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    \\label{eq:sr-CSTF}\n    \\min_{ \\mathbf{A}, \\mathbf{B}, \\mathbf{C},  \\mathcal{W}} &|| \\mathcal{Y}-\\mathcal{W} \\times_{1} \\mathbf{A}^* \\times_{2}\\mathbf{B}^*\\times_{3} \\mathbf{C} ||^2_F + \\\\ \n     &|| \\mathcal{Z} - \\mathcal{W} \\times_{1}\\mathbf{A} \\times_{2} \\mathbf{B} \\times_{3} \\mathbf{C}^* ||^2_F + \\lambda || \\mathcal{W} ||_1\n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\n\nThe $l_1$ norm in Eq. (\\ref{eq:sr-CSTF}) was replaced by a $l_2$ norm in \\cite{c147}. Pr\u00e9vost \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c153} assumed HR-HS images assessed approximately low multilinear rank and developed an SR algorithm based on coupled Tucker tensor approximation (SCOTT) with HOSVD. In the Tucker decompositon framework and the BT of decompositon framework (named CT-STAR and CB-STAR) \\cite{c155}, an additive variability term was admitted for the study of the general identifiability with theoretical guarantees. Zare \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c170} offered a coupled non-negative Tucker decomposition (CNTD) method to constrain the nonnegativity of two Tucker spectral factors.\n\n $\\textbf{Non-local Tucker decomposition:}$ Wan \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c154} grouped 4-D tensor patches using the spectral correlation and similarity under Tucker decomposition. Dian \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c156} offered a non-local sparse tensor factorization (NLSTF) method, which induced core tensors and corresponding dictionaries from HR-MS images, and spectral dictionaries from LR-HS images. A modified NLSF\\_SMBF version was developed for the semi-blind fusion of HS and MS \\cite{c157}. However, the dictionary and the core tensor for each cluster are estimated separately by NLSTF and NLSF\\_SMBF. \n\n $\\textbf{Tucker decomposition + TV:}$ Xu \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c160} presented a Tucker decomposition model with a unidirectional TV. Wang \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c158} advocated a non-local LR tensor decomposition and SU based approach to leverage spectral correlations, non-local similarity, and spatial-spectral smoothness.  \n\n\n\n $\\textbf{Tucker decomposition + Manifold:}$ Zhang \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c159} suggested a spatial\u2013spectral-graph-regularized LR tensor decomposition (SSGLRTD). In SSGLRTD, the spatial and spectral manifolds between HR-MS and LR-HS images are assumed to be similar to those embedded in HR-HS images. Bu \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c161} presented a graph Laplacian-guided coupled tensor decomposition (gLGCTD) model that incorporated global spectral correlation and complementary submanifold structures into a unified framework.\n\n\\subsubsection{BT Decomposition Model}\n \n\nZhang \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c163} discovered the identifiability guarantees in \\cite{c145,c146} at the cost of the lack of physical meaning for the latent factors under CP and Tucker decomposition. Therefore, they employed an alternative coupled nonnegative BT tensor decomposition (NN-CBCTD) approach for HS SR. The NN-CBTD model with rank-($L_r,L_r,1$) for HS SR is given as\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    \\label{eq:NNCBTD}\n \\min _{\\mathrm{A}, \\mathbf{B}, \\mathrm{C}} &\\|\\mathcal{Y}-\\sum_{r=1}^{R}(\\mathbf{P}_{1} \\mathbf{A}_{r}\\left(\\mathbf{P}_{2} \\mathbf{B}_{r}\\right)^{\\top}) \\circ \\mathbf{c}_{r}\\|_{F}^{2}  \\\\\n&+\\|\\mathcal{Z}-\\sum_{r=1}^{R}(\\mathbf{A}_{r} \\mathbf{B}_{r}^{\\top}) \\circ \\mathbf{P}_{3} \\mathbf{c}_{r}\\|_{F}^{2} \\\\\n\\text { s. t. } &\\mathbf{A} \\geq \\mathbf{0}, \\mathbf{B} \\geq \\mathbf{0}, \\mathbf{C} \\geq \\mathbf{0}\n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\n\nCompared with a conference version \\cite{c163}, the journal version \\cite{c138} additionally gave more recoverability analysis and more flexible decomposition framework by using a advocated LL1 model and a block coordinate descent algorithm. Jiang \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c164} introduced a graph manifold named Graph Laplacian into the CBTD framework.\n\n\n\\subsubsection{TT Decomposition Model}\n\nDian \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c148} proposed a low tensor-train rank (LTTR)-based HS SR method. A LTTR prior was designed for learning correlations among the spatial, spectral, and non-local modes of 4-D FBP patches. The HS SR optimization can be obtained as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{eq:LTTR}\n    \\min _{\\mathbf{X}_{(3)}}\\|\\mathbf{Y}_{(3)}-\\mathbf{X}_{(3)} \\mathbf{R}\\|_{F}^{2}+\\|\\mathbf{Z}_{(3)}-\\mathbf{G X}_{(3)}\\|_{F}^{2}+\\tau \\sum_{k=1}^{K}\\|\\mathcal{X}_{k}\\|_{\\mathrm{TT}}\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $K$ denotes the number of clusters, the TT rank of tensor $\\mathcal{Z}_k$ is defined\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{eq:LTTR-tt}\n\\| \\mathcal{Z}_{k} \\|_{\\mathrm{TT}}=\\sum_{t=1}^{3} \\alpha_{t} \\operatorname{LS}(\\mathbf{Z}_{k \\langle t\\rangle})\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation} \nand $\\mathrm{LS}(\\mathbf{A})=\\sum_{i} \\log (\\sigma_{i}(\\mathbf{A})+\\varepsilon)$ with a small positive value $\\varepsilon$.\n\nLi \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c162} presented nonlocal LR tensor approximation and sparse representation (NLRSR) that formed the non-local similarity and sparial-spectral correlation by the TT rank constraint of 4-D non-local patches.\n\n\n\\subsubsection{TR Decomposition Model}\n The TR decomposition of an HR-HS tensor $\\mathcal{X}  \\in \\mathbb{R}^{H \\times V \\times B}$ is represented as\n \\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{eq:SR-TR-x}\n\\mathcal{X}=\\Phi [\\mathcal{G}^{(1)}, \\mathcal{G}^{(2)}, \\mathcal{G}^{(3)}]\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere three TR factors are denoted by $\\mathcal{G}^{(1)} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{r_{1} \\times H \\times r_{2}}$, $\\mathcal{G}_{(2)} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{r_{2} \\times V \\times r_{3}}$, and  $\\mathcal{G}^{(3)} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{r_{3} \\times B \\times r_{1}}$ with TR ranks $r = [r_1, r_2, r_3]$. Based on the TR theory, an LR-HS image is rewritten as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{eq:SR-TR-y}\n\\mathcal{Y}={\\Phi}[\\mathcal{G}^{(1)} \\times{ }_{2} \\mathbf{P}_{1}, \\mathcal{G}^{(2)} \\times_{2} \\mathbf{P}_{2}, \\mathcal{G}^{(3)}]\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nand an HR-MS image can be expressed as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{eq:SR-TR-z}\n\\mathcal{Z}=\\boldsymbol{\\Phi}[\\mathcal{G}^{(1)}, \\mathcal{G}^{(2)}, \\mathcal{G}^{(3)} \\times_{2} \\mathbf{P}_{3}]\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\n\nHe \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c150} presented a coupled TR factorization (CTRF) model and a modified CTRF version (NCTRF) with the nuclear norm regularization of third\/spectral TR factor. The NCTRF model is formulated as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{eq:NCTRF}\n\\begin{aligned}\n&\\min _{\\mathcal{G}^{(1)}, \\mathcal{G}^{(2)}, \\mathcal{G}^{(3)}}\\|\\mathcal{Y}-\\boldsymbol{\\Phi} [\\mathcal{G}^{(1)} \\times_{2} \\mathbf{P}_{1}, \\mathcal{G}^{(2)} \\times_{2} \\mathbf{P}_{2}, \\mathcal{G}^{(3)} ] \\|_{F}^{2} \\\\\n&+\\|\\mathcal{Z}-\\boldsymbol{\\Phi} [\\mathcal{G}^{(1)}, \\mathcal{G}^{(2)}, \\mathcal{G}^{(3)} \\times_{2} \\mathbf{P}_{3} ] \\|_{F}^{2}+\\lambda\\|\\mathbf{G}_{(2)}^{(3)}\\|_{*}\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\n\nEq. (\\ref{eq:NCTRF}) becomes the CTRF model when removing the last term. In \\cite{c150}, the benefit of TR decomposition for SR is elaborated via the theoretical and experimental proof related to a low-dimensional TR subspace.\nThe relationship between the TR spectral factors of LR-HS images and HR-MS images were explored in \\cite{c149} with a high-order representation of the original HS image. The spectral structures of HR-HS images were kept to be consistent with LR-HS images by a graph-Laplacian regularization. \nChen \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c169} presented a factor-smonthed TR decomposition (FSTRD) to capture the spatial-spectral continuity of HR-HS images.\nBased on the basic CTRF model, Xu \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c171} advocated LR TR decomposition based on TNN (LRTRTNN), which exploited the LR properties of non-local similar patches and their TR factors.\n\n\\begin{figure*}[htb]\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\\includegraphics[height=12cm]{SR-result.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[sr]{The fusion results of five different HS-MS fusion methods. (a) REF, (b) Blind-STEREO, (c) CSTF, (d) LTMR, (e) LTTR, and (f) SC-LL1. }\n\t\\label{fig:Visio-sr-re}\n\\end{figure*}\n\\begin{table*}[!htbp]\n\\centering\n\\caption{A quantitative comparison of different methods for HS-MS fusion.}\n\\begin{spacing}{1.0}\n\\scalebox{0.93}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c|ccccc}\n\\hline\nIndex & Blind-STEREO &\tCSTF & LTTR & LTMR & SC-LL1 \\\\\n\\hline\n MPSNR &  53.49 & $\\mathbf{54.28}$   &\t38.11  & 39.58  & 54.13\\\\\n ERGAS &0.3584  & $\\mathbf{0.3317}$  & 1.9761 & 1.5851\t& 0.3076\\\\ \n SAM   & 1.0132\t& 0.8841  & 3.7971 & 3.0495 & $\\mathbf{0.8213}$ \\\\\n RMSE  &0.0027\t& 0.0025  & 0.0165 & 0.0132\t& $\\mathbf{0.0023}$\\\\\nCC     &0.9993\t& 0.9994  & 0.9819 & 0.9870\t& $\\mathbf{0.9995}$\\\\\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n}\n\\label{tab:tab-fusion}\n\\end{spacing}\n\\end{table*}\n\n\\subsubsection{Tensor Rank Minimization for SR}\n\\label{sect:TRMforSR} \n\nBased on t-SVD, Dian \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c165} developed a subspace based low tensor multi-rank (LTMR) that induced an HR-HS image by spectral subspace and corresponding coefficients of grouped FBPs. The specific LTMR model is expressed as\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    \\label{eq:LTMR}\n    \\min_{\\mathcal{X}} ||\\mathbf{Y}_{(3)} -  \\mathbf{X}_{(3)} \\mathbf{R} ||^2_F +\n    ||\\mathbf{Z}_{(3)} - \\mathbf{G}  \\mathbf{X}_{(3)} ||^2_F + \\tau \\sum_{k=1}^{K}\\|\\mathcal{X}_{k}\\|_{\\mathrm{TMR}}\n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere the multi-rank of tensor $\\mathcal{X}$ is defined as $\\|\\mathcal{X}\\|_{\\mathrm{TMR}}=\\frac{1}{B_{3}} \\sum_{b=1}^{B_{3}} \\operatorname{LS}(\\hat{\\mathcal{X}}(:,:,b))$, and $B$ is dimension number of the third mode of $\\mathcal{X}$. To speed up the estimation of LTMR, Long \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c166} introduced the concept of truncation value and obtain a fast LTMR (FLTMR) algorithm. Xu \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c8} presented a non-local patch tensor sparse representation (NPTSR) model that characterized the the spectral and spatial similarities among non-local HS patches by the t-product based tensor sparse representation.\n\nConsidering the HS image degradation by noise, some researchers study the Noise-robust HS SR problem. Li \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c168} proposed a TV regularized tensor low-multilinear-rank (TV-TLMR) model to improve the performances of the mixed-noise-robust HS SR task. Liu \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c167} transformed the HS SR problem as a convex TTN optimization, which permitted a SR process robust to an HS image striping case. \n\n\n\\subsection{Experimental results and analysis}\n\\label{sect:experiment_sr}\n\nIn this section, we select five representative tensor decomposition-based HS-MS fusion approaches: a Tucker decomposition-based method, i.e, CSTF \\cite{c146}; a CP decomposition-based method, i.e., Blind-STEREO \\cite{c145}; a TT decomposition-based method, i.e., LTTR \\cite{c148}; a BT decomposition-based method, i.e., SC-LL1 \\cite{c138} and a tensor singular value decomposition-based method, i.e., LTMR \\cite{c165}.\n\nThe quality assessment is conducted within a simulation study following Wald's protocol \\cite{c220}. One RS-HS data set is selected for the data fusion, i.e., the University of Houston campus used for the 2018 IEEE GRSS Data Fusion Contest. The original data is acquired by ITRES CASI 1500 HS camera, covering a 380-1050 nm spectral range with 48 bands at a 1-m GSD. a sub-image of $400 \\times 400 \\times 46 $ is chosen as the ground true after discarding some noisy bands. The input HR-MS image is generated by the reference image using the spectral response of WorldView 2, and the input LR-HS image is obtained via a Gaussian blurring kernel whose size equals five. Five quantitative metrics are used to assess the performances of the reconstructed HR-HS image, including MPSNR, ERGAS, root-mean-square error (RMSE), spectral angle mapper (SAM), and cross-correlation (CC). SAM measures the angles between the HR-HS image and the reference image, and smaller SAMs correspond to better performance. CC is a score between 0 and 1, where 1 represents the best estimation result. \n\n\n\n\nFig. \\ref{fig:Visio-sr-re} presents the reconstructed false-color images, enlarged local images, SAM error heatmaps, and mean relative absolute error (MRAE) heatmaps of five HS-MS fusion methods. From Fig. \\ref{fig:Visio-sr-re}, all five methods provide good spatial reconstruction results. However, LTMR and LTTR produce severe spectral distortions at the edge of the objects. In Tab. \\ref{tab:tab-fusion}, the conclusion of quantitative evaluation is consistent with that of the visual one. In other words, LTTR and LTMR perform poorly in the spectral reconstruction quality. The other three methods show a competitive ability in HS-MS fusion. Especially, CSTF gains the best MPSNR and ERGAS scores, and SC-LL1 achieves the best SAM, RMSE, and CC values among the competing approaches.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Future challenges}\n\\label{sect:challenges_sr} \n\nThough tensor decomposition-based HS-MS fusion technology has been promoted rapidly in recent years and shows a promising reconstruction ability due to its strong exploitation of spatial-spectral structure information, a number of challenges remain.\n\n\n$ \\textbf{Non-registered HS-MS fusion}$: Tensor decomposition-based HS-MS fusion methods focuses on the pixel-level image fusion, which implies that image registration between two input modalities is a necessary prerequisite and the fusion quality heavily depends on the registration accuracy. However, most of the current methods pay more attention to the follow-up fusion step, ignoring the importance of registration. As a challenging task, image registration handles the inputs of two modalities acquired from different platforms and times. In the future, efforts should be made to accomplish non-registered HS-MS fusion tasks.\n\n\n\n$ \\textbf{Blind HS-MS fusion}$: Existing tensor decomposition-based HS-MS fusion methods contribute to the appropriate design of handcrafted priors to derive desired reconstruction results. However, the degradation models are often given without the estimation of real PSF and spectral response function in most of tensor-based methods. It is intractable to obtain precisely the degradation functions of real cases due to the uncertainty of sensor degradation.\nHow to devise blind HS-MS fusion methods with unknown degradation function is a desirable challenge. \n\n\n$\\textbf{Inter-image variability}$: The different times or platforms of two HS and MS modalities lead to the discrepancy, referring to the inter-image variability. However, tensor decomposition-based approaches usually assume that two modalities are acquired under the same condition, and hence ignore the spectral and spatial variability that usually happens in practice. Taking the inter-image variability phenomenon into consideration when modeling the degradation process is a key challenge for future researches.\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{HS SU}\n\\label{sect:HSI-unmixing}\n\n\\begin{figure*}[htb]\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[height=7cm]{unmixing_fr.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[unmixing]{Illustration of HS unmixing based on linear mixing model and nonlinear mixing model. (a) Linear mixing, (b) intimate mixture, (c) multilayered mixture. }\n\t\\label{fig:Visio-unmixing-fr}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nOwing to its acquired continuous abundance maps, SU has been widely solved the inversion problems of typical ground object parameters, such as vegetation index, surface temperature and water turbidity in several decades \\cite{sonnentag2007mapping,alcantara2009improving, deng2013estimating}, and has been successfully applied in some RS applications, such as forest monitoring and land cover change detection \\cite{hlavka1995unmixing}. In addition, due to the mixing phenomenon caused by heterogeneity and stratified distribution of ground objects, SU can effectively realize crop identification and monitoring \\cite{lobell2004cropland, iordache2014dynamic, chi2014spectral }.\n\nWhen the mixing scale is macroscopic and each incident light reaching sensors has interacted with just one material, the measured spectrum is usually regarded as a linear mixing, as shown in Fig. \\ref{fig:Visio-unmixing-fr} (a). However, due to the existence of nonlinear interactions in real scenarios, several physics-based approximations of nonlinear linear mixing model (NLMM) have been proposed, mainly covering two types of mixing assumptions: intimate mixture (Fig. \\ref{fig:Visio-unmixing-fr} (b)) and multilayered mixture (Fig. \\ref{fig:Visio-unmixing-fr} (c)).\n The former describes the interactions suffered by the surface composed of particles at a microscopic scale. The intimate mixture usually occurs in scenes containing sand or mineral mixtures and requires a certain kind of prior knowledge of the geometric positioning of the sensor to establish the mixture model. The latter characterizes the light reflectance of various surface materials at a macroscopic scale. The multilayered mixture usually occurs in scenes composed of materials with some height differences, such as forest, grassland, or rocks, containing many nonlinear interactions between the ground and the canopy. In general, the multilayered mixture consisting of more than two orders is ignored owing to its negligible interactions. For the second-order multilayered mixture model, the family of bilinear mixing models is usually adopted to solve the NLMM.\nDue to the low spatial resolution of sensors, many pixels mixed by different pure materials exist in HS imagery, which inevitably conceals useful information and hinders the high-level image processing. SU aims to separate the observed spectrum into a suite of basic components, also called endmembers, and their corresponding fractional abundances. \n\n\\subsection{Linear Mixing Model}\nWith the assumption of the single interaction between the incident light and the material, representative SU methods are based on the following linear mixing model (LMM) \\cite{c189,RenL2021A}:\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    \\label{eq:LMM}\n    \\mathbf{X} = \\mathbf{E} \\mathbf{A} + \\mathbf{N}\n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mathbf{X} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{z \\times hv}$, $\\mathbf{E} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{z \\times r}$, $\\mathbf{A} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{r \\times hv}$, and $\\mathbf{N} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{z \\times hv}$ denotes the observed unfolding HS matrix, the endmember matrix, abundance matrix, and additional noise, respectively. The LMM-based methods have drawn much attention due to their model simplicity and desirable performance \\cite{c205,c206,c207}. However, current LMM-based matrix factorization methods usually convert the 3-D HS cube into a 2-D matrix, leading to the loss of spatial information in the relative positions of pixels. Tensor factorization-based approaches have been dedicated to SU to overcome the limitation of LMM.\n\n\\subsubsection{CP or Tucker Decomposition Model}\n\nZhang \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c190,c191} first introduced nonnegative tensor factorization (NTF) into SU via CP decomposition. However, this NTF-SU method hardly considers the relationship between LMM and NTF, giving rise to the lack of physical interpretation. \nImbiriba \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c212} considered the underlying variability of spectral signatures and developed a flexible approach, named unmixing with LR tensor regularization algorithm accounting for EM variability (ULTRA-V). The ranks of the abundance tensor and the endmember tensor were estimated with only two easily adjusted parameters.\nSun \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c208} first introduced Tucker decomposition for blinding unmixing and increased the sparse characteristic of abundance tensor.\n\n\\subsubsection{BT Decomposition Model}\n\nIn terms of tensor notation, an HS data tensor can be represented by sum of the outer products of an endmember (vector) and its abundance fraction (matrix). This enables a matrix-vector third-order tensor factorization that consists of $R$ component tensors:\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    \\label{eq:SU-BTD}\n    \\mathcal{X} & =\\sum_{r=1}^{R} \\mathbf{A}_{r} \\cdot \\mathbf{B}_{r}^{T} \\circ \\mathbf{c}_{r} +\\mathcal{N}\\\\\n    &=\\sum_{r=1}^{R} \\mathbf{E}_{r} \\circ \\mathbf{c}_{r} +\\mathcal{N}\n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mathbf{E}_{r}$ calculated by the product of $\\mathbf{A}_{r}$ and $\\mathbf{B}_{r}^{T}$ denotes the abundance matrix, $\\mathbf{c}_{r}$ is the endmember vector, and $\\mathcal{N}$ represented the additional noise. Apparently, this matrix-vector tensor decomposition has the same form as BT decomposition, set up a straightforward link with the previously mentioned LMM model. Qian \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c192} proposed a matrix-vector NTF unmixing method, called MVNTF, by combining the characteristics of CPD and Tucker decomposition to extract the complete spectral-spatial structure of HS images. The MVNTF method for SU is formulated as \n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    \\label{eq:MVNTF}\n    &\\min_{\\mathbf{E},\\mathbf{c}} || \\mathcal{X}- \\sum_{r=1}^{R} \\mathbf{E}_{r} \\circ \\mathbf{c}_{r} ||^2_F \\\\\n    & {\\rm s.t.} \\mathbf{A}_{r} , \\mathbf{B}_{r}^{T}, \\mathbf{c}_{r} \\geq 0\n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\n\nMVNTF derived BT decomposition essentially and established a physical connection with LMM. Compared with NMF-based unmixing approaches, MVNTF can achieve better unmixing performance in most cases. Nevertheless, the abundance results extracted by MVNTF may be over-smoothing and lose detailed information due to the strict LR constraint of NTF. Various spatial and spectral structures, such as spatial-spectral smoothness and non-local similarity, are proven to tackle the problem of pure MVNTF. \n\nXiong \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c193} presented a TV regularized NTF (NTF-TV) method to make locally smooth regions share similar abundances between neighboring pixels and suppress the effect of noises. Zheng \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c194} offered a sparse and LR tensor factorization (SPLRTF) method to flexibly achieve the LR and sparsity characteristics of the abundance tensor. Feng \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c195} installed three additional constraints, namely sparseness, volume, and nonlinearity, into the MVNTF framework to improve the accuracies in impervious surface area fraction\/classification map. Li \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c196} integrated NMF into MVNTF by making full use of their individual merits to characterize the intrinsic structure information. Besides, a sparsity-enhanced convolutional operation (SeCoDe) method \\cite{c198} incorporated a 3-D convolutional operation into MVNTF for the blind SU task.\n\n\n\\begin{figure*}[htb]\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\\includegraphics[height=12cm]{unmixing_exp.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[unmixing1]{Abundance maps of different methods on the Urban data set. }\n\t\\label{fig:Visio-unmixing1}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\n\\begin{figure*}[htb]\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\\includegraphics[height=8cm]{Endmember_result.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[unmixing2]{Endmember results of different methods on the Urban data set. (a) Asphalt, (b) Grass, (c) Tree, and (d) Roof. }\n\t\\label{fig:Visio-unmixing2}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\\begin{table*}[!htbp]\n\\centering\n\\caption{A quantitative comparison of different methods for HS SU.}\n\\begin{spacing}{1.0}\n\\scalebox{0.93}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c|c|cccc}\n\\hline\n\\multicolumn{2}{c|}{Method}&\tMVNTF & MVNTF-TV & SeCoDe & LR-NTF \\\\\n\\hline\n\\multirow{4}{*}{SAD} & Asphalt & 0.3738\t& 0.2606 & 0.2190 & $\\mathbf{0.1127}$ \\\\\n&Grass & 0.2572 &0.1722\t& $\\mathbf{0.0450}$ & 0.1349 \\\\\n&Tree\t&0.1474\t&0.1450 & 0.0854 &$\\mathbf{0.0632}$  \\\\\n&Roof\t&0.2825&\t0.2273&\t0.3861&\t$\\mathbf{0.0395}$\\\\\n\\cline{1-2}\n\\multicolumn{2}{c|}{MSAD} &\t0.2652&\t0.2013&\t0.1839&\n$\\mathbf{0.0876}$ \\\\\n\\multicolumn{2}{c|}{RMSE}\t&0.2638&\t0.2588\t&0.1453&$\\mathbf{\t0.1451}$ \\\\\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n}\n\\label{tab:tab-unmixing}\n\\end{spacing}\n\\end{table*}\n\n\\subsubsection{Mode-$3$ Tensor Representation Model}\n\nUnder the definition of the tensor mode-$n$ multiplication, LMM (\\ref{eq:LMM}) is equivalent to\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    \\label{eq:mul-LMM}\n    \\mathcal{X} = \\mathcal{A} \\times_3 \\mathbf{E} + \\mathcal{N} \n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mathcal{A} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times R}$ denotes the abundance tensor containing $R$ endmembers. In \\cite{c197}, the non-local LR tensor and 3-DTV regularization of the abundance tensor were introduced further extract the spatial contextual information of HS data. With abundance nonnegative constraint (ANC) and abundance sum-to-one constraint (ASC) \\cite{c211}, the objective function of NLTR for SU is expressed as\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    \\label{eq:NLTR-SU}\n&\\min _{\\mathcal{A}} \\frac{1}{2}\\left\\|\\mathcal{X}-\\mathcal{A} \\times_{3} \\mathrm{E}\\right\\|_{F}^{2}+\\lambda_{\\mathrm{TV}}\\|\\mathcal{A}\\|_{\\mathrm{2DTV}}+\\lambda_{\\mathrm{NL}} \\sum_{k=1}^{K}\\left\\|\\mathcal{A}^{k}\\right\\|_{\\mathrm{NL}}\\\\\n&\\text { s.t. } \\mathcal{A} \\geq \\mathbf{0}, \\quad \\mathcal{A} \\times_{1} \\mathbf{1}_{P}=\\mathbf{1}_{h \\times v} \n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mathbf{1}_{P}$ is a $P$-dimensional vector of all 1, $\\mathbf{1}_{h \\times v} $ denotes a matrix of element 1, and the non-local LR regularization is defined as\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n\\|\\mathcal{A}^{k}\\|_{\\mathrm{NL}}=\\sum_{i=1}^{p} \\operatorname{LS}(\\mathbf{A}^{(i)})\n\\end{aligned}                                                                               \n\\end{equation}    \n\nANC, ASC, and the sparseness of abundance are often introduced into sparse unmixing models \\cite{Iordache2011Sparse,Iordache2014Collaborative}, which produces the endmembers and corresponding abundance coefficients by a known spectral library instead of extracting endmembers from HS data \\cite{RenL2022A,RenL2020A}. Sun \\textit{et al}. \\cite{c210} developed a weighted non-local LR tensor decomposition method for HS sparse unmixing (WNLTDSU) by adding collaborative sparsity and 2DTV of the endmember tensor into a weighted non-local LR tensor framework. The LR constraint and joint sparsity in the non-local abundance tensor were imposed in a non-local tensor-based sparse unmixing (NL-TSUn) algorithm \\cite{c209}.\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{NonLinear Mixing Model}\nTo this end, numerous NLMMs have been studied in SU by modeling different order scatterings effects and producing more accurate unmixing results. To this end, numerous NLMMs have been proposed in SU by modeling different order scatterings effects and producing accurate unmixing results \\cite{c199,c200,c201}. Traditional NLMMs, such as Bilinear mixture models (BMMs), usually transform an HS cube into a 2-D matrix and have the same fault as LMMs \\cite{c202,c203,yao2019nonconvex}. \n\n\nTo effectively address the nonlinear unmixing problem, Gao et al. \\cite{c204} expressed an HS cube $\\mathcal{X} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times z}$ based on tensor notation in the following format\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    \\label{eq:NLMM1}\n    \\mathcal{X}=\\mathcal{A} \\times_{3} \\mathbf{C}+\\mathcal{B} \\times_{3} \\mathbf{E}+\\mathcal{N}\n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mathbf{C} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{z \\times R}$, $\\mathcal{B} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times R(R-1)\/2}$, and $\\mathbf{E} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{z \\times R(R-1)\/2}$ represent the mixing matrix, the nonlinear interaction abundance tensor, and the bilinear interaction endmember matrix respectively. A nonlinear unmixing method \\cite{c204} was first based on NTF by taking advantage of the LR property of the abundance maps and nonlinear interaction maps, which validated the potential of tensor decomposition in nonlinear unmixing. \n\n\n\\subsection{Experimental results and analysis}\n\\label{sect:experiment_SU}\n\nThe Urban HS data set obtained by the HYDICE sensor over the urban area, Texas, USA, are selected for evaluating the performance of different unmixing methods qualitatively, including MVNTF \\cite{c192}, MVNTF-TV \\cite{c193}, SeCoDe \\cite{c198}, and LR-NTF \\cite{c204}.  For a fair comparison, HSsignal subspace identification by minimum error (HySime) \\cite{c221} and vertex component analysis (VCA) \\cite{c222} algorithms are adopted to determine the number of endmembers and the endmember initialization. The urban data contains $307 \\times 307$ pixels and 210 bands ranging from 0.4 to 2.5 $\\mu$m. Due to the water vapor and atmospheric effects, 162 bands are remained after removing the affected channels. Four main materials in this scene are investigated, that is, $\\#1$ Asphalt, $\\#2$ Grass, $\\#3$ Tree, and $\\#4$ Roof. Two quantitative metrics are utilized to evaluate the extracted abundance and endmember results, namely RMSE and SAD. \n\nFor illustrative purposes, Fig. \\ref{fig:Visio-unmixing1} and Fig. \\ref{fig:Visio-unmixing2} display the extracted abundances and the corresponding endmember results of different tensor decomposition-based SU approaches. The quantitative results on the urban data are reported in Tab. \\ref{tab:tab-unmixing}, where the best results are marked in bold. MVNTF yields poor unmixing performance for both endmember extraction and abundance estimation compared with other tensor-based unmixing methods since it only considers the tensor structure to represent the spectral-spatial information of HS images and ignores other useful prior regularizations. Compared with MVNTF, MVNTF-TV integrates the advantage of TV and tensor decomposition, bringing certain performance improvements in terms of SAD, MSAD, and RMSE. SeCoDe addresses the problem of spectral variabilities in a convolutional decomposition fashion effectively, thereby yielding further performance improvement of endmember and abundance results. Different from SeCoDe, LR-NTF considers the nonlinear unmixing model of tensor decomposition and the low-rankness regularization of abundances. The unmixing results of LR-NTF are superior to those of other competitive approaches on the urban data, demonstrating its superiority and effectiveness.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Future challenges}\n\\label{sect:challenges_SU} \n\nSeveral advanced tensor decomposition-based methods have recently achieved effectiveness in HS SU. Nonetheless, there is still a long way to go towards the definition of statistical models and the design of algorithms. In the following, we briefly summarize some aspects that deserve further consideration:\n\nThe most commonly utilized evaluation indices for HS SU include RMSE (that measures the error between the estimated abundance map and the reference abundance map) and SAD (which assesses the similarity of the extracted endmember signatures and the true endmember signatures). However, RMSE and SAD just contribute to a quantitative comparison of SU results when the ground truth for abundances and endmembers exists. If there are no references in the real scenario, meaningful and suitable evaluation metrics should be developed in future work.\n\nTraditional NLMMs are readily interpreted as matrix factorization problems. The tensor decomposition-based NLMM has been springing up in the recent few years.  We should consider complex interactions like the intimate and multilayered mixture for establishing general and robust tensor models.\n\n\nAnother important challenge is the high time consumption required by high-performance SU architectures, which hinders their applicability in real scenarios. Especially, as the number of end members and the size of the image increase, the current NTF-based unmixing methods are difficult to deal with this situation owing to a large amount of computational consumption. Therefore, the exploration of more computationally efficient tensor-based approaches will be an urgent research direction in the future.\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Conclusion}\n\\label{sect:conclusion}\n\nHS technique accomplishes the acquisition, utilization, and analysis of nearly continuous spectral bands and permeates through a broad range of practical applications, having attached incremental attention from researchers worldwide. In HS data processing, large-scale and high-order properties are often involved in collected data. The ever-growing volume of 3-D HS data puts higher demands on the processing algorithms to replace the 2-D matrix-based methods. Tensor decomposition plays a crucial role in both problem modelings and methodological approaches, making it realizable to leverage the spectral information of each complete 1-D spectral signature and the spatial structure of each complete 2-D spatial image. In this article, we presented a comprehensive and technical review of five representative HS topics, including HS restoration, CS, AD, HS-MS fusion, and SU. Among these tasks, we reviewed current tensor decomposition-based methods with main formulations, experimental illustrations, and remaining challenges. The most important and compatible challenges related to consolidating tensor decomposition techniques for HS data processing should be emphasized and summarized in five aspects: model applicability, parameter adjustment, computational efficiency, methodological feasibility, and multi-mission applications.\n\n$\\textbf{Model applicability}$: Tensor decomposition theory and practice offer us versatile and potent weapons to solve various HS image processing problems. A high-dimensional tensor is often decomposed by different categories of tensor decomposition into several decomposition factors\/cores. One sign reveals that the mathematical meaning of different factors\/cores should be made connection with the physical properties of HS structure. Another sign is that each HS task contains multiple modeling problems, such as various types of HS noise (i.e., Gaussian noise, stripes, or mixed noise) caused by different kinds of sensors or external conditions. The tensor decomposition-based models should be capable of characterizing the specific HS properties and being used in different scenarios.\n\n\n$\\textbf{Parameter adjustment}$: In the algorithmic solution, parameter adjustment is an indispensable portion to achieve the significant performances of HS data processing. Parameters can be gradually tuned via extensive simulated experiments, while sometimes, they should be reset for various data sets due to the uncertainty of data size. In practice, users are most likely to be non-professional with little knowledge of a special algorithm, leading\nto improper parameter setting and unsatisfactory processing results. Therefore, in the future, efforts should be made to design a fast proper-parameter search scheme or reduce the number of parameters to increase algorithmic practicability.\n\n\n\n$\\textbf{Computational consumption}$: Tensor decomposition-based methods have achieved satisfactory results in HS data processing, yet they sometimes cause high computational consumption. For instance, a non-local LR tensor denoising model, TDL spends more than 10 min under a data set of $200 \\times 200 \\times 80$. As the image size increases, the increasing number of non-local FBPs will cause a larger amount of time consumption. Thus, there still exists a vast room for promotion and innovation of improving the optimization efficiency of HS data processing.\n\n\n\n\n$\\textbf{Methodological feasibility}$: Unlike deep learning-based methods, designing handcrafted priors is the key to tensor decomposition-based methods. Existing methods exploit the structure information of the underlying target image by implementing various handcrafted priors, such as LR, TV, and non-local similarity. However, different priors assumptions apply to specific scenarios, making it challenging to choose suitable priors according to the characteristics of HS images to be processed. Deep learning-based methods automatically learn the prior information implicitly from data sets themselves without the trouble of manually designing a manual regularizer. As an advisable approach, deep learning can be incorporated into tensor-based methods to mine essential multi-features and enhance the methodological feasibility.\n\n\n\n$\\textbf{Multi-mission applications}$: The extremely broad field of HS imagery makes it impossible to provide an exhaustive survey on all of the promising HS RS applications. It is certainly of significant interest to develop tensor decomposition-based models for other noteworthy processing and analysis chains in future work, including classification, change detection, large-scale land cover mapping, and image quality assessment. Some HS tasks serve as the pre-processing step for high-level vision. For example, the accuracy of HS classification can be improved after an HS denoising step. How to apply tensor decomposition for high-level vision and even multi-mission frameworks may be a key challenge.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\bibliographystyle{IEEEtran}\n\n\\section{Motivation and significance}\n\\label{sect:ms}\n\nOver the past decade, massive efforts have been made to process and analyze HS RS data after the data acquisition. Initial HS data processing considers either the gray-level image for each band or the spectral signature of each pixel \\cite{c2}. From one side, each HS spectral band is regarded as a gray-level image, and the traditional 2-D image processing algorithms are directly introduced band by band \\cite{c175}. From another side, the spectral signatures that have similar visible properties (e.g., color, texture) can be used to identify the materials \\cite{c174}. Furthermore, extensive low-rank (LR) matrix-based methods are proposed to explore the high correlation of spectral channels with the assumption that the unfolding HS matrix has a low rank \\cite{c20}. However, these traditional LR models reshape each spectral band as a vector, leading to the destruction of the inherent spatial-spectral completeness of HS images. Correct interpretations of HS images and the appropriate choice of the intelligent models should be determined to reduce the gap between HS tasks and the advanced data processing technique. Both 2-D spatial information and 1-D spectral information are considered when an HS image is modeled as a three-order tensor.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htp!]\n\t\\begin{center}\n    \\includegraphics[width = 0.45\\textwidth]{papernumber.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[houston]{The number of journal and conference papers that published in IEEE Xplore on the subject of \"hyperspectral\" and \"tensor decomposition\" within different time periods. }\n\t\\label{fig:Visio-papernum}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure*}[htp!]\n\t\\begin{center}\n    \\includegraphics[width = 0.85\\textwidth]{total-fr.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[houston]{A taxonomy of main tensor decomposition-based methods for hyperspectral data processing. Brackets enclose the number of papers for each topics that appeared in IEEE Xplore. }\n\t\\label{fig:Visio-total}\n\\end{figure*}\nTensor decomposition, which originates from Hitchcock's works in 1927 \\cite{c179}, touches upon numerous disciplines, but it has recently become prosperous in the fields of signal processing and machine learning over the last ten years \\cite{c181}. The early overviews focus on two common decomposition ways: Tucker decomposition and CANDECOMP\/PARAFAC (CP) decomposition. In 2008, these two decompositions were first introduced into HS restoration tasks to remove the Gaussian noise \\cite{c25}. The tensor decomposition-based mathematical models avoid converting the original dimensions, and also to some degree, enhance the interpretability and completeness for problem modeling. Different types of prior knowledge (e.g, non-local Similarity in the spatial domain, spatial and spectral smoothness) in HS RS are considered and incorporated into the tensor decomposition frameworks. However, on the one hand, additional tensor decomposition methods have been proposed recently, including block term (BT) decomposition, tensor-singular value decomposition (T-SVD) \\cite{c184}, tensor train (TT) decomposition \\cite{c185}, and tensor ring (TR) decomposition \\cite{c126}. On the other hand, as a versatile tool, tensor decomposition related to HS data processing has not been reviewed until. \n\nFig. \\ref{fig:Visio-papernum} displays the dynamics of tensor decompositions used for HS data processing in the HS community. The listed numbers contain both scientific journal and conference papers published in IEEE Xplore, which regards \"hyperspectral\" and \"tensor decomposition\" as the main keywords in abstracts. To highlight the increasing trend of number of publications, time period has been divided into four equal time slots (i.e., 2007-2010, 2011-2014, 2015-2018, 2019-2022(05 January)).\nIn this article, we mainly present a systematic overview from the perspective of the state-of-the-art tensor decomposition techniques for HS data processing in terms of the five burgeoning topics previously mentioned. \n\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure*}[htb]\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width = 0.8\\textwidth]{total-fr-fig.pdf}\n\t\\end{center}\n\t\\caption[restoration]{A schematic diagram of HS data processing, including restoration, compressive sensing, anomaly detection, hyperspectral-multispectral (HS-MS) fusion, and spectral unmixing. }\n\t\\label{fig:Visio-total2}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\\noindent\n\\hangafter=1\n\\setlength{\\hangindent}{2em}\n(1) To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time to provide a comprehensive survey of the state-of-the-art tensor decomposition techniques for processing and analyzing HS RS images. More than 100 publications in this field are reviewed and discussed, most of which were published during the last five years.\n\n\\noindent\n\\hangafter=1\n\\setlength{\\hangindent}{2em}\n(2) For each HS topic, major representative works are scrupulously presented in terms of the specific categories of tensor decomposition. We introduce and discuss the pure tensor decomposition-based methods and their variants with other HS priors in sequence. The experimental examples are performed for validating and evaluating theoretical methods, followed by a discussion of remaining challenges and further research directions.\n\n\n\\noindent\n\\hangafter=1\n\\setlength{\\hangindent}{2em}\n(3) This article makes a connection between tensor decomposition modeling and HS prior information. We summarizes with the publication years, brief description, and prior information. Either beginners or experiencers are expected to obtain certain harvest pertinent to the tensor decomposition-based frameworks for HS RS. The available codes are also displayed for the sake of repeatability and further studies in the final submission.\n\n \n\n\n \n\n\\section{Outline}\n\\label{sect:outline}\n\nThis paper provides a brief introduction for various tensor decomposition models. Fig. \\ref{fig:Visio-total} illustrates a taxonomy of main tensor decomposition-based methods for HS data processing. Very recently, some excellent performances of tensor decompositions for HS data processing have garnered growing attention from researchers, leading to the novel prosperity of tensor modelings and related solving algorithms. These issues and solutions pose fresh challenges to research on optimizations, which inspires the further development of both tensor decompositions and HS data processing. Fig. \\ref{fig:Visio-total2} presents the illustration for each topic.   \n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Restoration}\n\\label{sect:restoration}\n\n\n\nIn the actual process of HS data acquisition and transformation, external environmental change and internal equipment conditions inevitably lead to noises, blurs, and missing data (including clouds and stripes), which degrade the visual quality of HS images and the efficiency of the subsequent HS data analysis. Therefore, HS image restoration appears as a crucial pre-processing step for further applications. Mathematically, an observed degraded HS image can be formulated as follows\n \\begin{equation}\n\t\\begin{split}\n\t\t\\label{eq:degrade}\n\\mathcal{T}=M(\\mathcal{X}) + \\mathcal{S} + \\mathcal{N}\n\t\\end{split}\n\\end{equation} \nwhere $\\mathcal{T} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times z}$, $\\mathcal{X} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times z}$, $\\mathcal{S} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times z}$ and $\\mathcal{N} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times z}$ represents an observed HS image, the restored HS image, the sparse error and additive noise, respectively, and $M(\\cdot)$ denotes different linear degradation operators for different HS restoration problems: (a) when $M(\\cdot)$ is a blur kernal also called as point spread function (PSF), Eq. (\\ref{eq:degrade}) becomes HS deblurring problem; \n(b) when $M(\\cdot)$ is a binary operation, i.e., 1 for original pixels, and 0 for missing data, Eq. (\\ref{eq:degrade}) turns into the HS inpainting problem;\n(c) when $M(\\mathcal{X})$ keeps $\\mathcal{X}$ constant, i.e., $M(\\mathcal{X}) = \\mathcal{X}$, Eq. (\\ref{eq:degrade}) is reformulated as the HS destriping problem ($\\mathcal{T}=\\mathcal{X} + \\mathcal{S}$) or HS denoising problem (only consider Gaussian noise $\\mathcal{T}=\\mathcal{X} + \\mathcal{N}$ or consider mixed noise $\\mathcal{T}=\\mathcal{X} + \\mathcal{S} + \\mathcal{N}$). The HS restoration task is to estimate recovered HS images $\\mathcal{X}$ from the given HS images $\\mathcal{T}$. This ill-posed problem suggests that extra constraints on $\\mathcal{X}$ need to be enforced for the optimal solution of $\\mathcal{X}$. The HS restoration problem can be summarized as \n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    \\label{eq:summ}\n     \\underset{\\mathcal{X}}{ \\min } \\frac{1}{2} ||  \\mathcal{T} - M(\\mathcal{X}) - \\mathcal{S}  ||^2_F + \\tau f(\\mathcal{X}) + \\lambda g(\\mathcal{S})\n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $f(\\mathcal{X})$ and $g(\\mathcal{S})$ stand for the regularizations to explore the desired properties on the recovered $\\mathcal{X}$ and sparse part $\\mathcal{S}$, respectively. $\\tau$ and $\\lambda$ are regularization parameters.\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Compressive sensing}\n\\label{sect:HSI-CS}\n\n\n\nCompressive sensing (CS) of HS images aims to preciously reconstruct an HS data $\\mathcal{X} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times z}$ from a few compressive measurements $\\textbf{y} \\in \\mathbb{R}^m$ by effective HS CS algorithms. The compressive measurements $\\textbf{y}$ can be formulated by:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:y1}\n\\textbf{y} = \\Psi (\\mathcal{X})\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\Psi$ is a measurement operator instantiated as $\\Psi= \\textbf{D} \\cdot \\textbf{H} \\cdot \\textbf{P}$, where $\\textbf{D}$ is a random downsampling operator, $\\textbf{H}$ is a random permutation matrix, $\\textbf{P}$ is a WalshHadamard transform and the mapping of $\\Psi$ is $ \\mathbb{R}^{h \\times v \\times z} \\rightarrow \\mathbb{R}^m$ (the sampling ratio $m=hvz$). The strict reconstruction of $\\mathcal{X}$ from $\\mathbf{y}$ will be guaranteed by the CS theory when $\\Psi$ satisfies the restricted isometry property (RIP). The HS CS task can be generalized the following optimization problem:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:hs_cs}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\underset{\\mathcal{X}}{\\textrm{min}}\\;&\\|\\textbf{y}-\\Psi (\\mathcal{X})\\|_F^2  + \\lambda F(\\mathcal{X}),\n\\end{aligned}\t\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $F(\\mathcal{X})$ denotes the additional regularization term to use different types of HS prior information such as spectral correlation, spatial and spectral smoothness, and non-local Similarity. \n\n\n\n\\subsection{Anomaly detection}\n\\label{sect:HSI-AD}\n\n\n HS aomaly detection (AD) aims to discover and separate the potential man-made objects from the observed image scene, which is typically constructive for defense and surveillance developments. The key to coping with this problem is to exploit the discrepancy between anomalies and their background. Anomalies commonly occur with low probabilities and their spectral signatures are quite different from neighbors.\n\nHS images containing two spatial dimensions and one spectral dimension are intrinsically considered as a three-order tensor. The tensor-based approaches have been gradually attaching attention for HS AD in recent years. Tucker Decomposition is the first and essential type of tensor-decomposition methods used for HS AD. Therefore, in the following sections, we mainly focus on the Tucker decomposition-based methods and a few other types of tensor-based methods. An observed HS image $\\mathcal{T}$ can be decomposed into two parts by Tucker decomposition, i.e.,\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n     \\mathcal{T} = \\mathcal{X} + \\mathcal{S}\n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mathcal{X}$ is LR background tensor and $\\mathcal{S}$ is the sparse tensor consisting of anomalies.\n\n\n\n\n \\subsection{HS-MS fusion}\n\\label{sect:HSI-SR}\n\nHS and MS fusion aims to improve the spatial resolution of HS images with the assistance of MS images and generate final HS images with high-spatial resolution and original spectral resolution. \nSuppose that a desired high-spatial-spectral resolution HS (HR-HS) image, a low-resolution HS (LR-HS) image, and a high-resolution MS (HR-MS) image are denoted by $\\mathcal{X} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{ H \\times V \\times B}$, $\\mathcal{Y} \\in  \\mathbb{R}^{ h \\times v \\times B}$ and $\\mathcal{Z} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{ H \\times V \\times b}$ ($H \\gg h$, $V \\gg v$, $B \\gg b$), respectively. A LR-HS image is seen as a spatially downsampled and blurring version of $\\mathcal{X}$, and a HR-MS image is the spectrally downsampled version of $\\mathcal{X}$. The two degradation models are expressed as follow\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    \\label{eq:HSR}\n    \\mathbf{Y}_{(3)} =  \\mathbf{X}_{(3)} \\mathbf{R} + \\mathbf{N}_h\n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    \\label{eq:HSR2}\n    \\mathbf{Z}_{(3)} = \\mathbf{G}  \\mathbf{X}_{(3)} + \\mathbf{N}_m\n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mathbf{R} = \\mathbf{B} \\mathbf{K}$, $\\mathbf{B}$ denotes a convolution blurring operation. $\\mathbf{K}$ is a spatial downsampling matrix, and $\\mathbf{G}$ represents a spectral-response function if a MS image sensor, which can be regarded as a spectral downsampling matrix. $\\mathbf{N}_h$ and $\\mathbf{N}_m$ stand for noise.\nAccording to references \\cite{c142}, $\\mathbf{R}$ and $\\mathbf{G}$ are assumed to be given in advance of solving the HS SR problem \n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    \\label{eq:HSR-pro}\n    \\min_{\\mathcal{X}} ||\\mathbf{Y}_{(3)} -  \\mathbf{X}_{(3)} \\mathbf{R} ||^2_F +\n    ||\\mathbf{Z}_{(3)} - \\mathbf{G}  \\mathbf{X}_{(3)} ||^2_F + \\tau f ({\\mathcal{X}})\n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\n\\subsection{Spectral unmixing}\n\\label{sect:HSI-unmixing}\n\n\nDue to the low spatial resolution of sensors, many pixels mixed by different pure materials exist in HS imagery, which inevitably conceals useful information and hinders the further image processing. Spectral unmixing aims to separate the observed spectrum into a suite of basic components, also called endmembers, and their corresponding fractional abundances. \n\nAn HSI data tensor can be represented by sum of the outer products of an endmember (vector) and its abundance fraction (matrix). This enables a matrix-vector third-order tensor factorization that consists of $R$ component tensors:\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    \\label{eq:SU-BTD}\n    \\mathcal{X} & =\\sum_{r=1}^{R} \\mathbf{A}_{r} \\cdot \\mathbf{B}_{r}^{T} \\circ \\mathbf{c}_{r} +\\mathcal{N}\\\\\n    &=\\sum_{r=1}^{R} \\mathbf{E}_{r} \\circ \\mathbf{c}_{r} +\\mathcal{N}\n    \\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mathbf{E}_{r}$ calculated by the product of $\\mathbf{A}_{r}$ and $\\mathbf{B}_{r}^{T}$ denotes the abundance matrix, $\\mathbf{c}_{r}$ is the endmember vector, and $\\mathcal{N}$ represented the additional noise. The tensor factorization of endmember and its abundance can replaced by other decompositions.\n\nIn the final submission, we will offer specific tensor decomposition modelings, show the experimental performances and pose fresh challenges for each topic.\n\n\n\n\n\n\\bibliographystyle{IEEEtran}\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{\\label{sec:Introduction}Introduction}\n\n\n\nQuantum information processing arbitrates controlled interaction of the Hilbert space of a quantum system, for the purpose of generating a target probability distribution expressed in a computational basis defined by an experimental measurement scheme. The Hilbert space of a quantum system generally grows exponentially with the number of degrees of freedom, but for the purpose of quantum information processing it needs to be opportunistically partitioned in order to execute algorithms. The most common encoding exploits a collection of qubits, two-level systems, and it is known that the dimensionality of the Hilbert space is maximized when the states are arranged as a collection of qutrits, three-level systems, for a fixed number of allowed quantum states \n \\cite{greentree2004maximizing}. \nWithout loss of generality, multiple qudits can be merged into the definition of a new qudit, and a qudit can be mapped via binary encodings into a minimum of $\\log_2(d)$ qubits and viceversa. For instance, the binary expansion\n\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\bigotimes_{k=0}^{N-1}|s_k\\rangle& \n\\xrightleftharpoons[qubits]{qudits}\n&\\left|\\sum_{k=0}^{N-1} s_k d^k\\right\\rangle\n\\label{eq:quditmapping}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwould map the computational basis state of a ququart (i.e. a four-level qudit) onto two qubits $|0\\rangle\\rightarrow|00\\rangle$, $|1\\rangle\\rightarrow|01\\rangle$, $|2\\rangle\\rightarrow|10\\rangle$, $|3\\rangle\\rightarrow|11\\rangle$.\n\nIt is known since the beginning of quantum computing architecture research that universal quantum computing could be achieved by operating constructively on single-qubit and two-qubit at a time~\\cite{divincenzo1995two} via the implementation of quantum gates temporally arranged into quantum circuits. A similar result is known for qudits of arbitrary dimension~\\cite{bullock2005asymptotically,wang2020qudits}, which can provide hardware-efficient solutions \\cite{liu2021constructing} and lower-depth gate compilation and noise improvement compared to qubit-based systems \\cite{gokhale2019asymptotic, otten2021impacts, blok2021quantum, gustafson2021prospects, gustafson2022noise}. Of particular interest in the current period of technological maturity of quantum processors (the NISQ Era~\\cite{preskill2018quantum}) are variational algorithms such as the Quantum Approximate Optimization Algorithm (QAOA) and the Variational Quantum Eigensolver (VQE) that might achieve some quantum advantage without the fault-tolerance overhead of active error-correction~\\cite{cerezo2021variational}. Typically the quantum circuits of these algorithms feature unitary gates implementing a set of parametrized single-qudit rotations $U_M(\\beta)$ depending on some real angle $\\beta$. For instance, let us consider the set of $SU(2)$ rotations around the $X$-axis of the Bloch sphere for qubit systems, and the set of $SO(3)$ rotations that leave invariant the $|0\\rangle+|1\\rangle+|2\\rangle$ state for qutrits. Their matrix representations  $U_{M}^{(2)}(\\beta)$ and $U_{M}^{(3)}(\\beta)$ are, respectively:\n\\setlength{\\thickmuskip}{0mu}\n\\setlength{\\medmuskip}{0mu}\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n    U_{M}^{(2)}&\\equiv&\\begin{bmatrix} c_{\\frac{\\beta}{2}}&-is_{\\frac{\\beta}{2}} \\\\is_{\\frac{\\beta}{2}}&c_{\\frac{\\beta}{2}}\\end{bmatrix}\\label{eq:UMix}\\\\\n    U_{M}^{(3)}&\\equiv&\\frac{1}{3}\\begin{bmatrix}\n     1\\text{+}2c_\\beta & 1-c_\\beta-\\sqrt{3}s_\\beta & 1-c_\\beta\\text{+}\\sqrt{3}s_\\beta\\\\\n     1-c_\\beta\\text{+}\\sqrt{3}s_\\beta & 1\\text{+}2c_\\beta & 1-c_\\beta-\\sqrt{3}c_\\beta\\\\\n     1-c_\\beta-\\sqrt{3}s_\\beta & 1-c_\\beta\\text{+}\\sqrt{3}s_\\beta & 1\\text{+}2c_\\beta,\\nonumber\n    \\end{bmatrix}\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\\setlength{\\thickmuskip}{2mu}\n\\setlength{\\medmuskip}{2mu}\nwhere $c_x$, $s_x$ indicate $\\cos(x)$ and $\\sin(x)$ and the computational basis states are ordered in the canonical ascending way.\nThe two-qudit gates of interest for QAOA\/VQE ans\\\"atze are often diagonal in the computational basis. For instance, the following two-qudit and two-qutrit unitary gates $U_C(\\gamma)$ introduce a phase shift by the angle $\\gamma$ if the two qudits have the same computational state:\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n    U_C^{(2)}&\\equiv&\\begin{bmatrix}\n    e^{i\\gamma} & 0 & 0 & 0\\\\\n    0 & 1 & 0 & 0\\\\\n    0 & 0 & 1 & 0\\\\\n    0 & 0 & 0 & e^{i\\gamma}\n    \\end{bmatrix}\\label{eq:UCost}\\\\\n    U_C^{(3)}&\\equiv&\n    \\begin{bmatrix}\n    e^{i\\gamma} & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0\\\\\n    0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0\\\\\n    0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0\\\\\n    0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0\\\\\n    0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & e^{i\\gamma} & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0\\\\\n    0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0\\\\\n    0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0\\\\\n    0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0\\\\\n    0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & e^{i\\gamma}\\\\\n    \\end{bmatrix},\\nonumber\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere the canonically ordered basis for the matrix representation is used~\\footnote{$|00\\rangle$, $|01\\rangle$, $|10\\rangle$, $|11\\rangle$ for qubits, and $|00\\rangle$, $|01\\rangle$, $|02\\rangle$, $|10\\rangle$, $|11\\rangle$, $|12\\rangle$, $|20\\rangle$, $|21\\rangle$, $|22\\rangle$ for qutrits}. Note that for the most common case of qubits $U_C^{(2)}\\propto\\exp(i (\\gamma\/2)\\sigma_z\\otimes\\sigma_z)$, where $\\sigma_z$ are the standard Pauli matrices. For circuit quantum electrodynamics (cQED) systems, note also that there are  ways to find effective spin models, which is generally used for encoding of quantum heuristic algorithms \\cite{miyazaki2022effective}.\n\n\n\nImplementing parametrized gates such as (\\ref{eq:UMix}-\\ref{eq:UCost}) starting from the elementary interactions provided by a NISQ  processor is a non-trivial problem of \\emph{synthesis}~\\cite{magann2021pulses}, which often can be tackled only via heuristic numerical approaches and online experimental calibration~\\cite{klimov2020snake}. In this work, we consider the problem of synthesis of gates of the type (\\ref{eq:UMix}-\\ref{eq:UCost}) by driving with carefully optimized time-dependent interactions in a system of interacting states.\nMore specifically, the Hilbert space we are considering is spanned by a truncated set of anharmonic bosonic modes, defined with second quantized operators $a_m$, coupled in a density-density fashion. The corresponding many-body Hamiltonians and their truncated diagonal first quantization representations are:\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nH_m      &=& \\omega_m a_m^\\dagger a_m + \\xi_m (a_m^\\dagger a_m)^2\\label{eq:Hm}\\\\\n         \\Big|_{n_m\\ }&\\xrightarrow{}&|0\\rangle \\langle 0|+\\sum_{n=1}^{n_m-1} \\left[\\omega_m n + \\xi_m n^2\\right] |n\\rangle \\langle n|,\\nonumber\\\\\nH_{mm\\prime}^{int} &=&  \\xi_{mm^\\prime} a_m^\\dagger a_m  a^\\dagger_{m^\\prime} a_{m\\prime}\\label{eq:Hmm}\\\\\n             \\Big|_{{n_m}\\atop{n_{m^\\prime}}}&\\xrightarrow{}&|00\\rangle \\langle 00|+\\sum_{n=1}^{n_m-1} \\sum_{k=1}^{n_{m\\prime}-1} \\xi_{mm^\\prime}nk |nk\\rangle\\langle nk|,\\nonumber\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere $n_m$, $n_{m\\prime}$ are the number of levels considered for each mode. In photonic implementations, $\\xi_m$ is called the self-Kerr coefficient for mode $m$ and $\\xi_{mm^\\prime}$ is called the cross-Kerr coefficient between modes $m$ and $m^\\prime$. \n\\begin{figure}[!htbp]\n\\begin{centering}\n\\includegraphics[width=\\columnwidth]{Figure1v4.pdf}\n\\par\\end{centering}\n\\caption{\\label{fig:System_and_Spectrum}\nTop: System figure with colored waves representing different cavity electromagnetic modes. Eigenspectrum for $\\mathcal{H}^{(A)}$ (left) and $\\mathcal{H}^{(B)}$ (right). \nSystem parameters and resonant frequencies are given in Section \\ref{sec:quantum_control}.\nArrows indicate the transition frequencies.\nDashed (continuous) arrows represent transitions between different energy levels with $|0\\rangle_{T}$ and $|0\\rangle_{T}$ ($|1\\rangle_{T}$).}\n\\end{figure}\nWe are considering two illustrative setups in order to describe how quantum information could be manipulated in systems featuring Hamiltonians of the type (\\ref{eq:Hm}-\\ref{eq:Hmm}). \nIn particular we consider that there is one \"control qubit mode\" $T$ whose Hilbert space is truncated to the first two computational states: \n\\begin{eqnarray}\nH_T &=& |0\\rangle_T \\langle 0|_T+(\\omega_T+\\xi_T)|1\\rangle_T \\langle 1|_T,\\label{eq:HT}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nand either one or two computational modes ($C$) interacting with the control mode, respectively truncated to the first 8 and 3 computational states:\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\mathcal{H}^{(A)} &=& H_T + H_m + H_{Tm}^{int}\\Big|_{\\substack{n_T=2\\\\n_m=8}}\n\\label{eq:H2}\n\\\\\n\\mathcal{H}^{(B)} &=& \\left.  \\begin{array}{l}   \n                      H_T + H_l + H_m\\\\\n                      + H_{Tl}^{int} + H_{Tm}^{int}                      \\nonumber\\\\                      \\end{array}\\right|_{^{\\substack{n_T=2\\\\n_l=3\\\\n_m=3}}},\n                     \n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere the dependence over the $\\omega$ and $\\xi$ parameters of the Hamiltonians is implied. This setup is a specific case of a generalized Jaynes-Cummings model~\\cite{blais2021circuit}. Note that for $\\mathcal{H}^{(B)}$, each $C$ mode is naturally a qutrit, while as noted in Eq.~(\\ref{eq:quditmapping}), the quantum occupation numbers of the cavity modes could be directly associated to qubit registers via binary expansion~\\cite{sawaya2020resource}. \n\nIn Fig.~\\ref{fig:System_and_Spectrum}, we show the energy spectrum of two specifications of $\\mathcal{H}^{(A)}$ and $\\mathcal{H}^{(B)}$ as well as a pictorial representation of a possible experimental setup that could be described by such effective Hamiltonians: A transmon circuit is embedded into a multimode 3D superconducting cavity, driven by the field of a coupled antenna. Indeed, our reference Hamiltonians can be derived by considering the superconducting transmon to be coupled with the cavity resonator in a dispersive way, i.e., by considering the effective interaction derived by perturbation theory assuming that the ratio of the transmon-cavity coupling and the difference between the transmon and the cavity fundamental frequencies is small, and neglecting the small effective couplings (i.e. cross-Kerr) between the cavity modes~\\cite{blais2021circuit, ma2021quantum}. The quantum control drive can be introduced in the model by adding a time-dependent term that allows to create and destroy excitations of a mode $m$:\n\\begin{equation}\n    H^{drive}_{m}(t) = d_m(t) a_m + \\bar{d}_m(t) a_m^\\dagger,\\label{eq:HD}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $d_m(t)$ are complex functions. This control Hamiltonian could be related to the (comparatively slowly varying) field generated by the antenna via phenomenologically justified approximations~\\cite{gerry2005introductory}. \n\n\nHaving introduced the main definitions and the systems under study, we outline the rest of the paper. In section \\ref{sec:quantum_control} we present the synthesis problem from a numerical point of view, following the implementation of quantum optimal control numerics in the open source package \\texttt{Juqbox.jl}~\\cite{Juqbox_Github}. Subsection \\ref{subseq:evaluation} will present results for the synthesis of simple QAOA proof-of-concept circuits based on the parallel execution of gates (\\ref{eq:UMix})-(\\ref{eq:UCost}). Finally,\nin Section \\ref{sec:discussion} \nwe will discuss future work, including improvements and generalizations of our case study to larger and realistic systems and what is needed for this method to be applied in practice for compilation of variational quantum algorithms in realistic bosonic quantum processors based on 3D cQED technology.\n\n\n\\section{\\label{sec:quantum_control} Pulse Engineering Approach}\n\nThe \\emph{gate synthesis} problem that we are facing could be framed as the task of discovering the functions $d_m(t)$ that allow the Schr\\\"odinger evolution for a time $\\tau$ of $\\mathcal{H}+H^{drive}$ to match as close as possible a target unitary operation $U$: \n\\begin{eqnarray}\n    U &\\;\\simeq\\;& \\mathcal{U}(\\tau)=\\mathcal{T} \\exp\\left[-\\frac{i}{\\hbar}\\int_0^\\tau dt\\left( \\mathcal{H}+H^{drive}(t)\\right)\\right]\n    \\label{eq:schroevol}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nIn particular, as discussed in the previous section, we will be considering Eqs.(\\ref{eq:H2}) for $\\mathcal{H}$ and Eqs. (\\ref{eq:UMix}-\\ref{eq:UCost}) as target unitary matrices. In order to solve synthesis numerically, the problem is cast into an  optimization challenge over a finite number of real parameters, which can be tackled following the theory of quantum optimal control (QOC)~\\cite{palao2002quantum}. There are multiple strategies currently implemented for gate sythesis via QOC or machine learning, all with respective benefits and tradeoffs. However, these methods are currently tested on specific limited cases, and insights are difficult to generalize, e.g. see~\\cite{riaz2019optimal, niu2019universal, PRXQCTRL}. In this paper we follow the techniques described in Ref.~\\cite{petersson2021optimal}, targeting specifically cQED models, which we will now briefly review and contextualize for the system under study. \n\nWe leverage a key simplification of the QOC problem, consisting in the decomposition of the $d_m(t)$ control functions into a truncated basis spanned by a linear combination of $N_b$ B-spline quadratic polynomials, $S_b(t)$, corresponding to wavelets modulated with $N_f$ resonant frequencies, i.e.\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n    d_m(t)&=&\\sum_k^{N_f} e^{i\\Omega_{m,k}} W_{m,k}(t)\\nonumber\\\\\n    W_{m,k}(t)&=&\\sum_b^{N_b}\\alpha_{m,k,b}S_b(t),\n    \\label{eq:Bsplines}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere $\\alpha$s are complex coefficients, representing the unknowns of the optimization problem. The choice of B-splines as a basis for expansion is motivated by computational efficiency of parametrization of the control functions.\nThe resonant frequencies $\\Omega_{m,k}$ are defined by considering the energy differences between the states corresponding to the creation or annihilation of a boson, leaving the remaining occupations unchanged. Signals tuned at these frequencies initiate transitions as it can be proven by first order time-dependent perturbation theory.\n\nWe show in Fig.~\\ref{fig:System_and_Spectrum} the resonant frequencies for our illustrative systems: for $\\mathcal{H}^{(A)}$, we count 8 transitions related to $T$-bosons and 14 transitions for $C$-bosons for a total of 22 resonant frequencies. For $\\mathcal{H}^{(B)}$, there are 9 resonant frequencies in total that trigger T transitions, and 24 transitions related to the C modes. However, some transitions are degenerate -- only 17 different frequencies are required. \n\nWe consider the following values of parameters, with reference to a perspective reference cQED potential implementation: $\\omega_{\\mathrm{T}}\/2\\pi=$\\,5\\,GHz; $\\omega_{\\mathrm{m}}\/2\\pi=$\\,3\\,GHz, $\\omega_{\\mathrm{l}}\/2\\pi=$\\,4\\,GHz; $\\xi_m\/2\\pi=$\\,0.6\\,MHz, $\\xi_l\/2\\pi=$\\,0.9\\,MHz; $\\xi_T\/2\\pi =$\\,200\\,MHz. In line with our inspiration of a cavity-transmon systems in the dispersive regime~\\cite{nigg2012black}, we assign interaction parameters to be the geometric means of the local self-interactions $\\xi_{Tm}\/2\\pi =  \\sqrt{\\xi_m \\times \\xi_T}\/2\\pi =$\\,10.95\\,MHz and $\\xi_{Tl}\/2\\pi = \\sqrt{\\xi_l \\times \\xi_T}\/2\\pi =$\\,13.42\\,MHz. The parameters that we used for $\\mathcal{H}^{(A)}$ and $\\mathcal{H}^{(B)}$ are inspired from expectations of results that would be obtained applying black-box quantization to Tesla-cavity systems~\\cite{romanenko2020three} coupled dispersively to transmons with coherence times $\\simeq$ 100 $\\mu s$ \\cite{nersisyan2019manufacturing}. Following that inspiration, we assume small linewidth for the cavity mode compared to their separations and we set the minimum frequency difference between the transmon and cavity mode frequencies to be of the order of the GHz, in order to justify independent access of the control pulses to the transmon and for each cavity modes.\n\n\nFollowing \\texttt{Juqbox.jl}~\\cite{Juqbox_Github}, the \\emph{pulse engineering} algorithm attempts to discover the best $\\alpha_{m,k,b}$ coefficients (i.e. $2 \\times N_f \\times N_b$ real parameters), which works as follows. Initially, a random pulse is selected by initializing the vector of parameters using random positive numbers uniformly distributed within ${[0, 0.2\\,\\text{MHz})}$. Then, an objective function is calculated (see Subsection \\ref{subseq:evaluation}) and the pulse is iteratively updated by computing the Schr\\\"odinger evolution and gradients efficiently by symplectic time-integration of  adjoint equations~\\cite{petersson2020discrete}. Note that due to the B-spline parametrization, the number of control parameters does not depend directly on the pulse total duration $\\tau$. However, the number of B-splines $N_b$ defines the design of the temporal structure of the pulses, so one needs to choose large enough $\\tau$ and $N_b$ to allow the method to converge to a numerically robust solution. In particular, the slowest frequency resolution of the pulses is given by 1\/$\\tau$. We choose to vary $\\tau$ in the 500-8000 ns range for our numerical experiments on $\\mathcal{H}^{(A)}$ and $\\mathcal{H}^{(B)}$, allowing for a frequency resolution of 0.125-2 MHz. \nThe B-splines vary on the time scale $\\tau\/N_b$. Hence we choose $N_b$ = 10 to allow resolution at the scale of $\\xi_{Tm}$, which controls multiple energy separations in the spectrum. The values of $\\xi_l$, $\\xi_m$ define the smallest resonant frequencies. \n\n\\begin{figure*}[!htbp]\n\\begin{centering}\n\\includegraphics[width = .99 \\textwidth]{Fig2.pdf}\n\\par\\end{centering}\n\\caption{\\label{fig:EngineeredPulses} \n(a) Prototype circuits for the synthesis of Max-k-Cut QAOA. Single C-mode represent 8 computational states (equivalent to 3 qubits).  (b) Illustrative Fourier spectrum of a high-fidelity engineered pulse via \\texttt{Juqbox.jl}. Top row shows results for $d_T(t)$ while the bottom row shows the control of the computational modes ($d_m(t)$ and $d_l(t)$). Darker tones (black, blue, orange) indicate the pulses that synthesize mixing layers, while light tones (gray, cyan, yellow) refer to phase-separation layers. (c) Fidelity for pulse engineered QAOA layers of the prototype circuits. Black lines indicate the mean across angles, individually plotted in gray. Each line is the mean of 10 random restarts (20-80 percentiles across restarts is plotted as shaded area). Leakage plots are presented in the Supplementary Material.}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\\subsection{Evaluation test case: QAOA}\\label{subseq:evaluation}\n\nOur numerical prototype experiment is based on the synthesis of QAOA-like quantum circuits, which in their basic implementation consist of the layered alternated application of \\emph{phase-separation} unitary gates and \\emph{mixing} gates~\\cite{hadfield2019quantum}. With reference to the known Max-k-Cut qudit mapping of QAOA~\\cite{fuchs2021efficient}, where k corresponds to the dimensionality of the qudits, we can craft the phase-separation layers using $U_C(\\gamma)_{ij}$ gates and we have the freedom of designing the mixing layers using the $U_M(\\beta)_{i}$ gates in Eqs.~\\ref{eq:UMix}-\\ref{eq:UCost}, where $i$, $j$ indicate the distinguishable qudits that are targeted by the specific gate execution. Other choices would also be appropriate~\\cite{deller2022quantum}.\nFor clarity, in Fig.~\\ref{fig:EngineeredPulses}-a, we show the two toy-model circuits that we are going to synthesize, respectively via pulse engineering on $\\mathcal{H}^{(A)}$ and $\\mathcal{H}^{(B)}$. For completeness, the test circuit include the \\emph{initialization} operation, which is usually taken to be a generalized Hadamard gate (although it could be substituted by a mixing over the $|0\\rangle^{\\otimes N}$ state).\n\nWe note that quantum processor programmers have formally the freedom to execute gates sequentially or in parallel, and to exchange them in temporal execution order if they commute. However, in a real world implementation, if the processor is not fault-tolerant, under reasonable assumptions we expect decoherence and dephasing errors to be roughly proportional to execution time, so a compiler for NISQ algorithms often tries to parallelize gate execution as much as possible~\\cite{venturelli2018compiling}. Moreover, considering the mapping of the computational variables to the spectrum of the Hamiltonians (Fig.~\\ref{fig:System_and_Spectrum}), the possible qudit identity assignments are inequivalent with respect to pulse engineering, although it would be inconsequential if the synthesis was perfect. \\texttt{SWAP} operations could restrict the number of active qudits, by relegating some states to be just memory storage and not participate in processing. However, these operations and controls for our Hamiltonians need to be synthesized as well, increasing the complexity of the entire compilation significantly. \nBearing in mind these considerations, in our case study we choose to implement the single-qudit gates in parallel when possible, without implementing \\texttt{SWAP}s but directly synthesizing all required two-body interactions instead across the entire Hilbert space. We will discuss in Section~\\ref{sec:discussion} the scalability issues associated to this approach.\n\nNoting that in cQED implementations, the Hamiltonians in Eqs.~(\\ref{eq:H2}) are defined on truncated versions of a physically infinite Hilbert space, it is customary to include a few additional \\emph{guard states} corresponding to high occupation of boson modes to help the robustness of the numerical optimization, i.e., the following parameters are renormalized $n_T\\rightarrow\\tilde{n}_T= n_T+\\delta n_T$, $n_m\\rightarrow\\tilde{n}_m=n_m+\\delta n_m$ and $n_l\\rightarrow\\tilde{n}_l=n_l+\\delta n_l$, where $\\delta n$ represent guard states with values in Table \\ref{tab:parameters}.\n\n\n\n\nFollowing \\cite{petersson2021optimal}, the optimization objective to be minimized is chosen to be a sum of the infidelity and average leakage. The infidelity is a measure of a similarity score between the synthesized unitary matrix and the target, which can be defined as $O_F=1-|\\Tr(\\mathcal{U}(\\tau)^\\dagger U)\/E|^2$, where E is a normalization constant. The average leakage is defined as $O_L=(1\/\\tau)\\int_0^\\tau \\Tr(\\mathcal{U}^\\dagger(t) W \\mathcal{U}(t))dt$, where $W$ is a diagonal matrix which is non-zero only on the indices corresponding to the guard levels. \nThe weights in $W$ are set to be 1.0 for the highest guard state and then decrease exponentially in powers of 10 for each lower state. The objective of the numerics is to minimize $O=O_F+O_L$ by solving the related optimization problem on the $\\alpha$ parameters by using the IPOPT L-BFGS optimizer~\\cite{wachter2006implementation} and using the efficient \\texttt{Juqbox.jl} numerical integration scheme to compute the required $O$ and $\\nabla_\\alpha O$.\n\n\\begin{table}[!htbp]\n\\centering\n\\caption{\\label{tab:parameters}Parameters used for prototype (See Fig.~\\ref{fig:EngineeredPulses})}\n\\begin{tabular}{|c||c||c||}\n\\hline\n\\bf{parameter} & \\bf{$\\mathcal{H}^{(A)}$} & \\bf{$\\mathcal{H}^{(B)}$}\\\\[0.5ex]\n\\hline\\hline\nB-splines $N_b$                              &  10   & 10\\\\\ncarrier frequencies $N_f$                    &  22   & 17\\\\\n$T$ guard states $\\delta n_T$                &  3    & 3\\\\\n$C$ guard states $\\delta n_m$, $\\delta n_l$  &  2    & 2\\\\\nmax iterations                               &  100  & 30-150\\\\\nnumber of restarts                           &  10   & 10\\\\\ntarget fidelity 1-$O_F$                      &  0.99 & 0.99\\\\\n \\hline\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{table}\n\nThe optimization heuristics has a stopping condition based on either the achievement of a target threshold fidelity (1-$O_F$) or the execution of a maximum number of iterations. As mentioned, we perform multiple restarts initializing the optimization with different random pulses (see Table \\ref{tab:parameters} for a summary of some of the parameters used for the numerical experiments). Computations have been performed  allowing an optimization time in the order of days. See Supplemental Material for computational details.\n\n\nTo give a sense of the resulting control signals that generate the QAOA circuit layers, we show the resulting Fourier transform of one engineered $d_T(t)$, $d_m(t)$, $d_l(t)$ functions in Fig.~\\ref{fig:EngineeredPulses}-b, for one random seed and pulse time $\\tau$ = 8000 ns, which in retrospect we know guaranteeing high fidelity of the synthesis. The angle parameters $\\beta$ and $\\gamma$ have been set to a fixed arbitrary value of $\\pi\/5$ for illustration but the qualitative features of the pulses that we are describing are preserved for different $\\tau$ and angles. As evident from the plots, the scheme and parameters described above clearly generate peaks around the identified resonant frequencies corresponding to the single-boson transitions in Fig.~\\ref{fig:System_and_Spectrum}. In particular, for the $d_T(t)$ controls, the highest peak corresponds to $\\omega_T$ while the other equispaced peaks are centered among multiples of $\\xi_{Tm}$, $\\xi_{Tl}$ or integer combinations of the two energy values for the $\\mathcal{H}^{(B)}$ system. For the C-mode controls, the peaking frequencies are topped by $\\omega_m$, $\\omega_l$ and generally $\\xi_{Tm}$, $\\xi_{Tl}$ plus multiples of $\\xi_m$, $\\xi_l$ respectively.\nClearly, each reported spectrum corresponds to a real-time microwave combination of pulses that can be crafted via an arbitrary waveform generator (AWG) in an experimental setup.\n\n\n\nIn Fig.~\\ref{fig:EngineeredPulses}-c, we provide the aggregated performance of the pulse engineering approach, plotting the fidelity between the final pulse $\\mathcal{U}(\\tau)$ and target circuit layers (phase separation and mixing) and Hadamard gates, for different pulse times. We show the mean fidelity, estimated averaging 10 random initializations, i.e. restart of the L-BFGS optimizer (the default optimizer for \\texttt{Juqbox.jl}), for QAOA layers parametrized with 11 different $\\gamma$ and $\\beta$ (from -$\\pi$ to $\\pi$ in fractions of $\\pi$\/5). As expected, notwithstanding outliers, the statistics is sufficient to indicate that the method can reach the target 0.99 fidelity if the pulse is allowed to be sufficiently long. \n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Discussion and Outlook}\\label{sec:discussion}\n\nIn the previous section, we described a proof-of-concept of numerical synthesis for simple quantum circuits describing the building blocks of Max-k-Cut QAOA  using qubits (mapped onto qudits) and qutrits, on bosonic quantum processors. The main question that is left to be addressed is if the synthesis approach we employed is sufficiently robust to be applied at application-scale. We break down the question in a discussion of three scalability challenges: Computational effort, realistic implementation, and circuit fidelity.\n\n\\paragraph{Computational Effort:} \nAs mentioned, the computational effort required by numerical packages to obtain high-fidelity in our case study is already very significant and scales both with the Hilbert space size and with the pulse duration. This means that the proposed methodology will most certainly not be viable if straightforwardly applied to systems at large scale, although larger synthesis can be achieved if the code is optimized to leverage GPU clusters. The envisioned practical synthesis of larger circuits will necessarily need to be broken down in modules, each of which working on a subspace of the entire Hilbert space. The requirement for this modularization is that the  gate synthesized numerically in a system with few modes will have to be applied in a system with several modes and levels. The optimal gate from numerics should ideally act as an identity on the degree of freedoms that were not considered in the synthesis in order not to cause the crosstalk problem \\cite{ozguler2022dynamics}. Scaling up the single-mode case $\\mathcal{H}^{(A)}$  that we used will not likely be viable, since the non-local mapping onto qubits would require any gate to address the entire level structure independently from the locality of the gates, which is why we opted to synthesize the entire phase-separation circuit as opposed to the individual two-qubit gates independently. However, it is envisionable to generalize the $\\mathcal{H}^{(B)}$ system adding more C-modes, i.e., considering the Hamiltonian\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\mathcal{H}^{(B)}_{multi}[N] &=&   \n                      H_T + \\sum_{j=1}^N \\left[H_{m_j}\n                      + H_{Tm_j}^{int}\\right],                      \n                      \\label{eq:multi-qutrits}\n\\end{eqnarray} which is $\\mathcal{H}^{(B)}$ for N=2. If the $\\xi$ parameters of each C-mode are sufficiently separated, the peaked frequency structure of the engineered pulses suggests that it is possible that none of the peaks in the final pulses would correspond to resonances with single-boson excitations that we don't want to trigger, which would likely induce very small leakage outside the two-mode target computational space. This needs to be verified theoretically or numerically in future work. Ultimately, frequency crowding will be an issue and more sophisticated numerics or frequency spacing and bandwidth engineering will be required.\n\nIt should be noted that if the modularization works as expected, the computing time spent synthesizing algorithmic primitives would be an offline \\emph{una tantum} cost to be paid to populate a lookup table (LUT) that would be accessed at runtime by the perspective user of the quantum solver. Indeed, similarly as in other domains, it is envisioned that the LUT would be computed for a large grid of parameters (angles $\\gamma$ and $\\beta$ in our QAOA example) and then machine learning algorithms would learn and return an interpolation of the engineered pulses if the compiler is called for a parameter that was not pre-computed, or would use nearby known points to initialize a fast optimization round to engineer a new pulse on the fly \\cite{xu2022neural}. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\paragraph{Realistic Implementation:} \n\nWhile the described technique is generically applicable to any bosonic interacting system, our case study has a specific 3D cQED implementation in mind, as illustrated in the inset of Fig.~\\ref{fig:System_and_Spectrum}. \nIt should be noted that the general framework that we employed, pulse engineering via QOC, while proven powerful~\\cite{heeres2017implementing} is not the only known approach to achieve universal synthesis of unitary quantum gates defined in the Fock space for these kind of systems. For instance, the use of selective number-dependent arbitrary phase (SNAP) protocol~\\cite{heeres2015cavity,fosel2020efficient} or echoed conditional displacement~\\cite{eickbusch2021fast} are strong candidates for the universal control of a single-mode system. Qudits have potential to be affected by noise less so than qubits \\cite{otten2021impacts} but working with large photon-number states comes with additional complications in terms of decoherence, which are still theoretically not entirely understood~\\cite{hanai2021intrinsic}.\n\nThe multiqudit system (Eq.~\\ref{eq:multi-qutrits}) could be viable but its practical implementation will likely suffer from the aforementioned quantum and classical crosstalk problems whose handling is currently one of the main active research topics of the 3D multimode cQED domain~\\cite{chakram2020seamless}. Even assuming that the bandwidth of the control pulses and the level spacing has sufficient resolution, there is a need for the co-design of a NISQ cQED architecture that would allow two-mode gates to operate in large Hilbert space with a controllable effect over spectator modes that are subject to an always-on interaction \\cite{alam2022quantum}. Theory results on quantum adiabatic protocols~\\cite{das2008colloquium, ozguler2018steering} on bosonic systems could provide an initial reference point to be generalized~\\cite{pino2018quantum, starchl2022unraveling}.\n\n\\paragraph{Fidelity:} The fidelity target we used in our prototype (0.99) is in line with the fidelity of native gates in industrial grade quantum processors but it is of course somewhat arbitrary. In accordance with conservative models of uncorrelated errors, we could estimate the final fidelity of the entire circuits in Fig.~\\ref{fig:EngineeredPulses}-a as the product of the fidelities of each synthesized layer, which means that ultimately the fidelity decreases exponentially with the number of layers. Hence, quantum-volumetric tests~\\cite{blume2020volumetric} would fail rather fast if we were to scale our circuits beyond few variables. However, it should be noted that for quantum optimization algorithms of the variational type, it is not clear if high fidelities are required, considering that the underlying computational principle is preserved for Lindblad evolution~\\cite{yang2017optimizing}. The degree of freedom of parameter setting might contribute to mitigate the misspecification of the gates due to poor synthesis. The non-requirement of exact synthesis is intuitive, since for optimization tasks we are not necessarily trying to reproduce a quantum process but rather to drive the system towards a probability distribution, which might be achievable also with partially coherent systems or in the presence of spurious unknown interactions that give rise to systematic coherent errors. So, as long as the nature of the errors is not specifically adversarial against the optimization tasks, there is still reasonable hope that a low-fidelity circuit could deliver speedup in the NISQ era. An important contribution that we are considering to improve the fidelity would be to generalize the technique of \\texttt{Juqbox.jl} to open systems, and fit the experimental noise to solve for a more realistic model. Fortunately, there has already been active development in that direction, including enabling quantum optimal control and pulse-level programming in XACC \\cite{nguyen2020extending, nguyen2021enabling} with \\texttt{QuaC} plugin \\cite{otten2017quac}, and a recently released open-source package for high-performance optimal control, \\texttt{Quandary}~\\cite{gunther2021quandary}.\n\n\n\n\nIn conclusion, we investigated the application of quantum optimal control techniques to design unitary gates for a class of physical systems that could be programmed to act as qudit-based quantum computers. We used variational algorithms such as QAOA for qubits (mapped onto a single qudit) and qutrits as targets for our case-study. Our current results, similar to other applied quantum computing works for multimode cQED~\\cite{kurkcuoglu2021quantum}, are still limited on small proof-of-concept models, due to limitations in computational effort, realistic implementation and achievable fidelity. While we identified pathways to overcome such limitations, we should note that for the purpose of variational optimization there are multiple recent attempts to employ co-designed digital-analog approaches that are directly related to QOC as optimization algorithms~\\cite{magann2021pulses,gokhale2019partial, choquette2021quantum}, and might not require the burdens of high-fidelity gate synthesis. We envision that our work could also contribute to those innovative methods that have already been delivering promising results.\n\n\n\n\\section*{Acknowledgments}\n\nWe thank Jens Koch, Srivatsan Chakram, Taeyoon Kim, Joshua Job, Matthew Reagor, Matthew Otten, Keshav Kapoor, Silvia Zorzetti, Sohaib Alam, Doga Kurkcuoglu and the SQMS 3D Algorithms Group and SQMS Codesign Group for discussions and feedback. We thank Adam Lyon, Jim Kowalkowski, Yuri Alexeev and Norm Tubman for their assistance on computing aspects, including support through XSEDE computational Project no. TG-MCA93S030 providing compute time at Bridges-2 of the Pittsburgh Supercomputer Center. A.B.\\\"O. thanks Gabriel Perdue, Adam and Jim for their guidance during his early career years. We thank Anders Petersson for his support in configuring \\texttt{Juqbox.jl}. D.V. acknowledges support via NASA Academic Mission Service (NNA16BD14C). This  material  is  based  upon  work  supported  by  the U.S. Department of Energy,  Office of Science,  National Quantum  Information  Science  Research  Centers,   Superconducting  Quantum Materials  and  Systems  Center (SQMS) under contract number DE-AC02-07CH11359. We gratefully acknowledge the computing resources provided on Bebop, a high-performance computing cluster operated by the Laboratory Computing Resource Center at Argonne National Laboratory.\n\n\n\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\nThe intrinsic notion of boundary has been extensively studied for both noncollapsed $\\RCD(K,N)$ spaces ($\\ncRCD(K,N)$ in short) and Alexandrov spaces. When we say Alexandrov spaces, we always mean complete, geodesic, finite dimensional Alexandrov space. For an Alexandrov space $(A,\\mathsf{d}_A)$, { Burago, Gromov and  Perelman introduced the definition of boundary in \\cite{BGP92}}, deonted by $\\mathcal{F}A$, see \\eqref{eq:Alexboundary}. {From the uniqueness of tangent cones along in interiors of geodesics proved by  Petrunin }in \\cite{Petrunin98}, it can be deduced that the interior of an Alexandrov space, i.e.\\ $A\\setminus\\mathcal{F}A$, is strongly convex, which means that  any geodesic joining points in the interior does not intersect $\\mathcal{F}A$. For a $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ space $(X,\\mathsf{d},\\mathcal{H}^N)$, there are $2$ intrinsic definitions of boundary. One is defined by Kapovitch-Mondino in \\cite{KapMon19}, in the same spirit of defining the boundary for an Alexandrov space, we denote this boundary also by $\\mathcal{F}X$, see \\eqref{eq:KMboundary}. The other is defined by De Philippis-Gigli in \\cite{DPG17}, making use of the stratification of the singular set. We denote this boundary by $\\partial X$, see \\eqref{eq:DPGboundary}.\n\nIn parallel to the strong convexity of the interior of an Alxeandrov space,  it is conjectured by De Philippis and Gigli \\cite[Remark 3.8]{DPG17} that the interior of $X$, i.e.\\ $X\\setminus\\partial X$ is strongly convex.  We will see that this conjecture follows from the conjecture that the two notions of the boundary of $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ spaces  agree.\n\n\n\nIn this paper, we look at the boundary from an an extrinsic point of view, namely, given $K\\in \\R$ and positive integer $N$  we consider two sitiations\n\n\\begin{enumerate}\n    \\item\\label{item:alex} an $N$-dimensional Alexandrov space has an $N$-dimensional Alexandrov subspace;\n    \\item \\label{item:RCD} a $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ space has a $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ subspace with mild boundary control.\n\\end{enumerate}  \n\nWe prove that in the case of \\eqref{item:alex}  the intrinsic boundary of an Alexandrov subspace coincides with the topological boundary, and in the case of \\eqref{item:RCD} the De Phlippis-Gigli boundary coincides with the topological boundary. See the precise statement in Theorem \\ref{thm:main1} and Theorem \\ref{thm:main2} below. A direct consequence is  that  synthetic curvature bounds on a subspace automatically imply regularity of its topological boundary, for example topological structure and rectifiability, see \\cite{BNS20}.\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{thm:main1}\nLet $(X,\\mathsf{d}_X)$ be an $N$-dimensional Alexandrov space, $N\\in \\mathbb{N}$, and $\\Omega\\subset X$ be open, if $(\\bar{\\Omega},\\mathsf{d}_\\Omega)$ is an Alexandrov space, $\\bar{\\Omega}\\cap\\mathcal{F}X=\\varnothing$, and $\\Omega={\\rm Int}_{\\rm top}(\\bar{\\Omega})$, where ${\\rm Int}_{\\rm top}(\\bar\\Omega)$ is the topological interior, i.e. the largest open subset of of $\\bar\\Omega$, \nthen \n\\begin{enumerate}\n    \\item\\label{main1:item1} $\\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar\\Omega=\\mathcal{F}\\bar\\Omega$;\n    \\item\\label{main1:item2} any (minimizing) geodesic in $(\\bar\\Omega,\\mathsf{d}_\\Omega)$ joining two points in $\\Omega$ is a local geodesic of $(X,\\mathsf{d}_X)$;\n\n    \\item\\label{main1:item3} any (minimizing) geodesic in $(\\bar{\\Omega},\\mathsf{d}_\\Omega)$ is a quasi-geodesic in  $(X,\\mathsf{d}_X)$.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{theorem}\n \nTheorem \\ref{thm:main1} will follow from the invariance of domain theorem for Alexandrov spaces, Theorem \\ref{thm:inv}. \nThe proof of Theorem \\ref{thm:inv} has been worked out on the mathoverflow website quite a while ago by Belegradek, Petrunin and Ivanov but does not  seem to exist in literature. Since we have an application of this theorem we present the proof following closely the existing one by Belegradek-Petrunin-Ivanov.}  It works in a more general purely topological category of MCS spaces, see Theorem~\\ref{thm:inv-dom-mcs}.\n\n\\begin{remark}\\label{rem:counterex}\nThe assumption $\\Omega={\\rm Int}_{\\rm top}(\\bar \\Omega)$ is clearly necessary and cannot be removed. For example, let $X=\\R^n$, $\\Omega=\\R^n\\setminus\\{0\\}$, which is open and dense. We see that $\\bar\\Omega=X$ is an Alexandrov space without Alexandrov boundary, but the topological boundary of is $\\{0\\}$ which is not empty. This shows that item \\ref{main1:item1} does not hold without the assumption $\\Omega={\\rm Int}_{\\rm top}(\\bar \\Omega)$  even for smooth manifolds. \n\nNext, the assumption that $\\bar{\\Omega}\\cap\\mathcal{F}X=\\varnothing$ is also clearly necessary. For example let $X$ be the closed unit disk in $\\R^2$ and $\\Omega=X$. Then $\\partial \\bar \\Omega$ is empty while $\\mathcal{F}\\bar\\Omega=\\mathbb S^1$.\n\n\n Also, a geodesic in $(\\bar{\\Omega},\\mathsf{d}_\\Omega)$ joining two points on the boundary need not to be a local geodesic in $(X,\\mathsf{d}_X)$, so the conclusion in item \\ref{main1:item3} of Theorem \\ref{thm:main1} that a geodesic in $(\\bar{\\Omega},\\mathsf{d}_\\Omega)$ is a quasi-geodesic in the ambient space is optimal.\n\n \n \n  For example, consider the space $X\\mathrel{\\mathop:}= D^2\\times\\{0\\}\\sqcup_{\\mathbb{S}^1\\times\\{0\\}}\\mathbb{S}^1\\times [0,\\infty)$ with length metric, which is a cylinder glued along the boundary circle with a disk at the bottom, this is an Alexandrov space of non-negative curvature. Then let $\\Omega=\\mathbb{S}^1\\times (0,\\infty)$. Clearly $\\Omega$ is open, however, any geodesic on $\\partial_{\\rm top}\\Omega=\\mathcal{F}\\Omega=\\mathbb{S}^1\\times\\{0\\}$, which is an arc, is never a local geodesic w.r.t. the metric of $X$, since a segment in $D^2$ connecting any 2 points on its boundary circle is always shorter than the corresponding arcs.\nThis example also shows that $\\bar{\\Omega}$ need not to be locally convex. Compare this with Theorem \\ref{thm:han}.\n\n\\end{remark}\n\nFor $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ spaces, we are able to obtain a similar result to Theorem \\ref{thm:main1} under an extra  assumption of a local Lipschitz condition on the metric $\\mathsf{d}_\\Omega$ which serves as a weak substitute for the regularity of the topological boundary.\n \\begin{theorem}\\label{thm:main2}\n     Let $(X,\\mathsf{d},\\mathcal{H}^N_X)$ be a $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ space, $\\Omega$ be an open subset of $X$ such that $\\Omega={\\rm Int}_{\\rm top}(\\bar \\Omega)$ and $\\bar \\Omega\\cap \\partial X=\\varnothing$. Suppose that $(\\bar{\\Omega},\\mathsf{d}_\\Omega,\\mathcal{H}^N_{\\bar\\Omega})$ is also an $\\RCD(K,N)$ space and for every $x\\in\\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar{\\Omega}$ there exist an neighborhood $U_x$ of $x$ and $C(U_x)>1$ such that $\\mathsf{d}_\\Omega\\le C(U_x) \\mathsf{d}_X$ when restricted to $U_x\\cap\\bar \\Omega$. Then $\\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar \\Omega=\\partial \\bar\\Omega$.\n   \n    \n    \n \\end{theorem}\n Here, $\\mathcal{H}^N_X$ (resp. $\\mathcal{H}^N_{\\bar\\Omega})$) is the Hausdorff measure induced by $\\mathsf{d}_X$ (resp. $\\mathsf{d}_{\\Omega}$). Notice the following relations between the two Hausdorff measures:\n \n \\begin{remark}\\label{rmk:equiHaus}\n  From our assumption and the definition of intrinsic length metric, it follows that $\\bar\\Omega$ is embedded in $X$ in a locally biLipschitz way, i.e.\\  for any $x\\in \\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar\\Omega$ and its neighborhood $U_x$, $\\mathsf{d}_X\\le \\mathsf{d}_{\\Omega}\\le C \\mathsf{d}_{X}$ when restricted to $U\\cap\\bar\\Omega$, so the notions such as Hausdorff dimension and measure zero sets for both Hausdorff measures are equivalent for sets in $\\bar\\Omega$ {since we can always find a countable covering by neighborhoods on which the 2 metrics are biLipschitz to each other}.\n \n  \n\n\n \\end{remark}\n \nThere are 2 main technical difficulties in proving Theorem \\ref{thm:main2}. The first being that in general there is no topological information on any neighborhood of a singular point. An important fact used to prove the invariance of domain theorem for Alexandrov spaces is that every point has a neighborhood homeomorphic to a cone over its space of directions, which is not available for $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ spaces. In particular, as opposed to the situation in Alexandrov spaces, for a given point in an $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ space  its tangent cone(s)in general  do not carry topological information of its neighborhood. For example,  Colding-Naber \\cite{CN11} constructed an example of a noncollapsed Ricci limit space with a singular point at which there are two non-homeomorphic tangent cones. Another difficulty is that the topological boundary may  in principle vanish when taking tangent cones.  Conjecturally this cannot happen but this is unknown at the moment.\nA model case of this phenomenon would be a cusp, for example $X=\\R^2$, and $\\Omega=\\{(x,y)\\in \\R^2: y<\\sqrt{|x|}\\}$, where $0\\in \\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar\\Omega$ but its tangent cone in $\\bar\\Omega$ and in $X$ are both $\\R^2$. We can quickly rule out this case since if $\\bar\\Omega$ were a $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ space, then $0$ would have density $1$ in $\\bar\\Omega$, which in turn implies the neighborhood of $0$ $\\Omega$ is a manifold, a contradiction. However, this argument does not work if the point on the topological boundary is itself a singular point of the ambient space. A unified way to overcome both difficulties is to find a regular point on the topological boundary, if it is more than De Philippis-Gigli boundary. Indeed, we are able to do this with the help of Deng's H\\\"older continuity of tangent cones along the interior of a geodesic, \\cite{deng2020holder}.\n\nA motivation for studying the extrinsic notion of boundary is provided by the following observation on manifolds. Han in \\cite{han20} showed that for a weighted $n$-dimensional manifold $(M,g, e^{-f}\\vol_g)$ with smooth boundary, the measure valued Ricci tensor \n\\begin{equation}\n    \\mathrm{\\bf Ric}(\\nabla \\phi,\\nabla \\phi):=\\mathbf{\\Delta}\\frac{|\\nabla \\phi|^2}{2}-(\\langle\\nabla \\phi,\\nabla \\Delta \\phi\\rangle+|{\\mathrm{Hess}}_{\\phi}|^2)e^{-f}\\vol_g\n\\end{equation}\n defined by Gigli \\cite{Gigli14} can be expressed as\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\mathrm{\\mathbf{Ric}}=(\\mathrm{Ric}+{\\mathrm{Hess}}_f) e^{-f}\\vol_g+ \\mathrm{II}_{\\partial M}e^{-f}\\mathcal{H}^{n-1}|_{\\partial M},\n\\end{equation}\n where $\\mathbf{\\Delta}$ is the measure valued Laplacian. If $(M,g, e^{-f}\\vol_g)$ satisfies $\\CD(K,\\infty)$ condition, then $\\mathrm{\\bf Ric}\\ge K e^{-f}\\vol_g$. Combined with Han's expression, this lower bound in particular implies that the second fundamental form is non-negative definite, which means the boundary is convex and it is well known that this implies that geodesics joining interior points do not intersect boundary. Han further interprets this convexity where a subset and its topological boundary are considered, moreover, the boundary is not $C^2$ so it is not possible to define the second fundamental form on it.\n To proceed, we fix some notations. For a length metric space $(X,\\mathsf{d})$, and an open connected subset $\\Omega\\subset X$, denote by $\\mathsf{d}_{\\Omega}$ the intrinsic length metric on $\\Omega$, it extends by continuity to $\\bar\\Omega$. Denote by $\\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar\\Omega$ the topological boundary of $\\bar\\Omega$ in $X$. More precisely, Han proved\n\n\\begin{theorem}[\\cite{han20}]\\label{thm:han}\nLet $(M,g)$ be a complete $n$-dimensional manifold, and $\\Omega\\subset M$ be open. Suppose that $(\\bar{\\Omega}, \\mathsf{d}_\\Omega, \\mathfrak{m})$ satisfies that $\\supp(\\mathfrak{m})=\\bar{\\Omega}$ and $\\CD(K,\\infty)$ condition, then $\\mathfrak{m}\\mathbin{\\vrule height 1.6ex depth 0pt width 0.13ex\\vrule height 0.13ex depth 0pt width 1.3ex} \\Omega\\ll \\vol_g\\mathbin{\\vrule height 1.6ex depth 0pt width 0.13ex\\vrule height 0.13ex depth 0pt width 1.3ex} \\Omega$, if furthermore $\\bar\\Omega$ has Lipschitz and $\\mathcal{H}^{n-1}$-a.e.\\ $C^2$ boundary, then $\\mathfrak{m}(\\partial_{\\rm top}\\Omega)=0$ and $(\\bar{\\Omega},\\mathsf{d}_\\Omega)$ is {locally convex}, i.e., every (minimizing) geodesic in $(\\bar{\\Omega},\\mathsf{d}_\\Omega)$ is a local geodesic in $(M,g)$\n\\end{theorem}\n\nIn particular, every minimizing geodesic in $(\\bar{\\Omega},\\mathsf{d}_\\Omega)$ joining $2$ points in $\\Omega$ does not intersect ${\\partial_{\\rm top}\\Omega}$. We would like to generalize to non-smooth setting the {above theorem of Han, but in view of Remark \\ref{rem:counterex}, it is not true that the (synthetic) Ricci curvature lower bound on a closed subset forces the set to be locally convex. The correct notion to consider for metric spaces is the locally totally geodesic property. \n\n\\begin{definition}\n\tLet $(X,\\mathsf{d})$ be a geodesic metric space. A { connected open subset $\\Omega$} is said to be \\emph{locally totally geodesic} if every (minimizing) geodesic {in $(\\bar \\Omega, \\mathsf{d}_{\\Omega})$} joining two points in $\\Omega$ is a local geodesic in $(X,\\mathsf{d})$.\n\\end{definition}\n} \n\n\n\n\n{With this notion, we see from item \\ref{main1:item2} of Theorem \\ref{thm:main1} that we have shown that the synthetic sectional curvature lower bound on the closure of an open subset forces this open subset to be locally totally geodesic.\n\n For $\\ncRCD$ spaces, the natural approach to generalize the fact that Ricci curvature lower bound on a subset forces locally totally geodesic property is  to show the equivalence between the intrinsic and topological boundary, since the convexity results for intrinsic boundary will then apply to the topological boundary as well. For example, with extra assumption that Kapovitch-Mondino boundary and De Philippis-Gigli boundary coincide, we can derive that the interior of an $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ subspace is locally totally geodesic by combining Theorem \\ref{thm:main2} and Theorem \\ref{thm:intconv}. See also Corollary \\ref{cor:loc-total-geo}. }   \n\n\n However, for $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ spaces, the strong convexity of its (intrinsic) interior is not presently known, to derive it we need an extra assumption that the Kapovitch-Mondino boundary and the De Philippis-Gigli boundary are the same.\n\n\\begin{theorem}[Corollary \\ref{cor:intconv}]\\label{thm:intconv}\n Let $(X,\\mathsf{d},\\mathcal{H}^N)$ be a $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ space. Assume $\\partial X=\\mathcal{F} X$, then ${\\rm Int}(X)\\mathrel{\\mathop:}= X\\setminus \\partial X$ is strongly convex, i.e.\\ any geodesic joining points in ${\\rm Int}(X)$ does not intersect $\\partial X$.\n\\end{theorem}\n\n  Although the equivalence between the two boundary notions, hence the strong convexity of the interior of $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ space is unknown, we can still obtain an a.e.\\ version of convexity of the interior of a $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ space. This in turn implies that  for a $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ subset, intrinsic geodesics joining most interior points are away from its topological boundary. The a.e.\\ convexity of interior follows from the following more general a.e.\\ convexity of regular set at essential dimension which is a slight generalization of pairwise  a.e. convexity of $\\mathcal{R}_n$ proved by Deng \\cite[Theorem 6.5]{deng2020holder}.\n  \n\\begin{proposition}\\label{thm:almostconvex}\nLet $(X,\\mathsf{d},\\mathfrak{m})$ be an $\\RCD(K,N)$ space of essential dimension $n$. For \\textit{every} $x\\in X$, there exists a subset $R_x\\subset \\mathcal{R}_n$ so that $\\mathfrak{m}(X\\setminus R_x)=0$ and for any $y\\in R_x$ there is a minimizing geodesic joining $x,y$ contained in $\\mathcal{R}_n$ except possibly for $x$.  \n\\end{proposition}\n\nFor the proof we need the technique of localization via transport rays of any $1$-Lipschitz function, developed by Cavalletti-Mondino \\cite{CavMon15} in non-smooth setting. \n\nFinally, we conjecture that Theorem \\ref{thm:han} holds in much larger generality including the measure regularity part, see Conjecture \\ref{conj:collapseconv}.\n\n\n\n\n\nThe paper is organized as follows: In section \\ref{sec:prelim}, we recall concisely the structure results for Alexandrov and $\\RCD(K,N)$ spaces. In section \\ref{sec:inv} we prove invariance of domain theorem for Alexandrov spaces. Section \\ref{sec:equi} is devoted to the proof of main theorems Theorem \\ref{thm:main1} and Theorem \\ref{thm:main2}. The last two sections, section \\ref{sec:AppConv} and \\ref{sec:almost} focus on applications of the main theorems to subsets satisfying $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ condition in various ambient spaces.\n\n\\smallskip\\noindent\n\\textbf{Acknowledgement.} The second named author thanks Anton Petrunin for bringing invariance of domain for Alexandrov spaces to his attention, Qin Deng for suggesting Proposition \\ref{thm:almostconvex}, Igor Belegradek and Jikang Wang for several helpful discussions.\n\n\\section{Preliminary}\\label{sec:prelim}\n\n\\subsection{Stratified spaces}\\label{subsec:} \nIn this section we give a brief review of topological stratified spaces. \n\n\\begin{definition}\nA metrizable space $X$ is called an \\emph{MCS-space (space with multiple conic singularities)} of dimension $n$ if every point $x\\in X$ has a neighborhood pointed homeomorphic to the open cone over a compact  $(n-1)$-dimensional MCS space. Here we assume the empty set to be the unique $(-1)$-dimensional MCS-space.\n\\end{definition}\n\n\n\\begin{remark}\nA compact $0$-dimensional MCS-space is a finite collection of points with discrete topology. A 1-dimensional MCS-space is a locally finite graph.\n\\end{remark}\n\n\nAn open conical neighborhood of a point in an MCS-space is unique up to pointed homeomorphism~\\cite{Kwun}. However given an open conical neighborhood $U$ of $x\\in X$ pointed homeomorphic to a cone over an $(n-1)$-dimensional space $\\Sigma_x$, the space $\\Sigma_x$  need not be uniquely determined by $U$.\n\n\nIt easily follows from the definition that an MCS space has a natural topological stratification constructed as follows.\n\nWe say that a point $p\\in X$ belongs to the $l$-dimensional stratum $X_l$ if $l$ is the maximal number $m$ such that the conical neighbourhood \nof $p$ is pointed homeomorphic to $\\R^m\\times K(S)$ for some MCS-space $S$. It is clear that $X_l$ is an $l$-dimensional topological manifold. It is also immediate that for $x\\in X_l$ all points in the conical neighborhood of $X$ belong to the union of $X_k$ with $k\\ge l$. Therefore the closure $\\bar X_l$ of the $l$-stratum is contained in the union $\\cup_{m\\le l} X_m$ of the strata of dimension at most $l$.\n\nThe $n$ stratum $X_n$ is an $n$-dimensional manifold and by above it is open and dense in $X$. We will also refer to $X_n$ as the \\emph{top stratum} of $X$.\n\n\n\\subsection{Structure theory for $\\RCD(K,N)$ spaces}\\label{subsec:ncRCD}\nWhen writing $\\RCD(K,N)$ space, we always assume that $N\\in [1,\\infty)$.\nWe assume familiarity with the structure theory of $\\RCD(K,N)$ spaces and just collect a few facts to fix notations. \n\n\\begin{definition}\n    Given an $\\RCD(K,N)$ space $(X,\\mathsf{d},\\mathfrak{m})$, let $\\mathcal{R}_k$ be the set of points at which the tangent cone is $(\\R^k,|\\cdot|,\\mathcal{L}^k)$, for $k\\in [1,N]\\cap \\mathbb{N}$. $\\mathcal{R}(X)\\mathrel{\\mathop:}= \\cup_k \\mathcal{R}_k$ is called the regular set of $X$. \n\\end{definition}\n\nIf there is no confusion we also write $\\mathcal{R}$ instead of $\\mathcal{R}(X)$. It is shown in \\cite{MN14} that $\\mathfrak{m}(X\\setminus\\cup_{k}\\mathcal{R}_k)=0$ and each $\\mathcal{R}_k$ is $\\mathcal{H}^k$-rectifiable. Then it is shown in \\cite{BrueSemola20Constancy} that there is a unique $n\\in [1,N]\\cap \\mathbb{N}$ such that $\\mathfrak{m}(X\\setminus\\mathcal{R}_n)=0$. Such $n$ is called the essential dimension of $(X,\\mathsf{d},\\mathfrak{m})$ which is also denoted by ${\\rm essdim}$. \n{It is equal to the maximal $k$ such that $\\mathcal{R}_k$ is non empty, see for example \\cite{kitabeppu2017sufficient}.}\nThe singular set $\\mathcal{S}$ is the complement of the regular set, $\\mathcal{S}\\mathrel{\\mathop:}= X\\setminus \\cup_{k}\\mathcal{R}_k$.  { The singular set has measure zero.}\n\nThe notion of noncollapsed $\\RCD(K,N)$ ($\\ncRCD(K,N)$ in short) is proposed in \\cite{DPG17}, requiring that $\\mathfrak{m}=\\mathcal{H}^N$, which in turn implies $N\\in\\mathbb{N}$ and the essential dimension of a $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ space is exactly $N$, see \\cite[Theorem 1.12]{DPG17}. When considering $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ spaces, finer structure results are available.\n\nThe density function\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\Theta_N(x)\\mathrel{\\mathop:}=\\lim_{r\\to 0}\\frac{\\mathcal{H}^N(B_r(x))}{\\omega_N r^N}\\le 1\n\\end{equation}\nplays a crucial role in the study of regularity of $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ spaces. The existence of the  limit and the  upper bound $1$ come from the Bishop-Gromov inequality. Note that the density function characterizes the regular points in the following way \\cite[Corollary 1.7]{DPG17}:\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\Theta_N(x)=1 \\Leftrightarrow x\\in \\mathcal{R}_N=\\mathcal{R}.\n\\end{equation}\n\n  Thanks to the splitting theorem \\cite{Gigli13} and the volume cone to metric cone property \\cite{DPG16} in a $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ space, the singular set $\\mathcal{S}$ is stratified into \n\\[\n\\mathcal{S}_0\\subset \\mathcal{S}_1\\subset \\cdots\\subset \\mathcal{S}_{N-1},\n\\]\nwhere for $0\\le k\\le N-1$, $k\\in \\N$, $\\mathcal{S}_k=\\{x\\in \\mathcal{S}: \\text{no tangent cone at $x$ is isometric to } \\R^{k+1}\\times C(Z)\\text{ for any metric space } Z\\}$, where $C(Z)$ is the metric measure cone over a metric space $Z$. It is proved in \\cite[Theorem 1.8]{DPG17} that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:sing}\n    \\dim_{\\mathcal{H}}(\\mathcal{S}_k)\\le k.\n\\end{equation}\n With the help of the metric Reifenberg theorem \\cite[Theorem A.1.1-A.1.3]{Cheeger-Colding97I}, it can be derived that for points whose the density is close to $1$ there is a neighborhood homeomorphic to a smooth manifold. We have from \\cite[Theorem 1.7, Corollary 2.14]{KapMon19} that\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{thm:regular}\n    Let $(X,\\mathsf{d},\\mathfrak{m})$ be a $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ space, and $\\alpha\\in (0,1)$. There exists $\\delta\\mathrel{\\mathop:}= \\delta(\\alpha,K,N)>0$ small enough so that if $x\\in X$ satisfies $\\Theta_N(x)> 1-\\delta$, then there is a neighborhood of $x$ biH\\\"older homeomorphic to a smooth manifold with H\\\"older exponent $\\alpha$. Moreover the set $\\{x\\in X: \\Theta_N(x)> 1-\\delta\\}$ is open and dense.\n\\end{theorem}\n\nWe call such points manifold points, and call the complement non-manifold points. It then follows that the set of non-manifold points has Hausdorff codimension at least $1$ since it is contained in $S^{N-1}$. \n \n Finally let us recall here some facts about the boundary of a $\\ncRCD$ space $(X,\\mathsf{d},\\mathcal{H}^N)$. Based on the stratification of $\\mathcal{S}$, De Philippis and Gigli proposed the following definition of the boundary of a $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ space $(X,\\mathsf{d},\\mathfrak{m})$:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:DPGboundary}\n    \\partial X\\mathrel{\\mathop:}= \\overline{\\mathcal{S}_{n-1}\\setminus \\mathcal{S}_{n-2}}.\n\\end{equation}\nOn the other hand, Kapovitch-Mondino (\\cite{KapMon19}) proposed another recursive definition of the boundary analogous to that of Alexandrov spaces, for $N\\ge 2$:  \n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:KMboundary}\n    \\mathcal{F}X\\mathrel{\\mathop:}=\\{x\\in X:  \\exists Y\\in {\\rm Tan}(X,\\mathsf{d},\\mathfrak{m},x), Y=C(Z), \\mathcal{F}Z\\neq \\varnothing\\}.\n\\end{equation}\nIn this definition $Z$ must be a non-collapsed $\\RCD(N-2,N-1)$ space with suitable metric and measure (\\cite[Lemma 4.1]{KapMon19}, after \\cite{Ketterer2015}), so one can inductively reduce the consideration to the case $N=1$, in which case the classification is completed in \\cite{KL15}.\n\n\nThe measure theoretical and topological structure of De Philippis-Gigli's boundary is subsequently studied in \\cite{BNS20} and \\cite{BPS21}.  We will need the following relation from combining \\cite[Lemma 4.6]{KapMon19} and \\cite[Theorem 6.6]{BNS20}: \n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:boundaryrelation}\n    \\mathcal{S}^{N-1}\\setminus\\mathcal{S}^{N-2}\\subset\\mathcal{F}X\\subset \\partial X.\n\\end{equation}\n An implication of the above relation is that not having boundary in both senses are the same, {  and is equivalent to $ \\mathcal{S}^{N-1}\\setminus\\mathcal{S}^{N-2}=\\varnothing$.} It is conjectured that $\\mathcal{F}X=\\partial X$, and this is verified for Alexandrov spaces and Ricci limit spaces with boundary, see \\cite[Chapter 7]{BNS20}.\n \n \n \n \\subsection{Structure theory of Alexandrov Spaces}\\label{subsec:Alexandrov}\nObserve that the structure theory of $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ spaces holds for Alexandrov spaces since $N$-dimensional Alexandrov spaces with lower curvature bound $K$ are $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ spaces \\cite{Petrunin11}, though some results can have different, usually easier, proofs. Instead of attempting to give a thorough introduction, we collect here the following facts that are necessary for this paper and are more refined than that of $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ spaces. We refer readers to \\cite{BGP92, BBI01, Petr-conv} for detailed structure theory of Alexandrov spaces. \n\nFix an $N$-dimensional Alexandrov space $(X,\\mathsf{d})$. We describe the  tangent cones, boundary and topological structure of $X$.\n \nTangent cones in an Alexandrov space are nicer than those in $\\ncRCD$ spaces, for example, the tangent cone at every point is unique. To better describe tangent cones, we introduce the space of directions:\n\n\\begin{definition}\nFor any $p\\in X$, we say that any $2$ geodesics emanating from $p$ have the same direction if their angle at $p$ is zero. This induces an equivalence relation on the space of all geodesics emanating from $p$ and the angle induces a metric on the space of equivalent classes of such geodesics. The metric completion of it is the space of directions at $p$, denoted by $\\Sigma_p(X)$.\n\\end{definition} \n\n$\\Sigma_p(X)$ is an $(N-1)$-dimensional Alexandrov space of curvature lower bound $1$ \\cite[Theorem 10.8.6]{BBI01}. The (metric) tangent cone at $p$ is the metric cone over $\\Sigma_p(X)$, this definition is consistent with the (blow-up) tangent cone $T_pX$ obtained by taking the pGH limit of $(X, r^{-1}\\mathsf{d},p)$ as $r\\to 0$. This observation along with Perelman's stability theorem \\cite{Perelman91} implies that $p$ has a neighborhood homeomorphic to a cone over $\\Sigma_p(X)$, therefore $X$ is an n-dimensional MCS-space by induction. For an alternative proof of this result see \\cite{Per-Morse}. \n\nThe boundary $\\mathcal{F}X$ is defined for $N\\ge 2$ as \n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:Alexboundary}\n    \\mathcal{F}X=\\{p\\in X: \\Sigma_p(X) \\text{ has boundary}\\}.\n\\end{equation}\nWhen $N=1$ Alexandrov spaces are manifolds, the boundary is just boundary of a manifold, see \\cite[7.19]{BGP92}. This gives the inspiration to the Kapovitch-Mondino boundary \\eqref{eq:KMboundary}. It is clear that when $(X,\\mathsf{d},\\mathcal{H}^N)$ is viewed as a $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ space, this boundary is exactly the Kapovitch-Mondino boundary, which justifies the use of notation.\n\nSimilar to the $\\ncRCD$ case, the set of manifold points of $X$ is open and dense, the non manifold points of $X$ is of Hausdorff dimension and topological dimension at most $n-1$ if $X$ has boundary and codimension at most $n-2$ if $X$ does not have boundary. This follows  by combining \\eqref{eq:sing}, \\eqref{eq:boundaryrelation} and Theorem \\ref{thm:regular}.  \n\nWe will also need the notion and properties of quasigeodesics on Alexandrov spaces \\cite{PP-quasigeoodesics}. Recall that a unit speed curve $\\gamma$ in an Alexandrov space is called a \\emph{quasigeodesic} if restrictions of distance functions to $\\gamma$ have the same concavity properties as their restrictions to geodesics. For example, for non-negatively curved Alexandrov space $X$ this means that for any $p\\in X$ the function $t\\mapsto d(\\gamma(t), p)^2$ is 2-concave. Every geodesic is obviously a quasigeodesic but the converse need not be true. For example if $X$ is the unit disk in $\\R^2$ then the boundary circle is a quasigeodesic in $X$.\nPetrunin and Perelman showed  \\cite{PP-quasigeoodesics} that for every point $p$ in an Alexandrov space there are infinite quasigeodesic starting in every direction at $p$.\n\n\n\\section{Invariance of Domain for Alexandrov spaces}\\label{sec:inv}\n\nAs stated in the introduction, the invariance of domain for Alexandrov spaces has long been known by experts, we present here a precise statement and its proof due to Belegradek-Ivanov-Pertunin on mathoverflow \\cite{BIP10}. \n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{thm:inv}\nLet $(X,\\mathsf{d}_X)$, $(Y,\\mathsf{d}_Y)$ be Alexandrov spaces of same dimension, $f:X\\to Y$ be a injective continuous map. For any open subset $U\\subset X$, if $U\\cap \\mathcal{F}X=\\varnothing$  then $f(U)\\cap \\mathcal{F}Y=\\varnothing$, and $f(U)$ is open in $Y$. \n\\end{theorem}\n\nThis theorem follows from the following purely topological Invariance of Domain Theorem for MCS spaces.\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{thm:inv-dom-mcs}\n{\nLet $X,Y$ be $n$ dimensional MCS spaces such that $X_{n-1}=Y_{n-1}=\\varnothing$ and for all points in $Y$ their open conical neighborhoods have connected $n$-strata.\n}\n\nLet $f: X\\to Y$ be continuous and injective.\n\nThen $f(X)$ is open in $Y$ {and open conical neighborhoods of all points in $X$ have connected top strata.}\n\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\n\n\n\n\nWe need the following lemma regarding the  $\\mathbb{Z}_2$-cohomology for\n{ MCS spaces originated from Grove-Petersen \\cite{PG93}, initially stated for compact Alexandrov spaces without boundary}. Note that finite dimensional\nMCS spaces are locally compact, and locally contractible, since every point has a neighborhood homeomorphic to a cone, so Alexander-Spanier cohomology, singular cohomology and Cech cohomology all coincides. It is not necessary to specify which cohomology to use. In what follows all cohomology is taken with $\\mathbb{Z}_2$ coefficients.\n\nWe will make use of the following duality which holds for Alexander-Spanier cohomology with compact support \\cite[Chapter 1]{Massey-book}.\nGiven a locally compact and Hausdorff space $Y$ and a closed subset $A\\subset Y$ it holds that $H^n_c(Y,A)\\cong H^n_c(Y\\setminus A)$.\n{ \n\\begin{lemma}\\label{lem:GP}\nLet $X$ be an $n$-dimensional compact MCS space where $X_n$ has $k$ connected components and $X_{n-1}=\\varnothing$, then $H^n(X)\\cong\\mathbb{Z}_2^k$.\n\\end{lemma}\n}\n\\begin{proof}\nThe proof is the same as in \\cite{PG93}.\n\n\nSince $X_n=X\\setminus S$ is an $n$-manifold with $k$ connected components we have that $H^n_c(X\\setminus S)\\cong \\mathbb{Z}_2^k$. On the other hand by Alexander-Spanier duality we have that $H^n_c(X\\setminus S)\\cong H^n_c(X,S)\\cong H^n(X,S)$ where the last isomorphism holds since $X$ is compact. Now the result immediately follows from the long exact sequence of the pair $(X,S)$ using the fact that $S$ is the union of strata of dimension $\\le 2$ and hence $H^{n-1}(S)\\cong H^{n}(S)=0$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n \n \n Note that in the above proof we get that $H^n_c(X\\setminus S)\\cong H^n(X,S)\\cong H^n(X)$.\nCompare this to the proof of the following Lemma\n\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{lem:Igor}\n    Let $(X,\\mathsf{d}_X)$ be a compact $n$-dimensional MCS space with connected $X_n$ and ${X_{n-1}}=\\varnothing$, take $x\\in X_n$.\n Then we have\n    \\begin{enumerate}\n     \\item\\label{lem:Igoritem1} $H^n(X\\setminus \\{x\\})=0$;\n     \\item\\label{lem:Igoritem2} the inclusion $i: (X,\\varnothing)\\to (X,X\\setminus\\{x\\})$ induces an isomorphism on cohomology, that is  \n    \n        \\begin{equation}\n         i^*: H^n(X, X\\setminus \\{x\\})\\to H^n(X)\n        \\end{equation}\n    is an isomorphism.\n    \\end{enumerate}\n\\end{lemma}\n\n\\begin{proof}[Proof of Lemma~\\ref{lem:Igor}]\n{\n\n\n\n We first show item \\ref{lem:Igoritem2}. Let $U\\subset X\\setminus S=X_n$ be  connected and open. Since $X\\setminus S$ is a manifold and $U$ is connected, we have that the inclusion $U\\hookrightarrow X\\setminus S$ induces an isomorphism between  compactly supported cohomology $H^n_c(U)$ and $H^n_c (X\\setminus S)$. \n \n \n Also, since $X$ is compact we have that $H^n_c(X, X\\setminus U)\\cong H^n(X, X\\setminus U)$ and similarly $H^n_c(X,S)\\cong H^n(X,S)$.\n \n \n  With this at disposal, consider the inclusion of pairs $(X,S)\\hookrightarrow (X,X\\setminus U)$, we have \n \n \\begin{tikzcd}\nH^n_c(U) \\arrow[r, \"\\cong\"] \\arrow[d,\"\\cong\"]\n& H^n_c(X\\setminus S) \\arrow[d, \"\\cong\"] \\\\\nH^n(X, X\\setminus U) \\arrow[r]\n& |[]| H^n(X,S),\n\\end{tikzcd}\\\\\n\nwhere the vertical arrows are Alexander-Spanier duality combined with the above isomorphisms  $H^n_c(X, X\\setminus U)\\cong H^n(X, X\\setminus U)$ and $H^n_c(X,S)\\cong H^n(X,S)$.\n}\n\nThis gives an isomorphism between $H^n(X, X\\setminus U)$ and $H^n(X,S)$ hence between $H^n(X, X\\setminus U)$ and $H^n(X)$ by inclusion. Note that $X\\setminus \\{x\\}$ deformation retract to $X\\setminus U$ for some open conical open neighborhood $U\\subset X\\setminus S$ of $x$, which implies that $i^*: H^n(X, X\\setminus \\{x\\})\\to H^n(X)$ is an isomorphism. \n\nNext we show item \\ref{lem:Igoritem1}. To compute $H^n(X\\setminus \\{x\\})$, look at the long exact sequence for the pair $(X,X\\setminus \\{x\\})$:\n \\begin{equation}\n     \\cdots\\rightarrow H^n(X,X\\setminus \\{x\\})\\xrightarrow{\\cong}  H^n(X)\\rightarrow H^n(X\\setminus \\{x\\})\\xrightarrow{0} H^{n+1}(X,X\\setminus \\{x\\})\\rightarrow\\cdots,\n \\end{equation}\n$H^n(X\\setminus \\{x\\})=0$ follows directly. \n\\end{proof}\n\nNow we can prove the invariance of domain for MCS spaces. The strategy is to localize $X,Y$ to suspensions over lower dimensional strata\n, so that the proof reduces to the case of compact MCS\nspaces with connected top stratum and empty codimension 1 stratum, where the above lemmas apply.\n\n\\begin{proof}[Proof of Theorem \\ref{thm:inv-dom-mcs}]\n\n{ Let us first prove the theorem under the extra assumption that for all points in $X$ the top strata of their conical neighborhoods are connected.}\n\nWe break the proof into steps.\n\n{\\bf Step 1: }Localize to suspensions, which are MCS spaces satisfying assumption in Lemma \\ref{lem:GP} and Lemma \\ref{lem:Igor}. \n\n\nLet $x\\in U$ and $y\\mathrel{\\mathop:}= f(x)\\in f(U)$. Both $x,y$ have a neighborhood homeomorphic to  cones over\n{ some $(n-1)$-dimensional MCS spaces} $\\Sigma_x$, $\\Sigma_y$, respectively. Take cone neighborhoods of $x$, $B_x\\Subset B'_x\\Subset U$, then there exists a cone neighborhood of $y$, say $B_y\\subset f(U)$ such that $B_y\\cap f(\\overline{B'_x}\\setminus B_x)=\\varnothing$.  Let $C\\mathrel{\\mathop:}= U\\setminus B_x$ and $D\\mathrel{\\mathop:}= Y\\setminus B_y$. Note that both $U\/C$ and $Y\/D$ are homeomorphic to a suspension over $\\Sigma_x$, $\\Sigma_y$ respectively. The quotient map induces a new map $\\tilde{f}: U\/C\\to Y\/D$ between compact {$n$-dimensional MCS spaces with connected top stratum and empty codimension $1$ stratum. \nObserve that $\\tilde{f}$ remains injective on $f^{-1}(B_y)=f^{-1}(Y\\setminus D)$. \n\nIt suffices to show that $\\tilde{f}$ is surjective onto $B_y$ identified with its image in $Y\/D$. By continuity, it suffices to show every\npoint in $Y_n \\cap B_y$ is in the image of $\\tilde{f}$. \n\n\n\n{\\bf Step 2: }We show that $\\tilde{f}^*: H^n(Y\/D)\\to H^n(U\/C)$ is an isomorphism.\n\n\n First, we claim that there exists a\n point $x'\\in X_n $ such that $y'\\mathrel{\\mathop:}= f(x)\\in Y_n$. To see this, let $x\\in U\\cap X_n$, and take a compact neighborhood $B$, it is of topological dimension $n$, since $f$ is injective and continuous, it is a homeomorphism between $B$ and $f(B)$, so $f(B)$ also has topological dimension $n$, which means $f(B)$ can not be entirely in $\\cup_{k=0}^{n-2}Y_k$,\n which is of topological dimension at most $n-2$. Now that we have $x'\\in X_n$ and $y'\\in Y_n$ , we claim that $\\tilde{f}^*:H^n(Y\/D, Y\/(D\\setminus \\{y'\\}))\\to H^n(U\/C,U\/(C\\setminus\\{x'\\}))$ is an isomorphism. \n\nTo this end, take an excision around the manifold neighborhood of $x',y'$ respectively. The desired claim reduces to showing that $f^*:H^n(B^n,B^n\\setminus \\{x'\\})\\to H^n(f(B^n),f(B^n)\\setminus \\{y'\\})$ is an isomorphism for injective and continuous $f$ such that $f(x')=y'$, where $B^n$ is a ball in $\\mathbb{R}^n$. The invariance of domain for $\\mathbb{R}^n$ has been used to show that $f(B^n)$ is open so that an excision can be applied on $Y\/D$. The invariance of domain for $\\mathbb{R}^n$ also shows $f:(B^n, B^n\\setminus \\{x'\\})\\to (f(B^n),f(B^n)\\setminus \\{y'\\})$ is a homeomorphism, the claim follows.\n\nNow consider the induced map $f^*$ between long exact sequences of the pairs $(Y\/D, Y\/(D\\setminus \\{y'\\}))$ and $(U\/C,U\/(C\\setminus \\{x'\\}))$, taking also into account item \\ref{lem:Igoritem2} of Lemma \\ref{lem:Igor}, by 5-Lemma it follows that $\\tilde{f}^*: H^n(Y\/D)\\to H^n(U\/C)$ is an isomorphism. \n\n\n\n{\\bf Step 3: }Arguing by contradiction assume that\n $\\tilde{f}$ is not surjective onto $(Y_n\\cap B_y)$ identified with its image in $Y\/D$, we show that $\\tilde{f}^* :H^n(Y\/D)\\to H^n(X\/C)$ is a zero map. However, $\\tilde{f}^*$ cannot be both zero map and isomorphism (from Step 2), because by Lemma \\ref{lem:GP}, $H^n(Y\/D)= H^n(U\/C)=\\mathbb{Z}_2$, a contradiction.\n \n\nFor this purpose, suppose that a\npoint $z\\in Y_n\\cap B_y$ is missed by $\\tilde{f}$, then $\\tilde{f}$ can be factored through \n\\begin{equation}\n    \\tilde{f}: U\/C\\rightarrow Y\/(D\\setminus \\{z\\})\\rightarrow Y\/D.\n\\end{equation}\nSince $H^n(Y\/(D\\setminus \\{z\\}))=0$ due to item \\ref{lem:Igoritem1} of lemma \\ref{lem:Igor}, $\\tilde{f}^* :H^n(Y\/D)\\to H^n(X\/C)$ is a zero map. \n\n\nThis concludes the proof of the theorem under the extra assumption that for all points in $X$ the top strata of their conical neighborhoods are connected. \n\n\n\nTo complete the proof in the general case we will need the following general lemma.\n\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{lem-top-strata}\nLet $Z$ be a connected  $n$-dimensional MCS space space that that it's top stratum $Z_n$ is not connected. Then there exists a point $z\\in Z$ such that the top stratum  of its conical neighborhood $U_z$ is not connected.\n\\end{lemma}\n\\begin{proof}[Proof of Lemma \\ref{lem-top-strata}]\nlet $p, q$ be points lying in different connected components of $Z_n$. Since $Z$ is connected there is a path $\\gamma:[ 0,1]\\to Z$ such that $\\gamma(0)=p, \\gamma(1)=q$.\nBy compactness of $[0,1]$ there exists finitely many connected components $U_1,\\ldots U_k$  of $Z_n$ whose closures intersect $\\gamma$. Since the top stratum  is dense in $Z$ we have that\n$\\gamma$ is contained in $\\bar U_1\\cup \\bar U_2\\cup\\ldots\\cup \\bar U_k$, therefore $[0,1]=\\gamma^{-1}(\\bar U_1)\\cup \\gamma^{-1}(\\bar U_2)\\cup \\ldots\\cup \\gamma^{-1}(\\bar U_k)$.\nAs all these sets are closed and $[0,1]$ is connected this covering can not be disjoint and hence  there is $t_0\\in [0,1]$ which belongs to at least two $\\gamma^{-1}(\\bar U_j)$. Then $z=\\gamma(t_0)$ satisfies the conclusion of the Lemma.\n\n\\end{proof}\nWe now continue with the proof of Theorem \\ref{thm:inv-dom-mcs}.\n\nRecall that we have proved the theorem under the assumption that all conical neighborhood of points in $X$ have connected top strata.\n\nNow suppose there are some points in $X$ such that the top strata of their conical neighborhoods are not connected. Let $l$ be the largest number that $X_l$ contains such a point $x$. Take such $x\\in X_l$.\n\n\nThen its conical neighborhood $U_x$ has the form $\\R^l\\times C(\\Sigma)$ where $\\Sigma$ is $(n-l-1)$-dimensional MCS space. \nNote that points in $U_x$ outside of $\\R^l\\times \\{*\\}$ (here $*$ is the cone point in $C(\\Sigma)$)  lie in the union of strata of dimension $>l$.\n\nWe claim that $\\Sigma$ has more than one connected components. Indeed, if not then its top stratum is not connected while $\\Sigma$ itself is connected. Then by Lemma \\ref{lem-top-strata} applied to $\\Sigma$  there exists a point $\\sigma\\in \\Sigma$ such that the top stratum  of its conical neighborhood in $\\Sigma$ is not connected. But then the corresponding point in $U_x$ will lie in $X_m$ for $m>l$ and also have the property that its conical neighborhood has more than one top stratum components. This contradicts the maximality of $l$ in the choice of $x$. \n\nLet $\\Sigma'$ be one component of $\\Sigma$. Then the subset $W'=\\R^l\\times C(\\Sigma')\\subset U_x$ is an $n$-dimensional MCS space with empty $(n-1)$-stratum and such that the top stratum of all conical neighborhoods in $W'$ are connected.\n Then we have an injective embedding $f: W'\\to Y$ and by the proof above the image $f(W')$ is an open neighborhood of $f(x)$. But the same argument applies to any other component $\\Sigma''$ of $\\Sigma$ and gives another subset $W''\\subset U_x$ which contains $x$ and such that $f(W'')$ is also an open neighborhood of $f(x)$. This contradicts injectivity of $f$ near $x$. Therefore under the assumption of the theorem conical neighborhoods of points in $X$ must necessarily have connected top strata. }\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\begin{remark}\nThe connectedness assumption of top strata of conical neighborhoods in $Y$ is essential. For example, take $Y=\\R^n\\bigvee  \\R^n$ to be the wedge sum of two copies of $\\R^n$ glued at $0$, $X=\\R^n$ and $f:X\\hookrightarrow Y$ be inclusion of the first copy of $\\R^n$. \nThis map is clearly  1-1 but the image is not open since it does not contain any neighborhood of $0$ in $Y$.\n\n\t\n\\end{remark}\n\n\\begin{remark}\nThe conclusion that conical neighborhoods of points in $X$ must be connected can be viewed as a non-embeddability result. In other words the following holds. Suppose $Y$ satisfies the assumption of the theorem and $X$ is an $n$-dimensional MCS space with empty $(n-1)$-stratum and such that there is a point in $X$ such that the top stratum of its conical neighborhood is not connected. Then there is no 1-1 continuous map $f:X\\to Y$.\n\\end{remark} \n\n\n\\begin{proof}[Proof of Theorem \\ref{thm:inv}]\n\tAs pointed out in section \\ref{subsec:Alexandrov}, every Alexandrov space is an MCS space with connected top stratum.\n\t\n\t The assumption $U\\cap \\mathcal{F}X=\\varnothing$ implies that $U$ has empty codimension $1$ stratum. } Next, for every $p\\in Y$ its conical neighborhood $W_p$ is homeomorphic to $T_pY$ which is a nonnegatively curved Alexandrov space.\n\t\n Since the top stratum  of $T_pY$ is connected the same is true for $W_p$.\n\t\n\t It suffices to show that $f(U)\\cap\\mathcal{F}Y=\\varnothing$, everything else follows from Theorem \\ref{thm:inv-dom-mcs}. \n\t\n\tAssume $\\mathcal{F}Y\\neq \\varnothing$. Take the metric double $\\tilde{Y}$ of $Y$, $\\tilde{Y}$ an $n$-dimensional Alexandrov space without boundary, and $f:X\\to Y$ extends to an injective and continuous map into $\\tilde Y$ by post composing with the inclusion map $Y\\hookrightarrow \\tilde Y$. We still denote it by $f$. Applying Theorem \\ref{thm:inv-dom-mcs} to $f:X\\to \\tilde{Y}$, we see that $f(U)$ must be open in $\\tilde Y$. If there exists $z\\in f(U)\\cap \\mathcal{F}Y$, then there exists an open neighborhood $V$ of $z$ in $f(U)\\cap\\tilde Y$. By definition of metric double $V$ must intersect both copies of $Y$ in $\\tilde Y$, this is a contradiction to the definition of $f$, from which it follows that $f(U)$ can not intersect $\\mathcal{F}Y$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Equivalence of intrinsic and extrinsic boundary}\\label{sec:equi}\n\n\\subsection{Alexandrov case}\n\n\n\\begin{proof}[Proof of Theorem \\ref{thm:main1}]\n\n    We first show that $\\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar\\Omega=\\mathcal{F}\\bar\\Omega$. Since tangent cones at points in $\\Omega$ have no boundary, we see that $\\mathcal{F}\\bar\\Omega\\subset\\partial_{\\rm top}\\Omega$. Now take $p\\in \\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar\\Omega$, if to the contrary $p\\notin \\mathcal{F}\\bar\\Omega$, then there is an open set $U\\subset \\bar{\\Omega}$ containing $p$ such that $U\\cap \\mathcal{F}\\bar\\Omega=\\varnothing$, since $\\mathcal{F}\\bar\\Omega$ is closed. The Invariance of Domain Theorem \\ref{thm:inv} applied to inclusion $i:\\bar{\\Omega}\\hookrightarrow X$ yields that $i(U)=U$ is also an open subset of $X$, so $p\\in U\\subset {\\rm Int}_{\\rm top}(\\bar\\Omega)=\\Omega$, a contradiction to $p\\in\\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar\\Omega$.  \n\n    Now that $\\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar\\Omega=\\mathcal{F}\\bar\\Omega$, it follows immediately that $\\Omega$ coincides with $\\bar\\Omega\\setminus \\mathcal{F}\\bar\\Omega$, which is the interior in the sense of Alexandrov spaces. So strong convexity of the interior of an Alexandrov space yields that $\\gamma$ does not intersect $\\mathcal{F}\\Omega$ hence $\\partial_{\\rm top}\\Omega$. \n    The proof of \\ref{main1:item2} is completed by noticing that any $\\mathsf{d}_\\Omega$ geodesic connecting points in ${\\rm Int}_{\\rm top}(\\bar\\Omega)=\\Omega$ and entirely contained in $\\Omega$ is a local geodesic of $(X,\\mathsf{d}_X)$.\n\nFor the proof of item \\ref{main1:item3}, let $p,q\\in \\partial{\\rm Int}_{\\rm top}(\\bar\\Omega), d=\\mathsf{d}_\\Omega(p,q)$, and $\\gamma: [0,d]\\to \\bar\\Omega$ be a unit  speed geodesic with respect to $\\mathsf{d}_\\Omega$  joining $p,q$ such that $\\gamma(0)=p$, $\\gamma(1)=q$. For any small enough $\\varepsilon\\in (0,d\/3)$, take $p'=\\gamma(\\varepsilon)$ and $q'=\\gamma(d-\\varepsilon)$. \n{\nWe can find points in  $\\{p'_n\\}$ and $\\{q'_n\\}$  in $\\Omega$ so that $p'_n\\to p'$ and $q'_n\\to q'$. The geodesic $\\gamma_n$ of $(\\bar\\Omega,\\mathsf{d}_\\Omega)$ joining $p_n$ and $q_n$  must  converge to $\\gamma|_{[\\varepsilon,1-\\varepsilon]}$ otherwise there would have been branching geodesics between $p,q$. \nOn the other hand $\\gamma_n$ is a local geodesic of $(X,\\mathsf{d}_X)$ and hence is a quasigeodesic in $X$. Since limits of quasigeodesics are quasigeodesics it follows that \n $\\gamma|_{[\\varepsilon,1-\\varepsilon]}$   is a quasi-geodesic in $X$. Letting $\\varepsilon\\to 0$ we conclude that $\\gamma$ is a quasi-geodesic in $X$ as well.}\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\n\\subsection{$\\ncRCD$ case}\nThe purpose of this section is to prove Theorem \\ref{thm:main2}. We need the following pairwise almost convexity proved by Deng in \\cite[Theorem 6.5]{deng2020holder}.\n\n\\begin{proposition}\\label{prop:pairconv}\nLet $(X,\\mathsf{d},\\mathfrak{m})$ be an $\\RCD(K,N)$ space with ${\\rm essdim}=n$. For $\\mathfrak{m}\\times\\mathfrak{m}$-a.e.\\ every $(x,y)\\in\\mathcal{R}_n\\times \\mathcal{R}_n$, there exists a geodesic joining $x,y$, and entirely contained in $\\mathcal{R}_n$.\n\\end{proposition}\n\n \n \\begin{proof}[Proof of Theorem \\ref{thm:main2}]\n We assume that $\\bar\\Omega\\neq X$, otherwise it either contradicts the assumption $\\bar \\Omega\\cap \\partial X=\\varnothing$ or makes the statement trivial. We break the proof into several steps.\n \n {\\bf Step 1:} we show $\\partial \\bar\\Omega\\subset \\partial_{\\rm top} \\bar\\Omega$.  \n \n \n Observe that $\\mathsf{d}_\\Omega$ and $\\mathsf{d}_X$ coincide on sufficiently small open subsets of $\\Omega$, hence tangent cones taken at the same point by the same rescaling sequence w.r.t. both metrics are isometric for points in $\\Omega$, in particular tangent cones at points in $\\Omega$ have no boundary. Which means that  $\\mathcal{S}^{N-1}(\\bar\\Omega)\\setminus \\mathcal{S}^{N-2}(\\bar\\Omega)\\subset \\partial_{\\rm top} \\bar\\Omega$. Since $\\partial_{\\rm top} \\bar\\Omega$ is closed, we have $\\partial \\bar\\Omega\\subset \\partial_{\\rm top} \\bar\\Omega$.\n \n {\\bf Step 2:} Suppose $\\partial_{\\rm top} \\bar \\Omega\\subset \\partial \\bar\\Omega$ is not true, we find a point $q\\in \\partial_{top}\\bar\\Omega\\setminus \\partial \\bar\\Omega$ so that $q\\in \\mathcal{R}(X)$.\n \n \n First, there exists $p\\in \\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar\\Omega\\setminus \\partial \\bar\\Omega$. Since $\\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar\\Omega$ and $\\partial \\bar\\Omega$ are both closed, there exists $\\varepsilon>0$ such that $B_{2\\varepsilon}(p)\\cap \\partial \\bar\\Omega=\\varnothing$. Now consider any two points in $B_{\\varepsilon\/2}(p)$. By triangle inequality, any geodesic joining such two points lies in $B_{\\varepsilon}(p)$ hence does not intersect $\\partial \\bar\\Omega$, moreover, note that $\\mathcal{H}^N_X(B_{\\varepsilon\/2}(p)\\cap \\Omega)>0$, $\\mathcal{H}^N_X(B_{\\varepsilon\/2}(p)\\cap (X\\setminus \\bar\\Omega))>0$ (recall we assumed $\\bar\\Omega\\neq X$), by Deng's pairwise almost convexity of the regular set, Proposition \\ref{prop:pairconv}, there exist $x\\in B_{\\varepsilon\/2}(p)\\cap \\Omega\\cap \\mathcal{R}(X)$ and $y\\in B_{\\varepsilon\/2}(p)\\cap (X\\setminus \\bar\\Omega)\\cap \\mathcal{R}(X)$ such that some geodesic, denote it by $\\gamma_{xy}$, joining $x,y$ is entirely contained in $\\mathcal{R}(X)$, meanwhile, $\\gamma_{xy}$ must intersect $\\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar\\Omega$, and the point of intersection, denoted by $q$, is the desired point. \n \n {\\bf Step 3:} We show that for the point  $q$ we found in step $2$, there exists a neighborhood $U$ so that $\\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar \\Omega\\cap U$ has Hausdorff codimension at least $2$ (recall Remark \\ref{rmk:equiHaus}), and there exists $\\delta\\mathrel{\\mathop:}= \\delta(K,N)>0$ depending only on $K,N$ such that $\\Theta_{\\bar\\Omega}(x)\\le 1-\\delta$ for any $x\\in \\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar \\Omega\\cap U$.\n \n \n Since $q\\in \\mathcal{R}(X)\\cap (\\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar \\Omega\\setminus \\partial \\bar\\Omega)$, there exists an open neighborhood $U$ such that $U$ is homeomorphic to a manifold and $U\\cap \\partial \\bar\\Omega=\\varnothing$.  We claim that $\\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar \\Omega\\cap U\\subset \\mathcal{S}^{N-2}(\\bar\\Omega)$. It suffices to show $\\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar \\Omega\\cap U\\subset \\mathcal{S}(\\bar\\Omega)$ since $U$ is disjoint from $\\partial \\bar\\Omega$. \n \n Let $\\delta\\mathrel{\\mathop:}=\\delta(K,N)>0$ be as in Theorem \\ref{thm:regular}, if there exists $x\\in \\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar \\Omega\\cap U$ with $\\Theta_{\\bar\\Omega}(x)> 1-\\delta$ then there exists $V\\subset U\\cap \\bar\\Omega$ containing $x$, open relative to $\\bar\\Omega$, and homeomorphic to a manifold. Now the invariance of domain for manifolds applied to the inclusion $V\\hookrightarrow U$ yields that $V$ is open in $X$, hence $V\\subset \\Omega$. This contradicts that $x\\in \\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar \\Omega$. Therefore  for any $x\\in \\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar \\Omega\\cap U$ it holds that $\\Theta_{\\bar\\Omega}(x)\\le  1-\\delta$ which by the choice of $\\delta$ implies that  $\\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar \\Omega\\cap U\\subset \\mathcal{S}^{N-2}(\\bar\\Omega)$. \n  Since Hausdorff codimension of $\\mathcal{S}^{N-2}(\\bar\\Omega)$ is at least $2$, the proof of this step is completed.\n \n \n {\\bf Step 4:} We show that when we blow up the inclusion map $ i_0:\\bar\\Omega\\hookrightarrow X$ at $q$, the induced map $i_1: T_q\\bar \\Omega\\to T_q X  \\cong \\R^N$ is not surjective near $0$, in fact, $0$ is on the topological boundary of $i_1(T_q\\bar \\Omega)$.\n \n Denote by $B^X_r$ (resp. $B^{\\bar\\Omega}_r$) the ball of radius $r$ in metric $\\mathsf{d}_X$ (resp. $\\mathsf{d}_\\Omega$). We claim that $\\mathcal{H}^N_X(B^{\\bar\\Omega}_r(x))=\\mathcal{H}^N_{\\bar\\Omega}(B^{\\bar\\Omega}_r(x))$ for $x\\in U\\cap \\bar\\Omega$ and $r>0$ small enough so that $B^{\\bar\\Omega}_r(x)\\subset U$. Observe that the two distances $\\mathsf{d}_X$ and $\\mathsf{d}_{\\Omega}$ coincide with each other for small enough open subsets in $\\Omega$, so $\\mathcal{H}^N_X$ and $\\mathcal{H}^N_{\\bar\\Omega}$ gives the same mass to open subsets of $\\Omega$. Now observe that $B^{\\bar\\Omega}_r(x)=(B^{\\bar\\Omega}_r(x)\\cap \\Omega)\\cup (B^{\\bar\\Omega}_r(x)\\cap\\partial_{\\rm top} \\bar\\Omega)$, where the former is open in $\\Omega$, the latter has codimension at least $2$ proved in step 3 hence measure zero, which completes the proof of the claim. Recall from step 2 and step 3 we know that $\\Theta_X(p)=1$ and $\\Theta_{\\bar\\Omega}(p)\\le 1-\\delta$, it follows\n \n \\begin{equation}\\label{eq:density}\n     \\lim_{r\\to 0} \\frac{\\mathcal{H}^N_X(B^{\\bar\\Omega}_r(p))}{\\mathcal{H}^N_X(B^{X}_r(p))}=\\lim_{r\\to 0} \\frac{\\mathcal{H}^N_{\\bar\\Omega}(B^{\\bar\\Omega}_r(p))}{\\mathcal{H}^N_X(B^{X}_r(p))}=\\frac{\\Theta_{\\bar\\Omega}(p)}{\\Theta_{X}(p)}\\le 1-\\delta.\n \\end{equation} \n If $i_1(T_q \\bar \\Omega)$ contains $B^{\\R^N}_{\\varepsilon}(0)$ for some $\\varepsilon>0$, then the local coincidence of the metrics when away from boundary implies $B^{\\R^N}_{\\varepsilon\/2}(0)=B^{T_q\\bar\\Omega}_{\\varepsilon\/2}(0)$, which in turn implies $\\mathcal{H}^N_{\\R^N}(B^{T_q\\bar\\Omega}_{\\varepsilon\/2}(0))=\\mathcal{H}^N_{\\R^N}(B^{\\R^N}_{\\varepsilon\/2}(0))$, this contradicts \\eqref{eq:density}.\n\n {\\bf Step 5:} We derive a contradiction by iteratively blowing up at a topological boundary point. \n \n \n If $N=1$, then the statement is clear thanks to the classification theorem \\cite{KL15}. It suffices to consider the case $N\\ge 2$. In this case the topological boundary of $T_q\\bar\\Omega$ is more than a single point, to show this, it is enough to notice that $i_1$ is bi-Lipschitz (recall remark \\ref{rmk:equiHaus}), so it is an homeomorphism onto its image. \n \n Now we summarize the properties needed for the blow-up procedure. In the setting of this theorem, let $i_0:\\bar \\Omega\\hookrightarrow X$ be the inclusion map, $q\\in \\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar\\Omega$ and $i_1: T_q\\bar\\Omega\\to T_qX$ be the blow-up of $i_0$ at $q$. In order for the cone tip of $T_q\\bar\\Omega$ to be on $\\partial_{\\rm top}i_1(T_q\\bar\\Omega)$, it is sufficient to have:\n \n \\begin{enumerate}\n     \\item $q\\in \\mathcal{R}(X)$ and $\\Theta_{\\bar\\Omega}(q)\\le 1-\\delta$; \n     \\item $\\mathcal{H}^N_{\\bar\\Omega}(B^{\\bar\\Omega}_r(q))=\\mathcal{H}^N_{X}(B^{\\bar\\Omega}_r(q))$ for sufficiently small $r>0$;\n     \\item $q\\notin \\mathcal{F}\\bar\\Omega$.\n \\end{enumerate}\n \n After the blow-up procedure in step 4, the ambient space $T_q X\\cong \\R^N$ has no singular points, moreover, $q\\notin \\partial \\bar\\Omega$ implies $q\\notin  \\mathcal{F}\\bar\\Omega$, which means iterated tangent cones at $q$ w.r.t. $(\\bar\\Omega, \\mathsf{d}_\\Omega)$ have no boundary, so every point on  $\\partial_{\\rm top} i_1(T_q\\bar\\Omega)$ (not empty by step 4) still satisfies the conditions listed above, so we can continue blowing up at any point on $\\partial_{\\rm top} i_1(T_q\\bar\\Omega)$ other than the cone tip, each time keeping the the base point a point on the topological boundary.  In finitely many blow-up procedures, we end up with a bi-Lipschitz map $i_N: \\R^N\\to \\R^N$ such that $i_N(0)=0$, $i_N$ not surjective, and $0$ is on the topological boundary of $i_N(\\R^N)$, this is impossible by invariance of domain.\n \n \\end{proof}\n \n \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Applications}\\label{sec:AppConv}\n In this section we derive from the boundary equivalence in various ambient spaces the {locally totally geodesic} property, i.e., a subset satisfying $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ condition forces the geodesics in intrinsic metric joining interior points to be disjoint from boundary. \n \n We first introduce a technical result which is a direct consequence of H\\\"older continuity along interior of tangent cones pointed out in \\cite[Corollary 1.5]{CN12}, it is available for $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ spaces thanks to Deng's generalization of this statement \\cite{deng2020holder}. \n\n\\begin{proposition}\\label{prop:dentofull}\nLet $(X,\\mathsf{d},\\mathfrak{m})$ be an $\\RCD(K,N)$ space, and $\\gamma$ be a geodesic in $X$. The set of points in $\\gamma$ with unique tangent cone is relatively closed in the interior of $\\gamma$. In particular, for each integer $1\\le k\\le N$, $\\gamma\\cap \\mathcal{R}_k$ is closed relative to the interior of $\\gamma$. If in addition $\\gamma\\cap \\mathcal{R}_k$ is dense in the interior of $\\gamma$, then it is all of the interior.\n\\end{proposition}\n\nWe start with the following simplest setting, where the ambient space is a smooth manifold {but there are no assumption on the regularity of topological boundary}.\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{thm:smooth-rcd-subset}\n    Let $(M,g)$ be an $n$-dimensional smooth\n   \n    manifold, and $\\Omega\\subset M$ be open, connected and such that ${\\rm Int}(\\bar\\Omega)=\\Omega$. If $(\\bar\\Omega,\\mathsf{d}_\\Omega, \\vol_g\\mathbin{\\vrule height 1.6ex depth 0pt width 0.13ex\\vrule height 0.13ex depth 0pt width 1.3ex} \\bar\\Omega)$ is a $\\ncRCD(K,n)$ space, then \n    \\begin{enumerate}\n        \\item $\\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar \\Omega=\\partial \\bar\\Omega$.\n        \\item any minimizing geodesic in $(\\bar\\Omega,\\mathsf{d}_\\Omega)$ joining two points in $\\Omega$ does not intersect $\\partial \\Omega$ hence a local geodesic in $(M,g)$, {i.e., $\\Omega$ is locally totally geodesic};\n        \\item any minimizing geodesic in $(\\bar\\Omega,\\mathsf{d}_\\Omega)$  joining two points on $\\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar\\Omega$ is either entirely contained in $\\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar\\Omega$, or its interior is entirely in $\\Omega$. In the latter case the minimizing geodesic is also a local geodesic in $(M,g)$.\n        \n    \\end{enumerate}\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\\begin{proof}\n   We first show that if $p\\in \\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar\\Omega$, then any tangent cone taken w.r.t. $(\\bar\\Omega,\\mathsf{d}_\\Omega, \\vol_g\\mathbin{\\vrule height 1.6ex depth 0pt width 0.13ex\\vrule height 0.13ex depth 0pt width 1.3ex} \\bar\\Omega)$ at $p$ cannot be $\\R^n$. This is contained in step 3 of the proof of Theorem \\ref{thm:main2}. If there is a tangent cone w.r.t. $(\\bar\\Omega,\\mathsf{d}_\\Omega, \\vol_g\\mathbin{\\vrule height 1.6ex depth 0pt width 0.13ex\\vrule height 0.13ex depth 0pt width 1.3ex} \\bar\\Omega)$ at $p$ is $\\R^n$, then there is a neighborhood $V$ of $p$ open in $\\bar\\Omega$ homeomorphic to $\\R^n$, while there is also a neighborhood $U$ of $p$ open in $M$ homeomorphic to $\\R^n$. Then the invariance of domain applied to the inclusion $U\\cap V\\hookrightarrow U$ show that $U\\cap V$ is open in $M$ and $U\\cap V\\subset \\Omega$, a contradiction to $p\\in \\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar\\Omega$. It follows directly that $\\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar\\Omega=\\partial \\bar \\Omega$.\n   \n    Consider now a minimizing geodesic $\\gamma:[0,1]\\to \\bar\\Omega$ in $(\\bar\\Omega,\\mathsf{d}_{\\Omega})$. Then $\\gamma((0,1))\\cap \\partial_{\\rm top} \\bar\\Omega$ is relatively closed in $\\gamma((0,1))$. By Proposition \\ref{prop:dentofull}, $\\gamma((0,1))\\setminus \\partial_{\\rm top} \\bar\\Omega$ is also relatively closed, this is the set of points in $\\gamma((0,1))$ having tangent cone $\\R^n$. It follows from the connectedness of $\\gamma((0,1))$ that either $\\gamma((0,1))\\setminus \\partial_{\\rm top} \\bar\\Omega$ or $\\gamma((0,1))\\cap \\partial_{\\rm top} \\bar\\Omega$ is empty.\n\\end{proof}\n\n{\n\\begin{remark}\nNote that Theorem \\ref{thm:smooth-rcd-subset} implies that $\\bar \\Omega$ is locally convex in $M$ and is hence locally Alexandrov (globally Alexandrov if it is compact).\n\\end{remark}\n}\nWe now move to the case where the ambient space is a $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ space. With the extra assumption $\\partial X=\\mathcal{F}X$ and the stability of absence of boundary \\cite[Theorem 1.6]{BNS20} of an $\\RCD(K,N)$ space, the exact same idea can be used to prove that ${\\rm Int}(X)$ is strongly geodesically convex.\n\n\\begin{corollary}\\label{cor:intconv}\n Let $(X,\\mathsf{d},\\mathcal{H}^N)$ be a $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ space. Assume $\\partial X=\\mathcal{F} X$, then ${\\rm Int}(X)\\mathrel{\\mathop:}= X\\setminus \\partial X$ is strongly convex, i.e.\\ any geodesic joining points in ${\\rm Int}(X)$ does not intersect $\\partial X$.\n\\end{corollary}\n\n   \n\\begin{proof}\n    For a constant speed geodesic $\\gamma:[0,1]\\to X$ joining two points in ${\\rm Int}(X)$, if $\\gamma\\cap \\partial X\\neq \\varnothing$, then there exists a $t_0\\in (0,1)$ such that $t_0=\\sup\\{t: \\gamma([0,t))\\cap \\partial X\\}=\\varnothing$ and $\\gamma (t_0)\\in \\partial X$, since $\\partial X$ is closed. Note that $\\gamma(t_0)$ is an interior point of $\\gamma$ and for every $t\\in (0,t_0)$, any tangent cone at $\\gamma(t)$ does not have boundary, now the he stability of absence of boundary \\cite[Theorem 1.6]{BNS20} under pmGH convergence and h\\\"older continuity of tangent cones along the interior of a geodesic yield that any tangent cone at $\\gamma(t_0)$ has no boundary, this contradicts $\\gamma(t_0)\\in  \\partial X=\\mathcal{F}X$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\n\t\\begin{corollary}\\label{cor:loc-total-geo}\n\t\tIn the setting of Theorem \\ref{thm:main2}, with the extra assumption that $\\mathcal{F}X=\\partial X$, any (minimizing) geodesic in $(\\bar\\Omega,\\mathsf{d}_\\Omega)$ joining two points in $\\Omega$ is a local geodesic in $(X,\\mathsf{d}_X)$, hence $ \\Omega$ is locally totally geodesic.\n\t\\end{corollary}\n\n\n\nIf we consider only a noncollapsed Ricci limit space with boundary $(X,\\mathsf{d},\\mathfrak{m})$, i.e. the pmGH limit of $n$-dimensional manifolds with convex boundary and uniform Ricci curvature lower bound in the interior and uniform volume lower bound of ball of radius $1$ centered at points chosen in the pmGH convergence, then $\\mathcal{F}X=\\partial X$ is already verified \\cite[Theorem 7.8]{BNS20}, naturally we have:\n\n\\begin{corollary}\nLet $(X,\\mathsf{d},\\mathfrak{m})$ be a noncollapsed Ricci limit space with boundary, then its interior $X\\setminus\\partial X$ is strongly convex.\n\\end{corollary}\n\nDue to the lack of a notion of intrinsic boundary for collapsed spaces we have been discussing noncollapsed spaces only. Without stratification of singular set, De Philippis-Gigli definition's cannot be applied, and Kapovitch-Mondino's definition also fails to provide the correct definition of boundary, as the metric horn example by Cheeger-Colding \\cite[Example 8.77]{Cheeger-Colding97I} shows a collapsed Ricci limit space can have an interior cusp at which the tangent cone is a half line. Nevertheless we conjecture that Han's Theorem \\ref{thm:han} holds in much larger generality, that is, a subspace in a $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ ambient space along with some reference measure satisfying $\\RCD(K,\\infty)$ condition should still enjoy the property that geodesics in the intrinsic metric joining points in the interior remains away from boundary, and the reference measure gives measure $0$ to the topological boundary. This would provide a partial converse ( different from local-to-global theorem) to the well-known global-to-local theorem for $\\RCD(K,\\infty)$ spaces from \\cite[Theorem 6.18]{AGS14a}:  \n\n \\begin{theorem}\n    Let $Y$ be a weakly geodesically convex closed subset of an $\\RCD(K,\\infty)$ space $(X, \\mathsf{d},\\mathfrak{m})$ such that $\\mathfrak{m}(Y)>0$ and $\\mathfrak{m}(\\partial_{\\rm top}Y)=0$. Then $(Y,\\mathsf{d}_Y, \\mathfrak{m}\\mathbin{\\vrule height 1.6ex depth 0pt width 0.13ex\\vrule height 0.13ex depth 0pt width 1.3ex} Y)$ is also an $\\RCD(K,\\infty)$ space.\n \\end{theorem}\n\nMore precisely, we conjecture that\n\n\\begin{conjecture}\\label{conj:collapseconv}\n    Let $\\Omega$ be an open subset in a $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ space $(X,\\mathsf{d}_X, \\mathcal{H}^N)$, where $N$ is a positive integer, so that for some Radon measure $\\mu$ with $\\supp \\mu=\\bar\\Omega$, $(\\bar{\\Omega}, \\mathsf{d}_{\\Omega},\\mu)$ is an $\\RCD(K,\\infty)$ space. Assume that $\\partial_{\\rm top} \\Omega$ is $\\mathcal{H}^{N-1}$-rectifiable, then $\\mu\\mathbin{\\vrule height 1.6ex depth 0pt width 0.13ex\\vrule height 0.13ex depth 0pt width 1.3ex} \\Omega\\ll \\mathcal{H}^N\\mathbin{\\vrule height 1.6ex depth 0pt width 0.13ex\\vrule height 0.13ex depth 0pt width 1.3ex}\\Omega$ and $\\mu(\\partial_{\\rm top} \\Omega)=0$ and every geodesic joining two points in $\\Omega$ w.r.t. $\\mathsf{d}_\\Omega$ does not intersect $\\partial_{\\rm top}\\bar\\Omega$ hence a local geodesic w.r.t. $\\mathsf{d}_X${, in particular, $\\Omega$ is locally totally geodesic}.\n\\end{conjecture}\n\n\n\n\n\\section{ Almost convexity}\\label{sec:almost}\n\n\n\n\\subsection{1-D localization}\nWe minimally collect the elements of the localization technique introduced in \\cite{Cav14} and \\cite{CavMon15}, we remark that this technique is available for a much general class of metric measure spaces, the so called essentially non-branching ${\\rm MCP}(K,N)$ spaces, which contains essentially non-branching $\\CD(K,N)$ spaces, hence $\\RCD(K,N)$ spaces (\\cite{RajalaSturm12}). \n\nLet $(X,\\mathsf{d},\\mathfrak{m})$ be an $\\RCD(K,N)$ space, $u$ be a $1$-Lipschitz function. Define the transport set induced by $u$ as:\n\\[\n\\Gamma(u)\\mathrel{\\mathop:}=\\{(x,y)\\in X\\times X: u(x)-u(y)=\\mathsf{d}(x,y)\\},\n\\]\nand its transpose as $\\Gamma^{-1}(u)\\mathrel{\\mathop:}= \\{(x,y)\\in X\\times X: (y,x)\\in \\Gamma(u)\\}$. The union $R_u\\mathrel{\\mathop:}= \\Gamma^{-1}(u)\\cup \\Gamma(u)$ defines a relation on $X$. By excluding negligible isolated and branching points, one can find a transport set $\\mathcal{T}_u$ such that $\\mathfrak{m}(X\\setminus\\mathcal{T}_u)=0$ and $R_u$ restricted to $\\mathcal{T}_u$ is an equivalence relation. So there is a partition of $\\mathcal{T}_u:=\\cup_{\\alpha\\in Q} X_{\\alpha}$, where $Q$ is a set of indices, denote by $\\mathfrak{Q}:\\mathcal{T}_u\\to Q$ the quotient map. In \\cite[Proposition 5.2]{Cav14}, it is shown that there exists a measurable selection $s:\\mathcal{T}_u\\to \\mathcal{T}_u$ such that if $x R_u y$ then $s(x)=s(y)$, so we can identify $Q$ as $s(\\mathcal{T}_u)\\subset X$. Equip $Q$ with the $\\sigma$-algebra induced by $\\mathfrak{Q}$ and the measure $\\mathfrak{q}\\mathrel{\\mathop:}= \\mathfrak{Q}_{\\sharp}(\\mathfrak{m}\\mathbin{\\vrule height 1.6ex depth 0pt width 0.13ex\\vrule height 0.13ex depth 0pt width 1.3ex}\\mathcal{T}_u)$, we can hence view $\\mathfrak{q}$ as a Borel measure on $X$. Furthermore, each $X_{\\alpha}$ is shown (\\cite[Lemma 3.1]{CavMon15}) be to isometric to an interval $I_{\\alpha}$, the distance preserving map $\\gamma_{\\alpha}: I_{\\alpha}\\to X_{\\alpha}$ extend to an geodesic still denoted by $\\gamma_{\\alpha}:\\bar{I}_{\\alpha}\\to X$. Putting several results together, we have (\\cite[Theorem A.5]{KapMon19}):\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{thm:disint}\n    Let $(X,\\mathsf{d},\\mathfrak{m})$ be an $\\RCD(K,N)$ space. $u$ be a $1$-Lipschitz function. Then $\\mathfrak{m}$ admits a disintegration:\n    \\[\n    \\mathfrak{m}=\\int_{Q}\\mathfrak{m}_{\\alpha}\\mathfrak{q}(\\dd\\alpha),\n    \\]\n    where $\\mathfrak{m}_{\\alpha}$ is a non-negative Radon measure on $X$, such that \n    \\begin{enumerate}\n        \\item For any $\\mathfrak{m}$-measurable set $B$, the map $\\alpha\\mapsto \\mathfrak{m}_{\\alpha}(B)$ is $\\mathfrak{q}$-measurable.\n        \\item\\label{item:strcons} for $\\mathfrak{q}$-a.e.\\ $\\alpha\\in Q$, $\\mathfrak{m}_{\\alpha}$ is concentrated on $X_{\\alpha}=\\mathfrak{Q}^{-1}(\\alpha)$. This property is called strong consistency of the disintegration.\n        \\item \\label{item:disint} for any $\\mathfrak{m}$-measurable set $B$ and $\\mathfrak{q}$-measurable set $C$, it holds\n        \\[\n        \\mathfrak{m}(B\\cap \\mathfrak{Q}^{-1}(C))=\\int_C \\mathfrak{m}_{\\alpha}(B)\\mathfrak{q}(\\dd\\alpha).\n        \\]\n        \\item\\label{item:pos} for $\\mathfrak{q}$-a.e.\\ $\\alpha\\in Q$, $\\mathfrak{m}_{\\alpha}=h_{\\alpha}\\mathcal{H}^1\\mathbin{\\vrule height 1.6ex depth 0pt width 0.13ex\\vrule height 0.13ex depth 0pt width 1.3ex} X_{\\alpha}\\ll\\mathcal{H}^1\\mathbin{\\vrule height 1.6ex depth 0pt width 0.13ex\\vrule height 0.13ex depth 0pt width 1.3ex} X_{\\alpha}$, where $h_{\\alpha}$ is a $\\log$ concave density, and $(\\bar{X}_{\\alpha}, \\mathsf{d},\\mathfrak{m}_{\\alpha})$ is an $\\RCD(K,N)$ space.\n    \\end{enumerate}\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{ Proof of Proposition \\ref{thm:almostconvex} and Consequences}\n\n\\begin{proof}[Proof of Proposition \\ref{thm:almostconvex}]\nTake $x\\in X$, disintegrate $\\mathfrak{m}$ w.r.t $\\mathsf{d}_x\\mathrel{\\mathop:}= \\mathsf{d}(x,\\cdot)$. Item \\ref{item:disint} in Theorem \\ref{thm:disint} yields that \n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{split}\n        0=\\mathfrak{m}(X\\setminus \\mathcal{R}_n)=\\int_Q \\mathfrak{m}_\\alpha(X\\setminus \\mathcal{R}_n)\\mathfrak{q}(\\dd\\alpha).\n    \\end{split}\n\\end{equation}\nThen for $\\mathfrak{q}$-a.e.\\ $\\alpha\\in Q$, $\\mathfrak{m}_\\alpha(X\\setminus \\mathcal{R}_n)=0$, we set $\\widetilde{Q}\\mathrel{\\mathop:}= \\{\\alpha\\in Q: \\mathfrak{m}_{\\alpha}(X\\setminus \\mathcal{R}_n)=0 \\}$, then $R_x\\mathrel{\\mathop:}= (\\cup_{\\alpha\\in \\widetilde{Q}}X_{\\alpha})\\cap \\mathcal{R}_n$ is the desired set. Indeed, for any $y\\in R_x$, there is a geodesic (segment) $\\gamma$ contained in $X_\\alpha$ joining $x,y$, for some $\\alpha\\in \\widetilde{Q}$, with $\\mathfrak{m}_{\\alpha}(\\gamma\\setminus \\mathcal{R}_n)=0$.  the $\\log$-concavity of $h_{\\alpha}$ implies that $h_{\\alpha}$ is $\\mathcal{H}^1$ a.e.\\ positive on $X_{\\alpha}$, so we get that $\\mathcal{H}^1\\mathbin{\\vrule height 1.6ex depth 0pt width 0.13ex\\vrule height 0.13ex depth 0pt width 1.3ex} X_\\alpha(\\gamma\\setminus \\mathcal{R}_n)=0$, which in turn implies that regular points of essential dimension is dense in the interior of $\\gamma$. Now apply Proposition \\ref{prop:dentofull}, we see that the interior of $\\gamma$ is entirely in $\\mathcal{R}_n$ and the end point $y$ is also in $\\mathcal{R}_n$. \n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\n{ Since $\\mathcal R_n\\subset {\\rm Int}(X)$ Proposition \\ref{thm:almostconvex} immediately implies almost convexity of  ${\\rm Int}(X) = X\\setminus \\partial X$. }\n\n\n\\begin{corollary}\nLet $(X,\\mathsf{d},\\mathcal{H}^N)$ be a $\\ncRCD(K,N)$ space. For \\textit{every} $x\\in {\\rm Int}(X)$\n there exists a subset $R_x\\subset {\\rm Int}(X)$ so that $\\mathfrak{m}(X\\setminus R_x)=0$ and for any $y\\in R_x$ there is a minimizing geodesic joining $x,y$ and entirely contained in ${\\rm Int}(X)$. \n\n\\end{corollary}\n\n\n\n \n  We then naturally obtain the following corollary.\n\n\\begin{corollary}\nIn the setting of Theorem \\ref{thm:main2}, for every point $x\\in \\Omega$, there exists a set $\\mathcal{R}_x\\subset\\Omega$ such that $\\mathcal{H}^N(\\bar\\Omega\\setminus\\mathcal{R}_x)=0$ and for every $y\\in\\mathcal{R}_x$, there is a minimizing geodesic in $(\\bar\\Omega,\\mathsf{d}_\\Omega)$ joining $x,y$ lies entirely in $\\Omega$, hence a local geodesic in $(X,\\mathsf{d}_X)$, {i.e., $\\Omega$ is almost locally totally geodesic}. \n\\end{corollary}\n\n\\bibliographystyle{alpha}\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Remark on thermodynamic consistency}\n\\label{sec:Constitutive_functions_Process_consistency}\n\nIn Section \\ref{sec:Curing_model_general_framework} the thermodynamic consistency of the general modelling framework has been considered but not finally proved since specific constitutive functions had not been set up to that point. The evaluation of the two remaining conditions \\eqref{eq:dissi_qdot} and \\eqref{eq:dissi_zdot} is discussed in this section. To this end, constitutive assumptions presented in Sections \\ref{sec:Constitutive_functions_Degree_of_Cure} - \\ref{sec:Constitutive_functions_Process_dependency} are employed.\n\nFirstly, inequality~\\eqref{eq:dissi_zdot} is considered. To prove this condition, the partial derivative of the isochoric part of the free energy function $\\hat{\\psi}_G$ with respect to the intrinsic time scale $z$ has to be calculated. Since only the viscoelastic parts $\\hat{\\psi}_{ve,k}$ include the dependency on $z$ (cf. Eq.~\\eqref{eq:psi_G}), it remains to show that\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:therm_cons_psi_ve}\n   - \\sum_{k=1}^{N_k} \\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_{ve,k}}{\\partial z} \\ge 0 \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nFurthermore, it is assumed that not only the sum of all Maxwell elements but also every single Maxwell element meets the consistency condition. Thus, it is sufficient to show that\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:therm_cons_psi_ve_k}\n  - \\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_{ve,k}}{\\partial z} \\ge 0\n\\end{equation}\nholds. According to \\cite{Haupt_Lion_2002} or \\cite{Lion_Kardelky_2004}, the thermodynamic consistency of the ansatz \\eqref{eq:psi_visc_single} is met, if the conditions \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:therm_cons_psi_ve_conditions}\n   G_k(t)  \\ge 0 \\ ,\n  \\qquad\n  \\dfrac{\\rm d}{{\\rm d}t} G_k(t)  \\le 0 \\ ,\n  \\qquad\n  \\dfrac{\\rm d^2}{{\\rm d}t^2} G_k(t)  \\ge 0\n\\end{equation}\nhold. Obviously, these conditions are satisfied by the relaxation function \\eqref{eq:kernel}.\n\nNext, the remaining condition \\eqref{eq:dissi_qdot} is considered. Since inequality \\eqref{eq:dissi_qdot} cannot be evaluated in a general form, an estimation under consideration of some physically reasonable assumptions is employed. In  the first step, the term $\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_{\\theta C}(\\theta,q) \/ \\partial q $ of Eq.~\\eqref{eq:dissi_qdot} is estimated. Here, an ansatz for the thermochemical part of the specific enthalpy per unit mass is introduced \\cite{Kolmeder_Etal_2011,Lion_Yagimli_2008}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:ansatz_enthalpy}\n  h_{\\theta C}(\\theta,q) = h_{fluid}(\\theta) \\, (1-q) + h_{solid}(\\theta) \\, q \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nThe functions $h_{fluid}(\\theta)$ and $h_{solid}(\\theta)$ are the specific enthalpy per unit mass of the uncured and fully cured material, respectively. Note that the general  ansatz \\eqref{eq:ansatz_enthalpy} depends on the temperature $\\theta$ and the degree of cure $q$.  Specific models for the consideration of temperature dependent behaviour have been introduced in \\cite{Kolmeder_Etal_2011} and \\cite{Lion_Yagimli_2008}. However, for the estimation conducted in this section this is omitted and the values for $h_{fluid}$ and $h_{solid}$ are assumed to be constant.  \n\nThe next step is to calculate the thermochemical free energy $\\psi_{\\theta C}$ from $h_{\\theta C}$. This can be accomplished by approaches presented in \\cite{Lion_Yagimli_2008} or \\cite{Mahnken_2013}. However, here an alternative formulation of this calculation step is used as follows. Firstly, the Legendre transformation \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:legendre}\n  \\psi + \\theta \\, \\eta = h + \\dfrac{1}{\\JI\\STAPEL\\varrho!^\\SLtilde\\!} \\ I_1(\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde\\cdot \\Ten2 \\gamma) \n\\end{equation}\nis employed which relates the free energy and the enthalpy (see, for example, \\cite{Lion_Yagimli_2008,Lubarda_2004}). Therein, $\\eta$ is the specific entropy per unit mass and $\\Ten2 \\gamma = (\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich-\\STAPEL I!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich)\/2$ is the Green-Lagrange strain tensor. Next it is assumed, that DSC experiments take place at zero mechanical stresses \\cite{Lion_Yagimli_2008}. Thus, the last term of \\eqref{eq:legendre} is neglected. Furthermore, the constitutive relation $\\eta = - \\partial \\psi \/ \\partial \\theta$ at constant stress state is employed and the resulting equation is formulated with respect to the thermochemical potentials $\\psi_{\\theta C}$ and $h_{\\theta C}$. This yields the reduced relation \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:potentials_dgl}\n  \\psi_{\\theta C}(\\theta,q) - \\theta \\, \\dfrac{\\partial \\psi_{\\theta C}(\\theta,q)}{\\partial \\theta} = h_{\\theta C}(\\theta,q) \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nEq.~\\eqref{eq:potentials_dgl} is a differential equation which has to be solved for $\\psi_{\\theta C}$. Its solution reads as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:potentials_dgl_solu}\n   \\psi_{\\theta C}(\\theta,q) = C \\, \\dfrac{\\theta}{\\theta_0} - \\theta \\, \\int \\dfrac{1}{\\theta^2}\\,h_{\\theta C}(\\theta,q) \\, {\\rm d}\\theta \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nHere, $C$ is an integration constant that does not need to be determined in our evaluation. Next, this general solution is applied to the ansatz for the thermochemical enthalpy which has been introduced in Eq.~\\eqref{eq:ansatz_enthalpy}. This yields a specific model for the thermochemical free energy \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:potentials_dgl_solu_specific}\n   \\psi_{\\theta C}(\\theta,q) = C \\, \\dfrac{\\theta}{\\theta_0} + h_{fluid}\\, (1-q) + h_{solid} \\, q \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nBased on this solution, the term $\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_{\\theta C}(\\theta,q) \/ \\partial q $ of Eq. \\eqref{eq:dissi_qdot} is calculated by\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:dpsi_dq_solu}\n   \\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_{\\theta C}(\\theta,q)}{\\partial q} \n      =  \\JI\\STAPEL\\varrho!^\\SLtilde\\!  \\ \\dfrac{\\partial \\psi_{\\theta C}(\\theta,q)}{\\partial q} \n      = \\JI\\STAPEL\\varrho!^\\SLtilde\\!  \\ (h_{solid} - h_{fluid}) \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nTo quantify this expression, the maximum specific reaction enthalpy per unit mass $\\Delta h$ of a complete curing experiment has to be taken into account. This quantity has been measured by DSC experiments (see \\cite{Kolmeder_Etal_2011,Lion_Yagimli_2008} for detailed description) and can be related to the model \\eqref{eq:ansatz_enthalpy} by the relation\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:hsolid_hfluid}\n   \\Delta h = h(\\theta,q=1) - h(\\theta,q=0) = h_{solid} - h_{fluid} \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nHere, a value of $\\Delta h \\approx - 300 \\, \\rm J\/g$ has been identified. Furthermore, taking into account the mass density $\\JI\\STAPEL\\varrho!^\\SLtilde\\! \\approx 1.1 \\, \\rm g\/cm^3$, the first term of Eq.~\\eqref{eq:dissi_qdot} is estimated by \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:dpsidq_value}\n\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_{\\theta C}(\\theta,q) \/ \\partial q  = -330 \\ \\rm MPa \\ .\n\\end{equation}\n\nNext, the second term in inequality \\eqref{eq:dissi_qdot} is examined. Therein, the chemical shrinkage parameter $\\beta_q$ can be identified by the help of Eq.~\\eqref{eq:phi_thetaC}. Here, the relation\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:calc_betaq}\n \\dfrac{1}{J_{\\theta C}}\\,\n           \\dfrac{\\partial J_{\\theta C}}{\\partial q} \\,\n  = \\beta_q \n\\end{equation}\nholds. Furthermore, a relation to the hydrostatic pressure $p$ is obtained by evaluation of\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:calc_pressure}\n   \\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_V}{\\partial J_M} \\, J_M= - J p\\ ,\n  \\quad\n  p = - \\dfrac{1}{3} \\, \\dfrac{1}{J} \\, I_1(\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde\\cdot\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich) \\ .\n\\end{equation}\n\nFinally, inequality \\eqref{eq:dissi_qdot} can be evaluated. To this end, expressions \\eqref{eq:calc_betaq} and \\eqref{eq:calc_pressure} are substituted into Eq. \\eqref{eq:dissi_qdot} which yields\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:reformulate_cond}\n - \\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_{\\theta C}(\\theta,q)}{\\partial q}\n       - \\beta_q\\,J\\,p \\ \\ge 0 \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nMoreover, the estimation \\eqref{eq:dpsidq_value}  and the chemical shrinkage parameter $\\beta_q=-0.05$ (cf. Section \\ref{sec:Constitutive_functions_Volume}) are inserted in \\eqref{eq:reformulate_cond}, and the resulting inequality is resolved for the expression $J\\,p$. This finally yields the condition\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:pressure_cond}\n  J\\,p  \\ \\ge - 6600 \\ {\\rm MPa} \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nSince $J>0$ holds in general, it can be concluded from \\eqref{eq:pressure_cond} that a hydrostatic pressure with $p>0$ does not endanger the thermodynamic consistency. However, if the material is loaded in hydrostatic tension ($p<0$), the condition \\eqref{eq:pressure_cond} may be violated. If a constant volume is assumed ($J=1$), a hydrostatic tension of $p = -6600 \\, \\rm MPa$ would be necessary to violate thermodynamic consistency. Nevertheless, this value seems to be unrealistic to be achieved in real experiments. Thus, the thermodynamic consistency can be proved for the case of physically reasonable conditions (see also \\cite{Lion_Hoefer_2007,Lion_Yagimli_2008,Mahnken_2013}).\n\n\\section{Introduction}\n\\label{sec:Introduction}\n\nMotivated by the desire for continuous improvement, industrial countries constantly aim to develop innovative concepts and products of highest standards. Within this context, lightweight construction and smart structures are doubtless crucial keywords nowadays. Within the last decade, a number of new developments based on lightweight concepts were successfully established in nearly all fields of engineering \\cite{Wiedemann_Sinapius_2013}. One very challenging aspect for the implementation of such new concepts is the joining technology. Thereby, adhesives are given an important role because they join the most diverse materials, not only locally but also as full-surface bonding \\cite{messler_2004}. In the research field of smart structures, high importance is awarded to piezoceramic patches as they combine static structures with actuator and sensor functionality \\cite{Prasad_Etal_2005}. In that context, the Piezoceramic Fibre Composites (PFC) were shown to be the most promising technology. More precisely, the Macro Fibre Composite (MFC) is the most sophisticated device yet invented \\cite{Lloyd_2004}. \n\nDespite excellent properties of piezoceramic patches, the state of art is their application to the fabricated parts only after manufacturing which leads to a time and cost intense procedure \\cite{Neugebauer_Etal_2010_ProdEng}. Scientific fundamentals for an economic production of active structural components are worked out in the Collaborative Research Center\/Transregio \"PT-PIESA\". One of the pursued concepts, that is considered in this paper, is the joining of sheet metal lightweight construction and piezo elements with structural adhesives to smart Piezo Metal Composites (PMC) by an innovative ma\\-nu\\-fac\\-tu\\-ring approach. The basic idea is to merge the steps of forming and piezo application into one process such that they are no longer separated \\cite{Neugebauer_Etal_2010_ProdEng,Neugebauer_Etal_2013_WGP}. A schematic representation of the approach is depicted in Fig.~\\ref{fig:pic_Principle-PMC}.\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n\t\\centering\n\t\\includegraphics[width=0.45\\textwidth]{Fig1}\n\t\\caption{Schematic illustration of the piezo metal composite (top) and manufacturing process (bottom)}\n\t\\label{fig:pic_Principle-PMC}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFirstly, the MFC is entirely surrounded by a structural adhesive, placed inside two light metal sheets, where one of them is the sheet intended to be formed and the other is a local covering sheet, see Fig.~\\ref{fig:pic_Principle-PMC} (top). A specific distance between both metal sheets is adjusted by the help of spacers. Next, the sandwich structure is formed to its final shape while the adhesive is not yet cured. During this stage, the MFC is protected from excessively high loads by a floating support. After the forming process, the adhesive cures to a solid and thereby provides a material closure between the MFC and the light metal structure in the formed state. The principal feasibility of this method could already be demonstrated in earlier studies (see, for instance, \\cite{Drossel_Etal_2009_CIRP,Neugebauer_Etal_2010_ProdEng,Neugebauer_Etal_2013_WGP}). \n\nWithin the PMC, an essential role is given to the adhesive layer. Beside the impact of the adhesive's specific material behaviour, its geometrical design (i.e. the layer thickness) is of great importance. If, on the one hand, the adhesive layer is very thin, the protective function during forming vanishes. On the other hand, if the adhesive layer is too thick, risk of overloads due to volume shrinkage processes increases. Moreover, secondary deformations of the PMC might occur and a thick adhesive layer may lead to loss of the electric field in the piezoceramic due to the additional capacity between actuator and structure \\cite{Seemann_Sattel_1999}. \n\nFirst studies on the influence of the adhesive during forming have been conducted by Neugebauer \\etal \\cite{Neugebauer_Etal_2013_WGP}. However, curing of the adhesive has not been taken into account so far. Thus, the aim of this study is to set up a simulation tool which enables the simulation of curing phenomena in adhesives and to investigate the impact of the curing process on formed PMCs and more precisely on the embedded MFC. One essential part of this work is to provide a phenomenological model which is capable of representing the material behaviour of the adhesive during cure and in the fully cured state. The main characteristics of this model are\n\\begin{itemize}\n  \\item the description of the progress of the chemical process during cure,\n  \\item the modelling of dependencies of mechanical properties during the curing process as well as at different temperatures, and\n  \\item the prediction of volume changes which are caused by chemical shrinkage and heat expansion phenomena.\n\\end{itemize}\nHere, different modelling approaches have been presented before (see, for example, \\cite{Hossain_Etal_2009,Hossain_Etal_2010,Klinge_Etal_2012,Kolmeder_Etal_2011,Liebl_Etal_2012,Lion_Hoefer_2007,Mahnken_2013}). The basic structure of those models is similar. Beside the application to different specific materials, one further basic difference is their employed mechanical submodel. For example models of finite strain elasticity \\cite{Hossain_Etal_2009},  finite strain viscoelasticity \\cite{Hossain_Etal_2010,Klinge_Etal_2012,Kolmeder_Etal_2011,Lion_Hoefer_2007,Mahnken_2013} and viscoplasticity at small \\cite{Liebl_Etal_2012} and finite strains \\cite{Landgraf_Ihlemann_2011} have been used. In this paper, a general modelling approach which includes the main characteristics of the Lion and H\\\"ofer model \\cite{Lion_Hoefer_2007} is presented (see Section \\ref{sec:Curing_model}). However, it is formulated in a more general way. Especially, different mechanical submodels can be incorporated to represent the mechanical behaviour during curing. \n\nIn Section~\\ref{sec:Curing_model_constitutive_functions}, a particular model is introduced  which is able to capture curing phenomena of one specific two component epoxy based adhesive. To this end, appropriate constitutive material functions are chosen and the thermodynamic consistency is evaluated. Within this specification, the mechanical behaviour is represented by a combination of models of finite strain pseudo-elasticity and viscoelasticity. Furthermore, changes in volume  due to heat expansion and chemical shrinkage processes are taken into account.\n\nThe second part of this paper deals with different aspects of the finite element implementation (see Section~\\ref{sec:FEM_implementation}). The numerical integration of constitutive equations as well as the derivation of appropriate stress and material tangent measures for the implementation into the finite element software \\textit{ANSYS}$^{\\rm TM}$ are described. Moreover, a new algorithm is presented, which addresses numerical difficulties that arise due to thermal and chemically related volume changes. The constitutive functions for the representation of heat expansion and chemical shrinkage processes are introduced with respect to specific reference values for the temperature and a degree of cure, which is an internal variable representing the progress of the curing process. If initial values for both variables differ from previously defined reference values, an immediate volume change would be computed which may lead to instant mesh distortion. The new algorithm calculates a correction and thus keeps the initial volume constant for arbitrary initial values.\n\nFinally, the material model is applied to the simulation of curing processes in bonded PMCs which is described in Section \\ref{sec:Finite_element_simulation}. Here, a finite element model of a deep drawn cup geometry is employed in a simplified manner such that only the part directly surrounding the MFC is modelled. To obtain a realistic forming simulation, the geometry of the final formed model relies on data which has been extracted from comprehensive simulations presented by Neugebauer \\etal \\cite{Neugebauer_Etal_2013_WGP}. This simplified approach allows for reduction of computational efforts related to complicated forming simulations and makes it possible to concentrate on phenomena which accompany the curing of the adhesive. An analysis of the strains in the MFC will highlight the benefits of the new process chain of manufacturing described above. \n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Constitutive modelling of curing phenomena in polymers}\n\\label{sec:Curing_model}\n\nFor the mathematical representation of the phenomenological model presented in this paper, a coordinate free tensor formalism according to Ihlemann \\cite{Ihlemann_2006} is used. Thereby, the rank of a tensor is denoted by the number of its underlines. To exemplify, $\\Ten2 X$ and $\\STAPEL K!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt$ are second- and fourth-rank tensors, respectively.  Furthermore, the following general notations are used throughout this article:\n\\begin{itemize}\n  \\item second-rank identity tensor: $\\STAPEL I!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich$, \\\\[-2mm]\n  \\item first and third principle invariant: $I_1(\\Ten2 X)$ , $I_3(\\Ten2 X)$, \\footnote{ The first principle invariant equals the trace operator of the Cartesian coordinates $X_{ab}$, thus $I_1(\\Ten2 X) = {\\rm trace}[X_{ab}]$. Accordingly, the third principle invariant can be derived by the determinant, thus $I_3(\\Ten2 X) = {\\rm det}[X_{ab}]$}\\\\[-2mm]\n  \\item deviatoric part of a tensor: $\\Ten2 X' = \\Ten2 X - \\frac{1}{3}\\,I_1(\\Ten2 X) \\, \\STAPEL I!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich$,\\\\[-2mm]\n  \\item unimodular part of a tensor: $\\Ten2 X!^\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt = I_3(\\Ten2 X)^{-1\/3} \\, \\Ten2 X$,\\\\[-2mm]\n  \\item inverse and transpose of a tensor: $\\Ten2 X^{\\minus 1}$ and $\\Ten2 X^T$,\\\\[-2mm]\n  \\item material time derivative: $\\frac{\\rm d}{{\\rm d}t}\\Ten2 X = \\Ten2 X!^\\SLdreieck$.\n\\end{itemize}\n\nA further tensor operation is introduced as follows. Assume two arbitrary second rank tensors $\\Ten2 X$ and $\\Ten2 Y$ and a symmetric second rank tensor $\\Ten2 Z = \\Ten2 Z^T$. Based on these, a tensor operation denoted by superscript $S_{24}$ is defined by\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:S24}\n  \\left( \\Ten2 X \\otimes \\Ten2 Y\\right)^{S_{24}}  \\mathbin{\\mathord{\\cdot}\\mathord{\\cdot}} \\Ten2 Z\n    = \\dfrac{1}{2} \\left( \\Ten2 X \\cdot \\Ten2 Z \\cdot \\Ten2 Y + \\Ten2 Y^T \\cdot \\Ten2 Z \\cdot \\Ten2 X^T \\right) \\, .\n\\end{equation} \nIn the following, the kinematics and constitutive assumptions of the general modelling approach are presented. \n\n\\subsection{Kinematics}\n\\label{sec:Kinematics}\nThe phenomenological model for the representation of adhesive's curing is built up within the framework of nonlinear continuum mechanics using the deformation gradient $\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich$ for the description of the underlying kinematics. The corresponding right Cauchy-Green tensor $\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich$ is defined by\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:rCG}\n  \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich = \\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich^T\\cdot\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nFurthermore, the total volume ratio is abbreviated by $J = I_3(\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich) =   {\\rm d} V \/{\\rm d}\\STAPEL V!^\\SLtilde $. To capture different sources of deformation, the deformation gradient gets multiplicatively decomposed as depicted in Fig.~\\ref{fig:defgrad}.\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n\t\\centering\n\t\\includegraphics[width=0.45\\textwidth]{Fig2}\n\t\\caption{Multiplicative decomposition of the deformation gradient}\n\t\\label{fig:defgrad}\n\\end{figure}\nFirstly, $\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich$ gets decomposed into a thermochemical part $\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_{\\theta C}$ and a mechanical part $\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_M$ by\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:split_mech_thermochem}\n  \\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich = \\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_{M}\\cdot\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_{\\theta C} \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nThe thermochemical part is related to chemical shrinkage and heat expansion phenomena which are assumed to be isotropic. Thus, $\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_{\\theta C}$ is an isotropic tensor \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:FthetaC}\n  \\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_{\\theta C} = J_{\\theta C}^{\\,1\/3} \\ \\STAPEL I!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich \n  \\ , \\quad\n  J_{\\theta C} = \\varphi_{\\theta C}(\\theta,q) \\ ,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $J_{\\theta C} = I_3(\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_{\\theta C}) = {\\rm d} V_{\\theta C}\/{\\rm d}\\STAPEL V!^\\SLtilde$ is the scalar valued volume ratio which denotes the pure thermochemical volume change. This volume ratio is constituted by a function $\\varphi_{\\theta C}(\\theta,q)$ which depends on the thermodynamic temperature $\\theta$ and a variable $q$ referred to as degree of cure. A specific ansatz for  $\\varphi_{\\theta C}$ is provided in Section \\ref{sec:Constitutive_functions_Volume}. The mechanical part of the deformation gradient $\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_M$ as well as its corresponding right Cauchy-Green tensor $\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_M$ are calculated by substituting Eq.~\\eqref{eq:FthetaC}$_1$ into \\eqref{eq:split_mech_thermochem} which yields\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:FM_CM}\n   \\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_M = J_{\\theta C}^{\\,-1\/3} \\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich \\ , \\quad\n   \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_M = \\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_M^T\\cdot\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_M = J_{\\theta C}^{\\,-2\/3} \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nNext, the mechanical deformation gradient $\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_{M}$ is multiplicatively decomposed into $\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_V$ representing pure mechanical volume changes and a remaining isochoric (i.e. volume-preserving) part $\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich$:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:split_vol_isochor}\n  \\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_M = \\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich\\cdot\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_{V} \\ ,\n  \\quad \\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_V = J_M^{\\,1\/3} \\ \\STAPEL I!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nTherein, $J_M = I_3(\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_M) =  {\\rm d}\\widehat{V} \/{\\rm d}V_{\\theta C}$ is the mechanical volume ratio. Substituting \\eqref{eq:split_vol_isochor}$_2$ into \\eqref{eq:split_vol_isochor}$_1$ yields the isochoric deformation gradient \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:Fg}\n  \\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich = J_M^{-1\/3} \\ \\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_M = J^{\\,-1\/3} \\ \\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich \\ ,\n\\end{equation}\nwhich exhibits the property $I_3(\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich) = 1$. Its corresponding isochoric right Cauchy-Green tensor is calculated by\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:Cg}\n   \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich =  \\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich^T\\cdot\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich = J_M^{\\,-2\/3} \\ \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_M= J^{-2\/3} \\ \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich \\ .\n\\end{equation}\n\nAt this point, all necessary aspects of the underlying kinematics have been introduced. However, for subsequent evaluations, time derivatives of different kinematic quantities have to be calculated as well. In the following, the most important relations will be summarized. \n\nThe material time derivative of the mechanical right Cauchy-Green tensor $\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_M$ (cf. eq. \\eqref{eq:FM_CM}$_2$) is given by\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:CMdot}\n\\begin{array}{lcl}\n  \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLdreieck_M \n     =  \\dfrac{\\rm d}{{\\rm d}t} \\Big[ J_{\\theta C}^{\\,-2\/3} \\ \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich\\Big] \\\\[3mm]\n  \\phantom{\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLdreieck_M}\n     =  J_{\\theta C}^{\\,-2\/3} \n              \\left\\{ \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLdreieck \n                       - \\dfrac{2}{3}  \\dfrac{1}{J_{\\theta C}}  \n                          \\left(\n                              \\dfrac{\\partial J_{\\theta C}}{\\partial \\theta} \\dot{\\theta}\n                            +\\dfrac{\\partial J_{\\theta C}}{\\partial q} \\dot{q}\n                          \\right)\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich\n              \\right\\}.\n\\end{array} \n\\end{equation}\nMoreover, the rate of the mechanical volume ratio $J_M$ equals\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:JMdot}\n\\begin{array}{lcl}\n  \\STAPEL J!^{\\vbox{\\hbox{$\\displaystyle.$}\\vskip.03cm}}_M \n    \\, = \\, \\dfrac{\\rm d}{{\\rm d}t} \\bigg[ \\sqrt{I_3(\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_M)}\\bigg] \n    \\, = \\, \\dfrac{1}{2} \\, J_M \\, \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_M^{\\minus 1} \\mathbin{\\mathord{\\cdot}\\mathord{\\cdot}} \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLdreieck_M \\ .\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nThe material time derivative of $\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich$ (see eq. \\eqref{eq:Cg}) can be expressed by\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:Cgdot}\n\\begin{array}{lcl}\n  \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich!^\\SLdreieck \n    \\, = \\, \\dfrac{\\rm d}{{\\rm d}t}\\Big[J_M^{-2\/3}J_{\\theta C}^{-2\/3} \\ \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich \\Big]\n    \\, = \\, \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich\\cdot \\left( \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_M^{\\minus 1} \\cdot \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLdreieck_M\\right)' \\ .\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\subsection{General modelling framework}\n\\label{sec:Curing_model_general_framework}\n\nIn this section, a general modelling framework is introduced which defines the basic structure of the adhesives material model. To obtain a thermodynamically consist model, the second law of thermodynamics in form of the Clausius-Duhem inequality is considered. In Lagrangian representation it reads as follows\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:CDU}\n  \\dfrac{1}{2} \\, \\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde \\mathbin{\\mathord{\\cdot}\\mathord{\\cdot}} \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLdreieck \n     -  \\JI\\STAPEL\\varrho!^\\SLtilde\\!  \\dot{\\psi} - \\JI\\STAPEL\\varrho!^\\SLtilde\\! \\, \\eta \\, \\dot{\\theta} - \\dfrac{1}{\\theta} \\STAPEL q!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde \\cdot \\STAPEL \\nabla!^\\SLtilde!_{\\hspace{0.5ex}\\SLstrich} \\theta \\ge 0 \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nTherein, the first term is the stress power per unit volume, $\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde$ is the $2^{\\rm nd}$ Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor and $\\psi$ and $\\eta$ are the Helmholtz free energy and the entropy, respectively, per unit mass. Furthermore, $\\JI\\STAPEL\\varrho!^\\SLtilde\\!$ is the mass density and $\\STAPEL q!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde$ is the heat flux vector, both defined on the reference configuration. The expression $\\STAPEL \\nabla!^\\SLtilde!_{\\hspace{0.5ex}\\SLstrich} \\theta$ denotes the temperature gradient with respect to the reference configuration.\n\nTo specify the general structure of the adhesive's material model, an ansatz for the Helmholtz free energy function $\\hat{\\psi} = \\JI\\STAPEL\\varrho!^\\SLtilde\\! \\psi$ per unit volume is introduced. It is additively decomposed into three parts according to\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:free_energy_allg}\n  \\hat{\\psi} \n     = \\hat{\\psi}_{G}\\Big(\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich,\\theta,z\\Big) \n     + \\hat{\\psi}_V\\Big(J_M\\Big)\n     + \\hat{\\psi}_{\\theta C}\\Big(\\theta,q\\Big)\\ .\n\\end{equation}\nTherein, $\\hat{\\psi}_{G}$ represents the stored energy as a result of isochoric deformations described by $\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich$. Furthermore, this part depends on the current temperature~$\\theta$ and on an additional material function $z$ which reflects some process dependencies.\\footnote{ The isochoric part of the free energy may be extended by additional internal variables. This would be necessary if, for example, models of multiplicative viscoelasticity or viscoplasticity are employed (cf. \\cite{Landgraf_Ihlemann_2011}).} The second contribution of Eq. \\eqref{eq:free_energy_allg} describes the material response due to pure mechanical volume changes and only depends on the volume ratio $J_M$ of the mechanical deformation. The remaining part of Eq.~\\eqref{eq:free_energy_allg} defines the thermochemically stored energy $\\hat{\\psi}_{\\theta C} = \\hat{\\psi}_{\\theta C}(\\theta,q)$ of the material which is a function of the temperature $\\theta$ and the degree of cure $q$. It is attributed to an amount of energy, which is initially stored in the material and which gets released due to the exothermic chemical process during curing. Furthermore, it describes the energy storage related to varying temperatures.\n\nIn Eq.~\\eqref{eq:free_energy_allg}, the variables $q$ and $z$ are treated as internal variables. Thus, they are prescribed by evolution equations which are defined in general form by \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:qdot}\n  \\dot{q} = f_q(q,\\theta,t) \\ge 0 \\ , \\quad q(t=0) = q_0 \\ ,\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:zdot}\n  \\dot{z} = f_z(q,\\theta,t) \\ge 0 \\ , \\quad z(t=0) = z_0 \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nTherein, $q_0$ and $z_0$ are appropriate initial conditions. It can be seen that both variables are monotonically increasing. More details and specific constitutive functions will be provided in Section \\ref{sec:Curing_model_constitutive_functions}. \n\nTo evaluate the ansatz \\eqref{eq:free_energy_allg} within the Clausius-Duhem inequality \\eqref{eq:CDU}, the rate of the Helmholtz free energy function $\\hat{\\psi}$ has to be calculated. Taking into account all dependencies of Eq.~\\eqref{eq:free_energy_allg}, its rate reads as \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:free_energy_derivative}\n\\begin{array}{lcl}\n  \\dot{\\hat{\\psi}} \n     &=&  \\left[ \\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_{G}}{\\partial \\theta}\n              +\\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_{\\theta C}}{\\partial \\theta}\n        \\right] \\, \\dot{\\theta}\n    \\, + \\, \\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_{G}}{\\partial \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich} \\mathbin{\\mathord{\\cdot}\\mathord{\\cdot}} \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich!^\\SLdreieck \\ + \n     \\\\[4mm]\n   & & \\ \\\n    \\, + \\, \\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_{V}}{\\partial J_M} \\dot{J}_M\n    \\, + \\, \\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_{\\theta C}}{\\partial q} \\, \\dot{q}\n    \\, + \\, \\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_{G}}{\\partial z} \\dot{z} \\ .\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nA substitution of expressions \\eqref{eq:CMdot}~-~\\eqref{eq:Cgdot} and \\eqref{eq:free_energy_derivative} into the Clausius-Duhem inequality \\eqref{eq:CDU} yields the dissipation inequality\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:dissip_ineq}\n\\begin{array}{rcl}\n  \\left\\{ \n     \\dfrac{1}{2} \\, \\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde \n     - \\left[ \\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_{G}}{\\partial \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich}\\cdot \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich\\right]'\\cdot\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich^{\\minus 1} + \\dfrac{J_M}{2} \\,\\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_V}{\\partial J_M}\\,\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich^{\\minus 1} \n  \\right\\} \\mathbin{\\mathord{\\cdot}\\mathord{\\cdot}} \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLdreieck  \\ + \\ \\ \\\\[5mm]\n   - \\left\\{\n       \\JI\\STAPEL\\varrho!^\\SLtilde\\! \\, \\eta \n       + \\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_{\\theta C}}{\\partial \\theta} \n       + \\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_{G}}{\\partial \\theta} \n       - \\left( \\dfrac{J_M}{J_{\\theta C}}\\,\n                 \\dfrac{\\partial J_{\\theta C}}{\\partial \\theta}\\,\n                \\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_V}{\\partial J_M}\n          \\right) \\right\\}\\, \\dot{\\theta} \\ + \\ \\ \\\\[3mm]\n   - \\left\\{\n       \\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_{\\theta C}}{\\partial q} \n       - \\left( \\dfrac{J_M}{J_{\\theta C}}\\,\n                 \\dfrac{\\partial J_{\\theta C}}{\\partial q}\\,\n                \\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_V}{\\partial J_M}\n          \\right) \\right\\}\\, \\dot{q} \\ + \\ \\ \\\\[3mm]\n    - \\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_{G}}{\\partial z} \\dot{z}\n    - \\dfrac{1}{\\theta} \\, \\STAPEL q!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde \\cdot \\STAPEL \\nabla!^\\SLtilde!_{\\hspace{0.5ex}\\SLstrich} \\theta \\ge 0 \\ ,\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nwhich has to be satisfied for arbitrary thermomechanical processes. Following the standard methods for the evaluation of \\eqref{eq:dissip_ineq} (cf. \\cite{Haupt_2002}), it is firstly stated that the terms in brackets in front of the $\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLdreieck$ and $\\dot{\\theta}$ have to be zero. This yields the potential relations for the $2^{\\rm nd}$ Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:Ttil_allg}\n \\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde \n     = 2\\,\\left[ \\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_{G}}{\\partial \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich}\\cdot \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich\\right]'\\cdot\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich^{\\minus 1} + J_M\\,\\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_V}{\\partial J_M}\\,\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich^{\\minus 1} \\ ,\n\\end{equation}\nand the entropy \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:eta_allg}\n \\JI\\STAPEL\\varrho!^\\SLtilde\\! \\, \\eta \n       = - \\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_{\\theta C}}{\\partial \\theta} \n          - \\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_{G}}{\\partial \\theta} \n          + \\left( \\dfrac{1}{J_{\\theta C}}\\,\n                 \\dfrac{\\partial J_{\\theta C}}{\\partial \\theta}\\,\n                \\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_V}{\\partial J_M}\n                J_M\n          \\right) \\ .\n\\end{equation} \n\nNext it is assumed, that each of the remaining terms of inequality \\eqref{eq:dissip_ineq} has to be non-negative which is a sufficient but not necessary condition. The non-negativity of the last term of inequality \\eqref{eq:dissip_ineq} is complied by Fourier's law. Formulated on the reference configuration it reads as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:Fourier}\n  \\STAPEL q!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde = - \\kappa \\, J \\, \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich^{\\minus 1} \\cdot \\STAPEL \\nabla!^\\SLtilde!_{\\hspace{0.5ex}\\SLstrich} \\theta\\ .\n\\end{equation} \nHere, $\\kappa \\ge 0$ is the thermal conductivity. Furthermore, taking into account the properties $\\dot{q} \\ge 0$ and $\\dot{z} \\ge 0$ (see Eqs. \\eqref{eq:qdot} and \\eqref{eq:zdot}), the final two restrictions read as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:dissi_qdot}\n - \\left\\{\n       \\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_{\\theta C}}{\\partial q} \n       - \\left( \\dfrac{1}{J_{\\theta C}}\\,\n                 \\dfrac{\\partial J_{\\theta C}}{\\partial q}\\,\n                \\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_V}{\\partial J_M}\n                J_M\n          \\right) \\right\\} \\ \\ge 0 \\ ,\n\\end{equation} \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:dissi_zdot}\n    - \\dfrac{\\partial \\hat{\\psi}_{G}}{\\partial z} \\ge 0 \\ .\n\\end{equation} \nThese conditions cannot be evaluated in general form. However, for the case of the concretized material model presented in Section~\\ref{sec:Curing_model_constitutive_functions}, the thermodynamic consistency is proved (cf. Section~\\ref{sec:Constitutive_functions_Process_consistency}).\n\n\n\n\\section{Application to an epoxy based adhesive}\n\\label{sec:Curing_model_constitutive_functions}\n\nIn this section, the general modelling framework is specified to simulate the material behaviour of one specific class of  adhesives. More precisely, the two-part epoxy based structural adhesive \\textit{DP410}$^{\\rm TM}$ provided by \\textit{3M Scotch-Weld}$^{\\rm TM}$ is modelled \\cite{DP410_2003}. The adhesive is composed by mixing of two paste-like components. Afterwards, the mixture cures to a solid without any further initiation. In particular, curing takes place at room temperature such that no heating is necessary. The fully cured material can be applied within a temperature range of $-55^\\circ C$ to $80^\\circ C$ and the glass transition temperature is about $50^\\circ C$. Furthermore, the mass density is approximately $1.1 \\, \\rm g\/cm^3$ \\cite{DP410_2003}. In the following, different aspects of the model specifications are addressed.\n\n\\subsection{Degree of cure}\n\\label{sec:Constitutive_functions_Degree_of_Cure}\n\nFirst of all, the curing process is examined in more detail. In analogy to the procedures described in \\cite{Kolmeder_Lion_2010} and \\cite{Lion_Yagimli_2008}, the curing process has been measured by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) experiments. Thus, it is assumed that the curing process can completely be determined by the exothermic reaction during the chemical process. According to Halley and Mackay \\cite{Halley_Mackay_1996}, different phe\\-no\\-me\\-no\\-lo\\-gi\\-cal models can be applied to simulate the curing processes of epoxy based materials. In this work, the so called $n$-th-order model (model of reaction order $n$)  is employed. In view of Eq.~\\eqref{eq:qdot}, this specific ansatz is expressed by\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:q_ansatz}\n   \\dot{q} =  f_q(q,\\theta,t) = K_1(\\theta) \\cdot\\Big(1-q\\Big)^n \\cdot f_D(q,\\theta) \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nTherein, $n$ is a constant material parameter and $K_1(\\theta)$ is a temperature dependent thermal activation function which is constituted by the Arrhenius ansatz  (cf. \\cite{Halley_Mackay_1996})\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:q_Kfunc}\n  K_1(\\theta) = K_{10} \\, {\\rm exp}\\left[-\\frac{E_1}{R\\,\\theta}\\right] \\ ,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $K_{10}$ and $E_1$ are constant material parameters and \\mbox{$R = 8.3144 \\, \\rm J\/(mol\\,K)$} is the universal gas constant. To account for diffusion controlled curing, which takes place at temperatures below the glass transition temperature, the ansatz \\eqref{eq:q_ansatz} includes an empirical diffusion factor  $f_D(q,\\theta)$ which, according to Fournier \\etal \\cite{Fournier_Etal_1996}, reads as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:q_diffusion}\n  f_D(q,\\theta) = \\dfrac{2}{1+{\\rm exp}\\left[\\frac{q-q_{end}(\\theta)}{b}\\right]}-1 \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nHere, $b$ is another constant material parameter and $q_{end}$ is the maximum degree of cure, which can be attained at a certain temperature $\\theta$. To evaluate the maximum attainable degree of cure, typically the DiBenedetto equation is adopted \\cite{DiBenedetto_1987,Kolmeder_Lion_2010,Pascault_Williams_1990}:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:q_diBenedetto}\n  \\dfrac{T_g(q)-T_{g,0}}{T_{g,1}-T_{g,0}} = \\dfrac{\\lambda \\, q}{1- (1-\\lambda) \\, q} \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nTherein, $T_g(q)$ is the glass transition temperature as a function of the degree of cure and $T_{g,0}$ and $T_{g,1}$ are the glass transition temperatures at degree of cure $q=0$ and $q=1$, respectively. Furthermore, $\\lambda$ is a constant material parameter. In order to calculate the maximum attainable degree of cure at certain isothermal curing temperatures, Eq.~\\eqref{eq:q_diBenedetto} has to be solved for $q$ as follows\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:q_qend}\n  q_{end}(\\theta) = \\dfrac{f_T(\\theta)}{f_T(\\theta)-\\lambda \\, f_T(\\theta) + \\lambda} \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nHere, an abbreviation $f_T(\\theta)$ has been introduced \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:q_fTheta}\n  f_T(\\theta) = \\dfrac{\\theta + \\Delta T - T_{g,0}}{T_{g,1}-T_{g,0}} \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nIn Eq.~\\eqref{eq:q_fTheta} the assumption $T_g(q) = \\theta + \\Delta T$ has been employed. Therein, $\\Delta T$ denotes the difference between the glass transition temperature $T_g(q)$ attainable at specific isothermal curing temperatures, and the curing temperature~$\\theta$ itself.\n\nThe material parameters of the model \\eqref{eq:q_ansatz} - \\eqref{eq:q_fTheta} have been identified using the DSC measurements. The corresponding values are listed in Table~\\ref{tab:MatPar_Cure}. Moreover, the phenomenological behaviour of this model is depicted in Fig. \\ref{fig:curing} for different temperatures.\n\n\\begin{table}[ht]\n \\centering\n  \\caption{Material parameters for Eqs.~\\eqref{eq:q_ansatz} - \\eqref{eq:q_fTheta}} \n  {\\begin{tabular}{p{1.6cm}p{2.0cm}p{1.6cm}p{1.4cm}}\n    \\hline & & & \\\\[-3mm]\n    parameter & value & parameter & value\\\\ \n    \\hline & & & \\\\[-3mm]\n        $\\ \\ $ $K_{10}$    & $1.608\\cdot10^{10} \\rm$  \n     & $\\ \\ $ $T_{g,1}$   & $324.85 \\ \\rm K$   \\\\\n        $\\ \\ $ $E_1$        & $79835 \\ \\rm J\/mol$         \n     & $\\ \\ $ $T_{g,0}$   & $234.35 \\ \\rm K$   \\\\  \n        $\\ \\ $ $b$            & $0.057$                         \n     & $\\ \\ $ $\\Delta T$  & $11 \\ \\rm K$   \\\\\n        $\\ \\ $ $n$            & $1.217$                          \n     & $\\ \\ $ $\\lambda$  & $1.7$   \\\\ \n    \\hline\n  \\end{tabular}}\n  \\label{tab:MatPar_Cure}\n\\end{table}  \n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n\t\\centering\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.45\\textwidth]{Fig3}\n\t\\caption{Evolution of the degree of cure $q$ for different temperatures $\\theta$}\n\t\\label{fig:curing}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsection{Heat expansion and chemical shrinkage}\n\\label{sec:Constitutive_functions_Volume}\n\nNext, the thermochemical volume change due to chemical shrinkage and heat expansion processes is specified. To this end, an idealized model with the following ansatz has been chosen:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:phi_thetaC}\n  \\varphi_{\\theta C}(\\theta, q) = {\\rm exp}\\left[ \\alpha_\\theta \\, \\big(\\,\\theta - \\STAPEL \\theta!^\\SLtilde\\,\\big) + \\beta_q \\, q\\right] \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nTherein, $\\alpha_\\theta$ is a volumetric heat expansion coefficient and $\\beta_q$ is the maximum volumetric chemical shrinkage. According to first measurement results, the material parameters have been set to the values listed in Table~\\ref{tab:MatPar_Volume}.\n\n\\begin{table}[ht]\n \\centering\n  \\caption{Material parameters for Eq.~\\eqref{eq:phi_thetaC}} \n  {\\begin{tabular}{p{1.6cm}p{2.0cm}p{1.6cm}p{1.4cm}}\n    \\hline & & & \\\\[-3mm]\n    parameter & value & parameter & value\\\\\n    \\hline & & & \\\\[-3mm]\n        $\\ \\ $ $\\STAPEL \\theta!^\\SLtilde$           & $295 \\ \\rm K$ \n    &                                   &   \\\\\n        $\\ \\ $ $\\alpha_\\theta$  & $5\\cdot10^{-4} \\ \\rm K^{\\minus 1}$ \n    &  $\\ \\ $ $\\beta_q$          & $-0.05$    \\\\[1mm]\n    \\hline\n  \\end{tabular}}\n  \\label{tab:MatPar_Volume}\n\\end{table}  \n\n\\subsection{Free energy and stresses}\n\\label{sec:Constitutive_functions_Free_Energy}\n\nTo complete the curing model, the mechanical parts of the free energy function \\eqref{eq:free_energy_allg} and thus the corresponding stress strain relationships have to be specified. Firstly, the mechanical response due to isochoric deformations is considered. It is described by the free energy contribution $\\hat{\\psi}_{G}(\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich,\\theta,z)$ in Eq.~\\eqref{eq:free_energy_allg}. This part is modelled by a combination of a finite strain pseudo-elasticity with temperature and degree of cure dependent stiffness and a sum of multiple Maxwell elements, each including process dependencies described by the material function $z(t)$ (cf. Eq.~\\eqref{eq:zdot}). Fig.~\\ref{fig:rheolog_model} illustrates this model by means of a one-dimensional rheological representation. \n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n\t\\centering\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.25\\textwidth]{Fig4}\n\t\\caption{Rheological model of a nonlinear spring connected in parallel to multiple Maxwell elements}\n\t\\label{fig:rheolog_model}\n\\end{figure}\nThe corresponding free energy  $\\hat{\\psi}_{G}$  is constituted as a sum of contributions related to a pseudo-elastic part $\\hat{\\psi}_{el}$ and $N_k$ Maxwell elements, each denoted by $\\hat{\\psi}_{ve,k}$:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:psi_G}\n  \\hat{\\psi}_{G}(\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich,\\theta,z)\n     = \\hat{\\psi}_{el}\\Big(\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich,\\theta\\Big) \n     + \\sum_{k=1}^{N_k} \\hat{\\psi}_{ve,k}\\Big(\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich,z\\Big) \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nThe pseudo-elastic part is modelled by an ansatz proposed by Lion and Johlitz \\cite{Lion_Johlitz_2012}. It takes the form\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:psi_ela}\n\\begin{array}{ll}\n  \\hat{\\psi}_{el}\\Big(\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich,\\theta\\Big) = \\Ten2 Q \\mathbin{\\mathord{\\cdot}\\mathord{\\cdot}}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich , \n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere the tensor $\\Ten2 Q$ is given by\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:psi_ela_II}\n\\begin{array}{ll}\n  \\displaystyle\n  \\Ten2 Q = - \\int\\limits_{-\\infty}^{t}2\\,c_{10}\\Big(\\theta(t),q(s)\\Big)\\,\\Bigg(\\dfrac{{\\rm d}}{{\\rm d}s}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt^{\\minus 1}(s)\\Bigg)\\ {\\rm d} s\\ .\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nTherein, a stiffness function $c_{10}(\\theta,q)$ is introduced. It takes into account the dependency on the curing history described by the degree of cure $q(s)$ ($s$ is the integration variable). Furthermore, a dependency on the current temperature $\\theta(t)$ is included. The stiffness function exhibits the properties\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:psi_ela_stiffness}\n  c_{10}\\Big(\\theta,q\\Big)\n    \\ge 0 \\ , \\quad\n  \\dfrac{\\partial  }{\\partial q} \\, c_{10}\\Big(\\theta,q\\Big) \\ge 0   \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nA specific ansatz will be provided in Section \\ref{sec:Constitutive_functions_Process_dependency}. The free energy $\\hat{\\psi}_{ve,k}$ of one single Maxwell element (see Eq.~\\eqref{eq:psi_G}) is modelled according to an ansatz proposed by Haupt and Lion \\cite{Haupt_Lion_2002}:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:psi_visc_single}\n  \\displaystyle\n  \\hat{\\psi}_{ve,k} \n     = \\left\\{ - \\int\\limits_{-\\infty}^{z}G_k(z-s)\\,\\Bigg(\\dfrac{{\\rm d}}{{\\rm d}s}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt^{\\minus 1}(s)\\Bigg)\\ {\\rm d} s\\right\\}\\mathbin{\\mathord{\\cdot}\\mathord{\\cdot}}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nTherein, $G_k(z-s)$ is a relaxation function which is constituted by\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:kernel}\n  \\displaystyle\n  G_k(z-s)\n     = 2 \\, \\mu_k \\, {\\rm e}^{-\\frac{z-s}{\\tau_k}} \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nTherein, ${\\rm e}$ denotes the Euler's number and the parameters $\\mu_k$ and $\\tau_k$ are the stiffness and the relaxation time, respectively, for the $k$-th Maxwell element (cf. Fig.~\\ref{fig:rheolog_model}). Note that Eq.~\\eqref{eq:psi_visc_single} is formulated with respect to the material function $z(t)$ instead of the physical time $t$. The variable $z(t)$ is also referred to as intrinsic time scale and is governed by an evolution equation which has been introduced in general form by Eq.~\\eqref{eq:zdot}. Different sources of process dependencies may be defined by choosing appropriate constitutive functions for this evolution equation. However, only temperature and degree of cure dependent behaviour is assumed in this work. A specific ansatz for Eq.~\\eqref{eq:zdot} is provided in Section~\\ref{sec:Constitutive_functions_Process_dependency}.\n\nTo complete the mechanical part of the free energy function \\eqref{eq:free_energy_allg}, the volumetric stress response described by $\\hat{\\psi}_V$ has to be constituted. This contribution is assumed to be pure elastic and is described by the ansatz\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:psi_vol}\n  \\displaystyle\n  \\hat{\\psi}_V  = \\dfrac{K}{2} \\, \\Big(J_M - 1\\Big)^2 \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nTherein, $K>0$ is the bulk modulus. \n\nFinally, the $2^{\\rm nd}$ Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor $\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde$ is calculated by evaluation of Eq.~\\eqref{eq:Ttil_allg} in combination with the specific constitutive relations \\eqref{eq:psi_G} - \\eqref{eq:psi_vol}. The resulting contributions to the $2^{\\rm nd}$ Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor are summarized in Eqs.~\\eqref{eq:stress_sum} - \\eqref{eq:stress_visc_k}. More information on the process dependent material functions $c_{10}(\\theta,q)$ and~$\\dot{z}$ and a summary of specific values for material parameters are provided in Section \\ref{sec:Constitutive_functions_Process_dependency}. \n\n\\begin{center}\n\\hrule \\footnotesize\n\\nopagebreak\n\\vspace{1ex}\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\omit\\rlap{\\text{Total $2^{\\rm nd}$ PK stress}} \\nonumber \\\\[1mm]\n\\quad  \\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde \\ \\ \\,\\,\\,  \\;\n       &=& \\ \\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{V} +\\displaystyle  \\Big(\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{G}\\cdot\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich\\Big)'\\cdot\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich^{\\minus 1}  \\label{eq:stress_sum} \\\\[1mm]\n\\omit\\rlap{\\text{Volumetric part}} \\nonumber \\\\[1mm]\n\\quad \\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{V} \\,\\,\\,\\,\n       &=& \\ K \\, J_M \\, (J_M - 1 ) \\, \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich^{\\minus 1} \\label{eq:stress_vol}  \\\\[1mm]\n\\omit\\rlap{\\text{Isochoric part}} \\nonumber \\\\[1mm]\n\\quad \\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{G} \\,\\,\\,\\,\n       &=&  \\ \\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{el} + \\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{ve} \\label{eq:stress_iso} \\\\[1mm]\n\\omit\\rlap{\\text{Pseudo-elastic part}} \\nonumber \\\\[1mm]\n\\quad \\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{el}\\,\\,\\,\\,\n       &=&  - \\int\\limits_{-\\infty}^{t}2\\,c_{10}\\Big(\\theta(t),q(s)\\Big)\\,\n                  \\Bigg(\\frac{{\\rm d}}{{\\rm d}s}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt^{\\minus 1}(s)\\Bigg)\\ {\\rm d} s  \\label{eq:stress_ela} \\\\[1mm]\n\\omit\\rlap{\\text{Viscoelastic part}} \\nonumber \\\\[1mm]\n\\quad \\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{ve}\\,\\,\\,\n       &=&  \\sum_{k=1}^{N_k} \\ \\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{ve,k} \\label{eq:stress_visc} \\\\[1mm]\n\\quad \\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{ve,k}\n       &=&  - \\int\\limits_{-\\infty}^{z(t)}2 \\mu_k\\,{\\rm e}^{-\\frac{z(t)-s}{\\tau_k}} \n                  \\bigg(\\dfrac{\\rm d}{{\\rm d}s}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich^{\\minus 1}(s)\\bigg) \\,{\\rm d}s \\label{eq:stress_visc_k} \n\\end{eqnarray}\n\\nopagebreak\n\\hrule \n\\end{center}\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Process dependencies of mechanical properties}\n\\label{sec:Constitutive_functions_Process_dependency}\n\nIn Eq.~\\eqref{eq:psi_ela} a stiffness parameter $c_{10}(\\theta,q)$ has been introduced which includes dependencies on the temperature $\\theta$ and the degree of cure $q$. The specific ansatz used in this paper consists of a separation of the different physical processes\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:c10_ansatz}\n   c_{10}(\\theta,q) = c_{10,0}\\,f_{c\\theta}(\\theta)\\,f_{cq}(q) \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nTherein, $c_{10,0}$ is a constant stiffness parameter which equals the half shear modulus $G$ in small strain shear experiments. Furthermore, $f_{c\\theta}(\\theta)$ and $f_{cq}(q)$ are normalized functions representing the temperature and degree of cure dependencies, respectively. The normalization is accomplished in a way, such that the corresponding values of both functions range from $0$ to $1$. \n\nFor the representation of the temperature dependency of the fully cured material, the normalized function $f_{c\\theta}(\\theta)$ is constituted by the ansatz\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:c10_fTheta}\n  f_{c\\theta}\\big(\\theta\\big) = \\dfrac{1}{\\pi}\\Bigg\\{{\\rm atan}\\Big[ a_{c\\theta} \\cdot\\big(\\theta - T_{g,1}\\big)\\Big]  + \\dfrac{\\pi}{2}\\Bigg\\} \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nIt takes into account the major part of stiffness change near the glass transition temperature $T_{g,1}$ of the cured material  (cf. Table~\\ref{tab:MatPar_Cure}). An additional material parameter $a_{c\\theta}$ enables one to adjust the specific shape of the function. Fig.~\\ref{fig:ela_temp_func} illustrates the phenomenology of Eq.~\\eqref{eq:c10_fTheta}. The chosen material parameter $a_{c\\theta}$ is listed in Table~\\ref{tab:MatPar_Ela}.\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n   \\centering\n   \\includegraphics[width=0.45\\textwidth]{Fig5}\n   \\caption{Temperature dependency $f_{c\\theta}(\\theta)$ of the equilibrium stiffness}\n   \\label{fig:ela_temp_func}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThe second normalized function $f_{cq}(q)$ of Eq.~\\eqref{eq:c10_ansatz} represents the change in stiffness due to the curing process and thus only depends on the degree of cure. The chosen ansatz reads as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:c10_gC}\n  f_{cq}\\big(q\\big) = \\dfrac{1}{d_{cq}}\\Bigg\\{{\\rm atan}\\Big[ a_{cq} \\cdot\\big(q - b_{cq}\\big)\\Big]  + c_{cq}\\Bigg\\} \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nTherein, $a_{cq}$ and $b_{cq}$ are material parameters and the variables $c_{cq}$ and $d_{cq}$ are evaluated in a way such that the conditions \\mbox{$f_{cq}(q=0) = 0$} and \\mbox{$f_{cq}(q=1)=1$} hold. An evaluation of both conditions yields the expressions\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:c10_gC_II}\n  c_{cq}= - {\\rm atan}\\Big[ - a_{cq}\\cdot b_{cq}   \\Big], \\quad\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:c10_gC_III}\n  d_{cq}=   {\\rm atan}\\Big[ a_{cq}\\cdot (1-b_{cq})\\Big] + c_{cq} \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nThe course of the function $f_{cq}(q)$ is depicted in Fig.~\\ref{fig:ela_cure_func}. The material parameters $a_{cq}$ and $b_{cq}$ used for illustration are listed in Table~\\ref{tab:MatPar_Ela}.\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n   \\centering\n\t \\includegraphics[width=0.45\\textwidth]{Fig6}\n   \\caption{Degree of cure dependency $f_{cq}(q)$ of the \n               equilibrium stiffness}\n\t\\label{fig:ela_cure_func}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{table}[ht]\n \\centering\n  \\caption{Material parameters for Eqs.~\\eqref{eq:stress_vol}, \\eqref{eq:stress_ela} \n                and \\eqref{eq:c10_ansatz} - \\eqref{eq:c10_gC}} \n  {\\begin{tabular}{p{1.6cm}p{2.0cm}p{1.6cm}p{1.4cm}}\n    \\hline& & & \\\\[-3mm]\n    parameter & value & parameter & value\\\\ \n    \\hline& & & \\\\[-3mm]\n          $\\ \\ $ $K$               & $5000 \\, \\rm MPa$     \n      &  $\\ \\ $ $c_{10,0}$     & $500 \\, \\rm MPa$     \\\\[1mm]\n          $\\ \\ $ $a_{c\\theta}$  & $- 0.5 \\, \\rm K^{\\minus 1}$    \n      &  $\\ \\ $ $a_{cq}$        & $10$   \\\\[1mm]\n                                        &\n      & $\\ \\ $ $b_{cq}$         & $0.4 $     \\\\  [1mm]\n    \\hline\n  \\end{tabular}}\n  \\label{tab:MatPar_Ela}\n\\end{table}  \n\nFinally, the process dependency of the viscoelastic part of Eq.~\\eqref{eq:psi_G} is considered. A set of several Maxwell elements has been modelled to capture the materials viscoelastic behaviour. As presented in Section \\ref{sec:Constitutive_functions_Free_Energy}, the process dependency is accommodated by the intrinsic time scale $z(t)$. The following ansatz for the evolution equation \\eqref{eq:zdot} has been chosen\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:zdot_ansatz}\n  \\displaystyle\n  \\dot{z}  \n      \\,=\\, f_z(q,\\theta,t) = 10^{f_{z\\theta}(\\theta)}\\cdot10^{f_{zq}(q)} \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nIn accordance to the pseudo-elastic stiffness \\eqref{eq:c10_ansatz}, the dependencies on the temperature and the degree of cure have been separated in Eq.~\\eqref{eq:zdot_ansatz}. The constitutive equations for both functions $f_{z\\theta}(\\theta)$ and $ f_{zq}(q) $ are\n\\begin{align}\n f_{z\\theta}(\\theta) \n      &= \\dfrac{a_z}{\\pi} \\, {\\rm atan}\\Big[b_z\\cdot[\\theta-T_{g,1}]\\Big]\n           +\\dfrac{\\pi}{2} \\ ,\\label{eq:zdot_ansatz_function_theta}\n  \\\\[2mm]\n  f_{zq}(q) \n      &= c_z\\cdot(1-q^{n_z}) \\ .\n\\label{eq:zdot_ansatz_function_q}\n\\end{align}\nThe material parameters belonging to the viscoelastic part of the model are listed in Table~\\ref{tab:MatPar_Visc}. \n\n\\begin{table}[ht]\n \\centering\n  \\caption{Material parameters for Eqs.~\\eqref{eq:stress_visc}, \\eqref{eq:stress_visc_k}, \\eqref{eq:zdot_ansatz}  - \\eqref{eq:zdot_ansatz_function_q}} \n  {\\begin{tabular}{p{1.6cm}p{2.0cm}p{1.6cm}p{1.4cm}}\n    \\hline & & & \\\\[-3mm]\n    parameter & value & parameter & value\\\\ \n    \\hline & & & \\\\[-3mm]\n        $\\ \\ $ $N_k$            & $7$                       \n    &  $\\ \\ $ $\\mu_{2-7}$  & $  5 \\, \\rm MPa$    \\\\\n        $\\ \\ $ $\\mu_{1}$     & $75 \\, \\rm MPa$    \n    &  $\\ \\ $ $\\tau_{2-4}$  & $10^{k-4} \\, \\rm s$  \\\\  \n        $\\ \\ $ $\\tau_1$        & $10 \\, \\rm s$   \n    &  $\\ \\ $ $\\tau_{5-7}$  & $10^{k-3} \\, \\rm s$  \\\\[1mm]\n        $\\ \\ $ $a_z$            & $6.0$                     \n    &  $\\ \\ $ $b_z$            & $0.05 \\ \\rm K^{\\minus 1}$    \\\\ \n        $\\ \\ $ $c_z$            & $5.0$                     \n    &  $\\ \\ $ $n_z$            & $0.6$    \\\\ [1mm]\n    \\hline\n  \\end{tabular}}\n  \\label{tab:MatPar_Visc}\n\\end{table}  \n\n\\section{Aspects of finite element implementation}\n\\label{sec:FEM_implementation}\n\nThe constitutive model for the representation of curing phenomena in adhesives has been implemented into the finite element software \\textit{ANSYS}$^{\\rm TM}$. In this section, the numerical integration of constitutive equations as well as the derivation of \\textit{ANSYS}$^{\\rm TM}$ specific stress and material tangent measures are summarized. Additionally, a new algorithm is introduced which suppresses undesired initial volume changes. Those volume changes may result from thermal expansion and chemical shrinkage when initial values for the temperature and the degree of cure differ from their reference values. \n\n\n\\subsection{Numerical integration}\n\\label{sec:FEM_implementation_integration}\n\nFor the numerical integration of constitutive equations, a typical time interval ($t_n$, $t_{n+1}$) with $\\Delta t = t_{n+1} - t_n > 0$ is considered. Within this time step, the $2^{\\rm nd}$ Piola-Kirchhoff stress \\eqref{eq:stress_sum} has to be computed. Thus,  \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:stresses_incremental}\n  \\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde\n     = \\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{V}\n       + \\Big(\\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{G}\\cdot\\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich\\,\\Big)'\\cdot\\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich^{\\minus 1} \n\\end{equation}\nhas to be solved.  Here, values at time instance  $t_{n+1}$ are denoted by $\\indLT{n+1}(\\cdot)$. Accordingly, values at time instance $t_n$ are indicated by $\\indLT{n}(\\cdot)$ and values that are defined at the midpoint $t_n + \\frac{\\Delta t }{2}$ are represented by $\\indLT{n\/2}(\\cdot)$. Within a single time step $\\Delta t$, it is assumed that the deformation gradients $\\indLT{n}\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich$ and $\\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich$ as well as the temperatures $\\indLT{n}\\theta$ and $\\indLT{n+1}\\theta$ are known. Furthermore, internal variables of the preceding time step are given. \n\nFirstly, the solution for the degree of cure  $\\indLT{n+1}q$ is obtained by numerical integration of the evolution Eq.~\\eqref{eq:q_ansatz}. Here, Euler backward method (Euler implicit) is employed. A formulation of Eq.~\\eqref{eq:q_ansatz} for time instance $t_{n+1}$ and a substitution of the approximation $\\indLT{n+1}{\\dot{q}} \\approx \\frac{1}{\\Delta t}(\\indLT{n+1}q-\\indLT{n}q)$ yields \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:q_EBM}\n  \\indLT{n+1}q = \\indLT{n}q + \\Delta t \\ f_q(\\indLT{n+1}q,\\indLT{n+1}\\theta) \\ ,\n\\end{equation}\nwhich is a nonlinear equation with respect to the solution $\\indLT{n+1}q$. It is computed by application of Newton's method. Additionally, the degree of cure $\\indLT{n\/2}q$ at time instance $t = t_n + \\frac{\\Delta t}{2}$ has to be computed as well. In consideration of the temperature $\\indLT{n\/2}\\theta = \\frac{1}{2}(\\indLT{n+1}\\theta + \\indLT{n}\\theta)$, the value $\\indLT{n\/2}q$ is obtained according to \\eqref{eq:q_EBM} by\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:q_EBM_n2}\n  \\indLT{n\/2}q = \\indLT{n}q + \\dfrac{\\Delta t}{2} \\ f_q(\\indLT{n\/2}q,\\indLT{n\/2}\\theta) \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nNext, the computation of the intrinsic time scale $\\indLT{n+1}z$ is considered. Since this variable is governed by an evolution equation \\eqref{eq:zdot_ansatz} which cannot be solved in closed form, a numerical scheme has to be applied as well. By analogy with Eq.~\\eqref{eq:q_EBM}, Euler backward method and the approximation $\\indLT{n+1}{\\dot{z}} \\approx \\frac{1}{\\Delta t}(\\indLT{n+1}z-\\indLT{n}z)$ are adopted\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:z_EBM}\n  \\indLT{n+1}z = \\indLT{n}z + \\Delta t \\ f_z(\\indLT{n+1}q,\\indLT{n+1}\\theta) \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nIn contrast to Eqs.~\\eqref{eq:q_EBM} and \\eqref{eq:q_EBM_n2}, this relation can directly be evaluated. Thus, no iterative procedure has to be applied.\n\nNext, the calculation of the stresses Eq.~\\eqref{eq:stresses_incremental} is considered. While $\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_V$ is already completely determined (see Eq.~\\eqref{eq:stress_vol}), the stress contribution $\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_G$ has to be regarded in more detail. According to Eq. \\eqref{eq:stress_iso}, it includes a pseudo-elastic part $\\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{el}$ and a sum of several viscoelastic parts summarized by $\\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{ve}$. \n\nTo compute the pseudo-elastic stress tensor, firstly Eq.~\\eqref{eq:stress_ela} has to be formulated for time instance $t_{n+1}$:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:Tel_incemental}\n\\displaystyle  \\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{el}\n          = - \\int\\limits_{-\\infty}^{t_{n+1}}2\\,c_{10}( \\indLT{n+1}\\theta, q(s) ) \\, \\Bigg(\\dfrac{{\\rm d}}{{\\rm d}s}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt^{\\minus 1}(s)\\Bigg)\\ {\\rm d} s \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nNote that the temperature $\\indLT{n+1}\\theta$ does not depend on the integration variable $s$ but only on time instance $t_{n+1}$. \n\nAfter substituting the ansatz \\eqref{eq:c10_ansatz} for the stiffness $c_{10}(\\theta,q)$, all values that do not depend on the integration variable $s$ are excluded from the integral such that the pseudo-elastic stress can be rewritten by \n\\begin{align}\n   \\displaystyle\n   \\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{el}\n          &= -  2\\, c_{10,0} \\, f_{c\\theta}\\big(\\indLT{n+1}\\theta\\big) \\  \\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL P!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_{el} \\label{eq:Tel_incemental_abbrv} \\ .\n\\end{align}\nHere, $\\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL P!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_{el}$ is an abbreviation for the remaining integral \n\\begin{align}\n  \\displaystyle\n   \\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL P!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_{el}  \n      &=     \\int\\limits_{-\\infty}^{t_{n+1}} \\, f_{cq}\\big(q(s)\\big) \\, \\Bigg(\\dfrac{{\\rm d}}{{\\rm d}s}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt^{\\minus 1}(s)\\Bigg)\\ {\\rm d} s \\ .\n       \\label{eq:Tel_incemental_reduced}\n\\end{align}\nNext, this integral is split into two sub-integrals by substituting $t_{n+1} = t_n + \\Delta t$ \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:Tel_incemental_split}\n\\begin{array}{l}\n   \\displaystyle\n   \\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL P!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_{el} \n             = \\int\\limits_{-\\infty}^{t_{n}} \\, f_{cq}\\big(q(s)\\big) \\, \\Bigg(\\dfrac{{\\rm d}}{{\\rm d}s}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt^{\\minus 1}(s)\\Bigg)\\ {\\rm d} s \\ +\\\\\n    \\qquad \\qquad\\qquad  \\displaystyle\n             +  \\int\\limits_{t_n}^{t_{n + \\Delta t}} \\, f_{cq}\\big(q(s)\\big) \\, \\Bigg(\\dfrac{{\\rm d}}{{\\rm d}s}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt^{\\minus 1}(s)\\Bigg)\\ {\\rm d} s \\ .\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nThe first term on the right-hand side of Eq.~\\eqref{eq:Tel_incemental_split} is the solution of Eq. \\eqref{eq:Tel_incemental_reduced} for time instance $t_n$. Thus, it equals $\\indLT{n}\\STAPEL P!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_{el} $. The second term of Eq.~\\eqref{eq:Tel_incemental_split} is computed numerically by the midpoint method \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:Tel_incemental_midpoint}\n\\begin{array}{l}\n { \\displaystyle\n  \\int\\limits_{t_n}^{t_{n}+ \\Delta t}} f_{cq}\\big(q(s)\\big) \\, \\Big(\\frac{{\\rm d}}{{\\rm d}s}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt^{\\minus 1}(s)\\Big)\\ {\\rm d} s    \\\\\n   \\qquad \\qquad \\qquad\n    \\approx \\Delta t \\  f_{cq}\\Big(\\indLT{n\/2}q\\Big) \\ \\  \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!^\\SLdreieck^{\\minus 1}\\Big|_{t_n + \\frac{\\Delta t}{2}} \\ ,\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nand the material time derivative of the isochoric inverse right Cauchy-Green tensor at time instance $t_n + \\frac{\\Delta t}{2}$ is approximated by\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:CG_approx}\n\\begin{array}{l}\n  \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich!^\\triangle^{\\minus 1}\\Big|_{t_n + \\frac{\\Delta t}{2}}\n  \\approx\n    \\dfrac{1}{\\Delta t} \\Big(\\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich^{\\minus 1}  - \\indLT{n}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich^{\\minus 1} \\Big) \\ .\n\\end{array}   \n\\end{equation}\nA substitution of Eqs.~\\eqref{eq:Tel_incemental_midpoint} and \\eqref{eq:CG_approx} into \\eqref{eq:Tel_incemental_split} yields the incremental representation\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:Tel_incemental_solu}\n\\begin{array}{l}\n   \\displaystyle\n   \\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL P!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_{el} \n             = \\indLT{n}\\STAPEL P!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_{el} \n              +    f_{cq}\\Big(\\indLT{n\/2}q\\Big) \\  \\Big(\\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich^{\\minus 1}  - \\indLT{n}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich^{\\minus 1} \\Big)\\ ,\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nand the pseudo-elastic stress $\\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{el}$ can be computed by Eq.~\\eqref{eq:Tel_incemental_abbrv}. Finally, it remains to calculate the viscoelastic stress $\\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{ve}$. Note that the constitutive equations for the pseudo-elastic stress \\eqref{eq:stress_ela} and the viscoelastic stress of one Maxwell element \\eqref{eq:stress_visc_k} have a similar structure. Thus, the procedure for numerical integration is similar as well. However, the procedure described above has to be slightly adapted. Firstly, the stress contribution for one single Maxwell element \\eqref{eq:stress_visc_k} is formulated for time instance $t_{n+1}$:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:Tve_incemental}\n  \\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{ve,k} \n      =   - \\int\\limits_{-\\infty}^{\\indLT{n+1}z}\n                  2 \\mu_k\\,{\\rm e}^{-\\frac{\\indLT{n+1}z-s}{\\tau_k}} \n                  \\bigg(\\dfrac{\\rm d}{{\\rm d}s}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich^{\\minus 1}(s)\\bigg) \\, {\\rm d}s \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nNext, this integral is split into two sub-integrals which yields\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:Tve_incremental_split}\n\\begin{array}{l}\n\\displaystyle\n  \\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{ve,k} \n      =   - \\int\\limits_{-\\infty}^{\\indLT{n}z}\n                2 \\mu_k\\,{\\rm e}^{-\\frac{\\indLT{n}z + \\Delta z-s}{\\tau_k}} \n                \\bigg(\\dfrac{\\rm d}{{\\rm d}s}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich^{\\minus 1}(s)\\bigg) \\, {\\rm d}s \n                \\\\[5mm]\\displaystyle\n    \\qquad \\qquad\n          - \\int\\limits_{\\indLT{n}z}^{\\indLT{n}z + \\Delta z}\n                2 \\mu_k\\,{\\rm e}^{-\\frac{\\indLT{n}z + \\Delta z-s}{\\tau_k}} \n                \\bigg(\\dfrac{\\rm d}{{\\rm d}s}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich^{\\minus 1}(s)\\bigg) \\, {\\rm d}s  .\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nNote that in contrast to the calculation step \\eqref{eq:Tel_incemental_split} here the intrinsic time scale $\\indLT{n+1}z = \\indLT{n}z + \\Delta z$ has been substituted. The first integral on the right-hand side of Eq.~\\eqref{eq:Tve_incremental_split} can be expressed by the solution $\\indLT{n}\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{ve,k}$ as follows\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:Tve_incremental_first_term}\n\\begin{array}{l}\n\\displaystyle\n-{\\rm e}^{-\\frac{\\Delta z}{\\tau_k}}\n               \\int\\limits_{-\\infty}^{\\indLT{n}z}\n                2 \\mu_k\\,{\\rm e}^{-\\frac{\\indLT{n}z -s}{\\tau_k}} \n                \\bigg(\\dfrac{\\rm d}{{\\rm d}s}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich^{\\minus 1}(s)\\bigg) \\ {\\rm d}s\n                \\\\[5mm]\\displaystyle\n    \\qquad \\qquad\n   = {\\rm e}^{-\\frac{\\Delta z}{\\tau_k}} \\  \\indLT{n}\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{ve,k}  \\ .\n  \\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nSince the second term of Eq.~\\eqref{eq:Tve_incremental_split} cannot be solved in closed form, a numerical procedure has to be applied. Here again, the midpoint method is employed:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:Tve_incremental_midpoint}\n\\begin{array}{l}\n\\displaystyle\n  - \\int\\limits_{\\indLT{n}z}^{\\indLT{n}z + \\Delta z}\n                2 \\mu_k\\,{\\rm e}^{-\\frac{\\indLT{n}z + \\Delta z-s}{\\tau_k}} \n                \\bigg(\\dfrac{\\rm d}{{\\rm d}s}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich^{\\minus 1}(s)\\bigg) \\ {\\rm d}s\n                \\\\[4mm]\n\\displaystyle\n \\qquad\\quad \\approx -\\Delta z \\\n                2 \\mu_k\\,{\\rm e}^{-\\frac{ \\Delta z}{2\\,\\tau_k}} \n                \\ \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich!^\\triangle^{\\minus 1}\\Big|_{\\indLT{n}z + \\frac{\\Delta z}{2}} \\ .\n\\end{array}               \n\\end{equation}\nFurthermore, the material time derivative $\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich!^\\SLdreieck^{\\minus 1}$ is approximated by\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:Tve_CG_approx}\n\\begin{array}{l}\n  \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich!^\\triangle^{\\minus 1}\\Big|_{\\indLT{n}z + \\frac{\\Delta z}{2}}\n  \\approx\n    \\dfrac{1}{\\Delta z} \\Big(\\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich^{\\minus 1}  - \\indLT{n}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich^{\\minus 1} \\Big) \\ .\n\\end{array}   \n\\end{equation}\nA substitution of Eqs.~\\eqref{eq:Tve_incremental_first_term} - \\eqref{eq:Tve_CG_approx} into Eq.~\\eqref{eq:Tve_incremental_split} yields the incremental representation of the stresses $\\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{ve,k}$ of one single Maxwell element\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:Tve_incremental_single}\n\\begin{array}{l}\n  \\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{ve,k} \n      =  {\\rm e}^{-\\frac{\\Delta z}{\\tau_k}} \\  \\indLT{n}\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{ve,k} \\, +\n                \\\\[5mm]\\displaystyle\n    \\qquad \\qquad   \\quad    \n          - 2 \\mu_k\\,{\\rm e}^{-\\frac{ \\Delta z}{2\\,\\tau_k}} \n                \\ \\Big(\\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich^{\\minus 1}  - \\indLT{n}\\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLstrich^{\\minus 1} \\Big) \\ .\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nBased on this result, the total viscoelastic stress contribution can be calculated by the help of Eq.~\\eqref{eq:stress_visc}.\n\n\n\\subsection{ANSYS specific stress and material tangent}\n\\label{sec:FEM_implementation_ANSYS} \n\nThe material model has been implemented into the commercial finite element software \\textit{ANSYS}$^{\\rm TM}$ by the help of the user subroutine \\textit{USERMAT} \\cite{Ansys_allg_2011}. Within a calculation step $\\Delta t = t_{n+1} - t_{n}$, several input variables are transferred to the user subroutine. These are, for example, the deformation gradients $\\indLT{n}\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich$ and $\\indLT{n+1}\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich$ as well as user defined internal variables of the previous time step. In the opposite direction, appropriate output values have to be transferred to the software. The output includes the stress and the material tangent operator. Moreover, internal variables have to be updated for the next calculation step. \n\nThe material model described in Sections \\ref{sec:Curing_model} and \\ref{sec:Curing_model_constitutive_functions}  has been set up in total Lagrangian representation. Thus, the stresses are given in the form of the $2^{\\rm nd}$ Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor $\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde$. Its corresponding material tangent operator $\\STAPEL K!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!^\\SLtilde$ is defined by\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:total_lagrange}\n  \\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde!^\\SLdreieck = \\STAPEL K!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!^\\SLtilde \\mathbin{\\mathord{\\cdot}\\mathord{\\cdot}}  \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLdreieck \\ ,\n  \\qquad\n  \\STAPEL K!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!^\\SLtilde \n     = \\dfrac{\\partial \\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde}{\\partial \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich} \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nSince \\textit{ANSYS}$^{\\rm TM}$ uses an updated Lagrangian representation for the formulation of finite strain material models \\cite{Ansys_allg_2011}, appropriate transformations of the stress and material tangent measures have to be performed. An  \\textit{ANSYS}$^{\\rm TM}$ specific stress tensor $\\Ten2 \\sigma_U$ and its corresponding material tangent operator $\\STAPEL k!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt_U$ are defined on the configuration $\\mathcal{K}_U$ which arises from the polar decomposition theorem. (cf. Fig.~\\ref{fig:defgrad_polar}). \n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n\t\\centering\n\t\t\t\\includegraphics[width=0.35\\textwidth]{Fig7}\n\t\\caption{Polar decomposition of the deformation gradient.}\n\t\\label{fig:defgrad_polar}\n\\end{figure}\nAccording to the polar decomposition theorem, the deformation gradient $\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich$ gets decomposed into pure stretch tensors and a pure rotation tensor \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:polar_decompo}\n  \\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich = \\Ten2 V \\cdot \\Ten2 R = \\Ten2 R \\cdot \\Ten2 U \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nTherein, $\\Ten2 V$ and $\\Ten2 U$ are the positive definite symmetric left and right stretch tensor, respectively. Furthermore, $\\Ten2 R$ is the orthogonal rotation tensor, thus $\\Ten2 R^{\\minus 1} = \\Ten2 R^T$ holds. By the help of the stretch tensor $\\Ten2 U$, the stress tensor $\\Ten2 \\sigma_U$ is obtained by the push forward operation of the  $2^{\\rm nd}$ Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor $\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde$ \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:Cauchy_pull_back_final}\n   \\Ten2 \\sigma_U \n     \\,=\\,  \\dfrac{1}{J} \\, \\Ten2 U \\cdot \\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde \\cdot \\Ten2 U  \n     \\,=\\,  \\dfrac{1}{J} \\, \\STAPEL M!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt_U  \\mathbin{\\mathord{\\cdot}\\mathord{\\cdot}} \\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nHere, Eq.~\\eqref{eq:S24} has been applied for the definition of the fourth order tensor\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:TensM}\n   \\STAPEL M!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt_U\n       =    \\left( \\Ten2 U \\otimes \\Ten2 U\\right)^{S_{24}} \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nAccording to \\cite{Ihlemann_2006} and \\cite{Rendek_Lion_2010}, the corresponding material tangent $\\STAPEL k!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt_U$ is calculated by the operation\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:tangent_euler_rot_final}\n   \\STAPEL k!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt_U\n       =    \\dfrac{2}{J} \\ \\STAPEL M!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt_U  \\mathbin{\\mathord{\\cdot}\\mathord{\\cdot}}\n            \\left\\{\n                \\STAPEL K!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!^\\SLtilde \n             + \\left( \\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde \\otimes \\STAPEL C!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich^{\\minus 1}\\right)^{S_{24}}\n            \\right\\}\n            \\mathbin{\\mathord{\\cdot}\\mathord{\\cdot}}   \\STAPEL M!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt_U \\ .\n\\end{equation}\n\nEqs. \\eqref{eq:Cauchy_pull_back_final} and \\eqref{eq:tangent_euler_rot_final} have been implemented into the user subroutine \\textit{USERMAT} right after the computation of the Lagrangian tensors $\\STAPEL T!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde$ and $\\STAPEL K!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!_\\vrule width \\SLeffbreite height.4pt!^\\SLtilde $.\n\n\\subsection{Algorithmic correction of the initial volume}\n\\label{sec:FEM_implementation_correction}\n\nIn this section, an algorithm is presented which enables the consideration of initial conditions that differ from reference values used in constitutive equations for the representation of thermochemical volume changes. \n\nIn Section \\ref{sec:Constitutive_functions_Volume}, a material function $\\varphi_{\\theta C}(\\theta,q)$ has been introduced which describes changes in volume related to heat expansion and chemical shrinkage processes. This function has been formulated with respect to a specific reference temperature $\\STAPEL \\theta!^\\SLtilde$ and a reference value \\mbox{$\\STAPEL q!^\\SLtilde = 0$} for the degree of cure. If the current temperature $\\theta(t)$ and the degree of cure $q(t)$ equal those reference values, the function yields \\mbox{$\\varphi_{\\theta C}(\\STAPEL \\theta!^\\SLtilde,\\STAPEL q!^\\SLtilde) = 1$}. Thus, no change in density and volume is computed. If, however, the temperature or the degree of cure differ from their reference values, a certain volume change would be calculated depending on the differences of the input variables and the specific material properties (i.e. heat expansion and chemical shrinkage coefficients). The same situation may occur right at the beginning of a numerical simulation, i.e. in the initial state. In particular, the initial temperature  $\\theta_0$ and the initial degree of cure $q_0$ may vary compared to the previously defined reference values $\\STAPEL \\theta!^\\SLtilde$ and $\\STAPEL q!^\\SLtilde$, respectively. In such a case, a value $\\varphi_{\\theta C}(\\theta_0 \\ne \\STAPEL \\theta!^\\SLtilde,q_0\\ne \\STAPEL q!^\\SLtilde) \\ne 1$ and, consequently, an immediate volume change would be calculated right at the beginning of a simulation. In finite element simulations, this would either lead the finite element mesh to change its volume or volumetric stresses would occur initially. Moreover, a distortion of the finite element mesh might occur.\n\nIn order to avoid this undesired behaviour and to keep the initial volume of a finite element mesh constant, a correction is made at the beginning of a simulation. To this end, the reference state and the initial state at $t=0$ of a simulation are strictly separated by introducing a reference configuration $\\STAPEL {\\cal K}!^\\SLtilde$ and an initial configuration $\\mathcal{K}_0$ according to Fig.~\\ref{fig:defgrad_korr}.\\footnote{The initial configuration $\\mathcal{K}_0$ can be interpreted as a new reference \\cite{Shutov_Etal_2012}.}\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n\t\\centering\n\t\t\t\\includegraphics[width=0.35\\textwidth]{Fig8}\n\t\\caption{Decomposition of the deformation gradient for the distinction between reference and initial configuration}\n\t\\label{fig:defgrad_korr}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThe reference configuration $\\STAPEL {\\cal K}!^\\SLtilde$ is constituted by reference values for the temperature $\\STAPEL \\theta!^\\SLtilde$, the degree of cure \\mbox{$\\STAPEL q!^\\SLtilde = 0$} and the mass density $\\JI\\STAPEL\\varrho!^\\SLtilde\\!$. Likewise, the initial state $\\mathcal{K}_0$ at time $t=0$ of a simulation is represented by the initial values \n\\begin{equation}\n\\theta_0 = \\theta(t=0), \\ q_0 = q(t=0), \\ \\varrho_0 = \\varrho(t=0) \\ . \n\\end{equation}\n\nNext, the different deformation paths occurring in Fig. \\ref{fig:defgrad_korr} are defined. Firstly, a new deformation gradient $\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich^{\\rm new}$ is introduced  which represents the true deformation within a simulation. Accordingly, the deformation gradient $\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_{\\theta C}$ represents the true thermochemical volume change. The latter operator is constituted by\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:F_thetaC_init}\n  \\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_{\\theta C} = J_{\\theta C}^{\\,1\/3} \\ \\STAPEL I!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich ,\n\\quad\n  J_{\\theta C} = \\dfrac{{\\rm d}V_{\\theta C}}{{\\rm d} V_0} = \\dfrac{\\varrho_0}{\\varrho_{\\theta C}} \\ ,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $J_{\\theta C}$ is the true thermochemical volume ratio that occurs in a simulation. Since the initial state $\\mathcal{K}_0$ is assumed to be deformation free, the condition \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:cond_init_vol}\n\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich^{\\rm new}(t=0) \\, = \\, \\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_{\\theta C}(t=0) \\, = \\, \\STAPEL I!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich \n\\end{equation}\nholds. Next, the mapping between the reference configuration $\\STAPEL {\\cal K}!^\\SLtilde$ and the initial configuration $\\mathcal{K}_0$ is represented by an isotropic deformation gradient $\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_0$\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:F_0}\n  \\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_{0} \n     = J_0^{\\,1\/3} \\ \\STAPEL I!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich , \\qquad\n  J_0  \n     = \\dfrac{{\\rm d}V_0}{{\\rm d}\\STAPEL V!^\\SLtilde} \n     = \\dfrac{\\JI\\STAPEL\\varrho!^\\SLtilde\\!}{\\varrho_0} \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nHere, $J_0$ represents the volume ratio between the reference and the initial configuration. This value is not a function of time and thus remains constant throughout the whole deformation process. Moreover, $J_0$ will be interpreted as a correction of the initial volume. \n\nFinally, a mapping between the reference state $\\STAPEL {\\cal K}!^\\SLtilde$ and the configuration $\\mathcal{K}_{\\theta C}$ is introduced as follows:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:F_thetaC_ref}\n  \\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{\\theta C} = \\varphi_{\\theta C}^{1\/3}\\big(\\theta,q\\big) \\ \\STAPEL I!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich , \\quad\n  \\varphi_{\\theta C}\\big(\\theta,q\\big) = \\dfrac{{\\rm d}V_{\\theta C}}{{\\rm d}\\STAPEL V!^\\SLtilde} = \\dfrac{\\JI\\STAPEL\\varrho!^\\SLtilde\\!}{\\varrho_{\\theta C}} \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nNote that $\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{\\theta C}$ is defined by the constitutive function  $\\varphi_{\\theta C}\\big(\\theta,q\\big)$ (see Eq.~\\eqref{eq:phi_thetaC}) and thus only depends on the current temperature $\\theta(t)$ and degree of cure $q(t)$. It represents a hypothetical volume ratio that would occur if no correction is computed.\n\nNext, the initial correction is calculated. According to Fig. \\ref{fig:defgrad_korr}, the relation between the deformation gradients \\eqref{eq:F_thetaC_init}, \\eqref{eq:F_0} and \\eqref{eq:F_thetaC_ref} at arbitrary values $\\theta$ and $q$ reads as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:F0_decompo}\n  \\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_{\\theta C}(\\theta, q) =  \\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_0^{\\minus 1} \\cdot \\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{\\theta C}(\\theta, q) \\ ,\n\\end{equation}\nSince $\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_{\\theta C}$, $\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_0$ and $\\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich!^\\SLtilde_{\\theta C}$ are isotropic, a similar relation can be formulated for the corresponding volume ratios:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:J0_decompo}\n J_{\\theta C}(\\theta,q) =  \\dfrac{\\varphi_{\\theta C}\\big(\\theta,q\\big)}{J_0} \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nRecall that the function $\\varphi_{\\theta C}\\big(\\theta,q\\big)$ only depends on the current temperature and the current degree of cure, and thus is fully determined. In contrast, the values $J_{\\theta C}\\big(\\theta,q\\big)$ and $J_0$ remain to be calculated. To this end, the condition \\eqref{eq:cond_init_vol} is employed. It takes into account that no volume change occurs in the initial state. Thus, it is stated that the initial volume remains unaffected by different initial values $\\theta_0$ and $q_0$. More precisely, \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:init_vol}\n  \\STAPEL F!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich_{\\theta C}(\\theta_0, q_0) = \\STAPEL I!_\\SLstrich!_\\SLstrich \n  \\ \\ \\Leftrightarrow  \\ \\ \n  J_{\\theta C} (\\theta_0, q_0) = 1 \\ \n\\end{equation}\nis assumed. Based on this condition, the initial correction $J_0$ is calculated by evaluation of Eq.~\\eqref{eq:J0_decompo} at the initial state $\\theta = \\theta_0$ and $q = q_0$, which yields\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:J0_result}\n  J_{0} = \\varphi_{\\theta C}(\\theta_0, q_0) = \\text{const.} \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nFurthermore, the initial mass density $\\varrho_0$ for a certain set of values $\\theta_0$ and $q_0$ is adjusted by \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:rho0_result}\n  \\varrho_{0} = \\dfrac{\\JI\\STAPEL\\varrho!^\\SLtilde\\!}{J_0}= \\text{const.} \\ .\n\\end{equation}\nIn summary, the algorithm works as follows. Firstly, the initial correction $J_0$ is calculated within the first load step by Eq.~\\eqref{eq:J0_result}. This value is stored and can be accessed throughout all subsequent load steps of the simulation. Within each load step,  the function $\\varphi_{\\theta C}\\big(\\theta,q\\big)$ constituted by Eq.~\\eqref{eq:phi_thetaC} is evaluated and the true thermochemical volume ratio $J_{\\theta C}\\big(\\theta,q\\big)$ is computed by Eq. \\eqref{eq:J0_decompo}.\n\n\n\n\\section{Finite element simulation of PMCs}\n\\label{sec:Finite_element_simulation}\n\nIn this section, the material model is applied within finite element simulations regarding the newly proposed manufacturing process for deep drawn PMCs (cf. Section~\\ref{sec:Introduction}). Since this paper primarily focuses on phenomena related to the adhesive's curing reaction, the simulation of the forming step is reduced to a simplifying approximation based on a more complex forming simulation presented by Neugebauer \\etal \\cite{Neugebauer_Etal_2013_WGP}. Nevertheless, the forming step cannot be omitted since the subsequent volume shrinkage of the adhesive leads to quite different results concerning secondary deformations of the PMC or evolving strains on the MFC. \n\nThe considered finite element model is related to one specific deep drawing geometry (see Section~\\ref{sec:Finite_element_model}). Based on this model, two different manufacturing processes are investigated. Firstly, simulations on the new manufacturing process (see Section~\\ref{sec:Introduction}) are conducted. To this end, Section~\\ref{sec:Part_I_Forming_step} deals with the simplified forming step where the adhesive is not yet cured. The subsequent curing of the adhesive is considered in Section \\ref{sec:Part_II_Curing_process}. To compare the obtained results regarding the impact on the formed PMC and the MFC, an alternative manufacturing process is investigated as well. In Section~\\ref{sec:reversed_process} the order of forming and curing is switched which will illustrate the negative influence on the MFC when forming takes place after the adhesive has been fully cured.\n\n\\subsection{Finite element model}\n\\label{sec:Finite_element_model}\n\nThe specific example of sheet metal forming simulation considered in this paper relies on a deep drawn rectangular cup geometry as presented in \\cite{Neugebauer_Etal_2013_WGP}. A metal sheet with in-plane dimensions of $200 \\, \\rm mm$ x $130 \\, \\rm mm$ is to be formed. A cover metal sheet and a MFC are bonded to the structure by an adhesive as described in Section \\ref{sec:Introduction}. A schematic illustration of a quarter of the final formed deep drawing cup is depicted in Fig.~\\ref{fig:pic_deep_drawing}. \n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n\t\\centering\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.45\\textwidth]{Fig9}\n\t\\caption{Quarter section of the deep drawn PMC with the section of the finite element model (dashed line) }\n\t\\label{fig:pic_deep_drawing}\n\\end{figure}\nDeduced from the objectives of this work, the finite element model used in this work is confined to the MFC's surrounding region of the PMC (see the dashed line in Fig.~\\ref{fig:pic_deep_drawing}). Furthermore, two planes of symmetry are utilized such that the final model covers a quarter of the inner part of the PMC. Its basic area coincides to the size of the quarter aluminium cover sheet (Fig.~\\ref{fig:pic_model}). Taking into account the thicknesses of the different layers (see Table~\\ref{tab:Thicknesses}),  the overall dimensions of the employed finite element model are $42.5 \\, \\rm mm$ x $35 \\, \\rm mm$ x $2.9 \\, \\rm mm$.\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n\t\\centering\n\t\\includegraphics[width=0.45\\textwidth]{Fig10}\n\t\\caption{Geometry of the model with aluminium layers (1), \n\t\t\t\t\t spacer (2), adhesive layer (3) and \n\t\t\t\t\t macro fibre composite (4) with its active part (5)}\n\t\\label{fig:pic_model}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\begin{table}[ht]\n   \\caption{Thicknesses of the PMC layers in the finite element model}\n    \\vspace{.5ex}\n  \\centering\n  {\\begin{tabular}{p{.05cm}p{4.4cm}p{2cm}p{.05cm}}\n    \\hline & & & \\\\[-3mm]\n    &layer & thickness&\\\\ \n    \\hline & & & \\\\[-3mm]\n      &aluminium cover sheet  & $0.8  \\ \\rm mm$ &\\\\[1mm]\n      &adhesive above MFC     & $0.15 \\ \\rm mm$ &\\\\[1mm]\n      &macro fibre composite  & $0.3  \\ \\rm mm$ &\\\\[1mm]\n      &adhesive below MFC     & $0.15 \\ \\rm mm$ &\\\\[1mm]\n      &aluminium bottom sheet & $1.5  \\ \\rm mm$ &\\\\[1mm]\n    \\hline\n  \\end{tabular}}\n  \\label{tab:Thicknesses}\n\\end{table} \n\nBoth, the PMC and the finite element model consist of several components with remarkably different material behaviour. Therefore, different material models are applied for the layers of the PMC. To represent the curing behaviour of the adhesive layer, the model and its corresponding material parameters presented in Section \\ref{sec:Curing_model} are employed. The material behaviour of the aluminium sheets is described by an elastic-plastic model provided by \\textit{ANSYS}$^{\\text{TM}}$ \\cite{Ansys_allg_2011}. The model incorporates plastic hardening effects represented by a bilinear kinematic hardening rule.\\footnote{ For even more exact prediction of the residual stresses and spring back, material models with nonlinear kinematic hardening are needed \\cite{Shutov_Kreissig_2008}.} The corresponding material parameters are chosen according to the manufacturer's specifications \\cite{ENAW5083_2002}. The active part of the MFC with its unidirectional piezoceramic fibres aligned in y-direction is represented by a model of transversely isotropic elasticity \\cite{Giddings_2009,MFC_2012}. The non-active part of the MFC as well as the spacer are modelled by isotropic elasticity laws. A summary of the employed material parameters for the described materials is given in Table~\\ref{tab:MatPar_FE_Model}.\n\n\n\\begin{table}[ht]\n  \\caption{Material parameters for the different layers of the PMC}\n  \\vspace{.5ex}\n  \\centering\n  {\\begin{tabular}{|lll|}\n  \\hline && \\\\[-3mm]\n  \\multicolumn{3}{|l|}\n     {\\underline{Metal sheets: Elastoplasticity with kinematic hardening}}\\\\[3mm]\n      & $E \\,\\,\\, = \\ 70000 \\ \\rm MPa$ \n      & $\\ \\nu  \\,\\,\\, = \\ 0.31$                              \\\\[1mm] \n      & $\\sigma_F = \\      150 \\ \\rm MPa$      \n      & $\\  E_T  = \\ 1015 \\ \\rm \\rm MPa$     \\\\[4mm]\n  \\multicolumn{3}{|l|}\n     {\\underline{Active part of the MFC: Transversely isotropic elasticity} }\\\\[3mm]\n      & $E_y \\, \\; = \\ 30336 \\ \\rm MPa$\n      & $\\ E_x  \\, \\; = \\ E_z = 15857 \\ \\rm MPa$ \\\\ [1mm]\n      & $\\nu_{xz} \\,\\, = \\  0.31$         \n      & $\\ \\nu_{xy} \\,\\, =\\  \\nu_{zy}= 0.16$          \\\\[1mm]\n      & $G_{xy} = \\ G_{zy}= 5515 \\ \\rm MPa$    \n      & $\\ G_{zx} = \\ \\frac{E_{x}}{2\\left( 1 + \\nu_{xz} \\right)}$       \\\\[4mm] \n     \n  \\multicolumn{3}{|l|}\n     {\\underline{Non-active part of the MFC: Isotropic elasticity}}\\\\[3mm]\n      & $E_{kapt} = \\ 3500 \\ \\rm MPa$ \n      & $\\  \\nu_{kapt}  = \\ 0.33$         \\\\[4mm]\n  \\multicolumn{3}{|l|}\n     {\\underline{Spacer: Isotropic elasticity}}\\\\[3mm]\n      & $E_{tape} = \\ 8000 \\ \\rm MPa$ \n      & $\\  \\nu_{tape}  = \\ 0.35$         \\\\[1mm]\n   \\hline\n  \\end{tabular}}\n  \\label{tab:MatPar_FE_Model}\n\\end{table} \n\n\nThe finite element model has been meshed by a bottom up approach with three-dimensional structural solid elements, each incorporating eight nodes and linear regression functions (Fig.~\\ref{fig:pic_Mesh}). The complete mesh consists of about $40000$ elements from which $14000$ involve the adhesive's material model. To avoid volume locking effects within the adhesive layer,  a mixed u-p-formulation is used for the corresponding elements. Furthermore, radii at the outer edges of the MFC have been modelled to reduce effects of stress concentration (see highlighted region of Fig.~\\ref{fig:pic_Mesh}).\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n\t\\centering\n\t\\includegraphics[width=0.45\\textwidth]{Fig11}\n\t\\caption{Finite element mesh with highlighted radii at the outer edge of the MFC}\n\t\\label{fig:pic_Mesh}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\subsection{Part I: Forming step}\n\\label{sec:Part_I_Forming_step}\n\nThe first step of the simulation process approximates the deep drawing of the PMC's inner part. To this end, node displacements from the deep drawing simulation in \\cite{Neugebauer_Etal_2013_WGP} have been interpolated and defined as boundary conditions on the bottom sheet (see Fig.~\\ref{fig:pic_boundary_conditions_I}). This approach of approximating the deformation of the inner part provides the possibility to focus on studies regarding regions surrounding the adhesive while reducing the computational effort of a complete deep drawing simulation. Thus, typical challenges in sheet metal forming simulations like wrinkling, spring-back and contact formulations are avoided.\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n\t\\centering\n\t\\includegraphics[width=0.3\\textwidth]{Fig12}\n\t\\caption{Interpolated displacement values at the bottom (1) \n\t         and symmetry boundary conditions (2) on the model \n\t         for the simulation of the forming step}\n\t\\label{fig:pic_boundary_conditions_I}\n\\end{figure}\n\nWithin the forming step, the adhesive has not yet reached its gelation point and, thus, can be treated as a viscoelastic fluid \\cite{Winter_1986}. To adopt the fluid like material behaviour, a simplified model is used which includes pure elastic behaviour with respect to volume changes and viscoelastic behaviour in case of isochoric deformations. The viscoelastic behaviour is represented by one single Maxwell element with constant material parameters. Here, an \\textit{ANSYS}$^{\\rm TM}$ built in viscoelastic model has been used. The material parameters are $K = 5000 \\ \\rm MPa$ for the bulk modulus, $c = 2.0 \\ \\rm MPa$ for the Neo-Hookean stiffness, and $\\tau = 20.0 \\ \\rm s$ for the relaxation time. \n\nThe simulation time of the forming step is $1000 \\ \\rm s$. The forming itself takes $30 \\ \\rm s$. The remaining period of $970 \\ \\rm s$ is included to achieve a relaxed state in the adhesive. This procedure has been chosen due to numerical difficulties when using shorter simulation times for the forming step or applying smaller values for the adhesive's relaxation time. Some numerical investigations on appropriate representations of the liquid adhesive during forming were conducted in \\cite{Neugebauer_Etal_2013_WGP}. However, the aim of this simulation step is to obtain a finite element mesh of the formed PMC. Thus, the described procedure is assumed to be sufficient for the needs of this work. \n\nResulting from the forming simulation, Fig.~\\ref{fig:pic_uz_bottom} shows the circularity of the contour lines of the displacement $u_z$ which points to a good reproduction of the profile generated by the rectangular punch with a double curvature of $100 \\, \\rm mm$.\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n\t\\centering\n\t\\includegraphics[width=0.45\\textwidth]{Fig13}\n\t\\caption{Perspective view (left) and bottom view (right) of the \n\t\t\t\t\t model's $u_z$-displacement due to forming}\n\t\\label{fig:pic_uz_bottom}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn order to analyse the functionality of the formed PMC, the strain affecting the MFC has to be examined. According to manufacturer's specifications, the linear elastic tensile strain limit of the MFC's brittle piezoceramic fibres is about  $1 \\! \\cdot \\! 10^{-3}$~\\cite{Daue_Kunzmann_2010,MFC_2012}. If this strain level is exceeded, risk of depolarization effects increases significantly and the MFC might possibly not be able to maintain its sensor and actuator functionalities in the required magnitude ~\\cite{Daue_Kunzmann_2010}. Complete failure of the MFC occurs, if a maximum operational tensile strain of $4.5 \\! \\cdot \\! 10^{-3}$ is exceeded \\cite{MFC_2012}. \n\nAs a result of the conducted forming simulation,  Fig.~\\ref{fig:pic_MFC_eps_y} reveals that the deformation of the forming step exceeds the linear tensile strain limit by two to three times. However, failure of the MFC is not predicted since the strain magnitudes are below the maximum operational tensile strain. Moreover, it can be seen that there are compressed and stretched regions which points to major influence of bending deformation on the MFC. \n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n\t\\centering\n\t\\includegraphics[width=0.45\\textwidth]{Fig14}\n\t\\caption{Total mechanical strain $\\varepsilon_{y}$ along the orientation of fibres on the top (left) and the bottom (right) of the active part of the MFC}\n\t\\label{fig:pic_MFC_eps_y}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\subsection{Part II: Curing process}\n\\label{sec:Part_II_Curing_process}\n\nThe second part of the simulation gives insight into the impact of the adhesive's curing and its associated volume shrinkage on the PMC. In order to obtain a continuous process chain of simulation, the deformed mesh of the simplified forming simulation presented in Section \\ref{sec:Part_I_Forming_step} is employed as starting point for the curing simulation. To account for curing phenomena in the adhesive, the viscoelastic material model used within the forming step is replaced by the material model presented in Sections~\\ref{sec:Curing_model} and \\ref{sec:Curing_model_constitutive_functions}. The point of time to conduct this change of material laws is set to the gelation point at which the fluid turns into a solid \\cite{Winter_1986}. According to Meuwissen \\etal \\cite{Meuwissen_Etal_2004} the gelation point is represented by a degree of cure \\mbox{$q \\approx 0.5-0.6$}. Here, the initial value is set to $q_0 = 0.5$. \n\nWithin the curing simulation, the applied boundary conditions are confined to symmetries at the two cross-sectional planes as can be seen in Fig.~\\ref{fig:pic_boundary_conditions_I}.  The boundary conditions on the bottom sheet are released. Since no residual stresses are transferred from the forming simulation to the curing step, no initial spring-back is observed. The simulation time of the curing simulation is set to $1800 \\, \\rm s$ according to manufacturer's specifications \\cite{DP410_2003}. Additionally, a constant temperature $\\theta = 318 \\, K$ is prescribed. As an example for the decisive effects of adhesive curing process, Fig.~\\ref{fig:pic_J3_section} shows the mechanical volume ratio~$J$ resulting from the material's volume shrinkage. The final degree of cure at this stage is $q = 0.89$.\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n\t\\centering\n\t\\includegraphics[width=0.45\\textwidth]{Fig15}\n\t\\caption{Volume ratio~$J$ of the PMC after the curing process shows the adhesive's chemically induced shrinkage (cover sheet is hidden, highlighted region indicates the adhesive)}\n\t\\label{fig:pic_J3_section}\n\\end{figure}\n\nNote that if a free volume shrinkage is assumed, $J$ would be equally distributed  throughout the entire adhesive volume. The apparent deviations of~$J$ shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:pic_J3_section} are caused by supporting effects of adjacent materials. These supporting effects can also be observed by viewing the displacements in normal direction of the free surfaces of the aluminium layers (see Fig.~\\ref{fig:pic_uz_curing}). As a consequence of their different thicknesses, the resulting normal displacements at the free surface of the top layer are more pronounced than these of the bottom layer. \n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n\t\\centering\n\t\\includegraphics[width=0.45\\textwidth]{Fig16}\n\t\\caption{Surface markings due to the adhesive's volume shrinkage during the curing process on top (left) and at the bottom (right) of the finite element model}\n\t\\label{fig:pic_uz_curing}\n\\end{figure}\n\nAnalogous to the investigations of the simplified for\\-ming simulation (cf. Section \\ref{sec:Part_I_Forming_step}), the mechanical strain $\\varepsilon_{y}$ of the piezoceramic fibres is examined and presented in Fig.~\\ref{fig:pic_MFC_eps_y_curing}. \n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n\t\\centering\n\t\\includegraphics[width=0.45\\textwidth]{Fig17}\n\t\\caption{Total mechanical strain~$\\varepsilon_{y}$ in the direction of the orientation of the fibres on the top (left) and the bottom (right) of the MFC due to the chemical curing process}\n\t\\label{fig:pic_MFC_eps_y_curing}\n\\end{figure}\n\nAs can be seen from Fig.~\\ref{fig:pic_MFC_eps_y_curing}, the linear elastic tensile strain limit is not exceeded due to the curing reaction. However, superimposing the strains of the forming and the curing simulation reveals that the MFC is loaded additionally in the compressed zones. For the herein presented example with its adhesive layer thickness, its further geometrically dimensions and the given forming displacements, the influence is rather negligible. Nevertheless, deviations from these conditions (smaller radii or thicker adhesive layer) may result in strain amplitudes due to forming and curing process which are vice versa.\n\n\\subsection{Comparison to reversed manufacturing process}\n\\label{sec:reversed_process}\n\nFinally, an analysis of a reversed manufacturing process proves the adhesive's protecting function to the MFC. The concluding simulation is conducted with the material model presented in Sections~\\ref{sec:Curing_model} and \\ref{sec:Curing_model_constitutive_functions}. Here, an initial degree of cure of~$q_0=0.5$ is chosen and a constant temperature of $\\theta = 318 \\,K$ is prescribed. The simulation time of the curing process is $1800 \\, \\rm s$. Within this period of time, the chemical reaction is finished with the value  $q = 0.89$ which is in accordance with the simulation in Section \\ref{sec:Part_II_Curing_process}. Subsequently, the forming step with the cured adhesive is simulated. In Fig.~\\ref{fig:pic_MFC_eps_y_reverse}, the resulting tensile strain along the fibre direction is depicted.\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n\t\\centering\n\t\\includegraphics[width=0.45\\textwidth]{Fig18}\n\t\\caption{Total mechanical strain~$\\varepsilon_{y}$ along fibre orientation on the top (left) and the bottom (right) of the MFC due to forming with already cured adhesive}\n\t\\label{fig:pic_MFC_eps_y_reverse}\n\\end{figure}\n\nAs Fig.~\\ref{fig:pic_MFC_eps_y_reverse} reveals, due to this strategy the entire MFC has been uniformly stretched and the maximum strain is almost four times higher than in the simulation of the actually intended manufacturing process shown in Sections~\\ref{sec:Part_I_Forming_step} and \\ref{sec:Part_II_Curing_process}. Moreover, not only the linear elastic tensile strain limit but also the maximum operational tensile strain of $4.5 \\! \\cdot \\! 10^{-3}$ is exceeded. Hence, failure of the MCF is predicted in this simulation. In conclusion, it can be confirmed that the liquid adhesive protects the MFC during the forming process (see results in Sections \\ref{sec:Part_I_Forming_step} and \\ref{sec:Part_II_Curing_process}).\n\\section{Conclusion and discussion}\n\\label{sec:Conclusions}\n\nThe present work aims at supporting investigations of the innovative manufacturing process for smart PMCs. Apparently, the role of the adhesive is crucial due to its specific material behaviour and its geometrical design. To allow for investigations on this issue, a general material modelling approach is presented in Section \\ref{sec:Curing_model}. Furthermore, a concretized model for the representation of curing phenomena in one specific adhesive is described in Section \\ref{sec:Curing_model_constitutive_functions}. This model is able to capture the main characteristics of the two-component epoxy based adhesive considered in this paper. Moreover, the thermodynamic consistency of the model could be proved. \n\nIn Section \\ref{sec:FEM_implementation}, different aspects of numerical implementation into the finite element software \\textit{ANSYS}$^{\\rm TM}$ have been discussed. Beside the numerical integration of constitutive equations and the derivation of software specific stress and material tangent tensors, a new algorithm has been proposed which suppresses  undesired volume changes at the beginning of numerical simulations. Those volume changes may result from thermal expansion and chemical shrinkage when initial values for the temperature and the degree of cure differ from their reference values. Only by the help of the new algorithm, the consideration of heterogeneous initial fields of temperature and degree of cure has been made possible.\n\nFinally, in Section \\ref{sec:Finite_element_simulation} a finite element model for a deep drawn rectangular cup has been built up as representative example for the innovative manufacturing process. The model is based on experimental and numerical studies presented by Neugebauer \\etal \\cite{Neugebauer_Etal_2013_WGP}. However, in the present work a simplified model which includes only the closest surroundings to the MFC has been employed. Based on the results of the forming and curing simulations, it can be stated that the simplified forming step is capable of producing a sufficiently accurate geometry as basis for the curing simulation. \n\nTo highlight the benefit of the new manufacturing process, a reversed sequence of production has been investigated as well and the results of both processes have been compared. In Section \\ref{sec:reversed_process} it has been predicted that failure of the MFC occurs if the PMC is formed after the adhesive is completely cured. Hence, it can be seen that the new manufacturing process considered in this paper exhibits particular potential to overcome these shortcomings. Here, the floating support resulting from the uncured adhesive prevents sufficiently from overloading or delamination during the forming step.\n\nBased on the present work, which shows the qualitative feasibility of the proposed material model as well as the strategy of numerical simulation, different aspects are planned to be conducted in the future. This includes  complete identification of material parameters based on experimental investigations and the extension to thermomechanically coupled simulations analogous to \\cite{Landgraf_Etal_2012,Landgraf_Etal_2013} or \\cite{Mahnken_2013}. Finally, it is intended to employ the presented approach to the simulation of different deep drawing processes (cf. \\cite{Neugebauer_Etal_2010_ProdEng,Neugebauer_Etal_2013_WGP}). \n\n\n\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\n\\section{Introduction}\n\nA broad range of observations including the cosmic microwave background radiation anisotropies have established\nthe so-called standard cosmological model in which the \nuniverse mainly consists of two unknown substances called dark energy and\ndark matter.\nAccording to the standard model,\nsmall primeval density fluctuations generated in the very early universe grow by gravitational instability, to form \nnonlinear objects called dark matter halos.\n\nDark halos with mass $\\sim 10^5$--$10^6{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$ are thought to be the birth place of the first generation of stars \\citep{1997_Tegmark, 2003_YoshidaAbelHernquist}. \nStar-forming gas clouds are formed through condensation of the primordial gas by molecular hydrogen cooling. \nPopulation~III (\\ion{Pop}{3}) stars are formed \nin the primordial gas clouds when the age of the universe is a few tens\/hundreds million years \n\\citep[e.g,][]{2002_AbelBryanNorman, 2006_Naoz, 2012_Fialkov}.\n\nUltra-violet (UV) and X-ray radiation from the first stars and their remnants ionize and heat the inter-galactic medium (IGM), to initiate cosmic reionization.\nRecent observations including\nthe measurement of the electron scattering optical depth \\citep[e.g.,][]{2016_PlanckCollaboration}, the Gunn-Peterson trough in quasar spectra \\citep{1965_GunnPeterson, Fan:2006, Banados:2018}, and Ly-$\\alpha$ emission from star-forming galaxies \\citep{Mason:2018} suggest that the process of reionization completes by $z\\sim 6$ \\citep[e.g.,][]{Weinberger:2020, Naidu:2020}. \nIt is expected that early stages of reionization can be directly probed by future radio telescopes such as Square Kilometer Array\nthrough observation of redshifted 21-cm emission from neutral hydrogen in the IGM \\citep[see, e.g.,][for a recent review]{2016_Barkana, Mesinger:2019}. \n\nIn the early phase of reionization, the density distribution of the IGM,\nor the so-called gas clumping, is an important factor that critically sets the UV photon budget necessary for reionization.\nDense gas clouds hosted by cosmological minihalos can be significant \nphoton sinks, and their existence and the abundance\naffect the process and duration of reionization.\nUnfortunately, it is nontrivial to derive the abundance \nof the gas clouds and to estimate the effective gas clumping factor,\nbecause small gas clouds are effectively \nphoto-evaporated by the emerging UV background radiation.\nAt the same time, stars can be formed in the gas clouds, \nwhich then act as UV photon {\\it sources}. \n\nA number of studies have investigated early star formation under various environments \\citep[e.g.,][]{1976_Low, 2000_Omukai, 2002_Schneider, 2003_Schneider, 2007_GloverJappsen, 2007_Jappsen, 2009_Jappsen, 2009_Jappsenb, 2009_Smith, 2018_Chiaki, 2019_ChiakiWise}.\nMetal enrichment affects the evolution of gas clouds and subsequent star formation process \nthrough enhanced radiative cooling by heavy element atoms and dust grains \\citep[e.g,][]{2005_Omukai, 2019_Hartwig}. \nAlthough details of low-metallicity star formation \nhas been explored by recent numerical simulations \\citep{2018_Chiaki},\nthe effect of metal-enrichment on halo photoevaporation has not been systematically studied. \nIt is important to study the evolution of minihalos \nwith a wide range of metallicities\nin order to model the physical process of cosmic reionization\nin a consistent manner.\n\n\n\nReionization begins as a local process in which an individual\nradiation source generates an \\ion{H}{2} region around it.\n\\cite{1986_Shapiro} and \\cite{1987_ShapiroGiroux} \nuse a one-dimensional model under spherical symmetry to study the ionization front (I-front) propagation through the IGM in a  cosmological \ncontext.\nRadiative transfer calculations have been performed in a post-processing\nmanner by using the density field realized in cosmological simulations\n\\citep{1999_Abel, 1999_RazoumovScott, 2001_SokasianAbelHernquist, 2002_Cen, 2003_HayesNorman}. \nFully coupled radiation-hydrodynamics simulations have been used to study reionization in a cosmological volume  \\citep{2000_Gnedin, 2001_GnedinAbel, 2002_RicottiGnedinShull, 2004_SusaUmemuraa, 2004_SusaUmemurab, 2014_Wise, 2016_Xu}. Recent simulations of reionization explore the process of cosmic reionization employing large cosmological volumes of $\\sim 100^3$ comoving Mpc$^3$ while resolving the first galaxies in halos with mass of $\\sim 10^8 M_\\odot$\n\\citep{Semelin:2017, Ocvirk:2018}. However, even these state-of-the-art simulations do not fully resolve minihalos \nnor are able to follow the process of photoevaporation,\nand thus it still remains unclear \nhow the small-scale gas clumping affects reionization.\n\n\\cite{2004_Shapiro} and \\cite{2005_Iliev} study the dynamical evolution of minihalos irradiated by UV radiation.\nThey perform 2D radiation hydrodynamics simulations with  \nincluding the relevant thermo-chemical processes. They explore a wide range of parameters such as halo mass, redshift, and the strength of UV radiation.\nIt is shown that gas clumping at sub-kiloparsec scales dominate absorption of ionizing photons during the early phase of reionization. \nAn important question is whether or not the minihalos survive\nunder a strong UVB for a long time, over a significant fraction of the age of the universe.\nAnother interesting question is whether or not stars are formed in metal-enriched minihalos. If massive stars are formed, they also contribute to reionization and may thus imprint characteristic features in the $21{\\, \\rm cm}$ signals \\citep{2016_Cohen}.\n\nIn the present paper, we perform a large set of high-resolution radiation hydrodynamics simulations of \nminihalo photoevaporation. \nWe aim at investigating systematically the effects of metal enrichment on the photoevaporation.\nWe evaluate the characteristic photoevaporation time and study its metallicity dependence. We also develop an analytic model\nof photoevaporation and compare the model prediction with our\nsimulation result.\nThe rest of the present paper is organized as follows.\nIn \\secref{sec:methods}, we explain the details of our computational methods. \nThe simulation results are presented in \\secref{sec:results}. \nWe develop an analytical model \nthat describes the physical process of minihalo photoevaporation in \\secref{sec:analytic}. \nWe discuss the physics of minihalo photoevaporation in \\secref{sec:discussion}. \nFinally, we give summary and concluding remarks in \\secref{sec:conclusions}.\n\nThroughout the present paper, we assume a flat $\\Lambda$CDM cosmology\nwith $(\\Omega_{\\rm m}, \\Omega_\\Lambda, \\Omega_{\\rm b}, h) = (0.27, 0.73, 0.046, 0.7)$ \\citep{2011_Komatsu}.\nAll the physical quantities in the following are given in physical units.\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Numerical Simulations} \\label{sec:methods}\n\tWe perform \n\tradiation-hydrodynamics simulations \n\tof minihalo photoevaporation by an external UV background radiation. \n\t We run a set of simulations systematically by varying the gas metallicity, dark matter halo mass, intensity of the radiation background and redshift. \n\t\n\tOur simulation set up is schematically shown in \\fref{fig:schematic}. \n\t\\begin{figure*}[htbp]\n\t\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[clip, width = \\linewidth-5cm]{schematic.pdf}\n\t\t\\caption{\n\t\t\tWe consider plane-parallel radiation incident on a halo with mass $M$ and metallicity $Z$.\n\t\t\tThe I-front reaches the halo at $z = z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}}$. \n\t\t\t}\n\t\t\\label{fig:schematic}\n\t\t\\end{center}\t\t\n\t\\end{figure*}\n\t\n\tThe numerical method is essentially the same as in \\cite{2019_Nakatani}, where we study\n\tthe dynamical evolution of molecular gas clouds \n\texposed to an external UV radiation field.\n\tBriefly, we use a modified version of PLUTO \\citep[version 4.1;][]{2007_Mignone}\n\tthat incorporates ray-tracing radiative transfer\n\tof UV photons \n\tand non-equilibrium chemistry.\n\tThe details of the implemented physical processes are found in  \n\t\\cite{2018_Nakatani, 2018_Nakatanib}.\n\t\n\tThe simulations are configured with 2D cylindrical coordinates. \n\tThe governing equations are\n\t\\gathering{\n\t\t\\frac{\\partial \\rho_{\\rm b}}{\\partial t} + \\nabla \\cdot \\rho_{\\rm b} \\vec{v} =  0 ,\t\n\t\t\\label{eq:continuity}\\\\\n\t\t\\frac{\\partial \\rho_{\\rm b} v_R}{\\partial t} + \\nabla \\cdot \\left( \\rho_{\\rm b} v_R \\vec{v} \\right)              \n\t\t=  -\\frac{\\partial P}{\\partial R}  - \\rho_{\\rm b} \\partialdif{\\Phi}{R},\n\t\t\t\\\\\n\t\t\\frac{\\partial \\rho_{\\rm b} v_x}{\\partial t} + \\nabla \\cdot \\left( \\rho_{\\rm b} v_x \\vec{v} \\right)    \n\t\t= - \\frac{\\partial P}{\\partial x } -\\rho_{\\rm b} \\partialdif{\\Phi}{x} , \\\\\n\t\t\\frac{\\partial \\rho_{\\rm b} E}{\\partial t} + \\nabla \\cdot \\left(\\rho_{\\rm b} H \\vec{v} \\right) \n\t\t= - \\rho_{\\rm b} \\vec{v} \\cdot \\nabla \\Phi  \n\t\t+\\rho_{\\rm b} \\left( \\Gamma -\\Lambda    \\right),                        \\\\\n\t\t\\frac{\\partial n_{\\text{\\rm H}} y_i }{\\partial t} + \\nabla \\cdot \\left( n_{\\text{\\rm H}} y_i \\vec{v} \\right)\n\t\t= n_{\\text{\\rm H}} C_i       ,                       \\label{eq:chemevoeq}\n\t}\n\twhere $R$ and $x$ are the physical radial distance and vertical height, respectively,\n\tand $t$ is proper time in the frame of the halo. \n\tWe denote the gas density, velocity, and pressure as $\\rho_{\\rm b}$, $\\vec{v} = (v_R, v_x)$, \n\tand $P$. In the equation of motion, $\\Phi$ is the external gravitational potential of the host dark halo.\n\tIn the energy equation, $E$ and $H$ are the total specific energy  \n\tand total specific enthalpy, and\n\t$\\Gamma$ and $\\Lambda$ are the specific heating rate \n\tand specific cooling rate.\n\tThe abundance of $i$-th chemical species, $\\abn{i}$, is\n\tdefined by the ratio of the species' number density $n_i$ \n\tto the hydrogen nuclei number density $n_{\\text{\\rm H}}$.\n\tThe total reaction rate is denoted as $C_i$. The gas is composed of eight chemical species:\n\tH, \\ce{H+}, \\ce{H2}, \\ce{H2+}, He, CO, \\ce{C+}, O, and \\ce{e-}.\n\tThe elemental abundances of carbon and oxygen are normalized by\n\tthe assumed metallicity $Z$ as\n \t$0.926\\e{-4} \\, Z\/Z_{\\odot}$ \n\tand $3.568\\e{-4} \\, Z \/ Z_{\\odot}$, respectively \\citep{1994_Pollack, 2000_Omukai}.\n\t\n\t\t\n\tWe consider halos with a wide range of masses of \n\t$10^{3} {\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}} \\leq M \\leq 10^8{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$. Each halo\n\thas a Navarro, Frenk \\& White density profile scaled appropriately \\citep{1997_NFW}.\n\tWe assume that the halo potential is fixed and is given by a function of \n\tthe spherical radius $r \\equiv \\sqrt{R^2+x^2}$ as\n\t\\eq{\n\t\t\\rho_{\\rm DM} \\propto \\frac{1 }{c_{\\rm N} \\xi ( 1 + c_{\\rm N} \\xi)^2},\t\\label{eq:nfw}\n\t}\n\twhere $c_{\\rm N}$ is the concentration parameter, \n\tand $x$ is the spherical radius normalized by the virial radius, i.e. $\\xi \\equiv r \/ r_{\\rm vir}$.\t\n\tThe virial radius of a halo collapsing at redshift $z$ is\n\t\\eq{\n\t\\splitting{\n\t\tr_{\\rm vir} = &1.51 \\braket{\\frac{\\Omega_m h^2}{0.141}}^{-1\/3}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\braket{\\frac{M}{10^8 \\,{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}}}^{1\/3} \\\\\n\t\t\t\t\t\t&\\times\t\\braket{\\frac{\\Delta_{\\rm c}}{18\\pi^2}}^{-1\/3}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\\braket{\\frac{1+z}{10}}^{-1}\\,\\, {\\rm kpc} \t\\label{eq:rvir}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}\n\t}\n\twhere $\\Delta_{\\rm c}$ is the overdensity relative to the critical density \n\tof the universe at the epoch.\n\tWe adopt $\\Delta_{\\rm c}  =18\\pi^2$.\n\tThen the halo potential $\\Phi$ is explicitly given by\n\t\\gathering{\n\t\t\\Phi (r) \n\t\t\t\t\t=  -  V_{\\rm c}^2\n\t\t\t\t\t\\frac{\\ln\\braket{1 + c_{\\rm N} \\xi}}{c_{\\rm N} \\xi }\n\t\t\t\t\t\\frac{c_{\\rm N} }\n\t\t\t\t\t{\\ln(1+c_{\\rm N}) - \\dfrac{c_{\\rm N}}{1+ c_{\\rm N}}},\n\t\t\t\t\t\\label{eq:potential}\n\t\\\\\n\tV_{\\rm c} \\equiv \\sqrt{\\frac{GM}{r_{\\rm vir}}}\n\t}\n \n\t\n\t\n\t\n\t\n\tThe initial conditions are given by assuming a fully atomic, isothermal gas in hydrostatic equilibrium with the virial temperature\n\t\\eq{\n\tT_{\\rm vir}\t=\t\\frac{GM \\mu m_{\\rm p}}{2r_{\\rm vir} k_{\\rm B}},\n\t}\n\twhere $\\mu$ is mean molecular weight, \n\t$m_{\\rm p}$ is the proton mass,\n\tand $k_{\\rm B}$ is the Boltzmann constant. \n\tThe initial density profile is \n\t\\eq{\n\t\t\\rho_{\\rm b} (r)\n\t\t\t=  \\hat{\\rho_{\\rm b}} \\exp\\left[-\\frac{\\Phi }{ k_{\\rm B}T_{\\rm vir}\/ \\mu m_{\\rm p}}  \\right], \t\n\t\t\t\\label{eq:densityprofile}\n\t}\n\twhere $\\hat{\\rho_{\\rm b}}$ is the normalization factor \n\t\\eq{\n\t\t\t\\hat{\\rho_{\\rm b}} \\equiv \n\t\t\t\\frac{M \n\t\t\t\\Omega_{\\rm b} \\Omega_{\\rm m}^{-1}}\n\t\t\t{\n\t\t\t\\displaystyle\n\t\t\t\\int _0 ^{r_{\\rm vir}} {\\rm d} r\\, 4\\pi r^2\n\t\t\t\\exp\\left[-\\dfrac{\\Phi }{ k_{\\rm B}T_{\\rm vir}\/ \\mu m_{\\rm p}}  \\right]}.\n\t}\n\tWith this normalization, the mass ratio of baryons to dark matter within $r_{\\rm vir}$ equals the global cosmic baryon fraction\n\t$f_{\\rm b} = \\Omega_{\\rm b} \/ \\Omega_{\\rm m}$.\n\tThe initial density profile is specified by $M$, $c_{\\rm N}$ and $\\xi$.\n\tNote that $\\hat{\\rho_{\\rm b}}$ is not the central density\n\tbut is a geometry-weighted average density,\n\twhich is independent of $M$ but scales as $\\propto (1+z)^3$\n\tfor fixed $\\Delta_{\\rm c}$ and $c_{\\rm N}$. \n\n\tThe initially fully atomic gas in the halo is exposed to  plane-parallel UV radiation as illustrated in Figure \\ref{fig:schematic}.\n\tWe follow photoionization by extreme UV (EUV; $13.6\\,{\\rm eV} < h\\nu < 100\\,{\\rm eV}$) photons\n\tand photodissociation by far-UV photons in the Lyman-Werner (LW) band (FUV; $11.2\\,{\\rm eV} \\lesssim h\\nu < 13.6 \\,{\\rm eV}$).\n\tThe UV spectrum is given by \n\t\\eq{\n\t\tJ(\\nu) = J_{21} \\braket{\\frac{\\nu}{\\nu_1}}^{-\\alpha} \\e{-21} \n\t\t\\unit{erg}{}\\unit{s}{-1}\\unit{cm}{-2}\\unit{Hz}{-1}\\unit{sr}{-1},\t\\label{eq:UVSED}\n\t}\n\twhere $\\nu_1$ is the Lyman limit frequency (i.e., $h\\nu_1 = 13.6\\,{\\rm eV}$). \n\tWe set the UV spectral slope $\\alpha = 1$ and \n    consider $J_{21}$ in the range $0.01 \\leq J_{21} \\leq 1$ \\citep{1996_ThoulWeinberg}. \n\tWe calculate the photodissociation rate with\n\ttaking into account the self-shielding of hydrogen molecules\n\t\\citep{1996_DraineBertoldi, 1996_Lee}.\n\n\tHeating and cooling rates are calculated self-consistently with the\n\tnon-equilibrium chemistry model of \\cite{2019_Nakatani}.\t\n\tMajor processes are photoionization heating,\n\tLy{\\rm $\\alpha$} cooling,\n\tradiative recombination cooling, \n\t\\ion{C}{2}~line cooling, \n\t\\ion{O}{1}~line cooling, \n\t\\ce{H2} line cooling,\n\tand CO line cooling. \n\tThe corresponding \n\theating\/cooling rates are found in\n\t\\cite{2018_Nakatani, 2018_Nakatanib}.\n\tFUV-induced photoelectric heating is not effective with FUV intensity and metallicity of interest in this study. We omit it from our thermochemistry model. \n\tFor the present study, we also implement the Compton cooling by the CMB photons interacting with free electrons with physical density $n_e$ as \n\t\\eq{\n\t\t\\Lambda_{\\rm Comp} = 5.65\\e{-36}\\nspe{e} (1+z)^4 (T - T_{\\rm CMB}) \\unit{erg}{}{\\, \\rm cm}^{-3} \\unit{s}{-1},\n\t}\n\twhere $T_{\\rm CMB}$ is the CMB temperature given by $T_{\\rm CMB} = 2.73(1+z){\\rm \\, K}$.\n\t\n\n\tOur computational domain extends $0\\, {\\rm kpc}  \\leq R \\leq r_{\\rm vir}$ and $-r_{\\rm vir}  \\leq x \\leq r_{\\rm vir}$.  \n\tWe define computational grids uniformly spaced with the number of grids $N_R \\times N_x = 320\\times 640$. \t\n\tUV photons are injected from the boundary plane at $x = -r_{\\rm vir}$. \n\tWe assume that the cosmological I-front arrives at the plane at a redshift of $z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}}$. \t\n\tAll our runs start at this time denoted as $t = 0 \\, {\\rm yr} $. \n\tNote that the external halo potential is fixed; we do not consider growth of halo mass.\n\tWe discuss potential influences of this simplification in \\secref{sec:discussion}. \n\t\n\tWe run a number of simulations with varying three parameters in the range\n\t$0\\, Z_{\\odot} \\leq Z \\leq 10^{-3} \\, Z_{\\odot}$, $0.01 \\leq J_{21} \\leq 1$,\n\t$10^{3} {\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}} \\leq M \\leq 10^8 {\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$,\n\tand $10\\leq z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}} \\leq 20$, respectively. \n\tA total of 495 ($=5\\times3\\times11\\times3$) \n\tsimulations are performed.\n\tHereafter, we dub each run based on the assumed values of the parameters. A simulation with $(Z, J_{21}, M, z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}}) = (10^{-a}Z_{\\odot}, 10^{-b}, 10^{c}{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}, d)$\n\tis referred to as ``\\sil{$a$}{$b$}{$c$}{$d$}''.\n\tFor example, \\sil{$\\infty$}{0}{5.5}{15} indicates \n\t$(Z, J_{21}, M, z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}}) =(0 \\,Z_{\\odot}, 1, 10^{5.5}{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}, 15)$. \n\n\n\\section{Photoevaporation Process} \\label{sec:analytic}\n\\begin{figure*}\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[clip, width = \\linewidth]{model.pdf}\n    \\caption{Schematic view of our analytic model in \\secref{sec:analytic}. Planer UVB is incident on the halo, dividing it into self-shielded region (represented by the blue hemisphere) and photoevaporative flow region. Photoevaporative flows launch from the outermost layer of the self-shielded region. The red line indicates the locus of the I-front, $x_i(R)$. There is a UVB-shade in the downstream region, where the gas is neutral.}\n    \\label{fig:analytic}\n\\end{figure*}\nBefore presenting the results from a number of simulations, it would be\nillustrative to describe the basic physics of photoevaporation.\nIt also helps our understanding of the overall evolution of a UV-irradiated minihalo. To this end, we develop an analytic model and \nevaluate the photoevaporation rate numerically so that it can be compared directly with our simulation results.\n\nPhotoevaporation is driven by gas heating associated with\nphoto-ionization.\nIncident UV radiation ionizes the halo gas, forming a sharp boundary between the ionized and neutral (self-shielded) regions.\nPhotoevaporative flows are launched from the outermost layer of the self-shielded region. \nThe number of UV photons incident on the self-shielded region is equal to that of evaporating gas particles. \nThe gas mass evolution of a halo can be described as \n\\eq{\n\\splitting{\n\t\\frac{{\\rm d} M _{\\rm s}}{{\\rm d} t} & =  - m \\int_{\\partial V_{\\rm s}} {\\rm d} \\vec{S}_i  \\cdot \\hat{x} \\, J \\\\\n\t&=\t- m \\int_{V_{\\rm s}} {\\rm d} V \\, \\nabla \\cdot \\hat{x} \\,J \\\\\n\t&\t=\t - m \\int _0^{R_i } 2\\pi R \\, J (R, x_i) \\, {\\rm d} R, \n\t}\\label{eq:masslosseq}\n}\nwhere $M_{\\rm s}$ is the total gas mass in the self-shielded region, $m n_{\\text{\\rm H}} \\equiv \\rho_{\\rm b}$, $V_{\\rm s}$ is the volume of the self-shielded region, $\\hat{x}$ is a unit vector in the $x$-direction, $J$ is total photon number flux, $R_i$ is the maximum radial extent of the self-shielded region (i.e., the radial position of the I-front), and $x_i(R)$ gives the locus of the I-front on the $R$--$x$ plane (\\fref{fig:analytic}).\n\nWe define the following dimensionless quantities:\n$\\vec{\\xi} = (\\xi_x, \\xi_R) \\equiv (x\/r_{\\rm vir}, R\/r_{\\rm vir})$, \n$\\tilde{t} = t\/ (r_{\\rm vir} V_{\\rm c}^{-1}) $, \n$\\tilde{M} = M_{\\rm s} \/ (f_{\\rm b} M )$ with $f_{\\rm b} = \\Omega_{\\rm b} \/ \\Omega_{\\rm m}$,\nand $\\tilde{J} = J \/ J_0$ $(J_0\\equiv 8.1\\e{5}\\, J_{21} \\unit{s}{-1}\\unit{cm}{-2})$; \nand rewrite \\eqnref{eq:masslosseq} in a dimensionless form\n\\eq{\n\t\\frac{{\\rm d} \\tilde{M} _{\\rm s}}{{\\rm d} \\tilde{t} } = \n\t- \\frac{J_0 r_{\\rm vir}^3 m }{f_{\\rm b} M V_{\\rm c}}\n\t\\int _0^{\\xi_i } 2\\pi \\xi_R \\, \\tilde{J} (\\xi_R, \\xi_{x, i}) \\, {\\rm d} \\xi_R. \n\t\\label{eq:nondimmassloss}\n}\nThe ionizing photon number flux at the I-front, $J(R, x_i)$, is equal to $J_0$ minus the total recombinations along the ray up to the I-front. Note that $J(R,x_i)$ depends on the recombination coefficient and the density, and also on the velocity profile of the photoevaporative flows. \n\nWe approximate the I-front to be a hemispheric surface facing toward the incident radiation in the region $x_i < 0$,\ni.e., $x_i = - R_i \\sqrt{1 - R^2\/ R_i^2}$.\nIn the other region $x_i \\geq 0$, the I-front lies at the surface of a cylinder with radius $ R_i $. \nWe further assume that photoevaporative flows are spherically symmetric in $x_i < 0$ and the ionized gas is isothermal with $T = 10^4{\\rm \\, K}$.\nThe wind velocity is assumed to be the sound speed of the ionized gas, $c_i$. \nThe ionizing photon number flux at the I-front is then given by\n\\gathering{\n\t{J}(R, x_i) = \\frac{2 J_0}{1 + \\sqrt{1 + 4\\dfrac{\\alpha_{\\rm B} R_i J_0}{c_i^2} \\dfrac{\\theta_{R,i}}{\\sin \\theta_{R,i} }} } \\nonumber \\\\\n\t\\theta_{R,i} \\equiv \\arccos\\sqrt{1 - \\braket{\\frac{R}{R_i}}^2}\n\t= \\arccos\\sqrt{1 - \\braket{\\frac{\\xi_R}{\\xi_i}}^2}, \\nonumber \n}\nwhere $\\alpha_{\\rm B}$ is the case-B recombination coefficient. \nWith these results, \\eqnref{eq:nondimmassloss} reduces to \n\\gathering{\n\t4\\pi \\xi_i^2 \\tilde{\\rho_{\\rm b}}(\\xi_i) \\frac{{\\rm d} \\xi_i}{{\\rm d} \\tilde{t} } = \n\t- \\eta\n\t\\int _0^{\\xi_i }  \\frac{4\\pi \\xi_R \\, {\\rm d} \\xi_R}{1 + \\sqrt{1 + 4q\\xi_i \n\t\\dfrac{\\theta_{R,i}}{\\sin \\theta_{R,i}}\n\t} \n\t}\n\t\\label{eq:difmassloss}\\\\ \n\t\\eta \\equiv \\frac{J_0 r_{\\rm vir}^3 m }{f_{\\rm b}  M V_{\\rm c}}\n\t\\approx 14 J_{21} \\braket{\\frac{M}{10^6{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}}}^{-1\/3} \\braket{\\frac{1+z}{11}}^{-7\/2}, \\nonumber \\\\\n\tq \\equiv \\dfrac{\\alpha_{\\rm B} r_{\\rm vir}  J_0}{c_i^2} \n\t\\approx 1.7\\e{2} J_{21} \\braket{\\frac{M}{10^6{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}}}^{1\/3} \\braket{\\frac{1+z}{11}}^{-1}. \\nonumber \n}\nNote that the dimensionless parameter $\\eta$ effectively measures the ratio of Hubble time to the ionization time scale.\nThe other parameter $q$ quantifies the magnitude of UV absorption in the photoevaporative flows; absorption is negligible if $q \\ll 1$, while it is significant if $q \\gg 1$. \nAlthough the differential equation is not solved analytically, we can derive the asymptotic behaviour of the gas mass in a few limiting cases. \nFor $q \\gg 1$, the right-hand-side coefficient is approximately proportional to $\\simeq \\eta q^{- 1\/2} \\propto J_{21}^{1\/2} M^{-1\/2} (1+z)^{-3}$.\nIt follows that there is a similarity in the gas mass evolution among halos having similar $\\eta q^{-1\/2}$ and initial $\\xi_i$.\nHence we define the similarity parameter as \n\\eq{ \n    \\chi \\equiv \\eta q ^ {-1\/2}.    \\label{eq:chi}\n}\nThe initial $\\xi_i$ is determined by the radius \nat which the I-front turns to the D-critical type from R-type \\citep[e.g.,][]{1978_Spitzer, 1989_Bertoldi}.\nThe radius is obtained by numerically solving the integral equation\n\\gathering{\n\t\\int_{-\\infty}^{-\\xi_i} \\tilde{\\rho_{\\rm b}}^2 (\\xi_R, \\xi_x) \\,{\\rm d}\\xi_x = \n\t\\frac{J_0 }{ r_{\\rm vir} n_0^2 \\alpha_{\\rm B}} \n\t\\braket{1 \n\t- \\frac{2c_i  n_0 }{  J_0} \\tilde{\\rho_{\\rm b}} (\\xi_i)\n\t} \\nonumber \\\\\n\tn_0 \\equiv \\frac{f_{\\rm b} M} {m r_{\\rm vir}^3}  \\nonumber \\\\\n\t\\tilde{L}_{\\rm s}\\equiv \\frac{J_0 }{ r_{\\rm vir} n_0^2 \\alpha_{\\rm B}} \\nonumber \\\\\n\t\\tilde{u}_{\\rm IF} \\equiv \\frac{2c_i  n_0 }{  J_0}, \\nonumber \n}\nwith the initial density profile of \\eqnref{eq:densityprofile}. \nTypically, the initial $x_i$ is larger\nfor lower $J_0$ and for higher $n_0$ (i.e., higher $z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}}$). \nWe list $q, \\eta, q, \\chi, \\tilde{L}_{\\rm s}, $ and $\\tilde{u}_{\\rm IF}$ for each of our runs in \\tref{tab:data} of \\appref{sec:supplymental}. \n\nIn the above model, we have assumed a constant flow velocity, \nbut in practice the flow is accelerated within the ionized boundary layer after \nlaunched with a small, negligible velocity. Also, we do not consider gravitational force by the host halo, which can decelerate the photoevaporative flows. In \\secref{sec:similarities}, we will introduce a few corrections \nto these simplifications and\nexamine carefully the similarity of gas mass evolution by comparing with the simulation results.\n\n\\section{Simulation Results} \\label{sec:results}\nWe first describe the dynamical evolution of \na minihalo in our fiducial case, and examine the effect of metal- and dust-cooling in \\secref{sec:result1}. \nThen, we focus on the photoevaporation rates \nand study the dependence on metallicity and on \nhalo mass in \\secref{sec:massloss}. The dependence of the photoevaporation \nrates on radiation intensity and the turn-on redshift is\nstudied in \\secref{sec:result2} and \\secref{sec:result3}.\nWe summarize the halo mass evolution in \\secref{sec:similarities}. \nThen we provide an analytical fit to the derived mass evolution as a function of time in \\secref{sec:evatime}. \nFor convenience, we term halos with $T_{\\rm vir} > 10^4{\\rm \\, K}$ atomic cooling (massive) halos in the following sections. The corresponding mass range is $M \\gtrsim 10^{7.5}{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$ ($ 10^7{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$) at $z = 10$ (20). Lower-mass halos ($T_{\\rm vir} < 10^4{\\rm \\, K}$) are referred to as low-mass halos; those with $M \\gtrsim 10^{6.5}$--$10^7{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$ ($10^6$--$10^{6.5}{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$) at $z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}} = 10$ (15--20) are specifically called molecular cooling halos.\n\n\\subsection{Photoevaporation and Metallicity Dependence}\t\\label{sec:result1}\n\\begin{figure*}[h]\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[clip, width = \\linewidth]{Haloevap_paperfigsFigSnapshots.pdf}\n\\caption{\n    Snapshots of \\sil{4}{0}{5.5}{10} (top panels) and \\sil{$\\infty$}{0}{5.5}{10} (bottom panels).\n\tThe upper and lower half of each panel indicate the density and temperature distributions, respectively. \n\tThe color bars are shown at the right. \n\tThe magenta dashed lines are density contours for $n_{\\text{\\rm H}} = 10^{-2},10^{-1},1, 10, 100 {\\, \\rm cm}^{-3}$, \n\tand the gray dot-dashed lines are ionization degree for $0.1, 0.5, 0.9$. \n\tThe arrows represent velocity fields and are scaled by the magnitude. \n\tThe reference arrow length for $20\\,{\\rm km\\,s^{-1}}$ is shown at the top left in each panel. \n\tNote that the view closes-up as time goes for clarity. \n\tThe planer UV field is incident on the computational \n\tdomain at $x\/r_{\\rm vir} = -1$. \n\tThe UV-heated gas has a temperature of $\\sim 10^4{\\rm \\, K}$ \n\tand streams off the halo. \n\tThe self-shielded regions (orange regions in the temperature maps) have relatively low temperatures. \n}\n\\label{fig:snapshots}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\\fref{fig:snapshots} shows the density and temperature distributions for a halo with $M=10^{5.5}{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$ irradiated by the UV background with $J_{21} = 1$ at $z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}} =10$.\nWe compare the results with two different metallicities of $Z =0\\,Z_{\\odot}$ and $Z=10^{-4}\\,Z_{\\odot}$ (i.e., \\sil{$\\infty$}{1}{5.5}{10} and \\sil{4}{1}{5.5}{10}). \nIn both runs, we find hot, ionized gas flows (hereafter ``wind region'') \nand a cold, dense region (hereafter ``self-shielded region''). \nThe boundary between the two is the launching \"base\" of the photoevaporative flows. \nIn \\fref{fig:snapshots}, the base appears as a transitional layer that divides \na hot ($\\sim 10^4{\\rm \\, K}$; white) region and a cool ($\\lesssim 10^3{\\rm \\, K}$; orange) region.\nThe wind regions are heated by EUV photons, \nand the temperature is $\\sim 10^4{\\rm \\, K}$ near the base,\nbut quickly decreases as the wind expands.\n\nThe self-shielded region of a \nmetal-free halo contracts slowly\nbecause of inefficient cooling.\nWith a slight amount of heavy elements, atomic cooling such as \\ion{C}{2}{} and \\ion{O}{1}{} cooling becomes effective, \nand also the grain-catalyzed \\ce{H2} formation reaction produces abundant \\ce{H2} molecules ($y_{\\ce{H2}} \\sim 10^{-4}$)\nthat further enhance cooling efficiency. \nSince the thermal coupling of dust and gas is weak at low densities, \nthe dust temperature does not become high enough to sublimate.\nThe radiative cooling rates are roughly comparable\nfor \\ce{H2}, \\ion{C}{2}{}, and \\ion{O}{1}{} species \nin metal-rich halos ($Z \\gtrsim 10^{-4}\\,Z_{\\odot}$).\nTypically, the most efficient coolant is\n\\ce{H2} in a large portion of the self-shielded region,\nwhereas \\ion{C}{2}{} cooling is dominant only in the central, very dense region ($\\gtrsim10^{3}{\\, \\rm cm}^{-3}$).\nThe central low temperature ($T \\sim 10^2{\\rm \\, K}$) part in the upper panels of \\fref{fig:snapshots} is formed through the \nefficient atomic cooling. \n\n\nThe self-shielded region of the metal-free halo (\\sil{$\\infty$}{1}{5.5}{10}) has a temperature close to the\nvirial temperature of the halo.\nThe wind region has similar thermal and chemical structure \nin the two runs shown in \\fref{fig:snapshots}. Lyman~${\\rm \\alpha}$ cooling \nis the dominant cooling process near the I-front, whereas Compton cooling is \nimportant in outer regions. Note that the efficiency of the latter depends on the cosmological redshift $z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}}$. The gas temperature in the wind region is $\\sim 5000$--$10000 {\\rm \\, K}$ and decreases as the gas expands outward.\n\nSince the cooling time is progressively shorter in the central, denser part, \nthe gas cools and condenses in an inside-out manner.\nA dense core forms quickly at the halo center, as can be seen in the time evolution\nin \\fref{fig:snapshots}.\nIn metal-enriched halos, a sufficient amount of \\ce{H2} molecules is\nformed via grain-catalyzed reactions, even though the incident radiation continuously dissociates \\ce{H2}.\nWith increasing metallicity, \\ce{H2} molecules form more rapidly,\nand \\ion{C}{2} and \\ion{O}{1} line cooling also lower the gas temperature.\nAn important effect of metal cooling is to lower the minimum \nmass for gas cloud collapse. \nWe discuss whether or not star formation takes place in low-mass, low-metallicity halos in \\secref{sec:starformation}. \n\nWe have focused on the results with $z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}} = 10$\nand with the fiducial UV radiation intensity \n$J = 10^{-21} {\\rm \\, erg} \\sec^{-1} {\\, \\rm cm}^{-2} {\\rm Hz}^{-1} {\\rm sr}^{-1}$.\nEssentially the same physical processes operate  \nin other cases. \nWith $\\sim 10^2$--$10^3$ times higher LW intensities, \\ce{H2} molecules are almost completely photodissociated in the halo \\citep{2010_ShangBryanHaiman, 2012_Agarwal, 2014_ReganJohanssonWise, 2015_Hartwig, 2016_ReganJohanssonWisea, 2017_Schauer}.\nWe note that primordial gas clouds formed under strong LW radiation are\nsuggested to be possible birth places of massive black holes \\citep{2001_Omukai, 2010_ShangBryanHaiman, 2012_Agarwal, 2014_ReganJohanssonWise, 2015_Hartwig, 2016_ReganJohanssonWisea, 2017_Schauer}. \nIn metal-enriched halos, \nthe gas can still cool and condense by metal and dust cooling\neven under strong UV radiation.\n \n \nIn contrast to low-mass, \\ce{H2}-cooling halos, Ly$\\alpha$ cooling dominates in \nhalos with $T_{\\rm vir} \\gtrsim 20000{\\rm \\, K}$.\nSince the efficiency of Ly$\\alpha$ cooling is independent of metallicity, \nthe gas condensates quickly in the massive halos with $M \\gtrsim 10^{7.5}{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$. \nIf the gas is enriched to  $Z \\gtrsim 10^{-3}\\,Z_{\\odot}$,\ndust-gas collisional heat transfer \ncauses efficient gas cooling for $n_{\\text{\\rm H}} \\gtrsim 10^7{\\, \\rm cm}^{-3}$ \\citep{2005_Omukai, 2008_Omukai, 2016_Chiaki}. \n\n\nOur findings are largely consistent with \\cite{2014_Wise} regarding\nthe correspondence between halo mass and dominant cooling processes.\nHalos with $M \\gtrsim 10^7{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$ are expected to be \nmetal-enriched by Pop~III supernovae triggered in the progenitor halo or in nearby halos,\nand thus metal cooling is dominant or comparable to atomic\/molecular hydrogen cooling. \nFollowing \\cite{2014_Wise}, we call such halos  ``metal-cooling halos'', which have masses between the atomic cooling limit ($\\sim 10^{7.5}$--$10^8{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$) and the upper mass limit of molecular cooling halos ($\\sim 10^{6.5}$--$10^7{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$). We find similarly efficient metal cooling for $M \\gtrsim 10^7{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$, but the most important effect of metal enrichment in our cases is to lower the molecular cooling limit by allowing formation of \\ce{H2} through grain-catalyzed reactions, especially at $Z \\gtrsim10^{-4}\\,Z_{\\odot}$.\n\nThe gas in massive halos ($T_{\\rm vir} > 10^4{\\rm \\, K}$) is gravitationally bound even under strong UV radiation.\nWe find rather small mass loss in the runs with $M = 10^{7.5}{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$. \nApproximately 10\\% of the initial gas mass is lost via photoevaporation, \nbut the diffuse, ionized gas follows the concentrated gas toward the center. \nThis process slightly recovers the total gas mass within $r_{\\rm vir}$. \nFor halos with $T_{\\rm vir} > 10^4{\\rm \\, K}$,\noutgoing flows are not excited, and all of the baryons concentrate \nto the halo center regardless of \nthe UV strength. The total mass slightly increases from the initial state by accretion of the diffuse gas in the outer part.\n\n\n\\subsection{Mass Loss}  \\label{sec:massloss}\nThe photo-heated gas flows outward from the surface of the self-shielded region, while the central part continues contracting. \nThe rate of the gas mass loss can be calculated as \n\\eq{\n\t\\dot{M}_{\\rm ph} = \\int _ S {\\rm d} \\vec{S} \\cdot( \\rho_{\\rm b} \\vec{v} ), \t\\label{eq:masslossrate}\n}\nwhere \n$S$ is the surface area of the launching base. \nNote that the right-hand-side of this equation is equal to that of \\eqnref{eq:masslosseq}.\nThe mass-loss rate is essentially determined by the radial extent of the self-shielded region, because the initial velocity of the photoevaporative winds is typically the sound speed of the ionized gas ($\\sim 10\\,{\\rm km\\,s^{-1}}$), and the base density is determined by the EUV flux. The mass flux at the base is not strongly dependent of the gas metallicity \\citep{1989_Bertoldi,2019_Nakatani}. \nWe measure the total gas mass within a halo as  \n\\eq{\n\tM_{\\rm b} = \\int_{r \\leq r_{\\rm vir}} 2\\pi R \\rho_{\\rm b}  \\, {\\rm d} x \\, {\\rm d} R.\n}\nThe evolution of $M_{\\rm b}$ can be characterized by two phases separated by the time when the diffuse outer part is stripped off and a \"naked\" dense core is left. In the later phase, the core is directly exposed to UV radiation but \nthe net mass loss is small owing to small geometrical size. The   \n photoevaporation rate decreases rapidly during the transition phase. \n A similar process is known also in the study of molecular cloud photoevaporation \\citep[e.g.,][]{1989_Bertoldi, 2019_Nakatani}. \nIt is difficult to follow the photoevaporation process\nin detail after the transition phase, because\nthe small core is resolved only with \nseveral computational cells in our simulations.\nWe thus calculate $M_{\\rm b}$ only up to the transitional phase.\n\nWe empirically determine the transition time by the following\nconditions:\n\\gathering{\n    \\frac{1}{M_{\\rm b}}\\int_{\\rho_{\\rm b} > 10^{-3}\\rho_{\\rm b, max}} 2\\pi R \\rho_{\\rm b}  \\, {\\rm d} x \\, {\\rm d} R  \n    > 0.8 \\label{eq:limitingtime1}\\\\\n    \\rho_{\\rm b, max} > \\rho_{\\rm b,0}. \\label{eq:limitingtime2}\n}\nHere, $\\rho_{\\rm b, max}$ is the maximum density in the computational domain and $\\rho_{\\rm b,0} \\equiv \\rho_{\\rm b}(t=0,r=0)$.\n\n\\fref{fig:masslossrates} shows the evolution of $M_{\\rm b}$ for halos with $M = 10^{5.5-8} {\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$ with various metallicities and other parameters.\n\\begin{figure*}[h]\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[clip, width = \\linewidth\/2-0.5cm]{Haloevap_metallicity_dependenceMassEvolution_Zdependence_J0M5565z10_showconcentration_annotation.pdf}\n\\includegraphics[clip, width = \\linewidth\/2-0.5cm]{Haloevap_metallicity_dependenceMassEvolution_Mdependence_Z3infJ0z10_showconcentration_annotation.pdf}\n\\includegraphics[clip, width = \\linewidth\/2-0.5cm]{Haloevap_metallicity_dependenceMassEvolution_Jdependence_Z3infM6z10_annotation.pdf}\n\\includegraphics[clip, width = \\linewidth\/2-0.5cm]{Haloevap_metallicity_dependenceMassEvolution_zdependence_Z3infM55z_showconcentration_annotation.pdf}\n\\caption{\n        Time evolution of the total gas mass relative to the initial gas mass for selected runs.\n        The panels show the dependence of the gas mass evolution on the four simulation parameters $(Z, M, J_{21}, z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}})$:\n\t\t(a) metallicity dependence of the gas mass evolution for $M = 10^{5.5}, 10^{6.5}$ with $J_{21} = 10 $ and $z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}} = 10$. The line colors and styles differentiate metallicity and the halo mass, respectively. The round marker points indicate the time at which all of the atmospheric gas has been lost, leaving an concentrated core (cf.~\\eqnref{eq:limitingtime1} and \\eqnref{eq:limitingtime2}).\n\t\tNote that the curve for \\sil{5}{0}{5.5}{10} overlaps those of \\sil{$\\infty$}{0}{5.5}{10} and \\sil{6}{0}{5.5}{10}. \n\t\t(b) halo mass dependence of the gas mass evolution for $Z = 0, 10^{-3}\\,Z_{\\odot}$ with $J_{21} = 1$ and $z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}} = 10$. The line styles correspond to halo masses as annotated. The lines for \\sil{$\\infty$}{0}{8}{10} and \\sil{3}{0}{8}{10} overlap. \n\t\t(c) $J_{21}$ dependence of the gas mass evolution for $Z = 0, 10^{-2} \\, Z_{\\odot}$ with $M = 10^6 {\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$ and $z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}} = 10$. Solid, dashed, dotted lines indicate $J_{21} = 1, 0.1, 0.01$, respectively. \n\t\t(d) $z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}}$ dependence of the gas mass evolution for $Z = 0, 10^{-3}\\,Z_{\\odot}$ with $M = 10^{5.5}{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$ and $J_{21} = 1$. \n\t\t}\n\\label{fig:masslossrates}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure*}\nFor a given $M$, \n$M_{\\rm b}$ evolves along the same track on the $t$--$M_{\\rm b}$ plane for various metallicities. \nWe have discussed in \\secref{sec:result1}\nthat the effect of metal-enrichment appears clearly in the concentrating core, but\nthe strength of EUV-driven photoevaporation is independent of metallicity. \nThus the outer diffuse gas has not cooled in the early evolutionary phase even with nonzero $Z$ cases, and\nthe size of the self-shielded region is similar regardless of $Z$ (compare the rightmost panels in \\fref{fig:snapshots}).\nTherefore, the evolution of $M_{\\rm b}$ does not differ significantly \nuntil the diffuse envelope gas is lost. \n\n\nWe show the time evolution of $M_{\\rm b}$ for halos with various $M$\nincluding the high mass case ($T_{\\rm vir} > 10^4{\\rm \\, K}$; $M \\gtrsim 10^{7.5}{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$) \nin \\fref{fig:masslossrates} (Panel~b). \nA large amount of gas is lost from low-mass halos ($T_{\\rm vir} < 10^4{\\rm \\, K}$)\nbut the mass-loss rates are significantly smaller for massive halos with $10^8{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$. \nInterestingly, the gas mass {\\it increases} slightly.\nThe diffuse gas at $r>r_{\\rm vir}$ is accreted while the central part\nkeeps cooling.\nPhotoevaporation is hardly observed in these runs, because the initial temperature, $T_{\\rm vir}$, is higher than the typical temperature of a photo-heated gas in the first place.\nHalo's gravity is so strong that it retains the \nphoto-heated gas. \nAnother important feature is that the gas mass evolution of the massive halos is nearly independent of metallicity. \nRadiative cooling by hydrogen is dominant in these halos (\\secref{sec:result1}).  \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Radiation Intensity}\t\\label{sec:result2}\n\nIn photo-ionized regions, the characteristic ionization time,\n$t_{\\rm ion} \\sim 0.01 J_{21}^{-1} \\, {\\rm Myr} $, is orders of magnitude \nshorter than the typical crossing time of photoevaporative flows,\n$ t_{\\rm cr} \\simeq r_{\\rm vir} \/ 10\\,{\\rm km\\,s^{-1}} \\simeq 10 \\,M_{5}^{1\/3} [(1+z)\/10]^{-1} \\, {\\rm Myr} $ with $M_{5} \\equiv M\/10^{5} {\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$. \nFor weak UV radiation, the I-front is located at the outer part \nof the halo where the density is low.\nWe find that the boundary where $\\abn{HII} = 0.5$ is located at \na radius where $\\col{HI} \\sim 10^{18} J_{21} ^{1\/2} {\\, \\rm cm}^{-2}$,\nand the base density is approximately estimated to be $n_{\\text{\\rm H}} \\sim 10^{-1}$--$10^{-0.5} J_{21} {\\, \\rm cm}^{-3}$,\nwhich is consistent with the result of \\cite{2004_Shapiro}.   \n\n\nThe UV intensity $J_{21}$ does not strongly change the overall dynamical \nphotoevaporation process.\nHowever, the mass loss rate sensitively depends on $J_{21}$,\nbecause the base is located at a larger $r$ for lower $J_{21}$, where \nthe gas density is lower. \nOne may naively expect that the geometrical size can make\nthe photoevaporation rate large, \nbut the small density at the large radius mitigates\nincrease of mass loss\n(cf.~\\eqnref{eq:masslossrate}). \nThe base density is approximately proportional to the UV flux,\nwhile the base radius increases by only a small factor \nbecause the density \nrapidly decreases with increasing radial distance.\nHence the mass loss rate, $|\\dot{M}_{\\rm b}|$, decreases for smaller\n$J_{21}$ as can be seen in \\fref{fig:masslossrates}-(c). \nThe mass loss rate decreases with time, ${\\rm d} |\\dot{M}_{\\rm b}| \/ {\\rm d} t < 0$, because the geometrical cross-section of halo decreases. \nWe also note that the characteristic mass-loss time for massive halos \nis longer than the Hubble time \nat the epochs considered. \n\n\\subsection{Turn-on Redshift}\t\\label{sec:result3}\nHalos forming at different redshifts have different properties.\nMost notably high-redshift halos are more compact and denser\n(cf.~\\eqnref{eq:densityprofile}).\nWe study cases with different \n$z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}}$, the timing of radiation turn-on,\nwhen the cosmological I-front reaches the halo.\nOne can consider that different $z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}}$ effectively corresponds \nto different \nreionization histories, or to an inhomogeneous reionization model\nin which the effective $z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}}$ differs from place to place.\n\nThe process of photoevaporation is essentially the same as those described in \\secref{sec:massloss} and \\secref{sec:result2}.\nThe gas density at the photoevaporative flow \"base\" is primarily set by $J_{21}$, and is not explicitly dependent of $z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}}$. \nHowever, the relative distance of the base to the halo center, $\\xi (\\equiv r\/r_{\\rm vir})$, \nis larger for halos at higher redshift owing to higher average density,\nwhile the size of the neutral, self-shielded region is {\\it smaller}.\nThese two effects nearly cancel out and yield photoevaporation rates nearly independent of $z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}}$. \nWe find that $|\\dot{M}_{\\rm b}|$ increases only by $20$--$30\\%$ with $\\Deltaz_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}} = -5$. \n\nIn the characteristic minihalo case with $M=10^{5.5}{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$, $J_{21} = 1$, $Z = 10^{-3}\\,Z_{\\odot}$ and $z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}} = 10$,\nabout 80\\% of the initial gas mass is lost,\nand the mass loss fraction is only $\\sim 60\\%$ with $z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}} = 20$. \nSimilar trend of the final core mass is seen in other runs with different $M$ and $J_{21}$. This is consistent with the results of\n\\cite{2005_Iliev} who show weak dependence of mass-loss time scale on turn-on redshift. \n\n\n\\subsection{Gas Mass Evolution}\\label{sec:result4}\nWe have shown that the gas mass evolution depends most sensitively \non $M$ and $J_{21}$. Physically, these are the most relevant quantities to the gravitational force and the mass flux, respectively (cf.~\\eqnref{eq:masslosseq}).\nThe results of our numerical simulations can be characterized by two quantities: the half-mass time, $t_{1\/2}$, at which the gas fraction decreases to 0.5, and the remaining mass fraction, $f_{\\rm b,rem}$, which is the mass fraction of the \"remnant\" condensed core.\n\\begin{figure*}[htbp]\n    \\centering\n   \n    \\includegraphics[clip, width = \\linewidth]{Haloevap_paperfigsEvaporationMap.pdf}\n    \\caption{We plot $t_{1\/2}$ and $f_{\\rm b, rem}$ for our simulated halos. The left, middle, and right panels shows the results at $z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}} = 10, 15, 20$, respectively. The circles, triangles, and squares represent $J_{21} = 1, 0.1, 0.01$. The colors of the markers indicate metallicity, and the sizes are scaled according to the halo mass $M$. The size reference is shown at the bottom right. The maximum marker size corresponds to $M = 10^7, 10^{6.5}, 10^{6.5}{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$ for the panels of $z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}} = 10, 15, 20$, respectively. \n    Note that $t_{1\/2}$ is definable only for the halos whose mass reduces to $f_{\\rm b, rem} \\leq 0.5$. }\n    \\label{fig:evamap}\n\\end{figure*}\n\\fref{fig:evamap} shows the distribution of $t_{1\/2}$ and $f_{\\rm b, rem}$. \nThis summarizes the overall dependence of gas mass evolution on \nthe simulation parameters $(Z, J_{21}, M, z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}})$. \nMassive halos at lower $z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}}$ reflect lower average densities.\nThe mass (symbol size) is larger towards the upper right corner in each panel of \\fref{fig:evamap}, indicating that the remaining mass fraction $f_{\\rm b, rem}$ increases for higher halo mass. Also halos with higher-metallicity have higher $f_{\\rm b, rem}$  owing to\nefficient cooling (\\secref{sec:massloss}). \nFor higher $J_{21}$, both $t_{1\/2}$ and $f_{\\rm b,rem}$ are smaller\nbecause of the faster mass loss for stronger UV radiation (\\secref{sec:result2}). \n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Similarity in Mass Loss}\t\\label{sec:similarities}\nWe have shown that the mass-loss rate has weak metallicity dependence\nat least until the bulk of the diffuse halo gas is stripped off. In this section, we first derive nontrivial similarity of the gas mass evolution for metal-free halos. We then apply this model to other low-metallicity cases.\n\nIn \\secref{sec:analytic}, we have developed an analytic model with a key parameter $\\chi$ that characterizes the gas mass evolution of a photoevaporating halo. \nThere, the effect of the host halo's gravity has not been incorporated (Eqs. \\ref{eq:masslosseq}, \\ref{eq:nondimmassloss}, and \\ref{eq:difmassloss}). \nWe expect that deceleration by gravity becomes important for halos\nwhose virial temperatures are \ncomparable to the typical temperature of the photo-ionized gas, $\\sim 10^4{\\rm \\, K}$. In such cases, assuming $c_i = 10\\,{\\rm km\\,s^{-1}}$ as the photoevaporative\nflow velocity overestimates the photoevaporation rate (see \\eqnref{eq:difmassloss} and the description above it). \nTo account for the deceleration, we adopt\na \"reduced\" parameter defined as \n\\eq{\n    \\chi^\\prime \\equiv \\chi \\frac{c_i - V_{\\rm c}}{c_i},    \\label{eq:modchi}\n}\nin the following discussions. The derived values are listed in \\tref{tab:data} of \\appref{sec:supplymental}. \n\nThe top panel of \\fref{fig:similarity} shows the gas mass evolution of metal-free halos with various parameter sets in the dimensionless form. \n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[clip, width = \\linewidth]{Haloevap_metallicity_dependenceMassEvolution_similarity.pdf}\n\\includegraphics[clip, width = \\linewidth]{Haloevap_paperfigsEvaporationMap_selfsimilarity.pdf}\n\\caption{\n(top) Similarities in the gas mass evolution for metal-free halos with various parameter sets. Note that we omit ``Z$\\infty$'' from the simulation labels in the legend. Values in the parentheses after each simulation label show corresponding $\\chi(\\equiv \\eta q^{-0.5})$ and $\\chi^\\prime (\\equiv \\eta q^{-0.5} \\Delta c_i \/ c_i)$. The horizontal and vertical axes indicate the dimensionless time and mass, respectively (cf.~\\eqnref{eq:nondimmassloss}). Lines are colored according to $\\chi^\\prime$ as indicated by the color bar. \nLines with similar colors almost overlap on the $\\tilde{t}$--$\\tilde{M}$ plane, indicating that having similar $\\chi^\\prime$ results in similar mass evolution. \n(bottom) $\\chi^\\prime$ vs dimensionless half-mass time $\\tilde{t}_{1\/2}$ for metal-free halos. The markers are used in the same manner as in \\fref{fig:evamap} but the colors represent $z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}}$. The magenta dashed line is a fit. A negative correlation is seen between $\\chi^\\prime$ and $\\tilde{t}_{1\/2}$. \n}\n\\label{fig:similarity}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\nHalos with similar $\\chi$ or $\\chi^\\prime$ \nevolve on essentially the same track in the $\\tilde{M}$--$\\tilde{t}$ plane.\nWe explain the similarity further by using a specific example as follows.\nThe simulation parameters of \\sil{$\\infty$}{0}{6.5}{10} (cyan dotted line; $\\chi = 0.54, \\chi^\\prime = 0.24$) are close to those of \\sil{$\\infty$}{0}{6.5}{20} (yellow dashed line; $\\chi = 0.078, \\chi^\\prime = 0.018$), but the mass evolution significantly deviates from each other on the dimensionless plane. \nOn the other hand, it is closer to those of \\sil{$\\infty$}{1}{4.5}{20} (cyan-green solid line; $\\chi = 0.25, \\chi^\\prime = 0.21$) and \\sil{$\\infty$}{2}{5}{10} (cyan dashed line; $\\chi = 0.31, \\chi^\\prime = 0.25$). \nA more straightforward case is \\sil{$\\infty$}{2}{5}{10} (cyan solid line; $\\chi = 0.31, \\chi^\\prime = 0.25$). It is close to \\sil{$\\infty$}{2}{4.5}{10} (light-blue dashed line; $\\chi = 0.54, \\chi^\\prime = 0.48$), as expected from the close parameter values. Interestingly, the \\sil{$\\infty$}{2}{4.5}{10} (blue dashed line; $\\chi = 0.54, \\chi^\\prime = 0.48$) run is also very close to  \\sil{$\\infty$}{1}{5.5}{10} (cyan dash-dotted line; $\\chi = 0.54, \\chi^\\prime = 0.4$).\n\nWe find that gravitational deceleration of the photoevaporating gas is \nan important factor.\nThe evolution in Run~Z{$\\infty$}J{0}M{6.5}z{10} (cyan dotted line) is close to \nother cases with green lines, but its $\\chi$ value $(\\approx 0.54)$ is actually closer to those of runs indicated by the blue lines. \nAlso, $\\chi \\approx 0.31$ for Run \\sil{$\\infty$}{0}{7}{10} (yellow-green solid line)\nis close to those of runs indicated by the green lines, but the \nactual evolution apparently deviates. \nGravitational deceleration of the photoevaporating gas reduces the mass-loss rate \nfor these relatively massive minihalos with virial temperature of $2400 - 5000 {\\rm \\, K}$. \nClearly, it is important to incorporate the correction of $\\chi$ owing to deceleration.\nWe conclude that $\\chi^\\prime$ is the essential parameter to characterize the gas mass \nevolution of photoevaporating halos. \n\n\nThe bottom panel of \\fref{fig:similarity} shows correlation between $\\chi^\\prime$ and the dimensionless half-mass time $\\tilde{t}_{1\/2} \\equiv t_{1\/2} \/ t_0$ for metal-free halos. There is a tight correlation\ngiven by $\\tilde{t}_{1\/2} = 0.2 {\\chi^\\prime}^{-0.75}$. The correlation confirms the importance of $\\chi^\\prime$ in characterizing the gas mass evolution of photoevaporating halos. \nNote that the same correlation holds for low-metallicity halos.\nThus the fit can be applied for halos with any metallicity that lose more than a half of the initial mass. \n\n\n\\subsection{Fitting function}\t\\label{sec:evatime}\nBased on the similarity studied so far,\nwe derive a fit of $\\tilde{M} $ that can be readily used \nin semi-numerical models \\citep[e.g.,][]{2013_Sobacchi, 2012_Fialkov, 2013_Fialkov, 2015_Fialkov, 2016_Cohen}. \nFrom the result shown in ~\\fref{fig:masslossrates},\nwe propose a function\n\\eq{\n\\splitting{\n\t\\tilde{M}_{\\rm fit} &= f (\\tilde{t}) =  \\frac{1-C_1}{(\\tilde{t}\/\\tilde{t}_{\\rm s})^{p} + 1} + C_1, \\label{eq:fittingfunc\n\t}\n}\nwhere $p, C_1$, $\\tilde{t}_{\\rm s}$ are fitting parameters,\nwhich control the steepness of mass decrease, the remaining mass fraction, and the dimensionless time at which $f_{\\rm b} = (1+C_1)\/2$, respectively. \nWe restrict the parameter ranges to $0 \\leq C_1\\leq 1$, $0 \\leq \\tilde{t}_{\\rm s}$, and $0\\leq p$, in order to avoid unphysical fitting results. \n\nWe list the best fit values in \\tref{tab:data} in Appendix.\nThe excellent accuracy of the fit can be seen in \\fref{fig:fitting}\nin comparison with the simulation results.\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[clip, width = \\linewidth]{Haloevap_paperfigsConcentrationTimes.pdf}\n\\caption{\nTop: We compare the mass evolution given by equation (\\ref{eq:fittingfunc}) and the \nsimulation results. \nThe horizontal and vertical axes are the same as \\fref{fig:similarity}. The solid lines show fits, and the marker points show the mass evolution in several selected runs. The marker's color represents metallicities, but the marker shapes are randomly adopted. \nThe round marker points at the tails of the curves for Z3J2M6z10, Z4J0M7z10, Z5J2M7z20, and Z6J0M8z20 indicate the time at which the bulk of the atmospheric gas is lost as in \\fref{fig:masslossrates}.\nBottom: Relative errors between the simulation and the fit in percent. \n}\n\\label{fig:fitting}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\nThe three-parameter function fits the simulation results well until the mass decreases to $\\tilde{M} \\approx 0.01$. \nFor halos with $T_{\\rm vir} > 10^4{\\rm \\, K}$,\nthe gas mass increases owing to the halo's strong gravity. \nWe do not consider the slight increase of gas mass in deriving the fit of \\eqnref{eq:fittingfunc},\nand simply set $\\tilde{M}_{\\rm fit} = 1$.\n\nSince we have not followed the evolution of the dense core after the \nouter diffuse gas is photoevaporated, the resulting \n$\\tilde{M}_{\\rm fit}$ does not strongly depend on metallicity.\nThe photoevaporation becomes inefficient in the late phase when the concentrated core is directly exposed to the UVB radiation, because of its small geometrical cross section (cf.~\\eqnref{eq:masslosseq}).\nIn order to follow the late phase evolution more accurately, \nwe will need to run simulations with\na much higher spatial resolution so that the small core can be fully resolved.\nHowever, we expect that the mass evolution would not differ significantly \nfrom those obtained in this section, \nbecause the remaining mass fraction is already small in the late phase. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Discussion} \t\\label{sec:discussion}\n\n\\subsection{Star Formation in Metal-Enriched Halos}\n\\label{sec:starformation}\n\n\tAs the surrounding gas cools and falls on to the center, the\n\tcentral gas density further increases but the \n    temperature remains low, \n    and thus the dense core can be gravitationally unstable to induce \n    star formation.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\tIn metal-enriched halos, cooling by metal atoms\/ions and by dust grains\n\tenable the gas to condense even under the influence of strong UV radiation.\n\tHence, metal enrichment can effectively lower the mass threshold of star-forming halos \\citep[$\\sim 10^5$--$10^6{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$; e.g.,][]{1997_Tegmark, 2001_Machacek, 2002_BrommCoppiLarson, 2003_YoshidaAbelHernquist}. \n    In this section, we study the relation between metallicity and the minimum star-forming halo mass, $M_{\\rm min}$. \n\t\n\tWe assume that star formation occurs when an enclosed gas mass\n\t\\eq{\n\t\tM_{\\rm enc} ( r) = \\int_{\\leq r} \\rho_{\\rm b} \\,  {\\rm d} V .\n\t\t\\label{eq:enclosedmass}\n\t}\n\texceeds the Bonnor-Ebert mass \\citep{1955_Ebert, 1956_Bonnor},\n\t\\eq{\n\t\tM_{\\rm BE}  ( r) \\simeq 1.18 \\frac{\\bar{c_{\\rm s}}^4}{\\sqrt{P_{\\rm c} G^3}},  \\label{eq:bemass}\n\t}\n\tat a spherical radius of $r$.\n\tHere, $\\bar{c_{\\rm s}}$ is an average sound speed of gas,\n\tand $P_{\\rm c}$ is confining pressure. \n\tWe calculate $\\bar{c_{\\rm s}}$ and $P_{\\rm c}$ \n\tby integrating the pressure within an enclosed volume $V$ and over the corresponding enclosing surface $\\partial V$, respectively,\n\t\\gathering{\n\t\t\\bar{c_{\\rm s}}  (r) =   \\sqrt{ M_{\\rm enc} ^{-1} \\int_{\\leq r }P \\, {\\rm d} V } \\\\ \n\t\tP_{\\rm c}  (r)  =  \\dfrac{1 }{4 \\pi r^2} \\int_{\\partial V}  P \\, {\\rm d} S.\n\t\t\\label{eq:confiningpressure}\n\t}\n\tSince we are interested in star formation within dark halos,\n\twe set the enclosing radius to the scale radius (core radius), $r_{\\rm s} \\equiv r_{\\rm vir}\/c_{\\rm N}$, in \\eqnref{eq:enclosedmass}--\\eqnref{eq:confiningpressure}. \n\tWe regard a halo as star-forming if it has $M_{\\rm enc}(r_{\\rm s})\/M_{\\rm BE}(r_{\\rm s})$ larger than unity at a certain point during the evolution. \n\t\\fref{fig:starformation} shows star-forming halos and non-star-forming halos defined by this condition. \n\tWe also provide a fit to the resulting $M_{\\rm min}$ as a function of $z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}}$, $J_{21}$ and $Z$ in \\appref{sec:fitminimum}. \n\t\\begin{figure*}\n\n\t    \\centering\n\t    \\includegraphics[clip, width = \\linewidth]{Haloevap_paperfigsGetMmin2.pdf}\n\t    \\caption{Star formation vs. photoevaporation for all our runs.\n\t    The left, middle, and right panels correspond to $z_{\\scalebox{0.6}{\\rm IN}} = 10, 15, 20$, respectively. \n\t    The horizontal and vertical axes are halo mass and $J_{21}$ in all the panels. \n\t    Each of the three panels is divided into $11\\times 3$ rectangular blocks indicating combinations of $M$ and $J_{21}$. Each block is further divided into 5~square sections to show the dimension of metallicity; corresponding metallicity is $Z = 0,10^{-6},10^{-5},10^{-4},10^{-3}\\,Z_{\\odot}$ from top to bottom.\n        We represent star-forming halos by filling the sections with colored squares as\n\t    $10^{-3}\\,Z_{\\odot}$ (navy), $10^{-4}\\,Z_{\\odot}$ (purple), $10^{-5}\\,Z_{\\odot}$ (pink), $10^{-6}\\,Z_{\\odot}$ (orange), $0\\,Z_{\\odot}$ (yellow). \n\t   The vertical blue dashed line shows the molecular cooling limit, which we derive using an expression in \\cite{2013_Fialkov} \\citep[cf.][]{2001_Machacek, 2012_Fialkov}, for a reference; note that we have not taken into account the correction to the molecular cooling limit due to relative velocity between baryons and cold dark matter. Incorporating the correction does not significantly change the limit mass for the redshifts of interest here.\n\t    }\n\t    \\label{fig:starformation}\n\t\\end{figure*}{}\n\t\n\tIn molecular cooling halos, the gas cools to satisfy the unstable condition, $M_{\\rm enc}\/M_{\\rm BE}>1$, at any metallicity including the primordial case. \n\tThe halos retain more than 10\\% of the initial gas.\n\tThe remaining gas mass is larger for higher halo mass and for lower $J_{21}$. \n\tIt is nearly unity for atomic cooling halos ($T_{\\rm vir} > 10^4{\\rm \\, K}$).\n\t\n\tWe find strong impact of metal enrichment in halos whose mass is lower than the atomic cooling limit. \n    The gas cools via \\ce{H2} cooling faster than the bulk of the gas is photoevaporated. \n\tThis effect is clearly seen in higher-metallicity halos (\\fref{fig:starformation}).\n\tInterestingly, the minimum collapse mass is lowered \n\teven with very small metallicities ($Z \\lesssim 10^{-5}\\,Z_{\\odot}$),\n\tand becomes as small as $M_{\\rm min} \\sim 10^4{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$ with $Z \\gtrsim 10^{-4}\\,Z_{\\odot}$. \n\t\n    \\citet{2014_Wise} show that \n   \n    star formation is active in the metal-cooling halos, and the ionizing photons of the formed stars can provide up to 30\\% of ionizing photons responsible for reionization. \n    Metal-cooling halos are {\\it heavy} analog of molecular cooling halos and have masses slightly below the atomic cooling limit ($\\sim 10^8{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$). We have found {\\it light} analog of molecular cooling halos in which the gas cools by \\ce{H2} molecules that are formed by grain-catalysed reactions. \n    Recent numerical simulations suggest formation of massive or even very massive stars in metal-enriched halos \\citep{2016_Chiaki, 2018_Fukushima}. \n    Theses stars can allow the beginning of reionization to occur earlier than without the metal effects. It does not likely change the redshift where reionization completes \\citep{2018_Norman}.\n    \t\n\n\n\\subsection{Implications to $21{\\, \\rm cm}$ Line Observations}\nThe hyperfine spin-flip emission of atomic hydrogen (the so-called $21{\\, \\rm cm}$ line) is a promising probe of the neutral IGM in the Epoch of Reionization. \nBecause the strength of the 21-cm signals depend crucially on astrophysical processes at the early epochs, observations of the emission\/absorption against the CMB will provide invaluable information on star formation and the physical state of the IGM. \n\n Semi-numerical models have been used to predict the large-scale fluctuations of  the $21{\\, \\rm cm}$ signal \\citep[e.g.,][]{Mesinger:2011,Fialkov:2014b}.\n  Results of such models are often utilized to derive upper limits on the high-redshift astrophysics \\citep[e.g.,][]{Monsalve:2018, Monsalve:2019,Ghara:2020,Mondal:2020, Greig:2020}, and make forecasts for ongoing  measurements of the 21-cm power spectrum with  experiments such as HERA \\citep{DeBoer:2017}, LOFAR \\citep[e.g.,][]{Mertens:2020}, MWA \\citep[e.g.,][]{Trott:2020}, LWA \\citep{Eastwood:2019}, and the future SKA \\citep{Koopmans:2015}, and of the 21-cm sky-averaged (global) signal using LEDA \\citep{Price:2018}, SARAS \\citep{Singh:2018}, EDGES \\citep{Bowman:2018}, PRIZM \\citep{philip19}, MIST\\footnote{http:\/\/www.physics.mcgill.ca\/mist\/} , and REACH \\footnote{https:\/\/www.kicc.cam.ac.uk\/projects\/reach}. \n  \n  The speed and convenience of the semi-numerical methods come along with their poor spacial resolution which is compensated by extensive use of sub-grid models. \nFor example, \\citet{2013_Sobacchi, 2016_Cohen} study the effect of the UV\nbackground radiation in terms of gas cooling threshold $M_{\\rm cool}$. \nHalos more massive than $M_{\\rm cool}$ are regarded as star-forming halos. \nThe simple prescription in previous studies, however, does not take into account the effect of metal-enrichment. \nAs we have shown in \\secref{sec:starformation}, star formation can occur in metal-enriched minihalos even during reionization.\n\\cite{2016_Cohen} have shown that star formation in such metal-enriched minihalos affects the $21{\\, \\rm cm}$ signal from high redshifts.\nIn particular, signatures of baryon acoustic oscillation (BAO) imprinted on the $21{\\, \\rm cm}$ signal is amplified and can possibly be detected over a wide range of redshift. \n\\cite{2016_Cohen} set a threshold mass for cooling (and thus star-formation) similar to that of molecular cooling halos. \nInterestingly, this somewhat conservative assumption is well justified by our results, where metal enrichment lowers $M_{\\rm min}$ from the molecular cooling limit by an order of magnitude for $Z \\gtrsim 10^{-4}\\,Z_{\\odot}$ even under the effects of UVB. Our results support the predicted enhancement and survival of BAO signature imprinted on $21{\\, \\rm cm}$ signals due to effects of metal enrichment. \n\n\\input{stellarfeedback}\n\n\\subsection{X-Ray Effects}\nX-rays are attenuated by a larger column $(\\sim 10^{21} {\\, \\rm cm}^{-2})$ compared to EUV \\citep{2000_Wilms}.\nThey can reach halos and pre-ionize\/pre-heat the gas \nbefore the ionization front hits the halos. \nA larger attenuation column also implies larger penetration depths. \nHigher-density photoevaporative flows would be driven \nif the gas temperature increases sufficiently to allow it escape from gravitational binding. \nAccordingly, mass-loss rates would be significantly larger than those of EUV-driven photoevaporation. \n\nX-ray possibly delays concentration of the self-shielded regions and thereby star formation, if it efficiently heats the gas. \nOn the other hand, X-ray ionization can promote \\ce{H2} formation via the electron-catalyzed reactions: \n\\ce{H + e- -> H- + \\gamma} and \\ce{H- + H -> H2 + e-} \\citep{1996_Haiman, 1999_Bromm, 2003_Glover, 2015_Hummel,2011_Inayoshi,2015_InayoshiTanaka, 2016_Glover, 2016_ReganJohanssonWiseb}. \nIf X-rays are strong, very strong LW intensities are required to photodissociate \\ce{H2} in the entire halos. \nWe expect X-rays to have significant effects on evolution of irradiated halos and star formation activities. \nX-ray chemistry is already implemented in our code \\citep{2018_Nakatanib} and we plan to investigate their influences on halo photoevaporation in the future. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Model Limitation}\n\nWe have studied the gas mass evolution for a wide range of model parameters. \nExploring the large volume of the parameter space is essential in order to \nunderstand the evolution of a {\\it population} of photoevaporating halos during reionization. Since we have adopted a few simplifications mainly to save computational times, it would be worth examining the limitations of our results. \nWe have fixed the dark matter halo potential throughout our simulations. \nIn practice, halos grow in mass by mergers and accretion, which in turn strengthens the halo's gravity \\citep[e.g.,][]{2013_SobacchiMesinger}. \nThis effect may not be negligible for the halos that have longer mass-loss timescale than halo's growth timescale.\nEspecially, our results indicate that photoevaporation will be significantly suppressed, once halos grow to $T_{\\rm vir} \\gtrsim 10^4{\\rm \\, K}$. \nLower mass halos ($T \\ll 10^4{\\rm \\, K}$) disperse quickly, and thus including halo growth is not expected to significantly alter our results. In fact, we find that our results at $Z = 0\\,Z_{\\odot}$ \nare in good agreement with \\cite{2004_Shapiro} and \\cite{2005_Iliev}, \nwhere halo evolution is incorporated in an approximate manner. \n\nThe UVB radiation intensity is also fixed in our simulations.\nIn general, it can vary over time.\nAlthough the UV background intensity is hardly constrained by observations\nfor $z\\gtrsim 5$ \\citep[e.g.,][]{2007_BoltonHaehnelt, 2011_McQuinn}, numerical simulations predict that the UV background builds up over \nseveral hundred million years. As we have shown, $J_{21}$ strongly affects the mass evolution of halos at any metallicity (\\fref{fig:masslossrates}-(c)). \nWe expect that growth of halo with time partially compensates for the rise in the intensity of the ionizing background; \nwe have shown that mass of halos giving similar $\\chi^\\prime$, which is approximately proportional to $J_{21}^{1\/2} M^{-1\/2} (1+z)^{-3}$, evolve in a similar manner (cf.~\\secref{sec:similarities} and Eqs.(\\ref{eq:chi}), (\\ref{eq:modchi})). \n\n\nFinally, metallicity is also fixed in each individual run of our simulations. Cosmic average metallicity can increase by an order of magnitude on a timescale of $\\sim 1{\\rm \\,Gyr}$ \\citep{2014_MadauDickinson}, \nwhich is a much longer that typical mass-loss timescales that we found in this study.  \nTime-dependent metallicity might have an effect only on long-lived photoevaporating halos by affecting their thermochemistry.\nHowever, we expect that the metallicity-dependent trend would not significantly differ from what we have reported in this study.\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Conclusions and Summary}\t\\label{sec:conclusions}\nPhotoheating and metal enrichment of halos during the epoch of reionization can affect star formation efficiency and thus change the course of reionization. The effects of metal enrichment, however, have never been explored systematically  in prior works. We have run a suite of hydrodynamics simulations of photoevaporating minihalos ($T_{\\rm vir}\\lesssim10^4{\\rm \\, K}$) irradiated by the UVB, covering a wide range of metallicity, halo mass, UV intensity, and turn-on redshift of UV sources. \n\nOur main findings are summarized as follows: \n\\begin{itemize}\n    \\item \n    In low-mass minihalos with $T_{\\rm vir} < 10^4{\\rm \\, K}$,\n    the gas cools mainly via \\ion{C}{2} and \\ce{H2} line emission to a temperature of $\\lesssim 100{\\rm K}$ if $Z \\gtrsim 10^{-4}\\,Z_{\\odot}$.\n    \\ce{H2} molecules are produced through grain-catalyzed reactions in \n    the self-shielded, neutral region.\n    The cooled gas concentrates towards the potential center to form a dense core. \n    \n    \\item The evolution of the gas mass is qualitatively the same at any metallicity. The photoevaporation rate decreases after the bulk of the \n    diffuse gas is lost. The dispersal of the diffuse gas completes at an earlier time for halos with higher metallicity. \n\n    \n    \\item  In halos with $T_{\\rm vir} > 20000{\\rm \\, K}$, the gas cools by hydrogen Lyman$\\alpha$ cooling, and thus the overall evolution of photoevaporating halos does not depend on metallicity.\n\n    \\item The photoevaporation rate depends only weakly on turn-on redshift, and it is slightly smaller for higher $z_{\\rm IN}$.\n\n    \\item There is a simple scaling relation for the gas mass evolution of photoevaporating minihalos. \n    The time evolution is characterized by a parameter ($\\chi^\\prime$) scaling as $\\propto J_{21}^{1\/2} M^{-1\/2} (1+z)^{-3}$. \n    It indicates that the obtained evolution applies to any halos with the same $\\chi^\\prime$. \n    We give a fit to the gas mass evolution as a function of time.  \n    \n    \\item   The concentrating cores of the molecular\/atomic cooling halos are likely a suitable environment for star formation. The efficient cooling of metal-rich halos fastens the concentration, and it results in lowering the molecular cooling limit by a factor for small metallicities ($Z \\lesssim 10^{-5}\\,Z_{\\odot}$) and by an order of magnitude for metal-rich cases ($Z \\gtrsim 10^{-4}\\,Z_{\\odot}$). \n    Stellar feedback of the formed stars may be significant enough to disperse the baryons of the parental molecular cooling halos.  \n\n\\end{itemize}\n\nOur study suggests existence of small mass, metal-enriched halos\nin which stars are formed even under the influence of emerging\nUV background radiation.\n\n\n\\acknowledgments %\nWe thank Gen Chiaki and Kana Moriwaki for insightful comments \non this manuscript and technical advice. \nRN acknowledges support from Special Postdoctoral Researcher program at RIKEN and from Grant-in-Aid for Research Activity Start-up (19K23469).\nAF is supported by the Royal Society University Research Fellowship.\nThe numerical simulations were carried out on the Cray\nXC50 at the Center for Computational Astrophysics, National\nAstronomical Observatory of Japan.\n\n\n\n\n\\bibliographystyle{aasjournal}\n\n\n\\subsection{Internal Stellar Feedback Effect}\n\n\t\n\tMassive stars formed in metal-enriched halos affect the host halo by UV radiation and stellar winds, and by supernova explosions.\n\tThen the halo gas would not only photoevaporate by external UV radiation\n\tbut also can be dispersed by these internal processes.\n\t\n\tThe stellar feedback is effective if\n\t(i) the enclosed gas mass $M_{\\rm enc}$ (\\eqnref{eq:enclosedmass})\n\texceeds the Bonnor-Ebert mass $M_{\\rm BE}$ (\\eqnref{eq:bemass});\n\t(ii) stellar feedback energy deposited by massive stars, $E_{\\rm dep}$,\n\tis larger than the gravitational binding energy of the neutral gas\n\tin the self-shielded regions\n\t\\eq{\n\t\tE_{\\rm dep} \\gtrsim \\frac{G (M + M_{\\rm s})  }{r_{\\rm s} } M _{\\rm s},\n\t}\n\twhere $r_{\\rm n}$ is the size of the neutral gas clump.\n\tWe first consider only the supernova explosion energy for simplicity. \n\tThe deposited energy by other feedback processes can be easily accounted for\n\tby increasing $E_{\\rm dep}$ by a suitable factor.\n\t\n\tThe cold gas that satisfies the condition~(i) is assumed to form stars with \n\ta star formation efficiency of $c_*$\n\tand with an initial mass function, $\\Psi(M_*)$.\n\tLet $\\epsilon_{\\rm SN}$ be the average \n\tsupernova explosion energy. \n\tThe deposited feedback energy is estimated as \n\t\\eq{\n\t\tE_{\\rm dep} = c_* M_{\\rm cold} \\, \\epsilon_{\\rm SN}\n\t\t\\braket{\\int M_* \\Psi {\\rm d} M_*}^{-1}\n\t\t{\\int_{ M_{\\rm th} }\\Psi {\\rm d} M_*},\n\t}\n\twhere $M_{\\rm cold}$ is the mass of enclosed cold gas,\n\tand $M_{\\rm  th}$ is a threshold stellar mass above which stars cause supernova explosion.  \n\tWe adopt $c_* = 0.1$, $\\epsilon_{\\rm SN} = 10^{51} {\\rm \\, erg}$,\n\t$M_{\\rm th} = 8{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$, \n\tand use the initial mass function of \\cite{2003_Chabrier}. \n\t\n\n\n\nWhen the conditions~(i) and (ii) are met and stars are formed \nover a free-fall time, \nthe self-shielded region is expected to evolve differently \nfrom what has been shown in \\secref{sec:results}.\nIf the feedback effects are strong enough to disrupt the entire halo, \nthe halo evolution described in \\secref{sec:results} \nis valid only up to one free-fall time. \n\\fref{fig:masslossZdependence_stars} shows the same plots as \\fref{fig:masslossrates}-(a), \nbut the lines extend to the time when the stellar feedback is assumed to be effective.\n\\begin{figure}[h]\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[clip, width = \\linewidth]{Haloevap_metallicity_dependenceMassEvolution_showstarformation.pdf}\n\\caption{\n\t\tThe same plot as \\fref{fig:masslossrates}-(a), \n\t\tbut the lines are terminated at the time of star formation and feedback (marked with star symbols) \n\t\tfor halos that meet the conditions~(i) and (ii). \n\t\t\t\t}\n\\label{fig:masslossZdependence_stars}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\nMassive, metal-rich halos are likely to be self-destructed before the gas is lost via photoevaporation. \nNote that the fraction of the cold gas that is converted to stars is small.\n\nIn metal-free halos, the stellar feedback can also be important, especially for massive halos.\nWe expect that the stellar feedback is unimportant\nin low-mass halos with $T_{\\rm vir} \\lesssim 100{\\rm \\, K}$ ($M\\lesssim 10^{4.5} \\,{\\rm \\, M_{\\odot}}$ at $z = 10$) for any metallicity. In these halos, most of the gas is quickly lost by photoevaporation before star formation.\nIn conclusion, \nthe deposited energy due to the stellar feedback can disperse the gas from the host halo,\nsimilarly to the well-known feedback effect in dwarf galaxies devoid of \\ion{H}{1} content \n\\citep{2009_Grcevich, 2014_Spekkens}.\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
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+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\nIn classical physics, a wave is described by well-defined amplitude and phase, and both quantities can be measured simultaneously with arbitrary accuracy. In the quantum realm the situation is completely different and up to date a well-defined Hermitian phase operator has been elusive\\cite{Dirac,London,Susskind,Louissel,Carruthers,Nieto,Turski,Levy,Loudon,Pegg2,Pegg,Vaccaro3,Bialynicki,Schleich,Perinova,Lynch,Vaccaro,Moya,Royer}.\nThe lack of such a phase operator has yield many scientists to propose diverse approaches to describe quantum phase. In this regard, one may mention the London-Susskind-Glogower phase operators, the variants of phase space representations, ranking from number-phase Wigner functions to radially integrated quasiprobability distributions \\cite{Garraway,Otro,Vaccaro2}. Perhaps the most prominent approach is the so-called Pegg-Barnett (PB) phase operator\\cite{Pegg,Barnett}. This PB phase operator is defined in a finite-dimensional state space and due to this finiteness one can define phase states in a rigorous way. The success of the PB formalism lies on the fact that all expectation values of physical variables in a finite-dimensional Hilbert space give real numbers which depend parametrically on the dimension of the state space \\cite{Gantsog, Varro}. Certainly, many realistic physical systems are discrete and finite, as a result, the PB theory can be readily used to investigate phase-dependent quantum systems.\n\\\\\nAlong those lines, optics occupies a notable place since discrete optical systems can be  created either in free space or on-chip, e.g. waveguide lattices \\cite{abo}. In fact, over the past decade, the tremendous progress in fabrication and characterization of photonic structures has allowed us to create arrays of evanescently coupled waveguides with a number of channels ranging from a few to a few hundred \\cite{Christodoulides,Szameit}. The resulting discrete diffraction makes such coupled configurations a perfect paradigm for the realization of quantum particle tunneling in one or two dimensional lattices, and it permits the observation of quantum and condensed matter phenomena in macroscopic integrated systems using classical and quantum light \\cite{Leija,Longhi,Weimann,Grafe,Leija2}. In the waveguides, the local refractive index and the width of the channels determine the on-site potentials (propagation constants), while the tunneling amplitude (coupling coefficients) from site to site is adjusted by changing the separation distance between adjacent waveguides \\cite{Szameit2}.\n\\\\\nThe aim of the present work is to show that the so-called Pegg-Barnett phase operator can be obtained by the application of the discrete Fourier transform to the number operator defined in a finite-dimensional Hilbert space. Then, we elucidate that the structure of the London-Susskind-Glogower phase operator is contained into the Hamiltonian of circular waveguide arrays. As a result, light dynamics arrising in such waveguide configurations will feature properties akin to finite phase operators.\n\n\n\\section{Fourier transform and the phase operator}\n\nIn quantum mechanics the position operator ${x}$ and momentum operator $p$ are canonically conjugated variables and they are related via the Fourier operator \\cite{Agarwal,Fan}\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n{p} = i^{\\hat{n}}x(-i)^{\\hat{n}}.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nHere ${\\hat{n}}=a^{\\dagger}a$ is the number operator, with $a$ and  $a^{\\dagger}$ being the annihilation and creation operators, respectively. In terms of $a$ and  $a^{\\dagger}$, $x$ is written as\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nx=\\frac{a+a^{\\dagger}}{\\sqrt{2}}.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nIn similar manner, $p$ becomes\n\\begin{eqnarray}\\label{PtoQ}\n{p} = e^{i\\frac{\\hat{n}\\pi}{2}}\\frac{a+a^{\\dagger}}{\\sqrt{2}}e^{-i\\frac{\\hat{n}\\pi}{2}}=-i\\frac{a-a^{\\dagger}}{\\sqrt{2}}.\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\\\\\nAccording to Eq.(\\ref{PtoQ}), the momentum operator is obtained from the position operator through a Fourier transform.\n\\\\\nFollowing these ideas, we now define an operator $\\Phi_s$ obtained by the application of the $(s+1)$-dimensional DFT to the finite number operator $N_s$\n\\begin{eqnarray} \\label{Pegg}\n\\Phi_s  \\propto {\\cal F}_s N_s{\\cal F}_s^{-1}.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nHere ${\\cal F}_s$ represents the DFT, ${\\cal F}_s^{-1}$ its inverse, and the number operator $N_s$ is defined as\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n N_s=\\sum_{k=0}^s k|k\\rangle\\langle k|.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nIn matrix form the number operator  is written as\n\\begin{equation}\n    {N_s}=  \\left(\n        \\begin{array}{ccccc}\n              0 & 0 & 0& \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n              0 & 1 & 0&\\cdots & 0 \\\\\n              0 & 0 & 2&\\cdots & 0\\\\\n              \\cdots&&&&\\vdots\\\\\n             0& 0 & \\cdots & 0& s\\\\\n        \\end{array}\n    \\right).\n\\end{equation}\nThe DFT is given by the Vandermonde matrix \\cite{Soto}\n\\begin{equation}\n    {\\cal F}_s= \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{s+1}} \\left(\n        \\begin{array}{cccc}\n              1 & 1 & \\cdots & 1 \\\\\n              \\lambda_0 & \\lambda_1 & \\cdots & \\lambda_s \\\\\n              \\lambda_0^2 & \\lambda_1^2 & \\cdots & \\lambda_s^2\\\\\n              \\cdots\\\\\n              \\lambda_0^{s} & \\lambda_1^{s} & \\cdots & \\lambda_s^{s}\\\\\n        \\end{array}\n    \\right)\n\\end{equation}\nwith\n\\begin{equation}\n\\lambda_j = \\exp \\left[  i \\frac{2\\pi}{s+1} j  \\right],  \\qquad j=0,1,2,\\cdots,s. \\label{eigen}\n\\end{equation}\nNote that, because ${\\cal F}_s^\\dagger={\\cal F}_s^{-1}$ the phase operator defined in Eq.(\\ref{Pegg}) is Hermitian. In Dirac notation the DFT operator reads\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n{\\cal F}_s = \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{s+1}}\\sum_{n=0}^s \\sum_{k=0}^s  |n\\rangle\\langle k|e^{  i \\frac{2\\pi}{s+1} nk } .\n\\end{eqnarray}\nFrom the above equations one can readily see that the DFT of the number operator is\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n{\\cal F}_s N_s {\\cal F}_s^{\\dagger}= \\frac{1}{{s+1}}\\sum_{n=0}^s \\sum_{k=0}^s  |n\\rangle\\langle k| \\sum_{m=0}^s me^{  i \\frac{2\\pi}{s+1} (n-k)m }. \\label{transformada}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nBy defining the phase states\n\\begin{equation}\n|\\theta\\rangle =\\frac{1}{\\sqrt{1+s}}\\sum_{n=0}^se^{in\\theta}|n\\rangle,\n\\end{equation}\nwe can rewrite Eq.(\\ref{transformada}) in a more compact form\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n{\\cal F}_s N_s {\\cal F}_s^{\\dagger}=  \\sum_{m=0}^s m|\\theta_m\\rangle\\langle \\theta_m|,\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwith $\\theta_m=\\frac{2m\\pi}{s+1}$. Normalization of Eq.(\\ref{transformada}) yields \\cite{Pegg2}\n\\begin{eqnarray}\\label{PO}\n{\\cal F}_s \\frac{2\\pi N_s}{s+1} {\\cal F}_s^{\\dagger}=  \\sum_{m=0}^s \\theta_m|\\theta_m\\rangle\\langle \\theta_m|,\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhich is the so-called Pegg-Barnett phase operator with phase reference set to zero. This demonstrates that indeed the PB phase operator arises as the DFT of the finite number operator.\n\\\\\nWe can further work on Eq.(\\ref{transformada}) to find a simpler form of the transformation\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n{\\cal F}_s N_s {\\cal F}_s^{\\dagger}= \\frac{1}{{s+1}}\\sum_{n=0}^s   |n\\rangle\\langle n| \\sum_{m=0}^s m+\\frac{1}{{s+1}}\\sum_{n\\ne k}^s   |n\\rangle\\langle k| \\sum_{m=0}^s me^{  i \\frac{2\\pi}{s+1} (n-k)m }\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhich gives\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n{\\cal F}_s N_s {\\cal F}_s^{\\dagger}= \\frac{s}{{2}}+\\frac{1}{{s+1}}\\sum_{n\\ne k}^s   |n\\rangle\\langle k| \\sum_{m=0}^s me^{  i \\frac{2\\pi}{s+1} (n-k)m }.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nNote that the last sum can be cast in a closed form\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\sum_{m=0}^s me^{  i \\frac{2\\pi}{s+1} (n-k)m }=-i\\frac{s+1}{2\\sin(\\frac{\\pi}{s+1}[n-k])}e^{i\\frac{2s+1}{s+1}\\pi(n-k)}.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nThus, we obtain\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n{\\cal F}_s N_s {\\cal F}_s^{\\dagger}= \\frac{s}{{2}}+-\\frac{i}{2}\\sum_{n\\ne k}^s  \\frac{|n\\rangle\\langle k|e^{i\\frac{2s+1}{s+1}\\pi(n-k)} }{\\sin(\\frac{\\pi}{s+1}[n-k])}.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nAfter some algebra we finally find\n\\begin{eqnarray}\\label{CF}\n{\\cal F}_s N_s {\\cal F}_s^{\\dagger}= \\frac{s}{{2}}+(s+1)\\sum_{n\\ne k}^s  \\frac{|n\\rangle\\langle k|}{e^{i\\frac{2\\pi}{s+1}[n-k]}-1} .\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\n\\section{Circular waveguide arrays and the London-Susskind-Glogower phase operator}\n\nIn this section we show that the Hamiltonian describing light propagation in circular waveguide arrays explicitly contains the structure of the London-Susskind-Glogower (exponential) phase operator. To do so, we start by considering an array of waveguides in a circular configuration and let the individual guides interact only to first neighbours, the field in each waveguide obeys  the following system of differential of equations\n\\begin{eqnarray}\\label{sistema1}\n        i \\frac{d E_0}{dz}&=\\gamma \\left( E_s + E_1\\right)\\nonumber \\\\\n        i \\frac{d E_{n}}{dz}&=\\gamma \\left( E_{n-1} + E_{n+1}\\right), \\qquad n=1, ..., s-1.\\\\\n        i \\frac{d E_s}{dz}&=\\gamma \\left( E_{s-1} + E_1\\right)\\nonumber\n\\end{eqnarray}\nHere, $z$ represents the propagation distance and $\\gamma$ the coupling constants.\nBy introducing the matrix\n\\begin{equation} \\label{London1}\n    {V_s}=  \\left(\n        \\begin{array}{cccccc}\n              0 & 1 & 0& \\cdots & 0&0 \\\\\n              0 & 0 & 1&0 &\\cdots & 0 \\\\\n              0 & 0 & 0&\\cdots &1& \\vdots\\\\\n              0&0&\\cdots&0&0&1\\\\\n             1& 0 & \\cdots & 0& 0&0\\\\\n        \\end{array}\n    \\right),\n\\end{equation}\nwe can cast Eq.~(\\ref{sistema1}) as follows\n\\begin{equation}\\label{sistema}\n    i \\frac{d \\vec{E}}{dz}=\\gamma \\left(V_s+V_s^\\dagger\\right)\\vec{E} ,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $V_s^\\dagger$ represents the transpose of $V_{s}$, and\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\vec{E}=\\left(\n        \\begin{array}{lll}\n              E_{0} \\\\\n              E_{2} \\\\\n              \\vdots \\\\\n              E_{s}\n        \\end{array}\n    \\right).\n\\end{equation}\nTherefore, the field amplitudes over the entire array is given by the formal solution\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\vec{E}(z)=\\exp\\left[-i \\gamma z \\left( V_s + V_s^\\dagger \\right)  \\right] \\vec{E}(0),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\vec{E}(0)$ represents the initial optical field.\nSince $V_s$ and $V_s^\\dagger$ commute and since they are the inverse of each other, we can write the above solution as\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\vec{E}(z)=\\exp\\left[ -\\gamma z \\left( iV_s - \\frac{1}{iV_s} \\right)  \\right] \\vec{E}(0),\n\\end{equation}\nHence, by using the generating function of the Bessel functions of the first kind\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\exp\\left[\\frac{x}{2}\\left(t-\\frac{1}{t}\\right)\\right]=\\sum_{n=-\\infty}^{\\infty}t^{n}J_{n}(x),\n\\end{equation}\none can show that the field amplitude is given by\n\\begin{equation}\\label{field1}\n    \\vec{E}(z)=\\sum_{n=-\\infty}^{\\infty} i^n J_n (-2\\gamma z) (V_s)^n  \\vec{E}(0).\n\\end{equation}\nBefore discussing the properties of this solution, we note that by using Dirac notation $V_{s}$ acquires the form\n\\begin{equation}\n    {V_s}=  \\sum_{n=0}^{s-1} |n\\rangle\\langle n+1| +|s \\rangle\\langle 0|,\n\\end{equation}\nwhich is the London-Susskind-Glogower phase operator defined in a $s+1$-dimensional Hilbert space.\\\\\nIn what follows we show the functional relationship between the matrix $V_s$ and the PB phase operator.To do so, we consider the eigenvalues of $V_s$, given by Eq.(\\ref{eigen}), which allow us to compute any function of $V_s$ through the corresponding Vandermonde matrices\\footnote{In this case the similiarity (transformation) matrix and the Vandermonde matrix are the same.}\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nf(V_s) ={\\cal F}_s f(D_s) {\\cal F}_s^{\\dagger} \\label{function},\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere $D_s$ is a diagonal matrix having the eigenvalues of $V_s$ as elements\n\\begin{equation}\n    {D_s}=  \\left(\n        \\begin{array}{ccccc}\n              1 & 0 & 0& \\cdots & 0 \\\\\n              0 &  e^{i \\frac{2\\pi}{s+1} }  & 0&\\cdots & 0 \\\\\n              0 & 0 & e^{i \\frac{4\\pi}{s+1} }&\\cdots & 0\\\\\n              \\cdots&&&&\\vdots\\\\\n             0& 0 & \\cdots & 0& e^{i \\frac{2s\\pi}{s+1} }\\\\\n        \\end{array}\n    \\right),\n\\end{equation}\nor in Dirac notation\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n D_s=  \\sum_{n=0}^s \\exp \\left[  i \\frac{2\\pi}{s+1} n  \\right]  |n\\rangle\\langle n|.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nFrom Eq.(\\ref{function}) is clear that\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\ln(V_s) ={\\cal F}_s \\sum_{n=0}^s \\ln \\left(\\exp \\left[  i \\frac{2\\pi}{s+1} n  \\right] \\right) |n\\rangle\\langle n| {\\cal F}_s^{\\dagger},\n\\end{eqnarray}\nor equivalently\n\\begin{eqnarray}\\label{Phi}\n\\ln(V_s) =i\\frac{2\\pi}{s+1}{\\cal F}_s N_s {\\cal F}_s^{\\dagger}.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nWe note that the right hand side of Eq.~(\\ref{Phi}) is the PB phase operator, see Eq.~(\\ref{PO}). As a result, by assuming $V_s=exp(i\\Phi_s)$, which is exponential of the phase operator, we obtain\n \\begin{eqnarray}\n\\Phi_s =\\frac{\\pi s}{s+1}+ 2\\pi\\sum_{n\\ne k}^s \\frac{|n\\rangle\\langle k|}{e^{i\\frac{2\\pi}{s+1}[n-k]}-1},\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere we have used Eq.(\\ref{CF}) to obtain a closed form expression. This indicates that unitary transformations performed by circular waveguide arrays over discrete light fields will exhibit the same dynamics as the action of the phase operators over finite number states $N_{s}$. In the waveguide array each site represents a number state and the evolution operator is represented by the waveguide array itself. \\\\\nNow we turn our attention to the field solution Eq.~(\\ref{field1})\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\vec{E}(z)=\\sum_{n=-\\infty}^{\\infty} J_n (-2\\gamma z) i^nV_s^n  \\vec{E}(0).\n\\end{equation}\nThe above equation may be rewritten as\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\vec{E}(z)=\\sum_{n=0}^{\\infty} J_n (-2\\gamma z) i^nV_s^n  \\vec{E}(0)+\\sum_{n=1}^{\\infty} J_{-n} (-2\\gamma z) i^{-n}V_s^{\\dagger n}\\vec{E}(0),\n\\end{equation}\ntaking into account that $V^{s+1}=V^{\\dagger (s+1)}=1$ we find that the sums become finite, for instance\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\sum_{n=0}^{\\infty} J_n (-2\\gamma z) i^nV_s^n =\\sum_{n=0}^s F_nV_s^n\n    \\end{equation}\nwith $F_n=\\sum_{k=0}^s i^{k(s+1)+n}J_{k(s+1)+n}(-2\\gamma z)$. In addition, the property $V^{s+1}=V^{\\dagger (s+1)}=1$ implies that self-imaging proccess can occur in these types of systems. As an example, in Fig.~(\\ref{fig1}) we show the intensity evolution when light is injected into one the guides of a circular waveguide array having six channels.\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[scale=0.3]{ev.png}\n\\caption{Intensity light evolution in a circular waveguide array having six sites. In this simulation we assume a circular array of identical waveguides and equal coupling coefficients $\\gamma=1$. The blue curve (online only) depicts the intensity evolution along th excited site. Note that the intensities are periodic and that at $z=\\pi$ the intensity of the excited channel becomes one.}\\label{fig1}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\\section{Conclusions}\nBy noting that position and momentum operators are related via the Fourier operator, we propose that the $(s+1)$-dimensional phase and number operators are related by the discrete Fourier transform, which naturally leads to the Pegg-Barnett phase operator. We have given a way to model functions of the Pegg-Barnett phase operator by propagating classical light in circular array waveguide arrays.\n\\bigskip\n\\bigskip\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction} \\label{sec:intro}\nPhotometric redshift (photo-$z$\\xspace) estimation continues to be an active research area as it plays a major role in solving the big questions in cosmology. Redshifts provide radial information (distance) to the traditional two dimensional sky maps of galaxies. They are traditionally determined through spectroscopic methods (spectroscopic redshifts, or spec-$z$\\xspace's). Yet since the process requires long telescope time for high completeness, photo-$z$\\xspace's are instrumental for the analysis of large surveys containing of order $10^{8-9}$ galaxies. Photo-$z$\\xspace methodology has been evolving and improving a lot over the past couple of decades \\mbox{\\citep[e.g.][]{brescia_data_2018,salvato_many_2019}}, such that it had been sufficiently useful for most recent cosmological researches. \n\nPhoto-$z$\\xspace, as its name suggests, is often determined through the use of a handful of broadband photometric filters obtained from large sky surveys. Photo-$z$\\xspace estimation methods are generally categorised into two different types: the template-based method, which relies on accurate models of spectral energy distribution (SED) templates of different types of galaxies; and the data-driven empirical method, which relies on training sets of galaxies and machine-learning algorithms. Each method however has its own limitations: template-based methods may produce photo-$z$\\xspace's with large scatter and catastrophic rates without representative templates; while machine-learning methods may perform poorly outside the regions of the parameters covered by the training sample \\citep{disanto_return_2018}. As a result, hybrid methods have been implemented to utilise the best of both worlds \\citep{cavuoti_cooperative_2017,duncan_photometric_2018,duncan_observational_2019}.\n\nMany current and upcoming surveys such as the Dark Energy Survey \\citep[DES,][]{abbott_dark_2005}, Legacy Survey of Space and Time \\citep[LSST,][]{ivezic_lsst:_2008}, \\textit{Euclid} \\citep{laureijs_euclid_2011}, Kilo-Degree Survey \\citep[KiDS,][]{de_jong_kilo-degree_2013}, Wide Field Infrared Survey Telescope \\citep[WFIRST,][]{spergel_wide-field_2013} and Hyper Suprime-Cam \\citep[HSC,][]{aihara_hyper_2018} have set stringent photo-$z$\\xspace requirements to ensure that they meet their science goals, forcing the quality of photo-$z$\\xspace methodology to constantly improve. For example, LSST's photo-$z$\\xspace requirement is to reach a root-mean-square error of $\\sigma_\\rf{RMS}<0.02(1+z)$, while the \\textit{Euclid} requirement is $\\sigma_\\rf{RMS}<0.05(1+z)$. High quality photo-$z$\\xspace's are required for a reliable estimation of e.g. weak lensing \\citep{benjamin_cfhtlens_2013}, angular clustering \\citep{crocce_galaxy_2016}, intrinsic alignment \\citep{johnston_pau_2020}, structure formation, galaxy classification and galaxy properties \\citep{jouvel_photometric_2017,laigle_cosmos2015_2018,siudek_vimos_2018_1}.\n\nThe aforementioned surveys are predominantly broadband surveys which use between $4$-$9$ broadband filters ranging from infrared to ultraviolet. This work however, explores the estimation of photo-$z$\\xspace's in narrowband surveys, focusing on the Physics of the Accelerating Universe Survey \\citep[PAUS,][]{padilla_physics_2019}, which observes the sky using $40$ narrow bands (see Section~\\ref{sec:pau}). Producing high quality photo-$z$\\xspace's for such a survey requires careful optimisation between narrow and broad bands, since machine-learning based methods have to be optimised for a larger number of inputs \\citep{eriksen_pau_2020}, while template-based methods require more attention towards the narrow emission line features. \n\n\\citet{marti_precise_2014} used simulations to predict that by using PAUS narrowband photometry, the photo-$z$\\xspace quality could reach an unprecedentedly low $68$th percentile error of $\\sigma_{68}=0.0035(1+z)$ at a quality cut of $50$ per cent at $i<22.5$. This has been verified by \\citet{eriksen_pau_2019}, where they combined the $40$ PAUS narrow bands (early data release) with broad bands $uBVriz$ from the Cosmic Evolution Survey \\citep[COSMOS,][]{laigle_cosmos2015_2016}, and using their template-based photo-$z$\\xspace code \\bcnz, they showed that this result is achievable when a $50$ per cent photometric quality cut was imposed on the final testing set. In a more recent work, \\citet{eriksen_pau_2020} used \\textsc{deepz}, a deep learning algorithm on the same data set and showed that it outperformed \\bcnz by reaching $50$ per cent lower in $\\sigma_{68}$. Furthermore, \\citet{alarcon_pau_2021} showed that an ever greater precision can be achieved when using additional photometric bands available in the COSMOS field (a total of $66$ bands).\n\nWe are motivated by the work of \\citet{eriksen_pau_2019}, but instead of using purely template-based methods, we attempt to achieve this PAUS photo-$z$\\xspace precision by utilising Gaussian processes (GPs, see Section~\\ref{sec:delight}) to make empirical adjustments to templates, working on the same data set and conditions. We seek to produce an independent method that is competitive, as that will allow us to exploit synergies with \\bcnz by \\citet{eriksen_pau_2019} as shown in this work, \\textsc{deepz} \\citep{eriksen_pau_2020}, and photo-$z$\\xspace's by \\citet{alarcon_pau_2021} in the future. Therefore the contents of this paper reflect our findings, putting special emphasis on the performance and application of \\textsc{delight}\\xspace \\citep{leistedt_data-driven_2017}, a hybrid template-machine-learning photo-$z$\\xspace code. When carefully calibrated and combined with COSMOS broadband fluxes, \\textsc{delight}\\xspace should achieve equally good results as that of \\bcnz. The main aims of this paper are threefold:\n\n\\begin{enumerate}\n    \\item to optimise and test the performance of the hybrid template-machine-learning photo-$z$\\xspace code \\textsc{delight}\\xspace on a narrowband survey; \n    \\item to develop an optimal method to calibrate the fluxes between the COSMOS broadbands and the PAUS narrow bands;\n    \\item to provide an independent photo-$z$\\xspace solution for PAUS, enabling the study of photometric and spectroscopic redshift outliers.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\nThis paper is structured as follows. In Section~\\ref{sec:data} we first introduce PAUS and the sources of photometry and spectroscopic redshifts used in this work. Section~\\ref{sec:algor} describes the algorithms (\\textsc{delight}\\xspace, \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace and \\textsc{bpz}\\xspace) used in this work, together with their optimisation settings and SED templates used. Section~\\ref{sec:calibration} describes the full details of how the photometry and spectroscopy from PAUS, COSMOS and zCOSMOS are cross-matched, how the galaxy fluxes are selected, the three methods to calibrate the broadband and narrowband fluxes, and the performance metrics used in this work to compare the results between runs and codes. Section~\\ref{sec:res_delight} shows the photo-$z$\\xspace results obtained by \\textsc{delight}\\xspace, and a thorough analysis is conducted to compare its performance with \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace, \\textsc{bpz}\\xspace and \\bcnz. Finally, in Section~\\ref{sec:app} we study the photo-$z$\\xspace outliers of \\textsc{delight}\\xspace and \\bcnz, and derive new metrics with improved photo-$z$\\xspace outlier identifications. Our work is concluded in Section~\\ref{sec:conc}.\n\n\n\\section{Photometry and Spectroscopy}\\label{sec:data}\nIn this work, photometric data were obtained from PAUS (Section~\\ref{sec:pau}) and \\mbox{COSMOS} (Section~\\ref{sec:cosmos}), while spectroscopic redshifts were obtained from \\mbox{zCOSMOS} (Section~\\ref{sec:zcosmos}). In this section, these surveys will be introduced, together with the selection cuts used to obtain our training and testing sets. \n\n\\subsection{PAUS}\\label{sec:pau}\nPAUS is a narrowband photometric galaxy survey aimed at mapping the large-scale structure of the Universe up to $i\\sim23.0$. Using $40$ narrow bands spaced by $100$~\\r{A} in the range between $4500$ to $8500$~\\r{A} \\citep[filter responses visualised in][and Fig.~\\ref{fig:overlapbands}]{eriksen_pau_2019}, PAUS aims to achieve redshifts with a precision of $\\sigma_\\rf{RMS}<0.0035(1+z)$ for galaxies with $i_\\rf{auto}<22.5$. PAUS uses the PAUCam instrument \\citep{padilla_physics_2019} on the $4$ m William Herschel Telescope (WHT) at Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos (ORM) in La Palma. It has observed more than $50$ deg$^2$ of sky since the beginning of $2016$, and observations to full depth in all narrow bands for $100$ deg$^2$ are planned.\n\nThe PAUS forced-aperture coadded photometry has its aperture defined by using the $50$ per cent light radius ($r_{50}$), the point spread function (PSF), ellipticity and S\\'ersic index of COSMOS morphology, such that the fluxes measure a fixed fraction of light. The reader is referred to \\citet{eriksen_pau_2019} for detailed information on how the PAUS fluxes are measured. In this work we used the early data release from PAUS (objects are observed at least five times, using an elliptical aperture with $62.5$ per cent light radius), and select objects with $i_\\rf{auto}\\le 22.5$, entries with no missing measurement, and the COSMOS flag \\texttt{TYPE=0} (extended objects).\n\n\\subsection{COSMOS}\\label{sec:cosmos}\nThe Cosmic Evolution Survey \\citep[COSMOS,][]{scoville_cosmic_2007} covers a sky area of $2$ deg$^2$ ($149.47^{\\circ}\\le\\alpha\\le150.7^{\\circ}$, $1.62^{\\circ}\\le\\delta\\le2.83^{\\circ}$) and is known for its high sensitivity, depth and an exceptionally low and uniform Galactic extinction ($E_{B\\text{-}V}\\sim 0.02$).\n\nIn this work we used photometry from the COSMOS$2015$ Catalogue \\citep{laigle_cosmos2015_2016}; it is a highly complete mass-selected sample to very high redshifts, highly optimised for the study of galaxy evolution and environments in the early Universe. The COSMOS$2015$ Catalogue provides $30$ band photometry ranging from near UV to near infrared wavelengths, all these have been observed through multiple facilities, two of which are the Canada-Hawaii-France Telescope (CFHT) and Subaru Telescope \\citep{miyazaki_subaru_2002}. From this catalogue we only use the CFHT $u^*$-band \\citep{boulade_megacam:_2003} and Subaru $B$, $V$, $r$, $i^+$ and $z^{++}$ bands \\citep{miyazaki_subaru_2002}, in conjunction with the narrowband photometry of PAUS. For simplicity, these bands will be referred to collectively as the $uBVriz$ bands;  the superscripts are dropped for easier reading.\n\n\\subsection{zCOSMOS}\\label{sec:zcosmos}\nThe zCOSMOS Survey \\citep{lilly_zcosmos:_2007} targets galaxies in the COSMOS field using the Visible Multi-Object Spectrograph \\citep[VIMOS,][]{le_fevre_commissioning_2003}. zCOSMOS-Bright observed $20\\,689$ galaxies in a sky area of $1.7$~deg$^2$, these galaxies have magnitudes $15<i_\\rf{auto}<22.5$ and redshifts in the range of $0.1<z<1.2$, its spectral range is in the red (rest-frame wavelength $5550$~\\r{A} to $9650$~\\r{A}) to follow strong spectral features around the $4000$~\\r{A} break to as high redshifts as possible.\n\nIn this work we use data from zCOSMOS-Bright DR$3$\\footnote{\\url{http:\/\/www.eso.org\/qi\/catalog\/show\/65}}. Galaxies with redshift confidence class $3$ and $4$ (spectroscopic verification rate of $99$ and $99.8$ per cent, respectively) are selected and cross-matched with PAUS objects.\n\n\\subsection{Our dataset}\\label{sec:dataused}\nUsing the aforementioned selection cuts, we cross-matched within $1''$ the $40$-narrowband photometry from PAUS, six broadband photometry ($uBVriz$) from COSMOS, and highly reliable redshifts from zCOSMOS to obtain a data sample of $8406$ galaxies, which is divided randomly into half for training and testing respectively. This sample uses a total of $46$ bands, and flux calibration between the broad and narrow bands is required as they are obtained from different surveys with different flux measurements. The calibration between these fluxes will be discussed in Section~\\ref{sec:calibration}. \n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{figs\/sec2_fig1.pdf}\n\\caption{Colour-magnitude diagram for the PAUS data (red) used in this work in comparison with the COSMOS2015 sample (all objects with \\texttt{TYPE=0} and detected in $r$ and $i$). The contours represent the density of objects.} \\label{fig:data}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThe colour-magnitude diagram of this sample is shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:data}, in comparison with the COSMOS$2015$ sample (all objects with \\texttt{TYPE=0} and detected in $r$ and $i$). The slight incompleteness in $i$ magnitude is due to the selection effects in brightness of the spectroscopic redshifts available.\n\nThe sample size may seem small, but is sufficient for the GP to work, since the GP essentially creates $4000+$ flux-redshift `templates' to produce photo-$z$\\xspace's for objects in the testing set. However, we note that such a small training size has a major effect on the results of \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace as this training size is close to the lower limit threshold suggested by \\citet{bonfield_photometric_2010}. We also note that the sample we have chosen is very similar to that of \\citet{eriksen_pau_2019}, the only difference being that they have a more relaxed cut in the number of bands (\\tf{N\\_BANDS}), being \\tf{35<N\\_BANDS<40} (workable for a template code like \\bcnz), while we used \\tf{N\\_BANDS=40}\\footnote{The relaxed cut resulted in \\citet{eriksen_pau_2019} having a larger sample size of $10\\,801$ objects.}. When comparing results between \\textsc{delight}\\xspace and \\bcnz, we will only compare photo-$z$\\xspace's of the exact same objects. Note that we have used the same broad bands as used by \\citet{eriksen_pau_2019}.\n\n\n\\section{Algorithms and Templates}\\label{sec:algor}\n\n\\subsection{Delight and Gaussian processes}\\label{sec:delight}\n\\textsc{delight}\\xspace\\footnote{\\url{https:\/\/github.com\/ixkael\/Delight}} \\citep{leistedt_data-driven_2017} is a hybrid template-based and machine learning photo-$z$\\xspace algorithm, which was constructed to combine the advantages, and minimise the disadvantages, of both types of algorithms. \\textsc{delight}\\xspace constructs a large collection of latent SED templates (or physical flux-redshift models) from training data, with a template SED library as a guide to the learning of the model. This conceptually novel approach uses Gaussian processes (GPs) operating in flux-redshift space. \\textsc{delight}\\xspace was featured in the results of the LSST Photo-$z$\\xspace Data Challenge $1$ \\citep{schmidt_evaluation_2020}, where it was found to have a low photo-$z$\\xspace bias but slightly broader PDFs.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=1.0\\linewidth]{figs\/sec3_fig2.pdf}\n\\caption{Illustration of a Gaussian process (GP). The left panel shows data points (black dots), with a single datum to be predicted (green dot). The GP trains on the given data points to provide a best fit function (blue line) as shown on the right. It also provides a Gaussian confidence interval (blue shaded area) for the prediction.} \\label{fig:gp}\n\\end{figure}\n\nA GP is a supervised learning method, which finds a distribution over the possible functions $f(x)$ that are consistent with the observed data $x$. Consider Fig.~\\ref{fig:gp}: suppose we have a set of observed variables $y=f(x)$, we can fit it using a GP, denoted as $f\\sim \\mathcal{GP}\\left(\\mu,k\\right)$ , which assumes that the probability of all $f(x)$ is jointly Gaussian and representable by a mean function $\\mu(x)$ and a covariance matrix $\\Sigma(x)=k(x_i,x_j)$. $k(x_i,x_j)$ is the kernel function, which relates one variable $x_i$ to another $x_j$. An example case would be $\\mu \\equiv 0$ and a kernel function that takes the form of a squared exponential,\n\\begin{equation}\nk(x_i,x_j)=\\sigma^2_f \\exp\\left[ \\frac{-(x_i-x_j)^2}{2l^2}\\right],\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\sigma_f^2$ is the maximum allowable covariance between data (set by the errors on the observation), and $l$ is the tunable correlation length that determines the smoothness of the GP. In this simplistic case, the GP will try to find a marginalisation of all possible functions, but $\\mu$ and $k$ can be modified if an underlying model of the data we want to fit is known. The covariance function is defined such that a smooth function is to be predicted. \n\nAssuming that we have a set of training data $\\{x_i,f(x_i)\\}$ and would like to find the prediction $\\{x_*,f_*(x_*)\\}$, the GP models $f$ and $f_*$ as jointly Gaussian, $\\mathcal{N}(\\mu,\\Sigma)$, and therefore\n\\begin{equation}\n\\left( \\begin{array}{cc} f(x) \\\\ f_{*}(x) \\end{array} \\right) \\sim \\mathcal{N}\\left( \\left( \\begin{array}{cc} \\mu \\\\ \\mu_{*} \\end{array} \\right), \\left( \\begin{array}{cc}\n\\Sigma & \\Sigma_{*} \\\\ \\Sigma_{*}^T & \\Sigma_{**} \\end{array} \\right) \\right),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\Sigma=k(x_i,x_j)$ is the covariance between the training data, $\\Sigma_*=k(x_*,x_i)$ the covariance between training and the predicted data (superscript $T$ denotes the transpose of the matrix), while $\\Sigma_{**}=k(x_*,x_*)$ is the variance of the predicted data. \n\nIt follows from the above that the posterior $p(f_*|x_*,x_i,f_i)$ is also Gaussian, therefore a predicted point $f_*(x_*)$ is plotted (green dot in Fig.~\\ref{fig:gp}) is modelled by a Gaussian function (smooth blue line) which runs across all points, with its $95\\%$ confidence interval ($\\pm1.96\\sigma_{f_*}$) represented by the navy shaded area.\n\nIn the context of \\textsc{delight}\\xspace, GPs are used to calculate the predicted fluxes $\\hat{F}$ at a certain redshift $z$ for a training object $i$ with fluxes $F_i$ and redshift $z_i$. This could be better understood by first defining the posterior photo-$z$\\xspace distribution $p(z|\\hat{F})$ of an object in the testing set. For machine learning methods, it has the form\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:algor:pzf1}\np(z|\\hat{F}) \\approx \\sum_i p(\\hat{F}|z,z_i,F_i)\\, p(z|z_i,F_i)p(z_i,F_i),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $p(\\hat{F}|z,z_i,F_i)$ is the prediction for fluxes of the training galaxy at a different redshift $z$, while $p(z|z_i,F_i)$ and $p(z_i,F_i)$ are the priors that provide the redshift distributions and abundances, generated from the training data, which are multiplied to give the combined probability $p(z,z_i,F_i)$ for a given redshift $z$ and training object with redshift $z_i$ and fluxes $F_i$. This is analogous to the one derived from template-based methods,\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:algor:pzf2}\np(z|\\hat{F}) \\approx \\sum_i p(\\hat{F}|z,t_i)\\, p(z|t_i)p(t_i),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $t_i$ is the template, $p(z|t_i)p(t_i)=p(z,t_i)$ is the prior and $p(\\hat{F}|z,t_i)$ is the probability of the predicted flux $\\hat{F}$ at redshift $z$ and for template $t_i$. Both equations are easily differentiated by the fact that for template-based methods, $p(z|\\hat{F})$ is derived using a list of templates $t_i$, while for machine learning methods it is derived using the individual training set objects with fluxes $F_i$ and spectroscopic redshift $z_i$. \n\n\\textsc{delight}\\xspace differs a little from the usual machine learning method in the sense that instead of finding a direct empirical relationship between the fluxes and redshifts of the training objects, it uses a GP to model the predicted fluxes of a training galaxy at different redshifts with the help of SED templates. This creates a latent flux-redshift template for each training object, where for a given set of fluxes in the testing set, it could be compared to several training templates to find the best predicted redshift. \n\nThe algorithm first fits a best-fit SED template to a particular training object $i$ with redshift $z_i$ and fluxes $F_i$ (multiple bands); the best-fit SED template is then used to formulate the mean function and kernel of a GP to build a flux-redshift template which could predict the expected fluxes of certain band filters when this object is redshifted to a different $z$. With each training object now becoming a flux-redshift template, the final photo-$z$\\xspace posterior distribution of a testing set object is determined by making a pairwise comparison of every training-testing pair, and a weighted solution is obtained based on the best fits of each pair. \n\nIn other words, we are computing the probability that the target galaxy has the same SED as the training galaxy but at a different redshift. \\textsc{delight}\\xspace is thus a hybrid template-machine-learning photo-$z$\\xspace algorithm in the sense that SED templates are used to `guide' the creation of flux-redshift templates based on the training objects, or, if seen from another perspective, the GP `corrects' the SED templates by using training data. We refer the reader to \\citet{leistedt_data-driven_2017} for more on Gaussian processes, and also for the full expressions of the $\\mu$ and $k$ in relation to the filter responses, flux normalisations, linear mixtures of physical SED templates, and the manually configurable SED residual function of emission lines.\n\n\\textsc{delight}\\xspace is advantageous over many other photo-$z$\\xspace algorithms as its output is less dependent on representative training data, and it does not strictly require the training set to use the same photometric bands. However, it still requires accurate spectroscopic redshifts, high quality training fluxes and representative templates to produce high quality photo-$z$\\xspace probability density functions (PDFs), or $p(z)$. As such, given a few photometric bands, \\textsc{delight}\\xspace is able to predict missing bands or fluxes in an entirely different set of photometric bands, and this function is utilised in Section~\\ref{sec:calibpergal} to predict and calibrate the flux values between two surveys.\n\n\\subsection{Delight optimisation} \\label{algor:delight:optim}\nThe optimisation settings of \\textsc{delight}\\xspace used in this work are as follows. For the GP setup, the number of Gaussians to fit the filter curves (\\tf{numGpCoeff}) was set to $7$ instead of the default $20$, appropriately selected to accommodate the smaller full width half maximum (FWHM) of the narrowband filters. Other than that, we have mainly used the default hyperparameter settings for \\textsc{delight}\\xspace with the exception of the widths of the luminosity and redshift priors $\\sigma_\\ell$ and $\\sigma_z$ \\citep[\\tf{ellPriorSigma} and \\tf{zPriorSigma}, see][]{leistedt_data-driven_2017}, which have been lowered to $0.2$ and $0.1$ respectively as they produced better results. \n\nAs mentioned earlier, the mean function and the kernel of the GP are modelled after the choice of emission lines and SED template sets. We replaced the $3$ default emission lines in \\textsc{delight}\\xspace with the list provided by \\citet{eriksen_pau_2019}, although we note that the change in result for this is insignificant. As for the templates, we used the \\citet{brown_atlas_2014} high-quality templates, which consist of $129$ SEDs derived from real nearby galaxies. These templates have wavelengths covering the ultraviolet to mid-infrared, and encompass a broad range of galaxy types including ellipticals, spirals, merging galaxies, blue compact dwarfs and luminous infrared galaxies. In this work we have also tested the performance of various other template sets \\citep{coleman_colors_1980,kinney_template_1996,bruzual_stellar_2003,ilbert_accurate_2006,polletta_spectral_2007}; however they do not perform as well as those of \\citet{brown_atlas_2014}: the root-mean-square photo-$z$\\xspace errors could range between $21$ to $112$ per cent higher when these templates are used. Therefore, the results from these tests are not shown in this work.\n\nWe note that \\textsc{delight}\\xspace requires all magnitudes $m_i$ and magnitude errors to be converted into fluxes $F_i$ and flux variances, with a zero-point adjustment of $26.4$ in magnitude (i.e. $F_i=10^{-0.4(m_i-26.4)}$). We have also added a $3$ and $6$ per cent flux error in quadrature to the flux variances for the narrow and broad bands, respectively, to account for other flux errors from both the data and the model (values estimated via trial and error). It is also worth mentioning that while \\textsc{delight}\\xspace is capable of processing negative fluxes (non-detections), the reference band (\\tf{referenceBand}) used for flux normalisation  only handles fluxes with positive values. In this work we have selected the narrow band $nb625$ as the reference band, or the COSMOS $r$-band in cases where narrow bands were not used. \n\nThroughout this work, we use $z_\\rf{map}$ (the \\textit{maximum a posteriori} of the PDF) to represent the best point estimate photo-$z$\\xspace produced by \\textsc{delight}\\xspace. The output photo-$z$\\xspace PDF bins were set to be linear instead of logarithmic, with a stepsize of $0.001$, and a range of $0.02<z<1.65$, keeping close to the limits of the spectroscopic redshifts.\n\n\\subsection{Other algorithms}\\label{sec:annz2bpz}\nWe are also interested in how \\textsc{delight}\\xspace compares to other common template-based or machine-learning-based methods besides \\bcnz and \\textsc{deepz}\\xspace. Therefore two other photo-$z$\\xspace algorithms, \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace and \\textsc{bpz}\\xspace are also used in this work, using the same training and template sets, to be compared with the performance of \\textsc{delight}\\xspace. In the following paragraphs we briefly introduce the two algorithms and their optimisation settings.\n\n\\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace \\footnote{\\url{https:\/\/github.com\/IftachSadeh\/ANNZ}} \\citep{sadeh_annz2:_2016} is a machine-learning-based photo-$z$\\xspace algorithm which has been widely used in recent works \\citep{bonnett_redshift_2016,jouvel_photometric_2017,bilicki_photometric_2018,soo_morpho-z:_2018,schmidt_evaluation_2020} due to its high customisability and its ability to produce PDFs. It uses the Toolkit for Multivariate Data Analysis \\citep[TMVA,][]{hoecker_tmva_2007} with \\textsc{root} \\citep{brun_root_1997}, which allows it to run multiple different machine learning algorithms for training, and outputs photo-$z$\\xspace's based on a weighted average of their performance. In this work we ran \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace with a mixture of $3$ machine learning methods, namely artificial neural networks (ANNs), boosted decision trees (BDTs) and $k$-nearest neighbours (KNNs), see \\citet{hoecker_tmva_2007} for detailed descriptions of these machine learning algorithms. An architecture of $N$:$\\frac{2N+1}{3}$:$\\frac{N+2}{3}$:$1$ was used for the ANN; the bagging method was used to boost the decision trees; a polynomial kernel was used for the KNN; while the other hyperparameters for each method were individually optimised for best performance. \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace version $2.3.1$ was used in this work, and the mean value of the PDF, $z_\\rf{pdf}$ was chosen to represent the photo-$z$\\xspace point estimate.\n\n\\textsc{bpz}\\xspace\\footnote{\\url{http:\/\/www.stsci.edu\/~dcoe\/BPZ\/}} \\citep{benitez_bayesian_2000}, on the other hand, is one of the longest-standing template-based photo-$z$\\xspace algorithms, and still widely used today \\citep{marti_precise_2014,bundy_stripe_2015,cavuoti_cooperative_2017,tanaka_photometric_2018,joudaki_kidsviking-450_2020,raihan_testing_2020}. Other than sharing the usual attributes of a template-based code, \\textsc{bpz}\\xspace uses Bayesian inference, prior information of redshift distributions and template interpolation to improve photo-$z$\\xspace results. \\textsc{bpz}\\xspace version $1.99.3$ was used in this work, and similar to \\textsc{delight}\\xspace the Brown templates were used, with the interpolation parameter set to $2$. We assumed the same functional form for the Bayesian priors as those used by COSMOS \\citep{laigle_cosmos2015_2016}. The peak of the PDF, $z_\\rf{b}$, was used as the best photo-$z$\\xspace point estimate. \n\nOther than \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace and \\textsc{bpz}\\xspace, the results of \\textsc{delight}\\xspace are also compared to the results of \\bcnz, which was developed specifically for the PAUS data \\citep{eriksen_pau_2019}. \\bcnz is able to compute a linear combination of SED templates and  is designed to deal with emission lines, extinction, and adjust zero-points between narrow and broad bands, all of which are crucial in the context of PAUS. The introduction of the code \\bcnz and its early demonstration of PAUS photo-$z$\\xspace can be found in \\citet{eriksen_pau_2019}. \n\n\n\\section{Flux Calibration}\\label{sec:calibration}\nThis work utilises fluxes obtained from two different surveys: the PAUS narrowband fluxes are measured using an aperture which covers $62.5$ per cent of light from the galaxy, while COSMOS broadband fluxes are measured using a fixed $3''$ aperture. Therefore, calibration is required to ensure that the flux values are consistent with one another. We only calibrate the broadband fluxes, leaving the narrowband fluxes untouched following \\cite{eriksen_pau_2019}. The calibration process is done in two steps: first we derive empirical corrections to account for differences in the aperture photometry (calibration for each galaxy), then placing all bands at the same flux zero point (calibration for each band). For the correction for differences in flux aperture, we note that ideally this could have been easily done if spec-$z$\\xspace's are available; however since the evaluation set would not have spec-$z$\\xspace's available, we present $3$ alternatives in the following sections to calibrate the fluxes photometrically.\n\n\n\\subsection{Correction for differences in flux aperture}\\label{sec:calibpergal}\nIn the first step we define a parameter $R_\\rf{g}$, a correction factor estimated for each galaxy to be multiplied with all of its six $uBVriz$ broadband fluxes. Ideally, this factor is estimated by first finding the best-fit Brown template for each galaxy using only $40$ narrowband fluxes from PAUS and its true redshift. The best-fit template is then used to generate the predicted $uBVriz$ fluxes, and a weighted mean of the ratios between the predicted flux and the original COSMOS flux $R_{\\rf{g},b}$ is calculated for each band $b$, given by\n\\begin{equation}\nR_\\rf{g} = \\frac{ \\sum_b R_{\\rf{g},b}\/\\sigma_{R_\\rf{g},b}^2 }{ \\sum_b 1\/\\sigma_{R_\\rf{g},b}^2 },\n\\end{equation}\nwhere the sum is over the six COSMOS broad bands, and $\\sigma_{R_\\rf{g},b}^2$ is the variance of $R_{\\rf{g},b}$. Here we have assumed that the Brown templates are sufficiently representative, and therefore the predicted flux derived from it is the true flux of the broad bands. We have also assumed that $R_{\\rf{g},b}$ should be almost the same across each band for each galaxy. This calibration is motivated by the fact that each galaxy requires a calibration between fixed-size and adaptive aperture photometry dependent on its apparent size. \n\nWe now explore three different methods to determine $R_\\rf{g}$ from the photometric data only.\n\n\n\\subsubsection{The photo-z calibration method}\\label{sec:photozmethod}\nThe first method, which we call the \\textit{photo-$z$\\xspace calibration method}, is very similar to the method above except that we replace the spectroscopic redshifts used to determine the predicted $uBVriz$ flux for the testing set with photometric redshifts. We first use \\textsc{delight}\\xspace and only the $40$ narrow bands to produce photo-$z$\\xspace's for each object, and then we use these photo-$z$\\xspace's to estimate the predicted fluxes, and then later $R_\\rf{g}$ for each galaxy. This implies that the better the quality of the photo-$z$\\xspace's produced by only the $40$ narrow bands, the better the calibrated broadband fluxes will be.\n\n\\subsubsection{The size calibration method} \\label{sec:sizemethod}\nThe second method, hereafter the \\textit{size calibration method}, does not require the production of predicted fluxes for the testing set. Instead, this method uses the correlation between the sizes of galaxies with their values of $R_\\rf{g}$ in the training set, to predict the values of $R_\\rf{g}$ for objects in the testing set. With the predicted fluxes of the training set known, we plot $R_\\rf{g}$ against the $50$ per cent light radius $r_{50}$ (measured in pixels) for each object, and obtain a best-fit linear-least-squares regression line in the process,\n\\begin{equation}\nR_\\rf{g} = m\\cdot r_{50} + c,    \n\\end{equation}\nwhere the slope and $y$-intercept are found to be $m=0.0101$ and $c=0.4504$ respectively, with a correlation coefficient of $r=0.8349$, implying a strong positive correlation between $R_\\rf{g}$  and $r_{50}$.\n\nWith this relationship derived, the values of $R_\\rf{g}$ for each object in the testing set can be estimated. This method is motivated by the fact that the size of galaxies is a defining factor for the difference in their flux values when measured using a fixed aperture or when measured using a fixed light radius. Fig.~\\ref{fig:rgr50} shows a scatter plot of $r_{50}$ v.s. $R_\\rf{g}$ for the training set, where the correlation equation is determined. The distribution of $R_\\rf{g}$ is also tabulated in the figure, it is shown to have a median value of $0.6349$, implying that on average COSMOS measures more flux for each galaxy than PAUS. We note that in the case when galaxies have undefined values of $r_{50}$, we substitute them with the mean value of $r_{50}=22.4934$~pixels.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=0.83\\linewidth]{figs\/sec4_fig3.pdf}\n\\caption{\\textit{Top}: Correlation between $r_{50}$ and $R_\\rf{g}$ for the training set, where $R_\\rf{g}$ is a calibration correction factor estimated for each galaxy to be multiplied with all of its six $uBVriz$ broadband fluxes. \\textit{Bottom}: The distribution of $R_\\rf{g}$ of the training set, estimated using the size calibration method. $N$ is the number of galaxies.} \\label{fig:rgr50}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\subsubsection{The flux calibration method} \\label{sec:fluxmethod}\nThe third and final method is the \\textit{flux calibration method}, which is similar to the method used by \\citet{eriksen_pau_2019}, but simpler in that the Gaussian Process has a larger capacity to accommodate uncertainties. This method makes use of the fact that there are overlaps in wavelength between the COSMOS broad bands and PAUS narrow bands: the $V$-band overlaps with the narrow bands $nb505$ to $nb585$ ($9$ bands); the $r$-band overlaps with $nb565$ to $nb685$ ($13$ bands); and the $i$-band overlaps with $nb705$ to $nb835$ ($14$ bands). This overlap is illustrated in Fig.~\\ref{fig:overlapbands}.\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{figs\/sec4_fig4.pdf}\n\\caption{The overlapping wavelengths between $34$ PAUS narrowband filters and $3$ COSMOS broadband filters: $V$ overlaps with $nb505$-$nb585$ ($9$ bands); $r$ overlaps with $nb565$-$nb685$ ($13$ bands); and $i$ overlaps with $nb705$-$nb835$ ($13$ bands). Note that the filter responses from PAUS and COSMOS are normalised at different values, respectively.} \\label{fig:overlapbands}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nSimilar to the previous method, no redshift information is required for flux prediction, the $R_\\rf{g}$ in this case is estimated by first averaging the narrowband fluxes within the range of the broad band of interest ($V$, $r$ or $i$), and then taking the ratio between the broadband flux and the averaged narrowband fluxes. This will give us $3$ values of $R_{\\rf{g},b}$ for the $3$ $Vri$ bands, and finally $R_\\rf{g}$ for each galaxy is taken as the weighted average of the $3$ values. \n\nThis method is simple yet effective: it does not involve the spectroscopic redshift, the photo-$z$\\xspace derived by $40$ narrow bands, or even the size of the galaxy. Here we assume that the $R_\\rf{g}$ estimated using $Vri$ is applicable for the $uBz$ bands as well. We will compare the overall photo-$z$\\xspace quality produced by the three methods above in Section~\\ref{sec:quality}.\n\n\n\\subsection{Correction to flux zero points}\\label{sec:calibperband}\nAfter calibrating the COSMOS broadband fluxes for each galaxy, we proceed to calibrate the broadband magnitude offsets within each band. We perform a weighted least-squares fit between the predicted broadband fluxes (produced by \\textsc{delight}\\xspace using $40$ PAUS narrowband fluxes, the respective best fit Brown templates and zCOSMOS spec-$z$\\xspace's) and the original COSMOS $uBVriz$ fluxes in the training set, by using a simple linear equation,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:lnF}\n\\ln(F_{\\rf{p},b}) = a_b \\cdot \\ln(F_{\\rf{g},b})+c_b\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $F_{\\rf{p},b}$ is the predicted flux for band $b$, $F_{\\rf{g},b}$ the COSMOS broadband flux after undergoing the per-galaxy calibration, and $a_b$ and $c_b$ are constants to be optimised. The values of $a_b$ and $c_b$ estimated for each band using the training set are now used to calibrate the fluxes in the testing set, and these values are tabulated in Table~\\ref{tab:calibband}. A weighted fit was implemented, with the inverse variances of the fluxes used as the weights, since we expect that objects which are brighter to have relatively lower variances, and by accounting for the variances of objects the fainter objects would be upweighted. \n\n\\begin{table}\n\\centering\n\\small\n\\caption{List of the best fit parameters $a_b$ and $c_b$ for each band $b$ when the predicted and original COSMOS fluxes from the training set were fitted with a weighted least-squares fit, using Equation~\\ref{eq:lnF}.} \\label{tab:calibband}\n\\begin{tabular}{lrr}\n\\hline \n\\textbf{Bands}  & \\textbf{$a_b$}    & \\textbf{$c_b$} \\\\\n\\hline \n$u$           & $1.0007\\pm0.0001$ &  $0.0354\\pm0.0008$  \\\\\n$B$             & $0.9906\\pm0.0002$ &  $0.2163\\pm0.0009$    \\\\\n$V$             & $0.9988\\pm0.0002$ & $-0.0830\\pm0.0009$   \\\\\n$r$             & $1.0006\\pm0.0002$ &  $0.0015\\pm0.0009$ \\\\\n$i$           & $1.0202\\pm0.0001$ & $-0.0875\\pm0.0008$  \\\\\n$z$        & $0.9791\\pm0.0001$ &  $0.0424\\pm0.0007$ \\\\\n\\hline \n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{table}\n\nAs expected from the table, the values of $a_b$ and $c_b$ are very close to $1$ and $0$ respectively, since the calibrated flux for aperture correction $F_{\\rf{g},b}$ is already very close to the predicted flux $F_{\\rf{p},b}$. Essentially, this process `straightens' the correlation line, providing minor yet essential improvements to the overall calibration.\n\n\n\\subsection{Overall calibration performance} \\label{sec:caliboverall}\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{figs\/sec4_fig5.pdf}\n\\caption{The $uBVriz$ broadband fluxes predicted by \\textsc{delight}\\xspace plotted against their original COSMOS fluxes, both before and after the two-step calibration process (red and blue respectively) for our training set, using the flux calibration method as an example. Based on the root-mean-square errors ($\\sigma_\\rf{RMS}$) shown in each panel, the broadband fluxes match their prediction much better after calibration.} \\label{fig:calibresults}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nFigure~\\ref{fig:calibresults} shows the correlation between the broadband fluxes predicted by \\textsc{delight}\\xspace (using spectroscopic redshifts, PAUS $40$ narrow bands and Brown templates) and the COSMOS broadband fluxes for our training set, both before and after calibration (red and blue, respectively). The figure only shows the result of the flux calibration method, as the other two methods look very similar graphically (which translates to a small difference in photo-$z$\\xspace results shown later in Section~\\ref{sec:res_delight}). \n\nThe RMS values displayed in Figure~\\ref{fig:calibresults} show that for all bands, the scatter between the original fluxes with respect to the predicted fluxes has reduced by $63$ to $88$ per cent after the two-step calibration was done. The scatter at low fluxes for the $u$ and $B$-bands remains evident, which originated from the high uncertainty in flux measurements. Despite the large decrease in scatter, we note that the RMS value here is not a metric of improvement for calibration as we do not have the true values of the broadband fluxes in the matched apertures. However, the calibration of the broadband fluxes did translate into an improvement in photo-$z$\\xspace scatter and $68$th percentile error by about $70$ to $80$ per cent, as shown in Section~\\ref{sec:res_delight}.\n\n\n\\section{Results and Discussion}\\label{sec:res_delight}\n\n\\begin{table*} \n\\caption{The root-mean-square error ($\\sigma_\\rf{RMS}$), $68$th percentile error ($\\sigma_{68}$), outlier fraction ($\\eta_\\rf{out}$), mean continuous ranked probability score ($\\rho_\\rf{CRPS}$) and the root-mean-square error in redshift distribution ($n_\\rf{RMS}$) for the photo-$z$\\xspace's produced in this work, using different algorithms, methods and number of bands. All results are produced using $6$ broad bands (BB) and $40$ narrow bands (NB) unless stated otherwise.} \\label{tab:results}\n\\begin{tabular}{lrrrrr}\n\\hline\n\\textbf{Photo-$z$\\xspace methods} & $\\sigma_\\rf{RMS}$ & $\\sigma_{68}$ & $\\eta_\\rf{out}$ ($\\%$) & $\\rho_\\rf{CRPS}$ & $n_\\rf{RMS}$ \\\\\n\\hline\n\\textsc{delight}\\xspace ($6$BB only)                       & $0.0514$  & $0.0441$  & $0.93$                 & $0.0388$ & $0.885$   \\\\\n\\textsc{delight}\\xspace ($40$NB only)                      & $0.0684$  & $0.0119$  & $4.02$                 & $0.0298$ & $0.637$   \\\\\n\\hline\n\\textsc{delight}\\xspace (no calibration)                   & $0.1555$  & $0.0566$  & $9.06$                & $0.0887$ & $0.895$    \\\\\n\\textsc{delight}\\xspace (photo-$z$\\xspace calibration method)       & $0.0335$  & $0.0083$  & $0.71$                 & $0.0158$ & $0.634$    \\\\\n\\textsc{delight}\\xspace (size calibration method)          & $0.0341$  & $0.0095$  & $0.76$                 & $0.0165$ & $0.646$    \\\\\n\\textsc{delight}\\xspace (flux calibration method)          & $0.0331$  & $0.0081$  & $0.86$                 & $0.0155$ & $0.636$    \\\\\n\\textsc{delight}\\xspace (flux calibration method, no GP)   & $0.0442$  & $0.0089$  & $0.98$                 & $0.0179$ & $0.639$    \\\\\n\\hline\n\\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace                                    & $0.0556$  & $0.0396$  & $2.66$                 & $0.0719$ & $0.465$    \\\\\n\\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace ($6$BB only)                    & $0.0371$  & $0.0202$  & $1.14$                 & $0.0522$ & $0.432$    \\\\\n\\textsc{bpz}\\xspace                                        & $0.0368$  & $0.0089$  & $0.86$                 & $0.0184$ & $0.740$    \\\\\n\\hline\n\\bcnz                                       & $0.0403$  & $0.0085$  & $1.14$                 & $-$       & $-$        \\\\\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{table*}\n\nTable~\\ref{tab:results} summarises the results of this work, it shows all the photo-$z$\\xspace metrics we produced, using different algorithms (\\textsc{delight}\\xspace, \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace, \\textsc{bpz}\\xspace), different calibration methods (\\textit{flux}, \\textit{photo-$z$\\xspace} and \\textit{size}), and different number of input fluxes ($6$ broad bands, $40$ narrow bands, or both). We divide the analysis of the results into two sections: Section~\\ref{sec:quality} studies the performance between the three calibration methods used in \\textsc{delight}\\xspace, while Section~\\ref{sec:comparison} compares the best performance of \\textsc{delight}\\xspace with \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace, \\textsc{bpz}\\xspace and \\bcnz. In the following section, we briefly introduce the performance metrics we used in this work.\n\n\n\\subsection{Performance metrics}\\label{sec:metrics}\nIn this work we use three metrics to quantify the performance of the photo-$z$\\xspace point estimates: the root-mean-square error ($\\sigma_\\rf{RMS}$), the $68$th percentile error ($\\sigma_{68}$) and the outlier fraction rate ($\\eta_\\rf{out}$). With $\\Delta z \\equiv \\frac{z_\\rf{phot}-z_\\rf{spec}}{1+z_\\rf{spec}}$, the above metrics are defined as follows:\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\sigma_\\rf{RMS}\\equiv \\sqrt{\\frac{1}{N} \\sum_i^N \\left|\\Delta z_i\\right|^2}\\ ,\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\sigma_{68} \\equiv \\frac{Q_{84.1\\%}(\\Delta z_i)-Q_{15.9\\%}(\\Delta z_i)}{2}\\ ,\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:outlier}\n\\eta_\\rf{out} \\equiv \\rf{\\% objects where} \\left| \\Delta z_i \\right| \\geq 0.15\\ .\n\\end{equation}\nHere $N$ is the total number of galaxies, while $Q$ is a percentile of the distribution. Since $\\sigma_\\rf{RMS}$ is calculated without the outliers removed, it measures the overall scatter of the sample, whereas $\\sigma_{68}$ measures the scatter with reduced sensitivity to outliers. \n\nWith similar motivations as \\citet{marti_precise_2014} and \\citet{eriksen_pau_2019}, we hope to achieve an overall photo-$z$\\xspace error of $\\sigma_{68}\\leq 0.0035(1+z_\\rf{spec})$ for at least $50$ per cent of the testing sample after applying an appropriately chosen quality cut. We use the Bayesian ODDS ($\\Theta$) parameter \\citep{benitez_bayesian_2000} in \\textsc{delight}\\xspace, similar to its implementation in \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace by \\citet{soo_morpho-z:_2018}. $\\Theta$ can be estimated from the photo-$z$\\xspace PDF, $p(z)$ using the equation\n\\begin{equation}\n\\Theta=\\int^{z_\\rf{p}+k(1+z_\\rf{p})}_{z_\\rf{p}-k(1+z_\\rf{p})} p(z)\\, dz\\ ,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $z_\\rf{p}$ is the peak of $p(z)$ and $k=0.01$. $\\Theta$ ranges between $0$ and $1$, the higher the value the lower the $p(z)$ width, which implies a more precisely predicted photo-$z$\\xspace (though not necessarily accurate). The value of $k$ is arbitrary, appropriately selected such that not too many objects end up having $\\Theta=1$. Therefore, an $x$ per cent quality cut on the sample keeps the top $x$ percent of objects with the highest values of $\\Theta$.\n\nTo assess the quality of the $p(z)$, we use probability integral transform (PIT) plots and the continuous ranked probability score (CRPS). The PIT is the cumulative distribution function (CDF) at $z_\\rf{spec}$ while asserting the $p(z)$ to have an area of unity. Since the photo-$z$\\xspace CDF is $C(z)=\\int^z_{0} p(z')\\ dz'$, PIT is defined to be\n\\begin{equation}\n\\rf{PIT} = C(z_\\rf{spec}) = \\int_0^{z_\\rf{spec}} p(z) \\, dz\\ .\n\\end{equation}\nA PIT distribution tells us on average if the $p(z)$ produced are `adequately shaped': the shape of the PIT distribution can tell us if the $p(z)$ produced are generally too wide\/narrow, or if the $p(z)$ are over\/under-predicting the true redshift.\n\nThe CRPS on the other hand tells us how well the $p(z)$ encapsulates or predicts the true redshift ($z_\\rf{spec}$). The CRPS of a $p(z)$ can be expressed as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\rf{CRPS} = \\int^\\infty_{-\\infty} \\left| C(z)- \\mathcal{H}(z-z_\\rf{spec}) \\right|^2\\, dz\\ ,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mathcal{H}(z-z_\\rf{spec})$ is the Heaviside step function with\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathcal{H}(z-z_\\rf{spec}) = \\left\\{\n\\begin{array}{ll}\n1, & z=z_\\rf{spec} \\\\\n0, & \\rf{otherwise}.\n\\end{array}\n\\right.\n\\end{equation}\nIn this work, we use the symbol $\\rho_\\rf{CRPS}$ to represent the average CRPS value of all galaxies in the testing sample, in which the smaller the value, the better the $p(z)$ are at predicting their true redshifts. We refer the reader to \\citet{polsterer_uncertain_2016} for a detailed description of both PIT and CRPS.\n\nFinally, we also assess the quality of the redshift distribution $n(z)$. We can find how similar the spec-$z$\\xspace distribution $n_\\rf{spec}(z)$ is compared to the photo-$z$\\xspace distribution $n_\\rf{phot}(z)$ by estimating $n_\\rf{RMS}$, the root-mean-square difference between the distributions:\n\\begin{equation}\n    n_\\mathrm{RMS}=\\sqrt{\\int \\left[ n_\\mathrm{phot}(z)-n_\\mathrm{spec}(z) \\right]^2\\, dz}.\n\\end{equation}\n$n_\\rf{RMS}$ provides us a quantitative measure to compare the performances of photo-$z$\\xspace with distributions produced by different codes.\n\n\n\\subsection{Performance of Delight}\\label{sec:quality}\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{figs\/sec5_fig6.pdf}\n\\caption{Plot of photo-$z$\\xspace vs. spec-$z$\\xspace, comparing the photo-$z$\\xspace's when trained and tested using only $6$ $uBVriz$ broad bands (BB, left), only $40$ narrow bands (NB middle), and all $46$ bands combined (right). The flux calibration method was used for this plot.} \\label{fig:res_delban}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nRows $1$ and $2$ from Table~\\ref{tab:results} shows the photo-$z$\\xspace's produced when only trained using the broad and narrow bands individually, and we find that by combining both broad and narrow bands (rows $4$ to $6$), we have achieved at least $34$ and $20$ per cent improvement in the photo-$z$\\xspace scatter and $\\sigma_{68}$, respectively (visualised in Fig.~\\ref{fig:res_delban}). \n\nRows $3$ to $7$ proceed to show the metrics for each calibration method, and on average, the performance of each method is quite similar, all within $4$ to $16$ per cent difference in $\\sigma_\\rf{RMS}$ and $\\sigma_{68}$, respectively. Statistically, the flux calibration method seems to perform slightly better compared to the remaining ones, with the exception of the photo-$z$\\xspace calibration method having better values of $\\eta_\\rf{out}$ and $n_\\rf{RMS}$. This suggests that while the photo-$z$\\xspace's produced by training with only $40$ narrow bands are not as competitive as when trained with all $46$ bands and calibrated broad bands (see Table~\\ref{tab:results} and Fig.~\\ref{fig:res_delban}), it is however sufficient to guide the calibration process. Note that we have also included the results of \\textsc{delight}\\xspace run as a pure template code when calibrated using the flux calibration method for comparison, and we see that without the help of the GP, the photo-$z$\\xspace results are similar for most metrics except a degradation in scatter of up to $-33.5$ per cent. Therefore the good results of \\textsc{delight}\\xspace shown here are mainly due to the use of the Brown templates, the flux calibration, the combination of broad and narrow bands, and also the work of the GP.\n\nAs the three calibration methods presented in Section~\\ref{sec:calibration} all result in very similar photo-$z$\\xspace performance, we will only show results for the flux calibration method in the following. It is notable however that in all cases, the photo-$z$\\xspace requirement of $\\sigma_{68}<0.0035(1+z)$ is achievable for all objects at $i_\\rf{auto}<20.0$, or objects with a $40$ per cent $\\Theta$ cut at $i_\\rf{auto}<22.5$. All three methods also shows that despite such high percentage $\\Theta$ cuts being implemented, a significant number of high photo-$z$\\xspace objects still remain in the sample.\n\n\n\\subsection{Comparison with Other Algorithms}\\label{sec:comparison}\n\nSince the \\textsc{delight}\\xspace results for each of the three calibration methods are very similar to each other, we decided to select only the flux calibration method to be compared to the results obtained by the two other algorithms used in this work, \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace and \\textsc{bpz}\\xspace. We also include the point estimates from \\citet{eriksen_pau_2019}. The values of $\\sigma_\\rf{RMS}$, $\\sigma_{68}$ and other relevant metrics obtained from these algorithms are shown in rows $8$ to $11$ of Table~\\ref{tab:results}, and visualised in Fig.~\\ref{fig:res_photoz}.\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{figs\/sec5_fig7.pdf}\n\\caption{Plots of photo-$z$\\xspace vs. spec-$z$\\xspace, comparing the results of the flux calibration method of \\textsc{delight}\\xspace (green), \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace trained with $46$ bands \/ $6$ broad bands (orange), \\bcnz (blue) and \\textsc{bpz}\\xspace (magenta). The same colouring scheme will be used to represent the respective methods in the following plots.} \\label{fig:res_photoz}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nFrom the figure, it is found that \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace, being a purely machine-learning based algorithm, is underperforming compared to the other algorithms. This machine-learning method is unable to make full use of the extra information provided by the $40$ narrow bands, and is shown to perform better without them. This is partially due to the problem of the curse of dimensionality \\citep{bellman_dynamic_1957}, sharply diluting the pattern recognition power of the algorithm as the number of inputs increases. Besides, the very small training sample size may have heavily affected the potential of \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace. Here we note however that the deep learning code \\textsc{deepz} is shown to work well on a similar sample \\citep{eriksen_pau_2020}, therefore we hope to do follow-up evaluations of \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace on PAUS data in the future when a larger training set is available.\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{figs\/sec5_fig8.pdf}\n\\caption{Plots of $\\sigma_\\rf{RMS}$ (top) and $\\sigma_{68}$ (bottom) with respect to $i_\\rf{auto}$ (cumulatively), comparing the performance of \\textsc{delight}\\xspace (left) with \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace (middle), \\textsc{bpz}\\xspace (right) and \\bcnz (left, dashed lines). The coloured lines represent the sample when cut systematically in the Bayesian odds ($\\Theta$), keeping only objects with the best $100\\%$ (red), $90\\%$ (orange), $80\\%$ (green), $70\\%$ (blue), $60\\%$ (navy), $50\\%$ (purple) and $40\\%$ (magenta) values. The black horizontal dashed line with $\\sigma_{68}=0.0035(1+z)$ represents the photo-$z$\\xspace quality target of PAUS for $50$ per cent of the objects at $i\\sim 22.5$.} \n\\label{fig:res_meti2}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=0.71\\linewidth]{figs\/sec5_fig9.pdf}\n\\caption{Plot of percentage of objects within each photo-$z$\\xspace bin with respect to the cut in $\\Theta$ value for the results of \\textsc{delight}\\xspace (top left), \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace (top right), \\bcnz (bottom left) and \\textsc{bpz}\\xspace (bottom right). The lines use the same colour scheme as those in Fig.~\\ref{fig:res_meti2}, while the histograms in the background show the photo-$z$\\xspace distribution for each method (relative number of objects in each photo-$z$\\xspace bin).} \\label{fig:res_metzp2}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nIn terms of the quality of the point estimate photo-$z$\\xspace's, \\textsc{delight}\\xspace is shown to fare well against \\bcnz and \\textsc{bpz}\\xspace (Fig.~\\ref{fig:res_photoz}), both of which are purely template-based methods. As both \\textsc{delight}\\xspace and \\textsc{bpz}\\xspace used the same template sets in this case (i.e. the Brown templates), we find that the Gaussian process contributed to $25$ and $9$ per cent improvement in the scatter and $\\sigma_{68}$, respectively, as compared to the pure template fit of \\textsc{bpz}\\xspace. \n\nDespite the similarities in the point estimates for the entire sample (Table~\\ref{tab:results}), when we cut the sample in percentages of $\\Theta$ (Figs.~\\ref{fig:res_meti2} and \\ref{fig:res_metzp2}), we see two major differences. Firstly, the cut in $\\Theta$ for \\textsc{bpz}\\xspace does not systematically remove objects with high uncertainties (especially for objects brighter than $i_\\rf{auto}=21$); and secondly, the cut in $\\Theta$ for \\textsc{bpz}\\xspace selectively removes objects with lower photo-$z$\\xspace. In both cases, \\textsc{delight}\\xspace is shown to not only perform better in this regard as compared to \\textsc{bpz}\\xspace, but also better than all other algorithms shown.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=0.99\\linewidth]{figs\/sec5_fig10.pdf}\n\\caption{Sample redshift PDF $p(z)$ for the \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace (orange), \\textsc{delight}\\xspace (green) and \\textsc{bpz}\\xspace (magenta). The black vertical lines shows the positions of the spectroscopic redshifts.} \\label{fig:res_pz2}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{figs\/sec5_fig11.pdf}\n\\caption{Probability integral transform (PIT) distributions for the $p(z)$ produced by the four different algorithms, \\textsc{delight}\\xspace (green), \\bcnz (blue), \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace (orange) and \\textsc{bpz}\\xspace (magenta). The dashed horizontal line indicates the mean of the distribution, and a flat distribution is ideal. A U-shaped distribution indicates that the $p(z)$ produced are too narrow, while a mountain-peak shaped distribution indicates that the $p(z)$ produced are too wide.} \\label{fig:res_pit}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nA selection of sample $p(z)$ produced by each algorithm is shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:res_pz2}, while the overall quality of the $p(z)$ produced are visualised in the PIT plots as shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:res_pit}. Once again we see \\textsc{delight}\\xspace on average producing superior $p(z)$ compared to \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace and \\textsc{bpz}\\xspace: it is obvious from the PIT plots that the $p(z)$ produced by \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace are too narrow (a U-shaped distribution), while those by \\textsc{bpz}\\xspace are too wide (a significant central peak). In terms of $\\rho_\\rf{CRPS}$ (see Table~\\ref{tab:results}), \\textsc{delight}\\xspace once again performs better than both \\textsc{bpz}\\xspace and \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace, where the adequate shapes and accurately positioned peaks of the $p(z)$ provide good predictions of the true redshift. \n\nWe note that the $p(z)$ produced by \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace are ragged compared to \\textsc{bpz}\\xspace and \\textsc{delight}\\xspace, this is due to the limited training sample size and the low number of network committees used. We intend to look into several methodologies to smoothen machine-learning based $p(z)$ which are limited by such conditions; this is left for future work. The limited testing size has also produced an $n_\\rf{spec}(z)$ distribution which is not smooth, thus despite \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace producing an $n(z)$ closest to the spectroscopic distribution (lowest $n_\\rf{RMS}$), it may have experienced overfitting. Having said that, for the different \\textsc{delight}\\xspace runs shown in Table~\\ref{tab:results}, the values of $n_\\rf{RMS}$ are consistent with the other metrics. Therefore, we leave the analysis of $n(z)$ to future work when a large enough testing sample is available.\n\n\n\\section{Application: identifying photo-z outliers}\\label{sec:app}\n\n\\subsection{Analysing the photo-z outliers of Delight and BCNz2}\\label{sec:outlier}\nAs we compared the photo-$z$\\xspace results, we discovered that there are some galaxies that have similar \\textsc{delight}\\xspace and \\bcnz photo-$z$\\xspace values, however these redshift values are far from their respective zCOSMOS spectroscopic redshifts or broadband photo-$z$\\xspace's. Since both \\bcnz and \\textsc{delight}\\xspace utilise the PAUS narrow bands, we expect that the photo-$z$\\xspace's they produce are more sensitive to emission lines as compared to photo-$z$\\xspace's produced using only broad bands. Therefore, we suspect that objects that have similar photo-$z$\\xspace values for \\textsc{delight}\\xspace and \\bcnz but have disagreeing spec-$z$\\xspace values to be an indication of either having (1) a catastrophic zCOSMOS spectroscopic redshift\\footnote{While we have already selected to use only secure spectroscopic redshifts in this work, we still deem this as a possibility, since a $1$ per cent outlier rate in $4000+$ spec-$z$\\xspace measurements may still yield $40$ objects, which is within the same order of number of objects being investigated in this section. Our results later in this section however have verified that most of the outliers are not caused by catastrophic spectroscopic redshifts.}, (2) outlier broadband or narrowband fluxes, or (3) misidentification of close neighbours.\n\nFor the purpose of this inquiry, we have selected $30$ objects from the sample which are photo-$z$\\xspace outliers in $z_\\rf{Delight}$ vs. $z_\\rf{spec}$ or $z_\\rf{BCNz}$ vs. $z_\\rf{spec}$, yet\nare not outliers in $z_\\rf{Delight}$ vs. $z_\\rf{BCNz}$. Mathematically, they satisfy the following conditions:\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item $\\frac{\\left| z_\\rf{Delight}-z_\\rf{spec}\\right|}{1+z_\\rf{spec}}\\ge 0.15$ or $\\frac{\\left|z_\\rf{BCNz}-z_\\rf{spec}\\right|}{1+z_\\rf{spec}}\\ge 0.15$, and\n\\item $\\frac{\\left| z_\\rf{Delight}-z_\\rf{BCNz}\\right|}{1+\\frac{z_\\rf{Delight}+z_\\rf{BCNz}}{2}} < 0.15$.\n\\end{enumerate}\nNote that the $z_\\rf{Delight}$ used here refers to the photo-$z$\\xspace produced using the flux calibration method, trained using $46$ bands guided by the Brown templates.\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{figs\/sec6_fig12.pdf}\n\\caption{The selected $30$ objects (red dots) marked for this outlier analysis. These objects are photo-$z$\\xspace outliers of either \\textsc{delight}\\xspace or \\bcnz with respect to $z_\\rf{spec}$, but are not outliers with respect to each other.} \\label{fig:outliers1}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nThese $30$ objects are visualised in the redshift-redshift plots in Fig.~\\ref{fig:outliers1}. Note that in the following paragraphs, we will define a photo-$z$\\xspace to be \\textit{catastrophic} if it is found to be an outlier with respect to its spec-$z$\\xspace, as defined mathematically above. These objects are found to have faint magnitudes ($i_\\rf{auto}>19.75$) and small angular sizes ($r_{50}<60$ ACS pixels, or $1.8''$), which describe most galaxies of interest for PAUS. We study several different attributes of these objects, namely their respective photo-$z$\\xspace's by \\textsc{delight}\\xspace, \\bcnz and \\textsc{lephare}\\xspace, photo-$z$\\xspace PDFs, best-fit templates (Brown and GP), spectra and images. We summarise important observations according to their respective attributes below.\n\n\\textit{Photo-$z$\\xspace's}. While these $30$ objects have been identified as outliers when trained using $46$ bands, we find that two-thirds of these objects have non-catastrophic photo-$z$\\xspace's when trained with either only the broad or narrow bands, respectively. In other words, only one-third of these objects have catastrophic photo-$z$\\xspace's regardless of which bands were used in the training or fitting process. This suggests that most of the time, outlier fluxes in the broad or narrow bands may have caused a degradation in photo-$z$\\xspace quality when trained together (more on this in the \\textit{templates} paragraph below). We have also made a comparison between \\textsc{delight}\\xspace photo-$z$\\xspace's with those produced by \\textsc{lephare}\\xspace for the COSMOS2015 catalogue \\citep{laigle_cosmos2015_2016}, and found that in fact half of the $30$ objects have non-catastrophic \\textsc{lephare}\\xspace photo-$z$\\xspace's. This suggests that the infrared $yJHK$ bands could have played a role in improving the PAUS photo-$z$\\xspace's, and could be incorporated in future trainings in case the PAUS photometry is problematic\\footnote{We note that these additional bands will not be available over most of PAUS, which targets Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope Legacy Survey (CFHTLS) wide fields W1 to W4. There is however some infrared data on these fields provided by the Wide-field InfraRed Camera (WIRCam) and the VISTA Kilo-degree Infrared Galaxy Survey (VIKING).}.\n\n\\textit{Photo-$z$\\xspace PDFs}. We inspected the secondary\/tertiary peaks of the PDFs for all \\textsc{delight}\\xspace runs (trained with $6$ broad bands, $40$ narrow bands, or both), and find that less than $20$ per cent of these secondary\/tertiary peaks coincide with their respective spec-$z$\\xspace's. We deduce that despite the importance of secondary PDF peaks in redshift distributions, they do not significantly influence the photo-$z$\\xspace quality of these $30$ objects.\n\n\\textit{Templates}. \\textsc{delight}\\xspace utilises the $129$ \\citet{brown_atlas_2014} templates and the $4203$ training objects to guide the GP to produce the same number of new flux-redshift templates, which are used to produce photo-$z$\\xspace's for the objects. In the training process, \\textsc{delight}\\xspace would always choose one best-fit Brown template for each training galaxy to be trained by the GP. Here we inspected two different kinds of best-fit Brown templates to these $30$ outliers: one fixed at the spec-$z$\\xspace, and the other with the redshift as a free parameter. In both cases, we examined\n\\begin{enumerate}\n    \\item if the objects fit to the same templates when trained with only broad bands, only narrow bands, or both, respectively;\n    \\item if there are any trends in galaxy morphological types, based on the galaxy type classification indicated by the template;\n    \\item if there is any correlation between the $\\chi^2$ value of the best-fit templates and the quality of photo-$z$\\xspace's; and\n    \\item if any outlier narrowband fluxes can be identified as the cause of the degradation of photo-$z$\\xspace.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\nAs expected, we find that $70$ per cent of the outlier objects have different best-fit Brown templates between the fits at fixed photo-$z$\\xspace and spec-$z$\\xspace, which contrasts with the case for non-outliers at only $35$ per cent. We also find that only slightly more than a third of both the outlier and non-outlier objects were fitted to the same templates when trained using broad bands as compared to trained with all $46$ bands. The high percentage of objects with different template fits at different reference redshifts (photo-$z$\\xspace or spec-$z$\\xspace) and flux combinations (broad bands, narrow bands, or both) also resulted in no trend in galaxy morphological types among the outliers. \n\nHowever, it was found that up to $60$ per cent of the objects have their best-fit template $\\chi^2$ value correlating with the quality in photo-$z$\\xspace, which further affirms the usage of this as a metric to remove unreliable photo-$z$\\xspace's (see Section~\\ref{sec:newmetrics}), as also attempted by \\citet{eriksen_pau_2019} and \\citet{eriksen_pau_2020}.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{figs\/sec6_fig13.pdf}\n\\caption{A sample of best-fit Brown templates (unfixed redshift) when fit to only broadband fluxes (top), only narrowbands fluxes (middle), and both fluxes (bottom) for the galaxy with zCOSMOS ID $805216$. $L_{v}(\\lambda)$ is the rest-frame luminosity density (or SED) of the galaxy. This galaxy has $z_\\rf{spec}=0.736$, $z_\\rf{p}$ and $t_\\rf{b}$ in the figure refer to its photo-$z$\\xspace and best-fit Brown template number, respectively. The outlier narrowband flux shown in the middle panel (red circle) has caused a misfit in template type, resulting in erroneous photo-$z$\\xspace's for both cases.} \\label{fig:tempfit}\n\\end{figure}\n\nPerhaps a more significant finding from the study of the best-fit templates is the ability to identify outlier narrowband fluxes. Fig.~\\ref{fig:tempfit} shows an example which highlights the importance of identifying outlier narrowband fluxes, which is shown to significantly affect the photo-$z$\\xspace results. It was found that a third of the $30$ objects contained outlier narrowband fluxes, which results in entirely different template fits and photo-$z$\\xspace's when trained with narrow bands, as compared to when trained with broad bands only. Among these $10$ objects, $8$ of them are shown to have worse photo-$z$\\xspace as compared to training without the narrow bands. We find indications for a significant fraction of narrowband flux outliers also for galaxies without catastrophic redshift failures. Forthcoming PAUS data reductions will therefore implement methods to identify and correct flux outliers.\n\n\\textit{Images}. We inspect the individual object images compiled by zCOSMOS DR$3$, these are $5''\\times 5''$ images observed by the Hubble Space Telescope\/Advanced Camera for Surveys (HST\/ACS) in the F$814$W filter \\citep{koekemoer_cosmos_2007}. Among the $30$ outlier objects, we find $63.3$ and $26.7$ per cent of them having bright neighbours within $5''$ and $3''$ of the primary source, respectively. Having said that, we have not found any correlation between the presence of bright neighbours to the other attributes that we have studied thus far. In fact the opposite is true: we find that $60$ per cent of the objects with outlier narrowband fluxes actually have primary sources without any bright neighbours in vicinity.\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=0.9\\linewidth]{figs\/sec6_fig14.pdf}\n\\caption{Spectral line fitting (red) for the original spectra (black) of the galaxy with zCOSMOS ID $804179$. The spec-$z$\\xspace given by zCOSMOS is $0.4217$ (top), while the best-fit using \\textsc{ez} \\citep{garilli_ez_2010} gives a spec-$z$\\xspace of $0.0847$ (bottom), which is closer to the photo-$z$\\xspace value of $0.1150$ estimated by \\textsc{delight}\\xspace.} \\label{fig:ezfit}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\\textit{Spectra}. So far we have assumed that the zCOSMOS spectra obtained are reliable, as only entries with high-confidence quality flags have been selected for training (see Section~\\ref{sec:zcosmos}). In order to probe further, we examined the one-dimensional spectra obtained by the VIMOS spectrograph, which is processed by the VIMOS Interactive Pipeline and Graphical Interface \\citep[VIPGI,][]{scodeggio_vvds_2005} to produce the zCOSMOS spec-$z$\\xspace's used in this work. The spectra have a range between $5500$~\\r{A} and $9450$~\\r{A}, measured with a resolution of $R\\sim 600$ at $2.5$~\\r{A} per pixel \\citep{lilly_zcosmos_2009}. \n\nWe used the redshift measurement tool \\textsc{ez} \\citep{garilli_ez_2010} to inspect the spectra of the $30$ outlier objects, and compared our best fits to the spectroscopic redshift produced by zCOSMOS, and also the photo-$z$\\xspace's produced by \\textsc{delight}\\xspace, \\bcnz, \\textsc{deepz}\\xspace, \\textsc{lephare}\\xspace (COSMOS2015) and those of \\citet{alarcon_pau_2021}. \n\nUpon inspection, we find that up to $10$ of these objects ($33$ per cent) have disputable zCOSMOS spec-$z$\\xspace (e.g. two possible redshift values, different best-fit redshift values, line confusion, and low signal-to-noise). However, most of these potential spec-$z$\\xspace failures could be forced-fitted to the zCOSMOS spec-$z$\\xspace and still look satisfactory, which leaves only $2$ ($6.7$ per cent) of these objects having truly catastrophic spec-$z$\\xspace's. Both these objects are found to have better \\textsc{ez} fits at redshift values within $10$ per cent uncertainty from the photo-$z$\\xspace's produced by \\textsc{delight}\\xspace and other algorithms. The spectrum of one of these objects is shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:ezfit}. We have also found one isolated case where the spectra belonged to a bright neighbour and has been mismatched to the PAUS photometry.\n\nGenerally, the higher-redshift objects are identified by clear \\textsc{O II} ($3727.1$~\\r{A}) emission lines, while the lower-redshift objects are identified by clear H$\\alpha$ ($6564.6$~\\r{A}) emission lines. We therefore conclude that although catastrophic spec-$z$\\xspace's played a role in this situation, our results did not provide enough evidence to say that it is a major cause for catastrophic photo-$z$\\xspace's produced by \\bcnz and \\textsc{delight}\\xspace. This is not surprising since we have only selected secure spectroscopic redshifts from COSMOS to be used in this work. However this highlights the usefulness of multiple PAUS photo-$z$\\xspace's being used to determine failure rates in insecure spectroscopic redshifts.\n\nTo summarise this part, we believe that the potentially important source for catastrophic photo-$z$\\xspace's in the context of PAUS are the outlier narrowband fluxes, with weak evidence for the existence of a small number of spec-$z$\\xspace failures. We leave the tackling of outlier narrowband fluxes to future work, but in the following section, we attempt to improve our process to identify and remove these outlier photo-$z$\\xspace's.\n\n\n\\subsection{New metrics to remove photo-z outliers} \\label{sec:newmetrics}\nIn Figs.~\\ref{fig:res_meti2} and \\ref{fig:res_metzp2} we have used the Bayesian odds ($\\Theta$) to cut the sample, and the aim of this was to keep as many objects as possible while achieving the goal of $\\sigma_{68}\\le0.0035(1+z)$. Here, we extend our previous results further towards that goal by introducing several new metrics to better separate the photo-$z$\\xspace outliers from the sample. These metrics are motivated by the inspection of the $30$ outliers in Section~\\ref{sec:outlier}, and they are defined as follows:\n\n\\begin{enumerate}\n    \\item The \\textit{Delight-BCNz2 metric} ($\\Delta_\\rf{DB}$),\n    \\begin{equation}\n        \\Delta_\\rf{DB} \\equiv \\frac{\\left| z_\\rf{Delight}-z_\\rf{BCNz} \\right|}{1+\\frac{z_\\rf{Delight}+z_\\rf{BCNz}}{2}},\n    \\end{equation}\n    a metric used to identify the similarity between \\textsc{delight}\\xspace and \\bcnz photo-$z$\\xspace's. It is plausible that, in general, the closer the photo-$z$\\xspace's between the two algorithms, the more reliable they are;\n    \n    \\item The \\textit{Delight photo-$z$\\xspace standard deviation} ($\\sigma_\\rf{D}$), which is the standard deviation between all \\textsc{delight}\\xspace photo-$z$\\xspace runs regardless of calibration method and number of bands. Smaller deviations could indicate more reliable photo-$z$\\xspace's;\n    \n    \\item The \\textit{chi-squared value of the best-fit Brown template} ($\\chi^2_\\rf{t}$), where we identified a trend that the better the fit, the more reliable the photo-$z$\\xspace; and\n    \n    \\item The \\textit{broadband-narrowband complementary metric} ($\\rho^2$),\n    \\begin{equation}\n        \\rho^2 \\equiv \\int p_{\\rf{BB}}(z)p_{\\rf{NB}}(z)\\, dz,\n    \\end{equation}\n    where $p_\\rf{BB}(z)$ and $p_\\rf{NB}(z)$ are the $p(z)$ produced by \\textsc{delight}\\xspace when trained with only broad bands and only narrow bands, respectively. By multiplying these two $p(z)$ and summing over the distribution at each step $i$, we can identify the consistency between the broadband and narrowband $p(z)$. A higher value of $\\rho^2$ means a larger overlap, which indicates more reliable photo-$z$\\xspace's.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\nTogether with $\\Theta$ and the \\textsc{delight}\\xspace photo-$z$\\xspace error ($\\delta z$), we yield a total of $6$ metrics to experiment with. Using the results from the flux calibration method, we generate and test the individual performance for each of these metrics. For each metric, we measure the $\\sigma_\\rf{RMS}$ and $\\sigma_{68}$ after systematically removing objects with the worst metric values, $10$ per cent of the total sample size each time, until we reach a sample size of only $40$ per cent. \n\nWe also repeat the exercise by using combined cuts on several metrics, testing all $57$ combinations of the $6$ metrics. We note that we do not combine the metrics by averaging or multiplying them, as it would have diluted the impact of the individual metrics. Instead, we rank the values for each metric individually (from best to worst), and remove objects rank by rank, starting with metric values lying in the worst rank. E.g. for the combination of metrics $\\Theta+\\Delta_\\rf{DB}$, we first remove all objects which share the worst values of $\\Theta$ and $\\Delta_\\rf{DB}$, then remove all objects sharing the second worst values of them, and so on, until we reach a required sample size percentile ($90$, $80$, etc), where we output the values of $\\sigma_\\rf{RMS}$ and $\\sigma_{68}$. We visualise the performance of these metric cuts at several percentiles for $\\sigma_{68}$ with respect to $i_\\rf{auto}$ (cumulative) in Fig.~\\ref{fig:newmetric2}.\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{figs\/sec6_fig15.pdf}\n\\caption{Plot of $68$th percentile error ($\\sigma_\\rf{68}$) vs. $i_\\rf{auto}$ (cumulative) when cut using the following metrics: the Bayesian odds ($\\Theta$), best-fit Brown template $\\chi^2_\\rf{t}$ value, \\textsc{delight}\\xspace-\\bcnz metric ($\\Delta_\\rf{DB}$), \\textsc{delight}\\xspace photo-$z$\\xspace error ($\\delta z$) and standard deviation ($\\sigma_\\rf{D}$), and the broadband-narrowband complementary metric ($\\rho^2$). The coloured lines follow the same percentile cuts as shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:res_meti2}, with the dotted-coloured lines in the background of the bottom panels depicting the results of $\\Theta$ for easier comparison. The bottom-left panel shows the cut in $\\Delta z$ (defined in Section~\\ref{sec:metrics}), the unsurpassable theoretical best used for reference. The bottom-middle panel shows the cuts when all the above metrics were combined, while the bottom-right shows the combination of metrics which yield the best results.} \\label{fig:newmetric2}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nWe find that each performance metric cuts the sample differently: while metric cuts of $\\sigma_\\rf{D}$ and $\\rho^2$ reduce the scatter ($\\sigma_\\rf{RMS}$) significantly, metric cuts of $\\Theta$ and $\\Delta_\\rf{DB}$ reduce the $\\sigma_{68}$ instead. The metric $\\chi^2_\\rf{t}$, however does not seem to bring any significant improvement to the results. We have also plotted a cut in $\\Delta z=\\frac{\\left| z_\\rf{phot}-z_\\rf{spec} \\right| }{1+z_\\rf{spec}}$ (bottom-left panel in Fig.~\\ref{fig:newmetric2}), which is the theoretical `best metric', providing an upper limit to be compared with the performance of each of the metrics. Here we noticed that even with the theoretical best metric, a cut of slightly lesser than $70$ per cent (blue line) on the sample is still necessary to fulfil the PAUS target of $\\sigma_{68}<0.0035(1+z)$ (dotted line) for \\textsc{delight}\\xspace. \n\nTherefore, we select the $60$ per cent cut (navy line, retaining $60$ per cent of galaxies) as a benchmark to assess the performance of these metrics, we do so by locating where this line cuts the dotted line (i.e., finding the maximum value of $i_\\rf{auto}$ where the photo-$z$\\xspace's achieves the PAUS target at $60$ per cent cut). From Fig.~\\ref{fig:newmetric2}, it is clear that cutting in all $6$ metrics does not necessarily outperform the performance when cutting with only $\\Theta$, so we searched for the best combination of metrics for $\\sigma_\\rf{RMS}$ and $\\sigma_{68}$ separately.\n\nFor $\\sigma_\\rf{RMS}$, the best combination of metrics is $\\Delta_\\rf{DB}+\\sigma_\\rf{D}+\\rho^2$, and this combination achieves $\\sigma_\\rf{RMS}<0.0035(1+z)$ at $i_\\rf{auto}<19.27$ at $60$ per cent cut, a significant improvement to the case when only $\\Theta$ was used, where it did not cut the line at all. For $\\sigma_{68}$, the best combination of metrics is $\\Theta+\\Delta_\\rf{DB}$ where it reached $\\sigma_\\rf{68}<0.0035(1+z)$ at $i_\\rf{auto}<21.25$ at $60$ per cent cut, which is also a significant improvement as compared to $\\Theta$ at $i_\\rf{auto}<20.88$. Here we note that in fact using $\\Delta_\\rf{DB}$ alone, the target can be reached at a higher limit of $i_\\rf{auto}<21.50$, which highlights the significance of a synergy between \\textsc{delight}\\xspace and \\bcnz in selecting a high quality photo-$z$\\xspace sample.\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{figs\/sec6_fig16.pdf}\n\\caption{Plot of percentage of objects within each photo-$z$\\xspace bin with respect to the cut in performance metric values listed in Fig.~\\ref{fig:newmetric2}. The lines show the percentiles of the same colour scheme as in Fig.~\\ref{fig:res_meti2}, while the histograms in the background show the relative number of objects in each photo-$z$\\xspace bin. The bottom-right plot shows when the combination of all $6$ metrics are used to cut the sample.} \\label{fig:newmetric3}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nFinally, we also show the performance of the metrics in terms of the completeness with respect to the photo-$z$\\xspace (using \\textsc{delight}\\xspace's flux calibration method), visualised in  Fig.~\\ref{fig:newmetric3}. We find that metrics like $\\sigma_\\rf{D}$ and $\\rho^2$ tend to selectively remove high photo-$z$\\xspace objects, while $\\Theta$, $\\chi^2_\\rf{t}$ and $\\Delta_\\rf{DB}$ tend to remove mid-ranged photo-$z$\\xspace objects. In general, a cut using all $6$ performance metrics at $60$ per cent cut shows a balanced result in the completeness, keeping a sufficient number of high redshift objects in the sample.\n\nTo summarise the performance of the individual metrics, \n\\begin{itemize}\n    \\item $\\chi^2_\\rf{t}$ is the least-performing metric here; it does not bring significant positive impact to the results;\n    \\item Cuts in $\\sigma_\\rf{D}$ and $\\rho^2$ help to improve the scatter, however, they tend to selectively remove higher photo-$z$\\xspace objects from the sample;\n    \\item $\\Theta$ and $\\delta z$ show very similar results, however $\\Theta$ tends to keep more high photo-$z$\\xspace objects in the sample; and\n    \\item $\\Delta_\\rf{DB}$ is the best-performing metric here, and we recommend the use of such a metric to remove outlier photo-$z$\\xspace's from a sample.\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\n\n\\section{Conclusion and Future Work} \\label{sec:conc}\n\nIn this work we have optimised \\textsc{delight}\\xspace, a hybrid template-machine learning algorithm such that it could be used to obtain photo-$z$\\xspace's for PAUS, by utilising its $40$ narrowband fluxes combined with $6$ $uBVriz$ COSMOS broadband fluxes. We have shown three distinct methods to calibrate the broadband and narrowband fluxes, and found that all three methods yield comparable results, although the most stable and the one which produces the lowest value of $\\sigma_{68}$ is what we defined as the \\textit{flux calibration method}: a method where we calibrate the broadband fluxes with respect to the narrowband fluxes by finding the flux ratio of the filter combinations which overlap. This calibration method is entirely photometric, and it was able to produce photo-$z$\\xspace's with a scatter reaching as low as $\\sigma_\\rf{RMS}=0.0331(1+z)$ and $\\sigma_{68}=0.0081(1+z)$  for the full PAUS galaxy sample at $i_\\rf{auto}<22.5$.\n\nWe have also compared the results of \\textsc{delight}\\xspace with a machine learning algorithm (\\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace) and a template-based algorithm (\\textsc{bpz}\\xspace and \\bcnz). We find that \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace underperforms significantly, indicating that \\textsc{annz}$2$\\xspace in its basic form is not suitable for narrowband surveys with large number of bands and small number of training objects. \n\nDespite the photo-$z$\\xspace performance of \\textsc{bpz}\\xspace being within $9$ per cent difference of that of \\textsc{delight}\\xspace, the latter still stood out in terms of the quality of the photo-$z$\\xspace PDF $p(z)$ ($16$ per cent better in $\\rho_\\rf{CRPS}$) and the effectiveness of its Bayesian odds ($\\Theta$) cut in retaining objects with higher quality photo-$z$\\xspace without losing too many high-redshift objects. \\textsc{delight}\\xspace is also shown to produce competitive results as compared to \\bcnz ($5$ per cent lower in $\\sigma_{68}$), the default photo-$z$\\xspace produced for the PAUS.\n\nFurther investigation on the common photo-$z$\\xspace outliers of \\textsc{delight}\\xspace and \\bcnz led to the conclusion that outlier narrowband fluxes are the main cause for erroneous photo-$z$\\xspace's, an insight which will inform improvements in forthcoming PAUS data reductions. We have also inspected the spectra and identified catastrophic spec-$z$\\xspace's, however the effects are shown to be insignificant in this work. Motivated by the study of $30$ outliers shared between \\textsc{delight}\\xspace and \\bcnz, we introduced several new metrics to help improve the identification of photo-$z$\\xspace outliers and remove them from the sample to achieve better results. From the $6$ metrics compared, our newly introduced \\textsc{delight}\\xspace-\\bcnz metric ($\\Delta_\\rf{DB}$) is shown to significantly improve our photo-$z$\\xspace quality, allowing it to reach the PAUS target of $\\sigma_{68}<0.0035(1+z)$ at $i_\\rf{auto}<21.5$ while retaining $60$ per cent of the sample objects. These new metrics could be utilised to return more accurate uncertainties in redshift, which are vital in many cosmological studies.\n\nThis opens the door to future studies in finding synergies between different photo-$z$\\xspace algorithms and between broadband and narrowband photometry. Together with the promising developments of deep learning approaches to deal with narrowband data \\citep{eriksen_pau_2020}, these insights will pave the way towards unprecedentedly precise and accurate photometric redshifts for the full PAUS survey and beyond, like the Javalambre Physics of the Accelerating Universe Astrophysical Survey \\citep[J-PAS,][]{benitez_j-pas_2014}.\n\n\\section*{Acknowledgements}\nThe authors wish to thank the referee for the helpful and constructive comments. JYHS would like to thank Boris Leistedt for fruitful discussions and the setup of \\textsc{delight}\\xspace earlier in this work. JYHS also would like to thank Hwee San Lim and Tiem Leong Yoon for assisting in the setup of equipment in Universiti Sains Malaysia where most of the computational work of this paper was completed. JYHS acknowledges financial support from the MyBrainSc Scholarship by the Ministry of Education, Malaysia, a studentship provided by Ofer Lahav, and the Short Term Research Grant by Universiti Sains Malaysia (304\/PFIZIK\/6315395). JYHS and BJ acknowledge support by the University College London Cosmoparticle Initiative. MS acknowledges funding from the National Science Centre of Poland (UMO-2016\/23\/N\/ST9\/02963) and the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation through the Juan de la Cierva Formaci\\'on programme (FJC2018-038792-I). H. Hildebrandt acknowledges support by a Heisenberg grant of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (Hi 1495\/5-1) and an ERC Consolidator Grant (no. 770935). H. Hoekstra acknowledges support from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) through grant 639.043.512. IEEC and IFAE are partially funded by the Instituci\\'o Centres de Recerca de Catalunya (CERCA) and Beatriu de Pin\\'os Programme of Generalitat de Catalunya. Work at Argonne National Lab is supported by UChicago Argonne LLC, Operator of Argonne National Laboratory (Argonne). Argonne, a U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science Laboratory, is operated under contract no. DE-AC02-06CH11357.\n\nThis project has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme under the Marie Sk\\l odowska-Curie Actions, through the following projects: Latin American Chinese European Galaxy (LACEGAL) Formation Network (no. 734374), the Enabling Weak Lensing Cosmology (EWC) Programme (no. 776247), and Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (PROBIST) Postdoctoral Programme (no. 754510). \n\nPAUS is partially supported by the Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO, grants CSD2007-00060, AYA2015-71825, ESP2017-89838, PGC2018-094773, PGC2018-102021, SEV-2016-0588, SEV-2016-0597 and MDM-2015-0509). Funding for PAUS has also been provided by Durham University (ERC StG DEGAS-259586), ETH Zurich, and Leiden University (ERC StG ADULT-279396). \n\nThe PAU data centre is hosted by the Port d'Informaci\\'o Cient\\'ifica (PIC), maintained through a collaboration of CIEMAT and IFAE, with additional support from Universitat Aut\\`onoma de Barcelona and the European Research Development Fund (ERDF).\n\n\n\\section*{Data availability}\nThe data from PAUS (photometry and photo-$z$\\xspace's) is currently not yet publicly available. The data from COSMOS were accessed from the ESO Catalogue Facility (\\url{https:\/\/www.eso.org\/qi\/}, while the data from zCOSMOS (spectra and spec-$z$\\xspace's) were accessed from the zCOSMOS database (\\url{http:\/\/cesam.lam.fr\/zCosmos\/}). The derived data generated in this research will be shared on reasonable request to the corresponding author.\n\n\\bibliographystyle{mnras}\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\nMotion cues provide us with a rich source of information for perception of our visual world. Objects and surfaces become immediately distinct once they start to move and we instinctively use motion information to group regions together \\cite{koffka2013principles}.\nThe task in Video Object Segmentation (VOS) is to separate the dominant foreground object(s) in a video sequence. Existing learning based approaches can be classified as either semi-supervised or unsupervised methods. \nIn the semi-supervised \\cite{lai2020mast, meinhardt2020make, perazzi2017learning, maninis2018video} setting, the ground-truth is provided for the first frame of the video during inference. The aim is then to propagate this mask and obtain segmentation for all subsequent frames. In unsupervised VOS \\cite{mahadevan2020making, yang2019anchor, ren2021reciprocal}, no such object masks are available during inference. However, existing semi-supervised and unsupervised VOS methods still rely on ground-truth masks to train or use pre-trained optical flow \\cite{ren2021reciprocal} or saliency models \\cite{lu2020learning}.  In contrast, we propose a fully unsupervised training pipeline for our model that uses neither annotated labels nor pre-trained semantics as proxy supervision for training. Our network determines the dominant object in a scene through purely pixel motion analysis\n \nA layered approach to representing 2D image sequences \\cite{layered1994} provides a promising model for \ncapturing the details of our 3D world where objects and surfaces move independently. This works by first estimating motions present, separating pixels into layers based on similarity of motion, and finally, moving layers on top of one another to synthesise the next image in the sequence. We adapt this process for a CNN by making the entire layered image synthesis pipeline differentiable for end-to-end training. We estimate two motions in a scene using affine parametric models and segment all image pixels into either of these motion classes. \n\n \n\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n\\centering\n    \\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.32\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/mainpage\/main0frame1.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.32\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/mainpage\/main0gt.png}\n\t\t\t\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.32\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/mainpage\/main0seg.png}\n\t\t\t\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\n    \\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.32\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/mainpage\/main1frame1.png}\n\t\t\\subcaption{Frame1}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.32\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/mainpage\/main1gt.png}\n\t\t\t\t\\subcaption{GT}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.32\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/mainpage\/main1seg.png}\n\t\t\t\t\\subcaption{Prediction} \n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\caption{Our network successfully segments the dominant object in videos through a bottom-up grouping of pixels based on affine motion similarity. We train our network unsupervised using only unannotated RGB image pairs. Visual examples from two different scenes on MovingCars shown.}\n\t\n\n\\label{fig:intro}\n\\end{figure}\n\n  \nImage representation using moving layers is well-established in the literature \\cite{darrell1991robust, jepson1993mixture, layered1994} but no implementation so far has employed an end-to-end CNN to achieve this. Sevilla-Lara \\textit{et al.} in \\cite{sevilla} combine a layered model and a neural network but their method is a hybrid approach where a pretrained network is combined with a variational expectation maximisation algrorithm for inference. In \\cite{zhang2018layered}, Zhang \\textit{et al.} use a maxout operation to perform disjoint separation of flow. \nHowever, they do not apply any explicit constraints during flow separation and it is unclear whether flow is reliably grouped based on motion homogeneity. In \\cite{yang2021self}, Yang \\textit{et al.} also propose a foreground object segmentation network that is trained without any manual annotations but they require a pre-computed flow map as input. They then use a slot attention network to group together pixels based on visual homogeneity. In contrast, our model does not need flow as input but only uses unannotated image pairs to group foreground\/background pixels based on affine motion homogeneity. \n\n\nUsing a layered image reconstruction process, we show that photometric loss can be used for learning to segment a dominant object in videos. We do not require pre-computed flow\/saliency maps and use only unlabelled image sequences to train making our approach fully unsupervised during both training and inference.\n\n\n\n\nWe identify our three main contributions as follows:\n\n\\begin{enumerate}\n    \\item We propose a novel {\\it unsupervised network\n    to learn explicit dense dominant object segmentation} in an end-to-end CNN from only unlabelled pairs of RGB image sequences showing 2 rigid-body motions.\n    \\item We introduce a novel {\\it layered differentiable image synthesis (LDIS)} module to separate frame 1 into two affine motion layers and synthesise frame 2. \n   \n   \n   \n   \n    \\item We demonstrate that our network is able to explicitly segment the dominant foreground object without any annotation\n   \n    during training or inference. We contribute a new real-world dataset of moving cars and show competetive results against state-of-the-art methods. Our code and dataset will be made publicly available.  \n\\end{enumerate}\n\n\\section{Related Work}\n\n\\subsection{Video Object Segmentation}\n \nVOS methods have traditionally relied on heuristics such as saliency \\cite{wang2015saliency,guo2008spatio,mahadevan2009spatiotemporal},\nobject proposals using motion\/appeareance information \\cite{lee2011key, ma2012maximum,zhang2013video}\nor motion analysis of point trajectories \\cite{brox2010object,ochs2011object}.\nWith the advent of deep learning, the state-of-the-art has been dominated by semi-supervised methods that seek to propagate the given first frame object annotation across subsequent frames. Online methods perform network update during inference time to better capture object masks as the object moves through the sequence \\cite{maninis2018video, meinhardt2020make}\nwhereas offline methods achieve this without requiring any network fine-tuning during inference \\cite{li2018video,oh2018fast}.\nIn the unsupervised\/self-supervised VOS setting, first frame object annotation is not provided and methods learn to detect and segment objects by exploiting appearance and spatio-temporal information \\cite{tokmakov2019learning, jain2017fusionseg}.\nUsually, pre-computed optical flow maps along with images are used as input in a two-stream framework \\cite{ren2021reciprocal, zhou2020motion, fragkiadaki2015learning}\nto generate object masks. Other methods use only image pairs as input and learn pairwise dependencies between frames using non-local operators to model temporal cues as done in AnchorDiff-VOS \\cite{yang2019anchor}. Similarly, COSNet \\cite{lu2019see} uses co-attention layers instead to capture rich correlations between frames. However, these methods still require ground-truth masks to train which can be laborious to annotate for real world images.\n\nIn \\cite{lu2020learning}, Lu \\textit{et al.} train a VOS network without any annotated ground-truth data by relying on a saliency model and CAM maps to generate proxy-labels for foreground discrimination. However, their model only works in the semi-supervised setting. Yang \\textit{et al.} in \\cite{yang2021self} also train a VOS network without annotated labels but require a pre-computed flow map (that is converted to an RGB flow image) as input and use slot attention \\cite{locatello2020object} to perform iterative clustering in RGB image space. \n\nIn contrast, we train our network without any ground truth labels and require only RGB image sequences as input. Instead of relying on top-down saliency or object priors, we propose a fully unsupervised VOS framework that is based on a bottom-up approach to object segmentation by grouping together pixels based on affine motion similarity. \n \n\\subsubsection{Layered Image Representation}\nMethods incorporating layers for motion estimation and segmentation are well-established in literature with \\cite{darrell1991robust, jepson1993mixture, layered1994} providing the first few seminal works. These methods exploit the idea that motion in any scene is not globally homogeneous but appears to be piecewise continuous. \nThere have been many implementations that have since expanded on this idea \\cite{ayer1995layered, hsu1994accurate, sun2013fully}.\nOur main inspiration remains \\cite{layered1994} where Wang and Adelson detail the process of layered image synthesis that we adapt for our end-to-end CNN implementation. This is in contrast to the expectation maximisation (EM) style algorithms that most methods use which can be tricky to optimise. Like \\cite{jepson1993mixture, layered1994, lee1997layered}, we use an affine model to estimate motion for each layer. In this paper, we build a network to handle two motions.\n\nThere have been prior attempts to combine deep learning and a layered model with Sevilla-Lara \\textit{et al.} in \\cite{sevilla} using pre-trained scene semantics from a CNN to initialise layers. However, their method is not end-to-end or unsupervised and flow estimation is done using a variational EM algorithm (as in \\cite{sun2013fully}). In contrast, our method uses a fully end-to-end CNN and only unlabelled RGB image sequences for training and inference. In \\cite{zhang2018layered}, Zhang \\textit{et al.} propose a CNN based layered optical flow estimation that relies on their ``soft-mask\" module to separate of flow into disjoint classes but they do not synthesise images using layers. \nOur LDIS pipeline remains faithful to the traditional layered approach and provides explicit constraints during grouping of pixels using affine motion models allowing us to confidently identify motion homogeneous regions.\n\n\n\\subsubsection{Motion Segmentation}\nMotion segmentation involves partitioning image pixels into groups with homogeneous motion. Typically, methods work towards separating pre-determined feature point trajectories that track moving objects through an image sequence \\cite{brox2010object, arrigoni2019robust}.\nIt can be challenging to compute these tracks, requires an additional step, and the resulting segmentation is generally sparse. This problem has been tackled \nusing geometric constraints \\cite{jung2014rigid}, subspace clustering \\cite{ji2015shape} and through fitting of motion models \\cite{fischler1981random}. Another approach is to first compute optical flow to then cluster regions according to flow variations \\cite{verri1989motion, fragkiadaki2015learning}. However, using flow as a precursor is likely to carry over errors intrinsic to the flow estimation process (e.g., inaccurate flow around motion boundaries due to smoothness regularisation). Some methods use pre-trained semantic information to initialise object regions \\cite{zhuo2019unsupervised}. This approach \nrelies on the accuracy of object recognition of the semantic network that is trained supervised using manual annotations. \nIn \\cite{ranjan2019competitive}, Ranjan \\textit{et al.} obtain motion segmentation using an unsupervised CNN. However, they primarily exploit scene geometry to only distinguish between camera or independent motion, require camera parameters beforehand, and need five consecutive frames for inference. \n\nWe propose an end-to-end CNN that can train without supervision or prior feature point trajectories - only two sequential RGB images are needed as input. We do not require a separate flow estimator to obtain segmentation - affine flow and segmentation are estimated in a symbiotic end-to-end framework. We take a bottom-up approach to motion segmentation by relying entirely on apparent pixel motion - no semantic priors or camera motion assumptions are necessary (as in \\cite{ranjan2019competitive}).\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Methodology}\nIn this section, we propose a video object segmentation framework that uses affine parametric models to distinguish the foreground from the background. We achieve this through a layered image representation whose theory is well-established in the literature but implementation in a deep neural network presents new challenges. A key challenge we tackle in this paper is ensuring that all operations within the architecture are differentiable for end-to-end learning.\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Layered Differentiable Image Synthesis} \\label{sec:layered}\nIn \\cite{layered1994}, Wang and Adelson describe a method to decompose an image sequence into layers that represent moving objects\/surfaces. They propose using three maps to define each layer: the intensity (RGB) map, the alpha map (defines pixel opacity\/transparency), and the velocity (optical flow) map. An image is decomposed into multiple disjoint layers using the intensity and alpha map. These layers are then warped (using the flow map) and reassembled to produce a reconstruction of the next image in the sequence.\n\nInspired by this process, we design a layered differentiable image synthesis (LDIS) module that we use to reconstruct frame 2 using frame 1 of an image pair. We assume that each pixel is either opaque or fully transparent and has an associated alpha value that provides pixel support (segmentation). Additionally, each layer also consists of an intensity map and a flow map that we use to composite layers for image synthesis. \nWe show the overall image synthesis process in Figure \\ref{fig:overall} and follow with details below.\n\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images\/layersegnet2.png}\n\\caption{Simulated visual example of our layered differentiable image synthesis pipeline where $I_1$ is separated into layers that are each individually warped\nand combined to obtain $\\hat{I}_2$.}\n\\label{fig:overall}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\nLet us first define an input sequence of RGB images $I_1$ and $I_2$\nwith determinate and identical image size. We use the coordinate notation $\\textbf{x} = (x,y)$ to access pixel values in the image domain of $I_1$ ($\\Omega_1$) or $I_2$ ($\\Omega_2$). Our aim is to separate $I_1$ into disjoint layers, move the layers independently and then combine the layers to synthesise a reconstruction of $I_2$. Each layer consists of an RGB intensity map ($L_i:  (\\Omega \\subset \\mathbb{R}^2) \\rightarrow \\mathbb{R}^3$), an alpha map ($\\alpha_i: (\\Omega \\subset \\mathbb{R}^2) \\rightarrow \\mathbb{R}^1$) and a flow map ($w_i: (\\Omega \\subset \\mathbb{R}^2) \\rightarrow \\mathbb{R}^2$). \n\nIn the sequence $I_1, I_2$, let there be two distinct affine motions parameterised by $A_1$ and $A_2$:\n\n\\begin{align}\n    W_i(x, y) = & \n    \\textbf{A}_i\n    \\begin{bmatrix}\n    1\\\\\n    x\\\\\n    y\\\\\n    \\end{bmatrix} =\n    \\begin{bmatrix}\n    a_i^1 & a_i^2 & a_i^3\\\\\n    a_i^4 & a_i^5 & a_i^6\\\\\n    \\end{bmatrix}\n    \\begin{bmatrix}\n    1\\\\\n    x\\\\\n    y\\\\\n    \\end{bmatrix}\n    ,\\ i \\in \\{1, 2\\} \\label{eq:affine}\n\\end{align}\n\\noindent\nwhere $W_i: (\\Omega \\subset \\mathbb{R}^2) \\rightarrow \\mathbb{R}^2$ gives dense flow maps calculated using \naffine parameters $A_i$ for all \\textbf{x}. Corresponding to the two affine motions, we separate all pixels in $I_1$ into layers using alpha maps that define spatial support regions. Ideally, for each pixel, we would have a one-hot vector and assign binary values\nto indicate layer memberships (each pixel can only be associated with one motion). However, such discreet value assignment is not conductive to a differentiable framework. \n\nInstead, we implement softmax binning \\cite{yang2018deep}\nthat approximates a hard binning operation.\nHere, we use two `bins' for our two motion layers to obtain their alpha maps:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{align}\n    \\alpha^i(\\textbf{x}) \\in [0,1], \\ i \\in \\{1,2\\} \\label{eq:alphadefinition}\n\\end{align}\n\\noindent\n\n\nWe explicitly ensure that layer membership is disjoint using a modified maxout operation inspired by\n\\cite{zhang2018layered}. For each pixel, the maxout operation retains the maximal value of the two alpha maps, the non-maximal value is set to 0. We use these alpha maps to obtain the spatial support for flow of each layer:\n\\begin{align}\nw_i = \\alpha^i \\odot W_i \\label{eq:flowsupport}\n\\end{align}\nwhere $\\odot$ denotes element-wise product with broadcasting. Note that $W_i$ gives a dense calculation of flow values using affine parameters $A_i$ for all $\\textbf{x}$ in the image domain.\nThe constrained layer flow map $w_i$ associates each pixel's alpha map to the motion of a particular layer. We also associate the alpha maps to pixel intensities.\nHowever, to prevent input pixel intensities in $I_1$ being scaled by the continuous alpha map, we binarise these maps to separate $I_1$ into 2 layer intensity maps:\n\\begin{align}\nL_i = \\alpha^{i-binary} \\odot I_1 \\label{eq:layerintensity}\\\\ \n\\alpha^{i-binary} = (\\alpha^i > 0.5) \\label{eq:alphabinary}\n\\end{align}\nNote that binarisation of alpha map stops gradients from passing through this particular operation. However, \nthe continuous alpha map in Eq. \\ref{eq:flowsupport} allows\ngradients\nthrough during backpropagation.\nThis acts as a constraint on our network to effectively learn the alpha maps through association to the flow values in $W_i$ without affecting the pixel intensities in $I_1$. \n\nNext, we warp the intensity map ($L_i$) and alpha map ($\\alpha_i$) of each layer using their flows $w_{i\\in\\{1, 2\\}}$ with\nforward warping \\cite{niklaus2020softmax} to obtain the warped layer intensity maps $\\hat{L}_i$:\n\n\\begin{align}\n \\hat{L}_i(\\textbf{x} + w_i(\\textbf{x})) \\leftarrow L_i(\\textbf{x}) \\label{eq:layerwarp}; \\\\\n  \\hat{\\alpha}^i(\\textbf{x} + w_i(\\textbf{x})) \\leftarrow \\alpha^i(\\textbf{x}); \\label{eq:alphawarp} \\\\\n  \\forall \\textbf{x} \\in \\textbf{m}_i,\\ i \\in \\{1, 2\\} \\nonumber\n\\end{align}\n\nWe are ready to synthesise reconstruction of $I_2$ by compositing the warped layer intensity maps $\\hat{L}_{i\\in\\{1,2\\}}$. However, the warped layers will now contend for positions where they overlap. Our LDIS model explicitly resolves this through depth ordering via the alpha map\nso that the layer closer to the camera occludes the layer beneath. This process mimics how moving objects result in occlusions.\nThis contention for output pixel position due to occlusion is an issue that \narises in an explicit forward warping process.\nIn our case, we first perform warping separately for each layer then \ncombine them using a fixed depth ordering. There is no issue of contention between pixels in the same layer due to our explicit affine motion model (i.e. no many-to-one mappings within a layer). Without a layered approach, a separate approach to occlusion reasoning is needed to solve this issue such as using brightness constancy as a measure of occlusion \\cite{niklaus2020softmax}.\n   \nWe synthesise $I_2$ from the warped layers by following a simple rule:\na smaller $i$ represents a layer closer to the camera (i.e. pixels of $\\hat{L}_1$ occlude pixels of $\\hat{L}_2$). \n\nFinally, we synthesise the output image $\\hat{I}_2$. Since we only have 2 layers, with layer 1 on top of layer 2, we only need $\\hat{\\alpha}_1$ for reconstruction ($\\hat{\\alpha}_1$ gives the layer support for the warped pixels in $\\hat{L}_1$). We binarise the warped alpha map as in Eq. \\ref{eq:alphabinary} and reconstruct $I_2$ using the warped layers $\\hat{L}_{i\\in\\{1, 2\\}}$:\n\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:reconstruct}\n    \\hat{I}_2 =\\ & \\hat{\\alpha}_{1-binary} \\cdot \\hat{L}_1\\ + (1 - \\hat{\\alpha}_{1-binary}) \\cdot \\hat{L}_2 \n\\end{align}\n\\noindent\nwhere $\\hat{I}_2$ is the synthesised image. \n\n\\subsection{Loss Function} \\label{sec:loss}\n\nWhen layers overlap, it is possible that for some pixel regions none of the layers contribute any pixel-value (resulting in black pixels in $\\hat{I}_2$ in Figure \\ref{fig:overall}). We detect these dis-occluded pixels by simply searching $\\hat{I}_2$ for pixels that are zero-valued. The dis-occluded pixels are masked out during loss calculation using the dis-occlusion mask:\n\n\\begin{align}\n\\textbf{D}(\\textbf{x}) = &\n  \\begin{cases}\n    1 &,\\ \\text{if}\\ \\hat{I}_2(\\textbf{x}) = 0 \\\\\n    0 &,\\ \\text{otherwise}\n  \\end{cases}\n\\end{align}\n\nThe learning is driven by a photometric loss that \nuses the robust generalised Charbonnier penalty function \\cite{bruhn2005lucas}: \n\n\n\\begin{align}\nLoss = & \\sum_{\\textbf{x} \\in \\Omega_2} (1 - \\textbf{D}(\\textbf{x})) \\rho(I_2(\\textbf{x}) - \\hat{I_2}(\\textbf{x})) \\\\\n\\rho(\\textbf{x}) = & \\sqrt{\\textbf{x}^2 + 0.001^2} \\label{eq-char}\n\\end{align}\n\nWe have now established the blueprint of our LDIS framework. We follow with specifics of implementation in a CNN.\n  \n\\section{Network Implementation}\\label{sec:implementation}\nOur network LayerSegNet is inspired by encoder-decoder flow architectures \\cite{dosovitskiy2015flownet,pwcnet}. We use the encoding structure from pwc-net \\cite{pwcnet} that obtains separate feature encodings for $I_1$ and $I_2$. The outputs from the deepest level of the encoder are stacked then passed on to both the optical flow and segmentation pipelines. \n \n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images\/layersegnet_arch_largefont.png}\n\\caption{Illustration of LayerSegNet that estimates flow maps ($W_1$, $W_2$) and alpha maps ($\\alpha_1$, $\\alpha_2$). Numbers beneath layers indicate number of feature channels.}\\label{fig:network}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsubsection{Optical Flow Module:}\nIt contains three convolutional layers (96-strided, 64-strided and 48 feature channels) followed by four fully connected layers (512, 256, 64 and six output units). Each convolution is followed by a leaky ReLU. This module outputs two sets of affine motion parameters: $\\textbf{A}_1$ and $\\textbf{A}_2$. Using these parameters and the process outlined in equation (\\ref{eq:affine}) we obtain two flow maps $W_1,W_2 \\in \\mathbb{R}^{W\\times H\\times 2}$.\n\n\\subsubsection{Segmentation Module:}\nThis is a decoder module that takes the same input as the optical flow module and outputs a single value for each pixel $\\textbf{x}$ that is continuous in the range $[0,1]$. It performs three bilinear upsamplings (followed by convolutions) to output a single-channeled map. \n\nThis single-channeled map is passed through the softmax binning followed by maxout operation resulting in a dual-channeled map that at each pixel location gives the corresponding layer alpha value.\n\n\nIn \\cite{maas2013rectifier}, Maas {\\it et al.} proposed the leaky ReLU that restricts the slope of the ReLU \\cite{nair2010rectified} for input values below 0.\nEmpirically, we discovered that a modified leaky ReLU, when used as the activation function for estimating alpha maps, results in a significant boost to performance (see Section \\ref{subsec:ablation}). We modify the leaky ReLU by restricting the output slope for inputs below 0 as well as above 1. We refer to it as the leaky double-rectified linear unit (leaky DoReLU), show a comparison between leaky ReLU and leaky DoReLU in Figure \\ref{fig:drelu}, and define it as follows:\n\n\\begin{align}\n    y(x) = &\n  \\begin{cases}\n    1 + \\frac{x - 1}{\\gamma} &,\\ x > 1 \\\\\n    x &,\\ \\text{if}\\ 0 \\leq x \\leq 1 \\\\\n    \\frac{x}{\\gamma} &,\\ x < 0.\n  \\end{cases}\n\\end{align}\n\nNote that our leaky DoReLU imposes leaky upperbound and lowerbound restrictions to the input signal and is different in implementation compared to the dual rectified linear unit, \\cite{godin2018dual}.\nIn this module, each convolution is followed by a leaky DoReLU with $\\gamma = 10$ except the last activation function that caps values to be strictly within $[0,1]$ (leaky part is removed) giving the required input to the softmax binning operation.\n\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n\\centering\n   \n   \n\t\\includegraphics[width=0.9\\textwidth]{.\/Images\/Leaky_dorelu_vs_relu.png}\n   \n   \n\\caption{Visualisation of our leaky DoReLU (left) vs leaky ReLU (right). The x-axis is input $x$ and y-axis is output $y(x)$.} \\label{fig:drelu}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\subsubsection{Image Reconstruction:}\nUsing $W_1$, $W_2$, $\\alpha_1$, $\\alpha_2$ and input image $I_1$, we perform the following steps to reconstruct $I_2$:\n\n\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item Extract the flow for each layer (eq.~\\ref{eq:flowsupport}): $w_{i} = \\alpha^i * W_i$\n\\item Extract layer intensity maps (eq.~\\ref{eq:layerintensity}): $L_i = \\alpha^{i-binary} * I_1; \\alpha^{i-binary} = (\\alpha^i > 0)$\n\\item Warp layer intensity maps with flows (eq.~\\ref{eq:layerwarp}): $\\hat{L}_i = \\textbf{warp}(L_i, w_{i})$\n\\item Warp $\\alpha^1$ with flow $w_{1}$ (eq.~\\ref{eq:alphawarp}): $\\hat{\\alpha}^1 = \\textbf{warp}(\\alpha^1, w_{1})$\n\\item Combine warped layers (eq.~\\ref{eq:reconstruct}): $\\hat{I}_2 = \\hat{\\alpha}^{1-binary} \\cdot \\hat{L}_1\\ + (1 - \\hat{\\alpha}^{1-binary}) \\cdot \\hat{L}_2$\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\noindent\nwhere $i=\\{1,2\\}$ is the layer index, $\\alpha^{i-binary}$ gives a binarised alpha map and \\textbf{warp()} is  the forward warping process.\n\n \n\\section{Experiments}\n\n\\begin{figure*}[t!]\n\\centering\n \n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/comparison\/3.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/comparison\/3gt.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/comparison\/3anchor.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/comparison\/3cos.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/comparison\/3ours.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t  \n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/comparison\/5.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/comparison\/5gt.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/comparison\/5anchor.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/comparison\/5cos.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/comparison\/5ours.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t \n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/comparison\/2.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/comparison\/2gt.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/comparison\/2anchor.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/comparison\/2cos.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/comparison\/2ours.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t   \n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/comparison\/4.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/comparison\/4gt.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/comparison\/4anchor.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/comparison\/4cos.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/comparison\/4ours.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t  \n    \\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/comparison\/1.png}\n\t\t\\subcaption*{Frame1}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/comparison\/1gt.png}\n\t\t\\subcaption*{GT}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/comparison\/1anchor.png}\n\t\t\\subcaption*{AnchorDiff-VOS}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/comparison\/1cos.png}\n\t\t\\subcaption*{COSNet}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/comparison\/1ours.png}\n\t\t\\subcaption*{LayerSegNet (Ours)}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\\caption{Results on the MovingCars dataset of LayerSegNet (ours) trained without any annotated masks purely on a synthetic dataset (no finetuning) against AnchorDiff-VOS \\cite{yang2019anchor} and COSNet \\cite{lu2019see}. LayerSegNet, due to its purely affine motion segmentation approach successfully segments the dominant moving car in Rows 1 and 2 where AnchorDiff-VOS and COSNet both label all instances of cars (even cars that are not moving as in Row 2) due to their reliance on object features.}\n\\label{fig:results_mov_cars}\n\\end{figure*}\n \n\\subsection{Datasets}\n\n\nWe train our network on a synthetic dataset named RoamingSeg, created using images from \\cite{janai}, where a randomly scaled foreground moves on top of a moving background (all movements are random and linear). We create 11,000 sequences of resolution 256x512 (HxW) with ground-truth flow and segmentation maps. \n \nWe create a testing dataset named MovingCars to demonstrate object segmentation on real-world car images with affine motions. In each video scene, a dominant foreground object (car) is moving across the background. We prepare five sequences of moving cars with different backgrounds. The videos were taken handheld using a mobile phone camera that pans along with the moving cars.  We do not finetune our network on MovingCars to test the generalisation capability of our method on real world street scenes.\n\n\nWe also create another dataset named MovingObjects under more controlled setting to demonstrate dense motion segmentation on real-world images with two rigid-body motions. In the image scene, a foreground object and a background surface both undergo small translations. We prepare a fine-tuning set for training that contains sequences of three objects \nagainst a common background. We build a test set that adds four additional unseen object classes set against unseen backgrounds. The images were taken using a mobile phone camera that was rested on and moved along a solid surface. For both these datasets, each class in the test set contains three sequential images with ground-truth segmentation masks for the first two images. \n\n\n\n\n \\subsection{Training Details}\nWe use a batchsize of 8 and train our network end-to-end using adam \\cite{kingma2014adam} with $\\beta_1=0.9$ and $\\beta_2=0.999$. Similar to pwc-net, our network outputs a quarter-resolution flow and segmentation maps that are upsampled to input image size to improve training efficiency. On RoamingSeg, we train for 600,000 iterations and start with a learning rate of $1.25\\times 10^{-5}$. We use this network to test on the MovingCars dataset (without any finetuning) comparing against two recent VOS methods that are trained with annotated ground-truth masks. We found no methods that directly match our approach of VOS using using unlabelled image pairs during both training and inference.  \n\n\nTo finetune on MovingObjects, we train for 400,000 iterations with a learning rate of $6.25\\times 10^{-6}$\nThe learning rates are halved every 200,000 iterations. Note that we train our network from scratch fully unsupervised using our photometric loss. \nAt no stage of training do we make use of any semantic information or explicit supervision using ground-truth maps. \n\n\\subsection{Evaluation}\nWe evaluate our network using the mean Jaccard Index $\\mathcal{J}$ which is the intersection over union of predicted and GT object masks.\nWe demonstrate our network's ability to segment the dominant foreground object\non MovingCars (Figure \\ref{fig:results_mov_cars}), show results for rigid-body motion segmentation on MovingObjects (Figure \\ref{fig:results}) and perform an ablation study for our DoReLU activation (Table \\ref{table:ablation}). \n\n\n\\subsection{LayerSegNet vs Maxout baseline}\n \nTo the best of our knowledge, our method is the first implementation of an end-to-end layered image model in a CNN. \nIn \\cite{zhang2018layered}, Zhang \\textit{et al.}\nintroduce their ``softmask\" module that performs layered flow estimation using a CNN but without layered image modelling. This was achieved through a modified maxout operation\nto obtain $k$ disjoint soft-masks that are multiplied to $k$ estimated flow maps ($k$ determined beforehand). These resulting disjoint flow maps are added to obtain the final flow. The authors state that the softmask module can be used with any base flow estimation network to improve flow.\n\nWe use the same modified maxout operation in our network to ensure that the estimated alpha maps are disjoint. However, the ability of our network to achieve motion segmentation comes from our overall LDIS module. We posit that obtaining disjoint flow maps using maxout is not sufficient to obtain segmentation of motion-homogeneous regions. To investigate this and compare motion segmentation results against our LDIS framework, we create a baseline network using the softmask module.\n\n\n\nSince we were unable to obtain source code for \\cite{zhang2018layered}, we reproduce a similar network by modifying our network to accomodate the softmask module while removing LDIS. The segmentation module is changed to output two soft-masks and the optical flow module to give two dense flow maps (as in \\cite{zhang2018layered}). The soft-masks are made disjoint using maxout then multiplied to the flow maps and fused to obtain a final (single) flow map. We train this network supervised on RoamingSeg using ground-truth flow and on the same training regimen as our LayerSegNet. \n\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n\\centering\n    \\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images_supp\/464000_frame1.jpg}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n    \\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images_supp\/464000_flow_gt.jpg}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n    \\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images_supp\/464000_flow.jpg}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n    \\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images_supp\/600000_seg_l0_thresr.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n    \\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images_supp\/600000_seg_l1_thresr.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images_supp\/roaming\/3_frame1.png}\n\t\t\\subcaption{}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n    \\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images_supp\/roaming\/3_flow_gt.png}\n\t\t\\subcaption{}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n    \\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images_supp\/roaming\/3_pred_flow.png}\n\t\t\\subcaption{}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n    \\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images_supp\/roaming\/3_segl0_thres.png}\n\t\t\\subcaption{}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n    \\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.19\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images_supp\/roaming\/3_segl1_thres.png}\n\t\t\\subcaption{}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\n\\caption{Visual comparison of results between maxout baseline (top row) and our LayerSetNet (bottom row) on RoamingSeg. From the left column: (a) Frame 1, (b) Ground-truth flow, (c) Estimated flow, (d) Layer 1, (e) Layer 2.}\n\\label{fig:ablation}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n   \n \n   \n \nIn the maxout baseline, we find that although the flow is accurately estimated, there is no visible separation of motion observable in the softmasks (Figure \\ref{fig:ablation}). We observe that the network only uses one intermediate flow map to estimate the final flow as evident by the lack of activations in Layer 1 and complete activations in Layer 2. In contrast, our proposed network successfully separates the foreground from the background (bottom row in Figure \\ref{fig:ablation}). \n\n\n\n\\subsection{Results}\n\\subsubsection{MovingCars}\nOn the MovingCars dataset, we compare our network LayerSegNet against two recent unsupervised VOS methods that are most similar to our approach: they are both end-to-end and do not need any annotations during inference. However, unlike us, they both require annotated masks during training. \nAnchorDiff-VOS \\cite{yang2019anchor} performs feature propagation across image sequences using non-local operators while COSNet \\cite{lu2019see} uses co-attention layers for global matching correspondences across images.\nWe show qualitative results in Figure \\ref{fig:results_mov_cars} where we show competitive performance against these methods. Our LayerSegNet performs purely bottom-up segmentation of dominant object based on affine motions whereas AnchorDiff-VOS and COSNet are both more reliant on feature similarity. We postulate this is why, in Row 2, we find that both of these methods have erroneously segmented the two parked cars on the right half of the image. Those cars do not move and only the car at the center (as seen in GT) shows motion. Our network does not give this false positive result and only segments the moving car.\n\\begin{table}[t]\n\\centering\n\\begin{tabular}{P{3cm} P{2cm} P{2cm}}\nMethod & Supervised Training & MovingCars ($\\mathcal{J}$ Mean $\\uparrow$)\\\\\n\\hline\\hline\nCOSNet \\cite{lu2019see} & \\cmark & 0.68 \\\\\nAnchorDiff-VOS\\cite{yang2019anchor} & \\cmark & 0.73\\\\\n\\hline\nLayerSegNet \\textbf{Ours} & \\xmark & 0.70\\\\\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\\caption{Quantitative results of our Network LayerSegNet compared against two recent VOS methods on MovingCars.}\\label{table:main}\n\\end{table}\n\nSimilarly, in Row 1, we find that both AnchorDiff-VOS and COSNet attempt to segment all cars in the image whereas ours can identify the dominant foreground object in the scene. In other scenes (Rows 3-5) where only a single moving car is present, we show comparable results to these two methods. Quantitative results on MovingCars in Table \\ref{table:main} show that our network outperforms COSNet by 2.9\\% and is only 4.2\\% behind AnchorDiff-VOS. Our LayerSegNet uses no annotated masks to train and is trained purely on a synthetic dataset with zero finetuning. In contrast, both AnchorDiff-VOS and COSNet rely on extensive ground-truth segmentation masks to train their networks. Note that our approach requires the dominant object to be moving with affine motion. If a car is moving more directly toward the camera its motion will not be affine, and the vehicle may only be partially detected. Examples of failed scenes are shown in the supplementary material.\n\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n\\centering\n    \\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.3\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images\/resultsnew\/1_frame1.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.3\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images\/resultsnew\/1_segl0_thres.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.3\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images\/resultsnew\/1_seg_gt.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.3\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images\/resultsnew\/2_frame1.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.3\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images\/resultsnew\/2_segl0_thres.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.3\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images\/resultsnew\/2_seg_gt.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\n\n\n\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.3\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images\/resultsneweccv\/2_frame1.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.3\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images\/resultsneweccv\/2_segl0_thres.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.3\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images\/resultsneweccv\/2_seg_gt.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\n\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.3\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images\/resultsneweccv\/1_frame1.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.3\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images\/resultsneweccv\/1_segl0_thres.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.3\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images\/resultsneweccv\/1_seg_gt.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\n\t\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.3\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images\/resultsneweccv\/3_frame1.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.3\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images\/resultsneweccv\/3_segl0_thres.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.3\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images\/resultsneweccv\/3_seg_gt.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\n\t \n\\caption{Our results on some classes of MovingObjects show good segmentation of rigid-body motions for a variety of objects (Rows 1-2 are objects not seen during finetuning).}\n\\label{fig:results}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\\subsubsection{MovingObjects}\nWe show quantitative results for MovingObjects in Table \\ref{table:ablation}. Leaky DoReLU (ours) shows strong performance in terms of Jaccard mean. Visual inspection of the segmentation results in Figure \\ref{fig:results} shows favourable results. Moving objects are correctly identified including for unseen objects (rows 1-4) and unseen backgrounds (rows 1-3). The segmentation maps show approximate coverage of the rectangular object classes. The gymnastic ring (fifth row) shows incomplete segmentation. As it has little internal texture, it may be that the motion is not consistently recovered.\n The maxout baseline failed to produce any foreground segmentation. \n\n\\subsection{Ablation}\n\n\n\n\n\nOur network fails to learn to segment motions without many vital components of our approach.\nFor example, we investigated relaxing the affine model to a regular optical flow map with smoothness regularisation for each layer. However, the network failed to learn accurately separate pixels into motion layers - we suspect applying only smoothness penalty is insufficient constraint towards segmenting pixels into motion layers.\nWhen separating $I_1$ pixels into layers, we found that binarising the $\\alpha$ maps is crucial as this prevents the pixel intensities from being scaled by the continuous $\\alpha$ values. This ensures that Frame 2 can be recreated without the network having to learn to modulate the pixel intensities. Without this change, the network fails to achieve any segmentation at all (Figure \\ref{fig:failures}).\n\n\\subsubsection{Leaky ReLU vs Leaky DoReLU activation}\\label{subsec:ablation}\nAs reported in Section \\ref{sec:implementation}, we use a leaky double rectified linear unit (DoReLU) as activation in our segmentation module. Two LayerSegNets, identical except for the activation (leaky DoReLU vs leaky ReLU) in the segmentation module, were trained and their results compared. \n\nOn MovingObjects, we obtained a mean IoU of 0.67 for leaky DoReLU (ours) vs 0.40 for leaky ReLU - a performance increase of 67.5\\%. Since our alpha map values are enforced to $[0,1]$, we postulate that the reason for the improved performance of leaky DoReLU is due to stable gradients when activation outputs are restricted below 0 and above 1 (compared to leaky ReLU that has no upperbound restriction).\n\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n\\centering\n    \\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.29\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/failures\/26000_frame1.jpg}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n    \\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.29\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/failures\/26000_seg_binary.jpg}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n    \\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.29\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/failures\/26000_seg_gt.jpg}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t \n\\caption{Visual example of a failed segmentation due to scaling of $I_1$ pixel intensities by continuous-valued $\\alpha$ maps. From the left column: (a) Frame 1, (b) Estimated segmentation, (c) GT.}\n\\label{fig:failures}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{table}[h]\n\\centering\n\\begin{tabular}{P{3.5cm} P{2.5cm} P{2cm}}\nActivation & $\\mathcal{J}$ Mean $\\uparrow$ & $\\Delta \\mathcal{J}$(\\%)\\\\\n\\hline\\hline\nLeaky ReLU & 0.40 & 0.0\\%\\\\\nLeaky DoReLU (ours) & 0.67 & +67.5\\%\\\\\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\\caption{Comparing segmentation accuracy of our LayerSegNet using leaky ReLU vs leaky DoReLU activation on the MovingObjects test set.\n}\\label{table:ablation}\n\\end{table}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Conclusions}\nWe propose a bottom-up approach to segmenting a dominant foreground object in videos by grouping pixels based on affine motion. By leveraging a representation of images using moving layers, we successfully obtain dense segmentation without requiring pre-trained saliency priors, optical flow maps or any manual annotations during training\/inference.\n\nOur two layered affine motion model works remarkably well on the real world MovingCars dataset where we show favourable results against methods that were trained using annotated ground-truths. \nWe hope our demonstration on our datasets will prove beneficial by drawing attention and enabling further innovations to this novel task of segmenting dominant moving object in videos without any human supervision. \nTo this end, we make our model and datasets publicly available.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\clearpage\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section*{Supplementary Material}\n\n\n\\subsection{Forward Warping Formulation}\\label{sec:fwdwarp}\n\nIn \\cite{jaderberg}, Jaderberg \\textit{et al.} propose a spatial transformer module that facilitates differentiable image warping. This warping process is identified in literature as `backward warping' where intensity values are interpolated from the input intensity-space and transported to discreet pixel locations in the output image grid. Mathematically, the backward warping process can be written as:\n\n\\begin{align}\n  & \\hat{I}(\\textbf{x}) \\leftarrow I(\\textbf{x} + w(\\textbf{x})),\\ \\forall \\textbf{x} \\in \\Omega_{\\hat{I}},\n\\end{align}\n\n\\noindent\nwhere $\\Omega_{\\hat{I}}$ gives the image domain of output $\\hat{I}$, $w(\\textbf{x}) = (u,v)$ denotes flow vectors at particular spatial locations $\\textbf{x} = (x,y)$ and $\\hat{I}$ gives the warped output. Note that $\\textbf{x}$ gives pixel locations in the output image grid $\\hat{I}$ and the flow is applied (and thus associated) to pixel in $\\hat{I}$.\n\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n  \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images\/warping_fwbw.png}\n\\caption{\\textit{Forward warping} (Left): Some pixels from input $I$ being warped to non-integer output coordinates in I. \\textit{Backward Warping} (Right): Some empty pixels in output $\\hat{I}$ being populated with values interpolated from non-integer input coordinates in I. Circles represent pixel locations that have a value (filled with colour) or are empty (not filled).}\n\\label{fig:warping}\n\\end{figure}\n\nOur proposed layered motion model aims to segment pixels in the input image based on motion. For this, we require a warping process where the flow is associated, and applied, to discreet pixels in the input (not output as in backward warping). Mathematically, the forward warping process is given by:\n\n\\begin{align}\n  & \\hat{I}(\\textbf{x} + w(\\textbf{x})) \\leftarrow I(\\textbf{x}),\\ \\forall \\textbf{x} \\in \\Omega_I,\n\\end{align}\n\\noindent\nwhere $\\Omega_I$ gives the image domain of input $I$, $w(\\textbf{x})$ denotes flow vectors at particular spatial locations $\\textbf{x}$ and $\\hat{I}$ gives the warped output. Here, the flow is applied to pixels in the input image grid. This enables us to associate flow values to discreet input pixels and thus segregate these input pixels based on their flow. A visual comparison between forward and backward warping is shown in Figure \\ref{fig:warping}.\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n  \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images_supp\/baseline_arch.png}\n\\caption{Network architecture of maxout baseline incorporating the softmask pipeline from \\cite{zhang2018layered}.}\n\\label{fig:baseline}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIf the flow applied is non-integer valued, warped pixel-values are mapped to locations \\textit{between} the pixel grid in the output. To populate the output pixels, each warped pixel-value that ends up between the output grid is interpolated bi-linearly into the surrounding four (empty) output pixels. The final output is obtained after performing summation of pixel-value contributions from all warped input pixels.\n\nLet $V_i(x_i^V, y_i^V)$ represent pixels in the output grid and $W_j(x_j^W, y_j^W)$ represent the warped pixel-values from the input grid. The interpolation process can then be written as:\n\n\\begin{align}\n\tV_i^c = \\sum\\limits_j^{HW} W_{j}^c & \\max(0, 1-\\lvert {x_j^W - x_i^V}\\rvert)\\max(0, 1-\\lvert {y_j^W - y_i^V}\\rvert) \\\\ \n\t& \\forall i \\in [1\\dots HW],\\ \\ \\forall c \\in [R,G,B], \\nonumber\n\\end{align}   \n\\noindent\nwhere $H$ and $W$ give the height and width of the input and output image grids and $c$ represents the image channels. This sampling process is sub-differentiable and allows gradients to pass through the network facilitating end-to-end learning. It is highly similar in implementation to the sampling mechanism for backward warping outlined in \\cite{jaderberg} and can be run very efficiently on GPUs. Our forward warping formulation is equivalent to the ``summation splatting\" presented in \\cite{niklaus2020softmax}. \n\n\n\n\\begin{figure*}[t!]\n\\centering \n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.32\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/failures\/supp\/0006_frame1seg.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.32\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/failures\/supp\/0138_frame1seg.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.32\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/failures\/supp\/0273_frame1seg.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.32\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/failures\/supp\/0414_frame1seg.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.32\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/failures\/supp\/0853_frame1seg.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.32\\linewidth}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/results_dicta\/failures\/supp\/1214_frame1seg.png}\n\t\\end{subfigure}\n\t\n\\caption{Results on the MovingCars dataset of LayerSegNet (ours) showing some failure cases where the dominant foreground moving object is not identified correctly. This usually happens when the object motion cannot be handled by the network's affine parametric model.}\n\n\n\\label{fig:failures-supp}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{.\/Images\/DICTA_softmax_binning.png}\n\\caption{Figure showing the output of softmax binning for different $\\tau$ values. X-axis gives the input variable p and y-axis gives the $\\alpha$ values after softmax for layer-0 (red) and layer-1 (blue).}\n\\label{fig:softmax_binning}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Maxout Baseline Network Details}\n\n\nWe create a baseline network for motion segmentation following steps to implement the soft-mask pipeline from \\cite{zhang2018layered}. We change the optical flow pipeline of our LayerSegNet to output two dense flow maps ($W_1$ and $W_2$) instead of 2 affine parameters. The segmentation module structure remains unchanged: the output is still two segmentation masks. However, we set all activation functions to leaky ReLU (as in optical flow pipeline) including in the last layer i.e. the values of the segmentation masks are not capped to $[0,1]$ as in our LayerSegNet. This is as outlined in \\cite{zhang2018layered}.\n\nThe segmentation masks are passed through the maxout operation to obtain two disjoint masks $M_1$ and $M_2$. These are multiplied and added to $W_1$ and $W_2$ to obtain the final flow map:\n\\begin{align}\n    W_{final} = W_1*M_1 + W_2*M_2\n\\end{align}\n\nWe pass $W_{final}$ to a supervised loss where it is compared against ground-truth flow. We show the network structure in Figure \\ref{fig:baseline}.\n\n\n\\subsection{MovingCars Dataset}\nWe take videos on a smartphone to capture our MovingCars Dataset by following the trajectory of the moving car. Our affine parametric model provides strong constraint for segmenting pixels into motion layers but it fails to fully segment, or fails completely, in scenes where the dominant motion is too complex for an affine model. We show some example images in  Figure \\ref{fig:failures-supp}.\n\n\n\\subsection{Softmax Binning}\nSoftmax binning removes the need for two separate variables to decide motion layer classification. Instead, there is only one variable that is mapped to the class label depending on which interval it lies in. \nHere, we use two `bins' for our two motion layers to obtain their alpha maps:\n\n\n\nThus, for each pixel $\\textbf{x}$, we bin a continuous valued input $p \\in [0,1]$ into one of 2 intervals: $[0.0, 0.5]$ or $(0.5, 1.0]$. We then associate a pixel's layer classification depending on which interval it falls under. First, we map $p$ to the respective intervals: \n\n\\begin{align}\n    \\alpha_{w, b, \\tau}^{i}(p) = (w p - b)\/\\tau\n\\end{align}\nwhere $\\alpha^i$ gives the mapped value for each interval, $i \\in \\{0, 1, ..., n-1\\}$ gives the interval index and $n \\in \\mathbb{Z}^{+}$ gives the total number of intervals ($n = 2$ for LDIS), $w_i \\in \\{1, 2, ... , n\\}$ is a constant, $b_i \\in \\{0, \\beta_1, \\beta_2, ... , \\beta_n\\}$ are the cut-off points that separate each of the intervals and $\\tau > 0$ is a temperature factor. For our two intervals, $\\alpha^0$ and $\\alpha^1$: $w_i \\in \\{1, 2\\}$ and $b_i \\in \\{0, 0.5\\}$: \n\n\\begin{align}\n    \\alpha^0(p) &= (w_0 * p - b_0)\/\\tau = x\/\\tau \\\\\n    \\alpha^1(p) &= (w_1 * p - b_1)\/\\tau = (2x - 0.5)\/\\tau  \n\\end{align}\n\nWe then concatenate and pass these through a softmax operation to get the final motion layer label for all pixels $\\textbf{x}$: \n\\begin{align}\n    [\\alpha^0, \\alpha^1] = \\text{Softmax}([\\alpha^0, \\alpha^1])\n    \\label{eq:softmaxbinning}\n\\end{align}\nwhere $\\alpha^0$ and $\\alpha^1$ give the respective class label values. As $\\tau \\rightarrow 0$, the alpha maps simulate a one-hot vector \n. We show this behaviour in Figure \\ref{fig:softmax_binning}. We plot the input $p$ in x-axis and the alpha map values in y-axis for both the layers (red curve for layer-0 and blue curve for layer-1). We can see that the outputs for both layers start to resemble a one-hot encoding as $\\tau \\rightarrow 0$ and the y values stay consistent as $p$ gets closer and closer to the cut-off point.  \n\n\n\nThis interval is determined by the cut-off point which, for only two class labels, is 0.5. So, $\\alpha^0(p) \\rightarrow 1$ if $\\textbf{x}$ belongs to layer-0 and $\\alpha^1(p) \\rightarrow 1$ if it belongs to layer-1. This binning process also ensures that each pixel $\\textbf{x}$ can only belong to a single layer. More details on softmax binning can be found in \\cite{yang2018deep}. \n\n\n\n\n\\bibliographystyle{splncs}\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section*{Methods}\n\\label{s:methods}\n\\subsection*{Gamma-ray observations}\nFor each system in our sample, we analysed 11.4 years of observations taken by the Large Area Telescope (LAT) onboard the \\textit{Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope}. We selected \\texttt{SOURCE}-class photons detected with reconstructed energies $50\\,\\textrm{MeV} < E <300\\,\\textrm{GeV}$, and with reconstructed directions from within a $3^\\circ$ region-of-interest (RoI) around each pulsar, according to the \\texttt{P8R3\\_SOURCE\\_V2} instrument response functions \\citep{Pass8,Bruel2018+P305}. \n\nSensitive unbinned-likelihood based methods for detecting eclipses \\citep[e.g.][]{Kerr2019+godot} account for each photon individually, and therefore must account for the relative probability of each photon having been emitted by the target source, as opposed to by a fore\/background source. This is achieved by \\textit{weighting} the contribution of each photon to the relevant statistic \\citep{Kerr2011+Weights}. Computing these weights requires an accurate spectral and spatial model of the emission from the target pulsar and all fore\/background sources in the RoI \\citep{Bruel2019+Weights}. For this, we used the 10-year incremental version (DR2) of the \\textit{Fermi}-LAT Fourth Source Catalog \\citep[4FGL,][]{4FGL,Ballet2020+4FGLDR2} (\\url{https:\/\/fermi.gsfc.nasa.gov\/ssc\/data\/access\/lat\/10yr_catalog\/}) and the \\texttt{gll\\_iem\\_v07.fits} Galactic diffuse emission and \\texttt{iso\\_P8R3\\_SOURCE\\_V3\\_v1.txt} isotropic diffuse emission models to describe the diffuse background emission. The parameters of the spectra of the target pulsars were then refined such that the resulting photon weights maximize the significances of their gamma-ray pulsations, as described in \\citep{Bruel2019+Weights}. These photon weights make use of the ``PSF'' event types (\\url{https:\/\/fermi.gsfc.nasa.gov\/ssc\/data\/analysis\/documentation\/Cicerone\/Cicerone_Data\/LAT_DP.html}) to benefit from the narrower point-spread function for well-reconstructed photon events. \n\nThe required timing ephemerides for each spider pulsar were compiled as part of an upcoming third iteration of the \\textit{Fermi}-LAT Pulsar Catalogue \\citep{2PC}. For each pulsar, we computed the orbital phase at which each photon was emitted according to these ephemerides using the \\texttt{TEMPO2} software \\citep{Edwards2006+Tempo2}. The orbital ephemeris validity was verified by the presence of gamma-ray pulsations throughout the data.\n\n\\subsection*{Test statistic for eclipse detection}\nTo test for possible eclipses we adopted the unbinned likelihood estimation methods described in \\citep{Kennedy2020+J0427} and \\citep{Kerr2019+godot}. Under this model, we assume that the eclipse has sharp in\/egresses, is centred on the pulsar's superior conjunction, and lasts for a fraction $\\theta$ of the orbital period. Within the eclipse, we assume a constant flux level, which we parameterise with $\\alpha$, the fractional flux level within the eclipse relative to the overall average flux. The increase in the log-likelihood for such an eclipse, compared to the null hypothesis of photons being uniformly distributed in orbital phase, is\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{split}\n    \\label{e:logL}\n        \\delta\\log\\mathcal{L}(\\alpha,\\theta) = &\\sum_{i\\in\\Theta}\\log \\left(w_i\\,\\alpha + 1-w_i\\right)\\\\ &+ \\sum_{i\\in\\bar{\\Theta}}\\log \\left(w_i \\frac{1-\\alpha\\theta}{1-\\theta} + 1-w_i\\right) \\\\ &-\\left(\\alpha\\eta_{\\Theta} + \\frac{1-\\alpha\\theta}{1-\\theta}\\eta_{\\bar{\\Theta}}-1\\right)\\sum_i w_i,\n\\end{split}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $w_i$ is the photon probability weight for the $i$-th photon; $\\Theta$\/$\\bar{\\Theta}$ refer to photons with orbital phases inside\/outside the eclipse, respectively; and $\\eta_{\\Theta}$\/$\\eta_{\\bar{\\Theta}}$ denotes the fractional exposure inside\/outside the eclipse, respectively. The last term in Equation~\\ref{e:logL} accounts for variations in the exposure as a function of orbital phase. We computed the exposure for each pulsar in $30$\\,s time intervals over the \\textit{Fermi} mission using \\texttt{godot} \\citep{Kerr2019+godot}, and folded these on the orbital period to compute $\\eta_{\\Theta}$ and $\\eta_{\\bar{\\Theta}}$. After several years of observations, corresponding to several thousands of orbits of each pulsar system included here, the exposure is usually very evenly distributed across all orbital phases and hence exposure variations typically have very little effect on the resulting likelihood calculation; we correct for this effect nevertheless.\n\nFor each pulsar, we tested the hypothesis of a complete eclipse of the gamma-ray emission, corresponding to $\\alpha = 0$, testing for $\\theta \\in [0,0.2)$ with fine spacing. The upper bound on this range is more than twice as large as the maximum possible eclipse duration for our studied population, assuming that companion stars do not overflow their Roche lobes. The pulsar with the smallest mass ratio in our population is PSR~J2129$-$0429, with $q\\equiv M_{\\rm psr}\/M_{\\rm c} = 3.93\\pm0.06$, which would eclipse for 8.4\\% of an orbit if the companion filled its Roche lobe and was observed at $i=90^{\\circ}$.\n\nFor pulsars in which significant eclipses were detected we also tested alternative eclipse models with $0 < \\alpha < 1$ and with curved rather than sharp ingresses and egresses. No significant log-likelihood improvements were observed.\n\n\\subsection*{Posterior photon weights}\nA significant improvement in sensitivity when searching for eclipses can be obtained by incorporating into our analysis the fact that the gamma-ray emission is pulsed, i.e. that gamma-ray photons observed at pulse phases that fall within a peak in the gamma-ray pulse profile are more likely to have originated from the pulsar than from the background. To make use of this knowledge, we use the photon re-weighting method of \\citet{Kerr2019+godot}, which we briefly describe here.\n\nA photon weight, $w$, computed  as above using the spectral and spatial model of the RoI, is our best estimate for the probability of that photon having been emitted by the pulsar, before including knowledge of the pulsar rotational phase at which the photon was emitted. We can denote this as a prior probability $P(S) = w$, where $S$ denotes the binary statement that the photon was emitted by our target source. The probability for the opposite case, $B$, where the photon is emitted by a background source, is then $P(B) = 1 - w$. The re-weighting method updates our knowledge of the probability of the photon being emitted by the target source, based on the rotational phase $\\phi$ at which the photon was emitted, by applying Bayes' theorem,\n\\begin{equation}\n  P(S \\,|\\, \\phi) = \\frac{p(\\phi \\,|\\, S) \\,P(S)}{p(\\phi \\,|\\, S) \\,P(S) + p(\\phi \\,|\\, B)\\, P (B)}\\,.\n  \\label{e:bayes_rule}\n\\end{equation}\nHere $P(S \\,|\\, \\phi)$ is now the posterior probability of the photon having been emitted by the pulsar, given its rotational phase; $p(\\phi \\,|\\, S)$ is the phase distribution of photons emitted by the pulsar, i.e. the pulsar's pulse profile, which we hereafter denote as $f(\\phi)$; and $p(\\phi \\,|\\, B)$ is the phase distribution of background photons, which we can safely assume to be uniform when folding on the millisecond pulse periods of the pulsars included here, hence $p(\\phi \\,|\\, B) = 1$. Re-writing equation \\ref{e:bayes_rule} with these values gives us the re-weighting equation,\n\\begin{equation}\n  P(S \\,|\\, \\phi) = w^{\\prime} = \\frac{w f(\\phi)} {w f(\\phi) + 1 - w}\\,.\n  \\label{e:posterior_weights}\n\\end{equation}\nWe hereafter refer to $w$ as the prior weights, and $w^{\\prime}$ as the posterior weights. For phases within peaks of the pulse profile, where $f(\\phi) > 1$, these posterior weights are always greater than the prior weights, and for phases outside of peaks, where $f(\\phi) < 1$, the posterior weights are always lower. Thus, photons within pulse peaks are up-weighted, while the rest are down-weighted. When searching for eclipses, the posterior weights help to increase the detection statistic values for true eclipses by downweighting the detrimental effect of photons that by chance have high weights, and fall within the eclipse region, but whose rotational phases do not lie within a pulse peak and are therefore less likely to have been emitted by the pulsar than initially predicted by the prior weight. Similarly, photons lying outside the eclipse region but within a pulse peak, and therefore more likely to have been emitted by the pulsar, have a larger positive contribution to the eclipse log-likelihood.\n\nTo obtain the pulse profile models, $f(\\phi)$, we fit a set of wrapped Gaussian functions to the prior-weighted photon phases using the maximum-likelihood method described by \\citet{2PC}. The number of Gaussian functions used to model each pulse profile was chosen to minimise the Bayesian Information Criterion \\citep{Schwarz1978+BIC}. \n\nWe initially performed our search using the prior weights, but changed to using the posterior weights after finding that they significantly improved the sensitivity to eclipses. Of the four significant eclipses that were found using the posterior weights for the eclipse search (prior weights were used for PSR~J1048$+$2339 as discussed below), three were originally significantly detected with the prior weights, but the posterior weights give significantly larger log-likelihood values, with $\\delta\\log\\mathcal{L}$ increasing by at least 2.6 for these pulsars. \nOnly the eclipse from PSR~J1555$-$2908 is undetected using the prior weights, with $\\delta\\log\\mathcal{L}$ = 3.35 compared to $\\delta\\log\\mathcal{L}$ = 10.07 with posterior weights, likely owing to its weak overall flux but very narrow pulse peaks. \n\nFor one pulsar in which a significant eclipse is found, PSR~J1048$+$2339, the radio timing ephemeris only covers a shorter 3-yr portion of the LAT mission, with variations in the orbital period and a low photon flux preventing generation of a full timing ephemeris using the LAT data. The radio timing ephemeris for this pulsar contains several orbital frequency derivatives to model these variations, but this ephemeris becomes highly uncertain when extrapolating outside the time interval in which it was derived. For our eclipse study, we removed these orbital frequency derivatives from the ephemeris and computed orbital phases assuming a constant orbital period. During the radio timing interval, these orbital period variations cause orbital phase shifts of up to $\\sim 10^{-3}$\\ orbits \\citep{Deneva2016+J1048}. This is around 2\\% of the duration of the eclipse detected in this system, and therefore we do not expect this additional source of uncertainty to substantially affect our results. For this pulsar, since pulsations are not observed outside the period covered by the radio ephemeris, we used the prior weights $w$ rather than the posterior weights $w^{\\prime}$ when searching for eclipses. \n\nWe include the two gamma-ray detected transitional MSPs, PSRs~J1023$+$0038 and J1227$-$4853 in our study, classifying these as RBs, as they appear to be very similar to this class when in their non-accreting state. We note that the source of their increased gamma-ray flux during the accreting states is unclear, but we assume that it also originates close to the neutron star (as indeed seems to be the case for the gamma-ray eclipsing transitional MSP candidate 4FGL~J0427.8-6704 \\citealt{Strader2016+J0427,Kennedy2020+J0427}), and include data from both the accreting- and non-accreting states in our analysis. Pulsations are not detected from these pulsars in their accreting states, and so for these we again use the prior weights, rather than the posterior weights.\n\n\\subsection*{Significance calibration via Monte-Carlo simulations}\nThe search over the eclipse width $\\theta$ introduces an unknown number of independent trials to our search. We therefore calibrated false-alarm probabilities ($P_{\\rm FA}$) via Monte-Carlo analysis. For each pulsar, we took the observed set of posterior weights, randomly sampled orbital phases from a uniform distribution, computed the log-likelihood of Equation~\\ref{e:logL} for the same set of $\\theta$ values as used in the eclipse search, and stored the maximum value, iterating $10^{7}$ times. \n\nFigure~\\ref{f:MonteCarlo} shows the results of the Monte-Carlo simulations that we used to calibrate the statistical significances of these eclipses. Of the five eclipsing pulsars, the eclipse in PSR J1555$-$2908 has the lowest significance, but still has a false-alarm probability $P_{\\rm FA} \\approx 5\\times10^{-5}$.\n\nThe $\\delta\\log\\mathcal{L}$ values observed from PSRs~J1816$+$4510 and J2129$-$0429 are larger than any obtained in our simulations. To estimate their false-alarm probabilities, we therefore performed a simple linear fit to the observed $\\delta\\log\\mathcal{L}$ vs. $\\log(P_{\\rm FA})$ curves for these pulsars, and extrapolated to the observed values.\n\nIn Figure~\\ref{f:MonteCarlo}, we also show the empirical survival function, i.e. the fraction of pulsars whose measured eclipse log-likelihoods would survive a given threshold. If there were no eclipses in our data set, then the set of measured log-likelihood values would be drawn from the null-hypothesis distribution and this empirical survival function curve would closely follow the simulated curves. The ratio between the empirical and simulated curves at the highest measured log-likelihood value illustrates the significance of the largest outlier, given the number of pulsars included in the sample. \n\nIf we remove the five eclipsing systems, then the empirical survival function curve does closely follow the simulated null-hypothesis curve, and only starts to deviate for the final pulsar, PSR~J0251$+$2606, which has a false-alarm probability of around $0.2\\%$. With $n_{\\rm psr} = 37$ pulsars remaining in this sample, the largest outlier should have a false-alarm probability of around $1 \/ n_{\\rm psr} = 1\/37 \\approx 2.7\\%$. This pulsar therefore has an eclipse log-likelihood value that has an estimated false-alarm rate around ten times lower than expected for the largest outlier from our study, given the number of pulsars included. This could be viewed as marginal evidence for an eclipse, with all other measured $\\delta\\log\\mathcal{L}$ values being consistent with the null-hypothesis. \n\n\\subsection*{Pulsar mass constraints}\nThe significant detection or exclusion of a gamma-ray eclipse provides a constraint on the binary inclination angle that depends on the angular size of the companion star as seen from the pulsar. The angular size of the companion star's Roche lobe only depends on the binary mass ratio, $q$, and hence it is convenient to parameterise the size of the companion star by $q$, and its Roche-lobe filling factor $f_{\\rm RL}$ (which we define as the radius of the star along the binary separation vector divided by the Roche lobe radius in the same direction). These parameters can be constrained by optical observations. The mass ratio is derived from measurements of the pulsar and companion projected radial velocity amplitudes ($K_{\\rm psr}$ and $K_{\\rm c}$), measured via pulsar timing and optical spectroscopy, respectively, with $q=M_{\\rm psr}\/M_{\\rm c} = K_{\\rm c}\/K_{\\rm psr}$. The Roche-lobe filling factor can be estimated from rotational broadening or surface gravity measurements via optical spectroscopy \\citep[e.g.][]{Kaplan2013+J1816} or from the amplitude of the ``ellipsoidal'' component of an observed optical light curve \\citep{Icarus}. However, this parameter is often correlated with the estimated inclination, and so previous estimates of $f_{\\rm RL}$ are not necessarily consistent with new inclination constraints from an eclipse detection or exclusion. \n\nTo compute expected eclipse durations, we generated model stars using the \\texttt{Icarus} \\citep{Icarus} binary modelling software. \\texttt{Icarus} assumes that the surface of the star follows an equipotential contour within its Roche lobe, and therefore the simulated surface accounts for the non-spherical shape of the star due to tidal and rotational deformation. For a given binary mass ratio and Roche-lobe filling factor we can then compute the range of orbital phases at which the pulsar is eclipsed by the model star, when viewed from a given inclination. We assume that the pulsar is effectively a point-source of gamma-ray emission, since gamma-ray emission is thought to either be produced inside, or just outside, the pulsar's light cylinder \\citep{Kalapotharakos2019+FP}, which is thousands of times smaller than the orbital separation in a spider binary. As we do not detect gradual in\/egresses in the eclipses, and since the density profile of the outer envelope of the companion star is unknown, we assume that any line-of-sight crossing the photosphere will be fully eclipsed.\n\nThe pulsar and companion masses can be estimated, as a function of inclination, from the binary mass function,\n\\begin{align}\n  M_{\\rm psr} &= \\frac{K_{\\rm c}^3 P_{\\rm orb} (1 + 1\/q)^2}{2\\pi G \\sin^3 i}\\,,\\\\\n  M_{\\rm c} &= \\frac{K_{\\rm psr}^3 P_{\\rm orb} (1 + q)^2}{2\\pi G \\sin^3 i}\\,.\n\\end{align}\nTables~~\\ref{t:eclipses} and \\ref{t:non_eclipses} list our resulting constraints on the inclination and component masses for eclipsing and non-eclipsing systems, respectively, with existing companion radial velocity measurements. When an eclipse is detected, we assume that the companion fills its Roche lobe to obtain a lower bound on the inclination, and hence a conservatively high upper bound on the pulsar and companion masses, while assuming $i=90^\\circ$ provides a strict lower limit on the masses with no assumption on the filling factor. For systems without detected eclipses, we assume a low $f_{\\rm RL} = 0.5$ to obtain an upper bound on the inclination, and lower bound on the component masses. This limit is based on the low filling factor for PSR~J1816$+$4510 estimated by \\citet{Kaplan2013+J1816} using the surface gravity determined by optical spectroscopy. Optical models for BW and RB systems tend to have rather higher estimated filling factors \\citep[e.g.][]{Draghis2019+LCs}, and so we adopt this value as a conservative estimate. \n\nWhere possible, we take radial velocity amplitudes that have been corrected for heating effects that shift the centre-of-light away from the companion's centre-of-mass. These corrections tend to increase the inferred $K_{\\rm c}$, and hence increase the pulsar mass estimate. Three RB pulsars in our list do not have published centre-of-light-corrected radial velocity amplitudes (PSRs J1431$-$4715, J1622$-$0315 and J1625$-$3205), and so the mass limits for these may be slightly underestimated. However, all three have optical light curves that suggest very little heating effect is present, so the required corrections are likely to be small for these systems.\n\nAll systems studied here that do not have radial velocity measurements are BWs (which tend to be fainter at optical wavelengths, and hence often inaccessible to spectroscopic studies). For these, we assume a typical mass ratio of $q=70$, and list the resulting inclination constraints in Supplementary Table~2. While the inclination constraints vary slowly with $q$ at values typical for BWs, the component masses do depend strongly on the assumed value of $q$, and so we do not list mass constraints here. \n\n\\subsection*{Optical constraints for eclipsing pulsars}\nPrevious results from optical observations and modelling of PSR~B1957$+$20 are discussed in the main text. In the paragraphs below we discuss the existing multiwavelength observations for the other four eclipsing pulsars. Where previous works provide constraints on the Roche-lobe filling factor, we use these constraints to obtain larger (but less robust) lower limits on the inclination angle (and therefore tighter upper bounds on the pulsar masses) than are obtained by assuming $f_{\\rm RL} = 1$ in the previous section. We also use these estimates to obtain upper limits on the inclination angle, rather than simply assuming $i < 90^{\\circ}$ (which may imply a very low filling factor). \n\nOptical observations of PSR~J1048$+$2339 show significant long-term variability, with the optical maximum varying by up to a magnitude \\citep{Cho2018+VariableRBs,Yap2019+J1048}. Such variability cannot yet be taken into account by precise light-curve modelling, and so no measurement of the inclination angle from optical modelling exists in the literature to date. When modelling their optical observations of this pulsar, \\citet{Yap2019+J1048} fixed the inclination to $i=76^{\\circ}$, the maximum value that was compatible with the lack of an observed X-ray eclipse. However, while a thermal X-ray component from the neutron star surface would indeed be eclipsed at higher inclinations, X-ray emission in RBs tends to be dominated by emission from an extended intra-binary shock, and so the lack of an X-ray eclipse does not necessarily preclude a higher inclination. \\citet{Yap2019+J1048} find that $f_{\\rm RL} \\approx 0.85$ is compatible with multiple light curves despite long-term variability. From optical spectroscopy, \\citet{MiravalZanon2021+J1048} find an observed companion radial velocity amplitude of $343.3\\pm4.4$km~s$^{-1}$. Using these values, we find that the observed eclipse duration requires an inclination greater than $80.9^{\\circ}$ (c.f. $80.4^{\\circ}$ assuming $f_{\\rm RL} = 1$ in Table~\\ref{t:eclipses}). Heating corrections reduce the estimated centre-of-mass velocity to $298.7\n\\pm7.7$\\,km\\,s$^{-1}$, for a larger mass ratio (and hence lower minimum inclination of $i=80.1^{\\circ}$) but a lower pulsar mass, $M_{\\rm psr}\\approx1.1M_{\\odot}$. We use the uncorrected value of $K_{\\rm c}$ in Table~\\ref{fig:eclipses} to obtain a conservative bound on the pulsar mass. As noted in the main text, eclipses longer than 8\\% of an orbit are consistent with the data, but would require the companion star to be significantly overflowing its Roche lobe.\n\nPSR~J1555$-$2908 is a BW pulsar that was recently discovered by \\citet{Ray2022+J1555} in a targeted radio search of a steep-spectrum radio continuum source identified within a pulsar-like gamma-ray source by \\citet{Frail2018+SteepSpectrumCands}. Modelling of both optical photometry and spectroscopy by \\citet{Kennedy2022+J1555}, using a model that includes the possibility of heat diffusion across the terminator, revealed the companion's projected radial velocity to be $397 \\pm 2$\\,km\/s, and indicated a high binary inclination of $i > 75^{\\circ}$, giving a maximum pulsar mass of $1.82\\,M_{\\odot}$. The Roche-lobe filling factor is found to be high $f_{\\rm RL} > 0.93$. The duration of the gamma-ray eclipse observed here requires an inclination $83.0^{\\circ} < i < 86.2^{\\circ}$, for a pulsar mass $1.58\\,M_{\\odot} < M_{\\rm psr} < 1.71\\,M_{\\odot}$ with the uncertainty dominated by that of the companion's radial velocity.\n\nOptical spectroscopy of PSR~J1816$+$4510 has been modelled by \\citet{Kaplan2013+J1816}. They find that this system is perhaps more similar to a white-dwarf companion than a normal RB, owing to its extremely high temperature, but due to the presence of radio eclipses that are not otherwise seen in pulsar--white-dwarf binaries we categorise it here as the latter. Detailed modelling of optical photometry to determine the inclination or Roche-lobe filling factor has not been performed, but from spectroscopic models \\citet{Kaplan2013+J1816} estimated a radius that corresponds to $f_{\\rm RL}\\sim 0.5$, which is much smaller than observed in other RBs, motivating our use of this value as a low estimate for $f_{\\rm RL}$ in Table~\\ref{t:non_eclipses}. Adopting this value instead of $f_{\\rm RL} = 1$ results in a higher minimum inclination of $82.6^{\\circ}$ and a lower pulsar mass range of $1.68\\,M_{\\odot} < M_{\\rm psr} < 2.11\\,M_{\\odot}$\n\nFor PSR~J2129$-$0429, \\citet{Bellm2016+J2129}  measured a projected companion radial velocity amplitude of $K_2 = 250 \\pm 4$\\,km\\,s$^{-1}$ (for mass ratio $q=3.93\\pm0.06$), and inferred a filling factor of $f_{\\rm RL} = 0.82\\pm0.03$ and an inclination $i > 68^\\circ$ from optical light curve modelling. With these values of $q$ and $f_{\\rm RL}$, the duration of the gamma-ray eclipse requires an inclination between $76.6^{\\circ} < i < 78.3^{\\circ}$, consistent with the range allowed by optical modelling. This corresponds to a pulsar mass range of $1.61\\,M_{\\odot} < M_{\\rm psr} < 1.88\\,M_{\\odot}$ at 95\\% confidence. \\citet{AlNoori2018+J2129} also found dips in the \\textit{XMM-Newton} light curve for PSR~J2129$-$0429, consistent with a thermal X-ray component from the neutron star surface being eclipsed by the companion. \n\n\\subsection*{Searching for eclipses in recently-discovered redbacks and candidates}\nSeven \\textit{Fermi}-LAT sources have been found to contain periodic optical and X-ray sources that are almost certainly spider binary systems \\citep{Strader2014+J0523,Li2016+J0212,Linares2017+J0212,Halpern2017+J0838,Li2018+J0954,Swihart2020+J2333, Swihart2021+J0940, Li2021+J0336}. Shortly before submitting this paper, millisecond radio pulsations were detected from three of these objects (4FGL~J0838.7$-$2827, 4FGL~J0955.3$-$3949 and 4FGL~J2333.1$-$5527, hereafter PSRs~J0838$-$2827, J0955$-$3949 and J2333$-$5526, respectively) by the TRAPUM collaboration (\\url{http:\/\/trapum.org\/discoveries.html}), but a full timing solution is not yet available for them, and gamma-ray pulsations have not yet been detected. Pulsations have not yet been detected at any wavelength from the remaining four of these systems.  A further four similar systems \\citep{Pletsch2012+J1311,Nieder2020+J1653,Ray2020+J2339,Clark2021+J2039} were initially identified in the same way, but have since been confirmed as spiders through radio or gamma-ray pulsation discoveries, and hence are already included in our search. \n\nTo search for gamma-ray eclipses in these systems, we prepared \\textit{Fermi}-LAT data sets in the same way as for the confirmed spider cases, but included 12.4 years of data. Since these data sets are not bound to the validity period of a pulsar timing ephemeris, we included this extra year of data to allow for stronger detections to partially mitigate the large trials factor (see below). For these data sets we used \\texttt{gtsrcprob} to compute the photon weights, rather than optimising these to maximise the pulsation significance (since this optimisation is not possible here without a gamma-ray pulsation detection), and used the prior probability weights, since posterior weights are unavailable in the absence of pulsations.\n\nUnlike the majority of systems studied here, where the pulsar's timing ephemeris provides precise orbital period and phase measurements over the \\textit{Fermi}-LAT data set, for these systems we only have imprecise orbital phase information from optical light curves and radial velocity curves. We therefore had to additionally search small ranges of orbital phases (parameterised by each pulsar's ascending node epoch, $T_{\\rm asc}$ and orbital period, $P_{\\rm orb}$). We chose the search ranges to be $\\pm 3\\times$ the published uncertainty on these parameters. Our step sizes in each parameter were chosen such that the maximum offset on the orbital phase for each photon would be $0.001$ orbits. \n\nThis searching introduces yet more trials in our search, reducing our sensitivity. For each of these sources, we again calibrated our search significances via Monte-Carlo simulations. We took the observed set of photon phases, assigned randomly-generated arrival times evenly distributed throughout the \\textit{Fermi} mission interval, performed the search over orbital period and phase as above, and took the maximum resulting $\\delta\\log\\mathcal{L}$, iterating 1000 times, or 10000 times if the resulting false-alarm probability was low.\n\nSensitivity is greatly reduced in these searches, with a false-alarm probability of $P_{\\rm FA} = 0.01$ corresponding to $\\delta\\log\\mathcal{L}\\approx9$, as opposed to $\\delta\\log\\mathcal{L}\\approx4.5$ when the pulsar's precise orbital ephemeris is known. Nevertheless, there is evidence of eclipses in two systems, PSRs~J0838$-$2827 and J2333$-$5526, with $\\delta\\log\\mathcal{L}=10.8$ and $\\delta\\log\\mathcal{L}=11.3$, corresponding to trials-corrected false-alarm probabilities of $3\\times10^{-3}$ and $1\\times10^{-3}$, respectively. We show the $\\delta\\log\\mathcal{L}$ over the searched parameter space for these two systems and the corresponding Monte Carlo calibrations in Figure~\\ref{fig:candidates}.\n\nFor both PSR~J0838$-$2827 and PSR~J2333$-$5526, although significant detections are made within the searched parameter space, the eclipse likelihoods are still high towards the borders of the searched regions. We therefore searched outside this region and found higher $\\delta\\log\\mathcal{L}$ values ($\\delta\\log\\mathcal{L}=11.8$ and $\\delta\\log\\mathcal{L}=14.9$, respectively), at orbital phases that are $\\Delta T_{\\rm asc} \\approx 300$\\,s and $\\Delta T_{\\rm asc} \\approx 620$\\,s later than that predicted by the ephemerides obtained from fitting the companions' radial velocity curves, corresponding to $\\approx 4\\sigma$ and $\\approx 11\\sigma$ deviations, respectively. Such offsets may be caused by the irradiation of the companion star by the pulsar, which can cause the radial velocity curve to depart slightly from a simple sinusoid, although \\citet{Swihart2020+J2333} did not find any evidence for this effect in their modelling of PSR~J2333$-$5526. The recent detection of radio pulsations from these pulsars will likely clarify these tensions by providing precise orbital ephemerides.\n\n\\subsection*{Expected number of eclipsing spiders}\nAlthough our population is small, we can also use the number of detected eclipses to probe whether or not the population of \\textit{Fermi}-LAT detected spiders are viewed from randomly-distributed inclination angles. This is not necessarily expected; as many of these sources have been discovered by targeting \\textit{Fermi}-LAT sources, the population may be biased towards those that are bright gamma-ray emitters, and gamma-ray emission models predict that MSPs are brightest around their rotational equator, which should in turn be aligned with the orbital plane during recycling. This would manifest in our population as a greater than expected number of eclipsing pulsars. Alternatively, if we observe a smaller number of eclipses than expected, this would be evidence that the companion stars in these systems tend to fill only a small fraction of their Roche lobes. \n\nUnder the assumption of randomly distributed orbital axes, the binary inclination angles will be drawn from a probability distribution $p(i) = \\sin(i)$, which we adopt as a prior. We restrict $i$ to $i \\leq 90^{\\circ}$, since systems at inclination $i$ are indistinguishable from those at $180^{\\circ} - i$ as the orbital direction cannot be determined. The prior probability of a pulsar being eclipsed is therefore the integral of this prior over inclination angles greater than the minimum inclination at which a pulsar would be eclipsed, $i_{\\rm ecl}$, i.e. $P(i > i_{\\rm ecl}) = \\cos(i_{\\rm ecl})$. Assuming Roche-lobe filling companions, for typical BW and RB mass ratios ($q \\equiv M_{\\rm psr}\/M_{\\rm c}$) of $q=70$ and $q=5$, respectively, this gives a prior probability for a BW or RB being eclipsed of 10\\% or 23\\%, respectively. The probability of observing a certain number of eclipses from the studied population follows a binomial distribution with these success factors. From the 28 BWs and 16 RBs in our sample (including the candidates discussed in the previous section) that are bright enough for us to significantly detect or rule out an eclipse, we find 2 eclipsing BWs and 5 eclipsing RBs. The binomial probabilities for these samples are 24\\% and 16\\% respectively, entirely consistent with our assumptions of randomly distributed inclinations and Roche-lobe filling companions, and indeed seven eclipses is the second most likely number of eclipses to observe from the combined population. \n\n\\section*{Data Availability}\nThe \\textit{Fermi}-LAT data are available from the Fermi Science Support Center \\url{http:\/\/fermi.gsfc.nasa.gov\/ssc}. Ephemerides and folded \\textit{Fermi}-LAT data sets including prior and posterior photon weights for systems with detected eclipses are available on Zenodo \\url{https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5281\/zenodo.7133502}. Ephemerides and folded data sets for other pulsars included in this study may contain unpublished information about unrelated scientific results; these are available from the authors upon request.\n\n\\section*{Code Availability}\nThe Fermitools, including \\texttt{gtsrcprob}, used for analysing \\textit{Fermi}-LAT data, are available from \\url{https:\/\/fermi.gsfc.nasa.gov\/ssc\/data\/analysis\/software\/}. \\texttt{TEMPO2} \\citep{Edwards2006+Tempo2}, used for computing rotational and orbital photon phases is available at \\url{https:\/\/bitbucket.org\/psrsoft\/tempo2}. \\texttt{Icarus} \\citep{Icarus}, used for computing expected eclipse durations to derive pulsar mass estimates, is available from \\url{https:\/\/github.com\/bretonr\/Icarus}. \\texttt{godot} \\citep{Kerr2019+godot}, used for computing \\textit{Fermi}-LAT exposure, is available from \\url{https:\/\/github.com\/kerrm\/godot}. \\texttt{PINT} \\citep{PINT}, used for evaluating template pulse profiles to derive posterior weights, is available from \\url{https:\/\/github.com\/nanograv\/PINT}. The scripts used to perform the eclipse searches and false-alarm calibrations are available on Zenodo \\url{https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5281\/zenodo.7133502}. \n\n\\section*{Acknowledgements}\nC.~J.~C. would like to thank Bruce Allen for useful discussions that led to the use of posterior weights that increased the significances of the detected eclipses. We would like to thank Seth Digel, Tyrel Johnson, Melissa Pesce-Rollins, David Thompson and Zorawar Wadiasingh for carefully reviewing the manuscript on behalf of the \\textit{Fermi}-LAT collaboration.\n\nC.~J.~C., R.~P.~B, M.~R.~K., D.~M.~S. and G.~V. acknowledge support from the ERC under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No. 715051; Spiders). This work was supported by the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft~(MPG). B.~B. acknowledges the support of the Department of Atomic Energy, Government of India, under project No. 12-R\\&D-TFR-5.02-0700. Support for H.~T.~C. was provided by NASA through the NASA Hubble Fellowship Program grant \\#HST-HF2-51453.001 awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS5-26555. V.~S.~D. was supported by the STFC. M.~R.~K  acknowledges support from the Irish Research Council in the form of a Government of Ireland Postdoctoral Fellowship (GOIPD\/2021\/670: Invisible Monsters). S.~M.~R. is a CIFAR Fellow and is supported by the NSF Physics Frontiers Center award 1430284. D.~M.~S. also acknowledges the Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER) and the Canary Islands government for the financial support received in the form of a grant with number PROID2020010104.\n\nPulsar research at Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics and access to the Lovell telescope is\nsupported by a consolidated grant from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC). Work at the Naval Research Laboratory was supported by the NASA Fermi program. The MeerKAT telescope is operated by the South African Radio Astronomy Observatory, which is a facility\nof the National Research Foundation, an agency of the Department of Science and Innovation.  The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. \n\nThe Fermi LAT Collaboration acknowledges generous ongoing support from a number of agencies and institutes that have supported both the development and the operation of the  LAT  as  well  as  scientific  data  analysis.  These  include  the National  Aeronautics  and Space   Administration   and   the   Department   of   Energy   in the   United   States,   the Commissariat \\`{a} l'Energie Atomique and the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique \/  Institut  National  de  Physique  Nucl\\'{e}aire et  de  Physique  des  Particules  in  France,  the Agenzia  Spaziale  Italiana and the Istituto  Nazionale  di  Fisica  Nucleare  in  Italy,  the Ministry  of  Education,  Culture, Sports,  Science  and  Technology  (MEXT),  High  Energy Accelerator  Research Organization  (KEK)  and  Japan  Aerospace  Exploration  Agency (JAXA)  in  Japan, and  the  K.  A.  Wallenberg  Foundation,  the  Swedish  Research  Council and the Swedish National Space Board in Sweden. \n\nAdditional   support   for   science   analysis   during   the   operations phase is gratefully acknowledged from the Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica in Italy and the Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales  in  France. This  work  performed  in  part  under  DOE  Contract  DE-AC02-76SF00515.\n\nOur analysis made extensive use of the \\texttt{numpy} \\citep{numpy}, \\texttt{scipy} \\citep{scipy}, \\texttt{matplotlib} \\citep{matplotlib}, \\texttt{astropy} \\citep{astropy:2013,astropy:2018} and \\texttt{pycuda} \\citep{pycuda} python packages.\n\n\\section*{Author Contributions Statement}\nC.~J.~C. performed the eclipse search analyses, and wrote the manuscript. M.~Kerr assisted the analysis and exposure calculations. P.~B. and L.~G. produced the \\textit{Fermi}-LAT data sets and photon probability weights for each pulsar. R.~P.~B, V.~S.~D., M.~R.~K., D.~M.~S. and G.~V. contributed to the interpretation of optical modelling and discussion of gravitational lensing. M.~Kerr, B.~B., R.~P.~B, V.~S.~D., M.~R.~K., L.~N., M.~S.~E.~R. and D.~M.~S. reviewed the manuscript and provided comments. All remaining authors contributed pulsar timing ephemerides required to phase-fold the \\textit{Fermi}-LAT data.\n\n\\section*{Competing Interests Statement}\nThe authors declare no competing interests.\n\n\\clearpage\n\n\\begin{table*}\n  \\centering\n  \\scriptsize\n  \\caption{Constraints for pulsars with detected eclipses. $\\theta^{\\rm min}$ and $\\theta^{\\rm max}$ are the minimum and maximum eclipse durations (in orbits) at 95\\% confidence. $i^{\\rm min}$ is the limiting inclination at which the minimum eclipse duration would be reached for a Roche-lobe filling companion, assuming the 2$\\sigma$ lower limit on the companion radial velocity amplitude $K_{\\rm c}$, which is taken from the references listed in the final column, with 1$\\sigma$ uncertainties quoted. $M_{\\rm psr}$ and $M_{\\rm c}$ give the (conservative) range of pulsar and companion masses that are allowed by the eclipse detection. The minimum masses are found by assuming $i=90^{\\circ}$ and the 2$\\sigma$ lower limit on $K_{\\rm c}$, and require companions to substantially underfill their Roche lobes (with the exception of PSR~J1048$+$2339). The maximum masses are found by assuming the 2$\\sigma$ upper limit on $K_{\\rm c}$, and the minimum inclination required to produce the minimum eclipse duration with the conservative assumption of a Roche-lobe filling companion.}\n  \\label{t:eclipses}\n  \\begin{tabular}{lcccccccccc}\n    \\hline\n Pulsar & Class & $\\delta\\log\\mathcal{L}$ & $P_{\\rm FA}$ & $\\theta^{\\rm min}$ & $\\theta^{\\rm max}$ & $K_{\\rm c}$ (km s$^{-1}$) & $i^{\\rm min}$ ($^{\\circ}$) & $M_{\\rm psr}$ ($M_{\\odot}$) & $M_{\\rm c}$ ($M_{\\odot}$) & Ref.\\\\\n    \\hline\n    B1957$+$20 & BW & $12.63$ & $2\\times10^{-6}$ & $0.007$ & $0.011$ & $353.0 \\pm 4.0$ & $84.1$ & $1.67$--$1.94$ & $0.025$--$0.027$ & \\citep{vanKerkwijk2011+B1957} \\\\\n    J1048$+$2339 & RB & $13.28$ & $2\\times10^{-6}$ & $0.058$ & $0.120$ & $343.3 \\pm 4.4$ & $80.4$ & $1.44$--$1.72$ & $0.31$--$0.35$ & \\citep{MiravalZanon2021+J1048} \\\\\n    J1555$-$2908 & BW & $10.07$ & $4\\times10^{-5}$ & $0.023$ & $0.040$ & $397.0 \\pm 2.0$ & $83.1$ & $1.58$--$1.71$ & $0.057$--$0.060$ & \\citep{Kennedy2022+J1555} \\\\\n    J1816$+$4510 & RB & $17.32$ & $<1\\times10^{-7}$ & $0.014$ & $0.019$ & $343.0 \\pm 7.0$ & $79.0$ & $1.64$--$2.17$ & $0.18$--$0.22$ & \\citep{Kaplan2013+J1816} \\\\\n    J2129$-$0429 & RB & $17.67$ & $<1\\times10^{-7}$ & $0.030$ & $0.036$ & $250.3 \\pm 4.3$ & $76.3$ & $1.48$--$1.93$ & $0.39$--$0.47$ & \\citep{Bellm2016+J2129} \\\\\n    \\hline\n  \\end{tabular}\n\\end{table*}\n\n\\begin{table*}\n  \\centering\n  \\scriptsize\n  \\caption{Constraints for pulsars without detected eclipses. Parameters are the same as in Table~\\ref{t:eclipses}, but inclination upper limits $i^{\\rm max}$ and mass lower limits $M^{\\rm min}_{\\rm psr}$ and $M^{\\rm min}_{\\rm c}$ are computed for the maximum eclipse duration, and assuming the companion is 50\\% Roche-lobe filling, to obtain lower limits on the component masses. }\n  \\label{t:non_eclipses}\n  \\begin{tabular}{lccccccccc}\n    \\hline\n Pulsar & Class & $\\delta\\log\\mathcal{L}$ & $\\theta^{\\rm max}$ & $K_{\\rm c}$ (km\/s) & $i^{\\max}$ ($^{\\circ}$) & $M^{\\min}_{\\rm psr}$ ($M_{\\odot}$) & $M^{\\min}_{\\rm c}$ ($M_{\\odot}$) & Ref.\\\\\n    \\hline\n    J0952$-$0607 & BW & $0.36$ & $0.010$ & $376.1 \\pm 5.1$ & $86.3$ & $1.40$ & $0.020$ & \\citep{Romani2022+J0952} \\\\\n    J1023$+$0038 & RB & $0.00$ & $0.007$ & $295.0 \\pm 3.0$ & $81.9$ & $0.65$ & $0.09$ & \\citep{Stringer2021+tMSPs} \\\\\n    J1227$-$4853 & RB & $0.00$ & $0.002$ & $294.4 \\pm 4.0$ & $81.1$ & $1.01$ & $0.18$ & \\citep{Stringer2021+tMSPs} \\\\\n    J1301$+$0833 & BW & $0.31$ & $0.013$ & $284.9 \\pm 4.4$ & $85.7$ & $0.63$ & $0.014$ & \\citep{Romani2016+J1301} \\\\\n    J1311$-$3430 & BW & $0.00$ & $0.001$ & $633.9 \\pm 5.3$ & $86.9$ & $1.66$ & $0.009$ & \\citep{Romani2015+J1311} \\\\\n    J1431$-$4715 & RB & $2.54$ & $0.066$ & $278.0 \\pm 3.0$ & $90$ & $1.13$ & $0.11$ & \\citep{Strader2019+RBSpec} \\\\\n    J1622$-$0315 & RB & $0.05$ & $0.009$ & $423.0 \\pm 8.0$ & $83.4$ & $1.33$ & $0.10$ & \\citep{Strader2019+RBSpec} \\\\\n    J1628$-$3205 & RB & $2.72$ & $0.009$ & $358.0 \\pm 10.0$ & $82.2$ & $1.09$ & $0.14$ & \\citep{Strader2019+RBSpec} \\\\\n    J1653$-$0158 & BW & $0.74$ & $0.000$ & $700.2 \\pm 7.9$ & $86.7$ & $1.76$ & $0.012$ & \\citep{Nieder2020+J1653} \\\\\n    J1810$+$1744 & BW & $0.00$ & $0.001$ & $462.3 \\pm 2.2$ & $84.7$ & $1.59$ & $0.049$ & \\citep{Romani2021+J1810} \\\\\n    J2039$-$5617 & RB & $0.40$ & $0.001$ & $327.2 \\pm 5.0$ & $81.7$ & $1.02$ & $0.14$ & \\citep{Strader2019+RBSpec,Clark2021+J2039} \\\\\n    J2215$+$5135 & RB & $0.00$ & $0.001$ & $412.3 \\pm 5.0$ & $81.6$ & $1.58$ & $0.23$ & \\citep{Linares2018+J2215} \\\\\n    J2339$-$0533 & RB & $0.00$ & $0.000$ & $377.6 \\pm 17.7$ & $81.1$ & $1.21$ & $0.24$ & \\citep{Romani2011+J2339} \\\\\n    \\hline\n  \\end{tabular}\n\\end{table*}\n\\clearpage\n\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\centering\n\t\\includegraphics[width=\\columnwidth]{fig1}\n  \\caption{Gamma-ray orbital light curves of seven eclipsing spider pulsars. The red dashed line shows the estimated background level. Phase zero corresponds to the pulsar's ascending node. The phase of the pulsar's superior conjunction, where eclipses would be expected to occur, has been placed at the centre of a phase bin, and is shown at the centre of the plot for emphasis. Bin widths have been chosen to be close to the best-fitting eclipse duration. Bin heights show the sum of the photon weights in each orbital phase bin, and error bars show the corresponding 1$\\sigma$ Poisson uncertainties.}\n    \\label{fig:eclipses}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\centering\n\t\\includegraphics[width=0.75\\columnwidth]{fig2}\n        \\caption{Results of Monte-Carlo simulations used to calibrate eclipse false-alarm probabilities. Vertical lines show the measured log-likelihood values, maximised over eclipse widths, for each pulsar. Those for pulsars with significant eclipses are marked in colour. The coloured curves show the false-alarm probability from simulations using the distribution of photon weights from each of the five eclipsing pulsars. Horizontal dashed lines show the corresponding false-alarm probability according to the Monte-Carlo calibration. The dotted and solid black curves show the empirical survival function (i.e. the fraction of pulsars which survive a given log-likelihood threshold) for the real population of spiders studied here, before and after removing the five pulsars with significant eclipses, respectively. The diagonal dashed line is an extrapolation of the fit to the simulated false-alarm probability curves used to estimate the false-alarm probabilities for the most significant eclipses.}\n    \\label{f:MonteCarlo}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n  \\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{fig3}\n\\caption{Search results for the two candidate RB systems in which eclipses are detected. Left panels: Eclipse log-likelihoods as a function of the orbital parameters, maximised over eclipse durations. The blue crosshairs denote the $2\\sigma$ ranges around the orbital ephemeris from optical observations (see references in Supplementary Material). Contour lines are drawn at log-likelihoods corresponding to false-alarm probabilities of $5\\%$ (yellow) and $1\\%$ (red). These levels are also marked on the colour bar, along with the log-likelihood corresponding to a false-alarm probability of $0.1\\%$ (dark red), although this level is never reached. The position of the maximum likelihood is marked by a cyan cross, and the corresponding log-likelihood value is also marked in cyan on the colour bar. Right panels: the results of the Monte-Carlo simulations used to calibrate these false-alarm probabilities. The $5\\%$,$1\\%$ and $0.1\\%$ levels are marked in the same colours used in the left panels, with the maximum log-likelihood value found in the search and corresponding false-alarm probability marked in cyan. Top panels are for PSR~J0838$-$2827, lower panels for PSR~J2333$-$5526. In all other candidate systems, the false-alarm probability for the maximum log-likelihood value found was greater than $40\\%$. }  \n\\label{fig:candidates}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n    \\centering\n\t  \\includegraphics[width=0.75\\columnwidth]{fig4}\n        \\caption{Neutron star mass constraints for gamma-ray detected spider MSPs, using the constraints obtained from the detection or exclusion of gamma-ray eclipses from this work. The five pulsars with detected eclipses are highlighted in bold. The two additional eclipsing systems, PSRs~J0838$-$2827 and J2333$-$5526, are excluded from this plot, as their mass ratios are not yet known from pulsar timing, and so their masses cannot yet be estimated. The colour of each point indicates the sub-class of spider system: black widows are shown in black, redbacks shown in red. For pulsars with no detected eclipses, we show lower limits on the pulsar mass, indicated by arrows with arbitrary length. }\n    \\label{f:mass_list}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\clearpage\n\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\nScintillating fiber trackers constitute an interesting alternative to\ngaseous tracking detectors. Impressive progress has been made in the last\nyears in both the quality of plastic fibers and the optical readout \\cite\n{leu95}\\cite{dam96}\\cite{adam95}. Fiber detectors avoid all the problems\nrelated to HV connections, sparks, electronic noise and pick-up in wire\nchambers and MSGC detectors. In view of these advantages the Hera-B \\cite\n{herab} collaboration investigated the possibility to build an inner tracker\nof scintillating fibers as an alternative to a MSGC system. The fiber\nsolution was finally abandoned due to the higher cost for a 150000 channel\nsystem and expected radiation damage. Nevertheless the results of the study\nare of possible interest for detectors operating under different\nexperimental conditions.\n\nSensitive light detection is most efficiently achieved with\nphotomultipliers. To reduce cost and space one has to use multichannel\nsystems. Interesting alternative solutions provide multichannel PMs (MCPM)%\n\\cite{leu95}\\cite{dam94} built in standard technique, hybrid PMs (HPMT)\\cite\n{dam94a}\\ and visible light counters (VLPC)\\cite{adam95}. The latter provide\nby far the best photoefficiency of up to 80 \\%, but need cooling to below\n10K. HPMTs allow for a finer spatial segmentation than MCPMs but require\nhigher voltages and low noise amplification. In this article we present\nmeasurements with a readout system consisting of fibers coupled to small\nsize 16 and 64 channel photomultipliers \\cite{yos97}.\n\nIn the following sections we describe the setup, the simulation of the\nphoton propagation and, finally, the measurements which concentrated on the\ninvestigation of the influence of magnetic fields and the cross-talk between\nchannels.\n\n\\section{The setup}\n\n\\FRAME{ftbpFU}{3.5258in}{2.7562in}{0pt}{\\Qcb{Setup to measure the optical\ncross-talk. }}{}{aufbau.ps}{\\special{language \"Scientific Word\";type\n\"GRAPHIC\";display \"PICT\";valid_file \"F\";width 3.5258in;height 2.7562in;depth\n0pt;original-width 568.9375pt;original-height 818.8125pt;cropleft\n\"0.0436875\";croptop \"0.7954013\";cropright \"0.9663484\";cropbottom\n\"0.2158048\";filename 'C:\/PMPAPER\/Aufbau.ps';file-properties \"XNPEU\";}}We\ninvestigated multichannel photomultiplier tubes\\footnote{%\nHAMAMATSU Photonics K.K., Japan} \\cite{yos97} with 16 (M16) and 64 channels\n(M64) on a square sensitive area of $18\\times 18mm^2$. The tubes have\nbialkali photocathodes and metal channel dynode structures of front pad\nsizes of $4\\times 4mm^2$ (M16) and $2\\times 2mm^2$ (M64). The gaps between\nthe dynodes of the matrix next to the window are $0.5mm$ (M16) and $0.3mm$\n(M64) respectively.\n\nTwo different setups were used to measure the gain uniformity of the PM\ntubes and the optical cross-talk between adjacent channels. For the\nuniformity measurement a LED was operated at a distance of $30cm$ in front\nof the PM tube. The experimental arrangement for the cross-talk measurement\n(see Fig.1) consisted of a fiber guide mounted on a x-y-z-table which was\nmoved under computer control across the PM window. The fiber was pressed by\na spring onto the PM window.\n\nIn order to investigate the PM performance in magnetic fields, the PM was\nplaced between two Helmholtz coils providing fields of up to $130$ Gauss.\n\nFor the uniformity measurement the light was produced by standard green or\nblue LEDs. Short light pulses of the LED were generated by a special high\ncurrent control circuit with adjustable pulse width. The optical cross-talk\nmeasurements were performed with scintillation light produced by $\\beta ^{-}$\nrays from a Sr$^{90}$-source in scintillating fibers.\n\n\\FRAME{ftbpFU}{2.0124in}{3.8164in}{0pt}{\\Qcb{Active high voltage divider\nchain.}}{}{schalt.eps}{\\special{language \"Scientific Word\";type\n\"GRAPHIC\";maintain-aspect-ratio TRUE;display \"USEDEF\";valid_file \"F\";width\n2.0124in;height 3.8164in;depth 0pt;original-width 305.5625pt;original-height\n583.125pt;cropleft \"0\";croptop \"1\";cropright \"1\";cropbottom \"0\";filename\n'C:\/pmpaper\/schalt.eps';file-properties \"XNPEU\";}} The anode signals of the\nPM channels were amplified by standard NIM linear amplifiers with a fixed\ngain factor of $10$. They were digitized by CAMAC ADCs coupled to a PC.\n\nIn the Hera-B experiment rates of $200kHz$ per channel are expected with\naverage signal of 20 photoelectrons. The total photocurrent reaches $0.1mA$\nfor the 64 channel tube. To reduce the bleeder current an active voltage\ndivider circuit for the dynodes (Fig. 2) was developed. Compared to a\npassive chain the current and correspondingly the number of HV power\nsupplies and the heat dissipation can be reduced by a factor of five.\n\n\\section{Simulation of photon propagation}\n\nPhotons produced in a scintillating fiber are usually transferred to the\nphotosensitive device via clear plastic fibers. The coupling of the fibers,\nreflection losses and the connection of the clear fiber to the PM affect the\nphotoelectron yield and their lateral distribution. We have simulated these\nprocesses. For the numerical estimates we used refraction indices for the\nfiber ($n_f$), its gladding ($n_{cl}$), the PM window ($n_w$) and the\nphotocathode ($n_{ca}$) of $n_f=1.60$, $n_{cl}=1.42$, $n_w=1.53$ and $%\nn_{ca}=3.4$. \\FRAME{ftbpFU}{3.525in}{2.6852in}{0pt}{\\Qcb{Trapping efficiency\nacross a scintillating fiber. Spiraling photons are lost when the\nscintillating fiber is coupled at the center of a clear fiber.}}{}{fibef.ps}{%\n\\special{language \"Scientific Word\";type \"GRAPHIC\";display \"PICT\";valid_file\n\"F\";width 3.525in;height 2.6852in;depth 0pt;original-width\n568.9375pt;original-height 818.8125pt;cropleft \"0.0223125\";croptop\n\"0.7359812\";cropright \"1.0061639\";cropbottom \"0.2788293\";filename\n'C:\/pmpaper\/FIBEF.ps';file-properties \"XNPEU\";}}\n\nIn the following we assume that the cross section of the fibers is circular.\nThe trapping probability of the photons then depends on the distance of the\nproduction point from the surface. The trapping efficiency across the fiber\nis shown in Figure 3. The high efficiency for photons produced near the\nsurface is due to the trapping of photons with rather large angles with\nrespect to the fiber axis which then spiral along the surface in azimutal\ndirection. The average trapping efficiency is $t=1-(n_{cl}\/n_f)^2=0.213$.\nWhen the scintillating fiber is coupled to a clear fiber a large fraction of\nthe spiraling photons is lost, the exact amount depending on the ratio of\nthe diameters and the relative lateral positions of the axises. In the limit\nwhere photons are produced uniformly in the scintillating fiber, where the\nscintillating fiber is coupled axially at the center of the clear fiber and\nwhere the radius of the scintillating fiber is negligible compared to the\nclear fiber radius the trapping efficiency is reduced by a factor of about\ntwo: $t=1-n_{cl}\/n_f=0.113$.\n\nSpiraling photons suffer from a high number of reflections at the fiber\nsurface and thus have a higher probability to be lost than photons crossing\nthe fiber axis. The losses depend on the quality of the surface and on the\ncircular symmetry of the fiber. Often the cross section of so-called round\nfibers is in reality slightly elliptical and varying along the fiber. These\nlosses which are difficult to estimate have also a positive aspect: They\nreduce the light divergence at the exit of the fiber.\n\nFor an efficient detection of minimum ionization particles in scintillating\nfibers with PMs of about $10\\%$ conversion efficiency a minimum scintillator\nthickness of about 1 to 2 mm is required, the exact value depending on the\nquality of the fiber and many other parameters related to the light\ndetection system. Usually several thin scintillating fibers have to be\ncoupled to one clear fiber to obtain an efficient and precise tracking. The\nminimum radius of the clear fiber which one chooses as small as possible is\ndetermined by the number and the cross section of the scintillating fibers\nto be coupled. On the other hand the maximum allowable cross section depends\non the size of the PM channels, the window thickness and the light\ndivergence at the fiber exit.\\FRAME{ftbpFU}{3.6685in}{2.5538in}{0pt}{\\Qcb{%\nPhoton loss due to non-parallel coupling of the fibers. The solid curve\nrepresents the worst case, where the scintillating fiber is coupled at the\ncenter of a clear fiber. The upper curves correspond to fibers coupled at\nthe periphery.}}{}{tilt.ps}{\\special{language \"Scientific Word\";type\n\"GRAPHIC\";display \"PICT\";valid_file \"F\";width 3.6685in;height 2.5538in;depth\n0pt;original-width 568.9375pt;original-height 818.8125pt;cropleft\n\"0.0221525\";croptop \"0.5326729\";cropright \"0.6886484\";cropbottom\n\"0.1806249\";filename 'C:\/pmpaper\/TILT.ps';file-properties \"XNPEU\";}}\n\nFigure 4 shows the effect of a tilt of the two axises in the coupling of the\nfibers. Losses start to become important only for rather large tilt angles.\n\nThe cross-talk to neighbouring PM channels is illustrated in Figure 5. The\ncurves correspond to the fraction of photoelectrons collected by neigbouring\nchannels surrounding one of the central pads. (Of course this fraction is\nlower for channels at the borders or corners of the PM.) The photons are\nproduced in a bundle of seven scintillating fibers ($0.5mm$ diameter)\ncoupled to one clear fiber of $3m$ length. The cross-talk becomes disturbing\nwhen the fiber diameter approaches the size of the square channel pads and\nis especially important for the standard window of $1.3mm$ thickness. For a\nsignal of in average 10 photoelectrons and single photoelectron detection%\n\\FRAME{ftbpFU}{4.4278in}{3.5224in}{0pt}{\\Qcb{Simulation of optical\ncross-talk for 64 channel PM as a function of the fiber radius.}}{}{%\nctsimula.ps}{\\special{language \"Scientific Word\";type \"GRAPHIC\";display\n\"USEDEF\";valid_file \"F\";width 4.4278in;height 3.5224in;depth\n0pt;original-width 568.9375pt;original-height 818.8125pt;cropleft\n\"0.0183592\";croptop \"0.764805\";cropright \"0.86705\";cropbottom\n\"0.2969302\";filename 'C:\/pmpaper\/CTSIMULA.ps';file-properties \"XNPEU\";}} a\nchannel multiplicity between $1.6$ and $2.2$ for a $1.5mm$ diameter fiber is\nexpected.\n\nThe large cross-talk for small radia and negligible reflection loss is due\nto the increase of the number of spiraling photons when the coupled\nscintillating fibers cover the full cross section of the clear fiber. If\nsufficient light is available, the cross-talk can be reduced drastically by\nsetting the threshold above the one photoelectron signal.\n\n\\section{Measurements and results}\n\nWe have tested six M16 tubes and three 64 channel prototypes with window\nthicknesses of $1.3mm$, $1.0mm$ and $0.8mm$.\n\n\\subsection{Signals, amplification}\n\nThe photomultiplier tubes have a fast time response. For the 16 channel\ndevice the pulse width for a single photoelectron is of the order of $1$ to $%\n2ns$, the transit time spread is $0.3ns$ and the gain at the nominal voltage\nof $800V$ is $3\\cdot 10^6$ $^2$. The numbers for the 64 channel tube are\nvery similar except for a lower gain of $3\\cdot 10^5$ $\\footnote{%\nHAMAMATSU Product specifications.}.$\n\nFor optical fiber read-out in fiber trackers the photomultipliers have to\nwork with very low light levels. Efficient detection of single\nphotoelectrons is therefore required. Figure 6 shows pulse height\ndistributions for single photoelectrons measured at different high voltage\nsettings for the M16 type. At voltages above $900V$ the single photoelectron\nsignal is clearly separated from noise with a signal to noise ratio larger\nthan ten$.$ The M64 type has a smaller gain than the 16 channel version but\na detection of single photoelectrons is also possible with an adapted\nreadout system.\\FRAME{ftbpFU}{4.28in}{3.5155in}{0pt}{\\Qcb{Single\nphotoelectron pulse height distribution for 16 channel PM for different HV\nsettings.}}{}{hv6.ps}{\\special{language \"Scientific Word\";type\n\"GRAPHIC\";display \"PICT\";valid_file \"F\";width 4.28in;height 3.5155in;depth\n0pt;original-width 568.9375pt;original-height 818.8125pt;cropleft\n\"0.063629\";croptop \"0.900244\";cropright \"0.841535\";cropbottom\n\"0.435104\";filename 'C:\/pmpaper\/HV6.ps';file-properties \"XNPEU\";}}\n\n\\subsection{Uniformity}\n\nThe channel to channel gain variations of the M16 and M64 photomultipliers\nwere measured using a LED at a distance of $30cm$ from the PM which\nilluminated the whole photocathode. This configuration generated single\nphotoelectron signals. All channels were read-out in parallel. The relative\ngain was calculated from the single photoelectron peak position in the pulse\nheight distribution. The maximum gain variation between different channels\nof the same tube is less than a factor of two for the M16 PM's , for M64\nPM's the variation is larger reaching a factor of four. The gain uniformity\nwas measured for 6 PM's of the M16 type and the first two available\nprototypes of the M64 series. Figure 7 shows for both cases a typical gain\nhistogram.\n\nThe mean gain variation of the six tested photomultipliers of the M16 type\nis $25\\%$.\\FRAME{ftbpFU}{4.0577in}{5.9845in}{0pt}{\\Qcb{Uniformity of the\nresponse of the channels for the 64 and the 16 channel PMs.}}{}{hom64_16.ps}{%\n\\special{language \"Scientific Word\";type \"GRAPHIC\";maintain-aspect-ratio\nTRUE;display \"PICT\";valid_file \"F\";width 4.0577in;height 5.9845in;depth\n0pt;original-width 568.9375pt;original-height 818.8125pt;cropleft\n\"0.006314\";croptop \"1.032848\";cropright \"1.04174\";cropbottom\n\"-0.006119\";filename 'C:\/pmpaper\/HOM64_16.ps';file-properties \"XNPEU\";}}\n\n\\subsection{Position sensitivity and cross-talk}\n\nWe have measured the position sensitivity of the PMs between the individual\nchannels by scanning across three pads with a thin fiber of $50\\mu m$\ndiameter, where light was injected by a LED parallel to the axis. The\nresponse is rather uniform except for the gap region where the efficiency is\nreduced to an average of 60\\%. Thus the effective inefficient region is $%\n0.2mm$ for the M16 and $0.1mm$ for the M64 tube.\n\nIn fiber tracker applications cross-talk between adjacent channels increases\nthe apparent occupancy and produces fake signals. There are two possible\nsources for cross-talk: optical and electrical coupling.\n\nElectrical cross-talk between adjacent dynode structures might occur during\nthe electron multiplication processes. Up to the level of about ten\nphotoelectrons electrical cross-talk was not observed in our measurements\nindicating that for applications with low light levels the electrical\ncross-talk is negligible. This is explained by path length variations and\nfluctuations in the light emission time, coincidences between several\nphotoelectrons within the short transit time are unlikely in most cases.\n\nThe optical cross-talk was studied in a similar way as the sensitivity by\nmoving a fiber of diameters of $1.5mm$ in steps of 100 $\\mu m$ across three\ndynode pads. However, the light was produced by irradiating a fiber bundle\nof seven scintillating fibers with a Sr$^{90}$-source to achieve a more\nrealistic light distribution. The fiber bundle was coupled to a $2m$ long\nclear fiber which was connected to the PM. When the fiber is centered at a\npad the neigbouring channel receives a fraction of $0.023$ of the light\n(Fig. 8). Thus for four adjacent channels and a ten photoelectron average\nsignal the channel multiplicity will be about two for a single\nphotoelectrons threshold. This effect is especially disturbing since\nadjacent PM channels will not always correspond to adjacent fibers in the\ntracking detector.\n\n\\FRAME{ftbpFU}{4.35in}{3.1842in}{0pt}{\\Qcb{Relative photon yield as a\nfunction of the fiber position for two different window thicknesses.\nAdjacent channels detect $2.3\\%$ ($1.3mm$ window) and $0.9\\%$ ($0.8mm$\nwindow).}}{}{vgl13_08.ps}{\\special{language \"Scientific Word\";type\n\"GRAPHIC\";display \"PICT\";valid_file \"F\";width 4.35in;height 3.1842in;depth\n0pt;original-width 568.9375pt;original-height 818.8125pt;cropleft\n\"0.024887\";croptop \"0.754395\";cropright \"0.884614\";cropbottom\n\"0.302749\";filename 'C:\/pmpaper\/VGL13_08.ps';file-properties \"XNPEU\";}}\n\nTo reduce the optical cross-talk we asked the PM supplier\\ to decrease the\nentrance window thickness of the photomultiplier tubes to the minimum\nthickness which is technically possible. We received two prototype tubes\nwith entrance window thicknesses of $1.0mm$ and $0.8mm$. The cross-talk was\nreduced by a factor $2.5$ for the $0.8mm$ thick window.\n\nOur simulations (Fig. 5) predict for the two cases cross-talks of $0.05$ ($%\n0.8mm$ window) and $0.13$ ($1.3mm$ window) for four adjacent channels and\nnegligible reflection losses and correspondingly $0.005$ and $0.06$ when we\nassume that we loose a fraction of $0.001$ for each photon reflection. The\nmeasurements ($0.035$) and ($0.09$) are located in between these predictions.\n\n\\subsection{Behaviour in a magnetic field}\n\nAt Hera-B the photomultipliers would have to be operated in regions with\nmagnetic fields of several Gauss up to one Tesla. The gain of conventional\nphotomultipliers is strongly affected by magnetic fields. As a result of the\ndeflection of the electrons by the magnetic field in MCPMs in addition to\nreduced gain increased cross-talk might be expected.\\FRAME{ftbpFU}{4.3734in}{%\n3.186in}{0pt}{\\Qcb{PM signal as a function of the magnetic field strenth.}}{%\n}{magrst.ps}{\\special{language \"Scientific Word\";type \"GRAPHIC\";display\n\"PICT\";valid_file \"F\";width 4.3734in;height 3.186in;depth 0pt;original-width\n568.9375pt;original-height 818.8125pt;cropleft \"0.0363237\";croptop\n\"0.694499\";cropright \"0.9105767\";cropbottom \"0.258447\";filename\n'C:\/pmpaper\/MAGRST.ps';file-properties \"XNPEU\";}}\n\nThe influence of a magnetic field on the PM performance was measured with\nfields up to $100G$ in all three directions with respect to the PM. We used\nsingle photoelectron signals. The magnetic field behaviour of the M16 and\nM64 types is very similar as expected because both tubes have the same metal\nchannel dynode structure except for different lateral dimensions. Figure 9\nshows the relative anode current for the 64 channel PM as a function of the\nmagnetic field in the x-, y- and z-directions where the z axis coincides\nwith the PM axis. The PMs are rather insensitive to magnetic fields. Within\nthe precision of our measurement there is no effect for fields parallel to\nthe y-axis. For the two other field orientations the PM signal is reduced to \n$80\\%$ (z-axis) and $70\\%$ (x-axis). About half of the loss is due to a gain\nreduction, the remaining fraction is loss in efficiency probably due to the\ndeflection of the first photoelectron.\n\nA position scan with and without magnetic field showed no difference in the\namount of cross-talk. Thus the MCPMs can well be operated in magnetic fields\nbelow $100G$.\n\n\\section{Conclusions}\n\nWe have studied the possibility to use multichannel photomultipliers to\nread-out scintillating fiber trackers. The device is well suited for this\npurpose. It is fast, sensitive to single photoelectrons and can be operated\nin magnetic fields up to about $0.01$ T. No electric cross-talk was\nobserved. The optical cross-talk is of the order of $10\\%$ for the $1.3mm$\nversion and single photoelectron detection for fiber diameters near the pad\ndimensions. It was reduced by a factor $2.5$ by replacing the $1.3mm$ window\nby a $0.8mm$ version. The measured cross-talk is compatible with the\nsimulations which also show that it depends strongly on the amount of\nreflection losses in the fibers. The gain variations from channel to channel\nare rather large for the 64 channel tube and require individual off-line\ncorrections for applications where the analog signal has to be recorded.\n\n\\textbf{Acknowledgement}\n\nWe thank Drs. Y. Yoshizawa and J. Takeuchi for lending to us the\nphotomultiplier prototypes and for providing us with valuable informations.\nWe are grateful to our ingeneers W. U. Otto and R. Seibert for the\ndevelopment of high voltage dividers and LED drivers.\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
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+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\nReinforcement learning deals with taking sequences of actions in previously unknown environments, to maximize cumulative rewards. Deep reinforcement learning combines the power of deep neural networks for function approximation with reinforcement learning algorithms. Such algorithms have recently been successful in solving several challenging problems \\cite{mnih2015human, silver2017mastering, schulman2017proximal}. However, these algorithms are often not sample-efficient, typically requiring an unreasonable amount of interactions in an environment \\cite{mnih2015human, schulman2017proximal, duan2016benchmarking}. In real world applications, it is often the case that collecting data is expensive, motivating the need for algorithms that can learn from a minimal number of interactions with the environment.\n\nEffectively using a model of the environment for learning could result in a significant increase of sample-efficiency \\cite{chua2018deep, lowrey2018plan}. This is because models introduce an inductive bias that the environment behaves in a forward generative causal direction. Models can be directly used for planning actions that maximize the sum of expected rewards in a finite horizon. Previous works have successfully used fast and accurate simulators of the environment for planning, to solve challenging tasks such as control of a Humanoid \\cite{lowrey2018plan, tassa2012synthesis}. However, most real-world problems do not come with a fast and accurate simulator and engineering one from scratch is a laborious task. Even if a simulator exists: 1)~maintaining the simulator to accommodate for changes in the real-world is a lot of manual work, and 2)~matching the true state of the environment and the simulator is not trivial. This motivates the need for \\emph{learning} dynamics models of the environment. Dynamics models of the environment can be efficiently learned using supervised learning techniques \\cite{nagabandi2018neural} and also efficiently adapted to changes in the environment \\cite{clavera2018learning}.\n\nPlanning with learned dynamics models is challenging because the planner can exploit the inaccuracies of the model to arrive at actions that are imagined to produce highly over-optimistic rewards (see Figure~\\ref{f:traj_opt}). In this paper, we propose to regularize model-based planning with an energy-based model trained on the same transitions as the dynamics model. The planning procedure is augmented with an additive cost of minimizing the energy of the imagined transitions. This penalizes the planner from producing trajectories with transitions that are outside the training data distribution (that is, transitions with high energy estimates). We demonstrate that the proposed method is effective at regularizing model-based planning from exploiting inaccuracies of the model. Previous works have proposed to use ensembles of models to deal with this problem \\cite{chua2018deep}. We show that the proposed method can further improve the performance of planning on top of pre-trained ensemble of models. Furthermore, we show that the proposed method enables sample-efficient learning to achieve competitive performance in five popular continuous control tasks.\n\n\n\\section{Model-Based Planning}\n\nIn this section, we formalize the problem setting as a Markov Decision Process (MDP). At every discrete time-step $t$, the environment is in state $s_t$, the agent takes an action $a_t$ to receive a scalar reward $r_t = r(s_t, a_t)$ and the environment transitions to the next state $s_{t+1}$, following the dynamics $s_{t+1} = f(s_t, a_t)$. The goal of the agent is to choose actions $a_t$ so as to maximize the sum of expected future rewards (called return), $G = \\mathbb{E} \\left[ \\sum_{t=0}^\\infty r(s_t, a_t) \\right]$.\n\nIn this paper, we focus on finite-horizon planning with learned dynamics models $\\hat{f}$. Also, we assume that the reward function $r(s_t, a_t)$ is known and that the state $s_t$ is fully observed. Forward dynamics models of the environment can be learned using supervised learning techniques to predict the next state $s_{t+1}$ from the current state $s_t$ and action $a_t$:\n\\[ s_{t+1} = \\hat{f}(s_t, a_t) \\,. \\]\n\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[width=0.5\\textwidth, trim=180 120 180 120, clip]{training_loop.pdf}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{Overview of training loop. We initially perform random exploration for one or more episodes to train the dynamics model and then interact with the environment by planning using the learned dynamics model. At the end of each episode, we re-train the dynamics model on the past experience.}\n\\label{f:training-loop}\n\\end{figure}\n\nAt time-step $t$, the agent can plan a sequence of actions $\\{a_t, \\ldots, a_{t+H}\\}$ by unrolling the learned dynamics model to maximize the sum of rewards:\n\\begin{align}\na^*_t, \\ldots, a^*_{t+H} = \\argmax_{a_t, \\ldots, a_{t+H}} \\mathbb{E} \\left[ \\sum_{\\tau=t}^{t+H} r(s_\\tau, a_\\tau) \\right] \n\\,,\n\\label{eq:obj-true}\n\\end{align}\nsuch that $s_{\\tau+1} = f(s_\\tau, a_\\tau)$. Since we do not have access to the true dynamics $f$, we plan using the following objective as a proxy to the true objective:\n\\begin{align}\na^*_t, \\ldots, a^*_{t+H} = \\argmax_{a_t, \\ldots, a_{t+H}} \\sum_{\\tau=t}^{t+H} r(s_\\tau, a_\\tau) \n\\,,\n\\label{eq:obj-proxy}\n\\end{align}\nsuch that $s_{\\tau+1} = \\hat{f}(s_\\tau, a_\\tau)$. We use model-predictive control (MPC) \\cite{garcia1989model, nagabandi2018neural} to adapt our plans to new states, that is we apply just the first action from the optimized sequence and re-plan at next step. This reduces the effect of error accumulation due to multi-step predictions using the model.\n\nWe initially train the dynamics model using data collected by executing a random policy for one or more episodes. More episodes of initial exploration reduces the effect of the initial model weights. The initial data can also be collected by an existing policy, for example human demonstrations or human-engineered controllers. After training the dynamics models, we interact with the environment using model-based planning (Equation~\\ref{eq:obj-proxy}). The $(s_t, a_t, s_{t+1})$ transition observed at each interaction is stored in a replay buffer along with the initial data and the model is re-trained on the replay buffer at the end of each episode. We iterate this alternating process of training the dynamics model and model-based planning. An overview of the training loop is illustrated in Figure~\\ref{f:training-loop}.\n\n\\subsection{Regularizing Model-Based Planning}\n\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth, trim=20 80 20 100, clip]{comp_graph.pdf}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{Computational graph of regularizing model-based planning with energy-based models. At each timestep $t-1$, the environment is in a state $s_{t-1}$ and we initially consider an action trajectory $\\{a_t, a_{t+1}, \\ldots, a_{t+H}\\}$ that we could apply for the next $H$ timesteps. The dynamics model is used to predict the future state transitions $\\{\\tilde{s}_t, \\tilde{s}_{t+1}, \\ldots, \\tilde{s}_{t+H}\\}$ at each timestep for the considered action trajectory. The rewards at each time-step is computed directly from the state-action pairs, resulting in a prediction of the finite-horizon cumulative reward. An additive regularization term is augmented to the planning objective by computing the energy of each $(\\tilde{s}_\\tau, a_\\tau, \\tilde{s}_{\\tau+1})$ transition. The action trajectory $\\{a_t, a_{t+1}, \\ldots, a_{t+H}\\}$ can be optimized to maximize this regularized planning objective.}\n\\label{f:comp-graph}\n\\end{figure}\n\nDirectly optimizing the objective in Equation~\\ref{eq:obj-proxy} is challenging because $\\hat{f}$ is only an approximation of the true dynamics $f$. Deep neural networks are commonly used as function approximators to learn $\\hat{f}$ and they are amenable to erroneous predictions for samples outside the data distribution.\nAn effective optimizer can be easily deceived by these erroneous predictions, converging to action trajectories that are imagined to produce very high rewards but is not the case in reality. This problem can be alleviated by penalizing the optimizer from considering trajectories that are outside the training distribution of the learned dynamics model $\\hat{f}$. This can be achieved by augmenting the planning objective with an additive term to maximize the probability of imagined transitions:\n\\begin{align}\na^*_t, \\ldots, a^*_{t+H} = \\argmax_{a_t, \\ldots, a_{t+H}} \\sum_{\\tau=t}^{t+H} r(s_\\tau, a_\\tau) + \n\\alpha \\log p(s_t, a_t, s_{t+1}, \\ldots, s_{t+H}, a_{t+H}, s_{t+H+1})\n\\,.\n\\nonumber\n\\end{align}\nwhere the scalar $\\alpha$ modulates the weight between both costs. We approximate the joint probability of the whole trajectory as a sum of joint probabilities of each transition in the trajectory:\n\\begin{align}\na^*_t, \\ldots, a^*_{t+H} = \\argmax_{a_t, \\ldots, a_{t+H}} \\sum_{\\tau=t}^{t+H} \\left[ r(s_\\tau, a_\\tau) +\n\\alpha \\log p(s_\\tau, a_\\tau, s_{\\tau+1}) \\right]\n\\,.\n\\label{eq:obj-main}\n\\end{align}\n\nAssume that we want to learn the probability density function using a parameterized model $p(x_\\tau; \\theta)$, where $x_\\tau = [s_\\tau, a_\\tau, s_{\\tau+1}]$. The energy function $E(x_\\tau; \\theta)$ is the unnormalized log-density, that is the probability density function $p(x_\\tau)$ is defined as:\n\\begin{align}\np(x_\\tau; \\theta) = \\frac{1}{Z(\\theta)} \\exp{(-E(x_\\tau;\\theta))}\n\\,,\n\\nonumber\n\\end{align}\nwhere $Z(\\theta) = \\int{\\exp{(-E(x'_\\tau;\\theta))}} dx'_\\tau$ is the partition function which normalizes the probability density. Computing the partition function is generally intractable in practice and is not important for regularization in Equation~\\ref{eq:obj-main} since it does not depend on $x_\\tau$.\nWe can instead learn and use the energy function for regularizing model-based planning:\n\\begin{align}\na^*_t, \\ldots, a^*_{t+H} = \\argmax_{a_t, \\ldots, a_{t+H}} \\sum_{\\tau=t}^{t+H} \\left[ r(s_\\tau, a_\\tau) -\n\\alpha E(s_\\tau, a_\\tau, s_{\\tau+1}) \\right]\n\\,.\n\\label{eq:obj-energy}\n\\end{align}\n\n\n\\section{Energy-Based Models}\n\\label{sec:energy}\n\nIn principle, any energy-based model \\cite{lecun2006tutorial} can be used to estimate $E(s_\\tau, a_\\tau, s_{\\tau+1})$ in Equation~\\ref{eq:obj-energy}. In this paper, we use the recently introduced Deep Energy Estimator Networks (DEEN) \\cite{saremi2018deep, saremi2019neural} for energy estimation. In this section, we introduce deep energy estimator networks and further contrast it against direct score function estimation using a denoising autoencoder. We show that deep energy estimator networks offers a principled and scalable way to estimate both the energy and score functions, making it a good choice for regularization in both gradient-free and gradient-based planning.\n\nConsider a random variable $Y$ that is a noisy observation of another unknown random variable $X$ with density function $p(x)$. \n\\citet{robbins1956empirical} derived the least squares estimators of variable $X$ from observed value $y$ of variable $Y$ for Poisson, geometric and binomial noise distributions and \\citet{miyasawa1961empirical} later extended the work to derive the estimator for univariate Gaussian noise. \\citet{raphan2011least} generalized these results into a unified framework and derived least square estimators for more distributions including multivariate Gaussian distribution. The empirical Bayes least squares estimator or the optimal denoising function $g(y)$ for zero-mean multivariate Gaussian noise is given by:\n\\begin{align}\ng(y) = y + \\sigma^2 \\nabla_y \\log p(y)\n\\,,\n\\label{eq:opt-denoising}\n\\end{align}\nwhere $y \\sim x + N(0, \\sigma^2I_d)$. Assume that we have access to samples $x_i \\in X$. Then, we can corrupt the samples using zero-mean Gaussian noise to obtain samples $y_i \\in Y$. We can train a feedforward neural network $\\hat{g}$ to denoise each sample $y_i$ to predict $x_i$. Such a function $\\hat{g}$ can be implemented with a denoising autoencoder (DAE)\nand based on Equation~\\ref{eq:opt-denoising} we can use it to approximate the score function $\\nabla_y \\log p(y)$ of the corrupted distribution as follows:\n\\begin{align}\n\\nabla_y \\log p(y) \\propto \\hat{g}(y) - y\n\\,.\n\\label{eq:dae}\n\\end{align}\n\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth, trim=10 10 10 10, clip]{deen_vs_dae.pdf}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{Comparison of score function estimation using DEEN vs DAE. We consider a simple mixture of 1d Gaussian distributions and generate 1000 samples from it. The ground truth probability density function $p(x)$, $\\log\\ p(x)$ and score function $\\frac{\\partial\\log\\ p(x)}{\\partial x}$ are shown in the first three figures. We corrupt the training data using additive Gaussian noise with a scale of 0.5. We train a DEEN and a DAE on this training data and the energy and score function estimates of the corrupted distribution $p(y)$ are shown in the last three figures. DEEN provides good smooth estimates of the energy and score function. DAE also provides a reasonable estimate of the score function.}\n\\label{f:deen-dae}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\citet{boney2019regularizing} proposed to use this approximation to directly estimate the gradient of $\\log p(s_\\tau, a_\\tau, s_{\\tau+1})$ in Equation~\\ref{eq:obj-main}. This can be used in gradient-based planning by using the penalty term $\\|\\hat{g}(x) - x\\|^2$ instead of $\\log p(s_\\tau, a_\\tau, s_{\\tau+1})$ in Equation~\\ref{eq:obj-main} and stopping the gradient propagation through the denoising autoencoder $g$.\n\nGradient-free planning with the regularized objective in Equation~\\ref{eq:obj-energy} requires explicit energy estimates. \\citet{boney2019regularizing} used DAE regularization for gradient-free planning, which is not accurate as the denoising error does not correspond to energy estimation. Gradient-free planning offers some attractive properties: 1)~It is very easy to parallelize, 2)~There is no need to backpropogate gradients, 3)~Gradient-based planning involves backpropagating through very deep networks (where the same network is repeatedly applied for a finite horizon), where the problem of exploding and vanishing gradients may arise, and 4)~The learned dynamics model can become chaotic leading to high variance in the backpropagated gradients \\cite{parmas2018pipps}. In this paper, we propose to use differentiable energy-based models to obtain explicit energy estimates, from which the score function can be computed (if needed).\n\n\\citet{saremi2018deep} proposed to explicitly parameterize the energy function $E(y; \\theta)$ with a neural network\nand to compute the derivative of the energy by backpropagating through the network. Such a network can be trained by minimizing the following objective based on the relation in Equation~\\ref{eq:opt-denoising}:\n\\begin{align}\n\\argmin_\\theta \\sum_{x_i \\in X, y_i \\in Y} \\left\\| x_i - y_i + \\sigma^2 \\frac{\\partial E(y=y_i; \\theta)}{\\partial y} \\right\\|^2\n\\label{eq:deen}\n\\end{align}\n\nThe energy function network $E(y; \\theta)$ is called deep energy estimator network (DEEN).\nNote that minimizing this objective involves double backpropagation at each step. Optimizing the objective in Equation~\\ref{eq:deen} ensures that the score function $\\partial E(y; \\theta) \/ \\partial y$ satisfies the relation in Equation~\\ref{eq:opt-denoising}. This leads the energy network $E$ to explicitly learn the energy function of the corrupted distribution such that the gradient of the network also corresponds to the score function of the corrupted distribution. In this paper, we propose to use the energy network $E(y; \\theta)$ to learn the energy function $E(s_\\tau, a_\\tau, s_{\\tau+1})$ and use it for regularization in the planning objective (Equation~\\ref{eq:obj-energy}).  A computational graph of regularizing model-based planning with energy estimation using a DEEN network is illustrated in Figure~\\ref{f:comp-graph}.\n\nIt is to be noted that both the denoising autocoder and the DEEN methods approximate the score function of the corrupted distribution $p(y)$ instead of the true data distribution $p(x)$. This can potentially behave better in practice since $p(y)$ can be seen as a Parzen window estimate of $p(x)$ with variance $\\sigma^2$ as the smoothing parameter \\cite{saremi2019neural, vincent2011connection}.\n\nIn Section~\\ref{sec:exp}, we show that energy estimation with DEEN is more effective than direct score function estimation using DAE for regularizing model-based planning. Deep energy estimator networks have been shown to be robust for score function estimation since the score function is computed from explicit energy estimates \\cite{saremi2018deep}. We compare score function estimation using denoising autoencoders and deep energy estimator networks on a toy example in Figure~\\ref{f:deen-dae}. Previous works \\cite{saremi2019neural, alain2014regularized} have also observed that directly estimating the score function is not robust in practice.\n\n\n\\section{Experiments}\n\\label{sec:exp}\n\nWe compare the proposed energy-based regularization method to probabilistic ensembles with trajectory sampling (PETS) \\cite{chua2018deep} and DAE regularization \\cite{boney2019regularizing}. PETS is a state-of-the-art model-based algorithm which involves learning an ensemble of probabilistic dynamics models.\nWe perform the comparison in five popular continuous control benchmarks from \\cite{brockman2016openai}: Cartpole, Reacher, Pusher, Half-cheetah and Ant. We use cross-entropy method (CEM) \\cite{botev2013cross} as the optimizer in all our experiments since it is computationally significantly faster than the Adam optimizer used in \\cite{boney2019regularizing} and also was able to achieve competitive or even better results in these benchmarks. In Section~\\ref{sec:exp-pre}, we test energy-based regularization method on top of the pre-trained PETS models \nto show that energy-based regularization further improves planning. In Section~\\ref{sec:exp-scratch}, we\nshow that enery-based regularization enables sample-efficient learning to solve all tasks from just a handful of trials.\n\n\\subsection{Experiments on Pre-Trained Dynamics Models}\n\\label{sec:exp-pre}\n\nWe test the proposed regularization on top of the state-of-the-art model-based RL algorithm: PETS. We trained an ensemble of probabilistic dynamics models using the code provided by the authors of \\cite{chua2018deep}. The results are shown in Table~\\ref{t:pretrained-results}. We trained PETS on the Half-cheetah benchmark for 300 episodes and perform closed-loop planning by augmenting the planning objective with an additive term consisting of the energy estimates (Equation~\\ref{eq:obj-energy}). Both DAE and DEEN regularization are able to improve upon PETS, with DEEN regularization performing the best. Similar to \\cite{boney2019regularizing}, we did not observe any improvements on tasks with low-dimensional action spaces: Cartpole, Reacher and Pusher.\n\n\n\\begin{table}[h]\n\\caption{Comparison of planning using pre-trained PETS models with different optimizers}\n\\label{t:pretrained-results}\n\\centering\n\\begin{tabular}{llllll}  \n\\toprule\nOptimizer & CEM & CEM + DAE & Adam + DAE & CEM + DEEN \\\\\n\\midrule\nReturn & $10955 \\pm 2865$ & $12967 \\pm 3216$ & $12796 \\pm 2716$ & $\\mathbf{13052 \\pm 2814}$ \\\\\n\\bottomrule\n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{table}\n\n\n\\subsection{Experiments on Learning from Scratch}\n\\label{sec:exp-scratch}\n\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{corl_results.pdf}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{Results of our experiments on learning from scratch on five continuous control benchmarks: Cartpole, Reacher, Pusher, Half-cheetah and Ant. We compare to PETS \\cite{chua2018deep} and DAE regularization \\cite{boney2019regularizing} using the return (cumulative reward) obtained in each episode. \nPETS is a state-of-the-art model-based RL algorithm and DAE regularization has been shown to be effective in sample-efficient learning in these tasks. We also compare against planning with Gaussian Processes (GP) based dynamics model in the Cartpole task. We show the mean and standard deviation of each setting averaged across 5 seeds.}\n\\label{f:scratch-results}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn this section, we test the effectiveness of regularization using energy-based models for learning from scratch. We perform one or more episodes of random exploration, train a dynamics model and the regularizer on the transitions and further interact with the environment using MPC by planning at each time-step using the regularized objective in Equation~\\ref{eq:obj-energy}. We maintain a replay buffer of all past transitions and at the end of each episode the dynamics model and regularizer are re-trained on the whole replay buffer. In these experiments, we use a single feedforward network as the dynamics model (as opposed to an ensemble of models in \\cite{chua2018deep}) to test the efficacy of the proposed method in a simple setting. The results are shown in Figure~\\ref{f:scratch-results}. In low-dimensional environments such as Cartpole, Reacher and Pusher, CEM optimization with DEEN regularization is comparable or better than the other methods. In Half-cheetah, CEM optimization with DEEN regularization clearly performs the best, obtaining good asymptotic performance in just 20,000 timesteps (corresponding to 16.6 minutes of experience). In Ant, CEM optimization with DEEN regularization also performs the best, learning to walk reasonably in just 4,000 timesteps (corresponding to 3.3 minutes of experience)\\footnote{Videos of the training progress are available at \\href{https:\/\/sites.google.com\/view\/regularizing-mbrl}{https:\/\/sites.google.com\/view\/regularizing-mbrl}.}. It can also be observed that CEM optimization with DEEN regularization performs competitively or better than Adam optimization with DAE regularization, which requires much more computation.\nIn the Half-cheetah benchmark, state-of-the-art model-free methods \\cite{haarnoja2018soft, fujimoto2018addressing} and PETS obtains better asymptotic performance during later stages of learning. \nWe postulate that this is due to lack of a proper exploration mechanism in the proposed approach. However, DEEN regularization enables excellent performance during the early stages of training and also shows consistent improvements after each episode. This is very important for practical applications in the real-world, where the agent is expected to perform sensible actions from the very beginning. The proposed method enables efficient exploitation of the learned dynamics model and combining it with an explicit exploration mechanism would facilitate controlled exploration and exploitation. We leave complementation of the proposed method with an effective exploration strategy to future research. For example, energy estimates of the transitions could be used as bonuses for curiosity-driven exploration \\cite{pathak2017curiosity} to visit novel states and try novel actions.\n\nWe visually demonstrate the effectiveness of DEEN regularization in Figure~\\ref{f:traj_opt}. To compare with \\cite{boney2019regularizing}, we visualize trajectory optimization on the Half-cheetah task using dynamics models obtained after 5 episodes of training. We perform actions in the environment for 50 timesteps using model-based planning to arrive at a stable state and then perform trajectory optimization using a randomly initialized population of action trajectories. Without any regularization, the planning procedure leads to trajectories that are predicted to produce high rewards but is not the case in reality. It can be observed that while DAE regularization is also effective, DEEN regularization is clearly better, being able to successfully prevent the reality and imagination from diverging and also leading to trajectories with a better outcome.\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[width=.8\\textwidth]{traj_opt.pdf}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{Visualization of trajectory optimization after 5 episodes of training in the Half-cheetah environment. We perform actions in the environment for 50 timesteps using MPC and then initialize the CEM optimization with the a random population of trajectories and optimize the planning objective in three different settings: 1) without any regularization, 2) with DAE regularization \\cite{boney2019regularizing}, and 3) with DEEN regularization. Here, the red lines denote the rewards predicted by the model (imagination) and the black lines denote the true rewards obtained when applying the sequence of optimized actions (reality). It is noticeable that planning without any regularization exploits inaccuracies of the dynamics model but DAE and DEEN regularization is able to prevent this.\n}\n\\label{f:traj_opt}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsection{Model Architecture and Hyperparameters}\n\nThe important hyperparameters used in our experiments are reported in Table~\\ref{t:hyperparameters}.\nFollowing \\cite{chua2018deep, boney2019regularizing}, we used a Bayesian neural network (BNN) with mean and variance predictions as our dynamics model. Although the predicted variance is not used for planning, it was found to have a regularizing effect during training \\cite{chua2018deep}. We used a vanilla feedforward network to model the energy function\nThe energy estimation network is trained by corrupting the transitions in the replay buffer using additive Gaussian noise and minimizing the objective in Equation~\\ref{eq:deen}. We found the noise scale $\\sigma$, cost multiplier $\\alpha$ and number of training epochs to be the most sensitive hyperparameters. \nTo prevent overfitting to the replay buffer, we explored simple strategies like increasing the number of initial episodes with random exploration and decaying the number of training epochs after each episode. In Half-cheetah, we perform random exploration for the first 3 episodes and decay the number of training epochs to 8 after 10 episodes. In Ant, we decay the number of training epochs of the dynamics model and the DEEN network by factors of 0.6 and 0.7 respectively.\n\n\\begin{table}[h]\n\\caption{Important hyperparameters used in our experiments}\n\\label{t:hyperparameters}\n\\centering\n\\begin{tabular}{llccccc}\n\\toprule\n& Hyperparameter & Cartpole & Reacher & Pusher & Half-cheetah & Ant \\\\\n\\midrule\n\\multirow{4}{*}{Model} & Hidden layers & 3 & 3 & 3 & 4 & 4 \\\\\n& Hidden size & 200 & 200 & 200 & 200 & 400 \\\\\n& Epochs & 500 & 500 & 100 & 300 & 600 \\\\\n& Batch Size & 32 & 32 & 32 & 128 & 400 \\\\\n\\midrule\n\\multirow{6}{*}{DEEN} & Hidden layers & 3 & 3 & 3 & 5 & 3 \\\\\n& Hidden size & 200 & 200 & 200 & 500 & 300 \\\\\n& Epochs & 500 & 500 & 100 & 100 & 800 \\\\\n& Batch Size & 32 & 32 & 32 & 32 & 64 \\\\\n& Noise scale $\\sigma$ & 0.1 & 0.1 & 0.1 & 0.37 & 0.9 \\\\\n& Cost multiplier $\\alpha$ & 0.001 & 0.001 & 0.01 & 0.05 & 0.035 \\\\\n\\midrule\nCEM & Iterations & 5 & 5 & 5 & 5 & 7 \\\\\n\\bottomrule\n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{table}\n\n\n\\section{Related Work}\n\nThis paper is inspired by the recent works on planning with learned dynamics models. PILCO \\cite{deisenroth2011pilco} is a well-known method for sample-efficient learning in low-dimensional control problems. However, it has been difficult to scale such methods to high-dimensional problems. \\citet{nagabandi2018neural} used neural networks as dynamics models for planning to demonstrate sample-efficient learning on challenging continuous control problems and further fine-tuned the learned policy using model-free methods for good asymptotic performance. \\citet{mishra2017prediction} introduced deep generative models based on convolutional autoregressive models and variational autoencoders \\cite{kingma2013auto} and used it for gradient-based trajectory optimization and policy optimization. \\citet{chua2018deep} used ensembling of probabilistic dynamics models and trajectory sampling to deal with inaccuracies of learned dynamics models and demonstrated sample-efficient learning to achieve high asymptotic performance on challenging continuous control problems. While the use of ensembling in \\cite{chua2018deep} allows for a better dynamics model, energy-based regularization also bounds the transitions of the agent to be similar to it's previous experience, which might be important for safety-critical applications. While KL divergence penalty between action distribution has been used in previous works \\cite{levine2013guided, kumar2016optimal}, energy-based regularization also bounds the familiarity of states. \\citet{boney2019regularizing} proposed to use denoising autoencoders to prevent trajectory optimization from exploiting modelling inaccuracies and demonstrated sample-efficient learning from very few episodes, using gradient-based trajectory optimization. \\citet{hafner2018learning} introduced a novel latent dynamics model for planning in high-dimensional observation spaces, such as images. Recent works on model-based RL have also explored Dyna-style \\cite{sutton1990integrated} architectures where learned dynamics models are used to generate data to train model-free methods \\cite{kurutach2018modelensemble, clavera2018model, ha2018recurrent}.\n\nEnergy-based models can be directly used for planning by sampling future trajectories from the generative model. \\citet{du2019implicit} showed that energy-based models can be used to sample diverse predictions of future trajectories and it was later extended in \\cite{du2019model} for model-based planning. DEEN \\cite{saremi2018deep} could also be directly used for planning by sampling future  trajectories using the novel walk-jump sampling algorithm introduced in \\cite{saremi2019neural}. However, sampling from such models at each timestep for planning is expensive and we instead use a separate forward dynamics model for directly predicting the future trajectories but only use the energy-based model for regularization. This can be seen as an ensemble of two different kinds of models.\n\n\n\\section{Conclusion}\n\nPlanning with learned dynamics models is challenging because planning can exploit the inaccuracies in the model to produce over-optimistic trajectories. In this paper, we propose to regularize planning using energy estimates of state transitions in the environment. We use a recently proposed energy estimation method called DEEN for this purpose. We demonstrated that an energy estimation network can be trained on the past experience of pre-trained dynamics models to further improve planning. We also demonstrated that the energy regularization enables sample-efficient learning on challenging tasks such as Half-cheetah and Ant, in just a few minutes of interaction.\n\nOne of the limitations of the proposed and related model-based planning algorithms is the additional hyperparameter tuning required for learning dynamics models. AutoML algorithms can be potentially used to automate the training of effective dynamics model by splitting the replay buffer into a training set and validation set and optimizing the prediction performance on the validation set. This could enable automatic architecture and hyperparameter tuning of dynamics models using more computational resources, without any additional data or human supervision. This would be an interesting line of future work.\n\n\n\n\\clearpage\n\n\\acknowledgments{We would like to thank Saeed Saremi for valuable discussions about his work on deep energy estimator networks and neural empirical Bayes.}\n\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\nIn diverse families of strongly correlated electron systems, including cuprates,  iron-pnictides,  and heavy fermion compounds, superconductivity is often found near a quantum critical point (QCP) where a magnetic phase vanishes in the limit of zero temperature, pointing to a magnetic glue as the source of electron pairing \\cite{Mathur,Shibauchi2014,Keimer}.   In these materials,  microscopic coexistence of superconducting and magnetically ordered phases both involving the same charge carriers is a striking example for unusual emergent electronic phases.  Moreover,  superconductivity is frequently the strongest near the QCP,  suggesting that the proliferation of critical magnetic excitations emanating from the QCP plays an important role in Cooper pairing.   Despite tremendous research, however,  the entangled relationship between superconductivity and magnetism has remained largely elusive.    \n\n\n\\begin{figure}[b]\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[width=1.0\\linewidth]{Fig1.eps}\n\\caption{\n(a) Schematic figure of the interaction between $d$-wave superconductivity (SC) and static antiferromagnetic (AFM) order  via the interface.  (b) Interaction between two competing orders under pressure near quantum critical point (QCP), where  AFM order disappears. \n(c) High resolution cross-sectional TEM image for CeCoIn$_5$($5$)\/CeRhIn$_5$($5$) superlattice. (d) The TEM image of the boxed area in (c).\n}\n \\end{center}\n \\end{figure}\n\nRecently, realization that interactions between superconducting electrons and bosonic excitations through an atomic interface can have a profound influence on Cooper-pair formation has raised the exciting possibility of a new route to controlling superconductivity.   For instance, when a monolayer of FeSe is grown on a SrTiO$_3$ substrate, the interaction between FeSe electrons and SrTiO$_3$ phonons via the interface enhances the pairing interaction, giving rise to the highest  transition temperature $T_c$ among iron-based superconductors \\cite{Huang,DHLee,JJLee,Rademaker}.    This discovery raises the possibility of a magnetic analogue in which the pairing interaction is influenced by magnetic fluctuations though an interface between  an unconventional superconductor and a magnetic metal. This concept is illustrated schematically in Figs.\\,1(a) and 1(b). Besides allowing a new approach to revealing the entangled relationship between magnetism and unconventional superconductivity, this concept has the  advantage that magnetic excitations are tunable as a magnetic transition is driven toward zero temperature, unlike phonon excitations in SrTiO$_3$.  The state-of-the-art molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) technique enables realization of this idea through fabrication of  artificial Kondo superlattices with alternating layers of Ce-based heavy fermion superconductors and magnets  that are atomic layer thick \\cite{Shishido2010,Mizukami,Shimozawa2016}.  These artificially engineered materials are particularly suitable systems to elucidate the mutual interaction through the interface, providing a new platform to study the interplay of competing orders.  \n \nThe layered heavy fermion compounds Ce$M$In$_5$ ($M=$\\,Co, Rh) are ideal model systems in which the interplay between magnetism and superconductivity can be explored, because of their high purity and small energy scales \\cite{Thompson,Kenzelman,Knebel2010}.  They  have similar Fermi surface structures and similar pressure-temperature ($p$-$T$) phase diagrams.    At ambient pressure, CeCoIn$_5$ is a superconductor ($T_c$=2.3\\,K) with $d_{x^2-y^2}$-wave symmetry \\cite{Izawa,Allan,Zhou}. The normal state possesses non-Fermi-liquid properties in zero field, including $T$-linear resistivity, indicative of a nearby underlying QCP \\cite{Sidorov,Nakajima}.  In contrast, CeRhIn$_5$ orders antiferromagnetically at atmospheric pressure ($T_{\\rm N}$=3.8\\,K) \\cite{Bao}.  Its magnetic transition is suppressed by applying pressure and the ground state becomes purely superconducting state at $p>p^\\ast\\approx$1.7\\, GPa, indicating the presence of a pressure induced QCP \\cite{Park2006,Knebel2008,Park2008,Shishido2005}.   As disorder may seriously influence physical properties especially near a QCP, there is a great benefit in examining quantum critical systems which are stoichiometric, and hence, relatively disorder free; both compounds are ones of a small number of such systems. Both host a wide range of fascinating superconducting properties including an upper critical field $H_{c2}$ that is limited by  extremely strong Pauli pair-breaking \\cite{Izawa,Knebel2008}. \n\nTo realize hybrid heterostructures shown in Figs.\\,1(a) and 1(b), we fabricate superlattice films with alternating block layers (BLs) of $n$ unit-cell-thick (UCT) CeCoIn$_5$ and $m$-UCT CeRhIn$_5$, CeCoIn$_5$($n$)\/CeRhIn$_5$($m$).\nWe demonstrate that the pairing interaction in a $d$-wave superconductor is tuned by injecting magnetic fluctuations through the atomic interface. Moreover, we show that the pairing strength is maximized near the critical pressure where AFM order vanishes. \n\n\n\nThe hybrid superlattices CeCoIn$_5$($n$)\/CeRhIn$_5$($m$) with $c$ axis oriented structure are grown on MgF$_2$ substrate by the MBE technique \\cite{Shishido2010,Mizukami,Shimozawa2016}. \nFigure\\,1(c) displays a high-resolution cross-sectional transmission electron microscope (TEM) image of a CeCoIn$_5$($5$)\/CeRhIn$_5$($5$) superlattice.  The TEM image displayed in Fig.\\,1(d) (the boxed area in Fig.\\,1(c)) demonstrate that the Rh and Co atoms are clearly distinguished by bright and dark spots, respectively.  No discernible atomic inter-diffusion between the neighboring Co and Rh layers is seen, which is also confirmed by lateral satellite peaks in an X-ray diffraction pattern.  The epitaxial growth of each layer with atomic flatness is confirmed by  reflection high energy electron diffraction (Fig.\\,S1 in \\cite{SM}). These results indicate the successful fabrication of epitaxial superlattices with sharp interfaces.  \nHigh-pressure resistivity measurements have been performed under hydrostatic pressure up to 2.4\\,GPa using a piston cylinder cell with oil as pressure transmitting medium.\n\n\n\n\n \\begin{figure}[t]\n \t\\begin{center}\n \t\n \t\t\\includegraphics[width=1.0\\linewidth]{Fig2.eps}\n \t\n \t\t\\caption{\n\t\n\t\t(a), (b) $p$-$T$ phase diagrams of thin films and single crystals of (a) CeCoIn$_5$  and (b) CeRhIn$_5$. \n\t\n\t\t(c) Temperature dependence of the resistivity of CeCoIn$_5$ thin film at ambient pressure and at $p=2.1$\\,GPa. (d) and (e) show temperature dependence of the resistivity (solid lines, left axes) and its temperature derivative $d\\rho(T)\/dT$ (dotted lines, right axes) for CeRhIn$_5$ thin film and CeCoIn$_5$(5)\/CeRhIn$_5$(5) superlattice at ambient pressure and at $p=2.1$\\,GPa, respectively. The peak of $d\\rho(T)\/dT$ corresponds to AFM transition.  \n \t\t}\n \t\t\\label{fig:Fig1.eps}\n \t\\end{center}\n \\end{figure}\n\nFigures\\,2(a) and 2(b) depict the  resistively determined  $p$-$T$ phase diagrams of  separate, MBE-grown epitaxial thin films of  CeCoIn$_5$ and CeRhIn$_5$, whose resistivities  ($\\rho$) are  shown in Figs.\\,2(c) and 2(d), respectively.  The $p$-$T$ phase diagrams of both films are essentially those of single crystals.  \n$T_c$ (=2.0\\,K) in the CeCoIn$_5$ thin film, however, is slightly reduced from the bulk value, possibly due to strain  induced by a slight lattice mismatch with  the substrate, while $T_{\\rm N}$ (=3.7\\,K) of CeRhIn$_5$ thin film is almost the same as that in a single crystal.  With pressure, $T_c$ of CeCoIn$_5$ thin film increases and shows a broad peak  near $p\\sim$1.7\\,GPa.  CeRhIn$_5$ thin film undergoes the superconducting transition with no signature of AFM transition at $p\\approx$2.1\\,GPa.  Similar to CeRhIn$_5$  single crystals \\cite{Park2006,Sidorov,Park2008},  superconductivity  in the thin films develops  at $p\\agt$1\\,GPa  where it coexists with magnetic order, and  there is only a  purely superconducting state  at $p\\agt$2.1\\,GPa (Fig.\\,S2 in \\cite{SM}), a slightly higher pressure than in single crystals.  \n\n\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n \t\\begin{center}\n \t\n \t\t\\includegraphics[width=1.0\\linewidth]{Fig3.eps}\n \t\n \t\t\\caption{\n\t\n\t\n\t\t(a) $p$-$T$ phase diagram of CeCoIn$_5$(5)\/CeRhIn$_5$(5) superlattice. \n\t\tOut-of-plane upper critical field $H_{c2\\perp}$ normalized by $T_c$, $H_{c2\\perp}\/T_c$, measures the coupling strength of the  superconductivity. \n\t\t(b) Temperature dependence of in-plane and out-of-plane upper critical fields at ambient pressure and at $p=1.8$ and 2.1\\,GPa. (c) Anisotropy of upper critical field, $H_{c2\\parallel}\/H_{c2\\perp}$, near $T_c$ of superlattices at ambient pressure and at 2.1\\,GPa, along with the data of CeCoIn$_5$ thin film. (d) Angular dependence of upper critical field of superlattice at $p=1.8$ and 2.1\\,GPa. The inset is an expanded view of the low angle region.\n \t\t}\n \t\t\\label{fig:Fig1.eps}\n \t\\end{center}\n \\end{figure}\n \n \nFigure\\,2(e)  compares  the $T$-dependence of $\\rho(T)$ and its temperature derivative $d\\rho(T)\/dT$ for a CeCoIn$_5$(5)\/CeRhIn$_5$(5) superlattice at ambient pressure and at $p=2.1$\\,GPa.   At ambient pressure, a distinct peak in $d\\rho(T)\/dT$ associated with an AFM transition can be seen at 3\\,K in addition to a superconducting transition at $\\sim1.4$\\,K \\cite{Knebel2008}. While $T_c$ and $T_{\\rm N}$ of the hybrid superlattice are lower than that of the CeCoIn$_5$ and CeRhIn$_5$ thin films, respectively, they are still larger than that of respective CeCoIn$_5$\/YbCoIn$_5$ and CeRhIn$_5$\/YbRhIn$_5$ superlattices (Fig.\\,S2 in \\cite{SM}), indicating the importance of mutual interaction between the CeCoIn$_5$ and CeRhIn$_5$ BLs.  On the other hand, at $p=2.1$\\,GPa, there is no signature for magnetic order, while the superconductivity remains with slightly higher $T_c$ than at ambient pressure.  In Fig.\\,3(a),  we plot the $p$-dependence of $T_c$ and $T_{\\rm N}$ determined by the peak in $d\\rho(T)\/dT$.   At $p\\sim2$\\,GPa,  $T_c$ is a maximum, forming a dome-shaped $p$-dependence.  With pressure, $T_{\\rm N}$ is suppressed gradually at low $p$, followed by a rapid suppression at $p\\agt1$\\,GPa (Fig.\\,S3 in \\cite{SM}).   At $p\\agt 1.6$\\,GPa, evidence for magnetic order is hidden beneath the superconducting dome. A simple extrapolation of $T_{\\rm N}(p)$ gives a critical pressure $p_c\\sim2$\\,GPa at which the magnetic transition reaches zero temperature and $T_c$ shows a maximum. \n\nWe demonstrate that two-dimensional (2D) superconductivity is realized  in CeCoIn$_5$ BLs in the whole pressure regime.   Figures\\,3(b) and 3(c) depict the $T$-dependence of the upper critical field determined by the mid point of the resistive transition in a magnetic field $H$ applied  parallel  ($H_{c2\\parallel}$)  and perpendicular  ($H_{c2\\perp}$)  to the $ab$ plane and the $T$-dependence of the anisotropy of upper critical fields, $H_{c2\\parallel}\/H_{c2\\perp}$, respectively.  The anisotropy diverges on approaching $T_c$, in sharp contrast to the CeCoIn$_5$ thin film whose anisotropy shows little $T$-dependence up to $T_c$.  This diverging anisotropy in the superlattice is a characteristic feature of 2D superconductivity, in which  $H_{c2\\parallel}$ increases as $\\sqrt{T_c-T}$ due to the Pauli paramagnetic limiting, but   $H_{c2\\perp}$ increases as $T_c-T$ due to orbital limiting near $T_c$.    This result, along with the fact that the thickness of the CeCoIn$_5$-BL is comparable to the perpendicular superconducting coherence length $\\xi_{\\perp}\\sim3$--4\\,nm, indicates that each 5-UCT CeCoIn$_5$ BL effectively acts as a 2D superconductor \\cite{Mizukami}.   The 2D superconductivity is reinforced by the angular variation of $H_{c2}(\\theta)$.  Figure \\,3(d) and its inset show $H_{c2}(\\theta)$ below and above $p^*$.   For both pressures, at $T\\ll T_c$,\n$H_{c2}(\\theta)$ in the regime $|\\theta|\\alt30^{\\circ}$ is enhanced with decreasing $|\\theta|$ and exhibits a sharp cusp at $\\theta=0$.  This cusp behavior is typical for a Josephson coupled layered superconductor \\cite{Tinkham}.\n\nWe note that  in stark contrast to CeRhIn$_5$ single crystal and our thin film, each CeRhIn$_5$ BL in CeCoIn$_5$(5)\/CeRhIn$_5$(5) superlattice is not fully superconducting even when the AFM order is suppressed under pressure, which leads to the realization of 2D superconductivity in a wide range of pressure.  In fact, as shown in Fig.\\,3(d), overall angle dependence of $H_{c2}(\\theta)$ including the cusp structure near $\\theta=0$ is observed at $p=1.8$\\,GPa, where the bulk superconductivity is not observed in CeRhIn$_5$ thin film (Fig.\\,2(b) and Fig.\\,S2 in \\cite{SM}).  Essentially very similar angle dependence of $H_{c2}(\\theta)$ is observed at $p=2.1$\\,GPa above $p_c$.  These results imply that 2D superconductivity occurs in CeCoIn$_5$ BLs even above $p_c$.   Moreover,  in CeRhIn$_5$(5)\/YbRhIn$_5$(5) \nsuperlattice zero resistivity is not attained under pressure (Fig.\\,S4 in \\cite{SM}).   \nWith the reduction of BL thickness, the superconductivity of CeRhIn$_5$ is strongly suppressed, in stark contrast to CeCoIn$_5$. This may be related to the incommensurate magnetic structure of CeRhIn$_5$ with ordering vector $\\bm{q}=(0.5,0.5, 0.297)$ \\cite{Bao}, in which the long-wave-length AFM fluctuations perpendicular to the layers are suppressed in CeRhIn$_5$ BLs with atomic layer thickness.  In CeCoIn$_5$, on the other hand, AFM fluctuations with different $\\bm{q}=(0.45, 0.45, 0.5)$ are dominant \\cite{Raymond}. This commensurability along the $c$ axis would be better compatible with the superlattice structure, and as a result,   the superconductivity is robust against the reduction of BL thickness \\cite{Yamanaka}. \nWe here comment on the low temperature anisotropy of $H_{c2}$ of the CeCoIn$_5$(5)\/CeRhIn$_5$(5) superlattice  (Fig.\\,3(b)).  At $p=2.1$\\,GPa, $H_{c2\\perp}$ exceeds $H_{c2\\parallel}$ at low temperatures. Such a  reversed  anisotropy of $H_{c2}$ has been reported in CeRhIn$_5$ single crystal above the pressure where the AFM order disappears \\cite{Thompson,Park2008}.  However, similar reversed anisotropy ($H_{c2\\perp}>H_{c2\\parallel}$) is preserved at $p=1.8$\\,GPa, where $H_{c2\\parallel}$ exceeds $H_{c2\\perp}$ in CeRhIn$_5$ single crystal and thin film. This indicates that anisotropy reversal of $H_{c2}$ occurs under pressure in  5-UCT CeCoIn$_5$ BLs.  Based on these results, we conclude that  2D superconducting CeCoIn$_5$ BLs in CeCoIn$_5$(5)\/CeRhIn$_5$(5) are coupled by the Josephson effect in the whole pressure regime.\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n \t\\begin{center}\n \t\n \t\t\\includegraphics[width=1.0\\linewidth]{Fig4.eps}\n \t\n \t\t\\caption{\n\t\n\t\t(a) Out-of-plane upper critical field $H_{c2\\perp}$ normalized by the orbital-limited upper critical field at $T=0$\\,K, $H_{c2\\perp}\/H_{c2\\perp}^{\\rm orb}(0)$, for CeCoIn$_5$(5)\/CeRhIn$_5$(5) superlattice is plotted as a function of the normalized temperature $T\/T_c$.   Two extreme cases, i.e.  the result of  the bulk CeCoIn$_5$ dominated by Pauli paramagnetic effect and the WHH curve with no Pauli effect, are also shown.  (b) Pressure dependence of $H_{c2}^{\\rm orb}(0)$ of CeCoIn$_5$($n$)\/CeRhIn$_5$($n$) superlattices with $n=4$ and 5 for ${\\bm H}$$\\parallel$$c$.   For comparison, $H_{c2}^{\\rm orb}(0)$ of CeRhIn$_5$ single crystals  for ${\\bm H}$$\\parallel$$a$ and that of CeCoIn$_5$ single crystal for ${\\bm H}$$\\parallel$$c$ are shown. \nSolid and dashed arrows represent $p_c$ for CeCoIn$_5$($n$)\/CeRhIn$_5$($n$) superlattices and CeRhIn$_5$ single crystal, respectively. \n \t\t}\n \t\t\\label{fig:Fig1.eps}\n \t\\end{center}\n \\end{figure}\n\n\n\nApplication of the pressure leads to a drastic change in the nature of  superconductivity in the hybrid superlattices.   Figure\\,4(a) depicts the $T$-dependence of $H_{c2\\perp}$, normalized by the orbital-limited upper critical field at $T=0$\\,K, $H_{c2\\perp}^{\\rm orb}(0)$, which is obtained from  the Werthamer-Helfand-Hohenberg (WHH) formula, $H_{c2\\perp}^{\\rm orb}(0)=-0.69T_c(dH_{c2\\perp}\/dT)_{T_c}$.  We also include two extreme cases: $H_{c2\\perp}\/H_{c2\\perp}^{\\rm orb}(0)$ for  bulk CeCoIn$_5$ \\cite{Tayama}, in which $H_{c2}$  is dominated by Pauli paramagnetism, and the WHH curve with no Pauli effect.   Pressure dramatically enhances $H_{c2\\perp}\/H_{c2\\perp}^{\\rm orb}$.  What is remarkable is that  near  the critical pressure $p_c\\sim 2$\\,GPa at which  evidence for magnetic order  disappears, $H_{c2\\perp}\/H_{c2\\perp}^{\\rm orb}$ nearly coincides with the WHH curve, indicating that $H_{c2\\perp}$ is limited solely by orbital pair-breaking.  \n\n\nThe fact that  $H_{c2\\perp}$ approaches the orbital limit provides important insight on superconductivity of the hybrid superlattice. In CeCoIn$_5$\/YbCoIn$_5$, where YbCoIn$_5$ is a conventional metal, Pauli pair-breaking effect is weaken in the superlattice compared with the bulk due to local inversion symmetry breaking at the interfaces, which splits the Fermi surfaces with spin texture and thus effectively suppresses the Zeeman effect \\cite{Goh,Maruyama2012}. This leads to the Rashba-induced anisotropic suppression of the Zeeman effect \\cite{Shimozawa2016}, which may be partly responsible for the observed reversed anisotropy $H_{c2\\parallel}\/H_{c2\\perp}<1$ at low temperatures (Fig.\\,3(d)). However, this effect is less important in CeCoIn$_5$($n$)\/CeRhIn$_5$($n$) superlattices compared with  CeCoIn$_5$\/YbCoIn$_5$, which is evidenced by the fact that  $H_{c2\\perp}\/H_{c2\\perp}^{\\rm orb}(0)$ does not strongly depend on $n$ (Fig.\\,S5 in \\cite{SM}). Moreover, such an effect is not expected to have significant pressure dependence. Therefore, there must be a different mechanism that significantly enhances the Pauli-limiting field $H_{c2\\perp}^{\\rm Pauli}=\\sqrt{2}\\Delta\/g\\mu_B$,  where $g$ is the $g$-factor of electrons and $\\mu_B$ is the Bohr magneton.  An enhancement of $H_{c2\\perp}^{\\rm Pauli}$ is not due to a dramatic suppression of $g$ by pressure, because it is highly unlikely that the Ce crystalline electric field state, which determines $g$-factor, strongly depends on pressure.  Therefore the enhancement of  $H_{c2\\perp}^{\\rm Pauli}$ is attributed to a strong increase in the superconducting gap $\\Delta$.  This is supported by the observed enhancement of  $H_{c2\\perp}\/T_c$ upon approaching $p_c$ shown in Fig.\\,3(a).    Because  $H_{c2\\perp}\\approx H_{c2\\perp}^{\\rm Pauli} \\ll H_{c2\\perp}^{\\rm orb}(0)$ in the low $p$ regime and  $H_{c2\\perp}\\approx H_{c2\\perp}^{\\rm orb}(0) \\ll H_{c2\\perp}^{\\rm Pauli}$ near $p\\sim p_c$,   the enhancement of  $H_{c2\\perp}\/k_BT_c$ directly indicates an enhancement of $H_{c2\\perp}^{\\rm Pauli}\/T_c$ and hence $\\Delta\/k_BT_c$.  This behavior  contrasts with observations on  CeCoIn$_5$ single crystals, in which $H_{c2}\/T_c$ decreases with pressure.  The enhancement of $\\Delta\/k_BT_c$ is caused as a consequence of enhancement of pairing interaction. In spin fluctuation mediated scenario, the pairing interaction is mainly provided by high energy spin fluctuations whose energy scale is well above $\\Delta$ and  low energy fluctuations cause the pair-breaking.  Since the high energy fluctuations enhance $T_c$ while low energy ones reduce $T_c$,  the enhancement of pairing interaction can give rise to the increase of $\\Delta\/k_BT_c$ without accompanying a large enhancement of $T_c$, which is consistent with the observed behavior.  Thus, the present results demonstrate that  the pairing interaction in CeCoIn$_5$ BLs is strikingly enhanced as a result of the quantum critical magnetic fluctuations  that develop in  CeRhIn$_5$ BLs, which are injected into CeCoIn$_5$ BLs  through the interface. \n\n\nIt is well established that quantum fluctuations strongly influence normal and superconducting properties in many classes of unconventional superconductors.   One of the most striking is a diverging effective quasiparticle mass $m^*$ upon approaching the QCP, as reported in cuprate, pnictide and heavy-fermion systems \\cite{Shibauchi2014,Shishido2005,Ramshaw}.  Such a mass enhancement gives rise to a corresponding enhancement of $H_{c2}^{\\rm orb}$, which is proportional to  $(m^*\\Delta)^2$.  Here we stress that there is a fundamental difference in the present hybrid superlattices.  Figure\\,4(b) depicts the $p$-dependence of $H_{c2\\perp}^{\\rm orb}$ of the CeCoIn$_5$($n$)\/CeRhIn$_5$($n$) superlattices with $n=4$ and 5, along with the result for CeCoIn$_5$ and CeRhIn$_5$ single crystals \\cite{Park2008,Knebel2010}.  In contrast to a CeRhIn$_5$ single crystal which shows a sharp peak at the critical pressure, $H_{c2\\perp}^{\\rm orb}$ of the superlattices depends weakly on pressure with no significant anomaly at $p_c$. Compared to the monotonic decrease  observed in single crystal CeCoIn$_5$, this weak dependence is consistent with an enlarged gap $\\Delta$, but the results suggest the absence of\nmass enhancement in the CeCoIn$_5$ BL. Such a behavior is in contrast to usual expectations for quantum criticality, details of which deserve further studies. \n\n\n\nIn summary, we have designed and fabricated hybrid superlattice CeCoIn$_5$\/CeRhIn$_5$ formed by alternating atomically thick layers of a $d$-wave heavy fermion superconductor CeCoIn$_5$ and an AFM metal CeRhIn$_5$. \nThe present results demonstrate the importance of the interface between which unconventional superconducting and nonsuperconducting magnetic layers can interact with each other.  \nIn particular, the  strength of the pairing interaction can be tuned by magnetic fluctuations, or paramagnons, injected through the interface, highlighting that the pairing interaction can be maximized by the critical fluctuations emanating from the magnetic QCP without an accompanying mass enhancement.     The fabrication of a wide variety of hybrid superlattices  paves a new way to study the entangled relationship between unconventional superconductivity and magnetism, offering a route to exploring the emergence of novel superconducting systems and the roles of their interface. \n\n\n\nWe thank E.-A. Kim, H. Kontani, A. H. Nevidomskyy, R. Peters, and Y. Yanase for fruitful discussions. This work was supported by Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (KAKENHI) (Nos. 25220710, 15H02014, 15H02106, and 15H05457) and on Innovative Areas `Topological Material Science' (No. JP15H05852) and `3D Active-Site Science' (No. 26105004) from Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JPSJ). Work at Los Alamos National Laboratory was performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Basic Energy Sciences, Division of Materials Sciences and Engineering.\n \n  \n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\\label{intro}\nNeural networks frequently suffer from the problem of \\textit{over-parameterization}, such that the model can be compressed by a large factor to drastically reduce memory footprint, computation as well as energy consumption while maintaining similar performance. \nThis is especially pronounced for models for computer vision~\\citep{simonyan2014very}, speech recognition~\\citep{pratap2020massively} and large text understanding models such as BERT~\\citep{devlin2018bert}. \nThe improvements obtained from intelligently reducing the number of model parameters has several benefits, such as reduction in datacenter power consumption, faster inference and reduced memory footprint on edge devices such as mobile phones {which also enable decentralized techniques ex. federated learning~\\citep{kairouz2019advances}.} \n\nThere are several techniques to reduce model size while maintaining similar generalization performance, such as model quantization~\\citep{polino2018model}, NAS (Neural Architecture Search)~\\citep{elsken2019neural} and model distillation through teacher-student networks~\\citep{gou2021knowledge}. \nFor the scope of this paper, we consider pruning as a technique to remove trainable weights in the network, and save on computation costs for the FBNet family of models. \nThe motivations for this are two-fold. \nFirstly, state-of-the-art models such as FBNet~\\citep{wu2019fbnet} already adopt the best practices in the area of efficient hardware-aware design of convolutional neural network based models, and are widely used across different vision tasks. \nThis makes them suitable baselines to understand whether pruning can offer any performance gain over their already optimized behavior. \n{While there has been limited work on pruning for efficient convolution network models they investigate older architectures such as EfficientNet and MobileNet~\\citep{aflalo2020knapsack} or integrate pruning into expensive techniques such as joint prune-and-architecture search~\\citep{wang2020apq}. }\n\nFor each of the constituent models of the FBNetV3 family (FBNetV3A, FBNetV3B,..., FBNetV3G) we reduce the number of parameters using two pruning based approaches: \n(1) \\textit{Global magnitude-based pruning}: \nStarting with the pre-trained model, we prune all weights whose magnitude is below a threshold chosen in order to achieve a target number of FLOPs for the pruned model; \n(2) \\textit{Uniform magnitude-based pruning}: \nStarting with the pre-trained model, we prune weights in each layer whose magnitude is below a level-specific threshold in order to yield a pruned model achieving a target number of FLOPs with the same sparsity in each layer. \nAfter either pruning method is applied, \nwe fine-tune the pruned model for a certain number of epochs until convergence is reached.\nWithin the scope of our study in this paper, we are mostly interested in the following research questions:\n\\begin{itemize}[leftmargin=*]\n    \\item \\requ1: Pruning to improve computation vs.~performance tradeoff.  Can a model obtained by pruning a larger FBNetV3 model \\textbf{M1} (optimized using NAS) achieve higher generalization performance than a smaller FBNetV3 model \\textbf{M2} when the pruned model has the same number of FLOPs as \\textbf{M2}? \n    \\item \\textbf{RQ2}: Pruning as an efficient paradigm. When a larger FBNetV3 model \\textbf{M1} is available and computational resources are limited, is pruning a faster and less computationally expensive approach to obtain a model with higher accuracy at a desired computation level (FLOPs) than running a full-fledged architecture search?\n\\end{itemize}\n\\textit{Pruning to improve computation vs.~performance tradeoff (\\requ1).}\nThere have been recent research advances in the area of building hardware-aware efficient models~\\citep{deng2020model}. \nThese  can provide good generalization performance while adhering to constraints on memory, inference latency and battery power, which are often dictated by the hardware environment where inference happens. \nExperiments described in existing work on efficient vision models such as ChamNet~\\citep{dai2019chamnet}, MobileNet~\\citep{howard2017mobilenets}, EfficientNet~\\citep{tan2019efficientnet} and FBNetV2~\\citep{wan2020fbnetv2} have shown that it is possible to achieve even higher performances on standard image recognition tasks such as ImageNet~\\citep{deng2009imagenet} at a certain level of FLOPs. \nHowever the efficient design of these models does not solve the over-parameterization problem completely, and none of these approaches study how model pruning can be performed to obtain even better trade-offs between computation and model accuracy. \nThis paper is the first of its kind to understand how we can improve on the state-of-the-art in this problem space. \n\n\\textit{Pruning as an efficient paradigm (\\textbf{RQ2}).}\nIn addition to achieving state-of-the-art performance with reduced FLOPs, we are also interested in understanding how such pruned models can be obtained \\textit{inexpensively} with limited resources that are generally available to a machine learning practitioner who has access to existing optimized models but limited computing resources. \nFor example, the FBNetV3 models are freely available through Facebook's Mobile Model Zoo\\footnote{FBNetV3 models available here \\url{http:\/\/https:\/\/github.com\/facebookresearch\/mobile_cv\/model_zoo\/models\/model_info\/fbnet_v2\/model_info_fbnet_v3.json}}, while EfficientNet models can be obtained at GitHub\\footnote{EfficientNet models available here \\url{https:\/\/github.com\/mingxingtan\/efficientnet}}. \nWhile the techniques needed to obtain computation- and latency-friendly models have been democratized through open-sourcing the source code as well as the models themselves, fully applying these techniques necessitates costly operations such as finding an optimal network topology through meta-learning approaches~\\citep{you2020greedynas} and search algorithms such as Genetic Algorithms (GAs)~\\citep{goldberg1991comparative}.\n\nGiven the high-degree of intractability of this problem, expensive computational resources are often needed in this case, easily exceeding the budget available to a university research laboratory or an angel-stage startup~\\citep{zoph2016neural}. \nWhen a starting model is already available, for example through open-sourcing, the best option would be to perform a cheap modification of the model to fit a certain target FLOPs\/latency requirement. \nIn this paper we have compared the NAS approaches for training FBNetV3 models with our pruning techniques on a computational complexity metric (GPU-hours) to effectively answer \\textbf{RQ2}.\n\n\\textit{Benchmark results.}\nIn addition to experimental outcomes for answering \\requ1 and \\textbf{RQ2}, we also benchmark pruned FBNetV3 models using available open-sourced quantized sparse kernels and conduct ablation studies to obtain additional insights into pruning performance. \nThese results augment our main observations and demonstrate that with existing hardware support, it is possible to deploy pruned cutting-edge computer vision models with practical latency reductions and improve further beyond the performance vs. FLOPs trade-off.\n\nWe conduct our experiments on ImageNet, which is an object-recognition task on a large training dataset of 1.2 million images. \nWe show that computationally less intensive techniques such as uniform and global magnitude-based pruning of larger FBNetV3 models can yield higher test accuracies than small models while having the same number of FLOPs. \nGiven a target computation budget for an efficient model, we show that it is more practically advantageous (both in terms of performance and running time) to simply prune the larger model than run a neural architecture search to find the target model from scratch. \n\n{The technique we have employed for pruning (unstructured sparsity) is already tried and tested, however our novelty lies in studying whether efficient image recognition models such as FBNetV3 can be optimized further to improve on the FLOPs-accuracy curve, and the contributions are two fold : (1) FBNets are themselves state-of-the-art in efficient vision models and we achieve better accuracy-FLOPs tradeoff over these models and (2) from the standpoint of computational overhead, we significantly reduce the amount of GPU hours required to obtain such models. Pruning a publicly available NAS optimized model incurs $\\approx$4x less GPU hours to achieve a target FLOPs level, compared to training a full-fledged NAS to obtain a model which has less accuracy at the same FLOPs level.}\n\n\\textit{Paper organization.}\nThe remainder of this paper is organized as follows. \nIn Section~\\ref{related-work}, we describe related work in the area of efficient vision model design and also provide an introduction to different pruning techniques. \nIn Section~\\ref{experimental-setup}, we discuss our experimental setup, including a description of the baseline models and the \\textit{global} and \\textit{uniform} pruning approaches we have employed. \nSection~\\ref{results} describes our main findings and we conclude the paper in Section~\\ref{conclusions}.\n\n\\section{Related Work}~\\label{related-work}\nWe discuss related literature in the areas of \\textit{computationally efficient vision models} and \\textit{model pruning}.\nWithin the scope of our work, we mainly focus on inference efficiency of models in contrast to training efficiency.\n\\par\n\\textit{Computationally efficient vision models:} Neural networks for computer vision are generally characterized by convolutional layers and fully-connected layers, along with blocks such as residual or skip connections. \nThis makes such networks resource intensive in terms of FLOPs, which affects the memory storage and power consumed, and also leads to increased latency. \nIt is of paramount importance to design more efficient networks which can provide higher performance for the same FLOPs or latency level, or even to optimize them appropriately to provide the same performance at reduced FLOPs\/latency. This can be performed either through the design of new simplified layers, for example in deep residual learning~\\citep{he2016deep} or though explicit model compression as in weight quantization~\\citep{polino2018model}.\nExtremely deep networks for image recognition often suffer from not only high complexity and inference latency, but also from the issue of \\textit{vanishing gradients}~\\citep{pascanu2013difficulty}. This was addressed through deep residual networks which effectively simplified network design through skip-connections. \nMobileNets~\\citep{howard2017mobilenets} are one of the earlier approaches to building small low-latency networks by using depthwise separable convolutions with two parameters, \\textit{width} and \\textit{resolution} multipliers. They demonstrate the effectiveness of MobileNets across different vision tasks, such as face embeddings and object detection. MobileNetV2~\\citep{sandler2018mobilenetv2} extends MobileNets by utilizing inverted residual filter structures and linear bottlenecks, obtaining  improvements on state-of-the-art models both in terms of accuracy and computational complexity. ShuffleNets~\\citep{zhang2018shufflenet} propose dedicated residual units where 1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace convolutions are replaced with pointwise group convolutions and channel shuffling reducing FLOPs computations. \n\\par\nMore recently, the focus on building efficient neural network models has shifted to techniques that treat the design of efficient networks as a search problem, falling under the umbrella of Neural Architecture Search (NAS).\nEfficientNets~\\citep{tan2019efficientnet} propose a novel scaling method which adjusts the network's length, width, and resolution to optimize performance subject to target memory and FLOPs constraints. They also define a novel baseline that is optimized by a multi-objective neural architecture search. The FBNet collections of models---FBNet~\\citep{wu2019fbnet}, FBNetV2~\\citep{wan2020fbnetv2} and FBNetV3~\\citep{dai2021fbnetv3}---employ neural architecture search to obtain highly-optimized models that improve on the state-of-the-art for different visual understanding tasks. \nFBNet frames the architecture search as a differentiable meta-learning problem with gradient based techniques, namely \\textit{DNAS}---Differentiable Neural Architecture Search---by \\cite{wu2019fbnet}, and avoids selecting the optimized model over a discrete set. \nThe subsequent entry in this collection, FBNetV2, expands the search space over conventional DNAS, and employs a masking scheme to maintain the same level of computational complexity while searching over this expanded space. \nFBNetV3 further improves on the state-of-the-art by employing Neural Architecture Recipe Search (NARS) and searching over the space of not only architectures, but also corresponding recipes (which are generally hyper-parameters). In this paper, we consider FBNetV3 models as our baselines as they are state-of-the-art. \nWe are interested in understanding if they are overparameterized and evaluate how much model pruning can improve performance at a certain FLOPs level over the state-of-the-art in this family of models.\n\\par\n\\textit{Model Pruning:} Modern neural networks, particularly those processing complex sensory inputs (such as speech, vision and language) for perception applications, are often over-parameterized. \nIt is only to be expected that we should be able to compress such networks significantly to maintain the same level of performance at decreased level of computation (fewer weights and reduced FLOPs), memory footprint and power consumption. Foundational efforts in this space include the \\textit{Optimal Brain Surgeon}~\\citep{hassibi1993second} and \\textit{Optimal Brain Damage}~\\citep{lecun1990optimal}. \nRecently the idea of network pruning has been formalized through the lottery ticket hypothesis~\\citep{frankle2018lottery}, which claims that randomly initialized, feed-forward networks have winning sub-networks that perform just as well as the original network on an unseen test dataset. \nModel pruning is generally of two types: unstructured and structured pruning. \nUnstructured pruning, as the name suggests, doesn't adhere to any structure and prunes neurons based on chosen criteria (such as magnitude). This has the advantage of providing higher performance, but is difficult to implement in hardware, as it needs dedicated support for efficient sparse matrix multiplications. \nMeanwhile, structured pruning is the practice of removing entire groups of neurons (e.g., blocks within the weight matrix, or channels in convolutional neural networks). \nThis is easy to implement without dedicated hardware support, but has the issue of lower generalization performance than unstructured pruning~\\citep{yao2019balanced}. \nIn the literature, there have also been several studies, for example investigating whether rewinding (training from scratch with a fixed mask) can perform just as well as the fine-tuning on top of the original unpruned network~\\citep{renda2020comparing}. {~\\cite{blalock2020state} provide an overview survey of recent advances and open problems in neural network pruning.}\n\\par\nIn the research area of designing efficient networks for computer vision, there has not been much focus on understanding how pruning can be applied to the current generation of models.\nMost literature on pruning is based on older networks such as VGGNet, ResNet~\\citep{he2016deep}, and MobileNet~\\citep{sandler2018mobilenetv2}.\nOur work improves upon these existing studies by understanding how pruning can improve the FLOPs-accuracy tradeoff over existing state-of-the-art networks.\n\n\\section{Pruning Techniques and Setup}\n\\label{experimental-setup}\nIn this section, we describe the main components of our techniques and experimental setup, including \\textit{Baseline Models}, \\textit{Pruning Techniques}, \\textit{Latency Measurement} and \\textit{Metrics}. We have mainly used standard splits of the ImageNet dataset, further details are in Section~\\ref{dataset} of the appendix.\n\n\\subsection{Baseline Models}\\label{baseline-models}\n\\cite{dai2020fbnetv3} address the previous limitations of NAS-based architecture search where these approaches can only search over architectures given a training recipe (set of hyperparameters), and thus cannot optimize over both. \nAs described in Section~\\ref{related-work}, the most recent state-of-the-art models are based on NARS (Neural Architecture-Recipe Search), which we select as baseline models. Table~\\ref{tab:baseline-models} lists the accuracy of FBNetV3 models~\\citep{dai2021fbnetv3} on the ImageNet classification task, along with the number of model parameters and computation complexity in terms of FLOPs. \n\\par\nEach baseline model consists of multiple IRF (Inverted Residual Filter) blocks, which contain convolutional layers of different kernel sizes. \nFor our experiments, we are mostly interested in 1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace convolutions as potentially prunable, since within each FBNetV3 model, the 1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace convolution layers constitute >80\\% of total model FLOPs for all models in the family, and the open-sourced sparsity kernel support we use for latency benchmarking is  available only for fully connected layers. \nA 1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace convolution can be transformed into an equivalent fully connected layer with a few tensor reshape operations without any significant loss of performance or latency.\n\nFor each initial and target FBNetV3 model $X$ and $Y$, where $X$ is larger than $Y$, we prune $X$ to a \\emph{sparsity level} of $S$ so that the FLOP count is the same as for $Y$. The number of FLOPs consumed by a linear layer of sparsity $S$ is proportional to the number of sparse matrix multiplications performed and is given by $S * F$, where $F$ is the corresponding dense FLOPs. \nThus if $F_{1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace}(X)$ is the number of FLOPs consumed by the 1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace convolution layers and $F(x)$ is the total number of FLOPs consumed by model $X$, we have:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{flops-eq}\n    S  = {(F(X) - F(Y))}\/{F_{1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace}(X)}\n\\end{equation}\nHence, sparsity measures the fraction of 1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace convolution weights removed, and so \nhigher sparsity indicates a smaller model. \nFor the uniform pruning scnario, Table~\\ref{sparsity-table} shows the amount of sparsity required to prune each larger FBNetV3 model to a smaller one based on Eq.~(\\ref{flops-eq}). For global pruning, (\\ref{flops-eq}) does not hold, and we compute the target sparsities empirically from the layer shapes instead with details provided in Section~\\ref{global_flops}.\nWe prune each larger FBNetV3 model to a discrete FLOPs target based on a defined set of smaller models in the family, and not to a continuous range of FLOPs values, as it makes it easier to compare models directly based on a given computation budget. \nIf we can demonstrate that for the same computation level, the pruned larger FBNetV3 model has higher performance than a smaller model with the same FLOPs, it is sufficient to demonstrate that we can improve on the FLOPs-accuracy curve over the state-of-the-art.\n\n\\subsection{Pruning Techniques}\\label{pruning-techniques}\nIn this paper, we utilize a pre-trained FBNetV3 model with higher number of FLOPs without training an image classification model from scratch with sparsity, which would be time consuming and computationally intensive. There are several approaches in the literature such as prune-and-fine-tune~\\citep{han2015learning} and iterative pruning with sparsity scheduling~\\citep{frankle2018lottery}. \nWe have utilized the former for our experiments, as although studies have shown that iterative and incremental pruning approaches lead to better generalization performance, they typically require training for high number of epochs, need tuning and selection of optimal sparsity schedules and are computationally resource intensive. We have therefore not considered them in our experiments. {For our prune and fine-tune experiments, we have used 8-GPU boxes, with each box having Nvidia V100 (Volta) 32G GPUs.}\nAs described in Section~\\ref{intro}, we perform both global and magnitude-based pruning experiments. For the latency benchmarking, we also perform magnitude-based uniform pruning with a sparse block size of $1\\times4$ as explained in Section~\\ref{latency}.\n\nWe have conducted a hyper-parameter tuning for the learning rate parameter, with  LR {values in the set} \\{4e-5, 8e-5, 1.6e-4\\}, as fine-tuning generally admits smaller learning rates than training from scratch. We have found that using the same learning rate for all models, along with the same hyper-parameter settings used for training the seed model is sufficient to obtain pruned networks which are superior to the baseline FBNetV3 models. Hence minimal hyper-parameter tuning was required for our experiments and we have used values of settings such as weight decay and momentum to be the same as those used for training the baseline FBNetV3 models. During fine-tuning after pruning, we have used a smoothed validation loss to stop the process early after a convergence tolerance (0.01\\%) is reached between two consecutive epochs. Generally, we have observed fine-tuning to converge around $\\sim$250 epochs\n\n\\subsection{latency measurements and Metrics} \\label{latency}\nWe are interested not only in the sparsity level of our pruned models and the image recognition performance, but also in metrics which potentially improve due to model sparsity, such as number of parameters, the FLOP count and the model latency. \nFor reporting model performance under pruning, we use standard image recognition metrics such as Top-1 and Top-5 {test} accuracies.\nWe measure overall model sparsity, which is different to the layer sparsity since we \nonly prune 1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace convolution layers, as explained in Section~\\ref{baseline-models}. \nWe report the model FLOPs, because this metric captures the computational footprint of the model and its power consumption. \n\nLast, we record the total latency (in ms.) under pruning. The sparse kernels used in our experiments are already in open-source and released under the PyTorch sparse quantization library\\footnote{https:\/\/github.com\/pytorch\/pytorch\/blob\/master\/torch\/ao\/nn\/sparse\/quantized\/linear.py}. Prior to using these kernels, we perform uniform layer-wise block-based pruning with block sizes of $1\\times4$. Magnitude based pruning is implemented at block level, and the model is quantized to 8-bit integers (int8) before latency benchmarking{, which is performed on Intel CPUs designed using the Skylake micro-architecture.}\nWhile we would expect sparsity to translate to tangible inference speedups, this is highly dependent on the sparse kernel support provided by hardware. \nCurrent hardware is not well-suited for unstructured randomly sparse matrix multiplications and tend to do  better with structured sparsity in models~\\citep{anwar2017structured}. We have utilized block sparsity within the weight matrix for latency experiments.\nHowever this often tends to come at a decreased level of model performance. \nThe design of highly performant sparse models under structured sparsity with reasonable inference speedups remains an important research topic outside the scope of this paper.\n\n\n\\section{Results}~\\label{results}\n\\subsection{Pruned FBNetV3 model performance}\\label{pruning_performance}\nTo answer \\textbf{RQ1}, we consider the family of FBNetV3 models as baselines and seed models for further pruning. For each pair of models $X$, $Y$ in the family, we calculate the amount of sparsity required to prune the larger model $X$ to a model that consumes the same number of FLOPs as the target smaller model $Y$, via Equation~\\ref{flops-eq}.\nThere are 21 potential seed and target model pairs, however we conduct pruning experiments only for a depth of 2 for tractability. For example, given FBNetV3E as the seed, we only prune it to FLOPs targets corresponding to FBNetV3D and FBNetV3C.\nTable~\\ref{flops_table} presents the accuracy and number of parameters of the pruned models at each target FLOPs level. The improvement in performance is apparent even at lower FLOPs targets, where we might expect baseline models such as FBNetV3A to not be over-parameterized. \nFor example, pruning FBNetV3C to a target of 356.6 MFLOPs obtains a network which is 1.43\\% better than FBNetV3A. Figure~\\ref{flops-curve} plots the Top-1 ImageNet testing accuracy vs. FLOPs for the best pruned models as seen from Table~\\ref{flops_table}. This clearly shows that pruning FBNetV3 models with minimal fine-tuning can significantly improve on the state-of-the-art for FLOPs vs. Top-1 accuracy trade-off. \nThis analysis is performed for both uniform layer-wise and global magnitude-based prune with fine-tune settings. Global pruning ranks the weights of the entire network in contrast to uniform layer-wise pruning, which ranks each layer's weights to determine the sparsity mask. It would be expected that global pruning performs better than uniform pruning for the same target sparsity level or number of non-sparse parameters. However in our experiments we determine the pruning threshold based on FLOPs targets, and find global pruning to require higher sparsity levels, which results in uniform pruning outperforming global pruning in Top-1 ImageNet accuracy in most cases.\n\\begin{table}[]\n\\centering\n\\caption{Sparsity level (in percentage) and performance of pruned FBNetV3 networks on ImageNet dataset for different target MFLOPs. The best accuracy obtained at each target FLOPs level is highlighted in bold.}\n\\label{sparsity-table}\n\\label{flops_table}\n\\setlength{\\tabcolsep}{2pt}\n\\begin{tabular}{|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|}\n\\hline\n\\multicolumn{1}{|c|}{\\multirow{2}{*}{\\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}}Seed\\\\ network\\\\FBNetV3\\_\\end{tabular}}} &\n  \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{\\multirow{2}{*}{\\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}}Target\\\\ network\\\\FBNetV3\\_\\end{tabular}}} &\n  \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{\\multirow{2}{*}{\\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}}Target\\\\ MFLOPs\\end{tabular}}} &\n  \\multirow{2}{*}{\\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}l@{}}Baseline\\\\ Accuracy\\end{tabular}} &\n  \\multicolumn{3}{c|}{Uniform pruning} &\n  \\multicolumn{3}{c|}{Global pruning} \\\\ \\cline{5-10} \n\\multicolumn{1}{|c|}{} &\n  \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{} &\n  \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{} &\n   &\n  \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{\\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}}Sparsity \\\\ level(\\%)\\end{tabular}} &\n  \\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}l@{}}Top-1 \\\\ Acc.\\end{tabular} &\n  \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{Gain(\\%)} &\n  \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{\\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}}Sparsity \\\\ level(\\%)\\end{tabular}} &\n  \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{\\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}}Top-1 \\\\ Acc.\\end{tabular}} &\n  Gain(\\%) \\\\ \\hline\nB & A & 356.6 & 79.6 & 26.59 & 80.308 & 0.887 & 39.5 & 80.232 & 0.793 \\\\ \\hline\n C & A  & 356.6 & 79.6 & 40.7 & \\textbf{80.738} & 1.43 & 57.9 & \\textbf{80.476} & 1.1 \\\\ \\hline\n C & B  & 461.6 & 80.2 & 19.4 & 80.996 & 0.992 & 28.9 & 80.998 & 0.985 \\\\ \\hline\n D & B  & 461.6 & 80.2 & 31.47 & \\textbf{81.116} & 1.142 & 43.7 & \\textbf{81.08} & 1.097 \\\\ \\hline\n D & C  & 557.0 & 80.8 & 15.04 & 81.278 & 0.591 & 21.5 & \\textbf{81.208} & 1.256 \\\\ \\hline\n E & C  & 557.0 & 80.8 & 31.0 & \\textbf{81.282} & 0.596 & 43.6 & 81.184 & 0.475 \\\\ \\hline\n E & D  & 644.4 & 81.0 & 17.8 & 81.118 & 0.145 & 25.8 & 81.388 & 0.479 \\\\ \\hline\n F & D  & 644.4 & 81.0 & 38.2 & \\textbf{82.00} & 1.234 & 67.8 & \\textbf{81.484} & 0.597 \\\\ \\hline\n F & E  & 762.0 & 81.3 & 29.8 & \\textbf{82.19} & 1.094 & 54.7 & \\textbf{81.97} & 0.824 \\\\ \\hline\nG & E  & 762.0 & 81.3 & 71.67 & 81.166 & -0.16 & 85.5 & 79.934 & -1.68 \\\\ \\hline\n G & F  & 1181.6 & 82.0 & 49.69 & \\textbf{82.528} & 0.643 & 63.8 & \\textbf{82.454} & 0.553 \\\\ \\hline\n\n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{table}\n\n\\begin{figure}[h] \n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[scale=0.40]{new_pruned_paper.pdf}\n\\caption{FLOPs vs. performance (ImageNet Top-1 acc.) for different pruned FBNetV3 networks. For comparison, the existing FBNetV3 networks are also shown here.}\n\\label{flops-curve}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsection{Pruning Complexity}\nIn addition to demonstrating the improvement over state-of-the-art obtained by pruning FBNetV3 models, \nit is also important to quantify the reduction in computational complexity obtained in pruning a larger FBNetV3 model compared to training an FBNetV3 model directly through NAS (Network Architecture Search). \n\\textbf{RQ2} (pruning for efficient model search) asks if the pruning and subsequent fine-tuning approach in Section~\\ref{pruning_performance} is faster than a full-fledged neural architecture search. \nDuring pruning and subsequent fine-tuning, we train the pruned networks till the validation loss converges to within a pre-specified tolerance, as described in Section~\\ref{pruning-techniques}.\nThe time needed is generally less than when training the original FBNetV3 models, which runs for 400 epochs. \nThe number of GPU-hours is computed as (number of training GPU nodes) * (number of GPUs per node) * (training time to convergence) for each network.\nIn Table~\\ref{gpu-hours}, for each of the best performing uniformly-pruned models in Section~\\ref{pruning_performance} we report the number of GPU-hours consumed by the prune and fine-tune strategy, along with the GPU-hours consumed when obtaining a FBNetV3 model through architecture search using the method described in~\\cite{dai2020fbnetv3}. \nThe results are quite conclusive---we not only obtain pruned models superior in performance to the original neural search optimized models, but also as described in Section~\\ref{intro}, computational cost is significantly lower when starting from a pre-trained model with higher FLOPs. \nGiven the performance improvements obtained with lower computational resources, this approach is beneficial for an experimental setting where researchers have access to open-sourced pre-trained models and limited GPU resources, for example in a small startup or an academic environment. \nWe observe that the degree of speedup reduces as the network size gets bigger (e.g., in FBNetV3A vs. FBNetV3C) due to higher training time to convergence.\nNevertheless, we still obtain a speedup of 3-5 times compared to a full NAS (Neural Architecture Search). \n\n\\begin{table}[]\n\\centering\n\\caption{Computation speedup in term of GPU-hours when comparing NAS (neural Architecture Search) with pruning and fine-tuning approaches. {The selected seed networks are drawn from those in Table~\\ref{flops_table} with the best performance at target FLOPs.}}\n\\label{gpu-hours}\n\\begin{tabular}{|l|l|l|l|}\n\\hline\n\\multicolumn{1}{|c|}{\\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}}Target FLOPs \\\\ (FBNetV3 Model)\\end{tabular}} &\n  \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{\\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}}GPU-hours \\\\ in NAS\\end{tabular}} &\n  \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{\\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}}GPU-hours\\\\ in pruning \\\\ and fine-tuning\\end{tabular}} &\n  \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{\\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}}Computational cost\\\\ speedup\\end{tabular}} \\\\ \\hline\n356.6 (FBNetV3A) & 10.7k  & 2.240k & 4.77 \\\\ \\hline\n557.0 (FBNetV3C) & 10.7k  & 2.496k & 4.28 \\\\ \\hline\n762.0 (FBNetV3E) & 10.7k & 3.456k & 3.09 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{table}\n\\subsection{Latency Experiments}\nWe also measure the latency-performance tradeoff for the pruned FBNetV3G models. FBNetV3G is the largest model in the family and so is expected to have the best generalization performance under high sparsity levels. \nAs described in Section~\\ref{latency}, we prune the network using block sparsity (where the block size is $1\\times4$) to sparsity levels in the set \\{40\\%, 50\\%, 60\\%\\}. \nWe have not utilized lower sparsity levels, as we have observed that for the selected kernels we need at least 40\\% sparsity to yield any significant latency benefits. \nWe have pruned all 1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace convolution layers uniformly here and subsequently converted them to fully-connected layers for compatibility with the quantized sparse kernels. \nIn Figure~\\ref{latency-curve}, we present the Top-1 ImageNet accuracy vs. latency curve after pruning the FBNetV3G network for different sparsity levels. \nThe pruned FBNetV3G models show marked performance reduction with lower latency as expected, with a sparsity level of 60\\% translating to around 7\\% absolute accuracy reduction with a latency reduction of 18 ms (16\\% relative). While the 1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace convolution layers account for >80\\% of FLOPs, they only constitute 25\\% of overall network latency. \nThis is consistent with previous literature~\\citep{dudziak2020brp} which shows that computational complexity (ex. FLOPs) and latency are not well-correlated, and indeed the latter is more dependent on layer shapes. \nThis result underscores the need to develop more latency-friendly pruning techniques which can potentially improve on the state-of-the-art in this domain.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n     \\centering\n     \\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.49\\textwidth}\n        \\centering\n         \\includegraphics[width=0.75\\textwidth]{latency}\n         \\caption{Latency vs. Top-1 accuracy on ImageNet}\n         \\label{latency-curve}\n     \\end{subfigure}\n     \\hfill\n     \\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.5\\textwidth}\n        \\centering\n         \\includegraphics[width=0.75\\textwidth]{sparsity_pattern.png}\n         \\caption{Layer-wise sparsity pattern for FBNetV3E}\n         \\label{sparsity_pattern}\n     \\end{subfigure} \\\\\n     \\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.5\\textwidth}\n         \\centering\n         \\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{flops_curve.png}\n         \\caption{Layer-wise FLOPs distribution for FBNetV3E}\n         \\label{flops_pattern}\n     \\end{subfigure}\n     \\hfill\n     \\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.4\\textwidth}\n         \\centering\n         \\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{boxplots}\n         \\caption{Performance distribution for layer type}\n         \\label{sensitivity_pattern}\n     \\end{subfigure}\n        \\caption{Latency benchmarking on FBNetV3G for different sparsity levels \\{40\\%, 50\\%, 60\\%\\} and layer-wise sparsity\/FLOPs\/accuracy sensitivity for a pruned FBNetV3E network.}\n        \\label{fig:three graphs}\n\\end{figure}\n\\subsection{Insights into pruning experiments}\nOur pruning experiments demonstrate that we can improve on the state-of-the-art FBNetV3 models in generalization performance for a given FLOPs level. In this subsection, we obtain an insight into\n(1) the sparsity pattern under global magnitude-based pruning and \n(2) the sensitivity of each layer when pruned in isolation under uniform layer-wise magnitude pruning (sparsity level of 95\\%). For (1) in Figure~\\ref{sparsity_pattern}, we plot the amount of sparsity obtained per 1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace convolution layer. The model being considered is an FBNetV3E network pruned to a sparsity level of 43.6\\%, to the same FLOPs level as FBNetV3C and subsequently fine-tuned. We note that the sparsity level in lower layers is lower which is potentially required for maintaining the performance~\\cite{}. Higher sparsity can be admitted in upper layers of the network where it has learnt more redundant representations. SE (Squeeze and Excitation) 1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace convolution layers generally tend to get pruned more compared to other layers, with the sparsity being >99\\% for two such SE layers in stage $xif5\\_0$. This indicates that we can also consider revisiting SE layer role in FBNetV3 networks, and even remove entire layers in future work to yield additional latency and FLOPs benefits. \n\nFor analysis (2) we prune each 1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace convolution layer in isolation at a sparsity target of 95\\% and record the Top-1 test accuracy obtained on ImageNet dataset. For each type of layer, PW:expansion, PWL: bottleneck, SE: Squeeze-Excitation we plot the distribution of accuracies in Figure~\\ref{sensitivity_pattern}. We observe that the PW and PWL layers are most sensitive to high sparsity, while SE layers are able to retain performance adequately. We could also avoid pruning the most sensitive layers (appearing as outliers in the figure) to maintain generalization performance. This observation corroborates findings from analysis (1), and motivates us to revisit the role of squeeze-excitation layers in future work. \n\n\\section{Conclusions}~\\label{conclusions}\nIn this paper, we have investigated the problem of improving on the current state-of-the-art FLOPs vs. performance trade-off for FBNets which have been pre-optimized by NAS (Neural Architecture Search). We have employed network pruning techniques, and our results demonstrate that we can further improve on performance over FBNetV3 at a given FLOPs target through global as well as uniform magnitude-based pruning. This happens not only for relatively over-parameterized networks such as FBNetV3G, but also smaller networks such as FBNetV3A which have lower computational complexity. On average, the GPU-hours incurred during pruning is about $\\sim\\!\\!4\\times$ less than that consumed by a full-scale NAS. We have also performed latency measurements on the FBNetV3G model and conducted an analysis to understand the sparsity patterns and sensitivity of different FBNetV3 layers to pruning. For future work, we plan to investigate squeeze-excitation layers in more detail, and explore structured pruning approaches such as channel and layer pruning to further improve on the latency-performance tradeoff for this family of models. \n\n\n\\section{Introduction}\\label{intro}\nNeural networks frequently suffer from the problem of \\textit{over-parameterization}, such that the model can be compressed by a large factor to drastically reduce memory footprint, computation as well as energy consumption while maintaining similar performance. \nThis is especially pronounced for models for computer vision~\\citep{simonyan2014very}, speech recognition~\\citep{pratap2020massively} and large text understanding models such as BERT~\\citep{devlin2018bert}. \nThe improvements obtained from intelligently reducing the number of model parameters has several benefits, such as reduction in datacenter power consumption, faster inference and reduced memory footprint on edge devices such as mobile phones {which also enable decentralized techniques ex. federated learning~\\citep{kairouz2019advances}.} \n\nThere are several techniques to reduce model size while maintaining similar generalization performance, such as model quantization~\\citep{polino2018model}, NAS (Neural Architecture Search)~\\citep{elsken2019neural} and model distillation through teacher-student networks~\\citep{gou2021knowledge}. \nFor the scope of this paper, we consider pruning as a technique to remove trainable weights in the network, and save on computation costs for the FBNet family of models. \nThe motivations for this are two-fold. \nFirstly, state-of-the-art models such as FBNet~\\citep{wu2019fbnet} already adopt the best practices in the area of efficient hardware-aware design of convolutional neural network based models, and are widely used across different vision tasks. \nThis makes them suitable baselines to understand whether pruning can offer any performance gain over their already optimized behavior. \n{While there has been limited work on pruning for efficient convolution network models they investigate older architectures such as EfficientNet and MobileNet~\\citep{aflalo2020knapsack} or integrate pruning into expensive techniques such as joint prune-and-architecture search~\\citep{wang2020apq}. }\n\nFor each of the constituent models of the FBNetV3 family (FBNetV3A, FBNetV3B,..., FBNetV3G) we reduce the number of parameters using two pruning based approaches: \n(1) \\textit{Global magnitude-based pruning}: \nStarting with the pre-trained model, we prune all weights whose magnitude is below a threshold chosen in order to achieve a target number of FLOPs for the pruned model; \n(2) \\textit{Uniform magnitude-based pruning}: \nStarting with the pre-trained model, we prune weights in each layer whose magnitude is below a level-specific threshold in order to yield a pruned model achieving a target number of FLOPs with the same sparsity in each layer. \nAfter either pruning method is applied, \nwe fine-tune the pruned model for a certain number of epochs until convergence is reached.\nWithin the scope of our study in this paper, we are mostly interested in the following research questions:\n\\begin{itemize}[leftmargin=*]\n    \\item \\requ1: Pruning to improve computation vs.~performance tradeoff.  Can a model obtained by pruning a larger FBNetV3 model \\textbf{M1} (optimized using NAS) achieve higher generalization performance than a smaller FBNetV3 model \\textbf{M2} when the pruned model has the same number of FLOPs as \\textbf{M2}? \n    \\item \\textbf{RQ2}: Pruning as an efficient paradigm. When a larger FBNetV3 model \\textbf{M1} is available and computational resources are limited, is pruning a faster and less computationally expensive approach to obtain a model with higher accuracy at a desired computation level (FLOPs) than running a full-fledged architecture search?\n\\end{itemize}\n\\textit{Pruning to improve computation vs.~performance tradeoff (\\requ1).}\nThere have been recent research advances in the area of building hardware-aware efficient models~\\citep{deng2020model}. \nThese  can provide good generalization performance while adhering to constraints on memory, inference latency and battery power, which are often dictated by the hardware environment where inference happens. \nExperiments described in existing work on efficient vision models such as ChamNet~\\citep{dai2019chamnet}, MobileNet~\\citep{howard2017mobilenets}, EfficientNet~\\citep{tan2019efficientnet} and FBNetV2~\\citep{wan2020fbnetv2} have shown that it is possible to achieve even higher performances on standard image recognition tasks such as ImageNet~\\citep{deng2009imagenet} at a certain level of FLOPs. \nHowever the efficient design of these models does not solve the over-parameterization problem completely, and none of these approaches study how model pruning can be performed to obtain even better trade-offs between computation and model accuracy. \nThis paper is the first of its kind to understand how we can improve on the state-of-the-art in this problem space. \n\n\\textit{Pruning as an efficient paradigm (\\textbf{RQ2}).}\nIn addition to achieving state-of-the-art performance with reduced FLOPs, we are also interested in understanding how such pruned models can be obtained \\textit{inexpensively} with limited resources that are generally available to a machine learning practitioner who has access to existing optimized models but limited computing resources. \nFor example, the FBNetV3 models are freely available through Facebook's Mobile Model Zoo\\footnote{FBNetV3 models available here \\url{http:\/\/https:\/\/github.com\/facebookresearch\/mobile_cv\/model_zoo\/models\/model_info\/fbnet_v2\/model_info_fbnet_v3.json}}, while EfficientNet models can be obtained at GitHub\\footnote{EfficientNet models available here \\url{https:\/\/github.com\/mingxingtan\/efficientnet}}. \nWhile the techniques needed to obtain computation- and latency-friendly models have been democratized through open-sourcing the source code as well as the models themselves, fully applying these techniques necessitates costly operations such as finding an optimal network topology through meta-learning approaches~\\citep{you2020greedynas} and search algorithms such as Genetic Algorithms (GAs)~\\citep{goldberg1991comparative}.\n\nGiven the high-degree of intractability of this problem, expensive computational resources are often needed in this case, easily exceeding the budget available to a university research laboratory or an angel-stage startup~\\citep{zoph2016neural}. \nWhen a starting model is already available, for example through open-sourcing, the best option would be to perform a cheap modification of the model to fit a certain target FLOPs\/latency requirement. \nIn this paper we have compared the NAS approaches for training FBNetV3 models with our pruning techniques on a computational complexity metric (GPU-hours) to effectively answer \\textbf{RQ2}.\n\n\\textit{Benchmark results.}\nIn addition to experimental outcomes for answering \\requ1 and \\textbf{RQ2}, we also benchmark pruned FBNetV3 models using available open-sourced quantized sparse kernels and conduct ablation studies to obtain additional insights into pruning performance. \nThese results augment our main observations and demonstrate that with existing hardware support, it is possible to deploy pruned cutting-edge computer vision models with practical latency reductions and improve further beyond the performance vs. FLOPs trade-off.\n\nWe conduct our experiments on ImageNet, which is an object-recognition task on a large training dataset of 1.2 million images. \nWe show that computationally less intensive techniques such as uniform and global magnitude-based pruning of larger FBNetV3 models can yield higher test accuracies than small models while having the same number of FLOPs. \nGiven a target computation budget for an efficient model, we show that it is more practically advantageous (both in terms of performance and running time) to simply prune the larger model than run a neural architecture search to find the target model from scratch. \n\n{The technique we have employed for pruning (unstructured sparsity) is already tried and tested, however our novelty lies in studying whether efficient image recognition models such as FBNetV3 can be optimized further to improve on the FLOPs-accuracy curve, and the contributions are two fold : (1) FBNets are themselves state-of-the-art in efficient vision models and we achieve better accuracy-FLOPs tradeoff over these models and (2) from the standpoint of computational overhead, we significantly reduce the amount of GPU hours required to obtain such models. Pruning a publicly available NAS optimized model incurs $\\approx$4x less GPU hours to achieve a target FLOPs level, compared to training a full-fledged NAS to obtain a model which has less accuracy at the same FLOPs level.}\n\n\\textit{Paper organization.}\nThe remainder of this paper is organized as follows. \nIn Section~\\ref{related-work}, we describe related work in the area of efficient vision model design and also provide an introduction to different pruning techniques. \nIn Section~\\ref{experimental-setup}, we discuss our experimental setup, including a description of the baseline models and the \\textit{global} and \\textit{uniform} pruning approaches we have employed. \nSection~\\ref{results} describes our main findings and we conclude the paper in Section~\\ref{conclusions}.\n\n\\section{Related Work}~\\label{related-work}\nWe discuss related literature in the areas of \\textit{computationally efficient vision models} and \\textit{model pruning}.\nWithin the scope of our work, we mainly focus on inference efficiency of models in contrast to training efficiency.\n\\par\n\\textit{Computationally efficient vision models:} Neural networks for computer vision are generally characterized by convolutional layers and fully-connected layers, along with blocks such as residual or skip connections. \nThis makes such networks resource intensive in terms of FLOPs, which affects the memory storage and power consumed, and also leads to increased latency. \nIt is of paramount importance to design more efficient networks which can provide higher performance for the same FLOPs or latency level, or even to optimize them appropriately to provide the same performance at reduced FLOPs\/latency. This can be performed either through the design of new simplified layers, for example in deep residual learning~\\citep{he2016deep} or though explicit model compression as in weight quantization~\\citep{polino2018model}.\nExtremely deep networks for image recognition often suffer from not only high complexity and inference latency, but also from the issue of \\textit{vanishing gradients}~\\citep{pascanu2013difficulty}. This was addressed through deep residual networks which effectively simplified network design through skip-connections. \nMobileNets~\\citep{howard2017mobilenets} are one of the earlier approaches to building small low-latency networks by using depthwise separable convolutions with two parameters, \\textit{width} and \\textit{resolution} multipliers. They demonstrate the effectiveness of MobileNets across different vision tasks, such as face embeddings and object detection. MobileNetV2~\\citep{sandler2018mobilenetv2} extends MobileNets by utilizing inverted residual filter structures and linear bottlenecks, obtaining  improvements on state-of-the-art models both in terms of accuracy and computational complexity. ShuffleNets~\\citep{zhang2018shufflenet} propose dedicated residual units where 1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace convolutions are replaced with pointwise group convolutions and channel shuffling reducing FLOPs computations. \n\\par\nMore recently, the focus on building efficient neural network models has shifted to techniques that treat the design of efficient networks as a search problem, falling under the umbrella of Neural Architecture Search (NAS).\nEfficientNets~\\citep{tan2019efficientnet} propose a novel scaling method which adjusts the network's length, width, and resolution to optimize performance subject to target memory and FLOPs constraints. They also define a novel baseline that is optimized by a multi-objective neural architecture search. The FBNet collections of models---FBNet~\\citep{wu2019fbnet}, FBNetV2~\\citep{wan2020fbnetv2} and FBNetV3~\\citep{dai2021fbnetv3}---employ neural architecture search to obtain highly-optimized models that improve on the state-of-the-art for different visual understanding tasks. \nFBNet frames the architecture search as a differentiable meta-learning problem with gradient based techniques, namely \\textit{DNAS}---Differentiable Neural Architecture Search---by \\cite{wu2019fbnet}, and avoids selecting the optimized model over a discrete set. \nThe subsequent entry in this collection, FBNetV2, expands the search space over conventional DNAS, and employs a masking scheme to maintain the same level of computational complexity while searching over this expanded space. \nFBNetV3 further improves on the state-of-the-art by employing Neural Architecture Recipe Search (NARS) and searching over the space of not only architectures, but also corresponding recipes (which are generally hyper-parameters). In this paper, we consider FBNetV3 models as our baselines as they are state-of-the-art. \nWe are interested in understanding if they are overparameterized and evaluate how much model pruning can improve performance at a certain FLOPs level over the state-of-the-art in this family of models.\n\\par\n\\textit{Model Pruning:} Modern neural networks, particularly those processing complex sensory inputs (such as speech, vision and language) for perception applications, are often over-parameterized. \nIt is only to be expected that we should be able to compress such networks significantly to maintain the same level of performance at decreased level of computation (fewer weights and reduced FLOPs), memory footprint and power consumption. Foundational efforts in this space include the \\textit{Optimal Brain Surgeon}~\\citep{hassibi1993second} and \\textit{Optimal Brain Damage}~\\citep{lecun1990optimal}. \nRecently the idea of network pruning has been formalized through the lottery ticket hypothesis~\\citep{frankle2018lottery}, which claims that randomly initialized, feed-forward networks have winning sub-networks that perform just as well as the original network on an unseen test dataset. \nModel pruning is generally of two types: unstructured and structured pruning. \nUnstructured pruning, as the name suggests, doesn't adhere to any structure and prunes neurons based on chosen criteria (such as magnitude). This has the advantage of providing higher performance, but is difficult to implement in hardware, as it needs dedicated support for efficient sparse matrix multiplications. \nMeanwhile, structured pruning is the practice of removing entire groups of neurons (e.g., blocks within the weight matrix, or channels in convolutional neural networks). \nThis is easy to implement without dedicated hardware support, but has the issue of lower generalization performance than unstructured pruning~\\citep{yao2019balanced}. \nIn the literature, there have also been several studies, for example investigating whether rewinding (training from scratch with a fixed mask) can perform just as well as the fine-tuning on top of the original unpruned network~\\citep{renda2020comparing}. {~\\cite{blalock2020state} provide an overview survey of recent advances and open problems in neural network pruning.}\n\\par\nIn the research area of designing efficient networks for computer vision, there has not been much focus on understanding how pruning can be applied to the current generation of models.\nMost literature on pruning is based on older networks such as VGGNet, ResNet~\\citep{he2016deep}, and MobileNet~\\citep{sandler2018mobilenetv2}.\nOur work improves upon these existing studies by understanding how pruning can improve the FLOPs-accuracy tradeoff over existing state-of-the-art networks.\n\n\\section{Pruning Techniques and Setup}\n\\label{experimental-setup}\nIn this section, we describe the main components of our techniques and experimental setup, including \\textit{Baseline Models}, \\textit{Pruning Techniques}, \\textit{Latency Measurement} and \\textit{Metrics}. We have mainly used standard splits of the ImageNet dataset, further details are in Section~\\ref{dataset} of the appendix.\n\n\\subsection{Baseline Models}\\label{baseline-models}\n\\cite{dai2020fbnetv3} address the previous limitations of NAS-based architecture search where these approaches can only search over architectures given a training recipe (set of hyperparameters), and thus cannot optimize over both. \nAs described in Section~\\ref{related-work}, the most recent state-of-the-art models are based on NARS (Neural Architecture-Recipe Search), which we select as baseline models. Table~\\ref{tab:baseline-models} lists the accuracy of FBNetV3 models~\\citep{dai2021fbnetv3} on the ImageNet classification task, along with the number of model parameters and computation complexity in terms of FLOPs. \n\\par\nEach baseline model consists of multiple IRF (Inverted Residual Filter) blocks, which contain convolutional layers of different kernel sizes. \nFor our experiments, we are mostly interested in 1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace convolutions as potentially prunable, since within each FBNetV3 model, the 1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace convolution layers constitute >80\\% of total model FLOPs for all models in the family, and the open-sourced sparsity kernel support we use for latency benchmarking is  available only for fully connected layers. \nA 1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace convolution can be transformed into an equivalent fully connected layer with a few tensor reshape operations without any significant loss of performance or latency.\n\nFor each initial and target FBNetV3 model $X$ and $Y$, where $X$ is larger than $Y$, we prune $X$ to a \\emph{sparsity level} of $S$ so that the FLOP count is the same as for $Y$. The number of FLOPs consumed by a linear layer of sparsity $S$ is proportional to the number of sparse matrix multiplications performed and is given by $S * F$, where $F$ is the corresponding dense FLOPs. \nThus if $F_{1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace}(X)$ is the number of FLOPs consumed by the 1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace convolution layers and $F(x)$ is the total number of FLOPs consumed by model $X$, we have:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{flops-eq}\n    S  = {(F(X) - F(Y))}\/{F_{1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace}(X)}\n\\end{equation}\nHence, sparsity measures the fraction of 1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace convolution weights removed, and so \nhigher sparsity indicates a smaller model. \nFor the uniform pruning scnario, Table~\\ref{sparsity-table} shows the amount of sparsity required to prune each larger FBNetV3 model to a smaller one based on Eq.~(\\ref{flops-eq}). For global pruning, (\\ref{flops-eq}) does not hold, and we compute the target sparsities empirically from the layer shapes instead with details provided in Section~\\ref{global_flops}.\nWe prune each larger FBNetV3 model to a discrete FLOPs target based on a defined set of smaller models in the family, and not to a continuous range of FLOPs values, as it makes it easier to compare models directly based on a given computation budget. \nIf we can demonstrate that for the same computation level, the pruned larger FBNetV3 model has higher performance than a smaller model with the same FLOPs, it is sufficient to demonstrate that we can improve on the FLOPs-accuracy curve over the state-of-the-art.\n\n\\subsection{Pruning Techniques}\\label{pruning-techniques}\nIn this paper, we utilize a pre-trained FBNetV3 model with higher number of FLOPs without training an image classification model from scratch with sparsity, which would be time consuming and computationally intensive. There are several approaches in the literature such as prune-and-fine-tune~\\citep{han2015learning} and iterative pruning with sparsity scheduling~\\citep{frankle2018lottery}. \nWe have utilized the former for our experiments, as although studies have shown that iterative and incremental pruning approaches lead to better generalization performance, they typically require training for high number of epochs, need tuning and selection of optimal sparsity schedules and are computationally resource intensive. We have therefore not considered them in our experiments. {For our prune and fine-tune experiments, we have used 8-GPU boxes, with each box having Nvidia V100 (Volta) 32G GPUs.}\nAs described in Section~\\ref{intro}, we perform both global and magnitude-based pruning experiments. For the latency benchmarking, we also perform magnitude-based uniform pruning with a sparse block size of $1\\times4$ as explained in Section~\\ref{latency}.\n\nWe have conducted a hyper-parameter tuning for the learning rate parameter, with  LR {values in the set} \\{4e-5, 8e-5, 1.6e-4\\}, as fine-tuning generally admits smaller learning rates than training from scratch. We have found that using the same learning rate for all models, along with the same hyper-parameter settings used for training the seed model is sufficient to obtain pruned networks which are superior to the baseline FBNetV3 models. Hence minimal hyper-parameter tuning was required for our experiments and we have used values of settings such as weight decay and momentum to be the same as those used for training the baseline FBNetV3 models. During fine-tuning after pruning, we have used a smoothed validation loss to stop the process early after a convergence tolerance (0.01\\%) is reached between two consecutive epochs. Generally, we have observed fine-tuning to converge around $\\sim$250 epochs\n\n\\subsection{latency measurements and Metrics} \\label{latency}\nWe are interested not only in the sparsity level of our pruned models and the image recognition performance, but also in metrics which potentially improve due to model sparsity, such as number of parameters, the FLOP count and the model latency. \nFor reporting model performance under pruning, we use standard image recognition metrics such as Top-1 and Top-5 {test} accuracies.\nWe measure overall model sparsity, which is different to the layer sparsity since we \nonly prune 1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace convolution layers, as explained in Section~\\ref{baseline-models}. \nWe report the model FLOPs, because this metric captures the computational footprint of the model and its power consumption. \n\nLast, we record the total latency (in ms.) under pruning. The sparse kernels used in our experiments are already in open-source and released under the PyTorch sparse quantization library\\footnote{https:\/\/github.com\/pytorch\/pytorch\/blob\/master\/torch\/ao\/nn\/sparse\/quantized\/linear.py}. Prior to using these kernels, we perform uniform layer-wise block-based pruning with block sizes of $1\\times4$. Magnitude based pruning is implemented at block level, and the model is quantized to 8-bit integers (int8) before latency benchmarking{, which is performed on Intel CPUs designed using the Skylake micro-architecture.}\nWhile we would expect sparsity to translate to tangible inference speedups, this is highly dependent on the sparse kernel support provided by hardware. \nCurrent hardware is not well-suited for unstructured randomly sparse matrix multiplications and tend to do  better with structured sparsity in models~\\citep{anwar2017structured}. We have utilized block sparsity within the weight matrix for latency experiments.\nHowever this often tends to come at a decreased level of model performance. \nThe design of highly performant sparse models under structured sparsity with reasonable inference speedups remains an important research topic outside the scope of this paper.\n\n\n\\section{Results}~\\label{results}\n\\subsection{Pruned FBNetV3 model performance}\\label{pruning_performance}\nTo answer \\textbf{RQ1}, we consider the family of FBNetV3 models as baselines and seed models for further pruning. For each pair of models $X$, $Y$ in the family, we calculate the amount of sparsity required to prune the larger model $X$ to a model that consumes the same number of FLOPs as the target smaller model $Y$, via Equation~\\ref{flops-eq}.\nThere are 21 potential seed and target model pairs, however we conduct pruning experiments only for a depth of 2 for tractability. For example, given FBNetV3E as the seed, we only prune it to FLOPs targets corresponding to FBNetV3D and FBNetV3C.\nTable~\\ref{flops_table} presents the accuracy and number of parameters of the pruned models at each target FLOPs level. The improvement in performance is apparent even at lower FLOPs targets, where we might expect baseline models such as FBNetV3A to not be over-parameterized. \nFor example, pruning FBNetV3C to a target of 356.6 MFLOPs obtains a network which is 1.43\\% better than FBNetV3A. Figure~\\ref{flops-curve} plots the Top-1 ImageNet testing accuracy vs. FLOPs for the best pruned models as seen from Table~\\ref{flops_table}. This clearly shows that pruning FBNetV3 models with minimal fine-tuning can significantly improve on the state-of-the-art for FLOPs vs. Top-1 accuracy trade-off. \nThis analysis is performed for both uniform layer-wise and global magnitude-based prune with fine-tune settings. Global pruning ranks the weights of the entire network in contrast to uniform layer-wise pruning, which ranks each layer's weights to determine the sparsity mask. It would be expected that global pruning performs better than uniform pruning for the same target sparsity level or number of non-sparse parameters. However in our experiments we determine the pruning threshold based on FLOPs targets, and find global pruning to require higher sparsity levels, which results in uniform pruning outperforming global pruning in Top-1 ImageNet accuracy in most cases.\n\\begin{table}[]\n\\centering\n\\caption{Sparsity level (in percentage) and performance of pruned FBNetV3 networks on ImageNet dataset for different target MFLOPs. The best accuracy obtained at each target FLOPs level is highlighted in bold.}\n\\label{sparsity-table}\n\\label{flops_table}\n\\setlength{\\tabcolsep}{2pt}\n\\begin{tabular}{|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|l|}\n\\hline\n\\multicolumn{1}{|c|}{\\multirow{2}{*}{\\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}}Seed\\\\ network\\\\FBNetV3\\_\\end{tabular}}} &\n  \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{\\multirow{2}{*}{\\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}}Target\\\\ network\\\\FBNetV3\\_\\end{tabular}}} &\n  \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{\\multirow{2}{*}{\\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}}Target\\\\ MFLOPs\\end{tabular}}} &\n  \\multirow{2}{*}{\\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}l@{}}Baseline\\\\ Accuracy\\end{tabular}} &\n  \\multicolumn{3}{c|}{Uniform pruning} &\n  \\multicolumn{3}{c|}{Global pruning} \\\\ \\cline{5-10} \n\\multicolumn{1}{|c|}{} &\n  \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{} &\n  \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{} &\n   &\n  \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{\\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}}Sparsity \\\\ level(\\%)\\end{tabular}} &\n  \\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}l@{}}Top-1 \\\\ Acc.\\end{tabular} &\n  \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{Gain(\\%)} &\n  \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{\\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}}Sparsity \\\\ level(\\%)\\end{tabular}} &\n  \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{\\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}}Top-1 \\\\ Acc.\\end{tabular}} &\n  Gain(\\%) \\\\ \\hline\nB & A & 356.6 & 79.6 & 26.59 & 80.308 & 0.887 & 39.5 & 80.232 & 0.793 \\\\ \\hline\n C & A  & 356.6 & 79.6 & 40.7 & \\textbf{80.738} & 1.43 & 57.9 & \\textbf{80.476} & 1.1 \\\\ \\hline\n C & B  & 461.6 & 80.2 & 19.4 & 80.996 & 0.992 & 28.9 & 80.998 & 0.985 \\\\ \\hline\n D & B  & 461.6 & 80.2 & 31.47 & \\textbf{81.116} & 1.142 & 43.7 & \\textbf{81.08} & 1.097 \\\\ \\hline\n D & C  & 557.0 & 80.8 & 15.04 & 81.278 & 0.591 & 21.5 & \\textbf{81.208} & 1.256 \\\\ \\hline\n E & C  & 557.0 & 80.8 & 31.0 & \\textbf{81.282} & 0.596 & 43.6 & 81.184 & 0.475 \\\\ \\hline\n E & D  & 644.4 & 81.0 & 17.8 & 81.118 & 0.145 & 25.8 & 81.388 & 0.479 \\\\ \\hline\n F & D  & 644.4 & 81.0 & 38.2 & \\textbf{82.00} & 1.234 & 67.8 & \\textbf{81.484} & 0.597 \\\\ \\hline\n F & E  & 762.0 & 81.3 & 29.8 & \\textbf{82.19} & 1.094 & 54.7 & \\textbf{81.97} & 0.824 \\\\ \\hline\nG & E  & 762.0 & 81.3 & 71.67 & 81.166 & -0.16 & 85.5 & 79.934 & -1.68 \\\\ \\hline\n G & F  & 1181.6 & 82.0 & 49.69 & \\textbf{82.528} & 0.643 & 63.8 & \\textbf{82.454} & 0.553 \\\\ \\hline\n\n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{table}\n\n\\begin{figure}[h] \n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[scale=0.40]{new_pruned_paper.pdf}\n\\caption{FLOPs vs. performance (ImageNet Top-1 acc.) for different pruned FBNetV3 networks. For comparison, the existing FBNetV3 networks are also shown here.}\n\\label{flops-curve}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsection{Pruning Complexity}\nIn addition to demonstrating the improvement over state-of-the-art obtained by pruning FBNetV3 models, \nit is also important to quantify the reduction in computational complexity obtained in pruning a larger FBNetV3 model compared to training an FBNetV3 model directly through NAS (Network Architecture Search). \n\\textbf{RQ2} (pruning for efficient model search) asks if the pruning and subsequent fine-tuning approach in Section~\\ref{pruning_performance} is faster than a full-fledged neural architecture search. \nDuring pruning and subsequent fine-tuning, we train the pruned networks till the validation loss converges to within a pre-specified tolerance, as described in Section~\\ref{pruning-techniques}.\nThe time needed is generally less than when training the original FBNetV3 models, which runs for 400 epochs. \nThe number of GPU-hours is computed as (number of training GPU nodes) * (number of GPUs per node) * (training time to convergence) for each network.\nIn Table~\\ref{gpu-hours}, for each of the best performing uniformly-pruned models in Section~\\ref{pruning_performance} we report the number of GPU-hours consumed by the prune and fine-tune strategy, along with the GPU-hours consumed when obtaining a FBNetV3 model through architecture search using the method described in~\\cite{dai2020fbnetv3}. \nThe results are quite conclusive---we not only obtain pruned models superior in performance to the original neural search optimized models, but also as described in Section~\\ref{intro}, computational cost is significantly lower when starting from a pre-trained model with higher FLOPs. \nGiven the performance improvements obtained with lower computational resources, this approach is beneficial for an experimental setting where researchers have access to open-sourced pre-trained models and limited GPU resources, for example in a small startup or an academic environment. \nWe observe that the degree of speedup reduces as the network size gets bigger (e.g., in FBNetV3A vs. FBNetV3C) due to higher training time to convergence.\nNevertheless, we still obtain a speedup of 3-5 times compared to a full NAS (Neural Architecture Search). \n\n\\begin{table}[]\n\\centering\n\\caption{Computation speedup in term of GPU-hours when comparing NAS (neural Architecture Search) with pruning and fine-tuning approaches. {The selected seed networks are drawn from those in Table~\\ref{flops_table} with the best performance at target FLOPs.}}\n\\label{gpu-hours}\n\\begin{tabular}{|l|l|l|l|}\n\\hline\n\\multicolumn{1}{|c|}{\\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}}Target FLOPs \\\\ (FBNetV3 Model)\\end{tabular}} &\n  \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{\\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}}GPU-hours \\\\ in NAS\\end{tabular}} &\n  \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{\\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}}GPU-hours\\\\ in pruning \\\\ and fine-tuning\\end{tabular}} &\n  \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{\\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}}Computational cost\\\\ speedup\\end{tabular}} \\\\ \\hline\n356.6 (FBNetV3A) & 10.7k  & 2.240k & 4.77 \\\\ \\hline\n557.0 (FBNetV3C) & 10.7k  & 2.496k & 4.28 \\\\ \\hline\n762.0 (FBNetV3E) & 10.7k & 3.456k & 3.09 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{table}\n\\subsection{Latency Experiments}\nWe also measure the latency-performance tradeoff for the pruned FBNetV3G models. FBNetV3G is the largest model in the family and so is expected to have the best generalization performance under high sparsity levels. \nAs described in Section~\\ref{latency}, we prune the network using block sparsity (where the block size is $1\\times4$) to sparsity levels in the set \\{40\\%, 50\\%, 60\\%\\}. \nWe have not utilized lower sparsity levels, as we have observed that for the selected kernels we need at least 40\\% sparsity to yield any significant latency benefits. \nWe have pruned all 1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace convolution layers uniformly here and subsequently converted them to fully-connected layers for compatibility with the quantized sparse kernels. \nIn Figure~\\ref{latency-curve}, we present the Top-1 ImageNet accuracy vs. latency curve after pruning the FBNetV3G network for different sparsity levels. \nThe pruned FBNetV3G models show marked performance reduction with lower latency as expected, with a sparsity level of 60\\% translating to around 7\\% absolute accuracy reduction with a latency reduction of 18 ms (16\\% relative). While the 1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace convolution layers account for >80\\% of FLOPs, they only constitute 25\\% of overall network latency. \nThis is consistent with previous literature~\\citep{dudziak2020brp} which shows that computational complexity (ex. FLOPs) and latency are not well-correlated, and indeed the latter is more dependent on layer shapes. \nThis result underscores the need to develop more latency-friendly pruning techniques which can potentially improve on the state-of-the-art in this domain.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n     \\centering\n     \\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.49\\textwidth}\n        \\centering\n         \\includegraphics[width=0.75\\textwidth]{latency}\n         \\caption{Latency vs. Top-1 accuracy on ImageNet}\n         \\label{latency-curve}\n     \\end{subfigure}\n     \\hfill\n     \\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.5\\textwidth}\n        \\centering\n         \\includegraphics[width=0.75\\textwidth]{sparsity_pattern.png}\n         \\caption{Layer-wise sparsity pattern for FBNetV3E}\n         \\label{sparsity_pattern}\n     \\end{subfigure} \\\\\n     \\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.5\\textwidth}\n         \\centering\n         \\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{flops_curve.png}\n         \\caption{Layer-wise FLOPs distribution for FBNetV3E}\n         \\label{flops_pattern}\n     \\end{subfigure}\n     \\hfill\n     \\begin{subfigure}[b]{0.4\\textwidth}\n         \\centering\n         \\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{boxplots}\n         \\caption{Performance distribution for layer type}\n         \\label{sensitivity_pattern}\n     \\end{subfigure}\n        \\caption{Latency benchmarking on FBNetV3G for different sparsity levels \\{40\\%, 50\\%, 60\\%\\} and layer-wise sparsity\/FLOPs\/accuracy sensitivity for a pruned FBNetV3E network.}\n        \\label{fig:three graphs}\n\\end{figure}\n\\subsection{Insights into pruning experiments}\nOur pruning experiments demonstrate that we can improve on the state-of-the-art FBNetV3 models in generalization performance for a given FLOPs level. In this subsection, we obtain an insight into\n(1) the sparsity pattern under global magnitude-based pruning and \n(2) the sensitivity of each layer when pruned in isolation under uniform layer-wise magnitude pruning (sparsity level of 95\\%). For (1) in Figure~\\ref{sparsity_pattern}, we plot the amount of sparsity obtained per 1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace convolution layer. The model being considered is an FBNetV3E network pruned to a sparsity level of 43.6\\%, to the same FLOPs level as FBNetV3C and subsequently fine-tuned. We note that the sparsity level in lower layers is lower which is potentially required for maintaining the performance~\\cite{}. Higher sparsity can be admitted in upper layers of the network where it has learnt more redundant representations. SE (Squeeze and Excitation) 1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace convolution layers generally tend to get pruned more compared to other layers, with the sparsity being >99\\% for two such SE layers in stage $xif5\\_0$. This indicates that we can also consider revisiting SE layer role in FBNetV3 networks, and even remove entire layers in future work to yield additional latency and FLOPs benefits. \n\nFor analysis (2) we prune each 1\\ensuremath{\\times}1\\xspace convolution layer in isolation at a sparsity target of 95\\% and record the Top-1 test accuracy obtained on ImageNet dataset. For each type of layer, PW:expansion, PWL: bottleneck, SE: Squeeze-Excitation we plot the distribution of accuracies in Figure~\\ref{sensitivity_pattern}. We observe that the PW and PWL layers are most sensitive to high sparsity, while SE layers are able to retain performance adequately. We could also avoid pruning the most sensitive layers (appearing as outliers in the figure) to maintain generalization performance. This observation corroborates findings from analysis (1), and motivates us to revisit the role of squeeze-excitation layers in future work. \n\n\\section{Conclusions}~\\label{conclusions}\nIn this paper, we have investigated the problem of improving on the current state-of-the-art FLOPs vs. performance trade-off for FBNets which have been pre-optimized by NAS (Neural Architecture Search). We have employed network pruning techniques, and our results demonstrate that we can further improve on performance over FBNetV3 at a given FLOPs target through global as well as uniform magnitude-based pruning. This happens not only for relatively over-parameterized networks such as FBNetV3G, but also smaller networks such as FBNetV3A which have lower computational complexity. On average, the GPU-hours incurred during pruning is about $\\sim\\!\\!4\\times$ less than that consumed by a full-scale NAS. We have also performed latency measurements on the FBNetV3G model and conducted an analysis to understand the sparsity patterns and sensitivity of different FBNetV3 layers to pruning. For future work, we plan to investigate squeeze-excitation layers in more detail, and explore structured pruning approaches such as channel and layer pruning to further improve on the latency-performance tradeoff for this family of models. \n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section*{}\n\\vspace{-1cm}\n\n\n\n\\footnotetext{\\textit{$^{a}$~Institut Charles Sadron, CNRS UPR22 - Universit\\'{e} de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France;  Fax: 33 (0)3 88 41 40 99; Tel: 33 (0)3 88 41 40 43; E-mail: Wiebke.Drenckhan@ics-cnrs.unistra.fr}}\n\\footnotetext{\\textit{$^{b}$~Sorbonne Universit\\'{e}s, UPMC Univ Paris 06, CNRS-UMR 7588, Institut des NanoSciences de Paris, 4 place Jussieu, 75005 Paris, France; Email: hohler@insp.upmc.fr} }\n\\footnotetext{\\textit{$^{c}$~Universit\\'{e} Gustave Eiffel , 5 Bd Descartes, Champs-sur-Marne, F-77454 Marne-la-Vall\\'{e} cedex 2, France. }}\n\\footnotetext{\\textit{$^{d}$~TU Dortmund University, Department of Physics, 44221 Dortmund, Germany }}\n\n\\footnotetext{Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available. See DOI: 10.1039\/D1SM01109J}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Introduction}\n\\label{sec:Intro}\n\n\nThe mechanical response of interfaces separating immiscible fluids enters into many fundamental and applied problems of topical interest. Within the current desire to describe complex liquid interfaces \\cite{Edwards1991,Rehage_RheoAct_2002,Sagis_RevModPhys_2011,Fuller_SoftMatter_2011,Fuller_2012,Sagis_COCIS_2014,Verwijlen_ACIS_2014}, two scientific communities meet, accustomed  to treating either \\textit{drops or bubbles} with \\textit{fluid-like} interfaces, or \\textit{capsules} and \\textit{balloons} whose membranes have \\textit{solid-like} mechanical properties. \n\nThe interfacial tension of complex \\textit{fluid interfaces} of drops or bubbles commonly depends on the adsorption of surfactant molecules and on their interactions (top of Fig. \\ref{fig:interfaces}). Their interfacial stress is isotropic and in the static limit insensitive to shear deformations. Such fluid systems can present an elastic stress response to dilation in addition to the surface tension. This is commonly called \\textit{Gibbs Elasticity} if surfactant exchange between interface and bulk can be neglected. \n\nThe stress in the \\textit{solid-like membranes} bounding capsules or balloons (bottom Fig. \\ref{fig:interfaces}) strongly depends on both shear deformation and compression away from a stress-free \"reference state\". These membranes are often thin enough for the elastic bending energy to be negligible compared to those associated with dilation and shear. These \"skins\" behave like 2D solids, with an elastic response characterised for small deformations by an \\textit{interfacial dilational modulus} and a \\textit{interfacial shear modulus}. \n\\par Like the physics of simple drops\/bubbles \\cite{Miller1998}, the physics of capsules\/balloons \\cite{Pozrikidis2003,Mueller_Strehlow_2004,Neubauer_ACIS_2014,Fery_Pol_2007,Sagis2015,Sagis2015a} is now quite well understood. \nHowever, \"intermediate\" systems are of increasing interest, which we shall name \"droploons\" or \"bubbloons\". Their interfacial properties  combine those encountered respectively in drops\/bubbles and capsules\/balloons: interfacial tension and solid-like membrane-stresses coexist. Here, the reference state is defined by the absence of a solid-like stress contribution so that only capillary stress is present. \nA multitude of bubbloon- and droploon-like systems have been investigated in the past, involving interfacially active particles, proteins, cross-linked surfactant monolayers, polymer multi-layers, polymer-surfactant mixtures, etc. \\cite{Edwards1991,Rehage_RheoAct_2002,Sagis_RevModPhys_2011,Erni2011,Fuller_SoftMatter_2011,Fuller_2012,Sagis_COCIS_2014,Verwijlen_ACIS_2014,Pepicelli_SocRheo_2019}. In most of these systems, liquid- and solid-like elastic contributions are intricately entangled, \ncalling for physical models and experimental approaches helping to distinguish and study these contributions. In the following, we provide a very short state of the art of relevant approaches before introducing the one taken for this article. \nInterfacial stresses may in general be of dynamic or static nature and they may present a plastic response depending on deformation history. Here we shall concentrate on the quasi-static response of interfaces. For more details, the reader is referred to recent books and review articles \\cite{Edwards1991,Rehage_RheoAct_2002,Miller2009,Sagis_RevModPhys_2011,Fuller_SoftMatter_2011,Fuller_2012,Sagis_COCIS_2014,Verwijlen_ACIS_2014,Pepicelli_SocRheo_2019}. For simplicity, we will also only talk about \\textit{droploons} and \\textit{liquid\/liquid} interfaces, but all derived concepts apply equally to \\textit{bubbloons} and \\textit{gas\/liquid} interfaces.  \n\n\\begin{figure}\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=7cm,keepaspectratio]{FIGURES\/LiquidSolidInterface.png}\n    \\caption{Contrast between the elastic response of fluid and solid interfaces. \\textit{Top}: The dilation of the concentration of surfactant molecules adsorbed to fluid interfaces creates an elastic contribution to surface stress. If the exchange of the surfactants with the bulk is inhibited, this response is static and called \"Gibbs elasticity\". \\textit{Bottom}: An elastic stress also appears when a solid like-skin covering the interface is stretched. \\label{fig:interfaces}}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThe development of dedicated interfacial shear rheometers has enabled reliable measurements of the \\textit{interfacial shear modulus} \\cite{Miller2009,Kragel2010}. However, the characterisation of the \\textit{dilational modulus} remains challenging due to the experimental difficulty of applying an accurately controlled homogeneous dilation to an interface and of assessing the accuracy of the modulus measurement if the deformation is only approximately a homogeneous dilation. \\par\nRecently, Vermant and coworkers \\cite{Verwijlen_ACIS_2014} constructed a special Langmuir trough in which the surface dilation is achieved by the action of twelve fingers arranged circularly. They used this set-up to investigate successfully the static and dynamic dilational response of complex interfaces. However, in order to access the surface stresses, this technique uses a Wilhelmy Balance which introduces potential errors in the measurement due to the influence of the contact line configuration on the Wilhelmy plate. Moreover, the large surfaces required for these measurements are prone to attract impurities, to encourage evaporation and make it challenging to work with liquid\/liquid systems. \n\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=8.5cm]{FIGURES\/Sceme_Variables_3.png}\n\\caption{Of interest here is the in- and deflation of spherical drops around a reference state of radius $R_0$. These drops are either isolated or attached to a capillary with circular cross-section of radius $R_n$.}\n\\label{fig:Schemes}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\par\nSince the volume change of a sphere leads to a perfect dilation of its surface, measuring the pressure-radius relation of a small, spherical droploon should be the preferred method to determine the dilational modulus. This has been implemented for capsules using osmotic pressure variations \\cite{Gao_EPJ_2001} or acoustic pressure fields \\cite{Dollet2019}\\footnote{Note that many other techniques have been developed which squeeze initially spherical droploons between two plates, use AFM, spinning drops or investigate the deformation of droploons in controlled flow fields. However, the associated deformations are all a combination of interfacial shear and dilation, making the quantitative analysis extremely complex.}. However, these approaches introduce physico-chemical or technical complexity. It is much more convenient to study the pressure\/shape relation of drops held by a capillary with circular cross-section, a technique called \"capillary tensiometry\" or \"pressure tensiometry\" when shape or pressure analysis is used, respectively. In the past, it has been used extensively for droploons deformed under gravity, a variant called \"capillary elastometry\" \\cite{Knoche2013,Hegemann2018}. However, the drop shapes are in this case non-spherical with complex interfacial deformations combining shear and dilational components, so that numerical fitting procedures with numerous parameters are required for the data analysis, introducing many uncertainties. Various improvements have been made to these approaches in the past, including improved shape fitting algorithms or combined shape\/pressure analysis \\cite{Danov_CollIntSci_2015,Nage_l2017}, yet without removing the complexity arising from the non-trivial object shape.\n\nIn the aim to identify and validate a quantitative technique for measuring the interfacial dilational modulus, we propose here to use the simplest possible geometry:  an initially spherical droploon attached to a capillary in the absence of gravity. Combining simulations and analytical modelling, we investigate how pressure-deformation relations depend on the interplay between surface tension and solid-like interfacial elasticity. \nPressure tensiometry of hemi-spherical drops has been exploited in the past \\cite{Russev_2008,Kotula_JRheo_2015}, but in all previous work homogeneous isotropic interfacial dilation was assumed. This is an uncontrolled approximation, since such an idealised deformation is incompatible with the boundary imposed by the attachment to the capillary. The exact bubble shape depending on surface tension, the elastic properties of the skin and the gas pressure cannot be calculated analytically. We therefore perform pioneering simulations for this configuration using the Surface Evolver Software - a finite element tool graciously developed and provided by Ken Brakke - in which the combined effects of interfacial tension and specific local mechanical constitutive laws can be implemented. Surface Evolver has already been successfully applied to advance our understanding of systems composed of simple drops \\cite{Weaire1999} or of capsules\/membranes without surface tension \\cite{Bouzidi_CompStruct_2004,Quilliet2016}. Surprisingly, its power has not yet been exploited to perform predictive simulations of droploon-type systems where surface tension and solid-like elasticity are combined. Since direct numerical schemes can be used for the axisymmetric droploon problem (Section \\ref{sec:ModelKierfeld}), it provides an ideal benchmark test for the Surface Evolver simulations. The latter will be necessary to predict the response of more complex objects, such as droploon assemblies, where direct numerical schemes will fail.\n\nWe treat here a simple model interface, as sketched in the top row of Fig. \\ref{fig:Schemes}. We assume it to be composed of a liquid\/liquid interface of interfacial tension $\\gamma_0$, on which a permanently cross-linked, polymeric gel of thickness $h_0$ is grown. The liquid phase containing the gel is supposed to be a good solvent for the gel, such that the interfacial tension between the gel and the solvent is negligibly small. We furthermore assume that this gel layer is thick enough to be considered a bulk material with bulk shear modulus $G$ and that its mechanical response can be described by a Neo-Hookean model (Section \\ref{sec:Theory}). For this purpose, we make the simplifying assumption that the gel can be considered as incompressible, in the sense that its bulk modulus is much larger than its shear modulus. Last but not least, we make the assumption that the gel is dilute enough such that neither its presence nor its deformation modifies the liquid\/liquid interfacial tension, thus equal to that of the pure solvent $\\gamma_0$.\n\\par\n\n \n After a general introduction to the main theoretical concepts (Section \\ref{sec:TheoryFundamentals}), we provide exact analytical relations for the pressure-deformation relations of spherical droploons (Section \\ref{sec:TheorySpheres}) and, for the first time, well-matching analytical approximations for droploons on capillaries (Section \\ref{sec:TheoryNeedle}). We then show how Surface Evolver can be used to provide reliable simulations of the equilibrium shapes and pressure-deformation relations of this simple physical scenario (Section \\ref{sec:SE}), and we show excellent agreement with direct numerical predictions (Section \\ref{sec:ModelKierfeld} \\cite{Knoche2013,Hegemann2018}). In Section \\ref{sec:ResultsDropsNeedles}, we combine theory and simulation to show that the main influence of the capillary results from the change in geometry and not the induced deformation anisotropy. The influence of the capillary on the pressure-volume relationship of a doploon represents a challenging and unsolved theoretical problem because of the interplay of the curved droploon equilibrium shape with the presence of a rigid inclusion, which induces anisotropic elastic deformations of the droploon. We show that this stress anisotropy is strongly localised around the capillary and  provide for the first time analytical relations to estimate the parameter ranges over which the anisotropy at the capillary\n  has negligible impact on the pressure-deformation relation, i.e., over which the provided analytical pressure-deformation relations may be used reliably to analyse experiments. We regularly compare with analytical predictions obtained for perfectly fluid interfaces with Gibbs elasticity as a reference. \n\n We note that in most experimental systems the interfacial stress may not only depend on deformation but also on the exchange of surfactant molecules between the bulk and the surface or to temperature changes. Sufficiently thick skins may also present a bending stiffness. In addition to an elastic, reversible mechanical response, viscous and plastic behavior is commonly observed.  None of these effects will be considered in the present paper focused on the simplest case of linear and nonlinear 2D elastic skin behavior which is already challenging.\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Theory}\n\\label{sec:Theory}\n\n\\subsection{Theoretical framework}\n\n\\label{sec:TheoryFundamentals}\n\nSince the recent literature has seen many debates about the physically correct description of the deformation of complex interfaces, we consider it necessary to start here with a fairly general introduction to clarify our point of view before introducing the specific concepts used later in the article.\n\n\nInterfaces are characterised by the amount of \\textit{interfacial free energy per surface area}, that we will denote $f$. If the \\textit{interfacial stress} is independent of area changes, the work needed to increase the area by $dA$ is $\\gamma dA = f dA $;  $f$ and $\\gamma$ are in this case equivalent quantities. However, this is no longer true if the stress and energy density are modified by interfacial area changes. This can be due to interacting surfactant molecules in a fluid-like interface (top of Fig. \\ref{fig:interfaces}), or due to a solid, elastic (polymer) skin adsorbed to the interface (bottom of Fig. \\ref{fig:interfaces}), or due to a mixture of both.\n\nIn this general case, the interfacial stress is no longer necessarily isotropic and its description requires a second rank tensor $\\sigma_{ij}$, where $i,j=1,2$ specify components in a 2D cartesian coordinate system locally tangent to the interface.  Assuming that the stresses due to the liquid interfacial tension $\\gamma\\delta_{ij}$ and those due to the adsorbed elastic skin $\\tau_{ij}$ are simply additive one may write \\cite{Jaensson_COCIS_2018}\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\sigma_{ij} = \\gamma\\delta_{ij} + \\tau_{ij},\n    \\label{eq:combine}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\delta_{ij}$ is the Kronecker symbol with $\\delta_{ij}=1$ if $i=j$ and $\\delta_{ij}=0$ otherwise. $\\tau_{ij}$ may contain both isotropic and anisotropic contributions, in contrast to $\\gamma\\delta_{ij}$ which is purely isotropic. The additive decomposition in Eq. (\\ref{eq:combine}) should not be taken for granted: if surfactants are cross-linked or co-adsorbed with a polymeric skin, the different contributions to the interfacial stress may be hard to tell apart, not only experimentally but also conceptually. In the present paper, we will not consider this issue further.  \n\n\n  Any measure of  interfacial strain is based on the coordinates of a given interfacial point: $X_i$ in the reference state and $x_i$ after the\ndeformation ($i=1,2,3$). From these, one may derive the displacement field $U_i(X_i)=x_i - X_i$, where $U_1$ and $U_2$ are the tangential displacements\nand $U_3$ the displacement normal to the interface.\nFor an interface with the two principal radii of curvature in the reference shape $R_{01}$ and $R_{02}$,\ndisplacements give rise to an \\textit{infinitesimal} strain tensor \\cite{LandauLifshitz}\n\\begin{equation}\n  \\epsilon_{ij}=\\frac{1}{2}\\left(\\frac{\\partial U_i}{\\partial X_j}\n    +\\frac{\\partial U_j}{\\partial X_i} +\n    \\frac{\\partial U_3}{\\partial X_i} \\frac{\\partial U_3}{\\partial X_j}\n  \\right)\n    +\\delta_{ij}\\frac{U_3}{2}\\left(\\frac{1}{R_{01}}+\\frac{1}{R_{02}}\\right)\n    \\label{eq:epsilon}\n\\end{equation}\ndescribing the interfacial 2D strains ($i,j=1,2$). For a spherical surface, the two principal curvature radii are equal ($R_{01}=R_{02}=R_0$) and $\\frac{1}{2}(\\frac{1}{R_{01}}+\\frac{1}{R_{02}})=\\frac{1}{R_0}$.\nIt contains information about the deformation which is\ninvariant to rotation and translation \\cite{LandauLifshitz}.\n  Following Kirchhoff's hypothesis \\cite{Ventsel2001}, we apply\n  classical thin shell approximations, and\n  neglect all strains in the plane normal to the interface,\n  $\\epsilon_{i3}=\\epsilon_{3i}=0$ ($i=1,2,3$).\n  Both in the Surface Evolver simulations and in the shape equation\n  calculus we will employ alternative \\textit{finite strain}\n  measures, which are introduced below. Their relation to the infinitesimal strain tensor is provided in  Appendix \\ref{AppendixA}.\n\n\n\n\n\nFor fluid-like interfaces, stress and strain are isotropic, and in this case scalar quantities of the stress $\\sigma$ and the strain $\\epsilon$ are useful. They are defined as \n\\begin{eqnarray}\n    \\sigma= \\frac{1}{2}(\\sigma_{11}+\\sigma_{22})  \\\\  \n    \\epsilon =\\epsilon_{11}+\\epsilon_{22}.\n    \\label{eq:isotropicStressStrain}\n\\end{eqnarray}\n$\\epsilon$ is equal to the relative variation of surface area $dA\/A$. \\par\nA rigorous description of \\textit{finite strains} can be derived either by considering nonlinear corrections to the kinematics based on the infinitesimal strain tensor \\cite{LandauLifshitz,Audoly_2010} or using the displacement gradient tensor \\cite{Beatty1987, Mal1991}\n\\begin{equation}\n     F_{ij} = \\frac{\\partial x_i}{\\partial X_j},\n     \\label{eq:defgrad}\n \\end{equation}\n  and finally the left Cauchy-Green strain tensor\n \\begin{equation}\n  B_{ij}= F_{ik} F_{jk},\n  \\label{eq:defB}\n\\end{equation}\nor the right Cauchy-Green tensor\n\n\\begin{equation}\n  C_{ij}= F_{ki} F_{kj},\n  \\label{eq:defC}\n\\end{equation}\n  which extract from $F_{ik}$ information about the strain which is  independent of rotation and translation.  Please note that in this paper we consider right Cauchy Green tensors in 2 and 3 dimensions. To avoid confusions, we denote them respectively as $\\mathbf{C}$ and $\\mathcal{C}$.\n   In this paper, Surface Evolver computes numerically the strain of the surface using the right Cauchy-Green-Tensor, whose explicit expression in the finite element method is derived in the APPENDIX \\ref{AppendixA}. For theoretical expressions, however, we will use the left Cauchy-Green tensor, to conform to the commonly used stress-strain expression derived using the Cayley-Hamilton theorem \\cite{Macosko}. As stressed by Beatty \\cite{Beatty1987}, both tensors have identical principal values (Tr($B_{ij}$)=Tr($C_{ij}$), Tr($B_{ij}^2$)=Tr($C_{ij}^2$), det($B_{ij}$)=det($C_{ij}$)), and are hence equivalent regarding the computation of strain energy.\n  \n  In Eqs. (\\ref{eq:defgrad}) and (\\ref{eq:defB}), we use Einstein's summation convention: indices occurring twice should be summed over. \\par\n In some models, the Hencky strain is found to be convenient. In the case of an extension that transforms a length $L$ measured in the reference state into a length $L'$, the infinitesimal strain definition in this scalar case would yield $(L-L')\/L$ while the Hencky strain is defined as $\\ln(L'\/L)$. Extensions of the Hencky strain to the tensorial case have been discussed in the literature \\cite{Verwijlen_ACIS_2014}.\n\nTo build constitutive laws, the strain must be connected to energy density and stress.\nShuttleworth has demonstrated the following general relation between surface stress $\\sigma_{ij}$ and surface energy density, assuming constant temperature \n\\cite{Shuttleworth_ProcPhysSocA_1950}\n\n\\begin{equation}\n   \\sigma_{ij} = f\\delta_{ij} + \\frac{\\partial f}{\\partial \\epsilon_{ij}},\n    \\label{eq:shuttleworth}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere i,j=1,2. $f$ combines potential energy contributions due to the excess energy of solvent molecules at the interface, adsorbed molecules or elastic potential energy of the skin. \n\nIn the case of fluid interfaces without skins where the stress is isotropic, a scalar model is sufficient. By taking half of the trace of Eq. (\\ref{eq:shuttleworth}) and using Eq.s (\\ref{eq:isotropicStressStrain}) we obtain the average surface stress, which is equal to the surface tension \n\\begin{equation}\n     \\sigma(\\epsilon) =  \\gamma(\\epsilon) = f +  \\frac{\\partial f}{\\partial {\\epsilon}}.\n    \\label{eq:isotropicshuttleworth}\n\\end{equation}\n \n\n \n \n\n\n\n \n \n \n\n \nFor the more general case, we can consider a first order expansion of $\\sigma (\\epsilon)$ around the reference state yielding\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\sigma(\\epsilon) =\\sigma(0) +K \\epsilon,\n    \\label{eq:K}\n\\end{equation}\n\nwhere we have introduced the elastic dilational modulus\n\\begin{equation}\n  K= \\left. \\frac{\\partial f}{\\partial\\epsilon}\\right|_{\\epsilon=0}.\n    \\label{eq:liquid1}\n\\end{equation}\n  \n\nIn the spirit of the Hencky strain, the following alternative definition of a dilational modulus, commonly called \"Gibbs modulus\", is often used \\cite{Mysels1961,Kitchener1962}\n\\begin{equation}\n K_G= \\frac{\\partial f}{\\partial\\ln A}.\n    \\label{eq:Gibbs}\n\\end{equation}\n  For infinitesimal strains, $d \\mathrm{ln}A =dA\/A = \\epsilon $ and both definitions (Eq.s (\\ref{eq:liquid1}) and ( \\ref{eq:Gibbs})) coincide so that $K = K_G$. For finite strains, there is a distinction between $dA\/A$ where  the area $A$ evolves along the deformation and $dA\/A_0=\\epsilon$ where $A_0$ is the area in the reference state. However, since the Gibbs modulus and the dilational modulus can vary independently as a function of strain, there is no contradiction between the two definitions. Using the Gibbs modulus and assuming its independence of strain amounts to choosing a particular type of constitutive law which appears to describe well some experimental systems  \\cite{Salonen_2016,Verwijlen_ACIS_2014}. \\\\\n  \n Let us now turn to interfaces with an adsorbed solid skin. Eq. (\\ref{eq:combine}) illustrates our simple hypothesis that the total surface stress is the sum of an interfacial tension and the elastic stress from the skin. To model this latter contribution, we focus on the case where  plastic or viscous response is negligible so that the stress can be derived from a mechanical potential energy. Such materials are called hyperelastic. We focus further on incompressible materials and recall that in this case, the most general constitutive law relating  the three-dimensional elastic stress to deformation can be cast in the form \\cite{Beatty1987, Mal1991}\n \\begin{equation}\n     \\sigma^{3D}_{ij} = -p \\delta_{ij} + \\beta_1 \\mathcal{B}_{ij} -  \\beta_{-1} \\mathcal{B}_{ij}^{-1},\n     \\label{eq:constitutive}\n \\end{equation}\nwhere i,j=1,2,3 and where $p$ is the 3D pressure. The so-called response functions $\\beta_1$ and $\\beta_{-1}$ depend on the properties of the material and must be expressed as functions of the invariants of the strain tensor to ensure frame invariance. In the simplest case, they are constants leading to what is commonly called the \"Mooney-Rivlin\" model. It has proven successful in describing many polymers \\cite{Macosko,Mueller_Strehlow_2004}. Within this class of models, the case $\\beta_{-1} = 0$ is of particular interest. It leads to the so called Neo-Hookean model where $\\beta_1$ is equal to the shear modulus $G$ \\cite{Beatty1987} so that\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\sigma^{3D}_{ij} = -p \\delta_{ij} + G\\, \\mathcal{B}_{ij}.\n\\end{equation}\nThis Neo-Hookean model has been derived from a simplified microscopic description of polymer dynamics using statistical mechanics \\cite{Larson1998,Mueller_Strehlow_2004}, and it successfully describes the stress response under finite strains. Since for moderate deformations, the Neo-Hooke model remains very close to the Mooney-Rivlin model, it is the method of choice for our simulations.\nIn the limit of small deformations, the Neo-Hookean model reduces to the well known Hookean model of linear elastic response.\n The 3D mechanical elastic energy density of a Neo-Hookean solid can be expressed as \n \\begin{equation}\n W = \\frac{G}{2} (I_\\mathcal{B} - 3),\n \\end{equation}\n where $I_\\mathcal{B}$ is the first invariant of the left Cauchy Green tensor defined in Eq. (\\ref{eq:defB}), defined as its trace. This will be useful for the simulations presented in Section \n \\ref{sec:Modelling}.\\par\n \n\n\n\\subsection{Perfectly spherical droploons}\n\\label{sec:TheorySpheres}\n\nAs given in Eq. (\\ref{eq:combine}) and sketched in Fig.s \\ref{fig:interfaces} and \\ref{fig:Schemes}, we assume that the total interfacial stress can be modeled as the sum of  surface tension and and elastic contribution. In the case of fluid-like interfaces, this elastic contribution is given by a Gibbs elasticity. In the case of a solid-like interface, the extra elastic stresses arise from a (Neo-)Hookean skin. \n\nIf the interface is fluid, i.e. only Gibbs elasticity is present, one can integrate Eq. (\\ref{eq:Gibbs}) assuming a constant   Gibbs dilational modulus $K_G$. In the limit of negligible gravity (i.e. low density mismatch between the phases or $\\Delta\\rho gR_0^2\/\\gamma_0\\ll 1$), the reference shape of the drop is spherical and the principal radii of curvature can be assumed to be equal ($R_{01}=R_{02}\\equiv R_0$). This gives for a spherical droploon of radius $R$ \n\\begin{equation}\n    \\sigma(A) = \\gamma(A) = \\gamma_0 + K_{G} \\ln{\\left( \\frac{A}{A_0}\\right)} = \\gamma_0 + 2K_{G} \\ln{\\left( \\frac{R}{R_0} \\right)}.\n    \\label{eq:GibbsGamma}\n\\end{equation}\n\nFrom this, the pressure drop $\\Delta P$ across the interface is obtained via the Young-Laplace law\n \\begin{equation}\n     \\Delta P = \\frac{2\\gamma}{R}.\n     \\label{eq:Laplace}\n \\end{equation}\n\nIn the reference state  $R=R_0$ and  $\\gamma =\\gamma_0$ so that $\\Delta P_0 = 2 \\gamma_0\/R_0$.\n\nTo prepare our analysis of solid-like and fluid-like contributions, we introduce the following normalised quantities.\nWe define an \"elastocapillary number\"\n\\begin{equation}\n \\alpha = \\frac{K}{\\gamma_0},\n \\label{eq:alpha}\n\\end{equation}\nwhich compares the dilational elastic modulus $K$ to the interfacial tension $\\gamma_0$ of the reference state. $K$ is either due to Gibbs elasticity (denoted $K_G$ in this case) or to a solid-like elasticity, as given later.\n\nFor spheres, the stretch $\\lambda$ is given by\n\\begin{equation}\n\\lambda  = \\frac{R}{R_0}.\n \\label{eq:areaStretch}\n\\end{equation}\n\nMoreover, we introduce the normalised interfacial stress\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\hat{\\sigma} =  \\frac{\\sigma}{\\gamma_0}.  \\label{eq:NormalisedStress}\n\\end{equation}\nIn the case where only Gibbs elasticity is present, the total interfacial stress is therefore given by\n\\begin{equation}\n\\hat{\\sigma} = \\hat{\\gamma}=  1 + 2\\alpha \\ln{\\lambda}.\n\\label{eq:GibbsND}\n\\end{equation}\n In the small-deformation limit this reduces to \n \\begin{equation}\n \\hat{\\sigma} = \\hat{\\gamma} = 1+ 2\\alpha (\\lambda-1).\n \\label{eq:GibbsSmallDef}\n \\end{equation}\nWhatever the origin of the tension and elastic response  may be, the normalised pressure is obtained using\n \n\\begin{equation}\n    \\Delta \\hat{P} =  \\frac{\\Delta P}{\\Delta P_0} = \\frac{\\hat{\\sigma}}{\\lambda}.\n    \\label{eq:NormalisedPressure}\n\\end{equation}\n \nLet us now consider solid-like interfaces. For the case of a spherical balloon with initial skin thickness $h_0<< R_0$, starting from Eq. (\\ref{eq:constitutive}), Beatty \\cite{Beatty1987} derived an analysis valid for any hyperelastic material    \n \\begin{equation}\n     \\Delta P(\\lambda)=\\frac{2\\sigma}{R}=\\frac{2 G h_0}{\\lambda R_0}\\left[ 1-\\frac{1}{\\lambda^6}\\right]\\left(\\beta_1-\\lambda^2\\beta_{-1}\\right).\n \\end{equation}\nIn the neo-Hookean case this yields the following expression for the stress in the skin \n \\begin{equation}\n     \\sigma_{Balloon}= G h_0\\left[ 1-\\lambda^{-6}\\right].\n \\end{equation}\n\nIn several more recent models of non-linear mechanical behavior, nonlinear variations of the response functions with the strain invariants are considered, as reviewed in \\cite{Horgan2015,Puglisi2015}. However, for the remainder of this paper we restrict ourselves to the use of the Neo-Hookean model.\n\n \n\n\nWe characterised the elastic skin, assumed to be isotropic and incompressible, by its 3D shear modulus $G$. To link it to the 2D dilational modulus, we note that the skin is in a state of plane stress, and that in this case\n\\begin{equation}\n   \\epsilon=\\epsilon_{11}+\\epsilon_{22}=\\frac{\\sigma_{11}+\\sigma_{22}}{2 E} =   \\frac{\\sigma}{h_0 E} \n\\end{equation}\nwhere $E$ is Young's modulus. Here, the biaxial stress in the solid induced by stretching is expressed as a skin tension divided by the skin thickness. In view of Eq. (\\ref{eq:K}), this means that $K=E h_0$ in the present case. For incompressible materials $E=3G$, so that for isotropic, small deformations \n\\begin{equation}\n   K= 3G h_0. \n   \\label{eq:SolidModulus}\n\\end{equation}\n\nIn the case of an elastic skin attached to an interface with tension $\\gamma_0$ we therefore obtain for the elastocapillary number \n \\begin{equation}\n \\alpha = \\frac{3Gh_0}{\\gamma_0}.\n \\label{eq:alphaNH}\n \\end{equation}\nThe total interfacial stress of a spherical neo-Hookean droploon is therefore given by \n \\begin{equation}\n \\hat{\\sigma} = 1+\\frac{G h_0}{\\gamma_0}(1-\\lambda^{-6})=1+\\frac{\\alpha}{3}(1-\\lambda^{-6}).\n \\label{eq:NeoHookeTension}\n \\end{equation}\nIn the small deformation limit one obtains the prediction of the linear elastic Hooke model\n \\begin{equation}\n \\hat{\\sigma} = 1+ 2\\alpha(\\lambda-1),\n \\label{eq:HookeTension}\n \\end{equation}\n which is identical to Eq. (\\ref{eq:GibbsSmallDef}). This result shows that in the limit of isotropic and small deformations both Gibbs elasticity and Neo-Hookean elasticity lead to a linear elastic response captured by Hooke's law in two dimensions with a compression modulus $K_G = 3Gh_0$.\\par\n \n \\begin{table*}\n\\renewcommand{\\arraystretch}{2}\n    \\centering\n    \\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|}\n    \\hline\nSphere model  & Normalised surface stress $\\hat{\\sigma}$ & Critical stretch $\\lambda_{A,c}$ & Stretch at maximum pressure $\\lambda_{A,m}$ \\\\ \\hline\nGibbs (liquid) &  $1 + \\alpha \\ln{\\lambda_A}$ & $ \\exp{\\left(-\\frac{1}{\\alpha}\\right)}$ & $ \\exp{\\left(2-\\frac{1}{\\alpha}\\right)}=e^2\\lambda_{A,c}$\\\\ \\hline\nNeo-Hooke (solid) &  $1 + \\frac{\\alpha}{3} (1-\\lambda_A^{-3})$ &  $ \\left( \\frac{\\alpha}{\\alpha+3} \\right) ^{1\/3} $ & $\\left( \\frac{7\\alpha}{\\alpha+3} \\right)^{\\frac{1}{3}} =7^{\\frac{1}{3}}\\lambda_{A,c}$ \\\\ \\hline\nHooke &  $1 + \\alpha(\\lambda_A-1) $ & $ \\left( 1-\\frac{1}{2\\alpha} \\right)^2$ (for $\\alpha>0.5$) & no maximum \\\\\n\\hline\n    \\end{tabular}\n    \\caption{Summary of the normalised expressions for the normalised surface stress $\\hat{\\sigma}=\\sigma\/\\gamma_0$; the critical stretch $\\lambda_{A,c}$ at which the pressure changes sign; and the stretch at maximum pressure $\\lambda_{A,m}$ for the Gibbs, Neo-Hooke and Hooke model.}\n    \\label{tab:models}\n\\end{table*}\n \nEq. (\\ref{eq:HookeTension}) shows that for $\\alpha > 1\/2$, an extensional stretch induces a positive total surface stress, acting as a restoring force while for $\\alpha < 1\/2$ an extensional stretch yields a negative total stress which favors further deformation. Analogous tendencies are predicted for compression. The condition $\\alpha = 1\/2$ has therefore received particular attention and is often called the \"Gibbs criterion\" since the physical response of a system may change fundamentally around this value. This is known, for example, for the case of bubble dissolution and foam coarsening \\cite{Stocco2009,Salonen_2016}.\n\nIn the case of spheres, it is natural to express interfacial stresses and curvatures via the radial stretch $\\lambda$. However, for more general surfaces, the relationship between both depends on the geometry of the surface. In this case it is more appropriate to express the dilational stresses via the area stretch $\\lambda_A = A\/A_0$. \nFor spheres, the relationship between area and radial stretch is simply \n\\begin{equation}\n\\lambda  = \\frac{R}{R_0} = \\left( \\frac{A}{A_0} \\right)^{1\/2} = \\lambda_A^{1\/2}.\n \\label{eq:radiusStretch}\n\\end{equation}\nIn Table \\ref{tab:models} we summarise the interfacial stresses for the Gibbs, Neo-Hookean and Hookean model expressed via their area stretches, together with some critical stretches which are discussed in Section \\ref{sec:ResultsSpheres}. In the following we will use those relations.\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Droploons on capillaries}\n\\label{sec:TheoryNeedle}\nLet us now consider droploons attached to capillaries with circular cross-section of radius $R_n$ (Fig. \\ref{fig:Schemes}). In this case one geometrically removes a cap of radius $R_n$ from the droploon and fixes the perimeter of the resulting circular hole to the end of the capillary. For fluid interfaces with Gibbs elasticity, the interfacial stresses are isotropic and constant everywhere in the interface, even if the droploon is inflated or deflated. Hence, the droploon shapes remain spherical sectors and, as we show below, all pressure-deformation relations can be calculated analytically, giving useful insight into the impact of the geometry change. In the case of interfaces with a solid skin, this is much less straightforward. Fixing the interface points on the capillary boundary induces shear deformation in the vicinity of the capillary upon inflation or deflation and hence deviations from the shape of a perfect sphere. The presence of the capillary in the case of a solid-like skin therefore combines a geometrical impact (as for the Gibbs elasticity) with one of a non-isotropic deformation. Both contributions are coupled and their relative importance depends on the capillary number $\\alpha$, on the deformation $A\/A_0$ and on the capillary-to-drop size ratio $R_n\/R_0$.\\\\\nLet us assume in the following that shear stresses remain negligible and that we can estimate the droploon shape by spherical sectors derived from perfect spheres of radius $R$ from which a cap of radius $R_n$ is removed, as depicted in Fig. \\ref{fig:Schemes}. The interfacial  area $A$ is then given by \n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{split}\n        A(R) & = 2\\pi R^2\\left(1 \\mp \\sqrt{1-\\left(\\frac{R_n}{R}\\right)^2}\\right),\n    \\end{split}\n    \\label{eq:interfacialarea01}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere the two signs correspond to droploons larger than a hemisphere  (\"+\") or smaller than a hemisphere (\"-\").The latter geometry introduces a major difference between drops with and without capillaries: the radius of the drop \\textit{increases} upon further deflation from the hemisphere. This changes dramatically the pressure-deformation relation, which is why we will exclude this case in the remaining discussion.\\\\\nEq. (\\ref{eq:interfacialarea01}) can be used to relate the area stretch $\\lambda_A$ and the radial stretch $\\lambda$ via\n\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{split}\n        \\lambda  = & \\;\\lambda_A^{1\/2}\\frac{1+\\sqrt{1-\\left(\\frac{R_n}{R_0}\\right)^2}}{\\sqrt{2\\left[1+\\sqrt{1-\\left(\\frac{R_n}{R_0}\\right)^2}\\right] -\\left(\\frac{R_n}{R_0}\\right)^2\\frac{1}{\\lambda_A}}} \\\\\n         = &  \\;\\lambda_A^{1\/2}  \\; \\mathpzc{f}\\left( \\frac{R_n}{R_0},\\lambda_A\\right).\n        \\end{split}\n    \\label{eq:GeometricalCorrection}\n\\end{equation}\n\ni.e. when comparing with the full sphere expression of Eq. (\\ref{eq:areaStretch}), the presence of the capillary introduces a correction factor $\\mathpzc{f}\\left( \\frac{R_n}{R_0},\\lambda_A\\right)$ to the relationship between the radial and the area stretch. \n\nFor a given area stretch $\\lambda_A$ - which is experimentally and computationally more easily accessible than the radial stretch $\\lambda$ - we can then rewrite the pressure-deformation relation as\n\n\\begin{equation}\n   \\Delta \\hat{P}=\\frac{\\hat{\\sigma}(\\lambda_A)}{\\lambda}=\\frac{\\hat{\\sigma}(\\lambda_A)}{\\lambda_A^{1\/2}} \\mathpzc{f}^{-1} = \\Delta \\hat{P}_S \\mathpzc{f}^{-1},\n    \\label{eq:PressureDefNeedle}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\Delta \\hat{P}_S$ is the pressure of the sphere with the same area stretch and the interfacial stress $\\hat{\\sigma}$ is given in Table \\ref{tab:models} for the different models. Hence, in the approximation of negligible shear contributions, the capillary may be considered to impose a simple geometrical correction on the pressure-deformation relation which depends only on the capillary size $\\frac{R_n}{R_0}$ and the area stretch $\\lambda_A$.  In the case of fluid-like interfaces (Gibbs elasticity), Eq. (\\ref{eq:PressureDefNeedle}) is accurate, while in the case of solid-like interfaces (Neo-Hooke \\& Hooke), this is an approximation. We shall see in Section \\ref{sec:ResultsDropsNeedles} that this remains nevertheless an excellent approximation over a wide range of parameters.\n\nHere we have chosen to express the pressure-deformation relations in terms of area stretch $\\lambda_A$ since it simplifies comparison with simulations and experiments. One may also choose to express them in terms of radial stretch $\\lambda$. In this case it is the expression of the interfacial stress $\\hat{\\sigma}$ which needs to be modified, leading to more complex expressions. We provide these relations for the interested reader in Annex \\ref{annex:PressDefNeedle}. \n\n\n\n\n\\section{Numerical modelling}\n\\label{sec:Modelling}\n\\subsection{Surface Evolver simulations}\n\\label{sec:SE}\n\\label{Subsec:SEPrinciple}\n\nSurface Evolver\\cite{Brakke1992} is a widely used software  that determines the equilibrium structure of systems containing several fluid phases separated by interfaces. It uses the principle that in equilibrium, the interfacial energy must be minimal under the constraints imposed by boundary conditions. Examples of this are foams where the volume of each bubble is fixed \\cite{Buffel2014,Weaire2017,Hohler2017,Ginot2019}.  Surface Evolver  can also be used to model elastic membranes \\cite{Bouzidi_CompStruct_2004,Quilliet2016}.\n\n\nIn Surface Evolver simulations, interfaces are represented as meshes of triangular facets whose energy is evaluated. Most previous studies on bubble or drop shapes  focus on systems where this energy is proportional to the interfacial area, the proportionality factor being the surface tension $\\gamma$. Additionally to this contribution, Surface Evolver simulations can also take into account an elastic energy induced by the deformation of each facet, simulating an elastic skin.  Several constitutive laws are implemented in the Evolver Software and can be used: Hooke's law describing linear elastic response, as well as the non-linear Saint-Venant or Neo-Hooke's law\\cite{Bouzidi_CompStruct_2004}. In the work reported here, we use Neo-Hooke's law introduced in Section \\ref{sec:TheoryFundamentals}. We implement, for the first time to our knowledge, an interface with both surface tension and neo-Hooke interfacial elasticity. As a first implementation, we thoroughly compare Surface Evolver results to the numerical solution of the shape equations (Section \\ref{sec:ModelKierfeld}), and ensure that it provides physically sound results in the investigated range of parameters.\n\nIn contrast to fluid interfaces where the interfacial area uniquely determines the energy, the energy of elastic skins depends on their deformation with respect to a reference state. The reference state of an interface element is given by a shape with zero interfacial elastic stress. This state is encoded in the reference positions of the facet vertices. The implementation of elastic stress in the framework of the Surface Evolver requires an expression of the facet deformation energy for arbitrary large strains, given as a function of the vertex positions. A detailed presentation of this feature and the implementation of elastic energy in the Surface Evolver has not been published so far to our knowledge. We therefore provide this information in the Appendix \\ref{AppendixA} to clarify for the interested reader how exactly the software operates. Here we shall concentrate on a very general description of the approach.\n\n\nOur Surface Evolver calculations simulate an experiment where a bubble or drop is inflated at the tip of a cylindrical hollow capillary inserted into a liquid, as illustrated in Fig. \\ref{fig:DroploonSimulations}. In the first step, we need to obtain a physically correct reference shape for a drop without interfacial elasticity.  For this purpose, an initially very coarse mesh is attached to a cylindrical boundary representing the capillary. The interfacial area is then minimised for the given drop target volume assuming that interfacial energy is due only to a uniform and constant surface tension\\footnote{This could represent a physical system where the elastic skin forms progressively at an initially \"naked\" interface}. Successive refinements and energy minimisations of the mesh are then performed to simulate the drop shape and the pressure in the reference bubble accurately. When the relative variation of total interfacial energy $|E^{n+1}-E^{n}|\/E^n$ remains smaller than $10^{-8}$ over 100 iteration steps we consider that convergence has been achieved.\\\\\nIn the second step of the simulation, an elastic skin is added to the drop surface of the obtained reference state, so that initially there is no elastic stress. Numerically, it consists in saving the current positions $\\{\\vec{X}_i\\}$ of the vertices as their reference positions, and setting a non-zero elastic modulus value for the interfacial energy computation for further minimisation iterations. How reference and current positions are used for deformation computation is detailed in Appendix \\ref{AppendixA}.\\\\\nThe third step consists in inflating or deflating this droploon up to a new volume where mechanical equilibrium is again established via progressive mesh  relaxation. Frequent merging of facets significantly smaller than average and refinement of facets larger than average hastens convergence whilst avoiding to trap the system in local energy minima. These operations are all performed by Surface Evolver in-built routines as part of a standard energy minimisation procedure. When the mesh management and energy minimisation have converged ($|E^{n+1}-E^{n}|\/E^n<10^{-8}$), the elastic stress in the skin, the pressure in the bubble and the bubble shapes are recorded.\\\\\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Numerical integration of the shape equations} \n\\label{sec:ModelKierfeld}\n\nWe solve for the shape and stress\/strain profile of an axi-symmetric capsule by \nnumerically integrating the \\emph{shape equations} \\cite{Hegemann2018,Knoche2013}. Because we impose axial symmetry, \nthe droploon can be parametrised as a single arc with\narc length $s$ and arc angle $\\Psi$. The transformation from arc length parametrisation to cylindrical coordinates $\\{r, \\phi, z\\}$ gives the first two shape equations\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\label{eqn:shape_eqn_rz} \\frac{\\mathrm{d}r}{\\mathrm{d}s} = \\cos\\Psi ~~~\\text{and}~~~\n     \\frac{\\mathrm{d}z}{\\mathrm{d}s} = \\sin\\Psi \\,.\n\\end{equation}\nThe remaining shape equations, needed to close the set of partial differential equations, take into account the constitutive material law and reflect the force balance at every point along the arc $s$. They are derived by searching for the stationary solutions of the appropriate energy functional.\n\n\\begin{figure}[h]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=7cm,keepaspectratio]{FIGURES\/drop_visualization.pdf}\n    \\caption{A pendant droploon parametrised in arc-length $s$ and arc-angle\n      $\\Psi$.\n     \n      \\label{fig:parametrization}}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn the experimentally relevant setting we control either the droploon volume or the mechanical pressure at the capillary inlet. Thus, the appropriate energy functional is the enthalpy\n\\begin{equation}\n    H = \\int \\mathrm{d}A_0 \\, W_{2D} + \\int \\mathrm{d}A \\, \\gamma_0 - \\int \\mathrm{d}V \\, \\Delta P \\,,\n    \\label{eqn:enthalpy_functional}\n\\end{equation}\nwith a contribution from the surface energy $W_{2D}$, measured \nwith respect to the undeformed area $A_0$, from the surface tension $\\gamma_0$ and from the volumetric work \nagainst a pressure difference $\\Delta P$.\nWe find the stationary states of the enthalpy $H$ of Eq. (\\eqref{eqn:enthalpy_functional}) via the first \nvariation, $\\delta H = 0$ (see \\cite{Knoche2013, Hegemann2018} for details), leading to the shape equations\n\\begin{align}\n    \\label{eqn:shape_eqn_psi} \\frac{\\mathrm{d} \\Psi}{\\mathrm{d}s} &= \\kappa_s = \\frac{1}{\\sigma_s} \\left(\\Delta P - \n    \\kappa_\\phi \\sigma_\\phi \\right)\n     \\,, \\\\\n    \\label{eqn:shape_eqn_taus} \\frac{\\mathrm{d} \\sigma_s}{\\mathrm{d}s} &= \\frac{\\cos\\Psi}{r} \\left( \\sigma_\\phi - \\sigma_s \\right) \\,,\n\\end{align}\nwhere ($\\kappa_s,\\kappa_{\\phi}$) and ($\\sigma_{s},\\sigma_{\\phi}$) are the meridional and  circumferential  curvatures and surface stresses, respectively. The curvatures are given by \n$\\kappa_\\phi = {\\sin \\Psi}\/{r}$ and \n$\\kappa_s = {\\mathrm{d}\\Psi}\/{\\mathrm{d}s}$.\nNote that the shape equations \\eqref{eqn:shape_eqn_rz},  \\eqref{eqn:shape_eqn_psi} and \\eqref{eqn:shape_eqn_taus} still require a constitutive material law for closure.\nAt this point, no detailed knowledge about the 2D surface energy functional $W_{2D}$ is required, as we\ndefine \n\\begin{equation}\n    \\sigma_{s, \\phi} = \\frac{1}{\\lambda_{\\phi, s}}\\left(\\frac{\\partial W_{2D}}{\\partial \\lambda_{s, \\phi}} \n    + \\frac{\\partial (\\gamma_0 \\lambda_s \\lambda_\\phi)}{\\partial \\lambda_{s, \\phi}}\\right) \\,,\n    \\label{eqn:stress_energy_functional}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\lambda_s$ and $\\lambda_\\phi$ are the meridional and circumferential\nstretch ratios of the droploon.  The shape equations \\eqref{eqn:shape_eqn_rz},\n\\eqref{eqn:shape_eqn_psi} and \\eqref{eqn:shape_eqn_taus}\nare written in terms of the arc length $s$ of the deformed \nshape. For the numerical solution we reparametrise in terms of the\n\\emph{undeformed} arc length coordinate $s_0$ of the original undeformed\nshape by using the relation\n$\\mathrm{d}s \/ \\mathrm{d}s_0 = \\lambda_s$, which is necessary in order to\ngain access to the meridional stretches $\\lambda_s$.\nThe circumferential stress $\\lambda_\\phi = r\/r_0$\nis given by the ratio of undeformed and deformed \nradial coordinate.\n\nThe surface energy $W_{2D}$ accounts for the material specific model and can incorporate various effects, such as film thinning. To express the constitutive equation in terms of our parametrisation we write the right 2D Cauchy-Green tensor, discussed in Section \\ref{sec:Modelling} and in Appendix \\ref{AppendixA}, as  \n\\begin{equation}\n    \\mathbf{C} = \\mathrm{diag}(\\lambda_s^2, \\lambda_\\phi^2)\\,.\n\\end{equation}\nFor a two-dimensional Neo-Hookean elastic material the surface energy is given by Eq. \\eqref{eq:2D energy density final} from the Appendix \\ref{sec:energy}\n\\begin{equation}\n    W_{2D} =\\frac{G h_0}{2} \\left( \\mathrm{Tr}\\mathbf{C} + \\mathcal{C}_{33} + \\frac{G}{\\Lambda} \\mathcal{C}^2_{33}\\right).\n\\end{equation}\nwith 3D Lam\u00e9 parameters $G$ and $\\Lambda$.\nHere, $\\mathbf{C}$ is the 2D Cauchy-Green tensor describing deformations within the surface, while \n$\\mathcal{C}_{33}$ is the component of the 3D  Cauchy-Green tensor describing normal (thickness) deformations of the elastic skin. Requiring the absence of normal stresses, $\\mathcal{C}_{33}$ becomes a function of $G\/\\Lambda$ and $\\mathrm{det}\\mathbf{C}$ as derived in Appendix \\ref{sec:energy}.\n\nFrom this surface energy,  we extract the constitutive law needed to close the shape equations using Eq.\\ \\eqref{eqn:stress_energy_functional},\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\sigma_{s, \\phi} = G h_0 \\left( \\frac{\\lambda_{s, \\phi}}{\\lambda_{\\phi, s}} - \\frac{\\mathcal{C}_{33}}{\\lambda_s \\lambda_\\phi} \\right) + \\gamma_0 \\,.\n\\end{equation}\nIn the following, we focus on the incompressible limit $G \/ \\Lambda \\ll 1$, where $\\mathcal{C}_{33} \\approx 1 \/ \\mathrm{det}\\mathbf{C} = 1 \/ \\lambda_s^2 \\lambda_\\phi^2$. \n\nFor a given undeformed shape (described by a function $r_0(s_0)$),\nthe shape equations, along with the constitutive equations, are numerically integrated from the apex ($s=0$) to the attachment point at the capillary ($s=L$) using a Runge-Kutta scheme, paired with a shooting algorithm to satisfy the boundary conditions\n\\begin{equation}\n r(s = 0) = z(s = 0) = \\Psi(s = 0) = 0~~~\\text{and}~~~\n r(s = L) = R_n  .\n\\end{equation}\nIn the shooting procedre, \nwe prescribe an apex stress $\\sigma_s(s = 0)$ and iteratively search for\na pressure drop $\\Delta P$ satisfying the attachment boundary condition at the\ncapillary. Moreover, we restrict the prescribed apex stresses to the\nphysically relevant ones for our context giving $\\sigma_s(s = 0) > 0$ (no\ncompressive stresses), and do not exceed the maximal possible apex stress\nallowed by the constitutive equations,\n$\\sigma_{s, \\phi}(s = 0)^{\\text{max}} = G h_0 + \\gamma_0$.\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Results}\n\\label{sec:Results}\n\n\nIn Section \\ref{sec:ResultsSpheres} we compare the theoretical predictions of the different elastic laws in Eqs. \\eqref{eq:GibbsND}, \\eqref{eq:alphaNH} and \\eqref{eq:NeoHookeTension}, and the results obtained from Surface Evolver simulations. In Section \\ref{sec:ResultsDropsNeedles}, we compare the numerical simulations to the analytical predictions where the needle is treated as a geometrical perturbation truncating an isotropic droploon (Section \\ref{sec:TheoryNeedle}). These two results are compared to the direct numerical predictions (Section \\ref{sec:ModelKierfeld}), which account both for the geometrical perturbation and the anisotropy imposed by the needle. Finally, we quantify the perturbation of the pressure induced by the needle, and show that it can be in large part explained by the geometrical perturbation. In the last step, we use the direct numerical predictions to quantify the importance of anisotropic stretches, and provide experimentalists with guidelines to predict the parameter ranges over which the influence of the capillary (shape change and\/or stress anisotropy) can be neglected.\n\n\\subsection{Spherical droploons}\n\\label{sec:ResultsSpheres}\n\n\\begin{figure*}[h]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=13cm,keepaspectratio]{FIGURES\/Quad_ElasticSphere.png}\n\\caption{Normalised pressure as a function of area stretch $\\lambda_A$ for spherical droploons whose skin elasticity is described by Gibbs', Neo-Hooke's or Hooke's law. Four characteristic elastocapillary number values ($\\alpha = 0.1$, $0.5$,$1$,$10$) are investigated. The data obtained by Surface Evolver simulations are obtained assuming Neo-Hookean elasticity.  }\n\\label{fig:PressureDeformationSPhere}\n\\end{figure*}\n \n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=9.5cm]{FIGURES\/lambda_Ac_lambda_Am_pressure_vs_epsilon_LambdaArea.png}\n\\caption{Variation of characteristic features (critical area stretch $\\lambda_{A,c}$, stretch $\\lambda_{A,m}$ at maximum pressure and maximum pressure $\\Delta \\hat{P}(\\lambda_{A,m})$) with the elastocapillary number $\\alpha$ predicted for droploons with skins presenting Gibbs, Neo-Hookean and Hookean elasticity. Surface Evolver simulations are performed for the Neo-Hooke case. }\n\\label{fig:SummFeaturesSphere}\n\\end{figure}\n\nWe run Neo-Hookean Surface Evolver simulations (Section \\ref{sec:SE}) for spheres with four different elastocapillary numbers ($\\alpha =$ 0.1, 0.5, 1, 10) imposing inflation and deflation while recording the normalised pressure difference $\\Delta \\hat{P}$. The results are shown in Fig. \\ref{fig:PressureDeformationSPhere} as a function of area stretch $\\lambda_A$ along with the theoretical predictions for the Gibbs, Hooke and Neo-Hooke models provided in Section \\ref{sec:TheorySpheres}. \n\nThe simulations show excellent agreement with the Neo-Hookean theory over the full range of investigated deformations. As expected and discussed in Section \\ref{sec:TheorySpheres}, all three models coincide in the small deformation limit  $\\lambda_A \\approx 1$. However, for deformations of a few percent, the three models already show very pronounced differences, indicating the importance of choosing the physically most realistic model for the interpretation of pressure-deformation relations. \n\nFor non-zero $\\alpha$, in the case of the Gibbs and Neo-Hookean elasticity, the initially monotonously decreasing Young-Laplace-like behaviour is replaced by a pressure-deformation relation with a well-pronounced pressure maximum $\\Delta\\tilde{P}(\\lambda_{A,m})$ at a characteristic stretch $\\lambda_{A,m}$. Upon deflation ($\\lambda_A<1$), this leads to the  apparition of a critical stretch $\\lambda_{A,c}$ at which the pressure difference is zero, and beyond which it becomes negative. This point corresponds to elastic instabilities of compressed interfaces, which manifest themselves in buckling phenomena \\cite{LandauLifshitz,Zoldesi1998,Sacanna2011}. A proper handling of this range requires to take into account the bending energies of the interfaces. Since this is neither of interest here, nor implemented in our simulations, we stay away from the buckling range in our analysis.\n\nThe variation of $\\lambda_{A,c}$, $\\lambda_{A,m}$ and of the pressure difference $\\Delta\\tilde{P}$ at $\\lambda_{A,m}$ with elastocapillary number $\\alpha$ for the different models are shown in Fig. \\ref{fig:SummFeaturesSphere}. The corresponding analytical expressions are given in Table \\ref{tab:models}. They put in evidence clear differences between Gibbs, Hookean and Neo-Hookean models. In comparison to Gibbs elasticity, the Neo-Hookean critical and maximal stretches vary only mildly with $\\alpha$. The Surface Evolver results again agree very well with theory. The critical stretch for Hooke's model appears when the elastocapillary number crosses the Gibbs criterion $\\alpha=0.5$. The Gibbs critical stretch tends exponentially towards 0, as $\\lambda_{A,c}=\\mathrm{exp}(-1\/\\alpha)$. In the limit of large $\\alpha$, the critical stretches all converge towards $\\lambda_{A,c}=1$, that is, a shell so rigid that it buckles as soon as compressed. \nHooke elasticity does not predict a local pressure maximum at any elastocapillary number. But it predicts an interesting deformation-independent pressure for $\\alpha=0.5$, i.e. at the \"Gibbs criterion\". Gibbs and Neo-Hooke, on the other hand, have a maximal pressure stretch increasing with $\\alpha$. In particular, at the Gibbs criterion $\\alpha=0.5$, the maximal pressure is reached at null deformation ($\\lambda=1)$. Lower elastocapillary numbers move $\\lambda_{A,m}$ to the compression regime ($\\lambda_{A,m}<1$), while $\\alpha>0.5$ shift $\\lambda_{A,m}$ to the dilation regime ($\\lambda_{A,m}>1$).\nThe most remarkable features of the elastocapillary transition (onset of significant critical stretch, variation of the maximal pressure stretch) occur for elastocapillary numbers between $0.1$ and $10$. For this reason, we expose in this article results for $\\alpha=0.1$, $1$ and $10$, so as to span two decades of elastocapillary numbers. Because of its history as the Gibbs criterion and its pivot point between capillarity and elasticity, $\\alpha=0.5$ will also be represented.\n\n\\subsection{Droploons on capillaries}\n\\label{sec:ResultsDropsNeedles}\n\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=8.5cm,keepaspectratio]{FIGURES\/DropSimulation_Alpha05.png}\n\\caption{Examples of neo-Hookean droploons at different area stretches and capillary ratios $R_n\/R_0$ obtained for $\\alpha = 0.5$ using Surface Evolver.}\n\\label{fig:DroploonSimulations}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn a second step, we run Surface Evolver simulations of pendant droploons attached to a capillary with circular cross-section of radius $R_n$ (Fig. \\ref{fig:Schemes}). The droploons are inflated and deflated while their interfacial area and inner pressure are recorded (Section \\ref{sec:SE}). Three  ratios between the capillary radius $R_n$  and the radius $R_0$ of the droploon in the reference configuration are used: $R_n\/R_0$ = 0.1, 0.5 and 0.9. Representative examples of obtained droploon shapes are shown in Fig. \\ref{fig:DroploonSimulations} for three characteristic area stretches ($\\lambda_A=$ 0.8, 1, 2) for the case of $\\alpha = 0.5$. \n\nIn Fig. \\ref{fig:PressureDeformationSPhereNeedle} we show the obtained pressure-deformation relations for the elastocapillary numbers $\\alpha = 0.1, 0.5, 1, 10$. Along with the Surface Evolver results (crosses) we plot results obtained by direct numerical predictions (empty circles) using the Neo-Hookean shape equations for the same set of parameters (Section \\ref{sec:ModelKierfeld}). The excellent agreement between both for all elastocapillary numbers, capillary radii and deformations demonstrates the reliability of Surface Evolver simulations for such systems.\n\nThe solid lines shown in Fig.  \\ref{fig:PressureDeformationSPhereNeedle} correspond to the analytical approximation given in  Eq. (\\ref{eq:PressureDefNeedle}) which models droplets as spherical sectors covered with a Neo-Hookean skin. The agreement is excellent in the whole deformation range for all capillary sizes and elastocapillary numbers. This means that in this parameter range the deviation from the predictions for spherical droploons without any capillary (gray line in Fig. \\ref{fig:PressureDeformationSPhereNeedle}) are essentially a result of the associated change of the geometry induced by the capillary, rather than due to the shear deformation in the vicinity of the capillary. Deviations from the simple model set in only for large capillary sizes ($R_n\/R_0=0.9$) and large elastocapillary numbers ($\\alpha = 10$). \n\nTo investigate why the spherical sector approximations fit  the results so well, Fig.\\ \\ref{fig:anisotropy_area_stretch} plots different measures of the anisotropy of the stretch distributions on the droploon surface obtained from the Neo-Hookean shape equations for the same parameter ranges as in Fig.\\ \\ref{fig:PressureDeformationSPhereNeedle}. In the case of fully isotropic deformation, corresponding to a spherical sector shape, the deviation of the mean stretch ratio along the contour $\\left\\langle \\frac{\\lambda_s}{\\lambda_{\\phi}} \\right\\rangle-1$ (Fig.\\ \\ref{fig:anisotropy_area_stretch}a,b) and the standard deviation of the meridional and circumferential stretches $\\mathrm{std}_s(\\lambda_{s,\\phi})$ (Fig.\\ \\ref{fig:anisotropy_area_stretch}c,d) are both zero. Since we neglect gravitational effects, it is clear that the unstressed shape\nof the capsule at $\\lambda_A = 1$ \\emph{must} be a spherical sector. The\nstretched shape will be anisotropically stressed, in general, because of the\nboundary condition imposed by the attachment at the capillary.  We can find,\nhowever, another particular stretch, where the \\emph{stressed} shape is a\nspherical sector.  This is reached at the critical stretch $\\lambda_{A,c}$\n(see also Section \\ref{sec:ResultsSpheres}) at which $\\Delta \\hat {P}=0$.  The\nforce balance for every point on the capsule requires that the pressure force\ncancels the tension force. For $\\Delta \\hat {P} = 0$, we therefore have\n$\\sigma_s = \\sigma_\\phi = 0$ all over the surface, i.e. the surface is\nstress-free everywhere at this critical stretch. Since\n$\\sigma_s = \\sigma_\\phi = 0$ implies isotropic stretching, the shape at this\npoint is again correctly described by the spherical sector equation\n(\\ref{eq:PressureDefNeedle}).  If the stretch is further decreased to\n$\\lambda_A<\\lambda_{A,c}$ both $\\sigma_s<0$ and $\\sigma_\\phi<0$ will become compressive and buckling or  wrinkling instabilities of the droploon interface will \noccur \\cite{LandauLifshitz,Knoche2013}.  \n\n\\begin{figure*}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=15cm,keepaspectratio]{FIGURES\/NeoHooke_Needles.png}\n\\caption{Normalised pressure as a function of area stretch $\\lambda_A$ of Neo-Hookean droploons on capillaries for three ratios of capillary and initial droploon radius ($R_n\/R_0 = 0.1, 0.5, 0.9$), and four characteristic elastocapillary numbers ($\\alpha = 0.1, 0.5,1,10$). Surface Evolver simulations are compared with direct numerical predictions (Section \\ref{sec:Modelling}) and with the analytical expression of Eq.\\ (\\ref{eq:NeoHookeTension}) using a simple geometrical correction to the perfect sphere theory.}\n\\label{fig:PressureDeformationSPhereNeedle}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=15cm]{FIGURES\/comparison_anisotropy.pdf}\n    \\caption{ Characterization of the stretch anisotropy  and the\n      stretch inhomogeneity. (a,b) The \n      mean ratio of meridional and circumferential stretches\n      $\\left\\langle \\frac{\\lambda_s}{\\lambda_{\\phi}} \\right\\rangle-1$\n      along the contour characterizes stretch\n       anisotropy and is shown \n       for  (a) $\\alpha \\leq 0.5$ and (b) $\\alpha > 0.5 $.\n       The standard deviations of  (c) meridional stretches\n       $\\lambda_s$ and (d) circumferential stretches $\\lambda_{\\phi}$\n       along the contour characterize the inhomogeneity of\n       stretches. We show the critical stretches $\\lambda_{A,c}$ as red diamonds in (a-d).\n  }\n    \\label{fig:anisotropy_area_stretch}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nFor stretch values other than $\\lambda_A = 1$ or $\\lambda_{A,c}$, the droploon\nshape is non-spherical, because of the anisotropy\n($\\lambda_s \\neq \\lambda_\\phi$) introduced by the boundary condition at the\ncapillary. This can clearly be seen in Figs.\\\n\\ref{fig:anisotropy_area_stretch}a,b. For inflated shapes $\\lambda_A > 1$, we find\n$\\left\\langle \\frac{\\lambda_s}{\\lambda_{\\phi}} \\right\\rangle - 1 >0$\nindicating that stretching is biased towards meridional deformations resulting\nin slightly prolate shapes, whereas for deflated shapes $\\lambda_A < 1$,\n$\\left\\langle \\frac{\\lambda_s}{\\lambda_{\\phi}} \\right\\rangle-1<0$ and\ncircumferential deformations are preferred, resulting in slightly oblate\nshapes.\n The mean anisotropy increases upon inflation before\ndecreasing again at much higher stretches (see the insets in\nFig.\\ \\ref{fig:anisotropy_area_stretch}a,b for a wider deformation range), when the influence of the capillary\nbecomes again negligible.\n\nFurthermore, the standard deviation of the stretches along the contour\n$\\mathrm{std}_s(\\lambda_s )$ and $\\mathrm{std}_s(\\lambda_\\phi)$ shown in\nFigs.\\ \\ref{fig:anisotropy_area_stretch}c,d characterizes the inhomogeneity of\nthe stretches along a contour. A standard deviation of\n$\\mathrm{std}_s(\\lambda_s ) = \\mathrm{std}_s(\\lambda_s ) = 0$ corresponds to a\nspherical sector. The meridional and circumferential stretches of an inflated\ndroploon are isotropic at the apex with\n$\\lambda_s(s = 0) = \\lambda_\\phi(s = 0)\\propto \\lambda_A^{1\/2}$. At the\ncapillary, the attachment condition mandates $\\lambda_\\phi^\\mathrm{cap} = 1$\nwhile $\\lambda_s^\\mathrm{cap}$ increases with $\\lambda_A$, which introduces\nanisotropy and inhomogeneity into the problem with meridional stresses\naccumulating at the capillary. The spherical approximation will hold well for\nshapes where the stretches are approximately \\textit{homogeneous} over a large\narc length, corresponding to a small standard deviation of the stretches, and\n\\textit{isotropic}, corresponding to a mean stretch along the contour\n$\\left\\langle \\frac{\\lambda_s}{\\lambda_{\\phi}} \\right\\rangle$ close to unity.\nThis is fulfilled at the two spherical configurations\n$\\lambda_A = 1$ and $\\lambda_{A,c}$. The spherical configuration \nwith  $\\lambda_{A,c}$ appears to be  highly sensitive, and small changes in\n$\\lambda_A$ lead to large deviations in the anisotropy (and inhomogeneity).\nIt is interesting to note that at small deformations around $\\lambda_A= 1$,\nthe anisotropy evolution depends only on the ratio $R_n \/ R_0$ and not on $\\alpha$.\n\n\nWe argue that the evolution of the anisotropy and inhomogeneity can be grasped by considering that the capillary acts similarly to a rigid inclusion\nin a stretched elastic membrane as both enforce the absence of circumferential\nstretching ($\\lambda_\\phi = 1$)\nat their boundary.  A rigid inclusion\nin a stretched elastic membrane is known to concentrate the meriodional\nstresses creating anisotropy and inhomogeneity, similar to the stress\nconcentration around a crack tip.  For flat membranes, a rigid inclusion is a\nclassic problem that was studied for neo-Hookean membranes by Wong and Shield\n\\cite{Wong1969}. For the droploon we have a curved geometry, which gives rise to an even more pronounced  increase of  anisotropy around the capillary.\n\nWe see clear evidence of  the increased anisotropy \naround the capillary in  numerical solutions to\nthe full anisotropic shape equations from  Section\n\\ref{sec:ModelKierfeld} as shown in Fig.\\ \\ref{fig:decayDetails}. \nIn \nFig.\\ \\ref{fig:decayDetails}a,b,c,  we show the stretch ratios $\\lambda_s$ and $\\lambda_\\phi$ and \nthe redistribution of arc length along the contour of inflated \ndroploons. These results show  the rise of meridional stretch \nclose to the capillary.\nFig.\\ \\ref{fig:decayDetails}d reveals that the\nresulting \nstretch anisotropy $\\lambda_s\/\\lambda_\\phi-1$ is  localized  at the\ncapillary and that it decays exponentially\nover a characteristic arc length\n$s_0^*$ away from the capillary.\nHere, $s_0$ is the arc length of the undeformed reference shape\n(the spherical droplet),\nwhich is related to the arc length $s$ of the deformed\nshape by the meridional stretch ratio,\n$\\mathrm{d}s \/ \\mathrm{d}s_0 = \\lambda_s$\n(see section \\ref{sec:ModelKierfeld}).\nWe use the logarithmic derivative\nof  $\\lambda_s\/\\lambda_\\phi-1$ to numerically determine  the size $s_0^*$\nof the zone of increased anisotropy around the capillary. \n\n\nWe propose that the relative meridional extent\n of the anisotropy zone  along\n the \\emph{deformed} droploon contour provides a non-dimensonal number $Q$,\n which is suitable to \n characterize the importance of elastic anisotropy effects\n in the regime $\\alpha>1$, where  elastic energies dominate.\n We thus define $  Q \\equiv {s^*}\/{L} $, where\n $s^*$ is the meridional length  of the anisotropy region\n measured in terms of the \\emph{deformed} arc length, while $L$ is the\n total arc length of the deformed droploon contour. \n For $\\alpha<1$,\n elastic energies are small compared to droplet surface tension such\n that also elastic anisotropy becomes less important. \n\n\nIn order to evaluate the anisotropy parameter $Q$, we \nuse the general relation $\\mathrm{d}s \/ \\mathrm{d}s_0 = \\lambda_s$\nbetween deformed and undeformed arc length at the capillary\nand $L  \\sim \\pi R_0 \\lambda_A^{1\/2}$ for the total arc length $L$\nin the limit $R_n \\ll R_0$ to obtain\n\\begin{equation}\n  Q \\equiv \\frac{s^*}{L} \\sim \\frac{s_0^* \\lambda_s^\\mathrm{cap}}{L}\n  \\sim \\frac{s_0^* \\lambda_s^\\mathrm{cap}}{\\pi R_0} \\lambda_A^{-1\/2}\n  \\label{eqn:Q}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere  $\\lambda_s^\\mathrm{cap}$ is the meridional stretch at the\ncapillary. To make further progress, we derive  relations\nfor the size $s_0^*$ of the anisotropy zone and the\nstretch ratio $\\lambda_s^\\mathrm{cap}$ at the capillary\n from numerical results shown in  Fig.\\ \\ref{fig:Q}.\n\nBecause the  \n maximal stretch anisotropy is found at the capillary and \n $\\lambda_{\\phi}=1$ at the capillary, the meridional stretch\n at the capillary actually equals the maximal stretch anisotropy, \n$\\max{\\left(\\frac{\\lambda_s} {\\lambda_\\phi}\\right)} =\n\\lambda_s^\\mathrm{cap}$. While in the case of flat membranes the maximal\naniosotropy $\\lambda_s^\\mathrm{cap} \\propto \\lambda_s(s=\\infty)$ is\nproportional to the radial stretch at infinity \\cite{Wong1969},\nour numerical results  for curved droploons indicate \nthat $\\lambda_s^\\mathrm{cap}$ first increases upon inflation $\\lambda_A>1$ but\nsaturates for highly inflated droploons with\narea stretches  $\\lambda_A$ exceeding\na fairly well-defined value $\\lambda_A^\\dag$,\nas shown in Fig.\\ \\ref{fig:Q}c for the\ncase of $\\alpha = 10$.  Further numerical analysis of the\nsaturation value as performed in  Fig.\\ \\ref{fig:Q}b\nallows us to quantify the saturation value as \n\\begin{equation}\n  \\max{\\left(\\frac{\\lambda_s} {\\lambda_\\phi}\\right)}\n  \\approx \\lambda_s^\\mathrm{cap} \\equiv\n  {\\rm const} \\left( \\frac{R_n}{R_0}\\right)^{-1\/3} \n    \\label{eqn:maximal_anisotropy}\n  \\end{equation}\n  with ${\\rm const} \\approx 1.47$ in the regime $\\alpha >1$. This saturation\n  value is solely determined by the geometrical parameter $R_n \/ R_0$ of the\n  undeformed droploon, which demonstrates that saturation is induced by\n  droplet curvature.\n  We also find $\\lambda_A^\\dag \\sim (\\lambda_s^\\mathrm{cap})^{3 \/ 2}$\n  for the\n  area stretch, where saturation of the maximal anisotropy sets in. \n  The maximal anisotropy given in Eq.\\ (\\ref{eqn:maximal_anisotropy})\n  diverges in the limit $R_n \/ R_0 \\approx 0$, which\nseems counter-intuitive at first, because the spherical approximation works\nbest for exactly this limit. This issue will be resolved below. \n\n\n  \n\\begin{figure*}\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=15cm]{FIGURES\/decay_details.pdf}\n    \\caption{\n      Stretch anisotropy of droploon shapes with $\\alpha = 10$ for\n      three values of $R_n\/R_0$ for each of three area stretches\n      $\\lambda_A \\gg \\lambda_A^\\dag$, $\\lambda_A > \\lambda_A^\\dag$, and\n      $\\lambda_A < \\lambda_A^\\dag$ (see also Fig.\\ \\ref{fig:Q}\n      for a definition of the characteristic \n      area stretch $\\lambda_A^\\dag$). \n      (a,b) Stretch ratios $\\lambda_s$ and\n      $\\lambda_\\phi$ as a function of the undeformed arc length $s_0\/L_0$\n      along the contour. While $\\lambda_\\phi$ is approaching the undeformed\n      value of 1 at the capillary ($s_0\/L_0=1$), $\\lambda_s$ rises at the\n      capillary. (c) shows that the deformed arc length $s$ considerably\n      deviates from the the undeformed arc length $s_0$ along the contour. (d)\n      The resulting stretch anisotropy $\\lambda_s \/ \\lambda_\\phi - 1$ is\n      localized at the capillary. The size of the anisotropy zone around the\n      capillary can be characterized by an exponential decay arc\n      length $s_0^*$,\n      which is calculated from the logarithmic derivative of\n      $\\lambda_s \/ \\lambda_\\phi - 1$ at the capillary for the solid lines and\n      shown as colored dots in all plots (a-d). We also show the maximal stretch at the capillary from Eq.\\ (\\ref{eqn:maximal_anisotropy}) as red diamonds in (a) and (d).  }\n    \\label{fig:decayDetails}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\nLet us quantify  the\nsize $s_0^*$ of the anisotropy zone around the capillary. From Fig.\\ \\ref{fig:Q}a, we find a conservative bound\n\\begin{equation}\n   s_0^* \\leq \\frac{R_n}{2}.\n    \\label{eqn:decaylength}\n  \\end{equation}\nThis relation reveals that the size of the\nstretch anisotropy zone\n is set by the geometry parameter $R_n\/R_0$ of the reference\n state rather than  the elastocapillary number $\\alpha$.\n\n \n Using Eq.\\ (\\ref{eqn:decaylength}) for $s_0^*$\n and the saturation value given in Eq.\\ (\\ref{eqn:maximal_anisotropy})\n for $\\lambda_s^\\mathrm{cap}$ in (\\ref{eqn:Q}), we obtain \n\\begin{equation}\n  Q = \\frac{\\rm const}{2\\pi}  \\left(\\frac{R_n}{R_0}\\right)^{2 \/ 3}\n   \\frac{1}{\\lambda_A^{1 \/ 2}} \n   \\label{eqn:QLargeLambda}\n \\end{equation}\n for the anisotropy parameter $Q$ for highly inflated droploons\n $\\lambda_A>\\lambda_A^\\dag$.\n This parameter remains small  for $R_n \\ll R_0$ indicating that\n we can neglect anisotropy effects in this limit.\n\n At smaller deformations $1 < \\lambda_A < \\lambda_A^\\dag$, \n where\n saturation of the capillary anisotropy has not yet set in, we numerically find\n that the maximal stretch anisotropy scales\n with $\\log(\\lambda_A)$ (see Fig.\\ \\ref{fig:Q}c), giving\n\\begin{equation}\n  Q = \\frac{R_n}{R_0} \\frac{\\lambda_s^\\mathrm{cap} - 1}\n  {3 \\pi \\log(\\rm \\lambda_s^\\mathrm{cap})}\n  \\frac{\\log(\\lambda_A)}{\\lambda_A^{1 \/ 2}},\n    \\label{eqn:anisotropyQuantifier}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere we again use the saturation value $\\lambda_s^\\mathrm{cap}$ from Eq.\\ (\\ref{eqn:maximal_anisotropy}).\n\nWe obtain a full contour plot of the anisotropy\nparameter $Q$ in Fig.\\ \\ref{fig:Q}d by\njoining the results in the two regimes\n( $\\lambda_A > \\lambda_A^\\dag$ and $\\lambda_A < \\lambda_A^\\dag$) with\na smooth interpolating function. This plot confirms that $Q$\nis small ($Q \\ll 1$) for shapes where the spherical approximation works\nbest. In particular, we find that\nwe can neglect anisotropy effects ($Q\\ll 1$)\nin the limit $R_n \/ R_0 \\approx 0$,\nresolving the counter-intuitive behaviour of the maximal anisotropy.  We\nemphasize the fact that Eq.\\ \\eqref{eqn:anisotropyQuantifier} only\ndepends on\n$R_n \/ R_0$ and $\\lambda_A$ and \\emph{not} on $\\alpha$, as long as\n$\\alpha > 1$. This indicates  that stretch anisotropy is\nmainly governed by geometry rather than by elastic energy\ncontributions.\nAs already pointed out above, elastic contributions and, thus,\nalso elastic anisotropy effects become increasingly irrelevant\nfor  $\\alpha < 1$, where surface tension dominates and the\nshape resembles a  spherical liquid droplet.\nThe regions $\\lambda_A > \\lambda_A^\\dag$ and $\\lambda_A < \\lambda_A^\\dag$\ndiffer markedly in their functional dependence on \n $\\lambda_A$.\nThis results in a maximum of the parameter $Q$ for area stretches\n$\\lambda_A\\sim \\lambda_A^\\dag\\propto (R_n \/ R_0)^{- 1 \/ 2}$\nat a fixed value of $R_n\/R_0$.\nThis, in turn, indicates that stretch anisotropy is most relevant\nfor these intermediate area stretches. \n\n  \\begin{figure*}\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=15cm]{FIGURES\/QPlot.pdf}\n    \\caption{Analysis of the anisotropy zone and the anisotropy\n        parameter $Q$ from\n      numerical solutions of the anisotropic shape\n      equations. (a) The size of the anisotropy zone  $s_0^*$ is roughly constant\n      giving rise to the bound (\\ref{eqn:decaylength}).\n      (b) The saturation value is mainly determined by the\n        parameter ($R_n\/R_0$), see Eq.\\\n      (\\ref{eqn:maximal_anisotropy}).\n      (c)  As a function of the area stretch $\\lambda_A$, the maximum\n      anisotropy saturates at large deformations beyond a value\n      $\\lambda_A^\\dag$ (results for $\\alpha =10$ shown as colored diamonds). \n      (d) Contour plot of the  non-dimensional anisotropy parameter  $Q$\n      according to Eq.\\ (\\ref{eqn:Q}).\n      Stretch anisotropy effects are negligible for $Q\\ll 1$.}\n    \\label{fig:Q}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nThe possibility of approximating the droploon shape by a spherical sector over a wide range of parameters is an important piece of information for experimentalists  since it means that the analytical expression of Eq. (\\ref{eq:PressureDefNeedle}) can be used to quantify reliably the elastocapillary properties of the droploon interfaces over a reasonably wide range of elastocapillary numbers. We also remind the reader that from the expressions it evident that within our geometrical approximations, the critical area stretch at which the pressure changes sign is independent of the size of the capillary. \nThe combined numerical analysis provides another important piece of information: for reasonably small capillary sizes ($R_n\/R_0<0.5$), the pressure-deformation relation is actually well described by the simple sphere equations without capillary (Section \\ref{sec:TheorySpheres}), making the quantitative interpretation of experimental data fairly straightforward. In order to quantify the deviation from the simple sphere theory, we plot  in Fig.\\ref{fig:ErrorDroploonNeedle} the heatmap of the normalised deviation of the numerically predicted pressure $\\Delta\\hat{P}$ with capillary (using Surface Evolver) from that predicted by the sphere theory $\\Delta \\hat{P}_S$ for a given area stretch, i.e. we plot\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\left| \\frac{\\Delta\\hat{P}_S-\\Delta\\hat{P}}{\\Delta\\hat{P}}\\right| = \\left| 1 - \\frac{\\Delta\\hat{P}_S}{\\Delta\\hat{P}}\\right|.\n    \\label{eq:ErrorHeatMap}\n\\end{equation}\nMaking the spherical sector hypothesis of Eq. (\\ref{eq:PressureDefNeedle}), this expression becomes simply \n\\begin{equation}\n    \\left| 1 - \\frac{\\Delta\\hat{P}_S}{\\Delta\\hat{P}} \\right| = \\left| 1 - \\mathpzc{f} \\right|,\n    \\label{eq:ErrorHeatMapSpherical}\n\\end{equation}\nwhich is plotted as lines of equal relative error. These isolines are identical in all four graphs of Fig.\\ref{fig:ErrorDroploonNeedle} since they are independent of $\\alpha$ (see Eq.\\eqref{eq:GeometricalCorrection}). \n\nDeviations of the heatmaps in Fig. \\ref{fig:ErrorDroploonNeedle} from the geometrical prediction have two origins: imperfect relaxation in the simulations and the influence of shear contributions of the solid skin which are neglected in the geometrical approximations. The first is at the origin of most of the deviations for $\\alpha < 10$, while the latter starts to be clearly visible for $\\alpha = 10$. Nevertheless, this latter difference remains small ($<0.5\\%$), confirming again that shear contributions play a minor role in most of the investigated parameter range in accordance with the non-dimensional $Q$-parameter plotted in Fig. \\ref{fig:Q}d. Our geometrically-corrected pressure-deformation relation of Eq. (\\ref{eq:PressureDefNeedle}), although not accounting for stretch anisotropy, is therefore a very good approximation for pendant drops with Neo-Hookean elastic interfaces within the parameter range investigated here. \n\nLet us now turn to the analysis of the heatmaps themselves. They indicate that in the small deformation limit ($\\lambda_A \\approx 1$), the error made in using the sphere approximation remains smaller than $1\\%$ at any radii ratio and elastocapillary number. For larger deformations in the inflation regime ($\\lambda_A>1$), the approximation error is still smaller than $1\\%$ for small capillary radii ($R_n\/R_0<0.2$). Similar behaviour is observed in the deflation regime. However, the prediction systematically fails when approaching the critical stretch $\\lambda_{A,c}$. This is because wrinkling instabilities in the skin may become relevant in this regime. This phenomenon can be captured neither within the sphere approximation, nor by our Surface Evolver simulations where the skin bending energy - crucial for wrinkling - is not taken into account. Skin bending can be implemented in Surface Evolver, but is beyond the scope of this paper. In the heatmaps we have therefore colored these zones in  gray. \n\nAt small $\\alpha$ and large $R_n\/R_0$ an additional  zone of large approximation error ($>10\\%$) appears for pressures $\\Delta\\hat{P}\\approx 1$. This deviation arises from the increasing difference between sphere and truncated sphere geometry: As the truncated sphere shrinks, it reaches the shape of a half-sphere of radius $R_n$. Any further decrease in drop volume causes an actual increase in curvature radius which is not captured by the sphere theory, hence the failure of the analytical prediction beyond this point in the parameters space.\n\nDespite those considerations for large capillary radii, the heatmaps of Fig.\\ref{fig:ErrorDroploonNeedle} provide very good news for the experimentalist aiming to quantify the elastic properties of droploon surfaces: when working with reasonable capillary sizes ($R_n\/R_0<0.5$), reasonably small deformations (<0.1) and reasonable elastocapillary numbers ($\\alpha < 10$), experimental data can be confidently fitted by the simple sphere theory (without capillary) since experimental errors are likely to outweigh the small error introduced by the sphere assumption. \n\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n\\centering\n       \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth,keepaspectratio]{FIGURES\/DeltaQuad.png}\n       \\caption{Relative error of pressure difference between Surface Evovler and neo-Hookean perfect sphere, at the same area stretch $\\lambda_A$ for four elastocapillary numbers ($\\alpha=0.1$,$0.5$,$1$,$10$). The grey boxes delimit the stretch values below critical stretch value $\\lambda_{A,c}$. Full lines are lines of equal relative error between the neo-Hookean perfect sphere and the neo-Hookean truncated sphere, given by Equ. \\eqref{eq:ErrorHeatMapSpherical}. }\n     \\label{fig:ErrorDroploonNeedle}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\n\n\\clearpage\n\n\\newpage\n\n\\section{Conclusion and outlook}\n\nTreating the seemingly simple problem of a drop covered by an elastic skin attached to a circular capillary in the absence of gravity, we have been able to show that Surface Evolver simulations are a powerful tool to study systems in which surface tension and nonlinear (Neo-Hookean) elasticity co-exist within the same interface. We have chosen on purpose such a simple geometry, in order to avail of independent theoretical and numerical predictions relying on cylindrical symmetry (Section \\ref{sec:Theory} and Section \\ref{sec:ModelKierfeld}) which can be compared to the Surface Evolver solutions. In all cases, they showed excellent agreement. Surface Evolver will therefore be useful to tackle more complex geometries, such as droploons on complex capillary shapes, interacting droploons or complete emulsions composed of droploons, where theory or alternative numerical predictions requiring symmetry will not be available. In contrast to other finite element tools, the energy minimisation approach of Surface Evolver, widely used in the communities studying foams and emulsions, provides access to a wide range of problems in which   interfaces of complex geometry play a key role. In the Appendix we provide a detailed description of the implementation of nonlinear elasticity in Surface Evolver simulations   to facilitate future developments, and we also provide our Surface Evolver code for download in the Supplementary Materials. Taking into account bending stiffness in the simulations would be an interesting perspective for future work.\n\nFor simplicity, we have been talking about drops\/droploons all along. However, all presented concepts are equally valid for bubbles\/bubbloons and hence foams. Our analysis shows how complex the interplay of capillary and elastic forces at an interface is, even for the relatively simple geometry of an initially spherical droploon inflated on a circular capillary.  Due to the intricate coupling of changes in interfacial curvature and area, accurate theoretical models and simulations are required  to extract interfacial properties quantitatively from measured pressure-deformation relations.\n\nThe problem of the pressure deformation of a\ndroploon covered by an elastic skin and attached to a capillary in the absence of gravity is a seemingly simple problem. From the point of view of elasticity theory it is challenging, however, because the elastic skin represents a closed curved shell and the capillary\na rigid circular inclusion within this shell.\nHoles or rigid inclusions in elastic membranes are known to produce stress anisotropies and stress concentration upon stretching. Here, the droploon skin is stretched by inflation, contains a rigid inclusion and features the additional  complication of a background curvature because the initial relaxed shape is spherical\n(neglecting gravity). We obtained theoretical predictions regarding the influence of the stress anisotropy induced by the capillary\nonto the  pressure-deformation relation from Surface Evolver simulations and a careful numerical analysis\nof stresses and strains in the shape equation approach. \nA full analytical solution remains an open problem for future research.\n\n\nIn the parameter range investigated by our simulations, we have been able to show that for elastocapillary numbers of $\\alpha < 10$ the influence of the capillary on the pressure-deformation relation is essentially of geometrical nature, i.e. the capillary modifies in the first place the relationship between the area stretch (related to interfacial stress) and the interface curvature. In this case, the droploon shapes can be represented approximately by spherical sectors and the pressure-deformation relation is given by Eq. (\\ref{eq:PressureDefNeedle}). For interfaces with Gibbs elasticity, this expression is exact, while for (Neo-)Hookean interfaces it remains an (excellent) approximation. Deviations from this simple geometrical approximation are starting to be significant for the largest capillary sizes ($R_n\/R_0=0.9$) and elastocapillary number ($\\alpha = 10$) simulated by us, suggesting that the anisotropic contribution to the interfacial stress and deformation near the capillary is starting to play a role. \n\nTo show that  this anisotropy is indeed strongly localised at the capillary, we calculate, as a function of position on the interface, the deviation of the ratio of meriodional and circumferential stretches from one. This quantity decays nearly exponentially with the distance  from the capillary, over a characteristic length $s^*$. The   extent of this anisotropically strained zone can be compared to the total droploon size by defining the non-dimensional ratio $Q=s^*\/L$,  where $L$ is the total arc length of the droploon. For droploon inflation and for $\\alpha > 1$, we find  \n\\begin{equation}\n  Q = \\frac{R_n}{R_0} \\frac{\\rm \\lambda_s^\\mathrm{cap} - 1}{3 \\pi \\log(\\rm \\lambda_s^\\mathrm{cap})} \\frac{\\log(\\lambda_A)}{\\lambda_A^{1 \/ 2}},\n    \\label{eqn:anisotropyQuantifier2}\n\\end{equation}\nwith \n\\begin{equation}\n  \\lambda_s^\\mathrm{cap} \\equiv\n  {\\rm const} \\left( \\frac{R_n}{R_0}\\right)^{- 1 \/ 3}, \n    \\label{eqn:maximal_anisotropy2}\n  \\end{equation}\nbeing the \"saturation\" meridional stretch reached at the capillary for large deformations and const = 1.47. \nFor large deformations, we therefore obtain\n\\begin{equation}\n   Q =  \\frac{\\rm const}{2\\pi} \\left(\\frac{R_n}{R_0}\\right)^{2\/3} \\frac{1}{\\lambda_A^{1 \/ 2}}. \n   \\label{eqn:QLargeLambda2}\n\\end{equation}\nThese relations and their analysis provided in Section \\ref{sec:ResultsDropsNeedles} and Fig. \\ref{fig:Q} put in evidence that the extent of the anisotropic zone (and hence its influence on the pressure-deformation relation), is mainly controlled by the reference geometry of the droploon ($R_n\/R_0$) and by the stretch $\\lambda_A$. We therefore show for the first time that the extent of this zone is essentially governed by geometrical features while the influence of the elastocapillary number $\\alpha$ remains negligible. These are very good news for experimentalists who can rely on the spherical droploon equations given in Table \\ref{tab:models} combined with the geometrical correction of Eq. (\\ref{eq:GeometricalCorrection}) to fit their data for a wide range of $\\alpha$  as long as $R_n\/R_0$ and $\\lambda_A$ remain reasonable. The heatmaps and relations provided in Section \\ref{sec:ResultsDropsNeedles} will help to estimate the appropriate parameter ranges.\n\n\nMore importantly for the analysis of experimental data, we have also shown that when working with sufficiently small capillaries ($R_n\/R_0<0.5$) and at small deformations ($\\sim 5\\%$ area), the simple analytical pressure-deformation relations of spheres \\textit{without} capillaries (Table \\ref{tab:models}) provide excellent approximations to the pressure-deformation relations of droploons on capillaries. The much simpler analytical relations of Table \\ref{tab:models} can therefore be used to extract quantitative interfacial properties from fits to  experimental data. Experimentalists are referred to Fig. \\ref{fig:ErrorDroploonNeedle} to estimate the error they make using this approximation. \n\nIn Section \\ref{sec:TheorySpheres} we showed that  for small deformations, the Gibbs, Neo-Hookean and Hookean models for liquid- and solid-like interfaces all predict the same kind of pressure-deformation relation. In view of the analysis presented above, this may explain why a lot of experimental data for solid-like interfaces seems to have been successfully fitted in the past by the Gibbs model. Indeed, our analysis shows that at small deformations, pendant drop experiments with nearly spherical droploons do not allow to discriminate between liquid-like and solid-like interfaces.   Alternative experiments, such as interfacial shear rheology measurements or the Capillary Mensicus Dynanometry\\cite{Danov_CollIntSci_2015} are required to obtain this information. \n\nWe have chosen here a minimal model of a droploon interface where the elastic extra stress of a Neo-Hookean solid material is simply added to a constant interfacial tension. Real interfaces are not as simple \\cite{Edwards1991,Rehage_RheoAct_2002,Sagis_RevModPhys_2011,Erni2011,Fuller_SoftMatter_2011,Fuller_2012,Sagis_COCIS_2014,Verwijlen_ACIS_2014,Pepicelli_SocRheo_2019}. Surface tension and elasticity tend to be coupled in a complex manner \\cite{Verwijlen_ACIS_2014}, and the description of the response of the elastic membrane is likely to require taking into account an anisotropic, viscous and plastic  response as well as non-linearities which are more complex than those of the Neo-Hookean model. Nevertheless, our simple approach  already gives important insight into some fundamental properties of pressure-deformation relations of pendant droploons.\n\nConsidering that pendant drop experiments, even in the simplest configuration without gravity, overlay a geometric non-linearity with non-linearities in the material response of a solid-like interfacial material, it remains  questionable if this is the appropriate experimental choice to discriminate between appropriate models to describe solid-like interfaces. Differences between models are likely to show up only at larger deformations which makes the interpretation extremely difficult. However, due to their simplicity, pendant drop experiments remain an excellent choice for a phenomenological characterisation of the dilational visco-elastic properties at small deformation. \n\n\nLast but not least, all our investigations have been performed without gravity, while pendant drops (and bubbles) are prone to gravity-driven deformations rendering them non-spherical. We recall that for a nearly spherical drop the Bond number $ Bo = \\Delta\\rho g R_0^2\/\\gamma_0$ indicates the ratio of the hydrostatic pressure difference between the top and the bottom of the bubble $\\Delta\\rho g 2R_0$ and the Laplace pressure which is due to surface tension $2 \\gamma_0 \/R_0$. The impact of gravity on bubble shape is negligible if $Bo \\ll 1$. If density-matched systems cannot be used, very small bubbles may therefore be a solution \\cite{Kotula_JRheo_2015} to reduce the impact of gravity. This also has the advantage to increase the interface curvature, and hence the pressure and therefore experimental sensitivity.\n\nIf gravity-driven deformation cannot be completely avoided, the following two aspects need to be taken into account. The first influence of gravity is on the shape of the droploon in the reference state. Gravity may create a concave neck close to the capillary, which creates additional stress localisation. Using  numerical investigations of the droplet shape bifurcation diagram (yellow line of bifurcations in Figs.\\ 4 and 5 of Ref.\\ \\cite{Kratz2020}), we could show in previous work that only for\n\\begin{equation}\n\\frac{R_n}{R_0} < 2.6 \\mathrm{Bo}^{1.64},\n\\end{equation}\nthe drop remains fully convex and neck formation can be neglected. \n\nThe second aspect concerns deformation with elastic skins, where the increasing droploon size upon inflation or the decreasing effective surface stresses upon deflation may make the system increasingly sensitive to gravity. In this case one may want to introduce an elastic Bond number which contains the deformation-dependent elastic contribution to the surface stress based on the Hookean expression  (\\ref{eq:HookeTension})\n\n\\begin{equation}\n    Bo_{el} = \\frac{\\Delta \\rho g}{\\gamma_0(1+2\\alpha(\\lambda-1))}\\lambda^2 R_0^2.\n\\end{equation}\n  \n\nFor sufficiently small elastic Bond numbers, gravity can then be neglected. Since gravity can be implemented easily in Surface Evolver, future investigations may explore the influence of gravity more quantitatively.  \n\n\n\\section*{Acknowledgements}\nThis work has been conducted in the framework of an ERC Consolidator Grant (agreement 819511 \u2013 METAFOAM). It has also profited from an IdEx Unistra \"Attractivity grant\" (Chaire W. Drenckhan) and has, as such, benefited from funding from the state, managed by the French National Research Agency as part of the 'Investments for the future' program. The authors would like to thank Fran\u00e7ois Schosseler, Leandro Jacomine, Stephane Pivard and Aur\u00e9lier Hourlier-Fargette for regular in-depth discussions concerning the experimental characterisation of pressure-deformation relations of droploons, which has stimulated greatly this numerical investigation.  \n\n\n\n\\section{Appendix A : numerical determination of the interfacial deformation}\n\\label{AppendixA}\n\n\nWe use the Surface Evolver software to determine the bubble or droplet shapes for which interfacial energy is minimal, respecting volume constraints and boundary conditions. The case where an elastic skin is attached to the interface raises the question how local strain should be deduced from the representation of the interface as an assembly of triangular facets. Section \\ref{sec:convected} explains how {\\it convected } coordinates are used for this. Section \\ref{sec:energy} provides details about the calculation of the elastic energy density, based on the neo Hooke constitutive model. \n\\subsection{Strain represented using convected coordinates \\label{sec:convected}}\n\\begin{figure}\n\\centering\n       \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth,keepaspectratio]{FIGURES\/Figure9.JPG}\n       \\caption{A triangular finite element of  an interface is represented in the reference configuration and in the current, deformed configuration. The figure illustrates the notations used in the text: $\\vec{\\bf x}$ for vectors pointing to vertices   and $\\vec{\\bf s}$ for finite element edge vectors. Capital letters  are used for the reference configuration and small letters for the current configuration. For the sake of simplicity, only one of the three vectors pointing to vertices is shown in each configuration. The contravariant components of both $\\vec{\\bf X}$ and $\\vec{\\bf x}$ are indicated on the same set of Cartesian axes.}\n     \\label{fig:convected}\n\\end{figure}\nThe shape of the triangular facets used in the Surface Evolver as finite elements is fully defined if two edge vectors are given. Upon deformation of the investigated bubble, the facet is generally displaced and the edge vectors are changed, spanning a facet of modified shape.  In the spirit of a linear discretization, an affine displacement field is assumed within each facet. One could describe the facet deformation using a coordinate system  whose origin is attached to a given vertex of the facet, and express how the Cartesian coordinates of each point on the facet evolve.  Alternatively, one may interpret the edge vectors as  basis vectors which evolve upon a deformation  and which are therefore in general non orthogonal. In this latter approach, the coordinates of each point of the interface are fixed and  the deformation is   represented in terms of a change of the basis vectors. This \"convected coordinate\" method goes back to pioneering work by Hencky \\cite{Hencky1925}.\nIn the Surface Evolver this method is convenient because the relevant edge vectors can easily be derived from the three facet vertex positions in the current configuration, denoted  $\\vec{x}_1,\\vec{x}_2,\\vec{x}_3$ and in the reference configuration $\\vec{X}_1,\\vec{X}_2,\\vec{X}_3$,\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:defS}\n\\begin{split}\n      \\vec{S}_1&=\\vec{X}_3-\\vec{X}_1 , \\quad  \\vec{s}_1=\\vec{x}_3-\\vec{x}_1,\\\\\n    \\vec{S}_2&=\\vec{X}_2-\\vec{X}_1 ,   \\quad  \\vec{s}_2=\\vec{x}_2-\\vec{x}_1.\n\\end{split}\n\\end{equation}\nThe edge vectors are represented using a cartesian orthonormal basis $(\\vec{e}_x,\\vec{e}_y)$ such that $\\vec{S}_i=S_{ix}\\vec{e}_x+S_{iy}\\vec{e}_y$ and  $\\vec{s}_i=s_{ix}\\vec{e}_x+s_{iy}\\vec{e}_y$. \\par    \nAs mentioned, convected coordinates remain constant upon a deformation; this introduces simplicity. But this choice also introduces complexity since the expression of the scalar product is no longer given by contraction $\\vec{a}\\cdot\\vec{b}=a_ib_i$, additional terms appear since the basis vectors are generally not orthogonal. To avoid such complexity, one represents vectors and tensors that one wishes to associate in products using two different bases: a \"covariant\" and contravariant one. Covariant basis vectors follow the deformation of the edge facets. They are denoted $\\vec{G}_1,\\vec{G}_2$ in the reference state and $\\vec{g}_1,\\vec{g}_2$ in the current state. Covariant quantities are identified by lower indices, \n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{split}\n     \\vec{G}_1&= \\vec{S}_1,\\quad  \\vec{g}_1= \\vec{s}_1,\\\\\n    \\vec{G}_2&=\\vec{S}_2,\\quad  \\vec{g}_2= \\vec{s}_2.\n\\end{split}\n\\end{equation}\nContravariant basis vectors $(\\vec{G}^1,\\vec{G}^2) $ or $(\\vec{g}^1,\\vec{g}^2 )$, are identified by upper indices, and they are defined through the following orthogonality relations:\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\vec{G}^i\\cdot\\vec{G}_j=\\delta^i_j, \\quad  \\vec{g}^i\\dot \\quad\\vec{g}_j=\\delta^i_j,\n    \\label{eq:orthogonality}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere  $\\delta^i_j =1$ if $i=j$ and $\\delta^i_j =0$  otherwise. The Cartesian coordinate system is a special case within this general framework where covariant and contravariant bases coincide. Using co- and contravariant bases simplifies the expressions of the scalar products of vectors and tensors in the case of non-orthogonal basis vectors.\n\nAn arbitrary vector $d\\vec{X}$ representing a small line element on the surface reads in terms of the covariant basis\n\\begin{equation}\n    d\\vec{X} = d\\Theta^j \\vec{G}_j.\n\\end{equation} \n $d\\Theta^j$ are the convected  contravariant coordinates. We use the Einstein summation convention\n and sum over repeated indices.\n \nDescriptions of strain in large deformation continuum mechanics are commonly based on the deformation gradient tensor $\\mathbf{F}$, represented by a matrix that transforms  a line element $ d\\vec{X} $ in the reference state into  $ d\\vec{x} $ in the current state,\n\\begin{equation}\n  d\\vec{x} = \\mathbf{F} d\\vec{X}.  \n\\end{equation}\nIn terms of convected coordinates, $\\mathbf{F}$ may be written\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathbf{F}=g_j\\otimes G^j.\n\\label{Equation:RightCauchyGreen}\n\\end{equation}\nThe symbol $\\otimes$ indicates an operation assembling two vectors into a tensor, called tensor product. \nIndeed, in view of Eq.\\ \\ref{eq:orthogonality} we have\n\\begin{equation}\n   \\mathbf{F} d \\vec{X} = (\\vec{g}_i\\otimes \\vec{G}^i)\\,d\\Theta^i G_j=d\\Theta^i \\vec{g}_i = d \\vec{x}.\n\\end{equation}\nThe deformation gradient tensor contains information about rotations that is irrelevant for interfacial energy. The interfacial energy in the Surface Evolver  is computed using the 2D right Cauchy-Green strain tensor $\\mathbf{C}$ which is invariant to rotations\\cite{Mal1991}, contrary to $\\mathbf{F}$:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathbf{C}=\\mathbf{F}^T \\mathbf{F}=(\\vec{G}^i\\otimes \\vec{g}_i)(\\vec{g}_j\\otimes \\vec{G}^j)=g_{ij}\\,\\vec{G}^i\\otimes \\vec{G}^j.\n\\label{Equation:RightCauchyGreenAppendix}\n\\end{equation}\n$g_{ij}$ is the metric tensor in the current configuration, defined as follows:\n\\begin{equation}\n     g_{ij} =\\vec{g}_i \\cdot \\vec{g}_j.\n     \\label{eq:metric}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\n\nTo determine the elastic energy of a facet in a simulation, {\\bf C} needs to be determined numerically. The components of the contravariant   basis vectors in the reference state $G^i$ are deduced from the covariant ones using the   orthogonality properties (\\ref{eq:orthogonality}): \n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\vec{G}^1\\cdot\\vec{G}_1=1=S^{1x}S_{1x}+S^{1y}S_{1y} &\\rightarrow &S^{1x}=\\frac{1-S^{1y}S_{1y}}{S_1x}\\\\\n\\vec{G}^2\\cdot\\vec{G}_1 = 0 =S^{2x}S_{1x}+S^{2y}S_{1y} & \\rightarrow & S^{2x}=-S^{2y}\\frac{S_{1y}}{S_{1x}}\\\\\n\\vec{G}^2\\cdot\\vec{G}_2 = 1 =S^{2x}S_{2x}+S^{2y}S_{2y} &  \\rightarrow & S^{2x}=\\frac{1-S^{2y}S_{2y}}{S_{2x}}\\\\\n\\vec{G}^1\\cdot\\vec{G}_2 = 0 =S^{1x}S_{2x}+S^{1y}S_{2y} & \\rightarrow & S^{1x}=-S^{1y}\\frac{S_{2y}}{S_{2x}}.\n\\end{aligned}\n\\label{Equation:OrthogonalMaterialBasis}\n\\end{equation} \n\nSolving the system (\\ref{Equation:OrthogonalMaterialBasis}) yields the components of the vectors $\\vec{G}^i$: \n\\begin{equation}\\begin{aligned}\n\\vec{G}^1=\\vec{S}^1=\\left(\\frac{S_{2y}}{S_{1x}S_{2y}-S_{1y}S_{2x}}, -\\frac{S_{2x}}{S_{1x}S_{2y}-S_{1y}S_{2x}}\\right) \\\\\n\\vec{G}^2=\\vec{S}^2=\\left(-\\frac{S_{1y}}{S_{1x}S_{2y}-S_{1y}S_{2x}}, \\frac{S_{1x}}{S_{1x}S_{2y}-S_{1y}S_{2x}}\\right).\n\\end{aligned}\n\\label{Equation:ContravariantMaterialCoordinates}\n\\end{equation}\n\nTo express the Cauchy Green strain tensor directly as a function of the edge vectors, it is convenient to introduce Gram matrices. The Gram matrix of two arbitrary vectors $\\vec{v}_1$ and $\\vec{v}_2$ is a 2x2 matrix whose element $ij$ is by definition given by the scalar product $\\vec{v}_i\\cdot \\vec{v}_j$. The covariant metric tensor defined in Eq.\\ (\\ref{eq:metric}) is thus the Gram matrix of the edge vectors in the current configuration. Following  the notation used in the Surface Evolver manual,  we will call this quantity  $\\mathbf{s}$: \n \\begin{equation}\n \\mathbf{s} = \\begin{pmatrix}\n \\vec{s}_1\\cdot\\vec{s}_1 & \\vec{s}_1\\cdot\\vec{s}_2 \\\\\n \\vec{s}_2\\cdot\\vec{s}_1 & \\vec{s}_2\\cdot\\vec{s}_2\n \\end{pmatrix}=g_{ij}.\n \\end{equation}\n\nThe Gram matrix of the edge vectors in the reference state is denoted $\\mathbf{S}$:\n\\begin{equation}\n \\mathbf{S} = \\begin{pmatrix}\n \\vec{S}_1\\cdot\\vec{S}_1 & \\vec{S}_1\\cdot\\vec{S}_2 \\\\\n \\vec{S}_2\\cdot\\vec{S}_1 & \\vec{S}_2\\cdot\\vec{S}_2\n \\end{pmatrix}.\n \\end{equation}\n\nWe note that the denominators in Eqs.\\ (\\ref{Equation:ContravariantMaterialCoordinates}) are the determinant of $ \\mathbf{S}$: \n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathrm{det}\\,\n \\mathbf{S} = \\left(\\vec{S}_1\\cdot\\vec{S}_1\\right)\\cdot\\left(\\vec{S}_2\\cdot\\vec{S}_2\\right) - \\left(\\vec{S}_1\\cdot\\vec{S}_2\\right)^2=\\left(S_{1x}S_{2y}-S_{1y}S_{2x} \\right)^2.\n\\label{Equation:CovariantGramDeterminant}\n\\end{equation}\n\nSince the components of the tensor $G^i\\otimes G^j$ are the scalar products of  $G^i$ and $G^j$ \\cite{Kelly} we can now write Eq.\\ (\\ref{Equation:RightCauchyGreenAppendix}) in terms of the cartesian components of S, using Eqs.\\ (\\ref{Equation:ContravariantMaterialCoordinates}) and (\\ref{Equation:CovariantGramDeterminant}),\n\n\\begin{equation}\\begin{aligned}\n\\vec{G}^1\\cdot\\vec{G}^1 &= \\frac{S_{2x}S_{2x}+S_{2y}S_{2y}}{\\mathrm{det}(\\mathbf{S})} =& \\frac{\\vec{S}_2\\cdot\\vec{S}_2}{\\mathrm{det}(\\mathbf{S})} \\\\\n\\vec{G}^2\\cdot\\vec{G}^2 &= \\frac{S_{1x}S_{1x}+S_{1y}S_{1y}}{\\mathrm{det}(\\mathbf{S})} =&\\frac{\\vec{S}_1\\cdot\\vec{S}_1}{\\mathrm{det}(\\mathbf{S})} \\\\\n\\vec{G}^1\\cdot\\vec{G}^2 &= -\\frac{S_{1x}S_{2x}+S_{1y}S_{2y}}{\\mathrm{det}(\\mathbf{S})} =&-\\frac{\\vec{S}_1\\cdot\\vec{S}_2}{\\mathrm{det}(\\mathbf{S})}.\n\\end{aligned}\\end{equation}\n\nThis result shows that $G^i\\otimes G^j$ is the inverse of the Gram matrix $\\mathbf{S}$,\n\\begin{equation}\nG^{i}\\otimes G^{j} = \\frac{1}{\\mathrm{det}|\\mathbf{S}|}\n\\begin{pmatrix}\n\\vec{S}_2\\cdot\\vec{S}_2 & -\\vec{S}_1\\cdot\\vec{S}_2 \\\\\n-\\vec{S}_1\\cdot\\vec{S}_2 & \\vec{S}_1\\cdot\\vec{S}_1\n\\end{pmatrix}\n=\\mathbf{S}^{-1}.\n\\end{equation}\n\n We can finally express the 2D right Cauchy-Green tensor (Eq. \\ref{Equation:RightCauchyGreen}), needed in section \\ref{sec:energy} to calculate the elastic energy,  in terms of the Gram matrices $\\mathbf{s}$ and $\\mathbf{S}$:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathbf{C}=\\mathbf{F}^T\\mathbf{F} = \\mathbf{s}\\,\\mathbf{S}^{-1}.\n\\label{Equation:RightCauchyGreenExplained}\n\\end{equation}\n\nWe note that Eq. (\\ref{Equation:RightCauchyGreenExplained}) can also be used to compute the Green-Lagrange strain tensor $\\mathbf{E}=\\mathbf{F}^T\\mathbf{F}-\\mathbf{I}$ from the vertex coordinates. $\\mathbf{E}$ converges to the infinitesimal strain tensor $\\mathbf{\\varepsilon}$ in the limit of small deformations. Eq.\\ (\\ref{Equation:RightCauchyGreenExplained}) is thus the key result for evaluating strain in  Surface Evolver calculations. We note that Eq.\\eqref{Equation:RightCauchyGreenExplained} also gives the correct strain for displacements of vertices normal to the surface.\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Elastic energy \\label{sec:energy}}\nIn this section we explain how the elastic contribution to the interfacial energy  is determined in our simulations. According to the compressible 3D Neo Hookean model implemented in the Surface Evolver\\cite{Bouzidi_CompStruct_2004}, and commonly used in the literature \\cite{Pence2015} the elastic energy per volume is\n\\begin{equation}\nW_{3D} = \\frac{G}{2} (Tr\\, \\mathcal{C}-3)-G \\ln J +\\frac{\\Lambda}{2} (\\ln J)^2.\n\\label{eq:3D energy density 1}\n\\end{equation} \n$G$ and $\\Lambda$  are the Lam\u00e9 parameters.\n $J^2=\\mathrm{det}(\\mathcal{C})$ is an invariant of $\\mathcal{C}$, a scalar quantity independent of the reference frame. It is given by the ratio of the volumes of a material element in the current deformed and initial states. \nIn the limit of small deformations, the energy density Eq.\\ref{eq:3D energy density 1} reduces as expected to the one deduced from Hooke's law for linear elastic isotropic materials \\cite{LandauLifshitz},  using the infinitesimal strain tensor $\\mathbf{\\epsilon}$ defined by Eq. \\ref{eq:epsilon}. \n\\begin{equation}\nW_{3D} = \\frac{ \\Lambda}{2} Tr (\\,\\mathbf{\\epsilon})^2+G Tr(\\mathbf{\\epsilon}^2).\n\\label{eq:linear_energy_density}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\par \nThe elastic skins considered in our work are so thin that their bending stiffness is negligible. Their resistance to shear deformations where the two opposite faces are displaced relative to each other is very strong, we neglect this mode of deformation and assume a state of {\\it plane stress}, consistently with the Kirchhoff hypotheses of thin shell theory \\cite{axelrad1987}. Using Cartesian coordinates with an $x_3$ axis perpendicular to an element of the skin, this is expressed as $\\mathcal{C}_{31}=\\mathcal{C}_{32}=\\mathcal{C}_{13}=\\mathcal{C}_{23}=0$. \nIn the same spirit, we consider the case where the stress normal to the skin has a negligible effect on its shape, so that we can assume $\\sigma_{33}=0$ without loss of generality.\nFor plane stress, the changes of volume and changes of skin thickness are directly related. To analyse this feature, we recall a general relation between the energy density and the Cauchy stress of hyperelastic materials \\cite{Mal1991}\n\\begin{equation}\n   J \\mathbf{F}^{-1} \\mathbf{\\sigma}\\mathbf{F}^{-T}   =2 \\frac{\\partial W_{3D}}{\\partial\\mathcal{C}}.\n\\end{equation}\nThe plane stress condition can thus be expressed as \n\\begin{equation}\n   \\frac{\\partial W_{3D}}{\\partial\\mathcal{C}_{33}}=0.\n\\end{equation}\nUsing Eq.\\ref{eq:3D energy density 1} this yields.  \n\\begin{equation}\n \\Lambda \\ln J = G (1 - \\mathcal{C}_{33}).\n  \\label{eq:JC33}\n\\end{equation}\nPhysically speaking, this equation previously derived for a similar constitutive equation \\cite{Pascon2019} relates the squared ratio of the current and initial skin thicknesses given by $\\mathcal{C}_{33}$ to the ratio of the current and initial skin volumes, expressed by $J$. \nIn the aim to derive a 2D energy density, we write Eq.\\  \\eqref{eq:JC33} as a function of the components of $\\mathcal{C}$, taking into account that many of them are zero in the case of plane stress, as pointed out above:\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\mathcal{C}_{33}(\\mathcal{C}_{11}\\mathcal{C}_{22}-\\mathcal{C}_{12}^2)=\\exp\\left[\\frac{2 G}{\\Lambda}(1-\\mathcal{C}_{33})\\right]\n     \\label{eq:JC332}\n\\end{equation}\nTo represent the skin as a 2D material whose deformation is fully specified by $\\mathcal{C}_{11},\\mathcal{C}_{22}$ and $\\mathcal{C}_{12}$, we need to express $\\mathcal{C}_{33}$ in terms of these other variables. This can be done  by solving Eq.\\ \\eqref{eq:JC332} either numerically \\cite{Pascon2019}, or analytically, using Lambert's $W$ function \\cite{corless1996}:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathcal{C}_{33} =   \\frac{\\Lambda}{2 G }\\, W\\left[\\frac{2 G \\, \\exp(2 G \/\\Lambda)}{\\Lambda  \\mathrm{det}(\\mathbf{C}) }\\right]\\\\\n= \\frac{\\Lambda}{2 G }\\, W\\left[\\frac{2 G \\, \\exp(2 G \/\\Lambda)}{\\Lambda(\\mathcal{C}_{11}\\,\\mathcal{C}_{22}-\\mathcal{C}_{12}^2)}\\right]\n\\end{equation}\nThe latter option has been implemented by R.\\ Bouzidi in the Surface Evolver software. Inserting the expression of $\\mathcal{C}_{33}$ in Eq.\\ \\eqref{eq:JC33} and the resulting expression for $\\ln J$ into the 3D energy density Eq.\\ \\eqref{eq:3D energy density 1}, we obtain the following 2D energy density for a neo-Hookean skin, where $h_0$ is the skin thickness in the reference state,\n\\begin{equation}\nW_{2D} =G h_0\\left( \\frac{1}{2} (Tr\\, \\mathcal{C}-3)- \\frac{G}{\\Lambda}(1-\\mathcal{C}_{33}) +\\frac{G}{2\\Lambda} (1-\\mathcal{C}_{33})^2 \\right).\n\\label{eq:2D energy density}\n\\end{equation}\n$G h_0$ may be interpreted as a 2D shear modulus.\nNeglecting constant terms which are irrelevant for a potential energy and expressing the result in terms of the 2D right Cauchy Green tensor using\n$\\mathrm{Tr} \\mathcal{C} = \\mathrm{Tr} \\mathbf{C}  + \\mathcal{C} _{33}$, we obtain\n\\begin{equation}\nW_{2D} =\\frac{G h_0}{2}\\left(  Tr\\, \\mathbf{C} +\\mathcal{C}_{33} + \\frac{G}{\\Lambda} \\mathcal{C}_{33}^2 \\right).\n\\label{eq:2D energy density final}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\n\n\nThe skin materials considered in the present paper are much easier to shear than to compress such that $G \\ll \\Lambda$. In this case, the last term in Eq.\\ \\eqref{eq:2D energy density final} can be neglected.\n \\par Besides the neo-Hookean model discussed so far, the Surface Evolver software provides an alternative energy density expression called \"linear elastic model\"  which yields  behavior consistent with Eq.\\ \\eqref{eq:linear_energy_density} in the limit of small deformations. However, one should be aware that for large deformations this numerical model based on the right Cauchy Green tensor  is not consistent with Eq.\\ (\\ref{eq:linear_energy_density}). \n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Pressure-deformation relations of droploons on capillarys expressed via radial stretch}\n\\label{annex:PressDefNeedle}\n\nIn the main body of the article we expressed all relations in terms of area stretch $\\lambda_A$. The same approach can be done for the radial stretch $\\lambda$ leading, however, to expressions which are less intuitive and less directly accessible by experiments and simulations. For completeness, we shall provide the resulting equations here. \n\nWe can rewrite the interfacial $A$ for a droploon on a capillary larger than a hemisphere as \n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{split}\n        A & = 2\\pi R^2\\left(1 - \\sqrt{1-\\left(\\frac{R_n}{R}\\right)^2}\\right) \\\\\n        & = 2\\pi R^2 \\mathpzc{f}(R_n\/R).\n    \\end{split}\n    \\label{eq:interfacialarea}\n\\end{equation}\nThe function $F(R_n\/R)$ defined by Eq.(\\ref{eq:interfacialarea}) helps to express the result in a more concise way.\n\nThe term $\\ln(A\/A_0)$ in the Gibbs relation (\\ref{eq:GibbsGamma}) can then be rewritten using Eq. (\\ref{eq:interfacialarea}) to give the normalised surface stress of the droploon on the capillary\n  \\begin{equation}\n \\hat{\\sigma} = 1+ 2\\alpha \\ln \\lambda + \\alpha \\ln \\xi.\n \\label{eq:GibbsNeedle}\n \\end{equation}\n The last term, depending on  the geometric factor \n  \\begin{equation}\n \\xi = \\frac{\\mathpzc{f}(R_n\/R)}{\\mathpzc{f}(R_n\/R_0)},\n \\label{eq:GeomFactor}\n \\end{equation}\n expresses the impact of a capillary on the elastic stress at the surface of a sphere, assuming a spherical sector shape.\n \n In the first two terms one recognises the result previously obtained for the perfect sphere (Eq. (\\ref{eq:GibbsGamma})).  One can therefore rewrite\n   \\begin{equation}\n \\hat{\\sigma} = \\hat{\\sigma}_{sphere} + \\alpha \\ln \\xi.\n \\label{eq:GibbsNeedleSphere}\n \\end{equation}\n \nCompared to a sphere with the same radius, the presence of the capillary introduces a corrective term in the surface stress which depends on $\\alpha$, $R$, $R_n$ and $R_0$. \n \nFor neo-Hookean droploons, the droploon shapes on capillaries are no longer perfect spherical sectors, making analytical descriptions much harder - which is why numerical simulations are required. Nevertheless, we shall make here the seemingly crude approximation that the shapes can be approximated as spherical sectors. \n\nUsing exactly the same approach as for the Gibbs interface but with the neo-Hookean relation(see Table \\ref{tab:models}), one finds for a neo-Hookean droploon on a capillary \n\n \\begin{equation}\n \\hat{\\sigma} = 1 + \\frac{\\alpha}{3} \\left( 1 - \\lambda^{-6} \\xi^{-3} \\right).\n \\label{eq:NeoHookeNeedleAnnexe1}\n \\end{equation}\n \n After some algebra, this can be rewritten as the expression for the perfect sphere with a corrective term taking account of the capillary\n  \\begin{equation}\n \\hat{\\sigma} = \\hat{\\sigma}_{sphere} + \\frac{\\alpha}{3} \\left(1 - \\xi^{-3}\\right)\\lambda^{-6}.\n \\label{eq:NeoHookeNeedleAnnexe2}\n \\end{equation}\n \n In the limit of small deformations, our results for both Gibbs and neo-Hooke elastiticy yield the same relation \n  \\begin{equation}\n \\hat{\\sigma} = \\hat{\\sigma}_{sphere} + \\alpha \\left(\\xi - 1 \\right)\\lambda,\n \\label{eq:HookeNeedleAnnexe3}\n \\end{equation}\nconsistently with what one would obtain for a perfectly spherical sector droploon with Hookean skin on a capillary. In all cases, the corrective term is zero in the reference state where $R=R_0$. Once the interfacial stresses are known, the pressure-deformation relation can be calculated using the Young-Laplace law given in Eq. (\\ref{eq:NormalisedPressure}).\n\nTable \\ref{tab:modelsNeedles} summarises normalised expressions derived from this simple geometrical approximation model, together with expressions for the critical stretch.\n\n\\begin{table*}[t]\n    \\centering\n    \\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|}\n    \\hline\n   Model on capillary & Normalised surface stress $\\hat{\\sigma}$ & Critical stretch $\\lambda_c$ \\\\ \\hline\nGibbs &  $\\hat{\\sigma}_{sphere} + \\alpha \\ln \\xi$ & $\\frac{R_0\\left(1+\\sqrt{1-(\\frac{R_n}{R_0})^2}\\right)e^{-\\frac{1}{\\alpha}}}{\\sqrt{2R_0^2(1+\\sqrt{1-(\\frac{R_n}{R_0})^2})e^{-\\frac{1}{\\alpha}}-R_n^2}}$ \\\\ \\hline\nNeo-Hooke &  $\\hat{\\sigma}_{sphere} + \\frac{\\alpha}{3} \\left(1-\\xi^{-3}\\right)\\lambda^{-6}$ & $\\frac{R_0(1+\\sqrt{1-(\\frac{R_n}{R_0})^2})\\left(1-\\frac{1}{2\\alpha} \\right)^2}\n{ \\sqrt{2R_0^2\\left(1+\\sqrt{1-(\\frac{R_n}{R_0})^2}\\right)\\left(1-\\frac{1}{2\\alpha} \\right)^2-R_n^2}}$ \\\\ \\hline\nHooke &  $\\hat{\\sigma}_{sphere} + \\alpha \\left(\\xi - 1 \\right)\\lambda$ & $\\frac{R_0(1+\\sqrt{1-(\\frac{R_n}{R_0})^2})\\left(\\frac{\\alpha}{\\alpha+3}\\right)^{\\frac{1}{3}} }\n{ \\sqrt{2R_0^2\\left(1+\\sqrt{1-(\\frac{R_n}{R_0})^2}\\right)\\left(\\frac{\\alpha}{\\alpha+3}\\right)^{\\frac{1}{3}}-R_n^2}}$\\\\\n\\hline\n    \\end{tabular}\n    \\caption{Summary of the normalised expressions for the surface stress of drops on capillaries using the approximation that the drop can be described by a spherical sector. While for Gibbs droploons these are correct, they are only approximations for Hookean and neo-Hookean droploons. The expressions for $\\hat{\\sigma}_{sphere}$ are given in Table \\ref{tab:models}. The geometric factor $\\xi$ is given in Eq. (\\ref{eq:GeomFactor}). }\n    \\label{tab:modelsNeedles}\n\\end{table*}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\clearpage\n\n\n\n\n\\balance\n\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\n\\subsection{Gopakumar-Vafa invariants}\nA smooth complex projective 4-fold $X$ is {\\em holomorphic symplectic} if\nit is equipped with a non-degenerate holomorphic 2-form $\\sigma\\in H^0(X,\\Omega^2_X)$. \nThe ordinary Gromov-Witten invariants of $X$ always vanish for non-zero curve classes. Instead a reduced Gromov-Witten theory is\ndefined by Kiem-Li's cosection localization \\cite{KiL}. \n\nGiven cohomology classes $\\gamma_i \\in H^{\\ast}(X,\\mathbb{Z})$,\nthe (reduced) Gromov-Witten invariants of $X$ in \na non-zero curve class \n$\\beta \\in H_2(X,\\mathbb{Z})$ \nare defined by\n\\begin{align}\\label{intro GWinv}\n\\mathrm{GW}_{g, \\beta}(\\gamma_1, \\ldots, \\gamma_l)\n=\\int_{[\\overline{M}_{g, l}(X, \\beta)]^{\\rm{vir}}}\n\\prod_{i=1}^l \\mathrm{ev}_i^{\\ast}(\\gamma_i),\n\\end{align}\nwhere \n\\begin{equation*}[\\overline{M}_{g, l}(X, \\beta)]^{\\mathrm{vir}}\\in A_{2-g+l}(\\overline{M}_{g, l}(X, \\beta)) \\end{equation*}\nis the (reduced) virtual class and  $\\mathrm{ev}_i \\colon \\overline{M}_{g,l}(X, \\beta)\\to X$\nis the evaluation map at the $i$-th marking. \nWe refer to \\cite{O1, O3, OSY} for some references on computations for \\eqref{intro GWinv}.\nGromov-Witten invariants are in general rational numbers because the moduli space $\\overline{M}_{g,l}(X, \\beta)$ of stable maps is a Deligne-Mumford stack. \nIt is an interesting question to find out integer-valued invariants\nwhich underlie them.\n\nIn \\cite{COT1}, we studied this question and defined \\textit{genus 0 Gopakumar-Vafa invariants}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{intro gv invs1}n_{0,\\beta}(\\gamma_1, \\ldots, \\gamma_l)\\in \\mathbb{Q} \\end{equation}\nfor any non-zero curve class $\\beta$ and \\textit{genus 1 and 2 Gopakumar-Vafa invariants}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{intro gv invs2}n_{1,\\beta}(\\gamma)\\in \\mathbb{Q}, \\,\\,\\forall \\,\\, \\gamma\\in H^4(X,\\mathbb{Z}); \\quad n_{2,\\beta} \\in \\mathbb{Q} \\end{equation}\nfor any primitive curve class $\\beta$ (i.e.~it is not a multiple of a non-zero curve class in $H_2(X,{\\mathbb{Z}})$) from Gromov-Witten invariants \\eqref{intro GWinv} (see \\S \\ref{sect on gv} for details). \nThis may be compared with the previous works of Gopakumar and Vafa \\cite{GV} on Calabi-Yau 3-folds, Klemm and Pandharipande \\cite{KP} on Calabi-Yau 4-folds and Pandharipande and Zinger \\cite{PZ} on Calabi-Yau 5-folds. \n\nIn loc.~cit., we conjectured the integrality of \\eqref{intro gv invs1}, \\eqref{intro gv invs2} and provided substantial evidence for it. \nThe aim of this paper is to give a sheaf theoretic interpretation of these Gopakumar-Vafa invariants using moduli spaces of stable pairs, in analogy with the discussion of \\cite{CMT2, CT1} on ordinary Calabi-Yau 4-folds. \n\n\\subsection{GV\/Pairs correspondence}\nLet $F$ be a one dimensional coherent sheaf on $X$ and $s\\in H^0(F)$ be a section.\nFor an ample divisor $\\omega$ on $X$, we denote the slope function by $\\mu(F)=\\chi(F)\/(\\omega \\cdot [F])$.\nThe pair $(F,s)$ is called $Z_t$-\\textit{stable} $($$t\\in\\mathbb{R}$$)$ if\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\renewcommand{\\labelenumi}{(\\roman{enumi})}\n\\item for any subsheaf $0\\neq F' \\subseteq F$, we have \n$\\mu(F')<t$,\n\\item for any\nsubsheaf $ F' \\subsetneq F$ \nsuch that $s$ factors through $F'$, \nwe have \n$\\mu(F\/F')>t$. \n\\end{enumerate}\nFor a non-zero curve class $\\beta \\in H_2(X, \\mathbb{Z})$ and $n\\in \\mathbb{Z}$, \nwe denote by\n\\begin{align*}\nP_n^t(X, \\beta)\n\\end{align*}\nthe moduli space of \n$Z_t$-stable pairs \n$(F, s)$ with $([F], \\chi(F))=(\\beta, n)$. It has a wall-chamber structure and for a \\textit{general} $t \\in \\mathbb{R}$ (i.e.~outside a finite subset of rational numbers in $\\mathbb{R}$),  \nit is a projective scheme. \n\nWhen $t<\\frac{n}{\\omega \\cdot \\beta}$, $P_n^t(X, \\beta)$ is empty. The first nontrivial chamber appears when \n$t=\\frac{n}{\\omega \\cdot \\beta}+0^+$, which we call \\textit{Joyce-Song (JS) chamber} (here $0^+$ denotes a sufficiently small positive number \nwith respect to the fixed $\\omega,\\beta,n$). When $t\\gg 1$, it recovers the moduli space of \\textit{Pandharipande-Thomas (PT) stable pairs} \\cite{PT} (Proposition \\ref{prop:chambers}).\n\nFor general $t\\in \\mathbb{R}$, by Theorem \\ref{existence of proj moduli space}, we can define its $\\mathop{\\rm DT}\\nolimits_4$ virtual class following \\cite{BJ, OT} (see also \\cite{CL1}).\nHowever, by a cosection argument the virtual class vanishes, see \\cite{KiP, Sav}. \nUsing Kiem-Park's cosection localization \\cite{KiP}, we have a (reduced) virtual class\n\\begin{align*}[P^t_n(X,\\beta)]^{\\mathrm{vir}}\\in A_{n+1}(P^t_n(X,\\beta),\\mathbb{Q}), \\end{align*}\ndepending on the choice of orientation \\cite{CGJ, CL2}. More precisely, for each connected component of $P^t_n(X,\\beta)$, there \nare two choices of orientation which affect the virtual class by a sign (component-wise).\nTo define its counting invariants, let    \n\\begin{align*}\\tau: H^{m}(X,\\mathbb{Z})\\to H^{m-2}(P_n^t(X,\\beta),\\mathbb{Z}), \\end{align*}\n\\begin{align*}\\tau(\\gamma):=\\pi_{P\\ast}\\left(\\pi_X^{\\ast}\\gamma \\cup\\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_{3}(\\mathbb{F})\\right),\n\\end{align*}\nwhere $\\mathbb{I}=(\\mathcal{O}\\to \\mathbb{F})$ is the universal $Z_t$-stable pair and $\\pi_P, \\pi_X$ are projections from $P_n^t(X,\\beta)\\times X$ onto its factors. \nFor $\\gamma_i \\in H^{m_i}(X, \\mathbb{Z})$, the $Z_t$-\\textit{stable pair invariants} are defined by \n\\begin{align*}  \nP_{n,\\beta}^t(\\gamma_1,\\ldots,\\gamma_l):=\\int_{[P_n^t(X,\\beta)]^{\\rm{vir}}}\\prod_{i=1}^l\\tau(\\gamma_i)\\in\\mathbb{Q}.\n\\end{align*}\nWhen $n=-1$, we also write \n$$P_{-1,\\beta}^t:=\\int_{[P_{-1}^t(X,\\beta)]^{\\rm{vir}}}1. $$\nHere is the main conjecture of this paper, which gives a sheaf theoretic interpretation of\nall genus Gopakumar-Vafa invariants using $Z_t$-stable pair invariants. \n\\begin{conj}\\emph{(Conjecture \\ref{conj on DT4\/GV})}\\label{intro conj on DT4\/GV}\nFix $n\\in\\mathbb{Z}$, $\\beta\\in H_2(X,\\mathbb{Z})$ and let $t>\\frac{n}{\\omega\\cdot \\beta}$ be generic. \nFor certain choice of orientation, we have \n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item If $n\\geqslant 2$, then \n\\begin{align*} \nP_{n,\\beta}^t(\\gamma_1,\\ldots,\\gamma_l)=0.\n\\end{align*}\n\\item If $n=1$, then\n\\begin{align*} \nP_{1,\\beta}^t(\\gamma_1,\\ldots,\\gamma_l)=n_{0, \\beta}(\\gamma_1, \\ldots, \\gamma_l). \\end{align*}\n\\item If $n=0$ and $\\beta$ is primitive, then\n\\begin{align*} \nP_{0,\\beta}^t(\\gamma)=n_{1, \\beta}(\\gamma).\n\\end{align*}\n\\item If $n=-1$ and $\\beta$ is primitive, then \n\\begin{align*} \nP_{-1,\\beta}^t=n_{2,\\beta}.\n\\end{align*}\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{conj}\nWe verify this conjecture by a computation in an ideal geometry where curves deform in families of expected dimensions and \nhave expected generic properties (see \\S \\ref{sect on heur}). Besides this, we study several examples and prove our conjecture in those cases.\n\n\n\\subsection{Verification of conjectures I: $K3\\times K3$}\nLet $X=S\\times T$ be the product of two $K3$ surfaces. \nWhen the curve class $\\beta \\in H_2(S \\times T, {\\mathbb{Z}})$\nis of non-trivial degree over both $S$ and $T$, then\none can construct two linearly independent cosections for moduli spaces of stable maps,\nwhich imply that the (reduced) Gromov-Witten invariants of $X$ in this class vanish. Therefore we always restrict to consider curve classes of form\n\\begin{equation*}\\beta\\in H_2(S,\\mathbb{Z})\\subseteq H_2(X,\\mathbb{Z}). \\end{equation*} \n\n\\begin{thm}\\emph{(Theorem \\ref{thm on g=0 conj on prod}, \\ref{thm on g=1 conj on prod}, \\ref{thm on P_-1}, Remark \\ref{rmk on pri g=0})}\nLet $X=S\\times T$ be as above. Then Conjecture \\ref{intro conj on DT4\/GV}\nholds for any primitive curve class $\\beta\\in H_2(S,\\mathbb{Z})\\subseteq H_2(X,\\mathbb{Z})$. \n\\end{thm}\nIn fact, by the global Torelli theorem (see e.g.~\\cite{Ver, Huy}), primitive curve classes on $K3$ surfaces can be deformed to irreducible curve classes. \nBy deformation invariance, we only need to deal with an irreducible curve class $\\beta$, in which case we have an isomorphism (Proposition \\ref{prop on smoothness}):\n\\begin{equation*}P^t_{n}(X,\\beta)\\cong P^t_{n}(S,\\beta)\\times T, \\end{equation*}\nand a forgetful map \n\\begin{equation}\\label{intro fort map}P^t_{n}(S,\\beta)\\to M_n(S,\\beta), \\end{equation}\nwhere $M_n(S,\\beta)$ is the coarse moduli space of one dimensional stable sheaves $F$ on $S$ with $[F]=\\beta$, $\\chi(F)=n$.\nBoth $P^t_{n}(S,\\beta)$ and $M_n(S,\\beta)$ are smooth schemes. We can then determine the $\\mathop{\\rm DT}\\nolimits_4$ virtual class of $P^t_{n}(X,\\beta)$ (Theorem \\ref{thm on vir clas}) and its pushforward (under the forgetful map) by the Thom-Porteus formula (Proposition \\ref{deg loci}). This enables us to reduce the computation\nof $Z_t$-stable pair invariants to certain tautological integrals on $M_n(S,\\beta)$.\nBy Markman's framework of monodromy operators \\cite{Markman}, we relate such integrals to certain tautological integrals\non Hilbert schemes of points on $S$ (see \\S \\ref{sect on trans} for details), \nwhich we explicitly determine using \\cite{COT1} (see the proof of Theorem \\ref{thm on g=1 conj on prod}, \\ref{thm on P_-1} for details). \n \n\n\n\n\\subsection{Verification of conjectures II: $T^*\\mathbb{P}^2$}\nLet $H \\in H^2(T^{\\ast} {\\mathbb{P}}^2)$ be the pullback of the hyperplane class and let us identify $H_2(T^{\\ast} {\\mathbb{P}}^2, {\\mathbb{Z}}) \\equiv {\\mathbb{Z}}$ by taking the degree against $H$.\n\nBy explicitly describing the moduli spaces and virtual classes, we obtain: \n\\begin{prop}\\emph{(Proposition \\ref{prop on tp2})}\\label{intro prop on tp2}\nFor certain choice of orientation, we have \n$$P_{1,1}(H^2,H^2)=1, \\quad P_{1,2}(H^2,H^2)=-1, \\quad P_{1,3}(H^2,H^2)=0, $$\n$$P_{0,1}(H^2)=P_{0,2}(H^2)=0, \\quad P_{0,3}(H^2)=1, \\quad P_{-1,1}=P_{-1,2}=P_{-1,3}=0.$$\nMoreover, $P^t_{n}(X,d)$ is independent of the choice of $t>n\/d$ in the listed cases above. \n\nIn particular, for $X=T^*\\mathbb{P}^2$, we have\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item Conjecture \\ref{intro conj on DT4\/GV} (2) holds when $d\\leqslant 3$. \n\\item Conjecture \\ref{intro conj on DT4\/GV} (3), (4) hold. \n\\end{itemize}\n\\end{prop}\n\n \n\\subsection{Verification of conjectures III: exceptional curves on $\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^2(K3)$} \nLet $S$ be a $K3$ surface and $\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^2(S)$ be the Hilbert scheme of two points on $S$. Consider the Hilbert-Chow map \n$$\\pi: \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^2(S)\\to \\mathop{\\rm Sym}\\nolimits^2(S) $$\nto the symmetric product of $S$. Let $D$ be the exceptional divisor fitting into Cartesian diagram: \n\\begin{align*} \\xymatrix{\nD \\ar[d]_{\\pi}  \\ar[r]^{i \\quad \\,\\,\\, }    & \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^2(S) \\ar[d]^{\\pi}   \\\\\nS    \\ar[r]^{\\Delta \\quad \\,\\,\\, }   & \\mathop{\\rm Sym}\\nolimits^2(S),  } \\quad \\quad\n\\end{align*}\nwhere $\\Delta$ is the diagonal embedding and $\\pi: D\\to S$ is a $\\mathbb{P}^1$-bundle.\nThe following provides a verification of our (genus 0) conjecture for imprimitive curve classes.  \n\\begin{thm}\\emph{(Theorem \\ref{thm on hilbS})}\\label{intro thm on hilbS}\nIn the JS chamber, Conjecture \\ref{intro conj on DT4\/GV} (1),~(2) hold for multiple fiber classes $\\beta=r[\\mathbb{P}^1]$ $($$r\\geqslant 1$$)$ of $\\pi$ as above. \n\\end{thm} \nIn fact, by the Jordan-H\\\"older filtration and a dimension counting, the JS pair invariants of $P_{n}^{\\mathrm{JS}}(X,r[\\mathbb{P}^1])$ are zero unless $n=r$ and \nin which case we have \n$$P_{n}^{\\mathrm{JS}}(X,n[\\mathbb{P}^1]) \\cong \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^n(S). $$\nThen the proof makes use of the Chern class operator of tautological bundles by Lehn \\cite{Lehn}. \n\n\\subsection{Multiple fiber classes of elliptic fibrations} \nLet $p: S\\rightarrow\\mathbb{P}^{1}$ be an elliptic $K3$ surface and consider the elliptic fibration: \n$$\\bar{p}:=p\\times \\textrm{id}_T: X:=S\\times T\\to \\mathbb{P}^{1}\\times T=:Y, $$\nwhere $T$ is a $K3$ surface.\nDenote $f$ to be a generic fiber of $\\bar{p}$ and ${\\mathsf{p}}\\in H_0(T)$ be the point class.\nThe following gives a closed formula of $Z_t$-stable pair invariants for multiple fiber classes. \n\\begin{thm}\\emph{(Theorem \\ref{thm2 on g=1 of multiple fiber})}\\label{intro thm2 on g=1 of multiple fiber}\nLet $t>0$. Then for certain choice of orientation, we have \n\\begin{align*}\n\\sum_{r\\geqslant 0}P^t_{0,r[f]}(\\gamma)\\,q^r=24\\,\\left(\\int_{S \\times {\\mathsf{p}}} \\gamma\\right)\\cdot \\sum_{m\\geqslant 1}\\sum_{n | m}n^2q^m. \\end{align*}\n\\end{thm}\nAs for the proof, we note that there is an isomorphism \n$$\\bar{p}^*: \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^r(Y) \\cong P^t_0(X,r[f]), \\quad I_Z\\mapsto \\bar{p}^*I_Z, $$\nunder which the (reduced) virtual classes \n$$(-1)^{n+1}[\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^r(Y)]^{\\mathrm{vir}}=[P^t_0(X,r[f])]^{\\mathrm{vir}}\\in A_1(\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^r(Y)) $$\ncan be identified for certain choice of orientation on the right hand side. \nThen we are left to evaluate an integral on $[\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^r(Y)]^{\\mathrm{vir}}$ which can be done via the degeneration method and a Behrend function argument \\cite{B, OS}.\nWe refer to Theorem \\ref{thm1 on g=1 of multiple fiber} for a similar result for trivial elliptic fibration $E\\times E\\times T\\to E\\times T$ \nand the proof therein for details. \n\nThe formula in Theorem \\ref{intro thm2 on g=1 of multiple fiber} seems to support our speculation of a GV\/Pairs correspondence in genus 1 for imprimivite curve classes (see \\S \\ref{sect on impri} for details). \n\n\\subsection{A conjectural virtual pushforward formula} \nFinally we remark that for a general holomorphic symplectic 4-fold $X$ and an irreducible curve class  $\\beta\\in H_2(X,\\mathbb{Z})$, \nwe have a forgetful map as in \\eqref{intro fort map}:\n\\begin{equation*}P^t_{n}(X,\\beta)\\to M_n(X,\\beta), \\end{equation*}\nwhere $M_n(S,\\beta)$ is the coarse moduli space of one dimensional stable sheaves $F$ on $X$ with $[F]=\\beta$, $\\chi(F)=n$.\nIn Appendix \\S \\ref{sect on app}, we conjecture a virtual pushforward formula for this map (which we verify for the product of $K3$ surfaces, see Proposition \\ref{prop on prod of k3 app}). Together with Conjecture \\ref{intro conj on DT4\/GV} (4), this formula implies a conjectural relation between genus 2 Gopakumar-Vafa invariants and certain descendent invariants on \n$M_1(X,\\beta)$ (Proposition \\ref{prop on appe}), which appears as \\cite[Conj.~2.2 (iii)]{COT1}.\n\n\\subsection{Notation and convention}\nIn this paper, all varieties and schemes are defined over $\\mathbb{C}$. \nFor a morphism $\\pi \\colon X \\to Y$ of schemes, \nand for $\\mathcal{F}, \\mathcal{G} \\in \\mathrm{D^{b}(Coh(\\textit{X\\,}))}$, we denote by \n$\\mathbf{R} \\mathcal{H} om_{\\pi}(\\mathcal{F}, \\mathcal{G})$ \nthe functor $\\mathbf{R} \\pi_{\\ast} \\mathbf{R} \\mathcal{H} om_X(\\mathcal{F}, \\mathcal{G})$. \n\nA class $\\beta\\in H_2(X,\\mathbb{Z})$ is called \\textit{effective} if there exists a non-empty curve $C \\subset X$ with class $[C] = \\beta$. An effective class $\\beta$ is called \\textit{irreducible} if it is not the sum of two effective classes, and it is called \\textit{primitive} if it is not a positive integer multiple of an effective class.\n\nA holomorphic-symplectic variety is a smooth projective variety\nwith a non-degenerate holomorphic two form $\\sigma\\in H^0(X,\\Omega^2_X)$. \nA holomorphic-symplectic variety is irreducible \\textit{hyperk\\\"ahler}\nif $X$ is simply connected and $H^0(X, \\Omega_X^2)$ is generated by a symplectic form.\nA $K3$ surface is an (irreducible) hyperk\\\"ahler  variety of dimension $2$.\n\n\n\n\\subsection*{Acknowledgement}  \nWe thank Luca Battistella, Chen Jiang, Young-Hoon Kiem, Sergej Monavari, Rahul Pandharipande and Hyeonjun Park for helpful discussions.\n\nY. C. is partially supported by RIKEN Interdisciplinary Theoretical and Mathematical Sciences\nProgram (iTHEMS), World Premier International Research Center Initiative (WPI), MEXT, Japan, \nJSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP19K23397 and Royal Society Newton International Fellowships Alumni 2020 and 2021. \nG.O. is partially supported by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) - OB 512\/1-1. \nY. T. is partially supported by World Premier International Research Center Initiative (WPI initiative), MEXT, Japan, and\nGrant-in Aid for Scientific Research grant (No. 19H01779) from MEXT, Japan.\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Definitions and conjectures }\n\n\\subsection{Gopakumar-Vafa invariants}\\label{sect on gv}\n\nLet $X$ be a holomorphic symplectic 4-fold and $\\overline{M}_{g, l}(X, \\beta)$\nbe the moduli stack of genus $g$, $l$-pointed stable maps\nto $X$ with non-zero curve class $\\beta$. Its virtual class \\cite{BF, LT} vanishes due to a trivial factor in the obstruction sheaf.\nBy Kiem-Li's theory of cosection localization \\cite{KiL}, one can define a (reduced) virtual class\\,\\footnote{The virtual class mentioned in this paper\nis always assumed to be the reduced one.}\n$$[\\overline{M}_{g, l}(X, \\beta)]^{\\mathrm{vir}}\\in A_{2-g+l}(\\overline{M}_{g, l}(X, \\beta)). $$\nFor integral classes\n\\begin{align}\\label{gamma}\n\\gamma_i \\in H^{m_i}(X, \\mathbb{Z}), \\\n1\\leqslant i\\leqslant l,\n\\end{align}\nthe (primary) Gromov-Witten invariant is defined by\n\\begin{align}\\label{GWinv}\n\\mathrm{GW}_{g, \\beta}(\\gamma_1, \\ldots, \\gamma_l)\n=\\int_{[\\overline{M}_{g, l}(X, \\beta)]^{\\rm{vir}}}\n\\prod_{i=1}^l \\mathrm{ev}_i^{\\ast}(\\gamma_i)\\in \\mathbb{Q},\n\\end{align}\nwhere $\\mathrm{ev}_i \\colon \\overline{M}_{g,l}(X, \\beta)\\to X$\nis the $i$-th evaluation map.\n\nWhen $g=0$, the\nvirtual dimension of $\\overline{M}_{0, l}(X, \\beta)$\nis $l+2$, and (\\ref{GWinv})\nis zero unless\n\\begin{align}\\label{sum1}\n\\sum_{i=1}^{l}(m_i-2)=4.\n\\end{align}\nSimilar to the case of Calabi-Yau 4-folds and 5-folds \\cite{KP, PZ}, we make the following definition: \n\\begin{defi}\\emph{(\\cite[Def.~1.5]{COT1})}\\label{def of g=0 GV inv}\nFor any $\\gamma_1, \\ldots, \\gamma_l \\in H^{\\ast}(X,{\\mathbb{Z}})$, \nwe define the genus $0$ Gopakumar-Vafa invariant $n_{0, \\beta}(\\gamma_1, \\ldots, \\gamma_l) \\in {\\mathbb{Q}}$ recursively by the multiple cover formula: \n$$\\mathrm{GW}_{0, \\beta}(\\gamma_1, \\ldots, \\gamma_l)=\\sum_{\\begin{subarray}{c}k\\geqslant 1, k|\\beta  \\end{subarray}}k^{n-3}\\, n_{0, \\beta\/k}(\\gamma_1, \\ldots, \\gamma_l). $$\n\\end{defi}\nWhen $g=1$, the virtual dimension of\n$\\overline{M}_{1, l}(X, \\beta)$ is $l+1$, and (\\ref{GWinv})\nis zero unless\n\\begin{align}\\label{sum2}\n\\sum_{i=1}^{l}(m_i-2)=2.\n\\end{align}\nIn this paper, we concentrate on the case when $l=1$ and $m_1=4$. \nBecause curves in imprimitive curve classes are very difficult to control,\nwe restrict hereby to the case of a primitive curve class.\n\\begin{defi}\\emph{(\\cite[Def.~1.6]{COT1})}\\label{def of g=1 GV inv}\nAssume that $\\beta \\in H_2(X,{\\mathbb{Z}})$ is primitive. For any $\\gamma\\in H^4(X, \\mathbb{Z})$, we define the genus 1 Gopakumar-Vafa invariant $n_{1, \\beta}(\\gamma)\\in \\mathbb{Q}$ by\n$$\\mathrm{GW}_{1, \\beta}(\\gamma)=n_{1,\\beta}(\\gamma) - \\frac{1}{24} \\mathrm{GW}_{0,\\beta}(\\gamma,c_2(X)), $$\nwhere $c_2(X)$ is the second Chern class of $T_X$. \n\\end{defi}\nWhen $g=2$, the virtual dimension of\n$\\overline{M}_{2, 0}(X, \\beta)$ is zero, so we can consider (\\ref{GWinv}) without insertions:\n\\begin{align*}\n\\mathrm{GW}_{2, \\beta}:=\\int_{[\\overline{M}_{2, 0}(X, \\beta)]^{\\rm{vir}}}1\\in \\mathbb{Q}.\n\\end{align*}\n\\begin{defi}\\emph{(\\cite[Def.~1.7]{COT1})}\\label{def of g=2 GV inv}\nAssume that $\\beta \\in H_2(X,{\\mathbb{Z}})$ is primitive. We define the genus $2$ Gopakumar-Vafa invariant $n_{2,\\beta}\\in \\mathbb{Q}$ by\n\\[\\mathrm{GW}_{2, \\beta}=n_{2,\\beta}\n- \\frac{1}{24} n_{1,\\beta}(c_2(X))\n+ \\frac{1}{2 \\cdot 24^2} \\mathrm{GW}_{0, \\beta}(c_2(X),c_2(X))\n+ \\frac{1}{24} N_{\\mathrm{nodal},\\beta}. \\]\nHere $n_{1,\\beta}(-)$ is given in Definition \\ref{def of g=1 GV inv} and $N_{\\mathrm{nodal},\\beta}\\in \\mathbb{Q}$ is the virtual count of rational nodal curves \\cite{NO} \nas defined by \n\\begin{equation} \\label{Nnodal}\nN_{\\mathrm{nodal},\\beta}:=\n\\frac{1}{2}\\left[\n\\int_{[\\overline{M}_{0,2}(X,\\beta)]^{\\mathrm{vir}}} (\\mathop{\\rm ev}\\nolimits_1 \\times \\mathop{\\rm ev}\\nolimits_2)^{\\ast}(\\Delta_X) - \\int_{[ \\overline{M}_{0,1}(X,\\beta) ]^{\\mathrm{vir}}} \\frac{\\mathop{\\rm ev}\\nolimits_1^{\\ast}(c(X))}{1-\\psi_1}\n\\right], \n\\end{equation}\nwhere \n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item $\\Delta_X \\in H^8(X \\times X)$ is the class of the diagonal, and\n\\item $c(X) = 1 + c_2(X) + c_4(X)$ is the total Chern class of $T_X$.\n\\end{itemize}\n \\end{defi}\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{$Z_t$-stable pair invariants}\n\nLet $\\omega$ be an ample divisor on $X$ and $t\\in\\mathbb{R}$, we recall the following notion of $Z_t$-stable pairs.\n\\begin{defi}\\label{def Zt sta}\\emph{(\\cite[Lem~1.7]{CT1})}\nLet $F$ be a one dimensional coherent sheaf and $s: \\mathcal{O}_X\\to F$ be a section. For an ample divisor $\\omega$, we denote the slope function\nby $\\mu(F)=\\chi(F)\/(\\omega \\cdot [F])$.\n\nWe say $(F,s)$ is a $Z_t$-(semi)stable pair $($$t\\in\\mathbb{R}$$)$ if \n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\renewcommand{\\labelenumi}{(\\roman{enumi})}\n\\item for any subsheaf $0\\neq F' \\subseteq F$, we have \n$\\mu(F')<(\\leqslant)t$,\n\\item for any\nsubsheaf $ F' \\subsetneq F$ \nsuch that $s$ factors through $F'$, \nwe have \n$\\mu(F\/F')>(\\geqslant)t$. \n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{defi}\nThere are two distinguished stability conditions appearing as \nspecial cases of $Z_t$-stability. \n\\begin{defi}\\label{defi:PTJSpair}\\emph{(\\cite{PT}, \\cite[Def.~1.10]{CT1})} \n\n(i) A pair $(F,s)$ is a PT stable pair if\n$F$ is a pure one dimensional sheaf and $s$ is surjective in dimension one. \n\n(ii) A pair $(F,s)$ is a JS stable pair if $s$ is a non-zero morphism, $F$ is $\\mu$-semistable and \nfor any subsheaf $0\\neq F' \\subsetneq F$ such that $s$ factors through \n$F'$ we have $\\mu(F')<\\mu(F)$. \n\\end{defi}\n\\begin{prop}\\label{prop:chambers}\\emph{(\\cite[Prop.~1.11]{CT1})} \nFor a pair $(F,s)$ with $[F]=\\beta$ and $\\chi(F)=n$, its\n\n(i) $Z_t$-stability with $t\\to \\infty$ is exactly PT stability, \n\n(ii) $Z_t$-stability with $t=\\frac{n}{\\omega\\cdot \\beta}+0^+$ is exactly JS stability. \n\\end{prop}\nFor $\\beta \\in H_2(X, \\mathbb{Z})$ and $n\\in \\mathbb{Z}$, we denote by\n$$P^t_n(X, \\beta)\\subseteq \\mathcal{P}^t_n(X, \\beta) $$\nthe moduli stack of $Z_t$-stable (semistable) pairs $(F,s)$ with $[F]=\\beta$ and $\\chi(F)=n$.\n\nBy Proposition \\ref{prop:chambers}, there are two disinguished moduli spaces, \nPT moduli spaces and JS moduli spaces, \nby specializing $t\\to \\infty$ and $t=\\frac{n}{\\omega\\cdot \\beta}+0^+$ respectively:\n\\begin{align*}\nP_n(X, \\beta) \\cneq P_n^{t\\to \\infty}(X, \\beta), \\quad\nP_n^{\\mathrm{JS}}(X, \\beta) \\cneq \nP_n^{t=\\frac{n}{\\omega\\cdot \\beta}+0^+}(X, \\beta). \n\\end{align*}\nBy a GIT construction,  \n$P^t_n(X, \\beta)$ is a quasi-projective scheme, and $\\mathcal{P}^t_n(X, \\beta)$ admits a good moduli space\n\\begin{align*}\n\\mathcal{P}^t_n(X, \\beta) \\to \\overline{P}_n^t(X, \\beta),\n\\end{align*}\nwhere $\\overline{P}_n^t(X, \\beta)$ is a projective \nscheme which parametrizes $Z_t$-polystable objects.\nThe following result shows that moduli stacks of $Z_t$-stable pairs are indeed open substacks of moduli stacks of objects in the derived categories of coherent sheaves.\n\\begin{thm}\\label{existence of proj moduli space}\\emph{(\\cite[Thm.~0.1]{CT1})} \n$P^t_n(X, \\beta)$ admits an open immersion \n$$P^t_n(X, \\beta)\\to \\mathcal{M}_0, \\quad (F,s)\\mapsto (\\mathcal{O}_X\\stackrel{s}{\\to} F) $$\nto the moduli stack $\\mathcal{M}_0 $ of $E\\in D^b\\mathop{\\rm Coh}\\nolimits (X)$ with $\\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^{<0}(E,E)=0$ and $\\det(E)\\cong \\mathcal{O}_X$.\n\\end{thm}\nTherefore for a general choice of $t$ (i.e.~outside a finite subset of rational numbers in $\\mathbb{R}$), $P^t_n(X, \\beta)$ is a projective scheme which can\nbe given a $(-2)$-shifted symplectic derived scheme structure \\cite{PTVV} and has a virtual class \\cite{BJ, OT} (see also \\cite{CL1}). \n\nParallel to GW theory, the virtual class of $P_n^t(X,\\beta)$ vanishes \\cite{KiP, Sav}. \nOne can define \na reduced virtual class due to Kiem-Park \\cite[Def.~8.7, Lem.~9.4]{KiP}: \n\\begin{align}\\label{red vir class}[P_n^t(X,\\beta)]^{\\mathrm{vir}}\\in A_{n+1}(P_n^t(X,\\beta),\\mathbb{Q}), \\end{align}\ndepending on the choice of orientation \\cite{CGJ, CL2}. \nTo define its counting invariants, let    \n\\begin{align}\\label{equ on pri ins}\\tau: H^{m}(X,\\mathbb{Z})\\to H^{m-2}(P_n^t(X,\\beta),\\mathbb{Z}), \\end{align}\n\\begin{align*}\\tau(\\gamma):=\\pi_{P\\ast}\\left(\\pi_X^{\\ast}\\gamma \\cup\\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_{3}(\\mathbb{F})\\right),\n\\end{align*}\nwhere $\\mathbb{I}=(\\mathcal{O}\\to \\mathbb{F})$ is the universal $Z_t$-stable pair and $\\pi_P, \\pi_X$ are projections from $P_n^t(X,\\beta)\\times X$ onto its factors. \n\\begin{defi}\\label{def DT4 inv}\nLet $t\\in \\mathbb{R}$ be generic and $\\gamma_i \\in H^{m_i}(X, \\mathbb{Z})$ $(1\\leqslant i\\leqslant l)$. The $Z_t$-stable pair invariants are    \n\\begin{align*}  \nP_{n,\\beta}^t(\\gamma_1,\\ldots,\\gamma_l):=\\int_{[P_n^t(X,\\beta)]^{\\rm{vir}}}\\prod_{i=1}^l\\tau(\\gamma_i)\\in\\mathbb{Q}.\n\\end{align*}\nWhen $n=-1$, we write \n$$P_{-1,\\beta}^t:=\\int_{[P_{-1}^t(X,\\beta)]^{\\rm{vir}}}1. $$\nIn PT and JS stabilites, we also write \n$$P_{n,\\beta}(\\gamma_1,\\ldots,\\gamma_l):=P_{n,\\beta}^{t\\to \\infty}(\\gamma_1,\\ldots,\\gamma_l), \\,\\,\\, \nP^{\\mathrm{JS}}_{n,\\beta}(\\gamma_1,\\ldots,\\gamma_l):=P_{n,\\beta}^{t=\\frac{n}{\\omega\\cdot \\beta}+0^+\n}(\\gamma_1,\\ldots,\\gamma_l). $$\n\\end{defi}\n\\begin{rmk}\nBy Definition \\ref{def Zt sta} and a dimension counting, $Z_t$-stable pair invariants are non-zero only if  \nboth of the following conditions hold: \n\\begin{align*} \nt>\\frac{n}{\\omega\\cdot \\beta}, \\quad \\sum_{i=1}^{l}(m_i-2)=2n+2.\n\\end{align*}\n\\end{rmk}\n\nIn \\cite{CMT2, CT1}, similar invariants are used to give sheaf theoretic interpretations of Gopakumar-Vafa type invariants for ordinary Calabi-Yau 4-folds \\cite{KP}. \nBelow, we give a parallel proposal for holomorphic symplectic 4-folds using Definition \\ref{def DT4 inv}. \n\n\n\\subsection{Conjecture}\nWe state the main conjecture of this paper. \n\\begin{conj}\\label{conj on DT4\/GV}\nLet $X$ be a holomorphic symplectic 4-fold with an ample divisor $\\omega$.\nFix $n\\in\\mathbb{Z}$ and $\\beta\\in H_2(X,\\mathbb{Z})$ and let $t>\\frac{n}{\\omega\\cdot \\beta}$ be generic. \nFor certain choice of orientation, we have \n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item If $n\\geqslant 2$, then \n\\begin{align*} \nP_{n,\\beta}^t(\\gamma_1,\\ldots,\\gamma_l)=0.\n\\end{align*}\n\\item If $n=1$, then\n\\begin{align*} \nP_{1,\\beta}^t(\\gamma_1,\\ldots,\\gamma_l)=n_{0, \\beta}(\\gamma_1, \\ldots, \\gamma_l) \\in \\mathbb{Z}. \\end{align*}\n\\item If $n=0$ and $\\beta$ is primitive, then\n\\begin{align*} \nP_{0,\\beta}^t(\\gamma)=n_{1, \\beta}(\\gamma) \\in \\mathbb{Z}.\n\\end{align*}\n\\item If $n=-1$ and $\\beta$ is primitive, then \n\\begin{align*} \nP_{-1,\\beta}^t=n_{2,\\beta} \\in \\mathbb{Z}.\n\\end{align*}\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{conj}\n\\begin{rmk}\nBy the global Torelli theorem \\cite{Ver, Huy}, primitive curve classes on irreducible hyperk\\\"ahler varieties can be deformed to irreducible curve classes. Therefore $Z_t$-stable pair invariants \nare independent of the choice of $t>\\frac{n}{\\omega\\cdot \\beta}$ for such cases by \\cite[Prop.~1.12]{CT1}.\n\\end{rmk}\n\\begin{rmk}\nOur conjecture implies that there is no nontrivial wall-crossing for $Z_t$-stable pairs invariants when $t>\\frac{n}{\\omega\\cdot \\beta}$, contrary to the \nordinary $\\mathrm{CY_4}$ case \\cite{CT1, CT3, CT4}.\n\\end{rmk}\n\\begin{rmk}\nSimilarly to \\cite[Conj.~0.3]{CK2}, we may use counting invariants on Hilbert schemes $I_n(X,\\beta)$ of curves to give \na sheaf theoretic interpretation of Gopakumar-Vafa invariants in which case zero dimensional subschemes \\cite{CK1} (conjecturally) will not contribute, i.e. $``\\mathop{\\rm DT}\\nolimits=\\mathop{\\rm PT}\\nolimits\"$. \nIt is curious whether one can do a $K$-theoretic refinement as \\cite{CKM1}. \n\\end{rmk}\n\n\\subsection{Heuristic argument}\\label{sect on heur}\nIn this section, we verify Conjecture \\ref{conj on DT4\/GV} using heuristic argument in an ideal geometry (ref.~\\cite[\\S 1.4, \\S 1.5]{COT1}).\nTo be specific, as the virtual dimension of $\\overline{M}_{g,0}(X,\\beta)$ is $2-g$, we assume that:\n\\begin{quote}\nAny genus $g$ curve moves in a smooth compact $(2-g)$-dimensional family.\n\\end{quote}\nIn particular, there are no curves of genus $g \\geqslant 3$.\nUnfortunately, complicated phenomena still arise even in the ideal case, for example, one can have two (resp.~one) dimensional \nfamilies of reducible rational (resp.~elliptic) curves, and any member of a rational curve family is expected to intersect nontrivially with\nsome member in the same family (see \\cite[\\S 1.4]{COT1} for details). \n\nHowever, things will be simplified if we make the following additional assumptions:\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item $X$ is irreducible hyperk\\\"ahler,\n\\item the effective curve class $\\beta \\in H_2(X,{\\mathbb{Z}})$ is primitive,\n\\end{itemize}\nBy the global Torelli for (irreducible) hyperk\\\"ahler varieties \\cite{Ver, Huy},\nthe pair $(X,\\beta)$ is deformation equivalent (through a deformation with keeps $\\beta$ of Hodge type)\nto a pair $(X', \\beta')$, where $\\beta' \\in H_2(X,{\\mathbb{Z}})$ is irreducible, so we may without loss of generality assume:\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item the effective curve class $\\beta \\in H_2(X,{\\mathbb{Z}})$ is irreducible.\n\\end{itemize}\nUnder these assumptions, our ideal geometry of curves simplifies to the following form:\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item\nThe rational curves in $X$ of class $\\beta$\nmove in a proper 2-dimensional smooth family of embedded irreducible rational curves. Except for a finite number of rational nodal curves, the rational curves are smooth, with normal bundle ${\\mathcal O}_{{\\mathbb{P}}^1} \\oplus {\\mathcal O}_{{\\mathbb{P}}^1} \\oplus \\mathcal{O}_{\\mathbb{P}^{1}}(-2)$. \n\\item\nThe arithmetic genus $1$ curves in $X$ of class $\\beta$ move in a proper 1-dimensional smooth family of embedded irreducible genus 1 curves. Except for a finite number of rational nodal curves, the genus one curves are smooth elliptic curves with normal bundle $L\\oplus L^{-1}\\oplus \\mathcal{O}$, where $L$ is a generic degree zero line bundle.\n\\item\nAll genus two curves are smooth and rigid.\n\\item\nThere are no curves of genus $g\\geqslant   3$.\n\\end{enumerate}\nWe need to compute $Z_t$-stable pair invariants in this ideal setting. \nThe key heuristic we use is that only $Z_t$-stable pairs with \\textit{connected support} will `contribute' to our invariants. \n\nThe observation is that for a $Z_t$-stable pair $I=(\\mathcal{O}_X\\to F)$ which is supported on a disconnected curve $C=C_1\\sqcup C_2$, we may write \n$$I= I_1 \\oplus I_2, \\quad I_1=(\\mathcal{O}_X\\to F_1), \\,\\, I_2=(\\mathcal{O}_X\\to F_2), $$\nwhere $I_i$ is supported on $C_i$ ($i=1,2$). \nThen the obstruction space \nsatisfies \n$$\\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^2(I,I)_0=\\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^2(I_1,I_1)_0\\oplus \\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^2(I_2,I_2)_0. $$\nTherefore the surjective isotropic cosections (see~\\cite[Lem.~9.4]{KiP}) of obstruction spaces in the RHS give rise to a (mutually orthogonal) two dimensional isotropic cosection in the LHS. Heuristically speaking, such $Z_t$-stable pairs will not `contribute' to the reduced virtual class as the reduced obstruction space still have a surjective isotropic cosection.\n\nBy Definition \\ref{def DT4 inv} and above discussion, $Z_t$-stable pair invariants\n\\begin{align*}  \nP_{n,\\beta}^t(\\gamma_1,\\ldots,\\gamma_l)=\\int_{[P_n^t(X,\\beta)]^{\\rm{vir}}}\\prod_{i=1}^l\\tau(\\gamma_i)\n\\end{align*}\ncount $Z_t$-stable pairs whose support are connected and incident to cycles dual to $\\gamma_1,\\ldots, \\gamma_l$. \nSay such an incident $Z_t$-stable pair is supported on a $(2-g)$-dimensional family:\n$$p:\\mathcal{C}^g_\\beta\\to S^g_\\beta $$ \nof genus $g$ curves ($g=0,1,2$), where $\\mathcal{C}^g_\\beta$ is the total space of this family.\nEach cycle $\\gamma_i$ will cut down real dimension of $S^g_\\beta$ by $\\deg(\\gamma_i)-2$. As we have \n$$\\sum_{i=1}^{l}(\\deg(\\gamma_i)-2)=2n+2, $$\nso all insertions in total cut down real dimension of $S^g_\\beta$ by $2n+2$. \n\n${}$ \\\\\n\\textbf{The case $n\\geqslant 1$}. When $n\\geqslant 2$, the dimension cut down by insertions is bigger than the largest possible dimension of $S^g_\\beta$, so there can not be such incident stable pairs and \n$$P_{n\\geqslant 2,\\beta}^t(\\gamma_1,\\ldots,\\gamma_l)=0. $$ \nThis confirms Conjecture \\ref{def DT4 inv} (1). \n\nWhen $n=1$, insertions cut down real dimension of $S^g_\\beta$ by $4$, so any incident $Z_t$-stable pair $I=(\\mathcal{O}_X\\to F)$ can only be supported on genus 0 family. \nAs in \\cite[\\S4.1]{CT1}, by Harder-Narasimhan and Jordan-H\\\"older filtration, we know  \n$$F\\cong \\mathcal{O}_C, $$\nfor some rational curve $C$ in $S^0_{\\beta}$. Therefore incident $Z_t$-stable pairs (with $\\chi=1$) are in one to one correspondence with \nintersection points of $\\mathcal{C}^0_{\\beta}$ with cycles dual to $\\gamma_1,\\ldots,\\gamma_l$ and \n\\begin{align*}  \nP_{1,\\beta}^t(\\gamma_1,\\ldots,\\gamma_l)=\\int_{S^0_\\beta}\\prod_{i=1}^lp_*(f^*\\gamma_i),  \\end{align*}\nwhere $f: \\mathcal{C}^0_{\\beta}\\to X$ is the evaluation map.\nTherefore Conjecture \\ref{def DT4 inv} (2) is confirmed in this ideal case as both sides are (virtually) enumerating rational curves of class \n$\\beta$ incident to cycles dual to $\\gamma_1,\\ldots,\\gamma_l$.\n\n${}$ \\\\\n\\textbf{The case $n=0$}. Since $Z_t$-stable pairs $I=(\\mathcal{O}_X\\to F)$ supported on genus $0$ curves satisfy $\\chi(F)>0$ and  \na 4-cycle $\\gamma\\in H^4(X)$ misses genus 2 curves in general position, so when $[F]=\\beta$ is irreducible, the pair \nmust be scheme theoretically supported on an elliptic curve $C$ and \n$$I=(\\mathcal{O}_X\\twoheadrightarrow \\mathcal{O}_C\\stackrel{s}{\\to} L), $$\nwhere $L$ is a line bundle on $C$ with $\\chi(C,L)=0$. By $Z_t$-stability, $s$ is non-trivial, so $s$ must \nbe an isomorphism by the stability of line bundles. Therefore incident $Z_t$-stable pairs (with $\\chi=0$) are in one to one correspondence with \nintersection points of 4-cycle $\\gamma$ with genus 1 curve family $\\mathcal{C}^1_\\beta$ of class $\\beta$ and \n\\begin{align*}  \nP_{0,\\beta}^t(\\gamma)=\\int_{\\mathcal{C}^1_\\beta}f^*\\gamma,  \\end{align*}\nwhere $f: \\mathcal{C}^1_{\\beta}\\to X$ is the evaluation map. \nTherefore Conjecture \\ref{def DT4 inv} (3) is confirmed in this ideal setting as both sides are (virtually) enumerating elliptic curves of class \n$\\beta$ incident to $\\gamma$.\n\n${}$ \\\\\n\\textbf{The case $n=-1$}. Any $Z_t$-stable pair $I=(\\mathcal{O}_X\\to F)$ with irreducible curve class $[F]=\\beta$ \nis scheme theoretically supported on a smooth rigid genus 2 curve $C$: \n$$I=(\\mathcal{O}_X\\twoheadrightarrow \\mathcal{O}_C\\stackrel{s}{\\to} L), $$\nwhere $L$ is a line bundle on $C$ with $\\chi(C,L)=-1$. As above, by $Z_t$-stability, $s$ must \nbe an isomorphism. Hence $P_{-1}^t(X,\\beta)$ is identified with \nthe set of all rigid genus 2 curves in class $\\beta$ in the ideal geometry, whose count gives exactly genus 2 Gopakumar-Vafa invariant $n_{2,\\beta}$. \nTherefore Conjecture \\ref{def DT4 inv} (4) is confirmed in the ideal setting.\n\n\n\\subsection{Speculations for general curve classes}\\label{sect on impri}\nFor a smooth projective Calabi-Yau 4-fold $X$ and $\\gamma\\in H^4(X,\\mathbb{Z})$, \nwe have genus $0$, $1$ Gopakumar-Vafa type invariants $n_{0,\\beta}(\\gamma), n_{1,\\beta}\\in\\mathbb{Q}$ defined \nby  Klemm and Pandharipande\nfrom Gromov-Witten theory \\cite{KP} and stable pair invariants $P_{n,\\beta}(\\gamma)\\in \\mathbb{Z}$ \\cite{CMT2}. \nThey are related by the following conjectural formula \\cite[\\S 1.7]{CMT2}: \n\\begin{align}\\label{equ on pt\/gv on cy4}\n\\sum_{n,\\beta}\\frac{P_{n,\\beta}(\\gamma)}{n!}y^n q^{\\beta}\n=\\prod_{\\beta>0}\\Big(\\exp(yq^{\\beta})^{n_{0,\\beta}(\\gamma)}\\cdot \nM(q^{\\beta})^{n_{1,\\beta}}\\Big), \n\\end{align}\nwhere $M(q)=\\prod_{k\\geqslant 1}(1-q^{k})^{-k}$ is the MacMahon function. \n\nBy taking logarithmic differentiation with respect to $y$, we obtain \n\\begin{align*}\ny\\frac{d}{dy}\\log\\left(\\sum_{n,\\beta}\\frac{P_{n,\\beta}(\\gamma)}{n!}y^n q^{\\beta}\\right)=\\sum_{\\beta>0}y\\frac{d}{dy}n_{0,\\beta}(\\gamma)yq^\\beta =\\sum_{\\beta>0}n_{0,\\beta}(\\gamma)yq^\\beta.\n\\end{align*}\nIf we view it as an equality for corresponding reduced invariants on holomorphic symplectic 4-folds, \nit surprisingly recovers Conjecture \\ref{conj on DT4\/GV} (i),~(ii) (i.e. the genus zero part). \n\nWe do similar manipulations for genus one invariants. Note that $y^0q^\\beta$ parts of \\eqref{equ on pt\/gv on cy4} are \n$$\\sum_{\\beta}P_{0,\\beta}q^\\beta=\\prod_{\\beta>0}M(q^{\\beta})^{n_{1,\\beta}}. $$\nThis equality is written down by a computation in the ``$\\mathrm{CY_4}$ ideal geometry\" (ref.~\\cite[\\S 2.5]{CMT2}), where rational curves contribute zero and each super-rigid elliptic curve \n(on an ideal $\\mathrm{CY_4}$)\nin class $\\beta$ contributes by $M(q^\\beta)$ (ref.~\\cite[Thm.~5.10]{CMT2}). \nTaking logarithmic differentiation with respect to $q$:\n\\begin{align*}q\\frac{d}{dq}\\log\\left(M(q) \\right)=\\sum_{d\\geqslant 1}q^d\\sum_{i\\geqslant1,i|d}i^2.  \\end{align*}\nWe then wonder whether in the holomorphic symplectic 4-folds setting, each ideal elliptic curve family in class $\\beta$ contributes to $P_{0,d\\beta}(\\gamma)$ by \n$$\\sum_{i\\geqslant1,i|d}i^2. $$\nSumming over all elliptic curve families, this would imply\n\\begin{align}\\label{general pt\/gv on hk4}P_{0,\\beta}(\\gamma)=\\sum_{d\\geqslant1,d|\\beta}n_{1,\\beta\/d}(\\gamma) \\sum_{i\\geqslant1,i|d}i^2.  \\end{align}\nIt is quite curious whether the above formula gives the correct PT\/GV correspondence. For multiple fiber classes \nof elliptic fibrations, our computations show the formula seems correct (see Theorem \\ref{thm1 on g=1 of multiple fiber}, \\ref{thm2 on g=1 of multiple fiber}, Remark \\ref{rmk on impr}). As for $P_{-1,\\beta}$ and genus 2 Gopakumar-Vafa invariants, we haven't found analogous \nformula for general curve classes.  \n\n\n\n\\section{Product of $K3$ surfaces}\nIn this section, we consider the product of two $K3$ surfaces: \n$$X=S\\times T, \\quad \\mathrm{with} \\,\\, \\beta\\in H_2(S,\\mathbb{Z})\\subseteq H_2(X,\\mathbb{Z}). $$ \nAs observed in \\cite[\\S 5]{COT1}, this contains all interesting curve classes on $X$ because if $\\beta \\in H_2(X, {\\mathbb{Z}})$\nis of non-trivial degree over both $S$ and $T$, one can construct two linearly independent cosections,\nwhich imply that reduced Gromov-Witten invariants of $X$ in this class vanish.\n\n\\subsection{Gopakumar-Vafa invariants}\nRecall Gopakumar-Vafa invariants specified in Definitions \\ref{def of g=0 GV inv}, \\ref{def of g=1 GV inv}, \\ref{def of g=2 GV inv}. \nThey are computed in \\cite[Prop.~5.1]{COT1} as follows: \nwrite $\\gamma,\\gamma'\\in H^{4}(X)$ as \n\\begin{align*}\n    \\gamma&=A_1\\cdot 1\\otimes {\\mathsf{p}}+D_1\\otimes D_2+A_2\\cdot {\\mathsf{p}}\\otimes 1, \\\\\n\\gamma'&=A'_1\\cdot 1\\otimes {\\mathsf{p}}+D'_1\\otimes D'_2+A'_2\\cdot {\\mathsf{p}}\\otimes 1, \n\\end{align*}\nbased on K\\\"unneth decomposition:\n$$H^{4}(X)\\cong (H^0(S)\\otimes H^4(T))\\oplus (H^2(S)\\otimes H^2(T))\\oplus (H^4(S)\\otimes H^0(T)). $$\nFix also a curve class\n$$\\alpha=\\theta_1\\otimes {\\mathsf{p}}+{\\mathsf{p}}\\otimes \\theta_2\\in (H^6(X) \\cong H^2(S))\\otimes (H^4(T)\\oplus H^4(S)\\otimes H^2(T)).$$\n\\begin{prop}\\emph{(\\cite[Prop.~5.1]{COT1})}\\label{prop on gw on prod}\nFor $\\beta\\in H_2(S,\\mathbb{Z})\\subseteq H_2(X,\\mathbb{Z})$, we have \n\\begin{align*}\nn_{0,\\beta}(\\gamma, \\gamma') &=(D_1\\cdot\\beta)\\cdot (D_1'\\cdot\\beta)\\cdot\\int_T(D_2\\cdot D_2')\\cdot N_{0}\\left(\\frac{\\beta^2}{2}\\right), \\\\\nn_{0,\\beta}(\\alpha)&=(\\theta_1\\cdot \\beta)\\,N_{0}\\left(\\frac{\\beta^2}{2}\\right). \n\\end{align*}\nIf $\\beta$ is primitive, we have\n\\begin{align*}\nn_{1, \\beta}(\\gamma)= 24 A_2\\,  N_1\\left(\\frac{\\beta^2}{2}\\right), \\quad n_{2,\\beta}= N_2\\left( \\frac{\\beta^2}{2} \\right), \n\\end{align*}\nwhere\n\\begin{align}\\sum_{l\\in\\mathbb{Z}}N_{0}(l)\\, q^l&=\\frac{1}{q} \\prod_{n\\geqslant   1}\\frac{1}{(1-q^n)^{24}}, \\label{equ on N0} \\\\\n\\sum_{l \\in {\\mathbb{Z}}} N_{1}(l)\\,q^l &=\\left(\\frac{1}{q} \\prod_{n\\geqslant   1}\\frac{1}{(1-q^n)^{24}}\\right)\\left(q \\frac{d}{dq}G_2(q)\\right), \\label{equ on N1} \\\\\n\\sum_{l\\in\\mathbb{Z}}N_{2}(l)\\, q^l&=\\left(\\frac{1}{q} \\prod_{n\\geqslant   1}\\frac{1}{(1-q^n)^{24}}\\right) \\left( 24 q \\frac{d}{dq} G_2 - 24 G_2 - 1 \\right),  \\label{equ on N2}\\end{align}\nwith Eisenstein series: \n$$G_2(q) = -\\frac{1}{24} + \\sum_{n \\geqslant   1} \\sum_{d|n} d q^n. $$\n\\end{prop}\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Moduli spaces of $Z_t$-stable pairs}\nFor a point $t\\in T$, let $i_t \\colon S\\to S\\times \\{t\\}\\hookrightarrow X$ be the inclusion. \nConsider the pushforward map \n\\begin{align}\\label{equ psf map}i_*:P^t_{n}(S,\\beta)\\times T\\to P^t_{n}(X,\\beta), \\end{align}\n\\begin{align*}(\\mathcal{O}_S\\stackrel{s}{\\to} F,\\,t)\\mapsto (\\mathcal{O}_X\\twoheadrightarrow i_{t*}\\mathcal{O}_{S}\\stackrel{i_{t*}s}{\\to} i_{t*}F), \\end{align*}\nwhere $P^t_n(S,\\beta)$ is the moduli space of $Z_t$-stable pairs $(F,s)$ on $S$ with $[F]=\\beta$ and $\\chi(F)=n$.\n\nWe restrict to the following setting. \n\\begin{set}\\label{setting} \nWe consider the case when the following conditions are satisfied:\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item The map \\eqref{equ psf map} is an isomorphism and $P^t_{n}(S,\\beta)$ is smooth of dimension $\\beta^2+n+1$.\n\\item There is a well-defined forgetful map \n$$f: P^t_{n}(S,\\beta)\\to M_n(S,\\beta), \\quad (\\mathcal{O}_S\\to F)\\mapsto F, $$\nto the coarse moduli scheme $M_n(S,\\beta)$ of one dimensional stable sheaves $F$ on $S$ with $[F]=\\beta$ and $\\chi(F)=n$.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{set}\n\\begin{prop}\\label{prop on smoothness}\nSetting \\ref{setting} is satisfied when $\\beta$ is irreducible. \n\\end{prop}\n\\begin{proof}\nWhen $\\beta$ is irreducible, $P^t_{n}(X,\\beta)$ is independent of the choice of $t>\\frac{n}{\\omega\\cdot \\beta}$ \\cite[Prop.~1.12]{CT1},\nso we can set $t\\to \\infty$ and work with PT stability. \nThe isomorphism follows from similar argument as \\cite[Prop.~3.11]{CMT2}.\nThe key point is that for any such $Z_t$-stable pair $(F,s)$, $F$ is stable and therefore scheme theoretically supported on $S\\times \\{t\\}$ for some \n$t\\in T$ (\\cite[Lem.~2.2]{CMT1}). \nThe smoothness of $P^t_{n}(S,\\beta)$ follows from \\cite{KY}, \\cite[Prop.~C.2]{PT2}.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\subsection{Virtual classes}\nWe determine the virtual class of $P^t_{n}(X,\\beta)$ in Setting \\ref{setting}. Firstly recall:\n\\begin{defi}$($\\cite[Ex.~16.52,~pp.~410]{Sw}, \\cite[Lem.~5]{EG}$)$\nLet $E$ be a $\\mathrm{SO}(2n,\\mathbb{C})$-bundle with a non-degenerate symmetric bilinear form $Q$ on a connected scheme $M$. \nDenote $E_+$ to be its positive real form\\,\\footnote{This means a real half dimensional subbundle such that $Q$ is real and positive definite on it. By\nhomotopy equivalence $\\mathrm{SO}(m,\\mathbb{C})\\sim \\mathrm{SO}(m,\\mathbb{R})$, it exists and is unique up to isomorphisms.}.\nThe half Euler class of $(E,Q)$ is \n$$e^{\\frac{1}{2}}(E,Q):=\\pm\\,e(E_+)\\in H^{2n}(M,\\mathbb{Z}), $$\nwhere the sign depends on the choice of orientation of $E_+$. \n\\end{defi}\n\n\\begin{defi}$($\\cite{EG},~\\cite[Def.~8.7]{KiP}$)$\nLet $E$ be a $\\mathrm{SO}(2n,\\mathbb{C})$-bundle with a non-degenerate symmetric bilinear form $Q$ on a connected scheme $M$. \nAn isotropic cosection of $(E,Q)$ is a map \n$$\\phi: E\\to \\mathcal{O}_M, $$\nsuch that the composition \n$$\\phi\\circ \\phi^{\\vee}: \\mathcal{O}_M\\to E^{\\vee}\\stackrel{Q}{\\cong} E \\to \\mathcal{O}_M$$\nis zero. If $\\phi$ is furthermore surjective, we define the (reduced) half Euler class: \n$$e_{\\mathrm{red}}^{\\frac{1}{2}}(E,Q):=e^{\\frac{1}{2}}\\left((\\phi^{\\vee}\\mathcal{O}_M)^{\\perp}\/(\\phi^{\\vee}\\mathcal{O}_M),\\bar{Q}\\right)\\in H^{2n-2}(M,\\mathbb{Z}), $$\nas the half Euler class of the isotropic reduction.\nHere $\\bar{Q}$ denotes the induced non-degenerate symmetric bilinear form on $(\\phi^{\\vee}\\mathcal{O}_M)^{\\perp}\/(\\phi^{\\vee}\\mathcal{O}_M)$. \n\\end{defi}\nWe show reduced half Euler classes are independent of the choice of surjective isotropic cosection. \n\\begin{lem}$($\\cite[Lem.~5.5]{COT1}$)$\\label{lem on indep of cosec}\nLet $E$ be a $\\mathrm{SO}(2n,\\mathbb{C})$-bundle with a non-degenerate symmetric bilinear form $Q$ on a connected scheme $M$ and \n$$\\phi: E\\to \\mathcal{O}_M $$\nbe a surjective isotropic cosection.\nThen we can write the positive real form $E_+$ of $E$ as \n$$E_+=\\mathcal{E}_+\\oplus \\underline{\\mathbb{R}}^2$$\nsuch that \n$$e_{\\mathrm{red}}^{\\frac{1}{2}}(E,Q)=\\pm\\,e(\\mathcal{E}_+). $$\nMoreover, it is independent of the choice of surjective cosection. \n\nIn particular, when $E=\\mathcal{O}^{\\oplus2} \\oplus V$ such that $Q=\\begin{pmatrix}\n0 & 1 \\\\\n1 & 0\n\\end{pmatrix} \\oplus Q|_{V}$, we have  \n$$e_{\\mathrm{red}}^{\\frac{1}{2}}(E,Q)=\\pm\\,e^{\\frac{1}{2}}(V,Q|_{V}).$$\n\\end{lem}\nRecall a $\\mathrm{Sp}(2r,\\mathbb{C})$-bundle (or symplectic vector bundle) is a complex vector bundle of rank $2r$ \nwith a non-degenerate anti-symmetric bilinear form.\nOne class of quadratic vector bundles is given by tensor product of two symplectic vector bundles $V_1, V_2$. \nTheir half Euler classes\ncan be computed using Chern classes of $V_1,V_2$. \nFor our purpose, we restrict to the following case.\n\\begin{lem}$($\\cite[Lem.~5.6]{COT1}$)$\\label{lem on compu of half euler class}\nLet $(V_1,\\omega_1)$, $(V_2,\\omega_2)$ be a $\\mathrm{Sp}(2r,\\mathbb{C})$ $($resp.~$\\mathrm{Sp}(2,\\mathbb{C})$-bundle$)$ on a connected scheme $M$. \nThen\n$$(V_1\\otimes V_2,\\omega_1\\otimes \\omega_2)$$ \ndefines a $SO(4r,\\mathbb{C})$-bundle whose half Euler class satisfies \n$$e^{\\frac{1}{2}}(V_1\\otimes V_2,\\omega_1\\otimes \\omega_2)=\\pm\\,\\big(e(V_1)-c_{2r-2}(V_1)\\cdot e(V_2)\\big). $$\n\\end{lem}\nWe determine the (reduced) virtual class of $P^t_{n}(X,\\beta)$. \n\\begin{thm}\\label{thm on vir clas}\nIn Setting \\ref{setting}, for certain choice of orientation, we have \n\\begin{equation}\\label{vir class StimesT}\n[P^t_{n}(X,\\beta)]^{\\mathrm{vir}}=\n\\left([P^t_{n}(S,\\beta)]\\cap f^*e(T_{M_n(S,\\beta)})\\right)\\times[T]-e(T)\\left([P^t_{n}(S,\\beta)]\\cap f^*c_{\\beta^2}(T_{M_n(S,\\beta)})\\right), \n\\end{equation}\nwhere $f: P^t_{n}(S,\\beta)\\to M_{n}(S,\\beta)$ is the map as in Setting \\ref{setting}. \n\\end{thm}\n\\begin{proof}\nThe proof is similar as \\cite[Prop.~4.7]{CMT2}. \nUnder the isomorphism \\eqref{equ psf map}: \n\\begin{align*}P^t_{n}(S,\\beta)\\times T\\cong P^t_{n}(X,\\beta), \\end{align*}\nthe universal stable pair $\\mathbb{I}_X=(\\mathcal{O}\\to \\mathbb{F}_X)$ of $P^t_{n}(X,\\beta)$ satisfies \n\\begin{align}\\label{equ of univ sheaf on prod}\\mathbb{F}_X=\\mathbb{F}_S\\boxtimes \\mathcal{O}_{\\Delta_T}, \\end{align}\nwhere $\\mathbb{I}_S=(\\mathcal{O}\\to \\mathbb{F}_S)$ is the universal stable pair of $P^t_{n}(S,\\beta)$ and $\\Delta_T$ denotes the diagonal.\n\nAs in \\cite[Eqn.~(29)]{CMT2}, we have a distinguished triangle\n\\begin{align}\\label{equ on dist tri1}\\mathbf{R}\\mathcal{H} om_{\\pi_{P_X}}(\\mathbb{I}_X,\\mathbb{F}_X)\n\\to \\mathbf{R}\\mathcal{H} om_{\\pi_{P_X}}(\\mathbb{I}_X,\\mathbb{I}_X)_0[1]\\to \\mathbf{R}\\mathcal{H} om_{\\pi_{P_X}}(\\mathbb{F}_X,\\mathcal{O})[2],   \\end{align}\nwhere $\\pi_{P_X}: P^t_{n}(X,\\beta)\\times X\\to P^t_{n}(X,\\beta)$ is the projection. \n\nFrom stable pair $\\mathbb{I}_X=(\\mathcal{O}\\to \\mathbb{F}_X)$ and Eqn.~\\eqref{equ of univ sheaf on prod}, we get a distinguished triangle\n\\begin{align}\\label{equ on dist tri2}\\mathbf{R}\\mathcal{H} om_{\\pi_{P_X}}(\\mathbb{F}_S\\boxtimes \\mathcal{O}_{\\Delta_T},\\mathbb{F}_S\\boxtimes \\mathcal{O}_{\\Delta_T})\n\\to \\mathbf{R}\\mathcal{H} om_{\\pi_{P_X}}(\\mathcal{O},\\mathbb{F}_S\\boxtimes \\mathcal{O}_{\\Delta_T})\\to \\mathbf{R}\\mathcal{H} om_{\\pi_{P_X}}(\\mathbb{I}_X,\\mathbb{F}_X).  \\end{align}\nBy adjunction, we get an isomorphism \n\\begin{align}\\label{equ on iso of rhom}\\mathbf{R}\\mathcal{H} om_{\\pi_{P_X}}(\\mathbb{F}_S\\boxtimes \\mathcal{O}_{\\Delta_T},\\mathbb{F}_S\\boxtimes \\mathcal{O}_{\\Delta_T})\n\\cong \\mathbf{R}\\mathcal{H} om_{\\pi_{P_S}}(\\mathbb{F}_S,\\mathbb{F}_S)\\boxtimes \\wedge^iT_T[-i],\n\\end{align}\nwhere $\\pi_{P_S}\\colon P^t_{n}(S,\\beta)\\times S\\to P^t_{n}(S,\\beta)$ is the projection. \n\nCombining \\eqref{equ on dist tri2} and \\eqref{equ on iso of rhom}, we obtain \n\\begin{align}\\label{equ on iso on rhomIf}\n\\mathbf{R}\\mathcal{H} om_{\\pi_{P_X}}(\\mathbb{I}_X,\\mathbb{F}_X)\\cong \\mathbf{R}\\mathcal{H} om_{\\pi_{P_S}}(\\mathbb{I}_S,\\mathbb{F}_S)\\oplus \n\\mathbf{R}\\mathcal{H} om_{\\pi_{P_S}}(\\mathbb{F}_S,\\mathbb{F}_S)\\boxtimes (T_T\\oplus \\mathcal{O}_T[-1]).\n\\end{align}\nCombining \\eqref{equ on dist tri1} and \\eqref{equ on iso on rhomIf}, we obtain \n$$\\mathcal{E} xt^1_{\\pi_{P_X}}(\\mathbb{I}_X,\\mathbb{I}_X)_0\\cong \\mathcal{E} xt^0_{\\pi_{P_S}}(\\mathbb{I}_S,\\mathbb{F}_S)\\oplus T_T, $$\nand an exact sequence \n\\begin{align}\\label{equ on exa seq}\n0\\to \\mathcal{E} xt^1_{\\pi_{P_S}}(\\mathbb{I}_S,\\mathbb{F}_S)\\oplus \\mathcal{E} xt^1_{\\pi_{P_S}}(\\mathbb{F}_S,\\mathbb{F}_S)\\boxtimes T_T\\oplus \n\\mathcal{E} xt^0_{\\pi_{P_S}}(\\mathbb{F}_S,\\mathbb{F}_S)\\boxtimes\\mathcal{O}_T \\to \n\\mathcal{E} xt^2_{\\pi_{P_X}}(\\mathbb{I}_X,\\mathbb{I}_X)_0 \\to \\cdots. \\end{align}\nWe claim that the second arrow above is an isomorphism, which can be done by a dimension counting.  \nIn fact, let $I=(\\mathcal{O}_S\\to F)\\in P^t_{n}(S,\\beta)$, the cohomology of the distinguished triangle \n$$\\mathop{\\dR\\mathrm{Hom}}\\nolimits_S(F,F)\\to \\mathop{\\dR\\mathrm{Hom}}\\nolimits_S(\\mathcal{O}_S,F)\\to \\mathop{\\dR\\mathrm{Hom}}\\nolimits_S(I,F)$$\nimplies that $\\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^i_S(I,F)=0$ for $i\\geqslant 2$. \nIn Setting \\ref{setting}, we know $\\mathop{\\rm ext}\\nolimits^0_S(I,F)=\\beta^2+n+1$, therefore \n$$\\mathop{\\rm ext}\\nolimits^1_S(I,F)=1. $$\nAs $F$ is stable, we have \n$$\\mathop{\\rm ext}\\nolimits^2_S(F,F)=\\mathop{\\rm ext}\\nolimits^0_S(F,F)=1, \\quad \\mathop{\\rm ext}\\nolimits^1_S(F,F)=\\beta^2+2. $$ \nSo the rank of the second term of \\eqref{equ on exa seq} is $2\\beta^2+6$. One can easily check the rank of the third term in \\eqref{equ on exa seq} \nis also $2\\beta^2+6$ by Riemann-Roch formula and first condition of Setting \\ref{setting}. \nTo sum up, we get an isomorphism:\n$$\\mathcal{E} xt^1_{\\pi_{P_S}}(\\mathbb{I}_S,\\mathbb{F}_S)\\oplus \\mathcal{E} xt^1_{\\pi_{P_S}}(\\mathbb{F}_S,\\mathbb{F}_S)\\boxtimes T_T\\oplus \n\\mathcal{E} xt^0_{\\pi_{P_S}}(\\mathbb{F}_S,\\mathbb{F}_S)\\boxtimes\\mathcal{O}_T \\cong \n\\mathcal{E} xt^2_{\\pi_{P_X}}(\\mathbb{I}_X,\\mathbb{I}_X)_0. $$\nAs in \\cite[Prop.~4.7]{CMT2}, one can show the decomposition in the LHS is also with respect to the Serre duality pairing on $\\mathcal{E} xt^2_{\\pi_{P_X}}(\\mathbb{I}_X,\\mathbb{I}_X)_0$. The our claim follows from Lemmata \\ref{lem on indep of cosec} and \\ref{lem on compu of half euler class}.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\\subsection{Thom-Porteus formula}\nAs our insertion \\eqref{equ on pri ins} depends only on the fundamental cycle of the universal sheaf, it is useful to know \nthe pushforward of the virtual class \\eqref{vir class StimesT} under the forgetful map. \nIn this section, let $\\beta \\in H_2(S,{\\mathbb{Z}})$ be an irreducible curve class, then $P^t_{n}(X,\\beta)$ is independent of the choice of $t>\\frac{n}{\\omega\\cdot \\beta}$ \\cite[Prop.~1.12]{CT1},\nso we can set $t\\to \\infty$ and work with PT stability. \nConsider the forgetful  map\n\\[ f : P_n(S,\\beta) \\to M_n(S,\\beta), \\quad (\\mathcal{O}_S\\to F)\\mapsto F. \\]\nRecall that $P_n(S,\\beta)$ is smooth of dimension $\\beta^2 + n + 1$ and $M_n(S,\\beta)$ is smooth of dimension $\\beta^2 + 2$.\nThe image of $f$ in $M_n(S,\\beta)$ is the locus\n\\begin{equation} \\big\\{ F \\in M_n(S,\\beta)\\,|\\,h^0(F) \\geqslant 1 \\big\\}, \\label{x} \\end{equation}\nwhere surjectivity follows since $\\beta$ is irreducible and $F$ is pure, so any non-zero section $s \\in H^0(S,F)$ must have zero-dimensional cokernel.\nThe expected dimension of sections is $\\chi(F) = n$,\nso the image is everything if $n=1$, a divisor if $n=0$ and a codimension $2$ cycle if $n=-1$.\n\nLet $\\mathbb{F}_S$ be a (twisted) universal sheaf on $M_n(S,\\beta) \\times S$.\nIf $n=1$ (or more generally, there exists a $K$-theory class pairing with $1$ with a sheaf parametrized by $M_n(S,\\beta)$)\nthe twisted sheaf can be taken to be an actual sheaf.\nFor us here the difference will not matter, since we are only interested in the Chern character of the universal sheaf,\nwhich can also be easily defined in the twisted case. We refer to \\cite{Markman} for a discussion.\n\nLet $\\pi_{M}: M_n(S,\\beta) \\times S\\to M_n(S,\\beta)$ be the projection. \nWe resolve the complex\n$\\mathbf{R} \\pi_{M\\ast}(\\mathbb{F}_S)$ by a $2$-term complex of vector bundles: \n$$\\mathbf{R} \\pi_{M\\ast}(\\mathbb{F}_S)\\cong (E_0 \\xrightarrow{\\sigma} E_1). $$\nThen \\eqref{x} is the \\textit{degeneracy locus}\n$$D_1(\\sigma) = \\big\\{ x \\in M_n(S,\\beta)\\,|\\, \\dim_{\\mathbb{C}} \\ker(\\sigma(x)) \\geqslant 1 \\big\\}. $$\nBy the \\textit{Thom-Porteus formula} \\cite[\\S14.4]{Ful}\n(see \\cite[Prop.~1]{GT} for a modern treatment and observe that $P_n(S,\\beta)$ is precisely what is called $\\tilde{D}_1(\\sigma)$ there), we get the following:\n\\begin{prop}\\label{deg loci}\n\\begin{equation*}f_{\\ast} [P_n(S,\\beta)] =c_{1-n}(-\\mathbf{R} \\pi_{M\\ast}(\\mathbb{F}_S))\\cap [M_n(S,\\beta)]. \\end{equation*}\n\\end{prop}\n\nWe can calculate the right hand side above by Grothendieck-Riemann-Roch formula\n\\[ \\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits( - \\mathbf{R} \\pi_{M\\ast}(\\mathbb{F}_S) ) = - \\pi_{M\\ast}( \\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits(\\mathbb{F}_S)\\cdot\\pi_S^*\\mathop{\\rm td}\\nolimits(S )). \\]\nWe obtain the following:\n\\begin{equation} \\label{Pn expressions}\n\\begin{aligned}\nf_{\\ast} [P_1(S,\\beta) ] & = 1, \\\\\nf_{\\ast} [P_0(S,\\beta) ] & = -\\pi_{M\\ast}(\\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_3(\\mathbb{F}_S))-2\\pi_{M\\ast}(\\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_1(\\mathbb{F}_S)\\pi_S^*{\\mathsf{p}}), \\\\\nf_{\\ast} [P_{-1}(S,\\beta) ] & = \\frac{1}{2}\\left(c_{1}(-\\mathbf{R}\n\\pi_{M\\ast}(\\mathbb{F}_S))\\right)^2+\\pi_{M\\ast}(\\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_4(\\mathbb{F}_S))+2\\pi_{M\\ast}(\\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_2(\\mathbb{F}_S)\\pi_S^*{\\mathsf{p}}), \n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere we used Poincar\\'e duality on the right to identify homology and cohomology and \n${\\mathsf{p}}\\in H^4(S)$ denotes the point class.  \nA small calculation shows that the right hand side is indeed \nindependent of the choice of universal family $\\mathbb{F}$ (i.e. the formulae stay invariant under replacing $\\mathbb{F}$ by $\\mathbb{F} \\otimes \\pi_{M}^*{\\mathcal L}$\nfor ${\\mathcal L}\\in \\mathop{\\rm Pic}\\nolimits(M_n(S,\\beta))$).\nThis will be useful later on.\n\n\\subsection{Genus 0 in irreducible classes}\nIn this section, we prove Conjecture \\ref{conj on DT4\/GV} (1), (2) for irreducible curve classes. \nWe first recall a result of Fujiki \\cite{Fuji} and its generalization in \\cite[Cor.~23.17]{GHJ}.\n\\begin{thm}\\label{fujiki result}$($\\cite{Fuji}, \\cite[Cor.~23.17]{GHJ}$)$\nLet $M$ be a hyperk\\\"ahler variety of dimension $2n$. Assume $\\alpha\\in H^{4j}(M,\\mathbb{C})$ is of type $(2j, 2j)$ on all small deformation of $M$. Then there exists a constant $C(\\alpha)\\in\\mathbb{C}$ depending only on $\\alpha$ $($called Fujiki constant of $\\alpha$$)$ such that\n$$\\int_{M}\\alpha\\cdot\\beta^{2n-2j}=C({\\alpha})\\cdot q_{M}(\\beta)^{n-j}, \\quad \\forall\\,\\, \\beta\\in H^2(M, \\mathbb{C}), $$\nwhere $q_M: H^2(M, \\mathbb{C}) \\to \\mathbb{C}$ denotes the Beauville-Bogomolov-Fujiki form. \n\\end{thm}\n\\begin{thm}\\label{thm on g=0 conj on prod}\nLet $X=S\\times T$ and $\\beta\\in H_2(S,\\mathbb{Z})\\subseteq H_2(X,\\mathbb{Z})$ be an irreducible curve class. Then Conjecture \\ref{conj on DT4\/GV} (1), (2)\nhold.\n\\end{thm}\n\\begin{proof}\nBy Proposition \\ref{prop on smoothness}, we have a forgetful map \n$$\\bar{f}=(f,\\textrm{id}_T): P_{n}(X,\\beta)=P_{n}(S,\\beta)\\times T\\to M_{n}(S,\\beta)\\times T. $$\nAs our insertion \\eqref{equ on pri ins} only involves fundamental cycle of the universal one dimensional sheaf, so it is the pullback $\\bar{f}^*$\nof a cohomology class from $M_{n}(S,\\beta)\\times T$. \n \nWhen $n>1$, we have \n$$\\dim_{\\mathbb{C}} P_{n}(S,\\beta)=\\beta^2+n+1>\\beta^2+2=\\dim_{\\mathbb{C}}M_{n}(S,\\beta).  $$ \nBy Theorem \\ref{thm on vir clas} and Proposition \\ref{deg loci}, it is easy to see \n$$P_{n,\\beta}(\\gamma_1,\\ldots,\\gamma_l)=0, \\quad n>1. $$\nWhen $n=1$, we take insertion $\\gamma,\\gamma'\\in H^4(X)$ for example (other cases follow from easier versions of the same argument).\nBased on K\\\"unneth decomposition:\n$$H^{4}(X)\\cong (H^0(S)\\otimes H^4(T))\\oplus (H^2(S)\\otimes H^2(T))\\oplus (H^4(S)\\otimes H^0(T)), $$\nwe write \n\\begin{align*}\n\\gamma &=A_1\\cdot 1\\otimes {\\mathsf{p}}+D_1\\otimes D_2+A_2\\cdot {\\mathsf{p}}\\otimes 1, \\\\\n\\gamma' &=A'_1\\cdot 1\\otimes {\\mathsf{p}}+D'_1\\otimes D'_2+A'_2\\cdot {\\mathsf{p}}\\otimes 1. \n\\end{align*}\nBy Eqn.~\\eqref{equ of univ sheaf on prod}, the insertion becomes (see also \\cite[Proof~of~Thm.~5.8]{COT1}):\n\\begin{align}\\label{equ on pri ins on prod}\\tau(\\gamma)=(D_1\\cdot\\beta)\\otimes D_2+A_2f^*\\pi_{M*}(\\pi_S^*{\\mathsf{p}}\\cdot \\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_1(\\mathbb{F}_S))\\otimes 1, \\end{align}\nwhere $\\pi_S$, $\\pi_{M}$ are projections from $S\\times M_n(S,\\beta)$ to its factors. Hence\n$$\\tau(\\gamma)\\cdot\\tau(\\gamma')=(D_1\\cdot\\beta)\\cdot (D_1'\\cdot\\beta)\\otimes (D_2\\cdot D_2')+A_2A_2'f^*\\left(\\pi_{M*}\\left(\\pi_S^*{\\mathsf{p}}\\cdot \\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_1(\\mathbb{F}_S)\\right)\\right)^2\\otimes 1+\\mathrm{others}, $$\nwhere ``others'' lie in $H^2(P_{1}(S,\\beta))\\otimes H^2(T)$. \nBy Theorem \\ref{thm on vir clas}, we get \n\\begin{align*}P_{1,\\beta}(\\gamma,\\gamma')&=(D_1\\cdot\\beta)\\, (D_1'\\cdot\\beta)\\,\\int_T(D_2\\cdot D_2')\\int_{P_{1}(S,\\beta)}f^*e(T_{M_1(S,\\beta)}) \\\\\n& \\quad -e(T)A_2A_2' \\int_{P_{1}(S,\\beta)}f^*\\left(c_{\\beta^2}(T_{M_1(S,\\beta)})\\cdot \\pi_{M*}\\left(\\pi_S^*{\\mathsf{p}}\\cdot \\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_1(\\mathbb{F}_S)\\right)^2\\right) \n\\\\\n&=(D_1\\cdot\\beta)\\, (D_1'\\cdot\\beta)\\,\\int_T(D_2\\cdot D_2')\\int_{M_{1}(S,\\beta)}e(T_{M_1(S,\\beta)}) \\\\\n& \\quad -e(T)A_2A_2' \\int_{M_{1}(S,\\beta)}c_{\\beta^2}(T_{M_1(S,\\beta)})\\cdot \\pi_{M*}\\left(\\pi_S^*{\\mathsf{p}}\\cdot \\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_1(\\mathbb{F}_S)\\right)^2 \\\\\n&=(D_1\\cdot\\beta)\\, (D_1'\\cdot\\beta)\\,\\int_T(D_2\\cdot D_2')\\,e(M_1(S,\\beta)),\n\\end{align*}\nwhere the second equality follows from Proposition \\ref{deg loci}\nand the last equality is proved using Fujiki formula (Theorem \\ref{fujiki result}) \nand the evaluation\n\\[ q_M( \\pi_{M*}\\left(\\pi_S^*{\\mathsf{p}}\\cdot \\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_1(\\mathbb{F}_S)\\right) ) = 0, \\]\n(which follows for example from \\cite[Proof~of~Thm.~5.8]{COT1}).\nConjecture \\ref{conj on DT4\/GV} (2) then reduces to \\cite[Thm.~5.8]{COT1}.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\\subsection{Transport of integrals to the Hilbert schemes}\\label{sect on trans}\nTo compute the stable pair theory on $P_n(S,\\beta)$ for $n \\leqslant 0$ we will need to\nhandle more complicated descendent integrals on $M_n(S,\\beta)$.\nAs in \\cite[\\S 4.4]{COT1} which deals with the $n = 1$ case,\nwe use here the general framework of monodromy operators of Markman \\cite{Markman} (see also \\cite{OUniversality})\nto reduce to the Hilbert schemes.\n\nConsider the Mukai lattice, which is the lattice $\\Lambda = H^{\\ast}(S,{\\mathbb{Z}})$ endowed with the Mukai pairing\n\\[ \\langle x , y \\rangle := - \\int_S x^{\\vee} y, \\]\nwhere, if we decompose an element $x \\in \\Lambda$ according to degree as $(r,D,n)$, we have written $x^{\\vee} = (r,-D,n)$.\nGiven a sheaf or complex $E$ on $S$ the Mukai vector of $E$ is defined by\n\\[ v(E) = \\sqrt{\\mathop{\\rm td}\\nolimits_S} \\cdot \\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits(E) \\in \\Lambda. \\]\nLet $M(v)$ be a proper smooth moduli space of stable sheaves on $S$ with Mukai vector $v \\in \\Lambda$ (where stability is with respect to some fixed polarization).\nWe assume that there exists a universal family ${\\mathbb{F}}$ on $M(v) \\times S$.\nIf it does not exists, everything below can be made to work by working with the Chern character $\\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits({\\mathbb{F}})$\nof a quasi-universal family, see \\cite{Markman} or \\cite{OUniversality}.\nLet $\\pi_M, \\pi_S$ be the projections to $M(v)$ and $S$.\nOne has the Mukai morphism \n$$\\theta_{{\\mathbb{F}}} : \\Lambda \\to H^2(M(v)), $$\n\\[ \\theta_{{\\mathbb{F}}}(x) = \\left[ \\pi_{M \\ast}( \\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits({\\mathbb{F}}) \\cdot \\sqrt{\\mathop{\\rm td}\\nolimits_S} \\cdot x^{\\vee} ) \\right]_{\\deg = 2}, \\]\nwhere $[ - ]_{\\deg = k}$ stands for extracting the degree $k$ component\nand (as we will also do below) we have suppressed the pullback maps from the projection to $S$.\nDefine the universal class\n\\[ u_v = \\exp\\left( \\frac{ \\theta_{{\\mathbb{F}}}(v) }{\\langle v,v \\rangle} \\right) \\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits({\\mathbb{F}}) \\sqrt{\\mathop{\\rm td}\\nolimits_S}, \\]\nwhich is independent of the choice of universal family ${\\mathbb{F}}$.\nFor $x \\in \\Lambda$, consider the normalized descendents:\n\\[ B(x) := \\pi_{M\\ast}( u_v \\cdot x^{\\vee} ), \\]\nand let $B_k(x) = [ B(x) ]_{\\deg=2k}$ its degree $2k$ component.\n\n\n\\begin{example}\nFor $v=(1,0,1-d)$, the moduli space becomes the punctual Hilbert scheme: $M(v) = S^{[d]}$.\nThen we have\n\\[ u_v = \\exp\\left( \\frac{-\\delta}{2d-2} \\right) \\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits( {\\mathcal I}_{{\\mathcal Z}} ) \\sqrt{\\mathop{\\rm td}\\nolimits_S}, \\]\nwhere we let $\\delta = \\pi_{\\ast} \\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_3( {\\mathcal O}_{{\\mathcal Z}} )$ (so that $-2 \\delta$ is the class of the locus of non-reduced subschemes).\n\nWe define the standard descendents on the Hilbert scheme by\n\\[ {\\mathfrak{G}}_d(\\alpha) = \\pi_{\\ast}( \\pi_S^{\\ast}(\\alpha) \\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_d({\\mathcal O}_{{\\mathcal Z}}) ) \\in H^{\\ast}(S^{[d]}). \\]\nOne obtains that\n\\begin{align*}\nB_1({\\mathsf{p}}) & = - \\frac{\\delta}{2d-2}, \\\\\nB_2({\\mathsf{p}}) & = \\frac{1}{2} \\frac{\\delta^2}{(2d-2)^2} - {\\mathfrak{G}}_2({\\mathsf{p}}). \n\\end{align*}\nFor a divisor $D \\in H^2(S)$, one finds\n\\begin{align*}\nB_1(D) & = {\\mathfrak{G}}_2(D), \\\\\nB_2(D) & = {\\mathfrak{G}}_3(D) - \\frac{\\delta}{2d-2} {\\mathfrak{G}}_2(D).\n\\end{align*}\n\\end{example}\nUsing the descendents $B_k(x)$, one allows to move between any two moduli spaces of stable sheaves on $S$\njust by specifying a Mukai lattice isomorphism $g : \\Lambda \\to \\Lambda$.\nWe give the details in the case of our interest, \nsee \\cite{Markman, OUniversality} for the general case.\n\nAs before let $\\beta \\in \\mathop{\\rm Pic}\\nolimits(S)$ be an irreducible effective class of square $\\beta \\cdot \\beta = 2d-2$,\nand let $n \\in {\\mathbb{Z}}$. We want to connect the moduli spaces\n\\[ M_n(S,\\beta) \\,\\, \\rightsquigarrow \\,\\, S^{[d]}. \\]\nLet $\\beta = e + (d-1) f$ where $e, f \\in H^2(S,{\\mathbb{Z}})$ span a hyperbolic lattice: ${\\mathbb{Z}} e \\oplus {\\mathbb{Z}} f \\cong \\binom{0\\ 1}{1\\ 0}$.\nWe do not require $e,f$ to be effective here.\nDefine the isomorphism $g : \\Lambda \\to \\Lambda$ by\n\\begin{align*}\n1 \\mapsto (0,-e, n ), \\quad {\\mathsf{p}} \\mapsto (0,f,0), \\quad e \\mapsto (1, -nf, 0), \\quad f \\mapsto (0,0,-1), \\quad\ng|_{ \\{ 1,{\\mathsf{p}}, e, f \\}^{\\perp}} = \\textrm{id}.\n\\end{align*}\nOne sees that $g$ is an isometry of the Mukai lattice and that\n\\[ g_{\\ast} ( 0, \\beta, n) = (1,0, 1-d). \\]\nThen one has:\n\\begin{thm}$($Markman \\cite{Markman}, reformulation as in \\cite[Thm.~4]{OUniversality}$)$ \\label{thm:Markman} For any $k_i \\geqslant 0$ and $\\alpha_i \\in H^{\\ast}(S)$ and any polynomial $P$,\n\\[\n\\int_{ M_n(S,\\beta) } P( B_{k_i}(\\alpha_i) , c_j( T_{M_n(S,\\beta)} ) ) \n=\n\\int_{ S^{[d]} } P( B_{k_i}(g \\alpha_i) , c_j( T_{S^{[d]}}  ) ). \n\\]\n\\end{thm}\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Genus 1 in irreducible classes}\nRecall the genus $1$ Gopakumar-Vafa invariants (Proposition \\ref{prop on gw on prod}).\nOn the stable pair side, we have the following:\n\\begin{thm} \\label{thm on g=1 conj on prod}\nLet $\\beta\\in H_2(S,\\mathbb{Z})\\subseteq H_2(X,\\mathbb{Z})$ be an irreducible curve class. Then for certain choice of orientation, we have  \n\\begin{align}\\label{equ on P0 pro}P_{0,\\beta}(\\gamma)=e(T)\\, N_{1}\\left(\\frac{\\beta^2}{2}\\right) \\int_{S\\times{\\mathsf{p}}}\\gamma. \\end{align}\nIn particular, Conjecture \\ref{conj on DT4\/GV} (3) holds in this case. \n\\end{thm}\n\\begin{proof\nThe strategy is as follows: First we write our stable pair invariants as integrals on the moduli spaces $M_0(S,\\beta)$,\nthen express the integrand in terms of the classes $B_k(x)$ and then use\nMarkman's Theorem~\\ref{thm:Markman} to reduce to an integral over the Hilbert scheme, which is known by the results of \\cite{COT1}.\n\nBy Eqn.~\\eqref{equ on pri ins on prod} and Theorem \\ref{thm on vir clas} (choose the inverse orientation there), we have \n$$P_{0,\\beta}(\\gamma)=e(T)\\, \\int_{S\\times{\\mathsf{p}}}\\gamma\\cdot\\int_{P_{0}(S,\\beta)}f^*\\left(c_{\\beta^2}(T_{M_0(S,\\beta)})\\cdot \\pi_{M*}\\left(\\pi_S^*({\\mathsf{p}})\\cdot \\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_1(\\mathbb{F}_S)\\right)\\right).$$\nUsing Proposition \\ref{deg loci}, we find\n\\[ P_{0,\\beta}(\\gamma)=e(T)\\,\n\\int_{S\\times{\\mathsf{p}}}\\gamma\\cdot\\int_{M_{0}(S,\\beta)}c_{\\beta^2}(T_{M_0(S,\\beta)})\\cdot c_{1}(-\\mathbf{R} \\pi_{M\\ast}(\\mathbb{F}_S))\\cdot  \n\\pi_{M*}\\left(\\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_1(\\mathbb{F}_S)\\cdot \\pi_S^*({\\mathsf{p}})\\right). \\]\nA calculation shows that we have\n\\[ B_1({\\mathsf{p}}) = \\pi_{\\ast}( \\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_1({\\mathbb{F}}_S)\\,\\pi_S^{\\ast}({\\mathsf{p}}) ). \\]\nMoreover, the expressions \\eqref{Pn expressions} are\ninvariant under replacing $\\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits({\\mathbb{F}}_S)$ by $\\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits({\\mathbb{F}}_S) \\exp( \\ell )$ for any line bundle $\\ell \\in H^2(M_n(S,\\beta))$.\nHence we can use $\\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits({\\mathbb{F}}_S') := \\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits({\\mathbb{F}}_S) \\exp( \\theta_{{\\mathbb{F}}_S}(v) \/ \\langle v,v \\rangle )$ which shows that\n\\begin{align*}\nc_{1}(-\\mathbf{R} \\pi_{M\\ast}(\\mathbb{F}_S))\n& = -\\pi_{M\\ast}(\\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_3(\\mathbb{F}_S'))-2\\pi_{M\\ast}(\\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_1(\\mathbb{F}_S')\\,\\pi_S^*{\\mathsf{p}}) \\\\\n& = - B_1\\left( \\sqrt{\\mathop{\\rm td}\\nolimits_S}^{-1} \\right) - 2 B_1( {\\mathsf{p}} ) \\\\\n& = - B_1( 1 + {\\mathsf{p}} ).\n\\end{align*}\nWe obtain that:\n\\begin{align*}\n& \\int_{M_{0}(S,\\beta)}c_{2d-2}(T_{M_0(S,\\beta)})\\cdot c_{1}(-\\mathbf{R} \\pi_{M\\ast}(\\mathbb{F}_S))\\cdot  \n\\pi_{M*}\\left(\\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_1(\\mathbb{F}_S)\\cdot \\pi_S^*{\\mathsf{p}}\\right) \\\\\n= & - \\int_{M_{0}(S,\\beta)}c_{2d-2}(T_{M_0(S,\\beta)}) B_1(1 + {\\mathsf{p}}) B_1({\\mathsf{p}}) \\\\\n= & - \\int_{S^{[d]}}c_{2d-2}(T_{S^{[d]}}) B_1(-e+f) B_1(f) \\\\\n= & - \\int_{S^{[d]}}c_{2d-2}(T_{S^{[d]}}) {\\mathfrak{G}}_2(-e+f) {\\mathfrak{G}}_2(f) \\\\\n= & - ((-e+f) \\cdot f) C( c_{2d-2}(T_{S^{[d]}}) ) \\\\\n= & N_1(d-1),\n\\end{align*}\nwhere we used the $k=1$ case of \\cite[Thm.~4.2]{COT1} in the last step. \n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Genus 2 in irreducible classes}\nLet $\\beta_d \\in H_2(S,{\\mathbb{Z}}) \\subseteq H_2(X,{\\mathbb{Z}})$ be an irreducible curve class of square $\\beta_d^2 = 2d-2$.\nBelow, we use similar method to compute stable pair invariants $P_{-1,\\beta_d}$ on $X$ for all $d$.\n\\begin{thm}\\label{thm on P_-1} For certain choice of orientation, we have  \n\\begin{align*} \\sum_{d \\in\\mathbb{Z}} P_{-1,\\beta_d}\\, q^d &= \n\\left(\\prod_{n \\geqslant 1} (1-q^n)^{-24}\\right) \\left(24q \\frac{d}{dq} G_2(q) - 24G_2(q) - 1 \\right) \\\\\n&= 72 q^2 + 1920 q^3 + 28440 q^4 + 305280 q^5 + 2639760 q^6 + \n 19450368 q^7 +  \\cdots .\n\\end{align*}\nIn particular, Conjecture \\ref{conj on DT4\/GV} (4) holds in this case. \n\\end{thm}\n\n\n\\begin{proof}\nAs in the genus $1$ case, by Theorem \\ref{thm on vir clas} and Proposition \\ref{deg loci} we have:\n\\[\nP_{-1,\\beta}=-e(T)\\int_{M_{-1}(S,\\beta)}c_{2d-2}(T_{M_{-1}(S,\\beta)})\\cdot c_{2}(-\\mathbf{R} \\pi_{M\\ast}(\\mathbb{F}_S)).\n\\]\nWith the same discussion as before one gets:\n\\[\nc_{2}(-\\mathbf{R} \\pi_{M\\ast}(\\mathbb{F}_S)) = \\frac{1}{2} B_1(1 + {\\mathsf{p}})^2 + B_2(1 + {\\mathsf{p}}).\n\\]\nHence applying Markman's Theorem~\\ref{thm:Markman}, we conclude\n\\begin{align*}\n& \\int_{M_{-1}(S,\\beta)}c_{2d-2}(T_{M_{-1}(S,\\beta)})\\cdot c_{2}(-\\mathbf{R} \\pi_{M\\ast}(\\mathbb{F}_S))  \\\\\n= & \\int_{M_{-1}(S,\\beta)}c_{2d-2}(T_{M_{-1}(S,\\beta)})\\cdot \\left( \\frac{1}{2} B_1(1 + {\\mathsf{p}})^2 + B_2(1 + {\\mathsf{p}}) \\right) \\\\\n= & \\int_{S^{[d]}} c_{2d-2}( T_{S^{[d]}} ) \\left( \\frac{1}{2} B_1(-e+f - {\\mathsf{p}})^2 + B_2(-e+f-{\\mathsf{p}} ) \\right) \\\\\n= & \\int_{S^{[d]}} c_{2d-2}( T_{S^{[d]}} ) \n\\frac{1}{2} \\left[ {\\mathfrak{G}}_2(-e+f) + \\frac{\\delta}{2d-2} \\right]^2 \\\\\n& \\ + \\int_{S^{[d]}} c_{2d-2}( T_{S^{[d]}} ) \\left( {\\mathfrak{G}}_3(-e+f) - \\frac{\\delta}{2d-2} {\\mathfrak{G}}_2(-e+f) - \\frac{1}{2} \\frac{\\delta^2}{(2d-2)^2} + {\\mathfrak{G}}_2({\\mathsf{p}}) \\right) \\\\\n= & \\frac{1}{2} \\left( (-e+f)^2 + \\frac{ \\delta \\cdot \\delta}{(2d-2)^2} \\right) N_1(d-1)\n- \\frac{1}{2} \\frac{ \\delta \\cdot \\delta }{(2d-2)^2} N_1(d-1) + \\int_{S^{[d]}} c_{2d-2}( T_{S^{[d]}} ) {\\mathfrak{G}}_2({\\mathsf{p}}) \\\\\n= & - N_1(d-1) + \\int_{S^{[d]}} c_{2d-2}( T_{S^{[d]}} ) {\\mathfrak{G}}_2({\\mathsf{p}}).\n\\end{align*}\nThus we conclude that\n\\begin{align*}\\label{equ on P-1 pro}\nP_{-1,\\beta}=e(T) \\left( N_1(d-1) - \\int_{S^{[d]}} c_{2d-2}( T_{S^{[d]}} ) {\\mathfrak{G}}_2({\\mathsf{p}}) \\right).\n\\end{align*}\nThe desired formula now follows by the evaluation given in \\cite[Prop.~4.6]{COT1}:\n\\[ \\sum_{d \\geqslant 0} q^d \\int_{S^{[d]}} c_{2d-2}( T_{S^{[d]}} ) {\\mathfrak{G}}_2({\\mathsf{p}}) = \\prod_{n = 1} (1-q^n)^{-24} \\left( G_2(q) + \\frac{1}{24} \\right).  \\]\nFinally, comparing with Proposition \\ref{prop on gw on prod}, we are done. \n\\end{proof}\n\\begin{rmk}\\label{rmk on pri g=0}\nBy the global Torelli theorem, primitive curve classes on $K3$ surfaces can be deformed to irreducible curve classes. Combining Theorem \\ref{thm on g=0 conj on prod}, Theorem \\ref{thm on g=1 conj on prod}, Theorem \\ref{thm on P_-1}, we know \nConjecture \\ref{conj on DT4\/GV} also holds for primitive curve classes $\\beta\\in H_2(S)\\subseteq H_2(X)$. \\end{rmk}\n\n\n\\subsection{Genus 1:~multiple fiber classes of elliptic fibrations}\nLet $X=E\\times E\\times T$ be the product two copies of an elliptic curve $E$ and a $K3$ surface $T$. It gives the trivial elliptic fibration \n\\begin{align}\\label{equ on trivial ell fib}\\pi: X\\to Y:=E\\times T. \\end{align} \nFor multiple fiber classes of $\\pi$ \\eqref{equ on trivial ell fib}, we have the following closed evaluation:\n\\begin{thm}\\label{thm1 on g=1 of multiple fiber}\nLet $t > 0$ and $\\gamma \\in H^4(X)$. For certain choice of orientation, we have \n\\begin{align}\\label{equ on P0 multiple fiber}\n\\sum_{r\\geqslant 0}P^t_{0,r[E]}(\\gamma)\\,q^r=24\\,\\left(\\int_{E \\times E \\times {\\mathsf{p}}} \\gamma\\right)\\cdot\\sum_{m\\geqslant 1} \\sum_{n | m}n^2q^m. \\end{align}\n\\end{thm}\n\\begin{proof}\nBy \\cite[Prop.~5.3]{CT1}, we know $P^t_0(X,n[E])$ is independent of the choice of $t>0$, so we may set $t\\to \\infty$ and work with PT stability. \nAs in \\cite[Lem.~3.5]{CMT2}, there is an isomorphism \n$$\\pi^*: \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^n(Y) \\cong P_0(X,n[E]), \\quad I_Z\\mapsto \\pi^*I_Z. $$\nFor $I=\\pi^*I_Z\\in P_0(X,n[E])$, by projection formula and \n$$\\pi_*\\mathcal{O}_X\\cong \\mathcal{O}_{Y}\\oplus K_{Y}[-1], $$\nwe obtain  \n$$\\mathop{\\dR\\mathrm{Hom}}\\nolimits_X(I,I)\\cong \\mathop{\\dR\\mathrm{Hom}}\\nolimits_{Y}(I_Z,I_Z)\\oplus \\mathop{\\dR\\mathrm{Hom}}\\nolimits_{Y}(I_Z,I_Z\\otimes K_{Y})[-1]. $$\nBy taking the traceless part, we get \n\\begin{align}\\label{equ1 on ell fib}\\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^2_X(I,I)_0&\\cong \\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^2_{Y}(I_Z,I_Z)_0\\oplus \\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^1_{Y}(I_Z,I_Z)_0 \\\\ \\nonumber \n&\\cong \\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^2_{Y}(I_Z,I_Z)_0\\oplus \\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^2_{Y}(I_Z,I_Z)_0^{\\vee}, \n\\end{align}\nwhere we use Serre duality in the second isomorphism.\n\nNext we compare cosections on these obstruction spaces. By \\cite[Lem.~9.4]{KiP}, we have a surjective isotropic cosection\n\\begin{align*}\\phi_X: \\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^2_X(I,I)_0 \\stackrel{\\mathrm{At}(I)}{\\longrightarrow} \\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^3_X(I,I\\otimes T^*X)\\stackrel{\\mathrm{tr}}{\\longrightarrow}\nH^3(X,T^*X)\\stackrel{H\\sigma_X }{\\longrightarrow} H^4(X,\\wedge^4T^*X) \\stackrel{\\int}{\\longrightarrow}\\mathbb{C},  \\end{align*}\nwhere $\\mathrm{At}(I)\\in \\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^1_X(I,I\\otimes T^*X)$ denotes the Atiyah class of $I$, $H\\in H^1(X,T^*X)$ is an ample divisor \nand $\\sigma_X\\in H^0(X,\\wedge^2T^*X)$ is a holomorphic symplectic form of $X$. \n\nBy the compatibility of Atiyah classes with map $\\pi: X\\to Y$ (ref.~\\cite[Prop.~3.14]{BFl}), we have a commutative diagram \n\\begin{align}\\label{com diag on atiyah class}\\xymatrix{\n\\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^2_X(I,I)_0  \\ar[r]^{\\mathrm{At}(I) \\,\\,\\, \\quad } & \\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^3_X(I,I\\otimes T^*X) \\ar[r]^{ \\quad \\mathrm{tr}  } & H^3(X,T^*X) \\ar[r]^{\\mathrm{pr}\\quad \\,\\,\\,}  &\nH^{1,1}(S)\\otimes H^{0,2}(T) \\\\\n\\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^2_Y(I_Z,I_Z)_0 \\ar[u]_{i} \\ar[r]^{\\mathrm{At}(I_Z) \\,\\,\\, \\quad  } & \\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^3_Y(I_Z,I_Z\\otimes T^*Y) \\ar[u]_{  }  \\ar[r]^{\\quad \\,\\, \\mathrm{tr} }  & H^3(Y,T^*Y) \\ar[r]^{\\cong\\quad \\quad } & H^{1,1}(E)\\otimes H^{0,2}(T) \\ar[u]_{\\pi^*},  } \\end{align}\nwhere $i$ is the embedding in \\eqref{equ1 on ell fib}, $tr$ denotes the trace map and \n$pr$ is the projection with respect to K\\\"unneth decomposition.\nWe define a cosection \n\\begin{align*}\\phi_Y: \\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^2_Y(I_Z,I_Z)_0 \\stackrel{\\mathrm{At}(I_Z)}{\\longrightarrow} \\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^3_Y(I_Z,I_Z\\otimes T^*Y)\\stackrel{\\mathrm{tr}}{\\longrightarrow}\nH^3(Y,T^*Y)\\cong H^{1,1}(E)\\otimes H^{0,2}(T)\\stackrel{\\epsilon}{\\longrightarrow} \\mathbb{C},  \\end{align*}\n$$\\mathrm{where} \\quad \\epsilon(\\alpha)=\\int_{X} H \\sigma_X\\cdot\\pi^*\\alpha, \\quad \\alpha\\in H^{1,1}(E)\\otimes H^{0,2}(T). $$\nIt is easy to see $\\phi_Y$ is a positive multiple of the standard cosection of $\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^n(Y)$ (see~e.g.~\\cite[Eqn.~(6)]{O2}), \nhence its reduced virtual class keeps the same.\n\nBy diagram \\eqref{com diag on atiyah class}, we have a commutative diagram: \n\\begin{align*}\\xymatrix{\n\\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^2_X(I,I)_0  \\ar[r]^{\\quad \\quad \\phi_X} & \\mathbb{C} \\\\\n\\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^2_Y(I_Z,I_Z)_0 \\ar[u]_{i} \\ar[ur]_{\\quad \\phi_Y}. &  } \\end{align*}\nWe claim that $\\mathop{\\rm Ker}\\nolimits(\\phi_Y)$ is a maximal isotropic subspace of \n$\\mathop{\\rm Ker}\\nolimits(\\phi_X)\/\\mathrm{Im}(\\phi^{\\vee}_X)$. In fact, by taking dual, we have a commutative diagram \n\\begin{align*}\\xymatrix{\n\\mathbb{C} \\ar[d]^{=} \\ar[r]^{ \\phi^{\\vee}_X \\quad \\quad \\,\\, }  & \\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^2_X(I,I)_0^{\\vee}  \\ar[d]^{i^{\\vee}} \\ar[r]^{Q_{\\mathrm{Serre}} \\quad\\quad\\quad\\quad\\quad\\quad\\quad\\quad}_{\\cong \\quad\\quad\\quad\\quad\\quad\\quad\\quad\\quad } & \\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^2_X(I,I)_0\\cong  \\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^2_Y(I_Z,I_Z)_0\\oplus \n\\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^2_Y(I_Z,I_Z)_0^{\\vee} \\ar[dl]^{\\pi_2}  \\\\\n\\mathbb{C}\\ar[r]^{ \\phi^{\\vee}_Y \\quad \\quad \\quad } & \\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^2_Y(I_Z,I_Z)_0^{\\vee}.   &  } \\end{align*}\nSince $\\phi_Y$ is surjective, so   $\\phi^{\\vee}_Y$ is injective, therefore  \n$$\\mathrm{Im}(\\phi^{\\vee}_X)\\cap\\mathop{\\rm Ker}\\nolimits(\\phi_Y)\\subseteq \\mathrm{Im}(\\phi^{\\vee}_X)\\cap \\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^2_Y(I_Z,I_Z)_0=0,  $$\nand $\\mathop{\\rm Ker}\\nolimits(\\phi_Y)$ defines a subspace of $\\mathop{\\rm Ker}\\nolimits(\\phi_X)\/\\mathrm{Im}(\\phi^{\\vee}_X)$. \nThis is a maximal isotropic subspace as $i: \\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^2_Y(I_Z,I_Z)_0\\to\\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^2_X(I,I)_0$ is so. \n\nThe above construction works in family and therefore we have \n$$[P_0(X,n[E])]^{\\mathrm{vir}}=[\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^n(Y)]^{\\mathrm{vir}}\\in A_1(P_0(X,n[E])), $$\nfor certain choice of orientation in the LHS. Consider a commutative diagram:\n\\begin{align*} \\xymatrix{\nX \\ar[d]_{\\pi} & X\\times P_0(X,n[E]) \\ar[d]_{\\bar{\\pi}=(\\pi,(\\pi^*)^{-1})}  \\ar[l]_{\\pi_X \\quad\\quad} \\ar[r]^{\\quad \\pi_P }    & P_0(X,n[E]) \\ar[d]_{(\\pi^*)^{-1}}^{\\cong}   \\\\\nY & Y\\times \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^n(Y) \\ar[l]_{\\pi_{Y} \\quad\\quad }    \\ar[r]^{\\,\\, \\pi_M }   & \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^n(Y),  } \\quad \\quad\n\\end{align*}\nand denote $\\mathcal{Z}\\hookrightarrow Y\\times \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^n(Y)$ to be the universal 0-dimensional subscheme. Then \n\\begin{align*}\nP_{0,n[E]}(\\gamma)&=\\int_{[P_0(X,n[E])]^{\\mathrm{vir}}}\\pi_{P*}(\\pi_X^*\\gamma\\cdot \\bar{\\pi}^*\\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_3(\\mathcal{O}_{\\mathcal{Z}})) \\\\\n&=\\int_{[\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^n(Y)]^{\\mathrm{vir}}}\\pi_{M*}\\bar{\\pi}_*(\\pi_X^*\\gamma\\cdot \\bar{\\pi}^*\\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_3(\\mathcal{O}_{\\mathcal{Z}})) \\\\\n&=\\int_{[\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^n(Y)]^{\\mathrm{vir}}} \\pi_{M*}(\\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_3(\\mathcal{O}_{\\mathcal{Z}})\\cdot\\bar{\\pi}_*(\\pi_X^*\\gamma) ) \\\\\n&=\\int_{[\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^n(Y)]^{\\mathrm{vir}}} \\pi_{M*}(\\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_3(\\mathcal{O}_{\\mathcal{Z}})\\cdot\\pi_{Y}^*\\pi_*\\gamma ).\n\\end{align*}\nThe statement now follows from Proposition~\\ref{prop:K3xE calculation} below.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\begin{prop}\n\\label{prop:K3xE calculation}\nLet $\\omega \\in H^2(E,{\\mathbb{Z}})$ be the class of point and $D \\in H^2(T,{\\mathbb{Q}})$ any class. Then for any $n \\geqslant 1$ we have:\n\\begin{align*}\n\\int_{[ \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^n(T \\times E) ]^{\\text{vir}} } \\pi_{M \\ast}\\big( \\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_3({\\mathcal O}_{{\\mathcal Z}}) \\pi_Y^{\\ast}( \\omega \\otimes 1 ) \\big) & = (-1)^{n+1} e(T)  \\sum_{d|n} d^2, \\\\\n\\int_{[ \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^n(T \\times E) ]^{\\text{vir}} } \\pi_{M \\ast}\\big( \\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_3({\\mathcal O}_{{\\mathcal Z}}) \\pi_Y^{\\ast}( 1 \\otimes D ) \\big) & = 0.\n\\end{align*}\n\\end{prop}\n\\begin{proof}\nWrite $\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits = \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^n(T \\times E)$ and consider the diagram\n\\[\n\\begin{tikzcd}\nT \\times E & \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits \\times T \\times E \\ar[swap]{l}{\\pi_{T \\times E}} \\ar{r}{\\pi_M} \\ar{d}{\\tilde{p}} & \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits \\ar{d}{p} \\\\\n& \\frac{ \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits \\times T \\times E }{E} \\ar{r}{\\pi_{M\/E}} & \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits\/E,\n\\end{tikzcd}\n\\]\nwhere the quotient by $E$ is taken in the stacky sense.\nThe universal subscheme ${\\mathcal Z} \\subset \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits \\times T \\times E$ has a natural $E$-linearization and hence arises from the pullback of\na subscheme ${\\mathcal Z}\/E \\subset (\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits \\times T \\times E)\/E$. Moreover, as in \\cite{O2},\nthere exists a natural (0-dimensional) virtual class $[ \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits\/E ]^{\\text{vir}}$ such that\n\\[ [ \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits ]^{\\text{vir}} = p^{\\ast} [\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits\/E]^{\\text{vir}}. \\]\nSince the virtual class of $\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits\/E$ arises from a symmetric obstruction theory (on an \\'etale cover of $\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits\/E$), its degree \ncan be computed by as an Behrend weighted Euler characteristic \\cite{B}:\n\\[ \\int_{ [\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits\/E]^{\\text{vir}} } 1 = e\\left( \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits\/E, \\nu \\right). \\]\nWe argue now as follows: Applying the pushpull formula and using $p \\circ \\pi_M = \\pi_{M\/E} \\circ \\tilde{p}$ we have\n\\begin{align*}\nN_n & := \\int_{[ \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits ]^{\\text{vir}} } \\pi_{M \\ast}\\big( \\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_3({\\mathcal O}_{{\\mathcal Z}}) \\pi_{T \\times E}^{\\ast}( \\omega \\otimes 1 ) \\big) \\\\\n& = \\int_{[ \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits\/E ]^{\\text{vir}} } \\pi_{M\/E \\ast} \\tilde{p}_{\\ast} \\big( \\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_3({\\mathcal O}_{{\\mathcal Z}}) \\pi_{T \\times E}^{\\ast}( \\omega \\otimes 1 ) \\big) \\\\\n& = \\int_{[ \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits\/E ]^{\\text{vir}} } \\pi_{M\/E \\ast} \\big( \\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_3({\\mathcal O}_{{\\mathcal Z}\/E}) \\tilde{p}_{\\ast}( \\pi_{T \\times E}^{\\ast}( \\omega \\otimes 1 )) \\big).\n\\end{align*}\nThen by checking on fibers we have $\\tilde{p}_{\\ast}( \\pi_{T \\times E}^{\\ast}( \\omega \\otimes 1 )) = 1$ \nas well as $\\pi_{M\/E \\ast} \\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_3({\\mathcal O}_{{\\mathcal Z}\/E}) = n$. This implies that\n\\[ N_n = n \\int_{ [\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits\/E]^{\\text{vir}} } 1 = n\\cdot e\\left( \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits\/E, \\nu \\right) = 24 (-1)^{n-1} \\sum_{d|n} d^2, \\]\nwhere for the last equality we have used \\cite[Cor.~1]{OS}.\n\nFor the second integral we argue identically, but observe that we have\n\\[ \\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_3({\\mathcal O}_{{\\mathcal Z}}) \\pi_{T \\times E}^{\\ast}( 1 \\otimes D ) = \\tilde{p}^{\\ast}( \\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_3({\\mathcal O}_{{\\mathcal Z}\/E}) \\pi_T^{\\ast}(D)), \\]\nso when pushing forward by $\\tilde{p}$ the integral vanishes.\n\\end{proof}\nSimilarly, we can consider a nontrivial elliptic fibration: \n$$\\bar{p}=(p,\\textrm{id}_T): X=S\\times T\\to \\mathbb{P}^{1}\\times T, $$\nwhere $p: S\\rightarrow\\mathbb{P}^{1}$ is an elliptic $K3$ surface with a section $i$. Let $f$ be a generic fiber of $\\bar{p}$.\n\\begin{thm}\\label{thm2 on g=1 of multiple fiber}\nLet $t>0$ and $\\gamma \\in H^4(X)$. Then for certain choice of orientation, we have \n\\begin{align}\\label{equ on P0 multiple fiber}\n\\sum_{r\\geqslant 0}P^t_{0,r[f]}(\\gamma)\\,q^r=24\\,\\left(\\int_{S \\times {\\mathsf{p}}} \\gamma\\right)\\cdot \\sum_{m\\geqslant 1}\\sum_{n | m}n^2q^m. \\end{align}\n\\end{thm}\n\\begin{proof}\nThe first proof is parallel to the proof of Theorem \\ref{thm1 on g=1 of multiple fiber}. \nFor the second part, we need to evaluate\n\\begin{equation} \\int_{[ \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^n(T \\times {\\mathbb{P}}^1) ]^{\\text{vir}} } \\pi_{M \\ast}\\big( \\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_3({\\mathcal O}_{{\\mathcal Z}})\\,\\pi_Y^{\\ast}( \\omega \\otimes 1 ) \\big), \\label{aaas} \\end{equation}\nwhere $\\omega \\in H^2({\\mathbb{P}}^1)$ is the class of a point.\nWe consider the degeneration of $T \\times {\\mathbb{P}}^1$ given by the product of $T$ with the degeneration of ${\\mathbb{P}}^1$ into a chain of three ${\\mathbb{P}}^1$'s.\nBy specializing the insertion $\\omega$ to the middle factor, we\nare reduced to an integral of the relative Hilbert schemes $\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^n(T \\times {\\mathbb{P}}^1 \/ T_0 \\cup T_{\\infty} )$ with the same integrand.\nBut this integral is also the outcome of applying the degeneration formula to the integrals considered in Proposition~\\ref{prop:K3xE calculation}\n(under the degeneration of $E$ to a nodal ${\\mathbb{P}}^1$).\nHence \\eqref{aaas} is given by $(-1)^{n+1} e(T) \\sum_{d|n} d^2$ as well.\nFor the analogue of the second integral in Proposition~\\ref{prop:K3xE calculation}, the localization formula applied to the scaling action of ${\\mathbb{C}}^{\\ast}$ on ${\\mathbb{P}}^1$ shows that it vanishes.\n\\end{proof}\n\\begin{rmk}\\label{rmk on impr}\nOn the product of two $K3$ surfaces, \ngenus 1 Gopakumar-Vafa invariants in imprimitive classes are defined in \\cite[Def.~A.1]{COT1}. In particular, for multiple fiber classes \n$\\beta=r[f]$ above, by using \\cite[Eqn.~(5.7)]{COT1}, we know $n_{1,r[f]}(\\gamma)=0$ if $r>1$.  \n\\end{rmk}\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Hilbert schemes of two points on $K3$}\n\n\\subsection{Rational curves on exceptional locus}\nLet $S$ be a $K3$ surface. \nConsider the Hilbert-Chow map \n$$\\pi: \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^2(S)\\to \\mathop{\\rm Sym}\\nolimits^2(S) $$\nto the symmetric product of $S$. Let $D$ be the exceptional divisor fitting into Cartesian diagram: \n\\begin{align*} \\xymatrix{\nD \\ar[d]_{\\pi}  \\ar[r]^{i \\quad \\,\\,\\, }    & \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^2(S) \\ar[d]^{\\pi}   \\\\\nS    \\ar[r]^{\\Delta \\quad \\,\\,\\, }   & \\mathop{\\rm Sym}\\nolimits^2(S),  } \\quad \\quad\n\\end{align*}\nwhere $\\Delta$ is the diagonal embedding. Note that $\\pi: D\\to S$ is a $\\mathbb{P}^1$-bundle and any fiber of it has normal bundle \n$\\mathcal{O}_{\\mathbb{P}^1}(-2,0,0)$. \n\\begin{thm}\\label{thm on hilbS}\nWhen $t=\\frac{n}{\\omega\\cdot\\beta}+0^+$ $($i.e.~in JS chamber$)$,\nConjecture \\ref{conj on DT4\/GV} (1),~(2) hold for multiple fiber classes $\\beta=r[\\mathbb{P}^1]$ $($$r\\geqslant 1$$)$ of $\\pi$ as above. \n\\end{thm} \n\\begin{proof}\nBy Jordan-H\\\"older filtration, the JS moduli space $P_n^{\\mathrm{JS}}(X,d[\\mathbb{P}^1])$ is nonempty only if \n$$d\\,|\\,n, \\,\\,\\, n>0. $$\nso we may assume $n=m\\cdot d$ for $m\\in \\mathbb{Z}_{\\geqslant 1}$. Consider the map \n\\begin{align}f: P_{md}^{\\mathrm{JS}}(X,d[\\mathbb{P}^1])\\to \\mathop{\\rm Sym}\\nolimits^d(S),  \\quad (F,s)\\mapsto \\pi_*[F]. \\end{align}\nAs the insertion \\eqref{equ on pri ins} only involves fundamental cycle of the universal one dimensional sheaf $\\mathbb{F}$, we have \n$$[\\mathbb{F}]=\\bar{f}^*[\\mathcal{Z}], $$\nwhere $[\\mathcal{Z}]\\hookrightarrow \\mathop{\\rm Sym}\\nolimits^d(S)\\times S$ is the class of incident subvariety and $\\bar{f}=(f,\\textrm{id}_S)$.\nTherefore  \n$$\\int_{[P_{md}^{\\mathrm{JS}}(X,d[\\mathbb{P}^1])]^{\\rm{vir}}}\\prod_{i=1}^l\\tau(\\gamma_i)\n=\\int_{[P_{md}^{\\mathrm{JS}}(X,d[\\mathbb{P}^1])]^{\\rm{vir}}}f^*\\Phi, $$\nfor some $\\Phi\\in H^{2(md+1)}(\\mathop{\\rm Sym}\\nolimits^d(S))$. When $m>1$, we have $md+1>2d$, therefore $\\Phi=0$ and \n$$P_{md,d[\\mathbb{P}^1]}^{\\mathrm{JS}}(\\gamma_1,\\ldots,\\gamma_l)=0, \\quad \\mathrm{if}\\,\\,m>1. $$\nFor $m=1$, we have an isomorphism \n\\begin{align*}\n    \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^d(S) &\\stackrel{\\pi^*}{\\cong} P_{d}^{\\mathrm{JS}}(D,d[\\mathbb{P}^1]) \\cong P_{d}^{\\mathrm{JS}}(X,d[\\mathbb{P}^1]),  \\\\\nI_Z &\\mapsto \\pi^*I_Z\\mapsto (\\mathcal{O}_X\\to i_*\\pi^*\\mathcal{O}_Z). \n\\end{align*}\nFor $I_X=(\\mathcal{O}_X\\to i_*\\pi^*\\mathcal{O}_Z)$, we write $I_D=(\\mathcal{O}_D\\to\\pi^*\\mathcal{O}_Z)$. As in \\cite[Prop.~4.3]{CMT2}, \\cite[Prop.~4.2]{CKM2}, \nwe have a canonical isomorphism \n$$\\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^0_D(I_D,\\pi^*\\mathcal{O}_Z)\\cong \\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^1_X(I_X,I_X)_0, $$\nand an inclusion of maximal isotropic subspace \n\\begin{align}\\label{equ1 on excep curve}\\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^1_D(I_D,\\pi^*\\mathcal{O}_Z)\\hookrightarrow \\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^2_X(I_X,I_X)_0. \\end{align}\nFrom distinguished triangle \n$$I_D\\to \\mathcal{O}_D\\to \\pi^*\\mathcal{O}_Z, $$\nwe obtain a distinguished triangle \n$$\\mathop{\\dR\\mathrm{Hom}}\\nolimits_D(\\pi^*\\mathcal{O}_Z,\\pi^*\\mathcal{O}_Z)\\to \\mathop{\\dR\\mathrm{Hom}}\\nolimits_D(\\mathcal{O}_D,\\pi^*\\mathcal{O}_Z)\\to\\mathop{\\dR\\mathrm{Hom}}\\nolimits_D(I_D,\\pi^*\\mathcal{O}_Z). $$\nBy projection formula, we have \n$$\\mathop{\\dR\\mathrm{Hom}}\\nolimits_D(\\pi^*\\mathcal{O}_Z,\\pi^*\\mathcal{O}_Z)\\cong \\mathop{\\dR\\mathrm{Hom}}\\nolimits_S(\\mathcal{O}_Z,\\mathcal{O}_Z), \\,\\,\\, \\mathop{\\dR\\mathrm{Hom}}\\nolimits_D(\\mathcal{O}_D,\\pi^*\\mathcal{O}_Z)\\cong \\mathop{\\dR\\mathrm{Hom}}\\nolimits_S(\\mathcal{O}_S,\\mathcal{O}_Z). $$ \nTherefore we get an exact sequence \n\\begin{align}\\label{equ2 on excep curve}0=H^1(S,\\mathcal{O}_Z)\\cong H^1(D,\\pi^*\\mathcal{O}_Z)\\to \\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^1_D(I_D,\\pi^*\\mathcal{O}_Z) \\to \\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^2_S(\\mathcal{O}_Z,\\mathcal{O}_Z)\\to 0. \\end{align}\nBy Serre duality, we have \n\\begin{align}\\label{equ3 on excep curve} \\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^2_S(\\mathcal{O}_Z,\\mathcal{O}_Z)\\cong  \\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^0_S(\\mathcal{O}_Z,\\mathcal{O}_Z)^{\\vee}\\cong H^0(S,\\mathcal{O}_Z)^{\\vee}. \\end{align}\nCombining Eqns.~\\eqref{equ1 on excep curve}, \\eqref{equ2 on excep curve}, \\eqref{equ3 on excep curve}, we obtain a maximal isotropic subspace\n$$H^0(S,\\mathcal{O}_Z)^{\\vee}\\hookrightarrow\\mathop{\\rm Ext}\\nolimits^2_X(I_X,I_X)_0. $$\nWorking in family, we see that the dual of tautological bundle $\\mathcal{O}_S^{[d]}$ on $\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^d(S)$ is a maximal isotropic subbundle  \nof the obstruction bundle of $P_{d}^{\\mathrm{JS}}(X,d[\\mathbb{P}^1])$. By Lemma \\ref{lem on indep of cosec}, we obtain\n$$[P_{d}^{\\mathrm{JS}}(X,d[\\mathbb{P}^1])]^{\\mathrm{vir}}=[\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^d(S)]\\cap c_{d-1}\\left(\\mathcal{O}_S^{[d]}\\right), $$\nfor certain choice of orientation. As for insertions, consider the following diagram \n\\begin{align*} \\xymatrix{\nS & D  \\ar[l]_{\\pi} \\ar[r]^{i} &  X \\\\\nS\\times \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^d(S) \\ar[d]^{\\pi_M} \\ar[u]_{\\pi_S}       & D\\times \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^d(S) \\ar[u]_{\\pi_D}  \\ar[d]^{\\pi_M}  \\ar[l]_{\\bar{\\pi}=(\\pi,\\textrm{id})} \\ar[r]^{\\bar{i}=(i,\\textrm{id})} & X\\times \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^d(S) \\ar[d]^{\\pi_M} \\ar[u]_{\\pi_X}    \\\\\n\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^d(S) &\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^d(S)  & \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^d(S),  }  \n\\end{align*}\nlet $\\mathcal{Z}\\hookrightarrow\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^d(S)\\times S$ denote the universal zero dimensional subscheme, then \n\\begin{align*}\n\\tau(\\gamma)&=\\pi_{M*}\\left(\\pi_X^*\\gamma\\cdot\\mathop{\\rm ch}\\nolimits_3(\\bar{i}_*\\bar{\\pi}^*\\mathcal{O}_{\\mathcal{Z}})\\right) \\\\\n&=\\pi_{M*}\\left(\\pi_X^*\\gamma\\cdot\\bar{i}_*\\bar{\\pi}^*[\\mathcal{Z}]\\right) \\\\\n&=\\pi_{M*}\\bar{i}_*\\left(\\bar{i}^*\\pi_X^*\\gamma\\cdot\\bar{\\pi}^*[\\mathcal{Z}]\\right) \\\\\n&=\\pi_{M*}\\bar{\\pi}_{*}\\left(\\pi_D^*i^*\\gamma\\cdot\\bar{\\pi}^*[\\mathcal{Z}]\\right) \\\\\n&=\\pi_{M*}\\left(\\bar{\\pi}_{*}\\pi_D^*i^*\\gamma\\cdot [\\mathcal{Z}]\\right)\\\\\n&=\\pi_{M*}\\left(\\pi_S^*\\pi_*i^*\\gamma\\cdot [\\mathcal{Z}]\\right)\\in H^2(\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^d(S)),\n\\end{align*}\nwhich depends only on $[\\mathcal{Z}]$ and hence it is a pullback from $\\mathop{\\rm Sym}\\nolimits^d(S)$ by the Hilbert-Chow map\n$$\\mathrm{HC} \\colon \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^d(S)\\to \\mathop{\\rm Sym}\\nolimits^d(S). $$ \nTo sum up, we have  \n\\begin{align}\\label{equ on exc cur} P_{d,d[\\mathbb{P}^1]}^{\\mathrm{JS}}(\\gamma_1,\\ldots,\\gamma_l)=\\int_{\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^d(S)}c_{d-1}\\left(\\mathcal{O}_S^{[d]}\\right)\\cdot \n\\prod_{i=1}^l\\pi_{M*}\\left(\\pi_S^*\\pi_*i^*\\gamma_i\\cdot [\\mathcal{Z}]\\right). \\end{align}\nWhen $d=1$, this reduces to \\cite[Lem.~3.7]{COT1}. When $d>1$, we claim the above integral is zero. \nIn fact, by \\cite[Thm.~4.6]{Lehn}, \nwe have the formula \n\\begin{align*}\n\t\\sum_{m\\geqslant 0} c\\left(\\mathcal{O}_S^{[m]}\\right)z^m =\n\t\\mathrm{exp}\\left(\\sum_{m\\geqslant 1} \\frac{(-1)^{m-1}}{m} q_m(1) z^m   \\right) \\cdot 1\n\t\\end{align*}\nwhere $q_m(1)$ are linear maps (called Nakajima operators)\n\\begin{align*}\n\tq_m(1) \\in \\mathop{\\rm End}\\nolimits(\\mathbb{H}), \\quad \n\t\\mathbb{H}=\\bigoplus_{m\\geqslant 0} H^{\\ast}(\\mathrm{Hilb}^m(S), \\mathbb{Q}),\n\t\\end{align*}\nwhich is of bidegree $(m, 2m-2)$. \nBy looking at the bidegree $(d, 2d-2)$-part, \nwe have \n\\begin{align*}\n\tc_{d-1}\\left(\\mathcal{O}_S^{[d]}\\right)=q_d(1)(1), \\quad \\mathrm{where} \\,\\, 1\\in H^0(\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^0(S)). \n\t\\end{align*}\nBy the definition of $q_d(1)$ in~\\cite[Def.~2.3]{Lehn}, we have $q_d(1)(1)=p_{1\\ast}[\\mathcal{Q}]$\nwhere $\\mathcal{Q}$ is the cycle on \n$\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^d(S) \\times S$ supported on \n$(x, \\xi)$ with $\\mathrm{Supp}(\\xi)=x$. \nTherefore \nwe know $c_{d-1}\\left(\\mathcal{O}_S^{[d]}\\right)$ is supported on $\\mathrm{HC}^{-1}(\\Delta)$, where\n$$\\Delta=\\big\\{(x,\\cdots,x)\\in\\mathop{\\rm Sym}\\nolimits^d(S) \\big\\}\\subseteq \\mathop{\\rm Sym}\\nolimits^d(S)$$ is the small diagonal. \nOur insertion is a pullback from $\\mathop{\\rm Sym}\\nolimits^d(S)$ and gives $(d+1)$-dimensional constrain on $\\mathop{\\rm Sym}\\nolimits^d(S)$. If $d>1$, \n$d+1>2=\\dim_{\\mathbb{C}}\\Delta$, therefore the integral \\eqref{equ on exc cur} is zero. \n\\end{proof}\n\n\\subsection{Small degree curve classes on $X=T^*\\mathbb{P}^2$}\nWhen the $K3$ surface $S$ has a\n$(-2)$-curve $C \\subset S$, \nthe Hilbert scheme $\\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^2(S)$ contains \n$\\mathrm{Sym}^2(C) \\subset \\mathop{\\rm Hilb}\\nolimits^2(S)$\nas a Lagrangian subvariety.\nFor curve classes coming from $\\mathrm{Sym}^2(C) \\cong \n\\mathbb{P}^2$, our invariants can be studied on the local model $X=T^*\\mathbb{P}^2$. \n\nWe have an identification of curve classes:\n\\[ H_2(X,{\\mathbb{Z}}) = H_2({\\mathbb{P}}^2, {\\mathbb{Z}}) = {\\mathbb{Z}} [ \\ell ], \\]\nwhere $\\ell \\subset {\\mathbb{P}}^2$ is a line.\nLet $H \\in H^2(T^{\\ast} {\\mathbb{P}}^2)$ be the pullback of hyperplane class\nand identify $H_2(T^{\\ast} {\\mathbb{P}}^2, {\\mathbb{Z}}) \\equiv {\\mathbb{Z}}$ by its degree against $H$.\nGopakumar-Vafa invariants are given as follows: \n\\begin{prop}\\emph{(\\cite[Cor.~6.2]{COT1})}\\label{cor on inte on local p2}\n\\begin{align*}\nn_{0,d}(H^2,H^2)&=\n\\left\\{\\begin{array}{rcl} 1   &\\mathrm{if} \\,\\, d=1, \\\\ \n -1  &\\mathrm{if} \\,\\,  d=2,  \\\\\n  0    & \\,\\,  \\mathrm{otherwise}. \n\\end{array} \\right.  \\\\\nn_{1,1}(H^2)&=0,  \\quad n_{2,1}=0. \n\\end{align*}\n\\end{prop}\nIn the stable pair side, we compute invariants for small degree curve classes.\n\\begin{prop}\\label{prop on tp2}\nFor certain choice of orientation, we have \n$$P_{1,1}(H^2,H^2)=1, \\quad P_{1,2}(H^2,H^2)=-1, \\quad P_{1,3}(H^2,H^2)=0,   $$\n$$P_{0,1}(H^2)=P_{0,2}(H^2)=0, \\quad P_{0,3}(H^2)=1,\\quad P_{-1,1}=P_{-1,2}=P_{-1,3}=0.  $$\nMoreover, $P^t_{n}(X,d)$ is independent of the choice of $t>n\/d$ in the listed cases above. \n\nIn particular, for $X=T^*\\mathbb{P}^2$, we have\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item Conjecture \\ref{conj on DT4\/GV} (2) holds when $d\\leqslant 3$. \n\\item Conjecture \\ref{conj on DT4\/GV} (3), (4) hold. \n\\end{itemize}\n\\end{prop}\n\\begin{proof}\nAs noted in \\cite[Proof~of~Lem.~6.3]{COT1}, we have a diagram \n\\begin{align*} \\xymatrix{\nX=T^{\\ast}\\mathbb{P}^2  \\ar@{^{(}->}[r]^{i\\quad }   & \\mathcal{O}_{\\mathbb{P}^2}(-1)^{\\oplus 3} \\ar[d]^{\\pi}   \\\\\n & T,  } \n\\end{align*} \nwhere $i$ is a closed imbedding and $\\pi$ contracts $\\mathbb{P}^2$ to a point in \nan affine scheme $T$. \nIt is easy to see that any one dimensional closed subscheme $C\\subset X$ with $[C]=d$ ($d=1,2$) satisfies $\\chi(\\mathcal{O}_C)\\geqslant 1$.\nTherefore by \\cite[Prop.~1,12]{CT1}, we know for $n=-1,0,1$ and $d\\leqslant 3$, the moduli space  \n$P_n^t(X,d)$ is independent of the choice of $t>n\/d$. So we may take $t\\to \\infty$ and work with PT stability. \nUsing similar analysis as \\cite[Prop.~3.9]{CKM2}, we know all stable pairs $(\\mathcal{O}_X\\stackrel{s}{\\to} F)$ in the above cases are scheme theoretically supported on \nthe zero section $\\mathbb{P}^2\\subset X$ and $F$ are stable. \nThen obviously $P_{-1}(X,d)=\\emptyset$ if $d\\leqslant 3$ and corresponding invariants vanish. \n\nWhen $n=1$, $d\\leqslant 3$, the  isomorphism \n$$P_1(X,d)\\cong M_1(X,d), \\quad (\\mathcal{O}_X\\to F)\\mapsto F, $$\nto the moduli space of one dimensional stable sheaves $F$ with $[F]=d[\\ell]$ and $\\chi(F)=1$ will reduce the computation\nto the corresponding one on $M_1(X,d)$ \\cite[Prop.~6.5]{COT1}.\n\nWhen $d=1,2$, we have $P_0(X,d)=\\emptyset$, so invariants are zero. \nFor $d=3$, the support map \n$$P_0(X,3)\\cong P_0(\\mathbb{P}^2,3)\\stackrel{\\cong}{\\to} |\\mathcal{O}_{\\mathbb{P}^2}(3)|\\cong\\mathbb{P}^9, \\quad F\\mapsto \\mathrm{supp}(F)    $$\nis an isomorphism. The universal one dimensional sheaf satisfies $\\mathbb{F}=\\mathcal{O}_{\\mathcal{C}}$ for the universal $(1,3)$-divisor\n$\\mathcal{C}\\hookrightarrow \\mathbb{P}^9\\times \\mathbb{P}^2$.  \nLet $\\pi_M \\colon\nP_0(X,3)\\times \\mathbb{P}^2\\to P_0(X,3)$ be the projection. Bott's formula implies that \n\\begin{align*}\n    \\mathbf{R}\\mathcal{H}om_{\\pi_M}(\\mathcal{O},\\mathcal{O}(-\\mathcal{C})\\boxtimes T^*\\mathbb{P}^2) &\\cong \\mathcal{O}_{\\mathbb{P}^9}(-1)[-2]^{\\oplus 8}, \\\\\n\\mathbf{R}\\mathcal{H}om_{\\pi_M}(\\mathcal{O},\\mathcal{O}(\\mathcal{C})\\boxtimes T^*\\mathbb{P}^2) &\\cong \\mathcal{O}_{\\mathbb{P}^9}(-1)^{\\oplus 8}, \\\\\n\\mathbf{R}\\mathcal{H}om_{\\pi_M}(\\mathcal{O},\\mathcal{O}\\boxtimes T^*\\mathbb{P}^2)&\\cong \\mathcal{O}_{\\mathbb{P}^9}[-1].\n\\end{align*}\nTherefore, we have \n\\begin{align*}\n&\\quad \\, \\mathbf{R}\\mathcal{H}om_{\\pi_M}(\\mathcal{O}_{\\mathcal{C}},\\mathcal{O}_{\\mathcal{C}}\\boxtimes T^*\\mathbb{P}^2)[1]\\\\\n&\\cong \\mathbf{R}\\mathcal{H}om_{\\pi_M}(\\mathcal{O}(-\\mathcal{C})\\to \\mathcal{O},(\\mathcal{O}(-\\mathcal{C})\\to \\mathcal{O}) \\boxtimes T^*\\mathbb{P}^2)[1] \\\\\n&\\cong \\mathcal{O}_{\\mathbb{P}^9}(-1)^{\\oplus 8}\\oplus \\mathcal{O}_{\\mathbb{P}^9}(1)^{\\oplus 8} \\oplus \\mathcal{O}_{\\mathbb{P}^9}  \\oplus \\mathcal{O}_{\\mathbb{P}^9}.  \n\\end{align*}\nBy Grothendieck-Verdier duality, it is easy to see \n$$\\mathcal{O}_{\\mathbb{P}^9}(-1)^{\\oplus 8}\\oplus \\mathcal{O}_{\\mathbb{P}^9}$$ \nis a maximal isotropic subbundle of $\\mathbf{R}\\mathcal{H}om_{\\pi_M}(\\mathcal{O}_{\\mathcal{C}},\\mathcal{O}_{\\mathcal{C}}\\boxtimes T^*\\mathbb{P}^2)[1]$. \nThe reduced virtual class satisfies \n$$[P_0(X,3)]^{\\mathrm{vir}}=\\pm e\\left(\\mathcal{O}_{\\mathbb{P}^9}(-1)^{\\oplus 8}\\right)\\cap [\\mathbb{P}^9] \\in H_2(\\mathbb{P}^9). $$\nLet $h\\in H^2(\\mathbb{P}^9)$ denote the hyperplane class. It is straightforward to check \n$$\\tau_0(H^2)=[h]. $$ \nBy integration again the virtual class, we have the desired result.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n \n ","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
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+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\n\tCounting stars is a powerful method for probing galactic structure,\nbut until recently it has been limited to stars $I<19$.  At fainter magnitudes\ngalaxies vastly outnumbers stars.  Although galaxies are typically resolved \neven in ground-based images and therefore can usually be distinguished from \nthe point-like stars, some galaxies with steep surface-brightness profiles\navoid detection and pollute the sample.  The problem grows worse rapidly at \nlower flux levels since the galaxies become smaller, fainter, and more \nnumerous.  Heretofore, intrinsically faint stars could therefore be studied\nonly when they were found nearby.  For the faintest stars, the volume probed \nwas so small that measurements of the luminosity function (LF) were both\nhighly uncertain and highly controversial.  One result of this is that most\npeople have assumed that the mass function (MF), which is derived from the LF\nusing a mass-luminosity relation, continued with its Salpeter slope\n\\begin{equation} \n{d N\\over d\\log M}\\propto M^\\alpha\\qquad (\\alpha=-1.35,\\rm Salpeter)\n\\label{eq:salp}\n\\end{equation}\nas measured for relatively massive stars.  This then led to the assumption\nthat there was a large quantity of stellar matter which was not observed\nbut must ``certainly'' be there if only our instruments were powerful enough\nto see them.  Hence, people would routinely quote high mass-to-light\nratios $(M\/L\\sim 10)$ for the luminous components of galaxies believing that\n``dark matter'' was needed only to account for the rest.  In the case of the \nMilky Way disk, at least, we now have the powerful instrument at our disposal,\nbut we do not see the stars.  In the case of the bulge, we are able to see\nmuch fainter than before, although we still do not probe directly the region\nof the MF corresponding to the place where the disk MF turns over.  \nNevertheless, we must begin to suspect that the disk and bulge MFs are similar\nand that the large mass which is dynamically determined to be associated with \nthe luminous components of galaxies is not in the form of low-luminosity\nstars.\n\n\\section{The Disk Mass and Luminosity Functions}\n\n\tGould, Bahcall, \\& Flynn~\\cite{gbfI} identified 192 M dwarf stars in \n22 fields\nimaged by the Wide Field Camera (WFC2) on HST to an average limiting\nmagnitude of $I=23.7$, about 100 times fainter than the limit of typical of \nground-based surveys.  We combined these with a brighter sample of 65 M dwarfs\nidentified in 162 fields imaged with the pre-repair Planetary Camera.  We \nfound that the LF clearly peaks at about $M_V\\sim 12$ ($M_I\\sim 9$).  The\ntransformation from an LF to an MF requires some care because the \nmass-luminosity relation is non-linear.  However, using the empirically \nmeasured relation of Henry \\& McCarthy~\\cite{hm}, we found that the MF peaks\nat about $M\\sim 0.6\\,M_\\odot$.  The detailed structure of the faint end of \nthe LF remained poorly determined because there were only a total of 23 stars\nwith $M_V>13.5$.  However, we have now analyzed an additional 31 WFC2 fields\nwhich contain a total of 24 stars in this faint region.~\\cite{gbfII}  \nWe now find a clear\nbreak in the MF at $M\\sim 0.6\\,M_\\odot$.  In contrast to Eq.~\\ref{eq:salp},\n\\begin{equation}\n\\alpha\\sim -1.2 \\quad (M>0.6 M_\\odot);\\qquad \\alpha\\sim 0.4\\quad\n(M<0.6\\,M_\\odot)\\label{eq:realmf}\n\\end{equation}\nEven after correcting for binaries (to which HST is almost completely \ninsensitive) the slope at the low-mass end is only $\\alpha\\sim 0.1$.\nThere are perhaps hints of a rise in the MF at the very last bin, but the\nstatistics are too poor to resolve this issue.\n\n\\section{Bulge Luminosity Function and Mass Function}\n\n\tLight, Baum, \\& Holtzman~\\cite{lbh} have used the WFC2 to measure\nthe LF of the galactic bulge in Baade's Window to an apparent magnitude \n$V\\sim 26$.\nThis is not as deep as the images used to measure the disk LF primarily\nbecause the bulge fields are limited by crowding.  Moreover, since the bulge \nis 8 kpc away, while the disk stars can be seen as close as 0.5 kpc, \n(corresponding to an additional factor of 250 in apparent brightness), the\nbulge LF measurement is cutoff about 10 magnitudes (factor 10,000 in \nluminosity) brighter than the disk LF.  Even so, this is a factor $\\sim 100$\nimprovement on pre-HST efforts.  The results are noteworthy: to the limit\nto which it can be measured, $M_V\\sim 10$, the bulge LF coincides with the\ndisk LF.  Since the heavy-element abundance of bulge stars is similar to those\nin the solar neighborhood, the mass-luminosity relation should be similar.\nHence the MFs of the two populations should also be similar.  This suggests\nthat perhaps the MFs are also the same at the low mass end.  If so, this\nleads to some rather dramatic conclusions.\n\n\tThe dynamically-measured mass of the bulge is \n$\\sim 2\\times 10^{10}\\,M_\\odot$.  Han finds that the stars observed by\nLight et al.\\ account for half of this mass, but can account for no more than\n1\/10 of the observed microlensing events.~\\cite{han}  \nIf the bulge LF is extended using the disk LF and similarly converted into an \nMF, this would account for 70\\% of the bulge mass, but less than 1\/2 the\nmicrolensing events and essentially none of the short events.  Only when\nHan adds in the remaining 30\\% of the mass in brown dwarfs \n($M\\sim 0.08\\,M_\\odot$) can he account for these short events.  In brief,\nstar count work on the luminous populations seems to suggest that much of\nthe mass in these components is composed of brown dwarfs or other dark objects\nof similar mass.\n\n\\section{Hubble Deep Field Search For Halo Stars}\n\n\tThe Hubble Deep Field (HDF) with a total of 10 days of integration\nprovides a unique opportunity to probe for extreme halo objects. \nFlynn, Gould, \\& Bahcall~\\cite{fgb} found that stars could be separated from\ngalaxies to a limiting magnitude $I=26.3$, about 10 times fainter than\ntypical WFC2 fields used to measure the disk LF.  Most known populations of\nstars in the Galaxy will not generate counts near this faint limit simply\nbecause to do so they would have to be so far away that they would be outside\nthe Galaxy!  Since the faintest magnitudes reached by HDF are essentially free\nof known populations, it can be used to search for objects that are so \nintrinsically faint that they would have escaped notice in earlier studies.\nThe only ``expected'' candidate of this type are the white dwarfs, for which\nHDF give us the first meaningful limits:\n\\begin{equation} \nf < 0.31 \\times 10^{0.72[(V-I)-1.8]},\\label{eq:wdlimit}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $f$ is the halo fraction of $0.5\\,M_\\odot$ white dwarfs and $(V-I)$ is\ntheir color.  Thus, HDF tells us white dwarfs in the expected color range\nmake up no more than 1\/2 to 1\/3 of the halo.  More generally, HDF constrains\nall classes of objects with absolute magnitude $M_I$, mass $M$, and halo \nfraction $f$ by,\n\\begin{equation}\nM_I > 17.2 + {5\\over 3}\\log\\biggl(f{0.08\\,M_\\odot\\over M}\\biggr)\\qquad\n(V-I>1.8),\\label{eq:alllimit}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere I have scaled the mass to the maximum of the brown dwarf regime.  This\nlimit is 10 times fainter than the faintest star ever observed and 100 times\nfainter than the faintest halo star ever observed.  In brief, a significant\npopulation (but not the whole halo) of white dwarfs is still permitted, but\nordinary halo stars simply do not contribute to the mass of the Galaxy.\n\n\\section{HDF Limits on Intergalactic Stars}\n\n\tIntergalactic stars are not often regarded as candidates for dark \nmatter, but many cosmological scenarios produce stars at very early times\nand these must be distributed approximately as the dark matter.  Thus, it\nis of interest to determine their density.  HDF can be used to search\nfor K giant stars over a volume of about 70 cubic kiloparsecs outside the\nGalaxy (but inside the Local Group).  The density is at least a factor\n3000 times lower than the local density of giant stars and so more than\n300,000 times below the local dark matter density (assuming a locally \nmeasured MF).  Of course, the Local Group dark matter density is\nabout 10,000 times lower than the nearby density, so intergalactic\nstars make up less than 1\/30 of the dark matter in the Local Group.\n\n\\section*{Acknowledgments}\nThis work was supported in part by NSF grant AST 9420746.\n\n\\section*{References}\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\\label{sec:introduction:1}\n\nLow-density parity-check (LDPC) codes offer excellent tradeoffs between performance and complexity for error correction in communication systems. Quasi-cyclic (QC) LDPC codes in particular have proved extremely attractive due to their implementation advantages, both in encoding and decoding \\cite{Li_QC_encoders:06, Dai:08, Mansour:07}. Many analyses of QC-LDPC codes have been carried out based on optimization of parameters such as the minimum Hamming distance of the code or the girth of the Tanner graph. However, it has been shown that an excellent first-order measure of performance over the AWGNC is the minimum \\emph{pseudo-weight} of the code \\cite{Wiberg}. So far, few results exist in the literature on the minimum pseudo-weight of QC-LDPC and related codes. \n\nSpectral graph analysis was used in~\\cite{Tanner:01:1}, and more\nrecently, in~\\cite{Vontobel:Koetter:04:1}, to obtain bounds on the\nminimum Hamming weight, and minimum AWGNC pseudo-weight, respectively, of a length-$n$\n$(c,d)$-regular code $\\mathcal{C}$ over the binary field $\\Ftwo$:\n  $$d_{\\mathrm{min}}\\geqw_{\\mathrm{p}}^{\\mathrm{min}}(\\matr{H}) \\geq n  \\frac{2c -\n    \\lambda_2}{\\lambda_1 - \\lambda_2}; d_{\\mathrm{min}} \\geq n\\frac{2}{d}\n  \\frac{2c +d - 2 - \\lambda_2}{\\lambda_1 - \\lambda_2},$$ with\n  $\\lambda_1 > \\cdots > \\lambda_s$ being the distinct ordered\n  eigenvalues of $\\matr{H}^{\\mathsf{T}} \\matr{H}\\in \\mathbb{R}^{n\\times n}$ (where $\\matr{H}$ is viewed as\n  a matrix in $ \\mathbb{R}^{m\\times n}$). These bounds are, for most codes,\n  loose.  However, in particular cases, like the projective geometry\n  codes \\cite{Vontobel:Smarandache:05:1, Smarandache:Vontobel:07,Kou:Lin:Fossorier:01:1}, they are attained.\n  A current problem with these bounds is that for most LDPC codes, it is not practical to evaluate the eigenvalues $\\lambda_1,\\lambda_2$ due to the size of the matrix $\\matr{H}^{\\mathsf{T}} \\matr{H}$. \n  \n  In this paper we show how to compute the AWGN pseudo-weight lower bound for quasi-cyclic\n  (QC) and related codes by utilizing the $\\mathcal A$-submodule\n  structure of quasi-cyclic codes, ${\\cal A}= \\mathbb{R}[X]\/(X^r-1)$ \\cite{Lally:Fitzpatrick:01, Ling:Sole:01, Ling:Sole:03}. \n  In particular, we begin by showing how the\n  polynomial parity-check matrix that describes a cyclic code can be used\n  to compute the required eigenvalues, and then generalize this approach to compute the required eigenvalues for QC codes. \n  We also define the class of ``nested circulant'' matrices, and show that these have eigenvalues\n  which are given by evaluating a multivariate associated\n  polynomial at points whose coordinates are particular roots of\n  unity. Finally, we give a necessary \n  condition for the pseudo-weight lower bound to be attained when $\\matr{H}$ is circulant\n  and show a few classes of cyclic codes satisfying this criterion.\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Basic Notation and Definitions}\n\\label{sec:notation:1}\n\nAll codes in this paper will be binary linear codes of a certain\nlength $n$ specified through a (scalar) parity-check matrix\n$\\matr{H}=(h_{j,i}) \\in \\GF{2}^{m \\times n}$ as the set of all\nvectors $\\vect{c} \\in \\Ftwo^n$ \\ such that $\\matr{H} \\cdot \\vect{c}^\\mathsf{T} =\n\\vect{0}^\\mathsf{T}$, where ${}^\\mathsf{T}$ denotes transposition. The minimum\nHamming distance of a code $\\code{C}$ will be denoted by $d_{\\mathrm{min}}(\\code{C})$.  The\nfundamental cone $\\fch{K}{H}$ of $\\matr{H}$ is the set of all vectors\n$\\boldsymbol{\\omega} \\in \\mathbb{R}^n$ that satisfy\n  \\begin{alignat}{2}\n    \\omega_i\n      &\\geq 0 \n      \\ \n      &&\\text{for all $i \\in \\set{I}(\\matr{H})$} \\; , \n          \\label{eq:fund:cone:def:1} \\\\\n    \\omega_i\n      &\\leq\n          \\sum_{i' \\in \\set{I}_j(\\matr{H}) \\setminus i} \\!\\!\n            \\omega_{i'}\n      \\ \n      &&\\text{for all $j \\in \\set{J}(\\matr{H})$, \\ \n               $i \\in \\set{I}_j(\\matr{H})$} \\; ,\n          \\label{eq:fund:cone:def:2}\n  \\end{alignat}\n  where $\\set{J}(\\matr{H})$ and $\\set{I}(\\matr{H})$ denote the sets of row\n  and column indices of $\\matr{H}$ respectively,  and $\\set{I}_j(\\matr{H}) \\triangleq \\{ i \\in\n  \\set{I} \\ | \\ h_{j,i} = 1 \\}$ for each $j \\in \\set{J}(\\matr{H})$.  A vector $\\boldsymbol{\\omega} \\in \\fch{K}{H}$ is called a \\emph{pseudo-codeword}.  The AWGNC \\emph{pseudo-weight} of a\n  pseudo-codeword $\\boldsymbol{\\omega}$ is defined to be $w_{\\mathrm{p}}(\\boldsymbol{\\omega}) =\n  w_{\\mathrm{p}}^{\\mathrm{AWGNC}}(\\boldsymbol{\\omega}) \\triangleq \\lVert \\boldsymbol{\\omega} \\rVert_1^2 \/ \\lVert \\boldsymbol{\\omega}\n  \\rVert_2^2$. (For a motivation of these definitions,\n  see~\\cite{Vontobel:Koetter:05:1:subm,\n    Koetter:Li:Vontobel:Walker:07:1}).  The minimum of the AWGNC\n  pseudo-weight over all nonzero pseudo-codewords is called the minimum\n  AWGNC pseudo-weight and is denoted by $w_{\\mathrm{p}}^{\\mathrm{min}}(\\matr{H})$.\n\nFor any integer $s \\ge 1$, let $R_s = \\{ \\exp(\\imath 2 \\pi r \/ s) \\; : \\; 0 \\le r < s \\}$\ndenote the set of complex $s$-th roots of unity, and let $R_s^{-} =\nR_s\\backslash \\{ 1 \\}$. The symbol ${}^*$ denotes complex conjugation. Also, an $r \\times r$ circulant matrix $\\matr{B}$, whose entries are square $L \\times L$ matrices, will be called an \\emph{$L$-block circulant} matrix; we shall denote this by\n\\[\n\\matr{B} = \\mathrm{circ}(\\matr{b}_0, \\matr{b}_1, \\cdots, \\matr{b}_{r-1})\n\\] \nwhere the (square $L \\times L$ matrix) entries in the first column of $\\matr{B}$ are $\\matr{b}_0$, $\\matr{b}_1$, ... , $\\matr{b}_{r-1}$ respectively. \n\n  Finally, $\\mathbb{Z}$, $\\mathbb{R}$, ${\\mathbb C}$, and $\\Ftwo$ will be the ring of integers,\n  the field of real numbers, the complex field, and the finite field\n  of size $2$, respectively. For a positive integer $L$, $[L]$ will\n  denote the set of nonnegative integers smaller than $L$:\n  $[L]=\\{0,1,\\ldots, L-1\\}$.\n\n  \\section{Computing the Eigenvalues of $\\matr{H}^{\\mathsf{T}}\\matr{H}$ \nfor a QC Code}\n\\label{sec:eigenvalues}\n\nIn this section we will show that the polynomial representation of a\nQC code will prove very helpful in computing the eigenvalues of the\nlarge matrix $\\matr{H}^{\\mathsf{T}}\\matr{H}$, easing in this way the computation\nof the lower bound\n\\begin{align}\n\\label{lowerbound} d_{\\mathrm{min}}&\\geqw_{\\mathrm{p}}^{\\mathrm{min}}(\\matr{H}) \\geq n  \\frac{2c -\n    \\lambda_2}{\\lambda_1 - \\lambda_2}.\n\\end{align}\nThis section is organized in three subsections. In Sec.\n\\ref{subsec:circulantmatrix} and \\ref{subsec:QCcodes} we provide\nsome background on circulant matrices and QC codes. Section\n\\ref{subsec:eigenvaluesQC} will contain the main result on the\neigenvalues of $\\matr{H}^{\\mathsf{T}}\\matr{H}$, where $\\matr{H}$ is the\nparity-check matrix of a QC code.\n\\subsection{ Eigenvalues of a Circulant Matrix} \n\\label{subsec:circulantmatrix}\n\nThe eigenvalues of a square circulant matrix are well known\n\\cite{MacWilliams:Sloane:98}.  If $\\matr{B}\\in {\\mathbb C}^{n\\times n}$ is a\ncirculant matrix and $w(X)= b_0+b_1X+\\ldots +b_{n-1}X^{n-1}$ its\n(column) associated polynomial, then the eigenvalues of $\\matr{B}$ are\ngiven by this polynomial's evaluation at the complex $n$-th roots of unity, i.e. $w(x)$ for all $x \\in R_n$. \n\nThe following gives a proof of this result based on the polynomial representation of a circulant\nmatrix. It may be seen as a special case of the method we present later for QC codes.\n\nLet  $\\lambda$ be an eigenvalue of $\\matr{B}$. Then there exists a nonzero\nvector $\\vect{v}=(v_0, \\ldots,\n v_{n-1})^\\mathsf{T} \\in {\\mathbb C}^{n}$ such that\n\\begin{align*}\n&\\matr{B}\\vect{v}=\\lambda\\vect{v}.\n \\end{align*}\n In polynomial form, this equation is equivalent to (here $v(X) = v_0+v_1X+\\ldots +v_{n-1}X^{n-1}$):\n \\begin{align*}\n   &w(X)v(X)=\\lambda v(X) \\mod (X^n-1) {~\\rm iff}\n   \\\\& X^n-1~|~w(X)v(X)-\\lambda v(X) {~\\rm in~} {\\mathbb C}{~\\rm iff}\\\\\n   &w(x)v(x)=\\lambda v(x), \\forall x \\in R_n{~\\rm iff}\\\\\n   &(w(x)-\\lambda)v(x)=0, \\forall x\\in R_n \\; .\\\\\n\\end{align*}\nFor each $x\\in R_n$, $\\lambda= w(x)$ is a solution of the above\nequation, and therefore it is an eigenvalue for the matrix $\\matr{B}$.\nThere are $n$ such solutions, therefore, these are all possible\neigenvalues of $\\matr{B}$.\n\nIn the next theorem we will consider an \\emph{$L$-block circulant} matrix instead of a circulant matrix. This theorem may be found in \\cite{Tee:05}; \nwe provide here an alternative proof based on the polynomial representation.\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{theorem2} \n  Let $\\matr{B}=\\mathrm{circ}(\\matr{b}_0, \\matr{b}_1, \\cdots, \\matr{b}_{r-1})\\in {\\mathbb C}^{rL\\times rL}$ be an\n  $L$-block circulant matrix.  Let $\\matr{W}(X)= \\matr{b}_0+\\matr{b}_1X+\\ldots\n  +\\matr{b}_{r-1}X^{r-1}$ its (column) associated matrix polynomial.\n  Then the eigenvalues of $\\matr{B}$ are given by the union of the\n  eigenvalues of the $L\\times L$ matrices $\\matr{W}(x)$, for all $x\\in\n  R_r$.\n\\end{theorem}   \n \n\\IEEEproof The proof follows the reasoning in the theorem above.\n\nLet $\\lambda$ be an eigenvalue of $\\matr{B}$. Then there exists a nonzero\nvector $\\vect{v}\\triangleq(v_0, \\ldots, v_{rL-1})^\\mathsf{T}\\in {\\mathbb C}^{rL}$ such\nthat\n\\begin{align}\\label{eigenvalue}\n  &\\matr{B}\\vect{v}=\\lambda\\vect{v}.\n \\end{align}\n Let $\\vect{p}(X)\\in {\\mathbb C}^{L}[X]$ given by $\\vect{p}(X)=(v_0, \\ldots,\n v_{L-1})^\\mathsf{T}+(v_L, \\ldots, v_{2L-1})^\\mathsf{T} X+\\ldots+ (v_{r(L-1)},\n \\ldots, v_{rL-1})^\\mathsf{T} X^{r-1}.$ In polynomial form,\n equation~\\eqref{eigenvalue} is equivalent to:\n \\begin{align*}\n   &\\matr{B}(X) \\vect{p}(X)=\\lambda \\vect{p}(X) \\mod (X^r-1) {~\\rm iff}\n   \\\\& X^r-1~|~\\matr{B}(X)\\vect{p}(X)-\\lambda \\vect{p}(X) {~\\rm in~} {\\mathbb C} {~\\rm iff}\\\\\n   &\\matr{B}(x)\\vect{p}(x)=\\lambda \\vect{p}(x), \\forall x\\in R_r.\n\\end{align*}\nThe last equation is the equation for the eigenvalues of the matrix\n$\\matr{B}(x)$. Each such matrix has $L$ eigenvalues, counting\nmultiplicities, and there are $r$ distinct complex numbers in $R_r$; this accounts for the total number $rL$ of eigenvalues of\n$\\matr{B}$.  The eigenvectors can also be deduced from the above.\n\n\n\\subsection{Definition and Properties of QC Codes}  \n\\label{subsec:QCcodes}\nA linear QC-LDPC code $\\code{C}_{\\rm QC}\\triangleq\\codeCQC{r}$ of length\n$n = rL$ can be described by an $rJ \\times rL$ (scalar) parity-check\nmatrix $\\matr{\\bar H}_{\\rm QC}^{(r)}\\triangleq\\matr{\\bar H}$ that is formed by a $J\n\\times L$ array of $r \\times r$ circulant matrices.\n\\begin{align}\n\\matr{\\bar H}=\\left[\n\\begin{array}{cccc}\n\\matr{P}_{1,1}   &       \\matr{P}_{1,2}   &       \\ldots  &       \\matr{P}_{1,L} \\\\\n\\matr{P}_{2,1}   &       \\matr{P}_{2,2}  &       \\ldots   &       \\matr{P}_{2,L}  \\\\\n\\vdots &\\vdots &\\ldots &\\vdots \\\\\n\\matr{P}_{J,1}  &       \\matr{P}_{J, 2}  &    \\ldots   &       \\matr{P}_{J, L} \n\\end{array}\n \\right], \n\\end{align}\nwhere the entries $\\matr{P}_{i,j}$ are $r\\times r$ circulant matrices.\nClearly, by choosing these circulant matrices to be low-density, the\nparity-check matrix will also be low-density.\n\nWith the help of the well-known isomorphism between the ring of\n$r\\times r$ circulant matrices and the ring of polynomials modulo $X^r\n- 1$, to each matrix $\\matr{P}_{i,j}$ we can associate a polynomial\n$p_{i,j}(X)$, and thus a QC-LDPC code can equivalently be described by\na polynomial parity-check matrix $\\matr{P}(X)$ of size $J \\times L$,\nwith polynomial operations performed modulo $X^r-1$:\n\\begin{align}\n\\matr{P}(X)=\\left[\n\\begin{array}{cccc}\np_{1,1}(X)   &       p_{1,2}(X)  &       \\ldots  &       p_{1,L}(X) \\\\\np_{2,1}(X)   &       p_{2,2}(X)  &       \\ldots   &       p_{2,L}(X)  \\\\\n\\vdots &\\vdots &\\ldots &\\vdots \\\\\np_{J,1}(X)  &       p_{J, 2}(X)  &    \\ldots   &       p_{J, L}(X) \n\\end{array}\n \\right].\n\\end{align}\n \nBy permuting the rows and columns of the scalar parity-check matrix\n$\\matr{\\bar H}$,\\footnote{i.e., by taking the first row in the first block\n  of $r$ rows, the first row in the second block of $r$ rows, etc.,\n  then the second row in the first block, the second row in the second\n  block, etc., and similarly for the columns.} we obtain an equivalent\nparity-check matrix representation $\\matr{H}$ for the QC code\n$\\codeCQC{r}$,\n\n\\begin{align}\\matr{H}\n    &\\triangleq\n       \\begin{bmatrix}\n         \\matr{H}_0      & \\matr{H}_{r-1}      & \\cdots \n                         & \\matr{H}_1 \\\\ \n         \\matr{H}_1      & \\matr{H}_0          & \\cdots   \n                         & \\matr{H}_2 \\\\ \n         \\vdots          & \\vdots              & \\ddots           \n                         & \\vdots \\\\ \n                  \\matr{H}_{r-1}   & \\matr{H}_{r-2} & \\cdots \n                         & \\matr{H}_0\n  \\end{bmatrix}.\n\\label{eq:matrix_1_bijection}\n\\end{align}\nwhere $\\matr{H}_0, \\matr{H}_1, \\ldots, \\matr{H}_{r-1}$ are scalar $J\n\\times L$ matrices.  The connection between the two representations is\n\\begin{align}\n\\matr{H}_0 + \\matr{H}_1 X + \\cdots + \\matr{H}_{r-1} X^{r-1}=\\matr{P}(X).\n\\label{eq:matrix_2_bijection}\n\\end{align}\n\n\\subsection{The Eigenvalues of the Matrix $\\matr{H}^\\mathsf{T}\\cdot \\matr{H}$ of a QC Code}\n\\label{subsec:eigenvaluesQC}\n\nNote that for a fixed value of $r \\ge 1$, (\\ref{eq:matrix_2_bijection}) provides a simple bijective correspondence between the set of polynomial matrices $\\matr{P}(X) \\in (\\mathbb{R}[X]\/(X^r-1))^{J \\times L}$ and the set of parity-check matrices of the form (\\ref{eq:matrix_1_bijection}). Furthermore, the product of two such polynomial matrices, where defined, yields another which corresponds via this bijection with the product of the corresponding parity-check matrices in the form (\\ref{eq:matrix_1_bijection}). Also note that transposition of a polynomial matrix in the form (\\ref{eq:matrix_2_bijection}) corresponds to transposition of the corresponding parity-check matrix in the form (\\ref{eq:matrix_1_bijection}), under this bijection.\n\nIt follows that $\\matr{H}^\\mathsf{T}\\cdot\\matr{H}$ is an $L$-block circulant matrix; applying Theorem~\\ref{theorem2} to this matrix yields the following corollary.\n\n\\begin{corollary}\n \n\n  The eigenvalues of $\\matr{H}^\\mathsf{T}\\cdot\\matr{H}$ are given\n  by the union of the eigenvalues of the $L\\times L$ matrices\n  $\\matr{P}^\\mathsf{T}(x^*)\\cdot \\matr{P}(x),$ for $x\\in R_r$.\n\\label{cor:QC_codes}\n\\end{corollary} \n\\IEEEproof We apply Theorem~\\ref{theorem2} to the $L$-block circulant\nmatrix $\\matr{H}^\\mathsf{T}\\cdot\\matr{H}\\triangleq \\mathrm{circ}(\\matr{b}_0, \\matr{b}_1, \\cdots, \\matr{b}_{r-1})\\in {\\mathbb C}^{rL\\times rL}$ and form the matrix $\\matr{W}(X)= \\matr{b}_0+\\matr{b}_1X+\\ldots\n+\\matr{b}_{r-1}X^{r-1}$.  This is equal to the product of the two\nmatrix polynomials of $\\matr{H}^\\mathsf{T}$ and $\\matr{H}$,\nwhich are $\\matr{H}_0^{\\mathsf{T}} + \\matr{H}_{r-1}^{\\mathsf{T}} X +\n\\cdots + \\matr{H}_{1}^{\\mathsf{T}} X^{r-1} = X^r\\matr{P}^\\mathsf{T}(1\/X)$ and $\\matr{H}_0 + \\matr{H}_1 X +\n\\cdots + \\matr{H}_{r-1} X^{r-1} = \\matr{P}(X)$, respectively. Therefore\n$\\matr{W}(X)=(X^r\\matr{P}^\\mathsf{T}(1\/X))\\cdot\\matr{P}(X)$ and so the eigenvalues of $\\matr{H}^\\mathsf{T}\\cdot\\matr{H}$ are the eigenvalues of $\\matr{P}^\\mathsf{T}(1\/x)\\cdot\n\\matr{P}(x)$, for all $x\\in R_r$; these are then equal to the eigenvalues of $\\matr{P}^\\mathsf{T}(x^*)\\cdot\n\\matr{P}(x)$, for all $x\\in R_r$ (as $x^*=1\/x$ for all such $x$).\n\n\\begin{example}\\label{Tannerexample}\n  Let $r=31$ and consider the $(3,5)$-regular QC-LDPC code given by the\n  scalar $93 \\times 155$ matrix\\footnote{Here $\\matr{I}_\\ell$ denotes the $31 \\times 31$ identity matrix with rows\nshifted cyclically to the left by $\\ell$ positions.}\n\\begin{align*}\n  {\\matr{\\bar H}} &= \\begin{bmatrix}\n    \\matr{I}_1   & \\matr{I}_2    & \\matr{I}_4    & \\matr{I}_8 & \\matr{I}_{16}\\\\\n    \\matr{I}_5   & \\matr{I}_{10} & \\matr{I}_{20} & \\matr{I}_9 & \\matr{I}_{18}\\\\\n    \\matr{I}_{25}& \\matr{I}_{19} & \\matr{I}_7 & \\matr{I}_{14}&\n    \\matr{I}_{28}\n         \\end{bmatrix}.\n   \\end{align*}\n   The polynomial parity-check matrix $\\matr{P}(X)\\in\n   (\\mathbb{R}[X]\/(X^r-1))^{3 \\times 5}$ is\n  \\begin{align*}\n    \\matr{P}(X)\n       &= \\begin{bmatrix}\n           X      & X^2    & X^4    & X^8 & X^{16}\\\\\n           X^5    & X^{10} & X^{20} & X^9 & X^{18}\\\\\n           X^{25} & X^{19} & X^7    & X^{14}& X^{28}\n         \\end{bmatrix} \\; .\n  \\end{align*}\n  This code is the famous $(3,5)$-regular QC-LDPC code of length $155$\n  presented in~\\cite{Tanner:Sridhara:Fuja:01:1}. Note that the code\n  parameters are $[155, 64, 20]$.  The corresponding matrix\n  $\\matr{H}$ in the form (\\ref{eq:matrix_1_bijection}) is a $31\\times 31 $ matrix with block entries\n  $\\matr{H}_i$, $i\\in [31]$ obtained by decomposing $\\matr{P}(X)$\n  according to the powers of $X$:\n  \\begin{align}\n\\matr{P}(X)=\\matr{H}_0 + \\matr{H}_1 X + \\cdots + \\matr{H}_{30} X^{30}.\n\\end{align}\nObviously only $15$ matrices among the $\\matr{H}_i$ are nonzero, and all\nof these contain only one $1$, the other entries being zero.\n\nThe matrix $\\matr{H}^\\mathsf{T}\\cdot\\matr{H}$ is a $5$-block circulant matrix. Corollary \\ref{cor:QC_codes} above tells us\nthat in order to compute its eigenvalues, we need to form the matrices\n$\\matr{P}^\\mathsf{T}(\\rho^{-i})\\cdot \\matr{P}(\\rho^i)$, for all $i\\in [31]$ (here $\\rho$ denotes a primitive complex $31$-th root of unity). We\nhave that\n\\begin{align*}\n  \\matr{P}^\\mathsf{T}(1\/x) &= \\begin{bmatrix}\n    x^{30}      & x^{29}    & x^{27}    & x^{23} & x^{15}\\\\\n    x^{26}    & x^{21} & x^{11} & x^{22} & x^{13}\\\\\n    x^{6} & x^{12} & x^{24} & x^{17}& x^{3}\n         \\end{bmatrix}^\\mathsf{T} \\;\n  \\end{align*}\nand\n\\begin{align*}\n  &  \\matr{P}^\\mathsf{T}(1\/x)\\cdot \\matr{P}(x)=\n  \\begin{bmatrix}\n    3  & a & e^* & c  & e^* \\\\\n    a^* & 3 & b & a^* & d \\\\\n    e & b^* & 3 & c & b^* \\\\\n    c^* & a & c^* & 3 & d \\\\\n    e & d^* & b & d^* & 3 \\end{bmatrix} \\;,\n\\end{align*}\nfor all $x \\in R_{31}$, where \n\\begin{align*}\n  a&=x + x^5 + x^{25}; b = x^2 + x^{10} + x^{19};\n  c = x^4 + x^7 + x^{20};\\\\\n  d& =x^8 + x^9 + x^{14}; e = x^{16} + x^{18} +\n  x^{28}.\n\\end{align*}\nObviously for $i\\in [31]$, each matrix $\\matr{P}^\\mathsf{T}(\\rho^{-i})\\cdot\n\\matr{P}(\\rho^i)$ is Hermitian (in fact nonnegative definite), hence each has $5$ real nonnegative eigenvalues,\ngiving a total of $31\\cdot 5=155$ nonnegative eigenvalues for $\\matr{H}^\\mathsf{T}\\cdot\\matr{H}$.\n\nWe obtain that for each $i \\in [31], i\\neq 0$,\nthe associated polynomial of $\\matr{P}^\\mathsf{T}(\\rho^{-i})\\cdot\n\\matr{P}(\\rho^i)$ may be written as (using $\\rho^{31} = 1$)\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\nu(\\lambda) & = & \\lambda^2(\\lambda^3 - 15 \\lambda^2 + 62 \\lambda - 62) \\\\\n& = & \\lambda^2(\\lambda-\\lambda_2)(\\lambda-\\lambda_3)(\\lambda-\\lambda_4)\n\\end{eqnarray*}\nwhere $\\lambda_2 = 8.6801$, $\\lambda_3 = 4.8459$ and $\\lambda_4 =\n1.4740$. Also, for $i=0$ the associated polynomial of\n$\\matr{P}^\\mathsf{T}(\\rho^{-i})\\cdot \\matr{P}(\\rho^i)$ may be written as\n$u(\\lambda) = \\lambda^4(\\lambda-\\lambda_1)$ where $\\lambda_1 = 15$.\nThis yields the nonzero eigenvalues of $\\matr{H}^\\mathsf{T}\\cdot\\matr{H}$ as $\\{ \\lambda_1, \\lambda_2, \\lambda_3,\n\\lambda_4 \\}$ with multiplicities $1$, $30$, $30$ and $30$\nrespectively.\n\\end{example} \n \n\n\\section{Eigenvalues of Nested Circulant Matrices}\n\\label{sec:nestedcirculanteigenvalues}\nIn this section we define the class of \\emph{nested circulant} matrices,\nand show that they have eigenvalues which are given by evaluating a\nmultivariate associated polynomial at points whose coordinates are\nparticular roots of unity. \n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{theorem:nested_2} \n  Let $\\matr{B}=\\mathrm{circ}(\\matr{b}_0, \\matr{b}_1, \\cdots, \\matr{b}_{r-1})\\in {\\mathbb C}^{rL\\times rL}$ be an $L$-block\n  circulant matrix. Suppose that each subblock $\\matr{b}_i$,\n  $i \\in [r]$, is also circulant, with associated polynomial\n  $p^{(i)}(X) = \\sum_{j=0}^{L-1} b_{i,j} X^j$. Define the\n  associated polynomial of $\\matr{B}$ by\n\\[ \nq(X,Y) = \\sum_{i=0}^{r-1} \\sum_{j=0}^{L-1} b_{i,j} X^i Y^j \\; .\n\\] \nThen the set of eigenvalues of $\\matr{B}$ is given by \n\\[\n\\{ q(x,y) \\; : \\; x \\in R_r, y \\in R_L \\} \\; .\n\\]\n\\end{theorem}   \n\n\\IEEEproof For each $j \\in [L]$ define $u^{(j)}(X) =\n\\sum_{i=0}^{r-1} b_{i,j} X^i$. By Theorem~\\ref{theorem2}, the\neigenvalues of $\\matr{B}$ are equal to those of the matrices given by\n$\\matr{W}(x)$ for $x \\in R_r$; each of these is circulant with\nassociated polynomial (in $Y$) given by\n\\[\n\\sum_{j=0}^{L-1} u^{(j)}(x) Y^j = q(x,Y) \\; .\n\\]\nThus the eigenvalues of each $\\matr{W}(x)$ are equal to $q(x,y)$ for\n$y \\in R_L$, and the result follows.\n\nWe next define what is meant by a \\emph{nested circulant} matrix.\n\\begin{definition}\\label{m_nested_circulant}\nLet $m \\ge 1$ and let $i_t$ be a positive integer for each $t=1,2,\\cdots,m$. Also let $\\matr{B} =\n  \\mathrm{circ}(\\matr{b}_0, \\matr{b}_1, \\cdots, \\matr{b}_{i_1-1})$ be\n  a block-circulant matrix such that for every $t=1,2,\\cdots,m-1$,\n  $j_t \\in [i_t]$ \n\\begin{align*} &\\matr{b}_{j_1,j_2,\\cdots,j_{t}}=\\\\ &\n  \\mathrm{circ}(\\matr{b}_{j_1,j_2,\\cdots,j_{t},0},\n  \\matr{b}_{j_1,j_2,\\cdots,j_{t},1}, \\cdots,\n  \\matr{b}_{j_1,j_2,\\cdots,j_{t},i_{t+1}-1})\\end{align*}\nis also block-circulant,\n  and that $\\matr{b}_{j_1,j_2,\\cdots,j_{m}} = b_{j_1,j_2,\\cdots,j_{m}}$ are\n  scalars. Then $\\matr{B}$ is said to be an $m$-nested circulant\n  matrix (with dimension $n = \\prod_{t=1}^{m} i_t$). The associated polynomial of $\\matr{B}$ is defined by\n\\begin{equation}\n  q(X_1,X_2,\\cdots,X_{m}) = \\sum_{j_1=0}^{i_1-1} \\sum_{j_2=0}^{i_2-1} \n\\cdots \\sum_{j_{m}=0}^{i_{m}-1} b_{j_1,j_2,\\cdots,j_{m}} \\prod_{t=1}^{m} X_{t}^{j_t}   \n\\label{eq:definition_char_poly} \n\\end{equation}\n\\end{definition}\nNote that the $1$-nested circulants are precisely the circulant\nmatrices, and that the $2$-nested circulants are precisely the \n$i_2$-block-circulant matrices with circulant subblocks. Also note that the\nassociated polynomial $q(X_1,X_2,\\cdots,X_{m})$ provides a succinct\ndescription of the matrix $\\matr{B}$.\n\nA straightforward generalization of Theorem \\ref{theorem:nested_2} is\nas follows.\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{theorem:nested_m} \n  Let $\\matr{B}$ be an $m$-nested circulant matrix with associated\n  polynomial $q(X_1,X_2,\\cdots,X_{m})$ given by\n  (\\ref{eq:definition_char_poly}) above.  Then the set of eigenvalues\n  of $\\matr{B}$ is given by\n\\[\n\\{ q(x_1,x_2,\\cdots,x_{m}) \\; : \\; x_t \\in R_{i_t} \\quad \\forall t = 1,2,\\cdots,m \\}\n\\]\n\\end{theorem}   \n\n\\IEEEproof The proof uses induction, and follows the lines of the\nproof of Theorem \\ref{theorem:nested_2} in a rather straightforward\nmanner.\n\n\\begin{example}\\label{fully_nested_circulant}\n  Here we take an example of an $3$-nested circulant (i.e. $m=3$),\n  where $i_t=2$ for $t=1,2,3$. The eigenvalues of\n\\[\n\\matr{B} = \\begin{bmatrix} \n0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 1 \\\\\n1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 1 \\\\\n0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 1\\\\\n0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 0 \\\\\n0 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\\\\n1 & 0 & 1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\\\\n1 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1\\\\\n1 & 1 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0\\end{bmatrix}\n\\]\nare equal to the eigenvalues of \n\\[\n\\matr{B'} = \\begin{bmatrix} \n0 & 1+x & x & x \\\\\n1+x & 0 & x & x \\\\\nx & x & 0 & 1+x \\\\\nx & x & 1+x & 0\\end{bmatrix}\n\\]\nfor $x \\in \\{-1,1\\}$, which are equal to the eigenvalues of \n\\[\n\\matr{B''} = \\begin{bmatrix} \nxy & 1+x+xy \\\\\n1+x+xy & xy\\end{bmatrix}\n\\]\nfor $x \\in \\{-1,1\\}$ and $y \\in \\{-1,1\\}$. Finally, these are equal to the set \n\\[\n\\{ q(x,y,z) \\; : \\; x,y,z \\in \\{-1,1\\} \\}\n\\]\nwhere the associated polynomial of $\\matr{B}$ is $q(x,y,z) = xy +\nz(1+x+xy)$. In this example $b_{0,0,0} = 0$, $b_{0,0,1} = 1$,\n$b_{0,1,0} = 0$, $b_{0,1,1} = 0$, $b_{1,0,0} = 0$, $b_{1,0,1} = 1$,\n$b_{1,1,0} = 1$, $b_{1,1,1} = 1$; these may be easily obtained by\nmatching the elements of the first column of $\\matr{B}$ with the binary\nexpansion of the corresponding row position.\n\nThis example may be generalized to the case where $n = 2^m$ and the\ncirculant is $m$-nested; the eigenvalues are real.\nNote that the choice of the first column in $\\matr{B}$ determines which\nterms in $\\{ 1,x,y,z,xy,yz,zx,xyz \\}$ are included in the\nassociated polynomial, and hence controls the eigenvalues of\n$\\matr{B}$.\n\\end{example}\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{theorem:nested_H_nested_B}\n  If $\\matr{H}$ is an $m$-nested circulant matrix, then $\\matr{B} =\n  \\matr{H}^{\\mathsf{T}} \\matr{H}$ is an $m$-nested circulant matrix. \n\\end{theorem}\n\n\\IEEEproof It is straightforward to prove the stronger result that if $\\matr{A}$ and $\\matr{B}$ are $m$-nested circulants with specified nested dimensions, then $\\matr{A}^{\\mathsf{T}} \\matr{B}$ is also $m$-nested circulant, with the same nested dimensions. The proof proceeds by induction on $m$. The base case $m=1$ is straightforward. Next, let $\\matr{A}$ be block-circulant with block entries in the first column equal to some $(m-1)$-nested circulants $\\matr{A}_i$, and let $\\matr{B}$ be block-circulant with block entries in the first column equal to some $(m-1)$-nested circulants\n$\\matr{B}_j$. The matrix $\\matr{A}^{\\mathsf{T}} \\matr{B}$ is then block-circulant, and each block entry is a sum of matrices of the form $\\matr{A}_i^{\\mathsf{T}} \\matr{B}_j$. By the principle of induction, each\nof these matrices is an $(m-1)$-nested circulant, and it is easy to show that a sum of $t$-nested circulants (of the same nested dimensions) is another $t$-nested circulant (with these nested dimensions).\n\n\\section{Conditions for the Pseudo-Weight Lower Bound to Hold with Equality}\n\\label{sec:conditions}  \n\nIt is straightforward to show that a necessary condition for the bound of \\cite{KV-lower-bounds}\nto hold with equality is that the eigenvalues of $\\matr{B} =\n\\matr{H}^{\\mathsf{T}} \\matr{H} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{n\\times n}$ are $\\lambda_1$ with multiplicity $1$ and\n$\\lambda_2 < \\lambda_1$ with multiplicity $n-1$.\n\nIf $\\matr{H}$ is circulant with (row) associated polynomial $w(X)$ of degree $k \\le n$, the eigenvalues of $\\matr{B}$\nare precisely $\\{ \\left| w(x) \\right|^2 \\; : \\; x \\in R_n \\}$;\ntherefore the largest eigenvalue of $\\matr{B}$ is $\\lambda_1 = \\left|\n  w(1) \\right|^2 = d^2$ where $d$ is the number of nonzero\ncoefficients in $w(X)$ (noting that $\\left| w(1) \\right|^2 > \\left|\n  w(x) \\right|^2$ for all $x \\in R_n^{-}$). Let $\\tilde{w}(X) = X^k w(1\/X)$ denote the \\emph{reciprocal\npolynomial} of $w(X)$ which is obtained by reversing the order of\ncoefficients in $w(X)$. Now assume that the bound of\n\\cite{KV-lower-bounds} holds with equality. Then we must have\n\\[\n\\left| w(x) \\right|^2 = w(x)w^{*}(x) = \\lambda_2 \\quad \\forall \\: x \\in R_n^{-}\n\\] \nfor some positive real number $\\lambda_2$, i.e.\n\\[\nw(x)w(1\/x) = \\lambda_2 \\quad \\forall \\: x \\in R_n^{-} \\; .\n\\]\nThis is equivalent to\n\\[\nw(x)\\tilde{w}(x) = \\lambda_2 x^k \\quad \\forall \\: x \\in R_n^{-}\n\\]\nThus $R_n^{-}$ is a subset of the roots of the polynomial\n$w(X)\\tilde{w}(X) - \\lambda_2 X^k$, and so\n\\begin{equation}\nw(X)\\tilde{w}(X) - \\lambda_2 X^k = (1+X+X^2+\\cdots +X^{n-1}) r(X)\n\\label{eq:equality_in_bound_circ}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $r(X)$ is a polynomial of degree $2k-n+1 \\ge 0$ with integer\ncoefficients. In the following we give details of this condition for\nsome codes which attain the bound of \\cite{KV-lower-bounds} with\nequality.\n\\vspace{-2mm}\n\\begin{example}\\label{EG22example}\n  The $\\mathrm{EG}(2,2)$ code with $q=2$, $n=3$, $k=1$, $d=2$ has\n  $w(X) = 1+X$. Here $\\lambda_1 = d^2 = 4$ and\n  (\\ref{eq:equality_in_bound_circ}) holds in the form\n\\[\n(1+X)^2 - X = 1+X+X^2\n\\]\nso in this case $\\lambda_2 = 1$ and $r(X) = 1$. Here\n\\[\nd_{\\mathrm{min}} = w_{\\mathrm{p}}^{\\mathrm{min}}(\\matr{H}) = n \\left(\n  \\frac{2d-\\lambda_2}{d^2-\\lambda_2} \\right) = 3 = q+1 \\; .\n\\]\n\\end{example}\n\\vspace{-5mm}\n\\begin{example}\\label{PG22example}\n  The $\\mathrm{PG}(2,2)$ code with $q=2$, $n=7$, $k=3$, $d=3$ has\n  $w(X) = 1+X+X^3$. Here $\\lambda_1 = d^2 = 9$ and\n  (\\ref{eq:equality_in_bound_circ}) holds in the form\n\\[\n(1+X+X^3)(1+X^2+X^3) - 2X^3 = 1+X+\\cdots+X^6\n\\]\nso in this case $\\lambda_2 = 2$ and $r(X) = 1$. Here\n\\[\nd_{\\mathrm{min}} = w_{\\mathrm{p}}^{\\mathrm{min}}(\\matr{H}) = n \\left(\n  \\frac{2d-\\lambda_2}{d^2-\\lambda_2} \\right) = 4 = q+2 \\; .\n\\]\n\\end{example}\n\\vspace{-5mm}\n\\begin{example}\\label{PG24example}\n  The $\\mathrm{PG}(2,4)$ code with $q=2$, $n=21$, $k=11$, $d=5$ has\n  $w(X) = 1+X^2+X^7+X^8+X^{11}$. Here $\\lambda_1 = d^2 = 25$ and\n  (\\ref{eq:equality_in_bound_circ}) holds in the form\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\n& (1+X^2+X^7+X^8+X^{11})(1+X^3+X^4+X^9+X^{11}) \\\\ \n& - 4X^{11} = (1+X+X^2+\\cdots+X^{20})(1-X+X^2)\n\\end{eqnarray*}\nso in this case $\\lambda_2 = 4$ and $r(X) = 1-X+X^2$. Here\n\\[\nd_{\\mathrm{min}} = w_{\\mathrm{p}}^{\\mathrm{min}}(\\matr{H})= n \\left(\n  \\frac{2d-\\lambda_2}{d^2-\\lambda_2} \\right) = 6 = q+2 \\; .\n\\]\n\\end{example}\n\\vspace{-2mm}\nNote that for a general $\\mathrm{PG}(2,q)$ code, for the bound to hold\nwith equality we require\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\nw_{\\mathrm{p}}^{\\mathrm{min}}(\\matr{H}) = q+1 & = & n \\left( \\frac{2d-\\lambda_2}{d^2-\\lambda_2}\n \\right) \\\\ \n  & = & (q^2+q+1) \\left( \\frac{2(q+1)-\\lambda_2}{(q+1)^2-\\lambda_2} \\right) \\; .\n\\end{eqnarray*}\nand therefore we must have $\\lambda_2 = q$. Also, for a general\n$\\mathrm{EG}(2,q)$ code, for the bound to hold with equality we\nrequire\n\\begin{eqnarray*}\nw_{\\mathrm{p}}^{\\mathrm{min}}(\\matr{H}) = q+1 & = & n \\left( \\frac{2d-\\lambda_2}{d^2-\\lambda_2} \n\\right) \\\\\n& = & (q^2-1) \\left( \\frac{2q-\\lambda_2}{q^2-\\lambda_2} \\right) \\; .\n\\end{eqnarray*}\nand therefore we must have $\\lambda_2 = q$ if $q>2$, whereas for\n$q=2$, any $\\lambda_2$ will achieve the bound.\n\n\n\\section{Conclusions and Future Work}\n\\label{sec:conclusions:1}\n\nA method has been presented for evaluation of the eigenvalue-based lower bound on the AWGNC pseudo-weight based on spectral\nanalysis, for QC and related codes. It was shown that the relevant eigenvalues may be found by computing the\neigenvalues of a certain number of small matrices. We also presented a \nnecessary condition for the bound to be attained with\nequality and gave a few examples of codes for which this happens.\nFuture work involves optimization of QC code designs based on these bounds. \n\n\\section{Acknowledgment}\nThe first author was supported by NSF Grant DMS-0708033 and TF-0830608.\n   \n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\\label{sec1}\n\nThe success of Deep Neural Networks (DNNs) \\cite{He2016Deep, wen2021zigan, hu2018squeeze}, \\cite{liu2016ssd, 9546634} largely owes to the completeness of training data, which means that the collected data should be carefully annotated, low level noised, and sufficiently large. But in many real scenarios that need professional labeling knowledge, such as fine-grained image classification for different kinds of birds, it is generally hard to access a large number of label-rich training samples.\n\nOne solution to alleviate the over-dependence of DNNs on label-rich training data is Few-Shot Learning (FSL)~\\cite{sun2019meta,chen2019closer,ryu2020metaperturb,yang2020restoring,baik2020meta,yang2021free,liu2020negative}, which aims to mine the transferable meta-knowledge from the base classes so that DNNs can utilize such knowledge to easily recognize new classes given only a few training examples. However, the main challenge for the FSL \\cite{sun2019meta,chen2019closer,ryu2020metaperturb,yang2020restoring,baik2020meta,yang2021free} is that learning to classify from few examples having limited representative capability inevitably brings the overfitting issue. Therefore, researchers mainly focus on leveraging meta-learning technology~\\cite{vinyals2016matching, snell2017prototypical,ryu2020metaperturb, sung2018learning, hao2019collect, wu2019parn} to deal with the FSL problem. However, the above-mentioned FSL methods focus to classify coarse-grained generic object categories, which are less suitable to address the few-shot fine-grained classification task~\\cite{wu2021object, zhu2020multi, wertheimer2021few, li2020bsnet}, that requires to emphasize the local feature variations or subtle feature differences.\n\n\n\nInspired by the meta-learning success for generic object classification, some researchers~\\cite{tang2020revisiting, wang2021few, li2020bsnet, zhu2020multi, wu2021object, dong2020learning, huang2020low, li2019revisiting, li2019distribution, garcia2017few, wertheimer2021few, tang2020blockmix, tang2022learning, huang2021toan} start to extend the study of FSL from generic object classes to fine-grained classes, where the main challenge is that fine-grained recognition is more dependent on \\textbf{mining spatially local discriminative parts} of an input image, rather than global features extracted by generic meta-learning models such as prototypical networks~\\cite{snell2017prototypical}. As illustrated in Fig. \\ref{fig1}(a), many few-shot fine-grained works mine discriminative parts of the whole image based on the attention mechanism~\\cite{zhu2020multi}, feature map reconstruction~\\cite{wertheimer2021few}, and feature-level spatial alignment~\\cite{wu2021object}. However, these methods fail to leverage cross-image object semantic relations between the training examples (denoting the support images) and test examples (denoting the query images).\n\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n\\vspace{-6pt}\n\\setlength{\\abovecaptionskip}{0.1cm}\n\\setlength{\\belowcaptionskip}{-0.2cm}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[height=4.5cm, width=8.3cm]{ACM_motivation.png}\n\\caption{(a) Previous fine-grained works attempt to learn discriminative local image parts but have no interaction between support-query images, which may cause relation matching confusion between different fine-grained objects and yield misclassification. (b) In contrast, HelixFormer consisting of RMP and REP modules (details will be given in Sec. \\ref{sec3}) can mine image pair-level semantically related parts, \\textit{e.g.} birds' wings, and further learn how to distinguish these subtle feature differences to avoid misclassification.}\n\\label{fig1}\n\\end{figure}\n\nAs a matter of fact, \\textit{to recognize a novel class's samples, humans tend to compare the local semantic parts' differences between the ever-seen and newly-seen objects, so that the subtle feature differences can be identified using only a few examples.} Thus, benefiting from such a fact, we are encouraged to model the cross-image object semantic relation to find the discriminative local regions in the Transformer, as illustrated in Fig. \\ref{fig1}(b). We further give an in-depth analysis on how to design such a cross-attention mechanism under both few-shot and fine-grained scenarios via the following two aspects.\n\nFirstly, under the FSL setting, we consider that the cross-image object semantic relation calculated from the support to query image, should be consistent with that calculated from the query to support image, namely, \\textbf{cross-image object semantic relation consistency}, which motivates us to use a symmetrical structure to model the cross-image object semantic relations. Moreover, similar to humans that need to distinguish from multiple relations between a target object and its various neighbors to determine its belonged category, cross-image object semantic relation should be modeled as \\zb{a parts-to-parts (many-to-many) matching process, that involves several attention heads of a Transformer running in parallel with each head focusing on a certain part.}\n\nSecondly, such cross-image semantic relation learning should not only consider the few-shot scenario, but also consider the fine-grained setting which requires to strengthen subtle local features' discriminability. Different fine-grained objects in real world may present arbitrary poses, scales and appearances, causing different similarity in both global appearance and various local regions, hurting the classification performance. This challenge may be alleviated if the learned cross-image semantic relation can serve to emphasize those discriminative local features by integrating into a well-performed fine-grained baseline model, \\zb{and enhance the representation learning process for those discovered semantically-similar regions.}\n\nIn view of the above, we propose a Transformer-based double-helix model, namely HelixFormer to solve the few-shot fine-grained image classification task. Benefiting from the self-attention mechanism of Transformer, the HelixFormer exploits the multi-head key-query-value outputs to do interaction between different images, and predicts their object-level semantic relation. HelixFormer is mainly composed of a cross-image object Relation Mining Process (RMP) across the support-query branches, and a feature Representation Enhancement Process (REP) within each single branch. Specifically, we feed the input image pairs into the support and query branches respectively. First, by treating the input feature patches (extracted by the Convolution Neural Networks (CNNs) based backbone such as Conv-4~\\cite{sung2018learning}) as tokens and considering the cross-branch token information interaction, RMP produces \\textbf{Cross-image Semantic Relation Maps (CSRMs)} for each branch in a bidirectional and symmetrical manner, which ensures the cross-image relation consistency. Meanwhile, we formulate the multi-head cross-attention mechanism as modeling many-to-many inter-object semantic relations, where one object would interact with multiple other objects. Second, the above CSRMs encode image patch-level semantic relation between different fine-grained objects, and further help the subsequent REP \\zb{to enhance the learning of the feature representations within either the support or query feature encoding branch, which boosts the baseline model's ability to distinguish subtle feature differences of fine-grained objects.}\n\nThe main contributions of this work can be summarized as follows:\n\n\\begin{enumerate}[1)]\n\\item We propose a novel HelixFormer architecture, leveraging on the cross-image object semantic relation learning at patch level, to perform the few-shot fine-grained learning. To our knowledge, this is the first work to introduce semantic relation mining in the Transformer model for few-shot fine-grained task.\n\n\\item To ensure the semantic relation consistency between a pair of support-query images in FSL, we design a double-helix RMP structure that can generate consistent patch-level CSRMs in different branches. Furthermore, with the aid of CSRMs, we develop a REP to enhance the feature learning for those semantically-similar regions presenting subtle feature differences.\n\n\\item We have conducted extensive experiments on five few-shot fine-grained benchmarks. Both qualitative and quantitative results validate that the HelixFormer can effectively learn the cross-image object semantic relations, and further utilize such relations to enhance the model's generalization ability.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\n\\section{Related Works}\n\\label{sec2}\n\n\\noindent\\textbf{Few-Shot Fine-Grained Learning (FSFGL).} Recent FSL works \\cite{alet2019neural, yin2019meta, 9729102, ren2018learning, ye2022makes, lee2019learning, kirsch2019improving} can be roughly categorized into three types: 1) Optimization-based methods \\cite{finn2017model,rusu2018meta} that focus on learning good initialization parameters in order to quickly adapt the few-shot model to novel classes; 2) Metric-based methods \\cite{vinyals2016matching, snell2017prototypical, oreshkin2018tadam, sung2018learning} that aim to design a distance metric, so that the few-shot model can learn the semantic relation between different input images; 3) Data augmentation-based methods \\cite{reed2017few, chen2019image, zhang2018metagan, hariharan2017low, wang2018low, li2020adversarial} that produce new samples to enlarge the training set for model training. Recently, inspired by the rapid development of meta-learning, researchers~\\cite{tang2020revisiting, wang2021few, li2020bsnet, zhu2020multi, wu2021object, dong2020learning, huang2020low, li2019revisiting, li2019distribution, garcia2017few, wertheimer2021few} start to explore the generalization ability of FSL model on novel fine-grained sub-classes where only a few training examples are given. For example, a multi-attention meta-learning method~\\cite{zhu2020multi} is proposed to learn diverse and informative parts of fine-grained images. Besides, the work~\\cite{wertheimer2021few} tackles the FSFGL problem from the perspective of reconstructing the query image to learn a classifier. More recently, the work~\\cite{wu2021object} tries to increase the fine-grained classification accuracy via long-shot-range spatial alignment between support and query features. Motivated by these works in the FSFGL community, we further extend the study of FSFGL to a Transformer-based structure, and investigate its effectiveness in strengthening the support-query relation matching process only given a few samples.\n\n\\noindent\\textbf{Cross-attention Models.} In this part, we review existing cross-attention works \\cite{chen2021crossvit, lin2021cat, wang2021crossformer, wei2020multi, Yang3690, ke2021prototypical, huang2019ccnet} and find that they are mainly based on the attention modeling of cross-scale features \\cite{chen2021crossvit, lin2021cat, wang2021crossformer}, cross-modality relationships \\cite{wei2020multi, Yang3690}, joint spatio-temporal information \\cite{ke2021prototypical}, and inner-image multi-patches \\cite{huang2019ccnet} to capture the intra-object relations and contextual information. Different from the above methods, our work aims to exploit the cross-image object semantic relations (\\textit{i.e.} finding the discriminative local spatial regions between objects that are helpful for fine-grained recognition) to address the FSFGL issue. On the other hand, there are only two works \\cite{hou2019cross, zhuang2020learning} employing cross-attention mechanism to perform the FSL task. Our work differs from the two works as follows: 1) We study a symmetrical Transformer-based structure, which fully considers the symmetry property between support and query images in FSL, and imposes a cross-image object semantic relation consistency between support-query and query-support matching process; 2) We develop a two-step relation matching process (a two-branch relation mining process and a representation enhancement process), which has the merit of improving the baseline model's ability to distinguish the subtle local feature differences.\n\n\n\\noindent\\textbf{Transformer for Vision Tasks.} Vision Transformer (ViT) \\cite{dosovitskiy2020image} shows promising performance on a variety of tasks including image classification \\cite{dosovitskiy2020image}, object detection \\cite{chu2021twins, wang2021pyramid}, segmentation \\cite{chu2021twins, wang2021pyramid}, and pose estimation \\cite{yuan2021hrformer}. The goal of ViT is to model long-range dependencies across different input sequence elements (or input tokens), by splitting an input image into a sequence of image patches with size of 16$\\times$16 pixels. More recently, to reduce the computational cost, many researchers incorporate the multi-scale branch into Transformer, via inserting depth-wise convolutions into the self-attention \\cite{yuan2021hrformer} or exploiting the multi-resolution parallel structure \\cite{liu2021swin}. The above works attempt to model the global self-attention within an input image through the single-branch structure, while our HelixFormer tries to identify the local patch-level cross-attention between different input images. Besides, CrossTransformer \\cite{doersch2020crosstransformers} and CrossViT \\cite{chen2021crossvit} are recently developed Transformer-based dual-branch structures, where the CrossTransformer utilizes the dual-branch structure to achieve a coarse-grained spatial correspondence, and CrossViT feeds the image patches of different sizes into two separate branches to extract multi-scale information. We would like to emphasize that, compared with the above dual-branch network structure, our HelixFormer is actually a double-helix dual-branch structure, which means that the cross-object semantic relations from the support to query branch and vice versa are symmetric and complementary, ensuring the semantic consistency assumption of relation pairs.\n\n\n\\section{The Proposed Method}\n\\label{sec3}\n\nThe overall framework of the proposed HelixFormer is illustrated in Fig. \\ref{fig2}. For easy understanding, we first give the problem formulation and the episodic training strategy for Few-Shot Learning (FSL) task. Then we introduce the proposed HelixFormer and discuss its superiority over several variants of existing cross-attention models. Finally, we give the overall objectives and cross-attention learning strategy of our model.\n\n\\subsection{Preliminaries}\n\n\\noindent\\textbf{FSL Setting.} Given a set of base classes {\\small $D_{base}$} and a CNN-based feature embedding network (or backbone) $F$, the purpose of few-shot learning is to learn a task-agnostic $F$ on {\\small $D_{base}$} via an episodic task sampling strategy, so that the $F$ can be generalized to novel classes {\\small $D_{novel}$}, where {\\small $D_{base} \\cap D_{novel} = \\emptyset$}.\nFor a typical FSL setting, each episodic task represents an $N$-way $K$-shot classification task, where both support set $S$ and query set $Q$ are sampled from the same $N$ classes. During the meta-training stage, each episodic task is sampled from the base classes {\\small $D_{base}$}.\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n\\vspace{-6pt}\n\\setlength{\\abovecaptionskip}{0.1cm}\n\\setlength{\\belowcaptionskip}{-0.5cm}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[height=6.4cm]{ACM_framework.png}\n\\caption{The overview of the proposed HelixFormer, which takes a pair of support-query features {\\small $(f_S, f_Q)$} extracted by a CNN backbone as its input, and outputs a pair of {\\small $(\\hat{f}_S, \\hat{f}_Q)$} for doing the subsequent object classification. Note that for simplicity, we omit the multi-head attention in this figure.}\n\\label{fig2}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\\noindent\\textbf{Two-branch Baseline Introduction.} Inspired by the two-branch network structure to learn semantic representations in the relation network (RN)~\\cite{sung2018learning}, we employ the RN as our baseline model. As illustrated in Fig. \\ref{fig2}, given an input image pair $(x_S, x_Q)$, the RN first produces the high-level semantic feature pairs $(f_S, f_Q)$ via a convolution-based backbone $F$. Then, a classification network $H$ is used to predict whether the query image $x_Q$ has the same class label with the $n$-th class support image $x_{n,S}$. Thus, the loss function of our baseline model $L_{cls}(F, H;x_S)$ can be formulated as follows:\n\n\\begin{small}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{eq1}\nL_{cls}(F,H;x_S) = &\\sum\\nolimits_{(x_Q,y_Q)\\in Q} log \\ P(y_Q=n|x_Q;x_S) \\\\& = \\frac{exp(H([F(x_{n,S}), F(x_Q)]))}{\\sum_{n^{\\prime} \\in N} exp(H([F(x_{n^{\\prime},S)}, F(x_Q)]))}\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{small}\n\n\\noindent where $[F(x_{n,S}), F(x_Q)]$ denotes the concat operation between $F(x_{n,S})$ and $F(x_Q)$, and $y_Q$ is the label of query image. During the meta-test or model evaluation stage, each episodic task is sampled from the novel classes {\\small $D_{novel}$}, given the prototype of $K$ labeled support images of the $n$-class $x_{n,S}$. Note that the label $y_Q$ is available for model training on {\\small $D_{base}$}, but it can only be used for model evaluation on {\\small $D_{novel}$}.\n\n\\subsection{HelixFormer}\n\\label{sec3}\n\nThe purpose of this work is to capture the cross-image object semantic relations for improving the generalization ability of fine-grained model. By means of the multi-head attention module in Transformer, a many-to-many matching process of semantically related regions can be established. \\textbf{Note that} \\textit{just a single HelixFormer} is sufficient in capturing the cross-attention, and please refer to our supplementary material for the study of stacking HelixFormer.\n\n\\noindent\\textbf{Bidirectional Relation Mining Process.} Given a pair of images $(x_S, x_Q)$ sampled from the $S$ and $Q$ respectively, the backbone $F$ is first used to extract a pair of high-level features $(f_S, f_Q)$ where $f_S = F(x_S) \\in \\mathbb{R}^{C\\times H\\times W}$, and $C$ denotes the channel number, $H$ and $W$ are the height and width of the features, respectively. Although the feature pairs $(f_S, f_Q)$ contain rich semantics, they lack interaction from each other, and do not consider the cross-object semantic relations between support-query images.\n\nTo fully encode the relations between the two branches, we treat the feature maps $f \\in \\mathbb{R}^{C\\times H\\times W}$ as a sequence of $HW$ tokens, with each token having $C$ channels, which can be formulated as $f = [f^1, f^2, ..., f^{HW}]$, where $f^i \\in \\mathbb{R}^{C}$.\n\nIn detail, given the token embedding with weight parameters $W_S^e$, $W_S^k$, $W_S^v$ for support branch $S$, and parameters $W_Q^e$, $W_Q^k$, $W_Q^v$ for query branch $Q$, the query vector $e^i$, key vector $k^i$, and value vector $v^i$ can be calculated as follows:\n\n\\begin{small}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq2.0}\n\\left\\{  \\begin{array}{l}\ne_S^i = W_S^e \\ f_S^i\\\\\nk_S^i = W_S^k \\ f_S^i\\\\\nv_S^i = W_S^v \\ f_S^i\n\\end{array} \\right.\\quad \\quad \\left\\{ \\begin{array}{l}\ne_Q^i = W_Q^e \\ f_Q^i\\\\\nk_Q^i = W_Q^k \\ f_Q^i\\\\\nv_Q^i = W_Q^v \\ f_Q^i\n\\end{array}  \\right.\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{small}\n\n\\noindent where for avoiding the confusion of symbol definition, $e^i$ denotes the query vector in the RMP, and $Q$ represents the query branch for the whole pipeline. Besides, according to the ablation studies in Sec. \\ref{sec4.4}, HelixFormer employs the convolution-based token embedding and removes the position embedding, since local spatial information has been encoded in the convolution feature maps. Further, we achieve the RMP by a symmetrical cross-attention from two directions: 1) We obtain support branch-related features using the value vector $v_Q^i$ from another branch $Q$, formulated as Q$\\rightarrow$S; 2) We also obtain query branch-related features using the value vector $v_S^i$ of the support branch $S$, formulated as S$\\rightarrow$Q.\n\n\\textbf{For Q$\\rightarrow$S direction}, let $\\mathbf{A}_{Q,S} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{HW \\times HW}$ denote the matrix of attention scores obtained via the matrix multiplication as follows:\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq2}\n\\mathbf{A}_{Q,S} = K_Q \\ E_S^\\mathrm{T}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\noindent where $K_Q = [k_Q^1, ..., k_Q^{HW}] \\in \\mathbb{R}^{HW \\times C}$ and $E_S = [e_S^1, ..., e_S^{HW}] \\in \\mathbb{R}^{HW \\times C}$, which can be obtained using Eq. \\ref{eq2.0}. Note that the designed token embedding way does not change the channel number for each input token $f^i \\in \\mathbb{R}^C$. Moreover, to perform normalization for attention scores in Transformer and find the semantically related regions according to clues from another branch $Q$, a softmax layer with a scaling factor is employed as follows:\n\n\\begin{small}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq3}\nR_{Q,S} = Softmax(\\mathbf{A}_{Q,S} \/ \\sqrt{C}) \\ V_Q\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{small}\n\n\\noindent where $V_Q = [v_Q^1, v_Q^2, ..., v_Q^{HW}] \\in \\mathbb{R}^{HW \\times C}$, and $R_{Q,S} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{HW \\times C}$ represents the Cross-image Semantic Relation Maps (CSRMs), encoding the patch-level semantic relations from query to support branch. Then, the CSRMs are reshaped to the same dimension as the backbone features $f_S \\in \\mathbb{R}^{C \\times H \\times W}$, in order to enhance the semantically similar backbone features in the REP operation.\n\n\\textbf{For S$\\rightarrow$Q direction}, the CSRMs $R_{S,Q} \\in \\mathbb{R}^{HW \\times C}$ also can be easily obtained by performing a symmetrical process described in Eqs. \\ref{eq2} and \\ref{eq3}, which can be written as follows:\n\n\\vspace{-0.10cm}\n\\begin{small}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{array}{l}\n\\mathbf{A}_{S,Q} = K_S \\ E_Q^\\mathrm{T}, \\\\\nR_{S,Q} = Softmax(\\mathbf{A}_{S,Q} \/ \\sqrt{C}) \\ V_S.\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{small}\n\n\\noindent\\textbf{Representation Enhancement Process.} \\zb{Based on the above RMP, bidirectional semantic relations of support-to-query features and query-to-support features have been symmetrically encoded into the matrix of attention scores, from both directions $\\mathbf{A}_{Q,S}$ and $\\mathbf{A}_{S,Q}$, so that these cross-image object semantically-similar parts can be first found}. In this part, we design a REP that can further guide the classification network to learn how to distinguish these semantically similar features obtained by the RMP.\n\nGiven the high-level features $(f_S, f_Q)$ learned from the CNNs-based backbone, and the CSRMs $(R_{Q,S}, R_{S,Q})$ calculated from the Q$\\rightarrow$S and S$\\rightarrow$Q, the REP can be formulated as follows:\n\n\\begin{small}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq5}\n\\left\\{  \\begin{array}{l}\n\\hat{f}_S = MLP(Norm(f_S \\odot R_{Q,S})) \\\\\n\\hat{f}_Q = MLP(Norm(f_Q \\odot R_{S,Q}))\n\\end{array} \\right.\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{small}\n\n\\noindent where $\\odot$ denotes an element-wise multiplication operation, and CSRMs are defined as a soft relation mask that can strengthen the features $f$ extracted by CNNs-based backbone. Besides, $MLP$ is the Feed Forward module as illustrated in Fig. \\ref{fig2}, which allows the backbone to focus on the subtle feature differences of the predicted semantically similar regions. The experimental analyses of the REP are shown in Sec. \\ref{sec4.4}. Overall, \\zb{$\\hat{f}_S$ and $\\hat{f}_Q$ are defined as the output features of the REP, and then will be fed into the classification head as illustrated in Fig. \\ref{fig2}.}\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n\\vspace{-6pt}\n\\setlength{\\abovecaptionskip}{0.1cm}\n\\setlength{\\belowcaptionskip}{-0.3cm}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[height=5.8cm]{ACM_fig3.png}\n\\caption{Other Transformer-based cross-attention model designs. (a) Q$\\rightarrow$S: Cross-attention from query to support; (b) S$\\rightarrow$Q: Cross-attention from support to query; (c) S$\\rightleftharpoons$Q: Bidirectional asymmetric cross-attention, which is a sequential stack of the above S$\\rightarrow$Q and Q$\\rightarrow$S variants; (d) Q$\\rightleftharpoons$S: Bidirectional asymmetric cross-attention by stacking the Q$\\rightarrow$S and S$\\rightarrow$Q variants.}\n\\label{fig3}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\\noindent\\textbf{Differences among Transformer-based Cross-attention Variants.}\n\\label{sec3.3}\nGiven high-level feature pairs $(f_S, f_Q)$ extracted from CNN-based backbone $F$, there are many Transformer-based alternatives to model support-query patch-level relations of the extracted high-level features pairs $(f_S, f_Q)$. They can be categorized into three classes as follows.\n\n\n\n\n\\textbf{1)} \\zb{Unidirectional cross-attention structure: As shown in Figs. \\ref{fig3}(a) and \\ref{fig3}(b), only the features from a single branch (support or query branch) are enhanced by means of cross-attention from another branch. For such a case, enhanced features $\\hat{f}$ and original backbone features $f$ are used as the input of classification head. Such a unidirectional cross-attention way fails to achieve high classification accuracy, since this way only considers the semantic enhancement of only a single branch. }\n\n\\textbf{2)} \\zb{Bidirectional but asymmetric structure: As illustrated in Figs. \\ref{fig3}(c) and \\ref{fig3}(d), S$\\rightleftharpoons$Q (or Q$\\rightleftharpoons$S) is a sequential stack of the above S$\\rightarrow$Q and Q$\\rightarrow$S variants (or Q$\\rightarrow$S and S$\\rightarrow$Q variants), where both the query features and support features are enhanced. But this approach does not consider support-query and query-support feature matching processes in parallel, which is detrimental to the cross-image object relation consistency assumption.}\n\n\\textbf{3)} \\zb{Bidirectional and symmetrical structure: S$\\leftrightarrow$Q refers to HelixFormer, which is shown in Fig.2. Compared with the above structures, HelixFormer is a more general form of cross-attention models, and thus has much less inductive bias. For unidirectional or bidirectional asymmetric structure, a kind of \\textit{uneven\/biased} cross-attention learning between support and query patch-level features is injected into the whole network. But for HelixFormer, the learned cross-image patch-level attention relations are symmetric and complementary. The detailed experimental and visual analyses are shown in Sec. \\ref{sec4.4}}\n\n\n\\vspace{-0.20cm}\n\\subsection{Overall Objectives and Cross-attention Learning Strategy}\n\n\\noindent\\textbf{Overall Objectives.} For finding a many-to-many semantic relation matching between the support and query branches, we utilize the multi-head attention mechanism, which consists of multiple attention layers with different token embedding parameters. The overall loss function of the $n$-th class on base classes {\\small $D_{base}$} of HelixFormer can be written as follows:\n\n\\begin{small}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\label{eq6}\nL_{cls}(F, W, \\phi, H; x_S) = &\\sum\\nolimits_{(x_Q,y_Q)\\in Q} log \\ P(y_Q=n|x_Q; x_S) \\\\& = \\frac{exp(H([\\hat{f}_{n,S},\\hat{f}_Q]))}{\\sum_{n^{\\prime} \\in N} exp(H([\\hat{f}_{n^{\\prime},S}, \\hat{f}_Q]))}\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{small}\n\n\\noindent where $W$ and $\\phi$ denote learnable parameters in RMP and REP, respectively.\n\n\n\\begin{table*}[]\n\\centering\n\\setlength{\\tabcolsep}{1.25mm}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c}\n\\hline\n\\multirow{2}{*}{Method} & \\multirow{2}{*}{Setting} & \\multirow{2}{*}{Backbone} & \\multicolumn{2}{c}{Stanford Dogs}         & \\multicolumn{2}{c}{Stanford Cars}         & \\multicolumn{2}{c}{NABirds}               \\\\\n                        &            &               & 1-shot              & 5-shot              & 1-shot              & 5-shot              & 1-shot              & 5-shot              \\\\ \\hline\nRelationNet~(CVPR-18)~\\cite{sung2018learning}   & In.          & Conv-4                   & \\, 43.29\u00b10.46$^\\diamond$          & \\, 55.15\u00b10.39$^\\diamond$          & \\, 47.79\u00b10.49$^\\diamond$          & \\, 60.60\u00b10.41$^\\diamond$          &  64.34\u00b10.81*          & 77.52\u00b10.60*          \\\\\nGNN$^\\dagger$~(ICLR-18)~\\cite{garcia2017few}        & In.          & Conv-4                   & 46.98\u00b10.98        & 62.27\u00b10.95        & 55.85\u00b10.97        & 71.25\u00b10.89        & -                   & -                   \\\\\nCovaMNet~(AAAI-19)~\\cite{li2019distribution}    & In.   & Conv-4                   & 49.10\u00b10.76          & 63.04\u00b10.65          & 56.65\u00b10.86          & 71.33\u00b10.62          & 60.03\u00b10.98*          & 75.63\u00b10.79*          \\\\\nDN4~(CVPR-19)~\\cite{li2019revisiting}         & In.    & Conv-4                   & 45.73\u00b10.76          & 66.33\u00b10.66          & 61.51\u00b10.85          & 89.60\u00b10.44 & 51.81\u00b10.91*          & 83.38\u00b10.60*          \\\\\nLRPABN~(TMM-20)~\\cite{huang2020low}       & In.   & Conv-4                   & 45.72\u00b10.75          & 60.94\u00b10.66          & 60.28\u00b10.76          & 73.29\u00b10.58          & 67.73\u00b10.81*          & 81.62\u00b10.58*          \\\\\nMattML~(IJCAI-20)~\\cite{zhu2020multi}     & In.     & Conv-4                   & 54.84\u00b10.53          & 71.34\u00b10.38          & 66.11\u00b10.54          & 82.80\u00b10.28          & -                   & -                   \\\\\nATL-Net~(IJCAI-20)~\\cite{dong2020learning}       & In.       & Conv-4                   & 54.49\u00b10.92          & 73.20\u00b10.69          & 67.95\u00b10.84          & 89.16\u00b10.48          & -                   & -                   \\\\\nFRN~(CVPR-21)~\\cite{wertheimer2021few}       & In.       & Conv-4                   & 49.37\u00b10.20 & 67.13\u00b10.17 & 58.90\u00b10.22 & 79.65\u00b10.15          & - & - \\\\\nLSC+SSM~(ACM MM-21)~\\cite{wu2021object}       & In.       & Conv-4                   & 55.53\u00b10.45 & 71.68\u00b10.36 & 70.13\u00b10.48 & 84.29\u00b10.31          & 75.60\u00b10.49 & 87.21\u00b10.29 \\\\\nOurs         & In.        & Conv-4                   & \\textbf{59.81}\u00b10.50 & \\textbf{73.40}\u00b10.36 & \\textbf{75.46}\u00b10.37 &  \\textbf{89.68}\u00b10.25        & \\textbf{78.63}\u00b10.48 & \\textbf{90.06}\u00b10.26 \\\\ \\hline\nLSC+SSM~(ACM MM-21)~\\cite{wu2021object}       & In.       & ResNet-12                   & 64.15\u00b10.49 & 78.28\u00b10.32 & 77.03\u00b10.46 & 88.85\u00b10.46          & 83.76\u00b10.44 & 92.61\u00b10.23 \\\\\nOurs      & In.            & ResNet-12                 & \\textbf{65.92}\u00b10.49 &  \\textbf{80.65}\u00b10.36 & \\textbf{79.40}\u00b10.43 & \\textbf{92.26}\u00b10.15          & \\textbf{84.51}\u00b10.41 & \\textbf{93.11}\u00b10.19 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{tabular}}\n\\caption{\\label{tab1}5-way classification accuracy ($\\%$) on the Stanford Dogs, Stanford Cars and NABirds datasets respectively, $^\\diamond$, and * represent that the corresponding results are reported in~\\cite{zhu2020multi}, and~\\cite{huang2020low}, respectively. Other results are reported in their original papers. ``\\;In.\\;'' denotes the inductive few-shot learning.}\n\\vspace{-0.4cm}\n\\end{table*}\n\n\\begin{table}[]\n\\centering\n\\setlength{\\tabcolsep}{0.8mm}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c}\n\\hline\n\\multirow{2}{*}{Method} & \\multirow{2}{*}{Backbone} & \\multicolumn{2}{c}{CUB}                   \\\\\n                        &                           & 1-shot              & 5-shot              \\\\ \\hline\nFEAT~(CVPR-20)~\\cite{ye2020few}                   & Conv-4                   & 68.87\u00b10.22          & 82.90\u00b10.15          \\\\\nCTX~(NIPS-20)~\\cite{doersch2020crosstransformers}                      & Conv-4                   & 69.64 & 87.31 \\\\\nFRN~(CVPR-21)~\\cite{wertheimer2021few}                    & Conv-4                   & 73.48 & 88.43 \\\\\nLSC+SSM~(ACM MM-21)~\\cite{wu2021object}                   & Conv-4                   &  73.07\u00b10.46 & 86.24\u00b10.29 \\\\\nOurs                    & Conv-4                   & \\textbf{79.34}\u00b10.45 & \\textbf{91.01}\u00b10.24 \\\\ \\hline\nRelationNet*~(CVPR-18)~\\cite{sung2018learning}             & ResNet-34                 & 66.20\u00b10.99          & 82.30\u00b10.58          \\\\\nDeepEMD~(CVPR-20)~\\cite{zhang2020deepemd}              & ResNet-12                 & 75.65\u00b10.83          & 88.69\u00b10.50          \\\\\nICI~(CVPR-20)~\\cite{wang2020instance}                     & ResNet-12                 & 76.16               & 90.32               \\\\\nCTX~(NIPS-20)~\\cite{doersch2020crosstransformers}                      & ResNet-12                   & 78.47  & 90.90 \\\\\nFRN (Baseline)~\\cite{wertheimer2021few}                     & ResNet-12                   & 80.80\u00b10.20 & - \\\\\nFRN~(CVPR-21)~\\cite{wertheimer2021few}                     & ResNet-12                   & \\textbf{83.16} & \\textbf{92.59} \\\\\nLSC+SSM~(ACM MM-21)~\\cite{wu2021object}                     & ResNet-12                   &  77.77\u00b10.44 & 89.87\u00b10.24 \\\\\nOurs (Baseline)                & ResNet-12                 & 72.61\u00b10.47 & 85.60\u00b10.29  \\\\\nOurs                    & ResNet-12                 & 81.66\u00b10.30 & 91.83\u00b10.17 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{tabular}}\n\\caption{\\label{tab2}5-way classification accuracy ($\\%$) on the CUB (using bounding-box cropped images). ``\\;FRN (Baseline)\\;'' represents the classification results achieved by \\textbf{their baseline model}.}\n\\vspace{-0.4cm}\n\\end{table}\n\n\\begin{table}[]\n\\centering\n\\setlength{\\tabcolsep}{1.5mm}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c}\n\\hline\n\\multirow{2}{*}{Method} & \\multirow{2}{*}{Backbone} & \\multicolumn{2}{c}{Aircraft}                   \\\\\n                        &                           & 1-shot              & 5-shot              \\\\ \\hline\nProtoNet~(NIPS-17)~\\cite{snell2017prototypical}               & Conv-4                   & 47.72          & 69.42          \\\\\nDSN~(CVPR-20)~\\cite{simon2020adaptive}                   & Conv-4                   & 49.63          & 66.36          \\\\\nCTX~(NIPS-20)~\\cite{doersch2020crosstransformers}                    & Conv-4                   & 49.67 & 69.06 \\\\\nFRN~(CVPR-21)~\\cite{wertheimer2021few}                    & Conv-4                   &  53.20 & 71.17 \\\\\nOurs                    & Conv-4                   & \\textbf{70.37}\u00b10.57 & \\textbf{79.80}\u00b10.42 \\\\ \\hline\nProtoNet~(NIPS-17)~\\cite{snell2017prototypical}               & ResNet-12                  & 66.57          & 82.37          \\\\\nDSN~(CVPR-20)~\\cite{simon2020adaptive}                    & ResNet-12                   & 68.16         & 81.85          \\\\\nCTX~(NIPS-20)~\\cite{doersch2020crosstransformers}                      & ResNet-12                   & 65.60 & 80.20 \\\\\nFRN~(CVPR-21)~\\cite{wertheimer2021few}                    & ResNet-12                   &  70.17  & \\textbf{83.81}  \\\\\nOurs                    & ResNet-12                 & \\textbf{74.01}\u00b10.54 & 83.11\u00b10.41 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{tabular}}\n\\caption{\\label{tab3}5-way classification accuracy ($\\%$) on the Aircraft dataset.}\n\\vspace{-0.2cm}\n\\end{table}\n\n\\noindent\\textbf{Cross-attention Learning Strategy.} To transfer the semantic relations from base classes {\\small $D_{base}$} to novel classes {\\small $D_{novel}$}, we employ a two-stage training strategy. Firstly, to ensure that the backbone $F$ has sufficient high-level semantic knowledge for subsequent cross-attention matching process, the $F$ is trained on base classes {\\small $D_{base}$} by optimizing Eq. \\ref{eq1}. Secondly, we insert the HelixFormer at the end of backbone $F$, and finetune the entire framework to compare the support and query images by optimizing Eq. \\ref{eq6} on {\\small $D_{base}$}.\n\n\\section{Experiments}\nWe evaluate the proposed method on five FSFGL benchmarks including Stanford Dogs, Stanford Cars, NABirds, CUB, and Aircraft. Additionally, we also perform cross-domain few-shot experiments to further show the transferability and adaptability of the HelixFormer. The following experiments are implemented by Pytorch, and all images are resized to 84$\\times$84 pixels for fair comparison.\n\n\\vspace{-0.10cm}\n\\subsection{Dataset}\n\\label{sec4.1}\n\\vspace{-0.10cm}\n\\noindent\\textbf{Stanford Dogs} \\cite{khosla2011novel} contains a total of 20580 images and 120 sub-classes of dogs. Following~\\cite{zhu2020multi}, we adopt 70, 20, 30 classes for meta-train, meta-validation and meta-test, respectively. \\textbf{Stanford Cars} \\cite{krause20133d} consists of 16,185 images from 196 sub-classes, and we adopt 130, 17, 49 classes for meta-train, meta-validation and meta-test, respectively. \\textbf{NABirds} \\cite{van2015building} provides 555 sub-classes of birds from North American. We use 350, 66, 139 categories for meta-train, meta-validation and meta-test, respectively, which is consistent with~\\cite{huang2020low}. \\textbf{CUB} \\cite{wah2011caltech} has 11,788 bird images containing 200 classes. We follow the commonly used split way \\cite{tang2020revisiting, wertheimer2021few}, which employs 100, 50, and 50 classes for meta-train, meta-validation and meta-test, respectively. \\textbf{Aircraft} \\cite{maji2013fine} includes 100 classes and 10000 aircraft images. Following the split way in \\cite{wertheimer2021few}, we use 50, 25, and 25 classes for meta-train, meta-validation and meta-test, respectively.\n\n\\vspace{-0.25cm}\n\\subsection{Experimental Setup}\n\\label{sec4.2}\n\\vspace{-0.10cm}\n\\noindent\\textbf{Stage One: Pre-training Backbone.} Following the setting in \\cite{chen2020new, snell2017prototypical, rusu2018meta, ye2020few}, we insert a fully-connected layer at the end of the selected backbone such as Conv-4 or ResNet-12, and train the backbone on base classes {\\small $D_{base}$}. In this stage, the backbone is trained from scratch using SGD optimizer with a batch size of 128, a momentum of 0.9, a weight decay of 0.0005, and an initial learning rate of 0.1. To keep consistent with the setting in \\cite{wu2021object}, the learning rate decays at 85 and 170 epochs. We remove the fully-connected layer for performing the next meta-training stage.\n\n\\noindent\\textbf{Stage Two: Meta-training HelixFormer.} In this stage, we first insert the proposed HelixFormer at the end of the pre-trained backbone, and then finetune the whole model to perform cross-attention for each input image pair. A learning rate of 0.001 is employed for all modules. SGD with a weight decay of 0.001 and Adam are used to optimize the backbone and HelixFormer, respectively. The whole training process lasts 130 epochs, and the learning rate decays to 0.0001 and 0.00001 at 70 and 110 epochs, respectively. \\zb{The number of multi-head attention in the single-layer HelixFormer is set to $2$, and the corresponding experimental analysis is shown in Sec. \\ref{sec4.4}}. For model evaluation, we report the results with 95$\\%$ confidence intervals over 2000 test episodes, and the best model is chosen according to its accuracy on the validation set.\n\n\n\\vspace{-0.20cm}\n\\subsection{Experimental Results}\n\\label{sec4.3}\n\\vspace{-0.10cm}\n\n\\noindent\\textbf{Few-shot Fine-grained Image Classification Results.}\nIt is generally recognized that spatially local feature relations across different fine-grained objects are particularly important for fine-grained classification. Thus, we first validate the effectiveness of HelixFormer on a wide range of fine-grained benchmark datasets, which is shown in Tables \\ref{tab1}-\\ref{tab3}.\n\n\nFirst, Table \\ref{tab1} reports the classification accuracies on the Standard Dogs, Standard Cars, and NABirds. It can be seen from Table \\ref{tab1} that the proposed HelixFormer can be applied on different backbones such as Conv-4 \\cite{sung2018learning} and ResNet-12 \\cite{chen2019closer}. Moreover, we compare the proposed HelixFormer with state-of-the-art general few-shot learning methods (including DN4 \\cite{li2019revisiting} and FRN \\cite{wertheimer2021few}, \\textit{etc.}) and few-shot fine-grained image classification methods (including MattML \\cite{zhu2020multi}, LSC+SSM \\cite{wu2021object}, \\textit{etc.}). FRN considers the few-shot learning as a feature reconstruction problem by reducing the reconstruction errors of images belonging to the same classes, while LSC+SSM attempts to align spatial distribution of feature maps between support and query images, both of which are state-of-the-art general and fine-grained few-shot classification methods, respectively. The experimental results show that the proposed HelixFormer outperforms these methods with a considerable margin, further demonstrating that learning the cross-attention using the proposed double-helix structure can boost the accuracy of fine-grained object recognition.\n\nFurthermore, we also conduct experiments on two more challenging datasets (CUB and Aircraft), as shown in Table \\ref{tab2} and \\ref{tab3}. We also observe a consistent accuracy increase using our method. Besides, we would like to emphasize that the HelixFormer significantly boosts the accuracy of Baseline from $72.61\\%$ to $81.66\\%$ on CUB dataset and has been verified on \\textit{\\textbf{five} commonly used fine-grained datasets}, comprehensively showing the effectiveness of HelixFormer on fine-grained recognition.\n\n\n\\noindent\\textbf{Few-shot Fine-grained Cross-domain Image Classification Results.}\nConsidering that the distribution differences between the training and test data often exist, we conduct few-shot fine-grained recognition experiments under cross-domain setting, to validate the effectiveness of the HelixFormer in alleviating the impact of the domain differences, and the results are reported in Table \\ref{tab4}.\n\nWe carry out the cross-domain adaptation from generic bird categories (widely collected from Internet) to a particular country (America). It can be seen from Table \\ref{tab4} that our method has higher accuracy than both the Baseline model and LSC+SSM model \\cite{wu2021object}, demonstrating that HelixFormer also can improve the transferability and domain adaptability of the existing models.\n\n\n\\begin{table}[t]\n\\centering\n\\setlength{\\tabcolsep}{0.8mm}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c}\n\\hline\n\\multirow{2}{*}{Method} & \\multirow{2}{*}{Backbone} & \\multicolumn{2}{c}{CUB $\\to$ NABirds} \\\\\n                        &                           & 1-shot                 & 5-shot                 \\\\ \\hline\nLSC+SSM~(Baseline)~\\cite{wu2021object}    & ResNet-12                 & 45.70\u00b10.45    & 63.84\u00b10.40                        \\\\\nLSC+SSM~(ACM MM-21)~\\cite{wu2021object}    & ResNet-12                 & 48.50\u00b10.48    & 66.35\u00b10.41                        \\\\ \\hline\nBaseline (RN~\\cite{sung2018learning})               & Conv-4                 & 43.55\u00b10.45            & 55.53\u00b10.42            \\\\\nOurs                & Conv-4                 & \\textbf{47.87}\u00b10.47            & \\textbf{61.47}\u00b10.41             \\\\\\hline\nBaseline (RN~\\cite{sung2018learning})                   & ResNet-12                 &  46.22\u00b10.45    & 63.23\u00b10.42                        \\\\\nOurs                    & ResNet-12                 & \\textbf{50.56}\u00b10.48    &  \\textbf{66.13}\u00b10.41                        \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\\caption{\\label{tab4} 5-way few-shot fine-grained classification results by adapting from the CUB-trained model to NABirds dataset using different backbones.}\n}\n\\vspace{-0.6cm}\n\\end{table}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[height=4.8cm, width=6.0cm]{acm_fig4.png}\n    \\vspace{-6pt}\n \\caption{Visualization results of the backbone features and output features using different cross-attention model designs, respectively.}\n \\label{fig4}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\vspace{-0.10cm}\n\\subsection{Insight Analyses}\n\\label{sec4.4}\n\\vspace{-0.10cm}\n\n\n\\begin{table}[]\n\\centering\n\\setlength{\\tabcolsep}{0.2mm}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c|c|c}\n\\hline\n\\multirow{2}{*}{Method} & \\multirow{2}{*}{Token} & \\multicolumn{2}{c}{CUB}   & \\multicolumn{2}{c}{Stanford Cars}                \\\\\n                        &                           & 1-shot              & 5-shot & 1-shot              & 5-shot              \\\\ \\hline\nB\/L (RN~\\cite{sung2018learning})        & -                   & 66.08\u00b10.50          & 79.04\u00b10.35    & 56.55\u00b10.52          & 70.52\u00b10.39        \\\\\nRN with S$\\leftrightarrow$Q          & Fc.                & 73.80\u00b10.47 & 89.34\u00b10.27     & 72.94\u00b10.50 & 88.85\u00b10.26 \\\\\nRN with S$\\leftrightarrow$Q          & Cv.                & \\textbf{79.34}\u00b10.45 & \\textbf{91.01}\u00b10.24    & \\textbf{75.46}\u00b10.37 & \\textbf{89.68}\u00b10.25 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{tabular}}\n\\caption{\\label{tab5} The study of token embedding by employing fully-connected embedding (\\textit{i.e.} Fc.) or convolutional embedding (\\textit{i.e.} Cv.), respectively. B\/L denotes the baseline model~\\cite{sung2018learning}, and S$\\leftrightarrow$Q denotes the proposed HelixFormer.}\n\\end{table}\n\n\n\n\\noindent\\textbf{Results of using Fully-connected or Convolutional-based Token Embedding.}\nThe choice on feature embedding way (in a fully-connected or convolutional way) of the input tokens is essential to guarantee the good performance of the proposed HelixFormer. Table \\ref{tab5} reports the results of using different embedding ways, showing that the accuracy using convolution projection outperforms that using fully-connected token embedding. The reason is that few-shot fine-grained recognition needs to capture more local detail features, which are exactly provided by the local convolution projection.\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n\\vspace{-6pt}\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[height=4.0cm, width=17.3cm]{ACM_vis_1.png}\n \\vspace{-6pt}\n \\caption{Visualization results of features extracted by \\zb{backbone, the RMP, and the REP, respectively}. Due to the global feature variations (\\textit{e.g.,} the color of an object) and local feature changes (\\textit{e.g.,} headlight translation of a car and beak rotation of a bird), it is hard to find the cross-image patch-level matching of semantic features, as shown in the heatmaps from the backbone. By HelixFormer, the key cross-image object semantic relations, such as birds' wings or cars' headlights, can be effectively matched. \\textit{Please refer to our supplementary material for more visualization results.}}\n \\label{fig5}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\\begin{table}[]\n\\centering\n\\setlength{\\tabcolsep}{0.8mm}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c|c}\n\\hline\n\\multirow{2}{*}{Method}  & \\multicolumn{2}{c}{CUB}   & \\multicolumn{2}{c}{Stanford Cars}                \\\\\n                        &     1-shot              & 5-shot & 1-shot              & 5-shot              \\\\ \\hline\nRN~\\cite{sung2018learning}       & 66.08\u00b10.50          & 79.04\u00b10.35    & 56.55\u00b10.52          & 70.52\u00b10.39        \\\\\nRN with Q$\\rightarrow$S                   & 75.37\u00b10.46   &  88.78\u00b10.26         & 72.12\u00b10.50  &  88.23\u00b10.26        \\\\\nRN with S$\\rightarrow$Q         &     77.24\u00b10.49      & 90.06\u00b10.27 &  73.34\u00b10.51  &     89.44\u00b10.26      \\\\\nRN with S$\\leftrightarrow$Q            & \\textbf{79.34}\u00b10.45 & \\textbf{91.01}\u00b10.24     & \\textbf{75.46}\u00b10.37 & \\textbf{89.68}\u00b10.25 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{tabular}}\n\\caption{\\label{tab6} Results using different cross-attention structures: the unidirectional cross-attention (including Q$\\rightarrow$S and S$\\rightarrow$Q) and the bidirectional structure. Q$\\rightarrow$S denotes that support features are reconstructed only using query images, according to the semantic relations between support-query features, and vice versa. The definition of S$\\leftrightarrow$Q follows Table~\\ref{tab5}.}\n\\vspace{-0.2cm}\n\\end{table}\n\n\n\\begin{table}[]\n\\centering\n\\setlength{\\tabcolsep}{0.38mm}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c|c|c}\n\\hline\n\\multirow{2}{*}{Method} & \\multirow{2}{*}{SY?} & \\multicolumn{2}{c}{CUB}   & \\multicolumn{2}{c}{Stanford Cars}                \\\\\n                        &                           & 1-shot              & 5-shot & 1-shot              & 5-shot              \\\\ \\hline\nRN~\\cite{sung2018learning}           & -                   & 66.08\u00b10.50          & 79.04\u00b10.35    & 56.55\u00b10.52          & 70.52\u00b10.39        \\\\\nRN with S$\\rightleftharpoons$Q          & \\scriptsize{\\XSolid}              & 77.69\u00b10.48 & 89.39\u00b10.27    & 74.56\u00b10.50 & \\textbf{89.89}\u00b10.22 \\\\\nRN with Q$\\rightleftharpoons$S          & \\scriptsize{\\XSolid}              & 77.46\u00b10.47 & 89.86\u00b10.25    & 74.42\u00b10.50    & 88.63\u00b10.24  \\\\\nRN with S$\\leftrightarrow$Q          & \\Checkmark               & \\textbf{79.34}\u00b10.45 &   \\textbf{91.01}\u00b10.24   & \\textbf{75.46}\u00b10.37 & 89.68\u00b10.25 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{tabular}}\n\\caption{\\label{tab7} The study of bidirectional cross-attention using asymmetric or symmetric structure. SY is short for symmetric, and S$\\rightleftharpoons$Q denotes the asymmetric but bidirectional structure and the definition of S$\\leftrightarrow$Q follows Table~\\ref{tab5}.}\n\\vspace{-12pt}\n\\end{table}\n\n\n\\begin{table}[]\n\\centering\n\\small\n\\setlength{\\tabcolsep}{0.65mm}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c|c|c}\n\\hline\n\\multirow{2}{*}{Method} & \\multirow{2}{*}{REP?} & \\multicolumn{2}{c}{CUB}   & \\multicolumn{2}{c}{Stanford Cars}                \\\\\n                        &                           & 1-shot              & 5-shot & 1-shot              & 5-shot              \\\\ \\hline\nRN~\\cite{sung2018learning}        & -                   & 66.08\u00b10.50          & 79.04\u00b10.35    & 56.55\u00b10.52          & 70.52\u00b10.39        \\\\\nRN with S$\\leftrightarrow$Q          & w\/o                & 77.90\u00b10.45   & 89.39\u00b10.27     & 73.52\u00b10.49  &  88.48\u00b10.25  \\\\\nRN with S$\\leftrightarrow$Q          & with                & \\textbf{79.34}\u00b10.45 & \\textbf{91.01}\u00b10.24    & \\textbf{75.46}\u00b10.37 & \\textbf{89.68}\u00b10.25 \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{tabular}}\n\\caption{\\label{tab8} The results of removing the REP in HelixFormer.}\n\\vspace{-12pt}\n\\end{table}\n\n\n\\noindent\\textbf{Unidirectional or Bidirectional RMP.}\nIn this part, we study the impact of using unidirectional or bidirectional cross-attention structure (as introduced in Fig. \\ref{fig3} of Sec. \\ref{sec3.3}) on the classification results. Experimental results in Table \\ref{tab6} show that compared with the unidirectional structure (Q$\\rightarrow$S or S$\\rightarrow$Q), the bidirectional cross-attention structure (S$\\leftrightarrow$Q) can well improve the generalization ability of few-shot learning models.\n\n\\noindent\\textbf{Asymmetric and Symmetric RMP.} For bidirectional attention, we observe from Table \\ref{tab7} that a symmetrical structure has an advantage in improving the model accuracy. We further visualize their heatmaps in Fig. \\ref{fig4}, and find that the symmetrical structure captures relatively more accurate inter-object semantic relations.\n\n\\noindent\\textbf{The Role of REP.} We further show the effectiveness of the REP in the proposed HelixFormer, by directly feeding the CSRMs pairs $(R_{Q,S}, R_{S,Q})$ as the input of the classification head. We observe the performance deterioration by comparing the last two rows in Table \\ref{tab8}, showing the importance of learning to distinguish subtle feature differences by the REP.\n\n\\noindent\\textbf{Multi-head Attention in HelixFormer.} Table \\ref{tab9} shows the 5-way 1-shot classification accuracy by changing the number of multi-head attention using Conv-4 backbone.\n\n\\begin{table}[]\n\\centering\n\\setlength{\\tabcolsep}{1.2mm}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c}\n\\hline\nMethod & \\# Multi-head &  CUB     & Stanford Cars                  \\\\ \\hline\nRN with S$\\leftrightarrow$Q       & 1  & 77.52\u00b10.49  & 74.62\u00b10.50   \\\\\nRN with S$\\leftrightarrow$Q       & 2  & \\textbf{79.34}\u00b10.45 &  \\textbf{75.46}\u00b10.37     \\\\\nRN with S$\\leftrightarrow$Q       & 4    & 78.68\u00b10.47  &  73.62\u00b10.48  \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{tabular}}\n\\caption{\\label{tab9} Results of changing the number of multi-head attention.}\n\\vspace{-0.2cm}\n\\end{table}\n\n\n\\begin{table}[]\n\\small\n\\centering\n\\setlength{\\tabcolsep}{1.0mm}{\n\\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c|c}\n\\hline\nMethod & Backbone & \\#FLOPs. & \\#Params.  & CUB                 \\\\ \\hline\nRN~\\cite{sung2018learning}  & ResNet-12 & 2.48G & 9.1M & 72.61\u00b10.47       \\\\\nRN~\\cite{sung2018learning}   & ResNet-50 (\\textbf{Deeper}) & 3.69G & 24.6M & 69.00\u00b10.52        \\\\\nRN~\\cite{sung2018learning}   & ResNet-101 (\\textbf{Deeper}) & 5.98G & 43.2M & 68.71\u00b10.54        \\\\\nRN with S$\\leftrightarrow$Q     & ResNet-12  & 2.53G   & 9.5M   & \\textbf{81.66}\u00b10.30   \\\\ \\hline\n\\end{tabular}}\n\\caption{\\label{tab10} 5-way 1-shot classification accuracy (\\%) for relation network baseline~\\cite{sung2018learning} with different backbones.}\n\\vspace{-0.6cm}\n\\end{table}\n\n\n\\noindent\\textbf{Study of Parameter Size and Feature Visualization.}\nIn the few-shot learning community, models with smaller parameter sizes are usually adopted to avoid over-fitting for the limited number of training samples. In other words, increasing the number of model parameters may not improve its generalization performance. Table \\ref{tab10} shows that the HelixFormer more effectively boosts the model accuracy, compared with other models with more parameters and FLOPs. Furthermore, we visualize the support and query features which are extracted from the backbone, the proposed RMP, and REP of HelixFormer respectively. The visualized results are illustrated in Fig. \\ref{fig5}, and the heatmaps are obtained via a max-pooling operation along the channel dimension of feature maps to preserve the spatial information. Besides, we also visualize the support-query features using asymmetric or symmetric cross-attention structure in Fig. \\ref{fig5}. These visualization results illustrate that the semantically similar regions between support and query images can be well matched via HelixFormer.\n\n\\section{Conclusion}\nIn this work, we proposed a Transformer-based double-helix cross-attention model, namely HelixFormer, which is composed of a Relation Mining Process (RMP) to discover the cross-image object semantic relation and produce patch-level cross-relation maps, and a Representation Enhancement Process (REP) to enhance the identified discriminative local features for final recognition. Experimental results demonstrate that such a bidirectional and symmetrical structure has the merit of ensuring the cross-object semantic relation consistency, improving the model generalization ability on few-shot fine-grained learning.\n\n\n\\clearpage\n\\section{Acknowledgement}\nThis work is supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 62071127 and No. 62101137), Zhejiang Lab Project (No. 2021KH0AB05).\n\n\n\n\n\n{\\small\n\\bibliographystyle{ACM-Reference-Format}\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n       \n\n\n        Real-time detection of various categories of objects in images is one of the\n        key tasks in computer vision.\n        This topic has been extensively studied in the past a few years due to its\n        important applications in surveillance, intelligent video analysis {\\em etc}.  \n        %\n       \n       \n       \n        %\n        Viola and Jones proffered the first real-time face detector\n        \\cite{Viola2004Robust,Viola2002Fast}.\n        To date, it is still considered one of the state-of-the-art, and their framework \n        is the basis of many incremental work afterwards.  \n        Object detection is a highly asymmetric classification\n        problem with the exhaustive scanning-window search being used to locate the target in an\n        image. Only a few are true target objects among the millions of scanned patches.\n        Cascade classifiers \n      \n      \n      \n        have been proposed for efficient detection, which takes the asymmetric\n        structure into consideration. \n        Under the assumption of each node of the cascade classifier makes independent classification\n        errors, the detection rate and false positive rate of the entire cascade are:\n        $ F_{\\rm dr} = \\prod_{ t =1}^N d_t    $  and\n        $ F_{\\rm fp} = \\prod_{ t =1}^N f_t    $, respectively.\n        As pointed out in \\cite{Viola2004Robust,Wu2005Linear}, these two equations \n        suggest a {\\em node learning objective}: \n        Each node should have an extremely high detection rate $d_t $ \n        ({\\em e.g.}, $99.7\\%$) and \n        a moderate false positive rate $ f_t $ ({\\em e.g.}, $50\\%$). \n        With the above values of $  d_t $ and $ f_t $, assume that \n        the cascade has $ N = 20 $ nodes, then $ F_{\\rm dr} \\approx  94\\%$\n        and $ F_{\\rm fp} \\approx  10^ {-6} $, which is usually the design goal. \n        \n\n\n        A drawback of standard boosting like AdaBoost is that it does not \n        take advantage of\n        the cascade classifier.  AdaBoost only minimizes the overall classification error and does\n        not minimize the number of false negatives.  \n        In this sense, the features selected are not optimal for \n        the purpose of rejecting negative examples.\n        %\n        %\n        %\n        At the feature selection and classifier training level, Viola and Jones\n        leveraged the asymmetry property, to some extend, by\n        replacing AdaBoost with AsymBoost \\cite{Viola2002Fast}.\n        AsymBoost incurs more loss for misclassifying a positive example by simply\n        modifying AdaBoost's exponential loss. \n        Better detection rates were observed over the standard AdaBoost. Nevertheless, \n        AsymBoost addresses the node learning goal {\\em indirectly}\n        and still may not be the optimal solution.\n        Wu {\\em et al.} explicitly studied the node learning goal and they proposed \n        to use linear asymmetric classifier (LAC) and Fisher linear discriminant analysis (LDA)\n        to adjust the linear coefficients of the selected weak classifiers\n        \\cite{Wu2005Linear,Wu2008Fast}.\n        Their experiments indicated that with this post-processing technique, \n        the node learning objective can be better met, which is translated into improved \n        detection rates. \n        In Viola and Jones' framework, boosting is used to select \n        features and at the same time to\n        train a strong classifier. Wu {\\em et al.}'s work separates these two tasks:\n        they still use AdaBoost or AsymBoost to select features; and at the second step, \n        they build a strong classifier using LAC or LDA. \n        Since there are two steps here, in Wu {\\em et al.}'s work \n        \\cite{Wu2005Linear,Wu2008Fast}, \n        the node learning objective is only considered at the \n        second step. At the first step---feature selection---the node learning objective is\n        not explicitly considered. We conjecture  that\n        {\\em further improvement may be gained\n        if the node learning objective is explicitly \n        taken into account at both steps}. \n        We design new  boosting algorithms to implement this idea and verify\n        this conjecture. \n        %\n        %\n        Our major contributions are as follows.  \n        \\begin{enumerate}\n           \\item\n                We develop new boosting-like algorithms via directly\n                minimizing the objective function of \n                linear asymmetric classifier, which is termed as LACBoost (and\n                FisherBoost from Fisher LDA). Both of them can be used to\n                select features that is optimal for achieving the node learning goal in training a \n                cascade classifier.  To our knowledge, this is the first attempt to design such a \n                feature selection method. \n           \\item\n                LACBoost and FisherBoost share similarities with LPBoost \n                \\cite{Demiriz2002LPBoost} in the sense that both use\n                column generation---a technique originally proposed\n                for large-scale linear programming (LP). \n                Typically, the Lagrange dual problem \n                is solved at each iteration in column generation. We instead solve\n                the primal quadratic programming (QP) problem, which has a special structure\n                and entropic gradient (EG)\n                can be used to solve the problem very efficiently. \n                Compared with general interior-point based QP solvers, EG is much faster. \n                Considering one needs to solve QP problems a few thousand times for training\n                a complete cascade detector, the efficiency improvement is enormous. \n                Compared with training an AdaBoost based cascade detector, the time needed \n                for LACBoost (or FisherBoost) is comparable.\n               \n               \n               \n               \n               \n                This is because for both cases, the majority of the time is spent on weak\n                classifier training and bootstrapping. \n           \\item\n                 We apply LACBoost and FisherBoost to face detection and better performances are observed over\n                 the state-of-the-art methods \\cite{Wu2005Linear,Wu2008Fast}. The results\n                 confirm our conjecture and show the effectiveness of LACBoost and FisherBoost. \n                 LACBoost can be immediately applied to other asymmetric classification problems.\n           \\item\n                We also analyze the condition that makes the validity of LAC,\n                and show that the multi-exit cascade might be more suitable\n                for applying LAC learning of \\cite{Wu2005Linear,Wu2008Fast} (and our LACBoost)\n                rather than Viola-Jones standard cascade.\n         \\end{enumerate}\n         Besides these, the LACBoost\/FisherBoost algorithm differs from traditional boosting algorithms\n         in that LACBoost\/FisherBoost does not minimize a loss function. This opens new possibilities\n         for designing new boosting algorithms for special purposes. \n         We have also extended column generation for optimizing nonlinear \n         optimization problems.            \n            %\n            %\n            %\n         Next we review some related work that is closest to ours. \n         \n       \n        \n     \n     \n     \n     \n     \n     \n     \n     \n     \n     \n     \n     \n     \n\n\n        \\textbf{Related work}\n        %\n        %\n        %\n        There is a large body of  previous work in object detection\n        \\cite{pham07,Wu2003Rare};\n        of particular relevance to our work is boosting object detection originated\n        from Viola and Jones'\n        framework.\n        There are three important components that make Viola and Jones' framework\n        tremendously successful:\n        (1) The cascade classifier that efficiently filters out most negative patches\n            in early nodes; and also contributes to enable the final classifier to have\n            a very high detection rate;\n        (2) AdaBoost that selects informative features and at the same time trains \n            a strong classifier;\n        (3) The use of integral images, which makes the computation of Haar features \n            extremely fast. \n        Most of the work later improves one or more of these three components. \n        In terms of the cascade classifier, a few different approaches such as \n        soft cascade \\cite{Bourdev05SoftCascade}, dynamic cascade \n        \\cite{Rong2007}, and multi-exit cascade \\cite{pham08multi}. \n        We have used the multi-exit cascade in this work.\n        The multi-exit  cascade tries to improve the classification performance by \n        using all the selected weak classifiers for each node. \n      \n      \n      \n        So for the  $ n $-th strong classifier (node), it uses all the weak classifiers\n        in this node as well as those in the previous $ n - 1 $ nodes. \n        We show that the LAC post-processing can enhance the multi-exit cascade.\n        More importantly, we show that the multi-exit cascade better meets LAC's \n        requirement of data being Gaussian distributions. \n        \n        The second research topic is the learning algorithm \n        for constructing a classifier. \n        Wu {\\em et al.} use fast forward feature selection to \n        accelerate the training procedure\n        \\cite{Wu2003Rare}. They have also proposed LAC to learn a better strong\n        classifier \\cite{Wu2005Linear}. \n        Pham and Cham recently proposed online asymmetric boosting \n        with considerable improvement in training time \\cite{pham07}.\n        By exploiting the feature\n        statistics, they have also designed a fast method to train weak classifiers\n        \\cite{Pham2007Fast}. \n        %\n        %\n        %\n        Li {\\em et al.} advocated FloatBoost to discard\n        some redundant weak classifiers during AdaBoost's    \n        greedy selection procedure \\cite{Li2004Float}. \n        Liu and Shum proposed KLBoost to select features and train a strong \n        classifier \\cite{Liu2003KL}. \n        Other variants of boosting have been applied to detection. \n        %\n        \\comment{\n        For example,\n        Promising results were reported with\n        LogitBoost \\cite{Tuzel2008PAMI} that employs the logistic regression \n        loss, and GentleBoost \\cite{Torralba2007} that uses adaptive \n        Newton steps to fit the additive model.\n        \n\n       \n        New features have also been designed for improving the detection\n        performance. Viola and Jones' \n        Haar features are not sufficiently discriminative for detecting\n        more complex objects like pedestrians, or multi-view faces. \n        Covariance features \\cite{Tuzel2008PAMI} and histogram of oriented gradients \n        \\cite{Dalal2005HOG} have been proposed in this context. Both of them are\n        possible to the use the idea of integral images\/histograms to reduce the\n        computation complexity. \n       \n        }\n\n        \n\n\n\n\n        \\textbf{Notation} \n        The following notation is used. \n        A matrix is denoted by a bold upper-case\n        letter ($\\mathbf X$); a column vector is denoted by a bold lower-case\n        letter ($ \\mathbf x $). \n        The $ i$th row of $\\mathbf X $ is denoted by $ \\mathbf X_{i:} $ \n        and the $ i $-th column $ \\mathbf X_{:i}$.\n        The identity matrix is $ \\bf I $ and its size should be clear\n        from the context. $ \\bf 1 $ and  \n        $ \\bf 0 $ are column vectors of $ 1$'s and $ 0$'s,\n        respectively.  \n        We use $ \\psd, \\nsd $ to denote component-wise inequalities. \n\n\n\n        Let $ \\{ (\\mathbf x_i, y_i  ) \\}_{i = 1, \\cdots, m}$ be the set of\n        training data, where $ \\mathbf x_i \\in \\mathcal X$ and $ y_i \\in \\{-1,+1\\}\n        $, $ \\forall i$. \n        The training set consists of $ m_1 $ positive training points\n        and $ m_2 $ negative ones; $ m_1 + m_2 = m $. \n        %\n        Let $ h ( \\cdot  ) \\in \\mathcal H $ be a weak\n        classifier that projects an input vector $ \\mathbf x $ into \n        $\\{-1, +1 \\}$. Here we only consider discrete classifier\n        outputs.\n        We assume that the set $ \\mathcal H $ is finite and we\n        have $ n $ possible weak classifiers. Let the matrix $ \\H \\in\n        \\mathbb{R}^{ m \\times n }$ where the $ (i,j)$ entry of $ \\H $ is\n        $ \\H_{ij} =  h_j ( \\mathbf x_i ) $. \n        $ \\H_{ij} $ is the label predicted by weak classifier $\n        h_j(\\cdot) $ on the training datum $ \\mathbf x_i $. \n        \\comment{\n       \n        Therefore each\n        column $ \\H_{ :j }  $ of the matrix $ \\H $ consists of the\n        output of weak classifier $ h_j(\\cdot) $ on all the training\n        data; while each row $ \\H_{ i: } $ contains  the outputs of all\n        weak classifiers on the training datum $ \\mathbf x_i $. \n       \n        }\n        We define a matrix $ \\mathbf A \\in  \\mathbb{R}^{ m \\times n }$ such that its\n        $( i, j )$ entry is\n        $ \\mathbf A_{ij} = y_i h_j (  \\mathbf x_i ) $.\n        \\comment{\n       \n        Boosting algorithms entirely depend on the matrix $  \\mathbf A  $ and\n        do not directly interact with the training examples. \n        Our following discussion will largely focus on the matrix $\\mathbf A$.\n        We write the vector obtained by multiplying a matrix $  \\mathbf A  $ \n        with a vector \n        $ \\mathbf w $\n        as $ \\mathbf A \\mathbf w $ and its $i$-th entry as $ (\\mathbf A \\mathbf w)_i$, which is the margin\n        of the training datum $ \\mathbf x_i $: $ \\rho_i = \\mathbf A_{ i :} \\mathbf w = (\\mathbf A \\mathbf w)_i $.\n       \n        }\n\n\n        \\comment{\n       \n        The paper is organized as follows. We briefly review the concept of LAC\n        in Section \\ref{sec:LAC} before we propose our LACBoost and FisherBoost\n        in Section \\ref{sec:LACBoost}. We present the experiments in Section\n        \\ref{sec:exp} and conclude the paper in Section \\ref{sec:con}.\n       \n        }\n\n\n\n\\section{Linear Asymmetric Classification}\n\\label{sec:LAC}\n\n\n\n\n        Before we propose our LACBoost and FisherBoost, we \n        briefly overview the concept of LAC. \n        %\n        %\n        Wu {\\em et al.} \\cite{Wu2008Fast} have  proposed linear asymmetric classification\n        (LAC) as a post-processing step \n        for training nodes in the cascade framework. \n        LAC is guaranteed to get an optimal solution\n        under the assumption of Gaussian data distributions.\n\n\n        Suppose that we have a linear classifier \n        $ f(\\mathbf x) = {\\bf sign}(\\mathbf w^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf x - b)$,\n        if we want to find a pair of $\\{ \\mathbf w , b \\}$ with a very\n        high accuracy on the positive data $\\mathbf x_1$ and a moderate accuracy on\n        the negative $\\mathbf x_2$, which is expressed as the following problem:\n    \\begin{align}\n    \\begin{split}\n        \\max_{\\mathbf w \\neq {\\bf 0}, b}  \\,  \\Pr_{\\mathbf x_1 \\sim ( \\mu_1, {\\bf \\Sigma}_1) }\n        \\{ \\mathbf w ^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf x_1 \\geq b \\}, \\,\\,\n        {\\rm s.t.}  \\, \\Pr_{\\mathbf x_2 \\sim (\\mu_2,{\\bf \\Sigma}_2)}  \n        \\{ \\mathbf w^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf x_2\n            \\leq b \\} = \\lambda,\n    \\label{EQ:LAC}\n    \\end{split}\n    \\end{align}\n            where $\\mathbf x \\sim (\\mu,{\\bf \\Sigma})$ denotes \n        a symmetric distribution with mean $\\mu$ and covariance ${\\bf \\Sigma}$.\n    %\n    %\n    If we prescribe $\\lambda$ to $0.5$ and assume that for any $\\mathbf w$, \n    $\\mathbf w^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf x_1$\n    is Gaussian and $\\mathbf w^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf x_2$ is symmetric, then \n    \\eqref{EQ:LAC} can be approximated by \n    \\begin{equation}\n        \\label{EQ:LAC1}\n        \\max_{\\mathbf w \\neq \\bf 0} \\;\\;\n        \\frac{  \\mathbf w^{\\!\\top} ( \\mu_1 -  \\mu_2  ) } \n        {  \\sqrt{  \\mathbf w^{\\!\\top} {\\bf \\Sigma}_1 \\mathbf w  }  }.\n    \\end{equation}\n    %\n    %\n    %\n    \\eqref{EQ:LAC1} is similar to LDA's optimization problem\n    \\begin{equation}\n        \\label{EQ:LDA1}\n        \\max_{\\mathbf w \\neq \\bf 0} \\;\\;\n        \\frac{  \\mathbf w^{\\!\\top} ( \\mu_1 -  \\mu_2  ) } \n        {  \\sqrt{  \\mathbf w^{\\!\\top} ( {\\bf \\Sigma}_1 + {\\bf \\Sigma}_2 )  \\mathbf w  }  }.\n    \\end{equation}\n    \\eqref{EQ:LAC1} can be solved by eigen-decomposition and a close-formed \n    solution can be derived:\n    %\n    %\n    %\n\\begin{equation}\n            \\mathbf w^\\star = {\\bf \\Sigma}_1^{-1} ( \\mu_1 - \\mu_2 ),\n    \\quad \n    b^{\\star} = { \\mathbf w^{\\star} } ^{{\\!\\top}} \\mu_2.\n\\label{EQ:LAC_SOL}\n\\end{equation}\nOn the other hand, each node in cascaded boosting classifiers has the following form:\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\label{EQ:nodeclassifier}\n    f(\\mathbf x) = {\\bf sign}(\\mathbf w^{\\!\\top} \\H (\\mathbf x) - b),\n\\end{equation}\nWe override the symbol $ \\H (\\mathbf x)$ here, \nwhich denotes the output vector of all weak classifiers over the datum $ \\mathbf x $. \nWe can cast each node as a linear classifier over the feature space\nconstructed by the binary outputs of all weak classifiers.\nFor each node in cascade classifier, we wish to maximize the detection\nrate as high as possible, and \nmeanwhile keep the false positive rate to an\nmoderate level  ({\\em e.g.}, $50.0\\%$). \nThat is to say,  the problem\n\\eqref{EQ:LAC} expresses the node learning goal. \nTherefore, we can use boosting algorithms ({\\em e.g.}, AdaBoost) as feature\nselection methods, and then use LAC to learn a linear classifier over\nthose binary features chosen by boosting.\nThe advantage is that LAC considers the asymmetric node learning explicitly.\n\nHowever, there is a precondition of LAC's validity. That \nis,  for any $\\mathbf w$, $\\mathbf w^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf x_1$ is a Gaussian and $\\mathbf w^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf x_2$\nis symmetric. \nIn the case of boosting classifiers, $\\mathbf w^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf x_1$ and $\\mathbf w^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf x_2$ can be \nexpressed as the margin of positive data and negative data.\nEmpirically  Wu {\\em et al.} \\cite{Wu2008Fast}\nverified that $\\mathbf w^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf x$ is Gaussian approximately for a cascade face detector.\nWe discuss this issue in the experiment part in more detail.\n\n\n\n\\section{Constructing Boosting Algorithms from LDA and LAC}\n\\label{sec:LACBoost} \n    \n        \n    In kernel methods, the original data are non\\-linear\\-ly \n    mapped to a feature space and \n    usually the mapping\n    function $ {\\phi } ( \\cdot ) $ is not explicitly available.\n    It works through the inner product of \n    $ {\\phi } ( \\mathbf x_i ) ^{\\!\\top} {\\phi } ( \\mathbf x_j )  $. \n    In boosting \\cite{Ratsch2002BoostSVM},\n    the mapping function can be seen as explicitly known\n    through:\n    $\n        {\\phi } ( \\mathbf x ) : \\mathbf x \\mapsto [ h_1(\\mathbf x),\\dots,h_n(\\mathbf x) ]. \n    $\n    Let us consider the Fisher LDA case first because the solution to LDA\n    will generalize to LAC straightforwardly, by looking at\n    the similarity between \\eqref{EQ:LAC1} and \\eqref{EQ:LDA1}.\n\n    Fisher LDA \n    maximizes the between-class variance and minimizes the within-class\n    variance. In the binary-class case, we can equivalently\n    rewrite \\eqref{EQ:LDA1} into\n    \\begin{equation}\n        \\label{EQ:100}\n        \\max_\\mathbf w \\;\\;  \\frac{ ( \\mu_1 - \\mu_2 ) ^ 2 }\n                         { \\sigma_1 + \\sigma_2 } \n            = \n                    \\frac{   \\mathbf w ^{\\!\\top}   \\mathbf C_b \\mathbf w }\n                         {   \\mathbf w ^{\\!\\top}  \\mathbf C_w \\mathbf w },\n    \\end{equation}\n    where $ \\mathbf C_b $ and $ \\mathbf C_w $ are the between-class and within-class\n    scatter matrices; $ \\mu_1 $ and $ \\mu_2 $ are\n    the projected centers of the two classes.\n    The above problem can be equivalently reformulated as \n    \\begin{equation}\n        \\label{EQ:101}\n        \\min_\\mathbf w \\;\\;  \\mathbf w ^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf C_w \\mathbf w -  \\theta ( \\mu_1 - \\mu_2  )\n    \\end{equation}\n    for some certain constant $ \\theta $ and under the assumption that\n    $ \\mu_1 - \\mu_2 \\geq 0 $.\\footnote{In our face detection experiment,\n    we found that this assumption could always be satisfied.}\n    Now in the feature space, our data are \n    $ {\\phi }( \\mathbf x_i ) $, $ i=1\\dots m$.\n    We have\n    \\begin{align}\n        \\mu_1\n        &  = \\frac{ 1 } { m_1 } \\mathbf w^{\\!\\top} \\sum_{y_i = 1}  {\\phi }(\\mathbf x_i)  \n       \n           = \\frac{ 1 } { m_1 } \\sum_{y_i = 1} \\mathbf A_{ i: } \\mathbf w\n       \n       \n       \n        = \\frac{ 1 } { m_1 } \\sum_{y_i = 1} (\\mathbf A \\mathbf w)_i\n           = \\boldsymbol e_1 ^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf A \\mathbf w   ,\n    \\end{align}\n    where $ \\mathbf A_{ i: } $ is the $ i $-th row of $ \\mathbf A$.\n    %\n    %\n    %\n    \\begin{align}\n     \\mu_2\n     & = \n     \\frac{ 1 } { m_2 }   \\mathbf w^{\\!\\top} \\sum_{y_i = -1}  {\\phi }(\\mathbf x_i)\n     = \\frac{ 1 } { m_2 } \\sum_{y_i = -1} \\H_{ i: } \\mathbf w\n    \n    \n     = - \\boldsymbol e_2 ^{\\!\\top}  \\mathbf A \\mathbf w,\n    \\end{align}\n    %\n    %\n    Here the $ i $-th entry of $ \\boldsymbol e_1 $ is defined as \n    $ \\boldsymbol e_{1i} = 1\/m_1 $ if $ y_i = +1 $, otherwise   \n    $ \\boldsymbol e_{1i} = 0$. Similarly \n    $ \\boldsymbol e_{2i} = 1\/m_2 $ if $ y_i = -1 $, otherwise \n    $ \\boldsymbol e_{2i} = 0$. We also define $ \\boldsymbol e = \\boldsymbol e_1 + \\boldsymbol e_2 $.\n    %\n    %\n    %\n    %\n    For ease of exposition, we order the training data according to their\n        labels. So\n        the vector $ \\boldsymbol e \\in \\mathbb{R}^{m}$:\n        \\begin{equation}\n        \\boldsymbol e = [ 1\/m_1,\\cdots, 1\/m_2,\\cdots  ]^{\\!\\top},      \n            \\label{EQ:e}\n        \\end{equation}\n        and the first $ m_1$ components of $ \\boldsymbol \\rho $ correspond to the\n        positive training data and the remaining ones\n        correspond to the $ m_2$\n        negative data.  \n        So we have $ \\mu_1 - \\mu_2 = \\boldsymbol e^{\\!\\top} \\boldsymbol \\rho  $, \n        $ \\mathbf C_w =  {m_1 }\/{ m } \\cdot {\\bf \\Sigma}_1 + {m_2 }\/{ m } \\cdot  {\\bf \\Sigma}_2 $\n        with\n        $ {\\bf \\Sigma}_{1,2} $ the covariance matrices. \n        By noticing that\n        \\[\n        \\mathbf w^{\\!\\top} {\\bf \\Sigma}_{1,2} \\mathbf w = \\frac{1}{m_{1,2} ( m_{1,2} - 1 ) }\n        \\sum_{i>k, y_i=y_k = \\pm 1}\n        (\\rho_i - \\rho_k )^2,\n        \\]\n        %\n        %\n        we can easily rewrite the original problem into:\n        \\begin{align}\n            \\min_{\\mathbf w,\\boldsymbol \\rho}\n          \n          \n          \n            \\tfrac{1}{2} \\boldsymbol \\rho ^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf Q \\boldsymbol \\rho - \\theta \\boldsymbol e^{\\!\\top}\n            \\boldsymbol \\rho,\n       \n            \\quad {\\rm s.t.} ~&\\mathbf w \\psd {\\bf 0},\n             {\\bf 1}^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf w = 1,\n    \n    \n     {\\rho}_i = ( \\mathbf A \\mathbf w )_i,\n        i = 1,\\cdots, m.\n            \\label{EQ:QP1}\n        \\end{align}\n        Here\n        $ \\mathbf Q = \\begin{bmatrix} \\mathbf Q_1 & {\\bf 0} \\\\ {\\bf 0} & \\mathbf Q_2  \\end{bmatrix} $\n        is a block matrix with\n        \\[\n        \\mathbf Q_1 = \n        \\begin{bmatrix}\n                \\tfrac{1}{m} & -\\tfrac{1}{ m (m_1-1)} & \\ldots & -\\tfrac{1}{m(m_1-1)} \\\\\n                -\\tfrac{1}{m(m_1-1)} & \\tfrac{1}{ m } & \\ldots & -\\tfrac{1}{m(m_1-1)} \\\\\n                \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\\n                -\\tfrac{1}{m(m_1-1)} & -\\tfrac{1}{m (m_1-1)} & \\ldots &\\tfrac{1}{m } \n        \\end{bmatrix},\n        \\]\n        and $ \\mathbf Q_2 $ is similarly defined by replacing $ m_1$ with $ m_2 $ in $ \\mathbf Q_1$.\n        \\comment{\n       \n        \\[\n        \\mathbf Q_2 = \n            \\begin{bmatrix}\n                \\tfrac{1}{m}         & -\\tfrac{1}{m(m_2-1)} & \\ldots &\n                -\\tfrac{1}{m(m_2-1)}                                \\\\\n                -\\tfrac{1}{m(m_2-1)} & \\tfrac{1}{m}         & \\ldots &\n                -\\tfrac{1}{m(m_2-1)}                                \\\\\n                \\vdots               & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots     \\\\\n                -\\tfrac{1}{m(m_2-1)} & -\\tfrac{1}{m(m_2-1)} & \\ldots\n                &\\tfrac{1}{m} \n            \\end{bmatrix}. \n        \\]\n       \n        }\n  Also note that we have introduced a constant $ \\frac{1}{2} $ before the quadratic term\n  for convenience. The normalization \n                  constraint $ { \\bf 1 } ^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf w = 1$\n                  removes the scale ambiguity of $ \\mathbf w $. Otherwise the problem is\n                  ill-posed. \n\n  In the case of LAC, the covariance matrix of the negative data is not involved,\n  which corresponds to the matrix $ \\mathbf Q_2 $ is zero. So we can simply set \n   $ \\mathbf Q = \\begin{bmatrix} \\mathbf Q_1 & {\\bf 0} \\\\ {\\bf 0} & \\bf 0  \\end{bmatrix} $ and\n  \\eqref{EQ:QP1} becomes the optimization problem of LAC.  \n  \n  At this stage, it remains unclear about how to solve the problem \\eqref{EQ:QP1}\n  because we do not know all the weak classifiers. \n  The number of possible weak classifiers\n  could be infinite---the dimension of the \n  optimization variable $ \\mathbf w $ is infinite.\n    So \\eqref{EQ:QP1} is a semi-infinite quadratic program (SIQP).\n    We show how column generation can be used to solve this problem.\n    To make column generation applicable, we need to derive a\n    specific Lagrange dual of the primal\n    problem.\n\n\n\n\\textbf{The Lagrange  dual problem}\n    We now derive the Lagrange dual of the quadratic problem \\eqref{EQ:QP1}.    \n    Although we are only interested in the variable $ \\mathbf w $, we need to\n    keep the auxiliary variable $ \\boldsymbol  \\rho $ in order to obtain\n    a meaningful dual problem. The Lagrangian of \\eqref{EQ:QP1}\n    is\n    $ L (  \n           \\underbrace{ \\mathbf w, \\boldsymbol \\rho}_{\\rm primal}, \\underbrace{ \\u, r }_{\\rm dual}\n        ) \n    = \\tfrac{1}{2} \\boldsymbol \\rho ^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf Q \\boldsymbol \\rho   -  \\theta \\boldsymbol e^{\\!\\top} \\boldsymbol \\rho \n    + \\u ^{\\!\\top} ( \\boldsymbol \\rho - \\mathbf A \\mathbf w  ) - \\mathbf q ^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf w + r ( {\\bf 1} ^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf w - 1 )\n    $ with $  \\mathbf q \\psd \\bf 0 $.  \n    $ \\sup_{\\u, r} \\inf_{ \\mathbf w, \\boldsymbol \\rho } L ( \\mathbf w, {\\boldsymbol \\rho}, \\u, r  ) $\n    gives the following  Lagrange dual:\n           \\begin{align}\n               \\max_{\\u, r} ~& -r - \\overbrace{\n                       \\tfrac{1}{2} \n                      (\\u - \\theta \\boldsymbol e)^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf Q^{-1} (\\u - \\theta \\boldsymbol e)\n                      }^{\\rm regularization},  \n                      %\n                     \n                      %\n            {\\rm \\;\\; s.t.} \n                     ~\n                     %\n                    \n                     %\n                      \\sum_{i=1}^m u_i \\mathbf A_{i:} \\nsd r {\\bf 1 } ^{\\!\\top}. \n            \\label{EQ:dual}\n        \\end{align}\n        In our case, $ \\mathbf Q $ is rank-deficient and its inverse does not exist\n        (for both LDA and LAC).\n        We can simply regularize $ \\mathbf Q $ with $ \\mathbf Q + \\delta {\\bf I} $ with  \n        $ \\delta $ a very small constant. \n        One of the  KKT optimality conditions between the dual and primal\n        is\n        $ \\boldsymbol \\rho^\\star = - \\mathbf Q^{-1} ( \\u ^ \\star - \\theta \\boldsymbol e )$,\n        which can be used to establish the connection between the dual optimum and\n        the primal optimum. \n        This is obtained by the fact that \n        the gradient of $ L $ w.r.t. $ \\boldsymbol \\rho $ must vanish at \n        the optimum, $ { \\partial L } \/ { \\partial \\rho_i } = 0  $,\n        $ \\forall i = 1\\cdots n $.\n\n        Problem \\eqref{EQ:dual} can be viewed as a regularized LPBoost problem.\n        Compared with the hard-margin LPBoost \\cite{Demiriz2002LPBoost},\n        the only difference is the regularization term in the cost function.\n        The duality gap between the primal \\eqref{EQ:QP1} and the \n        dual \\eqref{EQ:dual} is zero. In other words, the solutions of\n        \\eqref{EQ:QP1} and \\eqref{EQ:dual} coincide. \n        Instead of solving \\eqref{EQ:QP1} directly, one calculates the\n        most violated constraint in \\eqref{EQ:dual} iteratively for\n        the current solution and adds this constraint to the\n        optimization problem.  In theory, any column that violates\n        dual feasibility can be added.  To speed up the convergence,\n        we add the most violated constraint by solving the following\n        problem:\n      %\n      %\n      %\n      \\begin{equation}\n          h' ( \\cdot ) =  {\\rm argmax}_{h( \\cdot ) } ~ \n          \n            \\sum_{i=1}^m u_i y_i h ( \\mathbf x_i).\n         \\label{EQ:pickweak}\n      \\end{equation}\n      %\n      %\n      %\n        This  is exactly the same as the one that standard AdaBoost\n        and LPBoost use for producing the best weak classifier. That\n        is to say, to find the weak classifier that has minimum weighted\n        training error.  We summarize the LACBoost\/FisherBoost\n        algorithm in\n        Algorithm~\\ref{alg:QPCG}.\n        By simply changing  $ \\mathbf Q_2 $, Algorithm~\\ref{alg:QPCG} can be used to\n        train either LACBoost or FisherBoost.\n        Note that to obtain an actual strong classifier,\n        one may need to include an offset $ b $, {\\em i.e.} the final classifier\n        is $ \\sum_{j=1}^n h_j (\\mathbf x) - b $ because from the cost function\n        of our algorithm \\eqref{EQ:101}, we can see that the cost function itself\n        does not minimize any classification error. It only finds a projection\n        direction in which the data can be maximally separated. A simple line\n        search can find an optimal $ b $.  \n        Moreover, when training a cascade, we need to tune this offset anyway\n        as shown in \\eqref{EQ:nodeclassifier}.\n        \n   %\n   %\n  \n   %\n\n\n        The convergence of Algorithm~\\ref{alg:QPCG} is guaranteed by\n        general column generation or cutting-plane algorithms, which\n        is easy\n        to establish.  When a new $ h'(\\cdot) $ that violates dual\n        feasibility is added, the new optimal value of the dual\n        problem (maximization) would decrease.  Accordingly, the\n        optimal value of its primal problem decreases too because they\n        have the same optimal value due to zero duality gap. Moreover\n        the primal cost function is convex, therefore in the end it\n        converges to the global minimum. \n\n\n\n\n        \n\n    \n   \\linesnumbered\\SetVline\n   \\begin{algorithm}[t]\n   \\caption{Column generation for QP.}   \n   %\n   %\n   %\n   \\centering\n   \\begin{minipage}[]{0.91\\linewidth}\n   %\n   \\KwIn{Labeled training data $(\\mathbf x_i, y_i), i = 1\\cdots m$;\n         termination threshold $ \\varepsilon > 0$;\n         regularization\n         parameter $ \\theta $; maximum number of iterations\n         $ n_{\\rm max}$.\n    }\n      %\n      %\n      %\n       { {\\bf Initialization}:\n            $ m = 0 $;\n            $ \\mathbf w = {\\bf 0} $;\n            and $ u_i = \\frac{1}{ m }$, $ i = 1$$\\cdots$$m$. \n   }\n\n   \\For{ $ \\mathrm{iteration} = 1 : n_\\mathrm{max}$}\n   {\n    \n    \n     %\n     %\n      \\ensuremath{  - \\,} \n         Check for the optimality: \\\\\n         {\\bf if}{ $ \\mathrm{iteration}  > 1 $ \\text{ and } $\n                    \\sum_{ i=1 }^m  u_i y_i h' ( \\mathbf x_i )  \n                           < r + \\varepsilon $},\n                  \\\\\n                  { \\bf then}\n                  \\\\\n                  $~ ~ ~$ break;  and the problem is solved; \n        \n      \\ensuremath{  - \\,} \n         Add $  h'(\\cdot) $ to the restricted master problem, which\n         corresponds to a new constraint in the dual;\n     %\n     %\n    \n     \n     \n\n       \\ensuremath{  - \\,}   \n         Solve the dual problem \\eqref{EQ:dual}\n         (or the primal problem \\eqref{EQ:QP1}) \n         and update $ r $ and\n         $ u_i$ ($ i = 1\\cdots m$). \n\n\n       \\ensuremath{  - \\,}   \n         Increment the number of weak classifiers\n             $n = n + 1$.  \n   }\n   \\KwOut{\n    \n    \n        \n        \n         %\n         The selected features are $ h_1, h_2, \\dots, h_n $.\n         The final strong classifier is:\n         $ F ( \\mathbf x ) = \\textstyle \\sum_{j=1}^{ n } w_j h_j( \\mathbf x ) - b $.\n         Here the offset $ b $ can be learned by a simple search. \n     \n   }\n   \\end{minipage}\n   \\label{alg:QPCG}\n   \\end{algorithm}\n   \n   \n\n\n    At each iteration of column generation,\n    in theory, we can  solve either the dual \\eqref{EQ:dual} \n    or the primal problem \\eqref{EQ:QP1}. \n    However, \n    in practice, it could be  much faster to solve the primal problem because\n   \n   \n (i) Generally,\n    the primal problem has a smaller size, hence faster to solve.\n    The number of variables of \\eqref{EQ:dual} is $ m $ at each iteration,\n    while the number of variables is the number of iterations   \n    for the primal problem. \n    For example, in Viola-Jones' face detection framework, \n    the number of training data $ m = \n    10,000 $ and  $ n_{\\rm max} = 200 $. In other words, the  \n    primal problem has at most $ 200 $ variables in this case;\n  \n   (ii)\n        The dual problem is a standard QP problem. It has no special structure\n        to exploit. As we will show, the primal problem belongs to\n        a special class of problems and\n        can be efficiently \n        solved using entropic\/exponentiated \n        gradient descent (EG) \\cite{Beck03Mirror,Globerson07Exp}. \n        A fast QP solver is extremely important for training a \n        object detector because we need to the solve a few thousand \n        QP problems. \n  \n   \n\n\n    We can recover both of the dual variables \n    $ \\u^\\star, r^\\star $ easily from \n    the primal variable $ \\mathbf w^\\star $:\n    \\begin{align}\n        \\u^\\star &=  - \\mathbf Q\\boldsymbol \\rho^\\star  + \\theta \\boldsymbol e; \\label{EQ:KA}\\\\\n         r^\\star  &=   \\max_{ j = 1 \\dots n }  \n         \\bigl\\{ \\textstyle \\sum_{i=1}^m u_i^\\star \\mathbf A_{ij} \\bigr\\}.\n         \\label{EQ:KAb}\n    \\end{align}\n    The second equation is obtained by the fact that \n     in the dual problem's  constraints, at optimum,\n    there must exist at least one  $ u_i^\\star$ \n    such that the equality holds. That is to say,\n    $ r^\\star $ is the largest {\\em edge}\n    over all weak classifiers. \n    \n\n\n\n    We give a brief introduction to the EG algorithm before we proceed. \n    Let us first define the unit simplex \n    $ \\Delta_n =  \\{ \n    \\mathbf w \\in \\mathbb{R}^n  :  {\\bf 1 } ^ {\\!\\top} \\mathbf w = 1, \\mathbf w \\psd {\\bf 0 }\n    \\} $. \n    EG efficiently solves the convex optimization problem\n    \\begin{equation}\n        \\label{EQ:EG1}\n        \\min_\\mathbf w \\,\\,\\, f(\\mathbf w), \\,\n        {\\rm s.t.} \\,\\, \\mathbf w \\in \\Delta_n,  \n    \\end{equation}\n    under the assumption that the objective function $ f(\\cdot) $\n    is a convex Lipschitz continuous function with Lipschitz\n    constant $ L_f $ w.r.t. a fixed given norm $ \\lVert \\cdot \\rVert$.\n    The mathematical definition of $ L_f $ is that\n    $  | f(\\mathbf w) -f (\\mathbf z) |  \\leq L_f   \\lVert  \\mathbf x - \\mathbf z  \\rVert$ holds\n    for any $ \\mathbf x, \\mathbf z $ in the domain of $ f(\\cdot)$.\n    The EG algorithm is very simple:\n    %\n    %\n    \\begin{enumerate}\n    \\item\n        Initialize with $\\mathbf w^0 \\in \\text{the interior of }  \\Delta_n$;\n    \\item\n        Generate the sequence $ \\{ \\mathbf w^k \\} $, $ k=1,2,\\cdots$\n        with:\n        \\begin{equation}\n            \\label{EQ:EQ2}\n            \\mathbf w^k_j = \\frac{ \\mathbf w^{k-1}_j \\exp [ - \\tau_k f'_j ( \\mathbf w^{k-1} ) ]  } \n            { \\sum_{j=1}^n  \\mathbf w^{k-1}_j \\exp [ - \\tau_k f'_j ( \\mathbf w^{k-1} ) ] }. \n        \\end{equation}\n        Here $ \\tau_k $ is the step-size. \n        $ f'( \\mathbf w ) = [ f_1'(\\mathbf w), \\dots,  f_n'(\\mathbf w) ] ^{\\!\\top} $\n        is the gradient of $ f(\\cdot) $;\n    \\item\n        Stop if some stopping criteria are met.\n    \\end{enumerate}\n    The learning step-size can be determined by \n       \n        $    \\tau_k = \\frac{ \\sqrt{ 2\\log n } } { L_f }\n                     \\frac{1}{ \\sqrt{ k } },\n        $\n       \n    following \\cite{Beck03Mirror}.\n    In \\cite{Globerson07Exp}, the authors have \n    used a simpler strategy to set the learning rate. \n\n    EG is a very useful tool for solving large-scale \n    convex minimization problems over the unit simplex. \n    Compared with standard QP solvers like Mosek \n    \\cite{Mosek}, EG is much faster. EG makes it possible \n    to train a detector using almost the same amount of time\n    as using standard AdaBoost as the majority of time is\n    spent on weak classifier training and bootstrapping. \n\n\n    In the case that $ m_1 \\gg 1 $, \n    \\[\n            \\mathbf Q_1 =\n            \\frac{1}{m}\n    \\begin{bmatrix}\n        1   & -\\tfrac{1}{  m_1-1} & \\ldots & -\\tfrac{1}{  m_1-1 } \\\\\n        -\\tfrac{1}{ m_1-1 } & 1 & \\ldots & -\\tfrac{1}{ m_1-1} \\\\\n        \\vdots & \\vdots & \\ddots & \\vdots \\\\\n        -\\tfrac{1}{ m_1-1 } & -\\tfrac{1}{ m_1-1 } & \\ldots &  1 \n    \\end{bmatrix} \\approx  \\frac{1}{m} \\bf I.\n    \\]\n    Similarly, for LDA, $ \\mathbf Q_2 \\approx  \\frac{1}{m} \\bf I$\n    when $ m_2 \\gg 1 $. Hence,\n    \\begin{equation}\n     \\label{EQ:Q10}    \n      \\mathbf Q \\approx \n     \\begin{cases}\n          \\frac{1}{m} \\bf I;    & \\text{for Fisher LDA},    \\\\\n           \\frac{1}{m} \\begin{bmatrix}\n                                          {\\bf I} & {\\bf 0} \\\\\n                                          {\\bf 0} & {\\bf 0}\n                                 \\end{bmatrix},\n                                & \\text{for LAC}.\n    \\end{cases}\n    \\end{equation}\n    Therefore, the problems involved can be simplified when $ m_1 \\gg 1 $ and\n    $ m_2 \\gg 1 $ hold.\n    The primal problem \\eqref{EQ:QP1} equals\n     \\begin{align}\n            \\min_{\\mathbf w,\\boldsymbol \\rho} ~& \\tfrac{1}{2} \\mathbf w ^{\\!\\top} ( \\mathbf A^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf Q \\mathbf A) \\mathbf w  \n            - ( \\theta \\boldsymbol e ^{\\!\\top}\n            \\mathbf A ) \\mathbf w,\n            %\n           \n            %\n            \\;\\;\n            {\\rm s.t.}\n            \\;\n            %\n           \n            %\n            \\mathbf w \\in \\Delta_n.\n            \\label{EQ:QP2}\n        \\end{align}\n       \n       \n       \n       \n       \n        We can efficiently solve \\eqref{EQ:QP2} \n        using the EG method. \n        In EG there is an important parameter $ L_f $, which is\n        used to determine the step-size. \n        $ L_f $ can be determined by the $\\ell_\\infty $-norm of $ | f' (\\mathbf w) | $.\n        In our case $ f' (\\mathbf w) $ is a linear function, which is trivial to compute.\n        The convergence of EG is guaranteed; see \\cite{Beck03Mirror} for details.\n        \n        In summary, when using EG to solve the primal problem, \n        Line $ 5 $ of Algorithm~\\ref{alg:QPCG} is:        \n        \n         \\ensuremath{  - \\,}  \n        {\\em Solve the primal problem \\eqref{EQ:QP2} using EG, and update \n        the dual variables $ \\u $ with \\eqref{EQ:KA}, and $ r $ with \\eqref{EQ:KAb}.\n        }\n\n\n\n        \\comment{\n       \n        %\n       \n        FIXME for the journal version\n       \n        %\n         In our case \\eqref{EQ:QP2},\n         $ L_f $ can be set to $ |  \\mathbf A ^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf A  |_\\infty + \\theta m \\norm[1]{ \\boldsymbol e ^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf A }$\n         with $ |  \\mathbf A ^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf A  |_\\infty $\n        the maximum magnitude of the matrix $ \\mathbf A ^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf A $.\n        $ L_f $ is the upper bound of the $ \\ell_1$-norm of the cost function's gradient:\n        $  \\norm [1]{  \\mathbf w^{\\!\\top} (\\mathbf A^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf A ) + \\theta m \\boldsymbol e^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf A    } \\leq L_f $. \n        %\n        %\n        With the triangle inequality, we have\n        $  \\norm [1]{  \\mathbf w^{\\!\\top} (\\mathbf A^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf A ) - \\theta m \\boldsymbol e^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf A    } $ $\n        \\leq \\norm[1]{ \\mathbf w^{\\!\\top} (\\mathbf A^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf A )  } $ $ + \\theta m \\norm[1]{ \\boldsymbol e^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf A } $ $\n        \\leq |  \\mathbf A ^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf A  |_\\infty $ $ + \\theta m \\norm[1]{ \\boldsymbol e ^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf A }$.\n\n\n\n        The following theorem ensures the convergence of the EG algorithm \n        for our problem.\n        \\begin{theorem}\n            Under the assumption that the learning step-size\n            satisfies $ 0 < \\tau_k  <  \\frac{1} { n | \\mathbf A^{\\!\\top} \\mathbf A |_\\infty  }  $,\n            then we have\n            $ f( \\mathbf w^\\star  ) \\leq f (\\mathbf w ^{ k } ) \\leq f (\\mathbf w ^\\star ) \n            + \\frac{1} { \\tau_k ( k -1 ) } {\\rm KL} [  \\mathbf w^\\star \\Vert \\mathbf w^0   ] $,\n            where $ f(\\cdot) $ denotes the objective function in \\eqref{EQ:QP2};\n            and $  | \\mathbf X |_\\infty  $ denotes the maximum magnitude element of \n            the matrix $ \\mathbf X $; $ {\\rm KL} ( \\u \\Vert \\v )$ computes the \n            Kullback\u2013Leibler divergence of $ \\u, \\v \\in \\Delta_n $.\n        \\end{theorem}\n        The proof follows the proof of Theorem 1 in \\cite{Globerson07Exp}. \n       \n        }\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Applications to Face Detection}\n\n\n \n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n    \\centering\n        \\includegraphics[width=.45\\textwidth]{adaboost_toy}\n        \\includegraphics[width=.45\\textwidth]{fisherboost_toy}\n    \\caption{Decision boundaries of \n    AdaBoost (left) and FisherBoost (right) on $2$D artificial data\n    (positive data represented by $ \\square $'s and negative data\n    by $\\times$'s). Weak classifiers are decision stumps.\n    In this case, FisherBoost intends to correctly classify more\n    positive data in this case. \n    }\n    \\label{fig:toy}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n    First, let us show a simple example on a synthetic dataset \n    (more negative data than positive data)\n    to illustrate\n    the difference between FisherBoost and AdaBoost.\n    Fig. \\ref{fig:toy} demonstrates the subtle difference of the classification \n    boundaries obtained by AdaBoost and FisherBoost. \n    We can see that\n    FisherBoost seems to focus more on correctly classifying positive data points.\n    This might be due to the fact that AdaBoost only optimizes the overall \n    classification accuracy. \n    This finding is consistent with the result in \\cite{Paisitkriangkrai2009CVPR}.\n    \n\\begin{figure}[t]\n    \\centering\n        \\includegraphics[width=.32\\textwidth]{p1}\n        \\includegraphics[width=.32\\textwidth]{p2}\n        \\includegraphics[width=.32\\textwidth]{p3}\n    \\caption{Normality test (normal probability plot)\n    for the face data's margin distribution of nodes $1$, $2$, $3$.\n    The $ 3 $ nodes contains $ 7 $, $ 22 $, $ 52 $ weak classifiers respectively.\n    Curves close to a straight line mean close to a Gaussian.\n    }\n    \\label{fig:normplot}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\n\n\\textbf{Face detection}\n    In this section, we compare our algorithm with other \n    state-of-art face detectors.\n    We first show some results about the validity \n    of LAC (or Fisher LDA) post-processing for improving \n    node learning in object detection. \n    Fig. \\ref{fig:normplot} illustrates the normal probability plot of \n    margins of positive training\n    data, for the first three nodes in the multi-exit with LAC cascade. \n    Clearly, the larger\n    number of weak classifiers being used,\n    the more closely the margin follows Gaussian distribution.\n    In other words, \n    LAC may achieve a better performance if a larger number of weak classifiers\n    are used.  The performance could be poor with too fewer weak classifiers.\n    The same statement applies to Fisher LDA, and LACBoost, FisherBoost, too. \n    Therefore, we do not\n    apply LAC\/LDA in the first eight nodes because the margin distribution could be\n    far from a Gaussian distribution.\n    Because the late nodes of a multi-exit cascade contain more weak classifiers, \n    we conjecture that the multi-exit cascade \n    might meet the Gaussianity requirement better. We have compared \n    multi-exit cascades with LDA\/LAC post-processing against \n    standard cascades with LDA\/LAC post-processing in \\cite{Wu2008Fast}\n    and slightly improved performances were obtained. \n\n\n\n    Six methods are evaluated with  the multi-exit cascade framework\n    \\cite{pham08multi},\n    which are AdaBoost with LAC post-processing,\n    or LDA post-processing,\n    AsymBoost with LAC or LDA post-processing \\cite{Wu2008Fast}, and our\n    FisherBoost,\n    LACBoost. We have also implemented Viola-Jones'\n    face detector as the baseline \\cite{Viola2004Robust}.\n    As in \\cite{Viola2004Robust}, five  basic types of Haar-like features \n    are calculated, which makes up of a $162, 336$ dimensional over-complete\n    feature set on an image of $24 \\times 24$ pixels.\n    To speed up the weak classifier training, as in \\cite{Wu2008Fast},\n    we  uniformly sample $10\\%$ of features for\n    training weak classifiers (decision stumps). \n    The training data are $9,832$ mirrored $24 \\times 24$ face images \n    ($5,000$ for training and $4,832$ for validation) and $7,323$ large background images,\n    which are the same as in \\cite{Wu2008Fast}.\n\n    Multi-exit cascades with $22$ exits and $2,923$ weak classifiers are\n    trained with various methods. \n    For fair comparisons, we have used the same cascade structure and \n    same number of weak classifiers for all the compared learning methods.\n    The indexes of exits are pre-set to simplify the training\n    procedure.\n      For our FisherBoost and LACBoost, we have an important parameter  \n      $\\theta$, which is chosen from \n      $\\{\n      \\frac{1}{10}, \n      \\frac{1}{12},\n      \\frac{1}{15},\n      $\n      $\n      \\frac{1}{20}, \n      \\frac{1}{25},\n      \\frac{1}{30},\n      $\n      $\n      \\frac{1}{40},\n      \\frac{1}{50} \n      \\}$.\n      We have not carefully tuned this parameter using cross-validation.\n      Instead, we train a $10$-node cascade for each candidate $ \\theta$, \n      and choose the one with the best {\\em training} \n      accuracy.\\footnote{ To train a complete $22$-node cascade\n      and choose the best $ \\theta $\n      on cross-validation data may give better detection rates.} \n     At each exit, negative examples misclassified by current cascade are\n     discarded, and new negative examples are bootstrapped from the background\n     images pool.  \n     Totally, billions of negative examples are extracted from the pool.\n        The positive training data and validation data keep unchanged  during the\n        training process.\n\nOur experiments are performed on a workstation with $8$ Intel Xeon\nE$5520$ CPUs and $32$GB RAM.\nIt takes about $3$ hours  to train the multi-exit cascade with AdaBoost or AsymBoost.\nFor FisherBoost and LACBoost, it takes less than $ 4 $ hours to train\na complete multi-exit cascade.\\footnote{Our implementation is in C++ and \n                                        only the weak classifier\n                                        training part is parallelized using OpenMP. \n}\nIn other words, \n    our EG algorithm takes less than $ 1 $ hour for  \n    solving the primal QP problem (we need to solve a QP at each iteration).\n    A rough estimation of the computational complexity is as follows. \n    Suppose that the number of training\n    examples is $  m $, number of weak classifiers is $ n $,\n    At each iteration of the cascade training,\n    the complexity for solving the primal QP using EG is\n    $  O( m n  + k n^2) $ with $ k $ the iterations \n    needed for EQ's convergence.\n    The complexity  for  training the weak classifier  is\n    $ O( m  d ) $ with $d$ the number of all Haar-feature patterns.\n    In our experiment, $ m = 10,000 $,\n    $ n \\approx 2900 $,\n    $d = 160,000$,\n    $ k < 500 $.\nSo the majority of the training computation is on the weak classifier training.\n\n\n\n\n    We have also experimentally observed the speedup of EG against standard QP solvers. \n    We solve the primal QP defined by \\eqref{EQ:QP2} using EG and Mosek \\cite{Mosek}.\n    The QP's size is $ 1,000 $ variables. \n    With the same accuracy tolerance (Mosek's primal-dual gap is set to $ 10^{-7}$\n    and EG's convergence tolerance is also set to $ 10^{-7}$), \n    Mosek takes $1.22 $ seconds and EG is\n    $ 0.0541 $ seconds. So EG is about $ 20 $ times faster. \n    Moreover,  at iteration $ n + 1 $ of training the cascade,\n    EG can take advantage of the last iteration's solution\n    by starting EG from a small perturbation of the previous solution. \n    Such a warm-start gains a $ 5 $ to $ 10\\times $ speedup in our experiment,\n    while there is no off-the-shelf warm-start QP solvers available yet.\n\n\n    We evaluate the detection performance on the MIT+CMU frontal\n    face test set. \nTwo performance metrics are used here: each node and the entire cascade.\nThe node metric is how well the classifiers meet the node learning objective.\nThe node metric provides useful information about \nthe capability of each method to achieve the node learning goal.\nThe cascade metric uses the receiver operating characteristic (ROC)\nto compare the entire cascade's peformance.\nMultiple issues have impacts on the cascade's performance: classifiers,\nthe cascade structure,  bootstrapping {\\em etc}.\n\n\n\nWe show the node comparison results  in Fig. \\ref{fig:node1}.\nThe node performances between FisherBoost and LACBoost\nare very similar. From Fig.~\\ref{fig:node1}, as reported in \\cite{Wu2008Fast},\nLDA or LAC post-processing can considerably reduce the\nfalse negative rates. \nAs expected, our proposed FisherBoost and LACBoost can further reduce the false\nnegative rates significantly. \nThis verifies the advantage of selecting features with the node learning goal \nbeing considered. \n\n    \nFrom the ROC curves in Fig.~\\ref{fig:ROC1}, we can see that FisherBoost and LACBoost\n    outperform all the other methods.\n    In contrast to the results of the detection rate for each node, \n    LACBoost is slightly worse than FisherBoost in some cases.\n    That might be due to that many factors have impacts on the final result of\n    detection.\n   \n   \n \n \n  LAC makes the assumption of Gaussianity and symmetry data distributions,\n    which may not hold well in the early nodes. \n    This could explain why\n    LACBoost does not always perform the best.\n    Wu {\\em et al.} have observed the same phenomenon that LAC post-processing\n    does not outperform LDA post-processing in a few cases.\n    However, we believe that for harder detection tasks, the \n    benefits of LACBoost would be more impressive.\n\n    The error reduction results of FisherBoost and LACBoost in \n    Fig.~\\ref{fig:ROC1} are not as great as those in Fig. \\ref{fig:node1}.\n    This might be explained by the fact that the\n    cascade and negative data bootstrapping remove\n    of the error reducing effects, to some extend.\n        We have also compared our methods with the boosted greedy sparse LDA (BGSLDA) in\n    \\cite{Paisitkriangkrai2009CVPR}, which is considered one of the state-of-the-art.\n  \n  \n  \n    We provide the ROC curves in the supplementary package.\n    Both of our methods outperform \n    BGSLDA with AdaBoost\/AsymBoost by about $ 2\\%$ in the detection rate. \n    Note that BGSLDA uses the standard cascade.  \n    So besides the benefits of our FisherBoost\/LACBoost,\n    the multi-exit cascade also brings effects. \n\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n    \\begin{center}\n        \\includegraphics[width=.45\\textwidth]{Fisher_node}\n        \\includegraphics[width=.45\\textwidth]{LACBoost_node}\n        \\includegraphics[width=.45\\textwidth]{FisherBoost_vs_AsymBoost_noderates}\n        \\includegraphics[width=.45\\textwidth]{LACBoost_vs_AsymBoost_noderates}\n    \\end{center}\n    \\caption{Node performances on the validation data. \n       ``Ada'' means that features are selected using AdaBoost;\n    ``Asym'' means that features are selected using AsymBoost.\n    }\n    \\label{fig:node1}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n    \\begin{center}\n        \\includegraphics[width=.45\\textwidth]{Fisher_ROC}\n        \\includegraphics[width=.45\\textwidth]{LACBoost_ROC}\n        \\includegraphics[width=.45\\textwidth]{FisherBoost_vs_AsymBoost}\n        \\includegraphics[width=.45\\textwidth]{LACBoost_vs_AsymBoost}\n    \\end{center}\n    \\caption{Cascade performances using ROC curves \n    (number of false positives versus detection rate) on the MIT+CMU test data.\n    ``Ada'' means that features are selected using AdaBoost. Viola-Jones cascade\n    is the method in\n    \\cite{Viola2004Robust}.\n      ``Asym'' means that features are selected using AsymBoost.\n    }\n    \\label{fig:ROC1}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\comment{\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n    \\begin{center}\n        \\includegraphics[width=.45\\textwidth]{FisherBoost_vs_BGSLDA}\n    \\end{center}\n    \\caption{Cascade performances on the MIT+CMU test data. We compare our methods with BGSLDA in\n    \\cite{Paisitkriangkrai2009CVPR}.}\n    \\label{fig:ROC_BGSLDA}\n\\end{figure}\n}\n\n\\section{Conclusion}\n\n\n    By explicitly taking into account the node learning goal in cascade classifiers,\n    we have designed \n    new boosting algorithms for more effective object detection. \n    Experiments validate the superiority of our FisherBoost and LACBoost. \n    We have also proposed to use entropic gradient to efficiently \n    implement FisherBoost and LACBoost. The proposed algorithms are easy to implement\n    and can be applied other asymmetric classification tasks in computer vision.\n    We are also trying to design new asymmetric boosting algorithms\n    by looking at those asymmetric kernel classification methods.  \n\n\n\\bibliographystyle{splncs}\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\nThe light pseudoscalar particle named {\\it axion} is an important element of the\nStandard Model and its generalizations. Axion arises \\cite{1,2} due to breaking\nof the Peccei-Quinn symmetry which was introduced \\cite{3} in quantum\nchromodynamics (QCD) in order to avoid strong {\\it CP} violation and large\nelectric dipole moment of a neutron (numerous experiments exclude both these\neffects  to a high level of precision).\nWhat is more, axions provide an elegant solution for the problem of dark matter in\nastrophysics and cosmology \\cite{4,5}. This is the reason why a lot of experiments for\nsearching axions has been performed in different countries \\cite{6}.\nSpecifically, strong constraints on the coupling constants of an axion and other axion-like\nparticles with photons, electrons and nucleons were obtained from astrophysical\nobservations. Up to the present, however, there is the so-called {\\it window} in the\nvalues of an axion mass, where these constraints are either missing or not sufficiently\nstrong.\n\nThere are also massless and light scalar particles predicted in many extensions of the\nStandard Model \\cite{7}. Exchange of such particles between atoms of two macrobodies\nleads to corrections to the Newton law of gravitation at separations below a micrometer.\nBy coincidence, at so small separations Newton's gravitational law is not verified experimentally\nwith sufficient precision. Within a submicrometer interaction range experiment does not\nexclude corrections which exceed the Newton gravitational force by many orders of\nmagnitude \\cite{8}. Similar corrections are predicted in extra-dimensional models with a\nlow-energy compactification scale \\cite{9,10}. Many experiments of E\\\"{o}tvos- and Cavendish-type have\nbeen performed during the last few years searching for possible corrections to the Newton\nlaw of gravitation \\cite{11}.\n\nRecently it was found \\cite{12,13,14,15} that strong model-independent constraints on the coupling\nconstants of axions with nucleons follow from measurements of the Casimir-Polder and Casimir force.\nSome of these constraints overlap with an axion window and, thus, are complementary to\nastrophysical limits. As to corrections to Newton's law of gravitation, measurements of the van der Waals\nand Casimir forces have long been used to constrain their parameters \\cite{16,17}.\nNew, more precise measurements of the Casimir force allowed significant strengthening of previously\nobtained constraints on non-Newtonian gravity over the region of separations below $1\\,\\mu$m\n\\cite{18,19,20,21,22}.\n\nIn this paper, we review constraints on the coupling constants of an axion to a proton and a neutron,\nand corrections to Newton's law of gravitation which follow from the most precise measurements of the\nCasimir interaction \\cite{23,24}. We compare the obtained constraints on an axion with the alternative\nconstraints following from some other laboratory experiments. The constraints on the coupling constants\nof an axion and on non-Newtonian gravity, following from measurements of the Casimir interaction, are\nmutually compared and some conclusions inherent to both of them are obtained.\n\nThe paper is organized as follows. In  Section 2 we consider the types of effective potentials which arise\ndue to one- and two-axion exchange. These are compared with the effective potentials originating from\nthe exchange of massless and massive scalar particles. Section 3 is devoted to the constraints on\naxion-nucleon coupling constants which follow from measurements of the Casimir-Polder force acting\nbetween the condensate of ${}^{87}$Rb atoms and a glass silica plate. In Section 4 the constraints on\naxion to nucleon coupling constants are presented obtained from measurements of the gradient of the\nCasimir force between a microsphere and a plate coated with a nonmagnetic metal Au or a magnetic\nmetal Ni. These experiments were performed by means of a dynamic atomic force microscope (AFM).\nSection 5 contains similar constraints obtained from measurements of the gradient of the Casimir force\nbetween Au-coated surfaces of a sphere and a plate using a micromachined oscillator.\nIn Section 6 the constraints on the coupling constants of an axion are provided which follow from\nmeasurements of the Casimir force between corrugated surfaces.  In Section 7 we compare the\nconstraints on an axion found from measurements of the Casimir interaction with those obtained from\nsome other laboratory experiments. Section 8 is devoted to the constraints on non-Newtonian gravity\nderived from the Casimir effect. In Section 9 the reader will find our conclusions and discussion.\n\nThroughout the paper we use units in which $\\hbar=c=1$.\n\n\\section{Types of effective potentials}\n\nBelow we consider effective potentials arising from the interaction of nucleons (protons and neutrons) with\nan axion and other axion-like particles predicted in different variants of the Grand Unification Theories.\nAxions also interact with electrons and photons. These interactions are, however, much weaker than\naxion-nucleon interaction \\cite{25} and for our purposes can be neglected. In any case, their account would\nlead to only a minor strengthening of the constraints on axion-nucleon coupling constants obtained from the\nforce measurements between macroscopic bodies.\n\nWe assume that the interaction of axion-like particles $a$ with nucleons $\\psi$ is described by the\nLagrangian \\cite{4}\n\\begin{equation}\n{\\cal L}=-i g_{ak}\\bar{\\psi}\\gamma_5\\psi a,\n\\label{eq1}\n\\end{equation}\n\\noindent\nwhere $g_{ak}$ is the coupling constant of an axion to a proton ($k=p$) or to a neutron ($k=n$).\nIn doing so the pseudoscalar coupling of axions and other axion-like particles to nucleons is assumed\n(note that the pseudovector coupling introduced for the\noriginal QCD axions results in the nonrenormalizable\ntheory \\cite{15}).  The exchange of one axion between two nucleons of spins\n$\\mbox{\\boldmath$\\sigma$}_{1,2}\/2$ situated at the points\n$\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_1\\neq\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_2$ with coupling (\\ref{eq1}) results in the following\neffective potential \\cite{25,26}\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&&\nV(\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_1-\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_2;\\mbox{\\boldmath$\\sigma$}_{1},\\mbox{\\boldmath$\\sigma$}_{2})\n=\\frac{g_{ak}g_{al}}{16\\pi m_km_l}\\left[\n\\vphantom{\\left(\n\\frac{m_a}{|\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_1-\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_2|^2}\n\\frac{1}{|\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_1-\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_2|^3}\\right)}\n(\\mbox{\\boldmath$\\sigma$}_{1}\\cdot\\mbox{\\boldmath$n$})\n(\\mbox{\\boldmath$\\sigma$}_{2}\\cdot\\mbox{\\boldmath$n$})\\right.\n\\nonumber\\\\\n&&~~~~~~~~~\n\\times\\left(\n\\frac{m_a^2}{|\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_1-\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_2|}+\n\\frac{3m_a}{|\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_1-\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_2|^2}+\n\\frac{3}{|\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_1-\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_2|^3}\\right)\n\\nonumber\\\\\n&&~~~~\n\\left.-\n(\\mbox{\\boldmath$\\sigma$}_{1}\\cdot\\mbox{\\boldmath$\\sigma$}_{2})\n\\left(\n\\frac{m_a}{|\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_1-\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_2|^2}+\n\\frac{1}{|\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_1-\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_2|^3}\\right)\n\\right]\\,e^{-m_a|\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_1-\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_2|}.\n\\label{eq2}\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\\noindent\nHere, $g_{ak}$ and $g_{al}$ are the axion-proton ($k,l=p$) or \naxion-neutron ($k,l=n$) interaction constants, $m_k,\\,m_l$ are the nucleon masses,\n$m_a$ is the axion mass, and the unit vector\n$\\mbox{\\boldmath$n$}=\n(\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_1-\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_2)\n\/|\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_1-\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_2|$.\n\nAs is seen in (\\ref{eq2}), the effective potential depends on the nucleon spins. Because of this,\nthe resulting interaction between two unpolarized test bodies averages to zero.\nTaking into account that already performed experiments on measuring the Casimir interaction\n\\cite{23,24} deal with unpolarized test bodies, it seems impossible to use them for constraining\nthe axion to nucleon coupling constants basing on the simplest process of  one-axion exchange.\n\nThe situation changes when we consider the process of two-axion exchange between the two\nnucleons. In this case the Lagrangian (\\ref{eq1}) leads to the following effective\npotential \\cite{25,27,28}\n\\begin{equation}\nV_{kl}(|\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_1-\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_2|)=-\n\\frac{g_{ak}^2g_{al}^2}{32\\pi^3m_km_l}\\,\n\\frac{m_a}{(\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_1-\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_2)^2}\\,\nK_1(2m_a|\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_1-\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_2|),\n\\label{eq3}\n\\end{equation}\n\\noindent\nwhere $K_1(z)$ is the modified Bessel function of the second kind. Note that (\\ref{eq3}) is\nderived under the condition\n$|\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_1-\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_2|\\gg 1\/m_{k,l}$\nwhich is satisfied with a large safety margin in all the experiments considered below.\nEquation (\\ref{eq3}) does not depend on the nucleon spins. Thus, after the integration over the\nvolumes of test bodies, it leads to some additional force of the axionic origin which can be\nconstrained from the measurement results.\n\nNow we address to exchange of massless and light scalar particles between the atoms of two\nmacroscopic bodies. The exchange of one light scalar particle of mass $M$ between two pointlike\nparticles with masses $m_1$ and $m_2$ spaced at the points\n$\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_1$ and $\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_2$ results in the spin-independent\nYukawa-type effective potential \\cite{8}. It is convenient to parametrize this potential as a\ncorrection to Newton's law of gravitation:\n\\begin{equation}\nV(|\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_1-\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_2|)=-\n\\frac{Gm_1m_2}{|\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_1-\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_2|}\\,\\left(1+\n\\alpha e^{-|\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_1-\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_2|\/\\lambda}\\right).\n\\label{eq4}\n\\end{equation}\n\\noindent\nHere, $\\alpha$ is a dimensionless constant characterizing the strength of Yukawa interaction,\n$\\lambda=1\/M$\n is the Compton wavelength of light scalar particle characterizing the interaction range, and $G$ is the\nNewtonian gravitational constant. As was noted in Section 1, the effective potential (\\ref{eq4}) arises\nalso in extradimensional models with a low-energy compactification scale \\cite{9,10}.\nIn this case the quantity $\\lambda$ has the meaning of the characteristic size of a multidimensional\ncompact manifold.\n\nThe exchange of one massless scalar particle leads to an effective\n potential which is inversely proportional to  the separation\n distance.\nThe exchange of an even number of massless pseudoscalar particles\n(for instance, by the arions) results in the effective potentials\ninversely proportional to higher powers of the separation.\nSimilar potentials arise also due to the exchange of two\nneutrinos,\ntwo goldstinos, or other massless fermions \\cite{29,30}.\nThe power-type effective potentials are also usually\nparametrized as corrections to Newton's law of gravitation\n\\begin{equation}\nV_n(|\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_1-\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_2|)=-\n\\frac{Gm_1m_2}{|\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_1-\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_2|}\\,\\left[1+\n\\Lambda_n\n\\left(\\frac{r_0}{|\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_1-\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_2|}\\right)^{n-1}\n\\right].\n\\label{eq5}\n\\end{equation}\n\\noindent\nHere, $\\Lambda_n$ is a dimensionless constant, $n$ is a positive\ninteger, and $r_0=10^{-15}\\,$m is chosen to preserve the correct\ndimension of energy at different $n$. Note that the exchange by\ntwo axion-like particles in the limiting case $m_a\\to 0$\nin accordance to (\\ref{eq3}) results in the potential \\cite{31}\n\\begin{equation}\nV_{kl}(|\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_1-\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_2|)=-\n\\frac{g_{ak}^2g_{al}^2}{64\\pi^3m_km_l}\\,\n\\frac{1}{|\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_1-\\mbox{\\boldmath$r$}_2|^3}.\n\\label{eq6}\n\\end{equation}\n\\noindent\nThis can be represented as a correction to Newton's law of\ngravitation in (\\ref{eq5}) with $n=3$ (the same power-type\ninteraction is obtained from the exchange of two arions).\nThe effective potential (\\ref{eq5}) with $n=3$ is also obtained\nfrom extra-dimensional models with noncompact (but warped)\nextra dimensions \\cite{32,33}.\n\n\\section{Constraints on an axion from measurements of the Casimir-Polder force}\n\nThe Casimir-Polder force acting between ${}^{87}$Rb atoms\nbelonging to a Bose-Einstein condensate cloud and a SiO${}_2$\nplate was measured by means of the following dynamic\nexperiment \\cite{34}. The condensate cloud was placed in a\nmagnetic trap with frequencies $\\omega_{0z}=1438.85\\,$rad\/s\nin the perpendicular direction to the plate and\n$\\omega_{0t}=40.21\\,$rad\/s in the lateral direction.\nThe Thomas-Fermi radii of the condensate cloud of ${}^{87}$Rb\natoms in the perpendicular and lateral directions were\n$R_z=2.69\\,\\mu$m and $R_l=97.1\\,\\mu$m, respectively.\nThe dipole oscillations of the condensate in the $z$ direction\nwith a constant amplitude $A_z=2.5\\,\\mu$m were excited.\nThe separation distance $a$ between the center of mass of a\ncondensate and a plate was varied from 6.88 to $11\\,\\mu$m,\ni.e., in the region where the thermal effects in the\nCasimir-Polder force contribute essentially.\nThe temperature of the plate was equal to either $T=310\\,$K\n(as in an environment) or $T=479\\,$K and $T=605\\,$K (which\ncorresponds to out of equilibrium situations). However, for\nconstraining the parameters of an axion, the strongest result\nfollows from the measurements in thermal equilibrium.\n\nUnder the influence of the Casimir-Polder force between\n${}^{87}$Rb atoms and a plate, the oscillation frequency\n$\\omega_{0z}$ slightly shifts to some other value $\\omega_z$.\nThe relative frequency shift is given by\n\\begin{equation}\n\\gamma_z=\\frac{|\\omega_{0z}-\\omega_z|}{\\omega_{0z}}\\approx\n\\frac{|\\omega_{0z}^2-\\omega_z^2|}{2\\omega_{0z}^2}.\n\\label{eq7}\n\\end{equation}\n\\noindent\nThis frequency shift was measured \\cite{34} as a function of\n$a$ with some measurement errors determined at a 67\\% confidence\nlevel. For example, at the shortest separation $a_1=6.88\\,\\mu$m\nthis absolute error was $\\Delta_1\\gamma_z=3.06\\times 10^{-5}$.\nThe quantity $\\gamma_z$ was also calculated using the Lifshitz\ntheory of atom-wall interaction and subsequent averaging over the\ncondensate cloud. Under the assumption that SiO${}_2$ is an ideal\ninsulator, i.e., by disregarding the influence of its dc\nconductivity,\nit was found \\cite{34} that the measurement results are in\nagreement with theory in the limits of the experimental error\n$\\Delta\\gamma_z$ (the importance of this assumption was\ndemonstrated later \\cite{23,24,35}).\n\nDue to the interaction potential (\\ref{eq3}), there may be also\nsome additional force between a condensate cloud and a plate\ncaused by the two-axion exchange between protons and neutrons\nbelonging to them. The respective additional frequency shift can\nbe calculated by the additive summation of (\\ref{eq3}) over all\nnucleons of a ${}^{87}$Rb atom and a plate with subsequent\naveraging over the condensate cloud (see \\cite{12} for details).\nUnder an assumption that the plate has an infinitely large area\n(it was shown \\cite{12} that relative corrections to the result\ndue to a finite plate area are of order $10^{-6}$) the additional\nfrequency shift due to two-axion exchange is given by \\cite{12}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\gamma_{z}^{\\rm add}(a)=\n\\frac{15A(g_{ap},g_{an})}{2\\pi A_z m_{\\rm Rb}\\omega_{0z}^2}\n\\Phi(a,m_a),\n\\label{eq8}\n\\end{equation}\n\\noindent\nwhere $m_{\\rm Rb}$ is the mass of ${}^{87}$Rb atom and the\nfunction $\\Phi(a,m_a)$ is defined as\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&&\n\\Phi(a,m_a)=\n\\int_{1}^{\\infty}\\!\\!\\!du\\frac{\\sqrt{u^2-1}}{u}\ne^{-2m_aau}\n\\nonumber \\\\\n&&~~~~~~\\times\n\\left(1-e^{-2m_aDu}\\right)\\,\nI_1(2m_aA_zu)\\Theta(2m_aR_zu).\n\\label{eq9}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nHere, $D=7\\,$mm is the thickness of SiO${}_2$ plate and\n\\begin{equation}\n\\Theta(t)\\equiv\\frac{1}{t^3}(t^2\\sinh t-3t\\cosh t+3\\sinh t).\n\\label{eq10}\n\\end{equation}\n\\noindent\nThe constant $A(g_{ap}g_{an})$ in (\\ref{eq8}) depends on the\nmaterial properties as follows \\cite{12}\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&&\nA(g_{ap},g_{an})=\n\\frac{\\rho_{{\\rm SiO}_2}m_a}{16\\pi^2m^2m_{\\rm H}}\n(37g_{ap}^2+50g_{an}^2)\n\\nonumber\\\\\n&&~~~~~~~\n\\times\\left(\\frac{Z_{{\\rm SiO}_2}}{\\mu_{{\\rm SiO}_2}}g_{ap}^2\n+\\frac{N_{{\\rm SiO}_2}}{\\mu_{{\\rm SiO}_2}}g_{an}^2\\right),\n\\label{eq11}\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\\noindent\nwhere $\\rho_{{\\rm SiO}_2}$ is the plate density,\n$m=(m_p+m_n)\/2$ is the mean nucleon mass,\n$Z_{{\\rm SiO}_2}$ and $N_{{\\rm SiO}_2}$ are the number of protons\nand the mean number of neutrons in a SiO${}_2$ molecule,\nrespectively. The quantity\n$\\mu_{{\\rm SiO}_2}=m_{{\\rm SiO}_2}\/m_{\\rm H}$, where\n$m_{{\\rm SiO}_2}$ is the mean mass of a SiO${}_2$ molecule and\n$m_{\\rm H}$ is the mass of atomic hydrogen.\n\nTaking into account that the observed frequency shift was in\nagreement with that originating from the Casimir-Polder force,\nthe additional frequency shift (\\ref{eq8}) due to two-axion\nexchange should be constrained by the magnitude of the experimental\nerror\n\\begin{equation}\n\\gamma_{z}^{\\rm add}(a_1)\\leq\\Delta_1\\gamma_z.\n\\label{eq12}\n\\end{equation}\n\\noindent\n{}From the numerical analysis of this equation, the constraints\non axion-nucleon coupling constants  were obtained \\cite{12} under\ndifferent assumptions about a relationship between $g_{an}$ and\n$g_{ap}$. For example, under a natural assumption that\n$g_{an}=g_{ap}$ \\cite{25}, the resulting constraints are shown\nin Fig.~1, where the region of the plane above the line is\nexcluded and the region below the line is allowed.\nThese constraints cover the wide region of axion masses from\n$m_a=10^{-4}$ to 0.3\\,eV. As is seen in Fig.~1, the strength\nof constraints decreases with increasing axion mass.\nIn Section 7 we compare the constraints of Fig.~1 with those\nobtained from other measurements of the Casimir force and\ndifferent laboratory experiments.\n\n\\section{Constraints on an axion from measurements of the gradient of the Casimir force\nby means of AFM}\n\nIn the sequence of three experiments, the gradient of the Casimir\nforce was measured\nbetween the surfaces of a hollow sphere and a plate both coated\nwith Au films \\cite{36,37},\nwith Au and Ni films, respectively \\cite{38},\nand with Ni films \\cite{39,40}.\nFor technological purposes, there were also various material\nlayers\nbelow Au and Ni coatings on both a hollow sphere made of fused\nsilica (SiO${}_2$) and a sapphire (Al${}_2$O${}_3$) plate.\nThe radii of spheres were of about $50\\,\\mu$m and the plates (disks)\nwere of approximately 5\\,mm radius, i.e., by a factor of 100\nlarger than the spheres.\nMeasurements of the gradient of the Casimir force,\n$\\partial F_C(a)\/\\partial a$,\nas a function of separation $a$ between the plate and the sphere,\nwere performed by means of dynamic AFM (see \\cite{36,37} for\ndetails). In all three experiments the measurement results were\nfound in agreement with theoretical predictions of the Lifshitz\ntheory in the limits of the experimental errors\n$\\Delta F_C^{\\prime}(a)$. Calculations of the theoretical force\ngradients were performed with omitted relaxation properties of\nconduction electrons in metals (an account of the\nrelaxation properties of\nconduction electrons in computations using the Lifshitz theory\nleads to disagreement with the measurement data of many\nexperiments \\cite{22,23,24,36,37,39,40}).\n\nThe two-axion exchange between nucleons belonging to a sphere and\na plate leads to some attraction in addition to the Casimir force.\n The gradient of this additional force acting between a spherical\nenvelope (layer) of thickness $\\Delta_s$ and external radius $R$,\nand a plate of thickness $D$ can be calculated by the additive\nsummation of the interaction potentials (\\ref{eq3}) \\cite{13}\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&&\n\\frac{\\partial F_{\\rm add}(a)}{\\partial a}=\n\\frac{\\pi}{m^2m_H^2}C_pC_s\n\\int_{1}^{\\infty}\\!du\\frac{\\sqrt{u^2-1}}{u^2}\n\\left(1-e^{-2m_auD}\\right)\n\\nonumber \\\\\n&&~~~~\n\\times\ne^{-2m_aau}\\,\\left[\\Phi(R,m_au)-\ne^{-2m_au\\Delta_s}\\Phi(R-\\Delta_s,m_au)\\right],\n\\label{eq13}\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\\noindent\nwhere the function $\\Phi(r,z)$ is defined as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\Phi(r,z)=r-\\frac{1}{2z}+e^{-2rz}\\left(r+\n\\frac{1}{2z}\\right),\n\\label{eq14}\n\\end{equation}\nthe coefficients $C_{p(s)}$ for a plate (spherical layer)\nmaterials are given by\n\\begin{equation}\nC_{p(s)}=\\rho_{p(s)}\\left(\\frac{g_{ap}^2}{4\\pi}\\,\n\\frac{Z_{p(s)}}{\\mu_{p(s)}}+\\frac{g_{an}^2}{4\\pi}\\,\n\\frac{N_{p(s)}}{\\mu_{p(s)}}\\right),\n\\label{eq15}\n\\end{equation}\n\\noindent\n$\\rho_{p(s)}$ are the plate (spherical layer)\ndensities, and the quantities $Z_{p(s)}$, $N_{p(s)}$ and\n$\\mu_{p(s)}$ have the same meaning, as explained below\n(\\ref{eq11}), but in application to the molecules (atoms)\nof a plate and a spherical layer, respectively.\n\nNow we concentrate our attention on the experiment using\nAu-coated surfaces of a spherical envelope of thickness\n$\\Delta_s^{\\! g}=5\\,\\mu$m, of radius $R=41.3\\,\\mu$m\nand a plate \\cite{36,37}. The thicknesses of the Au coating\non the sphere and the plate were\n$\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au}=\\Delta_p^{\\!\\rm Au}=280\\,$nm.\nThis allows to calculate the Casimir force (but not the\nadditive force due to two-axion exchange) as between entirely\nAu bodies. In calculation of the additional force it should\nbe taken into account that in the experiment \\cite{36,37}\nthe Au layers on both the spherical envelope and the plate\nwere deposited on the layers of Al of equal thicknesses\n$\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Al}=\\Delta_p^{\\!\\rm Al}=20\\,$nm.\nNow the gradient of the additional force can be calculated\nby applying (\\ref{eq13}) to each pair of material layers\nforming the spherical envelope and the plate taking into\naccount the separation distances between each pair of\nmaterial layers\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&&\n\\frac{\\partial F_{\\rm add}(a)}{\\partial a}=\n\\frac{\\pi}{m^2m_H^2}\n\\int_{1}^{\\infty}\\!du\\frac{\\sqrt{u^2-1}}{u^2}\ne^{-2m_aau}\n\\nonumber \\\\\n&&~~~~~~~~~~\n\\times\nX_p(m_au)X_s(m_au),\n\\label{eq16}\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\\noindent\nwhere\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&&\nX_p(z)\\equiv C_{\\rm Au}\\left(1-e^{-2z\\Delta_p^{\\!\\rm Au}}\\right)\n\\nonumber \\\\\n&&~~~\n+C_{\\rm Al}e^{-2z\\Delta_p^{\\!\\rm Au}}\\left(1-e^{-2z\\Delta_p^{\\!\\rm Al}}\\right)\n+C_{\\rm sa}e^{-2z(\\Delta_p^{\\!\\rm Au}+\\Delta_p^{\\!\\rm Al})},\n\\nonumber \\\\[-2mm]\n&&\n\\label{eq17} \\\\[-2mm]\n&&\nX_s(z)\\equiv C_{\\rm Au}\\left[\\Phi(R,z)-e^{-2z\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au}}\n\\Phi(R-\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au},z)\\right]\n\\nonumber \\\\\n&&~~~~~~\n+C_{\\rm Al}e^{-2z\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au}}\n\\left[\\vphantom{e^{-2z\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Al}}\n\\Phi(R-\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au})}\n\\Phi(R-\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au},z)\\right.\n\\nonumber \\\\\n&&~~~~~~~~~~\\left.\n-e^{-2z\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Al}}\n\\Phi(R-\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au}-\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Al},z)\\right]\n\\nonumber \\\\\n&&~~~~~~\n+C_{g}e^{-2z(\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au}+\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Al})}\n\\left[\\vphantom{e^{-2z\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Al}}\n\\Phi(R-\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au})}\n\\Phi(R-\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au}-\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Al},z)\\right.\n\\nonumber \\\\\n&&~~~~~~~~~~\\left.\n-\ne^{-2z\\Delta_s^{\\! g}}\n\\Phi(R-\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au}-\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Al}\n-\\Delta_s^{\\!g},z)\\right].\n\\nonumber\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\\noindent\nIn these equations, the thickness of the sapphire plate\nwas put equal to\ninfinity, as it does not influence the result.\nThe coefficients $C_{\\rm Au}$,  $C_{\\rm Al}$,  $C_{g}$\nand  $C_{sa}$ are defined in Eq.~(\\ref{eq15}) which\nshould be applied to the\natoms Au and Al and to the molecules of glass and sapphire\n[the densities of these materials entering (\\ref{eq15}) are\n$\\rho_{\\rm Au}$, $\\rho_{\\rm Al}$, $\\rho_g$ and $\\rho_{sa}$;\nthey can be found in the tables].\n\nTaking into account that no additional force was observed in\nthe experiment \\cite{36,37} within the measurement\nerror, one can write\n\\begin{equation}\n\\frac{\\partial F_{\\rm add}(a)}{\\partial a}\\leq\n\\Delta F_C^{\\prime}(a).\n\\label{eq18}\n\\end{equation}\n\\noindent\nNumerical analysis of this equation leads to new constraints\non the interaction constants $g_{ap}$ and $g_{an}$.\nThe strongest constraints are obtained at the shortest\nexperimental separation $a_1=235\\,$nm. At this separation\ndistance the experimental error determined at a 67\\% confidence\nlevel is\n$\\Delta F_C^{\\prime}(a_1)\\equiv\\Delta_1F_C^{\\prime}=\n0.5\\,\\mu$N\/m \\cite{36}.\nIn Fig.~2 we show these constraints by the solid line under\nthe assumption $g_{ap}=g_{an}$ (see \\cite{13} for the alternative\nassumptions). The region of the plane above the line is\nexcluded, and the region below the line is allowed.\nThe comparison of the solid line in Fig.~2 with the line in\nFig.~1 shows that the constraints following from measurements\nof the gradient of the Casimir force are stronger than those\nobtained from measurements of the Casimir-Polder force.\nThe largest strengthening by a factor of 170 is achieved for the\naxion mass $m_a=0.3\\,$eV.\n\nSimilar results can be obtained \\cite{13} from the measurement\ndata of experiment with a Au-coated spherical envelope of\n$R=64.1\\,\\mu$m radius and a Ni-coated plate \\cite{38}.\nThe gradient of the additional force due to two-axion exchange\nis again given by (\\ref{eq16}), where $X_s(z)$ is presented in\n(\\ref{eq17}) and $X_p(z)$ takes a more simple form due to the\nabsence of an Al layer below a Ni coating\n\\begin{equation}\nX_p(z)= C_{\\rm Ni}\\left(1-e^{-2z\\Delta_p^{\\!\\rm Ni}}\\right)\n+C_{\\rm Si}e^{-2z\\Delta_p^{\\!\\rm Ni}}.\n\\label{eq19}\n\\end{equation}\nHere, $\\Delta_p^{\\!\\rm Ni}=154\\,$nm and $C_{\\rm Ni}$ can be\ncalculated using (\\ref{eq15}).\n\nThe constraints on the coupling constants of axions to nucleons\ncan be again obtained from (\\ref{eq18}).\nThe strongest constraints follow at the shortest separation\nequal to $a_1=220\\,$nm in this experiment. The respective total\nexperimental error determined at a 67\\% confidence level is\n$\\Delta_1F_C^{\\prime}=0.79\\,\\mu$N\/m \\cite{38}.\nThe constraints obtained under the condition $g_{ap}=g_{an}$\nare shown by the long-dashed line in Fig.~2. As can be seen in\nFig.~2, the constraints following from the experiment with Au-Ni\ntest bodies are up to a factor 1.5 weaker\nthan those obtained\nfrom the experiment with Au-Au test bodies. The main reason is\nthe smaller density of Ni, as compared with Au.\n\nIn the third experiment, a Ni-coated spherical envelope of\n$R=61.71\\,\\mu$m radius and a Ni-coated plate were used \\cite{39,40}.\nThe additional force can be again expressed by (\\ref{eq16}).\nIn this case, however, the functions $X_p(z)$ and $X_s(z)$ are\nmore complicated than in the previously considered experiments\nbecause for technological purposes there were two additional\nlayers (Al and Cr)\nbelow the Ni coating on both a spherical envelope and on a plate\n(see \\cite{13} for explicit expressions).\n\nThe constraints on $g_{ap}=g_{an}$ were again obtained from (\\ref{eq18}).\nThe strongest constraints follow at the shortest separation\ndistance ($a_1=223\\,$nm in this case). The total\nexperimental error determined at a 67\\% confidence level\nat the shortest separation is\n$\\Delta_1F_C^{\\prime}=1.2\\,\\mu$N\/m \\cite{38}.\nThe obtained constraints\nare shown by the short-dashed line in Fig.~2. They are slightly\nweaker than those following from the experiments with Au-Au\nand Au-Ni test bodies. This is again explained by\nthe smaller density of Ni in comparison with that of Au (see\nSection 7 for comparison with other laboratory constraints).\n\n\\section{Constraints on an axion from measurements of the  Casimir pressure\nby means of micromachined oscillator}\n\nThe Casimir pressure $P_C(a)$ between two parallel Au-coated\nplates\nwas determined from dynamic measurements performed in sphere-plate\n geometry using a  micromechanical torsional oscillator\n\\cite{41,42}.\nA sapphire sphere and a Si plate of thickness $D=5\\,\\mu$m were\ncoated with the layers of Cr of equal thickness\n$\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Cr}=\\Delta_p^{\\!\\rm Cr}=10\\,$nm.\nThe outer layers of Au were of thicknesses\n$\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au}=180\\,$nm on the sphere and\n$\\Delta_p^{\\!\\rm Au}=210\\,$nm on the plate.\nThe resulting radius of the sphere was measured to be\n$R=151.3\\,\\mu$m. The experimental results for the Casimir pressure\n between two parallel plates spaced $a$ apart were found to be\nin agreement with the predictions of the Lifshitz theory in the\nlimits of the total experimental error in the pressure\nmeasurements $\\Delta P_C(a)$ determined at a 95\\% confidence\nlevel. Here, we recalculate this error to a 67\\% confidence\nlevel in order to obtain constraints comparable with those\nfollowing from other experiments. The theoretical results were\nobtained with omitted contribution of the relaxation properties\nof free electrons (taking these properties into account leads\nto theoretical predictions excluded by the measurement data\n\\cite{23,24,41,42}).\n\nThe additional effective pressure between two parallel plates\ndue to two-axion exchange between nucleons of a sphere and a\nplate can be calculated by the additive summation using the\ninteraction potential (\\ref{eq3}) (see \\cite{14} for details).\nThe result is the following \\cite{14}:\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&&\nP_{\\rm add}(a)=\n-\\frac{1}{2m^2m_{\\rm H}^2R}\\int_{1}^{\\infty}\\!\\!\\!du\n\\frac{\\sqrt{u^2-1}}{u^2}\n\\nonumber \\\\\n&&~~~~~~~~~\n\\times\ne^{-2m_aau}\\tilde{X}_p(m_au)\\tilde{X}_s(m_au),\n\\label{eq20}\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\\noindent\nwhere\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&&\n\\tilde{X}_p(z)\\equiv C_{\\rm Au}\\left(1-e^{-2z\\Delta_p^{\\!\\rm Au}}\n\\right)\n\\nonumber \\\\\n&&~~~\n+C_{\\rm Cr}e^{-2z\\Delta_p^{\\!\\rm Au}}\n\\left(1-e^{-2z\\Delta_p^{\\!\\rm Cr}}\n\\right)\n\\nonumber \\\\\n&&~~~\n+C_{\\rm Si}e^{-2z(\\Delta_p^{\\!\\rm Au}+\\Delta_p^{\\!\\rm Cr})}\n\\left(1-e^{-2zD}\n\\right),\n\\label{eq21} \\\\[1mm]\n&&\n\\tilde{X}_s(z)\\equiv C_{\\rm Au}\\left[\n\\vphantom{e^{-2z\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au}}}\n\\Phi(R,z)\n-e^{-2z\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au}}\n\\Phi(R-\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au},z)\\right]\n\\nonumber \\\\\n&&~~~\n+C_{\\rm Cr}e^{-2z\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au}}\n\\left[\n\\vphantom{e^{-2m_au\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au}}}\n\\Phi(R-\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au},z)\n\\right.\n\\nonumber \\\\\n&&~~~~~~~~~~~~\n\\left.\n-e^{-2z\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Cr}}\n\\Phi(R-\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au}-\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Cr},z)\n\\right]\n\\nonumber \\\\\n&&~~~\n+C_{sa}\ne^{-2z(\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au}+\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Cr})}\n\\Phi(R-\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au}-\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Cr},z).\n\\nonumber\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\\noindent\nThe function $\\Phi(r,z)$ used here is given in (\\ref{eq14}).\nThe coefficients $C_{\\rm Au}$, $C_{\\rm Cr}$, $C_{\\rm Si}$, and\n$C_{sa}$ are the same as used above. All of them are expressed\nby (\\ref{eq15}), as applied to respective materials.\n\nThe constraints on the axion-nucleon interaction constants were\nfound from the inequality\n\\begin{equation}\n|P_{\\rm add}(a)|\\leq\\Delta P_C(a).\n\\label{eq22}\n\\end{equation}\n\\noindent\nFor different regions of axion masses the strongest constraints\nfollow from (\\ref{eq22}) at different separation distances.\nThus, within the regions\n$m_a<0.1\\,$eV, $0.1\\,\\mbox{eV}\\leq m_a<0.5\\,$eV and\n$0.5\\,\\mbox{eV}\\leq m_a<15\\,$eV the strongest constraints were\nobtained at $a=300$, 200 and 162\\,nm, respectively.\nAt these separations the total experimental errors in\nmeasurements of the Casimir pressure recalculated to a 67\\%\nconfidence level were equal to 0.22, 0.38, and 0.55\\,mPa,\nrespectively. In Fig.~3 the obtained constraints are shown\nby the solid line under the condition $g_{ap}=g_{an}$.\nThey are stronger than the constraints following from\nmeasurements of the Casimir-Polder force (see Fig.~1) and from\nmeasurements of the gradient of the Casimir force between\nAu-Au surfaces (see the solid line in Fig.~2). Thus, at\n$m_a=1\\,$eV\nthe constraints of Fig.~3 are stronger by a factor of 3.2 than\nthe strongest constraints of Fig.~2 shown by the solid line\n(a more detailed comparison is contained in Section 7).\n\n\\section{Constraints on an axion from measurements of the  Casimir force\nbetween corrugated surfaces}\n\nSeveral measurements of the Casimir interaction between a sphere\nand a plate were performed in the case when the surface of at\n least one test body is not smooth, but covered with the\n longitudinal corrugations \\cite{43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50}.\n The shape of the corrugations was either sinusoidal\n \\cite{43,44,47,48,49,50} or rectangular \\cite{45,46}\n(in the latter case the sphere was smooth, and only the plate was\ncorrugated). If both the test bodies are  corrugated and some\nnonzero phase shift between corrugations is present, there is\nnot only the normal Casimir force acting perpendicular to the\nsurfaces, but the lateral Casimir force as well\n\\cite{43,44,47,48}.\nHere we consider the constraints on axion-nucleon coupling\nconstants obtained \\cite{15} from measurements of the normal\n\\cite{49,50} and lateral \\cite{47,48} Casimir force between\nsinusoidally corrugated Au-coated surfaces (experiments\n\\cite{43,44} are less precise, and experiments \\cite{45,46}\nuse the rectangular corrugated Si plates and lead to weaker\nconstraints due to a smaller density of Si).\n\nWe begin with an experiment on measuring the lateral Casimir\nforce  between\nsinusoidally corrugated surfaces of a sphere and a plate\n\\cite{47,48}. The corrugation axes of the longitudinal\ncorrugations on both bodies were kept parallel, and there was\nsome phase shift $\\varphi_0$ between corrugations.\nThe period of corrugations was $\\Lambda=574.4\\,$nm.\nMeasurements of the lateral Casimir force as a function of\nthe phase shift were performed over the region of separations\nbetween the mean levels of corrugations from 120 to 190\\,nm.\nThe corrugation amplitudes were\n$A_1=85.4\\,$nm and $A_2=13.7\\,$nm on the plate and on the\nsphere, respectively. The plate was made of a hard epoxy and\ncoated with a layer of Au of thickness\n$\\Delta_p^{\\!\\rm Au}=300\\,$nm.\nThe sphere was made of polystyrene and coated with a layer of\nCr of $\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Cr}=10\\,$nm thickness and then with a layer of\nAu of $\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au}=50\\,$nm thickness.\nThe outer radius of the sphere was measured to be $R=97.0\\,\\mu$m.\nThe measurement results were compared with theoretical predictions\n of the scattering theory (which generalizes the Lifshitz theory\n for the case of arbitrary shaped bodies) and demonstrated good\n agreement in the limits of the experimental error\n $\\Delta F_C^{\\rm lat}(a)$ \\cite{47,48}.\n\n The additional lateral force due to two-axion exchange between\n sinusoidally corrugated surfaces of a sphere and a plate can be\n calculated using (\\ref{eq3}). The maximum amplitude of this\n force, which is obtained at the phase shift $\\varphi_0=\\pi\/2$,\n takes the form \\cite{15}\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&&\n\\max|F_{\\rm add}^{\\rm lat}(a)|=\n\\frac{\\pi^2 RC_{\\rm Au}}{m_am^2m_{\\rm H}^2}\\,\n\\frac{A_1A_2}{\\Lambda\\sqrt{A_1^2+A_2^2}}\n\\nonumber \\\\[1mm]\n&&~~\n\\times\n\\int_{1}^{\\infty}\\!\\!\\!du\\frac{\\sqrt{u^2-1}}{u^3}\ne^{-2m_aua} I_1\\left(2m_au\\sqrt{A_1^2+A_2^2}\\right)\n\\nonumber \\\\[1mm]\n&&~~~~~\n\\times\n(1-e^{-2m_au\\Delta_p^{\\!\\rm Au}})\n\\left[\n\\vphantom{e^{-2m_au\\Delta_{\\rm Au}^{\\!(1)}}}\nC_{\\rm Au}+(C_{\\rm Cr}-C_{\\rm Au})\n\\right.\n\\nonumber \\\\[1mm]\n&&~~~~\\left.\n\\times e^{-2m_au\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au}}\n-C_{\\rm Cr}\ne^{-2m_au(\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au}+\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Cr})}\n\\right].\n\\label{eq23}\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\\noindent\nHere, the hard epoxy and polystyrene would lead to negligibly\nsmall contributions to the force due to two-axion exchange.\nBecause of this, only metallic coatings were taken into account\nin (\\ref{eq23}).\n\nThe constraints on an axion can be obtained from the inequality\n\\begin{equation}\n\\max|F_{\\rm add}^{\\rm lat}(a)|\\leq\n\\Delta F_{C}^{\\rm lat}(a),\n\\label{eq24}\n\\end{equation}\n\\noindent\nwhere the left-hand side is given by (\\ref{eq23}).\nFor axion-like particles with masses $m_a<20\\,$eV, the strongest\nconstraints are obtained from the measure of agreement between\nexperiment and theory at $a=124.7\\,$nm. At this separation the\ntotal experimental error recalculated to a 67\\% confidence level\nfor convenience in comparison with other experiments is\n$\\Delta F_C^{\\rm lat}=2.4\\,$pN (note that according to a\nconservative estimation, the total experimental error\ncalculated in \\cite{47,48} at a 95\\% confidence level is by a\nfactor of 2 larger than the same error found at a 67\\% confidence\nlevel). The constraints on $g_{ap}=g_{an}$ obtained from\n(\\ref{eq24}) at $a=124.7\\,$nm\nare shown by the solid line in Fig.~4, where the region of the\nplane above the line is excluded and the region below the line is\nallowed. Note that this line is slightly different from the\nrespective lines in Fig.~2(a,b) in \\cite{15} because it was\nplotted there at the 95\\% confidence level.\n\nWe now turn our attention to the experiment on measuring the\nnormal Casimir force between a sinusoidally corrugated Au-coated\npolystyrene sphere of $R=99.6\\,\\mu$m radius and a sinusoidally\ncorrugated Au-coated plate made of hard epoxy \\cite{49,50}.\nThis experiment was performed at different angles between the\nlongitudinal corrugations on the sphere and on the plate varying\nfrom 0 to 2.4${}^{\\circ}$. There was no phase shift between\ncorrugations on both bodies. Below we obtain constraints on the\naxion-nucleon coupling constants from the measurement data for\nthe case of parallel corrugation axes on the sphere and the\nplate.  The thicknesses of Au coatings on the sphere and on the\nplate were $\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au}=110\\,$nm and\n$\\Delta_p^{\\!\\rm Au}=300\\,$nm, respectively.\nFor technological purposes, before depositing the Au coatings,\nthe sphere was first coated with a layer of Cr of thickness\n$\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Cr}=10\\,$nm and then\nwith a layer of Al of thickness\n$\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Al}=20\\,$nm.\nThe period of uniaxial sinusoidal corrugations on both bodies\nwas $\\Lambda=570.5\\,$nm, and the corrugations amplitudes were\n$A_1=40.2\\,$nm and $A_2=14.6\\,$nm on the plate and on the sphere,\nrespectively. The measurement results were compared with\ntheoretical predictions of the scattering theory and found in\ngood agreement within the limits of the total experimental error.\n\nThe additional normal force acting between a sphere and a plate\ndue to two-axion exchange was again calculated \\cite{15} using\n(\\ref{eq3})\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&&\nF_{\\rm add}^{\\rm nor}(a)=-\\frac{\\pi RC_{\\rm Au}}{2m_am^2m_{\\rm H}^2}\n\\int_{1}^{\\infty}\\!\\!\\!du\\frac{\\sqrt{u^2-1}}{u^3}e^{-2m_aua}\n\\nonumber \\\\[1mm]\n&&~~~~~\n\\times  I_0\\left(2m_au(A_1-A_2)\\right)(1-e^{-2m_au\\Delta_p^{\\,\\rm Au}})\n\\nonumber \\\\[1mm]\n&&~~~~~\n\\times\\left[C_{\\rm Au}+(C_{\\rm Al}-C_{\\rm Au})\ne^{-2m_au\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au}}\\right.\n\\nonumber \\\\[1mm]\n&&~~~~~~~\n+(C_{\\rm Cr}-C_{\\rm Al})\ne^{-2m_au(\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au}+\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Al})}\n\\nonumber \\\\[1mm]\n&&~~~~~~~\n\\left.\n-C_{\\rm Cr}\ne^{-2m_au(\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Au}+\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Al}\n+\\Delta_s^{\\!\\rm Cr})}\\right].\n\\label{eq25}\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\\noindent\nThe constraints on the axion-nucleon coupling constants\n$g_{an}=g_{ap}$ were found from the inequality\n\\begin{equation}\n|F_{\\rm add}^{\\rm nor}(a)|\\leq\\Delta F_C^{\\rm nor}(a).\n\\label{eq26}\n\\end{equation}\n\\noindent\nThe strongest constraints follow from (\\ref{eq26}) at the\nshortest separation distance $a_1=127\\,$nm where the total\nexperimental error determined at a 67\\% confidence level is\nequal to $\\Delta F_C^{\\rm nor}(a_1)=0.94\\,$pN \\cite{49,50}.\n\nIn Fig.~4 the obtained constraints under a condition\n$g_{an}=g_{ap}$ are shown by the dashed line. It can be seen\nthat for $m_a<5.3\\,$eV they are stronger than those following\nfrom measurements of the lateral Casimir force (the solid line),\nbut become weaker than the latter for larger axion masses.\n\n\\section{Comparison between different laboratory constraints}\n\nIt is interesting to compare all discussed above constraints,\nobtained from measurements of the Casimir interaction,\nbetween themselves and with other laboratory constraints on\naxion to nucleon coupling constants. Such a comparison is\nperformed in Fig.~5 over the wide range of axion masses\nfrom $10^{-10}$ to 20\\,eV. The constraints on $g_{an}$\nobtained \\cite{51} by means of a magnetometer using\nspin-polarized K and ${}^3$He atoms are shown by the solid\nline 1. These constraints are applicable in the region of\n$m_a$ from $10^{-10}$ to $6\\times 10^{-6}\\,$eV.\nThe solid line 2 indicates the constraints obtained \\cite{52}\nfrom the recent Cavendish-type experiment \\cite{53} in the\nregion from $m_a=10^{-6}$ to $6\\times 10^{-2}\\,$eV.\nThe weaker constraints found \\cite{25} from the older\nCavendish-type experiments \\cite{54,55} and from the\nE\\\"{o}tvos-type experiment \\cite{56}, respectively, are\nshown by the dashed lines 3 and 4 (these and the following\nconstraints are obtained under a condition $g_{an}=g_{ap}$).\nThese constraints cover the region of $m_a$ from $10^{-8}\\,$eV\nto $4\\times 10^{-5}\\,$eV (line 3) and to $10^{-5}\\,$eV (line 4).\nThe lines 5--8 are obtained \\cite{12,13,14,15} from measurements\nof the Casimir interaction. They are discussed in this paper.\nThe line 5 reproduces the line in Fig.~3 obtained for $m_a$\nfrom $10^{-3}$ to 15\\,eV from measurements of the Casimir\npressure (see Section 5). The dashed lines 6 and 7 reproduce\nthe solid line in Fig.~2 and the line in Fig.~1 found in the\nregion from $3\\times 10^{-5}$ to 1\\,eV from measurements of\nthe gradient of the Casimir force between Au-Au surfaces and\nin the region from $10^{-4}$ to 0.3\\,eV from measurements of\nthe Casimir-Polder force, respectively (see Sections 4 and 3).\nFinally, the line 8 reproduces the solid line in Fig.~4\nfound in the region of $m_a$ from 1 to 20\\,eV.\nIt follows from measurements of the lateral Casimir force\nbetween corrugated surfaces discussed in Section 6\n(measurements of the normal Casimir force between sinusoidally\ncorrugated surfaces lead to weaker constraints than those\nshown in Fig.~5).\n\nThe strength of almost all laboratory constraints shown in\nFig~5 (with exception of that shown by line 1) monotonically\ndecreases with increase of the axion mass $m_a$.\nIf one introduces the Compton wavelength of an axion\n$\\lambda_a=1\/m_a$, it is correct to say that the strength\nof almost all constraints (and all of those\nfollowing from measurements\nof the gravitational and Casimir interactions) decreases with\ndecreasing $\\lambda_a$. The same is true for the\nYukawa-type corrections to Newton's law of gravitation\n(\\ref{eq4}) whose strength decreases with decreasing\ninteraction range $\\lambda$ (see the next section).\nThis property likens the interaction potentials (\\ref{eq3})\nand (\\ref{eq4}) and specifies the interaction range where\nthe most strong constraints on respective hypothetical\nforces can be obtained from experiments on measuring the\nCasimir interaction.\n\nThe vertical lines in Fig.~5 indicate the region from\n$m_a=10^{-5}$ to $10^{-2}\\,$eV, which is often called an\naxion window \\cite{57}. As can be seen in Fig.~5,\nexperiments measuring the Casimir interaction lead to\nstrengthening of the laboratory constraints on axion to\nnucleon coupling constants near the upper border of the\naxion window and also for larger axion masses.\n\n\\section{Constraints on corrections to Newton's law of gravitation}\n\nThe constraints on corrections to the Newton law of gravitation\ndescribed by the potentials (\\ref{eq4}) and (\\ref{eq5}) can be\nobtained from the gravitational experiments of E\\\"{o}tvos- and\nCavendish-type and from measurements of the Casimir interaction.\nAs explained in Section 1, measurements of the Casimir force\nhave long been used for constraining hypothetical interactions\nof both Yukawa and power type.\nBecause of this, here we only briefly present the obtained\nresults and indicate regions where measurements of the Casimir\nforce lead to the most strong constraints, as compared to\ngravitational experiments.\n\nThe Yukawa-type interaction potential between the test bodies\nused in experiments on measuring the Casimir force is obtained\nby the integration of (\\ref{eq4}) over the volumes of bodies.\nIn so doing, at submicrometer separations the Newton\ngravitational force turns out to be negligibly small, as\ncompared to the error of force measurements. Similar to the\ncase of axion considered above, the constraints on the constants\nof Yukawa-type interaction $\\alpha$ and $\\lambda$ are obtained\nfrom a condition that this interaction was not experimentally\nobserved in the limits of the experimental error in measurements\nof the Casimir interaction.\n\nIn Fig.~6 we present the strongest constraints on the\nYukawa interaction constant $\\alpha$ in the micrometer and\nsubmicrometer interaction range $\\lambda$ obtained\nfrom measurements of the Casimir interaction.\nThe line 1 in Fig.~6 was obtained \\cite{18} from measurements\nof the lateral Casimir force between sinusoidally corrugated\nsurfaces of a sphere and a plate \\cite{47,48} (see Section 6).\nIt presents the strongest constraints on the Yukawa-type\ncorrections to Newton's law of gravitation within the\ninteraction range from $\\lambda=1.6$ to 11.6\\,nm.\nThe line 2 shows constraints found \\cite{21} from measuring\nthe normal Casimir force between sinusoidally corrugated\nsurfaces at the angle between corrugations equal to\n2.4${}^{\\circ}$ \\cite{49,50} (see Section 6). These constraints\nare the strongest ones in the interaction range from 11.6 to\n17.2\\,nm.\nThe constraints obtained from measurements of the Casimir\npressure by means of a micromachined torsional oscillator\n(see Section 5) are\nindicated by the line 3. They are the strongest ones for\n$17.2\\,\\mbox{nm}<\\lambda<89\\,$nm.\nAt larger $\\lambda$ the most strong constraints shown by the\nline 4 follow from the so-called Casimir-less experiment\n\\cite{58}, where the Casimir force was nullified by using the\ndifference force measurement scheme.  These constraints are\nthe strongest ones up to $\\lambda=891\\,$nm.\nThe constraints of the line 5 are found \\cite{59} from\nmeasurements of the Casimir force between Au-coated surfaces\nof a plate and a spherical lens of large radius. They are\nthe strongest ones up to $\\lambda=3.16\\,\\mu$m.\nFor larger $\\lambda$ the strongest constraints on the\nYukawa-type corrections to Newton's gravitational law\nfollow from the Cavendish-type experiments. The first\nconstraints of such kind are indicated by the line 6\n\\cite{60,61}. Thus, measurements of the Casimir interaction\nlead to the most strong constraints on non-Newtonian\ngravity over a wide interaction range from 1.6\\,nm to a\nfew micrometers. As can be seen in Fig.~6, the strength of\nall constraints decreases with decreasing $\\lambda$, i.e.,\nwith increasing mass of a hypothetical particle which\ninitiates the additional interaction of Yukawa-type.\nThis is similar to the case of an axion considered in\nSections 3--6.\n\nConstraints on the power-type corrections to Newton's law\nof gravitation (\\ref{eq5}) follow from the gravitational\nexperiments of E\\\"{o}tvos and Cavendish type \\cite{8} and\nfrom measurements of the Casimir force \\cite{17,30}.\nAt the present time the most strong constraints follow from\nthe E\\\"{o}tvos-type experiments\n($|\\Lambda_1|\\leq 1\\times 10^{-9}$ \\cite{62} and\n$|\\Lambda_2|\\leq 4\\times 10^{8}$ \\cite{56}) and from\nthe Cavendish-type experiments\n($|\\Lambda_3|\\leq 1.3\\times 10^{20}$ \\cite{52},\n$|\\Lambda_4|\\leq 4.9\\times 10^{31}$ \\cite{52}, and\n$|\\Lambda_5|\\leq 1.5\\times 10^{43}$ \\cite{52}).\nNote that \\cite{52} uses another parametrization for the\npower-type corrections to Newtonian gravitation.\n\n\\section{Conclusions and discussion}\nIn the foregoing, we have considered the constraints on axion\nto nucleon couplings following from laboratory experiments on\nmeasuring the Casimir interaction. The obtained constraints\nare quite competitive in the region of axion masses from\n$10^{-3}$ to 20\\,eV. The most strong of them follow from a\ndynamic determination of the Casimir pressure between two\nparallel plates and from measurement of the lateral Casimir\nforce between sinusoidally corrugated surfaces.\nAll these constraints were derived by considering the process\nof two-axion exchange between two nucleons. This process is of\nthe lowest order contributing to the force acting between\nunpolarized test bodies. The obtained constraints were\ncompared with those following from other laboratory experiments.\n\nWe have also compared the constraints on an axion with previously\nobtained constraints on corrections to the Newton law of\ngravitation of Yukawa and power type. The most strong constraints\nof this kind following from measurements of the Casimir\ninteraction are collected.\nIn the interaction range below a few micrometers they are\nstronger than the constraints on Yukawa-type corrections to\nNewton's law following from the gravitational experiments of\nE\\\"{o}tvos and Cavendish type.\n\nIn future it would be interesting to perform measurements of\nthe Casimir interaction between two polarized test bodies.\nThis would lead to an additional force due to exchange of one\naxion between protons and neutrons and, as a consequence, to\nmuch stronger constraints on the axion to nucleon coupling\nconstants.\n\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
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+{"text":"\\section{introduction}\nAlignment of surfaces plays a role in a wide range of scientific\ndisciplines. It is a standard problem in comparing different scans\nof manufactured objects; various algorithms have been proposed for\nthis purpose in the computer graphics literature. It is  often also\na crucial step in a variety of problems in medicine and biology; in\nthese cases the surfaces tend to be more complex, and the alignment\nproblem may be harder. For instance, neuroscientists studying brain\nfunction through functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)\ntypically observe several people performing identical tasks,\nobtaining readings for the corresponding activity in the brain\ncortex of each subject. In a first approximation, the cortex can be\nviewed as a highly convoluted 2-dimensional surface. Because\ndifferent cortices are folded in very different ways, a synthesis of\nthe observations from different subjects must be based on\nappropriate mappings between pairs of brain cortex surfaces, which\nreduces to a family of surface alignment problems\n\\cite{Fischl99,Haxby09}. In another example, paleontologists\nstudying molar teeth of mammals rely on detailed comparisons of the\ngeometrical features of the tooth surfaces to distinguish species or\nto determine similarities or differences in diet \\cite{Jukka07}.\n\nMathematically, the problem of surface alignment can be described as\nfollows: given two 2-surfaces $\\mathcal{M}$ and $\\mathcal{N}$, find a mapping $f:\\mathcal{M}\n\\rightarrow \\mathcal{N}$ that preserves, as best possible, ``important\nproperties'' of the surfaces. The nature of the ``important\nproperties'' depends on the problem at hand. In this paper, we\nconcentrate on preserving the geometry, i.e., we would like the map\n$f$ to preserve intrinsic distances, to the extent possible. In\nterms of the examples listed above, this is the criterion\ntraditionally selected in the computer graphics literature; it also\ncorresponds to the point of view of the paleontologists studying\ntooth surfaces. To align cortical surfaces, one typically uses the\nTalairach method \\cite{Lancaster00} (which relies on geometrically\ndefined landmarks and is thus geometric in nature as well), although\nalignment based on functional correspondences has been proposed more\nrecently \\cite{Haxby09}.\n\nIn this paper we propose a procedure to ``geometrically'' align\nsurfaces, based on uniformization theory and optimal mass\ntransportation. This approach is related to the computer graphics\nconstructions in \\cite{Lipman:2009:MVF}, which rely on the\nrepresentation of isometries between topologically equivalent\nsimply-connected surfaces by M\\\"{o}bius transformations between\ntheir uniformization spaces, and which exploit that 1) the\nM\\\"{o}bius group has small dimensionality (e.g. 3 for disk-type\nsurfaces and 6 for sphere-type) and 2) changing the metric in one\npiece of a surface has little influence on the uniformization of\ndistant parts. These two observations lead, in\n\\cite{Lipman:2009:MVF}, to fast and particularly effective\nalgorithms to identify near-isometries between differently deformed\nversions of a surface. In our present context, these same\nobservations lead to a simple algorithm for surface alignment,\nreducing it to a linear programming problem.\n\nWe shall restrict ourselves to (sufficiently smooth) disk-type\nsurfaces; we map them to metric densities defined on the hyperbolic\ndisk, their canonical uniformization space. (Apart from simplifying\nthe description of the surface, this also removes any effect of\nglobal translations and rotations on the description of each\nindividual surface.)  The alignment problem can then be studied in\nthe framework of Kantorovich mass-transportation\n\\cite{Kantorovich1942} between these metric densities, as follows.\nMass-transportation seeks to minimize the ``average distance'' over\nwhich mass needs to be ``moved'' (in the most efficient such moving\nprocedure) to transform one mass density $\\mu$ into another, $\\nu$.\nIn our case the uniformizing metric density (or conformal factor)\ncorresponding to an initial surface is not unique, but is defined\nonly up to a M\\\"{o}bius transformation. Because a na\\\"{\\i}ve\napplication of mass-transportation  on the hyperbolic disk would not\npossess the requisite invariance under M\\\"{o}bius transformations,\nwe generalize the mass-transportation framework, and replace the\nmetric $d(x,y)$ traditionally used in defining the ``average\ndisplacement distance'' by a metric that depends on $\\mu$ and $\\nu$,\nmeasuring the dissimilarity between the two metric densities on\nneighborhoods of $x$ and $y$. Introducing neighborhoods also makes\nthe definition less sensitive to noise in practical applications.\nThe optimal way of transporting mass in this generalized framework,\nin which the orientation in space of the original surfaces is\n``factored away'', automatically defines a corresponding optimal way\nof aligning the surfaces.\n\nOur approach also allows us to define a new distance between\nsurfaces. The average distance over which mass needs transporting\n(to transform one metric density into the other) quantifies the\nextent to which the two surfaces differ; we prove that it defines a\ndistance metric between surfaces.\n\nOther distances between surfaces have been used recently for several\napplications \\cite{memoli07}. A prominent mathematical approach to\ndefine distances between surfaces considers the surfaces as special\ncases of \\emph{metric spaces}, and uses then the Gromov-Hausdorff\n(GH) distance between metric spaces \\cite{Gromov06}. The GH distance\nbetween metric spaces $X$ and $Y$ is defined through examining all\nthe isometric embedding of $X$ and $Y$ into (other) metric spaces;\nalthough this distance possesses many attractive mathematical\nproperties, it is inherently hard computationally\n\\cite{memoli05,BBK06}. For instance, computing the GH distance is\nequivalent to a non-convex quadratic programming problem; solving\nthis directly for correspondences is equivalent to integer quadratic\nassignment, and is thus NP-hard \\cite{Cela98}. In addition, the\nnon-convexity implies that the solution found in practice may be a\nlocal instead of a global minimum, and is therefore not guaranteed\nto give the correct answer for the GH distance. The distance metric\nbetween surfaces that we define in this paper does not have these\nshortcomings: because the computation of the distance between\nsurfaces in our approach can be recast as a linear program, it can\nbe implemented using efficient polynomial algorithms that are\nmoreover guaranteed to converge to the correct solution.\n\nIt should be noted that in \\cite{memoli07}, Memoli generalizes the\nGH distance of \\cite{memoli05} by introducing a quadratic mass\ntransportation scheme to be applied to metric spaces already\nequipped with a measure (mm spaces); he notes that the computation\nof this Gromov-Wasserstein distance for mm spaces is somewhat easier\nand more stable to implement than the original GH distance. In our\napproach we do not need to equip the surfaces we compare with a\nmeasure: after uniformization reduces the problem to comparing two\ndisks, we naturally \"inherit\" two corresponding conformal factors\nthat we interpret as measure densities, for which we then apply an\napproach similar to the one proposed in \\cite{memoli07}. Another\ncrucial aspect in which our work differs from \\cite{memoli07} is\nthat, in contrast to the (continuous) quadratic programming method\nproposed in \\cite{memoli07} to compute the Gromov-Wasserstein\ndistance between mm spaces, our conformal approach leads to a convex\n(even linear) problem, solvable via a linear programming method.\n\n\nIt is worth mentioning that optimal mass transportation has been\nused as well, in the engineering literature to define interesting\nmetrics between images; in this context metric is often called the\nWasserstein distance. The seminal work for this image analysis\napproach is the paper by Rubner et al.~\\cite{Rubner2000-TEM}, in\nwhich images are viewed as discrete measures, and the distance is\ncalled appropriately the ``Earth Mover's Distance''.\n\nAnother related method is presented in the papers of Zeng et al.\n\\cite{Gu2008_a,Gu2008_b}, which also use the uniformization space to\nmatch surfaces. Our work differs from that of Zeng et al. in that\nthey use prescribed feature points (defined either by the user or by\nextra texture information) to calculate an interpolating harmonic\nmap between the uniformization spaces, and then define the final\ncorrespondence as a composition of the uniformization maps and this\nharmonic interpolant. This procedure is highly dependent on the\nprescribed feature points, provided as extra data or obtained from\nnon-geometric information. In contrast, our work does not use any\nprescribed feature points, or external data, and makes use of only\nthe geometry of the surface; in particular we make use of the\nconformal structure itself to define deviation from (local)\nisometry.\n\nOur paper is organized as follows: in Section \\ref{s:prelim} we\nbriefly recall some facts about uniformization and optimal mass\ntransportation that we shall use, at the same time introducing our\nnotation. Section \\ref{s:optimal_vol_trans_for_surfaces} contains\nthe main results of this paper, constructing the distance metric\nbetween disk-type surfaces, in several steps. Section\n\\ref{s:the_discrete_case_implementation} discusses various issues\nthat concern the numerical implementation of the framework we\npropose; Section \\ref{s:examples} illustrates our results with a few\nexamples.\n\n\n\\section{Background and Notations}\n\\label{s:prelim}\n\n\nAs described in the introduction, our framework makes use of two\nmathematical theories: uniformization theory, to represent the\nsurfaces as measures defined on a canonical domain, and optimal mass\ntransportation, to align the measures. In this section we recall\nsome of their basic properties, and we introduce our notations.\n\n\\subsection{Uniformization}\n\nBy the celebrated uniformization theory for Riemann surfaces (see\nfor example \\cite{Springer57,Farkas92}), any simply-connected\nRiemann surface is conformally equivalent to one of three canonical\ndomains: the sphere, the complex plane, or the unit disk. Since\nevery 2-manifold surface $\\mathcal{M}$ equipped with a smooth Riemannian\nmetric $g$ has an induced conformal structure and is thus a Riemann\nsurface, uniformization applies to such surfaces. Therefore, every\nsimply- connected surface with a Riemannian metric can be mapped\nconformally to one of the three canonical domains listed above. We\nshall consider surfaces $\\mathcal{M}$ that are topologically equivalent to\ndisks and that come equipped with a Riemannian metric tensor $g$\n(possibly inherited from the standard 3D metric if the surface is\nembedded in $\\mathbb{R}^3$). For each such $\\mathcal{M}$  there exists a conformal\nmap $\\phi:\\mathcal{M} \\rightarrow \\D$, where $\\D =\\{z \\ | \\ |z|<1\\}$ is the\nopen unit disk. The map $\\phi$ pushes $g$ to a metric on $\\D$;\ndenoting the coordinates in $\\D$ by $z=x^1+\\bfi  x^2$, we can write\nthis metric as\n$$\n\\wt{g} = \\phi_* g = \\widetilde{\\mu}(z)\\, \\delta_{ij}\\, dx^i \\otimes\ndx^j,\n$$\nwhere $\\widetilde{\\mu}(z)>0$, Einstein summation convention is used,\nand the subscript $*$ denotes the ``push-forward'' action. The\nfunction $\\widetilde{\\mu}$ can also be viewed as the \\emph{density\nfunction} of the measure $\\Vol_\\mathcal{M}$ induced by the Riemann volume\nelement: indeed, for (measurable) $A \\subset \\mathcal{M}$,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:volume_element}\n    \\Vol_\\mathcal{M}(A) = \\int_{\\phi(A)} \\widetilde{\\mu}(z) \\, dx^1\\wedge dx^2.\n\\end{equation}\n\nIt will be convenient to use the hyperbolic metric on the unit disk\n$(1-|z|^2)^{-2}\\delta_{ij} dx^i \\otimes dx^j$ as a reference metric,\nrather than the standard Euclidean $\\delta_{ij} dx^i \\otimes dx^j$;\nnote that they are conformally equivalent (with conformal factor\n$(1-|z|^2)^{-2}$). Instead of the density $\\widetilde{\\mu}(z)$, we\nshall therefore use the {\\em hyperbolic density function}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:relation_hyperbolic_euclidean_density}\n\\mu^H(z):=(1-|z|^2)^{2}\\,\\widetilde{\\mu}(z)\\,,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere the superscript $H$ stands for hyperbolic. We shall often drop\nthis superscript: unless otherwise stated $\\mu=\\mu^H$, and\n$\\nu=\\nu^H$ in what follows. The density function $\\mu=\\mu^H$\nsatisfies\n$$\\Vol_\\mathcal{M}(A) = \\int_{\\phi(A)} \\mu(z)\\, d\\vol_H(z)\\,,$$\nwhere $d\\vol_H(z)=(1-|z|^2)^{-2}\\, dx^1\\wedge dx^2$.\n\nThe conformal mappings of $\\D$ to itself are the disk-preserving\nM\\\"{o}bius transformations $m \\in \\Md$, a family with three real\nparameters, defined by\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:disk_mobius}\n    m(z) = e^{\\bfi \\theta}\\frac{z-a}{1-\\bar{a}z}, \\ a\\in \\D, \\ \\theta \\in [0,2\\pi).\n\\end{equation}\nSince these M\\\"{o}bius transformations satisfy\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:disk_mobius_is_isometry_of_hyperbolic_geom}\n    (1-|m(z)|^2)^{-2}|m'(z)|^2 = (1-|z|^2)^{-2} \\,,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $m'$ stands for the derivatives of $m$, the pull-back of $\\mu$\nunder a mapping $m\\in \\Md$ takes on a particularly simple\nexpression. Setting $w=m(z)$, with $w=y^1+\\bfi  y^2$, and\n$\\widetilde{g}(w)=\\widetilde{\\mu}(w)\\delta_{ij}dy^i\\otimes dy^j =\n\\mu(w) (1-|w|^2)^{-2}\\delta_{ij}dy^i\\otimes dy^j$, the definition\n\\[\n(m^*\\widetilde{g})(z)_{kl}\\,dx^{k}\\otimes dx^{\\ell} :=\n\\mu(w)\\,(1-|w|^2)^{-2}\\,\\delta_{ij} \\, dy^{i}\\otimes dy^{j}\n\\]\nimplies\n\\begin{align*}\n(m^*\\widetilde{g})_{k\\ell}(z)\\,dx^{k}\\otimes dx^{\\ell} &=\\mu(m(z))(1-|m(z)|^2)^{-2}\\,\\delta_{ij}\\,\\frac{\\partial y^i}{\\partial x^k}\\,\\frac{\\partial y^j}{\\partial x^\\ell} \\,dx^{k}\\otimes dx^{\\ell}\\\\\n&= \\mu(m(z))\\,(1-|m(z)|^2)^{-2}\\,|m'(z)|^2\\,\\delta_{k\\ell} \\,dx^{k}\\otimes dx^{\\ell}\\\\\n&=\\mu(m(z))\\,(1-|z|^2)^{-2}\\,\\delta_{k\\ell}\\,dx^{k}\\otimes dx^{\\ell}.\\\\\n\\end{align*}\nIn other words, $(m^*\\widetilde{g})(z)_{kl}\\,dx^{k}\\otimes\ndx^{\\ell}$ takes on the simple form\n$m^*\\mu(z)\\,(1-|z|^2)^{-2}\\,\\delta_{kl}\\,dx^{k}\\otimes dx^{\\ell}$,\nwith\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:pullback_of_metric_density_mu_by_mobius}\n    m^*\\mu(z) = \\mu(m(z)).\n\\end{equation}\nLikewise, the push-forward, under a disk M\\\"{o}bius transform\n$m(z)=w$, of the diagonal Riemannian metric defined by the density\nfunction $\\mu=\\mu^H$, is again a diagonal metric, with (hyperbolic)\ndensity function $m_{*}\\mu (w)=\\left(m_{*}\\mu \\right)^H(w)$ given by\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:push_forward_of_metric_density}\n    m_* \\mu(w) = \\mu(m^{-1}(w)).\n\\end{equation}\n\nIt follows that checking whether or not two surfaces $\\mathcal{M}$ and $\\mathcal{N}$\nare isometric, or searching for (near-)\\ isometries between $\\mathcal{M}$ and\n$\\mathcal{N}$, is greatly simplified by considering the conformal mappings\nfrom $\\mathcal{M}$, $\\mathcal{N}$ to $\\D$: once the (hyperbolic) density functions\n$\\mu$ and $\\nu$ are known, it suffices to identify $m \\in \\Md$ such\nthat $\\nu(m(z))$ equals $\\mu(z)$ (or ``nearly'' equals, in a sense\nto be made precise). This was exploited in \\cite{Lipman:2009:MVF} to\nconstruct fast algorithms to find corresponding points between two\ngiven surfaces.\n\n\\subsection{Optimal mass transportation}\n\nOptimal mass transportation was introduced by G. Monge\n\\cite{Monge1781}, and L. Kantorovich \\cite{Kantorovich1942}. It\nconcerns the transformation of one mass distribution into another\nwhile minimizing a cost function that can be viewed as the amount of\nwork required for the task. In the Kantorovich formulation, to which\nwe shall stick in this paper, one considers two measure spaces\n$X,Y$,  a probability measure on each, $\\mu \\in P(X)$, $\\nu \\in\nP(Y)$ (where $P(X),P(Y)$ are the respective probability measure\nspaces on $X$ and $Y$), and the space $\\Pi(\\mu,\\nu)$ of probability\nmeasures on $X \\times Y$ with marginals $ \\mu$ and $\\nu$ (resp.),\nthat is, for $A\\subset X$, $B\\subset Y$, $\\pi(A\\times Y) = \\mu(A)$\nand $\\pi(X \\times B) = \\nu(B)$. The \\emph{optimal} mass\ntransportation is the element of $\\Pi(\\mu,\\nu)$ that minimizes\n$\\int_{X \\times Y}d(x,y)d\\pi(x,y)$, where $d(x,y)$ is a cost\nfunction. (In general, one should consider an infimum rather than a\nminimum; in our case, $X$ and $Y$ are compact, $d(\\cdot,\\cdot)$ is\ncontinuous, and the infimum is achieved.) The corresponding minimum,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:basic_Kantorovich_transporation}\n    T^R_d(\\mu,\\nu) = \\mathop{\\inf}_{\\pi \\in \\Pi(\\mu,\\nu)}\\int_{X \\times Y}d(x,y)d\\pi(x,y),\n\\end{equation}\nis the optimal mass transportation distance between $\\mu$ and $\\nu$,\nwith respect to the cost function $d(x,y)$.\n\nIntuitively, one can interpret this as follows: imagine being\nconfronted with a pile of sand on the one hand ($\\mu$), and a hole\nin the ground on the other hand ($-\\nu$), and assume that the volume\nof the sand pile equals exactly the volume of the hole (suitably\nnormalized, $\\mu,\\nu$ are probability measures). You wish to fill\nthe hole with the sand from the pile ($\\pi \\in \\Pi(\\mu,\\nu)$), in a\nway that minimizes the amount of work (represented by $\\int\nd(x,y)d\\pi(x,y)$, where $d(\\cdot,\\cdot)$ can be thought of as a\ndistance function). In the engineering literature, the distance\n$T^R_d(\\mu,\\nu)$ is often called the ``earth mover's distance''\n\\cite{Rubner2000-TEM}, a name that echoes this intuition.\n\nIn what follows, we shall apply this framework to the density\nfunctions $\\mu$ and $\\nu$ on the hyperbolic disk $\\D$ obtained by\nconformal mappings from two surfaces $\\mathcal{M}$, $\\mathcal{N}$, as described in the\nprevious subsection.\n\nThe main obstacle to applying the Kantorovich transportation\nframework directly is that the density $\\mu$, characterizing the\nRiemannian metric on $\\D$ obtained by pushing forward the metric on\n$\\mathcal{M}$ via the uniformizing map $\\phi:\\mathcal{M} \\rightarrow \\D$, is not\nuniquely defined: another uniformizing map $\\phi':\\mathcal{M} \\rightarrow \\D$\nmay well produce a different $\\mu'$. Because the two representations\nare necessarily isometric ($\\phi^{-1} \\circ \\phi'$ maps $\\mathcal{M}$\nisometrically to itself), we must have $\\mu'(m(z))=\\mu(z)$ for some\n$m \\in \\Md$. (In fact, $m=\\phi' \\circ \\phi^{-1}$.) In a sense, the\nrepresentation of (disk-type) surfaces $\\mathcal{M}$ as measures over $\\D$\nshould be considered ``modulo'' the disk M\\\"{o}bius transformations.\n\nWe thus need to address how to adapt the optimal transportation\nframework to factor out this M\\\"{o}bius transformation ambiguity.\nThis is done by designing a special distance (or cost) functional\n$d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z,w)$ that {\\em depends} on the conformal densities\n$\\mu$ and $\\nu$ representing the two surfaces. (A fairly simple\nargument shows that a cost function that does not depend on $\\mu$\nand $\\nu$ allows only trivial answers, such as $d(z,w)=0$ for all\n$z,w$.) As we shall see in the next section,\nthis cost function will have an intuitive explanation:\n$d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z,w)$ will measure how well an $R$-sized neighborhood\nof $z$ with density $\\mu$ can be matched isometrically to an\n$R$-sized neighborhood of $w$ with density $\\nu$ by means of a disk\nM\\\"{o}bius transformation.\n\n\n\\section{Optimal volume transportation for surfaces}\n\\label{s:optimal_vol_trans_for_surfaces} We want to measure\ndistances between surfaces by using the Kantorovich transportation\nframework to measure the transportation between the metric densities\non $\\D$ obtained by uniformization applied to the surfaces. The main\nobstacle is that these metric densities are not uniquely defined;\nthey are defined up to a M\\\"{o}bius transformation. In particular,\nif two densities $\\mu$ and $\\nu$ are related by $\\nu=m_*\\mu$ (i.e.\n$\\mu(z)=\\nu(m(z))$), where $m \\in \\Md$, then we want our putative\ndistance between $\\mu$ and $\\nu$ to be zero, since they describe\nisometric surfaces, and could have been obtained by different\nuniformization maps of the same surface. A standard approach to\nobtain quantities that are invariant under the operation of some\ngroup (in our case, the disk M\\\"{o}bius transformations) is by\nminimizing over the possible group operations. For instance, we\ncould set\n\\[\n\\mbox{Distance}(\\mu,\\nu)=\\inf_{m \\in \\Md} \\left( \\inf_{\\pi \\in\n\\Pi(m_*\\mu, \\nu)}\\,\\int_{\\D \\times \\D} d(z,w)\\,d\\pi(z,w)\\,\\right)\\,,\n\\]\nwhere $\\Pi(\\mu, \\nu)$ is the set of probability measures on $\\D\n\\times \\D$ with marginals $\\mu \\,\\vol_H$ and $\\nu \\,\\vol_H$. In\norder for this to be computationally feasible, we would want the\nminimum to be achieved in some $m$, which would depend on $\\mu$ and\n$\\nu$ of course; let's denote this special minimizing $m \\in \\Md$ by\n$m_{\\mu,\\nu}$. This would mean\n\\begin{align}\n\\mbox{Distance}(\\mu,\\nu)&=  \\inf_{\\pi \\in \\Pi([m_{\\mu,\\nu}]_*\\mu,\n\\nu)}\\,\\int_{\\D \\times \\D}\nd(z,w)\\,d\\pi(z,w)\\nonumber\\\\\n&=\\inf_{\\pi \\in \\Pi(\\mu, \\nu)}\\,\\int_{\\D \\times \\D}\nd(m_{\\mu,\\nu}(z),w)\\,d\\pi(z,w)\\,.\\label{id_Dist}\n\\end{align}\nIf $\\nu$ were itself already equal to $m'_*\\mu$, for some $m' \\in\n\\Md$, then we would expect the minimizing M\\\"{o}bius transformation\nto be $m_{\\mu,\\nu}=m'$; for $\\pi$ supported on the diagonal\n$\\verb\"d\"=\\{(z,z)\\,;\\,z \\in \\D\\}\\subset \\D \\times \\D$, defined by\n$\\pi(A)=\\int_{A_2} \\nu(w)\\, d\\vol_H(w)$, with $A_2= \\{w; (w,w) \\in\nA\\}$, one would then indeed have $\\int_{\\D \\times\n\\D}d(m_{\\mu,\\nu}(z),w)\\,d\\pi(z,w)=0$, leading to\n$\\mbox{Distance}(\\mu,m'_*\\mu)=0$. From (\\ref{id_Dist}) one sees that\nthis amounts to using the same formula as for the standard\nKantorovich approach with just one change: {\\em the cost function\ndepends on} $\\mu$ and $\\nu$.\n\nWe shall use a variant on this construction, retaining the principle\nof using  cost functions $d(\\cdot,\\cdot)$ in the integrand that\ndepend on $\\mu$ and $\\nu$, without picking them necessarily of the\nform $d(m_{\\mu,\\nu}(z),w)$.  In addition to introducing such a\ndependence, we also wish to incorporate some robustness into the\nevaluation of the distance between (or dissimilarity of) $\\mu$ and\n$\\nu$. We shall do this by using a cost function\n$d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z,w)$ that depends on a comparison of the behavior\n$\\mu$ and $\\nu$ on {\\em neighborhoods} of $z$ and $w$, mapped by $m$\nranging over $\\Md$. The next subsection shows precisely how this is\ndone.\n\n\\subsection{Construction of $d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z,w)$}\n\nWe construct $d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z,w)$ so that it indicates the extent to\nwhich a neighborhood of the point $z$ in $(\\D,\\mu)$, the (conformal\nrepresentation of the) first surface, is isometric with a\nneighborhood of the point $w$ in $(\\D,\\nu)$, the (conformal\nrepresentation of the) second surface. We will need to define two\ningredients for this: the neighborhoods we will use, and how we\nshall characterize the (dis)similarity of two neighborhoods,\nequipped with different metrics.\n\nWe start with the neighborhoods.\n\nFor a fixed radius $R>0$, we define $\\Omega_{z_0,R}$ to be the\nhyperbolic geodesic disk of radius $R$ centered at $z_0$. The\nfollowing gives an easy procedure to construct these disks. If\n$z_0=0$, then  the hyperbolic geodesic disks centered at $z_0=0$ are\nalso  ``standard'' (i.e. Euclidean) disks centered at 0:\n$\\Omega_{0,R} = \\{z \\,;\\, |z|\\leq r_R \\}$, where\n$r_R=\\mbox{arctanh}(r)=R$. The hyperbolic disks around other centers\nare images of these central disks under M\\\"{o}bius transformations\n(= hyperbolic isometries): setting\n$m(z)=(z-z_0)(1-z\\bar{z_0})^{-1}$, we have\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:neighborhood_def}\n    \\Omega_{z_0,R} = m^{-1}(\\Omega_{0,R})\\,.\n\\end{equation}\nIf $m'$, $m''$ are two maps in $\\Md$ that both map $z_0$ to 0, then\n$m'' \\circ (m')^{-1}$ simply rotates $\\Omega_{0,R}$ around its\ncenter, over some angle $\\theta$ determined by $m'$ and $m''$. From\nthis observation one easily checks that (\\ref{e:neighborhood_def})\nholds for {\\em any} $m \\in \\Md$ that maps $z_0$ to $0$. In fact, we\nhave the following more general\n\\begin{lem}\\label{lem:m(omega_z)=omega_w}\nFor arbitrary $z,w \\in \\D$ and any $R>0$, every disk M\\\"{o}bius\ntransformation $m\\in \\Md$ that maps $z$ to $w$ (i.e. $w=m(z)$) also\nmaps $\\Omega_{z,R}$ to $\\Omega_{w,R}$.\n\\end{lem}\n\nNext we define how to quantify the (dis)similarity of the pairs\n$\\left(\\Omega_{z_0,R}\\,,\\, \\mu\\,\\right)$ and\n$\\left(\\Omega_{w_0,R}\\,,\\, \\nu\\,\\right)$. Since (global) isometries\nare given by the elements of the disk-preserving M\\\"{o}bius group\n$\\Md$, we will test the extent to which the two patches are\nisometric by comparing $\\left(\\Omega_{w_0,R}\\,,\\, \\nu\\,\\right)$ with\nall the images of $\\left(\\Omega_{z_0,R}\\,,\\, \\mu\\,\\right)$ under\nM\\\"{o}bius transformations in $\\Md$ that take $z_0$ to $w_0$.\n\nTo carry out this comparison, we need a norm. Any metric $g_{ij}(z)\ndx^i \\otimes dx^j$ induces an inner product on the space of\n2-covariant tensors, as follows: if $\\mathbf{a}(z) = a_{ij}(z)\n\\,dx^i \\otimes dx^j$ and $\\mathbf{b}(z) = b_{ij}(z) \\,dx^i \\otimes\ndx^j$ are two 2-covariant tensors in our parameter space $\\D$, then\ntheir inner product is defined by\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:inner_product_2-covariant_tensor}\n    \\langle \\mathbf{a}(z), \\mathbf{b}(z)\\rangle =\na_{ij}(z)\\,b_{k\\ell}(z)\\,g^{ik}(z)\\,g^{j\\ell}(z)~;\n\\end{equation}\nas always, this inner product defines a norm, $\\|\\mathbf{a}\\|_z^2 =\na_{ij}(z)\\,a_{k\\ell}(z)\\,g^{ik}(z)\\,g^{j\\ell}(z)$.\n\nNow, let us apply this to the computation of the norm of the\ndifference between the local metric on one surface,\n$g_{ij}(z)=\\mu(z)(1-|z|^2)^{-2}\\delta_{ij}$, and\n$h_{ij}(w)=\\nu(w)(1-|w|^2)^{-2}\\delta_{ij}$, the pull-back metric\nfrom the other surface by a M\\\"{o}bius transformation $m$. Using\n(\\ref{e:inner_product_2-covariant_tensor}),(\\ref{e:pullback_of_metric_density_mu_by_mobius}),\nand writing $\\mbox{\\boldmath{$\\delta$}}$ for the tensor with entries $\\delta_{ij}$, we\nhave:\n\\begin{align*}\n\\|\\mu - m^*\\nu\\|_{z}^2 & = \\|\\,\\mu(z) (1-|z|^2)^{-2}\\mbox{\\boldmath{$\\delta$}} -\n\\nu(m(z))\n(1-|z|^2)^{-2} \\mbox{\\boldmath{$\\delta$}}\\,\\|_{z}^2 \\\\\n& = \\Big(\\mu(z) -\n\\nu(m(z))\\Big)^2(1-|z|^2)^{-4}\\,\\delta_{ij}\\,\\delta_{k\\ell}\n\\,g^{ik}(z)\\,g^{j\\ell}(z)=\\left(1 -\n\\frac{\\nu(m(z))}{\\mu(z)}\\right)^2.\n\\end{align*}\n\nWe are now ready to define the distance function\n$d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z,w)$:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:d_mu,nu(z,w)_def}\n    d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_0,w_0) :=\n\\mathop{\\inf}_{m \\in \\Md\\,,\\,m(z_0)=w_0}\\int_{\\Omega_{z_0,R}}\n\\,|\\,\\mu(z) - (m^*\\nu)(z)\\,|\\, d\\vol_H(z),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $d\\vol_H(z)=(1-|z|^2)^{-2} \\,dx\\wedge dy$ is the volume form\nfor the hyperbolic disk. The integral in (\\ref{e:d_mu,nu(z,w)_def})\ncan also be written in the following form, which makes its\ninvariance more readily apparent:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:d_invariant_form}\n    \\int_{\\Omega_{z_0,R}}\\left|\\,1 - \\frac{\\nu(m(z))}{\\mu(z)}\\right| \\,d\\vol_\\mathcal{M}(z) = \\int_{\\Omega_{z_0,R}} \\|\\mu - m^*\\nu \\|_z \\, d\\vol_\\mathcal{M}(z),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $d\\vol_\\mathcal{M}(z)=\\mu(z)(1-|z|^2)^{-2}\\,dx^1\\wedge dx^2\n=\\sqrt{|g_{ij}|}\\,dx^1\\wedge dx^2$ is the volume form of the first\nsurface $\\mathcal{M}$.\n\nThe next Lemma shows that although the integration in\n(\\ref{e:d_invariant_form}) is carried out w.r.t. the volume of the\nfirst surface, this measure of distance is nevertheless symmetric:\n\\begin{lem}\\label{lem:symmetry_of_d_integral}\nIf  $m\\in \\Md$ maps $z_0$ to $w_0$, $m(z_0)=w_0$, then\n$$\n\\int_{\\Omega_{z_0,R}}\\Big|\\,\\mu(z) - m^*\\nu(z) \\,\\Big|\\, d\\vol_H(z)\n= \\int_{\\Omega_{w_0,R}}\\Big|\\,m_*\\mu(w) - \\nu(w) \\, \\Big|\\,\nd\\vol_H(w).\n$$\n\\end{lem}\n\\begin{proof}\nBy the pull-back formula\n(\\ref{e:pullback_of_metric_density_mu_by_mobius}), we have\n$$\n\\int_{\\Omega_{z_0,R}}\\Big|\\,\\mu(z) - m^*\\nu(z) \\,\\Big|\\, d\\vol_H(z)\n= \\int_{\\Omega_{z_0}}\\Big|\\,\\mu(z) - \\nu(m(z)) \\,\\Big|\\, d\\vol_H(z).\n$$\nPerforming the change of coordinates $z=m^{-1}(w)$ in the integral\non the right hand side, we obtain\n$$\n\\int_{m(\\Omega_{z_0,R})}\\, \\Big|\\,\\mu(m^{-1}(w)) - \\nu(w) \\Big|\\,\nd\\vol_H(w),\n$$\nwhere we have used that $m^{-1}$ is an isometry and therefore\npreserves the volume element $d\\vol_H(w)=(1-|w|^2)^{-2} \\,dy^1\n\\wedge dy^2$. By Lemma \\ref{lem:m(omega_z)=omega_w},\n$\\,m(\\Omega_{z_0,R})=\\Omega_{w_0,R}\\,$; using the push-forward\nformula (\\ref{e:push_forward_of_metric_density}) then allows to\nconclude.\n\\end{proof}\n\nNote that our point of view in defining our ``distance'' between $z$\nand $w$ differs from the classical point of view in mass\ntransportation: Traditionally, $d(z,w)$ is some sort of\n\\emph{physical distance} between the points $z$ and $w$; in our case\n$d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z,w)$ measures the dissimilarity of (neighborhoods\nof) $z$ and $w$.\n\nThe next Theorem lists some important properties of $d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}$;\nits proof is given in Appendix A.\n\\begin{thm}\\label{thm:properties_of_d}\nThe distance function $d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z,w)$ satisfies the following\nproperties\n\\begin{table}[ht]\n\\begin{tabular}{c l l}\n{\\rm (1)} & $~d^R_{m^*_1\\mu,m^*_2\\nu}(m^{-1}_1(\\z),m^{-1}_2({w_0})) = d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(\\z,{w_0})~$ & {\\rm Invariance under (well-defined)}\\\\\n& & {\\rm M\\\"{o}bius changes of coordinates} \\\\\n&&\\\\\n{\\rm (2)} & $~d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(\\z,{w_0}) = d^R_{\\nu,\\mu}({w_0},\\z)~$ & {\\rm Symmetry} \\\\\n&&\\\\\n{\\rm (3)} & $~d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(\\z,{w_0}) \\geq 0~$ & {\\rm Non-negativity} \\\\\n&&\\\\\n{\\rm (4)} &\\multicolumn{2}{c}{$\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!\\!d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(\\z,{w_0}) = 0 \\,\\Longrightarrow \\, \\Omega_{z_0,R}$ {\\rm in} $(\\D,\\mu)$ {\\rm and} $\\Omega_{w_0,R}$ {\\rm in} $(\\D,\\nu)$ {\\rm are isometric} }\\\\\n&&\\\\\n{\\rm (5)} & $~d^R_{m^*\\nu, \\nu}(m^{-1}(\\z),\\z)=0~$ & {\\rm Reflexivity} \\\\\n&&\\\\\n{\\rm (6)} & $~d^R_{\\mu_1,\\mu_3}(z_1,z_3) \\leq\nd^R_{\\mu_1,\\mu_2}(z_1,z_2) + d^R_{\\mu_2,\\mu_3}(z_2,z_3)~$ & {\\rm\nTriangle inequality}\n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{table}\n\n\\end{thm}\n\n\nIn addition, the function\n$d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}:\\D\\times\\D\\,\\rightarrow\\,\\mathbb{R}$ is continuous. To show\nthis, we first look a little more closely at the family of disk\nM\\\"{o}bius transformations that map one pre-assigned point $z_0 \\in\n\\D$ to another pre-assigned point $w_0 \\in \\D$, over which one\nminimizes to define $d_{\\mu}^R(z_0,w_0)$.\n\n\\begin{defn}\\label{def:M_D,z_0,w_0}\nFor any pair of points $z_0,\\,w_0 \\in \\D$, we denote by\n$M_{D,z_0,w_0}$ the set of M\\\"{o}bius transformations that map $z_0$\nto $w_0$.\n\\end{defn}\n\nThis family of M\\\"{o}bius transformations is completely\ncharacterized by the following lemma:\n\n\\begin{lem}\\label{lem:a_and_tet_formula_in_mobius_interpolation}\nFor any $z_0,w_0 \\in \\D$, the set $M_{D,z_0,w_0}$ constitutes a\n$1$-parameter family of disk M\\\"{o}bius transformations,\nparametrized continuously over $S^1$ (the unit circle). More\nprecisely, every $m \\in M_{D,z_0,w_0}$ is of the form\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:a_of_mobius}\nm(z)= \\tau\\,\\frac{z-a}{1-\\overline{a}z}~,~~\\mbox{ {\\rm{with} }}~~ a\n= a(z_0,w_0,\\sigma) :=\\frac{z_0-w_0\n\\,\\overline{\\sigma}}{1-\\overline{z_0}\\,w_0\\,\\overline{\\sigma}}\n~~~\\mbox{{\\rm and }}~~ \\tau = \\tau(z_0,w_0,\\sigma) := \\sigma\n\\frac{1- \\overline{z_0} \\,w_0 \\,\\overline{\\sigma}}\n{1-z_0\\,\\overline{w_0}\\, \\sigma},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\sigma \\in S_1:=\\{z \\in \\C\\,;\\,|z|=1\\}$ can be chosen freely.\n\\end{lem}\n\\begin{proof}\nBy (\\ref{e:disk_mobius}), the disk M\\\"{o}bius transformations that\nmap $z_0$ to $0$ all have the form\n\\[\nm_{\\psi,z_0}(z)=e^{\\bfi \\psi}\\,\\frac{z-z_0}{1-\\overline{z_0}\\,z}\\,,\n~\\mbox{ the inverse of which is }~~ m_{\\psi,z_0}^{-1}(w)=e^{-\\bfi\n\\psi}\\, \\frac{w+e^{\\bfi \\psi}z_0}{1+ e^{-\\bfi\n\\psi}\\,\\overline{z_0}w}~,\n\\]\nwhere $\\psi \\in \\mathbb{R}$ can be set arbitrarily. It follows that the\nelements of $M_{D,z_0,w_0}$ are given by the family\n$m_{\\gamma,w_0}^{-1}\\circ m_{\\psi,z_0}$, with $\\psi,\\,\\gamma \\in\n\\mathbb{R}$. Working this out, one finds that these combinations of\nM\\\"{o}bius transformations take the form (\\ref{e:a_of_mobius}), with\n$\\sigma=e^{\\bfi (\\psi-\\gamma)}$.\n\\end{proof}\nWe shall denote by $m_{z_0,w_0,\\sigma}$ the special disk M\\\"{obius}\ntransformation defined by (\\ref{e:a_of_mobius}). In view of our\ninterest in $d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}$, we also define the auxiliary function\n\\[\n\\Phi: \\D \\times \\D \\times S_1 \\longrightarrow \\C\n\\]\nby $\\Phi(z_0,w_0,\\sigma) =\n\\int_{\\Omega(z_0,R)}\\,|\\,\\mu(z)-\\nu(m_{z_0,w_0,\\sigma}(z))\\,|\\,d\\vol_H(z)$.\nThis function has the following continuity properties, inherited\nfrom $\\mu$ and $\\nu$:\n\n\\begin{lem}\\label{lem:auxiliary} $~$\\\\\n$\\bullet$ For each fixed $(z_0,w_0)$, the function $\\Phi(z_0,w_0,\\cdot)$ is continuous on $S_1$.\\\\\n$\\bullet$ For each fixed $\\sigma \\in S_1$, $\n\\Phi(\\cdot,\\cdot,\\sigma) $ is continuous on $\\D \\times \\D$.\nMoreover, the family $ \\Big(\\Phi(\\cdot,\\cdot,\\sigma)\\Big)_{\\sigma\n\\in S_1} $ is equicontinuous.\n\\end{lem}\n\\begin{proof}\nThe proof of this Lemma is given in Appendix A.\n\\end{proof}\n\nNote that since $S^1$ is compact, Lemma \\ref{lem:auxiliary} implies\nthat the infimum in the definition of $d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}$ can be\nreplaced by a minimum:\n\\[\nd^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_0,w_0)=\\mathop{\\min}_{m(z_0)=w_0}\\,\n\\int_{\\Omega_{z_0,R}}\\,|\\,\\mu(z)-\\nu(m(z))\\,|\\,d\\vol_H(z)~.\n\\]\n\nWe have now all the building blocks to prove\n\\begin{thm}\\label{thm:continuity_of_d^R_mu,nu}\nIf $\\mu$ and $\\nu$ are continuous from $\\D$ to $\\mathbb{R}$, then\n$d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z,w)$ is a continuous function on\n$\\D\\times\\D$.\n\\end{thm}\n\\begin{proof}\nPick an arbitrary point  $(z_0,w_0) \\in \\D \\times \\D$, and pick\n$\\varepsilon>0$ arbitrarily small.\n\nBy Lemma \\ref{lem:auxiliary}, there exists a $\\delta>0$ such that,\nfor $|z'_0-z_0|<\\delta$, $|w'_0-w_0|<\\delta$, we have\n\\[\n\\left|\\,\\Phi(z_0,w_0,\\sigma)-\\Phi(z'_0,w'_0,\\sigma)\\,\\right|\\,\\leq\\,\n\\varepsilon~,\n\\]\nuniformly in $\\sigma$. Pick now arbitrary $z'_0,w'_0$ so that\n$|z_0-z'_0|,|w_0-w'_0|<\\delta$.\n\nLet $m_{z_0,w_0,\\sigma}$, resp. $m_{z'_0,w'_0,\\sigma'}$, be the\nminimizing M\\\"{o}bius  transform in the definition of\n$d_{\\mu,\\nu}^R(z_0,w_0)$, resp. $d_{\\mu,\\nu}^R(z'_0,w'_0)$, i.e.\n\\[\nd^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_0,w_0)= \\Phi(z_0,w_0,\\sigma) \\ \\ \\textrm{and} \\ \\\nd^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z'_0,w'_0)= \\Phi(z_0,w_0,\\sigma')~.\n\\]\n\nIt then follows that\n\\begin{align*}\nd^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_0,w_0)&=\\min_{\\tau}\\Phi(z_0,w_0,\\tau)\n\\leq \\Phi(z_0,w_0,\\sigma')\\\\\n&\\leq \\Phi(z'_0,w'_0,\\sigma')+ |\\Phi(z_0,w_0,\\sigma') -\n\\Phi(z'_0,w'_0,\\sigma')|= d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z'_0,w'_0)+\n|\\Phi(z_0,w_0,\\sigma') - \\Phi(z'_0,w'_0,\\sigma')|\\\\\n&\\leq d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z'_0,w'_0)+ \\mathop{\\sup}_{\\omega \\in\nS_1}|\\Phi(z_0,w_0,\\omega) - \\Phi(z'_0,w'_0,\\omega)| \\leq\nd^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z'_0,w'_0)+ \\varepsilon~.\n\\end{align*}\nLikewise $d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z'_0,w'_0) \\leq d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_0,w_0) +\n\\varepsilon$, so that $\\abs{d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_0,w_0) -\nd^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z'_0,w'_0)}<\\varepsilon$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\subsection{Incorporating $d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z,w)$ into the transportation framework}\nThe next step in constructing the distance operator between surfaces\nis to incorporate the distance $d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z,w)$ defined in the\nprevious subsection into the (generalized) Kantorovich\ntransportation model:\n\\begin{equation}\nT^R_d(\\mu,\\nu)=\\inf_{\\pi\\in \\Pi(\\mu,\\nu)}\\int_{\\D\\times\n\\D}d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z,w)d\\pi(z,w).\n\\label{e:generalized_Kantorovich_transportation}\n\\end{equation}\nThe main result is that this procedure (under some extra conditions)\nfurnishes a \\emph{metric} between (disk-type) surfaces.\n\n\\begin{thm\nThere exists $\\pi^* \\in \\Pi(\\mu,\\nu)$ such that\n$$\\int_{\\D\\times \\D}d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z,w)d\\pi^*(z,w)=\\inf_{\\pi\\in \\Pi(\\mu,\\nu)}\\int_{\\D\\times \\D}d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z,w)d\\pi(z,w).$$\n\\end{thm}\n\n\\begin{proof}\nThis proof follows the same argument as in \\cite{Villani:2003},\nadapted here to our generalized setting. It uses the continuity of\nthe distance function to derive the existence of a global minimum of\n(\\ref{e:generalized_Kantorovich_transportation}). Let\n$\\Big(\\pi_k\\Big)_{k\\in \\mathbb{N}} \\in \\Pi(\\mu,\\nu)$ be a minimizer\nsequence of (\\ref{e:generalized_Kantorovich_transportation}), for\nexample by taking\n$$\n\\int_{\\D\\times \\D}d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z,w)d\\pi_k(z,w) < T^R_d(\\mu,\\nu) +\n\\frac{1}{k}.\n$$\nThen this sequence of measures is tight, that is, for every $\\varepsilon\n>0$, there exists a compact set $C\\subset \\D\\times\\D$ such that\n$\\pi_k(C)>1-\\varepsilon$, for all $k \\in \\mathbb{N}$. To see this, note\nthat since $\\D$ is separable and complete, the measures $\\mu$, $\\nu$\nare \\emph{tight} measures (see \\cite{Billingsley68}). This means\nthat for arbitrary $\\varepsilon >0$, there exist compact sets $A,B \\subset\n\\D$ so that $\\mu(A)>1-\\varepsilon\/2$ and $\\nu(B)>1-\\varepsilon\/2$. It then follows\nthat, for all $k \\in \\mathbb{N}$,\n$$\n\\pi_k(A\\times B) = \\pi_k(A\\times \\D) - \\pi_k(A \\times (\\D \\setminus\nB)\\,) \\geq \\mu(A) - \\nu(\\D\\setminus B)  = \\mu(A) - (1 - \\nu(B)) > 1\n- \\varepsilon.\n$$\nSince the set $C = A \\times B \\subset \\D\\times \\D$ is compact, this\nproves the claimed tightness of the family $\\Big(\\pi_k\\Big)_{k\\in\n\\mathbb{N}}$. By Prohorov's Theorem \\cite{Billingsley68}, a tight\nfamily of measures is sequentially weakly compact; in our case this\nmeans that $\\Big(\\pi_k\\Big)_{k\\in \\mathbb{N}}$ has a weakly\nconvergent subsequence $\\Big(\\pi_{k_n}\\Big)_{n\\in \\mathbb{N}}$; by\ndefinition, its weak limit $\\pi^*$ satisfies, for every bounded\ncontinuous function $f$ on $\\D\\times\\D$,\n$$\n\\int_{\\D\\times \\D}f(z,w)d\\pi_{k_n}(z,w) \\rightarrow \\int_{\\D\\times\n\\D}f(z,w)d\\pi^*(z,w).\n$$\nTherefore, taking in particular the continuous function\n$f(z,w)=d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z,w)$, we obtain\n$$\nT^R_d(\\mu,\\nu) = \\lim_{n\\rightarrow \\infty} \\int_{\\D\\times\n\\D}f(z,w)d\\pi_{k_n}(z,w) = \\int_{\\D\\times \\D}f(z,w)d\\pi^*(z,w).\n$$\n\n\\end{proof}\n\nUnder rather mild conditions, the ``standard'' Kantorovich\ntransportation (\\ref{e:basic_Kantorovich_transporation}) on a metric\nspaces $(X,d)$  defines a metric on the space of probability\nmeasures on $X$ . We will prove that our generalization defines a\ndistance metric as well. More precisely, we shall prove first that\n$$\n\\mbox{\\bf{d}}^R(\\mathcal{M},\\mathcal{N})=T^R_d(\\mu,\\nu)\n$$\ndefines a semi-metric in the set of all disk-type surfaces. We shall\nrestrict ourselves to surfaces that are sufficiently smooth to allow\nuniformization, so that they can be globally and conformally\nparameterized over the hyperbolic disk. Under some extra\nassumptions, we will prove that $\\mbox{\\bf{d}}^R$ is a metric, in the sense\nthat $\\mbox{\\bf{d}}^R(\\mathcal{M},\\mathcal{N})=0$ implies that $\\mathcal{M}$ and $\\mathcal{N}$ are isometric.\n\nFor the semi-metric part we will again adapt a proof given in\n\\cite{Villani:2003} to our framework. In particular, we shall make\nuse of the following ``gluing lemma'':\n\\begin{lem}\n\\label{lem:gluing_lemma} Let $\\mu_1,\\mu_2,\\mu_3$ be three\nprobability measures on $\\D$, and let $\\pi_{12} \\in\n\\Pi(\\mu_1,\\mu_2)$, $\\pi_{23} \\in \\Pi(\\mu_2,\\mu_3)$ be two\ntransportation plans. Then there exist a probability measure $\\pi$\non $\\D \\times \\D \\times \\D$ that has $\\pi_{12},\\pi_{23}$ as\nmarginals, that is $\\int_{z_3\\in\\D} d\\pi(z_1,z_2,z_3) =\nd\\pi_{12}(z_1,z_2) $, and $\\int_{z_1\\in\\D} d\\pi(z_1,z_2,z_3) =\nd\\pi_{23}(z_2,z_3)$.\n\\end{lem}\nThis lemma will be used in the proof of the following:\n\n\\begin{thm}\nFor two disk-type surfaces $\\mathcal{M}=(\\D,\\mu)$, $\\mathcal{N}=(\\D,\\nu)$, let\n$\\mbox{\\bf{d}}^R(\\mathcal{M},\\mathcal{N})$ be defined by\n$$\n\\mbox{\\bf{d}}^R(\\mathcal{M},\\mathcal{N})=T^R_d(\\mu,\\nu).\n$$\nThen $\\mbox{\\bf{d}}^R$ defines a semi-metric on the space of disk-type\nsurfaces.\n\\end{thm}\n\\begin{proof}\n\nThe symmetry of $d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}$ implies symmetry for $T^R_d$, by the\nfollowing argument:\n\\begin{align*}\nT^R_d(\\mu,\\nu) &=\n\\mathop{\\inf}_{\\pi \\in \\Pi(\\mu,\\nu)}\\int_{\\D \\times \\D}d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z,w)d\\pi(z,w) = \\mathop{\\inf}_{\\pi \\in \\Pi(\\mu,\\nu)}\\int_{\\D \\times \\D}d^R_{\\nu,\\mu}(w,z)d\\pi(z,w) \\\\\n&=\n\\mathop{\\inf}_{\\pi \\in \\Pi(\\mu,\\nu)}\\int_{\\D \\times \\D}d^R_{\\nu,\\mu}(w,z)d\\widetilde{\\pi}(w,z),  ~~~~~~~\\mbox{ where we have set }~\\widetilde{\\pi}(w,z)=\\pi(z,w)\\\\\n&= T^R_d(\\nu,\\mu)~.  ~~~~~~~~~(\\mbox{ use that }\\pi\\in\\Pi(\\mu,\\nu)\n\\Leftrightarrow \\widetilde{\\pi}\\in\\Pi(\\nu,\\mu))\n\\end{align*}\n\n\nThe non-negativity of $d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(\\cdot,\\cdot)$ automatically\nimplies $T^R_d(\\mu,\\nu) \\geq 0$.\n\n\nNext we show that, for any M\\\"{o}bius  transformation $m$,\n$T^R_d(\\mu,m_*\\mu)=0$. To see this, pick the transportation plan\n$\\pi \\in \\Pi(\\mu,m_*\\mu)$ defined by\n$$\n\\int_{\\D\\times \\D} f(z,w) d\\pi(z,w) = \\int_{\\D} f(z,m(z))\n\\mu(z)\\,d\\vol_H(z).\n$$\nOn the one hand $\\pi \\in \\Pi(\\mu,m_*\\mu)$, since\n$$\\int_{A \\times \\D} d\\pi(z,w) = \\int_{A} \\mu(z)d\\vol_H(z),$$\nand\n\\begin{align*}\n\\int_{\\D\\times B} d\\pi(z,w) &=\n\\int_{\\D\\times \\D} \\chi_B(w) d\\pi(z,w) \\\\\n&=\\int_{\\D} \\chi_B(m(z)) \\mu(z)d\\vol_H(z) = \\int_{\\D} \\chi_B(w)\n\\mu_*(w)d\\vol_H(w),\n\\end{align*}\nwhere we used the change of variables $w=m(z)$ in the last step.\nFurthermore, $\\pi(z,w)$ is concentrated on the graph of $m$, i.e. on\n$\\set{(z,m(z)) \\ ; \\ z\\in \\D} \\subset \\D \\times \\D$. Since\n$d^R_{\\mu,m_*\\mu}(z,m(z)) = 0$ for all $z \\in \\D$ we obtain\ntherefore $T_d(\\mu,m_*\\mu) \\leq \\int_{\\D\\times \\D}\nd^R_{\\mu,m_*\\mu}(z,w)d\\pi(z,w)  = 0$.\n\n\nFinally, we prove the triangle inequality $T^R_d(\\mu_1,\\mu_3) \\leq\nT^R_d(\\mu_1,\\mu_2) + T^R_d(\\mu_2,\\mu_3)$ . To this end we follow the\nargument in the proof given in \\cite{Villani:2003} (page 208). This\nis where we invoke the gluing Lemma stated above.\n\nWe start by picking  arbitrary transportation plans $\\pi_{12} \\in\n\\Pi(\\mu_1,\\mu_2)$ and $\\pi_{23} \\in \\Pi(\\mu_2,\\mu_3)$. By Lemma\n\\ref{lem:gluing_lemma} there exists a probability measure $\\pi$ on\n$\\D\\times \\D \\times \\D$ with marginals $\\pi_{12}$ and $\\pi_{23}$.\nDenote by $\\pi_{13}$ its third marginal, that is\n$$\\int_{z_2\\in \\D}d\\pi(z_1,z_2,z_3) = d\\pi_{13}(z_1,z_3).$$\nThen\n\\begin{align*}\nT^R_d(\\mu_1,\\mu_3) &\\leq \\int_{\\D \\times \\D} d^R_{\\mu_1,\\mu_3}(z_1,z_3)d\\pi_{13}(z_1,z_3)  = \\int_{\\D \\times \\D \\times \\D} d^R_{\\mu_1,\\mu_3}(z_1,z_3)d\\pi(z_1,z_2,z_3) \\\\\n&\\leq \\int_{\\D \\times \\D \\times \\D} \\Big( d^R_{\\mu_1,\\mu_2}(z_1,z_2) + d^R_{\\mu_2,\\mu_3}(z_2,z_3) \\Big )d\\pi(z_1,z_2,z_3) \\\\\n&\\leq \\int_{\\D \\times \\D \\times \\D} d^R_{\\mu_1,\\mu_2}(z_1,z_2)\nd\\pi(z_1,z_2,z_3) +\n\\int_{\\D \\times \\D \\times \\D} d^R_{\\mu_2,\\mu_3}(z_2,z_3) d\\pi(z_1,z_2,z_3) \\\\\n&\\leq \\int_{\\D \\times \\D } d^R_{\\mu_1,\\mu_2}(z_1,z_2)\nd\\pi_{12}(z_1,z_2) + \\int_{\\D \\times \\D } d^R_{\\mu_2,\\mu_3}(z_2,z_3)\nd\\pi_{23}(z_2,z_3),\n\\end{align*}\nwhere we used the triangle-inequality for $d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}$ listed in\n(Theorem \\ref{thm:properties_of_d}). Since we can choose $\\pi_{12}$\nand $\\pi_{23}$ to achieve arbitrary close values to the infimum in\neq.~(\\ref{e:generalized_Kantorovich_transportation}) the triangle\ninequality follows.\n\\end{proof}\n\nTo qualify as a metric rather than a semi-metric, $\\mbox{\\bf{d}}^R$ (or\n$T^R_d$) should be able to distinguish from each other any two\nsurfaces (or measures) that are not ``identical'', that is\nisometric. To prove that they can do so, we need an extra\nassumption: we shall require that the surfaces we consider have no\nself-isometries. More precisely, we require that each surface $\\mathcal{M}$\nthat we consider satisfies the following definition:\n\n\\begin{defn}\nA surface $\\mathcal{M}$ is said to be a singly\n$\\varrho\\mbox{-}_{\\mbox{\\tiny{H}}}\\mbox{fittable}$ (where $\\varrho\n\\in \\mathbb{R},$ $\\varrho \\neq 0$) if, for all $R > \\varrho$, and all\n$z\\in\\D$, there is no other M\\\"{o}bius transformation $m$ other than\nthe identity for which $$\\int_{\\Omega_{z,R}} \\,\n|\\mu(z)-\\mu(m(z))|\\,d\\vol_H(z)=0.$$\n\\end{defn}\n\n\\begin{rem}\nThis definition can also be read as follows: $\\mathcal{M}$ is singly\n$\\varrho\\mbox{-}_{\\mbox{\\tiny{H}}}\\mbox{fittable}$ if and only if,\nfor all $R>\\varrho$, any two conformal factors $\\mu_1$ and $\\mu_2$\nfor $\\mathcal{M}$ satisfy:\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item\nFor all $z\\in \\D$ there exists a unique minimum to the function $w\n\\mapsto d^R_{\\mu_1,\\mu_2}(z,w)$.\n\\item\nFor all pairs $(z,w)\\in \\D \\times \\D$ that achieve this minimum\nthere exists a unique M\\\"{o}bius transformation for which the\nintegral in {\\rm(\\ref{e:d_mu,nu(z,w)_def})} vanishes (with $\\mu_1$\nin the role of $\\mu$, and $\\mu_2$ in that of $\\nu$).\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{rem}\nEssentially, this definition requires that, from some sufficiently\nlarge (hyperbolic) scale onwards, there are no isometric pieces\nwithin $(\\D,\\mu)$ (or $(\\D,\\nu)$).\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n \n\\hspace*{.3 in}\n\\begin{minipage}{2.8 in}\n  \\caption{Illustration of the proof of Theorem \\ref{thm:identity_of_indiscernibles}}\\label{fig:for_proof_identity_of_indiscernibles}\n\\end{minipage}\n\\begin{minipage}{3 in}\n\\hspace*{.7 in}\n\\includegraphics[width=0.8\\columnwidth]{figures\/ingrid_illu.png}\n\\end{minipage}\n\\\n\\end{figure}\n\nWe start with a lemma, and then prove the main result of this\nsubsection.\n\\begin{lem}\\label{lem:in_every_disk_z_w_d(z,w)=0}\nLet $\\pi \\in \\Pi(\\mu,\\nu)$ be such that $\\int_{\\D \\times\n\\D}\\,d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z,w)\\,d\\pi(z,w)=0$. Then, for all $z_0 \\in \\D$\nand $\\delta >0$, there exists at least one point $z \\in\n\\Omega_{z_0,\\delta}$ such that $d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z,w)=0$ for some $w\n\\in \\D$.\n\\end{lem}\n\\begin{proof}\nBy contradiction: assume that there exists a disk\n$\\Omega_{z_0,\\delta}$ such that $d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z,w) >0$ for all\n$z\\in \\Omega_{z_0,\\delta}$ and all $w \\in \\D$. Since\n$$\n\\int_{\\Omega(z_0,\\delta) \\times \\D}\\,d\\pi(z,w) =\n\\int_{\\Omega(z_0,\\delta)}\\mu(z)\\, d\\vol_H(z)>0~,\n$$\nthe set $\\Omega(z_0,\\delta) \\times \\D$ contains some of the support\nof $\\pi$. It follows that\n$$\n\\int_{\\Omega(z_0,\\delta)\\times \\D} d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z,w) d\\pi(z,w)>0~,\n$$\nwhich contradicts\n$$\n \\int_{\\Omega(z_0,\\delta) \\times \\D}d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z,w)d\\pi(z,w)\n\\le \\int_{\\D \\times \\D}d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z,w)d\\pi(z,w) = 0~.\n$$\n\\end{proof}\n\\begin{thm}\\label{thm:identity_of_indiscernibles}\nSuppose that $\\mathcal{M}$ and $\\mathcal{N}$ are two surfaces that are singly\n$\\varrho\\mbox{-}_{\\mbox{\\tiny{H}}}$fittable. If $\\mbox{\\bf{d}}^R(\\mathcal{M},\\mathcal{N})=0$ for\nsome $R > \\varrho$, then there exists a M\\\"{o}bius  transformation $m \\in\n\\Md$ that is a global isometry between $\\mathcal{M}=(\\D,\\mu)$ and\n$\\mathcal{N}=(\\D,\\nu)$ (where $\\mu$ and $\\nu$ are conformal factors of $\\mathcal{M}$\nand $\\mathcal{N}$, respectively).\n\\end{thm}\n\\begin{proof}\nWhen $\\mbox{\\bf{d}}^R(\\mathcal{M},\\mathcal{N})=0$, there exists (see \\cite{Villani:2003}) $\\pi\n\\in \\Pi(\\mu,\\nu)$ such that\n$$\n\\int_{\\D \\times \\D}d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z,w)d\\pi(z,w)=0.\n$$\n\nNext, pick an arbitrary point $z_0 \\in \\D$ such that, for some $w_0\n\\in \\D$, we have $d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_0,w_0)=0$. (The existence of such\na pair is guaranteed by Lemma \\ref{lem:in_every_disk_z_w_d(z,w)=0}.)\nThis implies that there exists a unique M\\\"{o}bius transformation\n$m_0 \\in \\Md$ that takes $z_0$ to $w_0$ and that satisfies\n$\\nu(m_0(z))=\\mu(z)$ for all $z \\in \\Omega_{z_0,R}$. We define\n$$\n\\rho^* = \\sup \\{\\rho \\,;\\, d^\\rho_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_0,w_0)=0 \\};\n$$\nclearly $\\rho^* \\geq R$. The theorem will be proved if we show that\n$\\rho^*= \\infty$. We shall do this by contradiction, i.e. we assume\n$\\rho^* < \\infty$, and then derive a contradiction.\n\nSo let's assume $\\rho^* < \\infty$. Consider $\\Omega_{z_0,\\rho^*}$,\nthe hyperbolic disk around $z_0$ of radius $\\rho^*$. (See Figure\n\\ref{fig:for_proof_identity_of_indiscernibles} for illustration.)\nSet $\\varepsilon = (R - \\varrho)\/2$, and consider the points on the\nhyperbolic circle $C=\\partial \\Omega_{z_0, \\rho^*-\\varrho-\\varepsilon}$.\nFor every $z_1 \\in C$, consider the hyperbolic disk\n$\\Omega_{z_1,\\varepsilon\/2}$; by  Lemma\n\\ref{lem:in_every_disk_z_w_d(z,w)=0} there exists a point $z_2$ in\nthis disk and a corresponding point $w_2 \\in \\D$ such that\n$d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_2,w_2)=0$, i.e. such that\n\\[\n\\int_{\\Omega_{z_2,R}}\\,|\\mu(z)-m'^*\\nu(z)|^2\\,d\\vol_H(z) \\,=\\,0~\n\\]\nfor some M\\\"{o}bius  transformation $m'$ that maps $z_2$ to $w_2$; in\nparticular, we have that\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mu(z)=\\nu(m'(z))~~\\mbox{ for all }~ z \\in \\Omega_{z_2,R}~.\n\\label{e:ingrid:mprime}\n\\end{equation}\nThe hyperbolic distance from $z_2$ to $\\partial \\Omega_{z_0,\\rho^*}$\nis at least $\\varrho+\\varepsilon\/2$.\nIt follows that the hyperbolic disk $\\Omega_{z_2,\\varrho+\\varepsilon\/4}$ is\ncompletely contained in $\\Omega_{z_0,\\rho^*}$; since\n$\\mu(z)=\\nu(m_0(z))$ for all $z \\in \\Omega_{z_0,\\rho^*}$, this must\ntherefore hold, in particular, for all $z \\in\n\\Omega_{z_2,\\varrho+\\varepsilon\/4}$. Since\n$\\Omega_{z_2,\\varrho+\\varepsilon\/4}\\subset \\Omega_{z_2,R}$, we also have\n$\\mu(z)=\\nu(m'(z))$ for all $z \\in \\Omega_{z_2,\\varrho+\\varepsilon\/4}$, by\n(\\ref{e:ingrid:mprime}). This implies $\\nu(w)=\\nu(m_0\\circ\n(m')^{-1}(w))$ for all $w \\in \\Omega_{w_2,\\varrho+\\varepsilon\/4}$. Because\n$\\mathcal{N}$ is singly $\\varrho\\mbox{-}_{\\mbox{\\tiny{H}}}$fittable, it\nfollows that $m_0\\circ (m')^{-1}$ must be the identity, or $m_0=\nm'$. Combining this with (\\ref{e:ingrid:mprime}), we have thus shown\nthat $\\mu(z)=\\nu(m_0(z))$ for all $z \\in \\Omega_{z_2,R}$.\n\nSince the distance between $z_2$ and $z_1$ is at most $\\varepsilon\/2$, we\nalso have\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\Omega_{z_2,R} \\supset \\Omega_{z_1,R - \\varepsilon\/2} = \\Omega_{z_1,\\varrho\n+ 3\\varepsilon\/2}~. \\label{e:ingrid:supset}\n\\end{equation*}\n\nThis implies that if we select such a point $z_2(z_1)$ for each\n$z_1\\in C$, then $\\Omega_{z_0, \\rho^* - \\varrho-\\varepsilon}\\cup\n\\left(\\,\\cup_{z_1 \\in C}\\,\\Omega_{z_2(z_1),R}\\right)$ covers the\nopen disk $\\Omega_{z_0,\\rho^*+\\varepsilon\/2}$. By our earlier argument,\n$\\mu(z)=\\nu(m_0(z))$ for all $z$ in each of the\n$\\Omega_{z_2(z_1),R}$; since the same is true on $\\Omega_{z_0,\n\\rho^* - \\varrho-\\varepsilon}$, it follows that $\\mu(z)=\\nu(m_0(z))$ for\nall $z$ in $\\Omega_{z_0,\\rho^*+\\varepsilon\/2}$. This contradicts the\ndefinition of $\\rho^*$ as the supremum of all radii for which this\nwas true; it follows that our initial assumption, that $\\rho^*$ is\nfinite, cannot be true, completing the proof.\n\\end{proof}\n\nFor $(\\D,\\mu)$ to be singly\n$\\varrho\\mbox{-}_{\\mbox{\\tiny{H}}}$fittable, no two hyperbolic disks\n$\\Omega_{z,R}$, $\\Omega_{w,R}$ (where $w$ can equal $z$) can be\nisometric via a M\\\"{o}bius transformation $m$, if $R > \\varrho$,\nexcept if $m=Id$. However, if $z$ is close (in the Euclidean sense)\nto the boundary of $\\D$, the hyperbolic disk $\\Omega_{z,R}$ is very\nsmall in the Euclidean sense, and corresponds to a very small piece\n(near the boundary) of $\\mathcal{M}$. This means that single\n$\\varrho\\mbox{-}_{\\mbox{\\tiny{H}}}$fittability imposes restrictions\nin increasingly small scales near the boundary of $\\mathcal{M}$; from a\npractical point of view, this is hard to check, and in many\napplications, the behavior of $\\mathcal{M}$ close to its boundary is\nirrelevant. For this reason, we also formulate the following\nrelaxation of the results above.\n\n\\begin{defn}\nA surface $\\mathcal{M}$ is said to be a singly $A\\mbox{-}_{\\!_{\\mathcal{M}}}$fittable\n(where $A> 0$) if there are no patches (i.e. open, path-connected\nsets) in $\\mathcal{M}$ of area larger than $A$ that are isometric, with\nrespect to the metric on $\\mathcal{M}$.\n\\end{defn}\n\nIf a surface is singly $A\\mbox{-}_{\\!_{\\mathcal{M}}}$fittable, then it is\nobviously also $A'\\mbox{-}_{\\!_{\\mathcal{M}}}$fittable for all $A' \\geq A$;\nthe condition of being $A\\mbox{-}_{\\!_{\\mathcal{M}}}$fittable becomes more\nrestrictive as $A$ decreases. The following theorem states that two\nsingly $A\\mbox{-}_{\\!_{\\mathcal{M}}}$fittable surfaces at zero\n$\\mbox{\\bf{d}}^R$-distance from each other must necessarily be isometric, up to\nsome small boundary layer.\n\n\\begin{thm}\nConsider two surfaces $\\mathcal{M}$ and $\\mathcal{N}$, with corresponding conformal\nfactors $\\mu$ and $\\nu$ on $\\D$, and suppose $\\mbox{\\bf{d}}^R(\\mathcal{M},\\mathcal{N})=0$ for\nsome $R>0$. Then the following holds: for arbitrarily large\n$\\rho>0$, there exist a M\\\"{o}bius  transformation $m \\in M_D$ and a value\n$A>0$ such that if $\\mathcal{M}$ and $\\mathcal{N}$ are singly\n$A\\mbox{-}_{\\!_{\\mathcal{M}}}$fittable then $\\mu(m(z))=\\nu(z)$, for all $z\n\\in \\Omega_{0,\\rho}$.\n\\end{thm}\n\\begin{proof}\nPart of the proof follows the same lines as for Theorem\n\\ref{thm:identity_of_indiscernibles}. We highlight here only the new\nelements needed for this proof.\n\nFirst, note that, for arbitrary $r>0$ and $z_0 \\in \\D$,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:lower_bound_for_patch_area}\n    \\Vol_\\mathcal{M}(\\Omega_{z_0,r}) = \\int_{\\Omega_{z_0,r}}\\mu(z)d\\vol_H(z)\n    \\geq \\Vol_H(\\Omega_{z_0,r})\\left[\\min_{z\\in\\Omega_{z_0,r}}\\mu(z)\\right] =\n    \\Vol_H(\\Omega_{0,r})\\left[\\min_{z\\in\\Omega_{z_0,r}}\\mu(z)\\right].\n\\end{equation}\nThis motivates the definition of the sets $\\mathcal{O}_{A,r}$,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:O_big_area_set}\n    \\mathcal{O}_{A,r} = \\set{ z\\in \\D \\ \\mid \\ \\min_{z'\\in\\Omega_{z,r}}\\mu(z') >\n    \\frac{A}{\\Vol_H(0,\\Omega_{0,r})}\n    };\n\\end{equation}\n$A>0$ is still arbitrary at this point; its value will be set below.\n\nNow pick $r<R$, and set $\\varepsilon=(R-r)\/2$. Note that if $z \\in\n\\mathcal{O}_{A,r}$, then\n$\\Vol_{\\mathcal{M}}(\\Omega_{z,R})\\geq\\Vol_{\\mathcal{M}}(\\Omega_{z,r})>A $.\n\nSince $\\mu$ is bounded below by a strictly positive constant on each\n$\\Omega_{0,\\rho'}$, we can pick, for arbitrarily large $\\rho$, $A>0$\nsuch that $\\Omega_{0,\\rho} \\subset \\mathcal{O}_{A,r}$; for this it suffices\nthat $A$ exceed a threshold depending on $\\rho$ and $r$. (Since\n$\\mu(z)\\rightarrow 0$ as $z$ approaches the boundary of $\\D$ in\nEuclidean norm, we expect this threshold to tend towards $0$ as\n$\\rho \\rightarrow \\infty$.) We assume that $\\Omega_{0,\\rho} \\subset\n\\mathcal{O}_{A,r}$ in what follows.\n\nSimilar to the proof of Theorem\n\\ref{thm:identity_of_indiscernibles}, we invoke Lemma\n\\ref{lem:in_every_disk_z_w_d(z,w)=0} to infer the existence of\n$z_0,w_0$ such that $z_0\\in\\Omega_{0,\\varepsilon\/2}$  and\n$d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_0,w_0)=0$. We denote\n$$\n\\rho^* = \\sup \\{r' \\,;\\, d^{r'}_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_0,w_0)=0 \\};\n$$\nas before, there exists a M\\\"{o}bius  transformation $m$ such that\n$\\nu(m(z))=\\mu(z)$ for all $z$ in $\\Omega_{z_0,\\rho^*}$. To complete\nour proof it therefore suffices to show that $\\rho^* \\geq \\rho +\n\\varepsilon\/2$, since $\\Omega_{0,\\rho}\\subset \\Omega_{z_0,\\rho+\\varepsilon\/2}$ .\n\nSuppose the opposite is true, i.e. $\\rho^* < \\rho+\\varepsilon\/2$. By the\nsame arguments as in the proof of Theorem\n\\ref{thm:identity_of_indiscernibles},  there exists, for each\n$z_1\\in \\partial \\Omega_{z_0,\\rho^*-r-\\varepsilon}$, a point $z_2 \\in\n\\Omega_{z_1,\\varepsilon\/2}$ such that $d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_2,w_2)=0$ for some\n$w_2$. Since the hyperbolic distance between $z_2$ and $0$ is\nbounded above by $\\varepsilon\/2+\\rho^*-r-\\varepsilon+\\varepsilon\/2<\\rho-r+\\varepsilon\/2<\\rho$,\n$z_2 \\in \\Omega_{0,\\rho} \\subset \\mathcal{O}_{A,r}$, so that\n$\\Vol_{\\mathcal{M}}(\\Omega_{z_2,R})>A $. It then follows from the conditions\non $\\mathcal{M}$ and $\\mathcal{N}$ that $\\nu(m(z))=\\mu(z)$ for all z in\n$\\Omega_{z_0,\\rho^*} \\cup \\Omega_{z_2,R} \\supset\n\\Omega_{z_0,\\rho^*}\\cup \\Omega_{z_1,r+3\\varepsilon\/2}$. Repeating the\nargument for all $z_1\\in \\partial \\Omega_{z_0,\\rho^*-r-\\varepsilon}$ shows\nthat $\\nu(m(z))=\\mu(z)$ can be extended to all $z \\in\n\\Omega_{z_0,\\rho^*+\\varepsilon\/2}$, leading to a contradiction that\ncompletes the proof.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\\section{Discretization and implementation}\n\\label{s:the_discrete_case_implementation} To transform the\ntheoretical framework constructed in the preceding sections into an\nalgorithm, we need to discretize the relevant continuous objects.\nOur general plan is to recast the transportation\neq.~(\\ref{e:generalized_Kantorovich_transportation}) as a linear\nprogramming problem between discrete measures. This requires two approximation steps: \\\\\n1) approximating the surface's Uniformization, and \\\\\n2) discretizing the resulting continuous measures and finding the\noptimal transport between the discrete measures.\n\nTo show how we do this, we first review a few basic notions such as\nthe representation of (approximations to) surfaces by faceted,\npiecewise flat approximations, called {\\em meshes}, and discrete\nconformal mappings; the conventions we describe here are the same as\nadopted in \\cite{Lipman:2009:MVF}.\n\n\\subsection{Meshes, mid-edge meshes, and discrete conformal mapping}\nTriangular (piecewise-linear) meshes are a popular choice for the\ndefinition of discrete versions of smooth surfaces. We shall denote\na triangular mesh by the triple $M = (V, E, F)$, where\n$V=\\{v_i\\}_{i=1}^m \\subset \\mathbb R^3$ is the set of vertices,\n$E=\\{e_{i,j}\\}$ the set of edges, and $F=\\{f_{i,j,k}\\}$  the set\nof faces (oriented $i\\rightarrow j \\rightarrow k$). When dealing\nwith a second surface, we shall denote its mesh by $N$. We assume\nour mesh is homeomorphic to a disk.\n\nNext, we introduce ``conformal mappings'' of a mesh to the unit\ndisk. Natural candidates for discrete conformal mappings are not\nimmediately obvious. Since we are dealing with piecewise linear\nsurfaces, it might seem natural to select a continuous linear maps\nthat is piecewise affine, such that its restriction to each triangle\nis a similarity transformation. A priori, a similarity map from a\ntriangular face to the disk has 4 degrees of freedom; requiring that\nthe image of each edge remain a shared part of the boundary of the\nimages of the faces abutting the edge, and that the map be\ncontinuous when crossing this boundary, imposes 4 constraints for\neach edge. This quick back of the envelope calculation thus allows\n$4|F|$ degrees of freedom for such a construction, with $4|E|$\nconstraints. Since $3|F|\/2 \\approx |E|$ this problem is over\nconstrained, and a construction along these lines is not possible. A\ndifferent approach uses the notion of discrete harmonic and discrete\nconjugate harmonic functions due to Pinkall and Polthier\n\\cite{Pinkall93,Polthier05} to define a discrete conformal mapping\non the mid-edge mesh (to be defined shortly). This relaxes the\nproblem to define a map via a similarity on each triangle that is\ncontinuous through only \\emph{one} point in each edge, namely the\nmid point. This procedure was employed in \\cite{Lipman:2009:MVF}; we\nwill summarize it here; for additional implementation details we\nrefer the interested reader (or programmer) to that paper, which\nincludes a pseudo-code.\n\nThe mid-edge mesh $\\textbf{\\textsf{M}} = (\\textbf{\\textsf{V}}, \\textbf{\\textsf{E}}, \\textbf{\\textsf{F}})$ of a given mesh $M=(V,\nE, F)$ is defined as follows. For the vertices $\\textbf{\\textsf{v}}_r \\in \\textbf{\\textsf{V}}$, we\npick the mid-points of the edges of the mesh $M$; we call these the\nmid-edge points of $M$. There is thus a $\\textbf{\\textsf{v}}_r \\in \\textbf{\\textsf{V}}$\ncorresponding to each edge $e_{i,j} \\in E$. If $\\textbf{\\textsf{v}}_s$ and $\\textbf{\\textsf{v}}_r$\nare the mid-points of edges in $E$ that share a vertex in $M$, then\nthere is an edge $\\textbf{\\textsf{e}}_{s,r} \\in \\textbf{\\textsf{E}}$ that connects them. It follows\nthat for each face $f_{i,j,k} \\in F$ we can define a corresponding\nface $\\mf_{r,s,t} \\in \\textbf{\\textsf{F}}$, the vertices of which are the mid-edge\npoints of (the edges of) $f_{i,j,k}$; this face has the same\norientation as $f_{i,j,k}$.  Note that the mid-edge mesh is not a\nmanifold mesh, as illustrated by the mid-edge mesh in Figure\n\\ref{f:discrete_type_1}, shown together with its ``parent'' mesh: in\n$\\textbf{\\textsf{M}}$ each edge ``belongs'' to only one face $\\textbf{\\textsf{F}}$, as opposed to a\nmanifold mesh, in which most edges (the edges on the boundary are\nexceptions) function as a hinge between two faces. This ``lace''\nstructure makes a mid-edge mesh more flexible: it turns out that it\nis possible to define a piecewise linear map that makes each face in\n$\\textbf{\\textsf{F}}$ undergo a pure scaling (i.e. all its edges are shrunk or\nextended by the same factor) and that simultaneously flattens the\nwhole mid-edge mesh. By extending this back to the original mesh, we\nthus obtain a map from each triangular face to a similar triangle in\nthe plane; these individual similarities can be ``knitted together''\nthrough the mid-edge points, which continue to coincide (unlike most\nof the vertices of the original triangles).\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n\\centering \\setlength{\\tabcolsep}{0.4cm}\n\\begin{tabular}{@{\\hspace{0.0cm}}c@{\\hspace{0.2cm}}c@{\\hspace{0.0cm}}}\n\\includegraphics[width=0.4\\columnwidth]{figures\/discrete_msh.png}\n&\n\\includegraphics[width=0.4\\columnwidth]{figures\/discrete_me.png} \\\\\nDiscrete mesh& Mid-edge mesh\\\\\n\\includegraphics[width=0.4\\columnwidth]{figures\/discrete_msh_zoom.png}\n&\n\\includegraphics[width=0.4\\columnwidth]{figures\/discrete_me_zoom.png} \\\\\nSurface mesh zoom-in & Mid-edge mesh zoom-in\n\\end{tabular}\n\\caption{A mammalian tooth surface mesh, with the corresponding\nmid-edge mesh.}\\label{f:discrete_type_1}\n\\end{figure}\n\nTo determine the flattening map, we use the framework of discrete\nharmonic and conjugate harmonic functions, first defined and studied\nby Pinkall and Polthier \\cite{Pinkall93,Polthier05} in the context\nof discrete minimal surfaces. This framework was first adapted to\nthe present context in \\cite{Lipman:2009:MVF}; this adaptation is\nexplained in some detail in Appendix B. The flattening map is\nwell-defined at the mid-edges $\\textbf{\\textsf{v}}_s$.\nAs shown in \\cite{Lipman:2009:MVF} (see also Appendix B) the\nboundary of the mesh gets mapped onto a region with a straight\nhorizontal slit (see Figure \\ref{f:discrete_type_2}, where the\nboundary points are marked in red). We can assume, without loss of\ngenerality, that this slit coincides with the interval $[-2, 2]\n\\subset \\C$, since it would suffice to shift and scale the whole\nfigure to make this happen. The holomorphic map $z=w+\\frac{1}{w}$\nmaps the unit disk conformally to $\\mathbb{C}\\setminus [-2,2]$, with\nthe boundary of the disk mapped to the slit at $[-2,2]$; when the\ninverse of this map is applied to our flattened mid-edge mesh, its\nimage will thus be a mid-edge mesh in the unit disk, with the\nboundary of the disk corresponding to the boundary of our\n(disk-like) surface. (See Figure \\ref{f:discrete_type_2}.) We shall\ndenote by $\\Phi:\\textbf{\\textsf{V}} \\rightarrow \\C$ the concatenation of these\ndifferent conformal and discrete-conformal maps, from the original\nmid-edge mesh to the corresponding mid-edge mesh in the unit disk.\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n\\centering \\setlength{\\tabcolsep}{0.4cm}\n\\begin{tabular}{@{\\hspace{0.0cm}}c@{\\hspace{0.0cm}}c@{\\hspace{0.0cm}}c@{\\hspace{0.0cm}}}\n\\includegraphics[width=0.2\\columnwidth]{figures\/discrete_slit.png} &\n\\includegraphics[width=0.4\\columnwidth]{figures\/discrete_slit_zoom.png}\\\\\nMid-edge uniformization & Uniformization Zoom-in \\\\\n\\includegraphics[width=0.4\\columnwidth]{figures\/discrete_disc_uni.png}& \\includegraphics[width=0.5\\columnwidth]{figures\/discrete_conf_factors.png}\\\\\nAfter mapping to the disk & Interpolated conformal factor\n\\end{tabular}\\\\\n\\caption{The discrete conformal transform to the unit disk for the\nsurface of Figure \\ref{f:discrete_type_1}, and the interpolation of\nthe corresponding discrete conformal factors (plotted with the JET\ncolor map in Matlab). The red points in the top row's images show\nthe boundary points of the disk.} \\label{f:discrete_type_2}\n\\end{figure}\n\nNext, we define the Euclidean discrete conformal factors, defined as\nthe density, w.r.t. the Euclidean metric, of the mid-edge triangles\n(faces), i.e.\n\\[\n\\mu^E_{\\mf_{r,s,t}} =\n\\frac{\\vol_{\\mathds{R}^3}(\\mf_{r,s,t})}{\\vol(\\Phi(\\mf_{r,s,t}))}.\n\\]\nNote that according to this definition, we have\n\\[\n\\int_{\\Phi(\\mf_{r,s,t})}\\,\\mu^E_{\\mf_{r,s,t}}\\,d\\vol_E\\, =\n\\,\\frac{\\vol_{\\mathds{R}^3}(\\mf_{r,s,t})}{\\vol_E\\left(\\Phi(\\mf_{r,s,t})\\right)}\\,\n\\vol_E\\left(\\Phi(\\mf_{r,s,t})\\right)\\,=\\,\\vol_{\\mathds{R}^3}(\\mf_{r,s,t}),\n\\]\nwhere $\\vol_E$ denotes the standard Euclidean volume element\n$dx^1\\wedge dx^2$ in $\\C$, and $\\vol_{\\mathbb{R}^3}(\\mf)$ stands for the\narea of $\\mf$ as induced by the standard Euclidean volume element in\n$\\mathbb{R}^3$. The discrete Euclidean conformal factor at a mid-edge vertex\n$\\textbf{\\textsf{v}}_r$ is then defined as the average of the conformal factors for\nthe two faces $\\mf_{r,s,t}$ and $\\mf_{r,s',t'}$ that touch in\n$\\textbf{\\textsf{v}}_r$, i.e.\n\\[\n\\mu^E_{\\textbf{\\textsf{v}}_r} \\,=\\,\n\\frac{1}{2}\\,\\left(\\mu^E_{\\mf_{r,s,t}}\\,+\\,\\mu^E_{\\mf_{r,s',t'}}\\right).\n\\]\nFigure \\ref{f:discrete_type_2} illustrates the values of the\nEuclidean conformal factor for the mammalian tooth surface of\nearlier figures. The discrete hyperbolic conformal factors are\ndefined according to the following equation, consistent with the\nconvention adopted in section \\ref{s:prelim},\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:discrete_hyperbolic_conformal_density}\n    \\mu^H_{\\textbf{\\textsf{v}}_r} \\,= \\,\\mu^E_{\\textbf{\\textsf{v}}_r} \\,\\left(1 - |\\Phi(\\textbf{\\textsf{v}}_r)|^2\\right)^2.\n\\end{equation}\nAs before, we shall often drop the superscript: unless otherwise\nstated, $\\mu=\\mu^H$, and $\\nu=\\nu^H$.\n\nThe (approximately) conformal mapping of the original mesh to the\ndisk is completed by constructing a smooth interpolant $\\Gamma_\\mu\n:\\D \\rightarrow \\mathbb{R}$, which interpolates the discrete conformal\nfactor so far defined only at the vertices in $\\Phi(\\textbf{\\textsf{V}})$;\n$\\Gamma_\\nu$ is constructed in the same way. In practice we use\nThin-Plate Splines, i.e. functions of the type\n\\[\n\\Gamma_\\mu(z) = p_1(z)\\, +\\,\\sum_i\\, b_i \\,\\psi(|z-z_i|)\\,,\n\\]\nwhere $\\psi(r)=r^2\\log(r^2)$, $p_1(z)$ is a linear polynomial in\n$x^1,x^2$, and  $b_i \\in \\C$; $p_1$ and the $b_i$ are determined by\nthe data that need to be interpolated. Similarly\n$\\Gamma_\\nu(w)\\,=\\,q_1(w)\\,+\\,\\sum_j \\,c_j\\, \\psi(|w-w_j|)$ for some\nconstants $c_j \\in \\C$ and a linear polynomial $q_1(w)$ in\n$y^1,y^2$. We use as interpolation centers two point sets\n$Z=\\set{z_i}_{i=1}^n,$ and $W=\\set{w_j}_{j=1}^p$ defined in the next\nsubsection for the discretization of measures. See Figure\n\\ref{f:discrete_type_2} (bottom-right) the interpolated conformal\nfactor based on the black point set.\n\nWe also note that for practical purposes it is sometimes\nadvantageous to use Smoothing Thin-Plate Splines:\n$$\\Gamma_\\mu(z) = \\mathop{\\mathrm{argmin}}_{\\gamma} \\set{ \\lambda \\sum_{r} \\abs{\\mu_{\\textbf{\\textsf{v}}_r} - \\gamma(\\Phi(\\textbf{\\textsf{v}}_r))}^2 + (1-\\lambda) \\int_{\\D} \\parr{\\frac{\\partial^2 \\gamma }{\\partial (x^1)^2}}^2 + \\parr{\\frac{\\partial^2 \\gamma }{\\partial x^1 x^2}}^2 + \\parr{\\frac{\\partial^2 \\gamma }{\\partial (x^2)^2}}^2  dx^1 \\wedge dx^2 }.$$\nwhen using these, we picked the value $0.99$ for the smoothing\nfactor $\\lambda$.\n\n\\subsection{Discretizing continuous measures and their transport}\n\\label{ss:discretizing_discrete_measures}\n\nIn this subsection we indicate how to construct discrete\napproximations ${T_{\\mbox{\\footnotesize{discr.}},d}^R}(\\xi,\\zeta)$\nfor the distance $\\mbox{\\bf{d}}^R(\\mathcal{X},\\mathcal{Y})=T^R_d(\\xi,\\zeta)$ between two surfaces\n$\\mathcal{X}$ and $\\mathcal{Y}$, each characterized by a corresponding smooth density\non the unit disk $\\D$ ($\\xi$ for $\\mathcal{X}$, $\\zeta$ for $\\mathcal{Y}$). (In\npractice, we will use the smooth functions $\\Gamma_{\\mu}$ and\n$\\Gamma_{\\nu}$ for $\\xi$ and $\\zeta$. ) We shall use discrete\noptimal transport to construct our approximation\n${T_{\\mbox{\\footnotesize{discr.}},d}^R}(\\xi,\\zeta)$, based on\nsampling sets for the surfaces, with convergence to the continuous\ndistance as the sampling is refined.\n\nTo quantify how fine a sampling set $Z$ is, we use the notion of\n\\emph{fill distance} $\\varphi(Z)$:\n\\[\n\\varphi(Z)\\,:=\\,\\sup \\set{r>0\\ \\big| \\ z \\in \\mathcal{M}:B_g(z,r)\\cap Z_h =\n\\emptyset}~,\n\\]\nwhere $B_g(z,r)$ is the geodesic open ball of radius $r$ centered at\n$z$. That is, $\\varphi(Z)$ is the radius of the largest geodesic\nball that can be fitted on the surface $\\mathcal{X}$ without including any\npoint of $Z$. The smaller $\\varphi(Z)$, the finer the sampling set.\n\nGiven the smooth density $\\xi$ (on $\\D$), we discretize it by first\ndistributing $n$ points $Z=\\{z_i\\}_{i=1}^n$ on $\\mathcal{X}$ with\n$\\varphi(Z)=h>0$. For $i=1,\\ldots,n$, we define the sets $\\Xi_i$ to\nbe the Voronoi cells corresponding to $z_i \\in Z$; this gives a\npartition of the surface $\\mathcal{X}$ into disjoint convex sets,\n$\\mathcal{X}=\\cup_{i=1}^n \\Xi_i$. We next define the discrete measure $\\xi_Z$\nas a superposition of point measures localized in the points of $Z$,\nwith weights given by the areas of $\\Xi_i$, i.e. $\\xi_Z\n\\,=\\,\\sum_{i=1}^n\\,\\xi_i \\delta_{z_i}$, with\n$\\xi_i:=\\xi(\\Xi_i)=\\int_{\\Xi_i}d\\vol_\\mathcal{X}$. Similarly we denote by\n$W=\\{w_j\\}_{j=1}^p$, $\\Upsilon_j$, and $\\zeta_j:=\\zeta(\\Upsilon_j)$\nthe corresponding quantities for surface $\\mathcal{Y}$. We shall always\nassume that the surfaces $\\mathcal{X}$ and $\\mathcal{Y}$ have the same area, which,\nfor convenience, we can take to be 1. It then follows that the\ndiscrete measures $\\xi_Z$ and $\\zeta_W$ have equal total mass\n(regardless of whether $n=p$ or not). The approximation algorithm\nwill compute optimal transport for the discrete measures $\\xi_Z$ and\n$\\zeta_W$; the corresponding discrete approximation to the distance\nbetween $\\xi$ and $\\zeta$ is then given by $T^R_d(\\xi_Z,\\zeta_W)$.\n\nConvergence of the discrete approximations $T^R_d(\\xi_Z,\\zeta_W)$ to\n$T^R_d(\\xi,\\zeta)=\\mbox{\\bf{d}}^R(\\mathcal{X},\\mathcal{Y})$ as $\\varphi(Z)$, $\\varphi(W) \\rightarrow 0$\nthen follows from the results proved in\n\\cite{Lipman:TR2009:approxOptimal}. Corollary 3.3 in\n\\cite{Lipman:TR2009:approxOptimal} requires that the distance\nfunction $d^R_{\\xi,\\zeta}(\\cdot,\\cdot)$ used to define\n$T^R_d(\\xi,\\zeta)$ be uniformly continuous in its two arguments. We\ncan establish this in our present case by invoking the continuity\nproperties of $d^R_{\\xi,\\zeta}$ proved in Theorem\n\\ref{thm:continuity_of_d^R_mu,nu}, extended by the following lemma,\nproved in Appendix A.\n\\begin{lem}\\label{lem:extension_of_d}\nLet $\\set{(z_k,w_k)}_{k\\geq 1} \\subset \\D\\times\\D$ be a sequence\nthat converges, in the Euclidean norm, to some point in $(z',w') \\in\n\\bbar{\\D}\\times\\bbar{\\D} \\setminus \\D\\times\\D$, that is\n$|z_k-z'|+|w_k-w'| \\rightarrow 0$, as $k \\rightarrow \\infty$. Then, $\\lim_{k\\rightarrow\n\\infty}d^R_{\\xi,\\zeta}(z_k,w_k)$ exists and depends only on the\nlimit point $(z',w')$.\n\\end{lem}\n\nWe shall denote this continuous extension of\n$d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(\\cdot,\\cdot)$ to $\\bbar{\\D}\\times \\bbar{\\D}$ by the\nsame symbol $d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}$.\n\nSince $\\bbar{\\D} \\times \\bbar{D}$ is compact, (this extension of)\n$d^R_{\\xi,\\zeta}(\\cdot,\\cdot)$ is uniformly continuous: for all\n$\\varepsilon >0$, there exists a $\\delta=\\delta(\\varepsilon)$ such that, for all\n$z,z' \\in \\mathcal{X}$, $w,w' \\in \\mathcal{Y}$,\n\\[\nd_\\mathcal{X}(z,z') < \\delta(\\varepsilon) \\ , d_\\mathcal{Y}(w,w') < \\delta(\\varepsilon) \\\n\\Rightarrow \\ \\abs{d^R_{\\xi,\\zeta}(z,w) - d^R_{\\xi,\\zeta}(z',w') } <\n\\varepsilon,\n\\]\nwhere $d_\\mathcal{X}(\\cdot,\\cdot)$ is the geodesic distance on $\\mathcal{X}$, and\n$d_\\mathcal{Y}(\\cdot,\\cdot)$ is the geodesic distance on $\\mathcal{Y}$.\n\nThe results in \\cite{Lipman:TR2009:approxOptimal} then imply that\n$\\xi_Z \\rightarrow \\xi$ in the \\emph{weak} sense, as $\\varphi(Z) \\rightarrow 0$,\ni.e. that for all bounded continuous functions $f:\\bbar{\\D}\\rightarrow\n\\mathbb R$, the convergence $\\int_\\D f\\ d\\xi_Z \\rightarrow \\int_\\D f\\ d\\xi$\nholds \\cite{Billingsley68}. Similarly and $\\zeta_W \\rightarrow \\zeta$ in\nthe weak sense as $\\varphi(W) \\rightarrow 0$. Furthermore,\n\\cite{Lipman:TR2009:approxOptimal} also proves that for\n$\\max(\\varphi(Z),\\varphi(W)) < \\frac{\\delta(\\varepsilon)}{2}$\n\\[\n\\abs{T^R_d(\\xi_Z,\\zeta_W) - T^R_d(\\xi,\\zeta)} < \\varepsilon.\n\\]\nMore generally, it is shown that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:optimal_trans_discrete_approx_with_mod_cont}\n    \\abs{T^R_d(\\xi_Z,\\zeta_W) - T^R_d(\\xi,\\zeta)} <\n\\omega_{d^R_{\\xi,\\zeta}}\\parr{\\max(\\varphi(Z),\\varphi(W))},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\omega_{d^R_{\\xi,\\zeta}}$ is the modulus of continuity of\n$d^R_{\\xi,\\zeta}$, that is\n$$\\omega_{d^R_{\\xi,\\zeta}}(t)=\\sup_{d_\\mathcal{X}(z,z') + d_\\mathcal{Y}(w,w') <\nt}\\abs{d^R_{\\xi,\\zeta}(z,w)-d^R_{\\xi,\\zeta}(z',w')}.$$\n\nWe shall see below that it will be particularly useful to choose the\ncenters in $Z=\\set{z_i}_{i=1}^n$, $W=\\set{w_j}_{j=1}^p$ such that\nthe corresponding Voronoi cells are (approximately) of equal area,\ni.e. $n=N=p$ and $\\xi_i=\\xi(\\Xi_i)\\approx\\frac{1}{N}$,\n$\\zeta_j=\\zeta(\\Upsilon_j)\\approx\\frac{1}{N}$, where we have used\nthat the total area of each surface is normalized to $1$. An\neffective way to calculate such sample sets $Z$ and $W$ is to start\nfrom an initial random seed (which will not be included in the set),\nand take the geodesic point furthest from the seed as the initial\npoint of the sample set. One then keeps repeating this procedure,\nselecting at each iteration the point that lies at the furthest\ngeodesic distance from the set of points already selected. This\nalgorithm is known as the Farthest Point Algorithm (FPS)\n\\cite{eldar97farthest}. An example of the output of this algorithm,\nusing geodesic distances on a disk-type surface, is shown in Figure\n\\ref{f:discrete_type_3}. Further discussion of practical aspects of\nVoronoi sampling of a surface can be found in\n\\cite{BBK2007non_rigid_book}.\n\n\\begin{figure}[h]\n\\centering \\setlength{\\tabcolsep}{0.4cm} \\hspace*{.5 in}\n\\begin{minipage}{3 in}\n\\includegraphics[width=0.8\\columnwidth]{figures\/discrete_sam_points.png}\\hspace*{-.5 in}\n\\end{minipage}\n\\hspace*{-.5 in}\n\\begin{minipage}{3 in}\n\\caption{Sampling of the surface of  Figure \\ref{f:discrete_type_1}\nobtained by the Farthest Point  Algorithm.}\n\\label{f:discrete_type_3}\n\\end{minipage}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\subsection{Approximating the local distance function $d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}$.}\nWe are now ready to construct our discrete version of the optimal\nvolume transportation for surfaces\n(\\ref{e:generalized_Kantorovich_transportation}). The previous\nsubsection describes how to derive the discrete measures\n$\\mu_Z,\\nu_W$ from the approximate conformal densities\n$\\Gamma_\\mu,\\Gamma_\\nu$ and the sampling sets $Z$ and $W$. For\nsimplicity, we will, with some abuse of notation, identify the\napproximations $\\Gamma_\\mu,\\Gamma_\\nu$ with $\\mu,\\nu$. The\napproximation error made here is typically much smaller than the\nerrors made in further steps (see below) and we shall neglect it.\nThe final component is approximating $d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_i,w_j)$ for\nall pairs $(z_i,w_j) \\in Z\\times W$. Applying\n(\\ref{e:d_mu,nu(z,w)_def}) to the points $z_i$, $w_j$ we have:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:d_mu,nu(z_i,w_j)}\n    d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_i,w_j) = \\min_{m(z_i)=w_j}\\int_{\\Omega_{z_i, R}}\\Big|\\,\\mu(z)-\\nu(m(z))\\,\\Big |\\,d\\vol_H.\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n \n  \\includegraphics[width=0.7\\columnwidth]{figures\/int_rules_100_300.png}\\\\\n  \\caption{The integration centers and their corresponding Voronoi cells used\nfor calculating the integration weights for the discrete quadrature.\nLeft: $100$ centers; Right: $300$.}\\label{fig:integration_pnts}\n\\end{figure}\n\nTo obtain $d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_i,w_j)$ we will thus need to compute\nintegrals over hyperbolic disks of radius $R$, which is done via a\nseparate approximation procedure, set up once and for all in a\npreprocessing step at the start of the algorithm.\n\nBy using a M\\\"{o}bius  transformation $\\widetilde{m}$ such that\n$\\widetilde{m}(0)=z_0$, and the identity\n\\[\n\\int_{\\Omega_{0,R}}\\Big|\\,\\mu(\\widetilde{m}(u)) - \\nu(m \\circ\n\\widetilde{m} (u))\\,\\Big| \\,d\\vol_H(u) =\n\\int_{\\Omega_{z_0,R}}\\Big|\\,\\mu(z)) - \\nu(m (z))\\,\\Big|\n\\,d\\vol_H(z)~,\n\\]\nwe can reduce the integrals over the hyperbolic disks\n$\\Omega_{z_i,R}$ to integrals over a hyperbolic disk centered around\nzero.\n\nIn order to (approximately) compute integrals over $\\Omega_0\n=\\Omega_{0,R}=\\{z |\\ |z|\\leq r_R\\}$, we first pick a positive\ninteger $K$ and distribute centers $p_k,\\,k=1,...,K $ in $\\Omega_0$.\nWe then decompose $\\Omega_0$ into Voronoi cells $\\Delta_k$\ncorresponding to the $p_k$, obtaining $\\Omega_0 = \\cup_{k=1}^K\n\\Delta_k$; see Figure \\ref{fig:integration_pnts} (note that these\nVoronoi cells are completely independent of those used in\n\\ref{ss:discretizing_discrete_measures}.)\n\nTo approximate the integral of a continuous function $f$ over\n$\\Omega_0$ we then use\n\\[\n\\int_{\\Omega_0}\\, f(z)\\, d\\vol_H(z) \\approx \\sum_k \\,\n\\brac{\\int_{\\Delta_k}d\\vol_H(z)}\\,f(p_k) = \\sum_k \\,\\alpha_k f(p_k)\n\\]\nwhere $\\alpha_k = \\int_{\\Delta_k}d\\vol_H(z)$.\n\nWe thus have the following approximation:\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nd^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_i,w_j)&=&\n\\min_{m(z_i)=w_j}\\int_{\\Omega_{z_i,R}}\\Big|\\,\\mu(z) - \\nu(m\n(z))\\,\\Big|\n\\,d\\vol_H(z)\\nonumber\\\\\n&=& \\min_{m(z_i)=w_j}\\int_{\\Omega_{0,R}}\\Big|\\,\\mu(\\widetilde{m}_i\n(z)) -\n\\nu(m(\\widetilde{m}_i (z)))\\,\\Big|\\,d\\vol_H(z)\\nonumber\\\\\n&\\approx&   \\min_{m(z_i)=w_j}  \\sum_k \\,\\alpha_k\n\\,\\Big|\\,\\mu(\\widetilde{m}_i (p_k)) - \\nu(m(\\widetilde{m}_i\n(p_k)))\\,\\Big|~,\\label{e:discrete_approx__d_mu_nu(z_i,w_j)}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere the M\\\"{o}bius  transformations $\\widetilde{m}_i$, mapping 0 to\n$z_i$, are selected as soon as the $z_i$ themselves have been\npicked, and remain the same throughout the remainder of the\nalgorithm.\n\nIt can be shown that picking a set of centers $\\set{p_k}$ with\nfill-distance $h>0$ leads to an $O(h)$ approximation;  in\nAppendix~\\ref{a:appendix A} we prove:\n\\begin{thm}\\label{thm:convergence_of_numerical_quadrature}\nFor continuously differentiable $\\mu,\\nu$,\n\\[\n\\left|\\,d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_i,w_j)- \\min_{m(z_i)=w_j}\\sum_k \\,\\alpha_k\n\\,\\left|\\,\\mu(\\widetilde{m}_i (p_k)) - \\nu(m(\\widetilde{m}_i\n(p_k)))\\,\\right|\\, \\right| \\leq C\\,\\varphi\\left( \\set{p_k} \\right)~,\n\\]\nwhere the constant $C$ depends only on $\\mu,\\nu,R$.\n\\end{thm}\n\nLet us denote this approximation by $$\\wh{d}^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_i,w_j) =\n\\min_{m(z_i)=w_j}\\sum_k \\,\\alpha_k \\,\\left|\\,\\mu(\\widetilde{m}_i\n(p_k)) - \\nu(m(\\widetilde{m}_i (p_k)))\\,\\right|.$$ Since the above\ntheorem guarantees that the approximation error\n$\\abs{\\wh{d}^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_i,w_j) - d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_i,w_j)}$ can be\nuniformly bounded independently of $z_i,w_j$, it can be shown that\n$$\\babs{T^R_d(\\mu_Z,\\nu_W) - T^R_{\\wh{d}}(\\mu_Z,\\nu_W)}\n\\leq C \\varphi \\parr{\\set{p_k}},$$ where again $C$ is dependent only\nupon $\\mu,\\nu,R$. Combining this with\neq.(\\ref{e:optimal_trans_discrete_approx_with_mod_cont}) we get that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:final_approx_error}\n    \\babs{T^R_d(\\mu,\\nu) - T^R_{\\wh{d}}(\\mu_Z,\\nu_W)}\n\\leq \\omega_{d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}}\\parr{\\max \\parr{\\varphi(Z),\\varphi(W)}}\n+ C\\varphi  \\parr{\\set{p_k}}.\n\\end{equation}\n\nIn practice, for calculating $\\wh{d}^R_{\\mu,\\nu}$, the minimization\nover $M_{D,z_i,w_j}$, the set of all M\\\"{o}bius  transformations that map\n$z_i$ to $w_k$, is discretized as well: instead of minimizing over\nall $m_{z_i,w_j,\\sigma}$ (see subsection 3.1), we minimize over only\nthe M\\\"{o}bius  transformations\n$\\left(m_{z_i,w_j,2\\pi\\ell\/L}\\right)_{\\ell=0,1,..,L-1}$. Taking this\ninto account as well, we have thus\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nd^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_i,w_j)\\approx \\min_{\\ell=1,\\ldots L}  \\sum_k\n\\,\\alpha_k \\,\\Big|\\,\\mu(\\widetilde{m}_i (p_k)) - \\nu(m_{z_i,w_j,2\\pi\n\\ell\/L}(\\widetilde{m}_i\n(p_k)))\\,\\Big|~;\\label{e:discrete_approx__d_mu_nu(z_i,w_j)_bis}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nthe error made in approximation\n(\\ref{e:discrete_approx__d_mu_nu(z_i,w_j)_bis}) is therefore\nproportional to $L^{-1}+C\\varphi\\left( \\set{p_k} \\right)$.\n\n\nTo summarize, our approximation $T^R_{\\wh{d}}(\\mu_Z,\\nu_W)$ to the\nuniformly continuous $T^R_d(\\mu,\\nu)$ is based on two\napproximations: on the one hand, we compute the transportation cost\nbetween the discrete measures $\\mu_Z,\\nu_W$, approximating\n$\\mu,\\nu$; on the other hand, this transportation cost involves a\nlocal distance $\\wh{d}^R_{\\mu,\\nu}$ which is itself an\napproximation.\nThe transportation between the discrete measures will be computed by\nsolving a linear programming optimization, as explained in detail in\nthe next subsection.\nThe final approximation error (\\ref{e:final_approx_error}) depends\non two factors: 1) the fill distances $\\varphi(Z),\\varphi(W)$ of the\nsample sets $Z,W$, and 2) the approximation of the local distance\nfunction $d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_i,w_j)$ between the sample points.\nCombining the discretization of the M\\\"{o}bius search with\n(\\ref{e:discrete_approx__d_mu_nu(z_i,w_j)_bis}), the total\napproximation error is thus proportional to\n$\\omega_{d^R_{\\Gamma_\\mu,\\Gamma_\\nu}}\\parr{\\varphi\\left( \\set{p_k}\n\\right)} + L^{-1} + \\varphi\\left( \\set{p_k} \\right)$.\n\nRecall that we are in fact using $\\Gamma_\\mu,\\Gamma_\\nu$ in the role\nof of $\\mu,\\nu$ (see above), which entails an additional\napproximation error. This error relates to the accuracy with which\ndiscrete meshes approximate smooth manifolds, as well as the method\nused to approximate uniformization. We come back to this question in\nAppendix B. As far as we are aware, a full convergence result for\n(any) discrete uniformization is still unknown; in any case, we\nexpect this error to be negligible (and approximately of the order\nof the largest edge in the full mesh) compared to the others.\n\n\n\\subsection{Optimization via linear programming}\n\nThe discrete formulation of\neq.~(\\ref{e:generalized_Kantorovich_transportation}) is commonly\nformulated as follows:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:discrete_kantorovich}\n  \\sum_{i,j}d_{ij}\\pi_{ij} \\rightarrow \\min\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:discrete_kantorovich_CONSTRAINTS}\n\\begin{array}{l}\n  \\left \\{\n  \\begin{array}{l}\n    \\sum_i \\pi_{ij} = \\nu_j \\\\\n    \\sum_j \\pi_{ij} = \\mu_i \\\\\n    \\pi_{ij} \\geq 0\n  \\end{array}\n  \\right . ,\n \n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mu_i=\\mu(\\Xi_i)$ and $\\nu_j=\\nu(\\Upsilon_j)$, and $d_{ij} =\nd^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_i,w_j)$.\n\nIn practice, surfaces are often only partially isometric (with a\nlarge overlapping part), or the sampled points may not have a good\none-to-one and onto correspondence (i.e. there are points both in\n$Z$ and in $W$ that do not correspond well to any point in the other\nset). In these cases it is desirable to allow the algorithm to\nconsider transportation plans $\\pi$ with marginals \\emph{smaller or\nequal} to $\\mu$ and $\\nu$. Intuitively this means that we allow that\nonly some fraction of the mass is transported and that the remainder\ncan be ``thrown away''. This leads to the following formulation:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:discrete_PARTIAL_kantorovich}\n\\sum_{i,j}d_{ij}\\pi_{ij} \\rightarrow \\min\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:discrete_PARTIAL_kantorovich_CONSTRAINTS}\n\\begin{array}{l}\n  \\left \\{ \\begin{array}{c}\n             \\sum_i \\pi_{ij} \\leq \\nu_j \\\\\n             \\sum_j \\pi_{ij} \\leq \\mu_i \\\\\n             \\sum_{i,j} \\pi_{ij} = Q  \\\\\n             \\pi_{ij} \\geq 0\n           \\end{array}\n   \\right .\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $0 < Q \\leq 1$ is a parameter set by the user that indicates\nhow much mass \\emph{must} be transported, in total.\n\nThe corresponding transportation distance is defined by\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:discrete_trans_dist}\n    T_d(\\nu,\\nu) = \\sum_{ij}d_{ij}\\pi_{ij},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\pi_{ij}$ are the entries in the matrix $\\pi$ for the optimal\n(discrete) transportation plan.\n\nSince these equations and constraints are all linear, we have the\nfollowing theorem:\n\\begin{thm}\nThe equations {\\rm\n(\\ref{e:discrete_kantorovich})-(\\ref{e:discrete_kantorovich_CONSTRAINTS})}\nand {\\rm (\\ref{e:discrete_PARTIAL_kantorovich})-\n(\\ref{e:discrete_PARTIAL_kantorovich_CONSTRAINTS})} admit a global\nminimizer that can be computed in polynomial time, using standard\nlinear-programming techniques.\n\\end{thm}\n\nWhen correspondences between surfaces are sought, i.e. when one\nimagines one surface as being transformed into the other, one is\ninterested in restricting $\\pi$ to the class of permutation matrices\ninstead of allowing all bistochastic matrices. (This means that each\nentry $\\pi_{ij}$ is either 0 or 1.)  In this case the number of\ncenters $z_i$ must equal that of $w_j$, i.e. $n=N=p$, and it is best\nto pick the centers so that $\\mu_i=\\frac{1}{N}=\\nu_j$, for all $i,\\\nj$. It turns out that this is sufficient to {\\em guarantee} (without\nrestricting the choice of $\\pi$ in any way) that the minimizing\n$\\pi$ is a permutation:\n\n\\begin{thm}\nIf $n=N=p$ and $\\mu_i=\\frac{1}{N}=\\nu_j$, then\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item\nThere exists a global minimizer of\n{\\rm(\\ref{e:discrete_kantorovich})} that is a permutation matrix.\n\\item\nIf furthermore $Q = \\frac{M}{N}$, where $M< N$ is an integer, then\nthere exists a  global minimizer of {\\rm\n(\\ref{e:discrete_PARTIAL_kantorovich})} $\\pi$ such that $\\pi_{ij}\n\\in \\{0,1\\}$ for each $i,\\,j$.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\label{t:relaxation}\n\\end{thm}\n\\begin{rem}\nIn the second case, where $\\pi_{ij} \\in \\{0,1\\}$ for each $i,\\,j$\nand $\\sum_{i,j=1}^N \\pi_{ij}=M$, $\\pi$ can still be viewed as a\npermutation of $M$ objects, ``filled up with zeros''.  That is, if\nthe zero rows and columns of $\\pi$ (which must exist, by the pigeon\nhole principle) are removed, then the remaining $M \\times M$ matrix\nis a permutation.\n\\end{rem}\n\\begin{proof}\nWe first note that in both cases, we can simply renormalize each\n$\\mu_i$ and $\\nu_j$ by $N$, leading to the rescaled systems\n\\begin{equation}\n  \\left \\{ \\begin{array}{c}\n             \\sum_i \\pi_{ij} = 1 \\\\\n             \\sum_j \\pi_{ij} = 1 \\\\\n             \\pi_{ij} \\geq 0\n           \\end{array}\n   \\right . \\mbox{\\hspace{1 in}}\n  \\left \\{\\begin{array}{c}\n         \\sum_i \\pi_{ij} \\leq 1 \\\\\n             \\sum_j \\pi_{ij} \\leq 1 \\\\\n             \\sum_{i,j} \\pi_{ij} = M  \\\\\n             \\pi_{ij} \\geq 0\n\\end{array}\n   \\right .\n\\label{e:discrete_kantorovich_CONSTRAINTS_disk}\n\\end{equation}\nTo prove the first part, we note that the left system in\n(\\ref{e:discrete_kantorovich_CONSTRAINTS_disk}) defines a convex\npolytope in the vector space of matrices that is exactly the\nBirkhoff polytope of bistochastic matrices. By the Birkhoff-Von\nNeumann Theorem \\cite{Lovasz86} every  bistochastic matrix is a\nconvex combination of the permutation matrices, i.e. each $\\pi$\nsatisfying the left system in\n(\\ref{e:discrete_kantorovich_CONSTRAINTS_disk}) must be of the form\n$\\sum_k c_k\\tau^k$, where the $\\tau^k$ are the $N!$ permutation\nmatrices for $N$ objects, and $\\sum_k c_k = 1$, with  $c_k \\geq 0$.\nThe minimizing $\\pi$ in this polytope for the linear functional\n(\\ref{e:discrete_kantorovich}) must thus be of this form as well. It\nfollows that at least one $\\tau^k$ must also minimize\n(\\ref{e:discrete_kantorovich}), since otherwise we would obtain the\ncontradiction\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:linear_extrermas_at_vertices}\n    \\sum_{ij}d_{ij}\\pi_{ij} = \\sum_k c_k \\Big (\\sum_{ij}d_{ij} \\tau^k_{ij} \\Big ) \\geq \\min_k \\Big \\{ \\sum_{ij}d_{ij} \\tau^k_{ij} \\Big \\} > \\sum_{i,j}\\,d_{ij}\\,\\pi_{ij} ~.\n\\end{equation}\n\nThe second part can be proved along similar steps: the right system\nin (\\ref{e:discrete_kantorovich_CONSTRAINTS_disk}) defines a convex\npolytope in the vector space of matrices; it follows that every\nmatrix that satisfies the system of constraints is a convex\ncombination of the extremal points of this polytope. It suffices to\nprove that these extreme points are exactly those matrices that\nsatisfy the constraints and have entries that are either 0 or 1\n(this is the analog of the Birkhoff-von Neumann theorem for this\ncase; we prove this generalization in a lemma in Appendix C); the\nsame argument as above then shows that there must be at least one\nextremal point where the linear functional\n(\\ref{e:discrete_kantorovich}) attains its minimum.\n\\end{proof}\n\nThis means that, when we seek correspondences between two surfaces,\nthere is no need to {\\em impose} the (very nonlinear) constraint on\n$\\pi$ that it be a permutation matrix; one can simply use a linear\nprogram to solve either , with Theorem \\ref{t:relaxation}\nguaranteeing that the minimizer for the ``relaxed'' problem {\\rm\n(\\ref{e:discrete_kantorovich})-(\\ref{e:discrete_kantorovich_CONSTRAINTS})}\nor {\\rm (\\ref{e:discrete_PARTIAL_kantorovich})-\n(\\ref{e:discrete_PARTIAL_kantorovich_CONSTRAINTS})} is of the\ndesired type if $n=N=p$ and $\\mu_i=\\frac{1}{N}=\\nu_j$.\n\n\\subsection{Consistency}\nIn our schemes to compute the surface transportation distance, for\nexample by solving (\\ref{e:discrete_PARTIAL_kantorovich}), we have\nso far not included any constraints on the regularity of the\nresulting optimal transportation plan $\\pi^*$. When computing the\ndistance between a surface and a reasonable deformation of the same\nsurface, one does indeed find, in practice, that the minimizing\n$\\pi^*$ is fairly smooth, because neighboring points have similar\nneighborhoods. There is no guarantee, however, that this has to\nhappen. Moreover, we will be interested in comparing surfaces that\nare far from (almost) isometric, given by noisy datasets. Under such\ncircumstances, the minimizing $\\pi^*$ may well ``jump around''. In\nthis subsection we propose a regularization procedure to avoid such\nbehavior.\n\nComputing how two surfaces best correspond makes use of the values\nof the ``distances in similarity'' $d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_i,w_j)$ between\npairs of points that ``start'' on one surface and ``end'' on the\nother; computing these values relies on finding a minimizing M\\\"{o}bius \ntransformation for the functional (\\ref{e:d_mu,nu(z,w)_def}). We can\nkeep track of these minimizing M\\\"{o}bius  transformations $m_{ij}$ for the\npairs of points $(z_i,w_j)$ proposed for optimal correspondence by\nthe optimal transport algorithm described above. Correspondence\npairs $(i,j)$ that truly participate in some close-to-isometry map\nwill typically have M\\\"{o}bius  transformations $m_{ij}$ that are very\nsimilar. This suggests a method of filtering out possibly mismatched\npairs, by retaining only the set of correspondences $(i,j)$ that\ncluster together within the M\\\"{o}bius group.\n\nThere exist many ways to find clusters. In our applications, we\ngauge how far each M\\\"{o}bius  transformation $m_{ij}$ is from the others\nby computing a type of $\\ell_1$ variance:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:variance_function}\n    E_V(i,j) = \\sum_{(k,\\ell)}\\norm{m_{ij} - m_{k\\ell}},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere the norm is the Frobenius norm (also called the\nHilbert-Schmidt norm) of the $2\\times 2$ complex matrices\nrepresenting the M\\\"{o}bius transformations, after normalizing them\nto have determinant one. We then use $E_V(i,j)$ as a consistency\nmeasure of the corresponding pair $(i,j)$.\n\n\\section{Examples and comments}\n\\label{s:examples}\n\\begin{figure}[h]\n\\centering\n\\begin{tabular}{rcccc}\n\\includegraphics[width=0.2\\columnwidth]{figures\/nei_1.png} &\n\\includegraphics[width=0.2\\columnwidth]{figures\/nei_2.png} &\n\\includegraphics[width=0.2\\columnwidth]{figures\/nei_1_conf.png} &\n\\includegraphics[width=0.2\\columnwidth]{figures\/nei_2_conf.png} &\n\\includegraphics[width=0.2\\columnwidth]{figures\/nei_polar.png} \\\\\n(a) &&&& Good pair (a)\\\\\n\\includegraphics[width=0.2\\columnwidth]{figures\/nei2_1.png} &\n\\includegraphics[width=0.2\\columnwidth]{figures\/nei2_2.png} &\n\\includegraphics[width=0.2\\columnwidth]{figures\/nei2_1_conf.png} &\n\\includegraphics[width=0.2\\columnwidth]{figures\/nei2_2_conf.png} &\n\\includegraphics[width=0.2\\columnwidth]{figures\/nei2_polar.png} \\\\\n(b) & & &  & Erroneous pair (b)\n\\end{tabular}\n\\caption{Calculation of the local distance\n$d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(\\cdot,\\cdot)$ between pairs of points on two\ndifferent surfaces (each row shows a different pair of points; the\ntwo surfaces are the same in the top and bottom rows). The first row\nshows a ``good'' pair of points together with the alignment of the\nconformal densities $\\mu,m^*\\nu$ based on the best M\\\"{o}bius\ntransformation $m$ minimizing $\\int_\\D \\norm{\\mu-m^*\\nu}d\\vol_\\mathcal{M}$.\nThe plot of this latter integral as a function of $m$ (parameterized\nby $\\sigma \\in [0,2\\pi)$, see (\\ref{e:disk_mobius})) is shown in the\nright-most column. The second row shows a ``bad'' correspondence\nwhich indeed leads to a higher local distance\n$d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}$.}\\label{fig:good_bad_pair_correspondence}\n\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn this section we present a few experimental results using our new\nsurface comparison operator. These concern an application to\nbiology; in a case study of the use of our approach to the\ncharacterization of mammals by the surfaces of their molars, we\ncompare high resolution scans of the masticating surfaces of molars\nof several lemurs, which are small primates living in Madagascar.\nTraditionally, biologists specializing in this area carefully\ndetermine landmarks on the tooth surfaces, and measure\ncharacteristic distances and angles involving these landmarks. A\nfirst stage of comparing different tooth surfaces is to identify\ncorrespondences between landmarks.  Figure\n\\ref{fig:good_bad_pair_correspondence} illustrates how\n$d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z,w)$ can be used to find corresponding pairs of\npoints on two surfaces by showing both a ``good'' and  a ``bad''\ncorresponding pair. The left two columns of the figure show the pair\nof points in each case; the two middle columns show the best fit\nafter applying the minimizing M\\\"{o}bius on the corresponding disk\nrepresentations; the rightmost column plots $ \\int_{\\Omega_{z_0,R}}\n\\,|\\,\\mu(z) - (m_{z_0,w_0,\\sigma}^*\\nu)(z)\\,|\\, d\\vol_H(z)$, the\nvalue of the ``error'', as a function of parameter $\\sigma$,\nparametrizing the M\\\"{o}bius  transformations that map a give point $z_0$\nto another given point $w_0$ (see Lemma\n\\ref{lem:a_and_tet_formula_in_mobius_interpolation}). The ``best''\ncorresponding point $w_0$ for a given $z_0$ is the one that produces\nthe lowest minimal value for the error, i.e. the lowest\n$d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_0,w_0)$.\n\nFigure \\ref{fig:120_corrs} show the top 120 most consistent\ncorresponding pairs (in groups of 20) for two molars belonging to\nlemurs of different species. Corresponding pairs are indicated by\nhighlighted points of the same color. These correspondences have\nsurprised the biologists from whom we obtained the data sets; their\nexperimental measuring work, which incorporates finely balanced\njudgment calls, had defied earlier automatizing attempts.\n\nOnce the differences and similarities between molars from different\nanimals have been quantified, they can be used (as part of an\napproach) to classify the different individuals. Figure\n\\ref{fig:distance_graph_embedded} illustrates a preliminary result\nfrom \\cite{Daubechies10} that illustrates the possibility of such\nclassifications based on the distance operator between surfaces\nintroduced in this paper. The figure illustrates the pairwise\ndistance matrix for eight molars, coming from individuals in four\ndifferent species (indicated by color). The clustering was based on\nonly the distances between the molar surfaces; it clearly agrees\nwith the clustering by species, as communicated to us by the\nbiologists from whom we obtained the data sets.\n\nOne final comment regarding the computational complexity of our\nmethod. There are two main parts: the preparation of the distance\nmatrix $d_{ij}$ and the linear programming optimization. For the\nlinear programming part we used a Matlab interior point\nimplementation with $N^2$ unknowns, where $N$ is the number of\npoints spread on the surfaces. In our experiments, the optimization\ntypically terminated after $15-20$ iterations for $N=150-200$\npoints, which took about 2-3 seconds. The computation of the\nsimilarity distance $d_{ij}$ took longer, and was the bottleneck in\nour experiments. If we spread $N$ points on each surface, and use\nthem all (which was usually not necessary) to interpolate the\nconformal factors $\\Gamma_\\mu, \\Gamma_\\nu$, if we use $P$ points in\nthe integration rule, and take $L$ points in the M\\\"{o}bius\ndiscretization (see Section \\ref{s:the_discrete_case_implementation}\nfor details) then each approximation of  $d^R_{\\mu,\\nu}(z_i,w_j)$ by\n(\\ref{e:discrete_approx__d_mu_nu(z_i,w_j)_bis}) requires $O(L \\cdot\nP \\cdot N)$ calculations, as each evaluation of\n$\\Gamma_\\mu,\\Gamma_\\nu$ takes $O(N)$ and we need $L\\cdot P$ of\nthose. Since we have $O(N^2)$ distances to compute, the computation\ncomplexity for calculating the similarity distance matrix $d_{ij}$\nis $O(L\\cdot P \\cdot N^3)$. In practice this step was the most time\nconsuming and took around two hours for $N=300$. However, we have\nnot used any code optimization and we believe these times can be\nreduced significantly.\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[h]\n\\centering\n\\begin{tabular}{cccc}\n\\includegraphics[width=0.3\\columnwidth]{figures\/i16_k06_1.png} &\n\\includegraphics[width=0.3\\columnwidth]{figures\/i16_k06_3.png} &\n\\includegraphics[width=0.3\\columnwidth]{figures\/i16_k06_5.png} \\\\\n\\includegraphics[width=0.3\\columnwidth]{figures\/i16_k06_2.png} &\n\\includegraphics[width=0.3\\columnwidth]{figures\/i16_k06_4.png} &\n\\includegraphics[width=0.3\\columnwidth]{figures\/i16_k06_6.png} \\\\\n\\hline\n\\includegraphics[width=0.3\\columnwidth]{figures\/i16_k06_7.png} &\n\\includegraphics[width=0.3\\columnwidth]{figures\/i16_k06_9.png} &\n\\includegraphics[width=0.3\\columnwidth]{figures\/i16_k06_11.png} \\\\\n\\includegraphics[width=0.3\\columnwidth]{figures\/i16_k06_8.png} &\n\\includegraphics[width=0.3\\columnwidth]{figures\/i16_k06_10.png} &\n\\includegraphics[width=0.3\\columnwidth]{figures\/i16_k06_12.png} \\\\\n\\end{tabular}\n\\caption{The top 120 most consistent corresponding pairs between two\nmolar teeth models.} \\label{fig:120_corrs}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[h]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=0.9\\columnwidth]{figures\/embeded_graph3.png}\n\\caption{Embedding of the distance graph of eight teeth models using\nmulti-dimensional scaling. Different colors represent different\nlemur species. The graph suggests that the geometry of the teeth\nmight suffice to classify species.}\n\\label{fig:distance_graph_embedded}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\\section{Acknowledgments}\nThe authors would like to thank C\\'{e}dric Villani and Thomas\nFunkhouser for valuable discussions, and Jesus Puente for helping\nwith the implementation. We are grateful to Jukka Jernvall, Stephen\nKing, and Doug Boyer for providing us with the tooth data sets, and\nfor many interesting comments. ID gratefully acknowledges (partial)\nsupport for this work by NSF grant DMS-0914892, and by an AFOSR\nComplex Networks grant; YL thanks the Rothschild foundation for\npostdoctoral fellowship support.\n\n\\bibliographystyle{amsplain}\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\n\\section{Introduction}\\label{sec:intro}\n\nThe Transformer architecture \\cite{vaswani2017attention} has been widely successful in a wide range of natural language processing tasks, including machine translation \\cite{edunov2018understanding}, language modeling \\cite{roy2020efficient}, question-answering \\cite{karpukhin2020dense}, and many more. Transformers pre-trained on large amounts of text with a language modeling (LM) objective, have become the standard in NLP, exhibiting surprising amounts of linguistic and world knowledge \\cite{peters2018elmo, devlin2018bert, petroni2019language, hewitt2019structural,Roberts2020t5kb}.\n\nThe contextualizing component of the Transformer is the attention layer where all positions in an input sequence of length $L$ aggregate information from the entire sequence in parallel. At its core, given $L$ query, key and value vectors, the \\textit{dot-product attention} function outputs\\footnote{Usually, the term is $\\mathrm{softmax}(QK^\\top \/ \\sqrt{d})V$ but $\\sqrt{d}$ can be dropped via scaling of queries and keys.} $\\mathrm{softmax}(QK^\\top)V$ where the \\softmax{} function is applied row-wise on the matrix $QK^\\top \\in \\mathbb{R}^{L \\times L}$,\nconsisting of similarity scores of the query-key pairs. Unfortunately, computing $\\Omega(L\\cdot L)$ similarity scores is prohibitive for long sequences. \n\nTo alleviate this, past work proposed to compute an approximation\nof $\\mathrm{softmax}(QK^\\top)$. One major line of research focused on \\textit{sparse attention} variants, where only a few similarity scores are computed per position, and the rest are ignored. Methods differ by which query-key pairs are selected \\cite{child2019generating, ye2019bp, qiu2019blockwise, roy2020efficient, kitaev2020reformer, beltagy2020longformer,gupta2020gmat}. \nA second line of research explored \\textit{dense} variants  \\cite{katharopoulos2020transformers,Wang2020LinformerSW,tay2020sparse} (cf.\\ \\cite{tay2020efficient} for a survey). E.g., instead of computing the attention scores exactly for only a few query-key pairs, \\cite{Choromanski2020RethinkingAW} compute an approximation of scores for all pairs.\n\nIn this work, we point to a lacuna in current research on efficient Transformers. While recent work focused on approximating the attention scores $\\mathrm{softmax}(QK^\\top)$, the true target of approximation should be the output of the attention sub-layer, namely $H = \\mathrm{softmax}(QK^\\top)V$, which also includes the value vectors, $V$. We show that ignoring value vectors leads to unwarranted consequences both theoretically and empirically.\n\nTo demonstrate the importance of value-aware approximation, we analyze \\emph{optimal sparse attention}, that is, the case where, in hindsight, the model computes dot product similarity only with the most similar key vectors, while still ignoring the value vectors.\nWe show that in the popular masked language modeling (MLM) setup, optimal sparse attention  dramatically \\emph{under-performs} compared to an optimal approximation of the true output of the attention sub-layer, $H$, leading to an error increase of $8$-$20$ points. Next, by theoretically focusing on the case where queries compute similarity to the \\emph{single} most similar key vector, we show that approximating $\\mathrm{softmax}(QK^\\top)$ is equivalent to approximating $H$ when the value vectors $V$ satisfy strong orthogonality and norm constraints. Conversely, when they do not, ignoring $V$ can lead unbounded approximation error. \n\nSecond, we discuss the kernel-based view of attention, where efficiency is gained by replacing the exponential kernel (corresponding to $\\mathrm{softmax}$) with other kernel functions \\cite{katharopoulos2020transformers}. We theoretically show that while in the exponential kernel case (corresponding to $\\mathrm{softmax}$), the effect of the norm of the value vectors is potentially small, switching to other kernels can dramatically increase the importance of the value vectors. We empirically test this by comparing optimal sparse attention\ngiven different kernel functions, and see that indeed approximation quality decreases when replacing the exponential kernel, \n\nTo conclude, we theoretically and empirically show that approximating the attention score matrix alone is insufficient, and propose that the research community should instead approximate the true output of the sub-attention layer, which importantly includes value vectors. Our code and trained models are available at \\url{https:\/\/github.com\/ag1988\/value_aware_attn}.\n\n\\comment{\n\\jb{if ankit agrees, delete everything from here.}\n\n\nIn this work, working in a LM set-up, we do a comparative study of various approximation methods and new baselines. We train LMs using the original attention function and then evaluate the trained model after replacing the original attention function with a given approximation. This methodology saves us from training a large number of models from scratch and allows us to include new oracle baselines. An overview of our contributions is as follows:\n\\begin{itemize}[leftmargin=*,topsep=0pt,itemsep=0pt,parsep=0pt]\n    \\item Sparse methods aim towards restricting the attention of a given query only to its most similar keys irrespective of the associated value vectors. We compare the approximation quality of sparse methods such as LSH attention \\cite{kitaev2020reformer}, sliding-window attention \\cite{beltagy2020longformer} and dense methods such as ORF attention \\cite{Choromanski2020RethinkingAW} with that of an oracle baseline \\textit{top-keys-r} where each query attends only only to its $r$ most similar keys. We find that the current methods do not perform on par with this oracle.\n    \\item Working with a \\textit{kernel} view of attention \\cite{tsai2019transformer}, we experiment with various similarity metrics besides \\softmax{} and show that success of the \\textit{top-keys-r} heuristic is tied to the similarity metric (kernel) used. E.g. we find that it does not perform well in case of the polynomial kernel.\n    \\item Most importantly, we point out the above methods which do not utilize the value vectors $V$ can be sub-optimal as the final output of the attention layer also depends on the value vectors $V$. We include a stronger oracle baseline \\textit{optimal-r} where, for each query, the true attention output is approximated by the optimal convex combination of at most $r$ value vectors. For instance, \\textit{optimal-$1$} approximates the true output $o = \\sum_i \\alpha_i\\cdot v_i$ corresponding to a query by the value vector closest to $o$. On the other hand, the \\textit{top-keys-$1$} oracle instead outputs the value vector corresponding to the most similar key (i.e. $v_i$ with highest $\\alpha_i$) which might not be optimal. We show that simple facts from convex geometry guarantee that the \\textit{optimal-r} oracle gives zero approximation error for $r\\geq d$ where $d$ is the dimension of the vectors. I.e. $o$ can always be expressed as a convex combination of some $d \\ll L$ value vectors. \\ag{emperical and theoretical evidence that people should work on achieving this and not that}\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\n\\jb{Right now there is an important part missing, which is what is our contribution: 'In this work, we...' with an explanation of what is it that you do: show that values can be important, have some theory on it, and some empirical experiments, and what are the main findings}\n}\n\n\\section{Background}\\label{sec:method}\n\n\n\nWe review the kernel-based view of attention \\cite{tsai2019transformer}, which will be instructive in \\S\\ref{sec:optimal}.\n\n\\paragraph{Generalized Attention} \nLet $\\kappa(x,y) = \\inner{\\Phi(x)}{\\Phi(y)} \\geq 0$ be a kernel function with feature map $\\Phi:\\mathbb{R}^d \\mapsto \\mathcal{H}$ for some implicit reproducing kernel Hilbert space (RKHS) $\\mathcal{H}$. Given a query vector $q$, keys $k_1,\\ldots,k_L$, values $v_1,\\ldots,v_L$, all in $\\mathbb{R}^d$:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eqn:attention}\n\\mathrm{att}_\\kappa(q,k_1,\\ldots,v_1,\\ldots) = \\frac{\\sum_{i=1}^{L} \\kappa(q,k_i)v_i}{\\sum_{i=1}^{L} \\kappa(q,k_i)},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere the normalization induces a probability distribution $\\balpha$ over the value vectors with $\\alpha_i = \\kappa(q,k_i) \/ \\sum_i \\kappa(q,k_i)$. The most popular use case is the exponential kernel $\\kappa(x,y) = \\exp(\\inner{x}{y})$, referred to as dot-product attention in Transformers. \nSome other examples include the degree-$2$ \\textit{polynomial} kernel $\\kappa(x,y) = \\inner{x}{y}^2$ and the recently proposed \\textit{elu} kernel $\\inner{\\Phi(x)}{\\Phi(y)}$ with $\\Phi(\\cdot) = 1 + \\mathrm{ELU}(\\cdot)$ \\cite{katharopoulos2020transformers}.\n\nGiven $L \\gg d$ queries, the attention function (Eq. \\ref{eqn:attention}) requires computing $L\\cdot L$ similarity scores for the query-key pairs, which is prohibitive for long sequences. \n\\textit{Sparse attention} variants relax this requirement and compute only a few similarity scores, ignoring the rest:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eqn:sparse_attention}\n\\mathrm{att}_{\\kappa, S} = \\frac{\\sum_{i\\in S} \\kappa(q,k_i)v_i}{\\sum_{i\\in S} \\kappa(q,k_i)},\n\\end{equation}\nfor some $S \\subseteq \\{1,\\ldots,L\\}, |S|\\ll L$.\nMethods differ in how $S$ is determined given the queries and keys, and include use of locality bias \\cite{beltagy2020longformer}, global memory \\cite{gupta2020gmat}, and LSH hashing \\cite{kitaev2020reformer}, among others.\nConversely, instead of exactly computing the attention scores only on a few query-key pairs, \\textit{dense} variants compute an approximation of the true kernel values for all pairs. Such methods output $\\sum_i \\beta_i\\cdot v_i$ for some approximation $\\bbeta$ of the the true attention distribution $\\balpha$ \\cite{Choromanski2020RethinkingAW,peng2021random}.\n\n\n\\comment{\n\\jb{Again, I think prob. it's good to have the intro at a slightly higher level that is clear to everyone and then have a section about the kernel-based view where people will learn about this}\n\nThe majority \\jb{why majority and not all?} of the above variants (LSH, Routing, ORF, etc \\jb{you did not define these things, so either explain or delete}) do not utilize the value vectors while producing the approximation. Given a query, methods such as LSH, Routing attention, etc \\jb{these methods were not mentioned so are unclear} aim to restrict $S$ only to the most similar keys irrespective of the associated value vectors. \\jb{you should say something that 'what we really care about is not $QK^\\top$, but the output of the layer, which is also affected by $V$}.\nGiven this, it is not immediately clear if this is a reasonable strategy or whether value-aware approximations can be significantly more accurate \\jb{what do you mean by value-aware? be specific that you mean to approximate with $V$}.\n}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Optimal Sparse Attention}\\label{sec:optimal}\n\n\nPrior methods for approximating attention, ignored the contribution of the values vectors $V$. As the true output of the attention sub-layer also depends on $V$, a natural question is whether it is possible to design better approximation methods by incorporating $V$, and if so, how much improvement is even possible? \n\nTo answer this, we focus on sparse attention, and analyze the difference between an oracle sparse approximation that considers the value vectors, and an oracle approximation that does not. That is, we look at the difference between the two approximations from the perspective of \\emph{expressivity}, ignoring any memory and computational constraints. We denote an optimal value-aware approximation that uses $r$ key vectors per query by \\emph{optimal-v-aware-r}, and an optimal approximation that ignores value vectors by \\emph{optimal-v-oblivious-r}. \nWe define \\emph{optimal-v-oblivious-r} as the output of Eq.~\\ref{eqn:sparse_attention} in which $S$ is selected to be the $r$ indices with the highest attention scores $\\alpha_i$'s. This is a natural baseline since this is what current sparse methods are trying to emulate.\nWe now explicitly derive and analyze the value-aware objective.\n\n\n \n\\paragraph{Value-aware objective} Let $o = \\sum_{i=1}^L \\alpha_iv_i$ be a convex combination of $v_1,\\ldots,v_L \\in \\mathbb{R}^d$, corresponding to the true output of the attention sub-layer.\nLet $C_r = \\{\\sum_{i=1}^L \\beta_iv_i: \\forall i\\  \\beta_i \\geq 0, \\sum_i \\beta_i=1, |\\{\\beta_i: \\beta_i > 0\\}| \\leq r\\}$ denote the set of points in the polytope of $v_i$'s that can be expressed as a convex combination of at most $r$ value vectors $v_i$.\nThe goal of value-aware approximation is to solve for the point in the constrained region $C_r$ closest to the true output $o$, i.e. $\\mathrm{argmin}_{\\tilde{o} \\in C_r} ||o-\\tilde{o}||^2$. As mentioned,  this solution is termed \\textit{optimal-v-aware-r}.\n\nWe consider two extreme cases of $r$: $r=1$ and $r\\geq d+1$. For $r\\geq d+1$, the Carath{\\'e}odory Theorem \\cite{Caratheodory} states that $o = \\sum_i \\alpha_iv_i$ can be expressed as a convex combination of at most $d+1$ $v_i$'s. Hence, if $r \\geq d+1$ then $o \\in C_r$ and the optimal approximation error is $0$.\nIn most popular architectures, such as BERT \\cite{devlin2018bert}, $d=64 \\ll L$. This means that from the point of expressivity, \\emph{optimal-v-aware-65} can obtain a perfect approximation. Conversely, we will show in \\S\\ref{sec:experiments} that the performance of \\emph{optimal-v-oblivious-65} is substantially lower.\n\n\nAt the other extreme, when $r=1$ (a single value vector), the above objective is equivalent to $\\mathrm{argmin}_{i \\in (1,\\dots,L)} ||o-v_i||^2$ and can be simplified as\n\\setlength{\\abovedisplayskip}{2pt}\n\\setlength{\\belowdisplayskip}{2pt}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eqn:top_1}\n\\begin{split}\n &\\ \\mathrm{argmin}_{i} ||o||^2 + ||v_i||^2 -2\\inner{v_i}{o} \\\\\n= &\\ \\mathrm{argmin}_{i} ||v_i||^2 -2\\inner{v_i}{\\sum_{j} \\alpha_jv_j} \\\\ \n= &\\ \\mathrm{argmin}_{i} ||v_i||^2(0.5-\\alpha_i) -\\sum_{j\\neq i} \\alpha_j\\inner{v_i}{v_j}.\n\\end{split}\n\\end{equation}\n\nThis equation induces a ranking over value vectors that \\emph{depends} on the value vectors themselves, in contrast to a value-oblivious ranking induced solely by attention weights $\\balpha$. \n\\setlength{\\abovedisplayskip}{6pt}\n\\setlength{\\belowdisplayskip}{6pt}\n\nIf $v_1,\\ldots,v_L$ are orthogonal, the above equation further simplifies to $\\mathrm{argmin}_{i} ||v_i||^2(0.5-\\alpha_i) - \\sum_{j\\neq i} \\alpha_j\\cdot0 = \\mathrm{argmin}_{i} ||v_i||^2(0.5-\\alpha_i)$. In this case, if some $\\alpha_i \\geq 0.5$ or if $v_1,\\ldots,v_L$ have equal norms, this would further simplify to $\\mathrm{argmax}_{i} \\alpha_i$, and would therefore be independent of the value-vectors $v_i$'s, implying that a value-oblivious approximation would work well.\n\nBut such assumptions on $v_1, \\ldots, v_L$ do not hold in general and thus an approximation that only depends on $\\alpha_i$'s can be sub-optimal. E.g., let $v_1, v_2, v_3$ be orthogonal vectors $(1,0,0)$, $(0,2,0)$, $(0,0,3)$ respectively and let $\\alpha_1, \\alpha_2, \\alpha_3$ be $0.25, 0.35, 0.4$. Then $v_3$ with the highest attention weight $\\alpha_3$ has a squared distance of $3.79$ from the true output $\\sum_i \\alpha_iv_i$ whereas $v_1$ with the least attention weight $\\alpha_1$ has only $2.49$. In this case, \\emph{optimal-v-aware-1} induces exactly the opposite ranking of value vectors compared to \\emph{optimal-v-oblivious-1}. Moreover, if we increase the value $3$ in $v_3$ to infinity, the approximation error will also infinitely grow. This example and, in general, Eq.~\\ref{eqn:top_1} also show that the optimal ranking can be significantly different from the one induced by $\\alpha_i ||v_i||$ proposed recently by \\cite{kobayashi-etal-2020-attention} for obtaining better interpretability of attention models.\n\n\n\n\n\\paragraph{Effect of kernel function} Recently, Linear Transformer \\cite{katharopoulos2020transformers} proposed to replace the existing exponential kernel with more efficient kernels. We now show that replacing the exponential kernel with a polynomial kernel can lead to a drop in quality for current sparse approximation methods.\n\nIntuitively, because the kernel function affects the skewness of $\\balpha$, it also affects the difference between the ranking induced by the optimal-value-aware approximation and the optimal-value-oblivious one. For simplicity, consider the case of orthogonal value vectors in which Eq.~\\ref{eqn:top_1} simplifies to $\\mathrm{argmin}_{i} ||v_i||^2(0.5-\\alpha_i)$. From Eq.~\\ref{eqn:attention}, we have $\\alpha_i = \\kappa(q,k_i) \/ \\sum_j \\kappa(q,k_j)$ which is $\\inner{q}{k_i}^C \/ \\sum_j \\inner{q}{k_j}^C$ for the degree-$C$ polynomial kernel. For $C = 0$, we have $\\alpha_i = 1\/L$, which gives $\\mathrm{argmin}_{i} ||v_i||^2$. In this case, the value vectors become crucial when $\\balpha$ is uniform. On the other hand, assuming distinct inner products, for $C \\gg 0$ we will obtain $\\max_i \\alpha_i \\geq 0.5$, thereby reducing us to $\\mathrm{argmax}_{i} \\alpha_i$, where value vectors do not affect the approximation. The complexity of the Transformer grows exponentially with the degree $C$ and thus in practice a low $C$ must be used (e.g., degree-$2$ polynomial).\nIn such case, $\\balpha$ is likely to be less skewed compared to the exponential kernel and more likely to induce a sub-optimal ranking.\n\nIn the next section, we empirically verify the above observations and show a significant performance gap between value-oblivious approximations and value-aware ones.\n\n\n\n\\section{Experiments}\\label{sec:experiments}\n\nWe empirically verify our observations in the context of training causal and masked language models, which are known to strongly correlate with performance on downstream applications \\cite{radford2019language,devlin2018bert}. \n\n\\paragraph{Masked LM task} We form examples by sampling sequences and replacing sub-words with \\texttt{<mask>} following the procedure in \\cite{devlin2018bert}. The model is trained to maximize the log probability of the masked out tokens and we evaluate the \\emph{error} of the model as the percentage of masked tokens predicted incorrectly. As approximate attention becomes increasingly relevant for long sequences, we train \\robertal{} on sequences of length $4096$ (Fig.~\\ref{figure:mlm_training}). Training was warm-started using \\roberta{}-base \\cite{liu2019roberta}. Full details on the experimental setup are in \\S\\ref{sec:mlm_data}. After training the model for $\\sim2.5$M steps, the error of the model (that is, proportion of incorrect predictions) on the evaluation set was $24.2$ (compared to $26.6$ for an analogous training on $512$-long sequences), ensuring that tokens in \\robertal{} indeed attend over longer distances and result in higher quality representations. We then replace the attention function of the trained model with various approximation schemes and evaluate the resulting model on the evaluation set.\n\nWe first compare \\emph{optimal-v-oblivious-r} to \\emph{optimal-v-aware-r}. We know that the approximation error of value-aware approximation is $0$ for $r > 64$. For $r=1$, we exhaustively go through all possible values and choose the one that minimizes the value-aware objective. As seen in Fig.~\\ref{figure:mlm_eval_top_r} and Table~\\ref{table:mlm_error}, \nthere is substantial gap between the two approximations. For instance, \\emph{optimal-v-oblivious-65} gives an MLM error of $43.5$ whereas the error of \\emph{optimal-v-aware-65} is $24.2$, since it can perfectly approximate full attention. Moreover, we compare \\emph{optimal-v-oblivious-r} to existing approximations: (a) \\emph{sliding-window-r}, where a position attends to $r\/2$ positions to its left and right), (b) LSH attention \\cite{kitaev2020reformer} and (c) ORF attention \\cite{Choromanski2020RethinkingAW}. Fig.~\\ref{figure:mlm_eval_top_r} shows that \\emph{sliding-window-r} trails behind \\emph{optimal-v-oblivious-r}.\nLSH attention, which tries to emulate \\emph{optimal-v-oblivious-r}, either requires a large number of hash rounds or a large chunk size. Similarly, the dense approximation, ORF, provides an unbiased approximation of the exponential kernel but suffers from high variance in practice.\n\n\n\\begin{table}[h]\\setlength{\\tabcolsep}{3.6pt}\n    \\scriptsize\n    \\centering\n    \\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c}\\hline\n    exact & \\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}} OVO\\\\ $1$\\end{tabular} & \\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}} OVO\\\\ $65$\\end{tabular} & \\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}} OVA\\\\ $1$\\end{tabular} & \\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}} OVA\\\\ $65$\\end{tabular} & \\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}} ORF\\\\ $256$ features\\end{tabular} & \\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}} LSH\\\\ $r=64$ \\\\ $4$-rounds \\end{tabular} & \\begin{tabular}[c]{@{}c@{}} LSH\\\\ $r=512$ \\\\ $16$-rounds \\end{tabular} \\\\\\hline\n    24.2 & 96.6 & 43.5 & 88.6 & 24.2 & 89.79 & 90.39 & 26.11 \\\\\\hline\n    \\end{tabular}\n    \\caption{MLM error of \\robertal{} on the evaluation set using approximate attention described in \\S\\ref{sec:experiments}. OVO: \\emph{optimal-v-oblivious}, OVA: \\emph{optimal-v-aware}. In LSH, each query attends to a total of $r$ keys per hash round.}\n    \\label{table:mlm_error}\n\\end{table}\n\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{table}[h]\\setlength{\\tabcolsep}{5pt}\n    \\scriptsize\n    \\centering\n    \\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c|c|c}\\hline\n                 & exact & OVO-1 & OVO-65 & OVA-1 & OVA-65 \\\\\\hline\n    exponential  & 30.5 &  1031.1 &  33.5 &  280.3 &  30.5 \\\\\\hline\n    polynomial (deg 2) & 34.2 &  6700.2 &  310.2 &  1005.4 &  34.2 \\\\\\hline\n    elu          & 35.3 &  1770.6 &  62.7 &  837.4 &  35.3 \\\\\\hline\n    \\end{tabular}\n    \\caption{Evaluation perplexity of  models using approximate attention. OVO: \\emph{optimal-v-oblivious}, OVA: \\emph{optimal-v-aware}.}\n    \\label{table:lm_loss}\n\\end{table}\n\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[scale=0.45]{figures\/rbt_4096_top_r.pdf}\n    \\caption{Evaluation of MLM error of \\robertal{} after replacing vanilla attention with approximation schemes. Dashed line denotes error using vanilla attention.}\n\\label{figure:mlm_eval_top_r}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[scale=0.45]{figures\/kernels_512_top_r.pdf}\n    \\caption{Evaluation loss (base e) of \\emph{optimal-v-oblivious-r} oracle on the causal LM task for distinct kernel functions.}\n\\label{figure:kernels_top_r}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\paragraph{Causal LM task} To investigate the effect of the kernel function on the quality of value-oblivious methods, we train a $6$-layer Transformer LM over 512 tokens on WikiText-103 \\cite{Merity2017PointerSM} (details in \\S\\ref{sec:wikitext}). We train $3$ models with identical hyperparameters using the exponential, degree-$2$ polynomial, and elu kernels respectively and evaluate the trained models with value-aware and value-oblivious approximations. \nAgain, \\emph{optimal-v-aware-r} substantially outperforms \\emph{optimal-v-oblivious-r} (Table~\\ref{table:lm_loss}), pointing to the potential of working on approximating the value-aware objective. \nMore importantly, comparing the approximation quality across different kernel functions (Fig.~\\ref{figure:kernels_top_r}), we see that the gap between the three kernels is small when using full attention (512 keys) vectors. However, convergence is much slower for the elu kernel, and especially the degree-$2$ polynomial, demonstrating that the approximation based on the top-$r$ key vectors is sub-optimal when switching to a less skewed kernel, which is more affected by the value vectors.\n\n\n\\section{Conclusions}\nIn this work, we provide theoretical and empirical evidence against current practice of focusing on approximating the attention matrix in Transformers, while ignoring the value vectors. We propose a value-aware objective and argue that the efforts to develop more efficient Transformers should consider this objective function as a research target.\n\n\\section{}{8pt plus 4pt minus 2pt}{0pt plus 2pt minus 2pt}\n\n\\usepackage{float}    \n\n\n\\title{Value-aware Approximate Attention}\n\n\\author{\n  Ankit Gupta \\\\\n  Tel Aviv University \\\\\n  {\\tt {\\normalsize ankitgupta.iitkanpur@gmail.com}} \\\\\\And\n  Jonathan Berant \\\\\n  Tel Aviv University, \\\\\n  Allen Institute for AI \\\\\n  {\\tt {\\normalsize joberant@cs.tau.ac.il}} \\\\}\n\n\n\\begin{document}\n\\maketitle\n\n\\setlength{\\abovedisplayskip}{6.5pt}\n\\setlength{\\belowdisplayskip}{6.5pt}\n\n\n\\input{0_abstract}\n\\input{1_introduction}\n\\input{2_method}\n\\input{3_optimal}\n\\input{4_experiments}\n\n\\section*{Acknowledgments}\nThis research was partially supported by \nThe Yandex Initiative for Machine Learning, and the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union Horizons 2020 research and innovation programme (grant ERC DELPHI 802800).\n\n\n\\section{Supplemental Material}\n\\label{sec:supplemental}\n\n\\subsection{Masked LM task}\\label{sec:mlm_data}\nThe instances for the MLM task (\\S\\ref{sec:experiments}) were formed separately using the corpora listed in Table  ~\\ref{table:mlm_data}. For each dataset, after appending \\texttt{<\/s>} token at the end of each document, the documents were arranged in a random order and concatenated into a single long text which was then tokenized into a list of sub-words. Depending upon the final input sequence length $L$ of the experiment ($512$\/$4096$) this list was chunked into full length $L-2$ sequences which were then masked randomly following \\cite{devlin2018bert} and enclosed within \\texttt{<s>} and \\texttt{<\/s>} tokens. To handle sequences longer than $512$ tokens, the positional embeddings were used following \\cite{gupta2020gmat}. The learning curves of \\robertas{} and \\robertal{} are in Fig.~\\ref{figure:mlm_training}.\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[scale=0.45]{figures\/rbt_full_4096_mix.pdf}\n    \\caption{Evaluation error on the MLM task using vanilla attention (computing the full attention matrix).}\n\\label{figure:mlm_training}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{table}[h!]\\setlength{\\tabcolsep}{6pt} \n    \\scriptsize\n    \\centering\n    \\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c}\\hline\n    corpus & all & training & evaluation \\\\\\hline\n    Wikipedia ($10$\/$2017$) & $2.67$B & $1.53$B & $1.02$M\\\\\\hline\n    BookCorpus \\cite{Zhu_2015_ICCV} & $1.06$B & $1.02$B & $1.02$M\\\\\\hline\n    ArXiv \\cite{Cohan2018ADA} & $1.78$B & $1.53$B & $1.02$M\\\\\\hline\n    PubMed \\cite{Cohan2018ADA} & $0.47$B & $510$M & $1.02$M\\\\\\hline\n    PG19 \\cite{raecompressive2019} & $3.06$B & $510$M & $1.02$M\\\\\\hline\n    \\end{tabular}\n    \\caption{Number of tokens in the datasets used for MLM training.}\n    \\label{table:mlm_data}\n\\end{table}\n\n\\paragraph{Hyperparameters} For convenience, we denote the training hyperparameters using the following abbreviations, INS: number of training instances, BSZ: number of instances in a batch, ISZ: instance size, SQL: final input sequence length after rearranging BSZ instances each of length ISZ, LR: learning rate, WRM: linear LR warm-up proportion, EP: number of epochs, STP: number of optimizer steps, GAC: gradient accumulation steps, POSq: whether (y\/n) $q$ part is included in positional embeddings. The hyperparameters are listed in Table~\\ref{table:hyperparams_mlm}.\n\n\\begin{table}[h!]\\setlength{\\tabcolsep}{2pt}\n    \\scriptsize\n    \\centering\n    \\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c} \\hline\n   \n        model & init & BSZ & ISZ & SQL & LR & WRM & EP & STP & POSq \\\\\\hline\n        \\robertas{} & \\roberta{} & $8$ & $512$ & $512$ & $5$e-$6$ & $0.1$ & $2$ & $2.476$M & n \\\\\\hline\n        \\robertal{} & \\roberta{} & 8 & $512$ & $4096$ & $5$e-$6$ & $0.1$ & $2$ & $2.476$M & y \\\\\\hline\n    \\end{tabular}\n    \\caption{Training hyperparameters. Common parameters: INS=$10$M, dropout-rate=$0.0$, optimizer=Bert-Adam, $\\beta_1$=$0.9$, $\\beta_2$=$0.98$, weight-decay=$0.01$, max-grad-norm=$5.0$, seed=$42$, GAC=$1$.}\n    \\label{table:hyperparams_mlm}\n\\end{table}\n\n\\paragraph{Details of LSH attention} Given $L$ queries and $L$ keys in $\\mathbb{R}^d$, in each hash round, we sample a new matrix $R \\in \\mathbb{R}^{\\frac{C}{2} \\times d}$ of standard gaussians and hash the queries and keys as $H_R(x) = \\mathrm{argmax}([-Rx;Rx]) \\in \\{1,\\ldots,C\\}$. We rearrange the queries (and similarly keys) according to their hash value, breaking ties using the original position, and then chunk them into $L\/B$ chunks of $B$ vectors each. Denoting these chunks as $Q_1,\\ldots,Q_{L\/B}$ and $K_1,\\ldots,K_{L\/B}$, for each query in $Q_i$ we compute its similarity scores with respect to all keys in $K_{i-1},K_i$. I.e.~in each hash round a query attends to $r=2B$ keys. For each query, these similarity scores are accumulated over different hash rounds, and at the end normalized by their sum to get normalized attention scores over the keys. As recommended in the original paper \\cite{kitaev2020reformer}, we use $C=2L\/B=4L\/r$ which in practice can be sub-optimal as rearrangement destroys the original locality structure. \n\n\\paragraph{Details of ORF attention} Given $L$ queries and $L$ keys in $\\mathbb{R}^d$ we divide each vector by $d^{\\frac{1}{4}}$ to account for the temperature term in dot-product attention. For a given number $F$ of features, we sample a random orthogonal matrix $R \\in \\mathbb{R}^{F \\times d}$ as described in \\cite{saxe2013exact} and provided as a tensor initialization option in PyTorch. We then map each vector to the feature space as $\\Phi(x) = \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{F}}\\exp\\left(Rx - \\frac{||x||^2}{2}\\right)\\in \\mathbb{R}^F$ where ($-$) and $\\exp$ operations are applied element-wise. Similarity score of a query-key pair $(q, k)$ is computed as $\\inner{\\Phi(q)}{\\Phi(k)}$ and and is normalized by the sum of the similarity scores of $q$ with all the keys. Computing this directly leads to numerical instability so we instead compute $\\Phi(q) = \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{F}}\\exp\\left(Rq - \\frac{||q||^2}{2} - \\max(Rq)\\right)$ for queries and $\\Phi(k) = \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{F}}\\exp\\left(Rk - \\frac{||k||^2}{2} - \\max(RK)\\right)$ where $K$ is the matrix of all keys and $\\max$ is over all elements of input. \n\nThe main idea behind ORF attention is that, for a vector $w$ of standard gaussians, $\\inner{w}{x} \\sim \\mathcal{N}(0,||x||^2)$ and from the properties of log-normal distributions, $\\mathbb{E}_{w}[\\exp(\\inner{w}{x})] = \\exp(\\frac{||x||^2}{2})$. So, $\\mathbb{E}_{w}[\\exp(\\inner{w}{q})\\cdot\\exp(\\inner{w}{k})] = \\mathbb{E}_{w}[\\exp(\\inner{w}{q+k})] = \\exp(\\frac{||q+k||^2}{2}) = \\exp(\\inner{q}{k}+\\frac{||q||^2}{2}+\\frac{||k||^2}{2})$. Appropriately scaling both sides gives, $\\mathbb{E}_{w}[\\exp(\\inner{w}{q} - \\frac{||q||^2}{2})\\cdot\\exp(\\inner{w}{k}-\\frac{||k||^2}{2})] = \\exp(\\inner{q}{k})$, which is exactly the term for the exponential kernel.\n\n\n\\subsection{Causal LM task}\\label{sec:wikitext}\nFor this task, we used the language modeling framework provided by Faiseq\\footnote{\\url{https:\/\/github.com\/pytorch\/fairseq}}.\n\\paragraph{Model and training details} number of decoder layers: $6$, hidden size: $512$, head size: $64$, number of model parameters: $156$M, dataset: WikiText-$103$, training examples: $1801350$, input sequence length: $512$, $\\beta_1$=$0.9$, $\\beta_2$=$0.98$, weight-decay: $0.01$, gradient clip-norm: none, learning rate: $0.0005$, learning rate schedule: inverse square root, number of warmup updates: $4000$, batch size: $128$, epochs: $20$, number of steps: $31520$, minimum context-window during evaluation on test-set: $400$.\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\n\\noindent\n{\\it Introduction.}\nBesides the mass, electric charge and other quantum numbers, the calculable electric and magnetic dipole moments are  among the basic attributes of elementary particles.\nTogether with the Yukawa coupling inferred from the mass, they provide excellent opportunities to tests  the standard model (SM) and   probe new physics. \n\nThe 4.2$\\sigma$  deviation of the measured value of the muon anomalous magnetic moment from the SM prediction, $\\Delta a_\\mu   = (2.51 \\pm 0.59)\\times 10^{-9}$~\\cite{Abi:2021gix, Aoyama:2020ynm},  can be comfortably explained even by very heavy new particles as a result of the chiral enhancement from the Higgs coupling to new particles, see Fig.~\\ref{fig:diags} (left). With order one couplings, the scale of new physics up to $\\sim 10$ TeV  is expected, and it further extends to $\\gtrsim 50$ TeV for couplings close to the perturbativity limit~\\cite{Dermisek:2020cod,Capdevilla:2021rwo,Dermisek:2021ajd,Allwicher:2021jkr}. Such heavy particles are far beyond the reach of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) and currently envisioned future experiments.\n\n\nIn this letter we show that any new interaction resulting in a chirally enhanced contribution to the muon magnetic moment necessarily modifies the muon Yukawa coupling, and thus the decay of the Higgs boson to muon pairs, or, if $h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-$ is not modified, the muon electric dipole moment ($\\mu$EDM) of certain size must be generated (with one exception noted later). These three observables are highly correlated, and near future measurements of $h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-$ will carve an ellipse in the plane of dipole moments for any such model. Together with the improved  measurement of the electric dipole moment many models able to explain $\\Delta a_\\mu$ can be efficiently tested.\nFurthermore, in some scenarios the heaviest possible spectrum will be tested the most efficiently. \n\nThe main results can be intuitively understood from Fig.~\\ref{fig:diags}. No matter what the quantum numbers of $X$, $Y$ and $Z$ particles are, as long as they can form the diagram on the left,  the photon can be removed and the $Y-Z-H$ coupling and its conjugate can be used again to generate the diagram on the right top. This effectively generates dimension 6 mass operator, $\\bar{\\mu}_{L}\\mu_{R}H\\left(H^{\\dagger}H\\right)$. In addition, for models where $X$ is a scalar participating in electroweak symmetry breaking, for example the SM Higgs boson, the same operator could be generated at tree level as in the diagram on the right bottom. We refer to these cases hereafter as loop models and tree models, respectively. The tree models have been  studied in connection with $\\Delta a_{\\mu}$ in~\\cite{Kannike:2011ng,Dermisek:2013gta,Dermisek:2014cia,Poh:2017tfo,Crivellin:2018qmi,Dermisek:2020cod,Dermisek:2021ajd}, whereas examples of loop models,~\\cite{Moroi:1995yh,Huang:2001zx,Cheung:2009fc,Endo:2013lva,Freitas:2014pua,Thalapillil:2014kya,Omura:2015nja,Calibbi:2018rzv,Crivellin:2018qmi,Crivellin:2020tsz,Babu:2020hun,Capdevilla:2021rwo,Crivellin:2021rbq,Babu:2021jnu,Bigaran:2021kmn,MuonCollider:2022xlm}, include scenarios with familiar particles in the loop: superpartners, top quark, or the $\\tau$ lepton; and particles solely introduced to explain $\\Delta a_\\mu$. The generated operator contributes differently to the muon mass and Yukawa coupling as a result of different combinatorial factors. This necessarily modifies the rate for $h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-$, unless the modified Yukawa coupling has the same magnitude as that in the SM, which is possible with complex couplings that in turn predict  a certain value of $\\mu$EDM. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n\\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{loop_tree_diags_v2.pdf}\n\\caption{A generic diagram with chiral enhancement contributing to muon dipole moments (left), a corresponding diagram contributing to the dimension 6 mass operator at 1-loop level  (right top) and at tree level, if possible, (right bottom).}\n\\label{fig:diags}\n\\end{figure}\n\nPossible correlations between $\\Delta a_\\mu$ and $h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-$ were pointed out before~\\cite{Kannike:2011ng,Dermisek:2013gta,Dermisek:2014cia,Thalapillil:2014kya,Poh:2017tfo,Crivellin:2020tsz,Babu:2020hun,Dermisek:2020cod,Dermisek:2021ajd,Crivellin:2021rbq}. Similarly $\\mu$EDM was also studied in connection with $\\Delta a_{\\mu}$ but only as a possible effect if couplings are complex~\\cite{Cheung:2009fc,Crivellin:2018qmi,Babu:2020hun,Bigaran:2021kmn,MuonCollider:2022xlm}. The sharp correlation between all three observables has not been noticed.  As we will see, with complex couplings, predictions for $h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-$ cannot be made based only on $\\Delta a_\\mu$. Rather a given $h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-$ translates into a prediction for $\\mu$EDM and vice versa. \n\n\n\n\\noindent\n{\\it Effective lagrangian.} For our discussion, the relevant terms of the effective Lagrangian are:\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\mathcal{L}\\supset  &-&y_{\\mu}\\bar{l}_{L}\\mu_{R}H \\;-\\; C_{\\mu H}\\bar{l}_{L}\\mu_{R}H\\left(H^{\\dagger}H\\right) \\nonumber \\\\\n&-& C_{\\mu \\gamma} \\bar{l}_{L}\\sigma^{\\rho\\sigma}\\mu_{R} H F_{\\rho\\sigma} + h.c.,\n\\label{eq:eff_lagrangian}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere the components of the lepton doublet are  $l_{L}=(\\nu_{\\mu}, \\mu_{L})^{T}$, $\\sigma^{\\rho\\sigma}=\\frac{i}{2}[\\gamma^{\\rho},\\gamma^{\\sigma}]$, and all the parameters  can be complex. The first term  is the  usual muon Yukawa coupling in the SM. When the Higgs field develops a vacuum expectation value, $H=(0,v+h\/\\sqrt{2})^T$ with $v=174$ GeV, the dimension 6 operator in the second term generates additional contributions to the muon mass and muon coupling to the Higgs boson, while the dimension 6 operator in the third term corresponds to muon dipole moments.  Defining the muon Yukawa coupling and the electric and magnetic dipole moments in terms of Dirac spinors in the basis where the muon mass, $m_\\mu$, is real and positive,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\mathcal{L}\\supset &&-  m_{\\mu} \\bar{\\mu}\\mu - \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{2}} \\left(\\lambda^{h}_{\\mu\\mu}\\bar{\\mu}P_{R}\\mu h + h.c.\\right)\\nonumber \\\\\n&&\\;\\;+ \\frac{\\Delta a_{\\mu}e}{4m_{\\mu}}\\bar{\\mu}\\sigma^{\\rho\\sigma}\\mu F_{\\rho\\sigma} - \\frac{i}{2}d_{\\mu}\\bar{\\mu}\\sigma^{\\rho\\sigma}\\gamma^{5}\\mu F_{\\rho\\sigma},\n\\label{eq:eff_lagrangian_2}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwe have \n\\begin{eqnarray}\nm_{\\mu}&=&\\left(y_{\\mu}v + C_{\\mu H}v^{3}\\right)e^{-i\\phi_{m_{\\mu}}}, \\label{eq:mmu}\\\\\n\\lambda_{\\mu\\mu}^{h}&=&\\left(y_{\\mu} + 3C_{\\mu H}v^{2}\\right)e^{-i\\phi_{m_{\\mu}}}, \\label{eq:mmu_lamhmu} \\\\\n\\Delta a_{\\mu} &=&- \\frac{4m_{\\mu}v}{e}\\textrm{Re}[C_{\\mu \\gamma}e^{-i\\phi_{m_{\\mu}}}], \\label{eq:mdipole}\\\\\nd_{\\mu} &=& 2v\\textrm{Im}[C_{\\mu \\gamma}e^{-i\\phi_{m_{\\mu}}}],\n\\label{eq:edipole}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere $e$ is positive and $\\phi_{m_{\\mu}}$ is the phase of the rotation required to make the mass term real and positive. All the parameters are real except for $\\lambda_{\\mu\\mu}^{h}$ which can be complex. $\\lambda_{\\mu\\mu}^{h}$ and $m_{\\mu}$ do not follow the expected scaling in the SM and \n\\begin{equation}\nR_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-} \\equiv \\frac{BR(h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-)}{BR(h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-)_{SM}} = \\left(\\frac{v}{m_{\\mu}}\\right)^{2}\\big|\\lambda_{\\mu\\mu}^{h}\\big|^{2}\n\\end{equation}\nin general deviates from 1.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\noindent\n{\\it The muon ellipse.} The crucial observation is that the couplings which generate chirally-enhanced contributions to $C_{\\mu\\gamma}$, also necessarily generate $C_{\\mu H}$ with the same phase. Although all the couplings in diagrams in Fig.~\\ref{fig:diags} can be complex, the same combination of couplings enter both $C_{\\mu\\gamma}$ and $C_{\\mu H}$ for  tree models, with an additional factor of $\\lambda_{YZ} \\lambda_{YZ}^*$ for  loop models. Thus the two Wilson coefficients are related by a {\\it real factor}, $k$, define as\n\\begin{equation}\nC_{\\mu H} = \\frac{k}{e} C_{\\mu\\gamma}.\n\\label{eq:WC_relation}\n\\end{equation}\nThis allows us to write $\\lambda_{\\mu\\mu}^{h}$ and thus $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-}$ in terms of electric and magnetic dipole moments:\n\\begin{flalign}\nR_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-}=\\left(\\frac{\\Delta a_{\\mu}}{2\\omega} - 1\\right)^{2} + \\left(\\frac{m_{\\mu}d_{\\mu}}{e\\omega}\\right)^{2},\n\\label{eq:ellipse}\n\\end{flalign}\nwhere $\\omega = m_{\\mu}^{2}\/kv^{2}$. Note that $\\Delta a_{\\mu}$ can both increase or decrease $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-}$ depending on its sign and the sign of $k$, while $d_{\\mu}$ can only increase $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-}$.\n\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n\\includegraphics[width=0.65\\linewidth]{contour_generick.pdf} \n\\includegraphics[width=0.65\\linewidth]{contour_SMVLL_R1c.pdf} \n\\includegraphics[width=0.65\\linewidth]{contour_genericks2351025_final.pdf} \n\\caption{Contours of constant $R_{h\\to\\mu^+\\mu^-}$ in the $\\Delta a_{\\mu}$ -- $d_{\\mu}$ plane in models with $k=64\\pi^2$ (e.g. SM+VL, $\\mathcal{Q}=1$) (top); $k=64\\pi^2, \\;64\\pi^2\/3$, and  $64\\pi^2\/5$ (e.g. SM+VL, $\\mathcal{Q}=1$, 3, and 5) (middle); and for smaller values of $k$ relevant for models with extended Higgs sectors and loop models (bottom). The light and dark green shaded regions show the $\\pm 1\\sigma$ and $\\pm 2\\sigma$ ranges of $\\Delta a_{\\mu}$, respectively.}\n\\label{fig:SM_ellipse}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\nConcretely, in five possible extensions of the SM with vectorlike leptons that can generate  chirally enhanced contributions, $k$ is completely determined by the quantum numbers of new leptons,\n\\begin{equation}\nk=\\frac{64\\pi^{2}}{\\mathcal{Q}},\n\\label{eq:tree_X_SM}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mathcal{Q}= 1$  for $X$ and $Y$ leptons in $\\mathbf{2}_{-1\/2}\\oplus\\mathbf{1}_{-1}$ or $\\mathbf{2}_{-1\/2}\\oplus\\;\\mathbf{3}_{0}$ representations of $SU(2)\\times U(1)_Y$; $\\mathcal{Q}=3$ for $\\mathbf{2}_{-3\/2}\\oplus\\mathbf{1}_{-1}$ or $\\mathbf{2}_{-3\/2}\\oplus\\mathbf{3}_{-1}$; and $\\mathcal{Q}=5$ for $\\mathbf{2}_{-1\/2}\\oplus\\mathbf{3}_{-1}$~\\cite{Kannike:2011ng}. \n\n\nIn Fig.~\\ref{fig:SM_ellipse} (top), we show contours of constant $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-}$ in the plane of the muon dipole moments for $k=64\\pi^2$ which corresponds, for example, to the SM extended by a vectorlike doublet and singlet leptons whose quantum numbers mirror their respective SM counterparts, i.e. $\\mathcal{Q}=1$. The region where $h\\to \\mu^{+}\\mu^{-}$ is found to be within $10\\%$ of the SM value, indicating the ultimate LHC precision, is shaded red. The region outside  $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-}=2.2$ (shaded gray) is already ruled out by measurements of $h\\to \\mu^{+}\\mu^{-}$~\\cite{ATLAS:2020fzp}. This model (range of $k$) is somewhat special as,  in spite of the large contribution from   $C_{\\mu H}$ to the muon mass and Yukawa coupling, the SM-like $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-}$ and $d_{\\mu} = 0$ are consistent with $\\Delta a_{\\mu}$ within $1\\sigma$.\\footnote{ This  illustrates the only exception to generating non-zero $\\mu$EDM when $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-}=1$, advertised in the introduction. It corresponds to the case when $\\lambda_{\\mu\\mu}^{h} = -m_\\mu\/v$.}\nNote however, that the current central value of $\\Delta a_{\\mu}$  requires $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-} = 1.32$ for $d_{\\mu}=0$ and it can be as large as the current upper limit when $|d_{\\mu}|\\sim 1\\times 10^{-22}\\, {\\rm e\\cdot cm}$. \n\nThe situation is dramatically different for the other two scenarios, $\\mathcal{Q} = 3$ and 5, with the comparison of all three scenarios shown in  Fig.~\\ref{fig:SM_ellipse} (middle). As $k$ decreases,  the center of the ellipse moves to larger values of $\\Delta a_{\\mu}$. Contours of $R_{\\mu}= 1\\pm 10\\%$ are now consistent with the whole $2\\sigma$ range of  $\\Delta a_{\\mu}^{exp}$. \n However, in contrast to the case with $\\mathcal{Q}=1$, consistency of $R_{\\mu}= 1\\pm 10\\%$  with $\\Delta a_{\\mu}$ necessarily implies a nonzero value of $d_{\\mu}$. In fact, the consistency sharply requires values of $d_{\\mu}\\simeq 2.7-3.4\\times10^{-22} \\,{\\rm e\\cdot cm}$ ($\\mathcal{Q}=3$) and $d_{\\mu}\\simeq 3.6-5.1\\times10^{-22} \\,{\\rm e\\cdot cm}$ ($\\mathcal{Q}=5$), which are within the expected sensitivity of  future measurements. Thus, for these scenarios,  the correlation of three observables requires deviations from SM predictions either in $R_{\\mu}$ or $d_{\\mu}$ that are observable in near future. \n\n\n\nModels where the SM Higgs acts as only a single component of an extended Higgs sector participating in EWSB, such as in a 2HDM, also fall into the class of tree models. However, the mixing in the extended Higgs sector will generically introduce an additional free parameter. In the case of a 2HDM type-II, it is  the ratio of vacuum expectation values of the two Higgs doublets, $\\tan\\beta$. From the results of Refs.~\\cite{Dermisek:2021ajd,Dermisek:2021mhi} we can find that the modification to Eq.~\\ref{eq:tree_X_SM}, assuming a common mass for all new particles, becomes\n\\begin{equation}\nk=\\frac{64\\pi^{2}}{\\mathcal{Q}(1+\\tan^{2}\\beta)},\n\\label{eq:tree_X_2HDM}\n\\end{equation}\nwhich remains a very good approximation for arbitrary splitting between the masses of new leptons and similar or smaller Higgs masses compared to masses of new leptons.\n For low $\\tan\\beta$ the results are similar as for the SM extensions with VLs discussed above. However, as $\\tan\\beta$ increases, much smaller $k$ values are possible. Contours of constant $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-} = 1$ for a few representative choices of smaller $k$ are shown in  Fig.~\\ref{fig:SM_ellipse} (bottom). We also show corresponding $\\pm 10\\%$ and $\\pm 1\\%$ regions for cases when the region does not extend all the way to $d_{\\mu} = 0$ in the $1\\sigma$ range  of  $\\Delta a_{\\mu}$. For the 2HDM type-II extended with vectorlike leptons with the same quantum numbers as SM leptons, $\\mathcal{Q}=1$, the plotted values of $k$ correspond to $ \\tan \\beta \\simeq 5, 8, 14, 18$ and 25; while the 3 cases in the middle plot correspond to $ \\tan \\beta \\simeq 0, 1.4$ and 2 (with the first case not being physical).\n \n \n %\n\n\nThe loop models with two new fermions and 1 scalar (FFS) or one new fermion and 2 scalars (SSF) represent infinite classes of models as the required couplings alone do not completely determine the quantum numbers of new particles. In this case the $k$ factor is directly linked to the coupling responsible for the chiral enhancement, $\\lambda_{YZ}$, see Fig.~\\ref{fig:diags}. For the FFS models and, in the limit of a common mass of all new particles, we find\n\\begin{equation}\nk=\\frac{4}{\\mathcal{Q}}|\\lambda_{YZ}|^{2}.\n\\label{eq:loop_Q}\n\\end{equation}\nFor SSF models the $Y-Z-H$ coupling $A_{YZ}$ is dimensionful and in the above formula $|\\lambda_{YZ}|^2$ should be replaced by $|A_{YZ}|^{2}\/M^{2}$ where $M$ is the mass of new particles. The $\\mathcal{Q}$ factor is determined by the charges of new particles, and it can be obtained, for example, from the entries in Tables~1 and 2 of Ref.~\\cite{Crivellin:2021rbq}. We find that for hypercharge choices $\\pm 1\/2$ and $\\pm 1$ of the scalar in FFS models or fermion in SSF models, $|\\mathcal{Q}|$ varies between 1\/5 and 6. For small $\\mathcal{Q}$ and large $\\lambda_{YZ}$,  $k$ can be as large as in the tree  models, the SM+VL or 2HDM type-II at small $ \\tan \\beta$, while for larger $\\mathcal{Q}$ and\/or small $\\lambda_{YZ}$ the range of $k$ coincides with predictions of 2HDM type-II at  larger $ \\tan \\beta$. For example, for  $\\mathcal{Q}= 1$, the range of $\\lambda_{YZ}$ from $0.5$ to $\\sqrt{4\\pi}$ corresponds to $k = 1$ to $\\simeq 50$.\n\n\nFrom Fig.~\\ref{fig:SM_ellipse} we see that as $k$ is decreasing from the values typical for SM+VLs, the consistency of  $\\Delta a_{\\mu}$ with $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-} = 1\\pm 10\\%$ requires larger  $|d_{\\mu}|$. However,  the range of predicted $|d_{\\mu}|$  is also growing, and at some point, for $k \\lesssim 20$, it extends to $d_{\\mu} = 0$. Further decreasing $k$ to about 2, even the  $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-} = 1 \\pm 1\\%$ range extends to $d_{\\mu} = 0$. These findings are also clearly visible in Fig.~\\ref{fig:edm_vs_k}, where we plot these contours of $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-}$ in the $k$ -- $|d_{\\mu}|$ plane. \n\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n\\includegraphics[width=0.75\\linewidth]{edm_vs_k.pdf} \n\\caption{Future exclusion regions in the $k$ -- $|d_{\\mu}|$ plane assuming $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-}$ is measured to be SM-like, $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-} = 1\\pm0.1$ (red) and $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-} = 1\\pm0.01$ (blue) assuming  $\\Delta a_{\\mu}$ within $1\\sigma$ of the measured value. The regions would extend to the solid lines with the same color if the central value of $\\Delta a_{\\mu}$ was assumed. The green line (shaded region) corresponds to $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-} = 1$ assuming   the central value ($1\\sigma$ range) of $\\Delta a_{\\mu}$.}\n\\label{fig:edm_vs_k}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFinally, allowing for any $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-}$ as a future possible measured value (up to the current limit), in Fig.~\\ref{fig:k} we plot contours of $k$  in the $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-}$ -- $|d_{\\mu}|$ plane assuming the central value $\\Delta a_{\\mu}$.\nNote that there are two values of $k$ resulting in the same $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-}$ and $|d_{\\mu}|$ except for the boundary of the shaded region. The boundary corresponds to the upper limit on possible $\\mu$EDM if $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-} < 1$,\n\\begin{equation}\n|d_{\\mu}| \\leq \\frac{e \\,\\Delta a_{\\mu}}{2m_\\mu}\\sqrt{\\frac{R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-}}{1-R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-}}}.\n\\end{equation}\nNote that models with small $k$ can generate $d_{\\mu}$ up to the current experimental upper limit, $|d_{\\mu}|=1.8\\times 10^{-19}\\;{\\rm e\\cdot cm}$~\\cite{Muong-2:2008ebm}.\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n\\includegraphics[width=0.6\\linewidth]{k_contours_combined_v5.pdf} \n\\caption{Contours of constant $k$ in the $R_{h\\to\\mu\\mu}$ -- $|d_{\\mu}|$ plane assuming the central value $\\Delta a_{\\mu}$.}\n\\label{fig:k}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\\noindent\n{\\it Discussion and conclusions.} \nWe have seen that every model with chirally-enhanced contributions to  $\\Delta a_{\\mu}$ can be parametrized by the $k$ factor that relates the dipole operator to the contribution to the muon mass and thus specifies the correlation between $\\Delta a_{\\mu}$, $d_{\\mu}$ and $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-}$. In the SM with VLs the $k$ factor is fully fixed by quantum numbers; in similar models with extended Higgs sectors a mixing parameter will enter $k$, for example $\\tan\\beta$ in the 2HDM; and in loop models $k$ is directly related to the coupling responsible for chiral enhancement. Through this correlation large classes of models or vast ranges of model parameters can be efficiently tested.\n\nThe $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-}$ is expected to be measured with $\\sim10\\%$ precision at the LHC and $\\sim 1\\%$ at the  hadron version of the Future Circular Collider~\\cite{Abada:2019lih}. The limits on $\\mu$EDM are expected to reach $|d_{\\mu}|\\sim 1\\times 10^{-21}\\,{\\rm e\\cdot cm}$ at the Muon g-2 experiment at Fermilab~\\cite{Chislett:2016jau}, and could reach $6\\times 10^{-23}\\,{\\rm e\\cdot cm}$ at the Paul Scherrer Institute~\\cite{Adelmann:2021udj}. Thus near future measurements have the potential to reduce the number of SM extensions with vectorlike leptons to one specific $\\mathcal{Q}$, or rule out all of them,  irrespectively of the scale of new physics or the size of couplings.\nFor 2HDM type-II, already the LHC measurement of $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-}$ will limit $\\tan\\beta$ to $\\gtrsim 6$, and for loop models, it will limit the size of the coupling resulting in chiral enhancement, again irrespectively on other details of the model. This immediately sets the upper bound for the scale of new physics to $\\sim 18$ TeV for the 2HDM~\\cite{Dermisek:2020cod, Dermisek:2021ajd} and, for example, $\\sim14$ TeV for FFS loop models with $SU(2)$ doublets and singlets and $\\mathcal{Q} =1$. Improving the measurement of $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-}$ to within $1\\%$ will further reduce these upper limits to $\\sim 10$ TeV and $\\sim 8$ TeV respectively. Similar reasoning can be used to obtain an upper limit on the lightest new particle in any given scenario.\nThus the correlation between $\\Delta a_{\\mu}$, $d_{\\mu}$ and $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-}$ can test most efficiently the high end of the spectrum that is far beyond the reach of currently envisioned future colliders.\n\n\nThe discussion in this letter has been limited to couplings necessary to generate a chirally-enhanced contribution to $\\Delta a_{\\mu}$. Effects of other possible dimension 6 operators involving muon fields, SM Higgs doublet and derivatives can be absorbed into the definition of the muon Yukawa coupling, $y_\\mu$, or are parametrically suppressed by $m_\\mu\/v$, similar as in the discussion in Ref.~\\cite{Dermisek:2021mhi}. However additional couplings in a given model, not contributing to $\\Delta a_{\\mu}$ might in principle enter the formula for $k$ (or even generate a complex $k$ parameter), for example scalar quartic couplings involving new scalars and the SM Higgs doublet~\\cite{Thalapillil:2014kya,Crivellin:2021rbq}. In such cases $R_{h\\to \\mu^+\\mu^-}$ still carves an ellipse in the plane of dipole moments but with the center shifted (to non-zero  $d_{\\mu}$ for complex $k$) depending on the size of additional couplings. Furthermore, in certain models there can be sizable contributions to $\\Delta a_{\\mu}$ from other operators due to renormalization group mixing, for example from four-fermion operators in models with leptoquarks~\\cite{Gherardi:2020det,Aebischer:2021uvt}. However, the couplings required also necessarily generates $C_{\\mu H}$ with the same phase resulting in a shift of $k$ by a real number. These  effects, together with the general study of a complete set of dimension 6 operators, will be discussed elsewhere~\\cite{Dermisek}.\n\n\n\n\n\\vspace{0.3cm}\n\\acknowledgments\nThe work of R.D. was supported in part by the U.S. Department of Energy under Award No. {DE}-SC0010120. TRIUMF receives federal funding via a contribution agreement with the National Research Council of Canada.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\vspace{0.05cm}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction.}\n\n${\\rm CAT}(0)$ cube complexes provide an ideal setting to study non-positive curvature in a discrete context. On the one hand, their geometry is sufficiently rich to ensure that large classes of groups admit interesting actions on them. Right-angled Artin groups, hyperbolic or right-angled Coxeter groups, hyperbolic $3$-manifold groups, random groups at sufficiently low density all act geometrically on ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ cube complexes \\cite{Niblo-Reeves, Bergeron-Wise, Ollivier-Wise}, to name just a few examples. Moreover, every finitely generated group with a codimension one subgroup admits an action on a ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ cube complex with unbounded orbits \\cite{Sageev,Gerasimov,Niblo-Roller}.\n\nOn the other hand, the geometry of finite dimensional ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ cube complexes is much better understood than general ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ geometry, even with no local compactness assumption. For instance, groups acting properly on finite dimensional ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ cube complexes are known to have finite asymptotic dimension \\cite{Wright}, to satisfy the Von Neumann-Day dichotomy and, if torsion-free, even the Tits alternative \\cite{Sageev-Wise, CS}. It is not known whether the same are true for general ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ groups.\n\nThree features are particularly relevant in the study of ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ cube complexes. First of all, they are endowed with a metric of non-positive curvature. Secondly, the $1$-skeleton becomes a median graph when endowed with its intrinsic path-metric; this means that, for any three vertices, there exists a unique vertex that lies between any two of them. This property is closely related to the existence of hyperplanes and allows for a combinatorial approach that is not available in general ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ spaces. Finally, cube complexes are essentially discrete objects, in that their geometry is fully encoded by the $0$-skeleton. In particular, the automorphism group of a cube complex is totally disconnected.\n\nIt is natural to wonder how much in the theory of ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ cube complexes can be extended to those spaces that share the second feature: \\emph{median spaces}. These provide a simultaneous generalisation of ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ cube complexes and real trees; for an introduction, see e.g.~\\cite{Nica-thesis, CDH, Bow4} and references therein. The class of median spaces is closed under ultralimits and also includes all $L^1$ spaces, so certain pathologies are bound to arise in this context.\n\nThe notion of \\emph{rank} of a median space was introduced in \\cite{Bow1}; for ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ cube complexes it coincides with the usual concept of dimension. It was recently shown that connected, finite rank median spaces are also endowed with a \\emph{canonical} ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ metric \\cite{Bow4}. Thus it seems that, in finite rank, the only true difference between ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ cube complexes and general median spaces lies in the discreteness of the former. Most of the results of the present paper support this analogy.\n\nWe will restrict our attention to \\emph{finite rank} median spaces; this is essential when considering the Tits alternative, as every amenable group admits a proper action on an infinite rank median space \\cite{Cherix-Martin-Valette,CDH}. Nontrivial examples of finite rank median spaces arise, for instance, from asymptotic cones of coarse median spaces \\cite{Bow1,Zeidler}. The Cayley graphs of many interesting groups are coarse median: hyperbolic groups, cubulated groups \\cite{Hagen-Susse}, fundamental groups of closed irreducible 3-manifolds not modelled on Nil or Sol, mapping class groups \\cite{Behrstock-Minsky,Behrstock-Drutu-Sapir, Behrstock-Drutu-Sapir2} and, more generally, all groups that are HHS \\cite{Bow3,HHS,HHS2}.\n\nOur main result is the following version of the Tits alternative:\n\n\\begin{thmA}\nLet $X$ be a complete, finite rank median space with an isometric action $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$. Suppose that $\\Gamma$ has no nonabelian free subgroups.\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item If the action is free, $\\Gamma$ is virtually finite-by-abelian. If moreover $X$ is connected or $\\Gamma$ is finitely generated, then $\\Gamma$ is virtually abelian.\n\\item If the action is (metrically) proper, $\\Gamma$ is virtually (locally finite)-by-abelian.\n\\item If all point stabilisers are amenable, $\\Gamma$ is amenable.\n\\end{itemize}\n\\end{thmA}\n\nWe remark that every countable, locally finite group admits a proper action on a simplicial tree, see Example~II.7.11 in \\cite{BH}. \n\nA discrete group $\\Gamma$ has the Haagerup property if and only if it admits a proper action on a median space \\cite{Cherix-Martin-Valette,CDH}. However, Theorem~A shows that $\\Gamma$ needs not have a proper (or free) action on a \\emph{finite rank} median space; for instance, it suffices to consider any torsion-free amenable group that is not virtually abelian. \n\nIn fact, there even exist groups $\\Gamma$ with the Haagerup property, such that every action of $\\Gamma$ on a complete, finite rank median space has a global fixed point; a simple example is provided by irreducible lattices in $SL_2\\mathbb{R}\\times SL_2\\mathbb{R}$ \\cite{Fioravanti3}.\n\nOur proof of Theorem~A follows the same broad outline as the corresponding result for ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ cube complexes, as it appears in \\cite{CS,CFI}. Given an action $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$, either $\\Gamma$ has a finite orbit within a suitable compactification of $X$, or the space $X$ exhibits a certain tree-like behaviour. In the former case, one obtains a ``big'' abelian quotient of $\\Gamma$; in the latter, one can construct many nonabelian free subgroups with a ping-pong argument.\n\nWe remark that the first proof of the Tits alternative for ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ cube complexes was due to M.~Sageev and D.~T.~Wise \\cite{Sageev-Wise} and follows a completely different strategy. It relies on the Algebraic Torus Theorem \\cite{Dunwoody-Swenson} and a key fact is that, when a group $\\Gamma$ acts nontrivially on a ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ cube complex, some hyperplane stabiliser is a codimension one subgroup of $\\Gamma$. Unfortunately, this approach is bound to fail when dealing with median spaces: there is an analogous notion of ``hyperplane'' (see Section~\\ref{prelims}), but all hyperplane stabilisers could be trivial, even if the group $\\Gamma$ is one-ended. This happens for instance when a surface group acts freely on a real tree \\cite{Morgan-Shalen}.\n\nMany of the techniques of \\cite{CS} have proven extremely useful in the study of ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ cube complexes, for instance in \\cite{Nevo-Sageev,Fernos,CFI,Kar-Sageev,Kar-Sageev2} to name just a few examples. We extend some of this machinery to median spaces, in particular what goes by the name of ``flipping'', ``skewering'' and ``strong separation''; see Theorems~B and~D below. We will exploit these results in \\cite{Fioravanti3} to obtain a superrigidity result analogous to the one in \\cite{CFI}.\n\nTo state the rest of the results of the present paper, we need to introduce some terminology. In \\cite{Fioravanti1} we defined a compactification $\\overline X$ of a complete, finite rank median space $X$. We refer to it as the \\emph{Roller compactification} of $X$; for ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ cube complexes, it consists precisely of the union of $X$ and its Roller boundary $\\partial X$, in the usual sense (see \\cite{BCGNW, Nevo-Sageev} for a definition). \n\nRoller compactifications of general median spaces strongly resemble Roller compactifications of cube complexes. For instance, the space $\\overline X$ has a natural structure of median algebra and $\\partial X$ is partitioned as a union of median spaces (``components'' in our terminology), whose rank is strictly lower than that of $X$. These properties will be essential when extending the machinery of \\cite{CS} to finite rank median spaces. For ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ cube complexes, our approach is slightly different from that of \\cite{CS}, in that we work with Roller boundaries rather than visual boundaries.\n\nWe say that an isometric action $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ is \\emph{Roller elementary} if $\\Gamma$ has at least one finite orbit in $\\overline X$. An action $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ is \\emph{Roller minimal} if $\\Gamma$ leaves invariant no proper, closed, convex subset of $\\overline X$ and $X$ is not a single point; for the notion of convexity in the median algebra $\\overline X$, see Section~\\ref{prelims}. In ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ cube complexes, Roller minimal actions are precisely essential actions (in the terminology of \\cite{CS}) with no fixed point in the visual boundary.\n\nLike ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ cube complexes, median spaces are endowed with a canonical collection of halfspaces $\\mathscr{H}$. We say that $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ is \\emph{without wall inversions} if there exists no $g\\in\\Gamma$ such that $g\\mathfrak{h}=\\mathfrak{h}^*$ for some $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{H}$. Here $\\mathfrak{h}^*$ denotes the complement $X\\setminus\\mathfrak{h}$ of the halfspace $\\mathfrak{h}$. Actions without wall inversions are a generalisation of actions on $0$-skeleta of simplicial trees without edge inversions. We remark that, perhaps counterintuitively, every action on a \\emph{connected} median space is automatically without wall inversions (see Proposition~\\ref{all about halfspaces} below); this includes all actions on real trees.\n\nWe have the following analogue of the Flipping and Double Skewering Lemmata from \\cite{CS}.\n\n\\begin{thmB}\nLet $X$ be a complete, finite rank median space with a Roller minimal action $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ without wall inversions.\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item For ``almost every'' halfspace $\\mathfrak{h}$, there exists $g\\in\\Gamma$ with $\\mathfrak{h}^*\\subsetneq g\\mathfrak{h}$ and $d(g\\mathfrak{h}^*,\\mathfrak{h}^*)>0$.\n\\item For ``almost all'' halfspaces $\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{k}$ with $\\mathfrak{h}\\subseteq\\mathfrak{k}$ there exists $g\\in\\Gamma$ with $g\\mathfrak{k}\\subsetneq\\mathfrak{h}\\subseteq\\mathfrak{k}$ and $d(g\\mathfrak{k}, \\mathfrak{h}^*)>0$.\n\\end{itemize}\n\\end{thmB}\n\nPositivity of distances is automatic in cube complexes, but not in general median spaces. Theorem~B cannot be proved for \\emph{all} halfspaces; counterexamples already appear in real trees, see Section~\\ref{CS-like machinery}. The notion of ``almost every'' should be understood with respect to a certain measure on $\\mathscr{H}$; see Section~\\ref{prelims} below for a definition.\n\nFor every complete, finite rank median space $X$, we can define a \\emph{barycentric subdivision} $X'$; we study these in Section~\\ref{splitting the atom}. The space $X'$ is again complete and median of the same rank. There is a canonical isometric embedding $X\\hookrightarrow X'$ and every action on $X$ extends to an action without wall inversions on $X'$. Thus, the assumption that $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ be without wall inversions in Theorem~B is not restrictive. \n\nRoller minimality may seem a strong requirement, but the structure of Roller compactifications makes Roller minimal actions easy to come by:\n\n\\begin{propC}\nLet $X$ be a complete, finite rank median space with an isometric action $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$. If $\\Gamma$ fixes no point of $\\overline X$, there exists a $\\Gamma$-invariant component $Z\\subseteq\\overline X$ and a closed, convex, $\\Gamma$-invariant subset $C\\subseteq Z$ such that the action $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright C$ is Roller minimal.\n\\end{propC}\n\nWe remark that actions with a global fixed point in $\\overline X$ have a very specific structure, see Theorem~F below.\n\nTheorem~B allows us to construct free groups of isometries, as soon as we have ``tree-like'' configurations of halfspaces inside the median space $X$. More precisely, we need \\emph{strongly separated} pairs of halfspaces; in the case of ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ cube complexes, these were introduced in \\cite{Behrstock-Charney} and used in \\cite{CS} to characterise irreducibility. We prove:\n\n\\begin{thmD}\nLet $X$ be a complete, finite rank median space admitting a Roller minimal action $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ without wall inversions. The median space splits as a nontrivial product if and only if no two halfspaces are strongly separated.\n\\end{thmD}\n\nFollowing well-established techniques \\cite{CS}, Theorems~B and~D yield:\n\n\\begin{thmE}\nLet $X$ be a complete, finite rank median space with an isometric action $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$. Either $\\Gamma$ contains a nonabelian free subgroup or the action is Roller elementary.\n\\end{thmE}\n\nThe last step in the proof of Theorem~A consists in the study of Roller elementary actions; we employ the same strategy as the appendix to \\cite{CFI}. To this end, we need to extend the notion of \\emph{unidirectional boundary set (UBS)} to median spaces. \n\nIn ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ cube complexes, UBS's were introduced in \\cite{Hagen}. Up to a certain equivalence relation, they define the simplices in Hagen's simplicial boundary and provide a useful tool to understand Tits boundaries, splittings and divergence \\cite{Hagen, Behrstock-Hagen}. They can be thought of as a generalisation of embedded cubical orthants. \n\nWe introduce UBS's in median spaces and use them to prove the following result. A more careful study of UBS's will be carried out in \\cite{Fioravanti3}, where we show that Roller elementarity is equivalent to the vanishing of a certain cohomology class.\n\n\\begin{thmF}\nLet $X$ be complete and finite rank. Suppose that $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ fixes a point in the Roller boundary of $X$. A finite-index subgroup $\\Gamma_0\\leq\\Gamma$ fits in an exact sequence\n\\[1\\longrightarrow N\\longrightarrow \\Gamma_0 \\longrightarrow\\mathbb{R}^r,\\]\nwhere $r=\\text{rank}(X)$ and every finitely generated subgroup of $N$ has an orbit in $X$ with at most $2^r$ elements. If $X$ is connected, every finitely generated subgroup of $N$ fixes a point.\n\\end{thmF}\n\n{\\bf Structure of the paper.} In Section~\\ref{preliminaries} we review the basic theory of median spaces and median algebras, with a special focus on the results of \\cite{Fioravanti1}. We use halfspaces to characterise when a median space splits as a nontrivial product. We study barycentric subdivisions and a similar construction that allows us to canonically embed general median spaces into connected ones. Section~\\ref{elliptic isometries} is concerned with groups of elliptic isometries. In Section~\\ref{stab xi} we study UBS's and prove Theorem~F. In Section~\\ref{CS-like machinery} we introduce Roller elementarity and Roller minimality; we prove Proposition~C and Theorems~A,~B and~D. Finally, Section~\\ref{facing triples} is devoted to constructing free subgroups of isometry groups; we prove Theorem~E there.\n\n{\\bf Acknowledgements.} The author warmly thanks Brian Bowditch, Pier\\-re-Emmanuel Caprace, Indira Chatterji, Thomas Delzant, Cornelia Dru\\c tu, Talia Fern\\'os, Mark Hagen for many helpful conversations and Anthony Genevois for his comments on an earlier version. The author expresses special gratitude to Cornelia Dru\\c tu for her excellent supervision and to Talia Fern\\'os for her encouragement to pursue this project. \n\nThis work was undertaken at the Mathematical Sciences Research Institute in Berkeley during the Fall 2016 program in Geometric Group Theory, where the author was supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant no.~DMS-1440140 and by the GEAR Network. Part of this work was also carried out at the Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences, Cambridge, during the programme ``Non-positive curvature, group actions and cohomology'' and was supported by EPSRC grant no.~EP\/K032208\/1. The author was also supported by the Clarendon Fund and the Merton Moussouris Scholarship.\n\n\n\\section{Preliminaries.}\\label{preliminaries}\n\n\\subsection{Median spaces and median algebras.}\\label{prelims}\n\nLet $X$ be a metric space. A finite sequence of points $(x_k)_{1\\leq k\\leq n}$ is a \\emph{geodesic} if $d(x_1,x_n)=d(x_1,x_2)+...+d(x_{n-1},x_n)$. The interval $I(x,y)$ between $x,y\\in X$ is the set of points lying on a geodesic from $x$ to $y$. We say that $X$ is a \\emph{median space} if, for all $x,y,z\\in X$, the intersection $I(x,y)\\cap I(y,z)\\cap I(z,x)$ consists of a single point, which we denote by $m(x,y,z)$. In this case, the map $m\\colon X^3\\rightarrow X$ endows $X$ with a structure of \\emph{median algebra}, see e.g.~\\cite{CDH, Bow1, Roller} for a definition and various results.\n\nIn a median algebra $(M,m)$, the \\emph{interval} $I(x,y)$ between $x,y\\in M$ is the set of points $z\\in M$ with $m(x,y,z)=z$; this is equivalent to the definition above if $M$ arises from a median space. A subset $C\\subseteq M$ is \\emph{convex} if $I(x,y)\\subseteq C$ whenever $x,y\\in C$. Every collection of pairwise-intersecting convex subsets of a median algebra has the finite intersection property; this is Helly's Theorem, see e.g.~Theorem~2.2 in \\cite{Roller}.\n\nA \\emph{halfspace} is a convex subset $\\mathfrak{h}\\subseteq M$ whose complement $\\mathfrak{h}^*:=M\\setminus\\mathfrak{h}$ is also convex. We will refer to the unordered pair $\\mathfrak{w}:=\\{\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{h}^*\\}$ as a \\emph{wall}; we say that $\\mathfrak{h}$ and $\\mathfrak{h}^*$ are the \\emph{sides} of $\\mathfrak{w}$. The wall $\\mathfrak{w}$ separates subsets $A\\subseteq M$ and $B\\subseteq M$ if $A\\subseteq\\mathfrak{h}$ and $B\\subseteq\\mathfrak{h}^*$ or vice versa. The wall $\\mathfrak{w}$ is \\emph{contained} in a halfspace $\\mathfrak{k}$ if $\\mathfrak{h}\\subseteq\\mathfrak{k}$ or $\\mathfrak{h}^*\\subseteq\\mathfrak{k}$; we say, with a slight abuse of terminology, that $\\mathfrak{w}$ is contained in $\\mathfrak{k}_1\\cap...\\cap\\mathfrak{k}_k$ if $\\mathfrak{w}$ is contained in $\\mathfrak{k}_i$ for each $i$.\n\nThe sets of halfspaces and walls of $M$ are denoted $\\mathscr{H}(M)$ and $\\mathscr{W}(M)$ respectively, or simply $\\mathscr{H}$ and $\\mathscr{W}$. Given subsets $A,B\\subseteq M$, we write $\\mathscr{H}(A|B)$ for the set of halfspaces with $B\\subseteq\\mathfrak{h}$ and $A\\subseteq\\mathfrak{h}^*$ and we set $\\sigma_A:=\\mathscr{H}(\\emptyset|A)$; we will not distinguish between $x\\in M$ and the singleton $\\{x\\}$. If $A,B$ are convex and disjoint, we have $\\mathscr{H}(A|B)\\neq\\emptyset$, see e.g.~Theorem~2.7 in \\cite{Roller}; we will refer to the sets $\\mathscr{H}(x|y)$, $x,y\\in M$, as \\emph{halfspace-intervals}.\n\nA \\emph{pocset} is a poset equipped with an order-reversing involution $*$ such that every element $a$ is incomparable with $a^*$. Ordering $\\mathscr{H}$ by inclusion, we obtain a pocset where the involution is given by taking complements. If $E\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}$, we write $E^*:=\\{\\mathfrak{h}^*\\mid\\mathfrak{h}\\in E\\}$. We say that $\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{k}\\in\\mathscr{H}$ are \\emph{transverse} if any two elements in the set $\\{\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{h}^*,\\mathfrak{k},\\mathfrak{k}^*\\}$ are incomparable; equivalently, the intersections $\\mathfrak{h}\\cap\\mathfrak{k}$, $\\mathfrak{h}\\cap\\mathfrak{k}^*$, $\\mathfrak{h}^*\\cap\\mathfrak{k}$, $\\mathfrak{h}^*\\cap\\mathfrak{k}^*$ are all nonempty subsets of $M$. Two walls are transverse if they arise from transverse halfspaces. \n\nMaximal subsets of $\\mathscr{H}$ consisting of pairwise-intersecting halfspaces are termed \\emph{ultrafilters}; a set of pairwise-intersecting halfspaces is an ultrafilter if and only if it contains a side of every wall of $M$. For every $x\\in M$, the subset $\\sigma_x\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}$ is an ultrafilter. A subset $\\Omega\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}$ is said to be \\emph{inseparable} if it contains all $\\mathfrak{j}\\in\\mathscr{H}$ such that $\\mathfrak{h}\\subseteq\\mathfrak{j}\\subseteq\\mathfrak{k}$, for $\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{k}\\in\\Omega$. The \\emph{inseparable closure} of a subset $\\Omega\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}$ is the smallest inseparable set containing $\\Omega$; it coincides the union of the sets $\\mathscr{H}(\\mathfrak{k}^*|\\mathfrak{h})$ as $\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{k}$ vary in $\\Omega$.\n\nThe set $\\{-1,1\\}$ has a unique structure of median algebra. Considering its median map separately in all coordinates, we endow $\\{-1,1\\}^k$ with a median-algebra structure for each $k\\in\\mathbb{N}$; we will refer to it as a \\emph{$k$-hypercube}. The \\emph{rank} of $M$ is the maximal $k\\in\\mathbb{N}$ such that we can embed a $k$-hypercube into $M$. By Proposition~6.2 in \\cite{Bow1} this is the same as the maximal cardinality of a set of pairwise-transverse halfspaces. Note that $M$ has rank zero if and only if it consists of a single point. The following is immediate from Ramsey's Theorem \\cite{Ramsey}:\n\n\\begin{lem}\\label{Ramsey}\nIf $M$ has finite rank and $\\sigma_1,\\sigma_2\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}$ are two ultrafilters, every infinite subset of $\\sigma_1\\setminus\\sigma_2$ contains an infinite subset that is totally ordered by inclusion.\n\\end{lem}\n\nIf $C\\subseteq M$ and $x\\in M$, we say that $y\\in C$ is a \\emph{gate} for $(x,C)$ if $y\\in I(x,z)$ for all $z\\in C$. The set $C$ is \\emph{gate-convex} if a gate exists for every point of $M$; in this case, gates are unique and define a \\emph{gate-projection} $\\pi_C\\colon M\\rightarrow C$. If $C$ is gate-convex, we have $\\mathscr{H}(x|\\pi_C(x))=\\mathscr{H}(x|C)$ for every $x\\in M$. Every interval $I(x,y)$ is gate-convex with projection $z\\mapsto m(x,y,z)$. Gate-convex sets are always convex, but the converse does not hold in general. We record a few more properties of gate-convex subsets in the following result; see \\cite{Fioravanti1} for proofs.\n\n\\begin{prop}\\label{all about gates}\nLet $C,C'\\subseteq M$ be gate-convex.\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item The sets $\\{\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{H}(M)\\mid\\mathfrak{h}\\cap C\\neq\\emptyset,~\\mathfrak{h}^*\\cap C\\neq\\emptyset\\}$, ${\\{\\pi_C^{-1}(\\mathfrak{h})\\mid\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{H}(C)\\}}$ and $\\mathscr{H}(C)$ are all naturally in bijection.\n\\item There exists a \\emph{pair of gates}, i.e.~a pair $(x,x')$ of points $x\\in C$ and $x'\\in C'$ such that $\\pi_C(x')=x$ and $\\pi_{C'}(x)=x'$. In particular, we have ${\\mathscr{H}(x|x')=\\mathscr{H}(C|C')}$.\n\\item If $C\\cap C'\\neq\\emptyset$, we have $\\pi_C(C')=C\\cap C'$ and $\\pi_C\\o\\pi_{C'}=\\pi_{C'}\\o\\pi_C$. In particular, if $C'\\subseteq C$, we have $\\pi_{C'}=\\pi_{C'}\\o\\pi_C$.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{prop}\n\nA \\emph{topological median algebra} is a median algebra endowed with a Hausdorff topology so that $m$ is continuous. Every median space $X$ is a topological median algebra, since $m\\colon X^3\\rightarrow X$ is $1$-Lipschitz if we consider the $\\ell^1$ metric on $X^3$. Every gate-convex subset of a median space is closed and convex; the converse holds if $X$ is complete. Gate-projections are $1$-Lipschitz. If ${C,C'\\subseteq X}$ are gate-convex and $X$ is complete, points $x\\in C$ and $x'\\in C'$ form a pair of gates if and only if $d(x,x')=d(C,C')$, see Lemma~2.9 in \\cite{Fioravanti1}; this holds in particular when $C'$ is a singleton. \n\nWe will only consider complete, finite rank median space in the rest of the paper. The following is Proposition~B in \\cite{Fioravanti1}.\n\n\\begin{prop}\\label{all about halfspaces}\nEvery halfspace is either open or closed (possibly both). If $\\mathfrak{h}_1\\supsetneq ... \\supsetneq\\mathfrak{h}_k$ is a chain of halfspaces with $\\overline{\\mathfrak{h}_1^*}\\cap\\overline{\\mathfrak{h}_k}\\neq\\emptyset$, we have $k\\leq 2\\cdot\\text{rank}(X)$.\n\\end{prop}\n\n\\begin{lem}\\label{intersections of halfspaces}\nLet $\\mathcal{C}\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}$ be totally ordered by inclusion and suppose that the halfspaces in $\\mathcal{C}$ are at uniformly bounded distance from a point $x\\in X$. The intersection of all halfspaces in $\\mathcal{C}$ is nonempty. \n\\end{lem}\n\\begin{proof}\nIt suffices to consider the case when $\\mathcal{C}$ does not have a minimum; by Lemma~2.27 in \\cite{Fioravanti1}, we can find a cofinal subset $\\{\\mathfrak{h}_n\\}_{n\\geq 0}$ with $\\mathfrak{h}_{n+1}\\subsetneq\\mathfrak{h}_n$. Let $x_n$ be the gate-projection of $x$ to $\\overline{\\mathfrak{h}_n}$; by Proposition~\\ref{all about gates}, the sequence $(x_n)_{n\\geq 0}$ is Cauchy, hence it converges to a point $\\overline x\\in X$ that lies in $\\overline{\\mathfrak{h}_n}$ for all $n\\geq 0$. If $\\overline x$ did not lie in every $\\mathfrak{h}_n$, there would exist $N\\geq 0$ with $\\overline x\\in\\overline{\\mathfrak{h}_n}\\setminus\\mathfrak{h}_n$ for all $n\\geq N$. In particular, $\\overline{\\mathfrak{h}_n^*}\\cap\\overline{\\mathfrak{h}_m}\\neq\\emptyset$ for all $m,n\\geq N$ and this would violate Proposition~\\ref{all about halfspaces}.\n\\end{proof}\n\nEndowing $\\mathbb{R}^n$ with the $\\ell^1$ metric, we obtain a median space. Like $\\mathbb{R}^n$, a rich class of median spaces also has an analogue of the $\\ell^{\\infty}$ metric (see \\cite{Bow5}) and of the $\\ell^2$ metric (see \\cite{Bow4}). We record the following result for later use.\n\n\\begin{thm}[\\cite{Bow4}]\\label{CAT(0) metric}\nIf $X$ is connected, it admits is a bi-Lipschitz-equivalent ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ metric that is canonical in the sense that:\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item every isometry of the median metric of $X$ is also an isometry for the ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ metric;\n\\item the ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ geodesic between $x$ and $y$ is contained in $I(x,y)$; in particular, subsets that are convex for the median metric are also convex for the ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ metric.\n\\end{itemize}\n\\end{thm}\n\nA \\emph{pointed measured pocset (PMP)} is a 4-tuple $\\left(\\mathscr{P},\\mathscr{D},\\eta,\\sigma\\right)$, where $\\mathscr{P}$ is a pocset, $\\sigma\\subseteq\\mathscr{P}$ is an ultrafilter, $\\mathscr{D}$ is a $\\sigma$-algebra of subsets of $\\mathscr{P}$ and $\\eta$ is a measure defined on $\\mathscr{D}$. Let $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}\\left(\\mathscr{P},\\mathscr{D},\\eta\\right)$ be the set of all ultrafilters ${\\sigma'\\subseteq\\mathscr{P}}$ with $\\sigma'\\triangle\\sigma\\in\\mathscr{D}$, where we identify sets with $\\eta$-null symmetric difference. We endow this space with the extended metric $d(\\sigma_1,\\sigma_2):=\\eta(\\sigma_1\\triangle\\sigma_2)$. The set of points at finite distance from $\\sigma$ is a median space, which we denote $\\mathcal{M}\\left(\\mathscr{P},\\mathscr{D},\\eta,\\sigma\\right)$; see Section~2.2 in \\cite{Fioravanti1}.\n\nLet $X$ be a complete, finite rank median space. In \\cite{Fioravanti1} we constructed a semifinite measure $\\widehat{\\nu}$ defined on a $\\sigma$-algebra $\\widehat{\\mathscr{B}}\\subseteq 2^{\\mathscr{H}}$ such that $\\widehat{\\nu}(\\mathscr{H}(x|y))=d(x,y)$, for all $x,y\\in X$. There, we referred to elements of $\\widehat{\\mathscr{B}}$ as \\emph{morally measurable sets}, but, for the sake of simplicity, we will just call them \\emph{measurable sets} here. Note that this measure space is different from the ones considered in \\cite{CDH}. \n\nEvery inseparable subset of $\\mathscr{H}$ lies in $\\widehat{\\mathscr{B}}$; in particular, all ultrafilters on $\\mathscr{H}$ are measurable. If $C,C'\\subseteq X$ are convex (or empty), the set $\\mathscr{H}(C|C')$ is measurable and $\\widehat{\\nu}(\\mathscr{H}(C|C'))=d(C,C')$. A halfspace is an atom for $\\widehat{\\nu}$ if and only if it is clopen. The space $X$ is connected if and only if $\\widehat{\\nu}$ has no atoms, in which case $X$ is geodesic. We say that a halfspace $\\mathfrak{h}$ is \\emph{thick} if both $\\mathfrak{h}$ and $\\mathfrak{h}^*$ have nonempty interior; $\\widehat{\\nu}$-almost every halfspace is thick. We denote by $\\mathscr{H}^{\\times}$ the set of non-thick halfspaces. See \\cite{Fioravanti1} for proofs.\n\nPicking a basepoint $x\\in X$, we can identify $X\\simeq\\mathcal{M}(\\mathscr{H},\\widehat{\\mathscr{B}},\\widehat{\\nu},\\sigma_x)$ isometrically by mapping each $y\\in X$ to the ultrafilter $\\sigma_y\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}$, see Corollary~3.12 in \\cite{Fioravanti1}. In particular, $X$ sits inside the space $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}(\\mathscr{H},\\widehat{\\mathscr{B}},\\widehat{\\nu})$, which we denote by $\\overline X$. If $I\\subseteq X$ is an interval, we have a projection $\\pi_I\\colon\\overline X\\rightarrow I$ that associates to each ultrafilter $\\sigma\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}$ the only point of $I$ that is represented by the ultrafilter $\\sigma\\cap\\mathscr{H}(I)$. We give $\\overline X$ the coarsest topology for which all the projections $\\pi_I$ are continuous. Defining\n\\[m(\\sigma_1,\\sigma_2,\\sigma_3):=(\\sigma_1\\cap\\sigma_2)\\cup(\\sigma_2\\cap\\sigma_3)\\cup(\\sigma_3\\cap\\sigma_1),\\]\nwe endow $\\overline X$ with a structure of topological median algebra. We have:\n\n\\begin{prop}[\\cite{Fioravanti1}]\nThe topological median algebra $\\overline X$ is compact. The inclusion $X\\hookrightarrow\\overline X$ is a continuous morphism of median algebras with dense, convex image.\n\\end{prop}\n\nWe call $\\overline X$ the \\emph{Roller compactification} of $X$ and $\\partial X:=\\overline X\\setminus X$ the \\emph{Roller boundary}. We remark that, in general, $X\\hookrightarrow\\overline X$ is not an embedding and $\\partial X$ is not closed in $\\overline X$. \n\nIf $C\\subseteq X$ is convex, the closure of $C$ in $X$ coincides with the intersection of $X$ and the closure of $C$ in $\\overline X$. If $C\\subseteq X$ is closed and convex, the closure of $C$ inside $\\overline X$ is canonically identified with the Roller compactification $\\overline C$. The median map of $\\overline X$ and the projections $\\pi_I\\colon\\overline X\\rightarrow I$ are $1$-Lipschitz with respect to the extended metric on $\\overline X$. \n\nLooking at pairs of points of $\\overline X$ at finite distance, we obtain a partition of $\\overline X$ into \\emph{components}; each component is a median space with the restriction of the extended metric of $\\overline X$. The subset $X\\subseteq\\overline X$ always forms an entire component of $\\overline X$.\n\n\\begin{prop}[\\cite{Fioravanti1}]\\label{components}\nEach component $Z\\subseteq\\partial X$ is a complete median space with $\\text{rank}(Z)\\leq\\text{rank}(X)-1$. Moreover, $Z$ is convex in $\\overline X$ and the inclusion $Z\\hookrightarrow\\overline X$ is continuous. The closure of $Z$ in $\\overline X$ is canonically identified with the Roller compactification $\\overline Z$ and there is a gate-projection $\\pi_Z\\colon\\overline X\\rightarrow\\overline Z$ that maps $X$ into $Z$.\n\\end{prop}\n\nEvery halfspace $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{H}$ induces a halfspace $\\widetilde{\\mathfrak{h}}$ of $\\overline X$ with $\\widetilde{\\mathfrak{h}}\\cap X=\\mathfrak{h}$; thus, we can identify $\\mathscr{H}$ with a subset of $\\mathscr{H}(\\overline X)$. \n\n\\begin{prop}[\\cite{Fioravanti1}]\\label{halfspaces of components}\nEvery thick halfspace of a component $Z\\subseteq\\partial X$ is of the form $\\widetilde{\\mathfrak{h}}\\cap Z$, for some $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{H}$.\n\\end{prop}\n\nAny two points of $\\overline X$ are separated by a halfspace of the form $\\widetilde{\\mathfrak{h}}$. To every $\\xi\\in\\overline X$, we can associate a \\emph{canonical ultrafilter} $\\sigma_{\\xi}\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}$ representing $\\xi$; it satisfies $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\sigma_{\\xi}\\Leftrightarrow\\xi\\in\\widetilde{\\mathfrak{h}}$.\n\n\n\\subsection{Products.}\n\nGiven median spaces $X_1,X_2$, we can consider the product $X_1\\times X_2$, which is itself a median space with the $\\ell^1$ metric, i.e.\n\\[d_{X_1\\times X_2}\\left((x_1,x_2),(x'_1,x'_2)\\right):=d_{X_1}(x_1,x'_1)+d_{X_2}(x_2,x'_2).\\]\nThe space $X_1\\times X_2$ is complete if and only if $X_1$ and $X_2$ are. We say that subsets $A,B\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}$ are \\emph{transverse} if $\\mathfrak{h}$ and $\\mathfrak{k}$ are transverse whenever $\\mathfrak{h}\\in A$ and $\\mathfrak{k}\\in B$. We have the following analogue of Lemma~2.5 in \\cite{CS} (recall that we are only considering complete, finite rank median spaces).\n\n\\begin{cor}\\label{products}\nThe following are equivalent:\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item $X$ splits as a product $X_1\\times X_2$, where each $X_i$ has at least two points;\n\\item there is a measurable, $*$-invariant partition $\\mathscr{H}=\\mathscr{H}_1\\sqcup\\mathscr{H}_2$, where the $\\mathscr{H}_i$ are nonempty and transverse;\n\\item there is measurable, $*$-invariant partition $\\mathscr{H}=\\mathscr{H}_1\\sqcup\\mathscr{H}_2\\sqcup\\mathscr{K}$, where the $\\mathscr{H}_i$ are nonempty and transverse, while $\\mathscr{K}$ is null.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{cor}\n\\begin{proof}\nIf $X=X_1\\times X_2$, part~1 of Proposition~\\ref{all about gates} provides subsets $\\mathscr{H}(X_1)$ and $\\mathscr{H}(X_2)$ of $\\mathscr{H}(X)$; they are nonempty, disjoint, $*$-invariant, transverse and measurable. Every $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{H}(X)$ must split a fibre $X_1\\times\\{*\\}$ or $\\{*\\}\\times X_2$ nontrivially and thus lies either in $\\mathscr{H}(X_1)$ or in $\\mathscr{H}(X_2)$.\n\nWe conclude by proving that 3 implies 1, since 2 trivially implies 3. Let $\\widehat{\\mathscr{B}}_i$ be the $\\sigma$-algebra of subsets of $\\mathscr{H}_i$ that lie in $\\widehat{\\mathscr{B}}$; fixing $x\\in X$, we simply write $\\mathcal{M}_i$ for $\\mathcal{M}(\\mathscr{H}_i,\\widehat{\\mathscr{B}}_i,\\widehat{\\nu},\\sigma_x\\cap\\mathscr{H}_i)$. Define a map $\\iota\\colon X\\rightarrow\\mathcal{M}_1\\times\\mathcal{M}_2$ by intersecting ultrafilters on $\\mathscr{H}$ with each $\\mathscr{H}_i$. Since $\\mathscr{K}$ is null, this is an isometric embedding. Given ultrafilters $\\sigma_i\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}_i$, the set $\\sigma_1\\sqcup\\sigma_2$ consists of pairwise-intersecting halfspaces and Zorn's Lemma provides an ultrafilter $\\sigma\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}$ containing $\\sigma_1\\sqcup \\sigma_2$. Thus, $\\iota$ is surjective and $X\\simeq\\mathcal{M}_1\\times\\mathcal{M}_2$.\n\nWe are left to show that each $\\mathcal{M}_i$ contains at least two points; we construct points $x_i,x_i'\\in X$ such that $\\widehat{\\nu}(\\mathscr{H}(x_i|x_i')\\cap\\mathscr{H}_i)>0$. Pick any $\\mathfrak{h}_i\\in\\mathscr{H}_i$; by Proposition~\\ref{all about halfspaces}, replacing $\\mathfrak{h}_i$ with its complement if necessary, we can assume that there exists $x_i\\not\\in\\overline{\\mathfrak{h}_i}$. Let $x_i'$ be the gate-projection of $x_i$ to $\\overline{\\mathfrak{h}_i}$. None of the halfspaces in $\\mathscr{H}(x_i|x_i')$ is transverse to $\\mathfrak{h}_i$, thus $\\mathscr{H}(x_i|x_i')\\setminus\\mathscr{K}$ is contained in $\\mathscr{H}_i$ and has positive measure.\n\\end{proof}\n\nIn particular, $\\text{rank}(X_1\\times X_2)=\\text{rank}(X_1)+\\text{rank}(X_2)$. We say that $X$ is \\emph{irreducible} if it cannot be split nontrivially as a product $X_1\\times X_2$.  We remark that in parts~2 and~3 of Corollary~\\ref{products}, the sets $\\mathscr{H}_i$ are \\emph{not} required to have positive measure, but simply to be nonempty. The following is immediate from Corollary~\\ref{products}:\n\n\\begin{lem}\\label{Roller for products}\nIf $X=X_1\\times X_2$, we have $\\overline X=\\overline X_1\\times\\overline X_2$.\n\\end{lem}\n\nWe can also use Corollary~\\ref{products} to characterise isometries of products; the following is an analogue of Proposition~2.6 in \\cite{CS} (also compare with \\cite{Foertsch-Lytchak}, when $X$ is connected and locally compact).\n\n\\begin{prop}\\label{isometries of products}\nThere is a canonical decomposition $X= X_1\\times ... \\times X_k$, where each $X_i$ is irreducible. Every isometry of $X$ permutes the factors $X_i$; in particular, the product of the isometry groups of the factors has finite index in $\\text{Isom}~X$.\n\\end{prop}\n\\begin{proof}\nThe existence of such a splitting follows from the observation that, in any nontrivial product, factors have strictly lower rank. By Corollary~\\ref{products}, this corresponds to a transverse decomposition $\\mathscr{H}=\\mathscr{H}_1\\sqcup ...\\sqcup \\mathscr{H}_k$, where we can identify $\\mathscr{H}_i=\\mathscr{H}(X_i)$. Given $g\\in\\text{Isom}~X$, the decompositions\n\\[\\mathscr{H}_i=\\bigsqcup_{j=1}^k\\mathscr{H}_i\\cap g\\mathscr{H}_j\\]\nare transverse and each piece is measurable and $*$-invariant. Since $X_i$ is irreducible, we must have $\\mathscr{H}_i\\cap g\\mathscr{H}_j=\\emptyset$ for all but one $j$, again by Corollary~\\ref{products}, and the result follows.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\\subsection{Splitting the atom.}\\label{splitting the atom}\n\nIn this section we describe two constructions that allow us to embed median spaces into ``more connected'' ones. We will only consider complete, finite rank spaces.\n\nGiven a median space $X$, let $\\mathscr{A}\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}$ be the set of atoms of $\\widehat{\\nu}$. The idea is to split every atom into two ``hemiatoms'' of half the size. We thus obtain a new measured pocset $(\\mathscr{H}',\\mathscr{B}',\\nu')$, whose associated median space generalises barycentric subdivisions of cube complexes. We now describe this construction more in detail.\n\nAs a set, $\\mathscr{H}'$ consists of $\\mathscr{H}\\setminus\\mathscr{A}$, to which we add two copies $\\mathfrak{a}_+,\\mathfrak{a}_-$ of every $\\mathfrak{a}\\in\\mathscr{A}$; we have a projection $p\\colon\\mathscr{H}'\\rightarrow\\mathscr{H}$ with fibres of cardinality one or two. We give $\\mathscr{H}'$ a structure of poset by declaring that $\\mathfrak{j}\\subsetneq\\mathfrak{j}'$ if $p(\\mathfrak{j})\\subsetneq p(\\mathfrak{j}')$, or $\\mathfrak{j}=\\mathfrak{a}_-$ and $\\mathfrak{j}=\\mathfrak{a}_+$ for some $\\mathfrak{a}\\in\\mathscr{A}$. We promote this to a structure of pocset by setting $\\mathfrak{j}^*=\\mathfrak{j}'$ if $p(\\mathfrak{j})^*=p(\\mathfrak{j}')\\not\\in\\mathscr{A}$ and, in addition, $(\\mathfrak{a}_-)^*=(\\mathfrak{a}^*)_+$, $(\\mathfrak{a}_+)^*=(\\mathfrak{a}^*)_-$ if $\\mathfrak{a}\\in\\mathscr{A}$. Observe that each intersection between $\\mathscr{A}$ and a halfspace-interval is at most countable; thus $\\mathscr{A}$ and all its subsets are measurable. In particular $\\mathscr{B}':=\\{E\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}'\\mid p(E)\\setminus\\mathscr{A}\\in\\widehat{\\mathscr{B}}\\}$ is a $\\sigma$-algebra of subsets of $\\mathscr{H}'$, on which we can define the measure\n\\[\\nu'(E):=\\widehat{\\nu}\\left(p(E)\\setminus\\mathscr{A}\\right)+\\frac{1}{2}\\cdot\\sum_{\\substack{\\mathfrak{a}\\in\\mathscr{A} \\\\ \\mathfrak{a}_+\\in E}}\\widehat{\\nu}\\left(\\{\\mathfrak{a}\\}\\right)+\\frac{1}{2}\\cdot\\sum_{\\substack{\\mathfrak{a}\\in\\mathscr{A} \\\\ \\mathfrak{a}_-\\in E}}\\widehat{\\nu}\\left(\\{\\mathfrak{a}\\}\\right).\\]\nIf $F\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}$ is measurable, we have $\\nu'(p^{-1}(F))=\\widehat{\\nu}(F)$. Given $z\\in X$, we set $X':=\\mathcal{M}(\\mathscr{H}',\\mathscr{B}',\\nu',p^{-1}(\\sigma_z))$; note that this does not depend on the choice of $z$. Taking preimages under $p$ of ultrafilters on $\\mathscr{H}$, we obtain an isometric embedding $X\\hookrightarrow X'$.\n\n\\begin{lem}\\label{cubes in X'}\nFor each $x\\in X'\\setminus X$ there exist canonical subsets $C(x)\\subseteq X$, $\\widehat{C}(x)\\subseteq X'$ and isomorphisms of median algebras\n\\[\\iota_x\\colon\\{-1,1\\}^k\\rightarrow C(x),\\]\n\\[\\hat{\\iota}_x\\colon\\{-1,0,1\\}^k\\rightarrow\\widehat{C}(x).\\]\nHere $1\\leq k\\leq r:=\\text{rank}(X)$ and the map $\\hat{\\iota}_x$ extends $\\iota_x$ taking $(0,...,0)$ to $x$. Moreover, $C(x)$ is gate-convex in $X$ and $\\widehat{C}(x)$ is gate-convex in $X'$.\n\\end{lem}\n\\begin{proof}\nLet $\\sigma\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}'$ be an ultrafilter representing $x$; since $x\\not\\in X$ the set \n\\[ W(x):=\\left\\{\\{\\mathfrak{a},\\mathfrak{a}^*\\}\\in\\mathscr{W}(X)\\mid \\mathfrak{a}\\in\\mathscr{A} ~~\\text{and}~~ \\mathfrak{a}_+\\in\\sigma ~~\\text{and}~~ (\\mathfrak{a}^*)_+\\in\\sigma\\right\\}\\] \nis nonempty. Any two walls in $W(x)$ are transverse, so $k:=\\# W(x)\\leq r$; choose halfspaces $\\mathfrak{a}_1,...,\\mathfrak{a}_k\\in\\mathscr{H}$ representing all walls in $W(x)$. The set $p(\\sigma)\\setminus\\{\\mathfrak{a}_1^*,...,\\mathfrak{a}_k^*\\}$ is an ultrafilter on $\\mathscr{H}$ and it represents a point $q\\in X$. This will be the point $\\iota_x(1,...,1)$ in $C(x)$. To construct $q'\\in C(x)$, simply replace $\\mathfrak{a}_i\\in\\sigma_q\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}$ with $\\mathfrak{a}_i^*$ whenever the $i$-th coordinate of $q'$ is $-1$; the result is an ultrafilter on $\\mathscr{H}$ representing $q'\\in X$.\n\nTo construct a point $u\\in\\widehat{C}(x)\\subseteq X'$, consider the point $u'\\in C(x)$ obtained by replacing all the zero coordinates of $u$ with $1$'s. Whenever the $i$-th coordinate of $u$ is $0$, we replace $(\\mathfrak{a}_i)_-\\in p^{-1}(\\sigma_{u'})$ with $(\\mathfrak{a}_i^*)_+$, obtaining an ultrafilter on $\\mathscr{H}'$ that represents the point $u$. \n\nWe are left to check that $C(x)$ and $\\widehat{C}(x)$ are gate-convex. Let $H(x)\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}$ be the set of halfspaces corresponding to the walls of $W(x)$. We define a map $\\pi\\colon X'\\rightarrow\\widehat{C}(x)$ as follows: given an ultrafilter $\\sigma'\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}'$, the intersection $\\sigma'\\cap p^{-1}(H(x))$ determines a unique point of $\\widehat{C}(x)$ and we call this $\\pi(\\sigma')$. Note that the restriction of $\\pi$ to $X$ takes values in $C(x)$. It is straightforward to check that $\\pi$ and $\\pi|_X$ are gate-projections.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\begin{lem}\\label{halfspaces of X'}\nEvery halfspace of $X'$ arises from an element of $\\mathscr{H}'$.\n\\end{lem}\n\\begin{proof}\nObserve that $\\text{Hull}_{X'}(X)=X'$ since, for every $x\\in X'$, the hull of $C(x)$ in $X'$ is $\\widehat{C}(x)$. Thus, every halfspace of $X'$ intersects $X$ in a halfspace of $X$. Given $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{H}$, we consider $\\mathscr{F}(\\mathfrak{h}):=\\left\\{\\mathfrak{k}\\in\\mathscr{H}(X')\\mid \\mathfrak{k}\\cap X=\\mathfrak{h}\\right\\}$; note that $\\mathscr{F}(\\mathfrak{h})\\neq\\emptyset$ by Lemma~6.5 in \\cite{Bow1}. If $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{A}$, we can construct halfspaces of $X'$ corresponding to $\\mathfrak{h}_+,\\mathfrak{h}_-\\in\\mathscr{H}'$. For instance, $\\mathfrak{h}_+$ corresponds to the set of ultrafilters on $\\mathscr{H}'$ that contain $\\mathfrak{h}_+$; this is well-defined as $\\mathfrak{h}_+$ has positive measure. Thus, we only need to show that $\\#\\mathscr{F}(\\mathfrak{h})=1$ if $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{H}\\setminus\\mathscr{A}$ and $\\mathscr{F}(\\mathfrak{h})=\\{\\mathfrak{h}_-,\\mathfrak{h}_+\\}$ if $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{A}$.\n\nIf, for some $\\mathfrak{k}\\in\\mathscr{H}(X')$ and $x\\in X'$, both $\\mathfrak{k}\\cap\\widehat{C}(x)$ and $\\mathfrak{k}^*\\cap\\widehat{C}(x)$ are nonempty, there exists $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{A}$ such that $\\mathfrak{k}\\in\\{\\mathfrak{h}_-,\\mathfrak{h}_+\\}$, by part~1 of Proposition~\\ref{all about gates}. Thus, we can suppose that, for every $x\\in X'$, we either have $\\widehat{C}(x)\\subseteq\\mathfrak{k}$ or $\\widehat{C}(x)\\subseteq\\mathfrak{k}^*$. Suppose, for the sake of contradiction, that the same is true of $\\mathfrak{k}'\\in\\mathscr{H}(X')$, with $\\mathfrak{k}'\\neq\\mathfrak{k}$ and $\\mathfrak{k}'\\cap X=\\mathfrak{k}\\cap X$. Let $z\\in\\mathfrak{k}\\triangle\\mathfrak{k}'$ be a point; observe that $z\\not\\in X$ and, by our assumptions, the hypercube $\\widehat{C}(z)$ is entirely contained in $\\mathfrak{k}\\triangle\\mathfrak{k}'$. This implies that $C(z)\\subseteq\\mathfrak{k}\\triangle\\mathfrak{k}'$, violating the fact that $\\mathfrak{k}'\\cap X=\\mathfrak{k}\\cap X$.\n\\end{proof}\n\nGiven a subgroup $\\Gamma\\leq\\text{Isom}~X$, we say that the action $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ is \\emph{without wall inversions} if $g\\mathfrak{h}\\neq\\mathfrak{h}^*$ for every $g\\in\\Gamma$ and $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{H}$. We denote by $a(X)$ the supremum of the $\\widehat{\\nu}$-masses of the elements of $\\mathscr{A}$.\n\n\\begin{prop}[Properties of $X'$]\\label{properties of X'}\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item The median space $X'$ is complete and $\\text{rank}(X')=\\text{rank}(X)$.\n\\item There is an isometric embedding $X\\hookrightarrow X'$ and $\\text{Hull}_{X'}(X)=X'$.\n\\item Every isometry of $X$ extends canonically to an isometry of $X'$ yielding $\\text{Isom}~X\\hookrightarrow\\text{Isom}~X'$. Moreover, the induced action $\\text{Isom}~X\\curvearrowright X'$ is without wall inversions. \n\\item We have $a(X')\\leq\\frac{1}{2}\\cdot a(X)$.\n\\item The inclusion $X\\hookrightarrow X'$ canonically extends to a monomorphism of median algebras $\\overline X\\hookrightarrow\\overline{X'}$. For every $\\xi\\in\\overline{X'}\\setminus\\overline X$ there exists a canonical cube $\\{-1,0,1\\}^k\\hookrightarrow\\overline{X'}$ centred at $\\xi$, with $\\{-1,1\\}^k\\hookrightarrow\\overline{X}$ and $1\\leq k\\leq\\text{rank}(X)$.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{prop}\n\\begin{proof}\nWe have already shown part~2 and part~4 is immediate. Part~5 can be proved like Lemma~\\ref{cubes in X'} since we now have Lemma~\\ref{halfspaces of X'}. If $g\\in\\text{Isom}~X$ and $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{H}$ satisfy $g\\mathfrak{h}=\\mathfrak{h}^*$, Proposition~\\ref{all about halfspaces} implies that the halfspace $\\mathfrak{h}$ is an atom; part~3 follows easily. By Lemma~\\ref{halfspaces of X'}, the only nontrivial statement in part~1 is the completeness of $X'$.\n\nLet $\\sigma_n\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}'$ be ultrafilters corresponding to a Cauchy sequence in $X'$. The sets $\\underline{\\sigma}:=\\liminf\\sigma_n$ and $\\overline{\\sigma}:=\\limsup\\sigma_n$ lie in $\\mathscr{B}'$. Any two halfspaces in $\\underline{\\sigma}$ intersect, thus, by Zorn's Lemma, it is contained in an ultrafilter $\\sigma\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}'$ with $\\sigma\\subseteq\\overline{\\sigma}$. If we show that $\\nu'(\\overline{\\sigma}\\setminus\\underline{\\sigma})=0$, it follows that $\\sigma\\in\\mathscr{B}'$ and the points of $X'$ represented by $\\sigma_n$ converge to the point of $X'$ represented by $\\sigma$. Note that it suffices to show that a subsequence of $(\\sigma_n)_{n\\geq 0}$ converges; in particular, we can assume that $\\nu'(\\sigma_n\\triangle\\sigma_{n+1})\\leq\\frac{1}{2^n}$ for all $n\\geq 0$. In this case, $\\overline{\\sigma}\\setminus\\underline{\\sigma}=\\limsup\\left(\\sigma_n\\triangle\\sigma_{n+1}\\right)$ has measure zero by the Borel-Cantelli Lemma. \n\\end{proof}\n\nWe will refer to $X'$ as the \\emph{barycentric subdivision} of $X$. Indeed, if $X$ is the $0$-skeleton of a ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ cube complex, $X'$ is the $0$-skeleton of the usual barycentric subdivision. \n\nA variation on this construction allows us to embed median spaces into connected ones. We define a sequence $(X_n)_{n\\geq 0}$ by setting $X_0:=X$ and $X_{n+1}:=X_n'$. These come equipped with compatible isometric embeddings $X_m\\hookrightarrow X_n$, for $m<n$; thus, we can consider $\\varinjlim X_n$ and call $X''$ its completion. It is a complete median space by Proposition~2.21 in \\cite{CDH}.\n\nWe have projections $\\mathscr{H}(X_{n+1})\\rightarrow\\mathscr{H}(X_n)$ with fibres of cardinality one or two; setting, $\\mathscr{H}'':=\\varprojlim\\mathscr{H}(X_n)$ we still have a projection $p_{\\infty}\\colon\\mathscr{H}''\\rightarrow\\mathscr{H}$. It is one-to-one on $p_{\\infty}^{-1}(\\mathscr{H}\\setminus\\mathscr{A})$, while, if $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{A}$, the preimage $p_{\\infty}^{-1}(\\mathfrak{h})$ is canonically in one-to-one correspondence with $\\{-,+\\}^{\\mathbb{N}}$. Let $\\mathbb{P}$ the standard product probability measure on $\\{-,+\\}^{\\mathbb{N}}$, defined on the $\\sigma$-algebra $\\mathscr{P}$. For every $E\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}''$ with $p_{\\infty}(E)\\setminus\\mathscr{A}\\in\\widehat{\\mathscr{B}}$ and $E\\cap p_{\\infty}^{-1}(\\mathfrak{h})\\in\\mathscr{P}$ for all $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{A}$, we can set\n\\[\\nu''(E):=\\widehat{\\nu}\\left(p(E)\\setminus\\mathscr{A}\\right)+\\sum_{\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{A}}\\mathbb{P}\\left(E\\cap p_{\\infty}^{-1}(\\mathfrak{h})\\right).\\]\nThis defines a measure on a $\\sigma$-algebra $\\mathscr{B}''\\subseteq 2^{\\mathscr{H}''}$. Each point of $X_n$ is represented by a $\\mathscr{B}''$-measurable ultrafilter on $\\mathscr{H}''$ and the measure $\\nu''$ applied to symmetric differences of such ultrafilters recovers the metric of $X_n$.\n\nEvery point of $x\\in X''$ is represented by a $\\mathscr{B}''$-measurable ultrafilter on $\\mathscr{H}''$. Indeed, we can find points $x_k\\in X_k$ converging to $x$ and these are represented by $\\mathscr{B}''$-measurable ultrafilters $\\sigma_k\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}''$. The argument in the proof of part~1 of Proposition~\\ref{properties of X'} shows that $\\liminf\\sigma_k$ can be completed to a $\\mathscr{B}''$-measurable ultrafilter $\\sigma\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}''$ and $\\nu''(\\sigma\\triangle\\sigma_k)\\rightarrow 0$.\n\nRetracing our proofs of Lemmata~\\ref{cubes in X'} and~\\ref{halfspaces of X'}, it is not hard to show that $\\text{Hull}_{X''}(X)=X''$ and that, for every $x\\in X''$, there exists a monomorphism $\\iota_x^{\\infty}\\colon [-1,1]^k\\hookrightarrow X''$, $1\\leq k\\leq\\text{rank}(X)$, with gate-convex image satisfying $\\iota_x^{\\infty}(0,...,0)=x$ and $(\\iota_x^{\\infty})^{-1}(X)=\\{-1,1\\}^k$. One can also identify all halfspaces of $X''$: they correspond either to elements of $\\mathscr{H}\\setminus\\mathscr{A}$ or to pairs consisting of an element of $\\mathscr{A}$ and an element of $\\mathscr{H}([-1,1])$. In particular, $\\text{rank}(X'')=\\text{rank}(X)$. Since $(\\mathscr{H}(X''),\\nu'')$ has no atoms, we have obtained:\n\n\\begin{cor}\\label{X''}\nThere exists a connected, complete median space $X''$ of the same rank as $X$ such that $X\\hookrightarrow X''$ isometrically and every isometry of $X$ extends canonically to an isometry of $X''$, yielding $\\text{Isom}~X\\hookrightarrow\\text{Isom}~X''$.\n\\end{cor}\n\n\\begin{cor}\\label{finite orbits}\nLet $\\Gamma$ be a group of isometries of $X$ and $r:=\\text{rank}(X)$. The action $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ has bounded orbits if and only if it has an orbit of cardinality at most $2^r$.\n\\end{cor}\n\\begin{proof}\nif $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ has bounded orbits, so does the action $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X''$ arising from Corollary~\\ref{X''}. Theorem~\\ref{CAT(0) metric} and Cartan's Theorem imply that $\\Gamma$ fixes a point $x\\in X''$. We showed above that $x$ is the centre of a canonical cube with vertices in $X$; these vertices are at most $2^r$ and provide a finite orbit for $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\n\\section{Groups of elliptic isometries.}\\label{elliptic isometries}\n\nLet $X$ be a complete median space of finite rank $r$. This section is devoted to the following result; in the case of ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ cube complexes, this is well-known and due to M.~Sageev (see Theorem~5.1 in \\cite{Sageev}). \n\n\\begin{thm}\\label{Sageev's theorem}\nLet $\\Gamma$ be a finitely generated group of elliptic isometries of $X$. There exists a finite orbit for $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ and, if $X$ is connected, a global fixed point.\n\\end{thm}\n\nWe start with the following observation, compare the proof of Theorem~5.1 in \\cite{Sageev}.\n\n\\begin{prop}\\label{key point in Sageev}\nIf $\\Gamma$ is finitely generated and acts with unbounded orbits on $X$, there exist $g\\in \\Gamma$ and $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{H}$ such that $g\\mathfrak{h}\\subsetneq\\mathfrak{h}$.\n\\end{prop}\n\\begin{proof}\nLet $S=\\{s_1,...,s_k\\}$ be a generating set for $\\Gamma$. Choose a basepoint $x\\in X$ and some $g\\in \\Gamma$ with \n\\[d(x,gx)>r\\cdot\\sum_{i=1}^kd(x,s_ix).\\] \nWe write $g=s_{i_1}...s_{i_n}$ and set $g_j:=s_{i_1}...s_{i_j}$ and $x_j:=g_jx$. We define inductively the points $y_j$, starting with $y_0=x_0=x$ and declaring $y_{j+1}$ to be the projection of $x_{j+1}$ to $I(y_j,gx)$. In particular $(y_j)_{0\\leq j\\leq n}$ is a geodesic from $x$ to $gx$ and $\\mathscr{H}(y_j|y_{j+1})\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}(x_j|x_{j+1})=g_j\\mathscr{H}(x|s_{i_{j+1}}x)$. The sets $U_j:=g_j^{-1}\\mathscr{H}(y_j|y_{j+1})$ all lie in $\\bigcup_i\\mathscr{H}(x|s_ix)$ and, since\n\\[\\sum_{j=0}^{n-1}\\widehat{\\nu}(U_j)=\\sum_{j=0}^{n-1}d(y_j,y_{j+1})=d(x,gx)>r\\cdot\\widehat{\\nu}\\left(\\bigcup_{i=1}^k\\mathscr{H}(x|s_ix)\\right),\\]\nthere exist $\\tau\\in\\{1,...,k\\}$ and a measurable subset $\\Omega\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}(x|s_{\\tau}x)$ such that $\\widehat{\\nu}(\\Omega)>0$ and $\\Omega\\subseteq U_j$ for $r+1$ indices $j_1<j_2<...<j_{r+1}$. Denote by $h_1,...,h_{r+1}$ the corresponding elements of $\\Gamma$ such that $h_i\\Omega\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}(y_{j_i}|y_{j_i+1})$.\n\nPick any $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\Omega$; the halfspaces $h_1\\mathfrak{h},...,h_{r+1}\\mathfrak{h}$ are pairwise distinct, as $(y_j)_{0\\leq j\\leq n}$ is a geodesic. Moreover, they all lie in $\\sigma_{gx}\\setminus\\sigma_x$ and cannot be pairwise transverse. Hence, there exist $1\\leq i<j\\leq r+1$ such that either $h_i\\mathfrak{h}\\subsetneq h_j\\mathfrak{h}$ or $h_j\\mathfrak{h}\\subsetneq h_i\\mathfrak{h}$. We conclude by setting $g:=h_j^{-1}h_i$ or ${g:=h_i^{-1}h_j}$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\begin{lem}\\label{nesting vs fixed points}\nIf $g\\in\\text{Isom}~X$ and $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{H}$ satisfy $g\\mathfrak{h}\\subsetneq\\mathfrak{h}$, then $g$ is not elliptic.\n\\end{lem}\n\\begin{proof}\nBy Proposition~\\ref{all about halfspaces}, we have $d(g^r\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{h}^*)>0$. If $x\\in g\\mathfrak{h}^*\\cap\\mathfrak{h}$, we have for $n\\geq 1$, \n\\[\\bigcup_{k=1}^{n-1}\\mathscr{H}(g^{kr}\\mathfrak{h}^*|g^{(k+1)r}\\mathfrak{h})\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}(x|g^{nr}x),\\]\nthus $d(x,g^{nr}x)\\geq (n-1)D$. Hence, the $\\langle g\\rangle$-orbit of $x$ is unbounded.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\begin{proof}[Proof of Theorem~\\ref{Sageev's theorem}]\nThe action $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ has bounded orbits or Proposition~\\ref{key point in Sageev} and Lemma~\\ref{nesting vs fixed points} would provide a non-elliptic isometry in $\\Gamma$. The conclusion follows from Corollary~\\ref{finite orbits}.\n\\end{proof}\n\nIn ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ cube complexes, Proposition~\\ref{key point in Sageev} above implies that the stabiliser $\\Gamma_{\\mathfrak{h}}$ of $\\mathfrak{h}$ is a codimension one subgroup of $\\Gamma$. This fails in general for actions on median spaces. \n\nFor instance, surface groups have free actions on real trees \\cite{Morgan-Shalen}; in these, all halfspace-stabilisers are trivial. One can still conclude that $\\Gamma_{\\mathfrak{h}}$ is codimension one as in \\cite{Sageev} if, in addition, for every $x,y\\in X$ we have $g\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{H}(x|y)$ only for finitely many left cosets $g\\Gamma_{\\mathfrak{h}}$.\n\n\n\n\\section{Stabilisers of points in the Roller boundary.}\\label{stab xi}\n\nLet $X$ be a complete median space of finite rank $r$. Let $\\xi\\in\\partial X$ be a point in the Roller boundary; we denote by $\\text{Isom}_{\\xi}X$ the subgroup of $\\text{Isom}~X$ fixing the point $\\xi$. The main result of this section will be the following analogue of a result of P.-E.~Caprace (see the appendix to \\cite{CFI}).\n\n\\begin{thm}\\label{stabiliser of xi}\nThe group $\\text{Isom}_{\\xi}X$ contains a subgroup $K_{\\xi}$ of index at most $r!$ that fits in an exact sequence\n\\[1\\longrightarrow N_{\\xi}\\longrightarrow K_{\\xi} \\longrightarrow\\mathbb{R}^r.\\]\nEvery finitely generated subgroup of $N_{\\xi}$ has an orbit with at most $2^r$ elements.\n\\end{thm}\n\nIn order to prove this, we will have to extend to median spaces part of the machinery developed in \\cite{Hagen}.\n\n\\begin{defn}\\label{UBS}\nGiven $\\xi\\in\\partial X$, a \\emph{chain of halfspaces diverging to $\\xi$} is a sequence $(\\mathfrak{h}_n)_{n\\geq 0}$ of halfspaces of $X$ with $\\mathfrak{h}_n\\supsetneq\\mathfrak{h}_{n+1}$ and $\\xi\\in\\widetilde{\\mathfrak{h}}_n$ for all $n\\geq 0$ and such that $d(x,\\mathfrak{h}_n)\\rightarrow +\\infty$ for $x\\in X$. A \\emph{UBS} for $\\xi\\in\\partial X$ and $x\\in X$ is an inseparable subset $\\Omega\\subseteq\\sigma_{\\xi}\\setminus\\sigma_x$ that contains a chain of halfspaces diverging to $\\xi$.\n\\end{defn}\n\nThis is an analogue of Definition~3.4 in \\cite{Hagen}, except that we consider sets of halfspaces instead of sets of walls. For cube complexes, our definition is a bit more restrictive than Hagen's, since we assume by default that $\\Omega$ lie in some $\\sigma_{\\xi}\\setminus\\sigma_x$. This is enough for our purposes and avoids annoying technicalities.\n\nWe denote by $\\mathcal{U}(\\xi,x)$ the set of all UBS's for $\\xi$ and $x$ and we define a relation $\\preceq$:\n\\begin{align*}\n\\Omega_1\\preceq\\Omega_2 & \\xLeftrightarrow{\\text{def}^{\\underline{\\text{n}}}}  \\sup_{\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\Omega_1\\setminus\\Omega_2} d(x,\\mathfrak{h})<+\\infty,\n\\end{align*}\nwhich we read as ``$\\Omega_1$ is \\emph{almost contained} in $\\Omega_2$''. If $\\Omega_1\\preceq\\Omega_2$ and $\\Omega_2\\preceq\\Omega_1$, we write $\\Omega_1\\sim\\Omega_2$ and say that $\\Omega_1$ and $\\Omega_2$ are \\emph{equivalent}. The relation $\\preceq$ descends to a partial order, also denoted $\\preceq$, on the set $\\overline{\\mathcal{U}}(\\xi,x)$ of $\\sim$-e\\-quiv\\-a\\-lence classes. We denote the equivalence class associated to the UBS $\\Omega$ by $[\\Omega]$. A UBS is said to be \\emph{minimal} if it projects to a minimal element of $\\overline{\\mathcal{U}}(\\xi,x)$. Two UBS's are \\emph{almost disjoint} if their intersection is not a UBS.\n\nWe will generally forget about the basepoint $x$ and simply write $\\left(\\overline{\\mathcal{U}}(\\xi),\\preceq\\right)$; indeed, if $x,y\\in X$, we have a canonical isomorphism $\\overline{\\mathcal{U}}(\\xi,x)\\simeq\\overline{\\mathcal{U}}(\\xi,y)$ given by intersecting UBS's with $\\sigma_{\\xi}\\setminus\\sigma_x$ or $\\sigma_{\\xi}\\setminus\\sigma_y$. \n\n\\begin{lem}\\label{almost disjoint} \nLet $\\Omega_1,\\Omega_2\\subseteq\\sigma_{\\xi}\\setminus\\sigma_x$ be UBS's. \n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item If $\\Omega_1\\preceq\\Omega_2$, we have $\\widehat{\\nu}(\\Omega_1\\setminus\\Omega_2)<+\\infty$. In particular, if $\\Omega_1$ and $\\Omega_2$ are equivalent, we have $\\widehat{\\nu}\\left(\\Omega_1\\triangle\\Omega_2\\right)<+\\infty$.\n\\item The UBS's $\\Omega_1,\\Omega_2$ are almost disjoint if and only if $\\Omega_1\\cap\\Omega_2$ consists of halfspaces at uniformly bounded distance from $x$.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{lem}\n\\begin{proof}\nBy Dilworth's Theorem \\cite{Dilworth}, we can decompose $\\Omega_1\\setminus\\Omega_2$ as a disjoint union $\\mathcal{C}_1\\sqcup ...\\sqcup\\mathcal{C}_k$, where each $\\mathcal{C}_i$ is totally ordered by inclusion and $k\\leq r$. If $\\Omega_1\\preceq\\Omega_2$, Lemma~\\ref{intersections of halfspaces} implies that the intersection and union of all halfspaces in $\\mathcal{C}_i$ are halfspaces $\\mathfrak{h}_i$ and $\\mathfrak{k}_i$, respectively. Thus, $\\Omega_1\\setminus\\Omega_2$ is contained in the union of the sets $\\mathscr{H}(\\mathfrak{k}_i^*|\\mathfrak{h}_i)$, which all have finite measure. \n\nSince $\\Omega_1\\cap\\Omega_2$ is inseparable, $\\Omega_1$ and $\\Omega_2$ are almost disjoint if and only if $\\Omega_1\\cap\\Omega_2$ does not contain a chain of halfspaces diverging to $\\xi$. By Lemma~\\ref{Ramsey}, this is equivalent to $\\Omega_1\\cap\\Omega_2$ being at uniformly bounded distance from $x$.\n\\end{proof}\n\nPart~1 of Lemma~\\ref{almost disjoint} is in general not an ``if and only if'' since UBS's can have finite measure. An example appears in the staircase in Figure~3 of \\cite{Fioravanti1}, where the UBS is given by the set of vertical halfspaces containing the bottom of the staircase.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[height=2.5in]{img3.png}\n\\caption{}\n\\label{CSC with a flap}\n\\end{figure}\nThe inseparable closure of a chain of halfspaces diverging to $\\xi$ is always a UBS and every minimal UBS is equivalent to a UBS of this form. However, not all UBS's of this form are minimal. For instance, consider the ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ square complex in Figure~\\ref{CSC with a flap}, which is a variation of the usual staircase with a one-dimensional flap. The inseparable closure of $\\{\\mathfrak{h}_n\\}_{n\\geq 0}$ is not a minimal UBS, since it also contains all $\\mathfrak{k}_n$, while the inseparable closures of $\\{\\mathfrak{h}_n\\}_{n\\geq 1}$ and $\\{\\mathfrak{k}_n\\}_{n\\geq 1}$ are minimal.\n\n\\begin{lem}\\label{symmetric almost-transversality}\nLet $(\\mathfrak{h}_m)_{m\\geq 0}$ and $(\\mathfrak{k}_n)_{n\\geq 0}$ be chains of halfspaces in $\\sigma_{\\xi}\\setminus\\sigma_x$ that diverge to $\\xi$. Suppose that no $\\mathfrak{h}_m$ lies in the inseparable closure of $\\{\\mathfrak{k}_n\\}_{n\\geq 0}$. Either almost every $\\mathfrak{k}_n$ is transverse to almost every $\\mathfrak{h}_m$, or almost every $\\mathfrak{h}_m$ is transverse to almost every $\\mathfrak{k}_n$.\n\\end{lem}\n\\begin{proof} \nWe first suppose that there exist $\\overline n,\\overline m\\geq 0$ such that $\\mathfrak{h}_{\\overline m}\\subseteq\\mathfrak{k}_{\\overline n}$; without loss of generality, $\\overline m=\\overline n=0$. An inclusion of the type $\\mathfrak{k}_n\\subseteq\\mathfrak{h}_m$ can never happen, or we would have $\\mathfrak{k}_n\\subseteq\\mathfrak{h}_m\\subseteq\\mathfrak{h}_0\\subseteq\\mathfrak{k}_0$ and $\\mathfrak{h}_0$ would lie in the inseparable closure of $\\{\\mathfrak{k}_n\\}_{n\\geq 0}$. Since the sequence $(\\mathfrak{k}_n)_{n\\geq 0}$ diverges, for every $m$ there exists $n(m)$ such that $\\mathfrak{k}_n$ does not contain $\\mathfrak{h}_m$ for $n\\geq n(m)$; thus, for $n\\geq n(m)$, the halfspaces $\\mathfrak{k}_n$ and $\\mathfrak{h}_m$ are transverse. \n\nNow suppose instead that an inclusion of the form $\\mathfrak{h}_m\\subseteq\\mathfrak{k}_n$ never happens. For every $n$, there exists $m(n)$ such that $\\mathfrak{k}_n$ is not contained in $\\mathfrak{h}_m$ for ${m\\geq m(n)}$; thus, for $m\\geq m(n)$, the halfspaces $\\mathfrak{k}_n$ and $\\mathfrak{h}_m$ are transverse.\n\\end{proof}\n\nFollowing \\cite{corrigendum}, we construct a directed graph $\\mathcal{G}(\\xi)$ as follows. Vertices of $\\mathcal{G}(\\xi)$ correspond to minimal elements of $\\left(\\overline{\\mathcal{U}}(\\xi),\\preceq\\right)$. Given diverging chains $(\\mathfrak{h}_m)_{m\\geq 0}$ and $(\\mathfrak{k}_n)_{n\\geq 0}$ in minimal UBS's $\\Omega$ and $\\Omega'$, respectively, we draw an oriented edge from $[\\Omega]$ to $[\\Omega']$ if almost every $\\mathfrak{h}_m$ is transverse to almost every $\\mathfrak{k}_n$, but the same does not happen if we exchange $(\\mathfrak{h}_m)_{m\\geq 0}$ and $(\\mathfrak{k}_n)_{n\\geq 0}$. This does not depend on which diverging chains we pick, as $\\Omega$, $\\Omega'$ are minimal.\n\nBy Lemma~\\ref{symmetric almost-transversality}, the vertices corresponding to $\\Omega$ and $\\Omega'$ are not joined by any edge if and only if almost every $\\mathfrak{h}_m$ is transverse to almost every $\\mathfrak{k}_n$ and almost every $\\mathfrak{k}_n$ is transverse to almost every $\\mathfrak{h}_m$. It is clear that there are no directed cycles of length $2$ in $\\mathcal{G}(\\xi)$.\n\n\\begin{lem}\\label{no directed cycles}\nIf there is a directed path from $[\\Omega]$ to $[\\Xi]$, there is an oriented edge from $[\\Omega]$ to $[\\Xi]$. In particular, $\\mathcal{G}(\\xi)$ contains no directed cycles.\n\\end{lem}\n\\begin{proof}\nIt suffices to prove that, if there is an edge from $[\\Omega]$ to $[\\Omega']$ and from $[\\Omega']$ to $[\\Omega'']$, there is also an edge from $[\\Omega]$ to $[\\Omega'']$. Pick diverging chains $(\\mathfrak{h}_n)_{n\\geq 0}$, $(\\mathfrak{h}'_n)_{n\\geq 0}$, $(\\mathfrak{h}''_n)_{n\\geq 0}$ in $\\Omega$, $\\Omega'$, $\\Omega''$, respectively. By hypothesis, there are infinitely many $\\mathfrak{h}_k''$ that are not transverse to almost every $\\mathfrak{h}'_j$; thus, for every $k$ there exists $j$ such that $\\mathfrak{h}''_k\\supseteq\\mathfrak{h}'_j$. A similar argument works for $\\Omega$ and $\\Omega'$; hence, for every $k$ there exist $i,j$ such that $\\mathfrak{h}''_k\\supseteq\\mathfrak{h}'_j\\supseteq\\mathfrak{h}_i$. If no oriented edge from $[\\Omega]$ to $[\\Omega'']$ existed, almost every $\\mathfrak{h}''_k$ would be transverse to almost every $\\mathfrak{h}_i$ and this would contradict the previous statement.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\begin{rmk}\\label{graph for any chains}\nA graph like $\\mathcal{G}(\\xi)$ above can be constructed whenever we have a family of diverging chains $(\\mathfrak{h}_n^i)_{n\\geq 0}$, $i\\in I$, with the property that, if $i\\neq j$, either no $\\mathfrak{h}_m^i$ lies in the inseparable closure of $\\{\\mathfrak{h}_n^j\\}_{n\\geq 0}$ or vice versa. Lemma~\\ref{no directed cycles} and part~1 of Proposition~\\ref{main prop on UBS's} below still hold in this context.\n\\end{rmk}\n\nWe say that a collection of vertices $\\mathcal{V}\\subseteq\\mathcal{G}(\\xi)^{(0)}$ is \\emph{inseparable} if, for every $v,w\\in\\mathcal{V}$, all the vertices on the directed paths from $v$ to $w$ also lie in $\\mathcal{V}$. The following extends Lemma~3.7 and Theorem~3.10 in \\cite{Hagen}.\n\n\\begin{prop}\\label{main prop on UBS's}\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item The graph $\\mathcal{G}(\\xi)$ has at most $r$ vertices.\n\\item For every UBS $\\Omega$ there exists a minimal UBS $\\Omega'\\preceq\\Omega$. If $\\Omega$ is the inseparable closure of a diverging chain $(\\mathfrak{h}_n)_{n\\geq 0}$, we can take $\\Omega'$ to be the inseparable closure of $(\\mathfrak{h}_n)_{n\\geq N}$, for some $N\\geq 0$.\n\\item Given a UBS $\\Omega$ and a set $\\{\\Omega_1,...,\\Omega_k\\}$ of representatives of all equivalence classes of minimal UBS's almost contained in $\\Omega$, we have\n\\[\\sup_{\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\Omega\\triangle\\left(\\Omega_1\\cup ... \\cup\\Omega_k\\right)} d(x,\\mathfrak{h})<+\\infty.\\]\n\\item There is an isomorphism of posets between $\\left(\\overline{\\mathcal{U}}(\\xi),\\preceq\\right)$ and the collection of inseparable subsets of $\\mathcal{G}(\\xi)^{(0)}$, ordered by inclusion. It is given by associating to $[\\Omega]$ the set $\\{[\\Omega_1],...,[\\Omega_k]\\}$ of minimal equivalence classes of UBS's almost contained in $\\Omega$.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{prop}\n\\begin{proof}\nTo prove part~1, we show that every finite subset $\\mathcal{V}\\subseteq\\mathcal{G}(\\xi)^{(0)}$ satisfies ${\\#\\mathcal{V}\\leq r}$; more precisely, we prove by induction on $k$ that, if $\\Omega_1,...,\\Omega_k$ are UBS's representing the elements of $\\mathcal{V}$, we can find pairwise-transverse halfspaces $\\mathfrak{h}_i\\in\\Omega_i$. The case $k=1$ is trivial; suppose $k\\geq 2$. By Lemma~\\ref{no directed cycles} we can assume, up to reordering the $\\Omega_i$, that there is no edge from $[\\Omega_i]$, $i\\leq k-1$, to $[\\Omega_k]$. There exist $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\Omega_k$ and diverging chains $\\{\\mathfrak{k}_n^i\\}_{n\\geq 0}\\subseteq\\Omega_i$, $i\\leq k-1$, that are transverse to $\\mathfrak{h}$; in particular, $\\mathfrak{h}$ is transverse to every element in the inseparable closure of $\\{\\mathfrak{k}_n^i\\}_{n\\geq 0}$, for $i\\leq k-1$. By the inductive hypothesis, we can find $\\mathfrak{h}_i$ in the inseparable closure of $\\{\\mathfrak{k}_n^i\\}_{n\\geq 0}$ so that $\\mathfrak{h}_1,...,\\mathfrak{h}_{k-1}$ are pairwise transverse. Hence $\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{h}_1,...,\\mathfrak{h}_{k-1}$ are pairwise transverse.\n\nIf $\\Omega_1\\prec...\\prec\\Omega_k$ is a chain of non-equivalent UBS's, we have $k\\leq r$. Indeed, we can consider diverging chains in $\\Omega_1$ and in $\\Omega_i\\setminus\\Omega_{i-1}$ for $2\\leq i\\leq k$, which exist by Lemma~\\ref{Ramsey}, and appeal to Remark~\\ref{graph for any chains}. This implies the existence of minimal UBS's almost contained in any UBS. It also shows that, for every diverging chain $(\\mathfrak{h}_n)_{n\\geq 0}$, there exists $N\\geq 0$ such that the inseparable closures $\\Omega_M$ of $(\\mathfrak{h}_n)_{n\\geq M}$ are all equivalent for $M\\geq N$. In particular, every diverging chain in $\\Omega_N$ has a cofinite subchain that is contained in $\\Omega_M$, if ${M\\geq N}$. By Lemma~\\ref{symmetric almost-transversality}, the UBS $\\Omega_N$ is equivalent to the inseparable closure of any diverging chain it contains, i.e.~$\\Omega_N$ is minimal. This proves part~2.\n\nRegarding part~3, it is clear that the supremum over $\\left(\\Omega_1\\cup ... \\cup\\Omega_k\\right)\\setminus\\Omega$ is finite. If the supremum over $\\Omega\\setminus\\left(\\Omega_1\\cup ... \\cup\\Omega_k\\right)$ were infinite, Lemma~\\ref{Ramsey} and part~2 would provide a diverging chain in $\\Omega\\setminus\\left(\\Omega_1\\cup ... \\cup\\Omega_k\\right)$ whose inseparable closure $\\Omega'$ is a minimal UBS. Thus $\\Omega'\\preceq\\Omega$, but $\\Omega'\\not\\sim\\Omega_i$ for all $i$, a contradiction.\n\nFinally, we prove part~4. The map $[\\Omega]\\mapsto\\{[\\Omega_1],...,[\\Omega_k]\\}$ is an injective morphism of posets by part~3. The collection $\\{[\\Omega_1],...,[\\Omega_k]\\}$ is inseparable since the inseparable closure of $(\\Omega_i\\cap\\Omega)\\cup(\\Omega_j\\cap\\Omega)$ contains all minimal UBS's corresponding to vertices on directed paths from $[\\Omega_i]$ to $[\\Omega_j]$ and vice versa; this follows for instance from the proof of Lemma~\\ref{no directed cycles}.\n\nGiven an inseparable collection $\\{[\\Omega_1],...,[\\Omega_k]\\}$, we construct a UBS $\\Omega$ such that these are precisely the equivalence classes of minimal UBS's almost contained in $\\Omega$. Let $(\\mathfrak{h}_n^i)_{n\\geq 0}$ be a diverging chain in $\\Omega_i$, for every $i$, and denote by $\\Omega^N$ the inseparable closure of ${\\{\\mathfrak{h}_n^1\\}_{n\\geq N}\\cup...\\cup\\{\\mathfrak{h}_n^k\\}_{n\\geq N}}$. If $N$ is large enough, every minimal UBS almost contained in $\\Omega^N$ is equivalent to one of the $\\Omega_i$. Otherwise, by part~1, we would be able to find a diverging chain $\\{\\mathfrak{h}_n\\}_{n\\geq 0}$ such that its inseparable closure $\\Xi$ is not equivalent to any of the $\\Omega_i$ and $\\mathfrak{h}_{a_n}^j\\subseteq\\mathfrak{h}_n\\subseteq\\mathfrak{h}_{b_n}^k$, for some $j,k$, with $b_n\\rightarrow+\\infty$. \nThis implies that $\\Xi$ lies on a directed path from $[\\Omega_j]$ to $[\\Omega_k]$ and contradicts inseparability of the collection $\\{[\\Omega_1],...,[\\Omega_k]\\}$.\n\\end{proof}\n\nLet $\\Omega\\subseteq\\sigma_{\\xi}\\setminus\\sigma_x$ be a UBS and let $K_{\\Omega}\\leq\\text{Isom}_{\\xi}X$ be the subgroup of isometries that preserve the equivalence class $[\\Omega]$. We can construct a homomorphism analogous to the one in Proposition~4.H.1 in \\cite{Cor}:\n\\begin{align*}\n\\chi_{\\Omega}\\colon K_{\\Omega} \\longrightarrow & \\mathbb{R} \\nonumber \\\\\ng\\longmapsto & \\widehat{\\nu}\\left(g^{-1}\\Omega\\setminus\\Omega\\right)- \\widehat{\\nu}\\left(\\Omega\\setminus g^{-1}\\Omega \\right) .\n\\end{align*}\nWe will refer to $\\chi_{\\Omega}$ as the \\emph{transfer character} associated to $\\Omega$. We remark that the definition makes sense due to part~1 of Lemma~\\ref{almost disjoint}. The arguments in \\cite{Cor}, show that $\\chi_{\\Omega}$ does not change if we replace $\\Omega$ with a measurable set $\\Omega'\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}$ such that $\\widehat{\\nu}\\left(\\Omega\\triangle\\Omega'\\right)<+\\infty$. Thus transfer characters only depend on the equivalence class of the UBS $\\Omega$. Moreover, if $\\{\\Omega_1,...,\\Omega_k\\}$ is a set of representatives of all equivalence classes of minimal UBS's almost contained in $\\Omega$, we have $\\chi_{\\Omega}=\\chi_{\\Omega_1}+...+\\chi_{\\Omega_k}$ by part~3 of Proposition~\\ref{main prop on UBS's}.\n\nNow, let $\\Omega_1,...,\\Omega_k$ be UBS's representing all minimal elements of $\\overline{\\mathcal{U}}(\\xi)$. The group $\\text{Isom}_{\\xi}X$ permutes the equivalence classes of the $\\Omega_i$ and a subgroup $K_{\\xi}\\leq\\text{Isom}_{\\xi}X$ of index at most $k!\\leq r!$ preserves them all. Note that, by part~4 of Proposition~\\ref{main prop on UBS's}, this is precisely the kernel of the action of $\\text{Isom}_{\\xi}X$ on $\\overline{\\mathcal{U}}(\\xi)$. We define a homomorphism $\\chi_{\\xi}:=(\\chi_{\\Omega_1},...,\\chi_{\\Omega_k})\\colon K_{\\xi}\\rightarrow \\mathbb{R}^k$.\n\n\\begin{prop}\\label{kernel of chi}\nEvery finitely generated subgroup $\\Gamma\\leq\\ker\\chi_{\\xi}$ has an orbit in $X$ with at most $2^r$ elements.\n\\end{prop}\n\\begin{proof}\nIf $\\Gamma$ did not have an orbit with at most $2^r$ elements, all orbits would be unbounded by Corollary~\\ref{finite orbits} and Proposition~\\ref{key point in Sageev} would provide ${\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{H}}$ and $g\\in\\Gamma$ with $g\\mathfrak{h}\\subsetneq\\mathfrak{h}$; hence ${d(g^r\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{h}^*)>0}$ by Proposition~\\ref{all about halfspaces}. If $\\xi\\in\\widetilde{\\mathfrak{h}}^*$, we replace $\\mathfrak{h}$ with $\\mathfrak{h}^*$ and $g$ with $g^{-1}$. Now $(g^{nr}\\mathfrak{h})_{n\\geq 0}$ is a sequence of halfspaces diverging to $\\xi$ and, by part~2 of Proposition~\\ref{main prop on UBS's}, the inseparable closure $\\Omega^N$ of $\\{g^{nr}\\mathfrak{h}\\}_{n\\geq N}$ is a minimal UBS if $N$ is large enough. Thus, $\\Omega^N\\sim\\Omega_i$ for some $i$ and we have ${0=\\chi_{\\Omega_i}(g)=\\chi_{\\Omega^N}(g)}$. We obtain a contradiction by observing that\n\\[r\\cdot\\chi_{\\Omega^N}(g)=\\chi_{\\Omega^N}(g^r)\\geq\\widehat{\\nu}\\left(\\mathscr{H}(\\mathfrak{h}^*|g^r\\mathfrak{h})\\setminus\\{g^r\\mathfrak{h}\\}\\right)> 0.\\]\n\\end{proof}\n\nTheorem~\\ref{stabiliser of xi} immediately follows from Proposition~\\ref{kernel of chi}. \n\n\n\n\\section{Caprace-Sageev machinery.}\\label{CS-like machinery}\n\nLet $X$ be a complete median space of finite rank $r$. The goal of this section is extending to median spaces Theorem~4.1 and Proposition~5.1 from \\cite{CS}. \n\nOur techniques provide a different approach also in the case of ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ cube complexes, as we use Roller boundaries instead of visual boundaries. This strategy of proof was suggested to us by T. Fern\\'os.\n\nLet $\\Gamma$ be a group of isometries of $X$. We say that $g\\in \\Gamma$ \\emph{flips} $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{H}$ if ${d\\left(g\\mathfrak{h}^*,\\mathfrak{h}^*\\right)>0}$ and $g\\mathfrak{h}^*\\neq\\mathfrak{h}$. The halfspace $\\mathfrak{h}$ is \\emph{$\\Gamma$-flippable} if some $g\\in \\Gamma$ flips it.\n\n\\begin{thm}\\label{flipping}\nSuppose $\\Gamma$ acts without wall inversions. For every thick halfspace, exactly one of the following happens:\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item $\\mathfrak{h}$ is $\\Gamma$-flippable;\n\\item the closure of $\\widetilde{\\mathfrak{h}}^*$ in $\\overline X$ contains a proper, closed, convex, $\\Gamma$-invariant subset $C\\subseteq\\overline X$.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{thm}\n\\begin{proof}\nIf $\\mathfrak{h}$ is $\\Gamma$-flippable, $\\overline{\\mathfrak{h}^*}$ and $g\\overline{\\mathfrak{h}^*}$ are disjoint subsets of $X$; let $(x,x')$ be a pair of gates and $I:=I(x,x')$. Observe that $\\pi_I$ maps the closure of $\\widetilde{\\mathfrak{h}}^*$ to $x$ and the closure of $g\\widetilde{\\mathfrak{h}}^*$ to $x'$; hence, any wall of $X$ separating $x$ and $x'$ induces a wall of $\\overline X$ separating the closures of $\\widetilde{\\mathfrak{h}}^*$ and $g\\widetilde{\\mathfrak{h}}^*$. Thus, options 1 and 2 are mutually exclusive. If 1 does not hold, we have $g\\overline{\\mathfrak{h}^*}\\cap\\overline{\\mathfrak{h}^*}\\neq\\emptyset$ for every $g\\in\\Gamma$, since the action has no wall inversions. Helly's Theorem implies that the closures of the sets $g\\widetilde{\\mathfrak{h}}^*$, $g\\in\\Gamma$, have the finite intersection property and, since $\\overline X$ is compact, their intersection $C$ is nonempty. It is closed, convex and $\\Gamma$-invariant; since $\\mathfrak{h}$ is thick, we have $C\\neq\\overline X$. \n\\end{proof}\n\nThe thickness assumption in Theorem~\\ref{flipping} is necessary. Consider the real tree obtained from the ray $[0,+\\infty)$ by attaching a real line $\\ell_n$ to the point $\\frac{1}{n}$ for every $n\\geq 1$. Complete this to a real tree $T$ so that there exist isometries $g_n$ with axes $\\ell_n$; let $\\Gamma$ be the group generated by these. The minimal subtree for $\\Gamma$ contains all the lines $\\ell_n$; let $X$ be its closure in $T$. The action $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ does not preserve any proper, closed, convex subset of $\\overline X$, but the singleton $\\{0\\}$ inside the original ray is a halfspace that is not flipped by $\\Gamma$.\n\nWe remark that any action on a connected median space is automatically without wall inversions by Proposition~\\ref{all about halfspaces}. When $X$ is connected, we denote by $\\partial_{\\infty}X$ the visual boundary of the ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ space arising from Theorem~\\ref{CAT(0) metric}. If no proper, closed, convex subset of $X$ is $\\Gamma$-invariant, the following describes the only obstruction to flippability of halfspaces.\n\n\\begin{prop}\\label{visual boundary vs Roller boundary}\nIf $X$ is connected, there exists a closed, convex, $\\Gamma$-invariant subset $C\\subseteq\\partial X$ if and only if $\\Gamma$ fixes a point of $\\partial_{\\infty}X$.\n\\end{prop}\n\\begin{proof}\nSuppose $C\\subseteq\\partial X$ is closed, convex and $\\Gamma$-invariant; Lemma~2.6 in \\cite{Fioravanti1} implies that $C$ is gate-convex, hence the set $\\sigma_C:=\\{\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{H}\\mid C\\subseteq\\widetilde{\\mathfrak{h}}\\}$ is nonempty as it contains all halfspaces separating $x\\in X$ and $\\pi_C(x)$. By Theorem~\\ref{flipping}, any $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\sigma_C^*$ is not $\\Gamma$-flippable; thus $\\{g\\overline{\\mathfrak{h}}\\mid\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\sigma_C,~g\\in\\Gamma\\}$ is a collection of subsets of $X$ with the finite intersection property. These subsets are convex also with respect to the ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ metric and their intersection is empty. The topological dimension of every compact subset of $X$ is bounded above by the rank of $X$, see Lemma~2.10 in \\cite{Fioravanti1} and Theorem~2.2, Lemma~7.6 in \\cite{Bow1}; thus, the geometric and telescopic dimensions (see \\cite{CL}) of the ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ metric are at most $r$. The existence of a fixed point in $\\partial_{\\infty}X$ now follows from Proposition~3.6 in \\cite{CS}.\n\nConversely, suppose $\\zeta\\in\\partial_{\\infty}X$ is fixed by $\\Gamma$. The intersection of a halfspace of $X$ and a ray for the ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ metric is either empty or a subray. Hence, given $x\\in X$, the subset $\\sigma(x,\\zeta)\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}$ of halfspaces intersecting the ray $x\\zeta$ in a subray is an ultrafilter; it represents a point $\\xi(x,\\zeta)\\in\\overline X$. If $y\\in X$ is another point and $x_n,y_n$ are points diverging along the rays $x\\zeta$ and $y\\zeta$, we have $\\sigma(x,\\zeta)\\triangle\\sigma(y,\\zeta)\\subseteq\\liminf\\left(\\mathscr{H}(x_n|y_n)\\cup\\mathscr{H}(y_n|x_n)\\right)$. For every $n$, the points $x_n$ and $y_n$ are at most as far apart as $x$ and $y$ in the ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ metric; since the latter is bi-Lipschitz equivalent to the median metric on $X$, we conclude that $\\widehat{\\nu}\\left(\\sigma(x,\\zeta)\\triangle\\sigma(y,\\zeta)\\right)<+\\infty$. Thus, $\\xi(x,\\zeta)$ and $\\xi(y,\\zeta)$ lie in the same component $Z\\subseteq\\overline X$, which is $\\Gamma$-invariant. Moreover, $\\xi(x,\\zeta)\\not\\in X$ as $\\mathscr{H}(x|z)\\subseteq\\sigma(x,\\zeta)$ for every $z$ on the ray $x\\zeta$; hence $Z\\subseteq\\partial X$. Finally, it is easy to show that $\\overline Z\\subseteq\\partial X$.\n\\end{proof}\n\nWe are interested in studying actions where every thick halfspace is flippable, see Corollary~\\ref{double skewering} below. To this end, we introduce the following notions of non-elementarity.\n\n\\begin{defn}\\label{elementarity notion}\nWe say that the action $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ is:\n\\begin{itemize} \n\\item \\emph{Roller nonelementary} if $\\Gamma$ has no finite orbit in $\\overline X$; \n\\item \\emph{Roller minimal} if $X$ is not a single point and $\\Gamma$ does not preserve any proper, closed, convex subset of the Roller compactification $\\overline X$.\n\\item \\emph{essential} if $\\Gamma$ does not preserve any proper, closed, convex subset of the median space $X$.\n\\end{itemize}\n\\end{defn}\n\nThe action of $\\Gamma$ is Roller elementary if and only if a finite-index subgroup of $\\Gamma$ fixes a point of $\\overline X$; thus, Roller nonelementarity passes to finite index subgroups. This fails for Roller minimality. For instance, consider the action of $\\Gamma=\\mathbb{Z}^2\\rtimes\\mathbb{Z}\/4\\mathbb{Z}$ on the the standard cubulation of $\\mathbb{R}^2$; the action of $H:=\\mathbb{Z}^2$ is by translations, whereas $\\mathbb{Z}\/4\\mathbb{Z}$ rotates around the origin. The action of $\\Gamma$ is Roller minimal, but $H$ has four fixed points in the Roller compactification.\n\nThe same example shows that Roller minimal actions might not be Roller nonelementary. Roller nonelementary actions need not be Roller minimal either: Let $T$ be the Cayley graph of a nonabelian free group $F$ and consider the product action of $F\\times\\mathbb{Z}$ on $T\\times\\mathbb{R}$. It is Roller nonelementary but leaves invariant two components of the Roller boundary, both isomorphic to $T$.\n\nBy Proposition~\\ref{visual boundary vs Roller boundary}, an essential action $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ is Roller minimal if and only if no point of the visual boundary $\\partial_{\\infty}X$ is fixed by $\\Gamma$. In particular, an essential action with no finite orbits in $\\partial_{\\infty}X$ is always Roller minimal and Roller nonelementary. \n\nThe following is immediate from Theorem~\\ref{flipping} and the proof of the Double Skewering Lemma in the introduction of \\cite{CS}.\n\n\\begin{cor}\\label{double skewering}\nIf $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ is Roller minimal and without wall inversions, every thick halfspace is $\\Gamma$-flippable. Moreover, if $\\mathfrak{h}\\subseteq\\mathfrak{k}$ are thick halfspaces, there exists $g\\in\\Gamma$ such that $g\\mathfrak{k}\\subsetneq\\mathfrak{h}\\subseteq\\mathfrak{k}$ and $d(g\\mathfrak{k},\\mathfrak{h}^*)>0$.\n\\end{cor}\n\nOne can usually reduce to studying a Roller minimal action by appealing to the following result. \n\n\\begin{prop}\\label{Roller elementary vs strongly so}\nEither $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright\\overline X$ fixes a point or there exist a $\\Gamma$-invariant component $Z\\subseteq\\overline X$ and a $\\Gamma$-invariant, closed, convex subset ${C\\subseteq Z}$ such that $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright C$ is Roller minimal.\n\\end{prop}\n\\begin{proof}\nLet $K\\subseteq\\overline X$ be a minimal, nonempty, closed, $\\Gamma$-invariant, convex subset; it exists by Zorn's Lemma. Corollary~4.31 in \\cite{Fioravanti1} provides a component $Z\\subseteq\\overline X$ of maximal rank among those that intersect $K$. Since $Z$ must be $\\Gamma$-invariant, we have $\\overline Z\\cap K= K$ by the minimality of $K$, i.e.~$K\\subseteq\\overline Z$. The set $C:=K\\cap Z$ is nonempty, convex, $\\Gamma$-invariant and closed in $Z$, since the inclusion $Z\\hookrightarrow\\overline X$ is continuous. By minimality of $K$, we have $K=\\overline C$ and the latter can be identified with the Roller compactification of $C$ (see Lemma~4.8 in \\cite{Fioravanti1}). We conclude that either $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright C$ is Roller minimal or $C$ is a single point.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\begin{cor}\\label{Roller elementary vs strongly so 2}\nIf $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ is Roller nonelementary, there exist a $\\Gamma$-in\\-variant component $Z\\subseteq\\overline X$ and a $\\Gamma$-invariant, closed, convex subset $C\\subseteq Z$ such that $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright C$ is Roller minimal and Roller nonelementary.\n\\end{cor}\n\nWe remark that the following is immediate from part~5 of Proposition~\\ref{properties of X'}:\n\n\\begin{lem}\\label{RNE for X'}\nThe action $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ is Roller elementary if and only if the action $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X'$ is.\n\\end{lem}\n\nRelying on Theorem~E, we can already provide a proof of Theorem~A.\n\n\\begin{proof}[Proof of Theorem~A]\nSince $\\Gamma$ contains no nonabelian free subgroups, the action $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ is Roller elementary by Theorem~E. Theorem~F yields a finite-index subgroup $\\Gamma_0\\leq\\Gamma$ and $N\\lhd\\Gamma_0$ such that $\\Gamma_0\/N$ is abelian and every finitely generated subgroup of $N$ has an orbit with at most $2^r$ elements. \n\nIf all point stabilisers are amenable, $N$ is amenable, as it is the direct limit of its finitely generated subgroups; hence, $\\Gamma$ is amenable. If $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ is\nproper, every finitely generated subgroup of $N$ is finite. If $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ is free, $N$ is finite; if $X$ is connected, $N$ must be trivial by Theorem~\\ref{CAT(0) metric} and Cartan's fixed point theorem. Finally, finitely generated finite-by-abelian groups are virtually abelian, for instance by Lemma~II.7.9 in \\cite{BH}.\n\\end{proof}\n\nWe now proceed to obtain an analogue of Proposition~5.1 from \\cite{CS}, namely Theorem~\\ref{strong separation} below. We say that $\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{k}\\in\\mathscr{H}$ are \\emph{strongly separated} if $\\overline{\\mathfrak{h}}\\cap\\overline{\\mathfrak{k}}=\\emptyset$ and no $\\mathfrak{j}\\in\\mathscr{H}$ is transverse to both $\\mathfrak{h}$ and $\\mathfrak{k}$.\n\n\\begin{lem}\\label{slight reformulation of SS}\nHalfspaces with disjoint closures are strongly separated if and only if no thick halfspace is transverse to both.\n\\end{lem}\n\\begin{proof}\nSuppose that $\\overline{\\mathfrak{h}_1}\\cap\\overline{\\mathfrak{h}_2}=\\emptyset$ and a nowhere-dense halfspace $\\mathfrak{k}$ is transverse to both $\\mathfrak{h}_i$. Pick points $y_i\\in\\mathfrak{h}_i\\cap\\mathfrak{k}^*$ and observe that $I:=I(y_1,y_2)\\subseteq\\mathfrak{k}^*$; since $\\mathfrak{k}$ is closed by Proposition~\\ref{all about halfspaces}, we have $d(I,\\mathfrak{k})>0$. Thus, if $(x_1,x_2)$ is a pair of gates for $(I,\\mathfrak{k})$, the set $\\mathscr{H}(x_1|x_2)$ has positive measure and it contains a thick halfspace $\\mathfrak{k}'$. It is easy to see that $\\mathfrak{k}'$ is transverse $\\mathfrak{h}_1$ and $\\mathfrak{h}_2$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\begin{thm}\\label{strong separation}\nIf $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ is Roller minimal and without wall inversions, the following are equivalent:\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item $X$ is irreducible;\n\\item there exists a pair of strongly separated halfspaces;\n\\item for every $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{H}\\setminus\\mathscr{H}^{\\times}$, there exist halfspaces $\\mathfrak{h}'\\subseteq\\mathfrak{h}\\subseteq\\mathfrak{h}''$ so that $\\mathfrak{h}'$ and $\\mathfrak{h}''^*$ are thick and strongly separated.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{thm}\n\\begin{proof}\n3 clearly implies 2 and 1 follows from 2 using Corollary~\\ref{products}. We are left to prove that 1 implies 3. Suppose for the sake of contradiction that, for some $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{H}\\setminus\\mathscr{H}^{\\times}$, we cannot find $\\mathfrak{h}'$ and $\\mathfrak{h}''$. We reach a contradiction as in the proof of Proposition~5.1 in \\cite{CS} once we construct sequences $(\\mathfrak{h}_n')_{n\\geq 0}$, $(\\mathfrak{h}_n'')_{n\\geq 0}$ and $(\\mathfrak{k}_n)_{n\\geq 0}$ of thick halfspaces such that\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item $\\mathfrak{k}_n$ is transverse to $\\mathfrak{h}_{n-1}'$ and $\\mathfrak{h}_{n-1}''$ for $n\\geq 1$;\n\\item $\\mathfrak{k}_n\\in\\mathscr{H}(\\mathfrak{h}_n''^*|\\mathfrak{h}_n')$ for $n\\geq 0$;\n\\item $\\mathfrak{h}_n'\\subsetneq\\mathfrak{h}_{n-1}'\\subsetneq\\mathfrak{h}\\subsetneq\\mathfrak{h}_{n-1}''\\subsetneq\\mathfrak{h}_n''$ for $n\\geq 1$.\n\\end{enumerate}\nBy Corollary~\\ref{double skewering}, we can find $g\\in\\Gamma$ such that $g^{-1}\\mathfrak{h}\\subsetneq\\mathfrak{h}\\subsetneq g\\mathfrak{h}$ and we set $\\mathfrak{h}_0':=g^{-1}\\mathfrak{h}$ and $\\mathfrak{h}_0'':=g\\mathfrak{h}$. Now suppose that we have defined $\\mathfrak{h}_n'$, $\\mathfrak{h}_n''$ and $\\mathfrak{k}_{n-1}$. Corollary~\\ref{double skewering} yields $g'\\in\\Gamma$ with $\\mathfrak{h}_n'\\subsetneq\\mathfrak{h}\\subsetneq\\mathfrak{h}_n''\\subsetneq g'\\mathfrak{h}_n'\\subsetneq g'\\mathfrak{h}_n''$ and $\\overline{\\mathfrak{h}_n''}\\cap g'\\overline{\\mathfrak{h}_n'^*}=\\emptyset$. By hypothesis, $\\mathfrak{h}_n'$ and $g'\\mathfrak{h}_n''^*$ are not strongly separated, but they have disjoint closures; thus there exists $\\mathfrak{k}$ transverse to $\\mathfrak{h}_n'$ and $g'\\mathfrak{h}_n''$. By Lemma~\\ref{slight reformulation of SS}, we can assume that $\\mathfrak{k}$ is thick. \n\nThe construction of the sequences can be concluded as in \\cite{CS} once we obtain analogues of their Lemmata~5.2,~5.3 and~5.4. Lemmata~5.3 and~5.4 can be proved using Corollary~\\ref{double skewering} as in \\cite{CS}, with the additional requirement that all input and output halfspaces be thick. We prove the following version of Lemma~5.2:\n\\begin{center}\n\\emph{``If $\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{k}$ are thick transverse halfspaces, one of the four sectors determined by $\\mathfrak{h}$ and $\\mathfrak{k}$ contains a thick halfspace.''}\n\\end{center}\nLet $\\mathcal{H}$ be the set of thick halfspaces that are not transverse to $\\mathfrak{h}$ and $\\mathcal{K}$ the set of thick halfspaces that are not transverse to $\\mathfrak{k}$. As in \\cite{CS}, we can assume that every halfspace in $\\mathcal{H}$ is transverse to every halfspace in $\\mathcal{K}$. Let $\\mathcal{H}'$ be the collection of thick halfspaces that either contain or are contained in some halfspace of $\\mathcal{H}$; we define $\\mathcal{K}'$ similarly. \n\nObserve that $\\mathfrak{a}\\in\\mathscr{H}$ lies in $\\mathcal{H}'$ if and only if there exist $\\mathfrak{b},\\mathfrak{b}'\\in\\mathcal{H}$ such that $\\mathfrak{b}\\subseteq\\mathfrak{a}\\subseteq\\mathfrak{b}'$; again, this is proved as in \\cite{CS}. Thus, halfspaces in $(\\mathscr{H}\\setminus\\mathscr{H}^{\\times})\\setminus\\mathcal{H}'$ must be transverse to all halfspaces in $\\mathcal{H}'$. We conclude that we have a $*$-invariant partition\n\\[\\mathscr{H}=\\mathcal{H}'\\sqcup\\left(\\mathscr{H}\\setminus(\\mathcal{H}'\\cup\\mathscr{H}^{\\times})\\right)\\sqcup\\mathscr{H}^{\\times},\\]\nwhere the first two pieces are transverse and the third is null. Since $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathcal{H}'$ and $\\mathfrak{k}\\in\\mathscr{H}\\setminus(\\mathcal{H}'\\cup\\mathscr{H}^{\\times})$ this partition is nontrivial. Finally, observe that $\\mathcal{H}'$ is inseparable and, thus, measurable. Corollary~\\ref{products} now violates the irreducibility of $X$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\n\\section{Facing triples.}\\label{facing triples}\n\nLet $X$ be a complete median space of finite rank $r$ and $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ an isometric action without wall inversions. In this section we study certain tree-like behaviours displayed by all median spaces that admit a Roller nonelementary action. These will allow us to construct nonabelian free subgroups of their isometry groups. \n\nWe say that the median space $X$ is \\emph{lineal} with endpoints $\\xi,\\eta\\in\\overline X$ if $X\\subseteq I(\\xi,\\eta)$. \n\n\\begin{lem}\\label{intervals vs elementarity}\nEvery action on a lineal median space is Roller elementary.\n\\end{lem}\n\\begin{proof}\nThe elements of $\\mathscr{F}:=\\left\\{\\{\\xi,\\eta\\}\\subseteq\\overline X\\mid X\\subseteq I(\\xi,\\eta)\\right\\}\\neq\\emptyset$ are permuted by each isometry of $X$. If $\\{\\xi_1,\\eta_1\\}$, $\\{\\xi_2,\\eta_2\\}$ are distinct elements of $\\mathscr{F}$, the sets $\\mathscr{H}(\\xi_1,\\eta_2|\\eta_1,\\xi_2)$ and $\\mathscr{H}(\\xi_1,\\xi_2|\\eta_1,\\eta_2)$ are transverse and their union is $\\mathscr{H}(\\xi_1|\\eta_1)$, which contains a side of every wall of $X$. By Corollary~\\ref{products}, $X$ splits as a product $X_1\\times X_2$. Thus, if $X$ is irreducible, we have $\\#\\mathscr{F}=1$ and an index-two subgroup of $\\Gamma$ fixes two points of $\\overline X$.\n\nIn general, let $X=X_1\\times ... \\times X_k$ be the decomposition of $X$ into irreducible factors and $\\Gamma$ a group of isometries of $X$; by Proposition~\\ref{isometries of products}, a finite-index subgroup $\\Gamma_0\\leq\\Gamma$ leaves this decomposition invariant. Since $\\overline X=\\overline{X_1}\\times ... \\times\\overline{X_k}$ by Lemma~\\ref{Roller for products}, if $X$ is lineal so is each $X_i$. The previous discussion shows that a finite-index subgroup of $\\Gamma_0$ fixes points $\\xi_i\\in\\overline{X_i}$, for all $i$; in particular, it fixes the point $(\\xi_1,...,\\xi_k)\\in\\overline X$, hence $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ is Roller elementary.\n\\end{proof}\n\nHalfspaces $\\mathfrak{h}_1,\\mathfrak{h}_2,\\mathfrak{h}_3$ are said to form a \\emph{facing triple} if they are pairwise disjoint; if each $\\mathfrak{h}_i$ is thick, we speak of a thick facing triple. If $X$ is lineal, $\\mathscr{H}$ does not contain facing triples. On the other hand, we have the following result; compare with Corollary~2.34 in \\cite{CFI} and Theorem~7.2 in \\cite{CS}.\n\n\\begin{prop}\\label{facing 3-ples exist}\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item If $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ is Roller nonelementary, there exists a thick facing triple.\n\\item If $X$ is irreducible and $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ is Roller nonelementary and Roller minimal, every thick halfspace is part of a thick facing triple.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{prop}\n\\begin{proof}\nWe prove part~1 by induction on the rank; the rank-zero case is trivial. In general, let $C\\subseteq Z$ be as provided by Corollary~\\ref{Roller elementary vs strongly so 2}. If ${Z\\subseteq\\partial X}$, we have $\\text{rank}(C)\\leq\\text{rank}(X)-1$ by Proposition~\\ref{components}; in this case, we conclude by the inductive hypothesis and Proposition~\\ref{halfspaces of components}. Otherwise, we have $C\\subseteq X$; let $C=C_1\\times ...\\times C_k$ be its decomposition into irreducible factors. By Proposition~\\ref{isometries of products}, a finite-index subgroup $\\Gamma_0\\leq\\Gamma$ preserves this decomposition and, since $\\overline C=\\overline{C_1}\\times...\\times\\overline{C_k}$, there exists $i\\leq k$ such that $\\Gamma_0\\curvearrowright C_i$ is Roller nonelementary. If $k\\geq 2$, we have $\\text{rank}(C_i)\\leq\\text{rank}(X)-1$ and we conclude again by the inductive hypothesis. If $C$ is irreducible, Corollary~\\ref{double skewering} and Theorem~\\ref{strong separation} provide $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{H}(C)\\setminus\\mathscr{H}^{\\times}(C)$ and $g\\in\\Gamma$ such that $g\\mathfrak{h}$ and $\\mathfrak{h}^*$ are strongly separated. Since $\\overline C$ is compact, there exists a point $\\xi\\in\\overline C$ that lies in the closure of every $g^n\\widetilde{\\mathfrak{h}}$, $n\\in\\mathbb{Z}$; similarly, we can find $\\eta\\in\\overline C$ lying in the closure of every $g^n\\widetilde{\\mathfrak{h}}^*$, $n\\in\\mathbb{Z}$.\n\nBy Lemma~\\ref{intervals vs elementarity}, there exists $x\\in C$ with $m:=m(x,\\xi,\\eta)\\neq x$. Picking $\\mathfrak{j}\\in\\mathscr{H}(m|x)\\setminus\\mathscr{H}^{\\times}(C)$, neither $\\xi$ nor $\\eta$ can lie in $\\widetilde{\\mathfrak{j}}$. Since $g^n\\mathfrak{h}$ and $g^m\\mathfrak{h}^*$ are strongly separated for $n<m$, the halfspace $\\mathfrak{j}$ can be transverse to $g^n\\mathfrak{h}$ for at most one $n\\in\\mathbb{Z}$. Hence $j\\subseteq g^{n+2}\\mathfrak{h}\\setminus g^n\\mathfrak{h}$ for some $n\\in\\mathbb{Z}$ and $\\mathfrak{j}$, $g^n\\mathfrak{h}$, $g^{n+2}\\mathfrak{h}^*$ form a thick facing triple in $\\mathscr{H}(C)\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}$.\n\nWe now prove part~2. Let $\\mathscr{T}\\subseteq\\mathscr{H}\\setminus\\mathscr{H}^{\\times}$ be the set of halfspaces that are part of a thick facing triple; it is nonempty by part~1. It is also inseparable, hence measurable. Observe moreover that ${\\mathscr{T}=\\mathscr{T}^*}$ by part~1 of Corollary~\\ref{double skewering}; indeed, if $\\mathfrak{k},\\mathfrak{k}',\\mathfrak{k}''$ form a facing triple and $g\\mathfrak{k}^*\\subseteq\\mathfrak{k}$, the halfspaces $\\mathfrak{k}^*,g\\mathfrak{k}',g\\mathfrak{k}''$ also form a facing triple. If $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{H}\\setminus\\mathscr{H}^{\\times}$ and ${\\mathfrak{k}\\in\\mathscr{T}}$ are not transverse, then $\\mathfrak{h}\\in\\mathscr{T}$; indeed, up to replacing $\\mathfrak{h}$ and $\\mathfrak{k}$ with their complements, we can assume that $\\mathfrak{h}\\subseteq\\mathfrak{k}$. Thus, if $\\mathscr{T}\\neq\\mathscr{H}\\setminus\\mathscr{H}^{\\times}$, Corollary~\\ref{products} yields a contradiction. \n\\end{proof}\n\nWe will refer to facing triples of pairwise strongly separated halfspaces as \\emph{strongly separated triples}. Strongly separated $n$-tuples are defined similarly for all $n\\geq 4$.\n\n\\begin{lem}\\label{strongly separated n-tuples}\nSuppose $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ is Roller nonelementary and Roller minimal. If $X$ is irreducible, for every $n\\geq 3$ every thick halfspace is part of a strongly separated, thick $n$-tuple.\n\\end{lem}\n\\begin{proof}\nEach thick halfspace $\\mathfrak{h}$ is part of a thick facing triple $\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{h}_1,\\mathfrak{h}_2$ by Proposition~\\ref{facing 3-ples exist}. Theorem~\\ref{strong separation} and Corollary~\\ref{double skewering} yield thick halfspaces $\\mathfrak{k}_i\\subseteq\\mathfrak{h}_i$ such that $\\mathfrak{k}_i$ and $\\mathfrak{h}_i^*$ are strongly separated; we obtain a strongly separated triple $\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{k}_1,\\mathfrak{k}_2$. We conclude by showing that, if $n\\geq 2$, any $(n+1)$-tuple $\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{h}_1,...,\\mathfrak{h}_n$ can be upgraded to a $(n+2)$-tuple. By Corollary~\\ref{double skewering}, there exists $g\\in\\Gamma$ such that $g\\mathfrak{h}^*\\subseteq\\mathfrak{h}_n$. It is immediate to check that $\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{h}_1,...,\\mathfrak{h}_{n-1},g\\mathfrak{h}_1,g\\mathfrak{h}_2$ is a strongly separated, thick $(n+2)$-tuple.\n\\end{proof}\n\nThe following result allows us to construct free subgroups of $\\Gamma$; in the case of ${\\rm CAT}(0)$ cube complexes, compare with Theorem~6 in \\cite{Delzant-Py} and Theorem~F in \\cite{CS}. Note that only part~1 is needed to prove the Tits alternative; we will use part~2 in \\cite{Fioravanti3} to characterise Roller elementarity in terms of the vanishing of a certain cohomology class.\n\n\\begin{prop}\\label{free subgroups acting freely}\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item Suppose that $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ is Roller minimal and $\\mathfrak{h}$ is part of a thick facing triple. A subgroup of $\\Gamma$ is free on two generators and has trivial intersection with the stabiliser of the wall $\\{\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{h}^*\\}$.\n\\item Suppose that $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ is Roller minimal and Roller elementary; assume moreover that $X$ is irreducible. There exists a free subgroup $H=\\langle a,b\\rangle\\leq\\Gamma$ and a measurable partition $\\mathscr{H}=\\bigsqcup_{h\\in H}\\mathscr{H}_{h}$, where $\\mathscr{H}_h^*=\\mathscr{H}_h$ and $g\\mathscr{H}_h=\\mathscr{H}_{gh}$, for all $g,h\\in H$. In particular, $H$ acts freely on $\\mathscr{W}$. \n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{prop}\n\\begin{proof}\nAny thick facing triple including $\\mathfrak{h}$ can be upgraded to a thick facing $4$-tuple $\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{h}',\\mathfrak{k},\\mathfrak{k}'$ as in the proof of Lemma~\\ref{strongly separated n-tuples}. Corollary~\\ref{double skewering} gives us $a,b\\in\\Gamma$ with $a\\mathfrak{h}^*\\subsetneq\\mathfrak{h}'$ and $b\\mathfrak{k}^*\\subsetneq\\mathfrak{k}'$; in particular, $\\mathfrak{h}, a\\mathfrak{h}^*, \\mathfrak{k}, b\\mathfrak{k}^*$ form a facing $4$-tuple. Set $\\mathfrak{w}:=\\{\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{h}^*\\}\\in\\mathscr{W}$ and $\\Omega:=\\mathfrak{h}^*\\cap a\\mathfrak{h}\\cap\\mathfrak{k}^*\\cap b\\mathfrak{k}\\subseteq X$. \n\n{\\bf Claim.} \\emph{For every nontrivial, reduced word $u$ in $a$ and $b$,\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item if $u=au'$, we have $u\\Omega\\subseteq a\\mathfrak{h}^*$;\n\\item if $u=a^{-1}u'$, we have $u\\Omega\\subseteq\\mathfrak{h}$;\n\\item if $u=bu'$, we have $u\\Omega\\subseteq b\\mathfrak{k}^*$;\n\\item if $u=b^{-1}u'$, we have $u\\Omega\\subseteq\\mathfrak{k} $.\n\\end{itemize}}\n\\begin{proof}[Proof of claim]\nWe proceed by induction on the length $|u|$ of the word $u$. If $|u|=1$, the statement is obvious. In the inductive step, we can assume that the statement holds for $u'$; moreover, in cases (a) and (b), the word $u'$ cannot begin with $a^{-1}$ or $a$, respectively, and in cases (c) and (d), the word $u'$ cannot begin with $b^{-1}$ or $b$, respectively. We conclude by observing that \n\\[a\\left(a\\mathfrak{h}^*\\cup b\\mathfrak{k}^*\\cup \\mathfrak{k}\\right)\\subseteq a\\mathfrak{h}^*,\\]\n\\[a^{-1}\\left(\\mathfrak{h}\\cup b\\mathfrak{k}^*\\cup \\mathfrak{k}\\right)\\subseteq \\mathfrak{h},\\]\n\\[b\\left(a\\mathfrak{h}^*\\cup\\mathfrak{h}\\cup b\\mathfrak{k}^*\\right)\\subseteq b\\mathfrak{k}^* ,\\]\n\\[b^{-1}\\left(a\\mathfrak{h}^*\\cup\\mathfrak{h}\\cup\\mathfrak{k}\\right)\\subseteq \\mathfrak{k} .\\]\n\\end{proof}\nAs a consequence of the claim, if there existed a nontrivial, reduced word $u$ in $a$ and $b$ with $u\\mathfrak{w}=\\mathfrak{w}$, then we would have $u=a^{-1}u'$ and $u\\mathfrak{h}^{*}=\\mathfrak{h}$; however, this would violate the assumption that $\\Gamma$ act without wall inversions. This concludes the proof of part~1.\n\\begin{figure}\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[height=2.5in]{img7.png}\n\\caption{}\n\\label{constructing a free group}\n\\end{figure}\n\nUnder the hypotheses of part~2, Lemma~\\ref{strongly separated n-tuples} provides a strongly separated $4$-tuple $\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{h}',\\mathfrak{k},\\mathfrak{k}'$ and we can again construct $a,b\\in\\Gamma$ and $\\Omega\\subseteq X$ as above; in particular, $\\mathfrak{h}, a\\mathfrak{h}^*, \\mathfrak{k}, b\\mathfrak{k}^*$ form a strongly separated $4$-tuple. Let $\\mathscr{H}_1$ the set of halfspaces $\\mathfrak{j}\\in\\mathscr{H}$ satisfying one of the following two conditions:\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item $\\mathfrak{j}$ is transverse to $\\mathfrak{h}$ or $\\mathfrak{k}$, or $\\mathfrak{j}\\in\\{\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{h}^*,\\mathfrak{k},\\mathfrak{k}^*\\}$;\n\\item the wall $\\{\\mathfrak{j},\\mathfrak{j}^*\\}$ is contained in $\\Omega$ and $\\mathfrak{j}\\not\\in H\\cdot\\{\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{h}^*,\\mathfrak{k},\\mathfrak{k}^*\\}$.\n\\end{itemize}\nWe set $\\mathscr{H}_h:=h\\cdot\\mathscr{H}_1$ for every $h\\in H$. From part~1, we have that $h\\Omega\\cap h'\\Omega=\\emptyset$ whenever $h\\neq h'$; moreover, $H$ is free on $a$ and $b$ and intersects trivially the stabilisers of the walls $\\{\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{h}^*\\}$ and $\\{\\mathfrak{k},\\mathfrak{k}^*\\}$. Any two distinct walls in $H\\cdot\\{\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{h}^*\\}\\cup H\\cdot\\{\\mathfrak{k},\\mathfrak{k}^*\\}$ correspond to a strongly separated pair of halfspaces, hence $\\mathscr{H}_h\\cap\\mathscr{H}_{h'}=\\emptyset$, whenever $h\\neq h'$\n\nWe are left to prove that every $\\mathfrak{j}\\in\\mathscr{H}$ lies in some $\\mathscr{H}_h$. The intersection graph of the regions $h\\overline\\Omega$, $h\\in H$, is canonically isomorphic to the Cayley graph of $\\left(H,\\{a,b\\}\\right)$. In particular, DCC ultrafilters (in the sense of \\cite{Sageev-notes}) on the pocset $H\\cdot\\{\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{h}^*,\\mathfrak{k},\\mathfrak{k}^*\\}$ are in one-to-one correspondence with regions $h\\Omega$. If $\\mathfrak{j}$ is not transverse to any element of $H\\cdot\\{\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{h}^*,\\mathfrak{k},\\mathfrak{k}^*\\}$, then the set of halfspaces in $H\\cdot\\{\\mathfrak{h},\\mathfrak{h}^*,\\mathfrak{k},\\mathfrak{k}^*\\}$ that contain either $\\mathfrak{j}$ or $\\mathfrak{j}^*$ is a DCC ultrafilter and, by the previous discussion, it corresponds to some $h\\Omega$, $h\\in H$. We conclude that the wall $\\{\\mathfrak{j},\\mathfrak{j}^*\\}$ is contained in $h\\Omega$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\begin{cor}\\label{pre Tits alternative}\nEither $\\Gamma$ has a nonabelian free subgroup or ${\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X}$ is Roller elementary. In the latter case, $\\Gamma$ is virtually locally-elliptic-by-abelian.\n\\end{cor}\n\\begin{proof}\nIf $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ is Roller nonelementary, Corollary~\\ref{Roller elementary vs strongly so 2} yields $C\\subseteq\\overline X$ such that $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright C$ is Roller minimal and Roller nonelementary. Part~1 of Proposition~\\ref{facing 3-ples exist} and part~1 of Proposition~\\ref{free subgroups acting freely} yield a nonabelian free subgroup.\n\nIf, instead, $\\Gamma\\curvearrowright X$ is Roller elementary, $\\Gamma$ has a finite-index subgroup fixing a point $\\xi\\in\\overline X$. If $\\xi\\in X$, the group $\\Gamma$ is elliptic. Otherwise $\\xi\\in\\partial X$ and Theorem~\\ref{stabiliser of xi} yields a further finite-index subgroup $\\Gamma_0\\leq\\Gamma$ that is locally-elliptic-by-abelian.\n\\end{proof}\n\nOne can remove the assumption that $\\Gamma$ act without wall inversions by passing to the barycentric subdivision $X'$ and appealing to Lemma~\\ref{RNE for X'} and part~3 of Proposition~\\ref{properties of X'}. This yields Theorem~E.\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\n\n\\section{Polarization gradients in an optical tweezer}\n\nThroughout, we use the vector Debye integral \\cite{Richards1959} to calculate the electric field of the trapping light as a function of position. An approximate analytical approach can also be used as follows. In the focal plane, and using the coordinates of Fig.~\\ref{fig:polstruc}, the longitudinal component of the electric field is related to the transverse component by\n\\begin{equation}\n    E_y(x,0,z)\\simeq -i\\frac{2x}{k w_0^2} E_x(x,0,z),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $k$ is the wavevector of the trapping light and $w_0$ is the beam-waist radius \\cite{Novotny2012}. The vector $\\vec{C}$ is then\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\vec{C} \\simeq \\frac{4 k w_0^2 x}{k^2 w_0^4 + 4 x^2}\\hat{z}.\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\section{ac Stark shift}\n\nWe calculate the ac Stark shift of a $^{2}\\Sigma$ molecule following the Appendix of Ref.~\\cite{Caldwell2020b}. In this section, we refer to equation numbers from that reference. The interaction of the molecule with light of polarization $\\vec{\\epsilon}$ and electric field magnitude $\\mathcal{E}_0$ is described by the operator\n\\begin{equation}\nH_{\\rm S}=-\\frac{\\mathcal{E}_0^2}{4}\\sum _{K=0}^2 \\sum _{P=-K}^K  (-1)^P {\\mathcal A}^{K}_P \\mathcal{P}_{-P}^K,\n\\label{EqApp:HStark}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere ${\\mathcal A}^{K}$ are the polarizability operators and $\\mathcal{P}^K$ are the polarization tensors of the light. Here, we focus on the $K=1$ term which gives the vector Stark shift, $W_1$. For incident light polarized along $x$ and propagating along $y$, $\\epsilon_{0} = 0$ everywhere, and the only non-zero component of $\\mathcal{P}^1$ is $\\mathcal{P}_0^1 = \\vec{C}\\cdot\\hat{z} = \\textrm{Im}(\\vec{\\epsilon} \\times \\vec{\\epsilon}\\,^*)_0 = |\\epsilon_1|^2 - |\\epsilon_{-1}|^2$. Thus, we need only calculate the matrix elements of ${\\mathcal A}^{1}_0$. They are diagonal in the magnetic quantum number $m_J$. Furthermore, if we specialize to the case where the Stark shift is small compared to the spin-rotation interaction, we see that $W_1=-\\frac{1}{4}\\mathcal{E}_0^2 \\langle {\\mathcal A}^{1}_0 \\rangle \\mathcal{P}_0^1$. Using Eq.~(A25) of Ref.~\\cite{Caldwell2020b}, we find $\\langle {\\mathcal A}^{1}_0 \\rangle = -\\alpha^{(1)} m_J\/(2J(J+1))$. So we reach the result\n\\begin{equation}\n    W_1 = \\frac{1}{2\\epsilon_0 c} \\alpha^{(1)}\\frac{m_J}{2J(J+1)} (\\vec{C}\\cdot\\hat{z}) I,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $I$ is the intensity of the light.\n\nThe expressions for the polarizability components $\\alpha^{(K)}$ are given by Eqs.~(A24) and (A26) and require the evaluation of a sum over all excited states. In the main text, to illustrate our scheme, we focus on the case where only the $A^2\\Pi$ excited state contributes to the polarizability. This is reasonable provided the detuning of the light field from this state is small compared to the detuning from higher-lying states. Including the effects of higher-lying electronic states changes the quantitative details but the qualitative features important to our scheme are unchanged. If the $|\\Omega|=\\tfrac{1}{2}$ and $\\tfrac{3}{2}$ components of this state are $\\hbar \\omega_{1\/2}$ and $\\hbar \\omega_{3\/2}$ above the ground state respectively, we can define the fine structure splitting $\\delta_{\\rm fs}=\\omega_{3\/2}-\\omega_{1\/2}$ and $\\Delta$, the detuning of the laser field from their midpoint at $\\omega_{AX}=\\tfrac{1}{2}(\\omega_{3\/2}+\\omega_{1\/2})$. In the limit where $\\Delta \\ll \\omega_{AX}$, the expressions from Ref.~\\cite{Caldwell2020b} reduce to those of Eqs.~\\eqref{eq:polarisabilities} in the main text.\n\nFor our realistic example of CaF in the main text, we estimate the polarizability components from data on the $A^{2}\\Pi\\leftrightarrow X^{2}\\Sigma$ and $B^{2}\\Sigma\\leftrightarrow X^{2}\\Sigma$ transitions at our chosen wavelengths of $\\lambda_{\\rm sc}=\\SI{780}{\\nano\\meter}$, $\\lambda_{\\rm vec}=\\SI{604.966}{\\nano\\meter}$. The scalar, vector and tensor Stark shifts of all the relevant levels are calculated using the matrix elements given by Eq. (A25) of Ref.~\\cite{Caldwell2020b}.\n\n\\section{Dipole-dipole interaction}\n\nConsider the two-molecule states $\\ket{F_A,m_A}\\ket{F_B,m_B}$ where $m_{A\/B}$ are the magnetic quantum numbers of molecules A and B and $F_{A\/B}$ stand for all other relevant quantum numbers. The dipole-dipole interaction can couple two-molecule states whose values of $m_{\\rm tot} = m_A + m_B$ differ by $0,\\pm 1, \\pm 2$.\n\nIn the basis of Eqs.~\\eqref{eq:two-mol-states}, the combined rotational and dipole-dipole Hamiltonian can be written\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{split}\n    &H_{\\rm rot} + H_{\\rm dd}=\\\\ &\\quad\\begin{pmatrix}\n    0 & 0 & 0 & E_{\\rm dd}\\\\\n    0 & E_{\\rm rot}-E_{\\rm dd} & 0 & 0\\\\\n    0 & 0 & E_{\\rm rot}+E_{\\rm dd} & 0\\\\\n    E_{\\rm dd} & 0 & 0 & 2E_{\\rm rot}\n    \\end{pmatrix}\n\\end{split}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $E_{\\rm rot}$ is the rotational energy splitting, $E_{\\rm dd} = \\Lambda_{10}\/4\\pi\\epsilon_0 |x_B-x_A|^3$ is the dipole-dipole interaction energy and the states are in the order $\\{\\ket{00}, \\ket{\\Psi^-}, \\ket{\\Psi^+}, \\ket{11}\\}$. The matrix is diagonal except for off-diagonal elements between $\\ket{00}$ and $\\ket{11}$.\nFor realistic values of $|x_B-x_A|$ in traps designed to prevent excessive overlap of the motional wavefunctions, $E_{\\rm rot}\\gg E_{\\rm dd}$ and these elements can be safely ignored. In this case the eigenstates are well approximated by the basis of Eqs.~\\eqref{eq:two-mol-states}.\n\n\\section{Effect of motion on dipole-dipole interaction}\n\\label{secSupp:motion}\n\nFirst consider the case where the four internal states in question experience the same trap frequency $\\omega_{\\rm t}$, the states $\\ket{0_-\/1_-}$ have a trap minimum at position $x=-\\delta x\/2$ and the states $\\ket{0_+\/1_+}$ have a trap minimum at position $x=\\delta x\/2$. The full motional Hamiltonian is now separable from the internal part. In the subspace of Eqs.~\\eqref{eq:two-mol-states} we have\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{split}\n        H_{\\rm m} &= \\frac{p_A^2}{2M} + \\frac{p_B^2}{2M} + \\frac{1}{2}M\\omega_{\\rm t}^2\\left(x_A+\\frac{\\delta x}{2}\\right)^2 \\\\\n        &\\quad+ \\frac{1}{2}M\\omega_{\\rm t}^2\\left(x_B-\\frac{\\delta x}{2}\\right)^2 +q \\frac{\\Lambda_{10}}{4\\pi\\epsilon_0|x_B-x_A|^3},\n\\end{split}\n\\label{eqSupp:ham-mot}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere the factor $q=\\{0,-1,1,0\\}$ for states $\\{\\ket{00}, \\ket{\\Psi^-}, \\ket{\\Psi^+}, \\ket{11}\\}$.\nWe can reformulate this in terms of the dimensionless, relative position operators $x_{\\rm cm}=\\sqrt{\\frac{M\\omega_{\\rm t}}{2\\hbar}}(x_B+x_A)$ and $x_{\\rm rel}=\\sqrt{\\frac{M\\omega_{\\rm t}}{2\\hbar}}(x_B-x_A)$, and their conjugate momenta $p_{\\rm cm}$ and $p_{\\rm rel}$,\n\\begin{equation}\n        \\frac{1}{\\hbar\\omega_{\\rm t}}H_{\\rm m} = H_{\\rm cm} + H_{\\rm rel}\n\\label{eqSupp:ham-mot-red}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere\n\\begin{subequations}\n    \\begin{align}\n        H_{\\rm cm} & = \\frac{p_{\\rm cm}^2}{2} + \\frac{1}{2} x_{\\rm cm}^2 ,\\label{eqSupp:ham-cm}\\\\\n        H_{\\rm rel} & = \\frac{p_{\\rm rel}^2}{2} + \\frac{1}{2} (x_{\\rm rel}-\\tilde{\\delta x})^2 + q \\frac{r^3}{|x_{\\rm rel}|^3}.\\label{eqSupp:ham-rel}\n    \\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\nHere $\\tilde{\\delta x}=\\sqrt{\\frac{M\\omega_{\\rm t}}{2\\hbar}}\\delta x$ and $r = \\sqrt{\\frac{M\\omega_{\\rm t}}{2\\hbar}}(\\Lambda_{10}\/4\\pi\\epsilon_0\\hbar\\omega_{\\rm t})^{1\/3}$. The center of mass $x_{\\rm cm}$ oscillates about zero with the same trap frequency as the individual particles. In the absence of the dipole-dipole interaction, the relative motion is also harmonic, oscillating around $\\tilde{\\delta x}$ with the same trap frequency. When the dipole-dipole interaction is included, the motion is more complicated. We can get some intuition by looking at the case where $r\\ll\\tilde{\\delta x}$. The series expansion to second order in $(x_{\\rm rel}-\\tilde{\\delta x})$ is\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{split}\n    H_{\\rm rel} &\\simeq \\frac{p_{\\rm rel}^2}{2} + \\frac{1}{2}(x_{\\rm rel}-\\tilde{\\delta x})^2 \\\\\n    &\\quad+ q \\frac{r^3}{\\tilde{\\delta x}^3}\\left(1-\\frac{3(x-\\tilde{\\delta x})}{\\tilde{\\delta x}} + \\frac{6 (x-\\tilde{\\delta x})^2}{\\tilde{\\delta x}^2}\\right) \\\\ &\\simeq \\frac{p_{\\rm rel}^2}{2} + q \\frac{r^3}{\\tilde{\\delta x}^3} \n    + \\frac{1}{2}\\left( 1+ \\frac{12 q r^3}{\\tilde{\\delta x}^5}\\right)\\left(x-\\tilde{\\delta x} - \\frac{3 q r^3}{\\tilde{\\delta x}^4} \\right)^2.\n\\end{split}\n\\end{equation}\nFor $q r^3>0$, the trap frequency is increased and the two molecules are pushed apart slightly so that their mean separation is larger than in the absence of the dipole-dipole interaction. For $q r^3 < 0$, these effects are reversed.\n\nFigure~\\ref{figSupp:eigs1D} shows the energies of the first 5 eigenstates of Eq.~\\eqref{eqSupp:ham-rel} calculated numerically as a function of $\\tilde{\\delta x}$ for $q=1$ and $r=3.5$. At large separations, the energy shifts agree well with those expected for point dipoles fixed at the potential minima (dashed lines). For intermediate separations, the shifts from the full 1D calculation are larger because the finite extent of the wavefunction means that $\\langle 1\/x_{\\rm rel}^3\\rangle > 1\/\\langle x_{\\rm rel}\\rangle^3$. This effect is larger for excited motional states where the extent of the wavefunction is larger. At small separations, the dipoles are pushed apart by their interaction and so the energy shift is reduced from the value expected from fixed point dipoles. \n\n\\begin{figure}\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics{eigs1D.pdf}\n    \\caption{Energies of the first 5 relative motional states in presence of the dipole-dipole interaction for $q=1$, $r=3.5$. Dashed lines: calculations for point dipoles fixed at potential minima; solid lines: full 1D calculation.}\n    \\label{figSupp:eigs1D}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\section{Hyperfine interaction and shifted potentials}\n\nHere, we consider in more detail the complications introduced by the hyperfine interaction. As in the main text, we take the handedness of the light to be along $z$.\n\nThe hyperfine interaction couples the nuclear spin $\\vec{I}$ and the total electronic angular momentum $\\vec{J}$. Their sum is $\\vec{F}$. Let us first consider states with well defined $F$, $J$ and $I$, and a vector Stark shift which is small compared to the hyperfine interaction so that we need only consider the diagonal matrix elements of the effective Stark shift operator. In this case, the vector Stark shift is $W_1 = \\frac{1}{2 \\epsilon_0 c}\\alpha^{(1)} g_F m_F (\\vec{C}\\cdot\\hat{z}) I$  where\n\\begin{equation}\n    g_F=\\frac{F(F+1)+J(J+1)-I(I+1)}{4J(J+1)F(F+1)}.\n\\label{eqSupp:gF}\n\\end{equation}\n\nThis is a useful result for molecules where the spin-rotation interaction is large compared to the hyperfine interaction. States from neighboring rotational manifolds that have the same values of $J$, $F$ and $m_F$ will have the same vector Stark shift, and the potentials for these states will be identical. However, for many molecules of interest, the hyperfine and spin-rotation interactions are similar in size so the hyperfine coupling mixes states with the same $F$ and $m_F$ but different $J$. The vector Stark shift of these mixed states is not given by Eq.~(\\ref{eqSupp:gF}), but instead depends on the relative size of the hyperfine and spin-rotation coupling. As a result, in general, states in different rotational levels will have different vector Stark shifts, and potentials that are shifted relative to one another. Here we consider the effect of this shift on the dipole-dipole interaction. \n\nWe assume the $\\ket{0_\\pm}$ states have potential minima at $\\pm \\delta x_0\/2$ and the $\\ket{1_\\pm}$ states at $\\pm \\delta x_1\/2$. The full Hamiltonian is now\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{split}\n        H =& \\frac{p_A^2}{2M} + \\frac{p_B^2}{2M} + \\frac{1}{2}M\\omega_{\\rm t}^2\\left(x_A+\\frac{\\delta x_0}{2}\\right)^2\\sket{0_-}{A}\\sbra{0_-}{A}\\\\\n        &\\quad + \\frac{1}{2}M\\omega_{\\rm t}^2\\left(x_A+\\frac{\\delta x_1}{2}\\right)^2\\sket{1_-}{A}\\sbra{1_-}{A}\\\\\n        &\\quad + \\frac{1}{2}M\\omega_{\\rm t}^2\\left(x_B-\\frac{\\delta x_0}{2}\\right)^2\\sket{0_+}{B}\\sbra{0_+}{B}\\\\\n        &\\quad + \\frac{1}{2}M\\omega_{\\rm t}^2\\left(x_B-\\frac{\\delta x_1}{2}\\right)^2\\sket{1_+}{B}\\sbra{1_+}{B}\\\\\n        &\\quad + \\frac{\\vec{d}_A\\cdot\\vec{d}_B-3(\\vec{d}_A\\cdot\\hat{x})(\\vec{d}_B\\cdot\\hat{x})}{4\\pi\\epsilon_0|x_B-x_A|^3}.\n    \\end{split}\n\\end{equation}\nThe Hamiltonian is no longer separable into motional and internal parts. We apply a unitary transformation\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{split}\n        U(\\eta) &= \\Big[T_A(-\\tfrac{\\eta}{2})\\sket{0_-}{A}\\sbra{0_-}{A} + T_A(\\tfrac{\\eta}{2})\\sket{1_-}{A}\\sbra{1_-}{A}\\Big]\\\\\n        & \\otimes \\Big[T_B(\\tfrac{\\eta}{2})\\sket{0_+}{B}\\sbra{0_+}{B} + T_B(-\\tfrac{\\eta}{2})\\sket{1_+}{B}\\sbra{1_+}{B}\\Big]\n    \\end{split}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $T_{A\/B}$ are the single particle translation operators such that $T_{A\/B}(\\eta)\\ket{x_{A\/B}}=\\ket{x_{A\/B}+\\eta}$. We find\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{split}\n        H' &= U(\\delta x_{10}) H U^\\dagger(\\delta x_{10})\\\\\n        &= \\frac{p_A^2}{2M} + \\frac{p_B^2}{2M} + \\frac{1}{2}M\\omega_{\\rm t}^2\\left(x_A+\\frac{\\delta x_{\\rm av}}{2}\\right)^2\\\\\n        &\\quad+ \\frac{1}{2}M\\omega_{\\rm t}^2\\left(x_B-\\frac{\\delta x_{\\rm av}}{2}\\right)^2\\\\\n         &\\quad + \\frac{\\Lambda_{10}}{4\\pi\\epsilon_0}\\big[D_A D_B^\\dagger K(\\delta x_{10}) + D_A^\\dagger D_B K^\\dagger(\\delta x_{10})\\\\\n         &\\qquad\\qquad+D_A D_B F(\\delta x_{10}) + D_A^\\dagger D_B^\\dagger F^\\dagger(\\delta x_{10})\\big],\n    \\end{split}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\delta x_{\\rm av}=\\frac{1}{2}(\\delta x_0+ \\delta x_1)$, $\\delta x_{10}=\\frac{1}{2}(\\delta x_0-\\delta x_1)$, $D_{A} = \\sket{1_-}{A}\\sbra{0_-}{A}$, $D_B = \\sket{1_+}{B}\\sbra{0_+}{B}$ and we have defined the operators\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{split}\n    K(\\eta) &= T_A\\left(\\tfrac{\\eta}{2}\\right)T_B\\left(\\tfrac{\\eta}{2}\\right)\\frac{1}{|x_B-x_A|^3}T_A^\\dagger\\left(-\\tfrac{\\eta}{2}\\right)T_B^\\dagger\\left(-\\tfrac{\\eta}{2}\\right),\\\\\n    F(\\eta) &= T_A\\left(\\tfrac{\\eta}{2}\\right)T_B\\left(-\\tfrac{\\eta}{2}\\right)\\frac{1}{|x_B-x_A|^3}T_A^\\dagger\\left(-\\tfrac{\\eta}{2}\\right)T_B^\\dagger\\left(\\tfrac{\\eta}{2}\\right).\n    \\end{split}\n\\end{equation}\nWe can immediately neglect, as before, the off-resonant terms in $D_A D_B$ and $D_A^\\dagger D_B^\\dagger$ because they couple internal states which are separated by the rotational energy.\nTransforming again to the dimensionless relative position operators we have\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{split}\n        \\tilde{H}' &= \\frac{1}{\\hbar\\omega_{\\rm t}} H' = \\frac{p_{\\rm cm}^2}{2} + \\frac{p_{\\rm rel}^2}{2} + \\frac{1}{2} x_{\\rm cm}^2 + \\frac{1}{2} (x_{\\rm rel}-\\tilde{\\delta x}_\\mathrm{av})^2 \\\\&\\quad +\\frac{r^3}{|x_{\\rm rel}|^3}\\big[T_{\\rm cm}(2\\xi)D_A D_B^\\dagger + T_{\\rm cm}(-2\\xi)D_A^\\dagger D_B\\big],\n    \\end{split}\n    \\label{eqSupp:red-mot-ham-shift}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\xi = \\sqrt{\\frac{M\\omega_{\\rm t}}{2\\hbar}}\\delta x_{10}$ and $\\tilde{\\delta x}_\\mathrm{av}=\\sqrt{\\frac{M\\omega_{\\rm t}}{2\\hbar}}\\delta x_\\mathrm{av}$. $T_{\\rm cm}$ and $T_{\\rm rel}$ are the translation operators for the dimensionless center-of-mass and relative coordinates respectively and we have used $T_A(\\frac{\\delta x_{10}}{2}) = T_{\\rm rel}(-\\frac{\\xi}{2})T_{\\rm cm}(\\frac{\\xi}{2})$, $T_B(\\frac{\\delta x_{10}}{2}) = T_{\\rm rel}(\\frac{\\xi}{2})T_{\\rm cm}(\\frac{\\xi}{2})$. In Eq.~\\eqref{eqSupp:red-mot-ham-shift}, the dipole-dipole interaction couples the center-of-mass and relative motions, and has an off-diagonal matrix element between the states $\\ket{\\Psi^+}$ and $\\ket{\\Psi^-}$.\n\nWe note that $\\tilde{H}' = \\tfrac{1}{\\hbar \\omega_{\\rm t}}H_{\\rm m} +\\delta H$ where $H_{\\rm m}$ is given by Eq.~(\\ref{eqSupp:ham-mot-red}) and\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{split}\n   \\delta H =& \\frac{r^3}{|x_{\\rm rel}|^3}\\big[T_{\\rm cm}(2\\xi)D_A D_B^\\dagger+ T_{\\rm cm}(-2\\xi)D_A^\\dagger D_B\\big]\\\\ &- \\frac{r^3}{|x_{\\rm rel}|^3}\\big[D_A D_B^\\dagger + D_A^\\dagger D_B\\big].\n \\end{split}\n\\end{equation}\nTaking zeroth-order eigenstates to be those of $H_{\\rm m}$, and using first-order perturbation theory, we find that the dipole-dipole energies are just multiplied by the factor $e^{-\\xi^2}$. This factor is used in the calculation of the dipole-dipole interaction in the main text. It accounts for the shifted potentials irrespective of the size of the dipole-dipole interaction because the center-of-mass eigenstates of Eq.~\\eqref{eqSupp:ham-cm} are unchanged by the dipole-dipole interaction.\n\n\\section{Tunneling}\n\nStates that have total angular momentum $F>1\/2$ will be subject to a tensor ac Stark shift. This has several effects. One is to make the trap frequencies for different states differ from each other. For the parameters considered in this work, this effect is small. The most important effect is to give an off-diagonal term that couples together states with $\\Delta m_F \\le 2$. For pairs of states that are degenerate at $x=0$, this introduces an avoided crossing and provides a mechanism for molecules to tunnel from one potential to the other. \n\nLet $a$ be the matrix element of the tensor part of the Stark shift operator between the pair of states, and assume that this is constant across the region of interest. The single-molecule tunneling rate is\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\gamma_\\mathrm{t} \\simeq 2 |a| \\cusbraket{\\phi_-}{\\phi_+}.\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\ket{\\phi_-}$ and $\\ket{\\phi_+}$ are the motional states corresponding to the pair of internal states. If we assume harmonic oscillator ground states, this is $2 |a| e^{-\\tilde{\\delta x}^2\/2}$. \n\nIn the realistic example described in the main text, there is no tunneling because we choose orthogonal tweezer polarizations so that $a=0$ for all pairs of states. If instead we choose parallel polarizations, there can be tunelling between the $\\ket{1_\\pm}$ states with $|a|=\\SI{1.4}{\\mega\\hertz}$. Taking the same tweezer parameters used in the main text, $\\delta x$ for this pair of states is \\SI{175}{\\nano\\meter}, and $\\gamma_{\\rm t}$ is \\SI{2.6}{\\kilo\\hertz}.\n\n\\section{Photon scattering rate}\n\nThe scattering rate is dominated by the vector tweezer since it is tuned much closer to resonance than the scalar tweezer. The scattering rate from light tuned to the midpoint of the fine structure interval is dominated by scattering from these two levels and is well approximated by,\n\\begin{equation}\n    R_\\mathrm{ph} = \\frac{2\\Gamma\\Omega^2}{3\\delta_{\\rm fs}^2}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\Omega=d_{AX}\\sqrt{2 I\/\\epsilon_0 c}\/\\hbar$ is the Rabi frequency and $\\Gamma$ is the linewidth of the $^2\\Pi$ state. For CaF we have $\\Gamma=2\\pi\\times \\SI{8.3}{\\mega\\hertz}$, $\\delta_{\\rm fs}=2\\pi\\times\\SI{2.14}{\\tera\\hertz}$ and $d_{AX}=0.97\\times\\SI{5.95}{\\debye}$ where the first factor is the Franck-Condon factor and the second is the transition dipole moment between electronic states. \n\n\\section{Collisional loss rate}\n\nThe collisional loss rate for two molecules with wavefunctions $\\psi_A(x)$ and $\\psi_B(x)$ is\n\\begin{equation}\n    R_{\\rm col} = \\beta \\int |\\psi_A(x)|^2|\\psi_B(x)|^2 \\mathrm{d}^3 x\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\beta$ is the two-body loss rate constant, recently measured for CaF in \\SI{780}{\\nano\\meter} tweezer traps \\cite{Cheuk2020}. For two molecules in the motional ground states of two displaced but otherwise identical potential wells, this is\n\\begin{equation}\n    R_{\\rm col} = \\beta \\left(\\frac{m}{2 \\pi\\hbar}\\right)^\\frac{3}{2} \\omega_{\\rm r} \\omega_{\\rm a}^\\frac{1}{2} e^{-\\tilde{\\delta x}^2}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\omega_{\\rm r}$ is the trap frequency in the radial direction and $\\omega_{\\rm a}$ is the trap frequency in the axial direction.\n\nWe find that, for CaF in a trap that has $\\omega_{\\rm r}=2\\pi\\times\\SI{200}{\\kilo\\hertz}$, $\\omega_{\\rm a}=2\\pi\\times\\SI{35}{\\kilo\\hertz}$, keeping the collisional loss rate below \\SI{1}{\\hertz} requires a separation of 4.7 oscillator lengths, or \\SI{140}{\\nano\\meter}. The rate is very sensitive to separation in this region -- decreasing the separation to 3.6 harmonic oscillator lengths (or \\SI{106}{\\nano\\meter}) increases the loss rate to \\SI{100}{\\hertz}.\n\n\\section{Transport}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics{transport-c2.pdf}\n    \\caption{Trap merge sequence. (a) Intensity ramps of the different tweezers used in the sequence. (b) Separation of the potential minima as a function of time. Top row shows snapshots of potentials at three different times in the sequence.}\n    \\label{figSupp:transport}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFigure~\\ref{figSupp:transport} illustrates a simple sequence to bring a pair of CaF molecules from two separated potentials into a single, state-dependent trap ready for the fast two-qubit gate. The adiabatic transport is achieved with intensity ramps of four spatially-fixed tweezer traps as shown in Fig.~\\mref{figSupp:transport}{(a)}. The top row of the figure shows the potentials at three points during the merger. The molecules begin in two \\SI{780}{\\nano\\meter} tweezers focused at $x=\\pm\\SI{0.6}{\\micro\\meter}$, each having power $P_{\\rm sep}$. A \\SI{604.966}{\\nano\\meter} tweezer and another \\SI{780}{\\nano\\meter} tweezer are focused at $x=0$ and have powers $P_{\\rm vec}$ and $P_{\\rm sc}$ respectively. $P_{\\rm sep}$ is ramped down from its initial value of $\\SI{10}{\\milli\\watt}$ while $P_{\\rm vec}$ is ramped up (note that $P_{\\rm vec}$ is shown multiplied by 20 to appear on same scale). Finally $P_{\\rm sc}$ is ramped up to squeeze the two molecules together. Figure~\\mref{figSupp:transport}{(b)} shows the separation of the trap minima as a function of time. The chosen power ramps keep the trap frequency fixed throughout. The mean number of photons scattered during this transport sequence is \\num{1.6e-2} and the probability of motional excitation is smaller still. More sophisticated non-adiabatic sequences will allow for faster transport and fewer scattered photons.\n\n\n\\end{document}","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
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+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\n\\subsection{Polyfold regularization}\n\nConsider a compactified moduli space arising from the study of $J$-holomorphic curves in symplectic geometry.\nA foundational problem is finding some way to give this moduli space enough structure to define invariants.\nPolyfold theory, as developed by Hofer, Wysocki, and Zehnder, has been successful in providing a general abstract framework in which it is possible to ``regularize'' such a moduli space, yielding a perturbed moduli space which has sufficient additional structure.\n\n\\begin{theorem}[Polyfold regularization theorem, {\\cite[Thm.~15.4, Cor.~15.1]{HWZbook}}]\n\tIn some established cases, we can construct a polyfold ${\\mathcal Z}$ such that the compactified moduli space $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}$ is equal to the zero set of a $\\text{sc}$-smooth Fredholm section $\\overline{\\partial}$ of a strong polyfold bundle ${\\mathcal W} \\to {\\mathcal Z}$, i.e., $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}} = \\smash{\\overline{\\partial}}\\vphantom{\\partial}^{-1} (0) \\subset {\\mathcal Z}$.\n\t\n\tWe may then ``regularize'' the moduli space $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}$ by means of an ``abstract perturbation.''\n\tThe perturbed moduli space $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}(p):=(\\overline{\\partial}+p)^{-1}(0)$ then has the structure of a compact oriented ``weighted branched orbifold.''\n\\end{theorem}\n\nIn the boundaryless case, such an approach has been successful in regularizing the Gromov--Witten moduli spaces (see \\cite{HWZGW}).\nA specialized approach has yielded a proof of the Arnold conjecture (see \\cite{filippenko2018arnold}).\nThis approach is also being used in the pursuit of a well-defined symplectic field theory (see \\cite{fish2018sft}).\n\nFor a suitably constructed abstract perturbation, the perturbed moduli space $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}(p)$ has the structure of a compact oriented weighted branched orbifold, and therefore possesses sufficient structure to define the ``branched integration'' of differential forms.\n\n\\begin{theorem}[Polyfold invariants, {\\cite[Cor.~15.2]{HWZbook}}]\n\tLet ${\\mathcal O}$ be an orbifold and consider a $\\text{sc}$-smooth map $f: {\\mathcal Z} \\to {\\mathcal O}$.\n\tWe may define the \\textbf{polyfold invariant} as the homomorphism obtained by pulling back a de Rahm cohomology class from the orbifold and taking the ``branched integral'' over a perturbed moduli space:\n\t\\[\n\tH^*_{\\dR} ({\\mathcal O}) \\to \\mathbb{R}, \\qquad \t\\omega \t\t\t\\mapsto \\int_{\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}(p)} f^*\\omega.\n\t\\]\n\tThis homomorphism does not depend on the choice of abstract perturbation.\n\\end{theorem}\n\nIn particular, this is precisely the form for the polyfold Gromov--Witten invariants defined in \\cite[Thm.~1.12]{HWZbook}.\n\n\\subsection{Naturality of polyfold invariants}\n\nGiven a compactified moduli space $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}$, it is possible to model $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}$ in subtly different ways.\nThat is, it is possible to construct distinct polyfolds ${\\mathcal Z}$ and ${\\mathcal Z}'$ which contain $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}$ as a compact subset, $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}} \\subset {\\mathcal Z}$ and $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}} \\subset {\\mathcal Z}'$.\nAfter regularization of the moduli space $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}$ we obtain perturbed moduli spaces $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}(p) \\subset {\\mathcal Z}$ and $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}(p') \\subset {\\mathcal Z}'$ which have the structure of compact oriented weighted branched suborbifolds.\nWe obtain distinct polyfold invariants by taking the branched integral over these perturbed moduli spaces.\nThus, we find ourselves in the following situation: given a moduli space $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}$ we can define polyfold invariants associated to the distinct polyfolds ${\\mathcal Z}$ and ${\\mathcal Z}'$ and which, a priori, we cannot assume are equivalent.\n\\emph{Therefore the polyfold invariants, which aspire to be agnostic of all possible choices, may depend on the subtle choices made in modeling a given moduli space.}\n\nIn this paper, we provide a general framework for studying and resolving this problem.\nThe first step is to find a third polyfold ${\\mathcal Y}$ which models $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}$ and which refines the different structures or choices made, in the sense that there are inclusion maps\n\t\\[\n\t{\\mathcal X}' \\hookleftarrow {\\mathcal Y} \\hookrightarrow {\\mathcal X}.\n\t\\]\nThe problem then reduces to showing that the polyfold invariants for ${\\mathcal Y}$ and ${\\mathcal X}$ are equal.\nWe consider a commutative diagram of inclusion maps between polyfolds and between strong polyfold bundles of the form:\n\t\\[\\begin{tikzcd}\n\t{\\mathcal V} \\arrow[r, hook] \\arrow[d, \"\\overline{\\partial}_{\\mathcal Y} \\quad\"'] & {\\mathcal W} \\arrow[d, \"\\quad \\overline{\\partial}_{\\mathcal Z}\"] &  \\\\\n\t{\\mathcal Y} \\arrow[r, hook] \\arrow[u, bend left] & {\\mathcal Z} \\arrow[u, bend right] & \n\t\\end{tikzcd}\\]\nin addition to a commutative diagram with target space the orbifold ${\\mathcal O}$:\n\t\\[\\begin{tikzcd}\n\t&  & {\\mathcal O} \\\\\n\t{\\mathcal Y} \\arrow[r, hook] \\arrow[rru, \"f_{\\mathcal Y}\"] & {\\mathcal Z} \\arrow[ru, \"f_{\\mathcal Z}\"'] & \n\t\\end{tikzcd}\n\t\\]\nAs outlined at the start of \\S~\\ref{subsec:intermediary-subbundles-naturality}, we assume that these inclusion maps satisfy a number of properties.\nAlthough these hypothesis are somewhat lengthy at a glance, they will be natural from the point of view of our applications, and moreover reflect some commonalities of the practical construction of distinct polyfolds which model the same moduli space.\nIn these application, we furthermore note that the bundle ${\\mathcal V}$ is not the same as the pullback bundle of ${\\mathcal W}$, hence we may not use the methods of pulling back abstract perturbations of Theorem~\\ref{thm:pullback-regular-perturbation}.\n\nThe most substantial hypothesis is the existence of an ``intermediary subbundle,'' a subset of the target strong polyfold bundle ${\\mathcal R}\\subset {\\mathcal W}$ whose object space is fiberwise a (not necessarily complete) vector space and which satisfies some additional properties (see Definition~\\ref{def:intermediate-subbundle}).\n\n\\begin{theorem}[Naturality of polyfold invariants]\n\t\\label{thm:naturality-polyfold-invariants}\n\tConsider a compactified moduli space $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}$ which is modeled by two polyfolds ${\\mathcal Y}$ and ${\\mathcal Z}$, i.e., $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}} \\subset {\\mathcal Y}$ and $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}} \\subset {\\mathcal Z}$.\n\tSuppose there is an inclusion map ${\\mathcal Y} \\hookrightarrow {\\mathcal Z}$.\n\tMoreover, assume we satisfy the hypothesis of the general framework described in \\S~\\ref{subsec:intermediary-subbundles-naturality}.\n\t\n\tSuppose there exists an intermediary subbundle ${\\mathcal R} \\subset {\\mathcal W}$. Then the polyfold invariants for ${\\mathcal Y}$ and ${\\mathcal Z}$ defined via the branched integral are equal.\n\tThis means that, given a de Rahm cohomology class $\\omega\\in H^*_{\\dR} ({\\mathcal O})$ the branched integrals over the perturbed moduli spaces are equal,\n\t\\[\n\t\\int_{\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}(p)} f_{\\mathcal Y}^* \\omega = \\int_{\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}(p')} f_{\\mathcal Z}^* \\omega,\n\t\\]\n\tfor any regular abstract perturbations.\n\\end{theorem}\n\nThe proof ends up being somewhat involved as we encounter some substantial technical difficulties, which we sketch briefly.\nRoughly, the existence of an intermediary subbundle allows the construction of abstract perturbations $p'$ of the strong polyfold bundle ${\\mathcal W} \\to {\\mathcal Z}$ whose restrictions induce a well-defined abstract perturbation $p$ of the strong polyfold bundle ${\\mathcal V} \\to {\\mathcal Y}$.\nThis allows us to consider a well-defined restriction between perturbed moduli spaces, \n\t\\[\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}(p) \\hookrightarrow \\overline{\\mathcal{M}}(p').\\]\nOn the level of topological spaces, this restriction is a continuous bijection.\nWhile we can achieve transversality for both perturbations, the abstract polyfold machinery is only able to ``control the compactness'' of the target perturbed moduli space, hence via usual methods we can only assume that $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}(p')$ is a compact topological space.\n\nUsing only knowledge of the underlying topologies of both of these spaces, it is impossible to say anything more. \nThe key to resolving this problem is understanding the additional structure that these spaces possess---the branched orbifold structure---and using this structure to prove an invariance of domain result for weighted branched orbifolds (see Lemma~\\ref{lem:invariance-of-domain-branched-orbifolds}).\nThis result will allow us to assert that the above map is a homeomorphism---and therefore, $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}(p)$ is also compact.\n\nThe second major difficulty comes from the fact that the restricted perturbation $p$ on the source space is not a ``regular'' perturbation (see Definition~\\ref{def:regular-perturbation}).\nThis is problematic due to the fact that the present theory only guarantees the existence of a compact cobordism between abstract perturbations which are both assumed to be ``regular'' (see Theorem~\\ref{thm:cobordism-between-regular-perturbations}).\nIn order to resolve this problem, we must generalize the abstract perturbation theory to allow for perturbation of $\\text{sc}$-smooth proper ``Fredholm multisections'' (see \\S~\\ref{subsec:fredholm-multisections}).\nThis generalization enables us to construct a compact cobordism from the restricted perturbation $p$ to a regular perturbation (see Proposition~\\ref{prop:cobordism-multisection-regular}).\n\n\\begin{comment}\nExplain the problem in simple terms...\nAnd explain the main theorem in simple terms.\nAnd then explain some basic steps and ideas required in the proof of the main theorem.\n\nGiven a compact moduli space $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}$, it is possible to model the problem with distinct polyfolds which contain $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}$ as a compact subset.\nAfter regularization, we then have perturbed moduli spaces, which have the structure of compact weighted branched orbifolds.\nThe polyfold invariants are defined by integration over these compact weighted branched orbifolds.\nAlthough they are supposed to model the same moduli space, a priori we cannot assume that these polyfold invariants are equal.\n\nWe provide a general framework for studying this problem.\nFirst step, is to find a polyfold which refines the different structures \/ choices of the two polyfolds xxx, in the sense that there should be inclusion maps\n\nBy symmetry, it is equivalent to show the polyfold invariants for ${\\mathcal Y}$ and ${\\mathcal X}$ are equal.\nAs part of the general framework, we consider commutative diagrams of the form:\n\t\\[\\begin{tikzcd}\n\tDIAGRAM\n\t\\end{tikzcd}\\]\nThere are a long list of expected properties of the smooth inclusion ${\\mathcal Y} \\hookrightarrow {\\mathcal X}$ should naturally satisfy, see the introduction of the section XXX.\n(We should note at the outset that the bundle W is not the same as the pullback bundle)\nThese expected properties don't really help us in solving this problem, but they do give us a foothold in understanding the difficulties.\n\nThe key object of study is an ``intermediary subbundle,'' a subset $R\\subset W$ which is fiberwise a bundle, and satsfies some additional properties.\n\n\\begin{theorem}\n\tSuppose we are in the general framework as outlined in section XXX.\n\tSuppose there exists an intermediary subbundle.\n\tThen the polyfold invariants are equal.\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\nWe give a sketch of some of the ideas involved in the proof of the theorem.\nRoughly, the existence of an intermediary subbundle allows us to construct abstract perturbations which have a well defined restriction.\nThis allows us to get a well-defined restriction between perturbed solution spaces:\n\nHowever, while we can control the compactness of the target space, we have no hope of controlling the compactness of the source space.\nAnd from the point of view of point-set topology, we are totally stuck.\n\nETC continue the argument...\n\\end{comment}\n\n\\subsection{Application: Naturality of the polyfold Gromov--Witten invariants}\n\nThe construction of a Gromov--Witten polyfold structure requires choices, such as the choice of a cut-off function in the gluing constructions, choices of good uniformizing families of stable maps, choice of a locally finite refinement of a cover of M-polyfold charts, as well as the exponential gluing profile.\n\nIn addition to these choices, one must also choose a strictly increasing sequence $(\\delta_i)_{i\\geq 0} \\subset (0,2\\pi)$, i.e.,\n\t\\[\n\t0<\\delta_0 < \\delta_1 < \\cdots < 2\\pi.\n\t\\]\nThis sequence is used to define $\\text{sc}$-Banach spaces which are then used to define the M-polyfold models of the Gromov--Witten polyfold ${\\mathcal Z}_{A,g,k}^{3,\\delta_0}$ (see \\cite[\\S~2.4]{HWZGW}).\n\nThe following theorem states that, having fixed the exponential gluing profile and a strictly increasing sequence $(\\delta_i)_{i\\geq 0}\\subset (0,2\\pi)$, different choices lead to Morita equivalent polyfold structures. Hence the Gromov--Witten polyfold invariants are independent of such choices.\n\n\\begin{theorem}[{\\cite[Thm.~3.37]{HWZGW}}]\n\tHaving fixed the exponential gluing profile and a strictly increasing sequence $(\\delta_i)_{i\\geq 0}\\subset (0,2\\pi)$, the underlying topological space ${\\mathcal Z}_{A,g,k}^{3,\\delta_0}$ possesses a  natural equivalence class of polyfold structures.\n\\end{theorem}\n\nWe can use Theorem~\\ref{thm:naturality-polyfold-invariants} to show that the polyfold Gromov--Witten invariants are also independent of the choice of increasing sequence, and hence are natural in the sense that they do not depend on any choice made in the construction of the Gromov--Witten polyfolds.\n\n\\begin{corollary}[Naturality of the polyfold Gromov--Witten invariants]\n\t\\label{cor:naturality-polyfold-gw-invariants}\n\tThe polyfold Gromov--Witten invariants do not depend on the choice of an increasing sequence $(\\delta_i)_{i\\geq 0} \\allowbreak \\subset (0,2\\pi)$.\n\\end{corollary}\n\nWe now consider the choice of puncture at the marked points\nThe underlying set of the Gromov--Witten polyfolds consist of stables curves.\nAs constructed in \\cite{HWZbook}, these stable curves are required to satisfy exponential decay estimates on punctured neighborhoods of the nodal pairs.\nIn contrast, for these Gromov--Witten polyfolds no such decay is required at the marked points.\n\nHowever, in some situations we would like to treat the marked points in the same way as the nodal points.\nFor example, this is true in the context of the splitting and genus reduction axioms, where we will wish to identify a pair of marked points with the same image with a nodal pair.\nAllowing a puncture with exponential decay at a specified marked point is a global condition on a Gromov--Witten polyfold, and hence different choices of puncture at the marked points yield distinct Gromov--Witten polyfolds.\n\nWe again use Theorem~\\ref{thm:naturality-polyfold-invariants} to show that the polyfold Gromov--Witten invariants are independent of such choice of puncture at the marked points.\n\n\\begin{corollary}\n\t\\label{cor:punctures-equal}\n\tThe polyfold Gromov--Witten invariants do not depend on the choice of puncture at the marked points.\n\\end{corollary}\n\n\\subsection{Pulling back abstract perturbations in polyfold theory}\n\nConsider distinct moduli spaces $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}$ and $\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}'$ which are modeled by polyfolds ${\\mathcal Y}$ and ${\\mathcal Z}$, respectively.\nConsider a naturally defined $\\text{sc}$-smooth map between polyfolds $f: {\\mathcal Y} \\to {\\mathcal Z}$ which restricts to a map between moduli spaces $f|_{\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}} : \\overline{\\mathcal{M}} \\to \\overline{\\mathcal{M}}'$.\nIn many situations we would like to study the geometry of this map and in order to establish algebraic relationships between the respective polyfold invariants.\n\nHowever, without work, we cannot assume that this map will \\emph{persist} after abstract perturbation.\nAbstract perturbations are constructed using bump functions and choices of vectors in a strong polyfold bundle, which in general we cannot assume will be preserved by the $\\text{sc}$-smooth map $f$.\n\nTo solve this problem, consider a pullback diagram of strong polyfold bundles as follows:\n\t\\[\\begin{tikzcd}\n\tf^* {\\mathcal W} \\arrow[d, \"f^*\\overline{\\partial} \\quad\"'] \\arrow[r, \"\\text{proj}_2\"'] & {\\mathcal W} \\arrow[d, \"\\quad \\overline{\\partial}\"] &  \\\\\n\t{\\mathcal Y} \\arrow[r, \"f\"'] \\arrow[u, bend left] & {\\mathcal Z}. \\arrow[u, bend right] & \n\t\\end{tikzcd}\\]\nThe natural approach for obtaining a well-defined map between the perturbed moduli spaces is to take the pullback an abstract perturbation.\nThe main technical point is ensuring that we can control the compactness of the pullback perturbation.\nThis is achieved by a mild topological hypothesis on the map $f$, called the ``topological pullback condition'' (see Definition~\\ref{topological-pullback-condition}).\n\n\\begin{theorem}\n\t\\label{thm:pullback-regular-perturbation}\n\tConsider a $\\text{sc}$-smooth map between polyfolds, $f: {\\mathcal Y} \\to {\\mathcal Z}$, and consider a pullback diagram of strong polyfold bundles as above.\n\tIf $f$ satisfies the topological pullback condition then there exists a regular perturbation $p$ which pulls back to a regular perturbation $f^*p$.\n\t\n\tIt follows that we can consider a well-defined restriction between perturbed moduli spaces,\n\t\t\\[\n\t\tf|_{\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}(f^*p)} : \\overline{\\mathcal{M}}(f^*p) \\to \\overline{\\mathcal{M}} (p).\n\t\t\\]\n\\end{theorem}\n\nThis theorem follows from the more technically stated Theorem~\\ref{thm:compatible-pullbacks}.\n\n\\subsection{Application: Permutation maps between perturbed Gromov--Witten moduli spaces}\n\nLet $(Q,\\omega)$ be a closed symplectic manifold, and fix a homology class $A \\in H_2 (Q;\\mathbb{Z})$ and integers $g,\\ k\\geq 0$ such that $2g+k \\geq 3$.\nFix a permutation $\\sigma: \\{1,\\ldots, k\\} \\to \\{ 1,\\ldots, k \\}$.\nConsider the natural $\\text{sc}$-diffeomorpism between Gromov--Witten polyfold defined by permuting the marked points,\n\t\\[\n\t\\sigma: {\\mathcal Z}_{A,g,k}\\to {\\mathcal Z}_{A,g,k}.\n\t\\]\nFor a fixed compatible almost complex structure $J$, this map has a well-defined restriction to the unperturbed Gromov--Witten moduli spaces\n\t\\[\n\t\\sigma|_{\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}_{A,g,k}(J)} : \\overline{\\mathcal{M}}_{A,g,k}(J) \\to \\overline{\\mathcal{M}}_{A,g,k}(J).\n\t\\]\n\nAs we have mentioned, abstract perturbations are constructed using bump functions and choic\\-es of vectors in a strong polyfold bundle, which in general will not exhibit symmetry with regards to the labelings of the marked points.\nAs a result, given a stable curve $x\\in {\\mathcal Z}_{A,g,k}$ which satisfies a perturbed equation $(\\overline{\\partial}_J+p)(x)=0$ we cannot expect that $(\\overline{\\partial}_J+p)(\\sigma(x))=0$, as the perturbations are not symmetric with regards to the permutation $\\sigma$.\nTherefore, naively there does not exist a permutation map between perturbed Gromov--Witten moduli spaces.\n\nHowever, since $\\sigma: {\\mathcal Z}_{A,g,k}\\to {\\mathcal Z}_{A,g,k}$ is a homeomorphism on the level of the underlying topological spaces, it is immediate that it satisfies the topological pullback condition, hence we immediately obtain the following corollary.\n\n\\begin{corollary}\n\t\\label{cor:pullback-via-permutation}\n\tThere exists a regular perturbation which pulls back to a regular perturbation via the permutation map $\\sigma:{\\mathcal Z}_{A,g,k}\\to {\\mathcal Z}_{A,g,k}$.\n\tTherefore, we can consider a well-defined permutation map between the perturbed Gromov--Witten moduli spaces,\n\t\t\\[\n\t\t\\sigma|_{\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}_{A,g,k}(\\sigma^*p)} : \\overline{\\mathcal{M}}_{A,g,k}(\\sigma^*p) \\to \\overline{\\mathcal{M}}_{A,g,k} (p).\n\t\t\\]\n\\end{corollary}\n\n\\subsection{Organization of the paper}\n\nWe give a self contained introduction to the basic abstract perturbation machinery of polyfold theory in \\S~\\ref{sec:abstract-perturbations-polyfold-theory}.\nIn \\S~\\ref{subsec:polyfolds-ep-groupoids} we review scale calculus, the definition of a polyfold as an ep-groupoid, and discuss the induced topology on subgroupoids and on branched suborbifolds.\nIn \\S~\\ref{subsec:abstract-perturbations} we discuss strong polyfold bundles, $\\text{sc}$-smooth Fredholm sections and $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection perturbations. In addition, we also discuss transverse perturbations, how to control the compactness of a perturbation, and questions of orientation.\nIn \\S~\\ref{subsec:branched-integral-polyfold-invariants} we consider $\\text{sc}$-smooth differential forms, the definition of the branched integral on a weighted branched suborbifold, and how to define the polyfold invariants.\n\nWe provide a general framework for proving that the polyfold invariants are natural, and do not depend on the construction of a polyfold model for a given moduli space in \\S~\\ref{sec:naturality-polyfold-invariants}.\nIn \\S~\\ref{subsec:invariance-of-domain} we prove an invariance of domain result for branched suborbifolds, Lemma~\\ref{lem:invariance-of-domain-branched-orbifolds}.\nIn \\S~\\ref{subsec:fredholm-multisections} we generalize the polyfold abstract perturbation theory to the case of a $\\text{sc}$-smooth proper Fredholm multisection.\nIn \\S~\\ref{subsec:intermediary-subbundles-naturality} we provide the general framework, introduce the definition of an intermediary subbundle, and prove that the equality of polyfolds invariants in Theorem~\\ref{thm:naturality-polyfold-invariants}.\nIn \\S~\\ref{subsec:independence-sequence} we apply Theorem~\\ref{thm:naturality-polyfold-invariants} to show that the polyfold Gromov--Witten invariants are independent of the choice of increasing sequence.\nIn \\S~\\ref{subsec:independence-punctures} we apply Theorem~\\ref{thm:naturality-polyfold-invariants} to show that the polyfold Gromov--Witten invariants are independent of the choice of puncture at the marked points.\n\nWe discuss how to pull back regular perturbations in \\S~\\ref{sec:pulling-back-abstract-perturbations}.\nIn \\S~\\ref{subsec:pullbacks-strong-polyfold-bundles} we define the pullback of a strong polyfold bundle and of a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection.\nIn \\S~\\ref{subsec:topological-pullback-condition-controlling-compactness} we introduce the topological pullback condition and show how it allows us to pullback a pair which controls compactness.\nIn \\S~\\ref{subsec:construction-regular-perturbation-which-pullback} we construct regular perturbations which pullback to regular perturbations, proving Theorem~\\ref{thm:compatible-pullbacks}.\nIn \\S~\\ref{subsec:permutation-map} we apply Theorem~\\ref{thm:compatible-pullbacks} to obtain a well-defined permutation map between the perturbed Gromov--Witten moduli spaces.\n\nIn Appendix~\\ref{appx:local-surjectivity} we consider some basic properties of the linearized Cauchy--Riemann operator, which allow us to assert the simple fact that cokernel vectors can be chosen so that they vanish on small neighborhoods of the marked or nodal points.\n\n\n\\section{Abstract perturbations in polyfold theory}\n\t\\label{sec:abstract-perturbations-polyfold-theory}\n\nIn this section we recall and summarize the construction of abstract perturbations in polyfold theory, as developed by Hofer, Wysocki, and Zehnder.\n\n\\subsection{Polyfolds and ep-groupoids}\n\t\\label{subsec:polyfolds-ep-groupoids}\n\nWe use the modern language of \\'etale proper Lie groupoids to define polyfolds.  \nThe notion of orbifold was first introduced by Satake \\cite{satake1956generalization}, with further descriptions in terms of groupoids and categories by Haefliger \\cites{haefliger1971homotopy,haefliger1984groupoide,haefliger2001groupoids}, and Moerdijk \\cites{moerdijk2002orbifolds,moerdijk2003introduction}.  \nWith this perspective, a polyfold may be viewed as a generalization of a (usually infinite-dimensional) orbifold, with additional structure.  This generalization of the \\'etale proper Lie groupoid language to the polyfold context is due to Hofer, Wysocki, and Zehnder \\cite{HWZ3}.\nFor full details in the present context, we will refer the reader to \\cite{HWZbook} for the abstract definitions of ep-groupoids in the polyfold context.\n\n\\subsubsection[sc-Structures, M-polyfolds, and polyfold structures]{$\\text{sc}$-Structures, M-polyfolds, and polyfold structures}\n\n\nWe begin by discussing the basic definitions of ``scale calculus'' in polyfold theory.\nScale calculus is a generalization of classical functional analytic concepts, designed to address the classical failure of reparametrization actions to be differentiable (see \\cite[Ex.~2.1.4]{ffgw2016polyfoldsfirstandsecondlook}).\nThus, scale calculus begins by generalizing notions of Banach spaces and of Fr\\'echet differentiability in order to obtain scale structures where reparametrization will be a smooth action.\n\n\n\\begin{definition}[{\\cite[Def.~1.1]{HWZbook}}]\n\tA \\textbf{$\\text{sc}$-Banach space} consists of a Banach space $E$ together with a decreasing sequence of linear subspaces\n\t\\[\n\tE=E_0\\supset E_1 \\supset \\cdots \\supset E_\\infty := \\cap_{i\\geq 0} E_i\n\t\\]\n\tsuch that the following two conditions are satisfied.\n\t\\begin{enumerate}\n\t\t\\item The inclusion operators $E_{m+1} \\to E_m$ are compact.\n\t\t\\item $E_\\infty$ is dense in every $E_i$.\n\t\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{definition}\n\n\\begin{definition}[{\\cite[Def.~1.9]{HWZbook}}]\n\t\\label{def:ssc-differentiability-ssc-Banach-spaces}\n\tA map $f:U\\rightarrow U'$ between two open subsets of $\\text{sc}$-Banach spaces $E$ and $E'$ is called a \\textbf{$\\text{sc}^0$-map}, if  $f(U_i)\\subset U'_i$  for all $i\\geq 0$ and if the induced maps  $f:U_i\\rightarrow U'_i$ are continuous.  \n\tFurthermore, $f$ is called a \\textbf{$\\text{sc}^1$-map}, or of \\textbf{class $\\text{sc}^1$}, if the following conditions are satisfied.\n\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\\item For every $x\\in U_1$ there exists a bounded \n\t\tlinear  map $Df(x)\\in  \\mathcal{L}(E_0, E'_0)$ satisfying for $h\\in\n\t\tE_1$, with $x+h\\in U_1$,\n\t\t\\[\\frac{1}{\\norm{h}_1}\\norm{f(x+h)-f(x)-Df(x)h}_0\\to 0\\quad\n\t\t\\text{as\\ $\\norm{h}_1\\to 0$.}\\mbox{}\\\\[4pt]\\]\n\t\t\\item  The tangent map  $Tf:TU\\to TU'$,\n\t\tdefined by\n\t\t\\[Tf(x, h)=(f(x), Df(x)h),\n\t\t\\]\n\t\tis a $\\text{sc}^0$-map between the tangent spaces.\n\t\\end{itemize}\n\\end{definition}\n\nIf $Tf:TU\\to TU'$ is of class $\\text{sc}^1$, then $f:U\\to U'$ is called of class $\\text{sc}^2$; inductively, the map $f:U\\to E'$ is called of class $\\text{sc}^k$ if the $\\text{sc}^0$-map $T^{k-1}f:T^{k-1}U\\to T^{k-1}E'$ is of class $\\text{sc}^1$.  A map which is of class $\\text{sc}^k$ for every $k$ is called  \\textbf{$\\text{sc}$-smooth}  or of  \\textbf{class $\\text{sc}^{\\infty}$}.  The basic building block which allows us to check the $\\text{sc}$-differentiability of maps is the chain rule.\n\n\\begin{proposition}[Chain rule, {\\cite[Thm.~1.1]{HWZbook}}]\n\tAssume that $E$, $F$, and $G$ are $\\text{sc}$-smooth Banach spaces and $U\\subset E$ and $V\\subset F$ are open sets.  Assume that $f:E\\to F$, $g:V\\to G$ are of class $\\text{sc}^1$ and $f(U)=V$.  Then the composition $g\\circ f :U\\to G$ is of class $\\text{sc}^1$ and the tangent maps satisfy\n\t\\[\n\tT(g\\circ f) = Tg \\circ Tf.\n\t\\]\n\\end{proposition}\n\n\n\n\\begin{definition}[{\\cite[Defs.~2.1,~2.2]{HWZbook}}]\n\tConsider a $\\text{sc}$-Banach space $E$ and consider an open subset $U\\subset E$.  A $\\text{sc}$-smooth map $r:U\\to U$ is called a \\textbf{$\\text{sc}$-smooth retraction} on $U$ if $r\\circ r = r$.\n\tA \\textbf{local M-polyfold model (without boundary)} is a pair $(O,E)$ consisting of a $\\text{sc}$-Banach space $E$ and a subset $O\\subset E$ such that there exists a $\\text{sc}$-smooth retraction $r:U \\to U$ defined on an open subset $U\\subset E$ such that $r(U)= O$.  We call $O$, equipped with the subspace topology $O\\subset E$, a \\textbf{$\\text{sc}$-retract}.\n\\end{definition}\n\nThese definitions of $\\text{sc}$-differentiability extend to local M-polyfolds models in the following way.\n\\begin{definition}[{\\cite[Def.~2.4]{HWZbook}}]\n\tA map $f:O \\to O'$ between two local M-polyfold models is of \\textbf{class $\\text{sc}^k$} if the composition  $f\\circ r:U\\to E'$ is of class $\\text{sc}^k$ where $U\\subset E$ is an open subset of the $\\text{sc}$-Banach space $E$ and where $r:U\\to U$ is a $\\text{sc}$-smooth retraction onto $r(U)=O$. \n\\end{definition}\n\n\\begin{comment}\n{only include this if i want to elaborate more about reparametrization.\nIn Gromov--Witten theory the compactification phenomena consist of nodal curves; hence our local M-polyfold models are without boundary and the $i$th-noded curves appear as interior points in the local M-polyfold models of codimension $2i$ (see \\cite[Rem.~5.3.2]{ffgw2016polyfoldsfirstandsecondlook}).\nOther cases such as Hamiltonian Floer theory (as first introduced in \\cite{floer1988unregularized}) and Symplectic Field Theory (as first introduced in \\cite{egh2000introduction}) would require the inclusion of partial quadrants in order to deal with boundaries and corners (see \\cite[Defs.~1.6,~2.2]{HWZbook} for details on local M-polyfold models with partial quadrants).}\n\\end{comment}\n\nIn the absence of isotropy, we may consider the following definition of an ``M-polyfold,'' short for a ``polyfold of manifold type.''\n\n\\begin{definition}[{\\cite[Def.~2.8]{HWZbook}}]\n\tWe say that a paracompact Hausdorff topological space $Z$ is an \\textbf{M-polyfold} if every point $z\\in Z$ has an open neighborhood\n\twhich is homeomorphic to a $\\text{sc}$-retract $O$, and such that the induced transition maps between any two $\\text{sc}$-retracts are $\\text{sc}$-smooth.\n\\end{definition}\n\nHowever, in almost all situations that arise isotropy is inevitable, and must be dealt with.\nIn this sense, polyfold behave like infinite-dimensional orbifolds, and so we introduce the language of ep-groupoids.\n\n\\begin{definition}[{\\cite[Defs.~7.1,~7.3]{HWZbook}}]\n\tA \\textbf{groupoid} $(Z,{\\bar\\m}{Z})$ is a small category consisting of a set of objects $Z$, a set of morphisms ${\\bar\\m}{Z}$ which are all invertible, and the five structure maps $(s,t,m,u,i)$ (the source, target, multiplication, unit, and inverse maps).\n\tAn \\textbf{ep-groupoid} is a groupoid $(Z,{\\bar\\m}{Z})$ such that the object set $Z$ and the morphism set ${\\bar\\m}{Z}$ are both M-polyfolds, and such that all the structure maps are $\\text{sc}$-smooth maps which satisfy the following properties.\n\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\\item \\textbf{(\\'etale).}  The source and target maps\n\t\t$s:{\\bar\\m}{Z}\\to Z$ and $t:{\\bar\\m}{Z}\\to Z$ are surjective local sc-diffeomorphisms.\n\t\t\\item \\textbf{(proper).}  For every point $z\\in Z$, there exists an\n\t\topen neighborhood $V(z)$ so that the map\n\t\t$t:s^{-1}(\\overline{V(z)})\\rightarrow Z$ is a proper mapping.\n\t\\end{itemize}\n\\end{definition}\n\nFor a fixed object $z\\in Z$ we denote the \\textbf{isotropy group of $z$} by\n\t\\[\n\t{\\bar\\m}{G}(z) := \\{\t\\phi \\in {\\bar\\m}{Z} \\mid s(\\phi)=t(\\phi = z)\t\\}.\n\t\\]\nBy \\cite[Prop.~7.4]{HWZbook}, the properness condition ensures that this is a finite group.\nThe \\textbf{orbit space} of the ep-groupoid $(Z,{\\bar\\m}{Z})$,\n\t\\[\n\t\\abs{Z} := Z \/ \\sim,\n\t\\]\nis the quotient of the set of objects $Z$ by the equivalence relation given by $z\\sim z'$ if there exists a morphism $\\phi\\in {\\bar\\m}{Z}$ with $s(\\phi)=z$ and $t(\\phi)=z'$.  It is equipped with the quotient topology defined via the map \n\t\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:quotient-map}\n\t\\pi: Z\\to\\abs{Z}, \\qquad z\\mapsto \\abs{z}.\n\t\\end{equation}\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{definition}[{\\cite[Def.~16.1]{HWZbook}}]\n\tLet ${\\mathcal Z}$ be a second countable, paracompact, Hausdorff topological space.  A \\textbf{polyfold structure} on ${\\mathcal Z}$ consists of an ep-groupoid $(Z,{\\bar\\m}{Z})$ and a homeomorphism $\\abs{Z}\\simeq {\\mathcal Z}$.\n\\end{definition}\n\nDefining an ep-groupoid involves making a choice of local structures.  Taking an equivalence class of ep-groupoids makes our differentiable structure choice independent.  The appropriate notion of equivalence in this category-theoretic context is a ``Morita equivalence class'' (see \\cite[Def.~3.2]{HWZ3})\n\n\\begin{definition}[{\\cite[Def.~16.3]{HWZbook}}]\n\tA \\textbf{polyfold} consists of a second countable, paracompact, Hausdorff topological space ${\\mathcal Z}$ together with a Morita equivalence class of polyfold structures $[(Z,{\\bar\\m}{Z})]$ on ${\\mathcal Z}$.\n\\end{definition}\n\nTaking a Morita equivalence class of a given polyfold structure (in the case of polyfolds) is analogous to taking a maximal atlas for a given atlas (in the usual definition of manifolds).\nGiven distinct polyfold structures which define an orbifold or a polyfold, the method of proving they define the same Morita equivalence class is by demonstrating that both polyfold structures possess a common refinement.\n\nThe scales of a $\\text{sc}$-Banach space induce a filtration on the local M-polyfold models, which is moreover preserved by the structure maps $s,t$.  Consequently, there is a well-defined filtration on the orbit space which hence induces a filtration\n\t\\[\n\t{\\mathcal Z} = {\\mathcal Z}_0 \\supset {\\mathcal Z}_1 \\supset \\cdots \\supset {\\mathcal Z}_\\infty = \\cap_{k\\geq 0} {\\mathcal Z}_k\n\t\\]\non the underlying topological space ${\\mathcal Z}$.\n\n\\begin{notation}\n\tIt is common to denote both the ep-groupoid ``$(Z,{\\bar\\m}{Z})$,'' and its object set ``$Z$,'' by the same letter ``$Z$.''\t\n\tWe will refer to the underlying set, the underlying topological space, or the polyfold by the letter ``${\\mathcal Z}$.''\n\tWe will always assume that a topological space ${\\mathcal Z}$ with a polyfold structure is necessarily second countable, paracompact, and Hausdorff.\t\n\tFurthermore, we will write objects as ``$x\\in Z$,'' morphisms as ``$\\phi \\in {\\bar\\m}{Z}$,'' and points as ``$[x]\\in {\\mathcal Z}$'' (due to the identification $\\abs{Z} \\simeq {\\mathcal Z}$). We will write ``$\\phi: x\\to y$'' for a morphism $\\phi \\in {\\bar\\m}{Z}$ with $s(\\phi)=x$ and $t(\\phi)=y$.\n\\end{notation}\n\nThe local topology of a polyfold is related to the local isotropy groups, as demonstrated by the following proposition.\n\n\\begin{proposition}[Natural representation of ${\\bar\\m}{G}(x)$, {\\cite[Thm.~7.1, Prop.~7.6]{HWZbook}}]\n\t\\label{prop:natural-representation}\n\tLet be an ep-groupoid $(Z,{\\bar\\m}{Z})$.  Let $x\\in Z$ with isotropy group ${\\bar\\m}{G}(x)$.  Then for every open neighborhood $V$ of $x$ there exists an open neighborhood $U\\subset V$ of $x$, a group homomorphism $\\Phi : {\\bar\\m}{G}(x)\\rightarrow \\text{Diff}_{\\text{sc}}(U)$, $g\\mapsto  \\Phi (g)$,  and a $\\text{sc}$-smooth map\n\t$\\Gamma: {\\bar\\m}{G}(x)\\times U\\rightarrow {\\bar\\m}{Z}$ such that the following holds.\n\t\\begin{enumerate}\n\t\t\\item $\\Gamma(g,x)=g$.\n\t\t\\item $s(\\Gamma(g,y))=y$ and $t(\\Gamma(g,y))=\\Phi (g)(y)$ for all $y\\in U$ and $g\\in {\\bar\\m}{G}(x)$.\n\t\t\\item If $h: y\\rightarrow z$ is a morphism between points in $U$, then there exists a unique element $g\\in {\\bar\\m}{G}(x)$ satisfying $\\Gamma(g,y)=h$, i.e., \n\t\t\\[\n\t\t\\Gamma: {\\bar\\m}{G}(x)\\times U\\rightarrow \\{\\phi\\in {\\bar\\m}{Z} \\mid   \\text{$s(\\phi)$ and $t(\\phi)\\in U$}\\}\n\t\t\\]\n\t\tis a bijection.\n\t\\end{enumerate}\n\tThe data $(\\Phi,\\Gamma)$ is called the \\textbf{natural representation} of ${\\bar\\m}{G}(x)$.\n\tMoreover, consider the following topological spaces:\n\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\\item ${\\bar\\m}{G}(x) \\backslash U$, equipped with quotient topology defined by the projection $U \\to {\\bar\\m}{G}(x) \\backslash U$,\n\t\t\\item $U \/ \\sim$, where $x \\sim x'$ for $x, x' \\in U$ if there exists a morphism $\\phi \\in {\\bar\\m}{Z}$ with $s(\\phi)=x$ and $t(\\phi)=x$, equipped with the quotient topology defined by the projection $U \\to U \/ \\sim$,\n\t\t\\item $\\abs{U}$, the image of $U$ under the map $Z\\to \\abs{Z}$, equipped with the subspace topology defined by the inclusion $\\abs{U}\\subset \\abs{Z}$.\n\t\\end{itemize}\n\tThen these spaces are all naturally homeomorphic.\n\\end{proposition}\n\n\\subsubsection{Maps between polyfolds}\n\nUsing category-theoretic language, we discuss the definition of map between polyfolds.\n\n\\begin{definition}\n\tA \\textbf{$\\text{sc}^k$ functor} between two polyfold structures\n\t\\[\n\t\\hat{f}:(Z_1,{\\bar\\m}{Z}_1) \\to (Z_2,{\\bar\\m}{Z}_2)\n\t\\]\n\tis a functor on groupoidal categories which moreover is a $\\text{sc}^k$ map when considered on the object and morphism sets.\n\\end{definition}\n\nA $\\text{sc}^k$ functor between two polyfold structures $(Z_1,{\\bar\\m}{Z}_1)$, $(Z_2,{\\bar\\m}{Z}_2)$ with underlying topological spaces ${\\mathcal Z}_1$, ${\\mathcal Z}_2$ induces a continuous map on the orbit spaces $\\abs{\\hat{f}}:\\abs{Z_1} \\to \\abs{Z_2}$, and hence also induces a continuous map $f : {\\mathcal Z}_1 \\to {\\mathcal Z}_2$, as illustrated in the following commutative diagram.\n\t\\[\n\t\\begin{tikzcd}[row sep=small]\n\t\\abs{Z_1} \\arrow[d,phantom,\"\\rotatebox{90}{\\(\\simeq\\)}\"] \\arrow[r,\"\\abs{\\hat{f}}\"] & \\abs{Z_2} \\arrow[d,phantom,\"\\rotatebox{90}{\\(\\simeq\\)}\"] \\\\\n\t{\\mathcal Z}_1 \\arrow[r,\"f\"] & {\\mathcal Z}_2\n\t\\end{tikzcd}\n\t\\]\n\n\\begin{definition}\n\tConsider two topological spaces  ${\\mathcal Z}_1$, ${\\mathcal Z}_2$ with orbifold structures $(Z_1,{\\bar\\m}{Z}_1)$, $(Z_2,{\\bar\\m}{Z}_2)$. We define a \\textbf{$\\text{sc}^k$ map between polyfolds} as a continuous map \n\t\\[\n\tf: {\\mathcal Z}_1 \\to {\\mathcal Z}_2\n\t\\]\n\tbetween the underlying topological spaces of the polyfolds, for which there exists an associated $\\text{sc}^k$ functor\n\t\\[\n\t\\hat{f}: (Z_1,{\\bar\\m}{Z}_1) \\to (Z_2,{\\bar\\m}{Z}_2).\n\t\\]\n\tsuch that $\\abs{\\hat{f}}$ induces $f$.\n\\end{definition}\n\n\\begin{remark}\n\tFrom an abstract point of view a stronger notion of map is needed.   This leads to the definition of \\textit{generalized maps} between orbifold structures, following a category-theoretic localization procedure \\cite[\\S~2.3]{HWZ3}.  Following this, a precise notion of map between two polyfolds is defined using an appropriate equivalence class of a given generalized map between two given polyfold structures \\cite[Def.~16.5]{HWZbook}.\t\n\tWith this in mind, taking an appropriate equivalence class of a given $\\text{sc}^k$-functor between two given polyfold structures is sufficient for giving a well-defined map between two polyfolds.\n\\end{remark}\n\n\\subsubsection{Subgroupoids}\n\nWe state some essential facts about the topology of subgroupoids.\n\n\\begin{definition}\t\n\tLet $(Z,{\\bar\\m}{Z})$ be an ep-groupoid.\n\tWe say that a subset of the object set, $S\\subset Z$, is \\textbf{saturated} if $S = \\pi^{-1} (\\pi(S))$, where $\\pi$ is the quotient map \\eqref{eq:quotient-map}.\n\tWe define a \\textbf{subgroupoid} as the full subcategory $(S,{\\bar\\m}{S})$ associated to a saturated subset of the object set.\n\n\n\\end{definition}\n\nA subgroupoid $(S,{\\bar\\m}{S})$ comes equipped with the subspace topology induced from the ep-groupoid $(Z,{\\bar\\m}{Z})$, in addition to the induced grading.  It does not come with a $\\text{sc}$-smooth structure in general, so the \\'etale condition no longer makes sense.  However, one may observe it inherits the following directly analogous properties.\n\\begin{itemize}\n\t\\item The source and target maps are surjective local homeomorphisms which moreover respect the induced grading. We say that the source and target maps are \\textbf{$\\text{sc}^0$-homeomorphisms} and the subgroupoid $(S,{\\bar\\m}{S})$ is automatically \\textbf{$\\text{sc}^0$-\\'etale}.\n\t\\item For every point $x\\in S$, there exists an open neighborhood $V(x)$ so that the map $t: s^{-1}(\\overline{V(x)}) \\to S$ is a proper mapping. (This can be shown from the definitions, using in addition that if $f:X\\to Y$ is proper, then for any subset $V\\subset Y$ the restriction $f|_{f^{-1}(V)}: f^{-1}(V)\\to V$ is proper.)\n\\end{itemize}\nThus, a subgroupoid is automatically $\\text{sc}^0$-\\'etale in the above sense, as well as proper.\n\n\\begin{remark}\n\t\\label{rmk:local-topology-subgroupoid}\n\tLet $U$ be an open subset of $S$.\n\tWe may consider two topologies on $U$:\n\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\\item $(U, \\tau_S)$, where $\\tau_S$ is the subspace topology induced from the inclusion $\\cup_{i\\in I} M_i \\allowbreak \\hookrightarrow S$,\n\t\t\\item $(U, \\tau_Z)$, where $\\tau_Z$ is the subspace topology induced from the inclusion $\\cup_{i\\in I} M_i \\allowbreak \\hookrightarrow Z$.\n\t\\end{itemize}\n\tThen these two topologies are identical. Moreover, $U\\hookrightarrow S$ is a local homeomorphism.\n\\end{remark}\n\n\\begin{comment}\n\tLet $Y$ be a topological space.  Let $X$ be a subset of $Y$, and equip $X$ with the subspace topology.  Consider an open subset $A\\subset X$, hence $A= X\\cap U$ for some open subset $U$ of $Y$.\n\tWe can equip $A$ with the subspace topology induced from the inclusion $A\\hookrightarrow X$, or the subspace topology induced from the inclusion $A\\hookrightarrow Y$.\n\tThen these two topologies are identical.  Moreover, $A\\hookrightarrow X$ is a local homeomorphism.\n\\end{comment}\n\n\\begin{proposition}\n\t\\label{prop:topology-subgroupoid}\n\tConsider the orbit space of a subgroupoid, $\\abs{S}$.  There are two topologies on this space we may consider:\n\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\\item the subspace topology $\\tau_s$, induced from the inclusion $\\abs{S}\\subset \\abs{Z}$,\n\t\t\\item the quotient topology $\\tau_q$, induced from the projection $S\\to \\abs{S}$.\n\t\\end{itemize}\n\tThese two topologies are identical.\n\\end{proposition}\n\\begin{proof}\nWe show that $\\tau_s = \\tau_q$.\n\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\\item $\\tau_s \\subset \\tau_q$\n\t\\end{itemize}\n\tSuppose $U\\subset \\abs{S}$ and $U\\in \\tau_s$.  Then $U = V\\cap \\abs{S}$ for $V\\subset \\abs{Z}$ open.  By definition, $\\pi^{-1} (V) \\subset Z$ is open.  Moreover, $\\pi^{-1} (U)  = \\pi^{-1} (V) \\cap \\pi^{-1}(S) = \\pi^{-1}(V)\\cap S$.  Hence $\\pi^{-1}(U)$ is open in $S$.  It follows from the definition of the quotient topology that $U\\in \\tau_q$.\n\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\\item $\\tau_q \\subset \\tau_s$\n\t\\end{itemize}\n\tSuppose $U\\subset \\abs{S}$ and $U\\in \\tau_q$.  We will show for every $[x]\\in U$ there exists a subset $B \\subset \\abs{S}$ such that $B \\in \\tau_s$ and $[x] \\in B \\subset U$.  It will then follow that $U\\in\\tau_s$, as desired.\n\t\n\tLet $x\\in \\pi^{-1}(U)$ be a representative of $[x]$.  There exists an open neighborhood $V(x) \\subset Z$ equipped with the natural action by ${\\bar\\m}{G}(x)$ and such that $V(x) \\cap S \\subset \\pi^{-1}(U)$.\n\tObserve that $\\abs{V(x)\\cap S} = \\abs{V(x)} \\cap \\abs{S}$; this follows since $S$ is saturated.\t\n\t\n\tLet $B:= \\abs{V(x)} \\cap \\abs{S} \\subset U$.  Then observe that $\\abs{V(x)} \\subset \\abs{Z}$ is open,\n\tsince the quotient map $\\pi : Z \\to \\abs{Z}$ is an open map (see \\cite[Prop.~7.1]{HWZbook}).\n\tHence $B:=\\abs{V(x)} \\cap \\abs{S}\\subset \\abs{S}$ is open in the subspace topology.  It follows that  $B \\in \\tau_s$ and $[x] \\in B \\subset U$, as desired.\n\\end{proof}\n\nThe following proposition is an analog of Proposition~\\ref{prop:natural-representation} for subgroupoids.\n\n\\begin{proposition}[Induced representation of ${\\bar\\m}{G}(x)$ for a subgroupoid]\n\t\\label{prop:natural-representation-subgroupoid}\n\tLet $(S,{\\bar\\m}{S})$ be a subgroupoid of an ep-groupoid $(Z,{\\bar\\m}{Z})$.  Let $x\\in S$ with isotropy group ${\\bar\\m}{G}(x)$.  Then for every open neighborhood $V$ of $x$ there exists an open neighborhood $U\\subset V$ of $x$, a group homomorphism $\\Phi : {\\bar\\m}{G}(x)\\rightarrow \\text{Homeo}_{\\text{sc}^0}(U)$, $g\\mapsto  \\Phi (g)$,  and a $\\text{sc}^0$-map\n\t$\\Gamma: {\\bar\\m}{G}(x)\\times U\\rightarrow {\\bar\\m}{S}$ such that the following holds.\n\t\\begin{enumerate}\n\t\t\\item $\\Gamma(g,x)=g$,\n\t\t\\item $s(\\Gamma(g,y))=y$ and $t(\\Gamma(g,y))=\\Phi (g)(y)$ for all $y\\in U$ and $g\\in {\\bar\\m}{G}(x)$,\n\t\t\\item if $h: y\\rightarrow z$ is a morphism between points in $U$, then there exists a unique element $g\\in {\\bar\\m}{G}(x)$ satisfying $\\Gamma(g,y)=h$, i.e., \n\t\t\\[\n\t\t\\Gamma: {\\bar\\m}{G}(x)\\times U\\rightarrow \\{\\phi\\in {\\bar\\m}{Z} \\mid   \\text{$s(\\phi)$ and $t(\\phi)\\in U$}\\}\n\t\t\\]\n\t\tis a bijection.\n\t\\end{enumerate}\n\tMoreover, consider the following topological spaces:\n\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\\item ${\\bar\\m}{G}(x) \\backslash U$, equipped with quotient topology via the projection $U \\to {\\bar\\m}{G}(x) \\backslash U$,\n\t\t\\item $U \/ \\sim$, where $x \\sim x'$ for $x, x' \\in U$ if there exists a morphism $\\phi : x \\to x'$, equipped with the quotient topology via the projection $U \\to U \/ \\sim$,\n\t\t\\item $\\abs{U}$, the image of $U$ under the map $S\\to \\abs{S}$, equipped with the subspace topology,\n\t\t\\item $\\abs{U}$, the image of $U$ under the map $Z \\to \\abs{Z}$, equipped with the subspace topology.\n\t\\end{itemize}\n\tThen these spaces are all naturally homeomorphic.\n\\end{proposition}\n\n\\subsubsection{Weighted branched suborbifolds}\n\nView $\\mathbb{Q}^+:= \\mathbb{Q} \\cap [0,\\infty)$ as an ep-groupoid, having only the identities as morphisms. \nConsider a polyfold, consisting of a polyfold structure $(Z,{\\bar\\m}{Z})$ and an underlying topological space ${\\mathcal Z}$.\nConsider a functor $\\hat{\\theta}: (Z,{\\bar\\m}{Z}) \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ which induces the function $\\theta:=\\abs{\\hat{\\theta}} :{\\mathcal Z} \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$.\nObserve that $\\hat{\\theta}$ defines a subgroupoid $(S,{\\bar\\m}{S})\\subset (Z,{\\bar\\m}{Z})$ with object set\n\t\\[\n\tS:= \\operatorname{supp} (\\hat{\\theta}) = \\{x\\in Z\\mid \\hat{\\theta}(x)>0 \\}\n\t\\]\nand with underlying topological space\n\t\\[\n\t{\\mathcal S} := \\operatorname{supp} (\\theta) = \\{[x]\\in {\\mathcal Z} \\mid \\theta([x])>0\\}.\n\t\\]\nMoreover, $(S,{\\bar\\m}{S})$ is a full subcategory of $(Z,{\\bar\\m}{Z})$ whose object set is saturated, i.e., $S= \\pi^{-1} (\\pi(S))$ where $\\pi : Z \\to \\abs{Z}, x\\mapsto [x]$.\n\n\\begin{definition}[{\\cite[Def.~9.1]{HWZbook}}]\n\t\\label{def:weighed-branched-suborbifold}\n\tA \\textbf{weighted branched suborbifold structure} consists of a subgroupoid $(S,{\\bar\\m}{S}) \\subset (Z,{\\bar\\m}{Z})$ defined by a functor $\\hat{\\theta} : (Z,{\\bar\\m}{Z}) \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ as above which satisfies the following properties.\n\t\\begin{enumerate}\n\t\t\\item ${\\mathcal S} \\subset {\\mathcal Z}_\\infty$.\n\t\t\\item Given an object $x\\in S$, there exists an open neighborhood $U\\subset Z$ of $x$ and a finite collection $M_i$, $i\\in I$ of finite-dimensional submanifolds of $Z$ (in the sense of \\cite[Def.~4.19]{HWZ2}) such that\n\t\t\\[\n\t\tS \\cap U= \\bigcup_{i \\in I}M_i.\n\t\t\\]\n\t\tWe require that the inclusion maps $\\phi_i: M_i\\hookrightarrow U$ are proper and are {topological embeddings,} and in addition we require that the submanifolds $M_i$ all have the same dimension. \n\t\tThe submanifolds $M_i$ are called \\textbf{local branches} in $U$. \\label{def:local-branches}\n\t\t\\item There exist positive rational numbers $w_i$, $i\\in I$, (called \\textbf{weights}) such that if $y\\in S \\cap U$, then\n\t\t\\[\\hat{\\theta}(y)=\\sum_{\\{i \\in I \\mid   y\\in M_i\\}} w_i.\\]\n\t\\end{enumerate}\n\n\tWe call ${(M_i)}_{i\\in I}$ and ${(w_i)}_{i\\in I}$ a \\textbf{local branching structure}.\n\\end{definition}\n\nBy shrinking the open set $U$ we may assume that the local branches $M_i$ (equipped with the subspace topology induced from $U$) are homeomorphic to open subsets of $\\mathbb{R}^n$.  Hence we may assume that a local branch is given by a subset $M_i\\subset\\mathbb{R}^n$ and an inclusion map $\\phi_i : M_i\\hookrightarrow U$ where $\\phi_i$ is proper and a homeomorphism onto its image.\n\n\n\\begin{definition}\n\t\\label{def:local-orientation}\n\tLet $(S,{\\bar\\m}{S})$ be a weighted branched suborbifold structure. Consider an object $x\\in S$ and a local branching structure $(M_i)_{i\\in I}$, $(w_i)_{i\\in I}$ at $x$.\n\tSuppose moreover that each local branch has an \\textit{orientation}, denoted as $(M_i,o_i)$\n\t\n\tWe define a \\textbf{local orientation} at $x$ with respect to the local branching structure $(M_i)_{i\\in I}$, $(w_i)_{i\\in I}$ as the following finite formal sum of weighted oriented tangent planes:\n\t\\[\n\t\\sum_{\\{i\\in I \\mid x\\in M_i\\}} w_i \\cdot T_x (M_i,o_i).\n\t\\]\n\\end{definition}\n\n\\begin{definition}\n\t\\label{def:orientation}\n\tLet $(S,{\\bar\\m}{S})$ be a weighted branched suborbifold structure.\n\tWe define an \\textbf{orientation} on $(S,{\\bar\\m}{S})$ as a local orientation at every object $x\\in S$ and local branching structure $(M_i)_{i\\in I}$, $(w_i)_{i\\in I}$ at $x$ such that the following holds.\n\t\\begin{enumerate}\n\t\t\\item We require that the local orientation is well-defined and does not depend on choice of local branching structure. Given an object $x\\in S$, suppose we have:\n\t\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\t\\item a local orientation at $x$ with respect to a local branching structure $(M_i)_{i\\in I}$, $(w_i)_{i\\in I}$,\n\t\t\t\\item a local orientation at $x$ with respect to a local branching structure $(M'_j)_{j\\in I'}$, $(w'_j)_{j\\in I'}$.\n\t\t\\end{itemize}\n\t\tWe require the finite formal sums of weighted oriented tangent planes to be identical, i.e.,\n\t\t\\[\n\t\t\\sum_{\\{i\\in I \\mid x\\in M_i\\}} w_i \\cdot T_x (M_i,o_i)= \\sum_{\\{j\\in I' \\mid x\\in M'_j\\}} w'_j \\cdot T_x (M'_j,o_j)\n\t\t\\]\n\t\t\\item We require morphism invariance of the local orientations. Given a morphism, $\\phi : x \\to y$ there exists a well-defined tangent map $T\\phi : T_xZ \\to T_yZ$. \n\t\tSuppose we have:\n\t\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\t\\item a local orientation at $x$ with respect to a local branching structure $(M_i)_{i\\in I}$, $(w_i)_{i\\in I}$,\n\t\t\t\\item a local orientation at $y$ with respect to a local branching structure $(M'_j)_{j\\in I'}$, $(w'_j)_{j\\in I'}$.\n\t\t\\end{itemize}\t\t\n\t\tThe image of a finite formal sum of weighted oriented tangent planes under this map is again a finite formal sum of weighted oriented tangent planes.\n\t\tWe require invariance of the local orientations under this map, i.e.,\n\t\t\\[\n\t\t\\sum_{\\{j\\in I' \\mid y\\in M'_j\\}} w'_j \\cdot T_y (M'_j,o'_j) = \\sum_{\\{i\\in I \\mid x\\in M_i\\}} w_i \\cdot T\\phi_* (T_x (M_i,o_i)).\n\t\t\\]\n\t\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{definition}\n\nA \\textbf{weighted branched suborbifold structure with boundary} consists of a subgroupoid $(S,{\\bar\\m}{S})\\subset (Z,{\\bar\\m}{Z})$ defined identically to Definition~\\ref{def:weighed-branched-suborbifold} except we allow the possibility that the local branches are manifolds with boundary.\nA \\textbf{local orientation} at an object $x\\in S$ is again defined as in Definition~\\ref{def:local-orientation} as a finite formal sum determined by orientations of the local branches, and again an \\textbf{orientation} is also defined similarly to Definition~\\ref{def:orientation}.\n\n\\subsection{Abstract perturbations in polyfold theory}\n\t\\label{subsec:abstract-perturbations}\n\nAbstract perturbations in polyfold theory are a mixture of two different technologies:\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\t\\item scale calculus generalizations of classical Fredholm theory, involving the development of analogs of Fredholm maps, compact perturbations, and the implicit function theorem for surjective Fredholm operators (originally developed in \\cite{HWZ2});\n\t\\item equivariant transversality through the use of ``multisections;'' due to the presence of nontrivial isotropy, it is generally impossible to obtain transversality through the use of single valued sections, and thus it is necessary to work with multisections (developed in \\cite{cieliebak2003equivariant} and generalized to polyfold theory in \\cite{HWZ3}).\n\\end{enumerate}\n\n\\subsubsection[Strong polyfold bundles and sc+-multisections]{Strong polyfold bundles and $\\text{sc}^+$-multisections}\n\t\\label{subsubsec:polyfold-abstract-perturbations}\n\nIn order to develop a Fredholm theory for polyfolds, it is necessary to formulate the notion of a ``strong polyfold bundle'' over a polyfold.\nLet $P:W\\to Z$ be a strong M-polyfold bundle (see \\cite[Def.~2.26]{HWZbook}).\nRecall that a fiber  $p^{-1} (y) = W_y$ over an object $y \\in O_x$ carries the structure of a $\\text{sc}$-Banach space. Furthermore $W$ is equipped with a double filtration $W_{m,k}$ for $0\\leq k\\leq m+1$, and the filtered spaces\n\t\\begin{gather*}\n\tW[0]:= W_{0,0} \\supset W_{1,1}\\supset \\cdots \\supset W_{i,i} \\supset \\cdots,\t\\\\\n\tW[1]:= W_{0,1} \\supset W_{1,2}\\supset \\cdots \\supset W_{i,i+1}\\supset \\cdots \n\t\\end{gather*}\nare both M-polyfolds in their own rights.\nWith respect to these filtrations, the maps $P[0]: W[0]\\to Z$ and $P[1]:W[1]\\to Z$ are both $\\text{sc}$-smooth.\n\n\\begin{proposition}[{\\cite[Prop.~2.16]{HWZbook}}]\n\t\\label{prop:pullback-bundle}\n\tLet $P: W \\to Z$ be a strong M-polyfold bundle, and let $f: Y \\to Z$ be a $\\text{sc}$-smooth map between M-polyfolds. The pullback $f^* W := \\{(y,w_x) \\in Y \\times W \\mid f(y)=x=P(w_x) \\}$ carries a natural structure of a strong M-polyfold bundle over the M-polyfold $Y$.\n\\end{proposition}\n\nLet $(Z,{\\bar\\m}{Z})$ be a polyfold structure, and consider a strong M-polyfold bundle over the object space, $P:W\\to Z.$\nThe source map $s:{\\bar\\m}{Z}\\to Z$ is a local $\\text{sc}$-diffeomorphism, and hence we may consider the fiber product\n\t\\[\n\t{\\bar\\m}{Z} _s\\times_P W = \\{(\\phi,w)\\in {\\bar\\m}{Z}\\times W\t\\mid\ts(\\phi)=P(w)\t\\}.\n\t\\]\nVia the above proposition, we can also view as ${\\bar\\m}{Z} _s\\times_P W$ as the pullback bundle via $s$ over the morphism space ${\\bar\\m}{Z}$,\n\t\\[\\begin{tikzcd}\n\t{\\bar\\m}{Z} _s\\times_P W \\arrow[r] \\arrow[d] & W \\arrow[d] \\\\\n\t{\\bar\\m}{Z} \\arrow[r, \"s\"] & Z.\n\t\\end{tikzcd}\\]\n\n\\begin{definition}[{\\cite[Def.~8.4]{HWZbook}}]\n\t\\label{def:strong-polyfold-bundle}\n\tA \\textbf{strong polyfold bundle structure} $(W,{\\bar\\m}{W})$ over a polyfold structure $(Z,{\\bar\\m}{Z})$ consists of a strong M-polyfold bundle over the object M-polyfold $P:W\\to Z$ together with a strong bundle map\n\t\\[\n\t\\mu : {\\bar\\m}{Z} _s\\times_P W \\to W\n\t\\]\n\twhich covers the target map $t:{\\bar\\m}{Z} \\to Z$, such that the diagram\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\begin{tikzcd}\n\t\t{\\bar\\m}{Z} _s\\times_P W \\arrow[r, \"\\mu\"] \\arrow[d] & W \\arrow[d] \\\\\n\t\t{\\bar\\m}{Z} \\arrow[r, \"t\"] & Z\n\t\t\\end{tikzcd}\n\t\\end{center}\n\tcommutes.\n\tFurthermore we require the following:\n\t\\begin{enumerate}\n\t\t\\item $\\mu$ is a surjective local diffeomorphism and linear on fibers,\n\t\t\\item $\\mu(\\operatorname{id}_x,w)= w$ for all $x\\in Z$ and $w\\in W_x$,\n\t\t\\item $\\mu(\\phi \\circ \\gamma ,w)= \\mu (\\phi,\\mu(\\gamma,w))$ for all $\\phi,\\gamma\\in{\\bar\\m}{Z}$ and $w\\in W$ which satisfy\n\t\t\\[\n\t\ts(\\gamma) = P(w),\\qquad t(\\gamma) = s(\\phi) = P(\\mu(\\gamma,w)).\n\t\t\\]\n\t\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{definition}\n\nA strong polyfold bundle structure $(W,{\\bar\\m}{W})$ has polyfold structures in its own right: we may take $W$ as the object set with the grading $W_{i,i}$ or $W_{i,i+1}$, and define the morphism set by ${\\bar\\m}{W}:= {\\bar\\m}{Z} _s\\times_P W$. Moreover, we have source and target maps $s,t: {\\bar\\m}{W} \\to W$ defined as follows:\n\t\\[\n\ts(\\phi,w) := w, \\qquad t(\\phi,w) := \\mu(\\phi,w).\n\t\\]\nWe have a natural smooth projection functor $\\hat{P}: (W,{\\bar\\m}{W}) \\to (Z,{\\bar\\m}{Z})$.\n\n\\begin{definition}\n\tA \\textbf{strong polyfold bundle} consists of a topological space ${\\mathcal W}$ together with a Morita equivalence class of strong polyfold bundle structures $(W,{\\bar\\m}{W})$.\n\\end{definition}\n\nThe double filtration of the fibers is preserved by the structure maps, and hence the orbit space $\\abs{W}$ is equipped with a double filtration\n\t\\[\n\t\\abs{W}_{m,k}, \\quad \\text{for } 0\\leq m \\ \\text{and}\\ 0\\leq k\\leq m+1.\n\t\\]\nWe moreover obtain polyfolds ${\\mathcal W}[0]$ and ${\\mathcal W}[1]$ with the filtrations ${\\mathcal W}[0]_i := {\\mathcal W}_{i,i}$ and ${\\mathcal W}[1]_i := {\\mathcal W}_{i,i+1}$.  Unless specified, ``${\\mathcal W}$'' refers to the first filtration, i.e., ${\\mathcal W}[0]$ and ``$P$'' refers to the projection map with respect to this filtration.\n\n\\begin{definition}[{\\cite[Def.~12.1]{HWZbook}}]\n\tWe define a \\textbf{$\\text{sc}$-smooth Fredholm section} of the strong polyfold bundle $P:{\\mathcal W}\\to{\\mathcal Z}$ as a $\\text{sc}$-smooth map between polyfolds $\\overline{\\partial}: {\\mathcal Z}\\to {\\mathcal W}$ which satisfies $P\\circ \\overline{\\partial} = \\operatorname{id}_{\\mathcal Z}$ (where $\\operatorname{id}_{\\mathcal Z}$ is the identity map on ${\\mathcal Z}$)\n\n\tWe require that $\\overline{\\partial}$ is \\textbf{regularizing}, meaning that if $[x] \\in {\\mathcal Z}_m$ and $\\overline{\\partial} ([x]) \\in {\\mathcal W}_{m,m+1}$ then $[x]\\in {\\mathcal Z}_{m+1}$.\n\tFinally, we require that at every smooth object $x\\in Z$ the germ $(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},x)$ is a ``Fredholm germ'' (see \\cite[Def.~3.7]{HWZbook}).\n\\end{definition}\n\n\\begin{definition}\n\t\\label{def:unperturbed-solution-space}\n\tWe define the \\textbf{unperturbed solution space} of $\\overline{\\partial}$ as the set \n\t\t\\[\n\t\t{\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}) :=\\{ [x]\\in {\\mathcal Z}\\mid \\overline{\\partial}([x]) = 0\\} \\subset {\\mathcal Z},\n\t\t\\]\n\twith topology given by the subspace topology induced from ${\\mathcal Z}$.\n\tThe space ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial})$ has an associated subgroupoid structure $(S(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}), {\\bar\\m}{S}(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}))$ defined as follows:\n\\begin{itemize}\n\t\\item (saturated) object set: $S(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}) := \\{\tx\\in Z \\mid \\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}(x)=0\t\\} \\subset Z$,\n\t\\item morphism set: ${\\bar\\m}{S} (\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}) := \\{ \\phi \\in {\\bar\\m}{Z}\t\\mid s(\\phi) \\in S(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}) \\ (\\text{equivalently } t(\\phi)\\in S(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}))\t\\} \\subset\t{\\bar\\m}{Z}$.\n\\end{itemize}\nBoth the object and morphism sets carry the subspace topology induced from the topologies on the object space $Z$ and morphism space ${\\bar\\m}{Z}$.\n\\end{definition}\n\nWe say that the Fredholm section $\\overline{\\partial}$ is \\textbf{proper} if the unperturbed solution space ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial})$ is a compact topological space.\n\n\\begin{definition}[{\\cite[Def.~2.24]{HWZbook}}]\n\tA \\textbf{$\\text{sc}^+$-section} is a $\\text{sc}$-smooth map $s: Z \\to W[1]$ which satisfies $P\\circ s = \\operatorname{id}_Z$\n\\end{definition}\n\nThe significance of this definition is captured in the fact that if $(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},x)$ is a Fredholm germ and $s$ is a germ of a $\\text{sc}^+$-section around $y$, then $(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}+s,x)$ remains a Fredholm germ.\nThis follows tautologically from the definition of a Fredholm germ (see the comment following \\cite[Def.~2.44]{HWZGW}).\nWe may view the relationship of Fredholm sections and $\\text{sc}^+$-sections in the current theory as the analogs of Fredholm and compact operators in classical functional analysis.\n\nOne can view a ``multisection'' as the rationally weighted characteristic function of an equivariant collection of locally defined single valued sections.\nThis is made precise in the following definition.\n\n\\begin{definition}\n\t\\label{def:sc-multisection}\n\tWe view $\\mathbb{Q}^+:= \\mathbb{Q} \\cap [0,\\infty)$ as an ep-groupoid, having only the identities as morphisms.\n\tA \\textbf{$\\text{sc}^+$-multisection} of a strong polyfold bundle $P:{\\mathcal W}\\to {\\mathcal Z}$ consists of the following:\n\t\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\t\\item a function $\\Lambda:{\\mathcal W} \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$,\n\t\t\t\\item an associated functor $\\hat{\\Lambda}: W \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ where $\\abs{\\hat{\\Lambda}}$ induces $\\Lambda$,\n\t\t\\end{itemize}\n\tsuch that at every $[x]\\in {\\mathcal Z}$ there exists a \\textbf{local section structure} defined as follows.\n\tLet $x\\in Z$ be a representative of $[x]$ and let $U\\subset Z$ be a ${\\bar\\m}{G}(x)$-invariant open neighborhood of $x$, and consider the restricted strong M-polyfold bundle $P: W|_U \\to U$.\n\tThen there exist finitely many $\\text{sc}^+$-sections $s_1,\\ldots,s_k : U \\to W_U$ (called \\textbf{local sections}) with associated positive rational numbers $\\sigma_1,\\ldots ,\\sigma_k \\in \\mathbb{Q}^+$ (called \\textbf{weights}) which satisfy the following:\n\t\\begin{enumerate}\n\t\t\\item $\\sum_{i=1}^k \\sigma_i =1.$\n\t\t\\item The restriction $\\hat{\\Lambda}|_{W|_{U}}: W_U \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ is related to the local sections and weights via the equation \n\t\t\t\\[\n\t\t\t\\hat{\\Lambda}|_{W|_{U}}(w)=\\sum_{i\\in \\{1,\\ldots, k \\mid w=s_i(P(w))\\}} \\sigma_i\n\t\t\t\\]\n\t\twhere the empty sum has by definition the value $0$.\n\t\\end{enumerate}\t\n\\end{definition}\n\nWe define the \\textbf{domain support} of $\\Lambda$ as the subset of ${\\mathcal Z}$ given by\n\t\\[\n\t\\text{dom-supp}(\\Lambda) := \\text{cl}_{\\mathcal Z} (\t\\{\t[x]\\in{\\mathcal Z} \\mid \\exists [w]\\in {\\mathcal W}_{[x]}\\setminus\\{0\\} \\text{ such that } \\Lambda([w])>0\t\\}\t).\n\t\\]\n\\begin{comment}\nThe  \\textbf{domain support} of $\\Lambda$ is the subset of $Z$, defined by \n\\[\n\\text{dom-supp}(\\Lambda) = \\text{cl}_Z (\\{x\\in Z \\mid \\text{there exists $w\\in W_x\\setminus\\{0\\}$ for which  $\\Lambda(w)>0$}\\}).\n\\]\n\nThe \\textbf{support of $\\hat{\\Lambda}$} is the subset of $\\operatorname{supp}(\\hat{\\Lambda})$ of ${\\mathcal W}$ defined by\n\\[\n\\operatorname{supp}(\\hat{\\Lambda}) = \\{\t[w]\\in{\\mathcal W} \\mid \\hat{\\Lambda}(w)>0\t\\}\n\\]\nThe \\textbf{support of $\\Lambda$} is the subset $\\operatorname{supp}(\\Lambda)$ of $W$ defined by\n\\[\n\\operatorname{supp}(\\Lambda)=\\{w\\in W\t\\mid\t\\Lambda(w)>0\\}.\n\\]\n\\end{comment}\n\n\\begin{definition}\n\t\\label{def:perturbed-solution-space}\n\tAssociated to a $\\text{sc}$-smooth Fredholm section $\\overline{\\partial}$ and a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection $\\Lambda$, \n\twe define the \\textbf{perturbed solution space} as the set\n\t\t\\[\n\t\t{\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda) :=\\{[x]\\in{\\mathcal Z} \\mid \\Lambda(\\overline{\\partial}([x]))\t>0\t\\}\\subset {\\mathcal Z}\n\t\t\\]\n\twith topology given by the subspace topology induced from ${\\mathcal Z}$. It is equipped with a \\textbf{weight function} $\\Lambda\\circ \\overline{\\partial}:{\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda) \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$.\n\tThe space ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda)$ has an associated subgroupoid structure $({\\mathcal S}(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},\\hat{\\Lambda}), {\\bar\\m}{{\\mathcal S}}(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},\\hat{\\Lambda}))$ with (saturated) object set\n\t\t\\[\n\t\tS(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},\\hat{\\Lambda}) :=\\{x\\in Z \\mid \\hat{\\Lambda} ( \\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}(x))>0\\} \\subset Z\n\t\t\\]\n\tand with morphism set given by \n\t\t\\[\n\t\t{\\bar\\m}{S} (\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}, \\hat{\\Lambda}) := \\{ \\phi \\in {\\bar\\m}{Z}\t\\mid s(\\phi) \\in S(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},\\hat{\\Lambda})\t\\} \\subset\t{\\bar\\m}{Z}\n\t\t\\]\n\t(we could equivalently require that $t(\\phi)\\in S(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}, \\hat{\\Lambda})$).\n\tIt is equipped with a \\textbf{weight functor} $\\hat{\\Lambda}\\circ \\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}:({\\mathcal S}(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},\\hat{\\Lambda}), {\\bar\\m}{{\\mathcal S}}(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},\\hat{\\Lambda})) \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$.\n\\end{definition}\n\nNote that the space ${\\mathcal S}(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},\\hat{\\Lambda})$ or the subgroupoid $({\\mathcal S}(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},\\hat{\\Lambda}), {\\bar\\m}{{\\mathcal S}}(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},\\hat{\\Lambda}))$ can be respectively encoded entirely via the weight function or the weight functor; such a description is closer to the language used in \\cite{HWZ3} and \\cite{HWZbook}.\n\n\\subsubsection{Transverse perturbations}\n\nAt a local level, it is easy to adapt the functional analytic construction of compact perturbations of Fredholm operators to M-polyfolds; the implicit function theorem for M-polyfolds \\cite[Thm.~3.13]{HWZbook} then guarantees that the zero set of a transversal $\\text{sc}$-Fredholm section has the structure of a finite-dimensional manifold.\nIt is somewhat more involved to adapt these constructions to the global level, as this requires using multisections to obtain equivariance.\n\n\\begin{definition}[{\\cite[Def.~15.2]{HWZbook}}]\n\t\\label{def:transversal-pair}\n\tLet $P:{\\mathcal W}\\to {\\mathcal Z}$ be a strong polyfold bundle, $\\overline{\\partial}$ a $\\text{sc}$-smooth Fredholm section, and $\\Lambda$ a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection.\n\t\n\tConsider a point $[x]\\in {\\mathcal Z}$.  We say $(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda)$ is \\textbf{transversal at $[x]$} if, given a local $\\text{sc}^+$-section structure for $\\Lambda$ at a representative $x$, the linearized local expression \n\t\t\\[D(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}-s_i)(x):T_x Z \\to W_x\\]\n\tis surjective for all $i\\in I$ with $\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}(x)=s_i(x)$.  We say that $(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda)$ is \\textbf{transversal} if it is transversal at every $[x] \\in {\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda)$.\n\n\t\n\n\t\n\n\\end{definition}\n\nGiven a $\\text{sc}$-Fredholm section it is relatively easy to construct a transversal multisection (see the general position argument of \\cite[Thm.~15.4]{HWZbook}); a key ingredient is \\cite[Lem.~5.3]{HWZbook} which guarantees the existence of locally defined $\\text{sc}^+$-sections which take on a prescribed value at a point.\n\n\\begin{theorem}[{\\cite[Thm.~4.13]{HWZ3}}\\footnote{The original statement of this theorem carries the additional requirement that the perturbed solution set ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda)$ is a compact set.  This requirement is unnecessary, and is not used in the proof.}]\n\t\\label{thm:transversal-pairs-weighted-branched-suborbifolds} \\label{thm:transversality}\n\n\tIf the pair  $(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda)$ is transversal, then the perturbed solution set ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda)$ carries in a natural way the structure of a weighted branched suborbifold.\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\\begin{remark}[Relationship between local section structures and local branching structures]\n\t\\label{rmk:relationship-local-section-structures-local-branching-structures}\n\tConsider a weighted branched suborbifold ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda)$ defined by a transversal $\\text{sc}$-smooth Fredholm section $\\overline{\\partial}$ and a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection $\\Lambda$.\n\tThe relationship between the local section structure for $\\Lambda$ and the local branching structure can be described as follows.\n\tConsider a point $[x]\\in{\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda)$, and let $U\\subset Z$ be a ${\\bar\\m}{G}(x)$-invariant open neighborhood of a representative $x$.\t\n\tConsider a local section structure for $\\Lambda$ at $[x]$ consisting of $\\text{sc}^+$-sections $s_i  : U \\to W|_U$ and weights $w_i$ for $i\\in I$.\n\tThe implicit function theorem for M-polyfolds then implies that the sets\n\t\t\\[\n\t\tM_i = (\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$} -s_i)^{-1}(0)\n\t\t\\]\n\tdefine finite dimensional submanifolds which together with the weights $w_i$ give a local branching structure in $U$.\n\\end{remark}\n\n\\subsubsection{Pairs which control compactness}\n\nGiven a proper $\\text{sc}$-smooth Fredholm section $\\overline{\\partial}$ and a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection $\\Lambda$, we need some way to control the compactness of the resulting perturbed solution space ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda)$. This can be achieved by requiring that the perturbation $\\Lambda$ is ``small'' in a suitable sense.\n\n\\begin{definition}[{\\cite[Def.~12.2]{HWZbook}}]\n\t\\label{def:auxiliary-norm}\n\tLet $P:{\\mathcal W}\\to {\\mathcal Z}$ be a strong polyfold bundle.\n\tWe define an \\textbf{auxiliary norm} as a $\\text{sc}^0$-map \n\t\\[N:{\\mathcal W}[1] \\to [0,\\infty)\\]\n\twhere we regard $[0,\\infty)$ as a smooth manifold with the trivial ep-groupoid structure (i.e., a polyfold with finite-dimensional local models and trivial isotropy).\n\tIt has an associated $\\text{sc}^0$-functor $\\hat{N}:W[1]\\to [0,\\infty)$ where as usual $\\abs{\\hat{N}}$ induces $N$.\n\tWe require that $\\hat{N}$ satisfies the following conditions.\n\t\\begin{enumerate}\n\t\t\\item The restriction of $\\hat{N}$ to each fiber $W_x[1]$ is a complete norm. (Recall that for each $x\\in Z$, the fiber $W_x[1]$ is a $\\text{sc}$-Banach space.)\n\t\t\\item \\label{property-2-auxiliary-norm} If $\\{h_k\\}$ is a sequence in $W[1]$ such that $\\{\\hat{P}(h_k)\\}$ converges in $Z$ to an object $x$, and if $\\lim_{k\\to \\infty} \\hat{N}(h_k) = 0$, then $\\{h_k\\}$ converges to $0_x \\in W_x[1]$.\n\t\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{definition}\n\n\nGiven a point $[x]\\in{\\mathcal Z}$ we define the \\textbf{pointwise norm} of $\\Lambda$ at $[x]$ with respect to the auxiliary norm $N$ by\n\t\\[\n\tN[\\Lambda] ([x]) := \\max \\{\tN([w])\t\\mid\t[w]\\in {\\mathcal W}[1], \\Lambda ([w])>0, P([w])=[x]\t\\}\n\t\\]\nand moreover define the \\textbf{norm} of $\\Lambda$ with respect to $N$ by\n\t\\[\n\tN[\\Lambda] := \\sup_{[x]\\in{\\mathcal Z}} N[\\Lambda] ([x]).\n\t\\]\n\n\\begin{definition}[{\\cite[Def.~15.4]{HWZbook}}]\n\t\\label{def:pair-which-controls-compactness}\n\tLet $P:{\\mathcal W}\\to {\\mathcal Z}$ be a strong polyfold bundle, let $\\overline{\\partial}$ be a $\\text{sc}$-smooth proper Fredholm section, and let $N :{\\mathcal W}[1]\\to [0,\\infty)$ be an auxiliary norm.\t\n\tConsider an open neighborhood ${\\mathcal U}$ of the unperturbed solution set ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial})\\subset {\\mathcal Z}$.\n\tWe say that the pair $(N,{\\mathcal U})$ \\textbf{controls the compactness} of $\\overline{\\partial}$ if the set \n\t\\[\n\tcl_{\\mathcal Z} \\{[x]\\in {\\mathcal U} \\mid \\overline{\\partial} ([x]) \\in {\\mathcal W}[1], N(\\overline{\\partial}([x]))\\leq 1\\} \\subset {\\mathcal Z}\n\t\\]\n\tis compact.\n\\end{definition}\n\n\\begin{remark}\n\t\\label{rmk:shrink-neighborhood}\n\tWe may always shrink the controlling neighborhood ${\\mathcal U}$ of the unperturbed solution set. To be precise, suppose that $(N, {\\mathcal U})$ is a pair which controls compactness, and let ${\\mathcal U}'$ be an open set such that ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial})\\subset{\\mathcal U}'\\subset {\\mathcal U}$.  It is immediate from the above definition that the pair $(N, {\\mathcal U}')$ also controls compactness.\n\\end{remark}\n\nGiven a $\\text{sc}$-smooth proper Fredholm section of a strong polyfold bundle, \\cite[Prop.~2.27]{HWZ3} guarantees the existence of auxiliary norms.  The existence of a pair which control compactness then follows from \\cite[Thm.~4.5]{HWZ3} which states that given an auxiliary norm $N$ there always exists an associated neighborhood ${\\mathcal U}$, such that the pair $(N, {\\mathcal U})$ controls compactness.\n\n\\begin{theorem}[{\\cite[Lem.~4.16]{HWZ3}}]\n\t\\label{thm:compactness}\n\tLet $P:{\\mathcal W}\\to {\\mathcal Z}$ be a strong polyfold bundle, let $\\overline{\\partial}$ be a $\\text{sc}$-smooth proper Fredholm section, and let $(N, {\\mathcal U})$ be a pair which controls compactness.\n\t\n\tConsider a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection $\\Lambda$ and suppose it satisfies the following:\n\t\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\t\\item $N[\\Lambda] \\leq 1$,\n\t\t\t\\item $\\text{dom-supp} (\\Lambda) \\subset {\\mathcal U}$.\n\t\t\\end{itemize}\n\tThen the perturbed solution set ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda)$ is compact.\n\tWe call such a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection \\textbf{$(N,{\\mathcal U})$-admissible} (compare with \\cite[Def.~15.5]{HWZbook}).\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\\subsubsection{Determinant line bundles and orientations}\n\nWe do not try to give a full account of the polyfold theory on orientations (for that, we refer to \\cite[\\S~6]{HWZbook}).\nHowever, to talk precisely about orientations in our main theorems it is necessary to give a brief summary of the main ideas and definitions.\n\n\\begin{definition}[{\\cite[Defs.~6.3,~6.4]{HWZbook}}]\n\tLet $T: E \\to F$ be a bounded linear Fredholm operator between real Banach spaces. The \\textbf{determinant} of $T$ is the 1-dimensional real vector space\n\t\t\\[\\det T = \\Lambda^{\\max} (\\ker T) \\otimes \\left(\\Lambda^{\\max} (\\operatorname{coker} T)\t\\right)^*.\\]\n\tAn \\textbf{orientation} of $T$ is a choice of orientation of the real line $\\det T$.\n\\end{definition}\n\nLet $P: W\\to Z$ be a strong M-polyfold bundle, and let $\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}: Z \\to W$ be a $\\text{sc}$-smooth Fredholm section.\nIn general, there is no intrinsic notion a linearization of the section $\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}$ at smooth points $x \\in Z_\\infty$ if $\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}(x) \\neq 0$.\nTo deal with this, one chooses a locally defined $\\text{sc}^+$-section $s$ such that $s(x)=\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}(x)$; one may then consider the well-defined linearization $D(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$} - s)(x) :T_xZ \\to W_x$.\nThe \\textbf{space of linearizations} of $\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}$ at $x$ is then defined as the following subset of linear Fredholm operators from $T_x Z \\to W_x:$\n\t\\[\\operatorname{Lin}(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},x) := \\{\tD(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$} - s)(x) + a \\mid a: T_x Z \\to W_x \\text{ is a }\\text{sc}^+\\text{-operator}\t\\}.\\]\nIt may be observed that $\\operatorname{Lin}(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},x)$ is a convex subset, and hence is contractible.\n\nTo each linearization we may associate its determinant; in doing so, we may consider the disjoint union\n\t\\[\\operatorname{DET}(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},x) := \\bigsqcup_{L\\in \\operatorname{Lin}(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},x)} \\{L\\}\\times \\det(L).\\]\nA priori, this set does not have much structure, as although each determinant is a real line, locally the kernel and cokernel of the linearizations may vary in dimension.\nHowever, with some work it is possible to prove the following proposition.\n\n\\begin{proposition}[{\\cite[Prop.~6.11]{HWZbook}}]\n\tThe set $\\operatorname{DET}(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},x)$ has the structure of a topological line bundle over $\\operatorname{Lin}(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},x)$.\n\tThe base space $\\operatorname{Lin}(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},x)$ is contractible and hence $\\operatorname{DET}(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},x)$ has two possible orientations.\n\\end{proposition}\n\nWe may therefore define an \\textbf{orientation of $\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}$ at a smooth point $x\\in Z_\\infty$} as a choice of one of the two possible orientations for $\\operatorname{DET}(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},x)$. We denote such an orientation by $o_{(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},x)}$.\n\nAs we vary the smooth points, we need some way to compare the orientations at each point.\nIntuitively, the choice of an orientation at a point should automatically determine an orientation at all nearby points.\nThis intuition is made precise in the theory as a sort of ``local orientation propagation.''\n\n\\begin{theorem}[{\\cite[Thm.~6.1]{HWZbook}}]\n\tConsider a smooth point $x\\in Z_\\infty$. There exists an open neighborhood $U\\subset Z$ such that for any smooth point $y\\in U$ and for any $\\text{sc}$-smooth path $\\phi: [0,1] \\to Z$ with $\\phi(0)=x,$ $\\phi(1)=y$ there exists a well-defined ``local orientation propagation.'' This means that, given an orientation $o_{(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},x)}$ of $\\operatorname{DET}(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},x)$ we can associate an orientation $\\phi_* o_{(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},x)}$ of $\\operatorname{DET}(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},y)$, and moreover this association does not depend on the choice of $\\text{sc}$-smooth path.\n\\end{theorem}\n\nWe may therefore define an orientation of a Fredholm section as a fixed choice of orientation at all smooth points which is consistent with the local orientation propagation.\n\n\\begin{definition}[{\\cite[Def.~6.11]{HWZbook}}]\n\t\\label{def:oriented-Fredholm}\n\tLet $P: W\\to Z$ be a strong M-polyfold bundle, and let $\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}: Z \\to W$ be a $\\text{sc}$-smooth Fredholm section.\n\tWe define an \\textbf{orientation} of $\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}$ as an association for every smooth point $x\\in Z_\\infty$ with an orientation $o_{(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},x)}$ of the determinant $\\operatorname{DET}(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},x)$ and which is consistent with the local orientation propagation in the following sense.\n\t\n\tFor any two smooth points $x, y \\in Z_\\infty$ and for any $\\text{sc}$-smooth path $\\phi:[0,1] \\to Z$ with $\\phi(0)=x,$ $\\phi(1)=y$ the orientation $o_{(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},y)}$ is the same as the pushforward orientation $\\phi_* o_{(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},x)}$ determined by the local orientation propagation. (Compare with \\cite[Defs.~6.12,~6.13]{HWZbook}.)\n\\end{definition}\n\nWe end with an observation regarding how the above abstract discussion induces orientations on the perturbed solution spaces.\nConsider an oriented $\\text{sc}$-smooth Fredholm section $\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}:Z\\to W$ and consider a $\\text{sc}^+$-section locally defined on a neighborhood $U$ of a point $x\\in Z$, $s: U \\to W|_U$.\nSuppose that $\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}(x) = s(x)$ and suppose that the linearization \n\t\\[D(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$} - s)(x) :T_x Z \\to W_x\\]\nis surjective. The implicit function theorem for M-polyfolds implies that $M:= (\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$} - s)^{-1}(0)$ has the structure of a finite-dimensional manifold.\n\nA choice of orientation $o_{(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},x)}$ of $\\operatorname{DET}(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},x)$ determines for any linearization $T\\in \\operatorname{Lin} (\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},x)$ a choice of orientation of $\\det T$.\nThen simply observe that $D(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$} - s)(x) \\in \\operatorname{Lin}(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$},x)$, and since\n\t\\[\\det ((D(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$} - s)(x)) = \\Lambda^{\\max} (\\ker (D(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$} - s)(x))) = \\Lambda^{\\max} (T_x M)\\]\na choice of orientation for $\\det ((D(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$} - s)(x))$ automatically induces an orientation for $M$ at $x$.\n\n\\subsubsection{Regular perturbations and compact cobordism}\n\nIn order to define invariants, a perturbed solution set needs to be both transversally cut out, and compact.\nWe therefore introduce the following definition, given also in \\cite[Cor.~15.1]{HWZbook}.\n\n\\begin{definition}\n\t\\label{def:regular-perturbation}\n\tLet $P:{\\mathcal W}\\to {\\mathcal Z}$ be a strong polyfold bundle, let $\\overline{\\partial}$ be a $\\text{sc}$-smooth proper Fredholm section, and let $(N, {\\mathcal U})$ be a pair which controls compactness.\n\t\n\tSuppose a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection $\\Lambda$ satisfies both the requirements of Theorem~\\ref{thm:transversality} and Theorem~\\ref{thm:compactness}, i.e.,\n\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\\item $(\\overline{\\partial}, \\Lambda)$ is a transversal pair,\n\t\t\\item $N[\\Lambda] \\leq 1$ and $\\text{dom-supp} (\\Lambda) \\subset {\\mathcal U}$.\n\t\\end{itemize}\n\tWe then say $\\Lambda$ is a \\textbf{regular perturbation} of $\\overline{\\partial}$ with respect to the pair $(N,{\\mathcal U})$.\n\\end{definition}\n\n\\begin{corollary}[{\\cite[Cor.~15.1]{HWZbook}}]\n\t\\label{prop:existence-regular-perturbations}\n\n\t\n\tThere exist regular perturbations $\\Lambda$ of $\\overline{\\partial}$ with respect to the pair $(N,{\\mathcal U})$.\t\n\tTheorems~\\ref{thm:transversality} and \\ref{thm:compactness} immediately imply that the perturbed solution space ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda)$ has the structure of a compact weighted branched suborbifold, with weight function given by $\\Lambda\\circ \\overline{\\partial} : {\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda) \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$.\n\\end{corollary}\n\nCompact weighted branched suborbifolds are suitable geometric spaces for defining invariants.\nHowever, it remains to show that such invariants are independent of the choices used to define such a compact weighted branched orbifold, in particular, are independent of:\n\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\\item the choice of regular perturbation,\n\t\t\\item the choice of pair which controls compactness.\n\t\\end{itemize}\n\n\\begin{theorem}[{\\cite[Cor.~15.1]{HWZbook}}]\n\t\\label{thm:cobordism-between-regular-perturbations}\n\tLet $P:{\\mathcal W}\\to {\\mathcal Z}$ be a strong polyfold bundle, let $\\overline{\\partial}$ be a $\\text{sc}$-smooth proper oriented Fredholm section, and let $(N_0, {\\mathcal U}_0)$, $(N_1,{\\mathcal U}_1)$ be two pairs which control compactness.  Suppose that $\\Lambda_0$ is a regular perturbation of $\\overline{\\partial}$ with respect to the pair $(N_0,{\\mathcal U}_0)$, and likewise $\\Lambda_1$ is a regular perturbation of $\\overline{\\partial}$ with respect to the pair $(N_1,{\\mathcal U}_1)$.  Consider the strong polyfold bundle $[0,1]\\times {\\mathcal W} \\to [0,1]\\times {\\mathcal Z}$ and the $\\text{sc}$-smooth proper oriented Fredholm section $\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}$ defined by $(t,[z]) \\mapsto (t,\\overline{\\partial}([z]))$.\n\t\n\tThen there exists a pair $(N,{\\mathcal U})$ which controls the compactness of $\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}$ and which satisfies the following:\n\t\\begin{enumerate}\n\t\t\\item the auxiliary norm $N:[0,1]\\times {\\mathcal W} \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ restricts to $N_0$ on $\\{0\\}\\times {\\mathcal W}$ and restricts to $N_1$ on $\\{1\\}\\times {\\mathcal W}$,\n\t\t\\item the open neighborhood ${\\mathcal U}$ of ${\\mathcal S} (\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}})$ satisfies ${\\mathcal U} \\cap (\\{0\\}\\times {\\mathcal Z} )= {\\mathcal U}_0$ and ${\\mathcal U} \\cap (\\{1\\}\\times {\\mathcal Z} )= {\\mathcal U}_1$.\n\t\\end{enumerate}\n\t\n\tIn addition, there exists a regular perturbation $\\tilde{\\Lambda}$ of $\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}$ with respect to the pair $(N,{\\mathcal U})$, such that $\\tilde{\\Lambda}|_{\\{0\\}\\times {\\mathcal W}}$ can be identified with $\\Lambda_0$ and likewise $\\tilde{\\Lambda}|_{\\{1\\}\\times {\\mathcal W}}$ can be identified with $\\Lambda_1$.\n\t\n\tIt follows that the perturbed solution set ${\\mathcal S} (\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}, \\tilde{\\Lambda})$ has the structure of a compact weighted branched suborbifold, and is a cobordism between perturbed solution sets, in the sense that\n\t\t\\[\n\t\t\\partial {\\mathcal S} (\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}, \\tilde{\\Lambda}) = -{\\mathcal S} (\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda_0) \\sqcup {\\mathcal S} (\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda_1).\n\t\t\\]\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\\subsection{The branched integral and polyfold invariants}\n\t\\label{subsec:branched-integral-polyfold-invariants}\n\nWe now describe how to define the polyfold invariants through the use of the branched integral. The definition of the branched integral theory on compact oriented weighted branched suborbifolds was originally developed in \\cite{HWZint}.\n\n\\begin{definition}[{\\cite[Def.~4.9]{HWZbook}}]\n\tLet ${\\mathcal Z}$ be a polyfold with an associated polyfold structure $(Z,{\\bar\\m}{Z})$.\n\tThe vector space of $\\text{sc}$-differential $k$-forms $\\Omega^k (Z)$ is the set of $\\text{sc}$-smooth maps \n\t\\[\\omega:\\bigoplus^k_{n=1} TZ\\rightarrow \\mathbb{R}\\]\n\tdefined on the Whitney sum of the tangent of the object space, which are linear in each argument and skew-symmetric.\n\tMoreover, we require that the maps $\\omega$ are morphism invariant in the following sense: for every morphism $\\phi: x\\to y$ in ${\\bar\\m}{Z}_1$ with tangent map $T\\phi:T_xZ\\rightarrow T_yZ$ we require that\n\t\\[\n\t(T\\phi)^*\\omega_y=\\omega_x.\n\t\\]\n\\end{definition}\n\nRecall the definition of ${\\mathcal Z}^i$ as the shifted polyfold with shifted polyfold structure $(Z^i,{\\bar\\m}{Z}^i)$.\nVia the inclusion maps ${\\mathcal Z}^i \\hookrightarrow {\\mathcal Z}$ we may pullback a $\\text{sc}$-differential $k$-form $\\omega$ in $\\Omega^k(Z)$ to $\\Omega^k(Z^i)$, obtaining a directed system\n\\[\n\\Omega^k(Z) \\to \\cdots \\to \\Omega^k(Z^i) \\to \\Omega^k(Z^{i+1}) \\to \\cdots,\n\\]\nwe denote by $\\Omega^k_\\infty (Z)$ the direct limit of this system.\nAs defined in \\cite[p.~149]{HWZbook} there exists an \\textbf{exterior derivative}\n\\[\nd:\\Omega^*(Z^{i+1}) \\to \\Omega^{* +1}(Z^i)\n\\]\nsuch that the composition $d\\circ d = 0$.\nThe exterior derivative commutes with the inclusion maps $Z^i \\hookrightarrow Z^{i+1}$ and hence induces a map\n\\[\nd:\\Omega^*_\\infty(Z) \\to \\Omega^{* +1}_\\infty(Z)\n\\]\nwhich also satisfies $d\\circ d =0$.\n\n\\begin{theorem}[{\\cite[Thm.~9.2]{HWZbook}}]\n\t\\label{def:branched-integral}\n\tLet ${\\mathcal Z}$ be a polyfold with polyfold structure $(Z,{\\bar\\m}{Z})$ which admits $\\text{sc}$-smooth partitions of unity.\n\tGiven a $\\text{sc}$-smooth differential form $\\omega\\in \\Omega^n_\\infty (Z)$ and an $n$-dimensional compact oriented weighted branched suborbifold ${\\mathcal S}\\subset {\\mathcal Z}$.\n\t\n\tThen there exists a well-defined \\textbf{branched integral}, denoted as\n\t\\[\\int_{{\\mathcal S}} \\omega,\\]\n\twhich is partially characterized by the following property. \n\tConsider a point $[x]\\in {\\mathcal S}$ and a representative $x\\in S$ with isotropy group ${\\bar\\m}{G}(x)$. Let $(M_i)_{i\\in I}$, $(w_i)_{i\\in I}$, $(o_i)_{i\\in I}$ be a local branching structure at $x$ contained in a ${\\bar\\m}{G}(x)$-invariant open neighborhood $U\\subset Z$ of $x$.\n\tConsider a $\\text{sc}$-smooth differential form $\\omega\\in \\Omega^n_\\infty (Z)$ and suppose that $\\abs{\\operatorname{supp} \\omega} \\subset \\abs{U}$.\n\tThen\n\t\\[\n\t\\int_{{\\mathcal S}} \\omega = \\frac{1}{\\sharp {\\bar\\m}{G}^\\text{eff}(x)} \\left( \\sum_{i\\in I} w_i \\cdot \\int_{(M_i,o_i)} \\omega\\right)\n\t\\]\n\twhere $\\sharp {\\bar\\m}{G}^\\text{eff}(x)$ is the order of the effective isotropy group and $\\int_{(M_i,o_i)} \\omega$ is the usual integration of the differential $n$-form $\\omega$ on the oriented $n$-dimensional manifold $M_i$.\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\\begin{theorem}[Stokes' theorem, {\\cite[Thm.~9.4]{HWZbook}}]\n\t\\label{thm:stokes}\n\tLet ${\\mathcal Z}$ be a polyfold with polyfold structure $(Z,{\\bar\\m}{Z})$ which admits $\\text{sc}$-smooth partitions of unity.\n\tLet ${\\mathcal S}$ be an $n$-dimensional compact oriented weighted branched suborbifold, and let $\\partial {\\mathcal S}$ be its boundary with induced weights and orientation.  Consider a $\\text{sc}$-differential form $\\omega\\in \\Omega^{n-1}_\\infty (Z)$.\n\tThen \n\t\\[\n\t\\int_{{\\mathcal S}} d\\omega   = \\int_{\\partial {\\mathcal S}} \\omega.\n\t\\]\n\\end{theorem}\n\nThe next theorem follows the same reasoning used to prove \\cite[Thm.~11.8]{HWZbook}.\n\\begin{theorem}[Change of variables]\n\t\\label{thm:change-of-variables}\n\n\n\tLet ${\\mathcal S}_i\\subset {\\mathcal Z}_i$ be $n$-dimensional compact oriented weighted branched suborbifolds with weight functions $\\vartheta_i:{\\mathcal S}_i \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ for $i=1,2$.  \n\tLet $(S_i,{\\bar\\m}{S_i})$ be the associated branched suborbifold structures with associated weight functors $\\hat{\\vartheta}_i: (S_i,{\\bar\\m}{S_i}) \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ for $i=1,2$.\n\t\n\tLet $g:{\\mathcal Z}_1 \\to {\\mathcal Z}_2$ be a $\\text{sc}$-smooth map between polyfolds, which has a well-defined restriction $g|_{{\\mathcal S}_1}\t: {\\mathcal S}_1 \\to {\\mathcal S}_2$ between the branched suborbifolds. In addition, assume the following:\n\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\\item $g: {\\mathcal S}_1 \\to {\\mathcal S}_2$ is a homeomorphism between the underlying topological spaces,\n\t\t\\item $\\hat{g}: S_1\\to S_2$ is injective and an orientation preserving local homeomorphism,\n\t\t\\item $g$ is weight preserving, i.e., $\\vartheta_2\\circ g=\\vartheta_1$ and $\\hat{\\vartheta}_2 \\circ \\hat{g}=\\hat{\\vartheta}_1$.\n\t\\end{itemize}\n\t\n\tThen given a $\\text{sc}$-smooth differential form $\\omega \\in \\Omega^n_\\infty (Z_2)$,\n\t\\[\n\t\\int_{{\\mathcal S}_2} \\omega = \\int_{{\\mathcal S}_1} g^* \\omega.\n\t\\]\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\\begin{theorem}[Polyfold invariants as branched integrals, {\\cite[Cor.~15.2]{HWZbook}}]\n\tConsider a $\\text{sc}$-smooth map \n\t\\[\n\tf:{\\mathcal Z} \\to {\\mathcal O}\n\t\\]\n\tfrom a polyfold ${\\mathcal Z}$ to an orbifold ${\\mathcal O}$.\n\tWe may define the \\textbf{polyfold invariant} as the homomorphism obtained by pulling back a de Rahm cohomology class from the orbifold and taking the branched integral over a perturbed zero set:\n\t\\[\n\tH^*_{\\dR} (O) \t\\to \\mathbb{R}, \\qquad \\omega \\mapsto \\int_{{\\mathcal S}(p)} f^*\\omega.\n\t\\]\n\tBy Theorem~\\ref{thm:cobordism-between-regular-perturbations} and by Stokes' theorem~\\ref{thm:stokes}, this homomorphism does not depend on the choice of abstract perturbation used to obtain the compact oriented weighted branched suborbifold ${\\mathcal S}(p)$.\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\n\\section{Naturality of polyfold invariants}\n\t\\label{sec:naturality-polyfold-invariants}\n\nIn this section we establish the necessary theory for proving the naturality of polyfold invariants, culminating in Theorem~\\ref{thm:naturality-polyfold-invariants} and in Corollaries~\\ref{cor:naturality-polyfold-gw-invariants} and \\ref{cor:punctures-equal}.\n\n\\subsection{Invariance of domain and branched suborbifolds}\n\t\\label{subsec:invariance-of-domain}\n\nIn the process of considering the naturality of the polyfold invariants, we will encounter a smooth bijection between weighted branched suborbifolds,\n\t\\[\n\tf: {\\mathcal S}_1 \\to {\\mathcal S}_2,\n\t\\]\nwhere $\\dim {\\mathcal S}_1 = \\dim {\\mathcal S}_2$ and ${\\mathcal S}_2$ is a compact topological space.\nWe would like to show that this map is a homeomorphism.\n\nHowever using only knowledge of the topologies of these spaces, it is impossible to show this.\nThe key to resolving this problem is understanding the branched suborbifold structure and how to use this additional structure to prove an invariance of domain result.\nThis result will allow us to assert that the above map is a homeomorphism.\n\nInvariance of domain is a classical theorem of algebraic topology due to Brouwer, and was originally published in 1911.\n\\begin{theorem}[Invariance of domain, {\\cite{brouwer1911beweis}}]\n\t\\label{thm:invariance-of-domain}\n\tLet $U$ be an open subset of $\\mathbb{R}^n$, and let $f: U\\to \\mathbb{R}^n$ be an injective continuous map.  Then $f$ is a homeomorphism between $U$ and $f(U)$.\n\\end{theorem}\n\nThis result can immediately be generalized to manifolds; let $M$ and $N$ be an $n$-dimensional manifolds and let $f: M\\to N$ be an injective continuous map.  Then $f$ is a homeomorphism onto its image.  Moreover, if $f$ is bijective, it is a homeomorphism.  We seek to generalize this result to the branched suborbifolds of our current situation.\n\n\\subsubsection{Local topology of branched submanifolds}\n\n\nAs a starting definition, a \\emph{branched manifold} is a topological space which is locally homeomorphic to a finite union of open subsets of $\\mathbb{R}^n$.\nHowever, such a broad definition of a branched manifold immediately raises the possibility of non-desirable topological properties. Consider the classic example of the \\emph{line with two origins}---although this is a locally Euclidean and second-countable topological space, it is not Hausdorff.\nIn contrast, the branched submanifolds we study are embedded into open subsets of ambient M-polyfolds and have better behaved topologies.\n\n\\begin{lemma}\n\t\\label{lem:topology-of-local-branching-structures}\n\tLet $U$ be a metrizable topological space.\n\tLet $M_i$, $i\\in I$ be a finite collection of finite-dimensional manifolds together with inclusion maps $\\phi_i: M_i \\hookrightarrow U$.\n\tAssume moreover that each $\\phi_i$ is proper and a topological embedding.\n\t\n\tConsider the set defined by the image of the inclusions, $\\cup_{i \\in I} \\phi_i (M_i)$.\n\tThere are two topologies we may consider on this set:\n\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\\item $(\\cup_{i \\in I} \\phi_i(M_i), \\tau_s)$, where $\\tau_s$ is the subspace topology induced from $U$\n\t\t\\item $(\\cup_{i \\in I} \\phi_i(M_i), \\tau_q)$, where $\\tau_q$ is the quotient topology induced by the map $\\sqcup_{i\\in I} \\phi_i : \\sqcup_{i\\in I} M_i \\to \\cup_{i \\in I} \\phi(M_i)$.\n\t\\end{itemize}\n\tThese two topologies are identical.\n\\end{lemma}\n\\begin{proof}\n\tWe show that $\\tau_s = \\tau_q$.\n\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\\item $\\tau_s \\subset \\tau_q$\n\t\\end{itemize}\n\tConsider the following commutative diagram where $q$ is the quotient map, $\\phi_i$ are the continuous inclusion maps $\\phi_i: M_i \\to U$, and $i$ is inclusion map.\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\begin{tikzcd}\n\t\t\\bigsqcup_{i\\in I} M_i \\arrow[r, \"\\sqcup_{i\\in I}\\phi_i\"] \\arrow[d, \"q\"'] & U \\\\\n\t\t(\\bigcup_{i\\in I} \\phi_i(M_i),\\tau_q) \\arrow[ru, \"i\",hook] \\arrow[r, \"\\operatorname{id}\"] & (\\bigcup_{i \\in I} \\phi_i(M_i), \\tau_s) \\arrow[u, \"i\"', hook]\n\t\t\\end{tikzcd}\n\t\\end{center}\n\tThen by the characteristic property of the quotient topology, $\\sqcup_{i\\in I} \\phi_i$ continuous implies $i:(\\cup_{i \\in I} \\phi_i(M_i), \\tau_q) \\allowbreak \\hookrightarrow \\allowbreak U $ continuous.\n\tBy the definition of the subspace topology, $i:(\\cup_{i \\in I} \\phi_i(M_i), \\tau_q) \\hookrightarrow U $ is continuous.\n\tBy the characteristic property of the subspace topology, $i:(\\cup_{i \\in I} \\phi_i(M_i), \\tau_q) \\hookrightarrow U $ continuous implies\n\t$\\operatorname{id} : (\\cup_{i \\in I} \\phi_i(M_i), \\tau_q) \\to (\\cup_{i \\in I} \\phi_i(M_i), \\tau_s)$\n\tis continuous.\n\t\n\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\\item $\\tau_q \\subset \\tau_s$\n\t\\end{itemize}\n\tBy assumption $U$ is a metrizable space; hence it is also a regular topological space.\n\tThe assumption that each $\\phi_i$ is a topological embedding and is proper implies moreover that the images $\\phi_i(M_i)\\subset U$ are closed in the subspace topology; to see this note that in metric spaces, sequential compactness is equivalent to compactness, and then use properness.\n\t\n\tSuppose $V\\subset \\cup_{i \\in I} \\phi_i(M_i)$ and $V\\in \\tau_q$.  \n\tWe will show for every $x\\in V$ there exists a subset $B \\subset \\cup_{i \\in I} \\phi_i(M_i)$ such that $B \\in \\tau_s$ and $x \\in B \\subset V$.  This implies that $V\\in\\tau_s$, as desired.\n\t\n\tBy the definition of the quotient topology, the set $q^{-1} (V) \\subset \\sqcup_{i\\in I} M_i$ is open and hence $q^{-1} (V) \\cap M_i$ is open in the topology on $M_i$.\tConsider $x$ as a point in $U$ via the set inclusion $\\cup_{i\\in I} \\phi_i(M_i) \\subset U$, since $\\phi_i : M_i\\to U$ is an injection it follows that $q^{-1} (x) = \\{x_{i_1}, \\ldots, x_{i_k} \\}$ where $x_{i_l} \\in M_{i_l}$ for a nonempty subset $\\{i_1,\\ldots , i_k \\} \\subset I$.\n\t\n\tLet $B_\\epsilon (x)\\subset U$ be an $\\epsilon$-ball at $x$.\n\tSince $\\phi_{i_l}$ is a topological embedding it follows that the sets $\\phi^{-1}_{i_l} (B_\\epsilon(x))$ give a neighborhood basis for $M_{i_l}$ at the point $x_{i_l}$.\n\tTherefore, we may take $\\epsilon$ small enough that $\\phi^{-1}_{i_l} (B_\\epsilon(x)) \\subset q^{-1} (V) \\cap M_{i_l}$ for all $i_l \\in \\{i_1,\\ldots , i_k \\}$.\t\n\tSince $U$ is a regular topological space, and since $x$ and $\\phi_j(M_j)$ are disjoint closed subsets of $U$ for $j \\in I \\setminus \\{i_1,\\ldots , i_k \\}$, we can find disjoint open neighborhoods that separate $x$ and $\\phi_j(M_j)$.\n\tThis moreover implies that we may take $\\epsilon$ small enough that $\\phi^{-1}_j (B_\\epsilon (x)) = \\emptyset$ for all $j \\in I \\setminus \\{i_1,\\ldots , i_k \\}$.\n\tFor such an $\\epsilon$, it follows that $\\phi_i^{-1} (B_\\varepsilon(x)) \\subset q^{-1}(V) \\cap M_i$ for all $i\\in I$.\n\t\t\n\tThe desired set is then given by\n\t\t\\[\n\t\tB:= B_\\epsilon (x) \\cap \\bigcup_{i \\in I} \\phi_i (M_i);\n\t\t\\]\n\tit is an open set in the subspace topology on $\\cup_{i \\in I} \\phi_i(M_i)$.\n\tBy construction, $q^{-1}(B) = \\sqcup_{i\\in I} \\phi_i^{-1} (B_\\varepsilon(x)) \\subset \\sqcup_{i\\in I} q^{-1}(V) \\cap M_i = q^{-1} (V)$, therefore $B\\subset V$ as desired.\n\n\t\n\n\t\n\n\\end{proof}\n\nAn open subset of an M-polyfold with the subspace topology is a metrizable topological space, and hence the above lemma applies to the branched suborbifolds of Definition~\\ref{def:weighed-branched-suborbifold}\n\n\\begin{lemma}\n\t\\label{lem:local-homeo-m-polyfold}\n\tLet $S_i$ be $n$-dimensional branched submanifolds of M-polyfolds $Z_i$ for $i=1,2$.\n\tConsider an injective continuous map between these two M-polyfolds,\n\t$\\hat{f}: Z_1 \\hookrightarrow Z_2,$\n\tand suppose that there is a well-defined restriction to the branched submanifolds,\n\t$\\hat{f}|_{S_1}:S_1 \\hookrightarrow S_2.$\n\t\n\tFor every $x\\in S_1$ with $y:= \\hat{f}(x) \\in S_2$, suppose that there exist local branching structures $(M_i)_{i\\in I}$ at $x$ and $(M'_j)_{j\\in I}$ at $y$ which have the same index set $I$. \n\tMoreover, assume that $\\hat{f}$ has a well-defined restriction to the individual local branches for each index $i\\in I$ as follows:\n\t\\[\n\t\\hat{f}|_{M_i} : M_i \\hookrightarrow M'_i.\n\t\\]\n\tThen $\\hat{f}|_{S_1}$ is a local homeomorphism between $S_1$ and $S_2$. Since we have assumed that $\\hat{f}$ is injective, it follows that $\\hat{f}|_{S_1}$ is also a homeomorphism onto its image.\n\\end{lemma}\n\\begin{proof}\n\tLet $x\\in S_1$ which maps to $\\hat{f}(x)\\in S_2$.  By assumption, there exists a local branching structure $(M_i)_{i\\in I}$ in a neighborhood $O_x$ of $x$, and there exists a local branching structure $(M'_j)_{j\\in J}$ in a neighborhood $O_{\\hat{f}(x)}$ of $\\hat{f}(x)$ such that the index sets are the same, $I=J$, and $\\hat{f}$ restricts to a injective continuous map between each branch, i.e.,\n\t\\[\\hat{f}|_{M_i} : M_i \\to M'_i.\\]\n\t\n\tWe may invoke invariance of domain \\ref{thm:invariance-of-domain} to see that the restricted maps $\\hat{f}|_{M_i}$ are homeomorphisms onto their images.\n\tObserve that the open balls $B_\\epsilon(\\hat{f}(x))\\subset O_{\\hat{f}(x)}$ give a neighborhood basis for $M_i'$ at $\\hat{f}(x)$ for all $i\\in I$.  It follows that $\\hat{f}^{-1} (B_\\epsilon (\\hat{f}(x))) \\subset O_x$ give a neighborhood basis for $M_i$ at $x$ for all $i\\in I$.  For $\\epsilon$ small enough, the restricted maps \n\t\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:restriction-to-local-branches}\n\t\\hat{f}|_{M_i \\cap \\hat{f}^{-1} (B_\\epsilon (\\hat{f}(x)))} : M_i \\cap \\hat{f}^{-1} (B_\\epsilon (\\hat{f}(x))) \\to M_i' \\cap B_\\epsilon(\\hat{f}(x))\n\t\\end{equation}\n\tare homeomorphisms for all $i\\in I$.\n\t\n\tDefine a neighborhood of $x$ by $U_x = \\hat{f}^{-1} (B_\\epsilon (\\hat{f}(x)))$; then $N_i := M_i \\cap \\hat{f}^{-1} (B_\\epsilon(\\hat{f}(x)))$ give local branches in $U_x$.  Define a neighborhood of $\\hat{f}(x)$ by $U_{\\hat{f}(x)}:=B_\\epsilon(\\hat{f}(x))$; then $N_i' := M_i' \\cap B_\\epsilon(\\hat{f}(x))$ give local branches in $U_{\\hat{f}(x)}$.  We can now rewrite \\eqref{eq:restriction-to-local-branches} more simply as\n\t\\[\n\t\\hat{f}|_{N_i} : N_i \\to N'_i.\n\t\\]\n\tand note again that the maps $\\hat{f}|_{N_i}$ are homeomorphisms for all $i\\in I$.  Hence the map $\\sqcup_{i\\in I} (\\hat{f}|_{N_i}): \\sqcup_{i\\in I} N_i \\to \\sqcup_{i\\in I} N'_i$ is also a homeomorphism.\n\t\n\tConsider the following commutative diagram of maps.\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\begin{tikzcd}\n\t\t\\bigsqcup_{i\\in I} N_i \\arrow[d, \"q\"] \\arrow[r, \"\\sqcup (\\hat{f}|_{N_i})\"] & \\bigsqcup_{i\\in I} N'_i \\arrow[d, \"q'\"] \\\\\n\t\t(\\cup_{i\\in I} N_i, \\tau_q) \\arrow[r, \"\\hat{f}|_{\\cup N_i}\"', hook] & (\\cup_{i\\in I} N'_i, \\tau_{q'})\n\t\t\\end{tikzcd}\n\t\\end{center}\n\tWe assert that the map $\\hat{f}|_{\\cup N_i} : (\\cup_{i \\in I} N_i,\\tau_q) \\hookrightarrow (\\cup_{i\\in I} N'_i,\\tau_{q'})$ is a homeomorphism.\n\tIndeed, by assumption $\\hat{f}|_{\\cup N_i}$ is injective.  We can use the fact that $\\sqcup (\\hat{f}|_{N_i})$ is a bijection to see that $\\hat{f}|_{\\cup N_i}$ must also be surjective.\n\tIt is easy to check that $\\hat{f}|_{\\cup N_i}$ is continuous with respect to the quotient topologies $\\tau_q$ and $\\tau_{q'}$.\n\tFurthermore, $\\hat{f}|_{\\cup N_i}$ is an open map.\n\tTo see this, let $U\\subset (\\cup_{i \\in I} N_i,\\tau_q)$ be an open set.  Then $q^{-1} (U) \\subset \\sqcup_{i\\in I} N_i$ is open by the definition of the quotient topology.\n\tSince $\\sqcup (\\hat{f}|_{N_i})$ is a homeomorphism, $(\\sqcup (\\hat{f}|_{N_i})) (q^{-1}(U))$ is open.\n\tCommutativity of the diagram and the fact that both $\\sqcup (\\hat{f}|_{N_i})$ and $\\hat{f}|_{\\cup N_i}$ are bijections implies that $(\\sqcup \\hat{f}|_{N_i}) (q^{-1}(U)) = q'^{-1} (\\hat{f}|_{\\cup N_i} (U))$.\n\tIt therefore follows that $\\hat{f}|_{\\cup N_I} (U)$ is open by the definition of the quotient topology.\n\t\n\tBy Lemma~\\ref{lem:topology-of-local-branching-structures}, the fact that $\\hat{f}|_{\\cup N_i} : (\\cup_{i \\in I} N_i,\\tau_q) \\hookrightarrow (\\cup_{i\\in I} N'_i,\\tau_{q'})$ is a homeomorphism implies that $\\hat{f}|_{\\cup N_i} : (\\cup_{i \\in I} N_i,\\tau_s) \\hookrightarrow (\\cup_{i\\in I} N'_i,\\tau_s)$ is a homeomorphism.\n\tNote that $\\cup_{i \\in I} N_i \\subset S_1$ and $\\cup_{i \\in I} N'_i \\subset S_2$ are both open subsets.\n\tBy Remark~\\ref{rmk:local-topology-subgroupoid}, the inclusion maps $(\\cup_{i \\in I} N_i,\\tau_s)\\hookrightarrow S_1$ and $(\\cup_{i\\in I} N'_i,\\tau_s)\\hookrightarrow S_2$ are both local homeomorphisms.  We now see that the map $\\hat{f} : S_1 \\to S_2$ is a local homeomorphism on an open neighborhood of the point $x\\in S_1$.  Since $x\\in S_1$ was arbitrary, and since $\\hat{f}$ is injective, we can conclude $\\hat{f}$, considered on the object sets, is a local homeomorphism.  It then follows from the \\'etale property that $\\hat{f}$, considered on the morphism sets, is a local homeomorphism.  This proves the claim.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\begin{lemma}\n\t\\label{lem:invariance-of-domain-branched-orbifolds}\n\tLet ${\\mathcal S}_i$ be an $n$-dimensional branched suborbifold of a polyfold ${\\mathcal Z}_i$ for $i=1,2$.\n\tConsider an injective continuous map between these two polyfolds, $f: {\\mathcal Z}_1 \\hookrightarrow {\\mathcal Z}_2$,\n\tand which has an associated functor $\\hat{f}: (Z_1,{\\bar\\m}{Z_1}) \\hookrightarrow (Z_2,{\\bar\\m}{Z_2})$, which is injective and continuous with respect to the object and morphism sets.\n\tIn addition, assume that the functor $\\hat{f}$ is fully faithful.\n\tSuppose that $f$ has a well-defined restriction to the branched suborbifolds $f|_{{\\mathcal S}_1}:{\\mathcal S}_1 \\hookrightarrow {\\mathcal S}_2$; it follows that $\\hat{f}$ restricts to a well-defined functor between the subgroupoids $\\hat{f}|_{S_1} : (S_1,{\\bar\\m}{S}_1) \\to (S_2,{\\bar\\m}{S}_2)$.\n\t\n\tAssume that for every $x\\in S_1$ with $y:= \\hat{f}(x) \\in S_2$, there exist local branching structures $M_i$, $i\\in I$ at $x$ and $M'_j$, $j\\in I$ at $y$ which have the same index set $I$. \n\tMoreover, assume that $\\hat{f}$ has a well-defined restriction to the individual local branches for each index $i\\in I$ as follows:\n\t\\[\n\t\\hat{f}|_{M_i} : M_i \\hookrightarrow M'_i.\n\t\\]\n\t\n\tThen the restriction $f|_{{\\mathcal S}_1}:{\\mathcal S}_1 \\hookrightarrow {\\mathcal S}_2$ is a local homeomorphism. In particular, if $f|_{{\\mathcal S}_1}$ is a bijection, then it is a homeomorphism.\n\\end{lemma}\n\\begin{proof}\t\n\tLet $[x] \\in {\\mathcal S}_1$ and let $f([x]) \\in {\\mathcal S}_2$.  Let $x$ be a representative of $[x]$, hence $\\hat{f}(x)$ is a representative of $f([x])$.  \n\tFrom the proof of Lemma~\\ref{lem:local-homeo-m-polyfold}, we have seen that there exists a local branching structure $(N_i)_{i\\in I}$ at $x$ and a local branching structure $(N'_i)_{i\\in I}$ at $\\hat{f}(x)$ such that $\\hat{f}|_{\\cup N_i} : (\\cup_{i \\in I} N_i,\\tau_s) \\hookrightarrow (\\cup_{i\\in I} N'_i,\\tau_s)$ is a homeomorphism.\n\t\n\tThe proof now follows the same reasoning as Lemma~\\ref{lem:local-homeo-m-polyfold}.\n\tConsider the following commutative diagram of maps.\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\begin{tikzcd}\n\t\t\\bigcup_{i\\in I} N_i \\arrow[d, \"q\"] \\arrow[r, \"\\hat{f}|_{\\cup N_i}\"] & \\bigcup_{i\\in I} N'_i \\arrow[d, \"q'\"] \\\\\n\t\t(\\abs{\\cup_{i\\in I} N_i},\\tau_q)  \\arrow[r, \"f|_{\\abs{\\cup N_i}}\"', hook] & (\\abs{\\cup_{i\\in I} N'_i}, \\tau_{q'})\n\t\t\\end{tikzcd}\n\t\\end{center}\n\tWe assert that the map $f|_{\\abs{\\cup N_i}}$ is a homeomorphism.\n\tIndeed, by assumption $f|_{\\abs{\\cup N_i}}$ is injective.  We can use the fact that $\\hat{f}|_{\\cup N_i}$ is a bijection to see that $f|_{\\abs{\\cup N_i}}$ must also be surjective.\n\tBy assumption, $f$ is continuous and therefore the restriction $f|_{\\abs{\\cup N_i}}$ is continuous.\n\tFurthermore, $f|_{\\abs{\\cup N_i}}$ is an open map.\n\tTo see this, let $U\\subset \\abs{\\cup_{i\\in I} N_i}$ be an open set.\n\tThen $q^{-1}(U)\\subset \\cup_{i \\in I} N_i$ is open by the definition of the quotient topology.\n\tSince $\\hat{f}|_{\\cup N_i}$ is a homeomorphism,  $(\\hat{f}|_{\\cup N_i})(q^{-1}(U)) \\subset \\cup_{i \\in I} N'_i$ is open.  Commutativity of the diagram and the fact that both $\\hat{f}|_{\\cup N_i}$ and $f|_{\\abs{\\cup N_i}}$ are bijections implies that $(\\hat{f}|_{\\cup N_i}) (q^{-1}(U)) = q'^{-1} (f|_{\\abs{\\cup N_i}}(U))$.\n\tIt therefore follows that $f|_{\\abs{\\cup N_i}}(U)$ is open by the definition of the quotient topology.\n\t\n\tProposition~\\ref{prop:natural-representation-subgroupoid} implies that the inclusion maps $\\abs{\\cup_{i\\in I} N_i} \\hookrightarrow {\\mathcal S}_1$ and $\\abs{\\cup_{i\\in I} N'_i} \\hookrightarrow {\\mathcal S}_2$ are local homeomorphisms.\n\tWe now see that the map $f|_{{\\mathcal S}_1} : {\\mathcal S}_1 \\to {\\mathcal S}_2$ is a local homeomorphism on an open neighborhood of the point $[x]\\in {\\mathcal S}_1$.  Since $[x]\\in {\\mathcal S}_1$ was arbitrary it follows that $f|_{{\\mathcal S}_1}$ is a local homeomorphism.\n\tIt moreover follows that if $f|_{{\\mathcal S}_1}$ is bijective, it is a homeomorphism.  This proves the claim.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\subsection{Fredholm multisections and abstract perturbations}\n\t\\label{subsec:fredholm-multisections}\n\nIn this subsection we generalize the polyfold abstract perturbation theory from Fredholm sections to Fredholm multisections.\nThis involves minor modifications to the definitions and theorems originally developed in \\cite{HWZ3} and which we recalled in \\S~\\ref{subsec:abstract-perturbations}.\nThis generalization is developed with a specific goal in mind, which is the proof of Theorem~\\ref{thm:naturality}.\n\n\\begin{definition}\n\tLet ${\\mathcal W}\\to {\\mathcal Z}$ be a strong polyfold bundle.  We define a \\textbf{$\\text{sc}$-smooth Fredholm multisection} as \n\t\\begin{enumerate}\n\t\t\\item a function $F:{\\mathcal W} \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$,\n\t\t\\item an associated functor $\\hat{F}: W \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ where $\\abs{\\hat{F}}$ induces $F$,\n\t\\end{enumerate}\n\tsuch that at ever $[x]\\in {\\mathcal Z}$ there exists a \\textbf{local Fredholm section structure} defined as follows.\n\tLet $x\\in Z$ be a representative of $[x]$ and let $U\\subset Z$ be a ${\\bar\\m}{G}(x)$-invariant open neighborhood of $x$, and consider the restricted strong M-polyfold bundle $P: W|_U \\to U$.\n\tThen there exist finitely many $\\text{sc}$-Fredholm sections $f_1,\\ldots,f_k : U \\to W|_U$\n\twith associated positive rational numbers $\\sigma_1,\\ldots ,\\sigma_k \\in \\mathbb{Q}^+$ which satisfy the following:\n\t\\begin{enumerate}\n\t\t\\item $\\sum_{i=1}^k \\sigma_i =1.$\n\t\t\\item The restriction $\\hat{F}|_{W|_U}: W|_U \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ is related to the local sections and weights via the equation \n\t\t\t\\[\n\t\t\t\\hat{F}|_{W|_U}(w)=\\sum_{\\{i\\in \\{1,\\ldots, k\\} \\mid w=f_i(p(w))\\}} \\sigma_i\n\t\t\t\\]\n\t\twhere the empty sum has by definition the value $0$.\n\t\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{definition}\n\nWe say that the Fredholm multisection $F$ is \\textbf{proper} if the unperturbed solution set\n\t\\[\n\t{\\mathcal S} (F) := \\{ [z]\\in {\\mathcal Z} \\mid F(0_{[x]})\t>0\t\\} \\subset {\\mathcal Z}\n\t\\]\nis a compact topological space.\n(Notice that the condition $F(0_{[x]})>0$ is equivalent to the condition that $f_i(x) = 0$ for some $i \\in I$ for a given representative $x$ and a local Fredholm section structure $(f_i)_{i\\in I}$, $(\\sigma_i)_{i\\in I}$ at $x$.)\nFurthermore, we can define a weight function on the unperturbed solution set, ${\\mathcal S}(F) \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$, by $[z] \\mapsto F(0_{[x]})$.\n\n\\begin{example}\n\tFor the applications we have in mind, the $\\text{sc}$-smooth Fredholm multisections are obtained as a pair $(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda)$ consisting of:\n\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\\item a $\\text{sc}$-smooth Fredholm section $\\overline{\\partial}:{\\mathcal Z}\\to{\\mathcal W}$,\n\t\t\\item a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection $\\Lambda :{\\mathcal W} \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$.\n\t\\end{itemize}\n\tGiven a point $[x]\\in{\\mathcal Z}$, we define a local Fredholm section structure for $(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda)$ at $[x]$ as follows.\n\tLet $x\\in Z$ be a representative of $[x]$ and let $U\\subset Z$ be a ${\\bar\\m}{G}(x)$-invariant open neighborhood of $x$, and consider the restricted strong M-polyfold bundle $P: W|_U \\to U$.\n\tConsider the $\\text{sc}$-smooth Fredholm section $\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}: U \\to W|_U$, and let $(s_i)_{i\\in I}$, $(\\sigma_i)_{i\\in I}$ be a local section structure for $\\Lambda$ at $x$.\n\t\n\tThen the local Fredholm section structure is given by $f_i := \\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$} - s_i$ with associated weight $\\sigma_i$. It follows from \\cite[Thm.~3.2]{HWZbook} that such an $f_i$ is in fact a $\\text{sc}$-smooth Fredholm section.\n\tWe may then define the functor $\\hat{F}$ locally via the equation\n\t\t\\[\n\t\t\\hat{F}|_{W|_U}(w)=\\sum_{i\\in \\{1,\\ldots, k \\mid w=f_i(p(w))\\}} \\sigma_i\n\t\t\\]\n\twhere the empty sum has by definition the value $0$. It is evident this extends to a well-defined functor $\\hat{F}: (W,{\\bar\\m}{W}) \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$.\n\tFinally, observe the perturbed solution set ${\\mathcal S} (\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda)$ associated to the pair $(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda)$ is the same as the unperturbed solution set ${\\mathcal S} (F)$ associated to the Fredholm multisection $F$, i.e.,\n\t\t\\[\n\t\t\\{ [z]\\in {\\mathcal Z} \\mid \\Lambda(\\overline{\\partial}([x]))\t>0\t\\} = \\{ [z]\\in {\\mathcal Z} \\mid F(0_{[x]})\t>0\t\\}.\n\t\t\\]\n\\end{example}\n\n\\subsubsection{Transverse perturbations of Fredholm multisections}\n\nWe can immediately adapt the main definitions and results of \\S~\\ref{subsec:abstract-perturbations}; there is no difficulty in generalizing the construction of transverse perturbations to Fredholm multisections.\n\n\\begin{definition}\n\tAssociated to a $\\text{sc}$-smooth Fredholm multisection $\\overline{\\partial}$ and a $\\text{sc}^+$-mul\\-ti\\-sec\\-tion $\\Gamma$, \n\twe define the \\textbf{perturbed solution space} as the set\n\t\\[\n\t{\\mathcal S}(F,\\Lambda) :=\\{[z]\\in{\\mathcal Z} \\mid (F\\oplus\\Gamma) (0_{[z]})\t>0\t\\}\\subset {\\mathcal Z}\n\t\\]\n\twith topology given by the subspace topology induced from ${\\mathcal Z}$. It is equipped with the weight function ${\\mathcal S}(F,\\Gamma) \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+,$ $[z]\\mapsto (F\\oplus\\Gamma) (0_{[z]}).$\n\\end{definition}\n\nAlong the same lines as Definition~\\ref{def:transversal-pair}, we can formulate what it means for a Fredholm multisection and a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection to be transversal.\n\n\\begin{definition}\n\t\\label{def:fredholm-multisection-transversal}\n\tLet $P:{\\mathcal W}\\to {\\mathcal Z}$ be a strong polyfold bundle, $F$ a $\\text{sc}$-smooth Fredholm multisection, and $\\Gamma$ a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection.\n\t\n\tConsider a point $[x]\\in {\\mathcal Z}$.  We say $(F,\\Gamma)$ is \\textbf{transversal at $[x]$} if, given a local Fredholm section structure for $F$ at $[x]$ and given a local $\\text{sc}^+$-section structure for $\\Gamma$ at $[x]$, then the linearized local expression \n\t\t\\[\n\t\tD(f_i-s_j)(x):T_x Z \\to W_x\n\t\t\\]\n\tis surjective for all $i\\in I$, $j\\in J$ with $f_i(x)=s_j(x)$.  We say that $(F,\\Gamma)$ is \\textbf{transversal} if it is transversal at every $[x] \\in {\\mathcal S}(F,\\Gamma)$.\n\\end{definition}\n\nConsider our example of a Fredholm multisection $(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda)$ consisting of a Fredholm section and a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection $\\Lambda$, and let $\\Gamma$ be an additional $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection. Then the sum $\\Lambda \\oplus \\Gamma: {\\mathcal W} \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ is a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection, with local section structure given by $s_i +r_j$ where $(s_i)_{i\\in I}$ is a local section structure for $\\Lambda$ and $(r_j)_{j\\in J}$ is a local section structure for $\\Gamma$.\nWe may now observe that the pair $(\\overline{\\partial}, \\Lambda\\oplus \\Gamma)$ consisting of the Fredholm section $\\overline{\\partial}$ and the $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection $\\Lambda\\oplus \\Gamma$ is transversal in the sense of Definition~\\ref{def:transversal-pair} if an only if the pair $((\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda), \\Gamma)$ consisting of the Fredholm multisection $(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda)$ and the $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection $\\Gamma$ is transversal in the sense of the above Definition~\\ref{def:fredholm-multisection-transversal}.\n\nWe have an analog of Theorem~\\ref{thm:transversal-pairs-weighted-branched-suborbifolds}.\n\n\\begin{proposition}\n\t\\label{prop:fredholm-multisection-transversal-pairs-weighted-branched-suborbifolds}\n\tLet $P:{\\mathcal W}\\rightarrow {\\mathcal Z}$ be a strong polyfold bundle, $F$ a $\\text{sc}$-smooth Fredholm multisection, and $\\Gamma$ a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection.\n\tIf the pair  $(F,\\Lambda)$ is transversal, then the perturbed solution set ${\\mathcal S}(F,\\Gamma)$ carries in a natural way the structure of a weighted branched suborbifold.\n\\end{proposition}\n\n\\subsubsection{Controlling compactness of Fredholm multisections}\n\nIn contrast to construction of transverse perturbations of Fredholm multisections, where no modification of the underlying definitions or ideas was required, it is somewhat more involved to show how to control the compactness of Fredholm multisections.\nIt is necessary to refer to the earlier work contained in \\cite[\\S~4.2]{HWZ3} in order to obtain complete results in our current situation.\n\n\\begin{definition}\n\tConsider a Fredholm multisection and a point $[z] \\in {\\mathcal Z}$.\n\tLet $(f_i)_{i\\in I}$ be a local section structure for $F$ at a representative $z$.\n\tLet $N:{\\mathcal W}[1]\\to [0,\\infty)$ be an auxiliary norm with associated $\\text{sc}^0$-functor $\\hat{N}:W[1]\\to [0,\\infty)$; as in \\cite[p.~434]{HWZbook}, we may extend $N$ to all of ${\\mathcal W}$ by defining $N([w]):= +\\infty$ for $[w]\\in {\\mathcal W}[0] \\setminus {\\mathcal W}[1]$, and likewise extend $\\hat{N}$ to all of $W$.\n\tWe define the \\textbf{min norm of the Fredholm multisection} $F$ at $[z]$ by the equation\n\t\\[\n\tN_{\\min} (F) [z] := \\min_{i\\in I} \\{\t\\hat{N} (\tf_i(z)\t)\t\\}.\n\t\\]\n\n\\end{definition}\n\n\\begin{definition}\n\tLet $P:{\\mathcal W}\\to {\\mathcal Z}$ be a strong polyfold bundle, let $F$ be a $\\text{sc}$-smooth proper Fredholm multisection, and let $N :{\\mathcal W}\\to [0,\\infty)$ be an extended auxiliary norm.\n\t\n\tConsider an open neighborhood ${\\mathcal U}$ of the unperturbed solution set $\\mathcal{S}(F)\\subset {\\mathcal Z}$.\n\n\tWe say that the pair $(N,{\\mathcal U})$ \\textbf{controls the compactness} of $F$ provided the set \n\t\\[\n\tcl_{\\mathcal Z} \\{[x]\\in {\\mathcal U} \\mid N_{\\min} (F) [x]\\leq 1\\} \\subset {\\mathcal Z}\n\t\\]\n\tis compact.\n\n\\end{definition}\n\n\\begin{proposition}[Analog of {\\cite[Thm.~4.5]{HWZ3}}]\n\tLet $P:{\\mathcal W}\\to {\\mathcal Z}$ be a strong polyfold bundle, let $F$ be a $\\text{sc}$-smooth proper Fredholm multisection, and let $N :{\\mathcal W}[1]\\to [0,\\infty)$ be an auxiliary norm.  Then there exists an open neighborhood ${\\mathcal U}$ of the unperturbed solution set $\\mathcal{S}(F)$ such that the pair $(N,{\\mathcal U})$ controls the compactness of $F$.\n\\end{proposition}\n\n\\begin{proposition}[Analog of {\\cite[Lem.~4.16]{HWZ3}}]\n\t\\label{prop:fredholm-multisection-compactness}\n\tLet $P:{\\mathcal W}\\to {\\mathcal Z}$ be a strong polyfold bundle, let $F$ be a $\\text{sc}$-smooth proper Fredholm multisection, and let $(N,{\\mathcal U})$ be a pair which controls compactness.\n\tIf a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection $\\Gamma$ satisfies $N[\\Gamma] \\leq 1$ and $\\text{dom-supp} (\\Gamma) \\subset {\\mathcal U}$, then the perturbed solution set $\\mathcal{S}(F,\\Gamma)$ is compact\n\\end{proposition}\n\n\\subsubsection{Regular perturbations and compact cobordism}\n\nLet $P:{\\mathcal W}\\to {\\mathcal Z}$ be a strong polyfold bundle, let $F$ be a $\\text{sc}$-smooth proper Fredholm multisection, and let $(N, {\\mathcal U})$ be a pair which controls compactness.\nWe say a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection $\\Gamma$ is a \\textbf{regular perturbation} of $F$ with respect to the pair $(N,{\\mathcal U})$ if it satisfies the following:\n\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\\item $(F, \\Gamma)$ is a transversal pair,\n\t\t\\item $N[\\Gamma] \\leq 1$ and $\\text{dom-supp} (\\Gamma) \\subset {\\mathcal U}$.\n\t\\end{itemize}\nAs in \\cite[Cor.~15.1]{HWZbook}, one can prove that there exist regular perturbations $\\Gamma$ of $F$ with respect to the pair $(N,{\\mathcal U})$.\nIt follows from Proposition~\\ref{prop:fredholm-multisection-transversal-pairs-weighted-branched-suborbifolds} and Proposition~\\ref{prop:fredholm-multisection-compactness} that the perturbed solution space ${\\mathcal S}(F,\\Gamma)$ has the structure of a compact weighted branched suborbifold, with weight function given by ${\\mathcal S}(F,\\Gamma) \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+,$ $[z]\\mapsto (F\\oplus \\Gamma)(0_{[z]})$.\n\nFurthermore, as in \\cite[Cor.~15.1]{HWZbook} one can prove the existence of a compact cobordism between perturbed solution sets of regular perturbations.\n\n\\subsubsection{Cobordism from a transversal Fredholm multisection to a regular perturbation}\n\t\\label{subsubsec:cobordism-multisection-regular}\n\nHaving developed the above generalization to Fredholm multisections, we are finally in a position to state the desired specialized result, Proposition~\\ref{prop:cobordism-multisection-regular}.\n\nConsider a strong polyfold bundle $P:{\\mathcal W} \\to {\\mathcal Z}$ and a $\\text{sc}$-smooth proper Fredholm section $\\overline{\\partial}$.\nSuppose that $(N_0,{\\mathcal U}_0)$ is a pair which controls the compactness of $\\overline{\\partial}$.\nConsider a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection $\\Lambda$ and suppose that $(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda)$ is a transversal pair.\n(Note that we do not assume that $\\Lambda$ is admissible to a pair which controls compactness.)\nNow, consider the strong polyfold bundle ${\\mathcal W}\\times[0,1] \\to {\\mathcal Z}\\times[0,1]$, and consider a $\\text{sc}$-smooth Fredholm multisection $(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}},\\tilde{\\Lambda})$ defined as follows:\n\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\\item $\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}$ is the $\\text{sc}$-smooth Fredholm section defined by $([z],s)\\mapsto (\\overline{\\partial}([z]),s)$,\n\t\t\\item $\\tilde{\\Lambda}$ is the $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection defined for $s\\neq 0$ by\n\t\t$([w],s)\\mapsto \\Lambda(1\/s \\cdot [w])$ and for $s=0$ by\n\t\t\t\\[\n\t\t\t([w],0)\t\\mapsto \n\t\t\t\\begin{cases}\n\t\t\t\t1, &\\text{if } [w]=[0], \\\\\n\t\t\t\t0, &\\text{if } [w]\\neq [0],\n\t\t\t\\end{cases}\n\t\t\t\\]\n\t\tand\n\t\twhose local section structure at an object $(x,s)$ is defined by $O_x\\times [0,1] \\to W \\times [0,1]; (x,s) \\mapsto (s\\cdot s_i(x), s)$ (where $(s_i)$ is the original local section structure for $\\Lambda$ at the object $x\\in Z$).\n\t\\end{itemize}\nMoreover, let us assume that the Fredholm multisection $(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}},\\tilde{\\Lambda})$ is proper, i.e., the solution set ${\\mathcal S}(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}},\\tilde{\\Lambda})$ is compact.\n\nObserve that the topological boundary of ${\\mathcal S}(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}},\\tilde{\\Lambda})$ is given by the following set:\n\t\\[\n\t\\partial {\\mathcal S}(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}},\\tilde{\\Lambda}) = {\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}) \\sqcup {\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda).\n\t\\]\nBy the assumption that $(\\overline{\\partial}, \\Lambda)$ is a transversal pair ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda)$ is a weighted branched orbifold; moreover it is a closed subset of ${\\mathcal S}(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}, \\tilde{\\Lambda})$ and is therefore compact.\nWe emphasize that since $\\Lambda$ is not admissible to a pair which controls compactness, it is not a regular perturbation (see Definition~\\ref{def:regular-perturbation}) and hence cannot be used to define polyfold invariants.\nWe can almost consider ${\\mathcal S}(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}},\\tilde{\\Lambda})$ as a compact cobordism, except $\\overline{\\partial}$ is not assumed to be transverse and hence ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial})$ is not assumed to have the structure of a weighted branched suborbifold.\n\nThe following proposition demonstrates how to perturb the solution space ${\\mathcal S}(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}},\\tilde{\\Lambda})$ in order to obtain a compact cobordism between ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda)$ and a perturbed solution space ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial},\\Gamma_0)$ where $\\Gamma_0$ is a \\emph{regular} perturbation.\n\n\\begin{proposition}\n\t\\label{prop:cobordism-multisection-regular}\n    Suppose that $\\Gamma_0$ is a regular perturbation of $\\overline{\\partial}$ with respect to the pair $(N_0,{\\mathcal U}_0)$,\n\tThere exists a pair $(N,{\\mathcal U})$ which controls the compactness of the Fredholm multisection $(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}},\\tilde{\\Lambda})$ and which satisfies the following:\n\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\\item the auxiliary norm $N: {\\mathcal W}\\times [0,1] \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ restricts to $N_0$ on ${\\mathcal W}\\times \\{0\\}$,\n\t\t\\item the open neighborhood ${\\mathcal U}$ of ${\\mathcal S}(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}},\\tilde{\\Lambda})$ satisfies ${\\mathcal U} \\cap ({\\mathcal Z}\\times \\{0\\}) = {\\mathcal U}_0$.\n\t\\end{itemize}\n\tMoreover, there exists a regular perturbation $\\Gamma$ of $(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}},\\tilde{\\Lambda})$ with respect to the pair $(N,{\\mathcal U})$ such that $\\Gamma|_{{\\mathcal W}\\times \\{0\\}}$ can be identified with $\\Gamma_0$ and such that $\\Gamma|_{{\\mathcal W}\\times\\{1\\}} \\equiv 0$.\n\\end{proposition}\n\nThe proof of this proposition follows the same reasoning used to prove Theorem~\\ref{thm:cobordism-between-regular-perturbations}, noting in addition that  we do not need to perturb in a neighborhood of ${\\mathcal Z}\\times\\{1\\}$, as by assumption $(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda)$ is a transversal pair.\n\n\\subsection{Intermediary subbundles and naturality of polyfold invariants}\n\t\\label{subsec:intermediary-subbundles-naturality}\n\nConsider a commutative diagram as follows,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:commutative-diagram-naturality}\n\t\\begin{tikzcd}\n\t{\\mathcal W}_1 \\arrow[r, \"\\iota_{\\mathcal W}\"', hook] \\arrow[d, \"\\overline{\\partial}_1\\quad \"'] & {\\mathcal W}_2 \\arrow[d, \"\\quad \\overline{\\partial}_2\"] &  \\\\\n\t{\\mathcal Z}_1 \\arrow[r, \"\\iota_{\\mathcal Z}\"', hook] \\arrow[u, bend left] & {\\mathcal Z}_2 \\arrow[u, bend right] & \n\t\\end{tikzcd}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere:\n\\begin{itemize}\n\t\\item ${\\mathcal W}_i \\to {\\mathcal Z}_i$ are strong polyfold bundles for $i=1,2$.\n\t\\item $\\overline{\\partial}_i$ are $\\text{sc}$-smooth proper oriented Fredholm sections of the same index for $i=1,2$.\n\t\\item $\\iota_{\\mathcal Z} :{\\mathcal Z}_1 \\hookrightarrow {\\mathcal Z}_2$ is a $\\text{sc}$-smooth injective map, and the associated functor between polyfold structures $\\hat{\\iota}_{\\mathcal Z} : (Z_1,{\\bar\\m}{Z}_1) \\hookrightarrow (Z_2,{\\bar\\m}{Z}_2)$ is fully faithful and is also an injection on both the object and the morphism sets.\n\t\\item $\\iota_{\\mathcal W}:{\\mathcal W}_1\\hookrightarrow{\\mathcal W}_2$ is a $\\text{sc}$-smooth injective map, and the associated functor between polyfold strong bundle structures $\\hat{\\iota}_{\\mathcal W} :(W_1,{\\bar\\m}{W}_1) \\hookrightarrow (W_2,{\\bar\\m}{W}_2)$ is fully faithful, and is also an injection on both the object and the morphism sets.  Moreover, $\\hat{\\iota}$ is a bundle map (i.e., restricts to a linear map on the fibers).\n\t\\item ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_2) \\subset \\text{Im} (\\iota_{\\mathcal Z})$.\n\\end{itemize}\n\nIn order to deal with orientations, consider the following.\nConsider a smooth object $x\\in (Z_1)_\\infty$ which maps to $y:= \\hat{\\iota}_{\\mathcal Z} \\in (Z_2)_\\infty$.\nConsider a locally defined $\\text{sc}^+$-section $s:' U \\to W_2$ defined on an open neighborhood $U\\subset Z_2$ of $y$, which satisfies $s'(y) = \\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_2 (y)$.\nAssume that this $\\text{sc}^+$-section has a well-defined restriction $s'|_{U \\cap \\hat{\\iota}_{\\mathcal Z} (Z_1)} : U \\cap \\hat{\\iota}_{\\mathcal Z} (Z_1) \\to \\hat{\\iota}_{\\mathcal W} (W_1)$, which induces a $\\text{sc}^+$-section $s: \\hat{\\iota}_{\\mathcal Z}^{-1}(U) \\to W_1$ which moreover satisfies $s(x) = \\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_1 (x)$.\nWe therefore have a commutative diagram.\n\t\\[\n\t\\begin{tikzcd}\n\tT_x W_1 \\arrow[r, \"D\\hat{\\iota}_{\\mathcal W}\"'] & T_y W_2 &  \\\\\n\tT_x Z_1 \\arrow[r, \"D\\hat{\\iota}_{\\mathcal Z}\"'] \\arrow[u, \"D(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_1-s)(x)\"] & T_y Z_2 \\arrow[u, \"D(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_2-s')(y)\"'] & \n\t\\end{tikzcd}\n\t\\]\nConsider the following maps: $D\\hat{\\iota}_{\\mathcal Z}: \\ker (D(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_1-s)(x))) \\to \\ker (D(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_2-s')(y))$, and $D\\hat{\\iota}_{\\mathcal W}: \\text{Im} (D(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_1-s)(x))) \\to \\text{Im} (D(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_2-s')(y))$, which therefore induces a map $\\operatorname{coker} (D(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_1-s)(x))) \\to \\operatorname{coker} (D(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_2-s')(y))$.\nThese maps induce a map between the determinant real lines\n\t\\begin{gather*}\n\t\\det (D(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_1-s)(x))) = \\Lambda^{\\max} (\\ker (D(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_1-s)(x)))) \\otimes (\\Lambda^{\\max} (\\operatorname{coker} (D(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_1-s)(x)))))^*,\t\\\\\n\t\\det (D(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_2-s')(y))) = \\Lambda^{\\max} (\\ker (D(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_2-s')(y))) \\otimes (\\Lambda^{\\max} (\\operatorname{coker} (D(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_2-s')(y)))\t)^*\t.\n\t\\end{gather*}\n\n\\begin{itemize}\n\t\\item\tAssume that the induced map between the determinants\n\t\t\t\t\\[\\hat{\\iota}_* : \\det (D(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_1-s)(x))) \\to \\det (D(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_2-s')(y))\\]\n\t\t\tis an isomorphism. Moreover, assume that this isomorphism is orientation preserving, with respect to the chosen orientations of $\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_1$ at the point $x$ and $\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_2$ at the point $y$ (see Definition~\\ref{def:oriented-Fredholm}).\n\\end{itemize}\n\nReturning to the main discussion, it follows from commutativity of \\eqref{eq:commutative-diagram-naturality} that $\\iota_{\\mathcal Z}$ restricts to a continuous bijection between the unperturbed solution sets,\n\t\\[\\iota_{\\mathcal Z} |_{{\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_1)} : {\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_1)\\to {\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_2).\\]\nIn fact, this map is a homeomorphism as can be shown via point-set topology, noting that ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_1)$ is compact and ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_2)$ is Hausdorff (see \\cite[Rmk.~3.1.15]{MWtopology}).\n\nIn order to compare the polyfold invariants, suppose we also have a commutative diagram\n\t\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:gw-invariant-pair-of-polyfolds}\n\t\\begin{tikzcd}\n\t&  & {\\mathcal O} \\\\\n\t{\\mathcal Z}_1 \\arrow[r, \"\\iota_{\\mathcal Z}\"', hook] \\arrow[rru, \"f_1\"] & {\\mathcal Z}_2 \\arrow[ru, \"f_2\"'] & \n\t\\end{tikzcd}\n\t\\end{equation}\nwhere:\n\\begin{itemize}\n\t\\item ${\\mathcal O}$ is a finite-dimensional orbifold.\n\t\\item $f_i$ are $\\text{sc}$-smooth maps for $i=1,2$.\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\\begin{definition}\\label{def:intermediate-subbundle}\n\tWe define an  \\textbf{intermediary subbundle} as a subset ${\\mathcal R} \\subset {\\mathcal W}_2$ which satisfies the following properties.\n\t\\begin{enumerate}\n\t\t\\item Let $(R,{\\bar\\m}{R})$ be the associated subgroupoid of ${\\mathcal R}$. Then for every object $x\\in Z_2$ we require that the fiber $R_x : = R \\cap (W_2)_x$ is a vector subspace of $(W_2)_x$. (Note that we do not require that $R_x$ is complete.)\n\t\t\\item \\label{property-2-intermediary-subbundle} For any point $[x] \\in {\\mathcal Z}_2$, if $\\overline{\\partial}_2 ([x]) \\in {\\mathcal R}$ then $[x] \\in \\iota_{\\mathcal Z}({\\mathcal Z}_1)$. (Equivalently, for any object $x\\in Z_2$, if $\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_2 (x) \\in R$ then $x \\in \\hat{\\iota}_{\\mathcal Z} (Z_1)$.)\n\t\t\\item \\label{property-3-intermediary-subbundle}\n\t\tGiven $[x_0] \\in {\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_1) \\simeq {\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_2)$, let $V\\subset U\\subset Z_2$ be ${\\bar\\m}{G}(x_0)$-invariant open neighborhoods of a representative $x_0\\in Z_2$ such that $\\overline{V} \\subset U$.\n\t\tWe require that there exist $\\text{sc}^+$-sections\n\t\t\t\\[\n\t\t\ts'_i :U \\to W_2, \\qquad 1\\leq i \\leq k\n\t\t\t\\]\n\t\twhich have well-defined restrictions $s'_i|_{U\\cap \\hat{\\iota}_{\\mathcal Z} (Z_1)} : U\\cap \\hat{\\iota}_{\\mathcal Z} (Z_1) \\to \\hat{\\iota}_{\\mathcal W} (W_1)$. These restrictions induce sections $s_i : \\hat{\\iota}_{\\mathcal Z}^{-1} (U) \\to W_1$ which we require to be $\\text{sc}^+$ with respect to the M-polyfold structures on $Z_1$ and $W_1$.\n\t\tWe require that:\n\t\t\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\t\\item $s'_i (U) \\subset R$,\n\t\t\t\\item $s'_i= 0$ on $U\\setminus V$,\n\t\t\t\\item $\\text{span}\\{s'_1(x_0),\\ldots , s'_k(x_0)\\} \\oplus \\text{Im}(D\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_2(x_0)) = (W_2)_{x_0},$\n\t\t\t\\item $\\text{span}\\{s_1(x_0),\\ldots , s_k(x_0)\\} \\oplus \\text{Im}(D\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_1(x_0)) = (W_1)_{x_0}.$\n\t\t\t\\end{itemize}\n\t\t\\item In addition, given a pair $(N_2,{\\mathcal U}_2)$ which controls the compactness of $\\overline{\\partial}_2$, we require that these $\\text{sc}^+$-sections satisfy the following:\n\t\t\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\t\\item $\\hat{N}_2[s'_i] \\leq 1,$\n\t\t\t\\item $\\abs {\\operatorname{supp} (s'_i)}\\subset {\\mathcal U}_2$.\n\t\t\t\\end{itemize}\n\t\t\\begin{comment}\n\t\t\\item \\red{Alternative.}\n\t\tGiven $[x] \\in {\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_2)$, let $U\\subset Z_2$ be a ${\\bar\\m}{G}(x)$-invariant open neighborhood of a representative $x$.\n\t\tWe require that there exists a parametrized $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection\n\t\t\t\\[\n\t\t\t\\Lambda : {\\mathcal W}_2\\times B^k_\\varepsilon \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+\n\t\t\t\\]\n\t\tsuch that the composition $\\Lambda \\circ \\iota_{\\mathcal W} : {\\mathcal W}_1 \\times B^k_\\varepsilon \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ is also a well-defined $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection.\n\t\t\\end{comment}\n\t\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{definition}\n\nDespite the lengthy properties that a intermediary subbundle must satisfy, in practice such subbundles are easy to construct, as we demonstrate in \\S~\\ref{subsec:independence-sequence} and \\S~\\ref{subsec:independence-punctures}.\n\nWe may now prove Theorem~\\ref{thm:naturality-polyfold-invariants}, which we restate in order to be consistent with our current notation.\n\n\\begin{theorem}\n\t\\label{thm:naturality}\n\tSuppose there exists an intermediary subbundle ${\\mathcal R} \\subset {\\mathcal W}_2$. Then the polyfold invariants for ${\\mathcal Z}_1$ and ${\\mathcal Z}_2$ defined via the branched integral are equal.\n\tThis means that, given a de Rahm cohomology class $\\omega\\in H^*_{\\dR} ({\\mathcal O})$ the branched integrals over the perturbed solution spaces are equal,\n\t\t\\[\n\t\t\\int_{{\\mathcal S} (\\overline{\\partial}_1, p_1)} f_1^* \\omega = \\int_{{\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_2,p_2)} f_2^* \\omega,\n\t\t\\]\n\tfor any choices of regular perturbations.\n\\end{theorem}\n\\begin{proof}\nWe prove the theorem in six steps.\n\n\\begin{itemize}[leftmargin=0em]\n\t\\item[]\\textbf{Step 1:} \\emph{We use property \\ref{property-3-intermediary-subbundle} of the intermediary subbundle to construct a transversal $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection with a well-defined transversal restriction.}\n\\end{itemize}\n\nAt the outset, fix pairs $(N_i,{\\mathcal U}_i)$ which control the compactness of $\\overline{\\partial}_i$ for $i=1,2$. Consider a point $[x_0]\\in {\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_1)\\simeq {\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_2)$ and let $x_0\\in Z_1$ be a representative with isotropy group ${\\bar\\m}{G}(x_0)$. Via the inclusion map $\\hat{\\iota}_{\\mathcal Z}$, we may identify $x_0$ with its image in $Z_2$ and note that we may also identify the isotropy groups.\n\nWe may use property \\ref{property-3-intermediary-subbundle} of the intermediary subbundle to construct an $\\text{sc}^+$-mul\\-ti\\-sec\\-tion functor $\\hat{\\Lambda}'_0:W_2 \\times B_\\varepsilon^k \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ \nwith local section structure given by $\\left\\lbrace g * \\left(\\sum_{i=1}^k t_i \\cdot s'_i\\right)\\right\\rbrace_{g\\in {\\bar\\m}{G}(x_0)}$ which satisfies the following.\nThere exists a ${\\bar\\m}{G}(x_0)$-invariant open neighborhood $x_0 \\subset U'_0 \\subset Z_2$ such that at any object $x\\in U'_0$ and for any $g\\in {\\bar\\m}{G}(x_0)$ the linearization of the function \n\t\\begin{align*}\n\tU'_0 \\times B_\\varepsilon^k \t&\\to W_2\\\\\n\t(x, t_1,\\ldots,t_k)\t\t&\\mapsto \\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_2 (x) - g * \\left(\\sum_{i=1}^k t_i \\cdot s'_i(x)\\right)\n\t\\end{align*}\nprojected to the fiber $(W_2)_x$ is surjective.\n\nFurthermore, property \\ref{property-3-intermediary-subbundle} ensures that the functor\n$\\hat{\\Lambda}_0 :=\\hat{\\Lambda}_0' ( \\hat{\\iota}_{\\mathcal W} (\\cdot), \\cdot ) :W_1 \\times B_\\varepsilon^k \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ is also a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection functor, with local section structure $\\left\\lbrace g * \\left(\\sum_{i=1}^k t_i \\cdot s_i\\right)\\right\\rbrace_{g\\in {\\bar\\m}{G}(x_0)}$ where the $\\text{sc}^+$-sections $s_i$ are induced by the well-defined restrictions of the sections $s'_i$. Likewise, there exists a ${\\bar\\m}{G}(x_0)$-invariant open neighborhood $x_0 \\subset U_0 \\subset Z_1$ such that at any object $x\\in U_0$ and for any $g\\in {\\bar\\m}{G}(x_0)$ the linearization of the function $\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_1(x) - g * \\left(\\sum_{i=1}^k t_i \\cdot s_i(x)\\right)$ projected to the fiber $(W_1)_x$ is surjective.\n\nWe may cover the compact topological space ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_2)$ by a finite collection of such neighborhoods $\\abs{U'_i}$ of points $[x_i]\\in {\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_2)$; we may also cover ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_1)$ by a finite collection of such neighborhoods $\\abs{U_i}$ of points $[x_i]\\in {\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_1)$.\nIt follows that the finite sum of $\\text{sc}^+$-multisections\n\t\\[\n\t\\Lambda_2:= \\bigoplus_i \\Lambda'_i : {\\mathcal W}_2 \\times B_\\varepsilon^N \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+\n\t\\]\nhas the property that: for any point $[x] \\in {\\mathcal Z}_2$ with $\\Lambda_2 \\circ \\overline{\\partial}_2 ([x])>0$, and for any parametrized local section structure $\\{s'_i\\}_{i\\in I}$ at a representative $x$, the linearization of the function $\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_2 (x) - s'_i(x,t)$ projected to the fiber $(W_2)_x$ is surjective.\nLikewise, the finite sum of $\\text{sc}^+$-multisections\n\t\\[\n\t\\Lambda_1 := \\bigoplus_i \\Lambda_i = \\bigoplus_i \\Lambda'_i (\\iota_{\\mathcal W}(\\cdot),\\cdot) : {\\mathcal W}_1 \\times B_\\varepsilon^N \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+\n\t\\]\nhas the property that for any point $[x] \\in {\\mathcal Z}_1$ which satisfies $\\Lambda_1 \\circ \\overline{\\partial}_1 ([x])>0$ and for any parametrized local section structure $\\{s_i\\}_{i\\in I}$ at a representative $x$, the linearization of the function $\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_1 (x) - s_i(x,t)$ projected to the fiber $(W_1)_x$ is surjective. Observe moreover that the multisection sum commutes with composition and thus $\\Lambda_1(\\cdot,\\cdot) = \\Lambda_2 (\\iota_{\\mathcal W}(\\cdot),\\cdot)$.\n\nFurthermore for $\\varepsilon$ sufficiently small, for any fixed $t_0 \\in B_\\varepsilon^N$ the $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection $\\Lambda_2 (\\cdot, t_0)$ is controlled by the pair $(N_2,{\\mathcal U}_2)$, i.e.,\n\\begin{itemize}\n\t\\item $N_2[\\Lambda_2(\\cdot,t_0)] \\leq 1$,\n\t\\item $\\text{dom-supp}(\\Lambda_2(\\cdot,t_0)) \\subset {\\mathcal U}_2$.\n\\end{itemize}\n\nIn contrast, $\\Lambda_1(\\cdot,t_0)$ will generally not be controlled by the pair $(N_1,{\\mathcal U}_1)$, as in general, \t\n\t\\[\n\t\\text{dom-supp}(\\Lambda_1(\\cdot,t_0)) = \\iota_{\\mathcal Z}^{-1} (\\text{dom-supp}(\\Lambda_2(\\cdot,t_0))) \\nsubseteq {\\mathcal U}_1.\n\t\\]\n\n\\begin{itemize}[leftmargin=0em]\n\t\\item[]\\textbf{Step 2:} \\emph{We show the thickened solution sets satisfy the hypotheses of Lemma~\\ref{lem:invariance-of-domain-branched-orbifolds}, and are therefore homeomorphic.}\n\\end{itemize}\n\nConsider the strong polyfold bundle ${\\mathcal W}_i \\times B_\\varepsilon^N \\to {\\mathcal Z}_i \\times B_\\varepsilon^N$ for $i=1,2$, and let $\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}_i : {\\mathcal Z}_i \\times B_\\varepsilon^N \\to {\\mathcal W}_i \\times B_\\varepsilon^N$ denote the $\\text{sc}$-smooth proper Fredholm section defined by $([z],t)\\mapsto (\\overline{\\partial}_i([z]),t)$.\nBy construction, $(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}_i, \\Lambda_i)$ are transversal pairs; hence by Theorem~\\ref{thm:transversal-pairs-weighted-branched-suborbifolds} the thickened solution sets\n\t\\[\n\t{\\mathcal S}(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}_i, \\Lambda_i) = \\{ ([z],t) \\in {\\mathcal Z}_i \\times B_\\varepsilon^N \\mid \\Lambda_i (\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}_i ([z],t)) >0 \\} \\subset {\\mathcal Z}_i\\times B_\\varepsilon^N\n\t\\]\nhave the structure of weighted branched orbifolds.\n\nWe now claim that these thickened solution sets satisfy the hypotheses of Lemma~\\ref{lem:invariance-of-domain-branched-orbifolds}.\nIndeed, commutativity of the diagram \\eqref{eq:commutative-diagram-naturality} together with the equation $\\Lambda_1(\\cdot,\\cdot) = \\Lambda_2 (\\iota_{\\mathcal W}(\\cdot),\\cdot)$ imply that the injective continuous map $\\tilde{\\iota}_{\\mathcal Z}: {\\mathcal Z}_1 \\times B_\\varepsilon^N \\to {\\mathcal Z}_2 \\times B_\\varepsilon^N; ([z],t)\\mapsto (\\iota_{\\mathcal Z}([z]),t)$ has a well-defined restriction to the thickened solution sets,\n\t\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:restriction-to-thickening}\n\t\\tilde{\\iota}_{\\mathcal Z} |_{{\\mathcal S}(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}_1, \\Lambda_1)} : {\\mathcal S}(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}_1, \\Lambda_1) \\hookrightarrow {\\mathcal S}(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}_2, \\Lambda_2).\n\t\\end{equation}\nMoreover, at any $(x,t)\\in S_1(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_1,\\hat{\\Lambda}_1)$ which maps to $(y,t)\\in S_2(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_2,\\hat{\\Lambda}_2)$, the local section structure $(s_i)$ for $\\hat{\\Lambda}_1$ at $(x,t)$ is induced by the restrictions of the local section structure $(s'_i)$ for $\\hat{\\Lambda}_2$ at $(y,t)$. In particular, we have the following commutative diagram.\n\t\\[\\begin{tikzcd}[column sep = large]\n\tW_1\\times B_\\varepsilon^N \\arrow[r, \"{(\\hat{\\iota}_{\\mathcal W}(\\cdot),\\cdot)}\"', hook] \\arrow[d, \"\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_1 - s_i \\quad \"'] & W_2\\times B_\\varepsilon^N \\arrow[d, \"\\quad \\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_2 - s'_i\"] &  \\\\\n\tO_x\\times B_\\varepsilon^N \\arrow[r, \"{(\\hat{\\iota}_{\\mathcal Z}(\\cdot),\\cdot)}\"', hook] \\arrow[u, bend left] & O_y\\times B_\\varepsilon^N \\arrow[u, bend right] & \n\t\\end{tikzcd}\\]\nAs noted in Remark~\\ref{rmk:relationship-local-section-structures-local-branching-structures}, the local section structures and the local branching structures are related via the equations $M_i= (\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_1 - s_i)^{-1}(0)$, $M'_i = (\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_2 - s'_i)^{-1}(0)$. Thus it follow from commutativity that we have the required well-defined restriction to the individual local branches.\nAnd now Lemma~\\ref{lem:invariance-of-domain-branched-orbifolds} implies that the map \\eqref{eq:restriction-to-thickening} is a local homeomorphism.\n\nFurthermore, we may observe that by our orientation assumptions the natural induced map $\\tilde{\\iota}_* : \\det (D(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_1-s_i)(x))) \\to \\det (D(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_2-s'_i)(y))$ is an orientation preserving isomorphism; hence the restriction $\\tilde{\\iota}_{\\mathcal Z} |_{M_i} : M_i \\to M'_i$ is orientation preserving.\n\nWe now show that \\eqref{eq:restriction-to-thickening} is a bijection.\nLet $([y],t)\\in {\\mathcal S}(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}_2,\\Lambda_2)$, let $(y,t)$ be a representative of $([y],t)$, and consider a local section structure $(s'_i)$ for $\\Lambda_2$ at $(y,t)$.\nIt follows that $\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_2(y) - s'_i (y,t) = 0$ for some index $i$.\nObserve by construction, $s'_i$ is a finite sum of $\\text{sc}^+$-sections with image contained in the intermediate subbundle $R$, and hence $s'_i(y,t)\\in R$.\nIt follows that $\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_2 (y)\\in R$, hence property \\ref{property-2-intermediary-subbundle} of the intermediate subbundle implies that $y\\in \\hat{\\iota}_{\\mathcal Z} (Z_1)$. Therefore, there exists a point $[x]\\in {\\mathcal Z}_1$ such that $\\tilde{\\iota}_{\\mathcal Z} ([x],t) = ([y],t)$. Commutativity of \\eqref{eq:commutative-diagram-naturality} implies that $\\Lambda_1(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}_1([x]),t) = \\Lambda_2(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}_2([y],t)) >0$, and therefore $([x],t) \\in {\\mathcal S}_1(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}_1, \\Lambda_1)$.\nThus, \\eqref{eq:restriction-to-thickening} is a homeomorphism.\n\n\\begin{itemize}[leftmargin=0em]\n\t\\item[]\\textbf{Step 3:} \\emph{For a common regular value $t_0$ the branched integrals of the perturbed solution spaces of $\\overline{\\partial}_1$ and $\\overline{\\partial}_2$ are equal.}\n\\end{itemize}\n\nBy Sard's theorem, we can find a common regular value $t_0 \\in B_\\varepsilon^N$ of the projections ${\\mathcal S} (\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}_1, \\Lambda_1) \\to B_\\varepsilon^N$ and ${\\mathcal S} (\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}_2,\\Lambda_2) \\to B_\\varepsilon^N$.\nFor this common regular value, the perturbed solution sets\n\t\\[\n\t{\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_i, \\Lambda_i (\\cdot,t_0)) := \\{\t[z]\\in {\\mathcal Z}_i \\mid \\overline{\\partial}_i(\\Lambda_i([z],t_0))>0\t\\} \\subset {\\mathcal Z}_i\n\t\\]\nhave the structure of weighted branched suborbifolds.\n\nAs we have already noted, $\\Lambda_2(\\cdot,t_0)$ is controlled by the pair $(N_2,{\\mathcal U}_2)$ and hence ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_2, \\Lambda_2 (\\cdot,t_0))$ is a compact topological space.\nFor such a common regular value, the homeomorphism \\eqref{eq:restriction-to-thickening} has a well-defined restriction to these perturbed solution sets. This restriction is a homeomorphism, and hence ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_1, \\Lambda_1 (\\cdot,t_0))$ is also a compact topological space (even though in general $\\Lambda_1(\\cdot,t_0)$ will not be controlled by the pair $(N_1,{\\mathcal U}_1)$).\n\nThe restriction $\\tilde{\\iota}_{\\mathcal Z} |_{{\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_1, \\Lambda_1 (\\cdot,t_0))}$ satisfies the necessary hypotheses for the change of variables theorem~\\ref{thm:change-of-variables}. \nTherefore for a given $\\text{sc}$-smooth differential form $\\omega\\in \\Omega_\\infty^* ({\\mathcal Z}_2)$ we have\n\t\\begin{equation}\n\t\\label{eq:change-variables}\n\t\\int_{{\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_2, \\Lambda_2 (\\cdot,t_0))} \\omega\n\t= \\int_{{\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_1, \\Lambda_1 (\\cdot,t_0))} \\tilde{\\iota}_{\\mathcal Z}^* \\omega.\n\t\\end{equation}\nHowever, since in general $\\Lambda_1(\\cdot,t_0)$ is not controlled by a pair, we cannot assume that it is a regular perturbation in the sense of Definition~\\ref{def:regular-perturbation}.\nThis is problematic since Theorem~\\ref{thm:cobordism-between-regular-perturbations} only implies the existence of a compact cobordism between the perturbed solution spaces of two perturbations which are both assumed to be regular perturbations (see Figure~\\ref{fig:cobordism}).\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n\t\\centering\n\t\\includegraphics{cobordism.eps}\n\t\\caption{Compact cobordism between regular perturbations}\\label{fig:cobordism}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{itemize}[leftmargin=0em]\n\t\\item[]\\textbf{Step 4:} \\emph{We show that the set \n\t\t\\[\n\t\t{\\mathcal S}(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}_1, \\Lambda_1 (\\cdot,st_0)) = \\{\t([z],s) \\in {\\mathcal Z}_1\\times [0,1]\t\\mid\t\\Lambda_1(\\overline{\\partial}_1(z),s t_0)>0\t\\}\n\t\t\\]\t\t\n\t\tis compact.}\n\\end{itemize}\n\nLet $\\delta = \\abs{t_0}$.\nThe auxiliary norm $\\tilde{N}_2 : {\\mathcal W}_2[1] \\times \\overline{B_{\\delta}^N} \\to [0,\\infty)$ defined by $\\tilde{N}_2 ([w],t) := N_2([w])$ together with the open set $\\tilde{{\\mathcal U}}_2 := {\\mathcal U}_2 \\times \\overline{B_{\\delta}^N}$ together control the compactness of the extended $\\text{sc}$-smooth Fredholm section $\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}_2$.\nBy construction, $\\Lambda_2$ is controlled by this pair and hence by Theorem~\\ref{thm:compactness} the thickened solution set ${\\mathcal S}(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}_2, \\Lambda_2(\\cdot, t); t\\in \\overline{B_\\delta ^N})$ is a compact topological space.\nTherefore, the closed subset ${\\mathcal S}(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}_2, \\Lambda_2(\\cdot, t) ; t = s \\cdot t_0, s\\in[0,1])$ is also compact.\n\nThe restriction of \\eqref{eq:restriction-to-thickening} yields a homeomorphism  \n\t\\[\n\t{\\mathcal S}(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}_1, \\Lambda_1(\\cdot, t) ; t = s \\cdot t_0, s\\in[0,1]) \\to {\\mathcal S}(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}_2, \\Lambda_2(\\cdot, t) ; t = s \\cdot t_0, s\\in[0,1]).\n\t\\]\nFrom this it is now clear that \n\t\\[\n\t{\\mathcal S}(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}_1, \\Lambda_1 (\\cdot,st_0)) \\simeq {\\mathcal S}(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}_1, \\Lambda_1(\\cdot, t) ; t = s \\cdot t_0, s\\in[0,1])\n\t\\]\nis a compact topological space.\n\n\\begin{itemize}[leftmargin=0em]\n\t\\item[]\\textbf{Step 5:} \\emph{We interpret the pair $(\\overline{\\partial}_1,\\Lambda_1(\\cdot,t_0))$ as a transversal Fredholm multisection, and use Proposition~\\ref{prop:cobordism-multisection-regular} to obtain a compact cobordism to a regular perturbation.}\n\\end{itemize}\n\nWe claim that the hypotheses described in \\S~\\ref{subsubsec:cobordism-multisection-regular} are satisfied.\nIn particular, we must show that the extended Fredholm multisection $(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}_1, \\tilde{\\Lambda}_1 (\\cdot,t_0))$ is proper.\nThis can be seen using step 4; indeed, the solution set ${\\mathcal S}(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}_1, \\tilde{\\Lambda}_1 (\\cdot,t_0))$ described in \\S~\\ref{subsubsec:cobordism-multisection-regular} can be identified with the compact set ${\\mathcal S}(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}_1, \\Lambda_1 (\\cdot,st_0))$.\n\nWe may therefore use Proposition~\\ref{prop:cobordism-multisection-regular} to obtain a cobordism from $(\\overline{\\partial}_1,\\Lambda_1(\\cdot,t_0))$ to a regular perturbation $\\Gamma_0: {\\mathcal W}_1 \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ of $\\overline{\\partial}_1$.\nGiven a closed $\\text{sc}$-smooth differential form $\\omega\\in \\Omega_\\infty^* ({\\mathcal Z}_1)$, Stokes' theorem~\\ref{thm:stokes} then implies\n\t\\begin{equation}\n\t\\label{eq:step-5-cobordism-stokes}\n\t\\int_{{\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_1,\\Gamma_0)}\t\\omega =\\int_{{\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_1,\\Lambda_1(\\cdot,t_0))} \\omega.\n\t\\end{equation}\n\t\n\\begin{itemize}[leftmargin=0em]\n\t\\item[]\\textbf{Step 6:} \\emph{We show that the polyfold invariants are equal.}\n\\end{itemize}\n\nLet $\\omega\\in H^*_{\\dR} (O)$ be the de Rahm cohomology class fixed in the statement of the theorem, and used to define the polyfold invariants.\nWe can now compute relate the branched integrals as follows:\n\\begin{align*}\n\t \\int_{{\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_2,\\Lambda_2(\\cdot,t_0))} f_2^* \\omega\n\t \t\t& =\t\\int_{{\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_1, \\Lambda_1 (\\cdot,t_0))} \\tilde{\\iota}_{\\mathcal Z}^* f_2^*\\omega\t\\\\\n\t \t\t& =\t\\int_{{\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_1, \\Lambda_1 (\\cdot,t_0))} f_1^*\\omega\t\\\\\n\t \t\t& =\t\\int_{{\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_1,\\Gamma_0)}\tf_1^*\\omega,\n\\end{align*}\nwhere the first equality follows from equation \\eqref{eq:change-variables}, the second equality follows from the commutativity of \\eqref{eq:gw-invariant-pair-of-polyfolds}, and the third equality follows from equation \\eqref{eq:step-5-cobordism-stokes}.\nBy construction, $\\Lambda_2(\\cdot,t_0)$ is a regular perturbation of $\\overline{\\partial}_2$, while $\\Gamma_0$ is a regular perturbation of $\\overline{\\partial}_1$.\nThis proves the theorem.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\subsection{Gromov--Witten invariants are independent of choice of sequence \\texorpdfstring{$\\delta_i$}{\u03b4i}}\n\t\\label{subsec:independence-sequence}\n\nWe now use Theorem~\\ref{thm:naturality} to show that the Gromov--Witten polyfold invariants are independent of the choice of increasing sequence $(\\delta_i)_{i\\geq 0}\\subset (0,2\\pi)$.\nGiven two sequences $(\\delta_i)\\subset (0,2\\pi)$ and $(\\delta_i')\\subset (0,2\\pi)$ we can always find a third sequence $(\\delta_i'')\\subset (0,2\\pi)$ which satisfies\n\t\\[\n\t\\delta_i \\leq \\delta_i'', \\qquad \\delta_i' \\leq \\delta_i''\n\t\\]\nfor all $i$.  The GW-polyfold associated to the sequence $(\\delta_i'')$ give a refinement of the GW-polyfolds associated to $(\\delta_i)$ and $(\\delta_i')$, in the sense that there are inclusion maps\n\t\\[\n\t{\\mathcal Z}_{A,g,k}^{3,\\delta'_0} \\hookleftarrow {\\mathcal Z}_{A,g,k}^{3,\\delta''_0} \\hookrightarrow {\\mathcal Z}_{A,g,k}^{3,\\delta_0}.\n\t\\]\nIt is therefore sufficient to consider inclusion maps of the form\n${\\mathcal Z}^{3,\\delta_0}_{A,g,k} \\hookrightarrow {\\mathcal Z}^{3,\\delta_0'}_{A,g,k}$\nwith $\\delta_i' \\leq \\delta_i$ for all $i$ and demonstrate that the associated GW-invariants are equal.\n\nTo this end, consider the commutative diagram:\n\\[\\begin{tikzcd}\n{\\mathcal W}^{2,\\delta_0}_{A,g,k} \\arrow[r, \"\\iota_{\\mathcal W}\"', hook] \\arrow[d, \"\\overline{\\partial}_J\\quad \"'] & {\\mathcal W}^{2,\\delta_0'}_{A,g,k} \\arrow[d, \"\\quad \\overline{\\partial}_J'\"] &  \\\\\n{\\mathcal Z}^{3,\\delta_0}_{A,g,k} \\arrow[r, \"\\iota_{\\mathcal Z}\"', hook] \\arrow[u, bend left] & {\\mathcal Z}^{3,\\delta_0'}_{A,g,k} \\arrow[u, bend right] & \n\\end{tikzcd}\\]\nand observe that it satisfies the same properties as \\eqref{eq:commutative-diagram-naturality}.\nIn addition, consider the commutative diagram:\n\\[\\begin{tikzcd}\n&  & Q^k\\times \\smash{\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}}\\vphantom{\\mathcal{M}}^{\\text{log}}_{g,k} \\\\\n{\\mathcal Z}^{3,\\delta_0}_{A,g,k} \\arrow[r, \"\\iota_{\\mathcal Z}\"', hook] \\arrow[rru, \"ev_i \\times \\pi\"] & {\\mathcal Z}^{3,\\delta_0'}_{A,g,k} \\arrow[ru, \"ev_i\\times \\pi\"'] & \n\\end{tikzcd}\\]\nwhich satisfies the same properties as \\eqref{eq:gw-invariant-pair-of-polyfolds}.\n\nNote that if $\\delta_0' < \\delta_0$ the inclusion map $\\iota_{\\mathcal Z}$ is not proper.\nTo see this, exploit the difference in exponential weights to produce a sequence which converges in a local M-polyfold model for ${\\mathcal Z}^{3,\\delta_0}_{A,g,k}$ but diverges in a local M-polyfold model for ${\\mathcal Z}^{3,\\delta_0'}_{A,g,k}$.\nNote also that the pullback strong polyfold bundle is not the same as the standard strong polyfold bundle on ${\\mathcal Z}^{3,\\delta_0}_{A,g,k}$.\n\n\\begin{proposition}\n\t\\label{prop:existence-subbundle-naturality}\n\tThe set\t\n\t\\[\n\t{\\mathcal R} := \\{\t[\\Sigma,j,M,D,u,\\xi] \\in {\\mathcal W}^{2,\\text{deg}_0'}_{A,g,k} \\mid \\operatorname{supp} \\xi \\subset K \\subset \\Sigma\\setminus\\abs{D} \\text{ for some compact } K\t\\}\n\t\\]\n\tis an intermediary subbundle of the strong polyfold bundle ${\\mathcal W}^{2,\\text{deg}_0'}_{A,g,k}$.\n\\end{proposition}\n\\begin{proof}\n\tWe must show that the set ${\\mathcal R}$ satisfies the properties of Definition~\\ref{def:intermediate-subbundle}.\n\tThe first two properties can be easily checked.\n\t\n\tWe show how to construct the $\\text{sc}^+$-sections required by property \\ref{property-3-intermediary-subbundle}.\n\tConsider a stable curve $[\\alpha]=[\\Sigma,j,M,D,u] \\in {\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}_J') \\subset {\\mathcal Z}^{3,\\text{deg}_0'}_{A,g,k}$ and let let $\\alpha = (\\Sigma,j,M,D,u)$ be a stable map representative.\n\tLet $V_\\alpha \\subset U_\\alpha$ be a ${\\bar\\m}{G}(\\alpha)$-invariant M-polyfold charts centered at $\\alpha$ such that $\\overline{V_\\alpha}\\subset U_\\alpha$.\n\tThis means we have good uniformizing family \n\t\\[\n\t(a,v,\\eta ) \\mapsto (\\Sigma_{a},j(a,v),M_{a},D_{a}, \\oplus_{a} \\exp_u (\\eta)),\\qquad (a,v,\\eta) \\in O_\\alpha.\n\t\\]\n\tLet $K\\to O_\\alpha$ be a local strong bundle model, with $\\text{sc}$-coordinates given by $(a,v,\\eta,\\xi)$ where $\\xi \\in H^{2,\\text{deg}_0'}(\\Sigma,\\Lambda^{0,1} \\otimes_J u^* TQ)$.\n\t\n\tUse Corollary~\\ref{cor:vectors-which-span-cokernel} to choose vectors $v_1,\\ldots, v_k$ which vanish on disk-like regions of the nodal points and such that\n\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\\item $\\text{span}\\{v_1,\\ldots , v_k\\} \\oplus \\text{Im}(D\\scalerel*{\\hat{\\overline{\\partial}}_J}{\\hat{M}_J}'(\\alpha)) = H^{2,\\text{deg}_0'}(\\Sigma,\\Lambda^{0,1} \\otimes_J u^* TQ)$,\n\t\t\\item $\\text{span}\\{v_1,\\ldots , v_k\\} \\oplus \\text{Im}(D\\scalerel*{\\hat{\\overline{\\partial}}_J}{\\hat{M}_J}(\\alpha)) = H^{2,\\text{deg}_0}(\\Sigma,\\Lambda^{0,1} \\otimes_J u^* TQ)$.\n\t\\end{itemize}\n\t\n\tLet $\\beta: U_\\alpha \\to [0,1]$ be an $\\text{sc}$-smooth cutoff function which satisfies $\\beta\\equiv 1$ near $(0,0,0)$, and $\\beta \\equiv 0$ on $U_\\alpha\\setminus V_\\alpha$.\n\tIn these local $\\text{sc}$-coordinates, the desired $\\text{sc}^+$-sections are defined as follows:\n\t\\[\n\ts_i': U_\\alpha\\to K,\\qquad (a,v,\\eta) \\mapsto (a,v,\\eta, \\beta(a,v,\\eta) \\cdot ( \\rho_{a} (v_i)\t\t)),\n\t\\]\n\twhere $\\rho_{a}$ is the strong bundle projection defined using the hat gluings, see \\cite[p.~117]{HWZbook} and \\cite[pp.~65--67]{HWZGW}\n\t\n\tLet $(N,{\\mathcal U})$ be a pair which controls the compactness of $\\overline{\\partial}_J'$.\n\tBy construction, these $\\text{sc}^+$-sections satisfy $N[s_i'] \\leq C$ for some constant $C\\leq \\infty$, and hence by rescaling the vectors $v_i$ we may assume that $N[s_i'] \\leq 1$. Moreover, by shrinking the support of the cutoff function we may assume that $\\abs{\\operatorname{supp} s_i'} = \\abs{\\operatorname{supp} \\beta } \\subset {\\mathcal U}$.\n\t\n\tBy construction, the $\\text{sc}^+$-section $s_i'$ induces a well-defined restriction $s_i|_{\\hat{\\iota}_{\\mathcal Z}^{-1} (U_\\alpha)}$. Locally this restriction is given by multiplying the $\\text{sc}$-smooth cutoff $\\beta \\circ \\hat{\\iota}_{\\mathcal Z}$ and the locally constant vector $v_i$, hence it is $\\text{sc}^+$.\n\\end{proof}\n\nHaving shown the previous proposition, we may immediately apply Theorem~\\ref{thm:naturality} to see that \nthe polyfold Gromov--Witten invariants do not depend on the choice of an increasing sequence $(\\delta_i)_{i\\geq 0} \\allowbreak \\subset (0,2\\pi)$.\nThis proves Corollary~\\ref{cor:naturality-polyfold-gw-invariants}.\n\n\\subsection[Gromov-Witten invariants are independent of punctures at marked points]{Gromov--Witten invariants are independent of punctures at marked points}\n\\label{subsec:independence-punctures}\n\nWe now recall the regularity estimates that the stable curves of the Gromov--Witten polyfolds as constructed in \\cite{HWZGW} are required to satisfy.\nLet $u: \\Sigma \\to Q$ be a continuous map, and fix a point $z\\in \\Sigma$.\nWe consider a local expression for $u$ as follows. Choose a small disk-like neighborhood $D_z\\subset \\Sigma$ of $z$ such that there exists a biholomorphism $ \\sigma:[0,\\infty)\\times S^1\\rightarrow D_z \\setminus\\{z\\}$.\nLet $\\varphi:U\\rightarrow \\mathbb{R}^{2n}$ be a smooth chart on a neighborhood $U \\subset Q$ of $u(z)$ such that to $\\varphi (u(z))=0$.\nThe local expression \n\\[\n\\tilde{u}: [s_0,\\infty)\\times S^1 \\to \\mathbb{R}^{2n}, \\qquad (s,t) \\mapsto \\varphi\\circ u\\circ \\sigma(s,t)\n\\]\nis defined for $s_0$ large.\nLet $m\\geq 3$ be an integer, and let $\\delta >0$. We say that $u$ is of \\textbf{class $H^{m,\\delta}$ around the point $z\\in \\Sigma$}\nif $e^{\\delta s}  \\tilde{u}$ belongs to the space $L^2([s_0,\\infty)\\times S^1,\\mathbb{R}^{2n})$.\nWe say that $u$ is of \\textbf{class} $H^m_{\\text{loc}}$ \\textbf{around the point $z\\in \\Sigma$} if $u$ belongs to the space $H^m_{\\text{loc}}(D_z)$.\nIf $u$ is of class $H^{m,\\delta}$ at a point $z\\in \\Sigma$ we will refer to that point as a \\textbf{puncture}.\n\nBy definition, any stable map representative $(\\Sigma,j,M,D,u)$ of a stable curve in the Gromov--Witten polyfold ${\\mathcal Z}_{A,g,k}$ is required to be of class $H^{3,\\text{deg}_0}$ at all nodal points.\nThis is required in order to carry out the gluing construction at the nodes of \\cite[\\S~2.4]{HWZGW}.\n\nHowever, in some situations we would like to treat the marked points in the same way as the nodal points.\nNote that allowing a puncture with exponential decay at a specified marked point is a global condition on a Gromov--Witten polyfold.\nHence, we will need to require that the map $u$ is of class $H^{3,\\delta_0}$ at a fixed subset of the marked points (in addition to the nodal points).\n\nGiven a subset $I \\subset \\{1,\\ldots,k\\}$ we can define a GW-polyfold ${\\mathcal Z}^I_{A,g,k}$ where we require that all stable map representatives are of class $H^{3,\\delta_0}$ at the marked points $z_i$ for all $i\\in I$ and of class $H^3_\\text{loc}$ at the remaining marked points.\nGiven another subset $J \\subset\\{1,\\ldots,k\\}$ we can define a GW-polyfold ${\\mathcal Z}^J_{A,g,k}$ in the same manner.\nOn the other hand, we can consider a GW-polyfold ${\\mathcal Y}_{A,g,k}$ where we require that all stable map representatives are of class $H^{3,\\delta_0}$ and also of class $H^3_\\text{loc}$ at all the marked points.\nSuch a GW-polyfold with strict regularity at all marked points gives a refinement of the GW-polyfolds with different choices of punctures $I,J\\subset \\{1,\\ldots,k\\}$ at the marked points, in the sense that there are inclusion maps\n\\[\n{\\mathcal Z}^I_{A,g,k} \\hookleftarrow {\\mathcal Y}_{A,g,k} \\hookrightarrow {\\mathcal Z}^J_{A,g,k}.\n\\]\nIt is sufficient to consider inclusion maps of the form ${\\mathcal Y}_{A,g,k} \\hookrightarrow {\\mathcal Z}^I_{A,g,k}$ and demonstrate that the associated GW-invariants are equal.\n\nTo this end, consider the commutative diagram:\n\\[\\begin{tikzcd}\n{\\mathcal V}_{A,g,k} \\arrow[r, \"\\iota_{\\mathcal W}\"', hook] \\arrow[d, \"\\overline{\\partial}_J\\quad \"'] & {\\mathcal W}^I_{A,g,k} \\arrow[d, \"\\quad \\overline{\\partial}_J\"] &  \\\\\n{\\mathcal Y}_{A,g,k} \\arrow[r, \"\\iota_{\\mathcal Z}\"', hook] \\arrow[u, bend left] & {\\mathcal Z}^I_{A,g,k} \\arrow[u, bend right] & \n\\end{tikzcd}\\]\nand observe that it satisfies the same properties as \\eqref{eq:commutative-diagram-naturality}.\nIn addition, consider the commutative diagram:\n\\[\\begin{tikzcd}\n&  & Q^k\\times \\smash{\\overline{\\mathcal{M}}}\\vphantom{\\mathcal{M}}^{\\text{log}}_{g,k} \\\\\n{\\mathcal Y}_{A,g,k} \\arrow[r, \"\\iota_{\\mathcal Z}\"', hook] \\arrow[rru, \"ev_i \\times \\pi\"] & {\\mathcal Z}^I_{A,g,k} \\arrow[ru, \"ev_i\\times \\pi\"'] & \n\\end{tikzcd}\\]\nwhich satisfies the same properties as \\eqref{eq:gw-invariant-pair-of-polyfolds}.\n\nThere exist sequences of maps which converge in $H^3_\\text{loc}$ but do not converge in $H^{3,\\delta_0}$.  Consequently, in general the above inclusion map is not proper.  Furthermore, the pullback strong polyfold bundle is not the same as the standard strong polyfold bundle on ${\\mathcal Y}_{A,g,k}$.\n\n\\begin{proposition}\n\tThe set\t\n\t\\[\n\t{\\mathcal R} := \\{\t[\\Sigma,j,M,D,u,\\xi] \\in {\\mathcal W}^I_{A,g,k} \\mid \\operatorname{supp} \\xi \\subset K \\subset \\Sigma\\setminus M \\text{ for some compact } K\t\\}\n\t\\]\n\tis an intermediary subbundle of the strong polyfold bundle ${\\mathcal W}^I_{A,g,k}$.\n\\end{proposition}\n\\begin{proof}\n\tThe proof is identical to the proof of Proposition~\\ref{prop:existence-subbundle-naturality}, except here we use Corollary~\\ref{cor:vectors-which-span-cokernel} to choose vectors $v_i$ which vanish on disk-like regions of the marked points instead of the nodal points.\n\\end{proof}\n\nAgain, combining the previous proposition and Theorem~\\ref{thm:naturality} we see that the polyfold Gromov--Witten invariants do not depend on the choice of puncture at the marked points.\nThis proves Corollary~\\ref{cor:punctures-equal}.\n\n\n\\section{Pulling back abstract perturbations}\n\t\\label{sec:pulling-back-abstract-perturbations}\n\nIn this section we show how to construct a regular perturbation which pulls back to a regular perturbation, culminating in Theorem~\\ref{thm:compatible-pullbacks} and in Corollary~\\ref{cor:pullback-via-permutation}.\n\n\\subsection{Pullbacks of strong polyfold bundles}\n\t\\label{subsec:pullbacks-strong-polyfold-bundles}\n\nLet $P: {\\mathcal W} \\to {\\mathcal Z}$ be a strong polyfold bundle, and let $f: {\\mathcal Y} \\to {\\mathcal Z}$ be a $\\text{sc}$-smooth map between polyfolds.\nConsider the topological pullback\n\t\\[f^* {\\mathcal W} = \\{([x],[w]_{[y]})\t\\mid f([x])=[y]=P([w]_{[y]})\t\\} \\subset {\\mathcal Y} \\times {\\mathcal W}\\]\nequipped with the subspace topology. Since ${\\mathcal Y}$ and ${\\mathcal W}$ are second countable, paracompact, Hausdorff topological spaces, so too is the product ${\\mathcal Y} \\times {\\mathcal W}$ and hence $f^*{\\mathcal W}$ is also a second countable, paracompact, Hausdorff topological spaces.\n\nWe can take the pullback $\\hat{f}^* W$ of the object strong M-polyfold bundle; by Proposition~\\ref{prop:pullback-bundle} this has the structure of a strong M-polyfold bundle over the object space $Y$.\nThe fiber product \n\t\\[{\\bar\\m}{Y} _s \\times_{\\text{proj}_1} \\hat{f}^* W = \\{\t(\\phi,y,w_x) \\mid s(\\phi) = y, \\hat{f}(y)=x\t\\}\\]\nmay be viewed as the strong M-polyfold bundle via the source map $s$ over the morphism space ${\\bar\\m}{Y}$,\n\t\\[\\begin{tikzcd}\n\t{\\bar\\m}{Y} _s \\times_{\\text{proj}_1} \\hat{f}^* W \\arrow[d] \\arrow[r] & \\hat{f}^* W \\arrow[d] &  \\\\\n\t{\\bar\\m}{Y} \\arrow[r, \"s\"'] & Y & \n\t\\end{tikzcd}\\]\n\nWe may define a \\textbf{pullback strong polyfold bundle structure} over the polyfold structure $(Y,{\\bar\\m}{Y})$ as the strong M-polyfold bundle $\\text{proj}_1 : \\hat{f}^*W \\to Y$ together with the bundle map defined as follows:\n\t\\begin{align*}\n\t\\lambda: {\\bar\\m}{Y} _s \\times_{\\text{proj}_1} \\hat{f}^* W & \\to \\hat{f}^*W \\\\\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\\phi,y,w_x)\t& \\mapsto (t(\\phi), \\mu(f(\\phi), w_x))\n\t\\end{align*}\nIt is straightforward to check that this map satisfies the requirements of Definition~\\ref{def:strong-polyfold-bundle}.\n\nGiven a $\\text{sc}$-smooth section $\\overline{\\partial}:{\\mathcal Z}\\to {\\mathcal W}$ there exists a well-defined \\textbf{pullback section} $f^*\\overline{\\partial}:{\\mathcal Y} \\to f^*{\\mathcal W}$.  Between the underlying sets, it is defined by\n\t\\[\n\tf^*\\overline{\\partial} ([x]) = ([x], \\overline{\\partial} \\circ f ([x]) ).\n\t\\]\nIt is automatically regularizing if $\\overline{\\partial}$ is regularizing.\nWe may define the pullback of a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection as follows.\n\n\\begin{definition}\n\t\\label{def:pullback-multisection}\n\tGiven a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection $\\Lambda:{\\mathcal W}\\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ there exists a well-defined \\textbf{pullback $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection} $\\text{proj}_2^*\\Lambda :f^*{\\mathcal W} \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$.\n\tIt consists of the following:\n\t\\begin{enumerate}\n\t\t\\item the function $\\Lambda \\circ \\text{proj}_2 :f^*{\\mathcal W}\\to\\mathbb{Q}^+$\n\t\t\\item the functor $\\hat{\\Lambda} \\circ \\text{proj}_2 :\\hat{f}^* W\\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$\n\t\t\\item at each $[x]\\in {\\mathcal Z}_1$ there exists a ``pullback local section structure'' for $\\text{proj}_2^*\\Lambda$, defined below.\n\t\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{definition}\n\nGiven $[x]\\in{\\mathcal Z}_1$, the local section structure for $\\text{proj}_2^*\\Lambda$ at $[x]$ is described as follows.\nLet $x\\in Z_1$ be a representative of $[x]$.\nLet $y:=\\hat{f}(x)\\in Z_2$, and let $U_y\\subset Z_2$ be a ${\\bar\\m}{G}(y)$-invariant open neighborhood of $y$, and let \n$s_1,\\ldots,s_k : U_y \\to W$ be a local section structure for $\\hat{\\Lambda}$ at $y$ with associated weights $\\sigma_1,\\ldots ,\\sigma_k$.\nLet $U_x\\subset Z_1$ be a ${\\bar\\m}{G}(x)$-invariant open neighborhood of $x$ such that $\\hat{f}(U_x)\\subset U_y$, and consider the restricted strong M-polyfold bundle $(\\hat{f}^*W)|_{U_x} \\to U_x$.\nThen the pullback of the local sections $\\hat{f}^*s_1,\\ldots,\\hat{f}^*s_k :U_x \\to \\hat{f}^* W$ with the associated weights $\\sigma_1,\\ldots ,\\sigma_k$ gives the local section structure for $\\text{proj}_2^*\\Lambda$ at $[x]$.\n\nIndeed, it tautologically follows from the original assumption that $s_1,\\ldots,s_k$, $\\sigma_1,\\ldots,\\sigma_k$ is a local section structure for $\\Lambda$ at $[y]$ that\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\t\\item $\\sum_{i=1}^k \\sigma_i =1$ \n\t\\item the local expression $\\text{proj}_2^* \\hat{\\Lambda}:\\hat{f}^*W|_{U_x}\\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ is related to the local sections and weights via the equation \n\t\\[\n\t\\text{proj}_2^* \\hat{\\Lambda} (x',w_{y'}) = \\sum_{\\{i\\in \\{1,\\ldots, k \\} \\mid (x',w_{y'}) = \\hat{f}^*s_i (\\text{proj}_1 (x',w_{y'} ) )\\}} \\sigma_i\n\t\\]\n\tfor all $(x',w_{y'}) \\in (\\hat{f}^* W)|_{U_x}$ (which necessarily satisfy $\\hat{f}(x')= y' = P(w_{y'})$).\n\\end{enumerate}\n\n\\subsection{The topological pullback condition and pullbacks of pairs which control compactness}\n\t\\label{subsec:topological-pullback-condition-controlling-compactness}\n\nSuppose at the outset that we have a $\\text{sc}$-smooth map $f: {\\mathcal Y} \\to {\\mathcal Z}$ and a strong polyfold bundle $P:{\\mathcal W} \\to {\\mathcal Z}$ with a $\\text{sc}$-smooth proper Fredholm section $\\overline{\\partial}$.\nConsider the pullback of this bundle and of this section via the map $f$ yielding the following commutative diagram:\n\t\\[\\begin{tikzcd}\n\tf^* {\\mathcal W} \\arrow[d, \"f^* \\overline{\\partial}\\quad\"'] \\arrow[r, \"\\text{proj}_2\"'] & {\\mathcal W} \\arrow[d, \"\\quad \\overline{\\partial}\"] &  \\\\\n\t{\\mathcal Y} \\arrow[r, \"f\"'] \\arrow[u, bend left] & {\\mathcal Z}. \\arrow[u, bend right] & \n\t\\end{tikzcd}\\]\nAssume that the $\\text{sc}$-smooth section $f^*\\overline{\\partial}$ is a proper Fredholm section; such an assumption is not automatic from the above setup, however it is natural in the context of polyfold maps one might encounter.\\footnote{An alternative to outright assuming that $f^*\\overline{\\partial}$ is a Fredholm section would be to formulate a precise notion of a ``Fredholm map'' for a map between polyfolds, and then require that $f$ is such a map. This would also be natural in the context of polyfold maps one might encounter.}\n\nGiven a pair $(N,{\\mathcal U})$ which controls the compactness of $\\overline{\\partial}$ we show in this subsection how to obtain a pullback of this pair, which will control the compactness of $f^*\\overline{\\partial}$.\n\n\\begin{proposition}\n\tLet $N :{\\mathcal W}[1] \\to [0,\\infty)$ be an auxiliary norm. The pullback of $N$, given by\n\t\\[\n\t\\text{proj}_2^* N : f^* {\\mathcal W}[1] \\to [0,\\infty)\n\t\\]\n\tdefines an auxiliary norm on the pullback strong polyfold bundle $f^* {\\mathcal W}\\to {\\mathcal Y}$.\n\\end{proposition}\n\\begin{proof}\n\tThis is immediate from the definitions.  In particular, property \\ref{property-2-auxiliary-norm} of Definition~\\ref{def:auxiliary-norm} can be checked as follows.  Let $(x_k, w_k)$ be a sequence in $\\hat{f}^* W[1]$, such that $x_k$ converges to $x$ in $Y$, and suppose $\\text{proj}_2^* \\hat{N} (x_k, w_k) \\to 0$.  Then $w_k$ is a sequence in $W[1]$ such that $\\hat{f}(x_k)$ converges to $\\hat{f}(x)$ in $Z$, and $\\hat{N} (w_k) = \\text{proj}_2^* \\hat{N} (x_k, w_k) \\to 0$, and hence $w_k\\to 0_{\\hat{f}(x)}$.  Thus $(x_k,w_k)\\to (x,0_{\\hat{f}(x)})$, as required.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\begin{definition}\\label{topological-pullback-condition}\n\tWe say that $f$ satisfies the \\textbf{topological pullback condition} if for all $[y] \\in {\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial})\\subset {\\mathcal Z}$ and for any open neighborhood ${\\mathcal V} \\subset {\\mathcal Y}$ of the fiber $f^{-1} ([y])$ there exists an open neighborhood ${\\mathcal U}_{[y]}\\subset {\\mathcal Z}$ of $[y]$ such that $f^{-1} ({\\mathcal U}_{[y]}) \\subset {\\mathcal V}$.\n\tNote that if $f^{-1} ([y])=\\emptyset$, this implies that there exists an open neighborhood ${\\mathcal U}_{[y]}$ of $[y]$ such that $f^{-1} ({\\mathcal U}_{[y]})=\\emptyset$.\n\\end{definition}\n\n\\begin{proposition}\n\t\\label{prop:simultaneous-compactness}\n\tSuppose that the map $f:{\\mathcal Y} \\to {\\mathcal Z}$ satisfies the topological pullback condition.  \n\tThen there exists a pair $(N,{\\mathcal U})$ which controls the compactness of $\\overline{\\partial}$ such that the pair $(\\text{proj}_2^* N, f^{-1} ({\\mathcal U}) )$ controls the compactness of $f^* \\overline{\\partial}$.\n\t\n\tFurthermore, if a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection $\\Lambda: {\\mathcal W}\\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ satisfies $N [\\Lambda ] \\leq 1$ and $\\text{dom-supp} (\\Lambda) \\subset {\\mathcal U}$, then its pullback $\\text{proj}_2^* \\Lambda :f^*{\\mathcal W} \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ satisfies $\\text{proj}_2^* N [\\text{proj}_2^* \\Lambda ] \\leq 1$ and $\\text{dom-supp} (\\text{proj}_2^* \\Lambda) \\allowbreak \\subset \\allowbreak f^{-1} ({\\mathcal U})$.\n\\end{proposition}\n\\begin{proof}\n\tLet $(N, {\\mathcal V})$ be a pair which controls the compactness of $\\overline{\\partial}$.\n\tBy the previous proposition we know that the pullback $\\text{proj}_2^* N :f^* {\\mathcal W}[1]\\to [0,\\infty)$ is an auxiliary norm.\n\tWe may then apply \\cite[Prop.~4.5]{HWZ3} to assert the existence of a neighborhood ${\\mathcal U}'\\subset {\\mathcal Y}$ of ${\\mathcal S}(f^*\\overline{\\partial})$ such that the pair $(\\text{proj}_2^* N, {\\mathcal U}')$ controls the compactness of $f^*\\overline{\\partial}$.\n\t\n\tAt every $[y] \\in {\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial})$, observe that $f^{-1} ([y]) \\subset {\\mathcal S}(f^*\\overline{\\partial}) \\subset {\\mathcal U}'$.  We can use the topological pullback condition to choose a neighborhood ${\\mathcal U}_{[y]}$ of $[y]$ such that $f^{-1} ({\\mathcal U}_{[y]}) \\subset {\\mathcal U}'\\subset {\\mathcal Y}$ and moreover such that ${\\mathcal U}_{[y]} \\subset {\\mathcal V}\\subset {\\mathcal Z}$. \n\tWe define an open neighborhood by ${\\mathcal U} := \\cup_i \\ {\\mathcal U}_{[y]_i}$ for every $[y]_i\\in {\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial})$.\n\t\n\tThen $(N,{\\mathcal U})$ is the desired pair.\n\tIndeed, ${\\mathcal U}$ is an open neighborhood of the unperturbed solution set ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial})$.\n\tAnd ${\\mathcal U}\\subset {\\mathcal V}$ since for every $[y]_i$ we have ${\\mathcal U}_{[y]_i}\\subset {\\mathcal V}$.  Hence we have ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}) \\subset {\\mathcal U}\\subset {\\mathcal V}$ therefore it follows from Remark~\\ref{rmk:shrink-neighborhood} that $(N,{\\mathcal U})$ controls the compactness of $\\overline{\\partial}$.\n\t\n\tObserve that ${\\mathcal S}(f^*\\overline{\\partial}) = f^{-1} ({\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial})) \\subset f^{-1}({\\mathcal U})$.  By the construction of ${\\mathcal U}$ we have $f^{-1} ({\\mathcal U}) \\subset {\\mathcal U}'$.  Hence we have ${\\mathcal S}(f^*\\overline{\\partial}) \\subset f^{-1}({\\mathcal U}) \\subset {\\mathcal U}'$ therefore it follows from Remark~\\ref{rmk:shrink-neighborhood} that $(\\text{proj}_2^* N, f^{-1} ({\\mathcal U}))$ controls the compactness of $f^* \\overline{\\partial}$.\n\t\n\tFinally, the claim regarding the pullback of a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection is immediate from the construction.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\subsection{Construction of regular perturbations which pullback to regular perturbations}\n\t\\label{subsec:construction-regular-perturbation-which-pullback}\n\nWith the same assumptions and setup as in the previous subsection (i.e., our map satisfies the topological pullback condition), we show in this subsection how to construct regular perturbations which will pullback to regular perturbations\n\n\\begin{theorem}\n\t\\label{thm:compatible-pullbacks}\n\tWe can construct a regular perturbation $\\Lambda: {\\mathcal W} \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ which pulls back to a regular perturbation $\\text{proj}_2^* \\Lambda$. This means that the perturbations satisfy the following conditions.\n\t\\begin{enumerate}\n\t\t\\item $(\\overline{\\partial}, \\Lambda)$ and $(f^* \\overline{\\partial}, \\text{proj}_2^* \\Lambda)$ are both transversal pairs.\n\t\t\\item There exists a pair $(N,{\\mathcal U})$ which controls the compactness of $\\overline{\\partial}$ such that the pair $(\\text{proj}_2^* N, f^{-1} ({\\mathcal U}) )$ controls the compactness of $f^* \\overline{\\partial}$. Then:\n\t\t\\begin{itemize}\n\t\t\t\\item $N [\\Lambda ] \\leq 1$ and $\\text{dom-supp} (\\Lambda) \\subset {\\mathcal U}$\n\t\t\t\\item $\\text{proj}_2^* N [\\text{proj}_2^* \\Lambda ] \\leq 1$ and $\\text{dom-supp} (\\text{proj}_2^* \\Lambda) \\subset f^{-1} ({\\mathcal U})$.\n\t\t\\end{itemize}\n\t\\end{enumerate}\n\n\\end{theorem}\n\\begin{proof}\n\nWe now give an explicit construction of a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection $\\Lambda : {\\mathcal W} \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ such that $(\\overline{\\partial}, \\Lambda)$ and $(f^* \\overline{\\partial}, \\text{proj}_2^* \\Lambda)$ are both transversal pairs.  Our approach is based on the general position argument of \\cite[Thm.~15.4]{HWZbook}.\n\n\\noindent\\emph{Local construction.}\nWe construct a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection $\\Lambda_0 : {\\mathcal W} \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ which will be transversal at a point $[y_0] \\in {\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial}) \\subset {\\mathcal Z}$.\nLet $U(y_0) \\subset Z$ be a ${\\bar\\m}{G}(y_0)$-invariant open neighborhood of $y_0$ and moreover let $V(y_0)\\subset U(y_0)$ be a ${\\bar\\m}{G}(y_0)$-invariant open neighborhood of $y_0$ such that $\\overline{V(y_0)} \\subset U(y_0)$.\n\nChoose smooth vectors $v_1,\\ldots, v_k \\in W_{y_0}$ such that\n\t\\[\n\t\\text{span} \\{v_1,\\ldots,v_k \\} \\oplus D\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_{y_0} (T_{y_0} Z) = W_{y_0}.\n\t\\]\n\nFor each smooth vector $v_1,\\ldots, v_k$ we can use \\cite[Lem.~5.3]{HWZbook} to define $\\text{sc}^+$-sections $s_i : U(y_0) \\to W$ such that\n\\begin{itemize}\n\t\\item $s_i= 0$ on $U(y_0)\\setminus V(y_0)$,\n\t\\item $s_i(y_0) = v_i$.\n\\end{itemize}\nFurthermore, to ensure that the resulting multisection will be controlled by the pair $(N,{\\mathcal U})$ we require that\n\\begin{itemize}\n\t\\item $N[s_i] \\leq 1,$\n\t\\item $\\text{supp}(s_i)\\subset {\\mathcal U}$.\n\\end{itemize}\n\nWe may use these locally constructed $\\text{sc}^+$-sections to define a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection functor \n\t\\[\\hat{\\Lambda}'_0:W \\times B_\\varepsilon^k \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+\\]\nwith local section structure given by \n$\\left\\lbrace g * \\left(\\sum_{i=1}^k t_i \\cdot s_i\\right)\\right\\rbrace_{g\\in {\\bar\\m}{G}(y_0)}$\nwhich satisfies the following.\nThere exists a ${\\bar\\m}{G}(y_0)$-invariant open neighborhood $y_0 \\subset U'_0 \\subset Z$ such that at any object $y\\in U'_0$ and for any $g\\in {\\bar\\m}{G}(y_0)$ the linearization of the function \n\t\\begin{align*}\n\tU'_0 \\times B_\\varepsilon^k \t&\\to W\\\\\n\t(y, t_1,\\ldots,t_k)\t\t&\\mapsto \\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}(y) - g * \\left(\\sum_{i=1}^k t_i \\cdot s_i(y)\\right)\n\t\\end{align*}\nprojected to the fiber $W_y$ is surjective.\n\nWe now construct a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection whose pullback $\\text{proj}_2^* \\Lambda_0 : f^*{\\mathcal W} \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ will be transversal at a point $[x_0] \\in {\\mathcal S}(f^*\\overline{\\partial}) \\subset {\\mathcal Y}$.\nConsider a point $[x_0]\\in {\\mathcal S}(f^*\\overline{\\partial}) \\subset {\\mathcal Y}$ which maps to $[y_0]:=f([x_0])\\in {\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial})\\subset {\\mathcal Z}$.\nLet $x_0\\in S(\\hat{f}^*\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$})$ be a representative of $[x_0]$, and let $U(x_0) \\subset Y$ be a ${\\bar\\m}{G}(x_0)$-invariant open neighborhood of $x_0$.\nThen $y_0:= \\hat{f}(x_0) \\in S(\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$})$ is a representative of $[y_0]$.\nLet $U(y_0) \\subset Z$ be a ${\\bar\\m}{G}(y_0)$-invariant open neighborhood of $y_0$ and moreover let $V(y_0)\\subset U(y_0)$ be a ${\\bar\\m}{G}(y_0)$-invariant open neighborhood of $y_0$ such that $\\overline{V(y_0)} \\subset U(y_0)$.\nBy shrinking the open set $U(x_0)$, we may assume that the local expression $\\hat{f}: U(x_0)\\to U(y_0)$ is well-defined.\n\nThe fibers $(\\hat{f}^*W)_{x_0}$ and $W_{y_0}$ may be identified via $\\text{proj}_2$.\nChoose smooth vectors $v_1,\\ldots, v_k \\in W_{y_0}$ such that\n\t\\[\\text{span} \\{\\text{proj}_2^{-1} (v_1),\\ldots,\\text{proj}_2^{-1} (v_k) \\} \\oplus D\\hat{f}^*\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$}_{x_0} (T_{x_0} Y) = (\\hat{f}^*W)_{x_0}.\\]\n\nFor each smooth vector $v_1,\\ldots, v_k$ we may use \\cite[Lem.~5.3]{HWZbook} to define $\\text{sc}^+$-sections $s_i : U(y_0) \\to W$ such that\n\\begin{itemize}\n\t\\item $s_i\\equiv 0$ on $U(y_0)\\setminus V(y_0)$,\n\t\\item $s_i(y_0) = v_i$.\n\\end{itemize}\nFurthermore, to ensure that the resulting multisection will be controlled by the pair $(N,{\\mathcal U})$ we require that\n\\begin{itemize}\n\t\\item $N[s_i] \\leq 1,$\n\t\\item $\\text{supp}(s_i)\\subset {\\mathcal U}$.\n\\end{itemize}\n\nWe may use these locally defined $\\text{sc}^+$-sections to define a $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection functor $\\hat{\\Lambda}_0:\tW \\times B_\\varepsilon^k \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ \nwith local section structure given as follows. \n\t\\[\\left\\lbrace g * \\left(\\sum_{i=1}^k t_i \\cdot s_i\\right)\\right\\rbrace_{g\\in {\\bar\\m}{G}(y_0)}\\]\nBy construction, the pullback $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection functor\n$\\text{proj}_2^* \\hat{\\Lambda}_0:\t\\hat{f}^* W \\times B_\\varepsilon^k \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ \nhas local section structure given as follows. \n\t\\[\\left\\lbrace \\hat{f}^* \\left(g * \\left(\\sum_{i=1}^k t_i \\cdot s_i\\right)\\right) \\right\\rbrace_{g\\in {\\bar\\m}{G}(y_0)}\\]\nIt may be observed that there exists a ${\\bar\\m}{G}(x_0)$-invariant open neighborhood $x_0 \\subset U_0\\subset Y$ such that at any object $x\\in U_0$ and for any $g\\in {\\bar\\m}{G}(y_0)$ the linearization of the function \n\t\\begin{align*}\n\tU_0 \\times B_\\varepsilon^k \t&\\to \\hat{f}^*W\\\\\n\t(x, t_1,\\ldots,t_k)\t&\\mapsto \\hat{f}^* \\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$} (x) - \\hat{f}^* \\left( g * \\left(\\sum_{i=1}^k t_i \\cdot s_i\\right)\\right) (x) \\\\\n\t\t\t\t\t\t&\\phantom{\\mapsto} = \\left(x, \\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$} (\\hat{f}(x)) - g * \\left(\\sum_{i=1}^k t_i \\cdot s_i(\\hat{f}(x)) \\right) \\right)\n\t\\end{align*}\nprojected to the fiber $(\\hat{f}^* W)_x$ is surjective.\n\n\\noindent\\emph{Global construction.}\nWe may cover the compact topological space ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial})$ by a finite collection of such neighborhoods $\\abs{U'_i}$ of points $[y_i]\\in {\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial})$; we may also cover ${\\mathcal S}(f^*\\overline{\\partial})$ by a finite collection of such neighborhoods $\\abs{U_i}$ of points $[x_i]\\in {\\mathcal S}(f^*\\overline{\\partial})$.\nIt follows that the finite sum of $\\text{sc}^+$-multisections\n\t\\[\n\t\\Lambda:= \\bigoplus_i \\Lambda_i : {\\mathcal W} \\times B_\\varepsilon^N \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+\n\t\\]\nhas the property that: for any point $[y] \\in {\\mathcal Z}$ with $\\Lambda \\circ \\overline{\\partial} ([y])>0$, and for any parametrized local section structure $\\{s_i\\}_{i\\in I}$ at a representative $y$, the linearization of the function $\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$} (y) - s_i(y,t)$ projected to the fiber $W_y$ is surjective.\n\nLikewise, the pullback $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection $\\text{proj}_2^* \\Lambda : f^*{\\mathcal W} \\times B_\\varepsilon^N \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$\nhas the property that for any point $[x] \\in {\\mathcal Y}$ which satisfies $\\text{proj}_2^* \\Lambda \\circ f^*\\overline{\\partial} ([x])>0$ and for any parametrized local section structure $\\{s_i\\}_{i\\in I}$ at a representative $x$, the linearization of the function $\\stackon[3pt]{$\\overline{\\partial}$}{$\\hat{}$} (x) - s_i(x,t)$ projected to the fiber $(\\hat{f}^*W)_x$ is surjective. \n\nFurthermore for $\\varepsilon$ sufficiently small, for any fixed $t_0 \\in B_\\varepsilon^N$ the $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection $\\Lambda (\\cdot, t_0)$ is controlled by the pair $(N,{\\mathcal U})$, i.e.,\n\\begin{itemize}\n\t\\item $N[\\Lambda(\\cdot,t_0)] \\leq 1$,\n\t\\item $\\text{dom-supp}(\\Lambda(\\cdot,t_0)) \\subset {\\mathcal U}$.\n\\end{itemize}\nIt follows from Proposition~\\ref{prop:simultaneous-compactness} that the pullback $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection $\\text{proj}_2^* \\Lambda (\\cdot, t_0)$ is controlled by the pullback $(\\text{proj}_2^*N,f^{-1}({\\mathcal U}))$.\n\n\\noindent\\emph{Common regular value.}\nConsider the strong polyfold bundle ${\\mathcal W} \\times B_\\varepsilon^N \\to {\\mathcal Z} \\times B_\\varepsilon^N$ and the pullback strong polyfold bundle $f^*{\\mathcal W} \\times B_\\varepsilon^N \\to {\\mathcal Y} \\times B_\\varepsilon^N$.\nLet $\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}} : {\\mathcal Z} \\times B_\\varepsilon^N \\to {\\mathcal W} \\times B_\\varepsilon^N$ denote the $\\text{sc}$-smooth proper Fredholm section defined by $([y],t)\\mapsto (\\overline{\\partial}([y]),t)$, and let $\\tilde{f}^*\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}} :{\\mathcal Y} \\times B_\\varepsilon^N \\to f^*{\\mathcal W}\\times B_\\varepsilon^N$ denote the $\\text{sc}$-smooth proper Fredholm section defined by $([x],t) \\mapsto ([x],\\overline{\\partial}(f([x])),t)$.\nBy construction, $(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}, \\Lambda)$ and $(\\tilde{f}^*\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}, \\text{proj}_2^* \\Lambda)$ are transversal pairs; hence by Theorem~\\ref{thm:transversal-pairs-weighted-branched-suborbifolds} the thickened solution sets\n\t\\begin{align*}\n\t{\\mathcal S}(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}, \\Lambda) &= \\{ ([y],t) \\in {\\mathcal Z} \\times B_\\varepsilon^N \\mid \\Lambda (\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}} ([y],t)) >0 \\} \\subset {\\mathcal Z} \\times B_\\varepsilon^N,\t\\\\\n\t{\\mathcal S}(\\tilde{f}^*\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}, \\text{proj}_2^* \\Lambda) &= \\{ ([x],t) \\in {\\mathcal Y} \\times B_\\varepsilon^N \\mid \\text{proj}_2^*\\Lambda (\\tilde{f}^*\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}} ([x],t)) >0 \\} \\subset {\\mathcal Y} \\times B_\\varepsilon^N\n\t\\end{align*}\nhave the structure of weighted branched orbifolds.\n\nBy Sard's theorem, we can find a common regular value $t_0 \\in B_\\varepsilon^N$ of the projections ${\\mathcal S}(\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}, \\Lambda) \\to B_\\varepsilon^N$ and ${\\mathcal S}(\\tilde{f}^*\\scalerel*{\\tilde{\\overline{\\partial}}}{\\hat{M}}, \\text{proj}_2^* \\Lambda)\\to B_\\varepsilon^N$.\nThen the $\\text{sc}^+$-multisection $\\Lambda(\\cdot,t_0) : {\\mathcal W} \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ and its pullback $\\text{proj}_2^*\\Lambda(\\cdot,t_0) :f^*{\\mathcal W} \\to \\mathbb{Q}^+$ are the desired regular perturbations.\n\\end{proof}\n\nThe significance of this theorem is the following.\nBoth perturbed solution sets ${\\mathcal S}(f^*\\overline{\\partial}, \\text{proj}_2^* \\Lambda )$ and ${\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda)$ have the structure of compact oriented weighted branched suborbifolds.  \nMoreover, the restriction of $f$ gives a well-defined continuous function between these perturbed solution spaces, i.e.,\n\t\\[\n\tf|_{{\\mathcal S}(f^*\\overline{\\partial}, \\text{proj}_2^* \\Lambda )}: {\\mathcal S}(f^*\\overline{\\partial}, \\text{proj}_2^* \\Lambda ) \\to {\\mathcal S}(\\overline{\\partial},\\Lambda).\n\t\\]\nFurthermore, $f$ is weight preserving in the sense that the weight functions are related via pullback by the following equation $ ( \\Lambda \\circ \\overline{\\partial}) \\circ f= \\text{proj}_2^* \\Lambda \\circ f^* \\overline{\\partial}$.\n\n\\subsection{The permutation maps between perturbed Gromov--Witten moduli spaces}\n\t\\label{subsec:permutation-map}\n{As we have explained in the introduction, naively there does not exist a permutation map for an arbitrary choice of abstract perturbation.}\n\nFix a permutation $\\sigma \\in S_k,\\  \\sigma: \\{1,\\ldots, k\\}\\to \\{1,\\ldots,k\\}$.\nAssociated to this permutation we can define a $\\text{sc}$-smooth permutation map between the Gromov--Witten polyfold\n\\[\n\\sigma: {\\mathcal Z}_{A,g,k} \\to {\\mathcal Z}_{A,g,k}, \\qquad [\\Sigma,j,M,D,u]  \\mapsto [\\Sigma,j,M^\\sigma,D,u]\n\\]\nwhere $M = \\{z_1,\\ldots,z_k\\}$ and where $M^\\sigma := \\{z'_1,\\ldots,z'_k\\}$, $z'_i:= z_{\\sigma(i)}$.\n\nConsider the pullback via $\\sigma$ of the strong bundle ${\\mathcal W}_{A,g,k} \\to {\\mathcal Z}_{A,g,k}$ and the Cauchy--Riemann section $\\overline{\\partial}_J$, as illustrated in the below commutative diagram.\n\t\\[\n\t\\begin{tikzcd}\n\t\\sigma^* {\\mathcal W}_{A,g,k} \\arrow[d, \"\\sigma^* \\overline{\\partial}_J \\quad\"'] \\arrow[r, \"\\text{proj}_2\"'] & {\\mathcal W}_{A,g,k} \\arrow[d, \"\\quad \\overline{\\partial}_J\"] &  \\\\\n\t{\\mathcal Z}_{A,g,k} \\arrow[r, \"\\sigma\"'] \\arrow[u, bend left] & {\\mathcal Z}_{A,g,k} \\arrow[u, bend right] & \n\t\\end{tikzcd}\n\t\\]\nThe map $\\sigma$ is a homeomorphism when considered on the underlying topological spaces, and hence satisfies the topological pullback condition.\nBy applying Theorem~\\ref{thm:compatible-pullbacks} we immediately obtain Corollary~\\ref{cor:pullback-via-permutation}.\n\nIt follows that the permutation map restricts to a well-defined map between the perturbed Gromov--Witten moduli spaces, \n\\[\n\\sigma|_{{\\mathcal S}_{A,g,k} (\\overline{\\partial}_J, \\text{proj}_2^* \\Lambda)} : {\\mathcal S}_{A,g,k} (\\overline{\\partial}_J, \\text{proj}_2^* \\Lambda) \\to {\\mathcal S}_{A,g,k} (\\overline{\\partial}_J,\\Lambda).\n\\]\nConsidered on the underlying topological spaces, this map is a homeomorphism.  Considered on the branched ep-subgroupoid structures, the associated functor\n\\[\n\\hat{\\sigma}|_{S_{A,g,k} (\\scalerel*{\\hat{\\overline{\\partial}}_J}{\\hat{M}_J}, \\text{proj}_2^* \\hat{\\Lambda})}: S_{A,g,k} (\\scalerel*{\\hat{\\overline{\\partial}}_J}{\\hat{M}_J}, \\text{proj}_2^* \\hat{\\Lambda}) \\to S_{A,g,k} (\\scalerel*{\\hat{\\overline{\\partial}}_J}{\\hat{M}_J},\\hat{\\Lambda})\n\\]\nis a local diffeomorphism, and moreover is injective.\nThe restricted permutation map $\\sigma$ and its associated functor $\\hat{\\sigma}$ are both weight preserving, i.e.,\n$(\\Lambda\\circ \\overline{\\partial}_J) \\circ \\sigma = \\text{proj}_2^*\\Lambda \\circ \\overline{\\partial}_J$ and $(\\hat{\\Lambda}\\circ \\scalerel*{\\hat{\\overline{\\partial}}_J}{\\hat{M}_J}) \\circ \\hat{\\sigma} = \\text{proj}_2^* \\hat{\\Lambda} \\circ \\scalerel*{\\hat{\\overline{\\partial}}_J}{\\hat{M}_J}$.\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\n\\section*{Document History}\n\\begin{itemize}\n    \\item[\\textbf{v1.0}] Initial release\n    \\item[\\textbf{v1.1}] Added discussion of conflicting report to the introduction\\\\ Added discussion of cost pitfalls to Section~\\ref{sec:results:requirements:motivation}\n    \\item[\\textbf{v1.2}] Added new data for the application type (Section~\\ref{subsec:application_type})\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\n\\newpage\n\\pagenumbering{roman}\n\\setcounter{tocdepth}{4}\n\\begin{spacing}{1.3}\n\\tableofcontents\n\\end{spacing}\n\n\n\\newpage\n\\thispagestyle{plain}\n\\section*{Executive Summary}\nThe serverless computing paradigm promises many desirable properties for cloud applications---low-cost, fine-grained deployment, and management-free operation.\nConsequently, the paradigm has underwent rapid growth: there currently exist tens of serverless platforms and all global cloud providers host serverless operations.\nTo help tune existing platforms, guide the design of new serverless approaches, and overall contribute to understanding this paradigm, in this work we present a long-term, comprehensive effort to identify, collect, and characterize serverless use cases.\nWe survey 89 use cases, sourced from white and grey literature, and from consultations with experts in areas such as scientific computing.\nWe study each use case using 24 characteristics, including general aspects, but also workload, application, and requirements. When the use cases employ workflows, we further analyze their characteristics.\nOverall, we hope our study will be useful for both academia and industry, and encourage the community to further share and communicate their use cases.\n\\\\\n\n\\noindent\\textbf{Keywords}\\\\\n\n\\noindent serverless use cases, cloud computing, serverless computing, serverless applications, workflows, requirements analysis, empirical research\\\\\n\n\\noindent\\textbf{Disclaimer}\\\\\n\n\\noindent SPEC, the SPEC logo and the names SPEC CPU2017, SERT, SPEC Cloud IaaS 2018 are trademarks of the Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation (SPEC). \nSPEC Research and SPEC RG Cloud are service marks of SPEC. Additional product and service names mentioned herein may be the trademarks of their respective owners. \nCopyright \u00a9 1988-2020 Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation (SPEC). \nAll rights reserved.\n\n\n\\mainmatter\n\\setlength{\\parindent}{0cm}\n\n\\input{sections\/Introduction.tex}\n\n\\input{sections\/Methodology.tex}\n\n\\input{sections\/Results.tex}\n\n\\input{sections\/Threats.tex}\n\n\\input{sections\/Conclusion.tex}\n\n\n\\cleardoublepage\n\\pagenumbering{gobble}\n\\pagestyle{empty}\n\\renewcommand\\bibname{References}\n\n\\bibliographystyle{IEEEtranSA}\n\n\\section{Conclusion and Future Work}\n\\label{sec:conclusion}\\label{sec:futurework}\n\nThe emergence of serverless computing has already led to a diverse design space, with tens of serverless platforms and the participation of all major cloud providers.\nWe identify in this work the need for a systematic, comprehensive study of serverless use cases, which could help the development of serverless techniques and solutions in the fields of software engineering, distributed systems, and performance engineering. \\\\\n\nWe have proposed a systematic process to identify, collect, and characterize serverless use cases.\nTo identify use cases, the process considers open-source software projects, peer-reviewed literature, self-published material, and domain knowledge.\nTo collect the use cases, the process proposes a structured repository, from which reviewers take and characterize each use case alongside 24 features of interest.\nEach use case is covered by the following types of features:\n(a) \\textit{general} characteristics, such as platform, application type and domain, whether the use case was observed in production, and whether the use case provides open-source software;\n(b) \\textit{workload} characteristics, such as the execution pattern, burstiness, types of triggers, and data volume;\n(c) \\textit{application} characteristics, such as programming language(s) used to develop it, the resource bounds, whether the application depends on external services, etc.;\n(d) the \\textit{requirements} posed by the use case, such as locality and latency, or the performance-cost trade-off; and\n(e) \\textit{workflow} characteristics, including structure, size, and internal parallelism. \\\\\n\nUsing this process, we have collected and characterized a total of 89~ serverless use cases from four different sources. Our systematic and comprehensive study reveals that:\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\n    \\item We find a dominating portion of serverless use cases already being in production with AWS as the most popular platform and web services being the most common application domain. \n\n    \\item Serverless workloads tend to exhibit on-demand execution patterns exemplified by 81\\% bursty workloads, which makes their load hard to predict.\n    \n    \\item Most cloud functions (67\\%) are short-running, with running times in the order of milliseconds or seconds, thus requiring serverless frameworks that impose small overheads when running functions.\n    \n    \\item Cost savings (both in terms of infrastructure and operation costs) are a bigger driver for the adoption of cost than the offered performance and scalability gains.\n    \n    \\item \n    We observe an increasing trend toward ever-larger, ever more complex workflows, indicating the need to move toward (cloud-native) workflow engines.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\n\nLast, but not least, we see this study as a step toward a community-wide policy of sharing and discussing about use cases. Persisting beyond our effort, such use cases could stimulate a new wave of serverless designs, facilitate meaningful tuning and benchmarking, and overall prove useful for both academia and industry.\nWe therefore extend an open invitation to prospective new collaborators in the SPEC-RG Cloud group.\n\n\n\n\\section{Introduction}\\label{sec:intro}\\label{sec:introduction}\n\nServerless computing is an emerging technology with increasing impact on our modern society, and increasing adoption by both academia and industry~\\cite{FutureScape, Markets, 10.5555\/3027041.3027047}.\nThe key promise of serverless computing is to make computing services more accessible, fine-grained, and affordable~\\cite{DBLP:journals\/internet\/EykTTVUI18,DBLP:journals\/corr\/abs-1902-03383} by managing operational concerns~\\cite{10.1145\/3368454}.\nMajor cloud providers, such as Amazon, Microsoft, Google, and IBM already offer capable serverless platforms.\nHowever, serverless computing, and its common Function-as-a-Service~(FaaS) realization, still raises many important challenges that may reduce adoption. These challenges have been recognized and discussed in fields such as software engineering, distributed systems, performance engineering~\\cite{DBLP:conf\/middleware\/EykIST17,DBLP:conf\/wosp\/EykIAGE18,DBLP:conf\/cidr\/HellersteinFGSS19}.\nThis work focuses on a first step to alleviate these challenges:\n{\\it understanding serverless applications through a variety of use cases}.\n\\newline\n\nServerless computing enables developers to focus on implementing business logic, leaving the operational concerns to cloud providers. In turn, the providers turn to automation, which they achieve through \ncapable serverless platforms, such as AWS Lambda, Azure Functions, or Google Cloud Functions, and IBM Cloud Functions (based on Apache OpenWhisk).\nServerless platforms already support fine-grained function deployment, detailed resource allocation, and to some extent also autoscaling~\\cite{10.1145\/3368454}.\nHowever, more sophisticated operational features have started to emerge such as:\n(a) complex function composition and even full {\\it workflows}, \n(b) eventing and provider-managed messaging, \n(c) low-latency scheduling, \n(d) file storage and database setup, \n(e) streaming and locality-aware deployment, and \n(f) versioning and logging solutions. \nThese features facilitate the serverless {\\it application lifecyle}, and help further decreases the time-to-market for serverless applications~\\cite{leitner2019MixedMethod}.\n\\newline\n\nResearchers and industry practitioners have an urgent need for serverless use cases.\nThe variety of already existing platforms and support from the major cloud providers indicate the presence of many serverless applications.\nHowever, relatively little is known about their characteristics or behavior.\nFor an emerging technology such as serverless computing, researchers, \nengineers, and \nplatform providers \ncould use descriptions of {\\it use cases}---{\\it which applications?}, {\\it where and how was this technology already successfully applied?}, and {\\it what are the characteristics of these use cases?}---to guide their drive for discovery and improvement {\\it in the right direction}.\n\\textit{Researchers} can study different use cases related to the same application to extract meaningful patterns and trigger new designs. They can also identify representative use cases, which can later be used for the evaluation of novel approaches and in empirical studies. \n\\textit{Engineers} require descriptions in which areas serverless computing was already successfully applied, which helps to decide whether to adopt serverless computing for other projects. Additionally, existing solutions can serve as blueprints for similar use cases. \\textit{Platform providers} require knowledge of how their products are used, to optimize them and gaps in adoption can point out deficits in their current offerings.\n\\newline\n\nThere are only a few, and sometimes conflicting, reports addressing important questions such as why developers build serverless applications, when serverless applications are well suited, or how serverless applications are implemented in practice. For example, there are reports of significant cost savings by switching to serverless applications~\\cite{adzic2017serverless, Levinson2020}, but also articles suggesting higher cost in some scenarios compared to traditional hosting~\\cite{eivy2017wary}. There are also reports of successfully serverless applications for data-intensive applications~\\cite{witte2019serverless, 10.1145\/3307339.3343462}, despite other articles claiming that serverless is not well suited for data-intensive applications~\\cite{DBLP:conf\/cidr\/HellersteinFGSS19}. Some people suggest that containers are superior to serverless for latency-critical tasks~\\cite{Thorn}, but there are also reports of people successfully applying serverless for latency-critical user-facing traffic~\\cite{Droplr}. Having concrete information on these topics would be valuable for managers to guide decisions on whether a serverless application can be a suitable solution for a specific use case.\n\\newline\n\nHowever much needed, serverless use cases have not been studied systematically so far.\nFor serverless computing, existing research has focused on serverless platforms and their performance properties~\\cite{yussupov:19}.\nSeveral studies currently exist about the features, architecture, and performance properties of these platforms~\\cite{DBLP:journals\/internet\/EykIGEBVTSHA19,10.1007\/978-3-319-99819-0_11, figiela2018performance, lee2018evaluation, lloyd2018serverless, wang2018peeking}.\nShahrad et al.~\\cite{shahrad2020serverless} characterize the aggregated performance properties of the entire production FaaS workload from Microsoft Azure Functions, but do not provide details on individual use cases.\nA recent mixed-method empirical study investigates how developers use serverless computing, focusing on the issues (pain points) they experienced~\\cite{leitner2019MixedMethod}.\nAnother multivocal literature review discusses common patterns in the architecture of serverless applications~\\cite{taibi2020serverless}.\nTo the best of our knowledge, the only existing collection of serverless use cases is an article by Castro et al.~\\cite{10.1145\/3368454}, which introduces ten use cases collected from non-peer-reviewed (\\textit{grey}) literature.\n\\newline\n\nIn this technical report, we collect a total of 89~ serverless use cases from four different sources. 32~ use cases are from open-source projects, 23~ from white literature, 28~ from grey literature, and 6~ from the area of scientific computing. Each use case is reviewed by a pair of reviewers in regard to 24 characteristics, such as execution pattern, workflow coordination, use of external services, and motivation for adopting serverless.\nThe full dataset containing all use cases and their characteristics is publicly available as a persistent Zenodo repository~\\cite{dataset}. \n\\newline\n\n\nIn the next section, we discuss our process for use-case collection and characterization. In Section~\\ref{sec:results}, we describe the 24~ characteristics we reviewed for each use case and the results of this review. Section~\\ref{sec:validity} discusses threats to validity and mitigation strategies.\nFinally, Section~\\ref{sec:conclusion} concludes this technical report, and discusses promising future research directions based on the finding of this study. \n\n\\section{Study Design}\n\\label{sec:method}\n\nThis section summarizes our overall study process, describes the data sources to identify primary studies, the selection strategy with inclusion and exclusion criteria, the characteristics review protocol, and the discussion and consolidation phase covering inter-reviewer agreement.\n\n\\subsection{Process Overview}\n\\label{sec:process}\n\n\\Cref{fig:overview} summarizes the use case analysis process.\nFirstly, we compiled an extensive list of potentially relevant use cases from four different data sources (see \\Cref{sec:process:source}), namely open source projects, white literature, grey literature, and scientific computing.\nSecondly, we applied our selection criteria (see \\Cref{subsec:selection}) to classify and filter only relevant use cases in the context of this study.\nThis resulted in 83 use cases from publicly available sources and 6~ scientific use cases from internal sources, where we had access to domain experts.\nThirdly, we defined a list of interesting characteristics including potential values and perform reviews to extract the actual values from available documentation  (see \\Cref{subsec:data_extraction}).\nFor all public sources, 2 randomly assigned researchers out of a pool of 7 available authors conducted two redundant reviews for each use case.\nEach scientific use case was reviewed by a single domain expert.\nSubsequently, we calculated the inter-reviewer agreements for all redundant reviews and resolved any conflicting values during discussion and consolidation (see \\Cref{subsec:data_synthesis}).\nThis resulted in a total of 89~ analyzed use cases.\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{figures\/Schema.pdf}\n    \\caption{Process overview for use case analysis.}\n    \\label{fig:overview}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsection{Data Sources}\n\\label{sec:process:identification}\\label{sec:process:source}\\label{sec:process:sourcing}\n\nReports on use cases for serverless applications appear in many different forms ranging from peer-reviewed academic papers, open-source projects, blog posts, podcasts, talks, provider-reported success stories to direct exchange with application developers. Therefore, we collect use cases from a variety of different sources. We also aim to not have a dominant source that contributes the lions share of the use cases and therefore introduces a strong selection bias. Based on this, we do not aim for an exhaustive collection of use cases, but collect use cases from the following different sources with the goal of obtaining a large varied sample:\n\n\\begin{itemize}\n    \\item \\textbf{Open-source projects:} Many serverless open-source projects are currently available on GitHub.\n    As a starting point for the open-source projects, we used an existing data set from \\cite{pavlov:19}. This data set was scraped from GitHub using GHTorrent~\\cite{Gousi13}, an offline mirror of the  GitHub public event time line. It excludes unrelated or insignificant projects, based on a keyword search\\footnote{Keywords: \\textit{aws, aws lambda, amazon lambda, lambda functions, azure, openwhisk, serverless, google cloud functions, microsoft azure, azure functions, ibm blue mix, bluemix, oracle fn, oracle cloud fn, kubeless, ibm cloud functions, fn project}} and also excludes any projects that started prior to the launch of AWS Lambda (the first major serverless platform). From this data set, we removed small and inactive projects based on the number of files, commits, contributors, and watchers. As this still left us with many projects that only mention one of the keywords (e.g., ''In the future, we are looking to use AWS lambda for the image resizing.''), we manually filtered the resulting data set to include only projects that are deployed as serverless applications. This resulted in a total of 32~ use cases from open-source projects.\n    \n    \\item \\textbf{White literature:} There is also a growing interest in serverless applications from academia, which results in a number of scientific publications, i.e., journal papers, conference papers and workshop papers describing serverless use cases. For white literature, we based our search on an existing community-curated dataset on literature for serverless computing consisting of over 180 articles from 2016 to 2019~\\cite{sldataset}. First, we filtered the articles based on title and abstract. In a second iteration, we filtered out any articles that implement only a single function for evaluation purposes or do not include sufficient detail to enable a review. As the authors were familiar with a few additional publications describing serverless applications, we contributed these articles to the community-curated dataset and included them in this study. This resulted in a total of 23~ use cases from white literature.\n    \n    \\item \\textbf{Grey literature:} In  software engineering, the discourse in not limited to scientific articles but extends to grey literature, such as blog posts, forum discussions and podcasts~\\cite{10.1145\/2915970.2916008, 10.1145\/2786805.2803200}. For serverless computing, there are a number of blog posts by companies or individuals, talks at industry conferences and provider-reported success stories, as the development of serverless computing was initially mostly industry driven. We filtered the case studies reported by the major serverless providers (AWS\\footnote{\\url{https:\/\/aws.amazon.com\/solutions\/case-studies\/}}, Azure\\footnote{\\url{https:\/\/azure.microsoft.com\/en-in\/case-studies\/}}, Google\\footnote{\\url{https:\/\/cloud.google.com\/customers}} and IBM\\footnote{\\url{https:\/\/www.ibm.com\/case-studies\/}}) and selected those that used mostly serverless solutions. We also included the ten use cases reported in a recent article on the rise of serverless computing~\\cite{10.1145\/3368454}, which to the best of our knowledge is the largest collection of grey literature on serverless use cases. We further extended this collection with grey literature articles describing serverless use cases that the authors were already familiar with. This process resulted in a total of 28~ use cases from grey literature.\n    \n    \\item \\textbf{Scientific computing:} There is also an increasing interest in serverless solutions from the scientific computing community (e.g., by NASA~\\cite{nasa}). However, most of these use cases are still at an early stage and therefore there is little public data available for them. One of the authors of this paper is currently employed at the German Aerospace Center~(DLR), which allowed us to collect information about several projects at DLR that are either currently moving to serverless solutions or are planning to do so. Additionally, a use case from the German Electron Syncrotron~(DESY) could be included. This resulted in a total of 6~ use cases from the area of scientific computing.\n\\end{itemize}\nSome use cases are contained in multiple sources, e.g., a use case might have a GitHub repository that matches our keywords and is also used in the evaluation of an academic paper. For these use cases, we assign them only to a single source using the following ranking: open-source projects > grey literature > white literature. For the scientific use cases, there are no overlaps with the other use case sources.\n\n\\subsection{Use Case Selection}\n\\label{subsec:selection}\n\nWe defined the following inclusion (I) and exclusion (E) criteria for our study:\n\\begin{itemize}\n    \\item[I1] Concrete serverless use cases, as we are interested in real-world example applications.\n    \\item[I2] Use cases described in sufficient detail to conduct a meaningful review (i.e., excluding vague high-level case studies mainly focusing on a specific serverless platform or solution, but lacking technical detail).\n    \\item[E1] Serverless platforms (e.g., Apache OpenWhisk) and frameworks (e.g., Serverless Framework\\footnote{\\url{https:\/\/www.serverless.com\/}}), as these are not concrete workloads.\n    \\item[E2] Boilerplate code and simple technology demonstrations as often found in official serverless provider documentation, as these do not constitute full-fledged use cases.\n    \\item[E3] Academic papers on the same use case. For example, there are a number of academic papers that discuss serverless neural networks serving~\\cite{ishakian2018serving, bhattacharjee2019barista, tu2018pay}. In this case we only include a single representative paper.\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\\subsection{Characteristics Review}\n\\label{subsec:data_extraction}\nWe first determined and formalized the set of investigated characteristics. In an initial round, all authors individually suggested characteristics they consider interesting. In a next round, we merged similar characteristics and kept all characteristics that at least two authors considered relevant. This process resulted in 24 characteristics, which can be divided into five groups: general characteristics, workload characteristics, application characteristics, requirement characteristics, and workflow characteristics. \\emph{General characteristics} aim to quantify the structure of our data set and include characteristics such as ``Is the use case open-source?'', ``Is the use case currently deployed in production?'', and ``What domain is this use case from?''. \\emph{Workload characteristics} aim to describe the traffic pattern and request properties of the use case, e.g., ``Is the workload bursty?'', ``What is the data volume per request?'', and ``Is the application workload triggered by HTTP requests, cloud events, or regularly scheduled?''. \\emph{Application characteristics} describe the structure and properties of the serverless application itself and focuses on characteristics such as ``How many functions does the application consist of?'', ``What programming languages are used?'', and ``Which managed cloud services does the application use?''. \\emph{Requirement characteristics} describe the requirements from the stakeholders, such as ``Is latency relevant?'', ``Does the application have to run in a specific region, replicated in multiple regions or even on edge devices?'', and ``What is the reason for the adoption of serverless computing?''. Finally, \\emph{workflow characteristics} describe the properties of workflows within the serverless applications, e.g., ``Is the use case a workflow?'', ``How many functions does the workflow consist of?'', and ``How is the workflow execution coordinated?''. \\\\\n\nBased on a group discussion, we defined an exhaustive set of potential values for each characteristics. For example, for the characteristic ``How are executions triggered?'' we defined the potential values ``HTTP request'', ``Cloud event', ``Scheduled'' and ``Manual''. Additionally, for every characteristic we introduced the values ``Unknown'' and ``Not applicable''. ``Unknown'' indicates that the documentation of the use case does not contain enough information to determine this characteristic. ``Not applicable'' is used when a characteristic does not make sense for a use cases, for example all workflow characteristics are only applicable to use cases that contain a workflow. For some characteristics, we were not able to define a set of potential values prior to reviewing the use cases. For these characteristics, we used text fragments during the review. Using thematic coding~\\cite{coffey1996making, guest2011applied}, we extracted codes and treated those as the values for these characteristics. For example, for the characteristic ``What is the reason for the adoption of serverless computing?'' thematic coding resulted in the codes ``NoOps'', ``Scalability'', ``Performance'', ``Maintainability'' and ``Simplify Development''. This process enabled us to extract quantifiable results from the textual descriptions. \\\\\n\nWe randomly assigned each use case to 2 reviewers out of a pool of 7 available reviewers from the authors.\nWe manually adjusted a few reviewer assignments to minimize the number of coinciding reviewer pairs (i.e., avoid that many use cases are reviewed by the same two reviewers).\nSubsequently, each reviewer individually assigned values to all characteristics of its assigned use cases.\n\n\\subsection{Discussion and Consolidation}\n\\label{subsec:data_synthesis}\nAfter completing the initial round of reviews, we calculate the fleiss kappa to quantify the level of agreement between the reviewers~\\cite{gwet2014handbook}. Due to the nature of the fleiss kappa, we excluded all characteristic assignments, where at least one reviewer assigned multiple values for a characteristic (e.g., if a use case execution is triggered both via HTTP requests and cloud events), the characteristics using thematic coding as well as the numeric characteristic ``How many functions does the application consist of?''. As characteristics have a different number of possible values, we calculated an individual fleiss kappa value for each characteristic and then the weighted average across these individual kappa fleiss values. This results in a kappa fleiss value of 0.48, which can be interpreted as ``moderate agreement''~\\cite{landis1977measurement}.\n\nIn the following discussion and consolidation phase, the reviewers compared their notes and tried to reach a consensus for the characteristics with conflicting assignments. In a few cases, the two reviewers had different interpretations of a characteristics. These conflicts were discussed among all authors to ensure that characteristic interpretations were consistent. However for most conflicts, the consolidation was a quick process as the most frequent type of conflict was that one reviewer found additional documentation that the other reviewer did not find.\nFollowing this process, we were able to resolve all conflicts, resulting in a collection of 89~ use cases described by 24 characteristics. \\\\\n\nFor the scientific use cases, a different approach was necessary as many of them were not publicly available yet. Therefore, these use cases are reviewed by a single domain expert, which is either involved in the development of the use case or in direct contact with the development. For each of the scientific use cases there is also a textual description (see Appendix Section~\\ref{appendix}).\n\\subsection{Application Characteristics}\n\\label{sec:results:application}\nThis section characterizes the how the applications use cloud functions.\nIn the following, we analyze the applications regarding: the number of distinct functions in them, the function run times, the resource bounds of the functions, the programming languages used to implement the functions, the upgrade frequency of the cloud functions, and their interactions with external cloud services.\n\n\\subsubsection{Number of Distinct Functions}\n\\para{Description}\nThe business logic of serverless applications is contained within serverless functions and connects to a variety of managed cloud services. Similarly to microservices, the appropriate granularity of serverless functions is a controversial topic. Opinions range from wrapping each programming function as a serverless function, each API endpoint as a serverless function to full microservices as a serverless function. In this characteristic we investigate the number of distinct functions within the use cases. As this characteristics targets the development perspective, we count a function that is executed multiple times within an application as a single function. For some use cases, the only information available is along the lines of ''more than X functions\", which we count as X for this analysis.\\\\\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{figures\/results\/number_of_functions.pdf}\n    \\caption{Histogram of the number of functions per use case, single outlier at 170 not shown.}\n    \\label{fig:number_of_functions}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\para{Results} About a third (32\\%) of the analyzed use cases consist of only a single function, as shown in\n\\autoref{fig:number_of_functions}.\nFurther, about one-fifth (21\\%) consist of two functions, a tenth (12\\%) of three functions, another tenth (11\\%) of four functions, and 5\\% of five functions. \nLarger sizes are very rare and without causing a mode in the empirical distribution: there exists in our analysis only one use case for each of the sizes 6, 7, 13, 15, 16, and, notably, 170; there exist only two use-cases for each of the sizes 8, 9, and 10. The use case with more than 170 functions is the back-end for the mobile app of a now defunct start-up. \nOverall, 82\\% of all use cases consist of five functions or less. \nFurthermore, 93\\% of the use cases that consists of ten functions or less. \\\\\n\n\\para{Discussion}\nOur results determine that serverless application use a low number of serverless functions, with 82\\% of all use cases consisting of five or less functions and 93\\% of the use cases consisting of less than ten functions. There are two potential reasons for this. First, the serverless application models reduces the amount of code developers have to write, as it allows them to focus on business logic while all other concerns are taken care of by the cloud provider and managed cloud services. Secondly, this seems to indicate that developers are currently choosing a rather large granularity for the size of serverless functions. However, determining the optimal granularity for serverless functions is still an open research challenge.\n\n\\subsubsection{Function Runtime}\n\\para{Description}\nThe run time of the cloud functions may have important impact on optimization choices of the serverless frameworks running these functions. We classified the run time of the functions in the use cases as: \\emph{short} (order of milliseconds or seconds) and \\emph{long} (order of minutes).\\\\\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{figures\/results\/function_runtime.pdf}\n    \\caption{Function runtime distribution among the surveyed use cases.}\n    \\label{fig:function_runtime}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\para{Results}\nThe majority of the functions in our survey are short (ms, s), 67\\%; only 22\\% of them have a run time in the order of minutes (see Figure~\\ref{fig:function_runtime}). We could not assess this characteristic in 10\\% of the use cases we studied. \nAll but one of the long-running functions is triggered on demand (as opposed to scheduled), with half of them falling into the scientific computing domain.\nThe long-running functions that did not fall within the scientific computing domain, are mostly operations or side-tasks, not business critical.\nFinally, these long functions are not high-volume on demand APIs (only one was classified as such).\\\\\n\n\\para{Discussion}\nThe overhead associated with running a function is larger, in proportion, for the case of functions with short run times.\nThis supports the large number of efforts concentrated in reducing this overhead. \nA limitation of our results is that, as the platforms impose a run time limit in the order of minutes, there may be a bias towards short running functions that would not exist if there were no time limits to the function run times. \\\\\n\n\\subsubsection{Resource Bounds}\n\\para{Description}\nWe wanted to know if the functions' run time were limited by \\emph{I\/O}, \\emph{CPU}, both (\\emph{hybrid}), the \\emph{network}, or an \\emph{external service} (e.g., cloud database).\nInformation on the workload mix can be useful for studies regarding the scheduling of functions and the routing of execution requests. \\\\\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{figures\/results\/resource_bounds.pdf}\n    \\caption{Distribution of the resource bounds among the surveyed use cases.}\n    \\label{fig:resource_bounds}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\para{Results}\nMost use cases did not explicitly state this information (\\emph{unknown} is 72\\%, see Figure~\\ref{fig:resource_bounds}). For the use cases that did report this information, the I\/O-bound functions and CPU-bound functions are equally represented in our survey (9\\% I\/O, 8\\% CPU, 6\\% hybrid, 4\\% external service and 1\\% network). \\\\\n\n\\para{Discussion}\nThe percentage of use cases reporting this information is too small for us to derive any statistically significant analysis of the results. \\\\\n\n\\subsubsection{Programming Languages}\n\\para{Description}\nThis characteristic refers to the main programming languages used to write code for FaaS functions in a given application.\nFaaS providers typically offer a set of officially supported runtimes (e.g., Node.js for JavaScript).\nThese execution environments of FaaS functions determine the operating system and pre-installed software libraries.\nSome providers support further languages through custom runtimes, often in the form of Docker images following a documented interface.\nNotice that the programming language might differ from the technical function runtime as so called \\emph{shims} can be used to invoke a target language through a wrapper runtime (e.g., invoking C++ through Node.js via system calls). \\\\\n\n\\para{Results}\nJavaScript (32\\%) is the most common programming language for FaaS functions tied with Python (32\\%).\nLess common languages include Java (9\\%), C and C++ (8\\%), C\\# (6\\%), Go (3\\%), and Ruby (1\\%).\nWe were unable to determine the language for 25\\% of the use cases due to lacking technical descriptions. \\\\\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{figures\/results\/languages.pdf}\n    \\caption{Programming language distribution among the surveyed use cases. Some use cases use multiple programming languages.}\n    \\label{fig:languages}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\para{Discussion}\nThe ranking of languages in our results follows a general trend also observed in other surveys. \nA study on FaaS industrial practices (N=161) \\cite{leitner2019MixedMethod} and initial results of the latest Serverless Community survey (N=109)\\footnote{Question 25 in \\url{https:\/\/www.nuweba.com\/blog\/serverless-community-survey-2020-results}} indicate that JavaScript is 20\\% more popular than Python on used languages in FaaS applications.\nHowever, they largely follow the same ranking but suggest higher popularity of Java over C\\#.\nOur results are plausible and confirm that JavaScript and Python are the most widely supported programming languages in FaaS.\nFurther, the remaining languages (i.e., Java, C, etc.) all belong to the world's most popular languages according to the TIOBE index\\footnote{\\url{https:\/\/www.tiobe.com\/tiobe-index\/}}, although they are often not the primary choice for the new FaaS paradigm.\n\n\n\\subsubsection{Function Upgrade Frequency} \n\\para{Description}\nHow frequently the code of the functions is updated has implications to software engineering and to the mechanisms used by the framework to upgrade the code in the functions that are already deployed.\nWe used two classification levels for this property: \\emph{rarely} and \\emph{often}; \\emph{unknown} indicates that this information cannot be obtained from the use case. \\\\\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{figures\/results\/upgrade.pdf}\n    \\caption{Function upgrade frequency distribution among the surveyed use cases.}\n    \\label{fig:upgrade}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\para{Results}\nMost use cases did not explicitly state this information (unknown is 70\\%, see Figure~\\ref{fig:upgrade}). For the use cases that did report this information, the functions are updated rarely (26\\% rarely, 3\\% often).\\\\\n\n\\para{Discussion}\nThe percentage of use cases reporting this information is too small for us to derive any statistically significant analysis of the results. \\\\\n\n\\subsubsection{Use of External Services}\n\\label{subsec:external_services}\n\\para{Description}\nFaaS functions are often integrated into an ecosystem of serverless external services.\nPersistency services include cloud storage for blob data (e.g., Amazon S3 for images) and cloud database for structured data storage and querying (e.g., Amazon DynomoDB or Google Cloud SQL).\nA cloud API gateway exposes HTTP endpoints and can trigger FaaS functions upon incoming HTTP requests.\nMessaging services include cloud pub\/sub for durable asynchronous messaging (e.g., Amazon SNS), cloud queue for reliable FIFO-ordered messaging (e.g., Amazon SQS), and cloud streaming for real-time data ingestion and processing (e.g., Amazon Kinesis).\nCloud logging and monitoring refers to applications that explicitly process log data because we implicitly assume some essential logging infrastructure for FaaS functions (e.g., Amazon CloudWatch for AWS Lambda).\nCloud ML covers machine learning services, such as Amazon Rekognition for image or video analysis.\nNotice that we abstracted from vendor-specific services to cross-platform terminology (e.g., AWS S3 becomes Cloud Storage). \\\\\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{figures\/results\/external_services.pdf}\n    \\caption{Distribution of used external services among the surveyed use cases. Many use cases use multiple external services.}\n    \\label{fig:external_services}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\para{Results}\nFigure~\\ref{fig:external_services} shows that cloud storage (61\\%) and cloud database (47\\%) are the most popular external services, followed by the cloud API gateway (18\\%) and messaging services (10-17\\%).\nFor 12\\% of the use cases, we could not identify any external service integration. \\\\\n\n\\para{Discussion}\nGiven the ephemeral nature of FaaS functions, it is unsurprising that persistency services are the most popular external services, which is consistent with other survey results~\\cite{leitner2019MixedMethod}.\nHowever, the API gateway receives surprisingly little attention, especially when compared to the 46\\% of the use cases using HTTP triggers (see \\Cref{subsec:trigger_types}).\nWe suspect the use of an API gateway is often implicitly assumed, thus not explicitly mentioned, and therefore not comprehensively captured here.\nOverall, we conclude that currently used external services almost exclusively focus on technical aspects (e.g., storage or messaging) and more specialized services (e.g., cloud ML) are very uncommon among our surveyed use cases.\n\n\\subsection{General Characteristics}\n\\label{sec:results:general}\n\nIn this section, we analyse general characteristics of serverless use cases: the supported platform(s) and application types. Furthermore, we check if a serverless use case is in production yet and its availability as open source. Last, we report on the distribution across application domains for the analysed use cases.\n\n\\subsubsection{Platform}\n\\para{Description}\nIn November 2014, Amazon released the first commercial Function-as-a-Service platform with AWS Lambda and started the serverless trend. Two years later in 2016, Microsoft Azure, Google Cloud, and IBM Cloud released their own Function-as-a-Service platforms. There are also a number of open-source Function-as-a-Service platforms, such as Knative, OpenWhisk and OpenLambda. Selecting a deployment platform is a major decision for serverless applications, as there is a strong vendor lock-in that makes changing the deployment platform at a later point in time difficult. In this study, we grouped the deployment platforms into \\emph{AWS}, \\emph{Azure}, \\emph{IBM Cloud}, \\emph{Google Cloud}, and \\emph{Private Cloud}. \\\\\n\n\\begin{figure}[h]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{figures\/results\/platform.pdf}\n    \\caption{Distribution of deployment platform among the surveyed use cases. Some use cases support multiple deployment platforms.}\n    \\label{fig:platform}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\para{Results}\nAmong the use cases we surveyed, AWS is the clear choice-leader, with 80\\% of the use cases choosing AWS as their deployment platform. The other cloud vendors are far behind, with Azure at 10\\%, IBM at 7\\% and Google Cloud with 3\\%. 8\\% of the use cases use a private cloud, with the majority of them being scientific use cases. A total of five use cases can be deployed across multiple cloud platforms.\\\\\n\n\\para{Discussion}\nThat AWS is by far the most popular choice for serverless deployment among the cases we surveyed can probably be attributed to AWS having a two year head-start with offering this technology as a commercial service.\nA consequence of the earlier head-start is that \nthere was more time to develop and report about serverless applications using AWS serverless technology. Additionally, AWS has the largest market share when it comes to general cloud computing~\\cite{gartner}, which gives it a larger existing user base that can move applications to serverless.\\\\\n\nThe very low adoption of private clouds outside of the scientific workflows is in strong contrast to the large number of open-source Function-as-a-Service frameworks that have been developed. A large appeal of the serverless application model is the reduction of operational concerns, so we hypothesize that the increase in operational concerns that comes with maintaining a fleet of servers and an open-source Function-as-a-Service frameworks is deterring the adoption of these frameworks. Additionally, most serverless applications make use of many managed services (storage, databases, messaging, logging, streaming, etc.) which are not available directly in a private cloud environment.\\\\\n\nIt is interesting that five of the use cases we studied can be deployed across multiple cloud platforms. This goes in contrast to the commonly reported vendor lock-in of serverless computing~\\cite{adzic2017serverless, eivy2017wary}. However, upon closer inspection, three of these use cases are computation frameworks that provide additional layers of abstraction on top of commercial Function-as-a-Service and another one is a monitoring framework that utilizes serverless technologies. Therefore, we conclude that while there are some frameworks that can operate across multiple cloud platforms, most serverless applications can only be deployed on the cloud platform they were initially developed for. This provides further evidence that vendor lock-in exists for serverless applications.\n\n\\subsubsection{Application Type} \n\\label{subsec:application_type}\n\\para{Description}\nWe categorized each use case according to their type of serverless application. \nThe motivation behind this was to explore for what kind of tasks a serverless approach is typically employed---whether there are certain application types that are dominant or application types that are notably missing in current use cases.\nTo evaluate this usage aspect, we added the \\textit{Application Type} metric in which we provided options of typical application types to group the use cases in:\n\n\\begin{enumerate}\n    \\item \\emph{Operations \\& Monitoring:} Consists of the use cases that deploy serverless application to assist in operating software systems. Examples of such applications include automation of the test or deployment pipelines, failure mitigation or remediation, or controlling the state of running systems. This label superseeds all other labels.\n    \\item \\emph{Stream\/async Processing:} Groups the serverless applications that perform an asynchronous task, which also includes any processing of events from an event bus or stream.\n    \\item \\emph{Batch Task:} This is a special case of the \\texttt{stream\/async processing} category, which encompasses tasks that are executed in large batches. This label superseeds the \\texttt{stream\/async processing} label.\n    \\item \\emph{API:} Contains use cases that employ serverless to implement an API, such as a REST API or a GraphQL API. The exact nature of this API is not relevant here, rather that it is called synchronously, so the caller is waiting for a response.\n    \\item \\emph{Unknown:} Denotes the use cases that did not provide enough information about what type of serverless applications were employed.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{figures\/results\/application_type.pdf}\n    \\caption{Application type distribution among the surveyed use cases.}\n    \\label{fig:application_type}\n\\end{figure}\n\\para{Results}\nFigure~\\ref{fig:application_type} provides an overview of the collected results for the \\textit{application type} metric. We find that serverless is commonly used to implement \\texttt{APIs} (28\\%), \\texttt{stream\/async processing} (27\\%), \\texttt{batch tasks} (23\\%), and \\texttt{operations\/monitoring tasks} (20\\%). We were able to determine this characteristic for all but 2\\% of the survey applications.\n\n\\para{Discussion}\nServerless is commonly recommended for operations tasks, which also shows in our results as 20\\% of the use cases implement operations and monitoring applications. However, we also find large shares of APIs, asynchronous processing, and batch tasks. This shows that serverless is not seen as a niche technology that fits a special use case, but rather as a broadly applicable solution.\\\\\n\n\\subsubsection{In Production}\n\\label{subsec:production}\n\\para{Description}\nAnother characteristic that we analyzed is whether or not a specific use case  was actually deployed in production environments.\nOur motivation behind this is to evaluate how reliable the given characteristics actually are, or how representative they are for the real applications running in practice.\nTherefore, this metric can be seen as a kind of validation of our results.\n\nFor this characteristic, we work with three possible values: \n\\begin{itemize}\n    \\item \\emph{Yes}: There is clear evidence or statements claiming that the specific use case is already deployed in production.\n    \\item \\emph{No}: There is strong evidence that the specific use case is not deployed in production.\n    \\item \\emph{Unknown}: There can be no information found to support either ``Yes\" or ``No\".\n\\end{itemize}\nHowever, in our analysis an ``Unknown\" has almost certainly to be seen as a ``No\", as if we can not find evidence supporting that a use case was not applied in production, we have to assume that it is not.\\\\\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{figures\/results\/production.pdf}\n    \\caption{Percentage of the survey use cases that are deployed in production.}\n    \\label{fig:production}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\para{Results}\nThe results of this characteristic are shown in Figure~\\ref{fig:production}.\nWe observe that more that half (55\\%) of analyzed use cases are actually designed for and deployed in production.\nRoughly a quarter (29\\%) is not used in production, and for the remaining 16\\% of use cases no clear answer could be found. \nHowever, as discussed above, we should assume that all ``Unknown'' use cases belong to the ``No'' field, leaving us with a total of 45\\% that do not have strong claims supporting their application in production.\\\\\n\n\\para{Discussion}\nAs more than half of the use cases included in this study are actually used in production, this can be seen as a strong indicator that the results of our analysis are representative and that the developed best practices have been applied in practice.\nFurthermore, many of the approaches not actively used in production actually originate from white literature. \nAs most of the white literature papers just present prototypical studies and evaluation use cases, their share of non-production use-cases is significantly higher. \nHowever, this in turn increases the respective share of in-production use cases for grey literature and GitHub Projects.\n\n\\subsubsection{Open Source}\n\n\\para{Description}\nOpen source indicates whether the source code of the FaaS function or application is publicly available.\nOpen source software is a valuable contribution for education, reuse, and testing.\nThis is exemplified through FaaS providers sharing their own vision for high-level reference architectures\\footnote{\\url{https:\/\/aws.amazon.com\/lambda\/resources\/reference-architectures\/}} and fostering cataloging of example applications\\footnote{\\url{https:\/\/aws.amazon.com\/serverless\/serverlessrepo\/}}. \\emph{Yes} indicates that a use case is open-source and \\emph{No} indicates that no source code is available.\nNotice that we barely check the availability of open source artifacts and cannot make any claims about completeness, maintenance levels, or use of appropriate licenses for this characteristic.\\\\\n\n\\para{Results} Figure~\\ref{fig:open_source} shows that 53\\% of the use cases are open source and 47\\% are closed source. \\\\\n\n\\para{Discussion}\nOpen source software is typically hosted on GitHub and similarly common for use cases deployed in production.\nInterestingly, open source software is comparably widespread among the 49 use cases deployed in production with 49\\%.\nWe expected a clearer tendency of use cases deployed in production to remain closed source, which is probably due to our selection strategy favoring open source use cases.\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{figures\/results\/open_source.pdf}\n    \\caption{Percentage of the survey use cases that are open-source.}\n    \\label{fig:open_source}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsubsection{Domain} \n\\para{Description}\nFor each use case, we classified their application domain based as one of the following: \\emph{IoT}, \\emph{entertainment}, \\emph{scientific computing}, \\emph{WebServices}, \\emph{public authority}, \\emph{university}, \\emph{FinTech}, \\emph{cross-domain}, or \\emph{other}.\nCross-domain are those use cases that are generic and could be useful across more than one domain; for example, a generic image identification service which could be used in IoT, scientific computing, WebServices, public authority, and university domains.\n\\\\\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{figures\/results\/domain.pdf}\n    \\caption{Distribution of the domain of the surveyed use cases.}\n    \\label{fig:domain}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\para{Results}\nUnsurprisingly, WebServices is the most common application domain in our survey (33\\%, see Figure~\\ref{fig:domain}).\nThis is followed by cross-domain use cases (24\\%), which we mostly found via our GitHub search.\nThe other groups with high representation in our review were scientific computing (16\\%) and IoT (10\\%).\nThe significant presence of scientific computing cases is a result of our conscientious efforts in including scientific computing use cases in our survey.\n\\\\\n\n\\para{Discussion}\nWe find that there is a wide variety of application domains represented in our survey.\nThis is a strength of our study, as others can use our insights to make decisions about the design and implementation of serverless frameworks that are applicable to a broad variety of domains.\n\\subsection{Requirements Characteristics}\n\\label{sec:results:requirements}\nIn the following section, we analyze the different requirements and expectations that users have towards the serverless platforms when moving towards those.\nWe discuss the main motivation drivers, as well as the trade-off between cost and performance, and requirements towards latency and locality of the invocations.\n\n\\subsubsection{Motivation}\n\\label{sec:results:requirements:motivation}\n\\para{Description}\nThis characteristic aims at capturing the motivation of the respective engineers and therefore quantifies why they decided to host their application in a serverless environment.\nFor this, we developed six main motivation fields and grouped each use case into one or multiple of those fields, depending on the motivation the authors gave in the description.\nIf no conclusive motivation could be found, we put \\emph{Unknown}.\nThe main motivations we found are:\n\\begin{itemize}\n    \\item \\emph{Cost}: Running the application in a serverless platform significantly reduces operation cost in comparison to traditional cloud hosting.\n    \\item \\emph{NoOps}: Deploying a serverless application has the advantage of saving operation effort.\n    \\item \\emph{Scalability}: The increased scalability of serverless platforms is advantageous for the application.\n    \\item \\emph{Performance}: The performance of the application, i.e., throughputs and response times, is better when running on a serverless platform.\n    \\item \\emph{Simplify Development}: The development cycle as well as the release structure is easier using serverless applications.\n    \\item \\emph{Maintainability}: Deploying an application in a serverless cloud saves maintenance effort.\n    \\item \\emph{Scalability}: The increased scalability of serverless platforms is advantageous for the application.\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\\para{Results}\nThe results of our study can be observed in Figure~\\ref{fig:motivation}. \nThe biggest drivers for the adoption of serverless in our use cases are cost (33\\%), the reduced operation effort (24\\%), and the offered scalability (24\\%).\nTwo further significant motivation behind the adoption seems to be the performance benefits (13\\%) and the simplified development (9\\%). \nHowever, the maintainability (2\\%) only plays a minor role. \nFor 30\\% of the use cases, no specific motivation could be determined.\\\\\n\n\n\\para{Discussion} As the time savings by employing the NoOps paradigm of the serverless platforms can be converted to personnel costs, we observe that saving effort and costs seems to be a bigger contributor to the adoption of serverless than the offered performance and scalability improvements (although they are closely behind on second place).\n\nIt is important to note here, that there are many common pitfalls which can make serverless functions cost-inefficient. First, right now most providers bill by rounding up the execution time to the nearest 100ms. While this is negligible for most functions, this can be quite inefficient for very short-running functions. For example, if a functions runs for 10ms, it is billed for 100ms, which increases the billed duration tenfold. Secondly, most providers offer different function memory sizes and scale the other allocated resources such as CPU, I\/O capacity and network bandwidth accordingly. A recent survey reports that about 50\\% of serverless functions use the minimum size of 128MB~\\cite{datadog}, which is reported to be inefficient for most serverless functions. Thirdly, at a very large scale, the raw infrastructure costs are significantly larger than for a traditional VM-based solution~\\cite{eivy2017wary}. However, one might argue that the total cost of ownership could still be lower for the serverless solution due to the reduced operational overhead. In general, the the economic benefits of serverless computing heavily depend on the execution behavior and volumes of the application workload~\\cite{eivy2017wary}.\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{figures\/results\/motivation.pdf}\n    \\caption{Distribution of the motivation behind adopting serverless among the surveyed use cases. Some use cases have multiple motivations.}\n    \\label{fig:motivation}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsubsection{Cost\/Performance Trade-off}\n\\label{sec:results:requirements:tradeoff}\n\\para{Description}\nThe cost\/performance trade-off describes whether a use case tends to focus rather on cost optimization (i.e., \\emph{cost-focused}) or rather on performance optimization (i.e., \\emph{performance-focused}).\nThe trade-off is \\emph{undefined} if cost and performance are equally important and \\emph{unknown} if we could find no evidence towards any previously mentioned value in the provided use case description.\\\\\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{figures\/results\/tradeoff.pdf}\n    \\caption{Distribution of the cost\/performance trade-off among the surveyed use cases.}\n    \\label{fig:tradeoff}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\para{Results}\nFigure~\\ref{fig:tradeoff} shows that cost is generally more important than performance for 41\\% of the use cases.\nCost-focused use cases are also twice as common compared to performance-focused use case (23\\%).\nFor 15\\% of the use cases, cost and performance are equally important.\nFinally, the trade-off remains unknown for 22\\% of the use cases.\\\\\n\n\\para{Discussion}\nThe clear focus on cost optimization is plausible given that cost is a strong motivation for adopting serverless (see \\Cref{sec:results:requirements:motivation}).\nServerless solutions, such as FaaS, were also associated with lower perceived total cost in another study~\\cite{leitner2019MixedMethod}.\n\n\\subsubsection{Is Latency Relevant?}\n\\para{Description}\nA diversity of use cases comes with a broad spectrum of expectations or even requirements on latency as a central performance metric. So we posed ourselves the question about the relevance of latency across the analysed serverless use cases. For this characteristic, we distinguish between four levels  plus \\emph{Unknown}. The levels are:\n\\begin{itemize}\n    \\item \\emph{Not important}: For these use cases we found evidence that latency does not play a central role. Delays and variations in latency are acceptable without disturbing the mode of operation.  \n    \\item \\emph{For complete use case}: Latency plays a relevant role for the whole use case on a level of mostly unspecified expectations on latency and its variations over time, e.g., expected to exhibit a latency for convenient human user interaction.\n    \\item \\emph{For parts of the use case}: The use case includes parts where latency is irrelevant and other parts where latency is of concern following the understanding of the level above as mostly unspecified expectation.  \n    \\item \\emph{Real-time}: We select the level \\emph{real-time} if evidence was found that there are soft latency requirements specified. Replies that take longer than a given upper time limit are becoming useless and are not further processed. This interpretation of \\emph{real-time} is not implying safety critical states when latency requirements are violated. \n\\end{itemize}\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{figures\/results\/latency_relevant.pdf}\n    \\caption{Distribution of latency importance among the surveyed use cases.}\n    \\label{fig:latency_relevant}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\para{Results}\nFigure~\\ref{fig:latency_relevant} shows that in more than one third (36\\%) of the use cases, latency does not play a role. On the other side, for 58\\% of the analysed use cases, latency is of relevance (joining the respective levels). In 27\\% this is only for parts of the use cases. \nThe portion of use cases with real-time requirements on latency is small with only 2\\%.\nNo clear assignment of was reasonable for 3\\% of use cases. \\\\\n\n\\para{Discussion}\nServerless computing is especially convenient for triggered or scheduled background tasks that need to run from time to time without any latency requirements. But issues around function cold-starts and limited function life time have not shown to be a showstopper for serverless uses cases that expect a certain degree of stable latency, e.g. for a smooth interaction with human users. Also, over time, we would expect more examples for serverless use cases that come with stricter soft-real-time requirements as the platforms continue to mature. We doubt that serverless computing will accommodate use cases in production with hard real-time requirements and safety critical implications in case of violations. \n\n\n\\subsubsection{Locality Requirements}\n\n\\para{Description}\nMigration of any application from dedicated servers in a possibly self-owned data center to a compute infrastructure managed by a cloud provider reduces the control over the locality where the code runs and data is persisted. From the early days of cloud computing on this remains still a possible issue or even show-stopper. \nWe analyse the serverless use cases if requirements on locality are imposed. The reasons for locality requirements can differ broadly from regulatory to performance related ones.\nHere, we distinguish between four levels of locality requirements plus the case ``unknown'': \n\n\\begin{itemize}\n    \\item \\emph{None}: There is evidence that for the given use case, no locality requirements are imposed.\n    \\item \\emph{Multi-region}: The serverless application is or should be deployed in multiple regions, e.g. for improved latency or in tailored variations for specific geographic regions.\n    \\item \\emph{Specific-region}: The serverless applications is required to run in a specific region.\n    \\item \\emph{Edge}: The application or parts of it should run closer to a user or IoT device in an edge infrastructure\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{figures\/results\/locality_requirement.pdf}\n    \\caption{Locality requirement distribution among the surveyed use cases.}\n    \\label{fig:locality_requirement}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\para{Results}\nWhile we have unclear or unspecified locality requirements for 34\\% of the use cases, Figure~\\ref{fig:locality_requirement} shows that the biggest portion (44\\%) comes with no locality requirements. For 21\\% of the use cases, we found locality requirements. Out of those, 8\\% are deployed across regions, while 10\\% are run in specific regions. The remaining 3\\% are tailored serverless solutions for edge computing. \\\\\n\n\n\\para{Discussion}\nAs serverless technologies and applications are maturing, we expect to see more business-critical elements of serverless applications in daily operation. The portion of serverless use-cases that comes with region-specific requirements will grow respectively. Furthermore, the use of serverless technologies for Edge computing can be seen as a trend of growing importance. Thus, we think it is likely to see a growing importance of the locality requirement ``Edge''. At the current time, for the dominating part of use cases, locality requirements are apparently not specified or not given yet. \n\\subsection{Workflow Characteristics}\n\\label{sec:results:workflow}\\label{sec:results:structural}\n\nMany serverless use cases cannot use a single serverless function to meet their functional and non-functional requirements. \nInstead, such use cases require the execution of multiple functions, \nexpressed and orchestrated as \\textit{serverless workflows}. In this section, we investigate the characteristics of serverless workflows. However, not all use cases include workflows. Thus, we first investigate in  Section~\\ref{sec:results:wf:is} which use cases are based on serverless workflows, and from then on we only report results for the use cases that do (the \\textit{workflow use cases}).\n\\newline\n\n\\subsubsection{Is it a Workflow?}\\label{sec:results:wf:is}\n\\para{Description}\nWe evaluate here the prevalence of serverless workflows among the surveyed use cases. A use case is categorized as a workflow (bar \\textit{Yes} in Figure~\\ref{fig:is_workflow}) if for a part or all of its functionality multiple serverless functions are needed. If not, the use case is not based on a workflow (\\textit{No}). Use cases where this could not be determined are assigned \\textit{Unknown}. \\\\\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{figures\/results\/is_workflow.pdf}\n    \\caption{Percentage of use cases including workflows, among the surveyed use cases.}\n    \\label{fig:is_workflow}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\para{Results}\nAs depicted in Figure~\\ref{fig:is_workflow}, we observe that nearly a third (31\\%) of the use cases include serverless workflows. The other use cases (69\\%) are simple enough that one or a couple of independent serverless functions can fully provide the desired functionality. No use case was labeled Unknown.\\\\\n\n\\para{Discussion}\nThe relative prevalence of workflows in use cases is important, as it hints that serverless use cases are getting more and more complex. The evolution of use cases in fields such as grid computing and more recently cloud computing is indicative that, once workflows become acceptable practice, they become increasingly more prevalent~\\cite{hey2009fourth,isom2012your,deelman2018future}. Interesting too is the lack of use cases categorized as Unknown, which indicates that the presence or absence of workflows for any relevant use case is one of the clearest questions to answer. \n\n\\subsubsection{Workflow Coordination}\\label{sec:results:wf:coord}\n\n\n\\para{Description}\nThe use of workflows currently does not constrain the method used for orchestration. There are various approaches to ensure that tasks---or serverless functions---are executed in a coordinated way, e.g., functions can use events to trigger the start of a new task or for other purposes, a task can act as a coordinator for a specific workflow structure, or a workflow engine can orchestrate arbitrary workflows. To evaluate which of these approaches is prevalent, we surveyed their use across workflow use cases. More formally, for this part we categorized orchestration techniques as follows: \n\n\\begin{enumerate}\n    \\item \\emph{Event} groups all use cases that rely on event-driven orchestration. In this approach, workflows are constructed by configuring functions to be triggered to execute on the arrival of the completion (or failure) events of other functions. Typically, this method requires functions to explicitly listen for and publish their results or errors to a message queue---though in some cases platforms this functionality is built-in and no explicit interaction with an external message queue is needed.  \n    \n    \\item \\emph{Local coordinator} groups all the applications which rely on programmed, user-side logic to take care of the orchestration. An application running on the user's machine, such as a GUI or the client-side JavaScript running on a web page, invokes the functions in the appropriate order, and ensures that each function is executed with the correct configuration and input data.\n    \n    \\item \\emph{Workflow engine} contains the use cases that delegate the coordination to a dedicated workflow management system. This workflow engine has functionality to ensure the correct orchestration, along with higher-order concerns, such as (data) provenance, monitorability, and task scheduling optimizations. The workflows typically need to be specified in a consistent format using a set of workflow primitives that are supported by the workflow engine. Compared to the local coordinator, a workflow engine can also be seen as an external, persistent coordinator.\n    \n    \\item \\emph{Unknown} captures the use cases where we could not determine the coordination approach, for example because of lacking or lack of documentation.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{figures\/results\/coordination.pdf}\n    \\caption{Distribution of workflow coordination approach among the surveyed use cases.}\n    \\label{fig:coordination}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\para{Results}\nAs depicted in Figure~\\ref{fig:coordination}, half of the serverless workflows rely on events for the coordination (50\\%). Slightly less prevalent, about one-third (32\\%) of the use cases rely on a dedicated workflow engine to ensure correct coordination. Only a few (2\\%) defer the coordination to a local coordinator. For 16\\% of the workflow-based use cases the approach could not be determined.\\\\\n\n\\para{Discussion}\nOur results indicate that event-driven workflows are currently most prevalent. Inspecting the individual use cases, we find that this is in part caused by implicit workflows; use cases that do not explicitly construct workflows, but instead configure the function triggers in such a way that these form simple pipelines. While this approach can address simple workflows and especially chains of a few tasks,\nexperience from the fields of grid and cloud computing indicates using this approach will not scale to future workflows. We further find that, as the workflows grow in complexity, workflow engines are more often used to coordinate the workflows. In contrast to cloud-side coordination techniques, the use of local coordinators is unpopular because it distributes to the user more complex logic and, in part, because it is difficult to maintain. Furthermore, such an approach could be less reliable in operation -- cloud-side coordination techniques and workflow engines are carefully engineered for fault-tolerance, which significantly exceeds the typical development effort of local coordinators.\n\n\n\\subsubsection{Workflow Structure}\\label{sec:results:wf:structure}\n\n\\para{Description}\nThe complexity of a workflow is mostly determined by its structure. A {\\it bag of tasks} is a simple workflow (in mathematical terms: a degenerate workflow), which consists of a set of tasks that can be executed in any arbitrary order. \nAnother common workflow structure is the {\\it sequential workflow}, where all tasks need to be executed sequentially. \nWe further define {\\it complex workflows} as workflows that include significantly more complex structure than the previous types, including (multi-stage) gather and scatter operations, workflows with conditional execution of (some) tasks, workflows with loops, and fully dynamic workflows.\\\\\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{figures\/results\/workflow_structure.pdf}\n    \\caption{Distribution of the workflow structure among the surveyed use cases.}\n    \\label{fig:workflow_structure}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\para{Results}\nFigure~\\ref{fig:workflow_structure} depicts the results.\nSequential workflows are the most popular workflow structure for serverless applications, with 40\\% of the workflow use cases including them. \nIncluding sequential workflows and bags of tasks (14\\%), over half (54\\%) of the workflow use cases only include non-complex workflows. \nAbout one-quarter (26\\%) of the serverless applications are complex workflows. \nLast, for over one-fifth (21\\%) of the workflow use cases we were not able to determine the workflow structure.\\\\\n\n\\para{Discussion}\nFor serverless applications, simple workflow structures (bag of tasks and sequential workflows) are more than twice as common as more complex workflow structures. We hypothesize that this is because serverless applications are currently mostly used for comparatively simple tasks and rarely for complex data analysis.\nAnother possible explanation is the lack of workflow engines (Section~\\ref{sec:results:wf:coord}); it is difficult to orchestrate arbitrarily complex workflows without such an engine. \\\\\n\n\nThe lack of bags of tasks can probably attributed to the fact that serverless applications come with built-in scalability when the functions can be conveniently executed in parallel. For example, resizing a collection of images can be conveniently implemented as a bag of many tasks, where each task invokes the same image-resizing function. In this case, the serverless platform has the capability to execute this case, without further need for orchestration from the user.\n\n\\subsubsection{Workflow Size} \\label{sec:results:wf:size}\n\n\\para{Description} Next, we study workflow size, expressed as the number of tasks in the workflow. \nWe aggregate all use cases into three groups:\n\\begin{enumerate}\n    \\item \\textit{Small workflows}, containing 2--10 functions,\n    \\item \\textit{Medium-size workflows}, invoking 10--1000 functions, and\n    \\item \\textit{Large workflows}, comprised of more than 1000 function invocations. \n\\end{enumerate}\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{figures\/results\/workflow_size.pdf}\n    \\caption{Workflow size distribution among the surveyed use cases.}\n    \\label{fig:workflow_size}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\para{Results} Figure~\\ref{fig:workflow_size} depicts the results of our analysis. \nThe majority (59\\%) of analyzed workflows are small workflows.\nAround one fifth of use cases (19\\%) are medium-size, and only few (3\\%) qualify as large workflows.\nNearly one-fifth of the workflows (19\\%) could not be assigned to one of the groups. \\\\\n\n\\para{Discussion} Our results suggest that a majority of workflow executions are small; because these workflows are only composed of ten or less individual function executions, they are also relatively short-lived. This is consistent with the characteristics of early workflows in engineering and in scientific prototypes~\\cite{conf\/cgiw\/OstermannIPFE08}. Only about one-fifth of the workflows are medium or large-sized. Similarly to the previous section, we hypothesize that orchestrating workflows of this size is dependent on the presence of an automated facility, such as a workflow engine. (The other hypothesis introduced in Section, that serverless workflows are currently used for relatively simpler tasks, does not limit the size of the workflow -- in the earlier example, the image-resizing workflow can run 10,000s or even 100,000s of functions~\\cite{bharathi2008characterization, deelman2018future}.)\n\n\n\\subsubsection{Workflow Internal Parallelism}\n\n\\para{Description}\nFor those use cases in which a workflow of serverless functions was present, we further analyzed whether they present \\emph{internal parallelism}---at least an instance of multiple functions running in parallel---or not. \\\\\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{figures\/results\/parallelism.pdf}\n    \\caption{Percentage of workflows with internal parallelism among the surveyed use cases.}\n    \\label{fig:parallelism}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\para{Results}\nFrom Figure~\\ref{fig:parallelism}, we observe that most workflows (52\\%) exhibit internal parallelism; about one-third (31\\%) of the workflows are simpler, exhibiting no internal parallelism.\nWe could not obtain this information (\\emph{unknown}) for 16\\% of the workflows. \\\\\n\n\\para{Discussion}\nThe high prevalence of workflows with at least some level of internal parallelism calls for workflow managers that are native to---or well integrated with---the serverless framework, to facilitate workflow composition and management yet deliver parallelism with low overhead.\n\\\\\n\\subsection{Workload Characteristics}\n\\label{sec:results:workload}\n\nThis section characterizes the nature of workloads imposed on serverless applications through human users or technical invokers.\nIn the following, we discuss execution patterns, burstiness, trigger types, and common data volumes of our reviewed use cases.\n\n\\subsubsection{Execution Pattern}\n\n\\para{Description}\nFunctions or workflows of functions can be triggered \\emph{on-demand} as a direct result of a user interacting with the application, or they can be \\emph{scheduled} to be run at specific times.\nFor the on-demand workflows, we further classify them as regular \\emph{on-demand} or \\emph{high-volume on-demand}.\\\\\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{figures\/results\/execution_pattern.pdf}\n    \\caption{Execution pattern distribution among the surveyed use cases. Some use cases are executed both on a schedule and on-demand.}\n    \\label{fig:execution_pattern}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\para{Results}\nMost (workflows of) functions are triggered on-demand, with scheduled triggers being used in only 17\\% of the use cases we analyzed (see Figure~\\ref{fig:execution_pattern}).\nOut of the on-demand execution patterns, close to half are high-volume, business-critical invocations. \\\\\n\n\n\\para{Discussion}\nThe high prevalence of high-volume on-demand triggers calls for special study in minimizing function start-up times, and auto-scaling mechanisms.\nIn addition, half of the workflows that are scheduled fall into the application type category \\emph{operations} (see \\cref{subsec:application_type}), highlighting how the serverless model has been adopted---in many cases---to automate operations, software management, and DevOps pipelines.\n\\\\\n\n\\subsubsection{Burstiness}\n\\para{Description}\nThe workload of a function can be either bursty or non-bursty.\nA bursty workload follows a workload pattern that includes certain sudden and unexpected load spikes, or alternatively a significant amount of sustained noise and variation in intensity.\nWe classify a use case as bursty (i.e., \\emph{yes} for burstiness) if its workload typically includes or can include burst patterns in some situations and as non-bursty (i.e, \\emph{no}) if the workload is almost guaranteed to never receive burst patterns (e.g., if all executions are scheduled and known in advance).\nIf the burstiness of a use case is \\emph{unknown}, then the use case was either under-specified, or can be both bursty or non-bursty depending on the specific area of application.\nNote that in any scenario that involves a set of human users, we consider the workload pattern to be bursty, as user behavior can almost never the scheduled or reliably controlled, leading to a possibly bursty behavior.\\\\\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{figures\/results\/bursty.pdf}\n    \\caption{Percentage of the survey use cases that have a bursty workload.}\n    \\label{fig:bursty}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\para{Results}\nFigure~\\ref{fig:bursty} depicts that a large majority (81\\%) of the analyzed workload patterns are classified as bursty.\nAdditionally, a 16\\% share have a clear non-bursty workload pattern, while a small minority of 3\\% could not be attributed to be either bursty or non-bursty.\\\\\n\n\\para{Discussion}\nAs one of the strengths of serverless computing is its seamless and almost infinite scalability, together with the general ease of operations it comes as no surprise that most of the use cases indeed experience bursty workload patterns.\nEarly adopters that want to test out the new emerging paradigm are more likely to choose a use case that is optimized for the serverless offering. \nAt the same time, engineers that have been struggling with bursty workloads and face regular performance issues are also more likely to migrate or adopt their application towards the a serverless clouds than applications that run smoothly.\n\nAn interesting comparison here would be to compare the share of bursty workloads executed on serverless platforms versus the share of bursty workloads of conventional applications.\nHowever, we can still conclude that a large majority of use cases designed for or applied to serverless platforms are experiencing bursty workloads and hence make use of the seamless elasticity that these services offer.\n\n\n\\subsubsection{Trigger Types}\n\\label{subsec:trigger_types}\n\n\\para{Description}\nTrigger types refer to alternative ways of invoking a FaaS function and are closely related to external services (see \\Cref{subsec:external_services}).\nAn \\emph{HTTP request} can trigger a FaaS function, which then processes the request and generates an HTTP response.\nThis HTTP routing is often implemented through API gateways.\nA \\emph{cloud event} describes a state change happening in a connected cloud service, such as a file upload to cloud storage or a modified value in a cloud database.\nSuch cloud events can be configured to trigger new function executions.\nA \\emph{scheduled} trigger invokes a FaaS function at a defined and potentially recurring time.\nThe category of \\emph{manually} triggered functions refers to human-initiated executions typically executed on-demand.\nNotice that some use cases combine multiple trigger types and thus the sum of proportions exceeds 100\\%. \\\\\n\n\\para{Results}\nFigure~\\ref{fig:trigger} reveals that the most common trigger types are HTTP request (46\\%) and cloud event (39\\%).\nFar less common are scheduled (12\\%) and manual (9\\%) execution triggers.\nWe were unable to derive the trigger type for 3\\% of the use cases from their insufficient descriptions.\\\\\n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{figures\/results\/trigger.pdf}\n    \\caption{Trigger type distribution among the surveyed use cases. Some use cases have multiple trigger types. }\n    \\label{fig:trigger}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\para{Discussion}\nWe compare our results to the trigger types reported for the production workload of Microsoft Azure functions~\\cite{shahrad2020serverless}.\nScheduled triggers and HTTP triggers are both 16-20\\% more common among Azure FaaS applications in comparison to our analyzed use cases focusing on AWS (85\\%).\nThe results for the remaining categories very closely (<=2\\%) match (after mapping some cumulative categories).\nWe conclude that the order of categories is in line with current production workloads reported for Azure but note that some values might be higher in practice.\nSuch an underestimation is plausible given that we derive our results from potentially incomplete sources.\nHowever, the explicit grouping of functions into applications in the Azure FaaS implementation possibly leads to different function groupings compared to our AWS-focused use cases.\n\n\\subsubsection{Data Volume}\n\n\\para{Description}\nThe data volume defines what load will be on network and storage devices. \nThe motivation here is to analyze whether there are any clusterings of data usages or certain patterns that are generally avoided.\nWe categorized the different use cases into five different categories: Volumes of \\emph{less than 1 MB} per execution, \\emph{less than 10 MB}, \\emph{less than 100 MB}, \\emph{less than 1 GB}, and \\emph{more than 1 GB}.\nAdditionally, there is also the \\emph{unknown} category, if data volume could not be assessed.\nNote that the data volume refers to executions of the entire workflow.\nFurthermore, as exact numbers were seldom found in the sources, this categorization is often based on the estimate of our reviewers.\\\\  \n\n\\begin{figure}[ht]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.8\\linewidth]{figures\/results\/data_volume.pdf}\n    \\caption{Data volume distribution among the surveyed use cases.}\n    \\label{fig:data_volume}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\para{Results}\nFigure~\\ref{fig:data_volume} depicts the distribution of use cases among the different classes. \nAlmost half of the use cases (44\\%) fall in the smallest category of data volumes of less than 1 MB. \nThe second categorization transmitting more than 1 MB of data, but less than 10 MB, also make the second largest group with a fraction of 13\\%.\nEven less use cases (3\\%) consider a data volume between 10 and 100 MB. \nHowever, the following group between 100 MB and 1 GB increases in popularity, and finally the share of use cases transmitting 1 GB or more to the serverless platform increases to be the second-largest group (13\\%).\nAdditionally, 18\\% of use-cases could not have a specific data volume assigned and therefore do not count into any of the enumerated groups.\\\\\n\n\\para{Discussion}\nGenerally, the different data volumes are relatively distributed and do not cast a clear picture.\nThere is definitely a use case for any data volume characteristic. Therefore platforms should not strive to optimize themselves towards any specific limitation here.\nThat said, most of the use cases transmit less than 1 MB of data per workflow execution. \nNote that this group also includes all use cases that might not send any data at all. \nTherefore, the large majority of serverless use cases that we surveyed does not work with big amounts of data. \nHowever, there is also the exact opposite group of use cases working with vast vast amounts of data of 1 GB and more per workflow execution.\n\\section{Analysis Results: On the Characteristics of Serverless Use Cases}\n\\label{sec:results}\n\nWe describe in this section the results of our characterization and analysis of serverless use cases. Overall, we cover a diverse set of  characteristics, identifying the values commonly used in practice and further analyzing their impact on serverless practice.\n\n\\subsection{Main Findings}\n\\label{sec:results:main}\n\n\nOur main findings are:\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\n    \\item \\emph{General Characteristics:} We find AWS as the currently dominating for platform for serverless applications (80\\%). The dominating application domain is web services (33\\%), with 40\\% of the analysed workloads being business-critical and at least 55\\% of them in production already.\n    \n    \\item \\emph{Application Characteristics:}\n    82\\% of all use cases consist of applications that use five or less different functions. Most (67\\%) of these functions are short-running, with running times in the order of milliseconds or seconds. JavaScript and Python are the most used programming languages for cloud functions (each used by 32\\% of the cases we studied).\n    These applications depend on a wide variety of cloud services, with the three most used ones being cloud storage (used by 61\\% of the applications) and cloud database (47\\%); cloud API gateway (18\\%) and cloud pub-sub (17\\%) are also widely used.\n    \n    \\item \\emph{Requirements Characteristics:} The reduced operation cost of serverless platforms (33\\%), the reduced operation effort (24\\%), the scalability (24\\%), and performance gains (13\\%) are the main drivers of serverless adoption. \n    In comparison, cost savings seems to be a stronger motivator than the performance benefits. \n    At the same time, 58\\% of use cases have latency requirements, 2\\% even have real-time demands, while only 36\\% are latency insensitive.\n    Locality requirements are only relevant for 21\\% of the total use cases.\n    \n    \\item \\emph{Workload Characteristics:}\n    81\\% of the analyzed use cases exhibit bursty workloads.\n    This highlights the overall trend of serverless workloads to feature unpredictable on-demand workloads, typically triggered through lightweight (<1MB) HTTP requests.\n\n    \\item \\emph{Workflow Characteristics:}\n    Although the presence of workflows is already sizable (31\\% of the use cases), most workflows are of simple structure, small, and short-lived. \n    This is likely to change, as demand follows natural trends and orchestration methods move toward (cloud-native) workflow engines.\n    \n\\end{enumerate}\n\n\\input{sections\/results\/General.tex}\n\n\\input{sections\/results\/Workload.tex}\n\n\\input{sections\/results\/Application.tex}\n\n\\input{sections\/results\/Requirements.tex}\n\n\\input{sections\/results\/Workflow.tex}\n\\section{Threats to Validity}\n\\label{sec:validity}\\label{sec:threats}\nWe discuss potential threats to validity and mitigation strategies for internal validity, construct validity, and external validity.\n\n\\subsection{Internal Validity}\nManual data extraction can lead to inaccurate or incomplete data.\nTo mitigate this threat, we established and discussed a review protocol prior to reviewing, continuously discussed upcoming questions during the review process, and performed redundant reviews through multiple reviewers.\nIn our review protocol, we established an exhaustive list of potential values for each characteristic and configured automated validation, which immediately highlighted deviations from these values.\nFor characteristics with thematic coding, we continuously refined their values in regular meetings during the review process.\nTo address potential individual bias, we performed two independent reviews for each use case, quantified the inter-rater agreement after an initial review round through Fleiss' Kappa, and resolved each disagreement in an extended discussion and consolidation phase.\n\n\\subsection{Construct Validity}\nTo align the goal of this study (i.e., comprehensive understanding of existing serverless use cases) with the data extraction, we compiled a list of 24 characteristics covering 5 different aspect groups.\nWe conducted and discussed this selection process together in an international working group with authors from 5 different institutions but other researchers might consider different characteristics as relevant.\n\n\\subsection{External Validity}\nOur study was designed to cover use cases from open source projects, white literature, and grey literature but we cannot claim generalizability to all serverless use cases.\nFor open source projects, we filtered non-trivial projects from the most popular open source repository (i.e., GitHub) but might have missed projects published in other repositories.\nHowever, we are unaware of such other repositories and also did not discover any among our other use cases from white and grey literature.\nOur white literature collection is based on a curated dataset on serverless literature and complemented with articles known to the authors but we might have missed more recent articles uncovered in the dataset and unknown to all authors.\nGrey literature use cases mostly focus on provider-reported case studies, an existing collection of grey literature use cases, and sources known to the authors.\nWe only partially cover corporate use cases as many of them remain unpublished and others provide insufficient details to conduct a meaningful review, which is similar to FaaS platforms~\\cite{DBLP:journals\/internet\/EykIGEBVTSHA19}.\nOur scientific computing use cases are limited to the aerospace domain originating from a national aerospace institution.\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{INTRODUCTION}\n\nHumans' unique abilities such as adaptive behavior in dynamic environments, and social interaction and moral judgment capabilities, make them essential elements of many control loops. On the other hand, compared to humans, automation provides higher computational performance and multi-tasking capabilities without any fatigue, stress, or boredom \\cite{Noth16,Kor15}. Although they have their own individual strengths, humans and automation also demonstrate several weaknesses. Humans may have anxiety, fear and may become unconscious during an operation. Furthermore, in the tasks that require increased attention and focus, humans tend to provide high gain control inputs that can cause undesired oscillations. One example of this phenomenon, for example, is the occurrence of pilot induced oscillations (PIO), where undesired and sustained oscillations are observed due to an abnormal coupling between the aircraft and the pilot \\cite{YilKol10, Yil11a,AcoYil14,TohYil18}. Similarly, automation may fail due to an uncertainty, fault or cyber-attack \\cite{Li14}. Thus, it is more preferable to design systems where humans and automation work in harmony, complementing each other, resulting in a structure that benefits from the advantages of both.\n\nTo achieve a reliable human-automation harmony, a mathematically rigorous human operator model is paramount. A human operator model helps develop safe control systems, and provide a better prediction of human actions and limitations \\cite{Hul13,Yuc18,Emre19, Zha19}. \nQuasi-linear model \\cite{Mcr57} is one of the first human operator models, which consists of a describing function and a remnant signal accounting for nonlinear behavior. An overview of this model is provided in \\cite{Mcr74}. In some applications, where the linear behavior may be dominant, the nonlinear part of this model can be ignored, and the resulting lead-lag-type compensator is used in closed loop stability analysis \\cite{Neal71}. The crossover model, proposed in \\cite{Mcr63}, is another important human operator model in the aerospace domain. It is motivated from the empirical observations that human pilots adapt their responses in such a way that the overall system dynamics resembles that of a well designed feedback system \\cite{Bee08}. A generalized crossover model which mimics human behavior when controlling a fractional order plant is proposed in \\cite{Mar17}. In \\cite{War16}, crossover model is employed to provide information about the human intent for the controller. In \\cite{Gil09}, the dynamics of the operator is represented as a spring-damper-mass system. \n\n\nControl theoretical operator models drawing from the optimal and adaptive control theories are also proposed by several authors. \nOptimal human models are based on the idea that a well trained human operator behaves in an optimal manner \\cite{Wier69, Kle70, Na12, Lon13, Hu19}. On the other hand, adaptive models, such as the ones proposed in \\cite{Hess09, Hess15} and \\cite{TohYil19Human}, aim to replicate the adaptation capability of humans in uncertain and dynamics environments. In \\cite{Hess09} and \\cite{Hess15}, adaptation rules are proposed based on expert knowledge. The adaptive model proposed in \\cite{Hess09} is applied to change the parameters of the pilot model based on force feedback from a smart inceptor \\cite{Xu19}. \nA survey on various pilot models can be found in \\cite{Lon14} and \\cite{Xu17}.\n\n\n\n\n\n Several approaches are also developed for human model parameter identification. In \\cite{Zaal11}, a two-step method using wavelets and a windowed maximum likelihood estimation is exploited for the estimation of time-varying pilot model parameters. In \\cite{Duar17}, a linear parameter varying model identification framework is incorporated to estimate time-varying human state space representation matrices. Subsystem identification is used in \\cite{Zha15} to model human control strategies. In \\cite{Van15}, a human operator model for preview tracking tasks is derived from measurement data.\n\n\nIn this paper, we build upon the earlier successful pilot models and propose an adaptive human pilot model that modifies its behavior based on plant uncertainties. This model distinguishes itself from earlier adaptive models by having mathematically derived laws to achieve a cross-over-model-like behavior, instead of employing expert knowledge. This allows a rigorous stability proof, using the Lyapunov-Krasovskii stability criteria, of the overall closed loop system. To validate the model, a setup, including a joystick and a monitor, is used. The participant data collected through this experimental setup is subjected to visual and statistical analyses to evaluate the accuracy of the proposed model. Initial research results of this study were presented in \\cite{TohYil19Human}, where the details of the mathematical proof and human experimental validation studies were missing.\n\n\nThis paper is organized as follows. In Section \\ref{sec:prob}, the problem statement is given. Obtaining reference model parameters, which determine the properties of the cross-over model, is discussed in Section \\ref{sec:reference}. Section \\ref{sec:human} presents the human control strategy together with a stability analysis. Experimental set-up, results, and a statistical analysis are provided in Section \\ref{sec:experiment}. Finally, a summary is given in Section \\ref{sec:conclusion}.\n\n\n\\section{PROBLEM STATEMENT}\\label{sec:prob}\n\nAccording to McRuer's crossover model \\cite{Mcr67}, human pilots in the control loop behave in a way that results in an open loop transfer function\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e1x}\nY_{OL}(s)=Y_{h}(s)Y_{p}(s)=\\frac{\\omega_ce^{-\\tau s}}{s},\n\\end{equation}\nnear the crossover frequency, $ \\omega_c $, where $ Y_{h} $ is the transfer function of the human pilot and $ Y_{p} $ is the transfer function of the plant. $ \\tau $ is the effective time delay, including transport delays and high frequency neuromuscular lags.\n\nConsider the following plant dynamics\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e2x}\n\\dot{x}_p(t)=A_px_p(t)+B_p u_p(t),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $ x_p\\in \\mathbb{R}^{n_p} $ is the plant state vector, $ u_p\\in \\mathbb{R} $ is the input vector, $ A_p\\in \\mathbb{R}^{n_p\\times n_p} $ is an unknown state matrix and $ B_p\\in \\mathbb{R}^{n_p} $ is an unknown input matrix.\n\nThe human \\textit{neuromuscular model} \\cite{Mag71, Van04} is represented in state space form as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e3x}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{x}_h(t)&=A_hx_h(t)+B_hu(t-\\tau) \\\\\ny_h(t)&=C_hx_h(t)+D_hu(t-\\tau),\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nwhere $ x_h\\in \\mathbb{R}^{n_h} $ is the neuromuscular state vector, $ A_h\\in \\mathbb{R}^{n_h\\times n_h} $ is the state matrix, $ B_h\\in \\mathbb{R}^{n_h} $ is the input matrix, $ C_h\\in \\mathbb{R}^{1\\times n_h} $ is the output matrix and $ D_h\\in \\mathbb{R} $ is the control output matrix. $ u\\in \\mathbb{R} $ is the neuromuscular input vector, which represents the control decisions taken by the human and fed to the neuromuscular system, $ y_h\\in \\mathbb{R} $ is the output vector, and $ \\tau\\in \\mathbb{R}^+ $ is a known, constant delay. The neuromuscular model parameters are assumed to be known and the output of the model, $ y_h $, is used as the plant input $ u_p $ in (\\ref{eq:e2x}), that is $ y_h=u_p $ (see Fig. \\ref{fig:f1-2}). \n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\vspace{0.3cm}\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=9.0cm]{Blockdiagxx.jpg}    %\n\t\t\\caption{The block diagram of the human adaptive behavior and decision making in a closed loop system.} \n\t\t\\label{fig:f1-2}\n\t\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\nBy aggregating the human pilot and plant states, we obtain the combined open loop human neuromuscular and plant dynamics as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e4x}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\underbrace{\\begin{bmatrix}\n\t\\dot{x}_h(t) \\\\ \\dot{x}_p(t)\n\t\\end{bmatrix}}_{\\dot{x}_{hp}(t)}&=\n\\underbrace{\\begin{bmatrix}\n\tA_h & 0_{n_h\\times n_p} \\\\ B_p C_h & A_p\n\t\\end{bmatrix}}_{A_{hp}}\\underbrace{\\begin{bmatrix}\n\tx_h(t) \\\\ x_p(t)\n\t\\end{bmatrix}}_{x_{hp(t)}}\\\\ &+\n\\underbrace{\\begin{bmatrix}\n\tB_h \\\\ B_pD_h\n\t\\end{bmatrix}}_{B_{hp}}u(t-\\tau),\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nwhich can be written in the following compact form\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e5x}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{x}_{hp}(t)&=A_{hp}x_{hp}(t)+B_{hp}u(t-\\tau),\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nwhere $ x_{hp}=[x_h^T\\ x_p^T]^T\\in \\mathbb{R}^{(n_p+n_h)} $, $ A_{hp}\\in \\mathbb{R}^{(n_p+n_h)\\times (n_p+n_h)} $, $ B_{hp}\\in \\mathbb{R}^{(n_p+n_h)} $. \n\\begin{assumption}\n\tThe pair $ (A_{hp}, B_{hp}) $ is controllable.\n\\end{assumption}\n\nThe goal is to obtain the input $ u(t) $ in (\\ref{eq:e3x}), which is the human pilot control decision variable, such that the closed loop system consisting of the adaptive human pilot model and the plant follow the output of a unity feedback reference model with an open loop crossover model transfer function. The closed loop transfer function of the reference model is therefore calculated as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e21xqx}\n\\begin{aligned}\nG_{cl}(s)=\\frac{\\frac{\\omega_c}{s}e^{-\\tau s}}{1+\\frac{\\omega_c}{s}e^{-\\tau s}}=\\frac{\\omega_c e^{-\\tau s}}{s+\\omega_c e^{-\\tau s}}.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nAn approximation of (\\ref{eq:e21xqx}) can be given as  \n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e21xqqx}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\hat{G}_{cl}(s)=\\frac{b_ms^m+b_{m-1}s^{m-1}+...+b_0}{s^n+a_{n-1}s^{n-1}+...+a_0}e^{-\\tau s},\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nwhere $ n=n_h+n_p $ and $ m\\leq n $ are positive real constants, and $ a_{i} $ and $ b_j $ for $ i=0, ..., n-1 $ and $ j=0, ..., m-1 $, are real constants to be estimated. \nThe reference model then can be obtained as the state space representation of (\\ref{eq:e21xqqx}) as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e7x}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{x}_{m}(t)&=A_{m}x_{m}(t)+B_{m}r(t-\\tau),\\\\\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nwhere $ x_m\\in \\mathbb{R}^{(n_h+n_p)} $ is the reference model state vector, $ A_m\\in \\mathbb{R}^{(n_h+n_p)\\times (n_h+n_p)} $ is the state matrix, $ B_m\\in \\mathbb{R}^{(n_h+n_p)\\times m_h} $ is the input matrix, and $ r\\in \\mathbb{R}^{m_h} $ is the reference input.\n\n\\section{REFERENCE MODEL PARAMETERS}\\label{sec:reference}\nThe crossover transfer function (\\ref{eq:e1x}) contains the crossover frequency, $ \\omega_c $, which is not known a priori. Experimental data, showing the reference input ($ r(t) $) frequency bandwidth, $ \\omega_i $, versus crossover frequency $ \\omega_c $, is provided in \\cite{Bee08} and \\cite{Mcr67}, for plant transfer functions $ K $, $ K\/s $ and $ K\/s^2 $. We fit polynomials to these experimental results to obtain the crossover frequency of the open loop transfer function given a reference input frequency bandwidth. These polynomials are given in Table I. It is noted that when the reference input has multiple frequency components, the highest frequency is used to calculate the crossover frequency.\n\n\n\\begin{remark}\n\tIn this work, we use the polynomial relationships provided in Table I for zero, first and second order plant dynamics with nonzero poles and zeros. Further experimental work can be conducted to obtain a more precise relationship between the crossover and reference input frequencies, but this is currently out of the scope of this work.\n\\end{remark}\n  \n\n\n\n\\begin{table}\n\t\\vspace{0.3cm}\n\t\\caption{}\n\t\\centering\n\t\\begin{tabular}{ | c | c | }\n\t\t\\hline \n\t\tPlant transfer & Crossover frequency of the \\\\\n\t\tfunction & open loop transfer function (rad\/s)\\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\t$ K $ & $ \\omega_c=0.067\\omega_i^2+0.099\\omega_i+4.8 $ \\\\ \\hline\n\t\t$ K\/s $ & $ \\omega_c=0.14\\omega_i+4.3 $ \\\\ \\hline\n\t\t$ K\/s^2 $ & $ \\omega_c=-0.0031\\omega_i^4-0.072\\omega_i^3+0.29\\omega_i^2$ \\\\ & $-0.13\\omega_i+3 $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\\end{tabular}\n\\end{table} \n\n\n\\section{HUMAN PILOT CONTROL DECISION COMMAND}\\label{sec:human}\n\n\nThe adaptive human pilot control decision command, $ u(t) $, is determined as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e8x}\nu(t)=K_rK_xx_{hp}(t+\\tau)+K_rr(t)\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $ K_x\\in \\mathbb{R}^{1\\times (n_h+n_p)} $, and $ K_r\\in \\mathbb{R}^{m_h\\times m_h} $. Using (\\ref{eq:e8x}) and (\\ref{eq:e5x}), the closed loop dynamics can be obtained as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e9x}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{x}_{hp}(t)&=(A_{hp}+B_{hp}K_rK_x)x_{hp}(t)+B_{hp}K_rr(t-\\tau).\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation} \n\nEquation (\\ref{eq:e8x}) describes a non-causal decision command which requires future values of the states. This problem can be eliminated by solving the differential equation (\\ref{eq:e5x}) as a $ \\tau $-seconds ahead predictor as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e9xx}\n\\begin{aligned}\nx_{hp}(t+\\tau)&=e^{A_{hp}\\tau}x_{hp}(t)+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}e^{-A_{hp}\\eta}B_{hp}u(t+\\eta)d\\eta. \n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\n\n\\begin{assumption}\nThere exist ideal parameters $ K_r^* $ and $ K_x^* $ satisfying the following matching conditions\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e10x}\n\\begin{aligned}\n&A_{hp}+B_{hp}K_r^*K_x^*=A_m\\\\\n&B_{hp}K_r^*=B_m.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\n\\end{assumption} \n\n\n\nBy substituting (\\ref{eq:e9xx}) into (\\ref{eq:e8x}), the human pilot control decision input can be written as \n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e11xxxy}\n\\begin{aligned}\nu(t)&=K_rK_xe^{A_{hp}\\tau}x_{hp}(t)\\\\\n&+K_rK_x\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}e^{-A_{hp}\\eta}B_{hp}u(t+\\eta)d\\eta+K_rr(t).\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nBy defining $ \\theta_x(t) $ and $ \\lambda(t,\\eta) $ as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e11xxxq}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\theta_x(t)&=K_r(t)K_x(t)e^{A_{hp}\\tau},\\\\\n\\lambda(t,\\eta)&=K_r(t)K_x(t)e^{-A_{hp}\\eta}B_{hp},\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\n(\\ref{eq:e11xxxy}) can be rewritten as (see fig. \\ref{fig:f1-2})\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e11xxx}\n\\begin{aligned}\nu(t)=\\theta_x(t)x_{hp}(t)+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\lambda(t,\\eta)u(t+\\eta)d\\eta+K_r(t)r(t).\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nThe ideal values of $ \\theta_x $ and $ \\lambda $ can be obtained as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e11xxxxx}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\theta_x^*&=K_r^*K_x^*e^{A_{hp}\\tau}\\\\ \n\\lambda^*(\\eta)&=K_r^*K_x^*e^{-A_{hp}\\eta}B_{hp}.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nSince $ A_{hp} $ and $ B_{hp} $ are unknown, $ \\theta_x $ and $ \\lambda $ need to be estimated. The closed loop dynamics can be obtained using (\\ref{eq:e5x}) and (\\ref{eq:e11xxx}) as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e11xxxx}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{x}_{hp}(t)&=A_{hp}x_{hp}(t)+B_{hp}\\theta_x(t-\\tau)x_{hp}(t-\\tau)\\\\ &+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}B_{hp}\\lambda(t-\\tau,\\eta)u(t+\\eta-\\tau)d\\eta\\\\ &+B_{hp}K_rr(t-\\tau),\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\n\nDefining the deviations of the adaptive parameters from their ideal values as $ \\tilde{\\theta}_x=\\theta_x-\\theta_x^* $ and $ \\tilde{\\lambda}=\\lambda-\\lambda^* $, and adding and subtracting $ A_mx_{hp}(t) $ to (\\ref{eq:e11xxxx}), and using (\\ref{eq:e10x}), we obtain that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e12xxz}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{x}_{hp}(t)&=A_mx_{hp}(t)-B_{hp}K_r^*K_x^*x_{hp}(t)\\\\ &+B_{hp}K_r(t-\\tau)K_x(t-\\tau)\\Big(e^{A_{hp}\\tau}x_{hp}(t-\\tau)\\\\ &+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}e^{-A_{hp}\\eta}B_{hp}u(t+\\eta-\\tau)d\\eta \\Big)\\\\ &+B_{hp}K_r(t-\\tau)r(t-\\tau).\\\\\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\n Using (\\ref{eq:e9xx}), (\\ref{eq:e12xxz}) is rewritten as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e12xx}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{x}_{hp}(t)&=A_mx_{hp}(t)-B_{hp}K_r^*K_x^*x_{hp}(t)\\\\ &+B_{hp}K_r(t-\\tau)K_x(t-\\tau)x_{hp}(t)\\\\ &+B_{hp}K_r(t-\\tau)r(t-\\tau).\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nDefining the tracking error as $ e(t)=x_{hp}-x_{m} $, and subtracting (\\ref{eq:e7x}) from (\\ref{eq:e12xx}), and using (\\ref{eq:e10x}), and following a similar procedure given in \\cite{NarAnn12}, it is obtained that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e12xxxz}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{e}(t)&=\\dot{x}_{hp}-\\dot{x}_{m}\\\\\n&=A_me(t)-B_{hp}K_r^*K_x^*x_{hp}(t)\\\\ &+B_{hp}K_r(t-\\tau)K_x(t-\\tau)x_{hp}(t)\\\\ &+B_{hp}(K_r(t-\\tau)-K_r^*)r(t-\\tau)\\\\\n&=A_me(t)+\\big( -B_{hp}K_r^*K_x^*\\\\\n&+B_{hp}(K_r^*-K_r^*+K_r(t-\\tau))K_x(t-\\tau)\\big)x_{hp}(t) \n\\\\&+B_{hp}(K_r(t-\\tau)-K_r^*)r(t-\\tau)\\\\\n&=A_me(t)+B_{m}(K_x(t-\\tau)-K_x^*)x_{hp}(t)\\\\\n&+B_{m}({K_r^*}^{-1}K_r(t-\\tau)-1)K_x(t-\\tau)x_{hp}(t)\\\\\n&+B_{m}({K_r^*}^{-1}K_r(t-\\tau)-1)r(t-\\tau)\\\\\n&=A_me(t)+B_{m}(\\tilde{K}_x(t-\\tau)x_{hp}(t)\\\\\n&\\hspace{-0.1cm}+B_{m}({K_r^*}^{-1}-K_r^{-1}(t-\\tau))K_r(t-\\tau)K_x(t-\\tau)x_{hp}(t)\\\\\n&+B_{m}({K_r^*}^{-1}-K_r^{-1}(t-\\tau))K_r(t-\\tau)r(t-\\tau).\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nUsing (\\ref{eq:e9xx}) and defining $ \\Phi={K_r^*}^{-1}-K_r^{-1} $, we can rewrite (\\ref{eq:e12xxxz}) as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e12xxxzz}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{e}(t)&=A_me(t)+{B_mK_r^*}^{-1}(K_r^*K_x(t-\\tau)-K_r^*K_x^*)\\\\\n&\\hspace{-0.1cm}\\times\\Big( e^{A_{hp}\\tau}x_{hp}(t-\\tau)+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}e^{-A_{hp}\\eta}B_{hp}u(t+\\eta-\\tau)d\\eta \\Big)\\\\\n&+B_m\\Phi(t-\\tau)\\Big( K_r(t-\\tau)K_x(t-\\tau)\\Big( e^{A_{hp}\\tau}x_{hp}(t-\\tau)\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}e^{-A_{hp}\\eta}B_{hp}u(t+\\eta-\\tau)d\\eta \\Big)\\\\\n&+K_r(t-\\tau)r(t-\\tau) \\Big).\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nUsing (\\ref{eq:e11xxxxx}) and (\\ref{eq:e12xxxzz}), we obtain that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e12xxxzzz}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{e}(t)&=A_me(t)+B_mK_x(t-\\tau)\\Big( e^{A_{hp}\\tau}x_{hp}(t-\\tau)\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}e^{-A_{hp}\\eta}B_{hp}u(t+\\eta-\\tau)d\\eta \\Big)\\\\\n&-B_m{K_r^*}^{-1}\\Big( \\theta_x^*x_{hp}(t-\\tau)\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\lambda^*(\\eta)u(t+\\eta-\\tau)d\\eta \\Big)\\\\\n&+B_{m}\\Phi(t-\\tau)u(t-\\tau).\\\\\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nUsing (\\ref{eq:e11xxxq}), (\\ref{eq:e12xxxzzz}) can be rewritten as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e12xxxq}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{e}(t)&=A_me(t)+B_m\\Big( \\big( K_r^{-1}(t-\\tau)\\theta_x(t-\\tau)-{K_r^*}^{-1}\\theta_x^*\\big)\\\\\n&\\times x_{hp}(t-\\tau)+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\big( K_r^{-1}(t-\\tau)\\lambda(t-\\tau,\\eta)\\\\\n&-{K_r^*}^{-1}\\lambda^*(\\eta) \\big) u(t+\\eta-\\tau)d\\eta \\Big)\\\\\n&+B_{m}\\Phi(t-\\tau)u(t-\\tau).\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nDefining $ \\theta_1=K_r^{-1}\\theta_x $ and $ \\lambda_1=K_r^{-1}\\lambda $, and using their deviations from their ideal values, $ \\tilde{\\theta}_1=\\theta_1-\\theta_1^* $ and $ \\tilde{\\lambda}_1=\\lambda_1-\\lambda_1^* $, where \n$ \\theta_1^*={K_r^*}^{-1}\\theta_x^* $ and $ \\lambda_1^*={K_r^*}^{-1}\\lambda^* $, (\\ref{eq:e12xxxq}) can be rewritten as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e12xxx}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{e}(t)&=A_me(t)+B_{m}\\tilde{\\theta}_1(t-\\tau)x_{hp}(t-\\tau)\\\\ &+B_m\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\tilde{\\lambda}_1(t-\\tau,\\eta)u(t+\\eta-\\tau)d\\eta \\\\ \n&+B_{m}\\Phi(t-\\tau)u(t-\\tau).\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nThe following lemma will be necessary to prove the main theorem of this article.\n\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{lem1}\nSuppose that the continuous function $ u(t) $ is given as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e21xx}\n\\begin{aligned}\nu(t)=f(t)+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\lambda(t,\\eta)u(t+\\eta)d\\eta,\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nwhere $ u,f: [t_0-\\tau,\\infty]\\rightarrow R $, and $ \\lambda:[t_0, \\infty)\\times [-\\tau, 0]\\rightarrow R $. Then\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e22xx}\n\\begin{aligned}\n|u(t)|\\leq 2(\\bar{f}+c_0c_1)e^{c_0^2(t-t')},\\ \\forall t_j'\\geq t_i',\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nif constants $ t_i',\\bar{f}, c_0, c_1\\in R^+ $ exist such that $ |f(t)|\\leq \\bar{f} $, \n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e23xx}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\lambda^2(t,\\eta)d\\eta\\leq c_0^2 \\ \\ for\\  t\\in [t_i',t_j'),\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nand\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e24xx}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}u^2(t+\\eta)d\\eta\\leq c_1^2 \\ \\ \\forall\nt\\leq t_i'.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\n\\end{lemma}\n\\begin{proof}\nThe proof of Lemma \\ref{lem1} can be found in \\cite{YilAnn10}.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{thm1}\nGiven the initial conditions $ \\tilde{\\theta}_1(\\xi)$, $ \\tilde{\\lambda}_1(\\xi,\\eta) $, $ \\Phi(\\xi) $ and $ x_{hp}(\\xi) $ for $ \\xi\\in [-\\tau, 0] $, and $ u(\\zeta) $ for $ \\zeta\\in[-2\\tau,0] $, there exists a $ \\tau^* $ such that for all $ \\tau\\in[0,\\tau^*] $, the controller (\\ref{eq:e11xxx}) with the adaptive laws\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:14thm}\n\\dot{{\\theta}}_1^T(t)=-x_{hp}(t-\\tau)e(t)^TPB_{m},\n\\end{equation} \n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:15thm}\n\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t)=-u(t-\\tau)e(t)^TPB_{m},\\\\\n\\end{equation} \n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:16thm}\n\\dot{\\lambda}_1^T(t,\\eta)=-u(t+\\eta-\\tau)e(t)^TPB_{m},\n\\end{equation} \nwhere $ P $ is the symmetric positive definite matrix satisfying\nthe Lyapunov equation $ A_m^TP +P A_m = -Q $ for a symmetric\npositive definite matrix $ Q $, which can be employed to obtain controller parameters using $ \\dot{K}_r=\\text{Proj}(K_r\\dot{\\Phi}K_r) $, $\\theta_x(t)=K_r(t)\\theta_1(t) $ and $ \\lambda(t)=K_r(t)\\lambda_1(t) $, make the pilot neuromuscular and plant aggregate system (\\ref{eq:e5x}) follow the crossover reference model (\\ref{eq:e7x}) asymptotically, i.e, $ lim_{t\\to \\infty} x_{hp}(t)=x_m(t) $, while keeping all the signals bounded.\n\\end{theorem}\n\\begin{proof}\nConsider a Lyapunov-Krasovskii functional \\cite{YilAnn10}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e12x}\n\\begin{aligned}\nV(t)&=e^TPe+\\text{tr}({\\Phi}^T(t){\\Phi}(t))+\\text{tr}(\\tilde{\\theta}_1^T(t)\\tilde{\\theta}_1(t))\\\\ &+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\int_{t+v}^{t}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(\\xi)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(\\xi))d\\xi dv\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\int_{t+v}^{t}\\text{tr}(\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(\\xi)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(\\xi))d\\xi dv\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\tilde{\\lambda}_1^T(t,\\eta)\\tilde{\\lambda}_1(t,\\eta))d\\eta\\\\ &+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\int_{t+v}^{t}\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(\\xi,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(\\xi,\\eta))d\\eta d\\xi dv.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nThe derivative of $ V(t) $ can be calculated as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e14x}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{V}(t)&=\\dot{e}^T(t)^TPe(t)+e^T(t)P\\dot{e}(t)+2\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t)\\tilde{\\theta}_1(t))\\\\ &+2\\text{tr}(\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t){\\Phi}(t))+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}2\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t,\\eta)\\tilde{\\lambda}_1(t,\\eta))d\\eta\\\\ \n&+\\tau \\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t))-\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t+v)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t+v))dv\\\\ \n&+\\tau\\text{tr}(\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t))-\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t+v)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t+v))dv\\\\\n&+\\tau\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t,\\eta))d\\eta\\\\\n&-\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t+v,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t+v,\\eta))d\\eta dv.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nSubstituting (\\ref{eq:e12xxx}) into (\\ref{eq:e14x}) and using the Lyapunov equation $ A_m^TP +P A_m = -Q $, it is obtained that\n\\begin{equation\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{V}(t)&=-{e}^T(t)Qe(t)+2e^T(t)PB_m\\tilde{\\theta}_1(t-\\tau)x_{hp}(t-\\tau)\\\\\n&+2e^T(t)PB_m\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\tilde{\\lambda}_1(t-\\tau,\\eta)u(t+\\eta-\\tau)d\\eta\\\\\n&+2e^T(t)PB_m\\Phi(t-\\tau)u(t-\\tau)\\\\\n&+2\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t)\\tilde{\\theta}_1(t))+2\\text{tr}(\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t){\\Phi}(t)) \\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}2\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t,\\eta)\\tilde{\\lambda}_1(t,\\eta))d\\eta\\\\ \n&+\\tau \\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t))-\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t+v)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t+v))dv\\\\ \n&+\\tau\\text{tr}(\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t))-\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t+v)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t+v))dv\\notag\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e14xx}\n\\begin{aligned}\n&+\\tau\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t,\\eta))d\\eta\\\\\n&-\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t+v,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t+v,\\eta))d\\eta dv.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nUsing $ g(t)-g(t-\\tau)=\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\dot{g}(t+v)dv $, (\\ref{eq:e14xx}) can be rewritten as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e14xxxx}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{V}(t)&=-{e}^T(t)Qe(t)\\\\\n&+2\\text{tr}\\Big(x_{hp}(t-\\tau)e^T(t)PB_m\\tilde{\\theta}_1(t)+\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t)\\tilde{\\theta}_1(t)\\Big)\\\\\n&+2\\text{tr}\\Big(u(t-\\tau)e^T(t)PB_m\\Phi(t)+\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t){\\Phi}(t)\\Big)\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}2\\text{tr}\\Big(u(t+\\eta-\\tau)e^T(t)PB_m\\tilde{\\lambda}_1(t,\\eta)\\\\ &+\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t,\\eta)\\tilde{\\lambda}_1(t,\\eta)\\Big)d\\eta\\\\\n&-2e^T(t)PB_m(\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t+v)dv)x_{hp}(t-\\tau)\\\\\n&-2e^T(t)PB_m(\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t+v)dv)u(t-\\tau)\\\\\n&-2e^T(t)PB_m\\Big(\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}(\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t+v,\\eta)dv)\\\\\n&\\times u(t+\\eta-\\tau)d\\eta\\Big)\\\\\n&+\\tau \\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t))-\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t+v)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t+v))dv\\\\ \n&+\\tau\\text{tr}(\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t))-\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t+v)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t+v))dv\\\\\n&+\\tau\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t,\\eta))d\\eta\\\\\n&-\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t+v,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t+v,\\eta))d\\eta dv.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nBy substituting (\\ref{eq:14thm})-(\\ref{eq:16thm}) into (\\ref{eq:e14xxxx}), it is obtained that\n\\begin{equation\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{V}(t)&=-{e}^T(t)Qe(t)\\\\\n&-2\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(x_{hp}(t-\\tau)e(t)^TPB_{m}\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t+v))dv\\\\ &-2\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(u(t-\\tau)e(t)^TPB_{m}\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t+v))dv\\\\\n&-2\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(u(t+\\eta-\\tau)e(t)^TPB_{m}\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t+v,\\eta))dvd\\eta\\\\\n&+\\tau \\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t))-\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t+v)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t+v))dv\\\\ \n&+\\tau\\text{tr}(\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t))-\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t+v)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t+v))dv\\\\\n&+\\tau\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t,\\eta))d\\eta\\\\\n&-\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t+v,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t+v,\\eta))d\\eta dv\\notag \n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e17x}\n\\begin{aligned}\n&=-{e}^T(t)Qe(t)+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}\\Big(2\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t+v)\\\\\n&+\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t) -\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t+v)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t+v)\\Big)dv\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}\\Big(2\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t+v)+\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t)\\\\\n&-\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t+v)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t+v)\\Big)dv\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}\\Big(2\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t+v,\\eta)\\\\\n&+\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t,\\eta)-\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t+v,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t+v,\\eta)\\Big)d\\eta dv.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nUsing the trace property $ \\text{tr}(A+B)=\\text{tr}(A)+\\text{tr}(B) $, and the algebraic inequality $ a^2\\geq 2ab-b^2 $ for two scalars $ a $ and $ b $, it can be shown that $ \\text{tr}(2A^TB+A^TA-B^TB)\\leq 2\\text{tr}(A^TA) $. Using these inequalities, (\\ref{eq:e17x}) can be rewritten as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e17xx}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{V}(t)&\\leq-{e}^T(t)Qe(t)+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}2\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t))dv\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}2\\text{tr}(\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t))dv\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}2\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t,\\eta))d\\eta dv.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nBy substituting (\\ref{eq:14thm})-(\\ref{eq:16thm}) into (\\ref{eq:e17xx}), and using the trace operator property $ \\text{tr}(AB)=\\text{tr}(BA) $ for two square matrices $ A $ and $ B $, (\\ref{eq:e17xx}) can be rewritten as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e18x}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{V}(t)&\\leq-{e}^T(t)Qe(t)\\\\\n&+2\\tau \\text{tr}\\big(e(t)x_{hp}^T(t-\\tau)x_{hp}(t-\\tau)e(t)^TPB_{m}B_{m}^TP\\big)\\\\ \n&+2\\tau \\text{tr}\\big(e(t)u^T(t-\\tau)u(t-\\tau)e(t)^TPB_{m}B_{m}^TP\\big)\\\\\n&+2\\tau\\int_{-\\tau}^{0} \\text{tr}\\big(e(t)u^T(t+\\eta-\\tau)u(t+\\eta-\\tau)e(t)^T\\\\\n&\\times PB_{m}B_{m}^TP\\big)d\\eta.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nUsing $ \\text{tr}(AB)\\leq \\text{tr}(A)\\text{tr}(B) $ for two positive semidefinite matrices $ A $ and $ B $, and $ \\text{tr}(X^TX)=||X||_F^2 $ for a matrix $ X $, an upper bound for (\\ref{eq:e18x}) can be derived as \n\\begin{equation\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{V}(t)&\\leq-{e}^T(t)Qe(t)\\\\\n&+2\\tau \\text{tr}(e(t)x_{hp}^T(t-\\tau)x_{hp}(t-\\tau)e(t)^T)\\text{tr}(PB_{m}B_{m}^TP)\\\\ \n&+2\\tau \\text{tr}\\big(e(t)u^T(t-\\tau)u(t-\\tau)e(t)^T\\big)\\text{tr}\\big(PB_{m}B_{m}^TP\\big)\\\\\n&+2\\tau\\int_{-\\tau}^{0} \\text{tr}\\big(e(t) u^T(t-\\tau+\\eta)u(t-\\tau+\\eta)e(t)^T\\big)\\\\\n&\\times \\text{tr}\\big(PB_{m}B_{m}^TP\\big)d\\eta\\\\\n&\\leq -\\lambda_{min}(Q)||e(t)||^2\\\\\n&+2\\tau||x_{hp}(t-\\tau)e(t)^T||_F^2||B_{m}^TP||_F^2\\\\\n&+2\\tau ||u(t-\\tau)e(t)^T||_F^2||B_{m}^TP||_F^2\\\\\n&+2\\tau\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}||u(t+\\eta-\\tau)e(t)^T||_F^2||B_{m}^TP||_F^2d\\eta \\notag\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e19x}\n\\begin{aligned}\n&\\leq -\\lambda_{min}(Q)||e(t)||^2\\\\\n&+2\\tau||x_{hp}(t-\\tau)||^2||e(t)||^2||B_{m}^TP||_F^2\\\\\n&+2\\tau ||u(t-\\tau)||^2||e(t)||^2||B_{m}^TP||_F^2\\\\\n&+2\\tau\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}||u(t+\\eta-\\tau)||^2||e(t)||^2||B_{m}^TP||_F^2d\\eta\\\\\n&=||B_{m}^TP||_F^2||e(t)||^2\\Big( -\\frac{\\lambda_{min}(Q)}{||B_{m}^TP||_F^2}\\\\\n&+2\\tau\\big( ||x_{hp}(t-\\tau)||^2+||u(t-\\tau)||^2\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}||u(t+\\eta-\\tau)||^2d\\eta \\big) \\Big).\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nDefining $ q\\equiv \\frac{\\lambda_{min}(Q)}{||B_{m}^TP||_F^2} $, the inequality\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e20x}\n\\begin{aligned}\nq&-2\\tau\\big( ||x_{hp}(t-\\tau)||^2+||u(t-\\tau)||^2+\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}||u(t+\\eta-\\tau)||^2d\\eta \\big)> 0.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nneeds to be satisfied for the non-positiveness of $ \\dot{V} $.\nAssuming that $ x_{hp} $ and $ u $ are bounded in the interval $ [t_0-2\\tau,t_0) $, the rest of the proof is divided into the following four steps:\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Step 1} In this step, the negative semi-definiteness of the Lyapunov-Krasovskii functional's (\\ref{eq:e12x}) time derivative in the interval $ [t_0-\\tau,t_0) $ is shown which leads to the boundedness of the the signals in this interval. In addition, an upper bound for $ u $ in the interval $ [t_0-2\\tau,t_0) $ is given.\n\nSuppose that\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\sup_{\\xi\\in[t_0-\\tau, t_0)}&||x_{hp}(\\xi)||^2\\leq \\gamma_1\\\\\n\\sup_{\\xi\\in[t_0-2\\tau, t_0)}&||u(\\xi)||^2\\leq \\gamma_2\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation} \nfor some positive $ \\gamma_1, \\gamma_2$, and a $ \\tau_1 $ is given such that\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n2\\tau_1(\\gamma_1+\\gamma_2+\\tau_1\\gamma_2)<q.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation} \nThen the following inequality is satisfied:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\nq&-2\\tau\\big( ||x_{hp}(\\xi-\\tau)||^2+||u(\\xi-\\tau)||^2+\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}||u(\\xi+\\eta-\\tau)||^2d\\eta \\big)> 0,\\\\ &\\forall \\xi\\in[t_0,t_0+\\tau), \\forall\\tau\\in[0, \\tau_1].\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nIt follows that $ V(t) $, defined in (\\ref{eq:e12x}), is non-increasing for $ t\\in[t_0, t_0+\\tau) $. Thus, we have\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\lambda_{min}(P)||e(\\xi)||^2\\leq e(\\xi)^TPe(\\xi)\\leq V(t_0),\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nwhich leads to\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n||x_{hp}(\\xi)||-||x_m(\\xi)||\\leq ||e(\\xi)||\\leq \\sqrt{\\frac{V(t_0)}{\\lambda_{min}(P)}}.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nThen, we have\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n||x_{hp}(\\xi)||\\leq\\sqrt{\\frac{V(t_0)}{\\lambda_{min}(P)}}+||x_{m}(\\xi)||,\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nfor $ \\forall \\xi\\in[t_0,t_0+\\tau) $.\nWe also have the inequality\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:x47}\n&||{\\Phi}(\\xi)||^2\\leq V(t_0)\\implies ||{K_r^*}^{-1}-K_r^{-1}(\\xi)||^2\\leq V(t_0)\\notag\\\\\n&\\implies ||K_r^{-1}(\\xi)||\\leq \\sqrt{V(t_0)}+||{K_r^*}^{-1}||.\n\\end{align}\nfor $ \\forall \\xi\\in[t_0,t_0+\\tau) $.\nIt is noted that the boundedness of $ \\Phi={K_r^*}^{-1}-K_r^{-1} $ does not guarantee the boundedness of $ \\tilde{K}_r $. In order to guarantee the boundedness of $ \\tilde{K}_r $ independent of the boundedness of $ \\Phi $, the projection algorithm \\cite{Eug13} is employed as \n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e19xzzz}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{K}_r=\\text{Proj}\\big(K_r,-K_rB_m^TPe(t)u^T(t-\\tau)K_r\\big),\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nwith an upper bound $ K_{max} $, that is $ ||{K}_r||\\leq K_{max} $. \nThus, a lower bound for $ ||K_r^{-1}(\\xi)|| $ can be calculated using the following algebraic manipulations: \n \\begin{align}\\label{eq:47x}\n &K_r(\\xi)K_r^{-1}(\\xi)=I\\Rightarrow ||K_r(\\xi)K_r^{-1}(\\xi)||=1\\notag \\\\\n &\\Rightarrow 1\\leq ||K_r(\\xi)||||K_r^{-1}(\\xi)||\\leq K_{max}||K_r^{-1}(\\xi)||\\notag \\\\\n & \\Rightarrow \\frac{1}{K_{max}}\\leq ||K_r^{-1}(\\xi)||.\n \\end{align}\nDefining $ k_1=\\sqrt{V(t_0)}+||{K_r^*}^{-1}|| $, and using (\\ref{eq:x47}), it is obtained that\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:47}\n\\frac{1}{K_{max}}\\leq ||K_r^{-1}(\\xi)||\\leq k_1,\\ \\ \\ \\xi\\in[t_0,t_0+\\tau).\n\\end{align}\nTherefore, $ K_r $ is always bounded and $ K_r^{-1}(\\xi) $ is bounded for $ \\forall \\xi\\in[t_0,t_0+\\tau) $.\n\nFurthermore, using the definitions of $ \\theta_x, \\theta_1, \\lambda,\\lambda_1 $ given in Theorem \\ref{thm1}, and the non-increasing Lyapunov functional (\\ref{eq:e12x}), it can be concluded that\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:48}\n||\\tilde{\\theta}_1(\\xi)||_F^2\\leq V(t_0)&\\implies ||\\tilde{K}_r^{-1}(\\xi)\\tilde{\\theta}_x(\\xi)||_F^2\\leq V(t_0),\n\\end{align}\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:49}\n\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}||\\tilde{\\lambda}_1(\\xi,\\eta)||_F^2 &d\\eta \\leq V(t_0)\\\\\n&\\implies \\int_{-\\tau}^{0}||K_r^{-1}(\\xi)\\tilde{\\lambda}(\\xi,\\eta)||_F^2d\\eta\\leq V(t_0),\\notag\n\\end{align} \nfor $ \\forall \\xi\\in[t_0,t_0+\\tau) $. Using (\\ref{eq:48}) and (\\ref{eq:49}), it can be obtained that\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n||\\tilde{\\theta}_x(\\xi)||_F^2&\\leq K_{max}^2V(t_0),\\\\\n\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}||\\tilde{\\lambda}(\\xi,\\eta)||_F^2d\\eta&\\leq K_{max}^2V(t_0).\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nfor $ \\forall \\xi\\in[t_0,t_0+\\tau) $.\n\nTo simplify the notation, we define\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\nI_0\\equiv \\text{max}&\\Big( \\sqrt{\\frac{V(t_0)}{\\lambda_{min}(P)}}+\\sup_{[t_0,t_0+\\tau)}||x_{m}(\\xi)||\\\\ &, K_{max}\\sqrt{V(t_0)}, K_{max}^2V(t_0) \\Big),\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nwhere $ R_{max} $ is the upper bound of the reference input $ r(t) $.\n\nAn upper bound on the control signal $ u(t) $ for $ t\\in[t_0, t_0+\\tau) $ can be derived by using Lemma \\ref{lem1} and (\\ref{eq:e11xxx}). In particular, setting $ t_i'=t_0 $, $ t_j'=t_0+\\tau $, $ c_0^2=V(t_0) $, we obtain that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e50}\n\\begin{aligned}\n|u(\\xi)|\\leq 2\\Big( \\bar{f}+\\big( \\int_{-\\tau}^{0}u^2(t_0+\\eta)d\\eta \\big)^{1\/2}I_0 \\Big)e^{I_0\\tau},\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nfor $ \\forall \\xi\\in[t_0,t_0+\\tau) $, where $ \\bar{f} $, which is the upper bound of $ \\theta_x(t)x_{hp}(t)+K_r(t)r(t) $, depends only on $ I_0 $. Defining $ g(\\gamma_2, I_0, \\tau)\\equiv 2(\\bar{f}+\\gamma_2I_0\\sqrt{\\tau})e^{I_0\\tau} $, (\\ref{eq:e50}) can be rewritten as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n|u(\\xi)|\\leq g(\\gamma_2, I_0, \\tau),\\ \\forall \\xi\\in[t_0,t_0+\\tau).\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\n\n\nThe rest of the proof is similar to the one given in \\cite{YilAnn10}. Below, a summary of the next steps are given.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Step 2} A delay range $ [0, \\tau_2] $ is found that satisfies the condition (\\ref{eq:e20x}) over the interval $ [t_0, t_0+2\\tau) $ as\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:step2}\n\t2\\tau_2\\left( I_0^2+\\left( max\\left( \\gamma_2,g\\left( \\gamma_2,I_0,\\tau_2 \\right)  \\right)  \\right)^2 (1+\\tau_2) \\right) < q,\n\\end{align} \nwhich leads to $ ||x_{hp}(\\xi)||<I_0 $, $ \\forall\\xi\\in[t_0, t_0+2\\tau) $, $ \\forall \\tau\\in [0, \\bar{\\tau}_2] $, $ \\bar{\\tau}_2=min\\{\\tau_1, \\tau_2\\} $.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Step 3} It is shown in this step that the bound on $ u $ over the interval $ [t_0, t_0+\\tau) $ depends only on $ A_{hp} $, $ B_{hp} $, $ T $ and $ \\tau $, where $ T $ is a value between $ t_0 $ and $ \\tau $. Denoting this upper bound as $ U(I_0) $, we have $ |u(t)|\\leq U(I_0) $, $ t\\in[t_0,t_0+\\tau) $.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Step 4} Using the calculated upper bound for $ u $ in the previous step, a delay range $ [0, \\tau_2] $ is found that satisfies the condition \n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:step4}\n2\\tau_3\\left( I_0^2+\\left( max\\left( U(I_0),g\\left( U(I_0),I_0,\\tau_3 \\right)  \\right)  \\right)^2 (1+\\tau_3) \\right) < q.\n\\end{align} \nFor $ \\tau^*=min(\\bar{\\tau_2}, \\tau_3) $, $ ||x_{hp}(\\xi)||\\leq I_0 $ and $ |u(\\xi)|\\leq U(I_0) $ for all $ \\xi \\in [t_0, t_0+\\tau] $, $ \\forall \\tau\\in [0, \\tau^*] $.\n\n\n\nThe above four steps show that $ x_{hp}(\\xi) $ and $ u(\\xi) $ are bounded for $ \\forall\\xi\\in[t_0, t_0+k\\tau] $, for $ k=1 $ and $ \\tau  \\in (0, \\tau^*]$. By assuming that $ x_{hp} $ and $ u $ are bounded for a given $ k $, the rest of the proof consists of showing that the boundedness of these variables hold for $ k+1 $. Using this assumption and repeating steps 1-4, which leads to satisfying (\\ref{eq:step4}), we conclude that the Lyapunov function is non-increasing and $ ||x_{hp}(\\xi)|| \\leq I_0 $, and $ |u(\\xi)|\\leq g(U(I_0),I_0,\\tau) $ for $ \\xi\\in [t_0, t_0+(k+1)\\tau] $, $ \\tau \\leq \\tau^* \\leq \\tau_3 $.\nThis completes the boundedness proof using induction.\nThen, using Barbalat's Lemma, it can be shown that the error between the human-in-the-loop system output $ x_{hp} $ and the reference model output $ x_m $ converges to zero.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Experimental Results}\\label{sec:experiment}\n\\subsection{Experimental environment}\n\nIn order to test the proposed adaptive human model against data, an experimental setup consisting of a Logitech Extreme 3D Pro joystick and a Toshiba Portege-Z30-B laptop with Intel Core i7 CPU is used (see Fig. \\ref{fig:setup}). \n\n\n\n\nThe tracking task is performed by an operator monitoring the compensatory display, which provides information about the error between the target to be followed, and follower, which is the output of the plant (see Fig. \\ref{fig:attitudeind}). The operator provides the input $ u_p $ (see Fig. \\ref{fig:f1-2}) through the joystick, which is fed to the plant using MATLAB SIMULINK (R2018b). In return, the response of the plant is calculated and shown on the laptop screen in real-time.\n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=8.5cm]{setup.jpg}    %\n\t\t\\caption{Experimental setup.} \n\t\t\\label{fig:setup}\n\t\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=8.5cm]{attitudeindx.jpg}    %\n\t\t\\caption{Compensatory display.} \n\t\t\\label{fig:attitudeind}\n\t\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThe reference signal $ r(t) $ is generated as a sum of the sinusoids with frequencies of 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 1, 1.3 and 1.5 rad\/s with the same amplitude of 0.2 and without phase shift.\n\n\nThree classes of plant models, having zero, first and second order transfer functions are used in the experiments. In this section, we first give a detailed analysis of the first order plant case and then provide a summary of the results of the other cases in tables. The nominal\nfirst order plant used in the experiments is $ Y_p(s)=\\frac{4}{s+1} $, which is similar to the one used in \\cite{Hess09}. The uncertainty is introduced to the plant model by modifying the gain and the pole location by $ 50\\% $ to obtain $ Y_p(s)=\\frac{6}{s+0.5} $. \n\n\n\n\n\nTo form the reference model (\\ref{eq:e7x}), two parameters, namely the crossover frequency and the time-delay, need to be determined. The highest frequency component of the reference signal is $ \\omega_i=1.5 $ rad\/s. Employing Table I for the first order plant $ Y_p $, the crossover frequency is calculated as $ \\omega_c=4.5 $ rad\/s. The delay is determined by using the mean value of the operators' delay, which is $ \\tau=0.3 $ s. Therefore, the closed loop transfer function of the reference model is calculated as\n\t\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e21xq}\n\t\\begin{aligned}\n\tG_{cl}(s)=\\frac{\\frac{4.5}{s}e^{-0.3s}}{1+\\frac{4.5}{s}e^{-0.3 s}}=\\frac{4.5 e^{-0.3 s}}{s+4.5 e^{-0.3 s}}.\n\t\\end{aligned} \n\t\\end{equation}\n\t\n\tSimilar to (\\ref{eq:e21xqqx}), an approximate transfer function is obtained as\n\t\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e21xqq}\n\t\\begin{aligned}\n\t\\hat{G}_{cl}(s)=\\frac{3.881s+24.24}{s^2+0.6834s+24.72}e^{-0.3s}.\n\t\\end{aligned} \n\t\\end{equation}\n\tFigure \\ref{fig:bode1} shows a comparison between (\\ref{eq:e21xq}) and (\\ref{eq:e21xqq}), and demonstrates that the approximation works well for almost all frequencies.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=8.5cm]{bode1-eps-converted-to.pdf}    %\n\t\t\\caption{Bode plot of the reference model and its approximation.} \n\t\t\\label{fig:bode1}\n\t\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\nThe neuromuscular dynamics is taken as $ Y_h(s)=\\frac{s+3}{s+2}e^{-0.3s} $, where the time delay $ \\tau=0.3 $ is the effective time delay, including human decision making delay and neuromuscular lags.\n\n\\begin{remark}\\label{rem3}\n\tIn this paper, we assume that the neuromuscular dynamics are given. The procedure for finding the neuromuscular model can be found in \\cite{Mag71, Van04}.  \n\\end{remark}\n\n\\subsection{The behavior of the adaptive model}\n\n\n The error between the plant output and the reference model is illustrated in Figure \\ref{fig:error}. The effect of uncertainty injection can be seen at $ t=70 $ s. Figures \\ref{fig:theta}, \\ref{fig:lambda}, and \\ref{fig:Kr} illustrates the adaptive human model parameters. To understand the amount of agreement between these results and the human experimental trials, visual and statistical analyses are provided in the following sections.\n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=8.5cm]{error-eps-converted-to.pdf}    %\n\t\t\\caption{Time evolution of the error between the output of the plant controlled by the adaptive model, and the reference model output.} \n\t\t\\label{fig:error}\n\t\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=8.5cm]{theta-eps-converted-to.pdf}    %\n\t\t\\caption{Evolution of human adaptive parameters $ \\theta_{x1} $ and $ \\theta_{x2} $.} \n\t\t\\label{fig:theta}\n\t\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=8.5cm]{lambda-eps-converted-to.pdf}    %\n\t\t\\caption{Evolution of human adaptive parameters $ \\lambda_i,\\ i=1, 2, 3 $ and $ 4 $.} \n\t\t\\label{fig:lambda}\n\t\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=8.5cm]{Kr-eps-converted-to.pdf}    %\n\t\t\\caption{Evolution of human adaptive parameter $ K_r $.} \n\t\t\\label{fig:Kr}\n\t\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Participants and experimental procedure\n\nEleven participants (6 women and 5 men) from the graduate and undergraduate student pools of Bilkent University participated the experiment. All of the participants read and signed the ``informed consent to participate\" document. This study is approved by Bilkent University Ethics Committee for research with human participants. Before the experiments, to familiarize the participants with the experimental setup, and its environment, consisting of the display and the joystick, each participant was asked to follow a given reference via joystick inputs for the duration of $ 200 $ seconds. To prevent learning during these warm-up runs, the reference input, uncertainty injection times and the uncertainty types were chosen differently from the ones used in the real experimental runs. Specifically, the reference signal for the warm-up runs consisted of the sum of the sinusoids with frequencies of $ 0.1, 0.5, 1 $ and $ 1.5 $ rad\/s with the same amplitude of $ 0.2 $ and without phase shift. The plant dynamics at the beginning of the warm-up run was $ \\frac{2}{s^2+3s+2} $. At $ t = 45 $ s, the dynamics changed to $ \\frac{5}{s+2} $ in a step like manner (suddenly). It changed to $ \\frac{3}{s+1} $ at around $ t = 90 $ s using a sigmoid function (gradually), and again changed to a zero order dynamics at $ 150 $ s (suddenly). \n\n\n\n\n\n  \n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{A visual analysis of the adaptive model}\n\nLet $ f_{p1}(t), f_{p2}(t), ..., f_{pk}(t) $ be the plant outputs when participants $ p1, p2, ..., pk $ are in the loop, respectively. For each $ f_{pi}(t) $, $ t=T_1, T_2, ..., T_N $, where $ T_j, j=1, 2, ..., N $, represents a sampling instant. At each sampling instant $ T_j $, the minimum, the maximum and the mean values of the plant outputs when participants are in the loop can be obtained as\n\\begin{align}\nf_{p_{min}}(T_j)&=\\min_{i=1, 2, ..., k}f_{pi}(T_j),\\ \\ j=1, ..., N,\\label{eq:estat4} \\\\\nf_{p_{max}}(T_j)&=\\max_{i=1, 2, ..., k}f_{pi}(T_j),\\ \\ j=1, ..., N, \\label{eq:estat5} \\\\\nf_{p_{mean}}(T_j)&=\\frac{\\sum_{i=1}^{k}f_{pi}(T_j)}{k}, \\ \\ j=1, ..., N,\n\\end{align} \n where $ k=11 $ is the number of participants. Figure \\ref{fig:minmaxadapt} shows the evolutions of  $ f_{p_{min}} $ and $ f_{p_{max}} $, together with $ f_{ad}(t)\\in \\mathbb{R}^N $, which is the plant output when adaptive human model is in the loop, where $ t= T_1, T_2, ..., T_N $. It is seen that the plant output when adaptive human model is in the loop almost always stays between the maximum and the minimum values of the plant output when participants are in the loop. Furthermore, Figure \\ref{fig:meanadapt} demonstrates that $ f_{p_{mean}} $ and $ f_{ad} $ evolve reasonably close to each other.\n  \n\n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=9.0cm]{minmaxadapt1-eps-converted-to.pdf}    %\n\t\t\\caption{Plant output, $ x_{hp} $, when adaptive human model is in the loop vs. minimum and maximum values of plant output when participants are in the loop.} \n\t\t\\label{fig:minmaxadapt}\n\t\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=9.0cm]{meanadapt1-eps-converted-to.pdf}    %\n\t\t\\caption{Plant output, $ x_{hp} $, when adaptive human model is in the loop vs. mean value of plant output when participants are in the loop.} \n\t\t\\label{fig:meanadapt}\n\t\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Statistical analysis of the adaptive model using confidence intervals}\n\nThe difference between the plant output when the $ i^{\\text{th}} $ participant is in the loop and when the adaptive human model is in the loop is defined as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:estat1}\n\\begin{aligned}\nd_i\\equiv f_{ad}-f_{pi}, \\ \\ i=1, ..., k,\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nwhere $ d_i=[d_i(T_1), ..., d_i(T_N)]^T\\in \\mathbb{R}^N, i=1, ..., k $, is called the $ i^{\\text{th}} $ difference. The mean and the standard deviation of the $ i $th difference is obtained as\n\\begin{align}\n\\bar{d}_i&= \\frac{\\sum_{j=1}^{N}d_i(T_j)}{N}, \\ \\ i=1, ..., k,\\label{eq:estat2} \\\\\ns_i&=\\sqrt{\\frac{\\sum_{j=1}^{N}(d_i(T_j)-\\bar{d}_i)^2}{N-1}}, \\ \\ i=1, ..., k.\\label{eq:estat3}\n\\end{align}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=9.0cm]{normalscores-eps-converted-to.pdf}    %\n\t\t\\caption{Normal-scores plot} \n\t\t\\label{fig:normalscores}\n\t\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThe normal-scores plot for $ \\bar{d}_i $ is given in Figure \\ref{fig:normalscores}. The figure does not show any significant deviation from the normal distribution. This shows us that the data do not suggest that the \\textit{population} of mean-errors, $ \\bar{d}_i $, deviates significantly from normal distribution. The \\textit{sample} mean and the \\textit{sample} standard deviation of $ \\bar{d}_i $'s can be obtained as\n\\begin{align}\n\\bar{d}&=\\frac{\\sum_{i=1}^{k}\\bar{d}_i}{k}, \\label{eq:estat6}\\\\\ns&=\\sqrt{\\frac{\\sum_{i=1}^{k}(\\bar{d}_i-\\bar{d})^2}{k-1}}. \\label{eq:estat7}\n\\end{align}\nLet $ \\mu_0 $ be the mean value of the \\textit{population} of mean-errors, given as\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:estat8}\n\\mu_0\\equiv \\frac{\\sum_{i=1}^{K}\\bar{d}_i}{K},\n\\end{align}\nwhere $ K $ is the \\textit{population} size. Since normal-scores plot, given in Figure \\ref{fig:normalscores}, didn't provide any counter evidence, assuming that the distribution of the set of data $ \\{\\bar{d}_1, ..., \\bar{d}_K\\} $ is normal with mean $ \\mu_0 $, $ \\mu_0 $ satisfies the following probability \\cite{Joh19}\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:estat9}\nP\\left[\\bar{d}-t_{\\alpha\/2}\\frac{s}{\\sqrt{k}}<\\mu_0<\\bar{d}+t_{\\alpha\/2}\\frac{s}{\\sqrt{k}} \\right]=1-\\alpha,\n\\end{align}\nwhere $ \\bar{d} $ and $ s $ are obtained from (\\ref{eq:estat6}-\\ref{eq:estat7}), $ k $ is the number of participants, $ \\alpha $ is the significance level, and $ t_{\\alpha\/2} $ is the upper $ \\alpha\/2 $ point of the $ t $ distribution with degree of freedom $ k-1 $, which can be obtained from the $ t $-distribution table. Since the number of participants, $ k=11 $, is less than $ 30 $, it is appropriate to use the $ t $-distribution.\nUsing $ \\alpha=0.05 $, obtaining $ t_{\\alpha\/2} $ from the $ t $-distribution table as $ 2.228 $, and calculating $ \\bar{d} $ as $ -0.0068 $ and $ s $ as $ 0.0379 $, it can be concluded using (\\ref{eq:estat9}) that we are $ 95\\% $ confident that $ \\mu_0 $ is in the interval $ (-0.0323, 0.0187) $. This shows that the mean $ \\mu_0 $ of the \\textit{population}'s mean deviation from the adaptive human model is reasonably close to zero. \n\n\n\nSimilarly, the variance, $ \\sigma_0^2 $, of the \\textit{population}'s mean deviation from the adaptive human model satisfies the following probability \n\\cite{Joh19}\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:estat11}\nP\\left[\\frac{(k-1)s^2}{\\chi_{\\alpha\/2}^2}<\\sigma_0^2<\\frac{(k-1)s^2}{\\chi_{1-\\alpha\/2}^2} \\right]=1-\\alpha,\n\\end{align}\nwhere $ \\chi_{\\alpha\/2}^2 $ is the upper $ {\\alpha\/2} $ point of the $ \\chi^2 $ distribution with degree of freedom $ k-1 $ and can be obtained from the $ \\chi^2 $ distribution table. Calculating $ s $ from (\\ref{eq:estat7}), using $ \\alpha = 0.05 $, and obtaining $ \\chi_{\\alpha\/2}^2 $ and $ \\chi_{1-\\alpha\/2}^2 $ from the $ \\chi^2 $ table with $ 10 $ degrees of freedom, it can be concluded using (\\ref{eq:estat11}) that we are $ 95\\% $ confident that $ \\sigma_0 $ is in the interval $ (0.0265,\\ 0.0663) $. This shows that the standard deviation $ \\sigma_0 $ of the \\textit{population}'s mean deviation from the adaptive human model is reasonably small. \n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Statistical analysis of the adaptive model using hypothesis testing}\n\n\n\n\n\nIn this analysis, we test whether the hypothesis ``the mean value of the \\textit{population} mean-errors, or the mean deviations from the adaptive model,\" is zero. In other words, our null hypothesis, $ H_0 $, is given as\n\\begin{align}\nH_0: \\mu_0=0,\n\\end{align}\nwhere $ \\mu_0 $ is defined in (\\ref{eq:estat8}). The alternative hypothesis, $ H_1 $, is given as $ H_1: \\mu\\neq 0 $. Similar to the confidence interval analysis, assuming that $ \\mu_0 $ is the mean of a normally distributed set of data $ \\{\\bar{d}_1, ..., \\bar{d}_K\\} $ where $ K $ is the \\textit{population} size, the hypothesis $ H_0 $ is rejected if,\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:estat10}\n\\left| \\frac{(\\bar{d}-\\mu_0)\\sqrt{k}}{s}\\right| \\geq t_{\\alpha\/2},\n\\end{align}\nwhere $ \\bar{d} $ and $ s $ are obtained from (\\ref{eq:estat6}-\\ref{eq:estat7}), $ k $ is the number of participants and $ t_{\\alpha\/2} $ is the upper $ \\alpha\/2 $ point of the $ t $ distribution with degree of freedom $ k-1 $ \\cite{Joh19}. Using the significance level $ \\alpha=0.05 $ and degree of freedom $ k-1=10 $, obtaining $ t_{0.025}=2.228 $ from the $ t $-distribution table, calculating $ \\bar{d}=-0.0068 $ and $ s=0.038 $ using (\\ref{eq:estat6}) and (\\ref{eq:estat7}), respectively, and substituting $ \\mu_0=0 $ and $ k=11 $, the left hand side of (\\ref{eq:estat10}) can be calculated as $ 0.5935 $, which is less than $ t_{\\alpha\/2} $. Therefore, we cannot reject $ H_0 $. We retain $ H_0 $ and conclude that $ H_1 $ fails to be proved.\n \nSince we are retaining the null hypothesis, we want to minimize the probability $ \\beta $ of incorrectly retaining the null hypothesis. This means that we want our test's power, $ 1-\\beta $, to be large, such as $ 0.95 $. What is the minimum required deviation of the \\textit{population} mean from $ 0 $, represented as $ \\mu_1 $, that would make our test to incorrectly retain the null hypothesis with $ 0.05 $ probability, i.e. $ \\beta=0.05 $? To calculate this, we first write the rejection region, $ R $, using (\\ref{eq:estat10}) as\n\\begin{align}\nR:\\ \\left| \\frac{(\\bar{d}-\\mu_0)\\sqrt{k}}{s}\\right| \\geq t_{\\alpha\/2}\\ \n \\implies R:\\ |\\bar{d}|\\geq 0.0255.\n\\end{align}\nDefining $ T=\\frac{(\\bar{d}-\\mu_1)\\sqrt{k}}{s} $, for $ \\beta=0.05 $, we need\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:estat12}\n&P\\left[ \\frac{(-0.0255-\\mu_1)\\sqrt{k}}{s}<T<\\frac{(0.0255-\\mu_1)\\sqrt{k}}{s} \\right]  \\notag \\\\\n&=\\frac{\\beta}{2}=0.025.\n\\end{align}\nUsing the $ t $-table, it can be found that the minimum $ |\\mu_1| $ that satisfies (\\ref{eq:estat12}) is $ 0.051 $. This means that our test can detect an $ 0.051 $ deviation from the mean value of the mean-error between the adaptive human model and the participant data when the probability of the test to incorrectly conclude that the model and the data are compatible ($ \\mu_0=0 $) is only $ 5\\% $. \n\n\\begin{table}\\label{table2}\n\n\t\\caption{Sudden uncertainty}\n\t\\centering\n\t\\begin{tabular}{ | c | c | c | c | }\n\t\t\\hline \n\t\t& 0 order & 1st order & 2nd order \\\\\n\t\t\\hline \n\t\tTF before $ 70 $ s & $ 4 $ & $ \\frac{4}{s+1} $ & $ \\frac{4}{(s+1)(s+5)} $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\tTF after $ 70 $ s & $ 6 $ & $ \\frac{6}{s+0.5} $ & $ \\frac{6}{(s+0.5)(s+2.5)} $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\t$ \\bar{d} $ & $ 0.0085 $ & $ -0.0068 $ & $ 0.0011 $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline \n\t\t$ s $ & $ 0.0339 $ & $ 0.0379 $ & $ 0.0252 $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\tMean conf. int. & $ (-0.014, 0.03) $ & $ (-0.032, 0.02) $ & $ (-0.016, 0.018) $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\tSt.d. conf. int. & $ (0.024, 0.06) $ &  $ (0.026, 0.066) $ & $ (0.018, 0.044) $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\tHypothesis test & $ H_0 $ is retained & $ H_0 $ is retained  & $ H_0 $ is retained \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\\end{tabular}\n\\end{table} \n\\begin{table}\\label{table3}\n\n\t\\caption{Gradual uncertainty}\n\t\\centering\n\t\\begin{tabular}{ | c | c | c | c | }\n\t\t\\hline \n\t\t& 0 order & 1st order & 2nd order \\\\\n\t\t\\hline \n\t\tTF before $ 70 $ s & $ 4 $ & $ \\frac{4}{s+1} $ & $ \\frac{4}{(s+1)(s+5)} $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\tTF after $ 70 $ s & $ 6 $ & $ \\frac{6}{s+0.5} $ & $ \\frac{6}{(s+0.5)(s+2.5)} $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\t$ \\bar{d} $ & $ 0.0154 $ & $ 0.0026 $ & $ 0.004 $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline \n\t\t$ s $ & $ 0.038 $ & $ 0.034 $ & $ 0.03 $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\tMean conf. int. & $ (-0.01, 0.04) $ & $ (-0.02, 0.025) $ & $ (-0.016, 0.023) $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\tSt.d. conf. int. & $ (0.026, 0.067) $ & $ (0.0235, 0.06) $ & $ (0.02, 0.05) $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\tHypothesis test & $ H_0 $ is retained & $ H_0 $ is retained  & $ H_0 $ is retained \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\\end{tabular}\n\\end{table} \n\n\n\nAnalyses of the experimental results where a first order plant dynamics is used with a sudden uncertainty injection is provided above. All of the results, including the ones for the other cases, where plants with different orders and sudden\/gradual uncertainty injections, are summarized in Tables II and III.\nThe data collected from the participants can be reached at \\href{http:\/\/www.syslab.bilkent.edu.tr\/research}{http:\/\/www.syslab.bilkent.edu.tr\/research}.\n\n\n\n\n\\section{SUMMARY}\\label{sec:conclusion}\n\nIn this paper, an adaptive human pilot model based on model reference adaptive control principles is proposed. This model mimics the pilot decision making process by making sure that the overall closed loop system follows the crossover model in the presence of plant uncertainties. The stability of the system is shown using the Lyapunov-Krasovskii stability criteria. Furthermore, experiments with human operators are conducted to validate the model. Detailed visual and statistical analyses of the experimental results show that the adaptive model creates similar system responses as the human operators. \n\n                                 \n                                 \n                                 \n                                 \n                                 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\bibliographystyle{ieeetr}\n\n\\section{INTRODUCTION}\n\nHumans' unique abilities such as adaptive behavior in dynamic environments, and social interaction and moral judgment capabilities, make them essential elements of many control loops. On the other hand, compared to humans, automation provides higher computational performance and multi-tasking capabilities without any fatigue, stress, or boredom \\cite{Noth16,Kor15}. Although they have their own individual strengths, humans and automation also demonstrate several weaknesses. Humans may have anxiety, fear and may become unconscious during an operation. Furthermore, in the tasks that require increased attention and focus, humans tend to provide high gain control inputs that can cause undesired oscillations. One example of this phenomenon, for example, is the occurrence of pilot induced oscillations (PIO), where undesired and sustained oscillations are observed due to an abnormal coupling between the aircraft and the pilot \\cite{YilKol10, Yil11a,AcoYil14,TohYil18}. Similarly, automation may fail due to an uncertainty, fault or cyber-attack \\cite{Li14}. Thus, it is more preferable to design systems where humans and automation work in harmony, complementing each other, resulting in a structure that benefits from the advantages of both.\n\nTo achieve a reliable human-automation harmony, a mathematically rigorous human operator model is paramount. A human operator model helps develop safe control systems, and provide a better prediction of human actions and limitations \\cite{Hul13,Yuc18,Emre19, Zha19}. \nQuasi-linear model \\cite{Mcr57} is one of the first human operator models, which consists of a describing function and a remnant signal accounting for nonlinear behavior. An overview of this model is provided in \\cite{Mcr74}. In some applications, where the linear behavior may be dominant, the nonlinear part of this model can be ignored, and the resulting lead-lag-type compensator is used in closed loop stability analysis \\cite{Neal71}. The crossover model, proposed in \\cite{Mcr63}, is another important human operator model in the aerospace domain. It is motivated from the empirical observations that human pilots adapt their responses in such a way that the overall system dynamics resembles that of a well designed feedback system \\cite{Bee08}. A generalized crossover model which mimics human behavior when controlling a fractional order plant is proposed in \\cite{Mar17}. In \\cite{War16}, crossover model is employed to provide information about the human intent for the controller. In \\cite{Gil09}, the dynamics of the operator is represented as a spring-damper-mass system. \n\n\nControl theoretical operator models drawing from the optimal and adaptive control theories are also proposed by several authors. \nOptimal human models are based on the idea that a well trained human operator behaves in an optimal manner \\cite{Wier69, Kle70, Na12, Lon13, Hu19}. On the other hand, adaptive models, such as the ones proposed in \\cite{Hess09, Hess15} and \\cite{TohYil19Human}, aim to replicate the adaptation capability of humans in uncertain and dynamics environments. In \\cite{Hess09} and \\cite{Hess15}, adaptation rules are proposed based on expert knowledge. The adaptive model proposed in \\cite{Hess09} is applied to change the parameters of the pilot model based on force feedback from a smart inceptor \\cite{Xu19}. \nA survey on various pilot models can be found in \\cite{Lon14} and \\cite{Xu17}.\n\n\n\n\n\n Several approaches are also developed for human model parameter identification. In \\cite{Zaal11}, a two-step method using wavelets and a windowed maximum likelihood estimation is exploited for the estimation of time-varying pilot model parameters. In \\cite{Duar17}, a linear parameter varying model identification framework is incorporated to estimate time-varying human state space representation matrices. Subsystem identification is used in \\cite{Zha15} to model human control strategies. In \\cite{Van15}, a human operator model for preview tracking tasks is derived from measurement data.\n\n\nIn this paper, we build upon the earlier successful pilot models and propose an adaptive human pilot model that modifies its behavior based on plant uncertainties. This model distinguishes itself from earlier adaptive models by having mathematically derived laws to achieve a cross-over-model-like behavior, instead of employing expert knowledge. This allows a rigorous stability proof, using the Lyapunov-Krasovskii stability criteria, of the overall closed loop system. To validate the model, a setup, including a joystick and a monitor, is used. The participant data collected through this experimental setup is subjected to visual and statistical analyses to evaluate the accuracy of the proposed model. Initial research results of this study were presented in \\cite{TohYil19Human}, where the details of the mathematical proof and human experimental validation studies were missing.\n\n\nThis paper is organized as follows. In Section \\ref{sec:prob}, the problem statement is given. Obtaining reference model parameters, which determine the properties of the cross-over model, is discussed in Section \\ref{sec:reference}. Section \\ref{sec:human} presents the human control strategy together with a stability analysis. Experimental set-up, results, and a statistical analysis are provided in Section \\ref{sec:experiment}. Finally, a summary is given in Section \\ref{sec:conclusion}.\n\n\n\\section{PROBLEM STATEMENT}\\label{sec:prob}\n\nAccording to McRuer's crossover model \\cite{Mcr67}, human pilots in the control loop behave in a way that results in an open loop transfer function\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e1x}\nY_{OL}(s)=Y_{h}(s)Y_{p}(s)=\\frac{\\omega_ce^{-\\tau s}}{s},\n\\end{equation}\nnear the crossover frequency, $ \\omega_c $, where $ Y_{h} $ is the transfer function of the human pilot and $ Y_{p} $ is the transfer function of the plant. $ \\tau $ is the effective time delay, including transport delays and high frequency neuromuscular lags.\n\nConsider the following plant dynamics\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e2x}\n\\dot{x}_p(t)=A_px_p(t)+B_p u_p(t),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $ x_p\\in \\mathbb{R}^{n_p} $ is the plant state vector, $ u_p\\in \\mathbb{R} $ is the input vector, $ A_p\\in \\mathbb{R}^{n_p\\times n_p} $ is an unknown state matrix and $ B_p\\in \\mathbb{R}^{n_p} $ is an unknown input matrix.\n\nThe human \\textit{neuromuscular model} \\cite{Mag71, Van04} is represented in state space form as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e3x}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{x}_h(t)&=A_hx_h(t)+B_hu(t-\\tau) \\\\\ny_h(t)&=C_hx_h(t)+D_hu(t-\\tau),\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nwhere $ x_h\\in \\mathbb{R}^{n_h} $ is the neuromuscular state vector, $ A_h\\in \\mathbb{R}^{n_h\\times n_h} $ is the state matrix, $ B_h\\in \\mathbb{R}^{n_h} $ is the input matrix, $ C_h\\in \\mathbb{R}^{1\\times n_h} $ is the output matrix and $ D_h\\in \\mathbb{R} $ is the control output matrix. $ u\\in \\mathbb{R} $ is the neuromuscular input vector, which represents the control decisions taken by the human and fed to the neuromuscular system, $ y_h\\in \\mathbb{R} $ is the output vector, and $ \\tau\\in \\mathbb{R}^+ $ is a known, constant delay. The neuromuscular model parameters are assumed to be known and the output of the model, $ y_h $, is used as the plant input $ u_p $ in (\\ref{eq:e2x}), that is $ y_h=u_p $ (see Fig. \\ref{fig:f1-2}). \n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\vspace{0.3cm}\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=9.0cm]{Blockdiagxx.jpg}    %\n\t\t\\caption{The block diagram of the human adaptive behavior and decision making in a closed loop system.} \n\t\t\\label{fig:f1-2}\n\t\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\nBy aggregating the human pilot and plant states, we obtain the combined open loop human neuromuscular and plant dynamics as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e4x}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\underbrace{\\begin{bmatrix}\n\t\\dot{x}_h(t) \\\\ \\dot{x}_p(t)\n\t\\end{bmatrix}}_{\\dot{x}_{hp}(t)}&=\n\\underbrace{\\begin{bmatrix}\n\tA_h & 0_{n_h\\times n_p} \\\\ B_p C_h & A_p\n\t\\end{bmatrix}}_{A_{hp}}\\underbrace{\\begin{bmatrix}\n\tx_h(t) \\\\ x_p(t)\n\t\\end{bmatrix}}_{x_{hp(t)}}\\\\ &+\n\\underbrace{\\begin{bmatrix}\n\tB_h \\\\ B_pD_h\n\t\\end{bmatrix}}_{B_{hp}}u(t-\\tau),\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nwhich can be written in the following compact form\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e5x}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{x}_{hp}(t)&=A_{hp}x_{hp}(t)+B_{hp}u(t-\\tau),\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nwhere $ x_{hp}=[x_h^T\\ x_p^T]^T\\in \\mathbb{R}^{(n_p+n_h)} $, $ A_{hp}\\in \\mathbb{R}^{(n_p+n_h)\\times (n_p+n_h)} $, $ B_{hp}\\in \\mathbb{R}^{(n_p+n_h)} $. \n\\begin{assumption}\n\tThe pair $ (A_{hp}, B_{hp}) $ is controllable.\n\\end{assumption}\n\nThe goal is to obtain the input $ u(t) $ in (\\ref{eq:e3x}), which is the human pilot control decision variable, such that the closed loop system consisting of the adaptive human pilot model and the plant follow the output of a unity feedback reference model with an open loop crossover model transfer function. The closed loop transfer function of the reference model is therefore calculated as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e21xqx}\n\\begin{aligned}\nG_{cl}(s)=\\frac{\\frac{\\omega_c}{s}e^{-\\tau s}}{1+\\frac{\\omega_c}{s}e^{-\\tau s}}=\\frac{\\omega_c e^{-\\tau s}}{s+\\omega_c e^{-\\tau s}}.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nAn approximation of (\\ref{eq:e21xqx}) can be given as  \n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e21xqqx}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\hat{G}_{cl}(s)=\\frac{b_ms^m+b_{m-1}s^{m-1}+...+b_0}{s^n+a_{n-1}s^{n-1}+...+a_0}e^{-\\tau s},\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nwhere $ n=n_h+n_p $ and $ m\\leq n $ are positive real constants, and $ a_{i} $ and $ b_j $ for $ i=0, ..., n-1 $ and $ j=0, ..., m-1 $, are real constants to be estimated. \nThe reference model then can be obtained as the state space representation of (\\ref{eq:e21xqqx}) as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e7x}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{x}_{m}(t)&=A_{m}x_{m}(t)+B_{m}r(t-\\tau),\\\\\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nwhere $ x_m\\in \\mathbb{R}^{(n_h+n_p)} $ is the reference model state vector, $ A_m\\in \\mathbb{R}^{(n_h+n_p)\\times (n_h+n_p)} $ is the state matrix, $ B_m\\in \\mathbb{R}^{(n_h+n_p)\\times m_h} $ is the input matrix, and $ r\\in \\mathbb{R}^{m_h} $ is the reference input.\n\n\\section{REFERENCE MODEL PARAMETERS}\\label{sec:reference}\nThe crossover transfer function (\\ref{eq:e1x}) contains the crossover frequency, $ \\omega_c $, which is not known a priori. Experimental data, showing the reference input ($ r(t) $) frequency bandwidth, $ \\omega_i $, versus crossover frequency $ \\omega_c $, is provided in \\cite{Bee08} and \\cite{Mcr67}, for plant transfer functions $ K $, $ K\/s $ and $ K\/s^2 $. We fit polynomials to these experimental results to obtain the crossover frequency of the open loop transfer function given a reference input frequency bandwidth. These polynomials are given in Table I. It is noted that when the reference input has multiple frequency components, the highest frequency is used to calculate the crossover frequency.\n\n\n\\begin{remark}\n\tIn this work, we use the polynomial relationships provided in Table I for zero, first and second order plant dynamics with nonzero poles and zeros. Further experimental work can be conducted to obtain a more precise relationship between the crossover and reference input frequencies, but this is currently out of the scope of this work.\n\\end{remark}\n  \n\n\n\n\\begin{table}\n\t\\vspace{0.3cm}\n\t\\caption{}\n\t\\centering\n\t\\begin{tabular}{ | c | c | }\n\t\t\\hline \n\t\tPlant transfer & Crossover frequency of the \\\\\n\t\tfunction & open loop transfer function (rad\/s)\\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\t$ K $ & $ \\omega_c=0.067\\omega_i^2+0.099\\omega_i+4.8 $ \\\\ \\hline\n\t\t$ K\/s $ & $ \\omega_c=0.14\\omega_i+4.3 $ \\\\ \\hline\n\t\t$ K\/s^2 $ & $ \\omega_c=-0.0031\\omega_i^4-0.072\\omega_i^3+0.29\\omega_i^2$ \\\\ & $-0.13\\omega_i+3 $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\\end{tabular}\n\\end{table} \n\n\n\\section{HUMAN PILOT CONTROL DECISION COMMAND}\\label{sec:human}\n\n\nThe adaptive human pilot control decision command, $ u(t) $, is determined as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e8x}\nu(t)=K_rK_xx_{hp}(t+\\tau)+K_rr(t)\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $ K_x\\in \\mathbb{R}^{1\\times (n_h+n_p)} $, and $ K_r\\in \\mathbb{R}^{m_h\\times m_h} $. Using (\\ref{eq:e8x}) and (\\ref{eq:e5x}), the closed loop dynamics can be obtained as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e9x}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{x}_{hp}(t)&=(A_{hp}+B_{hp}K_rK_x)x_{hp}(t)+B_{hp}K_rr(t-\\tau).\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation} \n\nEquation (\\ref{eq:e8x}) describes a non-causal decision command which requires future values of the states. This problem can be eliminated by solving the differential equation (\\ref{eq:e5x}) as a $ \\tau $-seconds ahead predictor as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e9xx}\n\\begin{aligned}\nx_{hp}(t+\\tau)&=e^{A_{hp}\\tau}x_{hp}(t)+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}e^{-A_{hp}\\eta}B_{hp}u(t+\\eta)d\\eta. \n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\n\n\\begin{assumption}\nThere exist ideal parameters $ K_r^* $ and $ K_x^* $ satisfying the following matching conditions\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e10x}\n\\begin{aligned}\n&A_{hp}+B_{hp}K_r^*K_x^*=A_m\\\\\n&B_{hp}K_r^*=B_m.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\n\\end{assumption} \n\n\n\nBy substituting (\\ref{eq:e9xx}) into (\\ref{eq:e8x}), the human pilot control decision input can be written as \n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e11xxxy}\n\\begin{aligned}\nu(t)&=K_rK_xe^{A_{hp}\\tau}x_{hp}(t)\\\\\n&+K_rK_x\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}e^{-A_{hp}\\eta}B_{hp}u(t+\\eta)d\\eta+K_rr(t).\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nBy defining $ \\theta_x(t) $ and $ \\lambda(t,\\eta) $ as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e11xxxq}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\theta_x(t)&=K_r(t)K_x(t)e^{A_{hp}\\tau},\\\\\n\\lambda(t,\\eta)&=K_r(t)K_x(t)e^{-A_{hp}\\eta}B_{hp},\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\n(\\ref{eq:e11xxxy}) can be rewritten as (see fig. \\ref{fig:f1-2})\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e11xxx}\n\\begin{aligned}\nu(t)=\\theta_x(t)x_{hp}(t)+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\lambda(t,\\eta)u(t+\\eta)d\\eta+K_r(t)r(t).\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nThe ideal values of $ \\theta_x $ and $ \\lambda $ can be obtained as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e11xxxxx}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\theta_x^*&=K_r^*K_x^*e^{A_{hp}\\tau}\\\\ \n\\lambda^*(\\eta)&=K_r^*K_x^*e^{-A_{hp}\\eta}B_{hp}.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nSince $ A_{hp} $ and $ B_{hp} $ are unknown, $ \\theta_x $ and $ \\lambda $ need to be estimated. The closed loop dynamics can be obtained using (\\ref{eq:e5x}) and (\\ref{eq:e11xxx}) as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e11xxxx}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{x}_{hp}(t)&=A_{hp}x_{hp}(t)+B_{hp}\\theta_x(t-\\tau)x_{hp}(t-\\tau)\\\\ &+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}B_{hp}\\lambda(t-\\tau,\\eta)u(t+\\eta-\\tau)d\\eta\\\\ &+B_{hp}K_rr(t-\\tau),\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\n\nDefining the deviations of the adaptive parameters from their ideal values as $ \\tilde{\\theta}_x=\\theta_x-\\theta_x^* $ and $ \\tilde{\\lambda}=\\lambda-\\lambda^* $, and adding and subtracting $ A_mx_{hp}(t) $ to (\\ref{eq:e11xxxx}), and using (\\ref{eq:e10x}), we obtain that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e12xxz}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{x}_{hp}(t)&=A_mx_{hp}(t)-B_{hp}K_r^*K_x^*x_{hp}(t)\\\\ &+B_{hp}K_r(t-\\tau)K_x(t-\\tau)\\Big(e^{A_{hp}\\tau}x_{hp}(t-\\tau)\\\\ &+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}e^{-A_{hp}\\eta}B_{hp}u(t+\\eta-\\tau)d\\eta \\Big)\\\\ &+B_{hp}K_r(t-\\tau)r(t-\\tau).\\\\\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\n Using (\\ref{eq:e9xx}), (\\ref{eq:e12xxz}) is rewritten as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e12xx}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{x}_{hp}(t)&=A_mx_{hp}(t)-B_{hp}K_r^*K_x^*x_{hp}(t)\\\\ &+B_{hp}K_r(t-\\tau)K_x(t-\\tau)x_{hp}(t)\\\\ &+B_{hp}K_r(t-\\tau)r(t-\\tau).\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nDefining the tracking error as $ e(t)=x_{hp}-x_{m} $, and subtracting (\\ref{eq:e7x}) from (\\ref{eq:e12xx}), and using (\\ref{eq:e10x}), and following a similar procedure given in \\cite{NarAnn12}, it is obtained that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e12xxxz}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{e}(t)&=\\dot{x}_{hp}-\\dot{x}_{m}\\\\\n&=A_me(t)-B_{hp}K_r^*K_x^*x_{hp}(t)\\\\ &+B_{hp}K_r(t-\\tau)K_x(t-\\tau)x_{hp}(t)\\\\ &+B_{hp}(K_r(t-\\tau)-K_r^*)r(t-\\tau)\\\\\n&=A_me(t)+\\big( -B_{hp}K_r^*K_x^*\\\\\n&+B_{hp}(K_r^*-K_r^*+K_r(t-\\tau))K_x(t-\\tau)\\big)x_{hp}(t) \n\\\\&+B_{hp}(K_r(t-\\tau)-K_r^*)r(t-\\tau)\\\\\n&=A_me(t)+B_{m}(K_x(t-\\tau)-K_x^*)x_{hp}(t)\\\\\n&+B_{m}({K_r^*}^{-1}K_r(t-\\tau)-1)K_x(t-\\tau)x_{hp}(t)\\\\\n&+B_{m}({K_r^*}^{-1}K_r(t-\\tau)-1)r(t-\\tau)\\\\\n&=A_me(t)+B_{m}(\\tilde{K}_x(t-\\tau)x_{hp}(t)\\\\\n&\\hspace{-0.1cm}+B_{m}({K_r^*}^{-1}-K_r^{-1}(t-\\tau))K_r(t-\\tau)K_x(t-\\tau)x_{hp}(t)\\\\\n&+B_{m}({K_r^*}^{-1}-K_r^{-1}(t-\\tau))K_r(t-\\tau)r(t-\\tau).\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nUsing (\\ref{eq:e9xx}) and defining $ \\Phi={K_r^*}^{-1}-K_r^{-1} $, we can rewrite (\\ref{eq:e12xxxz}) as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e12xxxzz}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{e}(t)&=A_me(t)+{B_mK_r^*}^{-1}(K_r^*K_x(t-\\tau)-K_r^*K_x^*)\\\\\n&\\hspace{-0.1cm}\\times\\Big( e^{A_{hp}\\tau}x_{hp}(t-\\tau)+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}e^{-A_{hp}\\eta}B_{hp}u(t+\\eta-\\tau)d\\eta \\Big)\\\\\n&+B_m\\Phi(t-\\tau)\\Big( K_r(t-\\tau)K_x(t-\\tau)\\Big( e^{A_{hp}\\tau}x_{hp}(t-\\tau)\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}e^{-A_{hp}\\eta}B_{hp}u(t+\\eta-\\tau)d\\eta \\Big)\\\\\n&+K_r(t-\\tau)r(t-\\tau) \\Big).\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nUsing (\\ref{eq:e11xxxxx}) and (\\ref{eq:e12xxxzz}), we obtain that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e12xxxzzz}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{e}(t)&=A_me(t)+B_mK_x(t-\\tau)\\Big( e^{A_{hp}\\tau}x_{hp}(t-\\tau)\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}e^{-A_{hp}\\eta}B_{hp}u(t+\\eta-\\tau)d\\eta \\Big)\\\\\n&-B_m{K_r^*}^{-1}\\Big( \\theta_x^*x_{hp}(t-\\tau)\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\lambda^*(\\eta)u(t+\\eta-\\tau)d\\eta \\Big)\\\\\n&+B_{m}\\Phi(t-\\tau)u(t-\\tau).\\\\\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nUsing (\\ref{eq:e11xxxq}), (\\ref{eq:e12xxxzzz}) can be rewritten as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e12xxxq}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{e}(t)&=A_me(t)+B_m\\Big( \\big( K_r^{-1}(t-\\tau)\\theta_x(t-\\tau)-{K_r^*}^{-1}\\theta_x^*\\big)\\\\\n&\\times x_{hp}(t-\\tau)+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\big( K_r^{-1}(t-\\tau)\\lambda(t-\\tau,\\eta)\\\\\n&-{K_r^*}^{-1}\\lambda^*(\\eta) \\big) u(t+\\eta-\\tau)d\\eta \\Big)\\\\\n&+B_{m}\\Phi(t-\\tau)u(t-\\tau).\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nDefining $ \\theta_1=K_r^{-1}\\theta_x $ and $ \\lambda_1=K_r^{-1}\\lambda $, and using their deviations from their ideal values, $ \\tilde{\\theta}_1=\\theta_1-\\theta_1^* $ and $ \\tilde{\\lambda}_1=\\lambda_1-\\lambda_1^* $, where \n$ \\theta_1^*={K_r^*}^{-1}\\theta_x^* $ and $ \\lambda_1^*={K_r^*}^{-1}\\lambda^* $, (\\ref{eq:e12xxxq}) can be rewritten as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e12xxx}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{e}(t)&=A_me(t)+B_{m}\\tilde{\\theta}_1(t-\\tau)x_{hp}(t-\\tau)\\\\ &+B_m\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\tilde{\\lambda}_1(t-\\tau,\\eta)u(t+\\eta-\\tau)d\\eta \\\\ \n&+B_{m}\\Phi(t-\\tau)u(t-\\tau).\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nThe following lemma will be necessary to prove the main theorem of this article.\n\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{lem1}\nSuppose that the continuous function $ u(t) $ is given as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e21xx}\n\\begin{aligned}\nu(t)=f(t)+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\lambda(t,\\eta)u(t+\\eta)d\\eta,\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nwhere $ u,f: [t_0-\\tau,\\infty]\\rightarrow R $, and $ \\lambda:[t_0, \\infty)\\times [-\\tau, 0]\\rightarrow R $. Then\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e22xx}\n\\begin{aligned}\n|u(t)|\\leq 2(\\bar{f}+c_0c_1)e^{c_0^2(t-t')},\\ \\forall t_j'\\geq t_i',\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nif constants $ t_i',\\bar{f}, c_0, c_1\\in R^+ $ exist such that $ |f(t)|\\leq \\bar{f} $, \n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e23xx}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\lambda^2(t,\\eta)d\\eta\\leq c_0^2 \\ \\ for\\  t\\in [t_i',t_j'),\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nand\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e24xx}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}u^2(t+\\eta)d\\eta\\leq c_1^2 \\ \\ \\forall\nt\\leq t_i'.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\n\\end{lemma}\n\\begin{proof}\nThe proof of Lemma \\ref{lem1} can be found in \\cite{YilAnn10}.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{thm1}\nGiven the initial conditions $ \\tilde{\\theta}_1(\\xi)$, $ \\tilde{\\lambda}_1(\\xi,\\eta) $, $ \\Phi(\\xi) $ and $ x_{hp}(\\xi) $ for $ \\xi\\in [-\\tau, 0] $, and $ u(\\zeta) $ for $ \\zeta\\in[-2\\tau,0] $, there exists a $ \\tau^* $ such that for all $ \\tau\\in[0,\\tau^*] $, the controller (\\ref{eq:e11xxx}) with the adaptive laws\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:14thm}\n\\dot{{\\theta}}_1^T(t)=-x_{hp}(t-\\tau)e(t)^TPB_{m},\n\\end{equation} \n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:15thm}\n\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t)=-u(t-\\tau)e(t)^TPB_{m},\\\\\n\\end{equation} \n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:16thm}\n\\dot{\\lambda}_1^T(t,\\eta)=-u(t+\\eta-\\tau)e(t)^TPB_{m},\n\\end{equation} \nwhere $ P $ is the symmetric positive definite matrix satisfying\nthe Lyapunov equation $ A_m^TP +P A_m = -Q $ for a symmetric\npositive definite matrix $ Q $, which can be employed to obtain controller parameters using $ \\dot{K}_r=\\text{Proj}(K_r\\dot{\\Phi}K_r) $, $\\theta_x(t)=K_r(t)\\theta_1(t) $ and $ \\lambda(t)=K_r(t)\\lambda_1(t) $, make the pilot neuromuscular and plant aggregate system (\\ref{eq:e5x}) follow the crossover reference model (\\ref{eq:e7x}) asymptotically, i.e, $ lim_{t\\to \\infty} x_{hp}(t)=x_m(t) $, while keeping all the signals bounded.\n\\end{theorem}\n\\begin{proof}\nConsider a Lyapunov-Krasovskii functional \\cite{YilAnn10}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e12x}\n\\begin{aligned}\nV(t)&=e^TPe+\\text{tr}({\\Phi}^T(t){\\Phi}(t))+\\text{tr}(\\tilde{\\theta}_1^T(t)\\tilde{\\theta}_1(t))\\\\ &+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\int_{t+v}^{t}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(\\xi)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(\\xi))d\\xi dv\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\int_{t+v}^{t}\\text{tr}(\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(\\xi)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(\\xi))d\\xi dv\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\tilde{\\lambda}_1^T(t,\\eta)\\tilde{\\lambda}_1(t,\\eta))d\\eta\\\\ &+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\int_{t+v}^{t}\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(\\xi,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(\\xi,\\eta))d\\eta d\\xi dv.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nThe derivative of $ V(t) $ can be calculated as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e14x}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{V}(t)&=\\dot{e}^T(t)^TPe(t)+e^T(t)P\\dot{e}(t)+2\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t)\\tilde{\\theta}_1(t))\\\\ &+2\\text{tr}(\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t){\\Phi}(t))+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}2\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t,\\eta)\\tilde{\\lambda}_1(t,\\eta))d\\eta\\\\ \n&+\\tau \\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t))-\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t+v)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t+v))dv\\\\ \n&+\\tau\\text{tr}(\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t))-\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t+v)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t+v))dv\\\\\n&+\\tau\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t,\\eta))d\\eta\\\\\n&-\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t+v,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t+v,\\eta))d\\eta dv.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nSubstituting (\\ref{eq:e12xxx}) into (\\ref{eq:e14x}) and using the Lyapunov equation $ A_m^TP +P A_m = -Q $, it is obtained that\n\\begin{equation\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{V}(t)&=-{e}^T(t)Qe(t)+2e^T(t)PB_m\\tilde{\\theta}_1(t-\\tau)x_{hp}(t-\\tau)\\\\\n&+2e^T(t)PB_m\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\tilde{\\lambda}_1(t-\\tau,\\eta)u(t+\\eta-\\tau)d\\eta\\\\\n&+2e^T(t)PB_m\\Phi(t-\\tau)u(t-\\tau)\\\\\n&+2\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t)\\tilde{\\theta}_1(t))+2\\text{tr}(\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t){\\Phi}(t)) \\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}2\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t,\\eta)\\tilde{\\lambda}_1(t,\\eta))d\\eta\\\\ \n&+\\tau \\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t))-\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t+v)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t+v))dv\\\\ \n&+\\tau\\text{tr}(\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t))-\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t+v)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t+v))dv\\notag\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e14xx}\n\\begin{aligned}\n&+\\tau\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t,\\eta))d\\eta\\\\\n&-\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t+v,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t+v,\\eta))d\\eta dv.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nUsing $ g(t)-g(t-\\tau)=\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\dot{g}(t+v)dv $, (\\ref{eq:e14xx}) can be rewritten as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e14xxxx}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{V}(t)&=-{e}^T(t)Qe(t)\\\\\n&+2\\text{tr}\\Big(x_{hp}(t-\\tau)e^T(t)PB_m\\tilde{\\theta}_1(t)+\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t)\\tilde{\\theta}_1(t)\\Big)\\\\\n&+2\\text{tr}\\Big(u(t-\\tau)e^T(t)PB_m\\Phi(t)+\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t){\\Phi}(t)\\Big)\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}2\\text{tr}\\Big(u(t+\\eta-\\tau)e^T(t)PB_m\\tilde{\\lambda}_1(t,\\eta)\\\\ &+\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t,\\eta)\\tilde{\\lambda}_1(t,\\eta)\\Big)d\\eta\\\\\n&-2e^T(t)PB_m(\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t+v)dv)x_{hp}(t-\\tau)\\\\\n&-2e^T(t)PB_m(\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t+v)dv)u(t-\\tau)\\\\\n&-2e^T(t)PB_m\\Big(\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}(\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t+v,\\eta)dv)\\\\\n&\\times u(t+\\eta-\\tau)d\\eta\\Big)\\\\\n&+\\tau \\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t))-\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t+v)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t+v))dv\\\\ \n&+\\tau\\text{tr}(\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t))-\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t+v)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t+v))dv\\\\\n&+\\tau\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t,\\eta))d\\eta\\\\\n&-\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t+v,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t+v,\\eta))d\\eta dv.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nBy substituting (\\ref{eq:14thm})-(\\ref{eq:16thm}) into (\\ref{eq:e14xxxx}), it is obtained that\n\\begin{equation\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{V}(t)&=-{e}^T(t)Qe(t)\\\\\n&-2\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(x_{hp}(t-\\tau)e(t)^TPB_{m}\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t+v))dv\\\\ &-2\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(u(t-\\tau)e(t)^TPB_{m}\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t+v))dv\\\\\n&-2\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(u(t+\\eta-\\tau)e(t)^TPB_{m}\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t+v,\\eta))dvd\\eta\\\\\n&+\\tau \\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t))-\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t+v)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t+v))dv\\\\ \n&+\\tau\\text{tr}(\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t))-\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t+v)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t+v))dv\\\\\n&+\\tau\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t,\\eta))d\\eta\\\\\n&-\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t+v,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t+v,\\eta))d\\eta dv\\notag \n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e17x}\n\\begin{aligned}\n&=-{e}^T(t)Qe(t)+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}\\Big(2\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t+v)\\\\\n&+\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t) -\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t+v)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t+v)\\Big)dv\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}\\Big(2\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t+v)+\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t)\\\\\n&-\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t+v)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t+v)\\Big)dv\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\text{tr}\\Big(2\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t+v,\\eta)\\\\\n&+\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t,\\eta)-\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t+v,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t+v,\\eta)\\Big)d\\eta dv.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nUsing the trace property $ \\text{tr}(A+B)=\\text{tr}(A)+\\text{tr}(B) $, and the algebraic inequality $ a^2\\geq 2ab-b^2 $ for two scalars $ a $ and $ b $, it can be shown that $ \\text{tr}(2A^TB+A^TA-B^TB)\\leq 2\\text{tr}(A^TA) $. Using these inequalities, (\\ref{eq:e17x}) can be rewritten as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e17xx}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{V}(t)&\\leq-{e}^T(t)Qe(t)+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}2\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1^T(t)\\dot{\\tilde{\\theta}}_1(t))dv\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}2\\text{tr}(\\dot{{\\Phi}}^T(t)\\dot{{\\Phi}}(t))dv\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}2\\text{tr}(\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1^T(t,\\eta)\\dot{\\tilde{\\lambda}}_1(t,\\eta))d\\eta dv.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nBy substituting (\\ref{eq:14thm})-(\\ref{eq:16thm}) into (\\ref{eq:e17xx}), and using the trace operator property $ \\text{tr}(AB)=\\text{tr}(BA) $ for two square matrices $ A $ and $ B $, (\\ref{eq:e17xx}) can be rewritten as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e18x}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{V}(t)&\\leq-{e}^T(t)Qe(t)\\\\\n&+2\\tau \\text{tr}\\big(e(t)x_{hp}^T(t-\\tau)x_{hp}(t-\\tau)e(t)^TPB_{m}B_{m}^TP\\big)\\\\ \n&+2\\tau \\text{tr}\\big(e(t)u^T(t-\\tau)u(t-\\tau)e(t)^TPB_{m}B_{m}^TP\\big)\\\\\n&+2\\tau\\int_{-\\tau}^{0} \\text{tr}\\big(e(t)u^T(t+\\eta-\\tau)u(t+\\eta-\\tau)e(t)^T\\\\\n&\\times PB_{m}B_{m}^TP\\big)d\\eta.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nUsing $ \\text{tr}(AB)\\leq \\text{tr}(A)\\text{tr}(B) $ for two positive semidefinite matrices $ A $ and $ B $, and $ \\text{tr}(X^TX)=||X||_F^2 $ for a matrix $ X $, an upper bound for (\\ref{eq:e18x}) can be derived as \n\\begin{equation\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{V}(t)&\\leq-{e}^T(t)Qe(t)\\\\\n&+2\\tau \\text{tr}(e(t)x_{hp}^T(t-\\tau)x_{hp}(t-\\tau)e(t)^T)\\text{tr}(PB_{m}B_{m}^TP)\\\\ \n&+2\\tau \\text{tr}\\big(e(t)u^T(t-\\tau)u(t-\\tau)e(t)^T\\big)\\text{tr}\\big(PB_{m}B_{m}^TP\\big)\\\\\n&+2\\tau\\int_{-\\tau}^{0} \\text{tr}\\big(e(t) u^T(t-\\tau+\\eta)u(t-\\tau+\\eta)e(t)^T\\big)\\\\\n&\\times \\text{tr}\\big(PB_{m}B_{m}^TP\\big)d\\eta\\\\\n&\\leq -\\lambda_{min}(Q)||e(t)||^2\\\\\n&+2\\tau||x_{hp}(t-\\tau)e(t)^T||_F^2||B_{m}^TP||_F^2\\\\\n&+2\\tau ||u(t-\\tau)e(t)^T||_F^2||B_{m}^TP||_F^2\\\\\n&+2\\tau\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}||u(t+\\eta-\\tau)e(t)^T||_F^2||B_{m}^TP||_F^2d\\eta \\notag\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e19x}\n\\begin{aligned}\n&\\leq -\\lambda_{min}(Q)||e(t)||^2\\\\\n&+2\\tau||x_{hp}(t-\\tau)||^2||e(t)||^2||B_{m}^TP||_F^2\\\\\n&+2\\tau ||u(t-\\tau)||^2||e(t)||^2||B_{m}^TP||_F^2\\\\\n&+2\\tau\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}||u(t+\\eta-\\tau)||^2||e(t)||^2||B_{m}^TP||_F^2d\\eta\\\\\n&=||B_{m}^TP||_F^2||e(t)||^2\\Big( -\\frac{\\lambda_{min}(Q)}{||B_{m}^TP||_F^2}\\\\\n&+2\\tau\\big( ||x_{hp}(t-\\tau)||^2+||u(t-\\tau)||^2\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}||u(t+\\eta-\\tau)||^2d\\eta \\big) \\Big).\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nDefining $ q\\equiv \\frac{\\lambda_{min}(Q)}{||B_{m}^TP||_F^2} $, the inequality\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e20x}\n\\begin{aligned}\nq&-2\\tau\\big( ||x_{hp}(t-\\tau)||^2+||u(t-\\tau)||^2+\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}||u(t+\\eta-\\tau)||^2d\\eta \\big)> 0.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nneeds to be satisfied for the non-positiveness of $ \\dot{V} $.\nAssuming that $ x_{hp} $ and $ u $ are bounded in the interval $ [t_0-2\\tau,t_0) $, the rest of the proof is divided into the following four steps:\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Step 1} In this step, the negative semi-definiteness of the Lyapunov-Krasovskii functional's (\\ref{eq:e12x}) time derivative in the interval $ [t_0-\\tau,t_0) $ is shown which leads to the boundedness of the the signals in this interval. In addition, an upper bound for $ u $ in the interval $ [t_0-2\\tau,t_0) $ is given.\n\nSuppose that\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\sup_{\\xi\\in[t_0-\\tau, t_0)}&||x_{hp}(\\xi)||^2\\leq \\gamma_1\\\\\n\\sup_{\\xi\\in[t_0-2\\tau, t_0)}&||u(\\xi)||^2\\leq \\gamma_2\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation} \nfor some positive $ \\gamma_1, \\gamma_2$, and a $ \\tau_1 $ is given such that\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n2\\tau_1(\\gamma_1+\\gamma_2+\\tau_1\\gamma_2)<q.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation} \nThen the following inequality is satisfied:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\nq&-2\\tau\\big( ||x_{hp}(\\xi-\\tau)||^2+||u(\\xi-\\tau)||^2+\\\\\n&+\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}||u(\\xi+\\eta-\\tau)||^2d\\eta \\big)> 0,\\\\ &\\forall \\xi\\in[t_0,t_0+\\tau), \\forall\\tau\\in[0, \\tau_1].\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nIt follows that $ V(t) $, defined in (\\ref{eq:e12x}), is non-increasing for $ t\\in[t_0, t_0+\\tau) $. Thus, we have\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\lambda_{min}(P)||e(\\xi)||^2\\leq e(\\xi)^TPe(\\xi)\\leq V(t_0),\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nwhich leads to\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n||x_{hp}(\\xi)||-||x_m(\\xi)||\\leq ||e(\\xi)||\\leq \\sqrt{\\frac{V(t_0)}{\\lambda_{min}(P)}}.\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nThen, we have\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n||x_{hp}(\\xi)||\\leq\\sqrt{\\frac{V(t_0)}{\\lambda_{min}(P)}}+||x_{m}(\\xi)||,\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nfor $ \\forall \\xi\\in[t_0,t_0+\\tau) $.\nWe also have the inequality\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:x47}\n&||{\\Phi}(\\xi)||^2\\leq V(t_0)\\implies ||{K_r^*}^{-1}-K_r^{-1}(\\xi)||^2\\leq V(t_0)\\notag\\\\\n&\\implies ||K_r^{-1}(\\xi)||\\leq \\sqrt{V(t_0)}+||{K_r^*}^{-1}||.\n\\end{align}\nfor $ \\forall \\xi\\in[t_0,t_0+\\tau) $.\nIt is noted that the boundedness of $ \\Phi={K_r^*}^{-1}-K_r^{-1} $ does not guarantee the boundedness of $ \\tilde{K}_r $. In order to guarantee the boundedness of $ \\tilde{K}_r $ independent of the boundedness of $ \\Phi $, the projection algorithm \\cite{Eug13} is employed as \n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e19xzzz}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\dot{K}_r=\\text{Proj}\\big(K_r,-K_rB_m^TPe(t)u^T(t-\\tau)K_r\\big),\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nwith an upper bound $ K_{max} $, that is $ ||{K}_r||\\leq K_{max} $. \nThus, a lower bound for $ ||K_r^{-1}(\\xi)|| $ can be calculated using the following algebraic manipulations: \n \\begin{align}\\label{eq:47x}\n &K_r(\\xi)K_r^{-1}(\\xi)=I\\Rightarrow ||K_r(\\xi)K_r^{-1}(\\xi)||=1\\notag \\\\\n &\\Rightarrow 1\\leq ||K_r(\\xi)||||K_r^{-1}(\\xi)||\\leq K_{max}||K_r^{-1}(\\xi)||\\notag \\\\\n & \\Rightarrow \\frac{1}{K_{max}}\\leq ||K_r^{-1}(\\xi)||.\n \\end{align}\nDefining $ k_1=\\sqrt{V(t_0)}+||{K_r^*}^{-1}|| $, and using (\\ref{eq:x47}), it is obtained that\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:47}\n\\frac{1}{K_{max}}\\leq ||K_r^{-1}(\\xi)||\\leq k_1,\\ \\ \\ \\xi\\in[t_0,t_0+\\tau).\n\\end{align}\nTherefore, $ K_r $ is always bounded and $ K_r^{-1}(\\xi) $ is bounded for $ \\forall \\xi\\in[t_0,t_0+\\tau) $.\n\nFurthermore, using the definitions of $ \\theta_x, \\theta_1, \\lambda,\\lambda_1 $ given in Theorem \\ref{thm1}, and the non-increasing Lyapunov functional (\\ref{eq:e12x}), it can be concluded that\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:48}\n||\\tilde{\\theta}_1(\\xi)||_F^2\\leq V(t_0)&\\implies ||\\tilde{K}_r^{-1}(\\xi)\\tilde{\\theta}_x(\\xi)||_F^2\\leq V(t_0),\n\\end{align}\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:49}\n\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}||\\tilde{\\lambda}_1(\\xi,\\eta)||_F^2 &d\\eta \\leq V(t_0)\\\\\n&\\implies \\int_{-\\tau}^{0}||K_r^{-1}(\\xi)\\tilde{\\lambda}(\\xi,\\eta)||_F^2d\\eta\\leq V(t_0),\\notag\n\\end{align} \nfor $ \\forall \\xi\\in[t_0,t_0+\\tau) $. Using (\\ref{eq:48}) and (\\ref{eq:49}), it can be obtained that\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n||\\tilde{\\theta}_x(\\xi)||_F^2&\\leq K_{max}^2V(t_0),\\\\\n\\int_{-\\tau}^{0}||\\tilde{\\lambda}(\\xi,\\eta)||_F^2d\\eta&\\leq K_{max}^2V(t_0).\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nfor $ \\forall \\xi\\in[t_0,t_0+\\tau) $.\n\nTo simplify the notation, we define\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\nI_0\\equiv \\text{max}&\\Big( \\sqrt{\\frac{V(t_0)}{\\lambda_{min}(P)}}+\\sup_{[t_0,t_0+\\tau)}||x_{m}(\\xi)||\\\\ &, K_{max}\\sqrt{V(t_0)}, K_{max}^2V(t_0) \\Big),\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nwhere $ R_{max} $ is the upper bound of the reference input $ r(t) $.\n\nAn upper bound on the control signal $ u(t) $ for $ t\\in[t_0, t_0+\\tau) $ can be derived by using Lemma \\ref{lem1} and (\\ref{eq:e11xxx}). In particular, setting $ t_i'=t_0 $, $ t_j'=t_0+\\tau $, $ c_0^2=V(t_0) $, we obtain that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e50}\n\\begin{aligned}\n|u(\\xi)|\\leq 2\\Big( \\bar{f}+\\big( \\int_{-\\tau}^{0}u^2(t_0+\\eta)d\\eta \\big)^{1\/2}I_0 \\Big)e^{I_0\\tau},\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nfor $ \\forall \\xi\\in[t_0,t_0+\\tau) $, where $ \\bar{f} $, which is the upper bound of $ \\theta_x(t)x_{hp}(t)+K_r(t)r(t) $, depends only on $ I_0 $. Defining $ g(\\gamma_2, I_0, \\tau)\\equiv 2(\\bar{f}+\\gamma_2I_0\\sqrt{\\tau})e^{I_0\\tau} $, (\\ref{eq:e50}) can be rewritten as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n|u(\\xi)|\\leq g(\\gamma_2, I_0, \\tau),\\ \\forall \\xi\\in[t_0,t_0+\\tau).\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\n\n\nThe rest of the proof is similar to the one given in \\cite{YilAnn10}. Below, a summary of the next steps are given.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Step 2} A delay range $ [0, \\tau_2] $ is found that satisfies the condition (\\ref{eq:e20x}) over the interval $ [t_0, t_0+2\\tau) $ as\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:step2}\n\t2\\tau_2\\left( I_0^2+\\left( max\\left( \\gamma_2,g\\left( \\gamma_2,I_0,\\tau_2 \\right)  \\right)  \\right)^2 (1+\\tau_2) \\right) < q,\n\\end{align} \nwhich leads to $ ||x_{hp}(\\xi)||<I_0 $, $ \\forall\\xi\\in[t_0, t_0+2\\tau) $, $ \\forall \\tau\\in [0, \\bar{\\tau}_2] $, $ \\bar{\\tau}_2=min\\{\\tau_1, \\tau_2\\} $.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Step 3} It is shown in this step that the bound on $ u $ over the interval $ [t_0, t_0+\\tau) $ depends only on $ A_{hp} $, $ B_{hp} $, $ T $ and $ \\tau $, where $ T $ is a value between $ t_0 $ and $ \\tau $. Denoting this upper bound as $ U(I_0) $, we have $ |u(t)|\\leq U(I_0) $, $ t\\in[t_0,t_0+\\tau) $.\n\n\\noindent\n\\textbf{Step 4} Using the calculated upper bound for $ u $ in the previous step, a delay range $ [0, \\tau_2] $ is found that satisfies the condition \n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:step4}\n2\\tau_3\\left( I_0^2+\\left( max\\left( U(I_0),g\\left( U(I_0),I_0,\\tau_3 \\right)  \\right)  \\right)^2 (1+\\tau_3) \\right) < q.\n\\end{align} \nFor $ \\tau^*=min(\\bar{\\tau_2}, \\tau_3) $, $ ||x_{hp}(\\xi)||\\leq I_0 $ and $ |u(\\xi)|\\leq U(I_0) $ for all $ \\xi \\in [t_0, t_0+\\tau] $, $ \\forall \\tau\\in [0, \\tau^*] $.\n\n\n\nThe above four steps show that $ x_{hp}(\\xi) $ and $ u(\\xi) $ are bounded for $ \\forall\\xi\\in[t_0, t_0+k\\tau] $, for $ k=1 $ and $ \\tau  \\in (0, \\tau^*]$. By assuming that $ x_{hp} $ and $ u $ are bounded for a given $ k $, the rest of the proof consists of showing that the boundedness of these variables hold for $ k+1 $. Using this assumption and repeating steps 1-4, which leads to satisfying (\\ref{eq:step4}), we conclude that the Lyapunov function is non-increasing and $ ||x_{hp}(\\xi)|| \\leq I_0 $, and $ |u(\\xi)|\\leq g(U(I_0),I_0,\\tau) $ for $ \\xi\\in [t_0, t_0+(k+1)\\tau] $, $ \\tau \\leq \\tau^* \\leq \\tau_3 $.\nThis completes the boundedness proof using induction.\nThen, using Barbalat's Lemma, it can be shown that the error between the human-in-the-loop system output $ x_{hp} $ and the reference model output $ x_m $ converges to zero.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Experimental Results}\\label{sec:experiment}\n\\subsection{Experimental environment}\n\nIn order to test the proposed adaptive human model against data, an experimental setup consisting of a Logitech Extreme 3D Pro joystick and a Toshiba Portege-Z30-B laptop with Intel Core i7 CPU is used (see Fig. \\ref{fig:setup}). \n\n\n\n\nThe tracking task is performed by an operator monitoring the compensatory display, which provides information about the error between the target to be followed, and follower, which is the output of the plant (see Fig. \\ref{fig:attitudeind}). The operator provides the input $ u_p $ (see Fig. \\ref{fig:f1-2}) through the joystick, which is fed to the plant using MATLAB SIMULINK (R2018b). In return, the response of the plant is calculated and shown on the laptop screen in real-time.\n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=8.5cm]{setup.jpg}    %\n\t\t\\caption{Experimental setup.} \n\t\t\\label{fig:setup}\n\t\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=8.5cm]{attitudeindx.jpg}    %\n\t\t\\caption{Compensatory display.} \n\t\t\\label{fig:attitudeind}\n\t\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThe reference signal $ r(t) $ is generated as a sum of the sinusoids with frequencies of 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 1, 1.3 and 1.5 rad\/s with the same amplitude of 0.2 and without phase shift.\n\n\nThree classes of plant models, having zero, first and second order transfer functions are used in the experiments. In this section, we first give a detailed analysis of the first order plant case and then provide a summary of the results of the other cases in tables. The nominal\nfirst order plant used in the experiments is $ Y_p(s)=\\frac{4}{s+1} $, which is similar to the one used in \\cite{Hess09}. The uncertainty is introduced to the plant model by modifying the gain and the pole location by $ 50\\% $ to obtain $ Y_p(s)=\\frac{6}{s+0.5} $. \n\n\n\n\n\nTo form the reference model (\\ref{eq:e7x}), two parameters, namely the crossover frequency and the time-delay, need to be determined. The highest frequency component of the reference signal is $ \\omega_i=1.5 $ rad\/s. Employing Table I for the first order plant $ Y_p $, the crossover frequency is calculated as $ \\omega_c=4.5 $ rad\/s. The delay is determined by using the mean value of the operators' delay, which is $ \\tau=0.3 $ s. Therefore, the closed loop transfer function of the reference model is calculated as\n\t\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e21xq}\n\t\\begin{aligned}\n\tG_{cl}(s)=\\frac{\\frac{4.5}{s}e^{-0.3s}}{1+\\frac{4.5}{s}e^{-0.3 s}}=\\frac{4.5 e^{-0.3 s}}{s+4.5 e^{-0.3 s}}.\n\t\\end{aligned} \n\t\\end{equation}\n\t\n\tSimilar to (\\ref{eq:e21xqqx}), an approximate transfer function is obtained as\n\t\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:e21xqq}\n\t\\begin{aligned}\n\t\\hat{G}_{cl}(s)=\\frac{3.881s+24.24}{s^2+0.6834s+24.72}e^{-0.3s}.\n\t\\end{aligned} \n\t\\end{equation}\n\tFigure \\ref{fig:bode1} shows a comparison between (\\ref{eq:e21xq}) and (\\ref{eq:e21xqq}), and demonstrates that the approximation works well for almost all frequencies.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=8.5cm]{bode1-eps-converted-to.pdf}    %\n\t\t\\caption{Bode plot of the reference model and its approximation.} \n\t\t\\label{fig:bode1}\n\t\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\nThe neuromuscular dynamics is taken as $ Y_h(s)=\\frac{s+3}{s+2}e^{-0.3s} $, where the time delay $ \\tau=0.3 $ is the effective time delay, including human decision making delay and neuromuscular lags.\n\n\\begin{remark}\\label{rem3}\n\tIn this paper, we assume that the neuromuscular dynamics are given. The procedure for finding the neuromuscular model can be found in \\cite{Mag71, Van04}.  \n\\end{remark}\n\n\\subsection{The behavior of the adaptive model}\n\n\n The error between the plant output and the reference model is illustrated in Figure \\ref{fig:error}. The effect of uncertainty injection can be seen at $ t=70 $ s. Figures \\ref{fig:theta}, \\ref{fig:lambda}, and \\ref{fig:Kr} illustrates the adaptive human model parameters. To understand the amount of agreement between these results and the human experimental trials, visual and statistical analyses are provided in the following sections.\n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=8.5cm]{error-eps-converted-to.pdf}    %\n\t\t\\caption{Time evolution of the error between the output of the plant controlled by the adaptive model, and the reference model output.} \n\t\t\\label{fig:error}\n\t\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=8.5cm]{theta-eps-converted-to.pdf}    %\n\t\t\\caption{Evolution of human adaptive parameters $ \\theta_{x1} $ and $ \\theta_{x2} $.} \n\t\t\\label{fig:theta}\n\t\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=8.5cm]{lambda-eps-converted-to.pdf}    %\n\t\t\\caption{Evolution of human adaptive parameters $ \\lambda_i,\\ i=1, 2, 3 $ and $ 4 $.} \n\t\t\\label{fig:lambda}\n\t\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=8.5cm]{Kr-eps-converted-to.pdf}    %\n\t\t\\caption{Evolution of human adaptive parameter $ K_r $.} \n\t\t\\label{fig:Kr}\n\t\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Participants and experimental procedure\n\nEleven participants (6 women and 5 men) from the graduate and undergraduate student pools of Bilkent University participated the experiment. All of the participants read and signed the ``informed consent to participate\" document. This study is approved by Bilkent University Ethics Committee for research with human participants. Before the experiments, to familiarize the participants with the experimental setup, and its environment, consisting of the display and the joystick, each participant was asked to follow a given reference via joystick inputs for the duration of $ 200 $ seconds. To prevent learning during these warm-up runs, the reference input, uncertainty injection times and the uncertainty types were chosen differently from the ones used in the real experimental runs. Specifically, the reference signal for the warm-up runs consisted of the sum of the sinusoids with frequencies of $ 0.1, 0.5, 1 $ and $ 1.5 $ rad\/s with the same amplitude of $ 0.2 $ and without phase shift. The plant dynamics at the beginning of the warm-up run was $ \\frac{2}{s^2+3s+2} $. At $ t = 45 $ s, the dynamics changed to $ \\frac{5}{s+2} $ in a step like manner (suddenly). It changed to $ \\frac{3}{s+1} $ at around $ t = 90 $ s using a sigmoid function (gradually), and again changed to a zero order dynamics at $ 150 $ s (suddenly). \n\n\n\n\n\n  \n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{A visual analysis of the adaptive model}\n\nLet $ f_{p1}(t), f_{p2}(t), ..., f_{pk}(t) $ be the plant outputs when participants $ p1, p2, ..., pk $ are in the loop, respectively. For each $ f_{pi}(t) $, $ t=T_1, T_2, ..., T_N $, where $ T_j, j=1, 2, ..., N $, represents a sampling instant. At each sampling instant $ T_j $, the minimum, the maximum and the mean values of the plant outputs when participants are in the loop can be obtained as\n\\begin{align}\nf_{p_{min}}(T_j)&=\\min_{i=1, 2, ..., k}f_{pi}(T_j),\\ \\ j=1, ..., N,\\label{eq:estat4} \\\\\nf_{p_{max}}(T_j)&=\\max_{i=1, 2, ..., k}f_{pi}(T_j),\\ \\ j=1, ..., N, \\label{eq:estat5} \\\\\nf_{p_{mean}}(T_j)&=\\frac{\\sum_{i=1}^{k}f_{pi}(T_j)}{k}, \\ \\ j=1, ..., N,\n\\end{align} \n where $ k=11 $ is the number of participants. Figure \\ref{fig:minmaxadapt} shows the evolutions of  $ f_{p_{min}} $ and $ f_{p_{max}} $, together with $ f_{ad}(t)\\in \\mathbb{R}^N $, which is the plant output when adaptive human model is in the loop, where $ t= T_1, T_2, ..., T_N $. It is seen that the plant output when adaptive human model is in the loop almost always stays between the maximum and the minimum values of the plant output when participants are in the loop. Furthermore, Figure \\ref{fig:meanadapt} demonstrates that $ f_{p_{mean}} $ and $ f_{ad} $ evolve reasonably close to each other.\n  \n\n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=9.0cm]{minmaxadapt1-eps-converted-to.pdf}    %\n\t\t\\caption{Plant output, $ x_{hp} $, when adaptive human model is in the loop vs. minimum and maximum values of plant output when participants are in the loop.} \n\t\t\\label{fig:minmaxadapt}\n\t\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=9.0cm]{meanadapt1-eps-converted-to.pdf}    %\n\t\t\\caption{Plant output, $ x_{hp} $, when adaptive human model is in the loop vs. mean value of plant output when participants are in the loop.} \n\t\t\\label{fig:meanadapt}\n\t\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Statistical analysis of the adaptive model using confidence intervals}\n\nThe difference between the plant output when the $ i^{\\text{th}} $ participant is in the loop and when the adaptive human model is in the loop is defined as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:estat1}\n\\begin{aligned}\nd_i\\equiv f_{ad}-f_{pi}, \\ \\ i=1, ..., k,\n\\end{aligned} \n\\end{equation}\nwhere $ d_i=[d_i(T_1), ..., d_i(T_N)]^T\\in \\mathbb{R}^N, i=1, ..., k $, is called the $ i^{\\text{th}} $ difference. The mean and the standard deviation of the $ i $th difference is obtained as\n\\begin{align}\n\\bar{d}_i&= \\frac{\\sum_{j=1}^{N}d_i(T_j)}{N}, \\ \\ i=1, ..., k,\\label{eq:estat2} \\\\\ns_i&=\\sqrt{\\frac{\\sum_{j=1}^{N}(d_i(T_j)-\\bar{d}_i)^2}{N-1}}, \\ \\ i=1, ..., k.\\label{eq:estat3}\n\\end{align}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\t\\begin{center}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=9.0cm]{normalscores-eps-converted-to.pdf}    %\n\t\t\\caption{Normal-scores plot} \n\t\t\\label{fig:normalscores}\n\t\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThe normal-scores plot for $ \\bar{d}_i $ is given in Figure \\ref{fig:normalscores}. The figure does not show any significant deviation from the normal distribution. This shows us that the data do not suggest that the \\textit{population} of mean-errors, $ \\bar{d}_i $, deviates significantly from normal distribution. The \\textit{sample} mean and the \\textit{sample} standard deviation of $ \\bar{d}_i $'s can be obtained as\n\\begin{align}\n\\bar{d}&=\\frac{\\sum_{i=1}^{k}\\bar{d}_i}{k}, \\label{eq:estat6}\\\\\ns&=\\sqrt{\\frac{\\sum_{i=1}^{k}(\\bar{d}_i-\\bar{d})^2}{k-1}}. \\label{eq:estat7}\n\\end{align}\nLet $ \\mu_0 $ be the mean value of the \\textit{population} of mean-errors, given as\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:estat8}\n\\mu_0\\equiv \\frac{\\sum_{i=1}^{K}\\bar{d}_i}{K},\n\\end{align}\nwhere $ K $ is the \\textit{population} size. Since normal-scores plot, given in Figure \\ref{fig:normalscores}, didn't provide any counter evidence, assuming that the distribution of the set of data $ \\{\\bar{d}_1, ..., \\bar{d}_K\\} $ is normal with mean $ \\mu_0 $, $ \\mu_0 $ satisfies the following probability \\cite{Joh19}\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:estat9}\nP\\left[\\bar{d}-t_{\\alpha\/2}\\frac{s}{\\sqrt{k}}<\\mu_0<\\bar{d}+t_{\\alpha\/2}\\frac{s}{\\sqrt{k}} \\right]=1-\\alpha,\n\\end{align}\nwhere $ \\bar{d} $ and $ s $ are obtained from (\\ref{eq:estat6}-\\ref{eq:estat7}), $ k $ is the number of participants, $ \\alpha $ is the significance level, and $ t_{\\alpha\/2} $ is the upper $ \\alpha\/2 $ point of the $ t $ distribution with degree of freedom $ k-1 $, which can be obtained from the $ t $-distribution table. Since the number of participants, $ k=11 $, is less than $ 30 $, it is appropriate to use the $ t $-distribution.\nUsing $ \\alpha=0.05 $, obtaining $ t_{\\alpha\/2} $ from the $ t $-distribution table as $ 2.228 $, and calculating $ \\bar{d} $ as $ -0.0068 $ and $ s $ as $ 0.0379 $, it can be concluded using (\\ref{eq:estat9}) that we are $ 95\\% $ confident that $ \\mu_0 $ is in the interval $ (-0.0323, 0.0187) $. This shows that the mean $ \\mu_0 $ of the \\textit{population}'s mean deviation from the adaptive human model is reasonably close to zero. \n\n\n\nSimilarly, the variance, $ \\sigma_0^2 $, of the \\textit{population}'s mean deviation from the adaptive human model satisfies the following probability \n\\cite{Joh19}\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:estat11}\nP\\left[\\frac{(k-1)s^2}{\\chi_{\\alpha\/2}^2}<\\sigma_0^2<\\frac{(k-1)s^2}{\\chi_{1-\\alpha\/2}^2} \\right]=1-\\alpha,\n\\end{align}\nwhere $ \\chi_{\\alpha\/2}^2 $ is the upper $ {\\alpha\/2} $ point of the $ \\chi^2 $ distribution with degree of freedom $ k-1 $ and can be obtained from the $ \\chi^2 $ distribution table. Calculating $ s $ from (\\ref{eq:estat7}), using $ \\alpha = 0.05 $, and obtaining $ \\chi_{\\alpha\/2}^2 $ and $ \\chi_{1-\\alpha\/2}^2 $ from the $ \\chi^2 $ table with $ 10 $ degrees of freedom, it can be concluded using (\\ref{eq:estat11}) that we are $ 95\\% $ confident that $ \\sigma_0 $ is in the interval $ (0.0265,\\ 0.0663) $. This shows that the standard deviation $ \\sigma_0 $ of the \\textit{population}'s mean deviation from the adaptive human model is reasonably small. \n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Statistical analysis of the adaptive model using hypothesis testing}\n\n\n\n\n\nIn this analysis, we test whether the hypothesis ``the mean value of the \\textit{population} mean-errors, or the mean deviations from the adaptive model,\" is zero. In other words, our null hypothesis, $ H_0 $, is given as\n\\begin{align}\nH_0: \\mu_0=0,\n\\end{align}\nwhere $ \\mu_0 $ is defined in (\\ref{eq:estat8}). The alternative hypothesis, $ H_1 $, is given as $ H_1: \\mu\\neq 0 $. Similar to the confidence interval analysis, assuming that $ \\mu_0 $ is the mean of a normally distributed set of data $ \\{\\bar{d}_1, ..., \\bar{d}_K\\} $ where $ K $ is the \\textit{population} size, the hypothesis $ H_0 $ is rejected if,\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:estat10}\n\\left| \\frac{(\\bar{d}-\\mu_0)\\sqrt{k}}{s}\\right| \\geq t_{\\alpha\/2},\n\\end{align}\nwhere $ \\bar{d} $ and $ s $ are obtained from (\\ref{eq:estat6}-\\ref{eq:estat7}), $ k $ is the number of participants and $ t_{\\alpha\/2} $ is the upper $ \\alpha\/2 $ point of the $ t $ distribution with degree of freedom $ k-1 $ \\cite{Joh19}. Using the significance level $ \\alpha=0.05 $ and degree of freedom $ k-1=10 $, obtaining $ t_{0.025}=2.228 $ from the $ t $-distribution table, calculating $ \\bar{d}=-0.0068 $ and $ s=0.038 $ using (\\ref{eq:estat6}) and (\\ref{eq:estat7}), respectively, and substituting $ \\mu_0=0 $ and $ k=11 $, the left hand side of (\\ref{eq:estat10}) can be calculated as $ 0.5935 $, which is less than $ t_{\\alpha\/2} $. Therefore, we cannot reject $ H_0 $. We retain $ H_0 $ and conclude that $ H_1 $ fails to be proved.\n \nSince we are retaining the null hypothesis, we want to minimize the probability $ \\beta $ of incorrectly retaining the null hypothesis. This means that we want our test's power, $ 1-\\beta $, to be large, such as $ 0.95 $. What is the minimum required deviation of the \\textit{population} mean from $ 0 $, represented as $ \\mu_1 $, that would make our test to incorrectly retain the null hypothesis with $ 0.05 $ probability, i.e. $ \\beta=0.05 $? To calculate this, we first write the rejection region, $ R $, using (\\ref{eq:estat10}) as\n\\begin{align}\nR:\\ \\left| \\frac{(\\bar{d}-\\mu_0)\\sqrt{k}}{s}\\right| \\geq t_{\\alpha\/2}\\ \n \\implies R:\\ |\\bar{d}|\\geq 0.0255.\n\\end{align}\nDefining $ T=\\frac{(\\bar{d}-\\mu_1)\\sqrt{k}}{s} $, for $ \\beta=0.05 $, we need\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:estat12}\n&P\\left[ \\frac{(-0.0255-\\mu_1)\\sqrt{k}}{s}<T<\\frac{(0.0255-\\mu_1)\\sqrt{k}}{s} \\right]  \\notag \\\\\n&=\\frac{\\beta}{2}=0.025.\n\\end{align}\nUsing the $ t $-table, it can be found that the minimum $ |\\mu_1| $ that satisfies (\\ref{eq:estat12}) is $ 0.051 $. This means that our test can detect an $ 0.051 $ deviation from the mean value of the mean-error between the adaptive human model and the participant data when the probability of the test to incorrectly conclude that the model and the data are compatible ($ \\mu_0=0 $) is only $ 5\\% $. \n\n\\begin{table}\\label{table2}\n\n\t\\caption{Sudden uncertainty}\n\t\\centering\n\t\\begin{tabular}{ | c | c | c | c | }\n\t\t\\hline \n\t\t& 0 order & 1st order & 2nd order \\\\\n\t\t\\hline \n\t\tTF before $ 70 $ s & $ 4 $ & $ \\frac{4}{s+1} $ & $ \\frac{4}{(s+1)(s+5)} $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\tTF after $ 70 $ s & $ 6 $ & $ \\frac{6}{s+0.5} $ & $ \\frac{6}{(s+0.5)(s+2.5)} $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\t$ \\bar{d} $ & $ 0.0085 $ & $ -0.0068 $ & $ 0.0011 $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline \n\t\t$ s $ & $ 0.0339 $ & $ 0.0379 $ & $ 0.0252 $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\tMean conf. int. & $ (-0.014, 0.03) $ & $ (-0.032, 0.02) $ & $ (-0.016, 0.018) $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\tSt.d. conf. int. & $ (0.024, 0.06) $ &  $ (0.026, 0.066) $ & $ (0.018, 0.044) $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\tHypothesis test & $ H_0 $ is retained & $ H_0 $ is retained  & $ H_0 $ is retained \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\\end{tabular}\n\\end{table} \n\\begin{table}\\label{table3}\n\n\t\\caption{Gradual uncertainty}\n\t\\centering\n\t\\begin{tabular}{ | c | c | c | c | }\n\t\t\\hline \n\t\t& 0 order & 1st order & 2nd order \\\\\n\t\t\\hline \n\t\tTF before $ 70 $ s & $ 4 $ & $ \\frac{4}{s+1} $ & $ \\frac{4}{(s+1)(s+5)} $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\tTF after $ 70 $ s & $ 6 $ & $ \\frac{6}{s+0.5} $ & $ \\frac{6}{(s+0.5)(s+2.5)} $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\t$ \\bar{d} $ & $ 0.0154 $ & $ 0.0026 $ & $ 0.004 $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline \n\t\t$ s $ & $ 0.038 $ & $ 0.034 $ & $ 0.03 $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\tMean conf. int. & $ (-0.01, 0.04) $ & $ (-0.02, 0.025) $ & $ (-0.016, 0.023) $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\tSt.d. conf. int. & $ (0.026, 0.067) $ & $ (0.0235, 0.06) $ & $ (0.02, 0.05) $ \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\tHypothesis test & $ H_0 $ is retained & $ H_0 $ is retained  & $ H_0 $ is retained \\\\\n\t\t\\hline\n\t\\end{tabular}\n\\end{table} \n\n\n\nAnalyses of the experimental results where a first order plant dynamics is used with a sudden uncertainty injection is provided above. All of the results, including the ones for the other cases, where plants with different orders and sudden\/gradual uncertainty injections, are summarized in Tables II and III.\nThe data collected from the participants can be reached at \\href{http:\/\/www.syslab.bilkent.edu.tr\/research}{http:\/\/www.syslab.bilkent.edu.tr\/research}.\n\n\n\n\n\\section{SUMMARY}\\label{sec:conclusion}\n\nIn this paper, an adaptive human pilot model based on model reference adaptive control principles is proposed. This model mimics the pilot decision making process by making sure that the overall closed loop system follows the crossover model in the presence of plant uncertainties. The stability of the system is shown using the Lyapunov-Krasovskii stability criteria. Furthermore, experiments with human operators are conducted to validate the model. Detailed visual and statistical analyses of the experimental results show that the adaptive model creates similar system responses as the human operators. \n\n                                 \n                                 \n                                 \n                                 \n                                 \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\bibliographystyle{ieeetr}\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\nWe study the Marshall-Peierls sign rule (MPSR) for the frustrated\nspin-${1\\over2}$ Heisenberg antiferromagnet\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{H12}\n{\\rm \\hat H} =J_1 \\sum_{\\langle {\\bf NN} \\rangle} {\\bf S_i} {\\bf S}_{\\bf\nj} + J_2 \\sum_{\\langle {\\bf NNN} \\rangle} {\\bf S_i} {\\bf S}_{\\bf j},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\langle {\\bf NN}\\rangle$ and $\\langle {\\bf NNN}\\rangle$ denote\nnearest-neighbor and next-nearest-neighbor bonds on a linear chain or a\nsquare lattice.\n\nAccording to Marshall's early work in 1955 \\cite{Marshall:1955} we know\nthe relative phases of the Ising basis states building the ground state\nwave function of a bipartite spin-${1\\over2}$ Heisenberg antiferromagnet\n(MPSR, for more details see below). Later on Lieb and Mattis generalized\nthe theorem to arbitrary site spins and bipartite lattices without\ntranslational symmetries \\cite{Lieb:1961,Lieb:1962}. The knowledge of\nthe sign is of great importance for the construction of variational wave\nfunctions (see e.g. \\cite{Richter:zpb93}) and for quantum Monte Carlo\nprocedures which may have the so-called minus-sign problem if the MPSR\nis violated (see e.g.\\cite{Raedt}). In particular, the possible\nviolation of the MPSR in frustrated systems is a serious problem for\nvariational and quantum  Monte Carlo procedures.\n\nFor the considered model (\\ref{H12}) the MPSR can be proved for $J_2 \\le\n0$. In the frustrated model ($J_2 > 0$) the MPSR can be destroyed\n\\cite{Richter:zpb93,Kitatani:92,Richter:epl94}. However, in a recent\nwork \\cite{Richter:zpb93,Richter:epl94} we have presented general\narguments that the MPSR may survive for relatively large $J_2$. These\narguments are based on exact diagonalization results for small clusters\n(number of sites $N \\le 24$), as well as on the spin wave approximation.\nFollowing these arguments Zeng and Parkinson \\cite{Zeng:prb95} use the\nMPSR as a new way of investigating the spatial periodicity in the ground\nstate of frustrated spin chains. Furthermore, they studied the breakdown\nof the MPSR as a function of the chain length and the frustrating $J_2$.\nBy finite size extrapolation they estimated a finite critical value for\n$J_2$ for an infinite chain of about $0.03J_1$ where the MPSR is\nviolated in the ground state.\n\nBecause of the exponential growth of the number of basis states the\ndirect numerical calculation of the singlet ground state is limited to\nsmall clusters and the conclusions obtained from small systems seem not\nto be quite reliable.\n\nIn this paper we exploit the observation that the MPSR holds not only\nfor the singlet ground state but also for every lowest eigenstate in any\nsubspace with higher quantum number $M \\le {N\\over2}$ of the z-component\nof the total spin. In these subspaces the number of basis states is\nreduced and it is possible to diagonalize much larger systems. With this\ndata an approximation to the thermodynamic limit is more reliable. Below\nwe present data up to $N\\le144$ and we can conclude that the MPSR\nsurvives indeed a finite frustration $J_2$ at least for states with\nhigher quantum numbers $M$.\n\n\\section{Marshall Peierls sign rule}\nIn the unfrustrated limit $J_2=0$ the lowest eigenstate of the\nHamiltonian (\\ref{H12}) in each subspace of fixed eigenvalue $M$ of the\nspin operator $S_{total}^z$ reads\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{GZ:Phi}\n\\Psi_{M} = \\sum_{m}{c_{m}^{(M)}|m \\rangle} \\hspace{0.2cm},\n\\hspace{0.5cm} c_{m}^{(M)}>0 \\hspace{0.2cm}.\n\\end{equation}\nHere the Ising states $|m\\rangle$ are defined by\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{m}\n|m\\rangle \\equiv (-1)^{S_A-M_A}|m_1\\rangle \\otimes |m_2 \\rangle \\otimes\n\\cdots \\otimes |m_N\\rangle \\hspace{0.2cm},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $|m_i\\rangle,\\hspace{0.2cm}i=1,\\cdots,N$, are the eigenstates of\nthe site spin operator $S_{i}^{z}$ ($ -s_{i} \\leq m_{i} \\leq s_i$),\n$S_A= \\sum_{i\\in A}s_i$, $M_{A(B)}=\\sum_{i\\in A(B)}m_i$, $M=M_A+M_B$.\nThe lattice consists of two equivalent sublattices $A$ and $B$.\n$s_i\\equiv s$, $i=1,\\cdots,N$, are the site spins. The summations in\nEq.(\\ref{GZ:Phi}) are restricted by the condition $\\sum_{i=1}^N m_i=M$.\nThe wave function (\\ref{GZ:Phi}) is not only an eigenstate of the\nunfrustrated Hamiltonian ($J_2=0$) and $S_{total}^z$ but simultaneously\nof the square of the total spin ${\\bf S}_{total}^2$ with quantum number\n$S=\\mid \\!M \\! \\mid$. Because $c_m^{(M)}>0$ is valid for each $m$ from\nthe basis set (\\ref{m}) it is impossible to build up other orthonormal\nstates without using negative amplitudes $c_m^{(M)}$. Hence the ground\nstate wave function $\\Psi_M$ is nondegenerated.\n\nFor the lowest energy eigenvalues $E(S)$ belonging to the subspace $M$\nwe have the Lieb-Mattis level-ordering\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{e}\nE(S)<E(S+1) \\hspace{0.2cm}, \\hspace{0.2cm} S\\geq 0 \\hspace{0.5cm},\n\\end{equation}\ni.e. the ground state is a singlet. Note that this level ordering might\nbe violated by frustration. However, a lot of numerical calculations\nshow the same level ordering also for strongly frustrated systems\n\\cite{Bernu92,Richter95}.\n\n\n\\section{Analytic Solutions}\nNow we include frustration ($J_2>0$). In the subspace with maximum\n$M=N\/2$ the MPSR is never violated in any dimension. Here the only\npossible state is the fully polarized ferromagnetic state which does not\nchange with increasing $J_2$.\n\nIn the next subspace $M=(N\/2)-1$ analytic solutions are found for linear\nchains and square lattices. In this subspace we deal with the so-called\none-magnon state, where the wave function can be expressed as a\nBloch-wave with a given $\\vec k$.\n\n{\\it Linear Chain} - In this case the solution can be found by comparing\nthe energies as a function of the wave vector $\\vec k$.\n\\begin{equation}\nE(k) = J_1 ( {N\\over 4} -1 + \\cos(k) ) + J_2 ( {N\\over 4} -1 +  \\cos(2k) )\n\\end{equation}\nwith $\\vec k = {2 \\pi\\over N} i , i=0,\\pm1,\\pm2,\\ldots,+{N\\over2} $.\nThe comparison of $E(\\pi)$ and $E({2 \\pi\\over N}({N\\over2}-1))$ yields the\nequation for the critical $J_2$\n\\begin{equation}\nJ_2^c = J_1 {1 + \\cos \\left[ \\pi (1- {2 \\over N}) \\right] \\over\n                1 - \\cos \\left[ 2\\pi (1- {2 \\over N}) \\right] } .\n\\end{equation}\nIn the limit $N \\rightarrow \\infty$ one obtains $J_2^c={1\\over4}J_1$.\n\n{\\it Square lattice} -\nFor small $J_2$ in the considered subspace  the lowest energy is\nobtained for  $\\vec k=(\\pi,\\pi)$ and reads $E_1=J_1(N-8)+J_2N$. The\ncorresponding eigenfunction fulfills the MPSR. For larger $J_2$ we have\nto distinguish between two cases: (a) If the number of spins in the\nsublattice $N\/2$ is even we find a transition at $J_2=(J_1\/2)$ to a\ntwofold degenerated ground state with $\\vec k =(\\pi,0)$ or $\\vec k\n=(0,\\pi)$ with an energy $E_2=J_1(N-4)+J_2(N-8)$. This state violates\nthe MPSR, i.e. we have $J_2^c={1\\over2}J_1$. Notice, that  the\neigenfunctions with $\\vec k =(\\pi,0)$ or $\\vec k =(0,\\pi)$ fulfill the\nso-called product-MPSR \\cite{Richter:zpb93}. (b) If the number of spins\nin the sublattice is odd (e.g. $N=26$), the situation is more\ncomplicated. The energy levels cross each other for $J_2^{c}$ slightly\ngreater than ${1\\over2}J_1$.\n\n\\section{Numerical Results}\nIn subspaces with lower quantum numbers $M < (N\/2)-1$ we cannot find\nsimple expressions for the eigenvalues and eigenfunctions. Hence, we\npresent exact diagonalization data for $M\\le(N\/2)-2$. Using a modified\nLanczos procedure we calculate in every subspace $M$ the state with the\nlowest energy $E_0(M)$. Since the number of Ising basis states increases\nexponentially as ${N \\choose N-M}$, one can calculate $E_0(M)$ for {\\bf\nall} $M={N\\over2},\\ldots,0$ only for relatively small systems (in our\ncase $N \\le 26$). However, in subspaces with larger $M$ we are able to\npresent data for $N$ up to $144$. In all cases we use periodic boundary\nconditions. Analyzing the eigenfunction with respect to the MPSR we can\ndetermine numerically the critical $J_2^{c}$ where the MPSR is violated.\n\n{\\it Linear Chain} - In Fig.\\ref{fig1} we show $J_2^{c}$ as a function\nof $1\/N$. For $M(N) = (N\/2)-1$ the analytic result is drawn. For the\nnext $M(N) = (N\/2)-2$ the data show a similar behavior with the same\ncritical value of $J_2={1\\over4}$ for $N\\rightarrow \\infty$. By\nconsidering the numerical data an analytic solution can be predicted\n\\begin{equation}\nJ_2^c = J_1{1 + \\cos \\left[ \\pi (1- {2 \\over (N-1)}) \\right] \\over\n                1 - \\cos \\left[ 2\\pi (1- {2 \\over (N-1)}) \\right] } .\n\\end{equation}\nThe following subspaces $M(N)=(N\/2)-p$, $p>2$ show a different behavior\nwith different critical values for $J_2$ if $N\\rightarrow \\infty$. These\ncritical values decrease for increasing $p$ but evidently a finite\nregion with a non-violated MPSR is preserved.\n\nIn Fig.\\ref{fig2} the critical  $J^c_2$ is shown as a function of a\nrenormalized \\linebreak $M_r = M(N)\/(N\/2) $ for small systems\n($N=8,\\ldots,26$) over the full range of $M_r$. $M_r=1$ is the ground\nstate subspace for a ferromagnet and $M_r=0$ for an antiferromagnet. The\nfinite size extrapolation for the ground state with $M_r=0$ yields a\nsmall but finite critical value $J^c_2 \\approx 0.03J_1$ which\ncorresponds to the value estimated by Zeng and Parkinson in\n\\cite{Zeng:prb95}. The monotonic decrease of $J_2^{c}$ with decreasing\n$M_r$ indicates a finite region of a validity of the MPSR for all $M_r$.\n\n{\\it Square lattice} - In Fig.\\ref{fig3} we show $J_2^{c}$ as a function\nof $1\/N$. Here the $N$ dependence is less regular and a finite size\nextrapolation is much more difficult. This is mainly connected with the\nshape of the periodic boundaries. For some of the finite lattices the\nboundaries are parallel to the x- and y-axis (e.g. for $N=$4x4,\n6x6,...,12x12) whereas for other lattices the boundaries are inclined\n(e.g. $N=18,20,32$, see e.g \\cite{Oitmaa79}). The impression of an\noscillating behavior of $J_2^c$ versus $1\/N$ stems just from the\nalternation of parallel and inclined finite lattices. Nevertheless, it\nis evident that the critical $J^c_2$ goes to a finite value for\n$N\\rightarrow \\infty$. An extrapolation to the thermodynamic limit for\nthe antiferromagnetic ground state, i.e. subspace $M=0$, is almost\nimpossible for the square lattice. However, if we assume for $M=0$ that\nthe $J_2^c$ is almost independent of $1\/N$ for $N>16$ (as it is\nsuggested by Fig.\\ref{fig3} and by spin wave theory) we could estimate\nfrom our data for $N=10,16,18,20$ a critical value of about $0.2 \\ldots\n0.3$.\n\nFig.\\ref{fig4} supports this estimation. Here the critical $J_2^c$ is\nshown for different small lattices $N \\le 34$ as a function of $M_r$. It\nis seen that for $M_r \\le 0.6$ the critical $J_2^c$ does not strongly\ndepend on $M_r$ (in contrast to the linear chain, where we have a\nmonotonic decrease) and gives for all the lattices a value of about\n$0.3J_1$ for the antiferromagnetic ground state ($M_r=0$).\n\n\\section{Conclusion}\nFor linear chains and square lattices we have shown, that in subspaces\nwith large quantum number $M$ of the spin operator $S_{total}^z$, the\nMarshall-Peierls sign rule is preserved up to a fairly large frustration\nparameter $J_2^{c}$.\n\nMoreover, for linear chains the finite size extrapolation is quite\nreliable even for the singlet ground state and yields for {\\bf all} $M$\na finite parameter region for $J_2$ where the MPSR is valid.\n\nFor square lattices we observe in general higher critical values $J_2^c$\ncompared to linear chains. From this observation and from the\nextrapolation for subspaces with higher $M$ we argue that for square\nlattices the MPSR is stable against a finite frustration in all\nsubspaces, too.\n\n\n\\section{Acknowledgments}\nThis work has been supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft\n(Project No. Ri 615\/1-2) and the Bulgarian Science Foundation (Grant\nF412\/94).\n\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\\label{sIntroduction}\n\nA complex $b$-manifold is a smooth manifold with boundary together with a complex $b$-structure. The latter is a smooth involutive subbundle ${}^b{\\!}T^{0,1}\\mathcal M$ of the complexification $\\mathbb C{}^b{\\!}T\\mathcal M$ of Melrose's $b$-tangent bundle \\cite{RBM1,RBM2} with the property that\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathbb C{}^b{\\!}T\\mathcal M = {}^b{\\!}T^{0,1}\\mathcal M + \\overline{{}^b{\\!}T^{0,1}\\mathcal M}\n\\end{equation*}\nas a direct sum. Manifolds with complex $b$-structures generalize the situation that arises as a result of spherical and certain anisotropic (not complex) blowups of complex manifolds at a discrete set of points or along a complex submanifold, cf. \\cite[Section 2]{Me3}, \\cite{Me5}, as well as (real) blow-ups of complex analytic  varieties with only point singularities.\n\nThe interior of $\\mathcal M$ is a complex manifold. Its $\\overline \\partial$-complex determines a $b$-elliptic complex, the ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial$-complex, on sections of the exterior powers of the dual of ${}^b{\\!}T^{0,1}\\mathcal M$, see Section~\\ref{sPreliminaries}. The indicial families $\\overline\\D(\\sigma)$ of the ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial$-operators at a connected component $\\mathcal N$ of $\\partial \\mathcal M$ give, for each $\\sigma$, an elliptic complex, see Section~\\ref{sIndicialComplex}. Their cohomology at the various values of $\\sigma$ determine the asymptotics at $\\mathcal N$ of tempered representatives of cohomology classes of the ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial$-complex, in particular of tempered holomorphic functions. \n\nEach boundary component $\\mathcal N$ of $\\mathcal M$ inherits from ${}^b{\\!}T^{0,1}\\mathcal M$ the following objects in the $C^\\infty$ category:\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item an involutive vector subbundle $\\overline\\Vee\\subset \\mathbb C T\\mathcal N$ such that $\\mathcal V+\\overline\\Vee=\\mathbb C T\\mathcal N$;\n\\item a real nowhere vanishing vector field $\\mathcal T$ such that $\\mathcal V\\cap\\overline\\Vee=\\Span_\\mathbb C\\mathcal T$;\n\\item a class $\\pmb \\beta$ of sections of $\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*$,\n\\end{enumerate}\nwhere the elements of $\\pmb \\beta$ have additional properties, described in (4) below. The vector bundle $\\overline\\Vee$, being involutive, determines a complex of first order differential operators $\\overline\\Dee$ on sections of the exterior powers of $\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*$, elliptic because of the second property in (1) above. To that list add\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item [(4)] If $\\beta\\in \\pmb \\beta$ then $\\overline\\Dee\\beta=0$ and $\\Im\\langle \\beta,\\mathcal T\\rangle=-1$, and if $\\beta$, $\\beta'\\in\\pmb\\beta$, then $\\beta'-\\beta=\\overline\\Dee u$ with $u$ real-valued.\n\\end{enumerate}\nThese properties, together with the existence of a Hermitian metric on $\\overline\\Vee$ invariant under $\\mathcal T$ make $\\mathcal N$ behave in many ways as the circle bundle of a holomorphic line bundle over a compact complex manifold. These analogies are investigated in  \\cite{Me6,Me7,Me8,Me9}. The last of these papers contains a detailed account of circle bundles from the perspective of these boundary structures. The paper \\cite{Me4}, a predecessor of the present one, contains some facts studied here in more detail.\n\n\n\\medskip\nThe paper is organized as follows. Section~\\ref{sPreliminaries} deals with the definition of complex $b$-structure and Section~\\ref{sHolomorphicVectorBundles} with holomorphic vector bundles over complex $b$-manifolds (the latter term just means that the $b$-tangent bundle takes on a primary role over that of the usual tangent bundle). The associated Dolbeault complexes are defined in these sections accordingly.\n\nSection~\\ref{sBoundaryStructure} is a careful account of the structure inherited by the boundary.\n\nIn Section~\\ref{sLocalInvariants} we show that complex $b$-structures have no formal local invariants at boundary points. The issue here is that we do not have a Newlander-Nirenberg theorem that is valid in a neighborhoods of a point of the boundary, so no explicit local model for $b$-manifolds.\n\nSection~\\ref{sIndicialComplex} is devoted to general aspects of $b$-elliptic first order complexes $A$. We introduce here the set $\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^q(A)$, the boundary spectrum of the complex in degree $q$ at the component $\\mathcal N$ of $\\mathcal M$, and prove basic properties of the boundary spectrum (assuming that the boundary component $\\mathcal N$ is compact), including some aspects concerning Mellin transforms of $A$-closed forms. Some of these ideas are illustrated using the $b$-de Rham complex.\n\nSection~\\ref{sUnderlyingCRcomplexes} is a systematic study of the $\\overline \\partial_b$-complex of CR structures on $\\mathcal N$ associated with elements of the class $\\pmb \\beta$. Each $\\beta\\in \\pmb\\beta$ defines a CR structure, $\\overline \\K_\\beta=\\ker \\beta$. Assuming that $\\overline\\Vee$ admits a $\\mathcal T$-invariant Hermitian metric, we show that there is $\\beta\\in \\pmb \\beta$ such that the CR structure $\\overline \\K_\\beta$ is $\\mathcal T$-invariant.\n\nIn Section~\\ref{sSpectrum} we assume that $\\overline\\Vee$ is $\\mathcal T$-invariant and show that for $\\mathcal T$-invariant CR structures, a theorem proved in \\cite{Me9} gives that the cohomology spaces of the associated $\\overline \\partial_b$-complex, viewed as the kernel of the Kohn Laplacian at the various degrees, split into eigenspaces of $-i\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T$. The eigenvalues of the latter operator are related to the indicial spectrum of the ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial$-complex.\n\nIn Section~\\ref{sIndicialCohomology} we prove a precise theorem on the indicial cohomology and spectrum for the ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial$-complex under the assumption that $\\overline\\Vee$ admits a $\\mathcal T$-invariant Hermitian metric.\n\nFinally, we have included a very short appendix listing a number of basic definitions in connection with $b$-operators. \n\n\n\\section{Complex $b$-structures}\\label{sPreliminaries}\n\nLet $\\mathcal M$ be a smooth manifold with smooth boundary. An almost CR $b$-structure on $\\mathcal M$ is a subbundle $\\overline\\W$ of the complexification, $\\mathbb C{}^b{\\!}T\\mathcal M\\to\\mathcal M$ of the $b$-tangent bundle of $\\mathcal M$ (Melrose \\cite{RBM1,RBM2}) such that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{bCRstructure}\n\\mathcal W\\cap \\overline\\W=0\n\\end{equation}\nwith $\\mathcal W=\\overline\\W$. If in addition \n\\begin{equation}\\label{bElliptic}\n\\mathcal W + \\overline\\W=\\mathbb C{}^b{\\!}T\\mathcal M\n\\end{equation}\nthen we say that $\\overline\\W$ is an almost complex $b$-structure and write ${}^b{\\!}T^{0,1}\\mathcal M$ instead of $\\overline\\W$ and ${}^b{\\!}T^{1,0}\\mathcal M$ for its conjugate. As is customary, the adverb ``almost'' is dropped if $\\mathcal W$ is involutive. Note that since $C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}T\\mathcal M)$ is a Lie algebra, it makes sense to speak of involutive subbundles of ${}^b{\\!}T\\mathcal M$ (or its complexification). \n\n\\begin{definition}\nA complex $b$-manifold is a manifold together with a complex $b$-structure.\n\\end{definition}\n\nBy the Newlander-Nirenberg Theorem~\\cite{NeNi57}, the interior of complex $b$-manifold is a complex manifold. However, its boundary is not a CR manifold; rather, as we shall see, it naturally carries a family of CR structures parametrized by the defining functions of $\\partial\\mathcal M$ in $\\mathcal M$ which are positive in $\\open \\mathcal M$.\n\n\\medskip\nThat $C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}T\\mathcal M)$ is a Lie algebra is an immediate consequence of the definition of the $b$-tangent bundle, which indeed can be characterized as being a vector bundle ${}^b{\\!}T\\mathcal M\\to\\mathcal M$ together with a vector bundle homomorphism \n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathrm{ev}:{}^b{\\!}T\\mathcal M\\to T\\mathcal M\n\\end{equation*}\ncovering the identity such that the induced map\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathrm{ev}_*:C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}T\\mathcal M)\\to C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;T\\mathcal M)\n\\end{equation*}\nis a $C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;\\mathbb R)$-module isomorphism onto the submodule $C^\\infty_{\\tan}(\\mathcal M;T\\mathcal M)$ of smooth vector fields on $\\mathcal M$ which are tangential to the boundary of $\\mathcal M$. Since $C^\\infty_{\\tan}(\\mathcal M,T\\mathcal M)$ is closed under Lie brackets, there is an induced Lie bracket on $C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}T\\mathcal M)$ The homomorphism $\\mathrm{ev}$ is an isomorphism over the interior of $\\mathcal M$, and its restriction to the boundary,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{evbM}\n\\mathrm{ev}_{\\partial\\mathcal M}:{}^b{\\!}T_{\\partial\\mathcal M}\\mathcal M\\to T\\partial\\mathcal M\n\\end{equation}\nis surjective. Its kernel, a fortiori a rank-one bundle, is spanned by a canonical section denoted $\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r$. Here and elsewhere, $\\mathfrak r$ refers to any smooth defining function for $\\partial \\mathcal M$ in $\\mathcal M$, by convention positive in the interior of $\\mathcal M$.\n\nAssociated with a complex $b$-structure on $\\mathcal M$ there is a Dolbeault complex. Let ${}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,q}\\mathcal M$ denote the $q$-th exterior power of the dual of ${}^b{\\!}T^{0,1}M$. Then the operator\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\cdots\\to C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,q}\\mathcal M)\\xrightarrow{{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial} C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,q+1}\\mathcal M) \\to \\cdots\n\\end{equation*}\nis define by \n\\begin{multline}\\label{CartanFormula}\n(q+1)\\,{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial\\phi(V_0,\\dotsc,V_q)=\\sum_{j=0}^q V_j\\phi(V_0,\\dotsc,\\hat V_j,\\dotsc,V_q)\\\\\n +\\sum_{j<k}(-1)^{j+k}\\phi([V_j,V_k],V_0,\\dotsc,\\hat V_j,\\dotsc,\\hat V_k,\\dotsc,V_q)\n\\end{multline}\nas with the standard de Rham differential (see Helgason~\\cite[p.~21]{He}) whenever $\\phi$ is a smooth section of ${}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\mathcal M$ and $V_0,\\dotsc,V_q\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}T^{0,1}\\mathcal M)$. In this formula $V_j$ acts on functions via the vector field $\\mathrm{ev}_*V_j$. The involutivity of ${}^b{\\!}T^{0,1}\\mathcal M$ is used in the the terms involving brackets, of course. The same proof that $d\\circ d=0$ works here to give that ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial^2=0$. The formula\n\\begin{equation}\n{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial(f\\phi)=f\\,{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial\\phi+{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial f\\wedge \\phi\\text{ for } \\phi\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\mathcal M) \\text{ and } f\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal M),\n\\end{equation}\nimplies that ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial$ is a  first order operator.\n\nSince we do not have at our disposal holomorphic frames (near the boundary) for the bundles of forms of type $(p,q)$ for $p>0$, we define ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial$ on forms of type $(p,q)$ with $p>0$ with the aid of the $b$-de Rham complex, exactly as in Foland and Kohn~\\cite{FK} for standard complex structures and de Rham complex. The $b$-de Rham complex, we recall from Melrose~\\cite{RBM2}, is the complex associated with the dual, $\\mathbb C{}^b{\\!}T^*\\mathcal M$, of $\\mathbb C{}^b{\\!}T\\mathcal M$,\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\cdots\\to C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^r\\mathcal M)\\xrightarrow{{}^b\\!d} C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{r+1}\\mathcal M) \\to \\cdots\n\\end{equation*}\nwhere ${}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\mathcal M$ denotes the $r$-th exterior power of $\\mathbb C{}^b{\\!}T^*\\mathcal M$. The operators ${}^b\\!d$ are defined by the same formula as \\eqref{CartanFormula}, now however with the $V_j\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;\\mathbb C{}^b{\\!}T\\mathcal M)$. On functions $f$ we have \n\\begin{equation*}\n{}^b\\!d f=\\mathrm{ev}^*df.\n\\end{equation*}\nMore generally,\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathrm{ev}^* \\circ d = {}^b\\!d\\circ \\mathrm{ev}^*\n\\end{equation*}\nin any degree. Also,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{FirstOrder}\n{}^b\\!d(f\\phi)=f\\,{}^b\\!d\\phi+{}^b\\!d f\\wedge \\phi\\text{ for } \\phi\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^r\\mathcal M) \\text{ and } f\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal M).\n\\end{equation}\nIt is convenient to note here that for $f\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal M)$,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{VanishingOnBdy}\n\\text{${}^b\\!d f$ vanishes on $\\partial \\mathcal M$ if $f$ does.}\n\\end{equation}\n\nNow, with the obvious definition,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{SpittingOfDeRham}\n{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^r\\mathcal M=\\bigoplus_{p+q=r}{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{p,q}\\mathcal M.\n\\end{equation}\nUsing the special cases \n\\begin{gather*}\n {}^b\\!d:C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,1})\\to C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{1,1})+C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,2}),\\\\\n {}^b\\!d:C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{1,0})\\to C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{2,0})+C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{1,1}),\n\\end{gather*}\nconsequences of the involutivity of ${}^b{\\!}T^{0,1}\\mathcal M$ and its conjugate, one gets \n\\begin{equation*}\n{}^b\\!d\\phi\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{p+1,q}\\mathcal M)\\oplus C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{p,q+1}\\mathcal M)\\quad \\text{if } \\phi\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{p,q}\\mathcal M)\n\\end{equation*}\nfor general $(p,q)$. Let $\\pi_{p,q}:{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^k\\mathcal M\\to{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{p,q}\\mathcal M$ be the projection according to the decomposition \\eqref{SpittingOfDeRham}, and define\n\\begin{equation*}\n{}^b\\!\\dee=\\pi_{p+1,q}{}^b\\!d,\\quad {}^b\\!\\overline \\partial=\\pi_{q,p+1}{}^b\\!d,\n\\end{equation*}\nso ${}^b\\!d={}^b\\!\\dee+{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial$. The operators ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial$ are identical to the $\\overline \\partial$-operators over the interior of $\\mathcal M$ and with the previously defined ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial$ operators on $(0,q)$-forms, and give a complex\n\\begin{equation}\\label{bdeebarComplex}\n\\cdots\n\\to C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{p,q}\\mathcal M) \\xrightarrow{{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial}\nC^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{p,q+1}\\mathcal M)\n\\to\\cdots\n\\end{equation}\nfor each $p$.  On functions $f:\\mathcal M\\to\\mathbb C$,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{bdeebarOnFunctions}\n{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial f = \\pi_{0,1}\\, {}^b\\!d f.\n\\end{equation}\nThe formula\n\\begin{equation}\\label{bdeebarFirstOrderPrime}\\tag{\\ref{FirstOrder}$'$}\n{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial f\\phi={}^b\\!\\overline \\partial f\\wedge \\phi+f{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial\\phi ,\\quad f\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal M),\\ \\phi\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{p,q}\\mathcal M),\n\\end{equation}\na consequence of \\eqref{FirstOrder}, implies that ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial$ is a first order operator. As a consequence of \\eqref{VanishingOnBdy}, \n\\begin{equation}\\label{bdeebarVanishingOnBdy}\\tag{\\ref{VanishingOnBdy}$'$}\n\\text{${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial f$ vanishes on $\\partial \\mathcal M$ if $f$ does.}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\n\n\\medskip\nThe operators of the $b$-de Rham complex are first order operators because of \\eqref{FirstOrder}, and \\eqref{VanishingOnBdy} implies that these are $b$-operators, see \\eqref{TotallyChar}. Likewise, \\eqref{bdeebarFirstOrderPrime} and \\eqref{bdeebarVanishingOnBdy} imply that in any bidegree, the operator $\\phi\\mapsto \\mathfrak r^{-1}\\,{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial \\,\\mathfrak r\\phi$ has coefficients smooth up to the boundary, so\n\\begin{equation}\\label{bdeebarOnpq}\n{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial\\in \\Diff^1_b(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{p,q}\\mathcal M,{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{p,q+1}\\mathcal M),\n\\end{equation}\nsee \\eqref{TotallyChar}. We also get from these formulas that the $b$-symbol of ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial$ is\n\\begin{equation}\\label{bsymbdeebar}\n\\bsym({}^b\\!\\overline \\partial)(\\xi)(\\phi)=i \\pi_{0,1}(\\xi)\\wedge \\phi, \\quad x\\in\\mathcal M,\\ \\xi\\in {}^b{\\!}T^*_x\\mathcal M,\\ \\phi\\in {}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{p,q}_x\\mathcal M,\n\\end{equation}\nsee \\eqref{TheBSymbol}. Since $\\pi_{0,1}$ is injective on the real $b$-cotangent bundle (this follows from \\eqref{bElliptic}), the complex \\eqref{bdeebarComplex} is $b$-elliptic.\n\n\n\\section{Holomorphic vector bundles}\\label{sHolomorphicVectorBundles}\nThe notion of holomorphic vector bundle in the $b$-category is a translation of the standard one using connections. Let $\\rho:F\\to\\mathcal M$ be a complex vector bundle. Recall from \\cite{RBM2} that a $b$-connection on $F$ is a linear operator\n\\begin{equation*}\n{}^b\\!\\nabla:C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;F)\\to C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^1\\mathcal M \\otimes F)\n\\end{equation*}\nsuch that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{Connection}\n{}^b\\!\\nabla f\\phi=f\\, {}^b\\!\\nabla\\phi+ {}^b\\!d f \\otimes \\phi\n\\end{equation}\nfor each $\\phi \\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;F)$ and $f\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal M)$. This property automatically makes ${}^b\\!\\nabla$ a $b$-operator.\n\nA standard connection $\\nabla:C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;F)\\to C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^1\\mathcal M \\otimes F)$ determines a $b$-connection by composition with\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathrm{ev}^*\\otimesI:\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^1\\mathcal M \\otimes F\\to {}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^1\\mathcal M \\otimes F,\n\\end{equation*}\nbut $b$-connections are more general than standard connections. Indeed, the difference between the latter and the former can be any smooth section of the bundle $\\Hom(F,{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^1\\mathcal M\\otimes F)$. A $b$-connection ${}^b\\!\\nabla$ on $F$ arises from a standard connection if and only if ${}^b\\!\\nabla_{\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r}=0$ along $\\partial\\mathcal M$.\n\nAs in the standard situation, the $b$-connection ${}^b\\!\\nabla$ determines operators\n\\begin{equation}\\label{ExtConnection}\n{}^b\\!\\nabla:C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^k\\mathcal M \\otimes F)\\to C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{k+1}\\mathcal M \\otimes F)\n\\end{equation}\nby way of the usual formula translated to the $b$ setting:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{ExtConnectionBis}\n{}^b\\!\\nabla(\\alpha\\otimes \\phi) = (-1)^k \\alpha \\wedge {}^b\\!\\nabla \\phi + {}^b\\!d\\alpha \\wedge \\phi,\\quad \\phi \\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;F),\\ \\alpha\\in {}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^k\\mathcal M.\n\\end{equation}\nSince\n\\begin{equation*}\n{}^b\\!\\nabla \\mathfrak r\\alpha\\otimes \\phi=\\mathfrak r\\, {}^b\\!\\nabla(\\alpha\\otimes \\phi) + {}^b\\!d \\mathfrak r \\wedge \\alpha\\otimes \\phi\n\\end{equation*}\nis smooth and vanishes on $\\partial\\mathcal M$, also\n\\begin{equation*}\n{}^b\\!\\nabla\\in \\Diff^1_b(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^k\\mathcal M\\otimes F,{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{k+1}\\mathcal M\\otimes F).\n\\end{equation*}\nThe principal $b$-symbol of \\eqref{ExtConnection}, easily computed using \\eqref{ExtConnectionBis} and\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\bsym({}^b\\!\\nabla)({}^b\\!d f)(\\phi) = \\lim_{\\tau\\to\\infty} \\frac{e^{-i\\tau f}}{\\tau} {}^b\\!\\nabla e^{i\\tau f}\\phi\n\\end{equation*}\nfor $f\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;\\mathbb R)$ and $\\phi \\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^k\\mathcal M \\otimes F)$, is\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\bsym({}^b\\!\\nabla)(\\xi)(\\phi) = i\\xi\\wedge \\phi,\\quad \\xi\\in {}^b{\\!}T_x^*\\mathcal M,\\ \\phi \\in {}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^k_x\\mathcal M \\otimes F_x,\\ x\\in \\mathcal M.\n\\end{equation*}\n\nAs expected, the connection is called holomorphic if the component in ${}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,2}\\mathcal M\\otimes F$ of the curvature operator\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\Omega={}^b\\!\\nabla^2:C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;F)\\to C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^2\\mathcal M\\otimes F),\n\\end{equation*}\nvanishes. Such a connection gives $F$ the structure of a complex $b$-manifold. Its complex $b$-structure can be described locally as in the standard situation, as follows. Fix a frame $\\eta_\\mu$ for $F$ and let the $\\omega^\\nu_\\mu$ be the local sections of ${}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,1}\\mathcal M$ such that\n\\begin{equation*}\n{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial \\eta_\\mu = \\sum_\\nu \\omega^\\nu_\\mu\\otimes \\eta_\\nu.\n\\end{equation*}\nDenote by $\\zeta^\\mu$ the fiber coordinates determined by the frame $\\eta_\\mu$. Let $V_1,\\dotsc, V_{n+1}$ be a frame of ${}^b{\\!}T^{0,1}\\mathcal M$ over $U$, denote by $\\tilde V_j$ the sections of $\\mathbb C{}^b{\\!}T F$ over $\\rho^{-1}(U)$ which project on the $V_j$ and satisfy $\\tilde V_j\\zeta^\\mu=\\tilde V_j\\overline \\zeta^\\mu=0$ for all $\\mu$, and by $\\partial_{\\zeta^\\mu}$ the vertical vector fields such that $\\partial_{\\zeta^\\mu}\\zeta^\\nu=\\delta^\\nu_\\mu$ and $\\partial_{\\zeta^\\mu}\\overline \\zeta^\\nu=0$. Then the sections\n\\begin{equation}\\label{LocalbT01E}\n\\tilde V_j-\\sum_{\\mu,\\nu}\\zeta^\\mu \\langle \\omega^\\nu_\\mu, V_j\\rangle \\partial_{\\zeta^\\nu},\\ j=1,\\dotsc,n+1,\\quad \\partial_{\\overline \\zeta^\\nu},\\ \\nu=1,\\dotsc,k\n\\end{equation}\nof $\\mathbb C{}^b{\\!}T F$ over $\\rho^{-1}(U)$ form a frame of ${}^b{\\!}T^{0,1}F$. As in the standard situation, the involutivity of this subbundle of $\\mathbb C{}^b{\\!}T F$ is equivalent to the condition on the vanishing of the $(0,2)$ component of the curvature of ${}^b\\!\\nabla$. A vector bundle $F\\to\\mathcal M$ together with the complex $b$-structure determined by a choice of holomorphic $b$-connection (if one exists at all) is a holomorphic vector bundle.\n\n\nThe $\\overline \\partial$ operator of a holomorphic vector bundle is\n\\begin{equation*}\n{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial = (\\pi_{0,q+1}\\otimes I)\\circ {}^b\\!\\nabla : C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,q}\\mathcal M\\otimes F)\\to C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,q+1}\\mathcal M \\otimes F).\n\\end{equation*}\nAs is the case for standard complex structures, the condition on the curvature of ${}^b\\!\\nabla$ implies that these operators form a complex, $b$-elliptic since\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\bsym({}^b\\!\\overline \\partial)(\\xi)(\\phi) = i\\pi_{0,1}(\\xi)\\wedge \\phi,\\quad \\xi\\in {}^b{\\!}T_x^*\\mathcal M,\\ \\phi \\in {}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^k_x\\mathcal M \\otimes F_x,\\ x\\in \\mathcal M\n\\end{equation*}\nand $\\pi_{0,1}(\\xi)=0$ for $\\xi\\in {}^b{\\!}T^*\\mathcal M$ if and only if $\\xi=0$.\n\nAlso as usual, a $b$-connection ${}^b\\!\\nabla$ on a Hermitian vector bundle $F\\to\\mathcal M$ with Hermitian form $h$ is Hermitian if\n\\begin{equation*}\n{}^b\\!d h(\\phi,\\psi)= h({}^b\\!\\nabla \\phi,\\psi)+h(\\phi,{}^b\\!\\nabla\\psi)\n\\end{equation*}\nfor every pair of smooth sections $\\phi$, $\\psi$ of $F$. In view of the definition of ${}^b\\!d$ this means that for every $v\\in \\mathbb C{}^b{\\!}T\\mathcal M$ and sections as above,\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathrm{ev}(v) h(\\phi,\\psi)= h({}^b\\!\\nabla_{\\!v} \\phi,\\psi)+h(\\phi,{}^b\\!\\nabla_{\\!\\overline v}\\psi)\n\\end{equation*}\nOn a complex $b$-manifold $\\mathcal M$, if an arbitrary connection ${}^b\\!\\nabla'$ and the Hermitian form $h$ are given for a vector bundle $F$, holomorphic or not, then there is a unique \\emph{Hermitian} $b$-connection ${}^b\\!\\nabla$ such that $\\pi_{0,1}{}^b\\!\\nabla = \\pi_{0,1}{}^b\\!\\nabla'$. Namely, let $\\eta_\\mu$ be a local orthonormal frame of $F$, let\n\\begin{equation*}\n(\\pi_{0,1}\\otimesI)\\circ {}^b\\!\\nabla'\\eta_\\mu = \\sum_\\nu\\omega^\\nu_\\mu \\otimes \\eta_\\nu,\n\\end{equation*}\nand let ${}^b\\!\\nabla$ be the connection defined in the domain of the frame by\n\\begin{equation}\\label{HermitianConnectionForms}\n{}^b\\!\\nabla\\eta_\\mu =(\\omega^\\nu_\\mu-\\overline \\omega^\\mu_\\nu)\\otimes \\eta_\\nu.\n\\end{equation}\nIf the matrix of functions $Q=[q^\\mu_\\lambda]$ is unitary and $\\tilde \\eta_\\lambda=\\sum_\\mu q^\\mu_\\lambda \\eta_\\mu$, then \n\\begin{equation*}\n(\\pi_{0,1}\\otimesI)\\circ {}^b\\!\\nabla'\\tilde \\eta_\\lambda = \\sum_\\nu\\tilde \\omega^\\sigma_\\lambda \\otimes \\tilde \\eta_\\sigma\n\\end{equation*}\nwith\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\tilde \\omega^\\sigma_\\lambda = \\sum_\\mu \\overline q^\\mu_\\sigma\\,{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial q^\\mu_\\lambda + \\sum_{\\mu,\\nu} \\overline q^\\mu_\\sigma q^\\nu_\\lambda\\omega^\\mu_\\nu,\n\\end{equation*}\nusing \\eqref{Connection}, that $Q^{-1}=[\\overline q^\\mu_\\lambda]$, and that $\\pi_{0,1}{}^b\\!d f={}^b\\!\\overline \\partial f$. Thus\n\\begin{align*}\n\\tilde \\omega^\\sigma_\\lambda-\\overline {\\tilde \\omega}^\\lambda_\\sigma\n&= \\sum_\\mu (\\overline q^\\mu_\\sigma\\,{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial q^\\mu_\\lambda -  q^\\mu_\\lambda\\,{}^b\\!\\dee \\overline q^\\mu_\\sigma)  + \\sum_{\\mu,\\nu} (\\overline q^\\mu_\\sigma q^\\nu_\\lambda\\omega^\\mu_\\nu -  q^\\mu_\\lambda \\overline q^\\nu_\\sigma\\overline \\omega^\\mu_\\nu)\\\\\n&=\\sum_\\mu ({}^b\\!\\overline \\partial q^\\mu_\\lambda + {}^b\\!\\dee q^\\mu_\\lambda)\\overline q^\\mu_\\sigma  + \\sum_{\\mu,\\nu} q^\\nu_\\lambda ( \\omega^\\mu_\\nu - \\overline \\omega^\\nu_\\mu)\\overline q^\\mu_\\sigma\\\\\n&=\\sum_\\mu {}^b\\!d q^\\mu_\\lambda + \\overline q^\\mu_\\sigma  + \\sum_{\\mu,\\nu} q^\\nu_\\lambda ( \\omega^\\mu_\\nu - \\overline \\omega^\\nu_\\mu)\\overline q^\\mu_\\sigma\n\\end{align*}\nusing that $\\overline{{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial f}={}^b\\!\\dee \\overline f$ and that $\\sum_\\mu  q^\\mu_\\lambda\\,{}^b\\!\\dee \\overline q^\\mu_\\sigma = - \\sum_\\mu {}^b\\!\\dee q^\\mu_\\lambda\\, \\overline q^\\mu_\\sigma$ because $\\sum_\\mu q^\\mu_\\lambda \\overline q^\\mu_\\sigma$ is constant, and that ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial q^\\mu_\\lambda + {}^b\\!\\dee q^\\mu_\\lambda={}^b\\!d q^\\mu_\\lambda$. Thus there is a globally defined Hermitian connection locally given by \\eqref{HermitianConnectionForms}. We leave to the reader to verify that this connection is Hermitian. Clearly ${}^b\\!\\nabla$ is the unique Hermitian connection such that $\\pi_{0,1}{}^b\\!\\nabla = \\pi_{0,1}{}^b\\!\\nabla'$. When ${}^b\\!\\nabla'$ is a holomorphic connection, ${}^b\\!\\nabla$ is the unique Hermitian holomorphic connection.\n\n\\begin{lemma}\nThe vector bundles ${}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{p,0}\\mathcal M$ are holomorphic.\n\\end{lemma}\n\nWe prove this by exhibiting a holomorphic $b$-connection. Fix an auxiliary Hermitian metric on ${}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{p,0}\\mathcal M$ and pick an orthonormal frame $(\\eta_\\mu)$ of ${}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{p,0}\\mathcal M$ over some open set $U$. Let $\\omega^\\nu_\\mu$ be the unique sections of ${}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,1}\\mathcal M$ such that\n\\begin{equation*}\n{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial\\eta_\\mu =\\sum_\\nu \\omega^\\nu_\\mu\\wedge\\eta_\\nu,\n\\end{equation*}\nand let ${}^b\\!\\nabla$ be the $b$-connection defined on $U$ by the formula \\eqref{HermitianConnectionForms}. As in the previous paragraph, this gives a globally defined $b$-connection. That it is holomorphic follows from\n\\begin{equation*}\n{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial \\omega^\\nu_\\mu + \\sum_\\lambda \\omega^\\nu_\\lambda\\wedge \\omega^\\lambda_\\mu = 0,\n\\end{equation*}\na consequence of ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial^2=0$. Evidently, with the identifications ${}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,q}\\mathcal M\\otimes {}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{p,0}\\mathcal M={}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{p,q}\\mathcal M$, $\\pi_{p,q+1}{}^b\\!\\nabla$ is the ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial$ operator in \\eqref{bdeebarOnpq}.\n\n\n\\section{The boundary a complex $b$-manifold}\\label{sBoundaryStructure}\n\nSuppose that $\\mathcal M$ is a complex $b$-manifold and $\\mathcal N$ is a component of its boundary. We shall assume $\\mathcal N$ compact, although for the most part this is not necessary.\n\nThe homomorphism\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathrm{ev}:\\mathbb C{}^b{\\!}T\\mathcal M\\to \\mathbb C T\\mathcal M\n\\end{equation*}\nis an isomorphism over the interior of $\\mathcal M$, and its restriction to $\\mathcal N$ maps onto $\\mathbb C T\\mathcal N$ with kernel spanned by $\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r$. Write\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathrm{ev}_\\mathcal N:\\mathbb C{}^b{\\!}T_{\\mathcal N}\\mathcal M\\to \\mathbb C T\\mathcal N\n\\end{equation*}\nfor this restriction and \n\\begin{equation}\\label{bdyIso}\n\\Phi:{}^b{\\!}T^{0,1}_{\\mathcal N}\\mathcal M\\to\\overline\\Vee\n\\end{equation}\nfor of the restriction of $\\mathrm{ev}_\\mathcal N$ to ${}^b{\\!}T^{0,1}_{\\mathcal N}\\mathcal M$. From \\eqref{bCRstructure} and the fact that the kernel of $\\mathrm{ev}_\\mathcal N$ is spanned by the real section $\\mathfrak r\\partial_{\\mathfrak r}$ one obtains that $\\Phi$ is injective, so its image,\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\overline\\Vee=\\Phi({}^b{\\!}T^{0,1}_{\\mathcal N}\\mathcal M)\n\\end{equation*}\nis a subbundle of $\\mathbb C T\\mathcal N$.\n\nSince ${}^b{\\!}T^{0,1}\\mathcal M$ is involutive, so is $\\overline\\Vee$, see \\cite[Proposition 3.12]{Me3}. From \\eqref{bElliptic} and the fact that $\\mathrm{ev}_\\mathcal N$ maps onto $\\mathbb C T\\mathcal N$, one obtains that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{VbarIsElliptic}\n\\mathcal V + \\overline\\Vee=\\mathbb C T\\mathcal N, \n\\end{equation}\nsee \\cite[Lemma 3.13]{Me3}. Thus\n\n\\begin{lemma}\n$\\overline\\Vee$ is an elliptic structure.\n\\end{lemma}\n\nThis just means what we just said: $\\overline\\Vee$ is involutive and \\eqref{VbarIsElliptic} holds, see Treves~\\cite{Tr81,Tr92}; the sum need not be direct. All elliptic structures are locally of the same kind, depending only on the dimension of $\\mathcal V\\cap \\overline\\Vee$. This is a result of Nirenberg~\\cite{Ni57} (see also H\\\"ormander~\\cite{Ho65}) extending the Newlander-Nirenberg theorem. In the case at hand, $\\overline\\Vee\\cap \\mathcal V$ has rank $1$ because of the relation\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\rk_\\mathbb C(\\mathcal V\\cap \\overline\\Vee)=2\\rk_\\mathbb C\\overline\\Vee-\\dim\\mathcal N\n\\end{equation*}\nwhich holds whenever \\eqref{VbarIsElliptic} holds. \n\\begin{equation}\\label{HypoanalyticChart}\n\\display{300pt}{Every $p_0\\in \\mathcal N$ hs a neighborhood in which there coordinates $x^1,\\dotsc,x^{2n},t$ such that with $z^j=x^j+\\mathfrak m x^{j+n}$, the vector fields \n\\begin{equation*}\n\\hspace*{-60pt}\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial \\overline z^1},\\dotsc,\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial \\overline z^n},\\ \\frac{\\partial }{\\partial t}\n\\end{equation*}\nspan $\\overline\\Vee$ near $p_0$. The function $(z^1,\\dotsc,z^n,t)$ is called a hypoanalytic chart (Baouendi, Chang, and Treves~\\cite{BCT83}, Treves~\\cite{Tr92}).}\n\\end{equation}\n\nThe intersection $\\overline\\Vee\\cap \\mathcal V$ is, in the case we are discussing, spanned by a canonical globally defined real vector field.\nNamely, let $\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r$ be the canonical section of ${}^b{\\!}T\\mathcal M$ along $\\mathcal N$. There is a unique section $J\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r$ of ${}^b{\\!}T\\mathcal M$ along $\\mathcal N$ such that $\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r+i J\\mathfrak r \\partial_\\mathfrak r$ is a section of ${}^b{\\!}T^{0,1}\\mathcal M$ along $\\mathcal N$. Then\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathcal T=\\mathrm{ev}_\\mathcal N(J\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r)\n\\end{equation*}\nis a nonvanishing real vector field in $\\mathcal V\\cap \\overline\\Vee$, (see \\cite[Lemma 2.1]{Me4}). Using the isomorphism \\eqref{bdyIso} we have\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathcal T=\\Phi(J(\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r)-i\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r).\n\\end{equation*}\n\nBecause $\\overline\\Vee$ is involutive, there is yet another complex, this time associated with the exterior powers of the dual of $\\overline\\Vee$:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{bdyComplex}\n\\cdots\n\\to C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q \\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*)\\xrightarrow{\\overline\\Dee}\nC^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q+1}\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*)\n\\to\\cdots,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\overline\\Dee$ is defined by the formula \\eqref{CartanFormula} where now the $V_j$ are sections of $\\overline\\Vee$. The complex \\eqref{bdyComplex} is elliptic because of \\eqref{VbarIsElliptic}. For a function $f$ we have $\\overline\\Dee f=\\iota^*df$, where $\\iota^*:\\mathbb C T^*\\mathcal N\\to \\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*$ is the dual of the inclusion homomorphism $\\iota:\\overline\\Vee\\to\\mathbb C T\\mathcal N$.\n\nFor later use we show:\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{ConstantSolutions}\nSuppose that $\\mathcal N$ is compact and connected. If $\\zeta:\\mathcal N\\to\\mathbb C$ solves $\\overline\\Dee\\zeta=0$, then $\\zeta$ is constant.\n\\end{lemma}\n\n\\begin{proof}\nLet $p_0$ be an extremal point of $|\\zeta|$. Fix a hypoanalytic chart $(z,t)$ for $\\overline\\Vee$ centered at $p_0$. Since $\\overline\\Dee \\zeta=0$, $\\zeta(z,t)$ is independent of $t$ and $\\partial_{\\overline z^\\nu}\\zeta=0$. So there is a holomorphic function $Z$ defined in a neighborhood of $0$ in $\\mathbb C^n$ such that $\\zeta=Z\\circ z$. Then $|Z|$ has a maximum at $0$, so $Z$ is constant near $0$. Therefore $\\zeta$ is constant, say $\\zeta(p)=c$, near $p_0$. Let $C=\\set{p:\\zeta(p)=c}$, a closed set. Let $p_1\\in C$. Since $p_1$ is also an extremal point of $\\zeta$, the above argument gives that $\\zeta$ is constant near $p_1$, therefore equal to $c$. Thus $C$ is open, and consequently $\\zeta$ is constant on $\\mathcal N$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\nSince the operators ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial:C^\\infty(\\mathcal M,{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,q}\\mathcal M)\\to C^\\infty(\\mathcal M,{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,q+1}\\mathcal M)$ are totally characteristic, they induce operators\n\\begin{equation*}\n{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial_b:C^\\infty(\\mathcal N,{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,q}_\\mathcal N\\mathcal M)\\to C^\\infty(\\mathcal M,{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,q+1}_\\mathcal N\\mathcal M),\n\\end{equation*}\nsee \\eqref{Pb}; these boundary operators define a complex because of \\eqref{PQb}. By way of the dual\n\\begin{equation}\\label{DualbdyIso}\n\\Phi^*:\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*\\to {}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,1}_\\mathcal N\\mathcal M\n\\end{equation}\nof the isomorphism \\eqref{bdyIso} the operators ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial_b$ become identical to the operators of the $\\overline\\Dee$-complex \\eqref{bdyComplex}: The diagram\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\begin{CD}\n\\cdots &@>>> C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q \\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*)&@>\\overline\\Dee>>C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q+1}\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*)&@>>>&\\cdots\\\\\n&& &@V{\\Phi^*}VV&@VV{\\Phi^*}V&\\\\\n\\cdots &@>>> C^\\infty(\\mathcal N,{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,q}_\\mathcal N\\mathcal M)&@>{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial_b>>C^\\infty(\\mathcal M,{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,q+1}_\\mathcal N\\mathcal M)&@>>>&\\cdots\n\\end{CD}\n\\end{equation*}\nis commutative and the vertical arrows are isomorphisms. This can be proved by writing the ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial$ operators using Cartan's formula \\eqref{CartanFormula} for ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial$ and $\\overline\\Dee$ and comparing the resulting expressions.\n\nLet $\\mathfrak r:\\mathcal M\\to\\mathbb R$ be a smooth defining function for $\\partial \\mathcal M$, $\\mathfrak r>0$ in the interior of $\\mathcal M$. Then ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial \\mathfrak r$ is smooth and vanishes on $\\partial \\mathcal M$, so $\\frac{{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial \\mathfrak r}{\\mathfrak r}$ is also a smooth ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial$-closed section of ${}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,1}\\mathcal M$. Thus we get a $\\overline\\Dee$-closed element\n\\begin{equation}\\label{DefinitionBeta}\n\\beta_\\mathfrak r=[\\Phi^*]^{-1}\\frac{{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial \\mathfrak r}{\\mathfrak r} \\in C^\\infty(\\partial \\mathcal M;\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*).\n\\end{equation}\nBy definition,\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\langle \\beta_\\mathfrak r,\\mathcal T\\rangle=\\langle \\frac{{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial \\mathfrak r}{\\mathfrak r},J(\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r)-i\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r\\rangle.\n\\end{equation*}\nExtend the section $\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r$ to a section of ${}^b{\\!}T\\mathcal M$ over a neighborhood $U$ of $\\mathcal N$ in $\\mathcal M$ with the property that $\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r\\rr=\\mathfrak r$. In $U$ we have\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\langle {}^b\\!\\overline \\partial \\mathfrak r,J(\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r)-i\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r\\rangle = (J(\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r)-i\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r)\\mathfrak r = J(\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r)\\mathfrak r -i\\mathfrak r.\n\\end{equation*}\nThe function $J(\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r)\\mathfrak r$ is smooth, real-valued, and vanishes along the boundary. So $\\mathfrak r^{-1}J(\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r)\\mathfrak r$ is smooth, real-valued. Thus\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\langle\\beta_\\mathfrak r,\\mathcal T\\rangle = a_\\mathfrak r-i\n\\end{equation*}\non $\\mathcal N$ for some smooth function $a_\\mathfrak r:\\mathcal N\\to\\mathbb R$, see \\cite[Lemma 2.5]{Me4}.\n\nIf $\\mathfrak r'$ is another defining function for $\\partial \\mathcal M$, then $\\mathfrak r'=\\mathfrak r e^u$ for some smooth function $u:\\mathcal M\\to\\mathbb R$. Then\n\\begin{equation*}\n{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial \\mathfrak r'=e^u\\,{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial \\mathfrak r+ e^u\\mathfrak r\\,{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial u\n\\end{equation*}\nand it follows that\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\beta_{\\mathfrak r'}=\\beta_\\mathfrak r+ \\overline\\Dee u.\n\\end{equation*}\nIn particular,\n\\begin{equation*}\na_{\\mathfrak r'}=a_\\mathfrak r+ \\mathcal T u.\n\\end{equation*}\nLet $\\mathfrak a_t$ denote the one-parameter group of diffeomorphisms generated by $\\mathcal T$.\n\n\\begin{proposition}\\label{Averages}\nThe functions $a^{\\sup}_\\mathrm{av}$, $a^{\\inf}_\\mathrm{av}:\\mathcal N\\to \\mathbb R$ defined by\n\\begin{equation*}\na^{\\sup}_\\mathrm{av}(p) =\\limsup_{t\\to\\infty}\\frac{1}{2t}\\int_{-t}^t a_{\\mathfrak r}(\\mathfrak a_s(p))\\,ds,\\quad a^{\\inf}_\\mathrm{av}(p) =\\liminf_{t\\to\\infty}\\frac{1}{2t}\\int_{-t}^t a_{\\mathfrak r}(\\mathfrak a_s(p))\\,ds\n\\end{equation*}\nare invariants of the complex $b$-structure, that is, they are independent of the defining function $\\mathfrak r$. The equality $a^{\\sup}_\\mathrm{av} = a^{\\inf}_\\mathrm{av}$ holds for some $\\mathfrak r$ if and only if it holds for all $\\mathfrak r$. \n\\end{proposition}\n\nIndeed,\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\lim_{t\\to\\infty}\\Big( \\frac{1}{2t}\\int_{-t}^t a_{\\mathfrak r'}(\\mathfrak a_s(p))\\,ds - \\frac{1}{2t}\\int_{-t}^t a_{\\mathfrak r}(\\mathfrak a_s(p))\\,ds\\Big) = \\lim_{t\\to\\infty}\\frac{1}{2t}\\int_{-t}^t \\frac{d}{ds}u(\\mathfrak a_s(p))\\,ds = 0\n\\end{equation*}\nbecause $u$ is bounded (since $\\mathcal N$ is compact).\n\nThe functions $a^{\\sup}_\\mathrm{av}$, $a^{\\inf}_\\mathrm{av}$ are constant on orbits of $\\mathcal T$, but they may not be smooth. \n\n\n\n\\begin{example}\\label{AnisotropicSphere}\nLet $\\mathcal N$ be the unit sphere in $\\mathbb C^{n+1}$ centered at the origin. Write $(z^1,\\dotsc,z^{n+1})$ for the standard coordinates in $\\mathbb C^{n+1}$. Fix $\\tau_1,\\dotsc,\\tau_{n+1}\\in \\mathbb R\\backslash 0$, all of the same sign, and let\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathcal T= i\\sum_{j=1}^{n+1} \\tau_j(z^j\\partial_{z^j}-\\overline z^j\\partial_{\\overline z^j}).\n\\end{equation*}\nThis vector field is real and tangent to $\\mathcal N$. Let $\\overline \\K$ be the standard CR structure of $\\mathcal N$ as a submanifold of $\\mathbb C^{n+1}$ (the part of $T^{0,1}\\mathbb C^{n+1}$ tangential to $\\mathcal N$). The condition that the $\\tau_j$ are different from $0$ and have the same sign ensures that $\\mathcal T$ is never in $\\mathcal K\\oplus \\overline \\K$. Indeed, the latter subbundle of $\\mathbb C T\\mathcal N$ is the annihilator of the pullback to $\\mathcal N$ of $i \\overline \\partial \\sum_{\\ell=1}^{n+1}|z^\\ell|^2$. The pairing of this form with $\\mathcal T$ is\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\langle i \\sum_{\\ell=1}^{n+1} z^\\ell d\\overline z^\\ell,i\\sum_{j=1}^{n+1} \\tau_j(z^j\\partial_{z^j}-\\overline z^j\\partial_{\\overline z^j})\\rangle = \\sum_{j=1}^{n+1} \\tau_j|z^j|^2,\n\\end{equation*}\na function that vanishes nowhere if and only if all $\\tau_j$ are different from zero and have the same sign. Thus $\\overline\\Vee=\\overline \\K\\oplus \\Span_\\mathbb C\\mathcal T$ is a subbundle of $\\mathbb C T\\mathcal N$ of rank $n+1$ with the property that $\\mathcal V+\\overline\\Vee=\\mathbb C T\\mathcal N$. To show that $\\overline\\Vee$ is involutive we first note that $\\overline \\K$ is the annihilator of the pullback to $\\mathcal N$ of the span of the differentials $dz^1,\\dotsc,dz^{n+1}$. Let $\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T$ denote the Lie derivative with respect to $\\mathcal T$. Then $\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T dz^j =i \\tau_j dz^j$, so if $L$ is a CR vector field, then so is $[L,\\mathcal T]$. Since in addition $\\overline \\K$ and $\\Span_\\mathbb C \\mathcal T$ are themselves involutive, $\\overline\\Vee$ is involutive. Thus $\\overline\\Vee$ is an elliptic structure with $\\mathcal V\\cap \\overline\\Vee=\\Span_\\mathbb C\\mathcal T$. Let $\\beta$ be the section of $\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*$ which vanishes on $\\overline \\K$ and satisfies $\\langle \\beta,\\mathcal T\\rangle=-i$. Let $\\overline\\Dee$ denote the operators of the associated differential complex. Then $\\overline\\Dee\\beta=0$, since $\\beta$ vanishes on commutators of sections of $\\overline \\K$ (since $\\overline \\K$ is involutive) and on commutators of $\\mathcal T$ with sections of $\\overline \\K$ (since such commutators are in $\\overline \\K$).\n\nIf the $\\tau_j$ are positive (negative), this example may be viewed as the boundary of a blowup (compactification) of $\\mathbb C^{n+1}$, see \\cite{Me5}.\n\\end{example}\n\n\\medskip\nLet now $\\rho:F\\to\\mathcal M$ be a holomorphic vector bundle. Its ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial$-complex also determines a complex along $\\mathcal N$,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{defDeebarBundle}\n\\cdots \\to C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*\\otimes F_\\mathcal N)\\xrightarrow{\\overline\\Dee} C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q+1}\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*\\otimes F_\\mathcal N)\\to\\cdots,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\overline\\Dee$ is defined using the boundary operators ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial_b$ and the isomorphism \\eqref{DualbdyIso}:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{defDeebarE}\n\\overline\\Dee (\\phi\\otimes \\eta) = (\\Phi^*)^{-1}{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial_b [\\Phi^* (\\phi\\otimes \\eta)]\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\Phi^*$ means $\\Phi^*\\otimesI$. These operators can be expressed locally in terms of the operators of the complex \\eqref{bdyComplex}. Fix a smooth frame $\\eta_\\mu$, $\\mu=1,\\dotsc,k$, of $F$ in a neighborhood $U\\subset \\mathcal M$ of $p_0\\in \\mathcal N$, and suppose\n\\begin{equation*}\n{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial \\eta_\\mu = \\sum_\\nu\\omega^\\nu_\\mu\\otimes \\eta_\\nu.\n\\end{equation*}\nThe $\\omega^\\nu_\\mu$ are local sections of ${}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,1}\\mathcal M$, and if $\\sum_\\mu \\phi^\\mu\\otimes \\eta_\\mu$ is a section of ${}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,q}\\mathcal M\\otimes F$ over $U$, then\n\\begin{equation*}\n{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial\\sum\\phi^\\mu\\otimes\\eta_\\mu = \\sum_\\nu ({}^b\\!\\overline \\partial \\phi^\\nu +\\sum_\\mu \\omega^\\nu_\\mu\\wedge \\phi^\\mu)\\otimes \\eta_\\nu.\n\\end{equation*}\nTherefore, using the identification \\eqref{DualbdyIso}, the boundary operator ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial_b$ is the operator given locally by\n\\begin{equation}\\label{DeebarE}\n\\overline\\Dee\\sum\\phi^\\mu\\otimes\\eta_\\mu = \\sum_\\nu (\\overline\\Dee \\phi^\\nu +\\sum_\\mu \\omega^\\nu_\\mu\\wedge \\phi^\\mu)\\otimes \\eta_\\nu\n\\end{equation}\nwhere now the $\\phi^\\mu$ are sections of ${}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*$, the $\\omega^\\nu_\\mu$ are the sections of $\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*$ corresponding to the original $\\omega^\\nu_\\mu$ via $\\Phi^*$, and $\\overline\\Dee$ on the right hand side of the formula is the operator associated with $\\overline\\Vee$.\n\nThe structure bundle ${}^b{\\!}T^{0,1} F$ is locally given as the span of the sections \\eqref{LocalbT01E}. Applying the evaluation homomorphism $\\mathbb C{}^b{\\!}T_{\\partial F} F\\to \\mathbb C T\\partial F$ (over $\\mathcal N$) to these sections gives vector fields on $F_\\mathcal N$ forming a frame for the elliptic structure $\\overline\\Vee_F$ inherited by $F_\\mathcal N$. Writing $V_j^0=\\mathrm{ev} V_j$, this frame is just\n\\begin{equation}\\label{LocalVbarE}\n\\tilde V_j^0-\\sum_{\\mu,\\nu}\\zeta^\\mu \\langle \\omega^\\nu_\\mu, V_j^0\\rangle \\partial_{\\zeta^\\nu},\\ j=1,\\dotsc,n+1,\\quad \\partial_{\\overline \\zeta^\\nu},\\ \\nu=1,\\dotsc,k,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere now the $\\omega^\\nu_\\mu$ are the forms associated to the $\\overline\\Dee$ operator of $F_\\mathcal N$. Alternatively, one may take the $\\overline\\Dee$ operators of $F_\\mathcal N$ and use the formula \\eqref{DeebarE} to define a subbundle of $\\mathbb C TF$ locally as the span of the vector fields \\eqref{LocalVbarE}, a fortiori an elliptic structure on $F_\\mathcal N$, involutive because\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\overline\\Dee\\omega^\\nu + \\sum_\\lambda \\omega^\\nu_\\lambda\\wedge \\omega^\\lambda_\\mu = 0.\n\\end{equation*}\n\nTo obtain a formula for the canonical real vector field $\\mathcal T_F$ in $\\overline\\Vee_F$, let $J_F$ be the almost complex $b$-structure of ${}^b{\\!}T F$ and consider again the sections \\eqref{LocalbT01E}; they are defined in an open set $\\rho^{-1}(U)$, $U$ a neighborhood in $\\mathcal M$ of a point of $\\mathcal N$. Since the elements $\\partial_{\\overline\\zeta^\\nu}$ are sections of ${}^b{\\!}T^{0,1}F$,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{JEVert}\nJ_F\\Re\\partial_{\\overline\\zeta^\\nu}=\\Im\\partial_{\\overline\\zeta^\\nu}.\n\\end{equation}\nPick a defining function $\\mathfrak r$ for $\\mathcal N$. Then $\\tilde\\mathfrak r=\\rho^*\\mathfrak r$ is a defining function for $F_\\mathcal N$. We may take $V_{n+1}=\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r+i J\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r$ along $U\\cap \\mathcal N$. Then $\\tilde V_{n+1}=\\tilde \\mathfrak r\\partial_{\\tilde \\mathfrak r}+i \\widetilde {J\\mathfrak r \\partial_\\mathfrak r}$ along $\\rho^{-1}(U)\\cap F_\\mathcal N$ and so\n\\begin{multline*}\nJ_F\\Re\\big(\\tilde \\mathfrak r\\partial_{\\tilde \\mathfrak r} + i \\widetilde{J\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r}-\\sum_{\\mu,\\nu} \\zeta^\\mu\\langle\\omega^\\nu_\\mu,\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r+i J\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r\\rangle\\partial_{\\zeta^\\nu}\\big) =\\\\ \\Im\\big(\\tilde \\mathfrak r\\partial_{\\tilde \\mathfrak r} + i \\widetilde{J\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r}-\\sum_{\\mu,\\nu} \\zeta^\\mu\\langle\\omega^\\nu_\\mu,\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r+i J\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r\\rangle\\partial_{\\zeta^\\nu}\\big)\n\\end{multline*}\nalong $\\rho^{-1}(U)\\cap F_\\mathcal N$. Using \\eqref{JEVert} this gives\n\\begin{equation*}\nJ_F\\tilde \\mathfrak r\\partial_{\\tilde \\mathfrak r} =\n\\widetilde{J\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r} - 2\\Im\\sum _{\\mu,\\nu} \\zeta^\\mu\\langle\\omega^\\nu_\\mu,\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r+i J\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r\\rangle\\partial_{\\zeta^\\nu}.\n\\end{equation*}\nApplying the evaluation homomorphism gives\n\\begin{equation}\\label{TE}\n\\mathcal T_F =\n\\tilde\\mathcal T - 2\\Im\\sum _{\\mu,\\nu} \\zeta^\\mu\\langle\\omega^\\nu_\\mu,\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r+i J\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r\\rangle\\partial_{\\zeta^\\nu}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\tilde \\mathcal T$ is the real vector field on $\\rho^{-1}(U\\cap \\mathcal N)=\\rho^{-1}(U)\\cap F_\\mathcal N$ which projects on $\\mathcal T$ and satisfies $\\tilde \\mathcal T\\zeta^\\mu=0$ for all $\\mu$.\n\nLet $h$ be a Hermitian metric on $F$, and suppose that the frame $\\eta_\\mu$ is orthonormal. Applying $\\mathcal T_E$ as given in \\eqref{TE} to the function $|\\zeta|^2=\\sum|\\zeta^\\mu|^2$ we get that $\\mathcal T_F$ is tangent to the unit sphere bundle of $F$ if and only if\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\langle\\omega^\\nu_\\mu,\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r+i J\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r\\rangle - \\overline{\\langle\\omega^\\mu_\\nu,\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r+i J\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r\\rangle} = 0\n\\end{equation*}\nfor all $\\mu, \\nu$. Equivalently, in terms of the isomorphism \\eqref{DualbdyIso},\n\\begin{equation}\\label{ExactMetricCondition}\n\\langle(\\Phi^*)^{-1}\\omega^\\nu_\\mu,\\mathcal T \\rangle + \\overline{\\langle(\\Phi^*)^{-1}\\omega^\\mu_\\nu,\\mathcal T\\rangle} = 0\\quad \\text{ for all }\\mu,\\nu.\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{definition}\\label{ExactMetric}\nThe Hermitian metric $h$ will be called exact if \\eqref{ExactMetricCondition} holds.\n\\end{definition}\n\nThe terminology in Definition \\ref{ExactMetric} is taken from the notion of exact Riemannian $b$-metric of Melrose~\\cite[pg. 31]{RBM2}. For such metrics, the Levi-Civita $b$-connection has the property that ${}^b\\!\\nabla_{\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r}=0$ [op. cit., pg. 58]. We proceed to show that the Hermitian holomorphic connection of an exact Hermitian metric on $F$ also has this property. Namely, suppose that $h$ is an exact Hermitian metric, and let $\\eta_\\mu$ be an orthonormal frame of $F$. Then for the Hermitian holomorphic connection we have\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\langle\\omega^\\nu_\\mu-\\overline \\omega^\\mu_\\nu,\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r\\rangle = \\langle\\omega^\\nu_\\mu,\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r\\rangle - \\overline{\\langle \\omega^\\mu_\\nu,\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r\\rangle}\n=\\frac{1}{2}\\big( \\langle\\omega^\\nu_\\mu,\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r+i J\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r\\rangle - \\overline{\\langle \\omega^\\mu_\\nu,\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r+i J\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r\\rangle} \\big)\n\\end{equation*}\nusing that the $\\omega^\\nu_\\mu$ are of type $(0,1)$. Thus  ${}^b\\!\\nabla_{\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r}=0$.\n\n\\section{Local invariants}\\label{sLocalInvariants}\n\nComplex structures have no local invariants: every point of a complex $n$-manifold has a neighborhood biholomorphic to a ball in $\\mathbb C^n$ It is natural to ask the same question about complex $b$-structures, namely,\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\display{300pt}{is there a local model depending only on dimension for every complex $b$-stucture? }\n\\end{equation*}\nIn lieu of a Newlander-Nirenberg theorem, we show that complex $b$-structures have no local formal invariants at the boundary. More precisely:\n\n\\begin{proposition}\\label{NoLocalFormalInvariants}\nEvery $p_0\\in \\mathcal N$ has a neighborhood $V$ in $\\mathcal M$ on which there are smooth coordinates $x^j$, $j=1,\\dotsc,2n+2$ centered at $p_0$ with $x^{n+1}$ vanishing on $V\\cap\\mathcal N$ such that with\n\\begin{equation}\\label{NoLocalFormalInvariants1}\n\\overline L^0_j=\\frac{1}{2}(\\partial_{x^j}+i\\partial_{x^{j+n+1}}),\\ j\\leq n,\\quad\n\\overline L^0_{n+1} = \\frac{1}{2}(x^{n+1}\\partial_{x^{n+1}}+i\\partial_{x^{2n+2}})\n\\end{equation}\nthere are smooth functions $\\gamma^j_k$ vanishing to infinite order on $V\\cap\\mathcal N$ such that\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\overline L_j=\\overline L_j^0+\\sum_{k=1}^{n+1}\\gamma^k_j L_k^0\n\\end{equation*}\nis a frame for ${}^b{\\!}T^{0,1}\\mathcal M$ over $V$.\n\\end{proposition}\n\nThe proof will require some preparation. Let $\\mathfrak r:\\mathcal M\\to\\mathbb R$ be a defining function for $\\partial\\mathcal M$. Let $p_0\\in \\mathcal N$, pick a hypoanalytic chart $(z,t)$ (cf. \\eqref{HypoanalyticChart}) centered at $p_0$ with $\\mathcal T t=1$. Let $U\\subset \\mathcal N$ be a neighborhood of $p_0$ contained in the domain of the chart, mapped by it to $B\\times(-\\delta,\\delta)\\subset \\mathbb C^n\\times\\mathbb R$, where $B$ is a ball with center $0$ and $\\delta$ is some small positive number. For reference purposes we state\n\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{LocalExactBStructure} On such $U$, the problem\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\overline\\Dee \\phi = \\psi, \\quad \\psi\\in C^\\infty(U;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q+1}\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*|_U)\\text{ and }\\overline\\Dee \\psi=0\n\\end{equation*}\nhas a solution in $C^\\infty(U;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*|_U)$.\n\\end{lemma}\n\nExtend the functions $z^j$ and $t$ to a neighborhood of $p_0$ in $\\mathcal M$. Shrinking $U$ if necessary, we may assume that in some neighborhood $V$ of $p_0$ in $\\mathcal M$ with $V\\cap\\partial\\mathcal M=U$, $(z,t,\\mathfrak r)$ maps $V$ diffeomorphically onto $B\\times(-\\delta,\\delta)\\times [\\neutral{]}0,\\varepsilon\\neutral{(})$ for some $\\delta$, $\\varepsilon>0$. Since the form $\\beta_\\mathfrak r$ defined in \\eqref{DefinitionBeta} is $\\overline\\Dee$-closed, there is $\\alpha\\in C^\\infty(U)$ such that\n\\begin{equation*}\n-i\\overline\\Dee \\alpha=\\beta_\\mathfrak r.\n\\end{equation*}\nExtend $\\alpha$ to $V$ as a smooth function. The section\n\\begin{equation}\\label{StartNoInv}\n{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial(\\log \\mathfrak r+i\\alpha)=\\frac{{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial \\mathfrak r}{\\mathfrak r}+i{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial\\alpha\n\\end{equation}\nof ${}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,1}\\mathcal M$ over $V$ vanishes on $U$, since $\\beta_\\mathfrak r+i \\overline\\Dee \\alpha=0$. So there is a smooth section $\\phi$ of ${}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,1}\\mathcal M$ over $V$ such that\n\\begin{equation*}\n{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial(\\log \\mathfrak r +i\\alpha)=\\mathfrak r e^{i\\alpha}\\phi.\n\\end{equation*}\nSuppose $\\zeta:U\\to\\mathbb C$ is a solution of $\\overline\\Dee \\zeta=0$ on $U$, and extend it to $V$. Then ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial\\zeta$ vanishes on $U$, so again we have\n\\begin{equation*}\n{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial\\zeta=\\mathfrak r e^{i\\alpha}\\psi.\n\\end{equation*}\nfor some smooth section $\\psi$ of ${}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,1}\\mathcal M$ over $V$. The following lemma will be applied for $f_0$ equal to $\\log\\mathfrak r+i\\alpha$ or each of the functions $z^j$.\n\n\\begin{lemma}\nLet $f_0$ be smooth in $V\\backslash U$ and suppose that ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial f_0=\\mathfrak r e^{i\\alpha}\\psi_1$ with $\\psi_1$ smooth on $V$. Then there is $f:V\\to\\mathbb C$ smooth vanishing at $U$ such that ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial(f_0+f)$ vanishes to infinite order on $U$.\n\\end{lemma}\n\n\\begin{proof} Suppose that $f_1,\\dotsc,f_{N-1}$ are defined on $V$ and that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{StepN}\n{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial \\sum_{k=0}^{N-1}(\\mathfrak r e^{i\\alpha})^k f_k = (\\mathfrak r e^{i\\alpha})^N\\psi_N\n\\end{equation}\nholds with $\\psi_N$ smooth in $V$; by the hypothesis, \\eqref{StepN} holds when $N=1$. Using \\eqref{StartNoInv} we get that ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial(\\mathfrak r e^{i\\alpha})=(\\mathfrak r e^{i\\alpha})^2\\phi$, therefore\n\\begin{equation*}\n0={}^b\\!\\overline \\partial\\big((\\mathfrak r e^{i\\alpha})^N\\psi_N) = (\\mathfrak r e^{i\\alpha})^N[{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial\\psi_N + N\\mathfrak r e^{i\\alpha}\\phi\\wedge \\psi_N],\n\\end{equation*}\nwhich implies that ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial\\psi_N=0$ on $U$.  With arbitrary $f_N$ we have\n\\begin{equation*}\n{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial\\sum_{k=0}^{N}(\\mathfrak r e^{i\\alpha})^k f_k = (\\mathfrak r e^{i\\alpha})^N(\\psi_N  + {}^b\\!\\overline \\partial f_N + N \\mathfrak r e^{i\\alpha}f_N \\phi).\n\\end{equation*}\nSince $\\overline\\Dee\\psi_N=0$ and $H_{\\overline\\Dee}^1(U)=0$ by Lemma~\\ref{LocalExactBStructure}, there is a smooth function $f_N$ defined in $U$ such that $\\overline\\Dee f_N=-\\psi_N$ in $U$. So there is $\\chi_N$ such that $\\psi_N + {}^b\\!\\overline \\partial f_N = \\mathfrak r e^{i\\alpha}\\chi_N$. With such $f_N$, \\eqref{StepN} holds with $N+1$ in place of $N$ and some $\\psi_{N+1}$. Thus there is a sequence $\\{f_j\\}_{j=1}^\\infty$ such that \\eqref{StepN} holds for each $N$. Borel's lemma then gives $f$ smooth with\n\\begin{equation*}\nf\\sim \\sum_{k=1}^\\infty (\\mathfrak r e^{i\\alpha})^k f_k\\quad\\text{ on }U\n\\end{equation*}\nsuch that $\\overline\\Dee(f_0+f)$ vanishes to infinite order on $U$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\begin{proof}[Proof of Proposition~\\ref{NoLocalFormalInvariants}]\nApply the lemma with $f_0=\\log\\mathfrak r+i\\alpha$ to get a function $f$ such that ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial (f_0+f)$ vanishes to infinite order at $U$. Let\n\\begin{equation*}\nx^{n+1}=\\mathfrak r e^{-\\Im\\alpha+\\Re f},\\quad x^{2n+2}=\\Re\\alpha+\\Im f.\n\\end{equation*}\nThese functions are smooth up to $U$.\n\nApplying the lemma to each of the functions $f_0=z^j$, $j=1,\\dotsc,n$ gives smooth functions $\\zeta^j$ such that $\\zeta^j=z^j$ on $U$ and ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial \\zeta^j=0$ to infinite order at $U$. Define\n\\begin{equation*}\nx^j=\\Re \\zeta^j,\\quad x^{j+n+1}=\\Im\\zeta^j,\\quad j=1,\\dotsc,n.\n\\end{equation*}\nThe functions $x^j$, $j=1\\dots,2n+2$ are independent, and the forms\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\eta^j={}^b\\!d\\zeta^j,j=1\\dots,n,\\quad \\eta^{n+1}=\\frac{1}{x^{n+1}e^{i x^{2n+2}}}{}^b\\!d[x^{n+1}e^{i x^{2n+2}}]\n\\end{equation*}\ntogether with their conjugates form a frame for $\\mathbb C{}^b{\\!}T\\mathcal M$ near $p_0$. Let $\\eta^j_{1,0}$ and $\\eta^j_{0,1}$ be the $(1,0)$ and $(0,1)$ components of $\\eta^j$ according to the complex $b$-structure of $\\mathcal M$. Then\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\eta^j_{0,1}=\\sum_k p^j_k \\eta^k +q^j_k \\overline {\\eta}^k.\n\\end{equation*}\nSince $\\eta^j_{0,1}={}^b\\!\\overline \\partial\\zeta^j$ vanishes to infinite order at $U$,\nthe coefficients $p^j_k$ and $q^j_k$ vanish to infinite order at $U$. Replacing this formula for $\\eta^j_{0,1}$ in $\\eta^j=\\eta^j_{1,0}+\\eta^j_{0,1}$\nget\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\sum_k(\\delta^j_k-p^j_k )\\eta^k -\\sum_k q^j_k \\overline \\eta^k= \\eta^j_{1,0}.\n\\end{equation*}\nThe matrix $I-[p^j_k]$ is invertible with inverse of the form $I+[P^j_k]$ with $P^j_k$ vanishing to infinite order at $U$. So\n\\begin{equation}\\label{TheForms}\n\\eta^j -\\sum_k \\gamma^j_k \\overline \\eta^k=\\sum_k(\\delta^j_k+P^j_k) \\eta^k_{1,0}\n\\end{equation}\nwith suitable $\\gamma^j_k$ vanishing to infinite order on $U$. Define the vector fields $\\overline L_j^0$ as in \\eqref{NoLocalFormalInvariants1}. The vector fields\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\overline L_j=\\overline L_j^0+\\sum_k \\gamma^k_j L_k^0, \\quad j=1,\\dotsc,n+1\n\\end{equation*}\nare independent and since $\\langle \\overline L_j^0,\\eta^k\\rangle=0$ and $\\langle L_j^0,\\eta^k\\rangle=\\delta^k_j$, they annihilate each of the forms on the left hand side of \\eqref{TheForms}. So they annihilate the forms $\\eta^k_{1,0}$, which proves that the $\\overline L_j$ form a frame of ${}^b{\\!}T^{0,1}\\mathcal M$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\section{Indicial complexes}\\label{sIndicialComplex}\n\nThroughout this section we assume that $\\mathcal N$ is a connected component of the boundary of a compact manifold $\\mathcal M$. Let\n\\begin{equation}\\label{GenericComplex}\n\\cdots\\to C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;E^q)\\xrightarrow{A_q} C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;E^{q+1})\\to\\cdots\n\\end{equation}\nbe a $b$-elliptic complex of operators $A_q\\in \\Diff^1_b(\\mathcal M;E^q,E^{q+1})$; the $E^q$, $q=0,\\dotsc,r$, are vector bundles over $\\mathcal M$.\n\nNote that since $A_q$ is a first order operator,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{FirstOrderChar}\nA_q(f\\phi)=f A_q\\phi-i\\, \\bsym(A_q)({}^b\\!d f)(\\phi).\n\\end{equation}\nThis formula follows from the analogous formula for the standard principal symbol and the definition of principal $b$-symbol. It follows from \\eqref{FirstOrderChar} and \\eqref{VanishingOnBdy} that $A_q$ defines an operator\n\\begin{equation*}\nA_{b,q}:\\Diff^1(\\mathcal N;E^q_{\\mathcal N},E^{q+1}_{\\mathcal N}).\n\\end{equation*}\nFix a smooth defining function $\\mathfrak r:\\mathcal M\\to\\mathbb R$ for $\\partial \\mathcal M$, $\\mathfrak r>0$ in the interior of $\\mathcal M$, let \n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathcal A_q(\\sigma): \\Diff^1_b(\\mathcal N;E^q_{\\mathcal N},E^{q+1}_{\\mathcal N}),\\quad \\sigma\\in \\mathbb C\n\\end{equation*}\ndenote the indicial family of $A_q$ with respect to $\\mathfrak r$, see \\eqref{IndicialFamily}. Using \\eqref{FirstOrderChar} and defining\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\Lambda_{\\mathfrak r,q}=\\bsym(A_q)(\\frac{{}^b\\!d \\mathfrak r}{\\mathfrak r}),\n\\end{equation*}\nthe indicial family of $A_q$ with respect to $\\mathfrak r$ is\n\\begin{equation}\\label{DefGenericIndOp}\n\\mathcal A_q(\\sigma) = A_{b,q}+\\sigma\\Lambda_{\\mathfrak r,q}:C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;E^q_\\mathcal N)\\to C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;E^{q+1}_\\mathcal N).\n\\end{equation}\nBecause of \\eqref{PQb}, these operators form an elliptic complex\n\\begin{equation}\\label{IndicialComplex}\n\\cdots\n\\to C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;E^q_\\mathcal N) \\xrightarrow{\\mathcal A_q(\\sigma)}\nC^\\infty(\\mathcal N;E^{q+1}_\\mathcal N)\n\\to\\cdots\n\\end{equation}\nfor each $\\sigma$ and each connected component $\\mathcal N$ of $\\partial \\mathcal M$. The operators depend on $\\mathfrak r$, but the cohomology groups at a given $\\sigma$ for different defining functions $\\mathfrak r$ are isomorphic. Indeed, if $\\mathfrak r'$ is another defining function for $\\partial \\mathcal M$, then $\\mathfrak r'=e^u\\mathfrak r$ for some smooth real-valued function $u$, and a simple calculation gives\n\\begin{equation*}\n(A_{b,q}+\\sigma \\Lambda_{\\mathfrak r,q})(e^{i\\sigma u}\\phi)=e^{i\\sigma u}(A_{b,q}+\\sigma \\Lambda_{\\mathfrak r',q})\\phi.\n\\end{equation*}\nIn analogy with the definition of boundary spectrum of an elliptic operator $A\\in \\Diff^m_b(\\mathcal M;E,F)$, we have\n\n\\begin{definition}\nLet $\\mathcal N$ be a connected component of $\\partial \\mathcal M$. The family of complexes \\eqref{IndicialComplex}, $\\sigma\\in \\mathbb C$, is the indicial complex of \\eqref{GenericComplex} at $\\mathcal N$. For each $\\sigma\\in \\mathbb C$ let $H^q_{\\mathcal A(\\sigma)}(\\mathcal N)$ denote the $q$-th cohomology group of \\eqref{IndicialComplex} on $\\mathcal N$. The $q$-th boundary spectrum of the complex \\eqref{GenericComplex} at $\\mathcal N$ is the set\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^q(A)=\\set{\\sigma\\in \\mathbb C: H^q_{\\mathcal A(\\sigma)}(\\mathcal N)\\ne 0}.\n\\end{equation*}\nThe $q$-th boundary spectrum of $A$ is $\\spec_b^q(A) = \\bigcup_{\\mathcal N}\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^q(A)$.\n\\end{definition}\n\nThe spaces $H^q_{\\mathcal A(\\sigma)}(\\mathcal N)$ are finite-dimensional because \\eqref{IndicialComplex} is an elliptic complex and $\\mathcal N$ is compact. It is convenient to isolate the behavior of the indicial complex according to the components of the boundary, since the sets $\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^q(A)$ can vary drastically from component to component.\n\n\\medskip\nSuppose that $\\mathcal M$ is a complex $b$-manifold. Recall that since\n\\begin{equation*}\n{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial \\in \\Diff^1_b(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,q}\\mathcal M,{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,q+1}\\mathcal M),\n\\end{equation*}\nthere are induced boundary operators\n\\begin{equation*}\n{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial_b\\in \\Diff^1(\\mathcal N;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,q}_\\mathcal N\\mathcal M,{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,q+1}_\\mathcal N\\mathcal M)\n\\end{equation*}\nwhich via the isomorphism \\eqref{bdyIso} become the operators of the $\\overline\\Dee$-complex \\eqref{bdyComplex}. Combining \\eqref{bdeebarOnFunctions} and \\eqref{bsymbdeebar} we get\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\bsym({}^b\\!\\overline \\partial)(\\frac{{}^b\\!d \\mathfrak r}{\\mathfrak r})(\\phi) = i \\frac{{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial\\mathfrak r}{\\mathfrak r}\\wedge\\phi\n\\end{equation*}\nand using \\eqref{DefinitionBeta} we may identify $\\widehat{{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial_b}(\\sigma)$, given by \\eqref{DefGenericIndOp}, with the operator\n\\begin{equation}\\label{DefIndOp}\n\\overline\\D(\\sigma)\\phi = \\overline\\Dee \\phi + i \\sigma\\beta_\\mathfrak r\\wedge \\phi.\n\\end{equation}\nIf $E\\to\\mathcal M$ is a holomorphic vector bundle, then the indicial family of\n\\begin{equation*}\n{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial\\in \\Diff^1_b(\\mathcal M;{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,q}\\mathcal M\\otimes E,{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{0,q+1}\\mathcal M\\otimes E)\n\\end{equation*}\nis again given by \\eqref{DefIndOp}, but using the operator $\\overline\\Dee$ of the complex \\eqref{defDeebarBundle}.\n\n\\medskip\nReturning to the general complex \\eqref{GenericComplex}, fix a smooth positive $b$-density $\\mathfrak m$ on $\\mathcal M$ and a Hermitian metric on each $E^q$. Let $\\mathcal A_q^\\star(\\sigma)$ be the indicial operator of the formal adjoint, $A^\\star_q$, of $A_q$. The Laplacian $\\square_q$ of the complex \\eqref{GenericComplex} in degree $q$ belongs to $\\Diff^2_b(\\mathcal M;E^q\\mathcal M)$, is $b$-elliptic, and its indicial operator is\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\widehat \\square_q(\\sigma)=\n\\mathcal A_q^\\star(\\sigma) \\mathcal A_q(\\sigma)+\\mathcal A_{q-1}(\\sigma) \\mathcal A_{q-1}^\\star(\\sigma).\n\\end{equation*}\nThe $b$-spectrum of $\\square_q$ at $\\mathcal N$, see Melrose~\\cite{RBM2}, is the set\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}(\\square_q) = \\set{\\sigma\\in \\mathbb C:\\widehat\\square_q(\\sigma):C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;E^q_\\mathcal N)\\to C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;E^q_\\mathcal N)\\text{ is not invertible}}.\n\\end{equation*}\nNote that unless $\\sigma$ is real, $\\widehat \\square_q(\\sigma)$ is not the Laplacian of the complex \\eqref{IndicialComplex}.\n\n\\begin{proposition}\\label{DiscretenesOfBSpectrum}\nFor each $q$, $\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^q(A)\\subset \\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}(\\square_q)$. \\end{proposition}\n\nNote that the set $\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}(\\square_q)$ depends on the choice of Hermitian metrics and $b$-density used to construct the Laplacian, but that the subset $\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^q(A)$ is independent of such choices. For a general $b$-elliptic complex \\eqref{GenericComplex} it may occur that $\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^q(A)\\ne \\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}(\\square_q)$. In Example \\ref{IndComplexbd} we show that $\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^q({}^b\\!d)\\subset \\set{0}$. As is well known, $\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}(\\Delta_q)$ is an infinite set if $\\dim\\mathcal M>1$. At the end of this section we will give an example where $\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^0({}^b\\!\\overline \\partial)$ is an infinite set. A full discussion of $\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^q({}^b\\!\\overline \\partial)$ for any $q$ and other aspects of the indicial complex of complex $b$-structures is given in Section~\\ref{sIndicialCohomology}.\n\n\\begin{proof}[Proof of Proposition~\\ref{DiscretenesOfBSpectrum}]\nSince $\\square_q$ is $b$-elliptic, the set $\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}(\\square_q)$ is closed and discrete. Let $H^2(\\mathcal N;E^q_\\mathcal N)$ be the $L^2$-based Sobolev space of order $2$. For $\\sigma\\notin \\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}(\\square_q)$ let\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathcal G_q(\\sigma):L^2(\\mathcal N;E^q_\\mathcal N)\\to H^2(\\mathcal N;E^q_\\mathcal N)\n\\end{equation*}\nbe the inverse of $\\widehat \\square_q(\\sigma)$. The map $\\sigma\\mapsto \\mathcal G_q(\\sigma)$ is meromorphic with poles in $\\spec_b(\\square_q)$. Since\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathcal A_q^\\star(\\sigma)= [\\mathcal A_q(\\overline \\sigma)]^\\star\n\\end{equation*}\nthe operators $\\widehat \\square_q(\\sigma)$ are the Laplacians of the complex \\eqref{IndicialComplex} when $\\sigma$ is real. Thus for $\\sigma\\in \\mathbb R\\backslash (\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}(\\square_q)\\cup\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}(\\square_{q+1}))$ we have\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathcal A_{q}(\\sigma) \\mathcal G_{q}(\\sigma)=\\mathcal G_{q+1}(\\sigma)\\mathcal A_q(\\sigma),\\quad\n\\mathcal A_q(\\sigma)^\\star \\mathcal G_{q+1}(\\sigma) = \\mathcal G_q(\\sigma)\\mathcal A_q^\\star(\\sigma)\n\\end{equation*}\nby standard Hodge theory. Since all operators depend holomorphically on $\\sigma$, the same equalities hold for $\\sigma\\in \\mathfrak R=\\mathbb C\\backslash(\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}(\\square_q)\\cup \\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}(\\square_{q+1}))$. It follows that\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathcal A_q^\\star(\\sigma)\\mathcal A_q(\\sigma) \\mathcal G_q(\\sigma) =\n\\mathcal G_q(\\sigma) \\mathcal A_q^\\star(\\sigma)\\mathcal A_q(\\sigma)\n\\end{equation*}\nin $\\mathfrak R$. By analytic continuation the equality holds on all of $\\mathbb C\\backslash \\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}(\\square_q)$. Thus if $\\sigma_0\\notin \\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}(\\square_q)$ and $\\phi$ is a $\\mathcal A_q(\\sigma_0)$-closed section, $\\mathcal A_q(\\sigma_0)\\phi=0$, then the formula\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\phi=[\\mathcal A_q^\\star(\\sigma_0) \\mathcal A_q(\\sigma_0)+\\mathcal A_{q-1}(\\sigma_0) \\mathcal A_{q-1}^\\star(\\sigma_0)]\\mathcal G_q(\\sigma_0) \\phi\n\\end{equation*}\nleads to\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\phi=\\mathcal A_{q-1}(\\sigma_0)[\\mathcal A_{q-1}^\\star(\\sigma_0) \\mathcal G_{q}(\\sigma_0)\\phi].\n\\end{equation*}\nTherefore $\\sigma_0\\notin \\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^q(A)$.\n\\end{proof}\n\nSince $\\square_q$ is $b$-elliptic, the set $\\spec _{b,\\mathcal N}(\\square_q)$ is discrete and intersects each horizontal strip $a\\leq\\Im\\sigma\\leq b$ in a finite set (Melrose~\\cite{RBM2}). Consequently:\n\n\\begin{corollary}\nThe sets $\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^q(A)$, $q=0,1\\dotsc$, are closed, discrete, and intersect each horizontal strip $a\\leq\\Im\\sigma\\leq b$ in a finite set.\n\\end{corollary}\n\nWe note in passing that the Euler characteristic of the complex \\eqref{IndicialComplex} vanishes for each $\\sigma$. Indeed, let $\\sigma_0\\in \\mathbb C$. The Euler characteristic of the $\\mathcal A(\\sigma_0)$-complex is the index of\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathcal A(\\sigma_0) + \\mathcal A(\\sigma_0)^\\star:\\bigoplus_{q\\text{ even}}C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;E^q)\\to \\bigoplus_{q\\text{ odd}}C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;E^q).\n\\end{equation*}\nThe operator $\\mathcal A_q(\\sigma)$ is equal to $A_{b,q} + \\sigma \\Lambda_{\\mathfrak r,q}$, see \\eqref{DefGenericIndOp}. Thus $\\mathcal A_q(\\sigma)^\\star = A_{b,q}^\\star+\\overline \\sigma \\Lambda_{\\mathfrak r,q}^\\star$, and it follows that for any $\\sigma$,\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathcal A(\\sigma) + \\mathcal A(\\sigma)^\\star=\n\\mathcal A(\\sigma_0) + \\mathcal A(\\sigma_0)^\\star\n+(\\sigma-\\sigma_0)\\Lambda_\\mathfrak r+(\\overline \\sigma-\\overline \\sigma_0)\\Lambda_\\mathfrak r^\\star\n\\end{equation*}\nis a compact perturbation of $\\mathcal A(\\sigma_0) + \\mathcal A(\\sigma_0)^\\star$. Therefore, since the index is invariant under compact perturbations, the index of $\\mathcal A(\\sigma) + \\mathcal A(\\sigma)^\\star$ is independent of $\\sigma$. Then it vanishes, since it vanishes when $\\sigma\\notin \\bigcup_q \\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^q(A)$.\n\n\\medskip\nLet $\\mathfrak {Mero}^q(\\mathcal N)$ be the sheaf of germs of $C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;E^q)$-valued meromorphic functions on $\\mathbb C$ and let $\\mathfrak {Hol}^q(\\mathcal N)$ be the subsheaf of germs of holomorphic functions. Let $\\mathfrak S^q(\\mathcal N)=\\mathfrak {Mero}^q(\\mathcal N)\/\\mathfrak {Hol}^q(\\mathcal N)$. The holomorphic family $\\sigma\\mapsto \\mathcal A_q(\\sigma)$ gives a sheaf homomorphism $\\mathcal A_q:\\mathfrak {Mero}^q(\\mathcal N)\\to\\mathfrak {Mero}^{q+1}(\\mathcal N)$ such that $\\mathcal A_q(\\mathfrak {Hol}^q(\\mathcal N))\\subset \\mathfrak {Hol}^{q+1}(\\mathcal N)$ and $\\mathcal A_{q+1}\\circ \\mathcal A_{q}=0$, so we have a complex\n\\begin{equation}\\label{BdyMeroCohomologySheaf}\n\\cdots\\to \\mathfrak S^q(\\mathcal N)\\xrightarrow{\\mathcal A_q}\\mathfrak S^{q+1}(\\mathcal N)\\to\\cdots.\n\\end{equation}\n\nThe cohomology sheafs $\\mathfrak H^q_A(\\mathcal N)$ of this complex contain more refined information about the cohomology of the complex $A$.\n\n\\begin{proposition}\nThe sheaf $\\mathfrak H^q_\\mathcal A(\\mathcal N)$ is supported on $\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^q(A)$.\n\\end{proposition}\n\n\\begin{proof}\nLet $\\sigma_0\\in \\mathbb C$ be such that $H^q_{\\mathcal A(\\sigma_0)}(\\mathcal N)=0$ and let\n\\begin{equation}\\label{SingPart}\n\\phi(\\sigma)=\\sum_{k=1}^{\\mu}\\frac{\\phi_k}{(\\sigma-\\sigma_0)^{k}},\n\\end{equation}\n$\\mu>0$, $\\phi_k\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*)$, represent the $\\mathcal A$-closed element $[\\phi]$ of the stalk of $\\mathfrak S^q(\\mathcal N)$ over $\\sigma_0$. The condition that $\\mathcal A_q[\\phi]=0$ means that $\\mathcal A_q(\\sigma)\\phi(\\sigma)$ is holomorphic, that is,\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\frac{\\mathcal A_q(\\sigma_0)\\phi_\\mu}{(\\sigma-\\sigma_0)^\\mu} +\\sum_{k=1}^{\\mu-1}\\frac{\\mathcal A_q(\\sigma_0)\\phi_k+\\Lambda_{\\mathfrak r,q}\\phi_{k+1}}{(\\sigma-\\sigma_0)^{k}}=0.\n\\end{equation*}\nIn particular $\\mathcal A_q(\\sigma_0)\\phi_\\mu=0$. Since $H^q_{\\mathcal A(\\sigma_0)}(\\mathcal N)=0$, there is $\\psi_\\mu\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;E^{q-1})$ such that $\\mathcal A_{q-1}(\\sigma_0)\\psi_\\mu=\\phi_\\mu$. This shows that if $\\mu=1$, then $[\\phi]$ is exact, and that if $\\mu>1$, then letting $\\phi'(\\sigma)=\\phi(\\sigma)-\\mathcal A_{q-1}(\\sigma)\\psi_\\mu\/(\\sigma-\\sigma_0)^\\mu$, that $\\phi$ is cohomologous to an element $[\\phi']$ represented by a sum as in \\eqref{SingPart} with $\\mu-1$ instead of $\\mu$. By induction, $[\\phi]$ is exact.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\begin{definition}\\label{CohomologySheafs}\nThe cohomology sheafs $\\mathfrak H^q_{A}(\\mathcal N)$ of the complex \\eqref{BdyMeroCohomologySheaf} will be referred to as the indicial cohomology sheafs of the complex $A$. If $[\\phi]\\in \\mathfrak h^q_A(\\mathcal N)$ is a nonzero element of the stalk over $\\sigma_0$, the smallest $\\mu$ such that there is a meromorphic function \\eqref{SingPart} representing $[\\phi]$ will be called the order of the pole of $[\\phi]$.\n\\end{definition}\n\nThe relevancy of this notion of pole lies in that it predicts, for any given cohomology class of the complex $A$, the existence of a representative with the most regular leading term (the smallest power of log that must appear in the expansion at the boundary). We will see later (Proposition~\\ref{bdeebarCohomologySheaf}) that for the $b$-Dolbeault complex, under a certain geometric assumption, the order of the pole of $[\\phi]\\in \\mathfrak H^q_{{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial}(\\mathcal N)\\backslash 0$ is $1$.\n\n\\begin{example}\\label{IndComplexbd}\nFor the $b$-de Rham complex one has $\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^q({}^b\\!d)\\subset \\set{0}$ and\n\\begin{equation*}\nH^q_{\\mathcal D(0)}(\\mathcal N)=H^q_{\\mathrm {dR}}(\\mathcal N)\\oplus H^{q-1}_{\\mathrm {dR}}(\\mathcal N)\n\\end{equation*}\nfor each component $\\mathcal N$ of $\\partial\\mathcal M$, and that every element of the stalk of $\\mathfrak H^q_{{}^b\\!d}(\\mathcal N)$ over $0$ has a representative with a simple pole. By way of the residue we get an isomorphism from the stalk over $0$ onto $H^q_{\\mathrm {dR}}(\\mathcal N)$.\n\nSince the map \\eqref{evbM} is surjective with kernel spanned by $\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r$, the dual map\n\\begin{equation}\\label{evbMDual}\n\\mathrm{ev}_{\\mathcal N}^*: T^*{\\mathcal N}\\to {}^b{\\!}T_{\\mathcal N}^*\\mathcal M\n\\end{equation}\nis injective with image the annihilator, $\\mathcal H$, of $\\mathfrak r\\partial\\mathfrak r$. Let $\\mathbf i_{\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r}:{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}_{\\mathcal N}^q\\mathcal M\\to {}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}_{\\mathcal N}^{q-1}\\mathcal M$ denote interior multiplication by $\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r$ Then $\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\mathcal H=\\ker(\\mathbf i_{\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r}:{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}_{\\mathcal N}^q\\mathcal M\\to {}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}_{\\mathcal N}^{q-1}\\mathcal M)$. The isomorphism \\eqref{evbMDual} gives isomorphisms\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathrm{ev}_{\\mathcal N}^*: \\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q{\\mathcal N}\\to \\mathcal H^q\n\\end{equation*}\nfor each $q$. Fix a defining function $\\mathfrak r$ for $\\mathcal N$ and let $\\Pi:{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}_{\\mathcal N}^q\\mathcal M \\to {}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}_{\\mathcal N}^q\\mathcal M$ be the projection on $\\mathcal H^q$ according to the decomposition\n\\begin{equation*}\n{}^b{\\!}\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}_{\\mathcal N}^q\\mathcal M=\\mathcal H^q\\oplus \\frac{{}^b\\!d\\mathfrak r}{\\mathfrak r}\\wedge\\mathcal H^{q-1},\n\\end{equation*}\nthat is,\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\Pi\\phi = \\phi-\\frac{{}^b\\!d\\mathfrak r}{\\mathfrak r}\\wedge \\mathbf i_{\\mathfrak r\\partial_\\mathfrak r}\\phi.\n\\end{equation*}\nIf $\\phi^0\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal N,\\mathcal H^q)$ and $\\phi^1\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal N,\\mathcal H^{q-1})$, then\n\\begin{equation*}\n{}^b\\!d(\\phi^0+\\frac{{}^b\\!d\\mathfrak r}{\\mathfrak r}\\wedge\\phi^1)=\\Pi\\,{}^b\\!d\\phi^0+\\frac{{}^b\\!d\\mathfrak r}{\\mathfrak r}\\wedge(-\\Pi\\,{}^b\\!d\\phi^1).\n\\end{equation*}\nSince\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathfrak r^{-i\\sigma}{}^b\\!d\\mathfrak r^{i\\sigma}\\phi = {}^b\\!d \\phi +i \\sigma\\frac{{}^b\\!d\\mathfrak r}{\\mathfrak r}\\wedge\\phi,\n\\end{equation*}\nthe indicial operator $\\mathcal D(\\sigma)$ of ${}^b\\!d$ is\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathcal D(\\sigma)(\\phi_0+\\frac{{}^b\\!d\\mathfrak r}{\\mathfrak r}\\wedge\\phi^1) = \\Pi\\,{}^b\\!d\\phi^0+\\frac{{}^b\\!d\\mathfrak r}{\\mathfrak r}\\wedge(i \\sigma\\phi^0-\\Pi\\, {}^b\\!d\\phi^1).\n\\end{equation*}\nIf $\\mathcal D(\\sigma)(\\phi_0+\\frac{{}^b\\!d\\mathfrak r}{\\mathfrak r}\\wedge\\phi^1)=0$, then of course $\\Pi{}^b\\!d\\phi^0=0$ and $i \\sigma\\phi^0=\\Pi{}^b\\!d\\phi^1$, and it follows that if $\\sigma\\ne 0$, then\n\\begin{equation*}\n(\\phi_0+\\frac{{}^b\\!d\\mathfrak r}{\\mathfrak r}\\wedge\\phi^1) = \\mathcal D(\\sigma)\\frac{1}{i\\sigma}\\phi^1.\n\\end{equation*}\nThus all cohomology groups of the complex $\\mathcal D(\\sigma)$ vanish if $\\sigma\\ne 0$, i.e., $\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^q({}^b\\!d)\\subset \\set{0}$.\n\nIt is not hard to verify that\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\Pi{}^b\\!d\\,\\mathrm{ev}_{\\mathcal N}^*=\\mathrm{ev}_{\\mathcal N}^*d.\n\\end{equation*}\nSince\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathfrak r^{-i\\sigma}{}^b\\!d\\mathfrak r^{i\\sigma}\\phi = {}^b\\!d \\phi +i \\sigma\\frac{{}^b\\!d\\mathfrak r}{\\mathfrak r}\\wedge\\phi,\n\\end{equation*}\nthe indicial operator of ${}^b\\!d$ at $\\sigma=0$ can be viewed as the operator\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\begin{bmatrix}\nd & 0\\\\\n0 & -d\n\\end{bmatrix}:\n\\begin{matrix}\n\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\mathcal N\\\\\n\\oplus\\\\\n\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q-1}\\mathcal N\n\\end{matrix} \\to\n\\begin{matrix}\n\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\mathcal N\\\\\n\\oplus\\\\\n\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q-1}\\mathcal N\n\\end{matrix}.\n\\end{equation*}\nFrom this we get the cohomology groups of $\\mathcal D(0)$ in terms of the de Rham cohomology of $\\mathcal N$:\n\\begin{equation*}\nH^q_{\\mathcal D(0)}(\\mathcal N)=H^q_{\\mathrm {dR}}(\\mathcal N)\\oplus H^{q-1}_{\\mathrm {dR}}(\\mathcal N).\n\\end{equation*}\nThus the groups $H^q_{\\mathcal D(0)}(\\mathcal N)$ do not vanish for $q=0$, $1$, $\\dim\\mathcal M-1$, $\\dim\\mathcal M$ but may vanish for other values of $q$.\n\nWe now show that every element of the stalk of $\\mathfrak H^q_{{}^b\\!d}(\\mathcal N)$ over $0$ has a representative with a simple pole at $0$. Suppose that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{Representative}\n\\phi(\\sigma)=\\sum_{k=1}^\\mu \\frac{1}{\\sigma^k}\\left(\\phi^0_k+\\frac{{}^b\\!d \\mathfrak r}{\\mathfrak r}\\wedge \\phi^1_k\\right)\n\\end{equation}\nis such that $\\mathcal D(\\sigma)\\phi(\\sigma)$ is holomorphic. Then\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\sum_{k=1}^\\mu \\frac{1}{\\sigma^k}\\left(d\\phi^0_k - \\frac{{}^b\\!d \\mathfrak r}{\\mathfrak r}\\wedge d\\phi^1_k\\right) + \\frac{{}^b\\!d \\mathfrak r}{\\mathfrak r}\\wedge\\left(\\sum_{k=1}^{\\mu-1} \\frac{i}{\\sigma^k}\\phi^0_{k+1}\\right) = 0,\n\\end{equation*}\nhence $d\\phi^0_1=0$, $d\\phi^1_\\mu=0$ and $\\phi^0_k=-i d\\phi^1_{k-1}$, $k=2,\\dotsc,\\mu$. Let\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\psi(\\sigma)=-i \\sum_{k=2}^{\\mu+1} \\frac{1}{\\sigma^k} \\phi^1_{k-1}.\n\\end{equation*}\nThen\n\\begin{align*}\n\\mathcal D(\\sigma)\\psi(\\sigma)\n&= -i \\sum_{k=2}^{\\mu+1} \\frac{1}{\\sigma^k} d\\phi^1_{k-1} + \\frac{{}^b\\!d\\mathfrak r}{\\mathfrak r}\\wedge\\sum_{k=2}^{\\mu+1}\\frac{1}{\\sigma^{k-1}}\\phi^1_{k-1}\\\\\n&= \\sum_{k=2}^{\\mu} \\frac{1}{\\sigma^k} \\phi^0_k + \\frac{{}^b\\!d\\mathfrak r}{\\mathfrak r}\\wedge\\sum_{k=1}^{\\mu}\\frac{1}{\\sigma^k}\\phi^1_k\n\\end{align*}\nso\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\phi(\\sigma)-\\mathcal D(\\sigma)\\psi(\\sigma)=\\frac{1}{\\sigma}\\phi^0_1.\n\\end{equation*}\nThe map that sends the class of the $\\mathcal D(\\sigma)$-closed element \\eqref{Representative} to the class of $\\phi^0_1$ in $H^q_{\\mathrm {dR}}(\\mathcal N)$ is an isomorphism.\n\\end{example}\n\n\\begin{example}\nAs we just saw, the boundary spectrum of the ${}^b\\!d$ complex in degree $0$ is just $\\set{0}$. In contrast, $\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^0({}^b\\!\\overline \\partial)$ may be an infinite set. We illustrate this in the context of Example \\ref{AnisotropicSphere}. The functions\n\\begin{equation*}\nz^\\alpha=(z^1)^{\\alpha_1}\\dotsm (z^{n+1})^{\\alpha_{n+1}},\n\\end{equation*}\nwhere the $\\alpha_j$ are nonnegative integers, are CR functions that satisfy\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathcal T z^\\alpha=i (\\sum \\tau_j\\alpha_j) z^\\alpha.\n\\end{equation*}\nThis implies that\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\overline\\Dee z^\\alpha + i (-i \\sum \\tau_j\\alpha_j) \\beta z^\\alpha=0\n\\end{equation*}\nwith $\\beta$ as in Example \\ref{AnisotropicSphere}, so the numbers $\\sigma_\\alpha=(-i \\sum \\tau_j\\alpha_j)$ belong to $\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^0({}^b\\!\\overline \\partial)$. \n\nFor the sake of completeness we also show that if $\\sigma\\in \\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^0({}^b\\!\\overline \\partial)$, then $\\sigma=\\sigma_\\alpha$ for some $\\alpha$ as above. To see this, suppose that $\\zeta:S^{2n+1}\\to\\mathbb C$ is not identically zero and satisfies\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\overline\\Dee \\zeta+i \\sigma\\zeta\\beta=0\n\\end{equation*}\nfor some $\\sigma\\ne 0$. Then $\\zeta$ is smooth, because the principal symbol of $\\overline\\Dee$ on functions is injective. Since $\\langle\\beta,\\mathcal T\\rangle=-i$,\n\\begin{equation*}\nT\\zeta+ \\sigma\\zeta=0.\n\\end{equation*}\nThus $\\zeta(\\mathfrak a_t(p))=e^{-\\sigma t}\\zeta(p)$ for any $p$. Since $|\\zeta(\\mathfrak a_t(p))|$ is bounded as a function of $t$ and $\\zeta$ is not identically $0$, $\\sigma$ must be purely imaginary. Since $\\zeta$ is a CR function, it extends uniquely to a holomorphic function $\\tilde\\zeta$ on $B=\\set{z\\in \\mathbb C^{n+1}:\\|z\\|<1}$, necessarily smooth up to the boundary. Let $\\zeta_t=\\zeta\\circ \\mathfrak a_t$. This is also a smooth CR function, so it has a unique holomorphic extension $\\tilde \\zeta_t$ to $B$. The integral curve through $z_0=(z^1_0,\\dotsc,z^{n+1}_0)$ of the vector field $\\mathcal T$ is\n\\begin{equation*}\nt\\mapsto \\mathfrak a_t(z_0)=(e^{i \\tau_1 t} z^1_0,\\dotsc,e^{i \\tau_{n+1} t} z^{n+1}_0)\n\\end{equation*}\nExtending the definition of $\\mathfrak a_t$ to allow arbitrary $z\\in \\mathbb C^{n+1}$ as argument we then have that $\\tilde \\zeta_t=\\tilde \\zeta\\circ \\mathfrak a_t$. Then\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\partial_t\\tilde \\zeta_t+ \\sigma\\tilde \\zeta_t=0\n\\end{equation*}\ngives\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\tilde\\zeta(z)=\\sum_{\\set{\\alpha:\\pmb \\tau\\cdot\\alpha=i \\sigma}} c_\\alpha z^\\alpha\n\\end{equation*}\nfor $|z|<1$, where $\\pmb\\tau=(\\tau_1,\\dotsc,\\tau_{n+1})$. Thus $\\sigma=-i\\sum\\tau_j\\alpha_j$ as claimed. Note that $\\Im \\sigma$ is negative (positive) if the $\\tau_j$ are positive (negative) and $\\alpha\\ne0$.\n\\end{example}\n\n\\section{Underlying CR complexes}\\label{sUnderlyingCRcomplexes}\n\nAgain let $\\mathfrak a:\\mathbb R\\times\\mathcal N\\to\\mathcal N$ be the flow of $\\mathcal T$. Let $\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T$ denote the Lie derivative with respect to $\\mathcal T$ on de Rham $q$-forms or vector fields and let $\\mathbf i_\\mathcal T$ denote interior multiplication by $\\mathcal T$ of de Rham $q$-forms or of elements of $\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*$.\n\nThe proofs of the following two lemmas are elementary.\n\n\\begin{lemma}\nIf $\\alpha$ is a smooth section of the annihilator of $\\overline\\Vee$ in $\\mathbb C T^*\\mathcal N$, then $(\\mathcal {L}_{\\mathcal T}\\alpha)|_{\\overline\\Vee}=0$. Consequently, for each $p\\in \\mathcal N$ and $t\\in \\mathbb R$, $d\\mathfrak a_t:\\mathbb C T_p\\mathcal N\\to \\mathbb C T_{\\mathfrak a_t(p)}\\mathcal N$ maps $\\overline\\Vee_p$ onto $\\overline\\Vee_{\\mathfrak a_t(p)}$.\n\\end{lemma}\n\nIt follows that there is a well defined smooth bundle homomorphism $\\mathfrak a_t^*: \\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^* \\to \\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*$ covering $\\mathfrak a_{-t}$. In particular, one can define the Lie derivative $\\mathcal {L}_{\\mathcal T}\\phi$ with respect to $\\mathcal T$ of an element in $\\phi \\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*)$. The usual formula holds:\n\n\\begin{lemma}\nIf $\\phi\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*)$, then $\\mathcal {L}_{\\mathcal T}\\phi=\\mathbf i_{\\mathcal T}\\overline\\Dee\\phi+\\overline\\Dee\\mathbf i_{\\mathcal T}\\phi$. Consequently, for each $t$ and $\\phi\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*)$, $\\overline\\Dee \\mathfrak a_t^*\\phi = \\mathfrak a_t^*\\overline\\Dee\\phi$.\n\\end{lemma}\n\n\\medskip\nFor any defining function $\\mathfrak r$ of $\\mathcal N$ in $\\mathcal M$, $\\overline \\K_{\\mathfrak r}=\\ker\\beta_\\mathfrak r$ is a CR structure of CR codimension $1$: indeed, $\\mathcal K_\\mathfrak r\\cap \\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r\\subset \\Span_\\mathbb C\\mathcal T$ but since $\\langle\\beta_\\mathfrak r,\\mathcal T\\rangle$ vanishes nowhere, we must have $\\overline \\K\\cap \\mathcal K=0$. Since $\\mathcal K\\oplus \\overline \\K\\oplus\\Span_\\mathbb C\\mathcal T=\\mathbb C T\\mathcal N$, the CR codimension is $1$. Finally, if $V,W\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\overline \\K_{\\mathfrak r})$, then \n\\begin{equation*}\n\\langle\\beta_\\mathfrak r,[V,W]\\rangle=V\\langle\\beta_\\mathfrak r,W\\rangle-W\\langle\\beta_\\mathfrak r,V\\rangle-2\\overline\\Dee\\beta(V,W),\n\\end{equation*}\nSince the right hand side vanishes, $[V,W]$ is again a section of $\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r$.\n\nSince $\\overline\\Vee=\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r\\oplus \\Span_\\mathbb C \\mathcal T$, the dual of $\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r$ is canonically isomorphic to the kernel of $\\mathbf i_\\mathcal T:\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*\\to\\mathbb C$. We will write $\\overline \\K^*$ for this kernel. More generally, $\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r^*$ and the kernel, $\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K^*$, of $\\mathbf i_\\mathcal T:\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*\\to\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q-1}\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*$ are canonically isomorphic. The vector bundles $\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K^*$ are independent of the defining function $\\mathfrak r$. We regard the $\\overline \\partial_b$-operators of the CR structure as operators\n\\begin{equation*}\nC^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K^*)\\to C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q+1}\\overline \\K^*).\n\\end{equation*}\nThey do depend on $\\mathfrak r$ but we will not indicate this in the notation. \n\nTo get a formula for $\\overline \\partial_b$, let\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r=\\frac{i }{i -a_\\mathfrak r}\\beta_\\mathfrak r\n\\end{equation*}\n(so that $\\langle i \\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r,\\mathcal T\\rangle=1$). The projection $\\Pi_\\mathfrak r:\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q \\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*\\to\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*$ on $\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K^*$ according to the decomposition\n\\begin{equation}\\label{DecompositionOfVeebar}\n\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*=\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q \\overline \\K^* \\oplus i \\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r\\wedge \\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q-1}\\overline \\K^*\n\\end{equation}\nis\n\\begin{equation}\\label{DefinitionOfPi}\n\\Pi_\\mathfrak r\\phi=\\phi-i\\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r\\wedge \\mathbf i_\\mathcal T\\phi.\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\begin{lemma}\nWith the identification of $\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r^*$ with $\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K^*$ described above, the $\\overline \\partial_b$-operators of the CR structure $\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r$ are given by\n\\begin{equation}\\label{DefinitionOfdeebarb}\n\\overline \\partial_b\\phi=\\Pi_\\mathfrak r\\overline\\Dee\\phi\\quad \\text{ if }\\phi\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal N,\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K^*),\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{lemma}\n\n\\begin{proof} Suppose that $(z,t)$ is a hypoanalytic chart for $\\overline\\Vee$ on some open set $U$, with $\\mathcal T t=1$. So $\\partial_{\\overline z^\\mu}$, $\\mu=1\\dotsc,n$, $\\mathcal T=\\partial_t$ is a frame for $\\overline\\Vee$ over $U$ with dual frame $\\overline\\Dee\\overline z^\\mu$, $\\overline\\Dee t$. If\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\beta_\\mathfrak r=\\sum_{\\mu=1}^n\\beta_\\mu\\overline\\Dee \\overline z^\\mu+\\beta_0\\overline\\Dee t.\n\\end{equation*}\nthen\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\overline L_\\mu=\\partial_{\\overline z^\\mu}-\\frac{\\beta_\\mu}{\\beta_0}\\partial_t,\\quad\\mu=1,\\dotsc,n\n\\end{equation*}\nis a frame for $\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r$ over $U$. Let $\\overline \\eta^\\mu$ denote the dual frame (for $\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r^*$). Since the $\\overline L_\\mu$ commute, $\\overline \\partial_b\\overline \\eta^\\mu=0$, so if $\\phi=\\sum'_{|I|=q}\\phi_I\\,\\overline \\eta^I$, then (with the notation as in eg. Folland and Kohn~\\cite{FK})\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\overline \\partial_b \\phi=\\sideset{}{'}\\sum_{|J|=q+1}\\,\\sideset{}{'}\\sum_{|I|=q}\\sum_\\mu \\sign {\\mu I}{J}\\overline L_\\mu\\phi_I\\,\\overline \\eta^J.\n\\end{equation*}\nOn the other hand, the frame of $\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*$ dual to the frame $\\overline L_\\mu$, $\\mu=1,\\dotsc,n$, $\\mathcal T$ of $\\overline\\Vee$ is $\\overline\\Dee \\overline z^\\mu$, $i\\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r$, and the identification of $\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r^*$ with $\\overline \\K^*$ maps the $\\eta^\\mu$ to the $\\overline\\Dee \\overline z^\\mu$. So, as a section of $\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*$,\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\phi=\\sideset{}{'}\\sum_{|I|=q} \\phi_I\\, \\overline\\Dee\\overline z^I\n\\end{equation*}\nand\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\overline\\Dee\\phi=\\sideset{}{'}\\sum_{|J|=q+1}\\,\\sideset{}{'}\\sum_{|I|=q} \\sign{\\mu I}{J} \\overline L_\\mu\\phi_I \\,\\overline\\Dee\\overline z^J+\ni\\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r\\wedge\\sideset{}{'}\\sum_{|I|=q} \\mathcal T\\phi_I\\,\\overline\\Dee\\overline z^I.\n\\end{equation*}\nThus $\\Pi_\\mathfrak r\\overline\\Dee\\phi$ is the section of $\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q+1}\\overline \\K^*$ associated with $\\overline \\partial_b\\phi$ by the identifying map.\n\\end{proof}\n\nUsing \\eqref{DefinitionOfPi} in \\eqref{DefinitionOfdeebarb} and the fact that $\\mathbf i_\\mathcal T\\overline\\Dee\\phi=\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\phi$ if $\\phi\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K^*)$ we get\n\\begin{equation}\\label{FormulaForDeeOnK*}\n\\overline \\partial_b\\phi=\\overline\\Dee\\phi-i \\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r\\wedge\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\phi \\quad \\text{ if }\\phi\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal N,\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K^*).\n\\end{equation}\n\nThe $\\overline\\Dee$ operators can be expressed in terms of the $\\overline \\partial_b$ operators. Suppose $\\phi\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*)$. Then $\\phi=\\phi^0+i \\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r\\wedge \\phi^1$ with unique $\\phi^0 \\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q \\overline \\K^*)$ and $\\phi^1 \\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q-1} \\overline \\K^*)$, and\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\overline\\Dee\\phi^0=\\overline \\partial_b\\phi^0+i\\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r\\wedge\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\phi^0,\n\\end{equation*}\nsee \\eqref{FormulaForDeeOnK*}. Using\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\overline\\Dee\\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r=\\frac{\\overline\\Dee a_\\mathfrak r}{i - a_\\mathfrak r}\\wedge\\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r\n\\end{equation*}\nand \\eqref{FormulaForDeeOnK*} again we get\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\overline\\Dee(i \\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r\\wedge \\phi^1)=\ni\\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r\\wedge \\big(-\\frac{\\overline\\Dee a_\\mathfrak r}{i - a_\\mathfrak r}\\wedge\\phi^1 - \\overline\\Dee\\phi^1 \\big)=\ni\\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r\\wedge \\big(-\\frac{\\overline \\partial_b a_\\mathfrak r}{i - a_\\mathfrak r}\\wedge\\phi^1 - \\overline \\partial_b\\phi^1 \\big).\n\\end{equation*}\nThis gives\n\\begin{equation}\\label{DeeAsMatrix}\n\\overline\\Dee=\n\\begin{bmatrix}\n\\overline \\partial_b & 0\\\\\n\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T & -\\overline \\partial_b -\\dfrac{\\overline \\partial_b a_\\mathfrak r}{i -a_\\mathfrak r}\n\\end{bmatrix}\n:\n\\begin{matrix}\nC^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K^*)\\\\ \\oplus \\\\ C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q-1}\\overline \\K^*)\n\\end{matrix}\n\\to\n\\begin{matrix}\nC^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q+1}\\overline \\K^*)\\\\ \\oplus \\\\ C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K^*)\n\\end{matrix}.\n\\end{equation}\n\nSince $\\mathcal T$ itself is $\\mathcal T$-invariant, $\\mathbf i_\\mathcal T\\mathfrak a_t^*=a_t^*\\mathbf i_\\mathcal T$: the subbundle $\\overline \\K^*$ of $\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*$ is invariant under $\\mathfrak a_t^*$ for each $t$. This need not be true of $\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r$, i.e., the statement that for all $t$, $d\\mathfrak a_t(\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r)\\subset \\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r$, equivalently,\n\\begin{equation*}\nL\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r)\\implies [\\mathcal T,L]\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal M;\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r),\n\\end{equation*}\nmay fail to hold. Since $\\overline\\Dee\\beta_\\mathfrak r=0$, the formula\n\\begin{equation*}\n0=\\mathcal T\\langle \\beta_\\mathfrak r,L\\rangle - L\\langle \\beta_\\mathfrak r,\\mathcal T\\rangle - \\langle \\beta_\\mathfrak r,[\\mathcal T,L]\\rangle\n\\end{equation*}\nwith $L\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r)$ gives that $\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r$ is invariant under $d\\mathfrak a_t$ if and only if $La_\\mathfrak r=0$ for each CR vector field, that is, if and only if $a_\\mathfrak r$ is a CR function. This proves the equivalence between the first and last statements in the following lemma. The third statement is the most useful.\n\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{Invariances}\nLet $\\mathfrak r$ be a defining function for $\\mathcal N$ in $\\mathcal M$ and let $\\overline \\partial_b$ denote the operators of the associated CR complex. The following are equivalent:\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item The function $a_\\mathfrak r$ is CR;\n\\item $\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r=0$;\n\\item $\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\overline \\partial_b-\\overline \\partial_b\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T=0$;\n\\item $\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r$ is $\\mathcal T$-invariant.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{lemma}\n\n\\begin{proof}\nFrom $\\beta_\\mathfrak r=(a_\\mathfrak r-i)i\\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r$ and $\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\beta_\\mathfrak r=\\overline\\Dee a_\\mathfrak r$ we obtain\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\overline\\Dee a_\\mathfrak r=(\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T a_\\mathfrak r)i \\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r+(a_\\mathfrak r-i)i \\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r,\n\\end{equation*}\nso\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\overline \\partial_b a_\\mathfrak r=\\overline\\Dee a_\\mathfrak r-(\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T a_\\mathfrak r) i \\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r =(a_\\mathfrak r-i)i \\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r.\n\\end{equation*}\nThus $a_\\mathfrak r$ is CR if and only if $\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r=0$.\n\nUsing $\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\overline\\Dee=\\overline\\Dee\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T$ and the definition of $\\overline \\partial_b$ we get\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T \\overline \\partial_b\\phi\n=\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T(\\overline\\Dee\\phi-i\\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r\\wedge \\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\phi)\n=\\overline \\partial_b\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\phi-i(\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r)\\wedge \\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\phi\n\\end{equation*}\nfor $\\phi\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K^*)$. Thus $\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\overline \\partial_b-\\overline \\partial_b\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T=0$ if and only if $\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r=0$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{WithInvariantMetric}\nSuppose that $\\overline\\Vee$ admits a $\\mathcal T$-invariant metric. Then there is a defining function $\\mathfrak r$ for $\\mathcal N$ in $\\mathcal M$ such that $a_\\mathfrak r$ is constant. If $\\mathfrak r$ and $\\mathfrak r'$ are defining functions such that $a_\\mathfrak r$ and $a_{\\mathfrak r'}$ are constant, then $a_\\mathfrak r = a_{\\mathfrak r'}$. This constant will be denoted $\\mathfrak a_\\mathrm{av}$.\n\\end{lemma}\n\n\\begin{proof}\nLet $h$ be a metric as stated. Let $\\mathcal H^{0,1}$ be the subbundle of $\\overline\\Vee$ orthogonal to $\\mathcal T$. This is $\\mathcal T$-invariant, and since the metric is $\\mathcal T$-invariant, $\\mathcal H^{0,1}$ has a $\\mathcal T$-invariant metric. This metric gives canonically a metric on $\\mathcal H^{1,0}=\\overline {\\mathcal H^{0,1}}$. Using the decomposition $\\mathbb C T\\mathcal N=\\mathcal H^{1,0}\\oplus\\mathcal H^{0,1}\\oplus \\Span_\\mathbb C \\mathcal T$ we get a $\\mathcal T$-invariant metric on $\\mathbb C T\\mathcal N$ for which the decomposition is orthogonal. This metric is induced by a Riemannian metric $g$. Let $\\mathfrak m_0$ be the corresponding Riemannian density, which is $\\mathcal T$-invariant because $g$ is. Since $\\overline\\Dee$, $h$, and $\\mathfrak m_0$ are $\\mathcal T$-invariant, so are the formal adjoint $\\overline\\Dee^\\star$ of $\\overline\\Dee$ and the Laplacians of the $\\overline\\Dee$-complex, and if $G$ denotes the Green's operators for these Laplacians, then $G$ is also $\\mathcal T$-invariant, as is the orthogonal projection $\\Pi$ on the space of $\\overline\\Dee$-harmonic forms. Arbitrarily pick a defining function $\\mathfrak r$ for $\\mathcal N$ in $\\mathcal M$. Then\n\\begin{equation*}\na_\\mathfrak r-G\\overline\\Dee^\\star\\overline\\Dee a_\\mathfrak r=\\Pi a_\\mathfrak r\n\\end{equation*}\nwhere $\\Pi a_\\mathfrak r$ is a constant function by Lemma~\\ref{ConstantSolutions}.\nSince $\\beta_\\mathfrak r$ is $\\overline\\Dee$-closed, $\\overline\\Dee a_\\mathfrak r=\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\beta_\\mathfrak r$. Thus $G\\overline\\Dee^\\star\\overline\\Dee a_\\mathfrak r= \\mathcal T G\\overline\\Dee^\\star \\beta_\\mathfrak r$, and since $a_\\mathfrak r$ is real valued and $\\mathcal T$ is a real vector field,\n\\begin{equation*}\na_\\mathfrak r- \\mathcal T \\Re G\\overline\\Dee^\\star\\beta_\\mathfrak r=\\Re\\Pi a_\\mathfrak r.\n\\end{equation*}\nExtend the function $u=\\Re G\\overline\\Dee^\\star\\beta_\\mathfrak r$ to $\\mathcal M$ as a smooth real-valued function. Then $\\mathfrak r'=e^{-u}\\mathfrak r$ has the required property.\n\nSuppose that $\\mathfrak r$, $\\mathfrak r'$ are defining functions for $\\mathcal N$ in $\\mathcal M$ such that $a_\\mathfrak r$ and $a_{\\mathfrak r'}$ are constant. Then these functions are equal by Proposition \\ref{Averages}. \n\\end{proof}\n\nNote that if for some $\\mathfrak r$, the subbundle $\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r$ is $\\mathcal T$-invariant and admits a $\\mathcal T$ invariant Hermitian metric, then there is a $\\mathcal T$-invariant metric on $\\overline\\Vee$.\n\n\\medskip\nSuppose now that $\\rho:F\\to\\mathcal M$ is a holomorphic vector bundle over $\\mathcal M$. Using the operators\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\overline\\Dee:C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*\\otimes F_\\mathcal N)\\to C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q+1}\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*\\otimes F_\\mathcal N),\n\\end{equation*}\nsee \\eqref{defDeebarE}, define operators\n\\begin{equation}\\label{deebarbE}\n\\cdots\\to C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K^*\\otimes F_\\mathcal N)\\xrightarrow{\\overline \\partial_b} C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q+1}\\overline \\K^*\\otimes F_\\mathcal N)\\to\\cdots\n\\end{equation}\nby\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\overline \\partial_b \\phi =\\Pi_\\mathfrak r\\overline\\Dee\\phi,\\quad\\phi\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K^*\\otimes F_\\mathcal N)\n\\end{equation*}\nwhere $\\Pi_\\mathfrak r$ means $\\Pi_\\mathfrak r\\otimes I$ with $\\Pi_\\mathfrak r$ defined by \\eqref{DefinitionOfPi}. The operators \\eqref{deebarbE} form a complex. Define also\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T = \\mathbf i_\\mathcal T\\overline\\Dee + \\overline\\Dee\\mathbf i_\\mathcal T\n\\end{equation*}\nwhere $\\mathbf i_\\mathcal T$ stands for $\\mathbf i_\\mathcal T\\otimes I$. Then\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathbf i_\\mathcal T \\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T = \\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\mathbf i_\\mathcal T,\\quad \\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\overline\\Dee=\\overline\\Dee\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T.\n\\end{equation*}\nThe first of these identities implies that the image of $C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K^*\\otimes F_\\mathcal N)$ by $\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T$ is contained in $C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K^*\\otimes F_\\mathcal N)$.\nWith these definitions, $\\overline\\Dee$ as an operator\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\overline\\Dee :\n\\begin{matrix}\nC^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K^*\\otimes F_\\mathcal N)\\\\ \\oplus \\\\ C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q-1}\\overline \\K^*\\otimes F_\\mathcal N)\n\\end{matrix}\n\\to\n\\begin{matrix}\nC^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q+1}\\overline \\K^*\\otimes F_\\mathcal N)\\\\ \\oplus \\\\ C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K^*\\otimes F_\\mathcal N)\n\\end{matrix}.\n\\end{equation*}\nis given by the matrix in \\eqref{DeeAsMatrix} with the new meanings for $\\overline \\partial_b$ and $\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T$.\n\nAssume that there is a $\\mathcal T$-invariant Riemannian metric on $\\mathcal N$,  that $\\mathfrak r$ has be chosen so that $a_\\mathfrak r$ is constant, that $\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r$ is orthogonal to $\\mathcal T$, and that $\\mathcal T$ has unit length. Then the term involving $\\overline \\partial_b a_\\mathfrak r$ in the matrix \\eqref{DeeAsMatrix} is absent, and since $\\mathbb D^2=0$,\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\overline \\partial_b=\\overline \\partial_b\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T.\n\\end{equation*}\nWrite $h_{\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*}$ for the metric induced on the bundles $\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*$ or $\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K^*$.\n\nIf $\\eta_\\mu$, $\\mu=1,\\dotsc,k$ is a local frame of $F_\\mathcal N$ over an open set $U\\subset \\mathcal N$ and $\\phi$ is a local section of $\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*\\otimes F_\\mathcal N$ over $U$, then for some smooth sections $\\phi^\\mu$ of $\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*$ and $\\omega^\\nu_\\mu$ of $\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*$ over $U$,\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\phi= \\sum_\\mu \\phi^\\mu \\otimes \\eta_\\mu,\\quad \\overline\\Dee \\sum_\\mu \\phi^\\mu \\otimes \\eta_\\mu = \\sum_\\nu (\\overline\\Dee\\phi^\\nu + \\sum_\\mu \\omega^\\nu_\\mu \\wedge \\phi^\\mu)\\otimes \\eta_\\nu.\n\\end{equation*}\nThis gives\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\overline \\partial_b \\sum_\\mu \\phi^\\mu \\otimes \\eta_\\mu = \\sum_\\nu (\\overline \\partial_b\\phi^\\nu + \\sum_\\mu \\Pi_\\mathfrak r\\omega^\\nu_\\mu \\wedge \\phi^\\mu)\\otimes \\eta_\\nu\n\\end{equation*}\nand\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T \\sum_\\mu \\phi^\\mu \\otimes \\eta_\\mu = \\sum_\\nu (\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\phi^\\nu + \\sum_\\mu \\langle\\omega^\\nu_\\mu,\\mathcal T\\rangle \\phi^\\mu)\\otimes \\eta_\\nu.\n\\end{equation*}\n\nSuppose now that $h_F$ is a Hermitian metric on $F$. With this metric and the metric $h_{\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*}$ we get Hermitian metrics $h$ on each of the bundles $\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*\\otimes F_\\mathcal N$. If $\\eta_\\mu$ is an orthonormal frame of $F_\\mathcal N$ and $\\phi=\\sum\\phi^\\mu\\otimes\\eta_\\mu$, $\\psi=\\sum\\psi^\\mu\\otimes\\eta_\\mu$ are sections of $\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*\\otimes F_\\mathcal N$, then\n\\begin{equation*}\nh(\\phi,\\psi) = \\sum_\\nu h_{\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*}(\\phi^\\mu,\\psi^\\mu).\n\\end{equation*}\nTherefore\n\\begin{align*}\nh(\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\phi,\\psi)&+h(\\phi,\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\psi)\\\\\n&= \\sum_\\nu h_{\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*}(\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\phi^\\nu + \\sum_\\mu \\langle\\omega^\\nu_\\mu,\\mathcal T\\rangle \\phi^\\mu,\\psi^\\nu)\n+ \\sum_\\mu h_{\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*}(\\phi^\\mu, \\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\psi^\\mu + \\langle\\omega^\\mu_\\nu,\\mathcal T\\rangle \\psi^\\nu)\\\\\n&= \\sum_\\nu \\mathcal T h_{\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*}(\\phi^\\nu,\\psi^\\nu) + \\sum_{\\mu,\\nu}  ( \\langle\\omega^\\nu_\\mu,\\mathcal T\\rangle + \\overline{\\langle\\omega^\\mu_\\nu,\\mathcal T\\rangle}) h_{\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*}(\\phi^\\mu,\\psi^\\nu)\\\\\n&= \\mathcal T h(\\phi,\\psi) + \\sum_{\\mu,\\nu}  ( \\langle\\omega^\\nu_\\mu,\\mathcal T\\rangle + \\overline{\\langle\\omega^\\mu_\\nu,\\mathcal T\\rangle}) h_{\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*}(\\phi^\\mu,\\psi^\\nu).\n\\end{align*}\nThus $\\mathcal T h(\\phi,\\psi) = h(\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\phi,\\psi) +h(\\phi,\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\psi)$ if and only if\n\\begin{equation}\\label{TangencyOfTE}\n\\langle\\omega^\\nu_\\mu,\\mathcal T\\rangle + \\overline{\\langle\\omega^\\mu_\\nu,\\mathcal T\\rangle}=0\\text{ for all }\\mu,\\nu.\n\\end{equation}\nThis condition is \\eqref{ExactMetricCondition}; just note that by the definition of $\\overline\\Dee$, the forms $(\\Phi^*)^{-1}\\omega^\\nu_\\mu$ in \\eqref{ExactMetricCondition} are the forms that we are denoting $\\omega^\\nu_\\mu$ here. Thus \\eqref{TangencyOfTE} holds if and only if $h_F$ is an exact Hermitian metric, see Definition \\eqref{ExactMetric}.\n\nConsequently,\n\n\\begin{lemma} The statement\n\\begin{equation}\\label{LieTbis}\n\\mathcal T h(\\phi,\\psi) = h(\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\phi,\\psi)+h(\\phi,\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\psi)\\quad \\forall \\phi,\\psi\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*\\otimes F_\\mathcal N)\n\\end{equation}\nholds if and only the Hermitian metric $h_F$ is exact.\n\\end{lemma}\n\n\n\n\\section{Spectrum}\\label{sSpectrum}\n\nSuppose that $\\overline\\Vee$ admits an invariant Hermitian metric. Let $\\mathfrak r$ be a defining function for $\\mathcal N$ in $\\mathcal M$ such that $a_\\mathfrak r$ is constant. By  Lemma \\eqref{Invariances} $\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r$ is $\\mathcal T$-invariant, so the restriction of the metric to this subbundle gives a $\\mathcal T$-invariant metric; we use the induced metric on the bundles $\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K^*$ in the following. As in the proof of Lemma~\\ref{WithInvariantMetric}, there is a $\\mathcal T$-invariant density $\\mathfrak m_0$ on $\\mathcal N$. \n\nLet $\\rho:F\\to\\mathcal M$ be a Hermitian holomorphic vector bundle, assume that the Hermitian metric of $F$ is exact, so with the induced metric $h$ on the vector bundles $\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*\\otimes F_\\mathcal N$, \\eqref{LieTbis} holds. We will write $F$ in place of $F_\\mathcal N$. \n\nLet $\\overline \\partial_b^\\star$ be the formal adjoint of the ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial$ operator \\eqref{deebarbE} with respect to the inner on the bundles $\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K^*\\otimes F$ and the density $\\mathfrak m_0$, and let $\\square_{b,q} = \\overline \\partial_b\\deebarb^\\star + \\overline \\partial_b^\\star\\overline \\partial_b$ be the formal $\\overline \\partial_b$-Laplacian. Since $-i\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T$ is formally selfadjoint and commutes with $\\overline \\partial_b$, $\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T$ commutes with $\\square_{b,q}$. Let\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathscr H^q_{\\overline \\partial_b}(\\mathcal N;F)=\\ker\\square_{b,q}=\\set{\\phi\\in L^2(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K^*\\otimes F):\\square_{b,q}\\phi=0}\n\\end{equation*}\nand let\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\Dom_q(\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T)=\\set{\\phi\\in \\mathscr H^q_{\\overline \\partial_b}(\\mathcal N;F)\\text{ and }\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\phi\\in \\mathscr H^q_{\\overline \\partial_b}(\\mathcal N;F)}.\n\\end{equation*}\nThe spaces $\\mathscr H^q_{\\overline \\partial_b}(\\mathcal N;F)$ may be of infinite dimension, but in any case they are closed subspaces of $L^2(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K^*\\otimes F)$, so they may be regarded as Hilbert spaces on their own right. If $\\phi\\in \\mathscr H^q_{\\overline \\partial_b}(\\mathcal N;F)$, the condition $\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\phi\\in \\mathscr H^q_{\\overline \\partial_b}(\\mathcal N;F)$ is equivalent to the condition\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\phi\\in L^2(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K^*\\otimes F).\n\\end{equation*}\nSo we have a closed operator\n\\begin{equation}\\label{LieOnB-Harmonic}\n-i \\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T:\\Dom_q(\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T)\\subset \\mathscr H^q_{\\overline \\partial_b}(\\mathcal N;F)\\to \\mathscr H^q_{\\overline \\partial_b}(\\mathcal N;F).\n\\end{equation}\nThe fact that $\\square_{b,q}-\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T^2$ is elliptic, symmetric, and commutes with $\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T$ implies that \\eqref{LieOnB-Harmonic} is a selfadjoint Fredholm operator with discrete spectrum (see \\cite[Theorem 2.5]{Me9}).\n\n\\begin{definition}\\label{BCohomologyWithCoeffs}\nLet $\\spec^q_0(-i \\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T)$ be the spectrum of the operator \\eqref{LieOnB-Harmonic}, and let $\\mathscr H^q_{\\overline \\partial_b,\\tau}(\\mathcal N;F)$ be the eigenspace of $-i\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T$ in $\\mathscr H^q_{\\overline \\partial_b}(\\mathcal N;F)$ corresponding to the eigenvalue $\\tau$.\n\\end{definition}\n\nLet $\\pmb\\tau$ denote the principal symbol of $-i\\mathcal T$. Then the principal symbol of $\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T$ acting on sections of $\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K^*$ is $\\pmb\\tauI$. Because $\\square_{b,q}-\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T^2$ is elliptic, $\\Char(\\square_{b,q})$, the characteristic variety of $\\square_{b,q}$, lies in $\\pmb\\tau\\ne 0$. Let\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\Char^\\pm(\\square_{b,q})=\\set{\\nu\\in\\Char (\\square_{b,q}):\\pmb \\tau(\\nu)\\gtrless 0}.\n\\end{equation*}\nBy \\cite[Theorem 4.1]{Me9}, if $\\square_{b,q}$ is microlocally hypoelliptic on $\\Char^\\pm(\\square_{b,q})$, then \n\\begin{equation*}\n\\set{\\tau\\in \\spec^q_0(-i \\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T):\\tau\\gtrless0}\n\\end{equation*}\nis finite. We should perhaps point out that $\\Char(\\square_{b,q})$ is equal to the characteristic variety, $\\Char(\\overline \\K_r)$, of the CR structure. \n\nAs a special case consider the situation where $F$ is the trivial line bundle. Let $\\theta_\\mathfrak r$ be the real $1$-form on $\\mathcal N$ which vanishes on $\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r$ and satisfies $\\langle\\theta_\\mathfrak r,\\mathcal T\\rangle =1$; thus $\\theta_\\mathfrak r$ is smooth, spans $\\Char(\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r)$, and has values in $\\Char^+(\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r)$. The Levi form of the structure is\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\Levi_{\\theta_\\mathfrak r}(v,w)=-i d\\theta_\\mathfrak r(v,\\overline w), \\quad v,\\ w\\in \\mathcal K_{\\mathfrak r,p},\\ p\\in \\mathcal N.\n\\end{equation*}\nSuppose that $\\Levi_{\\theta_\\mathfrak r}$ is nondegenerate, with $k$ positive and $n-k$ negative eigenvalues. It is well known that then $\\square_{b,q}$ is microlocally hypoelliptic at $\\nu\\in\\Char\\mathcal K_\\mathfrak r$ for all $q$ except if $q=k$ and $\\pmb \\tau(\\nu)<0$ or if $q=n-k$ and $\\pmb \\tau(\\nu)>0$.\n\nThen the already mentioned Theorem~4.1 of \\cite{Me9} gives:\n\n\\begin{theorem}[{\\cite[Theorem 6.1]{Me9}}]\\label{WeakVanishing}\nSuppose that $\\overline\\Vee$ admits a Hermitian metric and that for some defining function $\\mathfrak r$ such that $\\mathfrak a_\\mathfrak r$ is constant, $\\Levi_{\\theta_\\mathfrak r}$ is nondegenerate with $k$ positive and $n-k$ negative eigenvalues. Then\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item $\\spec_0^q(-i \\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T)$ is finite if $q\\ne k,\\ n-k$;\n\\item $\\spec_0^k(-i\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T)$ contains only finitely many positive elements, and \\item $\\spec_0^{n-k}(-i\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T)$ contains only finitely many negative elements.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\\section{Indicial cohomology}\\label{sIndicialCohomology}\n\nSuppose that there is a $\\mathcal T$-invariant Hermitian metric $\\tilde h$ on $\\overline\\Vee$. By Lemma~\\ref{WithInvariantMetric} there is a defining function $\\mathfrak r$ such that $\\langle\\beta_\\mathfrak r,\\mathcal T\\rangle$ is constant, equal to $a_\\mathrm{av}-i$. Therefore $\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r$ is $\\mathcal T$-invariant. Let $h$ be the metric on $\\overline\\Vee$ which coincides with $\\tilde h$ on $\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r$, makes the decomposition $\\overline\\Vee=\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r\\oplus \\Span_\\mathbb C\\mathcal T$ orthogonal, and for which $\\mathcal T$ has unit length. The metric $h$ is $\\mathcal T$-invariant. We fix $\\mathfrak r$ and such a metric, and let $\\mathfrak m_0$ be the Riemannian measure associated with $h$. The decomposition \\eqref{DecompositionOfVeebar} of $\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*$ is an orthogonal decomposition.\n\nRecall that $\\overline\\D(\\sigma)\\phi=\\overline\\Dee \\phi+i\\sigma\\beta_\\mathfrak r\\wedge \\phi$. Since $a_\\mathfrak r=a_\\mathrm{av}$ is constant (in particular CR),\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\overline\\D(\\sigma)(\\phi^0 + i \\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r\\wedge \\phi^1) =\n\\overline \\partial_b\\phi_0+i\\tilde \\beta_\\mathfrak r\\wedge \\big[\\big(\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T+(1+i a_\\mathrm{av})\\sigma\\big)\\phi^0 -\\overline \\partial_b\\phi^1\\big]\n\\end{equation*}\nif $\\phi^0\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r^*)$ and $\\phi^1\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q-1}\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r^*)$. So $\\overline\\D(\\sigma)$ can be regarded as the operator\n\\begin{equation}\\label{CalDasMarix}\n\\overline\\D(\\sigma)=\\begin{bmatrix}\n\\overline \\partial_b & 0\\\\\n\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T+(1+i a_\\mathrm{av})\\sigma & -\\overline \\partial_b\n\\end{bmatrix}:\n\\begin{matrix}\nC^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r^*) \\\\ \\oplus\\\\ C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q-1}\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r^*)\n\\end{matrix}\n\\to\n\\begin{matrix}\nC^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q+1}\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r^*) \\\\ \\oplus\\\\ C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q}\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r^*).\n\\end{matrix}\n\\end{equation}\nSince the subbundles $\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r$ and $\\tilde \\beta \\wedge \\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q-1} \\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r$ are orthogonal with respect to the metric induced by $h$ on $\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline\\Vee$, the formal adjoint of $\\overline\\D(\\sigma)$ with respect to this metric and the density $\\mathfrak m_0$ is\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\overline\\D(\\sigma)^\\star=\n\\begin{bmatrix}\n\\overline \\partial_b^\\star & -\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T+(1-i a_\\mathrm{av})\\overline \\sigma \\\\\n0& -\\overline \\partial_b^\\star\n\\end{bmatrix}:\n\\begin{matrix}\nC^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q+1}\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r^*) \\\\ \\oplus\\\\ C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q}\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r^*)\n\\end{matrix}\n\\to\n\\begin{matrix}\nC^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r^*) \\\\ \\oplus\\\\ C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q-1}\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r^*)\n\\end{matrix}\n\\end{equation*}\nwhere $\\overline \\partial_b^\\star$ is the formal adjoint of $\\overline \\partial_b$. So the Laplacian, $\\square_{\\overline\\D(\\sigma),q}$, of the $\\overline\\D(\\sigma)$-complex is the diagonal operator with diagonal entries $P_q(\\sigma)$, $P_{q-1}(\\sigma)$ where\n\\begin{equation*}\nP_q(\\sigma)=\\square_{b,q}+(\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T+(1+i a_\\mathrm{av})\\sigma)(-\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T+(1-i a_\\mathrm{av})\\overline \\sigma)\n\\end{equation*}\nacting on $C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r^*)$ and $P_{q-1}(\\sigma)$ is the ``same'' operator, acting on sections of $\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q-1}\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r^*$; recall that $\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T$ commutes with $\\overline \\partial_b$ and since $\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T^\\star=-\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T$, also with $\\overline \\partial_b^\\star$, and that $a_\\mathrm{av}$ is constant. Note that $P_q(\\sigma)$ is an elliptic operator.\n\nSuppose that $\\phi\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r^*)$ is a nonzero element of $\\ker P_q(\\sigma)$; the complex number $\\sigma$ is fixed. Since $P_q(\\sigma)$ is elliptic, $\\ker P_q(\\sigma)$ is a finite dimensional space, invariant under $-i \\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T$ since the latter operator commutes with $P_q(\\sigma)$. As an operator on $\\ker P_q(\\sigma)$, $-i \\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T$ is selfadjoint, so there is a decomposition of $\\ker P_q(\\sigma)$ into eigenspaces of $-i\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T$. Thus\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\phi=\\sum_{j=1}^N \\phi_j, \\quad -i \\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\phi_j=\\tau_j\\phi_j\n\\end{equation*}\nwhere the $\\tau_j$ are distinct real numbers and $\\phi_j\\in \\ker P_q(\\sigma)$, $\\phi_j\\ne 0$. In particular,\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\square_{b,q}\\phi_j + (\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T+(1+i a_\\mathrm{av})\\sigma)(-\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T+(1-i a_\\mathrm{av})\\overline \\sigma)\\phi_j = 0,\n\\end{equation*}\nfor each $j$, that is,\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\square_{b,q}\\phi_j+ |i\\tau_j+(1+i a_\\mathrm{av})\\sigma|^2\\phi_j = 0.\n\\end{equation*}\nSince $\\square_{b,q}$ is a nonnegative operator and $\\phi_j\\ne 0$, $i\\tau_j+(1+i a_\\mathrm{av})\\sigma=0$ and $\\phi_j\\in \\ker\\square_{b,q}$. Since $\\sigma$ is fixed, all $\\tau_j$ are equal, which means that $N=1$. Conversely, if $\\phi\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\overline \\K_\\mathfrak r^*)$ belongs to $\\ker \\square_{b,q}$ and $-i\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T\\phi=\\tau \\phi$, then $P_q(\\sigma)\\phi=0$ with $\\sigma$ such that $\\tau=(i-a_\\mathrm{av})\\sigma$.\n\nLet $\\mathscr H^q_{\\overline\\D(\\sigma)}(\\mathcal N)$ be the kernel of $\\square_{\\overline\\D(\\sigma),q}$.\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{TheCohomology}\nSuppose that $\\overline\\Vee$ admits a $\\mathcal T$-invariant metric and let $\\mathfrak r$ be a defining function for $\\mathcal N$ in $\\mathcal M$ such that $\\langle \\beta_\\mathfrak r,\\mathcal T\\rangle=a_\\mathrm{av}-i$ is constant. Then\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^q({}^b\\!\\overline \\partial) = (i-a_\\mathrm{av})^{-1}\\spec_0^q(-i \\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T)\\cup (i-a_\\mathrm{av})^{-1}\\spec_0^{q-1}(-i \\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T),\n\\end{equation*}\nand if $\\sigma\\in \\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^q({}^b\\!\\overline \\partial)$, then, with the notation in Definition \\ref{BCohomologyWithCoeffs}\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathscr H^q_{\\overline\\D(\\sigma)}(\\mathcal N)=\\mathscr H^q_{\\overline \\partial_b,\\tau(\\sigma)}(\\mathcal N)\\oplus \\mathscr H^{q-1}_{\\overline \\partial_b,\\tau(\\sigma)}(\\mathcal N)\n\\end{equation*}\nwith $\\tau(\\sigma)=(i-a_\\mathrm{av})\\sigma$.\n\\end{theorem}\n\nIf the CR structure $\\overline \\mathcal K_\\mathfrak r$ is nondegenerate, Proposition~\\ref{WeakVanishing} gives more specific information on $\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^q({}^b\\!\\overline \\partial)$. In particular,\n\\begin{proposition}\nWith the hypotheses of Theorem~\\ref{TheCohomology}, suppose that $\\Levi_{\\theta_\\mathfrak r}$ is nondegenerate with $k$ positive and $n-k$ negative eigenvalues. If $k>0$, then $\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^0 \\subset \\set{\\sigma\\in \\mathbb C:\\Im\\sigma\\leq 0}$, and if $n-k>0$, then $\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^0({}^b\\!\\overline \\partial) \\subset \\set{\\sigma\\in \\mathbb C:\\Im\\sigma\\geq 0}$.\n\\end{proposition}\n\n\\begin{remark}\nThe $b$-spectrum of the Laplacian of the ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial$-complex in any degree can be described explicitly in terms of the joint spectra $\\spec(-i\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T,\\square_{b,q})$. We briefly indicate how. With the metric $h$ and defining function $\\mathfrak r$ as in the first paragraph of this section, suppose that $h$ is extended to a metric on ${}^b{\\!}T^{0,1}\\mathcal M$. This gives a Riemannian $b$-metric on $\\mathcal M$ that in turn gives a $b$-density $\\mathfrak m$ on $\\mathcal M$. With these we get formal adjoints ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial^\\star$ whose indicial families $\\overline\\D^\\star(\\sigma)$ are related to those of ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial$ by\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\overline\\D^\\star(\\sigma) = \\widehat{{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial^\\star}(\\sigma)= [\\widehat{{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial}(\\overline \\sigma)]^\\star = \\overline\\D(\\overline \\sigma)^\\star.\n\\end{equation*}\nBy \\eqref{CalDasMarix},\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\overline\\D^\\star(\\sigma)=\n\\begin{bmatrix}\n\\overline \\partial_b^\\star & -\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T+(1-i a_\\mathrm{av}) \\sigma \\\\\n0& -\\overline \\partial_b^\\star\n\\end{bmatrix}.\n\\end{equation*}\nUsing this one obtains that the indicial family of the Laplacian $\\square_q$ of the ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial$-complex in degree $q$ is a diagonal operator with diagonal entries $P'_q(\\sigma)$, $P'_{q-1}(\\sigma)$ with\n\\begin{equation*}\nP'_q(\\sigma)=\\square_{b,q}+(\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T+(1+i a_\\mathrm{av})\\sigma)(-\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T+(1-i a_\\mathrm{av})\\sigma)\n\\end{equation*}\nand the analogous operator in degree $q-1$. The set $\\spec_b(\\square_q)$ is the set of values of $\\sigma$ for which either $P'_q(\\sigma)$ or $P'_{q-1}(\\sigma)$ is not injective. These points can written in terms of the points $\\spec(-i\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T,\\square_{b})$ as asserted. In particular one gets\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\spec_b(\\square_q)\\subset \\set{\\sigma: |\\Re \\sigma|\\leq |a_\\mathrm{av}||\\Im\\sigma|}\n\\end{equation*}\nwith $\\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^q({}^b\\!\\overline \\partial)$ being a subset of the boundary of the set on the right.\n\\end{remark}\n\n\nWe now discuss the indicial cohomology sheaf of ${}^b\\!\\overline \\partial$, see Definition \\ref{CohomologySheafs}. We will show:\n\n\\begin{proposition}\\label{bdeebarCohomologySheaf}\nLet $\\sigma_0\\in \\spec_{b,\\mathcal N}^q({}^b\\!\\overline \\partial)$. Every element of the stalk of $\\mathfrak H^q_{{}^b\\!\\overline \\partial}(\\mathcal N)$ at $\\sigma_0$ has a representative of the form\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\frac{1}{\\sigma-\\sigma_0}\n\\begin{bmatrix}\n\\phi^0 \\\\ 0\n\\end{bmatrix}\n\\end{equation*}\nwhere $\\phi^0\\in \\mathscr H^q_{\\overline \\partial_b,\\tau_0}(\\mathcal N)$, $\\tau_0= (i-a_\\mathrm{av})\\sigma_0$.\n\\end{proposition}\n\n\\begin{proof}\nLet\n\\begin{equation}\\label{RepresentativeA}\n\\phi(\\sigma)=\\sum_{k=1}^\\mu \\frac{1}{(\\sigma-\\sigma_0)^k}\n\\begin{bmatrix}\n\\phi^0_k \\\\ \\phi^1_k\n\\end{bmatrix}\n\\end{equation}\nrepresent an element in the stalk at $\\sigma_0$ of the sheaf of germs of $C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^q\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*\\otimes F)$-valued meromorphic functions on $\\mathbb C$ modulo the subsheaf of holomorphic elements. Letting $\\alpha=1+i a_\\mathrm{av}$ we have\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\overline\\D(\\sigma)\\phi(\\sigma) =\n\\sum_{k=1}^\\mu \\frac{1}{(\\sigma-\\sigma_0)^k}\n\\begin{bmatrix}\n\\overline \\partial_b \\phi^0_k \\\\\n\\big(\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T + \\alpha\\sigma_0\\big) \\phi^0_k-\\overline \\partial_b \\phi^1_k\n\\end{bmatrix}\n+ \\sum_{k=0}^{\\mu-1} \\frac{\\alpha}{(\\sigma-\\sigma_0)^k}\n\\begin{bmatrix}\n0 \\\\\n\\phi^0_{k+1}\n\\end{bmatrix},\n\\end{equation*}\nso the condition that $\\overline\\D(\\sigma)\\phi(\\sigma)$ is holomorphic is equivalent to\n\\begin{equation}\\label{TopEqs}\n\\overline \\partial_b\\phi^0_k=0,\\ k=1,\\dotsc,\\mu\n\\end{equation}\nand\n\\begin{equation}\\label{BottomEqs}\n\\begin{gathered}\n(\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T + \\alpha\\sigma_0) \\phi^0_\\mu-\\overline \\partial_b \\phi^1_\\mu = 0,\\\\ (\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T + \\alpha\\sigma_0) \\phi^0_k-\\overline \\partial_b \\phi^1_k + \\alpha\\phi^0_{k+1}=0,\\ k=1,\\dotsc,\\mu-1.\n\\end{gathered}\n\\end{equation}\n\nLet $P_{q'}=\\square_{b,q'}-\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T^2$ in any degree $q'$. For any $(\\tau,\\lambda)\\in \\mathbb R^2$ and $q'$ let\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\mathcal E^{q'}_{\\tau,\\lambda}=\\set{\\psi\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q'}\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*\\otimes F):P_{q'}\\psi=\\lambda\\psi,\\ -i \\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T \\psi=\\tau\\psi}.\n\\end{equation*}\nThis space is zero if $(\\tau,\\lambda)$ is not in the joint spectrum $\\Sigma^{q'} = \\spec^{q'}(-i\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T,P_{q'})$. Each $\\phi^i_k$ decomposes as a sum of elements in the spaces $\\mathcal E^{q-i}_{\\tau,\\lambda}$, $(\\tau,\\lambda)\\in \\Sigma^{q-i}$. Suppose that already $\\phi^i_k\\in \\mathcal E^{q-i}_{\\tau,\\lambda}$:\n\\begin{equation*}\nP_{q-i}\\phi^i_k=\\lambda \\phi^i_k,\\quad -i\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T \\phi^i_k=\\tau\\phi^i_k,\\quad i=0,1,\\ k=1,\\dotsc,\\mu.\n\\end{equation*}\nThen \\eqref{BottomEqs} becomes\n\\begin{equation}\\label{BottomEqsEigen}\n\\begin{gathered}\n(i\\tau + \\alpha\\sigma_0) \\phi^0_\\mu-\\overline \\partial_b \\phi^1_\\mu = 0,\\\\ (i\\tau + \\alpha\\sigma_0) \\phi^0_k-\\overline \\partial_b \\phi^1_k + \\alpha\\phi^0_{k+1}=0,\\ k=1,\\dotsc,\\mu-1.\n\\end{gathered}\n\\end{equation}\nIf $\\tau\\ne \\tau_0$, then $i\\tau + \\alpha\\sigma_0\\ne 0$, and we get $\\phi^0_k=\\overline \\partial_b \\psi^0_k$ for all $k$ with\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\psi^0_k = \\sum_{j=0}^{\\mu-k} \\frac{(-\\alpha)^j}{(i\\tau + \\alpha\\sigma_0)^{j+1}}\\phi^1_{k+j}.\n\\end{equation*}\nTrivially\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\big(\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T + \\alpha\\sigma_0\\big) \\psi^0_\\mu = \\phi^1_\\mu\n\\end{equation*}\nand also\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\big(\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T + \\alpha\\sigma_0\\big) \\psi^0_k + \\alpha\\psi^0_{k+1} = \\phi^1_k,\\quad k=1,\\dotsc,\\mu-1,\n\\end{equation*}\nso\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\phi(\\sigma) - \\overline\\D(\\sigma)\\sum_{k=1}^\\mu \\frac{1}{(\\sigma-\\sigma_0)^k}\n\\begin{bmatrix} \\psi^0_k\\\\\n0\n\\end{bmatrix}=0\n\\end{equation*}\nmodulo an entire element.\n\nSuppose now that the $\\phi^i_k$ are arbitrary and satisfy \\eqref{TopEqs}-\\eqref{BottomEqs}. The sum\n\\begin{equation}\\label{FourierSeries}\n\\phi^i_k=\\sum_{(\\tau,\\lambda)\\in \\Sigma^{q-i}} \\phi^i_{k,\\tau,\\lambda},\\quad \\phi^i_{k,\\tau,\\lambda}\\in \\mathcal E^{q-i}_{\\tau,\\lambda}\n\\end{equation}\nconverges in $C^\\infty$, indeed for each $N$ there is $C_{i,k,N}$ such that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{RapidDecay}\n\\sup_{p\\in \\mathcal N}\\|\\phi^i_{k,\\tau,\\lambda}(p)\\|\\leq C_{i,k,N}(1+\\lambda)^{-N}\\quad\\text{ for all }\\tau,\\lambda.\n\\end{equation}\nSince $\\overline\\D(\\sigma)$ preserves the spaces $\\mathcal E^q_{\\tau,\\lambda}\\oplus \\mathcal E^{q-1}_{\\tau,\\lambda}$, the relations \\eqref{BottomEqsEigen} hold for the $\\phi^i_{k,\\tau,\\lambda}$ for each $(\\tau,\\lambda)$. Therefore,\nwith\n\\begin{equation}\\label{PsiFourierSeries}\n\\psi^0_k = \\sum_{\\substack{(\\tau,\\lambda)\\in\\Sigma^{q-1}\\\\\\tau\\ne \\tau_0}}\\sum_{j=0}^{\\mu-k} \\frac{(-\\alpha)^j}{(i\\tau + \\alpha\\sigma_0)^{j+1}}\\phi^1_{k+j,\\tau,\\lambda}\n\\end{equation}\nwe have formally that\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\phi(\\sigma)-\\overline\\D(\\sigma) \\sum_{k=1}^\\mu \\frac{1}{(\\sigma-\\sigma_0)^k}\n\\begin{bmatrix} \\psi_k\\\\\n0\n\\end{bmatrix} = \\sum_{k=1}^\\mu \\frac{1}{(\\sigma-\\sigma_0)^k}\n\\begin{bmatrix} \\tilde \\phi^0_k\\\\\n\\tilde \\phi^1_k\n\\end{bmatrix}\n\\end{equation*}\nwith\n\\begin{equation}\\label{AtTau0}\n\\tilde \\phi^i_k=\\sum_{\\substack{(\\tau,\\lambda)\\in \\Sigma^{q-1}\\\\\\tau=\\tau_0}} \\phi^i_{k,\\tau,\\lambda},\\quad \\phi^i_{k,\\tau,\\lambda}\\in \\mathcal E^{q-i}_{\\tau,\\lambda}.\n\\end{equation}\nHowever, the convergence in $C^\\infty$ of the series \\eqref{PsiFourierSeries} is questionable since there may be a sequence $\\set{(\\tau_\\ell,\\lambda_\\ell)}_{\\ell=1}^\\infty \\subset \\spec(-i\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T,P_{q-1})$ of distinct points such that $\\tau_\\ell\\to\\tau_0$ as $\\ell\\to\\infty$, so that the denominators $i \\tau_\\ell+\\alpha\\sigma_0$ in the formula for $\\psi^0_k$ tend to zero so fast that for some nonnegative $N$, $\\lambda_\\ell^{-N}\/(i \\tau_\\ell+\\alpha\\sigma_0)$ is unbounded. To resolve this difficulty we will first show that $\\phi(\\sigma)$ is $\\overline\\D(\\sigma)$-cohomologous (modulo holomorphic terms) to an element of the same form as $\\phi(\\sigma)$ for which in the series \\eqref{FourierSeries} the terms $\\phi^i_{k,\\tau,\\lambda}$ vanish if $\\lambda-\\tau^2>\\varepsilon$; the number $\\varepsilon>0$ is chosen so that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{ChoiceOfEps}\n(\\tau_0,\\lambda)\\in \\Sigma^q\\cup\\Sigma^{q-1} \\implies \\lambda=\\tau_0^2\\text{ or }\\lambda\\geq\\tau_0^2+\\varepsilon.\n\\end{equation}\nRecall that $\\spec^{q'}(-i\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T,P_{q'})\\subset \\set{(\\tau,\\lambda):\\lambda\\geq \\tau^2}$.\n\nFor any $V\\subset \\bigcup_{q'}\\Sigma^{q'}$ let\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\Pi^{q'}_V:L^2(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q'}\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*\\otimes F)\\to L^2(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q'}\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*\\otimes F)\n\\end{equation*}\nbe the orthogonal projection on $\\bigoplus_{(\\tau,\\lambda)\\in V} \\mathcal E^{q'}_{\\tau,\\lambda}$. If $\\psi\\in C^\\infty(\\mathcal N;\\raise2ex\\hbox{$\\mathchar\"0356$}^{q'}\\smash[t]{\\overline\\Vee}^*\\otimes F)$, then the series\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\Pi^{q'}_V \\psi=\\sum_{(\\tau,\\lambda)\\in V}\\psi_{\\tau,\\lambda}, \\quad\\psi_{\\tau,\\lambda}\\in \\mathcal E^{q'}_{\\tau,\\lambda}\n\\end{equation*}\nconverges in $C^\\infty$. It follows that $\\square_{b,q'}$ and $\\mathcal {L}_\\mathcal T$ commute with $\\Pi^{q'}_V$ and that $\\overline \\partial_b\\Pi^{q'}_V=\\Pi^{q'+1}_V\\overline \\partial_b$. Since the $\\Pi^{q'}_V$ are selfadjoint, also $\\overline \\partial_b^\\star\\Pi^{q'+1}_V = \\Pi^{q'}_V\\overline \\partial_b^\\star$.\n\nLet\n\\begin{equation*}\nU=\\set{(\\tau,\\lambda)\\in \\Sigma^q\\cup \\Sigma^{q-1}:\\lambda <\\tau^2+\\varepsilon},\\quad U^c=\\Sigma^q\\cup \\Sigma^{q-1}\\backslash U.\n\\end{equation*}\nThen, for any sequence $\\set{(\\tau_\\ell,\\lambda_\\ell)}\\subset U$ of distinct points we have $|\\tau_\\ell|\\to\\infty$ as $\\ell\\to\\infty$. Define\n\\begin{equation*}\nG^{q'}_{U^c}\\psi =\\sum_{(\\tau,\\lambda)\\in U^c}\\frac{1}{\\lambda-\\tau^2}\\psi_{\\tau,\\lambda}\n\\end{equation*}\nIn this definition the denominators $\\lambda-\\tau^2$ are bounded from below by $\\varepsilon$, so $G^{q'}_{U^c}$ is a bounded operator in $L^2$ and maps smooth sections to smooth sections because the components of such sections satisfy estimates as in \\eqref{RapidDecay}. The operators are analogous to Green operators: we have\n\\begin{equation}\\label{PseudoGreen1}\n\\square_{b,q'}G^{q'}_{U^c} = G^{q'}_{U^c} \\square_{b,q'}=I -\\Pi^{q'}_U\n\\end{equation}\nso if $\\overline \\partial_b\\psi=0$, then\n\\begin{equation}\\label{PseudoGreen2}\n\\square_{b,q'}G^{q'}_{U^c}\\psi = \\overline \\partial_b\\deebarb^\\star G^{q'}_{U^c}\\psi\n\\end{equation}\nsince $\\overline \\partial_b G^{q'}_{U^c}= G^{q'+1}_{U^c}\\overline \\partial_b$.\n\nWrite $\\phi(\\sigma)$ in \\eqref{RepresentativeA} as\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\phi(\\sigma) =\\Pi_{U^c}\\phi(\\sigma)+ \\Pi_{U}\\phi(\\sigma)\n\\end{equation*}\nwhere\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\Pi_{U^c}\\phi(\\sigma) =\\sum_{k=1}^\\mu \\frac{1}{(\\sigma-\\sigma_0)^k}\n\\begin{bmatrix}\n\\Pi^q_{U^c}\\phi^0_k \\\\ \\Pi^{q-1}_{U^c}\\phi^1_k\n\\end{bmatrix},\\quad\n\\Pi_U\\phi(\\sigma)=\n\\sum_{k=1}^\\mu \\frac{1}{(\\sigma-\\sigma_0)^k}\n\\begin{bmatrix}\n\\Pi^q_U\\phi^0_k \\\\ \\Pi^{q-1}_U\\phi^1_k\n\\end{bmatrix}.\n\\end{equation*}\nSince $\\overline\\D(\\sigma)\\phi(\\sigma)$ is holomorphic, so are $\\overline\\D(\\sigma)\\Pi_{U^c}\\phi(\\sigma)$ and $\\overline\\D(\\sigma)\\Pi_U\\phi(\\sigma)$.\n\nWe show that $\\Pi_{U^c}\\phi(\\sigma)$ is exact modulo holomorphic functions. Using \\eqref{TopEqs}, \\eqref{PseudoGreen1}, and \\eqref{PseudoGreen2}, $\\Pi^q_{U^c}\\phi^0_k = \\overline \\partial_b^\\star \\overline \\partial_b \\Pi^q_{U^c}\\phi^0_k$. Then\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\Pi_{U^c}\\phi(\\sigma)-\\overline\\D(\\sigma)\\sum_{k=1}^\\mu \\frac{1}{(\\sigma-\\sigma_0)^k}\n\\begin{bmatrix}\n\\overline \\partial_b^\\star G^q_{U^c}\\Pi^q_U\\phi^0_k \\\\ 0\n\\end{bmatrix}\n=\\sum_{k=1}^\\mu \\frac{1}{(\\sigma-\\sigma_0)^k}\n\\begin{bmatrix}\n0 \\\\ \\hat\\phi^1_k\n\\end{bmatrix}\n\\end{equation*}\nmodulo a holomorphic term for some $\\hat\\phi^1_k$ with $\\Pi^{q-1}_{U^c}\\hat\\phi^1_k=\\hat\\phi^1_k$. The element on the right is $\\overline\\D(\\sigma)$-closed modulo a holomorphic function, so its components satisfy \\eqref{TopEqs}, \\eqref{BottomEqs}, which give that the $\\tilde\\phi^1_k$ are $\\overline \\partial_b$-closed. Using again \\eqref{PseudoGreen1} and \\eqref{PseudoGreen2} we see that $\\Pi_{U^c}\\phi(\\sigma)$ represent an exact element.\n\nWe may thus assume that $\\Pi^q_{U^c}\\phi(\\sigma)=0$. If this is the case, then the series \\eqref{PsiFourierSeries} converges in $C^\\infty$, so $\\phi(\\sigma)$ is cohomologous to the element\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\tilde\\phi(\\sigma)=\\sum_{k=1}^\\mu \\frac{1}{(\\sigma-\\sigma_0)^k}\n\\begin{bmatrix}\n\\tilde \\phi^0_k \\\\ \\tilde \\phi^1_k\n\\end{bmatrix}\n\\end{equation*}\nwhere the $\\tilde \\phi^i_k$ are given by \\eqref{AtTau0} and satisfy $\\Pi^{q-i}_{U^c}\\tilde \\phi^i_k=0$. By \\eqref{ChoiceOfEps}, $\\tilde \\phi^i_k\\in \\mathcal E^{q-i}_{\\tau_0,\\tau_0^2}$. In particular, $\\square_{b,q-i}\\phi^i_k=0$.\n\nAssuming now that already $\\phi^i_k\\in \\mathcal E^{q-i}_{\\tau_0,\\tau_0^2}$, the formulas \\eqref{BottomEqsEigen} give (since $\\tau=\\tau_0$ and $i\\tau_0+\\alpha\\sigma_0=0$)\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\overline \\partial_b\\phi^1_\\mu=0,\\quad \\phi^0_k = \\overline \\partial_b \\frac{1}{\\alpha}\\phi^1_{k-1},\\ k=2,\\dotsc,\\mu.\n\\end{equation*}\nThen\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\phi(\\sigma)-\\frac {1}{\\alpha}\\overline\\D(\\sigma)\\sum_{k=2}^{\\mu+1} \\frac{1}{(\\sigma-\\sigma_0)^k}\n\\begin{bmatrix}\n\\phi^1_{k-1} \\\\ 0\n\\end{bmatrix}\n=\\frac{1}{\\sigma-\\sigma_0}\n\\begin{bmatrix}\n\\phi^0_1 \\\\ 0\n\\end{bmatrix}\n\\end{equation*}\nwith $\\square_{b,q}\\phi^0_1=0$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
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+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\nDecay estimate of solutions is a fundamental problem in the qualitative analysis of evolution equations. In most cases this problem can be reduced to  differential or integral inequalities. For non-retarded evolution equations,  numerous  inequalities are available to make the performance of decay estimate fruitful (see e.g. \\cite{BS,LL,B.G.Pach,Qin}), among which is the remarkable   Gronwall-Bellman   inequality which was first proposed in Gronwall \\cite{Gron} and later extended to a more general form in Bellman \\cite{Bell1}. In contrast, the  situation in the case of retarded equations  seems to be more complicated. Although there have appeared many nice retarded  differential and integral inequalities in the literature (see e.g. {\\cite{Dee,FT,Halanay,LL,Lip,WangGT,MP,B.G.Pach,YG}} and references cited therein), the existing  ones are far from being adequate to provide easy-to-handle and efficient tools for studying the dynamics  of this  type of  equations, and  it is still a challenging  task  to derive  decay estimates for their solutions, even if for the scalar functional differential  equation $\\dot x=f(t,x,x_t)$. In fact, it is often the case that   one has to fall his back on differential\/integral inequalities without delay when dealing with retarded  differential or integral equations, which makes the calculations  in the argument  much involved and restrictive.\n\nIn this paper we investigate  the following type of   retarded integral inequalities:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e1.1}\\begin{array}{ll}\ny(t)\\leq &E(t,\\tau)\\|y_\\tau\\|+\\int_\\tau^t K_1(t,s)\\|y_s\\|ds\\\\[2ex]\n&+\\int_t^\\infty K_2(t,s)\\|y_s\\|ds+\\rho,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm}\\forall\\,t\\geq\\tau\\geq 0,\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $E$, $K_1$ and $K_2$ are nonnegative measurable functions on  $Q:=(\\mathbb{R}^+)^2$, $\\rho\\geq 0$ is a constant,\n$\\|\\.\\|$ denotes the usual sup-norm of the space ${{\\mathcal C}}:=C([-r,0])$ for some given $r\\geq0$,  $y(t)$ is a nonnegative continuous function on $[-r,\\infty)$  (called a {\\em solution} of \\eqref{e1.1}), and  $y_t$ ($t\\geq 0$) denotes the {\\em lift} of $y$ in ${{\\mathcal C}}$,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e1.15}\ny_t(s)=y(t+s),\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} s\\in [-r,0].\n\\end{equation}\nOur main purpose is to establish some  uniform decay estimates for its solutions.\nSpecifically, let   $E$ be a function on $Q$   satisfying that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e1.13}\\begin{array}{ll}\n\\lim_{t\\rightarrow \\infty}E(t+s,s)=0\\mbox{ uniformly w.r.t.  $s\\in\\mathbb{R}^+$}, \\end{array}\n\\end{equation} and suppose\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e1.14E}\n\\vartheta(E):=\\sup_{t\\geq s\\geq0}E(t,s)\\leq \\vartheta<\\infty,\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e1.14}\\begin{array}{ll}\nI(K_1,K_2):=\\sup_{t\\geq 0}\\(\\int_0^t K_1(t,s)ds+\\int_t^\\8K_2(t,s)ds\\)\\leq \\kappa<\\infty.\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nDenote ${\\mathscr L}_r(E;K_1,K_2;\\rho)$ the solution  set of \\eqref{e1.1}, i.e.,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e1.5}{\\mathscr L}_r(E;K_1,K_2;\\rho)=\\{y\\in C([-r,\\infty)):\\,\\,\\,y\\geq0\\mbox{ and satisfies } \\eqref{e1.1}\\}. \\end{equation}\nWe show that the following theorem holds true.\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{t:3.1}\nLet $\\vartheta$ and $\\kappa$ be the positive constants  in \\eqref{e1.14E} and \\eqref{e1.14}.\n  \\begin{enumerate}\n  \\item[$(1)$] If $\\kappa<1$ then for any  $R,\\varepsilon>0$, there exists $T>0$ such that\n  \\begin{equation}\\label{e:t2.2}\n  \\|y_t\\|<\\mu \\rho+\\varepsilon,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t>T\n  \\end{equation}\n  for all  bounded functions $y\\in {\\mathscr L}_r(E;K_1,K_2;\\rho)$ with $\\|y_0\\|\\leq R$, where\n\\begin{equation}\\label{emu}\n \\mu =1\/(1-\\kappa).\\end{equation}\n\\vs\\item[$(2)$] If  $\\kappa<1\/(1+\\vartheta)$  then there exist   $M,\\lambda>0$ $($independent of $\\rho$$)$ such that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:gi}\n{\\|y_t\\|}\\leq M\\|y_0\\|e^{-\\lambda t}+\\gamma\\rho,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq0\n\\end{equation}\nfor all bounded functions $y\\in {\\mathscr L}_r(E;K_1,K_2;\\rho)$, where\n\\begin{equation}\\label{ec}\n\\gamma=({\\mu+1})\/{(1-\\kappa c)},\\hs c =\\max\\(\\vartheta \/(1-\\kappa),\\,1\\).\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{theorem}\n\\begin{remark}\\label{r1.1}If $\\kappa<1\/(1+\\vartheta)$ then one  trivially verifies  that\n$\n\\kappa c <1.\n$\n\n\\end{remark}\n\n\nThe particular case  where  $K_2= 0$ is of crucial importance  in applications. In such a case we show  that if  $I(K_1,0)\\leq\\kappa<1$ then any function  $y\\in {\\mathscr L}_r(E;K_1,0;\\rho)$  is automatically bounded. Hence the boundedness requirement on $y$ in Theorem \\ref{t:3.1} can be removed. Consequently we have\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{t:3.2} Let $(K_1,K_2)=(K,0)$, and let $\\vartheta$,  $\\kappa$, $\\mu$ and $\\gamma$ be the same constants as in Theorem \\ref{t:3.1}. Then the following  assertions hold.\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item[$(1)$]  If $\\kappa<1$ then for any  $R,\\varepsilon>0$, there exists $T>0$ such that\n  \\begin{equation}\\label{e:gia}\n  \\|y_t\\|<\\mu \\rho+\\varepsilon,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t>T\n  \\end{equation}\nfor all  $y\\in {\\mathscr L}_r(E;K,0;\\rho)$ with $\\|y_0\\|\\leq R$.\n\\vs\n\\item[$(2)$] If  $\\kappa<1\/(1+\\vartheta)$ then there exist   $M,\\lambda>0$ such that for all $y\\in {\\mathscr L}_r(E;K,0;\\rho)$,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:gi1}\n{\\|y_t\\|}\\leq M\\|y_0\\|e^{-\\lambda t}+\\gamma\\rho,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq0.\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{theorem}\n\nTheorem \\ref{t:3.1} can be seen as an extension of the following result in Hale \\cite{Hale1} (see \\cite[pp. 110, Lemma 6.2]{Hale1}) which plays a fundamental role in constructing invariant manifolds of differential equations.\n\\begin{proposition}\\label{p1.3}\\cite{Hale1}\n Suppose $\\alpha>0$, $\\gamma>0$, K, L, M are nonnegative constants and $u$ is a nonnegative bounded continuous solution of the inequality\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e1.8}\nu(t)\\le Ke^{-\\alpha t}+L\\int_{0}^{t}e^{-\\alpha(t-s)}u(s)ds+M\\int_{0}^{\\infty}e^{-\\gamma s}u(t+s)ds,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\ge0.\n\\end{equation}\nIf\n$\n\\beta:=L\/\\alpha+M\/\\gamma<1\n$\nthen\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e1.7}\nu(t)\\le(1-\\beta)^{-1}Ke^{-[\\alpha-(1-\\beta)^{-1}L]t},\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq 0.\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{proposition}\nNote  that there is  in fact  an additional requirement in \\eqref{e1.7} to guarantee the exponential decay of  $u$, that is, $\\alpha-(1-\\beta)^{-1}L>0$, or equivalently,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e1.9}\nL\/\\alpha+M\/\\gamma<1-L\/\\alpha.\n\\end{equation}\n\nLet us say a little more about  the special case $M=0$, in which  \\eqref{e1.9} reads as $L\/\\alpha<1\/2$. In such a case $L\/\\alpha$ coincides with  the constant $\\kappa$ in Theorem \\ref{t:3.2}.\n Setting $K=u_0$ in \\eqref{e1.8}, we see  that the upper bound $\\vartheta$ of the decay functor $E$ in \\eqref{e1.8} (corresponding to \\eqref{e1.1}) equals $1$.  Consequently  the smallness requirement on $\\kappa$ in assertion (2) of Theorem \\ref{t:3.2} reduces to that $\\kappa=L\/\\alpha<1\/2$.\n\n On the other hand, if $1\/2\\leq \\kappa=L\/\\alpha<1$ then we can only infer from \\eqref{e1.7} that $u$ has at most an exponential growth.  However, Theorem \\ref{t:3.2} still assures that a function  satisfying the corresponding integral  inequality must approach  $0$ in a uniform manner with respect to initial data in bounded sets.\n\nWe also mention   that our proof for Theorem \\ref{t:3.1} is significantly  different not only from the one for Proposition \\ref{p1.3} given in \\cite{Hale1}, but also from those  in the literature for other types of differential or integral inequalities.\n\n\\begin{remark}\n The smallness requirement $\\kappa<1$ in the above theorems is optimal in some sense. This can be seen from the simple example of scalar equation:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e1.6}\n\\dot x=-a x+bx(t-1),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $a,b>0$ are constants, for which the assumption  $\\kappa<1$ in Theorem  \\ref{t:3.1} on the corresponding integral inequality  to guarantee the global asymptotic stability of the $0$ solution of the equation amounts to require  that $b<a$; see Section \\ref{s:3.1} for details. On the other hand, if $b>a$ then simple calculations show that  \\eqref{e1.6} has a positive eigenvalue and hence $0$ is unstable; see e.g. Kuang \\cite[Chap. 3, Sect. 2]{Kuang}.\\end{remark}\n\n\\begin{remark}\\label{r:1.6}\nIt remains open whether the assumption $\\kappa<1\/(1+\\vartheta)$ in Theorem \\ref{t:3.2} to guarantee global exponential decay for \\eqref{e1.1} can be further relaxed in the full generality of the theorem.\n\\end{remark}\n\nAs a simple example of applications, we consider the  asymptotic stability of the scalar functional differential equation:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e1.10}\n\\dot x=-a(t)x+B(t,x_t),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $a\\in C(\\mathbb{R})$, and  $B$ is a continuous function on $\\mathbb{R}\\times C([-r,0])$ for some fixed $r\\geq0$ with\n$\n|B(t,\\phi)|\\leq b(t)\\|\\phi\\|$.\nSpecial cases of the equation were studied in the literature  by many authors. For instance, in an earlier work of Winston \\cite{Wins}, the author considered the case where $a(t)$ is nonnegative and  $b(t)\\leq \\theta a(t)$ for some $\\theta<1$. Using  Razumikhin's method\nthe author proved the exponential asymptotic stability and the asymptotic stability  of the equation under the assumption  $a(t)\\geq\\alpha>0$ and that $a(t)\\geq0$ with  $\\int_0^\\8a(t)dt=\\infty$, respectively.\nHere we revisit this problem and allow $a(t)$ to be a function which may change sign. Assume\n $\\lim_{t\\rightarrow \\infty}\\int_s^{s+t} a(\\tau)d\\tau \\rightarrow \\infty\\,\\, \\mbox{uniformly w.r.t $s\\in\\mathbb{R}$}.$\nWe show that the null solution of \\eqref{e1.10} is globally asymptotically stable  provided that\n$$\\begin{array}{ll}\n\\kappa_\\tau:= \\sup_{t\\geq \\tau}\\int_\\tau^tE(t,s)b(s)ds<1,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} \\forall\\,\\tau\\in \\mathbb{R},\\end{array}\n$$\nwhere $\nE(t,s)=\\exp\\(-\\int_s^t a(\\sigma)d\\sigma\\).$ Some results on global exponential asymptotic stability will also be presented. It is not difficulty to check  that if $a(t)$ is a nonnegative function with $\\int_0^\\8a(s)ds=\\infty$ and  $b(t)\\leq \\theta a(t)$ ($t\\in\\mathbb{R}$) for some $\\theta<1$, then  $\\kappa_\\tau\\leq \\theta<1$  for all $\\tau\\in\\mathbb{R}$.\n\nAs another example of applications for our integral inequalities, we discuss  the existence of pullback attractor for ODE system\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e1.16}\n\\dot x=F_0(t,x)+\\sum_{i=1}^mF_i(t,x(t-r_i)),\\hs x=x(t)\\in\\mathbb{R}^n,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $F_i(t,x)$ ($0\\leq i\\leq m$) are continuous mappings from $\\mathbb{R}\\times \\mathbb{R}^n$ to $\\mathbb{R}^n$ which are locally Lipschitz in $x$ in a uniform manner with respect to $t$ on bounded intervals, and $r_i:\\mathbb{R}\\rightarrow [0,r]$ ($1\\leq i\\leq m$) are measurable functions. The investigation of the dynamics of delayed differential equations in the framework of pullback attractor theory developed in \\cite{Crau, Kloeden2,Kloeden1} etc. was first initiated by  Caraballo et al. \\cite{Carab}. In recent years there is an increasing interest on this topic for both retarded ODEs and PDEs; see e.g. \\cite{CMR,CMV, C,Chue, KL, MR,SC, WK, ZS}. However, we find   that the existing works mainly  focus  on the case where the terms involving time lags  have at most  sublinear nonlinearities.\nHere we allow  the nonlinearities  $F_i(t,x)$ ($0\\leq i\\leq m$) in \\eqref{e1.16} to be  superlinear in space variable $x$.\nSuppose\n\\begin{enumerate}\\item[{\\bf (F)}]  there exist positive constants  $p>q\\geq 1$, $\\alpha_i>0$ ($0\\leq i\\leq m$), and nonnegative measurable functions $\\beta_i(t)$ ($0\\leq i\\leq m$) on $\\mathbb{R}$   such that\n$$\n(F_0(t,x),x)\\leq -\\alpha_0 |x|^{p+1}+\\beta_0(t),\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} \\forall\\,x\\in\\mathbb{R}^n,\\,\\,t\\in\\mathbb{R},\n$$$$\n |F_i(t,x)|\\leq \\alpha_i |x|^{q}+\\beta_i(t),\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} \\forall\\,x\\in\\mathbb{R}^n,\\,\\,t\\in\\mathbb{R}.\n $$\n \\end{enumerate}\nWe show under some additional    assumptions on $\\beta_i(t)$ ($0\\leq i\\leq m$) that system \\eqref{e1.16} is dissipative and    has a global pullback attractor.\n\\vs\n\nAs our  third example to illustrate applications of Theorems \\ref{t:3.1} and \\ref{t:3.2}, we finally  consider the dynamics of retarded nonlinear evolution equations with sublinear nonlinearities in the general setting of the cocycle system:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e1.18}\\frac{du}{dt}+Au=F(\\theta_tp,u_t),\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} p\\in {\\mathcal H}\\end{equation}\n in a Banach space $X$, where $A$ is a sectorial operator in $X$ with compact resolvent, ${\\mathcal H}$ is a compact metric space, and  $\\theta_t$ is a dynamical system on ${\\mathcal H}$.\nWe will show under a hyperbolicity assumption on $A$ and some smallness requirements on the growth rate and the Lipschitz constant of $F(p,u)$ in $u$ that the system has a unique nonautonomous equilibrium solution $\\Gamma$. The global asymptotic stability and exponential stability of $\\Gamma$ will also be addressed.\n\n\n\\vs\nThis paper is organized as follows. Section 2 is devoted to the proofs of the  main results, namely, Theorems \\ref{t:3.1} and \\ref{t:3.2}; and Section 3 consists of the two examples of ODE systems mentioned above. Section 4 is concerned with the dynamics of system  \\eqref{e1.18}. We will also talk about in this section  how to put a differential equation with multiple variable delays and external forces into the general setting  of \\eqref{e1.18}.\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Proofs of Theorems \\ref{t:3.1} and \\ref{t:3.2}}\nFor convenience in statement, let us first introduce several classes of  functions.\n\nDenote ${\\mathscr E}$ the family of {\\em bounded} nonnegative measurable functions on $Q:=(\\mathbb{R}^+)^2$ satisfying \\eqref{e1.13}, and let\n$$\\begin{array}{ll}\n{\\mathscr K}_1=\\{K\\in {\\mathscr M}^+(Q):\\,\\,\\,\\int_0^t K(t,s)ds<\\infty\\mbox{ for all }t\\geq 0\\},\n\\end{array}\n$$\n$$\\begin{array}{ll}\n{\\mathscr K}_2=\\{K\\in {\\mathscr M}^+(Q):\\,\\,\\,\\int_t^\\infty K(t,s)ds<\\infty\\mbox{ for all }t\\geq 0\\},\n\\end{array}\n$$\nwhere ${\\mathscr M}^+(Q)$ is  the family of {nonnegative measurable functions} on $Q$.\nDenote $I(K_1,K_2)$ the constant defined in \\eqref{e1.14} for any  $(K_1,K_2)\\in {\\mathscr K}_1\\times {\\mathscr K}_2$.\n\nLet ${\\mathcal C}$ be the space $C([-r,0])$ equipped with the usual sup-norm\n $$\n \\|\\phi\\|=\\sup_{s\\in[-r,0]}|\\phi(s)|,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm}\\phi\\in{\\mathcal C}.\n $$\nGiven   $y\\in C([-r,T))$ ($T>0$), one can  assign  a function $y_t$ from $[0,T)$ to ${\\mathcal C}$ as\nfollows: for each $t\\in[0,T)$,  $y_t$ is the {element} in ${{\\mathcal C}}$ defined by  \\eqref{e1.15}. For convenience, $y_t$ will be referred to as  the {\\em lift} of $y$ in ${\\mathcal C}$.\n\\subsection{Proof of Theorem \\ref{t:3.1}}\nWe begin with the following lemma:\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{l:2.1} Assume that $\\kappa<1$. Then for any bounded function $y\\in {\\mathscr L}_r(E;K_1,K_2;\\rho)$,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:t2.1}\n  \\|y_{t}\\|\\leq c  \\|y_0\\|+\\mu \\rho,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq 0,\n\\end{equation}\n where $c,\\mu$ are the constants defined in Theorem \\ref{t:3.1}.\n \\end{lemma}\n{\\bf Proof.}   It can be  assumed that there is $t>0$ such that $y(t)>\\|y_0\\|+\\mu \\rho$; otherwise  \\eqref{e:t2.1} readily  holds true.\nWrite $$\\sup_{t\\in{ \\mathbb{R}^+}}\\|y_t\\|=N_\\varepsilon(\\|y_0\\|+\\varepsilon)+\\mu \\rho$$ for $\\varepsilon>0$. We show that $N_\\varepsilon\\leq c $ for all $\\varepsilon>0$, and the conclusion follows.\n\n For each $\\delta>0$ sufficiently small, pick an  $\\eta>0$ with\n$$y(\\eta)>\\sup_{t\\in{ \\mathbb{R}^+}}\\|y_t\\|-\\delta.$$\nThen by \\eqref{e1.1} we have\n$$\\begin{array}{ll}\nN_\\varepsilon (\\|y_0\\|+\\varepsilon)+\\mu \\rho-\\delta&=\\sup_{t\\in{ \\mathbb{R}^+}}\\|y_t\\|-\\delta<y(\\eta)\\\\[2ex]\n&\\leq  E(\\eta,0)\\|y_0\\|+\\int_0^\\eta K_1(\\eta,s)\\|y_s\\|ds\\\\[2ex]\n&\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm}\\Hs+\\int_\\eta^\\8K_2(\\eta,s)\\|y_s\\|ds+\\rho\\\\[2ex]\n&\\leq \\vartheta (\\|y_0\\|+\\varepsilon)+  \\kappa\\(N_\\varepsilon(\\|y_0\\|+\\varepsilon)+\\mu \\rho\\)+\\rho.\n\\end{array}\n$$\nSetting $\\delta\\ra0$ we obtain that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:3.7a}\\begin{array}{ll}\n N_\\varepsilon (\\|y_0\\|+\\varepsilon)+\\mu \\rho&\\leq \\vartheta (\\|y_0\\|+\\varepsilon)+  \\kappa\\(N_\\varepsilon(\\|y_0\\|+\\varepsilon)+\\mu \\rho\\)+\\rho\\\\[2ex]\n &=(\\vartheta +\\kappa N_\\varepsilon)(\\|y_0\\|+\\varepsilon)+  (\\kappa\\mu +1)\\rho.\\end{array}\n \\end{equation}\n The choice of $\\mu $ implies  that\n \\begin{equation}\\label{e:2.3}\\kappa\\mu +1\n  { =} \\mu .\\end{equation}\n Hence   \\eqref{e:3.7a} implies that\n $$\\begin{array}{ll}\n N_\\varepsilon (\\|y_0\\|+\\varepsilon)\\leq (\\vartheta +\\kappa N_\\varepsilon)(\\|y_0\\|+\\varepsilon).\\end{array}\n $$\n It follows that  $\nN_\\varepsilon \\leq \\vartheta \/(1-\\kappa)\\leq c .\n$\nThis completes the proof of \\eqref{e:t2.1}. $\\Box$\n\\vskip8pt}\\def\\vs{\\vskip4pt\n\nLet $y\\in {\\mathscr L}_r(E;K_1,K_2;\\rho)$.\n For $\\sigma>0$, if we  set $\\~y(t)=y(\\sigma+t)$ and define\n$$\\~E(t,s)=E(t+\\sigma,s+\\sigma),\\hs \\~K_i(t,s)=K_i(t+\\sigma,s+\\sigma)\\,\\,(i=1,2)\n $$\n for $t,s\\geq 0$, then one trivially checks that $\\~y\\in{\\mathscr L}_r(\\~E;\\~K_1,\\~K_2;\\rho)$ with\n $$I(\\~K_1,\\~K_2)\\leq I(K_1,K_2)\\leq\\kappa<1.$$\n Thus if   $y$ is bounded,  then by Lemma \\ref{l:2.1}  one also  concludes that\n  \\begin{equation}\\label{e:3.4}\n \\|y_{t+\\sigma}\\|\\leq c  \\|y_\\sigma\\|+\\mu \\rho,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t,\\sigma\\geq 0.\n \\end{equation}\n\\vs\n\n\\noindent{\\bf Proof of Theorem \\ref{t:3.1}.} (1)   \\,Assume $\\kappa<1$. To verify assertion (1), we first show that if $y\\in {\\mathscr L}_r(E;K_1,K_2;\\rho)$ is a bounded function, then\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:3.6}{\\limsup_{t\\rightarrow\\infty} \\|y_t\\|}\\leq \\mu\\rho.\n\\end{equation}\nLet us argue by contradiction and suppose\n$${\\limsup_{t\\rightarrow\\infty} \\|y_t\\|}=\\mu\\rho+\\delta\n$$\nfor some $\\delta>0$.\nTake a monotone sequence $\\tau_n\\rightarrow\\infty$ such that $\\lim_{n\\rightarrow\\infty}{ y({\\tau_n}})=\\mu\\rho+\\delta$.\nFor any $\\varepsilon>0$, take a $\\tau>0$ sufficiently large so that\n$$\n\\|y_t\\|<\\mu\\rho+\\delta+\\varepsilon,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq\\tau.\n$$\nThen for $\\tau_n>\\tau$,   by \\eqref{e1.1} we deduce that\n$$\\begin{array}{ll}\ny(\\tau_n)&\\leq E(\\tau_n,\\tau)\\|y_{\\tau}\\|+\\int_{\\tau}^{\\tau_n} K_1(\\tau_n,s)\\|y_s\\|ds+\\int_{\\tau_n}^\\8K_2(\\tau_n,s)\\|y_{s}\\|ds+\\rho\\\\[2ex]\n&\\leq E(\\tau_n,\\tau)\\|y_{\\tau}\\|+  \\kappa\\(\\mu \\rho+\\delta+\\varepsilon\\)+\\rho.\n\\end{array}\n$$\nSetting $n\\rightarrow\\infty$ in the above inequality, it yields\n$$\n\\mu \\rho+\\delta\\leq \\kappa\\(\\mu \\rho+\\delta+\\varepsilon\\)+\\rho.\n$$\nSince $\\varepsilon$ is arbitrary, we conclude that\n$$\n\\mu \\rho+\\delta\\leq (\\kappa\\mu +1)\\rho+\\kappa\\delta.\n$$\nTherefore by \\eqref{e:2.3} one has $\\delta{ \\le}\\kappa\\delta$, which leads to a contradiction and verifies \\eqref{e:3.6}.\n\n\\vs\nNow we complete the proof  of assertion (1).\nLet $R>0$. Denote\n$$\n{\\mathscr B}_R=\\{y\\in{\\mathscr L}_r(E;K_1,K_2;\\rho):\\,\\,y\\mbox{ is bounded with }\\|y_0\\|\\leq R\\}.\n$$\nBy \\eqref{e:t2.1} we see that ${\\mathscr B}_R$ is uniformly bounded. Hence the envelope\n$$\ny^*(t)=\\sup_{y\\in{\\mathscr B}_R}y(t)\n$$\nof the family ${\\mathscr B}_R$ is a bounded nonnegative measurable  function on $[-r,\\infty)$.\n(The measurability of $y^*$ follows from the simple observation that\n$$\\begin{array}{ll}\\{t\\in(-r,\\infty):\\,\\,y^*(t)>a\\}=\\Cup_{y\\in {\\mathscr B}_R}\\{t\\in(-r,\\infty):\\,\\,y(t)>a\\}\\end{array}$$ is an open subset of $\\mathbb{R}$  for any $a\\in\\mathbb{R}$.) As in the case of a continuous function, we use the notation $y^*_t$ ($t\\geq0$) to denote the lift of $y^*$ in the space of measurable functions on $[-r,0]$ ($y^*_t(\\.)=y^*(t+\\.)$) and write  $\\|y^*_t\\|=\\sup_{s\\in[-r,0]}y^*_t(s)$.\n(One should distinguish $\\|y^*_t\\|$ with the $L^\\infty$-norm $\\|y^*_t\\|_{L^\\infty(-r,0)}$ of $y^*_t$, although it can be shown by using the definition of  $y^*$ and the continuity of the functions $y\\in{\\mathscr B}_R$ that the two quantities coincide for $y^*_t$.) We claim that $\\varphi(t):=\\|y^*_t\\|$ is a measurable function on $[0,\\infty)$. Indeed, one trivially verifies that\n$$\n\\|y^*_t\\|=\\sup_{y\\in{\\mathscr B}_R}\\|y_t\\|,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq 0.\n$$\nSince $\\|y_t\\|$ is continuous in $t$ for every $y$, the conclusion immediately follows.\n\nWe infer from  \\eqref{e1.1} that\n$$\\begin{array}{ll}\ny(t)\\leq &E(t,\\tau)\\|y^*_\\tau\\|+\\int_\\tau^t K_1(t,s)\\|y^*_s\\|ds\\\\[2ex]\n&\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm}\\hs+\\int_t^\\infty K_2(t,s)\\|y^*_s\\|ds+\\rho,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm}\\forall\\,t\\geq\\tau\\geq 0\n\\end{array}\n$$\nfor any $y\\in {\\mathscr B}_R$. Further taking supremum in the { lefthand} side of the above inequality with respect to $y\\in {\\mathscr B}_R$ it yields\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:2.a1}\\begin{array}{ll}\ny^*(t)\\leq &E(t,\\tau)\\|y^*_\\tau\\|+\\int_\\tau^t K_1(t,s)\\|y^*_s\\|ds\\\\[2ex]\n&\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm}\\hs+\\int_t^\\infty K_2(t,s)\\|y^*_s\\|ds+\\rho,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm}\\forall\\,t\\geq\\tau\\geq 0.\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nThe only difference between \\eqref{e1.1} and the above inequality  \\eqref{e:2.a1} is that the function $y^*$ in  \\eqref{e:2.a1} may  not be continuous.\nNote that we do not make use of any continuity requirement on $y$ {in the proof of Lemma \\ref{l:2.1} and \\eqref{e:3.6}}. Therefore all the arguments {therein} can be directly carried over to $y^*$ without any modifications except that the function $y$  is replaced by $y^*$. As a result, we deduce that $\\limsup_{t\\rightarrow\\infty}\\|y^*_t\\|\\leq \\mu\\rho$. Hence for any $\\varepsilon>0$ there is a $T>0$ such that\n$$\n\\|y^*_t\\|<\\mu\\rho+\\varepsilon,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t>T,\n$$\nfrom which assertion (1) immediately follows.\n\n\n\\vskip8pt}\\def\\vs{\\vskip4pt\n(2) \\,Now we assume $\\kappa<1\/(1+\\vartheta)$. To obtain the exponential decay estimate in \\eqref{e:gi}, we  first  prove a temporary result:\n\n\\vs  There exist $T,\\lambda>0$ such that if  $\\|y_0\\|\\leq N_0+\\gamma\\rho$ with $N_0> 0$, then\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:gi'}\n{\\|y_t\\|}\\leq  N_0 e^{-\\lambda t}+\\gamma\\rho,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq T.\n\\end{equation}\n\n For this purpose, we take\n \\begin{equation}\\label{sig}\\sigma= (1+\\kappa c)\/2.\\end{equation} Since $\\kappa c<1$ (see Remark \\ref{r1.1}), it is clear that $\\sigma<1$. Define\n$$\\eta=\\min\\{s{ \\ge 0}:\\,\\,\\|y_t\\|\\leq \\sigma N_0+\\gamma\\rho\\mbox{ for all }t\\geq s\\}.$$\nThe key point is to estimate  the upper bound of $\\eta$.\n\nBecause $\\gamma> \\mu$ and $N_0>0$, by \\eqref{e:3.6} it is clear that $\\eta<\\infty$. We may assume $\\eta> r$ (otherwise we are done). Then by continuity of $y$ one necessarily has $$\\|y_\\eta\\|=\\sigma N_0+\\gamma\\rho.$$\nFor simplicity, write $E(t,0):=b(t)$. Given $t\\in[\\eta-r,\\eta]$, by \\eqref{e1.1} we have\n$$\n\\begin{array}{ll}\ny(t)&\\leq { b(t)}\\|y_{0}\\|+\\int_0^{t} K_1(t,s)\\|y_s\\|ds +\\int_{t}^\\8K_2(t,s)\\|y_s\\|ds+\\rho\\\\[2ex]\n&\\leq (\\mbox{by }\\eqref{e:t2.1})\\leq\\|b_{\\eta}\\|\\|y_0\\|+\\kappa (c  \\|y_0\\|+\\mu\\rho)+\\rho\\\\[2ex]\n&\\leq \\({ \\|b_{\\eta}\\|}+\\kappa c \\)\\|y_0\\|+(\\kappa\\mu+1)\\rho \\\\[2ex]\n&\\leq \\({ \\|b_{\\eta}\\|}+\\kappa c \\)(N_0+\\gamma\\rho)+\\mu\\rho.\n\\end{array}\n$$\nHere we have used the fact that $\\kappa\\mu+1=\\mu$ (see \\eqref{e:2.3}). Therefore\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:3.25}\n\\begin{array}{ll}\n\\sigma N_0+\\gamma\\rho&=\\|y_\\eta\\|=\\max_{t\\in[\\eta-r,\\eta]}y(t)\\\\[2ex]\n&\\leq \\({ \\|b_{\\eta}\\|}+\\kappa c \\)N_0+\\(\\({ \\|b_{\\eta}\\|}+\\kappa c \\)\\gamma+\\mu\\)\\rho.\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\n\nTake a number $t_0>0$ such that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{et0}\nE(t+s,s)\\gamma\\leq 1,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} \\forall\\,t\\geq  t_0,\\,\\,s\\in \\mathbb{R}^+.\n\\end{equation}\nIf $\\eta\\leq t_0+r$ then we are done. Thus we assume that $\\eta>t_0+r$. Then by the definition of $\\gamma$ and \\eqref{et0} one deduces that\n$$\n\\gamma=\\kappa c\\gamma+\\mu+1\\geq\\({ \\|b_{\\eta}\\|}+\\kappa c \\)\\gamma+\\mu.\n$$\nIt follows by \\eqref{e:3.25} that $\\sigma N_0\\leq \\({ \\|b_{\\eta}\\|}+\\kappa c \\)N_0$. Hence\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:sig}\n\\|b_\\eta\\|\\geq \\sigma-\\kappa c =(1-\\kappa c)\/2>0.\\end{equation}\nTake a number $t_1>0$ such that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:3.27}\nE(t+s,s)< (1-\\kappa c )\/2,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t> t_1,\\,\\,s\\in\\mathbb{R}^+.\n\\end{equation}\n \\eqref{e:sig} then implies that\n$\\eta\\leq { t_1}+r.$\nHence we conclude  that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eT}\\eta\\leq T:=\\max\\(t_0,t_1\\)+r.\\end{equation}\n\n\\vs By far we have proved that if $\\|y_0\\|\\leq N_0+\\gamma\\rho$ ($N_0>0$) then\n$$\n \\|y_t\\|\\leq \\sigma N_0+\\gamma\\rho,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq T.\n $$\n\n\\vs Let $\\~y(t)=y(t+T)$, and set\n $$\n \\~E(t,s)=E(t+T,s+T),\\hs \\~K_i(t,s)=K_i(t+T,s+T)\n $$\nfor $t,s\\geq 0$, $i=1,2$. Then  $\\~y\\in{\\mathscr L}_r(\\~E;\\~K_1,\\~K_2;\\rho)$ with $$I(\\~K_1,\\~K_2)\\leq I(K_1,K_2)\\leq\\kappa<1\/(1+\\vartheta).$$\n Since $\\|\\~y_0\\|\\leq \\sigma N_0+\\gamma\\rho$, the same argument as above applies to show that\n $$\n \\|\\~y_t\\|\\leq \\sigma(\\sigma N_0)+\\gamma\\rho,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq T,\n $$\n  that is,\n $$\n \\|y_t\\|\\leq \\sigma^2 N_0+\\gamma\\rho,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq 2T.\n $$\n (We emphasize that  the numbers $t_0$  and $t_1$ in \\eqref{et0} and  \\eqref{e:3.27} can be chosen independent of $s\\in\\mathbb{R}^+$. This   plays a crucial role in the above argument.)\n Repeating the above procedure we finally obtain that\n  \\begin{equation}\\label{e:3.16}\n \\|y_t\\|\\leq \\sigma^n N_0+\\gamma\\rho,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq nT,\\,\\,n=1,2,\\cdots.\n \\end{equation}\n Setting $\\lambda=-(\\mbox{ln\\,} \\sigma)\/{2T}$, one trivially verifies   that\n $$\\sigma^n\\leq e^{-\\lambda t},\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\in[nT,(n+1)T]$$ for all $n\\geq1$.  \\eqref{e:gi'} then  follows from \\eqref{e:3.16}.\n\n\\vs\nWe are now in a position to  complete the proof of the theorem.\\vs\n\nNote that \\eqref{e:t2.1} implies that if $\\|y_0\\|=0$ then\n$$\n\\|y_t\\|\\leq\\mu\\rho\\leq\\gamma\\rho,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq 0,\n$$\nand hence the conclusion readily holds true. Thus we  assume that $\\|y_0\\|>0$.\nTake  $N_0=\\|y_0\\|$. Clearly  $\\|y_0\\|= N_0\\leq N_0+\\gamma\\rho$. Therefore by \\eqref{e:gi'} we have\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:3.11b}\n\\|y_t\\|\\leq\\|y_0\\|e^{-\\lambda t}+\\gamma\\rho,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq T.\n\\end{equation}\nOn the other hand, by \\eqref{e:3.4} we deduce  that\n$$\n\\|y_t\\|\\leq c \\|y_0\\|+\\mu\\rho\\leq c \\|y_0\\|+\\gamma\\rho,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\in[0,T].\n$$\nSet\n$M=c e^{\\lambda T}$. Then\n$$\n\\|y_t\\|\\leq c \\|y_0\\|+\\gamma\\rho\\leq Me^{-\\lambda t}\\|y_0\\|+\\gamma\\rho,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\in[0,T].\n$$\nCombining this with \\eqref{e:3.11b} we finally  arrive at the estimate\n$$\n\\|y_t\\|\\leq M \\|y_0\\|e^{-\\lambda t}+\\gamma\\rho,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq 0.\n$$\nThe proof of the theorem is complete. $\\Box$\n\n\n \\begin{remark}\\label{r:2.2}\nIn many examples from applications, the function $E(t,s)$ in \\eqref{e1.1} takes the form:\n$$\nE(t,s)=M_0e^{-\\lambda_0(t-s)},\n$$\nwhere $M_0$ and $\\lambda_0$ are positive constants. In such a case one can write out the constants $M$ and $\\lambda$ in \\eqref{e:gi} and \\eqref{e:gi1} explicitly.\n\nIndeed, the number $t_0$ and $t_1$ in \\eqref{et0} and \\eqref{e:3.27} can be taken, respectively,  as $$t_0=\\lambda_0^{-1}\\mbox{ln\\,}(M_0\\gamma),\\hs t_1=\\lambda_0^{-1}\\mbox{ln\\,}\\(\\frac{2M_0}{1-\\kappa c}\\).$$\nConsequently the number $T$ in \\eqref{eT} reads as\n$\nT=\\lambda_0^{-1}M_1+r,\n$\n{where } $$M_1=\\max\\(\\mbox{ln\\,}(M_0\\gamma),\\,\\mbox{ln\\,}\\(\\frac{2M_0}{1-\\kappa c}\\)\\).$$\nThus we infer from the proof of Theorem \\ref{t:3.1} that\n$$\n\\lambda=-\\frac{\\mbox{ln\\,}\\sigma}{2T}=\\frac{\\ln2-\\mbox{ln\\,}\\({1+\\kappa c}\\)}{2\\(M_1+r\\lambda_0\\)}\\,\\lambda_0,\n$$\n$$\nM=ce^{\\lambda T}=c\\sqrt{2\/(1+\\kappa c)}.\n$$\nIn particular, if $r=0$ then we have\n$$\\lambda=\\theta\\lambda_0,\\hs \\theta=\\frac{\\ln2-\\mbox{ln\\,}\\({1+\\kappa c}\\)}{2M_1}\\,.$$\n\\end{remark}\n\n\\begin{remark}\\label{r:2.3}In the general case, \\eqref{e1.13} implies that there is a bounded nonnegative function $e(t)$ on $\\mathbb{R}^+$ with $e(t)\\rightarrow 0$ as $t\\rightarrow\\infty$ such that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:2.E}E(t+s,s)\\leq e(t),\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t,s\\geq 0.\\end{equation}\nOne can easily see  that the numbers $t_0$ and $t_1$ in \\eqref{et0} and \\eqref{e:3.27} can be chosen in such a way that they only depend upon the constants  $\\gamma,\\kappa,c$ and the function $e(t)$. Consequently the constants $M$ and  $\\lambda$ in Theorem \\ref{t:3.1} $(2)$ (which are defined explicitly below \\eqref{e:3.16} in the proof of the theorem) only depend upon $\\gamma,\\kappa,c$, $\\sigma$ and $e(t)$. Since $\\gamma,c$ and $\\sigma$ are completely determined by $\\vartheta$ and $\\kappa$ (see Theorem \\ref{t:3.1} and \\eqref{sig} for the definitions of these constants), we finally conclude  that $M$ and $\\lambda$  only depend upon $\\vartheta,\\kappa$ and $e(t)$.\\end{remark}\n\n\n\\subsection{Proof of Theorem \\ref{t:3.2}}\n\\noindent{\\bf Proof.}   The conclusions of Theorem \\ref{t:3.2} immediately follow from Theorem \\ref{t:3.1}  as long as  Lemma \\ref{l:2.a1} below is proved. $\\Box$\n\n \\begin{lemma}\\label{l:2.a1} Let $E\\in{\\mathscr E}$, and $K_1=K\\in {\\mathscr K}_1$.  Suppose $I(K,0)\\leq\\kappa<1$.\nLet $r,\\rho\\geq 0$, and let $y$ be a nonnegative continuous function on $[-r,T)$ $(0<T\\leq\\infty)$ satisfying\n  the integral inequality\n \\begin{equation}\\label{e:3.1e}\ny(t)\\leq E(t,0)\\|y_0\\|+\\int_0^t K(t,s)\\|y_s\\|ds+\\rho,\\Hs0\\leq t<T.\n\\end{equation}\n  Then\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:3.4'}\ny({t})\\leq (c +1) (\\|y_0\\|+1)+\\mu\\rho,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\in[0,T),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mu$ and  $c$ are the constants defined in Theorem \\ref{t:3.1}.\n\\end{lemma}\n{\\bf Proof.} Suppose the contrary. There would exist $0<\\tau<T$ such that\n$$y(\\tau)= c ' (\\|y_0\\|+1)+\\mu\\rho,\\hs y(t)\\leq c '  (\\|y_0\\|+1)+\\mu\\rho\\,\\,\\,(t\\in[0,\\tau)),$$\nwhere $c '=c +1$. By \\eqref{e:3.1e} we see that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:3.17}\\begin{array}{ll}\nc ' (\\|y_0\\|+1)+\\mu\\rho&=y(\\tau)\\\\[2ex]\n&\\leq  E(\\tau,0)\\|y_0\\|+\\int_0^\\tau K(\\tau,s)\\|y_s\\|ds+\\rho\\\\[2ex]\n&\\leq \\vartheta (\\|y_0\\|+1)+  \\kappa [c '(\\|y_0\\|+1)+\\mu\\rho]+\\rho\\\\[2ex]\n&\\leq (\\vartheta +\\kappa  c ')(\\|y_0\\|+1)+(\\kappa \\mu+1)\\rho.\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nBy  \\eqref{e:2.3} we have $\\kappa\\mu+1= \\mu.$ Hence  {\\eqref{e:3.17}} implies\n $$c '(\\|y_0\\|+1)\\leq (\\vartheta +\\kappa  { c '} )(\\|y_0\\|+1),\n $$\n { that is, $c'\\leq \\vartheta +\\kappa  c'.$\n Therefore\n $$c+1=c'\\le\\vartheta \/(1-\\kappa )\\leq c,$$\n a contradiction.} $\\Box$\n\n \\begin{remark}\\label{r:2.1}\n A classical result closely related to Theorem \\ref{t:3.2} is the Halanay's inequality (which  is also called by some  authors the  Gronwall-Halanay inequality): \\,If a nonnegative function $y$ on $[t_0-r,\\,\\infty)$ satisfies\n \\begin{equation}\\label{e:2.4}\n \\dot{y}(t)\\leq -\\alpha y(t)+\\beta \\|y_t\\|,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq t_0,\n \\end{equation}\n where $\\alpha>\\beta> 0$ are constants, then there exist $\\gamma>0$ and $k>0$ such that\n $$y(t)\\leq ke^{-\\gamma(t-t_0)},\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq t_0;$$ see Halanay \\cite[pp. 378]{Halanay}. For simplicity we may put $t_0=0$.\n Using a similar argument as in the proof of Proposition \\ref{p:3.2} below, one can easily show  that a function $y$   satisfying \\eqref{e:2.4} fulfills  the integral inequality \\eqref{e1.1} with $K_2=0$ and\n $$\\begin{array}{ll}\nE(t,s)=e^{-\\alpha(t-s)},\\hs K_1(t,s)=\\beta E(t,s)\\end{array}\n$$\nfor $t,s\\geq 0$.  Note that\n$$\n\\vartheta=\\sup_{t\\geq s\\geq 0}E(t,s)=1,\\hs \\kappa =\\sup_{t\\geq 0}\\int_0^tK_1(t,s)ds=\\beta\/\\alpha.\n$$\n Thus the assumption that $\\kappa<1$ in Theorem \\ref{t:3.2} amounts to say that $\\alpha>\\beta$. Hence Theorem \\ref{t:3.2} can be seen  as a  generalization of the Halanay's inequality.\n\n On the other hand, we emphasize that in the special case  of \\eqref{e:2.4}, Halanay's result is stronger than Theorem \\ref{t:3.2} in  the way that\n  it guarantees the  exponential convergence  of  $y(t)$ to $0$ under the  assumption that  $\\beta<\\alpha$, whereas under this weaker assumption Theorem \\ref{t:3.2}   only gives   convergence result.\nThis is also one of the reasons  why we are interested in the question proposed in Remark \\ref{r:1.6}.\n\n  An integral version  of the Halanay's inequality can be found  in a recent work of Chen \\cite[Lemma 3.2]{ChenH} along  with a very simple proof: \\,\\,Let $y$ be a nonnegative continuous function on $[-r,\\infty)$. Suppose that for $\\alpha>0$, there exist two positive constants $M ,\\beta>0$ such that $y(t)\\leq M e^{-\\alpha t}$ $(t\\in[-r,0])$ and that\n  \\begin{equation}\\label{e:2.5}\n  y(t)\\leq M e^{-\\alpha t} +\\beta\\int_0^te^{-\\alpha(t-s)}\\|y_s\\|ds,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq 0.\n  \\end{equation}\n  If $\\beta<\\alpha$, then $y(t)\\leq M e^{-\\mu t}$ for $t\\geq -r$, where $\\mu\\in(0,\\alpha)$ is a constant satisfying that $\\frac{\\beta}{\\alpha-\\mu}e^{\\mu r}=1$. One  advantage of this integral inequality is that it significantly reduces the smoothness  requirement on the function $y$. This may greatly enlarge the applicability of the inequality.\n  Other types of extensions of the Halanay's   inequality can be found in \\cite{HPT,WLL} etc. and references therein.\n\n\n\\end{remark}\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Asymptotic Behavior of ODE Systems}\n This section consists of two examples of ODE systems illustrating possible applications of the integral inequalities given here. For  the general  theory of delay differential  equations, one  may consult the excellent books     \\cite{Hale2,Kuang,S,Wu}.\n\n\n\n\n \\subsection{Asymptotic stability of a scalar functional ODE}\\label{s:3.1}\nOur  first example concerns the  asymptotic stability of the scalar functional differential equation:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:5.1}\n\\dot x=-a(t)x+B(t,x_t),\\hs\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $x_t$ is the lift of $x=x(t)$ in ${\\mathcal C}:=C([-r,0])$ ($r\\geq 0$ is fixed), $a\\in C(\\mathbb{R})$, and  $B$ is a continuous function on $\\mathbb{R}\\times{\\mathcal C}$. We always assume that  $B$ satisfies the following local Lipschitz condition  in the second variable: For any compact interval $J\\subset\\mathbb{R}$ and $R>0$,  there exists $L>0$ such that\n$$\n|B(t,\\phi)-B(t,\\phi')|\\leq L\\|\\phi-\\phi'\\|,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm}\\forall\\,\\phi,\\phi'\\in\\overline{\\mathcal B}_R,\\,\\,t\\in J.\n$$\nHere and below  ${\\mathcal B}_R$ denotes the ball in ${\\mathcal C}$ centered at $0$ with radius $R>0$.\n\n  Given $(\\tau,\\phi)\\in\\mathbb{R}\\times{\\mathcal C}$, the above smoothness requirements on $a$ and $B$ are sufficient to  guarantee the existence and uniqueness of a local  solution $x(t)=x(t;\\tau,\\phi)$ ($t\\geq \\tau$) of \\eqref{e:5.1} with initial value $x_\\tau=\\phi\\in{\\mathcal C}$; see \\cite[Chap. 2, Theorems 2.1, 2.3]{Hale2}. We also assume  that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:5.2}\n|B(t,\\phi)|\\leq b(t)\\|\\phi\\|, \\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} (t,\\phi)\\in \\mathbb{R}\\times{\\mathcal C}\n\\end{equation}\nfor some nonnegative function $b\\in C(\\mathbb{R})$, so that $x(t;\\tau,\\phi)$ globally exists for each  $(\\tau,\\phi)\\in\\mathbb{R}\\times{\\mathcal C}$. Furthermore,  \\eqref{e:5.2} implies   that  $0$ is a solution of \\eqref{e:5.1}.\n\\vs\n\n\\begin{definition}\\label{d:3.1}The null solution $0$ of \\eqref{e:5.1} is said to be\n\\begin{enumerate}\n \\item[$(1)$]  {globally asymptotically stable} (GAS in short), if \\,{\\em (i)}\\, it  is {stable}, i.e,  for every $\\tau\\in\\mathbb{R}$ and  $\\varepsilon>0$, there exists  $\\delta>0$ such that $x(t;\\tau,\\phi)\\in {\\mathcal B}_\\varepsilon$  for all $t\\geq \\tau$ and $\\phi\\in {\\mathcal B}_\\delta$, and {\\em (ii)}\\,\n       it is  globally attracting, meaning that   $x(t;\\tau,\\phi)\\rightarrow 0$ as $t\\rightarrow \\infty$ for every $(\\tau,\\phi)\\in\\mathbb{R}\\times {\\mathcal C}$.\n \\vs\n\\item[$(2)$] { globally exponentially asymptotically stable} (GEAS in short), if for every $\\tau\\in \\mathbb{R}$,  there exist positive constants  $M,\\lambda>0$ such that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:5.3}\n|x(t;\\tau,\\phi)|\\leq M\\|\\phi\\|e^{-\\lambda (t-\\tau)},\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} \\forall\\,t\\geq \\tau,\\,\\,\\phi\\in {\\mathcal C}.\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{definition}\n\\begin{remark}\nThe  notions given in the above definition  are the  global versions of some  corresponding local ones   for functional differential equations in \\cite[Chap. 5, Def. 1.1]{Hale2} and \\cite[Def. 2.1-2.3]{Wins}, etc.\n\\end{remark}\n\n\nWe now assume that  $a$  satisfies the following hypothesis:\n\\vs\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item[(A1)] \\,$\\int_s^{s+t} a(\\sigma)d\\sigma \\rightarrow \\infty$ as $t\\rightarrow \\infty$ uniformly with respect to $s\\in \\mathbb{R}$.\n    \\end{enumerate}\n\\vs\\noindent\nDefine two functions  $E(t,s)$ and $K(t,s)$ on $\\mathbb{R}^2$ as below: $\\forall\\,(t,s)\\in\\mathbb{R}^2$,\n$$\\begin{array}{ll}\nE(t,s)=\\exp\\(-\\int_s^ta(\\sigma)d\\sigma\\),\\hs K(t,s)=E(t,s)b(s).\\end{array}\n$$\nBy (A1) one trivially verifies that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:3E}\\begin{array}{ll}\n\\lim_{t\\rightarrow \\infty}E(t+s,s)=0\\mbox{ uniformly w.r.t.  $s\\in\\mathbb{R}$}. \\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nFor each  $\\tau\\in\\mathbb{R}$, set\n$$\n\\vartheta_\\tau=\\sup_{t\\geq s\\geq \\tau}E(t,s),\\hs \\kappa_\\tau =\\sup_{t\\geq \\tau}\\int_\\tau^tK(t,s)ds.\n$$\n\n\n\\begin{proposition}\\label{p:3.2} The null solution of \\eqref{e:5.1} is GAS  if $\\kappa_\\tau<1$ for all $\\tau\\in\\mathbb{R}$. If we further assume that $\\kappa_\\tau <1\/(1+\\vartheta_\\tau)$ for  $\\tau\\in\\mathbb{R}$, then it is GEAS.\n\\end{proposition}\n\n\\noindent{\\bf Proof.} Let $\\tau\\in\\mathbb{R}$. Write $x(t)=x(t;\\tau,\\phi)$. For any $t\\geq\\eta\\geq\\tau$, multiplying  \\eqref{e:5.1} with $E(t,\\eta)^{-1}=\\exp\\(\\int_\\eta^t a(\\sigma)d\\sigma\\)$, we obtain that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:5.0}\n\\frac{d}{dt}\\(E(t,\\eta)^{-1}x\\)= E(t,\\eta)^{-1}B(t,x_t).\n\\end{equation}\nIntegrating \\eqref{e:5.0}  in $t$ between $\\eta$ and  $t$, it yields\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:5.5}\nx(t)=E(t,\\eta)x(\\eta)+\\int_\\eta^t E(t,s)B(s,x_s)ds.\n\\end{equation}\n(Here we have used the simple observation that $E(t,\\eta)E(s,\\eta)^{-1}=E(t,s)$.)\nHence\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:3.7}\n|x(t)|\\leq E(t,\\eta)\\|x_\\eta\\|+\\int_\\eta^t K(t,s)\\|x_s\\|ds,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} \\forall\\,t\\geq\\eta\\geq\\tau.\n\\end{equation}\nRewriting $t,s$ and $\\eta$ in \\eqref{e:3.7} as $t+\\tau$, $s+\\tau$ and $\\eta+\\tau$, respectively, i.e., performing a $\\tau$-translation on the variables in \\eqref{e:3.7},  we obtain that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:3.8a}\ny(t)\\leq E_\\tau(t,\\eta)\\|y_\\eta\\|+\\int_\\eta^t K_\\tau(t,s)\\|y_s\\|ds,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} \\forall\\,t\\geq\\eta\\geq 0,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere  $y(t)=|x(t+\\tau)|$, and\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:3.8b}\nE_\\tau(t,s)=E(t+\\tau,s+\\tau),\\hs K_\\tau(t,s)=K(t+\\tau,s+\\tau)\n\\end{equation}\nfor $t,s\\geq 0.$ Note that\n$$\n\\vartheta_\\tau=\\sup_{t\\geq s\\geq 0}E_\\tau(t,s),\\hs \\kappa_\\tau =\\sup_{t\\geq 0}\\int_0^tK_\\tau(t,s)ds.\n$$\n\n\nAssume that $\\kappa_\\tau<1$. Then by  Theorem \\ref{t:3.2}  one deduces  that  for any $R,\\varepsilon>0$, there exists  $T>0$ such that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:3.3}|x(t;\\tau,\\phi)|<\\varepsilon,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} \\forall\\,t>\\tau+T,\\,\\,\\phi\\in{\\mathcal B}_R.\\end{equation}\nOn the other hand, we infer from Lemma \\ref{l:2.1} that\n$\n  |x(t;\\tau,\\phi)|\\leq c_\\tau \\|\\phi\\|$ for all $t\\geq \\tau$ and $\\phi\\in {\\mathcal C}$,\n where $c_\\tau=\\max\\(\\vartheta_\\tau\/(1-\\kappa_\\tau),\\,1\\)$, from which it follows that the $0$ solution is stable at $\\tau$.\nThus we see   that $0$ is GAS. (We mention that the stability of the null solution can be also  deduced by using \\eqref{e:3.3} and  the continuity property of $x(t;\\tau,\\phi)$ in $\\phi$. We omit the details.)\n\nThe second  conclusion  is a direct consequence  of Theorem \\ref{t:3.2} (2). $\\Box$\n\n\\begin{remark}\\label{r:3.4} If $a$ is a bounded function on $\\mathbb{R}$ and  $\\kappa_\\tau$ fulfills a stronger uniform smallness requirement:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eu}\n\\kappa:=\\sup_{\\tau\\in\\mathbb{R}}\\kappa_\\tau<1\/(1+\\vartheta),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere  $\\vartheta=\\sup_{\\tau\\in\\mathbb{R}}\\vartheta_\\tau$, then it can be shown that there exist positive constants  $M,\\lambda>0$ independent of $\\tau\\in\\mathbb{R}$ such that \\eqref{e:5.3} holds true. In such a case we simply say that  the  solution $0$ of \\eqref{e:5.1} is uniformly GEAS.\n\nTo see this, we define for each $(\\tau,s)\\in\\mathbb{R}\\times\\mathbb{R}^+$ a function $e_{\\tau,s}$ on $\\mathbb{R}^+$:\n$$e_{\\tau,s}(t)=E_\\tau (s+t,s),\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\in\\mathbb{R}^+.$$ By {\\em (A1)} we see  that $\\lim_{t\\rightarrow\\infty}e_{\\tau,s}(t)=0$ uniformly with respect to $(\\tau,s)\\in\\mathbb{R}\\times\\mathbb{R}^+$. Using this simple fact and the boundedness of   $a$  one easily examines that the family $\\{e_{\\tau,s}\\}_{(\\tau,s)\\in\\mathbb{R}\\times\\mathbb{R}^+}$ is uniformly bounded on $\\mathbb{R}^+$. Define\n$$\ne(t)=\\sup_{(\\tau,s)\\in\\mathbb{R}\\times\\mathbb{R}^+}e_{\\tau,s}(t),\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\in\\mathbb{R}^+.\n$$\nThen $e(t)\\ra0$ as $t\\rightarrow\\infty$. Since for every $\\tau\\in\\mathbb{R}$, we have  $$E_\\tau (s+t,s)\\leq e(t),\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t,s\\geq 0,$$\ninvoking  Remark \\ref{r:2.3}  we deduce by \\eqref{e:3.8a} and \\eqref{eu} that there exist $M,\\lambda>0$ independent of $\\tau\\in\\mathbb{R}$ such that \\eqref{e:5.3} holds for all solutions of \\eqref{e:5.1}.\n\\end{remark}\n\n\n\n\\begin{remark} If $a(t)\\geq 0$ for $t\\in\\mathbb{R}$, then $\\vartheta_\\tau=1$ for all $\\tau\\in \\mathbb{R}$, and the hypothesis on $\\kappa_\\tau$ to guarantee GEAS of the null solution  {reduces} to that $\\kappa_\\tau<1\/2$.\n\nIn such a case one can also easily verify that $\\kappa_\\tau\\leq\\theta<1$ for all $\\tau\\in \\mathbb{R}$ if  the following hypotheses in Winston \\cite{Wins} are fulfilled:\n\\vs\n$(A2)$ $b(t)\\leq \\theta a(t)$ \\,$(t\\in\\mathbb{R})$ for some  $\\theta<1$;\\, and $(A3)$  $\\int_0^\\8a(t)dt=\\infty$.\n\\vs\n\\noindent It follows that  the null solution $0$ of \\eqref{e:5.1} is GAS. If $a$ is bounded and $\\theta<1\/2$, then we also infer from Remark \\ref{r:3.4} that $0$ is uniformly GEAS.\n\\end{remark}\n\n\n\n\n\\noindent{\\em Example} 3.1. Let $a(t)$ be a continuous $\\omega$-periodic ($\\omega>0$) function.\nDenote $a^+(t)$ ($a^-(t)$) the positive (negative) part of $a(t)$ (hence $a(t)=a^+(t)-a^-(t)$).\nLet\n$$I=\\int_0^\\omega a(t)dt,\\hs I^\\pm=\\int_0^\\omega a^\\pm(t)dt.$$ Clearly $I=I^+-I^-$.\nFor $s\\in\\mathbb{R}$ and  $t\\geq 0$, we observe that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:3.8}\\begin{array}{ll}\n\\int_s^{s+t} a(\\sigma)d\\sigma&=\\int_s^{s+m_t\\omega} a(\\sigma)d\\sigma+\\int_{s+m_t\\omega}^{s+t} a(\\sigma)d\\sigma\\\\[2ex]\n&= m_t I+\\int_{s+m_t\\omega}^{s+t} a(\\sigma)d\\sigma\\\\[2ex]\n&\\geq m_t I-\\int_{s+m_t\\omega}^{s+t} a^-(\\sigma)d\\sigma\\geq m_t I-I^-,\n\\end{array}\\end{equation}\nwhere   $m_t=[t\/\\omega]$ is the integer part of $t\/\\omega$.\n\nNow suppose  that  $I>0$.   Then  by \\eqref{e:3.8} we have that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:3.9}\n\\int_s^{s+t} a(\\sigma)d\\sigma\\geq m_t I-I^-\\geq \\(\\frac{t}{\\omega}-1\\)I-I^-=\\Lambda t-I^+,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\Lambda=\\frac{I}{\\omega}$, and\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:3.9b}\n\\int_s^{s+t} a(\\sigma)d\\sigma\\geq m_t I-I^-\\geq -I^-.\n\\end{equation}\nBy \\eqref{e:3.9} it is obviously  that $a$ fulfills hypothesis  (A1).\n\n\nWe infer from \\eqref{e:3.9b} that for any $\\tau\\in \\mathbb{R}$,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:5.9}\nE_\\tau(t,s)=\\exp\\(-\\int_s^ta(\\sigma+\\tau)d\\sigma\\)\\leq e^{I^-}:=\\vartheta,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq s\\geq 0.\n\\end{equation}\nAssume that the function $b$ in \\eqref{e:5.2} is bounded. Set $\\beta=\\sup_{t\\geq 0}b(t)$. Then\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:5.11}\n\\int_0^tK_\\tau(t,s)ds=\\int_0^t E_\\tau(t,s)b(s+\\tau)ds\\leq (\\mbox{by }\\eqref{e:3.9})\\leq {\\beta\\omega e^{I^{+}}\/I}:=\\kappa\n\\end{equation}\nfor all $t\\geq 0$.\nThus in the case where $a$ is  periodic and $b$ is bounded,   we have\n\n\n\n\\begin{proposition}\\label{t:5.2}If $\\beta<\\beta_1:={I}\/({\\omega e^{I^{+}}})$, the null solution of \\eqref{e:5.1} is GAS; and if $\\beta<\\beta_2:={I\/(\\omega e^{I^+}(1+e^{I^{-}})})$, then  it is  GEAS.\n\\end{proposition}\n{\\bf Proof.} Assume  $\\beta<\\beta_1$. Then by \\eqref{e:5.11} we see that\n $$\\begin{array}{ll}\\kappa_\\tau:=\\sup_{t\\geq 0}\\int_0^tK_\\tau(t,s)ds<1,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} \\forall\\,\\tau\\in\\mathbb{R}.\\end{array} $$\n\nWe infer from  \\eqref{e:5.9} that $\n\\vartheta_\\tau:=\\sup_{t\\geq s\\geq 0}E_\\tau(t,s)\\leq e^{I^-}:=\\vartheta$.\n {Thus  if we assume   $\\beta<\\beta_2$}, then one trivially   verifies  that $$\\kappa_\\tau\\leq(\\mbox{by }\\eqref{e:5.11})\\leq \\beta\\omega e^{I^{+}}\/I<1\/(1+\\vartheta),\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} \\tau\\in \\mathbb{R}.$$\n\nNow the conclusion  directly    follows from  Propositions \\ref{p:3.2}. $\\Box$\n\\vskip8pt}\\def\\vs{\\vskip4pt\nA concrete example as in Example 3.1 is the linear equation:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:5.1c}\n\\dot x=-(\\sin t+\\varepsilon)x+\\beta\\, x(t-1),\\hs t>0,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $0<\\varepsilon,\\beta<1$ are constants.\nSimple calculations show that $$\nI^+< 2+2\\pi\\varepsilon,\\hs I^-<2.\n$$\nIt is easy to check that if $\\beta<\\varepsilon e^{-(2+2\\pi\\varepsilon)}$, then  the first hypothesis in Proposition \\ref{t:5.2} is fulfilled, and hence  the null solution $0$ of the equation is GAS. If we further assume that $\\beta<\\varepsilon e^{-(2+2\\pi\\varepsilon)}\/\\(1+e^{2}\\)$, then it is GEAS.\n\n\n\\subsection{Pullback attractors of an ODE system with delays}\nAs a second example, we consider in this part the existence of pullback attractors of the ODE system:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{ode1}\n\\dot x=F_0(t,x)+\\sum_{i=1}^mF_i(t,x(t-r_i)),\\hs x=x(t)\\in\\mathbb{R}^n\n\\end{equation}\nwith superlinear nonlinearities $F_i$ ($0\\leq i\\leq m$).\n\nAssume that  $F_i$ ($0\\leq i\\leq m$) are continuous mappings from $\\mathbb{R}\\times \\mathbb{R}^n\\rightarrow \\mathbb{R}^n$ which are locally Lipschitz in the space variable $x$ in a uniform manner with respect to $t$ on bounded intervals and satisfy the structure condition {\\bf (F)} given in Section 1, and $r_i:\\mathbb{R}\\rightarrow [0,r]$ ($1\\leq i\\leq m$) are measurable functions.\n\nDenote ${\\mathcal C}$ the space $C([-r,0],\\mathbb{R}^n)$ equipped with the usual norm $\\|\\.\\|$.\nBy the hypotheses on $F_i$ and the delay functions $r_i$, it can be easily shown that the initial value problem of \\eqref{ode1} is well-posed. Specifically, for each $\\tau\\in\\mathbb{R}$ and $\\phi\\in{\\mathcal C}$ the system has a unique solution $x(t;\\tau,\\phi):=x(t)$ on a maximal existence interval $[\\tau-r,T_\\phi)$ ($T_\\phi>\\tau$) with\n$$\nx(\\tau+s)=\\phi(s),\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} s\\in[-r,0].\n$$\nFor convenience, we call the lift $x_t$ of  $x(t)$ the {\\em solution curve} of \\eqref{ode1} in ${\\mathcal C}$ with initial value $x_\\tau=\\phi$, denoted hereafter by $x_t(\\tau,\\phi)$.\n\n\n \\begin{lemma}\\label{l:ode1}Suppose   that there exist  $M,N>0$ such that\n \\begin{equation}\\label{ode3}\\begin{array}{ll}\n\\sum_{i=0}^m\\int_s^t\\beta_i(\\mu)d\\mu\\leq M(t-s)+N,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} -\\infty<s<t<\\infty,\n\\end{array} \\end{equation}\n where $\\beta_i\\,\\,(0\\leq i\\leq m)$ are the functions in \\mbox{\\bf (F)}. Then each  solution $x(t;\\tau,\\phi)$ of  \\eqref{ode1} is globally defined for $t\\geq \\tau$. Furthermore, there exist $C,\\lambda,\\rho>0$ independent of $\\tau\\in\\mathbb{R}$ such that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{ode6}\n|x(t;\\tau,\\phi)|\\leq C\\|\\phi\\|e^{-\\lambda (t-\\tau)}+\\rho,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} \\forall\\,t\\geq\\tau,\\,\\,(\\tau,\\phi)\\in\\mathbb{R}\\times {\\mathcal C}.\n\\end{equation}\n   \\end{lemma}\n{\\bf Proof.} Let $x=x(t):=x(t;\\tau,\\phi)$ be a solution of \\eqref{ode1} with maximal existence interval  $[\\tau-r,T_\\phi)$. Set $\\gamma:=p(q-1)\/(p-q)+1$.\nTaking the inner product of both sides of \\eqref{ode1} with $|x|^{\\gamma-1}x$, we find  that\n$$\\begin{array}{lll}\n\\frac{1}{\\gamma+1}\\frac{d}{dt}|x|^{\\gamma+1}&=|x|^{\\gamma-1}(F_0(t,x),x)+|x|^{\\gamma-1}\\sum_{i=1}^m(F_i(t,x(t-r_i)),x)\\\\[2ex]\n&\\leq \\(-\\alpha_0|x|^{\\gamma+p}+\\beta_0(t)|x|^{\\gamma-1}\\)+\\sum_{i=1}^m\\(\\alpha_i |x|^{\\gamma}\\|x_t\\|^{q}+\\beta_i(t)|x|^{\\gamma}\\).\n\\end{array}\n$$\nThe classical Young's inequality implies that\n$$\n|x|^{\\gamma}\\|x_t\\|^{q}\\leq \\varepsilon\\|x_t\\|^{\\gamma+1}+C_\\varepsilon|x|^{\\gamma(\\gamma+1)\/((\\gamma+1)-q)}\n$$\nfor any $\\varepsilon>0$. Here and below $C_\\varepsilon$ denotes a general constant depending upon $\\varepsilon$. By the choice of $\\gamma$ one easily verify that  $\\gamma(\\gamma+1)\/((\\gamma+1)-q)<\\gamma+p$. Hence using the Young's inequality once again we deduce that\n$$\n|x|^{\\gamma}\\|x_t\\|^{q}\\leq \\varepsilon\\|x_t\\|^{\\gamma+1}+\\varepsilon|x|^{\\gamma+p}+C_\\varepsilon.\n$$\nWe also have\n$$\n|x|^{\\gamma-1},|x|^{\\gamma}\\leq \\varepsilon |x|^{\\gamma+1}+C_\\varepsilon.\n$$\nCombining the above estimates together it gives\n \\begin{equation}\\label{ode2}\\begin{array}{lll}\n \\frac{1}{\\gamma+1}\\frac{d}{dt}|x|^{\\gamma+1}&\\leq -\\(\\alpha_0-\\varepsilon{\\alpha}\\)|x|^{\\gamma+p}+{\\varepsilon \\alpha}\\|x_t\\|^{\\gamma+1}\\\\[2ex]\n &\\hs+\\varepsilon \\beta(t)|x|^{\\gamma+1}+C_\\varepsilon(\\beta(t)+1),\\\\[2ex]\n \\end{array}\n \\end{equation}\nwhere  $$\\begin{array}{ll}\\alpha=\\sum_{i=1}^m \\alpha_i,\\hs \\beta(t)=\\sum_{i=0}^m\\beta_i(t).\\end{array}$$\nIt can be  assumed that  $\\varepsilon\\alpha<\\alpha_0$. Noticing that  $s^{\\gamma+1}\\leq s^{\\gamma+p}+1$ for all $s\\geq 0$, by \\eqref{ode2} we find that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{ode20}\\begin{array}{lll}\n\\frac{d}{dt}|x|^{\\gamma+1}&\\leq -a_\\varepsilon(t)|x|^{\\gamma+1}+{\\varepsilon (\\gamma+1)\\alpha}\\|x_t\\|^{\\gamma+1}+C_\\varepsilon(\\beta(t)+1),\n \\end{array}\n \\end{equation}\nwhere\n$\na_\\varepsilon(t)=(\\gamma+1)\\(\\alpha_0-{\\varepsilon\\alpha}-\\varepsilon \\beta(t)\\).\n$\n\\vs\nLet $E_\\varepsilon(t,s)=\\exp\\(-\\int_s^ta_\\varepsilon(\\mu)d\\mu\\)$ ($t\\geq s\\geq\\tau$). In what follows we always assume $\\varepsilon<1$ and that  $\\varepsilon (\\gamma+1)(\\alpha+M)<c_0\/2$, where $c_0=(\\gamma+1)\\alpha_0$. Then\n\\begin{equation}\\label{ode21}\\begin{array}{ll}\n-\\int_s^ta_\\varepsilon(\\mu)d\\mu&=-c_0(t-s)+\\varepsilon (\\gamma+1)\\(\\alpha(t-s)+ \\int_s^t\\beta(\\mu)d\\mu\\)\\\\[1ex]\n&\\leq (\\mbox{by \\eqref{ode3}})\\leq\\\\[1ex]\n&\\leq  -\\(c_0-\\varepsilon (\\gamma+1)(\\alpha+M)\\)(t-s)+\\varepsilon(\\gamma+1)N\\\\[1ex]\n&\\leq -c_1(t-s)+c_2,\\hs t\\geq s\\geq \\tau,\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\n where $c_1=\\frac{c_0}{2}$, and $c_2=(\\gamma+1)N$.  By \\eqref{ode21} we see  that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eE}\nE_\\varepsilon(t,s)\\leq e^{c_2}e^{-c_1(t-s)}:=E(t,s),\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq s\\geq\\tau.\n\\end{equation}\nClearly\n$$\\lim_{t\\rightarrow \\infty}E(t+s,s)=0$$\n uniformly with respect to   $s\\in\\mathbb{R}$.\n\n\\vs\nNow performing a similar argument as in the proof of Proposition  \\ref{p:3.2} on the differential inequality \\eqref{ode20}, one  can obtain that\n$$\\begin{array}{ll}\n|x(t)|^{\\gamma+1}&\\leq E_\\varepsilon(t,\\eta)\\|x_\\eta\\|^{\\gamma+1}+\\varepsilon\\int_\\eta^t K_\\varepsilon(t,s)\\|x_s\\|^{\\gamma+1} ds\\\\[2ex]\n&\\hs+C_\\varepsilon\n\\int_\\eta^t E_\\varepsilon(t,s)\\~\\beta(s)ds,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} \\tau\\leq\\eta<t<T_\\phi,\n\\end{array}\n$$\n where\n $$K_\\varepsilon(t,s)=\\alpha(\\gamma+1) E_\\varepsilon(t,s),\\hs \\~\\beta(t)=\\beta(t)+1.$$\nHence  by \\eqref{eE} we have\n \\begin{equation}\\label{ode4}\\begin{array}{ll}\n|x(t)|^{\\gamma+1}\n&\\leq E(t,\\eta)\\|x_\\eta\\|^{\\gamma+1}+\\varepsilon\\int_\\eta^t K(t,s)\\|x_s\\|^{\\gamma+1} ds\\\\[2ex]\n&\\hs+C_\\varepsilon\n\\int_\\eta^t E(t,s)\\~\\beta(s)ds\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $K(t,s)=\\alpha(\\gamma+1) E(t,s).$\n\n\\vs  We observe that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:3.21}\\begin{array}{ll}\n\\int_\\eta^t E(t,s)\\~\\beta(s)ds&= e^{c_2}\\int_\\eta^t e^{-c_1(t-s)}\\~\\beta(s)ds\\\\[2ex]\n&\\leq e^{c_2}\\int_0^{\\infty} e^{-c_1 s}\\~\\beta(t-s)ds.\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\n Note  that\n$$\\begin{array}{ll}\n\\int_0^{\\infty} e^{-c_1 s}\\~\\beta(t-s)ds&=\\sum_{k=0}^\\infty\\int_{k}^{k+1} e^{-c_1 s}\\~\\beta(t-s)ds\\\\[2ex]\n&\\leq \\sum_{k=0}^\\infty e^{-c_1 k} \\int_{k}^{k+1}\\~\\beta(t-s)ds\\\\[2ex]\n&\\leq (\\mbox{by \\eqref{ode3}})\\leq (M+N+1)\\sum_{k=0}^\\infty e^{-c_1 k}.\n\\end{array}\n$$\nTherefore  by \\eqref{ode4} and \\eqref{e:3.21} we deduce that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{ode5}\n|x(t)|^{\\gamma+1}\\leq E(t,\\eta)\\|x_\\eta\\|^{\\gamma+1}+\\varepsilon\\int_\\eta^t K(t,s)\\|x_s\\|^{\\gamma+1} ds+C_\\varepsilon'\\end{equation}\nfor all $\\tau\\leq\\eta<t<T_\\phi$.  As in the proof of Proposition \\ref{p:3.2}, performing a $\\tau$-translation on the variables in \\eqref{ode5},   we obtain that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:3.8a}\ny(t)\\leq E(t,\\eta)\\|y_\\eta\\|+\\varepsilon\\int_\\eta^t K(t,s)\\|y_s\\|ds+C_\\varepsilon',\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} \\forall\\,t\\geq\\eta\\geq 0,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere  $y(t)=|x(t+\\tau)|^{\\gamma+1}=|x(t+\\tau;\\tau,\\phi)|^{\\gamma+1}$. Here we have used the translation invariance property of $E$ and $K$: \\,for any $t,s\\geq 0$,\n$$\nE(t+\\tau,s+\\tau)=E(t,s),\\hs K(t+\\tau,s+\\tau)=K(t,s).\n$$\n\n\n\nSimple calculations yields\n$\n\\sup_{-\\infty<\\eta<t<\\infty}\\int_\\eta^t E(t,s)ds=e^{c_2}\/c_1,\n$\nand hence\n$$\\begin{array}{ll}\n\\kappa_0:=\\sup_{-\\infty<\\eta<t<\\infty}\\int_\\eta^t K(t,s)ds=\\alpha(\\gamma+1) e^{c_2}\/c_1.\n\\end{array}\n$$\n Note also that  $\\vartheta:=\\sup_{t\\geq s\\geq0}E(t,s)=e^{c_2}$.\n\n We now  fix an $\\varepsilon>0$ sufficiently small so that\n$$\\begin{array}{ll}\n\\kappa:=\\varepsilon \\kappa_0<1\/(1+\\vartheta).\n\\end{array}\n$$\nThen the requirement in Theorem \\ref{t:3.2} is fulfilled.\nThus by virtue of Lemma \\ref{l:2.a1} we first  deduce that $x(t)$ is bounded on $[\\tau-r,T_\\phi)$. It follows that $T_\\phi=\\infty$.\nFurther since  $y\\in {\\mathscr L}_r(E;\\varepsilon K,0;C_\\varepsilon')$ for all $\\tau\\in\\mathbb{R}$, where ${\\mathscr L}_r(E;\\varepsilon K,0;C_\\varepsilon')$ denotes the family of nonnegative continuous functions on $\\mathbb{R}^+$ satisfying \\eqref{e:3.8a} (see also \\eqref{e1.5}), invoking Theorem \\ref{t:3.2}\none immediate concludes that there exist $C,\\lambda,\\rho>0$ independent of $\\tau$ such that \\eqref{ode6} holds. $\\Box$\n\n\n\\vskip8pt}\\def\\vs{\\vskip4pt\nLemma \\ref{l:ode1} enables  us to define a {\\em process}\\, $\\Phi(t,\\tau)$ on ${\\mathcal C}$:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:3.20}\n\\Phi(t,\\tau)\\phi=x_t(\\tau,\\phi),\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq\\tau>-\\infty,\\,\\,\\phi\\in{\\mathcal C},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $x_t(\\tau,\\phi)$ is the  { solution curve} of \\eqref{ode1} in ${\\mathcal C}$ with $x_\\tau(\\tau,\\phi)=\\phi$ defined as above. $\\Phi$ possesses the following basic properties:\n\\vs\n$\\bullet$ $\\Phi(t,\\tau):{\\mathcal C}\\rightarrow{\\mathcal C}$ is a continuous mapping for each fixed $(t,\\tau)\\in\\mathbb{R}^2$, $t\\geq\\tau$;\n\n$\\bullet$   $\\Phi(\\tau,\\tau)=\\mbox{id}_{\\mathcal C}$ for all $\\tau\\in\\mathbb{R}$, where $\\mbox{id}_{\\mathcal C}$ is the identity mapping on ${\\mathcal C}$;\n\n$\\bullet$ $\\Phi(t,\\tau)=\\Phi(t,s)\\Phi(s,\\tau)$ for all $t\\geq s\\geq\\tau$.\n\\vs\n\\noindent For  system \\eqref{ode1}, the estimate given in Lemma \\ref{l:ode1} is sufficient to guarantee the existence of a global pullback attractor; see \\cite{Carab2,Carab} etc. (The interested reader is referred to \\cite{CLR} etc. for the general theory of pullback attractors.) Hence we have\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{t:ode1} Assume the hypotheses in Lemma \\ref{l:ode1}. Then $\\Phi$  has a (unique) global pullback attractor in ${\\mathcal C}$. Specifically, there is a unique family ${\\mathcal A}=\\{A(t)\\}_{t\\in\\mathbb{R}}$ of compact sets contained in the ball $\\overline{\\mathcal B}_\\rho$ in ${\\mathcal C}$ centered at $0$ with radius $\\rho$ such that\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item[$(1)$] $\\Phi(t,\\tau)A(\\tau)=A(t)$ for all $t\\geq\\tau$;\n\\item[$(2)$] for any bounded set $B\\subset{\\mathcal C}$,\n$$\\lim_{\\tau\\rightarrow-\\infty}d_H\\(\\Phi(t,\\tau)B,\\,A(t)\\)=0$$ for all $t\\in\\mathbb{R}$, where $d_H(\\.,\\.)$ denotes the Hausdorff semi-distance in ${\\mathcal C}$,\n$$\nd_H(M,N)=\\sup_{\\phi\\in M}\\inf\\{\\|\\phi-\\psi\\|:\\,\\,\\psi\\in N\\},\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} \\forall\\,M,N\\subset {\\mathcal C}.\n$$\n    \\end{enumerate}\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{On the Dynamics of Retarded   Evolution Equations with Sublinear Nonlinearities}\nAs our third  example to illustrate the application of Theorems \\ref{t:3.1} and \\ref{t:3.2},  we investigate  the dynamics of abstract retarded functional differential equations with sublinear nonlinearities in the general setting of cocycle systems.\n\nLet ${\\mathcal H}$ be a compact metric space with metric $d(\\.,\\.)$.\nAssume that there has been given a dynamical system $\\theta$ on ${\\mathcal H}$, i.e., a  continuous mapping $\\theta:\\mathbb{R}\\times{\\mathcal H}\\rightarrow{\\mathcal H} $ satisfying the group property: for all $p\\in{\\mathcal H}$ and $s,t\\in\\mathbb{R}$,\n$$\n{ \\theta(0,p)}=p,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} \\theta({s+t},p)=\\theta(s,\\theta(t,p)).\n$$\n\n\nAs usual, we will  rewrite $\\theta(t,p)=\\theta_tp$.\n\nIn what follows we always  assume that ${\\mathcal H}$ is {\\em minimal} (with respect to $\\theta$). This means that    $\\theta$ has no proper nonempty compact invariant subsets in ${\\mathcal H}$.\n\nLet $X$ be a real Banach space with norm $\\|\\.\\|_0$, and let $A$ be a sectorial operator on $X$ with compact resolvent. Denote  $X^s$ ($s\\geq0$) the fractional power of $X$ generated by $A$ with norm $\\|\\.\\|_s$; see  \\cite[Chap.\\,1]{Henry} for details.\n\nLet $0\\leq r<\\infty,$ and $\\alpha\\in [0,1)$. Denote  ${{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}=C([-r,0],X^\\alpha)$. ${{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}$ is equipped with the norm {$\\|\\.\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}$} defined  by\n$$\n\\|\\phi\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}=\\max_{[-r,0]}\\|\\phi(s)\\|_\\alpha,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} \\phi\\in{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}.\n$$\nGiven a continuous function $u:[t_0-r,T)\\rightarrow X^\\alpha$, denote by $u_t$ the lift of $u$ in ${{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}$,\n$$\nu_t(s)=u(t+s),\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} s\\in[-r,0],\\,\\,t\\geq t_0.\n$$\n\nThe retarded  functional cocycle system we are concerned with is as follows:\n \\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.1}\\frac{du}{dt}+Au=F(\\theta_tp,u_t),\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq 0,\\,\\, p\\in {\\mathcal H},\\end{equation}\nwhere $F$ is a continuous mapping from ${\\mathcal H}\\times {{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}$ to $X$.\nLater we will show how to put a nonlinear evolution equation like\n $$\\frac{du}{dt}+Au={ f(u(t-r_1),\\cdots,u(t-r_m))}+h(t)$$\n  into the abstract form of \\eqref{e:4.1}.\n For convenience in statement,  ${\\mathcal H}$ and $\\theta$ are usually called the {\\em base space} and the {\\em driving system} of \\eqref{e:4.1}, respectively.\n\nDenote by ${\\mathcal B}_R$  the ball in ${{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}$ centered at $0$ with radius $R$.\n\n  Assume that $F$ satisfies  the following conditions:\n   \\begin{enumerate}\\item[(F1)] $F(p,\\phi)$ is {\\em locally Lipschitz} in $\\phi$  uniformly w.r.t $p\\in{\\mathcal H}$, namely, for any $R>0$, there exists $L_R>0$ such that\n$$\n\\|F(p,\\phi)-F(p,\\phi')\\|_0\\leq L_R\\|\\phi-\\phi'\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha},\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} \\forall\\,\\phi,\\phi'\\in { \\overline{\\mathcal B}_R},\\,\\,p\\in{\\mathcal H}.\n$$\n\\item[(F2)] There exist $C_0,C_1>0$ such that\n $$\n \\|F(p,\\phi)\\|_{ 0}\\leq C_0\\|\\phi\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}+C_1,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} \\forall\\,(p,\\phi)\\in {\\mathcal H}\\times{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}.\n $$\n \\end{enumerate}\n Under the above assumptions, the same argument as in the proof of \\cite[Proposition 3.1]{TW1} with minor modifications applies to show the existence and uniqueness of  global mild solutions for \\eqref{e:4.1}:  \\,For each initial data $\\phi\\in{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}:=C([-r,0],X^\\alpha)$ and $p\\in {\\mathcal H}$,   there is a unique  continuous function $u:[-r,\\infty)\\rightarrow X^{\\alpha}$ with $u(t)=\\phi(t)$ ($-r\\le t\\le0$) satisfying  the integral equation\n$$\nu(t)=e^{-At}\\phi(0)+\\int_{0}^{t}e^{-A(t-s)}F(\\theta_sp,u_s)ds,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq0.\n$$\n\nA solution of \\eqref{e:4.1} clearly depends on  $p$. For convenience, given $p\\in {\\mathcal H}$, we call a solution $u$ of \\eqref{e:4.1} a {\\em solution  pertaining to $p$}.\nWe will use the notation $u(t;p,\\phi)$ to denote the solution of \\eqref{e:4.1} on $[-r,\\infty)$ pertaining to $p$ with initial value $\\phi\\in{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}$.\nThe    solutions of \\eqref{e:4.1} generates a {\\em cocycle} $\\Phi$ on ${{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}$,\n$$\n\\Phi(t,p)\\phi=u_t,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq 0,\\,\\,(p,\\phi)\\in{\\mathcal H}\\times{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha},\n$$\nwhere $u_t$ is the lift of the solution $u(t)=u(t;p,\\phi)$ in ${{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}$.\n\nSince ${\\mathcal H}$ is compact and $A$ has compact resolvent, using a similar argument as in the proof of \\cite[Proposition 4.1]{TW2}, it can be shown   that for each fixed $t>r$, $\\Phi(t,p)\\phi$ is compact as a mapping from ${\\mathcal H}\\times{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha$ to ${\\mathcal C}_\\alpha$. Making use of this basic fact one can easily verify that $\\Phi$ is {\\em asymptotically compact}, that is, $\\Phi$ enjoys   the following  property:\n\n\\begin{enumerate}\\item[{\\bf(AC)}] For any sequences $t_n\\rightarrow \\infty$ and $(p_n,\\phi_n)\\in{\\mathcal H}\\times {{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}$, if $\\Cup_{n\\geq 1}\\Phi([0,t_n],p_n)\\phi_n$ is   bounded in ${{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}$  then the sequence $\\Phi(t_n,p_n)\\phi_n$ has a convergent  subsequence.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\n\\subsection{Basic integral formulas on  bounded solutions}\n{\nSuppose $A$ has a spectral decomposition $\\sigma(A)=\\sigma^-\\cup\\sigma^+$, where\n \\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.3}\n \\mbox{Re}\\,z\\leq -\\beta<0\\,\\,(z\\in\\sigma^-),\\hs \\mbox{Re}\\,z\\geq \\beta>0\\,\\,(z\\in\\sigma^+)\n \\end{equation}\n for some $\\beta>0$. Let $X=X_1\\oplus X_2$ be the  corresponding direct sum decomposition of $X$ with $X_1$\n  and $X_2$ being invariant subspaces of $A$.\nDenote  $P_i:X\\rightarrow X_i$ ($i=1,2$)  the projection from $X$ to $X_i$, and write  $A_i=A|_{X_i}$. By the basic knowledge on sectorial operators (see Henry \\cite[Chap.\\,1]{Henry}),  there exists $M\\geq1$ such that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.6a}\\|\\Lambda^\\alpha e^{-A_1t}\\|\\leq{ Me^{\\beta t}},\\hs \\|e^{-A_1t}\\|\\leq{ Me^{\\beta t}},\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\leq0,\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.6b}\\|\\Lambda^\\alpha e^{-A_2t}P_2\\Lambda^{-\\alpha}\\|\\leq Me^{-\\beta t},\\hs\\|\\Lambda^\\alpha e^{-A_2t}\\|\\leq Mt^{-\\alpha}e^{-\\beta t},\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t>0.\\end{equation}\n\nThe verification of the following  basic integral formulas  on bounded solutions are just slight modifications of the corresponding ones for that of equations without delays (see e.g. \\cite[pp. 180, Lemma A.1]{Hale0} and \\cite{Ju}), and hence is omitted.\n\n\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{l:3.3}\n Let $u:[-r,+\\infty)\\to X^{\\alpha}$ be a bounded continuous function. Then $u$ is a solution of (\\ref{e:4.1}) on $[-r,\\infty)$ pertaining to $p\\in{\\mathcal H}$ if and only if $u$ solves the   integral equation\n$$\\begin{array}{ll}\nu(t)=&\\,\\,e^{-A_2t}P_2 u(0)+\\int_{0}^{t}e^{-A_2(t-s)}P_2 F(\\theta_{s}p, u_s)ds\\\\[2ex]\n&-\\int_{t}^{\\infty}e^{-A_1(t-s)}P_1 F(\\theta_{s}p, u_s)ds,\\hs t\\ge0.\n\\end{array}\n$$\n\n\\end{lemma}\n\n}\n\n\n\\subsection{Existence of bounded complete solutions}\nFor nonlinear evolution equations, bounded complete solutions are of equal importance as equilibrium ones.  This is because that the long-term dynamics of an equation\nis determined not only by the distribution of its equilibrium solutions, but also by that of all its bounded complete trajectories. In fact, for a nonautonomous evolution equation it  may be of little  sense to talk about equilibrium solutions in the usual terminology.\n\nIn  this subsection we establish an existence result for bounded complete solutions of equation  \\eqref{e:4.1}. For this purpose we need first to give  some a priori estimates.\n\nLet $C_0,C_1$ be the constants  in (F2), and set\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:kap}\\begin{array}{ll}\\kappa_0=\\sup_{t\\ge0}\\(\\int_{0}^{t}(t-s)^{-\\alpha}e^{-\\beta (t-s)}ds+\\int_{t}^{\\infty}e^{\\beta(t-s)}ds\\).\\end{array}\\end{equation}\n\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{l:4.1}  Suppose $A$ has a spectral decomposition as in \\eqref{e:4.3}, and that\n$C_0<{1}\/{(\\kappa_0 M)}.$\nThen  for any  $R,\\varepsilon>0$, there exists $T>0$ such that for all bounded solutions $u(t)=u(t;p,\\phi)$ of \\eqref{e:4.1} with $\\phi\\in\\overline{\\mathcal B}_R$,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.5}\n\\|u(t)\\|_\\alpha<\\rho+\\varepsilon,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t{ >} T,\n\\end{equation}\n where $\\rho={ C_1M(1-\\kappa_0 C_0M)^{-1}\\int_{0}^{\\infty}(1+s^{-\\alpha})e^{-\\beta s}ds}$. Consequently\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.5b}\\sup_{t\\in\\mathbb{R}}\\|\\gamma(t)\\|_{\\alpha}\\leq \\rho\\end{equation} for all bounded complete solutions $\\gamma(t)$ of \\eqref{e:4.1}.\n\\end{lemma}\n\n\\noindent{\\bf Proof.} (1) {Let $u(t)=u(t;p,\\phi)$ be a bounded  solution  of \\eqref{e:4.1} on $[-r,\\infty)$. For any $\\tau\\geq 0$, set $v(t)=u(t+\\tau)$ ($t\\geq 0$). Then  $v$ is a bounded  solution of \\eqref{e:4.1} pertaining to $q=\\theta_\\tau p$.\nHence we infer from Lemma \\ref{l:3.3} that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.8}\n\\begin{array}{ll}\nv(t)=&e^{-A_2t}P_2 v(0)+\\int_{0}^{t}e^{-A_2(t-s)}P_2 F(\\theta_{s}{ q},v_s)ds\\\\[2ex]\n&-\\int_{t}^{\\infty}e^{-A_1(t-s)}P_1 F(\\theta_{s}q,v_s)ds,\\hs t\\ge0.\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nTherefore by \\eqref{e:4.6a}, \\eqref{e:4.6b} and (F2), we deduce that\n$$\n\\begin{array}{ll}\n\\|v(t)\\|_\\alpha\n\\leq&Me^{-\\beta t}{ \\|v_0\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}}+\\int_{0}^{t} K_1(t,s)\\|v_s\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha} ds\\\\[2ex]\n&+\\int_{t}^{\\infty}K_2(t,s)\\|v_s\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha} ds+C_2,\\hs t\\ge0,\n\\end{array}\n$$\nwhere\n\\begin{equation}\\label{ek1}K_1(t,s)={ C_0M(t-s)^{-\\alpha}e^{-\\beta(t-s)}},\\hs K_2(t,s)={ C_0Me^{\\beta(t-s)}},\\end{equation}\nand $C_2=C_1M{ \\int_{0}^{\\infty}(1+s^{-\\alpha})e^{-\\beta s}ds}$. That is, $u$ satisfies\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.11}\n\\begin{array}{ll}\n{ \\|u(t)\\|_\\alpha}\n\\leq& Me^{-\\beta (t-\\tau)}{ \\|u_\\tau\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}}+\\int_{\\tau}^{t} K_1(t,s)\\|u_s\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha} ds\\\\[2ex]\n&+\\int_{t}^{\\infty}K_2(t,s)\\|u_s\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha} ds+C_2,\\hs t\\ge\\tau\\geq 0.\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\n  Applying Theorem \\ref{t:3.1} one  deduces that if $C_0<1\/(\\kappa_0 M)$ then\n  for any $R, \\varepsilon >0$, there exists  { $T>0$} such that\n\\eqref{e:4.5} holds true for all $p\\in{\\mathcal H}$ and $\\phi\\in\\overline{\\mathcal B}_R$.\n\\vs\n(2) Let $\\gamma(t)$ be a bounded complete solution  of \\eqref{e:4.1} pertaining to some $q\\in{\\mathcal H}$. Pick an $R>0$ such that $\\|\\gamma(t)\\|_\\alpha< R$ for all $t\\in\\mathbb{R}$. Then for any $\\varepsilon>0$, there is $T>0$ such that \\eqref{e:4.5} holds for all $p\\in{\\mathcal H}$ and $\\phi\\in\\overline{\\mathcal B}_R$. Taking  $p=\\theta_{-T} q$ and $\\phi=\\gamma(-T)$, one finds that\n$$\n\\|\\gamma(0)\\|_\\alpha=\\|u(T;p,\\phi)\\|_\\alpha<\\rho+\\varepsilon.\n$$\nSince $\\varepsilon$ is arbitrary, we  conclude that $\\|\\gamma(0)\\|_\\alpha\\leq\\rho$.\n\nIn a similar fashion  it can be shown that $\\|\\gamma(t)\\|_\\alpha\\leq\\rho$ for all $t\\in\\mathbb{R}$. $\\Box$\n\n}\n\\vskip8pt}\\def\\vs{\\vskip4pt\nThanks to Lemma \\ref{l:4.1}, one can now show  by very standard argument via the Conley index theory that equation \\eqref{e:4.1} has a bounded complete solution $u$. Specifically, we have the following existence result.\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{t:4.1b}  Assume the hypotheses in Lemma \\ref{l:4.1}. Then for any $p\\in{\\mathcal H}$,  \\eqref{e:4.1} has at least one bounded complete solution $u$ pertaining to $p$.\n\\end{theorem}\n{\\bf Proof.} The   estimate \\eqref{e:4.5b}   allows us to prove by using the Conley index theory and some standard argument  that \\eqref{e:4.1} has at least one  bounded complete solution $\\gamma=\\gamma(t)$ pertaining to some $p_0\\in{\\mathcal H}$. The interested reader is referred to  \\cite[Sect. 7]{Wang} and \\cite{LLZ} for details.\n\nTo show that for any $p\\in{\\mathcal H}$, equation \\eqref{e:4.1} has at least one bounded complete solution $u$ pertaining to $p$, we  consider the skew-product flow $\\Pi$ on ${\\mathscr X}={\\mathcal H}\\times {{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}$ defined as below:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:sk}\n\\Pi(t)(p,\\phi)=\\(\\theta_tp,\\Phi(t,p)\\phi\\),\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} (p,\\phi)\\in {\\mathscr X},\\,\\,t\\geq 0.\n\\end{equation}\nThe asymptotic compactness of $\\Phi$ imply that $\\Pi$ is asymptotically compact.\nLet $\\varphi(t)=(\\theta_tp_0,\\,\\gamma_t)$. Then   $\\varphi=\\varphi(t)$ is a bounded complete trajectory of $\\Pi$.\n\nLet ${\\mathcal S}=\\omega(\\varphi)$ be the $\\omega$-limit set of $\\varphi$,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:os}\\begin{array}{ll}\n\\omega(\\varphi)=\\bigcap}\\def\\Cup{\\bigcup_{\\tau\\geq0}\\,\\overline{\\{\\varphi(t):\\,\\,t\\geq\\tau\\}}.\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nBy the basic knowledge in the dynamical systems theory we know that ${\\mathcal S}$ is a nonempty compact invariant set of $\\Pi$.\nSet $K=P_{\\mathcal H}{\\mathcal S}$, where $P_{\\mathcal H}:{\\mathscr X}\\rightarrow {\\mathcal H}$ is the projection. One can easily verify that $K$ is a nonempty compact invariant set of the driving system $\\theta$. Hence due to the minimality hypothesis on  ${\\mathcal H}$ we deduce that  $K={\\mathcal H}$. Consequently for each $p\\in {\\mathcal H}$, there is a $\\phi\\in {{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}$ such that $(p,\\phi)\\in{\\mathcal S}$. Let $(\\theta_tp,\\,u_t)$ be a bounded complete trajectory of $\\Pi$ in ${\\mathcal S}$ through  $(p,\\phi)$. Set\n$$\nu(t)=u_t(0),\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\in\\mathbb{R}.\n$$\nThen $u(t)$ is bounded complete solution of \\eqref{e:4.1} pertaining to $p$. $\\Box$\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Existence of a nonautonomous equilibrium  solution}\\label{s:4.3}\nFor the sake of simplicity in statement, instead of (F1) and (F2), in this section we assume that $F(p,\\phi)$ is {\\em globally Lipschitz } in $\\phi$ uniformly w.r.t $p\\in {\\mathcal H}$, i.e.,\n \\begin{enumerate}\\item[(F3)] there exist $L>0$ such that\n$$\n\\|F(p,\\phi)-F(p,\\phi')\\|_0\\leq L\\|\\phi-\\phi'\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha},\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} \\forall\\,\\phi,\\phi'\\in {\\mathcal C}_\\alpha,\\,\\,p\\in{\\mathcal H}.\n$$\n\\end{enumerate}\nIn such a case, since\n$$\n\\|F(p,\\phi)\\|_0= \\|F(p,\\phi)-F(p,0)\\|_0+\\|F(p,0)\\|_0\\leq L\\|\\phi\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}+\\|F(p,0)\\|_0,\n$$\nwe see that hypothesis  (F2)  is automatically fulfilled with\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.31}C_0=L,\\hs C_1=\\max_{p\\in {\\mathcal H}}\\|F(p,0)\\|_0.\\end{equation}\n\n\n\n\\begin{definition}  A nonautonomous  equilibrium  solution of \\eqref{e:4.1} is a continuous mapping $\\Gamma\\in C({\\mathcal H},X^\\alpha)$ such that\n$\\gamma_p(t):=\\Gamma(\\theta_tp)$ is a bounded complete solution of \\eqref{e:4.1} pertaining to $p$  for each $p\\in {\\mathcal H}$.\n \\end{definition}\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{t:4.1}Suppose $A$ has a spectral decomposition as in \\eqref{e:4.3}, and that\n$L<{1}\/{(\\kappa_0 M)}$.\n Then the following assertions hold:\n \\begin{enumerate}\\item[$(1)$] Equation $(\\ref{e:4.1})$ has a   nonautonomous equilibrium  solution  $\\Gamma\\in C({\\mathcal H},{ X^{\\alpha}})$.\\vs\n  \\item[$(2)$] For any  $R,\\varepsilon>0$, there exists $T>0$ such that for any bounded  solution $u(t)=u(t;p,\\phi)$ with $\\phi\\in\\overline{\\mathcal B}_R$,\n$$\n\\|u(t)-\\Gamma(\\theta_tp)\\|_\\alpha<\\varepsilon,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t> T.\n$$\n\\item[$(3)$] There exists $c>0$ such that for any bounded  solution $u(t)=u(t;p,\\phi)$,\n$$\n\\|u(t)-\\Gamma(\\theta_tp)\\|_\\alpha\\leq c\\max_{s\\in[-r,0]}\\|\\phi(s)-\\Gamma(\\theta_s p)\\|_\\alpha,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq0.\n$$\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{theorem}\n{\\bf Proof.} (1)\\, We continue the argument in the proof of Theorem \\ref{t:4.1b}.\nSet $${\\mathcal S}[p]=\\{\\phi:\\,\\,(p,\\phi)\\in {\\mathcal S}\\},\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} p\\in{\\mathcal H},$$\n where ${\\mathcal S}$ is the $\\omega$-limit set of $\\varphi$ given by \\eqref{e:os}.\n Using the compactness of  ${\\mathcal S}$  one easily  checks that ${\\mathcal S}[p]$ is upper semicontinuous, i.e., given $p\\in{\\mathcal H}$, for any $\\varepsilon>0$, there is a $\\delta>0$ such that ${\\mathcal S}{ [q]}$ is contained in the $\\varepsilon$-neighborhood of ${\\mathcal S}{ [p]}$ for all $q$ with $d(q,p)<\\delta$.\nIn what follows we show that ${\\mathcal S}[p]$ is a singleton. Consequently the upper semicontinuity of ${\\mathcal S}[p]$ reduces to the continuity of ${\\mathcal S}[p]$ in $p$.\n\nLet $\\phi_1,\\phi_2\\in {\\mathcal S}[p]$. As in the proof of { Theorem \\ref{t:4.1b}} we know  that $\\Phi$ has two bounded complete trajectories $\\gamma^i_t$ ($i=1,2$) in ${{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}$ pertaining to $p$ with $\\gamma^i_0=\\phi_i$. We check that\n$\\gamma_t:=\\gamma^1_t-\\gamma^2_t\\equiv 0$ for $t\\in\\mathbb{R}$, or equivalently,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.8}\\gamma(t):=\\gamma^1(t)-\\gamma^2(t)\\equiv0,\\hs\\mbox{ where $\\gamma^i(t)=\\gamma^i_t(0)$}.\\end{equation} It then follows that  $\\phi_1=\\phi_2$, hence ${\\mathcal S}[p]$ is a singleton.\n\n\nFor $\\eta\\in\\mathbb{R}$, we write $\\varphi^i(t)=\\gamma^i(t+\\eta)$. Then $\\varphi^i(t)$ is a solution of \\eqref{e:4.1} pertaining to $q=\\theta_\\eta p$.  By Lemma \\ref{l:3.3} we have\n\n{\\begin{equation*}\n\\begin{array}{ll}\n\\varphi^{i}(t)=&e^{-A_2t}P_2 \\varphi^{i}(0)+\\int_{0}^{t}e^{-A_2(t-s)}P_2 F\\(\\theta_s q,\\,\\varphi^{i}_s\\)ds\\\\[2ex]\n&-\\int_{t}^{\\infty}e^{-A_1(t-s)}P_1 F\\(\\theta_s q,\\,\\varphi^{i}_{s}\\)ds,\\hs t\\ge0.\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation*}\n Let  $\\varphi(t):=\\varphi^1(t)-\\varphi^2(t)$. Then\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\begin{array}{ll}\n\\varphi(t)=\\,&\\,e^{-A_2t}P_2 \\varphi(0)+\\int_{0}^{t}e^{-A_2(t-s)}P_2 \\(F\\(\\theta_s q,\\,\\varphi^1_s\\)- F\\(\\theta_s q,\\,\\varphi^2_s\\)\\)ds\\\\[2ex]\n&-\\int_{t}^{\\infty}e^{-A_1(t-s)}P_1 \\(F\\(\\theta_s q,\\,\\varphi^1_s\\)-F\\(\\theta_s q,\\,\\varphi^2_s\\)\\)ds,\\hs t\\ge0.\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation*}\nThus by  ({ F3}) we deduce that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq2}\n\\begin{array}{ll}\n\\|\\varphi(t)\\|_\\alpha&\\leq M e^{-\\beta t}{ \\|\\varphi_0\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}}+{ L}M\\int_0^t(t-s)^{-\\alpha}e^{-\\beta(t-s)}\\|\\varphi_s\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}  ds\\\\[2ex]\n&\\hs+{ L }M\\int_t^{\\infty} e^{-\\beta(s-t)}\\|\\varphi_s\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}  ds,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} \\forall\\,t\\geq 0.\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nSince $\\varphi(t)=\\gamma{ ^1}(t+\\eta)-\\gamma{ ^2}(t+\\eta)$ and $\\eta\\in\\mathbb{R}$ can be taken arbitrary, it can be easily seen that  \\eqref{eq2} is readily  satisfied by all the translations $\\varphi(\\.+\\tau)$ of $\\varphi$, i.e.,\n$$\n\\begin{array}{ll}\n\\|\\varphi(t+\\tau)\\|_\\alpha&\\leq M e^{-\\beta t}{ \\|\\varphi_\\tau\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}}+{ L}M\\int_0^t(t-s)^{-\\alpha}e^{-\\beta(t-s)}\\|\\varphi_{s+\\tau}\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}  ds\\\\[2ex]\n&\\hs+{ L }M\\int_t^{\\infty} e^{-\\beta(s-t)}\\|\\varphi_{s+\\tau}\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}  ds,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} \\forall\\,t\\geq 0.\n\\end{array}\n$$\nRewriting $t+\\tau$ as $t$, the above inequality can be put into the following one:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.4}\n\\begin{array}{ll}\n\\|\\varphi(t)\\|_\\alpha&\\leq E(t,\\tau){ \\|\\varphi_\\tau\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}}+\\int_\\tau^t K_1(t,s)\\|\\varphi_{s}\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}  ds\\\\[2ex]\n&\\hs+\\int_t^{\\infty} K_2(t,s)\\|\\varphi_{s}\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}  ds,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} \\forall\\,t\\geq \\tau.\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $E(t,s)=M e^{-\\beta (t-s)}$, and\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eEK}\\mbox{$K_1=LM(t-s)^{-\\alpha}e^{-\\beta(t-s)}$,\\hs $K_2=LMe^{-\\beta(s-t)}$.}\\end{equation}\n\nApplying  Theorem \\ref{t:3.1} (1) to $y(t)=\\|\\varphi(t)\\|_\\alpha$, we deduce by \\eqref{e:4.4} that if $L<1\/(\\kappa_0 M)$, then  for any $\\varepsilon>0$ there exists $T>0$ (independent of $\\eta$) such that\n$\n\\|\\varphi(t)\\|_\\alpha<\\varepsilon$ for all $t> T$, that is,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.17}\\|\\gamma({t+{\\eta}})\\|_\\alpha<\\varepsilon,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t> T,\\,\\,{\\eta}\\in \\mathbb{R}.\n\\end{equation}\nNow for any $\\tau\\in\\mathbb{R}$, setting $t=T+1$ and $\\eta=\\tau-(T+1)$ in \\eqref{e:4.17} we obtain   that $\\|\\gamma({\\tau})\\|_\\alpha<\\varepsilon$. Since $\\varepsilon$ is arbitrary, one immediately concludes  that $\\gamma(\\tau)=0$, which justifies the validity of \\eqref{e:4.8}.\n\n}\n\n\\vskip8pt}\\def\\vs{\\vskip4pt\nNow we write  ${\\mathcal S}[p]=\\{\\phi_p\\}$. Then $\\phi_p$  is continuous in $p$, and the  invariance property of ${\\mathcal S}$ implies that $\\gamma_{t}:=\\phi_{\\theta_tp}$ is a complete trajectory of the cocycle $\\Phi$ in ${{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}$ for each $p\\in {\\mathcal H}$. Define\n$$\\Gamma(p)=\\phi_p(0),\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} p\\in{\\mathcal H}.$$ Clearly $\\Gamma\\in C({\\mathcal H},X^\\alpha)$. It is easy to see  that for each $p\\in{\\mathcal H}$, $\\gamma_p(t):=\\Gamma(\\theta_tp)=\\phi_{\\theta_tp}(0)$ is a complete solution of \\eqref{e:4.1} pertaining to $p$. Hence $\\Gamma$ is a nonautonomous equilibrium solution of equation \\eqref{e:4.1}.\n\\vs\n\n(2)-(3)\\, Let $p\\in{\\mathcal H}, $ and  let $u(t)=u(t;p,\\phi)$ be a bounded solution of \\eqref{e:4.1}.  Then the same  argument as above  with minor modifications applies to show that  \\eqref{e:4.4} is fulfilled by  $\\varphi(t):=u(t)-\\Gamma(\\theta_tp)$ for all $t\\geq\\tau\\geq0$.\nAssertions (2) and  (3) then immediately follows from Theorem \\ref{t:3.1} and Lemma \\ref{l:2.1}. $\\Box$\n\n\n\\subsection{Global asymptotic stability of the equilibrium}\\label{s:4.4}\n\nNow we pay some attention to the particular case where $\\sigma(A)$ lies in the right half plane.\nWe continue the argument  in Section \\ref{s:4.3} and  assume that $F$ satisfies the global Lipschitz condition (F3).\n\nGiven $(p,\\phi)\\in{\\mathcal H}\\times{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha$, we write $u(t)=u(t;p,\\phi)$. Since the spectral set $\\sigma^-=\\emptyset$, using the constant variation formula it can be shown that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.36}\n\\|{ u(t)}\\|_\\alpha\n\\leq Me^{-\\beta (t-\\tau)}{ \\|u_\\tau\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}}+\\int_{\\tau}^{t} K_1(t,s)\\|u_s\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha} ds{ +\\rho_0},\\hs\\,\\, t\\ge\\tau\\geq 0\n\\end{equation}\n where $\\rho_0=C_1M\\int_{0}^{\\infty} s^{-\\alpha}e^{-\\beta s}ds$ ($C_1$ is the constant given in \\eqref{e:4.31}), and $\n K_1(t,s)$ is the function  given in \\eqref{eEK}.\n  The calculations involved here are  similar to those as in the proof of Lemma \\ref{l:4.1}. We omit the details.\n  Let    $$\\begin{array}{ll}\\kappa_0=\\sup_{t\\ge0}\\(\\int_{0}^{t}(t-s)^{-\\alpha}e^{-\\beta (t-s)}ds \\),\\hs \\rho=(1-\\kappa_0 L M)^{-1}\\rho_0,\\end{array}$$\n where $L$ is the constant in (F3). Applying Theorem \\ref{t:3.2} (1) one deduces  that if $L<{{1}\/{(\\kappa_0 M)}}$, then for any  $R, \\varepsilon>0$, there exists $T>0$ such that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.20}\n\\|u(t)\\|_\\alpha<\\rho+\\varepsilon,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm}\\forall\\, t{ >} T,\\,\\,(p,\\phi)\\in{\\mathcal H}\\times{ \\overline{\\mathcal B}_R}.\n\\end{equation}\n\nLet $\\Gamma$ be  the nonautonomous  equilibrium solution  given by Theorem \\ref{t:4.1}.\nAs a direct consequence of \\eqref{e:4.20} and  Theorem \\ref{t:4.1}, we have\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{l:4.1c} Suppose   $L<{{1}\/{(\\kappa_0 M)}}$, and that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:sa}\\mbox{\\em Re}\\,z\\geq \\beta>0,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm}\\forall\\,z\\in\\sigma(A).\n\\end{equation}\nThen  $\\Gamma$ is uniformly  globally  asymptotically stable in the following sense:\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item[$(1)$] $\\Gamma$ is uniformly table, i.e., for any $\\varepsilon>0$, there exists $\\delta>0$ such that for all $(p,\\phi)\\in{\\mathcal H}\\times{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha$ with $\\max_{s\\in[-r,0]}\\|\\phi(s)-\\Gamma(\\theta_sp)\\|_\\alpha<\\delta$,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.34}\n\\|u(t)-\\Gamma(\\theta_tp)\\|_\\alpha<\\varepsilon,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq0.\n\\end{equation}\n\\item[$(2)$] $\\Gamma$ is uniformly globally attracting, i.e.,\nfor any  $R,\\varepsilon>0$, there exists $T>0$ such that for all $p\\in{\\mathcal H}$ and  $\\phi\\in\\overline{\\mathcal B}_R$,\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.35}\n\\|u(t)-\\Gamma(\\theta_tp)\\|_\\alpha<\\varepsilon,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t> T.\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{theorem}\n{\\bf Proof.} The uniform stability of $\\Gamma$ follows from  Theorem \\ref{t:4.1} (3), and the\nuniform global attraction of $\\Gamma$ is a consequence of \\eqref{e:4.20} and some general results on the uniform forward attraction properties of pullback attractors; see e.g. \\cite[Theorem 3.3]{WLK}. $\\Box$\n\n\n\\vskip8pt}\\def\\vs{\\vskip4pt\nIf we impose on $L$ a stronger smallness requirement, then  it can be shown that  $\\Gamma$  is uniformly globally exponentially asymptotically stable.\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{l:4.1d} Assume that $A$ satisfies \\eqref{e:sa}. If  $L<{1}\/{(\\kappa_0 M(1+M))}$, then     there exist $C,\\lambda>0$ such that for  all $(p,\\phi)\\in{\\mathcal H}\\times{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha$,\n$$\n\\|u(t)-\\Gamma(\\theta_tp)\\|_{\\alpha}\\leq { C}e^{-\\lambda t}\\max_{s\\in[-r,0]}\\|\\phi(s)-\\Gamma(\\theta_sp)\\|_\\alpha\\,,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq0.\n$$\n\\end{theorem}\n{\\bf Proof.}\nLet  $\\varphi(t)=u(t)-\\Gamma(\\theta_t p)$. Using a parallel argument as in the proof of Lemma \\ref{l:4.1} (1), we can obtain  that\n $$\n\\|\\varphi(t)\\|_\\alpha\n\\leq Me^{-\\beta (t-\\tau)}{\\|\\varphi_\\tau\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}}+\\int_{\\tau}^{t} K_1(t,s)\\|\\varphi_s\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha} ds.\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\ge\\tau\\geq 0,\n $$\n If $L<{1}\/{(\\kappa_0 M(1+M))}$ then the functions $E(t,s):=Me^{-\\beta (t-s)}$ and $K_1(t,s)$ fulfill  the requirements  in Theorem \\ref{t:3.2}. Thus there exist constants $C,\\lambda>0$ independent of $\\varphi$ such that\n$$\n\\|\\varphi(t)\\|_{\\alpha}\\leq { C}e^{-\\lambda t}\\|\\varphi_0\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha},\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq 0.\n$$\nThe conclusion of the theorem then immediately follows. $\\Box$\n\n\\subsection{Nonlinear evolution equations with multiple  delays}\nLet us now consider  the nonlinear evolution equation\n \\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.23}\\frac{du}{dt}+Au=f(u(t-r_1),\\cdots,u(t-r_m))+h(t)\\end{equation}\nwith multiple  delays,  where $X$ and $A$ are the same as in Subsection 4.1,  $f$ is a continuous mapping from $(X^\\alpha)^{m}$ to $X$ for some $\\alpha\\in[0,1)$, $h\\in C(\\mathbb{R},X)$, $r_i\\in C(\\mathbb{R},\\mathbb{R}^+)$,  and $$0\\leq r_i(t) \\leq r<\\infty,\\hs 1\\leq i\\leq m.$$  It is well known that  \\eqref{e:4.23} covers a large number of concrete  examples from applications. Our main goal here is to demonstrate  how to put such an equation  into the abstract form of \\eqref{e:4.1}.\n\nThe initial value problem of \\eqref{e:4.23} reads as follows:\n  \\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.23b}\\left\\{\\begin{array}{ll}\\frac{du}{dt}+Au=f(u(t-r_1),\\cdots,u(t-r_m))+h(t),\\hs t\\geq\\tau,\\\\[1ex]\n  u(\\tau+s)=\\phi(s),\\hs s\\in[-r,0],\\end{array}\\right.\\end{equation}\n where $\\phi\\in{{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}=C([-r,0],X^\\alpha)$, and $\\tau\\in\\mathbb{R}$ is given arbitrary. Rewriting  $t-\\tau$ as $t$, one obtains an equivalent form of \\eqref{e:4.23b}:\n{ \\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.23c}\\left\\{\\begin{array}{ll}\\begin{array}{ll}\\frac{dv}{dt}+Av=f(v(t-\\~r_1),\\cdots,v(t-\\~r_m))+\\~h(t),\\hs t\\geq 0,\\end{array}\\\\[1ex]\n v(s)=\\phi(s),\\hs s\\in[-r,0],\\end{array}\\right.\\end{equation}\n}\nwhere $v(t)=u(t+\\tau)$, and\n$$\n\\~r_i(t)=r_i(t+\\tau),\\hs \\~h(t)=h(t+\\tau).\n$$\n\nDenote ${\\mathcal Y}$ the space $C(\\mathbb{R})^m\\times C(\\mathbb{R},X)$ equipped with the {\\em compact-open topology} (under which a sequence $p_n(t)$ in ${\\mathcal Y}$ is convergent  {\\em iff\\,} it is uniformly convergent on any compact interval $I\\subset \\mathbb{R}$).\nLet $\\theta$ be the translation operator on ${\\mathcal Y}$,\n$$\n\\theta_\\tau p=p(\\.+\\tau),\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} \\forall p\\in{\\mathcal Y},\\,\\,\\tau\\in\\mathbb{R}.\n$$ Set\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:hp}\np^*(t)=(r_1(t),\\cdots,r_m(t),\\,h(t)),\n\\end{equation}\nand  assume that $p^*(t)$ is {\\em translation compact } in  ${\\mathcal Y}$, i.e., the hull\n$${\\mathcal H}={\\mathcal H}[p^*]:=\\overline{\\{\\theta_\\tau p^*:\\,\\,\\tau\\in\\mathbb{R}\\}}$$ of $p^*$ in ${\\mathcal Y}$ is a compact subset of ${\\mathcal Y}$.\n\nWe also assume that ${\\mathcal H}$ is minimal w.r.t $\\theta$. This requirement  is naturally fulfilled when $p^*$ is, say for instance, periodic, pseudo-periodic, or almost periodic.\n\nDefine a function $F:{\\mathcal H}\\times {{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha}\\rightarrow X$ as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:F}\nF(p, \\phi)=f(\\phi(-p_1(0)),\\cdots,\\phi(-p_m(0)))+p_{m+1}(0)\n\\end{equation}\nfor any $p=(p_1,\\cdots,p_{m+1})\\in {\\mathcal H}$. Observing  that\n$$\\(r_1(t+\\tau),\\cdots,r_m(t+\\tau),\\,h(t+\\tau)\\)=p^*(t+\\tau)=(\\theta_{t+\\tau}p^*)(0),$$\nwe can rewrite the righthand side of the equation in \\eqref{e:4.23c} as follows:\n{\n$$\\begin{array}{ll}\n&f(v(t-\\~r_1),\\cdots,v(t-\\~r_m))+\\~h(t)\\\\[1ex]\n=& F(\\theta_{t+\\tau}p^*,v_{t})= F(\\theta_{t}p,v_t),\\hs p=\\theta_\\tau p^*.\n\\end{array}\n$$\n}\nConsequently   \\eqref{e:4.23c} can be reformulated  as\n \\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.24}\\left\\{\\begin{array}{ll}\\frac{dv}{dt}+Av=F(\\theta_tp,v_t),\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq 0,\\,\\,p\\in\\{\\theta_\\tau p^*:\\,\\,\\tau\\in\\mathbb{R}\\},\\\\\n  v_0=\\phi.\\end{array}\\right.\\end{equation}\n Since  $\\{p=\\theta_\\tau p^*:\\,\\,\\tau\\in\\mathbb{R}\\}$ is dense in ${\\mathcal H}$, for theoretical completeness we usually embed  \\eqref{e:4.24} into  the following cocycle system:\n  \\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.25}\\left\\{\\begin{array}{ll}\\frac{dv}{dt}+Av=F(\\theta_tp,v_t),\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq 0,\\,\\,p\\in {\\mathcal H},\\\\\n  v_0=\\phi.\\end{array}\\right.\\end{equation}\n\n\\vs\nNow assume $f$ satisfies the following conditions:\n   \\begin{enumerate}\\item[(f1)] $f$ is {\\em locally Lipschitz}, namely, for any $R>0$, there exists $L_f=L_f(R)>0$ such that for all $u_i,u_i'\\in X^\\alpha$ ($1\\leq i\\leq m$) with  $\\|u_i\\|_\\alpha,\\|u_i'\\|_\\alpha\\leq R$,\n$$\n\\|f(u_1,\\cdots,u_m)-f(u_1',\\cdots,u_m')\\|_0\\leq L_f(\\|u_1-u_1'\\|_\\alpha+\\cdots+\\|u_m-u_m'\\|_\\alpha).\n$$\n\n\\vs \\item[(f2)] There exist $C_0,C_1>0$ such that\n $$\n \\|f(u_{ 1},\\cdots,u_m)\\|_{ 0}\\leq C_0(\\|u_1\\|_\\alpha+\\cdots+\\|u_m\\|_\\alpha)+C_1,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} \\forall\\,u_i\\in X^\\alpha.\n $$\n \\end{enumerate}\nThen  one can trivially verify that the mapping  $F$ defined by \\eqref{e:F} satisfies hypotheses (F1) and (F2).\n\n\n\\begin{remark}\\label{r:4.6} Note that if the function  $p^*$ in \\eqref{e:hp}  is periodic (resp. quasi-periodic, almost periodic), then $\\theta_tp$ is periodic (resp. quasi-periodic, almost periodic) for any fixed $p\\in {\\mathcal H}:={\\mathcal H}[p^*]$. Let $\\Gamma$ be the equilibrium solution of \\eqref{e:4.25} given in Theorems \\ref{l:4.1c} and \\ref{l:4.1d}. Then since  $\\Gamma(q)$ is continuous in $q$, we deduce that  $\\gamma_p:=\\Gamma(\\theta_tp)$ is periodic (resp. quasi-periodic, almost periodic) as well.  Therefore these two theorems give the existence of asymptotically stable  periodic (resp. pseudo periodic, almost periodic) solutions for equation \\eqref{e:4.23}.\n\nThe interested  reader is referred to  \\cite{Hale2,Jones,Kaplan,Ken,LiYX,MN,MSS,NT,Nus2,Ou,Walt3,Walt2} etc. for some classical results and  new trends on periodic solutions of delay differential equations,\nand to  \\cite{Hino1,Layt,Naito,Seif,Wu,Yoshi,Yuan0,YuanR} and references therein  for typical results  on almost periodic solutions.\n\\end{remark}\n\\begin{remark}\\label{r:4.7}In the case where the functions $h$  and $r_i$ $(1\\leq i\\leq m)$ in the equation  \\eqref{e:4.23} are not translation compact (or,  the righthand side of the equation  takes a more general form like $g(t,u(t-r_1),\\cdots,u(t-r_m))$\\,),\nthe framework of cocycle systems does not seem to be quite suitable to handle the problem,  because the base space ${\\mathcal H}$ of the   cocycle system  corresponding to the equation may not be compact.\nInstead, the processes one may be  more appropriate.\n\nSet\n$\nF(t,\\phi)=f(\\phi(-r_1),\\cdots,\\phi(-r_m))+h(t)$ \\,$(t\\in\\mathbb{R},\\,\\,\\phi\\in{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha).$ Then \\eqref{e:4.23}  can be put into a functional one:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.2}\n\\frac{du}{dt}+Au=F(t,u_t).\\end{equation}\nSuppose   \\eqref{e:4.2} has a unique global solution $x(t;\\tau,\\phi)$ $(t\\in[\\tau-r,\\infty))$ for each initial data $(\\tau,\\phi)\\in \\mathbb{R}\\times{\\mathcal C}_\\alpha$. Denote by $x_t(\\tau,\\phi)$  the lift of $x(t):=x(t;\\tau,\\phi)$ in ${\\mathcal C}_\\alpha$. Then as in \\eqref{e:3.20}, we can define a process $P(t,\\tau)$  on ${\\mathcal C}_\\alpha$.\nThis allows us to take some steps in the investigation of the dynamics of the equation. For instance,  under similar hypotheses as in Section \\ref{s:4.4}, it is desirable to prove that the equation has a unique bounded complete (entire) solution $\\gamma(t)$ $(t\\in\\mathbb{R})$ which is uniformly  globally (exponentially) asymptotically stable  by employing the pullback attractor theory for processes.\n\n\nThe situation becomes quite complicated if the operator $A$ fails to be a dissipative one, i.e., the spectral set\n$\\sigma^-$ in \\eqref{e:4.3} is non-void. One drawback  is that both the pullback attractor theory and  the Conley index theory are not applicable in proving the existence of bounded complete solutions  of the equation. If the delay functions $r_i(t)$ are constants, then since the external force $h(t)$ and the nonlinear term in the righthand side of \\eqref{e:4.23} are separate, one may try to get a bounded complete solution $\\gamma(t)$ of the equation by considering periodic approximations  of $h(t)$.\nHowever, if the functions $r_i(t)$ also depend on $t$, we are not sure whether such a strategy still works. There are also many other interesting questions such as the synchronizing property  of the bounded complete solution $\\gamma(t)$ with the external force (in case  $r_i(t)$ are constant functions) and a more detailed  description of the dynamics of the equation. (Note that even if in the case where $h(t)$ and $r_i(t)$ are translation compact, Theorem \\ref{t:4.1} only gives us some information on the asymptotic behavior  of bounded solutions of the equation. A  natural question  is to ask: What can we say about those   unbounded solutions\\,?) All these questions deserve to be clarified, and a further study on the  geometric theory of functional  differential equations in a processes fashion may be helpful for  us to take some steps, in which the integral inequality \\eqref{e1.1} may  once again play a fundamental role.\n\n\\end{remark}\n\n\\subsection{Neural networks with multiple   delays}\n{As an concrete example, we consider the following reaction diffusion neural network system with multiple delays:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.27}\n\\left\\{\\begin{array}{ll}\\frac{\\partial{u_i}}{\\partial{t}}=\\mbox{div}\\(a_i(x)\\nabla u_i\\)\n+\\sum_{j=1}^{n}b_{ij}u_j+\\\\[1ex]\n\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm}+\\sum_{j=1}^{n}T_{ij}g_j(x,u_j,u_j(x,t-r_{ij}))+J_{i}(x,t),\\\\[1ex]\nu_i(x,t)=0,\\hs t\\ge0,\\,\\,x\\in\\partial{\\Omega}, \\hs i=1,2,...,n.\n\\end{array}\\right.\n\\end{equation}\nHere $\\Omega\\subset \\mathbb{R}^m$ is a bounded domain with a smooth boundary $\\partial\\Omega$, $a_i\\in C^1(\\overline\\Omega)$ and is  positive everywhere  on $\\overline\\Omega$,  $b_{ij}$ and $T_{ij}$\nare constant coefficients,\n$$0\\leq r_{ij}\\leq r<\\infty,\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} 1\\leq i,j\\leq n,$$ and  $J_i(x,t)$\nare bounded inputs. We refer the interested reader to \\cite{He,Z} etc. for a physical background  of this type of   systems.\n\n Let $A_i$ be the elliptic operator given by\n$$\nA_iu=-\\sum_{k=1}^{m}\\frac{\\partial{}}{\\partial{x_k}}\\(a_i(x)\\frac{\\partial{u}}{\\partial{x_k}}\\)$$\nassociated with the corresponding boundary condition. It is a basic knowledge (see e.g. Henry \\cite[Chap.7]{Henry}) that $A_i$ is a sectorial operator in $L^2(\\Omega)$ with compact resolvent.\n\nFor notational simplicity, we use the same notation $g_j$ to denote the Nemytskii operator generated  by the function $g_j(x, u,v)$, i.e.,\n$$g_j(u,v)(x)=g_j(x,u,v)\\,\\,(x\\in\\Omega),\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} u,v\\in L^2(\\Omega).$$\nLet $J_i(t)=J_i(\\.,t)$. Then  \\eqref{e:4.27} takes a slightly  abstract form:\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.28}\n\\frac{d{u_i}}{d{t}}+{ A_i}u_i=\\sum_{j=1}^{n}b_{ij}u_j+\\sum_{j=1}^{n}T_{ij}g_j(u_j,u_j(t-r_{ij}))+J_{i}(t),\\hs 1\\leq i\\leq n.\n\\end{equation}\nSet   $H=\\(L^2(\\Omega)\\)^n$, and let $u=(u_1,\\cdots,u_n)'$. Denote\n$$\nAu=(A_1u_1,...,A_nu_n)',\\hs u\\in D(A)\\subset H.\n$$ (It is clear that $A$ is a sectorial operator in $H$.)\nLet ${{\\mathcal C}_0}=C([-r,0],H)$, and define an operator $G:{{\\mathcal C}_0}\\rightarrow H^n=(L^2(\\Omega))^{n\\times n}$ as follows:\\,\\, $\\forall\\,\\phi=(\\phi_1,\\cdots,\\phi_n)'\\in{{\\mathcal C}_0}$,\n$$\nG(\\phi)=(\\psi_{ji})_{n\\times n},\\hs\\mbox{where } \\psi_{ij}=g_j(\\phi_j(0),\\phi_j(-r_{ij})).\n$$\n Let $T=\\(T_{ij}\\)_{n\\times n}$. Write $TG(\\phi)=\\([TG(\\phi)]_{ij}\\)_{n\\times n}$, and\n define\n $$\nF(\\phi)=(F_1(\\phi),F_2(\\phi),\\cdots,F_n(\\phi))',\\hs F_i(\\phi)=[TG(\\phi)]_{ii}.\n$$\n Then \\eqref{e:4.28} can be reformulated as\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.29}\n\\frac{du}{dt}+Au=Bu+F(u_t)+J(t),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $B=\\(b_{ij}\\)_{n\\times n}$, and $J=(J_1,\\cdots,J_n)'$.\n\n\nSince   \\eqref{e:4.29} is nonautonomous,\ngenerally the initial value problem  reads\n\\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.29b}\\left\\{\\begin{array}{ll}\n\\frac{dv}{dt}+Av=Bv+F({ v_t})+J(t+\\tau),\\hs t\\geq 0,\\\\\nv_0=\\phi\\in {{\\mathcal C}_0},\\end{array}\\right.\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $v(t)=u(t+\\tau)$, and $\\tau\\in\\mathbb{R}$ denotes  the initial time.\nWe assume that $J$ is translation compact in ${\\mathcal Y}$. Denote ${\\mathcal H}$ the hull ${\\mathcal H}[J]$ of the function $J$ in ${\\mathcal Y}$. Then as in the previous subsection one can embed \\eqref{e:4.29b} into the cocycle system:\n  \\begin{equation}\\label{e:4.30}\\left\\{\\begin{array}{ll}\\frac{dv}{dt}+(A-B)v=F(\\theta_tp,v_t),\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} t\\geq 0,\\,\\,p\\in {\\mathcal H},\\\\\nv_0=\\phi\\in {{\\mathcal C}_0},\\end{array}\\right.\\end{equation}\nwhere\n$$\nF(p,\\phi)=F(\\phi)+p(0),\\hspace{1cm}}\\def\\hs{\\hspace{0.5cm} p\\in{\\mathcal H},\\,\\,\\phi\\in{{\\mathcal C}_0}.\n$$\n\n\nFor simplicity, we always assume that $g_j(x,u,v)$ are continuous and {\\em globally Lipschitz} in $(u,v)$ uniformly for  $x\\in\\Omega$, that is, there exists $L_{j}>0$ such that\n$$\n|g_j(x,t_1,s_1)-g_j(x,t_2,s_2)|\\leq L_{j}(|t_1-{ t_2}|+|s_1-s_2|)\n$$\nfor all $t_i,s_i\\in\\mathbb{R}$ and $x\\in\\Omega$. Then for the Nemytskii operator $g_j$ of the function $g_j(x,u,v)$, we have\n\\begin{align*}\n\\|g_j(u_1,v_1)-g_j(u_2,v_2)\\|_{L^{2}(\\Omega)}\\le& L_{j}(\\|u_1-u_2\\|_{L^{2}(\\Omega)}+\\|v_1-v_2\\|_{L^{2}(\\Omega)}).\n\\end{align*}\nFurther by some simple calculations it can be shown that\n\\begin{align*}\n\\|F(p,\\phi)-F(p,\\phi')\\|_{H}\\le L\\|\\phi-\\phi'\\|_{{\\mathcal C}_0}\n\\end{align*}\nwith $L=2\\(\\sum_{i=1}^{n}\\big(\\sum_{j=1}^{n}|T_{ij}|L_j\\big)^{2}\\)^{1\/2}$.\nThis allows us to carry over all the results on the abstract evolution equation \\eqref{e:4.1} to system  \\eqref{e:4.30}. In particular, by Remark \\ref{r:4.6} we have  the following theorem.\n\n\n \\begin{theorem}\\label{t:4.9} Suppose $\\mbox{Re}\\,(\\sigma(A-B))\\geq \\beta>0$, and that  $L<1\/\\(M I\\)$, where $M$ is the constant appearing in \\eqref{e:4.6a} corresponding to operator $A-B$, and $$I=\\sup_{t\\geq0}\\int_{0}^te^{-\\beta(t-s)}ds.$$ Let $J(t)=(J_1(t),\\cdots,J_n(t))'$ be  a periodic (resp. quasi-periodic, almost periodic) function. 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Appl. 330 (2) (2007) 780-798.\n     \\newblock \\href {https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jmaa.2006.08.027}\n  {\\path{doi:10.1016\/j.jmaa.2006.08.027}}.\n\n\\bibitem{ZS} K. X. Zhu, C. Y. Sun, Pullback attractors for nonclassical diffusion equations with delays, J. Math. Phys. 56 (9) (2015).\n     \\newblock \\href {https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1063\/1.4931480}\n  {\\path{doi:10.1063\/1.4931480}}.\n\n\n\\end {thebibliography}\n\\end{document}\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\nOver the past years, there has been a surge of interest in machine learning in non-Euclidean domains. Representation learning in spaces of constant negative curvature, i.e. hyperbolic, has shown to outperform Euclidean embeddings significantly on data with latent hierarchical, taxonomic or entailment structures. Such data naturally arises in language modeling \\cite{nickel2017poincare, nickel2018learning, chamberlain2017neural, sala2018representation, ganea2018hyperbolic}, recommendation systems \\cite{chamberlain2019scalable}, image classification, and few-shot learning tasks \\cite{khrulkov2020hyperbolic}, to name a few. Grassmannian manifolds find applications in computer vision to perform video-based face recognition and image set classification \\cite{huang2018building, li2015face}. The Lie groups of transformations $\\mathrm{SO}(3)$ and $\\mathrm{SE}(3)$ appear naturally when dealing with problems like pose estimation and skeleton-based action recognition \\cite{hou2018computing, huang2017deep}. Stiefel manifolds are used for emotion recognition and action recognition from video data \\cite{chakraborty2019statistics, huang2017riemannian}. The space of symmetric positive definite (SPD) matrices characterize data from diffusion tensor imaging \\cite{pennec2006riemannian}, and functional magnetic resonance imaging \\cite{sporns2005human}. Among those advances is a family of neural network methods, which are parameterized by weights constrained to a particular non-Euclidean space \\cite{nickel2017poincare, chamberlain2017neural, huang2017deep, huang2018building, ganea2018hyperbolic, chamberlain2019scalable, khrulkov2020hyperbolic}.\n\nStochastic Gradient Descent (SGD) \\cite{robbins1951stochastic} algorithm has been used for the backpropagation learning in connectionist neural network models. The SGD is known to generate undesirable oscillations around optimal values of model parameters \\cite{qian1999momentum}. Using a momentum term \\cite{rumelhart1986learning} has been shown to improve the optimization convergence. More recently, adaptive learning rates \\cite{hinton2012neural, kingma2014adam, zeiler2012adadelta} have been proposed, and are popular optimization algorithms used for iterative optimization while training neural networks.\n\nThese adaptations of the SGD methods have been studies extensively under the lenses of Riemannian geometry and translated to non-Euclidean settings \\cite{bonnabel2013stochastic, roy2018geometry, becigneul2018riemannian, kasai2019riemannian}. Remannian stochastic optimization algorithms have been robustly integrated with many popular machine learning toolboxes. However, previous work in this space was mainly motivated by research use cases \\cite{townsend2016pymanopt, meghwanshi2018mctorch, miolane2020geomstats, kochurov2020geoopt}. Whereas practical aspects, such as deploying and maintaining machine learning models, were often overlooked.\n\nWe present TensorFlow ManOpt, a Python library for optimization on Riemannian manifolds in TensorFlow \\cite{abadi2016tensorflow}, to help bridge the aforementioned gap. The library is designed with the aim for a seamless integration with the TensorFlow ecosystem, targeting not only research, but also end-to-end machine learning pipelines with the recently proposed TensorFlow Extended platform \\cite{baylor2017tfx}.\n\n\\section{Riemannian optimization}\n\nIn this section we provide a brief overview of Riemannian optimization with a focus on stochastic methods. We refer to \\cite{edelman1998geometry, smith1994optimization, absil2009optimization} for more rigorous theoretical treatment.\n\nOptimization on Riemannian manifolds, or Riemannian optimization, is a class of methods for optimization of the form\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\min_{x \\in \\mathcal{M}} f\n    \\label{eq:optim}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $f$ is an objective function, subject to constraints which are smooth, in the sense that the search space $\\mathcal{M}$ admits the structure of a differentiable manifold, equipped with a positive-definite inner product on the space of tangent vectors $\\operatorname{T}_{x} \\mathcal{M}$ at each point $x \\in \\mathcal{M}$. Conceptually, the approach of Riemannian optimization translates the constrained optimization problem (\\ref{eq:optim}) into performing optimization in the Euclidean space $\\mathbb{R}^n$ and projecting the parameters back onto the search space $\\mathcal{M}$ after each iteration \\cite{absil2009optimization}.\n\nIn particular, several first order stochastic optimization methods commonly used in the Euclidean domain, such as the SGD algorithm and related adaptive methods, have already been adapted to Riemannian settings.\n\nThe update equation of the (Euclidean) SGD for differentiable $f$ takes the form\n\\begin{equation}\n    x_{t+1} = x_t - \\alpha \\nabla f_t\n    \\label{eq:sgd}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\nabla f_t$ denotes the gradient of objective $f$ evaluated at the minibatch taken at step $t$, and $\\alpha > 0$ is the learning rate. For a Riemannian manifold $\\mathcal{M}$, Riemannian SGD \\cite{bonnabel2013stochastic} performs the update\n\\begin{equation}\n    x_{t+1} = \\operatorname{Exp}_{x_t}(- \\alpha \\operatorname{\\pi}_{x_t} \\nabla f_t)\n    \\label{eq:rsgd}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\operatorname{\\pi}_{x} : \\mathbb{R}^n \\to \\operatorname{T}_{x} \\mathcal{M}$ denotes the projection operator from the ambient Euclidean space on the tangent space $\\operatorname{T}_{x} \\mathcal{M}$. And $\\operatorname{Exp}_x(u) : \\operatorname{T}_{x} \\mathcal{M} \\to \\mathcal{M}$ is the exponential map operator, which moves a vector $u \\in \\operatorname{T}_{x} \\mathcal{M}$ back to the manifold $\\mathcal{M}$ from the tangent space at $x$.\n\nIn a neighborhood of $x$, the exponential map identifies a point on the geodesic, thus guarantees decreasing the objective function. Intuitively, the exponential map enables to perform an update along the shortest path in the relevant direction in unit time, while remaining in the manifold. In practice, when $\\operatorname{Exp}_x(u)$ is not known in closed-form or it is computationally expensive to evaluate, it is common to replace it by a retraction map $\\operatorname{R}_x(u)$, which is a first-order approximation of the exponential.\n\nAdaptive optimization techniques compute smoother estimates of the gradient vector using its first or second order moments. \\mbox{RMSProp} \\cite{hinton2012neural} is an example of a gradient based optimization algorithm which does this by maintaining an exponentially moving average of the squared gradient, which is an estimate of the second raw moment of the gradient. The update equations for RMSProp can be expressed as follows\n\\begin{equation}\n  \\begin{aligned}\n    m_{t+1} = \\rho m_{t} + (1 - \\rho) (\\nabla f_t \\odot \\nabla f_t) \\\\\n    x_{t+1} = x_t - \\alpha \\frac{\\nabla f_t}{\\sqrt{m_{t+1}} + \\epsilon}\n  \\end{aligned}\n  \\label{eq:rmsprop}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\rho$ is a hyperparameter, $\\alpha$ is the learning rate, and $\\odot$ denotes the \\textit{Hadamard} product.\n\nIn the Euclidean settings, these estimates can be obtained by linearly combining previous moment vectors due to the inherent ``flat'' nature of the underlying space. However, since general Riemannian manifolds can be curved, it is not possible to simply add moment vectors at different points on the manifold, as the resulting vectors may not lie in the tangent spaces at either points.\n\nRiemannian versions of adaptive SGD algorithms use the parallel transport to circumvent this issue \\cite{roy2018geometry, becigneul2018riemannian}. The parallel transport operator $\\operatorname{P}_{x \\to y}(v) : \\operatorname{T}_x \\mathcal{M} \\to \\operatorname{T}_y \\mathcal{M}$ takes $v \\in \\operatorname{T}_x \\mathcal{M}$ and outputs $v' \\in \\operatorname{T}_x \\mathcal{M}$. Informally, $v'$ is obtained by moving $v$ in a ``parallel'' fashion along the geodesic curve connecting $x$ and $y$, where the intermediate vectors obtained through this process have constant norm and always belong to tangent spaces. Such transformation enables combining moment vectors computed at different points of the optimization trajectory.\n\nGeometry-aware constrained RMSProp (cRMSProp) \\cite{roy2018geometry} translates the Equation (\\ref{eq:rmsprop}) to Riemannian settings as follows\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\begin{aligned}\n    m_{t+1} = \\rho \\operatorname{P}_{x_{t-1} \\to x_{t}} m_{t} + (1 - \\rho) \\operatorname{\\pi}_{x_t} (\\nabla f_t \\odot \\nabla f_t) \\\\\n    x_{t+1} = \\operatorname{Exp}_{x_t}(- \\alpha \\frac{\\nabla f_t}{\\sqrt{m_{t+1}} + \\epsilon})\n    \\end{aligned}\n    \\label{eq:crmsprop}\n\\end{equation}\n\nIn practice, if $\\operatorname{P}_{x\\to y}(v)$ is not known for a given Riemannian manifold or it is computationally expensive to evaluate, it is replaced by its first-order approximation $\\mathfrak{T}_{x\\to y}(v)$.\n\nWhile many optimization problems are of the described form, technicalities of differential geometry and implementation of corresponding operators often pose a significant barrier for experimenting with these methods.\n\u2039\n\\section{Design goals}\n\nWorking out and implementing gradients is a laborious and error prone task, particularly when the objective function acts on higher rank tensors. TensorFlow ManOpt builds upon the TensorFlow framework \\cite{abadi2016tensorflow}, and leverages its automatic differentiation capabilities for computing gradients of composite functions. The design of TensorFlow ManOpt was informed by three main objectives:\n\n\\begin{enumerate}\n    \\item \\textbf{Interoperability with the TensorFlow ecosystem.} All components, including optimization algorithms and manifold-constrained variables, can be used as drop-in replacements with the native TensorFlow API. This ensures transparent integration with the rich ecosystem of tools and extensions in both research and production settings.\n    Specifically, TensorFlow ManOpt was tested to be compatible with the TensorFlow Extended platform in \\textit{graph} and \\textit{eager} execution modes.\n    \\item \\textbf{Computational efficiency.} TensorFlow ManOpt aims for providing closed-form expressions for manifold operators. The library also implements numerical approximation as a fallback option, when such solutions are not available. TensorFlow ManOpt solvers can perform updates on dense and sparse tensors efficiently.\n    \\item \\textbf{Robustness and numerical stability.} The library makes use of half-, single-, and double- precision arithmetic where appropriate.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\n\\section{Implementation overview}\n\nThe package implements concepts in differential geometry, such as manifolds and Riemannian metrics with the associated exponential and logarithmic maps, geodesics, retractions, and transports. For manifolds, where closed-form expressions are not known, the library provides numerical approximations. The core module also exposes functions for assigning TensorFlow variables to manifold instances.\n\n\\subsection{Manifolds}\n\nThe module \\texttt{manifolds} is modeled after the Manopt \\cite{boumal2014manopt} API, and provides implementations of the following manifolds:\n\n\\begin{itemize}\n    \\item \\texttt{Cholesky} -- manifold of lower triangular matrices with positive diagonal elements \\cite{lin2019riemannian}\n    \\item \\texttt{Euclidian} -- an unconstrained manifold with the Euclidean metric\n    \\item \\texttt{Grassmannian} -- manifold of $p$-dimensional linear subspaces of the $n$-dimensional space \\cite{edelman1998geometry}\n    \\item \\texttt{Hyperboloid} -- manifold of $n$-dimensional hyperbolic space embedded in the $n+1$-dimensional Minkowski space\n    \\item \\texttt{Poincare} -- the Poincar{\\'e} ball model of the hyperbolic space\\cite{nickel2017poincare}\n    \\item \\texttt{Product} -- Cartesian product of manifolds \\cite{gu2018learning}\n    \\item \\texttt{SPDAffineInvariant} -- manifold of symmetric positive definite (SPD) matrices endowed with the affine-invariant metric \\cite{pennec2006riemannian}\n    \\item \\texttt{SPDLogCholesky} -- SPD manifold with the Log-Cholesky metric \\cite{lin2019riemannian}\n    \\item \\texttt{SPDLogEuclidean} -- SPD manifold with the Log-Euclidean metric \\cite{arsigny2007geometric}\n    \\item \\texttt{SpecialOrthogonal} -- manifold of rotation matrices\n    \\item \\texttt{Sphere} -- manifold of unit-normalized points\n    \\item \\texttt{StiefelEuclidean} -- manifold of orthonormal $p$-frames in the $n$-dimensional space endowed with the Euclidean metric\n    \\item \\texttt{StiefelCanonical} -- Stiefel manifold with the canonical metric \\cite{zimmermann2017matrix}\n    \\item \\texttt{StiefelCayley} -- Stiefel manifold the retraction map via an iterative Cayley transform \\cite{li2019efficient}\n\\end{itemize}\n\nEach manifold is implemented as a Python class, which inherits the abstract base class \\texttt{Manifold}. The minimal set of methods required for optimization includes:\n\n\\begin{itemize}\n    \\item \\texttt{inner(x, u, v)} -- inner product (i.e., the Riemannian metric) between two tangent vectors $u$ and $v$ in the tangent space at $x$\n    \\item \\texttt{proju(x, u)} -- projection of a tangent vector $u$ in the ambient space on the tangent space at point $x$\n    \\item \\texttt{retr(x, u)} -- retraction $\\operatorname{R}_x(u)$ from point $x$ with given direction $u$. Retraction is a first-order approximation of the exponential map introduced in \\cite{bonnabel2013stochastic}\n    \\item \\texttt{transp(x, y, v)} -- vector transport $\\mathfrak{T}_{x\\to y}(v)$ of a tangent vector $v$ at point $x$ to the tangent space at point $y$. Vector transport is the first-order approximation of parallel transport\n\\end{itemize}\n\nSelected manifolds also support exact computations for additional operators:\n\n\\begin{itemize}\n    \\item \\texttt{exp(x, u)} -- exponential map $\\operatorname{Exp}_x(u)$ of a tangent vector $u$ at point $x$ to the manifold\n    \\item \\texttt{log(x, y)} -- logarithmic map $\\operatorname{Log}_{x}(y)$ of a point $y$ to the tangent space at $x$\n    \\item \\texttt{ptransp(x, y, v)} -- parallel transport $\\operatorname{P}_{x\\to y}(v)$ of a vector $v$ from the tangent space at $x$ to the tangent space at $y$\n\\end{itemize}\n\nAll methods support broadcasting of tensors with different shapes to compatible shapes for arithmetic operations.\n\n\\subsection{Optimizers}\n\nThe module \\texttt{optimizers} provides TensorFlow 2 API for optimization algorithms on Riemannian surfaces, including recently proposed adaptive methods:\n\n \\begin{itemize}\n    \\item \\texttt{RiemannianSGD} -- stochastic Riemannian gradient descent \\cite{bonnabel2013stochastic}\n    \\item \\texttt{ConstrainedRMSprop} -- constrained RMSprop learning method \\cite{roy2018geometry}\n    \\item \\texttt{RiemannianAdam} -- Riemannian Adam and AMSGrad algorithms \\cite{becigneul2018riemannian}\n \\end{itemize}\n\n Algorithms are implemented to support dense and sparse updates, as well as serialization, which is crucial for compatibility with TensorFlow functions.\n\n\\subsection{Layers}\n\nFinally, the module \\texttt{layers} exemplify building blocks of neural networks, which can be used alongside with the native Keras \\cite{chollet2015keras} layers.\n\n\\section{Usage}\n\nA simple illustrative example of using low-level API is depicted in Listing~\\ref{lst:low_level_api}. There, TensorFlow Manopt closely follows the Manopt semantics and naming convention. Geometric meaning of those operations is visualized on Figure~\\ref{fig:low_level_api}.\n\n\\begin{minipage}{\\linewidth}\n\\begin{lstlisting}[language=Python,caption={Low-level API usage example},label={lst:low_level_api}]\nimport tensorflow_manopt as manopt\n\n# Instantiate a manifold\nS = manopt.manifolds.Sphere()\nx = S.projx(tf.constant([0.1, -0.1, 0.1]))\nu = S.proju(x, tf.constant([1., 1., 1.]))\nv = S.proju(x, tf.constant([-0.7, -1.4, 1.4]))\n\n# Compute the exponential map and vector transports\ny = S.exp(x, v)\nu_ = S.transp(x, y, u)\nv_ = S.transp(x, y, v)\n\\end{lstlisting}\n\\end{minipage}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\centering\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.5\\linewidth]{usage.png}\n  \\caption{Geometric operations on the $\\mathbb{S}^2$ manifold}\n  \\label{fig:low_level_api}\n\\end{figure}\n\nConstructing an optimization problem is demonstrated on Listing~\\ref{lst:optimization_api}. Manifold-valued variables can be transparently passed to standard TensorFlow functions. And, conversely, native TensorFlow tensors are treated by TensorFlow ManOpt algorithms as data in the Euclidean space.\n\n\\begin{minipage}{\\linewidth}\n\\begin{lstlisting}[language=Python,caption={Optimization API usage example},label={lst:optimization_api}]\nimport tensorflow as tf\nimport tensorflow_manopt as manopt\n\n# Number of training steps\nSTEPS = 10\n\n# Instantiate a manifold\nsphere = manopt.manifolds.Sphere()\n\n# Instantiate and assign a variable to the manifold\nvar = tf.Variable(sphere.random(shape=(N, 2)))\nmanopt.variable.assign_to_manifold(var, sphere)\n\n# Instantiate an optimizer algorithm\nopt = manopt.optimizers.RiemannianAdam(learning_rate=0.2)\npole = tf.constant([0., 1.])\n\n# Compute the objective function and apply gradients\nfor _ in range(STEPS):\n    with tf.GradientTape() as tape:\n        loss = tf.linalg.norm(var - pole)\n    grad = tape.gradient(loss, [var])\n    opt.apply_gradients(zip(grad, [var]))\n\\end{lstlisting}\n\\end{minipage}\n\n\\section{Advanced Usage}\n\nThe folder \\texttt{examples} contains reference implementations of several neural network architectures with manifold-valued parameters. For example, the Rotation Mapping layer of the LieNet \\cite{huang2017deep} with weights constrained to the $\\mathrm{SO}(3)$ manifold is shown on Listing~\\ref{lst:layer_api}.\n\n\\begin{minipage}{\\linewidth}\n\\begin{lstlisting}[language=Python,caption={Layers API usage example},label={lst:layer_api}]\n@tf.keras.utils.register_keras_serializable(name=\"RotMap\")\nclass RotMap(tf.keras.layers.Layer):\n    \"\"\"Rotation Mapping layer.\"\"\"\n\n    def build(self, input_shape):\n        \"\"\"Create weights depending on the shape of the inputs.\n\n        Expected `input_shape`:\n        `[batch_size, spatial_dim, temp_dim, num_rows, num_cols]`, where\n        `num_rows` = 3, `num_cols` = 3, `temp_dim` is the number of frames,\n        and `spatial_dim` is the number of edges.\n        \"\"\"\n        input_shape = input_shape.as_list()\n        so = SpecialOrthogonal()\n        self.w = self.add_weight(\n            \"w\",\n            shape=[input_shape[-4], input_shape[-2], input_shape[-1]],\n            initializer=so.random,\n        )\n        assign_to_manifold(self.w, so)\n\n    def call(self, inputs):\n        return tf.einsum(\"sij,...stjk->...stik\", self.w, inputs)\n\\end{lstlisting}\n\\end{minipage}\n\n\\section{Related work}\nThis section compares TensorFlow ManOpt with related implementations on differential geometry and learning. While inspired by related work, the main difference of our library lies in the choice of the underlying framework and design objectives.\n\nThe library Geoopt \\cite{kochurov2020geoopt} is the most closely related to TensorFlow ManOpt. Geoopt is a research-oriented toolbox, which builds upon the PyTorch \\cite{paszke2019pytorch} library for tensor computation and GPU acceleration. Geoopt supports the Riemannian SGD, as well as adaptive optimization algorithms on Riemannian manifolds, and Markov chain Monte Carlo methods for sampling. However, PyTorch, being a research-first framework, lacks tooling for bringing machine learning pipelines to production, which limits Geoopt applicability in industrial settings.\n\nMcTorch \\cite{meghwanshi2018mctorch} is a manifold optimization library for deep learning, that extends the PyTorch C++ code base to closely follow its architecture. McTorch supports Riemannian variants of stochastic optimization algorithms, and also implements a collection of neural network layers with manifold-constrained parameters. McTorch shares the same limitations as Geoopt due to its dependency on PyTorch.\n\nPymanopt \\cite{townsend2016pymanopt} is a Python package that computes gradients and Hessian-vector products on Riemannian manifolds, and provides the following solvers: steepest descent, conjugate gradients, the Nelder-Mead algorithm, and the Riemannian trust regions. Pymanopt leverages on Theano \\cite{team2016theano} symbolic differentiation and on TensorFlow automatic differentiation for computing derivatives. Pymanopt is a great general-purpose tools for Riemannian optimization. However, it is not well-suited for neural network applications due to lack of supports for SGD algorithms. It is also not intended for production use.\n\nLastly but not least, there is Geomstats \\cite{miolane2020geomstats} Python package for computations and statistics on nonlinear manifolds. Geomstats supports a broad list of manifolds such as hyperspheres, hyperbolic spaces, spaces of symmetric positive definite matrices and Lie groups of transformations. It also provides a modular library of differential geometry concepts, which includes the parallel transports, exponential and logarithmic maps, Levi-Civita connections, and Christoffel symbols. Geomstats focuses on research in differential geometry and education use cases, by providing low-level code that follows the Scikit-Learn \\cite{pedregosa2011scikit} semantics. Geomstats examples also include a modified version of the Keras framework with support of the Riemannian SGD algorithm. However, it lacks engineering maintenance.\n\n\\section{Conclusion}\nWe propose TensorFlow ManOpt, a library that combines optimization on Riemannian manifolds with automated differentiation capabilities of the TensorFlow framework. The library enables researchers to experiment with different state of the art solvers for optimization problems in non-Euclidean domains, while also allowing practitioners to efficiently pursue large-scale machine learning. The benefits of TensorFlow ManOpt are most noticeable when it comes to taking Riemannian machine learning models from research to production, where it unlocks advantages of TensorFlow tooling, such as continuous training and model validation.\n\n\\bibliographystyle{abbrv}\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Centrality determination in NA61\/SHINE}\nCentrality is a key parameter in heavy ion collisions as it allows to restrict the volume of the created system. The classical definition of centrality is based on impact parameter which is not directly measurable. Therefore experiments use different techniques to define centrality indirectly. The most common method is to apply restrictions on the produced particle multiplicity in some pseudorapidity intervals \\cite{ALICE centrality}. This definition possibly biases multiplicity fluctuation measurements. Therefore NA61\/SHINE uses for centrality determination information from a forward hadron colorimeter PSD \\cite{Abgrall:2014fa}, which measures the energy of all non-interacted forward nucleons. \n\\section{Fluctuation measures}\nFluctuation quantities are studied to probe the critical point CP of strongly interacting matter. The most widely used is the scaled variance of the multiplicity distribution:\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n            &\\omega[N] = (\\langle N^{2}\\rangle -{\\langle N\\rangle}^{2})\/\\langle N\\rangle,\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere $\\langle\\cdots\\rangle$ stands for averaging over all events. Within the Wounded Nucleon Model (WNM) or the ideal Boltzmann multi-component gas in the grand canonical ensemble (IB-GCE) one can write \\cite{Gorenstein:2011vq}:\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n            &\\omega[N] = \\omega[n]+\\omega[W]\\langle N\\rangle\/\\langle W\\rangle,\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere $n$ is the multiplicity produced from one wounded nucleon or from a fixed volume (IB-GCE) and $W$ is the number of wounded nucleons. To probe the CP it is important to suppress the volume fluctuation ($\\omega[W]$). Therefore the scaled variance should be measured for the most central collisions or strongly intensive quantities should be used. In Refs.~\\cite{Gorenstein:2011vq,Gazdzicki:2013ana} the following measures were proposed:\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n            &\\Delta[A,B] = \\frac{1}{C_{\\Delta}} \\biggl[ \\langle B \\rangle \\omega[A] -\n                        \\langle A \\rangle \\omega[B] \\biggr] \\\\\n            &\\Sigma[A,B] = \\frac{1}{C_{\\Sigma}} \\biggl[ \\langle B \\rangle \\omega[A] +\n                        \\langle A \\rangle \\omega[B] - 2 \\bigl( \\langle AB \\rangle -\n                        \\langle A \\rangle \\langle B \\rangle \\bigr) \\biggr],\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere $A$ and $B$ are extensive quantities and $C_{\\Delta}$ and $C_{\\Sigma}$ are normalization coefficients, which are chosen so that $\\Delta=\\Sigma=1$ for the models of independent particle production.\nA new quantity $\\Omega$~\\cite{Poberezhnyuk:2015Omega} can be constructed from $\\Delta$ and $\\Sigma$ by setting $C_{\\Delta}=C_{\\Sigma}=\\langle B \\rangle$:\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n&\\Omega[A,B]=\\frac{1}{2}(\\Delta[A,B]+\\Sigma[A,B]),\n\\end{eqnarray}\nIf $A$ and $B$ are uncorrelated from a fixed volume within the IB-GCE or from a single source then $\\Omega[A,B]=\\omega[a]$, where $\\omega[a]$ is $\\omega[A]$ in the fixed volume or the scaled variance of $A$ from a single source. Therefore for the most central collisions one expects that $\\Omega[A,B]\\approx\\omega[A]$.\n\\section{Analysis procedure}\nPreliminary results were obtained from forward energy selected Ar+Sc collisions at 19, 30, 40, 75 and 150{\\it A} GeV\/c respectively. The analysis was performed in the NA61\/SHINE acceptance with the restriction $0<y^{*}_{\\pi}<y_{beam}$, where $y^{*}$ is the particle rapidity in the c.m.s. under pion mass assumption. The rapidity cut was introduced to exclude regions of poor azimuthal angle acceptance and electron contamination in backward hemisphere and to reduce diffractive effects in the forward region. Transverse momenta of all charged particles were restricted to $0<p_{T}<1.5$ GeV\/c. \nEvent and track selection criteria were chosen to select only inelastic interactions and hadrons produced in strong and EM processes. The p+p data~\\cite{Czopowicz:na61} shown for comparison were corrected for contributions from non-target interactions, for Ar+Sc collisions these corrections were estimated to be negligible. The results are corrected for detector inefficiencies and trigger biases by multidimensional moments corrections for p+p collisions\\cite{Czopowicz:na61} and by separate moments corrections for Ar+Sc collisions. The effect of the corrections on $\\omega[N]$ for Ar+Sc is shown  in Fig.~\\ref{corrections}. $\\Omega[N,E_{P}]$ is presented in this paper without corrections.\nStatistical uncertainties were calculated using the sub-sample method. Systematic uncertanties were estimated to be less than 10$\\%$, further investigations will follow. The systematic uncertainties are not shown in the figures.  \nThe centrality determination procedure in EPOS 1.99 is based on the number of forward nucleon-spectators for correct comparison between data and simulation.\n\\begin{figure}[h]\n\\begin{minipage}{10pc}\n\\includegraphics[width=9pc]{0_5_omega_corrections.pdf}\n\\end{minipage\n\\begin{minipage}{10pc}\n\\includegraphics[width=9pc]{0_5_omega_corrections_plus.pdf}\n\\end{minipage\n\\begin{minipage}{10pc}\n\\includegraphics[width=9pc]{0_5_omega_corrections_minus.pdf}\n\\end{minipage}\n\\caption{\\label{label}The effect of correction procedure on $\\omega[N]$ of charged hadrons for the 0-5$\\%$ forward energy selected Ar+Sc data. The open dots are uncorrected data, the full dots are corrected, the black line is the pure EPOS 1.99 simulation, the grey line shows the EPOS 1.99 results after detector simulation and reconstruction. Results are for $0<y_{\\pi}<y_{beam}$ and the NA61\/SHINE acceptance.}\n\\label{corrections}\n\\end{figure}\n\\section{Results}\nThe energy dependence of the scaled variance of the multiplicity of all, positively and negatively charged hadrons ($\\omega[N]$) is shown in Figs.~\\ref{corrections}~and~\\ref{EPOS} for 0-5$\\%$ and 0-0.2$\\%$ forward energy selected Ar+Sc collisions. A small enhancement at 8{\\it A} GeV\/c is observed for the most central collisions. As EPOS1.99 simulations show the same behaviour it probably is an acceptance effect. \n\\begin{figure}[h]\n\\begin{minipage}{10pc}\n\\includegraphics[width=9pc]{0_02_omega.pdf}\n\\end{minipage\n\\begin{minipage}{10pc}\n\\includegraphics[width=9pc]{0_02_omega_pos.pdf}\n\\end{minipage\n\\begin{minipage}{10pc}\n\\includegraphics[width=9pc]{0_02_omega_neg.pdf}\n\\end{minipage}\n\\caption{\\label{label} The energy dependence of $\\omega[N]$ for the 0-0.2$\\%$ most central Ar+Sc collisions ins the NA61\/SHINE acceptance and $0<p_{T}<1.5$ GeV\/c and $0<y_{\\pi}<y_{beam}$. EPOS 1.99 predictions are shown the blue line.}\n\\label{EPOS}\n\\end{figure}\nThe charged hadron multiplicity and the difference between the beam energy and the forward energy measured by the PSD($E_{P}=E_{beam}-E_{PSD}$) were chosen as variables for the $\\Omega$ quantity as these values are uncorrelated from the singe source for the independent particle production model. With this assumption $\\Omega[N,E_{P}]=\\omega[n]\\approx\\omega[N]$ for the most central collisions.\nThe energy dependence of $\\Omega[N,E_{P}]$ and $\\omega[N]$ for the 0.2$\\%$ most central Ar+Sc collisions are shown in the Fig.~\\ref{Omega} and compared with $\\omega[N]$ for the p+p data. \n\\begin{figure}[h]\n\\begin{minipage}{10pc}\n\\includegraphics[width=9pc]{PSDNomega_vs_omega_0_02_vs_proton.pdf}\n\\end{minipage\n\\begin{minipage}{10pc}\n\\includegraphics[width=9pc]{PSDNomega_vs_omega_0_02_vs_proton_pos.pdf}\n\\end{minipage\n\\begin{minipage}{10pc}\n\\includegraphics[width=9pc]{PSDNomega_vs_omega_0_02_vs_proton_neg.pdf}\n\\end{minipage}\n\\caption{\\label{label}The energy dependences of $\\Omega[N,E_{P}]$ (red dots) and $\\omega[N]$ (blue triangles) for 0-0.2$\\%$ central Ar+Sc collisions compared with $\\omega[N]$ for p+p data (grey squares). Results are inside the NA61\/SHINE acceptance and for $0<y_{\\pi}<y_{beam}$ and $0<p_{T}<1.5$ GeV\/c.}\n\\label{Omega}\n\\end{figure}\nThere is no significant non-monotonic behaviour in the energy dependence of those two measures, however an interesting effect was observed (see Fig.~\\ref{wounded}). Namely, for negatively charged hadrons (the cleanest sample) at 150\/158{\\it A} GeV\/c the scaled variance of the multiplicity distribution is much below 1 for 0-0.2\\% Ar+Sc and 0-1$\\%$ Pb+Pb and above 1 for p+p collisins. Within the Wounded Nucleon Model (WNM) one expects that $\\omega[N]_{AA}$ should be grater or equal $\\omega[N]_{pp}$. Therefore, the result obtained by NA61\/SHINE and NA49 clearly shows the violation of the Wounded Nucleon Model in these reactions.\nIn the IB-GCE the multiplicity distribution is Poissonian ($\\omega[N]=1$), independent of the (fixed) system volume, and thus $\\omega[N]_{AA}<1$ is forbidden. On the other hand, $\\omega[N]$ can increase due to resonance decays and Bose-Einstein statistics and decrease due to conservation laws \\cite{Begun:2006uu}. In fact, the NA49 Pb+Pb point is very well described by the hadron gas model in the micro canonical ensemble (HG-MCE) \\cite{Begun:2006uu}. Within the statistical models the result $\\omega[N] \\gg 1$, as seen in p+p, can be understood as a result of volume and\/or energy fluctuations \\cite{Begun:2008fm}.\n\\begin{figure}[h]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=9pc]{W_omega_neg_na49B_150GeV_final_27_09_2016.pdf}\n\\caption{\\label{label}Scaled variance ($\\omega[N]$) for negatively charged hadrons measured in p+p (circle)\\cite{Czopowicz:na61} as well as 0-1\\% Pb+Pb \\cite{Alt:2007jq}, and 0-0.2\\% Ar+Sc collisions at 150\/158{\\it A} GeV\/c (squares). Results are for $0< y_{\\pi}< y_{beam}$ and the NA49B acceptance \\cite{Alt:2007jq}. Experimental data are compared to predictions of the Wounded Nucleon Model as well as to Statistical Models.}\n\\label{wounded}\n\\end{figure}\n{\\small \\textbf{Acknowledgments:} This work was supported by the SPbSU research grant 11.38.242.2015.}\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
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This is a natural continuation of\n a recent article \\cite{T} of the third author, where it is proved \nthat local smoothing estimates imply Strichartz estimates.\n\nBy \\cite{T} the local smoothing estimates are known to hold for small\nperturbations of the Laplacian. Here we consider the case of large\nperturbations in three increasingly favorable scenarios: (i) without\nnon-trapping assumptions we prove estimates outside a compact set\nmodulo a lower order spatially localized error term, (ii) with\nnon-trapping assumptions we prove global estimates modulo a lower order\nspatially localized error term, and (iii) for time independent\noperators with no resonance or eigenvalue at the bottom of the\nspectrum we prove global estimates for the projection onto the\ncontinuous spectrum.\n\n\\end{abstract}\n\n\n\n\\includeversion{Q}\n\n\\includeversion{QQ}\n\\newcommand{\\begin{QQ}\\begin{com}}{\\begin{QQ}\\begin{com}}\n\\newcommand{\\end{com}\\end{QQ}}{\\end{com}\\end{QQ}}\n\n\\maketitle\n\n\\newsection{Introduction}\n\n\n\n\n\nThis article is a natural continuation of the third author's work in\n\\cite{T}, which studies the connection between long-time Strichartz\nestimates and local smoothing estimates for Schr\\\"odinger equations\nwith $C^2$, asymptotically flat coefficients.\n\nGiven a time dependent second order elliptic operator in ${\\mathbb R}^n$\n\\[\nA(t,x,D)=D_i a^{ij}(t,x)D_j + b^i(t,x) D_i + D_i b^i(t,x) + c(t,x)\n\\]\nwe consider the dispersive properties of solutions to the\nSchr\\\"odinger evolution\n\\begin{equation}\\label{main.equation}\nPu:=(D_t+A(t,x,D))u = f,\\quad u(0)=u_0.\n\\end{equation}\n\nTwo of the most stable ways of measuring dispersion are the local\nsmoothing estimates and the Strichartz estimates.  The local smoothing\nestimates give $L^2$ time integrability for the spatially localized\nenergy, with a half-derivative gain. To state them  we use a local\nsmoothing space $X$ which will be defined shortly, and its dual $X'$,\n\\begin{equation}\n\\| u\\|_{X \\cap L^\\infty_t L^2_x} \\lesssim \\|u_0\\|_{L^2} + \\|f\\|_{X' + L^1_tL^2_x}\n\\label{LSE}\\end{equation}\nwhere in a first approximation one may set\n\\[\n\\| u\\|_{X} \\sim \\| \\langle x \\rangle^{-\\frac12-} |D|^{\\frac12} u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}.\n\\]\n\n\nThe Strichartz estimates on the other hand measure the space-time \nintegrability of solutions and have the form\n\\begin{equation}\n\\| u\\|_{L^{p_1}_t L^{q_1}_x} \\lesssim \\|u_0\\|_{L^2} + \\|f\\|_{ L^{p'_2}_t L^{q'_2}_x}  \n\\label{SE} \\end{equation}\nwhere the indices $(p_1,q_1)$ and $(p_2,q_2)$ satisfy the relation\n\\[\n\\frac{2}{p}+\\frac{n}{q}= \\frac{n}{2},\\qquad 2\\le p,q\\le \\infty\n\\]\nand $(p,q)\\neq (2,\\infty)$ if $n=2$.  Any pair $(p,q)$ satisfying\nthese requirements will be called a Strichartz pair.\\footnote{For simplicity of exposition, we shall\nnot directly address the $q=\\infty$ endpoint estimate.  This permits us in the sequel to use Littlewood-Paley\ntheory.  See \\cite{KeelTao} for the corresponding endpoint argument in the flat case.}\n\n\nThe local smoothing estimates have been long known to hold in the flat\ncase $A = -\\Delta$ and for certain small perturbations. \nFor operators with variable coefficients, local in\ntime smoothing estimates were first established in \\cite{CKS} and\n\\cite{Doi}.  Global in time estimates on the other hand are\nconsiderably more difficult to obtain and are known only in some very\nspecial cases.  See, e.g., \\cite{RT} for time independent, non-trapping, smooth,\ncompactly supported, though not necessarily small, perturbations of the Laplacian.\n \nThere are also some known results which show global-in-time smoothing\nestimates in the presence of certain trapped rays.  Here, the\nestimates involve a different spatial weight and a loss of regularity\ndue to the trapping.  \nSee \\cite{Hans}, \\cite{SSS} and the references\ntherein.\n\nThe Strichartz estimates hold globally in the flat case $A = -\\Delta$.\nLocal-in-time Stri\\-chartz estimates for variable coefficient operators\nhave also been established in \\cite{ST}, \\cite{HTW}, and \\cite{RZ}\nprovided, amongst other things, that the coefficients are non-trapping.\nWe also refer the interested reader to the simplified approaches of\n\\cite{KT} and \\cite{Tnotes}. Again, global in time estimates are\nmore difficult and have been obtained only recently in\n\\cite{RT} (time independent, non-trapping, smooth, compactly supported perturbations of the\nLaplacian) respectively \n\\cite{T} (small, $C^2$ long range perturbations of the\nLaplacian). \n\nThe above references would be incomplete without mentioning the\nvast body of work on dispersive and Strichartz estimates for\nlower order perturbations of the Laplacian. For this we refer the reader \nto some of the more recent papers \\cite{EGS, EGS2} and the references \ntherein.\n\nThe third author's article \\cite{T} is one of the starting points of\nthis work. The main result in \\cite{T} is to construct a global in\ntime outgoing parametrix for the equation \\eqref{main.equation}  for\n$C^2$ long range perturbations of the Laplacian.  This construction\nuses the FBI transform, an approach that is reminiscent of the earlier\nworks \\cite{T.I, T.II, T.FP} for the wave equation.  See, also,\n\\cite{Tnotes} for a survey of these techniques and the closely related\nwork \\cite{Smith} which is based instead on a wave packet\ndecomposition.\n\nThe errors associated to the parametrix are handled using \nthe local smoothing estimates. Consequently one is led to the \nsecond result of \\cite{T}, which roughly asserts that\n\\[\n\\text{ Local Smoothing Estimates} \\implies \\text{Strichartz Estimates}.\n\\]\n\nLocal smoothing estimates are also proved in \\cite{T}, but only for\nsmall long range perturbations of the Laplacian.  The aim of the\npresent work is to consider large long range perturbations of the\nLaplacian. \n\nA difficulty one encounters is the possible presence of\ntrapped rays, i.e. geodesics which are confined to a compact spatial\nregion. This brings us to our second starting point, namely Bouclet and\nTzvetkov's work \\cite{BT}. For smooth, time independent, long range\nperturbations of the Laplacian, they prove that local in time\nStrichartz estimates hold in the exterior of a sufficiently large\nball, in other words that the loss due to trapping is also confined to\na bounded region.  Another aim of the present work is to provide an analogous\nresult which is global in time and holds for $C^2$ time-dependent coefficients.\n\n\n\\subsection{Estimates outside a ball}\nWe begin with our assumptions on the coefficients. Consider a dyadic\nspatial decomposition of ${\\mathbb R}^n$ into the sets\n\\[\nD_0=\\{|x|\\le 2\\},\\quad D_j=\\{2^j\\le |x|\\le 2^{j+1}\\}, \\quad\nj=1,2,\\dots\n\\]\nand for $j \\geq 0$ set\n\\[\nA_j = {\\mathbb R}\\times D_j,\\quad j\\ge 0, \\qquad A_{<j}={\\mathbb R}\\times \\{|x|\\le 2^j\\}\n= \\bigcup_{l<j} A_l.\n\\]\nOur weak asymptotic flatness condition has the form\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{coeff}\n\\sum_{j\\in {\\mathbb N}}\\sup_{A_j} \n\\Bigl[\\langle x\\rangle^2\\Bigl(|\\partial_x^2 a(t,x)|+|\\partial_t a(t,x)|\\Bigr)\n+ \\langle x\\rangle|\\partial_x a(t,x)|+|a(t,x)-I_n|\\Bigr]\\le \\kappa <\\infty\n\\end{equation}\nand for the lower order terms we have a related condition,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{coeffb}\n\\sum_{j\\in {\\mathbb N}} \\sup_{A_j} \\langle x\\rangle\n|b(t,x)|\\le \\kappa\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{coeffc}\n\\begin{split}\n&\\left\\{\\begin{array}{l}\n\\sup \\langle x\\rangle^2 (|c(t,x)|+|\\div\\  b(t,x)|) \\le \\kappa\n\\cr\\cr   \\displaystyle \\limsup_{|x| \\to \\infty}\\\n \\langle x\\rangle^2 (|c(t,x)|+|\\div\\ b(t,x)|) <  \\epsilon \\ll 1 \\end{array} \n\\right. \\qquad \\qquad n \\neq 2\n\\\\ \n&\\left\\{\\begin{array}{l}\\sup \\langle x\\rangle^2 (\\ln(2+|x|^2))^2\n    (|c(t,x)|+|\\div\\  b(t,x)|) \\le \\kappa,  \n\\cr \\cr \n\\displaystyle \\limsup_{|x| \\to \\infty}\\\n \\langle x\\rangle^2 (\\ln \\langle x\\rangle )^2 (|c(t,x)|+|\\div\\  b(t,x)|) <  \\epsilon \\ll 1\n\\end{array}\\right.\n \\qquad n=2.\n\\end{split}\n\\end{equation}\n\nHere $\\epsilon$ is a fixed sufficiently small parameter.  For any\n$\\kappa$, \\eqref{coeff} restricts the trapped rays to finitely many of\nthe regions $A_j$.  If $\\kappa$ is sufficiently small, which we do not\nassume, then it is known that trapped rays do not exist.  Notice that\nwe may choose $M=M(\\varepsilon)$ sufficiently large so that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{coeff.M}\n\\sum_{j\\ge M} \\sup_{A_j}\\Bigl[\\langle x\\rangle^2 \\Bigl(|\\partial_x^2 a(t,x)|+|\\partial_t a(t,x)|\\Bigr)\n+\\langle x\\rangle|\\partial_x a(t,x)|+|a(t,x)-I_n|\\Bigr]\\le \\varepsilon\\end{equation}\nand\n\\begin{equation}\\label{coeffb.M}\n\\sum_{j \\geq M} \\sup_{A_j} \\langle x\\rangle\n|b(t,x)|\\le \\epsilon \n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{coeffc.M}\n\\begin{split}\n  & \\sup_{A_{\\geq M}} \\langle x\\rangle^2 (|c(t,x)|+|\\div\\ b(t,x)|) \\le\n  \\epsilon, \\qquad n \\neq 2\n  \\\\\n  &\\sup_{A_{\\geq M}} \\langle x\\rangle^2 (\\ln \\langle x\\rangle)^2 (|c(t,x)|+|\\div\\\n  b(t,x)|) \\le \\epsilon, \\qquad n = 2.\n\\end{split}\n\\end{equation}\n\nTo describe the local smoothing space ${X}$, we  use a dyadic partition of unity of frequency\n\\[\n1=\\sum_{k=-\\infty}^\\infty S_k(D).\n\\]\nThe functions at frequency $2^k$ are measured using the norms\n\\[\n\\|u\\|_{X_k}= \\|u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}(A_{<0})} + \\sup_{j\\ge 0} \\|\\langle x\\rangle^{-1\/2} u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}(A_j)},\n\\quad k>0\n\\]\n\\[\n\\|u\\|_{X_k}=2^{\\frac{k}2} \\|u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}(A_{<-k})} +  \\sup_{j\\ge -k} \\|(|x|+2^{-k})^{-1\/2} u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}(A_j)},\n\\quad k\\le 0.\n\\]\nThe local smoothing space ${X}$ is the completion of the Schwartz space\nwith respect to the norm\n\\[\n\\|u\\|_{{X}}^2 = \\sum_{k=-\\infty}^\\infty 2^k \\|S_k u\\|^2_{X_k}.\n\\]\nIts dual ${X}'$ has norm \n\\[\n\\|f\\|_{{X}'}^2=\\sum_{k=-\\infty}^\\infty 2^{-k} \\|S_k f\\|^2_{X_k'}.\n\\]\n\nIn dimension $n \\geq 3$ the space ${X}$ is a space of distributions,\nand we have the Hardy type inequality\n\\begin{equation}\n\\| \\langle x\\rangle^{-1} u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}} \\lesssim \\| u\\|_{{X}}.\n\\label{Hardy}\\end{equation}\nOn the other hand in dimensions $n=1,2$, the space ${X}$ is a space of\ndistributions modulo constants, and we have the BMO type inequality\n\\begin{equation}\n\\sum_{j\\ge 0}\\| \\langle x\\rangle^{-1} (u-u_{D_j})\\|^2_{L^2_{t,x}(A_j)} \\lesssim \\| u\\|^2_{{X}}\n\\label{Hardylow}\\end{equation}\nwhere $u_{D_j}$ represents the (time dependent) average \nof $u$ in $D_j$.\n At the same time ${X}'$ contains only\nfunctions with integral zero.  We refer the reader to \\cite{T} for\nmore details. \n\n\nIn \\cite{T} the case of a small perturbation\nof the Laplacian is considered, and it is proved that\n\\begin{theorem}~\\cite{T}. Assume that either\n\n(i) $n \\geq 3$ and \\eqref{coeff}, \\eqref{coeffb},\\eqref{coeffc} hold\nwith a sufficiently small $\\kappa$ or \n\n(ii) $n = 1,2$, $b^i=0$, $c=0$ and   \\eqref{coeff} holds\nwith a sufficiently small $\\kappa$.\n\nThen the  local smoothing estimate \n\\begin{equation}\n  \\label{lsesmall}\n\\| u\\|_{{X} \\cap L^\\infty_t L^2_x} \\lesssim \\|u_0\\|_{L^2}\n+ \\|f\\|_{{X}'+L^1_tL^2_x} \n\\end{equation}\nholds for all solutions $u$ to \\eqref{main.equation}.\n\\end{theorem}\n\nAs one can see, the assumptions are more restrictive in low\ndimensions.  This is related to the spectral structure of the operator\n$A$, precisely to the presence of a resonance at zero. This is the case\nif $A = -\\Delta$ or, more generally, if $b^i=0$ and $c=0$. However\nthe zero resonance is unstable with respect to lower order perturbations.\nTo account for non-resonant situations,  it is convenient to \nintroduce a stronger norm which removes the quotient structure,\n\\[\n\\begin{split}\n\\|u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}}^2 = &\\  \\| \\langle x\\rangle^{-1} u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}^2 + \n \\sum_{k=-\\infty}^\\infty 2^k \\|S_k u\\|^2_{X_k}, \\qquad n \\neq 2\n\\\\\n\\|u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}}^2 = &\\  \\| \\langle x\\rangle^{-1} (\\ln (2+|x|))^{-1} u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}^2 + \n \\sum_{k=-\\infty}^\\infty 2^k \\|S_k u\\|^2_{X_k}, \\qquad n = 2.\n\\end{split}\n\\]\nIts dual is \n\\[\n{{\\tilde{X}}}' = {X}' + \\langle x \\rangle L^2_{t,x}, \\quad n \\neq 2,\\qquad  {{\\tilde{X}}}' = {X}' + \\langle x\n  \\rangle (\\ln(2+|x|)) L^2_{t,x}, \\quad n = 2.\n\\]\nDue to the Hardy inequality above, if $n \\geq 3$ we have ${{\\tilde{X}}} = {X}$. \nOn the other hand in low dimension the ${{\\tilde{X}}}$\n norm adds some local\nsquare integrability to the ${X}$ norm. Precisely, we have \n\\begin{lemma}\nLet $n=1,2$. Then\n\\begin{equation}\n\\| u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}} \\lesssim \\|u\\|_{{X}} + \\|u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}(\\{|x| \\leq 1\\})}.\n\\end{equation}\n\\label{txdx}\n\\end{lemma}\n\n\nThe first goal of this article is to show, without any trapping\nassumption, that loss-less (with respect to regularity), global-in-time local smoothing and\nStrichartz estimates hold exterior to a sufficiently large ball,\nmodulo a localized error term.  It is hoped that this error term can\nbe separately estimated for applications of interest.  Moreover, in\nthe case of finite times, this error term can be trivially estimated\nby the energy inequality and immediately yields a $C^2$, long range,\ntime dependent analog of the result of \\cite{BT}.\n\nFor $M$ fixed and sufficiently large so that\n\\eqref{coeff.M}, \\eqref{coeffb.M} and \\eqref{coeffc.M} hold,\nwe consider a smooth, radial, nondecreasing cutoff function $\\rho$ which is supported in\n$\\{|x|\\ge 2^M \\}$ with $\\rho(|x|)\\equiv 1$ for $|x|\\ge 2^{M+1}$.  \nThen we define the exterior local smoothing space ${{\\tilde{X}}}_e$\nwith norm\n\\[\n\\| u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}_e} = \\| \\rho u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}} + \\| (1-\\rho) u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}\n\\]\nand the dual space ${{\\tilde{X}}}'_e$ with norm \n\\[\n\\|f\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'_e} = \\inf_{f = \\rho f_1 +\n  (1-\\rho) f_2} \\| f_1\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'} + \\|f_2\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}. \n\\]\nNow we can state our exterior local smoothing estimates.\n\\begin{theorem}\n  \\label{main.ls.theorem}\n  Let $n \\geq 1$.  Assume that the coefficients $a^{ij}$, $b^i$ and\n  $c$ are real and satisfy \\eqref{coeff}, \\eqref{coeffb},\n  \\eqref{coeffc}. Then the solution $u$ to \\eqref{main.equation}\n  satisfies\n\\begin{equation}\n  \\label{lsext}\n\\| u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}_e \\cap L^\\infty_t L^2_x} \\lesssim \\|u_0\\|_{L^2}\n+ \\|f\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'_e+L^1_tL^2_x} + \n \\|u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}(\\{|x|\\le 2^{M+1}\\})}.\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{theorem}\n\nIn the low dimensional resonant case the situation is a bit more\ndelicate.  First of all, the above theorem does not give a meaningful estimate in the \n$n=1,2$ resonant case as the last term in the right of \\eqref{lsext} blows up for\nconstant functions, which correspond to the zero resonance.\n Since we do not control the local $L^2$ norm for ${X}$\nfunctions, truncation by the cutoff function $\\rho$ does not preserve\nthe ${X}$ space. To remedy this we define a time dependent local\naverage for $u$, namely\n\\[\nu_\\rho =   \\left( \\int_{{\\mathbb R}^n} (1-\\rho) \\ dx \\right)^{-1}    \\int_{{\\mathbb R}^n} (1-\\rho) u\\ dx,\n\\]\nand define a modified truncation by the self-adjoint operator\n\\[\nT_\\rho u = \\rho u + (1-\\rho) u_\\rho.\n\\]\nWe note that $T_\\rho$ leaves constant functions unchanged, as well as the\nintegral of $u$ (if finite).\n\nThen we set\n\\[\n\\| u\\|_{{X}_e} = \\| T_\\rho u\\|_{{X}} + \\|  u - T_\\rho u \\|_{L^2_{t,x}}\n\\]\nand have the dual space ${X}'_e$ with norm \n\\[\n\\|f\\|_{{X}'_e} = \\inf_{f = T_\\rho f_1  +  (1-T_\\rho) f_2} \n\\| f_1\\|_{{X}'} + \\|f_2\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}. \n\\]\nWe now have the following alternative to\nTheorem~\\ref{main.ls.theorem} which is consistent with operators with\na constant zero resonance:\n\n\n\\begin{theorem}\n  \\label{main.ls.theorem.res}\n  Let $n = 1,2$.  Assume that \n\n(i) the coefficients $a^{ij}$ are real and satisfy \\eqref{coeff};\n\n(ii) the coefficients $b^i$ are real, satisfy \\eqref{coeffb},\nand $\\partial_i b^i = 0$;\n\n(iii) there are no zero order terms, $c = 0$.\n\n Then the solution $u$ to \\eqref{main.equation}\n satisfies\n\\begin{equation}\n  \\label{lsext.res}\n\\| u\\|_{{X}_e \\cap L^\\infty_t L^2_x} \\lesssim \\|u_0\\|_{L^2}\n+ \\|f\\|_{{X}'_e+L^1_tL^2_x} + \n \\|u - u_\\rho\\|_{L^2_{t,x}(\\{|x|\\le 2^{M+1}\\})}.\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{theorem}\n\nOnce we have the local smoothing estimates, the parametrix\nconstruction in \\cite{T} allows us to obtain corresponding Strichartz\nestimates.  If $(p,q)$ is a Strichartz pair we define the exterior\nspace ${{\\tilde{X}}}_e(p,q)$ with norm\n\\[\n\\| u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}_e(p,q)} = \\| u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}_e} + \\| \\rho u\\|_{L^p_t L^q_x}\n\\]\nand the dual space ${{\\tilde{X}}}'(p,q)$ with norm \n\\[\n\\|f\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'_e(p,q)} = \\inf_{f =  f_1 +  \\rho f_2} \\| f_1\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'_e} + \n\\|f_2\\|_{L^{p'}_t L^{q'}_x}.  \n\\]\n\n\\begin{theorem}\n  \\label{main.est.theorem}\n   Let $n \\geq 1$.  Assume that the coefficients $a^{ij}$, $b^i$ and\n  $c$ are real and satisfy \\eqref{coeff}, \\eqref{coeffb},\n  \\eqref{coeffc}.  Then for any two Strichartz pairs\n  $(p_1,q_1)$ and $(p_2, q_2)$, the solution $u$ to\n  \\eqref{main.equation} satisfies\n\\begin{equation}\n  \\label{fse}\n\\| u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}_e(p_1,q_1) \\cap L^\\infty_t L^2_x} \\lesssim \\|u_0\\|_{L^2}\n+ \\|f\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'_e(p_2,q_2)+L^1_tL^2_x} + \n \\|u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}(\\{|x|\\le 2^{M+1}\\})}.\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\n\nCorrespondingly, in the resonant case we define\n\\[\n\\| u\\|_{{X}_e(p,q)} = \\| u\\|_{{X}_e} + \\| \\rho u\\|_{L^p_t L^q_x}\n\\]\nand the dual space ${X}'_e(p,q)$ with norm \n\\[\n\\|f\\|_{{X}'_e(p,q)} = \\inf_{f =  f_1 +  \\rho f_2} \\| f_1\\|_{{X}'_e} + \n\\|f_2\\|_{L^{p'}_t L^{q'}_x}.  \n\\]\nThen we have \n\n\\begin{theorem}\n  \\label{main.est.theorem.res}\n  Let $n = 1,2$. Assume that the coefficients of $P$ are as in\n  Theorem~\\ref{main.ls.theorem.res}.  Then for any two Strichartz\n  pairs $(p_1,q_1)$ and $(p_2, q_2)$, the solution $u$ to\n  \\eqref{main.equation} satisfies\n\\begin{equation}\n  \\label{fselow}\\| u\\|_{{X}_e(p_1,q_1)\\cap L^\\infty_t L^2_x} \\lesssim \n\\|u_0\\|_{L^2}  + \\|f\\|_{{X}'_e(p_2,q_2)+L^1_t L^2_x} \n  +  \\|u-u_\\rho\\|_{L^2_{t,x}(\\{|x|\\le 2^{M+1}\\})}.\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\nIn both cases the space-time norms are over $[0,T]\\times {\\mathbb R}^n$ for any\ntime $T>0$ with constants independent of $T$.\nIf the time $T$ is finite, then we may use energy estimates to\ntrivially bound the error term.  Doing so results in the following,\nwhich is a $C^2$-analog of the exterior Strichartz estimates of\n\\cite{BT}.\n\\begin{corr}\n  \\label{corr.main.theorem}\n(a.)  Assume that the coefficients $a^{ij}$, $b^i$, and $c$ are as in\n  Theorem~\\ref{main.ls.theorem}.  Then for any two Strichartz pairs\n  $(p_1,q_1)$ and $(p_2, q_2)$, the solution $u$ to\n  \\eqref{main.equation} satisfies\n\\begin{equation}\n  \\label{fse2}\n\\| u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}(p_1,q_1)\\cap L^\\infty_t L^2_x} \\lesssim_T \\|u_0\\|_{L^2}\n+ \\|f\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'(p_2,q_2)+L^1_t L^2_x}.\n\\end{equation}\n\n(b.) Assume that the coefficients $a^{ij}$ and $b^i$ are as in\nTheorem~\\ref{main.ls.theorem.res}.  Then for any two Strichartz pairs\n$(p_1,q_1)$ and $(p_2,q_2)$, the solution $u$ to \\eqref{main.equation}\nsatisfies\n\\begin{equation}\n  \\label{fse2.res}\n\\|u\\|_{{X}(p_1,q_1)\\cap L^\\infty_t L^2_x}\\lesssim_T \\|u_0\\|_{L^2}\n+ \\|f\\|_{{X}'(p_2,q_2)+L^1_tL^2_x}.\n\\end{equation}\n\nIn both cases, the space-time norms are over $[0,T]\\times {\\mathbb R}^n$ and \n$T>0$ is finite.\n\\end{corr}\n\nWe conclude this subsection with a few remarks concerning \nseveral alternative set-ups for these results.\n\n\n\\subsubsection{ Boundary value problems }\n\nOur proof of Theorems~\\ref{main.ls.theorem},\\ref{main.ls.theorem.res},\n\\ref{main.est.theorem}~\\ref{main.est.theorem.res} treats the interior \nof the ball $B = \\{ |x| < 2^M \\}$ as a black box with the sole property\nthat the energy is conserved by the evolution.\nHence the results remain valid for exterior boundary problems.\nPrecisely, take a bounded domain $\\Omega \\subset B$\nand consider either the Dirichlet problem\n\\begin{equation}\n\\left\\{ \\begin{array}{lc}  Pu = f & \\text{in } \\Omega^c \n\\cr u(0) = u_0 & \\cr \nu = 0&  \\text{in } \\partial \\Omega \\end{array} \\right.\n\\label{D}\\end{equation}\nor the Neumann problem\n\\begin{equation}\n\\left\\{ \\begin{array}{lc}  Pu = f & \\text{in } \\Omega^c \n\\cr u(0) = u_0 & \\cr \\displaystyle \n\\frac{\\partial u}{\\partial \\nu} = 0&  \\text{in } \\partial \\Omega\n \\end{array} \\right.\n\\label{N}\\end{equation}\nwhere\n\\[\n\\frac{\\partial}{\\partial \\nu} = \\nu_i (a^{ij} D_j +  b^i)\n\\]\nand $\\nu$ is the unit normal to $ \\partial \\Omega$.\n\n\nThen we have \n\\begin{corr}\n  a) The results in Theorems~\\ref{main.ls.theorem} and\n  \\ref{main.est.theorem} remain valid for both the Dirichlet\n  problem \\eqref{D} and the Neumann problem \\eqref{N}.\n\n  b) The results in Theorems~ \\ref{main.ls.theorem.res} and\n  \\ref{main.est.theorem.res} remain valid for  \nthe Neumann problem \\eqref{N} with the additional condition\n$b^i \\nu_i = 0$ on $ \\partial \\Omega$.\n\\end{corr}\n\nThe more restrictive hypothesis in part (b) is caused by the \nrequirement that constant functions solve the homogeneous\nproblem.\n\n\n\\subsubsection{Complex coefficients} \n\nThe only role played in our proofs by the assumption\nthat the coefficients $b^i$ and $c$ are real  is to insure \nthe energy conservation in the interior region. Hence \nwe can allow complex coefficients in the region $\\{ |x| > 2^{M+1}\\}$\nwhere the coefficients satisfy the smallness condition.\n\nIn addition, allowing $c$ to be complex in the interior region does\nnot affect energy conservation either, since we are assuming \nan a priori control of the local $L^2$ space-time norm of the solution.\nHence we have\n\n\\begin{remark}\na)  The results in Theorems~\\ref{main.ls.theorem} and \n\\ref{main.est.theorem} remain valid for complex coefficients\n $b^i$, $c$  with the restriction that $b^i$ are real  \nin the region $\\{ |x| < 2^{M+1}\\}$.\n\nb) The results in Theorems~ \\ref{main.ls.theorem.res} and\n\\ref{main.est.theorem.res} remain valid for coefficients $b^i$ which\nare real in the region $\\{ |x| < 2^{M+1}\\}$.\n\\end{remark}\n\n\n\\subsection{ Non-trapping metrics}\nThe second goal of the article is to consider the previous setup but\nwith an additional non-trapping assumption. To state it we consider\nthe Hamilton flow $H_a$ for the principal symbol of the operator \n$A$, namely \n\\[\na(t,x,\\xi) = a^{ij}(t,x) \\xi_i \\xi_j.\n\\]\nThe spatial projections of the trajectories of the Hamilton flow $H_a$\nare the geodesics for the metric $a_{ij} d x^i dx^j$ where\n$(a_{ij})=(a^{ij})^{-1}$.\n\n\\begin{deff}\n  We say that the metric $(a_{ij})$ is non-trapping if for each $R > 0$\n  there exists $L > 0$ independent of $t$ so that any portion of a\n  geodesic contained in $\\{|x| < R\\}$ has length at most $L$.\n\\end{deff}\n\nThe non-trapping condition allows us to use standard propagation of\nsingularities techniques to bound high frequencies inside a ball in\nterms of the high frequencies outside.  Then the cutoff function\n$\\rho$ which was used before is no longer needed, and we obtain\n\\begin{theorem}\n  \\label{main.ls.theoremnt}\n  Let $R > 0$ be sufficiently large.  Assume that the coefficients $a^{ij}$, $b^i$ and $c$ are real and\n  satisfy \\eqref{coeff}, \\eqref{coeffb}, \\eqref{coeffc}.  Assume also\n  that the metric $a_{ij}$ is non-trapping.  Then the solution $u$ to\n  \\eqref{main.equation} satisfies\n\\begin{equation}\n  \\label{lsnt}\n\\| u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}} \\lesssim \\|u_0\\|_{L^2}\n+ \\|f\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'} + \n \\|u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}(\\{|x|\\le 2R\\})},\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{theorem}\n\nrespectively \n\n\\begin{theorem}\n  \\label{main.ls.theoremnt.res}\n  Let $R > 0$ be sufficiently large, and let $n=1,2$.  Assume that the coefficients of $P$ are as\n  in Theorem~\\ref{main.ls.theorem.res}.  Assume also that the metric\n  $a_{ij}$ is non-trapping.  Then the solution $u$ to\n  \\eqref{main.equation} satisfies\n\\begin{equation}\n  \\label{lsntres}\n\\| u\\|_{{X}} \\lesssim \\|u_0\\|_{L^2}\n+ \\|f\\|_{{X}'} + \n \\|u-u_\\rho\\|_{L^2_{t,x}(\\{|x|\\le 2R\\})}.\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{theorem}\n\nWe note that the high frequencies in the error term on the right are\ncontrolled by the ${X}$ norm on the left. Also the low frequencies ($\\ll\n1$) are controlled by the ${X}$ norm using the uncertainty\nprinciple. Hence the only nontrivial part of the error term corresponds\nto intermediate (i.e. $\\approx 1$ ) frequencies.\n\nThe proof combines the arguments used for the exterior estimates\nwith a standard multiplier construction from the theory of propagation\nof singularities. Adding to  the above results  the parametrix\nobtained in \\cite{T} we obtain\n\n\n\\begin{theorem}\n  \\label{main.theoremnt}\n  Let $R > 0$ be sufficiently large.  Assume that the coefficients $a^{ij}$, $b^i$ and\n  $c$ are real and satisfy \\eqref{coeff}, \\eqref{coeffb}, \\eqref{coeffc}.  Assume\n  also that the metric $a_{ij}$ is non-trapping.  Then for any two\n  Strichartz pairs $(p_1,q_1)$ and $(p_2, q_2)$, the solution $u$ to\n  \\eqref{main.equation} satisfies\n\\begin{equation}\n  \\label{fsent}\n\\| u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}} \\cap L^{p_1}_t L^{q_1}_x} \\lesssim \\|u_0\\|_{L^2}\n+ \\|f\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'+L^{p'_2}_t L^{q'_2}_x} + \n \\|u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}(\\{|x|\\le 2R\\})},\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{theorem}\n\nrespectively \n\n\\begin{theorem}\n  \\label{main.theoremnt.res}\n Let $n = 1,2$, and let $R > 0$ be sufficiently large.  Assume that the coefficients of $P$ are as\n  in Theorem~\\ref{main.ls.theorem.res}. Assume also that the metric\n$a_{ij}$ is non-trapping. Then for any two Strichartz pairs $(p_1,q_1)$\nand $(p_2, q_2)$, the solution $u$ to \\eqref{main.equation} satisfies\n\\begin{equation}\n  \\label{fsentres}\\| u\\|_{{X}\\cap L^{p_1}_t L^{q_1}_x} \\lesssim \\|u_0\\|_{L^2}\n  + \\|f\\|_{{X}'+L^{p'_2}_t L^{q'_2}_x} \n  +  \\| u - u_\\rho\\|_{L^2_{t,x}(\\{|x|\\le 2R\\})}.\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\n\\subsubsection{ An improved result for trapped metrics}\n\nA variation on the above theme is obtained in the case when there are\ntrapped rays, but not too many. If they exist, they must be confined\nto the interior region $\\{|x| \\leq 2^M\\}$. Then we can define the\nconic set\n\\[\n\\begin{split}\n  \\Omega_{trapped}^L = \\{&\\ (t,x,\\xi) \\in {\\mathbb R} \\times T^* B(0,2^M);\n  \\text{ the $H_a$ bicharacteristic through } (t,x,\\xi)\n\\\\ & \\text{ has\n    length at least } L \\text{ within } |x| \\leq 2^M\\}.\n\\end{split}\n\\]\nGiven a smooth zero homogeneous symbol $q(x,\\xi)$  which \nequals $1$ for $|x| > 2^M$, we define modified exterior spaces\nby\n\\[\n\\| u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}_q}  = \\| q(x,D) u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}} + \\| u\\|_{L^2(\\{|x| \\leq 2^{M+1}\\})} \n\\]\nwith similar modifications for ${{\\tilde{X}}}'_q$, ${X}_q$ and ${X}'_q$.\n\nThen the same argument as in the proof of the above Theorems\ngives\n\n\\begin{corr} \n  Assume that $q$ is supported outside $ \\Omega_{trapped}^L$ for some\n  $L > 0$. Then the  results in Theorems~\\ref{main.ls.theorem},\n  \\ref{main.est.theorem}, \\ref{main.ls.theorem.res} and\n  \\ref{main.est.theorem.res} remain valid with ${{\\tilde{X}}}_e$, ${{\\tilde{X}}}'_e$,\n  ${X}_e$ and ${X}'_e$ replaced by ${{\\tilde{X}}}_q$, ${{\\tilde{X}}}'_q$, ${X}_q$ and\n  ${X}'_q$.\n\\end{corr}\n\nWe also note that if $A$ has time independent coefficients then\n$\\Omega_{trapped}^L$ is translation invariant. Hence a compactness\nargument allows us to replace $\\Omega_{trapped}^L$ by\n$\\Omega_{trapped}^\\infty$, which contains all the trapped geodesics.\n\n\\subsubsection{Boundary value problems}\n\nConsider solutions $u$ for either the Dirichlet problem \\eqref{D} or\nthe Neumann problem \\eqref{N}. Then singularities will propagate along\ngeneralized broken bicharacteristics (see \\cite{MS1, MS2},\\cite{Hor},\\cite{BGT2}).\nHence the non-trapping condition needs to be modified accordingly.\n\n\\begin{deff}\n  We say that the metric $(a_{ij})$ is non-trapping if for each $R > 0$\n  there exists $L > 0$ independent of $t$ so that any portion of a\n  generalized broken bicharacteristic is contained in $\\{|x| < R\\}$\n  has length at most $L$.\n\\end{deff}\n\nWith this modification the results of\nTheorems~\\ref{main.ls.theoremnt}, \\ref{main.ls.theoremnt.res}, remain\nvalid.  However, some care must be taken with the results on\npropagation of singularities near the boundary, as not all of them are\nknown to be valid for operators with only $C^2$ coefficients.\n\nOn the other hand we do not know whether the bounds in Theorems\n\\ref{main.theoremnt}, \\ref{main.theoremnt.res} are true or not.  These\nhinge on the validity of local Strichartz estimates near the boundary.\nThis is currently an unsolved problem.\n\n\\subsubsection{ Complex coefficients}\n\nAgain, one may ask to what extent are our results in this section \nare valid if complex coefficients are allowed. We have \n\\begin{remark}\n  The results in Theorems~\\ref{main.ls.theoremnt},\n  \\ref{main.ls.theoremnt.res}, \\ref{main.theoremnt},\n  \\ref{main.theoremnt.res} remain valid if the coefficients $b^i$ and\n  $c$ are allowed to be complex.\n\n\\end{remark}\n\nThis result is obtained without making any changes to our proofs\nprovided that the constant $\\kappa$ in \\eqref{coeffb} is sufficiently\nsmall. Otherwise, the multiplier $q$ used in the proof has to change \ntoo much along bicharacteristics from entry to exit from \n$B(0,2^M)$; this in turn forces a modified multiplier for the exterior\nregion.  See, e.g., \\cite{D1, Doi} and \\cite{ST}.\n\n\n\\subsection{ Time independent metrics}\n\nIt is natural to ask when can one eliminate the error term altogether.\nThis is a very delicate question, which hinges on the local in space\nevolution of low frequency solutions. For general operators $A$ with \ntime dependent coefficients this question seems out of reach for now.\n\n\nThis leads us to the third part of the paper where, in addition to the\nflatness assumption above and the non-trapping hypothesis on $a_{ij}$, we\ntake our coefficients $a^{ij},b^i,c$ to be time-independent.  Then the natural \nobstruction to the dispersive estimates comes from possible\neigenvalues and zero resonances of the operator $A$.\n\nSince the operator $A$ is self-adjoint, it follows that its spectrum is\nreal. More precisely, $A$ has a continuous spectrum $\\sigma_c=\n[0,\\infty)$ and a point spectrum $\\sigma_p$ consisting of discrete\nfinite multiplicity eigenvalues in ${\\mathbb R}^-$, whose only possible\naccumulation point is $0$.  \n\nFrom the point of view of dispersion there is nothing we can do about\neigenvalues. Consequently we introduce the spectral projector $P_c$\nonto the continuous spectrum, and obtain dispersive estimates only for\n$P_c u$ for solutions $u$ to \\eqref{main.equation}. \n\nThe resolvent \n\\[\nR_\\lambda = (\\lambda - A)^{-1}\n\\]\nis well defined in ${\\mathbb C} \\setminus (\\sigma_c \\cup \\sigma_p)$.\nOne may ask whether there is any meromorphic continuation \nof the resolvent $R_\\lambda$ across the positive real axis, starting\non either side. This is indeed possible. The poles of this\nmeromorphic continuation are called resonances.\nThis is of interest to us because the resonances which are close to\nthe real axis play an important role in the long time behavior\nof solutions to the Schr\\\"{o}dinger equation. \n\nIn the case which we consider here (asymptotically flat), there are no\nresonances nor eigenvalues inside the continuous spectrum i.e. in\n$(0,\\infty)$. However, the bottom of the continuous spectrum,\nnamely $0$, may be either an eigenfunction (if $n \\geq 5$) or \na resonance (if $n \\leq 4$). For zero resonances we use\na fairly restrictive definition:\n\n\n\\begin{deff}\nWe say that $0$ is a resonance for $A$ if there is a function \n$u \\in {{\\tilde{X}}}^0$ so that $Au = 0$. The function $u$ \nis called a zero resonant state of $A$.\n\\end{deff}\n\nHere ${{\\tilde{X}}}^0$ denotes the spatial part of the ${{\\tilde{X}}}$ norm.  I.e. ${{\\tilde{X}}} = L^2_t {{\\tilde{X}}}^0$.\n\n\nThe main case we consider here is when $0$ is neither an eigenfunction\n(if $n \\geq 5$) nor a resonance (if $n \\leq 4$). This implies that\nthere are no eigenvalues close to $0$. Then $A$ has at most finitely\nmany negative eigenvalues, and the corresponding eigenfunctions decay\nexponentially at infinity.\n\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{theorem.PcSmoothing}  \n  Suppose that $a^{ij},b^i,c$ are real, time-independent, and satisfy the\n  conditions \\eqref{coeff},\\eqref{coeffb}, and\n  \\eqref{coeffc}.  We also assume that the Hamiltonian vector field\n  $H_a$ permits no trapped geodesics and that $0$ is not an\n  eigenvalue or a resonance of $A$.  Then for all solutions $u$ to\n  \\eqref{main.equation} we have\n\\begin{equation}\\label{PcSmoothing}\n\\|P_c u\\|_{{\\tilde{X}}}\\lesssim \\|u_0\\|_2 + \\| f\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'}.\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{theorem}\nFrom this, using the parametrix of \\cite{T}, we immediately obtain the corresponding global-in-time\nStrichartz estimates:\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{corr.nontrap.Strichartz}\n \n  Suppose that $a^{ij},b^i,c$ are real, time-independent, and\n  satisfy the  conditions \\eqref{coeff},\\eqref{coeffb},\n  and \\eqref{coeffc}.  Moreover, assume that the Hamiltonian vector\n  field $H_a$ permits no trapped geodesics.  Assume, also, that $0$ is\n  not an eigenvalue or a resonance of $A$.  Then for all solutions $u$\n  to \\eqref{main.equation}, we have\n\\begin{equation}\\label{PcStrichartz}\n\\|P_c u\\|_{L^{p_1}_t L^{q_1}_x \\cap {{\\tilde{X}}}} \\lesssim \\|u_0\\|_2  + \\|f\\|_{L^{p'_2}_t\n  L^{q'_2}_x+{{\\tilde{X}}}'} ,\n\\end{equation}\nfor any Strichartz pairs $(p_1,q_1)$ and $(p_2,q_2)$.\n\\end{theorem}\n\nOne can compare this with the result of \\cite{RT}, where the authors\nconsider a smooth compactly supported perturbation of the metric in\n$3+1$ dimensions where no eigenvalues are present.  Estimates in the\nspirit of \\eqref{PcStrichartz} have also recently be shown by\n\\cite{BT2}, though only for smooth coefficients and with a more\nrestrictive spectral projection.  We also note the related work\n\\cite{EGS} on Schr\\\"odinger equations with magnetic potentials.  In\ntheir work, the second order operator is taken to be $-\\Delta$.\nTheorem \\ref{corr.nontrap.Strichartz} is a more general version of\nthe main theorem in \\cite{EGS} in the sense that it allows a more\ngeneral leading order operator and that it assumes less flatness on\nthe coefficients.\n\n\nIn dimension $n \\geq 3$ zero is not an eigenvalue or a resonance \nfor $-\\Delta$, nor for small perturbations of it. However, in\ndimension $n=1,2$, zero is a resonance and the corresponding\nresonant states are the constant functions. This spectral picture\nis not stable with respect to lower order perturbations, but it does\nremain stable with respect to perturbations of the metric $a^{ij}$.\nHence there is some motivation to also investigate this case \nin more detail. We prove the following result.\n\n\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{theorem.PcSmoothing.res}  \n  Assume that the coefficients of $P$ are time-independent, but otherwise as in\n  Theorem~\\ref{main.ls.theorem.res}.  Assume also that the Hamiltonian\n  vector field $H_a$ permits no trapped geodesics, and that there are\n  no nonconstant zero resonant states of $A$.  Then for all\n  solutions $u$ to \\eqref{main.equation}, we have\n\\begin{equation}\\label{PcSmoothing.res}\n\\| u\\|_{X}\\lesssim \\|u_0\\|_2 + \\| f\\|_{{X}'}.\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{theorem}\n\nIn terms of Strichartz estimates, this has the following consequence:\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{corr.nontrap.Strichartz.res}\n  Assume that the coefficients of $P$ are time-independent, but otherwise as in\n  Theorem~\\ref{main.ls.theorem.res}.  Assume also that the Hamiltonian\n  vector field $H_a$ permits no trapped geodesics, and that there are\n  no nonconstant zero resonant states of $A$.  Then for all\n  solutions $u$ to \\eqref{main.equation}, we have\n\\begin{equation}\\label{PcStrichartz.res}\n\\| u\\|_{L^{p_1}_t L^{q_1}_x \\cap {X}} \\lesssim \\|u_0\\|_2  + \\|f\\|_{L^{p'_2}_t\n  L^{q'_2}_x+{X}'} \n\\end{equation}\nfor any Strichartz pairs $(p_1,q_1)$ and $(p_2,q_2)$.\n\\end{theorem}\n\nImplicit in the above theorems is the fact that there are, under their\nhypothesis, no eigenvalues for $A$.  There is another\nsimplification if we make the additional assumption that $b = 0$.\n\n\\begin{remark}\\label{remark.nootherres}\nIf in addition $b = 0$, then there are no nonconstant generalized zero\neigenvalues of $A$.\n\\end{remark}\n\nIn order to prove Theorems \\ref{theorem.PcSmoothing} and\n\\ref{theorem.PcSmoothing.res}, we restate the bounds\n\\eqref{PcSmoothing} and \\eqref{PcSmoothing.res} in terms of estimates\non the resolvent using the Fourier transform in $t$.  We then argue\nvia contradiction.  Using the positive commutator method, we show an\noutgoing radiation condition (see Steps 8-10 of the proof), which allows us\nto pass to subsequences and claim that if \\eqref{PcSmoothing} were\nfalse, then there is a resonance or an eigenvalue $v$ within the\ncontinuous spectrum. By hypothesis this cannot occur at $0$.  We use\nanother multiplier and the radiation condition to then show that $v\\in\nL^2$ and thus cannot be a resonance.  As results of \\cite{KT2} show\nthat there are no eigenvalues embedded in the continuous spectrum, we\nreach a contradiction. If instead \\eqref{PcSmoothing.res} were false,\nthen the same argument produces a nonconstant zero resonance, again\nreaching a contradiction.\n \nThe paper is organized as follows.  In the next section, we fix some\nfurther notations and our paradifferential setup.  It is here that we\nshow that we may permit the lower order terms in the local smoothing\nestimates in a perturbative manner.\nIn the third section, we prove the local smoothing estimates using the\npositive commutator method, first in the exterior local smoothing\nspaces and then in the non-trapping case.  The fourth section is\ndevoted to non-trapping, time-independent operators.\n In the final section, we review the  parametrix of \\cite{T} \nand use it to  show how the Strichartz estimates follow\nfrom the local smoothing estimates. \n\n{\\em Acknowledgements:} The authors thank W. Schlag and M. Zworski for helpful discussions\nregarding some of the spectral theory, and in particular the behavior of resonances, contained herein.\n\n\\bigskip\n\\newsection{Notations and the paradifferential setup}\\label{not_para}\n\n\\subsection{Notations}\nWe shall be using dyadic decompositions of both space and frequency.\nFor the spatial decomposition, we let $\\chi_k$ denote smooth functions\nsatisfying\n\\[\n1=\\sum_{j=0}^\\infty \\chi_j(x),\\quad \\text{supp } \\chi_0\\subset\\{|x|\\le 2\\},\n\\quad \\text{supp }\\chi_j\\subset \\{2^{j-1}<|x|<2^{j+1}\\}\\text{ for } j\\ge 1.\n\\]\nWe also set\n\\[\n\\chi_{<k} = \\sum_{0\\le j<k} \\chi_j\n\\]\nwith the obvious modification for $\\chi_{>k}$.  In frequency, we use a\nsmooth Littlewood-Paley decomposition\n\\[\n1=\\sum_{j=-\\infty}^\\infty S_j(D), \\quad \\text{supp }\ns_j\\subset\\{2^{j-1}<|\\xi|<2^{j+1}\\}\n\\]\nand similar notations for $S_{<k}, S_{>k}$ are applied.\n\nWe say that a function is frequency localized at frequency $2^k$ if its Fourier transform is supported\nin the annulus $\\{2^{k-1}<|\\xi|<2^{k+1}\\}$.  An operator $K$ is said to be frequency localized if\n$Kf$ is supported in $\\{2^{k-10}<|\\xi|<2^{k+10}\\}$ for any function $f$ which is frequency localized at\n$2^k$.\n\nFor $\\kappa$ as in \\eqref{coeff}, we may choose a positive, slowly varying sequence $\\kappa_j\\in \\ell^1$ satisfying\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{kappa_j}\n\\sup_{A_j} \\langle x\\rangle^2 |\\partial_x^2 a(t,x)| + \\langle x\\rangle |\\partial_x a(t,x)| + |a(t,x)-I_n|\\le \\kappa_j,\n\\end{equation}\n$$\\sum \\kappa_j \\lesssim \\kappa,$$\nand\n$$|\\ln \\kappa_j - \\ln \\kappa_{j-1}|\\le 2^{-10}.$$\nWhen the lower order terms are present, we may choose $\\kappa_j$ so that each dyadic piece of\n\\eqref{coeffb} is also controlled similarly.\nWe may also assume that $M$ in \\eqref{coeff.M} is chosen sufficiently large that\n$$\\sum_{j\\ge M} \\kappa_j \\lesssim \\varepsilon.$$\nAssociated to this slowly varying sequence, we may choose functions $\\kappa_k(s)$ with\n$$\\kappa_0<\\kappa_k(s)<2\\kappa_0,\\quad 0\\le s < 2,$$\n$$\\kappa_j<\\kappa_k(s)<2\\kappa_j,\\quad 2^j<s<2^{j+1},\\quad j\\ge 1,$$\nfor $k\\ge 0$, \n$$\\kappa_k<\\kappa_k(s)<2\\kappa_k,\\quad 0\\le s < 2^{-k},$$\n$$\\kappa_j<\\kappa_k(s)<2\\kappa_j,\\quad 2^j<s<2^{j+1},\\quad j\\ge -k$$\nfor $k<0$, \nand\n$$|\\kappa'_k(s)|\\le 2^{-5} s^{-1}\\kappa_k(s).$$\n\n\n\\subsection{ Embeddings for the $X$ spaces}\n\\label{embxs}\n\nHere we prove Lemma~\\ref{txdx}.  For the purpose of this section we\ncan entirely neglect the time variable. \nLet $\\psi$ be a smooth, spherically symmetric Schwartz function\nwith $\\psi(0)=1$ which is frequency localized in the unit annulus.\nSet\n\\[\n\\psi_k(x) = \\psi(2^k x).\n\\]\nGiven $u \\in {{\\tilde{X}}}$, we split it into\n\\[\nu = u^{in} + u^{out}\n\\]\nwhere\n\\[\nu^{in} = \\sum_{k < 0} T_k S_k u\n\\]\nand  $T_k$ is the operator\n\\[\nT_k v = v(t,0) \\psi_k(x). \n\\]\n\nFor frequencies $k > 0$, we\nhave the dyadic bound\n\\[\n\\| \\langle x \\rangle^{-1} S_k u\\|_{L^2} \\lesssim \\|S_k u\\|_{X_k}  \n\\]\nwhich we can easily sum over $k$ to obtain\n\\[\n\\| \\langle x \\rangle^{-1} S_{>0} u\\|_{L^2} \\lesssim \\|u\\|_{{X}}.\n\\]\n\n\nFor frequencies $k < 0$ it  is easy to see that \n\\begin{equation}\\label{Tkbdd}\n\\|(1-T_k) S_k u \\|_{X_k} \\lesssim \\|S_k u \\|_{X_k}\n\\end{equation}\nfollows from the bound\n\\begin{equation}\\label{bernstein}\n  \\|\\chi_{<-k} S_k u\\|_{L^2_t L^\\infty_x}\\lesssim 2^{\\frac{n-1}{2}k}\\|S_k u\\|_{X_k},\\quad k\\le 0.\n\\end{equation}\nwhich is a consequence of Bernstein's inequality.\n\nThe gain is that $(1-T_k) S_k u(t,0)=0$. This leads to the improved\npointwise bound\n\\[\n |x|^{-1}|(1-T_k) S_k u| \\lesssim 2^{\\frac{n+1}2 k} \\|S_k u \\|_{X_k},\\quad |x|<2^{-k}\n\\]\nand further to the improved $L^2$ bound\n\\begin{equation}\n\\sup_{j} \\| (2^k|x|+2^{-k}|x|^{-1})^\\frac12 |x|^{-1}   (1-T_k) S_k\nu\\|_{L^2(A_j)}  \\lesssim 2^{\\frac{k}2} \\|S_k u \\|_{X_k}.\n\\label{impl2}\\end{equation}\nThen, by orthogonality with respect \nto spatial dyadic regions,  we can sum up\n\\[\n\\| \\langle x\\rangle^{-1}   \\sum_{k < 0} (1-T_k) S_k u \\|_{L^2}^2  \\lesssim \\|u\\|_{{X}}^2 \n\\]\nwhich combined with the previous high frequency bound yields\n\\begin{equation}\n\\|\\langle x \\rangle^{-1} u^{out}\\|_{L^2} \\lesssim \\|u\\|_{{X}}.\n\\label{l2uout}\\end{equation}\n\n\nFor the terms in $u^{in}$, differentiation yields a $2^k$ factor, and\ntherefore we can estimate\n\\begin{equation}\n\\| u^{in}\\|_{\\dot H^1} \\lesssim \\|u\\|_{{X}}.\n\\label{l2uin}\\end{equation}\nIt remains to prove the bounds\n\\begin{equation}\n\\| \\langle x \\rangle^{-1} v \\|_{L^2} \\lesssim \\|v\\|_{L^2(B(0,1))} + \\|\nv\\|_{\\dot H^1},\n\\qquad n=1\n\\label{n=1emb} \n\\end{equation}\nrespectively\n\\begin{equation}\n\\| \\langle x \\rangle^{-1} (\\ln (1+ \\langle x \\rangle))^{-1}\n v \\|_{L^2} \\lesssim \\|v\\|_{L^2(B(0,1))} + \\|\nv\\|_{\\dot H^1},\n\\qquad n=2.\n\\label{n=2emb} \n\\end{equation}\n\nDue to the first factor in the right of both estimates, we may without loss of generality take\n$v$ to vanish in $B(0,1\/2)$.\nFor \\eqref{n=1emb} we integrate\n\\[\n2 \\int_{1\/2}^R  x^{-1} v v_x dx = \\int_{1\/2}^R  x^{-2} v^2 dx  + R^{-1}\nv^2(R).\n\\]\nUsing Cauchy-Schwarz the conclusion follows.\n\nFor \\eqref{n=2emb} we argue in a similar fashion.\nWe have\n\\begin{multline*}\n2 \\int_{B_R \\setminus B_{1\/2}}  |x|^{-2} (\\ln (2+|x|^2))^{-1} v x \\nabla v dx = \n\\int_{B_R \\setminus B_{1\/2}}  (2+|x|^2)^{-1} (\\ln (2+|x|^2))^{-2}  v^2 dx \n\\\\ + \\int_{\\partial B_R}|x|^{-1} (\\ln (2+|x|^2))^{-1} v^2   d\\sigma\n\\end{multline*}\nand conclude again by Cauchy-Schwarz. The lemma is proved. \\qed\n\nOn a related note, we include here another  result which\nsimplifies the type of local error terms we allow in the non-trapping\ncase.\n\n\\begin{lemma}\nLet $n \\geq 1$ and $R > 0$. Then for each $\\epsilon > 0$ there is \n$m_\\epsilon > 0$ and $c_\\epsilon > 0$\nso that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{dXerror}\n\\| \\langle x \\rangle^{-\\frac32} u\\|_{L^2} \\leq \\epsilon \\|u\\|_{{X}} + c_\\epsilon\n\\|S_{<m_\\epsilon}u\\|_{L^2(\\{|x| < R\\})}.\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{lemma}\n \n\\begin{proof}\nFrequencies in $u$ which are large enough can be estimated solely by\nthe first term on the right.  It remains to show that for large $m$ we\nhave\n\\[\n\\| \\langle x \\rangle^{-\\frac32} S_{<m} u\\|_{L^2} \\leq \\epsilon \\| S_{<m} u\\|_{{X}} + c_{\\epsilon,m}\n\\|S_{<m} u\\|_{L^2(\\{|x| < R\\})}.\n\\]\nFor large $x$ the left hand side can also be estimated solely by the\nfirst term on the right.  It remains to show that for large $m,k$ we\nhave\n\\[\n\\| \\langle x \\rangle^{-\\frac32} \\chi_{<k} S_{<m} u\\|_{L^2} \\leq \\| \\langle x \\rangle^{-\\frac32} \\chi_{>k} S_{<m} u\\|_{L^2} + c_{k,m}\n\\|S_{<m} u\\|_{L^2(\\{|x| < R\\})}.\n\\]\nWe argue by contradiction. Suppose this is false. Then there exists\na sequence $u_j \\in {X}$ so that \n\\[\n\\| \\langle x \\rangle^{-\\frac32} \\chi_{<k} S_{<m} u_j\\|_{L^2} = 1, \\qquad\n\\| \\langle x \\rangle^{-\\frac32} \\chi_{>k} S_{<m} u_j\\|_{L^2} < 1, \\qquad \n\\|S_{<m} u_j\\|_{L^2(\\{|x| < R\\})} \\to 0.\n\\]\nThe functions $ \\langle x \\rangle^{-\\frac32}  S_{<m} u_j$ are uniformly\nbounded in all Sobolev spaces $H^{N}({\\mathbb R}^n)$; therefore on a subsequence\nwe have uniform convergence on compact sets,\n\\[\n S_{<m} u_j \\to u.\n\\]\nThen the function $u$ \nsatisfies\n\\[\n\\| \\langle x \\rangle^{-\\frac32} \\chi_{<k} u\\|_{L^2} = 1, \\qquad\n\\| \\langle x \\rangle^{-\\frac32} \\chi_{>k}  u\\|_{L^2} < 1, \\qquad \n\\|u\\|_{L^2(\\{|x| < R\\})} = 0.\n\\]\nBut $u$ is also frequency localized in $|\\xi| < 2^{m+1}$ and\nis therefore analytic. Then the last condition above implies $u = 0$ which is a \ncontradiction.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Paradifferential calculus}\n\nHere, we seek to frequency localize the coefficients of $P$.\nA similar argument is present in  \\cite{T}, where for solutions at \nfrequency $2^k$ the coefficients are localized at frequency\n\\[\n|\\xi| \\ll 2^{k\/2} \\langle x\\rangle^{-1\/2}.\n\\]\nSuch a strong localization was essential there in order to carry out\nthe parametrix construction. Here we are able to keep the setup\nsimpler and use a classical paradifferential construction, where for\nsolutions at frequency $2^k$ the coefficients are localized at\nfrequency below $ 2^k$. For a fixed frequency scale $2^k$, we set\n\\begin{align*}\na^{ij}_{(k)} = S_{<k-4} a^{ij},\n\\end{align*}\nand we define the associated mollified operators\n\\[\nA_{(k)}= D_i a^{ij}_{(k)}D_j.\n\\]\nIt is easy to verify that the mollified coefficients $a^{ij}_{(k)}$\nsatisfy the bounds\n\\begin{equation}\\label{coeffak.greater} \n\\begin{split}\n|\\partial^\\alpha (a^{ij}_{(k)}-I_n)|&\\lesssim \\kappa_k(|x|)\n\\langle x \\rangle ^{-|\\alpha|},\\qquad \n|\\alpha|\\le 2, \\quad  k>0\n\\\\\n|\\partial^\\alpha (a^{ij}_{(k)}-I_n)|&\\lesssim \\kappa_k(|x|)\n{2^{|\\alpha| k}}{\\langle 2^k x \\rangle^{-|\\alpha|}},\\quad \n|\\alpha|\\le 2, \\quad  k\\leq 0.\n\\end{split}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\nThe next proposition will be used to pass back and forth between $A_{(k)}$\nand $A$. We first define\n\\[\n\\tilde{A}=\\sum_k A_{(k)}S_k.\n\\]\n\n\\begin{prop}\n\\label{lemma.A.to.Ak}\nAssume that the coefficients $a^{ij}$ satisfy \\eqref{coeff}, and that\n$b=0$, $c=0$.  Then\n\\begin{equation}\n  \\label{aak}\n  \\sum_{k} 2^{-k} \\|S_k (A-A_{(k)}) u\\|_{X_k'}^2 \\lesssim \n\\kappa^2 \\|u\\|_{{X}}^2, \n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\\label{amta}\n\\|(A-\\tilde{A})u\\|_{{X}'}\\lesssim \\kappa \\|u\\|_{{X}},\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\n  \\label{comak}\n2^{-k} \\|[A_{(k)},S_k] u\\|_{X'_k}\\lesssim \\kappa \\|u\\|_{X_k}.\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{prop}\n\\begin{proof}[ Proof of Lemma \\ref{lemma.A.to.Ak}:]\nWe begin by writing\n\\[\nS_k(A- A_{(k)})=A_k^{med}+A_k^{high}\n\\]\nwith\n\\begin{align*}\nA_k^{med}&= \n \\sum_{l=k-4}^{k+4} \\sum_{m=-\\infty}^{k+8} S_k D_i(S_l a^{ij})\nD_j S_m \\\\\nA_k^{high}&=  \\sum_{l>k+4} \\sum_{m=l-4}^{l+4} \nS_k D_i (S_la^{ij})D_j S_m.\n\\end{align*}\n\n\nFor $A_k^{med}$ we take $l=k \\geq m$ for simplicity; then it suffices \n to establish the off-diagonal decay \n\\begin{equation}\n  \\label{dplow3.small}\n\\|S_k D_i(S_k a^{ij}D_j S_m v)\\|_{X'_k}\\lesssim \\kappa\n2^m \\|S_m v\\|_{X_m}.\n\\end{equation}\n\nIf $k \\geq m \\geq 0$ then we have\n\\[\n\\begin{split}\n\\|S_k D_i(S_k a^{ij}  D_j S_m v)\\|_{X'_k}\n&\\ \\lesssim 2^k \\|S_k a^{ij} D_j S_m v \\|_{X'_k}\n\\\\ &\\ \\lesssim \\kappa 2^{-k} \\| \\langle x\\rangle^{-2} D_j S_m v \\|_{X'_k}\n\\\\ &\\ \\lesssim \\kappa 2^{-k} \\| D_j S_m v \\|_{X_m}\n\\\\ &\\ \\lesssim \\kappa 2^{m-k} \\|S_m v \\|_{X_m}.\n\\end{split}\n\\]\n\nIf $k \\geq 0 > m$ then we have two spatial scales to deal with, namely\n$1$ and $2^{-m}$.  To separate them we use the cutoff function\n$\\chi_{<-m}$. For contributions corresponding to large $x$ we estimate\n\\[\n\\begin{split}\n\\|S_k D_i(S_k a^{ij} \\chi_{\\ge -m} D_j S_m v)\\|_{X'_k}\n&\\ \\lesssim 2^k \\|S_k a^{ij} \\chi_{\\ge -m} D_j S_m v \\|_{X'_k}\n\\\\ &\\ \\lesssim \\kappa 2^{-k} \\| |x|^{-2}   \\chi_{\\ge -m} D_j S_m v \\|_{X'_k}\n\\\\ &\\ \\lesssim \\kappa 2^{m-k} \\| D_j S_m v \\|_{X_m}\n\\\\ &\\ \\lesssim \\kappa 2^{2m-k} \\| S_m v \\|_{X_m}.\n\\end{split}\n\\]\nFor contributions  corresponding to small $x$, we first note that by \nBernstein's inequality, see \\eqref{bernstein}, we have \n\\begin{equation}\\label{bern.2}\n\\| D_j S_m v\\|_{L^2_t L_x^\\infty(A_{\\leq -m})} \\leq 2^{\\frac{n+1}2 m} \\|S_m v\\|_{X_m}.\n\\end{equation}\nThen\n\\[\n\\begin{split}\n\\|S_k D_i(S_k a^{ij} \\chi_{<-m} D_j S_m v)\\|_{X'_k}\n&\\ \\lesssim 2^k \\|S_k a^{ij} \\chi_{<-m} D_j S_m v\\|_{X'_k}\n\\\\\n&\\ \\lesssim 2^{-k} 2^{\\frac{n+1}2 m} \\|\\langle x \\rangle^{-2}  \\chi_{<-m}\n\\kappa(|x|)\\|_{(X_k^0)'} \\|S_m v\\|_{X_m}\n\\\\\n&\\ \\lesssim \\kappa 2^{-k}2^{\\frac{n+1}2 m} \\max\\{ 1, 2^{\\frac{3-n}{2} m} \\} \\|S_m v\\|_{X_m}\n\\\\\n&\\ \\lesssim \\kappa 2^{-k}  \\max\\{ 2^{\\frac{n+1}2 m}, 2^{2 m} \\} \\|S_m v\\|_{X_m}\n\\end{split}\n\\]\nwhere $(X_k^0)'$ is the spatial part of the $X_k'$ norm, i.e. $X_k' = L^2_t (X_k^0)'$.\n\nFinally if $ 0 >k \\geq  m$ then the spatial scales  are $2^{-k}$ and\n$2^{-m}$, and we separate them using the cutoff function\n$\\chi_{<-m}$. The exterior part is exactly as in the previous case. For\nthe interior part we use again \\eqref{bern.2} \nto compute\n\\[\n\\begin{split}\n\\|S_k D_i(S_k a^{ij} \\chi_{<-m} D_j S_m v)\\|_{X'_k}\n&\\ \\lesssim 2^k \\|S_k a^{ij} \\chi_{<-m} D_j S_m v\\|_{X'_k}\n\\\\\n&\\ \\lesssim 2^{k} 2^{\\frac{n+1}2 m} \\|\\langle 2^k x \\rangle^{-2}  \\chi_{<-m}\n\\kappa(|x|)\\|_{(X_k^0)'} \\|S_mv\\|_{X_m}\n\\\\\n&\\ \\lesssim \\kappa 2^{k}2^{\\frac{n+1}2 m} \n\\max\\{ 2^{-\\frac{n+1}2 k}, 2^{-2k} \n2^{\\frac{3-n}{2} m} \\} \\|S_m v\\|_{X_m}\n\\\\\n&\\ \\lesssim \\max\\{ 2^{\\frac{1-n}2 k}  2^{\\frac{n+1}2 m}, 2^{-k} 2^{2 m} \\} \\|S_m v\\|_{X_m}.\n\\end{split}\n\\]\nHence \\eqref{dplow3.small} is proved, which by summation yields the bound\n\\eqref{aak} for $A_k^{med}$.  The bound for $A_k^{high}$ follows from\n summation of \\eqref{dplow3.small} in a duality argument.\n\nWe note that in all cases there is some room to spare in the\nestimates. This shows that our hypothesis is too strong for this\nlemma. Indeed, one could prove it without using at all the bound on\nthe second derivatives of the coefficients.\n\n\nThe bound \\eqref{amta} follows by duality from \\eqref{aak}.  The proof\nof \\eqref{comak}, as in \\cite{T}, follows from the $|\\alpha|=1$ case\nof \\eqref{coeffak.greater}.  \n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\nThe next  proposition   allows us to treat lower order terms perturbatively \nin most of our results.\n\n\n\\begin{prop}\\label{lemma.lower.order}\n  a)  Assume that  $b,c$ satisfy \\eqref{coeffb} and \\eqref{coeffc}.\nThen\n \\begin{equation}\\label{bc}\n \\|(b^i D_i + D_i b^i +c)u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'}\\lesssim \\kappa \\|u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}}.\n  \\end{equation}\n \nb) Assume that  $b$ satisfies \\eqref{coeffb} and $\\div \\ b=0$.\nThen\n \\begin{equation}\\label{bnoc}\n \\|(b^i D_i + D_i b^i)u\\|_{{X}'}\\lesssim \\kappa \\|u\\|_{{X}}.\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\end{prop}\n\n\\begin{proof}\nThis proof parallels a similar argument in \\cite{T}. However in there \nonly dimensions $n \\geq 3$ are considered, and the bound\n\\eqref{coeffc} is stronger to include the full gradient of $b$.\nThus we provide a complete proof here. We consider two cases,\nthe first of which is similar to  \\cite{T}, while  the second\nrequires a new argument.\n\n\n{\\bf Case 1: The estimate \\eqref{bc} for $n \\geq 3$ and \\eqref{bnoc}\n  for $n=1,2$.}\nThe estimate for the $c$ term is straightforward since, by \\eqref{coeffc}, \n\\[ \\langle cu, v\\rangle \\lesssim \\kappa \\|\\langle x\\rangle^{-1} u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}} \\|\\langle x\\rangle^{-1} v\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}\n\\lesssim \\kappa \\|u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}} \\|v\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}}.\\]\n  \nFor the $b$ term, we consider a\nparadifferential decomposition,\n\\begin{multline}\\label{trichotomy}\n(b^i D_i + D_i b^i)u=\\ \\sum_{k}  (S_{<k}  b^i D_i+ D_i S_{<k}  b^i\n)S_k u \n\\\\  \\ + \\sum_k (S_k b^i D_i + D_i S_{k}  b^i)S_k u \n \\ + \\sum_{k} (S_{>k}b^i D_i + D_i S_{>k}  b^i)S_k u.\n\\end{multline}\n\nThe frequency localization is preserved in the first term; therefore \nit suffices to verify that\n\\[\n\\| (S_{<k}  b^i D_i+ D_i S_{<k}  b^i)S_k u \\|_{X'_{k}} \\lesssim \\kappa 2^{k}\\|S_k u\\|_{X_k}.\n\\]\nThe derivative yields a factor of $2^k$, and we are left with proving\nthat\n\\[\n\\| S_{<k}  b^i v\\|_{X'_{k}} \\lesssim \\kappa \\| v\\|_{X_k}.\n\\]\nThis in turn follows from the pointwise bound\n\\[\n|S_{<k}  b^i | \\lesssim \n\\begin{cases}\n\\kappa_k(|x|)\\langle x\\rangle^{-1}  ,\\quad k\\ge 0,\\\\\n\\max\\Bigl\\{ 2^k \\kappa_k(|x|)\\langle 2^k x\\rangle^{-1}, \\kappa 2^k\\langle 2^k x\\rangle^{-2}\\Bigr\\},\\quad k <0\\end{cases}\n\\]\nwhich is easy to obtain. The second term on the second line above is\nonly needed in the worst case $n=1$.\n\n\n\nThe remaining two terms in \\eqref{trichotomy} are dual. Hence it\nsuffices to consider the last one. We want the derivative to go to the\nlow frequency; therefore we rewrite it in the form\n\\begin{equation}\n\\sum_{k}  2 S_{>k}b^i  D_i  S_k u   -i S_{>k} \\div\\ b \\ S_k u.\n\\label{hl}\n\\end{equation}\nWe consider the two terms separately. The second one occurs only in \nthe case of \\eqref{bc} but the first one occurs also in \\eqref{bnoc}.\nSo we need to show that\n\\[\n\\| \\sum_{k}  S_{>k}b^i  D_i  S_k u  \\|_{{X}'} \\lesssim \\kappa \\| u\\|_{{X}}.\n\\]\nThis will follow from the dyadic estimates\n\\[\n\\| S_{m}b^i  S_k u  \\|_{X'_m} \\lesssim \\kappa   \\| S_k\nu\\|_{X_k}, \\qquad m > k.\n\\]\nGiven the pointwise bound on $S_m b^i$, this reduces to\n\\[\n\\| S_k u  \\|_{X_m} \\lesssim     \\| S_k\nu\\|_{X_k}.\n\\]\nFor $|x| > \\max\\{2^{-k},1\\}$ this is trivial. For smaller $x$\nwe use \\eqref{bernstein},\nand the conclusion is obtained by a direct computation.\n\n\nIt remains to consider the second term in \\eqref{hl}, for which we \nwant to show that in dimension $n \\geq 3$\n\\begin{equation}\n\\| \\sum_{k}  S_{>k} \\div\\ b \\ S_k u \\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'} \\lesssim \\kappa \\| u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}}.\n\\label{hhll}\\end{equation}\n\nFor this we establish again off-diagonal decay,\n\\begin{equation}\n\\| S_{m} \\div\\ b \\ S_k u \\|_{X'_m} \\lesssim \\kappa (m-k) 2^k  \\| S_k u\\|_{X_k},\n\\qquad m > k.\n\\label{odhhll}\\end{equation}\nThis follows from the pointwise bounds\n\\[\n| S_{m} \\div\\ b | \\leq \\kappa 2^{2m}\\langle 2^m x\\rangle^{-2}, \\qquad m < 0\n\\]\n\\[\n| S_{m} \\div\\ b | \\leq \\kappa \\langle  x\\rangle^{-2}, \\qquad m \\geq 0.\n\\]\nWe consider the worst case $0 > m > k$ and leave the rest for the\nreader. We use $\\chi_{<-k}$ to separate small and large values of $x$.\nFor large $x$ we have\n\\[\n\\| \\chi_{>-k} S_{m} \\div\\ b \\ S_k u \\|_{X'_m} \\lesssim \n\\kappa \\| |x|^{-2} \\chi_{>-k}  \\ S_k u \\|_{X'_k} \\lesssim \n\\kappa 2^k  \\| S_k u\\|_{X_k}.\n\\]\nFor small $x$ we use \\eqref{bernstein} instead,\n\\[\n\\| \\chi_{<-k} S_{m} \\div\\ b \\ S_k u \\|_{X'_m} \\lesssim \n \\kappa 2^{2m} 2^{\\frac{n-1}2 k}  \\| \\chi_{<-k} \\langle 2^m x\\rangle^{-2}\\|_{(X_m^0)'} \\|S_k u\\|_{X_k}\n\\lesssim   \\kappa  2^{ k}  \\|S_k u\\|_{X_k}.\n\\]\nThe last computation above is accurate if $n \\geq 4$. In dimension\n$n=3$ we encounter a harmless additional logarithmic factor $|m-k|$.\nHowever if $n=1,2$ then the above off-diagonal decay can no longer \nbe obtained.\n\n\n\n{\\bf Case 2: The estimate \\eqref{bc} in dimension $n=1,2$.}\nThe $c$ term is again easy to deal with. We write the \nestimate for $b$ in a symmetric way,\n\\[\n|\\langle (b^i D_i + D_i b^i) u,v \\rangle | \\lesssim \\kappa \\|u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}} \\|v\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}}.\n\\]\nWe use the decomposition in Section~\\ref{embxs},\n\\[\nu = u^{in} + u^{out}, \\qquad v =  v^{in} + v^{out}.\n\\]\nWe consider first the expression \n\\[\n\\langle (b^i D_i + D_i b^i) u^{out},v^{out} \\rangle.\n\\]\nFor this we can take advantage of the improved $L^2$ bound\n\\eqref{impl2} to carry out the same computation as in dimension \n$n \\geq 3$, establishing off-diagonal decay. Precisely,\nthe difference arises in the proof of \\eqref{odhhll}, whose\nreplacement is \n\\begin{equation}\n\\| S_{m} \\div\\ b \\ (1-T_k) S_k u \\|_{X'_m} \\lesssim \\kappa (m-k)2^k  \\| S_k u\\|_{X_k},\n\\qquad m > k.\n\\label{odhhll.new}\\end{equation}\n\nConsider now one of the cross terms, \n\\[\n\\langle (b^i D_i + D_i b^i) u^{in},v^{out} \\rangle = \\langle (2 b^i D_i  -i \\div  b) u^{in},v^{out} \\rangle.\n\\]\nThe proof for the other cross term will follow similarly.\nFor the $\\div \\ b$ term we use the $L^2$ bound for both $u^{in}$ and\n$v^{out}$, as in the case of $c$. For the rest we use \\eqref{l2uin}\nand \\eqref{l2uout} to estimate\n\\[\n|\\langle  b^i D_i  u^{in},v^{out} \\rangle| \\lesssim \\|u^{in}\\|_{\\dot H^1} \\| b\nv^{out}\\|_{L^2} \\lesssim \\|u\\|_{{X}} \\|v\\|_{{X}}.\n\\]\n\n Finally, consider the last term\n \\[\n\\langle (b^i D_i + D_i b^i) u^{in},v^{in} \\rangle.\n\\]\nIn dimension $n=1$, we can easily estimate it by\n\\[\n|\\langle (b^i D_i + D_i b^i) u^{in},v^{in} \\rangle| \\lesssim \\|u^{in}\\|_{\\dot\n  H^1} \\| \\langle x \\rangle^{-1} v^{in}\\|_{L^2} + \\|v^{in}\\|_{\\dot\n  H^1} \\| \\langle x\\rangle^{-1} u^{in}\\|_{L^2} \\lesssim \\|u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}} \\|v\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}}.\n\\]\nThis argument fails for $n=2$ due to the logarithmic factor in the\n$L^2$ weights. Instead we will take advantage of the\nspherical symmetry of both $u^{in}$ and $v^{in}$.\n\nIn polar coordinates we write\n\\[\nb^i D_i = b^r D_r + r^{-1} b^\\theta D_\\theta \n\\] \nand\n\\[\n\\div \\ b = \\partial_r b^r + r^{-1} b^r + r^{-1} \\partial_\\theta b^\\theta.\n\\]\nFor a function $b(r,\\theta)$, we denote $\\bar b(r)$ its spherical\naverage. By spherical symmetry, we compute\n\\[\n\\langle b^i D_i  u^{in},v^{in} \\rangle = \\langle  (b^r D_r + r^{-1} b^\\theta D_\\theta ) u^{in},v^{in} \\rangle\n=  \\langle D_r  u^{in},  \\bar{b^r} v^{in} \\rangle.\n\\]\nThen we can estimate\n\\[\n|\\langle (b^i D_i + D_i b^i) u^{in},v^{in} \\rangle| \\lesssim \\|u^{in}\\|_{\\dot\n  H^1} \\|  \\bar{b^r} v^{in}\\|_{L^2} + \\|v^{in}\\|_{\\dot H^1} \\|\\bar{b^r}u^{in}\\|_{L^2}\n\\lesssim \\|u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}} \\|v\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}}\n\\]\nprovided we are able to establish the improved bound\n\\begin{equation}\n| \\bar{b^r}(r)| \\lesssim \\langle r \\rangle^{-1}(\\ln (2+r))^{-1}.\n\\label{bbr}\\end{equation}\n\nFor this we take spherical averages in the divergence equation\nto obtain\n\\[\n \\partial_r \\bar b^r + r^{-1} \\bar b^r = \\overline{\\div \\ b}.\n\\]\nAt infinity we have $b(r) = o(r^{-1})$. Integrating from infinity\nwe obtain\n\\[\n \\bar b^r(r) = \\int_{r}^\\infty \\frac{s}{r}\\ \\overline{\\div \\ b}(s) ds.\n\\]\nHence\n\\[\n| \\bar b^r(r) | \\lesssim \\int_{r}^\\infty \\frac{s}{r} (1+s)^{-2}\n(\\ln(2+s))^{-2} ds\n\\]\nand \\eqref{bbr} follows.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\\bigskip\n\\newsection{Local smoothing estimates}\\label{smoothing.section}\n\nIn this section we prove our main local  smoothing estimates, \nfirst in the exterior region and then in the non-trapping case.\n\n\n\\subsection{The high dimensional case $n \\geq 3$: Proof of Theorem~\\ref{main.ls.theorem}}\nThe proof uses  energy estimates and the positive commutator\nmethod. This turns out to be rather delicate. The difficulty \nis that the trapping region acts essentially as a black box,\nwhere the energy is conserved but little else is known. \nHence all the local smoothing information has to be estimated \nstarting from infinity along rays of the Hamilton flow which are \n incoming either  forward or backward in time.\n\n\n\nWe begin with the energy estimate. This is standard\nif the right hand side is in $L^1_t L^2_x$, but we would like to allow \nthe right hand side to be in the dual smoothing space as well.\n\n\\begin{proposition}\nLet $u$ solve the equation\n\\begin{equation}\nD_t +A u = f_1 + f_2, \\qquad u(0) = u_0\n\\end{equation}\nin the time interval $[0,T]$. Then we have \n\\begin{equation}\n\\| u\\|_{L^\\infty_t L^2_x}^2 \\lesssim \\| u_0\\|_{L^2}^2 + \\| f_1\\|_{L^1_t L^2_x}^2\n+ \\| u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}_e} \\|f_2\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'_e}. \n\\label{eest}\\end{equation}\n\\end{proposition}\n\\begin{proof}\nThe proof is straightforward.  We compute\n\\[\n\\frac{d}{dt} \\frac12 \\|u(t)\\|_{L^2}^2 = \\Im \\langle u, f_1+f_2 \\rangle.\n\\]\nHence for each $t \\in [0,T]$ we have\n\\[\n\\| u(t)\\|_{L^2}^2 \\lesssim \\|u(0)\\|_{L^2}^2 + \\|u\\|_{L^\\infty_t L^2_x}\n\\| f_1\\|_{L^1_t L^2_x} +  \\| u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}_e} \\|f_2\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'_e}.\n\\]\nWe take the supremum over $t$ on the left and use bootstrapping\nfor the second term on the right.  The conclusion follows.\n\\end{proof}\n\nTo prove \\eqref{lsext} we need a complementary estimate,\nnamely  \n\\begin{equation}\n  \\| \\rho u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}}^2 \\lesssim \\| u\\|_{L^\\infty_t L^2_x}^2 + \n  \\| f_1\\|_{L^1_t L^2_x}^2 \n  +  \\|\\rho f_2\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'}^2 + \\| \\langle x \\rangle^{-2}  u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}^2. \n\\label{lsest}\\end{equation}\nGiven \\eqref{eest} and \\eqref{lsest}, the bound  \\eqref{lsext}\nis obtained by bootstrapping, with some careful balancing \nof constants. \n\nIt remains to prove \\eqref{lsest}. \nWe will use a positive commutator method.  We shall assume that $b=0$ and $c=0$.\nFor a self-adjoint operator\n$Q$, we have\n\\[\n2\\Im\\langle A u, Qu\\rangle = \\langle Cu,u\\rangle\n\\]\nwhere\n\\[\nC=i[A,Q].\n\\]\nAs a consequence of this, we see that\n\\[\n\\frac{d}{dt}\\langle u, Qu\\rangle = -2\\Im\\langle (D_t+A)u, Qu\\rangle + \\langle\nCu,u\\rangle.\n\\]\nTaking this into account, the estimate \\eqref{lsest} is an immediate\nconsequence of the following lemma.\n\n\\begin{proposition} \\label{Qprop}\n There is a family $\\mathcal Q$ of bounded self-adjoint operators $Q_\\rho$ with \nthe following properties:\n\n(i) $L^2$ boundedness,\n\\[\n\\|Q_\\rho\\|_{L^2 \\to L^2} \\lesssim  1\n\\]\n\n(ii) ${{\\tilde{X}}}$ boundedness,\n\\[\n|\\langle Q_\\rho u, f \\rangle | \\lesssim \\| \\rho f\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'} \\| \\rho u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}}\n\\]\n\n(iii) Positive commutator,\n\\[\n\\sup_{Q_\\rho \\in \\mathcal Q} \\langle Cu,u \\rangle \\geq  c_1 \\|\\rho u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}}^2 -\nc_2 \\|\\langle x\\rangle^{-2}  u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}^2.\n\\]\n\\end{proposition}\n\n\n  We first note that the condition (ii) shows that $Q_\\rho u$ is supported\n  in $\\{|x| > 2^M\\}$ and depends only on the values of $u$ in the same\n  region. Hence for the purpose of this proof we can modify the\n  operator $A$ arbitrarily in the inner region $\\{|x| < 2^M\\}$. In\n  particular we can improve the constant $\\kappa$ in \\eqref{coeff} to\n  the extent that \\eqref{coeff.M} holds globally. Similarly, we can\n  assume without any restriction in generality that $u = 0$ in $\\{|x|\n  < 2^M\\}$.  \n\nUsing (ii), we may argue similarly and assume that \\eqref{coeffb.M} and\n\\eqref{coeffc.M} hold globally if lower order terms are present. \nThe estimate \\eqref{bc} then justifies\n neglecting the \nlower order terms in $A$.  I.e., we may assume that $b=0$, $c=0$.\n\n\n\\begin{proof}\nThe main step in the proof of the proposition is to construct\nsome frequency localized versions of the operator $Q_\\rho $. Precisely,\nfor each $k \\in {\\mathbb Z}$ we produce a family ${\\mathcal Q}_k$ \nof operators $Q_k$, which we later use to construct $Q_\\rho $.\nWe consider two cases, depending on whether $k$ is positive or\nnegative.\n\n\nWe first introduce some variants of the spaces $X_k$.  Let $k \\in {\\mathbb Z}$ and\n$k^-=\\frac{|k|-k}{2}$ be its negative part. For any positive, slowly varying\nsequence $(\\alpha_m)|_{m\\geq k^-}$ with\n\\[\n\\sum_{k \\ge k^-}\\alpha_j =1, \\qquad \\alpha_{k^-} \\approx 1,\n\\]\nwe define the space $X_{k,\\alpha}$ with norm\n\\begin{align*}\n  \\|u\\|_{X_{k,\\alpha}}^2 &= 2^{-k^-} \\|u\\|^2_{L^2(A_{\\leq k^-})} +\n  \\sum_{j>k^-} \\alpha_j\\| |x|^{-1\/2} u\\|^2_{L^2(A_j)}.\n\\end{align*}\nThen our low frequency result has the form\n\\begin{lemma} \\label{lemma.low.freq} \nLet $n \\geq 1$ and $k<0$. Then for any slowly varying sequence $(\\alpha_m)$ with\n$\\alpha_{-k} \\approx 1$ and $\\sum_{m\\ge -k}\\alpha_m=1$, there\n  is a self-adjoint operator $Q_k$ so that\n\\begin{align}\n\\|Q_k u\\|_{L^2}&\\lesssim  \\|u\\|_{L^2},\\label{Q.L2.low}\\\\\n\\|Q_k u\\|_{X_{k,\\alpha}}&\\lesssim  \\|u\\|_{X_{k,\\alpha}},\\label{Q.X.low}\\\\\n\\langle C_k u, u\\rangle &\\gtrsim 2^{k} \\|u\\|^2_{X_{k,\\alpha}}, \\qquad \nC_k = i [ A_{(k)}, Q_k] \n\\label{C.low}\n\\end{align}\nfor all functions $u$ frequency localized at frequency $2^k$.\n\\end{lemma}\n\n\\begin{proof}\n  We argue exactly as in \\cite[Lemma 9]{T}. The only difference is\n  that here we work with the operator $A_{(k)}$ whose coefficients have\n  less regularity, but this turns out to be nonessential.\n \n  We first increase the sequence $(\\alpha_m)$ so that\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{new.alpha}\n\\begin{cases}\n(\\alpha_m)\\text{ remains slowly varying,}\\\\\n\\alpha_m = 1\\text{ for } m\\le -k \\\\\n\\displaystyle \\sum_{m>-k} \\alpha_m \\approx 1,\\\\\n\\kappa_m \\le \\epsilon \\alpha_{m}\\text{ for }  m > -k.\n\\end{cases}\n\\end{equation}\nTo this slowly varying sequence we may associate a slowly varying\nfunction $\\alpha(s)$ with\n\\[\n\\alpha(s)\\approx \\alpha_m,\\quad s\\approx 2^{m+k}.\n\\]\n\nWe construct an even smooth  symbol $\\phi$  of order $-1$ satisfying\n\\begin{align}\n\\phi(s)&\\approx \\langle s\\rangle^{-1},\\quad s>0 \\label{phi1}\\\\\n\\phi(s)+s\\phi'(s)&\\approx \\frac{\\alpha(s)}{\\langle s\\rangle},\\quad\ns>0.\\label{phi2} \t\n\\end{align}\nWe notice that the radial function $ S_{<10}(D)\\phi(|x|)$ satisfies\nthe same estimates; therefore without any restriction in generality we\nassume that $\\phi(|x|)$ is frequency localized in $|\\xi| < 2^{10}$.\n\nWe now define the self-adjoint multiplier\n\\[\nQ_k(x,D)= \\delta(Dx\\phi( 2^k \\delta |x|)+\\phi(2^k \\delta |x|)xD).\n\\]\nFor small $\\delta$ this takes frequency $2^k$ functions to frequency\n$2^k$ functions. The first property \\eqref{Q.L2.low} follows immediately.\n\\begin{comment}\n\\begin{com}\n  Indeed, this is easy since we are in $L^2$ and $\\phi_k$ preserves\n  the frequency support.  Thus, the $D$ introduces the $2^k$, and the\n  $\\delta |x| \\phi_k \\le 1$ by the first property of $\\phi$ above.\n\\end{com}\n\\end{comment}\nThe estimate \\eqref{Q.X.low} is also straightforward as the weight in\nthe $X_{k,\\alpha}$ norm is slowly varying on the dyadic scale.  It\nremains to prove \\eqref{C.low} for which we begin by computing the\ncommutator\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{C}\n\\begin{split}\nC_k =&\\  4\\delta D_i \\phi(2^k\\delta |x|)a^{ij}_{(k)}D_j \n\\\\ &\\ + 2^{k+1}\n\\delta^2 \\Bigl(Dx |x|^{-1}\\phi'(2^k \\delta |x|)\nx_i a^{ij}_{(k)} D_j + D_i a^{ij}_{(k)} x_j  |x|^{-1}\\phi'(2^k \\delta |x|)xD\\Bigr)\n\\\\ &\\ -2\\delta D_i\\phi(2^k \\delta |x|)(x_l\\partial_l a^{ij}_{(k)})D_j + \\partial_i(a^{ij}_{(k)}(\\partial_j \\partial(\n\\delta x\\phi(2^k \\delta |x|)))).\n\\end{split}\n\\end{equation}\nThe positive contribution comes from the first two terms. Replacing\n$a^{ij}_{(k)}$ by the identity leaves us with the principal part\n\\[\nC_k^0=4\\delta D \\phi(2^k\\delta |x|)D + 4\\delta D \\frac{x}{|x|} 2^k \n\\delta |x|\\phi'(2^k\\delta |x|)\\frac{x}{|x|}D\n\\]\nwhich by \\eqref{phi2} satisfies\n\\[\n\\langle C_k^0 u,u\\rangle \\ge 4\\delta \\langle (\\phi(2^k \\delta |x|)+2^k \\delta\n|x|\\phi'(2^k \\delta |x|))\\nabla u,\\nabla u\\rangle\n\\gtrsim \\delta 2^{2k}\\Bigl\\langle \\frac{\\alpha(2^k \\delta |x|)}{\\langle 2^k \\delta\n  x\\rangle}u,u\\Bigr\\rangle.\n\\]\nSince $a^{ij}_{(k)}(x)-\\delta^{ij} = O(\\kappa_k(|x|))$, the error we produce\nby substituting $a^{ij}_{(k)}$ by the identity has size\n\\[\n\\delta 2^{2k} \\left\\langle \\frac{\\kappa_k(|x|)}{\\langle 2^k \\delta x\\rangle}u,u\\right\\rangle.\n\\]\nIt remains to examine the last two terms in $C_k$.  Using\n\\eqref{coeffak.greater}, we see that\n\\[\n|\\delta \\phi(2^k \\delta |x|)(x_l\\partial_l a^{ij}_{(k)})|\\lesssim\n\\frac{\\delta\\kappa_k(|x|)}{\\langle 2^k \\delta x\\rangle}.\n\\]\nSo, the third term yields an error similar to the above one.\n\nFinally, \n\\[\n|\\partial_i(a^{ij}_{(k)}(\\partial_j\\partial(\\delta x\\phi(2^k \\delta |x|))))|\\lesssim\n\\frac{\\delta^3 2^{2k}}{\\langle 2^k\\delta x\\rangle^3}\\lesssim\n\\frac{\\delta^3 2^{2k} \\alpha(2^k \\delta |x|)}{\\langle 2^k \\delta x\\rangle},\n\\]\nwhich yields\n\\[\n\\langle\\partial_i(a^{ij}_{(k)}(\\partial_j\\partial\\delta x\\phi(2^k \\delta |x|)))u,u\\rangle\n\\lesssim \\delta^3 2^{2k} \\Bigl\\langle \\frac{\\alpha(2^k \\delta |x|)}{\\langle 2^k \\delta\n  x\\rangle} u,u\\Bigr\\rangle.\n\\]\n\nSumming up, we have proved that\n\\begin{equation}\n\\langle C_ku,u\\rangle \\geq c_1 \\delta 2^{2k}\\Bigl\\langle \\frac{\\alpha(2^k \\delta |x|)}{\\langle 2^k \\delta\n  x\\rangle}u,u\\Bigr\\rangle\\!  - c_2 \\delta^3 2^{2k}\n\\Bigl\\langle \\frac{\\alpha(2^k \\delta |x|)}{\\langle 2^k \\delta\n  x\\rangle} u,u\\Bigr\\rangle \\!- c_3 \\delta 2^{2k} \\left\\langle \\frac{\\kappa_k(|x|)}{\\langle 2^k \\delta x\\rangle}u,u\\right\\rangle.\n\\label{lowcom}\\end{equation}\nIn order to absorb the second term into the first we need to know that\n$\\delta$ is sufficiently small. This determines the choice of $\\delta$\nas a small universal constant. In order to absorb the third term into\nthe first we use the last part of \\eqref{new.alpha} and the fact that \n$\\alpha$ is slowly varying on the dyadic scale to estimate\n\\[\n\\kappa(|x|) \\lesssim \\epsilon \\alpha(2^k |x|) \\lesssim \\delta^{-1}\n\\epsilon \\alpha(2^k \\delta |x|).\n\\]\nThus the third term is negligible if $\\epsilon \\ll \\delta$. This\ndetermines the choice of $\\epsilon$ in \\eqref{coeff.M},\n\\eqref{coeffb.M} and \\eqref{coeffc.M}.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\nWe continue with the result for high frequencies.\n\n\n\\begin{lemma}\n\\label{lemma.high.freq}\nLet $n \\geq 1$ and $k \\geq 0$. Then for any  sequence $(\\alpha_m)$ with\n$\\alpha_0=1$ and $\\sum_{m\\ge 0} \\alpha_m=1$  there\nis a self-adjoint operator $Q_k$ so that\n\\begin{align}\n\\|Q_k u\\|_{L^2} &\\lesssim \\|u\\|_{L^2},\\label{Q.L2.high}\\\\\n\\|Q_k u\\|_{X_{k,\\alpha}} \n&\\lesssim  \\|u\\|_{X_{k,\\alpha}},\\label{Q.X.high}\\\\\n\\langle C_k u,u\\rangle &\\gtrsim 2^{k}\\| u\\|^2_{X_{k,\\alpha}}\n, \\qquad \nC_k = i [ A_{(k)}, Q_k],\n\\label{C.high}\\\\\n2\\Im\\langle[A_{(k)},\\rho_{<k}]u,Q_k \\rho_{<k} u\\rangle &\\lesssim 2^{-k} \\|\\langle\nx\\rangle^{-2} u\\|^2_{L^2_{t,x}} \n\\label{com.high}\n\\end{align}\nfor all functions $u$ frequency localized at frequency $2^k$.  Here, $\\rho_{<k}=S_{<k-4}\\rho$ where\n$\\rho$ is as in the definition of ${{\\tilde{X}}}_e$.\n\\end{lemma}\n\n\\begin{proof}\nWe replace the sequence $(\\alpha_m)$ by a larger one satisfying\nan analogue of \\eqref{new.alpha}, namely \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{new.alpha.high}\n\\begin{cases}\n(\\alpha_m)\\text{ is slowly varying,}\\\\\n\\alpha_0 = 1 \\\\\n\\displaystyle \\sum_{m\\geq 0} \\alpha_m \\approx 1,\\\\\n\\kappa_m \\le \\epsilon \\alpha_{m}\\text{ for }  m \\geq 0,\n\\end{cases}\n\\end{equation}\nand let $\\alpha$ be a slowly varying function satisfying\n\\[\n\\alpha(s) \\approx \\alpha_m, \\qquad s \\approx 2^m.\n\\]\nWe  construct $\\phi$ as in the low frequency case\nso that  \\eqref{phi1} and \\eqref{phi2} are satisfied.\nThen we set\n\\[\nQ_k=2^{-k} \\delta(D_ia^{ij}_{(k)}x_j\\phi(\\delta|x|)+\n\\phi(\\delta|x|)a^{ij}_{(k)}x_iD_j).\n\\]\nThis choice is not very different from the one in the low frequency\ncase. The metric $a^{ij}$ is inserted in order to insure a crucial\nsign condition in the proof \\eqref{com.high}.\n\nThe first property, \\eqref{Q.L2.high}, is immediate from the\nproperties of $\\phi$ and \\eqref{coeffak.greater}.  The bound\n\\eqref{Q.X.high} is also straightforward since the coefficients\n $a^{ij}_{(k)}$ are bounded.\n\n {\\bf Proof of \\eqref{C.high}:} In order to prove \\eqref{C.high}, we\n calculate (using the symmetry of $a^{ij}$)\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{C.high.calc} \\begin{split}\nC_k=&\\delta 2^{-k}\\Bigl[2D_l a^{lm}_{(k)}\\partial_m(a^{ij}_{(k)}x_j \\phi(\\delta|x|))D_i\n+2D_i\\partial_l(a^{ij}_{(k)}x_j\\phi(\\delta |x|))a^{lm}_{(k)}D_m\n\\\\&-2D_l\\partial_i(a^{lm}_{(k)})a^{ij}_{(k)}x_j\\phi(\\delta |x|)D_m - \\partial_l(a^{lm}_{(k)}\n\\partial_i\\partial_m(a^{ij}_{(k)} x_j \\phi(\\delta |x|)))\n\\Bigr].\n\\end{split}\\end{equation}\nThe main positive contribution is obtained by substituting\n$a$ by $I_n$ in the first two terms,\n\\[\n\\begin{split}\nC_k^0 = &\\ 2^{-k}\\delta \\left[2D_l \\partial_l (x_i \\phi(\\delta|x|))D_i\n+2D_i\\partial_l(x_i\\phi(\\delta |x|)) D_l\\right]\n\\\\ =  &\\ 4\\cdot  2^{-k}\\delta \\left[ D \\phi(\\delta |x|)D +  D\n  \\frac{x}{|x|} \\delta |x|\\phi'(\\delta |x|)\\frac{x}{|x|}D \\right].\n\\end{split}\n\\]\nAs in the low frequency case, this satisfies\n\\[\n\\langle C_k^0 u,u\\rangle \\gtrsim \\delta 2^{k} \\left\\langle\n\\frac{\\alpha(\\delta |x|)}{\\langle \\delta |x|\\rangle}u,u \\right\\rangle\n\\]\nfor any function $u$ localized at frequency $2^k$.  The other\ncontributions are shown to be smaller error terms. Consider for\ninstance the error made by substituting $a^{ij}_{(k)}$ by $I_n$ in the first\nterm. By  \\eqref{coeffak.greater}, we  can estimate\n\\[\n| a^{lm}_{(k)}\\partial_m (a^{ij}_{(k)} x_j \\phi(\\delta |x|)) -\n \\delta^{lm} \\partial_m (\\delta^{ij} x_j \\phi(\\delta |x|)) |\\lesssim\n\\frac{\\kappa_k(|x|)}{\\langle \\delta x\\rangle}\n\\]\nwhich contributes to $\\langle C_k u,u \\rangle$ an error of size\n\\[\n \\delta 2^{k} \\left\\langle\n\\frac{\\kappa_k (|x|)}{\\langle \\delta x\\rangle}u,u \\right\\rangle.\n\\]\nA similar contribution comes from the second term and the third \nterm. Finally, for the last term in $C$ we have\n\\[\n|\\partial_l(a^{lm}_{(k)}\\partial_i\\partial_m(a^{ij}_{(k)}x_j\\phi_k(\\delta|x|)))|\n\\lesssim\n\\frac{2^k \\kappa_k(|x|)}{\\langle x \\rangle \\langle \\delta x\\rangle} +\n\\frac{\\delta^2}{\\langle \\delta x\\rangle^3} \\lesssim \\frac{2^k \\kappa_k(|x|)}\n{ \\langle \\delta x\\rangle} +\n\\frac{\\delta^2\\alpha(\\delta |x|)}{\\langle \\delta x\\rangle}\n\\]\nwhich yields an error of size\n\\[\n \\delta \\left\\langle\n\\frac{\\kappa (|x|)}{\\langle \\delta x\\rangle}u,u \\right\\rangle + \\delta^3 2^{-k} \\left\\langle\n\\frac{\\alpha (\\delta|x|)}{\\langle \\delta x\\rangle}u,u \\right\\rangle.\n\\]\nSumming up we have proved that\n\\begin{equation}\n\\langle C_k u,u\\rangle \\geq c_1 \\delta 2^{k}\\Bigl\\langle \n\\frac{\\alpha( \\delta |x|)}{\\langle \\delta x\\rangle}u,u\\Bigr\\rangle - \nc_2 \\delta^3 2^{-k}\\Bigl\\langle \\frac{\\alpha(\\delta |x|)}{\\langle \\delta x\\rangle}\nu,u\\Bigr\\rangle - \nc_3 \\delta 2^{k} \\left\\langle \\frac{\\kappa(|x|)}{\\langle  \\delta x\\rangle}u,u\\right\\rangle.\n\\end{equation}\nChoosing $\\delta$ small enough (independently of $(\\alpha_m)$ and $k$),\nthe second term on the right is negligible compared to the first.\nSince $\\alpha$ is slowly varying, by \\eqref{new.alpha.high} the last\nterm is also negligible provided that $\\epsilon$ is sufficiently\nsmall. Hence \\eqref{C.high} follows.\n\n{\\bf Proof of \\eqref{com.high}:} We \ndenote by $L$ the self-adjoint operator\n\\[\nL = x_i a^{ij}_{(k)} D_j + D_i a^{ij}_{(k)} x_j\n\\]\nand begin by calculating\n\\[\n\\begin{split}\n\\frac{1}i  [A_{(k)},\\rho_{<k}]&\\ =-D_ia^{ij}_{(k)}(\\partial_j\\rho_{<k})\n - a^{ij}_{(k)} (\\partial_i \\rho_{<k})D_j.\n\\\\ &\\ = -  |x|^{-1} \\rho'_{<k}  L + i x_i a^{ij}_{(k)} \\partial_j\n(|x|^{-1}   \\rho'_{<k})\n\\end{split}\n\\]\nand\n\\[\n2^k Q_k \\rho_{<k} =   \\delta \\rho_{<k}  \\phi(\\delta |x|) L   -  i  x_i   a^{ij}_{(k)}\n(\\rho_{<k} \\partial_j \\phi(\\delta |x|) + 2 \\phi(\\delta |x|) \\partial_j\\rho_{<k}).\n\\] \nThus, after one integration by parts we obtain\n\\begin{multline}\\label{com.expanded}\n2^k \\Im\\langle [A_{(k)}, \\rho_{<k}]u,Q\\rho_{<k} u\\rangle \n= -\\delta \\int |x|^{-1}  {\\rho'_{<k}} \\phi(\\delta |x|)\n\\rho_{<k}  |L u|^2 dx dt\n+ \\int V |u|^2 dx dt\n\\end{multline}\nwhere the scalar function $V$ is given by \n\\[\n\\begin{split}\nV =&\\ (x_i a^{ij}_{(k)} \\partial_j + \\partial_i a^{ij}_{(k)}x_j) \\left( \\rho_{<k}  \\phi(\\delta |x|) \n x_l a^{lm}_{(k)} \\partial_m\n(|x|^{-1}   \\rho'_{<k}) \\right)\n\\\\ &\\ +\n  (x_i a^{ij}_{(k)} \\partial_j+\\partial_i a^{ij}_{(k)} x_j)  \\left(  |x|^{-1} \\rho'_{<k}    x_l   a^{lm}_{(k)}\n(\\rho_{<k} \\partial_m \\phi(\\delta |x|) + 2 \\phi(\\delta |x|) \\partial_m\\rho_{<k})  \\right)\n\\\\ &\\ - \\left(\n x_i a^{ij}_{(k)} \\partial_j\n(|x|^{-1}   \\rho'_{<k}) \\right)\n\\left(     x_l   a^{lm}_{(k)}\n[\\rho_{<k} \\partial_m \\phi(\\delta |x|) + 2 \\phi(\\delta |x|) \\partial_m\\rho_{<k}]\\right). \n\\end{split}\n\\]\nMorally speaking, the first term in \\eqref{com.expanded} is negative\nand can be dropped.  This is true modulo the tails that are introduced\nby the frequency cutoff which is applied to $\\rho$.  Since\n\\[\n|r^{-1} (\\rho'(r) - \\rho'_{<k}(r))| \\lesssim 2^{-Nk} \\langle r\\rangle^{-N},\n\\]\n the error is estimated by\n\\[\n 2^{-Nk} \\|\\langle x \\rangle^{-2} u\\|^2_{L^2_{t,x}}.\n\\]\nOn the other hand the weight $V$ is bounded and rapidly decreasing at\ninfinity,\n\\[\n|V| \\lesssim \\langle x\\rangle^{-N},\n\\]\nfrom which \\eqref{com.high} follows.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\nWe now return to the proof of Proposition~\\ref{Qprop}.  We choose $Q_\\rho $\nof the form\n\\[\nQ_\\rho  = \\sum_{k=-\\infty}^\\infty \\rho S_k Q_k S_k   \\rho\n\\]\nwhere for each $k$ we have an $L^2$ bounded self-adjoint operator \nlocalized at frequency $2^k$. \n\nThe $L^2$ boundedness of $Q_\\rho $ follows from the $L^2$ boundedness\nof $Q_k$, and the ${{\\tilde{X}}}$ boundedness of $Q_\\rho $ follows from the \n$X_{k,\\alpha}$ boundedness of $Q_k$ after optimizing in $\\alpha$. \nIt remains to consider the commutator \n$C$. We write\n\\[\nC = i \\sum_k [A, \\rho S_k Q_k S_k   \\rho ].\n\\]\nWe first replace $A$ by $A_{(k)}$ and $\\rho$ by $\\rho_{<k}$\nfor $k > 0$ and by $1$ for $k < 0$. This generates error terms\nwhich we need to estimate. \n\n\nIf $k < 0$ then these error terms are estimated\nas follows.  We first want to substitute $A$ by $A_{(k)}$, and as such, we see errors of the\nform\n\\begin{equation}\\label{error1}\n |\\langle [A,\\rho]u,\\sum_{k<0} S_k Q_k S_k \\rho u\\rangle|\n+ |\\sum_{k<0} \\langle (A-A_{(k)})\\rho u, S_k Q_k S_k \\rho u\\rangle|.\n\\end{equation}\nFor the first term, we use \\eqref{Q.X.low} (after optimizing in $\\alpha$)\n\\[\n\\begin{split}\n|\\langle [A,\\rho]u, \\sum_{k<0}S_k Q_k S_k \\rho u\\rangle|&\\lesssim\n|\\langle -2iD_i a^{ij}(\\partial_j \\rho) u + \\partial_j((\\partial_i \\rho)a^{ij})u,\\sum_{k<0}S_k Q_k S_k \\rho u\\rangle|\\\\\n&\\lesssim \\|u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}(2^{M}< |x|< 2^{M+1})} \\|\\sum_{k<0}S_k Q_k S_k \\rho u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}(\\{\n2^{M}<|x|<2^{M+1}\\})}\\\\\n&\\lesssim \\|\\langle x\\rangle^{-2} u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}} \\|\\sum_{k<0} S_k Q_k S_k \\rho u\\|_{{X}}\\\\\n&\\lesssim \\|\\langle x\\rangle^{-2} u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}} \\|\\rho u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}}.\n\\end{split}\n\\]\nFor the second term in \\eqref{error1}, we use \\eqref{aak} and \\eqref{Q.X.low} to see that\n\\[\n\\begin{split}\n  |\\sum_{k<0} \\langle (A-A_{(k)})\\rho u, S_k Q_k S_k \\rho u\\rangle|&\\lesssim\n\\Bigl(\\sum 2^{-k} \\|S_k(A-A_{(k)})\\rho u\\|^2_{X'_k}\\Bigr)^{\\frac12} \\|\\rho u\\|_{{X}}\\\\\n&\\lesssim \\epsilon \\|\\rho u\\|^2_{{{\\tilde{X}}}}. \n\\end{split}\n\\]\nFor the remaining errors, we use the fact that $A_{(k)}$ preserves\nlocalizations at frequency $2^k$ combined with\n\\eqref{coeffak.greater}, and \\eqref{Q.L2.low} to see that\n\\[\n\\begin{split}\n  |\\sum_{k<0} \\langle A_{(k)} (1-\\rho) u, S_k Q_k S_k \\rho u\\rangle|\n&\\lesssim \\|\\langle x\\rangle^{-2} u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}} \\|\\langle x\\rangle^2 \\sum_{k<0} S_k Q_k S_k A_{(k)} (1-\\rho)u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}\\\\\n&\\lesssim \\|\\langle x\\rangle^{-2} u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}} \\|(1-\\rho)u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}\n\\end{split}\n\\]\nand respectively,\n\\[\n\\begin{split}\n  |\\sum_{k<0} \\langle A_{(k)} u, S_k Q_k S_k (1-\\rho)u\\rangle|&\\lesssim\n\\|\\langle x\\rangle^{-2} u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}\\|\\langle x\\rangle^2 A_{(k)} \\sum_{k<0}S_k Q_k S_k (1-\\rho)u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}\\\\\n&\\lesssim \\|\\langle x\\rangle^{-2} u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}} \\|(1-\\rho)u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}.\n\\end{split}\n\\]\nIn both formulas above the last step is achieved by commuting the\n$x^2$ factor to the right, where it is absorbed by the $(1-\\rho)$\nfactor.  The two possible commutators may yield an extra $2^{-2k}$\nfactor, which is compensated for by the two derivatives in $A_{(k)}$.\n\n\nOn the other hand if $k \\geq 0$ then we have the bound\n\\[\n| \\rho - \\rho_{<k}| \\lesssim 2^{-Nk} \\langle x \\rangle^{-N}.\n\\]\nThis estimate clearly provides summability in $k$, and \nthe control for the correction terms similar to the\nabove ones follows from analogous arguments.  The terms, e.g., of the form\n$\\|(1-\\rho)u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}$ are simply replaced by \n$\\|\\langle x\\rangle^{-2} u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}$.\n\n\nHence we are left with the modified commutator\n\\[\n\\tilde C =  i \\sum_{k < 0}  [A_{(k)}, S_k Q_k S_k  ]+ i\n\\sum_{k \\geq 0}  [A_{(k)}, \\rho_{<k} S_k Q_k S_k   \\rho_{<k} ]\n\\]\nwhere all terms are now frequency localized.  The first term is rewritten\nin the form\n\\[\n i[A_{(k)}, S_k Q_k S_k  ] =  i[A_{(k)}, S_k] Q_k S_k + iS_k Q_k [A_{(k)},\n S_k] + S_k C_k S_k.\n\\]\nFor the first two terms we use the commutator estimate \\eqref{comak} and the\n$X_k$ boundedness of $Q_k$ \\eqref{Q.X.low}.  We can, thus,\nbound the corresponding inner products by \n\\[\n\\epsilon \\|\\rho u\\|^2_{{{\\tilde{X}}}} + \\epsilon \\|(1-\\rho) u\\|^2_{L^2_{t,x}}. \n\\]\nFor the third term, we shall use \\eqref{C.low}.\n\nNext we consider the high frequency terms in $C$,\n\\begin{multline*}\n [A_{(k)}, \\rho_{<k} S_k Q_k S_k   \\rho_{<k} ] = \n  \\rho_{<k} [A_{(k)}, S_k Q_k S_k]   \\rho_{<k}  +  \n [A_{(k)}, \\rho_{<k}] S_k Q_k S_k   \\rho_{<k} \\\\+\n \\rho_{<k} S_k Q_k S_k [A_{(k)}, \\rho_{<k}].\n\\end{multline*}\nThe first term is treated as above but using \\eqref{C.high} instead.\nFor the remaining two terms we commute both outside factors inside.\nThis yields a main contribution which is estimated by \\eqref{com.high},\n\\[\n\\begin{split}\n2 \\Im \\langle  [A_{(k)}, \\rho_{<k}] S_k u,  Q_k \\rho_{<k} S_k u \\rangle\n&\\ \\lesssim 2^{-k} \\| \\langle x\\rangle^{-2} S_k u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}^2. \n\\end{split}\n\\]\nThe remaining terms involve an extra commutation which kills the\nremaining derivative in $A_{(k)}$. Also $ \\rho_{<k}$ is differentiated,\nwhich yields rapid decay at infinity. Hence we can bound them by \n\\[\n\\| \\langle x \\rangle^{-2} S_k u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}^2.\n\\]\n\n\nSumming up, we have proved that\n\\[\n\\begin{split}\n\\langle C u, u \\rangle \\geq &\\ c_1\\left( \\sum_{k < 0} 2^k \\|   S_k\n  u\\|_{X_{k.\\alpha(k)}}^2 + \\sum_{k > 0} 2^k \\|   S_k \\rho_{<k}\n  u\\|_{X_{k,\\alpha(k)}}^2 \\right)\n\\\\ &\\\n- c_2 \\left( \\|\\langle x \\rangle^{-2}\nu\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}^2+ \n\\epsilon\\|\\rho u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}}^2 \\right)\n\\end{split}\n\\]\nwhere for each $k$ we have used a different $\\alpha$ denoted by\n$\\alpha(k)$. Optimizing with respect to all choices of $\\alpha(k)$ we\nobtain\n\\[\n\\begin{split}\n\\langle C u, u \\rangle \\geq &\\ c_1\\left( \\sum_{k < 0} 2^k \\|   S_k\n  u\\|_{X_{k}}^2 + \\sum_{k > 0} 2^k \\|   S_k \\rho_{ < k}\n  u\\|_{X_{k}}^2 \\right)\n\\\\ &\\\n- c_2 \\left( \\|\\langle x \\rangle^{-2}u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}^2 + \n\\epsilon\n\\|\\rho u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}}^2 \\right)\n\\end{split}\n\\]\nwhich for $\\epsilon$ sufficiently small yields part (iii) of the proposition. \n\\end{proof}\n\n\\subsection{The non-resonant low dimensional case $n=1,2$:  Proof of\n  Theorem~\\ref{main.ls.theorem}}\n\n Almost all the arguments\nin the high dimensional case apply also in low dimension. The only\ndifference arises in part (ii) of Proposition \\ref{Qprop}. Since\nthe multiplication by $\\rho$ is bounded in both ${{\\tilde{X}}}$ and ${{\\tilde{X}}}'$,\nthe property (ii) reduces to proving that\n\\[\n\\sum_{k=-\\infty}^\\infty S_k Q_k S_k : {{\\tilde{X}}} \\to {{\\tilde{X}}}.\n\\]\nIn dimension $n \\geq 3$ the ${{\\tilde{X}}}$ norm is described in terms of the\n$X_k$ norms of its dyadic pieces, and the above property follows\nfrom the $X_k$ boundedness of $Q_k$ at frequency $2^k$. \n\nHowever, in dimension $n=1,2$ the ${{\\tilde{X}}}$ norm also has a weighted $L^2$\ncomponent. The high frequency part $k \\geq 0$ of the above sum causes\nno difficulty, but the low frequency part does. We do know that\n\\[\n\\sum_{k=-\\infty}^0 S_k Q_k S_k : {X} \\to {X}.\n\\]\nTherefore, due to Lemma~\\ref{txdx}, it would remain to prove that\n\\[\n\\Bigl\\|  \\sum_{k=-\\infty}^0 S_k Q_k S_k u\\Bigr\\|_{L^2_{t,x}(\\{|x| \\leq 1\\})} \\lesssim\n\\|u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}}.\n\\]\nUnfortunately, the operators $S_k Q_k S_k$ act on the $2^{-k}$ spatial\nscale; therefore without any additional cancellation there is no\nreason to expect a good control of the output in a bounded region. The\naim of the next few paragraphs is to replace the above low frequency\nsum by a closely related expression which exhibits the desired\ncancellation property.\n\nFirst of all, it is convenient to replace the discrete parameter $k$\nby a continuous one $\\sigma$. The operators $S_\\sigma$ are defined in\nthe same way as $S_k$ by scaling. Let $\\phi_k$ be the functions in\nLemma~\\ref{lemma.low.freq}.  The functions $\\phi_\\sigma$ are defined\nfrom $\\phi_k$ using a partition of unity on the unit scale in $\\sigma$.\nThe normalization we need is very simple, namely $\\phi_k(0) = 1$,\nwhich leads to $\\phi_{\\sigma}(0) = 1$. The operators $Q_\\sigma$ are\ndefined in a similar way. Then it is natural to substitute\n\\[\n \\sum_{k=-\\infty}^0 S_k Q_k S_k  \\to \\int_{-\\infty}^0  S_\\sigma\n Q_\\sigma S_\\sigma d\\sigma\n\\]\nand all the estimates for the second sum carry over identically\nfrom the discrete sum.\n\nHowever, the desired cancellation is still not present in the second\nsum. To obtain that we consider a spherically symmetric Schwartz function \n$\\phi^0$ localized at frequency $\\ll 1$ with $\\phi^0(0) = 1$. \nThen we write $\\phi_\\sigma$ in the form\n\\[\n\\phi_\\sigma(x) = \\phi^0(x) + x^2 \\psi_\\sigma(x).\n\\]\n\nThe modified self-adjoint operators ${{\\tilde{Q}}}_\\sigma$ are defined as \n\\[\n{{\\tilde{Q}}}_\\sigma =  S_\\sigma Q_{\\sigma,\\phi^0}  S_\\sigma + 2^{2\\sigma} \\delta^2 x S_\\sigma\nQ_{\\sigma,\\psi_\\sigma}  S_\\sigma x\n\\]\nwhere, as in Lemma~\\ref{lemma.low.freq}, we set\n\\[\nQ_{\\sigma,\\phi} =  \\delta(Dx\\phi( 2^\\sigma \\delta |x|)+\\phi(2^\\sigma \\delta |x|)xD).\n\\]\n\nWe claim that the conclusion of Proposition~\\ref{Qprop} is valid with\nthe operator $Q$ defined as \n\\begin{equation}\nQ_\\rho  = \\rho Q \\rho, \\qquad Q = \\int_{-\\infty}^0 {{\\tilde{Q}}}_\\sigma d\\sigma +  \\sum_{k=0}^\\infty S_k Q_k S_k. \n\\label{qlowd}\n\\end{equation}\nThe family $\\mathcal Q$ is obtained as before by allowing the\nchoice of the functions $\\phi_k$ to depend on the slowly varying\nsequences $(\\alpha^\\sigma_{j})_{j \\in {\\mathbb N}}$ which are chosen\nindependently\\footnote{In effect, without any restriction in generality,\n  one may also assume that $\\alpha^\\sigma_{j}$ is also slowly varying\n  with respect to $\\sigma$} for different $k$.\n\nThere is no change in part (i) of Proposition~\\ref{Qprop}. For part\n(ii) we need to prove that\n\\begin{equation} \\label{qtx}\n\\left\\| Q  u \\right \\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}} \\lesssim \\|u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}}.\n\\end{equation}\nThe high frequencies are estimated directly from the ${X}$ norm;\ntherefore we have to consider the integral term in $Q$ and show that\n\\[\n\\left\\| \\int_{-\\infty}^0  {{\\tilde{Q}}}_\\sigma  u\\, d\\sigma\\right \\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}} \\lesssim \\|u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}}.\n\\]\n\nThe ${X}$ component of the ${{\\tilde{X}}}$ norm is easily estimated by Littlewood-Paley\ntheory, so due to Lemma~\\ref{txdx}, it would remain to prove the local\n$L^2$ bound\n\\begin{equation}\\label{quo}\n\\left\\| \\int_{-\\infty}^0  {{\\tilde{Q}}}_\\sigma  u d\\sigma\\right \\|_{L^2_{t,x}(\\{|x| \\leq 1\\})} \\lesssim\n\\|u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}}.\n\\end{equation}\n\nWe can neglect the time variable in the sequel.\nWe have the $L^2$ bound\n\\[\n\\| {{\\tilde{Q}}}_{\\sigma} u\\|_{X_\\sigma} \\lesssim\n \\|  S_\\sigma u\\|_{X_\\sigma}\n\\]\nwhich leads to \n\\[\n\\| \\nabla {{\\tilde{Q}}}_{\\sigma} u\\|_{X_\\sigma} \\lesssim\n2^{\\sigma} \\| S_\\sigma u\\|_{X_\\sigma}\n\\]\nand the corresponding pointwise bound\n\\[\n\\|  \\nabla {{\\tilde{Q}}}_{\\sigma} u\\|_{L^\\infty (A_{<-\\sigma})} \\lesssim\n2^{\\frac{n+1}2 \\sigma } \\|  S_\\sigma u\\|_{X_\\sigma}\n\\]\nwhich establishes the convergence and the bound for the corresponding integral\n\\[\n\\left\\| \\int_{-\\infty}^0   \\nabla {{\\tilde{Q}}}_{\\sigma} u\\,d\\sigma \\right\\|_{L^\\infty(A_{<0})} \\lesssim\n\\| S_{\\leq 0} u\\|_{{X}}.\n\\]\nHence in order to prove \\eqref{quo} it remains to establish a similar\nbound for the integral at $x=0$. Assume first that $u \\in L^2$, which\narguing as above guarantees the uniform convergence of the integral.\nDenoting by $K_\\sigma$ the kernel of $S_\\sigma$ we have\n\\[\n\\begin{split}\n({{\\tilde{Q}}}_{\\sigma} u)(0) = &\\  (S_\\sigma Q_{\\sigma,\\phi^0}  S_\\sigma) u(0) \n\\\\\n= &\\ \\langle K_\\sigma, Q_{\\sigma,\\phi^0}  S_\\sigma u \\rangle\n=  \\langle Q_{\\sigma,\\phi^0} K_\\sigma, S_\\sigma u \\rangle \n\\\\ \n= & \\ \\int Q_{\\sigma,\\phi^0}(x,D_x) K_\\sigma(x)  \\int  K_\\sigma(x-y) u(y) dy\ndx\n\\\\ =&\\ (S_\\sigma^1 u)(0)\n\\end{split}\n\\]\nwhere $S_\\sigma^1$ is the frequency localized multiplier with\nspherically symmetric Schwartz kernel\n\\[\nK_\\sigma^1 = Q_{\\sigma,\\phi^0}(x,D_x) K_\\sigma * K_\\sigma.\n\\]\nDue to the frequency localization we can define\n\\[\nS_{<0}^1 = \\int_{-\\infty}^{0} S_\\sigma^1 d \\sigma.\n\\]\nThe punch line is that by construction the operators $S_\\sigma^1$ have\nthe same kernel up to the appropriate rescaling. This implies that the\nsymbols of $S_{<0}^1$ are constant for $|\\xi| \\leq\n2^{-4}$.  Hence both the symbols and the kernels\n$K_{<0}^1$ of $S_{<0}^1$ are Schwartz functions which\ncoincide modulo rescaling. Hence for all functions $u \\in L^2$ we have\n\\[\n\\int_{-\\infty}^0  {{\\tilde{Q}}}_{\\sigma} u (0) d\\sigma = \\langle K_{<0}^1, u\\rangle\n\\]\nwhich leads to the estimate\n\\[\n\\left | \\int_{-\\infty}^0  ({{\\tilde{Q}}}_\\sigma  u)(0) d\\sigma\\right| \\lesssim\n\\|u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}}.\n\\]\nThis completes the proof of the estimate \\eqref{quo} for all $u \\in\nL^2$, and, by density, shows that the integral\n\\[\n\\int_{-\\infty}^0   {{\\tilde{Q}}}_\\sigma d\\sigma\n\\]\nhas a unique bounded extension to ${{\\tilde{X}}}$.\n\nIt remains to prove part (iii) of Proposition~\\ref{Qprop}. If\n${{\\tilde{Q}}}_\\sigma$ is replaced by $S_\\sigma Q_\\sigma S_\\sigma$ then the high\ndimensional argument applies by simply replacing sums with integrals.\nHence it remains to estimate the difference. Commuting we obtain\n\\[\n{{\\tilde{Q}}}_\\sigma - S_\\sigma Q_\\sigma S_\\sigma =  i \\delta^2 2^{2\\sigma} \\left( S'_\\sigma\nQ_{\\sigma,\\psi} x S_\\sigma - S_\\sigma x Q_{\\sigma,\\psi}   \nS'_\\sigma  -   S'_\\sigma Q_{\\sigma,\\psi} S'_\\sigma (D) \\right).\n\\]\nCommuting again to take advantage of the cancellation between the\nfirst two terms, by semiclassical pdo calculus we can write\n\\[\n{{\\tilde{Q}}}_\\sigma - S_\\sigma Q_\\sigma S_\\sigma = \\delta^2 R_\\sigma (2^\\sigma\n\\delta x, 2^{-\\sigma} D)\n\\]\nwhere the symbol $r_\\sigma(y,\\eta)$  is localized in $\\{ |\\eta|\n\\approx 1\\}$ and satisfies\n\\[\n|\\partial_y^\\alpha \\partial_\\eta^\\beta r_\\sigma(y,\\eta)| \\leq\nc_{\\alpha \\beta} \\langle y \\rangle^{-2}.\n\\]\nThis implies the bound\n\\[\n\\| ({{\\tilde{Q}}}_\\sigma - S_\\sigma Q_\\sigma S_\\sigma) u \\|_{X'_\\sigma} \\lesssim\n\\delta^2 2^{-\\sigma} \\|S_\\sigma u\\|_{X_\\sigma}. \n\\]\nTherefore without any commuting we obtain\n\\[\n| \\langle [{{\\tilde{Q}}}_\\sigma - S_\\sigma Q_\\sigma S_\\sigma,A_{(\\sigma)}] u,u\\rangle |\n\\lesssim \\delta^2 \\| u \\|_{{X}}^2.\n\\]\nThis error is negligible since, as one can note in the proofs of\nLemmas~\\ref{lemma.low.freq}, \\ref{lemma.high.freq},\n the constant $c_1$ in (iii)  has size $c_1 = O(\\delta)$.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n \\subsection{The resonant low dimensional case $n=1,2$: Proof of\n   \\ref{main.ls.theorem.res}}\n\nThe proof follows the same outline as in the non-resonant case, with minor\nmodifications. The energy estimate \\eqref{eest} is now replaced\nby \n\\begin{equation}\n\\| u\\|_{L^\\infty_t L^2_x}^2 \\lesssim \\| u_0\\|_{L^2}^2 + \\| f_1\\|_{L^1_t L^2_x}^2\n+ \\| u\\|_{{X}_e} \\|f_2\\|_{{X}'_e}. \n\\label{eest.res}\\end{equation}\nInstead of the exterior smoothing estimate \\eqref{lsest},\nwe need to prove\n\\begin{equation}\n  \\| T_\\rho u\\|_{{X}}^2 \\lesssim \\| u\\|_{L^\\infty_t L^2_x}^2 + \n  \\| f_1\\|_{L^1_t L^2_x}^2 \n  +  \\|T_\\rho f_2\\|_{{X}'}^2 + \\| \\langle x \\rangle^{-2}  (u-u_\\rho) \\|_{L^2_{t,x}}^2.\n\\label{lsest.res}\\end{equation}\nThe estimate \\eqref{lsext.res} then follows from the previous two estimates as\nwell as \\eqref{dXerror}.\n\nThe lower order terms will still be negligible.  Indeed, letting\n$B=2b^i D_i$, we have\n\\[\n T_\\rho Bu =  B T_\\rho u - (B \\rho)(u-u_\\rho)   + (1-\\rho) \\left( \\int\n   (1-\\rho) dx\\right)^{-1}  \\int (B\\rho)(u-u_\\rho) dx.\n\\]\nTherefore by \\eqref{bnoc}, we obtain\n\\[\n\\| T_\\rho Bu\\|_{{X}'} \\lesssim \\epsilon \\|u\\|_{{X}_e},\n\\]\nwhich combined with the ${X}$ boundedness of our multiplier below shows that the lower order\nterms can be neglected.\n\nThe estimate \\eqref{lsest.res} follows from \n\n\\begin{proposition} \\label{Qprop.res}\nThere is a family $\\mathcal Q_{res}$ of bounded self-adjoint operators $Q_{res}$ with \nthe following properties:\n\n(i) $L^2$ boundedness,\n\\[\n\\|Q_{res}\\|_{L^2 \\to L^2} \\lesssim  1,\n\\]\n\n(ii) ${X}$ boundedness,\n\\[\n|\\langle Q_{res} u, f \\rangle | \\lesssim \\| T_\\rho f\\|_{{X}'} \\| T_\\rho u \\|_{{X}},\n\\]\n\n(iii) Positive commutator,\n\\[\n\\sup_{Q_{res} \\in \\mathcal Q_{res}} \\langle Cu,u \\rangle \\geq  c_1 \\|T_\\rho u\\|_{{X}}^2 -\nc_2 \\|\\langle x\\rangle^{-2}  (u-u_\\rho) \\|_{L^2_{t,x}}^2.\n\\]\n\\end{proposition}\n\n\\begin{proof}\n  We construct $Q_{res}$ as in the non-resonant case  but with the\n  modified truncation operator\n\\[\nQ_{res} u =  T_\\rho Q T_\\rho.\n\\]\nwith $Q$ given by \\eqref{qlowd}.\n\nThe properties (i) and (ii) are straightforward.\nFor (iii) we note that \n\\[\nS_k T_\\rho u = S_k \\rho(u-u_\\rho)\n\\]\nwhile\n\\[\n T_\\rho  A u =  \\rho Au + c (1-\\rho) \\int (1-\\rho) A (u-u_\\rho) dx = \n \\rho A(u-u_\\rho) - c (1-\\rho) \\int  (u-u_\\rho) A \\rho dx.\n\\]\nHence we can express the bilinear form $\\langle Au, Q_{res} u \\rangle$ in\nterms of the operator $Q_\\rho$ in the nonresonant case\n\\[\n\\langle Au, Q_{res} u \\rangle = \\langle A(u-u_\\rho), Q_\\rho (u-u_\\rho) \\rangle - c \\int\n(u-u_\\rho) A \\rho dx \\  \\langle (1-\\rho), Q T_\\rho u \\rangle\n\\]\nwhich implies that\n\\[\n\\langle C_{res} u,u\\rangle = \\langle C (u-u_\\rho),u-u_\\rho\\rangle + c \\Im \\int\n(u-u_\\rho) A \\rho dx\\  \\langle (1-\\rho), Q T_\\rho u \\rangle.\n\\]\nHence we  can apply part (iii) of Proposition~\\ref{Qprop} and\n\\eqref{qtx} to obtain the desired conclusion.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Non-trapping metrics: Proof of Theorem~\\ref{main.ls.theoremnt}.}\nThis requires some modifications of the previous argument. First of\nall, instead of the energy estimate \\eqref{eest}, we need a\nstraightforward modification of it, namely\n\\begin{equation}\n\\| u\\|_{L^\\infty_t L^2_x}^2 \\lesssim \\| u_0\\|_{L^2}^2 + \\| f_1\\|_{L^1_t L^2_x}^2\n+ \\| u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}} \\|f_2\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'}.\n\\label{eestnt}\\end{equation}\nWe still need the exterior local smoothing estimate \\eqref{lsest}.\nHowever, now we can complement it with an interior estimate,\nnamely\n\\begin{equation}\n\\| (1-\\rho) u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}}^2 \\lesssim \\| u\\|_{L^\\infty_t L^2_x}^2 + \n\\| f_1\\|_{L^1_t L^2_x}^2  + \\| \\rho u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}}^2\n+  \\|(1-\\rho) f_2\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'}^2 + \\| (1-\\rho) u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}^2. \n\\label{lsestnt}\\end{equation}\nThe conclusion of Theorem~\\ref{main.ls.theoremnt} is obtained by combining \nthe three estimates \\eqref{eestnt}, \\eqref{lsest} and \\eqref{lsestnt}.\n\nIt remains to prove \\eqref{lsestnt}. This is obtained by applying \nto the function $v =  (1-\\rho) u$ the local bound\n\n\\begin{proposition}\n  Assume that the coefficients $a^{ij}$, $b^i$, $c$ are real and satisfy \\eqref{coeff}, \\eqref{coeffb},\n  and \\eqref{coeffc}. Moreover, assume that\n  the metric $a^{ij}$ is non-trapping. Let $v$ be a\n  function supported in $\\{|x| \\leq 2^{M+1}\\}$ which solves the\nequation\n\\begin{equation}\n(D_t +A) v = g_1 + g_2, \\qquad v(0) = v_0\n\\end{equation}\nin the time interval $[0,T]$. \nThen we have \n\\begin{equation}\n\\| v \\|_{L^2_t H^{\\frac12}_x}^2 \\lesssim \\| v\\|_{L^\\infty_t L^2_x}^2 + \n\\| g_1\\|_{L^1_t L^2_x}^2  +  \\|g_2\\|_{L^2_t H^{-\\frac12}_x}^2 + \\| v\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}^2. \n\\label{leint}\\end{equation}\n\\end{proposition}\n\n\\begin{proof}\n  We use again the multiplier method.  The following lemma tells us\n  how to choose an appropriate multiplier.\n\\begin{proposition}\\label{Doi_construction}\n  Assume that the coefficients $a^{ij}$ satisfy \\eqref{coeff}.\n  Moreover, we assume that the Hamiltonian vector field $H_a$ permits\n  no trapped geodesics.  Then there exists a smooth, time-independent, real-valued symbol $q\\in S^0_{hom}$\n  so that\n\\[\nH_a q\\gtrsim |\\xi|,\\quad \\text{ in } \\{|x| \\leq 2^{M+1}\\}.\n\\]\n\\end{proposition}\n\nThis proposition is essentially from \\cite{D1}, if $a^{ij}$ were smooth.  See also \nLemma 1 of \\cite{ST}, which includes some discussion of the limited regularity. \n\nWorking in the Weyl calculus and using this multiplier $Q$,  we compute\n\\[\n\\frac{d}{dt}\\langle v,Qv\\rangle = -2\\Im\\langle (D_t+A)v,Qv\\rangle\n+ i\\langle [A,Q]v,v\\rangle \n\\]\nwhich after time integration yields\n\\[\n\\langle i [A,Q]v,v\\rangle = \\langle v,Qv \\rangle |^T_0 + 2\\Im\\langle g_1+g_2,Qv\\rangle. \n\\]\nFor the second term on the right,  we  apply Cauchy-Schwarz and use the\n$L^2$ and $H^\\frac12$ boundedness of $Q$ to obtain\n\\[\n|\\langle (D_t+A)v,Qv\\rangle| \\lesssim \\|v\\|_{L^\\infty_t L^2_x}^2  + \\|g_1\\|_{L^1_t\n  L^2_x}^2  + \\|g_2\\|_{L^2_t H_x^{-\\frac12}} \\| v\\|_{L^2_t H_x^\\frac12}.\n\\]\nHence\n\\[\n\\langle i [A,Q]v,v\\rangle \\lesssim \n\\|v\\|_{L^\\infty_t L^2_x}^2  + \\|g_1\\|_{L^1_t\n  L^2_x}^2  + \\|g_2\\|_{L^2_t H^{-\\frac12}_x} \\| v\\|_{L^2_t H^\\frac12_x}.\n\\]\nThen it remains to prove the positive commutator bound\n\\begin{equation}\n\\langle i [A,Q]v,v\\rangle \\geq c_1 \\|v\\|_{L^2_t H^\\frac12_x}^2 - c_2 \\|v\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}^2.\n\\end{equation}\nThe positive contribution comes from the second order terms in $P$.\nPrecisely, we have\n\\[\ni[ D_i a^{ij} D_j,Q(x,D)] = Op(H_a q) +O(1)_{L^2 \\to L^2}.\n\\]\nThe first symbol is positive, and we can obtain a bound from below by\nG\\aa rding's inequality.  The first order term yields an $L^2$ bounded commutator, and the zero\norder term is $L^2$ bounded by itself.\n \nHere, we remind the reader that\nwe are not working with classical smooth symbols but instead with\nsymbols of limited regularity, and we refer the interested reader to\nthe discussion in Taylor \\cite[p. 45]{TaylorIII} for further details\non these otherwise classical results.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\subsection{Non-trapping metrics: Proof of Theorem~\\ref{main.ls.theoremnt.res}.}\n\nThe argument is similar to the above one, with some obvious\nmodifications. Instead of \\eqref{eestnt} we have\n\\begin{equation}\n\\| u\\|_{L^\\infty_t L^2_x}^2 \\lesssim \\| u_0\\|_{L^2}^2 + \\| f_1\\|_{L^1_t L^2_x}^2\n+ \\| u\\|_{{X}} \\|f_2\\|_{{X}'} \n\\label{eestnt.res}\\end{equation}\nwhile \\eqref{lsestnt} is replaced by \n\\begin{multline}\n\\| (1-\\rho) (u-u_\\rho)\\|_{{X}}^2 \\lesssim \\| u\\|_{L^\\infty_t L^2_x}^2 + \n\\| f_1\\|_{L^1_t L^2_x}^2  + \\| \\rho (u-u_\\rho)\\|_{{X}}^2\n+  \\|f_2\\|_{{X}'}^2 \\\\+ \\| \\langle x\\rangle^{-2} (u-u_\\rho)\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}^2. \n\\label{lsestnt.res}\\end{multline}\n\nThe conclusion of Theorem~\\ref{main.ls.theoremnt.res} is obtained by combining \nthe estimates \\eqref{eestnt.res}, \\eqref{lsest.res} and \\eqref{lsestnt.res} and\napplying \\eqref{dXerror} to reduce the error terms to the form presented in \\eqref{lsntres}.\n\nIt remains to prove \\eqref{lsestnt.res}.  We first compute\n\\[\\begin{split}\nD_t u_\\rho &= \\Bigl(\\int (1-\\rho)\\:dx\\Bigr)^{-1}\\Bigl[\\langle (D_t+A)u, (1-\\rho)\\rangle\n- \\langle Au, (1-\\rho)\\rangle\\Bigr]\\\\\n&= \\Bigl(\\int(1-\\rho)\\:dx\\Bigr)^{-1}\\Bigl[\\langle f_1+f_2,(1-\\rho)\\rangle - \\langle u-u_\\rho,A(1-\\rho)\\rangle\\Bigr].\n\\end{split}\n\\]\nThe function $v = (1-\\rho) (u-u_\\rho)$ solves\n\\begin{multline*}\nP v = (1-\\rho)(f_1+f_2) -(1-\\rho)\\Bigl(\\int(1-\\rho)\\:dx\\Bigr)^{-1}\\Bigl[\\langle f_1+f_2,(1-\\rho)\\rangle\n-\\langle u-u_\\rho, A(1-\\rho)\\rangle\\Bigr]\n\\\\+[A,(1-\\rho)](u-u_\\rho).\n\\end{multline*}\nThen we apply \\eqref{leint} to $v$ to obtain\n\\[\n\\begin{split}\n  \\| v\\|_{L^2_t H^\\frac12_x}^2 &\\lesssim  \\|v\\|_{L^\\infty_t L^2_x}^2 + \\|\n  (1-\\rho) f_1 \\|_{L^1_t L^2_x}^2 +\\| [A,(1-\\rho)] (u-u_\\rho)\\|_{L^2_t\n    H^{-\\frac12}_x} \\\\ &\\qquad\\qquad\\qquad\\qquad\\qquad\\qquad\\qquad + \\| (1-\\rho) f_2 \\|_{L^2_t H^{-\\frac12}_x}^2 \n   + \\| \\langle x\\rangle^{-2}(u- u_\\rho)\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}^2 \\\\ & \\\n  \\lesssim \\|u\\|_{L^\\infty_t L^2_x}^2 + \\| f_1 \\|_{L^1_t L^2_x}^2 +\n  \\|\\rho(u-u_\\rho)\\|_{{X}}^2 + \\| f_2 \\|_{{X}'}^2 \n+ \\| \\langle x\\rangle^{-2}(u- u_\\rho)\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}^2\n\\end{split}\n\\]\nand \\eqref{lsestnt.res} follows.\n\n\n\n\\bigskip\n\\newsection{Time independent nontrapping metrics}\n\n\nThe aim of this section is to prove\nTheorems~\\ref{theorem.PcSmoothing},\\ref{theorem.PcSmoothing.res}.\nThus we work with a nontrapping, self-adjoint operator $A$ whose\ncoefficients are time independent.  We prove\nTheorem~\\ref{theorem.PcSmoothing} in detail, and then outline the\nmodifications which are needed for\nTheorem~\\ref{theorem.PcSmoothing.res}.\n\n\n\\subsection{Proof of Theorem~\\ref{theorem.PcSmoothing}}  Here we shall provide the\ndetails for the $n\\neq 2$ case.  The general case follows with the obvious logarithmic adjustments\nto the ${{\\tilde{X}}}$ spaces in $n=2$.\n\nWe break the proof into steps.\n\n  \\par{\\bf Step 1:} Without any restriction, we assume that $u_0=0$\n  and that $u$ is the forward solution to \\eqref{main.equation}.\n  Nonzero initial data $u_0$ can be easily added in via a $TT^*$\n  argument.\n\n  \\par{\\bf Step 2:}  We add a damping term to the equation\n\\[\n(D_t+A-i\\varepsilon)u_\\varepsilon = f\n\\]\nin order to insure global square integrability of the solution\n$u_\\epsilon$.  Applying our nontrapping estimate \\eqref{lsnt} we have\n\\begin{equation}\n\\|u_\\varepsilon\\|_{{\\tilde{X}}}\\lesssim\n\\|f\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'}+\\|u_\\varepsilon\\|_{L^2_{t,x}({\\mathbb R}\\times B(0,2R))}.\n\\label{veps}\\end{equation}\nWe want to eliminate the second term on the right (when we add $P_c$\non the left).\n\n  \\par{\\bf Step 3:} \n  We want to take a Fourier transform in time and use Plancherel's\n  theorem. For this we need to work with Hilbert spaces. These are\n  defined using the structure introduced in the previous section.  We\n  denote by $\\alpha$ a family of positive sequences $(\\alpha(k)_j)_{j\n    \\geq k^-}$ which have sum $1$ for each $k$ and by $\\mathcal\n  A$ the collection of such sequences. For $\\alpha \\in \\mathcal A$ we\n  define the Hilbert space ${{\\tilde{X}}}_\\alpha$ with norm\n\\[\n\\| u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}_\\alpha}^2 = \\sum_{k} 2^k\\|S_k u\\|_{X_{k,\\alpha(k)}}^2 + \\|\\langle\nx\\rangle^{-1} u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}^2\n\\]\nas well as its dual ${{\\tilde{X}}}_\\alpha'$. \nSince\n\\[\n\\| u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}} \\approx  \\sup_{\\alpha \\in \\mathcal A} \\| u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}_\\alpha},\n\\qquad\n\\| u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'} \\approx  \\inf_{\\alpha \\in \\mathcal A} \\| u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'_\\alpha}\n\\]\nwe can rewrite \\eqref{veps} in the equivalent form\n\\[\n\\|u_{\\varepsilon}\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}_\\alpha}\\lesssim \\|f\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'_\\beta}+\n\\|u_\\varepsilon\\|_{L^2_{t,x}({\\mathbb R}\\times B(0,2R))}, \\qquad \\alpha, \\beta\n\\in \\mathcal A.\n\\]\nWe denote by $X^0_\\alpha$ the spatial version of $X_\\alpha$, i.e.\n$X_\\alpha = L^2_t X_\\alpha^0$.  Then we take a time Fourier transform,\nand by Plunderer this is equivalent to\n\\[\n\\|\\hat{u}_\\varepsilon\\|_{L^2_\\tau {{\\tilde{X}}}_\\alpha^0}\\lesssim \n\\|\\hat{f}\\|_{L^2_\\tau ({{\\tilde{X}}}^0_\\beta)'} + \\|\\hat{u}_\\varepsilon\n\\|_{L^2_{\\tau,x}({\\mathbb R}\\times B(0,2R))}.\n\\]\nThis is in turn equivalent to the fixed $\\tau$ bound\n\\[\n\\|\\hat{u}_\\varepsilon(\\tau)\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}_\\alpha^0}\\lesssim\n\\|\\hat{f}(\\tau)\\|_{({{\\tilde{X}}}_\\beta^0)'}\n+\\|\\hat{u}_\\varepsilon(\\tau)\\|_{L^2(B(0,2R))},\n\\]\nwhich we rewrite in the form\n\\[\n\\|v  \\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}^0_\\alpha}\\lesssim\n\\|(A-\\tau-i\\varepsilon) v \\|_{({{\\tilde{X}}}_\\beta^0)'}+\\| v \\|_{L^2(B(0,2R))},\n\\]\nor, optimizing with respect to $\\alpha,\\beta \\in \\mathcal A$,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{have}\n\\|v  \\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}^0}\\lesssim\n\\| (A-\\tau-i\\varepsilon)v \\|_{({{\\tilde{X}}}^0)'}+\\| v \\|_{L^2(B(0,2R))}.\n\\end{equation}\nA similar\ncomputation shows that the estimate that we want to prove, namely \n\\eqref{PcSmoothing} with $u_0=0$, can be rewritten in the equivalent\nform \n\\begin{equation}\\label{want}\n  \\|P_c v  \\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}^0}\\lesssim \\|  (A-\\tau-i\\epsilon) v \\|_{({{\\tilde{X}}}^0)'}\n\\end{equation}\nuniformly with respect to $\\tau \\in {\\mathbb R}$, $\\epsilon > 0$.\n\n\n   \\par{\\bf Step 4:}  When $|\\tau|$ is large, \\eqref{want}\nfollows from \\eqref{have} combined  with the elliptic bound\n\\begin{equation}\\label{ellip}\n\\tau^{1\/4} \\|v\\|_{L^2(B(0,2R))}\\lesssim \\|v\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}^0}+\\|(A-\\tau-i\\epsilon)v\\|_{({{\\tilde{X}}}^0)'}.\\end{equation}\nTo prove this we replace $v$ by $w = (1-\\rho) v$ and rewrite \nit in the form\n\\[\n\\tau^{1\/4} \\|w\\|_{L^2}\\lesssim \n\\|w\\|_{H^\\frac12}+\\|(A-\\tau-i\\epsilon)w\\|_{H^{-\\frac12}}\n\\]\nfor $w$ with compact support. Since\n\\[\n\\tau \\| w \\|_{H^{-\\frac32}} \\lesssim \\|(A-\\tau-i\\epsilon)w\\|_{H^{-\\frac32}}\n+ \\| A w\\|_{H^{-\\frac32}} \\lesssim \\|(A-\\tau-i\\epsilon)w\\|_{H^{-\\frac12}}\n+ \\| w\\|_{H^{\\frac12}},\n\\]\nthe bound \\eqref{ellip} follows by interpolation.\n\\par{\\bf Step 5:}\nFor $\\tau$ in a bounded set we argue by contradiction.\nIf  \\eqref{want} does not hold uniformly  then we find sequences \n\\[\n\\varepsilon_n\\to 0, \\qquad  \\tau_n\\to \\tau, \n\\]\nand $ v_n \\in {{\\tilde{X}}}^0$ with $P_c v_n=v_n$ and\n\\[\n\\|(A-\\tau_n-i\\varepsilon_n)v_n\\|_{({{\\tilde{X}}}^0)'}\\to 0,\\quad\n\\|v_n\\|_{L^2(B(0,2R))}=1.\n\\]\nOn a subsequence we have\n\\[\nv_n\\to v\\quad \\text{weakly* in} \\quad {{\\tilde{X}}}^0.\n\\]\nSince ${{\\tilde{X}}}^0 \\subset H^{\\frac12}_{loc}$, on a subsequence\nwe have the strong convergence\n\\[\nv_n \\to v \\qquad \\text{in }  L^2_{loc}.\n\\]\nHence we have produced a function $v $ with \n\\begin{equation}\n  v \\in {{\\tilde{X}}}^0, \\qquad P_c v = v, \\qquad (A-\\tau) v = 0, \n\\qquad \\| v\\|_{L^2(B(0,2R))}=1.\n\\label{vprop}\\end{equation}\nDepending on the sign of $\\tau$ we consider three cases.\n\n\\par{\\bf Step 6:}\nIf $\\tau < 0$ then, using the bound \\eqref{bc} for the lower order terms\nin $A$, we obtain\n\\[\n\\| D_i a^{ij} D_j v -\\tau v\\|_{({{\\tilde{X}}}^0)'} \\lesssim \\| v\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}^0}.\n\\]\nThen\n\\[\n\\| v\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}^0}^2 \\gtrsim \\langle v, D_i a^{ij} D_j v -\\tau v \\rangle \n\\gtrsim \\|v\\|_{H^1}^2 ,\n\\]\nand therefore $v \\in L^2$ is an eigenfunction. This contradicts \nthe relation $P_c v = v$.\n\n\\par{\\bf Step 7:} \nIf $\\tau = 0$ then there is either a zero eigenvalue or a zero\nresonance, both of which are excluded by hypothesis.\n\n\\par{\\bf Step 8:} \nIt remains to consider the most difficult case $\\tau > 0$. Here \nthe properties \\eqref{vprop} of $v$ are no longer sufficient \nto obtain a contradiction. Instead we will establish an additional\nproperty of $v$, namely that $v$ satisfies an outgoing radiation\ncondition. In order to state this, we need an additional \nregularity property for $v$. We define the space ${{\\tilde{X}}}^{0}_{med}$\nwith norm\n\\[\n\\| v \\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}^{0}_{med}} = \\| v\\|_{L^2(D_{0})} + \\|\\nabla\nv\\|_{L^2(D_{ 0})} + \\sup_{j > 0} \\| |x|^{-\\frac12} v\\|_{L^2(D_j)} +\n  \\| |x|^{-\\frac12} \\nabla v\\|_{L^2(D_j)}\n\\]\nwhich coincides with the ${{\\tilde{X}}}^0$ norm for intermediate frequencies but\nimproves it at both low and high frequencies.  Then we claim that $v\n\\in {{\\tilde{X}}}^0_{med}$. More precisely, we will prove the elliptic bound\n\\begin{equation}\n\\| v \\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}^{0}_{med}}  \\lesssim \\|v\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}^0} +\n  \\|(A-\\tau-i\\epsilon)v\\|_{({{\\tilde{X}}}^0)'}, \\qquad 0 < \\tau_0 < \\tau < \\tau_1 \n\\label{vregb} \\end{equation}\nwith implicit constants which may depend on the thresholds\n$\\tau_0$, $\\tau_1$.  \n\nNow we define the closed subspace ${{\\tilde{X}}}^0_{out}$ of ${{\\tilde{X}}}^0$,\n\\[\n{{\\tilde{X}}}^0_{out}=\\{v\\in {{\\tilde{X}}}^0_{med}\\,:\\, \\lim_{j\\to\\infty} \\|r^{-1\/2}(\\partial_r\n-i\\tau^{1\/2})v\\|_{L^2(D_j)}=0\\},\n\\]\nand  also claim that $v$ has the additional property\n\\begin{equation}\nv \\in {{\\tilde{X}}}^0_{out}.\n\\label{vout} \\end{equation}\nIn other words this implies that $v$ is a resonance contained \ninside the continuous spectrum.\n\nWe postpone the proof of \\eqref{vregb} and \\eqref{vout} \nand conclude first our proof by contradiction, by showing\nthat there are no resonances inside the continuous spectrum.\nSuch results are known, see for instance \\cite{Agmon}, but perhaps\nnot in the degree of generality we need here. In any case,\nfor the sake of completeness, we provide a full proof. \n\nLet $\\chi$ be a smooth spherically symmetric increasing bump function\n$\\chi$ with $\\chi(r)\\equiv 0$ for $r<1\/2$ and $\\chi(r) \\equiv 1$\nfor $r>2$. Since $A$ is self-adjoint, for large $j$ we commute\n\\[\n\\begin{split}\n0=&\\ \\frac{i}{2}\\langle [A,\\chi(2^{-j}r)]v,v\\rangle \\\\\n = &\\ \\Im\\left\\langle 2^{-j} \\chi'(2^{-j} r)\n\\Bigl(\\frac{x_ia^{ij}}{r}\\partial_j -i\\tau^{1\/2}\\Bigr)v,v\\right\\rangle\n+2^{-j} \\tau^{1\/2}\\langle \\chi'(2^{-j}r) v,v\\rangle\n\\\\&\\qquad\\qquad\\qquad\\qquad\\qquad\\qquad\\qquad\\qquad\\qquad\\qquad\n+2^{-j}\\Bigl\\langle b^i\\frac{x_i}{r} \\chi'(2^{-j}r) v, v\\Bigr\\rangle .\n\\end{split}\n\\]\nUsing the Schwarz inequality, \\eqref{coeffb.M}, and the outgoing radiation condition, we\nconclude that\n\\begin{equation}\\label{initial.decay}\n\\lim_{j\\to\\infty} \\|r^{-1\/2} v\\|_{L^2(D_j)}=0\n\\end{equation}\nwhich shows that $v$ has better decay at infinity. We note that \nthis is the only use we make of the radiation condition. From this, by\nelliptic theory, we also obtain a similar decay for the gradient,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{dinitial.decay}\n\\lim_{j\\to\\infty} \\|r^{-1\/2} \\nabla v\\|_{L^2(D_j)}=0.\n\\end{equation}\n\nTo conclude we use \\eqref{initial.decay} and \\eqref{dinitial.decay} to\nshow that in effect $v \\in L^2$; i.e. $v$ is an eigenvalue.  Then by\nthe results of \\cite{KT2} $v$ must be $0$.  Here, we shall again use a\npositive commutator argument.  The multiplier we use is the operator\n$Q_k$, for some $k\\le 0$, in Lemma~\\ref{lemma.low.freq} but where for simplicity we set\n$\\delta = 1$.  We have\n\\[\n0=-2\\Im \\langle Q_k v, (A-\\tau)v\\rangle = \\langle C_k v,v\\rangle - 2 \n\\Im \\langle Q_k v, (b^j D_j + D_j b^j + c)v\\rangle\n\\]\nwhere\n\\[\n C_k =  i [D_l a^{lm} D_m,Q_k].\n\\]\nThe expression of the operator $C_k$ is exactly as in the \nformula \\eqref{C} but with unmollified coefficients $a^{ij}$.\nThe main contribution $C_k^0$ is estimated as there\nby\n\\[\n\\langle C_k^0 v,v\\rangle \\gtrsim \\left\\langle \\frac{\\alpha(2^k |x|)}{\\langle 2^k\n    x\\rangle} \\nabla v,\\nabla v \\right\\rangle, \n\\]\nwhile the error terms are bounded by\n\\[\n\\left\\langle \\frac{\\kappa ( |x|)}{\\langle 2^k x\\rangle} \\nabla v,\\nabla v \\right\\rangle \n\\]\nrespectively \n\\[\n\\left\\langle \\langle x \\rangle^{-2}  v, v \\right\\rangle. \n\\]\nThe expression $\\Im \\langle Q_k v, (b^j D_j + D_j b^j + c)v\\rangle$ can\nalso be included in the two error terms.\nThus we obtain\n\\[\n\\left\\langle \\frac{\\alpha(2^k |x|)}{\\langle 2^k x\\rangle} \\nabla v,\\nabla v \\right\\rangle \n\\lesssim \\left\\langle \\frac{\\kappa ( |x|)}{\\langle 2^k x\\rangle} \\nabla v,\\nabla v \\right\\rangle \n+ \\left\\langle \\langle x \\rangle^{-2}  v, v \\right\\rangle. \n\\]\nFor $|x| > 2^{M}$ we have, by \\eqref{new.alpha},\n\\[\n\\kappa(x) \\lesssim \\epsilon \\alpha(2^k x);\n\\]\ntherefore the first term on the right is essentially negligible. We obtain\n\\[\n\\int \\frac{\\alpha(2^k |x|)}{\\langle 2^k x\\rangle}  |\\nabla v|^2 dx \n\\lesssim \\int_{D_{ < M}}   |\\nabla v|^2 dx \n+ \\int \\langle x \\rangle^{-2} |v|^2 dx .\n\\]\nAt the same time we have\n\\[\n0 = \\left\\langle  \\frac{\\alpha(2^k |x|)}{\\langle 2^k x\\rangle} v, (A-\\tau) v  \\right\\rangle,  \n\\]\nwhich after an integration by parts yields\n\\[\n\\tau \\int \\frac{\\alpha(2^k |x|)}{\\langle 2^k x\\rangle}  |v|^2 dx \n\\lesssim \\int \\frac{\\alpha(2^k |x|)}{\\langle 2^k x\\rangle}  |\\nabla v|^2 dx \n+ \\int  \\langle x \\rangle^{-2} |v|^2 dx. \n\\]\nCombining the two relations we obtain\n\\[\n\\int \\frac{\\alpha(2^k |x|)}{\\langle 2^k x\\rangle} ( |\\nabla v|^2 +|v|^2 ) dx \n\\lesssim \\int_{D_{ < M}}   |\\nabla v|^2 dx \n+ \\int \\langle x \\rangle^{-2} |v|^2 dx. \n\\]\nFinally we let $k \\to -\\infty$ to obtain\n\\[\n\\int  |\\nabla v|^2 +|v|^2  dx \n\\lesssim \\int_{D_{ < M}}   |\\nabla v|^2 dx \n+ \\int \\langle x \\rangle^{-2} |v|^2 dx < \\infty \n\\]\nwhich shows that $v \\in L^2$.  \n\nWe note that \\eqref{initial.decay} and\n\\eqref{dinitial.decay} are not used in any quantitative way but serve\nonly to justify the previous computations. More precisely, one can \nintroduce in the computation a cutoff outside a large enough ball\nand then pass to the limit. \n\nIt remains to prove \\eqref{vregb} and \\eqref{vout}.\n\n\n{\\bf Step 9:} Here we prove \\eqref{vregb}. We begin with the \nbounds on $v$. This is trivial for the high frequencies of $v$,\n\\[\n \\| S_{>0} v\\|_{X^0_0} \\lesssim \\| v\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}^0}.\n\\]\nTo estimate the low frequencies, we compute\n\\[\n(\\tau+i\\epsilon)   S_{<0} v = S_{< 0} A v - S_{<0}(A-\\tau-i\\epsilon)v.\n\\]\nWriting $A$ in the generic form\n\\[\nA =  D^2 a + D b + c, \n\\]\nwe have\n\\[\n\\begin{split}\n\\| S_{<0} v\\|_{X^0_{0}} \\lesssim &\\  \\| S_{< 0} D^2 av\\|_{X^0_0} +\n\\| S_{<0} bv \\|_{X^0_0} + \\| S_{<0} cv\\|_{X^0_0} + \\|S_{<0} (A-\\tau-i\\epsilon) v\\|_{X^0_0}\n\\\\\n \\lesssim &\\  \\| av\\|_{{X}^0} +\n\\|  bv \\|_{X^0_0} + \\| cv\\|_{X^0_0} + \\|(A-\\tau-i\\epsilon)v\\|_{({{\\tilde{X}}}^0)'}\n\\\\  \\lesssim &\\  \\| v\\|_{{X}^0} +\n\\|  \\langle x\\rangle^{-1} v \\|_{L^2} + \\|(A-\\tau-i\\epsilon)v\\|_{({{\\tilde{X}}}^0)'}.\n\\end{split}\n\\]\nOnce we control $\\| v\\|_{X^0_0}$, we can also obtain control of $\\| \\nabla\nv\\|_{X^0_0}$ by a straightforward elliptic estimate.\n\n\n\n{\\bf Step 10:} Here we prove the outgoing radiation condition\n\\eqref{vout} for $v$. This is obtained from similar outgoing radiation\nconditions for the functions $v_n$. However, $v_n$ only converges to\n$v$ in a weak sense. Hence we need to produce some uniform estimates\nfor $v_n$ which will survive in the limit.\n\\begin{multline}\\label{out}\n\\| r^{-\\frac12} (D_r - \\tau^\\frac12) u\\|_{L^2(D_j)}^2 \\\\\\lesssim   \n\\sum_{k=0}^\\infty \n2^{-\\delta(k-j)^-} \n\\left( \\|\\langle r\\rangle^\\frac12 (A-\\tau-i\\epsilon) u\\|_{L^2(D_k)}  \\| \\langle r\\rangle^{-\\frac12}\n  (u,\\nabla u)\\|_{L^2(D_k)} \\right. \\\\  \\left. + \n\\kappa_k \\| r^{-\\frac12} (u,\\nabla u)\\|_{L^2(D_k)}^2 \\right).\n\\end{multline}\nIn other words, there is decay when $k<j$. Applying to $v_n$, \nin the weak limit we obtain \n\\[\n\\| r^{-\\frac12} (D_r - \\tau^\\frac12) v \\|_{L^2(D_j)}^2 \\lesssim   \n\\sum_{k=0}^\\infty 2^{-\\delta(k-j)^-} \\kappa_k \n\\]\nwhich implies \\eqref{vout}.\n\n\nThe lower order terms in $A$ can be treated perturbatively \nin \\eqref{out}. I.e. they can be included in the right hand side.\nHence without any restriction in generality we assume that\n\\[\nA = D_i a^{ij} D_j.\n\\]\nWe use again a positive commutator method.  The multiplier is\nthe self-adjoint operator\n \\[\n Q=b(R)\\Bigl(\\frac{x_i a^{ij}}{R}D_j - \\tau^{\\frac{1}{2}}\\Bigr) + \\Bigl(\n D_j \\frac{ a^{ij} x_i}{R} - \\tau^{\\frac{1}{2}}\\Bigr)b(R), \\qquad\n R^2=x_i a^{ij}x_j\n\\]\nwhere the coefficient $b(R)$ is smooth, increasing and satisfies\n\\[ \nb(R)\\approx  \\left\\{\n\\begin{array}{lc}\n  1 & R>2^{j+2} \\cr\n  (2^{-j}R)^\\delta,    & 1 <  R< 2^{j+2}\n\\end{array} \\right.\n\\]\nwith $\\delta$ a small parameter.\nWe write\n\\begin{equation}\\label{commute.eqn}\n-2\\Im \\langle Qu, (A-\\tau-i\\varepsilon)u\\rangle = \\langle i [A,Q]u,u\\rangle - 2\\varepsilon \\langle Qu,u\\rangle.\n\\end{equation}\nWe expect to get the main positive contribution from the first term on\nthe right. The second term on the right on the other hand is\nessentially negative definite due to the fact that its symbol is\nnegative on the characteristic set of $A - \\tau$. Finally, the term on\nthe left is bounded simply by Cauchy-Schwarz.\n\n\nTo shorten the notations, in the sequel we denote by $E$ error terms\nof the form\n\\[\nE = D O( b(R) r^{-1} \\kappa(|x|)) D + O(b(R) r^{-1} \\kappa(|x|)).\n\\]\nSuch terms occur whenever $a^{ij}$ is either differentiated or\nreplaced by the identity and are easily estimated in terms of the \nright hand side of \\eqref{out}.\n\nWe evaluate the commutator $ i [A,Q]$.  A similar  computation\nwas already carried out in \\eqref{C.high.calc}, which we reuse with\n$k = 0$, $\\delta = 1$ and $\\phi(r) = b(R)\/R$. We obtain\n\\[\n\\begin{split}\n i [A,Q]= &\\  4 D \\frac{b(R)}{R} D + 4 D  x   \\left( \\frac{b'(R)}{R^2} -\n \\frac{b(R)}{R^3}\\right) xD - 2\\tau^\\frac12 \\left(\\frac{b'(R)}{R} x D + D x \\frac{b'(R)}{R}\\right)  +E\n\\\\\n= &\\  2D \\left( 2 \\frac{b(R)}{R} - b'(R)\\right) D - 2 Dx  \\left(\n    2 \\frac{b(R)}{R^3} - \\frac{b'(R)}{R^2}\\right) xD  \n\\\\&\\qquad\n+ \n  {b'(R)} (A -\\tau) +  (A -\\tau) {b'(R)}\n+ 2 \\left( Dx - \\tau^\\frac12 r\\right ) \\frac{b'(R)}{r R}  \\left(\n   xD -   r \\tau^\\frac12 \\right ) + E.\n\\end{split}\n\\]\nOur choice of $b$ insures that the coefficient in the first two terms\nis positive,\n\\[\n2 \\frac{b(R)}{R} - {b'(R)} \\geq 0 \\qquad R > 1.\n\\]\nHence we obtain\n\\[\n\\langle  i [A,Q] u, u\\rangle \\gtrsim 2 \\langle b'(R) (D_r - \\tau^\\frac12) u, (D_r -\n\\tau^\\frac12) u\\rangle + 2 \\Re \\langle (A -\\tau-i\\epsilon) u,  b'(R) u \\rangle +\n\\langle Eu,u\\rangle\n\\]\nwhere we have inserted a harmless $\\epsilon$ term.\n\n\nIt remains to evaluate the second term on the right in\n\\eqref{commute.eqn}. We have \n\\[\n\\begin{split}\n\\tau^\\frac12 Q = &\\ - \\Bigl(D_k \\frac{x_l a^{kl}}{R}-\\tau^{1\/2}\\Bigr)\nb(R) \\Bigl(\\frac{x_i a^{ij}}{R}D_j -\\tau^{1\/2}\\Bigr)\n   + \\frac{b(R)}2 (A-\\tau) +  (A-\\tau) \\frac{b(R)}2\n\\\\\n&\\ - \\Bigl(D_i -D_l\\frac{a^{lk}x_k x_i}{R^2}\\Bigr) a^{ij} b(R)\n\\Bigl(D_j -\\frac{x_j x_m a^{mn}}{R^2}D_n\\Bigr) - \\frac12 (A b(R)).\n\\end{split}\n\\]\nThe first and third terms are negative while the last term can be\nincluded in $E$. Hence we obtain\n\\[\n\\tau^{\\frac12} \\langle Q u,u\\rangle \\leq \\Re \\langle b(R) u, (A-\\tau-i\\epsilon) u \\rangle +\n\\langle Eu,u\\rangle .\n\\]\n\nReturning to \\eqref{commute.eqn}, we insert the bounds \nfor the two terms on the right to obtain\n\\[\n\\langle b'(R) (D_r - \\tau^\\frac12) u, (D_r -\\tau^\\frac12) u\\rangle \n\\lesssim  \\Re \\langle (A -\\tau-i\\epsilon) u,  (2 b'(R)+\\epsilon \\tau^{-\\frac12} b(R)\n+i Q)\nu \\rangle + \\langle Eu,u \\rangle.\n\\]\nIn the region $D_j$, we have $b' \\approx 2^{-j} \\approx r^{-1}$;\ntherefore \\eqref{out} follows.\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Proof of Theorem~\\ref{theorem.PcSmoothing.res}}\n\nWe proceed as in the nonresonant case. The bound \\eqref{veps}\nis replaced by\n\\begin{equation}\n\\|u_\\varepsilon\\|_{X}\\lesssim\n\\|f\\|_{{X}'}+\\|u_\\varepsilon-u_{\\varepsilon \\rho}\n\\|_{L^2_{t,x}({\\mathbb R}\\times B(0,2R))}.\n\\label{veps.res}\\end{equation}\nUsing Plancherel as in Step 3,  this is equivalent to the spatial\nbound\n\\begin{equation}\\label{have.res}\n\\|v  \\|_{{X}^0}\\lesssim\n\\| (A-\\tau-i\\varepsilon)v \\|_{({X}^0)'}+\\| v-v_\\rho  \\|_{L^2(B(0,2R))}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere ${X}^0$ is the fixed time counterpart of ${X}$.  On the other\nhand the estimate that we want to prove, namely\n\\eqref{PcSmoothing.res} with $u_0=0$, has the\nequivalent form\n\\begin{equation}\\label{want.res}\n  \\|v  \\|_{{X}^0}\\lesssim \\|  (A-\\tau-i\\epsilon) v \\|_{({X}^0)'}\n\\end{equation}\nuniformly with respect to $\\tau \\in {\\mathbb R}$, $\\epsilon > 0$.\n\nFor $\\tau$ away from $0$ we can easily bound the local average\nof $v$. We have\n\\[\n(\\tau+i\\epsilon) v_\\rho = (Av)_\\rho - ((A-\\tau-i\\varepsilon)v )_\\rho.\n\\]\nTherefore, by Cauchy-Schwarz,\n\\[\n\\tau |v_\\rho| \\lesssim \\| (A-\\tau-i\\varepsilon)v \\|_{({X}^0)'} + \\|\nv \\|_{L^2(B(0,2R))}.\n\\]\nHence we are able to bound $v$ in ${{\\tilde{X}}}^0$ as well,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{have.resa}\n\\|v  \\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}^0}\\lesssim\n\\| (A-\\tau-i\\varepsilon)v \\|_{({X}^0)'}+\\| v  \\|_{L^2(B(0,2R))},\n\\qquad |\\tau| > \\tau_0.\n\\end{equation}\nConsequently, the argument for large $\\tau$ rests unchanged.\n\nConsider now the proof by contradiction. \n\nIn the case $\\tau < 0$,\nwe use the bound \\eqref{bnoc} instead of \\eqref{bc} for the \nlower order terms and show that $v$ is an eigenvalue.\nHowever, by the maximum principle, there can be no \nnegative eigenvalue for $A$.\n\n\nThe case $\\tau = 0$ is the interesting one.  Then $v$ satisfies\n\\[\nv \\in {X}, \\qquad A v = 0, \\qquad \\| v-v_\\rho\\|_{L^2(B(0,2R))}=1. \n\\]\nHence $v$ is a zero generalized eigenvalue; therefore it must be\nconstant. But this contradicts the last relation.\n\nFinally, due to \\eqref{have.resa}, the case $\\tau > 0$ is identical to\nthe nonresonant case. \n\n\\subsection{ Proof of Remark~\\ref{remark.nootherres}}\n\nIf $Av = 0$ then from\n\\[\n0 = \\langle A(v-v_{D_j}),\\chi_{<j} (v-v_{D_j}) \\rangle\n\\]\nand integration by parts, we obtain\n\\[\n\\int_{D_{<j}}  |\\nabla v|^2 \\:dx \\lesssim \\int_{D_j} |x|^{-2} |v-v_{D_j}|^2 dx.\n\\]\nThe right hand side is square summable with respect to $j$;\ntherefore it decays as $j \\to \\infty$. We conclude that $\\nabla v =\n0$, and therefore $v$ is constant.\n\n\n\n\n  \\newsection{Strichartz estimates}\n\n  In this section we combine the smoothing estimates of the preceding\n  sections with the long-time parametrix construction of \\cite{T} to\n  obtain the Strichartz estimates of Theorems \\ref{main.est.theorem},\n  \\ref{main.est.theorem.res}, \\ref{main.theoremnt},\n  \\ref{main.theoremnt.res}, \\ref{corr.nontrap.Strichartz},\n  \\ref{corr.nontrap.Strichartz.res}.  We begin by recalling the\n  relevant results of \\cite{T}. A first result asserts that full\n  Strichartz\/local smoothing estimates hold under a smallness\n  assumptions on $\\kappa$ in \\eqref{coeff}.\n\n\\begin{theorem}[\\cite{T}]\n  \\label{prop.Tataru.parametrix}\n  Assume that the coefficients $a^{ij}$ satisfy \\eqref{coeff} with\n  $\\kappa$ sufficiently small and $b=0$, $c=0$.  Then for any\n  Strichartz pairs $(p_1,q_1)$, $(p_2,q_2)$, the solution $u$ to\n  \\eqref{main.equation} satisfies\n\\begin{equation}\n\\|u\\|_{L^{p_1}_t L^{q_1}_x\\cap {X}}\\lesssim \n\\|u_0\\|_{L^2}+\n\\|f\\|_{L^{p_2'}_tL^{q_2'}_x+{X}'}.\n\\end{equation}\n\\end\n{theorem}\nFor large $\\kappa$, which is the case we are interested in here,\nit is shown that\n\n\\begin{theorem}[\\cite{T}]\n  \\label{prop.Tataru.parametrix.2}\n  Assume that   the coefficients  $a^{ij}$  satisfy \\eqref{coeff}  and\n  $b=0$, $c=0$.  Then there is a parametrix $K=\\sum_{k} K_k S_k$  for $D_t+A$ with \neach $K_k$ localized at frequency $2^k$ so that\nthe\n  following properties hold:\n\\begin{enumerate}\n  \\item[(i)] For any Strichartz pairs $(p_1,q_1)$ and $(p_2, q_2)$  we have\n    \\begin{equation}\n      \\label{kkf}\n\\|K_k S_k f\\|_{L^{p_1}_tL^{q_1}_x\\cap X_k}\\lesssim \\|S_k f\\|_{L^{p_2'}_tL^{q_2'}_x}\n    \\end{equation}\nand\n\\begin{equation}\\label{kf}\n\\|Kf\\|_{L^{p_1}_tL^{q_1}_x\\cap {X}}\\lesssim \\|f\\|_{L^{p_2'}_tL^{q_2'}_x}.\\end{equation}\n\\item[(ii)] For any Strichartz pair $(p,q)$, we have\n  \\begin{equation}\n    \\label{lperror2b}\n   \\|((D_t+A)K-I)f\\|_{{X}'}\\lesssim \\|f\\|_{L^{p'}_tL^{q'}_x}.\n  \\end{equation}\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{theorem}\n\nAs a consequence of this, it is also proved in \\cite{T}\nthat\n\\begin{theorem}[\\cite{T}]\n  \\label{prop.Tataru.xtolp}\n  Assume that   the coefficients  $a^{ij}$  satisfy \\eqref{coeff}  and\n  $b=0$, $c=0$. Then for any Strichartz pair $(p,q)$, we have\n\\begin{equation}\n\\| u\\|_{L^p_t L^q_x} \\lesssim \\|u\\|_{{X} \\cap L^\\infty_t L^2_x} + \\| Pu\\|_{{X}'}. \n\\end{equation}\n\\end{theorem}\n\nThese are slight modifications of the results in \\cite{T} as our\nassumption \\eqref{coeff} is not scale invariant and as such we have\nmodified the definitions of ${{\\tilde{X}}}_k$ and $A_{(k)}$ slightly.  Scale\ninvariance, however, was only assumed in \\cite{T} as a convenience,\nand the modifications that are necessary to adapt the proofs to the\ncurrent setting are straightforward.\n\nThe above results are suitable for the high dimension $n \\geq\n3$ and for the low dimensional resonant case. However, for the \nlow dimensional nonresonant case, we need a modified \nformulation of the last two theorems.\n\n\\begin{theorem\n  \\label{prop.Tataru.parametrix.nr}\n  Assume that   the coefficients  $a^{ij}$  satisfy \\eqref{coeff}  and\n  $b=0$, $c=0$.  There there is a parametrix $K$  for $D_t+A$ with the\n  following properties:\n\\begin{enumerate}\n  \\item[(i)] For any Strichartz pairs $(p_1,q_1)$ and $(p_2, q_2)$  we have\n\\begin{equation}\\label{kft}\n\\|Kf\\|_{L^{p_1}_tL^{q_1}_x\\cap {{\\tilde{X}}}}\\lesssim \\|f\\|_{L^{p_2'}_tL^{q_2'}_x}.\\end{equation}\n\\item[(ii)] For any Strichartz pair $(p,q)$,\n  \\begin{equation}\n    \\label{lperror2bt}\n   \\|((D_t+A)K-I)f\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'}\\lesssim \\|f\\|_{L^{p'}_tL^{q'}_x}.\n  \\end{equation}\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{theorem}\nAs a consequence of this, by the  same duality argument as in \\cite{T},\nwe obtain\n\\begin{theorem}\n  \\label{prop.Tataru.xtolp.nr}\n  Assume that   the coefficients  $a^{ij}$  satisfy \\eqref{coeff}  and\n  $b=0$, $c=0$. Then for any Strichartz pair $(p,q)$, we have\n\\begin{equation}\n\\| u\\|_{L^p_t L^q_x} \\lesssim \\|u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}\\cap L^\\infty_tL^2_x} + \\| Pu\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'}. \n\\end{equation}\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\n\\begin{proof}[Proof of Theorem~\\ref{prop.Tataru.parametrix.nr}]\n  The conclusion of the theorem follows by replacing the parametrix\n  $K$ with $(1-T)K+R$, where $T$ and $R$ are linear operators which\n  are translation invariant in $t$ and have the following properties:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\|(1- T) u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}} \\lesssim \\|u\\|_{{X}},\n\\label{umtu}\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\n  \\label{lplqtu}\n\\|(1-T)Kf\\|_{L^{p_1}_tL^{q_1}_x}\\lesssim \\|f\\|_{L^{p_2'}_tL^{q_2'}_x},\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\|A R f\\|_{{X}'}   + \\|R f\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}\\cap L^{p_1}_tL^{q_1}_x} \\lesssim \\|f\\|_{L^{p_2'}_tL^{q_2'}_x},\n\\label{arf}\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\| AT u\\|_{{X}'}+ \\| TA u\\|_{{X}'}  \\lesssim \\| u\\|_{{X}}, \n\\label{atu}\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\|(T-D_t R)f\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'} \\lesssim \\| f\\|_{L^{p'}_tL^{q'}_x}.\n\\label{tmdtr}\\end{equation}\n\n\n\nWe seek $T$, $R$  of the form\n\\[\nTu = \\sum_{k = -\\infty}^0 T_k S_k u, \\qquad \nRf = \\sum_{k = -\\infty}^0 R_k S_k f\n\\]\nwhere the operators $T_k$, $R_k$ are localized at frequency $2^k$,\nrespectively $\\geq 2^k$\nand are defined by \n\\[\nT_k  = u(t,0) \\phi_k, \\qquad R_k f = \\phi_0(x)D_t^{-1} S^t_{>0}\nf(t,0)  -\\sum_{j=k}^{-1} (\\phi_{j+1}(x)-\\phi_j(x))D_t^{-1} S^t_{>2j} f(t,0) \n\\]\nwith $\\phi_k(x) = \\phi(2^{k} x)$ and\n\\[\n\\phi(0) = 1, \\qquad \\text{supp } \\hat{\\phi} \\subset \\{|\\xi| \\in [1\/2,2]\\}.\n\\]\n\nNotice that $Tu=u^{in}$ with $u^{in}$ as in Section \\ref{embxs}.  As such, the bound\n\\eqref{umtu} follows directly from \\eqref{Tkbdd} and \\eqref{l2uout}.\nThe bound \\eqref{lplqtu} follows similarly using a Bernstein bound, Littlewood-Paley theory, and\n\\eqref{kkf}.\nFor \\eqref{atu} we use Proposition~\\ref{lemma.A.to.Ak} to replace \n$A$ by $\\sum A_{(k)} S_k$. Then we use the spatial localization\ncoming from $T$, \\eqref{bernstein}, and the two derivatives gain from $ A_{(k)}$.\n\n\nWe consider now the ${X}$ bounds in \\eqref{arf}.  For the second term in the left of \\eqref{arf}, \nusing  Bernstein's inequality twice  yields\n\\begin{align*}\n\\left\\| (\\phi_{j+1}(x)-\\phi_j(x))D_t^{-1}S_{>2j}^t\n(S_k f)(t,0)\\right\\|_{X_j}\n&\\lesssim 2^{\\frac{2-n}2 j} 2^{2j(-1+\\frac{1}{p_2'}-\\frac{1}{2})}\n\\|S_k f(t,0)\\|_{L^{p_2'}_t} \\\\\n&\\lesssim   2^{\\frac{2-n}2j} 2^{2j(-1+\\frac{1}{p_2'}-\\frac{1}{2})}\n2^{\\frac{n}{q_2'}k} \\|S_k f\\|_{L^{p_2'}_tL^{q_2'}_x} \\\\\n&= \n2^{\\frac{n}{q_2'}(k-j)} \\|S_k f\\|_{L^{p_2'}_tL^{q_2'}_x}.\n\\end{align*}\nThe $j=0$ term in $R_k$ is estimated in a similar fashion.  Summing\nwith respect to $k \\leq j \\leq 0$ we use the off-diagonal decay to\nobtain\n\\begin{align*}\n\\|Rf\\|_X &\\lesssim   \\left(\\sum_{j=-\\infty}^0 \\left(\\sum_{k=-\\infty}^j \n2^{\\frac{n}{q_2'}(k-j)} \\|S_k f\\|_{L^{p_2'}_tL^{q_2'}_x}\\right)^2\\right)^\\frac12\\\\\n&\\lesssim \\left(\\sum_{k=-\\infty}^0 \\|S_k f\\|^2_{L^{p_2'}_tL^{q_2'}_x}\\right)^\\frac12.\n\\end{align*}\n The bound $X$ bound for the second term in the left of \\eqref{arf} then follows from Littlewood-Paley theory.\nThe $L^{p_1}_tL^{q_1}_x$ estimate follows from similar applications of Bernstein estimates and\nLittlewood-Paley theory.\n  \nFor the first term in the left of \\eqref{arf}, we may apply Proposition \\ref{lemma.A.to.Ak} to again\nreplace $A$ by $\\sum A_{(k)}S_k$.  As the derivatives in $A_{(k)}$ yield a $2^{2k}$ factor, the estimate\nfor the first term in \\eqref{arf}  follows from a very similar argument.\n\n\n\n\nIn order to complete the proof of \\eqref{arf}, we examine the $L^2$\npart of the ${{\\tilde{X}}}$ norm.  We may first apply \\eqref{Hardy} and\n\\eqref{txdx} to reduce the problem to the bound\n\\[\n\\|\\sum_{k<0} R_k S_k f\\|_{L^2_{t,x}(\\{|x|\\le 1\\})}\\lesssim\n\\|f\\|_{L^{p_2'}_tL^{q_2'}_x}\n\\]\nin dimensions $n=1,2$.\nHere we use the fact that\n$\\phi_{j+1}(0)-\\phi_j(0)=0$.  \nUsing this gain in a fashion similar to that from Section \\ref{embxs},\nwe have \n\\[\n\\|\\phi_{j+1}-\\phi_j\\|_{L^2(\\{|x|\\le 1\\})}\\lesssim 2^j.\n\\]\nThus, arguing as above,\n\\begin{align*}\n\\|R_k S_k f\\|_{L^2(\\{|x|\\le 1\\})}&\\lesssim \\sum_{j\\ge k} 2^j 2^{2j(-1+\\frac{1}{p_2'}-\\frac{1}{2})}\n2^{\\frac{n}{q_2'}k}\\|S_k f\\|_{L^{p_2'}_tL^{q_2'}_x}\\\\\n&\\lesssim 2^{\\frac{n}{2}k}\\|S_k f\\|_{L^{p_2'}_t L^{q_2'}_x}.\n\\end{align*}\nThis can clearly be summed to yield the desired bound.\n\n\nIt remains to prove \\eqref{tmdtr}. For this we will show the bound\n\\begin{equation}\n\\|\\langle x \\rangle (T-D_t R)f\\|_{L^2} \\lesssim \\| f\\|_{L^{p'}_tL^{q'}_x}.\n\\label{fdsa}\\end{equation}\nWe have \n\\[\n(T-D_t R)f = - \\sum_{k < 0} \\left(\\phi_0S^t_{\\le 0} (S_k f)(t,0) \n+\\sum_{j= k}^{-1} (\\phi_{j+1}-\\phi_j)S^t_{\\le 2j} (S_k f)(t,0)\\right).\n\\]\nArguing as above we obtain\n\\[\n \\| (\\phi_{j+1}-\\phi_j)S^t_{\\le 2j} (S_k f)(t,0)\\|_{L^2} \n\\lesssim 2^j 2^{\\frac{n}{q_2'}(k-j)} \\|S_k f\\|_{L^{p_2'}_tL^{q_2'}_x}\n\\]\nrespectively \n\\[\n\\| x (\\phi_{j+1}-\\phi_j)S^t_{\\le 2j} (S_k f)(t,0)\\|_{L^2}\n\\lesssim 2^{\\frac{n}{q_2'}(k-j)} \\|S_k f\\|_{L^{p_2'}_tL^{q_2'}_x}\n\\]\nand similarly for the $j=0$ term. Then \\eqref{fdsa} is obtained by\nsummation using the off-diagonal decay and Littlewood-Paley theory.\n\\end{proof}\n\nTheorems~\\ref{prop.Tataru.parametrix.nr}, \\ref{prop.Tataru.xtolp.nr}\nwill allow us to derive Theorems \\ref{main.est.theorem},\n\\ref{main.theoremnt}, \\ref{corr.nontrap.Strichartz} from\nTheorems~\\ref{main.ls.theorem}, \\ref{main.ls.theoremnt},\n\\ref{theorem.PcSmoothing}.  Similarly,\nTheorems~\\ref{prop.Tataru.parametrix}, \\ref{prop.Tataru.xtolp}\nwill allow us to derive Theorems \\ref{main.est.theorem.res},\n\\ref{main.theoremnt.res}, \\ref{corr.nontrap.Strichartz.res} from\nTheorems~\\ref{main.ls.theorem.res}, \\ref{main.ls.theoremnt.res},\n\\ref{theorem.PcSmoothing.res}.\n\n\\subsection{Proof of Theorems~\\ref{main.theoremnt},\n  \\ref{corr.nontrap.Strichartz},~\\ref{main.theoremnt.res},\n  \\ref{corr.nontrap.Strichartz.res}}\n\nThe four proofs are almost identical, so we discuss only the first\ntheorem.  Suppose the function $u$ solves\n\\[\nPu = f +g, \\qquad f \\in {{\\tilde{X}}}', \\quad g \\in L^{p'_2}_t L^{q'_2}_x\n\\]\nwith initial data \n\\[\nu(0) = u_0.\n\\]\nWe let $K$ be the parametrix of\nTheorem~\\ref{prop.Tataru.parametrix.nr} and denote\n\\[\nv = u - K g.\n\\]\nThen\n\\[\nPv = f + g -PKg, \\qquad v(0) = u(0) - Kg(0).\n\\]\nUsing the bounds \\eqref{bc}, \\eqref{kft}, and \\eqref{lperror2bt}, we obtain\n\\[\n\\| v(0)\\|_{L^2} + \\| Pv\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'} \\lesssim \\|u(0)\\|_{L^2} + \n\\| f\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'} + \\|g\\|_{L^{p'_2}_t L^{q'_2}_x}.\n\\]\nThen  Theorem~\\ref{main.ls.theoremnt} gives\n\\[\n\\| v\\|_{L^\\infty_t L^2_x \\cap {{\\tilde{X}}}}  + \\| Pv\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'} \\lesssim \\|u(0)\\|_{L^2} + \n\\| f\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'} + \\|g\\|_{L^{p'_2}_t L^{q'_2}_x} + \\|v\\|_{L^2_{t,x}(A_{<2R})}.\n\\]\nHence by \\eqref{bc} and Theorem~\\ref{prop.Tataru.xtolp.nr} it follows that\n\\[\n\\| v\\|_{L^\\infty_t L^2_x \\cap {{\\tilde{X}}}}+ \\|v\\|_{L^{p_1}_t L^{p_2}_x}\n \\lesssim \\|u(0)\\|_{L^2} + \n\\| f\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'} + \\|g\\|_{L^{p'_2}_t L^{q'_2}_x} + \\|v\\|_{L^2_{t,x}(A_{<2R})}.\n\\]\nUsing again \\eqref{lperror2bt} we return to $u$ to obtain\n\\[\n\\| u\\|_{L^\\infty_t L^2_x \\cap {{\\tilde{X}}}}+ \\|u\\|_{L^{p_1}_t L^{p_2}_x}\n \\lesssim \\|u(0)\\|_{L^2} + \n\\| f\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'} + \\|g\\|_{L^{p'_2}_t L^{q'_2}_x} + \\|u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}(A_{<2R})}\n\\]\nconcluding the proof of the Theorem.\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Proof of Theorem~\\ref{main.est.theorem}}\n Suppose the function $u$ solves\n\\[\nPu = f +\\rho g, \\qquad f \\in {{\\tilde{X}}}'_e, \\quad g \\in L^{p'_2}_t L^{q'_2}_x\n\\]\nwith initial data \n\\[\nu(0) = u_0.\n\\]\nWe consider two\nadditional spherically symmetric cutoff functions $\\rho_1$ and\n$\\rho_2$ supported in $\\{|x| > 2^M\\}$ so that $\\rho_2 =1$ in the\nsupport of $\\rho_1$ and $\\rho_1 =1$ in the\nsupport of $\\rho$.\n\n Let $K$ be the parametrix of\nTheorem~\\ref{prop.Tataru.parametrix.nr} and denote\n\\[\nv = u - \\rho_1 K \\rho g.\n\\]\nThen\n\\[\nPv = f +\\rho_2(\\rho_1( \\rho g - P K \\rho g)  - [P,\\rho_1]K\\rho g)\n, \\qquad v(0) = u(0) - \\rho_1 K \\rho g(0).\n\\]\nUsing the bounds \\eqref{bc}, \\eqref{kft}, and \\eqref{lperror2bt}, we obtain\n\\[\n\\| v(0)\\|_{L^2} + \\| Pv\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'_{e2}} \\lesssim \\|u(0)\\|_{L^2} + \n\\| f\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'_e} + \\|g\\|_{L^{p'_2}_t L^{q'_2}_x}\n\\]\nwhere ${{\\tilde{X}}}'_{e2}$ is similar to ${{\\tilde{X}}}'_{e}$ but with $\\rho$ replaced\nby $\\rho_2$. Then we can apply Theorem~\\ref{main.ls.theorem}\nto $v$ to obtain\n\\[\n\\| v\\|_{L^\\infty_t L^2_x \\cap {{\\tilde{X}}}_{e}}\n + \\| Pv\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'_{e2}} \\lesssim \\|u(0)\\|_{L^2} + \n\\| f\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'_e} + \\|g\\|_{L^{p'_2}_t L^{q'_2}_x}+ \\|v\\|_{L^2_{t,x}(|x|\\le 2^{M+1})}.\n\\]\nWe truncate $v$ with $\\rho$ and compute\n\\[\nP \\rho v = [P,\\rho]v + \\rho P v .\n\\]\nThen we can estimate\n\\[\n\\| v\\|_{L^\\infty_t L^2_x} + \\|\\rho v\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}}\n + \\| P(\\rho v)\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'} \\lesssim \\|u(0)\\|_{L^2} + \n\\| f\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'_e} + \\|g\\|_{L^{p'_2}_t L^{q'_2}_x} + \\|v\\|_{L^2_{t,x}(|x|\\le 2^{M+1})}.\n\\]\nHence by \\eqref{bc} and Theorem~\\ref{prop.Tataru.xtolp.nr} applied to $\\rho v$,\nwe obtain\n\\[\n\\|v\\|_{L^\\infty_t L^2_x} + \\|\\rho v\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}} \\cap L^{p_1}_t L^{q_1}_x}\n \\lesssim \\|u(0)\\|_{L^2} + \n\\| f\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'_e} + \\|g\\|_{L^{p'_2}_t L^{q'_2}_x}+ \\|v\\|_{L^2_{t,x}(|x|\\le 2^{M+1})}.\n\\]\nFinally, we use \\eqref{kft} to return to $u$ and obtain\n\\[\n\\|u\\|_{L^\\infty_t L^2_x} + \\|\\rho u\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}} \\cap L^{p_1}_t L^{q_1}_x}\n\\lesssim \\|u(0)\\|_{L^2} + \n\\| f\\|_{{{\\tilde{X}}}'_e} + \\|g\\|_{L^{p'_2}_t L^{q'_2}_x}+ \\|u\\|_{L^2_{t,x}(|x|\\le 2^{M+1})},\n\\]\nconcluding the proof of the Theorem.\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Proof of Theorem~\\ref{main.est.theorem.res}}\n\nThe argument is similar to the one above. The chief difference \nis that we can no longer use the truncations by $\\rho$, $\\rho_1$,\n$\\rho_2$ and instead we use the modified truncation operators\nsuch as $T_\\rho$.\n\n Suppose the function $u$ solves\n\\[\nPu = f +\\rho g, \\qquad f \\in {X}'_e, \\quad g \\in L^{p'_2}_t L^{q'_2}_x\n\\]\nwith initial data \n\\[\nu(0) = u_0.\n\\]\nWe let $K$ be the parametrix of\nTheorem~\\ref{prop.Tataru.parametrix} and denote\n\\[\nv = u - T_{\\rho_1} K \\rho g\n\\]\nThen we can write\n\\[\nPv = f +T_{\\rho_2}(T_{\\rho_1}( \\rho g - P K \\rho g)  - \n[P,T_{\\rho_1}]K\\rho g)\n, \\qquad v(0) = u(0) - T_{\\rho_1}K\\rho g(0).\n\\]\nHere we compute the commutator\n\\[\n[A,T_{\\rho_1}] w = A \\rho_1 (w-w_{\\rho_1})  - \\rho_1 A (w-w_{\\rho_1}) -\n(1-\\rho)(Aw)_{\\rho_1}\n= [A,\\rho_1] (w -w_{\\rho_1}) - (1-\\rho)(Aw)_{\\rho_1}.\n\\]\nAlso we have \n\\[\n(Aw)_{\\rho_1} = c_\\rho \\int (1-\\rho_1)A(w-w_{\\rho_1}) dx\n = -c_\\rho \\int (w-w_{\\rho_1}) A\\rho_1 dx.\n\\]\nThen using the bounds \\eqref{bnoc}, \\eqref{kf}, and \\eqref{lperror2b}, we obtain\n\\[\n\\| v(0)\\|_{L^2} + \\| Pv\\|_{{X}'_{e2}} \\lesssim \\|u(0)\\|_{L^2} + \n\\| f\\|_{{X}'_e} + \\|g\\|_{L^{p'_2}_t L^{q'_2}_x}.\n\\]\nBy Theorem~\\ref{main.ls.theorem} for $v$ we get\n\\[\n\\| v\\|_{L^\\infty_t L^2_x \\cap {X}_{e}}\n + \\| Pv\\|_{{X}'_{e2}} \\lesssim \\|u(0)\\|_{L^2} + \n\\| f\\|_{{X}'_e} + \\|g\\|_{L^{p'_2}_t L^{q'_2}_x}+ \\|(1-\\rho)(v-v_\\rho)\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}.\n\\]\nWe truncate $v$ with $T_\\rho$ and compute as above the \ncommutator $[P,T_\\rho]$.\nThen we estimate\n\\[\n\\| v\\|_{L^\\infty_t L^2_x} + \\|T_\\rho v\\|_{{X}}\n + \\| P(T_\\rho v)\\|_{{X}'} \\lesssim \\|u(0)\\|_{L^2} + \n\\| f\\|_{{X}'_e} + \\|g\\|_{L^{p'_2}_t L^{q'_2}_x} + \\|(1-\\rho)(v-v_\\rho)\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}.\n\\]\nHence by \\eqref{bnoc} and Theorem~\\ref{prop.Tataru.xtolp} applied to $T_\\rho v$,\nwe obtain\n\\[\n\\|v\\|_{L^\\infty_t L^2_x} + \\|T_\\rho v\\|_{{X} \\cap L^{p_1}_t L^{q_1}_x}\n \\lesssim \\|u(0)\\|_{L^2} + \n\\| f\\|_{{X}'_e} + \\|g\\|_{L^{p'_2}_t L^{q'_2}_x}+ \\|(1-\\rho)(v-v_\\rho)\\|_{L^2_{t,x}}.\n\\]\nFinally, we use \\eqref{kf} to return to $u$ and obtain\n\\[\n\\|u\\|_{L^\\infty_t L^2_x} + \\|T_\\rho u\\|_{{X} \\cap L^{p_1}_t L^{q_1}_x}\n\\lesssim \\|u(0)\\|_{L^2} + \n\\| f\\|_{{X}'_e} + \\|g\\|_{L^{p'_2}_t L^{q'_2}_x}+ \\|(1-\\rho)(u-u_\\rho)\\|_{L^2_{t,x}},\n\\]\nconcluding the proof of the Theorem.\n\n\n\\begin{comment}\n\\newsection{Remarks}\n\nThis is a temporary section which contains some more detailed remarks and proofs.  It will be removed\nfor the final version.\n\\subsection{Remarks from Section \\ref{not_para}:}\n\n\\begin{remark}\n\\label{remark.1}\nHere we shall show\n$$S_{<k\/2}(a^{ij}-I_n)|\\lesssim \\kappa_m,\\quad |x|\\in D_m$$\nwhen $k>8$.\n\nIndeed, the left side is bounded by\n\\begin{equation}\\label{remark.1.1}\n\\sum_{j\\ge 0} \\int_{y\\in D_j} \\frac{2^{kn\/2}}{(1+2^{k\/2}|x-y|)^N} (a^{ij}-I)(y)\\:dy,\\end{equation}\nfor any $N\\ge 0$.  We examine the cases $0\\le j<m-3$, $m-3\\le j\\le m+3$, and $m+3<j$ separately.\n\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item\nFor the first case, it follows that \\eqref{remark.1.1} is \n$$\\lesssim \\sum_{0\\le j<m-3} 2^{-Nk\/2}2^{-Nm} \\kappa_j\n\\lesssim 2^{-Nk\/2}2^{-Nm} \\kappa_m \\sum_{0\\le j<m-3} (e^{2^{-10}})^{m-j}\\lesssim \\kappa_m.$$ \n\\item\nFor the second case, \\eqref{remark.1.1} is\n$$\\lesssim \\sum_{m-3\\le j\\le m+3} \\kappa_j \\approx \\kappa_m.$$\n\\item\nFor the third case, \\eqref{remark.1.1} is\n$$\\lesssim \\sum_{m+3<j} 2^{-Nk}2^{-Nj} \\kappa_j \\lesssim \\kappa_m \\sum_{m+3<j} 2^{-Nj} (e^{2^{-10}})^{j-m}\n\\lesssim \\kappa_m.$$\n\\end{itemize}\n\\qed\n\\end{remark}\n\\begin{remark}\n\\label{remark.2}\nHere we prove that\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{remark.2.goal}\n|S_{<l}(a^{ij}-I_n)|\\lesssim \\begin{cases}\n\t\t\t     \\kappa_m,\\quad x\\in D_m,\\quad m\\ge 0,\\quad l+m\\ge 0,\\\\\n\t\t\t     \\kappa_{-l},\\quad |x|<2^{-l},\\quad l+m<0.\n\t\t\t     \\end{cases}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item Let's look at the case $l+m\\ge 0$ first.  Here we have that the left side of \\eqref{remark.2.goal} is\n$$\\lesssim \\sum_j \\int_{y\\in D_j} \\frac{2^{ln}}{(1+2^l|x-y|)^N}(a^{ij}-I)(y)\\:dy.$$\nWe subsequently analyze this in the cases $0\\le j<m-3$, $m-3\\le j\\le m+3$, and $j>m+3$ separately.\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item For $0\\le j<m-3$, we have that the above is\n$$\\lesssim \\sum_{0\\le j<m-3} 2^{ln}2^{jn} 2^{-Nl}2^{-Nm}\\kappa_j\n\\lesssim 2^{-l(N-n)} 2^{-m(N-n)} \\kappa_m \\sum_{0\\le j<m-3} 2^{(j-m)n} (e^{2^{-10}})^{m-j}\n\\lesssim \\kappa_m$$\nfor $N$ chosen sufficiently large.\n\\item For $m-3\\le j\\le m+3$, we have that the above is\n$$\\lesssim \\sum_{m-3\\le j\\le m+3} \\kappa_j \\approx \\kappa_m.$$\n\\item For $m+3<j$, we have that the above is\n$$\\lesssim \\sum_{m+3<j} 2^{-l(N-n)} 2^{-j(N-n)} \\kappa_j\n\\lesssim 2^{-l(N-n)} 2^{-m(N-n)} \\kappa_m \\sum_{j>m+3} 2^{-(j-m)(N-n)} (e^{2^{-10}})^{j-m}\\lesssim \\kappa_m.$$\n\\end{itemize}\n\\item Now, we look at the case $l+m<0$.\nHere, we have two cases to examine.\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item For $0\\le j\\le -l+2$, we have that the above is\n$$\\lesssim \\sum_{0\\le j\\le -l+2} 2^{(l+j)n}\\kappa_j \\lesssim \\kappa_{-l} \\sum_{0\\le j\\le -l+2} 2^{(l+j)n}\n(e^{2^{-10}})^{|l+j|}\\lesssim \\kappa_{-l}.$$\n\\item For $j>-l+2$, we have that the above is\n$$\\lesssim \\sum_{j>-l+2} 2^{-N(l+j)}\\kappa_j \\lesssim \\kappa_{-l} \\sum_{j>-l+2} 2^{-N(l+j)}(e^{2^{-10}})^{l+j}\n\\lesssim \\kappa_{-l}.$$\n\\end{itemize}\n\\end{itemize}\n\\qed\n\\end{remark}\n\n\n\n\\end{comment}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\bigskip\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\nThe occurrence of CO$_2$ within magmas and volcanic gases indicates a\nsignificant carbon presence within the Earth's lower mantle\n\\cite{Marty_1987,Halliday_2013}.  Carbon has a low solubility in\nmantle silicates and the majority of the oxidized carbon in the\nEarth's mantle is believed to exist in the form of carbonates.\nCalcium and magnesium carbonate (CaCO$_3$ and MgCO$_3$) are the main\nsources and sinks of atmospheric CO$_2$ within the Earth's mantle.\nCarbonates are conveyed into the deep Earth by subduction, and carbon\nis recycled to the surface via volcanic processes in the form of\nCO$_2$-containing fluids and solids, and diamonds\n\\cite{Ghosh_2009,Frezzotti_2011}.  However, the details of carbon\nstorage within the Earth's interior are unclear.  The Deep Carbon\nObservatory \\cite{DCO} has been set up to investigate carbon within\nthe Earth's deep interior.  CaCO$_3$ and MgCO$_3$ play fundamental\nroles in the global carbon cycle and influence the climate of our\nplanet \\cite{Dasgupta_2010,Hazen_2013_DCO}.  Knowledge of the\nstructures, energetics and other properties of CaCO$_3$ and MgCO$_3$\nat high pressures is therefore important in understanding the Earth's\nmantle, and especially the carbon cycle.\n\nThe low-pressure calcite form \\cite{Bragg_structure_of_calcite_1914}\nof CaCO$_3$ is one of the most abundant minerals on the Earth's\nsurface and is the main constituent of metamorphic marbles.  Several\nmetastable calcite-like phases have been observed\n\\cite{Bridgman_1939,Suito_2001,Merlini_2012}, and a calcite-related\nphase has been reported at around 25 GPa\n\\cite{Catalli_2005,Merlini_2012}.  At pressures of about 2 GPa calcite\ntransforms to the aragonite structure\n\\cite{Bragg_structure_of_aragonite_1924} of $Pnma$ symmetry.  At about\n40 GPa aragonite transforms into the ``post aragonite'' ($Pmmn$)\nstructure of CaCO$_3$, which is stable up to at least 86 GPa\n\\cite{Ono_2005,Oganov_2006}.  The low pressure magnesite phase of\nMgCO$_3$ has the same structure as calcite.  Experiments indicate that\nmagnesite is stable up to 80 GPa \\cite{Fiquet_2002}, and a phase\ntransition occurs above 100 GPa to an unknown magnesite II structure\n\\cite{Isshiki_2004_magnesite_and_high_pressure_form,Boulard_2011}.\n\n\\section{Structure searches}\n\nDensity functional theory (DFT) calculations for high pressure phases\nof CaCO$_3$ and MgCO$_3$ were performed by Oganov \\textit{et al.}\\\nusing an evolutionary structure searching algorithm\n\\cite{Oganov_2006,Oganov_2008}.  These calculations predicted a\ntransition from the calcite to aragonite to ``post aragonite''\nstructures of CaCO$_3$, followed by a transition to a structure of\n$C222_1$ symmetry at pressures over 100 GPa.  Similar calculations for\nMgCO$_3$ predicted transitions from magnesite to a structure of $C2\/m$\nsymmetry at 82 GPa, followed by a transition to a structure of $P2_1$\nsymmetry at 138 GPa, and a phase of $Pna2_1$ symmetry at 160 GPa\n\\cite{Oganov_2008}.\n\nCalculations using the \\textit{ab initio} random structure searching\n(AIRSS) technique \\cite{Airss_review} have led to the discovery of\nstructures that have subsequently been verified by experiment, for\nexample, in silane \\cite{pickard_silane}, aluminium hydride\n\\cite{pickard_aluminum_hydride}, ammonia monohydrate\n\\cite{fortes_ammonia_monohydrate_II} and ammonia dihydrate\n\\cite{griffiths_ammonia_dihydrate_II}.  In the basic AIRSS approach a\ncell volume and shape is selected at random from within reasonable\nranges, the atoms are added at random positions, and the system is\nrelaxed until the forces on the atoms are negligible and the pressure\ntakes the required value.  This procedure is repeated many times,\nleading to a reasonably unbiased scheme which allows a significant\nportion of the ``structure space'' to be investigated, although the\nsampling may be rather sparse.  This approach is often successful for\nsmall systems, but it involves sampling a large portion of the\nhigh-energy structure space which is not normally of interest.  We\ntherefore reduce the size of the structure space investigated by\nconstraining the searches.\n\nWe first perform searches in small cells, constraining the initial\nstructures so that all of the atoms are at least 1 \\AA\\ apart.  The\nlow-enthalpy structures obtained from these calculations give us\ninformation about the favorable bonding configurations and likely\nnearest neighbor distances between the different atomic types.  At low\npressures we find that the low-enthalpy structures contain\nwell-defined triangular CO$_3$ or ring C$_3$O$_9$ units, and therefore\nwe place these units and Ca or Mg atoms randomly within the cells of\nrandom shapes.  We ensure that the atoms are not too close together by\nconstraining the initial values of the minimum distances between atoms\nfor each of the six possible pairs of atomic species.  The six minimum\ndistances are obtained from low-enthalpy structures found in the\nsmall-cell searches.  To construct the initial structures at higher\npressures we use minimum distances from low-enthalpy small-cell\nstructures to prepare new larger structures that approximately satisfy\nthe minimum distance constraints.  This approach helps to space out\nthe different species appropriately, while retaining a high degree of\nrandomness.  We perform searches at both low and high pressures, using\nstructures which are constrained to have a certain symmetry which is\nenforced during the relaxation, but are otherwise random\n\\cite{Airss_review}.  This approach is useful because low energy\nstructures often possess symmetry \\cite{Pauling_1929,Wales_1998},\nalthough symmetry constraints break up the allowed structure space\ninto disconnected regions and can prevent some structures from\nrelaxing to lower energy ones \\cite{Airss_review}.  We consider\nstructures containing up to eight formula units (f.u.) for CaCO$_3$\nand twelve f.u.\\ for MgCO$_3$.\n\nOur first-principles DFT calculations are performed using the\n\\textsc{Castep} plane-wave basis set pseudopotential code\n\\cite{ClarkSPHPRP05}.  We use the Perdew-Burke-Ernzerhof (PBE)\ngeneralized gradient approximation (GGA) density functional\n\\cite{Perdew_1996_PBE}, default \\textsc{Castep} ultrasoft\npseudopotentials \\cite{Vanderbilt90}, and a plane-wave basis set\nenergy cutoff of 440 eV.  We use a Brillouin zone sampling grid of\nspacing $2\\pi\\times$0.1~\\AA$^{-1}$ for the searches, and a finer\nspacing of $2\\pi\\times$0.05~\\AA$^{-1}$ for the final results reported\nin this paper.\n\n\\section{C\\lowercase{a}CO$_3$, pressure $\\leq$ 50 GPa}\n\nCalculated enthalpy-pressure curves for CaCO$_3$ phases are shown in\nFig.\\ \\ref{fig:enthalpy_CaCO3}, relative to the enthalpy of the ``post\naragonite'' phase.  The transition from aragonite to ``post\naragonite'' becomes energetically favorable at about 42 GPa, in\nagreement with previous DFT results\n\\cite{Oganov_2006,Arapan_2007,Oganov_2008,Arapan_2010} and experiment\n\\cite{Ono_2005}.  We performed calculations for the CaCO$_3$-VI\nstructure reported in Ref.\\ \\onlinecite{Merlini_2012}, which was\nsuggested as a possible high pressure phase of CaCO$_3$.  However, we\nfound it to be very high in enthalpy, with a strongly anisotropic\nstress and large forces on the atoms.  Relaxation of the CaCO$_3$-VI\nstructure at 40 GPa led to a reasonably stable structure with an\nenthalpy close to that of aragonite, but the relaxed structure does\nnot have a region of stability on our phase diagram (Fig.\\\n\\ref{fig:enthalpy_CaCO3}).  We also found a structure of $Pnma$\nsymmetry (``{CaCO$_3$-$Pnma$-$h$}'', where $h$ denotes ``high\npressure'') that is predicted to be more stable than aragonite above\n40 GPa, and more stable than ``post aragonite'' below 47 GPa.\nHowever, {CaCO$_3$-$Pnma$-$h$} does not have a region of thermodynamic\nstability on our phase diagram because we find a previously unknown\nstructure of $P2_1\/c$ symmetry (``{CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$l$}'', where $l$\ndenotes ``low pressure'') which is calculated to be the most stable\nphase in the pressure range 32--48 GPa, see Fig.\\\n\\ref{fig:enthalpy_CaCO3}.\n\nAt 42 GPa {CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$l$} is calculated to be about 0.05 eV\nper f.u.\\ more stable than aragonite and ``post aragonite'' and,\nbecause these $sp^2$ bonded structures are similar, we expect that DFT\ncalculations should give rather accurate enthalpy differences between\nthem.  However, our {CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$l$} and {CaCO$_3$-$Pnma$-$h$}\nstructures do not provide as good a fit to the experimental X-ray\ndiffraction data as the ``post aragonite'' phase \\cite{Oganov_2006}.\nIt is possible that large energy barriers hinder formation of the\n{CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$l$} structure.  Another possibility is that the\nlaser-heated sample melts and the least stable polymorph crystallizes\nfrom the melt first, in analogy to ``Ostwald's rule''\n\\cite{Ostwald_1897}.\nIn any case, the conditions within the Earth's mantle are not the same\nas in diamond anvil cell experiments, and the timescales associated\nwith geological processes are enormously longer than those for\nlaboratory experiments.\n\n\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\centering\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.4\\textwidth,clip]{Figure_1_Enthalpy.eps}\n  \\caption{(Color online) Enthalpies per f.u.\\ of CaCO$_3$ phases\n    relative to ``post aragonite'', with the number of f.u.\\ per\n    primitive unit cell given within square brackets. The enthalpies\n    of phases known prior to the current study are shown as dashed\n    lines, while those found in the current study are shown as solid\n    lines.  The dotted red line shows the collapse of the\n    {CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$l$} structure into the more stable\n    {CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$h$} structure at 80--90 GPa.}\n  \\label{fig:enthalpy_CaCO3}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\section{C\\lowercase{a}CO$_3$, pressure $>$ 50 GPa}\n\nAt higher pressures we find another CaCO$_3$ structure of $P2_1\/c$\nsymmetry (``{CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$h$}'') to be stable from 67 GPa to\nwell above 100 GPa.  Our {CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$h$} structure is about\n0.18 eV per f.u.\\ more stable than the $C222_1$ structure found by\nOganov \\textit{et al.}\\ \\cite{Oganov_2006}, see Fig.\\\n\\ref{fig:enthalpy_CaCO3}, and $C222_1$ does not have a region of\nthermodynamic stability.  We also find that at about 80--90 GPa\n{CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$l$} transforms into the more stable\n{CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$h$} structure without any apparent energy barrier\n(dotted red line in Fig.\\ \\ref{fig:enthalpy_CaCO3}).  Our calculations\nlead to the prediction of a new and more stable polymorph of CaCO$_3$\nat pressures $>67$ GPa.\n\n\n\\section{M\\lowercase{g}CO$_3$}\n\n\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\centering\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.4\\textwidth,clip]{Figure_2_Enthalpy.eps}\n  \\caption{(Color online) Enthalpies per f.u.\\ of MgCO$_3$ phases\n    relative to the $C2\/m$ phase, with the number of f.u.\\ per\n    primitive unit cell given within square brackets.  Previously\n    known phases are shown as dashed lines, and those found in the\n    current study are shown as solid lines.}\n  \\label{fig:Enthalpies_MgCO3_higher_pressure}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\nCalculated enthalpy-pressure curves for MgCO$_3$ phases in the\npressure range 50--200 GPa are shown in Fig.\\\n\\ref{fig:Enthalpies_MgCO3_higher_pressure}, relative to the $C2\/m$\nphase.  We find a previously unreported structure of $P\\bar{1}$\nsymmetry to be the most stable in the range 85--101 GPa.  We also find\na phase of $P2_12_12_1$ symmetry that is marginally the most stable at\npressures around 144 GPa, see Fig.\\\n\\ref{fig:Enthalpies_MgCO3_higher_pressure}.\n\n\n\\section{Structures and bonding}\n\nThe carbon atoms in the calcite, aragonite, ``post aragonite'', and\nour {CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$l$} and {CaCO$_3$-$Pnma$-$h$} structures\ncontain threefold coordinated carbon atoms, as does the magnesite\nphase of MgCO$_3$.  These structures contain triangular CO$_3^{2-}$\nions with $sp^2$ bonding.  In aragonite and ``post aragonite'' the\nCO$_3^{2-}$ ions are coplanar, but in our {CaCO$_3$-$Pnma$-$h$}\nstructure they are somewhat tilted, while in {CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$l$}\nthey are tilted at approximately 90$^\\circ$ to one another, see Fig.\\\n\\ref{fig:structures_CaCO3_lower_pressure}.  More details of the\nstructures are given in the Supplemental Material \\cite{Supplemental}.\n\n\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\centering\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.475\\textwidth,clip]{Figure_3_P21c-low.eps}\\\\\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.37\\textwidth,clip]{Figure_3_Pnma.eps}\\\\ \\vspace{0.375cm}\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.3\\textwidth,clip]{Figure_3_Pmmn.eps}\n  \\caption{(Color online) The {CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$l$} (top),\n    {CaCO$_3$-$Pnma$-$h$} (middle), and ``post aragonite'' (bottom)\n    structures of CaCO$_3$ at 40 GPa.  The Ca atoms are in green, the\n    carbon in grey, and the oxygen in red.}\n  \\label{fig:structures_CaCO3_lower_pressure}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\nThe high-pressure {CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$h$} and $C222_1$ structures\ncontain fourfold coordinated carbon atoms and are of the pyroxene\ntype.  {CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$h$} and $C222_1$ possess very similar\ncalcium lattices but the packing of the pyroxene chains is different,\nas can be seen in Fig.\\ \\ref{fig:structures_CaCO3_higher_pressure}.\nIn $C222_1$ each of the chains is orientated in the same manner, but\n{CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$h$} alternate chains run in the reverse direction,\nsee Fig.\\ \\ref{fig:structures_CaCO3_higher_pressure}, and consequently\nthe unit cell of {CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$h$} contains four f.u., whereas\n$C222_1$ contains two.  When viewed along the axis of the chains, the\n{CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$h$} and $C222_1$ structures appear almost\nidentical.  {CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$h$} and $C222_1$ have very similar\nvolumes at high pressures, with $C222_1$ being slightly denser, which\nleads to almost parallel enthalpy-pressure relations, see Fig.\\\n\\ref{fig:enthalpy_CaCO3}.  The lower enthalpy of\n{CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$h$} must therefore arise from more favorable\nelectrostatic interactions between the pyroxene chains.\n\n\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\centering\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.35\\textwidth,clip]{Figure_4_C2221.eps}\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.35\\textwidth,clip]{Figure_4_P21c.eps}\n  \\caption{(Color online) The $C222_1$ (top) and {CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$h$}\n    pyroxene-type (bottom) structures of CaCO$_3$ at 60 GPa. The Ca\n    atoms are in green, carbon in grey, and oxygen in red.}\n  \\label{fig:structures_CaCO3_higher_pressure}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\subsection{High-pressure X-ray data for C\\lowercase{a}CO$_3$}\n\nOno \\textit{et al.}\\ \\cite{Ono_2007} performed laser-heated diamond\nanvil cell experiments on CaCO$_3$ at 182 GPa.  X-ray diffraction data\nfor the $C222_1$ \\cite{Oganov_2006} and {CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$h$}\nstructures are compared in Fig.\\ \\ref{fig:XRD_CaCO3} with the\nexperimental data from Fig.\\ 1 of Ref.\\ \\onlinecite{Ono_2007}.  Note\nthe appearance of three peaks marked with stars in the experimental\ndata that arise from the platinum used to enhance heat absorption\nduring the laser heating and as a pressure calibrant.  The\nexperimental data is not of very high resolution.  The diffraction\npatterns of the theoretical $C222_1$ and {CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$h$}\nstructures share many common features.  There are also clear\nsimilarities between the theoretical and experimental X-ray data, but\nthe experimental data is of insufficient resolution to allow the\nstructure to be determined unambiguously.  We suggest that our\nCaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$h$ structure is the best available candidate for\nthe observed high pressure phase because it has a much lower enthalpy\nthan $C222_1$.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\centering\n \\includegraphics[width=0.4\\textwidth,clip]{Figure_5_Xray.eps}\n \\caption{(Color online) X-ray diffraction patterns of the $C222_1$\n   \\cite{Oganov_2006} and {CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$h$} phases of CaCO$_3$,\n   compared with experimental data from Fig.\\ 1(b) of Ref.\\\n   \\onlinecite{Ono_2007}.  Data at 182 GPa are reported, with an\n   incident wavelength of 0.415 \\AA.  The stars indicate that the peak\n   immediately to the right arises from platinum.}\n  \\label{fig:XRD_CaCO3}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\section{Chemical reactions in Earth's mantle}\n\nWe have investigated possible chemical reactions involving the mantle\nmaterials CaCO$_3$, MgCO$_3$, CO$_2$, MgSiO$_3$, CaSiO$_3$, SiO$_2$,\nCaO and MgO, following the approach of Oganov \\textit{et al.}\\\n\\cite{Oganov_2008}.  The most stable structures of each compound at\nthe relevant pressures are used, as provided by DFT studies.  We use\nthe $Pa\\bar{3}$, $P4_2\/mnm$, and $I\\bar{4}2d$ structures of CO$_2$\n\\cite{Ma_CO2_2013}, the stishovite, CaCl$_2$ and pyrite structures of\nSiO$_2$ \\cite{Karki_silica_1997}, the rocksalt structure of MgO, the\northorhombic structure of perovskite CaSiO$_3$ and the perovskite and\npost-perovskite structures of MgSiO$_3$ \\cite{Murakami_2004,\n  Oganov_2004, Tsuchiya_2004}.\n\nDecomposition of CaCO$_3$ and MgCO$_3$ into the alkaline earth oxides\nplus CO$_2$ is found to be unfavorable.  Under conditions of excess\nSiO$_2$, the reaction\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n{\\rm MgCO}_3 + {\\rm SiO}_2 & \\rightarrow & {\\rm MgSiO}_3 + {\\rm CO}_2\n\\end{eqnarray}\nis found to be energetically unfavorable up to 138 GPa, which is just\nabove the pressure at the mantle-core boundary, see Fig.\\\n\\ref{fig:Enthalpy_MgCO3+SiO2-MgSiO3+CO2}.  We find that the reaction\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n{\\rm CaCO}_3 + {\\rm SiO}_2 & \\rightarrow & {\\rm CaSiO}_3 + {\\rm CO}_2\n\\end{eqnarray}\ndoes not occur below 200 GPa, see Fig.\\\n\\ref{fig:Enthalpy_CaSiO3+CO2-CaCO3+SiO2}, which is much higher than\nthe value of 135 GPa reported in Ref.\\ \\onlinecite{Oganov_2008}.  We\nconclude that both MgCO$_3$ and CaCO$_3$ are stable within the Earth's\nmantle under conditions of excess SiO$_2$.  These results suggest that\nfree CO$_2$ does not occur as an equilibrium phase within the Earth's\nmantle.\n\nMgCO$_3$ has generally been believed to be the dominant carbonate\nthroughout the Earth's mantle.  This assumption can be tested when\nexcess MgO is present by determining the relative stability of\nCaCO$_3$+MgO and MgCO$_3$+CaO.  We find that CaCO$_3$+MgO is the more\nstable up to pressures of about 200 GPa, so that CaCO$_3$ is the\nstable carbonate under these conditions.  In the case of excess\nMgSiO$_3$ we consider the reaction\n\\begin{eqnarray} \n{\\rm CaCO}_3 + {\\rm MgSiO}_3 & \\rightarrow & {\\rm CaSiO}_3 + {\\rm MgCO}_3,\n\\end{eqnarray}\nfinding that CaCO$_3$ is more stable than MgCO$_3$ from 100 GPa up to\npressures well above those of 136 GPa found at the mantle-core\nboundary, see Fig.\\ \\ref{fig:Enthalpy_CaCO3+MgSiO3-CaSiO3+MgCO3}.\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n  \\centering\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.4\\textwidth,clip]{Figure6-Mg-CO2.eps}\n  \\caption{(Color online).  The relative stabilities per f.u.\\ as a\n    function of pressure of MgCO$_3$+SiO$_2$ and MgSiO$_3$+CO$_2$.\n    The vertical gray line indicates the pressure at the base of the\n    mantle (136 GPa).  In this and the following figures, the kinks\n    arise from phase transitions. }\n  \\label{fig:Enthalpy_MgCO3+SiO2-MgSiO3+CO2}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n  \\centering\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.4\\textwidth,clip]{Figure7-Ca-CO2.eps}\n  \\caption{(Color online).  The relative stabilities per f.u.\\ as a\n    function of pressure of CaSiO$_3$+CO$_2$ and CaCO$_3$+SiO$_2$.\n    The vertical gray line indicates the pressure at the base of the\n    mantle (136 GPa). }\n  \\label{fig:Enthalpy_CaSiO3+CO2-CaCO3+SiO2}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n  \\centering\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.45\\textwidth,clip]{Figure8-CaCO3vMgCO3.eps}\n  \\caption{(Color online) Enthalpy per f.u.\\ of CaCO$_3$+MgSiO$_3$\n    compared with that of CaSiO$_3$+MgCO$_3$.  Below 100 GPa we find\n    that CaSiO$_3$+MgCO$_3$ is the most stable, while above 100 GPa\n    CaCO$_3$+MgSiO$_3$ is the most stable. }\n  \\label{fig:Enthalpy_CaCO3+MgSiO3-CaSiO3+MgCO3}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\section{Conclusions}\n\nIn conclusion, we have searched for structures of CaCO$_3$ and\nMgCO$_3$ at mantle pressures using AIRSS\n\\cite{Airss_review,pickard_silane}.  We have found a\n{CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$l$} structure with $sp^2$ bonded carbon atoms that\nis predicted to be stable within the range 32--48 GPa.  We have also\nfound a high pressure {CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$h$} structure with $sp^3$\nbonded carbon atoms that is about 0.18 eV per f.u.\\ more stable than\nthe $C222_1$ phase proposed by Oganov \\textit{et al.}\\\n\\cite{Oganov_2006}.  Both the {CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$h$} and $C222_1$\nstructures are compatible with the available X-ray diffraction data\n\\cite{Ono_2007}.  However, {CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$h$} is the most stable\nstructure from 67 GPa to pressures well above those encountered within\nthe Earth's lower mantle ($\\leq$ 136 GPa).\nOur AIRSS calculations suggest a previously unknown phase of MgCO$_3$\nof $P\\bar{1}$ symmetry that is predicted to be thermodynamically\nstable in the pressure range 85--101 GPa.\nOur results suggest that CO$_2$ is not a thermodynamically stable\ncompound under deep mantle conditions.\nUnder conditions of excess MgSiO$_3$ we find that CaCO$_3$ is more\nstable than MgCO$_3$ above 100 GPa.  This result arises directly from\nour discovery of the highly stable {CaCO$_3$-$P2_1\/c$-$h$} phase.  The\nresults of our study change our understanding of the carbon cycle in\nthe lower part of the mantle and may have important consequences for\ngeodynamics\n\\cite{Javoy_carbon_geodynamic_cycle,Marty_1987_geodynamics,Dobretsov_2012_geodynamics}\nand geochemistry\n\\cite{Schrag_2013_geochemistry,Deines_geochem_review}.\n\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{acknowledgments}\n\n  We acknowledge financial support from the Engineering and Physical\n  Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) of the United Kingdom.\n\n\\end{acknowledgments}\n\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
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+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\nA \\emph{vertex coloring} of a graph is a labeling of the vertices so that no\ntwo adjacent vertices receive the same label. A $k$-\\emph{ranking} of a graph\nis a coloring of the vertex set with $k$ positive integers such that on every\npath connecting two vertices of the same color there is a vertex of larger\ncolor. The \\textit{rank number of a graph} is defined\nto be the smallest $k$ such that $G$ has a $k$-ranking.\n\nEarly studies involving the rank number of a graph were sparked by its\nnumerous applications including designs for very large scale integration\nlayout (VLSI), Cholesky factorizations of matrices, and the scheduling of\nmanufacturing systems \\cite{torre,leiserson,sen}. Bodlaender et al. proved\nthat given a bipartite graph $G$ and a positive integer $n$, deciding whether\na rank number of $G$ is less than $n$ is NP-complete \\cite{bodlaender}. The\nrank number of paths, cycles, split graphs, complete multipartite graphs,\npowers of paths and cycles, and some grid graphs are well known\n\\cite{alpert,bodlaender,bruoth,chang,ghoshal,novotny,ortiz}.\n\nIn this paper we investigate an extremal property of rankings that has not yet\nbeen explored. We consider the maximum number of edges that may be added to\n$G$ without changing the rank number. Since the maximum number of edges that\ncan be added to a graph without changing the rank number varies with each\nparticular ranking, we will focus on families where an optimal ranking has a\nspecific structure. Here we investigate the problem for $G=P_{2^{k-1}}$,\n$C_{2^{k}}$, $K_{m_{1},m_{2},\\dots,m_{t}}$, and the union of two copies of\n$K_{n}$ joined by a single edge.\n\nIn addition to determining the maximum number of edges that may be added to $G$\nwithout changing the rank number we provide an explicit characterization of which\nedges change the rank number when added to $G$, and which edges do not. That is,\ngiven a vertex $v_n$  in $n$th position in the graph, we provide an algorithm to\nadd a new edge with $v_n$ as one of its vertices to  the graph $G$ without\nchanging its ranking. For this construction  we use the binary representation of $n$\nto determine the position of the second vertex of the new edge. We also construct the\nmaximum number of edges, so called \\emph{good edges}, that can be added to the graph\nwithout changing its ranking. We enumerate the  maximum number of good edges.\n\n\n\\section{Preliminaries}\n\nIn this section we review elementary properties and known results about rankings.\n\nA labeling $f:V(G)\\rightarrow\\{1,2,\\dots,k\\}$ is a $k$-\\textit{ranking} of a\ngraph $G$ if and only if $f(u)=f(v)$ implies that every $u-v$ path contains a\nvertex $w$ such that $f(w)>f(u)$. Following along the lines of the chromatic\nnumber, the \\textit{rank number of a graph} $\\chi_{r}(G)$ is defined to be the\nsmallest $k$ such that $G$ has a $k$-ranking. If $H$ is a subgraph of $G$,\nthen $\\chi_{r}(H)\\leq\\chi_{r}(G)$ (see \\cite{ghoshal}).\n\nWe use $P_{n}$ to represent the path with $n$ vertices. It is well\nknown that a ranking of $P_{n}$ with $V\\left(  P_{n}\\right)  =\\left\\{\nv_{1},v_{2},...,v_{n}\\right\\}  $ and $\\chi_{r}(P_{n})$ labels can be\nconstructed by labeling $v_{i}$ with $\\alpha+1$ where $2^{\\alpha}$ is the\nlargest power of $2$ that divides $i$ \\ \\cite{bodlaender}. We will call this\nranking the \\textit{standard ranking of a path}.\n\nWe use $C_{2^{k}}$ to denote a cycle with $2^{k}$ vertices. A multipartite\ngraph with $t$ components is denoted by $K_{m_{1},m_{2},\\dots,m_{t}}$ where\nthe $i${th} component has $m_{i}$ vertices. The complete graph with $n$\nvertices is denoted by $K_{n}$.\n\n\nLet $\\Gamma$ and $H$ be graphs with $V(H)\\subseteq V(\\Gamma)$ and $E(H)\\cap\nE(\\Gamma)=\\emptyset$. We say that an edge $e\\in H$ is \\emph{good} for $\\Gamma$\nif $\\chi_{r}\\left(  \\Gamma\\cup\\{e\\}\\right)  =\\chi_{r}(\\Gamma)$, and $e$ is\n\\emph{forbidden} for $\\Gamma$ if $\\chi_{r}(\\Gamma\\cup\\{e\\})>\\chi_{r}(\\Gamma)$. We use\n$\\mu (G)$ to represent the cardinality of the maximum set of good edges for $G$.\n\nFor example, in Figure \\ref{figure1} we show a ranking of a graph $P_{2^{4}-1}\\cup H_{P}$\nwhere $H_{P}$ is the set of all good edges for $P_{2^{4}-1}$. The set of\nvertices of $P_{2^{4}-1}$ is $\\{v_{1},\\dots,v_{15}\\}$. We can see that $\\chi_{r}(P_{2^{4}-1}\\cup H_{P})=\\chi_{r}(P_{2^{4}-1})=4$\nand that $E(H_{P})$ is comprised of 20 good edges. That is, $\\mu (P_{2^{4}-1})=20$.\nTheorems \\ref{maintheorem} and \\ref{maintheoremcomponents} give  necessary and sufficient conditions to determine\nwhether graphs $G=P_{2^{k}-1}\\cup H_{P}$ and $P_{2^{k}-1}$ have the same rank number.\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure} [htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n\\psfrag{v1}[c]{$v_1$} \\psfrag{v15}[c]{$v_{15}$} \\psfrag{1}[c]{$1$}\n\\psfrag{2}[c]{$2$} \\psfrag{3}[c]{$3$} \\psfrag{4}[c]{$4$}\n\\includegraphics[width=110mm]{path1.eps}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{$P_{2^4-1} \\cup H_P$} \\label{figure1}\n\\end{figure}\n\nFigure \\ref{figure2} Part (a) shows the graph $G=C_{2^{4} }\\cup H$\nwhere $H$ is the set of all good edges for $C_{2^{4}}$.  We can see that\n $\\chi_{r}(C_{2^{4}}\\cup H)=\\chi_{r}(C_{2^{4}})=5$ and that $E(H)$ is comprised\n of 33 good edges. That is, $\\mu (C_{2^{4}})=33$. Theorem \\ref{goodarcscyclecorollay} gives\nnecessary and sufficient conditions to determine whether the graphs\n$G=C_{2^{k}}\\cup H$ and $C_{2^{k}}$ have the same rank number.\n\n\\begin{figure} [htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n\\psfrag{v1}[c]{$v_1$} \\psfrag{v15}[c]{$v_{15}$}\n\\psfrag{v16}[c]{$v_{16}$} \\psfrag{1}[c]{$1$} \\psfrag{2}[c]{$2$}\n\\psfrag{3}[c]{$3$} \\psfrag{4}[c]{$4$} \\psfrag{5}[c]{$5$}\n\\includegraphics[width=40mm]{cycle5.eps} \\hspace{2cm}\n\\includegraphics[width=40mm]{cycle3.eps}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{(a)\\ \\ $G:=C_{2^k}\\cup H$ \\hspace{2cm} (b)\\ \\\n$G':=\\left(C_{2^4} \\setminus \\{ v_{16}\\}\\right)\\cup H' $}\n\\label{figure2}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{lemma}\n[\\cite{bodlaender, bruoth}]\\label{rankingofapath} If $k\\geq1$, then\n\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item  $P_{2^{k}-1}$ has a unique $k-$ranking and $\\chi_{r}(P_{2^{k}-1}) =k$.\n\n\\item $C_{2^{k}}$ has a unique $k-$ranking and $\\chi_{r}(C_{2^{k}}) =k+1$.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{lemma}\n\n\\section{Enumeration of the Set of Good Edges for $P_{2^{k}-1}$}\n\nIn this section we give two ways to find the maximum set of edges that may be added to $G$\nwithout changing the rank number. We give an algorithm to construct a good edge for $G$.\nThe algorithm is based on the binary representation of $n$, the position of the vertex $v_n$.\nThat is,  given a vertex $v_n \\in G$  in $n$th position,  the algorithm add a new edge,\nwith $v_n$ as one of its vertices, to  the graph  $G$ without  changing its ranking.\nWe show that if the graph $G$  is the union of  $P_{2^{t}-1}$ and one edge of the form as indicated\nin Procedure 1, then the  ranking of $G$ is equal to the ranking of $P_{2^{t}-1}$.  This guarantees that\nthe edges constructed using   Procedure 1, are good  edges. We also give sufficient and necessary\nconditions to  determine whether a set of edges $H$ is a  set of good set for $P_{2^{t}-1}$.\n\nSince one of our aims is to enumerate the  maximum number of edges that can be added to a graph without\nchanging its rank, we give a recursive construction of the maximum set of ``good edges\". The recursive\nconstruction gives  us a way to count the the number of edges in the set of good edges.\n\nWe recall that $(\\alpha_{r} \\alpha_{r-1} \\ldots \\alpha_{1}\\alpha_{0})_{2}$ with\n$\\alpha_{h} = 0 \\text{ or } 1$ for $0 \\le h \\le r$ is the binary representation of a positive\ninteger $b$ if $b=\\alpha_{r}2^{r}+\\alpha_{r-1}2^{r-1} + \\ldots+\\alpha_{1}\n2^{1}+\\alpha_{0}2^{0}$.   We define\n\\[\ng(\\alpha_{i})= \\left\\{\n\\begin{array}\n[c]{ll}\n0 & \\mbox{if $\\alpha_i=1$}\\\\\n1 & \\mbox{if $\\alpha_i=0$}.\n\\end{array}\n\\right.\n\\]\n\n{\\bf Procedure 1.}\nLet $V(P_{2^{k}-1})=\\{v_{1},v_{2},\\ldots,v_{2^{k}-1}\\}$ be the set of vertices\nof $P_{2^{k}-1}$ and let $H_{P}$ be a graph with $V(H_{P}) = V(P_{2^{k}\n-1})$. Suppose that $m<n+1$, $t=\\lfloor\\log_{2}{m}\\rfloor$\nand $m=(\\alpha_{t} \\alpha_{t-1} \\ldots  \\alpha_{1} \\alpha_{0})_{2}$. If $\\alpha_j$ is the nonzero\n rightmost entry of $m$, then an edge $e=\\{v_{m},v_{n}\\}$ is in $H_{P}$ if satisfies any of the following three conditions:\n\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item if $m$ is odd then either $n=2^{w}$ for $w>t$ or $n=\\Omega(s)$ with\n$\\Omega(s)=m+1+\\sum_{i=1}^{s}g(\\alpha_{i})2^{i}$ for $s=1,2,\\ldots,t-1$ where\n $m=(\\alpha_{t}\\alpha_{t-1}\\ldots\n\\alpha_{1} \\alpha_{0})_{2}$,\n\n\\item $m=2^{j} \\cdot(2l+1)$ and $2^{j} \\cdot(2l+1)+2 \\le n < 2^{j}\n\\cdot(2l+2)$, for $l>0$,\n\n\\item $m=2^{j} \\cdot(2l+1)$ and $n=2^{w}$ for $2^{w} \\ge2^{j} \\cdot(2l+2)$.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\n\n{\\bf Procedure 2.}\nLet $V(C_{2^{k}})=\\{v_{1},v_{2},\\ldots,v_{2^{k}}\\}$ be the set of vertices of\n$C_{2^{k}}$. Let $H$ be a graph with $V(H)= V(C_{2^{k}})$. Suppose that $m<n+1$, $t=\\lfloor\\log_{2}{m}\\rfloor$\nand $m=(\\alpha_{t} \\alpha_{t-1} \\ldots  \\alpha_{1} \\alpha_{0})_{2}$. If $\\alpha_j$ is the nonzero rightmost entry of  $m$,\nthen an edge $e=\\{v_{m},v_{n}\\}$ is in $H$ if satisfies any of the following four conditions:\n\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item if $m$ is odd then either $n=2^{w}$ for $w>t$ or $n=\\Omega(s)$ with\n$\\Omega(s)=m+1+\\sum_{i=1}^{s}g(\\alpha_{i})2^{i}$ for $s=1,2,\\ldots,t-1$,\n\n\\item $m=2^{j} \\cdot(2l+1)$ and $2^{j} \\cdot(2l+1)+2 \\le n < 2^{j}\n\\cdot(2l+2)$,\n\n\\item $m=2^{j} \\cdot(2l+1)$ and $n=2^{w}$ for $2^{w} \\ge2^{j} \\cdot(2l+2)$\nwhere $l\\ge0$,\n\n\\item  $1<m < 2^{k}-1$ and $n=2^{k}$.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\n\\begin{lemma}\n\\label{krankingfunction} Suppose that $f$ is the k-ranking of\n$P_{2^{k}-1}$, and $m=(\\alpha_{r}\\alpha_{r-1}\\ldots \\alpha_{1}\\alpha_{0})_{2}$.\nLet $t=\\lfloor\\log_{2}{m}\\rfloor$.\n\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item If $\\alpha_{i}=0$ for $i<j$ and $\\alpha_{j} =1$ , then $f(v_{m})=j$.\n\n\\item $f(v_{j})<f(v_{\\Omega(i)})$ for $m<j<\\Omega(i)$ for $i=1,2, \\ldots, t-1$.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{lemma}\n\n\\begin{proposition}\\label{agoodedge}\n\\label{goodandforbidden} Let $e \\not \\in P_{2^{t}-1}$ be an edge with vertices\n$v_{m}$ and $v_{n}$ where $m<n$. If $e$ is good for $P_{2^{t}-1}$ then $e \\in\nH_{P}$.\n\\end{proposition}\n\n\\begin{proof}\nWe proceed with a proof by contradiction assuming that $e\\not \\in H_{P}$.\nHence we have one of the following cases:\n\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item $m$ is odd and $2^{t+1}<n\\not =2^{w}$ where $t=\\lfloor\\log_{2}{m}\n\\rfloor$,\n\n\\item $m$ is odd, $2^{t}<m+1<n<2^{t+1}$ and $n\\not =m+1+\\sum_{i=1}^{s}\ng(\\alpha_{i})2^{i}$ for $s=1,2,\\ldots,t-1$ with $t=\\lfloor\\log_{2}{m}\\rfloor$\nand $m=(\\alpha_{t} \\alpha_{t-1} \\ldots \\alpha_{1} \\alpha_{0})_{2}$,\n\n\\item $m=2^{j} \\cdot(2l+1)$ and $2^{t} < n < 2^{t+1}$ where $2^{t} \\ge2^{j}\n\\cdot(2l+2)$ with $l\\ge0$.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\nIf Case 1 holds, then $e$ connects vertices $v_{m}$ and $v_{n}$ with $n>2^{t}$.\nSuppose that $2^{w}<n<2^{w+1}$. The standard ranking $f$ of a path implies\nthat $f(v_{\\beta})\\in\\{1,2,\\ldots,w\\}$ if $\\beta<2^{w}$ and that $f(v_{\\delta\n})\\in\\{1,2,\\ldots,w\\}$ for any $2^{w}<\\delta<2^{w+1}$. Therefore, there are\ntwo vertices $v_{\\gamma}$ and $v_{\\rho}$ such that $f(v_{\\gamma})=f(v_{\\rho\n})=w$ with $\\gamma<2^{w}<\\rho<2^{w+1}$. The path containing the edge $e$ and\nvertices $v_{\\gamma}$, $v_{m}$, $v_{n}$, and $v_{\\rho}$ has two equal labels\nwith no larger label in between, which contradicts the ranking property. Hence\n$m$ is odd and $n=2^{w}$ for $w>t$, and $e$ is good for $P_{2^{k}-1}$.\n\nIf Case 2 holds, then $e$ connects vertices $v_{m}$ and $v_{n}$ with\n$n<2^{t-1}$. If $m=2^{t+1}-1$, the argument is similar to the above case, so\nwe suppose that $m\\not =2^{t+1}-1$. If $n$ is odd then $f(v_{m})=f(v_{n})=1$,\nwhich is a contradiction.\n\nFor the remaining part of this case, we suppose that $m+2<n<2^{t+1}-1$ is even. This implies that\n$m \\not= 2^{t+1}-1$ and $m\\not=2^{t+1}-3$ (note that the Proposition \\ref{agoodedge} is now proved for $n<8$).\nTherefore, there is at least one nonzero element in\n$A=\\{\\alpha_{2}, \\ldots ,\\alpha_{t-1}, \\alpha_{t} \\}$ and let  $i$ be the smallest subscript such that\n$\\alpha_{i}\\in A$ and  $\\alpha_{i}=0$. This give rise to two subcases for the\nlocation of \\emph{n}:\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item[(a)] $n<\\omega$ with $\\omega=\\left(  m+1+g(\\alpha_{i})2^{i}\\right)  $.\n\n\\item[(b)] $\\Omega(r)<n<2^{t+1}$ where $r$ is the largest number for which the\ninequality holds.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\nIf subcase (a) holds, then $\\alpha_{j}=1$ for $j<i$. This implies that first\nnumber equal to one in the binary notation of $m+1$ is in position $i+1$. This\nand Lemma \\ref{krankingfunction} imply that $f(v_{m+1})=i+1$. Therefore,\n$f(v_{\\omega})=i+2$,  since $m+1<n<\\omega$. The definition of the ranking\nfunction $f$, implies that $f(v_{\\beta})\\in\\{1,2,\\ldots,i\\}$ if $m+1<\\beta\n<\\omega$ and that $f(v_{\\delta})\\in\\{1,2,\\ldots,i\\}$ for any $\\delta<m+1$.\nTherefore, there are two vertices $v_{\\gamma}$ and $v_{\\rho}$ such that\n$f(v_{\\gamma})=f(v_{\\rho})=i$ with $\\gamma<m+1<\\rho<\\omega$. The path\ncontaining the edge $e$ and vertices $v_{\\gamma}$, $v_{m}$, $v_{n}$, and\n$v_{\\rho}$ has two equal labels with no bigger label in between, which is a contradiction.\n\nSuppose that subcase (b) holds. From Lemma \\ref{krankingfunction} we know that\n$f(v_{d})<f(v_{\\Omega(r)})$ for $m<d<r$, in particular we deduce that\n$f(v_{\\Omega(i)})<f(v_{\\Omega(r)})$ if $i<r$. Let $w=f(v_{\\Omega(r)})$. This, $P_{2^{k}-1}$\nand the definition of $f$ imply that $f(v_{\\beta})\\in \\{1,2,\\ldots,w-1\\}$ for any $\\beta<\\Omega(r)$\nand that $f(v_{\\delta} )\\in\\{1,2,\\ldots,w-1\\}$ for any $\\Omega(r)<\\delta<\\Omega(r+1)$. This implies\nthat there are two vertices $v_{\\gamma}$ and $v_{\\rho}$ such that\n$f(v_{\\gamma})=f(v_{\\rho})=w-1$ with $\\gamma<\\Omega(r)<\\rho<\\Omega(r+1)$. The\npath containing the edge $e$ and vertices $v_{\\gamma}$, $v_{m}$, $v_{n}$, and\n$v_{\\rho}$ has two equal labels with no larger label in between, which is a contradiction.\n\nFinally suppose that Case 3 holds. That is, we suppose that every edge $e$\nconnecting the vertex $v_{m}$ and $v_{n}$ is good, with $m=2^{j}\\cdot(2l+1)$\nand $2^{t}<n<2^{t+1}$ where $2^{t}\\geq2^{j}\\cdot(2l+2)$ with $l\\geq0$. This\nimplies that for any $s\\leq2^{t}$, the label $f(v_{s})\\in\\{1,2,\\ldots,t\\}$, in\nparticular $f(v_{m})=j+1<t$. Since $2^{t}<n<2^{t+1}$, the coloring\n$f(v_{n})\\in\\{1,2,\\ldots,t\\}$. Then there are vertices $v_{s}$ and\n$v_{s^{\\prime}}$ with $f(v_{s})=f(v_{s^{\\prime}})=t$ for $s<2^{t}$ and\n$2^{t}<s^{\\prime}< 2^{t+1}$. This is a contradiction since the path containing the\nedge $e$ and connecting vertices $v_{s}$, $v_{m}$, $v_{n}$ and $v_{s^{\\prime}\n}$, does not have a label larger than $t$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\begin{theorem} \\label{maintheorem} Let $G=P_{2^{k}-1}\\cup H_{P}$.\nThe set $E(H_{P})$ is the set of good edges for $P_{2^{k}-1}$.\n\\end{theorem}\n\nTheorem \\ref{maintheorem} can be proved using Proposition \\ref{agoodedge}, so we\nomit the proof. This Theorem is equivalent to Theorem  \\ref{maintheoremcomponents} Part 1.\nThe proof of Theorem \\ref{maintheoremcomponents} counts the maximum number of good edges.\nWe now give some definitions that are going to be used in Lemma \\ref{components} and\nTheorem \\ref{maintheoremcomponents}. Let $G$ be a graph with $f$ as its $k$-ranking.\nWe define $A_j= \\{v \\in V(G)\\mid f(v)\\ge j\\}$ and use $\\mathcal{C} (A_j)$ to denote the set of\nall component of $G \\setminus A_j$. If $\\mathcal{C} \\in \\mathcal{C} (A_j)$ and $v \\in V( \\mathcal{C})$,  then\n\\[E(v)=\\{vw\\mid w\\in V(\\mathcal{C}) \\text{ and $w$ not adjacent to $v$} \\}.\\]\nWe denote by $E_j$ the union of all sets of the form $E(v)$ where $f(v)=j-1$, the vertex with maximum label in the component. The union is over all components in $\\mathcal{C} (A_j) $. That is,\n\n\\[E_j=\\bigcup_{\\begin{tabular}{c}\n                    $v \\in \\mathcal{C}$, $f(v)=j-1$ \\\\\n                    $\\mathcal{C}\\in \\mathcal{C} (A_j) $ \\\\\n                \\end{tabular}\n} E(v). \\]\n\n\\begin{lemma} \\label{components} If $3< j\\le n$, then\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item $P_{2^n-1} \\setminus A_j$ has $2^{n-j}$ components of the form  $P_{2^{j-1}-1}$.\n\n\\item If $\\mathcal{C}$ is a component of $P_{2^n-1} \\setminus A_j$ and $f(v)=j-1$ for some $v \\in \\mathcal{C}$,\nthen  $E(v)$ is a set of good edges for $\\mathcal{C}$.\n\n\\item $\\chi_{r}(P_{2^n-1}\\cup E_j)=\\chi_{r}(P_{2^n-1}).$\n\\end{enumerate}\n\n\\end{lemma}\n\n\\begin{proof} For this proof we denote by $f$ the $k$-ranking of $P_{2^n-1}$. We prove Part 1.  Let $u_1$ and $u_2$\nbe vertices in $P_{2^n-1}$ with $f(u_1)\\ge j$ and $f(u_2)\\ge j$ and if $w$ is a vertex between $u_1$ and $u_2$\nthen $f(w)<j$. Since $P_{2^n-1}$ has unique optimal ranking, every $2^{j-1}$ vertices there is a vertex with label greater\nthan or equal to $j$ (counting from leftmost vertex). This implies that there is a path, of the form  $P_{2^{j-1}-1}$,\nconnecting all vertices  between $u_1$ and $u_2$, not including $u_1$ and $u_2$. This proves that all components\nof $P_{2^n-1}\\setminus A_j$ are of the form $P_{2^{j-1}-1}$, and the total number of those components\nis $\\lceil (2^{n}-1) \/ 2^{j-1}\\rceil = 2^{n-j+1}$.\n\nProof of Part 2. Let $v$ be a vertex in $\\mathcal{C}$ with  $f(v)=j-1$. Since $j-1$, is the largest label in $\\mathcal{C}$),\nit easy to see that every path containing edges of $E(v)$ does not contribute to increase the ranking of the $\\mathcal{C}$.\n\nProof of Part 3.  Let $G=P_{2^n-1}\\cup E_j$ for some  $3< j \\le n$. Let $v_1$ and $v_2$ be vertices in $G$ with\n$f(v_1)=f(v_2)$, suppose that both vertices are connected by a path $P$. Suppose $v_1$ and $v_2$ are in the\nsame component  $\\mathcal{C}\\in \\mathcal{C} (A_j)$, then $f(v_1)=f(v_2)<j$. If $P$ is a path of $\\mathcal{C}$,\nthen by the heredity property from $P_{2^n-1}$, there is a vertex in $P$ with a label larger than $f(v_1)$.  We now\nsuppose that $P$ is not a path of $\\mathcal{C}$. Let $v$ be the vertex in  $\\mathcal{C}$ with $f(v)=j-1$. These\ntwo last facts and the definition of $E(v)$ imply that $P$ contains an edge in $E(v)$. Thus, there is a vertex in\n$P$ with a label larger than $f(v_1)$.\n\nWe suppose $v_1$ and $v_2$ are in different components  of $P_{2^n-1}\\setminus A_j$. So, $f(v_1)=f(v_2)<j$.\nBy the definition of $G$ and $E_j$ we see that any path in $G$ connecting two vertices in different component of\n$P_{2^n-1}\\setminus A_j$ must have at least one vertex in $A_j$. Since vertices in $A_j$ have labels larger $j-1$,\nthere is a vertex in $P$ with a label larger than $f(v_1)$.\n\nWe now suppose $v_1$ and $v_2$ are in $A_j$. So,  $f(v_1)=f(v_2)\\ge j$. By definition of $k$-ranking there is vertex $w$\nin a subpath of $P_{2^n-1}$ that connects those two vertices, with $f(w)>f(v_1)$. Note that $w \\in A_j$. Since $w$ does\nnot belong to any of the components in $\\mathcal{C} (A_j)$, any other path connecting those two vertices must contain\n$w$. Therefore, $w\\in P$. This proves Part 3.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\\begin{theorem} \\label{maintheoremcomponents} If $n>3$, then\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item $\\chi_{r}(P_{2^{n}-1} \\cup \\bigcup_{j=4}^{n} E_j)= \\chi_{r}(P_{2^{n}-1} )=n$ if and only if $\\bigcup_{j=4}^{n} E_j$ is the set of good edges for $P_{2^{n}-1}$.\n\n\\item $\\bigcup_{j=4}^{n} E_j = E(H_{P}).$\n\n\\item $\\mu (P_{2^n-1})= (n-3)2^n+4$.\n\n\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\\begin{proof} For this proof we denote by $f$ the standard $k$-ranking of $P_{2^n-1}$.\nWe prove of Part 1.  The  proof that the condition is sufficient is straightforward.\n\nTo prove that the condition is necessary we use induction. Let $S(t)$ be the statement\n\\[\\chi \\left(P_{2^n-1}\\cup \\bigcup_{j=4}^{t} E_j\\right)=\\chi (P_{2^n-1}).  \\]\nLemma \\ref{components} Part 3. proves $S(4)$. Suppose the $S(k)$ is true for some $ 4\\le k <n$.\nLet\n\\[ G_0= P_{2^n-1}\\cup \\bigcup_{j=4}^{k} E_j \\text{ \\; and \\; } G_1= P_{2^n-1}\\cup \\bigcup_{j=4}^{k+1} E_j.\\]\nLet $v_1$ and $v_2$ be vertices in $G_1$ with $f(v_1)=f(v_2)$, and suppose that both vertices are\nconnected by a path $P$. Suppose that $v_1$ and $v_2$ are in the same component\n$\\mathcal{C} \\in \\mathcal{C}(A_{k+1})$, then $f(v_1)=f(v_2)<j$. If $P$ is a path of $\\mathcal{C}$,\nby the heredity property from $G_0$, there is a vertex in $P$ with a label larger than $f(v_1)$.\n\nWe suppose that $P$ is not a path of $\\mathcal{C}$. Let $v$ the vertex in  $\\mathcal{C}$\nwith $f(v)=k$. These two last facts and definition of $E(v)$ imply that $P$ contains an edge\nin $E(v)$. Therefore, there is a vertex in $P$ with a label larger than $f(v_1)$.\n\nWe suppose $v_1$ and $v_2$ are in different components  of $G_1\\setminus A_{k+1}$. So,\n$f(v_1)=f(v_2)<k+1$. By definition of $G_1$ and $E_{k+1}$ we see that any path in $G_1$\nconnecting two vertices in different component of $G_1\\setminus A_{k+1}$ has at\nleast one vertex in $A_{k+1}$. Since vertices in $A_{k+1}$ have labels larger than $k$,\nthere is a vertex in $P$ with a label larger than $f(v_1)$.\n\nWe now suppose that $v_1$ and $v_2$ are in $A_{k+1}$. So,  $f(v_1)=f(v_2)\\ge k+1$. By definition\nof ranking there is a vertex $w$ in a path of $G_1$, that connect those two vertices, with\n$f(w)>f(v_1)$. Note that $w \\in A_{k+1}$. Since $w$ does not belong to any of the\ncomponents of $G_1\\setminus A_j$, any other path connecting those two vertices must\ncontain $w$. Therefore, $w\\in P$.  This proves that $S(k+1)$ is true. Thus,\n$\\bigcup_{j=3}^{n} E_j$ is a set of good edges for $P_{2^{n}-1}$.\n\nWe now prove that $\\bigcup_{i=3}^{n} E_i$ is the largest possible set of good edges\nfor $P_{2^{n}-1}$. Suppose that $uv$ is a good edge for $P_{2^{n}-1}$ with $f(v)<f(u)=j$.\nIf the vertices $u$ and $v$ are in the same component of $P_{2^{n}-1} \\setminus A_{j+1}$,\nthen is easy to see that $uv \\in E_{j+1}$. Note that $j$ is the largest label in each\ncomponent of $P_{2^{n}-1} \\setminus A_{j+1}$. If $u$ and $v$ are in different component\nof $P_{2^{n}-1} \\setminus A_{j+1}$, then $uv$ give rise to a path $P$ connecting $u$ and\na vertex  $w$ where $w$ and $v$ are in the same component and $f(w)=j$. That is a\ncontradiction, because $f(u)=f(w)=j$ and $P$ does not have label larger than $j$.\nThis proves that $\\bigcup_{j=3}^{n} E_j$ is the set of good edges of $P_{2^{n}-1} $.\n\nThe prove of Part 2. is straightforward from Theorem \\ref{maintheorem} and Part 1.\n\nProof of  Part 3. It easy to see that the vertex $v_{2^{n-1}}$ of $P_{2^n-1}$ has label $n$.\nThat is, $v_{2^{n-1}}$ is the vertex with largest color in $P_{2^n-1}$. Therefore,\n$P_{2^n-1}\\setminus A_{n}$ has  exactly two components. Note that each component is equal to\n$P_{2^{n-1}-1}$ and that  the cardinality of $E(v_{2^{n-1}})$ is $(2^n-1)-3$. Since $v_{2^{n-1}}$ is\nthe vertex with the largest color in $P_{2^n-1}$, it is easy to see\n(from proof of Part 1 and the proofs of Lemma \\ref{components}) that the maximum number of edges\nthat can be added to $P_{2^n-1}$ without changing  the rank is equal to the maximum number\nof edges that can be added to each component, $P_{2^{n-1}-1}$, plus all edges in $E(v_{2^{n-1}})$.\n\nLet $a_n=\\mu (P_{2^{n}-1})$. Then from the previous analysis we have that\n\\[a_n= 2 \\mu(P_{2^{n-1}-1})+ \\mid E(v_{2^{n-1}}) \\mid.\\]\nThis give rise to the recurrence relation\n$a_n= 2 a_{n-1}+ 2^{n}-4$. Therefore, solving the recurrence relation we have that\n$a_n= (n-3)2^n+4$. This proves Part 3.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\section{Enumeration of the Set of Good Edges for $C_{2^{k}}$}\n\nIn this section we  use the results in the previous section to find the maximum set of edges\nthat may be added to $C_{2^{k}}$  without changing the rank number (good edges).\n\nSuppose that $\\Gamma$ represents any of the following graphs;\n$C_{2^{k}}$, $K_{m_{1},m_{2},\\dots,m_{t}}$ or the graph defined by the\nunion of two copies of $K_{n}$ joined by an edge $e$. In this section we give\nsufficient and necessary conditions to determine whether a set of edges $H$ is\na good set for $\\Gamma$. For all graphs in this section we count the number of\nelements in each maximum set of good edges.\n\nWe recall that in Figure 2 Part (a) we show the graph $G=C_{2^{4}}\\cup H$ where $H$ is the\nset of all good edges for $G$. So, $\\chi_{r}(G)=\\chi_{r}(C_{2^{4}})=5$. In\nFigure 2 Part (b) we show the graph $G^{\\prime}=(C_{2^{k}}\\setminus\n\\{v_{16}\\})\\cup H^{\\prime}$ where $H^{\\prime}$ is the set of all good edges\nfor $G^{\\prime}$. Since the graph in Figure 2 Part (b) is equivalent to the\ngraph in Figure 1, Theorem \\ref{maintheoremcomponents} can be applied to this graph.\nTheorem \\ref{goodarcscyclecorollay} gives sufficient and necessary conditions\nto determine whether the graphs $G=C_{2^{k}}\\cup H$ and $C_{2^{k}}$ have the\nsame rank number and counts the maximum number of good edges.\n\n\\begin{proposition}\n\\label{goodarcscycle} If an edge $e$ is good for $P_{2^{k}-1}$ then $e$ is\ngood for $C_{2^{k}}$.\n\\end{proposition}\n\n\\begin{proof}\nSince the standard ranking of $P_{2^{k}-1}$ is contained in the ranking of the\ncycle $C_{2^{k}}$, and the additional vertex is given the highest label, it\nfollows that if edges are good for the path, they will be good for the cycle.\n\\end{proof}\n\nLet $V:=\\{v_{1},v_{2},\\dots,v_{2^{k}}\\}$ be the set of vertices of $C_{2^{k}}\n$. Notice that set of edges of $P_{2^{k}-1}$ is $V\\setminus\\{v_{2^{k}} \\}$. We\ndefine\n\\[\nH_{C} = H_{P} \\cup\\{e \\mid e \\not \\in C_{2^{k}} \\text{ and vertices }\n\\{v_{2^{k}}, v_{i}\\}, \\text{ with } i \\in\\{2, \\dots, 2^{k}-2 \\} \\}.\n\\]\n\n\\begin{theorem} \\label{goodarcscyclecorollay}  If $k>3$, then\n\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item $\\chi_{r}(C_{2^{k}} \\cup H_{C})= \\chi_{r}(C_{2^{k}})=k+1$ if and only if $H_{C}$ is the set of good edges for $C_{2^{k}}$.\n\n\\item  $\\mu (C_{2^n})= (n-2)2^n+1$.\n\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\n\\begin{proof} To prove Part 1, we first show the condition is sufficient. Suppose\n$\\chi_{r}(C_{2^{k}} \\cup H_{C} )=\\chi _{r}(C_{2^{k}})=k+1$.\nSuppose $E(H)$ is not a set of good edges. Thus, $E(H)$\ncontains a forbidden edge, therefore the rank number of $C_{2^{k}}$ is greater\nthan $k+1$. That is a contradiction.\n\nNext we show the condition is necessary. It is known that $\\chi_{r}(C_{2^{k}})=k+1$\nand that this ranking is unique (up to permutation of the two largest\nlabels) \\cite{bruoth}. Let $f$ be a ranking of $C_{2^{k}}$ with $k+1$ labels\nwhere $f(v_{2^{k}})=k+1$.\n\nLet $e_{1}=\\{v_{2^{k}-1},v_{2^{k}}\\}$ and $e_{2}=\\{v_{2^{k}},v_{1}\\}$ be two\nedges of $C_{2^{k}}$ and let $H^{\\prime}$ be the graph formed by edges of $H$\nwith vertices in $V^{\\prime}=V(H)\\setminus\\{v_{t}\\}=\\{v_{1},v_{2} ,\\ldots,v_{2^{k}-1}\\}$.\nTheorem \\ref{maintheoremcomponents} Parts 1 and 2 imply\n that $E(H^{\\prime})$ is a set of good edges for the graph\n $C_{2^{k}}\\setminus\\{e_{1},e_{2}\\}$ if and\nonly if $\\chi_{r}(C_{2^{k}}\\setminus\\{e_{1},e_{2}\\}\\cup H^{\\prime})=k$ (see\nFigure 2 Part (b)). Note that $V^{\\prime}$ is the set of vertices of\n$C_{2^{k}}\\setminus\\{e_{1},e_{2}\\}$. The vertices of $C_{2^{k}}\\setminus\n\\{e_{1},e_{2}\\}\\cup H^{\\prime}$ have same labels as vertices $V^{\\prime}$.\nCombining this property with $f(v_{2^{k}})=k+1$ gives $\\chi_{r}(C_{2^{k}}\\cup\nH^{\\prime})=k+1$.\n\nWe now prove that $\\chi_{r}(C_{2^{k}}\\cup H)=k+1$. Let $e$ be an edge in\n$H\\setminus H^{\\prime}$. Therefore, the end vertices of $e$ are $v_{2^{k}}$\nand $v_{n}$ for some $2\\leq n\\leq2^{k}-2$. From the ranking $f$ of a cycle we\nknow that $f(v_{2^{k}})=k+1$ and $f(v_{n})<k+1$. Hence we do not create a new\npath in $C_{2^{k}} \\cup H_{C}$ connecting vertices with labels $k+1$.\n\nProof of Part 2.\nLet $W$ be the set of edges of the form $\\{v_{2^{n}}, v_i\\}$ for $i= 2,3, \\ldots, 2^{n}-2$.\nThe cardinality of $W$ is $2^n-3$. From Proposition \\ref{goodarcscycle} we know that all\ngood edges for $P_{2^n-1}$ are also good for $C_{2^n}$. Therefore, the maximum number\nof edges that can be added to $C_{2^n}$ without changing the rank is equal to maximum\nnumber of edges that can be added to $P_{2^n-1}$ plus all edges in $W$. Thus,\n$\\mu (C_{2^n})= \\mu (P_{{2^n}-1})+\\mid W \\mid$. This and Theorem \\ref{maintheoremcomponents} Part 3.\nimply that  $\\mu (C_{2^n})= (n-3)2^n+4 +2^n-3$. Therefore,  $\\mu (C_{2^n})= (n-2)2^n+1$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\begin{theorem} \\label{productmultipartitegraphs} Let $m_1, m_{2}, \\ldots, m_t$ be positive integers with $m_{1}=\\max\\{m_{i}\\}_{i=1}^{t}$. If $G=K_{m_{1},m_{2},\\dots,m_{t}}$  is a\nmultipartite graph, then\n\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item any edge connecting two vertices in a part of order $m_{1}$ is\nforbidden, and\n\n\\item any edge connecting any two vertices in any part of order $m_{i}$ where $i\\neq1$\nis good.\n\n\\item  $\\mu (K_{m_{1},m_{2},\\dots,m_{t}})= \\sum_{i=2}^t \\dfrac{(m_{i}-1)m_{i}}{2}.$\n\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\\begin{proof}\nLet $W=\\{w_{1},w_{2},\\ldots,w_{m_{1}}\\}$ be the set of vertices of the part of\n$G$ with order $m_{1}$. Let $V=\\{v_{2},v_{3},\\ldots,v_{r}\\}$ be the set of\nvertices of $G\\backslash W$. We consider the function\n\\[\nf(x)=\\left\\{\n\\begin{array}\n[c]{cc}\n1 & \\text{ if }x\\in W\\\\\ni & \\text{ if }x=v_{i}\\text{ for some }v_{i}\\in V.\n\\end{array}\n\\right.\n\\]\n\n\nTo see that $f$  is  a minimum ranking of $G$, note that reducing any label\nviolates the ranking property.\n\nProof of Part 1. Any edge connecting two vertices in $W$ gives rise to a\npath connecting to vertices with same label.\n\nProof of Part 2. Any edge connecting two vertices in $V$ does not create\nany new path with vertices with the same label.\n\nProof of Part 3. Let $U=\\{u_1, \\ldots ,u_{m_s} \\}$ the set of vertices of the part of\n$K_{m_{1},m_{2},\\dots,m_{t}}$ with $m_s$ vertices and with $s\\not =1$.\nLet $E_{m_s}$ be set of edges of the form\n$\\{v_{i}, v_{j}\\}$ for $i, j$ in $\\{1, 2, \\ldots m_s-2\\}$ and $j>i+1$.\nFrom the proof of Theorem \\ref{productmultipartitegraphs} we know that\n$E_{m_s}$ is a set of good edges of\n$K_{m_{1},m_{2},\\dots,m_{t}}$ for $s=2, 3, \\ldots, t$ (if $s=1$, then $E_{m_1}$ will be a forbidden set).\nThe cardinality of $E_{m_s}$ is $(m_s-1)m_s\/2$ for $s=2, 3, \\ldots, t$.\nThis implies that \\[\\mu (K_{m_{1},m_{2},\\dots,m_{t}})= \\sum_{s=2}^t \\frac{(m_{s}-1)m_{s}}{2}.\\] This proves Part 3.\n\\end{proof}\n\nLet $G_{5}$ be the graph defined by the union of two copies of $K_{5}$ joined\nby an edge $e$. In Figure 3 we show $G_{5}\\cup H$ where $H$ is the set of all\ngood edges for $G_{5}$. So, $\\chi_{r}(G_{5}\\cup H)$ $=$ $\\chi_{r}(G_{5})=6$ and $\\mu(G_{5})=8$.\nWe generalize this example in Theorem \\ref{unioncompletegraphs}.\n\n\\begin{figure} [htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n\\psfrag{a}[c]{$Ale es una gueva$} \\psfrag{v15}[c]{$v_{15}$}\n\\psfrag{v16}[c]{$v_{16}$} \\psfrag{1}[c]{$1$} \\psfrag{2}[c]{$2$}\n\\psfrag{3}[c]{$3$} \\psfrag{4}[c]{$4$} \\psfrag{5}[c]{$5$}\n\\psfrag{e}[c]{$e$} \\psfrag{6}[c]{$6$}\n\\includegraphics[width=75mm]{twocompletegraphs1.eps}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{$\\chi_r(G_5 \\cup H)=6$} \\label{figure3}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\\begin{theorem}\n\\label{unioncompletegraphs} Let $G_{n}$ be the union of two copies of $K_{n}$\njoined by an edge. Then,\n\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\\item any edge connecting a vertex with highest label in one\npart with any other vertex in the other part is good. All other edges are\nforbidden. Moreover, if $H$ is the set of all good edges for $G_{n}$, then\n$\\chi_{r}(G_{n}\\cup H)=\\chi_{r}(G_{n})=n+1$.\n\n\\item $\\mu (G_{n})= 2(n-1)$.\n\n\\end{enumerate}\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\\begin{proof} To prove Part 1. we suppose that\n$G_{n}=K\\cup K^{\\prime}\\cup e$ where $K=K^{\\prime}=K_{n}$. Let\n$W=\\{w_{1},w_{2},\\ldots,w_{n}\\}$ be the set of vertices of $K$ and let\n$V=\\{v_{1},v_{2},\\ldots,v_{n}\\}$ be the set of the vertices of $K^{\\prime}$\nand $\\{w_{1},v_{n}\\}$ the set of vertices of $e$. We consider the function\n\\[\nf(x)=\\left\\{\n\\begin{array}\n[c]{ll}\ni & \\text{ if }x=w_{i}\\text{ for some }w_{i}\\in W\\\\\ni & \\text{ if }x=v_{i}\\text{ for some }v_{i}\\in V\\setminus\\{v_{n}\\}\\\\\nn+1 & \\text{ if }x=v_{n}.\n\\end{array}\n\\right.\n\\]\n\n\n\\noindent It is easy to see that $f$ is a minimum ranking of $G_{n}$ and that\n$\\chi_{r}(G_{n})=n+1$. Let\n\\[\nH_{1}=\\{e \\mid e \\not \\in G_{n} \\text{ is an edge with vertices } w_{n}, v_{i}\n\\text{ for some } i \\in\\{1, 2, \\ldots, n-1 \\} \\}\n\\]\nand\n\\[\nH_{2}=\\{e \\mid e \\not \\in G_{n} \\text{ is an edge with vertices } v_{n}, w_{i}\n\\text{ for some } i \\in\\{1, 2, \\ldots, n-1 \\} \\}.\n\\]\nWe prove that $H=H_{1}\\cup H_{2}$ is the set of good edges for $G_{n}$.\n\nFrom the definition of $f$ we know the labels of the vertices in $K$ are\ndistinct and all of the labels in $K^{\\prime}$ are distinct. The combination\nof these properties and the definition of $f(v_{n})$ implies that if an edge\n$e$ connects one vertex in $K$ with $v_{n}$ it does not create a new edge\nconnecting two edges with same label. Similarly, if an edge $e$ connects one\nvertex in $K^{\\prime}$ with $w_{n}$ it does not create a path connecting two\nedges with the same label. This proves that $H$ is the set of good edges for\n$G_{n}$ and that $\\chi_{r}(G_{n}\\cup H)=\\chi_{r}(G_{n})=n+1$.\n\nSuppose that an edge $e$ connects the vertices $w_{i}\\in K$ and $v_{j}\\in\nK^{\\prime}$ with $i\\leq j\\not =n$. The path $w_{j}w_{i}v_{j}$ has two vertices\nwith same label without a larger label in between. The proof of the case\n$j\\leq i\\not =n$ is similar. Hence if $e\\not \\in H$, then $e$ is\\ a forbidden edge.\n\nProof of Part 2. From proof of Part 1. we can see that $H_{1}$ and $H_{2}$\nare the sets of good edges of $G_{n}$ and that the cardinality of each set is $n-1$.\nSo, $\\mu (G_{n})= \\mid H_1 \\mid + \\mid H_2 \\mid= 2(n-1)$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\\section* {Acknowledgment}\nThe authors are indebted to the referees for their comments and corrections that helped to improve\nthe presentation.\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\\label{sec:intro}\n\nWhile $\\Lambda$CDM has so far passed most of its tests with flying colours, the possibility remains that it requires modification either at levels of sensitivity currently unattainable, or in regions of parameter space so far unexplored. In the past few decades, this has motivated a burgeoning programme aimed at formulating theoretical alternatives to concordance cosmology, developing phenomenological frameworks to explore their consequences and devising novel experimental and observational probes.\n\nA generic feature of fundamental extensions to the standard model is the introduction of new dynamical degrees of freedom. These may be produced by substituting dimensional parameters by dynamical fields (e.g. masses \\cite{Weinberg}, dark energy \\cite{Ratra} or the gravitational constant \\cite{Brans,Wetterich}), and also describe the effects of higher derivatives in the Lagrangian as well as extra dimensions. Any extension to the Einstein-Hilbert action will necessarily involve new fields~\\citep{Clifton}, and high-energy completions of known physics produce a plethora of new degrees of freedom which may operate on a wide range of scales. Given the ubiquity of novel fields in both gravitational and particle-based extensions to the standard model, seeking new physics is largely tantamount to devising methods to detect additional scalars, vectors or tensors.\n\nAny new field couples naturally to the Ricci scalar $R$ in the gravitational action, and hence contributes both to the Universe's energy-momentum and to the expression for the force. The simplest and most common case is a single scalar field with standard kinetic energy, potential $V(\\phi)$, and coupling $\\phi^2R$. This modifies the potential generated by a point mass $M$ to\n\\begin{equation}\n\\Phi_\\text{tot} = -\\frac{G_NM}{r}\\left(1+\\frac{\\Delta G}{G_N}e^{-mr}\\right) = \\Phi_N - \\frac{\\Delta G M}{r}e^{-mr},  \\label{eq:ff}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $G_N$ is the bare (Newtonian) gravitational constant, $\\Phi_N$ is the Newtonian potential, and $m$ and $\\Delta G$ are new parameters describing the mass of the field and the strength of the new interaction respectively. In theoretical terms, $m$ is set by the potential as $m \\sim d^2V\/d\\phi^2$ while $\\Delta G$ depends on the strength of the non-minimal coupling and the background value of the field relative to the Planck mass. The bare mass may be altered to the effective mass $m_\\text{eff}$ given screening (see below), which sets the range of the field as $\\lambda_C \\simeq 1\/m_\\text{eff}$. Eq.~\\ref{eq:ff} describes a violation of the inverse-square law by the new field and the introduction of a \\emph{fifth force} ($F_5$) which adds to the standard gravitational force with a Yukawa form. General Relativity (GR) is recovered in the limit $\\Delta G\\rightarrow 0$, and also in the case where the field's mass is sufficiently large for the fifth force to be strongly Yukawa-suppressed ($m \\rightarrow \\infty$, $\\lambda_C \\rightarrow 0$). In the case where the field is light ($m \\rightarrow 0$, $\\lambda_C \\rightarrow \\infty$), the sole effect of the new field is to renormalise the gravitational constant to $G \\equiv G_N + \\Delta G$. Note that the existence of fifth forces requires only the presence of scalar fields, and hence does not necessarily require modifications to the standard model: the Higgs field for example leads a fifth force with sub-nuclear range.\n\nThe empirical programme of probing fifth forces (or, relatedly, violations of the inverse-square law) has been ongoing for around two decades; see~\\cite{Adelberger} for a review. At small scales ($\\sim 10^{-5}-10^{-2}$ m), the strongest limits are set by the E\\\"{o}t-Wash experiment which involves precise measurement of the force between two nearby objects~\\citep{Adelberger_0, Hoyle}, supplemented by high frequency torsion oscillators~\\citep{Colarado} and microcantilevers~\\citep{Stanford} at even shorter distances. These constraints are $\\Delta G\/G_N \\lesssim 10^{-6}$ at $\\lambda_C = 10^{-5}$ m and $\\Delta G\/G_N \\lesssim 10^{-2}$ at $\\lambda_C = 10^{-2}$ m. At astrophysical scales, constraints derive from the Earth-moon distance probed by lunar laser ranging ($\\Delta G\/G_N \\lesssim 10^{-10}$ at $\\lambda_C = 10^9$ m) and planetary orbits ($\\Delta G\/G_N \\lesssim \\text{few} \\times 10^{-9}$ at $\\lambda_C = 10^{11}$ m)~\\citep{Williams, Samain}. No direct constraint exists at larger scales due to the difficulty of predicting precisely the motions of masses beyond the Solar System, even under the assumption of standard gravity.\n\nUnlike an equivalence principle test, a fifth-force search is restricted to ranges $\\lambda_C$ comparable to the size of the system under investigation. Ranges much smaller than the system will go unnoticed as the scalar field will not couple its various parts; conversely, if the range is much larger, the entire system simply feels a renormalised Newton's constant $G$ and the inverse-square law is satisfied. This renders tests which rely on the distance-dependence of the force between masses, such as E\\\"{o}t-Wash and lunar laser ranging, inoperable. However, because a light scalar field affects timelike but not null geodesics it can be probed by means of the Eddington light-bending parameter $\\gamma = (1-\\Delta G\/G_N)\/(1+\\Delta G\/G_N)$ in the Parametrised Post-Newtonian framework. $\\gamma$ has been constrained to $\\lesssim 10^{-5}$ by the Cassini satellite~\\citep{Bertotti}, requiring $\\Delta G\/G_N \\lesssim 10^{-5}$. This by itself is sufficient to force a putative scalar into astrophysically and cosmologically uninteresting regions of parameter space, as its contribution to the Klein-Gordon equation cannot be more than a fraction $\\mathcal{O}(10^{-3})$ that of standard gravity.\n\nNevertheless, there exist ways in which a fifth force may escape these constraints and still have an impact at larger scales. In a number of theories (for example generalised scalar-tensor theories and massive gravity) the properties of $F_5$ depend on the local environment: in high density regions such as the Milky Way its strength or range becomes small, while it remains operative in the lower density environments of dwarf galaxies and the Universe as a whole. This phenomenon is called ``screening'' (see~\\cite{Jain_Khoury,Khoury_review} for reviews), and comes in three basic flavours. The \\emph{chameleon} mechanism~\\citep{chameleon} arises when the effective mass $m_\\text{eff}$ becomes dependent on the local density (and thus on $\\nabla^2\\Phi$), such that in denser regions $m_\\text{eff}$ becomes large and the fifth force short range, while in less dense regions (or on cosmological scales) $m_\\text{eff}\\rightarrow0$ and the fifth force reappears. In \\emph{kinetic} screening (e.g. K-mouflage;~\\cite{kinetic}), the scalar interaction is governed by a kinetic function $\\sim(\\partial \\phi)^2$, so that $\\phi$ becomes nonlinear, and hence effectively decouples, when its gradient is large. Finally, in the {\\it Vainshtein}~\\citep{Vainshtein} and {\\it symmetron}~\\citep{Hinterbichler} mechanisms, the coupling of the field to matter depends on the local environment, such that $\\Delta G\\rightarrow 0$ near massive bodies. In each case, Solar System tests would be expected to probe the screened regime and hence yield the GR result.\n\nIn the presence of screening, new scalar fields are possible with Compton wavelengths ranging from microscopic to cosmological values. This renders observationally viable a broad class of gravitational actions, including those that may be expected to form the effective low-energy limits of UV-complete theories. Further, screening holds opens the possibility for cosmic acceleration to receive a dynamical explanation, potentially circumventing the cosmological constant problem~\\citep{Carroll}, and sanctions the search for fifth-force phenomenology on all scales. Crucially, however, tests of screening require unscreened objects, which are the only ones to manifest $F_5$.\n\nThe aim of this paper is to constrain fifth forces in galaxies. Not only will this provide direct information on scales much larger than the Solar System ($\\sim0.4-50$ Mpc), it will also enable constraints in the presence of screening. This is possible due to the wide range of densities and environments of galaxies in the local Universe, including those with masses much lower than the Milky Way and in environments much sparser, which would remain unscreened even for small background values of a novel scalar field.\n\nWe restrict ourselves here to chameleon and symmetron screening,\\footnote{Similar behaviour is expected for the environmentally-dependent dilaton~\\cite{Brax}.} which are conceptually simpler and more amenable to testing through the signal we wish to explore. In these mechanisms, whether or not an object is screened depends on the value of its Newtonian potential $\\Phi$ \\cite{Brax_2}. For a single spherical source this is deducible analytically as a consequence of the fact that chameleon and symmetron charge is contained in a thin shell near the object's surface (the ``thin-shell effect'';~\\cite{chameleon, Khoury_LesHouches}). For multiple sources (and taking into account the possibility of environmental as well as self-screening), numerical simulations show that $\\Phi = \\Phi_\\text{in} + \\Phi_\\text{ex}$ -- where $\\Phi_\\text{in}$ is the Newtonian potential generated by the object itself at its surface, and $\\Phi_\\text{ex}$ that due to its surroundings -- remains the best proxy for the degree of screening, as measured by differences between dynamical mass, which is subject to the fifth force, and lensing mass which is not~\\citep{Zhao_1, Zhao_2, Cabre, Falck}. In addition to fifth-force strength $\\Delta G$ and range $\\lambda_C$, then, generic chameleon and symmetron models come also with a critical value of $\\Phi$, $\\Phi_c$, at which screening kicks in. To good approximation, objects with $|\\Phi|>|\\Phi_c|$ are in sufficiently dense environments to be screened ($m_\\text{eff} \\rightarrow \\infty$), while those with $|\\Phi|<|\\Phi_c|$ are not ($m_\\text{eff} \\rightarrow 0$).\\footnote{An alternative screening criterion (e.g.~\\cite{Cabre}) is $|\\Phi_\\text{in}| > |\\Phi_c|$ \\emph{or} $|\\Phi_\\text{ex}| > |\\Phi_c|$. As this is more difficult to satisfy than $|\\Phi_\\text{in}| + |\\Phi_\\text{ex}| > |\\Phi_c|$, our screened fractions may be considered upper bounds, making our constraints (which benefit from more \\emph{un}screened galaxies in which the predicted signal is $>$0) conservative in this regard.} For viable and interesting theory parameters, $|\\Phi_c|$ takes values in the range $\\sim 10^{-5}-10^{-8}$ ($c \\equiv 1$), putting some galaxies in the screened and others the unscreened regime.\n\nThin-shell screening possesses a range of intra-galaxy signals, all of which derive from a common basic effect. Within an unscreened galaxy, gas and dark matter interact via a fifth force with neighbouring unscreened mass, which leads to an effective increase in Newton's constant $\\Delta G = 2\\beta^2G$ if the scalar is light and coupled to matter by $\\nabla^2\\phi = 8\\pi\\beta G\\rho$. (If the galaxy is marginally screened there is an addition thin-shell factor, but this is not important for the cases of practical interest here.) Main sequence stars, however, are themselves massive objects with surface Newtonian potentials $|\\Phi_\\text{in}|\\sim10^{-6}$, and hence for $|\\Phi_c| \\lesssim 10^{-6}$ they self-screen and do not feel $F_5$. The effective equivalence principle violation \\cite{Hui} caused by the differential sensitivity of stars, gas and dark matter to the fifth force has four observable consequences \\cite{Jain_Vanderplas}: 1) A displacement between the stellar and gas disk in the direction of $F_5$, 2) warping of the stellar disk, 3) enhancement of the rotation velocity of the gas relative to the stars, and 4) asymmetry in the stellar disk's rotation curve. We focus in this paper on the first. By collating neutral atomic hydrogen (HI) and stellar (optical) data for a large sample of galaxies, calculating their gravitational environments and forward-modelling the expected signal for given theory parameters $\\{\\Delta G, \\lambda_C, \\Phi_c\\}$, we statistically constrain a fifth force screened by any thin-shell mechanism. We also provide constraints in the case without screening but where the fifth force is simply coupled differently to stars, gas and dark matter.\n\nThe structure of this paper is as follows. In Sec.~\\ref{sec:derivation} we derive the form of the HI-optical offset for a given coupling of $F_5$ to stars and gas, and in Sec.~\\ref{sec:data} we describe the survey data that we use to search for it. Sec.~\\ref{sec:method} details our method: first our mapping of the potential and fifth-force acceleration fields across the local Universe, second the calculation from these of the signal expected for given $\\{\\Delta G, \\lambda_C, \\Phi_c\\}$, and third the likelihood framework we use to constrain the theory parameters by Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC). Sec.~\\ref{sec:results} presents our results and forecasts improvements from future data. In Sec.~\\ref{sec:discussion} we provide further information on our noise model, document the systematic uncertainties in our analysis, compare our work to the literature and offer suggestions for future study. Finally, Sec.~\\ref{sec:conc} concludes.\n\n\n\\section{The signal: gas--star offsets in the presence of a fifth force}\n\\label{sec:derivation}\n\nConsider an unscreened galaxy in a chameleon- or symmetron-screened theory subject to an external Newtonian acceleration $\\vec{a}$ and a Newtonian acceleration $\\vec{a}_5$ due to unscreened matter within $\\lambda_C$. Take $|\\Phi_c| \\lesssim 10^{-6}$ so that stars self-screen. Under the step-function approximation of Eq.~\\ref{eq:ff}, unscreened objects with separation $r < \\lambda_C$ interact through standard gravity and $F_5$, while those with $r > \\lambda_C$ interact only through the former. Thus the unscreened gas and dark matter will effectively couple to the mass generating $\\vec{a}_5$ with enhanced gravitation constant $G_N + \\Delta G$, and hence feel a total acceleration\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:agas}\n\\vec{a}_{g,DM} = \\vec{a} + \\frac{\\Delta G}{G_N} \\: \\vec{a}_5.\n\\end{equation}\n\nIn order for the stars to remain associated with the gas and dark matter, their insensitivity to $\\vec{a}_5$ must be compensated by an acceleration due to a separation between their centre of mass and that of the dark matter halo. If the stellar centroid lags behind the halo centre in the direction of $\\vec{a}_5$ by a distance $r_*$, its total acceleration will be\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:astar}\n\\vec{a}_* = \\vec{a} + \\frac{G_N M(<r_*)}{r_*^2} \\: \\hat{r}_*,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $M(<r)$ is the dark matter plus gas mass enclosed by a sphere of radius $r$ around the halo centre. Requiring $\\vec{a}_{g,DM} = \\vec{a}_*$ so that all parts of the galaxy move together, and distinguishing explicitly between the cases where the galaxy itself is screened or unscreened, we find that the equilibrium offset $\\vec{r}_*$ satisfies\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:rstar}\n&\\frac{M(<r_*)}{r_*^2} \\: \\hat{r}_* = \\vec{a}_5 \\: \\frac{\\Delta G}{G_N^2}, &\\quad |\\Phi| < |\\Phi_c|\\\\ \\nonumber\n&\\vec{r}_* = 0, &\\quad |\\Phi| > |\\Phi_c|&\n\\end{align}\nwhere $\\Phi$ is the potential of the galaxy as a whole. This is the equation we will solve in Sec.~\\ref{sec:method}, as a function of $\\Delta G$, $\\lambda_C$ and $\\Phi_c$, to calculate the expected signal for the observed galaxies.\n\nAlthough we have couched our discussion in terms of thin-shell screening, the phenomenon we describe would also result from a generic fifth force, screened or unscreened, that couples differently to different galaxy mass components. In that case, $\\Delta G$ in Eq.~\\ref{eq:rstar} would be related to that in Eq.~\\ref{eq:ff} by a factor of the normalised coupling coefficient of $F_5$ to gas and dark matter minus that to stars.\n\n\n\\section{Observational data}\n\\label{sec:data}\n\nOur observational catalogue of HI-optical displacements is derived from the \\textit{Alfalfa} survey~\\citep{Giovanelli_1, Giovanelli_2, Saintonge, Kent, Martin, Haynes}, a second-generation blind HI survey of $\\sim 30,000$ extragalactic sources conducted with the Arecibo Observatory. \\textit{Alfalfa} is sensitive to objects of mass $10^6 \\lesssim M_\\text{HI}\/M_\\odot \\lesssim 10^{10.8}$, and covers over $7000 \\: \\text{deg}^2$ out to $z \\simeq 0.06$. More than 98\\% of HI detections were associated with optical counterparts (OCs) by interactively examining DSS2 and SDSS images, in addition to objects in the Nasa Extragalactic Database (NED).\n\nWe cut the sources designated as ``priors'' (quality flag 2), which have signal to noise ratio $s\\lesssim6.5$ but are nevertheless matched to OCs with optical redshifts consistent with those derived from HI, as well as those estimated to be high velocity clouds in the Milky Way (quality flag 9). We also remove galaxies with an offset angle between HI and OC centroids of $>2$ arcmin, which is likely caused by poor signal to noise. These are similar cuts to those employed in previous work along these lines~\\cite{Vikram}. Objects at larger distance $D$ have larger physical uncertainty in HI-optical displacement for given angular uncertainty $\\theta$, and we will find in Sec.~\\ref{sec:results} that for realistic $\\theta$ values (see Sec.~\\ref{sec:uncertainties}) objects with $D>100$ Mpc do not provide further constraining power on $\\{\\Delta G, \\lambda_C, \\Phi_c\\}$. We therefore cut the catalogue at 100 Mpc, yielding 10,822 galaxies in the final sample.\n\n\n\\section{Method}\n\\label{sec:method}\n\nWe construct a Bayesian framework for constraining $\\{\\Delta G, \\lambda_C, \\Phi_c\\}$ by comparing forward-modelled $\\vec{r}_*$ values to those observed in \\textit{Alfalfa} galaxies. To do so, we derive or specify probability distributions for the input parameters necessary to solve Eq~\\ref{eq:rstar}, and use Monte Carlo sampling to propagate their uncertainties into the predicted $\\vec{r}_*$. We thus create a likelihood function for that signal, and score models by applying Bayes' theorem and an MCMC algorithm to it.\n\nTo simplify our inference, we first approximate the exponential in Eq.~\\ref{eq:ff} by a step function at $\\lambda_C$,\\footnote{As our gravitational maps become inaccurate beyond $\\sim200$ Mpc, this approximation is necessary for larger fifth-force ranges because we cannot include contributions from sources $\\gtrsim2\\lambda_C$ from test points $\\sim100$ Mpc from us. With future maps extending to higher redshift it will be preferable to treat Eq.~\\ref{eq:ff} more exactly.} and second impose the relation between $\\lambda_C$ and screening threshold $\\Phi_c$ implied by a specific chameleon-screened theory, the Hu-Sawicki~\\citep{Hu_Sawicki} model of $f(R)$ gravity~\\citep{fR, fR2}. In this case, both $\\lambda_C$ and $\\Phi_c$ are set by the background value of the scalar field, which is equal to the derivative of the function $f$ at the cosmological value $R_0$ of the Ricci scalar $R$, $f_{R0} \\equiv df\/dR|_{R_0}$ (also the background scalar field value $\\phi_0$):\n\\begin{subequations}\n\\label{eq:f(R)}\n\\begin{align}\n&\\lambda_C = 32 \\: \\sqrt{f_{R0}\/10^{-4}} \\: \\text{Mpc}, \\label{eq:f(R)1}\\\\\n&|\\Phi_c| = \\frac{3}{2} f_{R0}, \\label{eq:f(R)2}\\\\ \\nonumber\n&\\text{so that}\\\\\n&|\\Phi_c| = \\frac{3}{2} \\times 10^{-4} \\left(\\frac{\\lambda_C}{32 \\: \\text{Mpc}}\\right)^2. \\label{eq:f(R)3}\n\\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\nQualitatively, these relations are also of more general applicability with $\\lambda_C$ interpreted in terms of the self-screening parameter $\\phi_0\/(2\\beta M_\\text{pl})$, often called $\\chi_c$. Although in the most general screening theory $\\lambda_C$ and $\\Phi_c$ are likely unrelated, we will find the observational data to possess insufficient information for a three dimensional inference, and hence impose Eq.~\\ref{eq:f(R)} by fiat. We leave it to future modelling with better data to open the parameter space further. The model that we seek to test, then, is fully specified by $\\Delta G$ and $\\lambda_C$.\n\nFor given $\\{\\Delta G, \\lambda_C\\}$, we derive the gravitational inputs to the predicted $\\vec{r}_*$ ($\\Phi$ and $\\vec{a}_5$) in Secs~\\ref{sec:maps} and~\\ref{sec:a5} and the galactic input ($M(<r)$) in Sec.~\\ref{sec:signal}. Sec.~\\ref{sec:MC} details our sampling method, Sec.~\\ref{sec:likelihood} describes our likelihood function, and Sec.~\\ref{sec:convergence} presents convergence and consistency tests.\n\n\n\\subsection{Mapping $\\Phi$ and $\\vec{a}$}\n\\label{sec:maps}\n\nWe determine an object's degree of screening by means of its Newtonian potential $\\Phi$. This is the sum of an internal component $\\Phi_\\text{in}$, due to the object's own mass, and an external component $\\Phi_\\text{ex}$ due to its environment. $\\Phi_\\text{in}$ can be estimated either from the object's mass and size, or from its characteristic velocity. The simplest estimate\\footnote{This is how $\\Phi_\\text{in}$ was calculated in the simulations which established $\\Phi_\\text{in} + \\Phi_\\text{ex}$ to be a useful proxy for chameleon screening~\\citep{Zhao_1, Zhao_2, Cabre}. By Eq.~\\ref{eq:Vsum}, however, the Newtonian potential near the centres of halos where galaxies live may be smaller by an order of magnitude or more. Switching to this would reduce screened fractions and boost the predicted signal; using Eq.~\\ref{eq:Vin} is therefore conservative. Nevertheless, given more information on the internal dynamics of test galaxies it would be preferable to develop a more precise estimator for the degree of self-screening.} is\n\\begin{equation}\n|\\Phi_\\text{in}| = \\frac{G M_\\text{vir}}{R_\\text{vir}} = V_\\text{vir}^2. \\label{eq:Vin}\n\\end{equation}\n$\\Phi_\\text{ex}$ on the other hand -- along with the acceleration $\\vec{a}$, which has only an external component\\footnote{We assume that galaxies are small and uniform enough, relative to the fifth-force range, for tidal fields within them to be unimportant. This may incur error for $\\lambda_C$ at the small end of our range of interest (400 kpc): at this point the acceleration of one mass component within a galaxy may receive a relatively significant contribution from others, making $\\vec{a}_5$ dependent on the structure of the galaxy itself. We will see in any case that the $\\Delta G$ constraints for $\\lambda_C \\sim 400$ kpc are relatively weak.} -- is a non-local function of the full density field in space. The remainder of this subsection is devoted to calculating it.\n\nOur starting point is the method of~\\cite{Desmond} which sums the contributions from three sources: mass associated with survey galaxies, halos hosting galaxies above the survey magnitude limit, and matter situated outside collapsed structures. Briefly, the procedure for determining these three parts is as follows (further details in that paper):\n\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\n\\item{} Estimate the total dynamical mass distributions of galaxies in 2M++~\\cite{2M++}, an all-sky redshift survey complete to $K=12.5$ out to $z \\simeq 0.05$. This is achieved by associating an NFW halo to each 2M++ galaxy using the technique of inverse abundance matching (AM;~\\cite{Kravtsov,Conroy,Reddick}) -- which assumes a nearly monotonic relation between galaxy luminosity (in this case $K$-band) and a function of halo mass $M_\\text{vir}$ and concentration $c$, known as the `proxy' -- to assign galaxy luminosities to halos in an N-body simulation. We adopt the particular AM model of~\\cite{Lehmann}, which uses the proxy $V_\\text{vir} \\: (V_\\text{max}\/V_\\text{vir})^\\alpha$, with best-fit value $\\alpha = 0.6$, and a Gaussian uncertainty $\\sigma_\\text{AM}$ with best-fit value 0.16 dex. This reproduces the observed clustering of galaxies from the simulated clustering of halos (in our case \\textsc{rockstar} \\cite{Rockstar} halos in the \\textsc{darksky-400} \\cite{DarkSky} box). The first part of $\\Phi_\\text{ex}$ and $\\vec{a}$, denoted by subscript `vis', are then as follows:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\Phi_\\text{vis} = -\\sum_i \\: \\frac{G M_\\text{vir,i}}{r_i} \\: \\frac{\\ln(1+\\frac{c_i r_i}{R_\\text{vir,i}})}{\\ln(1+c_i)-\\frac{c_i}{1+c_i}}, \\label{eq:Vsum}\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\vec{a}_\\text{vis} = -\\sum_i \\: \\frac{G M_\\text{vir,i}}{r_i} \\: \\frac{\\frac{1}{r_i} \\ln(1+ \\frac{c_i r_i}{R_\\text{vir,i}}) - \\frac{c_i\/R_\\text{vir,i}}{1+c_i r_i\/R_\\text{vir,i}}}{\\ln(1+c_i)-\\frac{c_i}{1+c_i}} \\: \\hat{r}_i, \\label{eq:asum}\n\\end{equation}\nfor source halo $i$ at distance $r_i$ from the test point.\n\n\\item{} Correct $\\Phi_\\text{vis}$ and $\\vec{a}_\\text{vis}$ for halos hosting galaxies below the 2M++ detection threshold. We supply $K$-band luminosities for \\textsc{darksky-400} halos by AM, and calculate their apparent magnitude to partition them into subsets visible and invisible to the 2M++ survey. We calculate the ``correction factors'' $\\vec{c} \\equiv \\{c_\\Phi, c_a, c_\\theta\\}$, at the locations of \\textsc{darksky-400} objects, required to convert $\\Phi_\\text{vis}$ and $\\vec{a}_\\text{vis}$ to $\\Phi_\\text{hal}$ and $\\vec{a}_\\text{hal}$, sourced by all halos with $M_\\text{vir} > 7.63 \\times 10^{10} \\: M_\\odot$ (the 1000-particle resolution limit of the simulation;~\\cite{Diemer_Kravtsov}):\n\\begin{equation}\n\\Phi_\\text{hal} \\equiv c_\\Phi \\Phi_\\text{vis}; \\; \\; |\\vec{a}_\\text{hal}| \\equiv c_a |\\vec{a}_\\text{vis}|; \\; \\; c_\\theta \\equiv \\frac{\\vec{a}_\\text{hal} \\cdot \\vec{a}_\\text{vis}}{|\\vec{a}_\\text{hal}| |\\vec{a}_\\text{vis}|}.\n\\end{equation}\nTo apply this correction in the real Universe, we correlate these factors in the simulation with the observational proxies $d$ (distance to the object), $N_{10}$ (number of objects visible to 2M++ within 10 Mpc) and $\\Phi_\\text{vis,10}$ (potential due to objects visible to 2M++ within 10 Mpc). We calculate $\\{d, N_{10}, \\Phi_\\text{vis,10}\\}$ for each real test galaxy and assign it the $\\vec{c}$ values of a randomly-chosen \\textsc{darksky-400} halo in the same bin of proxy values.\n\n\\item{} Add the contributions $\\Phi_\\text{sm}$ and $\\vec{a}_\\text{sm}$ from the remaining matter, not associated with resolved halos, by estimating the mass in linear and quasi-linear modes of the density field (subscript `sm' denotes `smooth'). This is achieved by means of a Bayesian reconstruction of the $z \\lesssim 0.05$ density field with the Bayesian Origin Reconstruction from Galaxies (BORG) algorithm~\\citep{Jasche_10, Jasche_15, Jasche_Wandelt_12, Jasche_Wandelt_13, Lavaux}, which propagates information on the number densities and peculiar velocities of 2M++ galaxies assuming $\\Lambda$CDM cosmology (with best-fit Planck parameter values) and a bias model. The parameters of the bias model are not known a priori but fitted directly to the data. We use the brand-new particle mesh BORG algorithm~\\cite{BORG_PM}, which improves in accuracy on the previous 2-loop perturbation theory determination used in~\\cite{Desmond}.\n\nFor our purposes, the output of this algorithm is a posterior distribution of density fields for the local $(677.7 \\: h^{-1} \\: \\text{Mpc})^3$ volume, with a grid scale of $\\Delta r = 2.65 \\: h^{-1}$ Mpc. We approximate each field as a set of point masses at the grid cell centres. Although sufficient for $\\lambda_C \\gtrsim 10$ Mpc, when several grid cells are contained within $\\lambda_C$ around each test point, this discretisation will generate excessive shot noise at smaller $\\lambda_C$ due to the relative sparsity of source masses. Test points equidistant from neighbouring source masses may enclose none within $\\lambda_C$, and hence artificially receive $\\Phi_\\text{ex} = \\vec{a} = r_* = 0$. To rectify this, we define a minimum value for the radius out to which source objects are considered, $R_\\text{max}$, of $R_\\text{thresh} =10\\;\\text{Mpc}\\approx 2.5\\Delta r$, which we adopt for $\\lambda_C < R_\\text{thresh}$. To convert $\\Phi_\\text{sm}(R_\\text{thresh})$ and $\\vec{a}_\\text{sm}(R_\\text{thresh})$ to $\\Phi_\\text{sm}(\\lambda_C)$ and $\\vec{a}_\\text{sm}(\\lambda_C)$, we use the fact that the region within $\\lambda_C$ is small and of nearly uniform density to Taylor expand $\\rho$ to lowest order around the position of the test point. Putting the origin at that point,\n\\begin{align}\n\\Phi(R_\\text{max}) = G \\int_0^{R_\\text{max}} dV \\frac{\\rho(\\vec{r})}{r} \\approx G \\int_0^{R_\\text{max}} dV \\frac{\\rho_0}{r} \\propto R_\\text{max}^2,\n\\end{align}\n\\begin{align}\n\\vec{a}(R_\\text{max}) &= G \\int_0^{R_\\text{max}} dV \\frac{\\rho(\\vec{r})}{r^2} \\hat{r} \\\\ \\nonumber\n&\\approx G \\int_0^{R_\\text{max}} dV \\frac{\\rho_0 + \\vec{\\partial}_r\\rho|_0 \\cdot \\vec{r}}{r^2} \\hat{r} \\\\ \\nonumber\n&= G \\: \\vec{\\partial}_r\\rho|_0 \\cdot \\int_0^{R_\\text{max}} dV \\frac{\\vec{r}}{r^2} \\: \\hat{r} \\propto R_\\text{max}^2.\n\\end{align}\nThus both $\\Phi$ and $\\vec{a}$ scale with the surface area of the region which sources them.\\footnote{We have verified by greatly increasing the resolution of the grid in small subvolumes that these scalings provide estimates of $\\Phi_\\text{ex}$ and $\\vec{a}$ accurate to within 10\\% for $\\lambda_C$ as low as $\\Delta r\/20$.} For $\\lambda_C < R_\\text{thresh}$ we therefore set\n\\begin{equation}\n\\Phi_\\text{sm}(\\lambda_C) = \\frac{\\lambda_C^2}{R_\\text{thresh}^2} \\Phi_\\text{sm}(R_\\text{thresh}),\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\n\\vec{a}_\\text{sm}(\\lambda_C) = \\frac{\\lambda_C^2}{R_\\text{thresh}^2} \\vec{a}_\\text{sm}(R_\\text{thresh}).\n\\end{equation}\nand estimate the total (external) potential and acceleration fields as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\Phi_\\text{ex} = \\Phi_\\text{hal} + \\Phi_\\text{sm}, \\; \\; \\; \\; \\vec{a} = \\vec{a}_\\text{hal} + \\vec{a}_\\text{sm}.\n\\end{equation}\n\\end{enumerate}\n\n\n\\subsection{Monte Carlo sampling}\n\\label{sec:MC}\n\nThe calculations of~\\cite{Desmond} used approximate maximum likelihood estimates of the input model parameters, resulting in one $\\Phi_\\text{ex}$ and one $\\vec{a}$ field (for given $R_\\text{max}$) over space. However, as anticipated in that work, it is desirable to marginalise over the uncertainties in those parameters to generate a set of plausible gravitational fields, weighted by their respective likelihoods. We implement this here by repeating our calculation of $\\Phi$ and $\\vec{a}_5$ $N_\\text{MC}=1000$ times, in each case drawing randomly and independently from the probability distributions of the input parameters to generate a set of final fields. This generates a full probability distribution for $\\Phi_\\text{ex}$ and $\\vec{a}_5$ at each test galaxy, and hence, by further propagation with Eq.~\\ref{eq:rstar}, for the expected signal $r_*$. This will allow us to derive posteriors on $\\{\\Delta G, \\lambda_C\\}$ by means of a full likelihood framework.\n\nEach of the three steps in Sec.~\\ref{sec:maps} naturally lends itself to this approach by supplying a probability distribution for the relevant parameters, as follows:\n\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\n\\item{} AM with non-zero scatter imposes an incomplete constraint on the galaxy--halo connection, in the sense that many halos may plausibly be associated with a given galaxy. We therefore repeat the inverse-AM step 200 times to generate a set of catalogues relating 2M++ galaxies to \\textsc{darksky-400} halos.\\footnote{Note that we do not marginalise over the uncertainties in the AM parameters themselves, which therefore constitute a systematic uncertainty of our analysis. However, due to the tight clustering constraints on these parameters~\\citep{Lehmann}, this uncertainty is almost certainly subdominant to the statistical AM uncertainty. We collect and discuss our systematic uncertainties in Sec.~\\ref{sec:systematics}.}\n\n\\item{} Given values for the observational proxies $d$, $N_{10}$ and $\\Phi_\\text{vis,10}$, a range of correction factors $\\vec{c}$ are possible, with probability distributions given by their relative frequencies over resolved \\textsc{darksky-400} objects. Each random draw from their joint distribution corresponds to the association of a given real galaxy with a different simulated object at fixed $\\{d,N_{10},\\Phi_\\text{vis,10}\\}$. Thoroughly sampling this distribution therefore marginalises over the possible contributions to $\\Phi$ and $\\vec{a}$ from halos of mass $M_\\text{vir} > 7.63 \\times 10^{10} M_\\odot$ hosting galaxies that are unresolved by 2M++.\n\n\\item{} Uncertainties in the inputs to the BORG algorithm -- which include galaxy number densities and bias model -- produce uncertainty in the corresponding smooth density field. Because the particle-mesh BORG run that we use produces $\\lesssim10$ independent samples, we marginalise over $10$ realisations from the burnt-in part of the chain, chosen further apart from one another than the correlation length. \n\n\\end{enumerate}\n\nThese complete the first three rows of Table~\\ref{tab:params}, which lists the probability distributions of all the parameters of our model. The fourth describes an additional scatter of $10\\%$ we impose between the observed and true values of halo mass, concentration and position, and the remainder will be described later in this chapter. By giving conservative uncertainties to these parameters, we intend the width of the fifth-force part of our likelihood function -- and hence our inference -- to be conservative also.\n\n\n\\begin{table*}\n  \\begin{center}\n    \\begin{tabular}{|l|l|l|}\n      \\hline\n      \\textbf{Parameter} & \\textbf{Description \/ origin of uncertainty} & \\textbf{Parent distribution \/ sampling procedure}\\\\\n      \\hline\n\\rule{0pt}{3ex}\n      P$(M_\\text{vir}, c|L; \\alpha, \\sigma_\\text{AM})$ & Stochasticity in galaxy--halo connection & 200 mock AM catalogues at fixed $\\{\\alpha, \\sigma_\\text{AM}\\}$\\\\\n\\rule{0pt}{3ex}\n      P($\\vec{c}|d, N_{10}, \\Phi_\\text{vis,10})$ & Location of unresolved halos & Random draw from frequency distribution in N-body sim.\\\\\n\\rule{0pt}{3ex}\n      Smooth density field & Galaxy number densities, bias model etc & 10 independent draws from BORG posterior\\\\\n\\rule{0pt}{3ex}\n      P$(M_{\\text{vir},t}, c_t, \\vec{r}_t|M_{\\text{vir},o}, c_o, \\vec{r}_o)$ &Halo properties & Uncorrelated 10\\% Gaussian uncertainty\\\\\n\\rule{0pt}{3ex}\n      P$(\\Phi_{\\text{in},t}|\\Phi_{\\text{in},o})$ & Internal potential & 10\\% (with NSA data) or 30\\% (without) Gaussian uncertainty\\\\\n\\rule{0pt}{3ex}\n      P$(\\text{early}|M_*)$ & Probability of being early-type & Linear fit to~\\cite{Henriques}, fig. 5\\\\\n\\rule{0pt}{3ex}\n      P$(M_*, R_\\text{eff}, R_\\text{d,gas}|M_\\text{HI})$ & Galaxy properties from \\textit{Alfalfa} data & Scalings of~\\cite{Dutton11} with scatters as quoted there\\\\\n\\rule{0pt}{3ex}\n      P$(\\Sigma_{D,t}^0|\\Sigma_{D,o}^0)$ & Central dynamical surface density & 0.5 (with NSA data) or 1 (without) dex Gaussian uncertainty\\\\\n      \\hline\n     \\end{tabular}\n  \\caption{Parameters forming the input to our calculation of the gas--star offset $\\vec{r}_*$ for each \\textit{Alfalfa} galaxy, and the distributions from which they are drawn. For each Monte Carlo realisation of the fifth-force model we sample randomly and independently from these distributions to build an empirical likelihood function $\\mathcal{L}(\\vec{r}_*|\\lambda_C, \\Delta G)$. Subscripts `t' and `o' denote `true' and `observed' values respectively. Further information is provided in Sec.~\\ref{sec:method}.}\n  \\label{tab:params}\n  \\end{center}\n\\end{table*}\n\n\n\\subsection{Relating $\\vec{a}$ to $\\vec{a}_5$}\n\\label{sec:a5}\n\nSec.~\\ref{sec:maps} describes the calculation of $\\Phi$ and $\\vec{a}$ from \\emph{all} mass within a distance $\\lambda_C$ of a given test point. $\\Phi$ is ready for use in Eq.~\\ref{eq:rstar}, but the acceleration of interest, $\\vec{a}_5$, is due to the fifth force alone, which couples only to \\emph{unscreened} mass. We must therefore determine which source masses are screened and which unscreened, in order to include only the latter. This section gives our method.\n\nFirst, we calculate $\\Phi_\\text{ex}(\\lambda_C)$ at the position of each 2M++ galaxy by the method of Sec.~\\ref{sec:maps}. We estimate $\\Phi_\\text{in}$ by plugging into Eq.~\\ref{eq:Vin} the properties of the halo associated with the galaxy in the inverse-AM step (with a random scatter given by the fifth row of Table~\\ref{tab:params}). The halo is unscreened, and hence contributes to $\\vec{a}_5$, if $|\\Phi_\\text{ex}(\\lambda_C)| + |\\Phi_\\text{in}| < |\\Phi_c|$. As $\\Phi$ depends on the values of the probabilistic input parameters described in Sec.~\\ref{sec:MC}, we recalculate it for each of the $N_\\text{MC}$ realisations of the underlying model, and hence derive a probability $p_j(\\lambda_C)$ for halo $j$ to be unscreened. We repeat this also using solely the external part of the potential (i.e. setting $\\Phi_\\text{in}=0$) to make $p_\\text{j,ex}(\\lambda_C)$, which we will use below.\n\nWith the screening properties of the 2M++ halos determined, we turn next to the remaining mass component: the smooth density field. To ascertain where this is screened, we reconstruct the complete $p_\\text{ex}(\\vec{r}; \\lambda_C)$ field by linearly interpolating its values $p_\\text{j,ex}(\\lambda_C)$ at the positions of the 2M++ halos, which, by virtue of the high completeness of that survey, provide a fair sampling of the entire $z<0.05$ volume. We then simply evaluate $p_\\text{ex}$ at the position $\\vec{r}_k$ of each point mass $k$ representing the smooth density field, and assume that the structures in which this mass is located are sufficiently diffuse never to self-screen. $p_\\text{ex}(\\vec{r}_k; \\lambda_C)$ thus provides the probability for portion $k$ of the smooth density field to be unscreened.\n\nWe are now in position to calculate the fifth-force acceleration $\\vec{a}_5$ for each \\textit{Alfalfa} galaxy. For each Monte Carlo realisation, we begin by setting each source halo and portion of the smooth density field to be screened or unscreened according to its probability $p_j(\\lambda_C)$ or $p_\\text{ex}(\\vec{r}_k; \\lambda_C)$ as calculated above.\\footnote{By doing this independently for each object we assume the screening fractions to be uncorrelated. Although not strictly true, this is a good approximation: variations in most of the input parameters affect regions of size $<\\lambda_C$, while typical objects are separated by much larger distances.} We calculate $\\vec{a}_5(\\lambda_C)$, separately for each realisation, by evaluating the sum in Eq.~\\ref{eq:asum} over unscreened halos and adding the $G M\/r^2$ contribution from each unscreened portion of the smooth density field within $\\lambda_C$. As the screened stars do not contribute to $\\vec{a}_5$ even in unscreened galaxies, however, we first subtract $M_*$ from $M_\\text{vir}$ in the halo contribution. In practice this modification is minimal since stars comprise $\\lesssim5$\\% of total halo mass.\n\nWhile calculating $\\vec{a}_5$ itself requires sources at most $\\lambda_\\text{C,max}$ beyond the maximum distance of any test galaxy, determining whether those sources are themselves screened requires sources a further $\\lambda_\\text{C,max}$ out. Since the 2M++ catalogue and BORG-reconstructed density fields become unreliable beyond $\\sim200$ Mpc, and, as we find below, the fixed angular uncertainty in the \\textit{Alfalfa} HI-optical offset means that test points beyond $\\sim100$ Mpc bring little further constraining power to $\\Delta G$ and $\\lambda_C$, we take $\\lambda_\\text{C,max} = 50$ Mpc.\\footnote{By Eq.~\\ref{eq:f(R)3}, $\\lambda_C=50$ Mpc corresponds to $|\\Phi_c| = 2.3 \\times 10^{-4}$. This is larger than the potential of typical main sequence stars $\\sim10^{-6}$, suggesting that in this model stars would not be sufficiently dense to screen themselves. Thus both gas and stars would feel $F_5$ and the signal $r_*$ would go away. (This model would also leave the Milky Way, with similar $\\Phi$, unscreened.) Nevertheless, we include this model to explore more fully the constraining power of our signal: as in the case when screening is switched off, strictly our constraints require $F_5$ to couple differently to stars and gas.} Our minimum $\\lambda_C$ value is set by the point at which the predicted $r_*$ values become so small that the corresponding $\\Delta G\/G_N$ constraint becomes uninteresting. We will show in Sec.~\\ref{sec:constraints} that $\\Delta G\/G_N$ cannot be constrained to better than $\\mathcal{O}(1)$ for $\\lambda_C \\simeq 400$ kpc, which is the value we therefore adopt for $\\lambda_\\text{C,min}$. This is also the approximate scale at which tidal effects within galaxies may be expected to become important.\n\n\n\\subsection{Calculating $\\vec{r}_*$}\n\\label{sec:signal}\n\nArmed with a determination of $\\Phi$ and $\\vec{a}_5$ for each \\textit{Alfalfa} galaxy, we are now nearing our goal of using Eq.~\\ref{eq:rstar} to calculate the expected signal $\\vec{r}_*$ as a function of $\\Delta G$ and $\\lambda_C$. The remaining unknown is $M(<r_*)$, the total enclosed halo plus gas mass within the HI-optical separation $r_*$. Three classes of method present themselves for finding this: one could 1) attempt to fit halo profiles to the galaxies with empirical methods such as AM, 2) use dynamical information at small radius, or 3) employ empirical scalings between mass and light at galaxies' centres. Which of these is most precise depends on the information at one's disposal, as well as the size of the $r<r_*$ region relative to the entire galaxy or halo. We shall see that realistic $\\vec{a}_5$ and interesting $\\Delta G\/G_N$ values within our range of $\\lambda_C$ produce $r_*$ values of order 10-100 pc, at least an order of magnitude smaller than galaxy size or halo scale radius. This makes methods such as the first, which rely on global fits to galaxies' luminosity or velocity profiles, unreliable. While central kinematics would provide the most convenient and precise means of calculating $M(<r_*)$, this is not available for most \\textit{Alfalfa} detections, some of which are not even clearly associated with a concentration of optical light. We are therefore forced to resort to the third method.\n\nWe estimate $M(<r_*)$ using the observed relation between central baryonic and dynamical surface mass densities reported in~\\cite{Lelli_1, Lelli_2} and parametrised by~\\cite{Milgrom}:\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:CDR}\n\\Sigma_D^0 = \\Sigma_M \\: S(\\Sigma_B^0\/\\Sigma_M),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:S}\nS(y) = y\/2 + y^{1\/2} (1+y\/4)^{1\/2} + 2\\sinh^{-1}(y^{1\/2}\/2),\n\\end{equation}\n$\\Sigma_D^0$ is the central dynamical surface density, $\\Sigma_B^0$ is the central baryonic surface density, and $\\Sigma_M$ is a constant, $1.37 \\times 10^8 M_\\odot\/\\text{kpc}^2$. This relation captures at small $r$ the empirical trend of increasing dark matter dominance for decreasing baryonic surface density~\\citep{Sanders_MDAcc, McGaugh_MDAcc, Famaey_McGaugh, Janz}: $\\Sigma_D^0 \\rightarrow \\Sigma_B^0 + \\Sigma_M$ for $\\Sigma_B^0 \\gg \\Sigma_M$, and $\\Sigma_D^0 \\rightarrow (\\Sigma_M \\Sigma_B^0)^{1\/2}$ for $\\Sigma_B^0 \\ll \\Sigma_M$. Although possessing some scatter and hence providing a noisier determination of $\\Sigma_D^0$ than would direct dynamical data, this method has the advantage of requiring neither spectroscopic information nor assumptions about the form of the overall dark matter distribution.\n\nWe take $\\Sigma_D^0$ to be the projection of a core with uniform density $\\rho_0$ in the very central $r<r_*$ regions of halos, an assumption  supported observationally at radii much less than the halo scale $r_s$~\\citep{cusp-core, Rodrigues}. Hence\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:M(r)}\nM(<r_*) = \\frac{4}{3} \\pi \\: r_*^3 \\: \\rho_0 = \\frac{4}{3} \\pi \\: r_*^3 \\: \\frac{\\Sigma_D^0 - \\Sigma_*^0}{2h},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $h$ is the scale-height of the projection and we subtract $\\Sigma_*^0$ from $\\Sigma_D^0$ to derive the gas plus dark matter mass within the position of the stellar centroid. For realistic galaxy parameters we will find $\\rho_0 \\sim 10^9 \\: M_\\odot \\: \\text{kpc}^{-3}$, with a standard deviation between galaxies a factor of a few larger. Under the assumption of constant density the halo acts as a spring, with the restoring force on the stellar centroid proportional to its distance from the halo centre. As this force is required to provide a fixed acceleration equal to $\\vec{a}_5$, the stiffer the spring (i.e. the greater the central density) the smaller the displacement. Plugging into Eq.~\\ref{eq:rstar} and solving for $\\vec{r}_*$ yields\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:rstar2}\n\\vec{r}_* = \\frac{3}{2\\pi} \\: \\frac{\\Delta G}{G_N^2} \\: \\frac{h}{\\Sigma_D^0 - \\Sigma_*^0} \\: \\vec{a}_5,\n\\end{equation}\nwith the following components in the right ascension (J2000; RA; $\\alpha$) and declination (DEC; $\\delta$) directions:\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:rstarcomp}\nr_{*,\\alpha} = \\vec{r}_* \\cdot \\hat{\\alpha}, \\; \\; \\; \\; r_{*,\\delta} = \\vec{r}_* \\cdot \\hat{\\delta}.\n\\end{equation}\nThese are the quantities we will compare between model and observations. As our observed displacements are restricted to the plane of the sky, when we speak of $\\vec{r}_*$ hereafter we will typically mean $r_{*,\\alpha} \\hat{\\alpha} + r_{*,\\delta} \\hat{\\delta}$.\n\nGiven Eq.~\\ref{eq:CDR}, our task now is to deduce $\\Sigma_B^0$, the central surface density of total (star plus gas) baryonic mass. This is known to greater precision the more structural galaxy information is available, and we therefore seek to augment our knowledge of the \\textit{Alfalfa} galaxies, which besides HI and OC positions have measured linewidths and total HI masses only, with more detailed optical data. For this purpose we cross-correlate the catalogue with the \\textit{Nasa Sloan Atlas} (NSA),\\footnote{\\url{www.nsatlas.org}} a compilation of measurements and derived quantities for nearby galaxies with state of the art sky subtraction and photometric determinations~\\citep{Blanton}. After cleaning the data by removing galaxies with unreliable size or redshift measurements~\\citep{Bernardi}, we take from the NSA stellar mass $M_*$ (derived from {\\tt kcorrect} \\cite{kcorrect} with a Chabrier \\cite{chabrier} initial mass function), S\\'{e}rsic index \\texttt{SERSIC\\_N}$\\:\\equiv\\:n$, aperture velocity dispersion $\\sigma$, S\\'{e}rsic half-light radius along the major axis \\texttt{SERSIC\\_TH50}, and apparent S\\'{e}rsic minor-to-major axis ratio \\texttt{SERSIC\\_BA}$\\:\\equiv(b\/a)_\\text{obs}$.\n\nWe associate each \\textit{Alfalfa} galaxy with the nearest NSA galaxy, provided it is within 2 Mpc. This accounts approximately for offsets in the distance estimates recorded in the two catalogues, although we caution that this cross-identification is likely to contain some errors. We show in Sec.~\\ref{sec:correlations}, however, that the width of the fifth-force part of likelihood function, which measures the uncertainty in the predicted signal and is sensitive to assumptions of galaxy structure, is subdominant to that of the Gaussian component which accounts for measurement uncertainty and non-fifth-force physics. For current data, therefore, precision estimation of $\\Sigma_B^0$ is not critical.\n\nDue to the only partly overlapping footprints of the two surveys and the fact that HI and optical flux are often poorly or anti-correlated, our NSA identification succeeds for only $22$\\% of \\textit{Alfalfa} galaxies, and for the remainder we must use less precise means for determining $M(<r_*)$. The following subsections describe our procedure for the cases in which NSA information is or is not available.\n\n\n\\subsubsection{With NSA information}\n\\label{sec:NSA}\n\nFirst, we use the observed minor-to-major axis ratio $(b\/a)_\\text{obs}$ to estimate the intrinsic axis ratio $(b\/a)$. We do this by randomly assigning an inclination $i$ for the galaxy and setting~\\cite{Haynes_84}\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:axisratio}\n\\left(\\frac{b}{a}\\right)^2_\\text{int} = 1 - \\frac{1-(b\/a)_\\text{obs}^2}{\\sin(i)^2}\n\\end{equation}\nwith the sole requirement that $(b\/a)_\\text{int} \\ge 0.15$, the lowest axis ratio recorded in the NSA. We then calculate the angular diameter distance $d_A$ to each galaxy from the redshift and an assumed cosmology $\\{h,\\Omega_\\Lambda,\\Omega_m,\\Omega_k\\} = \\{0.7, 0.7, 0.3, 0\\}$ and calculate the major-axis length as $R_\\text{eff}^\\text{maj} \\equiv d_A \\times \\:$\\texttt{SERSIC\\_TH50}. This is related to the circularised, $R_\\text{eff}$, and minor-axis, $R_\\text{eff}^\\text{min}$, half-light radii as\n\\begin{equation}\nR_\\text{eff} = (b\/a)^{1\/2} \\: R_\\text{eff}^\\text{maj} \\: \\: \\: \\: \\text{and} \\: \\: \\: \\: R_\\text{eff}^\\text{min} = (b\/a) \\: R_\\text{eff}^\\text{maj}.\n\\end{equation}\n\nNext, we analytically deproject the spherically-symmetric 3D S\\'{e}rsic profile~\\citep{Sersic} to derive the stellar surface density, and hence calculate the central value $\\Sigma_*^0$~\\citep{Prugniel, Ciotti},\n\\begin{equation}\n\\Sigma_*^0 = \\frac{M_*}{2 \\pi \\: n \\: b_n^{-2n} \\: \\Gamma(2n) \\: R_\\text{eff}^2},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $b_n \\equiv 2n - 1\/3 + 0.009876\/n$. We then calculate the central gas density $\\Sigma_g^0$. Although the total HI mass $M_\\text{HI}$ is measured in \\textit{Alfalfa}, the distribution of this mass is not. We take $M_\\text{gas} = 1.33 \\: M_\\text{HI}$, to account for cosmological helium, and assume it to be distributed in an exponential disk with effective radius given by the scaling relation of~\\cite{Dutton11},\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:Reff}\n\\log_{10}(R_\\text{eff,g} \/ \\text{kpc}) = \\log_{10}(0.92 \\: R_\\text{eff}^\\text{maj} \/ \\text{kpc}),\n\\end{equation}\nwith a Gaussian scatter of 0.25 dex. Setting $\\Sigma_B^0 = \\Sigma_*^0 + \\Sigma_g^0$ then lets us calculate $\\Sigma_D^0$ by Eq.~\\ref{eq:CDR}. We estimate the scale height $h$ of the dynamical mass distribution as $R_\\text{eff}^\\text{min}$.\n\nFinally, we estimate the internal potential as $\\Phi_\\text{in} = -\\sigma^2$, with an uncertainty of 10\\%.\n\n\n\\subsubsection{Without NSA information}\n\\label{sec:no-NSA}\n\nIf NSA information is not available, it is necessary to estimate not only $h$ and $R_\\text{eff,g}$, but also $M_*$, $R_\\text{eff}$ and the characteristic velocity that sets $\\Phi_\\text{in}$. We take $\\Phi_\\text{in}=-V_\\text{max}^2$, with $V_\\text{max}$ estimated from the full width half max $W_{50}$ of the radio detection\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:Vmax}\nV_\\text{max} = \\frac{W_t}{2 \\sqrt{1-(b\/a)^2}},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:Wt}\nW_t = \\sqrt{W_{50}^2 + 4 \\sigma_d^2}\n\\end{equation}\nis a turbulence-correction linewidth~\\citep{Tully}, $\\sigma_d=8$ km\/s is a characteristic dispersional velocity~\\citep{Begum, Geha} and $(b\/a)=0.2$ is the assumed intrinsic axis ratio of the system. We assign $V_\\text{max}$ a 15\\% Gaussian uncertainty. We then estimate the stellar properties of the galaxy using empirical scaling relations with HI properties~\\citep{Dutton11}:\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:Mstar}\n\\log_{10}(M_*\/M_\\odot) = 1.89 \\log_{10}(M_\\text{gas}\/M_\\odot) - 8.12\n\\end{equation}\nwith 0.3 dex scatter, and\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:Reff2}\n\\log_{10}(R_\\text{eff}^\\text{maj}) = \\log_{10}\\left(\\frac{1}{2} \\: R_0 \\: (M_*\/M_0)^\\alpha \\: (1 + (M_*\/M_0)^\\gamma)^\\frac{\\beta-\\alpha}{\\gamma}\\right)\n\\end{equation}\nwith 0.2 dex scatter. To account to first order for the size difference between ``early'' and ``late''-type galaxies, we assign each \\textit{Alfalfa} galaxy a probability $P_\\text{early}$ of being ``early-type'', derived by interpolating the relation derived by~\\cite{Henriques} (their fig. 5) with a linear relation as a function of $\\log_{10}(M_*\/M_\\odot)$. We use this probability to randomly set the galaxy to be early or late-type, and assign the corresponding $\\{\\alpha, \\beta, \\gamma, \\log_{10}(M_0), \\log_{10}(R_0)\\}$ from table 1 of~\\cite{Dutton11}. We then use Eq.~\\ref{eq:Reff} to estimate $R_\\text{eff,g}$, and proceed as in Sec.~\\ref{sec:NSA}.\n\n\n\\subsubsection{Sampling and scatter in $\\Sigma^0_D$}\n\\label{sec:more-sampling}\n\nAs in Sec.~\\ref{sec:MC}, we sample each probability distribution in Secs.~\\ref{sec:NSA} and~\\ref{sec:no-NSA} randomly and independently for each Monte Carlo realisation of our model, effectively marginalising over them in our determination of the likelihood distribution of $\\vec{r}_*$. This fills in rows $6$ and $7$ of Table~\\ref{tab:params}.\n\nBesides having relatively large scatter, however, these scalings may be expected to provide good fits only to subsets of the total galaxy population, and there is no guarantee that they will accurately describe the \\textit{Alfalfa} sample. In order to ensure that our constraints on $\\Delta G$ are nevertheless conservative, we therefore scatter $\\Sigma^0_D$ by an additional $0.5$ dex in the case where NSA is available, and $1$ dex when it is not (final row of Table~\\ref{tab:params}). This propagates directly into $r_{*,\\alpha}$ and $r_{*,\\delta}$ by Eq.~\\ref{eq:rstar2}, and guarantees that the galaxies with NSA information are prioritised in the inference. We find that increasing the scatter of $\\Sigma^0_D$ in the model increases predicted $r_*$ values on the whole, and hence reduces inferred values of $\\Delta G\/G_N$. Given that this scatter is itself significantly uncertain, our results for $\\Delta G\/G_N$ in Sec.~\\ref{sec:constraints} ought not be considered more than order of magnitude estimates. In Sec.~\\ref{sec:systematics} we will show explicitly the result of implementing different scatters for $\\Sigma^0_D$. On the other hand, global variations in $\\Sigma^0_D$ scatter are scale-independent and hence introduce no bias in the $\\lambda_C$-dependence of any quantity.\n\nIdeally, unknowns such as this would be treated as free parameters in the inference and marginalised over in the determination of $\\Delta G\/G_N$ and $\\lambda_C$. This may become possible with data of greater quality and quantity in the future.\n\n\n\\subsection{Modelling the noise}\n\\label{sec:uncertainties}\n\nThe constraining power of the gas--star offsets for fifth-force parameters depends crucially on the angular measurement uncertainty $\\theta$. As the OC centroid is typically known to 3 arcsec or better, this uncertainty is dominated by the 21 cm radio detection of HI. This depends on the telescope pointing, data reduction pipeline and signal to noise ratio $s$ of the measurement, and is not therefore well known a priori. We will determine it empirically from the data itself. Our fiducial method is to set $\\theta_\\alpha$ and $\\theta_\\delta$ equal to the dispersion in the RA and DEC components of the measured HI-OC offset itself in bins of $\\log_{10}(s)$, as recommended by \\cite{Haynes}. In particular, we create 50 uniform bins between the minimum and maximum values $0.66$ and $3$, and in each bin calculate separately the standard deviation of $r_{*,\\alpha}$ and $r_{*,\\delta}$. These have a mean of 18 arcsec over the entire sample and a standard deviation among galaxies of 4 arcsec.\n\nThis method guarantees that the measured offsets will be consistent with $0$ to $\\sim1\\sigma$, and hence requires that any potential fifth-force contribution to the signal be relatively small. Although we will show this to be the case in Sec.~\\ref{sec:correlations} for all reasonable values of $\\Delta G\/G_N$, a more self-consistent approach is to parametrise the HI-OC uncertainties and fit for them simultaneously with $\\Delta G$ and $\\lambda_C$. We present three variants of this approach, each assuming that $\\theta$ is correlated only with $s$. In the first, we assume a universal value $\\bar{\\theta}$ for both $\\theta_\\alpha$ and $\\theta_\\delta$, and fit for $\\{\\Delta G, \\lambda_C, \\bar{\\theta}\\}$. In the second and third we model $\\theta$ as a polynomial in $\\log_{10}(s)$: in one case we fit\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:unc_shorter}\n\\theta = A + B \\log_{10}(s),\n\\end{equation}\ntaking $A$ and $B$ as free parameters, and in the other\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:unc_short2}\n\\theta = C + D \\log_{10}(s) + E \\log_{10}(s)^2,\n\\end{equation}\nfor $\\log_{10}(s) < 1.6$, and $\\theta = F$ otherwise, for $C$, $D$, $E$ and $F$ free. Each of $A-F$ are given flat priors, with $A,C,F > 0$ to force $\\theta>0$. We will show in Sec.~\\ref{sec:uncertainty_model} that in each case $\\theta$ converges to values consistent with those of the first method and produces an almost identical $\\Delta G\/G_N$ posterior. This is because by far the greater part of the signal derives from noise for the $\\Delta G\/G_N$ values of interest in our analysis. Marginalising over $\\bar{\\theta}$, $A-B$ or $C-F$ broadens the $\\Delta G\/G_N$ posteriors only slightly. As discussed further in Sec.~\\ref{sec:systematics}, operationally $\\theta$ also includes the contribution to the signal from other physics, under the assumption that it supplies a Gaussian component to the likelihood with width a function only of $s$. The degeneracy between measurement uncertainty and additional physics in the determination of $\\theta$ will become important for future HI surveys with greater spatial resolution (see Sec.~\\ref{sec:forecast}).\n\nWe will also show results for a choice we call ``conservative,'' in which the $\\theta$ values of the fiducial method are doubled. This yields robust upper limits on $\\Delta G\/G_N$, and is the choice we focused on in~\\cite{Desmond_PRL}. Note however that this model produces significantly lower overall likelihood values than the fiducial one due to overprediction of the dispersions of the HI-OC displacements at each $s$, and in a model comparison sense is therefore clearly disfavoured.\n\n\n\\subsection{Likelihood model}\n\\label{sec:likelihood}\n\nOver the $N_\\text{MC}$ realisations of our probabilistic model, and for given $\\Delta G$ and $\\lambda_C$, we have now derived a distribution of predicted $r_{*,\\alpha}$ and $r_{*,\\delta}$ values for each \\textit{Alfalfa} galaxy. Heuristically these constitute the likelihood distribution of the signal, and by scoring it against the observations and applying Bayes' theorem one can derive constraints on $\\Delta G$ and $\\lambda_C$ by MCMC. In practice we proceed as follows.\n\nWe begin by constructing a template signal, assuming that each test galaxy is unscreened and taking $\\Delta G\/G_N=1$ and one of 20 values for $\\log_{10}(\\lambda_C\/\\text{Mpc})$ uniformly spaced between $\\log_{10}(0.4)$ and $\\log_{10}(50)$. For each test galaxy, we find the minimum ($r_0$) and maximum ($r_1$) of $r_{*,\\alpha}$ and $r_{*,\\delta}$ separately over the $N_\\text{MC}$ realisations of the model. We then partition the results of these realisations into $N_\\text{bins}=10$ uniform bins between these limits and define $P_j \\equiv N_j\/N_\\text{MC}$, where $N_j$ is the number of realisations falling in bin $j$. We take this histogram to represent the unscreened component of the model's likelihood function in $\\{r_{*,\\alpha}, r_{*,\\delta}\\}$ space. We calculate also the fraction $f$ of realisations in which the galaxy in question is unscreened. Given that the model predicts $r_*=0$ for the screened remainder, and treating the orthogonal RA and DEC components as independent, the overall likelihood $\\mathcal{L}_i(r_{*,\\alpha}, r_{*,\\delta})$ for test galaxy $i$ to have $\\vec{r}_*$ components $r_{*,\\alpha}$ and $r_{*,\\delta}$ is given by\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:L1}\n\\mathcal{L}_i(r_{*,\\alpha}, r_{*,\\delta}|\\Delta G, \\lambda_C) = \\mathcal{L}_i(r_{*,\\alpha}|\\Delta G, \\lambda_C) \\times \\mathcal{L}_i(r_{*,\\delta}|\\Delta G, \\lambda_C),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere\n\\begin{align} \\label{eq:L2}\n\\mathcal{L}_i(r_{*,\\alpha}|&\\Delta G, \\lambda_C) = (1-f) \\: \\delta(r_{*,\\alpha}) \\\\ \\nonumber\n&+ f \\: \\Sigma_{j=0}^{N_\\text{bins}} \\: P_j \\: \\delta(r_{*,\\alpha} - \\Delta G \\: (r_{0,\\alpha} + j \\Delta r_\\alpha)).\n\\end{align}\nHere $\\Delta r_\\alpha \\equiv (r_{1,\\alpha} - r_{0,\\alpha})\/(N_\\text{bins}-1)$ is the width of each bin, and we have approximated the unscreened component of the likelihood as a discrete sum of delta-functions $\\delta$ at the midpoints of the bins. $f$, $P_j$, $r_0$ and $r_1$ are implicit functions of $\\lambda_C$: by Eq.~\\ref{eq:f(R)3} and the procedure of Sec.~\\ref{sec:method}, a larger $\\lambda_C$ corresponds to a larger $|\\Phi_c|$ and hence a larger unscreened fraction $f$ and signal limits $r_0$ and $r_1$. Since $r_*$ is proportional to $\\Delta G$ (Eq~\\ref{eq:rstar}), this parameter simply multiplies the bin positions. The likelihood for the DEC component is defined analogously.\n\nWe convolve this with a Gaussian probability distribution function for these \\emph{true} values given \\emph{observed} values $r_{*,\\alpha,\\text{obs}}$ and $r_{*,\\delta,\\text{obs}}$ and their measurement uncertainties $\\sigma_i$. Dropping the dependence on $\\Delta G$ and $\\lambda_C$ for brevity:\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:L3}\n\\mathcal{L}_i(r_{*,\\alpha,\\text{obs}}) = \\int dr_{*,\\alpha} \\; \\mathcal{L}_i(r_{*,\\alpha}) \\: \\times \\: \\mathcal{L}_i(r_{*,\\alpha, \\text{obs}}|r_{*,\\alpha}),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:L4}\n\\mathcal{L}_i(r_{*,\\alpha, \\text{obs}}|r_{*,\\alpha}) = \\frac{\\exp\\{{-(r_{*,\\alpha, \\text{obs}} - r_{*,\\alpha})^2}\/(2 \\sigma_{i,\\alpha}^2)\\}}{\\sqrt{2 \\pi} \\: \\sigma_{i,\\alpha}}.\n\\end{equation}\nThe observational uncertainty is given by\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:ra_unc}\n\\sigma_{i,\\alpha} = d_{A,i} \\: \\cos(\\delta_i) \\: \\theta_i,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $d_{A,i}$ is the angular diameter distance to galaxy $i$, $\\delta_i$ is the galaxy's declination, and $\\theta_i$ is the angular uncertainty assigned by either the fiducial or conservative method of Sec.~\\ref{sec:data}.\\footnote{As explained in Secs.~\\ref{sec:uncertainties} and~\\ref{sec:forecast}, $\\theta$ also models a Gaussian component of the likelihood model due to non-fifth-force physics. We refer to it as measurement uncertainty here simply for brevity.} The corresponding DEC uncertainty is given by\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:dec_unc}\n\\sigma_{i,\\delta} = d_{A,i} \\: \\theta_i.\n\\end{equation}\nPerforming the convolution in Eq.~\\ref{eq:L3} then yields\n\\begin{align} \\label{eq:L7}\n&\\mathcal{L}_i(r_{*,\\alpha,\\text{obs}}|\\Delta G, \\lambda_C) = (1-f) \\: \\frac{\\exp\\{{-r_{*,\\alpha, \\text{obs}}^2}\/(2\\sigma_{i,\\alpha}^2)\\}}{\\sqrt{2 \\pi} \\: \\sigma_{i,\\alpha}} \\\\ \\nonumber\n& + f \\: \\Sigma_{j=0}^{N_\\text{bins}} \\: P_j \\: \\frac{\\exp\\{{-(r_{*,\\alpha,\\text{obs}} - \\Delta G \\: r_j)^2\/(2\\sigma_{i,\\alpha}^2)}\\}}{\\sqrt{2 \\pi} \\: \\sigma_{i,\\alpha}},\n\\end{align}\nwhere $r_j \\equiv (r_{0,\\alpha} + j \\Delta r_\\alpha)$ is the position of the $j$th bin centre. Treating the galaxies as independent, the likelihood of the entire dataset $d$ is then\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathcal{L}(d|\\Delta G, \\lambda_C) = \\prod_i \\mathcal{L}_i(r_{*,\\alpha,\\text{obs}}|\\Delta G, \\lambda_C) \\: \\mathcal{L}_i(r_{*,\\delta,\\text{obs}}|\\Delta G, \\lambda_C).\n\\end{equation}\nFinally, we apply Bayes' theorem to deduce the probability of $\\Delta G$ and $\\lambda_C$ themselves:\n\\begin{equation}\nP(\\Delta G, \\lambda_C|d) = \\frac{\\mathcal{L}(d|\\Delta G, \\lambda_C) \\: P(\\Delta G, \\lambda_C)}{P(d)}.\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $P(\\Delta G, \\lambda_C)$ is the prior distribution of the model parameters and $P(d)$ is the constant probability of the data for any $\\{\\Delta G, \\lambda_C\\}$. We take a uniform prior in $\\log_{10}(\\lambda_C\/\\text{Mpc})$ in the range $\\log_{10}(0.4)-\\log_{10}(50)$, and the improper prior $\\Delta G \\ge 0$ flat in $\\Delta G$.\\footnote{We find a Jeffrey's prior to yield almost identical results.} We will find our likelihood function to provide clear upper bounds on $\\Delta G$, obviating the need to impose such a bound a priori.\n\nDeriving the likelihood function directly from the results of the Monte Carlo realisations in this way removes the need to assume a particular functional form for it. This reduces bias in the inference, and we have checked explicitly that our method accurately reconstructs $\\Delta G\/G_N$ when mock data generated with a particular value is fed in (Sec.~\\ref{sec:valid}). Since several of the most important input probability distributions in Table~\\ref{tab:params} are non-Gaussian, we find that assuming the overall likelihood to be Gaussian (i.e. using the mean and standard deviation of the $N_\\text{MC}$ predicted $r_{*,\\alpha}$ and $r_{*,\\delta}$ values rather than the full histogrammed distribution) biases inference of a known input $\\Delta G\/G_N$ by a factor of $\\sim2$.\n\n\n\\subsection{Convergence and consistency tests}\n\\label{sec:convergence}\n\nWe have taken 10 realisations of the BORG smooth density field and 200 of the AM galaxy--halo connection. We verify that these numbers are sufficient to fully propagate these probability distributions into the predicted signal by directly investigating the impact of changing them. While with fewer realisations the spread in $r_{*,\\alpha}$ and $r_{*,\\delta}$ in the signal templates rises with the number of realisations, indicating additional uncertainty in the marginalisation, this effect levels off near the values chosen. Using a larger number of realisations would not therefore appreciably impact the results. We have also checked that using a different set of 10 smooth density fields and 200 AM galaxy--halo connections does not alter any of our conclusions.\n\nSimilarly, we have used a finite number of Monte Carlo draws from the model to estimate the likelihood function. With $N_\\text{MC} \\lesssim 1000$, repetitions of the entire procedure yield constraints on $\\Delta G\/G_N$ and $\\lambda_C$ (Sec.~\\ref{sec:results}) that differ at the $\\gtrsim 20$\\% level. That this is not true with $\\gtrsim 1000$ realisations indicates that in this case the probability distributions of the input parameters of Table~\\ref{tab:params} have been thoroughly sampled and their uncertainties fully marginalised over in the final constraints. We check also that varying our estimates of $\\Phi_\\text{in}$, $M_\\text{vir}$, $c$, $\\Sigma_D^0$, $M_*$, $R_\\text{eff}$ and $R_\\text{d,gas}$ within a factor of $2$ does not significantly affect the results; this change is subdominant not only to the measurement uncertainties, but also to the other theoretical uncertainties deriving from the smooth density field, galaxy--halo connection and location of low-mass halos. (The \\emph{scatter} in $\\Sigma_D^0$ is however important; see Sec.~\\ref{sec:systematics}.)\n\nWe check that our inference is not driven by potential outliers by excising up to 10\\% of points with the most extreme values of $\\langle r_{*,\\alpha} \\rangle$, $\\langle r_{*,\\delta} \\rangle$, $r_{*,\\alpha,\\text{obs}}$ or $r_{*,\\delta,\\text{obs}}$, where angle brackets denote a modal average over the $N_\\text{MC}$ model realisations. This has little impact on the results. In Sec.~\\ref{sec:valid} we will show explicitly that jackknife or bootstrap resamples of the \\textit{Alfalfa} dataset behave similarly.\n\nFinally, we check the convergence of our MCMC chains (run with the affine-invariant Python sampler \\textsc{emcee}) by visual inspection and by means of the Gelman-Rubin statistic. The low dimensionality of the inference combined with the relatively simple form of the likelihood function and unimodality of the posteriors makes exploring the parameter space relatively easy. With 10 walkers, we find 300 burn-in steps to suffice for 1D inference ($\\Delta G\/G_N$ at fixed $\\lambda_C$), and 600 burn-in steps to suffice for 2D inference (both $\\Delta G\/G_N$ and $\\lambda_C$).\n\nWe caution that errors in the probability distributions of the model parameters (including the implicit choice of delta-function priors for parameters which should in reality have some uncertainty) may lead to systematic error. We discuss this further in Sec.~\\ref{sec:systematics}.\n\n\n\\section{Results}\n\\label{sec:results}\n\n\\subsection{Comparison of observed and predicted signal}\n\\label{sec:correlations}\n\nTo begin our investigation of the presence of a fifth-force signal in the \\textit{Alfalfa} data, we show in Fig.~\\ref{fig:1a} (red) the distribution of the predicted values of $\\langle r_* \\rangle = \\langle (r_{*,\\alpha}^2 + r_{*,\\delta}^2)^{1\/2} \\rangle$ for fiducial model parameters $\\Delta G\/G_N=1$ and $\\lambda_C=5$ Mpc. For each galaxy this is the mode of the binned distribution of the $N_\\text{MC}$ model realisations, i.e. $\\langle r_* \\rangle \\equiv r_0 + j_0 \\Delta r$ where $j_0$ maximises $P_j$. For comparison, we show in green the case in which screening is switched off. This is tantamount to setting $|\\Phi_c| \\rightarrow \\infty$, implying $f=1$ for all \\textit{Alfalfa} galaxies and that all matter within $\\lambda_C$ of each test point is fully unscreened. Thus any pair of masses within that separation interact with a fifth force, leading to an enhanced signal. We show the analogous distribution for the real data in Fig.~\\ref{fig:1b}. In Fig.~\\ref{fig:1c} we show the uncertainty on the predicted $r_*$, defined as the minimal width enclosing 68\\% of the model realisations. As in Fig.~\\ref{fig:1a} we show the results both with and without screening. Fig. ~\\ref{fig:1d} shows the distribution of uncertainties $\\theta_i$ in the HI centroids in the real data, assigned by the fiducial method.\n\nFig.~\\ref{fig:2a} shows the correlation of $\\langle r_* \\rangle$ with $\\Phi$. The green points are for the case in which screening is switched off, the red points for when it is included -- with the signal of screened ($f<0.5$) galaxies set to 0 -- and the blue points as the red except without the $f<0.5$ points being lowered. The black dashed line shows the screening threshold $\\Phi_c$ for this choice of $\\lambda_C$, and the median errorbars in both directions, enclosing 68\\% of the model realisations, are shown in the top left. Fig.~\\ref{fig:2b} shows the analogous correlation with $a_5$ with identical colour scheme, and Figs.~\\ref{fig:2c} and~\\ref{fig:2d} show the corresponding correlations for the real data. In Figs.~\\ref{fig:3a} and~\\ref{fig:3b} we plot the RA and DEC components of the observed and predicted signals directly against each other.\n\nWe draw four inferences at this stage:\n\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\n\\item{} For this choice of model parameters, the predicted signals are typically $\\mathcal{O}(1)$ kpc while the observed ones are $\\mathcal{O}(10)$ kpc with a narrower distribution. This reflects the strength of the restoring force on the stellar centroid due to its offset from the halo centre (derived from the central density in Eq.~\\ref{eq:M(r)}), on the one hand, and the relatively large observational uncertainties in the HI centroid position on the other. This indicates that were the observed $r_*$ values due entirely to a fifth force, the required $\\Delta G\/G_N$ would be $\\mathcal{O}(10)$. If competitive constraints are to be placed on $\\Delta G$ with this signal, therefore, it must primarily be by means of the correlation of the relative directions and magnitudes of $\\vec{r}_*$ and $\\vec{a}_5$ across the galaxy sample. Assuming $\\Delta G\/G_N \\lesssim 1$, modified gravity can account for at most $\\sim10\\%$ of the HI-OC offset.\n\n\\item{} For $\\Delta G\/G_N=1$, the uncertainty on the predicted signal (width of the likelihood function) is typically $\\sim 10^{-2}-10^{-1}$ kpc, while that of the observations is again $\\mathcal{O}(10)$ kpc. As these two terms contribute equally to the likelihood in Eq.~\\ref{eq:L7}, this implies that the strength of the constraints we set in Sec.~\\ref{sec:constraints} is determined predominantly by the precision $\\theta$ with which the HI centroid of the \\textit{Alfalfa} galaxies is located. As the width of the likelihood function scales with $\\Delta G$ (Eq.~\\ref{eq:L7}), this is even more pronounced at the small $\\Delta G\/G_N$ values ($\\mathcal{O}(10^{-2})$) of interest there.\n\n\\item{} Both $\\langle r_* \\rangle$ and $\\sigma(r_*)$ are slightly larger for the unscreened than screened model. This is because $\\vec{a}_5$ is larger in the unscreened case due to contributions from additional masses in the vicinity of a given test point. Note however that this does not take into account the fact that in the model with screening the test galaxies themselves may be screened and hence have a predicted $r_*$ of 0 (the results here are only for the unscreened fraction). In terms of our inference this will prove to be the most significant difference between the two models.\n\n\\item{} By construction $\\langle r_* \\rangle$ shows clear and characteristic dependence on $\\Phi$ and $a_5$. The predicted signal is proportional to $a_5$ by Eq.~\\ref{eq:rstar}, generating a positive correlation whether or not screening is included. Without screening, the positive correlation between $|\\Phi|$ and $a_5$ (which are sourced by the same mass distribution) simply induces a positive correlation also between $r_*$ and $|\\Phi|$. The introduction of screening has two effects. First, some source masses surrounding test galaxies in high-density regions become screened and hence no longer contribute to $\\vec{a}_5$, causing the predicted signal to drop: this is the difference between the blue and green points at $|\\Phi|>|\\Phi_c|$ in Fig.~\\ref{fig:2a}. That this offset is small indicates that in this regime $\\Phi$ is set mostly by the test galaxies' own masses rather than their environment, so that most surrounding mass is unscreened and hence contributes to $a_5$ and $r_*$ even when screening is included. Second, test galaxies with $|\\Phi|>|\\Phi_c|$ become themselves screened, causing their predicted signal to fall to 0 (red). These galaxies may span the entire range of $a_5$ (Fig.~\\ref{fig:2b}), although are more likely to be found at higher values; the largest predicted signals in the case with screening therefore tend to be produced in galaxies very close to being screened. On the contrary, $r_{*,\\text{obs}}$ shows no apparent correlation with $\\Phi$ or $a_5$. This again implies that the greater part of the observed signal must be of non-fifth-force origin.\n\n\\end{enumerate}\n\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n  \\subfigure[]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.48\\textwidth]{fig1a}\n    \\label{fig:1a}\n  }\n  \\subfigure[]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.48\\textwidth]{fig1b}\n    \\label{fig:1b}\n  }\n  \\subfigure[]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.48\\textwidth]{fig1c}\n    \\label{fig:1c}\n  }\n  \\subfigure[]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.48\\textwidth]{fig1d}\n    \\label{fig:1d}\n  }\n  \\caption{Histograms of the expectation (upper) and uncertainty (lower) of the fifth-force predicted (left) and observed (right) gas--star offset $r_*$ over all \\textit{Alfalfa} galaxies. For the fifth-force prediction we take the mode of the 1000 Monte Carlo realisations for each galaxy of the screened model with $\\lambda_C = 5$ Mpc and $\\Delta G\/G_N = 1$, given 10 bins for both the RA and DEC components ($r_{*,\\alpha}$ and $r_{*,\\delta}$) between their minimum and maximum values. The uncertainty is the minimal width enclosing $68\\%$ of the realisations. For the observed signal the uncertainty is assigned using the fiducial method of Sec.~\\ref{sec:uncertainties}. $r_{*,\\text{obs}}$ is typically several times larger than $\\langle r_* \\rangle$, and the corresponding uncertainty two orders of magnitude larger, even for the relatively extreme case in which the fifth force is as strong as gravity ($\\Delta G = G_N$). The majority of the signal must therefore be due to non-fifth-force effects.}\n  \\label{fig:hists}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n  \\subfigure[Predicted $r_*-\\Phi$]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.48\\textwidth]{fig2a}\n    \\label{fig:2a}\n  }\n  \\subfigure[Predicted $r_*-a_5$]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.48\\textwidth]{fig2b}\n    \\label{fig:2b}\n  }\n  \\subfigure[Observed $r_*-\\Phi$]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.48\\textwidth]{fig2c}\n    \\label{fig:2c}\n  }\n  \\subfigure[Observed $r_*-a_5$]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.48\\textwidth]{fig2d}\n    \\label{fig:2d}\n  }\n  \\caption{Correlations of predicted (upper) and observed (lower) signal with Newtonian potential $\\Phi$ (left) and magnitude of fifth-force acceleration $a_5$ (right). The prediction is calculated as in Fig.~\\ref{fig:hists}, again for the case $\\lambda_C = 5$ Mpc, $\\Delta G\/G_N=1$, and $\\langle \\Phi \\rangle$ and $\\langle a_5 \\rangle$ are the modal averages over the 1000 Monte Carlo model realisations. In the top row, the red points are for the full chameleon- or symmetron-screened model, the blue points as the red except without the $r_*$ values of screened galaxies set to 0, and the green points show the case where screening is entirely switched off. The black dashed line shows the threshold $|\\Phi_c|$, above which galaxies are screened. The median sizes of the errorbars in the four directions -- minimal 68\\% bounds for the prediction, $1\\sigma$ for the observations -- are shown by the red crosses in the top left corners (the uncertainties in $\\langle r_* \\rangle$ are the same size as the red point). While the predictions show a clear cutoff in $r_*$ for $|\\Phi|>|\\Phi_c|$ and a positive correlation with $a_5$ (Eq.~\\ref{eq:rstar}), this is not apparent in the observations.}\n  \\label{fig:Va_corr}  \n\\end{figure*}\n\nThese estimations of fifth-force effect are relatively coarse. A precise quantitative determination of the preference of the data for $\\Delta G > 0$ -- and of the constraints on $\\Delta G$ and $\\lambda_C$ that it implies -- requires the full likelihood formalism of Sec.~\\ref{sec:method}. It is to this that we now turn.\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n  \\subfigure[RA projection]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.48\\textwidth]{fig3a}\n    \\label{fig:3a}\n  }\n  \\subfigure[DEC projection]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.48\\textwidth]{fig3b}\n    \\label{fig:3b}\n  }\n  \\caption{Correlation of the observed and predicted components of $r_*$ in the RA ($r_{*,\\alpha}$, left) and DEC ($r_{*,\\delta}$, right) directions, with the predicted signal again calculated as in Fig.~\\ref{fig:hists} and errorbars as in Fig.~\\ref{fig:Va_corr}.}\n  \\label{fig:radec_corr}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\n\\subsection{Constraints on $\\Delta G$ and $\\lambda_C$}\n\\label{sec:constraints}\n\n\\subsubsection{Effect of noise model}\n\\label{sec:uncertainty_model}\n\nFrom Sec.~\\ref{sec:correlations} it is clear that for any reasonable value of $\\Delta G\/G_N$ modified gravity accounts for at most a small fraction of the total gas--star offset, justifying the fiducial method of Sec.~\\ref{sec:uncertainties} for setting the measurement uncertainties $\\theta_i$. This ought to manifest in an agreement between the results of that model and those of the others in that section where $\\theta$ is parametrised and fitted for. Here we show this explicitly for the screened model with $\\lambda_C = 1.8$ Mpc.\\footnote{We focus on this value of $\\lambda_C$ because it maximises the overall likelihood, as will be shown in Sec.~\\ref{sec:screening}.} Fig.~\\ref{fig:corner} shows the posteriors of $\\{\\Delta G\/G_N, \\bar{\\theta}\\}$ in the case where $\\theta = \\bar{\\theta}$ arcsec is a free parameter, and $\\{\\Delta G\/G_N, A, B\\}$ and $\\{\\Delta G\/G_N, C, D, E, F\\}$ for the models of Eqs.\\ref{eq:unc_shorter} and~\\ref{eq:unc_short2} respectively. These are to be compared with Fig.~\\ref{fig:dG3}, which shows the $\\Delta G\/G_N$ posterior for the fiducial noise model in which $\\theta$ is fixed a priori to equal the standard deviation of $r_{*,\\text{obs}}$ in bins of $\\log_{10}(s)$. The same solution for $\\Delta G\/G_N$ is picked out in each case, and in Fig.~\\ref{fig:corner1} it is apparent that the maximum-likelihood $\\bar{\\theta}$ is close to the average scatter in $r_{*,\\text{obs}}$ across the entire dataset (18 arcsec). The model of Eq.~\\ref{eq:unc_short2} picks out almost the same $\\theta(s)$ as \\cite{Haynes} eq. 1. We have checked that these results hold at other $\\lambda_C$ values also. For simplicity we therefore restrict ourselves from now on to the fiducial model in which $\\theta$ is fixed from the outset.\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n  \\subfigure[]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.315\\textwidth]{Corner_1}\n    \\label{fig:corner1}\n  }\n  \\subfigure[]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.315\\textwidth]{Corner_2}\n    \\label{fig:corner2}\n  }\n  \\subfigure[]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.315\\textwidth]{Corner_3}\n    \\label{fig:corner3}\n  }\n  \\caption{For the screened model with $\\lambda_C = 1.8$ Mpc, posteriors of $\\Delta G\/G_N$ and additional parameters specifying the angular width $\\theta_i$ of the Gaussian, non-fifth-force component of the likelihood function for galaxy $i$. In Fig.~\\ref{fig:corner1}, $\\theta_i = \\bar{\\theta}$ arcsec for all galaxies. In Figs.~\\ref{fig:corner2} and~\\ref{fig:corner3} $\\theta_i$ is determined as a function of signal to noise ratio $s$ of the detection according to Eqs. \\ref{eq:unc_shorter} and~\\ref{eq:unc_short2} respectively. In each case the chains converge to the same solution for $\\Delta G\/G_N$ as when $\\theta$ is set a priori to the standard deviation of the measured $r_*$ in bins of $\\log_{10}(s)$ (Fig.~\\ref{fig:dG3}), indicating that our inference is robust to variations in the noise model.}\n  \\label{fig:corner}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\centering\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.5\\textwidth]{deltaG_3_int_1p0_comp}\n  \\caption{Posterior of $\\Delta G\/G_N$ for $\\lambda_C = 1.8$ Mpc under the fiducial noise model, with and without screening.}\n  \\label{fig:dG3}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\subsubsection{1D inference without screening}\n\\label{sec:noscreening}\n\nFor our first main analysis we switch screening off, fix $\\lambda_C$ at one of its 20 values between 400 kpc and 50 Mpc and constrain $\\Delta G$ alone. We find the $\\Delta G\/G_N$ posterior to be peaked at or near $0$ for all $\\lambda_C$, indicating no significant deviation from GR. We show in green the $1\\sigma$ upper limit on $\\Delta G\/G_N$ as a function of $\\lambda_C$ in Fig.~\\ref{fig:constraint}, three example posteriors in Fig.~\\ref{fig:6}, and the maximum increase in log-likelihood over the case $\\Delta G=0$ in Fig.~\\ref{fig:like}. As may be expected, the constraints are tighter for larger $\\lambda_C$: $\\Delta G\/G_N \\lesssim 10^{-4}$ $(1\\sigma)$ for $\\lambda_C=400$ kpc, and $\\lesssim$ few$\\times10^{-3}$ for $\\lambda_C=50$ Mpc. This is because there are more source masses within a larger $\\lambda_C$, leading to an enhanced $a_5$ and hence predicted $r_*$, and therefore requiring $\\Delta G\/G_N$ to be smaller for consistency with the fixed observations. Assuming there is indeed no preference for $\\Delta G>0$ in this model, the bumps in the green lines of Figs.~\\ref{fig:constraint} and~\\ref{fig:like} indicate the noise level of our experiment.\n\nA limit of particular interest for the case without screening is $\\lambda_C \\rightarrow \\infty$, which corresponds to a light scalar field as found for example in Brans--Dicke theory. Extrapolating our constraints to high $\\lambda_C$, our analysis may be expected to require $\\Delta G\/G_N \\lesssim 10^{-4}$ in this case, which corresponds to $\\omega \\gtrsim 500$ in Brans--Dicke. Although not competitive with Solar System results \\cite{Alsing}, this constraint derives from a very different gravitational regime. Were $f(R)$ gravity (which requires $\\Delta G\/G_N = 1\/3$) not to employ screening, it would be ruled out to $1\\sigma$ across our parameter space, requiring $f_{R0} < 10^{-8}$.\n\nIt is important to remember, however, that the physical interpretation of these no-screening results is complicated by the fact that the signal itself relies on a difference between the fifth-force interactions of stars and gas, which most naturally arises when the former are screened and the latter not. Absent screening entirely, the constraints here would require the scalar field simply to couple to the gas and dark matter but not the stars. Our analysis can however be readily extended to the case of arbitrary differential coupling to galaxy mass components. In that case $\\vec{a}_5$ in Eq.~\\ref{eq:rstar} must be multiplied by the difference in the relative coupling coefficient of the stars and gas, and the constraints on $\\Delta G\/G_N$ are simply weakened by that factor.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\centering\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.5\\textwidth]{Limits_FINAL_4}\n  \\caption{$1\\sigma$ upper limit on $\\Delta G\/G_N$ $(\\Delta G_{1\\sigma}$), as a function of $\\lambda_C$, using the fiducial uncertainties for the model without screening (green) and the conservative uncertainties for the model with screening (red). Switching to the conservative uncertainties makes only a small ($\\sim0.1$ dex) difference in the unscreened case. The results with screening are weaker at small $\\lambda_C$ first because a sizeable fraction of the test galaxies are screened, and hence have predicted $r_*=0$, and second because fewer neighbouring masses contribute to $\\vec{a}_5$.}\n  \\label{fig:constraint}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n  \\subfigure[$\\lambda_C = 500$ kpc]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.3\\textwidth]{deltaG_0_1p0_comp}\n    \\label{fig:6a}\n  }\n  \\subfigure[$\\lambda_C = 5$ Mpc]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.3\\textwidth]{deltaG_5_int_1p0_comp}\n    \\label{fig:6b}\n  }\n  \\subfigure[$\\lambda_C = 50$ Mpc]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.3\\textwidth]{deltaG_9_1p0_comp}\n    \\label{fig:6c}\n  }\n  \\caption{Posteriors on $\\Delta G\/G_N$ for three values of $\\lambda_C$ under the fiducial noise model, with and without screening. In Fig.~\\ref{fig:6a}, the posterior for the model without screening is at very small $\\Delta G\/G_N$. For $\\lambda_C \\lesssim 3$ Mpc a non-zero $\\Delta G$ is statistically preferred, but only when screening is included.}\n  \\label{fig:6}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n  \\subfigure[]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.48\\textwidth]{Like_FINAL_log}\n    \\label{fig:like_like}\n  }\n  \\subfigure[]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.48\\textwidth]{Like_dG_FINAL_log}\n    \\label{fig:like_dg}\n  }\n  \\caption{\\textit{Left:} maximum increase in log-likelihood over the case $\\Delta G=0$, for any $\\Delta G\/G_N$, as a function of $\\lambda_C$ in the range $0.4-50$ Mpc. We use the fiducial uncertainties and show the results both with (red) and without (green) screening. The model without screening achieves maximum log-likelihood values at most a few larger than GR, which we believe to indicate the noise level of our inference. The model with screening however achieves a maximum increase of $16$ for $\\lambda_C = 1.8$ Mpc, with a coherent trend over similar models differing only minorly in fifth-force range. \\textit{Right}: best-fit $\\Delta G\/G_N$ value corresponding to the maximum-likelihood point at each $\\lambda_C$. Larger $\\Delta G\/G_N$ values are inferred at smaller $\\lambda_C$ where the radius is lower within which mass contributes to the fifth force, and hence $\\vec{a}_5$ and the predicted $r_*$ are smaller.}  \n  \\label{fig:like}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\n\\subsubsection{1D inference with screening}\n\\label{sec:screening}\n\nWith screening switched on, $\\lambda_C$ values in the range $\\sim0.4-4$ Mpc prefer $\\Delta G>0$. We show in red in Fig.~\\ref{fig:6} a range of $\\Delta G\/G_N$ posteriors, and in Figs.~\\ref{fig:like_like} and~\\ref{fig:like_dg} the maximum log-likelihood increase over GR and best-fit $\\Delta G\/G_N$ values respectively as a function of $\\lambda_C$. The preference for a screened fifth force reflects a typically positive correlation between $\\vec{a}_5$ and $\\vec{r}_{*,\\text{obs}}$. In particular, the data would seem to favour $\\Delta G\/G_N \\sim \\mathcal{O}(10^{-2}-10^{-1})$ at $\\lambda_C \\sim 1$ Mpc ($f_{R0}, \\Phi_c \\approx 10^{-7}$), with the maximum-likelihood value $\\lambda_C = 1.8$ Mpc, $\\Delta G\/G_N = 0.025$ (also shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:dG3}). This corresponds to $|\\Phi_c| = 4.7 \\times 10^{-7}$ by Eq.~\\ref{eq:f(R)3}, and is not ruled out by any previous analysis. If such a force were realised in nature, neighbouring $\\lambda_C$ values would also be expected to be preferred over GR simply because for a given galaxy $\\vec{a}_5$ is a continuous function of $\\lambda_C$, and hence the predicted $r_*$ values over nearby $\\lambda_C$s are correlated. This is the qualitative trend exhibited in Fig.~\\ref{fig:like_like}; in Sec.~\\ref{sec:valid} we show this trend to be quantitatively as expected also. That no model without screening achieves a meaningful increase in likelihood over GR indicates both that our noise model is robust and that the phenomenon we are observing depends crucially on the environment- and internal structure-dependence of screening. This seems hard to mock up by other means. We test our possible detection in detail in following sections.\n\nThe results for the conservative measurement uncertainties (twice fiducial) are shown as the red curve in Fig.~\\ref{fig:constraint}. That the $\\Delta G\/G_N$ constraint is degraded when screening is introduced reflects the fact that when source objects are screened they contribute neither to $a_5$ nor therefore to $r_*$, while when test objects are screened they automatically receive $r_*=0$. The weaker the predicted signal at fixed $\\Delta G$, the larger $\\Delta G$ may be before it becomes statistically discrepant with the observations. The effect of screening is greater when $|\\Phi_c|$ is lower, which by Eq.~\\ref{eq:f(R)3} is at lower $\\lambda_C$. Conversely, for $\\lambda_C \\gtrsim 10$ Mpc the majority of source and test points are unscreened in any case, so removing screening has little effect. Note that for $\\Delta G\/G_N = 1\/3$, as in $f(R)$, our conservative error choice requires $\\lambda_C \\lesssim 500$ kpc, which corresponds to $f_{R0} \\lesssim 2 \\times 10^{-8}$.\n\n\n\\subsubsection{2D inference with screening}\n\\label{sec:2D}\n\nFinally, we perform the full 2D inference for both $\\Delta G$ and $\\lambda_C$ in the presence of screening. Under the fiducial noise model the posterior simply picks out the maximum-likelihood solution $\\lambda_C = 1.8$ Mpc, with corresponding $\\Delta G\/G_N = 0.025 \\pm 0.003$ (Figs.~\\ref{fig:2D_dG}--\\ref{fig:2D_comb}). Under the conservative uncertainties (Figs.~\\ref{fig:2D_dG_2SNR}--\\ref{fig:2D_comb_2SNR}) the preference for low $\\lambda_C$ is simply a volume effect: by allowing $\\Delta G\/G_N$ to span a wider range, a smaller $\\lambda_C$ boosts the contribution from the prior. Even with these artificially inflated uncertainties, however, we are able to place the strong constraint $\\Delta G\/G_N < 0.95$ ($3\\sigma$) for any $\\lambda_C$ in the range $0.4-50$ Mpc.\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n  \\subfigure[Fiducial]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.315\\textwidth]{2D_deltaG_1p0}\n    \\label{fig:2D_dG}\n  }\n  \\subfigure[Fiducial]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.315\\textwidth]{2D_lambda_1p0}\n    \\label{fig:2D_lambda}\n  }\n  \\subfigure[Fiducial]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.315\\textwidth]{2D_G-lambda_1p0}\n    \\label{fig:2D_comb}\n  }\n  \\subfigure[Conservative]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.315\\textwidth]{2D_deltaG_2SNR_1p0}\n    \\label{fig:2D_dG_2SNR}\n  }\n  \\subfigure[Conservative]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.315\\textwidth]{2D_lambda_2SNR_1p0}\n    \\label{fig:2D_lambda_2SNR}\n  }\n  \\subfigure[Conservative]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.315\\textwidth]{2D_G-lambda_2SNR_1p0}\n    \\label{fig:2D_comb_2SNR}\n  }  \n  \\caption{Posteriors of $\\Delta G\/G_N$ and $\\lambda_C$ for the full 2D inference, using either the fiducial (top) or conservative (bottom) noise model. The left and centre panels show the marginalised constraints while the right panels show the full 2D posteriors. With the fiducial uncertainties the MCMC picks out the maximum-likelihood point of Fig.~\\ref{fig:like_like}, $\\lambda_C = 1.8$ Mpc: as this corresponds to a single bin the posterior of $\\lambda_C$ is flat. With the conservative uncertainties the preference for low $\\lambda_C$ is purely a volume effect arising from the uniform prior, since lower $\\lambda_C$ permits a larger range of $\\Delta G\/G_N$.}\n  \\label{fig:2D}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\\subsection{Validation}\n\\label{sec:valid}\n\nFig.~\\ref{fig:like_like} appears to show a clear preference for $\\Delta G>0$ for $\\lambda_C \\simeq 1-4$ Mpc in the case where screening is included. Here we document the tests we have performed to validate this detection, including the use of mock data with a $\\Delta G\/G_N$ value injected by hand, jackknife and bootstrap resampling, and rotation of the measured displacement on the plane of the sky.\n\n\\subsubsection{Mock data with $\\Delta G\/G_N=0$}\n\nWe begin by generating $100$ mock datasets with $\\Delta G=0$, so that $r_{*,\\text{obs},i,\\alpha\/\\delta} \\sim \\mathcal{N}(0,\\theta_{i,\\alpha\/\\delta})$. By giving the offset a random direction on the plane of the sky we ensure its complete non-correlation with $\\vec{a}_5$ over the sample. We repeat our inference for each mock dataset with the maximum-likelihood model $\\lambda_C=1.8$ Mpc, relaxing the prior $\\Delta G \\ge 0$ and refitting $\\theta_{i,\\alpha\/\\delta}$ from the spread in the $r_{*,\\alpha\/\\delta}$ values in bins of $\\log_{10}(s)$ (Sec.~\\ref{sec:uncertainties}). In each case we calculate the magnitude of the deviation (in $\\sigma$) of the best-fit $\\Delta G\/G_N$ value from 0 by dividing the median of the posterior by the standard deviation. The histogram over all mock data sets is shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:sig_median}. As expected this forms roughly a standard normal distribution, confirming that the offset from $\\Delta G=0$ inferred from the real data -- $6.6\\:\\sigma$ -- would be highly unlikely in the frequentist sense to arise from the noise alone.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\centering\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.5\\textwidth]{MOCK}\n  \\caption{Distribution of deviations of best-fit values of $\\Delta G\/G_N$ from $0$ (median of $\\Delta G\/G_N$ posterior divided by standard deviation) derived by fitting a model with $\\lambda_C = 1.8$ Mpc to mock data sets with $r_{*,\\text{obs},\\alpha\/\\delta}$ randomly scattered around 0 by the uncertainties. This forms a roughly standard normal distribution, as expected for a healthy noise model. By contrast, the deviation for the real data at this $\\lambda_C$ is $6.6\\:\\sigma$, indicating that it is very unlikely to have been generated by a model with noise only.}\n  \\label{fig:sig_median}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsubsection{Mock data with maximum-likelihood $\\Delta G\/G_N$}\n\nNext we generate mock data with a fifth-force signal injected by hand. This provides an independent test of the validity of the fifth-force interpretation by checking for biases in the reconstructed value of $\\Delta G\/G_N$. We generate $250$ mock datasets at the maximum-likelihood point of our analysis -- $\\lambda_C = 1.8 \\: \\text{Mpc}, \\Delta G\/G_N = 0.025$ -- by scattering the expected $r_*$ values\\footnote{As in Sec.~\\ref{sec:correlations}, we take this to be the mode of the 1000 Monte Carlo model realisations in the case that the galaxy is likely unscreened ($f>0.5$), and 0 otherwise. We have checked that using the mean instead does not lead to appreciably different results.} by the fiducial Gaussian noise in bins of $s$. We refit each one with the $\\lambda_C = 1.8$ Mpc model (including recalculation of $\\theta_{i,\\alpha\/\\delta}$, as above), and calculate both the maximum-likelihood $\\Delta G\/G_N$ and the increase in log-likelihood $\\Delta\\log(\\mathcal{L})$ that value achieves over the GR case $\\Delta G=0$. The results are shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:mocks}. We find the reconstructed $\\Delta G\/G_N$ values to be centred around the input value (vertical red line), indicating that our likelihood function picks out a known truth without bias. (We have checked that this holds also for mock data generated by models of different $\\lambda_C$.) The considerable variation between mock data sets is due to the dominance of the random noise.\n\nWe show in Fig.~\\ref{fig:mock_dG-dML} that the $\\Delta\\log(\\mathcal{L})$ values are strongly correlated with best-fit $\\Delta G\/G_N$, in the sense that mock datasets in which a stronger signal is inferred achieve a larger likelihood increase over GR. The recovered $\\Delta\\log(\\mathcal{L})$ values are however a factor $\\sim4$ smaller on average than that in the real data (Fig.~\\ref{fig:mock_dML}). This indicates that the relative contribution of signal and noise to our mocks does not perfectly reflect that in the observations: the mock samples have a relatively \\emph{weaker} signal than \\textit{Alfalfa}. This almost certainly derives from an inadequacy in our noise model, most likely its failure to account for a correlation of the non-fifth-force component of $\\vec{r}_*$ with anything other than $s$. This will need to be improved in the future when better priors on both the HI centroid measurement uncertainty and dependence of $\\vec{r}_*$ on ``galaxy formation'' physics are available. Other factors which may contribute to disagreement in Fig.~\\ref{fig:mock_dML} include an inaccurate $\\Phi_c-\\lambda_C$ relation (Eq.~\\ref{eq:f(R)3} strictly holds only for Hu-Sawicki $f(R)$) and hence to a bias in galaxies' screening fractions as a function of fifth-force range, or to inaccuracies in the galaxy and halo properties input to the model. We discuss these issues further in Sec.~\\ref{sec:discussion}.\n\nWe have checked also that when the inference is repeated using models with a range of $\\lambda_C$ values for the same mock data, the greatest $\\Delta\\log(\\mathcal{L})$ is achieved at the input value $\\lambda_C = 1.8$ Mpc. The peak in $\\Delta\\log(\\mathcal{L})$ is however narrower with $\\lambda_C$ than in the data, so that neighbouring $\\lambda_C$ models have a discrepancy in $\\Delta\\log(\\mathcal{L})$ even greater than a factor of $4$.\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n  \\subfigure[]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.315\\textwidth]{mock_dG}\n    \\label{fig:mock_dG}\n  }\n  \\subfigure[]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.315\\textwidth]{mock_dG-dML}\n    \\label{fig:mock_dG-dML}\n  }  \n  \\subfigure[]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.315\\textwidth]{mock_dML}\n    \\label{fig:mock_dML}\n  }  \n  \\caption{Results of refitting a screened model with $\\lambda_C = 1.8$ Mpc to $250$ mock data generated by that model, differing only in noise under the fiducial noise model. Fig.~\\ref{fig:mock_dG} compares the distribution of best-fit $\\Delta G\/G_N$ values to the input value shown by the red line ($0.025$), demonstrating negligible bias. Fig.~\\ref{fig:mock_dG-dML} shows that the increase in log-likelihood over the case $\\Delta G=0$ is strongly correlated with the $\\Delta G\/G_N$ value inferred. This increase is however considerably smaller than that achieved in the real data (red line in Fig.~\\ref{fig:mock_dML}), indicating that the model is not fully sufficient to account for the observations.}\n  \\label{fig:mocks}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\n\\subsubsection{Bootstrap and jackknife resampling}\n\nNext we repeat our analysis with $350$ bootstrap- or jackknife-resampled mock datasets drawn from the $\\textit{Alfalfa}$ data. For the jackknife case we retain a random $70\\%$ of the galaxies. Again for the model with $\\lambda_C=1.8$ Mpc, we calculate the discrepancy in $\\sigma$ between the $\\Delta G\/G_N$ posterior and $\\Delta G=0$, and plot the resulting histograms, along with the corresponding maximum-likelihood $\\Delta G\/G_N$ values, in Fig.~\\ref{fig:boot_jack}. The vertical red lines indicate the results in the full \\textit{Alfalfa} sample. On the whole the mock datasets have a smaller significance due to the reduced statistics, especially in the jackknife case where the sample size is lower. Nevertheless, the majority of resamples in both cases have a discrepancy with $\\Delta G=0$ of $>3\\sigma$ and a best-fit $\\Delta G\/G_N$ value close to $0.025$, indicating that our conclusions do not depend sensitively on peculiar features of the \\textit{Alfalfa} sample.\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n  \\subfigure[Bootstrap $\\sigma$]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.315\\textwidth]{BOOT_2}\n    \\label{fig:boot}\n  }\n  \\subfigure[Jackknife $\\sigma$]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.315\\textwidth]{JACK_2}\n    \\label{fig:jack}\n  }\n  \\subfigure[Maximum-likelihood $\\Delta G\/G_N$]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.315\\textwidth]{JackBoot_dG}\n    \\label{fig:jackboot_dG}\n  }\n  \\caption{\\textit{Left and centre:} Distributions of deviations as in Fig.~\\ref{fig:sig_median} (for the model with $\\lambda_C = 1.8$ Mpc), but for datasets derived by bootstrap- or jackknife-resampling the \\textit{Alfalfa} sample. Each jackknife dataset contains $70$\\% of the full sample, and the vertical red lines show the deviation in the real data ($6.6\\sigma$). Although on the whole both sets imply $\\Delta G>0$ with lower significance than the full dataset due to reduced statistics, the fact that the majority of resamples achieve a $\\gtrsim3\\sigma$ detection indicates that the preference for a screened fifth force is not a peculiar property of the \\textit{Alfalfa} sample. \\textit{Right:} Maximum-likelihood $\\Delta G\/G_N$ values inferred from the bootstrap and jackknife resamples. These cluster around the \\textit{Alfalfa} result, shown as the vertical red line.}\n  \\label{fig:boot_jack}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\\subsubsection{Rotation of the signal}\n\nFinally, we repeat the analysis with the predicted HI-OC displacements (i.e. direction of $\\vec{a}_5$) rotated through $90\\degree$ or $180\\degree$ on the plane of the sky. This is to check that the directions of the observed and predicted signal are indeed positively correlated, as must be the case if part of the signal has a fifth-force origin. The inference of $\\Delta G>0$ should be weakened when one of the vectors is turned through $90\\degree$, and eliminated when turned through $180\\degree$. Fig.~\\ref{fig:rotation} shows that this is indeed the case (c.f. the unrotated result in Fig.~\\ref{fig:dG3}). We have checked that similar results hold for different $\\lambda_C$.\n\n\\vspace{5mm}\n\n\\noindent In a companion piece we present a similar detection from a largely independent dataset by analysing warps in galactic disks~\\citep{Desmond_warp}.\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n  \\subfigure[$90\\degree$ rotation clockwise]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.315\\textwidth]{deltaG_3_int_1p0_90t}\n    \\label{fig:90}\n  }\n  \\subfigure[$90\\degree$ rotation anticlockwise]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.315\\textwidth]{deltaG_3_int_1p0_90t2}\n    \\label{fig:90_2}\n  }  \n  \\subfigure[$180\\degree$ rotation]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.315\\textwidth]{deltaG_3_int_1p0_180}\n    \\label{fig:180}\n  }  \n  \\caption{$\\Delta G\/G_N$ posteriors at $\\lambda_C = 1.8$ Mpc for the case in which the predicted $\\vec{r}_*$ of each galaxy is turned through $90\\degree$ in either direction on the plane of the sky (Figs.~\\ref{fig:90} and~\\ref{fig:90_2}), or $180\\degree$ (Fig.~\\ref{fig:180}). In the first and third cases the preference for $\\Delta G\/G_N>0$ is eliminated, indicating no or anti-alignment of the measured $\\vec{r}_*$ with the rotated $\\vec{a}_5$. In the second a residual correlation remains, although weaker than the unrotated case as evidenced by the lower maximum-likelihood $\\Delta G\/G_N$ and tail towards small values relative to Fig.~\\ref{fig:dG3}. This demonstrates that the observed $\\vec{r}_*$ points on the whole in the direction of $\\vec{a}_5$.}\n  \\label{fig:rotation}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\n\\subsection{Forecasting constraints from future surveys}\n\\label{sec:forecast}\n\nWe now investigate the potential of our constraints for further improvement in the future, focusing solely on the conservative error choice which yields only only upper bounds on $\\Delta G\/G_N$. To begin, we recall from Sec.~\\ref{sec:correlations} (Fig.~\\ref{fig:hists}) that the uncertainties in the measured $\\vec{r}_*$ are larger by over two orders of magnitude on average than the theoretical uncertainties due to the potential and acceleration fields and test galaxy structure. This implies that the best way to strengthen the constraints is to improve the HI survey; only once the HI uncertainties have been greatly reduced will significant further improvement come from increasing the precision of $\\Phi$, $\\vec{a}_5$ and $M(<r_*)$.\n\nOur constraint on fifth-force strength $\\Delta G\/G_N$ therefore depends principally on two parameters, the angular uncertainties $\\theta_i$ in the gas--star offsets and the number $N_\\text{gal}$ of galaxies observed. While the latter is a property purely of the galaxy survey, the former encapsulates not only the measurement uncertainty in the HI centroid position but also the contribution to the likelihood from non-fifth-force physics. The relative importance of these is not currently known: it may be determined either by increasing the HI resolution -- if the HI-OC offset scales in the same way it derives predominantly from measurement uncertainty -- or by estimating the magnitude of offset that various phenomena in $\\Lambda$CDM may be expected to induce. We intend to pursue the second avenue in future work by means of hydrodynamical simulations. In this section, however, we adopt the most optimistic assumption that the entire HI-OC offset is due to measurement uncertainty and may therefore be arbitrarily reduced by future surveys. In practice constraints will be weaker than this due to underestimation of the scatter in HI-OC offset for given HI spatial resolution.\n\nWe calculate the $\\Delta G\/G_N$ constraint as a function of $\\theta_i$ and $N_\\text{gal}$ by treating them as variables in the generation of mock data sets with $\\Delta G=0$, as described in Sec.~\\ref{sec:valid}. To begin, we multiply the conservative $\\theta_i$ values by a universal scaling factor $10^{-3} < \\Theta < 1$. This implies an average HI uncertainty of $\\langle \\theta \\rangle = 36 \\: \\Theta$ arcsec. Since we only have locations for existing \\textit{Alfalfa} galaxies, we consider the dependence of $\\Delta G$ on $N_\\text{gal}$ for $N_\\text{gal}<10,822 \\equiv N_\\text{Alf}$, the number of galaxies in the \\textit{Alfalfa} dataset. We retain a fraction $10^{-3} < f_N < 1$ of these galaxies, chosen at random, and sample $\\Theta$ and $f_N$ at $8$ logarithmically equally spaced intervals; to forecast the constraints achievable for $N_\\text{gal}>N_\\text{Alf}$ we will extrapolate these results.\n\nFor a given mock dataset specified by $\\Theta$ and $f_N$, we calculate the $1\\sigma$ limit on $\\Delta G\/G_N$ at the fiducial value $\\lambda_C=5$ Mpc. To sample both the noise in the mock data and the specific galaxies retained we repeat this procedure 10 times to find an average $\\Delta G\/G_N$ constraint, $\\Delta G_{1\\sigma}$. We show the result as a contour plot in Fig.~\\ref{fig:contour}, and in Figs.~\\ref{fig:arcsec} and~\\ref{fig:Ngal} we show the variation of $\\Delta G_{1\\sigma}$ with $\\Theta$ and $N_\\text{gal}$ separately (for fixed value of the other parameter) for three example values.\n\nWe find $\\Delta G_{1\\sigma}$ to have approximately power-law dependence on $\\langle \\theta \\rangle$ and $N_\\text{gal}$, and therefore fit to it a function of the form\n\\begin{eqnarray} \\label{eq:fit}\n\\Delta G_{1\\sigma} \\simeq a \\left(\\frac{10^3}{N_\\text{gal}}\\right)^b \\left(\\frac{\\langle \\theta \\rangle}{1 \\ \\rm{arcsec}}\\right)^c,\n\\end{eqnarray}\nfinding best-fit values $\\{a, b, c\\} = \\{8.6 \\times 10^{-4}, 0.91, 1.00\\}$. We show these fits as the solid lines in Fig.~\\ref{fig:forecast}. $\\Delta G_{1\\sigma}$ therefore falls more rapidly with $N_\\text{gal}$ than predicted by the scaling $\\Delta G_{1\\sigma} \\sim 1\/\\sqrt{N_\\text{gal}}$, indicating greater sensitivity to sample size than would apply for the case of $N_\\text{gal}$ random draws from a stochastic model under GR. The dependence on $\\Theta$ in linear. This fit may be used to forecast constraints on $\\Delta G\/G_N$ for any future survey: for example (again subject to the proviso that the entire scatter in HI-OC displacement is due to measurement uncertainty), $\\{\\langle \\theta \\rangle, N_\\text{gal}\\} \\approx \\{10^{-1} \\: \\text{arcsec}, 10^8\\}$, achievable with the `mid' configuration of SKA1 \\cite{SKA0, SKA}, should probe $\\Delta G\/G_N$ to the $10^{-9}$ level. Comparing to figure 4 of~\\cite{Adelberger}, we see that at this stage fifth-force constraints by our method will be comparable to lunar laser ranging and planetary probes at much smaller scales; they will also be competitive with those from proposed Solar System tests such as laser ranging to Phobos and optical networks around the sun~\\cite{Sakstein_proposal}. Even before SKA, its pathfinders APERTIF~\\citep{Apertif} and ASKAP~\\citep{Askap} will provide significant further constraining power over \\textit{Alfalfa}. We caution however that further modelling work will be necessary to extend our gravitational maps to the distance that this $N_\\text{gal}$ requires ($z\\sim0.5$), and potentially to model time-variation in parameters such as $f_{R0}$. Given future datasets with more constraining power it will also be desirable to drop or generalise the constraint of Eq.~\\ref{eq:f(R)3} in order to treat more general cases of screening.\n\nAs we account for the overall statistical impact of sample size but not a systematic shift in gravitational environment or galaxy mass, accuracy of our extrapolated constraints requires the locations and structures of galaxies of lower HI luminosity, observed by future surveys, to be similar on average to those already measured by \\textit{Alfalfa}. As fainter galaxies are less likely to self-screen, and may also tend to live in sparser environments, our forecasts are conservative in this regard.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\centering\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.5\\textwidth]{Contour_log_FINAL}\n  \\caption{Contour plot forecasting the $1\\sigma$ $\\log_{10}(\\Delta G\/G_N)$ constraints obtainable with a dataset of $N_\\text{gal}$ galaxies and average angular HI resolution $\\langle \\theta \\rangle = \\Theta \\times 36$ arcsec, for the screened model with $\\lambda_C = 5$ Mpc. We assume the most optimistic case for the noise, in which the entire non-fifth-force part of the signal derives from measurement uncertainty in the position of the HI centroid.}\n  \\label{fig:contour}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure*}\n  \\subfigure[]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.48\\textwidth]{Contour_arcsec_log_Fit_FINAL}\n    \\label{fig:arcsec}\n  }\n  \\subfigure[]\n  {\n    \\includegraphics[width=0.48\\textwidth]{Contour_Ngal_log_Fit_FINAL}\n    \\label{fig:Ngal}\n  }\n  \\caption{Variation of $1\\sigma$ $\\Delta G\/G_N$ constraint, $\\Delta G_{1\\sigma}$, achievable with a dataset of average angular resolution $\\langle \\theta \\rangle$ and size $N_\\text{gal}$, for fixed values of the other parameter as indicated in the legend. The solid lines show the fits of Eq.~\\ref{eq:fit}.}\n  \\label{fig:forecast}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\n\\section{Discussion}\n\\label{sec:discussion}\n\n\\subsection{Noise model}\n\\label{sec:HI_unc}\n\nThe evidence for a screened fifth force depends crucially on the the non-fifth-force part of the likelihood function, modelled by a Gaussian with angular width $\\theta_i$. This is poorly known a priori. While average values of $\\theta_i$ may be fitted as part of the model, leading to results consistent with our fiducial analysis, correlations with variables other than signal to noise could bias our inference. It is however hard to see how this could eliminate the fifth-force signal we have inferred: this would require that $\\theta_i$ correlate not only with galaxies' environments similarly to $\\vec{a}_5$, but also with their degree of screening (recall that no model without screening achieves an increase in maximum-likelihood over GR) \\emph{and} internal structures in the manner of $\\vec{r}_*$ in Eq.~\\ref{eq:rstar}. Indeed, our fiducial errors are already conservative in setting the signal to noise ratio of the detection of \\emph{any} offset between stars and gas to $\\sim1$, a valuable safeguard against erroneously imputing the signal a modified gravity origin in a framework that neglects more mundane phenomena. No additional effect is therefore necessary to explain the observations: the analysis could easily prefer $\\Delta G=0$ for all $\\lambda_C$. While our conservative error choice is useful for sidestepping the question of $\\theta_i$ and hence achieving robust upper bounds on $\\Delta G\/G_N$, its inadequacy is clear from its severe overprediction of the dispersion of the measured displacements and resultant low overall likelihood.\n\nWe have been forced to derive the measurement uncertainties empirically due to insufficient prior information on the precision of the HI centroid location: it is simply too difficult to propagate uncertainties in the telescope pointing, data reduction pipeline and HI-optical cross-correlation, which themselves are poorly known. Future HI surveys, such as those afforded by interferometric observatories such as SKA, may provide better control of these. However, even if information of this nature cannot be used to set informative priors on the HI uncertainties, the increased precision in the centroiding will greatly improve the strength of the test performed here. As demonstrated in Sec.~\\ref{sec:forecast}, simply repeating our analysis on an SKA-class sample would probe $\\Delta G\/G_N$ to $\\mathcal{O}(10^{-9})$ for $\\lambda_C \\sim \\mathcal{O}(1-10 \\: \\text{Mpc})$, easily sufficient to confirm or rule out our putative detection regardless of the precise manner in which uncertainties are modelled.\n\n\n\\subsection{Galaxy formation physics and other systematics}\n\\label{sec:systematics}\n\nWe have been careful to incorporate known uncertainties in the input parameters of our model into probability distributions for those parameters, and hence marginalise over them in the prediction of $\\vec{r}_*$. Provided the true parameter values are contained within the priors, these uncertainties cannot cause systematic error in our inference but will simply inflate our posteriors and lead to conservative bounds. Nevertheless, there remain a number of inputs, some of them implicit, whose true values may not lie within our priors. We discuss these here in roughly decreasing order of importance.\n\nOur model assumes that the true $r_{*,\\alpha}$ and $r_{*,\\delta}$ values (after accounting for noise) arise purely from fifth-force effects. It is however highly likely that these could be non-zero even in the case $\\Delta G=0$. This may arise from a number of baryonic processes within a galaxy that affect gas and stars differently, for example hydrodynamical drag, ram pressure and the transfer of energy and momentum by stellar feedback. A realistic model must therefore contain a contingent for $r_* \\ne 0$ when $\\Delta G=0$ by introducing further parameters describing these baryonic effects. This is present to first order in our model, as the principal component of the likelihood function is simply a Gaussian in $r_{*,\\alpha}$ and $r_{*\\delta}$ with a width $\\theta$ that correlates with the signal to noise ratio $s$ of a galaxy's detection (Sec.~\\ref{sec:uncertainties}). Absent modified gravity, larger HI-optical offsets are likely to be caused by baryonic physics, which a larger uncertainty $\\theta$ would effectively absorb: in each bin of $s$ the baryonic contribution to the signal adds to the measurement uncertainty in quadrature. The information we glean on modified gravity comes primarily from the relative directions of $\\vec{r}_*$ and $\\vec{a}_5$, the correlation of their magnitudes across the sample, and the dependence of the screened fraction on the gravitational environment, quantified here by $\\Phi$.\n\nNevertheless, it is important to check that baryonic effects could not generate an environment-dependence of $\\vec{r}_*$ similar to the effect of screening. This may be done by applying our inference framework to mock datasets generated by hydrodynamical simulations in which these effects are included. An informative test however requires better than $\\mathcal{O}$(kpc) resolution in the central regions of halos, which rules out the majority of current-generation cosmological simulations~\\cite{Horizon, EAGLE_1, Illustris, MB-II}. Conversely, zoom simulations do not have the halo numbers required for statistically significant results. Only a few present simulation sets may therefore be of use (e.g.~\\cite{Stinson,FIRE, Chan_FIRE, Apostle}). As these simulations differ in the sub-grid models required at the small scales of interest here, it will ultimately be necessary to check several of them. Although the manner in which hydrodynamics affects the internal and environmental properties of halos is at least qualitatively known (e.g~\\cite{Hellwing, EAGLE_2, Chisari}), the specific signal in which we are interested has not yet been investigated.\n\nIf such effects in $\\Lambda$CDM are not sufficient to account for the correlations we attribute here to a screened fifth force, our constraints on $\\Delta G\/G_N$ must be further validated by examining the impact of baryonic physics in a universe governed by modified gravity. While such simulations have begun in recent years, and confirm that baryonic and gravitational effects on large scale structure and galaxies' internal dynamics are non-linearly coupled and hence not fully orthogonal (e.g.~\\cite{Puchwein, Mead}), they focus on fifth-force strengths at least an order of magnitude larger than those that constitute our maximum-likelihood models.\n\nWe have assumed the model specified by $\\{\\Delta G, \\lambda_C\\}$ to produce a cosmology consistent with $\\Lambda$CDM, specifically in terms of its prediction for the smooth density field at $z=0$ and the properties of the halo population. While chameleon- or symmetron-screened modified gravity does alter the expansion history of the Universe and growth rate of structure, and hence the halo mass function and internal structure of halos, its effects in the region of parameter space of most interest here ($\\Delta G\/G_N \\lesssim 0.1$, $\\lambda_C \\lesssim 5$ Mpc) are small~\\citep{Shi, Fontanot, Lombriser_2, Lombriser_rev}. They are likely subdominant to the uncertainties we do model in the smooth density field, galaxy--halo connection and properties of the individual halos themselves. Our method should not therefore be thought a means of testing modified gravity in cosmology -- and has little if any relevance to cosmic acceleration -- but rather as simply a means of seeking fifth forces, of gravitational or non-gravitational origin, on the scales of galaxies and their environments. Screened modified gravity also affects stellar luminosities and hence galaxy mass-to-light ratios~\\citep{Davis} as well as the relative kinematics of stars and gas~\\citep{Vikram_RC}, but again these effects are small for $\\lambda_C \\sim 1$ Mpc and would not be expected to skew our inference.\n\nAs discussed in~\\cite{Desmond}, our incorporation of both halos and a non-halo-based mass contribution leads us to overestimate the total density on $\\gtrsim 10$ Mpc scales by $\\sim 10$\\%. This will cause a similar overestimation of $|\\Phi|$, biasing the screened fraction of our test points high and the template signal low. This leads to a weakening of the $\\Delta G$ constraints, making our limits conservative. While this effect is partly mitigated by a corresponding overestimation of $\\vec{a}_5$, we showed in~\\cite{Desmond} that the acceleration is more sensitive than the potential to mass on smaller scales around the test point, which is less susceptible to double counting.\n\nAlthough we marginalise over the possible galaxy--halo connections for fixed AM proxy and scatter, we do not marginalise over the distributions of these parameters themselves or otherwise consider the possibility that this model inadequately describes our source galaxy population. Given that AM parameters are fairly well constrained by clustering studies, however, this extra uncertainty is unlikely to be significant.\n\nFactors that affect the overall magnitude of the predicted signal (e.g. $\\Sigma_D^0$, $h$ and $|\\vec{a}_5|$ in Eq.~\\ref{eq:rstar2}) are degenerate with the inferred value of $\\Delta G\/G_N$. As mentioned in Sec.~\\ref{sec:more-sampling}, a particularly important quantity is the scatter in central dynamical surface density $\\Sigma_D^0$ around the result of Eq.~\\ref{eq:CDR}, which affects the magnitude of the predicted $r_*$ and hence our $\\Delta G\/G_N$ constraints by a relatively large factor. In Fig.~\\ref{fig:dG_scatt} we plot the scatter in $\\Sigma_D^0$ (for the galaxies without NSA information; the scatter for those with is pinned to half this value) against the maximum-likelihood value of $\\Delta G\/G_N$ inferred under the fiducial uncertainties for the screened model with $\\lambda_C = 1$ Mpc. The slope of the best-fit line is $-3.8$, indicating that a change to the $\\Sigma_D^0$ scatter of $0.26$ dex is sufficient to shift the best-fit $\\Delta G\/G_N$ by an order of magnitude. Were the evidence for $\\Delta G>0$ to be confirmed by independent signals or data, it would become important to refine model inputs such as these to better determine $\\Delta G\/G_N$. Consistency between signals under a generic fifth-force scenario could even be used to constrain them.\n\nBy contrast, the $\\lambda_C$-dependence of the maximum-likelihood and $\\Delta G\/G_N$ constraint is degenerate only with factors that scale with $\\lambda_C$ in the same way as the predicted $\\vec{r}_*$. As this condition is far harder to satisfy due to the peculiar dependence of $\\vec{r}_*$ on $\\Phi$ and $\\vec{a}_5$ (and the further dependences of those on both halo structure and environment), we consider the trend of $\\Delta \\log(\\mathcal{L})$ with $\\lambda_C$ to be considerably more robust than the constraint on $\\Delta G\/G_N$ itself. For example, altering the $\\Sigma_D^0$ scatter within the range of Fig.~\\ref{fig:dG_scatt} does not significantly affect Fig.~\\ref{fig:like_like}.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n  \\centering\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.5\\textwidth]{dG-scatt}\n  \\caption{Dependence of maximum-likelihood $\\Delta G\/G_N$ on the scatter in central dynamical surface density $\\Sigma_D^0$ (Eqs.~\\ref{eq:CDR}--\\ref{eq:rstar2}), in the case where NSA information is not available, for the screened model with $\\lambda_C = 1$ Mpc. Our fiducial scatter is 1 dex, as quoted in Table~\\ref{tab:params}. The $\\Delta G\/G_N$ constraint is highly sensitive to this choice, and differs by more than an order of magnitude across the range of a priori reasonable values. This makes our inference of $\\Delta G\/G_N$ quite uncertain, and the formal uncertainties in Figs.~\\ref{fig:dG3} and~\\ref{fig:6} potentially misleading. The trend of best-fit $\\Delta G\/G_N$ with $\\lambda_C$ however is not sensitive to this uncertainty because it derives from the scale-dependence of the predicted signal rather than its overall normalisation and scatter.}\n  \\label{fig:dG_scatt}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\subsection{Comparison with the literature}\n\\label{sec:comparison}\n\nWe begin by comparing our work with previous studies at the scales of interest here ($0.4-50$ Mpc; Sec.~\\ref{sec:astroscales}) before broadening our discussion to include tests of related models at larger and smaller scales (Sec.~\\ref{sec:otherscales}).\n\n\\subsubsection{On astrophysical scales}\n\\label{sec:astroscales}\n\nMuch of the groundwork for constraining modified gravity with intra-galaxy data was laid by~\\cite{Jain_Vanderplas}, which provided the first calculations of the functional forms and sizes of the expected signals. These authors estimated the magnitude of $\\vec{r}_*$ by taking the external field $\\vec{a}_5$ to be generated by a single halo towards which the test galaxy is falling. Assuming the test halo has constant density, they argue that $r_*$ could typically be expected to be $\\sim1$ kpc for $\\Delta G\/G_N=1$. This is quantitatively confirmed by Fig.~\\ref{fig:1a}. We note however that our estimates of $r_*$ employ significantly more complex and realistic assumptions than those of \\cite{Jain_Vanderplas}. First, the fifth-force accelerations for our test galaxies are derived from their full environments rather than a single nearby object (which is itself liable to be screened for lower values of $|\\Phi_c|$). Second, we take only the central regions of the test halos to be cored, and calculate their densities from the central baryon surface density rather than by averaging over the entire halo. As halo density presumably falls with $r$ outside the core, this leads us to assign a larger central density than~\\cite{Jain_Vanderplas}, reducing the expected $r_*$. However, the significant scatter that we apply to the central densities (1 dex in most cases) causes many halos within each model realisation to have lower density and hence greater predicted $r_*$.\n\nThe study most similar to ours is that of~\\cite{Vikram} (specifically their section 4), whose authors also searched for evidence of screening in the HI-optical offsets of $\\textit{Alfalfa}$ detections. Our work expands on this in three main ways.\n\n\\begin{enumerate}\n\n\\item{} In~\\cite{Vikram}, the fifth-force acceleration and central mass $M(<r)$, and hence the expected $\\vec{r}_*$, are not known. This precludes forward-modelling the displacements from theory parameters, and hence constraining them quantitatively. In addition, the direction of $\\vec{r}_*$ on the plane of the sky is of no use if the direction of $\\vec{a}_5$ is unknown. These authors must therefore rely instead on the average difference in $r_*$ between screened and unscreened subsamples as a summary statistic of the impact of the fifth force. Our likelihood formalism on the other hand uses the full information on a galaxy-by-galaxy basis to quantitatively constrain the theory parameters. In particular, the use of both components of $\\vec{r}_*$ on the plane of the sky brings significant additional constraining power.\n\n\\item{} Our model for the gravitational field includes not only the mass in halos hosting bright objects, but also the mass in fainter halos and the inter-halo component of the density field~\\citep{Desmond}. This eliminates pathological cases in which $\\Phi_\\text{ex}$ is apparently 0 due simply to incompleteness in the maps of \\cite{Cabre} (e.g.~\\cite{Vikram_RC}, table 1). It comes further with full point-by-point probability distribution functions for $\\Phi$ and $\\vec{a}_5$, which enable us to precisely model uncertainties in the predicted signal.\n\n\\item{} Our sample size is hugely larger than~\\cite{Vikram}'s: 10,822 vs 245 galaxies. This is partly due to the use of a more complete \\textit{Alfalfa} catalogue, and partly because our gravitational maps, based on 2M++ rather than SDSS, cover the entire sky. We are not therefore forced to impose a cut on angular position. As shown in Figs.~\\ref{fig:contour} and~\\ref{fig:Ngal}, a large sample size is critical for beating down the bound on $\\Delta G\/G_N$.\n\n\\end{enumerate}\n\nReference \\cite{Vikram} constrains the average $r_*$ due to modified gravity to be $\\lesssim 1$ kpc. Given our results on the average size of the signal in Sec.~\\ref{sec:correlations}, this corresponds to $\\Delta G\/G_N \\lesssim 1$ for $\\lambda_C = 5$ Mpc. This is significantly weaker than our own constraints due to the extra machinery of point (i) and increased sample size of point (iii), despite the increased screened fractions resulting from the extra mass of point (ii). While our constraints are limited by the observational uncertainty of the HI centroids, those of~\\cite{Vikram} were limited primarily by the sophistication of their theoretical modelling. Indeed, our analysis outperforms their forecast that a predicted offset of $0.5$ kpc would be detectable with $24,500$ dwarf galaxies at $\\langle \\theta \\rangle = 24$ arcsec: we are sensitive to a predicted offset of $\\sim 0.01$ kpc ($r_* \\sim 1$ kpc for $\\Delta G\/G_N = 1$ and $\\Delta G\/G_N$ constraints $\\sim 0.01$) using $11,000$ galaxies -- with no selection on density -- at $\\langle \\theta \\rangle = 36$ arcsec.\n\nThe strongest constraints previously derived on astrophysical scales come from comparing screened and unscreened distance indicators to nearby galaxies. For $|\\Phi_c| \\lesssim 10^{-6}$ distances derived from screened tip-of-the-red-giant-branch stars would be expected to differ from those of unscreened Cepheids; their consistency implies $\\Delta G\/G_N \\lesssim 0.2$ ($1\\sigma$) for $|\\Phi_c| > 10^{-6}$ and $\\Delta G\/G_N \\lesssim 1$ for $|\\Phi_c| = \\text{few} \\times 10^{-7}$~\\citep{Sakstein}. Similar results are achievable comparing the gas and stellar rotation curves of isolated dwarf galaxies \\cite{Vikram_RC}. Despite a weak signal and large observational uncertainties, our inference is several times stronger due to a combination of huge sample size, great range of environments probed, and use of a vector rather than scalar observable which effectively affords two orthogonal signals in the plane of the sky. No previous analysis has reached the level of sensitivity required to probe the region $\\{\\lambda_C \\simeq 1.8 \\: \\text{Mpc}, \\Delta G\/G_N \\simeq 0.025\\}$ in which we find evidence for a signal.\n\nAdditional dynamical galactic signals which have not yet been used to place quantitative constraints on fifth forces include warping of stellar disks, asymmetries in disk kinematics and offsets in the rotation curves of stars and gas~\\citep{Jain_Vanderplas, Vikram}. Galaxy warps are the subject of~\\cite{Desmond_warp}, and the other effects will be studied in future work.\n\n\n\\subsubsection{On smaller and larger scales}\n\\label{sec:otherscales}\n\nTesting fifth forces on astrophysical scales is a relatively new endeavour: other direct constraints come only from signals at much smaller scales, while cosmological tests are capable of producing independent though indirect and weaker limits. As discussed in Sec.~\\ref{sec:intro}, unscreened fifth forces with ranges $10^{-14} < \\lambda_C\/\\text{m} < 10^{-6}$ are strongly constrained by torsion balance experiments, lunar laser ranging and planetary data within the Solar System. Although our $\\Delta G\/G_N$ constraints are weaker than these by up to 4 orders of magnitude, reflecting the complex nature of astrophysical systems, they provide the possibility of filling in the parameter space of possible distance-dependent (or potential-, acceleration- or curvature-dependent) modifications to GR, which incorporate a fifth force, at the galaxy scale~\\citep{Baker}.\n\nThe strongest constraint from Solar System tests for $\\lambda_C$ as large as that of interest here comes from the Eddington light bending parameter measured by Cassini, which requires $\\Delta G\/G_N \\lesssim 10^{-5}$~\\citep{Bertotti}. Our constraint in the absence of screening is 1--2 orders of magnitude worse, and also requires a differential coupling of the fifth force to stars, gas and dark matter. Nevertheless we use a qualitatively different signal, and, as discussed in Sec.~\\ref{sec:forecast}, our method is straightforwardly scalable with future data and may be expected to reach the sensitivities of Solar System tests with next-generation surveys.\n\nWithout a means of shielding the scalar field from the screening influence of the surrounding dense environment, screened theories cannot be probed within the Milky Way if the screening threshold puts it in the screened regime. This is the case for most viable models. Nevertheless, it is possible to construct laboratory setups, in particular by means of a vacuum chamber with thick walls, in which the chameleon field is decoupled from the field outside~\\citep{Burrage}. This allows the creation of regions where the field remains unscreened, enabling tests of the mechanism by means of Casimir forces~\\citep{Casimir}, levitated microspheres~\\citep{Rider} and atom~\\citep{Hamilton} and neutron~\\citep{Brax_neutron} interferometry. All of these tests probe short-range fifth forces; see~\\cite{Burrage_review, Burrage_review2} for a review.\n\nA number of other tests are possible at cosmological scales (see the review of~\\cite{Lombriser_rev}). In general, a cosmological fifth force causes an enhancement of the growth rate of structure at late times, which affects the CMB through the integrated Sachs-Wolfe and Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effects as well as gravitational lensing~\\citep{ISW, ISW_2}. Constraints are also possible by means of the galaxy power spectrum~\\citep{Dossett}, comparison of dynamical and lensing masses of elliptical galaxies~\\citep{Smith}, redshift space distortions~\\citep{RSD}, and the abundance~\\citep{Schmidt, Ferraro, Cataneo}, internal structure~\\citep{Lombriser} and relative dynamical and lensing masses \\cite{Terukina, Wilcox} of clusters. These constraints are typically couched in terms of Hu-Sawicki models of $f(R)$, where $\\Delta G\/G_N = 1\/3$ and $f_{R0}$ is related to $\\lambda_C$ and $\\Phi_c$ through Eq.~\\ref{eq:f(R)}. The strongest constraints are at the $f_{R0} \\sim 10^{-5}$ level, showing cosmological tests to be significantly less useful for these theories than astrophysical ones.\n\n\n\\subsection{Suggestions for further work}\n\\label{sec:future}\n\nOur work provides a case study of the use of the gravitational maps of~\\cite{Desmond} to constrain aspects of modified gravity on the scale of galaxies and their environments. This scale is characterised by $1 \\: \\text{kpc} \\; \\lesssim r \\lesssim 50$ Mpc, $10^{-8} \\lesssim |\\Phi| \\lesssim 10^{-4}$, $10^{-17} \\lesssim |\\vec{a}|\/\\text{km s}^{-2} \\lesssim 10^{-13}$ and curvature $10^{-57} \\lesssim K\/\\text{cm}^{-2} \\lesssim 10^{-50}$.\n\nEven continuing to focus solely on fifth-force phenomenology, a range of intra-galaxy statistics besides the separation of stars and gas may be expected to provide new information: as mentioned in Secs.~\\ref{sec:intro} and~\\ref{sec:astroscales}, a screened fifth force would induce warps in stellar disks and asymmetries in kinematics, as well as boost the rotation velocity of unscreened mass relative to screened~\\citep{Jain_Vanderplas}. Provided these signals could be suitably quantified, each could be used to derive constraints on $\\Delta G$ and $\\lambda_C$ by a method directly analogous to our own. As these analyses would utilise independent data, and possess sensitivity to different types of galaxy in different environments, their results would be complementary. For the evidence for a chameleon- or symmetron-screened fifth force with $\\lambda_C \\simeq 2$ Mpc presented here to be convincing it must be corroborated (or shown to be below the sensitivity level of current data) by each of these signals. We do this for galaxy warps in \\cite{Desmond_warp}. It is also possible to make predictions for future or present data sets from our best-fit $\\{\\lambda_C, \\Delta G\/G_N\\}$ values, either by taking the maximum-likelihood point or by means of the Bayesian posterior predictive distribution. This would help to avoid confirmation bias in the analysis of that data. As discussed in Sec.~\\ref{sec:systematics}, the non-fifth-force part of the likelihood function could be refined by examining the signals in cosmological hydrodynamical $\\Lambda$CDM simulations, and the inferences made fully self-consistent by basing the determination of galaxy and large scale structure formation on simulations in modified gravity.\n\nThe constraints derivable from all of these signals will straightforwardly strengthen as future galaxy surveys begin observation. Given the amount of information evidently present in this data (as quantified by the strength of our constraints) and the great range of theories testable in tandem through simple phenomenological parametrisations, we propose that gravitational physics be incorporated as a key science driver of these surveys (see also~\\cite{Jain_surveys, Jain_Khoury, Jain_NovelProbes}). Constraints based on intra-galaxy statistics may in fact scale better with survey quality than conventional tests based on inter-galaxy statistics due to lower sensitivity to cosmic variance. At the very least they are complementary and come for little extra effort or expense with ongoing survey programmes.\n\nAs discussed in~\\cite{Desmond}, our methods may find more general use beyond the search for fifth forces. Any theory predicting deviations from GR that correlate with the local gravitational field may in principle be tested; this includes not only the other screening mechanisms listed in Sec.~\\ref{sec:intro} (kinetic screening roughly occurs at a critical value of acceleration and Vainshtein at a critical value of curvature;~\\cite{Khoury_LesHouches}), but also generic equivalence principle violations (e.g. in Modified Newtonian Dynamics [MOND], whose external field effect imposes an acceleration threshold) and models of dynamical dark energy which entail novel behaviour near the curvature scale of $\\Lambda$. Indeed, it is even possible to perform model-independent tests by simply correlating galaxies' gravitational properties with potential modified gravity signals, although the lack of a prediction would preclude forward modelling and Bayesian inference in this case. This method relies on the assumption that any breakdown of GR would impose a different dependence of dynamical behaviour on gravitational environment than would contaminating ``galaxy formation'' effects, as we believe to be the case for the present signal $\\vec{r}_*$. To check this assumption a more precise determination of the impact of baryonic physics would be helpful. This programme would build gravity phenomenology from the ground up in galaxies, rather than test specific theories top down.\n\nWe made no a priori distinction here between galaxies in different environments, but rather fed the entire \\textit{Alfalfa} dataset into our inference framework. This approach is ideal when all galaxies provide useful information on the parameters to be inferred: in our case, even massive galaxies or those in dense environments are of interest because their differences with the remainder inform the constraint on the screening threshold $\\Phi_c$. The screened subsample for a given $\\Phi_c$ calibrates the behaviour of the signal in the absence of fifth forces. By contrast, information on some modified gravity theories may only be gleaned from galaxies in very specific environments. For example, testing the external field effect in equivalence principle-violating theories would require galaxies in a dominant external field. The prototypical model in this class, MOND, requires $a_\\text{ex} > a_0 \\approx 1.2 \\times 10^{-10} \\: \\text{m\/s}^2$ for the external field to dominate, which is at the extreme high end of the $a_\\text{ex}$ distribution of 2M++ galaxies in the local Universe~\\citep{Desmond}. In such cases it will be preferable to begin by searching for regions of the local Universe satisfying certain constraints on the gravitational field, and analyse only the subset of galaxies situated therein.\n\nTo generalise the discussion in Sec.~\\ref{sec:forecast}, we close by listing generic desiderata for surveys and modelling to be useful for probing fundamental physics with galaxies.\n\n\\begin{itemize}\n\n\\item{} Any test that depends on a galaxy's gravitational environment must make use of a reconstruction of the gravitational field along the lines of~\\cite{Desmond}. Improving the precision of the $\\Phi$, $\\vec{a}$ and $K$ maps requires principally an increase in the limiting magnitude out to which galaxies, the primary mass tracers, are visible. This is particularly important for pushing studies to higher redshift $z \\gtrsim 0.05$ where current all-sky surveys become substantially incomplete. This will improve statistics and enhance the range of environments able to be probed. We estimate in~\\cite{Desmond} the improvement in the precision of gravitational parameter inferences afforded by upcoming photometric surveys. This information may be augmented by weak lensing data, spectroscopic information and photometry at other wavelengths to further constrain the overall distribution of mass.\n\n\\item{} Robust detections of the fifth-force signals described above require low-redshift, high resolution data at multiple wavelengths to distinguish galaxies' different mass components. In general, data quality is more important than sample size, area or redshift range. There is no requirement that data be homogeneous or uniform across the sky, since spatial statistics of the galaxy population as a whole are not in question. This enables smaller surveys and isolated observations to play a larger role than is possible for traditional probes.\n\n\\item{} Resolved spectroscopy is necessary to study dynamical signals of new fields, such as differences between the rotation curves of stars and gas, kinematical asymmetries and mass discrepancies. These are complicated in the case of screened theories by the fact that the most common tracer of stellar kinematics, $H\\alpha$ emission, derives from the ionised Str\\\"{o}mgren spheres surrounding stars which are likely to be at least partly unscreened. The screened kinematics of the stars themselves must therefore be derived from stellar absorption lines, which are considerably more difficult to measure with high signal to noise. Spectroscopy will also be useful to tighten constraints on galaxies' central dynamical masses, which provide the restoring forces on stellar centroids that compensate for their insensitivity to $F_5$. The combination $\\vec{a}_5 \\: \\Delta G \\: (M(<r)\/r^2)^{-1}$ appears in most of the formulae for screening signals \\cite{Jain_Vanderplas}.\n\n\\item{} When observational uncertainties are small, inference is limited by the precision with which the signals may be theoretically modelled on a galaxy-by-galaxy basis. This determines the width of the fifth-force part of the likelihood function and is set primarily by $M(<r)$ and the gravitational parameters $\\vec{a}_5$ and $\\Phi$. Our calculation of the latter depends on the BORG inference of the smooth density field, and the precision of that machinery therefore feeds directly into the strength of our results. Improvements are ongoing in the form of the BORG likelihood, method for density field reconstruction and input data used. Our inference of $\\vec{a}_5$ and $\\Phi$ depends also on the galaxy--halo connection used to assign halos and hence total dynamical mass distributions to galaxies based on their photometry. In the future, additional observables will be brought to bear on constraining halo properties and both the scatter and systematic uncertainty in the galaxy--halo connection will fall.\n\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\n\\section{Conclusion}\n\\label{sec:conc}\n\nWe use the observed displacements between galaxies' stellar and gas mass centroids in the $D < 100$ Mpc part of the complete \\textit{Alfalfa} catalogue to constrain fifth forces of range 0.4--50 Mpc that couple differentially to stars, gas and dark matter. Our primary case study is screened modified gravity, where the effect of a new scalar field is hidden in high-density environments by means of the chameleon or symmetron mechanism. In this case, stars self-screen, and hence decouple from the fifth force, in otherwise unscreened galaxies. We deploy the gravitational maps of~\\cite{Desmond} to identify screened and unscreened regions of the $z<0.05$ Universe for a given fifth-force range $\\lambda_C$ and screening threshold $\\Phi_c$, and forward-model the spatial offset between the optical and HI emission of each \\textit{Alfalfa} galaxy as a function of $\\lambda_C$, $\\Phi_c$ and fifth-force strength $\\Delta G$. We construct a Bayesian likelihood framework to constrain these parameters from the data, propagating fully the uncertainties in the gravitational maps, the galaxy structure inputs to the signal prediction, and the observations.\n\nModels with $\\Delta G\/G_N \\simeq 1$ and $\\{\\lambda_C, |\\Phi_c|\\}$ in the range $\\{0.4-50 \\: \\text{Mpc}, \\: 2 \\times 10^{-8}-4 \\times 10^{-4}\\}$ produce HI-optical offsets of typical magnitude $\\sim$ 0.1--1 kpc for galaxies in the gravitational environments of the local Universe. This is slightly larger when screening is switched off so that all (rather than only unscreened) mass within $\\lambda_C$ contributes to the fifth force. We find weak but generally positive correlation between the direction of the observed optical-HI displacement on the plane of the sky and that of an external screened fifth-force field, and between the magnitude of that displacement and the prediction of screened models. We quantify the statistical significance of these correlations under two main assumptions for the noise in the \\textit{Alfalfa} data. The fiducial model, which sets the noise Gaussian and equal on average to the scatter in measured optical-HI displacement in bins of signal to noise ratio of the detection, yields $6.6 \\: \\sigma$ evidence for a component of the offsets deriving from a screened fifth force, with best-fit solution $\\lambda_C = 1.8$ Mpc, $\\Delta G\/G_N = 0.025$. Similar fifth-force models without screening achieve no increase in likelihood over the General Relativistic case $\\Delta G=0$. We validate this detection by a number of means, but cannot prove that it may not be caused by other effects such as galaxy formation physics. We will study such possible degeneracies further in future work.\n\nA more conservative (and lower likelihood) model doubles the magnitude of the noise, enabling us to place the robust constraints $\\Delta G\/G_N \\lesssim 0.1$ ($1\\sigma$) for $\\lambda_C=0.5$ Mpc, and $\\Delta G\/G_N \\lesssim \\: \\text{few} \\: \\times 10^{-4}$ for $\\lambda_C=50$ Mpc in the case with screening, and $\\Delta G\/G_N \\lesssim \\: \\text{few} \\: \\times 10^{-3}$ and $\\Delta G\/G_N \\lesssim \\: \\text{few} \\: \\times 10^{-4}$ respectively in the case without. In $f(R)$ gravity (where $\\Delta G\/G_N = 1\/3$) this corresponds to $f_{R0} \\lesssim 2 \\: \\times 10^{-8}$. Even given this artificial inflation of the uncertainties, these constraints are 2 orders of magnitude stronger than those from cosmology, 1 order of magnitude stronger than those from distance indicators and rotation curve tests on galaxy scales, and approaching the strength of Solar System fifth-force tests. This attests to the great constraining power of our data and methodology.\n\nOur study is the first to leverage `big data' from galaxy surveys for gravitational physics by means of an intra-galaxy signal. Such data may be expected to provide crucial information on gravity in the fully non-linear regime in the future, as ever more powerful galaxy surveys are brought to bear. Besides probing qualitatively different regions of gravitational parameter space, intra-galaxy tests should scale in strength more steeply with survey performance than conventional probes due to reduced sensitivity to sample variance and maximal utilisation of information at low redshift where precision is greatest. Under optimistic assumptions for the noise characteristics of the HI data, applying our methodology to radio detections from SKA-class observatories would provide sensitivity to $\\Delta G\/G_N \\sim \\mathcal{O}(10^{-9})$ in screened theories with $\\lambda_C \\simeq 5$ Mpc. Finally, we discuss prospects for a range of additional intra-galactic signals to yield further and complementary information on fundamental physics in this under-explored regime. Crucially, these analyses will confirm or rule out \nthe possible screened fifth force detection achieved here.\n\n\n\\section*{Acknowledgements}\n\nThis work was supported by St John's College, Oxford. PGF acknowledges support from Leverhulme, STFC, BIPAC and the ERC. GL acknowledges support by the ANR grant number ANR-16-CE23-0002 and from the Labex ILP (reference ANR-10-LABX-63) part of the Idex SUPER (ANR-11-IDEX-0004-02). We thank Martha Haynes for sharing the complete Alfalfa catalogue before public release, Phil Bull for information on SKA and Referee A of an earlier paper for helpful suggestions on validating the detection. Computations were performed at Oxford and SLAC.\n\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Quantitative limits on the inter-dot tunneling}\n\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[width=8.0cm, keepaspectratio=true]{PseudoSpec_SeriesMeasurement_v1.pdf}\n\\end{center}\n\n\\caption{Circuit for measuring the series conductance $G_{\\rm series}$ of the double quantum dot system as discussed in the text.\n}\n\\label{fig:SeriesMeasurement}\n\\end{figure}\t  \n\n   For all the measurements reported in the main text of this paper, we have made the voltages on the gates labeled CU and CL sufficiently negative so as to suppress inter-dot tunneling. We have confirmed that the inter-dot tunneling is negligibly small over a range of gate voltage settings. To check the inter-dot tunneling, we have measured the conductance of the dots in series, as shown in \\allfig{SeriesMeasurement}. When the gate voltages are set to a triple point then three dot states are degenerate, e.g. (0,0), (1,0), and (0,1). At these triple points a finite inter-dot tunneling gives a finite series conductance \\cite{vanderWiel2002:DQDreview}. Using the above circuit we have found the conductance at the triple points to be below our measurement threshold, indicating the inter-dot tunneling is small, as detailed quantitatively below.\n   \n   We can quantitatively limit the inter-dot tunneling energy scale $t$ as follows. At zero-bias, the series conductance $G_{\\rm series}$ can be calculated\\cite{Nazarov1993:QuantumInterferometer} and is given by:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:Gseries}\n\tG_{\\rm series}= \\frac{64 |t|^2}{3 \\Gamma_{1} \\left(\\frac{\\Gamma_{1}+\\Gamma_{2}}{2}\\right)} \\frac{e^2}{h}\n\\end{equation}\nIn this equation, $\\Gamma_{1}\/ \\hbar$ is the total tunnel rate between electrons on dot 1 and the leads S1 and D1 (with $\\Gamma_{2}$ defined similarly). Using this equation, we can put quantitative limits on $t$.  For gate voltage settings close to those used for the data in Figure 2 of the main text we had $\\Gamma_{1}= 44~\\mu\\mbox{eV}$ and $\\Gamma_{2}= 31~\\mu\\mbox{eV}$ and we found $G_{\\rm series} < 4\\times 10^{-3} \\mbox{$e^2\/h$}$ which gives $|t| < 0.6~\\mu\\mbox{eV}$. For the data in Figure 4 of the main text, we have  $\\Gamma_{1}= 20~\\mu\\mbox{eV}$ and  $\\Gamma_{2}= 22~\\mu\\mbox{eV}$ and $G_{\\rm series} < 3 \\times 10^{-3} \\mbox{$e^2\/h$}$, which gives a limit $|t|< 0.25~\\mu\\mbox{eV}$. Both limits on $|t|$ are below the thermal energy scale of $2~\\mu\\mbox{eV}$ set by our electron temperature of approximately $20~\\mbox{mK}$.\n\n\\section{Relating changes in dot energies to gate voltages}\n\n  To perform the bias spectroscopy measurements shown in Figures 2 and 4 of the main text, for given values of $V_{\\rm S1}$ and $V_{\\rm S2}$ we need to adjust the voltages on gates P1 and P2 so as to set the energy $E$ of the orbital states, as well as the energy difference $\\delta$ between the states. Achieving this control first requires us to determine the capacitance factors that describe how the voltages $V_{\\rm P1}$,$V_{\\rm P2}$, $V_{\\rm S1}$ and $V_{\\rm S2}$ affect the orbital states. We can then use these factors to determine how to vary $V_{\\rm P1}$ and $V_{\\rm P2}$ so as to control $E$ and $\\delta$. This process is described below. \n\n   The electrochemical potential energy of the dot states can be related to the voltages. For dot 1, this relationship can be written as:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{eq:mu1eq}\n\t\\mu_{1} = -e (\\alpha_{\\rm P1} \\Delta V_{\\rm P1} + \\xi_{\\rm 1,P2} \\Delta V_{\\rm P2} + \\alpha_{\\rm S1} V_{\\rm S1} + \\xi_{\\rm 1,S2} V_{\\rm S2})\n\\end{equation}\nA corresponding equation holds for dot 2. In this equation, the coefficients of the voltages depend on the capacitance of the gates to the dots\\cite{vanderWiel2002:DQDreview} and these factors are what we need to determine. We can directly extract the value of these capacitance factors from the data. \\Startsubfig{AlphaMatrix}{a} shows an example of the total conductance for a pair of triple points. To determine the capacitance factors for dot 1, we set $V_{\\rm P2}= -166~\\mbox{mV}$, where we are away from the charge transition in dot 2 (this position is approximated by the horizontal blue line in \\subfig{AlphaMatrix}{a}). At this fixed value of  $V_{\\rm P2}$ we perform standard bias spectroscopy of dot 1, as shown in \\subfig{AlphaMatrix}{b}. These data show the edges of a Coulomb diamond. Along the edge with negative slope, the dot state is aligned with the Fermi energy of the drain lead, which we assign to be 0. Then we have $\\mu_{1}=0$ along this line. Since $\\Delta V_{\\rm P2}= 0$ and $V_{\\rm S2}= 0$, \\refeq{mu1eq} gives $\\alpha_{\\rm P1} \\Delta V_{\\rm P1} + \\alpha_{\\rm S1} V_{\\rm S1} =0$. So the slope of this diamond edge $m_{i}$ is related to the factors by $m_{i}= V_{\\rm S1}\/\\Delta V_{\\rm P1}= -\\alpha_{\\rm P1}\/\\alpha_{\\rm S1}$. Similarly, the slope of the other diamond edge $m_{j}$ is related to the capacitance factors by $m_{j}= \\alpha_{\\rm P1}\/(1-\\alpha_{\\rm S1})$. Thus with the measured slopes of the Coulomb diamond, one can extract $\\alpha_{\\rm S1}$ and $\\alpha_{\\rm P1}$.\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[width=8.0cm, keepaspectratio=true]{Pseudospec_AlphaMatrix_v1.pdf}\n\\end{center}\n\n\\caption{(a) Sum of the zero-bias conductance through dots 1 and 2 in the vicinity of a pair of triple points. (b) Bias spectroscopy of dot 1 at $V_{\\rm P2}= -166~\\mbox{mV}$. The Coulomb diamond associated with the state in dot 1 is clearly visible. The slopes of the diamond edges allow the extraction of capacitance factors as described in the text. (c) Measurement of the zero-bias conductance of dot 1 at $V_{\\rm P2}= -166~\\mbox{mV}$. The slope of the line allows the extraction of a capacitance factor as described in the text.\n}\n\\label{fig:AlphaMatrix}\n\\end{figure}\t  \n\n   The remaining capacitance factors can be extracted from other measurements. Along the dot 1 Coulomb blockade line in \\Startsubfig{AlphaMatrix}{a} the dot states are aligned with the dot 1 source and drain leads, so $\\mu_{1}=0$. Thus from \\refeq{mu1eq} we have $\\alpha_{\\rm P1} \\Delta V_{\\rm P1} + \\xi_{\\rm 1,P2} \\Delta V_{\\rm P2} =0$. This then relates the slope of this line $m_{1}$ to the factors by $m_{1}= \\Delta V_{\\rm P2} \/ \\Delta V_{\\rm P1} = -\\alpha_{\\rm P1}\/\\xi_{\\rm 1,P2}$. In the data shown in \\subfig{AlphaMatrix}{c}, we plot the zero-bias conductance of dot 1 as a function of $V_{\\rm S2}$, which gates dot 1. The slope of this line is related to the capacitance factors by $m= -\\xi_{\\rm 1,S2}\/\\alpha_{\\rm P1}$. In this way, we can extract all the necessary capacitance factors for dot 1. A similar procedure can be used to extract the capacitance factors associated with dot 2. \n   \n   The energy of the dot states $E$ and $\\delta$ can be related to $\\mu_{1}$ and $\\mu_{2}$ by \n\\begin{displaymath}\n\t  \\begin{pmatrix} E \\\\ \\delta \\end{pmatrix} = \\frac{1}{2} \\begin{pmatrix}\\mu_{1} + \\mu_{2} \\\\ \\mu_{1}-\\mu_{2} \\end{pmatrix}\n\\end{displaymath}\nCombining this with \\refeq{mu1eq} and a corresponding equation for $\\mu_{2}$, we have:\n\\begin{align}\n\t \\frac{-2}{e}  \\begin{pmatrix} E \\\\ \\delta \\end{pmatrix}& = \\begin{pmatrix}(\\alpha_{\\rm P1}+\\xi_{\\rm 2,P1})&(\\alpha_{\\rm P2}+\\xi_{\\rm 1,P2}) \\\\ (\\alpha_{\\rm P1}-\\xi_{\\rm 2,P1})&-(\\alpha_{\\rm P2}-\\xi_{\\rm 1,P2}) \\end{pmatrix} \\begin{pmatrix} \\Delta V_{\\rm P1} \\\\ \\Delta V_{\\rm P2} \\end{pmatrix} \\notag\\\\ &+ \\begin{pmatrix}(\\alpha_{\\rm S1}+\\xi_{\\rm 2,S1})&(\\alpha_{\\rm S2}+\\xi_{\\rm 1,S2}) \\\\ (\\alpha_{\\rm S1}-\\xi_{\\rm 2,S1})&-(\\alpha_{\\rm S2}-\\xi_{\\rm 1,S2}) \\end{pmatrix} \\begin{pmatrix} V_{\\rm S1} \\\\ V_{\\rm S2} \\end{pmatrix}\\label{eq:Edelta}\n\\end{align}\nFor $V_{\\rm S1}= V_{\\rm S2}= 0$, we define $E=0$ at the triple point indicated in \\subfig{AlphaMatrix}{a}, where the dot states are degenerate ($\\delta= 0$) and they are at the same energy as the source and drain leads. For given values of $V_{\\rm S1}$ and $V_{\\rm S2}$ we can find the necessary gate voltage changes to establish the desired values of $E$ and $\\delta$ by substituting into \\refeq{Edelta} and solving for $ \\Delta V_{\\rm P1}$ and $ \\Delta V_{\\rm P2}$. \n \n \\section{Double Dot Coulomb Diamonds}\n\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[width=8.0cm, keepaspectratio=true]{Pseudospec_DiamondDiagrams_v1.pdf}\n\\end{center}\n\n\\caption{(a) DQD Coulomb blockade diamond from Fig 2(c) of the main text. The labeled points correspond to the DQD diagrams in (b) through (f). The dot occupations labeled in (a) and (b) are relative to a background occupation denoted $(0,0)$.\n}\n\\label{fig:DiamondDiagrams}\n\\end{figure}\t  \n\n   Figure 2(c) of the main text shows a Coulomb blockade diamond obtained by performing standard bias spectroscopy at a pair of triple points of the DQD. We can understand the processes that give rise to transport along each edge of the Coulomb diamond.  The data from Fig. 2(c) are shown in \\subfig{DiamondDiagrams}{a}, while \\subfig{DiamondDiagrams}{b} -(f) show the DQD energy diagrams corresponding to the different points marked in \\subfig{DiamondDiagrams}{a}. In these diagrams, the solid lines represent the electrochemical potential energy of the charge states of the DQD (the charge states are labeled relative to some background occupation denoted $(0,0)$); see \\subfig{DiamondDiagrams}{b}. For example, $\\mu_{1}(1,0)$ denotes the energy for adding an electron to dot 1 when dot 2 contains $0$ electrons. Similarly, $\\mu_{2}(0,1)$ is the energy to add an electron to dot 2 when dot 1 contains 0 electrons. The dashed lines  represent the energy to add a second electron to the double dot: for example $\\mu_{1}(1,1)$ is the energy to add a second electron to dot 1 when dot 2 contains the first electron.\n   \n      \\Startsubfig{DiamondDiagrams}{b} shows the position of the levels at one of the triple points, when $\\mu_{1}(1,0)$ and $\\mu_{2}(0,1)$ are degenerate with the Fermi energy of the leads. Along the transport line marked by (c) the positive bias voltages on S1 and S2 lower the electrochemical potential of these leads; however, the dot levels are still aligned with the Fermi energy of the drain leads allowing transport through the dots. Conversely, along the line marked by (d) the dot states  $\\mu_{1}(1,0)$ and $\\mu_{2}(0,1)$ are below the Fermi energy of the drain leads and transport occurs when they are aligned with the electrochemical potentials of S1 and S2. The diamond edge marked (e) corresponds to applying a negative voltage to S1 and S2 to align the electrochemical potential of these leads with $\\mu_{1}(1,1)$ and $\\mu_{2}(1,1)$. Finally, the vertical transport line labeled (f) corresponds to  $\\mu_{1}(1,1)$ and $\\mu_{2}(1,1)$ aligning with the Fermi energy of the drain leads.\n\n\\section{Pseudospin Spectroscopy with $V_{\\rm S2}$}\n\n   Applying a pseudo-magnetic field splits the Kondo resonance above and below the Fermi energies of the leads by $E_{\\rm pZ}$. In Fig. 4 of the main text we resolve the position of the pseudospin-up Kondo peak by sweeping the pseudospin-up lead S1. As expected, the Kondo enhancement of transport through dot 1 follows $V_{\\rm S1}= E_{\\rm pZ}\/e$  (Fig. 4(e) in the main text). Since the Kondo effect involves pseudospin flips, we see a corresponding enhancement of transport through dot 2 when $V_{\\rm S1}= E_{\\rm pZ}\/e$  (Fig. 4(f) in the main text).\n\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[width=8.0cm, keepaspectratio=true]{PseudoSpec_PSDown_v1.pdf}\n\\end{center}\n\n\\caption{(a)   $G$ as a function of $V_{\\rm P1}$ and $V_{\\rm P2}$. (b) Pseudospin resolved spectroscopy of dot 1 as a function of $V_{\\rm S2}$. At $V_{\\rm S2}=0$, the horizontal axis corresponds to the dashed white line in (a). (c) Pseudospin resolved spectroscopy of dot 2 as a function of $V_{\\rm S2}$. \n}\n\\label{fig:PSDown}\n\\end{figure}\t  \n\n  To resolve the position of the pseudospin-down peak, which moves in the opposite direction, we need to sweep the pseudospin-down lead S2. \\Startsubfig{PSDown}{a}  shows the total conductance $G=G_{1}+G_{2}$ through both dots as a function of $V_{\\rm P1}$ and $V_{\\rm P2}$. We vary the pseudo-magnetic field by changing the gate voltages to move along the dashed white line in the figure. \\Startsubfig{PSDown}{c} shows conductance through dot 2 as a function of the voltage on lead S2 and $E_{\\rm pZ}$. Since lead S2 is the pseudospin down lead, this spectroscopy resolves the pseudospin down peak. As expected, we see an enhancement at only one sign of the bias, in this case $V_{\\rm S2}= -E_{\\rm pZ}\/e$. \\Startsubfig{PSDown}{b} shows the conductance through dot 1 as a function of $V_{\\rm S2}$. As expected, we observe enhanced conductance along the line $V_{\\rm S2}= -E_{\\rm pZ}\/e$. The data in \\subfig{PSDown}{b} look different from that in (c) because we also observe enhanced conductance along the vertical line at $E_{\\rm pZ}=0$. This is associated with a pseudospin Kondo process with the dot 2 drain lead. Specifically, an electron on dot 1 can tunnel off the dot into D1, and an electron can tunnel onto dot 2 from D2. This maintains energy conservation and results in a pseudospin flip. The electron can then tunnel from dot 2 back to D2, while an electron tunnels back onto dot 1 from S1. This type of process (as well as higher order processes) lead to an enhanced conductance through dot 1, but do not give transport through dot 2. Note that these type of processes rely on strong coupling between dot 2 and D2: the corresponding feature in Fig. 4(f) of the main text is very faint because D1 is only weakly coupled to dot 1.\n\n\t\n\n\\newcommand{\\noopsort}[1]{} \\newcommand{\\printfirst}[2]{#1}\n  \\newcommand{\\singleletter}[1]{#1} \\newcommand{\\switchargs}[2]{#2#1}\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\nLet $Y$ be a contact manifold  with contact form $\\alpha$, a \\emph{Lagrangian slice} in $Y$ is a sub-manifold $i:\\Lambda \\hookrightarrow Y$ such that their exists a Lagrangian embedding $$C: (1-\\varepsilon,1+\\varepsilon)\\times \\Lambda\\hookrightarrow \\left((1-\\epsilon,1+\\epsilon)\\times  Y,d(t\\alpha)\\right)$$ satisfying:\n\n$$C\\left((1-\\varepsilon,1+\\varepsilon)\\times \\Lambda\\right)\\pitchfork \\{1\\}\\times Y=C\\left(\\{1\\}\\times\\Lambda\\right).$$\n\nIt is the opinion of the author that such objects are interesting and the aim of this note is to attract attention to those. Note that the definition depends on the contact form as the transverse intersection condition depends on the identification of the symplectisation with $\\mathbb{R}_+\\times Y$.  Any Legendrian sub-manifold of $Y$ is a Lagrangian slice since the trivial cylinder of such a sub-manifold is Lagrangian (that this notion does not depend on the choice of the contact forms comes from the fact that those are the slices giving Lagrangians tangent to the Liouville vector field, they are therefore transverse to any hypersurface transverse to this vector field).  Naturally Lagrangian slices appear in the following manner : let $L$ be a Lagrangian sub-manifold of a symplectic manifold $(M,\\omega)$. Let $Y$ be a contact hyper-surface of $M$ such that $L\\pitchfork Y$. Then $\\Lambda=Y\\pitchfork L$ is a Lagrangian slice. A \\emph{Reeb chord} of a Lagrangian slice $\\Lambda$ is a trajectory of the Reeb vector field of $\\alpha$ whose start and end points are on $\\Lambda$.\n\nThere is a seemingly related notion to Lagrangian slices which are prelagrangian submanifolds (studied for instance in \\cite{MR1334868}). A \\emph{prelagrangian} submanifold of $(Y^{2n-1},\\ker\\alpha)$ is an $n$ dimensional submanifold $L$ transverse to $\\ker\\alpha$ such that there is a function $f$ on $Y$ such that the pullback of $f\\alpha$ to $L$ is closed. In this situation any preimage of regular values of $f|_L$ is a Lagrangian slice. As embedded projections of Lagrangians in $\\mathbb{R}_+\\times Y$ to $Y$ are prelagrangian the correspondence goes the other way around (note that one can always arrange a transverse slice to have embedded image in $Y$ playing a bit with the Reeb flow).\n\nA Lagrangian slice $\\Lambda$ is said to be \\emph{fillable} if there exists a filling $X$ of $Y$ and a properly embedded Lagrangian sub-manifold $L$ of $X$ such that $\\partial L=L\\pitchfork Y=\\Lambda$. Those are the slices that appear when intersecting closed Lagrangians (or Lagrangians cylindrical at infinity in Liouville manifolds) with a \\emph{separating} contact hyper-surface. \n\nIf one can deform the Liouville structure on $(1-\\varepsilon,1+\\varepsilon)\\times Y$ keeping $Y$ a contact hyper-surface and so that the Liouville vector field is tangent to $(1-\\varepsilon,1+\\varepsilon)\\times \\Lambda$ then we say that the slice is \\emph{collarable}. In \\cite{collarable} we gave examples of non-collarable fillable slices. Other examples of non-collarable slices appear in \\cite{Lin} and \\cite{Eliash_Mur_Caps} as a slice of a Lagrangian cap cannot be collarable near its maxima.\n\n\\begin{rem}\\label{rem:collar}\n  One might find this definition of collarable unsatisfying from the contact point of view: the contact structure on $Y$ changes. In the compact (or local) case, Moser-Gray type theorem implies that this is the same as asking that there is an isotopy of $\\Lambda$ through Lagrangian slices to a Legendrian sub-manifold of $Y$. We keep the definition this way as it is easier to manipulate, it is more convenient to study Reeb chords of slices, and it relates more easily to the notion of regular Lagrangian.\n\\end{rem}\n\nThe question of collarability of slices is implicit in the question of decomposability of cobordisms (see \\cite{Ekhoka} and \\cite{MR3493408}) which appears prominently in the literature about Lagrangian cobordisms in low dimension. In all dimension the collarability question is a sub-question of the question of regularity of Lagrangian sub-manifold from \\cite{MR4090744} (a Lagrangian is regular if one can modify the Liouville vector field so that it is tangent to the Lagrangian) as in low dimension regular cobordisms are decomposable (as observed for instance in \\cite{MR4045364}). The author believes that the quantitative study of Lagrangian slice, particularely Inequality \\eqref{eq:2} from Section \\ref{sec:coll-lagr-slic}, could provide some tools to study the question of regularity of cobordism.\n\nThere is a whole hierarchy of fillability that we can imagine and it is not the purpose of this note to give a comprehensive overview of it. Our aim is to suggest that even if such objects form a larger class than Legendrian sub-manifolds they still admits Reeb chords in a similar fashion as Legendrians do (we do not claim here that all Legendrians admits Reeb chords). For instance we prove the following:\n\n\\begin{thm}\\label{thm:main}\n  Let $\\Lambda$ be a compact Lagrangian slice in a compact contact manifold $Y$ such that there exist a subcritical Weinstein manifold $W$ of $Y$ and a proper exact Lagrangian embedding $L\\hookrightarrow W$ such that $\\partial L=\\Lambda$. Then $\\Lambda$ admits a Reeb chord.\n\\end{thm}\n\nIn particular, if its sub-level is subcritical, the transverse intersection of a compact  exact Lagrangian with the level set of a convex Hamiltonian always has trajectories of the Hamiltonian vector field starting and ending on the Lagrangian on that level set.\n\nIn Section \\ref{sec:proof-ot-theorem} we provide a proof of this theorem and it appears to be ridiculously easy (it almost appears in \\cite[Section 5.1]{chantraine_conc}), so the interest of the paper lies somewhere else (if it lies anywhere). As mentioned before the only purpose of this note is to raise some interesting points about such objects and discuss some of their Hamiltonian dynamics properties.\n\n\\paragraph{\\textbf{Acknowledgement}}\n\nDespite the short length of this note I have been casually talking about this observation for quite a while. I want to acknowledge discussions with Vincent Colin, Kyle Hayden, Emmy Murphy and Egor Shelukhin that lead me to write it. I also want to thank an anonymous referee whose comments helped to clarify and improve the paper in many places. I am partially supported by the ANR projects QUANTACT (ANR-16-CE40-0017) and  ENUMGEOM (ANR-18-CE40-0009) \n\n\\section{What does a Lagrangian slice look like?}\n\\label{sec:how-does-lagrangian}\nSince they form a a larger class than Legendrian sub-manifolds it is a natural question to ask what properties a Lagrangian slice must satisfies.\n\nLet $i:\\Lambda\\rightarrow Y$ be a sub-manifold. If it is a Lagrangian slice (i.e. a transverse intersection of a Lagrangian in the symplectisation with $Y$) then the general (linear) theory of symplectic reduction tells you that the Reeb vector field is not tangent to $\\Lambda$ and that $\\Lambda$ projects to a (smooth) Lagrangian immersion in the (singular) reduced symplectic space $Y\/R_\\alpha$. So if it is a Lagrangian slice then we must have $d(i^*\\alpha)=0$ and $di(T\\Lambda)\\cap \\ker d\\alpha=\\{0\\}$.\n\nConversely, let $i:\\Lambda\\hookrightarrow Y$ a sub-manifold such that the pull-back of $\\alpha$ is closed and $di(T\\Lambda)\\cap \\ker d\\alpha=\\{0\\}$. Let $V$ be a copy of a neighborhood of the $0$-section in $T^*\\Lambda$ such that $\\Lambda$ corresponds to the $0$-section and $V$ is transverse to $R_\\alpha$. The characteristic foliation of the hypersurface $(1-\\varepsilon,1+\\epsilon)\\times V$ in $(1-\\varepsilon,1+\\epsilon)\\times Y$ is transverse to $\\{1\\}\\times V$ and crossing $\\Lambda$ with this foliation realises $\\Lambda$ as a Lagrangian slice. We have proved:\n\n\\begin{lemma}\n  \n  Let $i:\\Lambda^{n-1}\\rightarrow Y^{2n-1}$ be an embedding. The $\\Lambda$ is a Lagrangian slice iff $di(T\\Lambda)\\cap \\ker d\\alpha=\\{0\\}$ and $i^*\\alpha$ is closed.\n\\end{lemma}\n\n\n\\begin{rem}\n  Observe that when $Y$ is of dimension $3$ then these conditions reduce to asking that  $\\Lambda$ is not tangent to the Reeb foliation which is a generic condition.\n\\end{rem}\nSince for a Lagrangian slice $i^*\\alpha$ is closed, one can define the notion of \\emph{exact} Lagrangian slice by requiring $i^*\\alpha$ to be exact (for instance the non-collarable examples from \\cite{collarable}, \\cite{Lin} and \\cite{Eliash_Mur_Caps} are exact). This implies that the Lagrangian $(1-\\epsilon,1+\\epsilon)\\times \\Lambda$ is exact. This notion is invariant under modifications of the Liouville structure by Hamiltonian vector fields. \n\n\n\n\n\nExplicit occurence of this construction appears in \\cite{MR2134231} and \\cite{Lin} in the particular case of the standard symplectic $3$ dimensional case where we see that up to translation in the Reeb direction the shape of a Lagrangian is determined by the symplectic reduction of its slices.\n\n\\section{Deformation of Liouville vector fields near the boundary.}\n\\label{sec:deform-liouv-vect}\nIn this section we study how to deform Liouville vector fields so that they remain transverse to a given contact hyper-surface, such computations are standard and appear in different forms in the literature see for instance \\cite[Lemma 12.1]{SteinWeinstein}.\n\nLet $(W,\\lambda;f)$ be a Weinstein cobordism with positive boundary $i:Y\\hookrightarrow W$ such that the contact form is given by $i^*\\lambda$. Let $(1-\\epsilon,1]\\times Y$ be a collar neighbourhood of $Y$ such that the Liouville flow structure is given by $t\\cdot\\alpha$. Let $H$ be a function of the form $H(t,x)=\\rho(t)h(x)$ for a function $h$ on $Y$ and a compactly supported increasing function $\\rho$ on $(1-\\epsilon,1]$ such that $\\rho(1)=1$. We denote the forms $\\lambda_H:=\\lambda+dH$, it is still a Liouville form for the symplectic structure on $W$ the Liouville vector field for $\\lambda_H$ is $V_\\lambda+X_H$. The contact hyper-surface $Y$ is  still transverse to $X_{\\lambda_H}$ iff at $t=1$:\n\n$$dt(V_\\lambda+X_H)>0$$\n\nSince $dt(V_\\lambda)=t$ this condition becomes\n$$dt(X_H)>-1.$$\n\nThe symplectic form writes as $dt\\wedge \\alpha+t\\cdot d\\alpha$ thus we have that $$dH=h\\cdot \\rho' dt+\\rho\\cdot dh=dt(X_H)\\alpha+t(X_h\\iota d\\alpha)-\\alpha(X_H)dt.$$\n\nEvaluating on $R_\\alpha$ (the Reeb vector field of $\\alpha$) at $t=1$ we obtain that $Y$ is transverse to $V_{\\lambda_H}$ iff\n\\begin{equation}\ndh(R_\\alpha)>-1.\\label{eq:1}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\n\\section{Collarability of Lagrangian slices.}\n\\label{sec:coll-lagr-slic}\n\nLet $i:\\Lambda\\rightarrow Y$ be an exact Lagrangian slice. We want now to make a deformation similar to the preceding section such that $V_{\\lambda_H}$ is tangent to the Lagrangian $j:(1-\\epsilon,1+\\epsilon)\\times\\Lambda\\hookrightarrow X$ near $\\{1\\}\\times\\Lambda$. Let $f$ be a function such that $df=i^*\\lambda$ and let $\\gamma$ be a Reeb chord of $\\Lambda$. We define the \\emph{action} of $\\gamma$ to be (observe the order of $0$ and $1$ here)\n$$a(\\gamma)=f(\\gamma(0))-f(\\gamma(1)).$$\n\n\\begin{rem}\n  This is a well defined notion whenever $\\gamma(0)$ and $\\gamma(1)$ are on the same connected component of $\\Lambda$ (we refer to such chords as \\emph{pure}, the other type being called \\emph{mixed}). In the Legendrian case (i.e. when $\\Lambda$ is collarable), the action of a chord is $0$ (when it is pure) therefore the action is \\emph{not} the action of the corresponding intersection point when taking the Lagrangian projection (when it make sense), this last quantity is what we refer in the present note as the \\emph{length} of the Reeb chord.\n\\end{rem}\n\nIn order to have $V_{\\lambda_H}$ tangent to the Lagrangian (i.e. symplectically orthogonal to it) we need to have $(j^*\\lambda_H)=0$ near $\\{1\\}\\times\\Lambda$ which gives\n$$j^*\\lambda+d(H\\circ j)=0.$$\n\nThis prescribes the value of $H$ near $\\{1\\}\\times\\Lambda$, in particular up to a constant $h=-f$ on $\\{1\\}\\times\\Lambda$. To extend $h$ to a function on $Y$ satisfying Inequality \\eqref{eq:1} we need to have that any pure chord $\\gamma$ of $\\Lambda$ satisfies:\n\n\\begin{equation}\nl(\\gamma)>a(\\gamma).\\label{eq:2}\n\\end{equation}\n\nAny Reeb chord that violates this inequality will be called \\emph{small}, if it is not small a Reeb chord will be called \\emph{long}. We have proved\n\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{lemnotcollar}\n  If a Lagrangian slice is not collarable then it has a small (pure) Reeb chords.\n\\end{lemma}\n\n\n\\begin{rem}\\label{rem:stillchords}\n  Observe that for any of the deformation $\\lambda_H$ of $\\Lambda$ as in Section \\ref{sec:deform-liouv-vect} the Reeb flow of the new contact form $i^*(\\lambda+dH)$ is given by a reparametrisation of the original Reeb flow since $d\\alpha$ does not change (an explicit computation give another manifestation of Inequality \\eqref{eq:1}). This implies that the question of existence of Reeb chord is unchanged.\n\\end{rem}\n\n\n\\begin{rem}\n  When the Lagrangian slice is not exact one can still try to deform the Liouville form $t\\alpha$ adding a \\emph{closed} $1$-form. This closed form must extend the restriction of $\\alpha$ to the slices so there is first a cohomological condition on the embedding of $\\Lambda$ in $Y$. If this condition is satisfied then one can find a cover of $Y$ such that $\\alpha$ restricted to the lift of $\\Lambda$ is exact and proceed similarely as in the exact case.\n\\end{rem}\n\n\n\\section{Reeb chords of fillable slices.}\n\\label{sec:proof-ot-theorem}\nWe are now ready to prove our main theorem.\n\\begin{proof}[Proof of Theorem \\ref{thm:main}]\n  Let $L$ be an exact filling of the slice $\\Lambda$. If there are no small Reeb chords then from Section \\ref{sec:coll-lagr-slic} we know that we can modify the Liouville vector field so that $L$ becomes an exact filling of a Legendrian sub-manifold. Assuming $\\Lambda$ has no chords at all (from Remarks \\ref{rem:stillchords} it means that for either of the contact forms $\\alpha$ and $\\alpha_H$ is has no Reeb chords) then we can positively wrap a small deformation of $L$ without introducing any intersection point outside the domain $X$. We can use this wrapped copy to compute Wrapped Floer homology of $L$ from \\cite{OpenString} (either wrapping all at once, or using a direct limit depending what is our favourite definition of $WF(L)$). This implies that no high energy intersection points are involved in the computation of the wrapped Floer homology, therefore it is isomorphic to the infinitesimally wrapped Floer homology i.e. $$WF(L)=H^*(L).$$ However since $W$ is subcritical it has vanishing symplectic homology, $SH(W)=0$ (see \\cite{MR1726235}). This is a contradiction as $WF(L)$ is a module over $SH(W)$ (see \\cite[Theorem 6.17]{ritter-tqft}) and thus $WF(L)=0$.\n\n  This covers the collarable case, the other case is covered by Lemma \\ref{lemnotcollar} and therefore the proof is complete.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\\section{Concluding remarks}\n\\label{sec:conclusion}\n\nThe proof of Theorem \\ref{thm:main} applies to more general context depending on the tools one wants to use and the information we have on the slice or the filling to conclude existence of Reeb chords.\n\nObviously one can replace the subcritical condition of $W$ by the algebraic condition that $SH(W)=0$. Also if $SH(W)\\not=0$ one can instead require that the Lagrangian filling $L$ does not intersect the Lagrangian skeleton of $W$ since such a condition guarantees that $WF(L)=0$ by Viterbo's functoriality (see \\cite[Theorem 9.11]{CieliebakOancea} or \\cite[Section 5]{OpenString}).\n\nWe can also hope to relax the vanishing of $SH(W)$ to some more specific case, as long as one can prove that $WF(L)\\not = H^*(L)$ we can deduce the existence of the Reeb chords. For that purpose the structural results from \\cite{CieliebakOancea} can reveal to be useful.\n\nIn another direction we can relax the fillability condition using \\cite{Floer_cob} by only requiring that the slice is at the top of a Lagrangian cobordism with bottom being a Legendrian knot that admits an augmentation\n\nIt would be interesting if one could use considerations from sections \\ref{sec:deform-liouv-vect} and \\ref{sec:coll-lagr-slic} to investigate the regular Lagrangian question (and therefore the question of decomposability of Lagrangian cobordisms).\n\nIn \\cite{MR915560} Arnol'd conjectured that any Legendrian in the standard $3$-sphere admits a Reeb chord for any Reeb vector field. This version was proved in \\cite{MR1847594} (for all standard contact spheres) and in \\cite{MR2784673} \\cite{MR3190296} (for any Legendrian in any 3 dimensional contact manifold). In the discussion following his conjecture he also discusses that some homological bounds might exist for the number of such Reeb chords, some instance of this can be found in \\cite{Ekholm_Contact_Homology} and \\cite{Rigidityofendo} where some estimate is given in terms of the topology of the Legendrian or some of its Lagrangian fillings. The existence result from Theorem \\ref{thm:main} falls in between: the collarable case indeed gives the usual estimate coming from wrapped Floer homology or linearised contact homology but the obstruction to collarability only provides one chord. Whether or not more can be found in the non collarable case is unknown to the author.\n\\bibliographystyle{plain}\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\\label{intro}\n\nSystems made of alkane-substituted imidazolium cations ([C$_n$mim]$^+$) paired to a variety of anions (X$^-$) such Cl$^-$, \nPF$_6^-$, BF$_4^-$, etc., are the most representative examples of room-temperature ionic liquids (RTIL)\\cite{wasser}, a vast class\nof organic ionic compounds whose melting temperature falls below $100$ $^{\\circ}$C. Low volatility, low flammability,\nrelatively high thermal and electrochemical stability are among the desirable properties shared by\nseveral RTIL,\\cite{welton} making these compounds attractive candidates for applications\\cite{green} as solvents, in catalysis, in \nelectrochemistry and, last but not least, as lubricants \\cite{lubricant}. \n\nFrom a more fundamental point of view, the interest is enhanced by the surprising variety of properties and behaviours that RTIL \ndisplay, making them important prototypes of molecular Coulomb liquids\\cite{popolo}. The spontaneous formation of mesoscopic structures \n(mesophases) in RTIL, in particular, first predicted by computer simulations\\cite{meso1, meso2, meso3, meso4}, and later confirmed by\nexperiments\\cite{expemeso}, is among the most fascinating phenomena discovered in these systems.\n\nMesophases arise in RTIL's from the interplay of strong Coulomb interactions, weaker but still important dispersion forces, \nand steric effects.  Coulomb interactions, in particular, tend to concentrate the most ionic portions of the [C$_n$mim][X] molecules, \nrepresented by the positively charged imidazolium ring, and by the anion,\nsee Fig.~\\ref{scheme}.\nThe neutral C$_n$H$_{2n+1}$ alkane tails, pushed out of these charged regions, \ngroup together under the effect of packing and van der Waals attraction.\nSince the alkane chains cannot be physically separated from the cationic imidazolium ring to which they are connected by a covalent bond, a mesoscopic \ndensity and charge modulation is established, giving rise to the optimal separation of ionic moieties and alkane tails that is compatible with the \nmolecular topology.\nThis picture is confirmed by the dependence of the mesophase stability on the length of the alkane tail attached to the imidazolium cation. \nMesophases are observed only for RTIL's of sufficiently long tail ([C$_n$mim][X] with $n \\gtrsim 6$), whose dispersion and steric interactions\nare weaker but nevertheless comparable to Coulomb forces. \n\nFurther insight on the origin and properties of mesophases could be gained by investigating systems of reduced dimensionality, since \nthe interactions giving rise to the mesoscopic modulation are affected to a different degree by a change in the number of dimensions. \nThe net effect of dimensional changes on the stability of mesophases, however, is difficult to predict a priori.\nReducing dimensionality reduces the strength of Coulomb interactions, thus reducing the primary driving force for the mesophase formation.\nOn the other hand, decreasing dimensionality limits screening and enhances fluctuations, possibly lending stability to mesophases.\n\nWe apply molecular dynamic simulations to investigate the stability and role of mesophases for long alkane tail RTIL in quasi-2D systems. \nThree different cases are considered.\nIn the first case (i), [C$_{12}$mim][Tf$_2$N] ions are trapped at $\\sim 10^2$ MPa (kbar) pressure in between two parallel solid surfaces,\nrepresented by a planar potential piecewise parabolic in the $z$ direction.\nIn the second case (ii), a nanometric [C$_{12}$mim][Tf$_2$N] film is adsorbed at the solid-vacuum interface, \nrepresented by an asymmetric, $z$-dependent potential arising from a flat and rigid surface, again parallel to the $xy$ plane. \nIn the third case (iii), a shorter-tail RTIL ([C$_4$mim][Tf$_2$N]) is confined by the same potential of case i. The schematic structure of all these\nmolecules is shown in Fig.~\\ref{scheme}.\n\nMesophases are apparent in simulation snapshots for case i, corresponding to a thin [C$_{12}$mim][Tf$_2$N] film trapped in \nbetween two planar and rigid surfaces, displaying nanometric features qualitatively similar to those seen in 3D systems. \nThe degree of ordering and its characteristic length are quantified by computing the in-plane 2D structure factors \n[$S_{\\alpha \\beta}(q)$, $\\alpha, \\beta= +$, $-$] for the ionic moieties, i.e., the imidazolium ring cation and the [Tf$_2$N]$^-$ anion. \nThe $S_{\\alpha \\beta}(q)$'s from the simulation display the characteristic pre-peak due to mesoscopic structures in fluid-like systems.\n\nNo mesophase is observed in cases ii and iii. More precisely, for case ii, corresponding to a thin [C$_{12}$mim][Tf$_2$N] film \nadsorbed into the asymmetric potential well at a vacuum\/solid interface, the optimal combination of Coulomb and dispersion interactions\nis achieved by layering in the $z$ direction, without in-plane modulation. The alkane tails, in particular, tend to stick out of\nthe contact plane, leaving behind a thin layer of ionic moieties. In other terms, the film lowers its potential energy by exposing the inert alkane tails \nto the vacuum side, at the same time gaining entropy from the increased isomerisation freedom of tails in the peripheral location.\nIn-plane mesophases, therefore, may become stable only when a nearly 2D configuration is enforced by a sufficiently high normal load.\nIn case iii, Coulomb forces dominate the picture, giving rise to a fairly ordered in-plane ionic configuration. Excluded volume\nand dispersion interactions are not sufficiently strong to bring tails together into neutral clusters, and thus the structure factor lacks the\npre-peak marking supra-molecular length scales. In other terms, similarly to what has been found for 3D systems, mesophases in 2D\nare observed only for systems of sufficiently long tail, and the simulation results emphasise the need of comparable strength for Coulomb, packing\nand dispersion forces. \n\nTemperature, 2D density and normal load ($\\sim 10^2$ MPa) similar to those used in our simulations of case i\nare found in RTIL's applications as lubricants\\cite{lubricant}. Mesophases, therefore, could arise from 2D homogeneous systems through a phase transition, taking \nplace when the applied normal load forces both tails (of sufficient length) and ionic heads to lay in a nearly 2D space of nanometric thickness.\nThe mesophase transition, in turn, could greatly affect the performance of the thin film as a lubricant.\n\nOur investigation is different but related to a previous study\\cite{voth}, devoted to the\ncomputational investigation of surface manifestations of 3D mesophases in [C$_{n}$mim][X] RTIL's. Our results and those of\nRef.~\\onlinecite{voth} are fully consistent with each other. At the free surface of RTIL's, ions find themselves in a local environment \nsimilar to ii, and in no cases they give rise to in-plane mesophases. Long-tail [C$_{n}$mim][X] systems, in particular, are not confined to a narrow\nthickness by adsorption forces alone, and give rise to nanometric-thick layering perpendicular to the surface. Short-tail systems, instead, \ndisplay monolayer ordering of alternating anions and cations, together with a random distribution of their alkane tails into the fluctuating \ninterstices in between ions.\n\n\\section{The model and the computational method}\n\\label{method}\nMolecular dynamics simulations have been carried out based on an AMBER\\cite{amber} OPLS\\cite{opls} all-atom potential. \nThe potential energy as a function of atomic coordinates is the sum of intra- and inter-molecular terms. The\nintra-molecular part includes stretching, bending and torsion contributions, while inter-molecular terms account for Coulomb and\ndispersion interactions. These last two contributions are included also for atom pairs in the same connected unit ions) provided\nthey are separated by at least four covalent bonds. The parametrisation of Ref.~\\onlinecite{canongia} (see also Ref.~\\onlinecite{warn}) provides a comprehensive \nand thoroughly tested model of RTIL's of the alkane-imidazolium family, and we adopt this potential for our simulations of \n[C$_{12}$mim][Tf$_2$N] and [C$_{4}$mim][Tf$_2$N].\n\nThe systems we consider are nearly 2D, being extended along $xy$, and confined to nanometric thickness along $z$. \nHowever, Ewald sums are far more \nefficient for 3D periodicity than for quasi-2D systems. For this reason, we replicate periodically the simulation cell in 3D,\nand account for long-range interactions by 3D Ewald sums. The convergence parameters for the direct- and reciprocal-space parts of the\nEwald sum have been set as follows: real space, screened Coulomb interactions are accounted for up to a separation $R_c^{Ew}=13.6$ \\AA,\nand reciprocal space terms are included whenever their weight $w(k)=\\exp{[-k^2\/4\\alpha^2]}\/k^2$ is larger than $10^{-5}$ \\AA$^2$.\nIn the expression above, $\\alpha=3.2\/R_c^{Ew}$, and the ${\\bf k}$'s are reciprocal lattice vectors of the periodically repeated simulation cell. \nThe cut-off for the computation of dispersion interactions is set to $R_C^{vdW}=12$ \\AA.\nThe sides of the simulation cell are kept fixed, and the periodicity $L_z$ along $z$ is much longer than either the actual width \n$\\Delta z$ of the RTIL slab or the real space cut-offs $R_c^{Ew}$ and $R_c^{vdW}$, in such a way that we can neglect interactions \namong replicas in the $z$ direction.\n\nThe effect of confinement in between two planar surfaces perpendicular to the $z$ axis is represented by  a very\nidealised, purely repulsive potential given by:\n\\begin{equation}\nV(z)=\\left\\{\n\\begin{tabular}{cc}\n$\\frac{k_w}{2}(z+d)^2$ & $z < d$ \\\\\n$0$ & $-d \\leq z \\leq d$ \\\\\n$\\frac{k_w}{2} (z-d)^2$ & $z > d$ \\\\\n\\end{tabular}\n\\right.\n\\label{wall1}\n\\end{equation}\nwhich is applied to all RTIL atoms, see Fig.~\\ref{pote}.\nIn all cases, the parameter $k_w$ is set to $k_w=1$ kJ\/mol\/\\AA$^2 = 0.166$ N\/m.\nThe parameter $d$, therefore, determines the separation of the two surfaces, and decreasing $d$ increases the\nnormal load applied to the interface. The actual thickness of the RTIL film exceeds $2d$, since atoms penetrate somewhat into the repulsive tail\nof the potential, to an extent that depends on the system, on temperature,\nand on pressure. For the systems and conditions we \ninvestigated, the film thickness can be estimated as $\\Delta z\\approx 2d+5$~\\AA.\nTo explore the effect of different squeezing pressures, two values of $d$ ($d=2.5$~\\AA\\ and $d=4$~\\AA) have been considered for the \n[C$_{12}$mim][Tf$_2$N] film, while keeping constant both the area of the interface and the number of RTIL molecules in the simulated sample.\nSimulations for [C$_{4}$mim][Tf$_2$N] have been carried out only within the narrow ($d=2.5$~\\AA) potential well.\n\nAs a comparison (see Fig.~\\ref{pote}), we consider an asymmetric external potential meant to mimic the attractive well outside a solid surface\ninteracting with the adsorbate with dispersion forces:\n\\begin{equation}\nV(z)=\\frac{2 \\pi \\sigma_w^3 \\epsilon_w \\rho}{3} \\left[ \\frac{2}{15} \n\\left(\\frac{\\sigma_w}{z}\\right)^9-\\left(\\frac{\\sigma_w}{z}\\right)^3\\right]\n.\n\\label{wall2}\n\\end{equation}\nThe parameters $\\sigma_w=3$~\\AA, $\\epsilon_w=0.8$ kJ\/mol, and $4 \\pi \\rho=0.5$~\\AA$^{-3}$ are gauged to reproduce the interaction \nof SiO$_2$ with carbon atoms \\cite{nicholson} in a united-atoms representation of alkane chains.\nAs in the case of eq.~(\\ref{wall1}), potential (\\ref{wall2}) is applied to all RTIL atoms, and the model, therefore, does not\nquantitatively represent any real interface. Nevertheless, we think that it offers the qualitative comparison that\nit is intended to provide.\n\nMolecular dynamics simulations have been performed using the DL$_\\_$POLY package\\cite{DLPOLY}, slightly modified \nto include the external potentials of the form (\\ref{wall1}) and (\\ref{wall2}).\n\nTo a large extent the analysis of the results relies on assigning the position of cations, anions and aliphatic chains. The position of the\ntwo ions, in particular, is identified with the centre of charge of [C$_n$mim]$^+$ and [Tf$_2$N]$^-$, defined in full analogy with the centre of mass,\nwith atomic charges replacing masses in weighting the contribution of each atom. Since the alkane tail is neutral, and [Tf$_2$N]$^-$ is fairly symmetric,\nthis definition places the cation position at the centre of the imidazolium ring, and the anion position is close to the centre of mass of [Tf$_2$N]$^-$.\nThe location of aliphatic chains is identified with the position of their terminal carbon (CT carbon in Fig.~\\ref{scheme}).\n\n\\section{Simulation results}\n\\label{results}\nA system consisting of $N=256$ [C$_{12}$mim][Tf$_2$N] ion pairs  in the external potential of eq.~(\\ref{wall1})\nwith $d=2.5$~\\AA\\ has been simulated by molecular dynamics in the NVT ensemble. The lateral periodicity in the \n$x$ and $y$ directions is set to $L_x=L_y=136$~\\AA, corresponding to a\nsurface area $A = 185$~nm$^2$, and to\na surface density of $1.384$ ion pairs per nm$^2$.\n\nTo speed up equilibration, simulations have been carried out, first of all, at high temperature ($T=500$~K), then\n$T$ has been progressively decreased in step of $50$~K. Relaxation, as detected by the drift in the running average of the \npotential energy following each temperature variation, turns out to be very slow, especially at the lowest temperatures.\nIn addition to the expected high viscosity of [C$_{12}$mim][Tf$_2$N], the long relaxation times are probably due to\nthe fairly high normal load applied to the simulated sample, increasing the activation barriers for all dynamical \nprocesses in the RTIL. At each temperature, the sample has been equilibrated for at least $200$~ps. Production runs \nlasting $10$ ns have been carried out at $T=500$~K, $T=400$~K, and $T=300$~K. \n\nThe normal load applied to the RTIL film has been estimated by averaging the force on RTIL atoms due to the external potential. \nSince this potential depends only on  $z$, the applied force is\nstrictly directed along $z$. At constant area and number of ions, the measured load raises, as expected,\nwith increasing temperature, going from $P=276 \\pm 0.5$~MPa at $T=300$~K, to $P=318 \\pm 0.6$~MPa at $T=400$~K, and \n$P=359 \\pm 0.7 $~MPa at $T=500$~K.\nPressures of this magnitude are fairly high but not exceptional for liquid-like films\nin between approaching surfaces at microscopic separation. In fact, experiments on organic lubricant films of nanometric\nthickness at ambient temperature have been extended up to pressures of several GPa\\cite{press}. Moreover, diffusion coefficients\nand electrical conductivity for several 3D RTIL samples have been reported in Ref.~\\onlinecite{kanakubo} for pressures up to\n$200$ MPa, and in Ref.~\\cite{mahiuddin} up to $500$MPa (electrical conductivity only).\n\nThe film is liquid-like down to $T=300$~K, even though at this temperature and pressure the mobility is fairly low (see Fig.~\\ref{msd}).\nIonic self-diffusion is quantified using the 2D version of Einstein's relation \\cite{hmd}, i.e., by computing the mean square \ndisplacement of ions as a function of time. \nAs already mentioned in Sec.~\\ref{method}, we identify the position of ions with \nthe centre of mass of the imidazolium ring (cation) and of [Tf$_2$N]$^-$ (anion). Linear fit of the mean square displacement \nfor $1 \\leq t \\leq 5$ ns provides an estimate for the diffusion coefficient, that turns out to be surprisingly similar for \nanions and cations, already pointing to a strongly correlated motion for\nthe two species. The diffusion constant averaged over anions and cations is\n$D=(4.6 \\pm 0.2) \\times 10^{-11}$~m$^2$\/s at $T=500$~K,\n$D=(7.0 \\pm 0.5) \\times 10^{-12}$~m$^2$\/s at $T=400$~K,\nand\n$D=(1.8 \\pm 0.2) \\times 10^{-12}$~m$^2$\/s at $T=300$~K. \nComparison with experimental values of  self-diffusion coefficients measured on 3D samples is qualitative at best, mainly because of the different \ndimensionality (nearly 2D) of our systems. Moreover, it has been shown several times that computations using simple non-polarisable force fields tend\nto under-estimate diffusion\\cite{nonpol}. Nevertheless, self-diffusion coefficients of the order of $10^{-12}\\div 10^{-11}$ m$^2$\/s are \nroutinely measured in experiments on imidazolium-based ionic liquids at ambient conditions\\cite{diffex}, thus fully overlapping with the\nrange spanned by our results. Despite the uncertainties of the comparison, this observation is at least consistent with the conclusions of \nRef.~\\onlinecite{kanakubo}, showing that up to $\\sim 200$ MPa, pressure reduces self-diffusion of imidazolium-based RTILs by at most one order of magnitude.\n\n\nAn Einstein-like relation has been used to estimate the ionic conductivity, based on the computation of the mean-square charge displacement:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\sigma=\\frac{e^2}{K_BTA} \\lim_{t\\longrightarrow \\infty} \\frac{1}{4t} \\langle \\mid Z_+\\Delta^+(t)+Z_- \\Delta^-(t)\\mid^2 \\rangle \n\\label{sig}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\Delta^{\\pm}=\\sum_{i\\in \\pm} [{\\bf R_i}(t)-{\\bf R_i}(0)]$, $A$ is the area of the interface, and $Z_{+}$, $Z_-$ are equal to $+1$ and $-1$ for\ncations and anions, respectively. In our computations, the limit implied in eq.~\\ref{sig} is estimated from the average slope of\n$\\langle \\mid Z_+\\Delta^+(t)+Z_- \\Delta^-(t)\\mid^2 \\rangle$ over the same time interval ($1 \\leq t \\leq 5$ ns) considered in the computation of the\ndiffusion coefficient.\nThe result, i.e., $\\sigma=148\\pm 6 \\times 10^{-12} $ S at $T=500$ K, $\\sigma=26.1 \\pm  2 \\times 10^{-12}$ S at $T=400$ K, \nand $\\sigma=6.7\\pm 1 \\times 10^{-12}$ S at $T=300$ K deviates significantly from the prediction of the Nernst-Einstein relation:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\sigma_{NE}=\\frac{n e^2}{K_B T} \\left[ Z_+^2 D_++Z_-^2D_-\\right]\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $n$ is the 2D density of ion pairs, and $K_B$ is the Boltzmann constant. Introducing the values of the diffusion coefficient estimated by simulation\ngives $\\sigma_{NE}=484 \\pm 20 \\times 10^{-12} $ S at $T=500$ K, $\\sigma_{NE}=90\\pm 6 \\times 10^{-12}$ S at $T=400$ K, and $\\sigma_{NE}=31\\pm 4.5\n\\times 10^{-12} $ S at $T=300$ K.\nThe deviation of molar conductivity from the Nernst-Einstein relation is often expressed by introducing the parameter\\cite{harris} $\\Delta$\ndefined as:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\sigma =\\sigma_{NE} (1-\\Delta)\n\\end{equation}\nThen, for our system, we find $\\Delta=0.78$ at $T=300$~K, $\\Delta=0.71$ at $T=400$~K, and $\\Delta=0.69$ at $T=500$~K, emphasising both the strong ionic\nassociation in this system, and the slow thermal dissociation with increasing $T$. This is not surprising for [C$_{12}$mim][Tf$_2$N],\nwhose low average charge density favours bonding patterns somewhat different from those of ideal Coulomb systems.\n\nEven more than in the case of self-diffusion, comparing the conductivity computed for our nearly 2D samples with experimental data is affected \nby the different dimensionality. As a result, the conductivities we obtain for our systems appear to be a few orders of magnitude lower than \nexperimental values for the same or similar RTILs. We emphasise, however, that we are comparing quantities that are not even dimensionally equivalent.\n\nA simulation snapshots from the [C$_{12}$mim][Tf$_2$N] simulation at $T=300$~K in the\n$d=2.5$~\\AA\\ potential is displayed in Fig.~\\ref{snap300}, while an expanded view of the same configuration is given in Fig.~\\ref{snapzoom}.\nThese pictures already show that the applied load forces the imidazolium rings and the [Tf$_2$N]$^-$ anions to coexist in the central \nplane with the imidazolium alkane tails. These tails, in particular, lay parallel to the interfacial plane, overcoming energy and entropy forces that tend to align tails \nalong $z$, and to separate them from the positively charged imidazolium rings and [Tf$_2$N]$^-$ anions.\nA more quantitative analysis is based on the determination of the average orientation of the alkane tails (not shown), and on the\ncomputation of the density and charge profiles (see Fig.~\\ref{prof}).\nThis analysis confirms the validity of the qualitative picture arising from visual inspection of snapshots, \neven though it also reveals a slight separation of ionic moieties and neutral tails along the $z$ direction. \nThe more ionic portions of [C$_{12}$mim][Tf$_2$N], in particular, tend to occupy the centre of the slab, \nwhile neutral tails tend to reside slightly outwards. The separation along $z$ seen in these computations, however, is not\ncomparable to the thick layering that has invariably been found in simulations of the RTIL's free surface\\cite{voth, mario, milani}.\nThe effect of temperature on the density and charge profiles is marginal for $300 \\le T \\leq 500$.\n\nMoreover, even a superficial analysis of simulation snapshots reveals a characteristic structure consisting of ion chains \nand hydrocarbon islands, which are apparent in the [C$_{12}$mim][Tf$_2$N] sample  at all simulated temperatures. These structures \nbecome better defined if we superimpose to each cation and each anion a single particle, located at the corresponding \ncentres of charge (see Fig.~\\ref{balls}). The system morphology highlighted in this way is clearly reminiscent of the modulated phases observed \nin 3D systems of analogous composition and temperature (see Ref.~\\onlinecite{meso1, meso2, meso3, meso4}), collectively classified as mesophases. \nSystematic inspection of simulation snapshots already shows that the length scales of the density and composition modulation is of the order\nof $2\\div 3$ nm.\n\nA few chain-like structures apparent in all simulation snapshots (see, for instance, Fig.~\\ref{balls}), and made of the regular alternation of anions and cations,\npoint to important dipolar interactions in the system, confirming that [C$_{12}$mim][Tf$_2$N], as expected,\nis far from behaving as an ideal Coulomb fluid. The tendency to ion association is probably increased also by the reduced system dimensionality, that\ndecreases the gain in Coulomb energy made available by dissociation.\n\nWe focus our analysis on the in-plane arrangement of ions, and we compute the in-plane (2D) ion-ion structure factors $S_{++}$, $S_{+-}$, $S_{--}$,\nshown in Fig.~\\ref{sk},\nupon replacing again each cation and [Tf$_2$N]$^-$ anion by a single particle, as already done for visualising the\nRTIL structure in Fig.~\\ref{balls}. Even though this analysis is based directly only on the configuration of the ionic moieties,\nthe in-plane distribution of tails is described implicitly by the ionic structure factors, that provide a complementary \nview also of the alkane groups. The characteristic signature of mesophases is represented by a secondary peak in the structure factor\nat a wave vector corresponding to a periodicity longer than the typical molecular size, that is reflected in the main peak of the\n$S_{\\alpha \\beta}$. The mesophase formation, however, becomes more apparent if we combine the ionic structure factor into the \nBathia-Thornton \nform\\cite{hmd}:\n\\begin{eqnarray}\\label{snn}\nS_{NN}(q)&=&\\frac{1}{2}[S_{++}(q)+S_{--}(q)+2S_{+-}(q)]\n\\\\\\label{sqq}\nS_{QQ}(q)&=&\\frac{1}{2}[S_{++}(q)+S_{--}(q)-2S_{+-}(q)]\n\\\\\\label{snq}\nS_{NQ}(q)&=&\\frac{1}{2}[S_{++}(q)-S_{--}(q)]\n\\,.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nThese combinations of the partial structure factors provide a fair diagonalisation of the $S_{\\alpha \\beta}(q)$ matrix, separating particle\nparticle (S$_{NN}$) from charge-charge ($S_{QQ}$) correlations, since the mixed charge-particle correlation nearly vanishes.\nMoreover, and more importantly, as demonstrated in Fig.~\\ref{skBT} a sizable pre-peak is\napparent in $S_{NN}$ at $q=0.225$~\\AA$^{-1}$, supplementing the main peak corresponding to the average molecular size.\nNo pre-peak is apparent in the charge-charge partial structure factor,\nprobably because of the nearly equivalent size of the imidazolium ring and\n[Tf$_2$N]$^-$ anion.\n\nThe pre-peak at $q\\sim 0.225$~\\AA$^{-1}$, points to a characteristic length of $28\\div 29$~\\AA\\ for the mesophase structures.\nComparison of the results for $T=300$~K and $T=500$~K shows that the temperature dependence of the structure factors is fairly weak, and the\nchange in the pre-peak position and shape is comparable to the estimated error bar.\n\nThe mesoscopic islands consisting of alkane tails apparent in Fig.~\\ref{balls} maintain their identity for times comparable to (and probably far exceeding) \nthe entire duration of our simulations ($\\sim 10$~ns), even though each island appears to diffuse slowly, as confirmed by computer animations \ngenerated from the simulation trajectories\\cite{avail}.\nNo systematic drift in the characteristic size scale of the alkane tail islands\nor of the ionic framework is observed beyond the equilibration stage, showing that no further aggregation or coalescence of\nmesoscopic structures is taking place in the simulated sample. The structures shown in the snapshots and quantified by the\nstructure factors, therefore, appear to be equilibrium features of our systems.\n\nThe role of the applied normal load is analysed by performing simulations for a system made of the same\nnumber of ion pairs placed into a wider potential well ($d=4$~\\AA). Simulations have been carried out at $T=400$~K only, starting \nfrom the system equilibrated in the narrow slit at the same temperature. The [C$_{12}$mim][Tf$_2$N] film has been re-equilibrated in the new potential \nfor $200$~ps. As expected, mobility in the $d=4$~\\AA\\ slit is higher ($D=1.9\\pm 0.2 \\times 10^{-11}$ m$^2$\/s, \naveraged over cations and anions) than in the $d=2.5$~\\AA\\ case, enhancing equilibration that, however, at $T=400$~K seems to be easy in \nboth cases. Also in this case production runs lasted $10$~ns.\nThe normal load turns out to be $105.4 \\pm 0.2 $~MPa, to be compared to \n$318 \\pm 0.6$~MPa in the narrower potential. Despite the sizable difference in the applied normal load, the system morphology is fairly similar \nin the $d=2.5$~\\AA\\  and in the $d=4$~\\AA\\ systems. Alkane tails, in particular, still lay close to the $z=0$ plane even within the $d=4$~\\AA\\ potential.\nThe density profiles for ions and tails, again as expected, are broader than in\nthe $d=2.5$~\\AA\\ case, but otherwise are qualitatively similar for the two\npotentials (see Fig.~\\ref{prof}).\nSeparation of tails and ions along $z$ is slightly enhanced in going from $d=2.5$~\\AA\\ to $d=4$~\\AA, but neutral and ionic groups are still\nclosely intermixed. Nearly 2D alkane tail islands are still apparent in the wider potential, and their characteristic length scale \nis similar in the two cases. The similarity is confirmed by the computation of the in-plane structure factors, shown in Fig.~\\ref{skBT}.\nThe differences between the $S(q)$'s for the two potentials are not much larger than the estimated error bar, especially for what concerns the pre-peak \nat $q\\sim 0.225$~\\AA$^{-1}$. Qualitative differences, however, are expected to take place with further decreasing the normal load, when layering of\nions and neutral tails along $z$ will start to be energetically admissible.\n\nA further test of the system properties at even lower normal load is provided by the simulation of [C$_{12}$mim][Tf$_2$N] in the asymmetric\npotential well of eq.~(\\ref{wall2}).\nThis case represents, in fact, an idealised picture of a RTIL nanometric film physisorbed onto a solid and de-hydroxylated SiO$_2$ surface.\nThe major difference with the case of eq.~(\\ref{wall1}) is that, in the case of eq.~(\\ref{wall2}), the  potential well has finite height\n($\\Delta U=1.9$~kJ\/mol, or $\\Delta U=19.7$~meV {\\it per atom})\nand finite slope on the $z \\longrightarrow \\infty$ side, thus limiting the normal load that can be applied on the trapped RTIL molecules\nby the adsorption potential.\nThe finite value of $\\Delta U$ already suggests that the RTIL can form a compact droplet instead of an homogeneous film, provided the reduction in \nsurface area, and thus the gain in surface free energy, overcomes the (limited) loss of adsorption energy. \nThe de-wetting of the film, therefore, will depend on the relative size of the surface and interfacial tension compared to the adsorption energy. \nIn the case of [C$_{12}$mim][Tf$_2$N] in the model potential of eq.~(\\ref{wall2}), the surface free energy apparently is the dominant term, and \nsimulations continued for $10$~ns after the initial equilibration show the beginning of a clear de-wetting. Already at this stage, a sizable fraction of \nthe RTIL molecules sit outside the central part of the adsorption potential. Any estimate of the normal load on the ionic liquid due to adsorption, therefore,\ndoes not reflect the internal state of ions over the entire sample, and it is not comparable to the values computed in part i.\nThe RTIL configuration at the end of these simulations is reminiscent of the structures already seen in computer simulations of free surfaces and \ninterfaces of room temperature ionic liquids. Aliphatic tails orient themselves toward the vacuum side, giving rise to\nrelatively dense outermost layer of nanometric thickness. Exposing the neutral tails to the vacuum side decreases the\nsurface tension of the interface down to values ($\\gamma\\sim 0.05$ N\/m, see Ref.~\\onlinecite{delamora}) typical of alkane hydrocarbon liquids,\nand much lower than those of inorganic ionic liquids. For what concerns our discussion, however, the important point is that, as already observed, \nthe optimal separation of ions and neutral tails occurs along the direction perpendicular to the interface, pre-empting the formation of mesophases, \nwhose potential energy advantage is partly compensated by a decrease of ideal (translational) entropy in forming the mesoscopic islands.\n\nSince the [C$_{12}$mim][Tf$_2$N] system considered in our study is a fairly typical RTIL, it is expected that the system evolution shown by our \nsimulations for case ii, is the relevant one for many RTIL films deposited on insulating and neutral solid interfaces. Variations with respect to this\npicture, however, might be expected in the case of specific interactions of RTIL's  with the surface, due, for instance, to the formation of hydrogen bonds.\nFor instance, preliminary simulation and experimental results for [C$_4$mim][Tf$_2$N] films on hydroxylated SiO$_2$ surfaces have been reported in Ref.~\\onlinecite{milani},\nshowing clear layering both at the solid\/RTIL and RTIL\/vacuum interfaces, no in-plane mesophase, and no de-wetting, very likely because of the high 2D density\nof hydrogen bonds connecting RTIL ions to the OH groups at the silica surface.\n\nFinally, the results for case iii differ from those of both i and\nii. Computations for [C$_4$mim][Tf$_2$N]\nin the narrow symmetric\npotential have been carried out at $T=400$~K with $N=128$ ion pairs\nin a simulation cell of reduced area ($A= 78 \\times 78$~\\AA$^2$) in the periodic plane, in such a way to\nreproduce a normal load close to that of case i: in case iii we obtain\n$528 \\pm 1.0$~MPa.\nReducing the size of the aliphatic chain increases the average charge density, and thus the Coulombic character of the system.\nThis is reflected into a fairly high degree of order, that can be appreciated in Fig.~\\ref{scSnap}. Ions of alternating sign arrange themselves into \ncrystal-like grains of nanometric size, with alkane tails occupying the interstices. A sizable population of point and extended defects prevents the onset of\nlong range order, which, on the other hand, is the defining property of real crystals. As a result, the system appears to be liquid, or at least glassy,\nas confirmed by the computation of the structure factors, that are clearly fluid-like. On the time scale of our simulations, the diffusion coefficient \n$D=(4.1 \\pm 0.9) \\times 10^{-12}$~m$^2$\/s of [C$_4$mim][Tf$_2$N] at $T=400$~K is not negligible, but, despite a sizable mass advantage, it is even \nsmaller than that of [C$_{12}$mim][Tf$_2$N] at the same thermodynamic conditions. No pre-peak appears in any of the [C$_4$mim][Tf$_2$N] structure factors.\n\nThe result for the iii simulations, therefore, confirm that neutral tails of sufficient length are required to give rise to mesophases and to the \npre-peaks that are their distinctive diagnostic feature.\n\nThe absence of long range order in a system that locally tends to adopt an ionic crystal-like structure is likely to be due, first of all,\nto the limited time allowed by simulation, that is typically shorter than the time needed to reach a well ordered configuration, even when this is\nthe most stable one from a thermodynamic point of view.\nHowever, it might also be due to the random perturbation represented by the floppy neutral tails, which might prevent long range order.\n\n\\section{Summary and conclusions}\n\nMolecular dynamics simulations for a thin film made of a long-chain ionic liquid ([C$_{12}$mim][Tf$_2$N]) trapped in between planar and rigid surfaces at kbar pressures\nreveal stable in-plane mesoscopic structures (mesophases) consisting of ion clusters and of neutral islands, formed by the alkane tails carried by the cation.\n\nComputations for [C$_4$mim][Tf$_2$N] in the same potential, developing no mesophases at comparable thermodynamic conditions,\nshow that aliphatic chains of sufficient length are needed to form nanometric islands, bringing together tails from different cations.\n\nThe mesoscopic structures found in our nearly 2D systems are qualitatively similar to those seen in 3D simulations of similarly sized RTIL's\nat comparable thermodynamic conditions. Then, comparison with the results for the shorter-chain [C$_4$mim][Tf$_2$N] case suggests that\nthe molecular mechanism responsible for mesophases is similar in two and in three dimensions, and relies on the competition\nof strong Coulomb forces with weaker but nevertheless comparable dispersion and steric interactions.\n\nOur simulations show that strict confinement in a narrow slit is an essential requirement for the formation of mesophases.\nAs soon as molecules can vary their orientation, like, for instance, in the weaker confining potential of case ii, the optimal reciprocal\narrangement of ionic and neutral groups is achieved by layering in the direction $z$ perpendicular to the surface, following a trend\nalready apparent in free surfaces\\cite{voth, mario, milani}. The system preference for this configuration is based on a few different effects:\nexposing the aliphatic tails to the vacuum side or to heterogeneous phases lowers the surface\/interfacial tension to values\n($\\sim 0.05$~N\/m, see Ref.~\\onlinecite{delamora}) typical\nof liquid hydrocarbons, and lower than those of inorganic ionic liquids; tails gain entropy from the orientational freedom at the interface;\nthe nanometric separation of charges and neutral tails, while decreasing entropy, optimises the packing of charges and of neutral tails,\ngaining both Coulomb and dispersion energy, while decreasing short-range repulsive contacts.\n\nAll these observations together suggest that mesophases could be relevant for RTIL's used as lubricants in between solid surfaces, when\nlocal temperatures and normal load become comparable to those of our simulations. Mesophases, in particular, could form in RTIL of sufficiently\nlong tail with decreasing separation of the lubricated surfaces, when the applied load reaches values in the kbar range, entering the regime\nof boundary lubrication  and squeezing the RTIL into a nearly 2D space.\n\nThe formation of mesophases could affect technologically important properties such as viscosity, and could be verified by\nmeasurements using a diamond anvil cell\\cite{anvil}.\n\nBesides these reason of applied interest, the formation of mesophases in nearly-2D RTIL systems, if confirmed by experiments and by further computations,\nwould add another fascinating chapter to the already rich phenomenology of these low temperature Coulombic fluids.\n\nACKNOWLEDGEMENTS - Computing resources were kindly provided by the Consorzio Interuniversitario Lombardo per l'Elaborazione Automatica (CILEA). \n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\includegraphics[width=6cm,angle=0]{Fig1.eps}\n\\caption{Schematic structure of the [C$_n$mim][Tf$_2$N] ions considered in the simulations.\n}\n\\label{scheme}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\includegraphics[width=10cm]{Fig2.eps}\n\\caption{Plot of the confining potentials used in the simulation. The potentials in (a) are symmetric, while the asymmetric\npotential in panel (b) corresponds to the van der Waals potential outside an insulating solid surface.\n}\n\\label{pote}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\includegraphics[width=10cm]{Fig3.eps}\n\\caption{Mean square displacement as a function of time for the centre of mass of cations ([C$_{12}$mim]$^+$) and anions ([Tf$_2$N]$^-$)\nin the narrow symmetric confining potential ($d=2.5$~\\AA). \nNote the change of scale from the upper ($T=300$~K) to the lower panel\n($T=500$~K).\nThe solid straight lines are fit to the cation data in the $1 - 5$~ns range.\n}\n\\label{msd}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\includegraphics[width=10cm]{Fig4.eps}\n\\caption{Snapshot from the [C$_{12}$mim][Tf$_2$N] simulations in the $d=2.5$~\\AA\\ symmetric potential well.\nThe RTIL slab is tilted to show its aspect ratio.\n}\n\\label{snap300}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\includegraphics[width=10cm]{Fig5.eps}\n\\caption{Expanded view of the configuration of Fig.~\\ref{snap300} seen from above. An area of $\\sim 65 \\times 80 $ \\AA$^2$ is shown.\nC: black particles; O: red; N: blue; S: yellow; F: green; Hydrogen atoms: not shown.\n}\n\\label{snapzoom}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\includegraphics[width=10cm]{Fig6.eps}\n\\caption{Density distribution in the direction $z$ perpendicular to the interface for cations (red dash-dotted line), anions (blue dash line), and alkane tails \n(full line) in [C$_{12}$mim][Tf$_2$N] confined by the the narrow ($d=2.5$~\\AA, upper panel) and wide ($d=4$~\\AA, lower panel) symmetric potential well.\nAnion and cation positions are identified by the centre of charge of the imidazolium ring and of [Tf$_2$N]$^-$, respectively.\nThe tail position is represented by the terminal CT carbon (see scheme in Fig.~\\ref{scheme}).\n}\n\\label{prof}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\includegraphics[width=10cm]{Fig7.eps}\n\\caption{Top view of a simulation snapshot for [C$_{12}$mim][Tf$_2$N] at $T=400$~K. Atoms are represented by small balls joined by covalent bonds using the following\ncolour coding: C: yellow particles;\nO: red; N, F and S: brown; H: cyan. The large pale-blue balls represent the anion centre of charge, while the red balls of intermediate size\nrepresent the centre of charge of the cation (see text).\n}\n\\label{balls}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\includegraphics[width=9cm,angle=-90]{Fig8.eps}\n\\caption{Two-dimensional structure factors $S_{ij}(q)$ for anions and cations, whose positions are identified as in Fig.~\\ref{balls}.\n}\n\\label{sk}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\includegraphics[width=9cm,angle=-90]{Fig9.eps}\n\\caption{Bathia-Thornton structure factors $S_{NN}$, $S_{QQ}$, $S_{NQ}$\n  defined in ens.~(\\ref{snn}-\\ref{snq}) for anions and cations, whose\n  positions are identified as in Fig.~\\ref{balls}.\n}\n\\label{skBT}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\includegraphics[width=10cm]{Fig10.eps}\n\\caption{Snapshot from the simulation trajectory of [C$_4$mim][Tf$_2$N] in the narrow ($d=2.5$ \\AA\\ ) symmetric potential at $T=400$ K.\nThe same colour coding of Fig.~\\ref{balls} has been used.\nImidazolium rings and [Tf$_2$N]$^-$ anions, in particular, are represented by red and blue particles, respectively, located at their centre of charge.\n}\n\\label{scSnap}\n\\end{figure}\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
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+{"text":"\n\\section{Introduction}\nStatistical Relational Learning \\cite{SRL_LISA,SRL_LUC} (SRL) is concerned with representing and learning probabilistic models over relational structures. In  recent years, the behavior of SRL models under varying domain sizes has come into significant attention \\cite{Projectivity_first,Population_Extrapolation}. Many works have observed that SRL frameworks exhibit unwanted behaviors over varying domain sizes \\cite{Population_Extrapolation,DA_MLN}. These behaviors make models learnt from sub-sampled domains and inference over varying domain sizes unreliable \\cite{DA_MLN}. Drawing on the works of Shalizi and Rinaldo \\cite{Projectivity_Rinaldo} on Exponential Random Graphs (ERGMs), Jaeger and Schulte \\cite{Projectivity_first} have recently introduced the notion of \\emph{projectivity} as a strong form of guarantee for good scaling behavior in SRL models. A projective model requires that the probability of a given property holding over arbitrary $m$ domain objects is completely independent of the domain size. Jaeger and Schulte \\cite{Projectivity_first}  identify many restrictive fragments of SRL models to be projective. But wether these fragments are complete characterization of projectivity, remains an open problem.\n\nIn this paper our goal is to characterize projectivity for a specific class of SRL models, namely Markov Logic Networks \\cite{richardson2006markov}(MLNs). MLNs are amongst the most prominent template based SRL models. An MLN is a Markov Random Field with features defined in  terms of function-free weighted First Order Logic (FOL) formulae. Jaeger and Schutle \\cite{Projectivity_SRL} show that an MLN is projective if:  any pair of atoms in each of  its FOL formulae share the same set of variables. In this paper, we show that this characterization is not complete. Furthermore, we completely characterize projectively for the class of MLNs with at-most 2 variables in their formulae. A key contribution of our work is that we are able to provide a parametric restriction which can be easily incorporated into any MLN learning algorithm. Furthermore, we are able to identify a special class of projective MLNs, namely Relational Block Models (RBMs), which maximally maximize the training data likelihood w.r.t any other projective MLN in the two variable fragment. Finally, we show that RBMs admit consistent maximum likelihood parameter estimation over varying domain sizes.\n\nThe paper is organized as follows: We first contextualize our work w.r.t the related works in this domain. We then provide some background and notation on FOL and relational structures. We also elaborate on the fragment of FOL with at most two variables i.e. FO$^2$ and define the notion of  FO$^2$ interpretations as multi-relational graphs. We also overview some results on Weighted First Order Model Counting. In the subsequent section, we provide a  parametric representation for any MLN in the two variable fragment. We then dedicate a section to the main result of this paper i.e. the necessary and sufficient conditions for an MLN in the two variable fragment to be projective. Based on the projectivity criterions we identify a special class of models namely Relational Block Models. We dedicate a complete section to RBMs and elaborate on their useful properties. Finally, we discuss the consistency and efficiency aspects of learning for projective MLNs and RBMs. \n\n\n\n\\section{Related work}\nProjectivity has emerged as a formal notion of interest through multiple independent lines of works across ERGM and SRL literature. The key focus of these works have been analyzing \\cite{Proj_TOM,Population_Extrapolation} or mitigating \\cite{A_MLN,DA_MLN} the\neffects of varying domain sizes on relational models. The major step in formalizing the notion of projectivity  can be attributed to Shalizi and Rinaldo \\cite{Projectivity_Rinaldo}. The authors both formalize and characterize the sufficient and necessary conditions for ERGMs to be projective. It is interesting to \nnote that their projectivity criterion is strictly structural i.e. they put no restrictions on parameter values but rather inhibit the class of features that can be defined as sufficient statistics in ERGMs. In contrast our results w.r.t MLN are strictly parametric (which may at times correspond to structural restrictions as well). With respect to SRL, the notion of projectivity was first formalized by Jaeger and Schulte \\cite{Projectivity_first}, they provide  many restrictive fragments of SRL models to be projective. In \\cite{Projectivity_SRL}, Jaeger and Schulte, significantly extend the scope of projective models by characterizing necessary and sufficient conditions for an arbitrary model on relational structures to be projective. Their characterization is expressed in terms of the so called AHK models. But as they conclude in \\cite{Projectivity_SRL}, expressing AHK models in existing SRL frameworks remains a significant open challenge. Hence, a complete characterization of projectivity in most SRL languages is still an open challenge. In \\cite{Felix_Weit}, Weitkamper has  shown that the characterization of projectivity provided by Jaeger and Schulte \\cite{Projectivity_first}, for probabilistic logic programs under distribution semantics, is indeed complete. In this work, we will extend this characterization to two variable fragment of Markov Logic Networks.\n\n\\section{Background}\n\\subsubsection{Basic Definitions.}We use the following basic notation. The set of integers $\\{1,...,n\\}$ is denoted by $[n]$. \nWe use $[m:n]$ to denote the set of integers $\\{m,...,n\\}$. Wherever the set of integers $[n]$ is obvious from the context we will use $[\\overline{m}]$ to represent the set $[m+1:n]$. We use $\\bm{k} = \\langle k_1,...,k_m \\rangle$ to denote an $n$-partition i.e. $k_i \\in \\mathbb{Z^{+}}$ and  $\\sum_{i\\in[m]}k_i = n$\nwe will also use multinomial coefficients denoted by  $$\\binom{n}{k_1,...,k_m} =  \\binom{n}{\\bk}= \\frac{n!}{\\prod_{i\\in [m]} k_i !}$$\n\n\\subsubsection{First Order Logic and Relational Substructures.}We assume a function-free First Order Logic (FOL) language\n$\\mathcal{L}$ defined by a set of variables $\\mathcal{V}$ and a set of\nrelational symbols $\\mathcal{R}$. We use $\\Delta$ to denote a domain of\n$n$ constants. For $a_1,...,a_k \\in \\mathcal{V} \\cup \\Delta$ and $R\\in \\mathcal{R}$, we call $R(a_1,...a_k)$ an \\emph{atom}. A \\emph{literal} is an atom or the negation of an atom. If $a_1,...,a_k \\in \\mathcal{V}$, then the atom is called a \\emph{first order atom}, whereas if $a_1,...,a_k \\in \\Delta$, then it's called a \\emph{ground atom}. We use $\\mathcal{F}$ to denote the set of first order atoms and $\\mathcal{G}$ to denote the set of ground atoms. A \\emph{world} or an \\emph{interpretation} $\\omega:\\mathcal{G} \\rightarrow \\{\\mathbf{T},\\mathbf{F}\\}$ is a function that maps each ground atom to a boolean.  The set of interpretations $\\omega$ in the language $\\mathcal{L}$ and the domain $\\Delta$ of size $n$ is denoted by $\\Omega^{(n)}$. We say that $\\omega \\in \\Omega^{(n)}$, has a size $n$ and is also called an $n$-world. For a subset $\\mathrm{I}\\subset \\Delta$, we use $\\omega \\downarrow \\mathrm{I}$ to denote the partial interpretation induced by $\\mathrm{I}$. Hence, $\\omega \\downarrow \\mathrm{I}$  is an interpretation over the ground atoms containing only the domain elements in $\\mathrm{I}$. \n\\begin{example}\n    Let us have a language with only one relational symbol $R$ of arity $2$  and a domain $\\Delta = \\{a,b,c\\}$. Let us have the following interpretation $\\omega$:\n    \\begin{center}\n        \\begin{tabular}{ |c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c| } \n         \\hline\n         $R(a,a)$ & $R(a,b)$ & $R(a,c)$ &  $R(b,a)$ & $R(b,b)$ & $R(b,c)$  &  $R(c,a)$ & $R(c,b)$ & $R(c,c)$\\\\\n         \\hline \n         $\\mathbf{T}$ & $\\mathbf{T}$ & $\\mathbf{F}$ & $\\mathbf{T}$ & $\\mathbf{T}$ & $\\mathbf{F}$ & $\\mathbf{T}$ & $\\mathbf{T}$ & $\\mathbf{F}$ \\\\ \n         \\hline\n        \\end{tabular}\n    \\end{center}\nthen $\\omega \\downarrow \\{a,b\\}$ is given as:\n\n\\begin{center}\n    \\begin{tabular}{ |c|c|c|c| } \n     \\hline\n     $R(a,a)$ & $R(a,b)$ & $R(b,a)$ &  $R(b,b)$\\\\\n     \\hline \n     $\\mathbf{T}$ & $\\mathbf{T}$ & $\\mathbf{F}$ & $\\mathbf{T}$\\\\ \n     \\hline\n    \\end{tabular}\n    \\end{center}\n\n\\end{example}\nFor most of our purposes, we will be able to assume w.l.o.g that $\\Delta = [n]$.\n\n\\subsubsection{FO$^2$, $m$-Types and $m$-Tables.}FO$^2$ is the fragment of FOL with two variables. We will use the notion of $1$-types, $2$-type, and $2$-tables as presented in \\cite{kuusisto2018weighted}. A $1$-type is a conjunction of a maximally consistent set of first order literals containing only one variable. For example, in an FO$^2$ language on the unary predicate $A$ and binary predicate $R$,  ${A(x)\\land R(x,x)}$ and $ {A(x)\\land \\neg R(x,x)}$ are examples of 1-types in variable $x$. A 2-table is a conjunction of maximally consistent first order literals containing exactly two distinct variables. Extending the previous example, ${R(x,y)\\land \\neg R(y,x)}$ and ${R(x,y)\\land R(y,x)}$ are instances of 2-tables.\nWe assume an arbitrary order on the 1-types and 2-tables, hence, we use ${i(x)}$ to denote the $i^{th}$ 1-type and $ {l(x,y)}$ to denote the $l^{th}$ 2-table. Finally, a $2$-type is a conjunction of the form \n${i(x)\\land j(y) \\land l(x,y) \\land (x \\neq y)}$ and we use $ {ijl(x,y)}$ to represent it. In a given interpretation $\\omega$, we say a constant $c$ realizes the $i^{th}$ 1-type if $ {\\omega \\models i(c)}$, we say a pair of constants $(c,d)$ realizes the $l^{th}$ 2-table if $ {\\omega \\models l(c,d)}$ and $(c,d)$ realizes the 2-type $ {ijl(x,y)}$ if $ {\\omega \\models ijl(c,d)}$. We call the 2-type ${ijl(y,x)}$ the dual of ${ijl(x,y)}$ and denote it by $ {\\underline{ijl}(x,y)}$. We will use $u$ to denote the number of 1-types and $b$ to denote the number of 2-tables in a given FO$^2$ language.\n\n\\subsubsection{Interpretations as Multi-relational Graphs.}Given an\nFO$^2$ language $\\mathcal{L}$ with interpretations defined over the\ndomain $\\Delta = [n]$, we can represent an interpretation\n$\\omega \\in \\Omega^{(n)}$ as a multi-relational graph $(\\x,\\y)$. This\nis achieved by defining $\\x = (x_1,...,x_n)$ such that $x_q=i$ if\n$ {\\omega \\models i(q)}$ and by defining\n$\\y = (y_{12},y_{13},...y_{qr},...,y_{n-1,n})$, where $q<r$, such that\n$y_{qr} = l$ if $ {\\omega \\models l(q,r)}$. We also define\n$k_i = k_i(\\x) = k_i(\\omega) := |\\{c \\in \\Delta: c \\models i(c) \\}| $, $h^{ij}_l = h^{ij}_l(\\y) = h^{ij}_l(\\omega) := |\\{(c,d) \\in\n  \\Delta^{2}: \\omega \\models ijl(c,d)\\} |$ and\n  for any $D\\subseteq\\Delta^2$, $h^{ij}_{l}(D) = h^{ij}_{l}(\\omega,D):=|\\{ (c,d):\\omega \\models ijl(c,d) \\text{ and } (c,d)\n  \\in D\\}|$. Notice that\n  $\\sum_{i\\leq j}\\sum_{l\\in[b]} h^{ij}_l = \\binom{n}{2}$ and\n  $\\sum_{l\\in [b]}h^{ij}_{l} = \\bk(i,j)$, where $\\bk(i,j)$ is defined\n  in equation \\eqref{kij} . We use\n$(\\x_{\\mathrm{I}} , \\y_{\\mathrm{I}})$ to represent the\nmulti-relational graph for $\\omega \\downarrow \\mathrm{I}$. Throughout\nthis paper we will use an interpretation $\\omega$ and it's\nmulti-relational graph $(\\x,\\y)$ interchangeably.\n\n\\subsubsection{Weighted First Order Model Counting in FO$^2$.}We will briefly review Weighted First Order Model Counting (WFOMC) in FO$^2$ as presented in \\cite{FOMC_arxiv}. WFOMC is formally defined as follows:\n\\begin{equation*}\n    \\wfomc(\\Phi,n) := \\sum_{\\omega \\in \\Omega^{(n)}:\\omega \\models \\Phi}w(\\omega)\n\\end{equation*}\nwhere $\\Phi$ is an FOL formula, $n$ is the size of the domain and $w$ is a weight function that maps each interpretation $\\omega$ to a positive real. First Order Model Counting (FOMC) is the special case of WFOMC, where for all $\\omega \\in \\Omega^{(n)}$, $w(\\omega) = 1$. We assume that \n$w$ does not depend on individual domain constants, which implies that $w$ assigns same weight to two interpretations which are isomorphic under the permutation of domain elements. \n\nA universally quantified FO$^2$ formula $\\forall xy. \\Phi(x,y)$ can be equivalently expressed as $\\forall xy. \\Phi(\\{x,y\\})$, where $\\Phi(\\{x,y\\})$ is defined as $\\Phi(x,x)\\land \\Phi(x,y)\\land \\Phi(y,x)\\land \\Phi(y,y)\\land( x \\neq y)$. A \\emph{lifted interpretation} denoted by $\\tau: \\mathcal{F} \\rightarrow \\{\\mathbf{T,F}\\}$ assigns boolean values to first order atoms. The truth value of the quantifier free formula $\\Phi(x,y)$ under a lifted interpretation $\\tau$, denoted by $\\tau(\\Phi(x,y))$, is computed by applying classical semantics of the propositional connectives to the truth assignments of atoms of $\\Phi(\\{x,y\\})$ under $\\tau$. We then define $n_{ijl} := \\left|\\left\\{\\tau\\mid\\tau\\models\\Phi(\\{x,y\\})\\wedge ijl(x,y) \\right\\}\\right|$ and $n_{ij} := \\sum_{l\\in [b]} n_{ijl}$. First Order Model Counting for a universally quantified formula $\\forall xy. \\Phi(x,y)$ is then given as:\n\\begin{align}\n    \\label{eq:fomc-universal-form}\n    \\fomc(\\forall xy. \\Phi(x,y),n) = &\n   \\sum_{\\bk}  \\binom{n}{\\bm{k}}\n   \\prod_{\\substack{{i\\leq j}\\\\{i,j\\in[b]}}}\\!\\!\\! n_{i j}^{\\bk(i,j)}\n\\end{align}\nwhere $\\bk =\\left<k_1,\\dots,k_u\\right>$ is a $u$-tuple of non-negative integers, $\\binom{n}{\\bm{k}}$ is the multinomial coefficient and\n\\begin{align}\n    \\label{kij}\n  \\bk(i,j) =\n  \\begin{cases}\n      \\frac{k_{i}(k_{i} - 1)}{2} & \\text{if $i=j$} \\\\\n       k_{i}k_{j} & \\text{otherwise} \\\\\n     \\end{cases}\n\\end{align}\nIntuitively, $k_i$ represents the number of constants $c$ of 1-type $i$. Also a given constant realizes exactly one 1-type. Hence, for a given \n$\\bk$, we have $\\binom{n}{\\bk}$ possible ways of realizing $k_i$ 1-types. Furthermore, given a pair of constants $c$ and $d$ such that \n   $c$ is of 1-type $i$ and $d$ is of 1-type $j$, the number of extensions to the binary predicates containing both $c$ and $d$, such that the extensions are a model of $\\forall xy. \\Phi(x,y)$, is given by $n_{ij}$ independently of all other constants. Finally, the exponent $\\bk(i,j)$ accounts for all possible pair-wise choices of constants given a $\\bk$ vector.  \nEquation \\eqref{eq:fomc-universal-form} was originally proven in \\cite{Symmetric_Weighted}, we refer the reader to \\cite{FOMC_arxiv} for the formulation presented here.\n  \n\\subsubsection{Families of Probability Distributions and Projectivity.} We will be interested in probability distributions over the set of interpretations or equivalently their multi-relational graphs.\nA family of probability distributions $\\{P^{(n)}: n \\in \\mathbb{N}  \\}$ specifies, for each finite domain of size $n$, a distribution $P^{(n)}$ on the possible $n$-world set $\\Omega^{(n)}$ \\cite{Projectivity_SRL}. We will mostly work with the so-called exchangeable probability distributions \\cite{Projectivity_SRL} i.e. distributions where $P^{(n)}(\\omega) = P^{(n)}(\\omega') $ if $\\omega$ and $\\omega'$ are isomorphic. A distribution $P^{(n)}(\\omega)$ over $n$-worlds induces a marginal probability distribution over  $m$-worlds $\\omega' \\in \\Omega^{(m)}$ as follows:\n\\begin{equation*}\n    P^{(n)}\\downarrow [m](\\omega') = \\sum_{\\omega \\in \\Omega^{(n)}:\\omega \\downarrow [m] =\\omega'} P^{(n)}(\\omega)\n\\end{equation*}\nNotice that due to exchangeability $P^{(n)} \\downarrow \\mathrm{I}$ is the same for all subsets $\\mathrm{I}$ of size $m$, hence we can always assume any induced $m$-world  to be $\\omega \\downarrow [m]$. We are now able to define projectivity as follows:\n\\begin{definition}[\\cite{Projectivity_SRL}]\n    An exchangeable family of probability distributions is called projective if for all $m < n$: $$P^{(n)} \\downarrow [m] = P^{(m)}$$\n\\end{definition}\nwhen dealing with probability distributions over multi-relational representation, we denote by $(\\bX,\\bY)$ the\nrandom vector where, $\\bX=(X_1,\\dots,X_n)$ and each $X_i$ takes value in $[u]$;\nand $\\bY=(Y_{12},Y_{13},\\dots,Y_{qr},\\dots,Y_{n-1,n})$ where $q < r$ and $Y_{qr}$ takes values in $[b]$.\n\n\\section{Markov Logic Networks: A Parametric Normal Form}\nIn this section we will provide a parametric normal form for all MLNs in the 2 variable fragment. A Markov Logic Network (MLN) $\\Phi$ is defined by a set of weighted\nformulas $\\{(\\phi_i,a_i)\\}_i$, where $\\phi_i$ are function-free\nfirst-order logic formulae with weights $a_i \\in \\mathbb{R}$. An MLN $\\Phi$ induces a\nprobability distribution over the set of possible worlds $\\omega \\in \\Omega^{(n)}$: \n\\begin{equation*}\n    P^{(n)}_{\\Phi}(\\omega) = \\frac{1}{Z(n)}\\exp\\Bigl(\\sum_{(\\phi_i,a_i)\\in \\Phi}a_i.N(\\phi_i,\\omega)\\Bigr)\n\\end{equation*}\nwhere $N(\\phi_i,\\omega)$ represents the number of true groundings of\n$\\phi_i$ in $\\omega$. The normalization constant $Z(n)$ is called the\n\\emph{partition function} that ensures that $P^{(n)}_{\\Phi}$ is a\nprobability distribution.\n\n\n\\begin{theorem}\n    \\label{MLN_Normal_Form}\n    Any Markov Logic Network (MLN) $\\Phi = \\{(\\phi_i,a_i)\\}_i$ on a domain of size $n$, such that $\\phi_i$ contains at-most two variables, can be expressed as follows:\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\label{eq:mln_normal_form}\nP^{(n)}_{\\Phi}(\\omega) = \\frac{1}{Z(n)} \\prod_{i \\in [u]} s_{i}^{k_i} \\prod_{\\substack{i,j\\in [u]\\\\ i \\leq j}}\\prod_{l \\in [b]} (t_{ijl})^{h^{ij}_l}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $s_i$ and $t_{ijl}$ are positive real numbers and $k_i$ is $k_i(\\omega)$ and $h^{ij}_l$ is equal to $h^{ij}_l(\\omega)$. \n\\end{theorem}\n\n\\begin{proof}\n  Let $\\Phi = \\{(\\phi_i,a_i)\\}_i$  be an MLN, such that $\\phi_i$ contains at-most two variables.\n  Firstly, every weighted formula  $(\\phi(x,y),a)\\in\\Phi$ that contains exactly two variables\n  is replaced by two weighted formulas $(\\phi(x,x),a)$ and $(\\phi(x,y)\\land (x \\neq y) ,a)$.\n  %\n  The MLN distribution $P_{\\Phi}^{(n)}$ is invariant under this transformation. Hence, $\\Phi$ can be equivalently written as $\\{(\\alpha_q(x),a_q)\\}_{q} \\cup \\{(\\beta_p(x,y),a_p)\\}_{p} $, where $\\{\\alpha_q(x)\\}_{q}$ is the set of formulae containing only the variable $x$ and $\\{\\beta_p(x,y)\\}_{p}$ is the set of formulae containing both the variables $x$ and $y$. Notice that every $\\beta_p(x,y)$ entails $x\\neq y$.\n\n\nLet us have  $\\omega \\in \\Omega^{(n)}$, where we have a domain constant $c$ such that $\\omega\\models i(c)$. Now notice that the truth value of ground formulae $\\{\\alpha_q(c)\\}_q$ in $\\omega$ is completely determined by $i(c)$ irrespective of all other domain constants. Hence, the (multiplicative) weight contribution of $i(c)$ to the weight of $\\omega$ can be given as $\\exp(\\sum_{q} a_q\\mathbbm{1}_{i(x) \\models \\alpha_q(x)})$. We define $s_i$ as follows:\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\label{si}\n    s_i  = \\exp\\bigl(\\sum_{q}\\mathbbm{1}_{i(x) \\models \\alpha_q(x)}\\bigr)\n\\end{equation} \nClearly, this argument can be repeated for all the domain constants realizing any 1-type in $[u]$. Hence, the (multiplicative) weight contribution due to 1-types of all domain constants and equivalently due to the groundings of all unary formulae, is given as $\\prod_{i\\in[u]}s_i^{k_i}$. \n\nWe are now left with weight contributions due to the binary formulae $\\{(\\beta_p(x,y),a_p)\\}_{p}$. Due to the aforementioned transformation, each binary formula $\\beta(x,y)$ contains a conjunct $(x \\neq y)$. Hence, all groundings of $\\beta(x,y)$ such that both $x$ and $y$ are mapped to the same domain constants evaluate to false. Hence, we can assume that $x$ and $y$ are always mapped to distinct domain constants. Let us have an unordered pair of domain constants $\\{c,d\\}$ such that $\\omega\\models ijl(c,d)$. The truth value of any binary ground formula $\\beta(c,d)$ and $\\beta(d,c)$ is completely determined by $ijl(c,d)$ irrespective of all other domain constants. Hence, the multiplicative weight contribution due to the ground formulae $\\{\\beta_p(c,d)\\}_p \\cup \\{\\beta_p(d,c)\\}_p$ is given as $t_{ijl}$, where $t_{ijl}$ is defined as follows:\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\label{t_ijl}\nt_{ijl} =\\exp\\left(\\sum_{p}\\mathbbm{1}_{ijl(x,y) \\models \\beta_p(x,y)}a_p + \\sum_{p}\\mathbbm{1}_{ijl(x,y) \\models \\beta_p(y,x)}a_p\\right)\n\\end{equation}\n\n\n\n\nHence, the weight of an interpretation $\\omega$ under the MLN $\\Phi$ is given as  \n$$\\prod_{i \\in [u]} s_{i}^{k_i} \\prod_{\\substack{i,j\\in [u]\\\\ i \\leq j}}\\prod_{l \\in [b]} (t_{ijl})^{h^{ij}_l}$$\n\\end{proof}\n\nWe will now provide the parameterized version of the partition function $Z(n)$ due to Theorem \\ref{MLN_Normal_Form}. \n\\begin{proposition}\n    \\label{cor: partition}\n    Let $\\Phi$ be an MLN in the form \\eqref{eq:mln_normal_form}, let $f_{ij} = \\sum_{l\\in [b]}t_{ijl}$\nthen the partition function $Z(n)$ is given as:\n\\begin{equation}\n    Z(n) = \\sum_{\\bk}\\binom{n}{\\bk}\\prod_{i\\in [u]}s_i^{k_i} \\prod_{\\substack{{i,j \\in [u]}\\\\{i\\leq j}}}(f_{ij})^{\\bk(i,j)} \n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\bk(i,j)$ is defined in equation \\eqref{kij}.\n\\end{proposition}\n\\begin{proof}[Sketch]\nThe corollary is a parameterized version of equation \\eqref{eq:fomc-universal-form}, where $\\prod_{i\\in [u]}s_i^{k_i}$ takes into account the weight contributions due to the 1-type realizations and  $f_{ij}$ is essentially a weighted version of $n_{ij}$ i.e. given a pair of constants $c$ and $d$ such that they realize the $i^{th}$ and the $j^{th}$ 1-type respectively, then $f_{ij}$ is the sum of the weights due to the 2-types realized by the extensions to the binary predicates containing both $c$ and $d$.\n  \n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\n\\section{Projectivity in Markov Logic Networks }\nIn this section we present our main results on projectivity in\nMLNs. Our goal is to identify the necessary and sufficient condition\nfor an MLN to be projective in the two variable fragment.\n   \\begin{lemma} [Sufficiency]\n    \\label{lem: sufficiency_factorisation}\n    A Markov Logic Network in the two variable fragment\n    is projective if: \n    \\begin{equation}\n      \\forall i,j,i'j' \\in  [u]: f_{ij} = f_{i'j'} \n    \\end{equation}\n  \\end{lemma}\n\\begin{proof}\n  Let $\\forall i,j,i'j' \\in  [u]: f_{ij} = f_{i'j'} = S$. Hence, due to Proposition~\\ref{cor: partition}, we have:\n  \\begin{align}\n    \\label{eq: partition_factorises}\n    Z(n) &= \\sum_{\\bk}\\binom{n}{\\bk}\\prod_{i\\in [u]}s_i^{k_i} \\prod_{\\substack{{i,j \\in [u]}\\\\{i\\leq j}}}(S)^{\\bk(i,j)} \\\\\n    &= \\sum_{\\bk}\\binom{n}{\\bk}\\prod_{i\\in [u]}s_i^{k_i} (S)^{\\binom{n}{2}} = S^{\\binom{n}{2}}\\Big(\\sum_{i\\in[u]}s_i \\Big)^{n}\n  \\end{align}\n  Let $p_i = \\Bigl(\\frac{s_i}{\\sum_{i}s_i}\\Bigr)$ and $w_{ijl} = \\Bigl(\\frac{t_{ijl}}{S}\\Bigl) $. Hence,\n  \\begin{align*}\n      P^{(n)}_{\\Phi}(\\omega) &= \\frac{1}{(\\sum_{i\\in[u]}s_i )^{n}(S)^{\\binom{n}{2}}} \\prod_{i \\in [u]} s_{i}^{k_i} \\prod_{\\substack{i,j\\in [u]\\\\ i \\leq j}}\\prod_{l \\in [b]} (t_{ijl})^{h^{ij}_l}\\\\\n      &= \\prod_{i \\in [u]} \\Bigl(\\frac{s_{i}}{\\sum_{i\\in[u]}s_i}\\Bigr)^{k_i} \\prod_{\\substack{i,j\\in [u]\\\\ i \\leq j}}\\prod_{l \\in [b]} \\bigl(\\frac{t_{ijl}}{S}\\bigr)^{h^{ij}_l}\\\\\n      & = \\prod_{i \\in [u]} p_{i}^{k_i} \\prod_{\\substack{{i,j \\in [u]} \\\\{i \\leq j } }}\\prod_{l\\in[b]} w_{ijl}^{h^{ij}_l}\n  \\end{align*}\nUsing the multi-relational representation, $P^{(n)}_{\\Phi}(\\omega)$ can be equivalently expressed as:\n\\begin{align}\n  \\label{eq: RBM}\n  P^{(n)}_{\\Phi}(\\bX=\\x,\\bY = \\y) &= \\prod_{q \\in [n]} p_{x_q} \\prod_{\\substack{{q,r \\in [n]} \\\\{q <r } }} w_{x_qx_ry_{qr}} \n\\end{align}  \nLet $(\\bX',\\bY')$ be the random vector containing $X_q$ and $Y_{p,q}$\nwith $p<q\\in[m]$.\nClearly, our goal is to show that $$P^{(n)}_{\\Phi}\\downarrow [m] (\\bX' = \\x',\\bY' = \\y') = P^{(m)}_{\\Phi}(\\bX' = \\x',\\bY' = \\y')$$\nNow, the marginal distribution over the $m$-worlds $(\\bX',\\bY')$, due to $P^{(n)}_{\\Phi}(\\bX=\\x,\\bY = \\y)$ can be expressed as: \n    \\begin{align*}\n      &P^{(n)}_{\\Phi}\\downarrow [m] (\\bX' = \\x',\\bY' = \\y') = \\sum_{\\substack{\\x_{[m]} = \\x' \\\\\\y_{[m]} = \\y'}} P^{(n)}_{\\Phi}(\\bX = \\x,\\bY = \\y)\\\\\n                                 &= \\sum_{\\substack{\\x_{[m]} = \\x' \\\\\\y_{[m]} = \\y'}}\\prod_{q \\in [n]} p_{x_q} \\prod_{\\substack{{q,r \\in [n]} \\\\{q <r } }} w_{x_qx_ry_{qr}}\\\\\n                                 &= \\prod_{q \\in [m]} p_{x_q} \\prod_{ \\substack{{q,r \\in [m]} \\\\{q <r } }} w_{x_qx_ry_{qr}} \\times \\Biggl(\\sum_{\\substack{\\x_{[\\overline{m}]} \\\\\\y_{[\\overline{m}]}}} \\prod_{q \\in [\\overline{m}]} p_{x_q} \\prod_{ \\substack{{q,r \\in [\\overline{m}]} \\\\{q <r } }} w_{x_qx_ry_{qr}}  \\prod_{\\substack{q \\in [m]\\\\  r \\in [\\overline{m}]  }} w_{x_qx_ry_{qr}}  \\Biggr)\\\\\n                                 &= \\prod_{i \\in [u]} p_i^{k_i(\\bx')} \\prod_{\\substack{{i,j \\in [u]} \\\\ {i\\leq j}}} \\prod_{l \\in [b]} w_{ijl}^{h^{ij}_l(\\y')}\\\\\n                                 &\\times \\Biggl(\\sum_{\\substack{\\x_{[\\overline{m}]} \\\\\\y_{[\\overline{m}]}}} \\prod_{i \\in [u]} p_{i}^{k_i(\\x_{[\\overline{m}]})} \\prod_{\\substack{{i,j \\in [u]} \\\\ {i \\leq j}}  } \\prod_{l \\in [b]} w_{ijl}^{h^{ij}_l (\\y_{[\\overline{m}]})} \\prod_{\\substack{i,j\\in [u] \\\\ i \\leq j }} \\prod_{l \\in [b]}w_{ijl}^{h^{ij}_l({{[m] \\otimes [\\overline{m}]}})} \\Biggr)\\\\\n    \\end{align*}\n  where $A\\otimes B = A\\times B \\cup B\\times A$. \n    Notice that $\\prod_{i \\in [u]} p_i^{k_i(\\bx')} \\prod_{\\substack{{i,j \\in [u]} \\\\ {i\\leq j}}} \\prod_{l \\in [b]} w_{ijl}^{h^{ij}_l(\\y')}$ is $P^{(m)}_{\\Phi}(\\bX'=\\x',\\bY'=\\y')$. Hence, in order to complete the proof, we will now show that  for any $\\x'$: \n    \\begin{equation}\n      \\label{eq: increment_sufficiency}  \n    \\sum_{\\substack{\\x_{[\\overline{m}]} \\\\\\y_{[\\overline{m}]}}} \\prod_{i \\in [u]} p_{i}^{k_i(\\x_{[\\overline{m}]})} \\prod_{\\substack{{i,j \\in [u]} \\\\ {i \\leq j}}  } \\prod_{l \\in [b]} w_{ijl}^{h^{ij}_l (\\y_{[\\overline{m}]})} \\prod_{\\substack{i,j\\in [u]\\\\ i \\leq j}} \\prod_{l \\in [b]}w_{ijl}^{h^{ij}_l({{[m] \\otimes [\\overline{m}]}})} = 1\n  \\end{equation}\n   The LHS of equation \\eqref{eq: increment_sufficiency} can be written as:\n    \\begin{align} \n      \\label{eq: increment_2}\n        \\sum_{\\sum{\\bk} = n-m} \\binom{n-m}{\\bk}\\prod_{i \\in [u]} p_{i}^{k_i} \\prod_{\\substack{{i,j \\in [u]} \\\\{ i \\leq j } }} \\bigl(\\sum_{l}w_{ijl}\\bigr)^{\\bk(i,j)}\\prod_{\\substack{{i,j \\in [u]} \\\\ {i\\leq j}}} \\bigl(\\sum_{l} w_{ijl}\\bigr)^{k_{i}(\\x') \\times k_j}\n    \\end{align}\n    By definition, for any $i,j \\in [u]$, $\\sum_{l} w_{ijl} = 1$ , and $\\sum_{i}p_i = 1$. Hence, expression \\eqref{eq: increment_2} can be written as:\n    \\begin{align*}\n          \\sum_{\\sum \\bk = n-m}  \\binom{n-m}{\\bk}\\prod_{i \\in [u]} p_{i}^{k_i} = \\Biggl(\\sum_{i} p_{i}\\Biggr)^{n-m} = 1\n    \\end{align*}\n    Hence, completing the proof.\n  \\end{proof}\n  \n  We will now prove that the aforementioned sufficient conditions are also necessary. \n  \n  \\begin{lemma}[Necessary]\n    \\label{lem: neccesity}\n    If a Markov Logic network in the two variable fragment is projective then :\n    \\begin{equation}\n      \\forall i,j,i',j'\\in [u]: f_{ij} =  f_{i'j'}  \n    \\end{equation}\n    \n  \\end{lemma}\n  \\begin{proof} Let us have a markov logic network $\\Phi$ over a domain $[n+1]$. Let $\\bX'$ and $\\bY'$ be random variables representing multi-relational graphs on the domain $[n]$. Then :\n  \n  \\begin{align*}\n      &P_{\\Phi}^{(n+1)}\\downarrow [n] (\\bX' = \\x',\\bY' = \\y') = \\sum_{\\substack{\\x_{[n]} = \\x' \\\\\\y_{[n]} = \\y'}} P_{\\Phi}^{(n+1)}(\\bX = \\x,\\bY = \\y)\\\\\n                               &= \\sum_{\\substack{\\x_{[n]} = \\x' \\\\\\y_{[n]} = \\y'}}\\frac{1}{Z(n+1)}\\prod_{q\\in [n+1]} s_{x_q} \\prod_{\\substack{{q,r \\in [n+1]} \\\\ {q < r}}} t_{x_qx_ry_{qr}} \\\\\n                               &= \\frac{1}{Z(n)}\\prod_{q\\in [n]} s_{x_q} \\prod_{\\substack{{q,r \\in [n]} \\\\ {q < r}}} t_{x_qx_ry_{qr}} \\frac{Z(n)}{Z(n+1)} \\sum_{\\substack{x_{n+1}\\\\ y_{q,n+1}}}s_{x_{n+1}} \\prod_{q\\in [n]}t_{x_qx_{n+1}y_{q,n+1}} \\\\\n                               &=  P^{(n)}_{\\Phi}(\\bX' = \\x',\\bY' = \\y') \\frac{Z(n)}{Z(n+1)} \\sum_{\\substack{x_{n+1}\\\\ y_{q,n+1}}}s_{x_{n+1}} \\prod_{q\\in [n]}t_{x_qx_{n+1}y_{q,n+1}} \\\\ \n  \\end{align*}\n  Due to projectivity we have that:\n  \\begin{align*}\n    P^{(n)}_{\\Phi}(\\bX' = \\x',\\bY' = \\y') &= P^{(n+1)}_{\\Phi}\\downarrow [n] (\\bX' = \\x',\\bY' = \\y') \\\\  \n  \\end{align*}\n  Hence,\n  \\begin{align*}\n    \\frac{Z(n+1)}{Z(n)} &=  \\sum_{\\substack{x_{n+1} \\\\ y_{q,n+1}}}s_{x_{n+1}} \\prod_{q\\in [n]}t_{x_qx_{n+1}y_{q,n+1}}\n  \\end{align*}\n  which can be equivalently written as:\n  \\begin{align*}  \n    \\frac{Z(n+1)}{Z(n)} &= \\sum_{i\\in [u]}s_i\\prod_{j\\in[u]}\\Bigr(\\sum_{l \\in [b]}  t_{jil}\\Bigl)^{k_{j}(\\bx')} \n  \\end{align*}\n  Now, $\\sum_{l \\in [b]}  t_{jiv} = f_{ji} = f_{ij}$. Hence:\n  \\begin{align*}\n    \\frac{Z(n+1)}{Z(n)} &= \\sum_{i\\in [u]}s_i \\prod_{j\\in[u]}f_{ij}^{k_{j}(\\bx')} \n  \\end{align*}\n  Hence, for any choice of the domain size $m$ and for any choice of $m$-worlds $(\\x,\\y)$ and $(\\x',\\y')$, we have that:\n  \\begin{align}\n    \\sum_{i\\in [u]}s_i \\prod_{j\\in[u]}f_{ij}^{k_{j}(\\bx)} &= \\sum_{i\\in [u]}s_i \\prod_{j\\in[u]}f_{ij}^{k_{j}(\\bx')} \n  \\end{align}\nwhich implies \\footnote{We prove this \\say{implication} in detail in the Appendix.} that:\n\\begin{equation*}\n      \\forall i,j,i',j'\\in [u]: f_{ij} =  f_{i'j'}  \n\\end{equation*}\nHence, completing the proof.\n\\end{proof}\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n  \n \n \n \n \n  \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n  We are finally able to provide the following theorem.\n  \n  \\begin{theorem}\n    \\label{th: MLN_Projectivity}\n    A Markov Logic Network (MLN) $\\Phi = \\{(\\phi_i,a_i)\\}_i$, such that $\\phi_i$ contains at-most two variables is projective if and only if,\n    \\begin{equation} \n      \\label{eq: main_result} \n    \\forall i,j,i',j' \\in [u] : f_{ij} = f_{i'j'} \n    \\end{equation}\n  \n  \\end{theorem} \n\n In the next section, we will show that the conditions in\n Theorem \\ref{th: MLN_Projectivity} correspond to a special type of\n probability distributions. We will characterize such distributions\n and  then investigate their various aspects.\n\n\n\\section{Relational block model}\n\nIn this section we introduce the Relational Block Model (RBM). We will then show that any projective MLN in the two variable fragment is an RBM.\n\\begin{definition}\n  \\label{def: RBM}\n  Let $n$ be a positive integer (the number of domain constants), $u$ be a\n  positive integer (the number of 1-types), $b$ be a positive integer (the number of 2-tables), $p = (p_1,...,p_u)$ be a probability vector on $[u]=\\{1,...,u\\}$ \n  and $W  = (w_{ijl}) \\in [0,1]^{u\\times u \\times b}$, where $w_{ijl} = w_{\\underline{ijl}}$  ($w_{ijl}$ is the conditional probability of domain elements $(c,d)$ realizing the $l^{th}$ 2-table, given $ {i(c)}$ and $ {j(d)}$).\n  The multi-relational graph $(X,Y)$ is drawn under $\\mathrm{RBM}(n,p,W)$ if $X$ is an $n$-dimensional vector with $i.i.d$ components distributed under $p$ and $Y$ is a random vector with its component $y_{qr} = l$, where $l \\in [b]$, with a \n  probability $w_{x_qx_rl}$ independently of all other pair of domain constants. \n  \n \n \n  \n  Thus, the probability distribution of $(X,Y)$ is defined as follows, where $\\x \\in [u]^{n}$ and $\\y \\in [b]^{\\binom{n}{2}}$ \n\\begin{align*}\n  P(X=\\x) &:= \\prod_{q=1}^{n} p_{x_q} = \\prod_{i=1}^{u} p_{x_i}^{k_i}\\\\\n  P(Y=\\y|X = \\x) &:= \\prod_{1\\leq q < r \\leq n  } w_{x_qx_ry_{pq}} \\\\\n  &= \\prod_{ 1\\leq i \\leq j \\leq u} \\, \\prod_{1\\leq l \\leq b}(w_{ijl})^{h^{ij}_l}\n\\end{align*}\n \n\\end{definition}\n\n\n\nIn the following example, we show how RBMs can model homophily. \n\n\\begin{example}[Homophily] Let us have an FO$^2$ language with a unary predicate $C$ (representing a two colors) and a binary predicate $R$. \n  We wish to model a distribution on simple undirected graphs i.e. models of the formula $\\phi = \\forall xy. \\neg R(x,x) \\land (R(x,y) \\rightarrow R(y,x))$ such that \n  same color nodes are more likely to have an edge. Due to $\\phi$ the 1-types with $\\neg R(x,x)$ as a conjunct have a probability zero. Hence, we can assume we have only two 1-types:\n  $1(x) = C(x)\\land \\neg R(x,x) $ and $2(x) = \\neg C(x)\\land \\neg R(x,x) $ (representing two possible colors for a given node). Similarly due to $\\phi$, we have only two 2-tables $1(x,y): R(x,y) \\land R(y,x)$ and $ 2(x,y): \\neg R(x,y) \\land \\neg R(y,x)$ (representing existence and non existence of edges). We can now easily define homophily by following parameterization of an RBM.\n  $p_1 = p_2 = 0.5$ i.e. any node can have  two colors with equal probability. Then we can define $w_{111} = 0.9$, $w_{112} = 0.1$, $w_{221} = 0.9$, $w_{222} = 0.1$, $w_{121} = 0.1$ and $w_{122}=0.9$. \n\\end{example}\n\n\\begin{theorem}\n  \\label{th:RBM_MLN}\n  Every projective Markov Logic Network in the two variable fragment is an RBM.\n\\end{theorem}\n\\begin{proof}\n  The proof follows from the sufficiency proof in Lemma \\ref{lem: sufficiency_factorisation}. Notice that in the proof, we derive equation \\eqref{eq: RBM}, which is exactly the expression for RBM.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Maximum Likelihood Learning}\nIn a learning setting, for an MLN $\\{\\phi_i,a_i\\}$ in the two variable fragment, we are interested in estimating the set of parameters $\\bm{\\theta} = \\{a_i\\}$\nthat maximize the likelihood of a training example such that the learnt MLN is projective. As analyzed in \\cite{one_Network,Relational_Marginal_Polytope}, we will focus \non the scenario where only a single possible world $\\omega \\in \\Omega^{(n)}$ is observed. We estimate $\\bm{\\theta}$ by maximizing the likelihood\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\label{likelihood}\n    L^{(n)}(\\bm{\\theta}|\\omega) = P^{(n)}_{\\bm{\\theta}}(\\omega)\n\\end{equation}\n\n\nNotice that although every projective MLN can be equivalently defined as an RBM. The Maximum Likelihood  parameter estimate for an RBM is not the same as the  parameter estimate for an MLN such that it is projective. \n\nWe will now provide, the maximum likelihood estimator for an RBM. This estimator is completely analytically definable and admits many desirable consistency and efficiency properties. We will then show that, as far as maximizing data likelihood is concerned, RBM is at least as good as any projective MLN.\n\n\n\\begin{proposition}\n    \\label{lem: RBM_ML}\n    Given a training example $\\omega \\in \\Omega^{(n)}$, the maximum likelihood parameter estimate for an RBM is given as :\n    \\begin{align}\n        p_i = \\frac{k_i}{n}    \n        & &w_{ijl} = \\frac{h^{ij}_l}{\\bk(i,j)}\n    \\end{align}\n\\end{proposition}\nProposition \\ref{lem: RBM_ML} can be derived by maximizing the log likelihood due to the distribution given in Definition \\ref{def: RBM}. \n\n\n\nWe will now see how maximum likelihood parameter estimate can be obtained for an MLN such that the MLN is projective. \n\nGiven an MLN $\\{\\phi_i,a_i\\}_i$ in the two variable fragment, where $\\bm{\\theta} = \\{a_i\\}_i$ are unknown parameters to be estimated, due to Theorem \\ref{MLN_Normal_Form}, we can define $s_i(\\bm{\\theta})$ and $t_{ijl}(\\bm{\\theta})$, such that the likelihood is given as:\n\n\\begin{equation}\nL(\\omega|\\bm{\\theta}) = \\frac{1}{Z(n)} \\prod_{i \\in [u]} s_{i}(\\bm{\\theta})^{k_i} \\prod_{\\substack{i,j\\in [u]\\\\ i \\leq j}}\\prod_{l \\in [b]} (t_{ijl}(\\bm{\\theta}))^{h^{ij}_l}\n\\end{equation}\nThe maximum likelihood parameter estimates such that the estimated MLN is projective,  can be then obtained by solving the following optimization problem:\n\\begin{align}\n    \\label{MLN_ML_proj}\n    \\begin{split}\n       \\text{ maximize:}  &\\Big[ \\sum_{i\\in [u]}k_i \\log s_{i}(\\bm{\\theta}) + \\sum_{\\substack{i,j \\in [u] \\\\ i \\leq j }}\\sum_{l\\in [b]}h^{ij}_l\\log{t_{ijl}(\\bm{\\theta})} \\\\\n        & - n\\log\\big( \\sum_{i\\in [u]} s_{i}(\\bm{\\theta}) \\big) - \\binom{n}{2} \\log f_{11} \\Big]\\\\\n        \\text{ subject to:  } &\\forall i,j,i',j' \\in [u] : f_{ij} = f_{i'j'}         \n    \\end{split}\n      \n\\end{align}\nNotice, that $- n\\log\\big( \\sum_{i\\in [u]} s_{i}(\\bm{\\theta}) \\big) - \\binom{n}{2} \\log f_{11}$ represents $-\\log(Z(n))$ and $f_{11}$ could have been any particular $f_{ij}$ (see \\eqref{eq: partition_factorises}). The above optimization can be solved through any conventional optimization algorithm. It can be seen that this problem has a much lesser overhead as far as computing $\\log(Z(n))$ is concerned. But the additional constraints may counter act this gain.\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{proposition}\n    \\label{prop: RBM_best}\n    Given a training example $\\omega \\in \\Omega^{(n)}$, then there is no parameterization for any projective MLN in the two variable fragment that has a higher likelihood for \n    $\\omega$ than the maximum likelihood RBM for $\\omega$.\n\\end{proposition}\n\\begin{proof}\n    Let $L$ be the likelihood of $\\omega$ due to the maximum likelihood RBM. Let $L'$ be the likelihood of $\\omega$ due to a projective MLN $\\Phi$, such that $L' > L$. Now, due to Theorem \\ref{th:RBM_MLN}, $\\Phi$ can be expressed as an RBM. Hence, we can have an RBM such that the likelihood of $\\omega$ is $L'$, but $L' > L$ which is a contradiction. Hence, we cannot have a projective MLN that gives a higher likelihood to $\\omega$ than the maximum likelihood RBM.\n\\end{proof}\nProposition \\ref{prop: RBM_best} shows us that if a data source is known to be projective (i.e. we know that marginals in the data will be independent of the domain at large) then in terms of likelihood, specially in the case of large relational datasets, we are better off in using an RBM than an expert defined MLN. This can also be argued \nfrom efficiency point of view as RBMs admit much more efficient parameter estimates.\n\n\nWe will now move on to the question: \\emph{are  parameters learned on a domain of size $n$, also good for modelling  domain of a different size $m$ ?} This question is an abstraction of \nmany real world problems, for example, learning over relational data in presence of incomplete information \\cite{social_Network_missing}, modelling a social network from only  sub-sampled populations \\cite{social_Network_sample}, modelling progression of a\ndisease in a population by only testing a small set of individuals \\cite{test_disease} etc. \n\nJaeger and Schulte \\cite{Projectivity_first} formalized the afore mentioned notions in the following two criterions:\n\n\\begin{align}\n    \\label{eq:consistency_1}\n    E_{\\omega}[\\arg\\!\\max_{\\bm{\\theta}} \\log L^{(m)}(\\bm{\\theta}|\\omega')] &= \\arg\\!\\max_{\\bm{\\theta}} \\log L^{(n)}(\\bm{\\theta}|\\omega) \n\\end{align}\n\\begin{align}\n\\label{eq: consistency_2}\n    \\arg\\!\\max_{\\bm{\\theta}} E_{\\omega}[\\log L^{(m)}(\\bm{\\theta}|\\omega')] &= \\arg\\!\\max_{\\bm{\\theta}} \\log L^{(n)}(\\bm{\\theta}|\\omega)\n\\end{align}\n\nIt is easy to see, by law of large numbers, that RBMs satisfy both these criterions. On the other hand the same can not be said about the maximum likelihood estimates for projective MLNs as described in  \\eqref{MLN_ML_proj}. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Conclusion}\nIn this work, we have characterized the class of projective MLN in the two-variable fragment. We have also recognized a special MLN amongst such MLNs, namely Relational Block Model. We show that the maximum likelihood RBM maximizes the training data likelihood \nw.r.t to any projective MLN in the two-variable fragment. Furthermore, RBMs admit consistent parameter learning from sub-sampled domains, potentially allowing them to scale to very large datasets, especially in situations where the test data size is not known or changes over time. \n\nFrom an applications point of view, the superiority of RBMs in terms of training likelihood maximization and consistent parameter learning can potentially make them a better choice over an expert defined MLN, especially when training set is large and the test domain size is unknown or varies over time. We plan to investigate such capabilities of RBMs and Projective MLNs in future work, especially in comparison to models like Adaptive MLNs \\cite{A_MLN} and Domain Size Aware MLNs \\cite{DA_MLN}.\n\nOn the theoretical front, the imposed independence structure due to projectivity clearly resembles the AHK models proposed in \\cite{Projectivity_SRL}. In future works, we aim at investigating this resemblance and generalizing our work to capture complete projectivity criterion for all the MLNs. \n\n\n\\section*{Appendix}\n\\subsection*{ A.1 : Lemma \\ref{lem: neccesity} [Necessary]}\nIn this section we will make the last steps in the proof of lemma \\ref{lem: neccesity} more rigorous. In the lemma we argue that, for any choice of the domain size $m$ and for any choice of $m$-worlds $(\\x,\\y)$ and $(\\x',\\y')$, we have that:\n  \\begin{align}\n    \\label{eq: lemma_2_condition}\n    \\sum_{i\\in [u]}s_i \\prod_{j\\in[u]}f_{ij}^{k_{j}(\\bx)} &= \\sum_{i\\in [u]}s_i \\prod_{j\\in[u]}f_{ij}^{k_{j}(\\bx')} \n  \\end{align}\nThis implies that:\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\label{eq: lem_2_conclusion}\n      \\forall i,j,i',j'\\in [u]: f_{ij} =  f_{i'j'}  \n\\end{equation}\nWe will first infer a slightly stricter equation from \\eqref{eq: lemma_2_condition}.\nSince, $f_{ij} = f_{ji}$, we can see $\\{f_{ij}\\}$ as a symmetric $u \\times u$ matrix in $\\mathbb{R}_{>0}^{u\\times u}$. Furthermore, $\\x$ and $\\x'$ can have any\n1-type cardinalities $\\bk = \\langle k_1 ... k_u\\rangle$ and $\\bk'= \\langle k'_1 ... k'_u\\rangle$ respectively, such that $\\sum_{i\\in [u]}k_i = \\sum_{i\\in [u]}k'_i = m$. Hence, we can conclude that, for all $\\bk$ and $ \\bk'$ such that $\\sum_{i\\in [u]}k_i = \\sum_{i\\in [u]}k'_i$, we have that:\n\\begin{align}\n    \\label{eq: lemma_2_condition_2}\n    \\sum_{i\\in [u]}s_i \\prod_{j\\in[u]}f_{ij}^{k_j} &= \\sum_{i\\in [u]}s_i \\prod_{j\\in[u]}f_{ij}^{k'_{j}} \n  \\end{align}\nHence, our goal is to prove that \\eqref{eq: lemma_2_condition_2} implies \\eqref{eq: lem_2_conclusion}. We formally prove this statement in Lemma \\ref{lemma_2}. Before proving Lemma \\ref{lemma_2}, we will need to prove the following \nauxiliary lemma. \n\\begin{lemma}\n    \\label{lemma_1}\n  Let $(x_i)^{m}_{i=1}$,$(y_i)^{m}_{i=1}$ and $(a_i)^{m}_{i=1}$ be tuples of positive non-zero reals. If for all positive integers $n$: \n    \\begin{equation}\n      \\label{eq: lemma_1}\n     \\sum_{i=1}^{m}a_ix_i^{n} = \\sum_{i=1}^{m}a_iy_i^{n}\n    \\end{equation}\n  then the set of entries in $(x_i)^{m}_{i=1}$ and the set of entries in $(y_i)^{m}_{i=1}$ are the same. \n  \\end{lemma}\n \n \n \n    \n \n \n  \\begin{proof}Let $\\{u_{i}\\}^{p}_{i=1}$ and  $\\{v_{i}\\}^{q}_{i=1}$ be the set of unique entries in $(x_i)^{m}_{i=1}$ and $(y_i)^{m}_{i=1}$ respectively. Also, without loss of generality, we may assume an ordering such that $u_1 > u_2> ... >u_{p} $ and $v_1 > v_2> ...>v_{q} $ and also that $q\\geq p $. We can rewrite \\eqref{eq: lemma_1} as:\n  \\begin{equation}\n    \\label{eq: lemma_1_equivalence}\n   \\forall n \\in \\mathbb{Z^{+}}:  \\sum_{i=1}^{p}c_iu_i^{n} = \\sum_{i=1}^{q}d_iv_i^{n} \n  \\end{equation}\n  As $n$ grows the leading term on LHS is $c_1u_{1}^{n}$ and on the RHS is $d_1v_{1}^{n}$. Hence, it must be :\n  \n  \\begin{equation*}\n    \\forall n \\in \\mathbb{Z^{+}}: c_1 u_{1}^{n}  = d_1 v_{1}^{n} \n  \\end{equation*}\n  Since, $u_1,v_1,c_1$ and $d_1$ are non-zero positive reals, we can conclude that $u_1=v_1$ and $c_1 = d_1$. Hence, we may subtract $c_1 u_{1}^{n}$ from both sides in \\eqref{eq: lemma_1_equivalence} to get :\n  \\begin{equation}\n    \\label{eq: lemma_1_equivalence_1}\n   \\forall n \\in \\mathbb{Z^{+}}:  \\sum_{i=2}^{m'}c_iu_i^{n} = \\sum_{i=2}^{m''}d_iv_i^{n} \n  \\end{equation}\n  We may now repeat the aforementioned argument and infer that $u_2=v_2$ and $c_2 = d_2$. Furthermore, repeating this argument $p$ times, we can infer that $\\{u_i\\}^{p}_{i=1} = \\{v_i\\}^{p}_{i=1}$, leaving us with $0 =\\sum_{i=q-p+1}^{p}d_iv_i^{n}$, which is a contradiction, hence, $p=q$. Hence, we have that $\\{u_{i}\\}^{p}_{i=1}$ = $\\{v_{i}\\}^{q}_{i=1}$. Hence, completing the proof.\n  \\end{proof}\n  \n  \n  \\begin{lemma}\n    \\label{lemma_2}\n  Let $F = (f_{ij}) \\in \\mathbb{R}_{>0}^{u \\times u}$ be a symmetric matrix and let $(s_i)^{u}_{i=1} \\in \\mathbb{R}_{>0}^{u}$. If for all $\\bm{k} = \\langle k_1,...,k_u \\rangle$ and $\\bm{k'} = \\langle k'_1,...,k'_u \\rangle $ such that $k_i,k'_i \\in \\mathbb{Z^{+}}$ and $\\sum_{i=1}^{u}k_i = \\sum_{i=1}^{u}k'_i$, we have that: \n    \\begin{equation}\n      \\label{eq: lemma_2}\n  \\sum_{i=1}^{u}s_i\\prod_{j\\in [u]}f_{ij}^{k_{j}} = \\sum_{i=1}^{u}s_i\\prod_{j\\in [u]}f_{ij}^{k'_{j}}\n    \\end{equation}\n  then \n  \\begin{equation*}\n    \\forall i,j,i',j' : f_{ij} = f_{i'j'}\n  \\end{equation*}\n  \\end{lemma}\n  \n  \\begin{proof}\n  Let $\\bm{k}$ be such that $k_p=n$, let $k_i = 0$ for all $i \\neq p$. Let $\\bm{k'}$ be such  that $k_q=n$ and $k_i = 0$ for all $i \\neq q$. Then due to \\eqref{eq: lemma_2}, we have that:\n  \n  \\begin{equation}\n  \\forall n \\in \\mathbb{Z^{+}}: \\sum_{i=1}^{u}s_i(f_{ip})^{n} = \\sum_{i=1}^{u}s_i(f_{iq})^{n}\n  \\end{equation} \n  Hence, due to Lemma \\ref{lemma_1}, we have that the entries in $(f_{ip})^{u}_{i=1}$ and $(f_{iq})^{u}_{i=1}$ form the same set. A similar argument can \n  be repeated for any pair of columns. Hence, all columns in $F$ have the same set of entries, we denote the set of such entries as $U$. \n  \n  Now, let $n = uk$ where $k \\in \\mathbb{Z}^{+}$, and $\\bm{k}$ such that $k_i=k$ for all $i \\in [u]$ and $\\bm{k'}$ such that $k'_q=n$ and $k'_i = 0$ for all $i \\neq q$. Then due to \\eqref{eq: lemma_2}, we have that:\n  \\begin{align*}\n    \\forall k \\in \\mathbb{Z^{+}}: \\sum_{i=1}^{u} s_i \\prod_{p\\in[u]}f_{ip}^{k} &= \\sum_{i=1}^{u}s_i(f_{iq})^{uk}\\\\\n    \\forall k \\in \\mathbb{Z^{+}}: \\sum_{i=1}^{u} s_i \\bigl(\\prod_{p\\in[u]}f_{ip}\\bigr)^{k} &= \\sum_{i=1}^{u}s_i (f_{iq}^{u}\\bigr)^{k}\n  \\end{align*} \n  As $k$ grows the leading term on left hand side and right hand side must agree for the equality to hold. Let $c_{i'} \\bigl(\\prod_{p\\in[u]}f_{i'p}\\bigr)^{k}$ and $d_{i''} (f_{i''q}^{u}\\bigr)^{k}$ be the leading terms on RHS and LHS respectively.\n  Hence,\n  \\begin{equation}\n    \\label{eq: compare_uni_edge}\n    \\forall k \\in \\mathbb{Z^{+}} : c_{i'} \\bigl(\\prod_{p\\in[u]}f_{i'p}\\bigr)^{k} = d_{i''} (f_{i''q}^{u}\\bigr)^{k} \n  \\end{equation}\n  which implies that $\\prod_{p\\in[u]}f_{i'p} = f_{i''q}^{u}$. Now, clearly $f_{i''q}$ is equal to the maximum term in $U$ say $s$. Now, $\\prod_{p\\in[u]}f_{i'p}$ is a product of all  the terms in \n  the $p^{th}$ matrix column of $F$. Hence, $\\prod_{p\\in[u]}f_{i'p} \\leq s^{u}$. Hence, due to \\eqref{eq: compare_uni_edge}, we have that:\n  \n  \\begin{equation*}\n    \\forall i,j,i',j' : f_{ij} = f_{i'j'}\n  \\end{equation*} \n  \\end{proof}\n  \n  \n  \n ","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section*{Introduction}\nQuantum computation is mostly seen as a static process: we are given an algorithm $A$ that must be decomposed in elementary computational steps which have to be unitary operators  acting on the state space of the input\/output register; the computing process consists then in the sequential application of the computational primitives to the register. This approach is the same adopted in classic computer science and has its genuine motivation in the functioning of a Turing machine in its simplest version: at \\emph{each time step} the tape is read and an operation is performed. In our desktops the time steps correspond to the ticks of the internal clock of the processor which ``beats the bongos'' at a given frequency.\\\\\nAs soon as we leave the computational paradigm to come down to the implementation of quantum algorithms, it turns out that the computational process \\emph{is} the \\emph{time-evolution} of a physical system prepared and acted upon by external agents in such a way that the initial state $\\ket{R(1)}$ of the register evolves, at a certain time $\\bar{t}$, into the final state $A\\ket{R(1)}$ obtained as \n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\t A \\ket{R(1)}& = & U_{s-1}U_{s-2}\\ldots U_2 U_1 \\ket{R(1)} =\\nonumber \\\\\n\t& = & \\exp(-i H_{s-1}\\tau_{s-1}) \\exp(-iH_{s-2}\\tau_{s-2})\\ldots \\nonumber\\\\\n\t& & \\ldots \\exp(-iH_{2}\\tau_2)\\exp(-iH_{1}\\tau_1)\\ket{R(1)} \\nonumber\n\\end{eqnarray}\n$H_i,\\ i=1,\\ldots,s-1$, being suitable Hamiltonian operators. This kind of external control (switching on and off the Hamiltonians at given times) is a physically very hard task to perform. The alternative definition of a single time independent Hamiltonian $K$ under which the register can autonomously evolve from \\ket{R(1)} to $A\\ket{R(1)}=\\exp(-iK\\bar{t})\\ket{R(1)}$ turns out to be an equivalently difficult problem (see, for example, \\cite{peres85}).\\\\\nFeynman's proposal for a quantum computer \\cite{feyn86} represents a way out from this: by coupling the input\/output register to additional degrees of freedom \\emph{acting as a clock}, it becomes immediate to define a single time independent Hamiltonian determining the desired evolution. Furthermore, being able to implement the Toffoli gate, the computing model is able to compute all the function computable by a deterministic reversible Turing machine.\\\\\nSome of the features of the model have already been investigated in previous work \\cite{apolloni02}\\cite{defa03}\\cite{defa04}. In particular, in \\cite{defa03} we have shown that the use of conditional jumps makes Feynman's computer an implementation of the continuous time quantum walk computational paradigm \\cite{farhi03}.\\\\\nIn this work we analyze the coupling between the input\/output register and the clocking mechanism and the appearance of physical irreversibility in the context of logically reversible computation. \n\\section*{Feynman's cursor model}\nLet $\\rho(1)=\\ketbra{R(1)}{R(1)}$, with $\\ket{R(1)} \\in \\mathcal{H}_{register}$, be the initial state of the \\emph{input\/output register}. Let \\ves{U}{s-1} be the unitary operators representing the successive ``primitive'' steps of the computation to be performed.\\\\\nSet\n\\begin{equation}\n\t\\ket{R(x)}= U_{x-1}\\ \\ket{R(x-1)},\\ 1 < x \\leq s.\n\\end{equation}\nCall $\\mathcal{K}_r$ the subspace of $\\mathcal{H}_{register}$ spanned by the vectors $\\ket{R(1)}, \\ket{R(2)},\\ldots,\\ket{R(s)}$.\\\\\nSet\n\\begin{equation}\n\td=dim(\\mathcal{K}_r).\n\\end{equation}\nFollowing the approach of \\cite{feyn86}, we model the clocking mechanism, which sequentially applies the transformations \\ves{U}{s-1} to the register, with a quantum mechanical system, the \\emph{cursor}.\\\\\nWe call $\\mathcal{H}_{cursor}$ the $s-$dimensional state space of this system and refer it to a selected orthonormal basis $\\ket{C(1)},\\ket{C(2)},\\ldots,\\ket{C(s)}$.\\\\\nWe call \\emph{position of the cursor} the observable $Q$ acting on the vectors of this basis as\n\\begin{equation}\n\tQ \\ket{C(x)}= x\\ \\ket{C(x)},\\ 1 \\leq x \\leq s.\n\\end{equation}\nWe suppose that the state of the overall system, the \\emph{machine}, evolves in the Hilbert space $\\mathcal{H}_{machine}= \\mathcal{H}_{register} \\otimes \\mathcal{H}_{cursor}$ under the action of a Hamiltonian of the form\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:hamiltonian}\n\tH= -\\frac{\\lambda}{2} \\sum_{x=1}^{s-1} U_x \\otimes \\ketbra{C(x+1)}{C(x)}+ U^{-1}_x \\otimes \\ketbra{C(x)}{C(x+1)}.\n\\end{equation}\nWe suppose, furthermore, that the state of the machine is, at time $t=0$, represented by the vector\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:condiniziali}\n\t\\ket{M(0)}= \\ket{R(1)} \\otimes \\ket{C(1)}.\n\\end{equation}\nIt is well known \\cite{gramss95} that for every time $t$ it is then\n\\begin{equation}\n\t\\ket{M(t)}=\\sum_{x=1}^s c(t,x;s) \\ \\ket{R(x)} \\otimes \\ket{C(x)}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere\n\\begin{equation}\n\tc(t,x;s)= \\frac{2}{s+1} \\sum_{k=1}^s \\exp\\left[ i \\lambda t  \\cos(\\vartheta(k;s))\\right] \\sin(\\vartheta(k;s)) \\sin(x \\ \\vartheta(k;s))\n\\end{equation}\nand\n\\begin{equation}\n\t\\vartheta(k;s)=\\frac{k \\ \\pi}{s+1}.\n\\end{equation}\nCall\n\\begin{equation}\n\t\\rho_m(t)=\\ketbra{M(t)}{M(t)}\n\\end{equation}\nthe density matrix of the machine at time $t$.\\\\\nBy taking the partial trace $Tr_{\\mathcal{H}_{cursor}}(\\rho_m(t))$ with respect to the cursor degrees of freedom, we get the density matrix $\\rho_r(t)$ of the register:\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:rhort}\n\t\\rho_r(t)=\\sum_{x=1}^s |c(t,x;s)|^2 \\ \\rho(x),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere, for $1<x \\leq s$,\n\\begin{equation}\n\t\\rho(x)= U_{x-1}\\ldots U_1 \\rho(1) U_1^{-1}\\ldots U_{x-1}^{-1}. \n\\end{equation}\nIn order to trace out the register degrees of freedom, it is expedient to refer $\\mathcal{K}_r$, at each time $t$, to the orthonormal basis $\\ket{b_1(t)},\\ket{b_2(t)},\\ldots,\\ket{b_d(t)}$ formed by the eigenvectors of $\\rho_r(t)$:\n\\begin{equation}\n\t\\rho_r(t) \\ket{b_j(t)}= \\lambda_j(t)\\ket{b_j(t)},\\ 1 \\leq j \\leq d.\n\\end{equation}\nA simple computation shows, then, that the density matrix of the cursor is given by\n\\begin{equation}\n\t\\rho_c(t)= \\sum_j \\lambda_j(t) \\ketbra{d_j(t)}{d_j(t)}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere the sum extends to the values of $1 \\leq j \\leq d$ such that $\\lambda_j(t) >0$ and where, for such values of $j$, $\\ket{d_j(t)}$ is given by\n\\begin{equation}\n\t\\ket{d_j(t)}= \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{\\lambda_j(t)}} \\sum_{x=1}^s c(t,x;s) \\braket{b_j(t)}{R(x)}\\> \\ket{C(x)}.\n\\end{equation}\nAs it is easy to check that $\\braket{d_j(t)}{d_k(t)}=\\delta_{j,k}$, the above representation of $\\rho_c(t)$ shows that it has eigenvalues $\\lambda_j(t)$ and, therefore, \\emph{von Neumann entropy}\n\\begin{equation}\n\tS(\\rho_c(t))=- \\sum_j \\lambda_j(t) \\ln \\lambda_j(t)= S(\\rho_r(t)).\n\\end{equation}\nThe equality, in the particular case considered here, in which the initial state of the machine is the pure state $\\ket{M(0)}= \\ket{R(1)} \\otimes \\ket{C(1)}$, between the entropy $S(\\rho_c(t))$ of the cursor and the entropy $S(\\rho_r(t))$ of the register  (a well known property of a bipartite system in a pure state) is easily understood, in physical terms, by the insertion, in the expression for \\ket{M(t)}, of the partition $I_r = \\sum_{j=1}^d \\ketbra{b_j(t)}{b_j(t)}$ of the identity in $\\mathcal{K}_r$:\n\\begin{eqnarray} \\label{eq:ent}\n\\ket{M(t)} & = & \\sum_{j=1}^d \\sum_{x=1}^s c(t,x;s) \\braket{b_j(t)}{R(x)} \\> \\ket{b_j(t)} \\otimes \\ket{C(x)} =\\nonumber \\\\\n  & = & \\sum_{j=1}^d \\ket{b_j(t)} \\otimes \\sum_{x=1}^s c(t,x;s) \\braket{b_j(t)}{R(x)} \\> \\ket{C(x)}= \\nonumber \\\\\n  & = & \\sum_{j=1}^d \\sqrt{\\lambda_j(t)}\\> \\ket{b_j(t)} \\otimes \\ket{d_j(t)}.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nThe above expression (the \\emph{Schmidt decomposition} of the state \\ket{M(t)}) shows that if upon a measurement at time $t$, the register is found in state \\ket{b_j(t)}, then the cursor collapses into the state  \\ket{d_j(t)}, and vice versa.\n\\section*{An explicitly solvable example}\nWe focus our attention, in what follows, on the simplest non trivial case, in which $dim(\\mathcal{H}_{register})=2$. We consider, namely, the simple case in which the register is a two level system or, equivalently, a spin $1\/2$ system.\\\\\nWe indicate by  $\\underline{\\sigma}=(\\sigma_1,\\sigma_2,\\sigma_3)$ the three components of such a spin in an assigned reference frame and by  $\\underline{e}_1, \\underline{e}_2,\\underline{e}_3$ the versors of the three coordinate axes.\\\\\nIn the basis $\\ket{\\sigma_3= \\pm 1}$, the density operator $\\rho_r(t)$ will be represented by a matrix of the form\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:rhor}\n\\rho_r(t)=\\frac{1}{2} \\left (\n\\begin{array}[pos]{c c}\n1+s_3(t) & s_1(t)-i\\>s_2(t)\\\\\ns_1(t) + i\\>s_2(t)  & 1-s_3(t)\n\\end{array}\n\\right )\n\\end{equation}\nwhere\n\\begin{equation}\ns_j(t)=Tr \\left ( \\rho_r(t) \\cdot \\sigma_j \\right ),\\;j=1,2,3.\n\\end{equation}\nEquivalently stated, the \\emph{Bloch representative} of the state $\\rho_r(t)$ is given by the three-dimensional real vector\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\underline{s}(t)& = & s_1(t) \\cdot \\underline{e}_1+s_2(t)\\cdot \\underline{e}_2+s_3(t) \\cdot \\underline{e}_3= \\nonumber \\\\\n& = &\\sum_{x=1}^s  \\left | c(t,x;s)  \\right | ^2 \\; Tr(\\rho(x)\\cdot \\underline{\\sigma}).\n\\end{eqnarray}\nWe examine, here, the behaviour of $\\underline{s}(t)$ in the simple example defined by the following additional conditions:\n\\begin{enumerate} \n\\def\\roman{enumi}{\\roman{enumi}}\n\\item  The initial state of the register is:\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:stini}\n\\ket{R(1)}=\\cos \\left ( \\frac{\\theta}{2} \\right ) \\ket{\\sigma_3=+1} + \\sin \\left(  \\frac{\\theta}{2} \\right ) \\ket{\\sigma_3=-1},\n\\end{equation}\nnamely the eigenstate belonging to the eigenvalue $+1$ of $\\underline{n}(1) \\cdot \\underline{\\sigma}$, with\n\\begin{equation}\n\\underline{n}(1)= \\underline{e}_1 \\sin\\theta + \\underline{e}_3 \\cos \\theta. \n\\end{equation}\n\\item Each of the unitary transformations $U_x$ is a rotation of a fixed angle $ \\alpha $ around the axis $\\underline{e}_2$\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:stop}\nU_1=U_2= \\ldots = U_{s-1} = e^{-i \\frac{\\alpha}{2} \\sigma_2}.\n\\end{equation} \n\\end{enumerate}\nWe wish to remark that the above example captures the geometric aspects not only of such simple computational tasks as $NOT$ or $\\sqrt{NOT}$ (viewed as rotations of an angle $\\pi$ or $\\pi\/2$ respectively, decomposed into smaller steps of amplitude $\\alpha$) but also of Grover's quantum search \\cite{grover96}.\\\\\nIf the positive integer $\\mu$ is the length of the marked binary word to be retrieved, set\n\\begin{equation}\n\\chi(\\mu)=\\arcsin(2^{-\\frac{\\mu}{2}})\n\\end{equation}\nand\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:eta}\n\\theta= \\pi-2\\>\\chi(\\mu).\n\\end{equation}\nThen the state (\\ref{eq:stini}) correctly describes the initial state $\\ket{\\iota}$ of the quantum search as having a component $2^{- \\mu\/2}$ in the direction of the target state, here indicated by $\\ket{\\omega}=\\ket{\\sigma_3=+1}$, and a component $\\sqrt{1-2^{-\\mu}}$ in the direction of the flat superposition, here indicated by $\\ket{\\sigma_3=-1}$, of the $2^\\mu-1$ basis vectors orthogonal to the target state.\nIn this notations, if\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:alpha}\n\\alpha=-4\\>\\chi(\\mu),\n\\end{equation}\nthen the unitary transformation $\\exp(-i \\> \\alpha\\> \\sigma_2\/2)$ corresponds to the product $B\\cdot A$ of the \\emph{oracle} step\n\\begin{equation}\nA=I_r-2 \\> \\ketbra{\\omega}{\\omega}\n\\end{equation}\nand the \\emph{estimation} step\n\\begin{equation}\nB=2\\>\\ketbra{\\iota}{\\iota}-I_r\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $I_r$ is the identity operator in $\\mathcal{H}_{register}$.\\\\\nIt is having in mind the connection with Grover's algorithm that, for the sake of definiteness, in the examples that follow we are going to consider the one-parameter family of models, parametrized by the positive integers $\\mu$, corresponding to the choice (\\ref{eq:eta}) and (\\ref{eq:alpha}) of the parameters $\\theta$ and $\\alpha$ and to the choice $s=2^\\mu+1$ of the number of cursor sites, corresponding to the possibility of performing up to an exhaustive search.\\\\\nIn the example defined by (\\ref{eq:stini}) and (\\ref{eq:stop}) it is\n\\begin{equation}\n\\bra{R(x)}\\> \\underline{\\sigma} \\ket{R(x)} = \\sin \\left ( \\theta+(x-1)\\alpha \\right)\\> \\underline{e}_1+\\cos \\left ( \\theta+(x-1)\\alpha \\right)\\> \\underline{e}_3\n\\end{equation}\nand, therefore,\n\\begin{equation}\n\\underline{s}(t) = \\sum_{x=1}^s \\left |c(t,x;s) \\right | ^2  \\left( \\sin \\left ( \\theta+(x-1)\\alpha \\right)\\> \\underline{e}_1+\\cos \\left ( \\theta+(x-1)\\alpha \\right)\\> \\underline{e}_3 \\right ).\n\\end{equation}\nFigure \\ref{fig:spirale} presents a parametric plot of $(s_1(t),s_3(t))$ under the above assumptions.\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\t\\centering\n\t\\resizebox{7cm}{7cm}{\n\t\t\\includegraphics{figspirale}\n\t\t}\n\t\\caption{A parametric plot of $\\left (s_1(t),s_3(t)\\right )$ for \\mbox{$0 \\leq t < s$}, $\\lambda=1$. The choice $\\mu=7,\\;\\chi= \\arcsin(1\/2^{\\mu\/2}),\\; s=2^\\mu +1,\\; \\alpha = -4 \\chi,$ \\mbox{$ \\theta= \\pi -2 \\chi$} of the parameters is motivated by the connection with Grover's algorithm.}\n\t\\label{fig:spirale}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIt is convenient to describe the Bloch vector $\\underline{s}(t)= s_1(t)\\> \\underline{e}_1+ s_3(t)\\> \\underline{e}_3$ in polar coordinates as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{array}{lcr}\ns_1(t)=r(t)\\sin{\\gamma(t)},\n& &\ns_3(t)=r(t)\\cos{\\gamma(t)}.\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nThe eigenvalues of $\\rho_r(t)$ can then be written, in this notation, as\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{array}{lcr}\n\\lambda_1(t)=\\frac{1}{2} (1+r(t)), \n& &\n\\lambda_2(t)=\\frac{1}{2} (1-r(t))\n\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nand the corresponding eigenvectors as\n\\begin{equation}\n\t\\begin{array}{lcr}\n\t\t\\ket{b_1(t)}= \n\t\t\\left (\n\t\t\t\t\\begin{array}{c}\n\t\t\t\t\\cos(\\gamma(t)\/2)\\\\\n\t\t\t\t\\sin(\\gamma(t)\/2)\n\t\t\t\t\\end{array}\n\t\t\\right ),\n\t\t& &\n\t\t\\ket{b_2(t)}= \n\t\t\\left (\n\t\t\t\t\\begin{array}{c}\n\t\t\t\t-\\sin(\\gamma(t)\/2)\\\\\n\t\t\t\t\\cos(\\gamma(t)\/2)\n\t\t\t\t\\end{array}\n\t\t\\right ).\n\t\\end{array}\n\\end{equation}\nThe two corresponding states of the cursor, in the sense of (\\ref{eq:ent}), are then:\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\ket{d_1(t)}=\\frac{1}{\\sqrt{\\lambda_1(t)}} \\sum_{x=1}^s c(t,x;s)\\> \\cos \\left(  ( \\theta + (x-1)\\alpha - \\gamma(t)\/2)\\right) \\> \\ket{C(x)}; \\\\\n\\ket{d_2(t)}=\\frac{1}{\\sqrt{\\lambda_2(t)}} \\sum_{x=1}^s c(t,x;s)\\> \\sin \\left(  ( \\theta + (x-1)\\alpha - \\gamma(t)\/2)\\right) \\> \\ket{C(x)}.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nThe von Neumann entropy $S\\left( \\rho_r(t) \\right)$ is therefore\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:vne}\nS\\left( \\rho_r(t) \\right) = - \\frac{1+r(t)}{2} \\ln \\frac{1+r(t)}{2} - \\frac{1-r(t)}{2} \\ln \\frac{1-r(t)}{2}.\n\\end{equation}\nAn example of its behaviour is shown in figure \\ref{fig:VN}.\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\t\\centering\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=7cm]{figvonneumann}\n\t\\caption{The von Neumann entropy of the register as a function of time, for the same model as in figure \\ref{fig:spirale}, for $0 \\leq t <2s$. The dashed part of the graph shows the effect of the cursor wave packet being reflected at the rightmost site $s$.}\n\t\\label{fig:VN}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\t\\centering\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=7cm]{figshannon}\n\t\\caption{The thick line is a graph, for $0 \\leq t <s$ of $Tr(\\rho_r(t)(I+\\sigma_3)\/2)$, the probability of observing the ``target'' state $\\ket{\\omega}=\\ket{\\sigma_3=+1}=\\ket{B_1}$ in the example of Grover's algorithm. We have evidenced the instant $\\tau=O(2^{\\mu\/2})$ at which this probability reaches its maximum. The dashed line is a graph of \\mbox{$Tr(\\rho_r(t)(I-\\sigma_3)\/2)$}, the probability of observing the ``undesired'' output\\mbox{ $\\ket{\\sigma_3=-1}=\\ket{B_2}$}.}\n\t\\label{fig:limiti}\n\\end{figure}\nIt is to be stressed that, as $\\lambda_1(t)>\\lambda_2(t)$, at each time $t$ the projector $\\ketbra{b_1(t)}{b_1(t)}$ is, among the projectors on the state space of the register, the one having in the state $\\rho_r(t)$ the greatest probability of assuming, under measurement, the value $+1$.\\\\\nStated otherwise, if the desired output of the computation is a given state $\\ket{B_1}$ (the eigenstate corresponding to the eigenvalue $+1$ of the component of $\\underline{\\sigma}$ along an assigned direction in the $\\underline{e}_1,\\underline{e}_3$ plane) the optimal choice of the time $t$ at which to read the output is such that $\\ket{b_1(t)}=\\ket{B_1}$.\\\\\nWhat figures \\ref{fig:spirale} and \\ref{fig:VN} show is that for no choice of $t > 0$ is the probability of finding the ``target'' output $\\ket{B_1}$ equal to 1: it is bounded above by $\\lambda_1(t)$. There is always, as shown in figure \\ref{fig:limiti}, a non vanishing probability (bounded below by  $\\lambda_2(t)$) of finding the register in the orthogonal, ``undesired'',  state \\ket{B_2}.\n\\section*{Reading the register}\nWith reference, for definiteness, to the example of figure 3, call $\\tau$ the instant of time at which the probability  $Tr(\\rho_r(t)\\ \\ketbra{\\omega}{\\omega})$ reaches its first  and absolute maximum. We recall that, in the above example, the target state  $\\ket{\\omega}$ is taken to be the ``up'' state \\ket{\\sigma_3=+1} of the register.\\\\\nThe whole point of the analysis of the previous section is that $\\lambda_1(\\tau)$ is \\emph{strictly} smaller than $1$ . This amounts, in turn, to a deficit  $1-\\lambda_1(\\tau)$  in the probability of finding the target state. This deficit is not, in itself, a strong limitation in a quantum search algorithm, because we can in principle identify the right target through a majority vote among a ``gas'' of a large number $N$  of machines. The trouble is that  if we want to use the same machines once more, we need to purify the ``gas'' of registers from the fraction $\\lambda_2(\\tau)$  of them which have collapsed into the wrong state: standard thermodynamic reasoning \\cite{landauer61}  shows then that this requires the removal from the gas, supposing a heat reservoir at temperature $T$ is available, of an amount of heat of $N k_B T S(\\rho_r(\\tau))$, $k_B$ being Boltzmann's constant.\\\\\nWe wish, in this section, to supplement the above considerations with an explicit description of the post-measurement state of the machine, showing, in particular, the effect \\emph{onto the clock} of the act of reading the register.\\\\[5pt]\nSuppose that at the optimally chosen instant $\\tau$, at which it is $\\gamma(\\tau)=0$, while the machine is in the state  \\ket{M(\\tau)},  a measurement of the projector $(I_r+\\sigma_3)\/2$ is performed.\\\\\nIf the measurement gives the result $1$, then the state \\ket{M(\\tau)} collapses to\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:M1}\n\t\\ket{M_1(\\tau)}=\\ket{\\sigma_3=+1} \\otimes \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{\\lambda_1(\\tau)}} \\sum_{x=1}^s c(\\tau,x;s)\\cos((\\theta+(x-1)\\alpha)\/2)\\ket{C(x)}.\n\\end{equation}\nIf, instead, the measurement gives the result $0$, then the state \\ket{M(\\tau)} collapses to\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:M2}\n\t\\ket{M_2(\\tau)}=\\ket{\\sigma_3=-1} \\otimes \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{\\lambda_2(\\tau)}} \\sum_{x=1}^s c(\\tau,x;s)\\sin((\\theta+(x-1)\\alpha)\/2)\\ket{C(x)}.\n\\end{equation}\nFigures 4.a and 4.b show the probability distributions\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nP_1(x,\\tau)& = & \\left| \\left(c(\\tau,x;s) \\cos((\\theta+(x-1) \\alpha)\/2)\\right) \\right|^2 \/ \\lambda_1(\\tau)\\\\\nP_2(x,\\tau)& = & \\left| \\left(c(\\tau,x;s) \\sin((\\theta+(x-1) \\alpha)\/2)\\right) \\right|^2 \/ \\lambda_2(\\tau)\n\\end{eqnarray}\nof the observable $Q$ (position of the cursor)  in the states  \\ket{M_1(\\tau)} and \\ket{M_2(\\tau)}, respectively.\n\\begin{figure}[h]\n\t\\centering\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=55mm]{figqm1}\n\t\t\\hspace{0.5cm}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=55mm]{figqm22}\n\t\t\\begin{picture}(230,10)\n\t\t\t\\put(20,0){(a)}\n\t\t\t\\put(200,0){(b)}\n\t\t\\end{picture}\n\t\\caption{Figures (a) and (b) represent, for the same choice of parameters as in figure \\ref{fig:spirale}, respectively the probabilities $P_1(x,\\tau)$ and   $P_2(x,\\tau)$ as  functions of $x$.}\n\t\\label{fig:VNSh}\n\\end{figure}\nFigures 5.a and 5.b show the probability distributions of the observable $H$ (energy of the machine)  in the states \\ket{M_1(\\tau)} and \\ket{M_2(\\tau)}, respectively.\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\t\\centering\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=55mm]{figspettrom1}\n\t\t\\hspace{0.5cm}\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=55mm]{figspettrom2}\n\t\t\\begin{picture}(230,10)\n\t\t\t\\put(20,0){(a)}\n\t\t\t\\put(200,0){(b)}\n\t\t\\end{picture}\n\t\t\\caption{Figures (a) and (b) represent the probability distribution $p_1(E_k)$ and $p_2(E_k)$ of the energy $H$ in the state \\ket{M_1(\\tau)} and \\ket{M_2(\\tau)} respectively.}\n\t\\label{fig:distribuzioneenergia}\n\\end{figure}\nThe two energy distributions of figures 5 are easily derived from the fact that the Hamiltonian $H$ defined in (4) has the eigenvalues\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:eigenvaluesH}\n\tE_k= -\\lambda\\; \\cos(\\vartheta(k;s)),\\ k=1,\\ldots,s;\n\\end{equation}\neach doubly degenerate, an orthonormal basis in the eigenspace belonging to the eigenvalue $E_k$ being given, for instance, by the two eigenvectors\n\\begin{equation}\n\t\\ket{E_k;\\sigma_2=\\pm 1}= \\ket{\\sigma_2=\\pm 1} \\otimes \\sum_{x=1}^s v_k(x) \\exp(\\mp i \\alpha (x-1)\/2)\\ket{C(x)},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere\n\\begin{equation}\n\tv_k(x)=\\sqrt \\frac{2}{s+1} \\sin(x\\;\\vartheta(k;s)).\n\\end{equation}\nThis leads to the explicit expressions\n\\begin{equation}\n\tp_j(E_k)=\\sum_{\\eta=\\pm 1} \\left|\\braket{M_j(\\tau)}{E_k;\\sigma_2=\\eta} \\right|^2, \\ j=1,2.\n\\end{equation}\nFigures 4 and 5 show that a collection of identically prepared and independently evolving machines becomes in fact, under the operation of reading the register at time $\\tau$, a mixture of two distinct ``molecular'' species, ``1'' (present in a concentration $\\lambda_1(\\tau)$ ),  and ``2'' (present in a concentration $\\lambda_2(\\tau)$). In each of these two molecular species, the same ``atomic'' constituents have arranged themselves in a different geometrical shape (figures 4), with a different orientation of the register spin (equations (\\ref{eq:M1}) and (\\ref{eq:M2})),  because of a different energy distribution (figures 5).\\\\\nComparison with the distribution of $H$ in the pre-measurement state \\ket{M(\\tau)}, given in figure 6, shows that the presence of the impurities of type ``2'' is due to unusually intense exchanges of energy between the machine and the reading (measurement) apparatus.\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\t\\centering\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=7cm]{figspettrom}\n\t\\caption{In the state \\ket{M(\\tau)} the probability distribution of $H$ is given by $p(E_k)=(v_k(x))^2$.}\n\t\\label{fig:spettro}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\section*{Discussion and outlook}\nWe don't claim that (quantum) computation cannot be made reversible. We have simply pointed out one aspect in which a reversible machine is an idealization; this idealization amounts to neglecting the back-reaction (figures \\ref{fig:distribuzioneenergia}) of the clocked subsystem onto the clock.\\\\\nIn very  concrete physical terms, from the dispersion relation $E(p)= -\\cos(p)$ (see equation (\\ref{eq:eigenvaluesH})) it is immediate to conclude that the distortion of the energy spectrum depicted in figure \\ref{fig:distribuzioneenergia}.b corresponds to a decrease in the speed $v=dE(p)\/dp$ of the cursor. This recoil effect could of course be neglected if the clock consisted of, say, $10^{23}$ atoms (we refer the interested reader to the huge literature on the limitations posed by quantum mechanics to the measurement and\/or operational definition of space-time distances \\cite{gambini04}\\cite{salecker58}), but might be of relevance for a machine scaled down to a molecular chain evolving under the sole effect of its initial condition not being an eigenstate of the Hamiltonian.\\\\\nStated in equivalent terms, there is nothing wrong in the assumption of starting the computation in a pure state of the register: we have pointed out, however, that realizing this initial condition has a cost $N k_B T S(\\rho_r(\\tau))$ in terms of energy to be dumped into the environment in order to get rid of the entropy generated (for the simple fact that the two recoil patterns of figures \\ref{fig:distribuzioneenergia}.a and \\ref{fig:distribuzioneenergia}.b have \\emph{both}  strictly positive probability) in the previous run of the machine.\\\\\nThe toy model corresponding to the choice  (\\ref{eq:stop}) has allowed us to show in an explicit quantitative form the decoherence induced by the coupling with the timing apparatus, appearing through the build-up of entropy in the state of the register subsystem.\\\\\nBeyond the details of the model considered, it is to be stressed that such a build-up is a general consequence of the fact that the coefficients $c(t,x;s)$ appearing in (\\ref{eq:rhort}) are determined by the discretized version of the free Schr\\\"odinger equation \n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:schroedinger}\n\ti \\frac{d}{dt} c(t,x;s)= - \\frac{\\lambda}{2}\\left(c(t,x-1;s)+c(t,x+1;s)\\right),\n\\end{equation}\nleading to the well known phenomenon of wave packet spreading (quadratic increase in time of the variance of $Q$).\\\\\nWe are well aware that the explicit model discussed in the previous sections is, under many respects, far from being optimized from the point of view of minimizing the probability deficit  $1-\\lambda_1(\\tau)$.\\\\\nThe initial condition (\\ref{eq:condiniziali}), for instance, corresponds to the classical intuition of initially placing the clock in a sharply defined position \\ket{C(1)}. It will be worth studying the effect of a better choice of initial conditions, with the probability amplitude of the cursor spread on an initial extended region; in much the same spirit, we recall the analysis leading in \\cite{apolloni02} to the proposal of supplementing the active part of the cursor subsystem (the collection of sites $x$ for which $U_x$ is different from the identity) with an extended inactive part, having the effect of temporarily lowering the entropy of the register subsystem. The problem of optimally investing, in the above two ways (to the left and to the right of the active region), an assigned amount of space resources in order to minimize at a selected time $\\tau$ the deficit $1-\\lambda_1(\\tau)$ in the probability of finding the target state poses itself as a natural question in this context.\\\\\nA related problem is that of providing a stability analysis of motion under position dependent coupling constants $\\lambda(x)$ in (\\ref{eq:schroedinger}).\\\\ \nUnder two more respects, in studying a model of the class defined by (\\ref{eq:hamiltonian}), we have not fully exploited the potentialities of Feynman's approach:\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item in Feynman's full model  the quantum walk performed by the cursor is by no means restricted to a linear graph: the use of conditional jumps allows, in fact, to explore much more interesting planar graphs (we refer to \\cite{defa04} for a quantitative study of these more general systems);\n\\item  the notation adopted in (\\ref{eq:hamiltonian}) does not give a full account of the original intuition (better described in terms of creation and annihilation operators $\\tau_\\pm(x)$ ) of a single particle in a quantum lattice gas  jumping between nearest neighbor sites.\n\\end{itemize}\n\\vspace{-0.4cm}\nHaving written the Hamiltonian (\\ref{eq:hamiltonian}) as\n\\begin{equation} \\label{eq:hamiltonian1}\n\tH= -\\frac{\\lambda}{2} \\sum_{x=1}^{s-1} U_x \\otimes \\tau_+(x+1)\\tau_-(x)+ U^{-1}_x \\otimes \\tau_+(x)\\tau_-(x+1),\n\\end{equation}\nthe idea emerges quite naturally of studying the evolution under (\\ref{eq:hamiltonian1}) of  \\emph{many} particles.\\\\\nPossible applications of this proposal of a ``multi-hand quantum clock'', its use in the repeated application of a given transformation, the steering of the particles along different branches of the graph in order to act in parallel on distinct parts of the register, the solution of  conflicts in the application of non commuting primitives to a same part of the register deserve, we think, further research.\n\n\\section*{Acknowledgements}\nWe wish to thank prof. Alberto Bertoni for his constant encouragement and constructive criticism.\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\n\nCosmic inflation solves various problems in the Standard Big Bang cosmology such as the  horizon problem, homogeneity, isotropy problems, etc. Quantum fluctuations during inflation leave footprints in the isotropies of Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) as measured precisely by Planck \\cite{planck} and seed the large-scale structure in cosmology. Thus, inflationary model building and pursuing its cosmological signatures have been an active research field in particle physics and cosmology in the last decades.  \n\nNatural inflation \\cite{natural} has drawn a particular attention among a plethora of inflation models in the literature. In this model, the inflaton is identified as a pseudo-Nambu-Goldstone boson (pNGB) or an axion-like scalar field, which stems from a spontaneously broken global symmetry as in the case for pions in QCD. Thus, the shift symmetry makes quantum corrections to the inflaton potential under control at the perturbative level, and the perturbative effects such as QCD-like instantons can generate a desirable inflaton potential in the low energy. However, the slow-roll inflation and the correct CMB normalization require the scale of the spontaneous breakdown of the global symmetry (or the axion decay constant) to be far beyond the Planck scale, so the effective field theory for inflaton could break down due to unknown quantum gravity effects \\cite{qgravity,sundrum0}. Furthermore, according to the weak gravity conjecture \\cite{wgc},  gravity is supposed to be the weakest force, ruling out a trans-Planckian axion decay constant in quantum gravity \\cite{wgc-axion}. Therefore, there have been some extensions of natural inflation where the effective axion decay constant for inflation becomes trans-Planckian due to the alignment for multiple axions \\cite{multiaxion}. \n\nWe propose a model for natural inflation, which consists of a pNGB inflaton and two waterfall fields. In this scenario, a slow-roll inflation is driven by the pNGB field while the waterfall fields are decoupled. But, in the presence of the inflaton-dependent masses for the waterfall fields, inflation ends due to the tachyonic instability of the waterfall fields being developed during inflation \\cite{hybrid}.  Thus, in this type of hybrid natural inflation, there is no need of a trans-Planckian  axion decay constant for natural inflation. \nInstead, we need to make sure that the necessary couplings of the waterfall fields to the inflaton do not generate dangerous quantum corrections to the inflaton potential.  To this purpose, we introduce a $Z_2$ mirror symmetry for the waterfall fields such that  the inflaton potential is insensitive to the quantum corrections coming from the couplings between the inflaton and the heavy waterfall fields. Such a discrete symmetry can be protected in quantum gravity \\cite{discrete} so that the consistency of the inflaton couplings  is ensured for the hybrid natural inflation. \n \nIntroducing the general waterfall sector respecting the shift symmetry for the inflaton and the $Z_2$ symmetry simultaneously, we discuss the dependence of the inflationary predictions on the inflaton parameters and the waterfall couplings. In this model, we also study the vacuum structure and the reheating process from the perturbative decay of the waterfall field with a Higgs portal coupling as well as the consequence of the reheating period for the inflationary prediction. \nWe provide a novel microscopic model for realizing the pNGB inflation with twin waterfall fields in a QCD-like theory and show the non-decoupled effects of heavy dark quarks for the waterfall couplings.\nThere is one appendix dealing with the general vacuum structure for the waterfall fields.  \n \n\n\\section{The model}\n\nWe consider a pseudo-Nambu-Goldstone boson $\\phi$ as the inflaton and two real scalar fields $\\chi_1, \\chi_2$ as waterfall fields in the hybrid inflation scenarios.\n\nWe first introduce the scalar potential for the inflaton in the following,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nV(\\phi,\\chi_1,\\chi_2) =V_I(\\phi)+V_W(\\phi,\\chi_1,\\chi_2)\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere the inflaton potential is given by\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nV_I(\\phi) &=& V_0 + \\Lambda^4 \\cos\\Big(\\frac{\\phi}{f} \\Big), \\label{inflaton} \n\\end{eqnarray}\nand $V_W(\\phi,\\chi_1,\\chi_2)$ is the waterfall field part which is model-dependent.\nFor the hybrid inflation, we choose  $V_0\\gtrsim \\Lambda^4$, so we need another sector (with waterfall fields) for the graceful exit. \n\n\n\nImposing a $Z_2$ discrete symmetry \\cite{sundrum} with\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\phi\\longrightarrow-\\phi,  \\qquad  \\chi_1\\longleftrightarrow \\chi_2,\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwe also take the waterfall part of the scalar potential for the hybrid inflation with the inflaton couplings in the following form,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nV_W(\\phi,\\chi_1,\\chi_2)&=&-\\frac{1}{2}\\mu^2\\sin\\Big(\\frac{\\phi}{2f} \\Big) (\\chi^2_1-\\chi^2_2) +\\frac{1}{2} m^2_\\chi (\\chi^2_1+\\chi^2_2) -\n\\alpha^2 \\chi_1\\chi_2\\nonumber \\\\\n&&+\\frac{1}{4} \\lambda_\\chi (\\chi^4_1+\\chi^4_2) + \\frac{1}{2} {\\bar\\lambda}_\\chi \\chi^2_1 \\chi^2_2.  \\label{full}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nHere, we note that there could be more cubic and quartic terms for the waterfall fields, respecting the $Z_2$ symmetry and affecting the vacuum structure. But, those terms do not affect the waterfall transition, so our inflationary prediction remains valid.\nIn a later section, we will present the details on the microscopic description of the waterfall field couplings to the inflaton in the context of a dark QCD. Similar hybrid inflation models with a real scalar field were also considered in the context of the brane inflation \\cite{hmlee} and the pNGB inflation \\cite{sundrum,jeong}. \n\nDuring inflation, there is no VEV for the waterfall fields during inflation, but there is a mass mixing between the waterfall fields for $\\alpha\\neq 0$.\nThen, we identify the inflaton-dependent mass eigenvalues for the waterfall fields  by\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nm^2_1(\\phi) &=& m^2_\\chi - \\sqrt{ \\mu^4 \\sin^2\\Big(\\frac{\\phi}{2f} \\Big)+\\alpha^4},  \\label{chi1mass}\\\\\nm^2_2(\\phi)&=& m^2_\\chi +\\sqrt{ \\mu^2 \\sin^2\\Big(\\frac{\\phi}{2f} \\Big)+\\alpha^4}, \\label{chi2mass}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nand the mixing angle $\\theta$ between the waterfall fields depends on the inflaton field by\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\sin2\\theta(\\phi)=\\frac{2\\alpha^2}{m^2_2(\\phi)-m^2_1(\\phi)}.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nHere, we can keep the kinetic terms for the waterfall fields in the approximately canonical forms during the slow-roll inflation.\nFor $\\alpha=0$, there is no mixing between the waterfall fields, so we can just keep track of the waterfall field $\\chi_1$ to determine the end of inflation. \n\nFor $\\phi<\\phi_c$ where $\\phi_c=2f\\arcsin(\\sqrt{m^4_\\chi-\\alpha^4}\/\\mu^2)$ with $\\sqrt{m^4_\\chi-\\alpha^4}<\\mu^2$ and $\\alpha<m_\\chi$, the slow-roll inflation takes place.\nIn this case, the waterfall fields are heavy enough for $m_\\chi>H_I$ with $H_I$ being the Hubble scale during inflation, so we can describe the slow-roll inflation by the inflaton potential given in eq.~(\\ref{inflaton}).\nAt $\\phi=\\phi_c$ the waterfall field with mass $m_1$ starts becoming unstable, ending the inflation even if the slow-roll condition for the inflaton direction is not violated.  \n\nDue to the couplings of the waterfall fields to the inflaton, the inflaton potential receives loop corrections. The one-loop Coleman-Weinberg potential for the inflaton is given in cutoff regularization with cutoff scale $M_*$, as follows,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nV_{\\rm CW} &=&\\frac{1}{64\\pi^2}\\sum_{i=1,2} \\left[2m^2_{\\chi_i}M^2_* -m^4_{\\chi_i} \\ln\\bigg( \\frac{e^{\\frac{1}{2}}M^2_* }{m^2_{\\chi_i}}\\bigg)  \\right] \\nonumber \\\\\n&\\simeq&\\frac{1}{16\\pi^2}\\,m^2_\\chi M^2_* -\\frac{1}{64\\pi^2}\\bigg[m^4_\\chi +\\mu^4\\sin^2\\Big(\\frac{\\phi}{2f}\\Big)+\\alpha^4\\bigg] \\ln  \\frac{M^2_*}{m^2_\\chi}.  \\label{CW}\n\\end{eqnarray} \nThen, the constant vacuum energy proportional to $M^2_*$ must be renormalized to get the desirable inflation energy. On the other hand, the quadratically divergent part of the inflaton potential is cancelled between the waterfall fields due to the $Z_2$ discrete symmetry, and the logarithmically divergent terms of the inflaton potential can be ignored during inflation as far as $\\mu^2\\lesssim 8\\pi \\Lambda^2$ is satisfied.  \n\nConsequently,  as far as the mass parameters in the waterfall field sector satisfies $H^2_I\\lesssim \\mu^2\\sim m^2_\\chi\\lesssim 8\\pi \\Lambda^2$, the waterfall fields remain decoupled and affect the inflaton mass little.\nMoreover, for a QCD-like phase transition with  $\\Lambda\\ll f$ and the inflaton mass,  $\\sqrt{|m^2_\\phi|}= \\frac{\\Lambda^2}{f} $,  we maintain a natural hierarchy of scales in our model,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\sqrt{|m^2_\\phi|} \\ll H_I\\ll \\mu\\sim m_\\chi\\ll \\sqrt{8\\pi} \\Lambda \\ll f.  \n\\end{eqnarray} \nThen, as we vary the inflation scale, we can also scale the other mass parameters freely subject to the above hierarchy to get a consistent natural inflation of hybrid type. \nWe also remark that the bound on the waterfall fields couplings is consistent with the condition that a QCD-like phase transition occurs during inflation, that is, $\\Lambda>H_I$.  \n\n\n\n\n\\section{Inflationary predictions}\n\nWe now discuss the inflationary predictions of the pNGB inflation with twin waterfall fields.\nIgnoring the classical dynamics of the waterfall fields during inflation, we focus on the slow-roll inflation and the condition for the waterfall transition.  \n\nFirst, from the inflaton potential in eq.~(\\ref{inflaton}), the slow-roll parameters are given by\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\epsilon &=& \\frac{M^2_P \\Lambda^8 \\sin^2(\\phi\/f)}{2f^2 (V_0+\\Lambda^4\\cos(\\phi\/f))^2}, \\\\\n\\eta &=& -\\frac{M^2_P \\Lambda^4 \\cos(\\phi\/f)}{f^2 (V_0+\\Lambda^4\\cos(\\phi\/f))}.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nThe number of efoldings is also obtained as\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nN&=&\\frac{1}{M_P} \\int^{\\phi_c}_{\\phi_*} \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{2\\epsilon}}\\, d\\phi  \\nonumber \\\\\n&=& \\frac{f^2}{2M^2_P \\Lambda^4}\\, \\bigg[V_0 \\ln \\Big(\\tan^2\\Big(\\frac{\\phi_c}{2f}\\Big)\\Big)+\\Lambda^4\\ln \\Big(\\sin^2\\Big(\\frac{\\phi_c}{f}\\Big)\\Big) \\bigg] -(\\phi_c\\to \\phi_*) \n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere $\\phi_*,\\phi_c$ are the inflaton field values at the horizon exit and at the end of inflation, respectively.\n\n\nNow we consider the case with $V_0\\gg \\Lambda^4$ for which the couplings between the inflaton and the waterfall fields are necessary to end inflation. \nIn this case, the slow-roll parameters and the number of efoldings are approximated to\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\eta_* &\\simeq& -\\frac{M^2_P \\Lambda^4}{f^2V_0 }\\, \\cos(\\phi_*\/f), \\\\\n\\epsilon_* &\\simeq & \\frac{M^2_P \\Lambda^8}{2f^2V^2_0}\\,  \\sin^2(\\phi_*\/f), \\\\\nN &\\simeq&  \\frac{f^2 V_0}{M^2_P \\Lambda^4}\\,\\ln \\Big(\\frac{\\tan(\\phi_c\/(2f))}{\\tan(\\phi_*\/(2f))} \\Big). \\label{Nefold}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nAs a result, the spectral index and the tensor-to-scalar ratio can be determined by\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nn_s &=&1+2\\eta_*-6\\epsilon_*,  \\label{ns}\\\\\nr&=&16\\epsilon_*. \\label{r}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nThe CMB normalization, $A_s=\\frac{1}{24\\pi^2} \\frac{V_0+\\Lambda^4}{\\epsilon_* M^4_P}\\simeq 2.1\\times 10^{-9}$, leads to\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nr=3.2\\times 10^7\\,\\cdot\\frac{V_0}{M^4_P}.  \\label{cmb}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nIn order to get the spectral index consistent with Planck data, $n_s=0.967\\pm 0.0037 $ \\cite{planck}, we need to choose $2\\eta_*\\simeq -0.0033$ because  $ \\epsilon_*\\ll |\\eta_*|$ in our case. The critical value $\\phi_c$ of the inflaton should satisfy $ \\phi_*\\lesssim \\phi_c\\lesssim f$ for the number of efoldings $N=50-60$ to solve the horizon problem. \nMoreover, the Planck bound on the tensor-to-scalar ratio, $r<0.036$ \\cite{keck}, gives rise to the upper bound on $H_I<4.6 \\times 10^{13}\\,{\\rm GeV}$. \n\n\n\n\nIn order to check the parameter space for inflation in our model, from $H^2_I\\simeq V_0\/(3M^2_P)$ and eqs.~(\\ref{ns}), (\\ref{Nefold}) and (\\ref{cmb}), it is more convenient to choose the following parametrization,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nn_s&\\simeq& 1+2\\eta_*\\simeq 1- \\frac{|m^2_\\phi|}{3H^2}\\, \\cos(\\phi_*\/f), \\quad |m^2_\\phi|= \\frac{\\Lambda^4}{f^2}, \\\\\nN&=& \\frac{\\cos(\\phi_*\/f)}{|\\eta_*|}\\,  \\ln \\Big(\\frac{\\tan(\\phi_c\/(2f))}{\\tan(\\phi_*\/(2f))} \\Big), \\\\\n\\frac{H_I}{f}&=&2.9\\times 10^{-4}\\,\\Big|\\eta_*  \\tan(\\phi_*\/f)\\Big|, \\label{cmb2}\n\\end{eqnarray}\ntogether with the condition determining the end of inflation,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\sin\\Big(\\frac{\\phi_c}{2f}\\Big) = \\frac{\\sqrt{m^4_\\chi-\\alpha^4}}{\\mu^2}. \n\\end{eqnarray}\nFrom eq.~(\\ref{cmb2}), we find that the axion decay constant and the Hubble scalar during inflation is correlated.\nTaking $|\\eta_*|=0.033\/2$ to get the consistent spectral index and $\\cos(\\phi_*\/f)=0.95$, we get $f\\simeq 6.4\\times 10^5 H_I$, which is much larger than the Hubble scale, so the global symmetry responsible for the PNG inflaton is broken during inflation.  \n\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=0.40\\textwidth,clip]{fig1a.pdf}\\,\\,\\,\\,\\,\\,\n\\includegraphics[width=0.40\\textwidth,clip]{fig1b.pdf}\n\\caption{Parameter space for inflation in $|m_\\phi|\/H$ vs $\\mu\/m_\\chi$ on left and $|m_\\phi|\/H$ vs $\\cos(\\theta_*\/f)$ on right. The orange region is consistent with Planck data within $1\\sigma$ and  the number of efoldings is given by $N=40-60$ in the yellow region. Successful inflation is possible in the overlapping region.  We chose  $\\alpha=0$, $\\cos(\\theta_*\/f)=0.95$ on left and $\\mu\/m_\\chi=1.7$ on right.  \n}\n\\label{fig:inf1}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\nIn Fig.~\\ref{fig:inf1}, we show the parameter space for the successful inflation in our model, for $|m_\\phi|\/H_I$ vs $\\mu\/m_\\chi$ in the left plot and $|m_\\phi|\/H_I$ vs $\\cos(\\theta_*\/f)$ in the right plot.  The orange region is consistent with Planck data within $1\\sigma$ and the yellow region indicates the number of efoldings between $40$ and $60$. Thus, the overlapping region between the two regions leads to a successful inflation. We took $\\cos(\\theta_*\/f)=0.95$ on left and $\\mu\/m_\\chi=1.7$ on right, and the CMB normalization was taken into account.  Although we chose $\\alpha=0$ in Fig.~\\ref{fig:inf1}, we only have to replace $m^2_\\chi$  by $\\sqrt{m^4_\\chi-\\alpha^4}$ for a nonzero $\\alpha$. \nAs we increase $\\mu\/m_\\chi$, the waterfall transition would take place at a smaller $\\phi_c$, so the inflation would have started closer to the origin in order to satisfy the correct number of efoldings in eq.~(\\ref{Nefold}). \n\n\nIn Fig.~\\ref{fig:inf2}, we present the parameter space for the axion decay constant $f$ vs $|m_\\phi|$ in blue line, which is consistent with Planck data within $1\\sigma$. We took  $\\mu\/m_\\chi=1.7$ and $\\cos(\\theta_*\/f)=0.95$, but other choices close to them lead to a similar correlation. Thus, we find that for $f=10^4\\,{\\rm GeV}-10^{16}\\,{\\rm GeV}$, the successful inflation is achieved for the values of $|m_\\phi|=\\Lambda^2\/f$ between $3.5\\times 10^{-3}\\,{\\rm GeV}$ and $3.5\\times 10^9\\,{\\rm GeV}$, which correspond to the range for the QCD-like condensation scale, $5.9\\,{\\rm GeV}\\lesssim \\Lambda\\lesssim 5.9\\times 10^{12}\\,{\\rm GeV}$.\n\n\nFor the benchmark point in  Fig.~\\ref{fig:inf2}, the Hubble scale $H_I$ varies in the range between $0.016\\,{\\rm GeV}$ and $1.6\\times 10^{10}\\,{\\rm GeV}$, which leads to a tiny tensor-to-scalar ratio, $4.1\\times 10^{-33}\\lesssim r\\lesssim 4.1 \\times 10^{-9}$, from eq.~(\\ref{cmb}) with $V_0\\simeq 3M^2_P H^2_I$. Moreover, the inflation energy is given by $2.6\\times 10^8\\,{\\rm GeV}\\lesssim V^{1\/4}_0\\lesssim 2.6 \\times 10^{14}\\,{\\rm GeV}$, which is much larger than the QCD-like condensation scale $\\Lambda$. We can maintain the inflationary predictions against the quantum corrections coming from the waterfall field coupling, provided that $\\mu\\ll \\sqrt{8\\pi} \\Lambda=30\\,{\\rm GeV}-3.0\\times 10^{13}\\,{\\rm GeV}$.\nConsequently, there is a large range of the natural parameter space for the successful inflation, satisfying $H_I\\ll \\mu\\ll \\sqrt{8\\pi} \\Lambda$ in our model.  Thus, depending on the input parameters such as the axion decay constant, the waterfall fields with mass of order $\\mu$ can be light. \n\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n\\centering\n\\includegraphics[width=0.45\\textwidth,clip]{fig2.pdf}\n\\caption{Parameter space for inflation in $f$ vs $|m_\\phi|$. The blue line is consistent with Planck data within $1\\sigma$ and  the number of efoldings, $N=40-60$.   We chose  $\\alpha=0$, $\\mu\/m_\\chi=1.7$ and $\\cos(\\theta_*\/f)=0.95$. \n}\n\\label{fig:inf2}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\n\\section{Waterfall transition and reheating}\n\n\nAfter the end of inflation, reheating take place due to the decay or scattering of the waterfall fields. \nIn this section, we discuss the vacuum structure for the inflaton and the waterfall fields and the reheating dynamics in our model. \n\nFrom the scalar potential, we first identify the effective inflaton mass squared from $\\frac{\\partial^2 V}{\\partial\\phi^2}$, as follows,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nm^2_{\\phi, {\\rm eff}} =  -\\frac{\\Lambda^4}{f^2} \\cos\\Big(\\frac{\\langle\\phi\\rangle}{f}\\Big) +\\frac{\\mu^2}{8f^2}( \\langle\\chi^2_1\\rangle - \\langle\\chi^2_2\\rangle)\\sin\\Big(\\frac{\\langle\\phi\\rangle}{2f}\\Big) \\label{effinfmass}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere $\\langle\\,\\,\\rangle$ denotes the background field values. We note that the first term  in eq.~(\\ref{effinfmass}) corresponds to a tachyonic mass during inflation and the second term in eq.~(\\ref{effinfmass})  is an additional contribution to the inflaton mass  after inflation, coming from the waterfall field couplings. \n\nAt the end of inflation, the waterfall field direction with $m^2_1<0$ starts rolling fast at $\\phi=\\phi_c$, developing a nonzero background field and making the extra contribution to the effective inflaton mass. Thus, the inflaton moves toward a stable minimum near $\\phi\/f= \\pi$, which is the common minimum for the inflaton potential and the waterfall-induced potential.\nOn the other hand, the waterfall field masses are given by eqs.~(\\ref{chi1mass}) and (\\ref{chi2mass}) with $\\phi>\\phi_c$, which are of order $\\mu\\sim m_\\chi$ even after inflation ends. \n\n\n\\subsection{The vacuum structure}\n\nTaking $\\alpha=0$ for simplicity \\footnote{See Appendix A for the general vacuum structure for $\\alpha\\neq 0$.}, we find that there is a stable minimum of the potential at $\\langle\\phi\\rangle=v_\\phi$,  $\\langle\\chi_1\\rangle=v_1\\equiv v_\\chi $ and  $\\langle\\chi_2\\rangle=0$, with\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nv_\\phi &=& \\pi f, \\\\\n v_\\chi&=& \\sqrt{\\frac{\\mu^2-m^2_\\chi}{\\lambda_\\chi}}. \\label{chivev}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nAs a result, we find that  the $Z_2$ symmetry is broken in the vacuum. \n\nWe find that the cosmological constant in the true vacuum  is fine-tuned to the observed value by\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nV_{\\rm eff}(\\chi_1=v_\\chi,\\chi_2=0) = V_0-\\Lambda^4- \\frac{1}{4}\\lambda_\\chi v^4_\\chi \\simeq 0, \\label{zerocc}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nconstraining the parameters of the waterfall fields\\footnote{If there is a reduction mechanism for the vacuum energy during the waterfall transition, we may make the cosmological constant in the true vacuum to zero. But, in this case, the reheating through the waterfall fields is limited and model-dependent. }.\n\n\nNext, expanding around the VEV by $\\phi=v_\\phi+a$  we obtain the inflaton mass as\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nm^2_{a} = \\frac{1}{f^2} \\Big(\\Lambda^4+\\frac{1}{8} \\mu^2 v^2_\\chi\\Big), \\label{inflatonmass} \n\\end{eqnarray}\nthus the inflaton receives a mass contribution from the VEV of the waterfall field. \nTaking the waterfall fields as $\\chi_1=v_\\chi+{\\tilde\\chi}_1$, we also get the mass eigenvalues for the waterfall fields in the vacuum as\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nm^2_1&=&  2\\lambda_\\chi v^2_\\chi \\nonumber \\\\\n&=&2(\\mu^2-m^2_\\chi),  \\\\\nm^2_2 &=& \\mu^2 + m^2_\\chi +{\\bar\\lambda}_\\chi v^2_\\chi \\nonumber  \\\\\n&=& \\mu^2+m^2_\\chi +\\frac{{\\bar\\lambda}_\\chi }{\\lambda_\\chi}(\\mu^2- m^2_\\chi). \n\\end{eqnarray}\nWe also note that the vacuum stability requires $\\lambda_\\chi>0$ and $\\lambda_\\chi+{\\bar\\lambda}_\\chi>0$ for ${\\bar\\lambda}_\\chi<0$. \nFor $\\mu^2\/m^2_\\chi<3+2({\\bar\\lambda}_\\chi\/\\lambda_\\chi)\/(1-{\\bar\\lambda}_\\chi\/\\lambda_\\chi)$, the waterfall field $\\chi_2$ is heavier than ${\\tilde\\chi}_1$. Otherwise, the waterfall field $\\chi_2$ is lighter than ${\\tilde\\chi}_1$. The former case with $m_2>m_1$ is favored for the number of efoldings as discussed in Section 3, so the decay mode of the waterfall field, ${\\tilde\\chi}_1\\to \\chi_2\\chi_2$, is not open for reheating. \n\nMoreover, we also identify the leading interaction terms between the inflaton and the mass eigenstates of the waterfall fields, $ {\\hat\\chi}_{1,2}$, as follows,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n{\\cal L}_{\\rm int} = \\frac{\\mu^2}{8f^2}\\,v_\\chi a^2 {\\tilde\\chi}_1+ \\frac{\\mu^2}{16f^2} a^2 ({\\tilde\\chi}^2_1-{\\chi}^2_2)+\\cdots. \\label{inflaton-int}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nThus, there is no quadratic divergence in the radiative corrections to the inflaton mass, due to the cancellation between the waterfall fields with the $Z_2$ symmetry.  But, the logarithmic divergence in the radiative corrections to the inflaton mass is present due to the cubic interactions in the first line in eq.~(\\ref{inflaton-int}).\n\n\nWe now discuss the interplay of the inflation and the vacuum structure to constrain the parameters of the waterfall fields.\nFor $V_0\\gg \\Lambda^4$, eqs.~(\\ref{chivev}) and (\\ref{zerocc}) give rise to $4V_0\/\\lambda_\\chi\\sim v^4_\\chi\\sim \\mu^4\/\\lambda_\\chi^2$. \nThen, the quartic coupling and the VEV for the waterfall fields are related to the dimensionful parameters of the inflation, as follows,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\lambda_\\chi\\sim \\frac{\\mu^4}{4V_0}, \\qquad v^2_\\chi\\sim \\frac{4V_0}{\\mu^2}. \\label{relation}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nAs a result, from the condition, $\\mu\\gtrsim H_I$,  to  keep waterfall fields decoupled during inflation, we have the bounds on the quartic coupling and the VEV for the waterfall fields by $\\lambda_\\chi\\sim \\mu^4\/(4V_0)\\simeq 1.4\\times 10^{-20}(\\mu\/(100H_I))^4 (H_I\/10^{5}\\,{\\rm GeV})^2$ and $v_\\chi\\sim \\sqrt{4V_0\/\\mu^2}\\simeq 0.035 M_P(100H_I\/\\mu)$. \nHere, we took $f\\simeq 6.4\\times 10^{5}  H_I$ from  the CMB normalization with $\\cos(\\phi_*\/f)=0.95$.  \n\nMoreover, from eq.~(\\ref{inflatonmass}) with $\\mu^2 v^2_\\chi\\sim 4V_0\\gg \\Lambda^4$ from eq.~(\\ref{relation}),  we find that the additional contribution from the waterfall field coupling dominates the inflaton mass as $m^2_a\\sim \\mu^2 v^2_\\chi\/(8 f^2)$. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\subsection{Reheating}\n\nAfter inflation ends, the evolution of scalar fields and the radiation energy density $\\rho_R$ is governed by the following set of the Boltzmann equations,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n{\\ddot \\phi}+3H {\\dot \\phi}  &=&-\\Gamma_\\phi {\\dot\\phi} +\\frac{\\Lambda^4}{f} \\sin\\Big(\\frac{\\phi}{f}\\Big)+ \\frac{\\mu^2}{4f} \\cos\\Big(\\frac{\\phi}{2f} \\Big) (\\chi^2_1-\\chi^2_2),  \\\\\n{\\ddot\\chi}_1 + 3H {\\dot\\chi}_1  &=&-\\Gamma_{\\chi_1} {\\dot\\chi}_1+\\mu^2\\sin\\Big(\\frac{\\phi}{2f} \\Big) \\chi_1-m^2_\\chi \\chi_1-\\alpha^2 \\chi_2-\\lambda_\\chi \\chi^3_1 -{\\bar\\lambda}_\\chi \\chi_1 \\chi^2_2, \\\\\n{\\ddot\\chi}_2 + 3H {\\dot\\chi}_2 &=&-\\Gamma_{\\chi_2} {\\dot\\chi}_2 -\\mu^2\\sin\\Big(\\frac{\\phi}{2f} \\Big) \\chi_2-m^2_\\chi \\chi_2-\\alpha^2\\chi_1-\\lambda_\\chi \\chi^3_2 -{\\bar\\lambda}_\\chi \\chi^2_1 \\chi_2, \\\\\n{\\dot\\rho}_R + 4H \\rho_R &=&\\Gamma_{\\phi} {\\dot\\phi}^2 +\\Gamma_{\\chi_1}{\\dot\\chi}^2_1  +\\Gamma_{\\chi_2}{\\dot\\chi}^2_2 ,\n\\end{eqnarray}\nand the Friedmann equation,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nH^2= \\frac{\\rho_I+\\rho_R}{3M^2_P},\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere $\\rho_I$ is the sum of energy densities for the inflaton and the waterfall fields, given by \n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\rho_I = \\frac{1}{2} {\\dot\\phi}^2 + \\frac{1}{2} {\\dot\\chi}^2_1 + \\frac{1}{2} {\\dot\\chi}^2_2 +V(\\phi,\\chi_1,\\chi_2).\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\nTaking $\\alpha=0$, we can set $\\chi_2=0$ from inflation towards reheating and focus on the dynamics of the inflaton and the waterfall field $\\chi_1$.\nDuring reheating, the inflation energy $V_0$ stored in the waterfall field can be transferred to radiation in the presence of the decay of the waterfall field $\\chi_1$. On the other hand, since $\\Lambda^4\\ll V_0$ for the hybrid inflation, we can ignore the reheating from the inflaton field, unless the couplings of the waterfall fields to the visible sector are sufficiently smaller than the one for the inflaton\\footnote{We can introduce a linear coupling of the inflaton coupling to gluons by ${\\cal L}_{g}=\\frac{C}{32\\pi^2}\\,\\frac{\\phi}{f} G_{\\mu\\nu} {\\tilde G}^{\\mu\\nu}$, with $C$ being constant, which is assumed to generate the resulting QCD potential respecting the $Z_2$ symmetry. }. \nThen, we can determine the reheating temperature dominantly from the decay of the waterfall field by\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nT_{\\rm RH}= \\bigg(\\frac{90}{\\pi^2 g_{\\rm RH}} \\bigg)^{1\/4} \\sqrt{M_P \\Gamma_{\\chi_1}}  \\label{RH}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere $g_{\\rm RH}$ is the number of relativistic degrees of freedom at reheating completion and $ \\Gamma_{\\chi_1}$ is the decay rate for $\\chi_1$.\n\nIf reheating is not instantaneous, the number of efoldings required to solve the horizon problem \\cite{reheating,HiggsR2} is modified to\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nN=61.1 +\\Delta N -\\ln \\bigg(\\frac{V^{1\/4}_0}{H_k} \\bigg) -\\frac{1}{12} \\ln \\bigg(\\frac{g_{\\rm RH}}{106.75} \\bigg)\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere the correction to the number of efoldings due to the non-instantaneous reheating is given by\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\Delta N= \\frac{1}{12} \\bigg(\\frac{3w-1}{w+1} \\bigg) \\ln\\bigg(\\frac{45 V_0}{\\pi^2 g_{\\rm RH} T^4_{\\rm RH}} \\bigg). \\label{DN}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nHere, $H_k$ is the Hubble parameter evaluated at the horizon exit for the Planck pivot scale, $k=0.05\\,{\\rm Mpc}^{-1}$, and $w$ is the averaged equation of state during reheating. \n\n\nWe can introduce the $Z_2$ invariant renormalizable couplings of the waterfall fields to the SM Higgs $H$, as follows,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n{\\cal L}_{H} = - \\kappa_1 (\\chi^2_1+\\chi^2_2)|H|^2 -\\kappa_2 \\chi_1\\chi_2 |H|^2.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nThen, taking the waterfall field to $\\chi_1= v_\\chi+\\chi_c(t)$ with $\\chi_c(t)$ being the waterfall condensate, we get the decay rate of the waterfall condensate  into Higgs fields as\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\Gamma_{\\chi_1}&=& \\frac{\\kappa_1^2 v^2_\\chi }{2\\pi m_1} \\sqrt{1-\\frac{4m^2_H}{m^2_1}}. \\label{decay}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nOn the other hand, we note that the two-body decay mode of the waterfall condensate, $\\chi_c\\to \\chi_2\\chi_2$, is kinematically closed.\nAs a consequence, from eqs.~(\\ref{RH}) with eq.~(\\ref{decay}) and $m^2_1=2\\lambda_\\chi v^2_\\chi$, we obtain the reheating temperature approximately by \n\\begin{eqnarray}\nT_{\\rm RH}\\simeq \\bigg(\\frac{90}{\\pi^2 g_{\\rm RH}} \\bigg)^{1\/4} \\bigg( \\frac{\\kappa^2_1}{4\\pi \\lambda_\\chi}\\bigg)^{1\/2} \\sqrt{M_P m_1}.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nTherefore, for $\\Gamma_{\\chi_1}\\ll  H_I\\sim m_1$, namely,  $\\kappa^2_1\\ll 4\\pi \\lambda_\\chi$, and taking $H_I\\lesssim 1.6\\times 10^{10}\\,{\\rm GeV}$ for $f\\lesssim 10^{16}\\,{\\rm GeV}$, we get the reheating temperature as $T_{\\rm RH}\\ll  10^{14}\\, {\\rm GeV}$.  Taking $w=0$ and $g_{\\rm RH}=106.75$ in eq.~(\\ref{DN}), we obtain the number of efoldings  as\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nN=51.3+\\frac{1}{3}\\ln\\bigg(\\frac{H_I}{1.6\\times 10^{10}\\,{\\rm GeV}}\\bigg)+\\frac{1}{3}\\ln\\bigg(\\frac{T_{\\rm RH}}{10^{14}\\,{\\rm GeV}}\\bigg).\n\\end{eqnarray}\nAs a result, there is a wide range of the parameter space for a successful inflation, and a sufficiently large reheating temperature is achieved due to the decay of the waterfall field. \n\n\n\n\\section{Microscopic realizations}\n\n\nIn this section, we present a concrete microscopic model for the pNGB inflaton and the effective waterfall field couplings. \nFor this purpose, we consider the waterfall couplings to light dark quarks $d, d^c$ and heavy dark quarks $u_i,u^c_i (i=1,2)$ in a dark QCD \\footnote{A similar model for dark QCD was considered for the single waterfall coupling without a $Z_2$ symmetry in Ref.~\\cite{jeong}.}, with the Lagrangian, \n\\begin{eqnarray}\n{\\cal L}_{dQCD}=-m_u u_1 u^c_1-m_u u_2 u^c_2  -y \\Phi_1 u^c_1 d-y' \\Phi_1 u_1 d^c -iy \\Phi_2 u^c_2 d-iy' \\Phi^*_2 u_2 d^c +{\\rm h.c.}\n \\label{micromodel}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere  we imposed a $Z_2$ symmetry by $\\Phi_1\\to i\\Phi_2$ and $\\Phi_2\\to-i\\Phi_1$, and $y,y'$ are the Yukawa couplings taken to be real. We note that the waterfall fields, $\\chi_1, \\chi_2$, in our model, are  regarded as the real parts of the complex scalar fields, $\\Phi_1, \\Phi_2$, carrying the same dark PQ charges.\n\nFor $m_d\\ll \\Lambda_h\\ll m_u$ with $\\Lambda_h$ being the dark QCD scale, after integrating out $u_i, u^c_i$ and plugging $\\Phi_{1,2}=\\frac{1}{\\sqrt{2}} \\chi_{1,2} \\, e^{i\\phi\/(4f)}$ into eq.~(\\ref{micromodel}), we obtain the effective Yukawa couplings for $d,d^c$, as follows,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n{\\cal L}_{\\rm dQCD, eff} &=&-\\frac{yy'}{m_u} (\\Phi^2_1-\\Phi^2_2)  \\, d d^c +{\\rm h.c.} \\nonumber \\\\\n&=&-\\frac{yy'}{2m_u}(\\chi^2_1-\\chi^2_2)  \\, e^{i\\phi\/(2f)}\\, d d^c +{\\rm h.c.}. \\label{dquarkmass}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nThen, after the dark QCD condensation, integrating out dark mesons and making a shift by $\\phi\/(2f)\\to \\phi\/(2f)+\\pi$, we get the effective waterfall field couplings by\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n{\\cal L}_{\\rm eff}=\\frac{1}{2}\\mu^2 (\\chi^2_1-\\chi^2_2) \\sin\\Big(\\frac{\\phi}{2f} \\Big) \\label{effwater}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwith\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\mu^2 =\\frac{|y y'|}{m_u}\\, \\Lambda^3_h. \\label{micro}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nThus, the $Z_2$ symmetry in the dark QCD remains unbroken in the effective interactions generated after the dark QCD condensation.\nOn the other hand, we remark that the inflaton potential in eq.~(\\ref{inflaton}) can be also originated from an extra dark QCD condensation at a scale $\\Lambda$, respecting the $Z_2$ symmetry with $\\phi\\to -\\phi$. \n\nWe remark that after the inflation ends, the effective dark quark mass for $d,d^c$ in eq.~(\\ref{dquarkmass}) depends on the VEVs of the inflaton and the waterfall fields, as follows,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nm_{d,{\\rm eff}} = \\frac{\\mu^2v^2_\\chi}{\\Lambda^3_h}.  \\label{dquarkeff}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nTherefore, from $m_{d,{\\rm eff}}\\ll \\Lambda_h \\ll m_u$ with eqs.~(\\ref{micro}) and (\\ref{dquarkeff}), we get $\\mu^2 v^2_\\chi \\ll \\Lambda^4_h$ and $\\mu^2\\ll |yy'| \\Lambda^2_h$, for which the effective description for the waterfall field couplings in eq.~(\\ref{effwater}) is valid.\nConsequently, from $\\Lambda^4\\ll \\mu^2 v^2_\\chi\\sim 4V_0 \\ll \\Lambda^4_h$, we need a hierarchy of the condensation scales by $\\Lambda_h\\gg \\Lambda$. \n\n\nWe also remark that the rest of the scalar potential for the waterfall sector in eq.~(\\ref{full}) is originated from the $Z_4$-invariant potential for $\\Phi_1, \\Phi_2$, as follows,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\Delta V_W=m^2_\\chi( |\\Phi_1|^2+|\\Phi_2|^2)+ \\lambda_\\chi (|\\Phi_1|^4+|\\Phi_2|^4)+2{\\bar\\lambda}_\\chi  |\\Phi_1|^2 |\\Phi_2|^2.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nWe note that $i(\\Phi_1\\Phi^\\dagger_2-\\Phi_2 \\Phi^\\dagger_1)$ is also $Z_2$-invariant, but it does not contribute to the scalar potential.\nTherefore, the scalar potential for the waterfall sector with $\\alpha=0$ in eq.~(\\ref{full}) can be realized in the above microscopic model for dark QCD.\n\n\n\\section{Conclusions}\n\n\nWe have presented a successful model for natural inflation with twin waterfall fields where the $Z_2$ symmetry protects the inflaton potential from quantum corrections of waterfall fields during inflation. \nFor the waterfall transition to end inflation,  we had to  choose the waterfall field couplings appropriately, but there is neither trans-Planckian axion decay constant or fine-tuning of the initial condition for the inflation. As far as the waterfall masses are parametrically smaller than the QCD-like condensation scale responsible for the inflaton potential,  we can leave the waterfall fields decoupled safely during inflation, while keeping the inflationary predictions under control. \n\n\nIn the post-inflationary regime, we obtained the VEVs of the waterfall fields in the $Z_2$ breaking vacuum by $v_\\chi\\sim \\sqrt{V_0}\/\\mu$ where the inflation scale is $V_0$ and  the waterfall couplings are given by $\\mu$. Thus, the inflaton receives a large mass contribution from the waterfall field couplings, while the physical masses for the waterfall fields are of similar order as those during inflation. \nTherefore, we can relate the waterfall couplings for inflation to the physical parameters for post-inflation at low energy. \n\n\nWe also introduced $Z_2$-invariant couplings between the waterfall fields and the SM Higgs for reheating and showed that the perturbative decay of the waterfall field is dominant for determining the reheating temperature. We found that the waterfall couplings to the SM Higgs are crucial to determine the reheating temperature as well as the number of efoldings more precisely.\nIn a concrete QCD-like microscopic model for inflation, we showed that the twin complex scalar fields with the Yukawa couplings to light and heavy quarks in the dark QCD can unify the inflaton and the waterfall fields with a desired form of the scalar potential respecting the $Z_2$ symmetry.\n\n\n\n\\section*{Acknowledgments}\n\n\nThe work is supported in part by Basic Science Research Program through the National\nResearch Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and\nTechnology (NRF-2022R1A2C2003567 and NRF-2021R1A4A2001897). \n\n\n\n\n\\defA.\\arabic{equation}{A.\\arabic{equation}}\n\n\\setcounter{equation}{0}\n\n\\vskip0.8cm\n\\noindent\n{\\Large \\bf Appendix A: The general vacuum for waterfall fields}\n\nFor a mixing mass for waterfall fields ($\\alpha\\neq 0$), there is a stable minimum of the potential at $\\langle\\phi\\rangle=v_\\phi$ and the VEVs for both waterfall fields, namely,  $\\langle\\chi_1\\rangle=v_1\\equiv v_\\chi \\cos\\beta$ and  $\\langle\\chi_2\\rangle=v_2\\equiv v_\\chi \\sin\\beta$, with\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nv_\\phi &=& \\pi f, \\\\\n v_\\chi&=& \\sqrt{\\frac{1}{\\lambda_\\chi} \\Big(\\frac{\\mu^2}{\\cos2\\beta}-m^2_\\chi \\Big)}, \\label{chivevg}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nand\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n(\\mu^2+m^2_\\chi+\\lambda_\\chi  v^2_\\chi)\\tan^3\\beta +(\\mu^2+m^2_\\chi+{\\bar\\lambda}_\\chi v^2_\\chi) \\tan\\beta -\\alpha^2(1+\\tan^2\\beta)=0. \\label{tanbeta}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nThus, the real solution for $\\tan\\beta$ to eq.~(\\ref{tanbeta}) is given by\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\tan\\beta= \\frac{\\alpha^2}{3\\mu^2} +(R+\\sqrt{R^2+Q^3})^{1\/3} + (R-\\sqrt{R^2+Q^3})^{1\/3},\n\\end{eqnarray}\n for $R^2+Q^3>0$,\nwith\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nR&=& \\frac{\\alpha^2}{24\\mu^4} \\Big(18\\mu^2-9(m^2_\\chi+{\\bar\\lambda}_\\chi v^2_\\chi)+\\frac{2\\alpha^4}{\\mu^2} \\Big), \\\\\nQ&=&\\frac{1}{9\\mu^2} \\Big( 3(\\mu^2 + m^2_\\chi +{\\bar\\lambda}_\\chi v^2_\\chi) -\\frac{\\alpha^4}{\\mu^2}\\Big).\n\\end{eqnarray}\nHere, we find that for $\\alpha=0$, the stable minimum exists only for $\\tan\\beta=0$, namely, $\\langle\\chi_1\\rangle=v_\\chi$ and $\\langle\\chi_2\\rangle=0$, recovering the results in Section 4.1. In general, from eq.~(\\ref{chivevg}), the $Z_2$ symmetric vacuum with $v_1=v_2$ does not exist, so the $Z_2$ symmetry is necessarily broken in the vacuum. \n\nWe find that the cosmological constant in the true vacuum  is fine-tuned to the observed value by\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nV_{\\rm eff}(\\chi_1=v_\\chi,\\chi_2=0) = V_0-\\Lambda^4- \\frac{1}{4}\\lambda_\\chi (v^4_1+v^4_2)-\\frac{1}{2} {\\bar\\lambda}_\\chi v^2_1 v^2_2 \\simeq 0, \\label{zeroccg}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nconstraining the parameters of the waterfall fields.\n\n\nExpanding around the VEV by $\\phi=v_\\phi+a$  we obtain the inflaton mass as\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nm^2_{a} = \\frac{1}{f^2} \\Big(\\Lambda^4+\\frac{1}{8} \\mu^2 v^2_\\chi\\cos2\\beta\\Big), \\label{inflatonmassg} \n\\end{eqnarray}\nthus the inflaton receives a mass contribution from the waterfall field couplings. \nOn the other hand, for $\\chi_{1,2}=v_{1,2}+{\\tilde\\chi}_{1,2}$, the squared mass matrix for the waterfall fields is given by\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n{\\cal M}^2_\\chi=\\left(\\begin{array}{cc} 2\\lambda_\\chi v^2_\\chi\\cos^2\\beta+\\alpha^2\\tan\\beta & 2{\\bar\\lambda}_\\chi v^2_\\chi \\sin\\beta\\cos\\beta-\\alpha^2 \\vspace{0.2cm} \\\\   2{\\bar\\lambda}_\\chi  v^2_\\chi \\sin\\beta\\cos\\beta-\\alpha^2  & 2\\lambda_\\chi v^2_\\chi \\sin^2\\beta+\\alpha^2\\cot\\beta  \\end{array} \\right).\n\\end{eqnarray}\nThen, the mass eigenvalues for the waterfall fields are\n\\begin{eqnarray}\nm^2_{1,2} &=& \\frac{1}{2} \\bigg( 2\\lambda_\\chi v^2_\\chi + \\alpha^2 (\\tan\\beta+\\cot\\beta) \\nonumber \\\\\n&&\\mp \\sqrt{(2\\lambda_\\chi v^2_\\chi \\cos2\\beta+\\alpha^2(\\tan\\beta-\\cot\\beta))^2+4({\\bar\\lambda}_\\chi v^2_\\chi\\sin2\\beta-\\alpha^2)^2}  \\bigg),\n\\end{eqnarray}\nand the mixing angle between the waterfall fields is\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\sin2\\theta = \\frac{2({\\bar\\lambda}_\\chi v^2_\\chi \\sin2\\beta-\\alpha^2)}{m^2_2-m^2_1}.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nHere, a stable minimum for the waterfall fields exists, provided that\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\lambda^2_\\chi-{\\bar\\lambda}^2_\\chi+\\frac{\\alpha^2}{2v^2_\\chi\\sin\\beta\\cos\\beta}\\Big(\\lambda_\\chi(\\cos^4\\beta+\\sin^4\\beta)+2{\\bar\\lambda}_\\chi \\sin^2\\beta\\cos^2\\beta \\Big)>0. \\label{stableming}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nWe also note that the vacuum stability requires $\\lambda_\\chi>0$ and $\\lambda_\\chi+{\\bar\\lambda}_\\chi>0$ for ${\\bar\\lambda}_\\chi<0$. Therefore, as far as the vacuum stability conditions are satisfied, eq.~(\\ref{stableming}) is automatically satisfied.\n\nAs a result, the leading interaction terms between the inflaton and the mass eigenstates of the waterfall fields, $ {\\hat\\chi}_{1,2}$, are as follows,\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n{\\cal L}_{\\rm int} &=& \\frac{\\mu^2}{8f^2}\\,v_\\chi a^2\\Big((\\cos(\\beta-\\theta)\\, {\\hat\\chi}_1-\\sin(\\beta-\\theta)\\, {\\hat\\chi}_2\\Big) \\nonumber \\\\\n&&+ \\frac{\\mu^2}{16f^2} a^2 \\Big(\\cos2\\theta({\\hat\\chi}^2_1-{\\hat\\chi}^2_2)+\\sin2\\theta\\,{\\hat\\chi}_1{\\hat\\chi}_2\\Big) +\\cdots. \\label{inflaton-intg}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nThus, as in the case with $\\alpha=0$ in the text, the quadratic divergences in the radiative inflaton mass are cancelled between the waterfall fields with the $Z_2$ symmetry, but the radiative inflaton mass is log-divergent due to the cubic interactions in the first line in eq.~(\\ref{inflaton-intg}).\n\n\n\n\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\nThe idea of inducing electron localization with many-body interactions in fermionic systems was introduced by Mott in the framework of a crystalline array with strong Coulomb interactions.\\cite{mott,mott1,mott2} \nAs in the case of usual band-insulators, a gap opens in the spectrum of the many-particle system. In this case the origin of this  feature is  the effect of the interactions rather than  the nature of the atomic structure.\nThe Hubbard model constitutes the tight-binding version of this picture. The corresponding Hamiltonian  has a hopping term between nearest neighbors in a lattice  combined with a  local Coulomb interaction. \\cite{hub1,hub2,hub3}\nThe competition between the kinetic energy and the strong correlations represented by these two terms is precisely the origin of the metal-insulator transition proposed by Mott. For this reason, the Hubbard \nmodel was thought to be the natural candidate to realize the Mott transition \\cite{mott1}. In bipartite lattices, however, the nesting in the Fermi surface  and the relevant umklapp  processes at half-filling lead to magnetic\ninstabilities that\nmask the metallic phase. The ground state is insulating for any value of the Coulomb interaction and, unlike the original Mott picture, it is dominated by strong antiferromagnetic correlations.\n \\cite{imada} When the antiferromagnetism is frustrated, several results support the scenario \n of the metal-insulator Mott transition in this model. This is the case of  lattices with frustrating geometries, \\cite{krish} infinite-range hopping or lattices with an infinite coordination number. \\cite{dinf} \n\nThe Anderson transition defines a completely different paradigm of   metal-insulator transition.  The model  was introduced at the end of the 50's \n\\cite{and} to describe the localization of  non-interacting single particles due to the introduction of disorder in a crystal potential landscape. The Hamiltonian has\n a hopping term between nearest-neighbor sites in a lattice with randomly distributed local energies.\n Unlike the Hubbard model, the insulating phase is gapless. In this phase\n the electrons get trapped and localized in real space due to the potential landscape \\cite{thou, Kram,  lee, eve}, while\n the metallic phase is stabilized for small strength of disorder in 3D lattices.\n In lower dimensionality, the ground state is always insulating. \\cite{2d, 1d}\n\n\nThe combination of Coulomb interaction and local potential disorder defines the disordered Hubbard model and the outcome of such an interplay is highly non-trivial. \\cite{lee,belkir,cas,lange,krz} \nThe naive expectation that the combination of two ingredients leading to  insulating phases also results in an insulating phase does not apply to this model. In fact, quantum Monte Carlo results \n in 2D\\cite{sri, dent, chak} and results obtained with dynamical mean field theory  in lattices with infinite connectivity  \\cite{jan-vol,ulm,krz} suggest the possibility of a metal-insulator transition in the phase diagram of the Coulomb interaction $U$ vs the strength of disorder $W$ at half-filling.\n The concept of  many-body localization has been recently coined to characterize the effect of disorder in the presence of many-body interactions  and is receiving lot of attention for some years now \\cite{basko, oga, pal, berkel, luitz, bera}. Theoretical studies include perturbative calculations \\cite{fleish, alts, jac} and numerical simulations. \\cite{oga, pal, ser, can, cueva} These ideas are also motivating   \n experimental studies, not only for solid state systems but also in other correlated systems like cold atoms and optical lattices.\\cite{kondo, schre}\n In fact, the advances in quantum optics enabled the experimental realization of optical potentials imitating a crystal lattice (optical lattices)\\cite{deut}, with the advantage of having tunable parameters. \\cite{tie, chin, lye, falla} For example, experimental studies of a Hubbard model in three dimension have been done  using ultracold neutral atoms trapped in an optical lattice.\\cite{jak,white} The interplay of interaction and disorder is crucial when studying cold atoms in these lattices too. \\cite{billy, roati, white, sanchez} \n  \n\n\n\nThe Hubbard model with correlated hopping supports a limit with the basic ingredients for a Mott transition.\nThe corresponding Hamiltonian has a local Coulomb interaction $U$ identical to the one of the usual Hubbard model, but the kinetic term is generalized to have different amplitudes ($t_{a}$, $t_{ab}$, $t_b$) \ndepending on the occupation of the two neighboring sites $\\langle ij \\rangle$ that intervene in the hopping process with a total number of $1, 2, 3$ particles, respectively. The corresponding kinetic term reads\n \\begin{eqnarray}\\label{cor-hop}\n& &  H(t_a,t_{ab}, t_b)= \\sum_{\\langle ij \\rangle, \\sigma}^{L}c_{i, \\sigma}^{\\dagger}c_{j,\\sigma}\\{ t_a ~(1-n_{i,-\\sigma})(1-n_{j,-\\sigma}) \\nonumber \\\\\n & &~~~~~~~~+t_{ab} ~\\left[n_{i,-\\sigma}(1-n_{j,-\\sigma}) + (1-n_{i,-\\sigma}) n_{j,-\\sigma}  \\right] \\nonumber \\\\\n & & ~~~~~~~~+ t_b ~ n_{i,-\\sigma}n_{j,-\\sigma}\\} +h.c.\n\\end{eqnarray}\nThe operators $c_{i, \\sigma}^{\\dagger} ~ (c_{i,\\sigma})$ create (annihilate) a $S=1\/2$- fermion with spin component $\\sigma=\\uparrow, \\downarrow$ at the chain site $i$, and \n$n_{i,\\sigma}=c_{i, \\sigma}^{\\dagger}c_{i,\\sigma}$ is the corresponding number operator. \nThe hopping process that permutes a singly occupied site and an empty site has amplitude $t_a$. The one  permuting a single occupied site and a doubly occupied site  has amplitude $t_b$. The hopping\nbetween two singly occupied sites with opposite spins to generate an empty site and a doubly occupied site or vice-versa has amplitude $t_{ab}$ (see the sketch of Fig. \\ref{hopscheme}).\n  \\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\begin{center} \n\\includegraphics[width=0.5\\textwidth]{hopscheme.jpg}\n\\caption{ (Color online) Schematic representation of the possible hopping events considered in this paper. The hopping takes place between a singly occupied site and an empty site with amplitude $t_a=t$ or between a single occupied site and a doubly occupied site with amplitude $t_b=t$. The hopping between two singly occupied sites with different spins component to generate a doubly occupied site and an empty site or vice-versa is forbidden $t_{ab}=0$.\n}\\label{hopscheme}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\nThese terms emerge naturally in the \nderivation of an effective low-energy model starting from the three-band Hubbard  Hamiltonian that describes the Cu-O planes of  the superconducting cuprates. \\cite{sim,sup1,sup2} In some limit, it is equivalent to the so called extended Hubbard model with bond-charge interaction which has been investigated in the context of low-dimensional organic superconductors \\cite{bond-ch1,bond-ch2,bond-ch3} as well as in the context of  non-conventional superconducting mechanisms, like hole-superconductivity \\cite{hir1,hir2} and $\\eta$-pairing superconductivity, \\cite{sch,mont3} mesoscopic transport, \\cite{mes}  and quantum information. \\cite{mont1,mont2} More recently, this model was also investigated in  optical lattices and cold atoms \\cite{optlat0,optlat1,optlat2,optlat3,optlat4,optlat5} and was also found to provide the effective theory of the Hubbard Hamiltonian in driven lattices. \\cite{driv1,driv2}  \n\nThe correlated hopping Hubbard Hamiltonian can be exactly solved in 1D in two limits. One corresponds to  the usual Hubbard model where $t_a=t_b=t_{ab}$, which can be solved by Bethe ansatz. \\cite{lieb-wu}\nThe other solvable case is  $|t_a|=|t_b|=t$ and $t_{ab}=0$.\\cite{aa1,aa2} \nAt half-filling, when the Coulomb interaction $U$ overcomes a critical value $U_c$, the ground state corresponds to an  insulator, with an energy gap increasing linearly with $U$. It is interesting to notice that for $t_{ab}=0$ the antiferromagnetic correlations are completed inhibited. Hence, the insulating phase has the characteristic of an ideal Mott insulator, in the sense that it does not have any magnetic order.\nBelow the critical value $U_c$, the system is gapless and has the characteristics of a normal metal. \n\nThe aim of this paper is to investigate the phase diagram of the correlated Hubbard model in the exactly solvable limit of Ref. \\onlinecite{aa1} at half-filling with  an additional term in the Hamiltonian that represents a disordered potential for the singly occupied sites. \nThe model is introduced in Section \\ref{model}. In Section \\ref{method} we present the methodology to investigate the ground state of this Hamiltonian. Results are presented in Section \\ref{results} and Section \\ref{conc} is devoted to summary and conclusions. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Model}\\label{model}\nWe study a disordered Hubbard model with correlated hopping. The corresponding Hamiltonian is\n \\begin{equation}\n H=H_K+H_U\n \\end{equation}\n where\n \\begin{eqnarray}\n H_K&=&H(t,0,t)+\n\n\n \\sum_{i, \\sigma}^{L}\\epsilon_i ~ n_{i,\\sigma}(1-n_{i,-\\sigma}),\\\\ \\nonumber\n H_U&=& U\\sum_i^{L} n_{i,\\uparrow}n_{i,\\downarrow}.\n \\end{eqnarray}\nThe Hamiltonian $H_K$ represents the kinetic term characterized by hopping processes between nearest-neighbor sites $\\langle ij \\rangle$  of the lattice. It corresponds to  Eq. (\\ref{cor-hop}) with $t_{ab}=0$\nand identical amplitudes for $t_a$ and $t_b$, as indicated in the sketch of Fig. \\ref{hopscheme}. \nThis is precisely the exactly solvable limit where\n  the hopping process changing the number of occupied sites and introducing antiferromagnetic correlations is forbidden.\\cite{aa1,aa2}\n    In addition to the correlated hopping, there is a disorder potential characterized by local random\n energies $-W<\\epsilon_i<W$ (third term) which acts on the singly occupied sites. The homogeneous case corresponds to the limit $W=0$, which is the exactly solvable case. The Hamiltonian $H_U$ describes the \n  Coulomb repulsion with $U>0$, which acts only on doubly occupied sites. \n  \n As in the case studied in  Ref.  \\onlinecite{aa1,aa2} we can verify that the number of doubly occupied sites $N_d=\\sum_i n_{i,\\uparrow}n_{i,\\downarrow}$  is conserved,  $[H, N_d]=0$. Hence, the particles can exist \n in the lattice in the form of single fermions or doublons. The latter  are defined by  pairs of particles with different spin \n occupying the same site. The number of each of these species is separately conserved. The total number of particles is also conserved and can be expressed as $N=N_f + 2 N_d$, where  $N_f$ is the number of the unpaired particles. The role of $U$ is equivalent to a chemical potential for the doublons. \n\n \n  In the limit of \n $W=0$ and $|t_a|=|t_b|=t$, studied in Refs. \\onlinecite{aa1,aa2}, the ground state at half-filling ($N=L$) displays a Mott transition at the critical value $U_c=4t$. For $U>U_c$ the ground state corresponds to a zero energy state, where\n all the sites of the lattice are occupied by a single particle. This state is characterized by $N_d=0$,  the kinetic energy is zero ($\\langle H_K \\rangle=0$)\n and  is $2^L$ degenerate due to all the possible spin orientations. As it does not have any  special magnetic order  it fits to the picture of the Mott insulator. In this phase, there is a gap between the ground state and the lowest-energy excited state in the charge sector, which depends linearly in $U$. For $U<U_c$ the energy gap closes, the ground state is in a degenerate metallic phase  with states containing   superconducting order in the manyfold and it is characterized by  a\n $\\langle H_K \\rangle \\neq 0$ and $N_d \\neq 0$. \n  \n We will show in the next section that  the present model for $U=0$ can be mapped to  the usual spinless Anderson model \\cite{and}. Therefore, the ground state of $H$  is clearly an Anderson gapless localized state for arbitrary small strength of the disorder $W \\neq 0$. \n  Since the number of doublons does not contribute to the kinetic energy, it is also clear that for those parameters where the ground state has $N_d \\neq 0$, the system may be in an Anderson-like localized phase with a finite number of doublons. This is expected to happen also when the effect of  disorder is introduced  while $U<U_c$. The question that arises is about the nature of the Mott phase as disorder is introduced for $U>U_c$. The investigation of this phase is  the main goal of the present work.\n  \n \n\n\\section{Method}\\label{method}\nIn order to find the spectrum of $H$ we follow a similar procedure to the one introduced in Refs. \\onlinecite{aa1,aa2}. We focus on open boundary conditions and start by mapping the Hamiltonian \n $H_K$ to a spinless Anderson Hamiltonian with $N_f$ particles in $L$ sites. To this end it is convenient to express the different  states of a given lattice site in terms of the following\n representation: \n $|0 \\rangle \\rightarrow e_i^{\\dagger} |0\\rangle \\equiv |\\circ \\rangle $, \n $ c^{\\dagger}_{\\sigma} |0 \\rangle \\rightarrow f_{i, \\sigma}^{\\dagger} |0\\rangle \\equiv |\\sigma \\rangle$, \n $ c^{\\dagger}_{\\uparrow} c^{\\dagger}_{\\downarrow} |0 \\rangle \\rightarrow b_i^{\\dagger} |0\\rangle \\equiv |\\bullet \\rangle$. Here $f_{i \\sigma}$ are fermionic  while $e_i$ and $d_i$ are bosonic operators that\n obey the following constraint\n\\begin{equation}\ne^{\\dagger}_i e_i + d^{\\dagger}_i d_i + \\sum_{\\sigma} f^{\\dagger}_{i \\sigma} f_{i \\sigma}=1,\n\\end{equation}\nwhich implies that a given site may have only one type of boson ($\\circ$ or $\\bullet$) or fermion with only one type of spin component ($\\uparrow$ or $\\downarrow$).\nWe substitute this representation in $H_K$ and focus on $|t_a|=|t_b|=t$. \\cite{note} The resulting Hamiltonian reads\n\\begin{equation}\nH_K= t \\sum_{\\langle i j \\rangle, \\sigma} \\left[f^{\\dagger}_{j \\sigma} f_{i \\sigma} \\left( e^{\\dagger}_i e_j + d^{\\dagger}_i d_j \\right) + h. c. \\right] + \\sum_{i \\sigma} \\epsilon_ i f^{\\dagger}_{i \\sigma}  f_{i \\sigma}.\n\\end{equation}\nThis model has two SU(2) local symmetries. The usual spin-1\/2 symmetry with generators \n\\begin{equation}\nS_i^z= (f^{\\dagger}_{i \\uparrow} f_{i \\uparrow} -  f^{\\dagger}_{i \\downarrow} f_{i \\downarrow} )\/2, \\;\\;\\;\\; S^+_i= f^{\\dagger}_{i \\uparrow} f_{i \\downarrow}, \\;\\;\\;\\; S^-_i= f^{\\dagger}_{i \\downarrow} f_{i \\uparrow},\n\\end{equation}\nand the $\\eta$-pairing symmetry with generators\n\\begin{equation}\n\\eta_i^z = (1- \\sum_{\\sigma } f^{\\dagger}_{i \\sigma} f_{i \\sigma} - 2 d^{\\dagger}_i d_i)\/2, \\;\\;\\;\\; \\eta^+_i = e^{\\dagger}_ i d_i, \\;\\;\\;\\;\\; \\eta^-_i = d^{\\dagger}_ i e_i.\n\\end{equation}\nHere we notice that the states $\\circ$ and $\\bullet$ of the $\\eta$-pairing symmetry are akin to $\\uparrow$ and $\\downarrow$ of the usual spin symmetry. Interestingly, we can  verify \n\\begin{equation} \\label{com}\n\\left[H_K,S_i^+\\right]=\\left[H_K,S_i^- \\right]= \\left[H_K,\\eta_i^+\\right]=\\left[H_K,\\eta_i^- \\right]=0.\n\\end{equation}\nTherefore, we can work in the subspace corresponding  to the highest weight representation of  these SU(2) algebras. This is equivalent to working in the subspace where all the fermions have $\\uparrow$ spin\nand all the bosons are  $\\circ$. We can diagonalize the Hamiltonian in this subspace and then, due to (\\ref{com}), we know that each eigenstate $|\\psi_m\\rangle$ will be degenerate with states resulting from the\napplication of all the  lowering operators\n$S_i^-|\\psi_m \\rangle$ and $\\eta_i^- |\\psi_m \\rangle$. \n\nFor a fixed number of particles $N$, and a given number of doublons $N_d$, these eigenstates have a degeneracy  \n $2^{N_f} \\times C(N-N_f, N_d)$, with $C(N-N_f,N_d)$ being the combinatory number. This is  due to the different spin orientations of the unpaired particles and the different  possibilities  for allocating the doublons in the\n $N-N_f$ lattice sites which are not occupied by the unpaired fermions.\n The eigenenergies of $H$ for $U=0$ only depend on $N_f$. More precisely, these eigenenergies for $U=0$ are those of $N_f$ spinless fermions in a lattice with $L$ sites and a disorder potential profile $\\epsilon_i$.  For $U \\neq 0$ we notice that the Coulomb interaction acts like a chemical potential for the doublons. Then, we must add to the eigenenergies of $H_K$ the quantity $U N_d$.\n\n\nThe states of the basis with highest weight can be mapped to the states of $N_f$ spinless fermions. Therefore, the problem of diagonalizing the Hamiltonian $H_K$ can be mapped to diagonalizing\nthe  Anderson Hamiltonian in $L$ sites with $N_f$ spinless particles, which can be represented by a tridiagonal matrix with diagonal elements $\\epsilon_i, \\; i=1, \\ldots, L$ and band elements $t$.\nThe single-particle eigenenergies of this problem are the eigenvalues of that matrix, $e_j, \\; j=1, \\ldots, L$, and the $N_f$-particle energies are\n\\begin{equation}\nE^{(N_f)}_m= \\sum_{j=1}^{N_f} e_{m(j)},\n\\end{equation}\nwith $m=1, \\ldots C(L, N_f)$. These correspond to fill in $N_f$ of the $L$ single-particle states, labelled with $m(j), \\; j=1, \\ldots, N_f $, with only one particle, in consistency with the Pauli principle.\nThe eigenenergies of the $N$- particle states with $N_f$ single fermions and $N_d$ doublons  are easily obtained for any value of $U$ from\n\\begin{equation} \\label{en}\nE^{(N)}_m= E^{(N_f)}_m + U N_d, \\;\\;\\;\\; N=N_f+ 2 N_d.\n\\end{equation}\nHence, all the eigenenergies for the system with $N$ particles can be obtained by considering all the eigenenergies (\\ref{en}) with all combinations of numbers of free particles and doublons ranging from\n$N_f=0,\\; N_d=N\/2$ to $N_f=N,\\; N_d=0$, satisfying the constraint of adding to a total number of particles $N$ as indicated in (\\ref{en}).\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\begin{center} \n\\includegraphics[width=0.48\\textwidth]{fig1.pdf}\n\\caption{ (Color online)  Density of doublons $d$ (top) and gap between the ground state and the first excited state, $\\Delta$, (bottom) as functions of  the Coulomb interaction $U$ for different values of disorder potential $W=0,2,4,6,8$.\nThe two quantities are averaged over 2000 realizations of disorder in a lattice with $L=N=1200$. \nAll the energies are expressed in units of the hopping parameter $t$.\n}\\label{fig1}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn order to investigate the phase diagram of this model at hall-filling ($N=L$) we follow the procedure described above in chains with different size  $L$ for several values of $U$ and 2000 realizations of the\nlocal energies $\\epsilon_i$, which are randomly distributed with equal probability within the interval $(-W, W)$. We focus on the charge gap between the ground state and the first charge excitation \n\\begin{equation}\n\\Delta=E_{1} - E_{0}, \n\\end{equation} \nwhere $E_{0}$  and $E_1$ are, respectively,  the ground state energy  and the first excited state  of the $N$ particles in the $L$-site chain. Typically,  the  two associated eigenstates \n differ in one  doublon. We also analyze \nthe average over  the density of doubly occupied sites \n\\begin{equation}\nd=N_d\/L.\n\\end{equation}\n To evaluate the phase diagram, we perform finite size scaling with sizes $L \\leq 1200$ and extrapolate the  results to the thermodynamic limit.\n \n\\section{Results}\\label{results}\nAs discussed in Section \\ref{model} we do no expect any metallic phase at half-filling $N=L$ in the present model when $W\\neq 0$. For $U=0$ and finite $W$ this model is equivalent to the Anderson model, which\nis always in a localized phase in 1D. In the limit where $W=0$, the system is in a metallic phase for $U<4t$, characterized by a finite density of doublons $d \\neq 0$ and a vanishing value of the charge gap \n$\\Delta=0$.\nInstead, for $U>4t$ the ground state is in the Mott-insulator phase with $d=0$ and a finite energy gap $\\Delta$. \n The ground state energy for $U=W=0$ is in the subspace with  $N_f=N\/2$ and $N_d=N\/4$. As $U$ increases  keeping $W=0$, $d$ decreases and vanishes at the critical value $U=4t$, where the Mott transition takes place, while, in the in the thermodynamic limit where $L \\rightarrow \\infty$, $\\Delta =0$.\n In the Mott-insulator  phase, for $U> 4t$,  $\\Delta$ becomes finite.\n \nIn what follows, we analyze the behavior of the density of doublons $d$ and $\\Delta$ in the presence of disorder. The average over $2000$ disorder realizations of these two quantities is shown in Fig. \\ref{fig1} for a finite-size lattice. \nFor $W=0$ we can distinguish the characteristics of the Mott-transition above described. The (small) finite value of $\\Delta$ for $U<4t$ is due to finite-size effects and it extrapolates to zero as the lattice size \n$L \\rightarrow \\infty$.  For $W \\neq 0$ within the range $U<4t$ we see the same qualitative behavior for $d$ and $\\Delta$. We identify the phase within this region of parameters with Anderson localization,\nas an extension of the limiting case where $U=0$ and $W \\neq 0$.  A dramatic change in the behavior of the two quantities shown in Fig. \\ref{fig1} is, instead,  observed as a function of $W$ starting from the\nMott-insulator phase at $U>4t$. We see that the averaged density of doublons $d$ increases from zero while the $\\Delta$ decreases as  $W$ increases. \n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[width=0.48\\textwidth]{fig2.pdf}\\caption{(Color online) Top panels. Energy gap value as a function of the parameter $W$ for  $U=6t$ (left), $U=8t$ (center), $U=10t$ (right). Bottom panels. Disorder-averaged \ndensity of doublons $d=N_d\/L$ for the same values of $U$. All these data correspond to extrapolations to the thermodynamic limit from chain sizes $L \\leq 1200$ and averaging over 2000 realizations of disorder.  }\n\\label{fig3}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\nIn Fig. \\ref{fig3} we show  the behavior of $\\Delta$ and $d$ as functions of $W$, for fixed values of the Coulomb interaction $U$ . We focus on the regime with $U>4t$. We study chains of different sizes and extrapolate\nto the thermodynamic limit.   These results indicate the existence of a critical value $W_c$, such that for $W<W_c$ the density of doublons is vanishingly \nsmall and extrapolates to zero as $1\/L \\rightarrow 0 $, while for $W>W_c$ the density of doublons becomes finite and increases as a function of $W$. This change in the behavior of the density of doublons as a function\nof $W$ is accompanied by a change in the behavior of $\\Delta$ as a function of $W$. In fact, for $W<W_c$ we find that $\\Delta$ extrapolates to a finite value in the thermodynamic limit,\nwhile $\\Delta \\rightarrow 0$ for $W > W_c$. These features are consistent with a transition from a Mott-insulator phase to an Anderson-localized phase at $W_c$. \n\nThe inferred phase diagram is shown in Fig. \\ref{fig4}.  The line separating the Mott insulator from the Anderson-localized phase is evaluated calculated from the criterion of vanishing $\\Delta$ and vanishing $d$ in the thermodynamic limit. Polynomial extrapolations of $\\Delta$ and $d$ as functions of $1\/L$ have been carried out with sizes up to $L=1200$. The two estimates agree within the numerical precision. \n\\begin{figure}[h]\n\\begin{center}\n\\includegraphics[width=0.45\\textwidth]{fig3.pdf}\\caption{(Color online) \nPhase  diagram of the disordered Hubbard model with correlated hopping at half-filling $N=L$ in 1D.  The phases are:  (i) metallic phase for $W=0$ and $U<4t$, (ii) Anderson-localized phase for $W\\neq 0$ and $U<4t$ as well as for $W>W_c$ and $U>4t$  and \n(iii) a Mott insulator phase for $W<W_c$ and $U>4t$.  The phases (i) and (ii) are characterized by $d\\neq 0$, and $\\Delta=0$. \nThe phase (iii) is characterized by $d=0$, and $\\Delta \\neq 0$. The line separating the Mott insulator from the Anderson-localized phases corresponds to the\n$\\Delta=0$  and $d=0$  in the thermodynamic limit. \nThe size of the symbols is proportional to the uncertainty on the numerical data. }\\label{fig4}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\nThe same procedure can be followed to get the exact solution away from half-filling. In this case, the system is in the metallic phase for $W=0$ for any value of $U$ while it localizes for an arbitrary small strength of  $W$. \n\nBefore closing this section, we briefly comment on similarities and differences between the phase diagram of disordered Hubbard model with correlated hopping in 1D studied in the present work\n and the phase diagram of the disordered Hubbard model at half-filling in higher dimensions described by\ndynamical mean field theory  (DMFT).  In the latter case, a phase diagram with the same  phases identified in Fig. \\ref{fig4} has been derived. \\cite{jan-vol,ulm,sem}  In fact, the\n main underlying   characteristic shared by  the model we study here\nand the DMFT description of the Hubbard model is the absence of antiferromagnetic correlations. In our case, this is an intrinsic property of the model, while in  the mean-field solutions this is encoded in the approximation of the momentum-independent self-energy. In the present 1D case, the metallic phase is confined to $W=0$, while in the higher dimensional DMFT cases, it also extends to a region with finite $W$. \nIt is also interesting to stress that   the Mott phase can be identified by the change in the behavior of the doubly occupancy. The doubly occupancy as a good order parameter to characterize the transition from a metallic\nto the Mott-insulating phase,\nakin to the magnetization in the Ising model, was introduced in Ref. ~\\onlinecite{cas}. This idea was also followed in the Landau theory for  the DMFT-Mott transition in Ref. ~\\onlinecite{lange}, where\nthe Mott-insulating phase is characterized by a few number of doubly occupied sites, while the metallic one is identified as a liquid rich in doubly occupied sites. This is precisely the case of the model studied here. In our case,  the fact that the Mott-insulating phase is defined by an exactly vanishing number of doublons is due to the fact that the number of doubly occupied sites is a conserved quantity in the correlated-hopping Hamiltonian. \n\n \n\n\\section{Conclusions}\\label{conc}\nWe have analyzed the phase diagram of the correlated Hubbard model with disorder at half-filling in 1D. The different phases are summarized in Fig. \\ref{fig4}. Without disorder the model has a metallic and a Mott-insulator phase. Our results indicate that the metallic phase  becomes unstable and localizes as in the Anderson model for an arbitrary small disorder strength. This phase is characterized by a vanishing gap in the charge-excitations and a finite density of doublons in the ground state. Instead, the Mott-insulator phase, which is characterized by a vanishing density of doublons in the ground state and a finite charge gap, becomes stable up to a critical strength of disorder, where a phase transition to an Anderson-localized state takes place . \nThe possibility of clearly identifying these two insulating phases makes this model appealing for further theoretical studies and also to be realized in optical lattices and cold atoms. Several interesting issues remain to be further investigated in the future. In particular, the possible emergence of a metallic phase  for finite disorder strength in systems of higher dimensionality,\nand the role of antiferromagnetic and charge-density wave correlations, which could be  introduced  by means of an extra correlated hopping process and nearest-neighbor Coulomb interactions, generalizing the model of Refs. \\onlinecite{aga1,aga2} with the addition of disorder. \n\nWhile the experimental realization of the disordered correlated hopping model in the limit we studied here is not obvious in solid state real materials, its implementation in optical lattices is within the scope of current experiments. \\cite{exp1,exp2,exp3} Different  mechanisms for the experimental implementation  of disorder in these systems have been  reported. \\cite{dis1,dis2,dis3} In particular, in Ref. \\onlinecite{dis3}, the disorder has been introduced by means of localized impurity atoms. In the case that the latter are spin polarized, they would magnetically couple only to the singly occupied sites of the lattice under investigation, which would correspond a realization of the type of disorder we are considering in he present work.\n\n\\section{Acknowledgements}\nWe acknowledge support by CONICET, MinCyT and UBACYT, Argentina. LA thanks the hospitality of the ICTP-Trieste as well as the support of a Simons associateship.\n \n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section*{Abstract}\n\nBulk thermal conductivity estimates based on predictions from non-equilibrium molecular dynamics (NEMD)\nusing the so-called direct method are known to be severely under-predicted since finite simulation\nlength-scales are unable to mimic bulk transport. Moreover, subjecting the system to a temperature gradient\nby means of thermostatting tends to impact phonon transport adversely.  Additionally, NEMD predictions\nare tightly coupled with the choice of the inter-atomic potential and the underlying values associated with its\nparameters. In the case of silicon (Si), nominal estimates of the Stillinger-Weber (SW) potential parameters are largely based \non a constrained regression approach aimed at agreement with experimental data while ensuring structural\nstability. However, this approach has its shortcomings and it may not be ideal to use the same set of parameters\n to study a wide variety of Si-based\nsystems subjected to different thermodynamic conditions. \nIn this study, NEMD simulations are performed on a Si bar to investigate the impact of bar-length,\nand the applied thermal gradient on the discrepancy between predictions and the available measurement \nfor bulk thermal conductivity at 300~K by constructing statistical response surfaces at different temperatures. \nThe approach helps quantify the discrepancy, observed to be largely dependent on the system-size, with minimal\ncomputational effort. A computationally efficient approach based on derivative-based sensitivity measures to\nconstruct a reduced-order polynomial chaos surrogate for NEMD predictions is also presented. The surrogate\nis used to perform parametric sensitivity analysis, forward propagation of the uncertainty, and calibration of the important SW potential parameters in a \nBayesian setting. It is found that only two (out of seven) parameters contribute significantly to the uncertainty\nin bulk thermal conductivity estimates for Si. \n\\section*{Acknowledgment}\n\\label{sec:ack}\n\nM. Vohra and S. Mahadevan gratefully acknowledge funding support from the\nNational Science Foundation (Grant No. 1404823, CDSE Program). Molecular\ndynamics simulations were performed using resources at the advanced computing\ncenter for research and education (ACCRE) at Vanderbilt University. \nM. Vohra is grateful to the ACCRE staff for their technical guidance and support.\nThis work partially used the Extreme Science and Engineering Discovery Environment \n(XSEDE), which is supported by National Science Foundation grant number ACI-1053575.\nThe computational resources were awarded through XSEDE research project, TG-CTS170020.\nM. Vohra would also like to sincerely thank Dr. Alen Alexanderian at NC State \nUniversity for insightful discussions pertaining to the derivative-based sensitivity analysis\nin this work.  \n\n\n\n\\section{Bayesian Calibration}\n\\label{sec:bayes}\n\nAs discussed earlier in Section~\\ref{sec:intro}, the underlying methodology for determining the nominal \nestimates for SW potential parameters did not account for measurement error, inadequate functional\nform of the potential, inherent noise in MD predictions, and parametric uncertainties. Hence, there is\na possibility of improving the estimates since using the same set of values for a wide variety of systems\nand applications is not ideal. A robust approach to calibrating the parameters in the presence of\nsuch uncertainties is made possible by using a Bayesian framework. The methodology aims at evaluating\nthe so-called joint posterior probability distribution (referred to as the `posterior') of the uncertain model \nparameters to be calibrated, using Bayes' rule:\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathcal{P}(\\bm{X}\\vert \\bm{Y}) \\propto \\mathcal{P}(\\bm{Y}\\vert\\bm{X})\\mathcal{P}(\\bm{X})\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\noindent where $\\bm{X}$ is the set of uncertain model parameters, and $\\bm{Y}$ is the available set of\nexperimental data i.e. bulk thermal conductivity at different temperatures in the present case. \nWe exploit our findings based on sensitivity analysis in\nFigure~\\ref{fig:gsa} and focus on calibrating $\\alpha$ and $\\gamma$ i.e. $\\bm{X}:\\{\\alpha,\\gamma\\}$.\n$\\mathcal{P}(\\bm{X}\\vert \\bm{Y})$ is regarded as the posterior, $\\mathcal{P}(\\bm{Y}\\vert\\bm{X})$ is the\n`likelihood', and $\\mathcal{P}(\\bm{X})$ is the joint prior probability distribution (referred to as the `prior') of $\\bm{X}$.\nThe likelihood accounts for measurement error, and the discrepancy between experiments and model\npredictions, whereas, the prior is an initial guess for the distribution of uncertain model parameters in an\ninterval. It also accounts for the availability of the expert opinion pertaining to their estimates. \nThe posterior provides an estimate of the most likely value of the uncertain model parameters based on\nprior uncertainty, experimental data used for calibration and the associated measurement error, and model\ndiscrepancy. Additionally, the posterior is often used to quantify the uncertainty associated with model predictions. Several algorithms based on the Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) technique are available for  \nsampling the posterior~\\cite{Haario:2001, Haario:2006,Xu:2014}.\n\nEvaluating the joint posterior of $\\alpha$ and $\\gamma$ using MCMC typically requires a large amount of\ncomputational effort and is not the focus of this work. Instead, we compute and plot the joint likelihood on\na 2D cartesian grid described by $\\alpha$ and $\\gamma$ using Eq.~\\ref{eq:like} as illustrated in\nFigure~\\ref{fig:like}(a). For this purpose, we consider the priors of $\\alpha$ and $\\gamma$ to be\nindependent and uniformly distributed in the intervals, [1.62,1.98] and [1.08,1.32] respectively. \nConsequently, the posterior is proportional to the likelihood, considered to be a Gaussian:\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathcal{P}(\\bm{Y}\\vert\\bm{X}) = \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{2\\pi\\sigma^2}}\\exp\\left[-\\frac{(\\kappa_{\\tiny{\\mbox{E}}} - \n\\kappa_{\\tiny{\\mbox{MD}}})^2}{2\\sigma^2}\\right]\n\\label{eq:like}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\noindent where $\\sigma$ is the standard deviation of the measurement error, and\n$(\\kappa_{\\tiny{\\mbox{E}}} - \\kappa_{\\tiny{\\mbox{MD}}})$ is the discrepancy between \nNEMD predictions~($\\kappa_{\\tiny{\\mbox{MD}}}$)\nand experimental data~($\\kappa_{\\tiny{\\mbox{E}}}$). Experimental data for $\\kappa_{\\tiny{\\mbox{E}}}$ at 300~K\n(149~W\/m\/K~\\cite{Shanks:1963}) is used to compute the joint likelihood. It must be noted that the likelihood\nfunction in Eq.~\\ref{eq:like} could be refined further by accounting for a model discrepancy term and hence\ncalibrating the associated parameters in addition to the uncertain model inputs~\\cite{Kennedy:2001,Ling:2014}. \n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n \\begin{center}\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.70\\textwidth]{gl}\n  \\\\ (a)\n  \\begin{tabular}{cc}\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.50\\textwidth]{pdf_alpha}\n  &\n \n  \\includegraphics[width=0.50\\textwidth]{pdf_gamma}\n  \\\\ (b) & (c)\n  \\end{tabular}\n\\caption{(a) The joint likelihood of ($\\alpha$,$\\gamma$) as estimated using Eq.~\\ref{eq:like} is plotted\non a 2D cartesian grid. The maximum likelihood estimate (MLE) is also highlighted.\nMarginal likelihoods for $\\alpha$ and $\\gamma$ are plotted in (b) and (c) respectively.}\n\\label{fig:like}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\nMarginal distributions for\n$\\alpha$ and $\\gamma$ are shown in Figure~\\ref{fig:like}(b) and Figure~\\ref{fig:like}(c) respectively. \nAs mentioned above, the joint likelihood plot is based on the bulk thermal conductivity measurement at 300~K.\nAn enhanced set of experimental measurements at different bulk temperatures would help improve the\naccuracy of the calibration process considering the measurement noise is not too large. Moreover, it would\nhelp capture the correlation between calibration parameters across temperatures at which the data is\navailable. However, a reduced-order surrogate would be needed at each temperature in order to make the\nMCMC tractable.  \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Summary and Discussion}\n\\label{sec:disc}\n\nIn this paper, we have attempted to identify and address some of the challenges\npertaining to uncertainty quantification of bulk thermal conductivity predictions \nusing non-equilibrium molecular dynamics (NEMD) simulations. Specifically, we focused\non investigating the impact of system size, and fluctuations in the applied thermal\ngradient on predictions. In order to quantify the discrepancy between NEMD\npredictions and experiments, response surfaces were  \nconstructed at bulk temperatures, $T$ = 300~K, 500~K, and 1000~K.  \nIt was found that the discrepancy is predominantly impacted by size while the \neffect of fluctuations in the applied thermal gradient is negligible in the considered\ninterval. The response surface approach presented here relies on a small number of\nMD runs and enables an accurate estimation of discrepancy at a given temperature\nand a point in the 2D parameter space described by system-size and the applied\nthermal gradient. \n\nA possible enhancement of nominal SW parameter estimates for a given application\nand the choice of material system is also highlighted in this work. To enable this,\nwe focus our efforts on understanding the sensitivity of predictions on individual potential\nparameters. In order to reduce the computational effort, we estimate the derivative-based\nsensitivity measures (DGSM) and hence the upper bound\non Sobol\\textquotesingle~total-effect sensitivity index using random samples in the 7D parameter space. \nWhile individual measures for the 7 parameters are not too distant from each other, the predictions\nseem to be most sensitive towards $\\gamma$. Sensitivity measures for $\\alpha$,\n$\\lambda$, $q$, and $A$ are found to be comparable while those for $B$ and $p$\nare relatively small. \n\nA polynomial chaos surrogate model for the bulk thermal conductivity (observable)\nas a function of SW potential\nparameters at the bulk temperature of 300~K is constructed. The surrogate helps reduce the\ncomputational effort required for forward propagation of the uncertainty from\nparameters to the observable as well as for estimating the Sobol\\textquotesingle~sensitivity indices.\nFurthermore, the surrogate could be used to accelerate parameter calibration in a\nBayesian setting. However, since the surrogate relies on NEMD predictions, the\nunderlying computational effort is nevertheless significantly large. To circumvent\nthis challenge, we exploit our initial findings based on DGSM and construct\na reduced-order surrogate in 5 dimensions by fixing the parameters, $B$ and $p$.\nWe verify its accuracy by estimating the relative\nL-2 norm of the error between NEMD predictions in the full space and the reduced-order\nsurrogate predictions, and by comparing the probability density of the\nbulk thermal conductivity in Figure~\\ref{fig:verify}. Furthermore, our initial\nsensitivity trends based on DGSM-analysis using 25 samples seem to agree favorably\nwith Sobol\\textquotesingle~sensitivity analysis based on 10$^{6}$ samples. Hence, it can be said\nthat DGSM-based analysis with a few samples could offer huge computational gains\nby reliably reducing the dimensionality of a surrogate for uncertainty analysis. \n\nFinally, we highlight key aspects of parameter calibration in a Bayesian setting.\nThe underlying motivation stems from the fact that the nominal estimates of the SW\nparameters did not consider measurement error, simulation noise, model form error,\nand parametric uncertainties. Calibration in a Bayesian framework allows us to\nincorporate such errors and uncertainties in an efficient manner and provides\na joint posterior distribution of the uncertain parameters. To minimize computational\ncosts pertaining to the calibration process, we suggest the following sequence of\nsteps: First, perform DGSM analysis to \nidentify parameters that are not so important. Second, construct a reduced-order\nsurrogate based on DGSM-analysis and verify its accuracy. Third, compute the\nSobol\\textquotesingle~sensitivity indices using the surrogate to identify parameters for calibration. \nFourth, construct a second surrogate in the reduced subspace described by the\ncalibration parameters, and quantify the surrogate error to be accounted for\nin calibration. Fifth, evaluate the joint posterior using an efficient MCMC-based algorithm\nsuch as adaptive Metropolis~\\cite{Haario:2001} and its variants~\\cite{Haario:2006, Green:2001}.\n\nIt is important to note that the strategies presented \nin this work are not restricted to a Si bar and the Stillinger-Weber potential, and\ncould be extended to a wide range of applications and inter-atomic potentials for\nthe purpose of uncertainty quantification. \n\n\n\\section{Introduction}\n\\label{sec:intro}\n\n\\begin{comment}\n1. Background on use of MD simulations for thermal transport, preferred for studying\nthermal transport by phononic interactions (refer notes from book suggested by Amuthan)\n\n\n2. One approach to NEMD is the Direct Method, commonly used for estimating the bulk\nthermal conductivity. A brief discussion on the direct method and associated pros and cons\n(notes from Dellan's paper and book suggested by Amuthan) \nPredictions impacted by the choice of potential, values of\nindividual parameters, size, and potentially due to duration and applied temperature gradients\n(cite Amuthan book, Francesco's paper, McGaughey's paper). \nErrors are introduced by thermostatting (Amuthan book). Nominal value of SW potential parameters\nbased on fitting against experiments and to ensure structural stability etc. (SW paper)\n\n3. Motivate uncertainty analysis and briefly discuss and cite recent efforts (Francesco, Kirby,\nMurthy). Highlight focus and key contributions of the present work and how it differs from\nthose efforts. \n\n4. Section-wise overview of the paper.  \n\\end{comment}\n\nClassical molecular dynamics (MD) is commonly used to study thermal transport by means of\nphonons in material systems comprising non-metallic elements such\nas carbon, silicon, and germanium~\\cite{Dumitrica:2010}. \nA major objective for many such studies is the\nestimation of bulk thermal conductivity of the system. One of the most commonly used approaches,\nregarded as the direct method~\\cite{Schelling:2002,Turney:2009,Zhou:2009,Landry:2009,\nMcGaughey:2006,Ni:2009,Shi:2009,Wang:2009,Papanikolaou:2008}, is a non-equilibrium\ntechnique that involves the application\nof a heat flux or a temperature gradient by means of thermostatting, across the system. \nThe corresponding steady-state temperature gradient in the former or the heat exchange between\nthe two thermostats in the latter, is used to estimate the bulk thermal conductivity (at a given\nlength or size) using \nFourier's law. However, when the simulation domain is comparable to or smaller than the\nmean free path, thermal conductivity estimates from the direct method depends on the\ndistance between the two thermostats, due to significant contribution of boundary scattering.\nHence, to estimate the bulk thermal conductivity, computations are performed for a range of\nsystem lengths and the inverse\nof thermal conductivity is plotted against the inverse of length. The $y$-intercept of a\nstraight line fit to the observed trend is considered as the bulk thermal conductivity \nestimate. \n\nAlthough widely used, the direct method is known to severely under-predict\nthe bulk thermal conductivity compared to experimental \nmeasurements~\\cite{Haynes:2014,Shanks:1963}. This is primarily\ndue to length scales used in the simulation that are several orders of magnitude smaller\nthan those used in an experiment. As a result, the sample length is much smaller than the\nbulk phonon mean free path leading to the so-called ballistic transport of the phonons.\nThe mean free path of such phonon modes is limited to the system size that reduces their\ncontribution to thermal transport. Moreover, the\nintroduction of thermostats typically reduces the correlation between vibrations of \ndifferent atoms potentially reducing the thermal conductivity\nfurther~\\cite{Evans:2008}. The average temperature gradient experienced by the \nsystem could thus be different from the simulation input and is a potential source of \nuncertainty. Estimation of thermal conductivity using the\ndirect method is therefore impacted by the choice of system size and potentially due to\nfluctuations in the temperature gradient experienced by the system due to thermostatting.  \n\nPredictions of non-equilibrium molecular dynamics (NEMD) simulations are also dependent on the\nchoice of the inter-atomic potential as well as values associated with individual parameters\nof a given potential. For instance, in the case of crystalline Si, the Stillinger-Weber (SW)\ninter-atomic potential is widely used. However, as discussed by Stillinger and Weber\nin~\\cite{Stillinger:1985}, their proposed nominal values of individual parameters were based\non a limited search in a 7D parameter space while ensuring structural stability and\nreasonable agreement with experiments. It is therefore likely that these nominal estimates\nfor individual parameter values in the SW potential may not yield accurate results for a\nwide variety of Si-based systems and warrant further investigation to study the impact of\nunderlying uncertainties on MD predictions. Along these lines, \na recent study by Wang et al. performed uncertainty quantification of thermal conductivities\nfrom equilibrium molecular dynamics simulations~\\cite{Wang:2017}.\nRizzi et al. focused on the effect of\nuncertainties associated with the force-field parameters on bulk water properties using MD\nsimulations~\\cite{Rizzi:2012}. Marepalli et al. in~\\cite{Marepalli:2014} considered a stochastic model\nfor thermal conductivity to account for inherent noise in MD simulations, and study its impact on\nspatial temperature \ndistribution during heat conduction. Jacobson et al. in~\\cite{Jacobson:2014} implemented an uncertainty\nquantification framework to optimize a coarse-grained model for predicting the properties of monoatomic\n water. While these are significant contributions, it is only recently \nthat researchers have started accounting for the presence of uncertainties in MD predictions in a\nsystematic manner. There is a definite need for additional efforts aimed at efficiency and accuracy\nto enable uncertainty analysis in MD simulations for a wide range of applications.\n\nIn the present work, we focus our efforts on uncertainty analysis in the predictions of NEMD simulations\nfor phonon transport using a silicon bar. An overview of the set-up for the simulations is\nprovided in Section~\\ref{sec:setup}. As discussed earlier, predictions from NEMD\nexhibit large discrepancies with experimental observations depending upon system size and potentially\ndue to fluctuations in the applied temperature gradient. Additionally, the thermal conductivity estimates are\ntightly coupled with parameter values associated with the inter-atomic potential. Hence, we set out to\naccomplish multiple objectives through this research effort: First, we construct response surfaces\nin order to characterize the dependence of discrepancy in thermal conductivity estimates (between\nMD simulations and experiments) on system size, and applied temperature gradient~(Section~\\ref{sec:response}).\nSecond, we perform sensitivity analysis to study the impact of SW potential parameter values on \nuncertainty in the predictions~(Section~\\ref{sec:sense}).\nThird, we exploit our findings from sensitivity analysis to \nconstruct a reduced order surrogate for uncertainty analysis~(Section~\\ref{sec:ros}). \nFourth, we illustrate the calibration\nof important parameters in a Bayesian setting to evaluate their posterior\ndistributions~(Section~\\ref{sec:bayes}). Construction of the\nresponse surfaces, parametric sensitivity analysis, and Bayesian calibration can all be computationally\nchallenging endeavors especially in situations involving compute-intensive simulations as in the\ncase of NEMD. We therefore employ polynomial chaos (PC) surrogates~\\cite{Xiu:2002,Ghanem:1990}\nusing non-intrusive spectral approaches~\\cite{Olivier:2010} to reduce the computational effort pertaining\nto the aforementioned objectives. Moreover, since the construction of a PC surrogate itself can be\nexpensive, we demonstrate a novel approach in Section~\\ref{sec:sense} that implements derivative-based\nsensitivity measures~\\cite{Sobol:2010} to reduce the dimensionality of the surrogate a priori while\nensuring reasonable predictive accuracy. \n\n\n\\section{Response Surface of the Discrepancy}\n\\label{sec:response}\n\nAs discussed earlier in Section~\\ref{sec:intro}, bulk thermal conductivity estimates using NEMD simulations\nare lower than measured values primarily due to reduction in mean free path associated with phonon transport. \nAdditionally, the introduction of thermostats causes significant fluctuations in the applied temperature gradient,\nespecially in their vicinity. \nWe illustrate this phenomenon by plotting the temperature \ndistribution along the length of the bar in Figure~\\ref{fig:kapitza}. \n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n \\begin{center}\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.70\\textwidth]{temp_plot}\n\\caption{Temperature distribution along a Si bar of length 14.74~nm for\ndifferent scenarios of applied temperature gradient.}\n\\label{fig:kapitza}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn this section, we focus on the impact of\nsystem size, specifically the length of the Si bar as well as the applied temperature gradient on the discrepancy\nin bulk thermal conductivity between NEMD predictions and experimental data. For this purpose, we consider\na range of values for the bar length and the temperature gradient. In order to determine the discrepancy trends, one\nmight consider evaluating the thermal conductivity using NEMD simulations for a large set of values of length and\ntemperature gradient. However, considering the computational expense associated with each pair of values, this approach quickly\nbecomes computationally prohibitive. Instead, we construct a response surface using a 2D \nPC representation of the discrepancy which requires NEMD predictions for a small number of\ncombinations of length and temperature gradient values as discussed in the following section. \n\n\\subsection{Polynomial Chaos Response Surface}\n\nThe PC response surface approximates the functional relationship between independent\nand uncertain \ninputs~$(\\bm{\\theta})$ to a model with the output $\\mathcal{Y}$. Essentially, it is a truncated expansion with polynomial \nbasis functions that converges in a least-squares sense. For an accurate PC representation, the output should\nvary smoothly with respect to the uncertain inputs~\\cite{Vohra:2014}  and must\nbe L-2 integrable:\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathbb{E}[\\mathcal{Y}^2] = \\int_{\\mathcal{D}_{\\bm{\\theta}}} \\mathcal{Y}^2 \\mathbb{P}(\\bm{\\theta}) \nd\\bm{\\theta} < \\infty\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\noindent where $\\mathcal{D}_{\\bm{\\theta}}$ is the domain of the input parameter space and \n$\\mathbb{P}(\\bm{\\theta})$ is the joint probability distribution of individual components of $\\bm{\\theta}$.\nIn the present setting, $\\bm{\\theta}$:~$\\{L,\\frac{dT}{dz}\\}$ and the output, $\\mathcal{Y}$ is the\ndiscrepancy~($\\epsilon_{\\mbox{\\tiny{d}}}$ = \n$\\lvert\\kappa_{\\mbox{\\tiny{MD}}}$ - $\\kappa_{\\mbox{\\tiny{E}}}\\rvert$)\nin bulk thermal conductivity predictions from \nNEMD~($\\kappa_{\\mbox{\\tiny{MD}}}$) and experimental data~($\\kappa_{\\mbox{\\tiny{E}}}$), at a \ngiven temperature, $T$. The PC representation of $\\epsilon_{\\mbox{\\tiny{d}}}$ is given as:\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\epsilon_{\\mbox{\\tiny{d}}} \\approx \\mathcal{\\epsilon}_{\\mbox{\\tiny{d}}}^{\\mbox{\\tiny{PCE}}} = \n\\sum_{\\bm{k}\\in\\mathcal{I}} c_{\\bm{k}}(T)\\Psi_{\\bm{k}}(\\bm{\\xi(\\theta)}) \n\\end{equation}\n\n\\noindent Individual components of the uncertain input vector, $\\bm{\\theta}$ are parameterized in terms of canonical random \nvariables, $\\bm{\\xi}$ distributed uniformly in the interval $[-1,1]$. \n $\\Psi_{\\bm{k}}$'s are multivariate polynomial basis functions, orthonormal with respect to the joint probability \n distribution of $\\bm{\\xi}$. The degree of truncation in the above expansion is denoted by $\\bm{k}$, a subset of\n the multi-index set $\\mathcal{I}$ that comprises of individual degrees of univariate polynomials in $\\Psi_{\\bm{k}}$.\nThe PC coefficients, $c_{\\bm{k}}$'s can be estimated using either numerical quadrature or advanced techniques\ninvolving basis pursuit de-noising~\\cite{Peng:2014}, compressive\nsampling~\\cite{Hampton:2015}, and least angle regression~\\cite{Blatman:2011} suited for large-dimensional\napplications. However, in our case, since the response surface is 2D, we use Gauss-Legendre quadrature to\nobtain accurate estimates of the PC coefficients. \n\\bigskip\n\nIn order to construct the response surface of the discrepancy, we consider respective intervals for the Si bar length,\n$L$ and the applied temperature gradient, $\\frac{dT}{dz}$ as $[50a,100a]$~($\\mbox{\\normalfont\\AA}$) and\n $[\\frac{1.5}{a},\\frac{2.5}{a}]$~($\\frac{\\mbox{\\tiny{K}}}{\\tiny{\\mbox{\\normalfont\\AA}}}$); $a$ being the lattice constant. For the considered length interval, the number of atoms in the\nsimulation were observed to range from 201344 to 379456. It must be noted that our \nfocus is on illustrating a methodology for constructing a response surface that\nsufficiently captures the relationship between the inputs: $L$, $\\frac{dT}{dz}$ and\nthe discrepancy, $\\epsilon_d$. Hence, we believe\nthat the considered range for $L$ is large enough to be able to capture the input-output\ntrends as presented further below, while ensuring reasonable computational effort.\nAdditionally, the underlying noise associated with NEMD simulations was found to be\nnegligible in the considered range for $\\frac{dT}{dz}$ since we use average temperature\nat the bin point during the data production NVE ensemble.\n \nNEMD predictions of $\\kappa_{\\text{MD}}$\nare obtained at 25 Gauss-Legendre quadrature nodes (or points) in the 2D parameter \nspace as highlighted in Figure~\\ref{fig:rs2}(a)~and~\\ref{fig:rs2}(b). \nNote that 5 points are considered along $L$ and\n$\\frac{dT}{dz}$ assuming that a fourth order polynomial basis would be sufficient in\nboth cases, and the associated computational effort is not too large. \nLater, we assess the validity of our assumption by verifying the accuracy of the resulting\nresponse surface.\n \n The discrepancy between $\\kappa_{\\mbox{\\tiny{MD}}}$ and $\\kappa_{\\mbox{\\tiny{E}}}$ is computed at the quadrature nodes as illustrated in Figure~\\ref{fig:rs1}(a) to estimate the PC coefficients. The spectrum of \n resulting PC coefficients is illustrated in Figure~\\ref{fig:rs1}(b). \nNote that the value of $\\kappa_{\\mbox{\\tiny{E}}}$ is considered to be 149~W\/m\/K as provided \n in~\\cite{Shanks:1963}. Response surfaces constructed at the bulk temperature, $T$ = 300~K and 500~K are \n illustrated\n in Figure~\\ref{fig:rs2}(a) and~\\ref{fig:rs2}(b) respectively.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n\\begin{tabular}{cc}\n  \\hspace{-12mm}\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.60\\textwidth]{realz_quad300K}\n  &\n  \\hspace{-9mm}\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.56\\textwidth]{PCspectrum_300}\n  \\\\ (a) & (b)\n  \\end{tabular}\n\\caption{(a) Realizations of discrepancy in bulk thermal conductivity at the Gauss-Legendre quadrature notes are\ndepicted using circles. The size of the circle in each case is proportional to the discrepancy estimate, also provided\n in cases where it is observed to be relatively large. (b) Spectrum of PC coefficients is depicted using circles of\n varying sizes, proportional to the log value of their magnitude. The above computations were performed at 300 K.}\n\\label{fig:rs1}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n\\begin{tabular}{cc}\n \\hspace{-10mm}\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.55\\textwidth]{err2D_300}\n  &\n \n  \\includegraphics[width=0.55\\textwidth]{err2D_500}\n  \\\\ (a) & (b)\n  \\end{tabular}\n  \\\\ \\vspace{1mm}\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.50\\textwidth]{err2D_s}\n  \\\\ (c)\n\\caption{Response surface of the discrepancy in bulk thermal conductivity at (a) $T$ = 300~K and\n (b) $T$ = 500~K. Gauss-Legendre quadrature nodes are highlighted in both cases. (c) Sobol samples\n in the 2D domain used for verifying the accuracy of the response surfaces. Here, $|a|$ denotes the magnitude\n of the lattice constant.}\n\\label{fig:rs2}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\nAs expected, the discrepancy is observed to decrease\n with the bar length ($L$) due to increase in the mean free path. It is however interesting to note that the \n variation in discrepancy due to changes in the applied temperature gradient in the considered range is found to be\n negligible. The accuracy of the response surface is verified by computing a relative L-2 norm of the error\n ($\\varepsilon_{\\tiny{\\mbox{L-2}}}$) on an independent set of Sobol samples~\\cite{Saltelli:2010}\n(see Figure~\\ref{fig:rs2}(c)) in the 2D \n parameter domain as follows:\n \n \\begin{equation}\n \\varepsilon_{\\tiny{\\mbox{L-2}}} = \\frac{\\left[\\sum_{j}(\\epsilon_{\\tiny{\\mbox{d},j}}^{\\mbox{\\tiny{MD}}} - \n \\epsilon_{\\tiny{\\mbox{d},j}}^{\\mbox{\\tiny{PCE}}})^2\\right]^{\\frac{1}{2}}}{\\left[\\sum_j(\\epsilon_{\\tiny{\\mbox{d},j}}\n ^{\\mbox{\\tiny{MD}}})^2\\right]^{\\frac{1}{2}}} \n \\label{eq:err_l2}\n \\end{equation}\n \n A response surface was also constructed at $T$ = 1000~K (plot not included for brevity) and the impact of\n varying the temperature gradient on the discrepancy was still observed to be negligible. In all cases,\n $\\varepsilon_{\\tiny{\\mbox{L-2}}}$ in Eq.~\\ref{eq:err_l2} was estimated to be of $\\mathcal{O}(10^{-3})$ thereby\n indicating that the response surfaces could be used to predict the discrepancy for a given\n point ($L$,$\\frac{dT}{dz}$) in the considered domain with reasonable accuracy. As an additional verification\n step, we plot the inverse of thermal conductivity against the inverse of bar length using data from NEMD\n simulations as well as predictions from the response surface \n($\\kappa_{\\mbox{\\tiny{MD}}}~=~\\kappa_{\\mbox{\\tiny{E}}}~-~\\epsilon_{\\mbox{\\tiny{d}}}$) in Figure~\\ref{fig:kinv}.\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n\\begin{tabular}{cc}\n \\hspace{-10mm}\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.50\\textwidth]{kinv_300}\n  &\n \n  \\includegraphics[width=0.50\\textwidth]{kinv_500}\n  \\\\ (a) & (b)\n  \\end{tabular}\n \\caption{Inverse of the bulk thermal conductivity estimates are plotted against the inverse of Si bar length\n using predictions from NEMD as well as estimates from the response surface at (a)  $T$ = 300~K and \n (b) $T$ = 500~K. A straight line fit to the estimates is also illustrated in each case.}\n\\label{fig:kinv}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\nIt is observed that the response surface estimates exhibit an expected linear trend, consistent with NEMD\n  predictions. Using the y-intercept of the straight line fit, the bulk thermal conductivity was estimated\n as 178.52 W\/m\/K and 110.64 W\/m\/K at 300~K and 500~K respectively. Using a wider range for system length would\nhelp improve these estimates. However, as discussed earlier, our focus is on demonstrating\na methodology for quantifying the uncertainties (with limited resources) in bulk thermal conductivity predictions\n using NEMD as opposed\nto determining accurate estimates for the same. Constructing response surfaces using a\n relatively small number of NEMD predictions thus offers\n  potential for huge computational savings for studies aimed at predicting thermal conductivity trends and \n  quantifying the discrepancy with measurements for a wide range of system sizes, applied temperature gradients as \n  well as bulk temperatures.\n\nIn the following sections, we shift our focus towards understanding the impact of the uncertainty\nin SW potential parameter values on the uncertainty in NEMD predictions for bulk\nthermal conductivity in Si.  \n \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Reduced-order Surrogate}\n\\label{sec:ros}\n\nIn this section, we focus our attention on constructing a surrogate that captures the dependence of\nuncertainty in NEMD predictions of the bulk thermal conductivity ($\\kappa$) on input uncertainty\nin the SW potential parameters. The surrogate is a powerful tool that greatly minimizes\nthe computational\neffort required for forward propagation of the uncertainty from input parameters to the output,\nSobol\\textquotesingle~sensitivity analysis, and Bayesian calibration of the uncertain model parameters. Once again,\nwe use polynomial chaos (used to construct response surfaces for discrepancy in\nSection~\\ref{sec:response}) to construct the surrogate of the following functional form:\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\kappa  = \\sum\\limits_{\\bm{s}\\in\\mathcal{A}} c_{\\bm{s}}(T)\\Psi_{\\bm{s}}(\\bm{\\xi})\n\\end{equation}\n\nAs discussed earlier in Section~\\ref{sec:response}, several strategies are available to\nestimate the PC coefficients, $c_{\\bm{s}}$. However, since the polynomial basis functions\n($\\Psi_{\\bm{s}}(\\bm{\\xi}$)) are\nrelatively high dimensional, we use a computationally efficient approach proposed by\nBlatman and Sudret to construct a PCE with sparse basis($\\mathcal{A}$) using the LAR\nalgorithm~\\cite{Blatman:2011}. Furthermore, since the NEMD simulations are compute-intensive,\nestimating the PC coefficients in the 7D parameter space would still require a large amount of\ncomputational resources. Hence, we explore the possibility of reducing the dimensionality of\nthe surrogate. For this purpose, we \nexploit our observations in Figure~\\ref{fig:ub} where a significant\njump in the $\\hat{\\mathcal{C}_i\\mu_i}$ estimate is seen from $A$ to $B$ and thereby construct the \nPC surrogate in a 5D parameter space by fixing $B$ and $p$ at their nominal values. In the above\nequation, $\\bm{\\xi}:~\\{\\xi_1(A),\\xi_2(q),\\xi_3(\\alpha),\\xi_4(\\lambda),\\xi_5(\\gamma)\\}$ is a set\nof five canonical random variables, $\\xi_i$ distributed uniformly in the interval [-1,1].\nPrior intervals for the uncertain SW parameters are considered to be\n$\\pm~10\\%$ of their respective nominal estimates except for $q$ in which case it is [0,0.1]. In\nFigure~\\ref{fig:loo}, we plot the leave-one-out cross-validation error \n($\\epsilon_{\\tiny{\\mbox{LOO}}}$)~\\cite{Blatman:2010}, defined\nbelow in Eq.~\\ref{eq:loo}, against the number of model realizations used to construct the 5D\nPC surrogate. The software, UQLab~\\cite{Marelli:2014} was used for estimating $\\epsilon_{\\tiny{\\mbox{LOO}}}$\nand constructing the surrogate. The leave-one-out cross validation error ($\\epsilon_{\\tiny{\\mbox{LOO}}}$) is\ncomputed as:\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\epsilon_{\\tiny{\\mbox{LOO}}} = \\frac{\\sum\\limits_{i=1}^{N}\\left(\\mathcal{M}(\\bm{x}^{(i)}) - \n\\mathcal{M}^{PCE\\setminus i}(\\bm{x}^{(i)})\\right)^{2}}{\\sum\\limits_{i=1}^{N}\n\\left(\\mathcal{M}(\\bm{x}^{(i)}) - \\hat{\\mu}_Y\\right)^2}\n\\label{eq:loo}\n\\end{equation} \n\n\\noindent where $N$ denotes the number of realizations, $\\mathcal{M}(\\bm{x}^{(i)})$ is the\nmodel realization and $\\mathcal{M}^{PCE\\setminus i}(\\bm{x}^{(i)})$ is the corresponding PCE estimate\nat $\\bm{x}^{(i)}$. Note that the PCE is constructed using all points except $\\bm{x}^{(i)}$.\nThe quantity, $\\hat{\\mu}_Y$ = $\\frac{1}{N}\\sum\\limits_{i=1}^{N}\\mathcal{M}(\\bm{x}^{(i)})$\nis the sample mean of the realizations.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n \\begin{center}\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.65\\textwidth]{PCE5D_eloo}\n\\caption{A convergence study for the 5D PCE wherein the leave-one-out\nerror, $\\epsilon_{\\tiny{\\mbox{LOO}}}$ is plotted against the number of\nrealizations or NEMD runs used to estimate the PC coefficients.}\n\\label{fig:loo}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n \nIt is found that in order for the PCE to converge to an accuracy of~$\\mathcal{O}(10^{-2})$\nwith respect to $\\epsilon_{\\tiny{\\mbox{LOO}}}$, we require approximately 160 NEMD runs. In the\nfollowing section, we focus on verifying the accuracy of the 5D PCE against the set of available\nNEMD predictions in the original 7D parameter space. \n\n\\subsection{PC Surrogate Verification}\n\nThe accuracy of the 5D PC surrogate is verified using two different strategies. The first strategy involves\ncomputing the relative L-2 norm of the difference between the available NEMD predictions (used earlier\nto estimate DGSM in Section~\\ref{sec:sense}) and estimates using the 5D surrogate as follows:\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\epsilon_{\\mbox{\\tiny{L-2}}} = \n\\frac{\\left[\\sum\\limits_{i=1}^{N=25}\\left(\\mathcal{M}(\\bm{\\theta}_{\\mbox{\\tiny{7D}}}^{(i)}) - \n\\mathcal{M}^{PCE}(\\bm{\\theta}_{\\mbox{\\tiny{5D}}}^{(i)})\\right)^{2}\\right]^{\\frac{1}{2}}}{\\left[\\sum_{i=1}^{N}\n\\left(\\mathcal{M}(\\bm{\\theta}_{\\mbox{\\tiny{7D}}}^{(i)})\\right)^2\\right]^{\\frac{1}{2}}} \\approx 6.88\\times 10^{-2}\n\\end{equation}\n \n\\noindent where $\\mathcal{M}(\\bm{\\theta}_{\\mbox{\\tiny{7D}}}^{(i)})$ is the NEMD prediction in the original 7D\nparameter space, and $\\mathcal{M}^{PCE}(\\bm{\\theta}_{\\mbox{\\tiny{5D}}}^{(i)})$ is the corresponding \nestimate using the reduced order surrogate (5D). \nSince $\\epsilon_{\\mbox{\\tiny{L-2}}}$ is found to be $\\mathcal{O}(10^{-2})$, the 5D surrogate can be considered as\nreasonably accurate from the perspective of relative L-2 error norm. \n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n \\begin{center}\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.70\\textwidth]{PCE5D_kde}\n\\caption{Comparison of bulk thermal conductivity ($\\kappa$) distribution of Si based on a histogram plot\nusing NEMD predictions (Model) at 25 points in the 7D parameter space and a probability distribution obtained \nusing kernel density estimation of  reduced-order surrogate estimates of $\\kappa$ for 10$^6$ samples in the 5D\nparameter space.}\n\\label{fig:verify}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn the second strategy, we compare NEMD\npredictions and estimates from the 5D surrogate in a probabilistic sense. As shown in Figure~\\ref{fig:verify}, a \nhistogram plot based on the available set of NEMD predictions for bulk thermal conductivity in the 7D parameter \nspace is compared with its probability distribution, obtained using the reduced order surrogate and\n10$^6$ samples in the 5D parameter space described by the SW potential parameters:~$\\{A,q,\\alpha,\\lambda,\\gamma\\}$. It is observed that the probability density function (PDF) based on estimates from the reduced-order surrogate compares\nfavorably with the histogram. Specifically, the corresponding mode values for $\\kappa$ from the two plots are\nin close agreement, and the PDF reasonably captures the peaks as well as the spread in\nthe bulk thermal conductivity distribution as observed in the histogram. \nHence, the reduced-order surrogate is verified for accuracy in both cases. \n\\bigskip\n\nAs mentioned earlier, a PC surrogate can be used to estimate the Sobol\\textquotesingle~global sensitivity indices in a \nstraightforward manner~\\cite{Sudret:2008}. The Sobol\\textquotesingle~first order and total effect sensitivity indices estimated\nusing the reduced-order surrogate and $10^{6}$ samples in the 5D parameter space are plotted using bar-graphs in\nFigure~\\ref{fig:gsa}. \n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n \\begin{center}\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.65\\textwidth]{PCE5D_gsa}\n\\caption{Sobol\\textquotesingle~first-order and total effect sensitivity indices of the SW potential parameters\nw.r.t the bulk thermal\nconductivity as obtained using the reduced order PC surrogate and 10$^{6}$ samples in the 5D parameter space. }\n\\label{fig:gsa}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIt is found that $\\kappa$ is predominantly sensitive towards the choice of $\\alpha$ and\n$\\gamma$. This observation is consistent with our initial findings based on DGSM using 25 samples in the 7D\nparameter space. However, the DGSM estimate for $\\gamma$ was found to be the highest in that case. \nWhile sensitivity towards $A$, $q$, and $\\lambda$ is observed to be comparatively less in both cases, the \nSobol\\textquotesingle~indices for the three parameters are estimated to be smaller by an order of magnitude\n compared to those\nfor $\\alpha$ and $\\gamma$. Large quantitative disagreement in parametric sensitivity between DGSM and the \nSobol\\textquotesingle~indices is however not unexpected essentially because the two metrics differ by construction.\nThe former is based\non an expectation of partial derivatives while the later is based on variance. Nevertheless, significant qualitative\nagreement pertaining to parameter importance in the two approaches is quite encouraging. \nMoreover, verification of the reduced-order\nsurrogate for accuracy increases our confidence in implementing DGSM to ascertain the relative importance of the\nSW potential parameters and hence perform uncertainty analysis for the present application with minimal\ncomputational effort. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Sensitivity Analysis of the Inter-atomic Potential}\n\\label{sec:sense}\n\nAs discussed earlier in Section~\\ref{sec:intro}, bulk thermal conductivity estimates in NEMD\nare dependent on the choice of the inter-atomic potential as well as values associated with\nthe individual potential parameters. In the case of silicon, the Stillinger-Weber (SW)\nis a commonly used inter-atomic potential~(see~\\cite{Laradji:1995,Zhang:2014,Jiang:2015,Watanabe:1999,Zhou:2013} and references therein). Functional form of the SW potential is given as follows:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\Phi = \\sum\\limits_{i,j(i<j)}\\phi_2(A,B,p,q,\\alpha)\\hspace{1mm}+\\sum\\limits_{i,j,k(i<j<k)}\\phi_3(\\lambda,\\gamma)\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\phi_2$ and $\\phi_3$ represent two-body and three-body atomic interactions \nrespectively~\\cite{Stillinger:1985}.\n\nAlthough the SW potential is used for a wide variety of Si systems, \naccording to Stillinger and Weber, the set of nominal\nvalues as provided below in Table~2 were based on a constrained search in the 7D parameter space to ensure structural stability and agreement with the available experimental data~\\cite{Stillinger:1985}.\n\n\\begin{table}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n\\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|}\n\\hline \n$A$ & $B$ & $p$ & $q$ & $\\alpha$ & $\\lambda$ & $\\gamma$ \\\\\n\\hline \\hline\n7.049556277 & 0.6022245584 & 4.0 & 0.0 & 1.80 & 21.0 & 1.20 \\\\\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{Nominal values of the parameters of the Stillinger-Weber inter-atomic\npotential~\\cite{Stillinger:1985}.}\n\\end{table}\n\nIt is noteworthy that the underlying analysis which led to these estimates of the nominal values did not\naccount for the presence of uncertainty due to\nmeasurement error, noise inherent in MD predictions, inadequacies pertaining to the potential function,\nand parametric uncertainties. It is therefore likely that the proposed nominal estimates could be \nimproved depending upon the application. Hence, it is critical to understand the effects of uncertainty in\nSW potential parameters on bulk thermal conductivity predictions using NEMD. For this purpose, a possible\napproach could involve a global sensitivity analysis of NEMD predictions on the SW potential parameters \nby estimating the so-called Sobol\\textquotesingle~indices~\\cite{Sobol:2001}. However, obtaining converged estimates of\nSobol\\textquotesingle~indices typically requires tens of thousands of model evaluations to be able to numerically approximate\nmulti-dimensional integrals associated with the expectation and variance operators, especially in case $\\bm{\\theta}$,\nthe vector of uncertain model inputs is high-dimensional:\n\n\\begin{equation}\n \\mathcal{T}_i = \\frac{\\mathbb{E}_{\\bm{\\theta}\\sim i}[\\mathbb{V}_{\\theta_i}(\\mathcal{G}|\\bm{\\theta}_{\\sim i})]}{\\mathbb{V}(\\mathcal{G})} \n \\end{equation}\n \n \\noindent where $\\mathcal{T}_i$ is the Sobol\\textquotesingle~total-effect index, $\\mathcal{G}$ denotes the model output,\n $\\mathbb{E}_{\\bm{\\theta}\\sim i}[]$ is an expectation over all but the $i^{\\mbox{th}}$ component of \n $\\bm{\\theta}$, and $\\mathbb{V}_{\\theta_i}()$ is the variance taken over $\\theta_i$. Li and Mahadevan\n recently proposed a computationally efficient method for estimating the first-order Sobol\\textquotesingle~index~\\cite{Li:2016}.\nHowever, since NEMD is compute-intensive,\nestimating the Sobol\\textquotesingle~indices directly would be impractical in the present scenario. Hence, instead of \nestimating Sobol\\textquotesingle~sensitivity\nindices, we focus our attention on the upper bound of the Sobol\\textquotesingle~total-effect index to determine the relative\nimportance of SW potential parameters. \nIt is observed that for a given application, it might be possible to \nconverge to the upper bound on\nSobol\\textquotesingle~index with only a few iterations~($\\mathcal{O}(10^{1})$)~\\cite{Kucherenko:2016}. \nIn that case, estimates of the upper bound could be used in lieu of the\nSobol\\textquotesingle~indices to determine relative importance of the parameters and hence \nreduce the associated computational\neffort by several order of magnitude. The upper bound of the\nSobol\\textquotesingle~total effect index\\footnote{Sobol\\textquotesingle~total effect index is a measure\n of the contribution of an \ninput to the variance of the model output, also accounting for the contribution coupled with other inputs.}\n($\\mathcal{T}_i$) can be expressed in terms of a derivative-based sensitivity measure~(DGSM), $\\mu_i$, the Poincar\\' e \nconstant~($\\mathcal{C}_i$), and the total variance of the observed\nquantity~($V$)~\\cite{Lamboni:2013,Roustant:2014} as follows:   \n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mathcal{T}_i \\leq \\frac{\\mathcal{C}_i\\mu_i}{V}~(\\propto \\hat{\\mathcal{C}_i\\mu_i}) \n\\end{equation} \n\n\\noindent The derivative-based sensitivity measure, $\\mu_i$ for a given parameter, $\\theta_i$ is\ndefined as an expectation\nof the derivative of the output ($G(\\bm{\\theta})$) with respect to that parameter:\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\mu_i = \\mathbb{E}\\left[\\left(\\frac{\\partial G(\\bm{\\theta})}{\\partial \\theta_i}\\right)^{2}\\right]\n\\label{eq:mu}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\noindent Latin hypercube sampling in the 7D parameter space is used to estimate $\\mu_i$. Note that $G$ must \nexhibit a smooth variation with each parameter so that the derivative in Eq.~\\ref{eq:mu} can be estimated\nwith reasonable accuracy, analytically or numerically. \nWe define a normalized quantity, $\\hat{\\mathcal{C}_i\\mu_i}$ to ensure that its summation over all parameters is 1:\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\hat{\\mathcal{C}_i\\mu_i} = \\frac{\\mathcal{C}_i\\mu_i}{\\sum_i \\mathcal{C}_i\\mu_i} \n\\end{equation}\n\n\\noindent The choice of $\\mathcal{C}_i$ is specific to the marginal probability distribution of the uncertain model\nparameter, $\\theta_i$. \nThe underlying methodology for implementing DGSM to the present application involving thermal transport in bulk Si,\nand our key findings are discussed in the following section. \n\n\\subsection{DGSM for SW potential parameters}\n\\label{sub:dgsm} \n\nWe aim to compute the DGSM and hence the corresponding upper bound on the\nSobol\\textquotesingle~total effect index~($\\mathcal{T}_i$) for each parameter in the SW potential. For this purpose, we \nintroduce small perturbations~($\\mathcal{O}(10^{-5})n_i$; $n_i$ being the nominal value) to the nominal values\nassociated with each parameter and estimate the partial derivatives in Eq.~\\ref{eq:mu} using finite difference. \nHence, in order to compute $\\mu_i$ using $N$ points in the d-dimensional parameter space, we require $N(d+1)$\nmodel realizations. The SW potential parameters are considered to be uniformly distributed in a small interval\naround the nominal value in which case $\\mathcal{C}_i$ is given as $(u-l)^{2}\/\\pi^2$~\\cite{Roustant:2014}; $u$\nand $l$ being the upper and lower bounds of the interval respectively.   \n\nPerforming NEMD simulations using perturbed values of the SW potential parameters could however be challenging.\nFor certain combinations of the SW potential parameter values, the steady-state thermal\nenergy exchange between the thermostats was found to be non-physical at the end of the simulation. We believe that\nthis was observed in situations \nwhere the structure had deviated too far from the equilibrium state, and therefore the\nstructural integrity of the bar was lost as illustrated in Figure~\\ref{fig:dgsm1}(a). \n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n\\begin{tabular}{cc}\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.40\\textwidth]{unstable}\n  &\n  \\hspace{3mm}\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.50\\textwidth]{lx_npt}\n  \\\\ (a) & (b)\n  \\end{tabular}\n\\caption{(a) A snapshot of the arrangement of atoms illustrating loss of\nstructural integrity of the Si bar. \n(b) Si bar length is plotted against the number of time steps during\nthe NPT ensemble stage of the simulation.}\n\\label{fig:dgsm1}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\nTo avoid this issue, we added an NPT ensemble prior to NVT in the NEMD simulation as shown in the\nfollowing diagram:\n\n\\begin{center}\n\nNPT \\hspace{5mm} $\\rightarrow$ \\hspace{5mm} NVT \\hspace{5mm} $\\rightarrow$ \\hspace{5mm} NVE \\hspace{5mm}\n$\\rightarrow$ \\hspace{5mm} NVE\n\\\\ \\vspace{1mm}\n\\tiny [Relax the system]~[Equilibrate system to 300 K] \\hspace{1mm} [Equilibrate thermostats] \\hspace{4mm}\n [Generate Data]\n\\\\ \\vspace{1mm}\n\n\\tiny{N: Number of Atoms~~~P: Pressure~~~V: Volume~~~T: Temperature~~~E: Energy}\n\\end{center}\n\n\\noindent The NPT stage of the simulation was allowed to continue for a sufficiently long duration to ensure\nthat the system is relaxed to a steady value of the bar length as shown in Figure~\\ref{fig:dgsm1}(b).\n\nThe following algorithm provides the sequence of steps that were used to obtain approximate estimates of the\nsensitivity measures for the SW potential parameters. Note that the algorithm has been adapted to the \nspecific application in this work. A generalized methodology with a more detailed discussion and its application\nto different class of problems will be presented in~\\cite{Vohra:2018}.\n\n\\bigskip\n\n\\begin{breakablealgorithm}\n  \\caption{Estimating parameter ranks using DGSM.}\n  \\begin{algorithmic}[1]\n    \\Procedure{DGSM}{}\n      \\State Generate $n_1$ points in $\\mathbb{R}^{d}$.\\Comment{$d$: \n             Number of parameters i.e. 7 in this case}\n      \\State Perturb each point along the $d$ directions to obtain a set of $n_1(d+1)$ points.\n      \\State Compute $\\mu_i$ using model evaluations at the $n_1(d+1)$ points in Eq.~\\ref{eq:mu}\n      \\State Determine initial ranks, $\\mathcal{R}^{old}$ based on $\\hat{\\mathcal{C}_i\\mu_i}$ values for $\\theta_i$.\n      \\State set $k$ = 1\\Comment{Iteration counter}\n      \\Do\n        \\State Generate $n_k$ new points in $\\mathbb{R}^{d}$.\n        \\State Perturb each point along the $d$ directions to obtain a set of $n_k(d+1)$ points.\n        \\State Compute and store model evaluations at the $n_k(d+1)$ points.\n        \\State Compute $\\mu_i$ using prior model evaluations at $(d+1)(n_1 + \\sum_j^k n_j)$ points.\n        \\State Determine new ranks, $\\mathcal{R}^{new}$ based on updated $\\hat{\\mathcal{C}_i\\mu_i}$ values.\n        \\State Compute $max\\_pdev$ = max$\\left(\\frac{|\\mu_{i,k} - \n               \\mu_{i,k-1}|}{ \\mu_{i,k-1}}\\right)$.\\Comment{$max\\_pdev$:\n               Maximum percentage deviation in $\\mu_i$ between successive iterations.}\n        \\State set $k$ = $k$ + 1\n      \\doWhile{($\\mathcal{R}^{\\tiny{new}}$ $\\neq$ $\\mathcal{R}^{\\tiny{old}}$ {\\bf or}  \n               $max\\_pdev$~$>~\\tau$)\\Comment{$\\tau$:~Tolerance}}\n    \\EndProcedure\n  \\end{algorithmic}\n\\end{breakablealgorithm}\n\n\\bigskip\n\n\nFor the present application, we begin with $n_1$ = 10 samples in the 7D parameter space and add 5 points\nat each iteration. Using a tolerance, $\\tau$ = 0.05, the above algorithm took 4 iterations i.e. 25 points to \nprovide approximate estimates for $\\mu_i$. Since finite difference was used to estimate the derivatives in\nEq.~\\ref{eq:mu}, it required 25(7+1) i.e. 200 MD runs. It must be noted that although the computational effort\npertaining to the estimation of DGSM can be substantial, it is nevertheless several orders of magnitude smaller\nthan directly estimating the Sobol\\textquotesingle~indices as mentioned earlier. \nIn Figure~\\ref{fig:ub}, we plot $\\hat{\\mathcal{C}_i\\mu_i}$ as obtained for the SW parameters at the \nend of 4 iterations. It appears that $\\gamma$ is significantly more important than other parameters, whereas NEMD\npredictions are relatively less sensitive to $B$ and $p$. Large sensitivity towards \n$\\gamma$ and $\\alpha$ (cut-off radius) is in fact expected since  these two parameters impact the lattice\nconstant and hence the mean free path associated with the bulk thermal conductivity directly. \n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n \\begin{center}\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.5\\textwidth]{ub}\n\\caption{The quantity $\\hat{\\mathcal{C}_i\\mu_i}$ as computed after 4 iterations and data at 200\npoints is plotted for each SW potential parameter.}\n\\label{fig:ub}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn the following section, we exploit these observations based on DGSM to construct a reduced order surrogate.\nThe surrogate enables forward propagation of uncertainty in the SW potential to the bulk thermal conductivity \nestimates, and the estimation of Sobol\\textquotesingle~sensitivity indices with minimal computational effort. \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{NEMD Set-up}\n\\label{sec:setup}\n\nIn this work, non-equilibrium molecular dynamics (NEMD) simulations are performed using the \nLAMMPS~\\cite{Plimpton:2007} software package.\nEssentially, a temperature gradient is applied by means of Langevin thermostats located\nat $L$\/4 and $3L$\/4 in a silicon bar of length, $L$ \nas shown using a schematic in Figure~\\ref{fig:setup}. \n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n\\begin{tabular}{cc}\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.48\\textwidth]{schematic}\n  &\n  \\hspace{3mm}\n  \\includegraphics[width=0.40\\textwidth]{Sibar_05}\n  \\\\ (a) & (b)\n  \\end{tabular}\n\\caption{(a) Schematic illustration of the set-up for evaluating thermal conductivity of Si using NEMD. (b) \nArrangement of Si atoms prior to the application of temperature gradient.}\n\\label{fig:setup}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThe set of\ninputs to LAMMPS is provided below in Table~\\ref{tab:input}. Note that specific values for the length of the bar\nand the applied temperature gradient are not provided since we investigate thermal conductivity trends for a range of \nvalues of the two parameters as discussed later in Section~\\ref{sec:response}. A careful analysis focused on\nminimizing temperature fluctuations during different stages of the simulation was performed to optimize for the\nchoice of height and width of the bar as well as the duration of the simulation. \n\n\\begin{table}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n\\begin{tabular}{|c||c|}\n\\hline\nLattice Constant, $a$ ($\\mbox{\\normalfont\\AA}$) & 5.43 \\\\ \\hline\nWidth, Height ($\\mbox{\\normalfont\\AA}$) & 22$a$ \\\\ \\hline\n$\\Delta t$  (ps) & 0.0005 \\\\ \\hline\nSimulation Run Length (ps) & 320 \\\\ \\hline\nBoundary Condition & Periodic \\\\ \\hline\nLattice Structure & Diamond \\\\ \\hline\nInter-atomic Potential & Stillinger-Weber \\\\ \n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\\end{center}\n\\label{tab:input}\n\\caption{Set of inputs for the NEMD simulation to estimate thermal conductivity in a Si bar using LAMMPS.}\n\\end{table}\n\nThe NEMD simulation has three stages associated with it as illustrated below in the flow diagram. In the\nfirst stage, the NVT ensemble equilibrates the system to a specified bulk temperature, i.e., the temperature\nat which thermal conductivity is to be estimated. In the second stage, the NVE ensemble equilibrates the\nthermostats at their respective temperatures. It is followed by another NVE ensemble that captures the\ntrajectory of individual atoms and results in a steady state estimate for the thermal energy exchange between\nthe two thermostats. \n\n\\begin{center}\n\nNVT \\hspace{5mm} $\\rightarrow$ \\hspace{5mm} NVE \\hspace{5mm}\n$\\rightarrow$ \\hspace{5mm} NVE\n\\\\ \\vspace{1mm}\n\\tiny \\hspace{-5mm}[Equilibrate system to 300 K] \\hspace{1mm} [Equilibrate thermostats] \\hspace{4mm}\n [Generate Data]\n\\\\ \\vspace{1mm}\n\n\\tiny{N: Number of Atoms~~~V: Volume~~~T: Temperature~~~E: Energy}\n\\end{center}\n\nThe steady state exchange energy ($q$) is used in Fourier's law to estimate bulk thermal conductivity ($\\kappa$)\nfor the Si  bar:\n\n\\begin{equation}\n \\kappa = \\frac{q''}{\\left|\\frac{dT}{dz}\\right|} \n\\end{equation}\n\n\\noindent where $q''$ denotes the steady state heat flux (W\/m$^2$) and\n$\\left|\\frac{dT}{dz}\\right|$ denotes the magnitude of the applied \ntemperature gradient along the direction of heat flow (see~Figure~\\ref{fig:setup}(a)).\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
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+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\\IEEEPARstart{S}{uperpixel} segmentation aims at grouping the discretizing pixels into some high-level correlative units as input primitives in a variety of subsequent computer vision tasks,\n\\textit{e.g.}, salient object detection \\cite{2020Going,Video,cong2017co,xu2019video}, image dehazing \\cite{yang2018superpixel}, image classification \\cite{shi2019multiscale}, object recognition \\cite{wang2014superpixel}, adversarial attack \\cite{dong2020robust}.\nNowadays, dual cameras have been widely used in extensive industrial applications, such as assistant driving and mobile phones.\nCompared with single images, stereo image pairs can obtain complementary information from the second viewpoint, which is beneficial to scene representation and object modeling \\cite{li2021stereo}.\nHowever, how to effectively utilize complementary and correspondence information to generate superpixels for stereo images is still a challenging task.\n\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{figures\/simple_compare\/Simple_Compare.pdf}\n    \\caption{A simple illustration of the comparison between the state-of-the-art superpixel segmentation methods and our method.}\n    \\label{fig:Simple-compare}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure*}[t]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=.95\\textwidth]{figures\/framework.pdf}\n    \\caption{Overall framework of the proposed method.}\n    \\label{fig:method}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nFor stereo superpixel segmentation, stereo image pairs are generally segmented separately as single views by traditional methods. By this way, the complementarity and correlation between the left and right views of stereo image pairs are ignored and cannot be explored sufficiently \\cite{cheng2015cross,liu2016complementary}. Therefore, these methods cannot be regarded as an real implementation of stereo superpixel segmentation, since the intrinsic characteristics of stereo images are neglected.\nTo take the collaborative relationship between left and right views into consideration,\nLi \\textit{et al.} \\cite{li2021stereo} propose a collaborative optimization scheme to generate stereo superpixels with the parallax consistency, which is the first attempt to devise a specific superpixel segmentation method for stereo image pairs.\nThe method first match the corresponding regions between the left and right view of a stereo image pair. Superpixels are initialized and matched in the corresponding regions. Then, the superpixels in the left and right views are refined simultaneously via a collaborative optimization strategy.\nExperimental results demonstrate it outperforms the methods that segment stereo image pairs separately.\nNevertheless, this method extracts handcrafted feature instead of deep feature by an unsupervised way, which leads to the limitation of the performance.\n\nMost recently, Wu \\textit{et al.} \\cite{2021Stereo} propose an end-to-end dual attention fusion network (StereoDFN) for stereo superpixel segmentation, which extracts the deep features of stereo image pairs by convolutional neural networks instead of handcrafted features. Then it models the correspondence between the left and right views via the parallax attention module to integrate the complementary information of stereo image pairs and has achieved impressive performance.\nHowever, the existing superpixel segmentation methods like StereoDFN and superpixel sampling network (SSN) \\cite{SSN} utilize the five-dimensional features (including two-dimensional spatial features XY, and three-dimensional color features Lab) as input,\nwhich aims to extract high-dimensional deep features. For stereo superpixel segmentation task, the disparity information is often adopted to emphasize the correspondence between left and right views.\nIf the spatial information is input before the feature fusion, \nthis may result in strong constraints on spatial information,\nsince the stereo features are coupled with spatial features,\nwhich will lead to degradation of image boundaries.\n\nThe presented work significantly extends StereoDFN with a decoupling mechanism of spatial information to only use three-dimensional color features (Lab) instead of five-dimensional features (XYLab) in modeling the correspondence between both views,\nthereby decoupling the stereo features (color features) and spatial features (XY) to relax the constrain of spatial information.\nConsidering the importance of spatial information in superpixel segmentation,\nwe further design a Dynamic Spatiality Embedding Module (DSEM) to re-add spatial information, the weighting of spatial information will be adaptively adjusted through the Dynamic Fusion (DF) mechanism in DSEM to fit images of different sizes, thereby obtaining a more accurate representation of spatial information and achieving a better performance.\nAs the simple comparison shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:Simple-compare}, we can see that our proposed method adhere to the object boundaries better than FCN \\cite{FCN} and StereoDFN.\n\nIn this paper, we improve upon our previous work in ICME \\cite{2021Stereo}.\nThe main contributions of the proposed work can be summarized as follows:\n\\begin{enumerate}\n    \\item We propose a stereo superpixel segmentation method with a decoupling mechanism of spatial information to generate superpixels for stereo image pairs, which can integrate the correspondence from both left and right viewpoints to take the stereo features alignment and occlusion problems into account.\n   \n    \\item\n    Since the coupling of stereo features and spatial features may impose strong constraints on spatial information while modeling the correspondence between stereo image pairs,\n    we develop a spatial decoupling mechanism to model the correspondence with relaxed spatial constraint by decoupling the stereo features and spatial features, and postponing the embedding of spatial information after stereo features have been fused.\n    %\n    \\item We design a Dynamic Spatiality Embedding Module (DSEM) to re-add spatial information for achieving a finer segmentation. The weighting of spatial information can be adaptively adjusted via the Dynamic Fusion (DF) mechanism in DSEM to fit images of different sizes, thereby achieving a better performance.\n    %\n    \\item Our method achieves the state-of-the-art performance \n    compared with previous works both quantitatively and qualitatively.\n    Extensive ablation studies validate the effectiveness of the proposed strategy.\n    With application in salient object detection, we also demonstrate that our method can achieve superior performance in downstream task.\n\\end{enumerate}\n\nThe article is organized as follows. We briefly introduce the related work about existing superpixel segmentation algorithms in Section II.\nThen, we propose our model and detail each key component in Section III.\nThe qualitative and quantitative experimental results and analyses are presented in Section IV. \nIn Section V, we present the application of the proposed method in salient object detection.\nFinally, Section VII concludes this article.\n\n\\section{Related Work}\nThe concept of \"Superpixel\" is first introduced in \\cite{ren2003learning}, which is an over-segmentation of images and generated by grouping pixels similar in low-level properties.\nExisting superpixel segmentation algorithms can be simply divided into two categories: unsupervised superpixel segmentation methods and supervised superpixel segmentation methods.\n\\subsection{Unsupervised Superpixel Segmentation Methods}\n\nSimple linear iterative clustering (SLIC) \\cite{SLIC} is one of the most widely used unsupervised methods, which employs k-means clustering approach to generate superpixels efficiently by grouping nearby pixels based on five-dimensional color and position features of the images.\nDue to SLIC has fast runtime and impressive performance, many superpixel-based applications commonly use SLIC for superpixel segmentation.\nLinear spectral clustering (LSC) \\cite{chen2017linear} generates superpixels based on kernel function instead of using the traditional eigen, which is not only able to produce compact superpixel, but also with low computational costs.\nConsidering the irregular structure of superpixels, Li \\textit{et al.} \\cite{li2019superpixel} propose approximately structural superpixels (ASS), they regard superpixel segmentation as a square-wise asymmetric partition problem and generate ASS by an asymmetrically square-wise superpixel segmentation way, which can preserve semantics better and largely reduces data amount.\n\\subsection{Supervised Superpixel Segmentation Methods}\nIn recent years, inspired by the success of deep learning techniques in a wide variety of computer vision tasks, some works try to use deep learning techniques for superpixel segmentation. Jampani \\textit{et al.} \\cite{SSN} propose the first deep learning-based end-to-end trainable superpixel segmentation network (SSN), which is enlightened by the SLIC method. To simplify the generation of superpixels, Yang \\textit{et al.} \\cite{FCN} propose a lightweight fully convolutional networks (FCN) that based on encoder-decoder structure, which generates superpixels efficiently by predicting the probability map between pixels and superpixels.\nMore recently,\nWu \\textit{et al.} propose an dual attention fusion network (StereoDFN),\nthey attempt to take the collaborative relationship between stereo image pairs into consideration by modeling the correspondence between them,\nwhich is based on parallax attention mechanism.\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Proposed Method}\nIn this work, we propose a stereo superpixel segmentation method with a decoupling mechanism of spatial information,\nthe framework is illustrated in Fig.~\\ref{fig:method}.\nIn general, the proposed method can be divided into the following steps:\nFirst, stereo image pairs with Lab color space are input\ninto fully convolutional network to extract the deep features.\nThen, the deep features of left and right views are fed to the Decoupled Stereo Fusion Module (DSFM),\nwhich integrates the features from both views. \nMoreover, Dynamic Spatiality Embedding Module (DSEM) is proposed\nto adaptively combine the spatial information with deep features.\nFinally, a soft clustering algorithm \\cite{SSN} is adopted to generate the superpixels.\n\nIn what follows, we detail the main components of the proposed method,\nwhich are feature extractor, Decoupled Stereo Fusion Module (DSFM),\nDynamic Spatiality Embedding Module (DSEM) and loss functions respectively.\n\n\\subsection{Feature Extractor}\nA pair of weight-shared Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) is adopted to extract the deep feature of stereo image.\nThe basic block is a `Conv-BN-ReLU' block, which is composed of a convolution layer with $3 \\times 3$ kernel size and $64$ output channels,\na batch-normalization layer and a ReLU activation function.\nEach of the two modules will be followed by a max-pooling layer for downsampling.\nFor features captured from Block2, Block4 and Block6,\nwe upsample them into the same resolution as the input image and concatenate them together.\nBlock7 will fuse them and generate the final output.\nThrough this way, the networks can effectively learn more multi-level and multi-scale features, which is benefit for both superpixel segmentation and capturing the correspondence of stereo image pairs.\nThe schematic illustration of feature extractor has been shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:feature_extractor}.\n\n\\subsection{Decoupled Stereo Fusion Module}\nDecoupled Stereo Fusion Module (DSFM) is the key component for fusing the stereo features.\nConsidering the most significant problems in stereo features fusion,\nsuch as features alignment and occlusion problem,\nthe proposed DSFM try to solve them via parallax attention mechanism and valid mask.\n\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{figures\/Feature_Extractor.pdf}\n    \\caption{The schematic illustration of Feature Extractor.}\n    \\label{fig:feature_extractor}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n\t\\centering\n\t\\subfigure[Previous method.]{\n        \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{figures\/Previous_work.pdf}\n\t}\n\t\\subfigure[Proposed method.]{\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{figures\/Current_work.pdf}\n\t}\n\t\\caption{Differences between our method and StereoDFN. \n\tWe only use Lab color information as input to decouple the stereo features and spatial features.\n\tAfter \\textbf{D}ecoupled \\textbf{S}tereo \\textbf{F}usion \\textbf{M}odule (DSFM),\n\twe design a \\textbf{D}ynamic \\textbf{S}patiality \\textbf{E}mbedding \\textbf{M}odule (DSEM) \n\tto re-add spatial information.} \n\t\n\t\\label{fig:compare_previous}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\textbf{Spatial Decoupling Mechanism.}\nConsidering the coupling of stereo features and spatial features may impose strong constraints on spatial information while modeling the correspondence between stereo image pairs, thereby interfering with superpixels to adhere to the object boundaries.\nThe spatial decoupling mechanism is proposed to model the correspondence between stereo image pairs with relaxed spatial constraint\nMore specifically, we remove the spatial information of input items for relaxing the constrain of spatial information.\nThe input of StereoDFN is a five-dimensional features (XYLab),\nwhile the input of our proposed method is a three-dimensional features (Lab),\nthis is the essential difference between our proposed method and StereoDFN,\nwe also present the schematic illustration of the difference in Fig.~\\ref{fig:compare_previous}.\nFurthermore, the effectiveness of our spatial decoupling mechanism has been shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:decouple_visualized}, benefiting from decoupling stereo features and spatial features, our method eliminates the interference of spatial information on modeling, and the boundary information is much more clearly.\n\n\\textbf{Stereo Features Alignment.}\nSince the corresponding pixels in stereo image pairs are located at different positions,\nit is extremely difficult to fuse the stereo features directly.\nTherefore, aligning the stereo features is necessary before fusion.\n\n\\begin{figure}[t] \n    \\begin{minipage}[b]{.3\\linewidth}\n      \\centering\n      \\centerline{\\includegraphics[width=2.85cm]{figures\/origin.png}}\n      \\centerline{(a) Original image}\n    \\end{minipage}\n    \\hfill\n    \\begin{minipage}[b]{.3\\linewidth}\n      \\centering\n      \\centerline{\\includegraphics[width=2.85cm]{figures\/coupled.png}}\n      \\centerline{(b) Coupled}\n    \\end{minipage}\n    \\hfill\n    \\begin{minipage}[b]{.3\\linewidth}\n      \\centering\n      \\centerline{\\includegraphics[width=2.85cm]{figures\/decoupled.png}}\n      \\centerline{(c) Decoupled}\n    \\end{minipage}\n    \\hfill\n    %\n    \\caption{The visualization of deep features after modeling the correspondence between stereo image pairs.\n    Note that (b) is generated by StereoDFN, while (c) is generated by our method.}\n    \\label{fig:decouple_visualized}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{figures\/attention.pdf}\n    \\caption{The schematic illustration of the difference between self attention and parallax attention mechanism.\n    (a) and (b) are self attention mechanism and our parallax attention mechanism respectively.\n    We can find the computational complexity of parallax-attention mechanism is much smaller\n    by comparing (a) and (b).}\n    \\label{fig:attention}\n\\end{figure}\nInspired by~\\cite{PAM}, the parallax attention mechanism is utilized\nto model the correspondence between stereo image pairs.\nSince the left and right views of the images are only translated horizontally, while aligning in the vertical direction,\nthe matching pixels in two views must be on the same horizontal line.\nFor this reason, as the schematic illustration shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:attention}(a) and Fig.~\\ref{fig:attention}(b), the parallax attention mechanism is only consider the correlation of pixels on the same horizontal line, instead of all the pixels in the image like traditional self attention mechanism.\nIn this way, the computation complexity of attention can be largely reduced.\n\nAs the schematic illustration of aligning the features from the right view with the left view features shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:method},\nfor a pair of deep features $\\mathcal{F}_{L}$ and $\\mathcal{F}_{R}\\in\\mathcal{R}^{H \\times W \\times C}$,\nwe can get $A$ and $B$ from a convolution layer with $1 \\times 1$ kernel size. \nThen, the parallax attention map $\\mathcal{M} \\in \\mathcal{R}^{H \\times W \\times W}$ will be generated by:\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\mathcal{M}_{R \\to L} = softmax(A \\otimes B^T),\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\mathcal{M}_{L \\to R} = softmax(B \\otimes A^T),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\otimes$ denotes the batch-wise multiplication, and $T$ denotes the batch-wise transposition.\n$\\mathcal{M}_{L \\to R}(i, j, k)$ and $\\mathcal{M}_{R \\to L}(i, j, k)$ represent the contribution of the position $(i, j)$ in one view to position $(i, j)$ in another view.\nIn this way, the supplementary information of one view can be obtained through another view, which can be formulated as follows:\n\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\hat{\\mathcal{F}}_{L} = \\mathcal{M}_{R \\to L} \\otimes \\mathcal{F}_{right},\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\hat{\\mathcal{F}}_{R} = \\mathcal{M}_{L \\to R} \\otimes \\mathcal{F}_{left},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\hat{\\mathcal{F}}_{L}$ and $\\hat{\\mathcal{F}}_{R}$ denote the aligned features.\n\n\\textbf{Occlusion Problem.}\nOcclusion always exists in stereo images due to violent disparity variation,\nwhich will lead to an inaccurate stereo features fusion.\nTherefore, we further add the occlusion handling part in DSFM to take occlusion problem into consideration.\n\nTaking the example of handling the occlusion in the right image.\nAssuming that a pixel located at $(i, j)$ is in the occlusion region,\nfor any $k \\in [1,W]$, $\\mathcal{M}_{L \\to R}(i,j,k)$ is an extremely low value\nsince any pixel on the same horizontal line in the left view is not relevant to it.\nThus, the valid mask $O_{L \\to R}$ can be generated from parallax attention map $\\mathcal{M}_{L \\to R}$,\nwhich can be formulated as Eq.~(\\ref{valid-mask}):\n\\begin{equation}\n\t\\label{valid-mask}\n\tO_{L \\to R}(i,j) =\n\t\\begin{cases}\n\t1, &{\\sum_{k \\in [1, W]} \\mathcal{M}_{L \\to R}(i, k, j) \\textgreater \\tau} \\\\\n\t0, &{\\sum_{k \\in [1, W]} \\mathcal{M}_{L \\to R}(i, k, j) \\leq \\tau},\n\t\\end{cases}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\tau$ is a threshold set to $0.1$. \nThen, the occlusion handling part will fuse the stereo features.\nThe left fused features $\\Tilde{\\mathcal{F}}_{L}$ can be obtained as Eq.~(\\ref{eq:fuse}):\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\label{eq:fuse}\n    \\Tilde{\\mathcal{F}}_{L} = Concat(\\hat{\\mathcal{F}}_{L} \\circ O_{L \\to R} + \\mathcal{F}_{L} \\circ (1 - O_{L \\to R}), \\mathcal{F}_{L}),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $Concat(,)$ represents the concatenate operation on channel dimension,\nwhile $\\circ$ represents the Hadamard product.\nFinally, $\\Tilde{\\mathcal{F}}_{L}$ will be fed to a `Conv-BN-ReLU' block\nfor reducing the channel size to the size of origin features.\n\n\\subsection{Dynamic Spatiality Embedding Module}\nTo prevent the spatial information influence the stereo correspondence modeling,\nthe spatial information has been removed in the input items.\nHowever, spatial information is indispensable for superpixel segmentation method to adhere to object boundaries more accurately, which is vital to achieve a better performance.\nTherefore, spatial information is re-added via the Dynamic Spatiality Embedding Module (DSEM) to take both conditions into consideration simultaneously, so that we can not only eliminate the disadvantage of spatial information in modeling the correspondence, but also utilize the advantage of spatial information.\nDSEM consists of two parts, which are Spatiality Embedding (SE) and Dynamic Fusion (DF).\nThe architecture of DSEM can be seen in Fig.~\\ref{fig:method}.\n\\begin{figure}[t]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{figures\/coordinate.pdf}\n    \\caption{(a) denotes the input images with $300 \\times 300$ resolution,\n    (b) the deep features, \n    (c) the features after adding the spatial information with a value domain of $(0,1)$, \n    and (d) the features after adding the spatial information zoomed in the manner of~\\cite{SLIC, SSN}.\n    We can see our embedding strategy preserves more details than (d).}\n    \\label{fig:coordinate}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\textbf{Spatiality Embedding.}\nA reliable superpixel segmentation algorithms require the ability to handle images with different resolutions.\nHowever, the value of spatial information can be extremely large for a high-resolution image,\nwhich will pollute the image feature representation if the spatial information is embedded directly.\nIn order to avoid such a disadvantage,\nwe normalize the spatial information $X$ and $Y$ as Eq.~(\\ref{eq:range}):\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\label{eq:range}\n    \\hat{X} = \\frac{X}{max(X)},~\\hat{Y} = \\frac{Y}{max(Y)},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $X$ and $Y$ are spatial information on horizontal and vertical direction, respectively.\n\nAfter normalizing, $\\hat{X}$ and $\\hat{Y}$ is added to fused features and get $\\Tilde{\\mathcal{F}_{X}}, \\Tilde{\\mathcal{F}_{Y}}$.\nThen, a convolution layer with $1 \\times 1$ kernel size is followed to embed the spatial information.\nIn this way, we can prevent an over-consideration of spatial information.\nFinally, $\\Tilde{\\mathcal{F}_{X}},~\\Tilde{\\mathcal{F}_{Y}}$ is concatenated with input features and send them to dynamic fusion part.\nFig.~\\ref{fig:coordinate} shows the effectiveness of our embedding strategy.\n\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{figures\/DF.pdf}\n    \\caption{The schematic illustration of Dynamic Fusion mechanism.}\n    \\label{fig:DF}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure*}[!t]\n    \\centering\n    \\subfigure[Performance on the KITTI2015 dataset.]{\n        \\includegraphics[width=.32\\textwidth]{figures\/KITTI_performance\/ASA_KITTI.pdf}\n        \\includegraphics[width=.32\\textwidth]{figures\/KITTI_performance\/BR_KITTI.pdf}\n        \\includegraphics[width=.32\\textwidth]{figures\/KITTI_performance\/UE_KITTI.pdf}\n        \\label{fig:performance_a}\n        }\n    \\subfigure[Performance on the validation set of Cityscapes dataset.]{\n        \\includegraphics[width=.32\\textwidth]{figures\/Cityscapes_performance\/ASA_Cityscapes.pdf}\n        \\includegraphics[width=.32\\textwidth]{figures\/Cityscapes_performance\/BR_Cityscapes.pdf}\n        \\includegraphics[width=.32\\textwidth]{figures\/Cityscapes_performance\/UE_Cityscapes.pdf}\n        \\label{fig:performance_b}\n    }\n    \\caption{Quantitative comparison of the proposed method and other state-of-the-art methods.}\n    \\label{fig:performance}\n\\end{figure*}\n\\textbf{Dynamic Fusion.}\nAlthough spatial information is indispensable in superpixel segmentation task,\nit does not always play the same important role of different regions in one image.\nFor example, for regions with sparse textures,\nspatial information should be considered more to generate regular and compact superpixels.\nOn the other hand, for regions with dense edges and complex contents,\nspatial information is relatively less important.\nTherefore, to achieve consistently excellent performance in different conditions,\na dynamic fusion mechanism is designed to adaptively adjust the weighting of spatial information during fusion phase.\n\nThe dynamic fusion mechanism employs a channel-attention~\\cite{senet} way\nto adaptively aggregate and refine features.\nMore specifically, we first use a `Conv-BN-ReLU' block to fuse the features coarsely.\nThen, a global average pooling layer with another `Conv-BN-ReLU' is followed to generate the global feature map.\nFinally, a series operations are utilized to produce the weighting map,\nwhich can be formulated as follows:\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\mathcal{W} = g \\cdot \\sigma(C(ReLU(LN(C(g))))),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\mathcal{W}$ is the weighting map and $g$ is the global feature map.\n$\\sigma, C, ReLU$ and $LN$ represents sigmoid function, a convolution layer with $1 \\times 1$ kernel size, ReLU activation function and layer-normalization, respectively.\nIn this way, a more effective representation of spatial information with the guidance of weighting map can be obtained.\nFinally, the weighting map is added to the input features and fed to the third `Conv-BN-ReLU' block to generate the adjusted features.\nFig.~\\ref{fig:DF} presents the details of the Dynamic Fusion (DF) mechanism.\n\n\\subsection{Loss Functions}\nWe design two loss functions for optimizing our model.\n\n\\textbf{Semantic Loss.}\nThis function facilitates the superpixel adhere to semantic boundaries,\nwhich utilize the cross-entropy loss function $SE$ to measure the loss:\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\mathcal{L}_{sem} = CE(S, S^*),\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $S$ denotes the one-hot semantic label of ground truth and $S^*$ is the reconstructed semantic label.\n\n\\textbf{Stereo Loss.}\nThis loss function is designed to constrain the model to correctly estimate stereo correspondence.\nWe also add valid mask to eliminate the problems caused by occlusion.\nStereo loss is defined as:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n    \\mathcal{L}_{stereo} =& \\left\\|O_{L \\to R} \\circ (I_{L} - \\mathcal{M}_{R \\to L} \\otimes I_{R})\\right\\|_1+\n\t\\\\ &\\left\\|O_{R \\to L} \\circ (I_{R} - \\mathcal{M}_{L \\to R} \\otimes I_{L})\\right\\|_1,\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $I_L,~I_R$ denotes the left and right image, respectively. $\\circ$ denotes Hadamard product.\n\nThe total loss is the sum of these two functions:\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\mathcal{L}_{total} = \\mathcal{L}_{sem} + \\lambda \\mathcal{L}_{stereo},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\lambda$ is empirically set to $1.0$ for balancing the scales of different losses.\n\nAll above are the basic definitions of the metrics we used for evaluating,\nmore details can be seen in \\cite{benchmark}.\n\n\\section{Experiments and results}\n\n\\subsection{Experimental Setup}\n\\textbf{Implementation Details.} \nWe apply a batch-mode learning method with a batch size of $8$ \nto train our model for 20K iterations.\nThe Adam with default parameters ($\\beta_1 = 0.9,~\\beta_2=0.999$) is utilized to optimize the network.\nIn addition, the initial learning rate is $2\\times10^{-4}$ and decreases by half every 2k iterations.\nAfter 8k iterations, the learning rate is fixed to $2\\times10^{-5}$.\nDuring training phase, we randomly crop the images into size $200 \\times 200$ for augmenting the training data.\nFollowing~\\cite{SLIC,SSN}, \nstereo image pairs with Lab color space is used as input,\nand the Lab color space information is zoomed by multiplying a coefficient $\\beta = \\eta \\max(m_w\/n_w,m_h\/n_h)$, \nwhere $m$ and $n$ represent the number of superpixels and pixels, $\\eta$ is equal to $2.5$.\nAll experiments are implemented by PyTorch framework on a PC with NVIDIA RTX A4000 GPU.\n\n\\begin{figure*}[t!]\n\\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{figures\/visual\/visual_KITTI.pdf}\n    \\caption{Qualitative comparison of the proposed method and other state-of-the-art methods in KITTI2015.}\n    \\label{fig:KITTI_Compare}\n\\end{figure*}\n\\textbf{Datasets.}\nFollowing the experiment settings in \\cite{2021Stereo}, we use KITTI2015~\\cite{KITTI} and Cityscapes\\cite{Cityscapes} datasets to train and test our model.\nKITTI2015 contains 200 stereo image pairs with semantic annotations of left images,\nwe select 150 for training and 50 for testing.\nMoreover, to further indicate the superiority of the proposed method,\nwe also use the Cityscapes dataset for evaluation.\nCityscapes is a larger and more challenging dataset,\nwhich contains extensive stereo image pairs captured with diverse scenes, weathers and illumination conditions.\nSince the test set of Cityscapes is not public available,\nwe use the validation set for comparing,\nwhich is consist of 500 stereo images.\nFurthermore, the image of Cityscapes has been scaled to quarter-resolution for convenience.\n\n\\textbf{Evaluation Metrics.}\nIn our experiments, we use three widely used metrics to evaluate the performance of our model,\nwhich are achievable segmentation accuracy (ASA), \nundersegmentation error (UE),\nand boundary recall (BR).\nFor superpixel map $S=\\{S_i\\}$ and ground truth of semantic label $G=\\{G_j\\}$, \nThe detailed definitions of these metrics are as follows:\n\n\\textit{Achievable segmentation accuracy~(ASA):} \nASA is a metric for evaluating the upper bound on the achievable segmentation accuracy,\nwhich can be formulated as:\n\\begin{equation}\n    ASA(S, G) = \\frac{\\sum_i max_j|S_i \\cap G_j|}{\\sum_j |G_j|}.\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\textit{Undersegmentaion error~(UE):}\nUE essentially measures the error of superpixel segmentation with respect to the ground truth.\nThe UE is defined as:\n\\begin{equation}\n    UE(S, G) = \\frac{1}{|G|}\\sum_{G_j}\\frac{(\\sum_{S_i \\cap G_j}|S_i|) - |G_j|}{|G_j|}.\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\textit{Boundary recall~(BR):}\nThis is a metric of how well the superpixel adhere to image boundaries.\nWe use a coefficient $r$ to divide all pixels into two categories.\n$TP(S,G)$ is the boundary pixels in $G$ for which there is a boundary pixel in $S$ in range $r$,\nand $FN(S,G)$ is the opposite of it.\nThen BR can be formulated as:\n\\begin{equation}\n    BR(S, G) = \\frac{TP(S, G)}{TP(S, G) + FN(S, G)}.\n\\end{equation}\n\\begin{figure*}[t]\n    \\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{figures\/visual\/visual_Cityscapes.pdf}\n    \\caption{Qualitative comparison of the proposed method and other state-of-the-art methods in Cityscapes.}\n    \\label{fig:Cityscapes_Compare}\n\\end{figure*}\n\\subsection{Comparison with State-of-the-Arts}\nIn this part, we compare our method with some state-of-the-art methods, \nincluding SSN\\cite{SSN}, FCN\\cite{FCN}, LSC\\cite{LSC}, StereoDFN\\cite{2021Stereo}.\nAll of the compared methods are adopted the parameters setting of original works and implemented by the code released by~\\cite{benchmark} or the original authors.\n\n\\textbf{Quantitative Comparison.}\nFig.~\\ref{fig:performance_a} and Fig.~\\ref{fig:performance_b} shows the quantitative comparison results of our proposed method and other state-of-the-art methods on KITTI2015 and Cityscapes, respectively.\nWe can see that our method achieves the top score on KITTI2015 and comparaZble performance to FCN and StereoDFN on Cityscapes.\nTaking 700 superpixels for example, in terms of ASA, UE and BR, our method achieves the minimum percentage gain (computed with the highest score of other methods) on KITTI2015 is 0.4$\\%$, 9.3$\\%$, 1.1$\\%$, while the maximum percentage gain is 1.4$\\%$, 33.8$\\%$, 4.8$\\%$, respectively.\nOn Cityscapes, our method achieves minimum and maximum percentage gain of BR is 2.4$\\%$ and 9.8$\\%$, respectively, and also achieves a comparable performance to FCN and StereoDFN in terms of ASA and UE.\n\n\\textbf{Qualitative Comparison.}\nAs the qualitative comparison results shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:KITTI_Compare} and Fig.~\\ref{fig:Cityscapes_Compare},\nit is clear that our method achieves the best visual performance since it can adhere to object boundaries and preserve texture better.\nMore specifically, on KITTI2015, we can see that our method can adhere to the boundary of various lane lines more accurately and capture the detail of the warning sign in low light while other methods cannot.\nFor Cityscapes, only our method can capture the details on the warning sign and green light on the traffic light while adhering the image boundaries well.\n\nIn conclusion, through the quantitative comparison results based on standard evaluation criteria, we can see that our method outperforms other methods in most cases, and achieves the best visual performance in qualitative comparison.\nThe impressive performance of our method also verifies the superiority of the proposed spatial decoupling mechanism.\n\n\\subsection{Ablation Experiments}\nIn order to validate the effectiveness of each component in our proposed network,\nwe perform extensive ablation experiments on KITTI2015.\nThere are three types of ablation models including T0, T1 and T2,\nT0 denotes the full model.\nFor baselines in T1,\nthey can indicate our DSEM can combine the spatial information better,\nwhile baselines in T2 show that our method makes a good use of information from another viewpoint and improve the performance of superpixel segmentation.\nIn addition, T1 and T2 contain 3 ablation models respectively,\nMore specifically,\n\\begin{itemize}\n    \\item B1 denotes the ablation model without SE and DF modules.\n    \\item B2 stands for the ablation model with spatial information (XY) without SE and DF modules.\n    \\item B3 represents the ablation model without DF module.\n    \\item B4 means that the ablation model without stereo loss, and does not consider stereo features alignment and occlusion problem.\n    \\item B5 refers to the ablation model without considering occlusion problem.\n    \\item B6 is the ablation model without stereo loss\n\\end{itemize}\n\nAll of the ablation experiments are trained for 20K iterations.\nThe specific structure of each ablation model also has been shown in TABLE~\\ref{table:ablation experiments}.\n\n\\begin{figure*}[h!]\n\\centering\n    \\includegraphics[width=\\linewidth]{figures\/visual\/SOD_Compare.pdf}\n    \\caption{Visual comparison of SOD results with different superpixel segmentation methods. Note that our method can preserve more details than others.}\n    \\label{fig:SOD_Compare}\n\\end{figure*}\n\\begin{table}[h]\n\\centering\n\\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|cccc|c}\n\\toprule\n{\\multirow{2}{*}{Type}} & {\\multirow{2}{*}{ID}} & {\\multirow{2}{*}{Input}} & \\multicolumn{4}{c|}{Component} & \\multirow{2}{*}{Stereo Loss} \\\\ \\cline{4-7}\n  &               &           & \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{SFA} & \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{OH} & \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{SE} & \\multicolumn{1}{c|}{DF} & \\\\ \\hline\nT0 & B0 & Stereo    & \\checkmark & \\checkmark & \\checkmark & \\checkmark & \\checkmark \\\\ \\hline\n  & B1 & Stereo    & \\checkmark & \\checkmark &            &            & \\checkmark \\\\ \nT1 & B2 & Stereo+XY & \\checkmark & \\checkmark &            &            & \\checkmark \\\\ \n  & B3 & Stereo    & \\checkmark & \\checkmark & \\checkmark &            & \\checkmark \\\\ \\hline\n  & B4 & Single    &            &            & \\checkmark & \\checkmark &            \\\\\nT2 & B5 & Stereo    & \\checkmark &            & \\checkmark & \\checkmark & \\checkmark \\\\ \n  & B6 & Stereo    & \\checkmark & \\checkmark & \\checkmark & \\checkmark &            \\\\ \\bottomrule\n\\end{tabular}\n\n\\caption{Detailed setup for ablation experiments.\n         B$n$ and T$n$ denote \n         the $n$th baseline and the $n$th type respectively.}\n\\label{table:ablation experiments}\n\\end{table}\n\\begin{figure}[h]\n    \\centering\n    \\subfigure{\n        \\includegraphics[width=.935\\linewidth]{figures\/ablation_ASA.pdf}\n\t}\n\t\\subfigure{\n\t\t\\includegraphics[width=.935\\linewidth]{figures\/ablation_BR.pdf}\n\t}\n    \\caption{\\textbf{Ablation studies on KITTI2015.} The top figure shows the contributions of each component through ASA score, while the bottom figure through BR score.}\n    \\label{fig:ablation}\n\\end{figure}\n\\textbf{Effectiveness of Each Component.}\nFig.~\\ref{fig:ablation} reports the quantitative comparison results of ablation models on KITTI2015.\nWe can see that adding spatial information directly can not make full use of it.\nHowever,\nthe spatial information can be embedded into the network better through our SE and DF modules, resulting in higher performance gains.\nIn addition, \nthe DSFM module and Stereo Loss also play an important role, which can solve the stereo features alignment and occlusion problem and constrain the model to correctly model stereo correspondence, respectively.\n\n\\textbf{Influence of Spatial Information.}\nFrom Fig.~\\ref{fig:ablation},\nwe can observe that model with SE module tends to have a larger performance improvement than the model without SE module,\nwhich proves that the spatial information is helpful to generate regular and compact superpixels.\nFurthermore, adjusting the weighting of the spatial information adaptively through the DF module can make better use of it to further improve the performance.\n\n\\section{Application on Salient Object Detection}\nSalient object detection (SOD) has attracted increasing interest in recent years,\nsince it plays a significant role in many popular computer vision tasks,\nincluding object recognition and detection\n\\cite{ren2013region,zhang2017bridging},\nimage retargeting \\cite{ding2011importance,sun2011scale},\nsemantic segmentation \\cite{wei2016stc,wang2018weakly}, etc.\nTo improve the performance of salient object detection,\nZhu \\textit{et al.} \\cite{zhu2014saliency} propose an superpixel-based salient object detection method,\nthey treat the saliency object detection problem as a saliency value optimization problem for all superpixels in an image.\nMoreover, they observe that background regions are more connected to image boundaries than salient object regions.\nTherefore, they propose a measure called boundary connectivity,\nwhich is utilized to perform salient object detection in their proposed method.\nThe boundary connectivity is defined as follows:\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\label{eq:bndcon}\n    BndCon(R)=\\frac{|\\{p \\mid p \\in R, p \\in B n d\\}|}{\\sqrt{|\\{p \\mid p \\in R\\}|}}, \n\\end{equation}\nwhere $p$ is a patch of an image and $Bnd$ is the set of all image boundary patches.\n\n\\begin{table}[t]\n\\normalsize\n    \\centering\n    \\begin{tabular}{p{2cm}p{1.2cm}<{\\centering}p{2.2cm}<{\\centering}p{1.2cm}<{\\centering}}\n     \\toprule\n     Method & SSN & StereoDFN & Ours\\\\\n     \\midrule\n     MAE $\\downarrow$ & 0.1783& 0.1794 & \\textbf{0.1777}\\\\\n     \n     E-measure $\\uparrow$ & 0.6489& 0.6427 & \\textbf{0.6498}\\\\\n     \\bottomrule\n    \\end{tabular}\n    \\caption{Results on NJU2K benchmark. $\\uparrow$ denotes the higher is the better, and $\\downarrow$ is contrary.}\n\\label{table:application}\n\\end{table}\nTo indicate our method can perform better in downstream task,\nwe use three state-of-the-art methods, which are our proposed method, StereoDFN\\cite{2021Stereo} and SSN\\cite{SSN}\nto replace the default SLIC\\cite{SLIC} as the superpixel segmentation method of \\cite{zhu2014saliency}.\nIn our experiments, we use NJU2K \\cite{ju2015depth} for evaluation.\nNJU2K is a large dataset widely used for salient object detection of stereo images, which contains 2000 stereo image pairs, involving various objects and scenarios of different difficulty levels.\nMoreover, we select the first 400 images of NJU2K and resize all of them to size $400 \\times 400$ for the ease of experimentation.\n\nFollowing \\cite{zhu2014saliency}, we choose the mean absolute error (MAE) \\cite{perazzi2012saliency} to evaluate each method quantitatively, which is a metric to measure the average difference between the binary ground truth and saliency prediction map.\nHowever, MAE only focus on pixel-wise error.\nTo consider structure cues, we also introduce Enhanced-alignment measure (E-measure) \\cite{fan2018enhanced} as our evaluation metric.\n    \nThe results of the quantitative evaluation are shown in Table \\ref{table:application},\nwe can see that our method achieves the best performance in terms of MAE and E-measure.\nIn addition, the visual comparison results in Fig.~\\ref{fig:SOD_Compare} also illustrate the saliency map generated based on our method can focus on more details than other state-of-the-art methods, which validates that our method can perform well in downstream task both qualitatively and quantitatively.\n\n\\section{Conclusion}\nPreviously, stereo superpixel segmentation methods neglect the coupling of stereo features and spatial features, which may impose strong constraints on spatial information while modeling the correspondence between stereo image pairs.\nTo solve this problem, we have presented an end-to-end stereo superpixel segmentation network with a decoupling mechanism of spatial information to eliminate such negative influence.\nIn addition, spatial information is adjusted adaptively through our dynamic fusion mechanism in dynamic spatiality embedding module to generate regular and compact superpixels.\nExtensive experiments on several popular datasets have shown that our proposed method achieves the state-of-the-art performance and performs well in downstream task.\nThe effectiveness of the components handling the spatial information and stereo features have also been verified in our ablation studies.\n\n\n\n\n\\ifCLASSOPTIONcaptionsoff\n  \\newpage\n\\fi\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\bibliographystyle{IEEEtran}\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\nThe Riemann zeta-function is defined as $\\zeta(s) = \\sum_{n=1}^{\\infty} n^{-s}$ for $\\Re(s) >1$. Throughout this article we write the complex variable $s$ as $s = \\sigma + it$ with $\\sigma$ and $t$ real, and consider $N$ to be a natural number. Truncation of the zeta-function gives the partial sum $\\zeta_{N}(s) = 1 + 2^{-s} + \\cdots + N^{-s}$. One may study these partial sums in the hope of deducing some information about $\\zeta(s)$. For a comprehensive treatment of these ideas we refer the reader to \\cite{GonekZero} and \\cite{GonekMontyZero}. \n\nTur\\'{a}n \\cite{Turan} showed that the Riemann hypothesis would follow if for all $N$ sufficiently large $\\zeta_{N}(s)$ had no zero in $\\sigma>1$. Let $\\psi_{N}$ be the supremum over all values of $\\sigma$ for which $\\zeta_{N}(s)= 0$. Montgomery \\cite{MontyU} showed that for all $N$ sufficiently large,\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\psi_{N} = 1 + \\left( \\frac{4}{\\pi} - 1 - o(1)\\right) \\frac{\\log\\log N}{\\log N},\n\\end{equation*}\nwhere the constant $4\/\\pi - 1$ is best possible.\nTherefore for $N$ sufficiently large, $\\zeta_{N}(s)$ has zeroes in $\\sigma>1$. \n \nMonach \\cite{Monach} made this explicit: for all $N>30$ there are zeroes in $\\sigma>1$. His proof was in two parts: an analytic argument for $N\\geq 549,798$ and a computational proof for $30<N<549,798$. The latter proof is contained in \\cite[Lem.\\ 3.14, pp.\\ 134-135]{Monach}. Monach's work can be combined with the results of Tur\\'{a}n and Spira to give the following table.\n\n\\begin{table}[ht]\n\\caption{Zeroes of $\\zeta_{N}(s)$ in $\\sigma>1$ for various values of $N$.}\n\\label{table1}\n\\centering\n\\begin{tabular}{c c }\n\\hline\\hline\nRange of $N$ & Are there zeroes of $\\zeta_{N}(s)$ in $\\Re(s)>1$? \\\\[0.5ex]\\hline\n$1-5$ & No, \\cite[pp.\\ 7-8]{Turan}\\\\\n$6-9$ & No, \\cite[p.\\ 550]{SpiraSections1} and \\cite[Table II, \\S 4]{SpiraSections2}\\\\\n$19$ & Yes, \\cite[Table III, \\S 4]{SpiraSections2}\\\\\n$22-27$ & Yes, \\cite[Table III, \\S 4]{SpiraSections2}\\\\\n$29-50$ & Yes, \\cite[Table III, \\S 4]{SpiraSections2}\\\\\n$\\geq 51$ & Yes, \\cite[Thm.\\ 3.8]{Monach}\\\\ \n    \\hline\\hline\n  \\end{tabular}\n\\end{table}\nIndeed, van de Lune and te Riele \\cite{vantR} actually computed some zeroes of $\\zeta_{N}(s)$ for $N=19, 22-27, 29-35, 37-41, 47.$ Adapting Bohr's theorems on values assumed by Dirichlet series, Spira \\cite[Thm.\\ 3]{Spiraset} (see also, \\cite[p.\\ 163]{SpiraSections2}) showed that if $\\zeta_{N}(s)$ has one zero in $\\sigma>1$ then it has infinitely many such zeroes. \n\nTherefore, all that remains is to investigate whether, for,\n\\begin{equation}\\label{big}\nN\\in\\{10,11,12,13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 28\\},\n\\end{equation}\n$\\zeta_{N}(s)$ has zeroes in $\\sigma >1$.\nWe find that there are no zeroes for each of these values of $N$. Combining this with Table \\ref{table1}, one proves the following  theorem.\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{MainT}\nFor $1\\leq N \\leq 18$ and $N=20, 21, 28$ there are no zeroes of $\\zeta_{N}(s)$ in the region $\\sigma>1$; for all other positive $N$ there are infinitely many such zeroes.\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\\section{Numerical Computation}\\label{comp}\n\n\\subsection{Interval Arithmetic}\n\nAlmost all real numbers are not exactly representable by any finite-precision, floating-point system such as the $64$ bit IEEE implementation available on most modern processors. Thus any computation involving such a floating point system will, unless we are very lucky, only produce an approximation to the true result. One way of managing this is to use interval arithmetic (see, for example, \\cite{Moore1966} for a good introduction). Instead of storing a floating point number that is an approximation to the value we want, we store an interval bracketed by two floating point numbers that contains the true value. \n\nInterval arithmetic has been used to manage the accumulation of round-off and truncation errors. In this paper, we exploit the technique to get zero free regions  rigorously. As an example, consider the function $f:\\mathbb{R}\\rightarrow\\mathbb{R}$ defined by\n\\begin{equation*}\nf(x)=x^2-4x+3.\n\\end{equation*}\nSuppose we wish to demonstrate that $f$ has no zeroes for $x\\in[4,5]$. Then we can compute\n\\begin{equation*}\nf([4,5])=[16,25]-[16,20]+3=[-1,12].\n\\end{equation*}\nSince this is inconclusive, we try again, but this time with the interval split in two. We have\n\\begin{equation*}\nf([4,4.5])=[16,20.25]-[16,18]+3=[1,7.25]\n\\end{equation*}\nand\n\\begin{equation*}\nf([4.5,5])=[20.25,25]-[18,20]+3=[3.25,10]\n\\end{equation*}\nand we have our result\\footnote{Note that if we had written $f(x)=(x-1)(x-3)$ then $f[4,5]=[3,4]\\cdot[1,2]=[3,8]$ which is the ``correct'' result. This sensitivity is common in expressions involving intervals.}.\n\n\n\\subsection{Description of algorithm}\nWe first note that we need not search in all of $\\sigma>1$ to find zeroes of $\\zeta_{N}(s)$. Spira \\cite[Thm.\\ 1]{SpiraSections1} proved that all zeroes of $\\zeta_{N}(s)$ must have real part less than $1.85$; this was sharpened in \\cite[Theorem 3.1]{BorweinZero} to $1.73$. We therefore need only consider $\\sigma\\in(1, 1.73]$. We can improve this for some values of $N$, but, as we shall see in \\S \\ref{2.3}, this is more than sufficient for our purposes.\n\nLet us consider the case $N=28$. Let $p$ denote a prime and let $\\theta_p=t\\log p$. Hence we have\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\zeta(\\sigma+it)=1+\\frac{\\exp(-i\\theta_2)}{2^\\sigma}+\\frac{\\exp(-i\\theta_3)}{3^\\sigma}+\\frac{\\exp(-i 2\\theta_2)}{4^\\sigma}+\\ldots+\\frac{\\exp(-i (2\\theta_2+\\theta_7))}{28^\\sigma}\n\\end{equation*}\nand we will now write $\\zeta_{28}(\\sigma,\\theta_2,\\ldots,\\theta_{23})$ for $\\zeta_{28}(\\sigma+it)$ under such a change of variables.\n\nIt would appear that we need to examine the space $\\sigma\\in(1, 1.73]$,\n $\\theta_p\\in[0,2\\pi)$ for $p\\leq 23$, for zeroes. In fact we can do considerably better. First, we observe that $\\theta_{17}$, $\\theta_{19}$ and $\\theta_{23}$ only appear once in the sum. Call the sum without those three terms $\\zeta_{28'}(\\sigma,\\theta_2,\\ldots,\\theta_{13})$. Then $\\zeta_{28}$ cannot have a zero if there is no $\\sigma,\\theta_2,\\ldots,\\theta_{13}$ such that\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\left|\\zeta_{28'}(\\sigma,\\theta_2,\\ldots,\\theta_{13})\\right|\\leq 17^{-\\sigma}+19^{-\\sigma}+23^{-\\sigma}.\n\\end{equation*}\n\nWe can go further. The $\\theta_{11}$ and $\\theta_{13}$ terms only appear on their own or in conjunction with $\\theta_2$. We write $a=11^{-\\sigma}$, $b=22^{-\\sigma}$, $c=13^{-\\sigma}$ and $d=26^{-\\sigma}$. Then a little high school geometry (the cosine rule to be precise) tells us that \n\\begin{equation*}\n\\left|\\frac{\\exp(-i\\theta_{11})}{11^\\sigma}+\\frac{\\exp(-i(\\theta_{11}+\\theta_{2}))}{22^{-\\sigma}}\\right|\\leq\\sqrt{a^2+b^2+2ab\\cos \\theta_2},\n\\end{equation*}\nand\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\left|\\frac{\\exp(-i\\theta_{13})}{13^\\sigma}+\\frac{\\exp(-i(\\theta_{13}+\\theta_{2}))}{26^{-\\sigma}}\\right|\\leq\\sqrt{c^2+d^2+2cd\\cos \\theta_2}.\n\\end{equation*}\n\n\nCall $\\zeta_{28''}(\\sigma,\\theta_2,\\theta_3,\\theta_5,\\theta_7)$ the result obtained by removing the $n=11,13,22$ and $26$ terms from $\\zeta_{28'}$. With $a,b,c$ and $d$ as above, define\n\\begin{equation*}\nf(\\sigma,\\theta_2)=17^{-\\sigma}+19^{-\\sigma}+23^{-\\sigma}+\\sqrt{a^2+b^2+2ab\\cos\\theta_2}+\\sqrt{c^2+d^2+2cd\\cos\\theta_2}.\n\\end{equation*}\nThen $\\zeta_{28}$ cannot have a zero if there is no $\\sigma,\\theta_2,\\ldots,\\theta_{7}$ such that\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\left|\\zeta_{28''}(\\sigma,\\theta_2,\\theta_3,\\theta_5,\\theta_7)\\right|\\leq f(\\sigma,\\theta_2).\n\\end{equation*}\n\nOur algorithm is as follows. Divide $\\sigma$, $\\theta_2$, $\\theta_3$, $\\theta_5$ and $\\theta_7$ into small intervals that cover $[1,1.73]$ and $[0,2\\pi]^4$ respectively. We refer to any choice of five such intervals as a ``box''. Push all possible boxes onto the stack. While the stack is not empty, pop off a box and compute an interval $z$ containing $|\\zeta_{28''}|$ for that box. Compute an interval containing $f(\\sigma,\\theta_2)$. If the interval $z-f(\\sigma,\\theta_2)$ is wholly positive, then that box did not contain any zeroes, so discard it. If the interval is wholly negative, then terminate with failure.\\footnote{We believe that this condition indicates the presence of infinitely many zeroes. We are grateful to the referee for suggesting a means by which one might seek to establish this, based on \\cite{AvellarandHale},\\cite{Dubonetal} and \\cite{SepulcreandVidal}. However, the weaker statement is sufficient for our purposes and we do not pursue this line of thought further.} If the interval straddles zero, then divide the box into $16$ smaller boxes by halving the intervals for the $\\theta_p$, and push these new boxes onto the stack.\n\n\\subsection{Details of the implementation}\\label{2.3}\n\nWe implemented this algorithm in ``C++'' using our own double precision interval package written in assembler. This exploits an idea of Lambov \\cite{Lambov2008} to make efficient use of the SSE instruction set of modern processors and uses CRMLIB \\cite{Muller2010} to implement the transcendental functions.\n\nWe divided the interval for $\\sigma$ into $16$ sub-intervals $[1+(2^n-1)\\cdot 2^{-16},1+(2^{n+1}-1)\\cdot2^{-16}]$ for $0\\leq n \\leq 15$. Therefore, the first interval checked was $\\sigma=[1,1+2^{-16}]$ and the last\\footnote{Note that this covered a wider interval than was strictly necessary.} was $\\sigma=[\\frac{3}{2}-2^{-16},2-2^{-16}]$. Each of these intervals for $\\sigma$ was handled by a single core of a compute node of the University of Bristol's Bluecrystal Phase III cluster \\cite{ACRC2015}\\footnote{A single node of Phase III contains two 8-core Intel E5-2670 Sandybridge processors running at $2.6$GHz.}. Within a single core, the intervals for $\\theta_2,\\theta_3,\\theta_5$ and $\\theta_7$ were initially divided into $16$, $8$, $4$ and $2$ sub-intervals respectively, for a total of $1,024$ boxes. Since $\\theta_2$ contributed to more terms than the other variables, it made sense to start with a narrower search here: this seemed to work well in practice.\n\nTable \\ref{table2} shows the data for $N=28$ and $\\sigma\\in[1,1+2^{-16}]$. At each iteration, a box could result in $16$ new boxes; at first this is what we see. We see that after the second iteration, the remaining search space decreases dramatically.\n\n\\begin{table}[ht]\n\\caption{Number of boxes at each iteration for $N=28$ and $\\sigma\\in[1,1+2^{-16}]$}\n\\label{table2}\n\\centering\n\\begin{tabular}{c c c}\n\\hline\\hline\nIteration & Number of Boxes &  Coverage (\\%)\\\\[0.5ex]\\hline\n$1$ & $1,024$ & $100$\\\\\n$2$ & $16,256$ & $99.2$\\\\\n$3$ & $45,920$ & $17.5$\\\\\n$4$ & $118,560$ & $2.83$\\\\\n$5$ & $170,048$ & $0.25$\\\\\n$6$ & $195,920$ & $0.018$\\\\\n$7$ & $212,960$ & $0.0012$\\\\\n$8$ & $82,016$ & $0.000030$\\\\\n    \\hline\\hline\n  \\end{tabular}\n\\end{table}\n\nWe ran this algorithm for \nthose $N$ in (\\ref{big}) and in every case confirmed that $\\zeta_N(s)$ has no zeroes for $\\sigma\\geq 1$. Checking each $N$ took much less than a minute elapsed time using $16$ cores, with $N=21$ taking the longest at $30$ seconds.\n\n\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\\label{sec:intro}\n\\noindent\nThe understanding of magnetization dynamics, especially on a microscale, is of utter relevance, for example in the development of magnetic sensors, recording heads, and magnetoresistive storage devices.\nIn the literature, a well accepted model for micromagnetic phenomena is the Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation (LLG), see~\\eqref{eq:llg:physics}.\nThis non-linear partial differential equation describes the behaviour of the magnetization of some ferromagnetic body under the influence of a so-called effective field.\nExistence (and non-uniqueness) of weak solutions of LLG goes back to Ref.~\\cite{as}.\nAs far as numerical simulation is concerned, convergent integrators can be found, e.g., in the works of Refs.~\\cite{bp}, \\cite{bjp} or~\\cite{bbp}, where even coupling to Maxwell's equations is considered.\nFor a complete review, we refer to Refs.~\\cite{cimrak}, \\cite{gc}, \\cite{mp06} or the monographs~\\cite{hubertschaefer}, \\cite{prohl} and the references therein.\nRecently, there has been a major breakthrough in the development of effective and mathematically convergent algorithms for the numerical integration of LLG.\nIn Ref.~\\cite{alouges08}, an integrator is proposed which is unconditionally convergent and only needs the solution of one linear system per time step.\nThe effective field in this work, however, only covers microcrystalline exchange effects and is thus quite restricted.\nIn the subsequent works of Refs.~\\cite{alouges11}, \\cite{goldenits}, \\cite{mathmod2012}, \\cite{gamm2011} the analysis for this integrator was widened to cover more general (linear) field contributions while still \\revision{conserving} unconditional convergence. \n\\par In our work, we generalize the integrator from Ref.~\\cite{alouges08} even more and basically allow arbitrary field contributions (Section~\\ref{section:general}).\nUnder some assumptions on those contributions, namely boundedness and some weak convergence property,\nsee~\\eqref{assumption:chi:bounded}--\\eqref{assumption:chi:convergence}, our main theorem still proves unconditional convergence towards some weak solution of LLG (Theorem~\\ref{theorem}).\nIn particular, our analysis allows to incorporate the approximate \\revision{computation} of effective field contributions like, e.g., the stray field which cannot be computed analytically in practice, but requires certain FEM-BEM coupling methods (Section~\\ref{section:fredkinkoehler}).\nSuch additional approximation errors have so far been neglected in the previous works.\nTo illustrate this, we show that the hybrid \\revision{FEM-BEM approaches from Refs.~\\cite{fredkinkoehler,gcr}} for stray field computations does not affect the unconditional convergence of the proposed integrator (Proposition~\\ref{prop:stray field}, Proposition~\\ref{prop:gcr}).\n\\par From the point of applications, the numerical integration of LLG restricts the maximum element size for the underlying mesh to the (material dependent) exchange length in order to numerically resolve domain wall patterns.\nOtherwise, the numerical simulation is not able to capture the effects stemming from the exchange term and would lead to qualitatively wrong and even unphysical results.\nHowever, due to limited memory, this constraint on the mesh-size practically also imposes a restriction on the actual size of the contemplated ferromagnetic sample.\nConsidering the magnetostatic Maxwell equations combined with a (non-linear) material law instead, one does not face such a restriction on the mesh-size (and thus on the computational domain). On the one hand, this implies that such a rough model cannot be used to describe short-range interactions like those driving LLG.\nOn the other hand, this gives us the opportunity to cover larger domains and still maintain a manageable problem size.\n\\par In our work, we show how to combine microscopic and macroscopic domains to simulate a multiscale problem (Section~\\ref{sec:multimodel}):\nOn the microscopic part, where we aim to simulate the configuration of the magnetization, we solve LLG.\nThe influence of a possible macroscopic part, where the magnetization is not the goal of the computation, is described by means of the magnetostatic Maxwell equations in combination with some (non-linear) material law.\nThis macroscopic part then gives rise to an additional non-linear and nonlocal field contribution (Section~\\ref{sec:multi}) such that unconditional convergence of the numerical integrator or even mere existence of weak solutions in this case is not obvious.\nFor certain practically relevant material laws, we analyze a discretization of the multiscale contribution by means of the Johnson-N\\'ed\\'elec coupling and prove that the proposed numerical integrator still preserves unconditional convergence.\nStriking numerical experiments for our approach are given and discussed in Ref.~\\cite{bruckner}.\n\\subsection*{Outline}\n\\noindent The remainder of this paper is organized as follows:\nIn Section~\\ref{sec:multimodel}, we give a motivation and the mathematical modelling for our multiscale model.\nWhile Section~\\ref{sec:maxwell} focuses on the new contribution to the effective field, Section~\\ref{subsection:llg} recalls the LLG\nequation used for the microscopic part.\nIn Section~\\ref{section:general}, we introduce our numerical integrator in a quite general framework and formulate the main result (Theorem~\\ref{theorem}) which states unconditional convergence under certain assumptions on the (discretized) effective field contributions.\nThe remainder of this section is then dedicated to the proof of Theorem~\\ref{theorem}.\nIn Section~\\ref{section:heff}, we consider different effective field contributions as well as possible discretizations and show that the assumptions of Theorem~\\ref{theorem} are satisfied.\nOur analysis includes general anisotropy densities (Section~\\ref{sec:anisotropy}) as well as contributions which stem from the solution of operator equations with \\revision{strongly} monotone operators (Section~\\ref{sec:monotone}).\nThis abstract framework then covers, in particular, the hybrid FEM-BEM \\revision{discretizations from Refs.~\\cite{fredkinkoehler,gcr}} for the stray field (Section~\\ref{section:fredkinkoehler}) as well as the proposed multiscale contribution to the effective field (Section~\\ref{sec:multi}). \\revision{A short appendix comments on some physical energy dissipation.}\n\n\\section{Multiscale model}\\label{sec:multimodel}\nIn our model, we consider two separated ferromagnetic bodies $\\Omega_1$ and $\\Omega_2$ as schematized in Figure~\\ref{fig:regions}.\nLet $\\Omega_1,\\Omega_2\\subset\\mathbb{R}^3$ be bounded Lipschitz domains with Euclidean distance ${\\rm dist}(\\Omega_1,\\Omega_2)>0$ and boundaries $\\Gamma_1 = \\partial\\Omega_1$ resp.\\ $\\Gamma_2=\\partial\\Omega_2$.\nOn the microscopic part $\\Omega_1$, we are interested in the domain configuration and thus solve \\revision{LLG}.\nOn $\\Omega_2$, we will use the macroscopic Maxwell equations with a (possibly non-linear) material law instead.\n\\par To motivate this setting, we consider a magnetic recording head (see Figures~\\ref{fig:regions} and \\ref{fig:readhead_overview}).\nThe microscopic sensor element is based on the  giant magnetoresistance effect \\revision{(GMR)}, and it requires the use of LLG in order to describe the short range interactions between the individual layers of the sensor accurately.\nOn the other hand, the smaller these sensor elements are, the more important becomes the shielding of the stray field of neighbouring data bits.\nIn practice, this is achieved by means of some macroscopic softmagnetic shields located directly besides the GMR sensor.\nDescribing these large components by use of LLG would lead to very large problem sizes, because the detailed domain structure within the magnetic shields would be calculated.\nAs proposed in this paper, macroscopic Maxwell equations allow to overcome this limitation and thus provide a profound method to describe the influence of the shields in an averaged sense.\nWhile this work focuses on the mathematical model and a possible discretization, we refer to Ref.~\\cite{bruckner} for numerical simulations and the experimental validation of the proposed model.\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\centering\n\\begin{overpic}[width=0.5\\columnwidth]{.\/regions.eps}\n\t\\put(20,26){\\color{white}$\\Omega_{coil}$}\n\t\\put(83,32){\\color{white}$\\Omega_{1}$}\n\t\\put(50,60){\\color{white}$\\Omega_{2}$}\n\\end{overpic}\n\\caption{\\small Example geometry which demonstrates model separation into LLG region $\\Omega_1$ and Maxwell region $\\Omega_2$ (and in this case in an electric coil region $\\Omega_{coil}$). Here, $\\Omega_1$ represents one grain of a recording media and $\\Omega_2$ shows a simple model of a recording write head.}\n\\label{fig:regions}\n\\end{figure}\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\centering\n\\begin{overpic}[width=0.5\\columnwidth]{.\/reader_combined.eps}\n\\end{overpic}\n\\caption{\\small The example setup consists of a microscopic GMR sensor element in between two macroscopic shields. Beyond the GMR sensor a magnetic storage media is indicated. The multiscale algorithm is used to calculate the stationary state of the GMR sensor for various applied external fields.} \n\\label{fig:readhead_overview}\n\\end{figure}\n\\subsection{Magnetostatic Maxwell equations}\\label{sec:maxwell}\nThe magnetostatic Maxwell equations read\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:maxwell}\n \\nabla\\times\\boldsymbol{H} = \\boldsymbol{j}\n \\quad\\text{and}\\quad\n \\nabla\\cdot\\boldsymbol{B} = 0\n \\quad\\text{in }\\mathbb{R}^3,\n\\end{align}\nwhere $\\boldsymbol{H}:\\mathbb{R}^3\\to\\mathbb{R}^3$ is the magnetic field strength $[A\/m]$ and $\\boldsymbol{B}:\\mathbb{R}^3\\to\\mathbb{R}^3$ is the magnetic flux density $[T]$ which are related by\n\\begin{equation}\\label{eq:flux}\n\\boldsymbol{B} = \\mu_0(\\boldsymbol{H} + \\boldsymbol{M}) \\quad \\text{in }\\mathbb{R}^3\n\\end{equation}\nwith $\\mu_0=4\\pi\\cdot10^{-7}$ $Tm\/A$ the permeability of vacuum.\nThe current density $\\boldsymbol{j}$ $[A\/m^2]$ is the source of the magnetic field strength $\\boldsymbol{H}$.\nThe magnetization field $\\boldsymbol{M}$ $[A\/m]$ is non-trivial on the magnetic bodies $\\Omega_1\\cup\\Omega_2$, but vanishes in $\\mathbb{R}^3\\backslash\\overline{(\\Omega_1\\cup\\Omega_2)}$.\nThe total magnetic field is split into\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:splitTotalMagField}\n\\boldsymbol{H} = \\boldsymbol{H}_1 + \\boldsymbol{H}_2 + \\boldsymbol{F}}%{\\boldsymbol{H}_{\\rm app},\n\\end{align}\nwhere $\\boldsymbol{H}_j:\\mathbb{R}^3\\to\\mathbb{R}^3$ is the magnetic field induced by the magnetization $\\boldsymbol{M}_j=\\boldsymbol{M}|_{\\Omega_j}$ on $\\Omega_j$ and $\\boldsymbol{F}}%{\\boldsymbol{H}_{\\rm app}$ is the field generated by the current density $\\boldsymbol{j}$ in $\\mathbb{R}^3\\backslash\\overline{\\Omega_1\\cup\\Omega_2}$.\nThis implies\n\\begin{align}\n\\nabla\\times\\boldsymbol{F}}%{\\boldsymbol{H}_{\\rm app} = \\boldsymbol{j}\n\\quad\\text{and therefore}\\quad\n\\nabla\\times\\boldsymbol{H}_j = 0\n\\quad\\text{in }\\mathbb{R}^3.\n\\end{align}\nIn particular, the induced fields are gradient fields $\\boldsymbol{H}_j = -\\nabla U_j$ with certain scalar potentials $U_j:\\mathbb{R}^3\\to\\mathbb{R}$.\nWe assume that $\\boldsymbol{F}}%{\\boldsymbol{H}_{\\rm app}$ is induced by currents only, but not by magnetic monopoles. Therefore,\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:Hext:div}\n\\nabla\\cdot\\boldsymbol{F}}%{\\boldsymbol{H}_{\\rm app} = 0\\quad\\text{in }\\mathbb{R}^3.\n\\end{align}\nMoreover, the sources of $\\boldsymbol{H}_j$ lie inside $\\Omega_j$ only and hence\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:divHj}\n\\nabla\\cdot\\boldsymbol{H}_j = 0 \\quad\\text{in }\\mathbb{R}^3 \\backslash \\overline\\Omega_j.\n\\end{align}\nFrom the magnetic flux $\\boldsymbol{B}$, we obtain\n\\begin{equation*}\n0\n= \\nabla\\cdot\\boldsymbol{B} = \\mu_0(\\nabla\\cdot\\boldsymbol{H} + \\nabla\\cdot\\boldsymbol{M})\n= \\mu_0(\\nabla\\cdot\\boldsymbol{H}_j + \\nabla\\cdot\\revision{\\boldsymbol{M}_j})\n\\quad \\text{in } \\Omega_j.\n\\end{equation*}\nTogether with $\\boldsymbol{H}_j = -\\nabla U_j$ and~\\eqref{eq:divHj}, this reveals\n\\begin{subequations}\\label{eq:uj}\n\\begin{align}\n\\label{eq:uj:interior}\n \\Delta U_j &= \\nabla\\cdot\\revision{\\boldsymbol{M}_j} \\quad\\text{in }\\Omega_j,\\\\\n\\label{eq:uj:exterior}\n \\Delta U_j &= 0 \\hspace*{13.0mm}\\text{in }\\mathbb{R}^3 \\backslash\\overline\\Omega_j.\n\\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\nFor the micromagnetic body $\\Omega_1$, the respective magnetization $\\boldsymbol{M}_1$ is computed by LLG, see Section~\\ref{subsection:llg} below.\nThe overall transmission problem~\\eqref{eq:uj} for $\\Omega_1$, supplemented by transmission conditions as well as a radiation condition, reads\n\\begin{subequations}\\label{eq:u1}\n\\begin{align}\n \\Delta U_1 &= \\nabla\\cdot\\boldsymbol{M}_1\n \\hspace*{6.65mm}\\text{in }\\Omega_1,\\\\\n \\Delta U_1 &= 0\n \\hspace*{16.5mm}\\text{in }\\mathbb{R}^3 \\backslash\\overline\\Omega_1,\\\\\n U_1^{\\rm ext}-U_1^{\\rm int} &= 0\n \\hspace*{16.5mm}\\text{on }\\Gamma_1,\\\\\n \\revision{\\nabla(U_1^{\\rm ext}- U_1^{\\rm int})\\cdot{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_1} &= -\\boldsymbol{M}_1\\cdot\n \\revision{{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_1}\n \\hspace*{3.0mm}\\text{on }\\Gamma_1,\\\\\n U_1(x) &= \\mathcal O(1\/|x|)\n \\hspace*{5.3mm}\\text{as }|x|\\to\\infty.\n\\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\nHere, the superscripts \\emph{int} and \\emph{ext} indicate whether the trace is considered from inside $\\Omega_1$ (resp. $\\Omega_2$ in~\\eqref{eq:u:omega2} below) or the exterior domain $\\mathbb{R}^3\\backslash\\overline\\Omega_1$ (resp. $\\mathbb{R}^3\\backslash\\overline\\Omega_2$ in~\\eqref{eq:u:omega2} below).\nMoreover, \\revision{${\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_j$} denotes the outer unit normal vector on $\\Gamma_j$, which points from \\revision{$\\Omega_j$} to the exterior domain \\revision{$\\mathbb{R}^3\\backslash\\overline\\Omega_j$}.\nFor the macroscopic body $\\Omega_2$, we assume a non-linear material law\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:material}\n \\revision{\\boldsymbol{M}_2} = \\chi(|\\boldsymbol{H}|)\\boldsymbol{H}\n \\quad\\text{on }\\Omega_2\n\\end{align}\nwith a scalar function $\\chi:\\mathbb{R}_{\\ge0}\\to\\mathbb{R}$ and $|\\cdot|$ the modulus. Some examples for suitable $\\chi$ are listed below (see Remark~\\ref{rem:materiallaw}).\n\\par For the computation of the potential $U_2$, we introduce an auxiliary potential $U_{\\text{app}}$. \n\\revision{Since} $\\nabla \\times \\boldsymbol{F}}%{\\boldsymbol{H}_{\\rm app} = 0$ in \\revision{the simply connected\ndomain $\\Omega_2$}, we infer $\\boldsymbol{F}}%{\\boldsymbol{H}_{\\rm app} = -\\nabla U_{\\text{app}}$ on $\\Omega_2$ with some\npotential $U_{\\text{app}} : \\Omega_2\\rightarrow \\mathbb{R}$. According to~\\eqref{eq:Hext:div} and up to an additive constant,\n\\revision{$U_{\\text{app}}$} can be obtained as the unique solution of the Neumann problem\n\\begin{subequations}\\label{eq:uext}\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:uext:interior}\n  \\Delta U_{\\text{app}} &= 0 \\hspace*{19.3mm}\\text{in }\\Omega_2, \\\\\n  \\label{eq:uext:boundary}\n  \\revision{\\nabla U_{\\text{app}}^{\\rm int}\\cdot{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_2} &= - \\boldsymbol{F}}%{\\boldsymbol{H}_{\\rm app}^{\\rm int}\\cdot\\revision{{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_2} \n  \\hspace*{5mm}\\text{on }\\Gamma_2,\n\\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\nwith $\\int_{\\Omega_2} U_{\\text{app}} = 0$. The transmission problem for the total\npotential $U = U_1 + U_2 + U_{\\text{app}}$ of the total magnetic field $\\boldsymbol{H} = -\\nabla U$ \nin $\\Omega_2$ and for the potential $U_2$ in\n$\\mathbb{R}^3\\backslash\\overline\\Omega_2$, supplemented by a radiation condition,\nreads\n\\begin{subequations}\\label{eq:u:omega2}\n\\begin{align}\n  \\label{eq:u:omega2:interior}\n  \\nabla\\cdot\\big( (1+\\chi(|\\nabla U|))\\nabla U\\big) &= 0\n  \\hspace*{29.1mm}\\text{in }\\Omega_2, \\\\\n  \\Delta U_2 &= 0 \n  \\hspace*{29.1mm}\\text{in }\\mathbb{R}^3\\backslash\\overline\\Omega_2, \\\\\n  \\label{eq:u:omega2:jumpu}\n  U_2^{\\rm ext} - U^{\\rm int} &= -U_1^{\\rm int} - U_{\\text{app}}^{\\rm int}\n  \\hspace*{10.5mm}\\text{on }\\Gamma_2, \\\\\n  \\label{eq:u:omega2:jumpdu}\n  \\revision{\\big(\\nabla U_2^{\\rm ext} - (1+\\chi(|\\nabla U^{\\rm int}|))\\nabla \n  U^{\\rm int}\\big)\\cdot{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_2} &= (\\boldsymbol{H}_1^{\\revision{\\rm int}} + \\boldsymbol{F}}%{\\boldsymbol{H}_{\\rm app}^{\\revision{\\rm int}})\\cdot\\revision{{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_2}\n  \\hspace*{-0.6mm}\\quad\\text{on }\\Gamma_2, \\\\\n  U_2(x) &= \\mathcal O(1\/|x|) \n  \\hspace*{18.0mm}\\text{as }|x|\\to\\infty,\n\\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\nwhere~\\eqref{eq:u:omega2:interior} follows\nfrom~\\eqref{eq:maxwell}--\\eqref{eq:divHj} and~\\eqref{eq:material}.\n\\revision{The transmission condition~\\eqref{eq:u:omega2:jumpu} follows from the continuity of $U_2$ on $\\Gamma_2$ and $U = U_1+U_2+U_{\\text{app}}$ in\n$\\Omega_2$. \nTo see~\\eqref{eq:u:omega2:jumpdu}, we stress that~\\eqref{eq:maxwell} implies $(\\boldsymbol{B}^{\\rm ext}-\\boldsymbol{B}^{\\rm int})\\cdot{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_2=0$ on $\\Gamma_2$.\nPutting~\\eqref{eq:flux}--\\eqref{eq:splitTotalMagField} into this condition and using $\\boldsymbol{H} = -\\nabla U$ in $\\Omega_2$ as well\nas~\\eqref{eq:material} gives us\n\\begin{align*}\n  (\\boldsymbol{H}_1^{\\rm ext} + \\boldsymbol{H}_2^{\\rm ext} + \\boldsymbol{F}}%{\\boldsymbol{H}_{\\rm app}^{\\rm ext} - (1+\\chi(|\\nabla U^{\\rm int}|))\\nabla U^{\\rm int}) \\cdot {\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_2=0 \n  \\quad\\text{on }\\Gamma_2.\n\\end{align*}\nMoreover, from~\\eqref{eq:Hext:div} and~\\eqref{eq:divHj} we infer $(\\boldsymbol{F}}%{\\boldsymbol{H}_{\\rm app}^{\\rm ext}-\\boldsymbol{F}}%{\\boldsymbol{H}_{\\rm app}^{\\rm int})\\cdot{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_2 = 0 = (\\boldsymbol{H}_1^{\\rm\next}-\\boldsymbol{H}_1^{\\rm int})\\cdot{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_2$ on $\\Gamma_2$.\nTogether with $\\boldsymbol{H}_2 = -\\nabla U_2$, the transmission condition~\\eqref{eq:u:omega2:jumpdu} follows.}\n\\begin{remark}\nIn case of a linear material law $\\chi(|\\boldsymbol{H}|) = \\chi \\in \\mathbb{R}_{>0}$ in~\\eqref{eq:material}, the transmission problem~\\eqref{eq:u:omega2} simplifies to $(1+\\chi)\\Delta U_2 = 0$ in $\\Omega_2$, $U_2^{\\rm ext}-U_2^{\\rm int} = 0$ on $\\Gamma_2$, and $\\revision{\\big(\\nabla U_2^{\\rm ext} - (1+\\chi)\\nabla U_2^{\\rm int}\\big)\\cdot{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_2} = (\\boldsymbol{H}_1^{\\rm int} + \\boldsymbol{F}}%{\\boldsymbol{H}_{\\rm app}^{\\rm int}) \\cdot \\revision{{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_2}$ on $\\Gamma_2$ in~\\eqref{eq:u:omega2:interior},~\\eqref{eq:u:omega2:jumpu}, and~\\eqref{eq:u:omega2:jumpdu}, respectively.\nIn particular, the Neumann problem~\\eqref{eq:uext} does not have to be solved.\nMoreover, we do not have to assume that $\\Omega_2$ is simply connected.\n\\end{remark}\n\\subsection{Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation}\n\\label{subsection:llg}\nLet $\\alpha> 0$ denote a dimensionless empiric damping parameter, called Gilbert damping constant, and let the magnetization of the ferromagnetic body $\\Omega_1$ be characterized by the vector valued function\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\boldsymbol{M}_1:\\, (0,T)\\times\\Omega_1 \\rightarrow \\set{\\boldsymbol{x}\\in\\mathbb{R}^3}{|\\boldsymbol{x}|=M_s},\n\\end{equation*}\nwhere the constant $M_s>0$ refers to the saturation magnetization $[A\/m]$.\nThen, the Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation reads\n\\begin{subequations}\\label{eq:llg:physics}\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:llg_phy}\n\\frac{\\partial\\boldsymbol{M}_1}{\\partial t}\n= -\\frac{\\gamma_0}{1+\\alpha^2} \\boldsymbol{M}_1\\times\\boldsymbol{H}_{\\rm eff}\n- \\frac{\\alpha\\gamma_0}{(1+\\alpha^2)M_s} \\boldsymbol{M}_1\\times(\\boldsymbol{M}_1\\times\\boldsymbol{H}_{\\rm eff}),\n\\end{align}\nsupplemented by initial and Neumann boundary conditions\n\\begin{align}\n \\boldsymbol{M}_1(0) &= \\boldsymbol{M}^0\n \\quad\\text{in }\\Omega_1,\\\\\n \\partial_{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}\\boldsymbol{M}_1 &= 0\n \\hspace*{7.5mm}\\text{on }(0,\\revision{T})\\times\\partial\\Omega_1.\n\\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\nHere, \\revision{$\\gamma_0 = 2,210173\\cdot10^5$ $m\/(As)$} denotes the gyromagnetic ratio\nand $\\boldsymbol{M}^0:\\Omega_1\\to\\mathbb{R}^3$ with $|\\boldsymbol{M}^0| = M_s$ in $\\Omega_1$ is a given initial\nmagnetization.\nThe effective field $\\boldsymbol{H}_{\\rm eff}$ in $[A\/m]$ depends on $\\boldsymbol{M}_1$ and the magnetic field strength\n$\\boldsymbol{H}$, and is given as the negative \\revision{first} variation of the Gibbs free energy\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\revision{\\mu_0}\\,\\boldsymbol{H}_{\\rm eff} = -\\frac{\\delta E(\\boldsymbol{M}_1)}{\\delta\\boldsymbol{M}_1}.\n\\end{equation*}\nIn this work, the energy $E(\\cdot)$ consists of exchange energy, anisotropy\nenergy as well as magnetostatic energy\n\\begin{equation*}\n E(\\boldsymbol{M}_1) = \\frac{A}{M_s^2}\\,\\int_{\\Omega_1} |\\nabla\\boldsymbol{M}_1|^2\n + K\\,\\int_{\\Omega_1}\\phi(\\boldsymbol{M}_1\/M_s)\n - \\mu_0\\int_{\\Omega_1}\\boldsymbol{H}\\cdot\\boldsymbol{M}_1.\n\\end{equation*}\nThe exchange constant $A>0$ $[J\/m]$ and anisotropy constant $K>0$ $[J\/m^3]$ depend on the ferromagnetic material.\nMoreover, $\\phi$ refers to the crystalline anisotropy density.\nThe effective field is thus given by\n\\begin{equation*}\n\\boldsymbol{H}_{\\rm eff} = \\frac{2A}{\\mu_0 M_s^2}\\Delta \\boldsymbol{M}_1 - \\frac{K}{\\mu_0\\revision{M_s}}D\\phi(\\boldsymbol{M}_1\\revision{\/M_s}) + \\boldsymbol{H}.\n\\end{equation*}\nNote that the microscopic LLG equation and the macroscopic Maxwell equations are coupled through the magnetic field strength $\\boldsymbol{H}$ and hence through the effective field $\\boldsymbol{H}_{\\rm eff}$.\nAltogether, we will thus solve the multiscale problem by solving LLG on $\\Omega_1$ and incorporating the effects of $\\Omega_2$ via this coupling.\n\\section{General LLG equation}\n\\label{section:general}\n\\noindent In this section, we consider the non-dimensional form of LLG with a quite general effective field $\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\rm eff}$ which covers the multiscale problem from the previous section.\nWe recall some equivalent formulations of LLG and then state our notion of a weak solution, which has been introduced by \\textsc{Alouges} \\& \\textsc{Soyeur}, see Ref.~\\cite{as}, for the small-particle limit $\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\rm eff} =\\Delta \\boldsymbol{m}$ and which is now extended to the present situation. We then formulate a linear-implicit\ntime integrator in the spirit of Refs.~\\cite{alouges08}, \\cite{alouges11}, \\cite{goldenits}, \\cite{mathmod2012}, \\cite{gamm2011}. \n\\subsection{Non-dimensional form of LLG}\n\\noindent We perform the substitution $t' = \\gamma_0M_st$ with $t'$ being the so-called \n(non-dimensional) reduced time, and set $T' = \\gamma_0M_sT$ the scaled final time.\nMoreover, we rescale the spatial variable $x'=x\/L$ with $L$ being some characteristic\nlength of the problem $[m]$, e.g., the intrinsic length scale\n$L = \\sqrt{2A\/(\\mu_0M_s^2)}$. However, to simplify our notation, we stick with $t,T,x,\\Omega_j$ instead of $t',T',x\/L,\\Omega_j\/L$, respectively,\nand abbreviate the space-time cylinder $\\Omega_t = [0,t]\\times\\Omega_1$\nfor all $0\\le t\\le T$.\nWe set $\\boldsymbol{m} := \\boldsymbol{M}_1\/M_s$, $\\boldsymbol{m}^0 := \\boldsymbol{M}^0\/M_s$, $\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\rm eff}:=\\boldsymbol{H}_{\\rm eff}\/M_s$. With these\nnotations, the (sought) magnetization $\\boldsymbol{m}:\\Omega_T\\to\\set{x\\in\\mathbb{R}^3}{|x|=1}$\nsolves the non-dimensional form of LLG\n\\begin{subequations}\\label{eq:llg}\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:llg1}\n \\revision{\\partial_t\\boldsymbol{m}} \n = - \\frac{1}{1+\\alpha^2}\\,\\boldsymbol{m}\\times\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\rm eff}\n -\\frac{\\alpha}{1+\\alpha^2}\\,\\boldsymbol{m}\\times(\\boldsymbol{m}\\times\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\rm eff}) \n \\quad\\revision{\\text{in }\\Omega_T},\n\\end{align}\nsupplemented by initial and \\revision{Neumann} boundary conditions\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:llg:bc1}\n \\boldsymbol{m}(0) &= \\boldsymbol{m}^0\\quad\\mbox{in }\\Omega_1,\\\\\n \\label{eq:llg:bc2}\n \\partial_{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}\\boldsymbol{m} &=0 \\quad\\quad\\mbox{in }(0,T)\\times\\partial\\Omega_1.\n\\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\nThe \\revision{non-dimensional} effective field reads\n\\begin{align*}\n \\boldsymbol{h}_{\\rm eff} = \n \\frac{2A}{\\mu_0 M_s^2\\revision{L^2}}\\,\\Delta\\boldsymbol{m}\n - \\frac{K}{\\mu_0\\revision{M_s^2}}\\,D\\phi(\\boldsymbol{m})\n + \\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}} - \\nabla u_1 -\\nabla u_2,\n\\end{align*}\nwhere $u_1$ \\revision{solves}~\\eqref{eq:u1} with $\\boldsymbol{M}_1$ being replaced by $\\boldsymbol{m}$\nand where $u_2$ \\revision{solves}~\\eqref{eq:u:omega2} with, e.g., $\\boldsymbol{F}}%{\\boldsymbol{H}_{\\rm app}$ replaced by $\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}$,\n$\\boldsymbol{H}_1$ replaced by $-\\nabla u_1$, etc. For the non-linearity $\\chi$, we introduce some $\\widetilde \\chi$ in the non-dimensional formulation. Details are elaborated in Section~\\ref{sec:multi}.\n\\begin{remark}\nNote that~\\eqref{eq:llg1} implies $0 = \\boldsymbol{m} \\cdot \\partial_t \\boldsymbol{m} = \\partial_t |\\boldsymbol{m}|^2\/2$, i.e., the time derivative $\\partial_t \\boldsymbol{m}$ belongs to the tangent space \nof $\\boldsymbol{m}$. \\revision{In particular,} the modulus constraint $|\\boldsymbol{m}| = 1$ in $\\Omega_T$\nalso follows from the PDE formulation~\\eqref{eq:llg1} \\revision{and $|\\boldsymbol{m}^0|=1$ in $\\Omega_1$}.\n\\end{remark}\n\\subsection{Notation and function spaces involved}\n\\noindent In this brief section, we collect the necessary notation as well as the relevant function spaces that will be used \\revision{throughout}.\nBy $L^2$, we denote the usual Lebesgue space of square integrable functions and by $H^1$\nthe Sobolev space of functions in $L^2$ that additionally admit a weak \\revision{gradient} in $L^2$. For vector fields and corresponding spaces, we use bold symbols,\ne.g., for $\\boldsymbol{f} \\in \\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)$, we write\n\\begin{align*}\n\\norm{\\boldsymbol{f}}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 = \\sum_{i=1}^3 \\norm{f_i}{L^2(\\Omega_1)}^2.\n\\end{align*}\nFor the space-time cylinder $\\revision{\\Omega_T=[0,T]\\times\\Omega_1}$, we consider the \n\\revision{function} spaces $L^2(\\boldsymbol{L}^2):=L^2\\big([0,\\revision{T}], \\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)\\big) = \\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\revision{\\Omega_T})$, $L^2(\\boldsymbol{H}^1):=L^2\\big([0,\\revision{T}], \\boldsymbol{H}^1(\\Omega_1)\\big)$, and $\\boldsymbol{H}^1(\\revision{\\Omega_T})$ which are associated with the norms\n\\begin{align*}\n\\norm{\\boldsymbol{f}}{L^2(\\boldsymbol{L}^2)}^2 &:=\\norm{\\boldsymbol{f}}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\revision{\\Omega_T})}^2 = \\int_0^\\revision{T} \\norm{\\boldsymbol{f}(t)}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2\\, dt,\\\\\n\\norm{\\boldsymbol{f}}{L^2(\\boldsymbol{H}^1)}^2 &:=\\norm{\\boldsymbol{f}}{L^2([0,\\revision{T}], \\boldsymbol{H}^1(\\Omega_1))}^2 = \\int_0^{\\revision{T}} \\norm{\\boldsymbol{f}(t)}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 + \\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{f}(t)}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2\\, dt,\\\\\n\\norm{\\boldsymbol{f}}{\\boldsymbol{H}^1(\\revision{\\Omega_T)}}^2 &= \\int_0^{\\revision{T}} \\norm{\\boldsymbol{f}(t)}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 + \\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{f}(t)}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 + \\norm{\\partial_t \\boldsymbol{f}(t)}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2\\, dt,\n\\end{align*}\nrespectively. \nFinally, for appropriate sets $\\Sigma$, we denote by $\\dual{\\cdot}{\\cdot}_\\Sigma$ the scalar product of $\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Sigma)$.\nThe Euclidean scalar product of vectors $\\boldsymbol{x},\\boldsymbol{y} \\in \\mathbb{R}^3$ is denoted by $\\boldsymbol{x} \\cdot \\boldsymbol{y}$.\nIn proofs, we use the symbol $\\lesssim$ to abbreviate $\\le$ up to some (hidden) multiplicative constant which is clear from the context and independent of the discretization parameters $h$ and $k$.\n\\subsection{Equivalent formulations of LLG and weak solution}\nThe dimensionless formulation of LLG that is usually referred to, has already been stated in~\\eqref{eq:llg}.\nSupplemented by the same initial and boundary conditions~\\eqref{eq:llg:bc1}--\\eqref{eq:llg:bc2}, the equation can also equivalently be stated \\revision{as}\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:form:alg}\n\\alpha\\partial_t\\boldsymbol{m} + \\boldsymbol{m}\\times\\partial_t\\boldsymbol{m}\n= \\boldsymbol{h}_{\\rm eff} - \\left(\\boldsymbol{m}\\cdot\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\rm eff}\\right)\\boldsymbol{m}\n\\end{align}\n\\revision{or}\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:weaksol}\n\\partial_t\\boldsymbol{m} - \\alpha\\boldsymbol{m}\\times\\partial_t\\boldsymbol{m}\n= \\boldsymbol{h}_{\\rm eff} \\times \\boldsymbol{m}.\n\\end{align}\nIn this work, \\eqref{eq:form:alg} is exploited for the construction of our\nnumerical scheme. For the notion of a weak solution,\nwe use the so-called Gilbert formulation~\\eqref{eq:weaksol}. A rigorous proof for the equivalence of\nthe above equations can be found, e.g., in Ref.~\\cite{goldenits}, Section~1.2.\n\\par As far as numerical analysis is concerned, our integrator extends \\revision{the one} of\nRef.~\\cite{alouges08} from the small-particle limit with exchange energy only, to the case under\nconsideration. Independently, the preceding works of Refs.~\\cite{alouges11}, \\cite{goldenits} generalized the\napproach of Ref.~\\cite{alouges08} to an effective field, which consists of exchange energy, stray field energy, uniaxial anisotropy, and exterior energy, where only the first term is dealt with implicitly, whereas the remaining lower-order terms are treated explicitly. In this work, we extend this approach to certain non-linear contributions of the effective field. For this purpose, \n\\revision{we introduce a general contribution \n$\\boldsymbol{\\pi}:\\boldsymbol{H}^1(\\Omega_1)\\times Y\\to \\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)$ for some suitable Banach \nspace $Y$, see Section~\\ref{section:heff} for examples.}\nWe now write $\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\rm eff}$ in the form\n\\begin{subequations}\\label{se:multiscale}\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:field}\n \\boldsymbol{h}_{\\rm eff} = C_{\\rm exch}\\Delta\\boldsymbol{m} - \\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{m},\\zeta) + \\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}},\n\\end{align}\nwhere $\\zeta \\in Y$, the exchange contribution and the exterior field $\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}$ are explicitly given, while the stray field contribution, the material anisotropy, and the induced field\nfrom the macroscopic part are concluded in the operator \\revision{$\\boldsymbol{\\pi}$}. Our analysis thus particularly includes the case\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:pi}\n \\revision{\\boldsymbol{\\pi}\\big(\\boldsymbol{m}, \\zeta\\big)}\n := \\nabla u_1 + C_{\\rm ani}\\,\\revision{D\\phi(\\boldsymbol{m})} +\\nabla u_2,\n\\end{align}\nbut also holds true for general contributions $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}$,\nwhich only act on the spatial variable, as long as they fulfil \\revision{the properties \\eqref{assumption:chi:bounded}--\\eqref{assumption:chi:convergence}} below. In~\\eqref{eq:field}--\\eqref{eq:pi}, the constants are given by\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:constants}\nC_{\\rm exch} := \\frac{2A}{\\mu_0 M_s^2\\revision{L^2}} \\quad \\text{ resp. } \\quad C_{\\rm ani} := \\frac{K}{\\mu_0 \\revision{M_s}}.\n\\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\n\\revision{\\begin{remark}\nFor the multiscale formulation~\\eqref{se:multiscale}, we employ \n\\revision{$Y=\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_2)$}\nand $\\zeta=\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}$, since this data is required \nin~\\eqref{eq:uext}--\\eqref{eq:u:omega2}. Details are given in Section~\\ref{sec:multi} below.\nFor the classical contributions like anisotropy field and stray field,\nthe operator $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}$ is independent of $\\zeta$ and depends only on $\\boldsymbol{m}$.\n\\end{remark}}\n\\par With \\revision{these preparations}, our \\revision{definition} of a weak solution reads as follows:\n\\begin{definition}\\label{def:weaksol}\n\\revision{Let $\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}\\in\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)$, $\\zeta \\in Y$ and $\\boldsymbol{m}^0\\in\\boldsymbol{H}^1(\\Omega_1)$ with $|m|=1$ in $\\Omega_1$.}\nA function $\\boldsymbol{m}$ is called a \\emph{weak solution} to LLG in $\\revision{\\Omega_T}$, if\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item[(i)] $\\boldsymbol{m} \\in \\boldsymbol{H}^1(\\revision{\\Omega_T})$ with $|\\boldsymbol{m}| = 1$ in $\\revision{\\Omega_T}$ and $\\boldsymbol{m}(0)=\\boldsymbol{m}^0$ in the sense of traces;\n\\item[(ii)] for all $\\boldsymbol\\phi \\in C^\\infty(\\revision{\\overline\\Omega_T})$, we have\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:weaksol_def}\n&\\dual{\\partial_t\\boldsymbol{m}}{\\boldsymbol\\phi}_{\\Omega_T}\n-\\alpha\\,\\dual{\\boldsymbol{m} \\times \\revision{\\partial_t\\boldsymbol{m}}}{\\boldsymbol\\phi}_{\\revision{\\Omega_T}}\\\\\n&= -C_{\\rm exch}\\,\\dual{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{m} \\times \\boldsymbol{m}}{\\nabla \\boldsymbol\\phi}_{\\revision{\\Omega_T}}\n- \\dual{\\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{m}, \\zeta)\\times \\boldsymbol{m}}{\\boldsymbol\\phi}_{\\revision{\\Omega_T}}\n+ \\dual{\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}\\times \\boldsymbol{m}}{\\boldsymbol\\phi}_{\\Omega_T};\\nonumber\n \\end{align}\n\\item[(iii)] for almost all $t \\in (0, \\revision{T})$, we have\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:weaksol:energy}\n\\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{m} (t)}{L^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 + \\norm{\\partial_t\\boldsymbol{m}}{L^2(\\Omega_t)}^2 \\le C,\n\\end{align}\nfor some constant $C>0$ which depends only on $\\boldsymbol{m}^0$ and $\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}$.\n\\end{itemize}\n\\end{definition}\nThe existence (and non-uniqueness) of weak solutions has first been\nshown in Ref.~\\cite{as} for the small particle limit, where \\revision{$\\boldsymbol{\\pi}$}\nand $\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}$ are omitted. We stress, however, that our convergence proof is\nconstructive in the sense that the analysis does not only show convergence\ntowards, but also existence of weak solutions without any assumptions on the smoothness of the quantities involved.\n\\begin{remark}\nUnder certain assumptions on \\revision{$\\boldsymbol{\\pi}$},\nthe energy estimate~\\eqref{eq:weaksol:energy} can be improved. We refer to Proposition~\\ref{lem:energy:improved} in the appendix.\n\\end{remark}\n\\subsection{Linear-implicit integrator}\nWe discretize the magnetization $\\boldsymbol{m}$ and its time derivative $\\boldsymbol{v} = \\partial_t\\boldsymbol{m}$ in space by lowest-order Courant finite elements\n\\begin{equation*\n \\boldsymbol{\\mathcal{V}}_h := \n\n\n \\set{\\boldsymbol{n}_h:\\overline\\Omega_1\\to\\mathbb{R}^3\\text{ continuous}}{\\boldsymbol{n}_h|_T\\text{ affine for all }T\\in \\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1}},\n\\end{equation*}\nwhere $\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1}$ is a \\revision{quasi-uniform and} conforming triangulation of $\\Omega_1$ into \ntetrahedra $T\\in\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1}$ with mesh-size \\revision{$h\\simeq{\\rm diam}(T)$}. Let $\\mathcal{N}_h$ denote the set of nodes of $\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1}$. For fixed time $t_j$, the discrete magnetization is sought in the set\n\\begin{align*}\n \\boldsymbol{m}(t_j) \\approx \\boldsymbol{m}_h^j \\in\n \\boldsymbol{\\mathcal{M}}_h := \\set{\\boldsymbol{n}_h\\in\\boldsymbol{\\mathcal{V}}_h}{|\\boldsymbol{n}_h(z)|=1\\text{ for all }z\\in\\mathcal{N}_h},\n\\end{align*}\nwhereas the discrete time derivative is sought in the discrete tangent space\n\\begin{align*}\n \\boldsymbol{v}(t_j) \\approx \\boldsymbol{v}_h^j \\in\n \\boldsymbol{\\mathcal{K}}_{\\boldsymbol{m}_h^j} := \\set{\\boldsymbol{n}_h\\in\\boldsymbol{\\mathcal{V}}_h}{\\boldsymbol{n}_h(z)\\cdot\\boldsymbol{m}_h^j(z)=0\\text{ for all }z\\in\\mathcal{N}_h}.\n\\end{align*}\nFor the time discretization, we impose a uniform partition $\\mathcal{I}_k$ of the time interval $[0,T]$ with time step-size $k=T\/N$ and time steps $t_j = jk$, $j=0,\\dots,N$.\n\\par Let $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h$ be a numerical realization \\revision{of $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}$}\nwhich maps $\\boldsymbol{m}(t_j)\\approx\\boldsymbol{m}_h^j\\in\\boldsymbol{\\mathcal{M}}_h$ and $\\zeta(t_j) \\approx \\zeta_h^j\\in Y$ to some\n$\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{m}_h^j, \\zeta_h^j)\\in\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)$.\nFinally, let \\revision{$\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}_h^j\\in\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)$} be an approximation of $\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}(t_j)$ specified below. Then, our numerical time integrator reads as follows:\n\\begin{algorithm}\\label{algorithm}\nInput: Initial datum $\\boldsymbol{m}_h^0\\in\\boldsymbol{\\mathcal{M}}_h$, parameters $\\alpha>0$ and $0 \\leq\\theta\\leq 1$, data $\\left\\{\\zeta_h^i\\right\\}_{i=0,\\dots,N-1}$.\nThen, for all $i=0,\\dots,N-1$ iterate:\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item[(i)] Compute $\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i\\in\\boldsymbol{\\mathcal{K}}_{\\boldsymbol{m}_h^i}$ such that for all $\\boldsymbol\\psi_h\\in\\boldsymbol{\\mathcal{K}}_{\\boldsymbol{m}_h^i}$, it holds\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:alg}\n &\\alpha\\dual{\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol\\psi_h}_{\\Omega_1}\n + C_{\\rm exch} k \\theta \\,\\dual{\\nabla\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i}{\\nabla\\boldsymbol\\psi_h}_{\\Omega_1}\n + \\dual{\\boldsymbol{m}_h^i\\times\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol\\psi_h}_{\\Omega_1}\n \\\\&\\quad\n = -C_{\\rm exch} \\dual{\\nabla\\boldsymbol{m}_h^i}{\\nabla \\boldsymbol\\psi_h}_{\\Omega_1}\n - \\dual{\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{m}_h^i,\\zeta_h^i)}{\\boldsymbol\\psi_h}_{\\Omega_1}\n + \\dual{\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol\\psi_h}_{\\Omega_1}. \\nonumber\n\\end{align}\n\\item[(ii)] Define $\\boldsymbol{m}_h^{i+1}\\in\\boldsymbol{\\mathcal{M}}_h$ by\n$\\boldsymbol{m}_h^{i+1}(z) = \\displaystyle\\frac{\\boldsymbol{m}_h^i(z) + k \\boldsymbol{v}_h^i(z)}{|\\boldsymbol{m}_h^i(z) + k \\boldsymbol{v}_h^i(z)|}$ for all nodes $z\\in\\mathcal{N}_h$.\n\\end{itemize}\nOutput: Discrete time derivatives $\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i$ and magnetizations $\\boldsymbol{m}_h^{i+1}$, for $i=0,\\dots,N-1$.\n\\end{algorithm}\n\\revision{The input as well as the output of Algorithm~\\ref{algorithm} consists of discrete-in-time values $\\gamma_h^i$,\ne.g., $\\gamma_h^i\\in\\{\\boldsymbol{m}_h^i,\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i\\}\\subseteq\\boldsymbol{\\mathcal{V}}_h$.\nBy~\\eqref{eq:timeapprox} we define continuous-in-time interpretations, where we consider continuous and \npiecewise affine in time (denoted by $\\mathcal{S}^1$) resp.\\ piecewise constant in time \n(denoted by $\\mathcal{P}^0$): For $t_i \\le t < t_{i+1}$,\n$\\gamma_{hk}\\in\\mathcal{S}^1(\\mathcal{I}_k;\\boldsymbol{\\mathcal{V}}_h)\\subset\\boldsymbol{H}^1(\\revision{\\Omega_T})$ \nand  $\\gamma_{hk}^-\\in\\mathcal{P}^0(\\mathcal{I}_k; \\boldsymbol{\\mathcal{V}}_h)\\subset L^2(\\boldsymbol{H}^1)$ are defined by\n\\begin{subequations} \\label{eq:timeapprox}\n\\begin{align}\n\\gamma_{hk}(t) &:= \\frac{t-ik}{k}\\,\\gamma_h^{i+1} + \\frac{(i+1)k-t}{k}\\,\\gamma_h^i\n\\label{eq:mhk}\\\\\n\\gamma_{hk}^-(t) &:= \\gamma_h^i\n\\label{eq:mhk-}.\n\\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\nWe note that $\\partial_t\\gamma_{hk}=(\\gamma_h^{i+1}-\\gamma_h^i)\/k$.\nThe same notation is used for $\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}_{hk}^-\\in\\mathcal{P}^0(\\mathcal{I}_k;\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega))$ and \n$\\zeta_{hk}^-\\in\\mathcal{P}^0(\\mathcal{I}_k;Y)$.}\n\\revision{\\begin{lemma}\nAlgorithm~\\ref{algorithm} is well-defined, and it holds $\\norm{\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}}{\\boldsymbol{L}^\\infty(\\revision{\\Omega_T})} = \\norm{\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-}{\\boldsymbol{L}^\\infty(\\revision{\\Omega_T})} = 1$.\n\\end{lemma}}\n\\begin{proof}\nProblem~\\eqref{eq:alg} is a linear problem on a finite dimensional space.\nTherefore, existence and uniqueness of $\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i\\in\\boldsymbol{\\mathcal{K}}_{\\boldsymbol{m}_h^i}$ follow from the fact that the corresponding bilinear form is positive definite.\nBy definition of the discrete tangent space \\revision{$\\boldsymbol{\\mathcal{K}}_{\\boldsymbol{m}_h^i}$}, it holds\n$|\\boldsymbol{m}_h^i + k\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i|^2 = 1 + k^2\\,|\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i|^2\\ge1$ nodewise.\nTherefore, \\revision{Step~(ii) in Algorithm~\\ref{algorithm}} is well-defined. \nBy use of barycentric coordinates, an elementary calculation finally proves the pointwise estimates\n$|\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-|\\le1$ as well as $|\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}| \\le 1$, see, e.g., Ref.~\\cite{alouges08}.\n\\end{proof}\nBy definition of $\\boldsymbol{m}_h^{i+1}$ in Step~(ii) of Algorithm~\\ref{algorithm}, the\nfollowing two auxiliary results follow from elementary geometric considerations\n(see Refs.~\\cite{alouges08}, \\cite{alouges11}, \\cite{goldenits}).\n\\revision{\\begin{lemma}\\label{lemma1:aux}\nFor all $i=0,\\dots,N-1$, it holds nodewise $|\\boldsymbol{m}_h^{i+1}-\\boldsymbol{m}_h^i| \\le k\\,|\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i|$.\\hfill\\qed\n\\end{lemma}}\n\\revision{\\begin{lemma}\\label{lemma2:aux}\nFor all $i=0,\\dots,N-1$, it holds nodewise $|\\boldsymbol{m}_h^{i+1}-\\boldsymbol{m}_h^i-k\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i| \\le \\frac12\\,k^2\\,|\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i|^2$.\\hfill\\qed\n\\end{lemma}}\nThese nodal estimates shall be used together with the following elementary lemma which follows from standard scaling arguments.\n\\revision{\\begin{lemma}\\label{lemma3:aux}\nFor any discrete function ${\\bf w}_h\\in\\boldsymbol{\\mathcal{V}}_h$ and all $1\\le p<\\infty$, it holds\n\\begin{align*}\n  \\c{shape}^{-1}\\,\\norm{{\\bf w}_h}{\\boldsymbol{L}^p(\\Omega)}^p\n  \\le h^3\\sum_{z\\in\\mathcal{N}_h}|{\\bf w}_h(z)|^p\n \\le \\c{shape}\\,\\norm{{\\bf w}_h}{\\boldsymbol{L}^p(\\Omega)}^p.\n\\end{align*}\nThe constant $\\setc{shape}>0$ depends only on $p$ and the shape of the\nelements in $\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1}$.\\hfill\\qed\n\\end{lemma}}\n\\subsection{Main theorem}\nThe following theorem is the main result of this work.\nIt states convergence of the numerical integrator (at least for a subsequence) towards a weak solution of the general LLG equation.\nAfterwards, we will show that the operator $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}$ and its discretization $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h$ of the multiscale LLG equation satisfy the general assumptions posed.\nIn particular, the concrete problem is thus covered by the general approach.\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{theorem}\n\\textbf{(a)}\nLet \\revision{$1\/2<\\theta\\le1$} and suppose that the spatial meshes $\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1}$ are uniformly shape regular\nand satisfy the angle condition\n\\begin{align}\\label{assumption:mesh}\n \\dual{\\nabla\\eta_i}{\\nabla\\eta_j}_{\\Omega_1}\n \\le0\n \\quad\\text{for \\revision{all nodal hat} functions }\n \\eta_i,\\eta_j\\in\\mathcal{S}^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1})\n \\text{ with }i\\neq j.\n\\end{align}\nWe suppose that\n\\begin{align}\\label{assumption:f}\n \\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}_{hk}^- \\rightharpoonup \\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}\\text{ weakly in }\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\revision{\\Omega_T})\n\\end{align}\nas well as\n\\begin{align}\\label{assumption:m0}\n \\revision{\\boldsymbol{m}_h^0 \\rightharpoonup \\boldsymbol{m}^0\\text{ weakly in }\\boldsymbol{H}^1(\\Omega_1).}\n\\end{align}\nMoreover, we suppose that the spatial discretization $\\revision{\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h}$\nof \\revision{$\\boldsymbol{\\pi}$} satisfies\n\\begin{align}\\label{assumption:chi:bounded}\n \\norm{\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{n}, y)}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}\n \\le \\c{bounded}\\,\\revision{(1+\\norm{\\nabla\\boldsymbol{n}}{L^2(\\Omega_1)})}\n\\end{align}\nfor all $h,k>0$ and all $\\boldsymbol{n} \\in \\revision{\\boldsymbol{H}^1(\\Omega_1)}$ with $|\\boldsymbol{n}| \\le 1$ and \\revision{all} $y \\in Y$ with $\\norm{y}{Y} \\le \\c{boundedy}$ for some $y$-independent constant $\\c{boundedy}>0$.\nHere, $\\setc{bounded}>0$ denotes a constant that is independent of $h,k, \\boldsymbol{n},$ and $y$, but may depend on $\\c{boundedy}$ and $\\Omega_1$. We further assume $\\norm{\\zeta_h^j}{Y} \\le \\setc{boundedy}$ for all $j = 1, \\hdots, N$. Under these assumptions, \\revision{Algorithm~\\ref{algorithm} yields} \\revision{strong $\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)$-convergence\nof some subsequence of $\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-$ as well as weak $\\boldsymbol{H}^1(\\Omega_T)$-convergence \nof some subsequence of $\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}$ towards the same limit $\\boldsymbol{m}\\in \\boldsymbol{H}^1(\\Omega_T)$\nwhich additionally satisfies $\\boldsymbol{m}\\in L^\\infty(\\boldsymbol{H}^1)$ with $|\\boldsymbol{m}|=1$ in $\\Omega_T$.}\\\\\n\\par \\noindent\n\\textbf{(b)}\nIn addition to the above, we suppose\n\\begin{align}\\label{assumption:chi:convergence}\n \\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-, \\zeta_{hk}^-) \\rightharpoonup \\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{m}, \\zeta)\n \\quad\\text{weakly in }\\revision{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)} \\text{ \\revision{for some subsequence}}.\n\\end{align}\nThen, the \\revision{limit $\\boldsymbol{m}\\in\\boldsymbol{H}^1(\\Omega_T)$ from (a) is \na weak solution} of general LLG\n\\revision{in the sense of Definition~\\ref{def:weaksol}.}\n\\end{theorem}\n\\begin{remark} \\label{rem:f}\n{\\rm(i)} Suppose that the applied exterior field is continuous in time, i.e., $\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}\\in C([0,T];\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1))$. Let $\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}_h^j = \\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}(t_j)$ denote the evaluation of $\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}$ at time $t_j$. Then, assumption~\\eqref{assumption:f} is satisfied since $\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}_{hk}^-\\to\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}$ strongly in $L^\\infty(\\boldsymbol{L}^2)$.\\\\\n{\\rm(ii)} Suppose that the applied exterior field is continuous in space-time, i.e., $\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}\\in C(\\revision{\\overline\\Omega_T})$. Let $\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}_h^j$ denote the nodal interpolant of $\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}(t_j)\\in C(\\overline\\Omega_1)$ in space. Then, assumption~\\eqref{assumption:f} is satisfied since $\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}_{hk}^-\\to\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}$ strongly in $\\boldsymbol{L}^\\infty(\\revision{\\Omega_T})$.\\\\\n{\\rm(iii)} Suppose $\\zeta$ is continuous in time, i.e., \\revision{$\\zeta \\in C([0,T], Y)$} and let $\\zeta_h^j = \\zeta(t_j)$ denote the evaluation of $\\zeta$ at time $t_j$. Then, we have $\\zeta_{hk}^- \\to \\zeta$ strongly in $L^\\infty(Y)$ and $\\norm{\\zeta_h^j}{Y} \\le \\sup_{t \\in [0,T]} \\norm{\\zeta(t)}{Y}$.\n\\end{remark}\n\\begin{remark}\nThe angle condition~\\eqref{assumption:mesh} is a technical ingredient for \nthe convergence analysis. It is automatically fulfilled for tetrahedral meshes \nwith dihedral angles that are smaller than $\\pi\/2$. If the\ncondition is satisfied by the initial mesh $\\mathcal{T}_0$, \\revision{it can be preserved\nby the mesh-refinement strategy (see, e.g., Ref.~\\cite{verfuerth}, Section~4.1).}\n\\end{remark} \n\\revision{The remainder of this section consists of the proof of\nTheorem~\\ref{theorem} which is roughly split into three steps:}\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item[(i)] Boundedness of the discrete quantities and energies.\n\\item[(ii)] Existence of weakly convergent subsequences.\n\\item[(iii)] Identification of the limits with weak solutions of LLG.\n\\end{itemize}\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{lem:energy}\n\\revision{For all $j=0,\\dots,N$, the}\ndiscrete quantities $\\boldsymbol{m}_h^j$ and $\\left\\{\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i\\right\\}_{i=0,\\dots,j-1}$ satisf\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:energy_discrete}\n\\begin{split}\n\\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{m}_h^j}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 &+ \nk\\sum_{i=0}^{j-1}\\norm{\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 \n+ (\\theta - 1\/2)k^2\n\\sum_{i=0}^{j-1} \\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{v}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 \n\\le\\revision{\\c{energy}}.\n\\end{split}\n\\end{align}\n\\revision{The constant $\\setc{energy} > 0$ depends only on $\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}$, $\\boldsymbol{m}^0$, \nand the final time $T$, but is independent of $h$ and $k$.}\n\\end{lemma}\n\\begin{proof}\nIn~\\eqref{eq:alg}, we use the test function $\\boldsymbol\\psi_h = \\boldsymbol{v}_h^i \\in \\boldsymbol{\\mathcal{K}}_{\\boldsymbol{m}_h^i}$ \nand get\n\\begin{align*}\n\\alpha \\norm{\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 + C_{\\rm exch} \\theta\\,k \\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{v}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2\n= &-C_{\\rm exch}\\dual{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{m}_h^i}{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{v}_h^i}_{\\Omega_1}\n+ \\dual{\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i}_{\\Omega_1} \\\\\n&- \\dual{\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{m}_h^i,\\zeta_h^i)}{\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i}_{\\Omega_1}.\n\\end{align*}\nThe angle condition~\\eqref{assumption:mesh} ensures\n$\\norm{\\nabla\\boldsymbol{m}_h^{i+1}}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 \\le \\norm{\\nabla (\\boldsymbol{m}_h^i + k \\boldsymbol{v}_h^i)}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2$, see Refs. \\cite{alouges08}, \\cite{alouges11}, \\cite{goldenits}.\nWe thus get\n\\begin{align}\n\\frac12\\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{m}_h^{i+1}}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 &\\le \\frac12 \\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{m}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 +\nk\\dual{\\nabla\\boldsymbol{m}_h^i}{\\nabla\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i}_{\\Omega_1}\n+ \\frac{k^2}{2} \\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{v}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 \\nonumber\\\\\n& \\leq \\frac12 \\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{m}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 - (\\theta - 1\/2)k^2\\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{v}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 \\label{eq:nabla_m_bounded} \\\\\n&\\quad - \\frac{\\alpha\\, k}{C_{\\rm exch}}\\norm{\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2\n+ \\frac{k}{C_{\\rm exch}}\\dual{\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i}_{\\Omega_1}\n- \\frac{k}{C_{\\rm exch}}\\dual{\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{m}_h^i,\\zeta_h^i)}{\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i}_{\\Omega_1}. \\nonumber\n\\end{align}\nNext, we sum up over $i = 0, \\hdots, j-1$ to see\n\\begin{align*}\n\\frac12 \\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{m}_h^j}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 \\le &\\frac12\\norm{\\nabla\n\\boldsymbol{m}_h^0}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 - (\\theta - 1\/2)k^2 \\sum_{i=0}^{j-1}\n\\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{v}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 \\\\\n&- \\frac{\\alpha k}{C_{\\rm exch}}\\sum_{i=0}^{j-1}\\norm{\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 \n+ \\frac{k}{C_{\\rm exch}}\\sum_{i=0}^{j-1}\\big(\\dual{\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i}_{\\Omega_1}\n- \\dual{\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{m}_h^i, \\zeta_h^i)}{\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i}_{\\Omega_1}\\big).\n\\end{align*}\nUsing the inequalities of Young and H\\\"older, this can be further estimated by\n\\begin{align*}\n\\frac12 &\\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{m}_h^j}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 \n+ \\frac{k}{C_{\\rm exch}}(\\alpha - \\varepsilon)\\sum_{i=0}^{j-1}\\norm{\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2\n+ (\\theta - 1\/2)k^2 \\sum_{i=0}^{j-1}\\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{v}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2\n\\\\ \n&\\le \\frac12\\norm{\\nabla\\boldsymbol{m}_h^0}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 \n + \\frac{k}{\\revision{2} C_{\\rm exch} \\varepsilon}\\sum_{i=0}^{j-1}\\big(\\norm{\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 + \\norm{\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{m}_h^i, \\zeta_h^i)}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2\\big)\n\\end{align*}\nfor any $\\varepsilon > 0$. \n\\revision{With the boundedness~\\revision{\\eqref{assumption:chi:bounded}}\nof $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h$, the last sum is estimated by\n\\begin{align*}\n k \\sum_{i=0}^{j-1}(\\norm{\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 \\!+\\! \\norm{\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{m}_h^i, \\zeta_h^i)}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2)\n &\\lesssim \\norm{\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}_{hk}^-}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)}^2\n \\!+\\! k\\sum_{i=0}^{j-1}(1+\\norm{\\nabla\\boldsymbol{m}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2)\n \\\\\n &\\lesssim \\norm{\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}_{hk}^-}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)}^2\n + T + k\\,\\sum_{i=0}^{j-1}\\norm{\\nabla\\boldsymbol{m}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2.\n\\end{align*}\nChoosing $\\varepsilon<\\alpha$, \nwe altogether obtain\n\\begin{align*}\n&\\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{m}_h^j}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 \n+ k\\,\\sum_{i=0}^{j-1}\\norm{\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2\n+ (\\theta - 1\/2)k^2 \\sum_{i=0}^{j-1}\\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{v}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2\n\\\\ \n&\\qquad\\lesssim \\norm{\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}_{hk}^-}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)}^2\n + T + k\\,\\sum_{i=0}^{j-1}\\norm{\\nabla\\boldsymbol{m}_h^i}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2.\n\\end{align*}\nAccording to weak convergence~\\eqref{assumption:f}--\\eqref{assumption:m0},\nthere holds uniform boundedness $\\norm{\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}_{hk}^-}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)}^2 + \n\\norm{\\nabla\\boldsymbol{m}_h^0}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 \\le C$. Consequently, the discrete\nGronwall lemma \\revision{(see, e.g., Ref.~\\cite{thomee}, Lemma 10.5)} applies and concludes the proof.}\n\\end{proof}\n\\revision{As a consequence of the energy estimate~\\eqref{eq:energy_discrete}, \nwe obtain uniform boundedness of the discrete quantities.}\n\\revision{\\begin{lemma}\\label{lemma:dpr}\nFor $1\/2\\le\\theta\\le1$, it holds\n\\begin{align}\n \\begin{split}\\label{dpr:boundedness}\n &\\norm{\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-}{L^\\infty(\\boldsymbol{H}^1)}\n + \\norm{\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}}{L^\\infty(\\boldsymbol{H}^1)}\n + \\norm{\\partial_t\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)}\\\\\n &\\qquad+ \\norm{\\boldsymbol{v}_{hk}^-}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)}\n + \\sqrt{(\\theta-1\/2)k}\\,\\norm{\\nabla\\boldsymbol{v}_{hk}^-}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)}\n \\le \\c{dpr},\n \\end{split}\n\\end{align}\nwhere $\\setc{dpr}>0$ does not depend on $h$ or $k$.\n\\end{lemma}}\n\\revision{\\begin{proof}\nEstimate~\\eqref{eq:energy_discrete} reveals\n\\begin{align*}\n \\max_{j=0,\\dots,N}\\norm{\\nabla\\boldsymbol{m}_h^j}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2\n + \n \\norm{\\boldsymbol{v}_{hk}^-}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)}^2\n + (\\theta-1\/2)k\\,\\norm{\\nabla\\boldsymbol{v}_{hk}^-}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)}^2\n\n \\lesssim\n \\c{energy}.\n\\end{align*}\nClearly, it holds \n\\begin{align*}\n \\norm{\\nabla\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}}{L^\\infty(\\boldsymbol{L}^2)}^2\n + \\norm{\\nabla\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-}{L^\\infty(\\boldsymbol{L}^2)}^2 \n \\lesssim \n \\max_{j=0,\\dots,N}\\norm{\\nabla\\boldsymbol{m}_h^j}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2.\n\\end{align*}\nTogether with $\\norm{\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}}{\\boldsymbol{L}^\\infty(\\Omega_T)}=1=\\norm{\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-}{\\boldsymbol{L}^\\infty(\\Omega_T)}$, this bounds the $L^\\infty(\\boldsymbol{H}^1)$-norms of $\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}$\nand $\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-$.\nFor $t_j\\le t<t_{j+1}$, Lemma~\\ref{lemma1:aux} \n\\revision{and Lemma~\\ref{lemma3:aux}} prove\n\\begin{align*}\n \\norm{\\partial_t\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}(t)}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2\n = \\norm{(\\boldsymbol{m}_h^{j+1}-\\boldsymbol{m}_h^{j})\/k}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2\n \\lesssim \\norm{\\boldsymbol{v}_h^j}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2,\n\\end{align*}\nwhence $\\norm{\\partial_t\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)}^2 \n\\lesssim \\norm{\\boldsymbol{v}_{hk}^-}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)}^2$. This concludes the proof.\n\\end{proof}}%\n\\revision{Using~\\eqref{dpr:boundedness}, we can extract weakly convergent\nsubsequences.}\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{lem:subsequences}\nThere exist functions $\\boldsymbol{m} \\in \\boldsymbol{H}^1(\\Omega_T)$ and $\\boldsymbol{v} \\in \\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)$ such that\n\\begin{align*}\n\\begin{split}\n \\boldsymbol{m}_{hk} &\\rightharpoonup \\boldsymbol{m} \\text{ weakly in } \\boldsymbol{H}^1(\\Omega_T),\\\\\n \\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}, \\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^- &\\rightharpoonup \\boldsymbol{m} \\text{ weakly in } \\revision{L^2(\\boldsymbol{H}^1)}, \\\\\n \\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}, \\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^- &\\rightarrow \\boldsymbol{m} \\text{ strongly in } \\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T),\\\\\n \\boldsymbol{v}_{hk}^- &\\rightharpoonup \\boldsymbol{v} \\text{ weakly in } \\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T),\n\\end{split}\n\\end{align*}\nas $(h,k) \\rightarrow (0,0)$ independently of each other. Here, the \n\\revision{convergences are to} be understood for one particular subsequence that is successively \\revision{extracted}. \n\\end{lemma}\n\\begin{proof}\n\\revision{Due to the uniform boundedness~\\eqref{dpr:boundedness}, \none may extract weakly convergent subsequences (with possibly different limits).}\nIt thus only remains to show, that the limits coincide, e.g.,\n\\begin{align*}\n \\revision{\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-\\rightharpoonup\\boldsymbol{m} \\text{ weakly in } \\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)\\text{ and }  L^2(\\boldsymbol{H}^1),}\n\\end{align*}\nwhere \\revision{$\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}\\rightharpoonup\\boldsymbol{m}$ weakly} in $\\boldsymbol{H}^1(\\Omega_T)$. \nDue to the Rellich compactness theorem, we have\n$\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}\\to\\boldsymbol{m}$ strongly in $\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)$.\nWe rewrite $\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}$ for $t_j\\le t < t_{j+1}$ as\n\\begin{align*}\n\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}\\revision{(t)} = \\boldsymbol{m}_h^j + \\frac{t-t_j}{k}(\\boldsymbol{m}_h^{j+1} - \\boldsymbol{m}_h^j).\n\\end{align*}\n\\revision{Lemma~\\ref{lemma1:aux} and Lemma~\\ref{lemma3:aux} thus yield}\n\\begin{align*}\n&\\norm{\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk} - \\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)}^2 = \\sum_{j=0}^{N-1}\\int_{t_j}^{t_{j+1}} \\norm{\\boldsymbol{m}_h^j + \\frac{t-t_j}{k}(\\boldsymbol{m}_h^{j+1} - \\boldsymbol{m}_h^j) - \\boldsymbol{m}_h^j}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2\\\\\n&\\quad\\le \\sum_{j=0}^{N-1}\\int_{t_j}^{t_{j+1}} k^2\\norm[\\Big]{\\frac{\\boldsymbol{m}_h^{j+1} - \\boldsymbol{m}_h^j}{k}}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 \\lesssim \nk^3 \\sum_{j=0}^{N-1}\\norm{\\boldsymbol{v}_h^j}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 \\to 0.\n\\end{align*}\nThis proves the result for $\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)$. From the uniqueness of weak limits and the continuous inclusion $L^2(\\boldsymbol{H}^1) \\subseteq L^2(\\Omega_T)$, we also conclude the result for $\\revision{L^2(\\boldsymbol{H}^1)}$.\n\\end{proof}\n\nNext, we identify the limit function $\\boldsymbol{v}$.\n\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{lem:v}\nIt holds $\\boldsymbol{v} = \\revision{\\partial_t\\boldsymbol{m}}$.\n\\end{lemma}\n\n\\begin{proof}\n\\revision{For $t_j\\le t<t_{j+1}$, Lemma~\\ref{lemma2:aux} and\nLemma~\\ref{lemma3:aux} prove\n\\begin{align*}\n \\norm{\\partial_t\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}(t) -\\boldsymbol{v}_{hk}(t)}{\\boldsymbol{L}^1(\\Omega_1)}\n = \\norm{(\\boldsymbol{m}_h^{j+1}-\\boldsymbol{m}_h^j)\/k - \\boldsymbol{v}_h^j}{\\boldsymbol{L}^1(\\Omega_1)}\n \\lesssim k\\,\\norm{\\boldsymbol{v}_h^j}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2.\n\\end{align*}\nIntegration in time yields}\n\\begin{align*}\n\\norm{\\partial_t\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk} -\\boldsymbol{v}_{hk}}{\\boldsymbol{L}^1(\\Omega_T)} \\lesssim k \\norm{\\boldsymbol{v}_{hk}}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)}^2.\n\\end{align*}\nExploiting weak semi-continuity of $\\norm{\\cdot}{\\boldsymbol{L}^1(\\Omega_T)}$, \\revision{we obtain}\n\\begin{align*}\n\\norm{\\revision{\\partial_t\\boldsymbol{m}} - \\boldsymbol{v}}{\\boldsymbol{L}^1(\\Omega_T)} \\le \\liminf_{\\revision{(h,k)\\to0}} \\norm{\\partial_t\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk} -\\boldsymbol{v}_{hk}}{\\boldsymbol{L}^1(\\Omega_T)} = 0\n\\end{align*}\nand thus \\revision{prove} the desired result.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\revision{So far, we have only used the boundedness \nassumptions~\\eqref{assumption:f}--\\eqref{assumption:chi:bounded} and $\\theta\\ge1\/2$. \nTo conclude the proof of Theorem~\\ref{theorem}~$(a)$, it remains to prove that \n$|\\boldsymbol{m}|=1$ in $\\Omega_T$ (Definition~\\ref{def:weaksol} (i)).\nWe also note that bounded energy \n(Definition~\\ref{def:weaksol} (iii)) is already a direct consequence of \nLemma~\\ref{lemma:dpr}.}\n\n\\medskip\n\n\\revision{\\noindent{\\bf Verification of Definition~\\ref{def:weaksol} (i).}}\nFrom\n\\begin{align*}\n\\norm{|\\boldsymbol{m}| - 1}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)} \\le \\norm{|\\boldsymbol{m}| - |\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-|}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)} + \\norm{|\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-|-1}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)}\n\\end{align*}\nand\n\\begin{align*}\n\\norm{|\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-(t,\\cdot)|-1}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)} \\le h \\max_{j=0,\\dots,N}\\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{m}_h^j}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)},\n\\end{align*}\nwe deduce $|\\boldsymbol{m}| = 1$ almost everywhere in $\\Omega_T$. \\revision{Together with\n$\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}(0)=\\boldsymbol{m}_h^0$, the equality \n$\\boldsymbol{m}(0) = \\boldsymbol{m}^0$ in the trace sense follows from the convergences \n$\\boldsymbol{m}_h^0\\rightharpoonup\\boldsymbol{m}^0$ weakly in $\\boldsymbol{H}^1(\\Omega_1)$ as well as \n$\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}\\rightharpoonup\\boldsymbol{m}$ weakly in $\\boldsymbol{H}^1(\\Omega_T)$ (at least for a subsequence) \nand thus weak convergence of the traces.}\n\\hfill\\qed\\\\\n\n\\revision{To prove Theorem~\\ref{theorem} (b), it remains to show that \nthe limit function $\\boldsymbol{m}$ also satisfies Definition~\\ref{def:weaksol} (ii).\nThis is done in the following and requires assumption~\\eqref{assumption:chi:convergence} as well as $\\theta>1\/2$.}\n\n\\revision{\\noindent{\\bf Verification of Definition~\\ref{def:weaksol} (ii).}}\nLet $\\boldsymbol\\phi \\in C^\\infty(\\revision{\\overline\\Omega_T})$ be arbitrary. We define test functions by \\revision{$\\boldsymbol\\psi_h:=\\mathcal{I}_h(\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-\\times \\boldsymbol\\phi)$,\nwhere $\\mathcal{I}_h:C(\\overline\\Omega)\\to\\boldsymbol{\\mathcal{V}}_h$ denotes the nodal interpolation operator\nwhich only acts on the spatial variable}.\n\\revision{Note that $\\psi_h(t)\\in\\boldsymbol{\\mathcal{K}}_{\\boldsymbol{m}_h^j}$ for all $t_j\\le t<t_{j+1}$.\nIntegration of~\\eqref{eq:alg} in time thus gives}\n\\begin{align*}\n\\alpha\\int_0^{T} &\\dual{\\boldsymbol{v}_{hk}^-}{\\boldsymbol\\psi_h}_{\\Omega_1}\n+ C_{\\rm exch} k\\theta \\int_0^{T} \\dual{\\nabla\\boldsymbol{v}_{hk}^-}{\\nabla \\boldsymbol\\psi_h}_{\\Omega_1}\n+ \\int_0^{T} \\dual{\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-\\times\\boldsymbol{v}_{hk}^-}{\\boldsymbol\\psi_h}_{\\Omega_1}\\\\\n&= -C_{\\rm exch} \\int_0^{T} \\dual{\\nabla\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-}{\\nabla\\boldsymbol\\psi_h}_{\\Omega_1}\n- \\int_0^{T} \\dual{\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-,\\zeta_{hk}^-)}{\\boldsymbol\\psi_h}_{\\Omega_1}\n+ \\int_0^T \\dual{\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}_{hk}^-}{\\boldsymbol\\psi_h}_{\\Omega_1}.\n\\end{align*}\nExploiting the approximation properties of $\\mathcal{I}_h$ for $\\boldsymbol\\psi=\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-\\times\\phi$, \nwe get\n\\begin{align*}\n&\\int_0^T \\dual{\\alpha \\boldsymbol{v}_{hk}^- + \\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^- \\times \\boldsymbol{v}_{hk}^-}{\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^- \\times \\boldsymbol\\phi}_{\\Omega_1}\n+ C_{\\rm exch} k\\theta\\int_0^{T} \\dual{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{v}_{hk}^-}{\\nabla(\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^- \\times \\boldsymbol\\phi)}_{\\Omega_1}\\\\\n&\\quad+ C_{\\rm exch}\\int_0^{T}\\dual{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-}{\\nabla(\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^- \\times \\boldsymbol\\phi)}_{\\Omega_1}\n+ \\int_0^{T} \\dual{\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-,\\zeta_{hk}^-)}{\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-\\times \\boldsymbol\\phi}_{\\Omega_1}\\\\\n&\\quad- \\int_0^{T} \\dual{\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}_{hk}^-}{\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-\\times \\boldsymbol\\phi}_{\\Omega_1}\n =\\mathcal{O}(h).\n\\end{align*}\nNext, we proceed as in Refs.~\\cite{alouges08}, \\cite{goldenits} to see that\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:nablav}\\nonumber\n&\\int_0^{T} \\dual{\\alpha \\boldsymbol{v}_{hk}^- + \\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^- \\times \\boldsymbol{v}_{hk}^-}{\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-\\times\\boldsymbol\\phi}_{\\Omega_1}\n\\longrightarrow \\int_0^{T} \\dual{\\alpha\\partial_t\\boldsymbol{m} + \\boldsymbol{m} \\times \\partial_t\\boldsymbol{m}}{\\boldsymbol{m} \\times \\boldsymbol\\phi}_{\\Omega_1},\\\\\n&k\\,\\theta\\int_0^{T} \\dual{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{v}_{hk}^-}{\\nabla(\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^- \\times \\boldsymbol\\phi)}_{\\Omega_1}\n\\longrightarrow 0, \\quad \\text{ and }\n\\\\\n&\\int_0^{T}\\dual{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-}{\\nabla(\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^- \\times \\boldsymbol\\phi)}_{\\Omega_1}\n=\\int_0^{T}\\dual{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-}{\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^- \\times \\nabla\\boldsymbol\\phi}_{\\Omega_1}\n\\longrightarrow \\int_0^{T}\\dual{\\nabla\\boldsymbol{m}}{\\boldsymbol{m} \\times\\nabla\\boldsymbol\\phi}_{\\Omega_1}.\\nonumber\n\\end{align}\nHere, we have used the boundedness of $\\sqrt{k}\\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{v}_{hk}^-}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)}$, which follows from~\\revision{\\eqref{dpr:boundedness}}\nand \\revision{$1\/2<\\theta\\le1$}.\nFrom the convergence $\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-\\times \\boldsymbol\\phi \\rightarrow \\boldsymbol{m} \\times \\boldsymbol\\phi$ strongly in $\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)$ and the assumptions~\\eqref{assumption:f} and~\\eqref{assumption:chi:convergence} on $\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}_{hk}^-$ and $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-, \\zeta_{hk}^-)$, we conclude\n\\begin{align*}\n\\int_0^{T} \\dual{\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-, \\zeta_{hk}^-)}{\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-\\times \\boldsymbol\\phi}_{\\Omega_1}\n&\\longrightarrow \\int_0^{T} \\dual{\\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{m}, \\zeta)}{\\boldsymbol{m} \\times \\boldsymbol\\phi}_{\\Omega_1},\n\\quad \\text{ and }\\\\\n\\int_0^{T} \\dual{\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}_{hk}^-}{\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^- \\times \\boldsymbol\\phi}_{\\Omega_1}\n&\\longrightarrow \\int_0^{T} \\dual{\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}}{\\boldsymbol{m} \\times \\boldsymbol\\phi}_{\\Omega_1}.\n\\end{align*}\nAltogether, we have now shown\n\\begin{align*}\n&\\alpha \\int_0^{T} \\dual{\\partial_t\\boldsymbol{m}}{\\boldsymbol{m} \\times \\boldsymbol\\phi}_{\\Omega_1}\n+ \\int_0^{T} \\dual{\\boldsymbol{m} \\times \\partial_t\\boldsymbol{m}}{\\boldsymbol{m} \\times \\boldsymbol\\phi}_{\\Omega_1} = \\\\\n&\\quad-C_{\\rm exch} \\int_0^{T} \\dual{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{m}}{\\nabla(\\boldsymbol{m} \\times \\boldsymbol\\phi)}_{\\Omega_1}\n-\\int_0^{T} \\dual{\\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{m},\\zeta)}{\\boldsymbol{m} \\times \\boldsymbol\\phi}_{\\Omega_1}\n+ \\int_0^{T} \\dual{\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}}{\\boldsymbol{m} \\times \\boldsymbol\\phi}_{\\Omega_1}.\n\\end{align*}\nUsing the identity\n$(\\boldsymbol{m} \\times \\partial_t\\boldsymbol{m})\\cdot(\\boldsymbol{m} \\times \\boldsymbol\\phi) = \\revision{\\partial_t\\boldsymbol{m}} \\cdot \\boldsymbol\\phi,$\nwe conclude~\\eqref{eq:weaksol_def}.\n\\hfill\\qed\\\\\n\n\\begin{comment}\n\\revision{\\noindent{\\bf Verification of Definition~\\ref{def:weaksol} (ii).}}\nFrom the discrete energy estimate~\\eqref{eq:energy_discrete}, we get for any $t' \\in [0,T]$ with $t' \\in [t_j, t_{j+1})$\n\\begin{align*}\n&\\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^+(t')}{L^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 + \\c{vhk} \\norm{\\boldsymbol{v}_{hk}^-}{L^2(\\Omega_{t'})}^2 =\\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^+(t')}{L^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 + \\c{vhk} \\int_0^{t'} \\norm{\\boldsymbol{v}_{hk}^-(t)}{L^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 \\\\\n&\\quad\\le \\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^+(t')}{L^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 + \\c{vhk}\\int_0^{t_{j+1}} \\norm{\\boldsymbol{v}_{hk}^-(t)}{L^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 \\\\\n&\\quad= \\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^+(t')}{L^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 + \\c{vhk}k \\sum_{i=0}^{j} \\norm{\\boldsymbol{v}_h^i}{L^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 \n\\le \\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{m}_h^0}{L^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 + \\c{energy}.\n\\end{align*}\nIntegration in time thus yields for any Borel set $\\mathfrak{T} \\in [0,T]$\n\\begin{align*}\n&\\int_\\mathfrak{T}\\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^+(t')}{L^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 + \\c{vhk}\\int_\\mathfrak{T}\\norm{\\boldsymbol{v}_{hk}^-}{L^2(\\Omega_{t'})}^2 \\le \\int_\\mathfrak{T}\\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{m}_h^0}{L^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 + \\int_\\mathfrak{T} \\c{energy}.\n\\end{align*}\nHence, weak semi-continuity of $\\int_\\mathfrak{T}\\norm{\\cdot}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2$ leads to\n\\begin{align*}\n&\\int_\\mathfrak{T}\\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{m}}{L^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 + \\c{vhk}\\int_\\mathfrak{T}\\norm{\\revision{\\partial_t\\boldsymbol{m}}}{L^2(\\Omega_{t'})}^2 \\le \\int_\\mathfrak{T}\\norm{\\nabla \\boldsymbol{m}^0}{L^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 + \\int_\\mathfrak{T} \\c{energy}.\n\\end{align*}\nThis concludes the proof.\n\\hfill\\qed\n\\end{comment}\n\n\\begin{remark}\nNote that in case of the Crank-Nicholson-type scheme $(\\theta = 1\/2)$ one needs an additional bound for $\\nabla\\boldsymbol{v}_{hk}^-$ in~\\eqref{eq:nablav}.\nAs in Refs.~\\cite{alouges08}, \\cite{alouges11}, \\cite{goldenits}, this can be obtained from an inverse estimate.\nIn this case, however, we end up with a (weak) coupling of $h$ and $k$, but still prove convergence as long as $k\/h$ tends to $0$.\n\\end{remark}\n\\section{Effective field contributions for multiscale LLG equation}\n\\label{section:heff}\n\\noindent In this section, we give examples for contributions $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}$ and corresponding discretizations $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h$ which guarantee the assumptions~\\eqref{assumption:chi:bounded}--\\eqref{assumption:chi:convergence} of Theorem~\\ref{theorem}.\nIn particular, we show that the contributions of our multiscale LLG model satisfy these assumptions.\n\\subsection{Pointwise operators and anisotropy energy contribution}\\label{sec:anisotropy}\nWith $\\mathbb B:=\\set{x\\in\\mathbb{R}^3}{|x|\\le1}$ the compact unit ball in $\\mathbb{R}^3$, let $\\phi:\\mathbb B\\to\\mathbb{R}$ be a \\revision{continuously differentiable} anisotropy density. Possible examples include the uniaxial density $\\phi(x) = -\\frac12\\,(x\\cdot\\boldsymbol{e})^2$ with a given easy axis \\revision{$\\boldsymbol{e}\\in\\mathbb{R}^3$ with $|\\boldsymbol{e}|=1$} \nas well as the cubic density $\\phi(x) = K_1(x_1^2x_2^2+x_2^2x_3^2) + K_2 x_1^2x_2^2x_3^2$ with certain constants $K_1,K_2\\ge0$. \nThe anisotropy contribution to the effective field reads\n\\begin{align*}\n \\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{n}, \\zeta) = \\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{n}) = D\\phi\\circ\\boldsymbol{n}\n \\quad\\text{for }\\boldsymbol{n}\\in\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)\n\\end{align*}\nand $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h = \\boldsymbol{\\pi}$. Note that in this case, we neglected a possible dependence on $\\zeta$, i.e., formally $Y = \\{0\\}$ and $\\zeta_{hk}^-$ denotes the constant zero sequence.\n\\begin{proposition}\\label{lemma:anisotropy}\nSuppose that $\\boldsymbol\\Phi\\in \\revision{C(\\mathbb B)}$, e.g., $\\boldsymbol\\Phi(x)= D\\phi(x)$, and $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{n}):=\\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{n}):=\\boldsymbol\\Phi\\circ\\boldsymbol{n}$. Then, the assumptions~\\eqref{assumption:chi:bounded}--\\eqref{assumption:chi:convergence} of Theorem~\\ref{theorem} are satisfied.\n\\end{proposition}\n\\begin{proof}\nClearly,~\\eqref{assumption:chi:bounded} holds with $\\c{bounded} = \\norm{\\boldsymbol\\Phi}{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{L}^\\infty(\\mathbb B)}}$. Part $(a)$ of Theorem~\\ref{theorem} thus predicts convergence of a subsequence $\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^- \\to \\boldsymbol{m}$ strongly in $\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)$.\nNow, choose sequences $h_\\ell\\to0$, $k_\\ell\\to0$ such that $\\boldsymbol{m}_\\ell:=\\boldsymbol{m}_{h_\\ell\nk_\\ell}^-$ converges strongly in $\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)$ to $\\boldsymbol{m}$. By extracting a\nsubsequence, we may in particular assume that $\\boldsymbol{m}_\\ell$ converges to $\\boldsymbol{m}$ even\npointwise almost everywhere in $\\Omega_T$. This implies\n$\\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{m}_\\ell)\\to\\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{m})$ pointwise almost everywhere in\n$\\Omega_T$.\nMoreover and because of~\\eqref{assumption:chi:bounded}, $|\\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{m})-\\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{m}_\\ell)|\\le2\\c{bounded}$ is uniformly bounded in $\\boldsymbol{L}^\\infty(\\Omega_T)$.\nFinally, the Lebesgue dominated convergence theorem thus applies and proves even strong convergence of $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{m}_\\ell)$ to $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{m})$ in $\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)$.\n\\end{proof}\n\\subsection{Notation and function spaces}\nThis section collects the notational and mathematical preliminaries needed for the discretization of the stray field (Section~\\ref{section:fredkinkoehler}) as well as the multiscale contribution (Section~\\ref{sec:multi}).\n\\subsubsection{Function spaces and trace operators}\n\\revision{By $\\gamma_j^{\\rm int}:H^1(\\Omega_j)\\to H^{1\/2}(\\Gamma_j)$, \nwe denote the interior trace operator \non $\\Gamma_j=\\partial\\Omega_j$, i.e., $\\gamma_j^{\\rm int} = v|_{\\Gamma_j}$ \nfor functions\n$v\\in C(\\overline\\Omega_j)$. Likewise, $\\gamma_j^{\\rm ext}$ denotes the exterior\ntrace operator.}\nLet $H_*^1(\\Omega_j):=\\set{v\\in H^1(\\Omega_j)}{\\dual{v}{1}_{\\Omega_j} = 0}$ and\n$H_0^1(\\Omega_j):=\\set{v\\in H^1(\\Omega_j)}{\\gamma_j^{\\rm int}v = 0}$.\n\\par \\revision{With the unit normal vector ${\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_j$ \non $\\Gamma_j$ which points from $\\Omega_j$ to \\revision{$\\mathbb{R}^3\\backslash\\overline\\Omega_j$}, we \ndenote by $\\delta_j^{\\rm int}$ resp.\\ $\\delta_j^{\\rm ext}$ the interior resp.\\\nexterior normal derivative with respect to ${\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_j$. These are formally defined by the first Green's formula for functions $v\\in H^1(\\Omega)$ with \n$\\Delta v\\in L^2(\\Omega)$.\nFor smooth functions, it holds $\\delta_j^{\\rm int}v = \\nabla v\\cdot{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_j = \\delta_j^{\\rm ext}v$.}\n\\par Let $\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_j}$ denote a \\revision{quasi-uniform and} conforming triangulation of $\\Omega_j$ into tetrahedra $T\\in\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_j}$ with mesh-size $h\\simeq{\\rm diam}(T)$.\nWe denote by $\\mathcal{S}^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_j})$ the space of piecewise affine and globally continuous functions on $\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_j}$.\nWe define the discrete function spaces \n$\\mathcal{S}_*^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_j}) = H_*^1(\\Omega_j) \\cap \\mathcal{S}^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_j})$ \nresp.\\ $\\mathcal{S}_0^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_j}) = H_0^1(\\Omega_j) \\cap \\mathcal{S}^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_j})$.\n\\par The triangulation $\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_j}$ induces a conforming triangulation of the boundary \nwhich is denoted by $\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_j}|_{\\Gamma_j}$.\nAdditionally, we define the discrete space $\\mathcal{P}^0(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_j}|_{\\Gamma_j}) = \\set{ \\psi}{ \\psi|_E \\,\\text{constant for all }\nE\\in\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_j}|_{\\Gamma_j} }$ of all piecewise constant functions on the boundary.\n\\par Finally, for Banach spaces $X$ and $Y$, $L(X,Y)$ denotes the space of all linear and continuous operators $S:X\\to Y$.\n\\subsubsection{Integral operators and mapping properties}\n\\label{section:bio}\nThe following applications need two integral operators for either $\\Gamma_j$, namely the double-layer potential $\\widetilde K_j$ and the simple-layer potential\n$\\widetilde V_j$, which formally read\n\\begin{align*}\n  (\\widetilde K_j v)(x) &= \\frac1{4\\pi} \\int_{\\Gamma_j} \\frac{(x-y)\\cdot{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}(y)}{|x-y|^3}\n  v(y)\\,d\\Gamma(y), \\\\\n  (\\widetilde V_j \\phi)(x) &= \\frac1{4\\pi} \\int_{\\Gamma_j} \\frac1{|x-y|} \\phi(y) \\,d\\Gamma(y),\n\\end{align*}\nfor all $x\\in\\mathbb{R}^3\\backslash\\Gamma_j$. These operators may be extended to bounded, linear operators\n$\\widetilde K_j : H^{1\/2}(\\Gamma_j) \\to H^1(\\mathbb{R}^3\\backslash\\Gamma_j)$ and $\\widetilde V_j :\nH^{-1\/2}(\\Gamma_j) \\to \\revision{H^1_{\\ell oc}(\\mathbb{R}^3)}$, see, e.g., Refs.~\\cite{hw}, \\cite{mclean}, \\cite{sauschwa,s}. \nThere holds\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:intop_laplace}\n  \\Delta \\widetilde K_j v = 0 = \\Delta \\widetilde V_j \\phi \\quad\\text{on }\\mathbb{R}^3\\backslash\\Gamma_j\n  \\quad\\text{and}\\quad \\widetilde K_jv, \\widetilde V_j\\phi \\in C^\\infty(\\mathbb{R}^3\\backslash\\Gamma_j).\n\\end{align}\nVia restriction to the boundary $\\Gamma_j$, one obtains\n\\begin{align*\n \\gamma_j^{\\rm int}\\widetilde K_j v = (K_j-1\/2)v \n \\quad\\text{and}\\quad \n \\gamma_j^{\\rm int}\\widetilde V_j\\phi = V_j\\phi,\n\\end{align*}\nwhere the operators $K_j:H^{1\/2}(\\Gamma_j) \\to H^{1\/2}(\\Gamma_j)$ and $V_j : H^{-1\/2}(\\Gamma_j) \\to\nH^{1\/2}(\\Gamma_j)$ coincide formally with $\\widetilde K_j$ and $\\widetilde V_j$, but are evaluated\non the boundary $\\Gamma_j$. There hold the following jump properties across $\\Gamma_j$, see, e.g., Ref.~\\cite{sauschwa}, Theorem~3.3.1:\n\\revision{\\begin{align*}\n \\gamma_j^{\\rm ext}\\widetilde K_j v - \\gamma_j^{\\rm int}\\widetilde K_j v &= v, \n & \\delta_j^{\\rm ext}\\widetilde K_j v - \\delta_j^{\\rm int}\\widetilde K_j v &= 0, \n \\\\\n \\gamma_j^{\\rm ext}\\widetilde V_j \\phi - \\gamma_j^{\\rm int}\\widetilde V_j\\phi &= 0, \n & \\delta_j^{\\rm ext} \\widetilde V_j\\phi - \\delta_j^{\\rm int} \\widetilde V_j \\phi &= -\\phi.\n\\end{align*}}\n\\subsection{\\revision{Strongly} monotone operators}\n\\label{sec:monotone}\nWe consider the frame of the Browder-Minty \ntheorem, see Ref.~\\cite{zeidler}, Section~26.2: Let $X$ be a separable Hilbert space \\revision{with dual space $X^*$}, \n$A: X \\rightarrow X^*$ be a \\revision{strongly} monotone and hemicontinuous (non-linear) operator, and $b \\in X^*$.\nUnder these assumptions, the Browder-Minty theorem states that the operator equation\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:browderminty}\nA w = b\n\\end{align}\nhas a unique solution $w \\in X$. Arguing as in the original proof, one has the \nfollowing: For $h>0$, let $X_h \\subseteq X$ be finite dimensional subspaces of \n$X$ with $X_h \\subseteq X_{h'}$ for $h>h'$ and\n$\\overline{\\bigcup_{h>0}X_h} = X$. Let $b_h \\in X_h^*$. \nThen, the Galerkin formulation\n\\begin{align*\n\\dual{A w_h}{v_h}_{X^* \\times X} = \\dual{b_h}{v_h}_{X^* \\times X} \\quad \\text{ for all } v_h \\in X_h\n\\end{align*}\nadmits a unique solution $w_h \\in X_h$. Provided \n$\\norm{b_h}{X_h^*} \\le M < \\infty$ for all $h>0$, the sequence of \nGalerkin  solutions is bounded, i.e., $\\norm{w_h}{X_h}\\le C < \\infty$ for all\n$h>0$, and the $h$-independent constant $C>0$ depends only on $M$ and the \ncoercivity \\revision{constant} of $A$. In particular, the sequence $\\left\\{w_h\\right\\}_{h>0}$ \\revision{admits a \nweakly convergent subsequence in $X$ with limit} $w \\in X$.\nIf $b_h \\to b$ strongly in $X^*$ for $h \\to 0$, this limit solves the operator equation~\\eqref{eq:browderminty}. \nFinally, \\revision{strong} monotonicity implies that there even holds strong convergence $w_h \\to w$ in $X$ of the entire sequence.\n\\par This framework is now used in the following lemma which guarantees the assumptions~\\eqref{assumption:chi:bounded}--\\eqref{assumption:chi:convergence} of Theorem~\\ref{theorem} for certain energy contributions:\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{prop:nonlin:conv}\n\\revision{Suppose that $X$ and $A:X\\to X^*$ satisfy the foregoing assumptions.}\nLet $Y$ be a Banach space and let $S, S_h \\in L\\left(X,\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\revision{\\Omega_1})\\right)$, \nand $R, R_h \\in L\\big(\\revision{\\boldsymbol{H}^{1-\\varepsilon}(\\Omega_1)} \\times Y, X^*\\big)$ \n\\revision{for some $0\\le\\varepsilon\\le1$}\nwith \n\\begin{align}\nS_h x \\rightharpoonup Sx\n&\\quad\\text{weakly in $\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)$ for all $x \\in X$},\n\\label{prop:nonlinear:S}\\\\\nR_h (\\boldsymbol{n}, y) \\rightarrow R (\\boldsymbol{n}, y)\n&\\quad\\text{strongly in $X^*$ for all $\\boldsymbol{n} \\in \\revision{\\boldsymbol{H}^{1-\\varepsilon}(\\Omega_1)}, y \\in Y$},\n\\label{prop:nonlinear:R}\n\\end{align}\nand $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}:=SA^{-1}R:\\boldsymbol{H}^1(\\Omega_1)\\times Y\\to\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)$.\nFor $h > 0$, $\\boldsymbol{n}\\in\\revision{\\boldsymbol{H}^1(\\Omega_1)}$, and $y \\in Y$, define $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{n}, y):= S_h u_h$, where $u_h$ is the unique solution of \n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:multiscale:galerkin}\n\\dual{A u_h}{v_h}_{X^*\\times X} = \\dual{R_h (\\boldsymbol{n},y)}{v_h}_{X^*\\times X} \\quad \\text{ for all } v_h \\in X_h.\n\\end{align}\n\\revision{For all $y\\in Y$, it then} holds that \n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:pi_bounded}\n \\norm{\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{n}, y)}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)} \n \\le \\c{multiscale}\\revision{\\,(1+\\norm{\\nabla\\boldsymbol{n}}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega)})}.\n \\end{align}\nfor all $\\boldsymbol{n} \\in \\revision{\\boldsymbol{H}^1(\\Omega_1)}$ with $|\\boldsymbol{n}| \\le 1$ and for all $h>0$. The constant $\\setc{multiscale} > 0$ does not depend \\revision{on $h$} and $\\boldsymbol{n}$, but only on \\revision{$A$, $\\norm{y}Y$},\n$\\Omega_1$, \\revision{and the operators $S_h$ and $R_h$.} \nMoreover, suppose that $\\revision{\\norm{\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-}{L^2(\\boldsymbol{H}^1)}+\\norm{\\zeta_{hk}^-}{L^\\infty(Y)}}\\le\\setc{dp:bounded}$ and\n$(\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-, \\zeta_{hk}^-) \\rightarrow (\\boldsymbol{m}, \\zeta)$ \\revision{strongly} in $L^2\\big([0,T]; \\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1) \\times Y\\big) = L^2(\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1) \\times Y)$ \\revision{for some subsequence as $(h,k) \\rightarrow (0,0)$. Then, \n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:lemma}\n\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-, \\zeta_{hk}^-) \\rightharpoonup \\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{m}, \\zeta)\n\\quad\\text{weakly in $\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)$}\n\\end{align}\n for the same subsequence.}\n\\end{lemma}\n\\begin{proof}\nThe Banach-Steinhaus theorem implies uniform boundedness \\revision{of the operator norms\n$C_S := \\sup_{h>0}\\norm{S_h:X\\to\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}{}<\\infty$ and $C_R:= \\sup_{h>0}\\norm{R_h:\\boldsymbol{H}^{1-\\varepsilon}(\\Omega_1)\\times Y\\to X^*}{}<\\infty$.} \nFor fixed $\\boldsymbol{n}\\in\\revision{\\boldsymbol{H}^1(\\Omega_1)}$ \nwith $|\\boldsymbol{n}|\\le 1$, \n$y \\in Y$, and $b_h:=R_h(\\boldsymbol{n},y)$, this implies\n\\begin{align*}\n\\norm{b_h}{\\revision{X^*}} \\le C_R \\norm{(\\boldsymbol{n}, y)}{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{H}^{1-\\varepsilon}(\\Omega_1)}\\times Y} \\lesssim \\big(\\revision{\\norm{\\boldsymbol{n}}{\\boldsymbol{H}^1(\\Omega_1)}} + \\revision{\\norm{y}Y}\\big)=: M < \\infty.\n\\end{align*} \n\\revision{Strong monotonicity of $A$ shows\n\\begin{align*}\n \\norm{u_h}{X}^2 \\lesssim \\dual{Au_h-A(0)}{u_h}_{X^*\\times X}\n &= \\dual{b_h-A(0)}{u_h}_{X^*\\times X}\n \\\\&\\lesssim \\norm{b_h-A(0)}{X^*}\\norm{u_h}X.\n\\end{align*}\nThus, we infer with $|\\boldsymbol{n}|\\le1$\n\\begin{align*}\n\\norm{u_h}{X}\\lesssim \n\\norm{\\nabla\\boldsymbol{n}}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)} + |\\Omega_1|^{1\/2} + \\norm{y}Y\n+ \\norm{A(0)}{X^*}\n\\lesssim1+\\norm{\\nabla\\boldsymbol{n}}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)},\n\\end{align*}\nwhere the hidden constant $C>0$ depends only on $A$, $C_R$, and $\\norm{y}Y$}.\nConsequently, this proves~\\eqref{eq:pi_bounded} with $\\c{multiscale}=CC_S$.\n\nNext, we show that $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{n}_h, y_h) \\rightharpoonup \\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{n}, y)$ weakly \nin $\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)$ as $h\\to0$ provided that $(\\boldsymbol{n}_h, y_h) \\to (\\boldsymbol{n}, y)$ strongly in \n$\\revision{\\boldsymbol{H}^{1-\\varepsilon}(\\Omega_1)} \\times Y$.\nAssumption~\\eqref{prop:nonlinear:R} and the uniform boundedness of $R_h$ imply that\n$R_h(\\boldsymbol{n}_h,y_h) = R_h(\\boldsymbol{n},y) - R_h\\big((\\boldsymbol{n}-\\boldsymbol{n}_h, y-y_h)\\big) \\to R(\\boldsymbol{n},y)$ strongly in $X^*$ as $h\\to0$.\nTherefore, the Browder-Minty theorem for \\revision{strongly} monotone operators guarantees \n$u_h\\to u$ strongly in $X$, where $u = A^{-1}R(\\boldsymbol{n},y)$\nand $u_h\\in X_h$ solves~\\eqref{eq:multiscale:galerkin} with $(\\boldsymbol{n}, y)$ replaced by $(\\boldsymbol{n}_h, y_h)$.\nThe convergence assumption~\\eqref{prop:nonlinear:S} and the uniform boundedness of $S_h$ thus show\n$\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{n}_h, y_h) = S_hu_h = S_hu - S_h(u-u_h) \\rightharpoonup Su = \\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{n}, y)$\nweakly in $\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)$ as $h\\to0$.\n\\par Finally, we prove $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-, \\zeta_{hk}^-)\\rightharpoonup\\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{m}, \\zeta)$\n\\revision{weakly} in $\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)$ \\revision{for a subsequence} as $(h,k)\\to(0,0)$.\nTo that end, we choose sequences $h_\\ell\\to0$, $k_\\ell\\to0$ such that \n$(\\boldsymbol{m}_\\ell,\\zeta_\\ell):=(\\boldsymbol{m}_{h_\\ell k_\\ell}^-, \\zeta_{h_\\ell k_\\ell}^-)$ converges strongly in $L^2\\big(\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1) \\times Y\\big)$ \nto $(\\boldsymbol{m}, \\zeta)$. \n\\revision{According to interpolation theory (see, e.g., Ref.~\\cite{bl}, Section~5), interpolation\nof $\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)=L^2(\\boldsymbol{L}^2)$ and $L^2(\\boldsymbol{H}^1)$ yields $L^2(\\boldsymbol{H}^s)$ for all $0<s<1$. \nFrom strong convergence\n$\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-\\to\\boldsymbol{m}$ in $L^2(\\boldsymbol{L}^2)$ and boundedness $\\norm{\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-}{L^2(\\boldsymbol{H}^1)}\\lesssim1$, \nwe thus infer strong convergence $\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-\\to\\boldsymbol{m}$ in $L^2(\\boldsymbol{H}^{1-\\varepsilon})$.}\nBy extracting a further subsequence (not relabeled), we may assume that\n$\\boldsymbol{m}_\\ell(t) \\to \\boldsymbol{m}(t)$ strongly in $\\revision{\\boldsymbol{H}^{1-\\varepsilon}}(\\Omega_1)$ as well as \n$\\zeta_\\ell(t) \\to \\zeta(t)$ \\revision{strongly} in $Y$, for almost all times $t$.\nDefine $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_\\ell:=\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_{h_\\ell}$ and let $\\boldsymbol\\phi\\in\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)$. Then,\n\\begin{align*}\n \\dual{\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_\\ell (\\boldsymbol{m}_\\ell, \\zeta_\\ell)-\\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{m}, \\zeta)}{\\boldsymbol\\phi}_{\\Omega_T}\n  = \\int_0^T \\dual{\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_\\ell(\\boldsymbol{m}_\\ell(t),\\zeta_\\ell(t))-\\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{m}(t),\\zeta(t))}{\\boldsymbol\\phi(t)}_{\\Omega_1}\\,dt.\n\\end{align*}\n\\revision{Due to} $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_\\ell(\\boldsymbol{m}_\\ell(t), \\zeta_\\ell(t)) \\rightharpoonup \\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{m}(t), \\zeta(t))$ \\revision{weakly in $\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)$} as \n$\\ell\\to\\infty$ for almost all $t \\in [0,T]$, we see\npointwise convergence of the integrand to zero. According to~\\eqref{eq:pi_bounded} and the assumption \\revision{$\\norm{\\boldsymbol{m}_\\ell}{L^2(\\boldsymbol{H}^1)}+\\norm{\\zeta_\\ell}{\\boldsymbol{L}^\\infty(Y)}\\lesssim1$},\nthe Lebesgue dominated convergence theorem thus proves\n\\begin{align*}\n\\dual{\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_{\\ell}(\\boldsymbol{m}_{\\ell},\\zeta_{\\ell})-\\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{m},\\zeta)}{\\boldsymbol\\phi}_{\\Omega_T} \\to0\n \\quad\\text{as }\\ell\\to\\infty.\n\\end{align*}\nThis concludes the proof.\n\\end{proof}\n\\begin{remark}\n{\\rm(i)} Similar arguments as in the proof of Lemma~\\ref{prop:nonlin:conv} reveal \nthat strong convergence $S_hx\\to Sx$ in~\\eqref{prop:nonlinear:S} also results in\nstrong convergence $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-,\\zeta_{hk}^-)\\to\\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{m},\\zeta)$ in $\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_T)$ \nas $h,k\\to0$.\\\\\n{\\rm(ii)} The abstract framework applies, in particular, to linear contributions \n$\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h = R_h$ of the effective field $\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\rm eff}$, where $X=\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)$, $Y = \\{0\\}$, \nand the operators $A=A_h$ as well as $S=S_h$ are just the identities. In this case, $\\zeta_{hk}^- = 0$ for all $(h,k) > 0$. \nIn particular, we may therefore write $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-, \\zeta_{hk}^-) = \\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{m}_{hk}^-)$.\\\\\n{\\rm(iii)} For the multiscale approach, we use \\revision{$Y = \\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_2)$}, $\\zeta_{hk}^- = \\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}_{hk}^-$, and $\\zeta = \\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}$, respectively.\n\\end{remark}\n\\revision{%\n\\begin{remark}\nProvided that $R, R_h \\in L\\big(\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)\\times Y, X^*\\big)$ with\n$R_h (\\boldsymbol{n}, y) \\rightarrow R (\\boldsymbol{n}, y)$\nstrongly in $X^*$ for all $(\\boldsymbol{n},y) \\in \\revision{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}\\times Y$\nin~\\eqref{prop:nonlinear:R}, the assumptions on the nonlinear operator $A$\ncan be weakened: Instead of strong monotonicity, uniform monotonicity \nof $A$ is sufficient. Then, $\\norm{b_h}{X^*}\\le C_R\\norm{\\boldsymbol{n}}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega)}\n\\le C_R|\\Omega|^{1\/2}=:M$ proves $\\norm{u_h}{X}\\le C$ for some constant\n$C = C(M)>0$, see\nRef.~\\cite{zeidler}, Section~26.2. The remaining part of the proof of\nLemma~\\ref{prop:nonlin:conv} remains unchanged with the formal choice $\\varepsilon=1$.\n\\end{remark}%\n}\n\\subsection{Application: Hybrid FEM-BEM \\revision{stray field computations}}\\label{section:fredkinkoehler}%\n\\revision{In the following, we present the hybrid FEM-BEM approaches of \\textsc{Fredkin} and \\textsc{Koehler}, see Ref.~\\cite{fredkinkoehler}, \nand \\textsc{Garc\\'ia-Cervera} and \\textsc{Roma}, see Ref.~\\cite{gcr},\nfor the approximate computation of the stray field.\nWe show that it satisfies the assumptions of Lemma~\\ref{prop:nonlin:conv}.}\nGiven any $\\boldsymbol{m}\\in \\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)$, the non-dimensional form of~\\eqref{eq:u1} reads\n\\begin{align*\n \\begin{array}{rcll}\n \\Delta u_1 &=& \\nabla \\cdot \\boldsymbol{m} \\quad&\\text{in } \\Omega_1, \\\\\n \\Delta u_{1} &=& 0\\quad&\\text{in }\\mathbb{R}^3\\backslash\\overline\\Omega_1,\\\\{}\n \\revision{\\gamma_1^{\\rm ext}u_{1}-\\revision{\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}}u_{1}} &=& 0&\\text{on }\\Gamma_1,\\\\{}\n \\revision{\\delta_1^{\\rm ext}u_{1}-\\delta_1^{\\rm int}u_{1}}\n &=& -\\boldsymbol{m}\\cdot\\revision{{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_1}\\quad&\\text{on }\\Gamma_1,\\\\\n u_{1}(x) &=& \\mathcal O(1\/|x|)&\\text{as }|x|\\to\\infty,\n\\end{array}\n\\end{align*}\n\\revision{where the target for our LLG integrator is the stray field $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{m})=\\nabla u_1$ on $\\Omega_1$.}\n\\subsubsection{Fredkin-Koehler approach}\\label{section:stray field:cont}\n\\noindent\n\\revision{The approach of \\textsc{Fredkin} and \\textsc{Koehler} (Ref.~\\cite{fredkinkoehler})\nrelies on the superposition principle\n\\begin{align}\\label{dp:superposition}\n u_1 = \\begin{cases} \n u_{11}+u_{12}&\\text{in }\\Omega_1,\\\\\n u_{12}&\\text{in }\\mathbb{R}^3\\backslash\\overline\\Omega_1,\n \\end{cases}\n\\end{align}\nwhere $u_{11}\\in H^1_*(\\Omega_1)$ satisfies\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:fk1}\n \\dual{\\nabla u_{11}}{\\nabla v}_{\\Omega_1}\n = \\dual{\\boldsymbol{m}}{\\nabla v}_{\\Omega_1}\n \\quad\\text{for all }v\\in H^1_*(\\Omega_1)\n\\end{align}\nand $u_{12} = \\widetilde K_1 \\revision{\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}}u_{11}\\in H^1(\\mathbb{R}^3\\backslash\\Gamma_1)$. Since the  integration of LLG only requires \n$u_1$ on $\\Omega_1$, we note that $u_{12}\\in H^1(\\Omega_1)$ solves\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:fk2}\n \\revision{\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}}u_{12} = (K_1-1\/2)\\revision{\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}}u_{11}\n \\text{ and }\n \\dual{\\nabla u_{12}}{\\nabla v}_{\\Omega_1} = 0\n \\text{ for all }v\\in H^1_0(\\Omega_1).\n\\end{align}}%\nTo discretize the equations~\\eqref{eq:fk1}--\\eqref{eq:fk2}, let \n$u_{11h}\\in\\mathcal{S}_*^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1})$ be the unique FE solution of\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:fk1h}\n \\dual{\\nabla u_{11h}}{\\nabla v_h}_{\\Omega_1}\n = \\dual{\\boldsymbol{m}}{\\nabla v_h}_{\\Omega_1}\n \\text{ for all }v_h\\in\\mathcal{S}_*^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1}).\n\\end{align}\nSince an FE approximation $u_{12h}\\in\\mathcal{S}^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1})$ of~\\eqref{eq:fk2} cannot satisfy\ncontinuous Dirichlet data $(K_1-1\/2)u_{11h}$, we need to discretize \\revision{them}. To\nthat end, let $I_h^{\\Omega_1}: H^1(\\Omega_1) \\to \\mathcal{S}^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1})$ be the Scott-Zhang\nprojection from Ref.~\\cite{scottzhang}. Since $I_h^{\\Omega_1}$ is $H^1$-stable and preserves discrete boundary data, it induces a stable projection $I_h^{\\Gamma_1}: H^{1\/2}(\\Gamma_1) \\to \\mathcal{S}^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1}|_{\\Gamma_1})$ with $\\revision{\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}}I_h^{\\Omega_1}v = I_h^{\\Gamma_1}(\\revision{\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}}v)$ for all $v \\in H^1(\\Omega_1)$, \\revision{see, e.g., Ref.~\\cite{hypsing3d}.}\n\\revision{Let $u_{12h}\\in\\mathcal{S}^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1})$ \nbe the unique solution of the inhomogeneous Dirichlet problem\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:fk2h}\n \\revision{\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}}u_{12h} = I_h^{\\Gamma_1}(K_1-1\/2)\\revision{\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}}u_{11h}\n \\text{ and }\n \\dual{\\nabla u_{12h}}{\\nabla v_h}_{\\Omega_1} = 0\n \\quad\\text{for all }v_h\\in\\mathcal{S}_0^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1}).\n\\end{align}\nThe resulting approximate stray field $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{m})=\\nabla u_{11h}+\\nabla u_{12h}$ is indeed covered by our approach from Section~\\ref{sec:monotone}.}\n\n\\begin{proposition}\\label{prop:stray field}\nThe operator $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{m}) = R_h(\\boldsymbol{m}) := \\nabla u_{11h} + \\nabla u_{12h}$ defined\nvia~\\eqref{eq:fk1h}--\\eqref{eq:fk2h} satisfies $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h\\in\nL(\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1);\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1))$, and convergence~\\eqref{prop:nonlinear:R}\ntowards $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{m}) = R(\\boldsymbol{m}) :=\\nabla u_1$ holds even strongly in $\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)$. In particular, Lemma~\\ref{prop:nonlin:conv} applies with $X:=\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)$ and $Y:=\\{0\\}$ and guarantees the assumptions~\\eqref{assumption:chi:bounded}--\\eqref{assumption:chi:convergence} of Theorem~\\ref{theorem}.\n\\end{proposition}\n\n\\begin{proof}\nFirst, note that the FE solution $u_{11h}$ of~\\eqref{eq:fk1h} is a Galerkin approximation of~\\eqref{eq:fk1}. Therefore, stability \\revision{and density\narguments prove $\\norm{u_{11}-u_{11h}}{H^1(\\Omega_1)}\\to 0$ as $h\\to 0$.}\n\\revision{Next, we consider the unique solution $\\widetilde u_{12h}\\in\\mathcal{S}^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1})$ of the auxiliary problem\n\\begin{align*\n \\revision{\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}}\\widetilde u_{12h} = I_h^{\\Gamma_1}(K_1-1\/2)\\revision{\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}}u_{11}\n \\text{ and }\n \\dual{\\nabla \\widetilde u_{12h}}{\\nabla v_h}_{\\Omega_1} = 0\n \\quad\\text{for all }v_h\\in\\mathcal{S}_0^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1}).\n\\end{align*}\nNote that $\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}\\widetilde u_{12h} = I_h^{\\Gamma_1}\\gamma_1^{\\rm int} u_{12}$. Therefore, the C\\'ea lemma for inhomogeneous Dirichlet problems (see Prop.~2.3 in Ref.~\\cite{dirichlet3d}) and density arguments prove\n\\begin{align*}\n \\norm{u_{12}-\\widetilde u_{12h}}{H^1(\\Omega_1)}\n \\lesssim \\min_{v_h\\in\\mathcal{S}^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1})}\\norm{u_{12}-v_h}{H^1(\\Omega_1)}\n \\xrightarrow{h\\to0}0.\n\\end{align*}}\n\\revision{Third, stability of the inhomogeneous Dirichlet problem provides\n\\begin{align*} \n \\norm{u_{12h}-\\widetilde u_{12h}}{H^1(\\Omega_1)}\n \\lesssim \\norm{\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}(u_{11}-u_{11h})}{H^{1\/2}(\\Gamma_1)}\n \\lesssim \\norm{u_{11}-u_{11h}}{H^1(\\Omega_1)},\n\\end{align*}\nand the triangle inequality reveals\n\\begin{align*}\n \\norm{u_{12}-u_{12h}}{H^1(\\Omega_1)}\n &\\le \\norm{u_{12}-\\widetilde u_{12h}}{H^1(\\Omega_1)}\n + \\norm{u_{12h}-\\widetilde u_{12h}}{H^1(\\Omega_1)}\n \\xrightarrow{h\\to0}0.\n\\end{align*}}%\n\\begin{comment}\nSecond, we exploit the C\\'ea-type estimate for inhomogeneous Dirichlet problems which states\n\\begin{align*}\n \\norm{\\nabla(u_{12}-u_{12h})}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}\n \\le \\min_{\\substack{w_h\\in\\mathcal{S}^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1})\\\\mathbf{w}_h|_\\Gamma=I_h^{\\Gamma_1}(K_1-1\/2)\\revision{\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}}u_{11h}}}\n \\norm{\\nabla(u_{12}-w_h)}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}.\n\\end{align*}\nWe now plug in $u_{12}=\\widetilde K_1\\revision{\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}}u_{11}$ and $w_h=I_h^{\\Omega_1}\\widetilde K_1\\revision{\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}}u_{11h}$ to see\n\\begin{align*}\n \\norm{\\nabla(u_{12}-u_{12h})}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}\n &\\le \\norm{\\widetilde K_1\\revision{\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}}u_{11}-I_h^{\\Omega_1}\\widetilde K_1\\revision{\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}}u_{11h}}{H^1(\\Omega_1)}\\\\\n &\\le \\norm{(1-I_h^{\\Omega_1})\\widetilde K_1\\revision{\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}}u_{11}}{H^1(\\Omega_1)}\n +\\norm{I_h^{\\Omega_1}\\widetilde K_1\\revision{\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}}(u_{11}-u_{11h})}{H^1(\\Omega_1)}.\n\\end{align*}\nFrom the projection property and stability of $I_h^{\\Omega_1}$, we get\n\\begin{align*}\n \\norm{(1-I_h^{\\Omega_1})\\widetilde K_1\\revision{\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}}u_{11}}{H^1(\\Omega_1)}\n \\lesssim \\min_{w_h\\in\\mathcal{S}^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1})}\\norm{\\widetilde K_1\\revision{\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}}u_{11}-w_h}{H^1(\\Omega_1)} \\xrightarrow{h\\to 0} 0.\n\\end{align*}\nFor the other term, we use \\revision{stability} of $I_h^{\\Omega_1}$, $\\widetilde K_1$,\n\\revision{and $\\revision{\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}}$} as well as the Poincar\\'e estimate to conclude\n\\begin{align*}\n \\norm{I_h^{\\Omega_1}\\widetilde K_1\\revision{\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}}(u_{11}-u_{11h})}{H^1(\\Omega_1)}\n\n &\\lesssim \\norm{u_{11}-u_{11h}}{H^1(\\Omega_1)}\n \\\\&\\lesssim \\norm{\\nabla(u_{11}-u_{11h})}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}\n \\xrightarrow{h\\to 0} 0\n\\end{align*}\nwith the above estimate. Since this analysis was particularly independent of $\\boldsymbol{m}$, \n\\end{comment}\n\\revision{Finally,} the triangle inequality yields\n\\begin{align*}\n\\norm{\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{m})-\\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{m})}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)} \\le \\norm{\\nabla(u_{11}-u_{11h})}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}\n+ \\norm{\\nabla(u_{12}-u_{12h})}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}\\to0\n\\end{align*}\nfor all $\\boldsymbol{m} \\in X = \\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)$. \n\\revision{Together with Lemma~\\ref{prop:nonlin:conv}, we conclude the proof.}\n\\end{proof}\n\\revision{\\begin{remark}\nInstead of the Scott-Zhang projection $I_h^{\\Gamma_1}$, any Cl\\'ement-type \noperator $I_h^{\\Gamma}:L^2(\\Gamma_1)\\to\\mathcal{S}^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1}|_{\\Gamma_1})$ can be employed. \nThe assertion of Proposition~\\ref{prop:stray field} holds accordingly, see Ref.~\\cite{goldenits}, Section~4.3.\nWe note that Ref.~\\cite{fredkinkoehler}\nemploys nodal interpolation which is \\emph{not} suitable for the numerical \nanalysis as $H^1$-functions are not continuous, in general.\n\\end{remark}}\n\n\\subsubsection{Garc\\'ia-Cervera-Roma approach}\\label{section:strayfield2:cont}\n\n\\noindent\nThe approach of \\textsc{Garc\\'ia-Cervera} and \\textsc{Roma}, see Ref.~\\cite{gcr},\nrelies also on the superposition~\\eqref{dp:superposition}, where now \n$u_{11}\\in H^1_0(\\Omega_1)$ satisfies\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:gcr1}\n \\dual{\\nabla u_{11}}{\\nabla v}_{\\Omega_1}\n = \\dual{\\boldsymbol{m}}{\\nabla v}_{\\Omega_1}\n \\quad\\text{for all }v\\in H^1_0(\\Omega_1)\n\\end{align}\nand $u_{12} = \\widetilde V_1(\\boldsymbol{m}\\cdot{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_1-\\delta_1^{\\rm int}u_{11})\n\\in H^1_{\\ell oc}(\\mathbb{R}^3)$. Note that $u_{12}\\in H^1(\\Omega_1)$ solves\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:gcr2}\n \\gamma_1^{\\rm int}u_{12} = V_1(\\boldsymbol{m}\\cdot{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_1-\\delta_1^{\\rm int}u_{11})\n \\text{ and }\n  \\dual{\\nabla u_{12}}{\\nabla v}_{\\Omega_1} = 0\n \\text{ for all }v\\in H^1_0(\\Omega_1).\n\\end{align}\nTo discretize~\\eqref{eq:gcr1}--\\eqref{eq:gcr2}, we employ the $L^2$-projection \n$\\Pi_h:L^2(\\Gamma_1)\\to\\mathcal{P}^0(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1}|_{\\Gamma_1})$ \nas well as the Scott-Zhang projection $I_h^{\\Gamma_1}$\nand solve for $u_{11h}\\in\\mathcal{S}^1_0(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1})$ with\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:gcr1h}\n \\dual{\\nabla u_{11h}}{\\nabla v_h}_{\\Omega_1}\n = \\dual{\\boldsymbol{m}}{\\nabla v_h}_{\\Omega_1}\n \\quad\\text{for all }v_h\\in \\mathcal{S}^1_0(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1}) \n\\end{align}\nand for $u_{12h}\\in\\mathcal{S}^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1})$ with\n\\begin{subequations}\\label{eq:gcr2h}\n\\begin{align}\n &\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}u_{12h} = I_h^{\\Gamma_1}V_1(\\Pi_h(\\boldsymbol{m}\\cdot{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_1)-\\partial u_{11h}\/\\partial{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_1),\n\\\\&\n  \\dual{\\nabla u_{12h}}{\\nabla v_h}_{\\Omega_1} = 0\n \\quad\\text{for all }v_h\\in \\mathcal{S}^1_0(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1}).\n\\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\nThe resulting approximate stray field $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{m})=\\nabla u_{11h}+\\nabla u_{12h}$ is indeed covered by our approach from Section~\\ref{sec:monotone}.\nUnlike the Fredkin-Koehler approach, however, the numerical analysis is\nslightly more involved, since the well-posedness of~\\eqref{eq:gcr2}\nrequires at least that the normal trace $\\boldsymbol{m}\\cdot{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_1$ exists \nin $H^{-1\/2}(\\Gamma_1)$ which prevents to consider $\\boldsymbol{m}\\in\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)$ only.\n\n\\begin{proposition}\\label{prop:gcr}\nThere exists some $\\varepsilon>0$ such that the operator \n$\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{m}) = R_h(\\boldsymbol{m}) := \\nabla u_{11h} + \\nabla u_{12h}$ defined via~\\eqref{eq:gcr1h}--\\eqref{eq:gcr2h} satisfies $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h\\in\nL(\\boldsymbol{H}^{1-\\varepsilon}(\\Omega_1);\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1))$ as well as convergence~\\eqref{prop:nonlinear:R} towards $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}\\in L(\\boldsymbol{H}^{1-\\varepsilon}(\\Omega_1);\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1))$,\n$\\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{m}) = R(\\boldsymbol{m}) := \\nabla u_1 = \\nabla u_{11}+\\nabla u_{12}$. In particular, Lemma~\\ref{prop:nonlin:conv} applies with $X:=\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)$ and $Y:=\\{0\\}$ and guarantees the assumptions~\\eqref{assumption:chi:bounded}--\\eqref{assumption:chi:convergence} of Theorem~\\ref{theorem}.\n\\end{proposition}\n\n\\begin{proof}\nWe argue essentially as in the proof of Proposition~\\ref{prop:stray field}.\nFirst, we see that \n\\begin{align*}\n \\norm{u_{11}-u_{11h}}{H^1(\\Omega_1)}\n \\lesssim \\min_{v_h\\in\\mathcal{S}^1_0(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1})}\\norm{u_{11}-v_h}{H^1(\\Omega_1)}\n \\xrightarrow{h\\to0}0,\n\\end{align*}\nfor all $\\boldsymbol{m}\\in\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)$. Moreover, for $\\boldsymbol{m}\\in \\boldsymbol{H}^1(\\Omega_1)$, elliptic \nregularity for the Dirichlet problem~\\eqref{eq:gcr1} even predicts \n$u_{11}\\in H^{3\/2+\\mu}(\\Omega_1)$ and hence \n$\\norm{u_{11}-u_{11h}}{H^1(\\Omega_1)} = \\mathcal O(h^{1\/2+\\mu})$ for some $\\mu>0$\nwhich depends only on the shape of the polyhedral Lipschitz domain $\\Omega_1$,\nsee, e.g., Ref.~\\cite{monk}, Theorem~3.8. By interpolation, these\nobservations yield the existence of some (small) $0<\\varepsilon<1\/2$ such that \n\\begin{align}\\label{dp:regularity}\n u_{11}\\in H^{3\/2+\\varepsilon}(\\Omega_1)\\text{ with }\n \\norm{u_{11}-u_{11h}}{H^1(\\Omega_1)} = \\mathcal O(h^{1\/2+\\varepsilon})\n \\text{ for all } \\boldsymbol{m}\\in\\boldsymbol{H}^{1-\\varepsilon}(\\Omega_1).\n\\end{align}\nFrom now on, we assume $\\boldsymbol{m}\\in\\boldsymbol{H}^{1-\\varepsilon}(\\Omega_1)$ and note that,\nin particular, $\\delta_1^{\\rm int}u_{11} = \\partial u_{11}\/\\partial{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_1$ \nexists in $L^2(\\Gamma_1)$. The trace inequality (e.g. Ref.~\\cite{fkmp}, \nLemma~3.4) proves for any face\n$E\\in\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1}|_{\\Gamma_1}$ with corresponding element $T\\in\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1}$\n(i.e., $E\\subset\\partial T\\cap\\Gamma_1$) that\n\\begin{align*}\n \\norm{\\delta_1^{\\rm int}&u_{11} - \\partial u_{11h}\/\\partial{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_1}{L^2(\\partial T\\cap\\Gamma_1)}^2\\\\\n &\\lesssim h^{-1}\\norm{\\nabla(u_{11}-u_{11h})}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(T)}^2 + \\norm{\\nabla(u_{11}-u_{11h})}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(T)} \\norm{D^2(u_{11}-u_{11h})}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(T)}.\n\\end{align*}\nWith $D^2u_{11h}=0$ on $T$, we sum over all elements $T\\in\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1}$ \nand obtain\n\\begin{align*}\n \\norm{\\delta_1^{\\rm int}&u_{11}- \\partial u_{11h}\/\\partial{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_1}{L^2(\\Gamma_1)}^2\\\\\n &\\lesssim h^{-1}\\norm{\\nabla(u_{11}-u_{11h})}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}^2 + \\norm{\\nabla(u_{11}-u_{11h})}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}\\norm{D^2u_{11}}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}\n = \\mathcal O(h^{2\\varepsilon}).\n\\end{align*}\nTogether with the continuous inclusion \n$H^{-1\/2}(\\Gamma_1)\\subseteq L^2(\\Gamma_1)$, \nit follows $\\norm{\\delta_1^{\\rm int}u_{11}- \\partial u_{11h}\/\\partial{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_1}{H^{-1\/2}(\\Gamma_1)}\\to0$ as $h\\to0$.\nLet $\\widetilde u_{12h}\\in\\mathcal{S}^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1})$ be the unique\nsolution of the auxiliary problem\n\\begin{align*\n \\gamma_1^{\\rm int}\\widetilde u_{12h} = I_h^{\\Gamma_1}V_1(\\boldsymbol{m}\\cdot{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_1-\\delta_1^{\\rm int}u_{11})\n \\text{ and }\n \\dual{\\nabla \\widetilde u_{12h}}{\\nabla v_h}_{\\Omega_1} = 0\n \\quad\\text{for all }v_h\\in\\mathcal{S}_0^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1}).\n\\end{align*}\nAgain, it holds $\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}\\widetilde u_{12h} = I_h^{\\Gamma_1}u_{12}$\nand hence $\\norm{u_{12}-\\widetilde u_{12h}}{H^1(\\Omega_1)}\\to0$ as $h\\to0$.\nStability of the inhomogeneous Dirichlet problem proves\n\\begin{align*} \n \\norm{\\widetilde u_{12h}-u_{12h}}{H^1(\\Omega_1)}\n &\\lesssim\\norm{I_h^{\\Gamma_1}V_1\\big((1-\\Pi_h)\\boldsymbol{m}\\cdot{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_1-(\\delta_1^{\\rm int}u_{11}-\\partial u_{11h}\/\\partial{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_1)\\big)}{H^{1\/2}(\\Gamma_1)}\n \\\\&\\lesssim\n \\norm{(1-\\Pi_h)\\boldsymbol{m}\\cdot{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_1}{H^{-1\/2}(\\Gamma_1)}\n + \\norm{\\delta_1^{\\rm int}u_{11}-\\partial u_{11h}\/\\partial{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_1}{H^{-1\/2}(\\Gamma_1)}.\n\\end{align*}\nWe already saw that the second term on the right-hand side vanishes\nas $h\\to0$.\nFor the first term, a duality argument (see, e.g., Ref.~\\cite{ccdpr}, Section~4) proves\n\\begin{align*}\n \\norm{(1-\\Pi_h)\\boldsymbol{m}\\cdot{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_1}{H^{-1\/2}(\\Gamma_1)}\n \\lesssim h^{1\/2}\\norm{\\boldsymbol{m}\\cdot{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_1}{L^2(\\Gamma_1)}\n \\lesssim h^{1\/2}\\norm{\\boldsymbol{m}}{\\boldsymbol{H}^{1-\\varepsilon}(\\Omega_1)},\n\\end{align*}\nwhere we also used $0<\\varepsilon<1\/2$ to admit a continuous trace operator\n$\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}:\\boldsymbol{H}^{1-\\varepsilon}(\\Omega_1)\\to\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Gamma_1)$.\nOverall, we thus see\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:gcr:u12conv}\n \\norm{u_{12}-u_{12h}}{H^1(\\Omega_1)}\n \\le \\norm{u_{12}-\\widetilde u_{12h}}{H^1(\\Omega_1)}\n + \\norm{\\widetilde u_{12h}-u_{12h}}{H^1(\\Omega_1)}\n \\xrightarrow{h\\to0}0.\n\\end{align}\nThe combintation of~\\eqref{dp:regularity}--\\eqref{eq:gcr:u12conv}\nconcludes $\\norm{\\pi(\\boldsymbol{m})-\\pi_h(\\boldsymbol{m})}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)}\n\\to0$ as $h\\to0$, for all $\\boldsymbol{m}\\in\\boldsymbol{H}^{1-\\varepsilon}(\\Omega_1)$.\n\\end{proof}\n\n\\input{multiscale_fig.tex}\n\\subsection{Application: Multiscale approach for total magnetic field}\n\\label{sec:multi}\nWe aim to apply Lemma~\\ref{prop:nonlin:conv} to the model problem posed in Section~\\ref{sec:maxwell}, i.e., the\ncomputation of $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{m},\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}) = \\nabla u_2$ on $\\Omega_1$. \nIn the following, we consider the subproblems needed for the computation of $\\nabla u_2$\nas well as their discretizations. An overview illustration is given in Figure~\\ref{fig:u2}.\nThroughout this section, we let\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item $X:=H^{-1\/2}(\\Gamma_2)\\times H^1(\\Omega_2)$,\n\\item $Y:=\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_2)$\n\\end{itemize}\nWe recall that $H^{-1\/2}(\\Gamma_2)$ is the dual space of the trace space\n$H^{1\/2}(\\Gamma_2)$ and that $\\widetilde H^{-1}(\\Omega_2)$ is the dual space of \n$H^1(\\Omega_2)$, where duality is understood according to the respective $L^2$-scalar \nproducts. In particular, the dual space of $X$ is \n$X^* = H^{1\/2}(\\Gamma_2)\\times \\widetilde H^{-1}(\\Omega_2)$.\n\\subsubsection{Continuous formulation}\nTo compute $\\nabla u_2$ on $\\Omega_1$, we proceed as implicitly outlined in Section~\\ref{sec:maxwell}.\nFor a magnetization $\\boldsymbol{m} \\in \\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)$, we compute $u_{1}\\in H^1(\\Omega_1)$ \nas solution of the stray field operator on the microscopic part.\nRecall from Section~\\ref{section:fredkinkoehler} that in $\\mathbb{R}^3\\backslash\\overline\\Omega_1\\supset\\Omega_2$ it holds\n$u_1 = u_{12} = \\widetilde K_1 \\gamma_1^{\\rm int}u_{11}$ with $u_{11}\\in H_*^1(\\Omega_1)$ being the solution of~\\eqref{eq:fk1}.\nAccording to~\\eqref{eq:intop_laplace},\n$u_1$ on $\\Omega_2$ thus solves the inhomogeneous Dirichlet problem\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:fk5}\n \\gamma_2^{\\rm int}u_1 \n = \\gamma_2^{\\rm int}\\widetilde K_1 \\gamma_1^{\\rm int}u_{11}\n \\text{ and }\n \\dual{\\nabla u_1}{\\nabla v}_{\\Omega_2}=0\n \\text{ for all }v\\in H^1_0(\\Omega_2).\n\\end{align}\nRecall $\\nabla\\cdot\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}=0$ from~\\eqref{eq:Hext:div}, whence\n$\\dual{\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}\\cdot{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_2}{\\gamma_2^{\\rm int}v}_{\\Gamma_2}\n=\\dual{\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}}{\\nabla v}_{\\Omega_2}$ for all $v\\in H^1(\\Omega_2)$.\n For the auxiliary potential $u_{\\rm app}\\in H^1_*(\\Omega_2)$,\nthe non-dimensional weak formulation of~\\eqref{eq:uext} reads\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:uext:nondim}\n  \\dual{\\nablau_{\\rm app}}{\\nabla v}_{\\Omega_2}\n  = -\\dual{\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}}{\\nabla v}_{\\Omega_2}\n \\text{ for all }v\\in H^1_*(\\Omega_2).\n\\end{align}\n\\par In the next step, we then compute the total magnetostatic potential \n$u = u_1 + u_2 + u_{\\rm app}$ on the macroscopic domain $\\Omega_2$. With \n$\\widetilde\\chi(|\\nabla u|) = \\chi\\big(M_s|\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}-\\nabla u_1-\\nabla u_2|\\big)$,\nthe non-dimensional form \nof~\\eqref{eq:u:omega2} \nreads\n\\begin{subequations}\\label{eq:jn0}\n\\begin{align}\n  \\label{eq_:u:omega2:interior}\n  \\nabla\\cdot\\big( (1+\\widetilde\\chi(|\\nabla u|))\\nabla u\\big) &= 0\n  \\hspace*{29.1mm}\\text{in }\\Omega_2, \\\\\n  \\Delta u_2 &= 0 \n  \\hspace*{29.1mm}\\text{in }\\mathbb{R}^3\\backslash\\overline\\Omega_2, \\\\\n  \\label{eq_:u:omega2:jumpu}\n  \\gamma_2^{\\rm ext}u_2 - \\gamma_2^{\\rm int}u &= -\\gamma_2^{\\rm int}(u_1 +u_{\\rm app})\n  \\hspace*{5.2mm}\\text{on }\\Gamma_2, \\\\\n  \\label{eq_:u:omega2:jumpdu}\n  \\delta_2^{\\rm ext}u_2 - (1+\\widetilde\\chi(|\\nabla u|))\\nabla u\\cdot{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_2 &= \\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}\\cdot{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_2 - \\delta_2^{\\rm int}u_1\n  \\hspace*{5.6mm}\\quad\\text{on }\\Gamma_2, \\\\\n  u_2(x) &= \\mathcal O(1\/|x|) \n  \\hspace*{18.0mm}\\text{as }|x|\\to\\infty.\n\\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\nLet $V_2 : H^{-1\/2}(\\Gamma_2) \\rightarrow H^{1\/2}(\\Gamma_2)$ and $K_2:H^{1\/2}(\\Gamma_2) \\rightarrow H^{1\/2}(\\Gamma_2)$ denote the simple-layer potential and \nthe double-layer potential with respect to $\\Gamma_2$ (see Section~\\ref{section:bio}).\nThe transmission problem~\\eqref{eq:jn0}\nis then equivalently stated by means of the Johnson-N\\'ed\\'elec \ncoupling from Ref.~\\cite{johnson-nedelec},\n\\begin{subequations}\\label{eq:jn1}\n\\begin{align}\n \\dual{(1+\\widetilde\\chi(|\\nabla u|))\\nabla u}{\\nabla v}_{\\Omega_2}\n -\\dual{\\phi}{\\gamma_2^{\\rm int}v}_{\\Gamma_2}\n &= \\dual{\\delta_2^{\\rm int}u_1}{\\gamma_2^{\\rm int}v}_{\\Gamma_2}\n \\!-\\! \\dual{\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}}{\\nabla v}_{\\Omega_2},\n\\\\\n V_2\\phi + (1\/2-K_2)\\gamma_2^{\\rm int}u &= (1\/2-K_2)\\gamma_2^{\\rm int}(u_1+u_{\\rm app}),\n\\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\nfor all $v\\in H^1(\\Omega_2)$, see Ref.~\\cite{affkmp} for the non-linear case\nand Refs.~\\cite{johnson-nedelec}, \\cite{sayas09} for the linear one.\nThe coupling formulation~\\eqref{eq:jn1} provides the total potential $u\\in H^1(\\Omega_2)$ as well as \nthe exterior normal derivative $\\phi = \\delta_2^{\\rm ext}u_2\\in H^{-1\/2}(\\Gamma_2)$. \nExistence and uniqueness of the solution $(\\phi,u)\\in X = H^{-1\/2}(\\Gamma)\\times H^1(\\Omega)$ of~\\eqref{eq:jn1} hinges strongly on the material law \n$\\widetilde\\chi$ and will be discussed in Section~\\ref{section:jn} \nbelow.\n\nSince $u_2$ solves $-\\Delta u_2 = 0$ in $\\mathbb{R}^3\\backslash\\overline\\Omega_2$, $u_2$ can be\ncomputed by means of the representation formula\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:jn2}\n u_2 = -\\widetilde V_2\\delta_2^{\\rm ext}u_2 + \\widetilde K_2\\gamma_2^{\\rm ext}u_2\n \\quad\\text{in }\\mathbb{R}^3\\backslash\\overline\\Omega_2 \\supset \\Omega_1,\n\\end{align}\nsee, e.g., Ref.~\\cite{sauschwa}, Theorem~3.1.6.\nTo lower the computational cost for the later implementation, we will, however, not use \nthe representation formula~\\eqref{eq:jn2} on $\\Omega_1$, but only on $\\Gamma_1$ and solve an \ninhomogeneous Dirichlet problem instead. \nIt holds $\\gamma_2^{\\rm ext}u_2 = \\gamma_2^{\\rm int}u_2\n= \\gamma_2^{\\rm int}(u - u_1 - u_{\\rm app})$. With \n$\\phi=\\delta_2^{\\rm ext}u_2$ on $\\Gamma_2$, we obtain\n\\begin{subequations}\\label{eq:jn3}\n\\begin{align}\n -\\Delta u_2 &= 0 \\hspace*{58.5mm}\\text{in }\\Omega_1,\\\\\n \\gamma_1^{\\rm int}u_2 &= \\gamma_1^{\\rm int}\\big(-\\widetilde V_2\\phi + \\widetilde K_2\\gamma_2^{\\rm int}(u - u_1 - u_{\\rm app})\\big)\\quad\\text{on }\\Gamma_1.\n\\end{align}\n\\end{subequations}\n\\subsubsection{Discrete formulation}\nAs for the stray field, we solve~\\eqref{eq:fk1h} to obtain an approximation \n$u_{11h} \\in\\mathcal{S}_*^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1})$ of $u_{11}$. To discretize~\\eqref{eq:fk5},\nlet $u_{1h}\\in\\mathcal{S}^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_2})$ solve\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:fk5:disc}\n \\gamma_2^{\\rm int}u_{1h} = I_h^{\\Gamma_2} K_1 \\gamma_1^{\\rm int}u_{11h} \n \\text{ and }\n \\dual{\\nabla u_{1h}}{\\nabla v_h}_{\\Omega_2}= 0 \n \\text{ for all }v_h\\in\\mathcal{S}_0^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_2}).\n\\end{align}\nThe discrete version of~\\eqref{eq:uext:nondim} reads as follows:\nLet $u_{{\\rm app},h} \\in \\mathcal{S}_*^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_2})$ solve\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:uext:disc}\n \\dual{\\nabla u_{{\\rm app},h}}{\\nabla v_h}_{\\Omega_2}\n = - \\dual{\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}}{\\nabla v_h}_{\\Omega_2}\n \\quad\\text{for all }v_h \\in \\mathcal{S}_*^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_2}).\n\\end{align}\nFor the numerical solution of~\\eqref{eq:jn1}, we compute $(\\phi_h,u_h)\\in X_h:=\\mathcal{P}^0(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_2}|_{\\Gamma_2})\\times \\mathcal{S}^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_2})$ \nsuch that\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:jn:disc}\n\\begin{split}\n  \\dual{(1+\\widetilde\\chi(|\\nabla u_h|))\\nabla u_h}{\\nabla v_h}_{\\Omega_2}  \n  - \\dual{\\phi_h}{v_h}_{\\Gamma_2}\n  &= \\dual{\\partial u_{1h}\/\\partial{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_2}{v_h}_{\\Gamma_2}\n  \\!-\\!\\dual{\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}}{\\nabla v_h}_{\\Omega_2}, \\\\\n  \\dual{V_2\\phi_h + (1\/2-K_2)u_h}{\\psi_h}_{\\Gamma_2} \n &= \\dual{(1\/2-K)(u_{1h} + u_{{\\rm app},h})}{\\psi_h}_{\\Gamma_2\n\\end{split}\n\\end{align}\nfor all $(\\psi_h,v_h)\\in X_h$. Existence and uniqueness of $(\\phi_h,u_h)$\nis discussed in Section~\\ref{section:jn} below.\nTo discretize~~\\eqref{eq:jn3}, let $u_{2h} \\in \\mathcal{S}^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1})$ solve\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:jn3:disc}\n\\begin{split}\n&\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}u_{2h} = I_h^{\\Gamma_1}\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}\\big(-\\widetilde V_2\\phi_h + \\widetilde K_2\\gamma_2^{\\rm int}(u_h - u_{1h} - u_{{\\rm app},h})\\big)\n\\\\\n&\\dual{\\nabla u_{2h}}{\\nabla v_h}_{\\Omega_1} = 0 \\quad \\text{ for all } v_h \\in \\mathcal{S}^1_0(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1}).\n\\end{split}\n\\end{align}\n\n\\subsubsection{Operator formulation}\n\\label{section:SAR}\n\nWith respect to the abstract notation of Lemma~\\ref{prop:nonlin:conv},\nthe solutions of the problems~\\eqref{eq:fk5}--\\eqref{eq:uext:nondim} and~\\eqref{eq:fk5:disc}--\\eqref{eq:uext:disc} give rise to\nthe continuous linear operators\n\\begin{align}\n\\begin{split}\\label{eq:multiscale:R}\n \\widetilde R,\\widetilde R_h&:\\boldsymbol{H}^1(\\Omega_1)\\times \\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_2)\n \\to H^{1\/2}(\\Gamma_2)\\times \\widetilde H^{-1}(\\Omega_2),\\\\\n \\widetilde R(\\boldsymbol{m},\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}) \n &:=\n \\big((1\/2-K_2)\\gamma_2^{\\rm int}(u_1+u_{\\rm app}),(\\gamma_2^{\\rm int})^*\\delta_2^{\\rm int} u_1 -\\nabla^*\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}\\big),\\\\\n  \\widetilde R_h(\\boldsymbol{m},\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}) \n &:=\n \\big((1\/2-K_2)\\gamma_2^{\\rm int}(u_{1h}+u_{{\\rm app},h}),(\\gamma_2^{\\rm int})^*\\partial u_{1h}\/\\partial{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_2 -\\nabla^*\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}\\big),\n\\end{split}\n\\end{align}\nwhere $(\\gamma_2^{\\rm int})^*:H^{-1\/2}(\\Gamma_2)\\to \\widetilde H^{-1}(\\Omega_2)$ \ndenotes the adjoint of the trace operator \n$\\gamma_2^{\\rm int}:H^1(\\Omega_2)\\to H^{1\/2}(\\Gamma_2)$\nand $\\nabla^*:\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_2)\\to\\widetilde H^{-1}(\\Omega_2)$ is the adjoint gradient.\nNote that $\\widetilde R$, $\\widetilde R_h$ are also well-defined and bounded operators \non $\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)\\times\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_2)$ and hence by interpolation, for all $0<s<1,$ also\non $\\boldsymbol{H}^s(\\Omega_1)\\times\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_2)$.\n\nThe left-hand side of the coupling formulation~\\eqref{eq:jn1} gives rise to the non-linear operator\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:multiscale:A}\n\\begin{split}\n &\\widetilde A:H^{-1\/2}(\\Gamma_2)\\times H^{1}(\\Omega_2) \n \\to H^{1\/2}(\\Gamma_2)\\times \\widetilde H^{-1}(\\Omega_2)\n\\end{split}\n\\end{align}\nand is then equivalently stated by\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq2:jn}\n \\widetilde A(\\phi,u) = \\widetilde R(\\boldsymbol{m},\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}).\n\\end{align}\nNote that the FEM-BEM coupling~\\eqref{eq:jn:disc} takes the abstract form\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq2:jn:disc}\n \\dual{\\widetilde A(\\phi_h,u_h)}{(\\psi_h,v_h)}_{X^*\\times X}\n = \\dual{\\widetilde R_h(\\boldsymbol{m},\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}})}{(\\psi_h,v_h)}_{X^*\\times X}\n\\end{align}\nfor all \n$(\\psi_h,v_h)\\in X_h:=\\mathcal{P}^0(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_2}|_{\\Gamma_2})\\times \\mathcal{S}^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_2})$. In the subsequent Section~\\ref{section:jn}, we comment on \nthe existence and uniqueness of the solutions\nof~\\eqref{eq2:jn}--\\eqref{eq2:jn:disc}.\n\nFinally, the solution of~\\eqref{eq:jn3} resp.\\ its discretization~\\eqref{eq:jn3:disc} give rise to the continuous linear operators\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:multiscale:S}\n\\begin{split}\n &S,S_h:H^{-1\/2}(\\Gamma_2)\\times H^{1}(\\Omega_2)\\to\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1),\n \\\\\n &S(\\phi,u) := \\nabla u_2,\n \\qquad\n S_h(\\phi_h,u_h) := \\nabla u_{2h}.\n\\end{split}\n\\end{align}\nOverall, it holds \n\\begin{align}\\label{kotz:multiscale}\n \\boldsymbol{\\pi}(\\boldsymbol{m}, \\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}) := S\\widetilde A^{-1}\\widetilde R(\\boldsymbol{m},\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}) = \\nabla u_2\n\n \\quad\\text{and}\\quad\n \\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{m},\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}) := S_h(\\phi_h,u_h) = \\nabla u_{2h}\n\n\\end{align}\nwhere \n$(\\phi_h,u_h)\\in X_h:=\\mathcal{P}^0(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_2}|_{\\Gamma_2})\\times \\mathcal{S}^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_2})$\nsolves~\\eqref{eq:jn:disc} resp.~\\eqref{eq2:jn:disc}.\n\n\n\\begin{remark}\nNote that the formal definition of the operator $S$ (resp.\\ $S_h$) once \nagain requires the solution\nof~\\eqref{eq:fk5}--\\eqref{eq:uext:nondim} \n(resp.~\\eqref{eq:fk5:disc}--\\eqref{eq:uext:disc}) to provide \n$\\gamma_2^{\\rm int}(u_1+u_{\\rm app})$ on the right-hand side of~\\eqref{eq:jn3}\n(resp.~\\eqref{eq:jn3:disc} with according discrete traces).\nTheoretically, this can be dealt with by considering the extended operators\n\\begin{align*}\n&\\widehat R\\big(\\boldsymbol{m},\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}\\big)\n= \\big(\\widetilde R(\\boldsymbol{m},\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}),\\gamma_2^{\\rm int}(u_1+u_{\\rm app})\\big),\\\\\n&\\widehat A\\big(\\phi,u,\\gamma_2^{\\rm int}(u_1+u_{\\rm app})\\big)\n=  \\big(\\widetilde A(\\phi,u),\\gamma_2^{\\rm int}(u_1+u_{\\rm app})\\big)\\\\\n&\\widehat S\\big(\\phi,u,\\gamma_2^{\\rm int}(u_1+u_{\\rm app})\\big)\n= \\nabla u_2.\n\\end{align*}%\nThen, $\\widehat S$ and $\\widehat R$ are still linear and continuous. Provided\n$A$ satisfies the assumptions of the Browder-Minty theorem for strongly\nmonotone operators, the inverse of $\\widehat A$ is well-defined and\ncontinuous so that (an obvious extension of) Lemma~\\ref{prop:nonlin:conv}\nstill applies.\n\\end{remark}\n\n\\subsubsection{Well-posedness of Johnson-N\\'ed\\'elec coupling}\n\\label{section:jn}\nThe following lemma provides sufficient conditions such that the non-linear part of~\\eqref{eq:jn1} is\nstrongly monotone and Lipschitz continuous~\\eqref{eq:kotz}. The elementary proof is left \nto the reader.\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{lemma:lipAmonA}\n  Let $\\widetilde\\chi: \\mathbb{R}_{\\geq0} \\rightarrow \\mathbb{R}$ be a continuous function\n  such that the function\n  \\begin{align*}\n    g:\\mathbb{R}_{\\geq0} &\\rightarrow\\mathbb{R}, \\quad g(t) =  t+\\widetilde\\chi(t)t\n  \\end{align*}\n  is differentiable and fulfils\n  \\begin{align}\\label{eq:gproperty}\n    g'(t) \\in [\\gamma,L] \\quad\\text{for all }t\\geq0\n  \\end{align}\n  with constants $L\\geq\\gamma>0$.\n  Then, the (non-linear) operator\n  \\begin{align*}\n   \\mathcal A : \\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_2) &\\rightarrow \\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_2), \\quad \\mathcal A\\mathbf w = (1+\\widetilde\\chi(|\\mathbf w|))\\mathbf w \n  \\end{align*}\n  is Lipschitz continuous and strongly monotone, i.e., there holds\n  \\begin{align}\\label{eq:kotz}\n    L^{-2}\\,\\norm{\\mathcal A\\mathbf u-\\mathcal A\\mathbf v}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_2)}^2 &\\leq \\norm{\\mathbf u-\\mathbf v}{\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_2)}^2\n    \\le\\gamma^{-1}\\,\\dual{\\mathcal A\\mathbf u-\\mathcal A\\mathbf v}{\\mathbf u-\\mathbf v}_{\\Omega_2}\n  \\end{align}%\n  for all $\\mathbf u,\\mathbf v\\in\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_2)$.\n\\qed\n\\end{lemma}\n\nWe stress that the operator $\\widetilde A$ from~\\eqref{eq:jn1} resp.~\\eqref{eq:multiscale:A} is \\emph{not} strongly monotone as, e.g., the left-hand side of~\\eqref{eq:jn1} is zero for $(\\phi,u)=(0,1)$. \nTo overcome this problem, we define the linear operator\n\\begin{align}\\label{eq:multiscale:L}\n  L: X^*\\to X^*,\\quad Lx^* := x^* + \\dual{x^*}{(1,0)}_{X^*\\times X} \\dual{\\widetilde A(\\cdot,\\cdot)}{(1,0)}_{X^*\\times X},\n\\end{align}\nwhere $1\\in\\mathcal{P}^0(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_2}|_{\\Gamma_2})$ denotes the constant function.\nAs observed in Ref.~\\cite{affkmp}, Section~4, the Johnson-N\\'ed\\'elec coupling equations can then be equivalently rewritten as follows:\n\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{prop:equivalenceA}\nThe operator $L: X^* \\to X^*$ from~\\eqref{eq:multiscale:L} is well-defined, linear, and continuous. Let $\\widetilde A$ be the operator from~\\eqref{eq:jn1} resp.~\\eqref{eq:multiscale:A}. Define $A := L\\widetilde{A}$.\nLet $X_\\star$ be a closed subspace of $X=H^{-1\/2}(\\Gamma_2)\\times H^1(\\Omega_2)$\nwith $(1,0)\\in X_\\star$. Then, for any $\\tilde x^*\\in X^*$ and $x^*:=L\\tilde x^*$,\nthe pair $(\\phi_\\star,u_\\star) \\in X_\\star$ solves the operator formulation\n\\begin{align*}\n \\dual{\\widetilde A(\\phi_\\star, u_\\star)}{(\\psi_\\star,v_\\star)}_{X^*\\times X}\n = \\dual{\\tilde x^*}{(\\psi_\\star,v_\\star)}_{X^*\\times X}\n \\quad\\text{for all }(\\psi_\\star,v_\\star)\\in X_\\star\n\\end{align*}\nif and only if\n  \\begin{align*}\n    \\dual{A (\\phi,u)}{(\\psi_\\star,v_\\star)}_{X^*\\times X} = \\dual{x^*}{(\\psi_\\star,v_\\star)}_{X^*\\times X}\n \\quad\\text{for all }(\\psi_\\star,v_\\star)\\in X_\\star.\n  \\end{align*}\nUnder the assumptions of Lemma~\\ref{lemma:lipAmonA} with $\\gamma>1\/4$, the operator $A = L\\widetilde A$ \n  is Lipschitz continuous and strongly monotone.\n  In particular, it fulfils the assumptions of the Browder-Minty theorem for \n  strongly monotone operators.\n  In this case, $A$ as well as $\\widetilde A$ are, in particular, invertible, and \n  $\\widetilde A^{-1}\\tilde x^* = A^{-1}x^*$.\n    \\qed\n\\end{lemma}\n\nFor $\\gamma>1\/4$, the preceding lemma applies to $X_\\star = X = H^{-1\/2}(\\Gamma_2)\\times H^1(\\Omega_2)$ as well as $X_\\star = X_h = \\mathcal{P}^0(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_2}|_{\\Gamma_2})\n\\times\\mathcal{S}^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_2}|_{\\Gamma_2})$ and thus proves \nthat~\\eqref{eq2:jn} as well as~\\eqref{eq2:jn:disc} admit unique solutions.\n\\par Finally, we give some examples of material laws $\\widetilde\\chi$, covered by Lemma~\\ref{prop:equivalenceA}.\n\\begin{remark}\\label{rem:materiallaw}\n  (i) Consider the material law \n  \\begin{align*}\n    \\widetilde\\chi(t) = \\c{tanh1}\\tanh(\\c{tanh2} t)\/t\\quad\\text{for }t>0,\n    \\quad\\widetilde\\chi(0) = \\c{tanh1}\\c{tanh2}\n  \\end{align*}\n  with dimensionless constants\n  $\\setc{tanh1},\\setc{tanh2}>0$. Then, $g(t) = t + \\c{tanh1}\\tanh{\\c{tanh2}t}$ fulfils~\\eqref{eq:gproperty}\n  with $\\gamma = 1$ and $L = 1+\\c{tanh1}\\c{tanh2}$.\n  \\\\ (ii)\n  According to Ref.~\\cite{rzmp81}, it is reasonable to approximate the magnetic susceptibility in terms of a\n  rational function, e.g.,\n  \\begin{align*}\n    \\widetilde\\chi(t) = \\frac{\\c{chit1} + \\c{chit2}t }{1+\\c{chit3}t + \\c{chit4}t^2 }\n  \\end{align*}\n  with certain, material-dependent constants\n  $\\setc{chit1},\\setc{chit2},\\setc{chit3},\\setc{chit4}>0$. For typical materials, it holds~\\eqref{eq:gproperty} with $\\gamma=1$ and some $L>1$ that depends on $\\c{chit1},\\c{chit2},\\c{chit3},\\c{chit4}$, see Ref.~\\cite{rzmp81}, Table~1.\n\\end{remark}\n\\subsubsection{Convergence Analysis}\nThe main result of this section is the following proposition.\n\\begin{proposition}\nIn addition to $\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}\\in L^2(\\Omega_T)$, suppose that $\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}\\in L^\\infty(\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_2))$.\nAdopt the notation of Section~\\ref{section:SAR} for the operators \n$\\widetilde R,R_h$ from~\\eqref{eq:multiscale:R}, $\\widetilde A$ from~\\eqref{eq:multiscale:A}\nand $\\widetilde S,S_h$ from~\\eqref{eq:multiscale:S}. Under the assumptions of Lemma~\\ref{lemma:lipAmonA} with $\\gamma>1\/4$, the operator \n$\\boldsymbol{\\pi}:=S\\widetilde A^{-1}\\widetilde R$\nand its discretization $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h$ from~\\eqref{kotz:multiscale} satisfy the \nassumptions~\\eqref{assumption:chi:bounded}--\\eqref{assumption:chi:convergence}\nof Theorem~\\ref{theorem}.\n\\end{proposition}\n\\begin{proof}\nWith Lemma~\\ref{prop:equivalenceA}, there exists a linear and continuous operator \n$L:X^*\\to X^*$ such that $A:=L\\widetilde A$ is Lipschitz continuous and strongly\nmonotone. It holds $\\boldsymbol{\\pi} = SA^{-1}R$ with $R:=L\\widetilde R$ and $\\boldsymbol{\\pi}_h(\\boldsymbol{m},\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}) \n= S_h(\\phi_h,u_h)$, where $(\\phi_h,u_h)$ solves with $R_h:=L\\widetilde R_h$\nthe variational formulation\n\\begin{align*}\n \\dual{A(\\phi_h,u_h)}{(\\psi_h,v_h)}_{X^*\\times X}\n = \\dual{R_h(\\boldsymbol{m},\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}})}{(\\psi_h,v_h)}_{X^*\\times X}\n \\text{ for all }(\\psi_h,v_h)\\in X_h.\n\\end{align*}\nTherefore, the claim follows from Lemma~\\ref{prop:nonlin:conv} if we prove that\nthere exists some $\\varepsilon>0$ such that\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item[(i)] $\\widetilde R_h(\\boldsymbol{m},\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}}) \\to \\widetilde R(\\boldsymbol{m},\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}})$ strongly in $X^*$ \nfor all $(\\boldsymbol{m},\\boldsymbol{f}}%{\\revision{\\boldsymbol{h}_{\\text{app}}})\\in\\boldsymbol{H}^{1-\\varepsilon}(\\Omega_1)\\times\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_2)$;\n\\item[(ii)] $\\widetilde S_h x \\to \\widetilde Sx$ strongly in $\\boldsymbol{L}^2(\\Omega_1)$ for all \n$x\\in X$.\n\\end{itemize}\nTo verify (i), we argue as in the proofs of Proposition~\\ref{prop:stray field}\nand Proposition~\\ref{prop:gcr}.  First, elliptic regularity for the Neumann problem\n\\eqref{eq:fk1} (see, e.g., Ref.~\\cite{monk}, Theorem 3.8) provides \nsome $\\varepsilon>0$ such that, for $\\boldsymbol{m}\\in\\boldsymbol{H}^{1-\\varepsilon}(\\Omega_1)$, it holds\n$\\norm{u_{11}-u_{11h}}{H^1(\\Omega_1)} = \\mathcal O(h^{1\/2+\\varepsilon})$.\nSecond, recall that $u_1=\\widetilde K_1\\gamma_1^{\\rm int}u_{11}\\in C^\\infty(\\overline\\Omega_2)\\subset H^2(\\Omega_2)$. \nHence, the inhomogeneous Dirichlet problem~\\eqref{eq:fk1} leads to\n\\begin{align*}\n \\norm{u_1-u_{1h}}{H^1(\\Omega_2)}\n \\lesssim \\min_{v_h\\in\\mathcal{S}^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_2})}\\norm{u_{1}-v_h}{H^1(\\Omega_2)}\n + \\norm{u_{11}-u_{11h}}{H^1(\\Omega_1)} = \\mathcal O(h^{1\/2+\\varepsilon}).\n\\end{align*}\nThird, arguing as in the proof of Proposition~\\ref{prop:gcr}, we derive\n\\begin{align*}\n \\norm{\\delta_2^{\\rm int}u_1 - \\partial u_{1h}\/\\partial{\\boldsymbol{\\nu}}_2}{H^{-1\/2}(\\Gamma_2)}\n =\\mathcal O(h^\\varepsilon).\n\\end{align*}\nFourth, the discretization of the auxiliary potential guarantees\n\\begin{align*}\n \\norm{u_{\\rm app}-u_{{\\rm app},h}}{H^1(\\Omega_1)}\n \\lesssim \\min_{v_h\\in\\mathcal{S}^1(\\mathcal{T}_h^{\\Omega_1})}\\norm{u_{\\rm app}-v_h}{H^1(\\Omega_1)}\n \\xrightarrow{h\\to0}0.\n\\end{align*}\nBy definition~\\eqref{eq:multiscale:R} of the operators $\\widetilde R$ and $\\widetilde R_h$, the combination of the \nforegoing three convergences proves (i).\n\nThe verification of (ii) follows along the same lines. This concludes the proof.\n\\end{proof}\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\\label{sec:intro}\n\nAnomaly detection is the problem of identifying abnormal samples among a group of normal data. This is a deviation from many machine learning problems because the set of abnormal data is either poorly sampled or unavailable during training. Recently, anomaly detection draws huge attention and provides many applications in the field of computer vision like marker discovery in biomedical data \\cite{schlegl2017unsupervised} and crime detection in surveillance videos \\cite{luo2017revisit}. Tackling these problems involves modelling the distribution of normal visual samples in a way that anomalies are identified at test time.\n\nDeep neural networks have become a popular choice to reach state-of-the-art performance in anomaly detection. Despite their good performance, these models suffer from high computational cost, complexity, and training instability, making them difficult to use in practice. To overcome these limitations, we propose training a relatively shallow CNN with continuous labelling and anomaly creation, yielding state-of-the-art performance on anomaly detection with significantly fewer parameters and less training time. Specifically, we approach anomaly detection as a supervised regression problem, where the model's objective is to map normal and created anomalous data to highly separable distributions.\n\nDue to the unavailability of anomalies, we apply simple data augmentation techniques on normal data to create distinct anomalies. With the new set of anomalous data, we can treat anomaly detection as a supervised learning problem. Since there are now two classes, it is intuitive to treat this as a binary classification problem. However, we show that using regression instead of classification improves anomaly detection performance. Furthermore, we introduce continuous labelling as a favorable means of performance stability.\n\nWe evaluated our proposed method, Augment to Detect Anomalies with Continuous Labelling (ADACL), on various benchmark datasets for anomaly detection. ADACL outperforms most state-of-the-art methods using significantly fewer parameters. We also provide a thorough study on loss functions, the choice of labels and the effects of the different augmentations. In this paper, our contributions are the following:\n\n\\begin{itemize}\n    \\item We propose a novel method of anomaly detection which includes a lightweight CNN trained with regression, anomaly creation with augmentations and continuous labelling to improve performance stability. \n    \\item Our method is simple yet outperforms most state-of-the-art approaches.\n    \\item We study the effects of various losses, data augmentations and continuous labelling on anomaly detection performance.\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\n\n\\section{Related Works}\n\\label{sec:related_works}\nSeveral proposed methods such as reconstruction-based approaches take advantage of self-representation learning. They rely on the reconstruction error as a metric to decide whether or not an instance corresponds to the distribution of training examples \\cite{xia2015learning, sabokrou2016video}. As such, various types of autoencoders like denoising auotoencoders and context autoencoders \\cite{zimmerer2018context} are used for anomaly detection. Most of the deep learning-based models with an autoencoder architecture \\cite{sakurada2014anomaly, zhai2016deep, zhou2017anomaly, zong2018deep, chong2017abnormal} also use reconstruction error to detect anomalies. These methods strive to exclusively learn the distribution of normal data in training such that they fail to generalize to anomalies. Even though these methods can be effective in some cases, it has been shown that they generalize well to reconstruct out-of-distribution samples and thus fail to recognize anomalies at testing stage.\n\n\n\nSome works used deep convolutional generative adversarial network (DCGAN) \\cite{radford2015unsupervised} to learn a manifold of normal images for anomaly detection by mapping from an image space to a random distribution \\cite{schlegl2017unsupervised, schlegl2019f}. Sabokrou et al. \\cite{sabokrou2018adversarially} proposed a one-class classification framework consisting of a Reconstructor (R) and a Discriminator (D). R serves as a denoising autoencoder, while D operates as the detector. These two networks are trained adversarially in an end-to-end perspective. In an extension to this, Zaheer et al. \\cite{zaheer2020old} redefined the adversarial one-class classifier training setup by changing the role of the discriminator to classify between good and bad quality reconstructions and improved the performance even further. In \\cite{perera2019ocgan}, Perera et al. leveraged an autoencoder architecture to enforce the normal instances to be distributed uniformly across the latent space. \\cite{jewell2021oled} utilized adversarial setup to learn more robust representations by intelligently masking the input.\n\n\\cite{salehi2021multiresolution} and \\cite{georgescu2021anomaly} have attempted to benefit from deep pre-trained networks by distilling the knowledge where a small student model learns from a large teacher model. In \\cite{salehi2021multiresolution}, they utilized a VGG-16 \\cite{simonyan2014very} to calculate a multi-level loss from different activations for training the student network to determine the anomaly score. They also incorporate interpretability algorithms in their framework to localize anomalous regions and perform anomaly segmentation. Although knowledge-distillation methods could perform anomaly detection with high performance, they benefit from pre-training on millions of labeled images which is not effective in other modalities of data. Also, in practice, knowledge-distillation methods may not be suitable due to computationally expensive inference. Our proposed method does not leverage pre-trained networks, so we do not compare against these approaches.\n\n\nGong et al. proposed a deep autoencoder augmented with a memory module \\cite{gong2019memorizing} to encode the input to a latent space with the encoder. The resulting latent vector is used as a query to retrieve the most relevant memory item for reconstruction with the decoder. Also, in \\cite{park2020learning}, they introduced a memory module with items that capture prototypical models of the inlier class with a new update system.\n\n\nSome of the proposed anomaly detection methods that rely on learning the distribution of inliers cannot be applied to real-world applications. Generating anomalies alongside the available normal data build an informative training set for the task of anomaly detection. Employing GANs for generating anomalous data turns the problem of anomaly detection into a binary classification problem. This method can also be used for data augmentation for anomalous data. In \\cite{pourreza2021g2d}, they trained a Wasserstein GAN on normal samples and utilized the generator before convergence. In this case, generated irregular data have a controlled deviation from inliers. Although they set a new research direction in anomaly detection, training a network to generate outliers is computationally expensive.\n\n\n\\section{Method}\n\\label{sec:method}\n\n\\subsection{Motivation}\nDeep neural networks have shown great performance in solving anomaly detection problems. However, they often have a large number of parameters, making them difficult and expensive to train. Not only that, most deep models suffer from training instability, complexity, difficult implementation, and is intractable to deploy in real-world applications. To overcome these issues, we propose ADACL, where we follow an intuitive and stable training procedure which also exceeds state-of-the-art performance. ADACL is simple to implement and has relatively few parameters, leading to inexpensive training and fast inference time. Therefore, it is more suitable for use in real world scenarios. \n\n\\subsection{Approach}\n\nTo improve performance in anomaly detection, it is desirable to produce representations of normal and anomalous samples that have distinct distributions. In our method, we redefine anomaly detection as a supervised regression problem. However, the training data consists mainly of normal samples, which makes supervised learning a cumbersome task. To solve this issue, we leverage straightforward data augmentations to create anomalous samples during training. \n\n\\subsubsection{Regression for Anomaly Detection}\nWe utilize a lightweight convolutional neural network (CNN) to train on the normal and created anomalies. The CNN acts as a regressor that outputs a continuous value between 0 and 1 to represent normal and anomalous data. Even though this can be considered a binary classification problem, we show that regression offers fast convergence and high performance in anomaly detection. Here we will explain the different configuration options we have for our method. As examples, we explain why we did not use sigmoid in the last layer of the CNN and instead used value clipping as well as why Mean Squared Error (MSE) was chosen over Binary Cross Entropy (BCE) as the loss function. In the case of binary classification, equation \\ref{sigmoidgrowth} shows that the rate of change of the sigmoid function is always decreasing as the prediction approaches the ground truth target. Also, as shown in figure \\ref{sigandfirstsig}, the value of gradients are nearing zero in the same manner. Due to the saturation of gradients near the target, updating the weights will be less effective, resulting in slow convergence. A similar problem exists in binary classification with Binary Cross Entropy (BCE). Negative log likelihood in BCE also exhibits a decreasing rate of change as the predicted value approaches the ground truth target. Referring to figure \\ref{bcemsederiv},  Mean Squared Error (MSE) provides stronger gradients as the prediction approaches the target, which results in faster convergence. We perform anomaly detection experiments on ADACL and find not only that MSE converges faster, but also manages to maintain consistently high performance across multiple training runs. Consequently, we transform anomaly detection into a regression problem to reach the optimal solution faster.\n\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\nh(x) =  \\frac{\\mathrm{1} }{\\mathrm{1} + e^{-x} } \n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\nh'(x) = h(x)(1-h(x))\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\nfor \\ x < 0: \\qquad h'(x) - h'(x-1) > 0 \\\\\nfor \\ x > 0: \\qquad h'(x-1) - h'(x) > 0\\\\\n\\end{aligned}\n\\label{sigmoidgrowth}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n   \\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{latex\/figures\/sigmoidandderiv.png}\n\\end{center}\n   \\caption{Sigmoid function and the first derivitive of the sigmoid function. Rate of change of sigmoid decreases to 0 as predictions approach its target.}\n\\label{sigandfirstsig}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n   \\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{latex\/figures\/bce_mse_deriv_comp.png}\n\\end{center}\n   \\caption{The first derivates of MSE and BCE. Notice that the gradients of MSE become larger than BCE after a certain point.}\n\\label{bcemsederiv}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure*}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n   \\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{latex\/figures\/model.png}\n\\end{center}\n   \\caption{Overview of ADACL architecture. Normal examples and created anomalies are assigned continuous labels and fed into the CNN. This regression model outputs a continuous value between 0 and 1 as an anomaly score. At test time, the model is evaluated with real anomalies.}\n\\label{modelarch}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\\subsubsection{Continuous Labelling}\nIn the anomaly detection problem, we can label normal and anomalous data as 0 and 1, respectively. We call this Discrete Labelling (DL). However, experimental results show that this leads to high variance in anomaly detection performance. Instead, we use Continuous Labelling (CL), where we designate two continuous intervals corresponding to normal and anomalous data, and sample labels from them using a uniform distribution. The intuition behind continuous labelling is that the expected value of MSE over predictions is lower in comparison to using discrete labelling. Let a discrete label $ \\in \\{0, 1\\}$ and a continuous label $ \\in \\{[0, X_L], [X_H, 1]\\}$. $X_L$ is the upper bound of the interval of normal class and $X_H$ is the lower bound of the interval of anomaly class. Because we sample from a uniform distribution, $A = \\mathbb{E}([0, X_L]) = \\frac{X_L}{2}$ and $B = \\mathbb{E}([X_H, 1]) = \\frac{X_H + 1}{2}$. A and B are the expected values of prediction for the normal and anomaly classes, respectively. The MSE function takes two numbers as the input to calculate the loss. As shown in equation \\ref{expectedmse}, we let the prediction of our model be 0.5 (highest distance to the lower and upper bounds). The following inequalities show that the value of the MSE loss is always lower when using continuous labelling compared to discrete labelling:\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\nMSE(0.5, A) < MSE(0.5, 0) \\ if \\ A > 0 \\\\\nMSE(0.5, B) < MSE(0.5, 1) \\ if \\ 1 > B\n\\\\\n\\end{aligned}\n\\label{expectedmse}\n\\end{equation}\n\nTherefore:\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\mathbb{E}(MSE(prediction, CL)) <\\\\ \\mathbb{E}(MSE(prediction, DL))\n\\end{aligned}\n\\label{expected}\n\\end{equation}\n\nAccording to equation \\ref{expected}, if we choose continuous labelling over discrete labelling, the expected value for the loss is lower during training and thus, convergence is slower. Therefore, it should increase training stability. The experimental results in Figures \\ref{ValVarianceCIFAR} and \\ref{AUCVarianceCIFAR} supports this hypothesis.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n   \\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{latex\/figures\/augs.png}\n\\end{center}\n   \\caption{Various Augmentations applied to create anomalies. The first, second, and third rows contain normal and created anomalies with different augmentations of images from UCSD, MNIST and CIFAR-10, respectively. }\n\\label{augs}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsubsection{Anomaly Creation}\nSolving anomaly detection as a supervised regression problem requires a dataset containing both normal and anomalous data. To compensate for the unavailability of anomalies, we utilize data augmentation techniques to create them during training. Examples of these augmentations are shown in figure \\ref{augs}. The following are descriptions of our proposed augmentations for ADACL:\n\n\\begin{itemize}\n    \\item \\textbf{\\textit{Cut-Paste:}} Randomly select patch from image and place it in a random location. \n    \\item \\textbf{\\textit{Puzzling:}} Take quarters of the image and shuffle them.\n    \\item \\textbf{\\textit{Rotation:}} Rotate the image 90 degrees one or three times\n    \\item \\textbf{\\textit{Mix-up:}} Add a rotated image to the original one. Prior to adding, the rotated and original image are multiplied by respective coefficients. \n\\end{itemize}\n\nTo assign training labels to normal and created anomalies, we pick two separate continuous intervals from which we uniformly sample. For example, normal and anomalous labels are in the range of [0, 0.3] and [0.7, 1], respectively.\n\n\\subsection{Implementation Details}\nOur method which is depicted in figure \\ref{modelarch}, uses a simple CNN with less than 300k parameters. As a regressor, this model outputs a continuous value which is clipped between 0 and 1. It is trained on the inlier samples and created anomalies which are augmented versions of the normal data. We use different variations of the Adam optimizer in conjunction with a cyclic learning rate. Also, we designate a constant number of epochs for training on each dataset. Then, based on the validation set, we use early stopping techniques to terminate training. This validation set consists of 150 randomly selected samples of normal data and the augmented version of them as anomalies. This random selection maintains consistency by using a random seed.  \n\n\\section{Experiments and Results}\n\\label{sec:exp_res}\n\\subsection{Anomaly Detection in Images}\n\nThe image datasets we choose for anomaly detection in this paper are MNIST \\cite{lecun1998mnist}, FMNIST \\cite{xiao2017fashion} and CIFAR-10 \\cite{krizhevsky2009learning}. These benchmark datasets are standard in anomaly detection literature. In the following, we provide descriptions and protocols defined on each dataset. \n\\par\n{\\bf MNIST:} It is a dataset of handwritten digits that has 60,000 images. Samples in MNIST are grayscale with a resolution of 28 x 28. This is a benchmark dataset in anomaly detection.\n\\par\n{\\bf FMNIST:} Fashion MNIST also contains 60,000 28 \u00d7 28 grayscale images of fashion accessories but since there is a significant amount of intra-class variation, it is a more challenging dataset compared to MNIST.\n\n{\\bf CIFAR-10:} This dataset consists of 10 classes of 32 \u00d7 32 RGB images of natural objects. With high intra-class variance, CIFAR-10 is a more challenging benchmark for anomaly detection.\n\n\\par\nThe protocol we follow for these three datasets is to consider one class as normal data and the rest as anomalies. To measure anomaly detection performance, we calculate Area Under the Curve (AUROC) for each class and report the average of all classes as the final performance. AUROC on these datasets are shown in table \\ref{table:mnist,fashionmnist,CIFAR-10}. From our results, ADACL outperforms recent state-of-the-art anomaly detection methods. Moreover, figure \\ref{normalauganomexamples} depicts the model's predictions on normal, augmented and anomalous samples over different datasets. Figure \\ref{learned_repr} shows the 3D distributions of learned representations of normal and anomalous samples on class 1 and 8 of MNIST. This figure shows the separability of learned representations.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n   \\includegraphics[width=0.7\\linewidth]{latex\/figures\/preds.png}\n\\end{center}\n   \\caption{Predictions of the model on normal, augmented and anomalous samples from UCSD, MNIST, and CIFAR-10.}\n\\label{normalauganomexamples}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n   \\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{latex\/figures\/embs.png}\n\\end{center}\n   \\caption{3D visualization of learned representation of class 1 and 8 of the MNIST dataset. As shown, there are separable and distinct distributions of normal and anomalous embeddings.}\n\\label{learned_repr}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{table*}[htbp]\n\\centering\n\\caption{AUROC in \\% for anomaly detection on MNIST \\cite{lecun1998mnist},  Fashion-MNIST \\cite{xiao2017fashion} and CIFAR-10 \\cite{krizhevsky2009learning} datasets.}\n\\label{table:mnist,fashionmnist,CIFAR-10}\n\\resizebox{\\textwidth}{!}{\\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|}\n\\hline\nDataset & Method & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & 9 & Mean\\\\\n\n\\hline\n\n\nMNIST\n& AnoGAN\\cite{schlegl2017unsupervised} & 96.6 & 99.2 & 85.0 & 88.7 & 89.4 & 88.3 & 94.7 & 93.5 & 84.9 & 92.4 & 91.3\\\\\n& DSVDD\\cite{ruff2018deep} & 98.0 & 99.7 & 91.7 & 91.9 & 94.9 & 88.5 & 98.3 & 94.6 & 93.9 & 96.5 & 94.8\\\\\n& OCSVM\\cite{scholkopf2002learning} & 99.5 & 99.9 & 92.6 & 93.6 & 96.7 & 95.5 & 98.7 & 96.6 & 90.3 & 96.2 & 96.0\\\\\n& CapsNet\\textsubscript{PP} \\cite{li2020exploring} & 99.8 & 99.0 & 98.4 & 97.6 & 93.5 & 97.0 & 94.2 & 98.7 & 99.3 & 99.0 & 97.7\\\\\n& OCGAN\\cite{perera2019ocgan} & 99.8 & 99.9 & 94.2 & 96.3 & 97.5 & 98.0 & 99.1 & 98.1 & 93.9 & 98.1 & 97.5\\\\\n& LSA\\cite{abati2019latent} & 99.3 & 99.9 & 95.9 & 96.6 & 95.6 & 96.4 & 99.4 & 98.0 & 95.3 & 98.1 & 97.5\\\\\n\n\n& \\textbf{Ours (ADACL)} & ${99.37}$ & ${99.30}$ & ${98.58}$ & ${97.36}$ & ${97.57}$ & ${98.43}$ & ${99.56}$ & ${98.09}$ & ${93.46}$ & ${98.38}$ & \\textbf{98.01}\\\\\n\n\\hline\nDataset & Method & T-shirt & Trouser & Pullover & Dress & Coat & Sandal & Shirt & Sneaker & Bag & Ankle boot & Mean\\\\\n\n\\hline\n\n\n\nFashion-MNIST\n& DAGMM\\cite{zong2018deep} & 30.3 & 31.1 & 47.5 & 48.1 & 49.9 & 41.3 & 42.0 & 37.4 & 51.8 & 37.8 & 41.7\\\\\n& DSEBM\\cite{zhai2016deep} & 89.1 & 56.0 & 86.1 & 90.3 & 88.4 & 85.9 & 78.2 & 98.1 & 86.5 & 96.7 & 85.5\\\\\n& LSA\\cite{abati2019latent} & 91.6 & 98.3 & 87.8 & 92.3 & 89.7 & 90.7 & 84.1 & 97.7 & 91.0 & 98.4 & 92.2\\\\\n& DSVDD\\cite{ruff2018deep} & 98.2 & 90.3 & 90.7 & 94.2 & 89.4 & 91.8 & 83.4 & 98.8 & 91.9 & 99.0 & 92.8\\\\\n& OCSVM\\cite{scholkopf2002learning} & 91.9 & 99.0 & 89.4 & 94.2 & 90.7 & 91.8 & 83.4 & 98.8 & 90.3 & 98.2 & 92.8\\\\\n\n& \\textbf{Ours (ADACL)} & ${94.42}$ & ${99.46}$ & ${89.82}$ & ${91.05}$ & ${92.68}$ & ${90.40}$ & ${80.43}$ & ${97.88}$ & ${97.14}$ & ${98.88}$ & \\textbf{93.22}\\\\\n\n\n\\hline\nDataset & Method & Plane & Car & Bird & Cat & Deer & Dog & Frog & Horse & Ship & Truck & Mean\\\\\n\n\\hline\n\n\n\nCIFAR-10\n& OCSVM\\cite{scholkopf2002learning} & 63.0 & 44.0 & 64.9 & 48.7 & 73.5 & 50.0 & 72.5 & 53.3 & 64.9 & 50.8 & 58.56\\\\\n& CapsNet\\textsubscript{PP}\\cite{li2020exploring} & 62.2 & 45.5 & 67.1 & 67.5 & 68.3 & 63.5 & 72.7 & 67.3 & 71.0 & 46.6 & 61.2\\\\\n& AnoGAN\\cite{schlegl2017unsupervised} & 67.1 & 54.7 & 52.9 & 54.5 & 65.1 & 60.3 & 58.5 & 62.5 & 75.8 & 66.5 & 61.79\\\\\n& DSVDD\\cite{ruff2018deep} & 61.7 & 65.9 & 50.8 & 59.1 & 60.9 & 65.7 & 67.7 & 67.3 & 75.9 & 73.1 & 64.81\\\\\n& LSA\\cite{abati2019latent} & 73.5 & 58.0 & 69.0 & 54.2 & 76.1 & 54.6 & 75.1 & 53.5 & 71.7 & 54.8 & 64.1\\\\\n& OCGAN\\cite{perera2019ocgan} & 75.7 & 53.1 & 64.0 & 62.0 & 72.3 & 62.0 & 72.3 & 57.5 & 82.0 & 55.4 & 65.66\\\\\n& CAVGA-D\\textsubscript{u}\\cite{venkataramanan2020attention} & 65.3 & 78.4 & 76.1 & 74.7 & 77.5 & 55.2 & 81.3 & 74.5 & 80.1 & 74.1 & 73.7\\\\\n& DROCC\\cite{goyal2020drocc} & 81.66 & 76.74 & 66.66 & 67.13 & 73.62 & 74.43 & 74.43 & 71.39 & 80.02 & 76.21 & 74.23\\\\\n\n\n& \\textbf{Ours (ADACL)} & ${73.89}$ & ${83.87}$ & ${67.47}$ & ${70.66}$ & ${69.51}$ & ${77.91}$ & ${72.66}$ & ${83.04}$ & ${87.64}$ & ${81.35}$ & \\textbf{76.80}\\\\\n\n\\hline\n\n\n\\end{tabular}}\n\\end{table*}\n\n\nTable \\ref{table:mnist,CIFAR-10} compares our results with those of two other methods that use the knowledge distillation framework. Methods such as these rely on pre-trained networks which have been trained on millions of labelled images. To learn from these pre-trained or teacher networks, these methods have been trained over many epochs. These methods are computationally expensive and require a long time for inference, which prevents their use in real-world scenarios. Our method takes less time and computation to train even though the results are slightly lower as shown in the table.\n\n\n\\begin{table*}[htbp]\n\\centering\n\\caption{Comparison of AUROC in \\% for anomaly detection on MNIST \\cite{lecun1998mnist} and CIFAR-10 \\cite{krizhevsky2009learning} datasets with knowledge distilation methods.}\n\\label{table:mnist,CIFAR-10}\n\\resizebox{\\textwidth}{!}{\\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|}\n\\hline\nDataset & Method & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & 9 & Mean & Epoch\\\\\n\n\\hline\n\n\nMNIST\n\n\n& U-Std\\cite{bergmann2020uninformed} & 99.9 & 99.9 & 99 & 99.3 & 99.2 & 99.3 & 99.7 & 99.5 & 98.6 & 99.1 & 99.35 & -\\\\\n\n& Multiresolution KDAD \\cite{salehi2021multiresolution} & 99.82 & 99.82 & 97.79 & 98.75 & 98.43 & 98.16 & 99.43 & 98.38 & 98.41 & 98.1 & 98.71 & 50\\\\\n\n\n& Ours (ADACL) & ${99.37}$ & ${99.30}$ & ${98.58}$ & ${97.36}$ & ${97.57}$ & ${98.43}$ & ${99.56}$ & ${98.09}$ & ${93.46}$ & ${98.38}$ & 98.01 & 10\\\\\n\n\\hline\n\nDataset & Method & Plane & Car & Bird & Cat & Deer & Dog & Frog & Horse & Ship & Truck & Mean & Epoch\\\\\n\n\\hline\n\nCIFAR-10\n\n& U-Std\\cite{bergmann2020uninformed} & 78.9 & 84.9 & 73.4 & 74.8 & 85.1 & 79.3 & 89.2 & 83 & 86.2 & 84.8 & 81.96 & -\\\\\n\n& Multiresolution KDAD \\cite{salehi2021multiresolution} & 90.53 & 90.35 & 79.66 & 77.02 & 86.71 & 91.4 & 88.98 & 86.78 & 91.45 & 88.91 & 87.18 & 200\\\\\n\n\n& Ours (ADACL) & ${73.89}$ & ${83.87}$ & ${67.47}$ & ${70.66}$ & ${69.51}$ & ${77.91}$ & ${72.66}$ & ${83.04}$ & ${87.64}$ & ${81.35}$ & 76.80 & 15\\\\\n\n\\hline\n\n\n\\end{tabular}}\n\\end{table*}\n\n\n\\begin{table}\n\\centering\n\\caption{Frame-level AUCROC and EER comparison \\% on UCSD dataset with state-of-the-art methods.}\n\n\n \\begin{tabular}{|l|l|c|}\n \\hline\nMethod & AUCROC (\\%) & EER (\\%) \\\\ [0.5ex] \n \\hline\nTSC \\cite{luo2017revisit_novelty}                       & 92.2 & -                  \\\\\nFRCN action \\cite{hinami2017joint_novelty}               & 92.2                  & -                  \\\\\nAbnormalGAN \\cite{ravanbakhsh2017abnormal_novelty}               & 93.5                   & 13               \\\\\nMemAE \\cite{gong2019memorizing} & 94.1                   & -                \\\\\nGrowingGas \\cite{sun2017online}                & 94.1   & -                \\\\\nFFP \\cite{liu2018future_novelty}     & 95.4  & -                  \\\\\nConvAE+UNet \\cite{Nguyen_2019_ICCV}               & 96.2  & -                  \\\\\nSTAN \\cite{lee2018stan}        & 96.5   &   -    \\\\\nObject-centric \\cite{ionescu2019object} &  97.8   & -                       \\\\ \nRavanbakhsh \\cite{ravanbakhsh2019training} & - & 14       \\\\\nALOCC \\cite{sabokrou2018adversarially} & - & 13       \\\\\nDeep-cascade \\cite{sabokrou2017deep_novelty} & - & 9       \\\\\n Old is gold \\cite{zaheer2020old} & 98.1 & 7       \\\\\n\n \\textbf{Ours (ADACL)}  &  \\textbf{98.4} &  \\textbf{7} \\\\\n \n \\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\n\n\\label{ucsd_exp}\n\\end{table}\n\n\\subsection{Anomaly Detection in Videos}\nTo evaluate our method on video anomaly detection, we selected the UCSD dataset \\cite{xiao2017fashion}. This dataset contains multiple outdoor scenes with mobile objects such as pedestrians, cars, wheelchairs, skateboards and bicycles. Frames with only pedestrians are considered as the normal class, while frames containing other objects are anomalies. This dataset contains two subsets named Ped1 and Ped2. Ped1 includes 34 training video samples and 36 testing video samples and Ped2 contains 2,550 frames in 16 training videos and 2,010 frames in 12 test videos with a resolution of 240 \u00d7 360 pixels.\n\\par\nWe follow a patch-based protocol to evaluate on this dataset where each frame is divided into 30 x 30 sections. For training, we include only patches that include pedestrians. However, the model was evaluated on patches that contain pedestrians or other objects. Following \\cite{zaheer2020old}, to report the performance on this dataset, frame-level Area Under the Curve (AUROC) and Equal Error Rate (EER) are calculated in table \\ref{ucsd_exp}. Results show that ADACL surpasses state-of-the-art methods for video anomaly detection on UCSD.  \n\n\\subsection{Analysis of the Method}\nIn this section, we provide experimental results that support the intuition behind our method.\n\n\\subsubsection{BCE vs. MSE}\nBased on our experimental results, we use MSE over BCE because it converges faster but still has good performance over multiple training runs. The figure \\ref{AUCmsebce} shows that our experimental results are aligned with this hypothesis.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n   \\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{latex\/figures\/test_auroc_bce_vs_mse_cifar.png}\n\\end{center}\n   \\caption{ Average test AUROC taken over 10 training runs on CIFAR-10. MSE achieves higher AUROC in a shorter number of epochs. }\n\\label{AUCmsebce}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsubsection{Continuous vs. Discrete Labelling}\nReferring back to the method section, we define an early stopping criteria based on validation AUROC. In this experiment, we study how labelling affects anomaly detection performance. We keep the entire training procedure the same and only modify the labelling scheme. Results show that discrete labels cause higher variance in the validation and test AUROC. With higher instability, it is increasingly difficult to create an accurate stopping criteria. As shown in figure \\ref{ValVarianceCIFAR}, continuous labelling yields lower variance in validation AUROC. Knowing this, figure \\ref{AUCVarianceCIFAR} shows that with continuous labelling, a stopping criteria over a validation set with lower AUROC variance is mostly able to produce more consistent test AUROC values per class. Therefore, continuous labelling is the better choice when using a stopping criteria for anomaly detection.\n\n\\begin{table}\n\\centering\n\\caption{Experiments on different intervals}\n \\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|}\n \\hline\nInterval & Mean AUROC (\\%) & Variance \\\\ [0.5ex] \n \\hline\n$[0, 0.1] - [0.9, 1]$  & $97.14$ & $1.50 \\times 10^-5$                  \\\\\n$[0, 0.2] - [0.8, 1]$ & $96.93 $    & $8.83 \\times 10^-5 $                \\\\\n$[0, 0.3] - [0.7, 1]$ & $97.42 $  & $1.29 \\times 10^-5 $      \\\\\n \n \\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\n\n\\label{interval_exp}\n\\end{table}\n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n   \\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{latex\/figures\/val_variance_mnist.png}\n\\end{center}\n   \\caption{Variance of Average Validation AUROC over all classes in each epoch. The averages are taken over 10 training runs. It can be observed that continuous labelling consistently produces lower variance in higher epochs. Thus, a stopping criteria based on the validation set yields more stable test AUROC when continuous labels are used.}\n\\label{ValVarianceCIFAR}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n   \\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{latex\/figures\/auroc_variance_cont_vs_disc.png}\n\\end{center}\n   \\caption{Variance in Anomaly Detection AUROC when using continuous labelling versus discrete labelling for all class taken over 10 training runs of CIFAR-10. More often than not, using the same stopping criteria with continuous labels produces lower variance in test AUROC. }\n\\label{AUCVarianceCIFAR}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\subsubsection{Effects of Augmentations}\nVariations in anomaly detection performance occur when using data augmentation to create anomalies. In this experiment, we study the effect of each augmentation used to create anomalies during training. As seen in figure \\ref{effect_augs}, the best performing solo augmentation is Cut-paste. But, the best anomaly detection results are achieved by using all augmentations. \n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n   \\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{latex\/figures\/effect_diff_augs.jpg}\n\\end{center}\n   \\caption{The effects of the augmentations like Cut-paste, puzzling, one and three times rotation and various mix-ups on AUROC. The most effective augmentation was Cut-paste,\n   however using all augmentations in the process of creating outliers yields the highest performance in anomaly detection.}\n\\label{effect_augs}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsubsection{Interval Selection}\nIn previous experiments, we show that continuous labelling improves anomaly detection by enabling better early stopping. This is achieved through lower variance in validation AUROC. To further examine the implications of label selection, We analyze different sized intervals to see their effects on anomaly detection performance. As shown in table \\ref{interval_exp}, the choice of interval has low impact on AUROC. \n\n\\section{Conclusion}\nDeep neural networks can achieve state-of-the-art performance when applied to anomaly detection tasks. However, most of them suffer from expensive computations, high complexity, training instability, and difficult implementation. In this paper, we alleviate these issues by proposing a simple and effective methodology for anomaly detection. We convert the problem into a supervised regression task by creating anomalies using data augmentations and training a lightweight convolutional neural network over continuous labels. In further experiments, we analyze the effects of MSE Loss versus BCE Loss, continuous labelling, interval size, and various augmentations. Results on several image and video anomaly detection benchmarks show our superiority over cutting-edge methods. \n\n{\\small\n\\bibliographystyle{ieee_fullname}\n\n\\section{Introduction}\n\\label{sec:intro}\n\nAnomaly detection is the problem of identifying abnormal samples among a group of normal data. This is a deviation from many machine learning problems because the set of abnormal data is either poorly sampled or unavailable during training. Recently, anomaly detection draws huge attention and provides many applications in the field of computer vision like marker discovery in biomedical data \\cite{schlegl2017unsupervised} and crime detection in surveillance videos \\cite{luo2017revisit}. Tackling these problems involves modelling the distribution of normal visual samples in a way that anomalies are identified at test time.\n\nDeep neural networks have become a popular choice to reach state-of-the-art performance in anomaly detection. Despite their good performance, these models suffer from high computational cost, complexity, and training instability, making them difficult to use in practice. To overcome these limitations, we propose training a relatively shallow CNN with continuous labelling and anomaly creation, yielding state-of-the-art performance on anomaly detection with significantly fewer parameters and less training time. Specifically, we approach anomaly detection as a supervised regression problem, where the model's objective is to map normal and created anomalous data to highly separable distributions.\n\nDue to the unavailability of anomalies, we apply simple data augmentation techniques on normal data to create distinct anomalies. With the new set of anomalous data, we can treat anomaly detection as a supervised learning problem. Since there are now two classes, it is intuitive to treat this as a binary classification problem. However, we show that using regression instead of classification improves anomaly detection performance. Furthermore, we introduce continuous labelling as a favorable means of performance stability.\n\nWe evaluated our proposed method, Augment to Detect Anomalies with Continuous Labelling (ADACL), on various benchmark datasets for anomaly detection. ADACL outperforms most state-of-the-art methods using significantly fewer parameters. We also provide a thorough study on loss functions, the choice of labels and the effects of the different augmentations. In this paper, our contributions are the following:\n\n\\begin{itemize}\n    \\item We propose a novel method of anomaly detection which includes a lightweight CNN trained with regression, anomaly creation with augmentations and continuous labelling to improve performance stability. \n    \\item Our method is simple yet outperforms most state-of-the-art approaches.\n    \\item We study the effects of various losses, data augmentations and continuous labelling on anomaly detection performance.\n\\end{itemize}\n\n\n\n\\section{Related Works}\n\\label{sec:related_works}\nSeveral proposed methods such as reconstruction-based approaches take advantage of self-representation learning. They rely on the reconstruction error as a metric to decide whether or not an instance corresponds to the distribution of training examples \\cite{xia2015learning, sabokrou2016video}. As such, various types of autoencoders like denoising auotoencoders and context autoencoders \\cite{zimmerer2018context} are used for anomaly detection. Most of the deep learning-based models with an autoencoder architecture \\cite{sakurada2014anomaly, zhai2016deep, zhou2017anomaly, zong2018deep, chong2017abnormal} also use reconstruction error to detect anomalies. These methods strive to exclusively learn the distribution of normal data in training such that they fail to generalize to anomalies. Even though these methods can be effective in some cases, it has been shown that they generalize well to reconstruct out-of-distribution samples and thus fail to recognize anomalies at testing stage.\n\n\n\nSome works used deep convolutional generative adversarial network (DCGAN) \\cite{radford2015unsupervised} to learn a manifold of normal images for anomaly detection by mapping from an image space to a random distribution \\cite{schlegl2017unsupervised, schlegl2019f}. Sabokrou et al. \\cite{sabokrou2018adversarially} proposed a one-class classification framework consisting of a Reconstructor (R) and a Discriminator (D). R serves as a denoising autoencoder, while D operates as the detector. These two networks are trained adversarially in an end-to-end perspective. In an extension to this, Zaheer et al. \\cite{zaheer2020old} redefined the adversarial one-class classifier training setup by changing the role of the discriminator to classify between good and bad quality reconstructions and improved the performance even further. In \\cite{perera2019ocgan}, Perera et al. leveraged an autoencoder architecture to enforce the normal instances to be distributed uniformly across the latent space. \\cite{jewell2021oled} utilized adversarial setup to learn more robust representations by intelligently masking the input.\n\n\\cite{salehi2021multiresolution} and \\cite{georgescu2021anomaly} have attempted to benefit from deep pre-trained networks by distilling the knowledge where a small student model learns from a large teacher model. In \\cite{salehi2021multiresolution}, they utilized a VGG-16 \\cite{simonyan2014very} to calculate a multi-level loss from different activations for training the student network to determine the anomaly score. They also incorporate interpretability algorithms in their framework to localize anomalous regions and perform anomaly segmentation. Although knowledge-distillation methods could perform anomaly detection with high performance, they benefit from pre-training on millions of labeled images which is not effective in other modalities of data. Also, in practice, knowledge-distillation methods may not be suitable due to computationally expensive inference. Our proposed method does not leverage pre-trained networks, so we do not compare against these approaches.\n\n\nGong et al. proposed a deep autoencoder augmented with a memory module \\cite{gong2019memorizing} to encode the input to a latent space with the encoder. The resulting latent vector is used as a query to retrieve the most relevant memory item for reconstruction with the decoder. Also, in \\cite{park2020learning}, they introduced a memory module with items that capture prototypical models of the inlier class with a new update system.\n\n\nSome of the proposed anomaly detection methods that rely on learning the distribution of inliers cannot be applied to real-world applications. Generating anomalies alongside the available normal data build an informative training set for the task of anomaly detection. Employing GANs for generating anomalous data turns the problem of anomaly detection into a binary classification problem. This method can also be used for data augmentation for anomalous data. In \\cite{pourreza2021g2d}, they trained a Wasserstein GAN on normal samples and utilized the generator before convergence. In this case, generated irregular data have a controlled deviation from inliers. Although they set a new research direction in anomaly detection, training a network to generate outliers is computationally expensive.\n\n\n\\section{Method}\n\\label{sec:method}\n\n\\subsection{Motivation}\nDeep neural networks have shown great performance in solving anomaly detection problems. However, they often have a large number of parameters, making them difficult and expensive to train. Not only that, most deep models suffer from training instability, complexity, difficult implementation, and is intractable to deploy in real-world applications. To overcome these issues, we propose ADACL, where we follow an intuitive and stable training procedure which also exceeds state-of-the-art performance. ADACL is simple to implement and has relatively few parameters, leading to inexpensive training and fast inference time. Therefore, it is more suitable for use in real world scenarios. \n\n\\subsection{Approach}\n\nTo improve performance in anomaly detection, it is desirable to produce representations of normal and anomalous samples that have distinct distributions. In our method, we redefine anomaly detection as a supervised regression problem. However, the training data consists mainly of normal samples, which makes supervised learning a cumbersome task. To solve this issue, we leverage straightforward data augmentations to create anomalous samples during training. \n\n\\subsubsection{Regression for Anomaly Detection}\nWe utilize a lightweight convolutional neural network (CNN) to train on the normal and created anomalies. The CNN acts as a regressor that outputs a continuous value between 0 and 1 to represent normal and anomalous data. Even though this can be considered a binary classification problem, we show that regression offers fast convergence and high performance in anomaly detection. Here we will explain the different configuration options we have for our method. As examples, we explain why we did not use sigmoid in the last layer of the CNN and instead used value clipping as well as why Mean Squared Error (MSE) was chosen over Binary Cross Entropy (BCE) as the loss function. In the case of binary classification, equation \\ref{sigmoidgrowth} shows that the rate of change of the sigmoid function is always decreasing as the prediction approaches the ground truth target. Also, as shown in figure \\ref{sigandfirstsig}, the value of gradients are nearing zero in the same manner. Due to the saturation of gradients near the target, updating the weights will be less effective, resulting in slow convergence. A similar problem exists in binary classification with Binary Cross Entropy (BCE). Negative log likelihood in BCE also exhibits a decreasing rate of change as the predicted value approaches the ground truth target. Referring to figure \\ref{bcemsederiv},  Mean Squared Error (MSE) provides stronger gradients as the prediction approaches the target, which results in faster convergence. We perform anomaly detection experiments on ADACL and find not only that MSE converges faster, but also manages to maintain consistently high performance across multiple training runs. Consequently, we transform anomaly detection into a regression problem to reach the optimal solution faster.\n\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\nh(x) =  \\frac{\\mathrm{1} }{\\mathrm{1} + e^{-x} } \n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\nh'(x) = h(x)(1-h(x))\n\\end{aligned}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\nfor \\ x < 0: \\qquad h'(x) - h'(x-1) > 0 \\\\\nfor \\ x > 0: \\qquad h'(x-1) - h'(x) > 0\\\\\n\\end{aligned}\n\\label{sigmoidgrowth}\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n   \\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{latex\/figures\/sigmoidandderiv.png}\n\\end{center}\n   \\caption{Sigmoid function and the first derivitive of the sigmoid function. Rate of change of sigmoid decreases to 0 as predictions approach its target.}\n\\label{sigandfirstsig}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n   \\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{latex\/figures\/bce_mse_deriv_comp.png}\n\\end{center}\n   \\caption{The first derivates of MSE and BCE. Notice that the gradients of MSE become larger than BCE after a certain point.}\n\\label{bcemsederiv}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure*}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n   \\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{latex\/figures\/model.png}\n\\end{center}\n   \\caption{Overview of ADACL architecture. Normal examples and created anomalies are assigned continuous labels and fed into the CNN. This regression model outputs a continuous value between 0 and 1 as an anomaly score. At test time, the model is evaluated with real anomalies.}\n\\label{modelarch}\n\\end{figure*}\n\n\\subsubsection{Continuous Labelling}\nIn the anomaly detection problem, we can label normal and anomalous data as 0 and 1, respectively. We call this Discrete Labelling (DL). However, experimental results show that this leads to high variance in anomaly detection performance. Instead, we use Continuous Labelling (CL), where we designate two continuous intervals corresponding to normal and anomalous data, and sample labels from them using a uniform distribution. The intuition behind continuous labelling is that the expected value of MSE over predictions is lower in comparison to using discrete labelling. Let a discrete label $ \\in \\{0, 1\\}$ and a continuous label $ \\in \\{[0, X_L], [X_H, 1]\\}$. $X_L$ is the upper bound of the interval of normal class and $X_H$ is the lower bound of the interval of anomaly class. Because we sample from a uniform distribution, $A = \\mathbb{E}([0, X_L]) = \\frac{X_L}{2}$ and $B = \\mathbb{E}([X_H, 1]) = \\frac{X_H + 1}{2}$. A and B are the expected values of prediction for the normal and anomaly classes, respectively. The MSE function takes two numbers as the input to calculate the loss. As shown in equation \\ref{expectedmse}, we let the prediction of our model be 0.5 (highest distance to the lower and upper bounds). The following inequalities show that the value of the MSE loss is always lower when using continuous labelling compared to discrete labelling:\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\nMSE(0.5, A) < MSE(0.5, 0) \\ if \\ A > 0 \\\\\nMSE(0.5, B) < MSE(0.5, 1) \\ if \\ 1 > B\n\\\\\n\\end{aligned}\n\\label{expectedmse}\n\\end{equation}\n\nTherefore:\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\begin{aligned}\n\\mathbb{E}(MSE(prediction, CL)) <\\\\ \\mathbb{E}(MSE(prediction, DL))\n\\end{aligned}\n\\label{expected}\n\\end{equation}\n\nAccording to equation \\ref{expected}, if we choose continuous labelling over discrete labelling, the expected value for the loss is lower during training and thus, convergence is slower. Therefore, it should increase training stability. The experimental results in Figures \\ref{ValVarianceCIFAR} and \\ref{AUCVarianceCIFAR} supports this hypothesis.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n   \\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{latex\/figures\/augs.png}\n\\end{center}\n   \\caption{Various Augmentations applied to create anomalies. The first, second, and third rows contain normal and created anomalies with different augmentations of images from UCSD, MNIST and CIFAR-10, respectively. }\n\\label{augs}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsubsection{Anomaly Creation}\nSolving anomaly detection as a supervised regression problem requires a dataset containing both normal and anomalous data. To compensate for the unavailability of anomalies, we utilize data augmentation techniques to create them during training. Examples of these augmentations are shown in figure \\ref{augs}. The following are descriptions of our proposed augmentations for ADACL:\n\n\\begin{itemize}\n    \\item \\textbf{\\textit{Cut-Paste:}} Randomly select patch from image and place it in a random location. \n    \\item \\textbf{\\textit{Puzzling:}} Take quarters of the image and shuffle them.\n    \\item \\textbf{\\textit{Rotation:}} Rotate the image 90 degrees one or three times\n    \\item \\textbf{\\textit{Mix-up:}} Add a rotated image to the original one. Prior to adding, the rotated and original image are multiplied by respective coefficients. \n\\end{itemize}\n\nTo assign training labels to normal and created anomalies, we pick two separate continuous intervals from which we uniformly sample. For example, normal and anomalous labels are in the range of [0, 0.3] and [0.7, 1], respectively.\n\n\\subsection{Implementation Details}\nOur method which is depicted in figure \\ref{modelarch}, uses a simple CNN with less than 300k parameters. As a regressor, this model outputs a continuous value which is clipped between 0 and 1. It is trained on the inlier samples and created anomalies which are augmented versions of the normal data. We use different variations of the Adam optimizer in conjunction with a cyclic learning rate. Also, we designate a constant number of epochs for training on each dataset. Then, based on the validation set, we use early stopping techniques to terminate training. This validation set consists of 150 randomly selected samples of normal data and the augmented version of them as anomalies. This random selection maintains consistency by using a random seed.  \n\n\\section{Experiments and Results}\n\\label{sec:exp_res}\n\\subsection{Anomaly Detection in Images}\n\nThe image datasets we choose for anomaly detection in this paper are MNIST \\cite{lecun1998mnist}, FMNIST \\cite{xiao2017fashion} and CIFAR-10 \\cite{krizhevsky2009learning}. These benchmark datasets are standard in anomaly detection literature. In the following, we provide descriptions and protocols defined on each dataset. \n\\par\n{\\bf MNIST:} It is a dataset of handwritten digits that has 60,000 images. Samples in MNIST are grayscale with a resolution of 28 x 28. This is a benchmark dataset in anomaly detection.\n\\par\n{\\bf FMNIST:} Fashion MNIST also contains 60,000 28 \u00d7 28 grayscale images of fashion accessories but since there is a significant amount of intra-class variation, it is a more challenging dataset compared to MNIST.\n\n{\\bf CIFAR-10:} This dataset consists of 10 classes of 32 \u00d7 32 RGB images of natural objects. With high intra-class variance, CIFAR-10 is a more challenging benchmark for anomaly detection.\n\n\\par\nThe protocol we follow for these three datasets is to consider one class as normal data and the rest as anomalies. To measure anomaly detection performance, we calculate Area Under the Curve (AUROC) for each class and report the average of all classes as the final performance. AUROC on these datasets are shown in table \\ref{table:mnist,fashionmnist,CIFAR-10}. From our results, ADACL outperforms recent state-of-the-art anomaly detection methods. Moreover, figure \\ref{normalauganomexamples} depicts the model's predictions on normal, augmented and anomalous samples over different datasets. Figure \\ref{learned_repr} shows the 3D distributions of learned representations of normal and anomalous samples on class 1 and 8 of MNIST. This figure shows the separability of learned representations.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n   \\includegraphics[width=0.7\\linewidth]{latex\/figures\/preds.png}\n\\end{center}\n   \\caption{Predictions of the model on normal, augmented and anomalous samples from UCSD, MNIST, and CIFAR-10.}\n\\label{normalauganomexamples}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n   \\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{latex\/figures\/embs.png}\n\\end{center}\n   \\caption{3D visualization of learned representation of class 1 and 8 of the MNIST dataset. As shown, there are separable and distinct distributions of normal and anomalous embeddings.}\n\\label{learned_repr}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{table*}[htbp]\n\\centering\n\\caption{AUROC in \\% for anomaly detection on MNIST \\cite{lecun1998mnist},  Fashion-MNIST \\cite{xiao2017fashion} and CIFAR-10 \\cite{krizhevsky2009learning} datasets.}\n\\label{table:mnist,fashionmnist,CIFAR-10}\n\\resizebox{\\textwidth}{!}{\\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|}\n\\hline\nDataset & Method & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & 9 & Mean\\\\\n\n\\hline\n\n\nMNIST\n& AnoGAN\\cite{schlegl2017unsupervised} & 96.6 & 99.2 & 85.0 & 88.7 & 89.4 & 88.3 & 94.7 & 93.5 & 84.9 & 92.4 & 91.3\\\\\n& DSVDD\\cite{ruff2018deep} & 98.0 & 99.7 & 91.7 & 91.9 & 94.9 & 88.5 & 98.3 & 94.6 & 93.9 & 96.5 & 94.8\\\\\n& OCSVM\\cite{scholkopf2002learning} & 99.5 & 99.9 & 92.6 & 93.6 & 96.7 & 95.5 & 98.7 & 96.6 & 90.3 & 96.2 & 96.0\\\\\n& CapsNet\\textsubscript{PP} \\cite{li2020exploring} & 99.8 & 99.0 & 98.4 & 97.6 & 93.5 & 97.0 & 94.2 & 98.7 & 99.3 & 99.0 & 97.7\\\\\n& OCGAN\\cite{perera2019ocgan} & 99.8 & 99.9 & 94.2 & 96.3 & 97.5 & 98.0 & 99.1 & 98.1 & 93.9 & 98.1 & 97.5\\\\\n& LSA\\cite{abati2019latent} & 99.3 & 99.9 & 95.9 & 96.6 & 95.6 & 96.4 & 99.4 & 98.0 & 95.3 & 98.1 & 97.5\\\\\n\n\n& \\textbf{Ours (ADACL)} & ${99.37}$ & ${99.30}$ & ${98.58}$ & ${97.36}$ & ${97.57}$ & ${98.43}$ & ${99.56}$ & ${98.09}$ & ${93.46}$ & ${98.38}$ & \\textbf{98.01}\\\\\n\n\\hline\nDataset & Method & T-shirt & Trouser & Pullover & Dress & Coat & Sandal & Shirt & Sneaker & Bag & Ankle boot & Mean\\\\\n\n\\hline\n\n\n\nFashion-MNIST\n& DAGMM\\cite{zong2018deep} & 30.3 & 31.1 & 47.5 & 48.1 & 49.9 & 41.3 & 42.0 & 37.4 & 51.8 & 37.8 & 41.7\\\\\n& DSEBM\\cite{zhai2016deep} & 89.1 & 56.0 & 86.1 & 90.3 & 88.4 & 85.9 & 78.2 & 98.1 & 86.5 & 96.7 & 85.5\\\\\n& LSA\\cite{abati2019latent} & 91.6 & 98.3 & 87.8 & 92.3 & 89.7 & 90.7 & 84.1 & 97.7 & 91.0 & 98.4 & 92.2\\\\\n& DSVDD\\cite{ruff2018deep} & 98.2 & 90.3 & 90.7 & 94.2 & 89.4 & 91.8 & 83.4 & 98.8 & 91.9 & 99.0 & 92.8\\\\\n& OCSVM\\cite{scholkopf2002learning} & 91.9 & 99.0 & 89.4 & 94.2 & 90.7 & 91.8 & 83.4 & 98.8 & 90.3 & 98.2 & 92.8\\\\\n\n& \\textbf{Ours (ADACL)} & ${94.42}$ & ${99.46}$ & ${89.82}$ & ${91.05}$ & ${92.68}$ & ${90.40}$ & ${80.43}$ & ${97.88}$ & ${97.14}$ & ${98.88}$ & \\textbf{93.22}\\\\\n\n\n\\hline\nDataset & Method & Plane & Car & Bird & Cat & Deer & Dog & Frog & Horse & Ship & Truck & Mean\\\\\n\n\\hline\n\n\n\nCIFAR-10\n& OCSVM\\cite{scholkopf2002learning} & 63.0 & 44.0 & 64.9 & 48.7 & 73.5 & 50.0 & 72.5 & 53.3 & 64.9 & 50.8 & 58.56\\\\\n& CapsNet\\textsubscript{PP}\\cite{li2020exploring} & 62.2 & 45.5 & 67.1 & 67.5 & 68.3 & 63.5 & 72.7 & 67.3 & 71.0 & 46.6 & 61.2\\\\\n& AnoGAN\\cite{schlegl2017unsupervised} & 67.1 & 54.7 & 52.9 & 54.5 & 65.1 & 60.3 & 58.5 & 62.5 & 75.8 & 66.5 & 61.79\\\\\n& DSVDD\\cite{ruff2018deep} & 61.7 & 65.9 & 50.8 & 59.1 & 60.9 & 65.7 & 67.7 & 67.3 & 75.9 & 73.1 & 64.81\\\\\n& LSA\\cite{abati2019latent} & 73.5 & 58.0 & 69.0 & 54.2 & 76.1 & 54.6 & 75.1 & 53.5 & 71.7 & 54.8 & 64.1\\\\\n& OCGAN\\cite{perera2019ocgan} & 75.7 & 53.1 & 64.0 & 62.0 & 72.3 & 62.0 & 72.3 & 57.5 & 82.0 & 55.4 & 65.66\\\\\n& CAVGA-D\\textsubscript{u}\\cite{venkataramanan2020attention} & 65.3 & 78.4 & 76.1 & 74.7 & 77.5 & 55.2 & 81.3 & 74.5 & 80.1 & 74.1 & 73.7\\\\\n& DROCC\\cite{goyal2020drocc} & 81.66 & 76.74 & 66.66 & 67.13 & 73.62 & 74.43 & 74.43 & 71.39 & 80.02 & 76.21 & 74.23\\\\\n\n\n& \\textbf{Ours (ADACL)} & ${73.89}$ & ${83.87}$ & ${67.47}$ & ${70.66}$ & ${69.51}$ & ${77.91}$ & ${72.66}$ & ${83.04}$ & ${87.64}$ & ${81.35}$ & \\textbf{76.80}\\\\\n\n\\hline\n\n\n\\end{tabular}}\n\\end{table*}\n\n\nTable \\ref{table:mnist,CIFAR-10} compares our results with those of two other methods that use the knowledge distillation framework. Methods such as these rely on pre-trained networks which have been trained on millions of labelled images. To learn from these pre-trained or teacher networks, these methods have been trained over many epochs. These methods are computationally expensive and require a long time for inference, which prevents their use in real-world scenarios. Our method takes less time and computation to train even though the results are slightly lower as shown in the table.\n\n\n\\begin{table*}[htbp]\n\\centering\n\\caption{Comparison of AUROC in \\% for anomaly detection on MNIST \\cite{lecun1998mnist} and CIFAR-10 \\cite{krizhevsky2009learning} datasets with knowledge distilation methods.}\n\\label{table:mnist,CIFAR-10}\n\\resizebox{\\textwidth}{!}{\\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|}\n\\hline\nDataset & Method & 0 & 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & 9 & Mean & Epoch\\\\\n\n\\hline\n\n\nMNIST\n\n\n& U-Std\\cite{bergmann2020uninformed} & 99.9 & 99.9 & 99 & 99.3 & 99.2 & 99.3 & 99.7 & 99.5 & 98.6 & 99.1 & 99.35 & -\\\\\n\n& Multiresolution KDAD \\cite{salehi2021multiresolution} & 99.82 & 99.82 & 97.79 & 98.75 & 98.43 & 98.16 & 99.43 & 98.38 & 98.41 & 98.1 & 98.71 & 50\\\\\n\n\n& Ours (ADACL) & ${99.37}$ & ${99.30}$ & ${98.58}$ & ${97.36}$ & ${97.57}$ & ${98.43}$ & ${99.56}$ & ${98.09}$ & ${93.46}$ & ${98.38}$ & 98.01 & 10\\\\\n\n\\hline\n\nDataset & Method & Plane & Car & Bird & Cat & Deer & Dog & Frog & Horse & Ship & Truck & Mean & Epoch\\\\\n\n\\hline\n\nCIFAR-10\n\n& U-Std\\cite{bergmann2020uninformed} & 78.9 & 84.9 & 73.4 & 74.8 & 85.1 & 79.3 & 89.2 & 83 & 86.2 & 84.8 & 81.96 & -\\\\\n\n& Multiresolution KDAD \\cite{salehi2021multiresolution} & 90.53 & 90.35 & 79.66 & 77.02 & 86.71 & 91.4 & 88.98 & 86.78 & 91.45 & 88.91 & 87.18 & 200\\\\\n\n\n& Ours (ADACL) & ${73.89}$ & ${83.87}$ & ${67.47}$ & ${70.66}$ & ${69.51}$ & ${77.91}$ & ${72.66}$ & ${83.04}$ & ${87.64}$ & ${81.35}$ & 76.80 & 15\\\\\n\n\\hline\n\n\n\\end{tabular}}\n\\end{table*}\n\n\n\\begin{table}\n\\centering\n\\caption{Frame-level AUCROC and EER comparison \\% on UCSD dataset with state-of-the-art methods.}\n\n\n \\begin{tabular}{|l|l|c|}\n \\hline\nMethod & AUCROC (\\%) & EER (\\%) \\\\ [0.5ex] \n \\hline\nTSC \\cite{luo2017revisit_novelty}                       & 92.2 & -                  \\\\\nFRCN action \\cite{hinami2017joint_novelty}               & 92.2                  & -                  \\\\\nAbnormalGAN \\cite{ravanbakhsh2017abnormal_novelty}               & 93.5                   & 13               \\\\\nMemAE \\cite{gong2019memorizing} & 94.1                   & -                \\\\\nGrowingGas \\cite{sun2017online}                & 94.1   & -                \\\\\nFFP \\cite{liu2018future_novelty}     & 95.4  & -                  \\\\\nConvAE+UNet \\cite{Nguyen_2019_ICCV}               & 96.2  & -                  \\\\\nSTAN \\cite{lee2018stan}        & 96.5   &   -    \\\\\nObject-centric \\cite{ionescu2019object} &  97.8   & -                       \\\\ \nRavanbakhsh \\cite{ravanbakhsh2019training} & - & 14       \\\\\nALOCC \\cite{sabokrou2018adversarially} & - & 13       \\\\\nDeep-cascade \\cite{sabokrou2017deep_novelty} & - & 9       \\\\\n Old is gold \\cite{zaheer2020old} & 98.1 & 7       \\\\\n\n \\textbf{Ours (ADACL)}  &  \\textbf{98.4} &  \\textbf{7} \\\\\n \n \\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\n\n\\label{ucsd_exp}\n\\end{table}\n\n\\subsection{Anomaly Detection in Videos}\nTo evaluate our method on video anomaly detection, we selected the UCSD dataset \\cite{xiao2017fashion}. This dataset contains multiple outdoor scenes with mobile objects such as pedestrians, cars, wheelchairs, skateboards and bicycles. Frames with only pedestrians are considered as the normal class, while frames containing other objects are anomalies. This dataset contains two subsets named Ped1 and Ped2. Ped1 includes 34 training video samples and 36 testing video samples and Ped2 contains 2,550 frames in 16 training videos and 2,010 frames in 12 test videos with a resolution of 240 \u00d7 360 pixels.\n\\par\nWe follow a patch-based protocol to evaluate on this dataset where each frame is divided into 30 x 30 sections. For training, we include only patches that include pedestrians. However, the model was evaluated on patches that contain pedestrians or other objects. Following \\cite{zaheer2020old}, to report the performance on this dataset, frame-level Area Under the Curve (AUROC) and Equal Error Rate (EER) are calculated in table \\ref{ucsd_exp}. Results show that ADACL surpasses state-of-the-art methods for video anomaly detection on UCSD.  \n\n\\subsection{Analysis of the Method}\nIn this section, we provide experimental results that support the intuition behind our method.\n\n\\subsubsection{BCE vs. MSE}\nBased on our experimental results, we use MSE over BCE because it converges faster but still has good performance over multiple training runs. The figure \\ref{AUCmsebce} shows that our experimental results are aligned with this hypothesis.\n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n   \\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{latex\/figures\/test_auroc_bce_vs_mse_cifar.png}\n\\end{center}\n   \\caption{ Average test AUROC taken over 10 training runs on CIFAR-10. MSE achieves higher AUROC in a shorter number of epochs. }\n\\label{AUCmsebce}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsubsection{Continuous vs. Discrete Labelling}\nReferring back to the method section, we define an early stopping criteria based on validation AUROC. In this experiment, we study how labelling affects anomaly detection performance. We keep the entire training procedure the same and only modify the labelling scheme. Results show that discrete labels cause higher variance in the validation and test AUROC. With higher instability, it is increasingly difficult to create an accurate stopping criteria. As shown in figure \\ref{ValVarianceCIFAR}, continuous labelling yields lower variance in validation AUROC. Knowing this, figure \\ref{AUCVarianceCIFAR} shows that with continuous labelling, a stopping criteria over a validation set with lower AUROC variance is mostly able to produce more consistent test AUROC values per class. Therefore, continuous labelling is the better choice when using a stopping criteria for anomaly detection.\n\n\\begin{table}\n\\centering\n\\caption{Experiments on different intervals}\n \\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|}\n \\hline\nInterval & Mean AUROC (\\%) & Variance \\\\ [0.5ex] \n \\hline\n$[0, 0.1] - [0.9, 1]$  & $97.14$ & $1.50 \\times 10^-5$                  \\\\\n$[0, 0.2] - [0.8, 1]$ & $96.93 $    & $8.83 \\times 10^-5 $                \\\\\n$[0, 0.3] - [0.7, 1]$ & $97.42 $  & $1.29 \\times 10^-5 $      \\\\\n \n \\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\n\n\\label{interval_exp}\n\\end{table}\n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n   \\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{latex\/figures\/val_variance_mnist.png}\n\\end{center}\n   \\caption{Variance of Average Validation AUROC over all classes in each epoch. The averages are taken over 10 training runs. It can be observed that continuous labelling consistently produces lower variance in higher epochs. Thus, a stopping criteria based on the validation set yields more stable test AUROC when continuous labels are used.}\n\\label{ValVarianceCIFAR}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n   \\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{latex\/figures\/auroc_variance_cont_vs_disc.png}\n\\end{center}\n   \\caption{Variance in Anomaly Detection AUROC when using continuous labelling versus discrete labelling for all class taken over 10 training runs of CIFAR-10. More often than not, using the same stopping criteria with continuous labels produces lower variance in test AUROC. }\n\\label{AUCVarianceCIFAR}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\subsubsection{Effects of Augmentations}\nVariations in anomaly detection performance occur when using data augmentation to create anomalies. In this experiment, we study the effect of each augmentation used to create anomalies during training. As seen in figure \\ref{effect_augs}, the best performing solo augmentation is Cut-paste. But, the best anomaly detection results are achieved by using all augmentations. \n\n\\begin{figure}[htbp]\n\\begin{center}\n   \\includegraphics[width=1\\linewidth]{latex\/figures\/effect_diff_augs.jpg}\n\\end{center}\n   \\caption{The effects of the augmentations like Cut-paste, puzzling, one and three times rotation and various mix-ups on AUROC. The most effective augmentation was Cut-paste,\n   however using all augmentations in the process of creating outliers yields the highest performance in anomaly detection.}\n\\label{effect_augs}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsubsection{Interval Selection}\nIn previous experiments, we show that continuous labelling improves anomaly detection by enabling better early stopping. This is achieved through lower variance in validation AUROC. To further examine the implications of label selection, We analyze different sized intervals to see their effects on anomaly detection performance. As shown in table \\ref{interval_exp}, the choice of interval has low impact on AUROC. \n\n\\section{Conclusion}\nDeep neural networks can achieve state-of-the-art performance when applied to anomaly detection tasks. However, most of them suffer from expensive computations, high complexity, training instability, and difficult implementation. In this paper, we alleviate these issues by proposing a simple and effective methodology for anomaly detection. We convert the problem into a supervised regression task by creating anomalies using data augmentations and training a lightweight convolutional neural network over continuous labels. In further experiments, we analyze the effects of MSE Loss versus BCE Loss, continuous labelling, interval size, and various augmentations. Results on several image and video anomaly detection benchmarks show our superiority over cutting-edge methods. \n\n{\\small\n\\bibliographystyle{ieee_fullname}\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\\label{sect:intro}\n\nThe prospect of pre-programming a desired shape transformation in a material that may be remotely activated at a later time has understandably been the source of much recent interest, from engineering sheets with activated folds \\cite{HawkesPNAS:10} to attempts at understanding how nature accomplishes its vast spectrum of morphologies \\cite{BenAmarPRL:08, MahaPNAS:09}.  The primary difficulty with such programming on an initially flat sheet lies in moving to target shapes beyond simple folding or crumpling, characterized by d-cones and developable geometry \\cite{WittenRMP:07}.  By requiring non-developable results one must be prepared to deal either with a high stretch or compressional cost, or find a way to pre-program a change in the material's local metric geometry.  This latter option may be attempted, as it often occurs in nature, through differential growth rates inside the material itself \\cite{BenAmarPRL:08b}, however, such a system is irreversible, difficult to program in advance, difficult to activate controllably, and hence not amenable to device applications.  Other approaches to the problem include the use of gels \\cite{KleinSci:07} or fluid membranes \\cite{UchidaPRE:02} but similar issues appear in these cases, coupled with the disadvantage of fluid membranes and gels being less robust materials than desirable for use in shape-programmable devices.  This paper will propose a new avenue to blueprinting for the purpose of broad morphology control in a thin solid sheet that circumvents these difficulties and results in stress-free final states by taking advantage of materials with local orientational order.\n\nLiquid crystalline solids undergo macroscopic elongations and contractions in response to heat, light, pH, and other stimuli that change the molecular order.  Most studied are nematic glasses \\cite{vanOosten:07} and elastomers \\cite{warnerbook:07}.  Both have spontaneous deformation gradients, $\\lambda_{ij} = \\partial x_i\/\\partial x^0_j$ transforming  reference space points $\\vec{x}^0$ to target points $\\vec{x}$ that are of the form\n\\begin{equation}\n\\matr{\\lambda}  = (\\lambda - \\lambda^{-\\nu}) {\\vec{n} }\\, {\\vec{n} } + \\lambda^{-\\nu}\\uuline{\\delta}\n\\label{eq:def}\n\\end{equation}\nthat is an extension\/contraction $\\lambda$ along the director $ {\\vec{n} }$ and a contraction\/extension $\\lambda^{-\\nu}$ perpendicular to $ {\\vec{n} }$ for $\\lambda >1 \/ < 1$ respectively.  By analogy to the elastic case,  $\\nu$ is what we call an opto-thermal Poisson ratio that relates the perpendicular to the parallel response. Thus $\\matr{\\lambda} $ is a uniaxial distortion when it is spontaneous and not associated with any subsequent stresses that distort the body away from the new natural state.  For glasses $\\nu \\in ({\\textstyle \\frac{1}{2}}, 2)$ \\cite{vanOosten:07} while elastomers (rubbers) have $\\nu =1\/2$.  Rubbers have spectacular stimuli responses $\\lambda \\in (0.5, 4)$, that is up to $400$\\% opto-thermal strains.  Their directors are mobile in a fluid-like way -- in fact the rotation of $\\vec{n}$, in placing the longer dimension of the solid along the direction of imposed elongation allows shape change without energy cost \\cite{finkelmann1997,deSimone:00}.  Glasses, on the other hand, have shear moduli comparable to their compressional resistance ($\\sim 10^9$Pa) and their opto-thermal elongations\/contractions are upto $\\pm 4$\\%, that is $\\lambda \\in (0.96, 1.04)$.  The loss in dramatic elastic sensitivity to stimuli is compensated by the fact that their directors are anchored to the polymer matrix, at most convecting with the matrix as it is distorted.  This allows for a feasible patterning of the director field at the initial time of cross-linking and the subsequent guarantee that the chosen pattern will not be erased by the soft elasticity present in the rubber. \n\nIt is in the spirit of this `written-in' patterning that we have previously addressed the many routes to a cantilever-style actuator \\cite{WMCPRSa:10} along with an in-depth treatment of such actuators whose properties are facilitated by the patterning of splay-bend or twist textures through the thickness of the material \\cite{MWvOCPRE:10}.  Widening the net to allow for nematic director spatial variation across the surface of a thin sheet opens the door to emergent Gaussian curvature that manifests in a controllable way, growing conical shapes from $+1$ disclination defects \\cite{MBWPREr:10, MBWPRS:10}.  In this paper we will continue the approach to a realizable blueprint for actively switching a flat sheet of nematic glass from its nascent, developable state to a curved or faceted and potentially complex shape.  Due to the extreme smallness of the only inherent length scales in the problem -- those governed by the Frank energies, of order ~10s of nm -- and the relative smallness of the practical length scales -- such as how thin a sheet may feasibly be manufactured, of order microns -- any such blueprinted sheet could be envisaged as useful in applications from remotely operable peristaltic pumps in microfluidic circuits to macroscopic shape adaptation.\n\nIn lieu of considering the full realm of all possible two-dimensional nematic director fields, we choose to concentrate instead on those textures that are \\textit{locally} simplest to pattern and hence most amenable to application.  The textures we allow, therefore, are either those with locally constant director field or those with a locally circular field; the use of masking in the preparation stages allows for regions of these types of textures to be joined with themselves, and with one another, to the desired effect.  Notice that, although the topological charge in the $+1$ director field is intimately related to the appearance of conical curvature in those textures, the rest of the zoo of the traditional types of disclination charges in 2D nematics is disallowed by this restriction, as the smoothly varying realizations of these defects that minimize the Frank energy are highly non-trivial to manifest in a controllable way for patterning, particularly in groups of more than one.  Furthermore, a simple symmetry argument shows that the emergent shape behavior of the smooth Frank-minimizing defects must exhibit more than simple point-like sources of Gaussian curvature.  Consider such a Frank-minimizing defect field of disclination charge $m$.  In the one-constant approximation this field may be defined simply by \\cite{deGennes}:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\phi = m\\theta + \\delta\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\phi$ is the director direction, $\\theta$ is the polar angle, and $\\delta$ is an arbitrary phase.  If we now locally rotate the director at each point by an amount $\\Delta \\phi$ the texture becomes $\\phi + \\Delta \\phi = m\\theta + \\delta$.  So long as $m \\neq 1$ this form may be recast as a global, solid-body rotation:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\phi - \\frac{\\Delta \\phi}{m-1} = m \\left( \\theta - \\frac{\\Delta \\phi}{m-1} \\right) + \\delta\n\\end{equation}\nimplying that local and global rotations for these defected textures are equivalent.  In particular, a local rotation of $\\pi\/2$ is \\textit{also} equivalent to interchanging the roles of heating and cooling, as the director and perpendicular directions are swapped (see remarks following Eq. \\ref{eq:def}).  Thus any shapes emergent from these textures must be the same up to solid-body rotations upon either heating or cooling from the flat state.  As a consequence, simple point charges of Gaussian curvature -- which produce rotationally distinct results upon heating and cooling -- are disallowed, and more complicated morphologies must result from smooth Frank-minimizing defects with $m \\neq 1$.  Indeed, by considering the metric tensor for the distorted space, $\\uuline{g} = \\uuline{\\lambda}^{T}  \\uuline{\\lambda}$, one may show that the Gaussian curvature is indeed distributed.  In the coordinates of the reference space, it is:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\kappa = \\frac{m(m-1) \\left(\\lambda^{2(1+\\nu)}-1\\right)}{r^2\\lambda^2}\\cos\\big[2(m-1)\\theta\\big]\n\\end{equation}\nfor a Frank-minimizing defect of charge $m$ \\cite{unpub}.\n\nIn their stead, we will construct ``piece-wise constant\" stand-ins that play the same role, and in so doing demonstrate that our restricted set of director patterns is enough to allow for the kind of active material blueprinting we seek.\n\nWe will take a constructionist view to the understanding of this class of textures and the way they can be combined with one another, first exploring possible component pieces and then synthesizing simple textures, and finally complicated combinations from them.  Hence, the basic building blocks of the larger, complete textures will be addressed in Section II, and an examination of the point-defected textures that can be constructed from them follows in Section III.  Section IV presents a guide to the intuition for the purposes of designing a switchable shape blueprint from multiple such constructed defects and then considers some examples of practically and theoretically relevant nematic glass textures that can be constructed through the combination of these point defects.  We conclude and discuss in Section V.\n\n\\section{Elemental Building Blocks for Point Defects}\\label{sect:blocks}\n\nFollowing this constructionist philosophy, we begin by considering the constituent pieces from which we will compose more interesting textures.  Since we expect to be able to fit these pieces together, initially, around a point to create a point-defected structure, we consider wedges of material with wedge angle, $\\theta$.  Under spontaneous strain, the wedges we consider will deform in a self-similar way with respect to their director pattern, possibly allowing for a change in $\\theta$.\n\n\\begin{figure}[!ht]\n\\centerline{\\includegraphics[width=9cm]{wedges.eps}}\n\\caption{Three representative textured wedges whose angular extent varies with imposed spontaneous strain.  The nematic director lies along the lines shown.  On the left, the nematic director lies along concentric circles and the texture is simply cut from one considered in previous work.  In the middle, the wedge contains a line of rank-1 connection of the nematic director and on the right the director is trivially aligned normal to the line bisecting the wedge angle.  All three cases may also occur with a director field perpendicular to that shown: radial director lines on the left, rank-1 connected with the cusp pointing away from the wedge tip and the director normal to the wedge boundaries in the middle, and with the director aligned along the wedge angle's bisector on the right.}\n\\label{fig:wedges}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsection{Slices of Cone\/Anti-cone Textures}\n\nThe first such wedge we consider is simply a slice taken from a pattern of concentric circles (Fig. \\ref{fig:wedges}, left).  The deformation and strain-response of a complete $2\\pi$ texture of such a ``wedge\" is well-characterized by the adoption of conical or anti-conical shapes \\cite{MBWPREr:10}, where in the conical case the Gaussian curvature is related to the resulting cone's opening angle by $K = 2\\pi(1-\\sin \\phi_c)$.  Since a point charge of Gaussian curvature can be thought of as an angular deficit or surplus around that point, we may expect that a partial wedge of this texture must exhibit a change in its wedge angle upon spontaneous strain.  Indeed, consider an arc of the material a distance $r$ from the wedge tip such that the director always lies along a tangent.  Initially, the length of this arc is simply $r\\theta$.  Because this arc always coincides with the director, after strain its new natural state will have a length of $s' =\\lambda r \\theta$.  Meanwhile, the radii to this arc from the tip of the wedge coincide with the perpendicular to the director, and hence, the new distance from wedge tip to arc is $r' = \\lambda^{-\\nu} r$.  The new wedge angle is thus:\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\theta'  = s'\/r' = \\lambda^{1+\\nu} \\theta\n\\end{equation}\n\nThis is consistent with the conclusions drawn about a full texture of concentric circles \\cite{MBWPREr:10} as taking $\\theta = 2\\pi$ here leads to an angular deficit, and hence Gaussian curvature, of $2\\pi(1 - \\lambda^{1+\\nu})$ as required.  Note also that this wedge texture may be replaced by one in which the director lies everywhere along radii emanating from the wedge tip and the director perpendiculars lie along concentric circles with no change in the conclusions other than a reversal of the effect of the strain, i.e. $\\theta' = \\lambda^{-1-\\nu} \\theta$.\n\n\\subsection{Rank-1 Connected Wedges}\n\n\\begin{figure}[!ht]\n\\centerline{\\includegraphics[width=7cm]{rank1-connected.eps}}\n\\caption{Rank-1 connection.  A disc of material is adorned with a rank-1 connected director pattern in (a), with the director field meeting the boundary of rank-1 connection with angle $\\alpha_0$.  Upon the application of spontaneous strain (b) the angle across this boundary must change to $\\alpha_1$, and the disc deforms to a stylized heart shape.}\n\\label{fig:rankone}\n\\end{figure}\n\nNext, we consider a wedge adorned with the director pattern shown in Figure \\ref{fig:wedges}, middle.  This ``rank-1 connected\" wedge is characterized by two regions of simple parallel director fields joined across the wedge-bisecting line (dashed line in Fig. \\ref{fig:wedges}).  Note that, in order for the resultant strains to be compatible, the angle at which each of the two separate regions meet the bisecting line must be the same \\cite{KBmicrostructure}.  This condition is known as rank-1 connectedness (Fig. \\ref{fig:rankone}a).  Note also, that if the wedge angle is $\\theta$, then by rank-1 connectedness the angle between the director and the bisecting line is $\\theta\/2$.  How does spontaneous strain affect such an object?  Consider a right triangle formed with the nematic director lying along one side, the director perpendicular lying along another, and the hypotenuse lying along the wedge-bisecting line.  The angle between the hypotenuse and the director side is, as just stated, $\\theta\/2$.  Prior to the imposition of spontaneous strain, let the length of the director side be $p$, and that of the director-perpendicular side, $q$.  After strain, these sides will deform simply to lengths of $\\lambda p$ and $\\lambda^{-\\nu} q$, respectively.  Therefore the new half-wedge angle is related to the original by:\n\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\tan(\\theta'\/2) = \\lambda^{-1-\\nu} \\tan(\\theta\/2) \\\\\n\\theta' = 2 \\tan^{-1} \\left( \\lambda^{-1-\\nu} \\tan(\\theta\/2) \\right)\n\\label{eq:r1wedge}\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\nAs in the case of the wedge textured with concentric circles, the spontaneous strain gives rise to a change in the angular extent of the wedge (Fig. \\ref{fig:rankone}b).  An initial flat state composed of $2\\pi$ radians worth of such wedges would hence develop an angular deficit or surplus after spontaneous strain and exhibit the conical (or anti-conical, respectively) behavior associated with a point charge of Gaussian curvature.  Note that a rank-1 connected wedge patterned with a director field perpendicular to that considered, such that the director is normal to the wedge boundaries, will distort its wedge angle in the opposite sense with respect to $\\lambda$: \n\\begin{equation}\n\\theta' = 2 \\tan^{-1} \\left( \\lambda^{1+\\nu} \\tan(\\theta\/2) \\right).\n\\end{equation}\n\n\\subsection{Triangle Wedges}\n\nFinally, consider the trivial, or ``triangle\" wedge pictured on the right of Figure \\ref{fig:wedges}, adorned entirely with one region of a simply parallel director field.  In this case, it is easy to see intuitively the the wedge angle must change under spontaneous strain, as, for example, the director lines shorten and the perpendicular lines elongate.  In order to quantify this intuition, consider again a right triangle, analogously to the middle case, but this time with vertex at the wedge tip, one side along the wedge-bisecting line (which coincides with the director perpendicular), one side along the director and the hypotenuse along the edge of the wedge.  The angle between the director-perpendicular side and the hypotenuse is now $\\theta\/2$ and the argument goes through as in the case of the rank-1 connected wedges with $\\lambda$ and $\\lambda^{\\nu}$ swapped.  Hence, we have: \n\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\tan(\\theta'\/2) = \\lambda^{1+\\nu} \\tan(\\theta\/2) \\\\\n\\theta' = 2 \\tan^{-1} \\left( \\lambda^{1+\\nu} \\tan(\\theta\/2) \\right)\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\nNote that another trivial wedge exists as a perpendicular version of the triangle wedge, where the wedge-bisecting line coincides with the director.  In this case, the roles of $\\lambda$ and $\\lambda^{-\\nu}$ are swapped \\textit{again} and the relation between $\\theta$ and $\\theta'$ becomes identical to that given by Eq. \\ref{eq:r1wedge}.\n\n\\section{Constructing Point Defects from Material Wedges}\\label{sect:points}\n\nWith these wedge-shaped building blocks in hand and an understanding of how they deform under the imposition of spontaneous strain it is a relatively straightforward matter to put together enough wedges to reach an angular extent of exactly $2\\pi$ at the shared tip in the unstrained state and hence construct a complete texture which exhibits a geometric (curvature) point defect under spontaneous strain.  There are, however, constraints -- namely, two wedges may only be stitched together if the nematic director field is the same on both sides of the boundary, or, if the boundary lies along a line of rank-1 connectedness in the director field.  Hence, a wedge adorned with concentric circles may not be joined directly to a radial wedge, nor a triangle wedge with angular extent $\\pi\/2$ to a triangle wedge with angular extent $\\pi\/4$, but a rank-1 connected wedge may be joined to another or a triangle wedge to one decorated with concentric circles.\n\nWe proceed by categorizing these constructed textures according to their corresponding disclination defect charge.  Note that, because many of the final textures will include at least one rank-1 connected border, the concept of a disclination defect is somewhat ambiguous -- when the angle of the director field changes discontinuously by an (apparent) amount $\\alpha$, it may instead be considered to have changed by an amount $\\alpha - \\pi$, or indeed, $\\alpha + n \\pi$ for any integer $n$.  In order to sidestep this ambiguity we will always consider the angle change across such a discontinuous boundary to be either the smallest positive or largest negative value available.  We will consider each of these two cases separately.  We assume that the particular choice of angle change is made consistently for textures with more than one such discontinuous boundary. \n\n\\subsection{$m < 0$ and Polygonal $m=1$ Defects}\n\n\\begin{figure}[!ht]\n\\centerline{\\includegraphics[width=6cm]{minushalf.eps}}\n\\caption{Nematic glass texture corresponding to a disclination defect of charge $-1\/2$, up to jump angle ambiguities.  The texture is composed of three rank-1 connected wedges each with an internal connection angle $\\pi\/3$.  Lines of rank-1 connection are illustrated as dashed, and thick gray lines mark wedge boundaries.}\n\\label{fig:minushalf}\n\\end{figure}\n\nAs noted above, stitching rank-1 connected wedges to one another is permitted by our constraints, and so one of the most straightforward available $2\\pi$ constructions is to simply take $n$ congruent rank-1 connected wedges, each of angular extent $2\\pi\/n$, and stitch them together.  The resulting complete texture qualitatively resembles a disclination defect of charge $1-n\/2$ for $n \\geq 3$ and indeed, by consistently choosing to assign the negative-valued angle change across the rank-1 connected boundaries, this is precisely the disclination charge of the texture (see Fig. \\ref{fig:minushalf} for a $m=-1\/2$ example).  The spontaneous strain induced deformations of such a texture may be directly calculated from the behavior of the constituent wedges.  Conveniently, all these wedges are congruent for this texture and we immediately arrive at a total angular deficit, and hence Gaussian curvature, of:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\Delta \\theta_{tot} = K_n = 2\\pi - 2n \\tan^{-1} \\left( \\lambda^{-1-\\nu} \\tan(\\pi\/n) \\right)\n\\end{equation} \nconcentrated at the point in the middle of the texture where all of the wedge tips meet.  \n\nNotice, on the other hand, that had we chosen to assign the positive-valued angle change at all the discontinuous boundaries, we could have concluded that all these textures, regardless of $n$, have disclination charge $+1$.  This is intuitive as well, as consideration of the perpendicular field to the director field described above give a texture of concentric regular polygons, qualitatively very reminiscent of the concentric circles of a traditional $+1$ disclination defect.  From our constructivist point of view, this new texture could have been composed from scratch by stitching together $n$ triangle wedges of angular extent $2\\pi\/n$.  Unsurprisingly, the total angular deficit produced by this structure -- as can consistently seen by either combining $n$ triangle wedges or swapping the roles of the director and perpendicular in the texture considered above -- is given by:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\Delta \\theta_{tot} = K_n = 2\\pi - 2n \\tan^{-1} \\left( \\lambda^{1+\\nu} \\tan(\\pi\/n) \\right).\n\\label{eq:square}\n\\end{equation} \nFurthermore, as $n$ tends to $\\infty$ we identically recover a $+1$ disclination defect texture from our concentric polygons.  As required, $ \\displaystyle \\lim_{n \\rightarrow \\infty} K_n = 2\\pi (1-\\lambda^{1+\\nu})$ \\cite{MBWPREr:10}.  Likewise, the same limit taken for the texture composed of congruent rank-1 connected wedges recovers a radial $+1$ disclination defect texture, and the limiting value of the Gaussian curvature also matches as appropriate.\n\nA concrete example, $n=4$  --- the square representation of an $m=1$ defect, Fig.~\\ref{fig:conedpyramid}(a), serves to show that all such polygonal $+1$ defects must give 3-D structures that relax into circular cones because the bend energy is convex.\n\\begin{figure}[!ht]\n\\centerline{\\includegraphics[width=8cm]{pyramid-relax-b.eps}}\n\\caption{(a) A square representation of a $m = 1$ defect. (b) Ignoring bend energy, on cooling the defect rises to being a pyramidal cone.  (c) Relieving the bend energy of the creased edges of the pyramid yields a circular cone, where the integral lines of $\\vec{n}$ are the cusped trajectories shown.}\n\\label{fig:conedpyramid}\n\\end{figure}\nIgnoring the cost of bend, we expect the $n=4$ sided defect to rise into a square pyramidal cone, Fig.~\\ref{fig:conedpyramid}(b).  The Gaussian curvature localised at the vertex is $K_4 = 2\\pi\\left(1 -\\frac{4}{\\pi} \\tan^{-1}(\\lambda^{1+\\nu})\\right)$ from Eq.~(\\ref{eq:square}).  On heating there is a contraction along lines such as $\\text{AC} = L \\rightarrow \\text{A'C'} = \\lambda L$ and elongation along $\\text{OB} = L \\rightarrow \\text{O'B'} = \\lambda^{-\\nu} L$.  Considering the triangle $\\text{O'OB'}$ (where $\\text{OB'} = \\text{A'C'}$) then $\\phi_p = \\sin^{-1}(\\text{OB'}\/\\text{O'B'}) = \\sin^{-1}(\\lambda^{1+\\nu})$ is the pyramidal opening angle.  We note  the line length $\\text{O'C'} = \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{2}} (\\lambda^2 + \\lambda^{-2\\nu})^{{\\textstyle \\frac{1}{2}}} \\text{OC} = (\\lambda^2 + \\lambda^{-2\\nu})^{{\\textstyle \\frac{1}{2}}}L$ since the line $\\text{OC}$ is at an angle $\\pi\/4$ with respect to $\\vec{n}$ (rotate $\\matr{\\lambda} $ by $\\pi\/4$).  Note that the $n = \\infty$, i.e. circular, form of the $m=1$ defect gives circular cones of the same opening angle, $\\phi_{\\infty} = \\sin^{-1}(\\lambda^{1+\\nu})$.\n\nHowever the pyramidal cone has its bend localised into 4 creases emanating from the vertex $\\text{O}'$.  Since the bend energy density is a quadratic function of the curvature, this convexity dictates that the energy  be reduced by delocalising the curvature over the whole surface of the cone, that is by forming a circular cone, Fig.~\\ref{fig:conedpyramid}(c).  The integral lines of the director are not concentric circles centred on the tip, but are cusped lines. Lengths from the tip to the integral curves include $L(\\lambda^2 + \\lambda^{-2\\nu})^{{\\textstyle \\frac{1}{2}}}$ to cusps at points like $\\text{C}'$, and $L\\lambda^{-\\nu}$ to points $\\text{A}'$, $\\text{B}'$ etc.  Comparing the Gaussian curvature $K_4$ (which does not change on relaxation from the pyramid) with that of a circular cone of opening angle $\\phi_c$, i.e. with $K_c = 2\\pi(1-\\sin\\phi_c)$, we have for the opening angle of the relaxed circular cone $\\phi_c = \\sin^{-1}\\left[ \\frac{4}{\\pi}\\tan^{-1}(\\lambda^{1+\\nu})\\right]$ which is indeed flat, $\\phi_c = \\pi\/2$, when $\\lambda = 1$.\n\n\\subsection{$m = +1\/2$ Defects}\n\n\\begin{figure}[!ht]\n\\centerline{\\includegraphics[width=7cm]{halfstad.eps}}\n\\caption{Nematic glass textures corresponding to a disclination defect of charge $+1\/2$, up to jump angle ambiguities.  The texture on the left, a hemi-stadium, is composed of a cone-textured `wedge' subtending an angle $\\pi$ and a trivial `triangle' wedge subtending the remaining $\\pi$.  The texture on the right is composed of two rank-1 connected wedges subtending $\\pi\/2$ each, and a trivial wedge subtending the remaining $\\pi$ radians.  In both cases lines of rank-1 connection are denoted by a dashed line and wedge boundaries by thick gray lines.}\n\\label{fig:halfstad}\n\\end{figure}\n\nBy making use of wedges textured with concentric circle director patterns, we may also construct a  version of a $+1\/2$ charged disclination, reminiscent of a half-stadium, with the available constituent wedges (Fig. \\ref{fig:halfstad}, left).  Here the region of the texture adorned with constant director field aligned perpendicular to the joining boundary, subtending $\\pi$ radians, does not change its angular extent upon being strained.  The other half of the texture, composed of concentric half-circles, undergoes an angular change of $\\pi(1 - \\lambda^{1+\\nu})$, and hence this is the total curvature generated at the defect point of the texture:\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\Delta \\theta_{tot} = K = \\pi(1 - \\lambda^{1+\\nu}).\n\\end{equation}\nleading to a cone opening angle in the final, deformed state for this texture of $\\sin \\phi_c = {\\textstyle \\frac{1}{2}} (1+\\lambda^{1+\\nu})$.\n\nMore discrete, piece-wise constant versions of this texture may be constructed as well, in much the same way as the concentric regular polygon analogs of a smooth $+1$ texture discussed previously (Fig. \\ref{fig:halfstad}, right).  In this case, we again start with a $\\pi$-radian region of constant director field aligned normal to the joining boundary.  Instead of joining across the boundary with a semi circular pattern, we join to a semi-polygonal pattern, obtained by slicing an \\textit{even}-sided polygonal $+1$ in half through its defect, normal to a pair of its polygonal sides.  An even-sided polygon is required to ensure that opposite component wedges may have their director field aligned parallel, and hence join smoothly with the other, constant field region.  Since, by construction, we may cut such a texture into pieces we have already dealt with, the curvature is simply half that of a full concentric-polygonal texture:\n\n\\begin{equation}\n\\Delta \\theta_{tot} = K_n = \\pi - n \\tan^{-1} \\left( \\lambda^{1+\\nu} \\tan(\\pi\/n) \\right)\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $n$ is the number of sides of a \\textit{complete} polygon, not just the number present on the polygonal side of the texture.  As pointed out above, $n$ must be even as well.\n\n\\subsection{$m > 1$ Defects}\n\nWe have demonstrated that our simple basis set of wedges allows for the construction of many of the possible disclination point defects, all such with charge $\\leq 1$.  The rest of the possible disclinated director fields, with charge $\\geq 3\/2$, may not be realized with our piece-wise constant components.  In order to understand why this is so, consider the feasibility of promoting our 2D nematic textures to a 2D smectic-A state.  It is now a necessary condition for the smectic-A phase that develops to be in a local minimum of the free energy that the smectic layers must be allowed to adopt a constant inter-layer spacing \\cite{deGennes}.  Because each of our component wedges either have a locally constant director field, or are decorated with regions of concentric circles, they are compatible with these requirements and are thus, in principle, compatible with smectic layers.  On the other hand, smectic textures are \\textit{incompatible} with disclination charges greater than one \\cite{Mermin79}, which necessarily lead to a divergent layer-compression energy.  Hence construction of these higher disclination defects with these simple wedge components is disallowed.\n\n\\subsection{Charge-Free Bending Defects}\n\n\\begin{figure}[!ht]\n\\centerline{\\includegraphics[width=6cm]{benddef.eps}}\n\\caption{Nematic glass texture corresponding to a geometric point defect without associated topological disclination charge, resulting from a stepwise ``smoothing\" of a discontinuous bend in the nematic director direction.  The texture is composed of three rank-1 connected wedges -- one with connection angle $\\theta$ and two each with connection angle $\\frac{\\pi}{4} - \\frac{\\theta}{2}$. The remaining $\\pi$ radians are accounted for a pair of $\\pi\/2$ trivial regions.  Lines of rank-1 connection are denoted by a dashed line and wedge boundaries by thick gray lines.}\n\\label{fig:benddef}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThus far, we have constructed complete textures from our simple constituent wedges designed to generate an angular surplus or deficit, and hence Gaussian curvature, by creating disclination defects.  As it happens, point-sources of curvature may result in other ways.  These new point-sources arise from a step-wise smoothing of the discontinuous director-field bending associated with a line of rank-one connection.  We have chosen to name these textures ``charge-free bending defects\" (Fig. \\ref{fig:benddef}), where here `charge' refers to disclination charge and `defect' to a curvature defect.  By calculating the angular change that results from each of the five wedges, we arrive at a formula for the curvature.  For an initial rank-one line whose director lines meet the boundary at an angle $\\theta$:\n\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\Delta \\theta_{tot} &=& K = \\pi - 2\\bigg(\\tan^{-1} \\left[ \\lambda^{-1-\\nu} \\tan \\theta \\right] \\nonumber \\\\ \n&+& 2\\tan^{-1} \\left[ \\lambda^{1+\\nu} \\tan \\left( \\frac{\\pi}{4} - \\frac{\\theta}{2} \\right) \\right]\\bigg).\n\\end{eqnarray}\n\nNote that, despite the complicated form taken, the limiting value for $\\lambda = 1$ remains appropriately $K=0$.  Furthermore, the overall strength of the curvature generated by one of these charge-free bending defects is somewhat less than that seen in the disclinated director fields treated earlier, as there are counterbalancing terms in the strain present.  Finally, it is worth pointing out that the limit $\\theta \\rightarrow 0$ recovers a discrete $+1\/2$ disclination defect, as the bend becomes so strong that the initial rank-one boundary disappears altogether.  Accordingly, a different choice of angle-change accounting across that boundary for the `charge-free' case leads to a disclination charge of $+1\/2$.\n\n\\subsection{Generalizations and Exotica}\n\n\\begin{figure}[!ht]\n\\centerline{\\includegraphics[width=9cm]{exotica.eps}}\n\\caption{Nematic glass textures corresponding to more exotic combinations of the fundamental wedges, each leading to a geometric curvature defect after spontaneous strain is imposed.  First, radially-textured wedges join rank-1 connected zones.  Second, a variant of the ``half-stadium\" representation of a $+1\/2$ charge disclination with closed director lines.  Third, a variant of the $-1\/2$ disclination with unequal wedge angles.   In all cases, lines of rank-1 connection are denoted by a dashed line and wedge boundaries by thick gray lines.}\n\\label{fig:exotica}\n\\end{figure}\n\nBeyond simple reconstruction of topological charges or bend-smoothing, there is a plethora of variants supported by the available building-block wedges.  One might use the heretofore unused radial version of the concentric circular arc texture to bridge the gap between smaller rank-one connected wedges (Fig. \\ref{fig:exotica}, left).  One can distort a $+1\/2$ by increasing or reducing the region covered by concentric arcs and plug up the difference with rank-one connected wedges instead of a trivial constant piece as in the hemistadium $+1\/2$ (Fig. \\ref{fig:exotica}, middle).  Or one might consider playing with the relative sizes of the regions in one of the piece-wise constant, negatively charged disclination textures (Fig. \\ref{fig:exotica}, right).  This last one turns out to be of particular use in the blueprinting scheme that follows in the next section.\n\n\\section{Blueprinting with Combinations of Point Defects: Texture and Shape}\\label{sect:textures}\n\nHaving demonstrated all the ways in which our piecewise-constant buliding-block wedges may be combined to produced curvature effects, we are now in a position to consider higher level combinations, that is, combining multiple such points of curvature to achieve a desired shape.  In order to match multiple point defects together in a single texture using the building blocks at hand is simply a matter of allowing finite polygonal patches in the texture in addition to the infinite wedges discussed earlier.  These finite polygons are again restricted to be adorned by piece-wise constant director fields, and again must be linked to one another, and to any wedges, by rank-one connected boundaries.  In this case, the grouping of polygonal vertices plays the same role as wedge tips in generating curvature.  As such, there is an enormous range of possible morphologies that can emerge from the union of several such points of curvature, corresponding to the myriad ways of tiling the plane with (potentially irregular) polygons and infinitely extended regions.\n\nIn order to guide the potential design of blueprints for these nematic glass sheets, it is worth noting that, due to the restriction of the allowed director patterns on the constituent pieces, treating the integral lines of the director field as the contour lines of a topographic map of the target shape is always a stress-free solution.  This is because the simple piece-wise textures chosen may always conform to any imposed spontaneous strain by adding a $z$ component to the distance between director field integral lines.  More abstractly, this is a manifestation of the fact that, by construction, our textures are allowable 2D smectics, and 2D smectics may be represented as multiply leaved height functions through their phase field \\cite{Kamien}.  As discussed in Section \\ref{sect:points} on comparing pyrmidal or cone-like outcomes for the concentric polygon texture, the primary reason a texture may not adopt this contour-line-like solution is the desire to minimize the bending energy once the metric is satisfied and stress is eliminated.  In a texture with many defect points, however, it becomes impossible to simply freely choose a bending minimum relative to one defect without imposing costly stretch at another.  In this case, the final shape will more closely resemble the topographic map as the overall minimum energy will require balancing (relatively cheap) bend costs against (relatively expensive) stretch.  The more defects present, the more closely the final shape will hew to the topographic realization, as there is ever more of a potential stretch price to bear.  \n\nA simple example of this principle is a texture in which the plane is simply tiled by regular squares, each one containing a concentric-square pattern and polygonal $+1$ defect a the center.  The vertices of this tiling correspond to $-1$ defects.  If each of the individual $+1$ defects became smooth cones, as is the case if they were isolated, then stretch penalties proliferate all along their boundaries.  Instead, they retain a pyramid shape, and the overall texture becomes an array of pyramids.  Interestingly, the bend energy still has a role to play here: these pyramids may grow up out of the plane or down from it, and the minimization of the bend energy leads to an anti-ferromagnetic Ising model interaction on the up\/downess of the pyramids.  The final shape is thus a pyramidal square egg-crate.  Of course, if we had chosen to tile the plane with hexagons instead, then the anti-ferromagnetic Ising model interaction is frustrated and a multitude of degenerate ground states ensue.  \n\n\\subsection{True Blueprinting: An Emergent Pyramid}\n\n\\begin{figure}[!ht]\n\\centerline{\\includegraphics[width=9cm]{pyramids_decorated.eps}}\n\\caption{A simple example of a blueprinted shape, a pyramid flanked by a square crumple pattern.  The director field blueprint is shown on the left: it is distinguished from the simple cone-producing concentric square texture by a $\\pm 1\/2$ disclination pair, seen in blown-up.  The presence of these extra defects manifests as a terminated trough on one corner of the pyramid that subsequently spirals around repeatedly -- contour blow-up, right hand side; darker shading corresponds to lower elevation.}\n\\label{fig:pyramids}\n\\end{figure}\n\nIn the spirit of the egg-crate morphology discussed above, we wish to present a simple example of the manner in which the director field may be used to blueprint a sheet of nematic glass in order to realize a desired shape.  In addition, we wish to demonstrate that a non-trivial blueprinted object is achievable with a only a small number of simple masking steps in the preparation stage.  Consider a texture of concentric squares with a piece-wise constant $\\pm 1\/2$ pair situated some distance from the central defect along one of the lines of rank-one connection (Fig. \\ref{fig:pyramids}, left and blow-up detail).  Such a texture is easy to prepare, requiring only four steps and masking boundaries that are simple straight lines or one with a small zig-zag that seeds the $\\pm 1\/2$ pair.  Ignoring the effect of bend energy minimization in the thin sheet, this texture will produce a classic pyramid rising above a flat plane that has been weakly crumpled into a shallow spiraling moat (Fig \\ref{fig:pyramids}, right).  As can be seen in close-up detail (Fig. \\ref{fig:pyramids}, right blow-up), the half charge disclination dipole produces the interior terminus of the spiraling moat.  Accounting for the effect of the bend energy will lead to some smoothing of the creases near the pyramid tip, and a gradual fading of the moat into a conical skirt far from the defect dipole.  Both of these effects can be dampened by the inclusion of more defect dipoles, for example at the other three corners of the pyramid, which in this case does not increase the complication of the preparation -- in fact it is simpler, as only one mask boundary need be used.\n\n\\section{Discussion}\n\nWe have shown how a thin sheet of nematic glass may be prepared with simple to understand and produce constituent regions of texture that work together to create an actively switchable, pre-programmable shape change, including the development of multiple points of Gaussian curvature in concert.  Such an actively transformable sheet is theoretically realizable with features at any length scale above that dominated by the Frank energies -- tens of nm -- and already possible at the micron scale, leading to a host of possible applications.  It is our fervent hope that this new tool inspires clever new device design that fulfills the strong potential of nematic glasses.\n\nThe authors would like to thank Dick Broer and Carlos Sanchez for stimulating discussions.  C.D.M. and M.W. acknowledge support from the EPSRC-GB.\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
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+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\nThe discovery of the Higgs boson at the LHC has marked a major step for our understanding of particle physics, and for the construction of the Higgs sector of new physics scenarios. Direct searches for new particles are currently actively persued at the LHC, in particular in the context of supersymmetry (SUSY). No new physics signal has been discovered so far, implying that new physics should be subtle or heavy. Therefore, indirect constraints are at the moment of utmost importance. The measurements of the properties of the Higgs boson can provide in this respect very strong constraints on new physics scenarios. The measurement of its mass at 125 GeV \\cite{Tanabashi:2018oca} is very constraining for supersymmetry, because the Higgs mass can receive large corrections from the stop sector, and has a large impact on the SUSY parameter space~\\cite{Arbey:2011ab}. In the following, we will discuss the status of the Higgs sector of the phenomenological MSSM.\nTo do so, we perform random scans on the 19 parameters of the pMSSM, following the procedures detailled in~\\cite{Arbey:2011un}. In particular, we use a master program based on SuperIso~\\cite{Mahmoudi:2008tp}, generate the MSSM spectra with SOFTSUSY~\\cite{Allanach:2001kg} and compute the Higgs boson decay widths and couplings with HDECAY~\\cite{Djouadi:1997yw}. We keep only the parameter points where the lightest supersymmetric particle is a neutralino (constituting a dark matter candidate) and a light Higgs mass of $125\\pm3$ GeV.\n\n\n\\section{Higgs coupling measurements and SUSY direct searches}\n\nWe first study the interplay of the measurement of the Higgs boson properties and of the results of the SUSY direct searches. We impose the LEP constraints on the SUSY masses \\cite{Tanabashi:2018oca}. To assess the constraints from SUSY searches at the LHC, we generate events with PYTHIA \\cite{Sjostrand:2014zea}, simulate the detector with Delphes \\cite{deFavereau:2013fsa} and obtain constraints from ATLAS and CMS results with 36 fb$^{-1}$~\\cite{Ventura:2017itv} for gluino and squark, neutralino and chargino, stop and sbottom, and monojet searches. For the Higgs measurements, we consider that there are 6 independent effective Higgs couplings, to the photons $\\kappa_\\gamma$, gluons $\\kappa_g$, vector bosons $\\kappa_V$, tops $\\kappa_t$, bottoms $\\kappa_b$ and taus $\\kappa_\\tau$. We combined the ATLAS and CMS measurements of the Higgs couplings at 7+8 TeV \\cite{Khachatryan:2016vau} and 13 TeV \\cite{Brandstetter:2018eju}, and to check if a point is consistent with these measurements, we use a $\\chi^2$ test and keep only points in agreement at 95\\% C.L. In Figure \\ref{figcoups}, we present the photon, gluon and bottom squared coupling distributions as a function of $M_{A}$, applying different sets of constraints. All the shown couplings are sensitive to $M_A$, in addition to other SUSY parameters which modify the couplings at loop level. In particular, the photon and gluon couplings are sensitive to the stop and sbottom masses. The bottom coupling is modified by the $\\Delta_b$ corrections \\cite{Djouadi:2005gj}. We see that the combination of the direct searches and Higgs measurements strongly restricts the coupling values to be close to 1. Since the different couplings are related to SUSY masses, these results can be used to obtain constraints on the pMSSM parameters.\n\n\\begin{figure}[t!]\n\\begin{center}\n\\hspace*{-0.5cm}\\includegraphics[width=.35\\textwidth]{Kgamma2_MA_2.png}\\includegraphics[width=.35\\textwidth]{Kgluon2_MA_2.png}\\includegraphics[width=.35\\textwidth]{Kb2_MA_2.png}\\vspace*{-0.5cm}\n\\end{center}\n\\caption{Distributions of the squared light scalar Higgs couplings to photons (left), gluons (center) and bottoms (right), as a function of $M_{A}$ in the pMSSM. The grey points correspond to all points with $M_h\\sim125$ GeV, the red ones pass in addition the LEP constraints, the blue points are also consistent with LHC SUSY direct searches and the green points are compatible with Higgs coupling measurements.\\label{figcoups}}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\section{Heavy Higgs direct searches and Higgs coupling measurements}\n\nAnother way to constrain the Higgs sector is through searches for heavier Higgs states. We use HDECAY~\\cite{Djouadi:1997yw} and SusHi~\\cite{Harlander:2012pb} to compute the heavy Higgs decay rates and production cross-sections, respectively, and apply the ATLAS and CMS heavy Higgs search limits \\cite{Schaarschmidt:2018ask}. We compare the exclusion from the Higgs coupling measurements to the one from heavy Higgs searches in Figure~\\ref{figheavy}, which reveals the important interplay between the light Higgs coupling measurements and the heavy Higgs search limits: While $(M_A,\\tan\\beta)$ is very strongly constrained by $H\/A \\to \\tau^+\\tau^-$ searches, the $(M_{\\tilde{b}_1},X_b)$ and $(M_2,\\mu)$ parameter planes are more constrained by the Higgs coupling measurements.\n\n\\begin{figure}[h!]\n\\begin{center}\n\\hspace*{-0.5cm}\\includegraphics[width=.35\\textwidth]{tanb_MA_fractionexcluded_higgscouplings.png}\\includegraphics[width=.35\\textwidth]{MSBOT1_Xb_fractionexcluded_higgscouplings.png}\\includegraphics[width=.35\\textwidth]{M2_Mu_fractionexcluded_higgscouplings.png}\\\\\n\\hspace*{-0.5cm}\\includegraphics[width=.35\\textwidth]{tanb_MA_fractionexcluded_lhcheavyhiggs.png}\\includegraphics[width=.35\\textwidth]{MSBOT1_Xb_fractionexcluded_lhcheavyhiggs.png}\\includegraphics[width=.35\\textwidth]{M2_Mu_fractionexcluded_lhcheavyhiggs.png}\n\\caption{Fraction of excluded points by Higgs coupling measurements (top) and heavy Higgs searches (bottom), in the $(M_A,\\tan\\beta)$ (left), $(M_{\\tilde{b}_1},X_b=A_b-\\mu\\times\\tan\\beta)$ (center) and $(M_2,\\mu)$ (right) parameter planes.\\label{figheavy}}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\section{Prospects for the MSSM Higgs sector}\n\n\\begin{table}[t!]\n\\begin{center}\n\n\\begin{tabular}{|c|cc|cc|cc|}\n  \\hline\n  & $M_A ({\\rm GeV})$ & $\\tan\\beta$ & $M_A ({\\rm GeV})$ & $\\tan\\beta$ & $M_A ({\\rm GeV})$ & $\\tan\\beta$ \\\\ \\hline\n Original parameters & 334.9 & 9.9 & 427.3 & 5.7 & 657.2 & 12.7\\\\\nHL-LHC recontruction & 394$\\pm$40 & 9.6$\\pm$4.0 & 471$^{+341}_{-56}$ & - & - & -\\\\\nILC recontruction & 351$\\pm$23 & 9.2$\\pm$1.9 & 460$^{+54}_{-45}$ & 10.4$^{+6}_{-4}$ & 747.7$^{+302}_{-97}$ & 10.2$^{+20}_{-4}$\\\\\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}~\\\\[0.1cm]\n\\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|c|c|}\n\\hline\nOriginal $\\mu \\tan\\beta~({\\rm TeV})$ &  $-149.9$ & $-86.6$  & 0 &  79.6 & 108.6 \\\\ \\hline\n ILC recontruction & $-76.3^{+28}_{-39}$ & $-124.6^{+46}_{-60}$ & $-2.2\\pm22$ &  67.2$^{+39}_{-22}$& 82.5$^{+40}_{-22}$ \\\\\n\\hline\n\\end{tabular}\n\\caption{Reconstruction potential of different pMSSM scenarios with HL-LHC and ILC projections.\\label{tabfuture}}\n\\end{center}\n\\end{table}\n\n\n\nWe now study the prospects for the high-luminosity LHC (HL-LHC) run and ILC \\cite{Moortgat-Picka:2015yla}, by considering the possibility to reconstruct specific scenarios using the Higgs coupling measurements. We test two categories of scenarios: the first one where only $M_A$ and $\\tan\\beta$ are varied, and the second where $\\mu \\tan\\beta$ is modified. We assume the accuracy reached when the ILC collects 1 ab$^{-1}$ of luminosity at energies between 350 and 800 GeV. Table~\\ref{tabfuture} summarises our results for several example scenarios (some at the limit of being excluded by current searches). We can conclude that the HL-LHC alone would allow us to reconstruct CP-odd Higgs masses up to 500 GeV. For higher masses, or for scenarios with modified $\\mu \\tan\\beta$, the ILC will be necessary to identify the underlying parameters of the scenario.\n\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction and main result}\n\n\nA \\emph{circuit} is defined to be a $2$-regular $2$-connected graph. A \\emph{circuit double cover} (CDC) of a cubic graph $G$ is a set $S$ of circuits of $G$ such that every edge of $G$ is covered by exactly two circuits of $S$. A $2$-regular subgraph $D$ of $G$ is said to be contained in $S$ if every circuit of $D$ is an element of $S$. \n\n\nA cubic graph $G$ with a $2$-factor $F_2$ which consists of two chordless circuits is called a \\emph{cycle permutation graph} and\n$F_2$ is called the \\emph{permutation $2$-factor} of $G$. If $G$ is also a snark, then we say $G$ is a \\emph{permutation snark}.\nThe Petersen graph has been for a long time the only known cyclically $5$-edge connected permutation snark.\nIn \\cite{Br} twelve new cyclically $5$-edge connected permutation snarks have been discovered by computer search. Here, we present the first infinite family of cyclically $5$-edge connected permutation snarks.  \n\n\n\nWe state the main theorem, see Theorem \\ref{!!} and Corollary \\ref{wichtig}. \n\n\n\\begin{theorem}\n For every $n \\in \\mathbb N$, there is a cyclically $5$-edge connected permutation snarks $G$ of order $10+24n$. Moreover, $G$ has a permutation $2$-factor which is not contained in any CDC of $G$.\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\n\nApplying the above theorem we obtain infinitely many counterexamples to the following conjectures. \n\n\n\n\n\\begin{conjecture}\\label{c2}\\cite{Z1}\nLet $G$ be a cyclically $5$-edge-connected cycle permutation graph. If $G$ is a snark, then $G$ must be the Petersen graph.\n\\end{conjecture}\n\n\n\\begin{conjecture}\\label{c1}\\cite{F}\nIf $G$ is an essentially $6$-edge-connected $4$-regular\ngraph with a transition system $T$, then $(G, T)$ has no compatible cycle \ndecomposition if and only if $(G, T)$ is the bad loop or the bad $K_5$.\n\\end{conjecture}\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{conjecture}\\label{c4} \\cite{BJ, Z1} \nLet $G$ be a cyclically $5$-edge-connected cubic graph and $D$ be a set of pairwise disjoint circuits of $G$. Then $D$ is a\nsubset of a CDC, unless $G$ is the Petersen graph.\n\\end{conjecture}\n\n\n\\begin{conjecture}\\label{c5} \\cite{Z1} \nLet $G$ be a cycle permutation graph with the cordless circuits $C_1$ and $C_2$ where $C_1 \\cup C_2$ is a 2-factor. If $G$ is cyclically $5$-edge-connected\nand there is no CDC which includes both $C_1$ and $C_2$, then $G$ must be the Petersen graph.\n\\end{conjecture}\n\n\nNote that finitely many counterexamples to the above conjectures were found in \\cite{Br} by computer search.\n\n\n\n\\section{Definitions and proofs}\nWe refer to \\cite {Z1} for the definition of a multitpole and an half-edge.\nMoreover, for terminology not defined here we refer to \\cite{Bo}. We use a more general definition of a CDC than the one stated in the introduction. \n\n\n\\begin{definition}\\label{pcdc}\nWe say a set $S=\\{A_1,A_2,...,A_m\\}$ is a path circuit double cover (PCDC) of a graph $G$ if the the following is true\n\n\n1. $A_i$ is a subgraph of $G$ where every component of $A_i$ is either a circuit or a path with both endvertices being vertices of degree $1$ in $G$, $ \\forall \\,i \\in \\{1,2,...,m\\}$.  \n\n\n2. $\\sum_{i=1}^m |e \\cap E(A_i)|=2 \\,\\,\\, \\forall \\,e \\in E(G)$. \n\n\\end{definition}\n\n\n\n\nIf no $A_i$ contains a path as a component, then we call $S$ a \\emph{CDC} of $G$ and if $|S|=k$, then we call $S$ a \\emph{$k$-CDC} of $G$. Obviously, a PCDC is a CDC if $G$ contains no vertex of degree $1$. For a survey on CDC's, see \\cite{Z1,Z2}.\n\n\n\nLater we need the following known lemma \\cite{Z1}.\n\n\\begin{lemma}\\label{bla}\nLet $G$ be a $3$-edge colorable cubic graph and $D$ be a $2$-regular subgraph of $G$. Then $G$ has a $4$-CDC $S$ with $D \\in S$.  \n\\end{lemma}\n\n\n\\begin{definition}\nLet $A \\in S $ be given where $S$ is a PCDC of a graph $G$. Let $e$ be an half-edge or edge of $A$, then $[e]$ denotes the \nunique element of $S$ which contains $e$ and which is not $A$. We say $[\\,]$ refers to $A$.\n\\end{definition}\n\n\n\n\\begin{definition}\\label{c5}\nLet $Q^i$ with $i \\in \\{1,2,...,4\\}$ be a cyclically $5$-edge connected permutation snark with a permutation $2$-factor $F^i$ such that $F^i$ is not contained in any CDC of $Q^i$. The two circuits of $F^i$ are denoted by $C^i_1$ and $C^i_2$. We may assume w.l.o.g. that $C^i_1$ ($C^i_2$) contains a subpath which has the following vertices in the following consecutive order: $x^i_1$, $x^i_2$, $z^i_2$, $x^i_6$ ($x^i_4$, $z^i_1$, $x^i_5$), such that $z^i_1z^i_2 \\in E(Q^i)$.\n\\end{definition}\n\n\n\\begin{definition}\nLet $\\widetilde{ Q }^{i}$ be the graph which is obtained from $Q^i$ by removing the edge $x^i_1x^i_2$, the vertices \n$z^i_1$, $z^i_2$ and by adding the vertex $y^i_j$, $j=1,2,...,6$ and the edges \n$e^i_3:=x^i_2y^i_3$, $e^i_s:=x^i_sy^i_s$, $s=1,2,4,5,6$, see Figure 1. \n\\end{definition}\n\n\n\nBy an \\emph{end-edge} of a graph $G$, we mean an edge which is incident with a vertex of $G$ with degree $1$ in $G$. \n\n\\begin{definition}\\label{A}\nThe six end-edges of $\\widetilde{Q}^i$ together with the remaining edges of $F^i$ in $Q^i$ induce the following three paths in $\\widetilde{Q}^i$:\nthe path $A^i_1$ with end-edges $e^i_1$ and $e^i_6$,\nthe path $A^i_2$ with end-edges $e^i_4$ and $e^i_5$ and the path $A^i_3$ with end-edges $e^i_2$ and $e^i_3$.\nMoreover, set $A^i:= A^i_1 \\cup A^i_2 \\cup A^i_3$ and $\\mathbb A^i := \\{A^i_1, A^i_2, A^i_3 \\}$.\n \\end{definition}\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[htpb]\n\\centering\\epsfig{file=Aiii.eps,width=3.2in}\n\\caption{The graph $\\widetilde{Q}^i$, $i \\in \\{1,2,3,4\\}$.} \\label{color1}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\nWe recall that $[\\,]$ refers to the given element of a PCDC or CDC. We need the following propositions and lemmas for proving Theorem \\ref{!!}. \n\n\n\n\\begin{proposition}\\label{qa}\nLet $\\widetilde{Q}^i$ and $A^i$ with $i \\in \\{1,2,...,4\\}$ be defined as above.\nThen every PCDC $S$ of $\\widetilde{Q}^i$ with $A^i \\in S$ satisfies the following\n\n\n$(1)\\,\\,$ If $[e^i_4] \\not= [e^i_5]$, then $[e^i_1] \\not\\in \\{[e^i_2],[e^i_3]\\}$. If $[e^i_1] \\in \\{[e^i_2],[e^i_3]\\}$, then $[e^i_4] = [e^i_5]$.\\\\\n$(2)\\,\\,$ $[e^i_2]\\not=[e^i_3]$.\n\\end{proposition}\n\n\n\n\n\nProof. Suppose by contradiction that one of the two conclusions of $(1)$ is not fulfilled. Then $S$ implies a CDC of $Q^i$ containing $F^i$ which contradicts the definition of $Q^i$. If $(2)$ is not fulfilled, then the edge $e \\not\\in A^i_3$ which is incident with $x^i_2$ cannot be covered \nby $S$ which is impossible. Hence, the proof is finished. \n\n\n\n\\begin{corollary}\\label{ww}\nLet $S$ with $A^i \\in S$ be a PCDC of $\\widetilde{Q}^i$ with $i \\in \\{1,2,...,4\\}$. If $[e^i_4] \\not= [e^i_5]$, then\n\n\n$(1)\\,\\,$ $|\\{[e^i_1],[e^i_2],[e^i_3]\\}|=|\\{[e^i_4],[e^i_5],[e^i_6]\\}|=3$.\\\\\n$(2)\\,\\,$ $|\\{[e^i_1],[e^i_2],...,[e^i_6]\\}|=3$.\n\\end{corollary}\n\n\nProof. Since by Proposition \\ref{qa}, $[e^i_2] \\not= [e^i_3]$ and $[e^i_1] \\not\\in \\{[e^i_2],[e^i_3]\\}$, the corollary follows.\n\n\n\\begin{definition}\nDenote by $P^i$ with $i \\in \\{1,2,3,4\\}$ the connected multipole which is obtained from $\\widetilde{Q}^i$ by transforming every end-edge of $\\widetilde{Q}^i$ \ninto an half-edge except for $i=1$, $e^1_2$; for $i=2$, $e^2_3$; for $i=3$, $e^3_2$; and for $i=4$, $e^4_3$.  \n\\end{definition}\n\n\n\\begin{definition}\\label{Hcon}\nDenote by $H(Q^1,Q^2,Q^3,Q^4)$ or in short by $H$ the cubic graph which is constructed from $P^1$, $P^2$, $P^ 3$ and $P^4$, as illustrated in Figure 2, by gluing together half-edges, identifying vertices of degree $1$ and by adding the edge $\\alpha$.  \n\\end{definition}\n\n\nNote that we keep in $H$ the edge labels of $P^i$, respectively, of $Q^i$, see Figure 2.  \n\n\n\\begin{definition}\nLet $A \\in \\mathbb A^i$ (Def. \\ref{A}), i.e. $A \\subseteq \\widetilde {Q}^i$, $i \\in \\{1,2,3,4\\}$. Then $A \\subseteq H$ \nis defined to be the path in $H$ containing all edges of $H$ which have the same edge-labels as $A \\subseteq \\widetilde {Q}^i$; if an edge $e$ of \n$A \\subseteq \\widetilde {Q}^i$ corresponds to an half-edge of $H$ then the edge of $H$ which contains $e$ is defined to be part of $A \\subseteq H$.\n\\end{definition}\n\n\n\n\\begin{definition}\\label{c1c2}\nDenote by $F$ the permutation $2$-factor of $H$ with $F:=A^1 \\cup A^2 \\cup A^3 \\cup A^4$ and $A_i \\subseteq H$, $i=1,2,3,4$, see Figure 1, 2 and 3.\n\\end{definition}\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[htpb]\n\\centering\\epsfig{file=Hnew.eps,width=3.2in}\n\\caption{The graph $H$.} \\label{color1}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\begin{figure}[htpb]\n\\centering\\epsfig{file=Trans2.eps,width=3.2in}\n\\caption{The permutation $2$-factor $F$ of $H$ and $\\alpha \\not\\in E(F)$.} \\label{ff}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{lemma} \\label{1}\nLet $S$ be a CDC of $H$ with $F \\in S$. Then $[e^i_4] \\not= [e^i_5]$ for some $i \\in \\{1,2,3,4\\}$. \n\\end{lemma}\n\n\nProof by contradiction. Consider $P^3$ in Figure 2. Since $[e^3_4]=[e^3_5]$ we obtain $[e^4_2]=[e^4_1]$. Therefore and since $[e^4_4]= [e^4_5]$\nit follows that $[e^4_3]= [e^4_6]$. Consider $P^1$. By analogous arguments, $[e^2_3]= [e^2_6]$. Since $[e^2_6]= [e^4_6]$ we obtain $[e^4_3]= [e^2_3]$ which is impossible.\n\n\n\n\\begin{lemma} \\label{2} \nLet $S$ be a CDC of $H$ with $F \\in S$ and let $[e^i_4] \\not= [e^i_5]$ for some $i \\in \\{1,2,3,4\\}$. Then $[e^i_4] \\not= [e^i_5]$ $\\forall i \\in \\{1,2,3,4\\}$. \n\\end{lemma}\n\n\n\nProof. Let $[e^1_4] \\not= [e^1_5]$. Then by Proposition \\ref{qa} $(1)$, $[e^1_1] \\not= [e^1_3]$. Hence $[e^4_4] \\not= [e^4_5]$ and by \nProposition \\ref{qa} $(1)$, $[e^4_1] \\not= [e^4_2]$. Hence $[e^3_4] \\not= [e^3_5]$ and thus by Proposition \\ref{qa} $(1)$, $[e^3_1] \\not= [e^3_3]$ implying $[e^2_4] \\not= [e^2_5]$. Each of the three remaining cases to consider, i.e. $[e^i_4] \\not= [e^i_5]$, $i=2,3,4$, can be proven analogously.\n\n\n\nCorollary \\ref{ww}, Lemma \\ref {1} and Lemma \\ref{2} imply the following proposition.\n\n\n\\begin{proposition}\\label{!}\nLet $S$ be a CDC of $H$ with $F \\in S$. Then the following is true for $i=1,2,3,4$. \n\n\n$(1)\\,\\,$ $[e^i_4] \\not= [e^i_5]$.\\\\\n$(2)\\,\\,$ $|\\{[e^i_1],[e^i_2],[e^i_3]\\}|=|\\{[e^i_4],[e^i_5],[e^i_6]\\}|=3$.\\\\\n$(3)\\,\\,$ $|\\{[e^i_1],[e^i_2],...,[e^i_6]\\}|=3$.\n\\end{proposition}\n\n\n\nFor the proof of the next theorem we form a new cubic graph $H'$ from $H$. Consider for this purpose $P^i$, $i=1,2,3,4$ in Figure 2 as a vertex of degree $6$ and split every $P^i$ into two vertices $v^i$ and $w^i$ such that $v^i$ ($w^i$) is incident with $e^i_j$, $j=1,2,3$ ($\\,e^i_j$, $j=4,5,6$) to obtain $H'$. For reasons of convenience we do not use the edge-labels of $H$ for $H'$, see Figure 4.  \n\n\n\\begin{figure}[htpb]\n\\centering\\epsfig{file=Hsplit.eps,width=3.3in}\n\\caption{The graph $H'$.} \\label{color1}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{!!}\nLet $S$ be CDC of $H$, then $F \\not\\in S$. \n\\end{theorem}\n\n\nProof. Note that for every CDC $S$ of $H$ with $F \\in S$, $\\{[e^1_2],[e^3_2]\\}=\\{[e^2_3],[e^4_3]\\}$. \n\n\n$(2)$ and $(3)$ in Proposition \\ref{!} imply that it suffices to show that there is no proper edge-coloring $f: \\{E(H')- \\alpha\\} \\mapsto \\mathbb N$ such that $v^i$ and $w^i$ in $H'$ are incident with the same colors, $\\forall \\,i \\in \\{0,1,2,3,4\\}$. Let $v \\in V(H')$, then $E_v$ denotes the edge-set containing all edges of $H'$ incident with $v$. We proceed by contradiction. There are two cases to consider. \n\n\nCase 1. $f(a_1)= f(a_3)=1$ and $f(a_2)= f(a_4)=2$.\\\\\nSince $f(a_1)=1$ and $a_1 \\in E_{v^1}$ there is $x \\in E_{w^1}$ with $f(x)=1$. Since $f(a_3)=1$, $f(a_{11})=1$. Since $f(a_2)=2$ and since $a_2 \\in E_{v^3}$ there is $y \\in E_{w^3}$ with $f(y)=2$ which is impossible since $f(a_{11})=1$ and $f(a_4)=2$.\n\n\n\nCase 2. $f(a_1)= f(a_4)=1$ and $f(a_2)= f(a_3)=2$.\\\\\nSince $f(a_3)=2$ and $a_3 \\in E_{v^2}$ there is $x \\in E_{w^2}$ with $f(x)=2$. Since $f(a_2)=2$, $f(a_{12})=2$. \nSince $f(a_4)=1$ and $a_4 \\in E_{v^4}$ there is $y \\in E_{w^4}$ with $f(y)=1$ which is impossible since $f(a_1)=1$ and $f(a_{12})=2$.\n\n\nThe \\emph{cyclic edge-connectivity} of a graph $G$ which contains two vertex-disjoint circuits is denoted by $\\lambda_c(G)$; it is the minimum number of edges one needs to delete from $G$ in order to obtain two components such that each of them contains a circuit. In order to show that $\\lambda_c (H) > 4$, we need several results.\n\n\\begin{definition}\nLet $G$ be a graph with a given $2$-factor $F_2$ consisting of two chordless circuits. We call $e \\in E(G)$ a spoke if $e \\not\\in E(F_2)$.\n\\end{definition}\n\n\n\\begin{proposition}\\label{perch}\nLet $G$ be a cubic graph with a $2$-factor $F_2$ consisting of two chordless circuits $C_1$, $C_2$.\n\n \n(1) Let $|V(G)| \\geq 8$, then $\\lambda_c (G) \\geq 4$.\\\\\n(2) Let $|V(G)| \\geq 10$. Then every cyclic $4$-edge cut $E_0$ of $G$ is a matching and $|E_0 \\cap C_i|=2$, $i=1,2$.   \n\\end{proposition}\n\n\nProof. Suppose by contradiction that $M$ is a cyclic $3$-edge cut of $G$. Obviously, $M$ is matching. First we show that $M$ contains no spoke and consider two cases.\n\n\\emph{Case 1.} $M$ contains two or three spokes. \\\\ It is straightforward to see that $G-M$ is connected and thus this is impossible.\n\n\\emph{Case 2.} $M$ contains exactly one spoke. \\\\If $|M \\cap E(C_i)| =1$ for $i=1,2$ then $C_1-M \\subseteq G$ is a path which is connected by more than one spoke to $C_2-M \\subseteq G$. Thus $G-M$ is connected. Hence w.l.o.g. $|M \\cap E(C_1)|=2$. Since both paths of $C_1-M$ contain more than one vertex, both paths in $G$ are connected by more than one spoke to $C_2$ and thus $G-M$ is connected. Hence $M$ contains no spoke. \n\nSuppose $|M \\cap E(C_1)|=2$ and thus $|M \\cap E(C_2)|=1$. Then both paths of $C_1-M \\subseteq G$ are connected by more than one spoke to the path $C_2-M \\subseteq G$. Hence $G-M$ is connected which contradicts the assumption and thus finishes the first part of the proof.\n\n\nSuppose $E_0$ contains a spoke $s$. For every subdivision $Z'$ of a cubic graph $Z$, $\\lambda_c (Z')= \\lambda_c (Z)$. Thus and by the first statement of the Proposition, $G-s$ is cyclically 4-edge connected. Hence $s \\not\\in E_0$. \\\\\nSuppose $E_0$ is not a matching and let $a_1$ be adjacent with $a_2$ where $\\{a_1,a_2\\} \\subseteq E_0 \\cap E(C_1)$. Let $s$ be the unique spoke which is adjacent with $a_1$ and $a_2$. Then $E'_0:= E_0 - a_1 \\cup s$ is a cyclic $4$-edge cut of $G$. This contradicts the previous observation that a spoke is not contained in any cyclic $4$-edge cut. Hence $E_0$ is a matching. Suppose $E_0$ contains no (one) edge of $C_1$ and thus four (three) edges of $C_2$. \n$C_2-E_0$ consists of four (three) paths where each of them is connected by a spoke to $C_1- E_0$ which is connected in both case. Hence $G-E_0$ is connected which contradicts the assumption and thus finishes the proof.        \n\n\n\nLet $V'$ be a subset of vertices of a graph $G$, then we denote by $\\langle V'\\rangle $ the \\emph{vertex induced subgraph} of $G$.  \n\n\n\\begin{lemma} \\label{4cc}  \nLet $G$ with $|V(G)| \\geq 10$ be a cubic graph which contains a $2$-factor $F_2$ consisting of two chordless circuits $C_1$,$C_2$. Then the following is true and the analogous holds for $C_2$.\n\n\n(1) $\\lambda_c(G)= 4$ if and only if $C_1$ contains a path $L_1$ with $1 < |V(L_1)| < |V(C_1)|-1 $ such that $L_2:=\\,\\langle N(V(L_1)) \\cap V(C_2) \\rangle  $ is a \npath of $C_2$. In particular, the four distinct end-edges of $F_2-E(L_1)-E(L_2)$ form a cyclic $4$-edge cut of $G$. \n\n\n(2) Let $E_0:= \\{a_1,a_2,b_1,b_2\\}$ be a cyclic $4$-edge cut of $G$ where by Prop. \\ref{perch}, w.l.o.g. $\\{a_1,a_2\\} \\subseteq E(C_1)$ and  $\\{b_1,b_2\\} \\subseteq E(C_2)$. Denote the two paths of $C_1-a_1-a_2$ ($C_2-b_1-b_2$) by $L'_1$ and $L''_1$ ($L'_2$ and $L''_2$). Then, $\\{\\,\\langle N(V(L'_1)) \\cap V(C_2)\\rangle , \\, \\langle N(V(L''_1)) \\cap V(C_2) \\rangle \\,\\} = \\{L'_2, L''_2\\}$.\n\\end{lemma}\n\n\nProof. We first prove (2). The four paths $L'_1, L''_1, L'_2, L''_2$ decompose the graph $C_1 \\cup C_2 - E_0$. Every neighbor of a vertex of $L'_1$ or $L''_1$ in $C_2$ is thus contained in $L'_2$ or $L''_2$. Hence the equality in (2) does not hold if and only if $L'_1$ or $L''_1$ contains two distinct vertices $x, y$ such that $N(x) \\cap V(C_2) \\in V(L'_2)$ and $N(y) \\cap V(C_2) \\in V(L''_2)$. Let w.l.o.g.\n$\\{x,y\\} \\subseteq V(L'_1)$ and suppose by contradiction that $x$ and $y$ have the before described properties. Then $L'_1 \\subseteq G-E_0$ is connected to $L'_2$ and $L''_2$. Since $L''_1 \\subseteq G-E_0$ is connected to $L'_2$ or $L''_2$, $G-E_0$ is connected which contradicts the assumption and thus finishes this part of the proof.\n \nWe prove (1). Let $\\lambda_c(G)= 4$ and let $E_0$ be a cyclic $4$-edge cut of $G$ as defined in (2). By Proposition \\ref{perch}, $\\{a_1,a_2\\}$ is a matching of $G$. Hence the inequality in (1) is satisfied by setting $L_1:= L_1'$. It is straightforward to check that the four end-edges of \n$F_2-E(L_1)-E(L_2)$ form a cyclic $4$-edge cut of $G$. Hence the proof is finished.\n\n\n\n\\begin{lemma} \\label{kkj} \nLet $A \\subseteq H $ and $A \\in \\mathbb A^i $, $i \\in \\{1,2,3,4\\}$. Then there is no cyclic $4$-edge cut $E_0 $ of $H$ such that $|E_0 \\cap E(A)| =2$. \n\\end{lemma}\n\n\n\n\nProof by contradiction. Set $E_0 \\cap E(A)= \\{a_1,a_2\\}$. By Proposition \\ref{perch}, $E_0$ is a matching. Hence $A \\not= A^i_3$. There are two cases to consider.\n\n\n\\emph{Case 1.} $A= A^i_1$. Set $B:= A^i_2$. $A$ and $B$ belong to different components of $F \\subseteq H$, see Figure 1 and Figure 3. \nDenote by $A^*$ the unique path of $A-a_1-a_2$ which connects one endvertex of $a_1$ with one endvertex of $a_2$.\nSince $E_0$ is a cyclic $4$-edge cut and by Lemma \\ref{4cc} (2) and by the structure of $P^i$, $B^*:=\\langle N(V(A^*)) \\cap V(B) \\rangle $ is a subpath of $B$, see Figure 1. Since $\\{a_1,a_2\\}$ is a matching of $H$, $|V(A^*)| > 1$. Since $|V(A^*)| = |V(B^*)|$, $|V(B^*)| > 1$.\n\nDenote by $w$ the neighbor of $x^i_2$ in $B$. Consider the graph $Q^i$ which was defined for constructing $P^i$, see Figure 1. Then $B^*$ is a path of $C^i_2 \\subseteq Q^i$ (Def. \\ref{c5}) with $1< |V(B^*)|< |V(C^i_2)|-1$ since $\\{z^i_1, w\\} \\cap V(B^*) = \\emptyset $. Moreover, $A^* \\subseteq Q^i$ is a path of $C^i_1$ and every vertex of $A^*$ is adjacent to a vertex of $B^* \\subseteq Q^i$ and vice versa. Therefore and by Lemma \\ref{4cc} (1), $\\lambda_c (Q^i)=4$ which is a contradiction to Def. \\ref{c5}.\n \n \n\\emph{Case 2.} $A= A^i_2$. Set $B:= A^i_1$. Let $A^*$ be the unique path of $A-a_1-a_2$ which connects one endvertex of $a_1$ with one endvertex of $a_2$. Let $C$ denote the component of $F \\subseteq H$ such that $A^* \\not\\subseteq C$. Since $E_0$ is a cyclic $4$-edge cut and by Lemma \\ref{4cc} (2), $B^*:=\\langle N(V(A^*)) \\cap V(C) \\rangle $ is a subpath of $C$. Denote by $w$ the neighbor of $x^i_2$ in $A$. Suppose $w \\in V(A^*)$. Then $x^i_2 \\in V(B^*)$. Since $|V(B^*)| > 1$, $B^*$ contains a vertex $y \\not= x^i_2$. Since $N(V(A^*)-w) \\cap V(C) \\subseteq V(B)$ and since $x^i_2$ is not adjacent to a vertex of $B$, $B^*$ is not a path which is a contradiction. Hence, $w \\not\\in V(A^*)$. Similar to Case 1, $A^* \\subseteq Q^i$ is a path of $C^i_2$ with  $\\{z^i_1, w\\} \\cap V(A^*) = \\emptyset$ where every vertex of $A^*$ is adjacent to a vertex of the path $B^* \\subseteq Q^i$ and vice versa. Hence, by applying the same arguments as in Case 1, the proof is finished.\n\n\n\nWe need the following observations and notations for the proof of Theorem \\ref{pppp}.\n\n\\begin{definition}\nLet $X$ be a path with $|V(X)|>2$. Then $oX$ is the subpath of $X$ which contains all vertices of $X$ except the two endvertices of $X$. \n\\end{definition}\n\n\nLet $R$ be a set of subgraphs of $H$, then $E(R)$ denotes the union of the edge-sets of the subgraphs of $R$. \nNote that the vertices of the graph $J$ defined below are not the vertices of $H'$. \n\n\n\\begin{figure}[htpb]\n\\centering\\epsfig{file=pintervall.eps,width=3.6in}\n\\caption{The graph $J$.} \\label{inp}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\n\\begin{definition}\\label{JJ}\nLet $C_1$, $C_2$ denote the two circuits of $F \\subseteq H$ where $e^1_2 \\in E(C_1)$, see Figure 3.\nSet $R:= \\{oA^i_j|\\,i \\in \\{1,2,3,4\\} \\textrm { and } j \\in \\{ 1,2,3 \\} \\}$. Let $J:=H\/R$ be the the graph which is obtained from $H$ by contracting every element of $R$ in $H$ to a distinct vertex and by then replacing every multiple-edge by a single edge, see Figure \\ref{inp}. The edges of $E(F)-E(R)$ induce a $2$-factor of $J$ which consists of two circuits $D_1$, $D_2$, see Figure 5.  \n\\end{definition}\n  \nNote that only subpaths of $F \\subseteq H$ are contracted in the transformation from $H$ into $J$ and that $C_k \\subseteq H$ is transformed into $D_k \\subseteq J$, $k=1,2$. We keep the labels of the edges respectively half-edges of $E(F)-E(R) \\subseteq E(H)$ for $E(D_1) \\cup E(D_2) \\subseteq E(J)$, see Figure 5. Every $oA^i_j \\subseteq H$ corresponds to a vertex of $J$ and $v_4w_6 \\in E(J)$ corresponds to $\\alpha \\in E(H)$. \nSet $\\mathbb H:= \\{V(oA^i_j) \\,|\\, i=1,2,3,4 \\textrm { and } j=1,2,3\\} \\cup \\{v_4\\} \\cup \\{w_6\\}$. Then $\\mathbb H$ is a vertex partition of \n$V(H)$. Every $v \\in V(J)$ corresponds to an element $\\hat v$ of $\\mathbb H$ and vice versa.\n\n\nLet $h: V(H) \\mapsto V(J)$ be the mapping where $h(x)$ is defined to be the unique $v \\in V(J)$ such that $x \\in \\hat v$.\\\\  \nLet $e \\in E(C_k)-E(R)$, then $h'(e)$ denotes the corresponding edge of $D_k \\subseteq J$, $k =1,2$.\\\\\nLet $X$ be a subpath of $C_k \\subseteq H$, then $X\/R$ denotes the subpath of $D_k \\subseteq J$ with $V(X\/R):= \\{h(v)\\,|\\, v \\in V(X)\\}$ and \n$E(X\/R):= \\{h'(x)\\,|\\,x \\in E(X) \\cap (E(F)-E(R))\\}$.   \n\n\n\n\\begin{theorem}\\label{pppp}\n$H$ is a cyclically $5$-edge connected permutation snark.\n\\end{theorem}\n\n\n\nProof. By Theorem \\ref{!!}, $F$ is not contained in a CDC. Hence Lemma \\ref{bla} implies that $H$ is not $3$-edge colorable. \nIt remains to show that  $\\lambda_c (H) > 4$.\n\n\nSuppose by contradiction that $E_0:=\\{a_1,a_2,a_3,a_4\\}$ is a cyclic $4$-edge cut of $H$ and let \nby Proposition \\ref{perch} (2), w.l.o.g. $\\{a_1,a_2\\}$ be a matching of $E(C_1)$. Let $X$, $X'$ denote the two components of $C_1-a_1-a_2$.  $X\/R$ and $X\/R'$ are edge disjoint paths of $D_1 \\subseteq J$ with $|E(X\/R)| + |E(X'\/R)| \\leq 7$. Let w.l.o.g. $|E(X\/R)| \\leq 3$. Then, $2 \\leq |V(X\/R)| \\leq 4$ since by Lemma \\ref{kkj}, $\\{a_1,a_2\\} \\not\\subseteq E(A^i_j)$ for $i=1,2,3,4$ and $j=1,2,3$. Set $Y:= X\/R$.\n \n \nBy Lemma \\ref{4cc} (2), $X^N := \\langle N(X) \\cap V(C_2) \\rangle $ is a path in $C_2$. Hence $Y^*:=X^N\/R$ is a path of $D_2 \\subseteq J$. Since only subpaths of $F \\subseteq H$ are contracted in the construction of $J$ and since every vertex of $X \\subseteq C_1$ is adjacent to a vertex of $X^N \\subseteq C_2$ and vice versa, every vertex of $Y$ is adjacent to a vertex of $Y^*$ and vice versa. We make the following observation.  \n\n\nIf $v$ is an endvertex of $Y$, then $|(N(v) \\cap V(D_2)) \\cap V(Y^*)| \\geq 1$.\\\\\nIf $|V(Y)| > 2$ and $v$ is an inner vertex of $Y$, then $N(v) \\cap V(D_2) \\subseteq V(Y^*)$.\n \n\nSet $U:= N(V(oY)) \\cap V(D_2)$. Denote by $v_s$ and $v_t$ the two distinct endvertices of $Y$. Then, $Y^*$ = $\\langle S \\cup T \\cup U\\rangle  $ for some $S \\subseteq N(v_s) \\cap V(D_2)$ and for some $T \\subseteq N(v_t) \\cap V(D_2)$. \n\n\nIf $V(Y)=\\{v_1,v_2\\}$ then $V(Y^*) \\in \\{\\{w_1,w_5\\},\\{w_1,w_3\\},\\{w_1,w_3,w_5\\}\\}$.\nWe abbreviate this conclusion by only writing the indices: $12 \\rightsquigarrow 15,13,135$. We recall that $2 \\leq |V(Y)| \\leq 4$. Analogously, we consider for $Y$ the following cases where $Y \\not= \\,\\langle \\{v_6,v_7,v_1,v_2\\} \\rangle  $.\n\n\n$23\\rightsquigarrow 13,15,135$; $34 \\rightsquigarrow 16$; $45 \\rightsquigarrow 46$; $56 \\rightsquigarrow 42,47,247$; $67 \\rightsquigarrow 24,47,247$; $71 \\rightsquigarrow 14$.\n\n\n$123 \\rightsquigarrow 135$; $234 \\rightsquigarrow 136,156,356$; $345 \\rightsquigarrow 146$; $456 \\rightsquigarrow 2467,246,467$; $567 \\rightsquigarrow 247$; \n$671 \\rightsquigarrow 124,147,1247$; $712 \\rightsquigarrow 134,145,1345$.\n\n\n$1234 \\rightsquigarrow 1356$; $2345 \\rightsquigarrow 1346,1456,13456$; $3456 \\rightsquigarrow 1246,1467,12467$; $4567 \\rightsquigarrow 2467$;\n$5671 \\rightsquigarrow1247$; $7123 \\rightsquigarrow 1345$.\n\n\nIn none of the above cases, $V(Y^*)$ can be the vertex set of a path in $D_2$ contradicting the assumption that $Y^*$ is a path.\n\n\nThus it remains to consider $Y:= \\langle \\{v_6,v_7,v_1,v_2 \\} \\rangle $. Since $v_1 \\in V(Y) \\subseteq V(D_1)$ (see the half-edges incident with $v_1$ in Figure 5), the path $X \\subseteq C_1$ contains all vertices of $oA^1_1$ (Figure 1). The vertex $x^1_2 \\in V(H)$ (Figure 1) corresponds to $v_3 \\in V(D_1)$ (Figure 5) with $v_3 \\not\\in V(Y)$. Hence,  $x^1_2 \\in V(C_1)$ and $x^1_2 \\not\\in V(X)$. Moreover, $x^1_2$ is neither adjacent to $x^1_4$ nor to $x^1_5$; otherwise $Q^1$ contains a circuit of length $4$ which contradicts Def. \\ref{c5}. Hence, $\\{x^1_4,x^1_5\\} \\subseteq V(X^N)$.\n\n\nBy the structure of $Q_1$ (Figure 1) and since $oA^1_1 \\subseteq X$, $X^N$ contains every vertex of $oA^1_2-w$ where $w$ denotes the neighbor of $x^1_2$ in $oA^1_2$. Thus, and since $X^N$ is a subpath of $C_2$, and since $\\{x^1_4,x^1_5\\} \\subseteq V(X^N)$, $|V(X^N)| = |V(C_2)|-1$. Since  $|V(X)| = |V(X^N)|$ and since $\\{a_1,a_2\\}$ in the definition of $X$ is a matching, this is impossible which finishes the proof. \n\n\n\n\nDenote by $P_{10}$ the Petersen graph.\n\n\\begin{definition}\\label{Hmenge}\n Set $\\mathcal H:= \\bigcup_{n=0}^\\infty \\{H_n\\}$ where $H_n:=H(H_{n-1},P_{10},P_{10},P_{10})$ and \n$H_0:=P_{10}$, see Definition \\ref{Hcon}.\n\\end{definition}\n\n \nNote that in the above definition we use the graph $H_n$, respectively, $P_{10}$ as $Q^i$ and thus suppose that two subpaths in the known \npermutation $2$-factors of $H_n$ and $P_{10}$ are chosen as the paths specified in Definition \\ref{c5}. \n\n\n\n\n\\begin{corollary}\\label{wichtig}\n$\\mathcal H$ is an infinite set of cyclically $5$-edge connected permutation snarks where $H_n \\in \\mathcal H$ has $10+24n$ vertices.\n\\end{corollary}\n\n\n\nHence and by Theorem \\ref{!!}, we obtain the following corollary.\n\n\\begin{corollary}\nFor every $n \\in \\mathbb N$, there is a counterexample of order $10+24n$ to Conjecture \\ref{c2}, Conjecture \\ref{c4} and Conjecture \\ref{c5}.\n\\end{corollary}\n\n\n\\begin{corollary}\nFor every $n \\in \\mathbb N$, there is a counterexample $G$ of order $5+12n$ to Conjecture \\ref{c1}.\n\\end{corollary}\n\n\n\nProof. Set $H:= H_n$, see Definition \\ref{Hmenge}. Contract every spoke of $H$ with respect to $F$ to obtain a $4$-regular graph $G$ of order $5+12n$. Then $G= C'_1 \\cup C'_2$ where $C'_1$ and $C'_2$ are two edge-disjoint hamiltonian circuits of $G$ which correspond to $C_1$ and $C_2$ in $H$.  Hence, every edge-cut $E_0$ of $G$ has even seize. Suppose that $E_0$ is an essential $4$-edge cut of $G$. Since $G$ is $4$-regular, every component of $G-E_0$ has more than $2$ vertices. It is straightforward to see that then $E_0$ corresponds to a cyclic $4$-edge cut of $H$ which contradicts $\\lambda_c(H)=5$. Thus and since $E_0$ is of even size, $G$ is essentially $6$-edge connected. By defining that every pair of two edges which are adjacent and part of $C'_i$ for some $i \\in \\{1,2\\}$ from a transition, we obtain a transition system $T(G)$ of $G$. Since every compatible cycle decomposition of $T(G)$ would imply a CDC $S$ of $H$ which contains $F$ and thus would contradict Theorem \\ref{!!}, the proof is finished.\n\n\n\\textbf{Acknowledgement.}\nA. Hoffmann-Ostenhof thanks R. H\\\"aggkvist for the invitation to the University of Umea where part of the work has been done. \n\n\n\\footnotesize\n\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{General outline}\n\n   \n   \n   \n   \n\n\n\\section {Introduction}\n\\label{sec:intro}\nColloidal semiconductor nanocrystals (NCs) offer an idealized test bed to explore the behavior of excitons and multiexcitons from the discrete, molecular limit to the continous, bulk limit.\\cite{Alivisatos1996,Scholes2006NatMater,Klimov2014,EfrosBrus2021,PGS2021,Kagan2021} At low excitation energies, NCs have discrete spectra due to quantum confinement effects, which resemble those of atoms and molecules, while at higher excitation energies, due to increasingly large densities of states, their spectra converge to the bulk continuum limit. Understanding the interplay of degeneracy, size, shape, and material composition on NC electronic structure has been the subject of numerous studies over the past several decades.\\cite{Efros1982,Murray1993,Wang1994,Dabbousi1997,Efros2000,Scholes2006NatMater,Rabani2010,Boles2016,Weiss2021}\n\nFrom a theoretical perspective, the description of excitons and multiexcitons in semiconductor NCs poses several challenges. Because NCs contain several hundreds to thousands of atoms and valence electrons, quantum chemistry techniques that were developed to study the excited states of molecules are far too computationally expensive to be applicable to NCs. Thus, early work focused on the development of continuum approaches starting from the bulk limit, within a family of effective mass models, to describe the quantum confinement of excitons and dielectric screening.\\cite{Efros1982,Rossetti1983} The most popular single-parabolic band approximation provides a \\textit{qualitative} description of the optical properties of NCs, but it does not account for non-parabolic effects and valence-band degeneracies that are important in NCs. A more \\textit{quantitative} description based on the multi-band effective mass model revealed rich behavior and provided accurate predictions of the exciton fine structure and band-edge exciton splittings as well as their dependence on the size, shape, and crystal structure of the NC.\\cite{Ekimov1993,Norris1994,Norris1996a,Efros2000} In addition, the inclusion of many-body exchange interactions of electrons and holes resulted in optically forbidden dark excitons and explained the non-monotonic temperature dependence of the radiative lifetime in NCs.\\cite{Nirmal1994,Nirmal1995,Norris1996b,Efros1996}\n\nDespite the significant progress made based on the effective mass model, the lack of an underlying atomistic description has limited the application primarily to the description of optical properties, which are less sensitive to the atomistic detail of the NC, particularly in the strong confinement limit ($R < a_{\\text{B}}$, where $R$ is the NC radius and $a_{\\text{B}}$ is the bulk exciton Bohr radius). To account for inhomogeneities in the NC structure, semiempirical pseudopotential models, which became popular in the 1970s and 1980s to describe the electronic and optical properties of bulk semiconductors and surfaces,\\cite{Cohen1966} were employed and further developed to study excitons in a variety of semiconductor NCs,\\cite{Friesner1991,Wang1994,Wang1996,Rabani1999b} demonstrating remarkable success in postdicting and predicting the exciton fine structure\\cite{Norris1996b} as well as the roles of defects,\\cite{Califano2005,Jasrasaria2020} stress, and strain on the electronic structure.\\cite{Wang1999, Mattila1999}\n\nIn recent years, growing interest in the dynamics of excitons inspired by novel experimental observations,\\cite{GS1999,Klimov2000,GS2005,Oron2007,Pandey2008,Jones2009,Sukhovatkin2009,McArthur2010,Ulbricht2011,Knowles2011,Bae2013,Qin2014,Kambhampati2015,Wu2016,Li2017c,Kaledin2018,Li2019} has shifted the focus for theory to address issues related to the transients of these nonequilibrium species.\\cite{Oleg2009} Understanding the radiative and nonradiative decay channels depicted in Fig.~\\ref{fig:AllProcesses} as well as the dephasing and energy transfer mechanisms of confined excitons, which are dictated by the exciton-phonon and exciton-exciton couplings, is key to the rational design of NC-based technologies with reduced thermal losses and increased quantum yields. Two central decay channels are the main focus the current perspective.\n\n\\begin{figure*}[ht]\n\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{figures\/Fig1_Processes.pdf}\n\\caption{\\label{fig:AllProcesses}Photoexcitation of a nanocrystal can create multiple electron-hole pairs, which quickly relax to the band edge in a process called cooling. From the band edge, the multi-excitonic state can undergo Auger recombination, which nonradiatively annihilates one exciton and forms a hot electron-hole pair. The hot carriers then cool back to the band edge, from which they can radiatively recombine.}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nThe first decay channel is that of nonradiative relaxation of hot excitons, or cooling, illustrated in Fig.~\\ref{fig:AllProcesses}. The study of this process is motivated by conflicting results for the relaxation times of hot excitons to the band edge in confined structures relative to those of excitons in bulk.\\cite{Gfroerer1996,Haiping1996,Heitz1997,Sosnowski1998,Mukai1998,GS1999,Klimov1999,Klimov2000a,Harbold2005,GS2005} Due to the discrete nature of the excitonic levels in confined NCs, exciton cooling \\textit{via} phonon emission, especially near the band edge, has been thought to require multi-phonon processes and would, therefore, be inefficient, a phenomenon known as the phonon bottleneck.\\cite{Nozik2001} One mechanism for breaking the phonon bottleneck that allows for fast cooling is the Auger process.\\cite{Efros2003} In many NCs, holes relax rapidly to the band edge \\textit{via} phonon emission because valence band degeneracies and a larger hole effective mass lead to a higher density of hole states with smaller energy spacings that are on the order of the phonon frequencies. An electron, then, can relax to the band edge by nonradiatively transferring its energy to a hole \\textit{via} an Auger-like process, and the re-excited hole can quickly relax back to the valence band edge. The Auger-assisted cooling mechanism~\\cite{Wang2003} has been supported by experimental observations~\\cite{Klimov1999,Klimov2000a,Hendry2006} but, as far as we know, the exciton cooling mechanism has not been confirmed or validated by atomistic calculations,\\cite{Kilina2009} mainly because of the significant computational challenges of describing excitons and their coupling to phonons in systems containing thousands of atoms and valence electrons.\n\nThe second decay channel involves the nonradiative decay of multiexcitonic states and is motivated by the observation of a ``universal volume scaling law\" for Auger recombination (AR) lifetimes in NC.\\cite{Klimov2000,Robel2009} At high photo-carrier densities, which are typical of most optoelectronic devices, all semiconductor materials suffer from enhanced exciton-exciton annihilation that occurs primarily \\textit{via} AR processes, shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:AllProcesses}, in which one exciton recombines by transferring its energy to another exciton.\\cite{Efros2003} This nonradiative process leads to reduced photoluminescence quantum yields and decreases maximum device efficiencies. Thus, understanding the properties of multiexcitonic states and their decay channels is central to improving and further developing many light-induced NC applications. From a theoretical\/computational perspective, calculating AR lifetimes within Fermi's golden rule requires a description of the initial biexcitonic (or higher multiexcitonic) state and all possible final electron-hole pair states, a challenging task for NCs of experimentally relevant sizes. Thus, previous theoretical works have relied on effective mass continuum models, which ignore electron-hole correlations in the biexcitonic state,\\cite{Li2019a} resulting in a much steeper scaling of the AR lifetimes with the NC volume.\\cite{Chepic1990,Vaxenburg2015,Vaxenburg2016} The discrepancy between theory and experiments had been a mystery for several decades. \n\nIn this perspective, we summarize our recent efforts to develop a unified model that address both problems. In Sec.~\\ref{sec:methods} we describe the atomistic approach we have adopted to calculate quasiparticle excitations and neutral excitations in semiconductor NCs. First principles approaches, such as time-dependent density functional theory (DFT)~\\cite{Chelikowsky2003,Shulenberger2021,Song2022} or many-body perturbation approximations,\\cite{Degoli2009} are limited to describing excitons in relatively small clusters, typically those with fewer than 100 atoms, due to their steep computational scaling.\\cite{Friesner2005,Voznyy2016} To make meaningful contact with experimental results on NCs that contain thousands of atoms and tens of thousands of electrons, we rely on the semiempirical pseudopotential model~\\cite{Wang1994,Wang1996,Rabani1999b,Williamson2000} to describe quasiparticle excitations. We use a converged real-space grid method to represent the single-particle states combined with the filter diagonalization method~\\cite{Wall1995,Toledo2002} to compute the single-particle states near the band edge and at higher excitation energies. We then use a subset of converged quasiparticle eigenstates to solve the Bethe-Salpeter equation~\\cite{Rohlfing2000} within the static screening approximation to account for electron-hole correlations in neutral optical excitations.\\cite{Philbin2018} Sec.~\\ref{sec:methods} also provides validation of the approach for the quasiparticle and optical gaps and the exciton binding energies for II-VI and III-V semiconductor NCs in both the strongly ($R<a_{\\text{B}}$) and weakly ($R>a_{\\text{B}}$) confined regimes.\n\nIn Sec.~\\ref{sec:exph} we present and assess the accuracy of our approach for determining the exciton-phonon couplings in semiconductors NCs, and we analyze the contributions of acoustic, optical, and surface modes to the overall magnitude of the exciton-phonon couplings. The standard model Hamiltonian that describes a manifold of excitonic states and phonons that are coupled to first order in the atomic displacements is given by:\\cite{Giustino2017}\n\\begin{align}\nH = &\\sum_{n}E_{n}\\left|\\psi_{n}\\right\\rangle \\left\\langle \\psi_{n}\\right|+\\sum_{\\alpha}\\hbar\\omega_{\\alpha}b_{\\alpha}^{\\dagger}b_{\\alpha} \\nonumber \\\\ \n&+\\sum_{\\alpha nm}V_{n,m}^{\\alpha}\\left|\\psi_{n}\\right\\rangle \\left\\langle \\psi_{m}\\right|q_{\\alpha}\\,,\\label{eq:hamiltonian}\n\\end{align}\nwhere $\\left|\\psi_{n}\\right\\rangle $ describes exciton $n$ with energy $E_{n}$, and $b_{\\alpha}^{\\dagger}$ and $b_{\\alpha}$ are the Boson creation and annihilation operators, respectively, of phonon mode $\\alpha$ with frequency $\\omega_{\\alpha}$ and displacement $q_{\\alpha}=\\sqrt{\\frac{\\hbar}{2\\omega_{\\alpha}}}\\left(b_{\\alpha}^{\\dagger}+b_{\\alpha}\\right)$. Describing the nonequilibrium dynamics of excitons requires knowledge of the excitonic transition energies $E_{n}$, the phonon modes and their corresponding frequencies, $\\omega_\\alpha$, and the exciton-phonon couplings, $V_{n,m}^{\\alpha}$. Sec.~\\ref{sec:exph} provides the details for obtaining both the phonon modes using an atomistic force field~\\cite{Zhou2013} and the exciton-phonon couplings directly from the atomistic pseudopotential model described in Sec.~\\ref{sec:methods}. We compare the predictions for the reorganization energies (\\textit{i.e.}, polaron shifts) computed from $V_{n,n}^{\\alpha}$ to experimentally measured Stokes shifts and demonstrate that \\textit{acoustic} modes that are delocalized across the NC contribute more significantly than optical modes to the reorganization energy in all NC systems and sizes. Excitons in smaller NCs are more strongly coupled to modes localized near the surface of the NC, while excitons in larger NCs are more strongly coupled to modes in the interior of the NC. The assessment of the exciton-phonon couplings is essential for addressing the dynamics and mechanism for exciton cooling. This topic is further discussed in Sec.~\\ref{sec:conclusions}.\n\nNext, in Sec.~\\ref{sec:auger} we turn to the ``universal volume scaling law'' for AR lifetimes and present our recent developments for calculating AR lifetimes in NCs that have thousands to tens of thousands of electrons.\\cite{Philbin2018} We demonstrate that the inclusion of electron-hole correlations in the initial biexcitonic state (but not in the final electron-hole state) is imperative to capturing the experimentally observed scaling of AR lifetimes with the size and shape of the NC. In addition, we find that electron-hole correlations are essential for obtaining quantitatively accurate lifetimes and that neglecting such correlations can result in AR lifetimes that are orders of magnitude too long. We demonstrate the strength of our approach for 0D spherical quantum dots, 1D nanorods, and 2D nanoplatelets of varying diameters and lengths. To perform these calculations and compute AR lifetimes, we developed a low-scaling approach~\\cite{Philbin2020a} based on the stochastic resolution of identity,\\cite{Takeshita2017,Dou2019} which is briefly summarized in Sec.~\\ref{sec:auger}.\n\nThe role of interfaces on reorganization energies and AR lifetimes is the central topic of Sec.~\\ref{sec:interfaces}. We focus on core-shell quantum dots and elucidate the shell thickness and band alignment dependencies for quasi-type II CdSe\/CdS and type I CdSe\/ZnS systems. The introduction of interfaces in these heterostructures allows for wave function engineering that affects electron-hole correlations, exciton-phonon couplings, and exciton-exciton interactions, which impacts both the magnitudes of reorganization energies and AR lifetimes. These insights serve as a starting point for realizing NC systems that readily control both exciton-phonon and exciton-exciton interactions, enabling unique, emergent phenomena, such as room-temperature superfluorescence, fast exciton transport, and near-unity photoluminescence quantum yields. Finally, in Sec.~\\ref{sec:conclusions} we summarize the main conclusions and provide an outlook for future directions.\n\n\n\\section{Model Hamiltonian}\n\\label{sec:methods}\nThe diversity of dynamic processes in NCs requires a comprehensive model that captures a wide spectrum of physics. The finite size of NCs modifies the electronic structure relative to the bulk material. The continuous conduction and valence bands of the bulk are split into discrete states for finite crystals, and the quantum confinement of carriers gives rise to NCs' hallmark size-dependent optical properties. To properly describe these optical properties, a model must go beyond the ground state to describe the excited electronic configurations. While these excited states are generally well understood in the bulk, quantum confinement complicates our understanding by significantly enhancing the electron-hole interactions.\\cite{Williamson2000} The small size of NCs compared to the exciton Bohr radius forces the electron and hole closer to each other than they would be in bulk, increasing the strength of their Coulomb interactions. Additionally, dielectric screening is reduced at the nanoscale as quantum confinement widens the band gap and increases the energy required to polarize the medium. This effect leads to a size-dependent reduction in screening, further contributing to size-dependent modifications of excited states in NCs. These enhanced interactions must be properly considered in order to describe the correlations between electrons and holes and in order to achieve agreement with experimental measurements. \n\n\\begin{figure*}[ht]\n\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{figures\/Fig2_Pseudopotentials.pdf}\n\\caption{\\label{fig:fitting}(a) The bulk band structures of wurtzite CdSe (right) and CdS (left) obtained from the pseudopotential Hamiltonian (red points) are compared to literature values\\cite{Bergstresser1967} (black lines). The resulting band structures show excellent agreement both around the band gap and across the entire Brilouin zone. (b) The corresponding real-space pseudopotentials for Cd, Se, and S. The inset illustrates a cross-section of the pseudoptential for a wurtzite 3.9~nm CdSe NC as constructed from these atom-centered functions.}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nExperimentally relevant NCs are highly crystalline, and, in the interior of the structure, they closely resemble the corresponding bulk materials. The atomic configuration aligns closely with the bulk crystalline lattice across the majority of unit cells, suggesting that a description based on bulk bands would be a valid starting point. However, NCs possess additional features that distinguish them from bulk. The NC surface truncates the lattice symmetry, which gives rise to quantum confinement. Core-shell structures also form a nanoscale heterojunction that can introduce significant amounts of strain into the crystal structure.\\cite{CaoBanin200, ReissSmall2009} Both these internal interfaces and surfaces cause deformations from crystallinity on the scale of individual atoms, so accurate modeling of NCs must include this atomistic detail. For example, localized trap states at surfaces or interfaces due to atomic defects are ubiquitous in experimental studies of NCs, where they are observed to rapidly quench photoluminescence and result in significantly lower quantum yields.\\cite{Wuister2004, Guzelturk2021} An atomistic description of the NC structure allows for the introduction of site-specific defects or alloying to understand their roles in trap formation and to determine the dynamics of trapping in NC systems.\\cite{Jasrasaria2020,Enright2022} In addition to the static deformation of the crystal lattice, the effects of lattice fluctuations (\\textit{i.e.}, phonons) play a key role in the physics of NCs and must be properly incorporated.\\cite{Jasrasaria2021} Finally, in order to make meaningful contact with experimental measurements on NCs that contain thousands of atoms and tens of thousands of electrons, computational evaluation of the model must scale moderately with system size in comparison to first principles approaches. Because NC systems have important size dependent properties, such as optical gaps,\\cite{Ekimov1985} radiative lifetimes, and AR lifetimes,\\cite{Philbin2020a} and the scaling of these properties with system size is often an important question, the ability to access experimentally relevant sizes with volumes ranging across multiple orders of magnitude is crucial. \n\n\\begin{figure*}[ht]\n\\includegraphics[width=0.85\\textwidth]{figures\/Fig3_States.pdf}\n\\caption{\\label{fig:states} (a) Densities of the quasi-electron (red) and quasi-hole (blue) wave functions reveal that they are periodic across several unit cells in the interior of the NC. The electron states are labeled based on the symmetry of the envelope function in analogy to effective mass descriptions. (b) The densities of single-particle states (DOS) for wurtzite CdSe NCs of different sizes shows the effects of quantum confinement and the larger density of hole states in these II-VI systems. The inset illustrates the density of states across a larger energy range (that is normalized to the fundamental gap, $E_g$, of each NC), where the continuum of high energy states can be seen.}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nThese considerations have informed our development of the semiempirical pseudopotential model as a sufficiently detailed description of NCs that can also tackle calculations of experimentally relevant systems. For example, a CdSe quantum dot only 4~nm in diameter has over $\\sim$1000 atoms and $\\sim$4000 valence electrons, so the conventional workhorses of quantum chemistry, such as DFT and related methods for excited states, despite making significant progress,\\cite{Shulenberger2021,Song2022} are still far from being able to tackle this problem. On the other hand, continuum models based on the effective mass approximation have produced successful predictions for simple, linear spectroscopic observables~\\cite{Efros2000} but are unable to capture many of the more complicated dynamic processes that determine the timescales of process like nonradiative exciton relaxation and AR. Furthermore, these continuum models are, by nature, blind to atomistic detail, such as defects, strain at heterostructure interfaces, and facet-dependent properties.\\cite{Ondry2019, Cui2019}\n\nOur approach is based on the semiempirical pseudopotential method,\\cite{Wang1994,Rabani1999b,Williamson2000} which was first developed to characterize the band structures of simple bulk materials\\cite{Cohen1966} and was later extended to describe the role of surfaces~\\cite{Zunger1980} and confinement.\\cite{Friesner1991,Wang1994}  The basic assumption made is that the bulk band structure can be described by a simple, non-interacting model Hamiltonian\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\hat{h}_{\\text{qp}}=\\hat{t}+\\hat{v}(\\bm{r})=\\hat{t}+\\sum_\\mu \\hat{v}_\\mu(\\bm{r})\\,,\n    \\label{eqn:Hamil}\n\\end{equation} \nwhere $\\hat{t}$ is the single-particle kinetic energy operator, and $\\hat{v}(\\bm{r})$ is the local (or non-local) pseudopotential, which is given by a sum over all atoms $\\mu$ of a pseudopotential $\\hat{v}_\\mu(\\bm{r})$ centered at the location of each atom $\\bm{R}_\\mu$. The parameters used to describe the pseudopotential of each atom are obtained by fitting the form factors to the bulk band structure obtained either from experimental measurements or high-accuracy electronic structure calculations, such as DFT+GW.\\cite{Cohen1966,Hybertsen1986} Within the fitting procedure, we describe the real-space atomistic pseudopotential $\\hat{v}_\\mu(\\bm{r})$ by its reciprocal-space counterpart, $\\hat{\\tilde{v}}_\\mu(\\bm{q})$. For example, one popular form of a local reciprocal-space pseudopotential is given by:\\cite{Wang1999}\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\hat{\\tilde{v}}_\\mu(\\bm{q})=\\left[1+a_4\\operatorname{Tr}\\epsilon_\\mu\\right]\\frac{a_{0}\\left(q^{2}-a_{1}\\right)}{a_{2}e^{a_{3}q^{2}}-1}\\,,\n    \\label{eqn:LocalPotq}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\epsilon_\\mu$ is the local strain tensor around atom $\\mu$, the parameters $\\{a_0, a_1, a_2, a_3\\}$ are used to fit the band structure at the equilibrium configuration, and $a_4$ is fit to match the absolute hydrostatic deformation potentials of the valence and conduction bands.\\cite{Wei2006PRB_DefPot} The trace of the local strain tensor at each atom is approximated by the ratio of the volume of the tetrahedron formed by the nearest neighbors in the strained structure to that volume in the equilibrium bulk structure. For NCs with significant strain, such as core-shell QDs or other heterostructures,\\cite{Grunwald2013} additional fitting parameters multiplying higher orders of the strain tensor can be included. Furthermore, note that this formalism accounts for hydrostratic strain that occurs due to isotropic compression or expansion of a material, such as the core in spherical core-shell QDs. In anisotropic core-shell nanoplatelets, however, the core experiences biaxial strain,\\cite{Talapin2019} which may need to be incorporated into the model using additional terms.\n\n\\begin{figure*}[ht]\n\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{figures\/Fig4_Validation.png}\n\\caption{\\label{fig:validation} Gaps for wurtzite CdSe quantum dots of different sizes (left). The optical gaps computed by our semiempirical pseudopotential method agree with experimental measurements of the optical gap by Fan \\textit{et al.}\\cite{Zhang2015} (black squares) and Yu \\textit{et al.}\\cite{Peng2003} (black triangles). The inset shows the exciton binding energy, $E_{\\text{B}}$, computed by our method and compared to values computed by Franceschetti and Zunger\\cite{Zunger1997} (black asterisks). Gaps for zincblende CdSe-CdS core-shell nanoplatelets with different thicknesses of CdS shell (middle). The optical gaps calculated by our method compare favorably with those measured experimentally by Hazarika \\textit{et al.}\\cite{Talapin2019} (black squares). Gaps for zincblende InAs quantum dots of different sizes (right). The fundamental gaps calculated are in excellent agreement with those measured by Banin \\textit{et al.}\\cite{Millo1999} using scanning tunneling microscopy (black squares), and the optical gaps compare well with those measured by Guzelian \\textit{et al.}\\cite{Alivisatos1997} (black triangles) and computed by Franceschetti and Zunger\\cite{Zunger2000} (black asterisks).}\n\\end{figure*} \n\nThe fitting of parameters $\\{a_0, a_1, a_2, a_3\\}$ proceeds by comparing the generated band structure to the expected band structure with special care taken to correctly capture the band gaps and effective masses. As shown in Fig.~ \\ref{fig:fitting}a, the model captures all band features and describes the band structure across the entire Brillouin zone. The real-space forms of the corresponding pseudopotentials are illustrated in Fig.~\\ref{fig:fitting}b, where the psuedopotentials have been simultaneously fit to generate the correct band structures for both wurtzite and zincblende CdSe and CdS. The effects of strain are then incorporated through the $a_4$ parameter (and any necessary higher-order terms) to fit the absolute deformation potentials of both the conduction band minimum and valence band maximum. This fitting procedure ensures that hydrostatic deformation of the crystal alters the energies of the electron and hole levels in the correct manner. \n\nOnce the pseudopotentials have been fit to describe bulk systems (the fits are not unique and often other physical measures are used to choose the best set of parameters~\\cite{Wang1996}), they are used to construct the NC Hamiltonian. The central assumption made here is that the pseudopotentials that describe single particle properties in the bulk are adequate also when applied to quantum confined nanostructures. While this might seem a large leap, the error introduced by this assumption is relatively small compared to the fundamental  band gap.\\cite{Ogut1997} A cross-section of the resulting pseudopotential for a wurtzite 3.9~nm CdSe NC is shown in the inset of Fig.~\\ref{fig:fitting}b, illustrating both the near-periodic potential in the interior of the NC and the manner by which it is modified at the surface. The NC atomic configurations are obtained by first pruning the correctly sized NC from bulk. The atomic positions are then relaxed using molecular dynamics-based geometry optimization with previously-parameterized force fields,\\cite{Rabani2002,Zhou2013} which includes two- and three-body terms to enforce tetrahedral bonding geometries, to produce NC configurations that are relatively crystalline in agreement with experiment.\\cite{KelleyJCP2016} In the case of core-shell structures, the core is cut from bulk, and the shell material is grown on the surface using the lattice constant of the core material. The subsequent geometry optimization allows the shell to relax and results in compressive strain on the core to minimize the stress along the core-shell interface.\\cite{Grunwald2013, Talapin2019}\n\nThe description of the surface of the NC presents a challenge, as simply terminating the NC will result in dangling bonds. These dangling bonds can give rise to localized electronic states within the band gap, which act as traps. For the II-VI and III-V families of semiconductors, we have found that dangling bonds from the non-metal atoms result in hole traps slightly above the valence band maximum, but metal dangling bonds do not result in electron traps due to the light electron effective mass relative to the hole effective mass.\\cite{Jasrasaria2020,Enright2022} To passivate the surface of the NC, the outermost layer of atoms is replaced with passivation potentials that mimic the effect of organic ligands that terminate the surfaces of experimentally synthesized NCs, pushing the mid-gap electronic states out of the band gap.\\cite{Wang1994} This procedure for building NC structures can be easily adapted to produce more complicated NCs, such as the core-shell NCs, nanorods, and nanoplatelets. Further modification, such as alloying, multi-layered NCs, dimer NC assemblies, and structural defects can also be modeled with atomistic detail. \n\nWhile a NC of experimentally relevant size will have many single-particle states (see Fig.~\\ref{fig:states}b), only a few highest-energy, occupied and lowest-energy, unoccupied states are relevant to describing the optical properties near the band edge. These single-particle states are obtained using the filter diagonalization method,\\cite{Wall1995,Toledo2002} which provides a framework to extract all the eigen-solutions within a specific energy window. This process can be done with nearly linear scaling with the system size due to the locality of the single-particle Hamiltonian, making feasible the calculation for NCs with volumes spanning several orders of magnitude. As the pseudopotentials are fit to reproduce quasiparticle band structures, the eigenstates of the pseudopotential Hamiltonian are assumed to describe the quasi-electron and quasi-hole wave functions of the NC. Examples of the quasi-electron and quasi-hole densities are shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:states}a. We see that both the electron and hole states show Bloch-like oscillations, which are significantly more pronounced for the hole, and the electron states show a progression of envelope functions with $s$- then $p$-type characteristics, in line with effective mass descriptions of NC electronic states.\\cite{Wang1998,Efros2000}  \n\nAs previously stated, connection to experiments also requires an accurate description of the neutral excited states probed by optical spectroscopy. To account for electron-hole correlations, we use the single-particle eigenstates as the basis to solve the Bethe-Salpeter equation (BSE)~\\cite{Rohlfing2000} for the correlated excitonic states using the static screening approximation.\\cite{Eshet2013} This approach describes electron-hole correlations beyond the standard perturbation technique and is essential to describe excitons even in the strongly confined limit. We take the excitonic states to be a linear combination of noninteracting, electron-hole pair states:\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\vert \\psi_n \\rangle = \\sum_{ai} c_{a,i}^n a_a^\\dagger a_i \\vert 0 \\rangle\\,,\n    \\label{eqn:PsiExciton}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $a_a^\\dagger$ and $a_i$ are electron creation and annihilation operators in quasiparticle states $a$ and $i$, respectively. The indexes $a,b,c,\\dots$ refer to quasi-electron (unoccupied) states while the indexes $i,j,k,\\dots$ refer to quasi-hole (occupied) states. The expansion coefficients $c_{a,i}$ are determined by solving the eigenvalue equation~\\cite{Rohlfing2000}\n\\begin{equation}\n    (E_n-\\Delta \\varepsilon_{ai})c^n_{a,i}=\\sum_{bj}\\left(K^d_{ai;bj}+K^x_{ai;bj}\\right)c^n_{b,j}\\,,\n    \\label{eqn:BSEEig}\n\\end{equation}\nwhich also determines the energy of exciton $n$, $E_n$, in terms of the direct and exchange parts of the electron-hole interaction kernel,\\cite{Rohlfing2000} $K^d_{ai;bj}$ and $K^x_{ai;bj}$, respectively, and the quasiparticle energy difference $\\Delta \\varepsilon_{ai}=\\varepsilon_a-\\varepsilon_i$. The direct part of the kernel describes the main attractive interaction between quasi-electrons and quasi-holes while the exchange part controls details of the excitation spectrum, such as the singlet-triplet splittings. Importantly, the direct term is mediated by a screened Coulomb interaction,\\cite{Rohlfing2000} which we approximate using the static screening limit with a dielectric constant that is obtained directly from the quasiparticle Hamiltonian\\cite{Williamson2000} and that depends on the size and shape of the NC. The binding energy of the $n$th excitonic state, $E^n_\\text{B}$, is calculated as\n\\begin{equation}\n    E^n_\\text{B}=\\sum_{abij}\\left(c^{n}_{a,i}\\right)^{*}\\left( K^d_{ai;bj}+K^x_{ai;bj}\\right)c^{n}_{b,j} .\n    \\label{eqn:ExBind}\n\\end{equation}\n\nAs this model was built on semiempirical foundations, it is necessary to validate the resulting calculations on well-known NC properties before using the model to explore more complex phenomena. Furthermore, the fitting was carried out on pure bulk materials, so it is important to assess the performance of the model on different NCs across a range of sizes and compositions. One of the most fundamental properties we need to capture is the optical gap. As shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:validation}, we obtain results that compare favorably with experiments with respect to the magnitude of the gap and the scaling with NC size for several different NC compositions and geometries. We additionally validate properties, such as exciton binding energies,\\cite{Philbin2018,Brumberg2019}, exciton fine structure effects on polarized emission,\\cite{Hadar2017,Brumberg2019} radiative and AR lifetimes,\\cite{Philbin2018,Philbin2020a,Philbin2020b} and optical signals of trapped carriers.\\cite{Jasrasaria2020} The strong agreement we obtain between theoretical predictions and experimental observations across a variety of system sizes, compositions, and dimensionalities demonstrates that our approach is suitable for understanding and rationalizing trends across a wide range of nanomaterial systems. Additionally, as we will discuss in the following sections, this model is extremely versatile and lends itself to new development and expansion.\n\n\\section{Phonons and exciton-phonon couplings}\n\\label{sec:exph}\nElectronic degrees of freedom couple to phonons in semiconductors, resulting in a diverse set of processes that affect electronic properties and dynamics. These electron-phonon interactions in bulk semiconductors tend to be weaker than electron-vibrational interactions in molecular systems because the relatively large dielectric screening in bulk semiconductors leads to delocalized, Wannier-Mott excitons, which do not depend as sensitively on the nuclear configuration as do the localized, Frenkel excitons in molecular systems.\\cite{Scholes2006NatMater} Additionally, phonons in bulk semiconductors are also delocalized over the material, unlike localized vibrations in molecules.\\cite{Mahan2000}\n\nSemiconductor NCs lie somewhere in between the bulk and molecular limits. Excitons in NCs are delocalized over multiple atoms, but they are confined to the extent of the NC. Similarly, lattice vibrations resemble phonons in bulk semiconductors, but they are finite in number and spatially confined to the NC. The effects of confinement on the magnitude of exciton-phonon coupling (EXPC) are still poorly understood, and the challenges associated with studying EXPC, both experimentally and theoretically, have led to a set of outstanding questions regarding EXPC in semiconductor NCs. A detailed description of EXPC in NCs is essential for understanding the temperature dependence of excitonic properties\\cite{Balan2017} and phenomena, such as exciton dephasing (\\textit{i.e.}, homogeneous emission linewidths),\\cite{Bawendi2016, Mack2017} phonon-mediated carrier relaxation,\\cite{Nozik2001, Kilina2009,Peterson2014} and charge transfer.\\cite{Kamat2011,Harris2016} \n\nBefore delving into the role of confinement on EXPC, we will examine the phonon states in NCs. Phonon confinement to the spatial extent of the NC results in quantization of the phonon frequencies. This confinement introduces additional complicating factors, such as the role of the NC surface,\\cite{Wood2016Nature, Mack2019} that motivate the need for an atomistic description of phonon modes.\\cite{KelleyJCP2016} While DFT-based frozen phonon approaches have been used to compute phonon modes and frequencies,\\cite{Chou1992, Bester2012, Bester2019} their computational expense restricts these methods to small NCs or to the computation of specific modes which are known \\textit{a priori} to be relevant for the properties or processes of interest. Therefore, we model phonons using classical, atomic force fields, which allows for the computation of all phonon modes and frequencies in NC systems of experimentally relevant sizes. The dynamical matrix, or mass-weighted Hessian, can be computed at the equilibrium configuration of a NC:\\cite{Kong2011}\n\\begin{equation}\n    D_{\\mu k, \\mu^\\prime k^\\prime} = \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{m_\\mu m_{\\mu^\\prime}}} \\bigg( \\frac{\\partial^2 U(\\boldsymbol{R})}{\\partial u_{\\mu k} \\partial u_{\\mu^\\prime k^\\prime}} \\bigg)_{\\boldsymbol{R}_0}\\,,\n    \\label{eqn:dynamical}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $U(\\boldsymbol{R})$ is the potential energy given by the force field, $u_{\\mu k}=R_{\\mu k} - R_{0,\\mu k}$ is the displacement of nucleus $\\mu$ away from its equilibrium position in the $k\\in\\{x,y,z\\}$ direction, and $m_\\mu$ is the mass of nucleus $\\mu$. This $3N \\times 3N$ dynamical matrix, where $N$ is the number of atoms in the NC, can be diagonalized to obtain the phonon mode frequencies and coordinates.\n\n\\begin{figure*}[ht]\n\\includegraphics[width=0.85\\textwidth]{figures\/Fig5_ExPh.pdf}\n\\caption{\\label{fig:ExPh} (a) The phonon densities of states (PDOS) calculated for wurtzite CdSe NCs of different sizes. The inset shows the phonon gap, $\\omega_\\text{gap}$, which decreases with increasing NC size. (b) Phonon lifetimes calculated for wurtzite CdSe NCs. For all systems, almost all modes have sub-picosecond lifetimes, indicating significant phonon-phonon coupling. (c) Reorganization energies for wurtzite CdSe NCs. Values calculated by our approach are compared to experimental measurements by Liptay \\textit{et~al.}\\cite{Bawendi2007} (black triangles) and Salvador \\textit{et~al.}\\cite{Scholes2006JCP} (black squares) as well as to calculations using an effective mass model by Kelley\\cite{Kelley2011} (black asterisks). The inset schematically depicts the reorganization energy, $\\lambda$, which corresponds to the energy of lattice rearrangement after vertical excitation from the electronic ground state $\\vert g \\rangle$ to the excited state $\\vert e \\rangle$. The ground and excited state minima are displaced along the phonon mode coordinate $q$ by a distance $d$. (d) The spectral densities, $J(\\omega)$, calculated for wurtzite CdSe NCs show significant coupling to lower-frequency acoustic modes and to optical modes around $\\hbar \\omega \\sim 30$~meV.}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nThe phonon densities of states (PDOS) for wurtzite CdSe NCs of different sizes computed using a previously-parameterized Stillinger-Weber interaction potential\\cite{Zhou2013} are illustrated in Fig.~\\ref{fig:ExPh}a. Acoustic modes, which involve in-phase motion of atoms, have lower frequencies (1\\,THz\\,$\\sim$\\,5\\,meV or lower in CdSe NCs) while optical modes, which are made up of out-of-phase movements of atoms, have higher frequencies (4\\,THz\\,$\\sim$\\,16\\,meV or higher).\\cite{Grunwald2012} Modes at intermediate frequencies are difficult to characterize due to the overlap of acoustic and optical branches in the bulk phonon dispersion relation as well as the confounding effects of phonon confinement. Phonon confinement also leads to a gap in the PDOS near zero-frequency since the longest-wavelength (\\textit{i.e.}, lowest-frequency) phonon mode in a NC is dictated by the NC size. As shown in the inset of Fig.~\\ref{fig:ExPh}a, the lowest-frequency phonon mode in the system is inversely proportional to the NC diameter, as observed by Raman spectroscopy measurements.\\cite{Weller2008, Tisdale2016}\n\nThis zero-frequency gap has led to a hypothesized hot phonon bottleneck in NCs, in which phonon-phonon scattering rates are slow because of the lack of low-frequency modes, and phonon thermalization becomes the rate-limiting step in processes, such as hot carrier relaxation.\\cite{Ploog1988,Klimov1995,Li2017} However, we have found that phonons have significant coupling with one another (\\textit{i.e.}, are anharmonic) at room temperature (300\\,K).\\cite{Guzelturk2021} We performed molecular dynamics simulations using a force field that consists of Lennard-Jones and Coulomb terms\\cite{Rabani2002} to compute phonon relaxation lifetimes of CdSe NCs, shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:ExPh}b. Unlike the Stillinger-Weber potential, this force field includes long-range interactions that are necessary to accurately describe the splitting between acoustic and optical branches at the Brillouin zone edge in bulk polar semiconductors\\cite{Bester2017} and, thus, the phonon lifetimes. Our calculations are within linear response theory, so they assume phonon modes are only weakly excited, but no assumptions are made about the strength of coupling between different phonon modes. The lifetimes, which are dictated by the phonon-phonon interactions, are sub-picosecond for all modes except for the lowest-energy acoustic modes, for which the lifetimes reach $\\sim$4\\,ps. Smaller NCs have shorter lifetimes because surface atoms, which are proportionally larger in number in smaller NCs, have increased anharmonic motion that leads to greater phonon-phonon coupling. For all systems, the phonon dynamics are overdamped, in agreement with experimental observations,\\cite{Lounis2014,Lindenberg2015} and the relaxation timescales are less than the periods of the phonon modes. We expect that phonon modes that are strongly out of equilibrium would thermalize even more quickly, indicating that a hot phonon bottleneck is unlikely in these systems. (Note that the ``hot phonon bottleneck\" is distinct from the ``phonon bottleneck\", which describes slow carrier relaxation due to the mismatch between electronic gaps and phonon frequencies, that is discussed in Secs.~\\ref{sec:intro} and \\ref{sec:conclusions}.) \n\nWith this discussion of NC phonons in mind, we now turn to discuss the EXPC terms, $V_{n,m}^{\\alpha}$, that appear in Eq.~\\eqref{eq:hamiltonian}. Historically, studies of EXPC in NCs have described electronic states within parameterized models and\/or have described phonons as vibrations of an elastically isotropic sphere,\\cite{Flytzanis1990,Kobayashi1992,Kartheuser1994, Takagahara1996, Zorkani2007, Kelley2011} leading to widely varying results, as the magnitude of EXPC is extremely sensitive to the descriptions of both excitons and phonons. Fully atomistic \\textit{ab initio} methods have been used for small NCs of $\\sim$100 atoms or fewer, for which the electron-phonon coupling can be inferred from fluctuations of the adiabatic electronic states that are generated ``on the fly\" within DFT and time-dependent DFT frameworks.\\cite{Prezhdo2005PRL, Prezhdo2013JCTC, Wood2018NL, Wood2021} While these methods have been moderately effective in modeling electron-phonon coupling, they are often limited to small systems due to the computational expense of DFT, and they ignore excitonic effects. One recent study that did include these excitonic effects using \\textit{ab initio} methods was limited to clusters of tens of atoms.\\cite{Zeng2021}\n\nInstead, we rely on the semiempirical pseudopotential model to describe excitonic states and atomic force fields to describe phonons.\\cite{Jasrasaria2021} Within this framework, the standard electron-nuclear matrix element to first order in the atomic displacements is given by:\\cite{Giustino2017}\n\\begin{equation}\n    V_{n,m}^{\\mu k} \\equiv \\bigg\\langle \\psi_n \\bigg\\vert \\bigg( \\frac{\\partial \\hat{v}(\\bm{r})}{\\partial R_{\\mu k}} \\bigg)_{\\boldsymbol{R}_0} \\bigg\\vert \\psi_m \\bigg\\rangle\\,,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\vert \\psi_{n} \\rangle$ is the state of exciton $n$ (cf., Eq.~\\eqref{eqn:PsiExciton}), $\\hat{v}(\\bm{r}) = \\sum_\\mu \\hat{v}_\\mu(\\boldsymbol{r})$ is the sum over atomic pseudopotentials given in Eq.~(\\ref{eqn:Hamil}), $R_{\\mu k}$ is the position of atom $\\mu$ in the $k\\in \\{x,y,z\\}$ direction, and $\\boldsymbol{R}_0$ is the equilibrium configuration of the NC. Using the static dielectric BSE approximation for the excitonic wave function, we can reduce the calculation of these matrix elements to a simpler form given by:\\cite{Jasrasaria2021}\n\\begin{equation}\n    V_{n,m}^{\\mu k} = \\sum_{abi} c_{a,i}^n c_{b,i}^m v_{ab,\\mu}^\\prime (R_{\\mu k}) - \\sum_{aij} c_{a,i}^n c_{a,j}^m v_{ij,\\mu}^\\prime (R_{\\mu k})\\,,\n\\label{eqn:ExPh_ElHoleChannels}\n\\end{equation}\nwhere\n\\begin{equation}\n    v_{rs,\\mu}^\\prime = \\int d\\boldsymbol{r} \\phi^{*}_r (\\boldsymbol{r}) \\frac{\\partial \\hat{v}(\\bm{r})}{\\partial R_{\\mu k}} \\phi_s (\\boldsymbol{r})\\,.\n\\label{eqn:single-ElHoleChannels}\n\\end{equation}\nHere, $c_{a,i}^n$ represent the Bethe-Salpeter coefficients introduced in Eq.~\\eqref{eqn:PsiExciton}, and $\\phi_a(\\boldsymbol{r})$ are the real-space quasiparticle wave functions. The first term in Eq.~\\eqref{eqn:ExPh_ElHoleChannels} represents the electron channel of EXPC, in which excitons comprised of different single-particle electron states are coupled. The second term describes the hole channel, in which excitons comprised of different single-particle hole states are coupled. These matrix elements can be transformed to phonon mode coordinates using the eigenvectors of the dynamical matrix:\n\\begin{equation}\n    V_{n,m}^\\alpha = \\sum_{\\mu k} \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{m_\\mu}} e_{\\alpha,\\mu k}^{-1} V_{n,m}^{\\mu k}\\,,    \n\\end{equation}\nwhere $e_{\\alpha, \\mu k}$ is the $\\mu k$ element of the $\\alpha$ eigenvector of the dynamical matrix given in Eq.~\\eqref{eqn:dynamical}, and $m_{\\mu}$ is the mass of atom $\\mu$. The diagonal matrix elements $V_{n,n}^\\alpha$ describe the renormalization of the energy of exciton $n$ through its interaction with phonon mode $\\alpha$, and the off-diagonal matrix elements $V_{n,m}^\\alpha$ describe the interaction of excitons $n$ and $m$ through the absorption or emission of a phonon of mode $\\alpha$.\n\nOne measure of the EXPC is the reorganization energy,\\cite{Ekimov1993, Scholes2006JCP} depicted schematically in the inset of Fig.~\\ref{fig:ExPh}c, which is the energy associated with rearrangement of the NC lattice after exciton formation and is relevant for optical Stokes shifts, charge transfer processes, and NC-based device efficiencies. In the harmonic approximation, the total reorganization energy for a NC is the sum of reorganization energies for each mode, $\\lambda = \\sum_\\alpha \\lambda_\\alpha$, where\n\\begin{equation}\n    \\lambda_\\alpha = \\frac{2}{Z} \\sum_n e^{-\\beta E_n} \\bigg( \\frac{1}{2\\omega_\\alpha} V_{n,n}^\\alpha \\bigg)^2\\,.\n\\label{eq:renormalization}\n\\end{equation}\nThe above equation includes a Boltzmann-weighted average over excitonic states, where $Z=\\sum_n e^{-\\beta  E_n}$ is the partition function, $\\beta = \\frac{1}{k_{\\rm B}T}$, and $T$ is the temperature. For wurtzite CdSe NCs ranging from 3 to 5~nm in diameter, we calculated the reorganization energy to be between 60 and 20~meV, which is in good agreement with experimentally measured values\\cite{Scholes2006JCP, Bawendi2007} and previous effective mass model calculations\\cite{Kelley2011}, as shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:ExPh}c. The remarkable agreement is an important validation of the semiempirical technique and is essential for describing the nonadiabatic transitions involved in exciton cooling. To investigate the contribution of each mode to the overall reorganization energy, we examine the spectral density, or weighted density of states, ($J(\\omega) = \\sum_\\alpha \\lambda_\\alpha \\delta (\\omega - \\omega_\\alpha)$), which is illustrated in Fig.~\\ref{fig:ExPh}d. Lower-frequency acoustic modes, which tend to involve collective motions of many atoms in the NC, are more significantly coupled to the exciton. Higher-frequency optical modes have weaker EXPC, but they have a large density of phonon states around 25~meV and 30~meV, which are at an energy scale that is more relevant for excitonic transitions. This feature suggests that optical modes may, in fact, be more important than acoustic modes for phonon-mediated exciton dynamics, but further assessment of the model and the EXCP is required for developing a better understanding of the exciton cooling process. The spectral density, however,  may explain discrepancies in experimental results, some of which find stronger exciton coupling to acoustic modes\\cite{Scholes2006JCP, Anni2007, Kambhampati2008PRB, Kambhampati2008JPCC} while others observe stronger exciton coupling to optical modes.\\cite{Kobayashi1992, Righini1996, Bimberg1999, Kelley2015ACSNano, Lin2015} Exciton formation causes NC lattice distortion primarily along the phonon coordinates of acoustic modes while optical modes may play a larger role in exciton dynamics.\n\nFurthermore, our calculations show that excitons in all core and core-shell NCs are more strongly coupled to phonons \\textit{via} the hole channel (\\textit{i.e.}, the second term in Eq.~(\\ref{eqn:ExPh_ElHoleChannels})) than through the electron channel.\\cite{Jasrasaria2021} This effect is a result of the heavier effective hole mass, which makes hole states more sensitive to nuclear configuration and decreases the energy spacing between hole states, allowing them to couple more readily \\textit{via} phonon absorption or emission. Moreover, we have found that phonon modes localized to the surface of the NC have significant contributions to the overall reorganization energy in small NCs because of increased surface strain and strong exciton confinement, which causes the exciton wave function to extend to the NC surface. This surface effect decreases drastically as the NC size increases.\n\nOur framework includes electron-hole correlations, exciton-phonon coupling, and phonon-phonon interactions, enabling our ongoing work to address open questions regarding timescales and mechanisms of phonon-mediated exciton dynamics, such as hot exciton cooling. This atomistic theory can simultaneously study both hypothesized mechanisms -- the Auger decay mechanism, which would occur on the order of picoseconds, and the slower phonon-mediated transitions -- allowing a unified mechanism to emerge from the theory to explain experimental results in a range of NC systems.\n\n\\section{Auger recombination}\n\\label{sec:auger}\n\nAuger recombination (AR) is the primary nonradiative, Coulomb-mediated, exciton-exciton decay channel of multiexcitons, in which one exciton recombines and transfers its energy to an additional electron-hole pair, as schematically illustrated in Fig.~\\ref{fig:AllProcesses}, on timescales of a few hundreds of picoseconds.\\cite{Klimov2014}  The energy given to the second exciton primarily excites one of the carriers, which then quickly dissipates the excess energy \\textit{via} phonon emission.\\cite{Achermann2006,Harvey2018} While fast AR in NCs is often responsible for decreased photoluminescence quantum yields and device efficiencies, it also makes NCs potentially useful as single photon sources.\\cite{Correa2012,Utzat2019} AR lifetimes are commonly measured using time-resolved photoluminescence and transient absorption experiments.\\cite{Klimov2000,Klimov2008,Robel2009,Baghani2015,Ben-Shahar2016,Li2016,Pelton2017} Recent experiments have demonstrated that for quasi-0D quantum dots (QDs),~\\cite{Garcia-Santamaria2011} quasi-1D nanorods,~\\cite{Stolle2017} and quasi-2D nanoplatelets,~\\cite{She2015, Li2017, Philbin2020b} AR lifetimes increase linearly with the volume of the NC. Understanding the key factor that leads to this so-called ``universal volume scaling\" of AR lifetimes is key to further controlling AR processes. Understanding the dependence of AR lifetimes on NC size, shape, and composition as well as on the number of excitons present in the NC is central to our understanding of this many-body relaxation process and will provide tools to control AR lifetimes, as further discussed below.\n\nPrior to focusing on the microscopic origins of AR, we will discuss the nature of Coulomb-mediated interactions within and between excitons and their particular importance in confined semiconductors. The strength of Coulomb-mediated interactions within an exciton is normally characterized by the exciton binding energy (see Eq. \\eqref{eqn:ExBind}), which is typically $\\sim$10~meV\nin bulk semiconductors. Due the small sizes and reduced dimensionalities of NCs, Coulomb interactions are enhanced, leading to exciton binding energies that are greater than $100$~meV in QDs,~\\cite{Franceschetti1997} nanorods,~\\cite{Baskoutas2005,Rajadell2009,Royo2010} and nanoplatelets.\\cite{Scholes2006NatMater,Scott2016,Rajadell2017,Brumberg2019} As this exciton binding energy is much greater than the thermal energy scale at room temperature ($k_{\\text{B}}T\\sim25$~meV), electrons and holes readily form bound excitons in NCs. The physics of electrons and holes forming bound, correlated electron-hole pairs impacts almost all physical processes, both radiative and nonradiative, in NCs. The enhancement of Coulomb interactions in NCs also affects interactions between excitons. Bulk materials require optical excitation from intense lasers to reach the exciton densities at which Coulomb-mediated exciton-exciton interactions are important. However, the small volumes of NCs lead to these large exciton densities even with just two excitons on a NC. Moreover, two excitons on a single NC will have significant wave function overlap, further increasing Coulomb interactions between excitons in confined systems. These enhanced Coulomb interactions are the primary reason for significant AR in NCs. \n\nWe will now dive into the details of the approach we have developed for computing AR lifetimes, $\\tau_{\\text{AR}}$. AR is a process by which an initial biexcitonic state, $\\left|B\\right\\rangle $, of energy $E_{B}$ decays into a final excitonic state, $\\left|S\\right\\rangle$, of energy $E_{S}$ \\textit{via} Coulomb scattering, $V$. AR lifetimes of a NC can be calculated using Fermi's golden rule, where we average over thermally distributed initial biexcitonic states and sum over all final decay channels into single excitonic states:\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\tau_{\\text{AR}}^{-1} & = & \\sum_{B}\\frac{e^{-\\beta E_{B}}}{Z_{B}}\\frac{2\\pi}{\\hbar}\\sum_{S}\\left|\\left\\langle B\\left|V\\right|S\\right\\rangle \\right|^{2}\\delta\\left(E_{B}-E_{S}\\right)\\,.\\label{eq:fermisGoldenRule}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nIn the above, the Dirac delta function ($\\delta\\left(E_{B}-E_{S}\\right)$) enforces energy conservation between the initial and final states and the partition function, $Z_{B}=\\sum_{B}e^{-\\beta E_{B}}$, describes a thermal average of initial biexcitonic states (assuming Boltzmann statistics for biexcitons). Despite the known fact that electron-hole interactions in NCs are significant, AR lifetimes had previously been calculated by approximating the initial biexcitonic state as two quasi-electrons and two quasi-holes, without any correlations between them.\\cite{Chepic1990, Wang2003, Cragg2010, Vaxenburg2015, Vaxenburg2016} Mathematically, this approximation yields the initial biexcitonic state as \n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\left|B\\right\\rangle ^{(0)} & = & a_{b}^{\\dagger}a_{j}a_{c}^{\\dagger}a_{k}\\left|0\\right\\rangle \\otimes\\left|\\chi_{B}\\right\\rangle ,\n\\label{eq:nonintBiexciton}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nand $E_B^{(0)} = \\varepsilon_b-\\varepsilon_j+\\varepsilon_c-\\varepsilon_k$ where the superscript ``$(0)$'' signifies that a noninteracting formalism is used.\nIn the above, $a^\\dagger_b$ and $a_j$ are electron creation and annihilation operators in quasiparticle states $b$ and $j$, respectively, as defined in Sec.~\\ref{sec:methods}, and $\\left|\\chi_{B}\\right\\rangle $ is the spin part of the biexciton wavefunction. \n\nIntuitively, this approximation is only valid in the limit where the kinetic energy is much larger than the exciton binding energy (\\textit{i.e.}, for very small quasi-0D QDs in the very strong confinement limit, as shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:AR}), and it quickly breaks down with increasing QD size.\\cite{Philbin2018} Furthermore, this approximation results in computed AR lifetimes that are orders of magnitude too long for quasi-1D nanorods and quasi-2D nanoplatelets (Fig.~\\ref{fig:AR}).\\cite{Philbin2018, Philbin2020b} While this approximation to the initial biexcitonic state is conceptually and computationally simple, it leads to discrepancies between theoretical predictions and experimental measurements on the volume dependence of AR lifetimes in colloidal QDs that persisted for over $20$~years.\n\n\\begin{figure*}[htb]\n\\includegraphics[width=\\textwidth]{figures\/Fig6_Auger.pdf}\n\\caption{\\label{fig:AR}Biexciton Auger recombination (AR) lifetimes, $\\tau_{\\text{AR}}$, for CdSe quantum dots as a function of volume (left). Calculations\\cite{Philbin2018} are compared to experimentally measured lifetimes by Taguchi \\textit{et al.}\\cite{Taguchi2011} (black squares), Htoon \\textit{et al.}\\cite{Htoon2003} (black triangles), and Klimov \\textit{et al.}\\cite{Klimov2000} (black asterisks), demonstrating excellent agreement between the interacting formalism and experiment. AR lifetimes for CdSe nanorods as a function of volume (middle). Calculated lifetimes\\cite{Philbin2018} are shown with those measured by Taguchi \\textit{et al.}\\cite{Taguchi2011} (black squares), Htoon \\textit{et al.}\\cite{Htoon2003} (black triangles), and Zhu \\textit{et al.}\\cite{Zhu2012} (black asterisks). AR lifetimes for $4$~monolayer CdSe nanoplatelets as a function of nanoplatelet area. Calculated lifetimes\\cite{Philbin2020a} compare well with measurements by Philbin \\textit{et al.}\\cite{Philbin2020b} (black squares), She \\textit{et al.}\\cite{She2015} (black triangles), and Li and Lian\\cite{Li2017} (black asterisks). For all systems, the interacting formalism predicts the same volume scaling as experiment while the noninteracting formalism predicts a steeper scaling with NC volume.}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nBeyond this approximation, the initial biexcitonic state can be written as a combination of two excitonic states that includes electron-hole correlations within each exciton\\cite{Refaely-Abramson2017, Philbin2018} but that ignores correlations between excitons, which are typically two (or more) orders of magnitude weaker. The initial biexcitonic state within this formalism, which we previously termed the interacting formalism, is given by\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\left|B\\right\\rangle  & = & \\sum_{b,j}\\sum_{c,k}c_{b,j}^{n}c_{c,k}^{m}a_{b}^{\\dagger}a_{j}a_{c}^{\\dagger}a_{k}\\left|0\\right\\rangle\n\\otimes\\left|\\chi_{B}\\right\\rangle ,\n\\label{eq:B I}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere the excitonic coefficients $c_{b,j}^{n}$ and $c_{b,j}^{m}$\nare determined by solving the Bethe-Salpeter equation,\\cite{Rohlfing2000} as detailed in Sec.~\\ref{sec:methods}. In this formalism the energy of this biexcitonic state is $E_B = E_n+E_m$, which is simply the sum of the two exciton energies. Thus, a deterministic calculation of the AR lifetime can be performed using~\\cite{Philbin2018}\n\\begin{widetext}\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\tau_{\\text{AR}}^{-1} & = & \\frac{2\\pi}{\\hbar Z_{B}}\\sum_{B}e^{-\\beta E_{B}}\\sum_{a,i}\\left|\\sum_{b,c,k}c_{b,i}^{n}c_{c,k}^{m}V_{abck}\\right|^{2}\\delta\\left(E_{B}-\\varepsilon_{a}+\\varepsilon_{i}\\right)\\label{eq:dIntAR}\\\\\n &  & +\\frac{2\\pi}{\\hbar Z_{B}}\\sum_{B}e^{-\\beta E_{B}}\\sum_{a,i}\\left|\\sum_{j,c,k}c_{a,j}^{n}c_{c,k}^{m}V_{ijck}\\right|^{2}\\delta\\left(E_{B}-\\varepsilon_{a}+\\varepsilon_{i}\\right).\\nonumber \n\\end{eqnarray}\n\\end{widetext}\nIn Eq.~\\eqref{eq:dIntAR}, the first term on the right hand side indicates the electron channel, in which the electron of the final state is excited, and the second term corresponds to the hole channel, in which the hole of the final state is excited. The final states are still approximated by noninteracting electron-hole pairs, $\\vert S \\rangle = a_a^\\dagger a_i \\vert 0 \\rangle$, for which $E_S = \\varepsilon_{a}-\\varepsilon_{i} $. This representation of the final state is a reasonable approximation given that the final states are high in energy (Fig.~\\ref{fig:AllProcesses}), above the dissociation energy of the exciton. Eq.~\\eqref{eq:dIntAR} was first shown to predict quantitatively accurate AR lifetimes for QDs and nanorods\\cite{Philbin2018} and was then extended and applied to large core-shell QDs~\\cite{Philbin2020a} and nanoplatelets~\\cite{Philbin2020b} using stochastic orbital techniques to reduce the computational cost of the interacting formalism given by Eq.~\\eqref{eq:dIntAR}. Specifically, stochastic orbitals were used to sample the final states \\textit{via} the stochastic resolution of the identity\\cite{Takeshita2017,Dou2019} and also to represent the Coulomb operator.\\cite{Neuhauser2016} The overall computational scaling of the stochastic implementation of the interacting formalism was multiple factors of the system size lower than the deterministic implementation.\\cite{Philbin2020a}   \n\nWe have yet to find a system in which Eq.~\\eqref{eq:dIntAR} and the underlying approximation of treating the initial biexcitonic state as a product of two correlated excitonic states (Eq.~\\eqref{eq:B I}) fail to agree with experimental AR lifetimes. However, future work may need to treat the initial state as a fully-correlated biexcitonic state given by\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n\\left|B\\right\\rangle  & = & \\sum_{b,c,j,k}c_{b,c,j,k}a_{b}^{\\dagger}a_{j}a_{c}^{\\dagger}a_{k}\\left|0\\right\\rangle \\otimes\\left|\\chi_{B}\\right\\rangle .\\label{eq:fullBiexciton}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nIn particular, there should be a size at which the AR lifetimes become independent of the volume of the QD (perhaps above the biexcitonic radius), where such exciton-exciton correlation becomes important. For example, recent advances in synthesizing single NCs that have multiple, spatially separated excitonic sites\\cite{Cui2019,Koley2021,Philbin2021arxiv} may require the inclusion of all possible quasiparticle-quasiparticle correlations to accurately model the decay of biexcitonic states.\n\n\\begin{figure*}[htb]\n\\includegraphics[width=0.85\\textwidth]{figures\/Fig7_CoreShell.pdf}\n\\caption{\\label{fig:Core-Shell} (a) Projected electron (top) and hole (bottom) carrier densities of the ground excitonic state for CdSe\/CdS (left) and CdSe\/ZnS (right) core-shell quantum dots with a core diameter of 2.2~nm and different shell thicknesses.\\cite{Philbin2020a} (b) The large contribution of surface modes to the reorganization energy in small CdSe NCs can be mitigated by the addition of a passivating shell, lowering the overall reorganization energy. (c) Auger recombination lifetimes, $\\tau_\\text{AR}$, (top) and root-mean-square exciton radii, $r_\\text{e-h} = \\sqrt{\\langle r_\\text{e-h}^2 \\rangle}$, (bottom) of CdSe\/CdS and CdSe\/ZnS core-shell quantum dots as a function of shell monolayers for a CdSe core diameter of 2.2~nm.\\cite{Philbin2020a} (d) The reorganization energies of bare CdSe quantum dots are significantly larger than those of CdSe cores with 3 monolayers of CdS shell. The black triangle corresponds to the experimentally measured reorganization energy of a CdSe\/CdS core-shell particle with a core diameter of 4~nm and 3~monolayers of shell by Talapin \\textit{et al.}\\cite{Weller2008}}\n\\end{figure*}\n\nReturning to the scaling of the AR lifetime with NC size, the universal volume scaling of the AR lifetime with the volume of the QD ($\\tau_{\\text{AR}} \\propto V_{\\text{QD}}$) is shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:AR}. This volume scaling can be understood from analyzing the volume dependence of the Coulomb coupling and density of final states used to calculate the AR lifetime in Eq.~\\eqref{eq:fermisGoldenRule}. The density of final states increases linearly with the volume of the QD, as it also does for nanorods and nanoplatelets.\\cite{Rabani2010,Baer2012,Philbin2018,Philbin2020b} However, the decreasing Coulomb coupling between the initial biexcitonic state and final high energy excitonic states with increasing system size counteracts the increasing number of final states. We previously reported that these Coulomb couplings decrease with the square of the QD volume in the interacting formalism, such that the overall AR lifetime increases linearly with the volume of the QD, as found experimentally. In AR lifetime calculations that utilize noninteracting biexcitonic states (Eq.~\\eqref{eq:nonintBiexciton}), the Coulomb couplings decrease too fast with the QD volume, which was responsible for the disagreement between theoretical predictions and experimental measurements of the scaling of the AR lifetime with QD volume. The inclusion of electron-hole correlations in the initial biexcitonic state leads to a less steep volume dependence of these Coulomb couplings, as they are related to the electron-hole overlap. Increasing this overlap by properly accounting for the attractive interactions between electrons and holes, as is done in the interacting formalism, leads to increased Coulomb couplings.\n\nThus far, we have been concerned with understanding the decay of initial biexcitonic states \\textit{via} AR. The decay of multiexcitonic states can be modeled by classical master equations (\\textit{i.e.}, classical rate equations) that use decay rates of single excitons and biexcitons. These methods have proven to be surprisingly accurate for modeling the decay of a general number of excitons, $N_{\\text{exc}}$, in a NC\\cite{Ben-Shahar2018,Yan2021} as well as Auger heating,\\cite{Guzelturk2021} or the long-lived heating of the NC lattice that occurs due to the sequence of AR events and subsequent hot carrier cooling.\\cite{Achermann2006,Harvey2018}  To this end, the rate that $N_{\\text{exc}}$ excitons decays to $(N_{\\text{exc}}-1)$ excitons can be well-approximated by modeling AR as a bimolecular collision between excitons, such that the overall AR rate ($K_{\\text{AR}}$) is given by \n\\begin{eqnarray}\nK_{\\text{AR}} & = & {N_{\\text{exc}} \\choose 2} k_{\\text{AR}}\\,, \\label{eq:totalARRate}\n\\end{eqnarray}\nwhere $k_{\\text{AR}}$ is the inverse of the biexciton AR lifetime ($k_{\\text{AR}}=\\tau_{\\text{AR}}^{-1}$) and $N_{\\text{exc}} \\choose 2$ is the binomial coefficient equal to $N_{\\text{exc}}(N_{\\text{exc}}-1)\/2$.\n\nThe modeling of AR in terms of a bimolecular collision between excitons seems to be consistent with our findings that the interacting formalism, which includes the physics of electrons and holes forming correlated electron-hole pairs (excitons), predicts accurate AR lifetimes. The noninteracting formalism lends itself to modeling the total AR rate as a trimolecular collision between either two quasi-holes and a quasi-electron or two quasi-electrons and a quasi-hole. Given that the noninteracting formalism predicts biexciton AR lifetimes that are far too long, we believe that modeling the total AR decay rate as a trimolecular collision is inappropriate in semiconductor NCs, especially in QDs with radii that are comparable to the exciton Bohr radius of the material and in all nanorods and nanoplatelets.\\cite{Zhu2012} \n\n\n\n\n\\section{Role of interfaces in nanocrystals}\n\\label{sec:interfaces}\nThe decay channels described thus far, such as hot exciton cooling and AR, are dictated by electron-hole correlations, exciton-phonon couplings, and exciton-exciton interactions. In addition to size, dimensionality, and material composition, these interactions can be tuned in NCs by the synthesis of heterostructures, such as core-shell NCs.\\cite{Frederick2010,Jain2016,Sagar2020} The core-shell interface introduces another point of control that enables wave function engineering.\n\nFor example, CdSe\/CdS NCs have a quasi-type II band alignment due to the valence band offset between these bulk materials. The interplay of quantum confinement, band alignment, and electron-hole correlation confines the hole density to the core while the electron density delocalizes into the CdS shell.\\cite{Kong2018} On the other hand, CdSe\/ZnS core-shell systems have a type I band alignment that confines both the electron and hole to the core.\\cite{Zhu2010} These behaviors are well-captured by our atomistic electronic structure framework, as illustrated in Fig.~\\ref{fig:Core-Shell}a. The qualitative differences in wave functions in single-material NCs versus heterostructures have large effects on the magnitudes of both EXPC and AR lifetimes.\n\nAs described in Sec.~\\ref{sec:exph}, phonon modes localized to the surface of NCs have significant contributions to the overall EXPC, especially in NCs that are in the strongly confined regime (Fig.~\\ref{fig:Core-Shell}b). This result suggests that EXPC can be mitigated by treatment of the NC surface, such as through the introduction of a passivating shell. For CdSe\/CdS core-shell QDs, the overall reorganization energy can be almost an order of magnitude smaller than that of bare CdSe cores, as shown in Fig.~\\ref{fig:Core-Shell}d, depending on the core size. This effect is a direct consequence of the quasi-type II band alignment that confines the exciton hole to the CdSe core. As the hole channel is the dominant channel for EXPC,\\cite{Jasrasaria2021} hole localization suppresses coupling of the exciton to surface modes and low-frequency acoustic modes that are delocalized over the NC.\n\nGrowth of a passivating shell on CdSe core NCs also has a profound effect on the AR lifetimes. Fig.~\\ref{fig:Core-Shell}c highlights the dramatic differences between AR lifetimes in CdSe\/CdS versus CdSe\/ZnS systems.\\cite{Philbin2020a} The type I band alignment in CdSe\/ZnS means that the root-mean-square exciton radius, or average electron-hole radial coordinate, is relatively independent of ZnS shell thickness after the growth of one shell monolayer. In the quasi-type II systems, however, the root-mean-square exciton radius grows linearly with the number of CdS shell monolayers as the electron delocalizes over the CdS shell. These results directly affect the AR lifetime, which depends on electron-hole wavefunction overlap \\textit{via} the Coulomb coupling. The CdSe\/ZnS QDs show AR lifetimes that do not change with growth of ZnS shell while those of CdSe\/CdS QDs increase dramatically with growth of CdS shell.\n\nIn addition to core-shell QDs, dimers and superlattices of NCs and NC heterostructures are being developed and studied theoretically.\\cite{Williams2009,Evers2015,Lee2018,Ondry2019,Ondry2021,Notot2022} These materials offer the potential for significant engineering and control of both electronic and phononic properties, enabling the realization of new phenomena.\n\n\n\\section{Outlook}\n\\label{sec:conclusions}\n\n\\begin{figure}[htb]\n\\includegraphics[width=0.5\\textwidth]{figures\/Fig8_Cooling.pdf}\n\\caption{\\label{fig:Cooling} The calculated absorption spectrum (top) and density of excitonic states (bottom) for a wurtzite 3.9~nm CdSe quantum dot. The vertical lines in the top panel indicate the oscillator strength of the transition from the ground state to that excitonic state. The inset depicts the cooling process schematically, indicating that exciton cooling occurs through a cascade of states.}\n\\end{figure}\n\nThus far, we have described our framework for computing the electronic\/vibronic properties of confined semiconductor NCs of experimentally relevant sizes. Our approach includes electron-hole correlations, which are key to accurately describing excited-state phenomena, and exciton-phonon coupling, which are essential for understanding room-temperature optical properties and phonon-mediated exciton dynamics. Calculations using our approach yield very good agreement with experimental measurements of observables, such as fundamental and optical gaps, phonon lifetimes, reorganization energies, and AR lifetimes, for II-VI and III-V materials of a variety of sizes, dimensionalities, and compositions.\n\nThe main short-term goal is to use these tools to address the longstanding controversy surrounding the phonon bottleneck. The original hypothesis~\\cite{Nozik2001} of the phonon bottleneck in NCs is based on a single-particle picture of the \\textit{electronic} states, for which the energy spacing between states near the band edge becomes several hundreds of meV. In this case, because the phonon frequencies in these systems are $\\sim$30~meV and lower, a multiphonon process would be required for phonon-mediated relaxation, which would be extremely slow. In this electron-hole picture, one requires Auger-like, Coulomb-mediated coupling to break the phonon bottleneck. This picture is translated to a relatively high density of \\textit{excitonic } states due to the dense spectrum of holes. Fig.~\\ref{fig:Cooling} illustrates the calculated absorption spectrum of a wurtzite 3.9~nm CdSe quantum dot, which is made up of a few very bright excitonic states that have large oscillator strengths and several dim excitonic states that have small oscillator strengths. While the energy spectrum is relatively sparse near the ground excitonic state, the largest excitonic energy gap in this system is 25~meV, and the energy spacing quickly decreases for states higher in energy.\\cite{Zunger1997} This would result in a cascade of relaxation events to dark\/bright excitons that would be relatively fast due to the small energy spacing, breaking the phonon bottleneck.\n\nFuture work will focus on dynamical processes to describe spectral lineshapes, providing means to further assess and improve the approach, as well as integrating this model with a framework for nonadiabatic dynamics to simulate the exciton cooling process and delineate the timescales and mechanism of cooling as a function of excitation energy, NC dimensionality, and NC size. \n\n\\begin{acknowledgments}\nE.R. acknowledges support from the Department of Energy, Photonics at the Thermodynamic Limits Energy Frontier Research Center, under grant no. DESC0019140. Methods used in this work were provided by the Center for Computational Study of Excited State Phenomena in Energy Materials (C2SEPEM), which is funded by the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, Basic Energy Sciences, Materials Sciences and Engineering Division, via contract no. DE-AC02-05CH11231, as part of the Computational Materials Sciences Program. Computational resources were provided by the National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center (NERSC), a U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science User Facility operated under contract no. DE-AC02-05CH11231. D.J. acknowledges the support of the Computational Science Graduate Fellowship from the U.S. Department of Energy under grant no. DE-SC0019323. J.P.P. acknowledges support from the Harvard University Center for the Environment.\n\\end{acknowledgments}\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\\section{Introduction}\n\nThe two envelope paradox is well known, and a number of approaches exist to explain it \\cite{wiki}. Our approach is based on  probability theory. \n\nWe formally define the problem, and prove that switching does not improve  expected value.  We then resolve the paradox by explaining where the \"naive\" calculation goes wrong. Finally we discuss how having some prior information changes the problem. \n\n\\section{Expected value and optimal strategy}\n\nLet Y be the base amount (i.e. the envelopes contain Y and 2Y),  it is a random variable with distribution \\(F_1\\), on a probability space \\(\\Omega\\).  \n\nLet X(Y) and X'(Y)  represent the amounts in the chosen envelope and the other envelope respectively.  To represent the choice of envelope, we have the distribution \\(F_2\\)  on a probability space with two events  \\( \\mathcal{E} =  \\{\\mathcal{E}_1, \\mathcal{E}_2\\} \\).  X is a function \\( X (Y(\\omega), \\epsilon ) \\) where \\( ( \\omega, \\epsilon) \\in \\Omega \\times \\mathcal{E} \\).   When \\( \\epsilon =  \\mathcal{E}_1  \\), we happen to choose  the smaller envelope, so X = Y and X' = 2Y.  And when  \\( \\epsilon = \\mathcal{E}_2 \\),  X = 2Y and X' = Y. The choices are equally likely i.e. \\( \\mathbb{P}(\\mathcal{E}_1) =  \\int_{\\mathcal{E}_1} dF_2 = 1\/2\\) and \\(\\mathbb{P}(\\bar{\\mathcal{E}_2}) = \\int_{\\bar{\\mathcal{E}_2}} dF_2 = 1\/2 \\). \n\nLet V(Y) be the final value the player gets after deciding to switch or not. It has  distribution \\(F_3\\) on two events \\( \\{ \\mathcal{S}, \\bar{\\mathcal{S}} \\} \\) representing respectively switching (V = X'), or not switching (V = X). For example if the strategy is to always switch, \\( F_3 \\) is deterministic with \\( \\mathbb{P}(\\mathcal{S}) =  \\int_{\\mathcal{S}} dF_3 = 1, \\mathbb{P}(\\bar{\\mathcal{S}}) = \\int_{\\bar{\\mathcal{S}}} dF_3 = 0 \\).  More generally, \\(F_3\\) is allowed to  depend on the observed value of X, as the player can decide to switch after seeing the value in the chosen envelope. But not on \\(F_1 \\) which the player has no information about.\n\nOur key result is that the payoff is the same for all possible switching strategies. \n\n\\begin{theorem}\n\\(E[V]  = \\frac{3}{2} E[Y]\\), for all possible switching strategies \\(F_3 \\). \n\\end{theorem}\n\n\\begin{proof}\nThe expected value of V over all probability measures \\( F_1 \\), \\( F_2  \\) and  \\( F_3 \\) is: \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{ev}\nE[V] = \\int_{\\Omega} E[V|Y] dF_1\n\\end{equation}\nFor a given Y, we have the choice of switching or not switching i.e.\n\\begin{align*}\nE[V|Y]  = \\int V(Y) dF_3  = \\int_{\\bar{\\mathcal{S}}} X(Y)dF_3  + \\int_{\\mathcal{S}} X'(Y)  dF_3\n\\end{align*}\nand expanding the terms to show the choice of envelope \\(\\mathcal{E}_1\\) and \\(\\mathcal{E}_2\\):\n\\begin{align*}\nE[V|Y] & = \\int_{\\bar{\\mathcal{S}}}  \\left( \\int_{\\mathcal{E}_1} Y dF_2 + \\int_{\\mathcal{E}_2} 2Y dF_2 \\right) dF_3 + \\int_{\\mathcal{S}}  \\left( \\int_{\\mathcal{E}_1} 2Y dF_2 + \\int_{\\mathcal{E}_2} Y dF_2 \\right) dF_3 \\\\\n &  = \\int_{\\mathcal{E}_1} \\left( \\int_{\\bar{\\mathcal{S}}} Y dF_3 + \\int_{\\mathcal{S}} 2Y dF_3 \\right)  dF_2 + \\int_{\\mathcal{E}_2} \\left( \\int_{\\bar{\\mathcal{S}}} 2Y dF_3 + \\int_{\\mathcal{S}} Y dF_3 \\right)  dF_2 \n\\end{align*}\nNow,  since we don't know which envelope was chosen  (i.e. whether we are  in \\(\\mathcal{E}_1  \\) or \\( \\mathcal{E}_2 \\)) when we make the choice to switch or not (being  in \\( \\mathcal{S}\\) or \\( \\bar{\\mathcal{S}} \\)), \\( F_3 \\)  is independent of \\(F_2\\), so we can take out the integrands:\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{indep}\nE[V|Y] =  \\left( \\int_{\\bar{\\mathcal{S}}} Y dF_3 + \\int_{\\mathcal{S}} 2Y dF_3 \\right) \\int_{\\mathcal{E}_1}  dF_2 +  \n\\left( \\int_{\\bar{\\mathcal{S}}} 2Y dF_3 + \\int_{\\mathcal{S}} Y dF_3 \\right) \\int_{\\mathcal{E}_2} dF_2\n\\end{equation}\nThus, plugging in the actual values for \\( F_2 \\)\n\\begin{align*}\nE[V|Y]  & =  \\left( \\int_{\\bar{\\mathcal{S}}} Y dF_3 + \\int_{\\mathcal{S}} 2Y dF_3 \\right) \\frac{1}{2}  +   \\left( \\int_{\\bar{\\mathcal{S}}} 2Y dF_3 + \\int_{\\mathcal{S}} Y dF_3 \\right) \\frac{1}{2} \\\\\n & = \\frac{1}{2}  \\left( \\int_{\\bar{\\mathcal{S}}}\\left( Y+2Y \\right) dF_3  + \\int_{\\mathcal{S}} \\left( 2Y+Y \\right) dF_3 \\right) \\\\\n & = \\frac{3}{2}  Y \\left( \\int_{\\bar{\\mathcal{S}}} dF_3  + \\int_{\\mathcal{S}}   dF_3 \\right)  = \\frac{3}{2}  Y \n\\end{align*}\nNow plugging this back into \\eqref{ev}, the overall expectation of V is \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{th1}\nE[V]  = \\frac{3}{2} \\int_{\\Omega}  Y   dF_1 =  \\frac{3}{2} E[Y] \n\\end{equation}\n\\end{proof}\n\nThus the expected value is always the same, regardless of the switching strategy \\(F_3\\), including never switching, and seeing X or not seeing X makes no difference.\nNow, we can see there is no paradox. \n\n\\section{Resolving the paradox}\n\n\\begin{corollary} The expected  value from switching to the second envelope is the same as the expected value of keeping the first, i.e. E[V] = E[X].\n\\end{corollary}\n\\begin{proof}\nBy definition of X,  \n\\begin{align*}\nE[X|Y] =  \\int_{\\mathcal{E}_1} Y dF_2 + \\int_{\\mathcal{E}_2} 2Y dF_2 = \\frac{1}{2} Y + \\frac{1}{2} 2Y\n\\end{align*}\nsince \\( \\mathbb{P}(\\mathcal{E}_1) = \\mathbb{P}(\\mathcal{E}_2) = 1\/2 \\).\nTaking expectation over Y,  we get\n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{ex}\nE[X] = \\frac{3}{2} E[Y] \n\\end{equation}\ntherefore from \\eqref{th1},  \\(E[X] =  E[V] \\).\n\\end{proof}\n\n\nThe  \"paradox\" is that it may naively seem like \\(E[V] >  E[X]\\). To see how it arises and why it is incorrect, let's restate the E[V] calculation in terms of X: \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{evx}\nE[V|X] = \\int_{\\bar{\\mathcal{S}}} X dF_3 + \\int_{\\mathcal{S}}  \\left( \\int_{\\mathcal{E}_1} 2X dF_2 + \\int_{\\mathcal{E}_2} \\frac{1}{2}X dF_2 \\right) dF_3 \\\\\n\\end{equation}\nNaively treating X as a constant, since \\( \\mathbb{P}(\\mathcal{E}_1) = \\mathbb{P}(\\mathcal{E}_2) = 1\/2 \\) it seems like   \n\\begin{equation}\n\\label{wrong}\nE[V|X] \\stackrel{?}{=}  \\mathbb{P}(\\bar{\\mathcal{S}}) X + \\mathbb{P}(\\mathcal{S}) \\frac{5}{4} X  \n\\end{equation}\nwhich implies that  \\(E[V|X] >  X\\), i.e. any non-zero switching probability is a strict improvement. In fact always switching i.e. \\( \\mathbb{P}(\\mathcal{S}) = 1 \\) is optimal and gives a 25\\% gain over never switching.  \n\nThe root of the apparent paradox is that  \\eqref{wrong} is incorrect, because in \\eqref{evx}, \\(X \\) is not actually a constant in  \\( \\mathcal{E} \\). This is counter-intuitive because we can compute \\( E[V|X] \\)  after seeing the actual value of X, so X seems like it should be constant. But here we are evaluating on \\( \\mathcal{E} \\),  the choice of envelope, which of course affects the value of X. More precisely \\(X dF_2 \\) is  \\(X(Y, \\epsilon) dF_2(\\epsilon)\\), i.e. it is not the same X in the two \\(dF_2\\)  integrals, since \\( \\epsilon \\) is the variable being integrated on.  \nThe event \\( \\epsilon \\) cannot by definition be treated as a constant when evaluating it's probabilities. \n\nBut \\( Y \\) \\emph{is} a constant in  \\( \\mathcal{E} \\),  since the event \\( \\omega \\in \\Omega \\) is determined.  So we can use the fact that  \\( X(Y,  \\mathcal{E}_1 ) = Y \\), and \\( X(Y,  \\mathcal{E}_2)  = 2Y\\). Also, as in \\eqref{indep}, the choice \\( F_3  \\) is independent of \\( F_2 \\). Thus we get: \n\\begin{align*}\nE[V|X] & =  \\mathbb{P}(\\bar{\\mathcal{S}}) X +  \\mathbb{P}(\\mathcal{S}) \\left( \\int_{\\mathcal{E}_1}  2Y  dF_2 + \\int_{\\mathcal{E}_2}   \n\\frac{1}{2} 2Y dF_2 \\right) \\\\\n & =  \\mathbb{P}(\\bar{\\mathcal{S}}) X +  \\mathbb{P}(\\mathcal{S}) \\left( \\frac{1}{2}   2Y   + \\frac{1}{2}\\frac{1}{2} 2Y   \\right) \\\\\n& = \\mathbb{P}(\\bar{\\mathcal{S}}) X +  \\mathbb{P}(\\mathcal{S}) \\frac{3}{2} Y\n\\end{align*}\nNow for the given X, we can take expectations over all values of Y, \n\\begin{align*}\nE[V|X] = E[E[V|X, Y]] & =  \\mathbb{P}(\\bar{\\mathcal{S}}) X +  \\mathbb{P}(\\mathcal{S}) \\frac{3}{2} E[Y]\n\\end{align*}\nAnd, using \\eqref{ex}, we see that: \\( E[V] = \\frac{3}{2} E[Y] \\), i.e. there's no paradox.\n\nA simple example to illustrate: Suppose we open the chosen envelope and see  X =\\$100. Contrary to the naive estimate, we are not actually in a state where the other  envelope has an equal chance of containing \\$50  or \\$200.  Rather, we are in state where a hidden  Y has already been chosen and we are looking at Y or 2Y, with equal chance. To see this more clearly, imagine after the envelopes are filled, they are cloned into many instances of the game in parallel (not repeated!), and X is an average of the observed value. By ergodicity, the expected value in the one-shot game is the same as the average value in the  parallel games.   Since we expect to observe an average of X = 3Y\/2, by seeing X = \\$100, we \"learn\" that Y = 2X\/3 = \\$66.66... and the average value of switching or not switching remains \\$100.\n\n\\section{Open vs closed envelope} \nConsider the variation of the problem based on  whether the player gets to see the value \\(X \\) or not before making the decision to switch. In all of the above, knowing the actual value of  of \\(X \\) does not change the optimal strategy. Thus in both the open and closed versions, the answer remains that switching makes no difference.  Indeed we don't know anything about \\(F_1 \\) so knowing one value doesn't help us decide if \\( X \\) is \\(Y \\) or \\(2Y\\). \n\n\\section{Prior information on distribution} \nIf we (the player) have some prior knowledge of \\(F_1\\), then, given X, we may know if it's more likely to be Y or 2Y, i.e. if we are in \\(\\mathcal{E}_1  \\) or \\( \\mathcal{E}_2 \\), which we can use in deciding to switch or not, i.e. \\(F_3\\) can be a function of \\(\\epsilon \\). Therefore the step \\eqref{indep} where we factor out \\(dF_2 \\) from \\(dF_3 \\) is no longer valid and it is no longer true that all strategies have the same \\(E[V] \\). In fact switching does sometimes lead to gains, and knowing the value of \\(X \\) before deciding makes a difference too.\n\nFor example, if we know  the average E[Y], then we would use the strategy: switch if and only if \\( X < \\frac{3}{2} E[Y]  \\).   Another example is, if we know \\( Y_{max} \\) the largest possible value of Y, then when \\( X > Y_{max}  \\),  naturally we should never switch because we know for sure that we are in \\(\\mathcal{E}_2  \\).  Similarly, if  we know \\( Y_{min} \\) the smallest  possible value of Y, then  when \\( X < 2Y_{min}  \\),  we should always  switch  because we know for sure that we are in \\(\\mathcal{E}_1  \\). \n\nMore broadly, if we know \\( F_1 \\), after seeing \\( X \\), we can estimate \\( \\mathbb{P}(\\mathcal{E}_1 | X) \\) and \\( \\mathbb{P}(\\mathcal{E}_2 | X) \\),  and choose a mixed strategy \\(F_3\\) whereby the probability of not switching, \\( \\mathbb{P}(\\bar{\\mathcal{S}}) \\), is higher when \\( \\mathbb{P}(\\mathcal{E}_2|X) \\) is higher, and  \\( \\mathbb{P}(\\mathcal{S}) \\) is higher if \\( \\mathbb{P}(\\mathcal{E}_1 |X) \\) is higher. \n\nIn general, the switching strategy can be optimized to take advantage of any prior information about \\(F_1\\). A few interesting cases are covered in \\cite{mcdon}.\n\\section*{Acknowledgement}\nI would like to thank Jacob Eliosoff for pointing me to this problem and for helpful discussions. \n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
+{"text":"\n\\section{Why quantum gravity?}\nThe subject of quantum gravity emerged as part of the unification\nprogram that led to electromagnetism and the electroweak model.\nWe'd like to unify all forces of Nature. Forces other than gravity\nare certainly of a quantum nature. Thus we cannot hope to have a\nfully unified theory before quantizing gravity.\n\nTo come clean about it right from the start, we should stress that\nthere is no compelling experimental reason for quantizing gravity.\nFor all we know, gravity could stand alone with respect to all\nother forces, and simply be exactly classical in all regimes.\nThere is no evidence at all that the gravitational field ever\nbecomes quantum~\\footnote{Exercise for the student: discuss the\ngravitational field of a photon undergoing the double slit\nexperiment. Could you collapse the wave function by measuring the\ngravitational field? Lay out all possibilities in the form of\nthought-experiments. You may find it interesting to make contact\nwith the old problem of how classical and quantum systems\ninteract. Then repeat the exercise with a double slit experiment\nwhere gravitons are used instead of photons.}. Yet this hasn't\ndeterred a large number of physicists from devoting lifetimes to\nthis pursuit.\n\nAssaults on the problem currently follow two main trends: string\/M\ntheory~\\cite{pol,stringref} and loop quantum\ngravity~\\cite{rovelli,carlip}. Both have merits and deficiencies,\ncommented extensively elsewhere. As a poor third we mention\nRegge-calculus (and lattice techniques), non-commutative geometry,\nand several other methods none of which has fared better or worse\nthan the two main strands.\n\nThis course is {\\it not} about those theories. Rather it's about\nthe question: {\\it Where might experiment fit into these\ntheoretical efforts of quantizing gravity?} A middle ground has\nrecently emerged -- phenomenological quantum gravity. The\nrequirements are simple: a phenomenological formalism must provide\na believable approximation limit for more sophisticated\napproaches; it must also make clear contact with experimental\nanomalies that don't fit into our current understanding of the\nworld. The following argument illustrates what we mean by this.\n\nWhen physicists find themselves at a loss they often turn to dimensional\nanalysis. Following this simplistic philosophy we estimate the scales where\nquantum gravity effects may become relevant by\nbuilding quantities with dimensions\nof energy, length and time from $\\hbar$ (the quantum), $c$ (relativity)\nand $G$ (gravity). These are called the Planck energy $E_P$, the Planck\nlength $l_P$ and the Planck time $t_P$. For instance\n$E_p=\\sqrt{\\hbar c^5\/G}\\approx 1.2\\times 10^{19}GeV\\approx 2.2\\times 10^{-5}g$.\nQuantum gravitational effects are expected to kick in for energies above\n$E_P$ or lengths and durations smaller than $l_p$ and $t_p$.\nBeware: dimensional analysis can be too naive.\n\n\nWe expect quantization of gravity to take the form of a theory in\nwhich space and time are discretized. General relativity is a\ntheory of curved space-time. Thus, quantum gravity should quantize\nnot only curvature but actual durations and lengths. Here\nquantization means to replace a continuum by a discrete structure.\nThis may be done, as a first approximation, just as Planck did in\nthe first quantum theory, when he simply proposed that the energy\nof a harmonic oscillator would be a multiple of a fixed energy,\n$\\hbar \\omega$.  The same could be true for space and time: space\nis granular, time has an atomic structure. This is, however, an\napproximation. As we know, what actually happens in quantum\nmechanics is that observables are replaced by operators with a\ndiscrete spectrum, whose eigenvalues represent the possible\noutcomes of a measurement. Similarly, in loop quantum gravity,\narea and volume become operators with a discrete spectrum and the\ngeometry becomes a quantum state (a spin foam, more specifically).\nStill, we may use the ``Planck-style'' of quantization as a basis\nfor a phenomenological model.\n\n\nThe point of this simplified quantization approach is that now we\nhave a springboard for contact with experiment. The argument is\nbased on a paradox similar in flavor to the Zeno paradox in\nancient Greek philosophy (which incidentally concerned the absurd\napparent conflict between discrete and continuum). Whatever\nquantum gravity may turn out to be, it is expected to agree with\nspecial relativity when the gravitational field is weak or absent,\nand also with all experiments probing the nature of space-time on\nscales much larger than $l_P$ (or energy scales smaller than\n$E_P$). The granules of space-time should be invisible unless we\nexamine these scales with a powerful ``microscope''.\n\nThis immediately gives rise to a simple question:  {\\it In whose\nreference frame is $l_P$ the threshold for new phenomena?} For\nsuppose that there is a physical length scale which measures the\nsize of spatial structures in quantum space-times, such as the\ndiscrete area and volume predicted by loop quantum gravity. Then\nif this scale is $l_P$ in one inertial reference frame, special\nrelativity suggests it will be different in another observer's\nframe -- a straightforward implication of Lorentz-Fitzgerald\ncontraction, easily derived from the Lorentz transformations. In\nother words the border between classical and quantum gravity is\nnot invariant or well defined. Similar arguments can be made with\nenergy and time.\n\nThere are two obvious answers to the problem. On the one hand,\nLorentz transformations may be correct on all scales, such that\nthe Planck length is sensitive to Lorentz contraction.  In this\ncase, quantum gravity picks up a preferred frame in which the\nPlanck length is the border between classical and quantum gravity.\nOn the other hand, it could be that quantum gravity is the ether\nwind, and that all other effects baffle the Michelson-Morley\nexperiment.\n\nA distinct possibility is for quantum gravity to respect the\nprinciple of relativity, but require a revision of the Lorentz\ntransformations at extreme scales. Such transformations should\nleave the Planck length invariant. A toy model for this is to let\nthe speed of light be length dependent, and go to infinity for\n$l_p$. A more sophisticated version is non-linear relativity, also\ncalled doubly special relativity (DSR), developed in the next\nsection. This is the prototype of the argument leading to\nphenomenological quantum gravity.\n\nThe strength of this last approach is that a relation to\nobservations is quickly obtained in this way. Indeed, DSR explains\nultra high energy cosmic ray anomalies. This illustrates what is\nmeant by phenomenological quantum gravity. The theoretical problem\nis too hard. Perhaps it needs a bit of fresh air, called\nexperiment. A simplified formalism could then be set up with the\nflavors of attempts at a full solution. That is, such a formalism\ncan act as a target for low-energy approximations to the the full\nsolution, and can also make immediate contact with experiment. A\nbridge between theory and experiment has been set up.\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Nonlinear Relativity}\n\n\n\n\"Doubly Special Relativity\" (DSR) ~\\cite{amelstat,gli,leejoao,leejoao1} is a\nsemiclassical theory, formulated in flat space-time, yet\nsignificant at extremely high energy scales.  It is based on a\nnon-linear extension of the laws of Special Relativity\n~\\cite{leejoao}.  Just as Einstein's relativity theory is\n\"special\" because it holds invariant the speed of light (c) as a\nfundamental relativistic scale, non-linear relativity is \"doubly\nspecial\" because it fixes, in addition, a relativistic {\\it\nenergy} scale.  We stress the word \"relativistic\" in order to\nhighlight what type of fundamental scale we are dealing with.  For\ninstance, $\\hbar$ is not a relativistic scale since it does not\naffect the transformations between inertial observers like $c$\ndoes at very high velocities. The new fixed energy scale will play\na role, independent of $c$, in relativistic transformations at\nvery high energies.\n\nPart of the justification for the introduction of an invariant\nenergy scale into Special Relativity can be found in the lineage\nof Einstein's theory. Galileo's original expression for the energy\nof a fundamental particle, $E=p^2\/2m$, is linearly invariant under\nthe transformations he defined circa 1600 A.D..  These Galilean\nTransformations describe the relativity of inertial motion. They\nstate that position and time coordinates measured in a \"primed\"\nframe moving at velocity $v$ in the $x$-direction with respect to\na lab frame at rest are expressed as $x'=x-vt$ and $t'=t$,\nrespectively. A length $\\ell$, a time interval $t$ and the\nvelocity of a particle moving at speed\n$v_1$ in the moving frame would then be written \\begin{eqnarray} v_1'&=&v_1-v \\\\\n\\ell '&=&\\ell \\\\ t'&=&t .\\end{eqnarray}\n\nRoughly 200 years later Maxwell formulated his equations\ndescribing electricity and magnetism and introduced the notion of\na constant value for the speed of light.  In order for this\ninvariance to hold whilst satisfying Galilean transformations, the\nnotion of a ``preferred observer'' had to be introduced.  The\npreference was made manifest by introducing a uniform cosmic\nbackground called the ``ether''.  In other words, the relativity of\ninertial observers was lost.\n\nWhile Michaelson and Morley worked to prove the constancy of the\nspeed of light proposed by Maxwell, Einstein's work in the early\n1900s demolished the concept of the ether by unifying the\npreviously disjoint notions of time and space in new laws\ndescribing the relativity of inertial motion. His discovery of the\nequivalence of mass and energy led him to a revised definition of\nparticle energy, the quadratic \"dispersion relation\"\n$E^2=p^2c^2+m^2c^4$.  This was no longer, however, invariant under\nGalilean transformations.  In order to reestablish observer\nindependent laws, new relativistic transformations, the Lorentz\ntransformations, had to be formulated.  With respect to a frame at\nrest, a particle will have coordinates in a frame moving at\nvelocity $v$ in the $x$-direction given by, \\begin{eqnarray}\nt'&=&\\gamma (t-{vx\\over c^2}) \\\\ x'&=&\\gamma (x-vt) \\\\ y'&=&y \\\\\nz'&=&z , \\end{eqnarray} where $\\gamma=1\/\\sqrt{1-v^2\/c^2}$. With respect to\nenergy and momenta coordinates these transformations become, \\begin{eqnarray}\nE'&=&\\gamma(E-vp_x)\n\\\\ p_x'&=&\\gamma(p_x-{Ev\\over c^2}) \\\\ p_y'&=&p_y \\\\ p_z'&=&p_z .\n\\end{eqnarray} Galileo's linear velocity addition laws, invariant lengths\nand invariant time intervals were accordingly transformed into\nnonlinear velocity addition laws, length contraction and time\ndilation formulae given by, \\begin{eqnarray} v_1'&=&{v_1 +v \\over 1+v_1v} \\\\\n\\ell '&=&{\\ell\\over\\gamma}\n\\\\ \\Delta t'&=&\\gamma\\Delta t .\\end{eqnarray}  With these new laws governing\ninertial motion, Einstein enforced the equality of all observers.\n\nIn this vein, in order to preserve the relativity of inertial\nobservers, DSR theories deform the Lorentz transformations such\nthat the modified dispersion relation,\n$E^2=\\textbf{p}^2c^2+m^2c^4+f(E,\\textbf{p}^2;E_0)$ ~\\cite{\nleejoao}, is non-linearly invariant under their action. $E_0$ is\nthe invariant energy scale. The $f$-function in this expression\nrepresents a generalized way of introducing the energy-dependence\ninto the Lorentz transformations, as we will see below.\n\nHistory aside, there are two significant motivational areas for\nintroducing a fixed energy scale into Einstein's relativistic\ntransformations, one motivated by issues in quantum gravity\ntheories (e.g. \\cite{leejoao}) and one by anomalous observations\nof the cosmos (e.g. \\cite{am}). Included in the first is the idea\nof a fundamental energy (or length) scale, such as would arise in\na theory of quantum gravity. This scale would take on a certain\nvalue in one frame of reference, but when boosted to another frame\nof reference it would assume another value according to the\nLorentz transformations.  In fact, there would exist such a frame\nin which the given energy scale would appear to surpass the\nlimiting energy value predicted by quantum gravity. It is thus\nparadoxical for a \"fundamental\" scale to be relativistic, and so,\nin principle, we want to modify the transformations such that they\nhold this fundamental scale fixed while preserving observer\nindependence~\\cite{amelstat,gli,leejoao}. This modification would\nmanifest itself only as we approach extremely high energy scales.\nOtherwise, by the correspondence principle, if we set this energy\nscale to infinity (or length scale to zero), which is equivalent\nto not having a limiting scale at all, we recover Special\nRelativity and its Lorentz transformations.  This is reflective of\nthe $c\\rightarrow\\infty$ limit taking Lorentz transformations to\nGalilean transformations, and the $\\hbar\\rightarrow 0$ limit\ntaking quantum mechanics to classical mechanics.\n\nAnother theoretical motivation within the realm of quantum\ngravity, is the fact that theories of Non-Commutative Geometries,\nStringy Space-Time Foams, and Loop Quantum Gravity all predict\nmodified dispersion relations ~\\cite{leejoao}.  So, the hope would\nbe to come to a deformed DSR dispersion relation that is in accord\nwith one of these theoretical predictions.  But, naturally,\nobservational support is needed.  As we will show below, deformed\ndispersion relations, manifest at high energy scales, can be used\nto clarify anomalous observations of high energy particle\ninteractions.  In particular, an initial goal for DSR theories was\nto explain the Ultra High Energy Cosmic Rays (UHECRs) that are\nobserved to collide with the Earth's atmosphere, but which are\ntheoretically predicted not to exist due to threshold interactions\nof cosmic rays with the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) as they\ntravel through space ~\\cite{review,crexp,cosmicray,leejoao1} (see\nalso~\\cite{amel,amel1,liouv}).\n\nThroughout these notes we will choose the Planck Energy,\n$E_p\\approx \\sqrt{\\hbar c^5\/G}=10^{19}GeV$, as our fundamental energy\nscale, where $\\hbar$ is Planck's constant, $c$ is the speed of\nlight, and $G$ is Newton's gravitational constant.  This energy is\nthe fundamental scale for many quantum gravity theories and is\nchosen as an explicit example here for simplicity.  We do not\nignore the fact that it may {\\it not} be precisely this value that\nshould come into play in the DSR equations. The exact value must\nbe predicted uniquely and consistently by both quantum gravity and\nobservation.\n\n\n\\subsection{The Lorentz group}\n\nBefore launching into the construction of DSR theories we will\nreview some basics of the structure of the Lorentz Group, which is\nan example of the general class of Lie groups, pivotal to\nunderstanding the relativistic transformations to hand. The\n\"generators\" of the Lorentz group actions are the infinitesimal\ntransformations \\begin{equation} L_{ab}=p_a{\\partial\\over\\partial p^b}-\np_b{\\partial\\over\\partial p^a},\\end{equation} where $p$ denotes the\nenergy-momentum 4-vector such that the lettered indexes run over\nthe values $(0,1,2,3)$ and Latin indexes, $i,j,etc.$ run over the\nspatial indexes $(1,2,3)$. The metric signature we will use\nthroughout the notes is $(-,+,+,+)$. The $L_{ij}$ are rotations\nabout the $j$-axis, and the $L_{0j}$ are boosts in the\n$j$-direction.\n\nThe commutation relations of the Lorentz generators form the {\\it\nalgebra} of the Lorentz group.  The generators, in general, do not\ncommute, which allows for the algebra to be {\\it closed}. This\nmeans that the action of any two generators applied in sequence\nand then replied in reverse sequence will result in an action that\nis an element of the original group. Defining the boosts and\nrotations to be $B_j\\equiv L_{0j}$ and $R_j\\equiv L_{ij}$,\nrespectively, the Lorentz group algebra can be written,\n\\begin{eqnarray} \\left[B_i,B_j\\right]&=&-R_k \\\\ \\left[R_i,R_j\\right]&=&iR_k \\\\\n\\left[B_i,R_j\\right]&=&iB_k \\\\ \\left[B_i,R_i\\right]&=&0 .\\end{eqnarray}\n\nExponentiating these generators gives us the full finite Lorentz\ntransformations, $p_a'=e^{\\theta L_{ab}}p_b$. Consider, for\ninstance, the component $L_{01}=p_0{\\partial\\over\\partial p^1}-\np_1{\\partial\\over\\partial p^0}$.  Exponentiating it and letting it\nact on the energy-momenta coordinates will give the finite Lorentz\ntransformation shown above.  We do this by tailor expanding the\nexponential function.  For the case of energy, $p_0$, the\nexpansion reads $p_0'=(1+\\theta\nL_{01}+{{\\theta}^2\\over{2!}}L_{01}^2\n+{{\\theta}^3\\over{3!}}L_{01}^3+...)p_0$. It can be shown that the\naction of $L_{01}$ on energy and momentum is given by\n$L_{01}p_1=p_0$ and $L_{01}p_0=p_1$, respectively.  Thus, \\begin{eqnarray}\np_0'&=&p_0+\\theta\np_1+{{\\theta}^2\\over{2!}}p_0+{{\\theta}^3\\over{3!}}p_1+...\n\\\\ &=&p_0cosh\\theta+p_1sinh\\theta. \\end{eqnarray}  Similarly,\n$p_1'=p_1cosh\\theta+p_0sinh\\theta$.  These expressions tell us\nthat Lorentz transformations are rotations in hyperbolic space. We\ncan express the boost factor as\n$\\gamma={1\\over\\sqrt{1-v^2\/c^2}}=cosh\\theta$, where the velocity\nis given by $v=tanh\\theta$.\n\nA final group property that we will need in the construction of\nour DSR theory is a {\\it realization}.  A realization of the\nLorentz group is a set of generators that has the same algebra as\nthe original group. It is comprised of the generators\n$K_i=U^{-1}B_iU$ and $J_i=U^{-1}R_iU$, for any function $U$ such\nthat the Lorentz algebra relations hold. For instance, we show\n\\begin{eqnarray}\n[K_i,K_j]&=&U^{-1}B_iUU^{-1}B_jU-[i\\leftrightarrow j] \\\\\n&=&U^{-1}[B_i,B_j]U \\\\ &=&-iU^{-1}R_kU \\\\ &=&-iJ_k .\\end{eqnarray}  Let us\nnow look explicitly at what happens to the Lorentz algebra in DSR\ntheory.\n\n\n\\subsection{Implications of a Non-Quadratic Invariant}\n\nThe DSR theory we will be discussing keeps the value of the\nfundamental Planck energy scale, $E_p$, constant.  In so doing, it\npreserves the Lorentz algebra, such that the DSR generators\nconstitute a realization of the Lorentz Group ~\\cite{leejoao}.\nRecall that the deformed dispersion relation introduced above,\n$E^2=\\textbf{p}^2c^2+m^2c^4+f(E,\\textbf{p}^2;E_p)$, incorporates\nan extra term representing a new dependence on a fundamental\nenergy, $E_p$. This function, $f$, is a map from energy-momentum\nspace into itself. We can thus write this as a function acting on\nenergy-momentum coordinates. In particular, we can write the\nmodified boosts of DSR as \\begin{equation} K_i=U^{-1}(E_p)B_iU(E_p),\\end{equation} where\n$B_i$ are the special relativistic linear boost generators.  The\n$E_p$-dependence now appears in the map, $U$, and must be\nnon-linear in order to keep $E_p$ invariant ~\\cite{leejoao1} (see\nalso \\cite{fock,man,step}). The rotation transformations in DSR\nremain unchanged under this action, such that the deformed boost\ngenerators are all that is necessary to satisfy the aims that DSR\nlooks to achieve ~\\cite{leejoao}. We do not wish to modify the\nrotations anyways since rotational invariance has been proved\naccurate to extreme precision.  The transformed boosts would then\nhold invariant the nonlinear expression,\n$m^2=\\eta^{ab}U_a(p)U_b(p)$.\n\n To clearly illustrate the effects that DSR has on Special\nRelativity, we will introduce the $E_p$ energy scale into the\n$U$-map via a particular example ~\\cite{leejoao}. Consider the\ndeformed boost generator given by \\begin{equation} K_i=L_{0i}+{p_i\\over E_p}D,\n\\end{equation} where $D=p_a{\\partial\\over\\partial p^a}$ is the {\\it\ndilatation} generator. It can be shown that this simple form\nleaves $E_p$ invariant as well as the Lorentz algebra unchanged.\nThe corresponding $U$-map, the modification to the original\nLorentz boost generator, can thus be written \\begin{equation} U=e^{{E\\over\nE_p}D}, \\end{equation} where $E=p_0$ always. Expanding this in a tailor\nseries, we can find its action on the energy-momenta coordinates.\nThe exact expression is \\begin{equation} U(p_a)={p_a\\over 1-{E\\over E_p}},\\end{equation}\nwhere we have a new factor in the denominator that, by the\ncorrespondence principle, reduces to unity if we let\n$E_p\\longrightarrow\\infty$. If, on the other hand, $E=E_p$, the\nexpression blows up, creating the invariant behaviour of $E_p$ we\ndesire.\n\nExponentiation of the $K_i$ generator gives us the finite form for\nthe transformed boosts.  However, we need not perform this\ncalculation. Instead, we can derive their form in a\nmuch simpler manner by applying our $U$-map to the regular special\nrelativistic boost equation ~\\cite{leejoao}.  That is, \\begin{eqnarray}\nU(E')=\\gamma(U(E)-vU(\\textbf{p})) \\\\\nU(p')=\\gamma(U(\\textbf{p})-vU(E)), \\end{eqnarray} where we have set $c=1$\nfor simplicity.  By tailor expansion it can be proved that indeed\n$e^{\\theta U^{-1}B^iU}=U^{-1}e^{\\theta B^i}U$.  To make this\nexplicit, $U$ linearizes the physical momentum, which is then\nboosted by $e^{\\theta B^i}$ and then converted back to a physical\nmomentum via $U^{-1}$: \\begin{equation} p_{physical}'\n\\stackrel{U^{-1}}{\\longleftarrow}p_{linear}' \\stackrel{e^{\\theta\nB^i}}{\\longleftarrow}p_{linear}\n\\stackrel{U}{\\longleftarrow}p_{physical} . \\end{equation}\n\nUsing the particular form for the $U$-map shown\nabove~\\cite{leejoao}, we can solve for $E'$ on the left hand side.\nThis is equivalent to applying the $U^{-1}$ map, thus giving us\nour deformed transformations.  These now hold invariant the\nmass-squared expression\n\\begin{equation}\nm^2={\\eta^{ab}p_ap_b\\over (1-{E\\over\nE_p})^2}\n\\end{equation}\nFor a boost in the $x$-direction, the transformations\nassume the form~\\cite{leejoao}, \\begin{eqnarray} E'&=&{\\gamma(E-vp_x)\\over\n1+(\\gamma-1){E\\over E_p}-\\gamma {vp_x\\over E_p}}\\nonumber\\\\\np'{_x}&=&{\\gamma(p_x-vE)\\over\n1+(\\gamma-1){E\\over E_p}-\\gamma {vp_x\\over E_p} }\\nonumber\\\\\np'{_y}&=&{p_y\\over 1+(\\gamma-1){E\\over E_p}-\\gamma {vp_x\\over E_p}\n}\\nonumber\\\\\np'{_z}&=&{p_z\\over 1+(\\gamma-1){E\\over E_p}-\\gamma {vp_x\\over E_p}\n} .\\end{eqnarray}  The numerators of these expressions are the familiar\nspecial relativistic ones, whereas the denominators fully\nrepresent the deformation.  Note that in letting\n$E_p\\rightarrow\\infty$, we recover the special relativistic boosts\nin accordance with the correspondence principle.\n\nA simple analysis of these equations lends immediate insight into\nhow they are different from regular special relativistic boosts.\nMost importantly, plugging $(E_p,0,0,0)$ in for $(E,p_x,p_y,p_z)$\ngives $(E_p,-vE_p,0,0)$, demonstrating that $E_p$ is indeed an\ninvariant quantity. The regular boosts would have given us extra\n$\\gamma$-factors in front of the $E$ and $p_x$ values, which are\nnow cancelled by the new factor in the denominator of the deformed\nboosts. Because of this limit, $E<E_p$ will always hold in the\nsingle particle sector.  We will discuss the multi-particle sector\nin the next section.  Similarly, rest masses will always be finite\ndue to this energy limit, which we can see by solving for $E$ in\nthe deformed dispersion relation with $\\textbf{p}=0$. This gives\n\\begin{equation} E={mc^2\\over 1+{mc^2\\over E_p}} ,\\end{equation} where we have reinserted\n$c$ for clarity.  This expression, in turn, implies that the\nclassical momentum, $\\textbf{p}=m\\textbf{v}$, is now given by \\begin{equation}\n\\textbf{p}={m\\textbf{v}\\over 1+{m\\over E_p}} .\\end{equation} The invariance\nof $E_p$ is signalled by a singularity in the $U$-map at\n$U(E_p)=\\infty$. The equations have another invariant, for $E=0$,\nhowever, this does not give the singularities necessary for an\ninvariant $E_p$ scale.\n\nNow, consider the case of a Planck energy photon. Though perhaps\nunphysical, this extreme case displays the limiting behavior of\nthese transformations.  We see that\n$(E_p,E_p,0,0)\\rightarrow(E_p,E_p,0,0)$.  Complete invariance.\nThat is to say that as $E\\rightarrow E_p$, boosts become\nincreasingly unproductive, until ultimately, at the Planck scale,\nthey do no work at all.  As it turns out, this variable boost\nproperty becomes ironically unproductive for accomplishing the\noriginal goal of solving the UHECR anomaly ~\\cite{leejoao1}, which\nis discussed below.\n\nWe can also read off the new redshift formula for a photon by\nsetting $m=0$ in the deformed dispersion relation ~\\cite{leejoao}.\nThis gives $E=p$, such that the boost formula gives, \\begin{equation} {E'\\over\nE}={\\gamma (1-v)\\over 1+(\\gamma(1-v)-1){E\\over E_p}}. \\end{equation}  In the\nlimit $E_p\\longrightarrow\\infty$, this reduces to the standard\nDoppler redshift formula, $E'\/E=\\sqrt{(1-v)\/(1+v)}$.  The\nblueshift formula is just as above, but with the signs in front of\n$v$ switched.  The deformed Doppler formula thus implies that\nblueshifting a sub-Planckian photon up to $E_p$ is impossible,\nbecause $\\Delta E\\longrightarrow 0$ as $E_p$ energies are\napproached. This reduced Doppler effect reflects the decrease in\nboost productivity as we approach Planck energies. By using the\nprinciple of equivalence, we can get an expression for the\ngravitational redshift.  Namely, \\begin{equation} \\Delta\nE\/E=\\Delta\\phi(1-E\/E_p). \\end{equation}\n\n\\section{The physical content of DSR}\nWe now describe how the considerations above may be used to make\ncontact with some anomalies and upcoming experiments. This is\nexpected to provide a window into quantum gravity, dependent upon\nthe formalism encoded in the choice of the $U$-map. There are two\nmain physical implications to consider.\n\n\n\\subsection{Ultra high energy cosmic rays}\n\n\n\nUHECRs are believed to be highly relativistic protons that collide\nwith the Earth's atmosphere ~\\cite{gzk}.  Due to their apparent\nisotropic distribution ~\\cite{alf}, they are assumed not to be of\ngalactic origin and thus to have traversed large distances through\nthe universe, interacting with the Cosmic Microwave background\n(CMB) en route. There exists a theoretical bound on the energies\nthat the protons can have due to their threshold interactions with\nthe CMB photons ~\\cite{gzk} . This bound, or the GZK cutoff,\noccurs at a threshold energy of $6x10^{10} GeV$, due to the\n$p^+\\gamma_{CMB}\\longrightarrow p^+\\pi^0$ interaction. Note that\nthe cross-section for the $p^+\\gamma_{CMB}\\longrightarrow pee^+$\ninteraction does not lend a significant contribution.  The anomaly\nrests in the observations of cosmic rays far above this threshold\nenergy ~\\cite{taketal,tak} (for counter-data see ~\\cite{hires}).\nDSR, in altering the laws of relativistic interactions, looks to\nraise the GZK cutoff in order to account for the observed ultra\nhigh energy samples.\n\nTo see how DSR can alter the threshold energy, consider the\nproton-photon interaction first in the center of mass frame such\nthat the proton and pion produced are at rest ~\\cite{leejoao1}. In\nthis case, the interaction is not relativistic, so we can use\nregular energy and momentum conservation laws.  These give\n$E_p+E_\\gamma=m_p+m_\\pi$ and $E_\\gamma-p_p=0$, respectively.\nBoosting to the cosmological frame, the photon is redshifted to\nthe the temperature of the CMB radiation,  $E_\\gamma'\\equiv\nE_{CMB}\\sim2.7 K$.  The boosted proton energy is the threshold\nenergy, expressed $E_p'\\equiv E_{th}=\\gamma(E_p+vp_p)$. here we\nhave used the approximation $v\\approx 1$ because $c=1$ in our\nequations and we are dealing with a highly relativistic situation\nsuch that $v\\rightarrow c$. With these, the gamma factor can be\nbroken down and estimated to be $\\gamma^2=1\/[(1-v)(1+v)]\\approx\n1\/[2(1-v)]$.\n\nUsing the energy and momentum conservation equations we can\nrewrite the threshold energy as \\begin{equation}\nE_{th}={(m_p+m_\\pi)^2-m_p^2\\over 4E_{CMB}}.\\end{equation} In general\n$U_a(p)\\approx p_a$ for the non-relativistic particles. But, for\nthe highly relativistic proton in the cosmological frame, we must\nuse our new DSR transformation laws, \\begin{equation}\nE_{th}^{DSR}=U^{-1}(E_{th}^{SR}),\\end{equation} where $E_{th}^{SR}$ is the\nlinear threshold energy and $E_{th}^{DSR}$ is the physical\nthreshold energy ~\\cite{leejoao1}.  Clearly, the nonlinear DSR\neffects are relevant only for the energy coordinate of the\nrelativistic particle in the interaction, not the momenta\ncoordinates.\n\nUnfortunately, the simple $U$-map used in this calculation ends up\n{\\it lowering} the threshold energy ~\\cite{leejoao1}, which is\nprecisely the opposite of what we need in order to solve the\nanomaly. There is, however, an alternate form of\n$U$-transformation which does provide a solution ~\\cite{leejoao}.\nLet us first write the deformed dispersion relation in a form that\nsplits up the action of the $U$-map on energy and momentum\ncoordinates, such that\n$E^2f_1^2(E,p;E_p)+\\textbf{p}^2f_2^2(E,p;E_p)=m^2$ ~\\cite\n{leejoao1}. Choosing a $U$-map, thus corresponds to choosing the\nfunctions, $f_1$ and $f_2$, because $U_a(p)=(Ef_1,\\textbf{p}f_2)$.\nIn this form, we may consider particular functions that do not\nnecessarily act on energy and momenta in the same manner.  The\nanomaly-resolving map is then\ngiven by \\begin{equation} f_1={1\\over(1+{E\\over E_{th}})(1-{E\\over E_p})} \\end{equation}\nwhere $E_{th}$ is the energy at which the particle\nthreshold interaction occurs, and $f_2$ can be any function.\nIf you recall that the \"strength\",\nor efficiency, of the boosts are energy-dependent in DSR, what the\nintroduction of this second energy scale, $E_{th}$, does is to\nincrease the boost efficiency around this energy in order to raise\nthe threshold  and thus resolve the anomaly. Above these energies\nthe boosts will again become increasingly unproductive as $E_p$ is\napproached.\n\nKnowing that the fundamental Planck energy scale, $E_p\\sim 10^{19}\nGeV$, and the cosmic ray threshold energy scale, $E_{th}\\sim\n10^{10} GeV$, are many orders of magnitude apart, DSR is\nessentially trying to kill two birds with one stone.  It is trying\nto solve the UHECR anomaly whilst holding fixed the Planck energy\nscale so as to resolve the paradox of a fundamental scale being\nrelativistic.  Again, we mention that the particular form for the\n$U$-transformation needed will be up to experiment, especially\nsince the UHECR data is not plentiful and conclusive\n~\\cite{demarc,yosh}. In particular, two caveats to consider are,\nfor one, the fact that the primary shower used to detect the\nUHECRs is never directly seen.  Rather, it is from the analysis of\nthe secondary shower particles that we draw conclusions.  Thus, it\ncould be that the cosmic rays are not in fact protons, but some\nother form of highly energetic dark matter, for instance.  Second,\nfurther data may prove that the arrival of UHECRs is not actually\nisotropic ~\\cite{alf}, implying that they may originate from\nwithin the galaxy.  Needless to say, this would crucially alter\nour threshold energy calculation above, since the CMB would not\nplay the same role.\n\n\n\\subsection{Invariance of the Speed of Light and its energy dependence}\nThe general invariant in DSR is\n\\begin{equation}\n\\eta^{ab}U_a(p)U_b(p)=m^2\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $U_a(p)=p_a^{linear}$. Given a\nmap of the form $U_a(p)=p_a\/(1-E\/E_p)$, the invariant reads\n${E^2-p^2\\over (1-E\/E_p)^2}=m^2$. We have also just seen how we\ncan rewrite the dispersion relation in the even more general form,\n$E^2f_1^2+\\textbf{\\textbf{p}}^2f_2^2=m^2$, where the new $E_p$\ndependence now appears in the functions multiplying the energy and\nmomenta coordinates, while the rest mass, $m$, stands alone as the\nnew invariant.  Setting $m=0$ in the dispersion relation, we find\nthat the velocity for a massless particle is given by\n~\\cite{leejoao1} \\begin{equation} c(E)={E\\over p}={f_2\\over f_1}. \\end{equation} Note that\nthis is not the regular Hamiltonian expression ${dE\\over dp}$.\nWe thus have an energy-dependent speed of light if $U$ does not\nact in the same way on energy and momentum coordinates, that is if\n$f_1\\neq f_2$. This variability introduces a new notion of\ninvariance. Our invariant speed of light is now $c=c(E)$, whose\nvalue in a boosted frame, $c(E')$, will be predicted uniquely by\nthe invariant form of the new deformed boosts.  What this says is\nthat the laws governing our universe are not fixed in the\nclassical sense, but rather, are allowed to change.  It is the\nmanner in {\\it which} they change that is now invariant and\ndictated by physical law.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Problems for the student:\nIssues Arising from Nonlinear Relativity}\n\nWe now collect a few unresolved problems within the formalism,\nhoping to motivate further work.\n\n\n\\subsection{Fixing a U-Map}\n\nWe have said nothing so far about the reason why we have chosen\nthe $U$-map that we did.  The uniqueness of this map, or lack\nthereof, is a key outstanding issue in DSR theories. Requesting\nthat $E_p$ be invariant does not point to a unique theory. That\nis, $f_1$ and $f_2$ in the general deformed dispersion relation\nare not uniquely specified.  This is a undesirable freedom that\ncannot be resolved until further observational results are\nachieved. More observations of particle threshold interactions is\njust one experimental source of information for DSR.  There is\nalso the GLAST satellite looks to measure any energy dependence of\nthe speed of light ~\\cite{glast}, which would lend insight into\nwhether the functions $f_1$ and $f_2$ are the same or not. Hence,\nwe leave the issue of the uniqueness of the $U$-transformation to\nfuture experiment.\n\nThere are a couple of reasons for using the shown form for the map\n~\\cite{leejoao1}.  For one, it can be easily embedded in a\nconformal group. Second, it is in keeping with the original\nnonlinear Special Relativistic Fock-Lorentz transformations\nproposed in 1964 ~\\cite{fock,man}.  The difference there is that\nthe invariant scale in the theory was a large cosmological\ndistance scale as opposed to our large fundamental energy scale,\n$E_p$ (equivalent to a tiny distance scale, $\\ell_p$).  The map we\nhave been working with is also simple enough in form to enable us\nto work through and concisely display results, such as time\ndilation and length contraction formulae, which we will show in\nthe next section.\n\n\\subsection{Position Space and Field Theory}\n\nDSR theories have always been formulated in momentum space\n(however see~\\cite{fock,man,step}). But, as we know, we live in\nand perceive, not momentum and energy coordinates, but position\nand time coordinates.  How to retrieve a position space\nformulation of DSR from the existing momentum space ones, however,\nis highly non-trivial.  There are two paths one can follow in\naccomplishing this task ~\\cite{kmm}.  The first is to begin anew\nin position space, following a nonlinear special relativistic\nset-up just like that which we did in momentum space.  The second\nis to use the pre-existing theory in momentum space to somehow fix\nthe position space formulation of the transformations.\n\nThe deciding factor between these two approaches is, for the most\npart, the importance of field theory.  In order to have a\nkinematic theory where excitations of a field have an invariant\nthat correspond to that of DSR, then one must use the latter of\nthe two approaches above -- formulating a position space DSR\ntheory using the pre-existing theory in momentum space\n~\\cite{kmm}. To explain why, consider first the former approach of\nformulating a theory directly in position space.  A map analogous\nto the $U$-map used in momentum space would have to be postulated,\nthis time holding the Planck length, inverse to the Planck energy,\ninvariant.  But, this implies that we have now a two-fold freedom\nfrom the ambiguity corresponding to the $U$-map in momentum space,\nplus the ambiguity for the new map in position space, not to\nmention the fact that these two maps would be completely\nuncorrelated.  The fact that these maps are non-linear and would\nbe unrelated implies that the contraction between momentum and\nposition coordinates, $U^{a}(x)U_{a}(p)$, would be non-linear.\n\nThe formulation of a field theory is dependent upon the linearity\nof this contraction in order for the wave solutions of a free\nfield theory, $\\phi\\sim Ae^{-ix^ap_a}$, to be planar. Maintaining\nthis linearity within DSR, we can use the momentum space map to\nuniquely fix the position space one ~\\cite{kmm}.  We can make the\nstandard field theoretic operator association,\n$\\hat{p_a}=i\\partial_a$, such that\n$\\hat{p_a}e^{-ix^ap_a}=p_ae^{-ix^ap_a}$.  Applying this to our\ndeformed dispersion relation we find that the deformed Klein\nGordon Equation whose solutions are plane waves would be of the\nform ~\\cite{kmm} \\begin{equation} \\left[\\eta^{ab}{\\partial_a\\over\n1-i{\\partial_0\\over E_p }}{\\partial_b\\over 1-i{\\partial_0\\over\nE_p}}+m^2\\right]\\phi=0.\\end{equation} This can be proved by using Taylor\nexpansions of the fractional operators.\n\nNote that this theory preserves causality with respect to the\nnon-linear Lorentz group because it dictates that light cones will\nthemselves be deformed ~\\cite{kmm}.  This is due to the mixing of\nspace-time and energy-momentum coordinates, which we will discuss\nshortly. Also, the theory does not the raise issue of\nrenormalizability because the theory has a natural cutoff and is\ntherefore strictly finite. That is, $E<E_p$ by construction, such\nthat there exists a frame-independent energy acting as a natural\ncutoff to divergences. There exists an alternative approach,\nindependent of the entire formulation we have presented here,\nwhich was proposed by Kowalski-Gilkman and uses non-commuting\nspace-time operators ~\\cite{amelstat,gli,gama}. Our approach, on\nthe other hand will lead us to an energy-dependent space-time\nstructure ~\\cite{kmm}.\n\n\nLinearity of the contraction between position and momentum\ncoordinates ensures that the duals, $x_a$ and $p_a$, mimic one\nanother ~\\cite{kmm}.  Relativity tells us that if $x^ap_a$ is\nlinear, then their transformed contraction, $U^a(x)U_a(p)$, should\nbe linear as well.  The map acting on position coordinates\ntherefore must be inverse to that acting on momentum coordinates\nin order for the nonlinear factors to cancel one another.  In\ngeneral, if $U_a(p)=(Ef_1,\\textbf{p}f_2)$, then\n$U_a(X)=(t\/f_1,\\textbf{x}\/f_2)$. For $U\\sim e^{(E\/E_p)D}$, we have\n\\begin{equation} U_a(x)=x_a\\left(1-{E\\over E_p}\\right).\\end{equation}  This equation\nintroduces a mixing of space-time coordinates with energy-momentum\ncoordinates due to the explicit presence of the energy, $E$.  The\ncorresponding invariant is energy dependent,\\begin{equation}\ns^2=(-t^2+x^2)\\left(1-{E\\over E_p}\\right)^2 ,\\end{equation} which shows that\nwe are dealing with an energy-dependent Minkowski metric.\n\nApplying the above action onto the special relativistic boost\nequation in position space gives us the deformed boosts\n~\\cite{kmm}, \\begin{eqnarray} t'&=&\\gamma(t-vx)\\left(1+(\\gamma-1){E\\over\nE_p}-\\gamma{vp_x\\over E_p}\\right) \\\\\nx'&=&\\gamma(x-vt)\\left(1+(\\gamma-1){E\\over\nE_p}-\\gamma {vp_x\\over E_p}\\right) \\\\\ny'&=&y\\left(1+(\\gamma-1){E\\over E_p}-\\gamma {vp_x\\over E_p}\\right)\n\\\\ z'&=&z\\left(1+(\\gamma-1){E\\over E_p}-\\gamma {vp_x\\over\nE_p}\\right).\\end{eqnarray} The term that appeared in the denominator of the\ndeformed boosts in momentum space now appears in the numerator,\nwhich guarantees that the linearity of the contraction of duals\nholds in every inertial frame.  Again, the mixing of space-time\nand energy-momentum coordinates is apparent here.\n\nWe mentioned before that light cones are deformed, allowing\ncausality to be preserved in DSR.  This is because of the\nspace-time-energy-momentum mixing occurring.  The speed of light\nwill be energy-dependent, but will always be the maximum velocity\nand thus respect causality.  Setting $ds^2=0$ in the space-time\ndispersion relation (just as we set $m=0$ in the energy-momentum\ndispersion relation above) we find that the velocity for a\nmassless particle is given by ~\\cite{kmm} \\begin{equation} c(E)= {dx\\over\ndt}={f_2\\over f_1}. \\end{equation}\n\nIn order to measure or see space-time, a probe is needed, and\nevery probe has an energy. It is the energy of this probe that\nappears in the space-time metric ~\\cite{kmm}. What this is saying\nis that particles with different energies will transform\ndifferently and thus feel different space-time metrics.  We have a\n\"running\" of geometry with energy.  The geometrical interpretation\ninto space-time energy-dependence is an 8-dimensional phase space\n~\\cite{kmm}, $(E,\\textbf{p},t,\\textbf{x})$, as opposed to separate\n4-dimensional position and momentum spaces. What we are dealing\nwith geometrically is a {\\it twisted bundle}. Imagine the base\nspace of the bundle as position space with an energy-dependent\nlift into momentum space, which has a natural cutoff at $E_p$.\nNear this cutoff, there is a twist in the bundle, such that the\nprojection down into position space is not one to one, but rather\nintroduces a mixing of coordinates, corresponding to deformed\ntopologies, or equivalently, a \"running\" geometry\n~\\cite{leejoao3}.\n\nBefore discussing the next issue in DSR, let us turn briefly to a\nfew familiar special relativistic formulae and what they look like\nin DSR theory ~\\cite{kmm}.  The addition of velocities is the same\nas in Special Relativity, which can be calculated by boosting\n$x=v_0t$ to get \\begin{equation} v'={v-v_0\\over 1-vv_0} .\\end{equation}   The classic\nformulae for time dilation and length contraction, however,\nintroduce new factors. The time dilation formula can be read off\nfrom the deformed space-time boost equations, \\begin{equation} \\Delta\nt'=\\gamma\\Delta t(1+(\\gamma-1){E\\over E_p}), \\end{equation} where we have set\n$p_x=0$ and $x=0$, consistent with a clock at the origin in the\n\"lab\" frame. For the length contraction formula, we boost a rod of\nlength $L$ from an unprimed frame at rest to a primed frame moving\nat velocity $v$ to get $x'=L'-vt'$,  such that \\begin{equation}\nL'={L\\over\\gamma}(1+(\\gamma-1){E_0\\over E_p}) .\\end{equation}  $E_0={m\\over\n1+{m\\over E_p}}$ is the particle's rest energy gotten by setting\n$p=0$ in the deformed dispersion relation.  Note that the boost\nparameter is equal to the origin's velocity here. For $E=E_p$ the\nlength contraction formula gives invariant lengths, recalling the\ninefficiency of boosts that we discussed above as Planck energy\nscales are approached.\n\n\n\\subsection{The \"Soccer Ball\" Problem}\n\nThe so-named \"Soccer Ball Problem\" is that of describing composite\nsystems in DSR theories.  The goal now is to extend our discussion\nof the single particle sector of DSR to the multi-particle sector,\na highly non-trivial task.  With a non-linear\nrealization of the dispersion relation and Lorentz group, our laws\nfor adding momenta and energy must also be non-linear~\\cite{leejoao3}.\nThe straightforward and classical expression,\n$p_{12}=p_1+p_2$, will no longer suffice for it would immediately\nimply a loss of relativity since in the boosted frame the same law\nwould not hold, $p_{12}'\\neq p_1'+p_2'$. A simple nonlinear\ncomposition law can be written as~\\cite{leejoao3} \\begin{equation}\np_{12}=p_1\\oplus p_2=U^{-1}(U(p_1)+U(p_2)) .\\end{equation}  In this case, the\ncomposite momentum, $p_{12}$, is covariant, transforming as\n$e^{\\theta K_i}$.  This implies that the rest energy of the system\nmust satisfy $E_0<E_p$. But, $E_p$ corresponds to a mass of\n$10^{-5}g$, which is {\\it clearly} not the mass limit in our world\nof composite systems. A soccer ball cannot have this energy,\nexcept in some unusual football leagues.\n\nAn alternative and only slightly more complicated approach is\nmodelled by the association $U_{(N)}=U_{(1)}(E\\rightarrow NE_p)$,\nsuch that 2 particles would scale as $2E_p$ and so on up for any\nnumber of particles. The multi particle dispersion relation, or\nthe momenta and energy addition laws, would then read\n~\\cite{leejoao3} \\begin{equation} {p_a^{(N)}\\over 1-{E^{(N)}\\over\nNE_p}}=\\Sigma_i{p_a^{(i)}\\over 1-{E^{(i)}\\over E_p}} .\\end{equation} This\naddition law implies that while the system is still sub-Planckian\nin the single particle sector, $E<E_p$, it can now be\nsuper-Planckian for composites, $E_{tot}<nE_p$, as physically\nexpected.  The addition law is non-associative, meaning that all\nparticles in a system must be accounted for at once. That is, the\nlaws of physics would have insight into whether a system was\nelementary or composite and adjust its addition laws accordingly.\nIn a sense, the addition laws would scale with particle number.\nNote that if the particles of the system all have the same energy,\nthen the addition reduces to the regular linear law.\n\n\\subsection{Gravity and Kinetic Theory}\nNot much to report along here. A generalisation of the idea\nof an energy dependent metric for curved space-times was\nproposed in~\\cite{leejoao3}. Statistical physics results\nassuming thermal equilibrium were first examined in~\\cite{steph,steph1};\nthis approach may well be wrong because of the non-linearities\nrequired to solve the soccer-ball problem invalidate most of\nthe partition function arguments.\n\nThese areas are still very much an exercise for the student.\n\n\n\n\n\\section{Varying \"Constants\"}\n\nHaving already glimpsed the notion of the variability of a\nfundamental \"constant\" of nature, specifically the\nenergy-dependence of the speed of light as predicted by certain\nformulations of DSR, we are prepared to consider other\ncosmological theories where the conventional \"constants\" of Nature\nmay actually vary in space and time. There is renewed interest in\nunderstanding the physical implications of these theories\nmotivated both theoretically and observationally.\n\nTheoretically, the low energy limit of string and M quantum\ngravity theories are so-called dilaton theories.  Dilaton fields,\nincorporated into these quantum gravity theories for the purpose\nof consistency, are massless and gauge-neutral scalar fields that\ncouple to matter with a strength proportional to that of the\ngravitational force. Varying \"constant\" theories, in\nwhich a field is used to represent a variable parameter, can be\nformulated in such a way that they adopt the form of a dilaton\ntheory, at least in a few cases.\nFor parameters that are classically constant, we expect\nthis field to settle to a fixed value at late times -- a behavior\nperhaps due to that of space-time itself.\n\nDirac was the first to question the constancy of the laws of\nnature.  In the 1930s, he also questioned the constancy of the\nconstants themselves by postulating that the gravitational\nparameter, $G$, may have assumed different values throughout the\nevolution of the universe.  This postulate was based on the\nobserved evolution of the Hubble parameter, $H=\\dot{a}\/a$, where\n$a$ is the scale factor of the universe, and its apparent, yet\nunexplained, proportionality to other fundamental parameters of\nnature, namely $(H_0\\hbar^2\/cG)^{1\/3}$. He thus proclaimed that\nthe tiny value of $G$ today was simply a product of the old age of\nthe universe since his theory posited $G\\propto t^{-1}$. He chose\nto vary $G$ as opposed to another one of the parameters in order\nnot to have to reformulate atomic and nuclear physics\n~\\cite{wein}. The simplicity of his time varying construction made\nlimited predictions that ran quickly into problems. A more\nsuccessful theory was the first \"varying constant\" {\\it field}\ntheory, Brans-Dicke theory, which described both temporal and\nspatial variations of $G$ due to a dynamic cosmic scalar field,\n$\\phi$.\n\nVariable-$G$ theories aside, Bekenstein's model of a changing\nelectromagnetic constant, $e$, is the next simplest theory and is\nconstrained not by the observational predictions of general\nrelativity, but rather by observations that support a variable\nfine structure constant, $\\alpha=e^2\/4 \\pi \\hbar c$ ~\\cite{Bek}.\nGiven the definition of $\\alpha$, it is apparent that the\nvariability of $\\alpha$ may be attributed not to the behavior of\n$e$, but to a changing speed of light, $c$, or a variable quantum\nscale, $\\hbar$. Theories based on these latter two constants\n~\\cite{vslreview} are, however, more complex. Quantum gravity\n(noncommutative geometry) in general leads to deformed dispersion\nrelations, which may imply a frequency-dependent speed\nof light, and in turn a varying alpha value.  Since it is merely a\nmatter of convenience whether a varying alpha theory is formulated\nin terms of a varying $e$ or $c$, the difference being in the\nchoice of units, there is clearly a connection drawn between the\nfundamental principles of a quantum gravity theory and a varying\nalpha theory, regardless of the particular choice of varying\nconstant. Herein also lies the connection to the DSR theories,\nwhich are based on deformed dispersion relations, discussed above.\nThe simultaneous exploration of DSR and varying \"constant\"\ntheories is thus mutually beneficial in that a discovery about the\nvariation of constants in one theory could lend insight into the\nvariability determined by the other, and visa versa. Say, for\ninstance, that experimental data helped us determine the form of\nthe U-map in DSR.  This would imply whether or not the speed of\nlight was a constant or an energy-dependent quantity, which would\nin turn guide us towards choosing the \"correct\" constant to vary\nin the definition of alpha.\n\nWe will begin our discussion by looking at the simplest\n\"varying constant\" theory, Brans-Dicke theory, which predicts the\nvariability of the gravitational constant, $G$, within the\nconstraints of general relativistic data.  Then we will turn to\nthe simplest model in the class of \"varying alpha\" theories, the\nBekenstein model of an electromagnetic description of the\nvariation of the fine structure constant, $\\alpha$. Finally, we\nwill look at Varying Speed of Light (VSL) theories.\n\n\\subsection{Brans-Dicke Theory}\n\nToday, the theoretical motivation for Brans-Dicke theory~\\cite{bdicke}\nstems, in\npart, from the appearance of scalar fields coupled to gravity in\nquantum gravity theories.  The hope is that the theory\nwould be a low energy limit of a particular quantum gravity\nformulation, thus linking Planck scale physics to a notion of\ntestability, based on the observational evidence for variation of\nthe \"constant\", $G$. To see if such a connection is valid one must\nlook at the equations of motion governing the dynamics of the\nscalar field, $G$. Let us look first at the classical gravity\naction to understand the origin of the Brans-Dicke action and the\nequations of motion derived from it.\n\nThe classical action for gravity is the Einstein-Hilbert action,\n\\begin{equation} S_{EH}={1\\over 16\\pi G}\\int d^4x\\sqrt{-g}R .\\end{equation}  Variation of\nthis  with respect to the metric gives rise to Einstein's\nequations of motion, \\begin{equation} G_{\\mu\\nu}=8\\pi GT_{\\mu\\nu} ,\\end{equation} where\n$G_{\\mu\\nu}=R_{\\mu\\nu}-{1\\over 2}g_{\\mu\\nu}R$. The integrability\ncondition that arises in the derivation of these equations from\nthe variational principle is $\\nabla_{\\mu}G_\\nu^\\mu=0$ (the\nso-called Bianchi identities), and\nhenceforth $\\nabla_\\mu T^\\mu_\\nu=0$.  The volume element is\n$\\sqrt{-g}d^4x$, where $\\sqrt{-g}$ is invariant and $d^4x$ is the\ntensor density. To get the gravitational equations of motion, we\nmust vary the Einstein-Hilbert action with respect to the metric,\n$\\delta S_{EH}=\\int d^4x[(\\delta(\\sqrt{-g}g^{\\mu\\nu})R_{\\mu\\nu}+\n\\sqrt{-g}g^{\\mu\\nu}\\delta R_{\\mu\\nu}]$.  Substituting\n$R=g^{\\mu\\nu}R_{\\mu\\nu}$ we find a full divergence term, which can\nbe thrown away according to classical General relativity theory.\n\nTo calculate the equations of motion rigorously, which, for\ninstance, requires the calculation of $\\delta\nR_{\\mu\\nu}=\\delta\\Gamma^\\alpha_{\\mu\\nu\n;\\alpha}-\\delta\\Gamma^\\alpha_{\\mu\\alpha ; \\nu}$, one must go\nthrough the entire process of calculating $g_{\\mu\\nu}$, then the\nconnection, $\\Gamma$, then the curvature tensor, $R_{\\mu\\nu}$, and\nso on.  It is complex and actually not necessary here. Instead, we\ncan go to the freely falling frame where\n$\\Gamma^\\mu_{\\alpha\\beta}=0$. Calculations in this frame will be\nfar simpler. For instance, it can be shown that $\\delta\ng=gg^{\\alpha\\beta}\\delta g_{\\alpha\\beta}$, using the identity\n$detM=e^{Tr\\ell nM}$.\n\nThe general action is \\begin{equation} S=S_{EH}+S_{M}, \\end{equation} where $S_{M}$ is the\nmatter action characterized by the energy momentum tensor\n$T_{\\mu\\nu}=-(2\/\\sqrt{-g})(\\delta S_m\/\\delta g^{\\mu\\nu})$. Note\nthat we have assumed in these equations that the cosmological\nconstant, $\\Lambda$, is zero.  If one wishes to include it, the\ncorrect equations come from the replacement of $R$ with\n$R-2\\Lambda$.\n\nWe can now extend this classical theory to the case of a variable\ngravitational constant.  We promote $G$ to be a function of a\nscalar field, $\\phi$, which produces another long-range force like\ngravity. Specifically, \\begin{equation} \\phi={1\\over G} .\\end{equation}  This form comes\nfrom the simplest generally covariant scalar field equation,\n$\\nabla^\\rho\\nabla_\\rho\\phi\\sim T^\\mu_{M\\mu}$, where\n$T^\\mu_{M\\mu}$ is the energy-momentum tensor for matter, not\nincluding gravity and the scalar field.  A rough estimate of the\naverage cosmic value of $\\phi$ produces a value, $10^{27} g\ncm^{-3}$, close to $1\/G=10^{28} g cm^{-3}$.\nThe gravitational action describing Brans-Dicke theory will thus be\n\\begin{equation} S_{BD}=\\int d^4x\\sqrt{-g}{R\\phi\\over 16\\pi}, \\end{equation} and the\naction for $\\phi$  \\begin{equation} S_\\phi=\\int\nd^4x\\sqrt{-g}(-{\\omega\\over\\phi}\n\\partial_\\mu\\phi\\partial^\\mu\\phi) ,\\end{equation} where $\\omega$ is a\ndimensionless coupling parameter.  The full action is the sum of\nthese plus the matter action, \\begin{equation} S=S_{BD}+S_\\phi+S_M.\\end{equation} As\n$\\omega\\longrightarrow\\infty$, Brans-Dicke cosmology approaches\nEinstein's gravity. The matter action is not a function of $\\phi$\nin this theory. Varying the Brans-Dicke action leads to a boundary\nterm that is no longer a full divergence as in the classical\nEinstein-Hilbert action. Therefore, new terms will appear in the\nfield equations. Variation with respect to the metric gives \\begin{equation}\nG_{\\mu\\nu}=-{8\\pi\\over\\phi}\nT_{M\\mu\\nu}-{\\omega\\over\\phi^2}(\\phi_{;\\mu}\\phi_{;\\nu}- {1\\over 2\n}g_{\\mu\\nu}\\phi_{;\\alpha}\\phi^{;\\alpha})-\n{1\\over\\phi}(\\nabla_\\nu\\nabla_\\mu\\phi-g_{\\mu\\nu}\\nabla^\\mu\\nabla_\\mu\\phi)\n.\\end{equation}  The usual conservation law (i.e. the integrability\ncondition) holds, $\\nabla_\\mu T^\\mu_\\nu=0,$ which implies the\nconservation of the standard stress-energy tensor, and henceforth\nthe weak equivalence principle and geodesic motion.  Variation of\nthe action with respect to the scalar field gives the $\\phi$\nequation of motion \\begin{equation} \\nabla^\\mu\\nabla_\\mu\\phi={8\\pi T\\over\n(3+2\\omega)}, \\end{equation} where $T=T^{\\mu}_{\\mu}$.\n\nBrans-Dicke Theory can be phrased in two different frames that are\nconformally related.  The formulation presented above\nis in the so-called {\\it Jordan frame}.  The conformal, not\ncoordinate, transformation that takes the theory into the {\\it\nEinstein frame} involves the following metric replacement, \\begin{equation}\ng_{\\mu\\nu\\longrightarrow} g_{\\mu\\nu}(16\\pi\\phi)=\\tilde{g}_{\\mu\\nu}\n.\\end{equation}  We then reexpress the scalar field as \\begin{equation} \\sigma={\\ell\nn(16\\pi\\phi)\\over \\omega+{3\\over 2}} .\\end{equation}   These transformations\ndress the Brans-Dicke action such that it looks like the original\nEinstein-Hilbert action, solidifying the idea that Brans-Dicke\ntheory is just Einstein's theory with a scalar field.  An\nimportant fact regarding this conformal transformation is that\n$\\phi$ does not appear in the matter action in the Jordan frame,\ntelling us that the scalar field does not interact with matter in\nthis frame. It does, however, in the Einstein frame since the\ntransformation $S_\\sigma\\rightarrow\nS_M(\\tilde{g}_{\\mu\\nu}e^\\sigma)$ introduces non-minimal metric\ncoupling to $\\sigma$. It is important to remember when making\ncalculations that the Einstein frame is {\\it not} the physical\nframe, it is merely a conformal frame in which the equations and\ncalculations are simplified.\n\nLet us enter the \"stringy\" realm of quantum gravity for a moment.\nThe basic string theory action has an additional multiplicative\nfactor, \\begin{equation} S_{string}=\\int d^4x\\sqrt{-g}e^{-\\chi}[R\/16\\pi+{\\cal\nL}_M+...], \\end{equation} where $\\chi$ is a scalar field, the dilaton field\nmentioned above. The form of this action displays a clear\nscalar field resemblance to the Brans-Dicke action, indeed it's\nits formulation in yet another conformal frame, the string frame.\nThe hope is\nto connect varying constant theories with quantum gravity in this\nway. That is, to successfully formulate a varying constant theory\nthat can be proven to be a limit of a quantum gravity theory.  In\nthis particular case, we would hope that the dilaton field was the\nquantum gravitational manifestation of the $\\phi$ field causing\nthe variability of the gravitational constant.\n\nFinally, let us briefly address $\\omega$, the new constant\nintroduced via Brans-Dicke theory.  It is undesirable, in general,\nto introduce new parameters into a theory because they are extra\nconstants that need to be set or fine-tuned.  Physicists look to\nconstrain theories rather than introduce extra degrees of freedom.\nFrom the Brans-Dicke equations of motion, we know that as\n$\\omega\\longrightarrow\\infty$ the theory becomes indistinguishable\nfrom General Relativity.  In a sense, experiments that constrain\nthe value of $\\omega$ can be seen to be a measure of just how\naccurate General Relativity describes our universe given\nparticular experimental probes to hand.  In general, measures of\n$\\omega$ are quite large, with conservative estimates being in the\n100s ~\\cite{omega1}, and recent solar system tests using the\nCassini probe to be greater than 40,000 ~\\cite{cassini}.  Such a large\nrange of values is not necessarily mutually exclusive, since the\ntests used probe vastly different length and time scales.\n\nThere are also theories called scalar-tensor theories that allow\n$\\omega$ to vary along with the changing scalar field, such that\n$\\omega=\\omega(\\phi)$~\\cite{fumae}. In these, the general\nrelativistic limit would correspond to values of $\\phi$ such that\n$\\dot{\\omega}$ is negligible and $\\omega$ is very large.\n\n\\subsection{The Bekenstein Model}\n\nThe fine structure constant, defined as $\\alpha=e^2\/4 \\pi \\hbar\nc$, is the most observationally sensitive of Nature's \"constants\".\n Webb, et.al. \\cite{murphy,webb}, use a new observational\nmany-multiplet (MM) technique to measure $\\alpha$, by exploiting\nthe extra sensitivity gained in studying relativistic transitions\nto different ground states.  The tests use absorption lines from\ngas clouds that intersect our line of sight to quasar (QSO)\nspectra at medium redshift. This method has provided the first\nevidence that the fine structure constant may change throughout\ncosmological time ~\\cite{murphy,webb,webb2}. Independent samples\nyielded imply that the value of $\\alpha$ was lower in the past,\nsuch that $\\Delta \\alpha \/\\alpha =-0.72\\pm 0.18\\times 10^{-5}$ for\n$z\\approx 0.5-3.5$.  VLT tests of Iron absorption lines at a\nredshift of $z=1.15$ back-lit by  a QSO and using the standard MM\ntechnique result in $10^{-6}$ ~\\cite{vlt}. Another test for the\nvariability of alpha comes from the Oklo natural fission reactor,\na uranium mine in Africa, which determines historical values of\nalpha by measuring isotopes 2000 million years in age. This has\nset tight constraints on the temporal variation of alpha of the\norder $10^{-7}$ ~\\cite{oklo}.\n\nBig Bang Nucleosynthesis (BBN) is one of the great experimental\nsuccesses in cosmology.  It describes a phase of the early\nuniverse when particles could coalesce to form atoms due to a\nsufficient decrease in the temperature of the universe.  The\ntheory successfully predicts the abundances of light elements in\nour cosmos today. These abundances depend critically on the number\nof baryons (neutrons and protons) at the time of nucleosynthesis,\nwhich in turn is governed by the particle interaction mediator,\nthe fine structure constant.   The idea here is to accommodate the\ndata in support of variable fine structure constant while staying\nin agreement BBN successes such that we are able to fix the value\nof alpha to what it is measured to be today. Some investigations\ninto the variability of this \"constant\" have come to conclude\n$\\Delta \\alpha <0$ values in order to best fit Cosmic Microwave\nBackground (CMB) data at $z\\approx 10^3$ and BBN data at $z\\approx\n10^{10}$, respectively ~\\cite{avelino,bat}.\n\nTo address the question of what has made the value of alpha\nincrease throughout cosmological time, one must first ask, to\nwhich of the \"constants\" defining alpha should we attribute the\nvariation? Through which parameter the variation is realized is a\nmatter of convenience, but it is this choice that is crucial to\nformulating a simple and cohesive theory.  The most conservative\nof the varying alpha theories is one in which the electromagnetic\ncharge, $e$, varies in space-time, while $c$ and $\\hbar$ are held\nfixed ~\\cite{Bek}. A varying $e$ theory can be set up in much the\nsame way as in the Brans-Dicke case, by prescribing that $e$\nbecome a dynamic field, the so-called minimal coupling\nprescription ~\\cite{bek2}. This electromagnetic varying $e$ theory\nhas been thoroughly explored, including a formal rearrangement of\nthese theories done to convert them into dilaton-type theories, in\nwhich the dilaton couples to the electromagnetic ``$ F^2$'' term\nin the Lagrangian, but not to the other gauge fields~\\cite{Bek}.\n\nIn the varying $\\alpha$ theories proposed initially in ~\\cite{Bek}\none takes $c$ and $\\hbar $ to be constants and attributes\nvariations in $\\alpha$ to changes in $e$, the permittivity of free\nspace. This is done by letting $e$ take on the value of a real\nscalar field which varies in space and time, $e_0\\rightarrow\ne(x^\\mu)=e_0\\epsilon (x^\\mu ),$ where $\\epsilon(x^\\mu)$ is a\ndimensionless scalar field and $e_0$ is a constant denoting the\npresent value of $e(x^\\mu)$. One then proceeds to set up a theory\nbased on the principles of local gauge invariance, causality of\nelectromagnetism, and the scale invariance of the\n$\\epsilon$-field.\n\nSince covariant derivatives in electromagnetic theory take the\nform $D_\\mu \\phi=(\\partial_\\mu +ieA_\\mu)\\phi$, for gauge\ntransformations of the form $\\delta\\phi=-i\\chi\\phi$ one must\nimpose ~\\cite{Bek} \\begin{equation}\\epsilon A_\\mu \\rightarrow \\epsilon A_\\mu\n+\\chi _{,\\mu }.\\end{equation} The gauge-invariant electromagnetic field\ntensor is then \\begin{equation} F_{\\mu \\nu }={ (\\epsilon A_\\nu )_{,\\mu\n}-(\\epsilon A_\\mu )_{,\\nu }\\over \\epsilon} , \\end{equation} which reduces to\nthe usual form for constant $\\epsilon $. The electromagnetic\nLagrangian is still \\begin{equation}{\\cal L} _{em}=-{F^{\\mu \\nu }F_{\\mu \\nu\n}\\over 4}, \\end{equation} and the dynamics of the $\\epsilon $ field are\ncontrolled by the kinetic term \\begin{equation}{\\cal L}_\\epsilon =-\\frac 12\n\\omega {\\epsilon _{,\\mu }\\epsilon ^{,\\mu }\\over {\\epsilon ^2}},\n\\end{equation} where the self-coupling constant $\\omega$ is introduced into\nthe lagrangian density for dimensional reasons and is proportional\nto the inverse square of the characteristic length scale of the\ntheory, $\\omega\\sim\\ell^{-2}$, such that $\\ell\\geq\nL_p\\approx10^{-33}cm$ holds ~\\cite{bek2}. This length scale\ncorresponds to an energy scale ${\\hbar c \\over \\ell}$, with an\nupper bound set by experiment.  Note that the metric signature\nused is still $(-,+,+,+)$.\n\nA simpler formulation of this theory ~\\cite{bsm,joaohaav} can be\nconstructed by defining an auxiliary gauge potential $a_\\mu \\equiv\n\\epsilon A_\\mu ,$ and field tensor $f_{\\mu \\nu }\\equiv\\epsilon\nF_{\\mu \\nu }=\\partial _\\mu a_\\nu -\\partial _\\nu a_\\mu .$  We are\nfree to do this without physical implications because, at the\nclassical level, it is not $A_\\mu$ that we measure, but rather the\nelectric and magnetic fields, $E$ and $B$.  The covariant\nderivative then assumes the familiar form, $D_\\mu =\\partial _\\mu\n+ie_0a_\\mu $, and the dependence of the Lagrangian on $\\epsilon $\nthen occurs only in the kinetic term for $\\epsilon $ and in the\n$F^2=f^2\/\\epsilon ^2$ term, not in a kinetic term, $D_\\mu \\phi\nD^\\mu \\phi$, of the matter lagrangian, ${\\cal L}_M$. To simplify\nfurther, we can redefine the variable, $\\epsilon \\rightarrow \\psi\n\\equiv ln\\epsilon .$ The total action then becomes \\begin{equation}\nS=\\int d^4x\\sqrt{-g}\\left({\\cal L}_{M}+{\\cal L}_\\psi +{\\cal L}%\n_{em}e^{-2\\psi }\\right) ,\\end{equation} with \\begin{eqnarray}\n{\\cal L}_\\psi &=&-{\\frac \\omega 2}\\partial _\\mu \\psi \\partial ^\\mu \\psi ,\\\\\n{\\cal L}_{em}&=&-\\frac 14f_{\\mu \\nu }f^{\\mu \\nu }, \\end{eqnarray} where the\nmatter Lagrangian ${\\cal L}_{M}$ does not contain $\\psi$. This is\na dilaton theory coupling to the electromagnetic ``$f^2$'' part of\nthe Lagrangian only ~\\cite{bsm,joaohaav}.  Note that the scale\ninvariance of the $\\epsilon$ field is such that the action is\ninvariant under the transformation $\\epsilon \\rightarrow k\\epsilon\n$ for any constant $k$.  The action, written in this simplified\nform, clearly resembles the dilaton-string action shown above.\n\nMinimizing the variation of the action with respect to the scalar\nfield, $\\delta S\/\\delta\\phi=0$, gives us the equations of motion\ngoverning the temporal and spatial development of $\\phi$\n~\\cite{bsm}, \\begin{equation}\n\\nabla^\\mu\\nabla_\\mu\\phi={2\\over\\omega}e^{-2\\psi}{\\cal L}_{EM}\n.\\end{equation}  Ignoring, for the moment, any spatial variation in $\\phi$,\nwe have the Friedman-Robertson-Walker equations governing the\ntime-evolution of $\\phi$ ~\\cite{bsm}, \\begin{equation}\n\\ddot{\\phi}+3{\\dot{a}\\over\na}\\dot{\\phi}={-2\\over\\omega}e^{-2\\psi}{\\cal L}_{EM} ,\\end{equation} where the\nright hand side of the equation is the driving force and\n$(3\\dot{a}\/a)\\dot{\\phi}$ on the left hand side is the fluid\nfriction term. It is the electromagnetic lagrangian,\n$\\textbf{E}^2-\\textbf{B}^2$, therefore, which drives the variation\nin $e$. In a radiation-dominated universe\n$\\textbf{E}^2-\\textbf{B}^2=0$ such that there is no variation in\n$e$ and thus $\\alpha$. Numerical results ~\\cite{bsm} support a\nvariable alpha with the following behavior. The radiation era sees\nno variation in $\\alpha$, but the driving term is not zero during\nthe matter era, $\\textbf{E}^2-\\textbf{B}^2\\neq 0$, allowing for\nsmall variations during this period. In the ensuing epoch of\naccelerated expansion the fluid friction term dominates, leading\nto the stability of the field $\\psi$, and hence constant $e$ and\n$\\alpha$.\n\nUnfortunately, the variation in alpha predicted by these equations\nwith a positive energy density for the scalar field (i.e.\n$\\omega>0$) is precisely opposite to that needed to support\nobservational data.  That is, the equations predict a value of\n$\\alpha$ that {\\it decreases} in time, whereas observations\nsupport an {\\it increasing} alpha ~\\cite{bsm}. The\ntheory can fit the data, however, for two very different physical\nscenarios. Firstly, if there exists a type of dark matter such\nthat the $B^2$ contribution to the electromagnetic lagrangian\ndominates the $E^2$ contribution, then $\\alpha$ will increase in\ntime within observational bounds. Some cosmological defect\ntheories, specifically those of superconducting strings, satisfy\nthis requirement, but it is more or less unappealing since most\nmatter types do not have this property.\n\nIt is, on the other hand, possible to explain the observational\ndata supporting an $\\alpha$ value that was lower in the past if\n$\\omega<0$~\\cite{bsm}. A negative scalar coupling\nimplies a negative energy density for $\\psi$, which in turn tells\nus that $\\psi$ is a \"ghost\" field. \"Ghost fields\" coupled to\nmatter have often been deemed undesirable since they will\nconsistently dump positive energy into matter.  However, it is the\nspecific forms of the equations of motion that will dictate just\nhow this interchange is mediated such that it may, in fact, not be\nproblematic. We will ignore the \"runaway\" pathological behavior of\nghosts at the quantum level on the grounds that a scalar field\n$\\phi$ is non-renormalizable and should not be quantized, just as\nin classical general relativity.\n\nIt has been shown ~\\cite{bkj} that the simplest varying constant\ntheories, such as the Brans-Dicke and Bekenstein models described\nabove, predict a non-singular and cyclic universe given a scalar\ncoupling $\\omega<0$.  In particular, the Bekenstein model\nequations with negative $\\omega$ are the same as the Brans-Dicke\nequations in the Einstein frame. In both cases, a regularly\noscillating universe results if the scalar field is uncoupled to\nmatter.  On the other hand, a cyclic universe with \"bounces\" of\never-increasing amplitudes is produced if the field {\\it is}\ncoupled to matter near the bounce, such that positive energy is\ntransferred into the matter field from the negative energy field.\nThe universe, with this additional positive energy density will be\nhotter and will thus have to grow to a larger size in order to\nreach the critical temperature for a turnaround. Note that these\nmodels occur strictly within the radiation-dominated epoch,\nmeaning that the scalar fields couple to radiation. Assuming that\nwe are presently in the first matter-dominated era, we can\ncalculate the number of bounces needed to get to the value of the\nconstants that are measured today ~\\cite{bkj}.  In this manner, it\nis possible to justify the extreme values of the parameters simply\ngiven the large age of our universe.\n\nWe have so far reviewed a large number of motivations for varying\n\"constant\" scenarios.  Among them are included quantum gravity\ntheories with dilaton scalar fields resembling the scalar fields\nthat describe varying constants, theories such as DSR which\npredict deformed dispersion relations, and observations pointing\nto the variability of the fine structure constant.  In all cases,\nscalar fields play the pivotal role of describing how these\nfundamental parameters of nature vary throughout space-time. We\nknow that scalar fields appear in other roles in physics, such as\nthe cosmological constant that drives inflation, so it\nis more than relevant to ask what the crucial role of scalar\nfields in the universe is in general.  Is their primary role to\nvary the fundamental constants of nature?  Are they there simply\nto source inflation?  Or, are they merely an unobservable\nbyproduct of higher dimensional theories such as string theories?\nPerhaps these theories are intimately connected, but to even begin\nto address these questions, one must broaden the scope of study.\nFor instance, an extension of the Bekenstein model to the\nelectroweak scenario been done ~\\cite{varsm} in order to see if\nthere exists any evidence of a scalar field affecting the standard\nmodel of particle physics. With respect to cyclic universes, there\nare other non-singular models ~\\cite{rob,varun} sourced other than\nby negative energy scalar fields, which could help shed light on\nthe necessity and\/or importance of scalar fields in bouncing\nmodels.\n\n\\subsection{A Variable Speed of Light}\nEven after the proposal of special relativity in 1905 many varying\nspeed of light theories were considered, most notably by Einstein\nhimself~\\cite{einsvsl}. VSL was then rediscovered and forgotten on\nseveral occasions. For instance, in the 1930s, VSL was used as an\nalternate explanation for the cosmological redshift\n\\cite{stew,buc,wald} (these theories conflict with fine structure\nobservations). None of these efforts relate to recent VSL\ntheories, which are firmly entrenched in the successes (and\nremaining failures) of the hot big bang theory of the universe. In\nthis sense the first ``modern'' VSL theory was J. W. Moffat's\nground breaking paper \\cite{moffat93}, where spontaneous symmetry\nbreaking of Lorentz symmetry leads to VSL and an elegant solution\nto the horizon problem.\n\nSince then there has been a growing literature on the subject,\nwith several groups working on different aspects of VSL (for a\ncomprehensive review see~\\cite{vslreview}).\nHere we examine the simplest and most conservative  implementations\ncurrently being considered. The first resembles Brans-Dicke theory\nin that two metrics are considered, one for gravity,\nanother for matter (this is comparable to the metrics used in the\nEinstein and Jordan frame in Brans-Dicke theory).\nThe second implementation is a generalization of Bekenstein's\ntheory in which all coupling strengths become dynamical.\n\n\n\\subsubsection {Bimetric VSL theories}\\label{bivsl}\nThis approach was initially proposed by J. W. Moffat and M. A. Clayton\n\\cite{mofclay}, and by I. Drummond \\cite{drum}. It does not sacrifice\nthe principle of relativity and special care is taken with the damage\ncaused to the second principle of special relativity.\nIn these theories the speeds of the various\nmassless species may be different, but special relativity is still\n(linearly) realized within each sector. Typically the speed of the graviton\nis taken to be different from that of massless matter particles.\nThis is implemented by introducing two metrics (or tetrads in the\nformalism of \\cite{drum,drum1}), one for gravity and one for\nmatter. The model was further studied by \\cite{clay1}\n(scalar-tensor model), \\cite{clay} (vector model), and\n\\cite{covvsl,bass,bass1}.\n\nWe now sketch the scalar-tensor model. It uses a scalar field\n$\\phi$ that is minimally coupled to a gravitational field\ndescribed by the metric $g_{\\mu\\nu}$. However the matter couples\nto a different metric, given by\n\\begin{equation}\n\\hat{g}_{\\mu\\nu}=g_{\\mu\\nu}+B\\partial_\\mu\\phi\\partial_\\nu\\phi.\n\\end{equation}\nThus there is a space-time, or graviton metric $g_{\\mu\\nu}$, and a\nmatter metric $\\hat{g}_{\\mu\\nu}$. The total action is\n\\begin{equation}\nS=S_g+S_{\\phi}+\\hat{S}_{\\rm M},\n\\end{equation}\nwhere the gravitational action is as usual\n\\begin{equation}\nS_g=\\frac{1}{16\\pi }\\int dx^4{\\sqrt {-g}} (R(g)-2\\Lambda),\n\\end{equation}\n(notice that the cosmological constant $\\Lambda$ could also,\nnon-equivalently, appear as part of the matter action). The scalar\nfield action is\n\\begin{equation}\nS_\\phi=\\frac{1}{16\\pi }\\int dx^4{\\sqrt {-g}}\\,\n\\Bigl[\\frac{1}{2}g^{\\mu\\nu}\\partial_\\mu\\phi\\partial_\\nu\\phi-V(\\phi)\\Bigr],\n\\end{equation}\nleading to the the stress-energy tensor,\n\\begin{equation}\nT^{\\mu\\nu}_\\phi=  \\frac{1}{16\\pi } \\Bigl[\ng^{\\mu\\alpha}g^{\\nu\\beta}\\partial_\\alpha\\phi\\partial_\\beta\\phi\n-\\frac{1}{2}g^{\\mu\\nu}g^{\\alpha\\beta}\\partial_\\alpha\\phi\\partial_\\beta\\phi\n+g^{\\mu\\nu}V(\\phi) \\Bigr].\n\\end{equation}\nThe matter action is then written as usual, but using the metric\n${\\hat g}_{\\mu\\nu}$. Variation with respect to $g_{\\mu\\nu}$ leads\nto the gravitational field equations,\n\\begin{equation}\nG^{\\mu\\nu}=\\Lambda g^{\\mu\\nu}\n +8\\pi   T^{\\mu\\nu}_\\phi\n +8\\pi     \\frac{\\sqrt{-\\hat{g}}}{\\sqrt {-g}}\\hat{T}^{\\mu\\nu}.\n\\end{equation}\nIn this theory the speed of light is not preset, but becomes a\ndynamical variable predicted by a special wave equation\n\\begin{equation}\\label{dynabivsl}\n\\bar{g}^{\\mu\\nu}\\hat{\\nabla}_\\mu\\hat{\\nabla}_\\nu\\phi+KV^\\prime\n[\\phi]=0\\,\n\\end{equation}\nwhere the biscalar metric $\\bar g$ is defined in \\cite{mofclay}.\n\nThis model not only predicts a varying speed of light (if the\nspeed of the graviton is assumed to be constant), but also allows\nsolutions with a de Sitter phase that provides sufficient\ninflation to solve the horizon and flatness problems. This is\nachieved without the addition of a potential for the scalar field.\nThe model has also been used as an alternative explanation for the\ndark matter \\cite{drum1} and dark\nenergy\\cite{bass,bass1}.\n\n\n\\subsubsection{``Lorentz invariant'' VSL theories}\\label{livsl}\nIt is also possible to preserve the essence of Lorentz invariance\nin its totality and still have a space-time (as opposed to energy\ndependent) varying $c$. One possibility is that Lorentz invariance\nis spontaneously broken, as proposed by J. W. Moffat~\\cite{moffat93,moff2}\n(see also \\cite{jacobson}). Here the\nfull theory is endowed with exact local Lorentz symmetry; however\nthe vacuum fails to exhibit this symmetry. For example an $O(3,1)$\nscalar field $\\phi^a$ (with $a=0,1,2,3$) could acquire a time-like\nvacuum expectation value (VEV), providing a preferred frame and\nspontaneously breaking local Lorentz invariance to $O(3)$\n(rotational invariance). Such a VEV would act as the preferred\nvector $u^a=\\phi^a_0$; however the\nfull theory would still be locally Lorentz invariant. Typically in\nthis scenario  the speed of light undergoes a first or second\norder phase transition to a value more than 30 orders of magnitude\nsmaller, corresponding to the presently measured speed of light.\nInterestingly, before the phase transition the entropy of the\nuniverse is reduced by many orders of magnitude, but afterwards\nthe radiation density and entropy of the universe vastly increase.\nThus the entropy increase follows the arrow of time determined by\nthe spontaneously broken direction of the timelike VEV $\\phi^a_0$.\nThis solves the enigma of the arrow of time and the second law of\nthermodynamics.\n\nAnother example is the covariant and locally Lorentz invariant\ntheory proposed in \\cite{covvsl}. In that work definitions were\nproposed for covariance and local Lorentz invariance that remain\napplicable when the speed of light $c$ is allowed to vary. They\nhave the merit of retaining only those aspects of the usual\ndefinitions which are invariant under unit transformations, and\nwhich can therefore legitimately represent the outcome of an\nexperiment. In the\nsimplest case a scalar field is then defined $\\psi=\\log( c\/ c_0)$,\nand minimal coupling to matter requires that \\begin{equation}\\label{alphan}\n\\alpha_i\\propto g_i\\propto \\hbar c\\propto c^{q} \\end{equation}  with $q$ a\nparameter of the theory. The action may be taken to be\n\\begin{equation} S= \\int d^4x \\sqrt{-g}(\ne^{a\\psi}( R-2\\Lambda +{\\cal L}_{\\psi}) +{ 16\\pi }e^{b\\psi}{\\cal L}_m )\n\\end{equation}\nand the simplest dynamics for $\\psi$ derives from:\n\\begin{equation} {\\cal L}_{\\psi}=-\\kappa(\\psi)\n\\nabla_\\mu\\psi\\nabla^\\mu\\psi\n\\end{equation}\nwhere $\\kappa(\\psi)$ is a dimensionless coupling function. For\n$a=4$, $b=0$, this theory is nothing but a unit transformation\napplied to Brans-Dicke theory. More generally, it's only when\n$b+q=0$ that these theories are scalar-tensor theories in\ndisguise. In all other cases it has been shown that a unit\ntransformation may always be found such that $c$ is a constant but\nthen the dynamics of the theory becomes much more complicated.\nThus we should label these theories varying speed of light theories.\n\n\nIn these theories the cosmological constant $\\Lambda$ may depend\non $c$, and so act as a potential driving $\\psi$. Since the vacuum\nenergy usually scales like $c^4$ we may take $\\Lambda\\propto\n(c\/c_0)^n=e^{n\\psi}$ with $n$ an integer. In this case, if we set\n$a=b=0$ the dynamical equation for $\\psi$ is :\n\\begin{equation}\\label{dynacovvsl} \\nabla_\\mu\\nabla^\\mu \\psi ={32\\pi \\over c^4\\kappa}{\\cal\nL}_m +{1\\over \\kappa} n\\Lambda \\end{equation} Thus it is possible\nthat the presence of Lambda drives changes in the speed\nof light, a matter examined (in another context) in \\cite{vslsn}.\n\n\nParticle production and second quantization for this model has\nbeen discussed in \\cite{covvsl}. Black hole solutions were also\nextensively studied \\cite{vslbh}. Predictions for the classical\ntests of relativity (gravitational light deflection, gravitational\nredshift, radar echo delay, and the precession of the perihelion\nof Mercury) were also shown to differ distinctly from their\nEinstein counterparts, while still evading experimental\nconstraints~\\cite{vslbh}. Other interesting results were the\ndiscovery of Fock-Lorentz space-time\\cite{man,step} as the\n``free'' solution, and fast-tracks (tubes where the speed of light\nis much higher) as solutions driven by cosmic\nstrings~\\cite{covvsl}.\n\nBeautiful as these two theories may be, their application to\ncosmology is somewhat cumbersome.\n\n\\subsubsection{The simplistic cosmological motivation}\nLike inflation~\\cite{infl}, modern VSL theories were  motivated by\nthe ``cosmological problems'' -- the flatness, entropy,\nhomogeneity, isotropy  and cosmological constant problems of Big\nBang cosmology (see~\\cite{am,basker}). The definition\nof a cosmological arrow of time was also a strong consideration.\n\n\nBut at its most simplistic, VSL was inspired by the horizon problem.\nAs we go back into our past the present comoving horizon breaks down\ninto more and more comoving causally connected regions. These\ndisconnected early days of the Universe prevent a physical\nexplanation for the large scale features we observe -- the ``horizon\nproblem''. It does\nnot take much to see that a larger speed of light in the early\nuniverse could open up the horizons~\\cite{moffat93,am} (see\nFigs.~\\ref{fig1} and \\ref{fig2}). More mathematically,\nthe comoving horizon is given by\n$r_h=c\/\\dot a$, so that a solution to the horizon problem requires\nthat in our past $r_h$ must have decreased in order to causally\nconnect the large region we can see nowadays. Thus\n\\begin{equation}\n{\\ddot a\\over \\dot a}-{\\dot c\\over c}>0\n\\end{equation}\nthat is, either we have accelerated expansion (inflation), or a\ndecreasing speed of light, or a combination of both. This argument\nis far from general: a contraction period ($\\dot a<0$, as in the\nbouncing universe), or a static start for the universe ($\\dot\na=0$) are examples of exceptions to this rule.\n\nHowever the horizon problem is just a warm up for the other\nproblems.\nMore recently structure formation has been the leading driving\nforce in these scenarios. This is still very much unaccomplished,\nin spite of recent efforts and consequently is left as an exercise\nfor the student.\n\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\centerline{\\psfig{file=hor1.eps,width=6 cm,angle=-90}}\n\\caption{A conformal diagram (in which light travels at $45^\\circ$).\nThis diagram reveals that the sky is a cone in 4-dimensional\nspace-time. When we look far away we look into the past; there is\nan horizon because we can only look as far away as the Universe is\nold. The fact that the horizon is very small in the very early\nUniverse, means that we can now see regions in our sky outside\neach others' horizon. This is the horizon problem of standard Big\nBang cosmology.} \\label{fig1}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\begin{figure}\n\\centerline{\\psfig{file=hor2.eps,width=6 cm,angle=-90}}\n\\caption{Diagram showing the horizon structure in a model in which\nat time $t_c$ the speed of light changed from $c^-$ to $c^+\\ll\nc^-$. Light travels at $45^\\circ$ after $t_c$ but it travels at a\nmuch smaller angle to the spatial axis before $t_c$. Hence it is\npossible for the horizon at $t_c$ to be much larger than the\nportion of the Universe at $t_c$ intersecting our past light cone.\nAll regions in our past have then always been in causal contact.\nThis is the VSL solution of the horizon problem.} \\label{fig2}\n\\end{figure}\n\n\\subsubsection{The experimental front of VSL}\n\nAs explained in~\\cite{vslreview} varying $e$ and $c$ theories in\ngeneral predict the same $\\alpha(z)$ profiles.\nTo distinguish between varying $e$ and varying $c$ theories\none must look elsewhere. The status of the equivalence principle\nin these theories turns out to be a good solution. The varying $e$\ntheories \\cite{bsm,bek2,olive} violate the weak equivalence\nprinciple, whereas VSL theories do not\\cite{mofwep,mbswep}. The\nE\\\"otv\\\"os parameter\n\\begin{equation}\n\\eta \\equiv {\\frac{2|a_1-a_2|}{a_1+a_2}}\n\\end{equation}\nis of the order $10^{-13}$ in varying $e$ theories, just an order\nof magnitude below existing experimental bounds.\n\nStill, it would be good to find a widely independent confirmation\nof the Webb results.\nA very promising area is cold atom clocks~\\cite{sortais}. The\nsearch for the perfect unit of time has led to the the quest for\nvery stable oscillatory systems, leading to a gain, every ten years, of\nabout one order of magnitude in timing accuracy.\nCold atom clocks may be used as laboratory ``table-top''\nprobes for varying $\\alpha$, with a current sensitivity\nof about $10^{-15}$ per year.  For all varying alpha theories\nit is found that at present:\n\\begin{equation}\n{\\dot\\alpha\\over\\alpha}\\approx 2.98\\times 10^{-16} h \\quad {\\rm year}^{-1}\n\\end{equation}\nwith $H_0=100 h$~Km~sec$^{-1}$~Mpc$^{-1}$, $\\Omega_\\Lambda=0.71$\nand $\\Omega_m=0.29$. For $h=0.7$ this\ngives a fractional variation in alpha of about $2\\times 10^{-16}$ per year,\nwhich should soon be within the reach of technology.\nSuch an observation would be\nan incredible vindication of the Webb results. On the other\nhand this effect would become a further annoyance for those\nconcerned with  the practicalities of defining\nthe unit of time.\n\n\nSpatial variations of $\\alpha $ are likely to be significant\n\\cite{mbswep} in any varying alpha theory. For any causal theory\nrelative variations in\n$\\alpha $ near a star are proportional to the local gravitational\npotential. The exact relation between the change in $\\alpha $ with\nredshift and in space (near massive objects) is model dependent.\nFor instance, we have\n\\begin{equation}\n{\\frac{\\delta \\alpha }\\alpha }=-{\\frac{\\zeta _s}\\omega }{\\frac{M_s}{\\pi r}}%\n\\approx 2\\times 10^{-4}{\\frac{\\zeta _s}{\\zeta _m}}{\\frac{M_s}{\\pi\nr}} \\label{alphar}\n\\end{equation}\nfor a typical varying $e$ theory, but\n\\begin{equation}\n{\\frac{\\delta \\alpha }\\alpha }=-{\\frac{bq}\\omega }{\\frac{M_s}{4\\pi r}}%\n\\approx 2\\times 10^{-4}{\\frac{M_s}{\\pi r}}\\;,  \\label{alphar1}\n\\end{equation}\nfor a VSL theory. Here $M_s$ is\nthe mass of the compact object, $r$ is its radius, and $\\zeta$\nis the ratio between $E^2-B^2$ and $E^2+B^2$. When $\\zeta _m$ (for\nthe dark matter) and $\\zeta _s$ (for, say, a star) have different\nsigns, for a cosmologically {\\it increasing}\n$\\alpha $, varying $e$ theories predict that $%\n\\alpha $ should {\\it decrease} on approach to a massive object.\nAnd indeed one must have $\\zeta _m<0$ in order to fit the Webb\nresults. In VSL, on the contrary, $\\alpha $ {\\it increases}\nnear compact objects (with decreasing $c$ if $q<0$, and increasing $c$ if $%\nq>0$). In VSL theories, near a black hole $\\alpha $ could become\nmuch larger than 1, so that electromagnetism would become\nnon-perturbative with dramatic consequences for particle physics near\nblack holes. In varying-$e$ theories precisely the opposite\nhappens: electromagnetism switches off.\n\n\nThese effects are in principle observable using similar\nspectroscopic techniques to those of Webb, but applied to lines\nformed on the surface of very massive objects near us (in the\nsense of $z\\ll 1$). For that, we\nneed an object with a radius sufficiently close to its\nSchwarzchild radius, such as an AGN, a pulsar or a\nwhite dwarf, for the effect to be non-negligible. Furthermore we\nneed the ``chemistry'' of such an object to be sufficiently\nsimple, so that line blending does not become problematic.\n\n\n\n\\section{A last exercise for the student: MOND}\nIt is sadly the case that we can't finish this review with\nresounding conclusions. Rather we will peter out in the realm of\nuncertainties -- problems which remain unsolved and that may have\nsomething to say about phenomenological quantum gravity. For this\npurpose we have selected the problem of dark matter in the\nUniverse.\n\n\nGalactic rotation curves have long puzzled cosmologists.\nNewtonian theory predicts that they should fall out like\n$v_r\\propto 1\/r^{1\/2}$. This follows from the simple\ncalculation:\n\\begin{equation}\nF=ma \\rightarrow  {Mm\\over r^2}=m{v^2\\over r}\\rightarrow v^2={M\\over r}\n\\end{equation}\nInstead we observe them flattening out: $v\\rightarrow v_\\infty$.\nA simple solution is that besides the visible matter there is\na halo of dark matter which dominates gravity on the outskirts\nof the galaxy. This halo has the property $M_{DM} = A r$,\ni.e. it must have a density profile $\\rho_{DM} = B\/ r^2$.\nThus\n\\begin{equation}\n{M_{DM}m\\over r^2}=m{v^2\\over r}\\rightarrow  v^2=A\n\\end{equation}\nHistorically this the first hint of dark matter\nin the Universe. It is important to stress that there are now\nmany other reasons to invoke dark matter\\footnote{It's not obvious that\nthe required matter is always the same.}.\n\n\nThis is all very well; however three difficulties are quickly encountered:\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item{1. }\nThe halos don't appear to be stable when left to evolve according\nto their own gravity. Rather they collapse into a central cusp.\nThis is the drama of every N-body simulation performed so far.\nLack of resolution and physical content is usually blamed.\n\\item{2. } The onset of the terminal velocity seems to be triggered\nnot by a length or mass scale but by an acceleration. This\nhas been measured to be $a_0\\approx 10^{-10}ms^{-2}$.\n\\item{3. } An empirical law has been established called\nthe Tully-Fisher relation\nestablishing that $v_\\infty^4$ is proportional to the luminosity\n(which presumably is proportional to the visible mass). This\nis the equivalent of Kepler's third law.\n\\end{itemize}\nIt is hard to see how dark matter, even if creating a stable\nhalo, could explain the Tully-Fisher relation. There would have\nto be a finely tuned  correlation between constant $B$ (appearing in the\ndensity profile for the halo)  and the mass in visible matter.\nLikewise the emergence of $a_0$ in the dark matter scenario is\nhard to understand.\nStill, it is possible that future N-body simulations may solve\nthese problems.\n\nDisconcertingly there is a very simple alternative solution, called\nMOND (MOdified Newtonian Dynamics). Perhaps galactic rotation\ncurves are simply telling us that gravity has departed from\nNewton's equations (and that there is no\ndark matter). Changing Newton's gravitational law, however, won't do because\nthis would trigger novel behaviour at a given length scale\nrather than at an acceleration scale. Instead MOND\nposits that {\\it the response law}, $F=ma$, must be modified.\nThe usual law is only valid at high accelerations; for accelerations\nsmaller than $a_0$ we have instead that\n\\begin{equation}\nF=m{a^2\\over a_0}\\,  .\n\\end{equation}\nStraightforward application of the MOND prescription leads to\n\\begin{equation}\n {Mm\\over r^2}=m{v^4\\over a_0 r^2}\\rightarrow v^4=M a_0\n\\end{equation}\nThus the Tully-Fisher relation is trivially explained  as well as the fact\nthat novel behaviour is triggered by an acceleration.\n\nMOND is an excellent phenomenological description of galactic\nrotation curves. However it makes no sense whatsoever. Applied\ncrudely it violates energy and momentum conservation in ways that\nwould readily conflict with observations. It also has\nno relativistic generalization; we need such a relativistic\ntheory in order, for consistency,  to do away with\ndark matter in all regimes. We quote the exemples of\ngravitational lenses, the cosmological expansion, and structure\nformation. Again, we're left in the\nrealm of wishful thinking: for dark matter  with regards to\ncomputer power, here with\nrespect to brain power and essential theoretical developments.\n\nWhy might this discussion be relevant to quantum gravity?\nMost obviously because MOND leads to a scary possibility:\n{\\it in trying to quantize gravity we may have chosen the wrong classical\ntheory}. No wonder we're stuck. Our failures could simply\nsignal that we don't yet have the correct classical theory of gravity.\nThis is a speculation, but one with dramatic, far-reaching consequences.\nAs the title of this section shows, whatever one makes of it,\nthis is very much exercise for the student~\\footnote{Warning:\nthis is an exercise\nfor a very keen\ngraduate student hoping to start a high risk, high return project.}.\nSpecifically, here's the problem:\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item{1.} Find a relativistic version of MOND consistent with\nenergy and momentum conservation and capable of explaining\ngravitational lenses, and all the successes of the Big Bang\nwithout dark matter. \\item{2.} Quantize this theory.\n\\end {itemize}\nThe following points may be interesting hints (but then again,\nthey may also be red herrings):\n\\begin{itemize}\n\\item The Pioneer puzzle, related to the anomalous acceleration\nsuffered by these satellites in their courses outside the Solar system,\nis associated with acceleration $a_P=8.74\\pm 1.33\\times 10^{-10}m s^{-2}$.\n\\item The observed cosmic acceleration is of the same order\nas $a_0$.\n\\item In contradiction with Mach's principle there appears\nto be absolute frames in the Universe for acceleration\n(but not speed). Why?\n\\end {itemize}\nWe'll leave a single reference on this topic:~\\cite{bekmond}.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\\bibliographystyle{aipproc}  \n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaArXiv"}}
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+{"text":"\nThank you for buying this ebook, published by NYU Press.\n\nSign up for our e-newsletters to receive information about forthcoming books, special discounts, and more!\n\n**Sign Up!**\n\n### **About NYU Press**\n\nA publisher of original scholarship since its founding in 1916, New York University Press Produces more than 100 new books each year, with a backlist of 3,000 titles in print. Working across the humanities and social sciences, NYU Press has award-winning lists in sociology, law, cultural and American studies, religion, American history, anthropology, politics, criminology, media and communication, literary studies, and psychology.\n**The Deepest South**\n\n# The Deepest South\n\n_The United States, Brazil, and the  \nAfrican Slave Trade_\n\nGerald Horne\n\nNEW YORK UNIVERSITY PRESS  \nNew York and London  \nwww.nyupress.org\n\n\u00a9 2007 by New York University  \nAll rights reserved\n\nLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data  \nHorne, Gerald.  \nThe deepest south : the United States, Brazil, and the African slave trade \/ Gerald Horne.  \np. cm.  \nIncludes bibliographical references and index.  \nISBN-13: 978-0-8147-3688-3 (cloth : alk. paper)  \nISBN-10: 0-8147-3688-2 (cloth : alk. paper)  \nISBN-13: 978-0-8147-3689-0 (pbk. : alk. paper)  \nISBN-10: 0-8147-3689-0 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Slave-trade\u2014America\u2014History\u201419th century. 2. Slavery\u2014  \nUnited States\u2014History\u201419th century. 3. Slavery\u2014Brazil\u2014  \nHistory\u201419th century. I. Title.  \nHT1048.H67 2006  \n306.3'62\u2014dc22 2006029836\n\nNew York University Press books are printed on acid-free paper, and their binding materials are chosen for strength and durability.\n\nManufactured in the United States of America\n\nc 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1  \np 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1\n\n## **Contents**\n\nIntroduction\n\n1 Toward the Empire of Brazil\n\n2 Into Africa\n\n3 Buying and Kidnapping Africans\n\n4 Wise?\n\n5 Crisis\n\n6 The U.S. to Seize the Amazon?\n\n7 Making the Slave Trade Legal?\n\n8 The Civil War Begins\/The Slave Trade Continues\n\n9 Deport U.S. Negroes to Brazil?\n\n10 Confederates to Brazil\n\n11 The End of Slavery and the Slave Trade?\n\nEpilogue\n\n_Notes_\n\n_Index_\n\n_About the Author_\n\n## **Introduction**\n\nThis book is about the relationship between the two great slave empires of the 19th century\u2014the U.S. and Brazil\u2014in the context of the African Slave Trade, with the accent decidedly on North America. This is _not_ a book about slavery in Brazil; though the narrative engages four continents, the primary focus is on the U.S., more specifically, the role of U.S. nationals as slave traders and sojourners in Brazil; i.e., this book is also a social history about the impact of Brazil on the U.S. It is very much a story that involves Brazil (and Africa) in the eyes of the U.S.\u2014and not vice versa, and it is very much a story about the role of U.S. nationals in the African Slave Trade. It is also a story about the continuing rivalry between London and Washington that had exploded in war in 1812 and then festered as the U.K. abolished slavery in the Empire in the 1830s.\n\nThis book argues that U.S. slavery is better understood in hemispheric terms\u2014the Slave South saw in an alliance with Brazil a formidable hedge against a future relationship with the North and, for that matter, a hedge against continuing pressure from London to abolish slavery, a hedge that could mean triumph in a Civil War, if need be.\n\nTwo leading characters in these pages are former Virginia Governor, Henry Wise\u2014John Brown's executioner\u2014and Matthew Fontaine Maury, a Virginian of a stature comparable to Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson. As Minister to Brazil, Wise crusaded vigorously against the illicit slave trade to Brazil, while Maury advocated strongly for deporting enslaved U.S. Negroes to the Amazon for the purpose of developing this region; he was also part of a cabal that had designs on seizing the Amazon from Brazil: their ostensibly separate initiatives are best comprehended in unison, i.e., if Brazil could draw upon the labor of enslaved African-Americans, there would be no need to draw upon the illicit trade, which was dominated by forces in the U.S. Northeast and their lust for Brazilian territory was of a piece with their boundless expansion westward in North America. This was one more source of regional tension that was to explode in Civil War. Likewise, the flood of U.S. nationals who arrived in Brazil on their way to the California goldfields got a glimpse of a brutal slavery that enhanced abolitionist sentiment and also exacerbated regional tensions. This relationship with Brazil was an aspect of a larger phenomenon: the blurring of citizenship boundaries as slavers changed flags in midocean routinely; those who sought to profit from the slave trade often thought that U.S. nationality provided protection and altered citizenship accordingly; diplomats in foreign capitals often acted on behalf of more than one nation; at times it seemed that slave trading was the prime preoccupation of certain diplomats, notably\u2014though not exclusively\u2014those of Portugal serving in New York, who advocated kidnapping Africans and compelling them to be \"American,\" albeit enslaved. This frayed idea of citizenship contributed to thinking in the Slave South that was evolving away from allegiance to Washington and toward a firmer relationship with Brazil.\n\n### **_Contours of the African Slave Trade_**\n\nBetween 1500 and 1800, more Africans than Europeans arrived in the Americas, while recent research suggests that between 12 million and 20 million Africans were shipped against their will by Europeans and European colonists to the New World up to the latter stages of the 19th century. By one estimate 100 million Africans lost their lives as a result of the maritime slave trades. Between 1600 and 1850, \"approximately 4.5 million enslaved Africans went to Brazil, ten times as many as went to North America and indeed more than the total number of Africans who went to all of the Caribbean and North America combined.\" Luanda, Angola offered a shorter sea passage to Brazilian ports than most slave-hunting grounds\u201435 days to Pernambuco; thus, after 1575, Angolans predominated in the Black Brazilian population.\n\nYet despite the length and breadth of the era of the African Slave Trade, more than 40 percent made this perilous voyage in the ninety years prior to \"final suppression in 1867,\" and it was during the 1840s that \"the transatlantic slave trade probably reached an all-time peak.\" Brazil imported well over one million slaves (half of them illegally) during the first half of the nineteenth century compared with an estimated three million slaves during the previous 300 years. From 1835 to 1855 alone, 500,000 Africans were smuggled to Brazil, an essential element of what has been termed \"the largest forced emigration in history.\"\n\nHence, historians estimate the Brazilian slave population around 1820 to be two million, i.e., two-thirds of the country's total population. In the following decades, U.S. nationals played a key role in skewing further the population of Brazil with their avid smuggling of the enslaved and allowing their flag to be deployed for the same function. In a sense this was appropriate since by 1825, according to Robert Fogel and Stanley Engerman, these two nations contained 67 percent of the total enslaved population in the Americas. Thus, to gain a fuller understanding of \"American\" slavery, we must examine the U.S. and Brazil tie, particularly since the latter nation provided succor for slavery in the former.\n\nAs W. E. B. Du Bois observed, the \"American slave trade\"\u2014i.e., that of the western hemisphere\u2014during its busiest and most profitable stage \"came to be carried on principally by United States capital, in United States ships, officered by United States citizens, and under the United States flag.\" More precisely, as this illicit business rose in the 1840s, enslaved Africans were transported disproportionately on ships made and\/or registered in the U.S. and flying the U.S. flag and, as time passed, increasingly these ships carried U.S. crews and were financed by U.S. capital. The Stars and Stripes began to appear regularly in the foreign slave trade when it was introduced into the Cuban trade following the signing of the comprehensive Anglo-Spanish treaty of 1835. From 1838 there were reports of its appearance in the Brazilian trade and its use increased rapidly during the years 1840\u201351. Despite federal laws prohibiting the participation of U.S. citizens and U.S. vessels in the slave trade, U.S.-built ships left Baltimore, New York, Providence, Boston, Salem, and other New England ports for Brazil, where they were either sold to U.S. nationals acting as front men for slave dealers or sold directly to dealers. Moreover, \"a great many of the slave traders (Portuguese, Brazilians, and others) who chose to seek a safe alternative to the Portuguese flag found it in the Stars and Stripes.\" The provision of vessels was critical, as this industry was major in the U.S., and the staunch refusal of the U.S. to allow its flagged ships to be searched by the Royal Navy of London was similarly important. As time passed and particularly as the Civil War approached, these U.S. nationals' role became even more prominent in this business.\n\nThis Brazilian slave trade as a whole was more profitable than that of any other national slave trade; it was a \"veritable El Dorado.\" During the pivotal 1840s, \"there were probably more slaves traded at the Valongo market in Rio de Janeiro than all the New Orleans markets put together.\" Yet, the importance of this African Slave Trade to Brazil has not been sufficiently recognized in the nation that was one of its principal beneficiaries\u2014the U.S. Not least, this historical amnesia elides the profound point that this odious commerce \"constituted a sort of unsuspected and, very often, deliberately concealed genocide,\" contributing to the sad fact that \"the African population declined significantly as a proportion of the world's population between 1700 and 1900, a decline that can be attributed in large part to the effects of slavery and the slave trade.\" This occurred as simultaneously much of the wealth of the major nations of Europe and North America was built on the labor and suffering of millions of Africans.\n\n### **_Deport U.S. Negroes to Brazil?_**\n\nThose in the U.S. in the 19th century who advocated on behalf of an African Slave Trade that was illegal represented the most disunionist and pro-slavery faction of secessionists; indeed, a significant percentage of secessionists in the Lower South actively promoted or sympathized with the slave trade cause on the eve of disunion. This trend lay at the forefront of slavery expansionism and southern nationalism. These notorious \"fire-eaters\" placed Brazil near the center of their dream of a transcontinental empire of slavery, particularly in the 1850s, when it seemed that slavery was encountering a roadblock in its westward expansion. Thus, lamented the key abolitionist, William Lloyd Garrison, in 1854, \"Brother [Wendell] Phillips was right: 'the future seems to unfold a vast slave empire united with Brazil, and darkening the whole west.'\" That very same year a group of men with \"grandiose ideas\" created the \"Knights of the Golden Circle\" who plotted to realize Garrison's worst nightmare\u2014forging a \"great slave empire\" that blanketed the hemisphere.\n\nThe most articulate and influential advocate of a Brazil strategy was the celebrated Virginian, Matthew Fontaine Maury\u2014renowned scientist and powerful Confederate, who ranks in the state's annals alongside Robert E. Lee. He saw the Amazon famously as the \"safety-valve of the Union\" and envisioned deporting U.S. Negroes (accompanied by slave masters, of course) to this still relatively underdeveloped region as an advance guard of Dixie colonialism. \"It is easier and quicker,\" argued Maury, \"for sailing vessels from the Amazon to make the voyage to New York, than to Rio; and a vessel can make the passage quicker from New York to Rio, than she can from the Amazon to Rio.\" Thus, he concluded, it would be \"wise to transfer the slaves of the Mississippi Valley to the valley of the Amazon\"\u2014an analysis that was taken quite seriously at the time in the Brazilian Foreign Ministry, as Maury's provocative words were translated and discussed. In a carefully worded response, replete with loopholes and ambiguities\u2014a classic \"non-denial denial\"\u2014U.S. Secretary of State William Marcy assured his Brazilian counterpart that he should not take seriously \"certain newspaper articles\" which \"created the [impression] on the mind of [Brazilians]\" that a \"steamer of the United States is in the Amazon.\"\n\nMaury was among many in the U.S. who cast a ravenous eye on Brazilian territory. There was a continuity of interest among those who wanted to seize land in South America and those who wanted to ship enslaved Africans from the U.S. to this continent\u2014with the former accompanying the latter as this aggression was being consummated. Strikingly, as thousands of U.S. nationals traveled by ship to Rio on their way to California during the 1848\u201350 \"Gold Rush,\" a number of them scrutinized carefully the military defenses of this South American giant. W. Grayson Mann, who had served recently as secretary to the U.S. Minister in Brazil, urged the infamous soldier-of-fortune, William Walker, in mid-1857 to \"change his focus\" from seizing the minnow that was Nicaragua and turn his attention to the whale that was Brazil, claiming that he would then join Walker to help prevent \"the fairest portion of God's Creation rotting away in the hands of a decrepit race incapable of developing its resources.'\" Mark Twain was among those in the U.S. who \"'was fired with a longing to ascend the Amazon'\" and \"'tried to contrive ways to get to Para'\" there. He left Keokuk, floating down the Mississippi heading for this town, though\u2014in a journey that may have been more fanciful than real\u2014\"he never got any further than New Orleans.\" Not surprisingly, the articulate African American, J. H. Banks, agreed with the not uncommon opinion on the eve of the Civil War that the \"aim of the slave power is to unite with Brazil and extend the disunion of slavery to the Pacific.\"\n\nThe idea of deporting U.S. Negroes to the Amazon\u2014championed by Maury\u2014was gaining traction, even as the Civil War proceeded. In 1862, a committee of the House of Representatives on \"Emancipation and Colonization\" considered this notion, arguing that \"no one can have failed to observe the power and influence which Great Britain has exercised and the substantial advantages she has obtained in all the countries around the Gulf of Mexico, through the instrumentality of Jamaica Negroes, who are to be found scattered in small settlements through these regions.\"\n\nA few years earlier, in 1858, a \"group of Republican leaders from the border states and the West introduced legislation to subsidize black colonization in Latin America\" in an \"attempt to rebut the Democratic image of the Republicans as proponents of 'Africanization' of the territories.... in the border states especially, they added, espousing colonization was essential to building a Republican Party base among poor whites.\" This scheme was revived with a vengeance by Washington's Civil War ambassador to Brazil, James Watson Webb, a comrade of South Carolina's pro-slavery leader, John C. Calhoun. But the Brazilian Minister of Foreign Affairs, though finding Webb's plan \"highly interesting\" that deserved to be \"seriously pondered\" rejected this mass deportation since \"nothing of that sort may possibly be tried in our country, as we have a positive law which expressly interdicts the admittance of any freed Negroes within our limits.\"\n\nUndeterred, Washington queried a number of Latin American nations within Spain's sphere of influence about accepting deported U.S. Negroes. But Madrid's man in Haiti warned sternly that their presence would be a danger to those of European descent in Santo Domingo and could foment countless local and global conflicts. On the day the Emancipation Proclamation took effect, the U.S. legation in Brazil's neighbor, Ecuador, briskly informed Washington that \"in accordance\" with instructions from his government, he had queried \"the Ecuadorean government on the subject of Negro Colonization. I find them entirely averse to it,\" this after he had \"a conversation with the President at his house\" where in line with certain hemispheric norms he \"expressed strong antipathies against the Negro race. He regretted that there are so many of them in and about Guayaquil and added that it would be very fortunate for the white race in America if it could rid itself of the Negro element either by transferring it back to Africa or in some other way.\"\n\nEven after the \"Emancipation Proclamation,\" London's man in Washington reported that the \"President of the United States sent for me\" and \"told me that he had been for some time anxious to speak to me in an informal unofficial manner on the subject of promoting the emigration of coloured people from this country to the British colonies.\"\n\nCertainly the inability of Washington to secure a foreign destination for Negroes aided in compelling U.S. leaders to accept a black presence on these shores. On the other hand, London's reluctance to accept this precursor of \"ethnic cleansing\" was not necessarily motivated by humane considerations but was more of a reluctance to embrace a stigmatized group or to do any favors for a nation, i.e., the U.S., it had already warred with and with which it endured a continual conflict.\n\nIn the run-up to this deportation scheme, sharp conflicts had emerged between London and Washington, not least because of the former's efforts to enforce the ban on the illegal slave trade, which had Brazil as its foremost destination. J. H. Banks spoke for many of his fellow African-Americans when he chose to \"look upon [Britain] as the friend of the coloured race. It is a common opinion among the slaves that slavery will be terminated by a war between England and the United States.\" Like a number of U.S. Negroes, he chose exile in Britain. Would more U.S. Negroes defect to the venerable foe that was the U.K., if plans accelerated to ship them out of the country?\n\nFrom the other shore, as John C. Calhoun saw it, London's prosecution of anti\u2013slave trade regulations was hypocritical and self-interested, intended to \"'destroy the peace and prosperity of both'\" Brazil and the U.S. and \"'transfer the production of rice, cotton, sugar and coffee'\" from these two nations to London's \"'possessions beyond the Cape of Good Hope.'\" When the legislature in Texas, a state that was long a site for illegal smuggling of enslaved Africans, moved in 1857 toward the legal reopening of the trade, the solons of the Lone Star State argued that abolitionist pressure from London was compelling this conclusion.\n\nAccordingly, the U.S. Minister to Spain, Washington Irving, informed Secretary of State John C. Calhoun about conversations he had engaged in concerning \"prosecuting the scheme of organizing a coalition between the French and Spanish colonies, Brazil and the Southern parts of the United States to protect themselves from the Abolition intrigues and the machinations of England.\" Washington \"had refused\" to \"participate in the new [global abolitionist] initiatives and continually refused to countenance the idea of an antislavery league,\" while steadfastly refusing to grant the British Navy authority to search suspected slavers bearing the U.S. flag, which encouraged pirates of various nationalities to hoist this banner. Then, during the Crimean War the British, who had the \"largest\" anti\u2013slave trade \"force on the coast\" of Africa, \"were obliged to reduce it very materially,\" which was like a dream-come-true for U.S. slavers.\n\nConsequently, as the Civil War approached, Washington was informed by London that \"the slave trade continues to be carried on, on the African coast, and almost exclusively by vessels sailing under the American flag, and provided with genuine American papers.... American citizens engage in it almost with impunity.\" Of \"170 slave-trading expeditions fitted out in little more than three years preceding 1862\"\u2014a time when the trade was reaching new heights in its centuries' long history\u2014\"no fewer than 74 were known to or believed to have sailed from New York, 43 from other American ports, 40 from ports in Cuba, and the rest from European ports.\" Relations between London\u2014the prime enforcer of strictures against the slave trade\u2014and Washington, whose nationals were the prime scofflaws, had deteriorated to the point that even during the midst of the Civil War officials in Cape Town, a major listening post for the monitoring of this illicit commerce, were informed that the U.K. \"may shortly be engaged in a war with the United States.\"\n\n### **_The U.S. and the Slave Trade to Brazil_**\n\nThe U.S. was the principal market for Brazilian coffee during the 1820s and early 1830s, suggesting that North Americans were a beneficiary in a major crop of an economy driven by slave labor. It was not surprising when in early 1826 the President of Baltimore's Chamber of Commerce spoke warmly of \"the great magnitude of our Commerce with the rich and extensive Empire of Brazil and with the provinces of Rio de la Plata.\" This region was absorbing a \"larger proportion of the produce of our Country than any other branch of our South American trade.\" As the flag followed commerce\u2014and vice versa\u2014the U.S. legation in Brazil often was studded with self-interested businessmen. William Wright of Maryland\u2014whose family was prominent in Brazil's economy\u2014also represented the U.S. in this giant nation. His connections to the slave trade caused some abolitionists to fret that such diplomats would be less than aggressive in enforcing the bar against this evil commerce. Manuel Pinto de Fonseca of Rio de Janeiro, a major figure in the unlawful slave trade, \"had business connections with the U.S. firm of Maxwell, Wright and Co., also located in Rio de Janeiro\"\u2014which, of course, was the prize jewel of the Wright family of Maryland. This company \"facilitated the financing of U.S. slavers by Brazilian entrepreneurs and the sale of newly imported Africans to plantations. Wright and Company was the largest U.S. merchant firm in Rio de Janeiro from the 1820s through the 1840s\" and also had extensive interests in Cuba, the West Indies, and Europe.\n\nThough they literally wrote the book on U.S. trade with Brazil, Wright and Company were not singular as there were other U.S. firms jousting for influence in this enormously profitable business. Interestingly, Wright was not unique in being a diplomat tied to slave traders: this was a pattern that was not uncommon and given the official capacities of these men, this tie obviously facilitated the continuation of the illicit trade. Though a consensus has emerged that the illegal trade to Brazil had dropped off sharply by the early 1850s, that decade continued to witness human shipments by those with U.S. ties, particularly the Portuguese Company [Companhia Portuguesa] in New York. Certainly, the powerful U.S. was quite lax in monitoring the slaving inclinations of those whose ships carried their flag and whose \"citizens\" carried their passports.\n\nAs Salem, Massachusetts lost out to Boston and New York City for regional prominence in the 1820s, it pushed into new markets, particularly in East Africa, where \"some American vessels were engaged in the [slave] trade, buying the slaves at Mozambique principally and transporting them to Brazil and South America.\" There was \"an overwhelming predominance of American influence in Zanzibar during the latter half of the nineteenth century,\" as slave sales increased in prominence. U.S. influence in East Africa had increased to the point that \"Britain had already shown herself desirous of thwarting American rivalry in the East and lent ready credence to rumors of a possible American annexation of Delagoa Bay, which Portugal had practically abandoned for the convenience of our [U.S.] whalers.\"\n\nThe question of whalers and their intersection with the latter stages of the African Slave Trade is not insignificant. In New England, whaling peaked during the 1835\u201345 decade, then went into a steady decline. At the same time, the crews, which formerly had been comprised \"'almost entirely of Americans,'\" began to change; there was a \"steady replacement of African-Americans and Afro-Indians\" by \"European immigrants, chiefly Portuguese.\" This was \"the stimulus for the first wave\" of \"[Lusophone] immigrants in the 1850s, most of them destined for New Bedford.\" This replacement occurred as the whaling fleet was being converted into a slaving one; whalers \"often engaged in the slave trade. Sometimes they would fit out in New Bedford or Long Island Sound ostensibly for the nobler game but, quite, unbeknown to the crew\" would become a slaving expedition. Jettisoning African-American mariners facilitated this process.\n\nDisguising slavers as whalers was a prominent tactic deployed to deceive the British Navy. As for the U.S. Navy, which was sworn to disrupt the trade as well, it was often not up to the task. Until 1857, the \"U.S. squadron never consisted of more than seven ships and the average was less than five. The British squadron ... never numbered less than 12 and averaged 18. Furthermore, the U.S. squadron was based on the Cape Verde Islands, which were almost 3000 miles and at least a month's sail from the southern slave trading area.\" This was notably unfortunate as time passed since \"the trade was never so flourishing as in the five years preceding the Civil War.\" Even the Spanish Foreign Ministry\u2014sited in a nation where slave trading, particularly to Cuba, was rampant\u2014took note of the \"sudden and increased activity in the slave trade\" in 1859, and the \"well established fact that nearly the whole of the fleet is fitted out in Boston, Portland, New Bedford and other eastern ports.\"\n\n### **_Was U.S. Slavery Influenced by Hemispheric and Global Trends?_**\n\nThe eminent Dixie diplomat, Duff Green, was among the many in his region who had a firm \"belief that foreign relations were important to strengthening the South's political position.\" As slavery came under sharper attack from abolitionists in the 1840s\u2014coincidentally as the slave trade enjoyed a rebirth\u2014pro-slavery forces banded together across borders. Thomas Jollivet of France, a pro-bondage advocate, \"made contact\" with Green, \"an apostle of American slavery, when the latter was in Paris in 1842\" and went on to rely on the \"slavery apologist John C. Calhoun in his writings, suggesting a community of interests between the French and American plantocracies.\"\n\nFurthermore, there was a transnational recognition that prices of crops produced by slave labor were significantly influenced by transnational forces. As U.S. nationals accelerated the smuggling of enslaved Africans to Brazil in the 1840s, they were able to increase the crops that were grown there, which ultimately provided a challenge to U.S. hemispheric dominance, which in turn increased pressure in this nation to reopen the African Slave Trade (just as it energized those in the Slave South who opposed the illicit slave trade to Brazil). High sugar prices during this era, which were driven in no small part by a decline in English staple production, were causing more slaves to be imported into Cuba and Brazil from Africa, thereby stimulating the slave trade\u2014and the bank accounts of some U.S. nationals.\n\nIn Buenos Ayres [Aires] one Briton opined giddily that the U.S. Civil War would \"transfer the production of cotton from America to British India and other countries which are much more under our influence than America was or ever could be.\" A U.S. diplomat in Brazil disagreed, though this was of small comfort to Washington; Secretary of State William Seward was informed, as the Civil War raged, that \"a great development has been given to the resources of this province by the rebellion now so unhappily [occurring] in our country. If 'cotton is king'\u2014his throne promises to be removed to Brazil. The stimulus given to the culture of that staple, if not soon withdrawn will give to this Empire the monopoly which we formerly possessed.\" Prices of this crop had increased a staggering fourfold.\n\nConsequently, defenders of slavery recognized that the peculiar institution was heavily dependent on currents from abroad. For example, Brazil's legation in Washington analyzed extensively Nat Turner's slave revolt in Virginia, seeking signs of whether this contagion might spread. Even in faraway Buenos Aires, where slavery was hardly prominent, note was taken of this chilling revolt.\n\nLikewise, a few years later the U.S. legation in Bahia, Brazil analyzed extensively a slave revolt in this province, seeking signs of whether this contagion might spread. The U.S. Consul reported on a \"most serious insurrection of the black population ... had it not been discovered a few hours before, the consequences might have been dreadful.\" A U.S. merchant there spoke of the \"great state of alarm and fear that he would continue to have\" as a result and was elated that \"men from the American Corvette Erie which Captain Percival had kindly lent him [aid] to protect his house as he did not consider himself safe. I heard that Capt. Percival has landed detachments to protect the American Consul and other merchants had offered his assistance and protection to the Consuls of other nations.\" Brazilian elites could not be indifferent to slave revolts in the U.S., just as U.S. elites could be affected by slave revolts in Brazil.\n\nJust as Liberia was seen in Washington as a convenient dumping ground for free Negroes, thought to be inherently subversive of slavery, there was a similar sentiment in Brazil. Similarly, Madrid monitored carefully the rebellion led by John Brown, no doubt worried about what it meant for Cuba\u2014still languishing in human bondage. In short, pro-slavery forces in the Americas recognized that the viability of the peculiar institution was deeply influenced by hemispheric and transatlantic currents.\n\n\"Africanization,\" or the fear of growing numbers of Africans in Brazil, also deeply influenced segments of U.S. opinion about the feasibility of reopening the slave trade in their own nation. The influence, as an outgrowth of their numbers, of those deemed to be \"black\" in Brazil\u2014notably their role in the military\u2014was also frightening to some in North America. One U.S. emissary cautioned his superiors about undue interference in the internal affairs of Brazil. \"We should cautiously abstain in this country above all others, from lending the smallest breath of encouragement to insurrection\" he warned nervously, since \"the physical force of the country is out of all proportion black or colored; no insurrection can be of long continuance without ending in a servile war.\" This was a \"tragedy,\" potentially \"fatal.\" The \"catastrophe I [envision],\" he added apocalyptically, \"is that Brazil may become a black military despotism,\" a \"disastrous\" outcome, he thought. Hence, the \"palpable conclusion\" he outlined was that \"our interests, commercial, political & domestic, lead us to further the repose, the political harmony & the general prosperity of the entire Brazilian Empire.\" Would smuggling more Africans into the U.S. similarly increase the possibility of \"servile war\"?\n\nAs opinion was souring in certain circles in the U.S. about the viability of slavery, the U.S. Consul in Pernambuco, Brazil thought he espied a similar sentiment in Brazil. \"I believe,\" he announced that \"the most intelligent men in this Province are satisfied that the solution of the labor question lies in the abolition of slavery.\" Hence, the \"ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment to the American Constitution was an act of great importance not only in the United States, but also in Cuba, Puerto Rico and Brazil.\" It was a blow in the long run to slavery in the hemisphere and, most of all, to the clandestine and illegal African Slave Trade to Brazil which had enriched a number of U.S. nationals.\n\n### **_The California Gold Rush and the African Slave Trade to Brazil_**\n\nAs the illegal slave trade to Brazil was increasing, another sizeable movement\u2014albeit voluntary\u2014was taking place. The \"discovery of gold in California was to trigger the greatest mass migration in the history of the young Republic up to that time, 80,000 in 1849 alone and probably 300,000 by 1854.\" The preferred route west was around Cape Horn with a stop in Rio de Janeiro. Hence, in \"the first three months of 1849, eighty-six California ships put into the harbor\" there; \"sometimes a dozen arrived in a single day, bearing as many as a thousand passengers.\" Their distinctive presence allowed U.S. slavers not to stand out so boldly, thus, helping them to avoid detection. On the other hand, many from beyond the confines of the U.S. South had no specific knowledge of the horrors of African slavery and, thus, Rio was shocking to many, helping to spark abolitionist sentiment. \"Slave markets horrified visitors, especially those from New England\" according to the scholar, Rhoda Blumberg. \"Unlike southern slaveholders, they had never witnessed humans for sale.\" Nor had many previously witnessed some of the surreal scenes that greeted them in Rio. As enslaved Africans flooded into Brazil and the ships carrying them were hounded by the British Navy, some of the more unscrupulous skippers decided to dispose of the evidence by throwing their cargo overboard, while other Negroes sought to escape by diving into inky waters. As one U.S. national put it, \"the harbor is constantly covered with the bodies of blacks,\" who \"are known to [have] thrown themselves in to escape.... I have seen them myself left by the tide on the strand.\"\n\nStrikingly, as these Euro-Americans were repulsed by the dreadfulness of Brazilian slavery, a number of African-Americans viewed this nation differently, using this South American example as a means to discredit the awfulness in North America they were compelled to endure. Brazil, thought Frederick Douglass, was the \"only country where the Negro could rise to a high position in society, even to that of judge or major general, if he were possessed of character and talent.\" His fellow black abolitionist, Martin Delany, concurred. Ironically, both of these sentiments\u2014Brazil as \"racial\" horror and Brazil as \"racial\" paradise\u2014served to undermine slavery in the U.S.\n\nYet neither school of thought seemed to grasp the point that the infrastructure of the illegal trade captained by U.S. nationals and serving Brazil probably had a spillover effect in the U.S., increasing the number of enslaved Africans brought to the U.S., particularly as this commerce increased as the Civil War approached; that is, as Africans were dragged across the Atlantic and Britain sought to foil their landing in Brazil, it made sense for these slavers to head northward to Cuba and New Orleans. Following Du Bois, the scholar Robert Hall estimates that \"between 1808 and 1860\" about \"250,000 Africans\" were \"imported into the United States,\" which is probably on the high end but provides a glimpse of the dimension of the problem. In 1859, the U.S. Department of Interior dispatched an agent to the \"southern states\" to investigate the \"extent of importation of Negroes direct from Africa.\" After \"widely conversing with a number of gentlemen of intelligence\" and traveling to Wilmington, North Carolina, Charleston, Florida, and elsewhere he emerged with a mixed view, receiving credible reports of hundreds of recent imports to northern Florida. British emissaries in Texas provided numerous reports over the years of enslaved Africans being smuggled into this nation, then state. Certainly the momentum provided by the clandestine trade to Brazil\u2014spearheaded by U.S. nationals\u2014contributed mightily to the flouting of law that led to Africans being brought forcibly to North America. Just as cracking down on the sale of illicit drugs in one neighborhood often drives it into adjacent neighborhoods, something similar was happening with the illicit slave trade.\n\nLikewise, when the Slave South decided to secede from the U.S., many wondered how and why they thought they could prevail against a more populous and more industrialized North, but this thinking elides the reality that the Deep South had sound cause to think that it could rely on the Deepest South\u2014i.e.. an alliance with Brazil\u2014along with its former patron, Portugal, and Spanish Cuba and could thus prevail and ensure that slavery in the hemisphere would triumph.\n\n### **_Confederate Exiles in Brazil_**\n\nAfter the Civil War, some U.S. nationals\u2014particularly from Dixie\u2014reluctant to reside under the rule of the government they had just sought to overthrow and unwilling to relinquish their fondness for slavery, migrated to Brazil, where this institution continued until 1888. In 1867, the **New York Times** noticed one \"Southern gentleman,\" who \"thinks that in Brazil he can own slaves, can do as he pleases, go where he likes and retain his old views of the inferiority of the Negro.\" He was among the thousands who made this journey southward, a number of whom tried to bring enslaved Africans with them. This capital flight too was noticed by a British diplomat in Puerto Rico, who was informed of a \"cargo of slaves shipped off the coast of Florida\" that \"had called off Vieques for the purpose of obtaining provisions in order to continue her voyage to the coast of Brazil.\" He moaned that this \"traffic may be carried on with success, a traffic which is even more barbarous than the African slave trade, from the fact that these poor Negroes of the southern states who have received the one great benefit of the late American civil war ... should again so treacherously be driven into bondage.\" Like the illegal trade to Brazil and the U.S., one can only speculate about the number of erstwhile U.S. Negroes who were kidnapped and taken to Brazil after the Civil War. The conclusion of this terrible war ultimately was a devastating\u2014though, intriguingly, not necessarily a fatal\u2014blow to this criminality of illicit slave trade.\n\nIn sum, this book is an account of the diplomatic history of the U.S.\u2013Brazil relationship\u2014with an accent on North America\u2014in the context of the acceleration of the African Slave Trade. But lurking above both of these nations is Great Britain, whose intervention slowed down the attempt to bring even more enslaved Africans across the Southern Atlantic. In highlighting the role of such figures as Matthew Fontaine Maury, I seek to underscore the pivotal role played by Brazil in the mind of certain leaders of the Slave South to the point where not only it bolstered their idea that they could prevail in the Civil War but also served as a refuge once that conflict ended so disastrously for them.\n\nIn this 1830 engraving, black people, including women and children, are in chains and shackles in the foreground, with the U.S. Capitol in the background. An influential corps of U.S. nationals, particularly in New England, New York, and New Orleans avidly backed the African Slave Trade. Courtesy Library of Congress.\n\n## **1  \nToward the Empire of Brazil**\n\nBrazil, which borders every nation in South America except Chile and Ecuador, has only a tiny portion of its territory, in the far south, in the temperate zone. Its shoreline stretches for 4600 miles, and it is as near to Africa as to the United States\u2014a connection which inevitably attracted nationals of the latter who were interested in perpetuating the slave trade. This chapter will explore early connections between the U.S. (and the thirteen colonies) in the context of the slave trade to Brazil and before its post-1840 expansion.\n\nThe slavery tie between the nation that was to become the U.S. and Brazil stretches back at least to the early 17th century, when the Dutch controlled New Netherlands\u2014i.e., \"New York\"\u2014and a Brazilian colony and were transporting enslaved Africans from there to North America. Even after the Dutch were ousted from control of Brazil and Portugal extended its domination, this collaboration on the slave trade between North and South America continued. In the early 18th century, Thomas Amory of Charleston, who traded regularly in West Africa, \"pointed to the ease with which he could send slaves to Brazil\" for \"Negroes sell as well at [South] Carolina as at Brazil.\" Still, Northeastern merchants dominated the slave trade to Brazil. The family of Mary Robinson Hunter, whose spouse served as a diplomat in Rio de Janeiro beginning in the 1830s, was preeminent in this commerce.\n\nThe early relationship between the North American colonists and Brazil was facilitated by the relationship between Britain and Portugal. The alliance between London and Lisbon was long-standing\u2014a trend that was evident at the surrender at Yorktown, where the man who presented Cornwallis's sword was Charles O'Hara, the \"bastard son of Lord Tyrawley, English Ambassador to Portugal\" and \"his mistress, Anna, a Portuguese lady.\" This was reflective of the fact that \"many English, because of old social ties and economic trading positions, did business with and lived in both Brazil and Portugal.\" This London-Lisbon alliance, in turn, facilitated ties between North America and Brazil. The relationship did not cease after the Revolution, as U.S. businessmen were prominent in the slave trade to Montevideo in the late 18th century.\n\nThe young republic's continuing interest in South America was palpable. Early on Thomas Jefferson instructed John Jay about the prospects for the ousting of Portugal from Brazil; his opinion that \"the slaves will take the side of their masters\" seemed like self-interested wishful thinking on his part. Anticipating his fellow Virginian, Matthew Fontaine Maury, Jefferson also asserted that \"'it is impossible not to look forward to distant times ... [when the U.S. would] cover the whole northern, if not the southern continent.'\" According to legal historian, A. Leon Higginbotham, there is \"much reason to believe that [Thomas] Jefferson was not truly troubled about the international slave trade,\" which suggests that this Founding Father similarly anticipated the most aggressive \"fire-eaters\" of the 1850s who too envisioned an empire for slavery that encompassed the Americas.\n\nLike revolutionaries past and present, those in North America were not averse to spreading their influence beyond their borders, a trend eased when Brazilian intellectuals \"secretly sought out Jefferson in France for confidential advice,\" just as \"overseas [Brazilian] students at the University of Coimbra devoured accounts of the American revolution and of its constitutional innovations.\" The \"martyr of Brazil's aborted revolution of 1789\" in Minas Gerais \"kept in his pocket a copy of the French translations of the American state constitutions, though knowing no French he had to ask others to translate it for him.\" Jefferson, the founder who may have paid more attention to his South American neighbor than his counterparts, remarked in his later days that he would \"'rejoice to see the fleets of Brazil and the United States riding together as between of the same family and having the same interest.'\"\n\nIt is unclear if Jefferson, a slaveholder, had this peculiar institution in mind when he envisioned such an alliance between Brazil and the U.S. since this was the overriding characteristic held in common between these two vast nations. The split in U.S. ranks on the question of the African Slave Trade may have assisted the proliferation of these U.S. dealers in the South American market. Though over the decades the Dutch had been supplanted by the Portuguese in Brazil, slave traders from North America remained a consistent presence in South America. \"Ironically,\" the trade \"in fact became more profitable after the ratification of the U.S. Constitution,\" given the infamous proviso that has been interpreted to suggest that this business would be curtailed after 1808; \"three years before the expiration of the clause the demand for slaves increased so dramatically that traders were barely able to keep up with the market. Indeed, the busiest year in the history of the trade for Rhode Island slavers was 1805.\" Hence, \"from 1804 to 1807 state and federal orders to prosecute and fine slave traders were ignored at Bristol; the number of ships leaving that port for Africa soared.\" These ships were constantly visiting the fertile slave hunting ground that was Mozambique\u2014and Brazil, where business was lucrative and varied. So many Negroes were pouring into Rio de Janeiro that the idea was broached in Cape Town of \"purchasing slaves\" in Brazil and \"liberating them on certain conditions at the Cape.\"\n\nLikewise, in the early 19th century, a considerable number of \"East African Negroes, chiefly\" from the Portuguese colony that was Mozambique were \"among the cargoes brought to Charleston,\" South Carolina, just as the Portuguese colony of Angola had supplied a considerable percentage of Virginia's Negroes. There was a continuity of interest in the slave trade between the U.S., on the one hand, and Portugal and its colonies\u2014in Africa and South America, in particular\u2014on the other hand.\n\nActually, a federal law in 1794 made illegal participation of U.S. nationals in the African Slave Trade\u2014beyond the confines of the U.S. itself\u2014though like most measures of this type it was hardly enforced; it was strengthened in 1800 and in 1808 another such bill was passed, then after the War of 1812, similar laws were passed. Despite these laws, there was no cessation of the participation of U.S. nationals in the African Slave Trade.\n\nFor these laws notwithstanding, it was estimated that thousands of Negroes per year were being brought illegally to North America by the first quarter of the 19th century, with Africans being smuggled to these shores from across the Atlantic and points south, e.g., Cuba, Jamaica, and South America. Again, this estimate appears to be extravagant, though it did signal a trend that was ongoing until the end of the Civil War marked the official closure of the trade: when Africans were being traded in the hemisphere with the abandon of pork bellies in today's Chicago, this was accompanied by the kidnapping of ostensibly free Negroes north of the Mason-Dixon line, who were sold south into slavery\u2014perhaps to \"The Deepest South,\" i.e., Brazil, in what amounted to an anarchistic free market. Indeed, some of the more doctrinaire of the free traders argued that \"no artificial barriers whatsoever should be erected against the free movement of goods, including slaves.\"\n\nWashington was officially hostile to the African Slave Trade, though the African Society of London had reason to disbelieve this and in 1816 pointed to the \"sudden substitution of the Spanish for the American flag\" on ships involved in this commerce. Thus, \"the slave trade, which now for the first time assumed a Spanish dress, was in reality only the trade of other nations in disguise.\" By 1817, the Governor of Sierra Leone thought there was a \"greater number of vessels employed in that [slave] traffic than at any former period.\" Washington was hesitant to join efforts at suppression on the grounds of upholding sovereignty. Thus, even before Britain banned slavery, it was pressuring the U.S. to bow out of the slave trade.\n\nIn 1817, Portugal signed a treaty that stipulated that their slave trade on the coast of Africa \"should entirely cease to the northward of the equator\" and \"that it should be unlawful for her subjects to purchase or trade in slaves except to the southward of the line.\" Among other things, this was a virtual declaration that Angola should be a prime hunting ground for enslaved Africans. In 1818, Washington was approached about cooperating with London on suppressing the slave trade, which in \"Article 10 of the Treaty of Ghent (1814),\" this new nation had agreed to do; but in the U.S. Senate \"the question of an anti\u2013slave trade treaty became entangled with the issue of domestic slavery and the Convention of 1824 was never ratified.\" London's aggressive approach was not embraced in Washington, nor Lisbon, with the latter taking particular umbrage since it had backed the U.K. repeatedly and thought it deserved better.\n\nLondon brusquely told Secretary of State John Quincy Adams what he should have known: The \"United States have maintained at no time, a greater number of cruisers than two, rarely more than one, and latterly, during several months together, no ship of war, whatever, on the African station. As late as the 14th of January 1822, it was stated, officially by the Governor of Sierra Leone 'that the fine rivers Nunez and Pongas, were entirely under the control of renegade European and American slave traders.'\" Adams, in turn, nixed London's proposals to rein in this outlawry, though he acknowledged the slave trade as \"piracy\" and took a swipe at \"Portugal\" as \"the only maritime power of Europe, which has not yet declared the African slave trade, without exception, unlawful.\" Meanwhile, vessels out of Mobile and New Orleans were captured with scores of enslaved Africans aboard, while repeated complaints were made about Galveston and Brunswick, Georgia as sieves for the smuggling of Africans. Indeed, in calculating the number of Africans brought illicitly into the U.S. after 1808, one should include the significant numbers brought from territories\u2014e.g., Florida and Texas\u2014that did not fall under Washington's sway until much later.\n\nGiven this bent in the U.S., it was inevitable that attention would turn to what was becoming the biggest slave market of all: Brazil. Portugal was seen as a relatively weak power that controlled this huge colony and was, therefore, ripe for dislodgement: In 1817, there was an attempted filibustering effort in Brazil, that implicated U.S. nationals, which was designed to attack Brazil in an effort to \"shake the newly elected throne of Bragansa [ _sic_ ] to its foundation.\" Subsequently, relations between Lisbon and Washington were harmed with the \"arrival\" of \"two American vessels clandestinely carrying weapons\" to those in Pernambuco leading this \"revolt.\" Simultaneously, \"Baltimore gained a notorious reputation as the chief rendezvous for privateers operating in Brazilian waters against Portuguese commerce,\" which was \"worsening diplomatic and naval relations.\" The U.S. Consul in Pernambuco, Joseph Ray, confessed to John Quincy Adams in 1818 that local authorities \"here have since the late Revolution looked on the Americans as suspicious persons who came here for the sole purpose of aiding the patriotic cause in this country.\" There was concern in Rio de Janeiro that Washington was seeking to take advantage of the fissiparous tendencies that were fomenting various separatist revolts in their nation.\n\nThis was occurring as Latin America was plunged into turmoil as nations strained to free themselves from Spanish colonialism. Though John Quincy Adams instructed his Buenos Ayres counterpart that the U.S. was bound to \"observe between the parties an impartial neutrality,\" this did not stop him from coming to the U.S. in an effort to obtain \"a number of vessels of war for the Governments of Buenos Ayres and Chile.\"\n\nWashington may have desired closer relations with B.A., not least since ties with Portuguese Brazil were fraying. When John Graham, the U.S. emissary arrived in Rio de Janeiro in August 1819, he encountered various problems. After a \"pleasant passage of forty seven days,\" he had \"difficulty\" in \"finding accommodation\" for his \"family\"; finally, he met with \"the King\" but he \"spoke however very low and in Portuguese a language,\" said Graham, \"with which I am not as yet very little acquainted.\" So, he said, \"I spoke to him in Spanish,\" which may have been the least of his growing problems. For when he sought to discuss \"commercial intercourse\" with the \"Minister of Foreign Affairs,\" he was informed \"rather abruptly\" that \"this was not the time\" to \"talk of commercial arrangements when two countries were almost in a state of actual war,\" not least given the \"harsh measures understood to have been adopted in the ports\" of Brazil \"against some vessels of the United States and their crews,\" including jailing and \"putting them in hard labour in chains when they had committed no serious offense.\" Rumors of filibustering expeditions from the U.S.\u2014or armed attempts at regime change\u2014could not have helped either, while Washington was still smarting since \"during the last war between the United States and Great Britain, Portuguese subjects were found on board captured British vessels of war.\"\n\nU.S. Negroes, often at odds with the government that oppressed them, often were similarly critical of Lisbon. **Freedom's Journal,** the pioneering Negro periodical, denounced Portugal for having \"refused to abandon this [slave] trade,\" specifically noting Lisbon's \"claim to carry it on for the supply of her African islands, the Cape de Verds [ _sic_ ] ... whence it is easy to take slaves to Brazil.\" In turn, \"news of how blacks fared in the United States horrified Brazilians when they read travel accounts, or listened to relatives who had visited Virginia or Mississippi.\" Their opinions may have been influenced further since \"slaves from the United States, Cuba, Northern South America, Uruguay and Argentina had also come to live in Rio.\" Being valuable commodities, enslaved Africans were as likely to be transported with a master from North to South America as a favored horse\u2014and probably more so.\n\nFleeing Napoleon, the besieged Portuguese monarch fled to Brazil, where in 1815 these nations were declared one kingdom; by 1820, he had been recalled to Europe by the outbreak of turmoil in his homeland. Taking advantage of this disorder and similar revolts erupting in Latin America as a whole, Brazil proclaimed independence in 1822\u2014a development which was not displeasing to some in Washington who sought to weaken the influence of European powers in the hemisphere. Moreover, \"one important reason why the Brazilian landowners and slaveholders had given their support to an independent monarchy in Brazil was precisely because they saw independence as a means of escaping from Britain's unrelenting pressure on Portugal for the complete and immediate abolition of the slave trade\"\u2014a factor also found appealing in certain pro-slavery precincts in Washington. \"Recognition of Brasil,\" said the U.S. representative in Brazil, Condy Raguet, that is \"the consummation of such an act before any other nation would give us an influence which otherwise we never can [have]\" [emphasis-original].\n\nAs Brazil was surging to independence, it was undergoing a remarkable transformation in its makeup; from 1790 to the end of the legal Atlantic slave trade in 1830, Rio de Janeiro saw nearly 700,000 Africans offloaded at its port. This number represents two-thirds of all imports into Brazil during the same time period, with 80 percent arriving from West Central Africa alone. Even at this early stage, U.S. nationals were implicated. In 1821, R. S. Long was under sentence of five years imprisonment in Angola; he was an \"American ... engaged in the slave trade ... under the Portuguese flag.... I understood,\" said the U.S. Consul, James Bennett, \"that he was a pilot but now it appears that he was owner.\"\n\nThis influx of Africans to Brazil was accompanied by a dramatic price increase, as slave prices doubled between 1820 and 1850, an increase well in excess of that recorded in the United States in the same period, which ineluctably captured the attention\u2014and initiative\u2014of U.S. slavers. The presence of these Africans allowed for a dramatic rise in agricultural production, as it was the slow collapse of the Saint Domingue coffee producers after 1790 and the eventual collapse of Cuban coffee production after a series of devastating hurricanes in the 1830s that finally gave Brazil undisputed mastery over New World production.\n\nIronically, 1830\u2014which roughly marks the year when the African Slave Trade to Brazil was to be halted\u2014actually marked the time when it increased spectacularly. As London saw it, one factor in this process was that \"slaves in Africa\" were incredibly cheap and wages of ship crews were likewise. Thus, \"factories were established on the coast of Africa\" and \"the slave trade greatly increased under cover of a pretended colonization for Monte Video [ _sic_ ].\" In a pattern that was to occur repeatedly, \"one Rafael Antonio de Carvalho, a Portuguese, acting as American Vice Consul at Mozambique\" was a prominent slave dealer. It was reported that \"the bays of Sofala, Mocambo and Fernando Vellozo\" were \"much frequented by American whalers. In last July there were as many as five in the bay of Mocambo\" while \"scarcely any British vessel touches at these ports.\" Though Lisbon was leery about losing Mozambique, just as it had lost Brazil, this sprawling region was \"in fact supplied with every [necessity] by slavers from Rio de Janeiro, Cuba and occasionally by Americans,\" while \"not a single merchant vessel went from the mother country to the province of Mozambique in the whole year of 1838.\"\n\nBy picking on Lisbon, the U.S. had selected, perhaps, the weakest of the major colonial powers. More than this, their erstwhile patron and frequent rival\u2014London\u2014had its navy mostly in West Africa to monitor slave trade depredations, which meant that East Africa was a wide open back door. By the 1830s, the U.S. \"had already set up a practical monopoly\" in this region and \"were extremely jealous of their position.\" An elongated triangular trade emerged that linked East Africa with Brazil and the U.S.\u2014particularly Salem, Massachusetts. In fact, it was reported, \"when the untutored African heard the United States, or New York, or Boston mentioned he thought it some small port in Salem\u2014or so the Salemites averred.\" Not surprisingly, one of the more commodious dining rooms in the famed Hawthorne Hotel in Salem was named the \"Zanzibar Room,\" homage to the infamous slave entrepot.\n\nU.S. nationals purchased vessels then would rent them to Brazilian and Portuguese slave traders in Brazil. They in turn used these ships, protected by the United States flag and manned by U.S. crews, for the roundtrip voyages to Africa; shipbuilders in eastern ports, including Beverly and Salem, constructed vessels especially for the Brazil-Africa trade. Zanzibar long had developed a well-merited reputation as a chief site for the African Slave Trade and from September 1832 to May 1834 of the 41 vessels recorded as arriving there were 7 from England \"(and one each from France and Spain) while 32 were American.\" Writing from Rio de Janeiro, one Salem merchant observed, \"many vessels are leaving daily for the coast of Africa for slaves. The business is increasing very rapidly.... the American schooner Carolina has been sold, for a slaver without doubt ... she is a clipper built from 80 to 90 tons & several years old.\"\n\nThe resultant economic growth in Brazil attracted visitors from the U.S., a trend that was to reach its apex during the California Gold Rush. But even before Brazilian independence, North American visitors were arriving in the Deepest South and in a trend that was to occur repeatedly, were not overly impressed by what they saw; striking was the fact that \"until the 1830s, blacks constituted 63 per cent of the population, whites 16 per cent and mixed-race people 21 per cent\"\u2014a ratio that could be chilling to those familiar with Gabriel in Virginia and Stono's Revolt in South Carolina. The writer, H. M. Brackenridge, as did many of his compatriots, was struck that \"the Portuguese are generally of a very dark complexion\" and \"the number of Negroes and of the mixed race was such, as to give a different cast in the general appearance of the population, from that of any town I have ever seen.\" Writing in 1820, again like many others, this New Orleans resident was taken by the sight of slaves pulling carts like horses and making unimaginable sounds, \"all screaming in the same style, producing a general effect, of which I can convey no idea.\"\n\nSailing from Philadelphia, Henry Bradley came there in 1821 and was repulsed when he saw \"Negroes, Indians and whites bathe in the same water, near its source, which was afterwards to supply the town\"; \"two-thirds of the inhabitants of Rio are said to be people of colour,\" which he found startling. There were \"hundreds of slaves in the street\" with \"nothing more to cover their nakedness, than a piece of cloth around the waist. They take the places of horses in this city, as nearly all the burdens, slung upon their poles, are borne to their destination by these oppressed people.\" While Bradley \"resided at Rio, several large ships came in, filled with Negroes\" where they were offloaded \"like so many sheep.\" The \"buyers examine their teeth and every part of their bodies, as they were purchasing horses. The price of these wretched human beings varied, as the markets were, or were not glutted\u2014200 dollars was the average sum paid for a black woman; 500 for a man.\" This booming metropolis was afflicted with chaos; \"I frequently saw dead bodies in the street,\" said Bradley.\n\nLike most U.S. visitors, Bradley was struck by the ubiquity of African slavery, though he was not as incensed as others about Lusophone culture which often was viewed as a hotbed of \"great miscegenationists\" and a sink of Catholic biases. Indeed, the alleged \"absence of racial prejudice in Brazil and of a color line struck every American visitor with wonder.\"\n\nStill, the message that was increasingly transmitted to the U.S. about Brazil was that it was booming, fueled by enslaved Africans\u2014a message that was bound to attract the attention of legions of slave dealers and a growing number of abolitionists. As a result of British pressure, by 1830, Brazil was being compelled to bar the legal slave trade, and slave dealers saw the time leading up to this year as an opportunity to deluge Rio de Janeiro with Africans. \"The black population has latterly enormously increased,\" wrote Thomas Bennett, arriving after Bradley's departure. \"As the period approached for the total abolition of the slave trade, capital has been everywhere embarked in the purchase of Negroes.... my eye really was so familiarized to black visages, that the occurrence of a white face in the streets of some parts of the town, struck me as a novelty.\" He found this trend \"alarming\" though he was struck by the \"improved implements of every kind which they use, the machinery they set in motion, the expertness in manual dexterity at which they arrive, and the abridgement of labor which they effect\" were \"lessons of the greatest value.\"\n\nIn a perception that was to be shared over the years by countless visitors from the U.S., Revered Robert Walsh harbored \"serious apprehensions\" since there were 2.5 million Africans and \"but 850,000\" whites; he suspected that the former \"will discover their own strength\" and \"Brazil [will] become a second St. Domingo. This is particularly the case at Bahia and Pernambuco, where almost all the Negroes are brought from the same part of Africa,\" though \"at Rio the case is different. The Negro population consists of eight or nine different castes, having no common language and actuated by no sympathetic tie\" and \"this animosity the whites cherish and endeavor to keep alive.\" Like other visitors he was similarly taken by \"the horror\" of slavery, which was of such magnitude that its victims \"not only kill themselves but their children\" and was astounded when he ascertained that the slave owners \"endeavor to restore\" the \"darkness\" of Africans \"by obliging the fair slaves to intermarry with those [that] are blacker than themselves; the good fathers being alarmed at the prospect of keeping, in a state of slavery, human faces as fair as their own.\" This came to him when he encountered a slave with \"soft fair face, light curling hair, blue eyes and a skin as that of a European\" who he was \"shocked and incredulous\" to find that his own father had sold him into slavery.\n\nWalsh was disgusted by the state of Brazilian slaves. \"The state in which they appear is revolting to humanity.... entirely naked, with the exception of a covering of dirty rags tied about their waists. Their skins, from constant exposure to the weather, had become hard, crusty and seamed, resembling the coarse black covering of some beast, or like that of an elephant.... their foreheads retiring, having exactly the head and legs of the baboon tribe\"; even \"the horses and mules\" who \"were seen in the same streets\" were \"pampered, spirited and richly caparisoned, enjoying a state far superior to the Negroes.\" However, in a pattern that was to be repeated, this disgust translated into abolitionism. Instead, he offered that \"the first impression of all this on my mind, was to shake the conviction I had always felt, of the wrong and hardship inflicted on our black fellow-creatures, and they were only in that state which God and nature had assigned them; that they were the lowest grade of human existence\"; however, after more sober reflection he \"came, therefore, to the irresistible conclusion in my mind, that color was an accident affecting the surface of a man and having no more to do with his qualities than his clothes.\"\n\nReverend Robert Walsh also thought slave labor handcuffed Brazil (though a number of his contemporaries hotly disagreed): \"the wealth of Rio is vested in this property and slaves form the income and support of a vast number of individuals, who hire them out, as people in Europe do horses and mules. This is one great cause, that prevents the adoption of machinery.\"\n\nEven in the southernmost cone of the continent, apprehension was mounting about the growing presence of Africans in the hemisphere. In Buenos Ayres, which a century earlier had \"some 24,000 inhabitants, of whom at least one-third [were] African Negro slaves\"\u2014and also had a considerable population of U.S. nationals\u2014not only was the increasingly \"Africanized\" Brazil monitored carefully, but, as well, \"disturbances ... among the blacks in the Southern States\" of the U.S., Cuba, and Jamaica. The perception was that enslavement was hemispheric and could hardly survive in one region if under assault in another.\n\nSuch perceptions were not foreign to U.S. emissaries in Rio de Janeiro and what they were seeing could not be encouraging to a nation similarly based on African slavery. \"Sir Charles Stuart told me,\" said the U.S. Minister in Rio in 1825, that \"abolition\" of the \"slave trade ... could only be brought about indirectly for that an open abandonment of it would produce as he thought a revolution.\" Yet \"the demand for vessels for the slave trade is at this time very brisk,\" John Quincy Adams was told; \"the prices of slaves are from about 150 to 180 dollars\" and \"profits are said to be very great\" with \"the number imported at this port,\" i.e., Rio, \"for several years is estimated at about 20,000 per annum.\" Continuation of slavery carried its own perils, it was thought: \"15,000 cartridges had been found in the home of one & 5000 in that of another of the officers\" in Brazil's multi-colored military who were \"conspirators\" against their government, and \"members of that society ... had intended to put arms into the hands of five hundred blacks\" who hailed from \"perhaps the most robust, active and resolute of the African race.\"\n\n\"All seems quiet here, as well as in other quarters of the Empire,\" it was said months earlier; however, \"some apprehensions ... still exist in regard to the blacks.\" The \"Male revolt\" in 1835\u2014which impacted Brazil in a way similar to how the Nat Turner revolt impacted the Slave South\u2014\"further heightened the fear of seeing Brazil dominated by blacks,\" an apprehension of grave concern in Washington as well. A few years later, the U.S. Consul in Pernambuco was writing nervously about yet another revolt, this time in Bahia: \"from one to two hundred of the most valuable houses were burnt, but I am happy to say no property of any citizen of the United States was injured. The destruction of property has been very great.... nearly 2000 persons were apprehended on suspicion of having taken an active part against the Imperial Government,\" as these rebels were bent on \"destroying the city entirely in fulfillment of the published threat of Sabino the Secretary of Foreign Affairs and Chief of the Mulatto Party.\"\n\nThis insight was even more noteworthy since U.S. diplomats complained continually of the \"difficulty of procuring information relating to events, immediately or even remotely connected with politics. This difficulty in Brazil is probably greater than in any other part of the civilized world.\" \"I have reason to think that my dwelling house has been placed under the especial espionage of the police and that the names of all the Brasileans who visit me, and perhaps of others are furnished to the government,\" said the U.S.'s chief emissary [emphasis-original].\n\nMoreover, there was an undercurrent of tension between U.S. emissaries and Brazilian elites, not least since\u2014according to a leading U.S. diplomat\u2014\"Brasil in imitation of Portugal has completely thrown herself into the arms of England and, to a certain extent, has transferred her colonial allegiance from one country to another.\" There was also \"reason for ... forbearance from all agitation here,\" said one of these diplomats, \"inasmuch as all the separatists, nullifiers & revolutionists\"\u2014of which Rio had more than its share\u2014\"refer to our history without understanding it,\" which \"leads to a suspicion by the loyal Brazilians of our countrymen.\" Thus, \"in the recent discussion of Bahia, our country, its systems & institutions have been referred to by the Republican Party so called as models for imitation; by the loyalists for the purpose of exhibiting the comparative superiority of their ... system & institutions. In all such discussions,\" he lamented, \"we are mistakenly praised & blamed.\" Of course, as Brazilian diplomats scrutinized the U.S., they did not necessarily emerge with an elevated view either.\n\nYet even the prospect of slave-assisted military revolts and increasingly disgruntled Brazilian elites could not distract U.S. diplomats from what seemed to be their primary purpose\u2014profit. Chief among these was William Wright of Maryland, scion of a fabulously wealthy merchant house that just happened to have major interests in the slave trade and the crops they produced. He became Charg\u00e9s des Affaires in Rio de Janeiro in 1830, just as the slave trade was skyrocketing. There were \"some houses in Rio that will do business for less commissions [than] our House,\" it was said of Maxwell Wright, but, it was added confidently, \"no House offers more advantages than ours and very few offers as many in the transaction of American business.\" Yes, gushed Wright, \"'we have now agencies in all the principal ports.... we have the best and most influential, we could possibly have and with my own exertions I expect a considerable increase of our business.'\" Given William Wright's strategic location with access to intelligence and the ability to slash red tape on behalf of his firm, this was not puffery. Thus, in 1835 Wright had reason to fret about \"the probabilities of a war with France\" which had \"greatly increased,\" fomenting \"much more anxiety\" of those \"connected with commerce.\" In that event, \"every ocean will be pervaded by national and private armed vessels\"; now it was \"unimportant to the ship owners of the [U.S.] as to whose flag may have the carrying of our imports & exports. But it will be deeply important to all the other interests of the country that such carrying trade be conducted by a nation capable of defending her merchant vessels.\" Wright's portfolio in Rio included intimate knowledge of shipping and its regulations, which was not irrelevant to the slave trade. Wright was positioned nicely at the intersection where politics met economics and was able to use both to leverage his special interests.\n\nYet even one so blessed as Wright had to recognize that his empire was resting shakily on an unsteady foundation, a fact that came clear after \"the late insurrection of the Blacks in Virginia and a still later one in North Carolina\" in 1831. When this news reached Maxwell, Wright in Rio de Janeiro, it was not comforting; it was \"of a nature to engage deeply the attention of every landholder in a slave holding state. The evil long feared has now commenced; when it is to run we know not. A civil war is bad enough,\" it was said morosely, but a \"servile war\" would only \"extend ... atrocities\"; \"ramifications of this ... extend, but it is reasonably to be feared that they reach at least to Georgia. Not even in Maryland is our position\" secure, it was thought, though \"on this shore, the whites outnumber the blacks.\" The firm had hard questions to answer: \"is it to effect tremendously the value of all real property in the state?\" And if Negroes could rise up in the U.S. South where they were greatly outnumbered, what did this mean for the security of the firm's investments in Brazil where, generally, the reverse was the case?\n\nAs if that were not sufficient bad news, Maxwell, Wright had to contend with \"commercial difficulties\" in the U.S. engendered by the Panic of 1837, which seemed to get \"worse and worse\"; \"if possible, failure of large houses\" would be \"occurring daily in N. York & New Orleans, some in Boston.\" The message to Rio was \"do not take any new risks for the present.\"\n\nYet if Maxwell, Wright could have espied the activities of one of its competitors, it would have encouraged them, perhaps, to become more deeply involved in the African Slave Trade. \"Messrs. Farnham & Fry of Salem, Massachusetts\" had ships sailing from New York where \"these gentlemen\" were \"engaged in commerce under the firm of P.J. Farnham & Co.\" They controlled a \"factory, or storehouse, for some years past on the [African] coast at a place called Ambrise [ _sic_ ], about sixty miles north of Angola and have had vessels engaged in trade there\"; \"Ambrise\" or \"Ambriz\" was \"becoming quite a commercial place\u2014the English having many factories there.\" But \"Ambrise\" was also rapidly becoming a major site for the operation of the African Slave Trade and the Royal Navy had \"reasons to suppose\" that a ship owned by Farnham was \"engaged in the slave traffic.\"\n\nSo how could Maxwell, Wright in a thriving Rio de Janeiro, with Africans flooding in from the Atlantic and Indian Ocean basins, put up a stop sign? If they were to do so, it would only serve to increase profit opportunities for competitors. The possibility of deploying legions of slave laborers was too precious to resist. Moreover, Washington itself was resisting stoutly pressure from London to curtail the African Slave Trade. Quite literally, the nation's capital had become a regional center for this business. One Congressman in 1829 was splenetic in denouncing \"slave dealers, gaining confidence from impunity\" who \"have made the seat of the Federal Government their headquarters,\" not to mention the \"public prisons\" and \"officers of the Federal Government\" who \"have been employed and derived emoluments from carrying on this traffic.\" Though the U.S. was reluctant to send its ships to monitor or halt the slave trade to Brazil, a House Resolution \"directed\" the Secretary of the Navy to \"report if there are a sufficient number of vessels now in commission ... to enable him to extend adequate protection to our commerce to the Empire of Brazils [ _sic_ ] and to the Republic of Buenos Ayres.\" William Wright in Rio may have been violating the instructions of his government if he had resisted the temptation of the African Slave Trade.\n\nStill, the pre-1840s era, with its stories of U.S. nationals streaming into Brazil, hardly prepared this South American nation for what was soon to follow.\n\nBroadside, circa 1835\u201336, condemning the sale and keeping of slaves in the District of Columbia. The internal slave trade in the U.S. literally sold Africans \"down the river,\" from places like Washington in the Upper South to the Lower South. Courtesy Library of Congress.\n\n## **2  \nInto Africa**\n\nU.S. nationals were leaders in fomenting the illicit slave trade and, as a result, permanently transformed Brazil for all time. In doing so, these U.S. nationals\u2014and some from Europe and Brazil\u2014\"acting alone or in conjunction with the bandits, intervened in the affairs of these [African] chiefdoms to provoke conflicts that generated export captives.\" The \"Igbo example clearly shows that slavery and the slave trade were the primary cause of violence in the West African sub-region for over three centuries.\" John C. Lawrence of the U.S.'s African Squadron confided to his diary in December 1844 that slavers \"foment brawls among Chiefs.... it answers a double purpose, that of furnishing the slave market ... as well as affording protection to themselves as the attention of these savages are diverted from the white residents.\"\n\nThe African Slave Trade reached new heights of destruction as it was coming to a close, particularly in terms of violence, as a result of improvements in weaponry. As early as 1837, one Brooklynite had noticed the central role of Brazil in this late stage of the trade, for \"the proximity of this coast to the shores of Africa renders the importation of Negroes to this country extremely easy; with constant and favorable winds, they are enabled to perform the passage in ten or fifteen days, and dispose of their slaves at reasonable prices.\" Fifteen years later, the famed jurist, Joseph Story, pointed to the role of U.S. nationals as being central to the African Slave Trade. \"American citizens are steeped up to their very mouths (I scarcely use too bold a figure) in this stream of iniquity\"; they \"throng to the coasts of Africa under the stained flags of Spain and Portugal, sometimes selling abroad their 'cargoes of despair' and sometimes bringing them into some of our Southern ports.... I wish I could say that New England and New England men were free of this deep pollution\"\u2014but he could not. One of his compatriots acknowledged that because Brazil was \"much nearer to Africa\" than Cuba, \"slavers [could] reach this market much easier and dispose of their human chattels at less risk\"\u2014and, of course, Brazil was a larger market as well. In particular, the troubled combination of U.S. nationals, Brazilian slavery, and a struggling Africa made for a dreadful combination for the latter especially, while fabulously enriching those involved in this unclean enterprise.\n\nSo, what was Washington doing as its nationals were wreaking havoc in Africa and drastically altering the demographic makeup of Brazil? An African Squadron, which like its Brazilian counterpart, was supposed to arrest this seamy traffic across the ocean. However, \"between 1843 and 1861, the squadron captured only eleven slavers and these were released on nominal bail or were tried and let off with negligible fines.... [few] conviction[s] [were] ever handed down by ... American court[s] as a result of the activities of the African Squadron. This was in striking contrast to the British Squadron, which between the years 1839 and 1850 alone seized over seven hundred ships, a number that surpassed the entire merchant marine of many nations.\" In contrast to the U.S., \"the British were energetic in their attempts to suppress the slave trade. Between 1814 and 1850, British naval units seized 169 Bahian ships alone, the vast majority in West African waters.\"\n\nIncreased involvement of U.S. citizens in illegal slave trading to Brazil and Cuba came \"particularly after 1839 when Great Britain authorized its warships to seize slave vessels flying the Brazilian, Spanish and Portuguese flags, thus making the United States the last major Western nation unwilling to permit the boarding and searching of its ships at sea.... U.S. citizens [therefore] offered a wide variety of advantages and services to slave traders. These included swift Baltimore clippers with American crews.\" And then there was the U.S. flag, which was hoisted by pirates of various nationalities, as it proved to be kryptonite as far as a wary London was concerned. By early 1851, one British representative in Philadelphia was moaning that \"two thirds of the slavers which reach Brazil or Cuba, may be said to owe their safety\" to the U.S. flag, while \"fast sailing vessels\"\u2014some constructed with British capital in \"New York, Baltimore, Philadelphia\"\u2014were similarly de rigueur in this nasty business.\n\nIt was not as if this soiled commerce was unknown to the authorities. For example, in May 1857, a newspaper in the ship-building center of Bath, Maine reported blandly that \"the schooner Evangeline, now in New York, built in Prospect [Maine], in 1855 and owned by Captain Pittman of Brewer [Maine], who commands her, is strongly suspected of being a slaver.\" Before that, the U.S. brig \"Excellent\" sailed into Rio de Janeiro in March 1850. \"William Temple, the first mate, was a known slaver\"; he and the \"master Bruce McKinney ... swore that the 'Excellent' was bound for California, obtained the ship's papers necessary to clear Rio\" but, typically, went to Ambriz on the west coast of Africa instead. \"Slave traders took an average of 40,000 slaves from Africa each year for 420 years,\" says the writer, Pegram Harrison. \"The magnitude of these numbers place in perspective the lack of commitment of the United States Government and the Navy Department to suppress the African slave trade and ultimately bring it to an end.\"\n\nAs early as 1828, the premier African-American periodical, **Freedom's Journal** had found that \"this horrible traffic in human flesh\" was borne by \"sharp built brigs or schooners, constructed in the United States and sent out to Brazil and sold for that purpose.... it made my heart sick to behold this miserable spectacle.\" Frederick Douglass was one among many who held in contempt his nation's attempt to halt the illegal trade to Brazil. He denounced the \"inefficiency of our preventive squadrons and the impunity with which the nefarious traffic is prosecuted under our flag.\" The U.S. Minister, he said in 1853, had \"sent nearly thirty dispatches to the State Department without receiving an answer to one of them\" about this pressing matter. There was a trade in \"horses and cattle,\" said Douglass, from the \"Cape of Good Hope to Rio\" but after they \"clear at the Cape for Brazil.... they tumble overboard the less valuable animals, and proceed to convenient points to secure bipeds.\" His newspaper published a story by Horace Greeley reporting from Bahia, observing that the \"slave trade ... is carried on here extensively, from the Coast of Africa\"; \"we hear,\" said the New York\u2013based writer, \"that the Baltimorean-built pilot boat 'Henry Clay' is now gone on her eleventh voyage to the coast of Africa for slaves in four years she has been owned here, and that she made in that time over $300,000 for her owners.... some 10 or 12 vessels are engaged in the business from this place alone and probably four times as many more from different ports of this very extensive Empire.\"\n\nTwo of the key Brazilians who spearheaded the illegal slave trade\u2014Manuel Pinto da Fonseca and Bernardino de Sa\u2014\"were known partially to have financed U.S. slave ships and to have sold slaves brought to Brazil by U.S. slavers. U.S. diplomats in Rio de Janeiro in the 1840s considered these two men the most notorious slave dealers in the city at the time.\" Surely during the critical decade of the 1840s, when the unlawful trade was reaching new heights in Brazil, U.S. nationals seemed to be ubiquitous. With a crafty ingenuity, these nationals employed devious tactics to smuggle Africans to Brazil. \"'The Sooy,'\" for example, was of \"American build\" and had \"on her stern the 'eagle' carved and painted large letters 'Sooy of Newport.'\" She had \"sailed from the port of Bahia under the American flag, with an American crew on board, for a port on the coast of Africa, the master and crew should leave her; which they did, and she was surrendered to the captain and crew of a slave-dealer there, who landed on the coast of Brazil\" with hundreds of enslaved Africans. Another dizzying switch involved the \"Sea Eagle\" and the \"Agnes\" which arrived in Cabinda simultaneously. \"Brazilian passengers who were taken out\" in the former were transferred to the latter, then \"Negro slaves were berthed\" on the renamed \"Agnes\" though it lacked \"any regular slave deck,\" so they were \"berthed on these mats.\" The \"American flag\" was \"hauled down and papers taken off and [its] name erased or painted over\" and \"she sailed on or about the 7th of September 1844, with about 500 slaves, and landed them on the coast of Brazil, near Cape Frio.\" The U.S. crew \"were transferred to the 'Sea Eagle,' which vessel remained at Cabinda until after the arrival\" of the renamed \"Agnes.\"\n\nOften during this era, U.S. crews would sail ships to Africa, then turn the ship over to Brazilians\u2014or Portuguese or Spaniards\u2014after the vessel was loaded down with Africans. At times U.S. whalers would engage in freelance slave trading, grabbing whatever Africans that were in reach, when dropping anchor in Cape Verde, for example.\n\nIn 1847, the British diplomat in Rio de Janeiro, Lord Howden, complained about such tactics observing that \"it is the custom to ship the [U.S.] crew which brought this vessel to Africa, aboard some other [U.S.] vessel not intended to take slaves back to Brazil, and which may thus be searched without risk by a [U.S.] cruiser; this confederate vessel often serving also as a decoy to lead these cruisers astray. The first of these vessels lands its cargo of slaves somewhere on the Brazilian coast and then returns to Rio in ballast, while the second vessel enters there direct with the former crew ready for another passage and with the very few articles of commerce afforded by the slave districts in Africa.\" Ships often had \"two owners and two nationalities\" and \"two sets of papers.... she will be American while going to the coast of Africa and Brazilian when returning from it.\"\n\nAt other times, U.S. slavers were disguised as whalers, on one occasion in 1849 in conjunction with Manuel Pinto da Fonseca, a New Bedford\u2013based vessel brought \" _eleven hundred and fifty Negroes_ \" [emphasis-original] in various voyages to Brazil; \"in the event of falling in with an American cruiser, [she] would hoist the Brazilian flag\u2014if an English cruiser, the American flag and thus avoid capture.\" The captain hailed from \"Dartmouth near New Bedford.\" As the Civil War approached, Britain took note of the U.S. ship \"'Atlantic,'\" another slaver disguised as a whaler. Naturalized U.S. citizens from New Bedford of Portuguese origin were the owners; their firm was \"Abranches, Almeida and Co.\" It was \"suspected ... she would proceed to the Mozambique Channel,\" though it \"next turned up [in] the Bahamas as the 'America'\" where it was wrecked in an attempt to send Africans to Cuba.\n\nIt was hard for legitimate commerce to compete with the banned trade. One commander of the African Squadron complained that in Luanda, Angola, \"wealth and prosperity\" were dependent on the slave trade. In 1848, the amount of goods entered for the legal trade, amounted to about ninety thousand dollars; and at the same time, there were smuggled goods for the purposes of the slave trade, \"amounting to the sum of eight hundred thousand dollars.\"\n\nThe authorities complained constantly about the deviousness of the slavers. As the leading Washington official, Abel P. Upshur, put it, their \"cunning\" was astonishing; they were \"constantly devising new disguises and schemes of deception, by which he may elude detection and escape the consequences of his crimes.... they take especial care to put on the appearance of honest traders, and to be always prepared as if engaged in pursuits of lawful commerce.\" They paid sailors more than, say, whalers, or the merchant marine. Upshur, however, conceded that his country did \"not regard the success of their efforts as their paramount interest nor as their paramount duty,\" which was as explanatory of the success of these slavers as their craftiness.\n\nThis guile was aided immeasurably by natural factors. \"Pursuit\" of slavers \"could only occur eight out of twenty-four hours, somewhere between dawn and 2 P.M. Darkness thwarted all efforts at capture; the culprits were fully aware that cruisers would not commence chase after midafternoon. Thus, the remaining sixteen hours belonged to them.\" Some U.S. vessels in West Africa would light a \"triangular fire lit on a height, two fires apart at the base and one on the top of the hill, forming the triangle. The meaning was slaves are ready with canoes on beach: a number of flashes, of which six were counted, indicated the number 600 slaves. The slaver's signal on arrival at night on the date appointed for shipping, consists of a triangular blue, white and green light hoisted in the rigging. There are numerous distant signals for communicating with the offing.\"\n\nBy dint of such measures, Africans were pouring into Brazil in the 1840s, often transported on ships bearing U.S. flags. Things had gotten so bad that the U.S. missionary, the Reverend J. Leighton Wilson, who was posted to Gabon during this time lost hope that this traffic in human beings would ever end. \"The opinion has long been entertained by many sincere friends of Africa,\" he said despairingly, \"that so long as the demand for slaves in Brazil is so great, it will be impossible to break up the slave-trade by any forcible measures.\" The only solution he could conjure up was a radical free trade in Africans: \"the most certain and effectual way of breaking it up [i.e., the slave trade] will be to let the Brazilians have unlimited access to the coast of Africa, and so glut their own markets that slaves will become comparatively useless.\"\n\nFor a while, it seemed that the Reverend Wilson's musing was becoming reality. A member of the Royal Navy discovered to his dismay that \"slaves were sold on the coast of Africa in 1847 for a mere song\u2014an old musket was considered too much\u2014while in the Brazils they realized 50 [pounds] a-piece.\" Hence, \"owing to the great demand for slaves in the Brazils, the speculators are fitting out large steamers capable, it is said, of carrying three thousand slaves. These vessels are armed, and two only have as yet been captured,\" concluded Lieutenant Forbes in 1849. \"Slave merchants employ boats to a distance of forty out at sea, to watch the cruisers, and, incredible as it may appear, yet it is no less a fact, that one of [Britain's] ships was actually reported to that distance daily by whale-boats.\" \"The number of these slave depots on the coast between the Isle Sherbro and Gaboon [ _sic_ ],\" said John C. Lawrence of the U.S. African Squadron in 1844, \"is really incredible when we consider how well it is scoured by vessels of war\"; rather brazenly, \"there was not the least concealment made.\"\n\nUnderstandably, there was considerable focus on Angola, the chief Portuguese colony in West Africa, which was a fertile source of enslaved Africans for Brazil. British and, at times, U.S. vessels sailed southward to monitor this vast land, along with the adjoining region of Cabinda and the mouth of the Congo River. But often ignored was Portugal's colony in East Africa, Mozambique, which increasingly was being raided for slaves as the attention of the anti-bondage authorities was directed westward. Scholar, Abdul Sheriff, attests that \"the TransAtlantic slave trade from Mozambique to Brazil revived after the shift of the Portuguese court to Rio de Janeiro\" and \"especially in the 1820s when up to 16,000 slaves were exported in a single year.\" \"We have little knowledge of the details respecting the slave trade on the Eastern Coast of Africa,\" U.S. Secretary of State, Daniel Webster, was informed in 1842; \"the field of operations to carry on the slave trade is so extensive, the profits so great and the obstacles in the path so many, so various, so difficult\" to scrutinize that the authorities complained that they were at a loss when the slavers turned eastward. Five years later, a British emissary in South Africa was complaining that \"the Slave Trade has recently increased on the east side of the coast.... some of the speculations of that nature which were carried on on the west coast of Africa have been transferred to the Mozambique Channel,\" allowing \"vessels, almost all of which go to Rio [de] Janeiro escape without capture.\" In 1848, London's man in Rio, James Hudson conceded that \"at no period during the history of the Brazilian Slave Trade have so many dealers left Brazil as of late for Africa to purchase slaves; at no time have so many vessels been employed in this traffic.\" So, where were the vessels obtaining enslaved Africans? \"The larger share of orders for slaves,\" he said, \"has been sent to the Mozambique coast, because the Rio slave-traders have learnt that that part of Africa is less guarded than the Western Coast.\" Characteristically, \"the vessels\" arrived in Mozambique \"with American colors, under which they remain until the slave cargo is prepared and other arrangements for receiving the same completed.... when all is ready the American colours are hauled down\" and \"Brazilian colours or ... none at all\" were displayed. Facilitating East Africa's path toward becoming a major preserve for the hunting of Africans, was the fact that \"the Governors of Ibo and Quillimane\" were \"notoriously engaged in aiding and assisting in the traffic and further\" it was \"more than suspected that the Governor-General of Mozambique is himself in collusion with slave-dealers and that he has received large sums of money on several occasions for contriving at the dereliction of duty on the part of his subordinates.\"\n\nOne of the most infamous episodes that implicated eastern Africa was only exposed when the slaver in question landed in Brazil and was detained: The man who became Pedro Parris was born of \"full blooded native African parents somewhere on the eastern coast of Africa\" in \"about 1833.\" When he was \"about ten years old\" a \"terrible uproar arose in the night and as his father stepped out of the hut to learn the cause[,] he was struck down. The terrified family scattered, attempting to escape as best they could in the confusion and darkness.\" But Parris was \"taken. The last he saw of his family that night was his grandmother screaming on a large rock on which she had sought refuge as he was being hurried away.\" The captives were kept on a forced march that entire night and in the morning he found that his three brothers also had been seized. He never saw or heard of the rest of his family again, however. With other captives, he was on the march for several weeks before being taken to the island of Zanzibar. Unclear as to what had befallen him, he\u2014along with some of the other captives\u2014felt \"they were to be eaten.\" Here he \"first saw a white man,\" who was quite \"harsh\" \"beating\" him and others in order to \"hasten\" his acquisition of the Portuguese language, which \"would bring a higher price.\" Finally, he was \"sold\" to a \"Captain Paulo who bought a full cargo of slaves and shipped them\" to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil \"on the vessel of Captain Libby of Portland, Maine.\" In Zanzibar he \"had been named Pedro.\"\n\nHowever, \"the sailors on Libby's vessel had not shipped as slavers, and were much enraged when they discovered what [traffic] they had been drawn into.\" Hence, in Rio the U.S. Consul discovered what had happened and the captors and \"Pedro\" \"were taken\" to \"Portland by an American warship then at Rio under charge of slaving,\" where they were \"indicted.\" \"Pedro\" was a chief witness against the defendants and, along with a number of other young African boys, was taken in by families in Maine, a state that was to become his home. Thus, in 1856, when George Gordon\u2014who had served as Consul in Rio\u2014ran for Governor of Massachusetts as a \"Know-Nothing,\" he \"needed something to check the trend of abolitionists\" toward the recently formed Republican Party; he \"sought out Pedro and employed him for six weeks making campaign speeches for Gordon\"; so inspired, \"Pedro Parris\" sought to become a \"ventriloquist.\"\n\nThe trial of the perpetrators of this kidnapping masquerading as commerce was revelatory. The man who became \"Pedro Parris\" had been brought from East Africa on a ship owned by George Richardson of New Orleans and financed in part by Maxwell, Wright of Baltimore and Brazil and Manuel Pinto da Fonseca of Rio de Janeiro. There was also a New England connection as the Captain, Cyrus Libby, hailed from \"Scarborough in the County of Cumberland\" in Maine, as did the vessel's owner, Richardson, who formerly resided there. Another owner of this vessel, the \"Porpoise,\" was Adams Bailey, Jr., a Boston merchant.\n\nQuestioned in 1845, Libby was incredulous, arguing that \"the first I knew of the boys being on board was when we were about half way ... from [Mozambique] ... when I saw the said boy on deck, at play with other boys, unconfined and at perfect liberty,\" playing \"with the son of the pilot,\" who too was a \"black man\"; the Captain was not overly disturbed, since he \"then believed and now believes that said boy was the son of said pilot and free and not a slave.\" \"I do suppose and believe,\" he swore, \"that these boys were free & not held by any person as slaves, that they went over to Rio Janeiro to be educated and then to be sent back to the coast, as is customary.\" \"I was entirely deceived and defrauded,\" he charged. But his incredulity was hard to accept in light of the prominent role in his enterprise of Maxwell, Wright, known to be involved in the banned trade, which instructed him in Rio that \"after leaving this port, you will please follow the instructions of Mr. Antonio de Luis da Cunha, on board, as far as your charter party will permit you to do so.\" The latter was the agent of Fonseca and it was clear that his role on board ship was major.\n\nOn the other hand, Libby's story was not entirely unbelievable. There were Negro crew members on board his vessel, which could bolster his alibi that he thought \"Pedro Parris\" was not a slave. Mark Tanner, a self-described \"colored man,\" was 24 and born in Bristol, Rhode Island. But he would not substantiate Libby's tale, asserting that when they arrived from New England in Brazil before heading for East Africa, he \"asked for his discharge but Captain Libby would not give it to him.\"\n\nBut then there was another \"colored man\" on board, Peter Johnson, who was the \"cook and steward.\" Born in Kingston, New York and 29 at the time of his 1845 deposition, he joined the vessel in Rio in early 1844. Unlike Tanner, he could \"understand\" and \"speak\" Portuguese \"imperfectly,\" to the point that he could comprehend \"common conversation.\" Ashore in Mozambique, while at the so-called slave \"factory, some of the slaves were walking about and some sitting down; others were standing up.... males were chained together; the women with chains around their necks.\" However, Johnson had other things on his mind that did not necessarily include the chief witness against Libby, i.e., \"Pedro Parris.\" \"Deponent asked one of the Portuguese crew about a large good looking woman[,] he said that she was one that Paulo had just bought.\" Johnson did notice, however, that \"all the Negroes ... had been branded, either upon the breast or the back of the shoulder and the brand wounds were then raw.\" Evidently Johnson did not choose to remark on the irony of his being now enmeshed in the most fetid and squalid of slave raiding while being part of a group\u2014U.S. Negroes\u2014that were largely the product of a similar process.\n\nOf course, the crew was hardly comprised wholly of U.S. Negroes, though like Tanner and Johnson, most hailed from the Northeast, especially New York, Rhode Island, and Maine. There was Charles Hendricks, for example, who was born in Sweden\u2014but had \"never been naturalized\"\u2014and had sailed from the U.S. for nine years before being detained by the authorities for slaving. He placed Libby at the scene of the crime and added for good measure that \"Manoel Pinto of Rio\" was likewise involved. His countryman, John Williams, 24, was also a \"native of Sweden\" but was considerably less garrulous.\n\nBut the most damaging testimony came from another African boy, known as \"Guilheme\" or \"George Williams.\" He was \"colored or mulatto\" and thought to be 14 (his mother, he said, was a \"white woman\" and his \"father was black\"). Born near \"Inhambane\" in Mozambique, he was sold and wound up on the \"Porpoise\" where the crew \"threatened us at sea\u2014that if we did not do everything well we should be flogged on shore at Rio.\" Many of his relatives were \"murdered\" in the process of capturing him\u2014including his \"father and mother\"\u2014but still he \"did not want to go\" but was compelled. \"Captain Libby named him George Williams\" and took him on a journey from eastern Africa to S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9, then to \"Cabinda\" and from there to Brazil. A crew member \"threatened to sell him\" all the while, though Libby himself never \"called him his slave.\" He witnessed the buying of slaves in Mozambique. Like \"Parris,\" \"George Williams\" was inclined to return to Africa but he added poignantly, \"I'm afraid of being made a slave again. I would rather go in this very ship,\" speaking of the U.S. naval vessel that was to take him to New England to testify against Libby, \"to the United States.\"\n\n\"Pedro Parris\" also did not help Libby's case. He was told after being captured and enslaved that \"when any person should ask me, to answer that I was free.... I was branded on the breast\" to sanctify this reality. Like, \"George Williams,\" he too expressed a fervent \"wish to be a free man and go to the United States.\"\n\n\"The whole experience of the trials,\" Captain Libby cried out, \"will not fall short of $2500.\" This would involve \"stripping him of every farthing he had on earth and even taking,\" said the sympathetic reporter, \"the old homestead from his aged and widowed mother\"\u2014and this was not to mention the accompanying \"ten seamen, government witnesses\" who were \"confined in jail.\"\n\nUnfortunately, many Africans did not have the kind of happy ending endured by \"Pedro Parris\"\u2014rescued and sent to a new life in the U.S. Such was the fate of another U.S. flagged slaver, the \"Kentucky,\" which in 1845 also found itself in Mozambique with 500 potential African slaves aboard. Resisting the fate that awaited them, these Africans \"rose upon the officer and crew; a majority of the men, all of whom were in irons, got their irons off, broke through the bulkhead in the females department.... the Captain armed the crew with cutlasses and got all the muskets and pistols and loaded them and crew were firing down amongst the slaves for half an hour or more.... in about half an hour they were subdued.\" Retaliating, some of the rebels were then \"hung,\" as a \"rope was put around their necks and they were drawn up to the yard-arm clear, of the sail. This did not kill them, but only choked or strangled them. They were then shot in the breast and the bodies thrown overboard,\" while \"the legs of about a dozen were chopped off\"; \"when the feet fell on deck, they were picked up by the Brazilian crew and thrown overboard, irons and all. When the woman was hung up and shot, the ball did not take effect, and she was thrown overboard living, and was seen to struggle some time in the water before she sunk\"; then \"they brought up and flogged about 20 men and six women\" in a fashion described as \"very severe,\" to the point where the floggers \"got tired.\" The \"flesh of some of them where they were flogged ... putrified and came off\" as the Africans writhed in the \"most intense agony. They were a shocking a horrible sight during the whole passage,\" said an eyewitness, a member of the crew; unsurprisingly, \"there was no disturbance on board after this\" on the part of the survivors, mostly \"Negroes ... from nine or 10 up to 30 years.\" This ship, the \"Kentucky,\" was seen as a companion of the \"Porpoise.\"\n\nThe horrible conditions that characterized slave ships sheds light on the level of African resistance. A British emissary in Bahia, a presumed destination for those to be held in bondage, inferentially indicated why when he observed that \"it appears incredible, but it is nevertheless a fact that a ship's long boat manned by three persons and measuring twenty-four feet extreme length, seven feet breadth and only three feet nine inches depth, has arrived here from the coast of Africa, in which fifty miserable children had actually been stowed and thirty-five conducted hither, fifteen having died on the passage. It is more than probable,\" he concluded sadly, \"that every soul on board would have perished for want of water and provisions, had they not been relieved by a merchant vessel when reduced to the last extremity.\" This trade was extraordinarily cruel. A British representative observed that \"for many years\" he had the \"habit of asking the different [enslaved] Africans with whom I have conversed the circumstances under which they were brought; and they, with scarcely any exception, state that they were kidnapped or taken in what they call their wars.\" Many were brought from the continent's interior, marching \"one, two or three months to the coast.\"\n\nMany Africans did not take kindly to the presence of ships flying the U.S. flag in their vicinity. The U.S. brig \"Mary Adeline\" discovered this to its dismay. In the summer of 1852, this vessel was nearing the \"Shark Point, in the River Congo,\" when suddenly it was \"attacked by the Natives.\" These \"savages\" were \"coming down the river in great numbers for the purpose of plundering my vessel,\" said the master of this vessel; \"many of them [were] armed with muskets,\" about \"fifteen hundred of them\" in this category with weapons, including \"spears and cutlasses.\" Some of them were \"furnished with hooks and poles by which to scale the side. I had six muskets and two rifles only on board,\" he continued; \"they suddenly set up a fiendish yell and leveled their muskets at us. We had barely time to cover ourselves before a large volley was fired which fortunately did no other damage than to sails and rigging.\" Riding to the rescue was a British ship that ultimately prevailed; yet, the \"savages with great cunning took advantage of this and again approached in greater numbers than before for another combined attack.... I fired a charge of grape into them,\" he recalled, \"and fortunately killed and wounded a considerable number which had the desired effect of inducing them to retreat.\" Still, but for the serendipitous arrival of a British vessel, \"not one who was on board of my vessel,\" he assured, \"would ever have been heard of again.\" Yes, confirmed the commander of the intervening vessel from Britain, \"[we] defended your vessel from the murderous attack of at least 3000 Natives,\" reminding him that this part of the River Congo was \"always attended with great risk.\"\n\nAs this incident and the perilous voyage of Pedro Parris suggests, there was a considerable traffic in Africans traversing the Atlantic westward and northward. In 1836, the abolitionist David Ruggles was among a group involved \"in an attempt to rescue slaves from a Brazilian ship docked in New York.\"\n\nMahommah Gardo Baquaqua was kidnapped in Africa, brought to Brazil as a slave, then transported to New York City. In Manhattan \"at the dock at the foot of Roosevelt Street, on the East River, local abolitionists, organized loosely as the New York Vigilance Society, approached\" the ship, \"initiating a legal tug-of-war over the fate\" of Baquaqua. He managed to escape bondage but \"by the latter half of 1853 ... it seems that Baquaqua was increasingly disillusioned with United States society.... 'I did not like to stay in this country,'\" he said.\n\nBorn in Central Africa, Baquaqua\u2014a Muslim\u2014was the slavers' nightmare, proudly proclaiming in 1854 that he was \"stirring up the colored population and agitating for the abolition of slavery all over the world.\" What had led him to this revolutionary posture was his experience, enticed to drink an intoxicating beverage in Africa, before being taken prisoner and taken to Pernambuco. He was forced into a form of alien worship\u2014\"we all had to kneel before them,\" i.e., slave-owners; \"whilst worshipping,\" he said, \"my master held a whip in his hand and those who showed signs of inattention or drowsiness were immediately brought to consciousness by a smart application of the whip. This mostly fell to the lot of the female slave.\" Taken to Rio de Janeiro, he was almost sold to a \"colored man.\" \"I merely mention this fact,\" said Baquaqua, \"to illustrate that slaveholding is generated in power ... and that the colored man would as soon enslave his fellow man as the white man, had he the power.\" He worked on a ship and reinforced there was what \"we all had learned,\" i.e., that \"at New York there was no slavery; that it was a free country,\" where he finally attained a form of freedom.\n\nThe Tucker Family of South Carolina was engaged heavily in shipping goods to California via Brazil; so it may not have been surprising in the summer of 1848 when a \"Negro runaway,\" a \"well dressed\" slave with \"plenty of clothes and some money\" was found on one of these voyages; the captain's \"first impulse was to turn back, in hopes of finding some vessel bound to Carolina or Georgia to put him on board\" but decided to continue; it was unclear if this stowaway made it to California\u2014or Brazil.\n\nNevertheless, the enormous profits of this trade guaranteed that the slavers would continue their dirty business. Speaking from Rio in 1848, one British diplomat declared awestruck that \"the profits are enormous.... Portuguese in this city who arrived here a pauper and [were] now worth half a million sterling at least, all made in the Slave Trade\"; this \"army of slave dealers never wants recruits.\" It fed corruption, bribing of officials, not to mention \"many thousands of white men [who] must be employed in watching\" slaves; \"the more valuable labour of a certain number of whites must be abstracted from the service of the country,\" providing further basis for the potent idea that the African Slave Trade was suffocating Brazil in the long-term.\n\nYet attempts to seize Africans for slavery continued. In the late spring of 1847, the Royal Navy, which concentrated mostly in western Africa, found the time to send \"four boats up the River Angazha [ _sic_ ]\" in Mozambique to \"take or destroy such ... vessels as may be there found, engaged in the traffic and commerce of slaves.\" Their intelligence was timely and actionable for on the \"approach\" of their vessels, \"a slave brig was set on fire by the persons on board\u2014the 'Lucy Penniman,' an American barque was also at anchor here: on the officer boarding her, the remaining (she having lost a boat's crew a few days before) crew came forward and stated that they had been illegally employed in the Slave Trade against their will.\" Another time the British were not as lucky for as they approached the slaver in the waters of eastern Africa, they \"were fired upon by a number of persons from the bushes, which were not more than thirty yards off.... the Captain claimed the protection of the American flag\" while \"the crew had come forward to ask our protection, they being in fear of their lives.\"\n\nEven Lisbon, lax in the best of times, was becoming concerned about the increasing encroachments of U.S. slavers in what they deemed to be their territory. Cases proliferated of U.S. flagged vessels \"not having cleared from Rio de Janeiro for any certain and definite port on the eastern or western coast of Portuguese Africa\" and suspected of being involved in the \"contraband trade and in the illicit traffic in slaves.\"\n\nWashington's representative in Lisbon was displeased with Portugal's displeasure. \"Her crew and passengers were thrown into prison,\" said J. B. Clay, U.S. Charg\u00e9s d'Affaires in Lisbon, referring to U.S. nationals, and \"remained some eleven months\" incarcerated where \"her captain and first mate died as is believed from starvation.\" This was an outrage: \"no nation has a right,\" he said accusingly, \"to seize and condemn them if they be taken on the high seas, although brim full of slaves from neck to kelson, save their own. The general law of nations does not condemn the slave trade,\" he insisted. Anyway, the ship was not engaged in the slave trade and, besides, Portuguese law in Mozambique could not apply to the U.S., not least since this vessel was actually in the waters under the jurisdiction of the \"Moorish Sultan,\" closer to Zanzibar than Mozambique.\n\nBlack female slaves in Brazil, circa 1830s, from various ethnic groups, reflecting different styles of dress and adornment. U.S. slave dealers ventured not only to western Africa but also to eastern areas such as Mozambique. Courtesy Library of Congress.\n\nIt was not as if Lisbon was that concerned with the buying and kidnapping of Africans\u2014after all, they had done more than their share in this grimy realm; there was a graver concern that Washington, even then considerably larger and more powerful than this Iberian nation, had designs on their closed markets and spheres of influence, from South America to Africa.\n\nLisbon was livid about the routine snatching of Africans from Cape Verde by U.S. whalers, compelling the U.S. Secretary of State to apologize. Then there was the irksome \"case of the slave brig 'Susan'\" which led to a Portuguese claim of \"$22,701.24 in behalf of the 'Portuguese passengers' captured ... in that brig and brought into the port of New York.\" This was \"'an American built brig with a crew of Portuguese and Brazilians'\" that was \"'bound directly to the slave coast of Africa'\" then, presumably, to Brazil. The son of Portugal's \"Consul General\" in New York represented \"'some of the parties, passengers of the Susan,'\" which raised questions about Lisbon's official posture about slaving\u2014a nagging question that Lisbon also had about Washington. Like an old married couple that desperately needed counseling, Lisbon began dredging up past grievances to fling in Washington's face, such as incidents that occurred years earlier during the time of Brazil's struggle for independence when ships \"owned\" by U.S. nationals captured Portuguese ships. Lisbon remained angry about this. In so many words, Washington replied that this was too bad.\n\nIn a sense this was a phony conflict, for on the larger question of the criminal slave trade, Lisbon may have been more unenthusiastic than Washington in seeing this enterprise end. In 1847, as the raids in Portuguese East Africa increased tremendously, London complained that the \"Portuguese government had instructed the Governor-General of Mozambique to revoke the permission which he had granted Her Majesty's ships employed in the Mozambique Channel\" in order to \"act against that [slave] traffic.\" Since \"great facilities exist towards carrying on the Slave Trade on the east coast of Africa,\" this would \"give great encouragement to the Slave Trade.\" The Mixed Commission at the Cape of Good Hope, which was designed by London to crackdown on this unlawful commerce, should have been overworked in the late 1840s if Portugal had desired to cooperate in seizing slavers. Instead, it was found that \"no case has been brought before them for adjudication during the year ending December 31, 1848 and that no Negroes have been emancipated by Decree of this Mixed Commission since its establishment.\" Typically, in 1851, when Francisco dos Santos Tavares was a \"prisoner of the Mixed Commission Court,\" apparently on charges of slave trading, this Lusophone national managed to \"escape,\" as he \"deceived the Mixed Commission as to the departure of the said Tavares in the American vessel 'Sacramento.'\"\n\nIt was left to the South African press to ascertain that it was \"evident that a flourishing slave-trade is now being carried on in this quarter, not directly from Delagoa Bay or Inhambane [East Africa] but chiefly from points on the coast, between the Portuguese settlements and undoubtedly with the connivance of the authorities there. Cape Corrientes, between Delagoa Bay and Inhambane is the chief seat of the trade\" and there was \"not a sign of an English cruiser upon the whole northeast coast.\"\n\nBut what about U.S. \"cruisers\"? The record is mixed: basically there were some conscientious U.S. Navy men operating within the confines of a fatally flawed policy. For example, in 1850, George Stoner of the Brazil Squadron told the Secretary of the Navy, \"I have uniformly used every means in my power to obtain information\" about the \"slave trade\" but the \"British Minister\" in Rio said that the \"authorities of the United States in Brazil have not continued to exert the same degree of vigilance as before\"\u2014though he thought this was \"entirely destitute of foundation of truth.\" No, he insisted, the problem actually was \"the want of small steamers and sailing vessels capable of overhauling at sea and of pursuing\" slavers, not to mention the \"numerous smaller ports\" slavers could draw upon. \"Vessels suitable to operate against them have been withdrawn from the station and not replaced, notwithstanding my repeated representations to the Department.\" This led to \"prostitution of our flag.\"\n\nWilliam Graham, Secretary of the Navy, comrade of Matthew Maury and fan of his plans for the Amazon, did not demur, though Stoner had to realize, Graham thought, that there were other issues beyond chasing down slavers. Relations between Brazil and Buenos Ayres had \"assumed a more threatening appearance ... war seems inevitable\" and the navy had to think about protecting U.S. interests in this vital region\u2014yet \"the present naval force here will prove very inadequate to the proper protection of our interests,\" so a \"small steamer would under such circumstances prove a most efficient addition to the squadron.\"\n\nSo, Graham with one hand endorsed Stoner's goal for small steamers and with the upper hand suggested that ships could be put to better use than tracking down slave vessels. Rather than cooperating with London on handcuffing the unlawful slave trade, there was an instinct in Washington to act, instead, as a counterweight to this power.\n\nOther U.S. Navy men were not as conscientious as Stoner. Andrew Boyd Cummings, for example, took a fancy to \"Negro dance houses\" of S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9, West Africa, and mused about recruiting musicians there for similar establishments back home\u2014\"what a glorious speculation it would [be],\" he enthused, \"to hire this whole party & to transport them to New Orleans\"\u2014and had a penchant for becoming embroiled in untidy disputes in Angola involving U.S. nationals, as opposed to halting the trade in human beings. He was exultant about the \"prospect of bombardment\" of Benguela, as a result of this matter, \"it would have been a little excitement for us\"\u2014though no such aggression seemed to be generated by the African Slave Trade.\n\nLikewise, in Angola, Britain's representative there thought he had detected an \"alteration\" in the \"tone\" of U.S. \"Commodore Lavallette\" when he spoke with him as the fall of 1851 approached. \"On the subject of the slave trade and the prevalent feeling in the United States respecting it,\" it was indicated that \"this would be their [U.S.] last appearance in this latitude and that the Squadron was to be withdrawn; trusting to other measures such as Colonization and the establishment of a line of steamers between the United States and Liberia for the accomplishment of the desired end.... this end, however, seemed to be less the suppression of the Traffic, or even the Prevention of the abuse of the American flag than the relieving [of] the United States of their free black population, which, whether, voluntarily or otherwise, must, it was said, be got rid of.\"\n\nBy this juncture, Britain had escalated its tactics against the African Slave Trade. \"We have captured and burnt Brazilian ships in sight almost of this capital,\" said a British emissary in 1850 and, surprisingly, he added, \"we have one half of the daily newspapers in this capital in our favor.\" Things had gotten so bad that \"American holders of vessels built for [the] Slave Trade and brought here for speculation, cannot find purchasers for them.\" \"The number of Africans imported as slaves into Brazil had greatly diminished,\" said this same emissary, James Hudson, one year later; this was accompanied by the \"arrival of white artisans,\" whose numbers had \"greatly increased.\" Moreover, a number of Africans, 400 free \"men\" from \"the interior of Congo even to Mozambique on the south\" wanted to leave Brazil and \"settle at or near Ambriz.\" The \"appearance\" in Brazil of \"yellow fever in 1849\u201350 was attributed to the arrival of slaves from East Africa. A public outcry against their import resulted in a radical drop in the number of slaves brought in by slave vessels. An annual figure of [imports] of 60,000 at 1850 was soon reduced to a few thousands by 1853.\" London was placing so much pressure on Brazil in 1850, that the visiting U.S. midshipman, Andrew Boyd Cummings, found \"there was quite an excitement here for a while against the English, so great indeed that it was even dangerous for an Englishman to be seen in the street for a while.\"\n\nThis woodcut, which originally appeared in the U.S. abolitionist organ, _The Liberator,_ accompanied an article written in 1832 protesting the African Slave Trade to Brazil. Slaves were occasionally thrown overboard by slave dealers who wished to escape payment of an importation tax, or who wished to get rid of evidence of illegal slaving. Courtesy Library of Congress.\n\n## **3  \nBuying and Kidnapping Africans**\n\nCoffee was the driving force behind the stunning growth of the enslaved population of Brazil in the 19th century and U.S. nationals were a prime motor pushing Africans across the Atlantic from the late 18th century through the late 1840s. As the taste for this beverage grew among refined palates in Europe and North America, the demand for slaves grew accordingly, particularly among the coffee planters of the Paraiba Valley. Factors were at play limiting import of slaves in other regions; thus, 1848 \"marked the beginning of an extended lull. That year, slave revolts in Martinique, St. Croix and Puerto Rico along with the appointment of Puerto Rico's first abolitionist governor (after the revolts), combined to discourage further importation of slaves.\" This served to augment the importance of Brazil as a market for enslaved Africans and, correspondingly, was keeping certain U.S. nationals quite busy. Yet this unity of interest between and among certain forces in the U.S., Brazil, and Africa was contested, particularly in North America which created strains that eventuated in Civil War. It was also contested by the U.K., which by seeking to half the illicit slave trade was also interrupting a profitable commerce in agricultural commodities\u2014to the benefit of London, alleged its critics. This chapter will detail the extensive involvement of U.S. nationals in the African Slave Trade to Brazil, particularly in the 1840s, along with the ineffectual efforts by Washington to halt it. As the decade wore on, this trafficking in human beings was becoming a big business that was enticing foreign nationals to adopt U.S. citizenship so that they could better take advantage of the immense profitability that was being generated. Meanwhile, London vainly sought to stem what seemed to be an inexorable tide.\n\nOne British emissary had \"received authentic information that upwards of twenty thousand slaves had been surreptitiously landed in the Brazilian territories within the last four months of the year 1842\" alone and this was just the beginning of a decade-long trend. Some U.S. nationals were smuggling Africans to Brazil to produce coffee that was then exported in substantial amounts to the U.S. Ships in turn would return to Rio de Janeiro with finished goods, also lumber and candles. This was a virtuous circle\u2014for some\u2014and a nightmare for others, principally Africans.\n\nBut for British pressure, the number of Africans flooding into Brazil may have been substantially larger. It was the weight of London that led in 1835 to a so-called equipment clause in a global treaty; that is, \"on the basis of chains, excessive rations, superfluous shelves in the hold, and other indications, the clause permitted the capture and adjudication of slave ships without slaves on board.\" Similar pressure from London led to the Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842, whereby Washington was obliged to station a naval squadron on the West African coast. Of course, Salem merchants had long since established a base in the open back door that was East Africa\u2014and, in any event, this team was sited in Cape Verde, \"far from the most important slave trading areas; few American cruisers ever ventured as far as the Congo or Angola.\" This was a \"'sham patrol.'\"\n\nFurthermore, those actually caught in the act had little to worry about. \"Of 96 prosecutions between 1839 and 1862 executed under the pretext of the slave trade acts only 12 (12.5 percent) returned guilty verdicts where the convicted slaver was given a judicial punishment ... of 95 slave ships seized for suspected engagement in the slave trade between 1837 and 1862, in only 56 (58.9 percent) cases were the craft condemned (found guilty) and the master forced to face some sort of adjudication.\" U.S. courts and the U.S. Navy \"were notoriously soft on the international slave trade.\n\nLondon was not the only force pushing for the end of this horrible traffic. In 1839, the Massachusetts Senate pressed the U.S. Congress to adopt more stringent measures against this business, not least since the ships carrying these human cargoes were almost all of U.S. construction, it was reported. Stricter laws were needed since \"the several acts of Congress\" were \"if not actually a mere dead letter, at any rate, almost entirely ineffectual\"; \"several years have elapsed since a single armed ship of the United States, with instructions to cruise for and capture such vessels ... have ever been known to have made even a transient visit to the western coat of Africa.\"\n\nYet even these paltry efforts inflamed certain elements among the slaveholding elite in the U.S. John C. Calhoun \"exerted a decisive influence over the foreign policy of the United States\" for \"forty years\"; his son was \"married to the daughter of Duff Green,\" another power at Foggy Bottom, which magnified the influence of both families. Calhoun, a renowned son of the South Carolina slaveholder class, had long thought that Brazil was \"a most important section of our [ _sic_ ] Continent, in the condition of which every one, who looks to the future must take a lively interest,\" and he was not happy when London began to lean on the U.S., compelling this nation to do something about its slave pirates. \"Next to the United States,\" considered the powerful politician, \"Brazil is the most wealthy, the greatest and most firmly established of all the American powers. Between her and us there is a strict identity of interest on almost all subjects, without conflict, or even competition, on scarcely one.\" Calhoun thought that \"to destroy\" slavery in either \"would facilitate its destruction in the other. Hence our mutual interest in resisting [London's] interference with the relation in either country.\" He advocated a staunch and strict international solidarity with Brazil\u2014not least since this was in the self-interest of the Slave South. To be sure, his defense of Brazil was mostly on the basis of slavery, more so than the slave trade, but in context this often amounted to a distinction without a difference.\n\nCalhoun also felt that the defense of slavery and the slave trade would forestall something akin to a \"race war.\" If London prevailed, \"we must look not to Jamaica but to St. Domingo for an example. The change would be followed by unforgiving hate between the two races & end in a bloody & deadly struggle between them for the superiority. One or the other would have to be subjugated,\" it \"would be calamitous beyond description.\" The fates of the U.S., Brazil, and Cuba were linked inextricably as a result, for a setback in one could lead to catastrophes in the others. Calhoun repeatedly referred to these three nations as if they were one unit.\n\nAs he saw it, London's pressure on both Brazil and the U.S. was just part of an elaborate plot to \"maintain its preeminence\" by undermining its rivals. London was contemplating \"force\" and this \"blow\" would \"first be struck at the [U.S.], Brazil and other slaveholding countries\"\u2014and the \"reason\" was \"obvious,\" i.e., \"to give her a monopoly of the great staples they produce, and through them, a monopoly of the trade of the world.\" Since its abolitionist measures of the 1830s, London could not compete with slave labor and, thus, was compelled to extinguish human bondage altogether\u2014or so thought Calhoun. \"Let England succeed with Brazil\" with its anti-bondage pressure and next \"she will coerce emancipation in Cuba,\" then the U.S, thought the Dixie diplomat, Duff Green. Their ideological counteroffensive \"should raise the banner of free trade,\" even then the trump card of economic arguments.\n\n\"Now is the time,\" Green exhorted, \"to make common cause with Brazil & Cuba,\" the other recipient of human contraband. He instructed Secretary of State Abel P. Upshur that the \"position which England has assumed toward Brazil\" was \"conclusive argument why the United States and Brazil should act together against\" England. Simple survival was at stake since Brazil and the Slave South \"were producing cotton, sugar and other staples cheaper than the British West Indian colonies,\" which impelled the U.K. to destroy both. Green was not content with issuing spirited exhortations, as he lobbied vigorously against global treaties against the slave trade, particularly in France where his influence was greatest, and invoked Brazil as the reason. He was outraged by London's effort in pushing the so-called Quintuple Treaty of 1841, designed to hamper the illicit trade and went further to urge Abel P. Upshur to \"prepare for war\" with Britain and pressed President Tyler to whip up public sentiment similarly. The U.S. legation in Rio de Janeiro echoed these claims, arguing that London's representatives there were \"what would be termed [in] the United States 'abolitionists'\"\u2014then a hated term\u2014which, it was said, \"has made the very name of an Englishman odious to the people of this country.\"\n\nWhite Southerners were not the only U.S. nationals opposed to London's efforts to halt slave traffic between Africa and Brazil. Lewis Cass of the State Department was a Michigander and he too took exception to these multilateral treaties cooked up in London, though his motivation was less sympathy for bondage than concern about sovereignty in the face of the entreaties of a former colonizer, or so he suggested.\n\nMeanwhile, U.S. ships were inundating Brazil, some engaged in ordinary trade\u2014some of which was of strategic importance to North America\u2014and many others depositing enslaved Africans on the shore, while others were being sold for this same illegal purpose. \"The United States trade with Rio de Janeiro is considerable,\" concluded one analyst in 1838. At that juncture, goods from Richmond exceeded those from New York by a factor of four and actually doubled that from Lisbon. Similarly goods from Richmond far exceeded those from Baltimore and Boston (of course, if profits from the illegal slave trade had been factored in along with questionable transfers of vessels, trade with the Northern U.S. would have been much more substantial).\n\nMargaret Lockhard Davis, writing from Pernambuco, was happy to tell her \"dear father\" in 1843 that \"we have had a number of Salem men here within a few months.... it makes it very pleasant for us to see people from our own native spot.\" Similarly satisfying was her residence, \"about two & half miles from the city, a delightful spot surrounded by pleasant fields\" with \"an English family side of us.\" In 1849, Chaplin Conway of Massachusetts had only been in Bahia for \"30 days\" before concluding that this was \"the worst place that I have seen ... in all my going to Brazils [ _sic_ ]\"; one reason was clear: \"they say that there is [ _sic_ ] 20 Negroes to one white person\" and \"there has arrived since I have been here two or three Cargoes of Negroes from the coast of Africa.\"\n\nThe torrent of Africans streaming into Brazil was hard to ignore, which could make the reverie of a Ms. Davis less pleasant if they were ever moved to revolt. This human flood captured the attention of Reverend Pasco G. Hill, who had spent almost two months in Mozambique before arriving in Rio de Janeiro in the early 1840s. \"I attended one of the slave auctions,\" he wrote morosely speaking of this boomtown; there were \"about twenty five of both sexes ... seated on benches behind a long table, which as each in turn ascended to be better viewed by the bidders, a sullenness of look seemed to express their feeling of degradation in being thus put up to sale.\"\n\nThe presence of these U.S. nationals reflected the fact\u2014as U.S. Secretary of State, Abel P. Upshur, was informed\u2014that by 1843, \"the American arrivals\" of vessels in Rio \"have been greater than ever known\" and from 1840 to 1845, the number of U.S. ships sold in this thriving metropolis increased sixteenfold, with most having been registered previously in New York, Baltimore, and Nantucket and with many intended for the slave trade. This steady traffic of U.S. vessels south was thought by London to be impelled by purposes less than benign. Concern was raised about the \"practice ... adopted by the United States Consul at Rio de Janeiro of granting 'sea letters' to American vessels, which as was clearly pointed out ... affords such great facilities to the operations of Slave Traders.\"\n\nInterestingly, the number of U.S. ships departing Rio for Africa was also increasing sharply, along with the number of U.S. ships arriving in Rio from Africa, particularly from the rich slave-hunting grounds that were the Portuguese colonies of Angola and Mozambique. The U.S. emissary in Rio, George Gordon, confessed in 1845 that \"a man could not be in Rio de Janeiro two days without knowing that all trade between Brazil and the coast of Africa was either directly or indirectly in aid or abetment of the slave trade [and] consequently unlawful\" and this was not taking account of U.S. ships arriving further south which were also thought to be smuggling Africans into Brazil.\n\nThe very construction of ships in itself was bringing handsome profits to the U.S. Hundreds of persons were required to construct and prepare a vessel for a voyage to the African coast, including countless numbers of carpenters, chandlers, coopers, sparmakers, and sailmakers. The U.S. \"became the world leader in the construction and use of fast-sailing vessels in the illicit slave trade.... Baltimore shipyards led the United States in construction of fast-sailing vessels for the international slave trade,\" while \"the true masters of the construction of slave trading craft were located in the most northern state in New England, Maine.\" Shipbuilders in this latter state \"constructed more vessels for use in the international slave trade than did Chesapeake shipyards.\" U.S. nationals \"earned enormous profits from the sale of both new and used U.S. craft to slave traders.\" Thus, in June 1845, a \"Brazilian slave trader offered Sammuel [ _sic_ ] Dewing, captain of the U.S. merchant ship _Leader_ from Boston, $9000 for the craft. Another slave trader in Rio de Janeiro offered him $12,000 to sell the _Leader_ into the slave trade.\" James Potter of Providence \"offered to sell his 407 ton _Panther_ to the Brazilian Manuel Fonseca in Rio de Janeiro for $25,000.... in 1843 the U.S. Brig _Agnes_ sailed to Rio de Janeiro and a British broker named Mr. Wetman chartered the craft to the notorious Brazilian slave trader\" Fonseca. Numerous such transactions occurred.\n\nThe open and notorious involvement of those from the U.S. North in the African Slave Trade\u2014though the most vigorous defense of enslavement itself emerged from those from the South, like Calhoun and Green\u2014made it difficult for the international community to make crucial distinctions between these two regions, which complicated further Washington's attempt to bar secession. An Irish member of the British Parliament summarized the feelings of many when he said that \"'it was notorious that the real traffickers in the flesh and blood of their fellow men were citizens of the Northern States. It was in Yankee ships, floated by Yankee capital, commanded by Yankee skippers, sailing forth on their abominable errand with the connivance of bribed Yankee authorities that this work of the devil was carried on.'\"\n\nIt was understandable that such heated remarks would be made in London for British diplomats were carefully scrutinizing the role of U.S. nationals in the African Slave Trade and they were displeased with what they saw. Their Consul in Rio de Janeiro, Robert Hesketh, observed in 1847 that \"American vessels adapted for the slave trade are continually brought to this port and sold to the slave traders\" which was why \"the influx of African slaves was so great during the latter part of 1846 that it occasioned a glut in the market.\" In fact, \"every succeeding year more plainly shows than at Rio Janeiro [ _sic_ ] and its vicinity, the head-quarters of Brazilian slave trade are established\"\u2014the city was \"one large slave market.\" This was skewing the economy since \"the agricultural class continues its ruinous system of paying more for slave labour than the net produce of their crops can bear.\" His colleague, J. J. C. Westwood was of like mind, asserting that the U.S. \"flag affords in every way the greatest protection of the Slave Trade\" with record numbers of Africans arriving which led to a \"decline in the price.... as the planters are seldom able to pay ready money, slave dealers supply them with slaves to work their estates at much higher rates, at one, two, and even four years credit, taking as security for ultimate payment, mortgages on the estates; and in this manner the slave-traders hold the agricultural proprietary body at their mercy and under their control\"\u2014which was also enriching mortgage-holders, who often were U.S. nationals or tied to them.\n\nSome U.S. diplomats in Rio de Janeiro knew that their countrymen were spearheading this bloody trade in the 1840s when it was escalating. \"'I regret to say this,'\" exclaimed David Tod, \"'but it is a fact not to be disguised or denied, that the slave trade is almost entirely carried on under our flag, in American-built vessels, sold to slave traders here, chartered for the coast of Africa, and there sold, or sold here, delivered on the coast.'\" The \"'entire trade carried on in American vessels between Brazil and Africa, is directly or indirectly connected with the slave traffic.' \"\n\nThere was a U.S. naval squadron patrolling off the coast of Brazil but it was a maritime version of the Keystone Kops, totally ineffectual, wracked with problems of various sorts. Hence, \"the proportion of slaves landed in Brazil in vessels which were or had been or were pretending to be American rose steadily during the late forties from 20% in 1848 (itself a remarkable figure) to almost 50% in 1850.\" Indeed, \"it seems certain that the volume of slave trade to Brazil, Cuba and the United States was far greater during the period of the Anti-Slavery Squadron than before 1807.\"\n\nA typical event occurred when \"midshipman Edward Henshaw was admitted on the Sick Report of this ship with mental derangement\" and \"threatening violence to himself and to those about him.\" It was recommended that he be sent back home because of his \"feeble health.\" His colleague, \"Midshipman Edward Hopkins\" wanted to return home \"on [the] first vessel\" and needed \"sufficient funds\" to \"pay to settle my debts honorably.\" The \"amount\" was \"nearly four months pay, say $150.00.\" An emblematic maritime roustabout, Hopkins was accused of \"using personal violence\" against those around him and other forms of \"conduct\" that were \"outrageous.\" He was not alone. There was, for example, \"a seaman of the name of Thomas Williams,\" a \"notorious thief and in other respects a man of infamous character.\" His commanding officer \"refused to take him back\" and wanted to \"return\" him to the U.S. or \"discharge\" him.\n\nOne time, according to the U.S. Minister in Rio, a boatload of Africans arrived in Liberia on a navy ship led by a captain \"so unfit for duty from drunkenness\" he was hardly coherent. \"There was no proper authority exercised to prevent the hungry & thirsty wretches from eating the raw beef & beans on board; thus for several days there was nothing cooked for them & they were totally neglected. No less than about 150 died in the course of about 14 days.\" It was \"better to have allowed them to be enslaved in Brazil,\" he concluded ruefully: this was \"disgraceful to our naval service.\"\n\nThere was a \"number of cases of smallpox\" aboard ship, which did not improve the demeanor of the seamen or their willingness to stay the rocky course. \"Illness\" was said to be spread if not caused by \"the confinement of a small vessel\" in this often insalubrious \"climate\"; this commander wanted Washington to \"relieve me from the command of this vessel\" so he could \"return to the United States.\" Illness, in fact, was evidently a factor in explaining the often demented madness of seamen and slave ship crews alike. The U.S. military at this time was not attracting the most wholesome of recruits and this certainly hindered their ability to execute a difficult task under the best of circumstances\u2014halting a fleet of devious, at times well-armed, slave ships.\n\nBesides, the U.S. Navy also had to spend a considerable amount of time defending U.S. business interests in a region wracked with turmoil in the best of times, not to mention dodging all manner of hazards while ashore\u2014sometimes from angry Negroes: this too complicated their ability to monitor slavers. There were thousands of miles of coastline to cover, in any case; thus, in the slave center of Pernambuco where \"political intrigues\" had \"led to violent animosities\" with \"much bloodshed and destruction of property,\" by mid-1845, it had been \"more than a year since any American ship of war\" had been there; in fact, for the longest they had seen \"no armed vessel of any nation ... on this part of the coast,\" which was unusual in a region festooned with \"men-of-war\" from Britain, France, and elsewhere. Furthermore, it was hard to develop intelligence sources among the locals; thus, in Bahia there was a \"very strong prejudice against\" the U.S. Consul, because of his \"opposition to the views these people have in regards to the slave trade.\" A goodly number of U.S. nationals in Bahia were likewise opposed to this abolitionist-minded diplomat. Similarly, in Rio de Janeiro, a beleaguered U.S. diplomat complained that \"in a city like this where the slave trade interest has a powerful ascendancy over all, it is apparent that any valuable information I receive must be received by me confidentially or not at all.\" The environment was so unforgiving that the legation and the naval squadron faced severe problems in \"the conveyance of correspondence and letters,\" which was \"unsafe. The usual channels of communication having been dishonored: letters having been taken out and others delayed.\"\n\nOccasionally, amid the chaos, the \"Brazil Squadron\" of the U.S. Navy had the opportunity to keep an eye on slavers, which were circling from the Indian Ocean and navigating the Atlantic\u2014or at times traversing the Pacific to reach Brazil.\n\nIn 1840, Sandwith Drinker was in faraway Zanzibar, yet he \"expressed surprise\" that \"none others but Salem vessels had visited\" this island slave mart off the coast of southeast Africa. Naturally, he visited the local slave bazaar to inspect the merchandise. The U.S. Consul there, Charles Ward, also had Salem roots\u2014but diplomacy was not his only capacity there as he was also a \"merchant conducting business\" who often approached the ruling \"His Highness, the Sultan of Muscat ... not in my official capacity\" but as a businessman, a development that could spawn conflicts of interest just as it could spawn opportunities. Cotton grown in the Slave South was sold there, \"bought by the natives for the coast trade and in return all the ivory, gum, copal, hides, etc. are brought to Zanzibar\"; though \"the natives [were] treacherous,\" Zanzibar was an \"important place of trade.\"\n\nIn the same year that Sandwith Drinker made it to Zanzibar, Thomas Nalle of a leading slaveholding family of Virginia was with the U.S. brig \"Dolphin\" in West Africa, near Cape Mesurado. \"There are more than two hundred thousand slaves carried annually from this coast to the West Indies and South America,\" he alleged. \"I have no doubt that many are smuggled into the United States,\" he added, not least since this business was so profitable: \"a noted slave dealer on this coast by the name of Pedro Blanco, a Spaniard, has lately retired from his Occupation with a capital of four millions of dollars.\" Joel Abbot of the U.S. ship \"Decatur,\" writing from Port Praya, could not help but notice \"the many cases of American vessels bringing out slave cargoes on freight to slave merchants at slave marts, and some with evident previous arrangements for the sale of their vessels, having brought out as passengers the officers that were to take charge after the change of national character and who would, if nothing occurred to prevent, carry away a cargo of slaves under another flag and ownership.\" \"If they succeed in landing in the West Indies or Brazil one cargo of slaves in three that may be embarked from the coast,\" it was said, \"their gains are sufficient to induce them to persevere.\" This profit was encouraging U.S. nationals to move from simply supplying ships to captaining them. \"The slave trade ... has increased within a year or two to a great extent,\" said the U.S. Consul in Rio de Janeiro glumly, and \"in some cases it has been carried on by Americans in American vessels.\" There was \"John Miller of New York,\" for example: \"I have no faith,\" he added, \"that the government here will aid me in bringing Miller or any other slaver to justice.\" There was \"the 'Fame,'\" a \"whaler from New London,\" which \"came into this port from the Pacific Ocean.\" The Consul \"afterwards learned that\" this ship \"landed over seven hundred slaves to the eastward of Cape Frio\" and had \"cleared about 40,000 dollars by the voyage.\" But the U.S. had only \"one frigate and one brig\" to patrol a huge area and was unable to respond effectively.\n\nA number of these U.S. citizens involved in the African Slave Trade were newly naturalized, e.g., the \"Frenchman by birth,\" Lewis Krafft, who gained his citizenship in March 1847\u2014before being accused of slave trading in 1848. Born in Paris in 1811, he arrived in Manhattan in 1826 where he became a sailor, traveling frequently to Cuba and Louisiana, before arriving in Rio as the illegal slave trade was heating up in 1843. He had been a \"clerk in a slave factory on the coast of Africa\" and now had \"connexions [ _sic_ ]\" in Brazil \"wholly with slave dealers, such as Bernardino de Sa, who ranks second only to Manoel Pinto da Fonseca in this country and perhaps the world.\" His travels were dizzying, going from Havana to New Orleans and back routinely and \"from Havana to Cape de Verd[e]; thence to Sierra Leone; thence to Maxumbia; thence to Loango; thence to Cabinda; thence to Ambriz; thence to Loanda; thence back to Ambriz [ _sic_ ]\"\u2014then to Brazil.\n\nAs Britain cracked down, slave trading became more and more a \"'big business'\"\u2014a transnational business, in fact, that demanded heavy travel\u2014with \"large firms owning fleets of vessels and secretly condoned by their governments.\" The Royal Navy's labors \"gradually weeded out the law-abiding and the faint-hearted. It left the business to tough and desperate men, those who were prepared to fight their way through the navy patrol\"\u2014or dodge them through dizzying travels; these were \"ne'er-do-wells, thugs, and impoverished multinationals.\"\n\nYet, with all their ministrations, the Royal Navy\u2014limited in its right to board and search ships flying the Stars and Stripes\u2014often seemed like a besieged team of firefighters in a town beset by expert arsonists. \"A very great portion of the Slave Trade, particularly from Cabinda, is now carried on under the protection of the American flag, with impunity,\" it was said in 1845. Where were these enslaved Africans arriving? \"At no period,\" said London, \"has the Brazilian Slave Trade been so extensively carried on as it is at the present moment in Rio de Janeiro itself,\" while \"United States vessels and crew have of late been made subservient to the purposes of the Brazilian slave dealers.\" Moreover, even Spanish ships and vessels of other nations were sailing out of U.S. ports because of the extreme laxity in enforcing laws against the trade and, perhaps inevitably, there was a spillover of this commerce into North America itself, a process facilitated by, e.g., the \"formation of a secret society in Galveston for the express purpose of upholding slavery and putting down its opponents,\" led by chiefs of \"slave trading transactions.\"\n\nAlso in 1845, \"nefarious practices of American vessels\" were denounced by one British official: \"this evil has much increased since ... last year, as many more vessels, protected by American papers, have sailed with slaves from the coast this year than last, and [we] fear, if not checked by our squadron, it must still further increase to an enormous extent, as it is under the American flag alone that they can now carry on this trade with impunity and but few of the United States Squadron have ever visited the south coast; and those that have, appear to have studiously avoided touching at Cabinda, the chief port where these practices are carried. Besides the American vessels bought by the Spanish and Brazilians, as slave vessels, there are many other American vessels, that are chartered exclusively to bring a full cargo of slave goods from Rio Janeiro [ _sic_ ] to Cabinda.\" These were mostly from Baltimore, Philadelphia, and Boston.\n\nBut what seemed to particularly gall these U.S. captains, besides the indignity of being boarded and searched by the Royal Navy, was _who_ was involved. The U.S. flagged ship \"Cyrus\" out of New Orleans was detained by the British \"five miles off Cabinda.\" It was a \"slaving vessel ... filled with slaves\" according to London's officer. But what seemed to particularly grate on the nerves of Captain P. C. Dumas of the detained vessel\u2014\"the American flag has been insulted,\" he charged hotly\u2014was that \"four Negro sailors\" from Britain were involved. The \"British Captain, officer and Negroes had trampled on the American flag, broke my trunk open and took away my papers,\" which supposedly left the crew \"exposed to be robbed by the natives of Cabinda.\" Apparently Dumas's destination was Rio de Janeiro. But London had reason to be aggressive in its approach for like filings to a magnet, U.S. slavers were flocking to the beleaguered continent in the mid-1840s to buy and kidnap Africans.\n\nThe illicit slave trade to Brazil that was being engineered significantly by U.S. nationals was taking on the earmarks of big business and, consequently, was also attracting European men who sought to engage in this lucrative commerce and were not adverse to taking on U.S. citizenship as a result. The U.S. nationals in the navy whose task was to crackdown on this business were notably inept, which was not surprising given the influence of men like John C. Calhoun in Washington. Yet, there was no unanimity of opinion among U.S. elite circles on the necessity of this odious trafficking in humans. Certainly, the eminent Henry Wise of Virginia, the tormenter of John Brown, was a stern critic of this business.\n\nHenry Alexander Wise. Before serving as governor of Virginia from 1856 to 1860 (a tenure that included the authorization of John Brown's execution), Wise was the chief U.S. diplomat in Brazil during the 1840s when the illicit slave trade there was escalating. Courtesy Library of Congress.\n\n## **4  \nWise?**\n\nThe illicit slave trade to Brazil did not easily coexist with simple notions of a rapacious Slave South hell-bent on dragging more Africans across the Atlantic into slavery and a pious abolitionist North determined to thwart their schemes. Such an analysis hardly explains the activities of the Virginian, Henry Wise, during his tenure as a U.S. diplomat in Brazil. Still, he was one of a number of U.S. nationals who resided in this South American nation during a time when enslaved Africans were arriving in enormous numbers and their reaction to this phenomenon inevitably had an impact on how the peculiar institution itself was received in the U.S.\n\nHenry A. Wise was no abolitionist\u2014though he was influential, having considered a race for the presidency in 1856. As a Congressman, he avowed that if Washington \"began to discuss ending slavery in the District [of Columbia] he would 'go home ... never to return.'\" Slavery, he thought, was \"'interwoven with our very political existence, is guaranteed by our Constitution, and its consequences must be borne by our northern brethren as resulting from our system of government, and they cannot attack the system of slavery without attacking the institutions of our country, our safety and our welfare.'\" John Quincy Adams was among the many northerners Wise despised, in this case because he felt this patrician was not sufficiently hostile to Haiti. He occasionally described Negroes as \"'wooly headed,' 'splay footed' and 'odiferous,'\" while \"his slaveholdings expanded during the 1840s.\" He was a fervent advocate of the supposed benefits of slavery, declaring that \"'whenever black existed ... there was found at least equality among the white population.'\"\n\nIf Wise is recalled at all today, it is as the man responsible, as Governor of Virginia, for executing John Brown in 1859, viewed widely among Euro-Americans as a criminal for leading a bloody revolt against slavery at Harper's Ferry. Wise was single-minded about what should befall the captured Brown, not least since he was gravely concerned about what signal to slavery his uprising wrought. \"The very sympathy with John Brown,\" exclaimed Governor Wise, \"so general, so fanatical, so regardless of social safety, & so irreverent of the reign of law, demands his execution, if sentenced by the courts. The law he insulted & outraged are now protecting all his rights of defence and all his claims to mercy.\" So moved, the last act of his administration was the hanging of Brown and his followers. Wise went on to join secession and become a \"General in the Confederate army.\" Unsurprisingly, this \"swashbuckling defender of slavery's interests\" was \"one of those present at Appomatox Courthouse when Lee surrendered to Grant.\"\n\nYet, scholar Mary Catherine Karasch is no doubt correct in suggesting that Wise's \"consular reports,\" while serving as Minister to Brazil, \"provide the best ... descriptions\" of slave trading to South America. Historian Don E. Fehrenbacher concurs, noting that Wise \"antagonized ... the American business community in Rio\" with his fervor against the slave trade. His fiery denunciations of slavers could be seen as self-interested, in that many in Virginia saw this state as a prime source for slave exporters to the point where his compatriot, Matthew Fontaine Maury, envisioned sending Afro-Virginians all the way down the river to settle and develop the Amazon region of Brazil. After all, there was an analytical distinction between slavery and the slave trade\u2014the latter could in certain instances reduce the value of existing slaveholdings by increasing supply.\n\nIt was Wise who deemed abolitionism to be \"sedition\" and agreed with placing \"abolitionists in a position of embarrassment, from which they cannot easily escape.\" It was Wise who in campaigning for James Buchanan in his race for the presidency chortled that in Virginia \"we now get a thousand dollars for a sound slave\" and \"we would then have gotten from three to five thousand dollars for an operative in the gold mines of California.\" \"War\" with Britain, he thought, would be \"dangerous to the slave breeding states\" of which his dominion was paramount, as it might disrupt this profitable business; \"it would be an act of folly or crime, or a blunder worse than crime.\" Thus, Buchanan was \"the choice of the Virginia Slave Breeders,\" whose champion Wise was. Nevertheless, it was Henry Wise who hailed from an affluent family\u2014his father was a lawyer\u2014that raised a clarion call against the invasion of slavers from his homeland at a time when some of his countrymen in both the U.S. and the Slave South would have preferred that he had done otherwise. In detailing Wise's tenure in Brazil in the 1840s when enslaved Africans were arriving in significant numbers, this chapter seeks to suggest not only that pro-slavery and anti\u2013slave trade postures could coexist in one person but, by inference, this also underscores the importance of Maury's plan to ship enslaved U.S. Negroes to Brazil, which obviated the need for the illicit slave trade that Wise railed so vehemently against.\n\nWise took particular umbrage at London's pressure on the illicit slave trade, assuming\u2014perhaps correctly\u2014that it was a short step from there to objecting to slavery itself. Moreover, Wise's attempt to deflect anger about the slave trade to London and the wider U.S. concern that increasing the number of Africans in Brazil could reproduce a Haiti\u2014except on a much wider scale\u2014also points to how transatlantic and hemispheric concerns influenced the discourse on slavery and the slave trade in the U.S. Wise's recall from Brazil reflected a hardening of the posture of the Slave South, which theretofore had tolerated anti\u2013slave trade views that created openings, it came to be seen, for abolitionist views. In this sense, the end of Wise's quixotic and flailing tenure in Brazil represented yet another step toward Civil War.\n\nWise was not an intimidating physical presence. He was \"remarkably lean\"\u20145\u203211\u2033 and a mere 130 pounds\u2014and was \"originally fair skinned\" but probably because of exposure to the piercing sun rays during Virginia summers became progressively \"swarthy.\" His hair was a \"light auburn\"\u2014and \"when young, almost flaxen\"\u2014which he \"generally\" wore \"long and behind his ears.\" His head was \"large with great depth between the temples,\" his \"forehead\" low but \"broad\" and his \"eyes large, gray and deep set, arched by a heavy and remarkably expressive brown\"; his nose was \"large and prominent,\" his mouth \"capacious,\" his lips \"rather thick,\" his jaws \"lank and florid,\" his chin \"broad and prominent\" with a furrow \"from the center downwards.\" He possessed \"manly and defiant features\" that were accentuated by the fact that he was an \"excessive chewer of tobacco,\" though he \"never\" smoked and \"rarely\" drank \"anything of an alcoholic character.\" He was \"remarkably abstemious.\" As he grew older he had begun to \"stoop a little\" and since \"upon the whole\" he was \"not a handsome man,\" this latter characteristic became more pronounced during his dotage. Politically, besides being a leading Confederate, in the antebellum era he was fiercely opposed to the Know-Nothing Party. He was more qualified than most for his post in Brazil, since \"he read French and understood a smattering of Spanish\"\u2014but, typically, \"no Portuguese.\" He was also feisty, at one point \"Richmond friends\" of his were \"suffering great anxiety for a day or two on your account occasioned by rumours of differences between yourself and another gentleman which might possibly end in a duel!\"\n\nPolitically, he was also well connected, although when his name was sent to the United States Senate in 1842 for the \"mission to France,\" a \"Whig Senate rejected him.\" He obtained a congressional seat nonetheless in 1843, then \"it was discovered\" that the health of the frail Wise \"was giving away rapidly from the constant excitement of about ten years. Consequently, his friends sent his name again to the Senate for the court of Rio Janeiro\" [ _sic_ ]. He was approved this time and in May 1844 sailed southward and did not return until October 1847. It turned out that he found just about all the excitement he needed in monitoring and combating the incursion of U.S. slavers.\n\nWise, who was \"one of [President] Tyler's best friends,\" apparently \"was not instructed at all\" about the African Slave Trade in Brazil before departing. And even though he was a stern critic of this business \"he did not call on Congress for more severe legislation\"; instead and in tune with prevailing mores, he \"blamed the British for their share in the traffic\" and \"reiterated Calhoun's accusation\" that London's \"apprenticeship system imposed on freed slaves,\" along with Africans heading for slavery but captured on the open seas, \"was nothing but a perpetuation of the slave trade in another form.\" Still, despite his toeing the ideological line, his patron, John C. Calhoun of the fire-eating state of South Carolina, was \"highly dissatisfied with the Minister's reports\" from Rio de Janeiro though Wise \"had been instrumental in making him Secretary of State.\" Yet, since Wise was a major player in Virginia and national politics and \"could become important in the race for the presidency in 1848,\" Calhoun \"recommended to the new administration that Wise be maintained as Minister to Brazil.\"\n\nThis was not as difficult a decision for the White House as it may appear since Wise did stress, quite fashionably, hostility to London's stopping and detaining U.S. ships\u2014\"Great Britain had no right to exercise any authority\" in this sphere, he thought\u2014and sought at least verbally to stress Brazil's supposed \"partiality to the U.S.,\" which was \"apparent\" and \"no less manifest in their distrust of Great Britain.\"\n\nNevertheless, one of his initial maneuvers was seeking to break the long-standing link between serving as a U.S. diplomat while engaging in slave trading: he pushed the \"revocation of the appointment of a Brazilian citizen named Souto as Vice Consul of the U.S. at Victoria for the Province of Espirito Santo\" since \"this man, it seems, is a very prince of slave-dealers and has actually.... been using his pretended office under the U. States [ _sic_ ] for the purpose of aiding and abetting the slave-trade.\" His colleague in Brazil, George Gordon, a Massachusetts politician, reflected this biregional approach when he pursued slavers with equal vigor, finding their \"manner of prosecuting the Slave Trade upon the coast of Africa ... truly astonishing ... particularly in regard to the connection of American citizens therewith, and the use and prostitution of the American flag in furtherance thereof.\"\n\nBut this repetitively expressed anger aside, the Wise-led legation in Rio de Janeiro stressed with similar repetition, \"interference by Great Britain,\" not only with \"this subject of the slave trade\" but also with the more sensitive issue of \"domestic slavery in the U. States [ _sic_ ].\" London's crusade ineluctably had led it to consider the spillover of this global business into the U.S. itself, which impelled it to look at what was thought to be the major prop of this commerce, i.e., slavery in the U.S. But for Wise this was \"our most delicate of domestic institutions, the most sensitive to foreign intrusion.\" \"Now what can this mean?\" he asked Calhoun imploringly. Why was the British Consul in Mobile saying, \"'there is no known party'\" of abolition [emphasis-original]. Was \"this a permissible [function] of a British legation in the U.S.?\" This was outrageous, he thought. \"They pry into _the treatment of the slaves by their private owners, into the food and raiment, into the disposition of masters to manumit them_ \" [emphasis-original]. \"Ought this to be suffered,\" he asked, \"at a time when insurrection and massacre are set on foot in the neighboring island of Cuba\"\u2014not to mention Brazil where the contagion could also spread. Thoughtfully, Wise attached a letter from the British Foreign Office asking pointed questions about slavery in the U.S. itself\u2014including the sensitive inquiry of details about imports of slaves from Africa itself.\n\nBurnishing his fashionable anti-London credentials, Wise told Calhoun that \"to some my letter may appear to partake of the tone of the partisan against Great Britain\"; well, he said, \"I am willing that it should so appear.\" As for a U.S. national detained by the British for involvement in the trade, Wise was \"fully convinced that the case was one of great outrage upon the flag & commerce of the U. States, in any & every aspect in which it can be viewed.... Great Britain had no right,\" he insisted fervently, \"to exercise any authority whatever over him or his vessel.\" In fact, he continued, \"the attempt on the part of Great Britain to subject our vessels to her acts of visit or search, was among other causes an obstacle to any successful suppression of the African slave trade.\" He was willing to propose a compromise with London in that the U.S. would \"waive all claim to their right of search of U. States vessels; and would no longer pay bounties of so many pound sterling per capita for every recaptured African to the officers of her cruisers,\" if \"the British government would cease itself to partake in some sense of the slave trade\" by \"carrying every captured slave into her colonies.\" Like many in the Slave South, Wise was worried that London's seizing of slave ships and diverting Africans to their colonies as apprentices was little more than warfare against slavery as practiced in the troika of the U.S., Brazil, and Cuba and a boost for their own colonies in the global competition to dominate the production of key agricultural crops. \"Is it not in fact a part of the slave trade to take them away from their own country, without their consent, to bind them out under a system of apprenticeship?\"\u2014since \"they may be lawfully held in bondage for a term of 5 or 10 years, why not for 50 or 100 years or any period beyond the duration of human life?\" Instead, Wise \"urged that moral means were much preferable to physical force\" in handling the trade. The U.S. was banking on Brazil reacting similarly to British meddling, which \"gives the impression at least of a foreign government overruling the domestic concern & interfering ostentatiously with matters purely local or municipal.\"\n\nBut it would be unwise to stress unduly this questionable aspect of the U.S. Minister's mission in Brazil. For he did have the gumption to tell Calhoun bluntly that \"the African slave trade 'thickens around us' and we are trading on its dragon teeth.\" The \"only effectual mode of carrying on that trade between Africa and Brazil, at present,\" he stressed, \"involves _our laws and our moral responsibilities_ as directly and fully as it does those of this country itself,\" meaning Brazil [emphasis-original]. In fact, he emphasized, \"without the aid of our citizens and our flag, it could not be carried on with success at all.\" This \"trade between Africa and Brazil\" was \"almost the only trade of the world left in which our citizens and vessels can now violate our laws for the suppression of the foreign slave trade.\" The \"number of slaves imported from Africa into Brazil during 1844, was at least 64,000,\" he claimed.\n\nNot only was Wise willing to cross swords with powerful forces back home who were displeased with his hostility to the trade, but he also managed to incur the hostility of some Brazilians. One of the chief slave-dealers, Manuel Pinto da Fonseca, was according to Wise, \"said to be actually engaged to be married to a daughter of one of the Ministers and he is also the intimate friend of the most influential person in the government\"\u2014none of whom were happy with Wise's demarches. The \"'secretaria'\" of the \"court police,\" Joaquim Jose Moreira Maia, for example, was upset with Wise's \"irregular conduct\" in detaining U.S. nationals on Brazilian soil then sending them back home for trial.\n\nThere was repeated \"abuse\" of him in the \"newspapers\" in Brazil, and \"petty slights of not inviting me to court,\" he added, which was not an imposition since \"the only reward for going ... on a hot day in a hot uniform is to make three bows forward and three bows backward and then 'bob out [of the] Imperial presence.' My Republican heart was glad to be relieved from this _only_ court duty which I have ever seen here prescribed or followed\" [emphasis-original].\n\nThere were a number of reasons for Wise to be so confrontational. His critics thought that Virginians generally had a material basis for their self-righteousness about the trade, given this state's own role as an exporter of Africans. Flooding the hemisphere with Africans\u2014particularly when they were growing crops that could be equally grown in the Slave South, e.g., sugar in Louisiana\u2014could drive down the price of African sales and, perhaps, crop sales also in the U.S. itself. There was also concern that Brazil could become a second Haiti, only bigger and more dangerous, if the number of Africans there increased\u2014and this could have potentially devastating impact on the long-term viability of the Slave South.\n\nWhile Wise ran the risk of harming relations with Brazil, simple diplomatic statecraft suggested that this nation's conflicts with Britain should be tailor-made for an alliance with the U.S. \"It was but yesterday,\" said Wise, that he \"had to dispatch ... a cutter to look out for an American barque which had the night before landed 450 slaves within cannonshot of this harbor!\" i.e., Rio de Janeiro. \"The Minister and Counsellors of state and Senators and delegates in the legislative chambers\" were \"undoubtedly engaged in this bold ... horrid traffic\" and the \"principal capitalists\" involved were \"the owners of the newspapers ... in this city\"\u2014and they were hardly pleased with his opposition to this dirty business. In the sunset of his life, Wise recalled ruefully that \"almost every one (excluding the Emperor ... and a few honorable men) was interested in the trade. Cabinet Ministers, Judges and minor authorities of every kind were guilty of participation or connivance\" and he \"had disturbed a hornet's nest\" with his angry lobbying against slavers. \"He soon became the most unpopular man in Rio de Janeiro and every possible annoyance was received by him from both Government and people\" and \"finally the Government ceased all diplomatic relations with him.\" President Polk would not relieve him but the isolated Wise was obliged to leave his post nonetheless.\n\nYet this baring of fangs in Brazil hardly compared to the hostility that Wise faced back home. \"I know very well,\" he admitted, \"the very strong representations from certain parties against me.\" These were \"the slave-trade vessel owners of the Northern cities. I have exposed their abominable traffic here and have severely shocked its profits if not its conscience. Out of 22 vessels of our merchant marine engaged in the African trade between the coast & Brazil since 1845,\" he charged, \"but four hail south of Philadelphia\" and these \"were from Baltimore. The Agnes, which was sold on the coast and brought over about [600] slaves was owned by a Quaker of Delaware who would not even eat slave sugar,\" while \"the owner of the 'Herschel,' a vessel which has made several trips to the coast under the charter party of notorious slave-traders here, is also an owner of an abolition newspaper in Bangor, Maine. His name is Dow. In public I am told he rebuked his [captain] for engaging in such a charter, and in private told him to do so again, as it was very profitable. He is the owner of the 'Amelia' ... & gave instructions ... to charter her also lately for the coast.\" As Wise saw it, history was repeating itself. These damned Yankees were \"now doing for Brazil\" what they \"did for Virginia and the other Southern states in N. America\"\u2014\"carrying the slave cargoes from Africa under the protection of the U. States flag; with the additional evil to us at this day that they are thus affording the only good cause upon earth to the English to search our vessels\" which \"at the very moment they would plunge us into a war with Gt. Britain under the expectation of compelling emancipation in the southern states by the treaty-making power & by the black regiment of Jamaica. This actual & potential interest has been secretly exerting all its influence to cause my recall,\" he complained. \"It won't show its own face in the attempt but avails itself of every collateral pretext & agency in its reach.\" The \"miserable ex-Consul here [George] Gordon,\" a Massachusetts member of the party he despised, the \"Know-Nothings,\" was \"induced\" by his \"neighbors and friends in Boston and by the hope that a quarrel with me would be acceptable to [President] Polk\" and also with the powerful \"Prince of slave-dealers in Rio, Manoel Pinto da Fonseca & his company,\" to \"forward a regular budget of slander against\" Wise to Washington. \"He got many of the merchant captains, I am told, to sign affidavits that I was bent on destroying all American trade to Africa,\" he asserted, \"and he sent on a mass of such matter & its proof, of which I have never yet read.\" The \"vessel owners and vessel captains desirous to engage in the African trade\" and \"their friends\" were \"conspirators against me,\" said Wise. \"They find a number no doubt in the U. States who are my foes of old, and they find more who desire the place I hold, and these united, and their friends, make a pretty formidable host. Can it be expected that these,\" he asked rhetorically, \"will release their combinations & efforts against me?\" He felt \"grateful to [President] Polk for his magnanimity toward me personally,\" thought Wise but was otherwise convinced that Northern pro-slave trade antagonists were after his scalp.\n\nThis was something of an overstatement. Just as Wise's enmity toward London clouded the point that they were as hostile to the trade\u2014if not more so\u2014as himself, his unfriendliness toward the U.S. North, clouded his view of similarly anti-slaver colleagues, such as George Gordon. Nevertheless, Gordon, like Wise's other detractors, had a hard time quarreling with the Minister's aggressive approach to the role of U.S. nationals in the African Slave Trade to Brazil. It had \"grown so bold and so bad,\" Wise declared shortly after arriving in Rio, \"as no longer to wear a mask even to those who reside here\" and was \"unblushingly carried on by our citizens under our flag.\" However, he did decry Gordon's approach as the \"crying injustice of punishing the poor ignorant officers and crews of merchant ships for high misdemeanors and felonies, when the ship-owners in the United States, and their _American consignees, factors, and agents_ abroad are left almost entirely untouched by penalties\" [emphasis-original]. The latter were disproportionately from the U.S. North, he thought.\n\nWhy were they attracted to this inhuman business? Wise thought he knew. \"The profit of the slave trade, then, may be put down safely at from 600 to 1200 percent,\" he offered. \"This accounts for the enormous prices they pay for vessels and their charters to 'the coast' and for the risks which they can afford to dare in the traffic. The worst of it is, too,\" he added with the air of a man who knew of what he spoke, \"that they import so few females in comparison with the number of males, that the annual increase by propagation in Brazil is not likely, for a long period, to diminish the necessity for additional slaves.\"\n\nThis assumption did not spare him from further scrutiny of the illicit slave trade. Wise was pushed to ask rhetorically of the powerful Baltimore\u2013Rio de Janeiro firm, \"Maxwell, Wright & Co.,\" which was suspected of collaborating with slavers, \"Why I, an American slaveholder, manifest such extraordinary zeal in this subject? The only answer I shall deign to give is, that the fact of my being a slaveholder is itself a pledge and guarantee that I am no _fanatic_ \" [emphasis-original]. Repeatedly he averred that \"I find the same old interest at work here, and now, to fasten American slavery on Brazil, which, in our early history, fastened its condition of a Slave State on Virginia: vessels and capital from precisely the same quarter bring the slaves to this country in this age, which carried them to that country in times past.\" His words dripping with acerbic sarcasm he exclaimed, \"the very lands in the old and new worlds, where 'world conventions' are held, and whence abolition petitions flow, are the lands where there are manufacturers of goods 'fit for the coast,'\" yet they \"'will not eat slave sugar!'\"\n\nWise's Brazilian counterparts in Washington kept a careful eye on his activities. During Wise's tenure, the U.S. was involved in a delicate diplomatic minuet, seeking to win over Brazil as an ally in its ongoing conflict with Britain\u2014but these two nations though at odds about slavery and the slave trade were similarly skeptical of Washington, notably the annexation of Texas and war with Mexico. Hence, Wise's forthrightness about illegal slaving in Brazil was not tailored to appeal to the elites he was lambasting, though this South American nation continued to look to Washington\u2014and not unsuccessfully\u2014for diplomatic support in its conflict with London over the slave trade. Since some powerful U.S. elites were seeking to expand their domestic slave empire by \"establishing a cotton factory in Rio de Janeiro,\" impetus was added to the U.S.-Brazil relationship\u2014Wise's denunciations notwithstanding. This is why during the height of Wise's stay in Rio, one visiting U.S. national found that \"an Englishman is despised in this place. But Americans are beloved & have much attention paid them. Some of our officers having been taken for Englishmen are stoned.\"\n\nBut it was more than Wise that was complicating U.S.-Brazil ties. During the summer of 1847, Jose da Cosat de Rocha arrived in New York City from Rio de Janeiro, accompanied by three enslaved Africans, including \"Maria,\" a \"servant and nurse\" to his \"wife and family.\" Somehow they managed to escape and their case wound up in the Court of Common Pleas where Brazil's Consul, Luis Henrique Ferreira Aguiar argued forcefully that the \"said slaves were brought to this country under the firm faith and assurance that the rights of property of foreign subjects are held sacred in the United States.\" Apparently, this property was not recovered satisfactorily, which could only inflame relations between the two hemispheric behemoths.\n\nFracases in Manhattan set aside, Wise remained ensnared in a maze of contradictions, seeking to flay Northern slavers while embracing those who ultimately were financing them, not to mention slaveholders as a class. The Brazilian Foreign Ministry took note of a bitter complaint from the **Salem Register** \u2014a newspaper in a town that included citizens that benefited handsomely from the African Slave Trade: The \"difficulties which unfortunately now exist between this vast country\" (Brazil) \"and our government may soon be brought to an amicable conclusion,\" despite the \"high handed conduct of our late Minister of that Court,\" meaning Wise. His conduct, it was said, \"threatens to involve our country in another war,\" as if fighting Mexico were not enough. \"Our fellow citizens are deeply interested in the lucrative and advantageous commerce carried on between this city and various ports of Brazil. Our East India commerce too, passes within a few hundred leagues of the Brazilian coast and would be exposed to the utmost danger in case of a war.\" Wise should be reined in, it was thought, as \"the Brazilian Court has already recalled its Minister and the public feeling throughout that country is decidedly against that and would need but little fanning to break into a flame in which the lives and fortunes of many of our fellow countrymen would be consumed.\" \"Documents relative to Mr. Wise's difficulty with the Brazilian government\" were \"published from which it appears that Mr. Lisboa, the Brazilian Minister at Washington called at the Department of State and requested the recall of Mr. Wise.\" The \"Emperor had determined he should never again be invited to Court.\" It was expected that Washington would acquiescence, being reluctant to confront Brazil while it was fighting Mexico.\n\nThe days of the besieged Wise were numbered. He complained to William Wright of Maxwell, Wright that his \"greatest annoyance\" was the African Slave Trade, which had \"become outrageous under the U. States flag\" to \"the disgrace of our nation.\" \"I was confident,\" he told him for whatever reason, \"you would approve of my motives & action in suppressing this nefarious traffic\"; \"it is impossible,\" he added, \"to carry on what is called the lawful trade to Africa from Brazil without becoming involved more or less in the reputation if not in the actual guilt of the unlawful traffic between these two countries [ _sic_ ]\"\u2014which was an implicit rebuke of Wright's firm [emphasis-original].\n\nNonetheless, Wise continued to hold Wright close, accepting his \"very respectable present of a round of beef\" which was \"in excellent order\" for \"our palates, if not our hearts\" for which he was \"grateful.\" He sought to \"invite\" Wright to his \"house\" in Rio \"immediately\" when this financial baron showed up in Rio. Perhaps Wise's growing isolation as a result of his uncompromising rhetorical hostility toward slavers prompted him to at least welcome Wright, a man of no mean influence. Or, quite possibly, his inflammatory diplomatic messages aside, the opposition to the African Slave Trade by Wise, the slaveowner, could not transcend the rhetorical.\n\nRio was \"not like home,\" Wise told Wright, yet he had \"met so much kindness from every American and from all, in fact, especially from your nephew that I am conditioned to remain here a few years, if permitted to do so,\" though the \"climate\" was \"rather enervating and somewhat insidious I think.\"\n\n\"Enervating\" was another way to describe Wise's recurrent condition in Rio de Janeiro's often unwholesome climate. Wright was told by a colleague that \"when I arrived here yesterday\" in Rio \"I found Mr. Wise much worse [than] I expected, he complained of soreness in his side & was very restless. He asked me to remain all night as he feared he might be attacked with sudden spasms\u2014which I of course did. He suffered much pain during the night.\" \"The state of my health will not permit me to be with you,\" Wise told colleagues in Brazil. \"For the last two or three days my system has been quite disordered.... I have been compelled to resort to copious doses of medicine.\"\n\nPerhaps because of his difficulty in adjusting to Rio's climate and the concomitant political isolation he suffered, Wise\u2014though a rhetorical lion in opposing slavers\u2014was the main man in charge when slavers were streaming into Brazil and unloading their human cargoes. Certainly his outspokenness was not shared universally among Washington's power elite, which no doubt reduced his effectiveness. When the Department of State was queried by Wright during the height of Wise's tenure in 1845 about the questionable practice of U.S. nationals selling their ships in Rio\u2014which were then promptly dispatched to pick up enslaved Africans on a strained and stressed continent\u2014the response was something less than ringing in condemnation.\n\nYet, how could it be otherwise given the political situation in the U.S., where some Northerners were profiting from the slave trade while many Southerners were reluctant to tamper with this commerce for fear that it might compromise their jealously held peculiar institution? The fact that Wright had been posted to Rio de Janeiro was suggestive of Washington's true feelings about fighting the trade, as his firm had been implicated in this business. His \"long residence at Rio de Janeiro and the experience necessarily acquired in the performance of your office there,\" recommended him to both business and government, Wright was informed.\n\nMaxwell, Wright was a transnational firm with major interests along the eastern seaboard of the U.S., not to mention trading in all major capitals, including Antwerp, Amsterdam, Malta, Naples, Venice, Stockholm, Hamburg, Bombay, and the continent of Africa\u2014especially Brazil's major slave labor products: sugar and coffee. This firm was engaged in \"very large quantities\" of commodities in Brazil, while Wright for a while was a well-respected diplomat.\n\nBut one thing Wright did have in common with Wise was conflict with elites in Rio de Janeiro. He too was obliged to carp about \"having been removed from the Consulate of the United States\" in Rio \"'by request of the Brazilian Government,'\" though he had \"filled\" that job \"for ... six years.\" His problem was not with slavers but the alleged \"many acts of injustice having been practiced upon our commerce, in the ports of this Empire\" and, said Wright, \"it was my duty to complain.\" Washington, thus, had to \"annul\" his \"commission\" though his \"conduct\" was \"perfectly satisfactory to our government.\"\n\nWright still remained central to Maxwell, Wright's business in Brazil and was angling for escalating his presence as Wise was arriving. His nephew sought to remind him of Rio's \"privations and disagreeables [ _sic_ ] to which a residence here subjects a family and recollect only the more agreeable occurrences of your time.\" But the firm was attracted to the handsome profits that only a slave labor economy could supply. \"I do not know how it is,\" said Robert Wright, \"that having made as you have done a great deal of money in this country, you have so little to show for it.... you were spending too much money\"\u2014and now needed more. He had a point for at that time a fellow Baltimorean, Joshua Cohen, was profiting nicely from various commercial dealings in Brazil, particularly the importation of sugar.\n\nWilliam Hunter was, like Wright, a U.S. diplomat in Brazil whose family was implicated in the slave trade. His spouse\u2014Mary Robinson Hunter\u2014unlike Wise, arrived in Brazil with mild sympathies toward slaves but in the hothouse environment that was Rio de Janeiro, she was transformed\u2014albeit in a manner unlike Wise's rhetorical crusade against the slave trade. Born in New York City to a wealthy landowning family that had made a small fortune in the African Slave Trade, she married the scion of an equally prominent Rhode Island family that also had profited from this vile business. In 1834, her spouse\u2014William, a lawyer who was to become a U.S. Senator\u2014accepted a diplomatic post in Brazil where both resided until 1848. \"In the beginning\" of her stay abroad, \"Mary sympathized with the plight of slaves\" in Brazil, but as \"time passed and her difficulties in managing her other household servants increased, she had a change of heart regarding their treatment and on occasion whipped them and slapped them, something she previously deplored. Mary's initial compassion toward slaves, however, was also tempered by her fear of them\" for the \"1830s\" in Brazil were \"rife with slave insurrections\" and \"given the large numbers of slaves in Rio de Janeiro, Mary dreaded a slave revolt and feared its consequences for the white population.\"\n\nOver and over again in her lengthy stay in Rio, which ended in 1848, \"she expressed concern about being left home alone with her household servants and she avoided going shopping in Rio because she disliked being jostled in the streets by Negroes.\" Her fears were comprehensible. In 1841, she recounted how a \"female slave\" had \"mingled some poisonous root (which is known only to the blacks) in some chamomile tea her master had ordered her to make for him.\" He found out somehow, then got some \"thumb screws to make her confess.\" She apparently did so and implicated others in the plot and \"they were all severely whipped for three days in succession and they are now about selling the girl.\" Then a Brazilian \"merchant\" was \"murdered by his Cook on his return from the theatre,\" which made her \"shudder.\" He \"very imprudently bought his black, knowing him to be [a] bad one, because he was a good cook\" but the slave was \"angry with his master, it is said, for making him go out on Sundays and holidays\"\u2014and retaliated. He \"had long been watching an opportunity of revenge.\" Appropriately, the \"night was dark and rainy\" when he struck. \"He had sent the footman up to the house for an umbrella\" for his spouse to \"walk up the hill. While she sat in the carriage, the black came out of the stable, passed the two sons and ran a knife into his master who just said: 'He has murdered me' and fell dead.\" Then another master was murdered \"by some ... young blacks.\" They \"overtook him on the road and killed him with clubs. They have confessed the act but no reason can be assigned for their conduct,\" she concluded sadly. They \"did it for frolic,\" apparently; \"one of the boys was only 14, born to the estate.\"\n\nThen there was an attempted insurrection in Rio in the 1840s. \"These reports alarm me very much,\" she cried. \"It seems to be the beginning of a retributive justice mercifully delayed, the distant but certain precursor of the thunder which must break on this benighted land. A few days ago there was another insurrection in preparation up the bay at the foot of the Organ Mountains. On Christmas day they were to march down to the city, secure both arsenals and murder all the whites. People here feel perfect security from the circumstances of the slaves coming from various parts of Africa,\" she said uncertainly, \"and are not as in Bahia, Para, and Rio Grande all of one or two tribes. They speak different languages and are in a state of hostility towards each other at home. The whites believe that they would not cooperate against them,\" she sighed, \"but I think this is a false security. The blacks of different tribes and interests when at home have been here long enough to feel deeply the oppression and cruelty of the whites towards all of that colour. They will one day join heart in hand to avenge it,\" she predicted. \"It will be black against white and the difference is fearfully in their favour as to numbers. The computation is 20 black to one white and daily increasing in the same ratio is ships load of these poor wretches are constantly landed on the coast near Rio and marched down to the market.\" This \"increases my fears,\" she cried, \"and my sleep is often disturbed ... I lay watching for daylight to dispel the gloom and fears of night.\" Was it wise to continue such reckless importation of Africans? Wise\u2014and many others who were not necessarily opposed to slavery itself\u2014thought not.\n\nHer diary is studded with references to Rio being \"in a state of excitement,\" \"conspiracies have been detected, a great many persons of high standing and great fears were entertained that insurrection would break out.\" Though she was turning against the slave trade, she was turning against slaves too. \"I have not as much sympathy for this class of beings,\" i.e., slaves \"as on my arrival here. I hope my heart is not harder,\" she added unconvincingly, \"but I have experienced so much of their ingratitude, treachery and the basest qualities of human beings that I feel they deserve punishment.\" Thus, when her \"patience\" was \"much tried by the black girl's quarrel & loud talk in the kitchen\" of her house and \"finding she would not be quiet,\" Robinson said furiously, \"I whipped her.\" Another time, she \"gave\" a \"sound slap\" to another slave, though this corporal punishment seemed to be coarsening her; \"you might as well slap an elephant as a black; they are proof against such assaults.\" While in Brazil, she was preoccupied with beatings, aborted uprisings, and conspiracies, unpleasant encounters with Negroes, and a series of health issues that may have been psychosomatic and intimately connected to her experience with slavery. Her domestic experience sheds light on Wise's campaign against the slave trade, while at the same time he remained a firm advocate of slavery itself. Even when thousands of miles away from the U.S. South, pro-slavery advocates were straddling the back of an African lion that was both dangerous to ride and dangerous to dismount.\n\nLondon's representative in Rio de Janeiro was thinking along the lines of Mrs. Hunter\u2014and became similarly disillusioned. In 1847, he declared that \"before arriving in Brazil I had heard it averred that there was a great feeling of disquietude pervading the white inhabitants as to the growing disproportion between them and the black races held in bondage and I had counted upon this fear of the future as an element which might be turned to advantage\"\u2014but, sadly he concluded, \"this is not the case.\" The powerful William Marcy, U.S. Secretary of War from 1846 to 1849 and Secretary of State from 1853 to 1857, was similarly opposed to the slave trade due to \"anxiety over 'Africanization,'\" while earlier **Freedom's Journal** pointed to the growing enslaved population of Brazil\u2014and concomitant growing unrest\u2014as a loud warning to Washington: the \"'triumphant reveling in white blood'\" in the Deepest South and the \"daring movement of the slaves, while they were in possession of arms, have caused no small excitement among the white population [there].\"\n\nThis tangled web produced similarly contradictory responses from Washington. In March 1845, John C. Calhoun told Wise's comrade, future U.S. President, James Buchanan, \"I express the hope that Mr. [Henry] Wise may be continued at Brazil. I am sure one better qualified cannot be selected to take his place.\" But, evidently, as the significance of Wise's campaign became clear, Calhoun changed his tune. \"I fear with you,\" he told Thomas G. Clemson, then in Brussels, \"that Wise is pursuing an injudicious course in reference to the slave trade. My instructions to him were full & pointed on the necessity of preserving the most friendly relations with Brazil in every respect. It would be greatly to be regretted, if he has taken any step, calculated to have a contrary effect.\" Wise was running afoul of a powerful faction in Dixie, who clamored for reopening the African Slave Trade\u2014not only in Brazil but also in the U.S. itself. Wise was \"influential\" but also \"opportunistic\" and \"distrusted\" it was said. \"De Bow in Louisiana, Wigfall in Texas, Yancey in Alabama, Ruffin in Virginia and Governor John H. Adams and Maxcy Gregg in South Carolina noisily threw in with the idea\" of \"Leonidas W. Spratt,\" who \"proposed reopening the African slave trade.\" It was felt that \"more Negroes would reduce prohibitively high prices and allow a wider participation in slave ownership.\" Virginians were \"being selfish,\" it was thought, \"by opposing the trade so that Virginian slave-breeding would continue to enjoy high prices within the domestic trade.\" \"We have no right to interfere with the slave trade in other countries,\" said the future secessionist, Jefferson Davis; he was equally \"opposed to the African squadron\" which monitored this commerce. \"What would we say,\" he asked querulously, \"if any other country should take such position towards the United States? ... Our laws should be confined to our own country,\" he insisted. That \"ships of American construction will probably be found in the slave trade,\" received no objection from him.\n\nOn the other hand, African-Americans were not as sympathetic to Wise as might have been imagined. He was a \"Virginia Bragadocio [ _sic_ ],\" and \"foolish\" besides said Frederick Douglass at a time when Wise was clashing with slave dealers, a view not universally shared.\n\nDespite his connections at the highest levels, Wise was becoming a liability. \"The business of chief interest before the Cabinet today,\" President James K. Polk noted in early 1847, \"were our relations with Brazil, which from those of amity had recently been disturbed by an unfortunate occurrence at Rio [de] Janeiro. A riot had taken place among some Americans on shore.\" Instructively and disturbingly, though the U.S. was then enmeshed in a war of aggression against Mexico that would result in the seizing of a quarter of that nation's territory, President Polk was expending valuable time soothing the frazzled nerves of another southern neighbor who feared Washington's territorial designs.\n\nWright clashed with Brazil on financial matters, just as Wise had clashes with this nation about the African Slave Trade\u2014though the two were intertwined. For there were various \"American claims\" that \"Brazil refused to pay,\" which made Wise's complaints even more hard to swallow. Wise was \"an old friend and confidant\" of James Buchanan, with whom he communicated frequently and at length, which put the White House in a sticky position when Lisboa, the Brazilian Minister in Washington \"requested that Wise be recalled.\" Initially, the White House refused; instead, upset over its unresolved financial claims it appeared that gunboat diplomacy \"threatened.\" Shortly thereafter, Wise \"asked for home leave and it was granted. It was a gentle exit and saved face all around\" when the vehement anti\u2013slave trade advocate\u2014and slaveholder\u2014sailed northward back home to Virginia, leaving in shambles the struggle against the massive importation of enslaved Africans to Brazil.\n\nWise's odyssey in Brazil suggested how tensions were rising both within the Slave South and beyond this region's borders as Civil War loomed, for at times it seemed that he was angrier with slave traders in the U.S. Northeast than slave-owners themselves. Moreover, his critique of Brazil complicated his region's ability to gain adherents in South America for this titanic conflict\u2014a prospect that was made more difficult, in any case, due to Brazil's apprehension about the U.S. seizing Mexican territory. This meant that Wise's hostility to London, which otherwise might have received a favorable hearing in Brazil, was vitiated. Brazil had further reason for nervousness about U.S. policies when the California Gold Rush led to the arrival on their shores of tens of thousands of visitors from their North American neighbor.\n\n## **5  \nCrisis**\n\nCharlotte Gardner of Nantucket was one of many U.S. nationals who made her way by ship to California from the eastern U.S. around Cape Horn with a stop in Brazil. Whiling away the weeks on board, she began reading the bestseller, **Uncle Tom's Cabin.** \"Speaking of the effect of reading 'Uncle Tom's Cabin,'\" she confided to her diary in 1852 a story that \"recounts a similar circumstance which occurred,\" i.e., a \"lady whose nervous temperament was so highly excited by the perusal of that now fashionable production gave birth to two young babies of fine physical conformation but whose skin was of the color prevailing in the dominion of the King of Congo. Investigations established the pleasing fact that there had not been a color[ed] person seen in that quarter of the country for three years previously.\" Though she was deeply interested in slavery and Africa, it is unclear if her approaching a site known to be in the process of being swamped with enslaved Africans particularly from Congo influenced her fevered accounts; she did note mordantly that \"yesterday we passed near a vessel which we supposed was a slaver from Rio de Janeiro. She did not show her colors.\" A few years earlier, the U.S. naval officer, Captain William H. Parker, arrived in Rio. \"One of our midshipmen . . . (an oldster) told me that the slaves were brought into Rio; but they could not be seen in consequence of their being painted air color, which of course rendered them invisible! He said that the slaves were landed and taken to a pond outside the city; and the air-colored paint being washed off, they became visible.\"\n\nThough Brazil was thousands of miles away from the U.S., the nature of travel by ship meant that Rio de Janeiro was a necessary stop in the journey from the U.S. Northeast to California, just as Dallas is a necessary stop in flying today from Raleigh to San Francisco. This meant that thousands of U.S. nationals were regularly arriving in Brazil, well on its way to becoming the most formidable slave society on the planet. For many who had never seen this peculiar institution up close, Brazil stirred abolitionist sentiments that contributed to rising national tensions. For others, it reinforced the idea of the normalcy of slavery, thus calcifying existing biases. And for others\u2014like Gardner and Parker\u2014it stirred imaginative fantasies that reflected a terrible crisis induced by slavery and the African Slave Trade.\n\nThere is no precise agreement on the number of U.S. nationals who arrived by sea to California during the Gold Rush, which was ignited in the late 1840s just as the illicit slave trade was booming. \"For the period from April to the end of the year [1849],\" \"tabulations run as high as 91,000, as low as 30,000\" and \"of this number, about 20,000 evidently took the Horn route,\" and \"roughly 70 percent of these were Americans.\" Just as it is highly possible that there was more altering of nationalities in the antebellum era than today between U.S. Negroes and Afro-Brazilians\u2014e.g., the transition of \"Pedro Parris\" from \"African\" to \"Afro-Brazilian\" to \"African American\"\u2014\"it is a historical paradox that a hundred [and fifty] years ago Cape Horn was less remote than it is today.\" \"Seventeen thousand miles of ocean, more or less roll between New England, Cape Horn and California\" and this protracted journey was traversed not in hours in a supersonic jet but in weeks on a listing vessel\u2014with a stop in Brazil.\n\nThere was a \"great change\" in Rio after the Gold Rush; \"last year,\" said one U.S. observer, \"the American vessels of war were put down after all others\u2014English, French, Sardinian, Danish, Belgian, Austrian\u2014everything was put down before our 'vasos de guerra' or vessels of war,\" but \"now, all that is changed\u2014we are the favorites\u2014the great people of the moment,\" he said.\n\nMany of these U.S. nationals had had no direct personal experience with the quotidian horrors of slavery. Brazil, as a result, became a cracked mirror by which many interpreted the rising controversy over bondage in their homeland, often invigorating or engendering abolitionist sentiments or hardening pro-slavery feelings or fears about the implications of \"racial ratios\" favoring Africans.\n\nCertainly, the critical role played on U.S. vessels by African-Americans was not conducive to enlightenment for some of these southward bound visitors. Sailing from Boston to California via Brazil, John Duchow watched as \"one of the colored waiters in the cabin, named Dennis, struck one of the other waiters and the captain put him in irons a short time.\" \"A Negro is not to be trusted,\" was the moral drawn by one Euro-American sojourner after his encounter on board ship, while sailing \"from Boston to San Francisco around Cape Horn\" one national became more sensitive to matters of color.\n\nInterestingly, as this migration westward continued, some Dixie propagandists mused about the \"applicability of slave labor to the soil of Southern California,\" which was \"becoming a theme of discussion in that region, and it is probable that the experiment will one day be tried.\" In August 1850, a ship set sail from Charleston to California with white Southerners and their slaves aboard, bent on establishing a slave colony in the state that would work the gold mines. Like the illicit slave trade itself, where Northerners were prevalent, it was hard to discern angels and devils in this story since the Democrats backed slavery's extension on white supremacist grounds and the nascent Republicans often opposed extension on similar principles, wary of the very presence of the darker-skinned.\n\nThe trip to California via Brazil hardened regional differences in the U.S., further paving the way to Civil War. \"Slavery was a subject that most Forty-Niners avoided,\" concludes the scholar, Donald Jackson, \"but the ardent abolitionists among them were offended by the Rio slave market.\" \"One of the black marks against the land, in the opinion of those from the abolitionist strongholds at home,\" said the writer Oscar Lewis referring to Brazil during the Gold Rush, \"was the open trading in slaves to be seen both at Preia Grande across the harbor . . . and in the great central market in Rio itself.\"\n\nWriting from Rio in early 1849, the '49er, John H. Beeckman, told his \"dearest wife\" that the \"most unpleasant feature\" of this city \"and the one which strikes a northerner with strong feelings of disgust and compassion is slavery,\" as the Africans were \"treated much worse than brutes\" and \"at the caprice of master or overseer beaten over the head.\" \"It completely sickens me,\" he said, \"and hereafter I am an abolitionist of the deepest dye,\" said a man previously without strong convictions on this subject. He did not shrink from seeing Africans rise up, which may have lubricated the path for similar thinking in his homeland: \"if there is to be a revolution,\" he ruminated, \"I hope it will take place while I am here as I feel quite desirous of seeing how these poor miserable Portuguese and Brazilian soldiers, most of whom are black will fight.\" Ruth Nash of Maine also on her way to California noticed at the same time that \"the great and distinctive characteristics of the Brazilians are its slaves and slavery, and one cannot help but shudder to have such sights before his mind, so degrading to humanity, to obtain human beings down to bondage.\" C. S. Stewart, who hailed from the Northern U.S., was irate about the presence in Brazil of U.S. nationals, \"entitled by birth and citizenship to stand beneath the protecting folds of the stripes and stars of our country, who till now have been active agents in, and have shared largely in the emoluments of this wicked outrage,\" meaning slavery.\n\nOf course, there were U.S. nationals in Stewart's homeland who accepted willingly the same \"emoluments\"\u2014a conclusion which arrived at could help to tear asunder the fabric of the nation.\n\nMoreover, it seems that for those \"from the New England and Middle states the Cape Horn route was generally preferred,\" while those \"from the Southern states\" favored \"the Isthmus of Panama or Nicaragua or Mexico\" (which suggests that there were factors inherent in the route west designed to induce an intriguing encounter with slavery from those least likely to have done so previously). Thus, \"the Cape Horn voyage of '49 produced a profound impact on all social levels among the Argonauts, something they never forgot to their dying days.\"\n\nThe influx of these North American '49ers apparently had an impact on Brazil as well. Salvador Ramirez arrived in Rio de Janeiro in March 1849 en route to the Golden West and noticed \"California ships\u2014a dozen\u2014are anchored or dropping their anchors around us.\" A routine followed that many travelers took note of: \"we were . . . boarded by two men-of-war, commanded by midshipmen. . . . They said the people were terribly alarmed at the great influx of Yankees and that the Emperor had ordered a double guard to be placed for the protection of the city and preservation of order.\" The Brazilians, he thought, were \"frightened at the appearance of so many Americans and are much more lenient with them, in fact they dare not molest them at all.\" This was not an easy task to accomplish since Ramirez was \"sorry to say that a great many of the Americans here have disgraced the name outrageously by getting up rows at the hotels both among ourselves and the natives.\"\n\nSuch rowdy behavior may have derived from what Julius Howard Pratt detected when he stopped in Rio de Janeiro during the same era; \"the world has never witnessed so motley and promiscuous a throng in pursuit of a common object as sprang into life simultaneously in the winter of '48 and '49. . . . adventurers, thieves, gamblers, murderers and criminals jostled each other.\" This was bound to induce \"great social upheaval,\" he thought.\n\nThese U.S. citizens were cascading into Brazil at a time when the national anthem veritably was \"Manifest Destiny\" and filibustering expeditions\u2014or armed assaults by a freelance band of U.S. nationals on foreign lands\u2014were all the rage. As such, many of these visitors sized up Brazil, gauging what it would take to take over, oust the regime, and plant the \"stars and stripes\"\u2014a disposition fueled by their contempt for the inhabitants. William L. Carshaw of the U.S. Navy had participated in the war against Mexico in \"lower California and Sonora, Mexico\" and passed through Rio on his way there. Arriving in July 1846, he took detailed notes on \"forts,\" including pointed remarks \"on several hundred large guns . . . mounted\" to defend the city. When the U.S. Navy visited Santa Catarina in Brazil, it was noted carefully that the \"harbour is defended by three forts.\"\n\nMany Brazilians did not take kindly to such attitudes. Mary Smith, on her way to California in 1853, stopped in Rio de Janeiro and was stunned. \"I have heard several . . . Americans say there's not a place on the face of the earth where American vessels have put, where they have so much trouble and vexation as at Rio.\" She visited the \"English Cemetery\" where she saw \"the graves of a number of [New] Englanders\"\u2014though it was unclear if their being buried in Brazil was a direct result of their own \"trouble and vexation at Rio.\"\n\nWhen future Californians poured into Brazil, many in this South American nation nervously compared themselves to recently subdued Mexicans and wondered if a similar fate awaited them. As there were \"something like thirty five hundred Americans perambulating the streets of Rio at all hours bidding defiance to all law and order,\" their fears were not necessarily irrational. A. H. Cazzam, was associated with Peter Remsen, a noted cotton factor, cattle breeder\u2014and slaveholder\u2014from Mobile. He was not upset when in 1849 \"Rosas\" of the Argentine was discussing \"making war with Brazil. If France & England will only let him alone he will wallop Brazil in no time & take Rio Grande do Sul from her\u2014most of the Rio Grande people want to get rid of the Brazilians\u2014they are the most troublesome & rebellious subjects in the Brazilian Empire & altogether the most warlike.\" But this was not just a curious spectator\u2014\"I would . . . join Rosas if he marched into the province,\" he added belligerently.\n\nWhen 23-year-old Horatio Chapman of Connecticut arrived in Rio in 1849, he was suitably impressed\u2014though his positive descriptions seemed to have been influenced by the language of military reconnaissance. \"'It was a fine bay,'\" he thought, \"'surrounded on all sides, except at the entrance by rocks and higher hills; and it was thus strongly fortified by nature as well as by art. Had it been in the hands of the government of the United States,'\" he added, \"'it would have been almost impregnable to any other nation. But as it is owned by the Portuguese, an ignorant and superstitious people, military discipline not being understood by them, notwithstanding there were a great many forts in and around the harbor, yet an intelligent people understanding the art of war might with very little exertion compel them to surrender.'\"\n\nA few years later Henry Beckett arrived in Brazil on his way to the Pacific Northwest; \"speaking of soldiers,\" he said reflectively later, \"their system looked very odd to us. Some regiments are made up of blacks and whites, all colors and all heights. Their crack regiment was picked men, all blacks,\" while the \"city gendarmes, with their short swords, were very officious and mean\"; \"they never missed an opportunity of snatching your pocket knife out of your hand and striking it on a wall and breaking it. Their annoyance and the natural prejudice of Americans with any colored race put in official position over them, brought on quite a number of collisions, our boys generally coming out best.\"\n\n\"There is so many California vessels arrived here lately that the Brazilians are frightened,\" said Joseph Hamilton of South Carolina in March 1849. \"They think they are going to annex Brazil to the U.S. and have posted three times the regular guards all over the place.\" \"There are enough Yankees in port now to take the fort, city and adjacent country and drive every yellow-skinned Braziliano into the mountains,\" thought the visiting Edward Brown in December 1849. \"All the defense that Rio can boast of for the present,\" thought Roger Conant traveling via Rio to the territory of Washington after the Gold Rush, \"is a miserable fort, which a Yankee gun boat could batter down in a[n] hour.\" After noting that some of his fellow U.S. nationals in Rio\u2014\"sorry to say\"\u2014had \"performed acts that would not be permitted in their own country,\" one unnamed visitor who spent 25 days there, observed that \"the city is protected by armed police night and day but they do not give the appearance of being very formidable antagonists.\" Some of his countrymen were told to disperse by these police; yet even though the former were \"unarmed,\" they \"drew up in the order of a charge of cavalry & all being ready the word 'charge' was given and all dashed into the midst of the soldiers [ _sic_ ] dispersing them in every direction.\"\n\nThe complexions of these police and soldiers and those they were sworn to protect seemed to influence how they were perceived by these U.S. visitors and how much force they thought it would take to oust the regime. George Coggeshall was in Rio in 1837 buying coffee bound for New Orleans and concluded quickly that \"it cannot . . . be expected that such [Negro] men will fight, except by compulsion. If their army is as badly organized as their navy, I should think they would make but a feeble resistance in defending their metropolis against any powerful maritime nation.\" Now he held \"no prejudice against them\" but found Brazilians generally \"so deeply imbued with ignorance and superstition, and so firmly wedded to obsolete religious mummeries, that it will take a great many years to transform them to a great people.\" Thomas Williams of Boston arrived in Rio in 1849 and noticed the \"standing army\" which \"was the greatest sight of all,\" as \"they were actually . . . slaves though they looked tolerable [ _sic_ ] well but they seemed to me as though five hundred of Yankees [could] whip the whole of them\" since \"they don't seem to have that life or spirit\" \"that the Americans have,\" he thought. This lack of \"spirit\" was unsurprising since \"they get no pay\"\u2014\"nothing\"\u2014and \"poor living and the worst treatment\"; they were \"nearly all blacks,\" though \"now and then [an] officer with tolerable light complexion but not real white for the white people do nothing at all.\" Another visitor in 1849 noticed that \"in the city & at every village in its vicinity can be found a standing army, mostly all blacks commanded by whites or half breeds, rather weak appearing army on the whole.\"\n\nW. S. W. Ruschenberger in 1848 found the \"standing army of Brazil\" to be \"so small as scarcely to merit the name,\" while the \"navy is not effective . . . and there is no prospect of improvement.\" One anonymous U.S. visitor noted that \"soldiers\" in Rio were \"all colors from white to black, all young men and some mere boys\"; \"they do not appear to be well-disciplined\" to the point where a \"troop of Yankees would make sad havoc among them.\"\n\nA number of these sojourners thought there were inherent reasons that explained why Brazil was supposedly substandard when compared to the U.S. Thomas Ewbank observed that on the Iberian peninsula \"Moorish customs are inherited with Moorish blood and traceable in their colonies,\" e.g., Brazil. This made for \"traits decidedly Oriental\" and \"peculiarly Asiatic,\" especially \"in their tools and processes.\" The \"first tool I recognized at once,\" he said, was \"Roman and Egyptian\" and certainly not on a par with what he knew at home. \"The people are inferior to the Americans,\" opined Milton Stevens in May 1849, \"they are very small in size and swarthy.\" One visitor in 1849 averred that \"the whites are rather dark complection [ _sic_ ] & amalgamating with the Negroes make a population of divers [ _sic_ ] colors\" and lesser stock. C. S. Stewart was repulsed by the \"fearfully mongrel aspect of much of the population, claiming to be white\"; the \"almost unlimited extent of mixed blood\" was horrid, he thought, and \"cannot fail to be revolting.\"\n\nJohn Callbreath noticed that \"'you cannot find a white man doing any kind of work and I do believe if it was not for the Yankees . . . and English the race would run out.'\" Rather astonished, James Orton was dumbfounded to discover that \"'it is generally considered bad taste in Brazil to boast purity of descent.'\" James Lamoureaux Pangburn arrived in Rio in April 1849 and was horrified at the sight of the \"great number of Negroes that everywhere met me. These, to one accustomed to civilized life are truly objects of disgust and I am told compose two thirds of the population.\" Mary Smith a New Englander en route to California was similarly horrified at what she saw. \"The lower class are real Africans,\" she said. \"No one ever need be frightened at homely ugly looking faces at home\u2014they don't know what an ugly face is\u2014positively I would not think possible for any human being to look as ugly as some of the boatmen and slaves here. . . . the idea of remaining three months\u2014it is very unpleasant\" [emphasis-original].\n\nAt the same time, the presence of armed soldiers of darker complexions seemed to send a frisson of apprehension coursing through the veins of some of these visitors, as if\u2014once again\u2014they were witnessing a Haiti magnified or the rise of a darker power or a glimpse of their own futures, none of which were viewed as being particularly appetizing. John Stone arrived in Rio during the rush westward for gold. He found the place \"disgusting\" and \"filthy\" while \"many of the Negroes who make up the chief population live in a state of nature and nudity.\" But what was noticeably striking, he thought, was \"the military display in this great Brazilian capital,\" which \"inspired much dread, the soldiery being made up of coal black Negroes, who at their country's solemn call were ready to risk their lives, their fortunes and their sacred honour . . . and a contact with whom would fill with dismay and horror, all persons with delicate olfactories.\" Worse, these men who were \"armed with muskets and gleaming bayonets\" acted to \"drive any white people who innocently saunter by, from the sidewalks into the muddy streets by rude assault and at the point of bayonet.\" When Samuel Upham \"visited the Emperor's church\" during the Gold Rush era, he was stunned: \"as I crossed the threshold,\" he recalled later, \"the first object that met my eye was one of the Emperor's guards, whose complexion was a shade lighter than the ace of spades, with a musket at his shoulder and stationed near the altar\" as \"worshipers of all ages, complexions and conditions were kneeling about the church.\" L. M. Schaeffer was part of the 1849 Gold Rush and stopped in Rio in May and was stunned similarly.\n\nThese guests from the U.S. at times tested the limits of tolerance of their hosts, leading to confrontations with which U.S. nationals were not accustomed: spats with armed African men. In 1846, sailors from the USS Saratoga were on leave in Rio and, typically, were \"rather inebriated and creating a noise in the streets,\" when they were \"violently assaulted by the police of that city,\" who \"rushed them with drawn swords\" and detained them forcibly. Minister Henry Wise \"informed\" the authorities that if they were \"not released,\" he \"would open the batteries of the U.S. frigate Columbia on the town.\" The sailors were released but that did not halt the repetitive friction between the two nations as Washington was \"continually complaining of insults offered to our flag, continued annoyances in the Custom-House and fines, not lawful, imposed upon them.\" As the U.S. saw it, their visitors were pouring money into Brazil's economy, not to mention the \"importation of millions of bags of coffee annually\" from that nation and the vessels \"bound to California with passengers\" which \"touched at that port for supplies.\" The Brazilians should recognize, it was said, that the U.S. had \"the power of resenting insults\"\u2014and they could have added that they were not pleased by being \"insulted\" by darker authorities.\n\nViolent confrontations between U.S. nationals and Brazilians were not uncommon; in 1849, two of the former were murdered after a particularly brutal encounter in Santa Catarina, Brazil. On another occasion in Rio two U.S. nationals were slain, \"whereupon the Argonauts armed themselves and drove all the [Brazilian] soldiers into the mountains and took possession of the place.\" Passing through Rio in 1850, John R. McFalan spoke of the famed \"Sugar Loaf\" mountain where \"it is said . . . a daring Californian got access to its summit and placed there the American flag; with a telescope,\" he added.\n\nThe fascination of these visitors  with their hosts' complexions\u2014even those presumably in the elite\u2014was palpable. John Esaias Warren made it to the Amazon as the Gold Rush was unfolding and found it worthy of note that \"in the selection of officials no regard whatever is paid to color. The president himself was a woolly-headed mulatto, and, not only that, but he was reputed to be the son of a padre; and as the padres are excluded from matrimony by the statutes, his genealogy certainly cannot be of the most honorable character.\"\n\nRichard Morton of Virginia was not as dispassionate about this same phenomenon. \"This morning I breakfasted with a black man,\" he said a few years after the Gold Rush's height; it was \"no uncommon thing for a free black man to be invited to the table with white persons,\" he added, \"but I had hoped never to make one of the number, but this morning one as black as the ace of spades sat opposite me at the table.\" He was not happy about this. \"I felt really mean, I could not object however without offence to my very kind host, gratitude & politeness both bade me endure it.\" Morton seemed to be undergoing a kind of racial crisis, simultaneously befuddled and outraged by what he was experiencing. His attitude did not improve as he was ambling along a road \"on foot & was attacked by three large boys\" and, he said, \"had to use my stick dexterously to keep them off & have now only one regret on the subject viz: that [I did] not whip the black to whom [they] belonged.\" Later after finishing dinner at the home of a friend, his travail continued as a \"dance commenced & there not being ladies sufficient for the men, the mulatto girls were brought in to fill up & some three or four of them occupied the floor during the whole evening (there always about the large fazendas [plantations] a number of bright mulattos, generally the whitest & best looking members of the establishment, who stay about the house as companions. . . . for they do no work).\" Yet Morton refused to take advantage of this titillating situation\u2014or so he said. \"I was never tempted to take part in the dance,\" he sniffed, \"& never except to oblige others.\" He did deign to cross gender borders, however, as he was \"importuned by a 'fellow of my height' to dance as his 'vis-\u00e0-vis'\" and the gracious Morton was \"in the act of consenting when he led me across the room & took one mulatto girl & told me to take another just be her side for my partner, but I could not 'go that' & declined on the spot most emphatically much to his discomfiture\" though \"no one else [there] seemed to have much preference.\"\n\nMorton was continually taken by surprise at the patterns he was witnessing that were so unlike his native Virginia. He \"saw\" a \"young lady with a naked black child in her arms . . . hugging & kissing it [ _sic_ ].\" He had \"no disposition to get any 'closer' to her than was necessary as a result.\" He was taken to meet an upstanding member of society and, \"to my utter astonishment he turned out to be Chinese, he stands very high in the community\u2014is said to be the best man about here; I never before heard of a Chinese rising to respectability anywhere.\" Then he discovered this gentleman was \"not a Chinese but a native of Bombay, India & his parents are Brahmins, he was educated for a priest but at 21 he declined taking orders & came to Mozambique . . . where he had an uncle\" then to Rio \"where [he] had a relative.\" He studied medicine, became a doctor, and \"made a little fortune\"; despite Morton's astonishment at his presence \"he was extremely kind to me,\" he felt, \"I never met with more kindness anywhere\" [emphases-original]. Morton's continuously stunned reaction was reflective of a larger \"racial crisis\" in an encounter with a nation whose \"race rules\" seemed to differ from his own, thus casting doubt on whether the U.S. course was universal or \"natural\"\u2014or could be dislodged ultimately.\n\nStill, some of these U.S. nationals were taken by the horrible spectacle that was human bondage. Those not familiar with this practice were noticeably repulsed and revolted. J. L. Ackerman was making his way to California from Boston via Brazil during the Gold Rush when he found himself in Rio. It was \"as great a slave market as there is in the world. I was astonished,\" he said using a word that frequently peppers narratives of U.S. visitors to Brazil, \"at the vast number of slaves to be seen in the square and about the landing, they have to perform all kinds of drudgery, you will see no trucks and drays for hauling goods here as you will in the States, all is done by slaves.\" The sight of these \"poor slaves\" touched his heart. \"The first thing that drew my attention on landing,\" he asserted, was a \"poor slave, a brute in human shape was applying a raw hide to his back with all his might. It made my blood chill within me at the sight. I thought to myself that I should like to have my will of the brute for a short time. I would give him slavery to his heart's content,\" he warned. This trip \"was the first time I ever had slaves under my authority,\" he said, \"but I did not abuse that authority\"\u2014unlike what he had witnessed, as his abolitionist sentiments flowered.\n\nSamuel Adams had managed a drugstore in Brooklyn before pulling up stakes and heading for California gold in December 1849. Arriving in Rio he found that \"one of the most unpleasant things I saw . . . was a gang of tall straight able-bodied blacks chained together round their neck, there were sixteen in all.\" This too sparked abolitionist sentiments within him: \"the great slaveholder,\" he thought, \"is fastening around the souls and bodies of our young men and women too, their disregard of everything relating to their best and most precious interests.\" Milton Stevens cried to his \"Dear Mother\" that in Brazil \"they have slaves by the thousands and treat them very cruel. I have seen them whip[ped] . . . some of them chained together. . . . they are all marked like sheep and some of them are naked.\"\n\nWhile in Rio, Samuel Upham \"saw a Negro who was afflicted with the elephantiasis, one of the most loathsome diseases imaginable, but quite common in this country. His left leg was swollen to nearly the size of his body, and from the knee downward protruded excrescences as large as English walnuts. The skin of the diseased limb appeared rough and scaly and several of the toes had dropped off the foot. I saw others,\" he recalled with disgust, \"afflicted with this disease who had lost their lips and noses.\"\n\nJames Woods arrived in Rio in August 1849 and was greatly displeased by what he saw. \"Not infrequently when a slaver is chased by a man-of-war,\" he noted with horror, \"they throw the slaves overboard to prevent detection. . . . A tale was related last night which was truly horrible,\" he observed. \"A slaver was pursued by a man-of-war lest he should be found in possession of slaves and be declared and treated as a pirate; he had all the slaves brought out and fastened by means of a rope extending around the vessel, on the outside of the vessel, so that with one blow of the axe they could all be dropped in the ocean. Slavery is an awful terrible curse. But language cannot describe the horrors of the slave trade. . . . the poor Africans!\" he moaned, \"the whole world is against him. . . . very justly have the United States and Great Britain declared the slave trade piracy. . . . oh what a terrible cause is slavery and the slave trade how supremely horrible.\" The mundane sights of oppression seemed to numb. \"Saw a dead Negress on the beach,\" said one visitor blandly in 1849, \"saw dead nigger [ _sic_ ] towed by canoe toward shore caulkers.\" On his way from the eastern U.S. to California, James Woods sailed through Rio; \"soon after breakfast,\" he observed, \"the dead body of a poor Negro came floating past the vessel. It was a dreadful sight. The remarks of some of the passengers on the occasion were light and trifling\" in response.\n\nSalvador Ramirez was taken by the sight of a \"great number of aged slaves, who being of no further use are turned out to die gradually, I saw hundreds of [such] hideous spectacles.\" \"Loafers,\" which were \"such a nuisance in the United States,\" were \"here entirely unknown, no collections of people are seen here on the corners of the streets,\" said one U.S. visitor. Put simply, said James T. Jones visiting Rio in 1844, a \"Brazilian slave is a real slave. An American slave, no slave at all\" [emphasis-original].\n\nVisitors from the North were also moved by the labor that slaves were compelled to perform. \"One finds among them all sorts of mechanics,\" said C. B. Richard in the late 1840s; \"they are almost the only carriers of burdens one finds in Rio. . . . half of them sing the refrain, frequently the word 'coffee' or the name of the article they happen to be carrying . . . the other half renders the accompaniment with a monotonous boom, boom.\" In the \"long but very narrow and dirty streets\" there were \"large, bare and neglected public squares\" dotted with \"shackled slaves . . . having run away a few times are now forced to carry a fetter that they cannot remove\u2014usually an iron ring around the neck with iron horns . . . thus they are recognizable to the police.\" Other slaves chose to \"roam the streets half-naked in quest of a livelihood\" which was \"not an agreeable sight to a stranger.\"\n\nSalvador Ramirez wondrously declared that \"what strikes the stranger in this country is the immense number of slaves.\" They were \"at every corner\"\u2014\"you are constantly surrounded by them, groups of slaves of all sizes, who make quite an income for their masters by carrying water to the city and supplying the inhabitants. . . . I noticed that their heads as a general thing are bare of hair upon the top on account of this constant friction\" from carrying loads on their heads. One visitor heard of a \"Negro who carried a barrel of flour 20 miles on his head!\"\u2014which was not uncommon since \"a large portion of the transporting of goods from one part of the city to the other is done by Negroes. They have a kind of dray which is drawn by Negroes, generally about 5 to a dray, one at the pole, two at the wheels and two to push behind.\" Instead of \"oxen\" or \"mules,\" Brazilians used Africans. C. H. Keefe in 1849 observed something similar. \"Having but very few horses,\" in Rio, the enslaved \"actually have to work harder than most of our horses at home. I have seen them go in squads of 20 or 30 with all the furniture of a house on their heads, some with tables, others with sofas and chairs, on a kind of dog trot singing 2 or 3 words which one sings and the rest join in a chorus of 'yam yah' or 'wol wor' or something similar.\"\n\nAlbert Lyman did not miss the \"great excess of the slave over the white population in Rio. . . . the former are nearly five times more numerous than the latter\" and \"usually go in gangs of from twelve to thirty, sometimes yoked together with heavy necklaces of iron and attended by a driver. . . . they move along at a slow trot, humming a monotonous refrain the words of which are often changed.\"\n\nAnother unidentified visitor in 1849 noticed that these \"poor, degraded & oppressed beings\" were involved in tasks that \"would seem incredible if not related by those who are entitled to full belief,\" \"such as carrying a single umbrella, a cup of coffee, a small vase of flowers and the like on their heads\" or pulling a \"water cart, similar to the water carts of New York except being pushed and pulled along by Negroes instead of drawn by a horse.\" M. J. Randall observed that \"the ladies, who can afford it, are carried about in palanquins, by two or four Negroes.\" Visiting Rio in 1858, the Virginian, Richard Morton, found that it was not appropriate for Euro-Brazilians \"to carry [any] bundle; no matter how small, in your hand, through the streets; you must have a black to carry it for you\" [emphasis-original].\n\nOn his way to California from Boston, Thomas Williams arrived in Rio in 1849 and immediately observed that \"the boatmen were all black and they were a ragged set of beings, the most they had on was a coarse piece of cloth around their loins without hats or shoes or anything in the shape of a garment for it appears that the whites do no labour at all,\" which was \"disgraceful\" as \"the Negroes are their cattle to do all labour.\" He visited a slaughter house and found it \"disgusting\" that \"no white man [was] to be seen at any kind of labour,\" while the Africans were a sight, \"blood running down the faces and over the shoulders and back to their heels, of all such sights this was the most filthy.\" Dumbfounded, he wrote, \"I have seen a slave with three bags of coffee on his head at one time and close at his heels . . . another with a barrel of flour on his head.\" There were \"no privies in the houses\" and in his hotel, \"he was shown to a room and in a few minutes a slave entered with a tub and actually [stayed] in the room while [he] eased himself,\" then carted the night soil away. \"The poor slave . . . dare not murmur nor complain, or the lash is laid on his back which is always bare.\" Slavery, he concluded, was \"the curse of curses\" and, thus, said Williams, \"I was happy to leave Rio with all its beauties and splendor.\"\n\nA nameless visitor concurred, mourning that a \"stranger here whose affections are far away with those he loves, cannot but sympathize with these poor fellow creatures who have been taken by violence from their homes, their wives and their children, and enslaved in a foreign country, where hope cannot befriend them!\" \"I would rather, a thousand times, be a sheep, pig, or ox, have freedom, food and rest for a season, and then be knocked on the head,\" observed Thomas Ewbank of Brazil, \"then be a serf on some plantations.\" \"Here are slave dealers,\" he lamented, \"who weep over the legendary sufferings of a saint, and laugh at worse tortures they themselves inflict.\" Like animals, slaves \"at night\" were \"locked up in cells,\" but unlike animals, this was \"done to keep their slaves from any outbreak or insurrection which is constantly feared.\"\n\nOf course, there were other U.S. nationals, including non-Virginians, who were not angered by the slavery they saw but, instead, quickly adjusted to it. There was a famous \"Captain Cathcart,\" who was \"well known to Americans calling at Santa Catarina,\" Brazil. He was an \"American whaling captain who, upon returning to Nantucket after a long voyage, learned that his wife had been unfaithful during his absence. He divorced her and immediately set sail. At a stop in Santa Catarina he fell in love with the daughter of the local governor, sold his ship and cargo (which did not belong to him) and set himself up as a plantation owner\" and rather rapidly \"gained a great ascendancy over the simple people\" there; he owned a \"large plantation and several Negro slaves.\" Typical of that time was the fact that Cathcart for a while acted as a U.S. diplomat there.\n\nBut whether budding abolitionists or flame-throwing advocates of bondage, U.S. travelers in Brazil were generally unenthusiastic about this nation. **Godey's Lady Book,** published in Philadelphia, was not known to have a significant Negro readership; yet, their correspondent, just back from Petropolis, \"where the Emperor has a palace\" was at one of that region's \"very poor hotels. At one of these I was staying recently,\" it was said, \"when there arrived a family, consisting of a young gentleman with his wife, his wife's sister, a young lady of sixteen years of age, a black nurse, and a baby. _They all occupied the same bedroom!_ And this not from necessity. . . . these were _highly respectable_ people, of the best families of the place\"\u2014\"this fact speaks volumes,\" it was concluded triumphantly [emphasis-original]. \"A more miserable dirty place I never saw,\" said Daniel S. Hayden, who stopped there on his way from Maine to California. \"The houses are low & the streets narrow & full of blacks of all conditions from the officer in power to the beggar with no finger or toes\"; besides \"yellow fever\" abounded. Another unidentified sojourner arriving in May 1850 also detected the \"prevalence of the yellow fever,\" with \"about thirty thousand persons [having] fallen victims to it since January.\" The \"filthiness of the inhabitants\" was revolting. The inadequate plumbing system was an abomination to one U.S. visitor; \"at night these tubs [carrying human waste] are carried off on the heads of Negroes and emptied into the harbor\"; \"this is done after nine o'clock at night, at which time the streets are filled with Negroes, with these tubs on their heads, which creates often a very unpleasant odor!\" Ruth Nash of Maine declared that Rio was a \"very filthy city,\" with \"streets\" being \"narrow and dirty. The gutters are in the middle of the street where a stream of water runs which emits a very disagreeable smell.\" There were \"dead bodies . . . laid out in the green house. Those of the poorer classes and slaves are thrown into a trench where they are sprinkled with lime, placing one layer on another until the trench is filled. The crowded state of the place of internment [ _sic_ ] is evident from the numbers of skulls and bones laying about, some still with the flesh adhering to them.\"\n\nU.S. visitors often tended to view Brazil as a sewer of iniquity and corruption, a situation that some also tied to enslavement. \"'A married man is excusable so far from [home],'\" said one U.S. husband in search of prostitutes in the \"Deepest South,\" \"'and the prices were reasonable in Rio.'\" One wrote a \"poem to 'The Slave Girl at Rio,'\" drooling about \"'her bosom's swelling outlines' to her 'dark and lustrous eye' and then came his penultimate admission: 'I should I knew see naught on earth \/ So beautiful again,'\" before adding tellingly, \"'but 'twas no use to figger in setting up a wail; for she's the blackest nigger that I saw out of jail.'\" Also driven to verse, another would-be Whitman spoke of \"'where rivers of liquor are flowing[,] where each step in the street dark damsels we meet, tempting us to buy their bananas to buy-o; we cannot begin to set forth our chagrin at leaving thee; City of Rio.'\"\n\nThe mason and farmer, Samuel Whiting of Rhode Island\u2014who fought with the North during the Civil War\u2014perceived an \"intemperance and licentiousness\" that \"seem to abound here,\" speaking of Rio. \"What is still more disgraceful,\" he groused, was that \"more or less of nearly every California company that stops here helps to swell the tide of this iniquity,\" as \"there were some who drank to excess.\" Henry Beckett, though he was on his way to the Pacific Northwest and not California, may have been the kind of man conjured up by Whiting; approaching Brazil he rhapsodized since \"in viewing Rio from the sea it makes one think of the Elysian fields of a Mohammedan paradise with the beautiful girls, which, they say, were made to tempt the youth and torment the men.\"\n\nThomas Williams of Boston found \"some very handsome black women\" in Brazil, adding \"but for their colour they would be very handsome and as good looking as most women but it makes every heart sick to see their degradation but it is and likely to remain.\" Albert Lyman saw \"Negro women . . . lounging about the fountain near where we landed, chattering away in a strange gibberish like monkeys.\" Thomas Ewbank observed that in Brazil \"neither age nor sex is free from iron shackles. I met this morning a very handsome Mozambique girl with a double-pronged collar on; she could not have been over sixteen.\" Richard Morton of Virginia, after being in Brazil for over a month, bewailed that the \"only pretty Brazilian woman\" he had \"yet seen\" was his host's wife\u2014and she was \"white too\" [emphasis-original]. \"I have for two months been in a country,\" he complained, \"where there are scarcely any pretty women.\" Levi Holden was in Brazil a few years earlier and \"did not see any pretty women. They had the sallow complexions of Indians without the healthy glow in the cheeks & lips, these latter being of a leaden and healthy hue.\" \"The ladies here, as a general rule,\" were \"very dark,\" said one Philadelphia-based periodical, and \"very ugly. In no part of the world can so much ugliness and so few good looks be met . . . nowhere does the female sex possess so little attraction.\" This supposed trait was tied to morals since \"at a very early age, sometimes at twelve years old, she is married\" and \"conversation, of course, these ladies have none. What can they talk about?\"\n\n\"Father & daughter, brother & sister dwell together as man & wife, among both higher and lower classes,\" thus the \"moral desolation which pervades the whole country,\" concluded one Virginian.\n\nMost of these visitors were men and their reactions to Brazilian women were striking. But their reactions may have been skewed because \"another feature of Brazilian society,\" as Reverend L. J. Hall put it, was \"the exclusion of females from the public gaze.\" J. D. B. Stillman concurred, declaring \"there is no animation in Brazil\u2014no social sound, no voice of mirth,\" one reason being \"woman is a slave! She is illiterate and suspected. Women are not allowed to frequent the streets, day or night.\" He did not \"see any females, except [those that] are blacks!\" This too may have pushed these numerous visitors in a perverted cycle of revulsion and attraction into the \"bosom's swelling outlines\" of poor African women. Slavers preferred men to women, in any event, then\u2014according to one U.S. visitor\u2014discouraged their slaves from having children, as they can get them from Africa with less expense than they can \"raise them at home\"; thus, he \"saw very few children.\"\n\nA. H. Cazzam of the U.S. was unimpressed with the southernmost part of South America generally. He found those of Buenos Ayres to be a \"very healthy & handsome race of people\u2014much handsomer than the Brazilians,\" who, of course, had a larger African population. Yet, like Brazil, he found there a \"laxity in their morals\" too \"that might shock you at first sight. . . . for instance, a great many respectable people received into society & who visit all the parties & balls have had children before they were married. . . . such as the husband being a priest or the wife a nun.\" He struggled toward moral relativism\u2014\"it is impossible to do justice to judge one nation by any standard of conventional morals that belong to another nation\"\u2014but still he had much to object to among his hemispheric neighbors.\n\nU.S. nationals were flowing into Rio at a time when anti-Catholicism was proliferating back home and this too marked their presence there, making them feel that the residents were not worthy of this vast land and, perhaps, those from the North should substitute for them. \"I could not conceive why any mortal man can be so very superstitious as to believe in a religion like this,\" said Ralph Cross Pendleton, speaking of Catholicism in Brazil during his 1852 visit from New York. One U.S. visitor met a \"gentleman\" in Brazil in 1852, who \"had once resided in Virginia,\" who expressed \"unqualified disgust of the Roman Catholic religion.\" James Woods en route to the Gold Rush made his way to Rio and was acidulous in referring to this \"great city almost wholly given to idolatry.\" Others thought that this religion was a profound cofactor in the subordination of enslaved Africans. \"A custom is observed here, and I am told in well-regulated families in Brazil, which,\" said C. S. Stewart in 1856, \"were it anything more an unmeaning form would be interesting. It is the asking of a blessing from the master every morning and every evening at the close of the day's work by all the slaves, of both sexes and of every age . . . the slaves as they present themselves merely exclaiming, in all manner of intonations of voice and in every mood of humor\u2014'Jesus Christ!'\u2014while the master, be he talking or laughing, eating or drinking, or in whatever way employed, without any interruption and seemingly without any regard to the import of the salutation, as abruptly replies, 'Siempre!' [ _sic_ ] 'Forever!'\"\n\nThe irascibly racist Richard Morton of Virginia pointed out \"another custom . . . of the blacks, when they first see you in the morning or if they meet you on the road, they hold their hands & say, '. . . Jesus Christo,' & you are expected to reply, 'a dios,' they also do the same thing when they come in from work at night. . . . the expression means 'praised be our Lord Christ Jesus.'\"\n\nWilliam Edwards, the former U.S. diplomat in Buenos Ayres, who visited Brazil in 1847, discerned that \"every morning and evening the blacks knelt in devotion. Upon certain evenings all of them, and some of the neighbors, would come together and for an hour chant the Portuguese hymn in wild tones, but very pleasing. A lamp was constantly kept burning in this chapel. Similar customs [obtained nationally] and by many of the planters the blacks are trained up rigidly to the performance of these observances.\"\n\nHence, though many U.S. visitors viewed Brazil negatively as a morass of enslavement and religious rigor mortis, others thought\u2014when compared to the U.S.\u2014Africans were advantaged and African-Americans in the U.S. were among these. Frederick Douglass frequently evoked the example of Brazil repeatedly to indict U.S. slavery. \"Indeed,\" said his paper, the **North Star** in 1848, \"in many countries, where multitudes of Africans and their descendants have been long held slaves, no prejudice against color has ever existed. This is the case in Turkey, Brazil and Perisa. In Brazil there are more than two million of slaves. Yet some of the highest offices of state are filled by black men. . . . hundreds of Roman Catholic clergy are black and colored men, these minister to congregations made up indiscriminately of blacks and whites.\" \"If the colored man can rise from degradation to respectability in Brazil,\" said Douglass in 1858, \"with the same treatment he can rise here. If he can be esteemed as a man by the Portuguese, he can be so esteemed by Anglo-Saxons and Celts.\" \"Take slavery as it existed in Cuba or in the Brazils [ _sic_ ], or anywhere else,\" said Douglass later, \"it was nowhere so destructive of all the rights of humanity as slavery in the United States.\"\n\nIn a perverse way, Richard Morton of Virginia made an argument that dovetailed with Douglass's, otherwise his diametric opposite. \"As a general thing,\" he said with emphasis, \"one of our Southern blacks does more work than two blacks in Brazil, I am competent to gauge.\" Brazilian slaves \"cannot compare at all with those of Va. [ _sic_ ] except the blacks 'who work the coffee.'\" Accidentally, Morton here also touched on a reason why slavery hampered the development of the productive forces in Brazil, as the proliferation of enslaved Africans, often rebellious, hindered the economy. \"The mechanics here are mostly slaves,\" said Samuel Upham, \"a Yankee mechanic would perform as much labor in one day as two slaves in the same length of time.\" Euro-Brazilians, thought John Beeckman, were \"slow of belief and seem rather inclined to risk their capital and credit in the slave trade to the coast of Africa than send their vessels to the Eldorado of America. Every merchant here is either directly or indirectly engaged in slave traffic\u2014at which their government winks.\"\n\nOn the other hand, Thomas Ewbank argued that \"here\" in Brazil \"are many wealthy people of color. I have passed black ladies in silk and jewelry, with male slaves in livery behind them. . . . several have white husbands.\" Even Brazilian slaves seemed advantaged\u2014\"I have now seen slaves working as carpenters, masons, pavers, printers, sign and ornament painters, carriage and cabinet makers, fabricators of military ornaments, lamp-makers, silversmiths, jewelers and lithographers,\" while \"some write Arabic fluently and are vastly superior to most of their masters.\" \"The slaves in this city,\" said Samuel Upham speaking of Rio, \"appear to be well treated and seem happy. I asked several if they would like to return to Africa. Their reply was: 'me no like to go back to Africa among the nigger thieves!'\" Free Negroes were thought relatively advantaged compared to their counterparts, not to mention slaves in the hemisphere, not least since there in Rio \"they wear shoes; the slaves invariably go barefooted.\" Yet, whether one were an abolitionist like Douglass or opposed to same, like Morton, Brazil was evoked readily as a basis for either argument. Brazil seemed to harden the sentiments of abolitionists and pro-slavery advocates alike, thus hastening the lurch toward Civil War.\n\nIronically, the images transmitted about Brazil in the mid-19th century by U.S. visitors may have been more graphic, numerous, and important than any images rendered since by similar sojourners. Slavery in Rio de Janeiro left an indelible impression upon those on their way to California. But their compatriots\u2014particularly Matthew Fontaine Maury of Virginia\u2014had a different view of Brazil; he appreciated this South American nation so much that he thought it would be a good idea to seize some of its territory.\n\nMatthew Fontaine Maury. An eminent Virginian, Maury was a commander of the Confederate States Navy during the Civil War. He also had designs on the Amazon, including a plan to deport enslaved African-Americans there. Courtesy Library of Congress.\n\n## **6  \nThe U.S. to Seize the Amazon?**\n\nA street is named for him in Richmond, an oil portrait of him hangs in the Virginia State Library, a county in Tennessee has been named after him, along with a wing of the Naval Academy at Annapolis and a destroyer, not to mention his prominence at the University of Virginia where his name is inscribed on the frieze of the Rotunda. This \"internationally famous man\" is credited with the founding of an entirely new science, the \"physical geography of the sea,\" known today as oceanography, which \"revolutionized merchant traffic on the high seas.\" It was he who was substantially responsible for the \"impressive performance\" of antebellum U.S. vessels with the \"publication\" of his \"charts of ocean winds and currents, which showed that the fastest course under sail was not always the shortest in miles,\" thereby facilitating the mass migration of the Gold Rush via Brazil and Cape Horn and the illicit mass migration of Africans across the Atlantic. His \"fertile brain conceived the Panama Canal\" before it was built and \"fifteen years before the Pony Express we find him advocating a monthly overland service to Oregon.\" His works went through 19 editions in Britain and were translated into eight languages.\n\nHe received \"honors from universities, acclamation from nearly 50 learned societies, and decorations from Emperors, Kings, and Pope Pius IX\" and \"authorship of a memorial for the free navigation of the Amazon which was endorsed by the 14-state economic congress, the Memphis Convention and presented to the U.S. House of Representatives of 3 March 1854.\" Tens of thousands of copies of a report on the Amazon he initiated were printed, which was \"clear evidence of the intense interest generated by the exploration\" there he sponsored.\n\nHe is still a celebrated Virginian, comparable to \"Stonewall\" Jackson or Robert E. Lee. Yet Matthew Fontaine Maury not only devised a scheme to send U.S. Negroes to Brazil, but he also exceeded the most anti-union elements among secessionists in his zeal in collaborating with foreign powers against Washington during the Civil War, a development that was a logical extension of the former proposal, both reflecting his view of national boundaries as impermanent and transitory. For it was Maury who \"engaged in a long series of negotiations with the Emperor Napoleon of France and the Archduke Maximilian of Austria concerning the separation of California from the United States and its restoration to Mexico as a reward for French intervention on the side of the South\" during the Civil War.\n\nBefore this later cartographic scheme, in the 1850s, Maury devised a plan to transfer enslaved Africans in the U.S. from the South to Brazil, the Deepest South. If Brazil could get slaves from the U.S. instead of Africa, the number of slaves in the U.S. would be cut down and the kidnapping and buying of new slaves from Africa would be prevented\u2014hence, the implication of the crusade of his compatriot, Henry Wise. As he saw it, the law of supply and demand would facilitate this massive movement southward, just as it had already supposedly played a role in the Negro transfer from the northern to the southern U.S. He did not believe southern slaveholders would consent to the freedom of their property without being paid and, conveniently, he was of the opinion that the desire of the Brazilians for slaves would meet the desire of a good many of those in the U.S. to dispose of their slaves at the market price: it was the logic of the Virginia slave-breeder, the same mentality that had impelled Wise toward opposing the African Slave Trade so vociferously. Ultimately, this cleansing of the U.S. South of Africans would serve to, at least, reduce slavery\u2014and the number of Negroes\u2014in that nation, just as it would increase it in Brazil. Maury, who was lame as a result of a severe fall from a stagecoach in 1839, which disqualified him for further active service on land or sea, then turned his fecund and mobile intellect to the seas, devising schemes that placed Brazil in the bull's-eye.\n\nSending U.S. Negroes elsewhere was an idea that was not unique to Maury, as this notion was often seen as complementary to emancipation. There was talk in the 1840s about settling U.S. Negroes in \"British Guiana,\" on the northern coast of South America, close to Brazil. Nor was Maury unique in having designs on the Amazon, as this region was \"potentially . . . one of the richest of the globe\"; the \"entire river system\" drained \"areas of some 1,722,000 square miles, or over twice the estimated drainage region of the Mississippi and its tributaries.\" Monroe Edwards of Texas was in and out of Rio de Janeiro in the 1830s, once listening carefully as he was told that because the prices of \"'colonial produce'\" were \"'unusually high and that regulates the demand for slaves. The prices will stimulate the planters to enlarge their cultivations extensively. They cannot do this without an increase of slaves, and I should not be surprised if the next year saw seventy thousand wool heads taken from the coast.'\" He and his friend then repaired to the U.S. Consul to get papers to facilitate their going to Africa on business; they were worried but \"found the Consul remarkably indifferent to everything.\" Slave trading was nothing new for Edwards, as he had been active in supplying his nation, Texas, and, in the process, had become a \"rich man; one of the richest in Texas.\" He considered establishing an enterprise in the Amazon, \"far enough in the interior to be beyond the supervision of any active authority\"; these \"distant plains though hidden from the eye of nations and beyond the immediate observation of the effeminate power of the Brazilian government\" were \"nevertheless within a step of the great high roads of the world.\" As he saw it, if he could get a \"thousand men together there . . . no South American state\" could \"bring sufficient force together to dislodge us.\" Nevertheless, as a self-confessed \"forger and swindler,\" Edwards's words have to be viewed cautiously, if not suspiciously.\n\nYet there is little doubt that there were U.S. nationals with grand plans for the Amazon, licit and illicit. This is why in 1856 \"plenipotentiaries\" representing many South American nations \"signed a Treaty of Union at Santiago that among other things\" sought to define \"filibustering,\" which was seen as \"piracy\" and \"pledged mutual aid against invasions, and invited all other Latin states to join the alliance.\"\n\nIt appeared that as early as the 1830s, U.S. business was doing a better job of penetrating the Amazon than their French and British competitors. Symptomatic were the plans of the U.S. businessman, Peter Remsen. A cotton factor and cattle breeder from Mobile, he represented a trend that seemed to be growing as the antebellum era was coming to an end\u2014a kind of \"slave imperialism,\" whereby southern entrepreneurs were exporting capital and seeking to continue the existence of human bondage. In 1847, he was involved in planning to operate a \"steam boat\" on the \"River Amazon.\" High of forehead with blue eyes, an oval face, sandy hair, and short of build\u2014an unimposing 5\u20327\u2033 tall\u2014Remsen had imposing plans, nevertheless, for this vast largely unexplored region.\n\nHe was not alone. Even then there was an \"American society\" in the principal town of that area, Para, that was deemed \"rather more sociable and friendly with one another than they are at Rio, perhaps because there is less fashion, less show and less pretense among them\"; moreover, on this raw frontier\u2014\"this place does not contain over 12,000 inhabitants\"\u2014\"rents\" were \"uncommonly low. . . . servants\"\u2014i.e., enslaved Africans\u2014\"can be purchased low, say from $200 to $250 and hired for three or four dollars a month.\"\n\nYet amid such favorable conditions for U.S. nationals in Brazil, there were significant concerns. As some saw it, London\u2014the ubiquitous foe\u2014displayed more \"energy & resolution\" in \"protecting the rights of British subjects\" than their U.S. counterparts. \"By playing upon the fears of the Brazilians, although they heartily detest her, Great Britain gets all her claims paid promptly; whilst we, who . . . get nothing from them but interminable delay & evasions.\" For \"more than twenty years\" this \"entreaty and patience\" had \"been unable to accomplish anything\" and a \"decent respect for our national rights of honor, demands that other measures should now be tried.\" What was needed was \"authorization to demand immediate settlement, backed by ten or a dozen vessels of war ready to blockade Rio, would accomplish more in twenty four hours than our pacific & affectionate diplomacy has accomplished in as many years.\"\n\nU.S. business interests, pressuring the U.S. government to engage in gunboat diplomacy on their behalf, was not just limited to the Amazon. During the same period, the same issue arose at Pernambuco, as the commanding officer of the USS Bainbridge was told about \"political intrigues\" and \"violent animosities\" that could lead to \"much bloodshed and destruction of property.\" Concern was raised about the impact on \"lives or even the property of our fellow countrymen,\" and an urgent request was made for this ship to \"pay a visit as it is now more than a year since any American ship of war has been here\"; this \"would no doubt have a very salutary influence at present, particularly as no armed vessel of any nation is on this part of the coast.\"\n\nYet even in more developed Pernambuco, pressure was building for the influx of more enslaved Africans. \"Pernambuco has a population of perhaps one hundred and twenty five thousand,\" said the U.S. Consul, Walter Stapp; \"this exceedingly high price of living has necessarily produced an equally high demand for labor in all departments of Pernambuco life. . . . I am informed by the most respectable merchants in Pernambuco that the price of living here, is as great in, almost, any other commercial port in the world.\" Like the Amazon region, the \"climate\" here was also \"fearfully destructive\" and \"of the foreigners who have located here in the last few years more than seventy five percent have perished\" [emphasis-original], to the point \"when friends part, for an hour, they shake hands with a warmth that is almost tearful, for they know not that they shall meet again in life!\" Were not Africans the only humans who could withstand this withering environment?\n\nBahia was little different, with U.S. nationals proliferating as the illicit slave trade escalated. \"'Bahia is the only town [ _sic_ ] in Brazil in which there exists an American cemetery . . . belonging to citizens of the United States,'\" Secretary of State Daniel Webster was informed. When visiting Bahia in 1841, the South Carolinian John J. Pringle observed that there were \"very few Americans in Bahia but a great deal of English society.\" Of the three major groups there\u2014\"whites, mulattoes and blacks,\" he was happy to note that the \"whites have now the supremacy\" though he seemed to be concerned with the rapid influx of Africans and what this might mean for the \"racial\" balance; \"during the short time that [we] were there,\" he wrote, \"two vessels sailed for the coast of Africa, one of which had been chased several times by the English men of war but had always succeeded in escaping.\" Simultaneously, U.S. vessels were flowing into this increasingly \"Africanized\" province, with a plurality from Richmond, followed by Baltimore and including quite a few from New York City, Boston, and Philadelphia. If history was any guide, some of these ships would be sold for the purpose of seizing people in Africa for the purpose of enslavement in Brazil. It was such simmering pressure that set the stage for more aggressive U.S. plans for the Amazon, just as it provided a backdrop for Matthew F. Maury's more elaborate arrangement for Brazilian territory. For Washington maintained a special interest in the Amazon, carefully conducting reconnaissance. Washington was also concerned about the \"scarcity of labor\" in the Amazon, which was \"felt more and more each year,\" a dearth that Negro slaves could have alleviated. This lack \"retards the capital advancement of the commercial and agricultural interests of this province,\" it was said. Brazil made \"several attempts to introduce [colonists] from Portugal which have not proved entirely successful\" as \"hard work and exposure prepared them to become an easy prey to the yellow fever which proved fatal to many.\" U.S. nationals were arriving regularly in the Amazon in the 1850s; \"the capital of our citizens [is] employed in this province [and is] wholly invested in commercial pursuits, almost without exception in the prosecution of direct trade with the United States, the exports of produce exceeding the value of our imports of merchandise, by nearly one-hundred per centum\"\u2014this despite the oft criticized \"scarcity of labor,\" which continued to be \"felt more and more each year.\"\n\nDespite\u2014or perhaps because of\u2014this influx of U.S. nationals, they were being treated increasingly harsher by the authorities. \"Five men, said to be Americans\" were murdered in 1855 near the \"Brazilian military post on the Peruvian frontier by order of the commander of that station, a [captain] in the Brazilian army\"; when \"they were murdered, they were upon their knees begging for their lives,\" yet were \"shot down, like so many sheep\" [emphasis-original]. \"Almost all white foreigners that pass through this part of Peru are called Americans,\" thought one observer, which at once suggested the suspicion of these visiting U.S. nationals, their growing numbers, and the sharper reaction to them.\n\nYet as draconian as such responses were, they did not exhaust the warp and woof of the danger involved in venturing into the rough and raw frontier that was the Amazon. In 1855, for example, there was a \"fatal epidemic . . . the Asiatic cholera. . . . the number of deaths in this city during the month of June, was 510, of which 420 were of cholera and in many places in the interior, the mortality has been much greater. . . . the disease has been in great measure confined to the colored and Indian population\"\u2014yet another factor that cried out for an infusion of more enslaved Africans.\n\nSince the Maury family tree stretched over oceans and continents, perhaps it was not surprising that the most distinguished scion of this clan would devise such grandiose schemes. The \"Fontaines and Maurys\" could trace their ancestors back to France \"in the year 1500,\" while others \"settled in Virginia in 1716 and 1717.\" In 1825, when he was about 18, Sam Houston himself recommended Maury for an appointment at the Naval Academy, who he deemed to be a \"a young man of uncommonly fine talents.\" His nephew, General Dabney Herndon Maury, who termed him \"the most lovable man I ever knew,\" recalls that his uncle's potential bloomed late as he was \"'twenty-seventh'\" at Annapolis and \"'there were only forty in the class.'\" But he always had exhibited a resolute autodidacticism having pored over \"Scott and other English classics,\" in his youth: he \"was very fond of Shakespeare and all his life he read and studied the Bible,\" on which he exerted his \"wonderful . . . power of concentration.\" After graduating, in 1829, he was aboard the USS Vincennes in Callao on the western coast of South America, \"busy making preparations for a voyage around the globe.\"\n\nThese early ventures marked the coming trajectory of his life, as ocean currents and foreign adventures\u2014especially in Brazil\u2014were the keynotes of his future. It was Maury who debunked \"another myth among merchant skippers . . . that the best route south to Rio de Janeiro was well outside Brazil's jutting Cape S\u00e3o Roque. . . . some captains nearly crossed the Atlantic all the way to Africa in order to avoid Brazil's cape. But Maury found\u2014largely from the logs of skippers who had blundered inside Cape S\u00e3o Roque\u2014that there were actually favorable currents that could be ridden out around the Cape and helpful winds close to land to add to a vessel's speed.\" As a result, \"the age of [the] American clipper ship had begun,\" cutting the time in half to Brazil, i.e., \"Baltimore to Rio in 38 days\u201417 days faster than the usual time.\" This facilitated, as well, travel to California, as \"the clippers' impressive performance were aided by the publication of Matthew Maury's charts of ocean winds and currents, which showed that the fastest course under sail was not always the shortest in miles.\"\n\nIt was in 1850 that he zeroed in on Brazil, noting that \"vessels traveling under Canvass from the Mouth of the Amazon to Europe to Rio to Africa, or around either of the Capes, must stand North, and pass not far from the West Indies. This fact . . . makes that river basin nearer to us than Brazil (if we call Rio[,] Brazil) and puts practically the mouth of that river almost as much within the Florida pass and under our control, as is the Mouth of the Mississippi.\"\n\nNow with the Amazon River basin firmly in view he asked rhetorically, \"who shall people the Great Valley of this Mighty Amazon? Shall it be peopled with an imbecile and an indolent people or by a go ahead race that has energy and enterprise equal to subdue the forest and to develop and bring forth the vast resources that lie hidden there?\" Rather surreptitiously, Maury assigned William Herndon to explore this area in the early 1850s, putatively in violation of Brazilian sovereignty, to take on a \"mission,\" whose \"object\" was to \"prepare the way for that chain of routes which is to bring this result about\"\u2014i.e., to establish the suzerainty of the \"race that has energy and enterprise\": Euro-Americans. \"Your going,\" he told the young Herndon, \"is to be the first link in that chain which is to end in the establishment of the Amazonian Republic.\"\n\nBut what about Brazil? Dismissively, Maury roared that \"it cannot no more prevent American citizens from the free, as well as from the slave states, from going there with their goods and chattels to settle and to revolutionize and republicanize and Anglo Saxonize that valley, than it can prevent the magazine from exploding after the firebrand that has been throw into it. That Valley is to [be] the safety valve for our Southern States, when they become over-populated with slaves, the African Slave Trade will be stopped, and they will send their slaves to the Amazon. Just as the Mississippi Valley has been the escape valve for the slaves of the Northern, now free, States, so will the Amazon be to that of the Mississippi.\" Britain, he thought, was beginning to feel too dependent on the U.S. South for cotton and might want to snatch the Amazon for that purpose\u2014so Maury's initiative was preemptive. \"The Valley,\" he declared, \"in a few years will become to be regarded for all commercial purposes as a sort of an American Colony.\"\n\nThis was covert action of the first rank. \" _In the first place,_ \" he insisted, \" _the object of your journey should not be talked of_ \" [emphasis-original]. Maury provided a lengthy list of things Herndon should catalogue, including minerals and indigenous flora and fauna. \"What are the able bodied sold at there? Is there any importation from Africa? To what extent and how do the untried slaves just from Africa compare in price with those who have been raised and trained in the country.\" In sum, \"note down and take note of everything that you see, hear, feel or think while on the way down.\" It was not long before the U.S. Consul in the Amazon \"received from Mr. George Manning (agent for Lt. Maury) a letter of enquiry respecting the river Amazon and the Province of Para.\"\n\nThe designated trailblazer, William Lewis Herndon, was peripatetic, having spent 1832 in Lisbon\u2014a frequent port of call for those with dreams of expanding the bounds of bondage\u2014and in 1837 was \"anchored in Rio,\" then \"cruising between Rio, Bahia and River Plata.\" He was a \"slight man who wore thin gold spectacles\"; he had a \"red beard running the edge of his jaw from temple to temple.\" He had \"been at sea since he was fifteen\" and had soldiered in the \"Mexican War and the Second Seminole War.\" Like Maury, Herndon too had febrile dreams about Brazil; \"the Valley of Amazon and the Valley of Mississippi are commercial complements of each other\u2014one supplying what the other lacks in the great commercial round. They are sisters which should not be separated\"\u2014something that Brazilian sovereignty was preventing. With this thought firmly in mind, he embarked on this perilous expedition to the \"Deepest South\" in 1851, noting as he crossed onto Brazilian soil that \"the Commandant . . . never left me a moment to myself until he saw me safely in bed on board my boat. I did not know, at first, whether this was polite attention or a watch upon me, but I think it was the latter.\" Quite quickly this unease abated as he bumped into his compatriots\u2014\"everywhere on the river,\" he recounted, \"I heard sounded the praises of my countrym[e]n.\" A bit optimistically he opined, \"I presume that the Brazilian government would impose no obstacles to the settlement of this country by any of the citizens of the United States who would choose to go there and carry their slaves; and I know that the thinking people on the Amazon would be glad to see them.\" Going further, he added, \"I am under the impression that, were Brazil to throw off a causeless jealousy, and a puerile fear of our people, and invite settlers to the Valley of the Amazon, there might be found, among our Southern planters, men, who looking with apprehension (if not for themselves, at least for their children) to the state of affairs as regards slavery at home, would, under sufficient guarantees, remove their slaves to that country, cultivate its lands, draw out its resources, and prodigiously augment the power and wealth of Brazil.\" Like Maury, Herndon was passionately optimistic about this region's prospects. \"I have no hesitation in saying,\" he beamed, \"that I believe in fifty years Rio [de] Janeiro, without losing a tittle of her wealth and greatness, will be but a village to Para and Para will be what New Orleans would long ago have been but for the activity of New York and her own fatal climate, the greatest city of the New World; Santarem will be St. Louis and . . . Cincinnati.\"\n\nAlso, like Maury, Herndon had a bold oceanographic vision for this region of Brazil, arguing that \"ships sailing from the mouth of the Amazon, for whatever port of the world, are forced to our very doors by the southeast and northeast trade winds; that New York is the half-way house between Para and Europe.\" And this Herndon-Maury vision was not unique to them, for it was then that the young Mark Twain traveled down the Mississippi, thinking \"he would book passage on the next ship out of New Orleans bound for Para, Brazil. Once there, he would work his way up the Amazon into its tributaries.\" For his part, Herndon \"musingly dropped a bit of green moss, plucked\" from this U.S. river and \"as it floated along I followed it, in imagination, down through the luxurious climes, the beautiful skies and enchanting scenery of the tropics, to the mouth of the great river; thence across the Caribbean Sea, through the Yucatan pass, into the Gulf of Mexico; thence along the Gulfstream, and so out upon the ocean, off the shores of the 'Land of Flowers.'\" Herndon's enchanting analysis captured the imagination of a nation then imbued with the messianic revelation of \"Manifest Destiny.\" Herndon turned their attention southward toward the largest prize of all, a prize that made seizing Cuba seem trivial by comparison. Herndon's report sold 10,000 copies in its first run; \"three months later . . . another twenty thousand\" were sold and \"the book became an international best-seller.\"\n\nWritten in April 1850, Herndon\u2014who happened to be Maury's brother-in-law\u2014spoke dramatically of the \"'universal Yankee Nation'\" that was destined to blanket the hemisphere. The \"purpose of Herndon's mission was to 'prepare the way for that chain of events . . . which is to end in the establishment of the Amazonian Republic.'\" Once Brazil permitted U.S. nationals to \"navigate the river, American settlers from the free and slave states would follow inevitably. . . . the Amazon would serve both as a 'safety valve' for excess southern slaves as well as a rich source of cotton for England.\" Repetitively, Herndon's patron emphasized that the Valley of the Amazon was \"'but a commercial appendage of the Mississippi,' closely connected to it by prevailing currents and winds. . . . according to Maury, a tree cut at the headwaters of the Missouri River and another cut at the headwaters of the Amazon would meet in the 'Straits of Florida' if each was allowed to float freely. The Amazon and Mississippi River basins, then, comprised . . . part of a vast undeveloped commercial empire which could be dominated by southern ports, such as New Orleans and Norfolk. . . . in a climate he believed . . . congenial to cotton, rice, tobacco and sugar cultivation, Maury expected southerners to settle, transplant their institutions, move their slaves, and become a virtual colony of the Mississippi Valley.\"\n\nBut what if Brazil was unwilling to accede to the aggressive overtures of its more populous neighbor? Britain was not a passive witness either as this scheme was unfolding, and their man in Washington heard that Maury's response was \"'we mean to have a fight with her,'\" meaning a Brazil unwilling to capitulate. As John Crampton saw it, \"there will be one feature in regard to the Amazon which will ensure the popularity of any move in that direction in a great part of the Union\u2014I mean the South\u2014there will be no objection to the Southerners proceeding to that part of the world 'with their property' (that is, their Negroes), as there was in regard to California from which that 'property' was excluded by Congress altho' the country was conquered, as they (the Southerners) said with their blood and treasure as much as with that of the North. They are still indignant at this prohibition\"\u2014which could mean bowing to Maury's Brazilian scheme or, alternatively, heightening regional tensions in a giant step toward Civil War: in any case, Brazil was at issue.\n\nReflecting this tension over Brazil were the words of the radical Southern extremist, Edmund Ruffin. He denounced the \"hypocricy [ _sic_ ] of the pretended horrors of slavery,\" which was supposedly \"actuating Northern abolitionists.\" Why focus on the \"Southern states,\" he wondered querulously and not \"Brazil,\" where slavery was indeed \"inhuman & horrible.\" This led him to dangerous ground: \"if our secession & independence were once accomplished,\" he thought, \"& Northern politicians could no longer command votes or power by denouncing slavery, we should be nearly as safe from their anti-slavery action as are Brazil & Cuba now.\"\n\nJust as Dixie nationalists were coming to intertwine their fate with that of Brazil and Cuba, this prospect was also dawning on others. As the Maury-Herndon project was gaining traction, Congressman David Wilmot observed that \"slavery looks forward with exulting confidence\" to the \"revival of the foreign slave trade, and to an alliance offensive and defensive with Brazil for the protection and aggrandizement of slavery and to enable it to defy the public opinion and power of the world.\" The recently founded newspaper, the **New York Times,** took careful note of the words of a counterpart journal in South Carolina which called on its readers to follow the \"'true policy,'\" i.e., \"'to look to Brazil as the next great slave power. . . . _instead of courting England, we should look to Brazil_ [emphasis-original]. . . . The time will come when a treaty of commerce and alliance with Brazil will give us the control over the Gulf of Mexico and its border countries, together with the islands, and the consequence of this will place African Slavery beyond the reach of fanaticism, at home or abroad. These two great Slave Powers now hold more undeveloped territory than any other two governments, and they ought to guard and strengthen their mutual interests by acting together in strict harmony and concert.\"\n\nThe Brazilian Foreign Ministry paid close attention to these plots\u2014for which it had not been consulted\u2014on its territory. It obtained and translated a copy of Maury's message to William Graham, U.S. Secretary of the Navy, and could not have been pleased. The Amazon, rhapsodized Maury, was in a \"country that sends its waters from South America into the Caribbean Sea\" and was the \"grandest and most magnificent water-shed in the world. . . . the Mississippi and its tributaries have been called 'Inland Seas.' The Amazon is an 'Inland Ocean.' . . . the Gulf Stream as it gathers strength to force itself through . . . Florida . . . sweeps by the mouth of the Amazon as it does by the Delta of the Mississippi. . . . from a commercial point of view, the whole of South America is but a peninsula pendent from the North and as dependent upon North America as peninsulas usually are upon the main. . . . were the navigation of the Amazon open to our citizens, much of Equador [ _sic_ ], most of Peru and nearly all of Bolivia might be supplied with articles of American growth and manufacture through it instead of around Cape Horn, and then on the backs of donkeys across the Cordilleras and the Puna, up the Andes and down again. . . . the silver mines of Peru and Bolivia would probably soon receive a new impulse. . . . their produce would flow down the Amazon along the great equatorial and Gulf Stream currents to our very doors and so assist to balance the stream of gold which we are to expect and almost to fear from California.\" The Amazon region, thought Maury, was a prize waiting to be developed and this idea\u2014repeatedly\u2014was linked to the companion notion of U.S. bondage. \"Is the time yet to come when the United States are [too] overpeopled with the black race? And if so, when shall an outlet be found for them? In the Valley of the Amazon.\"\n\nThe Brazilian press also got wind of Maury's plans. It was \"feared,\" said one journalist from Rio de Janeiro, \"that the U. States will hasten to arrange . . . for the navigation of some of the tributaries of the Amazon and thus judge themselves authorized to enter the Amazon from within, as its journals of New York & New Orleans already propose. We have been careless on this matter and must now hurry about it,\" it was said with anxiety. \"This nation of pirates,\" it was said of the U.S., \"like those of their race wish to dispossess all the people of America who are not Anglo-Saxons.\" This article made it to the hands of Maury's comrade, William Graham, who filed it away for future reference.\n\nGraham, whose role as Secretary of the Navy placed him in a strategic position, saw Maury's Amazon plan as part of a larger scheme for South America. He was told in 1852 that \"the defeat and expulsion of Rosas from Buenos Ayres will open to the trade of the world the fine countries bordering on the Uruguay and Paraguay Rivers. Our government ought to be among the first to take advantage of that opening.\" For the longest time, the U.S. had paid insufficient attention to the nation that became Argentina but as \"the news of the assembling of a Congress of representatives from the principal Latin American states at Lima, Peru early in 1843, where Mexican\u2013United States relations were to be considered,\" Washington became \"more concerned about [its] prestige in South America.\" Certainly, the war of aggression against Mexico in 1846 could hardly be ignored by Latin America. Henry Wise had once told John C. Calhoun that \"'the U. States and Brazil are the two elder sisters of North and South America and are in a moral sense responsible for the whole family of states in the New World.'\" But even Brazil, admitted to parity with the U.S. in Wise's formulation, was beginning to think that, instead, a fate akin to Mexico was the destiny slotted for it by Washington.\n\nMaury's relationship to Graham showed that his designs on the Amazon were not apparitions, for this North Carolinian was a \"unanimous\" choice in 1852 as \"candidate for the Office of Vice President,\" while Millard Fillmore found their \"official intercourse\" to have \"been so intimate and so entirely harmonious.\" The potent politician from New York told Graham that he had a \"vacant room\" at his house \"at your services\" and almost demanded that he \"become our guest during the time you remain in the city.\"\n\nMaury would need these powerful contacts that reached into the inner sanctums of the White House if his ambitious proposals were to become reality. Seeking to outflank a Brazil that was hesitant to open its territory to a nation that some there viewed as piratical, Maury proposed to Graham that the U.S. \"negotiate a treaty, guaranteeing to Peru\" certain \"islands\" near \"Amazonia,\" \"on condition that she would open one or more of the river towns in her Amazonian provinces to American commerce by making them ports of entry; or whether we might not go further, and in consideration of the guaranty, ask of Peru this right of navigation to be exclusive to the American flag, together with that of the coterminous nations only, as Brazil, Bolivia, etc. Thus, by getting such a right from Bolivia and the other states whose territories are drained by that river and its navigable tributaries, we should exclude France and England with their mischievous abolitionists from those waters and from a participation with us.\" Like many aggressive men in Washington before and since, he saw the \"State Department\" as \"inefficient\"\u2014\"nobody there seems to understand South American affairs,\" he groused, while he was dreamy about the prospects, suggesting that Herndon's report would \"show the country [Brazil] to be all you ever imagined of it.\"\n\nAfter dispatching Herndon southward, the prolific Maury then picked up his pen and with a pseudonym of South American vintage\u2014\"Inca\"\u2014in the canonical publication of the Slave South, **De Bow's Review,** began to propagandize further on behalf of his ambitious Amazon plan. \"Our commercial transactions with Brazil and the valley of the Rio de la Plata,\" he insisted, \"are already worth more than they were any of the countries of Europe, except Great Britain and France\"\u2014and that did not include the illicit slave trade. It was the South that should spearhead this Brazilian initiative, he said, already intimating that he saw this region as a separate nation: \"if the South do not make haste soon to take it up and embark in it, we may rest assured the North will not be slow\" for \"that Valley is a slave country\" and should remain that way. \"Wherever they are found, the African delights to dwell; and he alone is equal to the task which man has to accomplish with the axe in the valley of the Amazon\" for \"the settlement of the valley of the Amazon, its relation to this country, its bearings upon our future commerce and withal so potential, that the destiny of the United States seems to be closely connected with, wrapped up in, and concealed by this question.\" The Amazon was the future: \"there will soon be no more Mississippi lands to clear, no more cotton fields to subdue, and unless some means be devised of getting rid of the Negro increase, the time must come\u2014and sooner or later it will come\u2014when there will be an excess in these states of black people.\"\n\nThere was a precedent for this as the \"New England states and the Middle states did not emancipate their slaves; they banished them,\" but the \"South could not, if she would, banish her slaves and tell the world that it is emancipation; for she has no place of banishment to send them to.\" And they could not be expropriated for \"did ever any people incur such a tax? History affords no example of any. . . . unless some means of relief be devised, some channel afforded by which the South can, when the time comes, get rid of the excess of her slave population, that she will be ultimately found, with regard to this institution, in the predicament of [those] with the wolf by the ears\u2014too dangerous to hold on any longer, and equally dangerous to let it go.\" For \"sooner or later, come it will, and come it must\u2014when the two races will join in the death struggle for the mastery. The valley of the Amazon is the way; in this view, it is the safety-valve of the Union. It is slave territory and a wilderness.\" The idea was \"the entire suppression of the African slave trade with Brazil\"\u2014following Wise\u2014\"by a substitution of a slave emigration from the United States.\"\n\n\"We are nearer to the Amazon, or rather to the mouth of it than any other nation,\" said Maury. \"China wants to trade with us, but Japan stands by the way-side and shuts herself up and out of the world. She is not in the fellowship of nations, and we send a fleet there to remind her that she cannot be of the world and live out of it at one and the same time\"\u2014Brazil should get the same treatment, he thought. For \"the five Spanish-American republics want to trade up and down the Amazon; but Brazil, worse than Japan on the wayside, stands right in the _doorway_ and says, 'Nay, I will neither use the Amazon myself nor permit others to use it'\" [emphasis-original]. This was little more than a \"state of war,\" this was \"their policy.\" Brazil and \"her rulers have had\" the Amazon \"for three hundred years, and the first practical step towards subduing it and developing its resources, has yet to be taken.\" This was \"the question of the day. The problem of the age is that of the free navigation of the Amazon and the settlement of the Atlantic slopes of South America.\" \"The time will come\" he predicted, \"when the free navigation of the Amazon will be considered by the people of this country as second in importance, by reason of its conservative effects, to the acquisition of Louisiana\"\u2014\"if it be _second_ at all\" [emphasis-original]. This explosive message was taken directly to the halls of Congress.\n\nMaury also addressed directly the commanding North Carolinian, William Graham. \"When the states of the Union were all on the waters of the Atlantic,\" he said in October 1850, \"we had a seafront of only 2000 miles. But now, our ocean front is more than double that.\" The expansion into California and the fact that getting there from the East often led to Cape Horn, inevitably made the U.S. vision more capacious. \"Then, the shortest way from state to state was within our own borders and by inland channels of communication; now, [it] is through foreign countries, and by a double sea voyage.\" This meant the \"Navy must be challenged or we shall fail properly to provide for the common defense of the Pacific coasts.\" But on the west coast of the U.S. there were \"no shipyards, public or private, no timber sheds stored with timber, no railroads to fetch it from the forest; & no mechanics, except at exorbitant rates to build them.\" Consequently, a \"considerable increase of the Navy is called for on account of our acquisitions & the settlement of our people on the Pacific Coast.\" Like slavers who looked to whalers, Maury did the same\u2014but to the navy, looking to \"10,000 American seamen employed in the whaling business\" to join this U.S. force, along with \"the merchant sailors.\"\n\nHe also spread this message to Brazil. \"Now for the last two years I have been urging upon the government to make a treaty with Brazil,\" he said in 1851, \"and to remind her in that treaty that we are her best customers for coffee; that nearly all she produces is consumed in the United States, where it is admitted duty free, and of course the consumption is largely increased thereby.\" There was a condition, however. \"I have urged that we should say to Brazil in that treaty, 'Stop the African slave trade, or we will put a duty on that coffee, and thus lessen the demand for the fruits of slave labor.'\" This did not mean stop slavery, however. For \"the people of Amazonia will have slaves\u2014they are very near to the coast of Africa, and if they cannot get them in one they will in another. The alternative is, shall Amazonia be supplied with this class from the United States or from Africa? In the former case, it will be a transfer of the place of servitude, but the making of no new slaves. In the latter, it will be making slaves of free men\" and \"in the former it would be relieving our own country of the slaves.\" As pressure mounted in the Slave South, Maury saw his plan as the most reasonable alternative. \"I cannot be blind to what I see going on here. It is coming to be a matter of faith among leading southern men that the time is rapidly approaching when, in order to prevent this war of the races and its horrors,\" the white South \"in self-defence\" would \"be compelled to conquer parts of Mexico and Central America and make slave territory of what is now free.\" Moreover, as Maury saw it, his country had to strike first in the Amazon as a pre-emption of rivals in London and Paris. The U.S. had to \"exclude France and England, with their mischievous abolitionists, from those waters,\" i.e., the Amazon River.\n\nBrazil was not standing aside idly as other nations were contemplating its territorial integrity, however. Fearing filibustering, Brazil cut a deal with Peru restricting navigation of ships in this region and in 1867 the Amazon was finally opened to \"world commerce.\" Brazil's legation in the U.S. monitored carefully the North American conversation about the prospect of seizing their territory.\n\nMaury's was not a lone voice in the wilderness calling for action in the Amazon and signaling the importance of Brazil, though these voices were not necessarily in accord with every jot of his proposals. The **Southern Standard** of Charleston felt that \"instead of courting England, we should look to Brazil and the West Indies. These two great slave powers now hold more undeveloped territory than any other two governments\"; thus, if the Slave South and Brazil chose to \"act together by treaty we cannot only preserve domestic servitude . . . we can defy the power of the world.\" The Slave South had \"been too long governed by psalm-singing schoolmasters from the North\" and the time had long since come for a change. A sort of slave imperialism was proposed, as it was said, \"the time will come that all islands and regions suited to African Slavery, between us and Brazil, will fall under the control of those two slave powers.\" With audacity, it was proposed \"to take Cuba. To conquer St. Domingo and reduce its inhabitants to slavery. To unite with Brazil . . . to enter into an alliance with Brazil.\" Said a nameless abolitionist voice, \"it is seldom [one] will find more of what is being called 'letting the cat out of the bag' . . . the [Kansas]-Nebraska bill is but the first,\" this was the \"easy step in this comprehensive plan of Africanizing the whole of the American hemisphere.\" Said another, the Slave South was looking to an \"alliance, offensive and defensive with Brazil,\" while another declared, \"it was predicted twenty years ago, that if [the Slave South] got Texas, it would not stop until it reached Brazil.\"\n\nNaturally, this idea of dispatching U.S. Negroes to the \"Deepest South\" did not evade the attention of the intended victims. Writing from exile in Canada, one editorialist ridiculed the \"stupendous scheme of the Slave Power,\" this attempt to \"secure an outlet for their surplus slave population, now staring them in the face like doom. If they could but get a foothold in that rich tropical [Amazon] valley, establish slavery there by arrangement with Brazil, create a commerce between it and the Southern States, direct and institute lines of steamship, slaves could be transported with convenience . . . a great slaveholding empire would arise, fortifying the system at home and removing for centuries the only danger which threatened it.\" The **Provincial Freeman** reacted sharply to Maury's plan to \"memorialize Congress\" to \"send one or two small naval steamers up the Amazon River for the purpose of exploring its tributaries\" and \"that the government of Brazil be requested to permit these vessels to make explorations and surveys of the shores of the Amazon belonging to that nation.\" They sensed the implications of the idea of converting \"'the mouth of the Amazon and the mouth of Mississippi into one'\"\u2014this would be a boon for the consolidation of hemispheric slavery. They did not miss the import of the point that \"'ships sailing from the mouth of the Amazon for whatever port of the world, are forced to float to our very doors by the S.E. trade winds; that New York is the half-way house between Para and Europe.'\" They recognized that U.S. Negroes would be on the move southward when \"'Southern planters, men, who looking with apprehension . . . to the state of affairs'\" of \"'slavery at home, would under sufficient guarantees, remove their slaves'\" to Brazil.\n\nFrederick Douglass also was alarmed by these Amazon plans. \"We noticed with no small interest,\" he said, \"the published accounts of the large expeditions which the last season sailed out of New York, to explore this father of Rivers and its borders,\" which were initiated by the \"capitalists of our metropolis,\" along with \"other large expeditions which lately sailed from San Francisco to Peru and Equador [ _sic_ ].\" It was stated \"publicly\" that \"unsuccessful efforts have been made to engage Brazil in a treaty with the United States for the protection and propagation of slavery on the continent.\" As Douglass saw it, there was more to fear from \"filibustering\" in Brazil, more so than Cuba, the U.S.'s immediate neighbor.\n\nOn the other hand, because of the rather benign view of Brazil taken by a number of U.S. Negroes, there were other voices that echoed Maury's sentiments about sending this group southward\u2014not for slavery but for freedom. \"I am neither a Northern agitating Abolitionist nor an Ebony-line Colonizationist . . . I am . . . a let-alone-ist,\" said a man identified as \"Chr. Reemlin,\" but compared to the U.S., he saw Brazil as the \"'promised land.'\" Looking ahead he foresaw a time \"a hundred years\" hence \"after the abolition of the slave trade\" when there \"will be a hundred millions of white people within the United States. How proportionally small will then the black population be compared to the white!\" What to do? Well, there was \"in America a country, a climate and a soil, on which the Negro may yet be free and great,\" and this was \"South America, on the Amazon River, the Orinoco\" which was \"but half the distance from Africa that Europe is the United States. . . . South America may become to the Negro what North America is to the European\u2014a freer field for his higher development.\" Brazil, he thought, \"may yet accept similar offers to those made by the Negro King of Dahomey in 1796 to Portugal, which were, to bring about a Negro emigration on a large scale, and with it to colonize and overrun the greater part of Eastern South America.\" Since Brazil had banned the slave trade, \"it will soon feel the effects of the stoppage of its annual supply of population and then it will be in the proper humor to try the new experiment.\"\n\nDespite the sunny optimism, these sentiments may have been misplaced, because Brazilian elites for good reason and bad were not necessarily open to an influx into their nation of U.S. Negroes. Certainly, Matthew Maury had a more ramified network of contacts in the Luso-phone world than virtually any African-American. He was in particular close touch with William Figaniere, Portugal's long-time representative in the U.S., who was suspected of involvement in facilitating the slave trade. \"I regret that I was not in town when you did me the favor to call at the [Naval] Observatory,\" Maury told him in the fall of 1856, as he added thanks for the \"documents and parcels which you were kind enough to leave.\" Perhaps prompted by Maury, Figaniere contacted the U.S. Navy telling him that the \"Navy Department at Lisbon is desirous of obtaining a copy of the . . . work on 'Boat Armament.'\" J. A. Dahlgren instructed this Portuguese national that \"the late operations of our Naval force against the Chinese forts near Canton, have afforded another evidence of the power of the Howitzer against masses of men who lack the discipline and nerve of the troops of civilized nations. And although I trust that your settlement at Macao may not be molested, yet a due supply of Field Howitzers supported by rifled muskets would afford the best security against any attempt on the part of the Chinese.\" Helpfully, Maury forwarded for Lisbon, a \"parcel containing six sets of charts of the Japan expedition (Commander Perry) . . . to transmit the same for the use of the Portuguese Marine.\" During this time this Portuguese representative\u2014quite strikingly\u2014was making repeated requests for detailed maps of the U.S. and was also \"asking for the best published information\" held by the U.S. Patent Office \"in respect to the culture and manipulation of the cotton.\" As the Civil War approached, Maury's contact with Lisbon increased sharply and, in turn, Portugal was foisting various awards upon him, not least because over the years this\u2014then\u2014U.S. national supplied this pioneering nation of navigation with considerable technical information about the seas.\n\nAppropriately given his knowledge of the oceans, Maury had a truly global network, which allowed him to see more clearly than most the importance of the Amazon for his nation's ambitions. Moreover, such contacts would prove to be useful when he joined with others in the Slave South to secede from the U.S.; for even before secession, Maximilian who seized Mexico when Washington was embroiled in Civil War, told Maury \"with affection of a friend,\" that he was \"deeply moved at your generous and flattering proposal to enter my service if I am ever called to ascend the Mexican throne. . . . I hope the day will come when you and I will play a prominent role together.\" Though skeptical of French abolitionists, Maury was embraced by Paris, even before this nation moved to seize Mexico.\n\nThis paid off for France when during the height of the Civil War, Maury announced that \"should the enemies of my country,\" speaking of the Confederate States of America, \"attempt to assert their Monroe Doctrine when you ascend your throne, then it may become the policy of Mexico, as it is already the interest of the Confederacy to see California withdrawn from her present political associations. Though never a resident of that state,\" Maury conceded, \"I am not altogether unknown to the people there,\" not least since so many from the Slave South had migrated there. \"I might be of some service in assisting its dismemberment,\" he added helpfully. \"A few good ironclads quietly sent around Cape Horn at an early day would find themselves complete masters of the coast; for the Federals have nothing in the Pacific that could cope with them.\" A double-dealer of rare skill, Maury was also willing to \"tender\" his \"resignation . . . in the Confederate Navy . . . whenever you may require my services\" and swear loyalty to Mexico.\n\nThere was also sentiment among Maury's comrades to try to restore slavery in Mexico, which along with Cuba and Brazil, could become a formidable bondage bloc that could ultimately challenge Washington profoundly. But a few weeks after the Civil War ended, an informant in Richmond while conceding that \"we are, it is true, in a very unhappy condition; & the prospect before is not bright,\" was \"satisfied\" that \"we shall fare better here than in a Catholic, Spanish country.\" Worse, it was \"not possible to get the Negroes to go away from here with their former owners. They are all turned loose & are as wild as zebras\" [emphasis-original]. Thus, Maury was reduced to endorsing a plan to go to \"China for labourers,\" which\u2014as it turned out\u2014became something of a substitute for enslaved Africans in the wake of the Civil War. Later after reconciling with Washington, he perked up at the idea of \"San Domingo annexation. . . . if it be annexed,\" he told a friend, \"there may be a field open there, for the display of your talents. . . . the best of mahogany comes thence and in the olden times the coffee and sugar planters there did splendidly and since emancipation everything has gone to ruin.\"\n\nMaury, who had a more spacious vision than his comrades from the Slave South\u2014a vision that incorporated Brazil\u2014was a diehard Confederate, \"he was one of the last Southerners to despair of the ultimate issue of the Rebellion, which he hoped to see protracted over a dozen or more years.\" Again, though Maury was emblematic, he was not unique. An \"organization familiarly known as the 'Knights of the Golden Circle' was bound under an ironclad oath to uphold the interest of the Southern Confederacy at any cost\" and was said to have \"numbered 100,000 men.\" Another Virginian, Edward Bryan, had proclaimed that \"he would like to see slavery cover the entire area from Norfolk to Rio de Janeiro.\" And at that juncture, the Slave South would be following Maury's scheme and exporting Negroes to the Amazon\u2014and feasting on the profits.\n\nMaury's bold schemes were indicative of an era when citizenship was blurred and territories were being seized promiscuously. Most of all, it was a period when huge profits were to be made from buying and selling Africans. However, the official ban of the African Slave Trade, a ban which many Virginians supported, did create an \"artificial\" blockage in the market. But what if this were to change?\n\n## **7  \nMaking the Slave Trade Legal?**\n\n\"'It is truly lamentable,'\" said Abraham Lincoln just before his election as President, \"'that Great Britain and the United States should be obliged to spend such a vast amount of blood and treasure for the suppression of the African slave trade.'\" His words reflected a deepening reality: the trade to Brazil had slowed down considerably, not least because of external pressure from London; but, perhaps as a result of this pressure in or about Rio de Janeiro, as Lincoln's victorious election approached, \"just one British cruiser went on a slave trade patrol off the coast of Cuba in 1861.\"\n\nThis chapter concerns the spectacular rise in the illicit African Slave Trade in the late 1850s and how the apparent victory of those who profited from this commerce ironically sounded the tocsin for the institution of slavery, as emboldened fire-eaters from Dixie overplayed their hand and pushed the nation toward Civil War.\n\nJust as cracking down on the sale of illegal drugs in one neighborhood can serve to increase this traffic in adjacent areas, the pressure in the \"Deepest South\" was causing the illegal trade to grow in areas north of Brazil. Moreover, it seemed that \"American traders were anxious to ship all the slaves they could before Lincoln's known views could take effect.\"\n\nAt this moment, New York City \"was gaining the dubious honor of being 'the greatest slave-trading mart in the world'\"; by 1857, this metropolis, perhaps more so than New Orleans, the logical contender for this title, was \"'the commercial center of the slave trade.' During the months from January 1859 to August 1860, it was conservatively estimated, close to one hundred vessels left the city for the slave trade.\" The trade in Africans had become so commonplace that the press in Gotham began to speak of various ethnic groups from this continent in the same way they might have discussed the merits of a Chablis versus a Merlot. A formidable infrastructure for the slave trade had developed in this city that included ship fitters, suppliers, attorneys, recruiters of crews, and bribed marshals and custom agents. One longtime federal judge in New York, Samuel Rossiter Betts, later lauded as the father of U.S. maritime law, set a standard of proof so high that slave trade convictions were rare and severe punishment even rarer.\n\nThis infrastructure also meant that it was a simpler matter to bring slaves to the U.S. itself. This brought the ugliness of the African Slave Trade that much closer to U.S. shores, thereby exacerbating tensions\u2014and not just between North and South but, as well, between the Upper South of Wise's Virginia, which remained hostile to the trade, and the Lower South. In addition, the prices of enslaved Africans were cheaper in Brazil than in the U.S., which was a further incentive to take the risk of bringing them to the Slave South, where prices were higher.\n\nIn fact, as the pivotal decade of the 1850s was drawing to a close, the price of enslaved Africans was rising, giving more incentive to smugglers to tempt fate. One domestic trader's books revealed that prices rose in 1855\u2014generally\u2014from $450 to $810 and a few years later by considerably more. Yet, as one reporter noted during this same period, \"slaves of ten to twelve years of age up to an adult can be bought on the Congo River at $25 or $30 per head and landed in New Orleans or Texas for $30 more, making the cost $60; but call it $100.\" The profits were too handsome to ignore easily.\n\nThus, in the Deep South the African Slave Trade \"cause was increasingly put forward as part and parcel of the southern nationalist agenda.\" Some \"Texas county conventions of the Democratic Party passed resolutions in favor of the slave trade, and Hardin R. Rummels, a secessionist and advocate of the African slave trade, defeated Sam Houston in the gubernatorial elections.\" In the spring of 1857, the incendiary Southern nationalist, Edmund Ruffin, argued that reopening the slave trade was \"obviously impossible so long as the present union with the northern states lasts\"\u2014which pointed to secession. \"All the southern states suffer greatly from the scarcity & high price of labor,\" he complained, yet they could \"obtain no supply from abroad.\" Ruffin, who kept a close eye on such matters, also noticed when \"a first cousin of President James K. Polk, [Leonidas] Spratt\" became an \"ardent champion of the slave trade, having presented to the Montgomery Commercial Convention of 1858 a series of resolutions calling for a reopening of the African Slave Trade.\"\n\nJ. D. B. De Bow of New Orleans was elected President of the \"African Labor Supply Association,\" organized at Vicksburg months after Spratt's initiative, with a stated aim of reopening the trade. \"'We must have Africans,'\" De Bow insisted with passion. In January 1859, influential South Carolina Congressman, William Porcher Miles, \"added his voice to those of James De Bow and the fire-eating Southerner, William L. Yancey, in calling for a repeal of federal laws that prohibited the African slave trade.\"\n\nThere was something in the air. The filibuster, William Walker\u2014a Southerner who happened to be in Europe during the failed revolutions of 1848\u2014had his eyes on hemispheric expansion \"intended not only to reestablish slavery, but to revive the African slave trade. . . . slaves would not be carried to Central America from the southern states, because the demand for Negroes in the Lower South was already greater than the supply.\" Walker, who ruled briefly in Nicaragua, was said by a comrade to have been an \"advocate\" of this idea \"to an extreme degree, and believed in it with the same zeal and fervor that a Christian believes in the truth of the Christian religion.\" Sober voices were thinking\u2014and debating\u2014the previously unthinkable. The attorney, Robert Harper, was worried about the presence in his country of more \"millions of wild Africans,\" yet he conceded that reopening the trade now had a \"degree of importance which no longer admits of its being treated with silence or contempt.\" Yes, it would heavily profit the Northeast due to their \"kidnapping propensities\" but Brazil\u2014a \"feeble state\"\u2014showed that imports could occur despite the \"discouragements and harassments of a British squadron.\"\n\nHarper had a point. The 1850s crackdown by London on the illegal trade to Brazil impelled those in the U.S. who benefited from this commerce to look elsewhere for profit, which was exacerbating tension in the hemisphere and elsewhere. One journal linked the fate of the U.S. with Russia and Turkey, as a result. Spain, a slave trading scofflaw of U.S. dimensions, began to worry that the enthusiasm for bondage in Cuba's northern neighbor was becoming so intense that Madrid would have to worry about further filibustering escapades in its Caribbean territories. Their Consul in Galveston\u2014long a hotbed of slave smuggling\u2014worried that this town was one of the \"most active centers of permanent conspiracy against Cuba.\"\n\nThe apotheosis of the illegal slave trade to Brazil came in the 1850s when a severe crackdown there allied with rising prices in the U.S. to create enormous pressure to reopen the African Slave Trade and, barring that, facilitating a torrent of smuggled slaves. While slavery was the prime cause of the Civil War, a closely allied factor was tension arising from the slave trade.\n\nRather defensively, one pro-slavery ideologue in the U.S. after noting that a \"very extensive commerce exists at this time and has long existed between our Northern ports and the empire of Brazil, and the most amicable relations are maintained, notwithstanding the prevalence of slavery in the latter,\" yet, he wondered waspishly, \"we hear of no abductions of slaves from [Brazil]\" by the \"pious philanthropists of the North.\" This was just more hypocrisy, it was said. \"The Amazon\" was \"owned by both Brazil and Peru\" and \"the harmony between the governments of those countries is not disturbed by this fact\"\u2014so why couldn't an independent Slave South share the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers with the U.S.? Again, double-standards and rank hypocrisy barred such realism, it was thought.\n\nAs time passed, the Virginians\u2014Wise and Maury\u2014were losing ground. This duo were increasingly being viewed as being parochial and selfish, narrowly defending the interests of their slave-exporting state. The illicit slave trade to Brazil had been hampered but the traders themselves had not been run out of business, and the idea of using their infrastructure to bring more enslaved Africans to North America gained traction. In turn, those of the Wise-Maury persuasion echoed the sentiments of a \"Georgian secessionist\" in opposing the African Slave Trade who \"asked the Virginia [secession] convention, 'Why, we would soon be drowned in a black pool; we would be literally overwhelmed with a black pool; we would be literally overwhelmed with a black population.'\" In 1858, Wise himself filed away an article that reflected the growing temper of the times: \"It is a great loss to the United States and to the commerce of the world,\" it was said, \"to have vast tracts of cotton and sugar lands in the Southwest remain wild and uncultivated for the want of African labor. Without an increase of African labor in the New World its white population, with that of Europe, must have its independence increased on the British possessions in India, and at greatly enhanced prices, which, it is believed, has been the long cherished desire of the East India Company.\" At this moment, \"about three out of every five vessels employed in the slave trade\" were \"fitted out in the United States and the remainder in Cuba. About two-thirds of those sent from the United States are fitted out in the port of New York.\" This trade \"was carried on almost exclusively on the Congo River, or from neighboring points,\" particularly northern Angola\u2014then, as now, a region pockmarked by unrest and poor infrastructure.\n\nThe New York writer, Henry J. Raymond, was incensed with this developing momentum toward reopening the African Slave Trade and lashed out bitterly at William Yancey, a principal proponent. He was, said Raymond, seeking to \"secure the repeal of the laws of Congress\" against the trade \"in order to extend slavery into the Territories. . . . To use your words, 'We of Alabama want slaves to be cheap\u2014we want to buy them, not to sell them. It is a Virginia idea'\"\u2014a Maury and Wise idea\u2014\"'that slaves ought to be high. Virginia wants $1500 each for her Negroes: we want to get them cheaper.' 'Cheap Negroes' is the grand consummation at which you aim.\" But this was not only designed for exploiting the \"territories\"; Yancey and his cohorts had coopted Maury's idea of expanding further into the hemisphere. He was, said Raymond, so determined that he would \"destroy the Union\" to do so. \"Why? Because it does not permit the continuance of the African Slave Trade.\"\n\nThis claim was continuously being repeated in the North of the U.S.; in a sense, they were arguing that more than slavery, it was the slave trade that was the locomotive impelling Civil War. Henry Wilson of Massachusetts took to the floor of the U.S. Senate in May 1860 to denounce this trend. The \"Republic of the United States,\" he charged, \"which began its existence by the condemnation of the African slave traffic\u2014is the most powerful supporter of that traffic among the nations.\" What had inflamed his ire was a recent court decision in South Carolina that asserted that \"importing Africans who were not free in Africa is no offence against the Act of 1820 and is not therefore punishable as piracy.\" This was a loophole through which could be driven vessel after vessel filled to the brim with enslaved Africans, in a manner that mimicked what occurred in Brazil in the 1840s\u2014with, most likely, some of the same U.S. nationals who were active there pushing this development. There had been a change in the South since the 1820s when many in that region had applauded the cessation of the trade, he thought, and Wilson did not like what had risen in its place. Wilson also sensed that the Brazil trade had created momentum that ineluctably had created \"blowback\" on these shores.\n\nWilson was shrewd to be concerned about developments in the Palmetto State, since a few years before his peroration, a legislative committee deliberated reopening the trade. The \"minority\" which exhorted that the \"epithet 'piracy' is an insult\" to the slaveholder, sought to adhere to the Wise-Maury view by arguing that there was a \"vast distinction between upholding Slavery and upholding the Slave Trade,\" for doing the latter would \"decrease the value of our slaves.\" They too were concerned about \"rivals to fear,\" e.g., Brazil but thought this threat could be met without using draconian measures. They dismissed the notion that reopening the trade was \"for the advantage of the poor non-slaveholder\" and the hint that the \"opposition to it springs from a determination on the part of slaveholders to prevent the participation of their poor fellow citizens . . . and to maintain a species of slave aristocracy.\" This was dangerous reasoning since, a la Brazil, increasing the number of Negroes could make this community more rebellious. Perceptively it was added that there was a \"universal opinion abroad, that we retain our authority through the ignorance of our slaves as to their real strength\"\u2014an advantage that could be compromised if the numbers of enslaved increased dramatically.\n\nIt was \"well known,\" said the legislature, \"that the British Government has a predominating influence at the Spanish and Brasilian courts\" and wanted to drag Cuba, Brazil, and the Slave South down to the supposed level of their possessions in the West Indies. \"Southern civilization & southern resources & prosperity are endangered as well from foreign as from internal influences\" [emphasis-original]. Cuba and, more potently, Brazil, were seen as fire walls protecting U.S. slavery, with a breach in that southern wall ultimately imperiling what came to be the Confederacy. Reopening the slave trade was one way of fighting London and augmenting slavery's strength. But even if London succeeded in barring slavery in Brazil and Cuba\u2014which was \"not unlikely\"\u2014reopening the trade was called for since in that event \"an active competition [in] the sugar & tobacco market will spring up between\" the Slave South and \"the rest of the world. This competition will call for an additional supply of slaves, independent of the demand of the cotton interest, & thus an additional inducement will be held out for the importation of Africans.\" Moreover, the North received European immigrants to settle new territories on the continent and, thus, the South needed enslaved Africans to compete with this. \"No time should be lost,\" they beseeched, to bring in more Africans. Indeed, if there was no slave trade, it was argued disingenuously, \"the effect would be to shut up the population of the Negro countries within their own borders. It is well known that there is not and cannot be any such thing as voluntary emigration from these countries. The slave trade is the only outlet\" and if it were blocked, this would be akin to \"prohibiting emigration,\" which would not be done to Europe, so why do it to Africa?\n\n\"Free trade\" in Africans was the demand, with \"low duties\" besides. The clause in the Constitution on the slave trade showed that \"Congress has no authority to prohibit the slave trade by virtue of its power to regulate commerce. . . . this prohibitory power belongs to the state[s],\" it was said.\n\nFurther south in Savannah, which had been the initial port of entry for a considerable number of enslaved Africans, stories were proliferating in the press featuring citizens assembling to urge Congress to repeal all laws interdicting the importation of Africans. This occurred as the Georgia Senate debated a bill to strike out a clause in the Constitution barring importation of slaves from abroad, while the Southern Commercial Convention passed a resolution in favor of repeal of federal laws barring the trade. Of course, the press in this Deep South city covered the fact that the trade on the coast of Africa was flourishing, not least due to dozens of vessels owned by U.S. nationals and the goodly number of vessels embarking from New York City. Locally, John Du Bignon was found \"not guilty\" after being charged with landing enslaved Africans on Jekyl Island.\n\nFurther west in 1858, a \"committee of the Louisiana legislature approved a bill which would have permitted citizens\" of this state \"to import slaves from Brazil, Cuba and Africa.\" In a sense this was simply ratifying practice since \"for almost two decades after the Louisiana Purchase, slave smuggling was carried on to such an extent that it was almost common.\" This idea of reopening the slave trade was linked, as in Louisiana, with the development of other markets, particularly Brazil. This stood to reason as the dream of exploiting the Amazon with its seemingly impenetrable jungle seemed ideal for slave labor and a potential rich field of investment besides. For example, the **Southern Standard** of Charleston, South Carolina counseled that if the Slave South and Brazil sought to \"act together by treaty _we cannot only preserve domestic servitude, but we can defy the power of the world._ . . . we can open up the African Slave emigration again\" [emphasis-original].\n\nFurther west still, in Texas, \"the legislature ordered the printing of 10,000 copies of John Henry Brown's report favoring the slave trade,\" while Sam Houston termed the Democrats a \"slave trade party.\" Senator Stephen Douglas claimed in 1859 that \"15,000 Africans had been imported\" of late, while newspapers of that era carried \"thinly veiled\" ads for \"newly acquired Africans.\" That same crucial year, 1859, the \"Republican Association of Washington\" charged flatly that the \"African Slave Trade with the United States [is] now actually reopened . . . the current information of the day leaves no room to doubt that cargoes of slaves are being landed from time to time, in the Gulf States and that preparations are being made to enter upon the traffic in good earnest and upon a large scale. . . . capital enough, ships enough and seamen enough can be found in New York City alone, to supply to the Gulf States one hundred thousand Negroes annually.\"\n\nDenizens of Manhattan had noticed this development since among them resided some of the major actors in the illegal slave trade. Portugal's representative in this city, who was suspected of being immersed in this unclean commerce, was briefed about this by a local abolitionist. \"I think I can throw some light upon the questioning which you put to me,\" said R. W. Russell, \"namely why have not some of the principal parties really engaged in this country in carrying on the prohibited trade been detected and punished?\" And, why instead, had the local authorities continued to \"persist in insinuating that the Consul General of Portugal is engaged in the illegal traffic?\" Why was this occurring when \"sailors\" could be \"hired with impunity in New York\" for this business? \"There is now a strong party in the South in favor of legalizing the importation of slaves from Africa, so that Texas and other states may be able to get an abundant supply of laborers at low prices, instead of having to pay high prices to Virginia and the other slave raising states.\" It was \"perfectly clear that no effectual obstruction to the foreign slave trade can be raised by any efforts in the city of New York, under the existing laws. Here,\" it was proclaimed, \"the capital can be found for the trade and the sailors, agents, etc. to carry it on.\" Russell thought the present prosecutor in Manhattan to be a \"pro-slavery man,\" who deflected attention from this fact by targeting \"foreigners . . . exclusively,\" as \"it would have been impolitic for him to attack _native American firms_ \" [emphasis-original]. On the one hand, the prosecutor \"really believed from what he had heard that the Consul General was engaged in the foreign slave trade,\" along with a number of other Brazilians and Portuguese. Yet the focus on these foreigners gave a wide berth for U.S. nationals to encroach upon their markets. On the other hand, the blurring of citizenship boundaries between the U.S. and Portugal meant that it was becoming increasingly difficult to make meaningful distinctions between the two nations.\n\nStill, the authorities in Manhattan had good reason to be suspicious of some of the Portuguese nationals among them for though some had thought that by 1856 the African Slave Trade to Brazil had been extinguished, that year witnessed the \"revolting picture\" of \"the slaves 370 in number attempted to be introduced into Brazil on board of the schooner 'Mary E. Smith' of New Orleans. . . . captured at the Port of St. Matheos in the province of Espiritu Santo.\" With \"Vincent Cratonick . . . an Austrian by birth but a naturalized citizen of the United States\" at the helm\u2014he had \"years\" of service as \"chief officer in one of the Brazilian steam packets running along the coast\" and, thus, was familiar with the porous coastline\u2014the \"Mary E. Smith\" was \"fitted out for the slave trade in Boston,\" \"went direct to Africa, took her cargo of slaves and was captured by the Brazilian government. . . . among the papers found on board were several original letters of Manuel Bazilio da Cunha Reis, a partner of Figaniere, Reis & Co., of New York, which disclosed the fact of his one-third ownership of the [vessel] and of his having given her dispatch from Boston.\" Soon William Figaniere, Portugal's Consul General in New York, still protesting his innocence, was \"suspended by his government,\" as he was \"under suspicion\" due to \"his dealing with those engaged in the traffic.\"\n\nIt was not only Portuguese in New York who were involved in this grubby activity, but there were also New Yorkers in Portugal who were similarly implicated. Nicholas Pike, the U.S. Consul in Oporto, reported in 1857 his \"suspicions that many persons engaged in this illegal [slave] trade are connected with merchants doing business in this city.\" An \"American vessel\" left New York in May 1856 with \"logwood (about 40 tons)\" and a \"crew of six men, all suspicious characters\"; \"it was the intention of the consignee to place her in the slave trade.\" There were \"many parties, naturalized Portuguese citizens and others residing in the United States, who are said to be concerned in this vessel. I have been informed that she is really owned by . . . Barboza, merchant, doing business in New York City, and this gentleman is in partnership with persons in this city of Oporto,\" while \"some of the crew confessed . . . that they had resided a long time in the state of Louisiana.\"\n\nCommander Charles Wise of the Royal Navy had more than an inkling about what all this meant. He was stationed near Cabinda, off the coast of Angola and in the summer of 1858 was observing a dizzying number of slavers bearing the U.S. flags sailing within his purview. There was, he said, a \"new and formidable form of conducting the slave trade by Joint-Stock companies, designated 'expeditions to Africa'\" and \"principally formed by some of the most respectable firms in Havana and also at New York, Boston and New Orleans.\" Again, playing on blurred citizenship boundaries, \"the agent procures naturalized citizens to act as captains of the intended slavers,\" then \"procure[s] a crew, generally composed of foreigners,\" while the vessel [too] is cleared as _bona fide_ American.\" On board were \"cargoes of rum\" and \"muskets\" that were to be exchanged for Africans. \"Vessels proceeding to the Bights Division for slaves are generally consigned to one or other of the veteran slave dealers formerly engaged in the Brazilian trade\" and \"on the South Coast they are consigned in a similar manner.\" There they deployed \"every exertion to put our cruisers on the wrong track; the position or change of each vessel is telegraphed along the coast, and in the neighbourhood of cruisers fires are invariably lit upon the shore, the smoke of which, as a warning of danger, is observable about fourteen miles at sea.\"\n\nYet, more than slick tactics, it was the migration of Wall Street tactics that was energizing the slave trade since \"joint stock speculations engaging in the slave trade can never experience a loss. The greater the number of vessels dispatched for slaves, the greater the chance of success; for if two vessels out of twelve escape with slaves, the proceeds will pay the expenses of the remaining ten and still leave an immense profit,\" since \"if two vessels out of twelve belonging to a company escape with cargoes of 600 each; the profit realized will amount to about 189,200 [pounds].\" Thus, in 1857, \"31 vessels . . . proceeded to the West Coast of Africa for slaves . . . capable of conveying 19,200 Negroes and . . . 19 were captured, while 11 or more than one-third escaped with 7400 slaves. The profit . . . must have been immense . . . [about] 1400 percent.\" This was rending further the fabric of an already distressed continent, as \"slave hunts by the people of the King of Dahomey against the inhabitants of Abeokuta and vice versa, have of late been common occurrences. . . . the King of Dahomey demands from 60 to 170 dollars each for his slaves; the consequence is, the majority of slavers proceed to the headquarters of the Slave Trade, the South Coast,\" where Africans were cheaper. And, yes, he concluded wearily, \"the Slave Trade is entirely conducted under the American flag.\"\n\nBack home, some were increasingly enraged by what U.S. nationals were helping to engender. \"Without exception,\" said one concerned writer in the pro-slavery **De Bow's Review,** \"every diplomatist, every speaker in Parliament, every declaimer at the hustings, every contributor to the numerous journals, concurs in attributing the present lamentable condition of the African slave-trade to the inadequacy of our law, the negligence or imbecility of the American government and its officials, or to the persevering activity of our people in opposition to and despite the professed wishes of that government.\" London in turn was pressuring Washington\u2014which was serving to foment abolitionist sentiment generally, which was impelling the nation toward sharper regional conflict.\n\nMeanwhile, reports continued to proliferate about enslaved Africans flowing into the Slave South as this Civil War approached. Some of these \"recaptured Africans\" were halted on the high seas and taken to Liberia, which witnessed a \"great and unprecedented influx\" of these \"wild heathen from various tribes.\" Some of these \"nude and emaciated creatures\" made it all the way to New York City; \"a number of our recaptures,\" it was said, \"have wandered away under the idea of returning to their own country. . . . one man hung himself in a fit of mental despondency and some 40 have died.\" Still, they kept coming, notably to Key West\u2014\"three slave-ships captured lately, & 1700 recaptured Africans are now at Key West,\" said fire-eater Edmund Ruffin in June 1860\u2014and other desolate parts of Florida. In 1858, Howell Cobb, Secretary of the Treasury, ascertained that a \"slaver with a cargo of Africans will attempt to land the same very soon [on] the southwest coast of Louisiana or on the Texas coast\u2014most probably the latter.\" Cobb was suspicious when \"Messrs. E. Lapitt & Co., merchants of Charleston, South Carolina\" sought \"to clear the American ship 'Richard Cobden' . . . for the coasts of Africa for the purpose of taking on board African emigrants.\" This was a ruse, he thought.\n\nOthers were arriving in Manhattan. A number of \"very sprightly young lads\" arrived in New York City in \"full health and spirits\"; \"they could soon be taught enough of the English language to become valuable,\" it was thought, and could be sent to a local orphanage. The U.S. vessel, \"San Jacinto,\" off the coast of Angola in the fall of 1860 captured a \"cargo of 750 Africans and have sent her [crew] to Norfolk, Va. for adjudication.\" This slaver, the \"Bonito,\" had been \"cleared in New York on the 16th of July last. . . . the chief mate is Robert Johnson alias Robinson, and the second mate an American from Portsmouth, N.H. named Nathaniel Currier, alias Farrell, alias Bell\"; in addition there were a number of Spanish surnamed individuals in the slaver's crew. Like other Africans captured on the high seas, these were \"unfortunate creatures\"\u2014\"two committed suicide\" and \"neither persuasion nor force could make them take food. Two died of disease, one fell down the hatch and broke his neck and one died in the harbor.\" Thus, by the time they reached Monrovia, this \"immense and overwhelming influx of naked and homeless savages\" of 750 had been reduced to 617.\n\nEncouraging to U.S. slavers was the reluctance of U.S. juries to convict them for violating the law. Such was the case of the ship \"'Echo'\"; this trial, says historian Ronald Takaki, \"showed that African slave traders would not be punished in the South.\" Just as there was an \"underground railroad,\" some Southerners called for a \"'submarine railroad' from Africa to the South.\"\n\nThis apparent ceaseless tide of Africans flowing across the Atlantic was infuriating to some. Charles W. Thomas, a Georgian, chaplain to the African Squadron from 1855 to 1857, was upset by the \"influx in . . . considerable numbers of savage Africans into the southern states\"; its continuation \"would be dangerous to the institutions of these states, and in portions of them dangerous to the existence of the white race,\" and the blame rested squarely on the shoulders of \"reckless speculators, fitted out at New York and Boston.\"\n\nThe African Squadron was still around as these events were unfolding but was widely viewed as ineffectual. The chaplain of the Squadron, the Reverend Thomas, found that the \"African station is not popular with navy officers . . . because of its expensiveness, the long interval of 'news from home' and the monotony of the cruiser's life there.\" The food was not very good either. This was not an ideal environment for a superb performance. \"Of the more than two hundred persons arrested by the United States authorities for involvement in the traffic between 1837 and 1862,\" says the historian, Robert Conrad, \"almost half were never brought to trial, about a third were tried but acquitted, and less than two dozen were convicted and sent to prison, most for short terms that were quickly ended by presidential pardons.\" On the other hand, the Squadron's performance may have been improving as the pivotal election of 1860 approached\u2014but this may have served the unintended consequence of stoking the fury of Southern extremists, who feared that they could only attain their coveted goal of ever cheaper Africans by secession.\n\nOverall, however, the Squadron's performance left much to be desired, something that perpetually infuriated London. As the crucial election year of 1860 was approaching, Lord Lyons assailed the \"apparent apathy of Commander Totten\" of the U.S. \"in the fulfillment of his duties.\" \"Noted slavers\" were \"openly cruising under American colors between Ambriz and the Congo,\" yet Totten and his crew seemed oblivious.\n\nAndrew Boyd Cummings was a sailor on one of these Squadron ships, cruising off the coast of Angola in 1857, and he was decidedly unimpressed with the job he and his comrades were performing. \"Our Captain, though one of the pleasantest gentlemen socially,\" he said \"lacks energy & boldness, he is the most timid captain with a single exception I ever sailed with. I believe one or two slavers have slipped through our fingers and now that our whereabouts is known all along the coast, they will keep a double lookout.\" He heard of \"slave traders being up the Congo [River] & loading with slaves but our sanitary regulations prohibit our running up any of the rivers.\" Anyway, he was not exactly ecstatic to be among so many Africans\u2014\"the natives are a miserable squalid looking set of wretches, small slender, entirely different from our Kroomen & the stalwart darkies of the north coast.\"\n\nHe was impressed with the slavers and their tactics of avoiding detection; \"our appearance will be telegraphed by means of fires & canoes for a hundred miles in a single night.\" The Congo River was a \"grand emporium\" for slaves; \"they collect them & keep them in a house or enclosure called a 'barracoon' until a fair chance offers to ship them to Cuba or Brazil.\" But Cummings was hardly sympathetic and exposed his raw sentiments when he said his experience in Angola \"seems to verify the poetical adage (& philosophical too) of 'nigger will be nigger.'\"\n\nGeorge Hamilton Perkins, born in 1836 in New England, sailed with the African Squadron and seemed to be a spectator as the Royal Navy swooped down on U.S. slavers. \"A week ago,\" he said in November 1859, \"one of the English ships captured an American slaver with five hundred Negroes on board. The English make a good many captures,\" he added admiringly. In faraway Fernando Po, off Africa's west coast, \"we boarded a ship called the 'Firefly' and it was the same one father took me on board of years ago in Boston. She was suspected of being a slaver then and _might_ lie under the same suspicion now\" [emphasis-original]. This enforcer of anti-slave trade laws added, \"if father was in business now and had some vessels here, I could attend to his affairs for him, and might even send him a whole cargo of Negroes if he said so!\" Throwing up his hands figuratively, he added, \"it is almost useless to try to do anything to stop the slave trade; our cruisers cannot do much under our laws and the English make the principal captures. Slaves are being constantly shipped and the King of Dahomey is now on a slave hunt to supply some ships which he expects from the States.\"\n\nPerkins was bewildered by \"our laws regulating captures\" for they were \"as inflexible as the Westminster Catechism, and a Captain could not detain a vessel without great risk of civil damages, unless slaves were actually on board. Suspected ships might have all the fittings and infamous equipage for the slave-traffic on board, but if their masters produced correct papers the vessels could not be touched; and our officers not infrequently had the mortification of learning that ships they had overhauled and believed to be slavers, but could not seize under their instructions, got off the coast eventually with large cargoes of ebon humanity on board. Not so with English commanders,\" whose anger at U.S. nonfeasance led them from being \"at first cordial and agreeable\" to \"cold and indifferent . . . after a few months.\"\n\nWilliam McBlair of Maryland was also toiling on behalf of the African Squadron and his opinion of what he was seeing was not very lofty either. \"The slave trade\" was \"flourishing in this coast,\" he said of Angola in 1857. \"It is said that five vessels have lately left with slaves. The Congo River and its neighborhood have been the headquarters and American gold is now quite plenty there, having been brought in vessels which clear from New York.\" Yet he was not sufficiently motivated to attack what he was witnessing. \"I wish honest abolitionists could see the degraded & impoverished condition of the natives,\" he told his wife in late 1857, for \"they would find that much unnecessary sympathy had been expanded. When I tell you that fathers sell their children for a bottle of wine you will have a pretty good idea of their moral[s].\" \"And,\" he added, \"it is supposed that if this season proves as dry [as] the two last that the people will be suffering famine to such an extent that they will be flocking to the coast as they have on a former occasion, requesting to be carried to some other country where they could get something to eat\" since \"provisions of every kind are now very scarce and although we are daily in sight of the coast, we have to live upon salt\"; \"it is impossible to get an egg at any price.\" He observed \"Yankee traders\" in Luanda, including a \"noted slave trader.\" The beleaguered McBlair reported officially that \"I cannot impress too strongly upon the government the inability of the present squadron of sailing vessels to carry out their views and urge the employment of steamers for that purpose.\" At that point in the fall of 1857 \"on the eastern bank of the Congo River,\" an \"American bark was in the neighborhood expecting a load of slaves\"; this was one among \"several American vessels, one a very fine clipper from New Orleans,\" all set \"to carry off slaves.\"\n\nHer Majesty's Consul in this same Angolan city, Edmund Gabriel, observed in 1859 that \"the traffic under the flag of the United States was prosecuted to an amazing extent and with greater impunity than ever.\" One of his countrymen, an English commodore, declared in 1857 that the \"'many instances of American slavers leaving ports in the United States fully fitted for the slave trade'\" was increasing. \"'New Orleans, being a seaport of slaving celebrity, may be expected to take a leading hand in such expeditions,'\" he offered, \"'but I cannot help feeling surprised that New York should be, this year, one of the greatest slave-trading ports.'\"\n\nU.S. nationals may have been returning to their wicked ways of slaving in part because traditional trade seemed to be slowing down in the 1850s in key regions of West Africa. The Kimball family of the U.S. Northeast had done quite well over the years in this area, trading in rum, tobacco, ground nuts, and the like. But as early as 1853, their agent writing from Lagos was disconsolate, asserting \"where I shall go next is uncertain. I thought some of going to St. Thomas & from there to Gabon but what I have on board won't pay for the trouble. . . . times are not so good in the Bight as I expected.\" As time passed, things did not seem to improve; \"there is nothing doing at this place,\" it was reported in 1855, referring to Lagos, though trade in oils continued. The goods that were advancing in price were often seen as complements to the slave trade. Thus, writing from the \"Gold Coast,\" Kimball's agent spoke glowingly of the \"extraordinary advances in the price of gunpowder which article is now selling here at twenty two cents per pound . . . the price of rum is also advancing.\" By 1856, he was \"sorry to say\" that he \"had sold all\" of this explosive item. Yet by 1859, there were still sour complaints emanating from the Gold Coast that \"times are still dull . . . markets are overstocked . . . tobacco unsold. . . . there is some twenty American vessels, that have thrown their cargoes into the market on credit, and like all the rest will have to wait sometime for their pay. . . . times cannot be much worse.\" This agent tried to buck himself up\u2014\"I have always had fair luck before, and I am not quite discouraged yet\"\u2014but harsh reality was hard to overcome with bright sentiments. Weeks later there were further complaints that the \"trade about Accra is spoilt for sometime [as] an act of late war between government and Bush Niggers [ _sic_ ],\" though this conflict was not said to be tied to the proliferation of gunpowder for which the Kimballs were so responsible.\n\nFurther down the coast in Angola, yet another U.S. Northeast family was not celebrating either. \"Trade is very dull,\" Robert Brookhouse was told in the spring of 1856. In 1859, he was informed that his agent near Benguela had been \"very ill for the last two months\" and, besides, was \"not very fluent in Portuguese,\" which might explain why \"trade\" was \"at a standstill.\" Intriguingly though \"business\" was \"so poor\" in Angola, there did appear to be a demand for the provision of U.S. flags\u2014with the extremely skeptical suspecting that they may have been attached to vessels engaged in shady business. In 1856, Simon Stodder of Salem said that in Luanda there had \"been considerable . . . American produce . . . sold here . . . we could have sold more.\" Interestingly\u2014and perhaps alluding to the slave trade\u2014he added, \"we could have sold more if we had it to sell. . . . I am in hopes that those New York merchants that send vessels to the Congo River also for a decoy send [vessels] to Loanda and Benguela.\"\n\nThough business was not booming, in Luanda, it was reported in 1858, there were \"thirty-nine Portuguese firms and two American firms which do more business than all the others put together. There is now not a single English mercantile house,\" in this sprawling city, which convinced the suspicious that London's crackdown on the slave trade was part of a larger scheme to batter rivals while gaining a toehold in a growing market.\n\nAcross the continent, there was a \"virtual monopoly for the Americans for the coffee and gums of Aden, for the dates and hides of Muscat and for the ivory of Mozambique. . . . at the same time the English Consul in Zanzibar reported direct trade to England from that island as completely non-existent\"\u2014again convincing the suspicious of London's ill motives. George Abbott of the U.S. State Department was told that there was \"no doubt the American flag has been violated on the South coast in the Portuguese territory by vessels purchased or chartered in Rio [de] Janeiro\" for purposes of \"the slave trade.\" This was no minor matter since \"from 8 to 1000 slaves\" were \"brought from the coast for the yearly supply of the island.\" All this was occurring as the \"American trade has been steadily increasing\" and a \"formerly . . . large English trade in Zanzibar . . . [was] entirely stopped.\"\n\nIt is virtually impossible to disentangle what aspects of U.S. trade with Africa in the run-up to the Civil War were illicit and which were legitimate. The experience of George Howe suggests why. In 1860, this medical student was residing in New Orleans when a physician friend asked if he were interested in a trip \"to the coast of Africa,\" presumably for the purpose of dispatching U.S. Negroes to Liberia. But once at sea, he discovered that he was on a slave ship with the Congo River as its destination. Soon another shipload of Africans\u2014this one over 1000\u2014was landed at the U.S.'s doorstep, in Cuba. At the same time, London's representative in the U.S. worried that the \"American ship 'Thomas Watson' now on her voyage to Liverpool is suspected of having been engaged in the slave trade and that slaves may have been landed from her in the United States.\" Camels from the Canary Islands were thought to have been brought to the Southwest in this vessel but, it was thought, the \"importation was too inconsiderable for the amount of tonnage employed and may have been used as a pretext to conceal slaves.\" From Cape Verde came the report of the \"suspicious nature\" of a vessel arriving from New York that had manacles concealed on board with a crew of \"American citizens excepting one.\" \"No doubt exists in my mind,\" said the British Consul, \"that this vessel is engaged in a slave trading voyage. . . . her crew, with the exception of two persons, do not speak the English language. There is a Portuguese supercargo on board.\"\n\nIn 1859 in the Azores, Britain's Consul had a strange experience. \"An American schooner called 'William'\" arrived and made \"large orders for provisions and bought an anchor and chain and several spars and employed carpenters on board.\" The ship's captain, George D. Walker, was asked \"to bring his ship's register on shore, but always made some excuse.\" Owing money for debts run up during this brief interlude, he slipped away, though \"in his hurry he left his carpenter on shore who states an oath that the real name of the vessel is the 'Wanderer' of Savannah . . . and that the Captain's real name is Lincoln Patten . . . state of Maine . . . a few days after leaving Savannah the said Captain stated to the crew his intention of going to the east coast of Africa for a cargo of slaves.\" \"Early in 1861 the United States Navy captured three American slavers, one with as many as nine hundred slaves on board. . . . on the east coast,\" though it was \"commoner to find American slave ships sailing under Spanish colours.\"\n\nSumming up the state of the illegal slave trade in 1859, London's Foreign Office concluded bluntly that the \"slave trade has increased considerably within the last two years\" and \"will [be] carried on with still greater vigour during the present summer. The vessels engaged in this traffic are almost exclusively American or at any rate they are furnished with American papers and fly the American flag.\" Washington \"of late\" had \"failed to carry out their treaty engagements,\" for \"within the last two years there have been periods when a United States ship of war has not been seen on the African coast for months\" and \"this too at a time when every slaver on the coast was furnished with American papers and flying the American flag.\" Now there had been \"no attempt to land slaves in Brazil having been made since . . . 1855\" and this traffic was \"considered as extinct.\"\n\nBut miles from the shores of Florida, the trade was flourishing and this inevitably was drawing the attention\u2014and ire\u2014of abolitionist forces on both sides of the Atlantic. As the Civil War approached, London's emissary in Havana noticed that the \"slave trade continues to be carried on from this island upon the most extensive scale\"; the \"vessels employed\" were \"mostly . . . American built.\" Hence, \"the number of Spanish ships has consequently become small that are engaged in the traffic.\" Correspondingly, the number of U.S. ships was ballooning, with one September 1858 report from Havana listing 59 ships sailing to Africa in recent days\u2014\"50 American, 7 Spanish, 1 Peruvian and 1 Norwegian.\"\n\n1858 also proved to be a banner year for the slave trade in Angola. \"This traffic appears to have received a considerable impulse during the last twelve months,\" said Edmund Gabriel of the U.K., reporting from Luanda. The reason? \"Enormous profits,\" along with the \"great facility and security afforded the slave dealers by carrying on their operations under the disguises of the American flag.\" Effective measures off the coast of Brazil had forced the trade northward toward the U.S. and Cuba so that now an African was worth \"400 to 500 dollars\" in Havana but could \"be bought on this coast for 15 or 20.\" This was all rather \"distressing.\" Reporting from further north in Sierra Leone, Commander Charles Wise of the Royal Navy concurred with this dismal evaluation, adding that \"in all the annals of the Slave Trade the year 1858 will have been the most successful . . . never was the system better organized or more systematically carried out.\" The U.S. flag continued to \"cover this disgraceful traffic and does so more openly than in the year 1857 for in that year the papers in many cases proved to be . . . palpable forgeries, while in 1858 the slavers' registry and principal papers were genuine in, I think, every instance.\" Spectacular increases in the African Slave Trade continued in 1859, particularly from Angola and especially under the U.S. flag.\n\nHampered by the crackdown on the trade to Brazil, U.S. slavers concentrated more on Cuba, which allowed for more smuggling of Africans into the U.S. Southeast. One illustrative example was the slaver \"'Cora,'\" captured off the coast of Angola with \"705 slaves on board\" but with \"neither papers nor flag on board but the words 'Cora, of New York' were on her stern.\" Thus, between August and October 1860 alone, \"3071 Negroes\" were \"rescued from foreign slavery by the capture of . . . four vessels.\" Even the Portuguese, somnolent in the best of times about the African Slave Trade, were beginning to notice the activity of U.S. slave traders in or about Luanda. Increasingly, the slave trade was being disguised as a form of voluntary emigration of African \"colonists\" or \"servants,\" who were being dispatched across the Indian Ocean to Mauritius or Reunion Island or from Angola to St. Thomas\u2014or S\u00e3o Tom\u00e9 e Principe.\n\nEven Washington's representative in Luanda had detected these trends. In 1856, the Secretary of the Navy was \"advised by John G. Willis, the U.S. Commercial agent at St. Paul de Loando that 'the slave trade is still carried on to some extent by vessels sailing from New York.\" The next year Willis continued to complain that \"the slave trade on this coast is now flourishing. . . . the Congo River and its neighborhood have been the headquarters and American gold is now quite plenty here, having been brought in these vessels which clear from New York\u2014some for Cape Verde and some for Loando, but which seldom come here.\" In 1859, Willis had \"heard of four or five shipments\" of Africans \"being made, the last one a few days since, in which one thousand slaves were placed on board one vessel. The 'trade' has now gone in part, from the Congo River to the north of that river.\"\n\nThe crackdown on the slave trade by the British in Brazilian waters contributed to the move northward of this business\u2014closer to the protective embrace of U.S. shores: this and the enthusiasm for the trade expressed by Dixie nationalists fearful of what an ascending Republican Party might bring, combined to give an electric jolt to this commerce globally. The presence of the Royal Navy near the Congo River and Angola provides some indication as to what slavers were doing there, yet their corresponding difficulty in monitoring East Africa means that the depth of the African Slave Trade as it lurched to its conclusion is harder to measure. \"It was largely because our Navy was so busily engaged in an endeavour to suppress the West Coast trade . . . that the East Coast was so neglected,\" said one British analyst. Contemporaneously, in 1858 a British official agreed, asserting that the \"materials for a report on the present state of the slave trade on this coast are so scanty, that I can scarcely venture to make one. That slaves have been exported there is no doubt\"; even \"the late Governor-General of Mozambique\" had \"been a party to the shipment.\" Suggesting how and why it was difficult to comprehend the African Slave Trade in isolation from other forces, it was declared that the perilous \"state of affairs in India [the Sepoy Revolt] and at the Cape . . . prevented any adequate force being sent to . . . Mozambique, and it has been, with slight exception, entirely unwatched.\" As a result, it was declared glumly, \"the prospect of putting down the slave trade has seldom been less encouraging.\" \"It is only within the last few years,\" said the British Consul in Zanzibar in January 1861, \"that the Slave Trade from Zanzibar has assumed such large proportions.\" Simultaneously, another report from this east African island noted ominously that \"a Spanish slave-agent from Cuba arrived here in an American vessel and took up his abode with notorious Spanish slave-agent Buona Ventura Mas, who has long been carrying on an extensive Traffic in Slaves in the Zanzibar dominions.\"\n\nShortly before that Joseph T. Crawford, London's representative in Havana, asserted that \"the slave trade, which is being carried on so extensively and successfully, has been revived in . . . Mozambique and the East Coast of Africa\"; for an \"abundance of Negroes\" there, \"their cheapness\" and \"less risk of capture\" meant that \"numerous expeditions have been fitted out and gone in that direction\"\u2014\"not infrequently\" these journeys did \"originate in the United States of America.\" There were \"agents from Boston and New Orleans who are engaged in completing the subscriptions for shares, which have been already in part filled up by American capitalists,\" as this putrid business had become an easy way to make easy profits. \"One of these schemes is for a ship of 900 tons to bring 2000 slaves.\" Africans were \"to be had on the East Coast of Africa for about 28 dollars each; and even so they are paid for in goods, upon which there is at the least 100 percent of profit.\" Vessels did \"proceed from the United States, under American colours, to a port in Madagascar. . . . the victims being brought over from the opposite coast of Africa in Arab vessels.\" At that moment, said Crawford, \"we have none\"\u2014meaning \"cruisers in these waters.\" The U.S. was similarly deficient in East Africa.\n\nIn the run-up to the Civil War, U.S. slavers had \"flooded the zone,\" carpet-bombing the southern coastline of Africa from Angola to Mozambique with slave ships. Charles Wise of the Royal Navy sensed this from his perch near Cabinda, where these vessels long had honeycombed. In the late spring of 1859 he was typically flummoxed. \"Within the last six months upwards of twenty-five slavers have sailed for the coast of Africa; only eight of that number . . . have been captured. What has become of the remaining seventeen vessels, of which we only know four to have escaped, while two more have doubtless shipped ere this. All these vessels, with one exception, were American\" and their \"profits\" were \"enormous.\" \"This year the number of vessels escaping will exceed all known annals of [the] Slave Trade and encourage the Americans to enter with all the energies peculiar to them, for the remained of the present and the ensuing year of 1860.\" Even Washington's man in Angola, John G. Willis, had noticed in late 1859 that that \"slave trade has been remarkably active this year and many vessels have left this coast with slaves.\"\n\nBy the summer of 1859, Wise was feverishly apoplectic in his denunciation of U.S. slavers. \"105 slavers capable of conveying 71,000 slaves will arrive on the African coast in the course of the twelve months ending March 1860,\" he declared, and \"one fourth of that number will be seized\" by the Royal Navy, \"still leaving 79 vessels\"\u2014and this was \"exclusive of slaves shipped from the East Coast of Africa.\" With enraged sarcasm he proclaimed, \"Such is American Law! The captains of slavers ridicule it. They boast openly that money does all things. . . . correct papers will cover almost any amount of slave trading,\" as the \"many instances of American slavers leaving ports in the United States fully fitted for the Slave Trade,\" indicated. \"New Orleans, being a seaport of slaving celebrity\" and \"New York\" being \"one of the greatest slave-trading ports\" were clearly culpable. It was well known that Lusophone nationals and diplomats involved in \"such houses as that of Cunha Reis, Figaniere and Co. of New York\" were \"acquiring thousands by a successful traffic in blood\" but the U.S. authorities were lethargic. They all were \"sacrificing to their idol gold the lives of many thousands of poor, harmless, defenceless wretches.\"\n\nHe was upset for sound reason though top U.S. diplomat, Lewis Cass, pleaded ignorance, asserting blindly in the spring of 1860 that \"if there has been any recent increase in that Trade or any employment of American capital in its prosecution, of which employment I have seen no proof.\" Actually Cass was well aware that in 1858 London had retreated decisively on the right to search U.S. flagged vessels\u2014a feat which the historian Andrew McLaughlin termed \"one of the most just and most brilliant triumphs of which to this day our diplomacy can boast.\" But, ironically, London\u2014which was overburdened in India, the Crimea, and elsewhere\u2014did Washington no great favor in yielding. This may have been a Pyrrhic victory in that the accompanying emboldened conversation about taking advantage of London's yielding by reopening the slave trade to the U.S. itself, contributed to sectional tension. For a great Civil War was to grip the U.S. and, though in its early stages, the increase in the African Slave Trade seemed to dwarf even the extravagant surges that had begun in 1858, this conflict was to place a permanent clamp on this infamous commerce and, in the process, contribute mightily to abolition in what had been the largest market\u2014Brazil.\n\nThe late 1850s marked a zenith for the illicit slave trade and the profits to be gained flowed into the pockets of men on both sides of the Mason-Dixon line, particularly those in New York and New Orleans. But as London pushed the trade out of Brazilian waters, it simply moved further north to the doorstep of the U.S. itself and, thus, ironically, the actual rise of this commerce actually marked its death knell, as the apparent successes of fire-eaters from Dixie helped to push the nation into a bloody conflict.\n\nSlave deck of the \"Wildfire,\" brought into Key West from the Congo River on April 30, 1860. Men are on lower deck; women on upper deck. As the Deep South moved toward Civil War, the slave trade to Cuba and Brazil increased with spillover onto U.S. shores. Courtesy Library of Congress.\n\n## **8  \nThe Civil War Begins\/The Slave Trade Continues**\n\nIn the antebellum era, slavery and, especially the African Slave Trade, were a \"significant factor in the diplomacy of the Western Hemisphere. The influence of the institution on relations with Great Britain, Spain and Mexico\"\u2014not to mention Brazil and Portugal and Southern Africa\u2014\"has been described as a 'constant orienting factor in the diplomatic history of the United States.'\" But ironically, just as the ascendancy of the Republican Party in 1860 marked a spike in regional tensions nationally, the prospect that this organization would be less circumspect toward the illegal slave trade than its predecessors was a harbinger of improved relations internationally, especially with London. If the U.S. was spending less time confronting the U.K. on contentious matters, which, in a sense, were distilled expressions of white Southern nationalism\u2014such as the right to search suspected U.S. slavers\u2014this meant more time and opportunity for North and South to confront each other. And that only served to underscore the importance of an alliance of the Slave South with the slave empire in Brazil in this confrontation; moreover, even if London's pressure was hindering the transport of enslaved Africans to Brazil, this did not signal the end of the trade. How the Civil War influenced the fate of this trade and the Slave South's relation to Brazil are the linked themes of this chapter.\n\nThere was much for North and South to confront each other about, particularly concerning the African Slave Trade, which had become an impassioned rallying cry for the most determined secessionists. Even those who were willing to conciliate the South on the question of slavery\u2014acknowledging its reality below the Mason-Dixon line but hesitant about its expansion\u2014found the prospect of reopening the African Slave Trade, de facto or de jure, hard to swallow or ignore. \"There is no doubt,\" concludes one analyst, \"that a sharp increase in slave traffic was taking place in 1859 and 1860,\" accompanied by a \"flood of rumors concerning the landing of fresh Congoes along Southern shorelines\"\u2014and \"geographically, no shoreline could have been better laid out for smuggling than the coasts of South Carolina and Georgia,\" as \"no amount of patrolling by land or sea could have stopped smuggling.\" Concurrently, ideologues of the Slave South felt that they could build a stronger, more cohesive nation if they could cut ties with the North and formalize relations with, e.g., Brazil.\n\nL. W. Spratt spoke for many of his fellow fire-eating white Southerners when he said bluntly that \"in a union of unequal races there is nothing wrong in relations of inequality. . . . if slavery be right, there can be no wrong in the foreign, whatever there may be in the domestic slave trade.\" This ban against the \"foreign\" slave trade simply served to \"send the slave, that else might come to us, to Cuba and Brazil, and to intensify the sufferings of his transportation. They certainly do not arrest the slave trade.\" He concurred with the notion that \"'the foreign slave trade will restore political power to the South,'\" by increasing her population and congressional representation. As these fire-eaters saw it, when Washington would not yield on this bedrock point, this was little more than rank hypocrisy, worthy of secession. Such unforgiving attitudes led the British writer Thomas Macaulay to conclude during the antebellum era that \"'I do not deem it unlikely that the black population of Brazil will be free and contented within eighty or a hundred years; I do not envision, however, a reasonable likelihood of similar change in the United States.'\"\n\nFor its part, London was in a bind. There was pressure domestically to press for the end of the slave trade and slavery, just as there was similar pressure to make sure that Cuba did not fall into U.S. hands. The former objective pushed toward abolitionism, while ensuring that Cuba remained Spanish soil empowered a European nation that in many ways was more antithetical to abolitionism than the U.S. itself. Simultaneously, Madrid was seeking to conspire with Washington in legitimizing objections to London's persistent demands to search potential slavers. This was a difficult circle to square.\n\nIn February 1859, Congressman J. B. Clary of Kentucky took to the floor of Congress to address these matters. It was Her Majesty's government and the closely linked question of slavery that was at the heart of Washington's foreign policy and, as he saw it, this was unacceptable. Why should the U.S. be \"forced\" to \"maintain at vast expense on the coast of Africa, a squadron equal to about one-seventh of our whole force.\" Now, Mr. Clary did not like the African Slave Trade, and this was not because of any charitable attitudes toward Negroes but \"on account of the white race, and upon grounds of expediency.\"\n\nWhen secession occurred and the so-called Confederate States of America (CSA) were confronted with the question of what was to be done about the African Slave Trade\u2014which by 1861 was reaching ever greater heights\u2014it too found itself entangled in a morass of contradictions. Thus, weeks after the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, CSA leader Judah Benjamin\u2014whose Jewish origin has been stressed historically but whose Portuguese origin is more relevant to the African Slave Trade, given the preponderance of Portuguese Americans in this illegal commerce\u2014contacted his representative in London about the provisions in this newly formed nation's Constitution concerning the African Slave Trade: \"'Congress shall also have power to prohibit the introduction of any slaves from any State not a member of, or Territory not belonging to, this Confederacy.'\" \"It is thus seen,\" said Benjamin, \"that while the States were willing to trust Congress with the power to prohibit the introduction of African slaves from the United States, they were not willing to trust it with the power of prohibiting their introduction from any other quarter\"\u2014including Brazil, Cuba, and Africa itself. This was a loophole large enough to steer a fully armored slave ship through\u2014and this is precisely what occurred.\n\nYet it was not done openly, it remained shrouded, though it was hardly a secret that some of the most determined secessionists were ardent advocates of the African Slave Trade. Why? One reason was international public opinion and a fear that major powers would be averse to recognizing diplomatically a nation that would be so audacious as to deal in human flesh. The supposed \"intercepted instructions\" of Benjamin to his emissary, L. Q. C. Lamar, spoke directly to this matter, reminding him, \"you are well aware of how firmly fixed in our Constitution is the policy of this Confederacy against the opening of that trade.\" Opponents of the CSA were not buying this subterfuge. Delegates to the Maryland Constitutional Convention held during the Civil War were instructed that these rebels \"were seeking nothing more nor less than the reopening of the African slave trade. That is what they were for, and they knew they could not have that so long as the Constitution and the laws of the United States were in force.\" All they wanted was to buy \"Negroes for $30 a head,\" \"instead of paying you $1000 for every Negro they bought\"\u2014it was just that simple. Seizing Texas was simply the first step in this plot \"and here is the beautiful feature of their scheme, they did not intend to stop with the acquisition of Texas.\" For after that \"lay Tamaulipas, Chihuahua and other Mexican states\"\u2014and then moving further southward.\n\nWhen London got its hands on the CSA provisions on slave trading, elation did not reign. There was \"abolishing the punishment of death for slave trading,\" to begin with; then, said Consul Robert Bunch from Charleston, it also provided that \"'Negroes, coolies, mulattoes or other persons of color' who may be found on board of any vessel captured for violating this Act shall in certain cases be sold at public auction for the benefit of the Confederate States and of the informer.\" Would not this simply transfer the profit from slave trading from the individual to the state, thus providing even further incentive for an acceleration of this foul commerce? London was displeased.\n\nThe problem for the CSA was that potentially valued global allies\u2014e.g., slaveholding Spain\u2014seemed to agree, in certain respects, with an abolitionist viewpoint. This was an abrupt turnabout for Spaniards had found a congenial home in Charleston as early as 1816. There was substantial traffic, understandably, between Havana and Charleston\u2014two of the major poles of human bondage in the hemisphere\u2014during the antebellum era. When the CSA was organized, the Spanish Consul in South Carolina was reminded by a rebel official of the \"good will and respect which you have created here in the discharge of your official duties.\"\n\nThus, when P. J. Rost of the CSA met in Madrid with Spanish Secretary of Foreign Affairs, Calderon Collantes, he was initially satisfied, being \"well pleased with the allusion\" comparing Spain's earlier struggle against Napoleon to that of the Slave South against Washington. Madrid's man went on to say that \" _on the question of right he had no doubt it is clearly with the South_ \" [emphasis-original]. One can imagine Collantes nodding vigorously when Rost told him that Spain's \"interest was that North America should be possessed by two great powers who would balance each other.\" Spain \"was our natural ally and friend,\" Collantes was told, \"with similarity of institutions, ideas and social habits.\" Then one can imagine Rost frowning when Collantes shifted the discussion by reminding him that the \"North had always been friendly\"\u2014being the \"best customer for the sugar\" of Cuba\u2014while the South was \"ever hostile to Spain.\" \"No private expeditions had ever sailed from [Northern] ports for the invasion of Cuba but invariably from those of the South and that if the Confederate States become hereafter a strong government, their first attempt of conquest would be that island.\" Yes, \"the South would . . . deem in its interest that a great country like Spain should continue a slave power. The two, together with Brazil, would have a monopoly of the system of labor which alone can make intertropical America.\" But that was not enough to win over Madrid wholly for Spain had not forgotten events of a few years earlier involving Southern-inspired filibustering expeditions to Cuba and designs on Spanish territory near Hispaniola.\n\nWhen one discusses the waxing and waning of the African Slave Trade, at issue by definition are forces external to North America\u2014Africans, in the first place. This is even more the case when it is considered that during the Civil War\u2014and even before\u2014how this institution was propelled by U.S. and CSA nationals heavily dependent on developments in London, Havana, Lisbon, Madrid, Kingston, Port au Prince, and, of course, the twin towers of the African Slave Trade: Luanda and Rio de Janeiro.\n\nWhen he was asked in the antebellum era if he \"'could conceive of a greater and more atrocious evil than this slave trade?'\" John Quincy Adams answered simply, \"'Yes. Admitting the right of search by foreign officers of our vessels upon the seas in time of peace; for that would be making slaves of ourselves.'\" Such an attitude brought Washington into a bruising confrontation with London, particularly after the latter moved to ban slavery, then sought to handcuff the illicit slave trade.\n\nAs noted, Washington felt that London's attitude was not motivated wholly or solely by humanitarian considerations. Thus, in the summer of 1849, Jamaican planters met to complain about competition from slave grown sugar and other crops in light of the \"continuation and great increase of the foreign slave trade.\" Brazil was mentioned specifically as providing unfair competition, thus motivating London to crack-down on the slave trade there\u2014which brought the U.K. into conflict with U.S. slavers.\n\nThe Foreign Office in London was told that \"this anti-slave trade movement is now rapidly extending itself over the whole of this island. The Kingston Petitions bear a list of signatures far exceeding the numbers which have been attached to any petition on any subject which has ever been addressed to Parliament from Jamaica.\" London found it difficult to ignore this pressure from its rich colony and, correspondingly, had to pressure those vessels\u2014many of them bearing U.S. flags\u2014that were bringing enslaved Africans to the shores of its competitors, particularly Brazil. But what was complicating things for these antagonists of U.S. slavers and their transoceanic allies was that there were those who were sharply disagreeing with these Jamaican planters. At Maryland's 1864 Constitutional Convention, one debater argued passionately that \"the world furnishes no instances of these products being grown upon a large scale by free labor. The English now acknowledge their failure,\" while \"Brazil, whose slave population nearly equals our own, is the only South American state which has prospered.\"\n\nCongressman J. B. Clary of Kentucky expressed the sentiments of many when he denounced what he saw as London's hypocrisy in seeking to curtail the African Slave Trade. \"It is a fact not known to everyone,\" he declared, \"that for every slave taken by a British cruiser she receives. . . . 5 [pounds] or about twenty four dollars. . . . the slave ships are taken either to Sierra Leone or St. Helena and the slaves . . . are re-shipped on board of British transports and sent to Demerara, Berbice and her West India islands and apprenticed.\" Where was the humanity in that, he wondered.\n\nHumanity, indeed, countered advocates of the British Empire. There increasing doubt was being expressed about the \"most abject and hazardous dependence upon the Slave States of America,\" not least since \"England's demand for slave grown cotton\" was \"the secret of American slavery.\" There was an alternative, however: \"cotton,\" it was said in 1858, \" _can_ be grown on the banks of the Indus, by _free labor,_ at a less cost, and with a greater profit, than it can be in New Orleans or Mobile or Arkansas\" [emphasis-original]. With mercantilist confidence it was announced that \"one 10 [pound] note invested in the 'East India Cotton Company' will do more to put an end to the slave trade . . . than double that sum contributed as a mere donation to an 'anti-slavery society.'\" \"So long as cotton is selling for 500 dollars a bale and Negroes are worth from 1000 to 1500 dollars, all the preaching, and all the entreaty, and all the schemes for the emancipation of the American slave, will be as fruitless as 'the whistling wind' . . . as soon as cotton is grown in sufficient quantities, and at a fair profit, on the banks of the Indus . . . by free adult labor, that moment the 'slavery of the South' will cease to be either a necessity or an expediencey [ _sic_ ] and _America will be free_!\" [emphasis-original].\n\nThe walls were closing in on the Slave South. Anger was turning to hostility in the U.S. itself as the overflow from the flood of Africans brought to Cuba were arriving in the southern states, providing a wretched picture of inhumanity, while Britain was openly considering reducing sharply its dependence on southern crops, thereby jeopardizing potentially millions in investments. In that context, secession, and a lurch toward closer union with Brazil, seemed less like desperation and more like self-preservation.\n\nThere was pressure of a different sort emerging from Jamaica's neighbor, Haiti. David Brion Davis acknowledges that \"the destruction of slavery in Saint-Domingue gave an immense stimulus to plantation slavery from neighboring Cuba to far-off Brazil\" and, by implication, to the African Slave Trade as well. Though the scholar David Geggus has \"seen no evidence to suggest the Haitian Revolution was invoked by leaders of the Male Revolt\" in Bahia, he does acknowledge this hemispheric\u2014and, in fact, global\u2014reach of this epoch-shattering Caribbean event.\n\nCertainly there was hemispheric apprehension about the potential reach of Haiti's abolitionism, not least in those nations within Spain's sphere of influence, just as the planters of Kingston were forced to consider the implications of slave unrest in Puerto Rico and Venezuela's move toward abolition was influenced profoundly by Port au Prince. Madrid's representative in Washington kept a close eye on abolitionism in the U.S., wary of its implications for Cuba and Puerto Rico, just as it monitored carefully developments in Haiti, constantly sensitive to the implications for \"race\" and slavery. Though the number of Africans in the Argentine was considerably less than that of Brazil, there too close attention was paid to developments in Haiti and slavery in the U.S. And just as there were imaginings in the U.S. about shipping certain Africans en masse to Liberia, similar ideas had arisen at the same time in Brazil.\n\nThe point is that those who profited from slavery and the slave trade were aware that the existence of this system was not wholly dependent upon domestic events or occurrences in one nation, just as in the late 20th century apartheid rulers realized that the continuation of their system was not unconnected to the fate of Jim Crow. In a similar fashion, the fate of slavery in the hemisphere was heavily dependent on the destiny of this institution in the Slave South\u2014and Brazil. Actually, even those who abjured slavery and the slave trade too had to contend with the stiff competition provided by a nation that deployed laborers who received no wages.\n\nIn certain precincts of the Slave South, denizens realized that their collective fate was linked with that of Brazil. \"We have common interests and sympathies with the people of Brazil and Cuba,\" said one Charleston publicist in 1847, who was worried that \"our relations\" with these slave states were \"threatened to be disturbed by\" abolitionism. Even at this early date it seemed that the U.S. South felt it held more shared aims with its hemispheric neighbors than the U.S. North, arguing repetitively, \"we have common interests and sympathies with the people of Brazil and Cuba\" and need to make \"more intimate the connection between the ports of the United States in Cuba and Brazil. . . . we afford remunerating markets for coffee, sugar, cocoa . . . and . . . New Orleans, Savannah, Charleston, Norfolk and Baltimore are much nearer to the great West, than are Philadelphia, New York or Boston\"\u2014not least since they were closer to Rio de Janeiro. The \"slaves and other property\" of Brazil and Cuba would \"in our harbors be secure from abolitionists and other plunderers and that most if not all of the staples of our country can be supplied [to] them on as favorable terms as any others.\" Seemingly moving toward secession at this early date, \"southern\"\u2014not U.S.\u2014\"commercial agencies at Havana and Rio de Janeiro\" were demanded.\n\nA few years later concern was raised that \"when Cuba and Brazil are annexed\" to the U.S., the \"clamor in favor of continuing the traffic, which already exists in those countries, would be irresistible.\" Already, the \"slave traders have a party in Congress and that they rank distinguished Northern Senators, as well as Southern, among their leaders,\" which made this merger of slave empires well-nigh inevitable. Minimally, it seemed that the Slave Power was seeking \"an alliance, offensive and defensive with Brazil,\" which could overwhelm any hemispheric abolitionist objections. \"It was predicted twenty years ago,\" said one prominent mainstream newspaper in 1854, \"that if the [Slave Power] got Texas, it would not stop until it reached Brazil.\" In reaction that same year to the Kansas-Nebraska Act, Congressmen Solomon Foot of Vermont, Daniel Mace of Indiana, and Reuben E. Fenton of New York signed a statement that declared this legislation was \"'to be followed up by an alliance with Brazil and the extension of slavery in the valley of the Amazon.'\" An antebellum Southerner advocated a \"'treaty of commerce and alliance with Brazil'\" which would \"'give us the control over the Gulf of Mexico and its border countries, together with the islands; and the consequence of this will place African slavery beyond the reach of fanaticism at home or abroad. These two great powers . . . ought to guard and strengthen their mutual interests. . . . we can not only preserve domestic servitude but we can defy the power of the world.'\"\n\nEven before the Civil War erupted, perceptive analysts had realized that the North's evident advantages in population and industrial plants could be neutralized, if not overwhelmed, by hemispheric alliances that focused on a nation, Brazil, that was larger in territory than the U.S. and contained many more enslaved Africans.\n\nThis attitude in Brazil had been nurtured by the U.S. Minister to Brazil at the time of secession. In presenting his credentials before this ominous moment, Richard K. Meade \"in a memorable speech expressed his hope that the two nations\"\u2014the U.S. and Brazil\u2014\"might be brought into the closest alliance. The special motive he assigned, was that the two great slave-holding nations of America needed to combine to resist the anti-slavery pressure of the rest of the world.\" Secession was not just an event but a process and even before the firing on Fort Sumter, many white Southerners in the employ of Washington were laying the groundwork and busily preparing for the advent of the CSA. Certainly this could be said of Meade who in his pointed remarks asked Brazilian elites what would be the \"influence of our extinction of slavery upon the institution in Brazil?\" Brazilian \"slavery,\" he declared, \"has found the same incentive in coffee to strengthen and perpetuate itself that our own institution did in cotton.\" Brazil, he proclaimed, was \"more like the United States than any other nation in the world.\"\n\nLater, R. C. Parsons of Cleveland, who arrived in Rio de Janeiro just after Meade had departed, in order to lead the U.S. diplomatic corps, blasted this \"doughty fire-eater from Old Virginia,\" whose activities seemed to \"reveal that a persistent effort was then made to induce Brazil, at that early day, to look forward to a time when the 'great rebellion' should be consummated.\" Meade's son, Richard Kidder Meade, Jr., had been part of the assault on Fort Sumter, which was viewed as more than coincidence. Meade, Sr. was a \"well-known politician of the extremist Calhoun school\" and as early as 1849 was \"openly charged . . . on the floor of Congress . . . with entertaining disunion sentiments and cherishing disunion projects.\" He was a firm advocate of a \"grand Pro-Slavery alliance with the Brazilian Empire.\" Sending him as Minister to Brazil was not just a boost to the nascent Confederacy, it revealed a stunning naivete on behalf of Washington, akin to appointing Benedict Arnold to be Ambassador to the Court of St. James.\n\nAs late as July 1861, Meade was having discussions with the Emperor\u2014while he was serving as Washington's emissary\u2014about CSA prospects. He opined that the war \"would perhaps last twenty years\"; the \"Emperor expressed the kindest feelings of friendship toward Mr. Meade but made no remarks indicative of his views and feelings in regard to the state of our country, to which allusion had been made.\"\n\nMeade's successor, James Watson Webb, was no abolitionist, far from it, yet even he was outraged by Meade's behavior. This Confederate \"asked me in London,\" said Webb, \"for a letter of introduction to the President, assuring me that, although a southern man, he had faithfully discharged the whole duty to the Union. This turns out to have been a deliberate misrepresentation.\" For while in Rio as \"Minister he was openly and offensively a secessionist and traitor and did all in his power to bring the government of our country into disrepute.\" He was not alone. \"Robert G. Scott\" the \"late Consul\" in Rio was also \"an open-mouthed traitor and a loud-talker.\" Webb's abrupt replacement of Meade put the Emperor on the spot; he said he would \"be embarrassed in making a reply and equally embarrassed in not replying to what I said in condemnation of slavery\" if Webb were to refute Meade's earlier words. \"He begged, therefore, that I would not insist upon the exercise of the right to reply publicly. . . . it would relieve the Emperor of all difficulty in regard to the question of slavery, and which is already making itself felt in the phases of party here,\" suggesting how conflict in the U.S. was rippling outward.\n\nStill, this contemplation of Brazil was a matter for all sides. At the 1864 Constitutional Convention in Maryland, which was rocked with debate about what Emancipation might entail, one delegate sought to reassure with copious references to the Brazilian experience and how this nation exemplified what the dark-skinned could accomplish. Abolitionists argued that \"even . . . Brazil with her four million [ _sic_ ] slave gives the free-born colored man and the emancipated slave equal privileges with others, and opens to him every avenue to wealth and fame,\" while in July 1860, this same nation was viewed as a negative example by an advocate of human bondage. This nation's alleged predilection toward \"amalgamation\" means that if an \"insurrection\" occurred, \"'the whites will be sure to suffer from the savage rapacity of the mixed races, especially those who have African blood in them.'\" \"'Aversion to hybridity, then, is the safeguard of the people.'\" That the African \"enjoys not only the same social but the same political rights as any of the natives of the country\" was seen as lunacy and a \"fictitious show of civilization.\" President James Buchanan, perhaps, had the final word in this discourse that looked to Brazil for insight into festering internal tensions within the U.S., when he argued that the North had no more cause to interfere in slavery in the South as they had to do the same in \"Russia or Brazil.\"\n\nIn mid-1860, London thought that little had changed since the mid-1850s in Brazil, in that there were \"not only no cases, but even no suspicions\" of slaving. But it was not as if a wave of abolitionism had washed over South America. Instead the Civil War heightened fears in the hemisphere about slavery's fate. For by December 1861, the **Charleston Mercury** was chortling that \"Brazilians [were] sympathizing almost to a man with the secessionists, under the impression that the South was fighting the battle of Brazil\u2014fighting to protect their property in slaves\" for there was a nagging fear that \"if the North had abolished slavery in the Southern States, she would turn her attention to abolishing slavery in the Brazil Empire.\" Thus, said the **New York Times,** speaking of Rio de Janeiro, \"perhaps in no place or in any other foreign country has the effects of the rebellion . . . been so much felt as in this port.\" Indeed, said this periodical in words thought sufficiently worthy to be retained by the Brazilian Foreign Ministry, \"in the good years before the war we took from $22,000,000 to $25,000,000 worth of Brazilian products annually and sent to Brazil sometimes between $6,000,000 and $7,000,000 a year.\"\n\nThe South Carolinian who penned the above words of warning may have pricked up his ears if he had heard another kind of warning emanating at that moment from Brazil. A Brazilian senator was demanding the reduction of the numbers of slaves in large cities and an increase in farming areas and checking the ongoing deportation of slaves from north to south, which was mimicking similar antebellum trends in the U.S., for \"was it the case, gentlemen,\" he argued, \"that when some years ago in the United States the Northern states abolished slavery and it remained in the Southern States, the industrial interests of the Southern States became entirely opposed to those of the Northern? Was it not after the creation and growth of diversity of interests that the explosion took place which has not yet terminated?\"\n\nProfit-hungry slave traders had accelerated the hunting and seizing of Africans in the run-up to the ascension to power of the Republican Party in 1860. After that, with Civil War on the horizon and the allure of handsomely easy profits to be made and stashed away for the foreseeable stormy day, this foul enterprise accelerated further. The African Squadron, inept in the best of times and hardly present in East Africa, in any case, had to become more concerned with CSA privateers raiding U.S. commerce or bombarding north of Baltimore. The U.K. remained on duty but some British elites were not necessarily displeased with the prospect of a CSA victory that could reduce sharply the power of the behemoth that had arisen in North America. Late in 1862, for example, the U.S. Consul in Pernambuco observed that \"the British residents on this coast, both official and private are noted for their sympathy with the rebellious part of our people,\" referring to the CSA. Then there was a powerful \"Copperhead\" element in the U.S. Northeast that had refused to accept the demise of the African Slave Trade, even when rebels assaulted Fort Sumter in early 1861.\n\nAs secessionists began moving relentlessly toward a conflict that many saw as giving a new birth of freedom to the African Slave Trade, it was reported from West Africa that out of 36 slave vessels recently detected, \"29\" were \"under the American flag alone\" with six being Spanish; \"and as the [U.S.] squadron find there is no use in detaining vessels unless they have slaves on board, although they may be otherwise fully equipped, the difficulty in successfully checking this illegal traffic is at once apparent.\" The valley of the Congo River down to Luanda tended to \"contribute the greatest number of slaves\" and \"American [slave] vessels fitted as whalers\" continued to be active.\n\nThus, by July 1861, the Royal Navy's reports sounded as if they could have been written in 1858. The \"slave trade is at present carried on almost entirely under the American ensign,\" it was said. The \"Congo is, without doubt, the center of the Slave Trade in this part of the coast . . . the value of the slave being only twenty-five dollars on this part of the station; while it is eighty dollars in the Bights\"\u2014this was \"no doubt the reason why slave-vessels generally come to the South Coast.\" This trade reached to Luanda, though it was doubted if it took place south of there. Though a Civil War ostensibly over slavery was raging, the refrain had not changed: \"as vessels engaged in the Slave Trade almost invariably fly the American flag and our cruisers are prohibited from in any way interfering with them, of course we are to a very serious extent powerless in putting a check to the Slave Trade.\"\n\nBy October 1861, the words from the South Coast seemed even more desperately inflamed. Britain's representatives asserted that \"at no period since the establishment of this Commission has the Traffic in Slaves been carried on with greater activity or daring on this part of the coast than during the past year. . . . not less than 6000 slaves have been shipped from the immediate neighborhood of the Congo during the past five months\" with \"all wearing the American flag.\" With U.S. monitoring reduced as a result of Civil War, \"the slave dealers in the Congo are already exulting in the impunity\" resulting.\n\nIn the early stages of the Civil War, the U.S. was seeking to detain slavers, which was wise given that the enormous profits from such ventures could only buoy opponents of the Union's ultimate objectives. Yet soon London had \"with great regret to report . . . the retirement from the West Coast of Africa of the United States's ships of war\" that had been off the coast of northern Angola and at the mouth of the Congo River basin; this placed \"additional pressure\" on the already besieged Royal Navy. This was a boon to slave dealers. Shortly after this U.S. departure, Secretary of State William Seward was informed that Brazil\u2014which some slave traders continued to lust after as a recipient for their human cargoes\u2014\"from its location and sympathies, is destined to supply and furnish ports of security for the privateers of the Southern States.\" That same year Lord Lyons in Washington observed that \"Mr. Seward came to see me\" and \"asked me to let him speak to me very confidentially.\" Naturally, Lyons immediately reported this conversation to London, as the Secretary of State \"went on to express great apprehension lest _any_ Power should recognize the Southern Confederacy. He seemed even to feel alarm lest Brazil or Peru should do so. In fact, the immediate object of his visit appeared to be to endeavour to ascertain through me whether there could be any truth in private information which had reached him that Brazil had determined already to recognize the new Confederacy. Brazil, he said, might perhaps be led to do so by community of feeling on Slavery\" [emphasis-original].\n\nIn a veritable response, it was not long before there was the \"arrival . . . of the American barque 'J. J. Cobb'\" in Luanda, which had \"been notoriously employed in the Traffic in Slaves between this coast and Cuba during the last two years.\" Reflecting confidence that either the CSA would prevail or that North American flagged vessels were exempt from international treaty obligations or that even a Washington victory would bring no end to slavery, North American flagged slavers continued to descend on Africa even as the Civil War raged. Commodore Edmonstone of the Royal Navy reported in November 1861 that \"the Slave Trade is now, with a few exceptions, entirely carried on under the cover of the American flag.\" The \"withdrawal of the United States Squadron gives additional facility to the slaver,\" it was said, \"they have nothing to dread.\" Now the \"Spanish slave trade to the Havana will be carried on under the American flag more freely and with less risk than ever.\"\n\nNathaniel Gordon was raised in a relatively prosperous home in Portland, Maine; it was one of the older residences in this eponymous port city, built in 1740, reflecting the stolid economy of this Northern metropolis that came to benefit from the African Slave Trade. It was a three-story building, one of the largest square-roofed houses of its day and at the time it was built it was called one of the finest in the city, with three chimneys, an abundance of large, deep fireplaces with beautifully carved mantles of mahogany and rosewood. The finish was remarkably fine, reflecting the refinement of Gordon himself who was a \"companionable boy of likeable ways and much charm of personality\"\u2014even then he was considered a leader. \"Quick to learn, he was a keen observer\" and early on could hardly ignore \"stories of rich silks and jewels, of gold cups and vases found in the house on York Street.\"\n\nSo moved, it was not long before he followed his home state's traditions and became a successful slaver with a dark reputation, a veteran of slave smuggling runs to Cuba and Brazil. In 1853, Gordon landed 500 enslaved Africans near Rio de Janeiro, then burned his ship to escape capture. Early in the morning of 8 August 1860 he \"sailed from the Congo.\" He had a cargo of liquor on board, along with 890 Africans, of which 172 were men, 106 were women, and the rest were boys and girls. He was on his way to offload his human cargo in Cuba when he was detained. His captives were taken to Liberia and Gordon was returned to his homeland to stand trial for violating laws barring the slave trade.\n\nGordon was indicted in New York City on 29 October 1860 on the charge of \"detaining Negroes with intent to make them slaves\" and arraigned on 2 November. \"With force and arms in the River Congo on the coast of Africa,\" Gordon \"did piratically and feloniously, forcibly confine and detain eight hundred Negroes . . . names . . . unknown.\" Gordon had good reason to think that despite being caught with hundreds of Africans in hand, he was in a city that was congenial to his offense, so\u2014at least it was thought\u2014he pursued a strategy of delay. His lawyers moved to quash the indictment on 24 December and by June a jury was assigned. By 30 November 1861, the trial opened\u2014but by that time opinions about slave traders had soured, even in Manhattan where they had flourished not so long ago. If Gordon had been scouring the local press, he might have noticed that just before his trial commenced, the U.S. District Attorney in this city had just \"secured another condemnation of a vessel for fitting and with intention to proceed upon a slave voyage.\"\n\nAnxieties were rising as the trial approached. New York, a stronghold of the African Slave Trade, was becoming suffused with the sentiment that this Civil War and the sacrifice it entailed was being done to assist despised U.S. Negroes; thus, as Gordon's fate was being decided, \"innocent Negroes\" were \"hanged to lamp-posts by a New York mob.\"\n\nE. Delafield Smith, the District Attorney, declared that Gordon \"had been in custody for a long period of time, with no apparent effort to prepare the case for trial. Indeed, my eminent predecessor had declared in open court last winter that in his judgment, public opinion would not justify a capital conviction.\" When the U.S. Navy man who detained Gordon defected to the Confederacy, this opinion was bolstered. Gordon's \"counsel had personal friends of his own German Jewish faith on the jury,\" which was worrisome to the prosecution. Reacting defensively, they \"labored to separate the case from all questions as to slavery or slavery extension in this country.\" Apparently the tactic worked, as \"the jury were out thirty minutes and returned with an honest verdict of guilty.\" Still, \"the effect\" in New York was \"never paralleled by that of any criminal conviction in either the state or U.S. courts. Persons crowded into my office the following morning and asked if it was really so. As Gordon\" was \"an old offender, having been previously on two of these slave voyages,\" the prosecution was loath to be lenient with him, not least since the \"cruelty exhibited by the evidence in these cases surpasses the common belief in respect to the atrocities of this trade.\" The prosecutor was \"sorry\" for Gordon but, it was added, \"he should think of the agonies of the dying in his ship's hold.\" These words were written carefully, as the prosecution was desirous that \"this letter should be read\" to President Lincoln himself.\n\nGordon sat impassively in the courtroom as a key witness \"presented a heart-rending account of the wailing despair of human beings packed like cattle in the quarters below\" deck and when the verdict was returned, he again did not flinch, receiving \"the news with no change in the ice-hard cruelty of his eyes.\" This reflected the fact that Gordon continued to have reason to believe that he would not receive severe punishment, even when convicted. \"The slave trading interests\" had \"left no stone unturned to procure a pardon for him\" to the point where the morning \"of the scheduled day for the hanging, an informer sped to the District Attorney's office with word that a rescue mob was forming to storm the jail and free the prisoner.\" Finally breaking down, Gordon sought to poison himself, as strychnine was smuggled into his jail cell with cigars apparently. Now a \"raving maniac\" he was \"pinned to the floor by two husky guards while Dr. Simmons, the prison physician, endeavored to use a stomach pump on him.\" Gordon was unable to escape the \"dubious distinction of being the first man to be hanged for slave running.\"\n\nStill, his death did not pass uncontested. A \"well of sympathy\" for him emerged. \"The newspapers described the tearful scene when he saw his wife [and] family for the last time.\" Britain's Consul in New York, took note of his death, observing that despite \"the most strenuous efforts on the part of his friends, aided doubtless by the pecuniary influence of the slave trading interest in this city,\" Gordon was executed, though a \"general impression prevailed to the last moment that the sentence would not be carried into effect.\" Gordon's words as the smuggled poison worked its destruction on his body\u2014\"'I've cheated you! I've cheated you!'\"\u2014stood as a compelling verbal metaphor for though his life was taken, the life of the African Slave Trade survived his passing.\n\nFor just as Gordon was entering the courtroom, \"300 slaves had been shipped on board an American schooner at Whydah [West Africa]. . . . several American vessels had arrived with rum and tobacco which it was expected would all return with slaves. Most of these vessels are from Salem and Boston. The Slave [Trade] has been in such a flourishing condition for years,\" it was reported, \"and is principally carried on by Americans from the Northern States.\" The African Slave Trade had attained sufficient momentum that London worried that even if Gordon's execution presaged a crackdown in the U.S. Northeast, slaving interests would simply move to \"Liverpool . . . Cadiz, Barcelona and Marseilles,\" just as earlier they had relocated their exports from Brazil to Cuba and points northward. What may have motivated this concern was the case of a vessel \"fitted out in Lisbon for the slave trade\" that had arrived from New York; it was suspected that the detainees did \"intend hereafter to make Lisbon and Cadiz the base of their operations instead of New York.\" The problem was \"the selling of an American vessel in a foreign port to be there fitted out for the slave trade is not forbidden by law.\" Weeks after Gordon's execution, Secretary of State Seward announced that \"the schooner William L. Coggeswell was recently seized at Lisbon by order of Mr. Harvey the United States Minister there upon suspicion by him supposed to be well founded that she had been fitted out for the purpose of prosecuting the African slave trade.\" Moreover, there were searching allegations, frequently asserted, that there was \"corruption\" and collusion between the federal authorities and the slaving interests in New York that a mere Civil War had not squashed.\n\nCertainly there was no immediate deterrent effect attached to Gordon's incarceration, for after he was jailed, \"the ship 'Nightingale'\" arrived in New York from \"the west coast of Africa . . . having been captured with 935 Negroes on board.\" The culprits included Samuel B. Haynes, Bradley Winslow, and Minthone Westervelt\u2014the latter born in Staten Island of a \"well-known family,\" while Haynes\u2014like Gordon\u2014hailed from Maine. Domingo Martinez, a notorious \"Brazilian slave dealer\" who resided at \"Whydah,\" did not seem to be deterred by what had had happened to Gordon. He was reported to carry on the \"Slave Trade extensively with Cuba and the United States; he [was] also engaged in commerce with Brazil, chiefly with Bahia.\" In fact, new areas of slave hunting seemed to be opening up, especially in East Africa, which in recent years had zoomed in importance as a site for obtaining human cargoes. By September 1862, British sources in South Africa were observing that \"American slave vessels are now in the practice of proceeding to some of the west ports of Madagascar for their cargoes, which places are beyond the limits laid down in the treaty and therefore it can be evaded by them with impunity. The ports alluded to are independent of the King of that island, and the slaves are conveyed thither in native vessels from the East Coast of Africa, to be shipped off as opportunities offer.\" That same year U.S. slavers were said to be operating near the tiny Caribbean island of Anguilla, though it was unclear if Africans from Madagascar were arriving in that vicinity. Still, by May 1862, the U.S. Attorney in New York City reported six recent or ongoing prosecutions for slave trading.\n\nIf there had been another city that could have challenged Rio's title of chief CSA sympathizer, it might have been Lisbon or Oporto. Recently naturalized U.S. citizens who only quite recently had resided in Portugal had been instrumental in perpetuating the African Slave Trade from their base of operations in New York City, New Bedford, and other Northeast locales and when it seemed that the Civil War was leading to more scrutiny of their activity, some of them began to move across the Atlantic to the land of their birth, where they resumed their slaving with a renewed gusto.\n\nIt would take more than litigation to bring the African Slave Trade to heel for it had already begun to metastasize and assume new forms. In early 1862, reports from Luanda indicated that \"upwards of 2000 Negroes have been conveyed hence to St. Thomas since the 1st of January of the past year. . . . these Africans\u2014who are the rudest and most unenlightened,\" according to a Portuguese official, were \"recently brought in from the interior\" but were deemed not to be slaves but servants. From that island, long a major entrepot for the slave trade\u2014a kind of West African version of Zanzibar\u2014they could \"emigrate\" across the Atlantic.\n\nThis thought had occurred to at least one official in Lisbon. Such a practice \"must have the effect of stimulating the slave trade in the interior of Africa,\" it was asserted. \"Portuguese subjects are largely engaged in the slave trade\" and \"Portuguese authorities connive at it, if they do not actually participate in that traffic,\" it was conceded honestly and this was just one more example. In boldly raising a point that had been obvious for decades if not centuries, one can sense the impact of the Civil War on the fate of the African Slave Trade: for even before it became clear that this would become a war of abolition, it was apparent that it might become so and that this transformation would then bring Washington in league with London to crush the recalcitrant and intractable, a category that had long claimed Lisbon. Concern in this sleepy capital began to be expressed about the \"extent to which the traffic in slaves is now suffered to be carried on directly or indirectly in His Majesty's African dominions, owing to a want of due care and energy on the part of the local authorities.\" It was discovered suddenly in early 1862 that \"great facilities have been afforded to the operations of the Slave Trade in the vicinity of the River Congo by the numerous small craft employed in the coasting trade . . . sailing under the Portuguese flag and provided with official papers of the Government of Angola,\" not to mention those transported \"from the River Gaboon [ _sic_ ] and adjacent parts of the continent.\"\n\nPortugal, a relatively small nation with an outsized colonial empire based disproportionately in the rich slave-hunting grounds of Angola and Mozambique, knew that if the Slave South lost the Civil War, Lisbon could possibly suffer more than a Mississippi slaveholder. In the early stages of secession, Portugal \"received communications from some of the Vice Consuls in southern states asking if they could clear vessels as heretofore\"; their emissary in the U.S. was cautious, noting that CSA \"sovereignty\" was \"not recognized by\" the \"King of Portugal.\" Again\u2014like Spain\u2014an ideological soul-mate that the CSA might have thought would stand resolutely by her side, Portugal instead was hedging its bets.\n\nRobert dos Santos, Vice Consul in Norfolk, was not happy with this. He had \"[tried] to keep neutral in the present deplorable war,\" he lamented in the summer of 1862, though he admitted that \"of course, I can't help sympathizing with the South as I was born here and as I believe that her cause is a just one.\" Despite this, he also admitted, \"I have taken no part in the war,\" though he had a \"brother who has been an officer in the Confederate Army.\" He felt oppressed by the U.S. authorities, however, they had \"not molested\" him because of his brother but insisted that \"the Portuguese flag which flies over my property will not be respected\" and that \"unless\" he took an \"oath of allegiance to the northern Government that not only will they confiscate my property but I will be required to withdraw beyond their lines.\" He was adamant in refusal\u2014\"The oath of allegiance I will never under any circumstances take. I am a citizen of Virginia and go with her wherever she goes.\" He requested a \"copy of the treaty between the U.S. & Portugal\" in search of legal validation of her parlous position. He may have been luckier than his counterpart, Joaquim de Palma, Portugal's Vice Consul in Savannah; both \"he and his family suffered when the federal army under the command of General Sherman passed through Winnsboro in the state of South Carolina where he had removed his family and effects.\" A sign of the times was the claim that a \"fire\" that had led to de Palma's setback was \"the work of a Negro woman residing in the village.\" Also telling was when the State Department claimed that they had never recognized da Palma's diplomatic status, indicative of how Lisbon had inserted its nationals throughout the nation, who then proceeded to engage at times in slave dealing.\n\nPortuguese and Portuguese-Americans, whose slave trading activity and other nefarious activities had been overlooked, now found themselves targeted. A. M. da Cunha, who moonlighted as Portugal's Consul in New York, theretofore a lucrative site for transoceanic slave-dealing, complained that his vessel that had \"recently arrived from Havana\" was \"sold without my consent.\" Then the now chastened diplomat cum businessman was \"informed\" and \"received instructions not to permit the clearance of any Portuguese vessel from the port\" of New York \"without receiving special permission from Washington and that these instructions apply to vessels of no other country than Portugal\"\u2014in earnest of their instrumental role in slaving, a role that had been virtually ignored until Washington concluded that those backing a treasonous rebellion and the resultant dissolution of the U.S. might be the ultimate beneficiary of this traffic.\n\nFinally getting wise, Washington was beginning to squeeze a major generator of the irrepressible conflict\u2014Portugal\u2014and as the prospect began to shrivel for the kind of large-scale slaving that this nation and some Portuguese-Americans had engaged in from the U.S. Northeast and New Orleans, shrinking along with it was the idea that a Confederacy could survive whose secession had been driven in no small part by slave traders. Blandly though pointedly, Secretary of State William Seward informed Lisbon's representative that \"with a view to avoid obvious uncertainties and inconveniences, it is deemed indispensable that this Department should be promptly apprised of any appointment of Consular Officers of Foreign Powers in the United States\"; he added, almost offhandedly, \"information whether the person appointed is a citizen of the United States or a subject of the Government who may appoint him is also desirable.\" Portugal continued appointing emissaries, taking pains to have them in New Bedford and Bangor, theretofore headquarters for illegal slaving.\n\nWashington was smart to be suspicious of Lisbon and its activities in North America. Portugal's Consul in New York claimed, for example, that \"several poor and uneducated subjects of Portugal residing\" in the major slave smuggling center that was Galveston, had been subjected to \"forced enlistment into the military service of the so-styled Confederate States.\" U.S. patriots were not so sure about the compulsion involved.\n\nBetter late than never. Cutting off Portugal's oxygen supply to the CSA was a major step on the road to curtailing the African Slave Trade, particularly the role in it of U.S. nationals and nationals of Portuguese ancestry. In the 1850s the illicit slave trade to Brazil was curbed, then it was pushed northward to the doorstep of the U.S. where it was squelched. However, this, ironically, gave a new boost to the idea of Matthew Maury of sending U.S. Negroes en masse to the Valley of the Amazon.\n\n## **9  \nDeport U.S. Negroes to Brazil?**\n\nThe Civil War delivered a forceful blow to the solar plexus of the illicit slave trade and transnational slavery itself. Yet the continuation of slavery in Brazil and the unresolved status of U.S. Negroes seemed to lead some to conclude that deporting the latter to the Valley of the Amazon would make for a serendipitous confluence. Brazil, which was quite friendly to the so-called Confederate States of America, was less welcoming to the prospect of opening its doors to a stream of dark-skinned people.\n\nJames Watson Webb, who served as U.S. Minister to Brazil during the Civil War, was no abolitionist, a point recognized by his comrades. \"One fourth\" of abolitionists were \"fanatics,\" thought Webb, and \"three fourths\" were \"knaves\" [emphasis-original]. The influential politician from Maine, Hannibal Hamlin, had to remind Webb during his tenure as Brazilian Minister, that it was \"supreme nonsense to contend that property in slaves, whether in the person or the service has any special immunity, over any other property.\"\n\nA man of action as well as words, on the evening of 1 October 1833, a group of active colonizationists and their sympathizers\u2014who thought that free Negroes would be better off in Africa\u2014met in Webb's office. Then he was the 31-year-old feisty editor of New York City's influential, pro-Whig Party \"'Courier and Enquirer.' There they planned to pose as 'friends of immediate abolition in the United States' and invade the initial meeting of the New York City Anti-Slavery Society.\" That evening 1500 showed up \"yelling for the blood of Arthur Tappan and [William Lloyd] Garrison.\" Webb, \"an ardent Episcopalian\" and \"former Army officer,\" was also a \"key figure in the October mob and the North's most vehement anti-abolitionist spokesman to support African colonization.\" Webb was also an ardent \"racist,\" who \"denounced the abolitionists\" with full-throated fervor. \"In common with many other northerners, Webb believed that abolition was more dangerous than slavery\" and also thought that \"colonization of slaves in Africa was the only practical remedy to slavery.\" A full spectrum bigot, \"anti-Semitism\" also \"crept into Webb's crusade.\" Webb also concurred with Deep South leaders approving \"anything that Congress could do to stop the antislavery agitation.\"\n\nIt was Webb who, on July 4, 1834, \"published a list of the activities scheduled for the holiday that included an announcement that 'at eleven, the fanatics meet at Chatham-Street Chapel, to have their zeal inflamed by the doctrines of abolition and amalgamation . . . ' Webb felt he could light a match to an already smoldering hostility toward the abolitionists. He was right. A mob broke into the chapel just as abolitionist Lewis Tappan finished reading the American Anti-Slavery Society's Declaration of Sentiments to a racially mixed audience. . . . one of the worst riots of the decade followed, lasting a total of eleven days. Mobs proceeded to break up other integrated abolitionist meetings with their menacing haunts.\"\n\nWith such a background, it should not be deemed surprising that Webb would promote enthusiastically the notion of deporting U.S. Negroes to Brazil, even as this group was sacrificing tremendously to ensure the survival of the government\u2014Webb's government\u2014that was seeking to dispatch them southward. The contemporary historian, Lerone Bennett, has stirred controversy by ascribing this plan to Webb's superior\u2014the President, Abraham Lincoln. After all, Bennett suggests, \"in five major policy declarations, including two State of the Union addresses and the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, the sixteenth President of the United States publicly and officially called for the deportation of Blacks. On countless other occasions, in conferences with cronies, Democratic and Republican leaders and high government officials, he called for colonization of Blacks or aggressively promoted colonization, by private and official acts.\" In 1862, says Bennett, \"largely at President Lincoln's urging, Congress appropriated $600,000 a sum desperately needed . . . to prosecute the war\" in order to \"begin the colonization process.\" According to Navy Secretary, Gideon Welles, \"'almost from the commencement of this administration . . . the subject of deporting the colored race has been discussed.'\" Lincoln asserted that \"'room in South America for colonization can be obtained cheaply, and in abundance; and when numbers shall be large enough to be company and encouragement for one another, the freed people will not be so reluctant to go.'\" The President created a \"Black emigration department without giving it that name,\" to deport Negroes. \"The President and all members of the cabinet, with the exception of Secretary [Gideon] Welles and Secretary [Salmon] Chase, were in favor of deportation, according to firsthand reports.\" In 1862 on the front page of the **New York Tribune,** the President discussed sending Negroes south of the border.\n\nBut Bennett, the historian, has paid insufficient attention to how the international situation influenced Lincoln's decision to assert the Emancipation Proclamation and compel his retreat from mass deportation of Negroes. For in mid-September 1862, the President told a \"delegation of Chicago clergy in mid-September that 'to proclaim emancipation would secure the sympathy of Europe . . . which now saw no other reason for the strife than national pride and ambition [and] an unwillingness to abridge our domain and ambition. No other step would be as potent to prevent foreign intervention,'\" he declared cogently. A Lincoln successor\u2014Woodrow Wilson\u2014acknowledged years later that the 16th President hoped the Proclamation would \"'imperatively prevent that foreign recognition of the Southern Confederacy which he dreaded.'\"\n\nLincoln, though opposing the war against Mexico, was something of a novice in foreign policy. Rudolph Schleiden, Minister from Bremen, recorded that the President had told him that \"'I don't know anything about diplomacy. I will be very apt to make blunders.'\" Yet he did know enough about this hugely important subject to tread carefully when it came to the question of enslavement of Africans. He had to be careful for even the Brazilian Foreign Ministry had reason to believe that \"Louis Napoleon\" had a \"secret treaty,\" in 1863, \"either concluded or in progress, with Jefferson Davis, by which the cession of Texas is to be received as an equivalent for recognition and for substantial aid to the rebel Confederacy\"; the \"intrigues of two French consuls in Texas\" determined to \"detach her from the Confederacy and reestablish nominally her independence\" was likewise not exactly hidden from view. Both the U.S. and CSA realized that theirs was a conflict that extended well beyond their own immediate interests and implicated other powers with dedicated interests of their own\u2014ignoring this simple yet profound reality could prove to be fatal. Thus, Washington \"had proposed an international conference to deal with the subject of emancipated slaves who wished to emigrate from the United States, but the plans were abandoned after unfavorable responses from the leading European powers.\" Carl Schurz, U.S. Minister in Madrid, was among those who realized early on that \"'as soon as the war becomes distinctly one for and against slavery, public opinion will be . . . overwhelmingly in our favor.'\"\n\nNevertheless, \"on December 1, 1862 in his second annual message, President Lincoln presented a plan for gradual, compensated emancipation coupled with voluntary expatriation after freedom.\" This was in the face of claims by the Democratic Party that \"used three phrases to sum up the alleged consequences of emancipation: 'racial amalgamation,' 'Africanization of America' and 'Free Negroism.'\" In response \"242 black residents\" of California \"petitioned Congress in 1862 to settle them in a country where their color would not be a badge of degradation. It seemed to be the policy of the state and the nation, they commented, to discourage the increase of persons of color in their midst and to use every legal means to induce those among them to emigrate.\" Nodding their heads in agreement at the idea of ousting U.S. Negroes, \"such dignitaries as Representatives Francis Blair, Jr. from Missouri, Edward Bates from Missouri and Montgomery Blair from Maryland and Senator James Doolittle from Wisconsin\" were \"among the framers of these colonization plans.\" Francis Blair had long been in favor of shipping U.S. Negroes southward, feeling that the \"immense distance\" had weakened Liberia's attraction as a dumping ground. But \"the door is now open in Central America to receive the enfranchised colored race born amongst us,\" he said as early as 1858, as these \"freed blacks hold a place in this country which cannot be maintained.\"\n\nThese plans were so notorious that the Spanish Foreign Ministry got wind of them, noting the words of one member of the \"Select Committee on Emancipation and Colonization\" in 1862 who declared that \"the home for the African must not be within the limits of the present territory of the Union. . . . Hayti and others of the West India islands, Central America and the upper portions of South America and Liberia are all interesting fields on inquiry in relation to the future of the . . . Negroes of the United States.\"\n\nTo be fair, nations shipping huge numbers of their nationals to distant climes was not new, as the example of the poor and the Irish in the U.K. showed. They were dispatched to Australia en masse in the late 18th century and in 1824 London had devised yet another plan, this time \"providing a settlement in South America for a portion of the unemployed poor of Great Britain & Ireland who are desirous of an asylum abroad\"; the authorities made this scheme seem like a treat in that they were to be sent to a region where \"the climate\" was \"similar to that of the South of France.\" As indicated by the apparent ease that Portuguese and other European nationals were gaining U.S. citizenship then plunging into the African Slave Trade, there was a kind of ease of nationality then that seems more compatible with today's \"globalized,\" \"global village\" approach. \"As Thomas Jefferson explained in 1793, 'our citizens are entirely free to divest themselves of that character by emigration . . . and may then become the subjects of another power.'\" Attorney General Jeremiah Black \"forcefully articulated the idea in an official ruling in 1859. He argued that the 'natural right of every free person . . . to leave the country of his birth in good faith and for an honest purpose, the privileging of throwing off his natural allegiance and substituting another allegiance in its place\u2014the general right, in one word, of expatriation, is incontestable.'\" More to the point, the inflammatory North Carolinian, Hinton Helper, had long called for \"the removal of all African-Americans from America.\"\n\nAnd even before the idea had struck Webb, the former U.S. Consul to Buenos Ayres, William H. Edwards, had concluded in 1847 that African labor was the key to developing the Amazon. \"The whole territory is as much superior in every respect to the Valley of the Mississippi, as the Valley of the Mississippi is to that of the Hudson,\" said Edwards. It contained \"an area of 950,000 square miles, nearly half the area of the United States in all its territories.\" But why Negroes for the Amazon? Reflecting a widespread belief, Edwards thought that \"it is only in the early morning and late in the afternoon that white men can labour in the open air; but, where a white would inevitably receive a sun-stroke, a Negro labours with uncovered head without injury or exhaustion. The one has capacity to direct and the other the ability to perform and it is difficult to conceive how the resources of Brazil can ever be successfully developed without a co-operation of the two races.\"\n\nSo it was not totally extraordinary that Lincoln and his Brazilian Minister would be discussing deporting U.S. Negroes as the Civil War raged. The \"establishment of a colony of liberated Negroes on the Amazon was called to the Minister's attention by newspaper accounts of President Lincoln's suggestion in a message to Congress of the probable necessity of acquiring territory for manumission purposes. Immediately the thought struck Webb that suitable land lay along the Amazon; a little reflection convinced him that every factor pointed toward this as the best spot in the world for such a purpose.\" U.S. Negroes, thought Webb, \"in their African home . . . had lived in a similar latitude\" as Brazil's and \"were exactly fitted by nature to conditions along the Amazon.\" Webb's plan \"provided for the creation of a joint-stock colonization company\" with Lincoln \"to appoint the President of the company,\" who would be none other than Webb himself. \"Before transportation to Brazil the manumitted Negroes were to be transferred to the corporation.\" Webb thought that \"'the United States will be blessed by his [the Negro's] absence, and the riddance of a curse which has well-nigh destroyed her.'\"\n\nMany of those who worked closely with Webb thought they would be better off in his absence, deeming him the curse. A \"heavy-set, foppish man\" and a \"staunch Whig,\" Webb had an \"abrasive manner and [a] sensitive honor,\" which \"made him a difficult man with whom to work.\" His \"gout and arthritis were aggravated by the humid tropical heat\"; already he was \"suspicious, stingy, hot-tempered and aggressive\" and his multiple maladies did not improve his demeanor. Later Webb \"worried himself into the symptoms of a duodenal ulcer.\" He was \"reduced to eating nothing but moistened bread\" as a result of his various illnesses; for months he \"leaned heavily on crutches and was always liberally medicated with opiates.\" It was not easy for those of the most sunny of dispositions to stay upbeat in Rio de Janeiro where during summer months, \"it seemed to rain constantly; black mud and grey skies framed the usually picturesque mountains.\" He considered his appointment as \"little more than an opportunity to make money through his diplomatic connections.\" Not only did his eyes glint at the opportunity to make money off the misfortunes of U.S. Negroes, but he \"also had great aspirations for monopolizing Brazilian coastal trade.\" Perhaps it was the \"combination of drugs and pain\" that \"made it impossible for Webb to reason clearly and fulfill his duties expediently,\" for his grandiose schemes\u2014which had U.S. Negroes at the center\u2014went unrealized.\n\nBut it was not for lack of trying. Webb was enthusiastic about the potential logistical nightmare of removing millions of U.S. Negroes thousands of miles southward. He sought to convince Secretary of State Seward that adding U.S. Negroes to the mix in Brazil would benefit both nations. \"The Negroes on the opposite coast of Africa, whence Brazil was supplied,\" he explained, \"are a very superior race to the tribes further north, which furnished the slaves for the West Indies and the United States\"; the former were \"fierce, warlike and intellectual\" and seemed prone to \"insurrection,\" unlike their North American counterparts. He was not seeking to defame wholly his erstwhile darker compatriots, declaring, \"I insist that 50,000 freed Negroes from the United States would be worth to Brazil more than 100,000 slaves from Africa. . . . the United States will be blessed by his absence,\" he repeated, speaking of U.S. Negroes. Thus, he concluded, \"the northern provinces of Brazil\" should become the \"future home of the manumitted Negro of the United States. . . . all the freed Negroes of the United States shall be transplanted to the region of the Amazon at the expense of the United States, and there be endowed with land gratuitously by Brazil\" and \"become citizens of Brazil.\"\n\nIn a lengthy 17-page lawyer-like brief in favor of his proposal, Minister Webb asserted that he was only seeking to follow the lead of the \"President\" who was \"suggesting the means . . . of obtaining a place for colonization\"; the \"purchase of territory for this wise and philanthropic purpose may be attended with difficulties so embarrassing\" as to block the entire scheme, hence the value of a voluntary agreement with Brazil. There he found a \"rapidly increasing value of the Negro in the province of Rio de Janeiro and all the southern provinces of the Empire,\" while the \"slave population\" was \"on the decrease instead of the increase, as with us.\"\n\nIn a \"confidential\" message, the U.S. legation in Rio de Janeiro stressed further that \"the great want of Brazil at this day is labour. From the character of her climate and soil, black labour is preferable to white\" [emphasis-original]. Deporting U.S. Negroes would be a boon to both nations, it was insisted. \"Time and circumstances, not necessary to be considered in this Paper,\" it was stressed, \"have produced prejudices between the white and black races in the United States, which to [the] honour of Brazil, do not exist here and which render it absolutely impossible, that the two races should live together on terms of social and political equality\"; there was an \"absolute necessity that the freed Negro should be transported beyond the jurisdiction of the United States where he can never enjoy political or social equality\" [emphasis-original].\n\nFor a while it seemed that U.S. Negroes were Brazil bound. In a \"private and unofficial\" message that was, again, \"confidential,\" the government of Brazil initially \"conceded\" to Webb \"for a period of twenty five years and thereafter, until revoked by the government of Brazil, the exclusive right of introducing as apprentices or colonists into the Empire of Brazil, Negros in part or whole the descendants of Africans emancipated or about to be emancipated\" by the U.S. There was to be a \"joint stock company with a capital not exceeding five millions of dollars,\" controlled by both nations; each colonist was to receive \"one hundred acres of land,\" a \"hut,\" and \"certain agricultural implements.\"\n\nFor a while it also seemed that London would go along with such plans, as long as they could get their slice of the action. In mid-1862, British emissaries were contemplating \"the conveyance to St. Croix of free Negroes now in the United States or Negroes who may hereafter be captured by United States cruisers\"; at this juncture a major concern seemed to be to \"obtain for our West Indian colonies some share in the emigration.\" There ensued serious debate in London about the \"possibility of transferring to the British West [Indies] a large number of free Negroes who have been or may be emancipated by force of events in the United States.\" The Foreign Office had \"received communications from a gentleman named Henderson, a native of the United States, who is now in this country with the object of making large purchases of different kinds on behalf of the Federal Government. . . . he further states as a result of the conversation with Mr. Seward that the United States government would be glad to receive a proposal for carrying these Negroes off to the British West Indies.\" High on the list were about 100,000 recently freed slaves now in Pennsylvania. London made it clear it did not want U.S. burdens offloaded upon them\u2014\"no person should be sent who from old age or sickness were unfitted for field labour.\" No, said London, those to be deported should be \"exclusively of the agricultural class and . . . pure African,\" not \"any persons of colour of the various shades\" who Washington \"would be the most anxious to be relieved from\"; these deportees would be \"under indentures for three years.\" From Government House in Demerara, in the nation that was to become Guyana, there was enthusiasm for this proposal, in light of the vast territory there and the sparse population. \"Contraband\" Negroes, i.e., escapees from the South, \"border state\" Negro slaves, \"liberated Africans\"\u2014i.e., those caught on slavers\u2014all would be welcome. Similar enthusiasm emerged from similarly sparsely settled British Honduras: \"some of the landed proprietors are very anxious to introduce coloured labourers,\" London was informed. The desperate planters there were \"making every exertion to obtain labour from China, India, Yucatan, indeed from almost anywhere.\"\n\nBut as time passed, it seemed that London was arriving at the conclusion that U.S. Negroes should stay put. When Lincoln suggested publicly that U.S. Negroes should be dispatched to Central America, London raised the salient point that such a move was probably in violation of the \"Clayton-Bulwer\" treaty and seemed relieved when states in this region \"declined\" the U.S. Negroes they were offered. London also interposed the objection that sending these deportees to \"New Grenada\" or present-day Colombia would also violate this treaty, leading to a temporary pessimism on Seward's part, alleging that there had been \"so many difficulties . . . interposed that he scarcely expected [the deportation] be carried out.\"\n\nIn September 1862, when London's representative in Washington reported in \"confidential\" words that he \"had another conversation with Mr. Seward. . . . he told me that the President was still anxious to carry out his scheme\" but Guatemala and \"San Salvador\" were \"against the importation of any Negroes. . . . Mr. Seward expressed his conviction that the British colonies would be far better adapted than any other destination for Negro Emigrants,\" and the \"French Government\" too did not want to be excluded, as they \"were anxious to obtain a share of any Negro emigration\" and the \"Danish\" in St. Croix remained interested too. Seward remained engaged, telling London in a highly detailed proposal that \"the number of this class of persons,\" i.e., deportees, was \"augmenting and will continue to increase.\" Indeed, the \"President\" had \"authorized\" Seward to \"enter into negotiations upon the subject.\" \"Seward informed me,\" said London's representative in mid-October 1862, \"that the Government would shortly have an embarrassing influx of Negroes upon their hands.\" London was then suggesting as a way to foil CSA skepticism of this plan \"embarkation\" of these Negroes from the Northeast\u2014New York, Philadelphia, Boston\u2014not least to \"preclude the appearance of taking an unfriendly part against the Southern States near their own borders.\" But London continued to press difficult questions. As late as 17 January 1863, President Lincoln was asking London if they would accept deportees if they could \"avoid all risk of the complications which might be caused if we received Africans claimed as slaves\"\u2014this could only complicate relations with the Slave South.\n\nDays before the Emancipation Proclamation was to take effect, Lord Lyons in Washington was reporting in a \"confidential\" message that \"Mr. Seward proceeded to speak at some length on the general question of the Emigration of the Coloured Population. Men, he said, of very great weight, and indeed the President himself, inclined to the opinion that the most desirable thing for both races was to separate them and to reserve North America exclusively for the Whites. On the other hand, the more ardent members of the Emancipation Party strongly objected to the removal of the Negroes. . . . it was asked whether it was wise to deprive the country of so much muscle and sinew, whether it was prudent to add to the strength of nations which might not be always friends of the United States.\" Reflecting the sensitivity of the discussions, Lord Lyons added tersely, \"I do not think\" Seward \"would like them [his opinions] to be made public.\"\n\nIn late April 1863, London was still enmeshed in protracted negotiations with Washington about the fate of U.S. Negroes. It was then that \"Mr. Hodge, the agent of the British Honduras Company . . . arrived\" in Washington and \"had interviews with the Secretary of the Interior, with Mr. Pomeroy, Senator for Kansas. . . . he has also had an audience with the President. He tells me,\" said Lord Lyons, \"that he has met with so much encouragement and made so much progress that he hopes to be soon in a position to request me to inform the Lieutenant Governor of Honduras that the time [has] come for proclaiming the Ports in the United States for the shipment of Negroes, under the Act of the Colonial Legislature.\"\n\nBut London seemed to be souring on this grand scheme, as concern grew that they were being manipulated against the interests of the CSA, which \"might lead to embarrassing complications.\" From Jamaica came the suspicion that the entire \"scheme\" had \"originated with speculators.\" Others thought that U.S. Negroes might wind up being a Trojan horse for Washington, while Radical Republicans in the U.S. fretted that ousting Negroes would be akin to scoring an own goal. Thus, by the summer of 1863, Lord Lyons was cooling to Washington's ideas, particularly accepting \"contraband\" or escaped slaves from below the Mason-Dixon line\u2014\"serious political embarrassment might be caused at the end of the Civil War by our having taken away Negroes of their class,\" he insisted. London would accept free Negroes, but many of them had little desire to emigrate or were viewed suspiciously by British planters. Hence, the scheme passed into stillbirth\u2014and Lincoln was then poised to \"evolve\" to the point of accepting the continued presence of U.S. Negroes, not least since his desire to send them away was being extinguished for lack of finding a place to deposit them.\n\nFor the other great power of the hemisphere\u2014Spain\u2014was not enthused about an influx of Negroes to their neighborhood, not least to Haiti, whose existence had been causing shudders in Madrid and Havana for decades\u2014though their fallback position was that matters of language and culture would complicate the integration of these potential emigrants and possibly foment handcuffing problems for Port au Prince. The Spanish representatives in Haiti monitored carefully President Lincoln's meeting with Negroes during the height of the war when he sought to convince them allegedly that they should leave the U.S. Madrid took note of Lincoln's generous concession after \"several of the Spanish republics . . . protested against the sending of such [Negro] colonists to their respective territories. Under these circumstances,\" he added magnanimously, \"I have declined to move any such colony to any state without first obtaining the consent of its government.\"\n\nLikewise, Seward was sobering. Brazil and the U.S., he told Minister Webb, \"although very widely separated\" were the \"principal states on this continent [ _sic_ ] and the only two which tolerate that form of human bondage,\" i.e., slavery. \"You think that you discern the finger of God pointing to the Northern provinces of Brazil as the land of promise, rest and restoration of the slaves now in the Southern States of the Republic,\" he said rehearsing Webb's own arguments. \"You ask for the President to negotiate a treaty to effect the removal of such freedmen from their present homes and their colonization . . . in Brazil.\" Well, said Seward dismissively, \"the President cannot, without further consideration, accede to this request.\" In the first place, like London and Madrid, there was grave doubt if Rio de Janeiro would accept this potential Trojan horse. \"We have no right to assume,\" he said, \"that the Empire of Brazil would prefer an expelled caste from this country to other possible supplies of population.\" Then there was the resistance in Congress, not least from Radical Republicans. It was unclear if \"assent of two thirds of the Senate to any treaty based upon an Executive decision upon these questions could now be obtained,\" not to mention a \"majority of Congress\" for \"appropriations of money to enable the President to execute the treaty.\" Speaking elliptically\u2014though profoundly\u2014Seward added, it \"must not be inferred that the uncertainty of the public mind which I have described is a permanent and unchangeable one,\" thus, the \"President while declining at the present to give you the authority you request, invites a continuance of your discussions.\"\n\nActually, Seward's words were reflecting the dissent arising in the Cabinet and Congress to Webb's bold initiatives. \"Your Brazil scheme does not meet the approval of Chase, Sumner, et al.,\" Webb was informed, \"because they oppose colonization altogether. They say that the labor must be kept in the country & the South must use it\u2014& must have it as free labor\" [emphasis-original]. On the other hand, he was told, \"The President is ardently for a Central American colonization, as near at hand & more likely to take with the blacks.\" \"All these subjects remain a subject of earnest but as yet very confused discussion,\" was Seward's frustratingly accurate response.\n\nEven after Brazil nixed the idea of mass migration of U.S. Negroes, Webb \"believed that this hurdle could be surmounted either by the repeal of the law,\" limiting immigration of those of African descent, \"or by having the company bring in the freedmen before they were technically free. Seward unofficially approved the plan and he promised that it would be submitted to the next session of Congress.\" Yet even this idea of bringing U.S. Negroes to Brazil as something akin to \"indentured servants\" in itself was suggestive of how far out of favor the African Slave Trade had fallen.\n\nBut even this scheme proved to be overly optimistic and, as in Brazil, Washington found that securing a locale for millions of U.S. Negroes was more than a notion. How would racists react to the arrival of so many? Would Brazilian nationalists view this group as a Trojan horse? And what about the Radical Republicans? Would forcing this departure alienate a significant portion of the party that propelled Lincoln into the White House in the first place?\n\nMeanwhile, as Webb was plotting to send African-Americans to Brazil, others were still scheming to transport more Africans from Southern Africa and its environs across the Atlantic. 1863 seemed to be the watershed year in this regard with a continued stream of Africans crossing the Atlantic in this year of Emancipation in the U.S., with a fluctuation\u2014up and down\u2014in 1864, before tapering off in 1865, when the traitorous rebellion in the Slave South was squashed finally. Thus, just before Christmas 1863, it was reported from Luanda that \"during the greater portion of this year, the Slave Trade has been in a state of great activity on the coast to the southward of this port,\" while six months later it was repeated from the same port that the \"coast still swarms with vessels . . . in the service of the Slave Traders\" with many having \"no papers.\"\n\nIt had long been the goal of London to force the African Slave Trade further south, backing it into a smaller and smaller region\u2014like a boxer pushing an opponent into the corner of the ring\u2014so better as to curb its range and mobility and smash it and this seemed to be working. By the era of the Civil War, the region north of Angola near Sierra Leone was as quiet in terms of trading as Luanda was busy. There had been a favorable \"change of public sentiment which [was] produced by the secession of the Southern States and the attempt at disruption of the Union,\" while the execution of Nathaniel Gordon \"struck terror into the parties\" so disposed to slaving. \"The Slave Trade\" it was said as 1864 was about to dawn, \"during the last twelve months has been considerably on the decline.\" Reporting from Sierra Leone, a Royal Navy commander asserted that \"the war now existing between the Northern and Southern states of America has, doubtless, very materially assisted the efforts of our cruisers and intimidated the old and long-established agents of the slave dealers on this coast from risking their money and their ships in such uncertain speculation,\" though there were \"no American ships of war of any kind out there.\"\n\nSoon even Angola seemed to be changing for the better. In early 1865, the Luanda-based Portuguese-British commission, designed to frustrate the African Slave Trade, reported that \"the only case brought before them for adjudication during the course of the year 1864 was that of the schooner 'Congo' . . . navigating without papers . . . laden with a cargo that might be easily disposed of to provide the means of purchasing slaves or be bartered for them; that she had an American ensign on board\" and \"twelve blacks on board unprovided [ _sic_ ] with passports.\"\n\nAs Washington began to enforce more carefully its existing laws against the African Slave Trade and as the fortunes of the CSA began to deteriorate in the face of a Union army replenished with an ebony arm and this treasonous rebellion found itself frustrated in gaining desperately needed diplomatic support in Madrid and Lisbon and London, the number of Africans crossing the Atlantic began to slow down for the first time in years. A turning point had been reached, it seems, in the decades long\u2014nay, centuries long\u2014campaign to hinder successfully the African Slave Trade. This was reflected in the bold words of Andrew Foote, who once had sailed with the African Squadron. In mid-1862, he forcefully instructed Navy Secretary Gideon Welles, \"when this rebellion is crushed, and a squadron is fitted out to enforce the new treaty for the suppression of the African slave trade, as I have had long and successful experience in African cruising. . . . I should be pleased to have command of the African Squadron; but so long as the rebellion continues, it will be my highest ambition,\" he emphasized, \"to be actively employed in aiding in its suppression.\" Crushing the African Slave Trade and crushing the CSA were increasingly seen as synonymous. Washington signaled its new earnestness when in the spring of 1862 it signed a treaty with London \"for the suppression of the African Slave Trade.\" Finally retreating from the claim of sovereignty, the U.S. acceded to the mutual searching of trips and if the ship examined had \"shackles, bolts or handcuffs\" or \"hatches with open gratings\" or an \"extraordinary quantity of rice,\" this would be deemed \"prima facie evidence that the vessel was employed in the African Slave Trade.\"\n\nIndicative of Washington's evolving position on the African Slave Trade was the appointment of Ohioan James Monroe as Consul to Rio de Janeiro in 1863. Theretofore, Brazil had been viewed as a sinecure for anti-abolitionists like Webb or outright pro-slavery elements like Henry Wise and Meade but Monroe was made of different stuff. He \"became deeply involved in the antislavery politics of Ohio, with the famous Oberlin-Wellington rescue of 1858 and the ramifications of the Harpers Ferry raid a year later\"; unlike many of his predecessors, Monroe was \"dedicated to the eradication of slavery\" and had a \"relationship with [Frederick] Douglass\" that \"was especially close.\"\n\nBut Brazilian slavery was sufficiently insidious to ensnare the most fervent abolitionist. His household in Rio \"relied upon the labors of hired-out servants, who were slaves\"; when \"the Monroes left to return to Oberlin permanently, Bento begged to go with them to the United States. . . . the use of slave labor with the wages going to the slaves' owners, leaves Monroe open to criticism as a hypocrite.\" The tortured diplomat \"struggled with his conscience over the position he should take regarding Brazilian slavery.\"\n\nWebb did have a point nonetheless. There continued to be a perceived need in Brazil for African labor. As in the U.S., Africans had been moving from north to south, following the trajectory of economic trends. But with U.S. Negroes not arriving any time soon and the hampering of the forced recruitment of Angolans and Mozambicans\u2014\"it is now more than eight years since one single debarcation [ _sic_ ] of Africans has been realized,\" said Brazil's Minister of Justice in 1864\u2014more severe means arose. Hence, in the fall of 1864, there were complaints from Montevideo about the \"seizure in the Brazilian territory and the sale there as slaves of Uruguayan citizens and complaints as to the invasion of the Uruguayan territory by Brazilians and their forcibly carrying off Uruguayan citizens, in order to sell them as slaves in the territory of the Empire.\" Seeking to reassure Brazil that the Emancipation Proclamation was not as sweeping as it appeared, Webb informed the Marquis d'Abrantes that the \"Executive of the United States never claimed, and has never attempted to exercise the power of manumitting slaves, except where their masters were in open insurrection,\" the implication being that there was still a green-light for slavery itself.\n\nSuch blatant kidnappings were driven by the effective squeeze placed on the African Slave Trade to Brazil and a gathering abolitionist sentiment in this South American nation itself. \"The slave population is decreasing,\" said W. D. Christie, Britain's representative in Rio de Janeiro in early 1863; \"there is no possibility of a revival of the Brazilian Slave Trade,\" he said with confidence\u2014though there was \"no sign of effort or preparation for the abolition of slavery.\" From Maranham came the message on 30 September 1863 that there was \"no renewal of the African slave trade within the limits of this vice-consulate during the whole of the quarter ending this day.\"\n\nCSA slave trading operatives were busy, but their attention had been diverted away from Brazil. In early 1863, London's emissary in Havana spoke of F. P. Drain, \"who had a considerable sum of money with him and who stated that he was a citizen of the Confederate States,\" which was linked with a \"suspicious screw-steamer [that] was fitting out for the Slave Trade at Isla Mugeres on the coast of Yucatan. . . . the steamer was [none] other than the famous slaver 'Noc Daqui.'\" In September 1863, from Sierra Leone there came a report about a \"Netherlands barque 'Jane'\"; but it was added tellingly, \"there can be little doubt\" that \"her Dutch nationality was merely nominal and assumed for the purposes of fraud; she was originally an American vessel and had already been known as a successful slaver under the name of the 'Fleet Eagle,' it is most probable that her supercargo, an American, who described himself as a native of the Southern or Confederate States of America, was the real owner of the ship as well as of the cargo.\" A few months earlier \"the American brig 'Souther' 197 tons\" and registered in New Orleans, \"sailed the day before yesterday\" from Cadiz, \"nominally for St. Thomas but in reality for the coast of Africa for slaves.\" This \"old vessel\" appropriately was \"painted black.\"\n\nAnd East Africa continued to present a problem of untold dimensions. \"The Slave Trade from this side of the continent,\" it was said in late 1863 in reference to this vast region, \"is carried on to a far greater extent that is generally supposed in Europe.\" Pointed reference was made to the conspicuous presence of \"American merchants\" in Zanzibar where this \"horrible business\" was conducted. In mid-1864, the Royal Navy captured a \"schooner without name, papers or colours, fully equipped for the Slave Trade,\" near the River Congo, that was \"until recently . . . employed in running cargoes of cotton between the Confederate States and Havana. The mate, who is apparently an American, states that . . . [this] is the Captain's first voyage in the Slave Trade,\" though the \"crew of five men are European.\"\n\nThese forays from the Slave South reflected this region's desperate circumstance for with enslaved Africans fleeing north and west and with their economy spiraling into desuetude, at this point the CSA not only needed \"Cheap Africans,\" but they also needed Africans plain and simple. They and their \"Copperhead\" allies sprung into action accordingly but they were finding the going a bit tougher. In early 1862, \"the American barque 'White Cloud' a suspected slaver arrived in the River Congo\" primed for a dirty venture, but they \"met a just and well-merited end\" as \"she grounded off a point called Scotchman's Head; and the natives, who have lately given a good deal of trouble to the Europeans residing there, made a dash at her in force with a number of canoes and were soon in possession of her. The captain and crew immediately abandoned the vessel; and, destitute of everything but the clothes they stood in, arrived at the French factory at the mouth of the river. . . . the natives proceeded to destroy the rigging and plunder the whole of the cargo.\"\n\nThere was a perceived need for more labor in Brazil during the U.S. Civil War, as this conflict seemed to give a fillip to the Brazilian economy. Writing from Pernambuco in December 1863, a **New York Times** correspondent called this city a \"great center of the cotton trade. It has doubled within the past year.\" But the tectonic shift in attitudes was reflected in rejection of the assumption that only African labor could fill the gap, for this industry was \"carried on by white men and free half-breeds\"; the \"old shallow argument that the 'nigger' alone could stand the hot climate, ergo 'the nigger' must be enslaved, is all exploded. . . . slavery will go, is going, by the board in Brazil.\" Increasingly it seemed that the U.S. authorities were reconciling themselves\u2014like this **Times** correspondent\u2014to a post-slavery world. \"Nine-tenths of the cotton produced in this and adjacent provinces is the result of free labor,\" agreed the U.S. Consul in Pernambuco in November 1864. There was a recognition that it was slavery itself that had hampered the forces of production, as it was added tellingly, \"the production might be enormously increased if any care was given to the cultivation but I doubt if a single plough can be found in the hands of any cotton grower in this province.\"\n\nThis boon for Brazil seemed to be a positive for the U.S. as well, particularly in the Amazon where the idea of expatriating U.S. Negroes had yet to perish. As an economic boom rocked this region, it is easy to imagine how the idea of sending African-American laborers there gained a footing. \"The American commerce with this province (the second province in the Empire) is greater than that of any other commercial nation and nearly as great as that of England and France combined!\" Seward was informed enthusiastically in August 1862.\n\nYet despite this rose-tinted economic outlook, diplomatic relations between the U.S. and Brazil were more complicated. After all, Washington had tolerated a host of ministers, such as Meade, who had appealed to Brazil on the basis of slavery, just as they warned that if the Confederates were expropriated of their slave property without compensation, something similar would befall the Empire. Thus, the pro-Confederate **Savannah Daily Morning News** was not alone when in early 1862, it dismissed the idea that the Empire was somehow pro-U.S. \"We want no misunderstanding with Brazil,\" Seward advised Webb. \"But we can't consent that she shall harbour pirates and justify it. . . . why does not the Brazilian government adopt the French rule\u2014or even the British. Why stand out alone,\" he wondered. As late as November 1864, as the CSA was about to writhe in its death throes, the **New York Times** found that \"Confederate privateers have been constantly hovering around [Brazil's] ports and while burning United States vessels trading to Brazil off the Brazilian coast, have run into her ports at the first sign of danger,\" indicating that \"Brazil was giving undue protection to the Confederate cruisers.\"\n\nThe perceptive journalist probably had Raphael Semmes of the CSA Navy foremost in mind. Of French descent and born in Maryland in 1809, Semmes\u2014like many leading Confederates\u2014had fought in the war in Mexico. This wartime experience served him well when the Civil War broke out. Sensing correctly that Brazil could be a powerful ally of the CSA, just as disrupting its trade with the U.S. would be similarly potent, Semmes repaired southward where \"his veiled threat of calling down on Brazil the vengeance of the Southern Confederacy after it had disposed of its Northern adversary, was most persuasive.\" Brazilian elites \"caved in at once.\" In a celebratory mood, a \"British resident merchant, Mr. Ogilvie, topped off the merry-making by a splendid ball honoring the Confederate visitors . . . the Confederacy was toasted to the starlit skies.\" As Semmes himself recalled it, while in Brazil in September 1861, he \"called upon the President\" and \"was admitted to an interview. . . . I then stated to him that this war was in fact a war as much in behalf of Brazil as of ourselves, and that if we were beaten in the contest, Brazil would be the next one to be assailed by Yankee propagandists. These remarks were favorably received,\" he added modestly.\n\nActually, Semmes may have been the most notorious Confederate on the global scene, sailing from port to port wreaking havoc on the U.S. and its vessels and accepting the hosannas of the adoring. When Semmes arrived in Cape Town\u2014a town whose attitude toward Africans may have been more primitive than that of the CSA\u2014he was welcomed like a conquering hero. \"His arrival was more spectacular than had been foreseen. Colonists and natives swarmed.\" The appreciative Semmes observed, \"'during my entire stay, my table was loaded with flowers and the most luscious grapes and other fruits, sent off to me every morning by the ladies of the Cape, sometimes with and sometimes without a name.\" This occurred though \"commercially the Civil War was a disaster for South Africa, as it deprived the Cape of the transatlantic market for her wool and gave other nations a chance to establish themselves.\" Even today a song is still sung there about Semmes's ship, the \"Alabama.\" Lord De Villiers, later the Chief Justice of the Cape and then of the Union of South Africa, was in 1863 during Semmes's visit, \"still a student\" in London but heard enough about Semmes's incursion to echo the sentiments of many of his compatriots when he said, \"'I wish the Southerners well with all my heart . . . slaveholders though they may be.'\" What had made Semmes so inspirational was that he held out the prospect that those who wished to keep Africans in bondage, could yet prevail. After all, \"during his previous raids around the Cape of Good Hope Semmes captured no fewer than fourteen Northern Vessels, thereby providing busy times for the shipbrokers.\" The CSA had reason to believe it could rely upon a \"Racist International\" that included Brazil and South Africa to help them triumph in the war.\n\nThis was unsettling to Washington but it was partially to blame for the U.S. had persisted in dispatching \"reliable\" slaveholders as ministers to Brazil in the antebellum era. Thus, Henry Wise was not only \"for some years upon the Committee of Naval Affairs,\" but he also had an \"acquaintance with naval officers resulting from that fact and from his long residence at Rio de Janeiro\"; he was well positioned to provide useful intelligence to the CSA. It was not only the loss of the ships but the possibility they could then be deployed in obtaining valuable capital\u2014in the form of enslaved Africans\u2014for the CSA. It was as if Semmes was bouncing between Rio de Janeiro and Cape Town, turning the South Atlantic into a Confederate lake as he raided U.S. shipping, e.g., when \"the 'Tuscaloosa' . . . a barque of 500 tons captured by the 'Alabama' off the coast of Brazil\" and was brought to \"Simon's Bay\" in South Africa. The bold Semmes not only requested \"supplies and repairs\" in South Africa, but he also sought \"permission to land 33 prisoners.\" Then his reception was so rhapsodic that he stayed on longer than expected, with \"heavy seas\" given as the reason for the delay. Following Semmes, more rebel ships were arriving regularly in South African waters. \"No American war-ships have yet appeared here,\" said a U.S. diplomat glumly, \"but they are anxiously looked for.\" Semmes, on the other hand, was celebrating, \"offered\" a hefty \"4000 [pounds]\" for a ship he had captured, which could go a long way in fueling the CSA's rebellion. The \"damage done by Raphael Semmes to the commerce of the United States\" amounted to \"ten millions of dollars.\" Yet despite this mayhem he inflicted on the U.S. during the course of his treasonous revolt, after the war his \"statue\" was placed prominently on \"Mobile's busiest thoroughfare, standing near the sea he so long loved and dominated.\"\n\nIt was as if the racist world recognized that the arrival of Semmes was akin to a last hurrah for the African Slave Trade, now in its twilight, which had brought so much wealth to so few and so much misery to so many.\n\nIn Mexico the sardonic Semmes left a tombstone that said, \"in memoriam of Abraham Lincoln, President of the late United States, who died of nigger on the brain, 1st January 1863.\" With such a putrid attitude toward the Emancipation Proclamation, it should not be deemed overly surprising that his approach to a Brazil with more than a modicum of the darker-skinned, was hardly benevolent\u2014despite the cooperation he received at the highest levels. Yes, he \"found the country attractive but Brazilian society displeased him so violently that after the war, when an emigration scheme to Brazil was mooted in the Confederacy, it met with Semmes' forceful disapproval. 'The effete Portuguese race,'\" he sputtered, \"'had been ingrafted [ _sic_ ] upon a stupid, stolid Indian stock in that country. . . . this might be a suitable field enough for the New England schoolma'am and carpet-bagger, but no Southern gentleman should think of mixing his blood or casting his lot with such a race of people.'\"\n\nIn his memoir Semmes also speaks of meeting a Brazilian governor, \"his complexion, like that of most Brazilians, was about that of a side of tanned sole-leather.\" Even as this politician was treating him to a feast\u2014it was \"quite substantial,\" he thought\u2014the color-obsessed Semmes could not take his eyes off \"her ladyship, the governess . . . a very sprightly and not uncomely mulatto\" and \"her two little children\" with \"rather kinky, or, perhaps, I should say curly hair.\" But the high-minded Semmes was \"a man of the world and was not at all dismayed by this discovery.\" His counterparts were more concerned about their mutual taste for bondage than the matter of color, so Semmes was garnished during his stay with \"fat turkeys and bouquets, instead of remonstrances.\" But the ungrateful Semmes could only think of the countenances of his hosts, who were \"only a better class of Portuguese,\" a \"swarthy population, the chief features of which are _sombreros_ and garlic.\" He was disgusted with \"amalgamation\" in Brazil, thinking it provided a poor example for North America, as it was leading to a \"mongrel set of curs\" that would \"cover the whole land.\" He was more pleased with South Africa where \"the African had met the usual fate of the savage, when he comes in contact with civilized man. He had been thrust aside and was only to be seen as a straggler and stranger in his native land.\" As he saw it, \"the inhabitants of the Cape Colony seemed to resemble our own people\" in their penchant for white supremacy. Interestingly, on Semmes's ship \"the vast majority were British nationals but there were also . . . Frenchmen, Lascars and other Continentals and Asians,\" there was even a \"man of color on board,\" slave \"'contraband'\" who served as \"mess orderly\"\u2014but to Semmes those who served him and his cause were no more than \"waterfront riffraff.\"\n\nThus it was that this racist marauder, Semmes, found himself off the coast of Brazil during the Civil War; alongside him was John McIntosh Kell, who fondly recalled later \"we were a week or more in Bahia, enjoying all the hospitalities of its citizens and the salubriousness of its climate\"; these well-treated buccaneers were \"permitted\"\u2014in the words of U.S. Consul James Monroe\u2014\"to burn three American vessels within three miles of the shore.\" This was \"barbarous, cowardly and ruinous to our commerce,\" he said, \"and was made all the more irritating by the fact that it received substantial aid from England.\" James Watson Webb was outraged by Brazilian complicity and demanded satisfaction. In a brutally detailed 37-page reproach, he denounced this \"unfriendly act\" toward the U.S.\n\nSemmes's ship was a behemoth, \"220 feet long and 32 feet wide, with a draft when fully loaded of 15 feet\" and \"rated at 1040 tons. Each of the two horizontal steam engines was rated at 300 horsepower, but her trial run indicated that her maximum total power was close to 1000 horsepower. Her bunkers could carry 350 tons of coal. She was equipped with a double set of sails, a condenser to produce fresh water from seawater and spare equipment and supplies sufficient for a long voyage.\" Washington could not be pleased by the fact that it was the British who were central to the \"construction, arming, escape and supply\" of this vessel, along with \"other Confederate raiders\"; besides South Africa and the U.K. itself, Semmes was greeted rapturously in Jamaica, Trinidad, and other outposts of the British Empire. Thus, these \"raiders,\" e.g., the one that destroyed U.S. shipping off the coast of Brazil, were \"the most serious source of continuing tension between the United States and British governments during and following the Civil War.\"\n\nThat it was a serious source of continuing tension between the U.S. and Brazil is an understatement. The U.S. Consul in Bahia, Thomas Wilson, was livid when the \"Alabama\" arrived there in the spring of 1863. Semmes and Co. stayed for a week and were allowed to take on coals and supplies, as if Bahia were part of the CSA. Wilson vainly urged the \"President of the province\" to bar this \"but without effect. . . . on the morning of the 13th,\" he told Seward, \"I found that another piratical steamer called the 'Georgia,' bearing the rebel flag, had entered this port. She called for coals and supplies and other supplies which she was allowed to take on board.\" Wilson \"renewed the protest,\" again to no avail. Wilson was doubly upset when an \"English barque . . . attempted to furnish supplies to [these] pirates.\" Bahia seemed to be adopting a form of what they termed \"strict neutrality\" that favored the CSA, as when it referred in official documents, to \"the states of the South of the American Confederacy\" and \"the Northern states of the same Confederation\"\u2014such circumlocution could be viewed as a whopping verbal blunder or a smooth pro-CSA evasion.\n\nWilson was beyond anger about this. When \"Semmes arrived\" in Brazil \"on the 6th day of September 1861,\" he was \"granted permission to obtain . . . supplies and treated . . . in all respects as\" if he were captaining a \"regular man of war\" [emphasis-original], this \"against the protest\" of the U.S. about this \"unfriendly conduct\" of the Brazilians. Brazil was terming the CSA a \"de facto government, having in the field large armies, making war upon the United States and that the Imperial government had conceded to those states the right of belligerents, in conformity with the laws of nations and the dictates of humanity.\" The U.S., which for the longest time had resisted collaborating with Britain against Brazil in an attempt to extirpate the African Slave Trade, was now facing the dire prospect of the two teaming up against Washington: Semmes's ship not only was built in England but also \"sailed from the port of Liverpool with an English crew and flying the British flag,\" it \"never having been in a port under the control of the insurgents\" [emphasis-original].\n\nSemmes's deeds instilled fear on those being transported on U.S. vessels. Writing in mid-1862, U.S. Consul in Para, William Richard Williams, expressed grave \"apprehensions . . . regarding Southern privateering in the vicinity of this port. . . . three vessels within the last four months have disappeared very strangely.\" A worried Minister Webb instructed the Bahia Consulate \"to grant no circumstances from this port to American vessels, unless the masters of said vessels first _take and subscribe_ before you, an oath to support the Constitution\" [emphasis-original].\n\nJames Monroe of Ohio spent 49 days at sea on his way to Rio during the Civil War. It was \"mostly uneventful,\" \"somewhat wearisome\" with \"homesickness\" being a major emotion. With time on his hands, he \"discovered that my old friend the North Star had disappeared from the sky\u2014had gone behind the great polar,\" then he saw the \"Southern Cross which came into view about the same time with its four rather dim points of light,\" which let him know that he was nearing the \"Deepest South.\" Then his reverie was interrupted; his vessel just \"evaded another ship\" which \"would have sent us to the bottom. The mysterious stranger, though it was very dark, had carried no lights. One captain thought her officer must have been drunk.\" Monroe had other suspicions. He was worried about bumping into Semmes, especially in light of the \"proclamation of Emancipation,\" which he was known to despise\u2014and for which he was thought to be seeking substantial retribution.\n\nSemmes was not a master of public relations, finding it difficult to downplay his Negro-phobic attitudes, e.g., in a well-circulated letter to the **London Times** where he denounced a competing newspaper and \"kindred Negrophilist associates\" who he found \"particularly virulent and abusive\" after they correctly termed him a \"'pirate.'\"\n\nA sensible London was not willing to back a loser and as the war grinded on, Semmes's escapades were replaced in the public mind with contrasting images. In the late spring of 1863, the \"Palace of the Government\" in Pernambuco reported that \"the commanding officer of the steamer 'Florida' of the Confederated States of the American Union [ _sic_ ] which lies at the anchorage of the port of this capital\" requested \"coal,\" adding that \"like favors have been conceded to ships of the Confederated States in their need by many unions.\" The vessel would not be allowed to stay for more than 24 hours; it was \"reckoned from the reception of the dispatch and that during the interval\" the ship obtained \"coal, fresh provisions and\" was able to \"make repairs to the machinery.\" The commander of the CSA vessel objected, arguing that he needed at least four days\u2014a request that was quickly granted by Jo\u00e3o Silveira e de Souza on behalf of the \"Palace.\" Just after that, the U.S. Consul in Pernambuco, Thomas Adamson, had the \"painful necessity of reporting the destruction of another American ship by the pirate 'Florida.'\" It was as if Brazil was just one more state in the Confederate States of America.\n\nWhen this CSA ship arrived at Bahia in the late fall of 1864, the U.S. Consul there \"went at once\" to \"consult with Capt. Collins in regard to what might be done to destroy her. I found Capt. Collins extremely anxious to do everything that he could do in conformity with international law to secure the pirate,\" said Thomas Wilson; \"[he] did not wish to violate the sovereignty of Brazil by attacking her in the harbor\"\u2014but what was the alternative? Wilson was \"urging Capt. Collins to sink her in port and not trust to the uncertainties of a chase at sea. He still declined.\"\n\nBut it was not long before the appropriately named Commander Napoleon Collins of the U.S. Navy abruptly changed his mind and rammed his ship squarely into the CSA \"cruiser 'Florida,'\" accepted her surrender, and \"with the Brazilian fort guns ablaze and warships giving chase, towed his quarry out to sea and eventually to the United States.\" U.S. Consul Wilson was now elated about the \"capture of the piratical cruiser 'Florida.' . . . these pirates have made the ports of Brazil a basis for obtaining supplies and repairing their machinery and also a rendezvous where they have met their consorts and tenders, every facility for so doing having been accorded to them by the authorities of the ports which they entered, sanctioned by the Imperial Government. Thus the pirates were enabled not only to prey upon the commerce of the [U.S.] in the waters adjacent to the coast of Brazil but also within those subject to the jurisdiction of the Brazilian government\" [emphasis-original]. U.S. Navy Secretary Gideon Welles was unapologetic about the ensuing uproar. Yes, there was a \"great outcry\" among the \"English press and people,\" but it was \"Brazil herself\" which had \"in the first instance done wrong. She has given refuge and aid to the robbers whom she does not recognize as a government. . . . Brazil and other governments who have given shelter, comfort and aid to the piratical vessels that have plundered our commerce under a pretended flag which neither Brazil nor any other nation recognizes committed the first great wrong.\"\n\nSecretary of State Seward told the Brazilian Foreign Ministry bluntly that \"in the year[s] 1862 and 1863 remonstrances were addressed by us to the Government of Brazil against the policy, different as it was from that of all other American states, in regard to the furnishing of shelter and a haven [for] pirates\"\u2014with \"no satisfactory result.\" As if he were instructing a mannish schoolboy, Seward rebuked Brazil, adding \"this Government disallows your assumption that the insurgents of this country are a lawful belligerent.\" He accused the Empire of committing an \"act of intervention in derogation of the law of nations, and unfriendly and wrongful as it is manifestly injurious to the United States.\" Semmes and his sort were \"enemies of the human race,\" Seward charged angrily, while the \"wrongs and injuries\" inflicted by the CSA on the U.S. with Brazil's connivance meant that the latter \"justly owes reparations to the United States.\" Seward had a point: \"during the first two years of the war even the ports of far-off Brazil were used as occasional depots [by rebels] for arms to be shipped through the blockade to the coast of Texas.\"\n\nThe fire-eater, Edmund Ruffin, robustly begged to differ. \"The Brazilian government acted with vigor in regard to the capture of the 'Florida.' The exequatur of the U.S. Consul at Bahia was revoked,\" while \"the principal courts of Europe, also, have sent such strong protests against this violation of the law of nations, that Lincoln's government is alarmed & has manifested clear indications that it will back down as it did in the case of the Trent.\"\n\nC. M. Morris of the CSA Navy was predictably irate. \"I came to this port for the purpose of procuring provisions for my crew and getting certain necessary repairs to enable me safely to continue my voyage,\" he told the Brazilian president, and instead he was hijacked by \"cowardly and treacherous\" Yankees, engaged in the \"most base and cowardly outrage.\" The \"Governor's Secretary\" treading delicately was \"authorized to tell\" Morris that \"His Excellency was very sorry to say that your Government not being recognized by any nation, he could not keep up an official correspondence with you so as to answer your protest which he considered quite right.\" The CSA spun this as a \"flagrant outrage upon the territorial sovereignty of Brazil,\" but they could not obscure the point that even the slaveholding Empire was reluctant to truck with an outlaw regime bent not only on slavery but reviving the African Slave Trade as well.\n\nBut the pro-slaveholding forces of the Empire were of a different view. There was \"ineffective fire [from] Brazilian ships and forts\" as the CSA vessel was \"towed. . . . Two Brazilian ships pursued\" to no avail but then \"an angry mob which a few hours later attacked\" the U.S. \"consulate and defaced the American coat of arms.\" The next day a \"small company of soldiers\" were dispatched by the Empire to protect the consulate. Seward promised to repatriate the CSA ship but instead it was sunk in Hampton Harbor, Virginia and Commander Collins was promoted.\n\nWith it was sunk the Confederate dream of an alliance with Brazil that would guarantee the eternity of slavery and the African Slave Trade sunk with it. Washington came to realize that it had jeopardized its own existence by seeking to conciliate the Slave South with their despicable traders in human flesh, while Brazil came to recognize that it was risking war with its more powerful northern neighbor by doing the same. But the rebellious traitors\u2014at least not all of them\u2014did not surrender. Some instead thought the better part of wisdom would be to expatriate to Brazil, with their enslaved Africans in tow, thereby making concrete James Watson Webb's ever-shrinking vision of U.S. Negroes building the Empire.\n\nU.S. slavery had proven over the years that it was influenced by global\u2014particularly hemispheric\u2014currents. Thus, one reason U.S. Negroes remained in North America was because of the reluctance of certain nations\u2014especially Brazil\u2014to receive them as the Civil War was unfolding, just as this South American nation's friendliness to the CSA was exceedingly helpful to this regime. But what would be Brazil's reaction to the arrival of former U.S. slaveholders on their shores?\n\n## **10  \nConfederates to Brazil**\n\nThe post\u2013Civil War South was not a congenial place for those who held the African Slave Trade dear. Inevitably this also had an impact on Brazil, now sporting the once coveted but currently uncomfortable crown of being the heavyweight champion of slavery. Two simple cases of how Washington dealt with slavery in Brazil illustrate how the demise of this institution in North America undermined its continuation in South America. On 1 July 1862, William Harris, a U.S. national, died without a will in Bahia. The U.S. Consul there complained ineffectually that Brazil \"interfered\" in the administering of his estate so that all his property including \"even a poor slave girl\" was \"sold\"; the \"authorities sent their armed police after her and she too was put up and sold at auction.\" But what seemed to upset him most was that \"not a cent has ever reached the heirs of Mr. Harris who live in the city of New York\" [emphasis-original]. Certainly no meaningful protest ensued.\n\nBut by 1868, times had changed. As William Seward\u2014who acquiesced in the Harris case\u2014explained, \"a Portuguese subject Bernadino de Souza Pinto residing in the city of Recife, in Brazil, had a slave named Jos\u00e9 who was induced to run away to New York on board of the United States brig schooner. . . . [The] American Consul . . . refused to take the necessary steps\" to retrieve him, to which his owner objected. Figuratively thrusting out his chest as he bestrode his high horse, Seward explained to the representative of this embittered loser of valuable property that \"slavery is not only unknown here but is forbidden and disallowed. . . . no law of the United States forbids slaves in foreign ports from the use of merchant vessels in foreign ports . . . from enjoying rights of asylum in the United States.\"\n\nThe annihilation of the CSA and the undermining of their \"Copperhead\" allies did not magically end the role of U.S. nationals in the African Slave Trade. In August 1865, months after guns had been stilled in North America, familiar news was coming from Luanda: \"two American whaling ships . . . on the coast with . . . 800 slaves.\" In July 1865, the \"Bark Dahomey\" purchased in Lisbon, then transferred to New York, was in and out of Havana and suspected of slaving\u2014though \"the owners have never been in the slave business.\" Then there was \"the arrest\" in Philadelphia after Lincoln's murder \"of a Portuguese slaver and blockade runner named John Celestina who was suspected of being connected with the conspiracy to murder the leading officers of the Government.\" Just as the existence of slavery in Brazil had given an enormous boost to the ambitions of the CSA, the demise of the CSA was correspondingly a detriment for this slave nation; yet the continued existence of African slavery in Latin America, even after it had been extinguished in North America, would continue to provide a base for remnants of the Slave South and their allies.\n\nThere were thousands of Confederates now in an analogous position\u2014deprived of valuable property but unlike the gentleman from Recife, they had to endure the added indignity of living as close to their former property\u2014who were now perceived as incredibly cheeky\u2014as lips and teeth. To many, this transcended being intolerable, it soared beyond unendurable. Hence, many packed their bags and moved to an ally of the now vanquished CSA where slavery continued\u2014and did continue\u2014until 1888: Brazil. Thus, it was not surprising when as early as mid-May 1865, the verbose Mary Chesnut noted in her diary, \"Isabelle writes that Rosser & Young have escaped\u2014one to Maximilian, the other to Brazil.\"\n\nEven before the war's conclusion, the **New York Times** had detected signs of emigration. In fact, this trickle southward was an early indication of the failing fortunes of the CSA. \"New from Europe,\" the **Times** announced in October 1864, \"is the curious item that 'several wealthy Southern planters from South Carolina propose settling Brazil.' One gentleman is expected to arrive there with an odd quarter of a million in some sort of money.\" A few weeks later it was observed that \"a good many wealthy Southern planters are removing to Brazil and settling here. They go there in order to hold their slaves in peace.\" During this same period, the U.S. Consul in Para, the Amazon, reported the arrival of \"Dr. A. A. Blandy, a dentist recently resident in Baltimore\"; he \"fled from the U.S. to avoid a criminal prosecution for having swindled a Jew\" and, suspiciously, \"arrived at this port in the British brig . . . with a false passport.\" He was a \"blatant secessionist\" and complained incessantly about \"'outrages by Butler's black soldiers on [white] women in the South.'\"\n\nAnd even before this, there \"was a significant interest in Brazil on the part of Southerners prior to the Civil War. This interest, in fact, went all the way back to . . . James Edward Calhoun, a brother of the well-known Southern firebrand,\" who \"made a number of friends in Brazil while serving on the crew of the USS Boston\" in the 1830s. In 1852, \"several planters approached the Brazilian Minister in Washington, proposing to settle with a thousand slaves along the Amazon. And talk of annexation spread.\"\n\nThus, an alert listener at Appomattox may have heard a fellow officer of Robert E. Lee discussing the fact that he had already been in touch with the Emperor of Brazil about migrating. Captain Frederick N. Colston and \"General Alexander\" were chatting about this. The latter \"said that he was going to try to go to Brazil and I wanted to go with him,\" said the eager Captain. \"I have an interesting letter from him from the 'Brandreth House, N.Y., April 22nd 1865' telling of the inability of getting there and asking that it be communicated to Latrobe, General Longstreet's A.A.G. who also thought of going.\" Weeks later, Jedediah Hotchkiss, Stonewall Jackson's famed topographer, was following up aggressively on these plans.\n\nHow many Confederate expatriates were there after the Civil War? Estimates vary. Eugene C. Harter claims a figure of \"twenty thousand or so,\" but this may be too high; my own highly speculative guess is that the figure may be half that many.\n\nIn December 1865, Henry Shipley Stevens of Ohio was on his way to Brazil \"to look up old customers and find new ones\" and on board his vessel were a \"group to which I wish to call your especial attention. Here are ten patriarchal looking gentlemen, who, with five or six younger ones, go out to Brazil to gain their freedom in a land of slavery; to escape from their old homes in Mississippi and northern Alabama, to go to nearly the last place on the globe where they can hold slaves.\" However, even then, he thought the number of Dixie refugees entering Brazil was miscalculated. \"From what I learn,\" he said, \"the number of Southerners who have gone to Brazil and who are preparing to go, has been under-estimated at the North. These people on board seem to belong to that middle class of farmers, so common to the South\u2014the men who did most of the fighting at the behest of their superiors\u2014who are still belligerent, though confessing to a lost cause. They are all zealous defenders of slavery.\" These also included a \"General and one or two officers who have earned their titles by hard fighting,\" but the \"unpardonable economy of truth\" on their part and on the part of their fellow Confederates hampered Stevens' ability to guess how many of their kind were migrating. Opinions about the numbers and class origins of the exiles vary, but what is broadly true is that racial animus and\/or anger with the U.S. were factors in every case.\n\nTo where in Brazil did they decamp? in what was once characterized as \"the largest planned migration ever to take place from the United States.\" There were six settlements and all failed except one at today's \"Americana,\" appropriately in the south of that huge nation. Since Brazil was a \"slave holding nation,\" said U.S. diplomat James Monroe, the Confederates were \"received with much friendly attention and even with distinction by Brazilian officials at the Capital and in the interior\"; they \"bought or leased lands, bought or hired slaves\" but \"in less than a year,\" they began drifting back to the U.S., often disillusioned with Brazil, at times poorer since \"many of the slaves whom they had bought, or for whose services they had contracted, ran away and it was not easy to recover them.\"\n\nThe Empire, which was seeking to attract immigrants from Europe, at the same time they were turning away those of African descent, was open to accepting Euro-Americans, who were hostile to the U.S. The passage from New York to Rio de Janeiro was a hefty $122, though \"this money was to be refunded by the government of Brazil upon arrival in the country,\" suggestive of how eager the Empire was for these \u00e9migr\u00e9s.\n\nThough many in succeeding generations have denied it, there is little question that there were two intertwined matters that drove so many from the U.S. to move so far: hatred of the federal government and a desire to continue African slavery. \"The tide of emigration setting towards Brazil is becoming every day more and more deep and general,\" reported the **New York Herald** in September 1865; \"they abhor the idea of political equality with their former slaves; and rather than submit . . . they would expatriate themselves altogether.\" The son of Matthew Fontaine Maury, the early champion of seizing the Amazon, remarked in mid-1866 in words that captured a widespread feeling, \"I am so thoroughly anti-Yankee and pro-Confederate that I will always allow my feelings to run away with me when on this subject.\" Why the anger? One unnamed rebel summed it up when he emphasized the \"unconstitutional confiscation of my Negroes\" and the related \"belief\" that the \"Radicals will prevail\" in Washington [emphasis-original]. During the war Green Ferguson's job was \"capturing runaway slaves and escaped Yankee prisoners of war. The tools of his trade were a horse and 4 fox hounds. After the war federal troops arrested him and took him to New York City. . . . Green escaped and returned [home] to South Carolina. Later he was among the first to travel to Brazil,\" where he stayed\u2014and \"died a lonely and disappointed man in 1905.\" But when queried in 1868 from his new home in S\u00e3o Paulo, Ferguson was acidly bitter when asked rhetorically why he should return to the U.S. \"You tell me that your country is bankrupt and that the Negroes rule. Again, I ask, what do you wish me to return to the United States for?\" especially since, said Ferguson, \"I left the United States to avoid this state of affairs.\" He was content in Brazil though having been there \"about sixteen months\" where he was \"free from tyranny and misrule.\"\n\nLike Ferguson, George Barnsley decided, \"I have no other hope but emigration.\" Why? \"I cannot conscientiously take an oath to the U.S. Government.\" Like other Confederates, he could not rationalize swearing an oath of affirmation to a government that he had just sought to overthrow and which now, in turn, had overthrown slavery ruining thousands in the process. \"In the advertisements sent out for the purpose of soliciting colonists, the promoters,\" Frank McMullen and William Bowen of Texas \"sounded the warning that no persons would be considered unless they could qualify morally and politically\u2014that is, be Southerners and hold proslavery sentiments.\"\n\nIn the early postbellum era in Virginia, a Confederate was asked if he thought a \"'friendly feeling'\" between the former warring combatants could ensue. \"'No sir, never,'\" he replied firmly. \"'The people of the South feel they have been . . . most tyrannically oppressed by the North. All our rights have been trampled upon. We knew that we had a perfect right to go and leave you,'\" he declared, restating the rationale for secession\u2014in his view, it would be akin to Britain not being able to depart the European Union. In 1867, the Confederate J. D. Porter observed the growing \"feeling that the Negroes will take this country,\" meaning the U.S., \"and that the whites will have to abandon it\"\u2014this was \"taking holds of the minds of our people.\"\n\nJames Gaston arrived in Brazil in September 1865. He wrote at length apprising his fellow Confederates of the opportunities available there. \"Negroes are not admitted into Brazil from other countries unless free-born,\" he said sadly, \"and even should they be citizens of the latter after being born in slavery, it does not authorize them to be received here. Regarding this, a matter of much moment to those whose Negroes would be willing to come with them to this country, I urged the importance of some modification.\" However, the \"Minister\" told him, \"this element would not be a very desirable addition to the population of this country.\" There was a \"questionable propriety to admit this particular class of free Negroes in a country where slavery exists,\" in any case, \"and the influence of these freedmen upon other free Negroes and upon slaves in Brazil might tend to bring about similar scenes to those which have been enacted in the process of emancipation in the United States.\"\n\nAs early as December 1865, the **Times** reported on \"these 'Caucasians'\" in Florida opposed to the new order: \"we have heard these embittered men talk of the attraction of life in Brazil, of its freedom from 'niggers' and 'nigger worshippers,' the latter term now being applied to the majority of Northern men who come South to engage in business.\"\n\nThus, \"there was not a single state south of the Potomac and Ohio rivers that did not have its society for the promotion of emigration.\" \"Several\" of these \u00e9migr\u00e9 planters went straight to the \"slave marts of Rio de Janeiro and elsewhere and made purchases\" upon arrival. Near \"Petropolis . . . Captain [James] Johnson of Florida purchased a large plantation (fazenda) with its supply of Negro laborers,\" i.e., \"many Brazilian slaves.\" \"Names prominent in the antebellum South were not infrequently heard\" in Brazil. \"Russell, a Louisiana planter, leased a plantation and its Negroes for ten years\"; \"ten miles from the City of Rio de Janeiro Major [Duncan] McIntyre bought fazenda Ipahiba, with its one hundred and thirty Negroes.\" It was like old times for McIntyre as he \"began to grow sugar cane, oranges and coffee\"\u2014\"business was good.\"\n\n\"One of the original settlers recalled years later that her people came to Brazil because they wanted to continue a system\"\u2014slavery\u2014\"that was no longer legal in the United States.\" Unfortunately\u2014for these \u00e9migr\u00e9s\u2014they did not consult the vast amount of memoirs penned by those who had traversed Brazil on their way to California during the Gold Rush, for if they had they would have recognized that for those who harbored an ideology of \"race\" like themselves, Brazil was something less than hospitable. \"The social mobility enjoyed by Negro freedmen and the relaxed attitude taken toward miscegenation shocked most Southerners.\"\n\nFurthermore, though some were able to circumvent this provision, Brazil was firm in asserting that \"'no slaves can be imported into Brazil from any country whatsoever.'\" \"General [Wallace] Wood of the late so-called [CSA] has lately arrived here,\" said Edward Thornton of the British legation in Rio de Janeiro in November 1865. He wanted to bring \"60,000 souls\" to Brazil but the relevant Ministry told him straightforwardly that \"no Negroes, either slaves or free, can be admitted into the country.\" He and those like him \"must previously dispose of them\" before arriving; \"the greatest desire on the part of the Brazilian Government and authorities in general here,\" added Thornton, was \"that no importation of Negroes should take place.\"\n\nMoreover, many of these Confederates\u2014like their counterparts in 1849\u2014were disconcerted to see those they deemed to be Negro wielding weapons as soldiers and police officers. \"Many Confederados of the first generation never quite got used to [this] practice,\" e.g., those defined as Negro in the U.S. exerting power in Brazil, for \"to them, a man with any black blood was black and should stay in his own society.\" The U.S. Consul in Para had noticed this disillusion on the part of his erstwhile compatriots. \"The immigrant from the South if he would be successful in Brazil must leave his prejudices behind him,\" he insisted. \"If he abandons his home only because he is indignant at the assertion of equal rights on the part of those who until recently were judged to have no rights at all, he will find here that the free black, or at least the black man born free, has all the privileges of a white citizen, and greater privileges than the white man if a foreigner\" [emphasis-original]. But it was not easy to leave these prejudices behind at the port of embarkation, like so much unnecessary baggage. Herbert H. Smith of Brooklyn was typical in the disgust that he felt in Brazil; \"people who talk of 'amalgamation' as a blessing to be hoped for,\" he declared, \"should study it here [in Brazil] where it is almost an accomplished fact. The mixed races are invariably bad.\" Smith's presence was not anomalous for in 1867, the Reverend A. A. Porter averred, \"'there are more immigrants in Brazil from New York than from the South. They come here to get employment in the government works and are disappointed. . . . [Southerners] buy large farms and several slaves on a credit.'\" The presence of these Northerners was not inconsistent with the antebellum ethos of the African Slave Trade and, perhaps, accounts for the varying figures as to how many from the U.S. actually migrated to Brazil. Yet clashes between Northerners and Southerners did become a flashpoint in Brazil, suggesting more ideological variation in the migration of the former, as their regional conflict seemed to be exported; in early 1867 in Rio de Janeiro, a \"party of Northerners attacked and attempted to burn a sawmill belonging to the Southerners.\"\n\nJohn Codman, who left the U.S. for Brazil during the heat of Reconstruction, wound up on a ranch 20 miles from Rio de Janeiro \"where the cattle ran wild and Negroes became very much like them.\" \"No people has attempted the experiment [with miscegenation] more recklessly than the Brazilians,\" he declared. J. D. Porter would have agreed with him. Writing from Brazil in 1867 to his cousin, John D. Templeton, in Waxahatchie, Texas, he thought this was the \"country to which Southerners should emigrate\"; competition was not stiff, given the \"extreme stupidity of this people in the useful arts,\" reflected in their \"refusing to use the plow\"; the \"moral leprosy [is] far more to be feared here than the physical,\" he concluded. \"The social and religious ideas of this country are a disgrace to the age\" and \"the priesthood are as immoral as the laity.\"\n\nBut setting aside moral rot and rank incompetence, there was an overriding factor that made Brazil attractive. \"The rumors you have heard to the contrary notwithstanding,\" he told his cousin, \"slavery will not be abolished soon in this country and when done, as most probably it will be, this government is not going to make paupers of Africans. In proof\u2014Negroes are advancing in price and Southerners are all wanting to buy.\" In other words, the participation of U.S. nationals in the African Slave Trade had not ended with the conclusion of the Civil War but had taken on a new form and migrated, as U.S. nationals kept dealing in dark human flesh, be they in Brazil, Venezuela, Egypt, or the South Pacific. Porter was candid in confronting the \"objections to Brazil being urged,\" toward \"Negro Equality.\" Keep in mind, he declared, that \"the poor African [here] unless mixed with better blood rarely attains a social or civil eminence. And with a few exceptions, his blood taints whatever it mixes, so that few of this class ever reach the upper strata in Brazilian life.\" Compare the U.S. he added derisively, where \"the best part of the white race\" were little more than equal with Africans while the \"policy of the dominant party of the U.S. is to efface all social distinctions\u2014a policy clearly indicated in . . . forcing Negroes into omnibuses, street and railroad cars, hotels (and so forth) and a policy that, like all their other ideas will ultimately prevail, and does now to a greater extent in the U.S. than in Brazil.\"\n\nFor with all its differences with the U.S. over the question of the configuration of \"race\" and the role of the African, Confederates were flocking to Brazil because of one major reason: As the intrepid British traveler, Richard Burton, put it, upon his arrival in Brazil right after the U.S. Civil War, \"those of 'pure white blood' even being poor, would receive a treatment that in their countries of origin were reserved only to the most fortuned: 'as a field for the white man no country equals . . . Brazil.'\"\n\nThe search for a \"white paradise\" coupled with profound pessimism about the prospects for the U.S. drove many away from the reconstructed Union. Writing from S\u00e3o Paulo in 1874, one emigrant opined that \"the Southern States\" were \"on the eve of a war of races and within the last few days a dispatch has arrived in this country by telegraph that it has already commenced and that several thousand had been killed.\" Typically, this dire foreboding was yoked to a deep skepticism about the U.S. government which had just escaped being toppled. When the Civil War began, it was expected that \"the Northern people and the Federal government will side with the Negro, that it will come I have no doubt and the sooner the Southern people may prepare for it the better.\" As for Brazil, bright optimism prevailed: though it would \"not pay a man of my age,\" said the writer only identified as Whitaker, \"to go to planting coffee beans as it takes four years under the most favorable circumstances to realize and crop from them,\" the good news was that \"Negroes have advanced in price quite materially.\"\n\nIndeed, there were some Confederates who saw their defeat in the Civil War as a mere setback, a pricking skirmish in an ongoing conflict. Their goal was to use Brazil as a springboard for constructing a newer slave empire that, ultimately, could reverse the outcome of the Civil War. In the spring of 1866, a correspondent in Venezuela, Dr. Henry Price, told Lafayette McLaws of plans to establish a colony in Venezuela; \"so soon as we have 1000 inhabitants,\" he was told, \"we should organize a Territorial Government\u2014when 50,000 (allowing us to count Indians) a State Government. It is perfectly understood, if we so desire, [we] may establish slavery\u2014Brazil furnishing market. Fortunately for our scheme the most intimate friendship & confidence exists between myself\" and high level officials. \"I was a States Rights Democrat & Secessionist from principle after John Brown's raid. My belief in the orthodoxy of slavery is as firmly fixed as my belief in [the] Bible.\" These plans were capacious, calling for \"trade\" in the \"entire Valley of the Amazon, even to [the] foot of the Andes in Peru & Bolivia.\" \"Open the Slave Trade\" was also a goal. \"We can at once establish a state or in one with any form of government we please\" with more \"Confederate soldiers to be recruited.\" This was no last minute scramble either as this idea had been bruited \"as early as 1857. At the fall of Richmond I devised the plan & opened with the Government\" in Caracas, said the ever-prepared Dr. Price.\n\nActually, the arrival of so many Confederates was, in a sense, contrary to the impact that the Civil War\u2014and, especially, its accoutrement, Emancipation\u2014had on Brazil. For as the British emissary, Edward Thornton, reported in December 1865, \"events that have lately taken place in the United States have inspired Brazil with a feeling of isolation and shame that she should be the last on this continent to wipe off such a stain from her institutions and are producing a moral pressure which it will be difficult for her Government to withstand.\" \"One of the first shock waves\" that hit Brazil \"resulted from the outcome of the American Civil War,\" according to historian Robert Toplin. \"News of the sudden demise of the Western Hemisphere's largest slave society [ _sic_ ] frightened Brazilian leaders.\" It was the \"abolition of slavery in the United States, which helped inspire a national policy of gradual emancipation through 'free birth.'\" Months after Appomattox, one Brazilian journal asserted that a \"hydra headed monster is rearing up and looming in the future, in a short time and Brazil will be the only country in the civilized world where slavery is tolerated.\"\n\nThe Empire had to be concerned that Washington might want to retaliate given its own newly found abolitionism and Brazil's own favorable attitude toward the CSA. As the Civil War was winding down, high-ranking U.S. Senator, Charles Sumner, told the scientist, Louis Agassiz, who was about to visit Brazil, \"of course, you will see the Emperor of Brazil\" and \"if he gives you an opportunity I hope you will not fail to let him know that there are good friends of Brazil here who think that a grave mistake was made when this Power, naturally friendly to the United States, consented to follow the lead of Lord Russell in elevating our rebels to the condition of lawful belligerents on the ocean. It is difficult to see all the consequences of this act,\" though he added, \"I wish that the Brazilian government could see the mistake that has been made & cancel it.\" But as Brazil opened its doors to obdurate, recalcitrant Confederates, Senator Sumner was poised to challenge the Empire. \"How would it do to suspend diplomatic relations with Powers maintaining Slavery? This would bear on two countries only\u2014Spain & Brazil. Such an act on our part could not fail to have important consequences. I do not think these two countries could stand against the pressure.\"\n\nSumner's potential demarche was understandable. As Henry Shipley Stevens floated south to Brazil in early 1866 he met aboard his vessel, a \"rebel Colonel\" who \"was formerly on Stonewall Jackson's staff, but afterwards went into the blockade running trade and has made successful trips. The object of his visit to Brazil was to dispose of several of the blockade runners. There are now fifteen in the harbor of Rio. Several of them have been sold to the government\"\u2014and it was unclear what had happened to the others. In a confidential memorandum in 1865, the Brazilian Foreign Ministry was informed that \"the undersigned Brigadier General of the Confederate States and Chief of staff to Gen'l Beauregard at the request of the latter, has sought this interview with His Excellency the Minister of the Brazils, to tender to the Emperor the services of General Beauregard as a Military Engineer without commission\"; he wanted to \"devote all the skill and aptitude he has to the defence of Brazil.\" After the murder of President Lincoln, CSA General Edward Porter Alexander feared that he would be suspected and \"instantly mobbed & lynched,\" so he \"wore a U.S. Army private's overcoat, only dyed black instead of its original blue\" and immediately \"went to see the Brazilian Minister. He read my letters & told me that if I should go to Brazil he had no doubt I could secure a commission in the Brazilian army.\" Knowing that such activity might be viewed widely as subversive and incompatible with his diplomatic status, the Minister \"seemed to be actually afraid lest my being in his house might bring a mob on him.\" Maximilian's Mexico \"was still desperate for experienced military assistance. Some top Confederate generals and militarists were already serving in Mexico. More could be drawn there\" to assist his continuing plots for reclaiming land seized by the U.S. in 1848. George Barnsley, scion of a prominent Georgian family, groaned in August 1865, \"I have not the shadow of an excuse. I am utterly ruined\u2014in hopes, in fortune and all save honor gone. . . . No I must go,\" he insisted, \"if there is no hope in Brazil, could I not do well in Mexico\u2014I could get a position there in the Army\" [emphasis-original]. Brazil, a veritable cobelligerent of the CSA, during the Civil War, was now accepting the most retrograde, unforgiving rebels, along with some of their military materiel: Washington would have been negligent if it had failed to view this as a further act of belligerence.\n\nAnd even before the war ended, there was another concern. As the Dixie migration accelerated \"in some quarters of the United States apprehension was felt less the cotton industry in Brazil, stimulated by exiles from the South, might offer keen competition to the same industry.\" \"The production of the Indies, Egypt and Brazil, will be larger than ever the coming season,\" said one reporter in early 1868, \"and that it will be furnished cheaper than in previous years. Under all these circumstances, it may be hard to see where grounds of hope are to be found for the revival of American cotton.\"\n\nThe rebel \u00e9migr\u00e9 James Gaston certainly thought so too: \"the yield here is better than in the United States,\" he declared, \"and the fibre of the cotton is superior to the average quality grown in the South, which, taken with the fact that it grows two years in succession from the same stalk, give that grown here an advantage over the plants in the United States. Our views as to the probability of failure in the labor [of] our Negroes in the South, lead us to think that cotton may be produced in this . . . country cheaper than in the South and that the market will be supplied principally by Brazil at no distant day.\"\n\nBrazil in these minds would not only become an Empire of slavery, challenging the U.S. in the vital economic sphere, but as well\u2014and, perhaps, more dangerous in the long run\u2014a \"contra\" base of opposition tailor-made for CSA diehards.\n\nYet, as time passed, there was less incentive for Brazil to welcome these migrants warmly despite the apparent advantages they offered; instead, these sojourners came to resemble a rotting mackerel in the moonlight that was shining brightly as it invaded the olfactory. Consequently, Northern U.S. propaganda was unleashed against these Confederates, who were beginning to be seen not as quirky malcontents but as potential counter-revolutionaries. The **New York Times** in December 1865 warned that Confederates \"having thereby strengthened\" the \"Empire, these Coriolanuses shall return, 'leading a power 'gainst Rome; vowing revenge as spacious as between the oldest and the youngest thing.'\" This journal looked askance at the unsupported claim that \"50,000 families\" would be moving south; they highlighted the Brazilian point that \"no slaves and not even free colored people will be permitted to enter. Was this hint necessary? Did our Southern friends expect to bring any part of this, their former wealth?\" \"I wonder,\" it was said, \"how they will like to find that such man a gentleman of color, as is most likely to be the case,\" as \"government officer, judge, or something like it. . . . I wonder how the Protestant part of them will like to be excluded from voting for Electors and other officers?\" it was said in reference to the blatant pro-Catholic bias of Brazil. \"The Southern slaveholder, the chivalrous aristocrat will have now to begin to do what his despised Yankee neighbor never thought it a shame to do\u2014he will have to work for himself.\" Confederates carried a \"secret longing to found another slaveholding Power on this soil,\" speaking of Brazil, but seemed unaware that \"the Brazilians are beginning to talk very seriously of abolishing slavery legally and forever.\"\n\nUndeterred, early on J. H. Blue of Missouri alerted the Brazilians\u2014and irked Washington\u2014when he announced in September 1865 that those potential emigrants, like himself, wished to align with \"the Emperor Louis Napoleon of France, the Emperor Don Pedro of Brazil and the Emperor Maximilian of Mexico\"; they were \"forming a triumvirate more mighty than ancient Rome and more hopeful than the Anglo-Saxon\"\u2014and the U.S.\n\nUnsurprisingly, there was palpable enthusiasm\u2014initially in Brazil\u2014about the arrival of these rebel migrants. It was the \"leading topic of the journals throughout this Empire for several months,\" said the U.S. emissary in Rio de Janeiro in 1867; \"representatives from the Southern States . . . professing to be agents to locate lands for hundreds and thousands of people, have stated, that not only thousands of families, but that even an hundred thousand families, would come to Brazil.\" These representatives were \"received with the utmost distinction possible to high dignitaries.\" Suggestive of the revenge they might seek against Washington was the \"boast\" of \"many of them . . . that they are secessionists and of their hatred to the Yankeess. . . . they are, with few exceptions, ' _de facto_ ' just as much rebels today as when in arms against it\" [emphasis-original]. However, the emissary, William Van Vleck Lidgerwood, envisioned difficulties ahead for these revenge-seekers: \"many Brazilian officials, and specially of the lower order,\" he said, \"are men of African descent; and the American immigrant from the Southern States, especially if congregated in any number, being accustomed to order men of color, would soon make himself obnoxious to this class, and difficulties would ensue; and under such circumstances, though he had left the United States without a passport, intending never to return to it, cursing our country and its institutions, he would remember in his time of need that he was born an American citizen.\"\n\nNevertheless, when CSA General Wallace Wood arrived in October 1865 in Brazil with \"several other gentlemen of the Southern states to fix upon a locality for a settlement of Southerners,\" he was greeted enthusiastically. A \"spontaneous demonstration was set up\" by the \"most influential Merchants and Brokers\" of S\u00e3o Paulo. When he appeared \"at the window of the Exchange Hotel,\" he was \"loudly cheered.\" Though Wood in his remarks to the assembled could \"'speak to you in English only,'\" that did not quell the cheering throngs. \"We shall bring to your country, as speedily as facilities will admit of it,\" cried Wood, \"50,000\u2014aye one hundred thousand families of the best and most energetic and most enterprising citizens of North America.\" General Wood was being greeted like a conquering savior. \"An hour before sunset\" on the \"Rua de Dereta, the main street in the city, on which the Exchange Hotel, where he had taken rooms was located,\" began \"filling for the distance of three blocks or squares in front of the hotel with a dense mass of humanity and a band of music, while the windows, balconies and housetops of the buildings in the city were thronged with women and children, waving handkerchiefs and miniature flags of Brazil and the States. In response to loud and repeated 'vivas for General Wood,' that gentleman appeared in one of the balconies of the hotel, where, in his representative character, he was welcomed with deafening shouts, the band playing 'Dixie.'\"\n\nThis \"encouraging immigration and more especially that of those citizens of the United States who are dissatisfied with the state of matters there,\" crowed one insider in Brazil, was \"meeting with great favor from all classes, both in Rio and the provinces\"; moreover, \"the initiation of the new mail line of steamers between Brazil and New York\" was \"hailed\" similarly with \"much satisfaction\" as a harbinger of a day when talented migrants and goods alike would flow effortlessly from north to south.\n\nThe **New York Times** was not pleased with General Wood, who hailed from the rebel stronghold that was Mississippi and was a \"long-time resident of New Orleans.\" This \"middle-aged man, a lawyer and editor, a fluent writer\" and \"forcible speaker\" was \"appointed the chief agent of associations of immigrants of four counties in Mississippi.\" Their reporter seemed dumbfounded about his \"enthusiastic\" reception and the fact that \"no passport was asked of him\u2014he had none\u2014and his baggage was permitted to be taken to his hotel without the surveillance of the customs.\"\n\nA segment of public opinion in Brazil, on the other hand, was decidedly excited about the prospect of this mass departure. The Confederates, it was said, were \"an educated, intelligent, industrious and wealthy class of persons\"; indeed, \"no such community has ever decided upon expatriation\" and this could only be a boon for Brazil. For just as the \"Lombards introduced by their expatriation to England the sciences, arts, capital and commercial usages\u2014and in like manner as the Portuguese and Spanish Jews conveyed with them to Holland sufficient wealth to make that country one of the richest in means\u2014so will the Confederates elevate Brazil to a high standard of literacy, scientific and commercial prosperity, which she is so much entitled to.\" The \"average amount of capital which the Confederates may bring with them, will be [considerable] . . . [and] this alone is worthy of attention\" particularly compared with the amounts brought by \"Europeans who go to the United States.\" Like a star professor attracting other stellar faculty to an academic department, it was said that a \"gentleman from the Cape of Good Hope\" asserted that a \"thousand persons were either started or preparing to leave Southern Africa for Brazil, seeing in this country a future for their efforts which they vainly looked for there.\" Thus, \"great anxiety was manifested by the Northerners to discourage the emigration which is taking place in the Southern States.\"\n\nWhat was the natural source of immigrants to Brazil\u2014akin to the British and Western Europeans to the U.S.? According to Dr. Antonio Francisco de Paula Souza, Minister of Agriculture in 1866, it was the Confederates; in fact, he thought, this migration would be \"counterbalancing the tendency of European emigration to the United States.\" Reaching for an analogy, he posited provocatively that the \"revocation of the Edict of Nantes wearied by religious fanaticism from the weakness of an old king, threw out of France more than 400,000 of the most energetic, industrious and wealthy individuals\"\u2014and, he thought, history was repeating itself with this time Brazil being the beneficiary.\n\nIronically, these Negrophobic, slave hungry Confederates were seen by some as a means by which Brazil could avoid a servile revolt. \"Many persons and in an especial degree foreigners, pretend to foresee another St. Domingo in Brazil,\" said one Brazilian periodical nervously in 1867; \"others at the least a second Jamaica on a grander scale.\" The \"Brazilian,\" it was said incongruously, \"naturally turns his eyes to the United States for the initiation of the solution, for a clue to guide the country from the labyrinth of difficulties which surround this matter\" since \"Brazilians lack that ruthlessness, that inhuman energy of the North American which prefers to destroy the savage to conciliating and civilizing him, and will as readily root out the black if he proves contumacious.\" Evidently, it was not realized that whatever dearth in \"ruthlessness\" possessed by Euro-Brazilians in dealing with Africans was due more to their lesser numbers compared with the \"North American\" than anything else.\n\nOn the other hand, some of the migrants from the north held views about Brazil that were similarly uncomplimentary to residents of this giant land. John Codman, for example, argued bluntly in 1867, \"let the Monroe Doctrine in its modified sense be extended to Brazil. Let us make an American state of it, without the process of annexation. . . . and as the Indians have died away from among us, and the Africans are now perishing, so will this composite, mongrel, effete race disappear from the world. It is destiny.\" As Codman saw it, \"it does not seem that this people can compete with the Anglo-Saxons.\" \"If God did make 'of one blood all the nations on the earth,' it was a long time ago,\" he added sarcastically; \"and now the blood is so certainly not the same, that He can alone restore it to its original purity. All the endeavors of miscegenationists have proved failures\" for \"no people has attempted the experiment more recklessly than the Brazilians.\" The arrival of northern migrants would mark a turning point for Brazil: \"years hence, it may appear that one of the results of our civil war will have been the repeopling of this land from the starting-point of the few dozens of Americans who have landed here.\" Codman had first arrived in Brazil in 1847 and then sought to \"take off every restriction upon the slave trade between Africa and Brazil\" and continued to think that \"Brazil cannot be supplied with labor unless there shall be a species of coolie trade between that country and Africa . . . black labor from the nearest market is therefore a necessity for Brazil, even if the result of its importation should eventually be a black empire.\" Of course, there were ways to circumvent this, he informed his English-speaking audience, pointing to \"an enterprising Portuguese,\" who was \"very poor\" but \"undertook to make money systematically . . . by the increase of his [Negro] 'stock,'\" recognizing that \"mulattoes are as valuable as Negroes. Think, then, by what double prostitution he succeeded in obtaining two in each season\u2014one being the half of his own flesh and blood, the other belonging in the same proportion to his wife! So it went on, year after year, the children being sold when of suitable age; and by this commerce the worthy couple lived and prospered!\" But ultimately, he thought, Maury's plan of a de facto annexation of Brazil by the U.S. would be attained by other means.\n\nMatthew Fontaine Maury, the celebrated Virginian who had done so much to draw antebellum attention to Brazil, became a staunch Confederate. Though he had touted the Amazon endlessly, ironically his odyssey did not lead to a Brazilian residency\u2014though it still speaks volumes about why this South American nation did not become the mass site of exile that it promised to be and why those who had been so pro-Brazilian slavery were equally anti-U.S. after the Civil War.\n\nNo blurry-eyed idealist he, Maury in the fall of 1860 as war loomed, engaged in hard-boiled speculation about how \"land and Negroes\" would be \"affected by disunion.\" Deciding that \"land and Negroes\" would not be adversely affected by war, Maury sought to devise a plan in Virginia \"of organizing all the remaining white population in the border & tide water counties into a home guard to act in case of inroads & marauders as guerrillas. . . . Gen'l Lee who highly approved of the plan is going to carry it into effect,\" since Maury \"being a cripple\" was unable to effectuate his martial rhetoric.\n\nInstead, Maury became a roving ambassador for the CSA, stirring up trouble for the U.S. in Europe particularly. He became a highly personal antagonist of Lincoln. He prayed and worked for a war between London and Washington, so as to bail out the CSA. Still, while in London he was aggressively \"pursuing . . . researches\" concerning increasing the \"destructiveness of the torpedo\" so as to better destroy U.S. vessels.\n\nFrance was his next stop, where its takeover of Mexico had raised hopes for further assistance to the CSA. But he came up empty there too though he seriously sought \"alliance with France.\" In a breathtaking 27-page document, virtually unrivaled in the annals of those who have sought to destroy the U.S.\u2014and even more ironic given Maury's continuing iconic status in the nation he sought to exterminate\u2014Maury was pointing to a future building of a Panama Canal which would increase immeasurably the value of a California that he was offering to Paris and would, simultaneously, reduce the value of Brazil as a way-station to the Golden State. Yet, despite Ferdinand Maximilian, the Archduke of Austria and new ruler of Mexico, cooing to Maury about his \"flattering\" of him and his \"friendship,\" California was not returned to the nation that once controlled this territory.\n\nBut this was not due to Maury's lack of trying. More than most, Maury had an acute sense of the power of geography\u2014geopolitics, to use the current term\u2014and, as he saw it, the advent of the Panama Canal would be the new link between east and west in North America, thereby reducing somewhat the importance of Cape Horn\u2014and Brazil. California, said Maury to those who intended the U.S. harm, intended to get as much capital from Washington for internal improvements as it could\u2014e.g., a transcontinental railway, which would too reduce the value of Brazil and Cape Horn as a link between the east and west of North America\u2014then bolt.\n\nYet it was hard to place any trust in an inveterate schemer. For just as Maury first plotted against Brazil on behalf of the U.S., then against the U.S. on behalf of the CSA, then against the interests of Brazil, he wound up scheming against his vaunted CSA on behalf of Mexico, offering to join the Archduke in Mexico, when it seemed that his treacherous revolt against Washington was failing ignominiously. Again, this was of a piece with the times, when so many Portuguese nationals, for example, gained U.S. citizenship for\u2014it seemed\u2014little reason beyond facilitating their participation in the African Slave Trade. Citizenship, patriotism, and allegiance to Washington had a different import back then to those who held slavery dear.\n\nThe Archduke remained appreciative of Maury's \"valuable and friendly\" approach, and his \"flattering concern\"; he was \"particularly attracted\" to Maury's \"observations on the present state of affairs in California\" and was \"much indebted\" for his interlocutor's \"frankness and detail.\"\n\nThese glowing words were not enough for Maury so he went a step further. Again, he held out the prospect of Mexico regaining California, which\u2014if it had happened\u2014would have helped to solidify French domination; and, the altruistic Maury would have been graciously willing to volunteer to administer this immense region on the Archduke's behalf. A master of oceanography with vast knowledge of South America, he reminded that iron-clads quietly sent around Cape Horn at an early opportunity would find themselves complete masters of the coast; \"for the Federals have nothing in the Pacific that could cope with them.\" Maury was ready to tender his resignation in the \"Confederate Navy . . . whenever you may require my services.\" Weeks later he repeated to the Archduke, \"I am heartily at your command whenever you may need my services.\"\n\nChickens had come home to roost: The U.S., which countenanced Maury's plotting against Brazil, set the stage for his going over to the CSA, which laid a foundation for his then waltzing into the arms of Mexico. But that last scheme also proved unavailing. By 1865, Maury was searching desperately for a new homeland, aghast as he was at the prospect of returning to the hated U.S. By April of that fateful year, his ward since 1838, J. M. Maury, who had risen to the post of lieutenant in the CSA military, was languishing in a Union prison. \"I am so restless and miserable that I don't know what to do with myself,\" he told his \"father.\" \"I cannot read or eat or sleep . . . this news from the South is so overwhelming! Gen'l Lee surrendered!\" he wailed. \"Who would have ever have thought the noble Army of Northern Virginia would have come to such an end. . . . oh it is sad and humiliating to think of this terrible disaster. To be beaten in a quarrel of our own seeking was bad enough, but to think that all this blood has been shed, all this misery inflicted for nothing, is a sad, sad retrospect indeed. . . . it has almost made me sick. . . . there is a weight at my heart which it seems to me I shall always carry, for how can we ever hold our heads up again, anywhere in the whole world. . . . can't you say something to comfort me,\" he asked Matthew Maury, who so boldly had led the South into war but now was equally bereft of answers.\n\nA few weeks later, Maury was \"off San Domingo,\" on his way to Havana, groaning that \"this Confederacy has come to a miserable wreck\"; Maury was \"utterly astounded at the brick-row tumble of our armies; and at the ignoble end of the Confederacy\"; he was \"grieved and mortified beyond expression.\" He was humiliated by the \"great calamities that have been brought upon us\"; \"the soil of Virginia has now for me no charms,\" he concluded, since \"its future is black with misery and utterly horrid. I have no wish to see it.\" What to do then? \"In my judgment,\" said Maury, \"the only course that becomes them and that is left to those noble sons and daughters who have graced the fall of the noble old state is expatriation,\" i.e., \"finding . . . a new country.\" Since the \"future of every true hearted Virginian is a life dragged out under the yoke amidst secret spies and truculent informers,\" the \"best service that I can make the state is to propose an asylum\" [emphasis-original].\n\nBut where was the question. Just before the war, \"His Majesty the Emperor\" of Russia generously gave Maury a \"diamond broach.\" After the war began, a Russian Grand Duke invited him to live in that nation given \"the present political whirlpool in your country\" and since \"your name is well known in Russia.\" Ironically, Maury who had done so much to trumpet the charms of Brazil chose exile not there but in Mexico, a choice that may have been motivated by his corrosive grudge against Washington and his surmise that Paris\u2014despite his coming up empty there\u2014could inflict more damage on his now despised former homeland. By September 1865, he was in Mexico City encouraging Confederate emigration though his prospectus did not sound enticing, warning as it did about \"guerrillas\" [emphasis-original]\u2014\"to avoid any molestation from these,\" he advised, \"immigrants, especially the first comers, should travel in company and establish themselves, for mutual protection and convenience, in settlements of not less than a dozen or two.\"\n\nStill, Maury may not have ruled out Brazil altogether\u2014or anywhere else on the planet\u2014excepting the U.S., of course. Writing from Mexico's \"Office of Colonization\" in October 1865, he grimaced as he recounted how \"the Yankee papers now have it that 'Professor Maury, the vilest of traitors has asked for pardon.'\" Maury was horrified: \"In the name of Jesus,\" he exclaimed, \"what do I want with a 'pardon.' I have no idea of going to the U. States in the future. . . . I may want to go to the U.S., I may want to go to Siberia\" since \"if colonization fails, Mexico is no place for me\" [emphasis-original].\n\nMaury was floundering; he was \"afraid to leave\" his \"dear wife\" in Virginia, \"afraid,\" as he was, \"of troubles there\": \"I thought England the best place for you to wait,\" he told her. \"I may not come back\" to the U.S., now wavering as he sensed that though slavery may have been banned, Negrophobia had not. \"This thought is way down deep among the remote contingencies of the future. It is not to be mentioned, except with injunctions, even to the most reticent.\" He considered going to \"Halifax to bide my time,\" then was \"consulting\" about \"buying some Cordova land\u2014in the olden times Cordova was the garden spot of New Spain\" but, he said sadly, \"when slavery was abolished suddenly fifty years ago\u2014as with us\u2014down it went\u2014and its splendid haciendas and baronial old mansions are now in ruins.\" He continued to hold out hope for Mexico, though it seemed to be fading fast: \"colonization is not a chimera,\" he insisted: \"We have letters. Thousands are dying to come.\" By December 1865, he was negotiating for a hacienda in Mexico. His son, Richard, was likewise championing emigration since Virginia was deemed \"not a fit place to live in now. All must come to Mexico. If they stay\" a catastrophe of the first order would occur: \"they will [have] to free their nigs\" and, worse, \"will very likely have a nig tax collector coming around.\" The solution: \"set all the nigs free and then bring them along as persons owing passage money to be paid in labour. Then they can be held as peons til the debt is discharged. That is you pay them but can compel them to work for you as long as they owe you money or labour.\" Something similar was proposed for Brazil, but the Empire's reluctance to admit Africans of any kind\u2014free or slave\u2014turned the devious toward Mexico.\n\nThe Maurys were convinced: migration to the region south of formerly Confederate Texas was the refuge of choice, a keen site for the establishment of a \"contra\" base. Hence, in March 1866, Maury was still touting Mexico and denouncing the U.S., \"that Yankee despotism called the Union.\" But soon his fortunes had taken another dip, as in May 1866, \"the banker with whom I had deposited my 'little money' went down in the London panic week before last,\" he groused, \"and I lost all the money & more too that I brought away from Mexico.\" Back at his new Central American home \"intriguers set to work and colonization was going so badly and the opposition [of] the Minister was so vexatious\" that \"immigrants were returning in disgust.\" Now he was contemplating the \"hard blow\" of having \"to give Mexico up.\"\n\nA year later he was back in London, as he continued to find the \"future of the South\" to be \"very dark.\" As he saw it, only slavery\u2014along the lines of Brazil\u2014could save the South, otherwise the dreaded social equality would ensue. \"Go among the Pa. [farmers]\" and \"you will [find] the colored labor & the white upon the most perfect terms of equality, and the wife and daughters of the farmer serving meals to them both and standing behind their chairs.\" Maury did not think that \"Va. Gentlemen\" were \"quite prepared for wife and daughter to do that,\" but that seemed to be where the nation he hated was going. \"Barriers have already broken down between the blacks & the whites which two years ago, your wisest statesmen did not have the sagacity to think were in the round of possibilities.\" It was all too depressing. But Maury continued to plot revenge against Washington. In the summer of 1866, for example, Maury's son did \"hear from\" his \"father frequently. He, with my mother and sister are now in Paris,\" he remarked, \"where he was called by the Emperor\" and where he had received funding \"ever since he went over there in '63.\"\n\nMaury was miserable. In 1868, he was still in London complaining about what had befallen his once beloved Virginia. \"The Jamaican planters were paid for their Negroes and had 7 years notice to prepare for emancipation. None of them are there now who could get away. One of them told me last night,\" he said, \"that his plantations yielded him $30,000 a year\u2014that he sold it on emancipation about 30 years ago for $5000 & that the purchaser\u2014his former manager\u2014still owes some $25,000.\" The \"Dutch since that war began emancipated their slaves\u2014in Surinam and Jansen tells me that that colony is already Africanized. The South is no place,\" he concluded, \"for any gentleman with wife and daughters to live . . . nor will it be until the contest is now brewing and going on there between blacks & whites, is finally settled.\" With emancipation Negroes had to depart, as he had proposed in the 1850s or as Webb had proposed in the 1860s, for if they did not, North American would become \"Africanized\" in any case. But where was a man of this opinion to live if the Western Hemisphere was his goal?\n\nBy 1870, Maury was continuing to carp. \"Napoleon has brought his dynasty to an end,\" he said mournfully, \"as ingloriously as Jeff Davis did the Confederacy.\" But by then, he had made his peace and was back home, teaching at the Virginia Military Institute in Lexington, though he was continuing his dream of moving, \"I suppose to Florida, perhaps to Cuba.\" But if his oldest son's views reflected his father's, Maury would not be happy in the remaining slave citadels of Havana or Rio de Janeiro. \"Did you ever fall in with an educated Frenchman who was not an infidel\" [emphasis-original], Richard Maury asked his father. \"If you have, you are more fortunate than I have been. It may be all prejudice but I have a very poor opinion of every country save those where the [majority] of believers are Protestants\" [emphasis-original]; it was a \"very special Providence,\" he added consolingly, \"that carried you away from Mexico & that prevented your linking your fortunes with those of L. Napoleon.\"\n\nMaury's peregrinations in Western Europe were far from innocent. After Appomattox, \"he felt himself at liberty to impart to the sovereign[s] there the secret of his discoveries concerning his new made science\" of perfecting torpedo destructiveness. \"Most of the European powers sent representatives to his school of instruction\u2014all of them have built upon his beginnings, the most powerful branch of their naval armaments. To France he [also] imparted his secret,\" his son, Richard, confessed, thereby jeopardizing the security of the nation, the U.S., he had come to loathe.\n\nF. H. Farrar of Point Coupee, Louisiana, also wound up in Mexico where he observed presciently of the U.S. in 1866 that the \"time is not far distant when the West and South, politically united will control this government for many a year to come.\" Certainly the reactionary politics of Maury, who sought to deport U.S. Negroes to Brazil, then sought to split California from the Union, was not inimical to a subsequent conservative upsurge.\n\nMaury's odyssey was emblematic of those of his persuasion and generation. He first saw Brazil as a \"safety valve,\" sensing that the system of slavery could not survive unless it could expand. Then he signed on to the quixotic CSA, which sought to build slavery in one nation in a nation based on slavery. Then he tried to return California to Mexico with himself as ruler. He found no solace in London and, finally, returned home to a changed Virginia. Why not move to Brazil where slavery survived? The prevalence of a reviled popery was one deterrent, no figment for a man who descended from Protestants and who had endured unpleasant times in France. Like so many others, Maury found it hard to accept the eradication of the socioeconomic system that was slavery\u2014and its complement: the African Slave Trade. Yet the dilemma of Maury and other rebels was more intractable: for they had to make the severe adjustment to accepting as human what had theretofore been treated as a commodity. The more profound adjustment sheds light on why Maury would seek to ally with France and Mexico against the U.S., while still others would seek to bolster Brazil as the ultimate redeemer of slavery and the African Slave Trade. Moreover, by the time Maury discovered that he was virtually a man without a country, the death of Reconstruction was returning Virginia to a time that he found much more agreeable, a situation that was impelling more migrants to Brazil to return to their erstwhile homeland.\n\nThough the statue to Maury in Virginia has yet to be toppled, he was emblematic of the treasonous anti-Washington sentiments that animated the Civil War. Like those thousands of rebels who fled the U.S., he was also symptomatic of the fluidity of citizenship that was not unusual during this time, a fluidity that facilitated anti-government revolts or, in an earlier day, facilitated switching flags in midocean in order to more effectively participate in the African Slave Trade. Yet these rebels came to find that the despised U.S. had certain attractions\u2014the English language, an advanced infrastructure, a significant number of Protestants\u2014that Brazil's tolerance of slavery could not overcome, and even that \"advantage\" was eroding rapidly.\n\n## **11  \nThe End of Slavery and the Slave Trade?**\n\n\"Steve\" was a freed Negro from the U.S. said to have \"come with his former master Judge Dyer\" to Brazil after the Civil War. But like many migrants, Dyer chose to return to the U.S., so \"Steve continued to work the lumber mill given to him when Dyer elected to return to Texas, and he found it to be very profitable. . . . Steve adopted the surname of Columbus Wasson, Judge Dyer's son-in-law and settled down on the Rio Una north of Iguape to operate his business. Hard work, patience and good sense paid off handsomely\" and \"he accumulated a considerable fortune\"; he became as \"well off\" as a \"Turkish Pasha and died highly respected\"\u2014he \"always held that he was a true American,\" though his surname was now Vass\u00e3o. \"Steve\" was not alone. \"The John Cole family of Georgia took one of their former slaves, 'Aunt Sylvy' to Brazil because\"\u2014supposedly\u2014\"'she refused to be left behind.'\" Certainly, \"some of the American settlers who could afford to do so bought or hired Brazilian slaves to assist them in their labors. But the blacks were said to be slow workers and many of them ran away to S\u00e3o Paulo or to other cities.\" Such reactions were an incentive for rebel migrants to arrange for the importation of their \"former\" slaves, even though this was of questionable legality. Just as certainly, some of the rebels \"proposed that the Brazilian Empire encourage immigration of American former slaves because of their superior technical knowledge of cotton production,\" this was a continuation of Maury's old dreams about dispatching U.S. Negroes to the Amazon.\n\nThis chapter concerns the travails of \u00e9migr\u00e9s from the former Slave South in Brazil. Their adjustment was difficult. Some could not accept that those deemed to be Negro in the U.S. seemed to be viewed as being on their level in Brazil. Some could not overcome the formidable barriers of language and religion, while others could not adapt to a level of underdevelopment that was daunting. As a result, a considerable number swallowed their anger and pride and returned to the U.S.\n\nIt is unclear how many U.S. Negroes migrated with their \"former\" masters to Brazil after the Civil War. It is clear, however, that after the Civil War, Washington did make good faith efforts to squash slavery and the African Slave Trade: in June 1870, a pact was forged between the U.S. and U.K. that indicated this trend. Yet, it was striking that as the African Slave Trade was winding down, revving up was the \"coolie\" trade, involving the transport of Chinese laborers globally in conditions that mimicked its predecessor. Even before the end of the Civil War, there were reports of \"two ships\" that \"were supposed to be American vessels sailing under Portuguese colors to avoid . . . capture by the Confederate steamer 'Alabama'\" that stopped in Cape Town on its way from Macao to Havana, filled to the brim with Chinese laborers. Portuguese involvement in the African Slave Trade continued in the 20th century, in any case, and, strikingly, despite Washington's official anti-bondage stance, the U.S. continued to supply Portugal with arms that, presumably, could have been useful in suppressing revolts in Lisbon's huge African colonies by incipient slaves. Indeed, even in the 21st century, there are continuing allegations indicating that not only does the slave trade continue but that there are also more slaves today than there were during the height of the African Slave Trade.\n\nGodfrey Barnsley was born in Derbyshire in Britain in 1805 where he was part of the commercial aristocracy, then moved on to Savannah in 1824. A father of seven, he fought with the CSA at Manassas, an indicator of what he thought was at stake\u2014he controlled 10,000 acres and 24 enslaved Africans.\n\nBut by early 1867, there was a \"cloud of apprehension\" and \"anxious doubt about our political future\"; it \"rests heavily on Georgia and on me alike,\" Barnsley was told, \"and which I strive in vain to shake off, a kind of vague expectation of some painful change.\" The question nagging Barnsley's comrade and other rebels was if \"the radicals [will] be able to effect what they propose? If they do,\" he assured, \"I am sure Brazil or any other land would be the refuge of all who could meet the costs of transportation.\"\n\nBy the spring of 1867, Barnsley's son, George, had accepted this advice and decamped to Brazil. \"There are now nearly 500 emigrants from the South at this hotel,\" he told his father; \"we receive food gratis and lodging also\" and suggestive of how warmly they were embraced, \"this evening the Emperor and Minister paid us a visit\" and both were \"[greeted] by cheers. He is a fine looking gentleman,\" he said of this ruler, \"and is much interested in, especially, our colony. . . . I am sure of success,\" he said manfully, \"and do not regret leaving the States.\"\n\nWhy were so many from the former Slave South in southern Brazil? As J. D. Porter put it, \"the political situation of the South is as bad as its worst enemies could wish, or as our most gloomy fears had foreboded [ _sic_ ],\" thus the migration flow continued, \"contrary to all reasonable expectations these Southern merchants who say that the emigration feeling is somewhat abated and especially as to Brazil.\" He added that \"our leading Southern papers have recently lost all Federal printing by order of the military governors. They are very needy and might accept some from patronage from the Brazilian government,\" not least since Brazil had \"natural advantages . . . over almost any other part of the globe.\" He urged the \"Brazilian government\" to install \"agents in the interior of this country,\" meaning the U.S. \"to encourage and facilitate emigration.\"\n\nJames McFadden Gaston was \"chief surgeon of the South Carolina [CSA] forces.\" Then \"the Reconstruction period was upon them and he knew only too well how it would try men's souls. . . . [his] personal property had vanished and his money was useless, being in Confederate notes\"\u2014what options did he have? Yet, despite the ill-repute in which he was held, still \"it was necessary for Dr. Gaston to make this journey\" to Brazil \"very quietly, because of the suspicion with which all Southern men were watched at this time,\" especially those heading south who were often viewed as so many Coriolanuses, seeking revenge and a base for it. \"His Confederate uniform still worn for lack of other apparel, was a passport among his own people, but might have detained him if he met Federal officers.\" Like others, Gaston was \"able to secure free passage\" in October 1865 from New Orleans south. He was only one among many, indicative of the \"general inclination among Southern people at this time to leave the scene of desolation around them.\" \"There are many reflections crowding upon my mind this morning,\" he informed his spouse in December 1865; high on the list was the \"blending of fear with hope as to your situation in the midst of comparative strangers, and surrounded by a race that has so recently changed its relations to the white inhabitants of the country.\"\n\nJ. Marshall McCue concurred with the views of Gaston, Barnsley, and other migrants. He trumpeted the virtues of Brazil, stressing the \"liberality of the government of Don Pedro . . . the delightful climate and most luxuriant soil, with all the products of our north temperate zone, added to the delightful fruits and vegetables of the tropics, fine water . . . and extreme healthfulness all combined, cause thousands of our down-trodden people, sad as it may be to expatriate themselves and to leave the graves of their fathers and Virginia, proud, glorious noble old Virginia, and to find a home down there. You would be surprised, my dear sir, to learn of the number who not only think of this, but have determined to do so. Your unworthy correspondent is of this number,\" he emphasized. But why? Why travel thousands of miles to a land where the language was foreign and the situation less than steady? \"We are now under a military satrap whose ipse dixit overrides our code,\" said this Virginian. \"I have given my last vote. My bo[y] Sander (exslave) yet in my employ, in the estimation of our masters in Washington, is a better man than your unworthy correspondent. My spirit is too unbending to brook this, to submit to it. I will not do it,\" he stressed [emphasis-original]. \"Painful as I admit it to be, I will not remain in Virginia, but will cast my fortunes with many who have fixed on the sunny lands of Brazil,\" which was \"destined to be one of the greatest wheat growing regions we know of,\" since the \"soil and labor\"\u2014slave labor\u2014\"and climate are there superior to any in the States for producing wheat.\"\n\nHis interlocutor, Cyrus McCormick was dubious, despite McCue's impassioned persuasiveness. Why leave, he mused, since the former slaveholders still held the whip hand and the former slaves were mostly illiterate and poverty-stricken. But McCue was not convinced. \"Your idea of whites of [the] South controlling the voting of the Negroes is quite erroneous,\" he said in June 1867. \"Some of us [thought] so too, but we abandoned the idea some time ago\" for now \"Negroes and low whites are in ascendancy. So our prospects are gloomy in extreme,\" and, he added balefully, \"if I could sell my property for its value, I would go tomorrow\" to Brazil. \"As one of the biggest planters in Alabama wrote me,\" he said, \"'I go to Brazil because I feel satisfied that I will never more be permitted here to enjoy the fruits of my own industry in peace and tranquility.'\" That was not all, as McCue went on to cite words he agreed with zealously: \"'we can't forget the past and I never expect to be reconstructed. It causes my blood to boil and tingle to look upon the Star Spangled Banner, I once loved but will love it no more forever.'\"\n\nLucita Hardie Wait agreed heartily with such sentiments. Hailing from an old Southern family, she was actually born in Brazil after the war. Her great-grandfather, James W. Miller of Gainesville, Georgia, \"had prospered before the war and lost all during the war,\" as \"idle and mischievous savages\" were set \"loose everywhere.\" But like others, she and her family had maintained a \"southern interest in the tropics [that] reaches back into the era of 'Manifest Destiny.'\" And when \"land was offered\" at the \"unbelievable price of 22 [cents] an acre,\" her ancestors hopped on a boat and wound up in \"Santa Barbara, about seventy-five miles southwest of S\u00e3o Paulo, the Chicago of Brazil.\" By early 1867, one of her treasured ancestors observed happily \"'in less than two years we will have paid for the place\" in Brazil \"with the addition of a gin, ginhouse and screw, and eight valuable Negroes.'\"\n\nThis flow of rebels southward was also due in part to a \"Brazilian emigration scheme,\" which was \"carrying crowds of newly-arrived Irish and Southern ex-slaveholders to the slave-working Empire of Brazil. There is a Brazilian emigration society that desires to obtain for that country a new infusion of foreign blood and it has provided $150 gold for each immigrant.\" Many of these emigrants had traveled via New Orleans, \"the majority of them had donned the Confederate gray,\" and the \"majority of them\" were \"from Texas,\" and, thus, had probably experienced life under Mexican rule, under Texas sovereignty, under U.S. suzerainty, then that of the CSA\u2014so what was one more sovereign, what did citizenship mean anyway?\n\nGeorge Barnsley was in S\u00e3o Paulo, site of an ongoing boom. \"Rents are very cheap\"; he had a \"very good house, with four good rooms, kitchen and other rooms for servants . . . all for $3.00 per month. Food is quite cheap. . . . people are extremely kind, in fact, I never knew such hospitality and genuine kindness.\" There were also problems: he was \"invited to a ball given by the musical society at Iguape,\" but he didn't speak Portuguese, which limited his ability to bond. Still, the \"young ladies were very pretty,\" even better, \"some\" were \"quite fair\u2014blondes\"\u2014in fact. Brazil was a \"paradise for idlers\" and, thus, the migrants who were \"displeased\" were \"men who are afraid to work.\"\n\nBy the spring of 1868, George Barnsley had been \"naturalized\" and \"taken the oath of allegiance.\" He was not unwilling to fight for his new nation, noting that \"my two years in the war department in Richmond gave me a very good idea of what men to use in my plans.\" He was \"shocked\" by a murder back in the U.S. and \"was afraid he had been murdered by the Negroes and under the impulse of horror of the thought,\" he \"determined to return to the States at all hazards.\" But he quickly got over this thought and expressed \"no desire to return to the States to live permanently\"; \"if after making money I desire another clime, I will go to Europe,\" he resolved.\n\nBut it did not seem that would be necessary for by early 1872, the younger Barnsley\u2014a medic\u2014was now in Rio de Janeiro and had \"already gained quite as good a reputation here as I had in S\u00e3o Paulo\" and had \"furnished\" his \"house very comfortably and handsomely.\" Julia Louisa Hentz Keyes also traveled from the U.S. to Brazil during this period and she too was initially pleased with what she encountered; she declared, \"we were surrounded by friends, some from the home we had left in Alabama, some from different parts of the Southern States.\" They were from Montgomery, cradle of the Confederacy, Louisiana, Texas, etc.\u2014a \"common interest made us feel near to each other,\" she said. One \"common interest\" was slavery. \"Today Captain Johnson moves to his new home,\" she said in the early postwar period; \"he has bought a large plantation and Negroes.\" His was \"the finest I have seen in Brazil or anywhere else\" with \"6000 orange trees . . . and numberless fruits. Orange trees are so abundant that he has been digging up many from his fields. I have visited several planters in this neighborhood. With one I spent a night and found him more like an American than I have met with in their homes. They speak three, four and five languages and have many things just like Southerners.\" \"Maj. McIntyre has at last, bought a place with one hundred and thirty Negroes,\" she added. \"Capt. Johnson has bought one with fifty seven Negroes\u2014he already had six or eight,\" presumably brought from the U.S. \"Russell has bought a [plantation] and Negroes also.\" Though there was \"an Episcopal Church and English schools in Rio,\" she thought the \"province of Sau (Sao) Paulo will be the great center of American enterprise in Brazil. There are many now located there, planting and prospering and others are going. The Southerners,\" she announced accurately, \"are scattered from the Amazon to Buenos Ayres,\" a distance of thousands of miles. Matthew Maury's oceanographic enterprise had not been unavailing for \"Brazil [was] not near so far from the U.S. as it once was. You can run down in a month from Baltimore very pleasantly for $100.\"\n\nJ. D. Porter of the Slave South joined her in enthusiasm. \"When I reach home,\" one correspondent was informed, \"I shall exert myself in favor of emigration to Brazil and in furtherance of the cause, I trust you will neglect no opportunity to promote the establishment of a line of steam transports directly from the South to Rio de Janeiro.\" Joseph Weed also thought there was good reason for migrating. In 1874, writing from Rio de Janeiro, he found that \"the roads were built by Americans and are owned by them\" and it was \"so profitable an investment that they have become suddenly men of large wealth.\" In 1872, Robert S. Merriwether was elated to announce that the \"profits made in manufacturing cigars must be enormous. . . . Mr. Lane told me that a few of the Confederates about [Santa] Barbara raised some nice Cuban or Paraguayan tobacco and made it up at home; and their cigars became quite the [talk of] Rio; finding their way to the Emperor himself.\" Merriwether, who was on the scene in Brazil, found that \"after the second year the lands are more easily cultivated than those in South Carolina and Georgia.\" He had arrived in 1865 \"and spent some months exploring the country, and selected this province, Sao Paulo &,\" he added triumphantly, \"have no reason to regret my choice.\" Charles Hall was also exuding mirth. This Georgian migrant \"lived on the farm\" of \"about 660 acres\" at \"Bom Retiro\" for \"sixteen years\"; he had roots in Georgia also.\n\nBut soon deep and profound doubts began to intrude on the consciousness of these wayward rebels. One reason among many that Brazil would be so willing to accept these fleeing rebels was because it was then involved in a bloody war with Paraguay and suspected that those with military skills freshly displayed could be of use in this conflict. The rebels, on the other hand, were not as convinced as to why they should flee from the frying pan of one recently concluded war to the fire of a blazing one. Still, CSA General Edward Porter Alexander early on during this war \"had made up my mind that if ever a white flag was raised I would take to the bushes. And, somehow, I would manage to set out of the country & would go to Brazil. Brazil was just going to war with Paraguay, & I could doubtless get a place in their artillery,\" earn credits in turn with the regime, and, perhaps, be in a position to maneuver his new homeland into becoming a powerful antagonist against his antagonist\u2014the U.S.\n\nAlexander was among those who participated directly in two of the transforming events of the hemisphere since the \"Paraguayan war bears the same relation to the history of South America that the American Civil War does to that of North America.\" But, ironically, Africans trumped the rebels in both cases, serving as the decisive force in breaking the back of the CSA, while in Brazil \"serving in the army became identified with the worst forms of slavery,\" guaranteeing opportunists like Alexander would find themselves sharing a trench with those they routinely despised, not least since \"by the second half of 1865 desertion had become a national phenomenon.\" As this was occurring, \"the victory of the Union in the American Civil War had forced powerful Brazilian groups to realize that conditions had so decisively turned against slavery that any explicit defense of the institution should be fruitless. . . . the Brazilian Emperor declared that the direction of events in America compelled the Brazilian government to consider the future of slavery 'because the same thing that happened during the abolition of the traffic should not happen again.'\" So potent was the Paraguayan Question in Brazilian politics then, that the **New York Times** hooted at what they deemed to be the lack of sophistication among rebel migrants, who did not sense this issue. \"How could the promise of a homestead,\" be believed, \"especially when it is known that all lands in Brazil worth anything are monopolized by the slaveholders\"\u2014\"or does there lurk in them, an intention to make recruits of the men thus bound by a bond, and to send them on the scene of the bloody war in Paraguay.\"\n\nHence, the rebels were fleeing to Brazil, often on the premise that they could continue to enjoy the tasty fruits of the labor of enslaved Africans, when Brazil itself was in the process of reconsidering this noxious practice. \"In consequence of the abolition of slavery,\" announced a report filed by Brazil's Foreign Ministry, \"considerable numbers of recent slaveholders in our Southern States contemplate a removal to Brazil where the African race are still kept under the restraints of the 'peculiar institution.'\" \"Many believe,\" said the Reverend Ballard S. Dunn in 1866, \"that foreigners cannot hold property in Brazil; particularly in slaves. This is utterly without foundation,\" he huffed, \"I know many Southern gentlemen, who have bought large numbers of slaves, and much real estate, during the last year.\" He may have had in mind the maternal grandfather of the subsequent advisor to Martin Luther King, Jr., Clifford Durr. James Henry Judkins came from a \"large landowning and slaveholding family\" that was \"unwilling to adjust to the changed South at the war's end and, in particular, refusing to accept the reality of emancipation\"\u2014so they moved to Brazil \"hoping there to reestablish their lost plantation world. He and his colleagues, he later wrote, had 'no faith in their ability to manage freed slaves.'\" This grandfather, said Durr, was the \"'greatest influence on his life'\"\u2014though it was unclear if this were in a wholly negative or positive sense.\n\nBut the rebels could hardly be comforted when Ignacio Barboza da Silva, Brazil's emissary in Washington, remarked contemptuously in May 1865 about the capture of Jefferson Davis, late of the CSA, allegedly dressed in the clothes of a woman; this diplomat did not seem particularly enthusiastic about the fact that \"inveterate prejudice exists\" and \"continues\" in the U.S. \"against\" this reviled \"African race.\" After all, it was not long before the conclusion of the \"war in the United States\" had \"convinced\" enslaved Africans in Brazil \"that they will all be freed,\" according to a Brazilian official in Para, thereby spurring mass discord amongst them and helping to alter attitudes in South America about slavery itself. Not long after that, the Brazilian Andre Reboucas was visiting New York City but due to his modicum of melanin was barred from public accommodations. \"I realized that the reason I was being refused rooms was a problem of color,\" he lamented. He speedily protested to Brazil's Consul who got a room in a \"third class hotel\" for him \"under the condition that I eat in my room and never in the restaurant\"\u2014\"I was obliged to take a bath in a barber shop,\" he added sadly.\n\nThus, the faces of the escaping Confederates were suspended somewhere between a smile at the prospect of abandoning the hated abolitionist U.S. and a frown when they came to recognize that what they thought was an Empire for Slavery was morphing into something else altogether. If they had listened more carefully, these \u00e9migr\u00e9s could have saved themselves a long journey. John F. Pickett, a former Confederate emissary in Mexico, \"believed that no Confederate veteran would find emigration to Brazil acceptable. Brazilians, Pickett contended, lacked the same social prejudices against blacks that were felt by most Southerners.\" In 1866, the Reverend Ballard S. Dunn warned potential Southern sojourners in Brazil. \"The sidewalks of the principal streets being narrow,\" he advised, \"and our hero large and portly, lo! He is jostled, by a Brazilian citizen of African descent: who presumes to apologize, by raising his hat and moving politely on. He has scarcely recovered from this rude shock of free-Negroism, when he espies, at the very next corner, a man, apparently white, conversing upon terms of perfect equality, with another citizen of the same extraction, as black as can be. Here is proof, positive, of the existence of that hateful thing, 'Negro equality.'\"\n\n\"Even the importation of free Africans is prohibited by law,\" declared Brazil's Minister of Agriculture, referring to a long-standing bar. \"On arriving,\" one Northern U.S. journalist wrote jubilantly, the migrant \"finds himself unable to go from place to place without a passport; he can buy slaves for one-fifth part, or less, than the former price [in the] South, but the slave cannot do one-hundredth part as much work as an Alabama cotton slave,\" and\u2014worse\u2014\"he finds officers of Government, at the Custom-house, judges and officers in the army, are colored men. It is endurable to see a white man, or nearly white\" in such posts \"but to see black men among chief officers of Government and owners of slaves, this reverses all former theories\" and was profoundly unsettling. \"And Brazil, that seemed at a distance to be a Paradise, seems on a nearer view to be a Paradise lost\"\u2014yet \"steamer loads of these deceived men [were] coming to Brazil every month only to repeat the disappointments of their predecessors.\" In November 1865, James McFadden Gaston seemed almost stunned when he discovered that \"Negroes are not admitted into Brazil from the U.S. unless born free, even should they be citizens of the latter\"\u2014which meant that seeking to smuggle Negroes into this nation was even more questionable than it might be otherwise. Then a few weeks later, he seemed even more surprised when \"we were called upon in the evening by the Vicar of this municipality, who is a mulatto of more than ordinary intelligence. . . . he is a native of Bahia and I understand,\" he said admitting his ignorance of where he was now residing, \"there are many people there of this mixed blood. The prevalent idea [was] that the dark complexion of many of the people in this warm climate is attributed to climate,\" said this willfully na\u00efve surgeon.\n\nGaston was distraught when he discovered there was a \"very serious difficulty\" that was \"likely to meet our people in the matter of securing a regular and reliable system of labor the cultivation\" of cotton and other crops. \"There are many who may be hired at moderate price, but they are inexperienced in the use of the plow and do not understand the proper use of the hoe, so as to cultivate the cotton to the best advantage. Neither do they have the skill in picking cotton which is found among the Negroes of the South,\" he added in a note of misplaced nostalgia for those they had only recently abused\u2014a note ironically and frequently found among these \u00e9migr\u00e9s. \"In this respect,\" Dr. Gaston added, \"a few of these [U.S.] Negroes would prove very advantageous\" in Brazil.\n\nJulia Keyes concurred with him. The \"Negroes . . . all look cheerful and happy\" she said upon arrival in Brazil. \"We find very little difference between the Negroes here and those in the States except in the amount of work they seem able to do. Our American house servant,\" she sniffed, \"will accomplish more than twice as much without trying.\"\n\nDr. Gaston, who was \"profoundly pro-slavery,\" and whose \"fondest dream was to be a plantation owner in the style of Low Country ante-bellum slave plantations of South Carolina,\" transplanted to Brazil, met a Priest, \"a mulatto of more than ordinary intelligence; but my prejudice to being associated with those having the Negro blood could not be so entirely put aside as to make me feel at ease with this colored gentleman,\" he sputtered; in fact, such bias was \"one of the basic reasons for the overall collapse of any extensive migration of Southerners to Brazil.\" The oft surprised Gaston was taken aback once more \"with the freedom which was allowed some Negro children\" in Brazil \"in coming into the room occupied by the family and with the attention given them,\" whereas such temerity would hardly be tolerated in the Slave South.\n\nCaptain James A. Thomas of the CSA visited Brazil in 1866 with a \"view to migrating to that country, but owing to the mixed race of inhabitants, he thought it an undesirable location to bear his children.\" Julia Keyes was of like mind. While in Rio de Janeiro in 1867, she noticed that \"females could not walk even to visit a near neighbor without a servant in attendance and it was often difficult to tell which was the mistress, their complexions being the same. Among them, however, were some Negroes as black as Ethiopians.\" Ballard Dunn, formerly of the Slave South, then at Iguape, Brazil, \"mocked the Southern emigrant who returned to the U.S. He 'poor mouthed' him because he could not put up with 'Negro Equality' and gave up his efforts to remain in Brazil when confronted by the 'rude shock of free Negroism\"; indeed, \"if one were to select a single factor that truly kept the emigrant Southerner separated, with exception, from the Brazilian world in the arriving and the first generation born in Brazil, it was this cultural question.\" The migrating ancestors of Lucie Hardie Wait \"thought they would buy slaves\u2014and get rich easily\" so \"they bought slaves but could talk to them, only [communicating] by signs,\" which complicated things tremendously.\n\nThe U.S. diplomat James Monroe observed that many of the rebel migrants \"'bought . . . slaves'\" upon arrival but these promptly \"'ran away, and it was not easy to recover them. . . . the fugitives secured places of refuge among their fellow slaves [on other plantations] and the Brazilian planters themselves were thought to be unsympathetic and un-helpful in the work of rendition.'\" The rebels, who may have counted on some sort of \"racial\" solidarity with their Brazilian counterparts, instead discovered ruefully that the \"snobbery evinced by Confederates towards their Brazilian neighbors was reciprocated in full by Brazilian planters who wished to discourage American competition.\"\n\nDr. Gaston detected a \"little feeling of jealousy on the part of those engaged in the cotton culture here, lest an emigration of Southern cotton planters to this country may lead to a cheapening of the article\"\u2014and a worsening of the already tenuous relations between Brazilian and former Slave South planters.\n\nThough some Brazilian elites may have welcomed these migrants, others viewed them as unneeded competition. Thus, Joseph W. Weed found that \"many of the professions cannot be practiced without becoming a citizen of Brazil.\" \"Professional men, doctors and lawyers are required to undergo an examination in Brazil in coming from the U.S.,\" which an aghast Dr. Gaston considered to be unfair\u2014and which also served to foil many potential competitors.\n\nThe recent arrivals were learning quickly that there was real meaning to Brazil being a former Portuguese colony\u2014meaning that included language barriers and more. \"I have been so surprised to find so few Negro laborers outside of the coffee houses, as compared with what I expected,\" said the visiting Southerner, Joseph W. Weed, in 1874, sounding disappointed. \"The Portuguese, about 10,000 of whom come over annually, have almost driven the darkies out of the city & [supplanted] his place as a laborer,\" he said, sounding disappointed, \"while the value of the Negro has risen & has been taken to the interior plantations, to grow coffee.\"\n\nThe visiting scholar from the U.S., Louis Agassiz, accompanied by his spouse, Elizabeth, sensed these changing tides during his post\u2013Civil War sojourn in Brazil. \"Captain Bradbury asked the proprietor of the island whether he hired or owned his slaves. 'Own them\u2014a hundred and more; but it will finish soon,' he answered in his broken English. 'Finish soon! How do you mean?'\" he was asked. \"'It finish with you, it finish here, it finish everywhere.' He said it not in any tone of regret or complaint, but as an inevitable fact. The death-note of slavery in the United States was its death-note everywhere. We thought this significant and cheering,\" the couple opined. The message they were bringing back home was contrary to what had propelled the Confederates southward. \"We may have something to learn here in our own perplexities respecting the position of the black race among us,\" they said; \"the absence of all restraint upon the free blacks, the fact that they are eligible to office, and that all professional careers are open to them, without prejudice on the ground of color, enables one to form some opinion as to their ability. . . . the result is on the whole in their favor\" since Africans did \"compare well in intelligence and activity with the Brazilians and Portuguese,\" though since the latter were a \"less energetic and powerful race than the Anglo-Saxon\" and since slavery was \"more odious\" than in the U.S., it was unclear how universal were their maunderings, it was thought. Racial biases against Africans were colliding with ethnic biases against Brazilians and Portuguese.\n\nThe perceived antipathy of Brazilian planters complicated further the tangled stay of the migrants. Besides having to adjust to being thrown into intimate gatherings with those who back home would have been deemed to be mere Negroes, the Southern sojourners had a more basic and formidable obstacle\u2014language. \"The greatest trouble to an American is the language,\" concluded Julia Keyes, for \"until he learns it he cannot succeed well at anything without assistance or at any rate, he labors under a serious disadvantage.\" Dr. Gaston studied French while en route to Brazil which \"served as a means of communication in polite society or at court,\" then \"quickly picked up Portuguese phrases\"; but \"his wife, coming later, never obtained good use of the language\" though he was \"able to take the oral and written examination\" for his profession and \"to write his thesis credibly in the Portuguese language.\" \"The Southerners are the Jews of the American Republic,\" announced the **New York Times,** \"and yet they will never find a home in foreign countries where a different language, other customs and the want of means prevent a barrier to their welfare.\" Diehards, who no longer could stomach the hegemonic Northern states, were \"more inclined to go to California, Texas and the northwestern states,\" said J. D. Porter of Alabama, than \"Brazil and some even incline towards Honduras,\" for \"until recently Brazil was a terra incognita to most of us,\" not least due to the language barrier.\n\nSome might have wished they had gone to Honduras instead of Brazil. One recent migrant complained that he had \"failed in [the] cotton crop the past season owing to a drought of seven weeks\" and would not \"make more than 1\/2 bale per acre of cotton.\" He began to wax nostalgic in this pivotal year of 1876, offering \"hope\" that the \"South may obtain all she may desire or expect to obtain in this election,\" while adding morosely, \"I feel quite lonesome, so far from all relatives or old acquaintances and now never expect to meet any of them again.\" Even Dr. Gaston, who adjusted better than most, having picked up Portuguese, admitted that he was \"often sorely tempted to despondency. Again and again he hoped for mail, only to be disappointed.\"\n\nSoon the inevitable occurred. Disgusted with the underdevelopment of Brazil compared to the U.S., upset with the state of race relations, unable to communicate in an alien tongue, bothered by the often less than friendly attitudes of the locals, and often bordering on misery, a growing number of rebel migrants swallowed their corrosive doubts about the U.S. and returned to their homeland. Such returns were often blared in the **New York Times,** that was far from friendly to the CSA, in any case. \"There arrived at the Central Hotel [in Montgomery] last night a party of ladies and gentlemen who left Brazil last month,\" it was reported in August 1867; \"they give affecting and pitiful accounts of the sufferings of many hundreds of deluded Southerners,\" recounting that \"there is no regularly organized Government in Brazil\u2014there is no society.\" One among them, \"Capt. Jack Phelan, who is so well-known and admired in Montgomery, has, we learn, left with a large number of other young men, to make California their home.\" Rebel colonies had been established throughout the hemisphere, including Mexico, Honduras, and \"the village of San Javier in the Argentine Republic\" but it was \"Brazil that promised the most, and perhaps led to the bitterest disappointment. It is from Brazil that have now returned, disheartened and disgusted, six score of those colonists who left comfortable homes here in 1867,\" it was said in early 1870.\n\nThis souring was mutual. General Wood, who had been greeted so effusively in Brazil, turned up in Natchez where he was \"elected County Attorney\"\u2014\"sic transit Gloria Braziliensis\" was the response in Brazil. More specifically, the Vice Consul in New Orleans of Brazil, informed his Foreign Ministry that \"W. W. Wood, soi dissant General is, [we] learn now in the city of Natchez. . . . he has delivered some public lectures upon Brazil, since his return but I cannot learn of his having made any movement relating to immigration to that country. He does not appear to enjoy the esteem of the better class of the population of Mississippi.\" Even then, in May 1866, migrants were still leaving for Brazil from this busy port, including a \"highly respected sugar planter. . . . several families in all some 30 persons, mostly planters from the western part of Louisiana\"\u2014but already opinions of such an exodus were being transformed.\n\nOne source in Rio de Janeiro in the year following these migrants leaving said that \"we regret to say that many mere speculative Americans have been attracted hither by this liberality and kindness of the Government towards their countrymen and look upon it as a mine from which they can dig out favors and subsidies, on specious pretexts and without the slightest wish or intention to serve their emigrating countrymen or Brazil.\" Worry was now arising that \"the immigration which was calculated at first hundreds will be thousands, perhaps tens of thousands,\" thus reaffirming that old saw about being careful about what is desired. There was, for example, Charles Edward Lewis Stuart, \"calling himself General of the late Confederate army,\" who had \"forged\" and was also \"swindling by false representations.\"\n\nThe grumbling soon became louder. \"What can it be which makes United States diplomacy unappreciated and unsuccessful in every country?\" it was asked querulously. \"Is it that the 'Manifest Destiny' is inscribed too strongly in the demeanor and language of their diplomats,\" i.e., \"the intention of its rulers to imitate the policy and the example of its Roman predecessor.\" And what about the \"Monroe Doctrine,\" now \"openly avowed to mean nothing short of the absorbing of all the independent American states into the northern republic.\" Worry was expressed about Washington's view of the all-important war in Paraguay. Thanks but no thanks was Brazil's terse and telling reply to the U.S. offer to mediate this conflict.\n\nWhy should Brazil trust the U.S., a nation with a sworn policy of anti-slavery? Consider that in 1873, President U.S. Grant\u2014who had led the victorious Union army against the de facto Brazilian ally, the CSA\u2014entertained the revival of the age-old Radical Republican dream of placing a \"discriminating duty on slave-grown products\"\u2014a measure that had Brazil in the crosshairs. It would be beneficial, the cigar-smoking, whiskey-swilling President was told, \"not only for its political effect at home\" but, as well, \"it would promote, greatly stimulate in fact, the culture of sugar in Louisiana, Texas and Florida.\" As for the negative effect on Brazil, well, it was said, this nation was \"profiting from us immensely from its sale [of coffee], the proceeds of which go mainly to purchase British goods,\" and, thus, merited no special favors. \"The world would look with favor\" upon this special duty and, besides, it would \"protect our freedmen from the unpaid labor of foreign slaves.\" In other words, the U.S. was placing pressure on Brazil to alter its economy fundamentally and profoundly. Typically, this line was bolstered in the **New York Times** as a prominently placed interview asserted that a duty on slave-grown products \"would promote\u2014greatly stimulate in fact\u2014the culture of sugar in Louisiana, Texas and Florida.\"\n\nThis proposal was not unusual. After abolishing slavery, the U.S. advocated for Brazil to do the same, not least so it would not gain a competitive advantage in certain markets, just as after London barred slavery it sought to squelch the African Slave Trade. Thus, as early as 1867, James Watson Webb declared that Brazil, being \"next to ourselves, the great power on the American continent,\" was \"in imitation of us\" \"considering the means of immediately commencing the gradual manumission of her slaves.\" The blunt Webb suggested, \"let her begin the work by at once manumitting 50,000 of her able-bodied Negroes. Let her, if need be, follow our example [ _sic_ ] and _buy_ them from their masters at our bounty rate of $1000 per head, give them freedom, and make them earn that freedom as soldiers and as freedmen\" [emphasis-original], for\u2014he said definitively\u2014\"there can be no doubt that Brazil will get rid of slavery altogether within the next 30 years.\" As he saw it, the \"Emperor\" was \"the head and front, the very soul of the movement for the emancipation of all slaves within thirty years\u2014the work to commence now, by immediate legislation. Of course, if he should abdicate, the movement ceases, and therefore the advocates of the slave interest would be well pleased to get rid of him on any terms. They'll not succeed,\" said Webb confidently though if the rebel migrants had anything to do with it\u2014many of whom had come to Brazil precisely because it perpetuated slavery\u2014the Emperor would not succeed.\n\nThus, \u00e9migr\u00e9s from the former Slave South, were increasingly being seen as a threat to the security of the U.S. Perhaps, not coincidentally, the Northern U.S. press at this moment began to unleash an inundation of inflamed accounts about their plight and the presumed questionable occurrences in Brazil itself, e.g., their \"national currency\" being \"more extensively counterfeited than that of any other country in the world.\"\n\nThe **New York Times** informed its readers in May 1871, of \"established colonization agencies in New York, Richmond, Savannah, Mobile and New Orleans\"; the **Anglo-Brazilian Times,** published in Brazil, was designed with these potential migrants in mind. Soon a \"number of very estimable gentlemen, among whom were tobacco growers from Virginia, Alabama and Mississippi and extensive sugar planters from the famous Red River district of Louisiana and Middle Texas . . . emigrated with their families to the provinces of Sao Paulo and Espiritu Santo, in lower Brazil. Whole districts of the finest land in the South, from Maryland to Texas, were sacrificed for a mere song. Entire counties were almost completely depopulated by the great exodus of reputable emigrants and disreputable adventurers.\" But soon, said the **Times,** Brazil began to sour on these sojourners as they \"refused to comply with their contract by colonizing the interior, and remained in the vicinity of the capital, eking out a miserable existence, as best they could. After making the City of Rio a perfect pandemonium for nearly two years, they were sent home at Government expense. . . . these misled people have since learned a terrible lesson of sad experience,\" as \"every day in the gay thoroughfares of the Brazilian Capital, are to be seen hundreds who have, years gone by, reveled in luxury and affluence, and who are now actually begging from door to door and making a poor, pitiful effort to drown their miseries by spending the pittance thus obtained in the nearest drinking booth, where potent libations of villainous _aguadiente_ \u2014the vilest decoction in Christendom\u2014is peddled for the smallest fraction of a cent.\" In sentence after sentence, this journalist heaped mounds of scorn on this exile:\n\nThe writer of this sketch was walking down the Rua Dereita, the great boulevard of Rio de Janeiro, one evening last January, when he was [intercepted] by a miserable, ragged and squalid-looking object, who implored him, \"for God's sake, give me only a _vinte_ (less than a quarter of a cent) to get something to eat.\" The wretched man said that he had been in Brazil four years. He had left a young wife and child in Baltimore, and had emigrated with many others, whom he said were then as destitute as he, hoping to repair his fortunes, but instead, he had been going rapidly down hill ever since he had first landed on Brazilian soil. The gentleman . . . said that he was a graduate of the Jefferson College Medical School in Philadelphia, and had at one time a large and lucrative practice in Richmond, Va. When reaching Brazil he had at first endeavored to practice medicine among the American colonists of the Sao Paulo province but the colonists were as poor as he, and he was finally compelled to return to Rio de Janeiro sick at heart and much more sick in body. Wandering about the dingy streets . . . he at last applied to the city authorities for employment [and] accepted work on the public highways.\n\nShortly thereafter, he was \"found dead in a filthy hovel in an obscure section of the city. Being a Protestant he was denied a Christian burial by the ecclesiastical authorities.\" Worse was to come. \"In a remote quarter of one of the lowest precincts of the capital is a rickety little building\"; \"over the door of the dilapidated hovel is a sign in glaring capitals\" reading \"'the Dixie Free and Easy Concert Saloon.'\" There \"as vile a set of scoundrels as ever cut a throat, is all that remains of a man, who was once a might among his people\u2014a man who has been the Mayor of one of the principal cities of the United States, and also a prominent officer in the Southern army.\" Nearby in \"the penal colony of Ferdinand de Naronba are two or three gentlemen criminals who were once respected citizens of the South, but who, having lost all their worldly possessions in the United States, were tempted to emigrate to Brazil by visions of speedy affluence and freedom from toil\" by dint of slavery. They \"recklessly plunged into an abyss of fraud and forgery, and as a consequence are now enduring a miserable existence on the lonely island of Naronba as Brazilian convicts. A very intelligent gentleman who was formerly an extensive sugar planter on the Bayou Sara in Louisiana, recently stated, while on a visit to Rio from his new home in the province of Sao Paulo, that he was not alone among the Southern colonists when he said that he was intensely disgusted with the country and would willingly return to his good old home in Louisiana if he had but the means.\" In painful detail was recounted the story of the \"seizure . . . of two daughters of a prominent citizen of Memphis\" and \"the subsequent enslavement of the fair Southerners, to satisfy the cruel claims of a hard-hearted Brazilian, to whom the father had become peculiarly indebted for a large amount.\"\n\nGodfrey Barnsley, the Georgian migrant from a family once rich in enslaved Africans, took umbrage to this widely circulated article, as did many of his fellow \u00e9migr\u00e9s. Contrary to the reporter's observations, Barnsley was outraged about the explosive allegation that \"white men's daughters and Americans were sold.\" The \u00e9migr\u00e9s were wounded by the idea that they had descended downward on the level of civilization by moving to Brazil; \"it is a great mistake,\" he said, \"to consider this country in a semi-barbarous condition\" for \"to say that white people are sold is beyond measure stupid; it is not even calumniative [ _sic_ ], for that word carries an idea of some basis to the assertion.\" He disputed the notion that the Emperor himself was pro-abolitionist; he spoke of how \"well\" these colonists were doing, though he acknowledged that \"more than a hundred Southerners went to Espiritu Santo\" and now \"that colony is totally abandoned\"; and, yes, in the \"Rebeira Province\" of S\u00e3o Paulo, \"three distinct colonies\" were now \"totally deserted.\" But what about \"Santa Barbara, S\u00e3o Paulo,\" where \"250 to 300, babies included,\" were doing fine, with some, he stressed, \"accumulating riches.\" The idea of \"seeing hundreds of Americans in Rio destitute\" was \"simply false\" and those seen in such a state were \"not Americans\" [emphasis-original] but \"mostly Irish, and it is possible the greater part of them were particular pets of the New York police.\" It was \"true that the Brazilian Government sent them back to the States, as rubbish\" but they were not \"Americans.\" However, reality was hard to ignore, even for the ideologically committed, so Barnsley's defense was as damning as the original indictment. \"I will state candidly,\" he said, \"that a greater portion are discontented and propose eventually to return to the States and for that end are saving\" [emphasis-original] because of \"dissimilarity of language and customs; difficulties of transportation, low price for skilled labor; difference in religion; inability to vote and be 'sovereigns'; disgust\u2014for the Brazilian idea that a man who sweats from work is not a gentleman; and finally\u2014the most potent of all\u2014that this country offers and gives nothing for the American, which he cannot get in his own country.\" Thus, \"more than two thirds of them that have come have already returned,\" and the \"rest may be expected to follow, sooner or later.\" Barnsley himself gave up valuable ground to Brazil's detractors by acknowledging \"I am no lover of these people and though naturalized, intend to return to the States at an early date.\"\n\nBut what seemed to irk Barnsley was not the alleged inaccuracies in accounts of what was happening to rebel migrants in Brazil, but the general inattention in the U.S. itself to events in its neighbor. \"There are eight or more superb packet lines to England, France, Italy and Germany, and only one to the States\" [emphasis-original]\u2014and this one \"receives a subsidy from the Brazilian Government to enable it to continue. Europe furnishes iron, coal, dry goods, wines, fancy articles, all kinds of machinery, carriages, etc. America sends flour and patent medicines!\"\n\nThat Barnsley would be compelled to give resonance to some of the most damaging allegations made about the migration to Brazil served to underscore how ill-fated this adventure was. For in his private moments he acknowledged that he and many others were enduring a painful adjustment to this new land. \"The whole country is infested with ants,\" there were \"scarcely any vegetables for sale,\" \"the only fruits are oranges and bananas,\" there were \"scarcely any flowers,\" the \"only fare is beef, rice and beans, with once in a while potatoes and yams.\" Barnsley was a doctor and he was disgusted that among those claiming this lofty title in Brazil was a \"pure charlatan without the least knowledge of the profession of medicine, yet to these men are entrusted the lives of the miserable slaves, simply because they think it economical.\" \"Almost everything comes from abroad which is used for clothing, for house use, for agricultural use,\" which was a \"great drawback.\" The culture was oppressive. \"Another great restraint to my happiness,\" he complained, \"is that a stranger cannot become intimately acquainted with the Brazilians unless he becomes identified with them in customs, bragging and lying\"; \"among the women,\" there was \"no education, and having nothing to do except scandalize, if one tries to become intimate his life is rendered a constant torment.\" Thus, he had kept his family \"apart, as much as possible.\" Education among men was little better, as they were \"very superficial and rarely one encounters a person who can hold a conversation on any subject beyond the more commonplace of affairs of daily life.\" \"I am wasting away precious years,\" he cried, \"I must get away from this country as soon as possible. This desire is the grand absorbing aim, to which everything else becomes subsidiary\" [emphasis-original]. But as time passed, he found himself \"doomed to remain in this country for years yet. . . . my heart yearns once more to be among my own people. . . . I grow sad and sickened with my lot.\" How could he be so \"foolish as to enter into voluntary exile,\" which had contributed to \"pecuniary embarrassment\" since his \"whole career in Brazil has been one continued misfortune dragging to the ground every time I attempt to rise.\"\n\nBut being blunt, Barnsley could not ignore that a bunch of slave-holders were not humanity's best advertisement. \"The conduct of Americans in Brazil has not been creditable to themselves or to the nation which they represent,\" he admitted; they \"swindle when they get a chance\" and the Brazilians not being \"a stupid people\" were \"fast learning\" this.\n\nThis dispirited adventure of Confederates in Brazil was reassuring to the national ego of the U.S. but in a contradictory manner. It served to discredit slaveholders and slavery which both the CSA and Brazil represented, while it buttressed rudimentary notions of white supremacy, which their South American neighbor was thought to have violated by not penalizing sufficiently \"inter-racial\" sexuality. Writing from the U.S. legation in Rio de Janeiro in the summer of 1871, James R. Partridge seemed almost heartened to find of the \"between three and four hundred\" rebel migrants \"self-exiled\" in S\u00e3o Paulo, \"very many\" were now \"exceedingly anxious to avail themselves of the generosity of our Government, which they are now glad to call their Government also, to return to the home they left.\" They had \"lost everything,\" he said, were \"without employment or the means of returning.\" He was \"aware\" that to \"relieve persons . . . from the consequences of their deliberate folly in leaving their own country\" was a discomfiting signal to transmit in a nation grounded in the idea of personal responsibility for one's actions; and \"if men alone were concerned,\" he would be \"silent,\" but there were too many \"women and children\" involved to do so. While in Para, the U.S. emissary found exiles in \"destitute circumstances,\" both \"dissatisfied\" and \"living frugally,\" all of which underscored the value of remaining true to the U.S. itself. Back in the U.S. newspaper columns were filling with tales of exiles returning disgusted with their Brazilian experience\u2014though their reluctance to repudiate slavery itself meant the U.S. Negro would have been served better by their absence.\n\nTreating the bedraggled return of these former exiles as the final victory of the Civil War, in late 1875, the **New York Times,** exaggerating for dramatic effect, found \"something significant in the return to the United States of the last detachment of the American emigrants to Brazil. . . . no such exodus had ever taken place from\" this country, thus distinguishing the loyalist exile after the Revolution since these were actually British nationals who chose to remain so. \"Some timid people,\" it was announced victoriously, \"affected to see in this migration the beginning of a depopulation of the lately rebellious States. The total strength of the movement was finally put at fifteen hundred. It now appears likely that not one-half that number were left\" in Brazil, a nation whose \"primitive business habits . . . seem excessively wasteful and dilatory.\" But now a benevolent Washington \"sent men-of-war after the Southern fugitives. But they were sent in answer to a call for help, not in anger,\" i.e., as reconciliation between the former Slave South and the North at the expense of the U.S. Negro.\n\nThus, as the **New York Times** put it, 750 out of an estimated 1500 U.S. nationals remained in Brazil as the pivotal year of 1876 approached. This may have been an underestimation, a reflection of the Northern press's antipathy to these \u00e9migr\u00e9s and their concomitant desire to downplay their significance. The \u00e9migr\u00e9s provided lethal ammunition to their detractors with their incessant complaining and their festering anti-Washington sentiments. Still, the devolutionary spiral of slavery in Brazil meant that any dream of restoring the equivalence of African and chattel was rapidly coming to a close.\n\n## **Epilogue**\n\nDespite the return to the U.S. of so many disgruntled exiles, others remained in Brazil where they continued to shape their new homeland, just as they had molded their old. Thus, \"when a Senator opposed to slavery was assassinated on the eve of Brazil's emancipation\" in 1888, \"the Confederados\"\u2014as they came to be called\u2014\"were at first suspected.\" Those with U.S. ties may have been innocent in this instance but others were a more troublesome presence in Brazilian internal affairs. In early 1888, a \"police delegate of the municipality who sympathized with the antislavery movement was sheltering refugees in his home.\" This was at a time when many plantations were \"being abandoned\" in anticipation of slavery's 1888 demise and, thus, \"angry slave proprietors decided to take action. They were led by two naturalized Brazilians, James Ox Warne and John Jackson Clink, immigrants from the United States, who had fought for the Confederacy during the Civil War. The two incited the planters by telling them that they had 'cockroach blood' and that under such circumstances a revolution would have occurred in any other country.\" They \"bludgeoned\" the \"young man to death,\" along with others deemed to be abolitionist sympathizers.\n\nAs early as 1867, the exile, John Codman, had signaled that many of his fellow \u00e9migr\u00e9s would not be enthusiastic about the demise of slavery\u2014and the concomitant final strangulation of the African Slave Trade\u2014in their new homeland. \"Soon the pressure of the abolition party in Brazil, aided by the influence of Brazil and the United States, will terminate slavery altogether,\" he said with rancor, referring to \"the anti-slavery party\" as \"already a disturbing political element.\" \"The shock upon society will not be so great there as it has been here,\" he added generously, \"and the absence of distinctions of color [ _sic_ ] will aid in incorporating the black into the body politic,\" though he warned that \"coming as we did from a country where we knew too well how much of the pretended love for the Negro has emanated from that political ambition which has made him the mere tool for the purposes of party and of power,\" he advised Brazilians to adopt an alternative course.\n\nThe Confederates had seemed to be a people without a nation\u2014or a hemisphere\u2014as their attempt to revive the \"peculiar institution\" ran aground on the shoals of Brazilian abolitionism. Unwilling to reconcile with abolitionism, they had even more difficulty adapting to a substantive role for the formerly enslaved in politics. The latter did not make it easy for them, for as in the U.S. they came to take quite seriously their newly forged citizenship rights. Thus, in April 1869, a group of African-Americans petitioned President Grant; they wanted some of their number to be appointed not only for diplomatic posts in Liberia, Haiti, and other Latin American nations but, as well, wanted their leader\u2014Frederick Douglass\u2014appointed Minister to Brazil, indicative of their viewing this South American nation as part of the Pan-African world.\n\nAs was to happen so often in coming decades, these petitioners were to be sorely disappointed. For continuing the antebellum tradition of appointing \"reliable\" white Southerners as chief diplomats in Brazil, the revival of this practice after the war was a troubling signal that though slavery and the African Slave Trade might have virtually disappeared, the ideology that underpinned both was very much alive. Thus, with Reconstruction's demise, dispatched to Brazil was Henry W. Hilliard, a \"strong, unrepentant rebel\"; in fact, \"there was not in the city of Augusta in the Summer of 1865, after the termination of the rebellion, a more decided rebel than this man Hilliard\"\u2014he was a \"'last ditch rebel.'\" Hilliard, born in Cumberland County, North Carolina in 1808, was admitted to the bar in Athens, Georgia in 1829, and in 1831 was \"elected to a Professorship in the University of Alabama\" before Jefferson Davis \"commissioned him as a Brigadier-General in the Provisional Army of the Confederate States.\" A self-described \"Union man\" wrote in anguish about the \"active part taken by\" Hilliard in \"causing the separation of the state of Tennessee from the Union in 1861\"\u2014the \"union men of 1861 are indignant and ashamed,\" it was said, \"that such a person should represent in a foreign country the Government they loved more than life.\"\n\nHilliard sought to reassure the doubting, issuing a \"long statement as to the industrial results of emancipation\" in the U.S.; his \"able and temperate letter, coming from a Southern man who was engaged in the rebellion,\" said one news report in 1880, \"has greatly encouraged the friends of immediate emancipation in Brazil, while it has somewhat offended the Brazilian Bourbons. It is also pleasant to remark that the Emperor thanked Mr. Hilliard for his letter.\"\n\nEven the approach of abolition in 1888 did little to alter the reinstated policy of sending white Southerners to represent U.S. interests in Brazil, reversing the wishes of African-American petitioners. Thomas J. Jarvis of North Carolina represented a tightly woven strand of U.S. representation\u2014\"reliable\" white Southerners providing undistinguished leadership. \"I would gladly [trade] the magnificence of Rio for the simplicity of home,\" he said at one point, \"and when I say home I mean North Carolina.\" He had expected a \"seat in the President's Cabinet\" but he was \"under obligation to the Party\" and was \"bound\" to accept the post in Brazil. \"I did not desire this place,\" he wailed, and wanted the \"Party\" to \"withdraw\" his \"name\" but he was refused, and though he found \"Petropolis\" to be \"the prettiest mountain city I ever saw,\" Jarvis's stay marked the beginning of a new trend in U.S.-Brazilian relations, whereby the inflamed issues of enslavement and the African Slave Trade were no longer the defining characteristic and third-rate politicians had to be cajoled to move southward.\n\nEven before the advent of abolition in Brazil, U.S. emissaries were getting increasingly grumpy about Brazil. Reporting from Rio de Janeiro in 1879, John C. White, was not sympathetic to his host country, remarking that \"with the exception of the blacks, Brazilians do not perform manual labor, and very few of them are engaged in trade\"; a \"professional existence or a political office is the wish and work of the Brazilian.\" Yes, it was \"popular to say that this country is an Eldorado for Americans with energy and money and many American newspapers have pictured Brazil as the land of plenty,\" but he disagreed. \"Eventually the trade of this country will be controlled by our country,\" he predicted, \"but it will take time.\" In the meantime, a replay of previous decades was still in play as Britain and Brazil seemed to be in a virtual marriage: \"English capital, English goods, English subsidized steamship lines, and English influence\" remained to \"be met, checked and overcome.\"\n\nAnother perennial was Maury's dream of having U.S. Negroes develop Brazil. Hilliard reported that \"de Lesseps has applied to the Emperor of Brazil to supply him with laborers\" for construction of the Panama Canal and was informed that \"15,000 Negroes will be furnished . . . under this arrangement.\" Hilliard was dismissive, however, observing that \"the application may have been made but it will lead to nothing.\" Though not enthusiastic about Brazilian Negroes moving closer to the U.S. by coming to Panama, Maury's idea of sending U.S. Negroes to Brazil was another matter altogether. For at that moment a U.S. contractor had \"determined to send colored men to Brazil to work upon the Madiera and Mamore Railroad. It is more than probable that 500 will go out [to] Rio de Janeiro\" and it was added a bit optimistically, \"the Brazilian government will make no objection to their landing.\" \"Over 300\" of these were \"residents of Washington,\" which may have been pleasing to those in the nation's capital concerned with the growing \"colored\" population there. Yet this latest attempt to rid the nation of this problematic population was encountering a familiar roadblock, as the \"contractors for the Brazil railroad\" were informed by \"the Brazilian Secretary of State that colored men would not be permitted to enter the Empire as part of the working force of the contractors.\" Then after that was negotiated, the \"Senate\" had to pass a bill \"authorizing the issue of passports free to colored citizens going to Brazil,\" as the previous $5 charge \"practically prevented many colored men,\" from traveling southward.\n\nAs some in Brazil saw it, these men were \"best fitted for the work, to which the Brazilian Minister in Washington would not consent, he doubting the legality of an introduction of free blacks into Brazil\"; then the \"Government telegraphed last week to declare to him that American citizens, whatever their color, can be brought. This is an important boon,\" it was reported, \"and will greatly facilitate the construction.\" It seemed that Brazil and the U.S. were evolving toward a more \"modern\" conception of the role of the formerly enslaved; i.e., they would not be barred solely because of their color but, instead, could be slated to labor in certain posts precisely because of that still disabling factor.\n\nThen other factors intruded. As excited Negro men began to meet in Washington, this \"gave rise to a report that secret meetings\" were \"being held by the working men of the District in furtherance of a labor strike to be started throughout the country in August next and that these meetings were arranged by representatives of Western labor organizations.\" On the other hand, as \"an impression prevailed that colored men who would go to Brazil would be consigned to slavery, the requisition could not be filled.\" Rather vainly \"the agent explained that Brazil was averse to permitting the settlement of colored men in that country and [that] laws forbid such settlement. These laws, however, have been suspended with reference to such colored men as would go to Brazil to assist in constructing the railroad and those who would go would be furnished passports free by the United States, Congress having passed an act recently for this purpose.\" Pay would be \"$1.50 per day and their expenses to Brazil and return, provided they will remain two years.\" Finally, it was determined that \"about 60 laborers were obtained,\" who would depart soon, which lent optimism that such employment would mean \"labor strikes will be reduced in proportion to the number of idle men that will be given employment and taken from a community largely overstocked with laborers.\" Maury's dream of Brazil as a \"safety valve\" for the U.S. was being realized, albeit not in the manner he originally intended.\n\nBut the difference now was that U.S. Negroes themselves were beginning to look southward longingly, their interest stirred by both the atrocities they were forced to endure regularly and the spotlight being shown on Brazil as a result of the export of black workers to build a railroad. In 1886, the all-black AME Church in the U.S. passed \"resolutions reviewing the history of Negro emancipation in the United States and expressing sympathy with the movement for the gradual emancipation of slaves in Brazil,\" which were \"unanimously adopted. The resolutions were translated into French and an engrossed copy forwarded to the Emperor of Brazil.\" In the year of abolition, 1888, A. A. Jones, a \"prominent colored leader\" in Indianapolis\u2014\"formerly of Virginia\"\u2014declared, \"'we are going to weed some of the Southern States of the colored population.'\" Why? Well, for starters, \"'the Democracy will not let them vote; they do not appreciate the value of colored labor and we propose to get the voters and their families out of the country. . . . we propose to send them to South America. Brazil is the objective point. Everybody down there is dark, and there is no trouble on the score of color. We will get many of them away this summer,'\" he said sanguinely. \"'Missouri'\" Negroes would be an initial target. \"'We have enlisted men with money in the enterprise,'\" he added, \"'and we are systematically preparing for the exodus. We will have plenty of funds when the time comes for action.'\"\n\nReverend Jones was not singular in his desire for mass Negro emigration to Brazil. That same year of abolition, 1888, a \"rumor\" reached Washington and Rio about a \"scheme\" said to \"have originated in Topeka, Kansas for starting a great emigration of colored people from the Southern States to South America.\" Apparently, there was a distinct fear of the \"probability\" of these potential \u00e9migr\u00e9s \"being sold into slavery,\" though it was felt that \"President Cleveland's administration would not tolerate such a scheme for a moment.\"\n\nThis was part of a larger \"scheme of colonizing African laborers in South and Central America . . . affecting many states and hundreds of thousands of people.\" \"Several well-known colored men . . . of means met three years ago to consult as to the best method of relieving their people from the condition that prevailed in the extreme Southern States.\" They quickly \"arrived at the conclusion that South America was the land that would give them shelter and a home.\" These men \"all with some wealth and some of them counting with six figures, sent out educated agents,\" as \"the Guianas, Brazil and the Argentine Confederation were examined\"; this was \"quietly effected by a secret organization whose head is in Topeka\" as the idea was to \"carry off more than a million of laborers from the cotton, sugar and rice fields.\" \"Important concessions would be made by the Brazilian and Argentine governments in the way of land and immunity from taxation,\" it was expected, while \"owing [to] the mixed blood already existing in some of those countries their color will not debar them from political and social preferment.\"\n\nThe **Rio Daily News,** which reported this story, was skeptical. \"If these agents visited Brazil,\" it was said, \"they succeeded wonderfully well in keeping themselves and their purposes well out of sight and if any inducements have been offered they have been verbal and through secret channels.\" \"No colony of American Negroes will ever [be] prosperous and contented in South America, especially in Brazil,\" it was predicted confidently. \"The language, laws, customs and institutions of all these countries, except British Guiana, are foreign to them\"; indeed, huffed this journal, \"it is our candid opinion that there is not one single country in South America where they will be treated as well as in the United States.\" Like their Confederate opposite numbers, these U.S. Negroes evidently did not realize that \"without railways, steamship lines, and markets, and without government protection against Indians and lawless characters, the chances of their making even a bare living are very slight\"; \"they cannot expect help from Brazil, for the country is already poor and already overburdened with beggars and parasites. . . . chances are that they will starve or be degraded to the level of the savages about them.\" \"If the American colony at Santarem on the Amazon could not maintain itself, what can the less energetic Negro expect? Every one of the American colonies in this country has failed and disappeared, except that of Santa Barbara and it is certain that no Negro colony can do better.\" Hitting a sensitive nerve, the paper proclaimed, that these Negroes \"may find less prejudice against his color here in Brazil, more opportunities for association and amalgamation, but to gain those he must make infinite sacrifice and suffer infinite loss.\"\n\nBefore this ambitious scheme petered out, it was reported that it was \"making rapid progress\" in \"eight states,\" though skepticism about its prospects reigned. These Negroes were focusing on Brazil and Argentina, \"where they are told that there is no prejudice against their color.\" Settling \"on the highlands of the Southern tributaries of the Amazon, [was] an absurd chimera,\" it was suggested. \"In the end,\" it was said, \"the consulates of the United States in this country, will soon be overrun with destitute Negroes, and the United States government will have to send for them, just as it did for some of the white emigrants after the rebellion.\"\n\nThus, there was no takeoff for this ambitious scheme of colonization though about twenty years later a number of U.S. nationals sought to revive the filibustering of the previous century. For it was in 1907 that \"nine men went to Brazil in November to conquer a state of 2,000,000 inhabitants,\" a plot that also failed miserably. All were \"dressed in khaki uniform of the American army\" and were \"well armed with revolvers and Remington rifles,\" though they were portrayed as mentally unbalanced, others were not so sure.\n\nThough perhaps not lineal descendants, they were, at least, ideological descendants of the \"Confederados\" who had descended upon Brazil in the years following the Civil War. Some among this latter group remained in Brazil as the 20th century wound down and they were carrying on the traditions of their ancestors; thus, \"such words as 'nigger'\" were used \"with the same abandon\" as by their \"slave-owning ancestors\" and they were \"very conservative politically.\" When then Governor Jimmy Carter of Georgia visited Brazil just before his capture of the White House in 1976, he was so \"overcome with the joy of finding an old-time Southern town\" he \"wept.\" His spouse, Rosalynn Carter, \"found the gravestone of an ancestor named Wise.\" Confederate flags continued to flutter in these neighborhoods that time forgot. Some of these descendants had honored their ancestors' pledge to construct a nation to challenge the U.S. that so many of them abhorred. Jose Luiz Whitaker Ribeiro, for example, was President of Engesa, \"Brazil's largest arms exporter\" and a challenger to the U.S. in this lucrative market; he was descended from Joseph Whitaker who had fled Georgia in 1866. This was consistent with the martial and adversarial spirit that had animated the initial wave of Confederate migrants. Interviewed in 1978 in Brazil, Elizabeth McAlpine MacKnight did not seek to prettify the reason her Alabama-born father\u2014who had served as Jefferson Davis's bodyguard\u2014had migrated to Brazil. \"Till the day my father died,\" she exclaimed, \"I reckon he always had a kind of hatred for the Yankees.\"\n\nThus, abolition descended upon Brazil without any mass effort of U.S. Negroes to find a more welcoming home south of the border. If this had occurred, they would have encountered a land that may have perplexed these migrants. For as one analyst has put it, \"the situation in Brazil is better characterized by the saying 'the poor white person is black and the rich [black] person is white.' This comparison might suggest a possible amendment to the African-American perspective 'or I can be black, become rich, go to Brazil and become white!'\" In the U.S. \"no white person can acknowledge any African ancestry, because by definition anyone with African ancestry is black,\" while \"even [former] President Fernando Henrique Cardoso acknowledged having 'um pen a cozinha,'\" i.e., \"'one foot in the kitchen,' an expression referring to his having had a black ancestress.\"\n\nOn 14 May 1888, writing from Petropolis, Thomas J. Jarvis, the U.S. Minister there, still distraught about being away from his beloved North Carolina, noted, almost in passing, \"yesterday the General Assembly of Brazil finally passed and the Princess Imperial Regent approved a law abolishing slavery in Brazil. . . . I therefore do not share in the fears expressed by some as to its immediate effect on the various industries.\"\n\nMeanwhile in Albany, New York, the \"sixty-eighth Annual Conference of the African Methodist Episcopal Church,\" meeting on their nation's national holiday in 1888, designated a committee to \"prepare resolutions to be sent to the Brazilian Minister at Washington, by him to be conveyed to\" the Emperor, \"thanking [him] for freeing the slaves in Brazil.\" And with that a curtain was rung down on one of the more inglorious chapters in their nation's history: the promiscuous participation of U.S. nationals in the African Slave Trade to Brazil.\n\nReportedly, in a 2002 meeting between U.S. President George W. Bush and then Brazilian President Fernando Henrique Cardoso, the former asked, \"'Do you have blacks too?'\" Bush's aide, Condoleezza Rice\u2014who happened to be of African descent\u2014\"noticing how astonished the Brazilian was, saved the day by telling Bush 'Mr. President, Brazil probably has more blacks than the USA. Some say it's a country with the most blacks outside Africa.'\"\n\nThe widespread circulation of this story in Brazil may suggest lingering feelings there about how U.S. nationals transformed the demographic makeup of this South American colossus by dint of the illicit African Slave Trade.\n\nSimilarly, though there is little concern in the U.S. about a real or imagined security threat emerging from Brazil, the reverse is not necessarily the case. Matthew Fontaine Maury and his dream of seizing the Valley of the Amazon may not be forgotten either; a sensitive nerve in Brazil was exposed in June 2005, when it was reported that \"suspicions run wild that 'hegemonic' powers like the U.S. have desires on the vast region,\" meaning the Amazon; \"many are convinced that foreign powers, in particular the [U.S.] are making plans for a takeover of the world's biggest tropical forest to secure the rights to its seemingly limitless natural resources, from wood to gems to medicinal herbs. In a national survey released last month, 75% of Brazilians polled feared a foreign invasion provoked by their country's natural riches.\"\n\nU.S. nationals have continued to stream into Brazil, this time attracted by tourist attractions, particularly the lovely beaches of Rio de Janeiro, once the site of black bodies floating in nearby waters. Reversing the journey taken by Pedro Parris, who was kidnapped in East Africa, then dragged to Brazil before decamping to the U.S. where he became a citizen, the popular U.S. singer, Dionne Warwick, has become something of an \u00e9migr\u00e9 in Brazil, where she maintains a residence. \"Brazil is my real home now,\" she says. \"I love everything about Brazil: the land, the people and the culture.\" She was preceded by the popular jazz clarinetist, Booker Pittman\u2014a lineal descendant of Booker T. Washington\u2014who migrated permanently to Brazil in 1937, where he died in 1969.\n\nFor just as Frederick Douglass and his contemporaries jousted about whether Brazil was a racial \"horror\" or \"paradise,\" this discourse continued in the era following slavery's abolition in 1888.\n\nThe latest African-American to confront this question at length is the prominent **Washington Post** columnist, Eugene Robinson. Posted to South America as a correspondent by this newspaper, he traveled throughout the nation and felt compelled in 1999 to wax at length about what he saw, most notably the parallels. \"Some hear Salvador's music,\" he rhapsodized, \"and think of New Orleans, others meet the city's black intellectuals and think of New York.\" \"There was no shortage of people I'd have classified as white,\" he remarked, \"but they seemed a distinct minority. The acid test, for me, was that most of the people I saw would have looked seriously out of place at an American country club. To the extent that the identity of a nation is equivalent to the identity of its people, then Brazil was by my lights a great black nation\u2014unadvertised as such, but a black nation nonetheless.\" Like many before him, Robinson was comparing the so-called one drop rule of the U.S.\u2014where any hint of African ancestry consigns one to the category of \"black\"\u2014and the more flexible Brazilian system, which has been interpreted in North America as a denial of \"blackness\" but actually is a reflection of a huge nation colonized by relatively small Portugal, then being inundated by Africans in the 19th century (not least because of the actions of U.S. nationals), that, in turn, generated a desire to create intermediate buffers between black and white.\n\nComing from a mostly black Washington, D.C., Robinson was struck by the parallels after he stumbled\u2014literally\u2014over black corpses, victims of a tightly linked web of poverty, crime, and violence, in Rio de Janeiro, one of this sprawling city's many scandals. \"The inference I drew,\" he asserted wearily, \"was that young black men were seen as expendable in Brazil. . . . I was ready to get on my high horse about all this, until on reflection I realized that that could be a pretty good description of the way young black men were seen in the United States as well.\"\n\nIf Robinson had been in Rio de Janeiro in 2005, no doubt he would have been struck by yet another macabre display of black corpses. For it was then that one of the world's largest slave burial grounds was unearthed, a mass grave where thousands of corpses were abandoned by slave traders well before abolition in 1888. Experts say that as many as 20,000 bodies may have been dumped ignominiously in the Cemiterio dos Prietos Novos or the Cemetery of the New Blacks. Yet a mystery remained as to whether the burying of these corpses was the result of the depredations of U.S. nationals during the heyday of the illicit slave trade approximately 160 years ago.\n\n## **Notes**\n\n### NOTES TO THE INTRODUCTION\n\n1. In this sense this book is akin to previous books of mine. See e.g. Gerald Horne, **From the Barrel of a Gun: The United States and the War Against Zimbabwe, 1965\u20131980,** Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001: This book is an account of U.S. policy toward this land in South-Central Africa, along with a narrative focused on the actions of U.S. nationals\u2014especially mercenaries\u2014there. Here Zimbabweans are incidental to the telling of this central story. See also **Black and Brown: African-Americans and the Mexican Revolution, 1910\u20131920,** New York: New York University Press, 2005: This book looks at Mexico through the eyes of African-Americans in the context of the Revolution. Here Mexicans are incidental to the telling of this central story. Hence, the book at hand is not actually comparable to those works that examine the African Diaspora, either generally or as it relates to Brazil. See e.g. James H. Sweet, **Recreating Africa: Culture, Kinship and Religion in the African-Portuguese World, 1441\u20131770,** Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003. James Lorand Matory, **Black Atlantic Religion: Tradition, Transnationalism and Matriarchy in the Afro-Brazilian Candomble,** Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005; Linda M. Heywood, ed., **Central Africans and Cultural Transformation in the African Diaspora,** New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002; Julius Scott, \"The Common Wind: Currents of Afro-American Communication in the Era of the Haitian Revolution,\" Ph.D. dissertation, Duke University, 1986; Pierre Verger, **Bahia and the West African Trade, 1549\u20131851,** Ibadan: Ibadan University Press, 1964; Least of all is this book written as a history of Brazilian slavery. See e.g. Flavio dos Santos Gomes, **Exp\u00eariencias Atl\u00e2nticas: Ensaios e Pesquisas Sobre a Escravidao e o P\u00f3s-Emancipa\u00e7\u00e3o no Brasil,** Passo Fundo, Brasil: Universidade de Passo Fundo, UPF Editora, 2003; Maria Helena Machado, **Crime e Escravid\u00e3o: Trabalho, Luta e Resist\u00eancia nas Lavouras Paulistas, 1830\u20131888,** S\u00e3o Paulo: Editora Brasiliense, 1987; Joseli Mendonca, **Cenas da Aboli\u00e7\u00e3o: Escravos e Senhores no Parlamento e na Justi\u00e7a,** S\u00e3o Paulo: Editora Funda\u00e7\u00e3o Perseu Abramo, 2001; Leonardo Dantas Silva, **Aboli\u00e7\u00e3o em Pernambuco,** Recife: FUNDAJ, Editora Massangana, 1988; Hebe Castro, **Das Cores do Sil\u00eancio: Os Significados no Sudeste Escravista, Brasil S\u00e9culo XIX,** Rio de Janeiro: Nova Fronteira, 1998; Nor is this book\u2014as such\u2014a comparative history: see e.g. Richard Graham, \"Slavery and Economic Development: Brazil and the U.S. in the 19th Century,\" **Comparative Studies in Society and History,** 23 (Number 4, October 1981): 620\u2013655; Celia Azevedo, **Abolitionism in the United States and Brazil: A Comparative Perspective,** New York: Garland, 1995.\n\n2. Joseph E. Inikori and Stanley L. Engerman, eds., **The Atlantic Slave Trade: Effects on Economics, Societies, and Peoples in Africa, the Americas and Europe,** Durham: Duke University Press, 1992, 9.\n\n3. Joseph E. Inikori, \"The Struggle against the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade,\" in Sylviane A. Diouf, ed., **Fighting the Slave Trade: West African Strategies,** Athens: Ohio University Press, 2003, 170\u2013198, 170\u2013171. But see David Eltis, et al., \"A Participa\u00e7\u00e3o dos Paises da Europa e das Am\u00e9ricas no Tr\u00e1fico Tranatl\u00e2ntico de Escravos: Novas Evid\u00eancias,\" **Afro-Asia,** 24 (2000): 9\u201350: This authoritative article suggests that 12 million enslaved Africans crossed the Atlantic and that it is unlikely that there were more than 13 million, with about 10.4 million landing alive. See also Philip D. Curtin, **The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census,** Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969: estimates here are lower than those of Inikori. See also James Rawley, **The Transatlantic Slave Trade: A History,** New York: Norton, 1981: this author's estimates are also lower than those of Inikori.\n\n4. Gwen Midlo Hall, **Slavery and African Ethnicities in the Americas,** Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005, xiv, 95; David Eltis, et al., eds., **The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade,** Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Hall argues that the renowned Eltis database \"undercounts the massive Portuguese and Brazilian slave trade voyages.\"\n\n5. Jose C. Curto and Paul E. Lovejoy, eds., **Enslaving Connections: Changing Cultures of Africa and Brazil During the Era of Slavery,** Amherst, New York: Humanity Books, 2004, 11. See also W. D. Christie to Earl Russell, 5 August 1860, in **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 64, No. 47, 1861\u20131862,** Shannon: Irish University Press, 1969.\n\n6. A. J. R. Russell-Wood, **Slavery and Freedom in Colonial Brazil,** Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 2002, 27, 113, 117.\n\n7. David Eltis, **Economic Growth and the Ending of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade,** New York: Oxford University Press, 1987, 14.\n\n8. Leslie Bethell, **The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade: Britain, Brazil and the Slave Trade Question, 1807\u20131869,** London: Cambridge University Press, 1970, x.\n\n9. Hugh Thomas, **The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade: 1440\u20131870,** New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997, 743, 746, 862. Thomas argues that Philip Curtin, whose estimates of the Atlantic Slave Trade, are lower than those of Inikori's, was \"understandably baffled\"\u2014\"like most of his successors\"\u2014\"as how to face the vast Portuguese-Brazilian slave traffic. . . . Curtin underestimated both the illegal Cuban and Brazilian trades in the nineteenth century.\" See Ibid., Philip Curtin, **The Atlantic Slave Trade.** See also Jean-Michel Deveau, \"Pedagogy of the History of the Slave Trade,\" in Doudou Diene, ed., **From Chains to Bonds: The Slave Trade Revisited,** Paris: UNESCO, 2001, 397\u2013415, 408: \"the period of the clandestine slave trade between 1815 and 1860 appears to have been significantly underestimated.\" Still, an estimate based on Curtin's figures shows that Brazil imported more enslaved Africans during the 1841\u20131850 decade\u2014338,000\u2014than any other. See E. Phillip LeVeen, **British Slave Trade Suppression Policies, 1821\u20131865,** New York: Arno Press, 1977, 7.\n\n10. Stanley S. Stein and Barbara H. Stein, **The Colonial Heritage of Latin America: Essays on Economic Dependence in Perspective,** New York: Oxford University Press, 1970, 148.\n\n11. Robert Fogel and Stanley Engerman, **Time on the Cross: The Economics of American Negro Slavery,** New York: Norton, 1989, 14, 28, 52.\n\n12. W. E. B. Du Bois, **The Suppression of the African Slave Trade to the United States of America, 1638\u20131870,** Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1969, 162.\n\n13. Captain Brunwick Popham, U.K. to Admiral George Elliot, 24 December 1838: \"it has been mentioned by Spaniards and Portuguese slaving on this coast\" of Africa \"that, were it not for the active cooperation of the Americans, the slave trade would very materially decline\u2014in fact be but feebly carried on. I do not doubt, from all I hear, that the citizens of the United States (generally of Baltimore) are more deeply interested in the slave-trade to Havana and Brazil than is generally supposed,\" in **Reports in Congress: Slavery Agitation and John Brown,** 1860, 370835-49 [unclear provenance], _Huntington Library\u2013San Marino, California._ See also e.g. Joao Baptista Moreira, Portuguese Legation in Rio De Janeiro, to Lisbon, 10 August 1851, \"Diplomatas Portugueses no Rio,\" _Archivo Hist\u00f3rico-Diplom\u00e1tico, Minist\u00e9rio dos Negocios Estrangeiros\u2013Lisbon,_ re: A Portuguese national buying a U.S. ship, renaming and reflagging it before it sails to Angola. Similar content is reflected in J. B. Moreira to Lisbon, 29 November 1850 and other letters in this file reflecting transfer of U.S. registered ships to Lusophone nationals planning trips to slave-hunting grounds. In the same archive in Lisbon, see John C. Calhoun to William Figaniere, Consul General of Portugal in New York City, 24 June 1850, [translation] Legation of Portugal in Washington, Correspondence with the U.S. Government, 1835\u20131869, A 28, M17, Torre 4 Piso, Estante 1, 15: \"The usual course of the slave trade in Brazil has been for the slaver to take out an original crew of Americans to Cabinda, or some other place on the African coast, there discharge the crew, upon which the vessel is sent back to Brazil with a cargo of slaves, navigated by 'passengers.'\" For a typical case of direct U.S. involvement, see \"U.S. vs. Cyrus Libby, May Term 1846, General Case Files, U.S. Circuit Court for District of Maine, Records of Circuit Courts of United States,\" Record Group 21, _National Archives and Records Administration\u2013Waltham, Massachusetts._ See also U.S. Consul in Bahia to U.S. State Department, 6 May 1850, Record Group 59, Roll 1, T331, **Records of the U.S. Department of State, Dispatches from U.S. Consuls in Bahia, Brazil, 1850\u20131906,** _National Archives and Records Administration\u2013College Park, Maryland_ : \"I have been threatened with protests, abandonments, damages . . . for refusing to grant papers to American vessels condemned at this port (sold at public sale) to enable them to proceed to the coast of Africa\" to get \"cargoes of slaves.\" Sadly, reconstructing some of this history is problematic since there was a \"distressed state of affairs . . . in this consulate\" with an \"'Aegean Stable'\" of strewn files. In same file see also Chief of Police, Bahia, to U.S. Consulate, circa November 1850 [translated from Portuguese]: \"foreign vessels\" of U.S. origin \"having brought to this port on board of their vessel, liberated slaves\" in violation of the \"law of 7th of November 1831 . . . subject themselves to a penalty of one hundred mil reis for every person so brought and also the expenses.\" See also Report, 23 June 1852, FO 115\/124, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens, London_ : \". . . the Brazilian slave merchants intend to employ vessels belonging to the United States in that [slave] traffic.\" This made sense in that U.S. reluctance\u2014and its power to enforce its wishes\u2014to allow vessels with the Stars and Stripes to be searched for potential slaving, was an immense boost to this illegal trade. See also in same file the letter from Henry Southern in Rio de Janeiro, 16 August 1852; see also Alexander Majoribanks, **Travels in South and North America,** New York: Appleton, 1853, 62, \"Jose Cliffe, M.D., a native of the United States, settled in the Brazils and for some time engaged in the slave trade [and] it seems had made large profits. . . . he pronounces the slave trade the most lucrative one under the sun, yielding from one to three hundred per cent, slaves being generally bought in Africa for 5 [pounds] and sold in Brazil for 75 [pounds].\"\n\n14. Ibid., Leslie Bethell, **The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade,** 189, 184. See also Craig M. Simpson, **A Good Southerner: The Life of Henry A. Wise of Virginia,** Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985, 63.\n\n15. See Richard Carl Froelich, \"The United States Navy and Diplomatic Relations with Brazil, 1822\u20131871,\" Ph.D. dissertation, Kent State University, 1971, 393: \"In the decade 1840\u20131850, fifty-two slaving ships flying the United States flag cleared Rio de Janeiro only a few of which were ever captured. During the five year period ending in 1845, sixty-four American vessels were sold in the capital alone, most of which because of their design were undoubtedly employed as slavers. . . . commerce between Brazil and Africa during the nineteenth century was negligible, so it must be assumed that these ships were utilized as slavers. While there is no way of estimating the total number of slaves brought into Brazil on American-flag vessels, the figure must surely run into the hundreds of thousands.\"\n\n16. Manolo G. Florentino, \"Slave Trading and Slave Traders in Rio de Janeiro, 1790\u20131830,\" in Ibid., Curto and Lovejoy, eds., **Enslaving Connections,** 57\u201379, 67.\n\n17. Ibid., David Eltis, 199.\n\n18. Mame-Kouna Tondut-Sene, \"The Travel and Transport of Slaves,\" in Ibid., Doudou Diene, 15\u201321, 15. See also Ibid., James H. Sweet, **Recreating Africa,** 60.\n\n19. Patrick Manning, \"The Slave Trade and Demographic Evolution of Africa,\" in Ibid., Doudou Diene, 103\u2013118, 114.\n\n20. Ibid., Gwen Midlo Hall, **Slavery and African Ethnicities in the Americas,** xiii; Eric Anderson, \"Yankee Blackbirds: Northern Entrepreneurs and the Illegal International Slave Trade, 1815\u20131865,\" M.A. thesis, University of Idaho, 1999, 349: \"capital earned in the slave trade also contributed to industrialization during the first decades of the nineteenth century.\"\n\n21. Manisha Sinha, **The Counterrevolution of Slavery: Politics and Ideology in Antebellum South Carolina,** Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000, 136, 151\u2013152, 153.\n\n22. See e.g. Eric Walther, **The Fire-Eaters,** Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1992, 32, 150:\n\n23. See e.g. Jesse T. Carpenter, **The South as a Conscious Minority, 1789\u20131861,** Gloucester, Massachusetts: Peter Smith, 1963, 179\u2013180.\n\n24. Statement by W. L. Garrison, in Stephen B. Oates, ed., **The Approaching Fury: Voices of the Storm, 1820\u20131861,** New York: HarperCollins, 1998, 153.\n\n25. Joseph A. Stout, Jr., **Schemers and Dreamers: Filibustering in Mexico, 1848\u20131921,** Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press, 2002, 53.\n\n26. Matthew Fontaine Maury, \"Direct Foreign Trade of the South,\" **De Bow's Review,** 12 (Number 2, February 1852): 126\u2013148. Like many other Virginians, Maury opposed the illegal African Slave Trade; critics of these Virginians argued that this view was motivated by the profits garnered in the Upper South by selling enslaved Africans \"down the river\" to e.g. Alabama\u2014where enthusiasm for reopening the trade was more intense. See e.g. John M. Wayland, **The Pathfinder of the Seas: The Life of Matthew Fontaine Maury,** Richmond: Garrett & Massie, 1930, 78\u201379. See also Lawrence F. Hill, **Diplomatic Relations Between the United States and Brazil,** Durham: Duke University Press, 1932, 140: \"the section of the United States which gave greatest support to abolition also gave greatest encouragement to the foreign slave trade. Furthermore, the support accorded these apparently antagonistic movements was at floodtide at about the same time. . . . the owner of the 'Bangor [Maine] Gazette' preached abolition in the columns of his paper at the same time he was engaged in building ships which he knew were to be used in the illicit trade.\"\n\n27. See Matthew F. Maury to William Graham, U.S. Secretary of the Navy, 14 August 1850, Washington Oficios, 1848\u20131851, _Arquivo Hist\u00f3rico do Itamaraty, Rio de Janeiro._\n\n28. Letter from William Marcy, 20 April 1853, Oficios, 1852\u20131853, _Arquivo Hist\u00f3rico do Itamaraty, Rio de Janeiro._\n\n29. See e.g. W. S. W. Ruschenberger, **Notes and Commentaries During a Voyageto Brazil and China in the Year 1848,** Richmond: McFarlane & Ferguson, 1845, 60, 62, 120, 121. The author, who made his first visit to Brazil in 1834 observes that \"the entrance to the harbor of Rio de Janeiro is admirably defended\" though a \"brave mind directing a sufficient number of skillful gunners in these forts might render this passage very perilous\" though a \"force afloat would find it difficult to conquer the forts of Rio. . . . the standing army of Brazil is so small as scarcely to merit the name\" while \"the navy is not effective . . . and there is no prospect of improvement.\"\n\n30. Robert E. May, **Manifest Destiny's Underworld: Filibustering in Antebellum America,** Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002, 116.\n\n31. See Memo, no date, Box 1, **Edwin James Papers,** _University of South Carolina\u2013Columbia._\n\n32. James W. C. Pennington, **A Narrative of Events from the Life of J. H. Banks, An Escaped Slave, From the Cotton State, Alabama, in America,** Liverpool: M. Rourke, 1861, 5.\n\n33. U.S. Congress. House of Representatives. 37th Congress, 2nd Session. Report Number 148, \"Report of the Select Committee on Emancipation and Colonization with an Appendix.\" ES US 587, R42, _Bowdoin College._\n\n34. Najia Aarim-Heriot, **Chinese Immigrants, African Americans and Racial Anxiety in the United States, 1848\u20131882,** Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003, 64: it was \"better for free blacks to be colonized in a country where they could have political rights and dignity. . . . some of the men who would become radicals in the 1860s (for example, Salmon P. Chase, Benjamin F. Wade, Thaddeus Stevens and Samuel C. Pomeroy) favored the scheme at one time or another.\"\n\n35. \"Marquis d'Abrantes\" to James Watson Webb, 24 June 1962, Box 7, Folder 100, **James Watson Webb Papers,** _Yale University._ See also Nicia Vilela Luz, **Amaz\u00f4nia Para Os Negros Americanos (As Origens de Uma Controv\u00e9rsia Internacional),** Rio de Janeiro: Editora Sage, 1968.\n\n36. See Memo of Mariano Alvarez, Legation of Spain in Haiti, 8 July 1862, File: \"Haiti,\" H2523\/003, _Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores\u2013Madrid._\n\n37. Letter from Legation of U.S. in Ecuador, 1 January 1863, Record Group 48, Microfilm No. 160, Roll 3, **Department of the Interior,** _National Archives and Records Administration\u2013College Park, Maryland._\n\n38. See Lord Lyons to \"My Lord,\" 27 January 1863, FO5\/934, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens, London._\n\n39. Ibid., James W. C. Pennington, **A Narrative of Events of the Life of J. H. Banks . . . ,** 69, 89.\n\n40. Ibid., Craig M. Simpson, **A Good Southerner,** 61.\n\n41. **Report of the Committee on Slaves and Slavery in Relation to the Importation of African Slaves,** Austin: John Marshall & Co., 1857, _American Antiquarian Society\u2013Worcester, Massachusetts._ See also Arnabella G. Odell, \"Reopening the African Slave Trade in Texas,\" M.A. thesis, University of Texas-Austin, 1946. See also Earl W. Fornell, \"The African Slave Trade to the Texas Gulf Coast,\" no date, _Barker Center for American History, University of Texas\u2013Austin_ : \"in the 1850s a prime slave could be sold for as much as $1500 in Texas\"; hence, \"according to one estimate\" many hundreds of \"Africans were imported into Texas\" in 1838 alone. See also Michael Rugeley Moore, \"Settlers, Slaves, Sharecroppers and Stockhands: A Texas-Plantation Ranch, 1824\u20131896,\" M.A. thesis, University of Houston, 2001, 85: \"British Consul William Kennedy at Galveston estimated that between 1833 and 1843 over 500 African slaves were smuggled into Texas from all places other than the United States, while a later historian believes the estimate would be closer to 2\u20133,000 during this period.\"\n\n42. Washington Irving to John C. Calhoun, 16 October 1844, in Clyde Wilson and W. Edwin Hemphill, eds., **The Papers of John C. Calhoun, Volume 20, 1844,** Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1991, p. 91.\n\n43. Serge Daget, \"France, Suppression of the Illegal Trade and England, 1817\u20131850,\" in David Eltis and James Walvin, eds., **The Abolition of the Atlantic Slave Trade: Origins and Effects in Europe, Africa and the Americas,** Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1981, 193\u2013217, 202.\n\n44. Gardner W. Allen, ed., **The Papers of Francis Gregory Dallas,** New York: Naval History Society, 1917, xlvii.\n\n45. See Lord Lyons to Mr. Cass, 23 May 1859, in U.S. Congress. House of Representatives, 2nd Session, Ex. Doc. 7, \"African Slave Trade.\" Message from the President of the United States. 6 December 1860. Volume 2, 337. _New York Historical Society._\n\n46. William Law Mathieson, **Great Britain and the Slave Trade, 1839\u20131865,** New York: Octagon, 1967, 165.\n\n47. Duke of Newcastle to Sir Philip E. Wodehouse, December 1861, GH 1.286.173, _State Archives\u2013Cape Town._ A similar message was sent to Queensland, Australia. See Letter to Queensland Governor, 26 December 1861, RSI A46196, **Original Despatches from the Secretary of State, Volume II, 1861,** _Queensland State Archives\u2013Brisbane._\n\n48. Laird W. Bergad, **Slavery and the Demographic and Economic History of Minas Gerais, Brazil, 1720\u20131888,** New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999, 42.\n\n49. W. Lorman to Samuel L. Southard, Secretary of the Navy, 2 March 1826, Rare Pam. 2351, U.S. Congress. House of Representatives. Doc. No. 119, 19th Congress, 1st Session, Washington, D.C., 1826, _Maryland Historical Society\u2013Baltimore._\n\n50. See Inventory, **Wright-May-Thom Family Papers,** MS 2416, _Maryland Historical Society\u2013Baltimore._\n\n51. Ibid., Eric Anderson, \"Yankee Blackbirds,\" 244, 310. See also \"Testamento de Manuel Pinto da Fonseca,\" 22 May 1854, Tabeliao: Antonio Sim\u00e3o de Miranda, Livro 20, 2o bairro de Lisboa, XV-R-72 (32) 1854. Arquivo Historico do Minist\u00e9rio das Finan\u00e7as, _Arquivo Historico da Torre do Tombo\u2013Lisbon._ See also Phyllis Martin, \"Family Strategies in Nineteenth Century Cabinda,\" **Journal of African History,** 28 (1987): 65\u201387.\n\n52. Maxwell, Wright & Co., **Commercial Formalities of Rio de Janeiro,** Rio de Janeiro: T. B. Hunt, 1834, _Barker Center for American History, University of Texas\u2013Austin_ : There were 62 U.S. vessels in the port of Rio in 1819; 104 in 1823\u2014and 619 by 1833. See also Silke Strickrodt, \"'Afro-Brazilians' of the Western Slave Coast in the Nineteenth Century,\" in Ibid., Jose Curto and Paul Lovejoy, eds., **Enslaving Connections,** 212\u2013244, 250, 224, \"Samuel da Costa Soares . . . who was Portuguese by origin and [a] naturalized citizen of the United States was apparently one of the old traders on the coast, based at Ouidah.\" See also John David Smith, **Black Judas: William Hannibal Thomas and 'The American Negro,'** Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2000, 134: \"In 1867 Brazilian native Augustus Archer da Silva, a naturalized American citizen, entered the Luanda [Angola] market as U.S. commercial agent. . . . he began trading operations in palm oil, kernels, coffee and groundnuts two hundred miles up the Cuanza River.\" See also Roquinaldo Ferreira, **Slaving, Trade, and Creolization in the Black Atlantic,** forthcoming (I thank Professor Ferreira for sharing his findings with me): da Silva was also a major slave dealer in partnership with another U.S. national, John Willis, John Sparhawk, and Robert Brookhouse. They were part of a relatively large U.S. business community in Luanda. Between 1840 and 1860, the U.S. lagged behind only Portugal and Brazil in the number of ships entering this port. Brookhouse, based in Salem, Massachusetts, was a major economic force in Angola. Major slave dealers in Angola were part of a slaving circuit that also included frequent stops in Rio de Janeiro, Charleston, New Orleans, and New York. U.S. nationals with dual\u2014especially Lusophone citizenship and\/or connections\u2014were essential to the illegal trade.\n\n53. See Report, circa 1802, Legado No. 22, 9-31-1-8, _Archivo General de la Naci\u00f3n\u2013Buenos Aires, Argentina_ : The ship once called the \"Lenox,\" owned by a U.S. national, went to Africa to buy Negroes for Montevideo. It sank off the coast of Africa.\n\n54. See Volume 0541, Sessions Laws, 1834, Page 0137, passed 25 February 1835, _Maryland State Archives\u2013Annapolis_ : \"An act to authorize William . . . Wright to bring into this State, certain Slaves. . . . now resides in Rio de Janeiro, whither he went as U.S. Consul of the United States, carrying with him two Negro slaves, Frederick and Maria, who have since had two children, Edward and Lewis, and the said Wright intending to return to this State, is desirous to bring said slaves into this State.\" He was authorized to do so.\n\n55. Ibid., Roquinaldo Ferreira: Antonio Severino de Avellar was an active dealer in Congo and Angola, whose cousin was the Consul of Hamburg in New York. Mary Catherine Karasch, \"The Brazilian Slavers and the Illegal Slave Trade, 1836\u20131851,\" M.A. thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1967, 22: \"as late as 1853\u20131854 a Governor-General of Angola shipped a cargo of slaves to Brazil.\" See also David R. Murray, **Odious Commerce: Britain, Spain and the Abolition of the Cuban Slave Trade,** Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980, 104: London charged that the U.S. Consul in Havana, Nicholas Trist\u2014who \"later negotiated the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo\"\u2014was \"aiding United States vessels engaged in the Cuban slave trade.\" Ibid., Eric Anderson, 296, 306: \"the Secretary of the U.S. Navy was a supporter of the slave trade as late as 1842. . . . the Brazilian, Domingo Rodrigues Souto, an employee in the U.S. consulate in Santos, Brazil, also acted in concert with slavers disembarking slaves near that port.\" Isaac Mayo of the U.S. Navy and Commodore in the African Squadron that was tasked to halt the illicit trade was a slaveholder; there were \"scores of slaves toiling on his Maryland plantation\" and he remained in this business \"until his dying day.\" See C. Herbert Gilliland, ed., **Voyage to a Thousand Cares: Master's Mate Lawrence with the African Squadron, 1844\u20131846,** Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2004, 35.\n\n56. Ibid. Roquinaldo Ferreira.\n\n57. See e.g. John McKeon, U.S. Attorney, to William Marcy, Secretary of State, 10 November 1854, [translation]: Legation of Portugal in Washington, Correspondence with the U.S. Government, 1835\u20131869, A 28, Torre 4 Piso Estante 1, 15, _Archivo Hist\u00f3rico-Diplom\u00e1tico, Minist\u00e9rio dos Negocios Estrangeiros\u2013Lisbon_ : \"William Figaniere, Consul General of Portugal . . . was called as a witness for the defence of the trial of James Smith indicted for having carried slaves on board the American brig 'Julia Moulton'\"; it was suspected that this diplomat too was involved in the trade; on the stand, he refused to answer certain questions. In the same file, see also William Marcy to William Figaniere, 2 August 1856. In the same file, note also the curious increase of Portuguese Consuls appointed in Savannah, New Orleans, Norfolk, etc., as the Civil War approached. A Portuguese Vice-Consul in Baltimore, Augusto Lopes Baptista was \"arrested for trial under a charge of being concerned with the slave trade.\" The accused also had extensive dealings with the \"Consulado Brasiliero\" and shipping to Rio de Janeiro. See Augusto Baptista to New York Consul, 31 December 1849, [translation]: Legation of Portugal in Washington, Correspondence of Vice-Consuls of Portugal in the U.S., 1839\u20131887, Torre 4, Piso, Estante 1, 7. A28, M9, _Archivo Hist\u00f3rico-Diplom\u00e1tico, Minist\u00e9rio dos Negocios Estrangeiros\u2013Lisbon._ See also Clipping, 26 October 1858: Baptista \"for several years resided in Baltimore and for some time acted as Portuguese Vice Consul in that city . . . ceased to hold that office and was dismissed the service of Portugal on the 5th of June 1857; that is so soon as it was ascertained that Baptista had assumed that name, his real one being Domingos Jose da Costa Florim a Brazilian subject, who had been indicted at Rio de Janeiro for the deviation of the public funds.\" See also Augusto Baptista to William Figaniere e Marao, 31 October 1856, [translation]: Legation of Portugal in Washington, Correspondence Received from Various Individual Portuguese and Americans, 1835\u20131888. A28, M15. Torre 4, Piso, Estante 1, 13, _Archivo Hist\u00f3ricoDiplom\u00e1tico, Minist\u00e9rio dos Negocios Estrangeiros\u2013Lisbon_ : Re: \"purchase of the schooner Charles F.A. Cole . . . which is turned out of having been engaged in the slave trade and for which offense I am charged of fitting her out. On the 20th . . . my trial commenced.\" Jury \"after deliberating on the case the whole night and part of the next day . . . [was] unable to agree on a verdict.\" In this era there was a fluidity of citizenship and diplomatic representation that facilitated the slave trade. In the same file as the previous see D. Ponce of Savannah to Figaniere, then Charg\u00e9s d'Affaires in Baltimore, 22 March 1837: \"I have a letter of recent date from the Spanish Consul General, in which he states that it is perfectly consistent with propriety that one and the same person may hold both offices of Spanish and Portuguese Vice-Consul.\" See also H. V. Huntley, U.K. emissary in Angola to Earl Russell, 24 January 1861: \"Senhor Pamplona, whose proceedings with reference to the Slave Trade are so well known . . . is now in the United States for [the] purpose, it is said, of residing there a sufficient period to enable him to claim naturalization papers and then return here. . . . his object in becoming a citizen of the [U.S.] is to enable him to work his lanchas on the north of the Portuguese territory under the American flag.\" In **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 64, Number 47, 1861\u20131862,** Shannon: Irish University Press, 1968. See also **Report of Mr. Kennedy of Maryland. The Committee on Commerce of the House of Representatives of the United States on the Memorial of the Friends of African Colonization Assembled in Convention in the City of Washington, May 1842 . . . Together with all the Diplomatic Correspondence Between the United States and Great Britain on the Subject of the African Slave Trade,** 27th Congress, 3rd Session. Report No. 283, Washington, D.C.: Gales and Seaton, 1843: Campbell J. Dalrymple, Havana to Lord Palmerston, 19 January 1839. The U.S. Consul in Havana was \"also acting as Portuguese Consul,\" which facilitated disguising U.S. ships as Portuguese for illicit purposes.\n\n58. Philip E. Nothway, \"Salem and the Zanzibar-East African Slave Trade, 1825\u20131845,\" **Essex Institute Historical Collections,** 90 (Number 2, 1954): 123\u2013154, 124.\n\n59. Major F. B. Pearce, **Zanzibar: The Island Metropolis of Eastern Africa,** London: Fisher Unwin, 1920, 134, 192: \"In 1859 no less than 19,000 slaves were openly imported into Zanzibar, about half of whom were subsequently shipped\" to the Western Hemisphere, \"to Arabia and the Persian Gulf.\"\n\n60. Manuscript by Cyrus Brady, 1948, Box 1, **Cyrus Brady Papers,** _Peabody Essex Museum\u2013Salem, Massachusetts._\n\n61. See Russel Lawrence Barsh, \"'Colored' Seamen in the New England Whaling Industry: An Afro-Indian Consortium,\" in James F. Brooks, ed., **Confounding the Color Line: The Indian-Black Experience in North America,** Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002, 76\u2013107, 77, 78, 91.\n\n62. Ibid., Manuscript by Cyrus Brady.\n\n63. Kathryn Grover, **The Fugitive's Gibraltar: Escaping Slaves and Abolitionism in New Bedford, Massachusetts,** Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2001, 268: \"the percentage of mariners in the city's workforce of color dropped steadily between 1836 and 1856, from 35.6 percent in the earlier year to 14.9 percent in the later one.\" See also Nigel Randell, **The White Headhunter: The Story of a 19th Century Sailor who Survived a South Seas Heart of Darkness,** New York: Carroll and Graf, 2003, 221: \"the result of low pay and miserable working conditions was that by the 1840s of the 18,000 men in the Pacific whaling fleet, one half were greenhorns and more than two-thirds of them deserted every voyage.\" This provided fertile ground for slavers, which were more lucrative than declining whalers. See also, Gerald Horne, **The White Pacific** : **U.S. Imperialism and Black Slavery in the South Seas after the Civil War,** Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, forthcoming.\n\n64. Lt. Pegram Harrison, \"A Blind Eye Toward the Slave Trade,\" **Naval History,** 10 September 1996, Vertical File-Slave Trade, _U.S. Naval Academy\u2013Annapolis_ : \"between 1837 and 1862, U.S. officers arrested only 106 vessels for violation of the slave trade act\u2014an average of four a year. . . . its orders . . . made it clear that the Navy's first mission was not to suppress the slave trade but to protect the growing American-West African commercial trade and the sovereignty of U.S. vessels from search by the British. The commodores were instructed almost incidentally to go through the motions of suppressing the slave trade and to even that much with great restraint.\"\n\n65. Hugh G. Soulsby, **The Right of Search and the Slave Trade in Anglo-American Relations, 1814\u20131862,** Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1933, 137.\n\n66. **New York Herald Tribune,** 15 August 1859, H1470\/0046\/04, _Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores\u2013Madrid._\n\n67. Robert Pierce Patrick, Jr., \"In the Interest of the South: The Life and Career of Duff Green,\" Ph.D. dissertation, University of South Carolina, 2000, 334.\n\n68. Lawrence Jennings, **French Reaction to British Slave Emancipation,** Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988, 77.\n\n69. See e.g. Harvey Wish, \"The Revival of the African Slave Trade in the United States, 1856\u20131860,\" **Mississippi Valley Historical Review,** 27 (Number 4, March 1941): 569\u2013588, 572.\n\n70. Ibid., Lawrence Jennings, 84.\n\n71. **The Standard and River Plate News,** [Buenos Aires], 5 January 1865, _Biblioteca Nacional de Argentina\u2013Buenos Aires._\n\n72. See Thomas Adamson to William Seward, 21 November 1863, Roll 7, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Pernambuco, Brazil, 1817\u20131906.**\n\n73. Jose Araugo Pereira to Francisco Carneiro de Campos, 14 September 1831, Oficios da Miss\u00e3o Diplom\u00e1tica Brasiliera em Washington, Oficios, 233\/3\/1, _Arquivo Hist\u00f3rico do Itamary, Rio de Janeiro._\n\n74. See e.g. **The Cosmopolitan,** [Buenos Ayres], 23 November 1831, _Biblioteca Nacional de Argentina, Buenos Aires_ : Readers were informed that according to one on-the-scene report, \"'we are all in a state of confusion here. . . . number of brigands is supposed to be from 100 to 150, chiefly on horseback and armed with fowling pieces.'\" As if there were a contagion at play, nearby in this same edition was a report noting, \"accounts received at Montevideo from Rio Janeiro [ _sic_ ] state that . . . the Negroes had murdered from 60 to 70 of the whites. Troops had been sent from Pernambuco.\"\n\n75. U.S. Consul to Secretary of State, John Forsyth, 11 February 1835, T344, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Pernambuco, Brazil, 1817\u20131906,** Roll 1, _National Archives and Records Administration\u2013College Park, Maryland._ (Note: attached to this letter are contemporaneous accounts of this revolt from e.g. **Peri\u00f3dico Politico, Moral Literario,** and **Noticioso**.)\n\n76. See Report, 23 March 1843, H2523\/003, _Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores\u2013Madrid._ Similarly, Spanish diplomats monitored Haiti relentlessly for abolitionist sentiment, which would be of relevance to Cuba and Puerto Rico.\n\n77. See e.g. Report, 12 March 1853, Monrovia, 1850\u20131853, \"Correspondencia Recebida, Correspondencia Expedida,\" _Archivo Hist\u00f3rico do Itamaraty, Rio de Janeiro:_ Brazil's representative, who spent over a year in Liberia studying the prospects for emigration, found his mission hampered by internal strife. Liberia's President in discussing this issue with him assailed the U.S. because of that nation's rampant racism and favorably contrasted Brazil\u2014or so said this Brazilian diplomat. Concern was expressed that Brazilian emigrants were not fluent in English. See e.g. Jo\u00e3o Jos\u00e9 Reis, **Slave Rebellion in Brazil: The Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia,** Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993, 221.\n\n78. See the voluminous reports about the Brown-led revolt in H1470\/0046\/04, _Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores\u2013Madrid._\n\n79. Report from Rio, 16 December 1837, Record Group 84, **Records of Foreign Service Posts, Brazil,** _National Archives and Records Administration\u2013College Park, Maryland._\n\n80. Ibid., Thomas Adamson to William Seward, 21 November 1863, Record Group 84.\n\n81. Robert Edgar Conrad, **The Destruction of Brazilian Slavery, 1850\u20131888,** Malabar, Florida: Krieger, 1993, 48: \"It was the outcome of the military conflict in North America that most greatly undermined Brazilian slavery and awakened opposition to it, for the survival of slavery in the United States had given defenders of Brazilian slavery one of their best arguments.\"\n\n82. Malcolm Rohrbaugh, \"No Boy's Play: Migration and Settlement in Early Gold Rush California,\" **California History,** 79 (Number 2, Summer 2000): 25\u201343, 25.\n\n83. Oscar Lewis, \"South American Ports of Call,\" in John Walton Caughey, ed., **Rushing for Gold,** Berkeley: University of California Press, 1949, 57\u201366, 60.\n\n84. Rhoda Blumberg, **The Great American Gold Rush,** New York: Bradbury, 1989, 37.\n\n85. Reverend Robert Walsh, **Notices of Brazil in 1828 and 1829, Volume 2,** Boston: Richardson, Lord & Holbrook, 1831, 190.\n\n86. See address by Douglass from **New York Daily News,** 14 January 1865, **New York Herald,** 14 January 1865, in John Blassingame and John R. McKivigan, eds., **The Frederick Douglass Papers** ; **Series One: Speeches, Debates and Interviews, Volume 4: 1864\u20131880,** New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991, 59.\n\n87. Robert S. Levine, ed., **Martin R. Delany: A Documentary Reader,** Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003, 264\u2013265.\n\n88. Robert L. Hall, \"'Illegal Aliens' from Africa: The Clandestine Overseas Slave Trade from Africa to the United States, 1808\u20131865,\" Paper Presented at Colloquium of the African American Studies Center, Boston University, 2003. See also **Tallahassee Floridian and Journal,** 6 August 1859 and 10 November 1860. See also James Paisley Hendrix, Jr., \"The Efforts to Reopen the Slave Trade in Louisiana,\" M.A. thesis, Louisiana State University, 1968, 20: the \"number of illegal importations into the entire South between 1808 and 1860 [was] as high as 270,000. In the decade of the 1850s, [Du Bois] finds the illicit traffic to have been almost 'a reopening of the slave trade.'\"\n\n89. Report from Ben Slocumb, 21 November 1859, Record Group 48, Roll 4, **Records of the Department of Interior,** Microfilm No. 160, _National Archives and Records Administration\u2013College Park, Maryland._\n\n90. See Report from U.K. Consul in Galveston, 30 May 1843, FO 701\/27, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens, London._ See e.g. Consul Arthur Lyons in Galveston to Lord John Russell, 31 August 1860, FO 701\/27.\n\n91. **New York Times,** 15 August 1867.\n\n92. See e.g. Letter from William Seward to Madrid, 8 May 1866, H1472, _Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores\u2013Madrid_ : \"official information has just been received at this department that a steamer is now fitting out at New Orleans for the purpose of taking a cargo of Negroes from some point near Pensacola, Florida to Cuba . . . another vessel, bound on the same errand, will follow in a day or two\"; Report by Acting U.K. Consul in Puerto Rico, Francis H. Cowper, 23 August 1865, FO 115\/447, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens, London._ See Douglas Audenreid Grier, \"Confederate Emigration to Brazil, 1865\u20131870,\" Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor, 1968, 164. See also, Ibid., Hugh Thomas, **The Slave Trade,** 739\u2013740. See also Lord Palmerston to Consul Arthur Lyons in Galveston, 5 December 1851, FO 701\/27, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens._ Letter from \"Granville,\" 13 February 1852, FO 115\/124, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens._ H. S. Fox to U.S. Government, 4 November 1837, FO 285\/1, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens._ R. Hesketh, U.K. Consul in Rio de Janeiro, to James Hudson, 29 September 1850, FO 420\/11, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens._ Consul William Kennedy to the Earl of Aberdeen, 10 July 1843, FO 701\/27, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens._\n\n93. See Register, 17 November 1888, M468, Roll 1, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Zanzibar, British Africa,** _National Archives and Records Administration\u2013College Park, Maryland_ : There was a \"suspicion\" that in this year that slavery was banned in Brazil, the \"Solitaire,\" a vessel from Boston, which had just arrived from Mozambique was \"engaged in\" the \"Slave Trade.\" See also Report, 17 November 1888, Roll 4.\n\nNOTES TO CHAPTER 1\n\n1. Robert M. Levine and John J. Crocitti, eds., **The Brazil Reader: History, Culture and Politics,** Durham: Duke University Press, 1999, 2.\n\n2. Elizabeth Donnan, ed., **Documents Illustrative of the History of the Slave Trade to America, Volume 3: New England and the Middle Colonies,** Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1932, 405, 406, 412\u2013413.\n\n3. Ibid., Elizabeth Donnan, **Volume 4: The Border Colonies and the Southern Colonies,** Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1935, 255.\n\n4. See Rhode Island Historical Society, \"Rhode Island and the African Slave Trade: John Brown and the Colonial Economy of Slavery,\" Providence: RIHS, 2003; see also Christy Millard Nadalin, \"The Last Years of the Rhode Island Slave Trade,\" **Rhode Island History,** 54 (Number 2, May 1996): 35\u201350, 35, 37. J. Stanley Lemons, \"Rhode Island and the Slave Trade,\" **Rhode Island History,** 60 (Number 4, Fall 2002): 95\u2013104. See also John Atkins, **A Voyage to Guinea, Brasil and the West Indies,** London: Caesar Ward and Richard Chandler, 1735.\n\n5. See e.g. Letter, 26 January 1762, Box 15, Folder 1, **Hunter Family Papers,** _Newport Historical Society\u2013Rhode Island_ : \"some merchants have made vast [sums] of money by the Guinea Trade lately; they have ordered their slaves directly from the Coast to Monto Christo where they received a higher price for their Negros than in any of [the other] islands.\" See also Robert Champlin, **A Rhode Island Slaver; Trade Book of the Sloop Adventure, 1773\u20131774,** Providence: Shepley Library, 1922. See also Bill of Sale for a Negro Slave brought to U.S. by Daniel Olney after being bought in the Rio de la Plata, South America circa 1805, Box 593, **Brown Family Papers,** _Brown University\u2013Providence._ See also \"The Journal of an African Slaver, 1789\u20131792,\" **Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society,** 39 (October 16, 1929): 379\u2013465.\n\n6. Edwin S. James, \"The Last Confederates Live in Brazil,\" 1991, Box 1, **Edwin James Papers,** _University of South Carolina\u2013Columbia._\n\n7. Letter from Jean Luzac in Leyden, 14 September 1780, in Gregg L. Lint, ed., **Papers of John Adams, Volume 10,** Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996, 150.\n\n8. Tommy Todd Hamm, \"The American Slave Trade with Africa, 1620\u20131807,\" Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, 1975, 83, 96, 121, 179, 233, 247: \"in 1805 Montevideo attracted more American slavers than Havana.\"\n\n9. Marie-Jeanne Rossignol, **The Nationalist Ferment: The Origins of U.S. Foreign Policy, 1792\u20131812,** Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2004, 130.\n\n10. Thomas Jefferson to John Jay, 4 May 1787, in Julian Boyd., ed., **The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, Volume 11, 1 January to 6 August 1787,** Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1955, 339.\n\n11. Ibid., Marie-Jeanne Rossignol, 148.\n\n12. A. Leon Higginbotham, **In the Matter of Color: Race & the American Legal Process: The Colonial Period,** New York: Oxford University Press, 1978, 380, 382.\n\n13. Bernard Bailyn, **To Begin the World Anew: The Genius and Ambiguities of the American Founders,** New York: Knopf, 2003, 133.\n\n14. Saul L. Pandover, **Jefferson,** Old Saybrook, Connecticut: Konecky, 1980, 390.\n\n15. See e.g. Garry Wills, **'Negro President': Jefferson and the Slave Power,** Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003, 5.\n\n16. Ibid., Christy Millard Nadalin, 39. See also Susan Herlin Broadhead, \"Trade and Politics on the Congo Coast: 1770\u20131870,\" Ph.D. dissertation, Boston University, 1971.\n\n17. See Letter from Mozambique, 7 February 1806, Box 7, **Elisha Potter Papers,** _Rhode Island Historical Society\u2013Providence_ : Potter, born in Rhode Island, was a lawyer and a graduate of Harvard. He was the Democratic candidate for Governor of this state in 1858 and 1859. See also Kenneth Scott, \"George Scott, Slave Trader of Newport,\" **American Neptune,** 12 (Number 3, July 1952): 222\u2013228, 222.\n\n18. See \"Records of Rhode Island vessels copied by Dr. Charles Chandler in 1944 from the National Archives at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.\" Box 6, **Charles Chandler Papers,** _Rhode Island Historical Society._ See also Letter from Gustavus K., circa 1810, **Causten Family Papers,** _Georgetown University_ ; Documents, 1791, Box 1, Folder 25, **Slavery in the U.S. Collection,** _American Antiquarian Society\u2013Worcester, Massachusetts._\n\n19. See \"Trader's Book,\" MSS9001, _Rhode Island Historical Society_ : Covering the early years of the 19th century, this fascinating document concerns Rio de Janeiro, Bahia and the R.I. trade.\n\n20. Letter from Downing Street, 17 April 1813, GH1\/8\/63, _State Archives\u2013Cape Town._\n\n21. Elizabeth Donnan, \"The New England Slave Trade after the Revolution,\" **New England Quarterly,** 3 (Number 2, April 1930): 251\u2013278, 257: \"James DeWolfe [ _sic_ ] elected to the Senate for the United States in 1820, had by that time accumulated a fortune in the slave trade.\" On this Senator, see also Joseph Curtis to Timothy Pickering, 10 January 1817, HR 14AC17.4, S.29, Record Group 233, **Records of House of Representatives, Select Committee on African Slave Trade,** _National Archives and Records Administration\u2013College Park, Maryland._\n\n22. See e.g. Walter Minchinton, et al., eds., **Virginia Slave Trade Statistics, 1698\u20131775,** Richmond: Virginia State Library, 1984, 77, 79, 83, 165, 173.\n\n23. Ibid., Eric Anderson, \"Yankee Blackbirds: Northern Entrepreneurs and the Illegal International Slave Trade,\" 8.\n\n24. Ibid., William Law Mathieson, **Great Britain and the Slave Trade, 1839\u20131865,** 138.\n\n25. See, **\"Synopsis of U.S. District Court of Louisiana Case Papers\"** re: \"importation of slaves into any port or place within the jurisdiction of the United States,\" _Tulane University\u2013New Orleans_ : numerous cases are listed including e.g. #216, \"U.S. vs. Schooner L'Esperence, 1809, bringing slaves from Cuba to New Orleans.\" There are numerous such cases listed, suggesting that Africans were routinely trans-shipped from this island to the U.S. See also #326, \"U.S. vs. James Metcalf,\" 1810; #376, U.S. vs. William Carter and U.S. vs. Louis Aury, 1810, concerns \"Santo Domingo,\" i.e., \"Portuguese brigantine that arrived some time ago in this port,\" New Orleans \"with one hundred and six or eight Negroes on board\"; U.S. vs. Schooner Cometa, 1816, bringing Negroes from Colombia to Jamaica to New Orleans; #1095, \"Don Juan Constante,\" concerning bringing 186 Africans to New Orleans in 1817 via Africa and Havana; #1183, U.S. vs. Brig Joseph and cargo, 1818, involving Venezuela; #1685, U.S. vs. J. B. Zangronis, 1821; Like 1809, another year when slave trading cases increased dramatically, something similar occurred in 1821. See also #2904, 1830. Some of these cases concern individuals seeking to sell their Negroes upon arriving in New Orleans, e.g. #1432, U.S. vs. Schooner Mary, 1819, involving a resident of Puerto Rico. The controversy surrounding the jump in the enslaved population of the U.S. from, say, 1790\u20131820, i.e., whether it was due substantially to natural increase should also take into account the trans-shipments from the hemisphere, which were a routine part of slave commerce. See James McMillin, **The Final Victims: Foreign Slave Trade into North America, 1783\u20131810,** Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2004.\n\n26. See Letter from Evan Lewis, Wilmington, Delaware, 23 December 1816, Record Group 233, HR 14AC17.4; S29, **Records of House of Representatives, Select Committee on African Slave Trade** : In the same file, see the following: Letter from Isaac Briggs, 5 February 1817; Letter of Elisha Tyson, 3 January 1817. Isaac Briggs to Timothy Pickering, 24 December 1816. See also Deposition of Francis Scott Key, 22 April 1816. In same Record Group, see also the records of the **Select Committee to Inquire into Humane and Illegal Traffic of Slaves in Washington, D.C.** : Report by Baltimore Grand Jury, circa 1816. See also Letter to John Randolph, \"Chairman of the Committee for Investigating the Conduct of Traffickers in Slaves and Kidnappers in the United States,\" 29 April 1816.\n\n27. Ibid., Leslie Bethell, **The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade,** 299.\n\n28. **Report of the Committee to Which Was Referred So Much of the President's Message as Relates to the African Slave Trade.** February 9, 1821, E446\/U45, _Virginia Historical Society\u2013Richmond._\n\n29. U.S. Department of State. **Message from the President of the United States, Transmitting (In Pursuance of a Resolution of the House of the Representatives of the 4th Ultimo) Information on the Subject of the African Slave Trade,** Washington, D.C.: Gales & Seaton, 1821, _Virginia Historical Society\u2013Richmond._\n\n30. **Report of Mr. Kennedy of Maryland. The Committee on Commerce of the House of Representatives of the United States on the Memorial of the Friends of African Colonization Assembled in Convention in the City of Washington, May 1842 . . . Together with all the Diplomatic Correspondence Between the United States and Great Britain on the Subject of the African Slave Trade,** 27th Congress, 3rd Session. Report No. 283, Washington, D.C.: Gales & Seaton, 1843, 290, _Huntington Library\u2013San Marino, California._\n\n31. Ibid., Leslie Bethell, **The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade,** 23. See also \"Private Papers Relating to the Negotiation in London Between the British Plenipotentiaries and the Plenipotentiary on the Part of the United States of America, January to August 1824,\" FO 414\/2 and \"Conven\u00e7\u00e3o Addicional ao Tratado de 22 de Janeiro de 1815 entre os muito altos e muito Ponderosos Senhores de Portugal, do Brazil, e Algarves e el-Rei do Reino Unido da Grande Bretanha e Irlanda: Feita em Londres Pelos Plenipotenciarios de huma e Outra Corte em 28 de Julho de 1817 e ratificada por Ambas. . . . Rio de Janeiro na Impress\u00e3o Regia 1817.\" FO 129\/15, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens._ See also Robert Thorpe, **A Commentary on the Treaties Entered into Between His Britannic Majesty and his Most FaithfulMajesty .** . ., London: Longman, Hurst, Rees and Brown, 1819. See also Anti-Piracy Treaty re: \"Negros en la Costa de Africa,\" 6 October 1824, S10-C2-A1-3, _Archivo General de la Naci\u00f3n\u2013Buenos Aires._ See also Hugh G. Soulsby, **The Right of Search and the Slave Trade in Anglo-American Relations, 1814\u20131862,** Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1933, 35. See also Dieudonne Gnammankou, \"The Slave Trade to Russia,\" in Ibid., Doudou Diene, **From Chains to Bonds,** 65\u201373.\n\n32. Ananias Dortano Brasahemeco, **Rights of Portugal in Reference to Great Britain and the Question of the Slave Trade,** no city, no publisher, 1840, 154, _New York Historical Society._\n\n33. **Message from the President of the United States. Transmitting the Information Required by a Resolution of the House of Representatives, of 27th February last, in Relation to the Suppression of the African Slave Trade.** 18th Congress, 1st Session. Washington, D.C.: Gales & Seaton, 1824. _Virginia Historical Society\u2013Richmond._\n\n34. U.S. Congress. House of Representatives. 19th Congress, 1st Session. Report 281: **Suppression of the Slave Trade,** 22 May 1826. _Virginia Historical Society\u2013Richmond._ See also \"Information Concerning the Present State of the Slave Trade,\" 1824, 23\u201324, Tw*99v2, _Historical Society of Pennsylvania\u2013Philadelphia_ : \"During the year 1822 it has been estimated from the best information that can be obtained, that an aggregate of _one hundred thousand_ slaves have been torn from Africa and carried into the American colonies\u2014and some of them into the United States. . . . this country indeed is the _only neighboring market to which they can be taken._ . . . a trade in slaves has been carried on upon the southern coast of the United States. That the vigilance of the United States' vessels cruising there, has _only checked,_ not abolished that trade\" [emphasis-original].\n\n35. See e.g. George Graham, Esq., to U.S. Secretary of State, 9 September 1818, in Ibid., **Report of Mr. Kennedy of Maryland,** E448\/U57.\n\n36. See e.g. William C. Davis, **The Pirates Laffite: The Treacherous World of the Corsairs of the Gulf,** Orlando: Harcourt, 2005, 155, 326; Steven Deyle, **Carry Me Back: The Domestic Slave Trade in American Life,** New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.\n\n37. See Document, 16 October 1817, in Mary Jo-Kline, ed., **Political Correspondence and Public Papers of Aaron Burr,** Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983, 1171\u20131172.\n\n38. Ibid., Richard Carl Froehlich, \"The United States Navy and Diplomatic Relations with Brazil, 1822\u20131871.\"\n\n39. Joseph Ray to John Quincy Adams, 18 February 1818, T344, Roll 1, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Pernambuco, Brazil, 1817\u20131906,** _National Archives and Records Administration\u2013College Park, Maryland._\n\n40. John Quincy Adams, U.S. State Department, to Don Manuel H. de Aguirre, 27 August 1818, S10-C1-A5-1, _Archivo General de la Naci\u00f3n\u2013Buenos Aires._ Of course, this nation\u2014though not as blatantly as neighboring Brazil\u2014was also implicated in the African Slave Trade: See Document, unclear date, S10C-43A-8-2, **Tribunal de Cuentas Esclavos-Juzgados, 1810\u20131813** ; see also Legado No. 22, 9-31-1-8, 1802: re: African Slave Trade. In this same file see the 28 September 1801 document concerning buying of 25 slaves [\"veinte y cinco esclavos\"] at 30 pesos per slave [\"treinta pesos por cada esclavo\"]; see also Report of a 14 November 1804 voyage to Africa, arriving in Montevideo with 301 enslaved Africans: _Archivo General de la Naci\u00f3n\u2013Buenos Aires_ : \"ha vendido . . . negra Angola llamada Ana,\" i.e., the sale of an Angola woman in the area north of B.A. Though the U.S. did not open diplomatic relations with Haiti\u2014not least because of the slavery issue\u2014until decades later, at this early date, the nation that was to become Argentina was moving in that direction. See exchange of letters between Alejandro Petion of Haiti and the \"Director Supremo de las Provincias Unidas del Rio de la Plata,\" 18 November 1816, S10-C1-A10-3, _Archivo General de la Naci\u00f3n._\n\n41. John Graham to John Quincy Adams, 1 August 1819, Record Group 84, Volume 007, **Records of Foreign Service Posts, Brazil,** _National Archives and Records Administration\u2013College Park, Maryland._\n\n42. John Graham to Minister of Foreign Affairs, 18 October 1819, Record Group 84, Volume 007, **Records of Foreign Service Posts, Brazil.** See also **Message from the President of the United States, Transmitting Copies of a Correspondence with the Governor of Brazil in Relation to an Alleged Blockade by the Naval Force of Brazil, the Imprisonment of American Citizens and the Demand Made by the Charge d'Affaires of the U.S. of His Passports and the Cause Thereof,** 20th Congress, 1st Session, Ex. Doc. No. 281, House of Representatives, Washington, D.C.: Gales & Seaton, 1828.\n\n43. **Freedom's Journal,** 14 September 1827. See also **Correspondence Between Senhor Jose Silvestre Rebello, Charges des Affaires of HM the Emperor of Brazil, Resident at Washington . . . and Citizens Antonio Gonsalves da Cruz, Consul General of the Same Empire, Resident in Philadelphia,** Philadelphia: Stavely & Bringhurst, 1824. _American Antiquarian Society\u2013Worcester, Massachusetts._\n\n44. Ibid., Robert M. Levine and John J. Crocitti, eds., **The Brazil Reader,** 351.\n\n45. Mary C. Karasch, **Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro, 1808\u20131850,** Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987, 3. See also U.S. Consul to Abel P. Upshur, Secretary of State, 20 December 1843, Roll 2, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Pernambuco** : \"the death of one of our fellow countrymen at this place, he was a mulatto and was named Samuel Smith, his occupation that of innkeeper and his house was known as the Union Hotel. . . . originally from Maryland but has been many years in this place as also in Bogota.\" He left a sizeable estate. See also G. T. Snow, U.S. Consul to John C. Calhoun, U.S. Secretary of State, 17 August 1844, Roll 3: \"my painful duty to advise [of] the death of a fellow countryman. . . . William H. Nicholson, a black . . . native of Philadelphia . . . discharged from the Barque Globe of that port and being subsequently seized with fits was placed by men in the British Hospital.\" U.S. Consul to Lewis Cass, Secretary of State, 20 May 1858, Roll 5: \"the death of George Eldridge, a black seaman. . . . he died. . . . his death is supposed to have been caused by injuries received in a fight with another man.\" Strikingly, the U.S. State Department was directly involved in selling enslaved Africans belonging to U.S. nationals in Brazil who died without wills. See Charles Smith to Daniel Webster, 15 June 1841, Record Group 59, Roll 1, T478, **Records of the Department of State, Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Para, Brazil,** _National Archives and Records Administration\u2013College Park, Maryland_ : \"The slave Antonio Maria belonging to said estate [of Hayward Pierce] and at that time disposed of, in consequence of some difference of opinion among the heirs whether he should be sold or not has since by my orders been sold at public auction, in conformity with the General Consular instructions, and vouchers of which I have on this occasion, transmitted to the Treasury Department together with the balance amounting to Two hundred ninety nine dollars four and a half cents.\" See also John Gillmer, U.S. Consul to \"His Excellency Francisco Gonsalves Martins, President of the Province of Bahia,\" 5 April 1852, Record Group 59, Roll 1, T331, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Bahia** : William Harris of New York had just died and in his estate was a \"black girl named Joanna . . . now in the house of the undersigned for safekeeping. . . . and the undersigned presumes that his heirs in the United States would hardly consent that she should be again sold into slavery,\" though he would deliver her to the \"competent authority.\"\n\n46. Ibid., Leslie Bethell, **The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade,** 42.\n\n47. Condy Raguet to John Quincy Adams, 5 October 1824, **Condy Raguet Papers,** _Historical Society of Pennsylvania._\n\n48. Manolo G. Florentino, \"Slave Trading and Slave Traders in Rio de Janeiro, 1790\u20131830,\" in Ibid., Curto and Lovejoy, eds., **Enslaving Connections,** 57\u201379, 57.\n\n49. James Bennett to John Quincy Adams, 1 August 1821, Roll 1, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Pernambuco.** See also Statement by R. S. Long, 15 July 1821, Roll 1: \"I left the island of [?] . . . in the Portuguese sloop . . . with 35 slaves as cargo. . . . voyage was illegal. . . . I have suffered. . . . I have been in prison 22 months.\"\n\n50. Ibid., David Eltis, **Economic Growth and the Ending of the Transatlantic Slave Trade,** 195.\n\n51. Francisco Vidal Luna and Herbert S. Klein, **Slavery and the Economy of S\u00e3o Paulo, 1750\u20131850,** Stanford: Stanford University Press, 55.\n\n52. See Translated Document, circa 1854, FO 128\/48, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens._\n\n53. F. Torres Texugo, **A Letter on the Slave Trade Still Carried On along the Eastern Coast of Africa Called the Province of Mozambique,** London: J. Hatchard & Son, 1839, 20, 41, 57. The author also speaks of an illness called \"Itacas\" which supposedly only afflicted European males after sexual intercourse; they received chills, cold, intense pain in the back of the neck and loins and could be fatal. The cure was to burn the patient with sea sand put aflame, which was placed in a linen napkin and rubbed slowly over the body but particularly on the parts affected; \"the blacks are exempt from this disorder which is more fatal in Quilimane, on the mainland, than in the island of Mozambique.\"\n\n54. Rudolph Said-Ruete, **Said Bin Sultan, Ruler of Oman and Zanzibar, His Place in the History of Arabia and East Africa,** London: Alexander-Ouseley, 1929, 125. See \"Brig Ann,\" 1827\u20131829, Box 29-30-31, #91-20, 1827A4: registered in Salem, this ship visited Zanzibar, Mombasa, Comoros Islands, etc.; Log of \"Ship Louisa,\" 1826\u20131829, Box 29-30-31, #91-65, 1826L: **The Essex Institute Collections, Manuscript Logs and Journals,** _Peabody Essex Museum\u2013Salem, Massachusetts._\n\n55. See e.g. Norman Robert Bennett, \"Americans in Zanzibar: 1825\u20131845,\" **Essex Institute Historical Collections,** 95 (Number 3, 1959): 239\u2013262.\n\n56. Ibid., Manuscript by Cyrus Brady, 1948.\n\n57. John H. Galey, \"Salem's Trade with Brazil, 1801\u20131870,\" **Essex Institute Historical Collections,** 107 (1971): 198\u2013222, 206. See also Ibid., Leslie Bethell, **The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade,** 189.\n\n58. Cyrus Townsend Brady, Jr., **Commerce and Conquest in East Africa,** Salem: The Essex Institute, 1950, 98.\n\n59. See letter, 26 September 1836, Box 3, Folder 8, **Gardner Family Papers,** _Peabody Essex Museum._ See also **Putnam Family Papers,** Box 1, at same site, for further detail on U.S. trade with Brazil in the 1830s.\n\n60. Kabengele Munanga, \"The African Presence in Brazil,\" in Ibid., Doudou Diene, 302\u2013315, 302.\n\n61. H. M. Brackenridge, **To Buenos Ayres, Performed in the Years 1817 and 1818, By Order of the American Government,** London: Sir Richard Phillips, 1820, 20, 19, 30, 33: \"the prejudice with respect to complexion, did not appear to me as strong as in the United States. This may be owing to the great number of persons of colour, who own large fortunes and possess wealth and consequence. I remarked several mulatto priests, and in one instance a Negro. . . . the Inquisition was never established here, very fortunately for the Jews, who are numerous and whose outward conformity has never been strictly scrutinized.\"\n\n62. Henry Bradley, **Voyage from the United States to South America Performed During the Years 1821, 1822 & 1823,** Newburyport: Herald Press, 1823, 36.\n\n63. Manoel Cardozo, \"Slavery in Brazil as Described by Americans, 1822\u20131888,\" **The Americas,** 17 (Number 3, January 1961): 241\u2013260, 241, 244, 255.\n\n64. Thomas H. Bennett, **A Voyage from the United States to South America,** Newburyport: Herald Press, 1823, 12.\n\n65. Ibid., Thomas H. Bennett.\n\n66. Ibid., Rev. Robert Walsh, **Notices of Brazil in 1828 and 1829, Volume 1,** 83, 257; **Volume 2,** 179.\n\n67. **The Standard and River Plate News** [Buenos Ayres], 15 April 1866.\n\n68. **The Cosmopolitan** [Buenos Ayres], 7 December 1831.\n\n69. **The Cosmopolitan,** 4 January 1832: \"while taking his supper . . . he overheard three African Negroes, one of whom appeared to be a servant of our own, conversing in Arabic, a language he himself spoke fluently, respecting the intended robbery.\"\n\n70. **The Cosmopolitan,** 4 January 1832; **The Cosmopolitan,** 20 June 1832.\n\n71. Condy Raguet to Henry Clay, 26 October 1825, **Condy Raguet Official Letters, 1824\u20131827,** _Historical Society of Pennsylvania\u2013Philadelphia._\n\n72. Condy Raguet to John Quincy Adams, 12 May 1825, **Condy Raguet Official Letters.**\n\n73. Report, 17 December 1833, Record Group 84, Volume 012, **Records of Foreign Service Posts, Brazil,** _National Archives and Records Administration\u2013College Park, Maryland._ The U.S. authorities kept a close eye on the Brazilian military, especially its composition. See e.g. Condy Raguet to John Quincy Adams, 5 October 1824, **Condy Raguet Official Letters.** Condy Raguet to John Quincy Adams, 31 January 1825, **Condy Raguet Official Letters.** See also Raguet to Henry Clay, 20 March 1826. See also Condy Raguet to John Quincy Adams, 11 March 1825, Condy Raguet Official Letters. Condy Raguet to John Quincy Adams, 12 May 1825.\n\n74. Report to U.S. Secretary of State from Rio de Janeiro, 3 September 1831, Record Group 84, Volume 013, **Records of Foreign Service Posts, Brazil.**\n\n75. Berlarmin C. Condo, \"Returning Afro-Brazilians,\" in Ibid., Doudou Diene, **From Chains to Bonds,** 55\u201364, 56.\n\n76. Joseph Ray to Secretary of State John Forsyth, 29 March 1838, Roll 2, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Pernambuco** : \"the place was fired in many directions and commenced burning furiously; spirits of turpentine & other combustible materials having been prepared many days previous.\"\n\n77. Condy Raguet to Henry Clay, 12 April 1826, Record Group 84, Volume 009, **Records of Foreign Service Posts, Brazil** ; see also Condy Raguet to John Quincy Adams, 1 February 1823, Record Group 84, Volume 008, **Records of Foreign Service Posts, Brazil.** See e.g. U.S. Congress. House of Representatives. Committee on Foreign Affairs, 20th Congress, 1st Session. Report No. 212, 25 March 1828: \"attack upon\" the \"character\" of Raguet, who \"had been bribed by the Government of Buenos Ayres to pursue measures designed to interrupt the harmony between the Governments of the United States and Brazil.\"\n\n78. Condy Raguet to Henry Clay, 14 February 1826, **Condy Raguet Official Letters.**\n\n79. Condy Raguet to Henry Clay, 23 November 1825, **Condy Raguet Official Letters.**\n\n80. Report, 16 December 1837, Record Group 84, Volume 017, **Records of Foreign Service Posts, Brazil.** See also Condy Raguet to Henry Clay, 31 October 1826, **Condy Raguet Official Letters** : \"Monarchy has been thrice attempted in America, but without success. Dessalines, Christophe and Iturbide afford sad examples of the instability of illegitimate moves in this hemisphere of liberty\"\u2014and Brazil's Emperor was thought to be no different.\n\n81. See Report, 18 July 1834, \"Oficio do Consul Brasiliero na Filadelfia,\" Oficios, 233\/3\/1, _Arquivo Historico do Itamary_ : \"graves desordens em Nova Iorque\" [grave disorder in New York] including destruction of certain churches [\"destruicao de certas igrejas\"] with an issue being whether Jesus Christ was a mulatto [\"Jesus Christo era um mulatto\"].\n\n82. Martin Van Buren to Don Miguel Calmon, 25 May 1830, MS 1467, **William Wright Papers,** _Maryland Historical Society\u2013Baltimore._\n\n83. \"Dear Sirs,\" from Baltimore, 13 January 1836, Box 2, **Wright-May-Thom Family Papers,** _Maryland Historical Society\u2013Baltimore._\n\n84. William Wright to Maxwell Wright in Rio de Janeiro, 14 January 1836, Box 2, **Wright-May-Thom Family Papers.**\n\n85. Letter from William Wright, 9 January 1835, Box 2, **Wright-May-Thom Family Papers.**\n\n86. See \"Letter Book of William Wright, Consul of the U.S. of America Rio de Janeiro 1826,\" Box 4, **Wright-May-Thom Family Papers.**\n\n87. See Letter, 1831, Box 2, **WrightMay-Thom Family Papers.**\n\n88. Letter, 29 April 1837, Box 2, **Wright-May-Thom Family Papers.**\n\n89. George W. Slocum, U.S. Consul in Rio de Janeiro to John Forsyth, Secretary of State, 16 October 1839, in Ibid., **Report of Mr. Kennedy . . .**\n\n90. Report from George Elliot, Royal Navy, 22 July 1839, in Ibid., **Report of Mr. Kennedy . . .** In same document see also H. S. Fox to John Forsyth, 19 August 1840: In 1838 \"nineteen vessels and in the year 1839 twenty-three vessels bearing the flag of the Union [U.S.] left Havana for the coast of Africa, under the strongest suspicion of being engaged in the slave trade.\"\n\n91. Congressman Charles Miner, \"An Extract from a Speech . . . in the House of Representatives of the United States in 1829 on the Subject of Slavery and the Slave Trade in the District of Columbia with Notes,\" A67, 973.7112, _Peabody Essex Museum._\n\n92. U.S. Congress. House of Representatives. 19th Congress, 1st Session, Letter from the Secretary of the Navy, Samuel L. Southard, Doc. No. 119, 7 March 1826, Rare Pam. 2351, _Maryland Historical Society\u2013Baltimore._\n\nNOTES TO CHAPTER 2\n\n1. Ibid., Joseph E. Inikori, \"The Struggle against the Transatlantic Slave Trade,\" 170\u2013171.\n\n2. John Oriji, \"Igboland, Slavery and the Drums of War and Heroism,\" in Ibid., Sylviane A. Diouf, ed., **Fighting the Slave Trade,** 121\u2013131, 129.\n\n3. Ibid., C. Herbert Gilliland, ed., **Voyage to a Thousand Cares: Master's Mate Lawrence with the African Squadron, 1844\u20131846,** 73.\n\n4. George Coggeshall, **Thirty Six Voyages to Various Parts of the World, Made Between the Years 1799 and 1841,** New York: Library Editions, 1970 [orig. published 1858], 551.\n\n5. Joseph Story, \"Piracy and the Slave Trade,\" in William W. Story, ed., **The Miscellaneous Writings of Joseph Story,** Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1852, 122\u2013147, 141.\n\n6. E. I. Barra, **A Tale of Two Oceans,** San Francisco: E. I. Barra, 1893, 92. See also **Reports in Congress: Slavery Agitation and John Brown,** 1860, 370835-49 [unclear provenance], _Huntington Library_ : N. P. Trist, U.S. Consul in Havana to U.S. Secretary of State, 28 September 1840: \"to break up the slave trade from Africa to Cuba, would be to injuriously affect, at least in a commercial point of view, the prosperity of that island; whilst, to leave the same slave-trade free to flow from Africa to Brazil, would be to confer a benefit upon that portion of our continent. . . . the trade to Cuba is to that of Brazil as six to ten. For every six vessels captured on their way to Cuba, there ought, therefore to be ten captured on their way to Brazil,\" yet since 1838, \"of the slavers captured in the five preceding years, not quite _one-tenth_ [emphasis-original] were destined to Brazil or fitted out from thence!\" He suggested that London concentrated on the trade to Cuba since it was more closely tied to the U.S. than Brazil; \"and it is but recently that the idea of stimulating Brazil as a cotton growing country, by means of British capital, into rivalry with the United States, has been relinquished for the plan of accomplishing the same end with the _free_ labor of Hindoostan.\"\n\n7. See e.g. Campbell J. Dalrymple to Lord Palmerston, 19 January 1839, in Ibid., **Report of Mr. Kennedy of Maryland,** _Huntington Library_ : On one slave voyage a single ship makes \"nearly $300,000, of which, therefore, two-thirds was net profit. So long as such returns can be effected, we fear that no efforts whatever will be effectual in suppressing this traffic.\"\n\n8. Ibid., Richard Carl Froelich, \"The United States Navy and Diplomatic Relations with Brazil, 1822\u20131871,\" 371, 375. For an intriguing account of the African Squadron, see Harry Gringo, **Tales for the Marines,** Boston: Phillips, Sampson, 1855. See also Horatio Bridge, **Journal of an African Cruiser: Comprising Sketches of the Canaries, the Cape de Verds, Liberia, Madeira, Sierra Leone and other Places of Interest on the West Coast of Africa,** New York: Putnam, 1853, 177.\n\n9. See Charles Bell, Lieutenant Commander, U.S. Brig Dolphin to Hon. James K. Paulding, Secretary of the Navy, 28 July 1840, 534\u20136, in Ibid., **Report of Mr. Kennedy of Maryland.**\n\n10. Robert Edgar Conrad, ed., **In the Hands of Strangers: Readings on Foreign and Domestic Slave Trading and the Crisis of the Union,** University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001, 93.\n\n11. See Lord Palmerston to Mr. Stevenson, 27 August 1841, in Ibid., **Report of Mr. Kennedy of Maryland,** _Huntington Library._ See also H. S. Fox, U.K. to John Forsyth, 30 October 1839, in Ibid., **Report of Mr. Kennedy of Maryland.**\n\n12. William Peter to Lord Palmerston, 17 February 1851, FO 115\/117, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens._ See also Peyton Skipwith to John H. Cocke, 20 May 1839, in Bell Wiley, ed., **Slaves No More: Letters from Liberia, 1833\u20131869,** Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1980, 48\u201349: \"I see daily the Star Spangled Banner unfurled on the coast of Africa as a protection for the slaver to keep the British man of wars from takeing [ _sic_ ] them. . . . a disgrace to her banner.\"\n\n13. **American Sentinel,** [Bath], 14 May 1857, Box 3, Folder, \"Slavery\/Slave Trade,\" **African-Americans in Maine Collection,** _Maine Historical Society\u2013Portland._\n\n14. Ibid., Lt. Pegram Harrison, \"A Blind Eye Toward the Slave Trade.\"\n\n15. **Freedom's Journal,** 28 December 1828.\n\n16. **Frederick Douglass' Paper,** 8 April 1853.\n\n17. **North Star,** 5 October 1849. See also **Colored American,** 3 August 1839.\n\n18. Ibid., Eric Anderson, \"Yankee Blackbirds,\" 309.\n\n19. See U.S. Department of State. **Message from the President of the United States. Transmitting Copies of Dispatches from the American Minister at the Court of Brazil, Relative to the Slave Trade.** 20 February 1845. House Documents, Serial No. 148, Doc. 148, 28th Congress, 2nd Session: George William Gordon, U.S. Consul, Rio de Janeiro, to Henry Wise, 23 September 1844: \"The Brig 'Sooy' . . . owned at Bahia and was recently sold there by American owners\" was \"captured\" with \"580 slaves . . . landed from her near Bahia.\" See also U.S. Department of State. **Message from the President of the United States. Information in Relation to the Abuse of the Flag of the United States in Subservience of the African Slave Trade, and the Taking Away of Slaves the Property of Portuguese Subjects.** 14 March 1844. Senate Documents, Serial No. 434, Doc. No. 217, 28th Congress, 1st Session.\n\n20. Ibid., Senate Documents, Serial No. 434, Doc. No. 217: Brazilian Legation in Philadelphia to U.S. Secretary of State, Abel P. Upshur, 10 July 1843: An \"American whaling barque . . . the 'Romulus' . . . kidnapped or carried away . . . on the 18th of July 1842, from Maio, one of the Cape Verde islands, a valuable Negro man, named Pedro Timas, represented as a good sailor, an excellent swimmer and a superior diver . . . belonging to Antonio Soares Timas\"\u2014and he wanted his Negro back. See also Brazilian Legation to Abel Upshur, 23 November 1843: Captain Daniel Borden of the \"American whaling barque, the 'Pantheon' of Fall River,\" Massachusetts, while in Cape Verde kidnapped a \"young, intelligent and valuable Negro, named Marcelino, a journeyman carpenter and sailor.\"\n\n21. Lord Howden to Lord Palmerston, 12 November 1847, in **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 64, Number 34, 1847\u20131848.** Shannon: Irish University Press, 1969, 251. British Library\u2013London.\n\n22. **Message of the President of the United States,** 31st Congress, 2nd Session, Ex. Doc. 6, 17 December 1850, Report from R. M. Hamilton, U.S. Consul in Montevideo. See also Carl Norman Haywood, \"American Whalers and Africa,\" Ph.D. dissertation, Boston University, 1967, 26, 29, 33, 36, 41, 45, 54, 133, 134.\n\n23. Consul Archibald in New York to Lord Lyons, 1 February 1861, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 64, Number 47.**\n\n24. Commander Andrew H. Foote, **Africa and the American Flag,** New York: Appleton, 1854, 347.\n\n25. Abel P. Upshur to Matthew Perry, 30 March 1843, in Kenneth E. Shewmaker, et al., eds., **The Papers of Daniel Webster: Diplomatic Papers, Volume 1, 1841\u20131843,** Hanover: University Press of New England, 1983, 817\u2013823.\n\n26. Joseph C. Dorsey, **Slave Traffic in the Age of Abolition: Puerto Rico, West Africa and the Non-Hispanic Caribbean, 1815\u20131859,** Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2003, 202\u2013203.\n\n27. C. Wise to Secretary of Admiralty, 28 October 1858, FO 541\/1, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens._ See also Ibid., C. Herbert Gilliland, ed., **Voyage to a Thousand Cares,** 5: An \"American crew might sail an American-flag ship to Africa, taking along as passengers a second crew composed of Portuguese, Spaniards or other non-U.S. citizens. These, as slaves were about to be loaded, a prearranged 'sale' would be transacted, turning the ship over to the second crew under a new flag. The second (non-American) crew would take the ship and slaves back across the Atlantic.\"\n\n28. Rev. J. Leighton Wilson, **The British Squadron of the Coast of Africa,** London: James Ridgway, 1851, 26. See also Mary W. Tyler Gray, **Stories of the Early American Missionaries in South Africa,** no date, no publisher, _National Library of South Africa\u2013Cape Town._\n\n29. Lieutenant Forbes, **Six Months Service in the African Blockade from April to October 1848 in Command of HMS Bonetta,** London: Bentley, 1849, vi, 101, 105. See also James Riley, **Loss of the American Brig Commerce Wrecked on the Western Coast of Africa in the Month of August 1815 with an Account of Tombuctoo, and the Hitherto Undiscovered Great City of Wassanah,** London: John Murray, 1817.\n\n30. Ibid., C. Herbert Gilliland, ed., **Voyage to a Thousand Cares,** 80\u201381.\n\n31. Deposition of George Slocum at Rio de Janeiro, 11 September 1841, vfm 190, _G. W. Blunt White Library\u2013Mystic, Connecticut._\n\n32. Abdul Sheriff, **Slaves, Spices and Ivory in Zanzibar,** London: James Currey, 1987, 47. See also Rudy Bauss, \"The Portuguese Slave Trade from Mozambique to Portuguese India and Macau, and Comments on Timor, 1759\u20131850: New Evidence from the Archives,\" **Cameos Center Quarterly,** 6\/7 (Number 1 & 2, Summer\/ Fall 1997): 21\u201326. See also \"The Journal of an African Slaver, 1789\u20131792,\" **Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society,** 39 (October 16, 1929): 379\u2013465.\n\n33. Charles H. Bell and John S. Paine to Daniel Webster, 10 May 1842, in Ibid., Kenneth E. Shewmaker, et al., eds., **The Papers of Daniel Webster: Diplomatic Papers, Volume 1, 1841\u20131843,** 550\u2013556.\n\n34. Cornwallis Rickets to Rear-Admiral Dacres, 29 April 1847, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 64, Number 34.**\n\n35. James Hudson to Lord Palmerston, 16 December 1848, in **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 55, Number 36, 1849.** See also R. W. Beachey, **The Slave Trade of Eastern Africa,** London: Rex Collings, 1976, 20: \"British naval forces were pitifully inadequate for the task facing them. . . . the demands made on its dozen ships were excessive. Five vessels alone were on patrol at St. Helena during the exile of Napoleon there, until his death in 1821. Not more than one or two ships ever got as far north as Quelimane [East Africa]. Two vessels could not effectively keep watch over the whole East African coast and western shores of Madagascar. . . . in 1854, Commodore Talbot had only three vessels to deploy between Delagoa Bay and Zanzibar, over 1300 miles of coastline\"; besides, \"slavers were well informed as to the movements of these few British cruisers\"; see also Lieutenant Barnard, R.N., **Three Years Cruize in the Mozambique Channel for the Suppression of the Slave Trade,** London: Bentley, 1848, 50, 51.\n\n36. Vice-Admiral Dacres to the Secretary of the Admiralty, 1 December 1848, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 55, Number 36.**\n\n37. Lord Russell, London to Sir A. Magenis, Mozambique, 16 April 1861, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 64, Number 47.**\n\n38. Percival J. Parris, \"Pedro Tovookan Parris,\" **Old-Time New England,** 63 (Number 3, January-March 1973): 61\u201368, 62, 67. See also Inventory, **George Frost Richardson Papers,** _Maine Historical Society\u2013Portland_ : Richardson of Brunswick, Maine, owned the ship that brought Parris across the Atlantic, the \"Porpoise.\" Said ship was commanded by Cyrus Libby of Scarborough, Maine when it was seized in Brazil by the USS Raritan. Libby wound up as a school-teacher in Australia. Gordon, born in Exeter, New Hampshire, attended Phillips Exeter where he was \"valedictorian\"; by 1830 he was heading an importing firm, then served on the Boston City Council from 1831 to 1836. He became a Whig and was appointed as a Consul in Rio, where he served from 1843\u20131846.\n\n39. See Clipping, 28 February 1988, _Maine Historical Society._ The adopted father of Pedro Parris, Virgil Parris, was a \"square-jawed Jacksonian, former Congressman, one-time acting Governor of Maine and an amateur astronomer.\" He had \"taken a liking to Pedro during the long trial\" of his captors. After the trial he took him to his house \"high above the wilds of Oxford County, Paris Hill was the 19th century's American Acropolis. Topped by great elms and white mansions, it was a hotbed of Maine's antislavery movement and the hometown of more Congressmen, Cabinet members and Senators\u2014including future Vice President Hannibal Hamlin\u2014than any other square mile of America.\" Though a \"sense of loneliness colors accounts of Pedro's life in Maine\"\u2014\"his closest friends were children\"\u2014when he died, \"his funeral\" was \"one of the most fully attended that had been held in the village.\" Ibid., Percival J. Parris.\n\n40. For various affidavits, contracts, and letters cited herein see \"U.S. vs. Cyrus Libby, May Term 1846, General Case Files, U.S. Circuit Court for District of Maine, Records of Circuit Courts of United States,\" Record Group 21, _National Archives and Records Administration\u2013Waltham, Massachusetts._\n\n41. Deposition of Mark Tanner, 7 January 1845, Roll 18, **Letters Received by the Secretary of the Navy from Commanding Officers of Squadrons, 1841\u20131886, Brazil Squadron,** _National Archives and Records Administration\u2013Washington, D.C._ Hereafter designated as **Brazil Squadron Letters.**\n\n42. U.D. Congress. House of Representatives. 2nd Session. 12 March 1849. Ex. Doc. No. 61, **Correspondence Between the Consuls of the United States at Rio de Janeiro, & with the Secretary of State on Subject of the African Slave Trade.**\n\n43. Deposition of Charles Hendricks, 7 February 1845 in Ibid., Roll 18, **Brazil Squadron Letters.**\n\n44. Deposition of John Williams, circa 1845, in Ibid., Roll 18, **Brazil Squadron Letters.**\n\n45. \"Examination of Guilheme, an African boy,\" 28 April 1845 and \"Statement of George Williams,\" 13 March 1845, in Ibid., Roll 18, **Brazil Squadron Letters.**\n\n46. \"Examination\" of Pedro Parris, 1 February 1845, in Ibid., Roll 18, **Brazil Squadron Letters.** Of course, there were other examples of the U.S. seeking to enforce the law against the slave trade. See e.g. Small's Deposition, Case 15, Box 23, Copy Misc. Mss., **Gratz Mss.,** _Historical Society of Pennsylvania\u2013Philadelphia_ : In February 1845 the \"Sea Eagle\" from Boston was \"lying in the harbor of Rio.\" Z. H. Small of Massachusetts had gone to Cabinda months earlier; he saw on board the U.S. ship \"'Agnes' . . . several hundred Negroes, most of them in the hold but a few on deck. . . . the American flag had been previously taken from the 'Agnes'\" and \"either 485 or 585 Negroes taken on board.\" Another ship flying a U.S. flag, the \"'Monte Video' took on board something over eight hundred Negroes on this occasion.\" See also Ibid., C. Herbert Gilliland, 276: the African Squadron in December 1845 captured a U.S. slaver with \"eight hundred fifty human beings . . . crammed naked below deck into a space of less than 2000 square feet.\" The ship had been built in New Jersey.\n\n47. **Portland Pleasure Boat,** 7 August 1846, _Maine Historical Society\u2013Portland._\n\n48. Testimony of William Page, 12 February 1845, **Correspondence with the British Commissioners at Sierra Leone, Havana, Rio de Janeiro, Surinam, Cape of Good Hope, Jamaica, Loanda, and Boa Vista, Relating to the Slave Trade from January 1 to December 31, 1845, Inclusive . . . ,** London: Parliament, 1846, _Western Reserve Historical Society\u2013Cleveland._\n\n49. Edward Porter to Lord Palmerston, 31 March 1848, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 55, Number 36.**\n\n50. J. Kennedy to Lord Palmerston, 20 December 1849, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 55, Number 36.**\n\n51. A. Oaksmith, Master of U.S. Brig to John Gillmer, 26 July 1852, Record Group 59, Roll 1, T331, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Bahia, Brazil.**\n\n52. Report from Lieutenant Commander Wood, 24 June 1852, Record Group 59, Roll 1, T331, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Bahia, Brazil.**\n\n53. Leslie M. Harris, **In the Shadow of Slavery: African Americans in New York City, 1626\u20131863,** Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003, 213.\n\n54. Robin Law and Paul E. Lovejoy, eds., **The Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua: His Passage from Freedom in Africa and America,** Princeton: Markus Weiner, 2001, 45, 61. See also **Diario do Rio de Janeiro,** 4 October 1847; **National Anti-Slavery Standard,** 15 July 1847, 29 July 1847, 12 August 1847.\n\n55. Samuel Moore, **Biography of Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua,** Detroit: George E. Pomeroy, 1854, 6, 9, 34, 35, 44, 45, 48, 51, 56, 58. This narrative can be found at http:\/\/docsouth.unc.edu.\n\n56. Captain Joseph Tucker to Richard Hawley Tucker, 22 August 1848, **Tucker Family Papers,** _Bowdoin College._\n\n57. James Hudson to Lord Palmerston, 5 August 1848, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 55., Number 36.**\n\n58. C. Syvill, Captain, and Senior Officer on the East Coast of Africa to His Excellency, Rodrigo Luciano d'Abreu de Lima, Governor General of Mozambique, 26 May 1847, [translation]: Correspondence of the Mixed Commission at the Cape of Good Hope, 1846\u20131852, _Archivo Hist\u00f3rico-Diplom\u00e1tico Minist\u00e9rio dos Negocios Estrangeiros\u2013Lisbon._\n\n59. Lt. Paul Gibson to C. Syvill, 20 May 1846, Ibid., Correspondence of the Mixed Commission at the Cape of Good Hope, 1846\u20131852.\n\n60. Letter from Conde Tojal, Department of State for Foreign Affairs, 18 March 1850, [translation]: Legation of Portugal in Washington, Correspondence of the Portuguese Government, 1850\u20131859, Torre 4, Piso Estante 1, A28, M3, _Archivo Hist\u00f3rico-Diplom\u00e1tico, Minist\u00e9rio dos Negocios Estrangeiros\u2013Lisbon._\n\n61. Letter from J. B. Clay, 30 April 1850 in Ibid., Correspondence of the Portuguese Government, 1850\u20131859.\n\n62. John C. Calhoun to William Figaniere, 19 February 1845, [translation]: Legation of Portugal in Washington, Correspondence of the U.S. Government, 1835\u20131869, Torre 4, Piso Estante 1, 15, A 28, M17, _Archivo Hist\u00f3ricoDiplom\u00e1tico, Minist\u00e9rio dos Negocios Estrangeiros\u2013Lisbon._\n\n63. John C. Calhoun to William Figaniere, 24 June 1850, in Ibid., [translation]: Legation of Portugal in Washington, Correspondence of the U.S. Government.\n\n64. Edward Everett to William Figaniere, 28 February 1853, in Ibid., [translation]: Legation of Portugal in Washington, Correspondence of the U.S. Government. Lisbon was also concerned about how its nationals were treated in the U.S., particularly those deemed to be \"colored.\" See W. Wallace Davis to William Figaniere, 3 March 1853, [translation]: Legation of Portugal in Washington, Correspondence of the Vice-Consulates of Portugal in the U.S., 1839\u20131887, Torre 4 Piso, Estante 1, 7. A28, M9, _Archivo Hist\u00f3ricoDiplom\u00e1tico, Minist\u00e9rio dos Negocios Estrangeiros\u2013Lisbon._ See also John Hampton, Washington, D.C., to William Figaniere, 29 May 1852, [translation]: Legation of Portugal in Washington, Correspondence of the Foreign Legations and Consulates in the U.S., Torre 4 Piso Estante1, I, A28, M10, _Archivo Hist\u00f3ricoDiplom\u00e1tico, Minist\u00e9rio dos Negocios Estrangeiros\u2013Lisbon._\n\n65. See e.g. Report from Lt. Matson of Royal Navy, 9 October 1839, in Ibid., **Report of Mr. Kennedy of Maryland,** _Huntington Library_ : \"I captured the Portuguese schooner 'Constituc\u00e3o' . . . having on board 344 slaves. This vessel was sailing under American colors, and by the name of 'Dolphin.'\" Later, \"I captured . . . the Portuguese schooner 'Zete de Abril' having on board 427 slaves and dispatched her to Sierra Leone. . . . I had several times boarded this vessel during the last three months; at which times she was sailing under American colors and by the name of 'Mary Cushing.' . . . it is quite evident that this, as well as all slavers hoisting the American flag are sailing with false colors and papers.\"\n\n66. Lord Palmerston to Sir Hamilton Seymour, 29 March 1847, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 64, Number 34.**\n\n67. Report of Mixed Commission, 2 January 1849, in Ibid., [translation]: Correspondence of the Mixed Commission at the Cape of Good Hope, 1846\u20131852.\n\n68. Report, 2 June 1851, in Ibid., [translation]: Correspondence of the Mixed Commission at the Cape of Good Hope.\n\n69. See e.g. **Cape Argus,** 22 July 1857; **Natal Mercury,** 2 July 1857.\n\n70. George Stoner to Secretary of Navy, 26 October 1850, in Ibid., Roll 23, **Brazil Squadron Letters.**\n\n71. William Graham to George Stoner, 5 November 1850, in Ibid., Roll 23, **Brazil Squadron Letters.**\n\n72. See also Report from Rio de La Plata, circa 1850, in Ibid., Roll 23, **Brazil Squadron Letters.**\n\n73. Letter from U.S. Department of State, 26 May 1853, in Ibid., Roll 25, **Brazil Squadron Letters.** See also Report from Rio de Janeiro, 22 May 1842, in Ibid., Roll 14, **Brazil Squadron Letters.** See also Nathaniel Hawthorne, ed., **Journal of an African Cruiser . . . by an Officer of the U.S. Navy, [Horatio Bridge],** New York: Wiley and Putnam, 1845, 51.\n\n74. Letter from Andrew Boyd Cummings, 27 December 1853, **Andrew Boyd Cummings Papers,** _U.S. Naval Academy\u2013Annapolis_ : \"Their musical instruments consisted of a barrel with a piece of parchment drawn tight over the head. One darky as black as any of Pluto's disciple sits straddle of one end & beats this sort of drum with his hand while another sits at the other end beating on the barrel with sticks. . . . tis the best place to practice languages I have ever been in that even Macao or Canton. . . . mosquitoes about the size of hummingbirds are buzzing about my ears & making anything else than a pleasant noise.\"\n\n75. Andrew Boyd Cummings to \"Dear Mother,\" 1 February 1858, **Andrew Boyd Cummings Papers** : \"This is the third time we have been here\" in Benguela; \"two Americans in jail here, awaiting their trial on charge of stabbing a man in Fish Bay, they have been here in prison several months.\" He was irked when the \"authorities\" were \"trying to humbug with us when the Captain gave them at a certain time in which to bring them to trial, at the exception of that time he gave them notice he would land a force & take them.\"\n\n76. George Jackson to \"My Lord,\" 20 September 1851, FO 115\/124, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens._\n\n77. James Hudson to Rear Admiral Reynolds, 3 February 1850, FO 420\/11, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens._ For the clash over the African Slave Trade in the Brazilian press, see e.g. **Philathropo,** 1 February 1850; **Correio Mercantil,** 20 January 1850; **Correio da Tarde,** 17 January 1850, 21 January 1850.\n\n78. James Hudson to Lord Palmerston, 11 February 1851, FO 420\/11, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens._\n\n79. Ibid., R. W. Beachey, **The Slave Trade of Eastern Africa,** 20.\n\n80. Letter from Andrew Boyd Cummings, circa 1850, **Andrew Boyd Cummings Papers** : \"the affair between the English & Brazilians has all blown over or rather ended by John Bull carrying the point. The Legislative Assembly was in session at the time of the disturbance & passed or rather revived an old law, prohibiting the importation of slaves under the severest penalties, if some of our disinterested abolitionists could see the condition of the slaves in this place, abolitionism would cease for a while in the United States, in many instances they do not receive the attention given to horses or cattle in other countries.\" He described the Emperor as \"repulsive.\"\n\nNOTES TO CHAPTER 3\n\n1. Ibid., Francisco Vidal Luna and Herbert S. Klein, **Slavery and the Economy of S\u00e3o Paulo, 1750\u20131850,** 64, 133.\n\n2. Ibid., Robert M. Levine and John J. Crocitti, eds., **The Brazil Reader,** 79, 135: \"the decade of the 1850s was the golden age of coffee and the society based on it in Vassouras. . . . between 1800 and 1852 during the period when some European nations began to turn against the institution of slavery and pressure slave traders to cease, more than 1,600,000 slaves arrived in Brazil.\"\n\n3. Ibid., Joseph C. Dorsey, **Slave Traffic in the Age of Abolition,** 5.\n\n4. See e.g. Ibid., Mary Catherine Karasch, \"The Brazilian Slavers and the Illegal Slave Trade, 1836\u20131851,\" 17, 19, 30: Jose Bernardino de Sa used \"American-built steamers capable of transporting 1000 to 15,000 slaves each trip. He had the 'Cacique' especially built in New York.\" Jenkins and Company, \"founded about 1845 or 1846\" was a leading financier of the trade and \"its leading men consisted of an American from New York named Jenkins.\" \"American calico cloth and other items specifically designed for the African coast were consigned to [Manuel Pinto da Fonseca] in Rio. . . . he then made a pretense of chartering American ships to carry these American as well as British goods to Africa, but actually he bought them. Since American ships were not searched by British cruisers for slave equipment, such as shackles, . . . Fonseca's ship, manned by an American crew, flying an American flag and carrying Portuguese passengers (the crew to bring her back from Angola), then loaded trade goods for the coast.\" See also Ibid., Hugh Thomas, **The Slave Trade,** 739\u2013740.\n\n5. See \"Canning\" to \"Gentlemen,\" 17 May 1843, FO 131\/1, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens._ On the influx of Africans see **Diario do Rio de Janeiro,** 11 August 1841.\n\n6. See Ship Arrivals from Rio de Janeiro, 1843, Box 3, Folder 9, **Gardner Family Papers,** _Peabody Essex Museum._\n\n7. Ibid., Joseph C. Dorsey, 85.\n\n8. Ibid., Leslie Bethell, **The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade,** 287.\n\n9. Ibid., Eric Anderson, \"Yankee Blackbirds: Northern Entrepreneurs and the Illegal International Slave Trade,\" 281\u2013282.\n\n10. Massachusetts Senate, \"Report and Resolves on the Subject of the Foreign Slave Trade,\" No. 35, February 1839, 973.7111, F26.1, _Peabody Essex Museum._\n\n11. Bruno Gujer, \"Free Trade and Slavery: Calhoun's Defense of Southern Interests against British Interference, 1811\u20131848,\" Ph.D. dissertation, University of Zurich, 1971, ii, 115.\n\n12. John C. Calhoun to Lt. James E. Calhoun, 24 December 1826, in Ibid., Clyde Wilson and W. Edwin Hemphill, eds., **The Papers of John C. Calhoun, Volume 10, 1825\u20131829,** 238\u2013239.\n\n13. John C. Calhoun to Henry A. Wise, 25 May 1844, in Ibid., Clyde Wilson and W. Edwin Hemphill, eds., **Volume 18,** 621.\n\n14. Memo from John C. Calhoun, 12 August 1844, Record Group 84, Volume 017, **Records of Foreign Service Posts, Brazil.**\n\n15. John C. Calhoun to William King, 12 August 1844, in Ibid., Clyde Wilson and W. Edwin Hemphill, eds., **Volume 19,** 1990.\n\n16. John C. Calhoun to Duff Green, 8 September 1843, in Ibid., Clyde Wilson and W. Edwin Hemphill, eds., **Volume 17,** 445.\n\n17. Duff Green to John C. Calhoun, 18 October 1843, in Ibid., Clyde Wilson and W. Edwin Hemphill, eds., **Volume 17,** 511.\n\n18. Duff Green to Abel Upshur, 17 October 1843, in Ibid., Clyde Wilson and W. Edwin Hemphill, eds., **Volume 17,** 579\u2013580.\n\n19. Ibid., Bruno Gujer, 117.\n\n20. See St. George L. Sioussat, \"Duff Green's 'England and the United States': With an Introductory Study of American Opposition to the Quintuple Treaty of 1841,\" **Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society,** 40 (15 October 1930): 175\u2013275, 231, 235, 238, 241, 261, 269.\n\n21. Ibid., Robert Pierce Patrick, Jr., \"In the Interest of the South: The Life and Career of Duff Green,\" 204, 209.\n\n22. Report to Abel P. Upshur from Rio de Janeiro, 7 January 1844, Record Group 84, Volume 017, **Records of Foreign Service Posts, Brazil.**\n\n23. See Lewis Cass to Daniel Webster, 3 October 1842, **Correspondence Between Lewis Cass and Daniel Webster in Relation to the Quintuple Treaty,** Cincinnati: Enquirer, circa 1844, HT 993, C343, **Western Reserve Historical Society,** _Cleveland_ : \"my protest against the ratification of the Quintuple Treaty for the suppression of the African Slave Trade.\" See also Harral C. Landry, \"Slavery and the Slave Trade in Atlantic Diplomacy, 1850\u20131861,\" **Journal of Southern History,** 27 (Number 2, May 1961): 184\u2013207, 192; see also Andrew C. McLaughlin, **Lewis Cass,** New York: Chelsea House, 1980.\n\n24. John M. Baker, **A View of the Commerce Between the United States and Rio de Janeiro,** Washington, D.C.: Office of the Democratic Review, 1838, 5, 53, _G. W. Blunt White Library\u2013Mystic, Connecticut._\n\n25. Margaret Lockhart (Allen) Davis to \"My Dear Father,\" 1843, Box 1, Folder 3, **Allen Family Papers,** _Peabody Essex Museum._\n\n26. Margaret Lockhart (Allen) Davis to \"My Dear Grandfather,\" December 1845, Box 1, Folder 3, **Allen Family Papers.** See also James Birkhead, **Pro-Form Sales and Invoices of Imports and Exports at Rio de Janeiro with Tables, Remarks,** Salem: William Ives & Co., 1838.\n\n27. Chaplin Conway to spouse, 24 April 1849, Box 1, Folder 3, **Chaplin Conway Papers,** _Peabody Essex Museum._ There was also a Salemite community in Para. See e.g. Letter to \"Dear Friend,\" 8 December 1836, Box 1, Folder 4, **Putnam Family Papers.**\n\n28. Rev. Pasco Grenfell Hill, **Fifty Days on Board a Slave Vessel in the Mozambique Channel in April and May 1843,** New York: J. Winchester, New World Press, 1843, 6.\n\n29. Letter from Rio to Abel P. Upshur, 5 January 1844, Record Group 84, Volume 017, **Records of Foreign Service Posts, Brazil.**\n\n30. \"List of American Vessels Sold at the Port of Rio de Janeiro,\" Box 1, **George William Gordon Papers,** _New York Public Library._\n\n31. John Crampton, Washington, D.C., to Lord Palmerston, 2 April 1849, FO 84\/773, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens._ See also \"List of Vessels Under the United States Flag Reported by Her Majesty's Consul at Bahia and Rio de Janeiro\u2014to have cleared out from these Ports for the Coast of Africa from the 1st of January 1848 to the 31st of March 1849,\" FO 84\/773, and \"List of Vessels Under the United States Flag Reported by Her Majesty's Consuls at Bahia and Rio de Janeiro to have entered those ports from the Coast of Africa from the 1st of January to the 31st of March 1849,\" FO 84\/773, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens_ : Of the latter, vessels were sailing mostly from Ambriz, Congo, and Angola.\n\n32. \"Departure of American Vessels from the Port of Rio de Janeiro for the Coast of Africa.\" Box 1, **George William Gordon Papers.**\n\n33. \"Arrivals of American Vessels at the Port of Rio de Janeiro from the Coast of Africa.\" Box 1, **George William Gordon Papers.** See also Brig Cherokee, Box 82\u201385, 91\u201345, 1849: this ship, reputedly implicated in the slave trade, sailed from Salem to Zanzibar, Muscat, Aden, etc.; see also 91\u201373, 1845, Bark Emily Wilder sailed from Salem to East Africa also in pursuit of the slave trade; 91\u201353, 1857, Bark Goldfinch, from Salem to \"Ambriz & Loanda (only)\" for similar purposes.\n\n34. George Gordon to Secretary of State, 27 August 1845, Box 1, **George William Gordon Papers.** On 25 September 1845, Gordon asserted, \"'since the beginning of the year 1840, sixty four American vessels had been sold at the port of Rio\" and \"subsequently employed in the Slave trade, and during the same period there had departed from the port of Rio de Janeiro for the coast of Africa, fifty six American vessels; and forty American vessels had arrived at that port from the Coast, in all ninety six American vessels . . . between Rio and the African continent.'\" See American Party, Massachusetts, State Executive Committee, **The Record of George Gordon .** . ., Boston: The American Headquarters, 1856, _New York Public Library._\n\n35. See **British Packet and Argentine News,** 20 April 1844 and 6 July 1844, _Biblioteca Nacional de Argentina._\n\n36. Ibid., Eric Anderson, \"Yankee Blackbirds: Northern Entrepreneurs and the Illegal International Slave Trade,\" 108, 110, 122, 126, 152, 153, 154, 190, 192. See also Ibid., David R. Murray, **Odious** **Commerce: Britain, Spain and the Abolition of the Cuban Slave Trade,** 104.\n\n37. Ibid., William Law Mathieson, **Great Britain and the Slave Trade, 1839\u20131865,** 164.\n\n38. Robert Hesketh to Lord Palmerston, 19 February 1847, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 64, Number 34.** See also James Hudson in Rio de Janeiro to Lord Palmerston, 16 December 1848, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers, Volume 55, Number 36, 1849.** See also U.S. Congress. Senate. **Message from the President of the United States,** 28th Congress, 1st Session, _Virginia Historical Society\u2013Richmond_ : Letter from Earl of Aberdeen, 14 March 1844; in same document see George Slocum, U.S. Consul in Rio de Janeiro to Daniel Webster, 5 October 1841: Victor Alexander of the ship \"Sophia\" says \"he is the only survivor\" after his vessel was \"fitted as a slaver immediately on her arrival at Benguela,\" Angola, took on slaves; the U.S. flag was hoisted, then on arriving in Brazil \"the Portuguese assumed the command and hoisted the flag of Montevideo.\"\n\n39. J. J. C. Westwood, Rio de Janeiro, to Lord Palmerston, 17 February 1848, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers, Volume 55, Number 36.**\n\n40. U.S. Congress. Senate. 31st Congress, 2nd Session. Ex. Doc. No. 6, **In Compliance with a Resolution of the Senate, a Report of the Secretary of State, with Documents Relating to the African Slave Trade.** 17 December 1850. David Tod to Mr. Clayton, 8 January 1850, citing \"Mr. Profitt\" in 9 February 1844.\n\n41. Ibid., Leslie Bethell, **The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade,** 287.\n\n42. Michael Craton, **Sinews of Empire: A Short History of British Slavery,** Garden City: Doubleday, 1974, 290.\n\n43. Report, 19 July 1844, Record Group 45, in Ibid., Roll 17, **Brazil Squadron Letters.**\n\n44. Edward Hopkins to Commander of U.S. Naval Forces, Brazil, 26 June 1844, in Ibid., Roll 17, **Brazil Squadron Letters.**\n\n45. Letters, 21 June 1844 and 17 June 1844, in Ibid., Roll 17, **Brazil Squadron Letters.**\n\n46. Letter to George Bancroft, Secretary of the Navy, 7 November 1845, in Ibid., **Brazil Squadron Letters.**\n\n47. Henry A. Wise to James Buchanan, 6 March 1946, Record Group 84, Volume 018, **Records of Foreign Service Posts, Brazil.** This kind of thing was not unusual. See Deposition of William Larrenson, 21 January 1847, FO 128\/48, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens_ : This \"native of the Kingdom of Norway . . . shipped on board the Brig 'Senator' of Boston\" in \"the month of December . . . for a voyage to the coast of Africa,\" to the \"River Congo,\" where it \"took in nine hundred and forty three Negroes, of this number a great many died on the passage to Brazil, three hundred and seventy three blacks and three white men, as I was told; the remainder were landed at a little place to the north of Cape Frio. . . . the cause of the great number of deaths was the want of water; the blacks were not allowed a pint of water per day. The first night we went to sea I was told that seventy four died, this was because the ship was too full; they were men, women and children. The deck and the hold were both as full as they could be. We were twenty two days on the passage; we had no colours up on the voyage. I was turned ashore where the slaves landed, without being paid any wages . . . excepting the month's advance which I received at Rio.\"\n\n48. Fleet Surgeon to Lawrence Rousseau, 6 January 1846, in Ibid., Roll 19, **Brazil Squadron Letters.** See Letter, 5 August 1844, in Ibid., Roll 17, **Brazil Squadron Letters:** \"R. D. Taylor . . . suffers from Epilepsy . . . a severe return of the convulsions. . . . recommend his return to the United States.\"\n\n49. Letter, 24 August 1843, in Ibid., Roll 16, **Brazil Squadron Letters.**\n\n50. See e.g. Deposition from George C. Kholler, circa 1845, FO 128\/48, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens_ : This \"native of Norway . . . shipped on board the American brig 'Senator'\" at Rio de Janeiro to Africa; \"at Cabinda,\" he said, \"I was so sick with fever that I was insane. . . . we took on board nine hundred and thirty three slaves\u2014seventy four died in the hold the first night from suffocation, the slaves lying on top of each other, the hold was so crowded . . . only six hundred and fifty men were alive when we landed the slaves.\"\n\n51. Letter from U.S. brig in \"harbour of Montevideo,\" 5 November 1848, in Ibid., Roll 20, **Brazil Squadron Letters:** \"A deserter from my vessel was shot dead by a person near the lines of defense of the city of Montevideo and another deserter was wounded and taken prisoner.\"\n\n52. Report, 5 February 1842, in Ibid., Roll 14, **Brazil Squadron Letters.** See also \"Official Document\" from \"Department of Foreign Relations\" of the \"Argentine Confederation\" in \"Buenos Ayres,\" 27 November 1845, in Ibid., Roll 19, **Brazil Squadron Letters.** See also Letter from U.S.S. Brandywine, off the coast of Montevideo, 22 March 1848, in Ibid., Roll 20, **Brazil Squadron Letters** : \"The present state of affairs between the Provinces of the Republic of the Argentine Republic and of Uruguay renders it important that a part of our Naval Force should be ready at this place to watch over, and if necessary, give protection to the persons and interests of the citizens of the United States.\" See also Report, 22 February 1843, in Ibid., Roll 15, **Brazil Squadron Letters.** See Report, G. Pendergrass, U.S. Navy, Montevideo, 30 September 1845, in Ibid., Roll 18, **Brazil Squadron Letters.**\n\n53. Report from W. H. Smiley, U.S.S. Enterprise, 1 March 1844, in Ibid., Roll 16, **Brazil Squadron Letters** : \"George Ogelby was shot . . . a short distance from this place,\" i.e.. Patagonia; \"the Negro who shot this man . . . by order of Senor Pedro Crespo.\" See related adjacent letter from Nicholas Garcia, March 1844: \"they were warned off the place by those who were in charge but the sailors considering themselves superior in number, resisted with knives in hand.\" Thus, \"measures to put in rigorous confinement the Negro man.\" See also Report, 28 December 1847, Roll 19, in Ibid., **Brazil Squadron Letters** : \"assassination of two sailors belonging to the U.S. Brig Bainbridge.\"\n\n54. See Letter, 22 February 1843, in Ibid., Roll 14, **Brazil Squadron Letters.**\n\n55. G. F. Snow, U.S. Consul, Pernambuco, to Commanding Officer of the \"Bainbridge,\" 9 June 1845, in Ibid., Roll 18, **Brazil Squadron Letters.**\n\n56. See also Report, circa 1843, in Ibid., Roll 14, **Brazil Squadron Letters:** There were vessels entering the port near Pernambuco from England, Brazil, Portugal, Sardinia, Hamburg, Spain, France, Holland, Russia, Austria, Denmark, Denmark, Montevideo, etc.; see also Report, circa 1845, in Ibid. Roll 17, **Brazil Squadron Letters.**\n\n57. Lawrence Pennigton to Dan Turner, 10 July 1845, in Ibid., Roll 18, **Brazil Squadron Letters.**\n\n58. Letter from John Gillman, George Carey, et al. 24 May 1845, in Ibid., Roll 18, **Brazil Squadron Letters.**\n\n59. Gorham Parks to Brazil Squadron, Rio de Janeiro, 12 July 1848, in Ibid., Roll 20, **Brazil Squadron Letters.**\n\n60. William Brent, U.S. Legation, Buenos Ayres, to Commodore F. H. Gregory, Brazil Squadron, 11 December 1845, in Ibid., Roll 19, **Brazil Squadron Letters.** See also J. Graham, Consul, B.A., to F. H. Gregory, circa 1845, in Ibid., Roll 19, **Brazil Squadron Letters:** \"the citizens of the United States, merchants and others in Buenos Ayres suffer much inconvenience and detriment in their business from the difficulty of communicating with other places during the blockade.\"\n\n61. Letter from C. Morris, Brazil Squadron, Rio de Janeiro, 13 February 1843, in Ibid., Roll 15, **Brazil Squadron Letters:** \"informed by the British legation that four or five vessels filled with slaves and wearing the flag of the United States, might be expected daily on the coast, coming direct from Africa.\" See also Report, 28 January 1848, in Ibid., Roll 19, **Brazil Squadron Letters** : In Rio de Janeiro a U.S. ship was \"suspected of fitting out for a voyage for the coast of Africa for the purpose of returning with a cargo of slaves. . . . follow said vessel to sea and ascertain her true character\" and, if need be, \"send her either to New York or Boston; Report from Gorham Parks, U.S. Consulate, Rio de Janeiro to Brazil Squadron, 11 July 1848, in Ibid., Roll 20, **Brazil Squadron Letters:** A U.S. \"brig\" just landed in Rio \"with a large number of blacks. . . . this information is communicated to you with the hope that you will at once send a sufficient force to secure said vessel with her Master and crew\"; see also George Stoner, Brazil Squadron to H. H. Locke, U.S. Consul in Montevideo, 22 December 1848, in Ibid., Roll 22, **Brazil Squadron Letters** : \"American vessels having slave cargoes on board & bound to the coast of Africa, to clear from this port,\" i.e., Rio, \"for Montevideo or Buenos Ayres for the purpose it is said of avoiding the heavy duties upon goods destined direct for Africa.\"\n\n62. See **Journal of Sandwith Drinker,** 1840, _Peabody Essex Museum._\n\n63. Charles Ward to \"His Highness, the Sultan of Muscat,\" 21 November 1848, Box 1, Folder 1, **Charles Ward Papers,** _Peabody Essex Museum._\n\n64. Charles Ward to U.S. Government, 21 February 1846, Box 1, Folder 1, **Charles Ward Papers.**\n\n65. Thomas Nalle to \"Dear Mother,\" 1 April 1840, MSS1, N1495a51, **Thomas Nalle Papers,** _Virginia Historical Society_ : Nalle \"had been several times in Sierra Leone, Monrovia & Bassa Cove\" where he had \"seen some of the Negroes that were formerly owned by Doctor Hawes\" back home. \"They are dissatisfied, said they had rather be in Virginia in Slavery than here. . . . just as you might imagine a Negro would be if left entirely to himself, lean hungry sterility & squalid wretchedness seems to pervade the whole coast.\"\n\n66. U.S. Congress. Senate. 28th Congress, 2nd Session. **Message from the President of the United States, Information Relative to the Operations of the United States Squadron on the West Coast, The Condition of the American Colonies There, and the Commerce of the United States Therewith,** _Virginia Historical Society_ : Letter from Joel Abbot, 6 November 1844 and Letter from US Ship Saratoga, Port Grande, Island of St. Vincent, 5 September 1843.\n\n67. U.S. Congress. House of Representatives. 2 March 1849. Ex. Doc. 61, **Correspondence Between the Consuls of the United States at Rio de Janeiro, & with the Secretary of State on the Subject of the African Slave Trade**: Gordon Parks, U.S. Consul to \"Mr. Buchanan,\" 20 August 1847: \"One house in particular is deeply involved in this traffic. That house, lately established, consists of an American named Jenkins from New York. . . . nearly the whole of the slave trade [is] in American bottoms, is transacted by this house of Jenkins and company.\" Mariners on the whaler, \"Fame,\" were told that this was to be a typical whaling expedition before traveling to East Africa to pick up slaves\u2014and apparently circumvented possible capture by sailing through the open back door that was the Indian Ocean, then the Pacific; in same document see also Parks to Buchanan, 4 December 1848 on Krafft.\n\n68. Ibid., Joseph Dorsey, **Slave Traffic in the Age of Abolition,** 85.\n\n69. Commander Bossanquet to Commander Jones, 12 June 1844, in **Correspondence with the British Commissioners at Sierra Leone, Havana, Rio de Janeiro, Surinam, Cape of Good Hope, Jamaica, Loanda, and Boa Vista, Relating to the Slave Trade, from January 1 to December 31, 1845 Inclusive,** London: Parliament, 1846, _Western Reserve Historical Society\u2013Cleveland._ See also Report from Foreign Office, 12 July 1849, FO 84\/773, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens_ : \"Slave traders of Brazil had determined to abandon the system of employing Brazilian vessels without flag or papers and that they intended to trust their speculation on future to foreign bottoms and to employ vessels under the United States flag,\" particularly near Angola: \"there is nothing to obstruct slave traders in this course, as no American vessel of war had been to Loanda or has been heard of to the South of the line since 1847.\"\n\n70. See \"Papers Relating to the Convention Between Great Britain and Brazil on [the] Slave Trade,\" 1845, FO 115\/89, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens._\n\n71. Letter to Foreign Office, 20 October 1845, FO 115\/89, _Public Records Office._\n\n72. Earl of Aberdeen to Foreign Office, 30 July 1845, FO 115\/89, _Public Records Office_ : Referring to a Spanish slave ship: \"New Orleans had been her principal port of rendezvous on her return from the coast of Africa and that she had cleared from that port on her last voyage and . . . the American collector who last cleared her knew well the nature of the market she was proceeding to when she left New Orleans.\"\n\n73. Letter to Foreign Office, 29 December 1845, FO 115\/89, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens_ : \"supposed introduction of coloured persons from those islands [Bahamas] into Florida, there to be sold as slaves.\"\n\n74. Consul William Kennedy to the Earl of Aberdeen, 18 May 1844, FO 701\/27, _Public Records Office._ See also Report from UK Consul in Galveston, 30 May 1843, FO 701\/27, _Public Records Office_ : There was an estimate of \"five hundred and four slaves\" brought to this Texas town over the previous decade, including those who had been kidnapped: \"there seems to be no recognized party in Texas favourable to the abolition of slavery\"; see also William Kennedy to Earl of Aberdeen, 31 December 1845, FO 701\/27: \"two hundred and forty seven Negro slaves have been landed at this port from New Orleans during this and the immediate preceding month. It is probable that this amount does not include the whole number brought to Galveston in the course of the last two months. A considerable number have, it is said, been introduced by way of [the] Red River. Annexation, it is evident, will add greatly to the slave population of Texas.\"\n\n75. Commander Bossanquet to Commander Jones, 2 July 1845, in Ibid., **Correspondence with the British Commissioners. . . .**\n\n76. Ibid., **Correspondence with the British Commissioners. . . .** In this volume see e.g. Commodore W. Jones report, 5 January 1845; Captain P. C. Dumas to Secretary of the Navy, 15 August 1845; Deposition of Jeremiah McCarthy, 26 December 1842.\n\n77. P. C. Dumas, Rio de Janeiro, to U.S. Consul, 29 July 1844, Box 1, **George William Gordon Papers** : \"I just arrived from Africa in the French Bark . . . as a passenger after having made abandon of my Brig Cyrus of New Orleans. . . . British Commander of the 'Alert' who took my papers away and trampled my flag.\"\n\n78. Ibid., **Correspondence with the British Commissioners. . . .** See e.g. H. R. Foote to Commodore Jones, 24 February 1845: \"The 'Atilla' was formerly an American vessel called the 'Glencliff.' She arrived at Cabinda . . . under American colours. . . . when it was discharged she was sold to the Brazilian slavedealers and conveyed 800 slaves to the Brazils\"; see also J. Oake to Commander Jones, 22 April 1845: \"captured . . . for being engaged in the Slave Trade, as there were actually on board 685 Negroes, shipped at Cabinda . . . and bound for the Brazils . . . under American colours . . . of New Orleans . . . manned by 27 persons, prisoners landed from prizes detained by Her Majesty's cruisers, which system I have reason to believe is pursued to a great extent on this part of the coast\"; see also Earl of Aberdeen to Foreign Office, 2 July 1845, FO 115\/89, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens_ : \"the American schooner brig 'Washington Barge' . . . sailed from Bahia with a general cargo for the coast of Africa on the 1st of December 1844 and that she has returned to that Port on the 20th April last under the Brazilian flag and with the name of 'Fantasima'\" with \"upwards of 600 slaves.\" See also Letter to Foreign Office, 20 October 1845, FO 115\/89, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens_ : \"The United States vessel 'Hazard' . . . had been sold . . . to a slave trader at Whydah and had immediately afterwards sailed from that Port with 370 slaves on board.\" See Reginald Levinge, Commander, to \"Sir,\" 25 May 1847, FO 268\/4, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens_ : Writing from \"Whydah,\" about \"six miles S.E. of Lagos . . . [a] suspicious schooner\" was detected and the officer went to \"board her\"; this was an \"American schooner\" and \"the Master of her was highly indignant at having been brought to\"; the \"British Consul's report from Bahia\" rates her, i.e., the \"Eleanor,\" as a \"notorious slaver. . . . I was obliged to tell him I would fire into him if he did heave to which he then did\" though \"the Master refused to show\" papers initially. In same file see also Peter Godfrey to \"Sir,\" 3 May 1847: \"this vessel's name is mentioned in . . . list of vessels sailing out of Bahia for the purpose of slave traffic on the west coast of Africa\"; the vessel was registered in New York City. See also Report from Foreign Office, 26 June 1849, FO 84\/773, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens_ : \"United States barque . . . shipped a cargo of 800 slaves at Ambriz,\" while another U.S. vessel \"carried off 800 slaves from the same place.\"\n\nNOTES TO CHAPTER 4\n\n1. Henry A. Wise to George N. Jones, 29 June 1855, Box 1, **Henry Wise Papers,** _Virginia Historical Society\u2013Richmond._\n\n2. Ibid., Garry Wills, **'Negro President,'** 204.\n\n3. Ibid., Craig M. Simpson, **A Good Southerner,** 36.\n\n4. Henry A. Wise to William C. Whitecomb, 17 November 1859, **Henry Wise Papers,** _American Antiquarian Society\u2013Worcester, Massachusetts._\n\n5. John Blassingame and John R. McKivigan, eds., **The Frederick Douglass Papers; Series One: Speeches, Debates and Interviews, Volume 3: 1855\u20131863,** New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985, 405.\n\n6. William Lee Miller, **Arguing about Slavery: The Great Battle in the United States Congress,** New York: Knopf, 1996, 478.\n\n7. Ibid., Mary Catherine Karasch, \"The Brazilian Slavers and the Illegal Slave Trade, 1836\u20131851,\" 27.\n\n8. Don E. Fehrenbacher, **The Slaveholding Republic: An Account of the United States Government's Relations to Slavery,** New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, 177.\n\n9. Letter to Henry Wise, 17 July 1839, Box 1, Folder 1, **Henry Wise Papers,** _Peabody Essex Museum._\n\n10. See **James Buchanan, His Doctrines and Policy as Exhibited by Himself and Friends,** circa 1856, including a \"Virginia View of Mr. Buchanan\" by Governor Henry Wise, 13 June 1856, _American Antiquarian Society\u2013Worcester, Massachusetts._\n\n11. James P. Hambleton, M.D., **A Biographical Sketch of Henry A. Wise, with a History of the Political Campaign in Virginia in 1855,** Richmond: J.W. Randolph, 1856, xii.\n\n12. Steven Deyle, **Carry Me Back: The Domestic Slave Trade in American Life,** New York: Oxford University Press, 2005, passim.\n\n13. Ibid., Craig Simpson, 61. See also Barton H. Wise, **The Life of Henry A. Wise of Virginia, 1806\u20131876,** London: Macmillan, 1899, 109: According to Wise's grandson, Henry Wise was an \"accomplished linguist\" who apparently spoke Portuguese. See also Adele Toussaint-Samson, **A Parisian in Brazil: The Travel Account of a Frenchwoman in Nineteenth-Century Rio de Janeiro,** Wilmington: Scholarly Resources, 2001, 85: \"The Emperor of Brazil speaks seven languages, Portuguese, Latin, Spanish, Italian, French, English, German and . . . Hebrew.\"\n\n14. Letter to Henry Wise, 20 January 1838, Box 1, Folder 1, **Henry Wise Papers,** _Peabody Essex Museum._\n\n15. Ibid., James P. Hambleton, M.D., xxxiv.\n\n16. Ibid., Bruno Gujer, \"Free Trade and Slavery,\" 208, 212. See also Ibid., Craig Simpson, 61.\n\n17. Report from Henry Wise, 11 October 1844, in Ibid., Clyde Wilson and W. Edwin Hemphill, eds., **Volume 20,** 71.\n\n18. Report from Henry Wise, 11 October 1844, in Ibid., Clyde Wilson and W. Edwin Hemphill, eds., **Volume 20,** 77. See also Henry Wise to \"Dear Bob,\" 15 March 1846, **Confederate Military Leaders Collection,** _Museum of the Confederacy\u2013Richmond, Virginia_ : \"when I first arrived here I found the U. States seal in the hands of one of Fonseca's agents, a man named [Souto] at Victoria as Consular agent of the U. States. He actually caused the slave deck to be fitted to the Monte Video at that place, for which Capt. Pendleton was lately convicted at [Baltimore]. I caused his exchequer to be immediately revoked.\"\n\n19. Report from George Gordon, 3 December 1844, in Ibid., Clyde Wilson and W. Edwin Hemphill, eds., **Volume 20,** 453.\n\n20. Henry Wise to John C. Calhoun, 12 January 1845, Record Group 84, Volume 017, **Records of Foreign Service Posts, Brazil.**\n\n21. Henry Wise to \"Mr. Calhoun,\" 12 January 1845, in Ibid., Ex. Doc. No. 61, **Correspondence Between the Consuls of the United States at Rio de Janeiro.**\n\n22. Henry Wise to John C. Calhoun, 11 October 1844, **Henry Wise Papers,** _Virginia Historical Society\u2013Richmond._\n\n23. Report, 25 May 1842, Record Group 84, Volume 017, **Records of Foreign Service Posts, Brazil.**\n\n24. Henry Wise to John C. Calhoun, 18 February 1845, in Ibid., Ex. Doc. 61.\n\n25. Memo from Henry Wise, 30 January 1845, in Ibid., Ex. Doc. 61.\n\n26. Memo, 24 January 1845, in Ibid., Ex. Doc. 61.\n\n27. Henry Wise to James Buchanan, 27 July 1847, **Henry Wise Papers,** _Virginia Historical Society_ - _Richmond._\n\n28. Henry Wise to James Buchanan, 12 April 1847, **Henry Wise Papers.**\n\n29. **New York Times,** 28 April 1884.\n\n30. Henry Wise to \"Dear Bob,\" 15 March 1846, **Confederate Military Leaders Collection.**\n\n31. See U.S. Congress. Senate. 30th Congress, 1st Session. Ex. Doc. No. 28, **Message from the President of the United States.** Letter to Editor of the 'Evening Mail,' 3 March 1848: This \"'British Merchant'\" asked, \"and who are they whose calumnies against our merchants and manufacturers are thus re-echoed in the House of Commons? Who is Mr. Wise. . . . Mr. Wise is, I believe, one of the most reckless and unscrupulous advocates of slavery even in the United States, and, like Mr. Tyler, himself a large slaveholder. He is known to have publicly declared that he would uphold slavery with the last drop of his blood.\"\n\n32. See American Party, State Executive Committee, **The Record of George Wm. Gordon. The Slave Trade at Rio de Janeiro, Seizure of Slave Vessels, Conviction of Slave Dealers, Personal Liberation of Slaves & Practice Against Theory. Lovers of Freedom, Read! Read! And Vote for the Best Man,** Boston: The American Headquarters, 1856, _New York Public Library_ : Gordon, born in Exeter, New Hampshire, was of Scottish origins. He was the \"Know-Nothing\" candidate for Governor of Massachusetts in 1856. See also F. R. Anspach, **The Sons of the Sires; A History of the Rise, Progress and Destiny of the American Party and its Probable Influence on the Next Presidential Election to which is Added a Review of the Letter of the Hon. Henry A. Wise Against the Know-Nothings. By An American,** Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1855: Wise railed against those who sought to limit the immigration of Irish Catholics to the U.S.\n\n33. Report from Henry Wise in Rio de Janeiro, 14 December 1844, in U.S. Department of State. **Message from the President of the United States, Transmitting Copies of Despatches from the American Minister at the Court of Brazil, Relative to the Slave Trade.** 28th Congress, 2nd Session. House Documents, Serial No. 148, Doc. 148, 20 February 1845.\n\n34. Henry Wise to James Buchanan, 1 May 1845, in Ibid., Ex. Doc. No. 61, **Correspondence Between the Consuls of the United States at Rio de Janeiro. . . .**\n\n35. Ibid., House Documents, Serial No. 148, Doc. 148, Henry Wise to \"Maxwell, Wright,\" 9 December 1844.\n\n36. **Daily Union** [Washington, D.C.], 18 September 1845, Washington, Oficios, 1845\u20131847, _Archivo Hist\u00f3rico do Itamaraty\u2013Rio de Janeiro_ : \"I observe the United States papers are filled with statements and remarks upon the proceedings of Mr. Wise at this place,\" i.e., Rio, \"in relations to vessels and persons engaged in the trade to the coast of Africa.\"\n\n37. See Letter from U.S. Department of State, 13 March 1846, Washington Oficios, 1845\u20131847: \"acknowledging . . . protest of the Brazilian government against the Act of the British Parliament . . . which declares Brazilian vessels engaged in the slave trade liable to be tried before the High Court of Vice Admiralty in the dominions of Her Brittanic Majesty.\" In same file see bill from November 1846 seeking to limit the slave trade by requiring that vessels e.g. should carry \"at least sixty gallons of water\" and no more than \"two [passengers] to every five tons of such vessel.\"\n\n38. Frederick Jones to Gaspar Jose Lisboa, 6 November 1846, Washington Oficios, 1845\u20131847.\n\n39. Letter from Mary E. (Jones) Carr, 1844, **James T. Jones Collection,** _Huntington Library\u2013San Marino, California._\n\n40. Report, 13 July 1847, Washington Oficios, 1845\u20131847.\n\n41. **Salem Register,** 16 August 1847, Washington Oficios, 1845\u20131847.\n\n42. Clipping, circa 1848, Washington Oficios, 1848\u20131851.\n\n43. Henry Wise to William Wright, 9 March 1845, MS 1467, **William Wright Papers,** _Maryland Historical Society\u2013Baltimore._\n\n44. Henry Wise to William Wright, 22 May 1845, **William Wright Papers.**\n\n45. Ibid., Henry Wise to William Wright, 9 March 1845.\n\n46. Solomon B. Davies to William Wright, 28 May 1845, **William Wright Papers.**\n\n47. Henry Wise to \"Gentlemen,\" 3 July 1845, **Wright-May-Thom Family Papers.**\n\n48. John Mason, U.S. State of Department, to William Wright, 4 April 1845, **William Wright Papers** : \"your letter . . . requesting the opinion of this Department as to the legality of sales of vessels of the United States at Rio de Janeiro deliverable on the coast of Africa, as to chartering of such vessels for the purpose of taking cargoes to that coast and requesting to be informed of this government in regard to these subjects . . . the policy of this government, as shown by the laws of the United States, is both to encourage the construction, equipment and navigation of vessels by our citizens and to deter them from participating in the African slave trade.\"\n\n49. Edward Livingston in Washington, D.C. to William Wright in Rio de Janeiro, 1 December 1831, **William Wright Papers.**\n\n50. Circular from Maxwell, Wright in Rio, 17 January 1845, Box 2, **Wright-MayThom Family Papers,** _Maryland Historical Society\u2013Baltimore._\n\n51. Letter from William Wright, circa 1835, Box 2, **Wright-May-Thom Family Papers.**\n\n52. Letter from Rio by William Wright, 18 January 1832, Box 2, **Wright-MayThom Family Papers.**\n\n53. Edward Livingston to William Wright, 3 November 1831, Box 2, **WrightMay-Thom Family Papers.**\n\n54. Robert Wright in Rio de Janeiro to William Wright, 23 November 1841, **Wright-May-Thom Family Papers.** See also Ibid., Eric Anderson, \"Yankee Blackbirds,\" 311\u2013312.\n\n55. J. S. Rebello to Joshua Cohen, 5 February 1841, 2432, **Maryland Manuscripts,** _University of Maryland\u2013College Park._\n\n56. Evelyn M. Cherpak, ed., **A Diplomat's Lady in Brazil: Selections from the Diary of Mary Robinson Hunter, 1834\u20131848,** Newport: Newport Historical Society, 2001, 16.\n\n57. See Ibid., Evelyn M. Cherpak, ed., 17, 207, 260\u2013261, 276, 41, 42, 229, 269, 277, 400, 355. See also John Morgan, U.K. Consul in Rio Grande do Sul to Lord Palmerston, 15 February 1848, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 55, Number 36.** See also Lord Howden to Lord Palmerston, 20 March 1848, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 55, Number 36.** See also **Extracts from the Evidence Taken Before Committees of the Two Houses of Parliament Relative to the Slave Trade,** London: Ridgway, 1851, 75, _National Library of South Africa\u2013Cape Town._\n\n58. Lord Howden to Lord Palmerston, 31 December 1847, Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 64.**\n\n59. Ivor Debenham Spencer, **The Victor and the Spoils: A Life of William L. Marcy,** Providence: Brown University Press, 1959, 258.\n\n60. **Freedom's Journal,** 10 October 1828.\n\n61. John C. Calhoun to James Buchanan, 24 March 1845, in Ibid., Clyde Wilson and W. Edwin Hemphill, eds., **Volume 21,** 441.\n\n62. John C. Calhoun to Thomas G. Clemson. 23 June 1845, in Ibid., Clyde Wilson and W. Edwin Hemphill, eds., **Volume 21,** 597.\n\n63. David S. Heidler, **Pulling the Temple Down: The Fire-Eaters and the Destruction of the Union,** Mechanicsburg: Stackpole, 1994, 122, 123.\n\n64. See Jefferson Davis, \"Remarks on the Slave Trade,\" 22 January 1851, in Lynda Lasswell Crist, et al., eds., **The Papers of Jefferson Davis, Volume 4, 1849\u20131852,** Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1983, 154\u2013155.\n\n65. **North Star,** 21 August 1848.\n\n66. **National Era,** 4 November 1847.\n\n67. Milo Milton Quaife, ed., **The Diary of James K. Polk During his Presidency, 1845 to 1849, Volume 2,** New York: Kraus, 1970, 351.\n\n68. Frederick Moore Binder, **James Buchanan and the American Empire,** Selinsgrove: Susquehanna University Press, 1994, 146\u2013147. See also G. B. Wright, \"Hon. David Tod: Biographical and Personal Recollections,\" **Ohio Archaeological and Historical Publications,** 8 (1900): 107\u2013131, 111. Tod was appointed to succeed Wise in Brazil after the latter was \"recalled at the request of Brazil in consequence of his arbitrary course which threatened to involve our country in war with that Empire.\"\nNOTES TO CHAPTER 5\n\n1. Journal of Charlotte Gardner, circa 1852, Box 1, **William Bunker Gardner Papers,** _Huntington Library\u2013San Marino, California._\n\n2. Captain William Harwar Parker, **Recollections of a Naval Officer, 1841\u20131865,** New York: Charles Scribner's, 1885, 25.\n\n3. George Shepard, \"Addresses of Rev. Professor Shepard, and Rev. S. L. Caldwell to the California Pilgrims from Bangor, Maine,\" Bangor: Smith & Sayward, 1849, _Huntington Library._\n\n4. Raymond A. Rydell, \"The Cape Horn Route to California, 1849,\" **Pacific Historical Review,** 17 (Number 1, February 1948): 149\u2013163, 162, 150, 149. See also \"Cape Horn and Cooperative Mining in '49,\" **Century Magazine,** 42 (Number 1, May 1891): 579\u2013594, 593: Statistics kept by Mr. Edward King, \"harbor master of San Francisco during that period, the Custom House records having been destroyed by the great fire of May 4, 1851\" indicate that \"'passenger arrivals by sea in San Francisco in 1849'\" via Cape Horn was 15,597 and via Panama 6489. Interestingly, from Pacific ports the figure was 9217. See also Oscar Lewis, \"South American Ports of Call,\" **Pacific Historical Review,** 18 (Number 1, February 1949): 57\u201366, 60: \"in the first three months of 1849, eighty-six California bound ships put into the harbor\" at Rio; \"sometimes a dozen arrived in a single day bearing as many as a thousand passengers.\" See also William McCollum, **California as I Saw It,** Los Gatos, California: Talisman, 1960: There were also Brazilian 49ers arriving in California; 23 are listed here.\n\n5. Letter from A. H. Cazzam, circa 1849, Box 1, **Peter Remsen Papers,** _State Historical Society of Wisconsin\u2013Madison._\n\n6. John B. Goodman III, **The Gold Rush: Voyage of the Ship Loo Choo Around the Horn in 1849,** Mount Pleasant, Michigan: The Cumming Press, 1977, xix.\n\n7. George G. Webster, **The Journal of a Trip Around the Horn,** Ashland: Lewis Osborne, 1970, 32.\n\n8. See George Gardner, **Travels in the Interior of Brazil, Principally Through the Northern Provinces and the Gold and Diamond Districts during the Years 1836\u20131841,** London: Reeve, Benham and Reeve, 1849.\n\n9. Diary of Joshua Vincent, Acc. 2656, 20 November 1846, _San Diego Historical Society._\n\n10. John Charles Duchow, **The Duchow Journal: A Voyage from Boston to California 1852,** no city: Mallette Dean, 1959, no page no.\n\n11. Letter to spouse, 4 March 1852, Box 1, Folder 6, **Chaplin Conway Papers,** _Peabody Essex Museum._\n\n12. \"From Boston to San Francisco Around Cape Horn,\" 1864, MSSHM 60313, _Huntington Library._\n\n13. Hinton Helper, **The Land of God: Reality versus Fiction,** Baltimore: Helper, 1855, 278\u2013279. See also Judson A. Grenier, \"Colonel Jack Watson: Copperhead Assemblyman in Civil War California,\" **The Californians,** 12 (Number 5, year unclear): 14\u201335, 18, _California State Library\u2013Sacramento_ : There was talk of a \"'coup d'etat'\" in the state to take Southern California out of the state and union on pro-slavery grounds.\n\n14. **Savannah Daily Morning News,** 26 August 1850.\n\n15. Gerald Stanley, \"The Politics of the Antebellum West: The Impact of the Slavery and Race Issues in California,\" **Journal of the West,** 16 (Number 4, October 1977): 19\u201326.\n\n16. Donald Jackson, **Gold Dust,** New York: Knopf, 1980, 101.\n\n17. Oscar Lewis, **Sea Routes to the Gold Fields: The Migration by Water to California in 1849\u20131852,** New York: Knopf, 1949, 135.\n\n18. John H. Beeckman to \"My Dearest Wife,\"27 February 1849, **John H. Beeckman Collection,** _California State Library\u2013Sacramento._\n\n19. Ruth S. Nash, **High Seas to High Stakes or Around Cape Horn to the Gold Rush,** Bloomington, Indiana: First Books, 2000, 49.\n\n20. C. S. Stewart, **Brazil and La Plata: The Personal Record of a Cruise,** New York: G. P. Putnam, 1856, 150.\n\n21. Journal of Julius Howard Pratt, no date, Folder qq, _Connecticut Historical Society\u2013Hartford._\n\n22. Ibid., John B. Goodman III, **The Gold Rush,** xvi.\n\n23. Journal of C. H. Keefe, 1849, _University of California\u2013Berkeley._ See also Ibid., Mary C. Karasch, **Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro, 1808\u20131850,** 332. See also Benjamin Brewster to \"My Dear Mother,\" 4 March 1849, _G. W. Blunt White Library\u2013Mystic, Connecticut._\n\n24. Salvador A. Ramirez, **From New York to San Francisco via Cape Horn in 1849: The Gold Rush Voyage of the Ship 'Pacific,' an Eyewitness Account,** Carlsbad, California: The Tentacled Press, 1985, 57, 68. See also John Chauncey Mason, \"Memories of Long Ago,\" no date, Folder V, _Connecticut Historical Society_ : \"there were nineteen ships in the harbor\" when he arrived in 1849, \"all going to California; we had to wait about ten days before our turn came to have our water casks filled.\" See also Christian Miller to \"Dear Father . . . ,\" 27 April 1849, 74\/194C, **Christian Miller Letters,** _University of California\u2013Berkeley_ : \"there are not less than 1500 Americans bound to California in the city of Rio Janeiro. Before our arrival there were about 60 vessels put in this port for water. . . . it will take about four months before we arrive in California.\"\n\n25. Ibid., Journal of Julius Howard Pratt.\n\n26. Charles Mansfield, **Paraguay, Brazil and the Plate: Letters Written in 1852\u20131853,** Cambridge: Macmillan, 1856, 30.\n\n27. Journal of William Carshaw, 1846\u20131847, _Huntington Library._\n\n28. Letter to George Stoner, 8 October 1849, in Ibid., Roll 23, **Brazil Squadron Letters** : \"the population . . . including blacks\u2014the town contains from six to eight thousand inhabitants. . . . the climate is mild and . . . salubrious.\" See also Letter from Andrew Boyd Cummings, 8 November 1847, **Andrew Boyd Cummings Papers,** _U.S. Naval Academy\u2013Annapolis._\n\n29. Brian Roberts, \"'The Greatest and Most Perverted Paradise,'\" in Kenneth N. Owens, ed., **Riches for All: The California Gold Rush and the World,** Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002, 71\u201389, 74.\n\n30. Letter from Mary Smith, 11 October 1853, **Letters of Mary Smith,** _Yale University._\n\n31. John H. Beeckman to \"My Dearest Wife,\"27 February 1849, **John H. Beeckman Collection.**\n\n32. John H. Beeckman to Spouse, 8 March 1849, **John H. Beeckman Collection.**\n\n33. A. H. Cazzam to \"Dear Sir,\" 11 November 1849, Box 1, **Peter Remsen Papers,** _State Historical Society of Wisconsin\u2013Madison._\n\n34. See Diary of Horatio Chapman, circa 1849, Box 1, Folder 11 (ell\/ell), **California Gold Rush Collection,** _Connecticut Historical Society\u2013Hartford._\n\n35. \"Narrative of Henry Beckett, taken from the 'Tacoma Sunday Ledger,'\" 26 February 1893, _Washington State Historical Society\u2013Tacoma._ See also \"Journal of a Voyage Taken by George Stevens Aboard the Sailing Vessel 'North American' . . . Sailing Around Cape Horn from New York to San Francisco, April 1 to August 31, 1852,\" _California Historical Society\u2013San Francisco_ : \"the city [Rio] is strictly guarded by coloured soldiers. . . . a guard also extends for some miles out of the city, probably to prevent the escape of slaves.\"\n\n36. Captain Joseph Hamilton to Captain Richard H. Tucker, Jr., 8 March 1849, **Tucker Family Shipping Papers,** _Bowdoin College\u2013Maine._\n\n37. Edward M. Brown, **An Ocean Voyage: Around Cape Horn, 1849\u20131850,** No city, 1900, _Huntington Library._\n\n38. Roger Conant, **Mercer's Belles: The Journal of a Reporter,** edited by Lenna A. Deutsch, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1960, 69.\n\n39. Anonymous Diary, 1849, c-F216, **Honeyman Collection,** _University of California\u2013Berkeley._\n\n40. W. S. W. Ruschenberger, **Notes and Commentaries During a Voyage to Brazil and China in the Year 1848,** Richmond: McFarlane & Ferguson, 1854, 79.\n\n41. Ibid., George Coggeshall, **Thirty Six Voyages to Various Parts of the World, Made Between the Years 1799 and 1841,** 550. See also, Ibid., Salvador A. Ramirez, 59. See also Letter of Condy Raguet, 8 November 1824, **Condy Raguet Official Letters,** _Historical Society of Pennsylvania._\n\n42. Journal of Thomas Williams, 1849, _University of California\u2013Berkeley._\n\n43. \"Diary of Ship 'Robert Bourne,'\" 1849, _Huntington Library._\n\n44. Ibid., W. S. W. Ruschenberger, 120.\n\n45. Anonymous Journal, 1849, 77\/160c, _University of California\u2013Berkeley._\n\n46. Diary of Ebenezer Sheppard, 1849, _California Historical Society\u2013San Francisco._\n\n47. Thomas Ewbank, **Life in Brazil; or a Journal of a Visit to The Land of the Cocoa and Palm,** New York: Harper & Brothers, 1856, 188.\n\n48. Milton Stevens to \"My Dear Mother,\"4 May 1849, Box 1, **Milton Stevens Papers,** _Huntington Library, San Marino, California._\n\n49. Ibid., \"Diary of Ship 'Robert Bourne.'\"\n\n50. C. S. Stewart, **Brazil and La Plata: The Personal Record of a Cruise,** New York: G. P. Putnam, 1856, 72.\n\n51. Ibid., Brian Roberts, 74.\n\n52. James Orton, **The Andes and the Amazon or Across the Continent of South America,** New York: Harper & Bros., 1870, 323.\n\n53. Journal of James Lamoureaux Pangburn, 1849, _J. Porter Shaw Maritime Library\u2013San Francisco._\n\n54. Letters of Mary Smith, 25 September 1853, _Yale University._\n\n55. John Pomfret, **California Gold Rush Voyages, 1848\u20131849: Three Original Narratives,** San Marino: Huntington Library, 1954, 108, 109.\n\n56. Samuel C. Upham, **Notes of a Voyage to California via Cape Horn Together with Scenes in El Dorado in the Years 1849\u20131850,** Philadelphia: Upham, 1878, 68.\n\n57. L. M. Schaeffer, **Sketches of Travels in South America, Mexico and California,** New York: James Egbert, 1860, 14.\n\n58. Clipping, circa 1846, **Henry Wise Papers,** _American Antiquarian Society._ See also Gaspar Jose de Lisboa to President James Buchanan, 21 August 1847, **Mason Family Papers,** _Virginia Historical Society._\n\n59. Errol Wayne Stevens, **Incidents of a Voyage to California, 1849: A Diary of Travel Aboard the Bark 'Hersilia' and in Sacramento,** Los Angeles: Western History Association, 1987, 22. See also Journal of C. H. Keefe, May 1849, _University of California\u2013Berkeley._\n\n60. Ibid., Edward M. Brown, **An Ocean Voyage,** 58.\n\n61. Journal of John R. McFalan, 1850, _Huntington Library._\n\n62. Ibid., W. S. W. Ruschenberger, 62.\n\n63. Joseph Lamson, **Round Cape Horne: Voyages of the Passenger Ship James W. Paige from Maine to California in the Year 1852,** Bangor: O. F. and W. H. Knowles, 1878, 26.\n\n64. John Esaias Warren, **Para; Or Scenes and Adventures on the Banks of the Amazon,** New York: G. P. Putnam, 1851, 62.\n\n65. Diary of Richard Morton, 1857\u20131858, _Virginia Historical Society._\n\n66. Journal of J. L. Ackerman, 23 September 1849\u20131 February 1854, _University of California\u2013Berkeley._\n\n67. Journal of Samuel Adams, 1849, **Samuel Adams Papers,** _California Historical Society\u2013Sacramento._\n\n68. Ibid., Milton Stevens to \"My Dear Mother.\"\n\n69. Ibid., Samuel C. Upham, 88.\n\n70. Diary of James Woods, 1849, _Huntington Library._\n\n71. James Delgado, ed., **The Log of Apollo: Joseph Perkins Beach's Journal of the Voyage of the Ship 'Apollo' from New York to San Francisco, 1849,** San Francisco: Book Club of California, 1986, 47.\n\n72. Ibid., Diary of James Woods.\n\n73. Ibid., Salvador Ramirez, 61.\n\n74. Anonymous Journal, 1849, 77\/160c, _University of California\u2013Berkeley._\n\n75. James T. Jones to Mary E. (Jones) Carr, 1844, **James T. Jones Collection,** _Huntington Library._ Others disagreed.\n\n76. See \"Travel Sketches of C. B. Richard,\" 1846\u20131849, _New York Historical Society_ : \"the slave population is five-fold that of the whites\" and continually replenished as \"slave ships fitted out in Brazilian ports bound for the African coast\" were ever present. See also Lonnie J. White and William R. Gillespie, **By Sea to San Francisco, 1849\u20131850** : **The Journal of Dr. James Morison,** Memphis: Memphis State University Press, 1977, 12: \"the conditions of this unfortunate class [slaves] is very little above that of the beast of burden. They are not permitted to wear shoes. By this they are distinguished from the free Negro. . . . I saw several children running about entirely naked. The men frequently are naked above the loins and in some instances had no covering except the loins. . . . they are generally cheerful and happy.\"\n\n77. Ibid., Salvador A. Ramirez, 63.\n\n78. Anonymous Journal, 1849, 77\/160c, _University of California\u2013Berkeley._\n\n79. Ibid., Journal of C. H. Keefe.\n\n80. Albert Lyman, **Journal of a Voyage to California and Life in the Gold Diggings and Also a Voyage from California to the Sandwich Islands,** Hartford: Dexter & Bro., 1852, 42.\n\n81. Anonymous Journal, 1849, c-F 216, **Honeyman Collection,** _University of California\u2013Berkeley._\n\n82. M. J. Randall, **The Adventures of a Captain's Wife Going through the Straits of Magellan to California in 1850,** New York and San Francisco: A. Roman and Co., 1877, 10.\n\n83. Ibid., Diary of Richard Morton.\n\n84. Journal of Thomas Williams, March-September 1849, _University of California\u2013Berkeley_ : \"The manner the poor slaves eat their food, which is rice and fish, when I saw them they had . . . no knife, fork or spoon, they scoop it up in their hands and [throw] it in their mouths. . . . their jaws don't open and shut like we white people, they work their jaws, like an ox chewing his cud, or the horse his hay or grain.\"\n\n85. Anonymous Journal, 1849, 77\/160c, _University of California\u2013Berkeley._ See also Journal of Ralph Cross Pendleton, March-July 1852, _Huntington Library._\n\n86. Ibid., Thomas Ewbank, 440. See also Ibid., Thomas Ewbank, 436: \"Common punishments\" were a \"Negro in a mask, and a Negro wearing the usual pronged collar, with a shackle around one ankle and secured to a chain suspended from his waist.\"\n\n87. John H. Beeckman to Spouse, 17 March 1849, **John H. Beeckman Collection.**\n\n88. Ibid., J. Lamson, **Round Cape Horn,** 43.\n\n89. Ibid., Errol Wayne Stevens, **Incidents of a Voyage to California, 1849,** 24. See also Griffith Meredith, \"Meredith's Journal of a Voyage from New York, 1849, via Cape Horn to San Francisco,\" _California State Library\u2013Sacramento_ : \"We went to Capt. Cathcart's house and had quite a chat with him, he is a native of Massachusetts. . . . he is a very wealthy man. Now he has a fine house\" and was growing \"sugar\" and \"has 25 or 30 slaves to work for him.\" See also Oscar Lewis, \"South America's Ports of Call,\" **Pacific Historical Review,** 18 (Number 1, February 1949): 57\u201366, 58: \"At the height of the California Rush, St. Catherine's was overrun with Yankees.\"\n\n90. See letter to George Stoner, 8 October 1849, in Ibid., Roll 23, **Brazil Squadron Letters** : \"On my recent visit . . . I found the American interest prosperous and well represented in the person of Robert S. Cathcart, Acting U.S. Consul. . . . he has resided in the country upwards of twenty years, is conversant with the language. . . . hence our Government would do well in my judgment to confirm the appointment.\"\n\n91. **Godey's Lady Book,** August 1853.\n\n92. Journal of Daniel S. Hayden, 1849\u20131852, _Huntington Library._\n\n93. \"Log Book Manuscript Journal of 'California Packet,' Boston to San Francisco, March 4, 1850 to August 24, 1850,\" _Huntington Library._\n\n94. Anonymous Journal, 1849, 77\/160c, _University of California\u2013Berkeley._\n\n95. Ibid., Ruth S. Nash, 46, 47. See also Ibid., Charles Mansfield, 29: This visiting British scientist found Pernambuco to be a \"dreadfully dirty place; there is not a drain of any sort, and all imaginable filth lies in the streets. . . . two-thirds of the population seems to be naked Negroes, in cotton drawers.\"\n\n96. Ibid., Brian Roberts, 80\u201381, 84.\n\n97. Diary of Samuel Whiting, 1849, _Rhode Island Historical Society\u2013Providence._\n\n98. Ibid., \"Narrative of Henry Beckett.\"\n\n99. Ibid., Journal of Thomas Williams.\n\n100. Ibid., Albert Lyman, 36.\n\n101. Ibid., Thomas Ewbank, 116.\n\n102. Ibid., Diary of Richard Morton.\n\n103. Levi Holden to Charles, 26 December 1848, **Levi Holden Papers,** _Rhode Island Historical Society\u2013Providence._\n\n104. **Godey's Lady Book,** June 1853.\n\n105. Ibid., Diary of Richard Morton.\n\n106. L. J. Hall, **Around the Horn in '49: Journal of the Hartford Union Mining and Trading Company,** Wethersfield, Connecticut: Hall, 1898, [originally published in 1849], 77, _Huntington Library._\n\n107. J. D. B. Stillman, **Seeking the Golden Fleece: A Record of Pioneer Life in California,** San Francisco: A Roman & Co., 1877.\n\n108. Anonymous Journal, 1849, 77\/160c, _University of California\u2013Berkeley._\n\n109. A. H. Cazzam to Peter Remsen, 5 October 1848, Box 1, **Peter Remsen Papers.**\n\n110. Journal of Ralph Cross Pendleton, 1852, _Huntington Library._\n\n111. Ibid., J. Lamson, 43.\n\n112. Ibid., Diary of James Woods.\n\n113. Ibid., C. S. Stewart, 408.\n\n114. Ibid., Diary of Richard Morton.\n\n115. William H. Edwards, **A Voyage up the River Amazon Including a Residence at Para,** London: John Murray, 1847, 52.\n\n116. **North Star,** 5 May 1848. Douglass's forbearance was even more striking since \"African Americans\" venturing south of the U.S. \"traveled under the constant menace of enslavement by slave hunters and bandits. . . . kidnappers made a lucrative business of selling captives to the South American slave market.\" See Shirley Ann Moore, \"'Do You Think I'll Lug Trunks?' African-Americans in Gold Rush California,\" in Ibid., Kenneth N. Owens, ed., **Riches for All,** 161\u2013175, 164.\n\n117. **Frederick Douglass' Paper,** 21 May 1858.\n\n118. **Frederick Douglass' Paper,** 5 January 1860.\n\n119. Ibid., Diary of Richard Morton. See also Rev. Walter Colton, U.S. Navy, **Deck and Port or Incidents of a Cruise in the United States Frigate Congress to California,** New York: A. S. Barnes, 1852, 112\u2013113.\n\n120. Ibid., Samuel C. Upham, 88.\n\n121. John H. Beeckman to Wife, 27 March 1849, **John H. Beeckman Collection.**\n\n122. Ibid., Thomas Ewbank, 267, 195, 439. See also Ibid., Charles Mansfield, 29.\n\n123. Ibid., Samuel C. Upham, 89. See Ibid., Jacob D. B. Stillman, 40.\n\n124. See also **Frederick Douglass' Paper,** 19 February 1852. See also Robert Edgar Conrad, ed., **Children of God's Fire: A Documentary History of Black Slavery in Brazil,** Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983, xvi, xviii: \"After years of concentrated study of Brazilian slavery and abolition, and after reading extensively on slavery in the United States, I have become convinced that the _physical conditions_ endured by slaves in Brazil made life there considerably more precarious and uncomfortable\u2014again the physical sense\u2014than it was for most slaves in the United States\" [emphasis-original], while the higher standard of living in the U.S. trickled down to slaves. On the other hand, \"some blacks and mulattoes in Brazil enjoyed social advantages that were normally denied to their counterparts in the American South or even in [the] free states of the North.\"\n\nNOTES TO CHAPTER 6\n\n1. See Southern Pamphlet #4704, Annual Report of the Matthew Fontaine Maury Association, 1920, _University of North Carolina\u2013Chapel Hill._ See also John A. Coke, Henry Miller, and Branch B. Morgan, \"Memorials of Three Great Virginians: Matthew Fontaine Maury, Robert Edward Lee and Thomas Jonathan ('Stonewall') Jackson,\" Richmond: United Daughters of the Confederacy, 1924, _University of North Carolina\u2013Chapel Hill._\n\n2. **All Hands,** April 1998, N.972, Vertical File, Defense Mapping Agency, _U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis._\n\n3. A. C. W. Bethel, \"The Golden Skein: California's Gold-Rush Transportation Network,\" **California History,** 77 (Number 4, Winter 1998\u20131999): 250\u2013275, 255.\n\n4. Colonel William Couper, **One Hundred Years at VMI, Volume 3,** Richmond: Garrett & Massie, 1939, 158\u2013172.\n\n5. James P. Reddick, Jr., \"Herndon, Maury and the Amazon Basin,\" **United States Naval Institute Proceedings,** 97 (Number 3\/817, March 1971): 56\u201363, 58, 59, 62, 63.\n\n6. Charles Lee Lewis, \"Matthew Fontaine Maury: An International Figure,\" **The Southern Magazine,** 1 (Number 9, January 1935): 9\u201311, 43, 10.\n\n7. See e.g. John W. Wayland, **The Pathfinder of the Seas: The Life of Matthew Fontaine Maury,** Richmond: Garrett & Massie, 1930, 77, 78, 79. See also Frances Leigh Williams, **Matthew Fontaine Maury: Scientist of the Sea,** New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1963; Patricia Jahns, **Matthew Fontaine Maury & John Henry: Scientists of the Civil War,** New York: Hastings House, 1963.\n\n8. **London Telegraph,** 25 February 1873.\n\n9. See \"Inducements to the Colored People of the United States to Emigrate to British Guiana, Compiled from Statements and Documents Furnished by Edward Carbery, Agent of the Immigration Society of British Guiana and Proprietor in that Colony,\" Boston: Kidder and Wright, 1840, 7, _Kansas State Historical Society\u2013Topeka_ : \"Conditions\" in the U.S. \"which render the position of the colored man in the United States so mortifying and uncomfortable are wholly unknown in British Guiana. In this respect all are equal.\" See also James O'Toole, **Passing for White: Race, Religion and the Healy Family, 1820\u20131920,** Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2002, 33: \"Orestes Brownson wrote bluntly in the middle of the Civil War, expressing the fond hope that should slaves win their freedom, they would simply 'drift away' to Central and South America.\"\n\n10. Percy Alvin Martin, \"The Influence of the United States on the Opening of the Amazon to the World's Commerce,\" **Hispanic American Historical Review,** 1 (Number 2, May 1918): 146\u2013162, 146.\n\n11. Monroe Edwards, **The Life and Adventurer of the Accomplished Forger and Swindler,** New York: H. Long & Brother, 1848, 14, 17, 18, 22, 27, 31, 32, 47\u201348, 82.\n\n12. See e.g. Ibid., Robert E. May, **Manifest Destiny's Underworld,** 241.\n\n13. Charles Smith, Consul, to John Forsyth, Secretary of State, 20 July 1836, Record Group 59, Roll 1, T478, **Records of the Department of State, Dispatches from U.S. Consuls in Para, Brazil** : \"the disturbances which this Province has seen for the last year unhappily afflicted are supposed to be at an end.\" \"Five American merchant vessels\" were \"in port at this time,\" along with \"two French and English ships of war.\" But see also The Diary of H. B. Towne, Misc. Vol. 185, _G. W. Blunt Library\u2013Mystic, Connecticut_ : Born in Andover, Massachusetts in 1798, this sailor visited Para in the 1830s and noted, \"there has been more political troubles at this place than any other. . . . some considerable trade is effected by Americans at Para\" though \"seldom do we see one of our government's vessels at Para.\" As for Bahia, he noted that \"of late few American vessels trade there. . . . I believe also the blacks (slaves) exceed the whites 3 or 4 to one.\"\n\n14. Amory Edwards to Capt. I. D. Wilson, 6 January 1847, Box 1, **Peter Remsen Papers,** _State Historical Society of Wisconsin_ \\- _Madison._\n\n15. De Facto Passport of Peter Remsen, circa 1847, Box 1, **Peter Remsen Papers.**\n\n16. Letter to \"Dear Madam,\" 3 December 1847, Box 1, **Peter Remsen Papers.**\n\n17. Undated, circa 1848, Box 1, **Peter Remsen Papers.**\n\n18. G. T. Snow to Commanding Officer, 9 June 1845, Record Group 59, Roll 2, T344, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Pernambuco, Brazil.**\n\n19. Walter Stapp to Lewis Cass, 30 October 1858, Record Group 59, Roll 2, T344, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Pernambuco, Brazil.**\n\n20. Letter to Daniel Webster, 14 May 1851, Record Group 59, Roll 1, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Bahia.**\n\n21. John Julius Pringle to William Pringle, 14 September 1841, 11\u2013325\u20132, **Mitchell-Pringle Collection,** _South Carolina Historical Society\u2013Charleston._ See also Steven C. Topik, **Trade and Gunboats: The United States and Brazil in the Age of Empire,** Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996, 53, 54.\n\n22. Chart, \"American Vessels Arriving at & Departing from Bahia, Brazil from the 1st of January to the 30th June 1851 inclusive,\" Record Group 59, Roll 1, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Bahia.**\n\n23. Consular Report, 31 December 1857, Record Group 59, Roll 2, T478, **Records of the Department of State, Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Para, Brazil,** _National Archives and Records Administration\u2013College Park, Maryland._\n\n24. Consular Report, 30 November 1859, Record Group 59, Roll 2, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Para.**\n\n25. Ibid., Consular Report, 30 November 1859.\n\n26. Henry Dewey to William Marcy, 8 November 1855, Record Group 59, Roll 2, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Para.**\n\n27. Mark Williams to Henry Dewey, 8 September 1855, Record Group 59, Roll 2, **Despatches from the U.S. Consuls in Para.**\n\n28. Henry Dewey to William Marcy, 12 July 1855, Record Group 59, Roll 1, T478, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Para, Brazil.**\n\n29. Ana Maury to \"My Dear Cousin,\"2 December 1853, Box 1, **Matthew Maury Papers,** _Duke University._\n\n30. Sam Houston to S. L. Southard, 20 February 1825, **Miscellaneous Southard,** _New York Historical Society._\n\n31. General Dabney Herndon Maury, **Recollections of a Virginian in the Mexican, Indian and Civil Wars,** New York: Scribner's, 1894, 16.\n\n32. Matthew Maury to \"My Dear Sir,\" 18 June 1829, Box 1, **Matthew Maury Papers,** _Duke University._\n\n33. See **Smithsonian,** 14 (Number 2, March 1984): 170\u2013186, Vertical File, Defense Mapping Agency, _U.S. Naval Academy\u2013Annapolis._\n\n34. Ibid., A. C. W. Bethel, \"The Golden Skein,\" 255.\n\n35. Matthew Maury to William Lewis Herndon, 2 April 1850, in J. G. de Roulhac Hamilton, ed., **The Papers of William Alexander Graham, Volume 3, 1845\u20131850,** Raleigh: State Department of Archives and History, 1960, 433\u2013434.\n\n36. Henry Lee Norris to Daniel Webster, 31 December 1850, Record Group 59, Roll 1, T478, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Para, Brazil.**\n\n37. William Lewis Herndon, \"Extracts from My Journal, 1828\u20131850,\" **William Lewis Herndon Papers,** _New York Historical Society._\n\n38. William Lewis Herndon, **Exploration of the Valley of the Amazon, 1851\u20131852,** New York: Grove Press, 2000, 248, 258, 263, 274\u2013275, 324, 342, 56, xiv.\n\n39. John Schroeder, **Shaping a Maritime Empire: The Commercial and Diplomatic Role of the American Navy, 1829\u20131861,** Westport: Greenwood Press, 1985, 109, 106\u2013107.\n\n40. John Crampton to London, 8 August 1853, in James J. Barnes and Patience P. Barnes, eds., **Private and Confidential: Letters from British Ministers in Washington to the Foreign Secretaries in London, 1844\u20131867,** Selinsgrove, Pennsylvania: Susquehanna University Press, 1993, 79.\n\n41. William K. Scarborough, ed., **The Diary of Edmund Ruffin, Volume 1** : **Toward Independence, October 1856\u2013April 1857,** Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1972, 386.\n\n42. **New York Times,** 24 August 1854.\n\n43. **New York Times,** 16 May 1854.\n\n44. Matthew Maury to William Graham, 14 August 1850, Washington Oficios, 1848\u20131851, _Archivo Hist\u00f3rico do Itamaraty\u2013Rio de Janeiro._\n\n45. \"Extract from the Rio [de] Janeiro Correspondence of the 'Observator,'\" no date, Box 17, Folder 306, **William Graham Papers,** _University of North Carolina\u2013Chapel Hill._\n\n46. Letter to William Graham, 13 April 1852, Box 8, Folder 125, **William Graham Papers.**\n\n47. John F. Cady, **Foreign Intervention in the Rio de la Plata, 1835\u20131850,** Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1929, 160.\n\n48. Letter from J. G. Chapman, 22 June 1852, Box 8, Folder 129, **William Graham Papers.**\n\n49. Millard Fillmore to William Graham, 30 June 1852, Box 8, Folder 130, **William Graham Papers.**\n\n50. Millard Fillmore to William Graham, 22 June 1853, Box 8, Folder 143, **William Graham Papers.**\n\n51. Matthew Maury to William Graham, 8 October 1852, Box 8, Folder 137, **William Graham Papers.**\n\n52. Matthew Fontaine Maury, \"Direct Foreign Trade of the South,\" **De Bow's Review,** 12 (Number 2, February 1852): 126\u2013148, 140, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148.\n\n53. Matthew Maury, \"Shall the Valleys of the Amazon and the Mississippi Reciprocate Trade,\" **De Bow's Review,** 14 (Number 2, February 1853): 136\u2013145, 145.\n\n54. Matthew Maury, \"The Amazon and the Atlantic Slopes of South America,\" Washington: Franck Taylor, 1853, F2546, _Virginia Historical Society._\n\n55. U.S. Congress. House. 33rd Congress, 1st Session. Miscellaneous No. 22, \"Free Navigation of the Amazon River. Memorial of Lieutenant Maury, in behalf of the Memphis Convention in Favor of the Free Navigation of the Amazon River.\" 3 March 1854, _Virginia Historical Society._\n\n56. Matthew Maury to William Graham, 7 October 1850, Box 5, Folder 76, **William Graham Papers.**\n\n57. Matthew Maury to Mrs. Blackford, 24 December 1851, in Jacqueline Ambler Caskie, ed., **Life and Letters of Matthew Fontaine Maury,** Richmond: Richmond Press, 1928, 119, 121.\n\n58. Nannie Corbin, **A Life of Matthew Fontaine Maury,** London: Low, Marston, Searle and Rivington, 1888, 132.\n\n59. Letter from Matthew Maury, 8 October 1852, in Ibid., J. G. de Roulhac Hamilton, ed., **Volume 4,** 1961, 418.\n\n60. See Ibid., James P. Reddick, 63.\n\n61. **Provincial Freeman,** 3 June 1854.\n\n62. **National Era,** 31 August 1854.\n\n63. **National Era,** 29 June 1854.\n\n64. **Provincial Freeman,** 27 May 1854.\n\n65. **Provincial Freeman,** 29 April 1854.\n\n66. **Frederick Douglass' Paper,** 31 March 1854.\n\n67. **National Era,** 23 June 1853.\n\n68. Matthew Maury to William Figaniere, 8 September 1856, [translation]: Legation of Portugal in Washington, Correspondence Received from Various U.S. Authorities and Establishments, 1837\u20131888, Torre, 4 Piso, Estante 1, 17, A38, M 19, _Archivo Hist\u00f3rico-Diplom\u00e1tico, Minist\u00e9rio dos Negocios Estrangeiros\u2013Lisbon._ There are many letters in this file between the two.\n\n69. J. A. Dahlgren to William Figaniere, 24 March 1857, in Ibid., A38, M19, Lisbon.\n\n70. J. A. Dahlgren to William Figaniere, 14 April 1857, in Ibid., A38, M19, Lisbon.\n\n71. Matthew Maury to William Figaniere, in Ibid., A38, M19, Lisbon.\n\n72. U.S. Patent Office to William Figaniere, in Ibid., A38, M19, Lisbon.\n\n73. Letter from Matthew Maury, 14 July 1859, in Ibid., A38, M19, Lisbon: Thanks for your \"Royal Letter Patent from His Majesty-Your King conferring upon me the 'Degree of Officer of the Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Power of Swords, of Valor, Loyalty and Merit.'\"\n\n74. See e.g. Matthew Maury to the \"Grand Duke Constatine, Lord High Admiral of the Russian Navy,\" 22 October 1855, Box 5, **Matthew Maury Papers,** _Library of Congress\u2013Washington, D.C._ : \"I have received by the hands of the Russian Minister, the autograph letter which Your Imperial Highness . . . had the kindness to write me. . . . I am proud of it and hold in high esteem the commendation which the Great Admiral of the Russian Navy bestows upon my humble labors\"; in the same file see also the following: \"Tomard\" to Maury, 18 November 1855: Lavish praise heaped on Maury along with the query re: \"keeping perfectly clear for navigation the entrance of the harbor\" and the \"Suez Canal\"; Maury to Tomard, 2 January 1856: Re: Suez Canal, \"it is a work worthy of the age\"; he also speaks of building a \"double track railroad about 420 miles long . . . from Caspian Sea to the Persian Gulf\"; \"Minister Resident of the Republic of Bremen\" to Maury, 28 December 1855: \"it affords me great pleasure to hand you in the name of my Government the accompanying Gold Medal\"; \"Imperial Academy of Science of Russia,\" to Maury, 29 December 1855: \"its high esteem for your scientific labors in the domain of astronomy, has elected you its corresponding member\"; In Box 6 of the same collection see also William Marcy, U.S. Department of State, to Maury, no date, \"transmitting to you . . . a Gold Medal which His Majesty the King of the Netherlands has been pleased to confer upon you in consideration of your services to science\"; Letter from Legation of Denmark in Philadelphia, 11 November 1856 to Maury: another commendation.\n\n75. Maximillian to Matthew Maury, 2 December 1860, Box 10, **Matthew Maury Papers,** _Library of Congress._ See also \"Ferdinand Maximilian, Arch Duke of Austria,\" to Matthew Maury, 10 December 1857, **Matthew Maury Papers,** _Virginia Military Institute._\n\n76. A. Mathieu, Paris, to Matthew Maury, 24 February 1860, in Ibid., J. G. de Roulhac Hamilton, ed., **Volume 5,** 1973, 151\u2013152: France awards him a \"Gold Medal.\"\n\n77. Matthew Maury to Maximilian, 10 November 1863, Box 19, **Matthew Maury Papers,** _Library of Congress._\n\n78. Letter to Matthew Maury, 25 August 1865, Box 23, **Matthew Maury Papers,** _Library of Congress._\n\n79. Matthew Maury to \"My Dear Children,\" 1 March 1866, **Matthew Maury Papers,** _Virginia Military Institute._\n\n80. Matthew Maury to Corbin, 21 June 1870, **Matthew Maury Papers,** _Virginia Military Institute._\n\n81. **London Telegraph,** 25 February 1873.\n\n82. Charles Mial Dustin, \"The Knights of the Golden Circle: The Story of the Pacific Coast Secessionists,\" **Pacific Monthly,** 26 (November 1911): 495\u2013504, 495.\n\n83. Ibid., Manisha Sinha, **The Counterrevolution of Slavery,** 137.\n\nNOTES TO CHAPTER 7\n\n1. Ibid., Joseph Dorsey, **Slave Traffic in the Age of Abolition,** 210.\n\n2. Ibid., David R. Murray, **Odious Commerce,** 304. See also Ibid., David Eltis, **Economic Growth and the Ending of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade,** 216: \"In 1856 a group of old Brazilian slave traders now involved in the Cuban trade made the last recorded attempt to introduce slaves from Africa into Brazil.\" See Warren Howard, **American Slavers and the Federal Law, 1837\u20131862,** Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963, 46: \"by 1851 the Brazilian slave trade was vanishing, never to revive.\" But see Report from Rio de Janeiro, 4 March 1853, FO 128\/48, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens_ : \"worry\" expressed that \"two slavers from the coast of Africa were daily expected to arrive and land their slaves to the northward. . . . apprehensive of a resuscitation of slave dealing enterprises\"; Letter from Rio, 5 February 1853, FO 128\/48: \"a person who has given much useful information to [me]\" about the slave trade says \"a North American brig, whose name has not transpired, was chartered by the agents of Thomas Costa Ramos, now a fugitive from this country for slave trading . . . and that she sailed after taking a crew and water on board . . . for the coast of Africa intending to engage in the forbidden traffic\"; Letter from Rio, 14 February 1853, FO128\/48: \"the fact of a North American brig fitted out for [trade] in port of Montevideo\"; B. F. Hallett, Office of U.S. Attorney-Massachusetts, to William Marcy, 5 January 1857, Record Group 59, Roll 1, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Bahia** : \"the schooner Mary E. Smith . . . was fitted out for the slave trade in Boston and escaped tho warrants figured against her. . . . she went direct to Africa, took her cargo of slaves and was captured by the Brazilian government\"; Edmund Gabriel, Luanda, Angola, to Earl of Malmesbury, 10 October 1858, FO541\/1, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens_ : \"Dr. Saturnino de Souza e Oliveira, the Brazilian Consul General . . . received intelligence that some parties here are forming a design to introduce slaves into the Brazils by landing them in Guayana [ _sic_ ] and afterwards removing them overland to Para and the other provinces in the north of that country.\" Edmund Gabriel to Earl of Malmesbury, 15 April 1859, FO541\/2, _Public Records Office_ : More rumors of a plan for \"introduction of slaves into the northern provinces of the Brazils, by way of Guiana.\" Edmund Gabriel to Lord Russell, 29 September 1859, FO541\/2: \"The Brazilian subject Francisco Antonio Flores of whose connection with the slave trade in this province\" is well known, returned to Luanda. He had been \"expelled\" in 1854 by the Portuguese. He was \"thoroughly skilled in the art of corrupting all the authorities around him. . . . notorious not only as a slave trader but as the chief instigator of that Traffic on this part of the coast\"; a \"guest of Flores\" and accompanying him was \"Senhor Joaquim Guedes de Carvalho Menzes\" who had served as \"Arbitrator\" on slave trade cases. See also Rear Admiral Fred Grey to Secretary of Admiralty, 21 March 1859, FO541\/2: \"I have no means of judging whether it is possible that any [slavers] may have landed in any part of the Brazilian territory.\"\n\n3. Christopher Lloyd, **The Navy and the Slave Trade: The Suppression of the African Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century,** London: Frank Cass, 1968, 179.\n\n4. Philip S. Foner, **Business & Slavery: The New York Merchants and the Irrepressible Conflict,** Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941, 164. See also David A. Ross, \"The Career of Domingo Martinez in the Bight of Benin, 1833\u20131864,\" **Journal of African History,** 6 (Number 1, 1965): 70\u201390, 87: \"One of the most important of these 'new' [slave] dealers was J.A. Machado, of New York, who in 1856 sent out a relative, Samuel da Costa [Soares], to organize his shipments of slaves. The position of the old traders as middle men in the trade was destroyed.\" See also Letter from New York to Thomas R. dos Santos, 28 December 1858, [translation], Correspondence of the Consul General in New York, 1839\u20131888, A28, M8, Torre 4, Piso Ensentell 6, _Archivo Hist\u00f3rico-Diplom\u00e1tico, Minist\u00e9rio dos Negocios Estrangeiros\u2013Lisbon_ : \"I had no 'trouble' in the proper acceptation of the word when the Martinho de Mello was about to sail on suspicion of her being in the slave trade. . . . the vessel alluded to was about to engage in the slave trade, she was boarded before leaving the wharf by the Deputy Marshall,\" which was an \"annoyance\"; the \"visit of such an unnecessary and utterly uncalled for character. . . . I am too well known in this city to suffer in reputation.\"\n\n5. **New York Times,** 9 March 1857; see also **New York Times,** 28 June 1856. **New York Times,** 15 July 1857.\n\n6. **New York Herald,** 15 August 1859: Mandingoes \"as slaves for general work\" were \"considered superior to the other tribes. The best agricultural laborers are to be found among the Congoes. . . . there is a tribe called the Carobali who appear to have a higher intellectual organization than either of those named . . . they are said to make capital peddlers and traders and for this reason they are employed at such occupations in cities and towns\"; they supplied a \"large majority of the water sellers of Havana and other cities.\"\n\n7. See Anne Farrow, et al., **Complicity: How the North Promoted, Prolonged, and Profited from Slavery,** New York: Ballantine, 2005, 125, 124.\n\n8. See William McBlair, to Isaac Toucey, Secretary of the Navy, 18 December 1857, in U.S. Congress. House. 36th Congress, 2nd Session. Ex. Doc. 7. **African Slave Trade. Message from the President of the United States.** 6 December 1860. _New York Historical Society._\n\n9. Ibid., David S. Heidler, **Pulling the Temple Down,** 81.\n\n10. Dickinson, Hill & Co., Account Book, 1855\u20131858, Octavo, Volume 3, **Slavery in the U.S. Collection,** _American Antiquarian Society._ In same collection see also Letter to Mr. Stokes, 12 February 1861, Box 1, Folder 8: \"there was one man sold here today for $1350.\" See also Isabel Howell, \"John Armfield of Beersheba Springs,\" **Tennessee Historical Quarterly,** 2 (March 1943, March-June 1944): 3\u201360, 5: this major trader \"handled thousands of black Africans\" though his \"letters and records seem to have been systematically destroyed.\"\n\n11. **Weekly Herald,** circa 1858, Box 1, Folder 4, **Henry Wise Papers,** _Peabody Essex Museum._\n\n12. Ibid., Manisha Sinha, **The Counterrevolution of Slavery,** 142, 143, 149.\n\n13. William K. Scarborough, ed., **The Diary of Edmund Ruffin, Volume 2,** Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1972, 67, 285.\n\n14. James K. Greer, **Louisiana Politics, 1845\u20131861,** Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1930, 191.\n\n15. Betty L. Mitchell, **Edmund Ruffin: A Biography,** Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981, 124.\n\n16. Ibid., Eric H. Walther, **The Fire-Eaters,** 284.\n\n17. William O. Scroggs, **Filibusters and Financiers: The Story of William Walker and His Associates,** New York: Macmillan, 1916, 212.\n\n18. James Carson Jamison, **With Walker in Nicaragua or Reminiscences of an Officer of the American Phalanx,** Columbia, Missouri: E. W. Stephens, 1909, 99; see also General William Walker, **The War in Nicaragua,** Mobile: S. H. Goetzel & Co., 1860, 262.\n\n19. Robert G. Harper, \"An Argument Against the Policy of Re-opening the African Slave Trade,\" Atlanta: C. R. Hanleiter, 1858, P11003, _Western Reserve Historical Society\u2013Cleveland._\n\n20. **The Campaign Union,** 16 October 1860.\n\n21. Reports, circa 1859, H1470, 0046\/04, _Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores\u2013Madrid_ : Note was taken of the 31 August 1859 **New York Daily News** which contained an address of Jefferson Davis with the headline, \"Slavery and the Slave Trade defended. . . . Cuba a necessity.\" There was grave concern in Madrid about this latter point.\n\n22. Report from Spanish Consul in Galveston, 11 January 1856, H1890, _Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores\u2013Madrid_ : \"constituye a aquella ciudad en uno de los centros mas activos de conspiracion permanente contra Cuba.\"\n\n23. **De Bow's Review,** 1 October 1860.\n\n24. James Oakes, **The Ruling Race: A History of American Slaveholders,** New York: Norton, 1998, 231.\n\n25. **Weekly Herald,** circa 1858, Box 1, Folder 4, **Henry Wise Papers,** _Peabody Essex Museum._\n\n26. Henry J. Raymond, \"Disunion and Slavery: A Series of Letters to W. L. Yancey of Alabama,\" New York, 1861, _American Antiquarian Society._\n\n27. Speech by Henry Wilson, 21 May 1860, 973.7111 A75, _Peabody Essex Museum._ See also Rev. J. Leighton Wilson, D.D., \"The Foreign Slave Trade. Can it be Revived without Violating the Most Sacred Principles of Honor, Humanity and Religion,\" July 1859, 973.7111 W74.3, _Peabody Essex Museum._\n\n28. South Carolina. General Assembly. Report of the Special Committee on Slavery and the Slave Trade. Columbia: 1857. E438\/S721. _Virginia Historical Society\u2013Richmond._\n\n29. Report of Committee of General Assembly, circa 1856, Item 03233, Series 165005, _South Carolina State Archives\u2013Columbia._ See also Emerson Etheridge, \"The Revival of the African Slave Trade,\" Delivered in the House of Representatives, 21 February 1857, 973.7111, A75, _Peabody Essex Museum._ See also Frederick Law Olmsted, **The Cotton Kingdom,** New York: Modern Library, 1984, 479.\n\n30. Report of Committee of General Assembly, 1856, Item 00096, Series 165005, _South Carolina State Archives._\n\n31. Report of Committee of General Assembly, circa 1858, Item 03846, Series 165005, _South Carolina State Archives._\n\n32. **Savannah Daily Morning News,** 11 October 1858.\n\n33. **Savannah Daily Morning News,** 23 November 1858.\n\n34. **Savannah Daily Morning News,** 25 May 1859.\n\n35. **Savannah Daily Morning News,** 9 March 1860.\n\n36. **Savannah Daily Morning News,** 12 May 1860.\n\n37. **Savannah Daily Morning News,** 19 May 1860.\n\n38. Joe Gray Taylor, \"The Foreign Slave Trade in Louisiana after 1808,\" **Louisiana History,** 1 (Number 1, Winter 1960): 36\u201343, 40.\n\n39. **New York Times,** 16 May 1854.\n\n40. Harvey Wish, \"The Revival of the African Slave Trade in the United States, 1856\u20131860,\" **Mississippi Valley Historical Review,** 27 (Number 4, March 1941): 569\u2013588, 572, 581, 582.\n\n41. Republican Association of Washington, Under the Direction of the Congressional Republican Executive Committee, Tract No. IV, \"The Slave Trade,\" 1859, P7638, _Western Reserve Historical Society._\n\n42. R. W. Russell to \"My Dear Sir,\" 30 September 1856, [translation]: Correspondence of Legation & Consulates of Portugal in the U.S., 1852\u20131867, _Archivo Hist\u00f3rico-Diplom\u00e1tico, Minist\u00e9rio dos Negocios Estrangeiros\u2013Lisbon._\n\n43. Letter from Clarence Stanton, Maysville, Kentucky, 25 July 1859, [translation]: Correspondence of Legation & Consulates of Portugal in the U.S., 1852\u20131867: He asked Portugal's Consul General in New York if he could \"permit a native of the United States to hold a position either in the Navy or Army of Portugal. I am very desirous of entering into the service of Portugal. . . . I am the son of R. H. Stanton, late a member of the House of Representatives from Kentucky, I am nineteen years of age.\"\n\n44. J. A. Thomas to John Gillmer, U.S. Consul, Bahia, 15 April 1856, in Ibid., Ex. Doc. 7, **African Slave Trade. Message from the President of the United States.**\n\n45. B. F. Hallett to William Marcy, 5 January 1857, in Ibid., Ex. Doc. 7.\n\n46. William Marcy to John McKeon, 3 October 1856, in Ibid., Ex. Doc. 7. In same document see Report from Charles Wise of the Royal Navy, Congo, 23 August 1858: \"flagrant prostitution of the American flag to cover slave trading transactions. . . . a brig called the 'Charlotte' of New York . . . belonged to C. J. Figaniere of New York . . . then sold to Messrs. Cunha Reis of New York (the greatest slave dealer on the coast). . . . an advertisement shall appear in the New York papers to the effect that this very vessel has landed a cargo on ground nuts and oil at that port. The next case is the 'Venus' bark of 246 tons, belonging to George Butler of New Orleans,\" now in Congo, \"a slaver\"\u2014he was \"naturalized,\" a \"native of Hamburgh.\"\n\n47. Report from Nicholas Pike, 12 March 1857, in Ibid., Ex. Doc. 7.\n\n48. Commander Charles Wise to Sir. F. Grey, 6 August 1858, FO541\/1, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens._ See also \"Register of Suspected Slavers,\" 1860, Cuba, FO312\/30, _Public Records Office_ : Many hailed from New York, New Orleans, Key West, Galveston, Boston, Philadelphia, with some traveling to Montevideo, Rio de Janeiro, Pensacola, Mobile. A typical route was \"from N. Orleans for Havana . . . thence to St. Paul de Loanda.\" See also Edmund Gabriel, Luanda, to Lord Russell, 1 September 1859, FO541\/2: \"The barque 'Laura' which was dispatched from New Orleans by the firm of Pratts, Pujol & Co. in June last on a slave-trading expedition under Mexican colors\" was captured; they had thought that the Mexican flag \"would cover their crime in the same manner as that of the United States.\"\n\n49. Richard S. Coxe, L.L.D., Counsellor at Law, Washington, D.C., \"The Present State of the African Slave Trade,\" Washington, D.C.: Lemuel Towers, 1858, from **De Bow's Review,** November 1858, P5142, _Western Reserve Historical Society\u2013Cleveland._\n\n50. Report from D. H. Hamilton, U.S. Marshal, South Carolina, 10 February 1860, Record Group 48, Roll 3, **Records of the Department of Interior,** _National Archives and Records Administration\u2013College Park, Maryland_ : \"informed that a slaver . . . will be brought into that port if captured. Asks for authority to place the African in Ft. Sumner\"; in same file see D. H. Hamilton to President Buchanan, 10 February 1860: if Africans arrive as \"cargo . . . that instant arrangements should be made to remove them and return them to the coast of Africa\u2014not that they will not be quite safe in my custody but because a long stay here keeps up an excitement and we have not the 'yellow fever' as a guard from the presence of idle and curious persons.\" On same Roll, see Letter from 48 Exchange Place, New York City, 6 March 1860: \"I have just been informed . . . that during the night of the 24th February last about 1100 slaves were landed on the coast of Florida.\"\n\n51. To U.S. Department of State, 22 August 1860, Record Group 48, Roll 3, **Records of the Department of Interior.** On same Roll see Moses Kelly to U.S. President, 28 February 1861: \"in October last\" a slaver with \"694 Africans\" and another with \"about 616\" were captured by U.S. vessels and taken to Liberia. See also Letter to \"Agency for Recaptured Africans,\" 16 October 1860: A ship in New York City with \"694 recaptured Africans on board\" will be sent to Liberia, along with the \"1400\" on the \"'Storm King'\" and \"'Erie.'\" See also William C. Burke to Ralph R. Gurley, 31 August 1860, _G. W. Blunt Library\u2013Mystic, Connecticut._\n\n52. Letter to \"Agency for Recaptured Africans,\" 16 October 1860, in Ibid., Roll 3, **Records of the Department of Interior.**\n\n53. Report, 17 July 1860, Roll 5, **Records of the Department of Interior.** See also U.S. Congress. Senate. 38th Congress, 1st Session. Ex. Doc. No. 44, **Message from the President of the United States. Relative to the Capture of the Slaver Wildfire on the Coast of Cuba, by Lieutenant Craven, of the United States Steamer Mohawk.** 19 May 1860.973.7111 B91, _Peabody Essex Museum_ : This ship with 507 Negroes on board was sent to Key West. Madrid monitored these events in Florida: See Reports, circa May 1860, H1470, 0046\/04, _Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores\u2013Madrid._\n\n54. Ibid., William K. Scarborough, ed., **The Diary of Edmund Ruffin, Volume 1,** 427, 10 June 1860.\n\n55. Letter from E. E. Blackburn, U.S. Marshal, Monticello, Florida, 25 December 1858, Roll 6, **Records of the Department of Interior** : \"schooner . . . has been on our coast lately selecting a suitable place to land a cargo of Africans.\" See also Henry Perry, River Congo, to Edmund Gabriel, Luanda, 2 May 1859, FO541\/2, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens_ : A U.S. ship from Jacksonville was \"detained\" on the South Coast of Africa then let go; \"newspapers were also found on board containing accounts of indignation meetings held at Jacksonville, consequent of her detection by the authorities.\"\n\n56. Report from Howell Cobb, 3 March 1858, in Ibid., Ex. Doc. 7.\n\n57. Report from Howell Cobb, 22 May 1858, in Ibid., Ex. Doc. 7.\n\n58. **New York Times,** 17 August 1860.\n\n59. Letter from James Roosevelt, 22 August 1860, Roll 5, **Records of the Department of Interior.**\n\n60. Report, 17 October 1860, Roll 3, **Records of the Department of Interior.**\n\n61. Report, 31 October 1860, Roll 3, **Records of the Department of Interior.**\n\n62. Ronald T. Takaki, **A Pro-Slavery Crusade: The Agitation to Reopen the African Slave Trade,** New York: Free Press, 1971, 219, 220.\n\n63. Charles W. Thomas, **Adventures and Observations of the West Coast of Africa and its Islands,** New York: Derby & Jackson, 1860, 321.\n\n64. Ibid., Charles W. Thomas, 324, 325. See also Journal of Thomas A. Dornin, 1860\u20131861, _Huntington Library._\n\n65. Robert Edgar Conrad, **World of Sorrow: The African Slave Trade to Brazil,** Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1986, 142.\n\n66. See Edmund Gabriel to Lord Russell, 25 February 1860, FO 541\/3, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens_ :\n\n67. Lord Lyons to Lewis Cass, 5 December 1859, in Ibid., Ex. Doc.7. In same document see also Lyons to Cass, 3 December 1859. See also Lyons to Cass, 23 May 1859.\n\n68. Letter from Andrew Boyd Cummings, 4 October 1857, **Andrew Boyd Cummings Papers,** _U.S. Naval Academy\u2013Annapolis._\n\n69. Letter from Andrew Boyd Cummings, circa 1857, **Andrew Boyd Cummings Papers.**\n\n70. Letter from Andrew Boyd Cummings, 29 November 1858, **Andrew Boyd Cummings Papers.**\n\n71. Commodore George Eugene Belknap, ed., **Letters of Captain George Hamilton Perkins, USN,** Concord, New Hampshire: Ira Evans, 1886, 33, 34, 39, 224\u2013225.\n\n72. Letter to U.S. Navy, 20 April 1857, **William McBlair Collection,** _Mariners' Museum\u2013Newport News, Virginia._\n\n73. William McBlair to \"my dear wife,\" 16 November 1857, **William McBlair Papers.**\n\n74. Report from William McBlair, 23 September 1857, in Ibid., Ex. Doc. 7.\n\n75. Mrs. Charles E. B. Russell, **General Rigby, Zanzibar and the Slave Trade with Journals and Dispatches,** London: Allen & Unwin, 1935, 196, 175.\n\n76. Letter, 15 October 1860, Box 31, Folder 4, **Kimball Family Papers,** _Peabody Essex Museum._\n\n77. Letter, 7 September 1853, Box 27, Folder 2, **Kimball Family Papers.** \"I have done nearly $4000 worth of trade at this place with one man about a $1000 in cash & the rest in 2 months payable in oils. He is an Italian. . . . I sold him the remaining cloth I had on hand, also the tobacco.\"\n\n78. Letter, 4 September 1855, Box 27, Folder 2, **Kimball Family Papers.**\n\n79. Letter, 27 November 1855, Box 27, Folder 2, **Kimball Family Papers.**\n\n80. Letter, March 1856, Box 27, Folder 3, **Kimball Family Papers.**\n\n81. Letter, 5 March 1859, Box 27, Folder 4, **Kimball Family Papers.**\n\n82. Letter, 9 June 1859, Box 27, Folder 4, **Kimball Family Papers.**\n\n83. Charles Rich to \"Dear Sir,\" 7 May 1856, Box 1, Folder 8, **Robert Brookhouse Papers,** _Peabody Essex Museum._\n\n84. Letter from Robert Cunningham, 17 July 1859, Box 1, Folder 9, **Robert Brook-house Papers.**\n\n85. John Coker to \"Friend Augusto,\"22 October 1859, Box 1, Folder 9, **Robert Brookhouse Papers.**\n\n86. Letter to A. E. Govea, Esq., 19 April 1860, Box 1, Folder 9, **Robert BrookhousePapers**: \"I have only one American flag, therefore can not send you any.\"\n\n87. Letter from Simon Stodder, 6 November 1856, Box 1, Folder 2, **Simon Stodder Papers,** _Peabody Essex Museum._\n\n88. Clipping, circa 1858, [translation]: Correspondence of the Mixed Commission at the Cape of Good Hope, 1853\u20131859, _Archivo Hist\u00f3rico-Diplom\u00e1tico, Minist\u00e9rio dos Negocios Estrangeiros\u2013Lisbon._\n\n89. Norman Robert Bennett, \"Americans in Zanzibar: 1845\u20131864,\" **Essex Institute Historical Collections,** 97 (Number 1, 1961): 31\u201356, 53.\n\n90. Letter to George Abbott, 13 March 1857, Box 1, Folder 1, **Charles Ward Papers,** _Peabody Essex Museum._\n\n91. George Howe, \"The Last Ship,\" 1860, Collection 503, #17, **Slave Manuscript Series,** _Tulane University\u2013New Orleans._\n\n92. Arthur Lyons, Galveston, to the Earl of Malmesbury, 21 December 1858, FO701\/27, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens._\n\n93. Consul Thomas Miller to \"My Lord,\" 26 July 1856, FO84\/992, _Public Records Office._\n\n94. Report from U.K. Consul in the Azores, 12 November 1859, FO84\/1082, _Public Records Office._\n\n95. Ibid., **General Rigby, Zanzibar and the Slave Trade,** 198.\n\n96. \"Memo on State of Affairs of the Slave Trade,\" 23 June 1859, FO84\/1082, _Public Records Office._\n\n97. Joseph T. Crawford to Lord Russell, 5 February 1861, FO541\/5, _Public Records Office._\n\n98. Joseph T. Crawford to Earl of Malmesbury, 3 September 1858, FO541\/1, _Public Records Office._ See W. Edmonstone to Rear-Admiral Sir H. Keppel, Sierra Leone, 24 March 1861, FO541\/5, _Public Records Office._\n\n99. Edmund Gabriel to Earl of Clarendon, 25 February 1858, FO541\/3, _Public Records Office._\n\n100. Charles Wise to Fred Grey, 20 January 1859, FO541\/1, _Public Records Office._ See also G. Skelton to Earl of Malmesbury, 2 March 1859, FO541\/2. See also Rear Admiral Fred Grey to Secretary of Admiralty, 21 March 1859, FO541\/2. See also G. Skelton to Lord Russell, 3 February 1860, FO541\/2, _Public Records Office._\n\n101. Edmund Gabriel, Luanda, to Lord Russell, 20 September 1859, FO541\/2, _Public Records Office._\n\n102. H. V. Huntley to Lord Russell, 18 November 1860, FO541\/5, _Public Records Office._ See also Edmund Gabriel to Earl of Malmesbury, 15 April 1859, FO541\/2: \"The whole of this piratical trade on the African coast is now carried on under the disguise of the flag of the United States,\" even \"Spanish vessels\" were employing this banner and this had \"entirely frustrated\" London.\n\n103. H. V. Huntley to Lord Russell, 5 October 1860, FO541\/4, _Public Records Office._\n\n104. H. V. Huntley to Lord Russell, 31 October 1860, FO541\/4, _Public Records Office._\n\n105. Letter from Luanda, 4 September 1855, Caixa de Papeis Relativos a Escravatura, _Archivo Hist\u00f3rico-Diplom\u00e1tico, Minist\u00e9rio dos Negocios Estrangeiros\u2013Lisbon_ : Re: a U.S. barque, the \"Seamen,\" sailing for St. Thomas with ten enslaved Africans.\n\n106. Letter from the Governor General of Mozambique, 12 October 1855, Caixa de Papeis Relativos a Escravatura.\n\n107. Letter from Antonio Pedro de Carvalho, State Secretary of Foreign Affairs, 18 August 1856, Caixa de Papeis Relativos a Escravatura.\n\n108. J. A. Thomas to John Dobbin, 20 June 1856, in Ibid., Ex. Doc. 7. In same document see also Report from Thomas Crabbe, U.S. Navy, from Porto Praya, 18 April 1856.\n\n109. Report from John G. Willis, 9 January 1857, in Ibid., Ex. Doc. 7.\n\n110. Report from John G. Willis, 29 January 1859, in Ibid., Ex. Doc. 7. In the same document see Lord Lyons to Lewis Cass, 27 May 1859.\n\n111. Ibid., **General Rigby, Zanzibar and the Slave Trade,** 197.\n\n112. Fred Grey to Admiralty, 11 February 1858, FO541\/1, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens._\n\n113. Report from British Consul in Zanzibar, 4 January 1861, FO54\/18, _Public Records Office._\n\n114. Lt. Col. Rigby to Sir C. Wood, 28 August 1860, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 64, Number 47.**\n\n115. Report from Joseph T. Crawford, Havana, 5 February 1859, FO541\/2, _Public Records Office._\n\n116. Report from C. J. Helm, U.S. Consul in Cuba, 17 February 1860: \"the slave trade has been for some time upon the increase on the _eastern_ coast of Africa and that several large vessels under the American flag have shipped cargoes of slaves there . . . there are now indications of an intention on the part of the slave traders to resort still more extensively to the _eastern_ coast. This is doubtless to be accounted for the recent reinforcement of the United States Squadron on the western coast . . . on the _eastern_ coast of Africa there are no United States cruisers\" [emphasis-original].\n\n117. Charles Wise to Admiralty, 16 May 1859, FO541\/2, _Public Records Office._\n\n118. Report of John G. Willis, 19 November 1859, in Ibid., Ex. Doc. 7.\n\n119. Charles Wise to F. Grey, 20 July 1859, FO541\/2, _Public Records Office._\n\n120. See Lord Lyons to Lewis Cass, 4 May 1860, in Ibid., Ex. Doc. 7: \"A brig called the 'Delicia' fully equipped for the slave trade but without colors or papers to denote her nationality, was captured off [Cabinda]\" by a U.S. ship. Yet ship and crew were \"discharged from custody in the United States, on the ground that there is no act of Congress under which either vessel or crew can be prosecuted in the courts of law.\"\n\n121. Lewis Cass to Lord Lyons, 3 April 1860, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 64, Number 47.**\n\n122. Ibid., Andrew C. McLaughlin, **Lewis Cass,** 336.\n\nNOTES TO CHAPTER 8\n\n1. Harral E. Landry, \"Slavery and the Slave Trade in Atlantic Diplomacy, 1850\u20131861,\" **Journal of Southern History,** 27 (Number 2, May 1961): 184\u2013207, 185, 192, 206, 207.\n\n2. Willis D. Boyd, \"The American Colonization Society and the Slave Recaptives of 1860\u20131861: An Early Example of United States\u2013African Relations,\" **Journal of Negro History,** 47 (Number 2, April 1962): 108\u2013126, 110. See also D. H. Hamilton to Lewis Cass, 24 November 1860, Record Group 48, Roll 3, **Records of the Department of Interior** : A \"vessel was brought into the port of Charleston . . . as a slaver captured upon the coast of Africa\"; \"discontinue proceedings\" since it was \"unlawfully seized. . . . she together with her cargo should be delivered to the Spanish Consul.\"\n\n3. Betty M. Kuyk, **African Voices in the African American Heritage,** Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003, 20, 22: \"Amelia Island was such a choice location that that notorious pirate Luis Aury moved his headquarters there from Galveston, Texas in 1817. Within two months he sent 1000 Africans inland.\"\n\n4. L. W. Spratt, **The Foreign Slave Trade: The Source of Political Power\u2014of Material Progress, of Social Integrity and of Social Emancipation to the South,** Charleston: Steam Power Press, 1858, 21\u201322, 25, 26.\n\n5. Cited in Joaquim Nabuco, **Abolitionism: The Brazilian Antislavery Struggle,** Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977, 121\u2013122.\n\n6. Ibid., David Eltis, **Economic Growth and the Ending of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade,** 210.\n\n7. Report from Gabriel G. Tassara, Spanish Minister in Washington, circa 1860, Correspondencia entre La Capitania General de Cuba y La Primera Secretaria de Estado Sobre La Introduccion de Esclavos (1817\u20131873), Legajo 8048, _Archivo Historico Nacional\u2013Madrid._\n\n8. Hon. J. B. Clary, \"Speech on our Foreign Policy Delivered in the House of Representatives, February 7, 1859,\" Washington, D.C.: Lemuel Towers, 1859, F1438 C345, _New York Historical Society._\n\n9. Referring to the secessionist states by their chosen name is not intended to confer retrospective diplomatic recognition on this illegal breakaway formation.\n\n10. See Dean B. Mahin, **One War at a Time: The International Dimensions of the American Civil War,** Washington, D.C.: Brassey's, 1999, 17.\n\n11. Judah Benjamin to John Mason, 15 January 1863, in Allan Nevins, ed., **The Messages and Papers of Jefferson Davis and the Confederacy Including Diplomatic Correspondence, 1861\u20131865,** New York: Chelsea House, 1966, 403\u2013404.\n\n12. Judah P. Benjamin to L. Q. C. Lamar, 15 January 1863, in **The African Slave Trade: The Secret Purpose of the Insurgents to Revive It. . . . Judah P. Benjamin's Intercepted Instructions to L. Q. C. Lamar,** Philadelphia: C. Sherman, Son & Co. Printers, 1863, 244\u2013322, _Huntington Library._\n\n13. **Proceedings and Debates of the 1864 Constitutional Convention,** Volume 0102, Volume 1, Debates 0311, _Maryland State Archives\u2013Annapolis._\n\n14. Consul Robert Bunch to Lord Russell, 8 March 1861, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 64, Number 47.**\n\n15. \"Folio 1,\" 1 January 1853, H1879, _Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores\u2013Madrid._\n\n16. See Correspondence from Spanish Consul in Charleston, 5 November 1851, 15 August 1850, 31 October 1849, 15 October 1849, 24 September 1846, H179, _Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores\u2013Madrid._ In same file see also \"Special Report\" on \"Confederate States of America Treasury Department Register's Office Richmond, Va. July 31, 1861,\" re: tariffs sent to Spanish Consul in Charleston.\n\n17. A. G. McGrath to Spanish Consul, 12 February 1861, H1879, _Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores\u2013Madrid._\n\n18. See P. J. Rost to R. M. T. Hunter, 21 March 1862, Report and **New York Herald,** clipping, no date, reprinting Rost letter, H1471, 1862\/1864, _Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores\u2013Madrid._\n\n19. Records Concerning the Cuban Expedition, 1850\u20131851, Record Group 48, Entry 142, Box 1, **Records of the Department of Interior,** _National Archives and Records Administration\u2013College Park, Maryland._\n\n20. Report, 13 August 1859, [translation]: Legation of Spain in London, _Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores\u2013Madrid._\n\n21. Samuel Flagg Bemis, **John Quincy Adams and the Foundations of American Foreign Policy,** New York: Knopf, 1965, 409.\n\n22. Report of Meeting, 1 June 1849, FO312\/2, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens._ See also **National Era,** 8 July 1852. Earlier the **National Era** of 11 September 1851, cited the **British and Foreign AntiSlavery Reporter** to a similar effect.\n\n23. D. Trumbull and A. R. Hamilton to Lord Palmerston, 7 July 1849, FO312\/2, _Public Records Office._\n\n24. Ibid., **Proceedings and Debates of the 1864 Constitutional Convention,** Volume 0102, Volume 1, Debates 0718.\n\n25. Ibid., J. B. Clary, 1859.\n\n26. I. G. Collins, **Scinde & the Punjab, The Gems of India, in Respect to their Vast and Unparalleled Capabilities of Supplanting the Slave States of America in the Cotton Markets of the World: Or an Appeal to the English Nation on Behalf of its Great Cotton Interest, Threatened with Inadequate Supplies of the Raw Material,** Manchester: A. Ireland and Co., 1858, 11, 12.\n\n27. I. G. Collins, **An Essay in Favour of the Colonization of the North and Northwest Provinces of India, with Regard to the Question of Increased Cotton Supply andits Bearing on the Slave Trade,** London: W. H. Allen, 1858, 9; see also By an Indian Civil Servant, \"Usurers and Ryots: An Answer to the Question 'Why Does Not India Produce More Cotton?'\" London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1856, _British Library\u2013London._\n\n28. David Brion Davis, \"Impact of the French and Haitian Revolution,\" in David P. Geggus, ed., **The Impact of the Haitian Revolution in the Atlantic World,** Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2002, 3\u20139, 5.\n\n29. David P. Geggus, \"Epilogue,\" in Ibid., **The Impact of the Haitian Revolution in the Atlantic World,** 274\u2013252, 251, 247.\n\n30. Madrid took note of an 1843 \"proclamation\" from Haiti that reminded all that \"'our Fathers heroically gained their liberty and country on the field of battle by making those bite the dust, who for years held them in a criminal and cruel slavery.'\" See **Jamaica Despatch,** 19 April 1843, H2523\/003, 1862, _Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores\u2013Madrid._ See also Report, 23 March 1843, Del Consulado en Jamaica al Primer Secretario, Legado H2523\/003, File: \"Haiti,\" _Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores\u2013Madrid_ : Haiti is said to be in a state of revolution, which was of great relevance to Cuba and Puerto Rico.\n\n31. Ibid., **Jamaica Despatch,** 13 April 1843, H2523\/003, 1862.\n\n32. John V. Lombardi, **The Decline and Abolition of Negro Slavery in Venezuela, 1820\u20131854,** Westport: Greenwood, 1971, 36.\n\n33. Report from Angel Calderon de la Barca, 8 December 1836, Correspondencia entre La Capitania General de Cuba y La Primera Secretaria de Estado Sobre La Introduccion de Esclavos, 1817\u20131873, Legado 8036, _Archivo Historico Nacional\u2013Madrid._ Concern was expressed here about the growth of abolitionism in the Northeast U.S. and the prospect of Cuban sugar was considered in light of the development of this crop in Florida and Louisiana.\n\n34. Report and **New York Daily Tribune,** 27 May 1861, H1470, 0046\/04, _Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores\u2013Madrid._\n\n35. **British Packet and Argentine News,** 17 January 1857. See also **British Packet and Argentine News,** 3 August 1850. _Biblioteca Nacional de Argentina\u2013Buenos Aires._\n\n36. Report from Office of the American Colonization Society, 2 September 1835, Oficios, 1862, 233\/3\/2, _Archivo Hist\u00f3rico do Itamary\u2013Rio de Janeiro_ : \"The committee . . . was referred to the application of Cavalcante Albuquerque, on behalf of his government, to the American Colonization Society, deciding to know whether said society will consent to receive, protect and accommodate in Liberia, their colony in Africa, such recaptured Africans as may be taken by Brazilian cruisers from such vessels as may be unlawfully carrying them from their native land, and deliver to the society agent in Liberia.\" See also [translation], Manifesto of the Brazilian Anti-Slavery Society, Rio de Janeiro: Reprinted from the 'Rio News,' 1880, _New York Historical Society._\n\n37. See John Cell, **The Highest Stage of White Supremacy: The Origins of Segregation in South Africa and the American South,** New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982.\n\n38. **National Era,** 23 September 1847.\n\n39. **National Era,** 17 August 1854.\n\n40. **National Era,** 31 August 1854.\n\n41. **National Era,** 29 June 1854.\n\n42. Ibid., Joaquim Nabuco, **Abolitionism,** 162.\n\n43. **National Era,** 11 May 1854.\n\n44. **New York Times,** 29 September 1865.\n\n45. **New York Times,** 27 May 1861.\n\n46. **New York Times,** 16 February 1858.\n\n47. See Notes on Richard Meade meeting with the Emperor, 6 July 1861, Group 683, Series I, Box 6, Folder 87, **James Watson Webb Papers,** _Yale University._\n\n48. James Watson Webb to William Seward, 24 October 1861, in **Papers Relating to Foreign Affairs, Part 2, Communicatedto Congress, 1 December 1862,** Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1862. _National Archives and Records Administration\u2013College Park, Maryland._\n\n49. Ibid., **Proceedings and Debates of the 1864 Constitutional Convention,** Volume 0102, Volume 1, Debates 0718.\n\n50. **Liberator,** 3 February 1860.\n\n51. **De Bow's Review,** 1 July 1860.\n\n52. **Illustrated London News,** 22 December 1860.\n\n53. W. D. Christie to Lord Russell, 2 June 1860, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 64, Number 47.**\n\n54. **Charleston Mercury,** 6 December 1861.\n\n55. **New York Times,** 15 March 1862.\n\n56. **New York Times,** 9 May 1862, Washington, Oficios, 1863\u20131864, _Archivo Historico do Itamaraty\u2013Rio de Janeiro._\n\n57. Translation of Remarks, circa November 1862, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 71, Number 48.**\n\n58. Thomas Adamson to William Seward, 12 July 1862, Roll 6, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Pernambuco, 1817\u20131906.**\n\n59. W. Edmonstone to Rear-Admiral Sir H. Keppel, Sierra Leone, 24 March 1861, FO541\/5, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens._\n\n60. Letter from Ascension Island to Rear-Admiral Sir B. Walker, 20 July 1861, FO541\/5, _Public Records Office._\n\n61. H. V. Huntley and Edmund Gabriel to Lord Russell, 10 October 1861, FO541\/5, _Public Records Office._\n\n62. H. V. Huntley to Lord Russell, 7 June 1861, FO541\/5, _Public Records Office_ : \"detention of the American brigantine 'Triton' by the U.S. ship 'Constellation' . . . in the River Congo\"; it had \"slave fittings.\"\n\n63. H. V. Huntley to Lord Russell, 9 August 1861, FO541\/5, _Public Records Office._\n\n64. W. H. McGrath, Consul, Maranham, Brazil to William Seward, 15 September 1861, FO9881\/2097, _Public Records Office._\n\n65. Lord Lyons to Foreign Office, 26 March 1861, in James J. Barnes and Patience P. Barnes, **Private and Confidential Letters from British Ministers in Washington to the Foreign Secretaries in London, 1844\u20131867,** Selinsgrove, Pennsylvania: Susquehanna University Press, 1993, 242.\n\n66. Her Majesty's Commissioners to Earl Russell, 21 November 1861, in **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 71, Number 48.**\n\n67. Commodore Edmonstone to Rear Admiral Sir B. Walker, 7 November 1861, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 71, Number 48.**\n\n68. **Lewiston Journal Magazine,** 11\u201314 May 1910, Box 3, Folder, \"Slavery\/Slave Trade,\" **African Americans in Maine Collection,** _Maine Historical Society\u2013Portland._\n\n69. Ibid., Anne Farrow, et al., **Complicity,** 123.\n\n70. **Maine Sunday Telegram,** 15 February 1987.\n\n71. Ibid., **Lewiston Journal Magazine,** 11\u201314 May 1910.\n\n72. U.S. States vs. Nathaniel Gordon, U.S. Circuit Court, Southern District, C 1-228a-229b, 1860\u20131861, _National Archives and Records Administration\u2013New York City._\n\n73. **New York Herald,** 21 September 1861.\n\n74. John R. Spears, **The American Slave Trade: An Account of Its Origin, Growth and Suppression,** New York: Scribner's, 1900, 221. See also **New York Times,** 21 February 1862; see also Ron Soodalter, **Hanging Captain Gordon: The Life and Trial of an American Slave Trader,** New York: Atria, 2006.\n\n75. E. Delafield Smith to Caleb Smith, 22 November 1861, Record Group 48, Roll 4, **Records of the Department ofInterior,** _National Archives and Records Administration\u2013College Park._\n\n76. Charles H. Jenrich, \"An Error in Flag,\" **U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings,** January 1868, Vertical Files: Nathaniel Gordon, _U.S. Naval Academy\u2013Annapolis._\n\n77. \"Lincoln and the Negro,\" Box 3, Folder: Slavery\/Slave Trade, **African Americans in Maine Collection,** _Maine Historical Society\u2013Portland._\n\n78. Consul Archibald to Earl Russell, 24 February 1862, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 71, Number 48.**\n\n79. Ibid., John R. Spears, **The American Slave Trade,** 221.\n\n80. R. F. Turing to Earl Russell, 16 January 1862, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 71, Number 48.**\n\n81. Consul Archibald to Earl Russell, 17 November 1862, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 71, Number 48.**\n\n82. E. Delafield Smith to Caleb Smith, 26 April 1862, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 71, Number 48.** See also Letter to Caleb Smith, February 1862, Record Group 48, Roll 4, **Records of the Department of Interior** : In New Bedford a \"slaver\" was \"seized\" that was \"ostensibly fitted for a whaling voyage.\"\n\n83. William Seward to C. B. Smith, Secretary of Interior, 19 April 1862, Record Group 48, Roll 3, **Records of the Department of Interior.**\n\n84. Robert Murray, U.S. Marshal, New York City, to E. Delafield Smith, 26 November 1861, Record Group 48, Roll 4, **Records of the Department of Interior.**\n\n85. E. Delafield Smith to Caleb Smith, 4 February 1862, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 71, Number 48.** See also **New York Daily Tribune,** 26 November 1861.\n\n86. W. D. Christie to Earl Russell, 15 November 1862, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 71, Number 48.**\n\n87. Rear Admiral Sir B. Walker, Simon's Bay to Secretary to the Admiralty, 15 September 1862, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 71, Number 48.**\n\n88. H. D. Hickley, Commander, to Vice-Admiral Sir A. Milne, 5 June 1862, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 71, Number 48.**\n\n89. E. Delafield Smith to Caleb Smith, 19 May 1862, Record Group 48, Roll 4, **Records of the Department of Interior.**\n\n90. Letter from Manoel d'Oliviera Lima, 24 March 1862, Papeis Relativos a Escravatura, _Archivo Hist\u00f3ricoDiplom\u00e1tico, Minist\u00e9rio dos Negocios Estrangeiros\u2013Lisbon._\n\n91. Letter from Arthur Magenis, 23 May 1862, Papeis Relativos a Escravatura.\n\n92. Letter to \"Monsieur Le Minister,\"20 January 1862, Papeis Relativos a Escravatura.\n\n93. Letter from \"Gustav . . . Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary of Portugal,\" 21 January 1861, [translation]: Correspondence of the Consul General in New York, 1839\u20131888, A28, M8, Torre 4 Piso, Ensentell 6, _Archivo Hist\u00f3rico-Diplom\u00e1tico, Minist\u00e9rio dos Negocios Estrangeiros\u2013Lisbon._\n\n94. Letter from Robert dos Santos, 31 July 1862, Correspondence of the Consul General in New York, 1839\u20131888.\n\n95. J. de Palma to A. M. da Cunha, 13 October 1865, Correspondence of the Consul General in New York, 1839\u20131888.\n\n96. H. W. Slocum, Major General-U.S., to General E. D. Townsend, 25 August 1866, [translation]: Legation of Portugal in Washington, Correspondence of the U.S. Government, 1835\u20131869, A28, M17 Torre 4 Piso Estante 1, 15 _Archivo Hist\u00f3ricoDiplom\u00e1tico, Minist\u00e9rio dos Negocios Estrangeiros\u2013Lisbon._\n\n97. William Seward to William Figaniere, 25 August 1866, Legation of Portugal in Washington, Correspondence of the U.S. Government, 1835\u20131869.\n\n98. Letter from A. M. da Cunha, 13 December 1864, Correspondence of the Consul General in New York, 1839\u20131888.\n\n99. William Seward to William Figaniere, 26 June 1862, Legation of Portugal in Washington, Correspondence of the U.S. Government, 1835\u20131869.\n\n100. William Seward to William Figaniere, 28 January 1863, Legation of Portugal in Washington, Correspondence of the U.S. Government, 1835\u20131869.\n\n101. U.K. Embassy to William Figaniere, 8 November 1862, [translation]: Legation of Portugal in Washington, Correspondence of Foreign Legations and Consulates in the United States, Torre 4 Piso Estante 1, I, A28, M10, _Archivo Hist\u00f3rico-Diplom\u00e1tico, Minist\u00e9rio dos Negocios Estrangeiros\u2013Lisbon._\n\nNOTES TO CHAPTER 9\n\n1. B. Lindsay to James Watson Webb, January 1862, Group 683, Series I, Box 10, Folder 111, **James Watson Webb Papers,** _Yale University._\n\n2. J. G. Benton to \"My Dear General,\" 28 February 1862, Group 683, Series I, Box 6, Folder 95, **James Watson Webb Papers.**\n\n3. James Watson Webb to Luther Bradish, 10 October 1838, **Miscellaneous Mss.,** _New York Historical Society._\n\n4. Hannibal Hamlin to James Watson Webb, 29 November 1862, Box 9, Folder 100, **James Watson Webb Papers.**\n\n5. Excerpt from Leonard Richard, **Gentlemen of Property and Standing,** 26\u201327, Box 3, **African-Americans in Maine Collection,** _Maine Historical Society._\n\n6. James L. Crouthamel, **James Watson Webb: A Biography,** Middletown: Wesleyan University Press, 1969, 24, 56, 57, 25\u201326, 22. See James Watson Webb to C. L. Lazarus, 23 February 1863, Group 683, Series I, Box 10, Folder 111, **James Watson Webb Papers** : \"I appointed you acting secretary of the legation; & you presumed upon the fact to introduce into my House a German Jew Pedlar without my sanction\" [emphasis-original].\n\n7. Elise Lemire, **'Miscegenation': Making Race in America,** Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002, 59.\n\n8. Lerone Bennett, **Forced into Glory: Abraham Lincoln's White Dream,** Chicago: Johnson Publishing Company, 2000, 380.\n\n9. Dean B. Mahin, **One War at a Time: The International Dimensions of the American Civil War,** 131, 2.\n\n10. Clipping, circa August 1863, Washington, Oficios, 1863\u20131864, _Archivo Historico do Itamaraty\u2013Rio de Janeiro._\n\n11. Ibid., James L. Crouthamel, 173.\n\n12. Ibid., Dean B. Mahin, 197.\n\n13. Ibid., Najia Aarim-Heriot, **Chinese Immigrants, African Americans and Racial Anxiety in the United States, 1848\u20131882,** 65, 67, 71, 238.\n\n14. Speech by Hon. Francis Blair of Missouri on the Acquisition of Central America; Delivered in the House of Representatives, 14 January 1858, _Kansas State Historical Society\u2013Topeka._\n\n15. See [translation] Annex of Despatch Number 209 of the Spanish Legation in Washington, D.C., re: HR 576, 37th Congress, 2nd Session, House of Representatives, Report No. 148, H2523\/003, _Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores\u2013Madrid._\n\n16. \"Outlines of a Plan for Providing a Settlement . . .\" September 1824, S10, C2, A1-3, _Archivo General de la Naci\u00f3n\u2013Buenos Aires._\n\n17. Ibid., Robert E. May, **Manifest Destiny's Underworld,** 153.\n\n18. Ibid., Najia Aarim-Heriot, 47.\n\n19. Ibid., William H. Edwards, **A Voyage up the River Amazon,** 204.\n\n20. Ibid., Lawrence Hill, **Diplomatic Relations Between the United States and Brazil,** 159\u2013160.\n\n21. Bridgett M. Williams, \"James Monroe: Consul to Rio, 1863\u20131869,\" M.A. thesis, Youngstown State University, 1991, 15, 30, 54, 57.\n\n22. **New York Times,** 28 December 1862.\n\n23. James Watson Webb to William Seward, May 1862, Box 8, Folder 99, **James Watson Webb Papers.** See also N. Andrew Cleven, \"Some Plans for Colonizing Liberated Negro Slaves in Hispanic America,\" **Journal of Negro History,** 11 (Number 1, January 1926): 35\u201349, 41, 43, 47.\n\n24. \"Confidential\" undated document, probably from James Watson Webb, Box 8, Folder 99, **James Watson Webb Papers.**\n\n25. Memo from Government of Brazil, circa 8 July 1862, Box 8, Folder 102, **James Watson Webb Papers.**\n\n26. Sir F. W. C. Murdoch to Sir F. Rogers, 14 July 1862, FO5\/934, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens._\n\n27. Report, 12 August 1862, FO5\/934, _Public Records Office._\n\n28. F. W. C. Murdoch to Sir F. Rogers, 19 August 1862, FO5\/934, _Public Records Office._\n\n29. From Government House, 22 August 1862, FO5\/934.\n\n30. Letter from British Honduras, 15 October 1862, FO5\/934.\n\n31. Letter from British Honduras, 14 December 1862, FO5\/934.\n\n32. Memo, 22 September 1862, FO5\/934.\n\n33. Memo, 4 September 1862, FO5\/934.\n\n34. To \"My Lord,\" 18 October 1862, FO5\/934.\n\n35. Report, 15 September 1862, FO5\/934.\n\n36. William Seward to \"Sir,\" 30 September 1862, FO5\/934.\n\n37. Report, 18 October 1862, FO5\/934.\n\n38. Lord Lyons to \"My Lord,\" 27 January 1863, FO5\/934.\n\n39. Lord Lyons to London, 26 December 1862, FO5\/934.\n\n40. Lord Lyons to \"My Lord,\" 27 April 1863, FO5\/934.\n\n41. Letter to Lord Russell from London Legation in Washington, D.C., 28 September 1862, FO5\/934.\n\n42. **Jamaica Guardian,** 18 September 1862, 19 September 1862, FO 5\/934.\n\n43. Letter from Lord Lyons, 19 June 1863, FO5\/934.\n\n44. Report from [translation]: Consul General of Spain in Haiti, 8 April 1863, H2523\/003, _Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores\u2013Madrid._\n\n45. Annual Report of President Abraham Lincoln, H1984, _Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores\u2013Madrid._\n\n46. William Seward to James Watson Webb, 21 July 1862, Box 8, Folder 103, **James Watson Webb Papers.**\n\n47. Richard Parsons to James Watson Webb, 24 August 1862, Box 9, Folder 105, **James Watson Webb Papers.**\n\n48. William Seward to James Watson Webb, 21 July 1862, in George Baker, ed., **The Works of William Seward: The Diplomatic History of the War for the Union,** Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1884, 334\u2013337.\n\n49. Ibid., James L. Crouthamel, 174.\n\n50. W. Vredenburg to Capt. Bythesea, 21 December 1863, in **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 66, Number 49.**\n\n51. \"Her Majesty's Commissioner to Earl Russell,\" in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 66, Number 49.**\n\n52. E. M. Archibald, Her Majesty's Judge on the Mixed Commission to Earl Russell, 31 December 1863, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 66, Number 49.**\n\n53. Commodore Wilmot to Rear Admiral Sir B. Walker, 31 December 1863, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 66, Number 49.**\n\n54. Report, 21 February 1865, **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 75, Number 50.**\n\n55. Andrew Foote to Gideon Welles, 13 June 1862, **Miscellaneous Mss.,** _New York Historical Society._\n\n56. \"Treaty Between Her Majesty and the United States of America for the Suppression of the African Slave Trade,\" 7 April 1862, HT1322 G7, _Louisiana State University\u2013Baton Rouge._\n\n57. Frederick J. Blue, \"Oberlin's James Monroe: Forgotten Abolitionist,\" **Civil War History,** 35 (Number 4, December 1989): 285\u2013301, 285, 286.\n\n58. Catherine M. Rokicky, **James Monroe: Oberlin's Christian Statesman & Reformer, 1821\u20131898,** Kent: Kent State University Press, 2002, 97.\n\n59. Ibid., Bridgett M. Williams, 39.\n\n60. Minister of Justice, Brazil, to Brazilian Legislature, 18 May 1864, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 71, Number 48.**\n\n61. W. G. Lettsom, U.K. Consul in Montevideo, to Earl Russell, 22 September 1864, in Ibid., **Volume 71, Number 48.**\n\n62. James Watson Webb to Marquis d'Abrantes, 7 March 1863, in **Papers Relating to Foreign Affairs, Accompanying the Annual Message of the President to the First Session of the Thirty-Eighth Congress, Part I,** Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1864, _National Archives and Records Administration\u2013College Park, Maryland._\n\n63. See e.g. **Correio Mercantil,** 8 November 1861, 9 November 1861.\n\n64. W. D. Christie to Earl Russell, 26 February 1863, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 66, Number 49.**\n\n65. William B. Wilson to Earl Russell, 30 September 1863, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 66, Number 49.**\n\n66. John V. Crawford, Havana, to Earl Russell, 14 January 1863, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 66, Number 49.** In same volume see R. Edwards, Madrid, to Maquis of Miraflores, 2 May 1863: \"The 'Island Queen' was fitted out in the United States at Havana in March 1862 with [U.S.] colors and papers and was commanded by R. Ducham a noted slave captain.\" It was on its way to Angola. \"Mr. Murray\" to J. M. Brackenbury, 26 March 1863: Re: capture of a slaver, \"formerly the 'Island Queen' of Washington\" which \"changed ownership at Cadiz.\" J. M. Brackenbury to Earl Russell, 22 April 1864: This ship was built in Providence, Rhode Island in 1854.\n\n67. G. Skelton, Judge on Mixed Commission, Sierra Leone, to Earl Russell, 30 September 1863, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 66, Number 49.**\n\n68. J. M. Brackenbury to Earl Russell, 5 February 1863, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 66, Number 49.**\n\n69. Rear Admiral Sir B. Walker to the Secretary of the Admiralty, 17 November 1863, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 66, Number 49.**\n\n70. Commander Fred Richards to Commodore Wilmost, 7 July 1864, in ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 66, Number 49.**\n\n71. See e.g. Commissioner of Customs, Thomas Freemantle and J. Goulburn to Lords Commissioner of the Treasury, 25 July 1863, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 66, Number 49** : Britain captures a New York ship \"Marquita\" near Luanda with \"471 slaves on board; the principal was \"of Spanish or Portuguese birth but is a naturalized citizen of the United States of America and resides in New York.\" He was \"named Lima Vianni or Viana.\"\n\n72. Edmund Gabril and H. V. Huntley, 28 February 1862, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 71, Number 48.**\n\n73. **New York Times,** 19 December 1863.\n\n74. Thomas Adamson, Jr., Consul, to William Seward, 14 November 1864, Record Group 59, Roll 7, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Pernambuco.**\n\n75. William Richard Williams to William Seward, 10 August 1862, Record Group 59, Roll 2, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Para.**\n\n76. **Savannah Daily Morning News,** 10 January 1862.\n\n77. William Seward to James Watson Webb, 13 April 1862, Box 8, Folder 97, **James Watson Webb Papers.**\n\n78. **New York Times,** 17 November 1864.\n\n79. Biography of Raphael Semmes, no date, Box 4, Folder 70, **Hughes-Folsom Papers,** _Georgia Historical Society\u2013Savannah._\n\n80. Edward Boykin, **Ghost Ship of the Confederacy: The Story of the Alabama and her Captain,** New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1957, 298, 299. See also Charles Robinson III, **Shark of the Confederacy: The Story of the CSS Alabama,** Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1995, 87.\n\n81. Raphael Semmes, **The Cruise of the Alabama and the Sumter,** New York: Carleton, 1894, 35, 36.\n\n82. James Tertius de Kay, **The Rebel Raiders: The Astonishing History of the Confederacy's Secret Navy,** New York: Ballantine, 2002, 169.\n\n83. Eric Rosenthal, **Stars and Stripes in Africa: Being a History of American Achievements in Africa by Explorers, Missionaries, Pirates, Adventurers, Hunters, Miners, Merchants, Scientists, Soldiers, Showmen, Engineers, and Others with Some Account of Africans who Have Played a Part in American Affairs,** London: Routledge, 1938, 134, 140, 133. See also **South African Advertiser and Mail,** 5 August 1863. See also Alan R. Booth, \"Americans in South Africa, 1784\u20131870,\" Ph.D. dissertation, Boston University, 1964.\n\n84. John S. Wise, **The End of an Era,** Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1899, 191.\n\n85. Duke of Newcastle to Sir Philip E. Wodehouse, 4 November 1863, GH 1\/299\/141, _State Archives\u2013Cape Town._\n\n86. Sir Philip E. Wodehouse to Duke of Newcastle, 19 August 1863, GH 23\/29\/104, _State Archives\u2013Cape Town._\n\n87. Walter Graham, U.S. Consul, to London, 17 August 1863, GH 1\/300\/156, _State Archives\u2013Cape Town._\n\n88. Elizabeth Catherine Bott, \"Admiral Semmes, CN,\" **Louisiana State University Bulletin,** 2 (Number 2, February 1911): 1\u20138, 1, 2.\n\n89. Ibid., James Tertius de Kay, 135.\n\n90. Edna and Frank Bradlow, **Here Comes the Alabama: The Career of a Confederate Raider,** Cape Town: A. A. Balkema, 1958, 53.\n\n91. Rafael Semmes, **Memoirs of a Service Afloat During the War Between the States,** Baltimore: Kelly, Piet & Co., 1869, 599, 602, 611, 616, 620, 638. See also Journal and Scrapbook from Civil War, Box 1, **William P. Brooks Papers,** _Georgia Historical Society\u2013Savannah._\n\n92. Ibid., James Tertius de Kay, 149.\n\n93. John McIntosh Kell, **Recollections of a Naval Life,** Washington: Neale, 1900, 219.\n\n94. James Monroe, \"Special Duties of Consuls of the United States During the Civil War,\" no date, Box 24, **James Monroe Papers,** _Oberlin College._ See also Statement taken by Thomas Adamson, Jr., 27 April 1863, Record Group 59, Roll 7, **Dispatches from U.S. Consuls in Pernambuco.**\n\n95. **Savannah Daily Morning News,** 10 August 1863.\n\n96. James Watson Webb to Brazilian Government, 10 December 1861, Box 7, Folder 92, **James Watson Webb Papers.**\n\n97. Ibid., Dean B. Mahin, 146, 158.\n\n98. Thomas Wilson, U.S. Consul, to William Seward, 30 May 1863, Record Group 59, Roll 3, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Bahia.**\n\n99. Letter from \"Palace of the Government of Bahia,\" 12 May 1863, Record Group 59, Roll 3, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Bahia.**\n\n100. Thomas Wilson to William Seward, 14 November 1864, Record Group 59, Roll 3, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Bahia.**\n\n101. William Richard Williams to William Seward, 14 June 1862, Record Group 59, Roll 2, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Para.**\n\n102. Circular from James Watson Webb, 9 October 1864, Record Group 59, Roll 2, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Bahia.**\n\n103. James Monroe, \"Consular Experiences in Brazil,\" no date, Box 24, **James Monroe Papers.**\n\n104. Letter from Raphael Semmes, 16 June 1864, **London Times,** Mss1 Se535a, 147\u2013170, **Raphael Semmes Papers,** _Virginia Historical Society\u2013Richmond._\n\n105. \"From Palace of the Government,\" Pernambuco, 8 May 1863, Record Group 59, Roll 7, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Pernambuco.**\n\n106. Letter from Jo\u00e3o Silveira e de Souza, 9 May 1863, Record Group 59, Roll 7, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Pernambuco.**\n\n107. Thomas Adamson to William Seward, 23 July 1863, Record Group 59, Roll 7, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Pernambuco.**\n\n108. Thomas Wilson to James Watson Webb, 31 October 1864, Record Group 59, Roll 3, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Bahia.**\n\n109. David F. Long, **Gold Braid and Foreign Relations: Diplomatic Activities of U.S. Naval Officers, 1798\u20131883,** Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1988, 328.\n\n110. Thomas Wilson to William Seward, 14 November 1864, Record Group 59, Roll 3, **Despatches of U.S. Consuls in Bahia.**\n\n111. **Diary of Gideon Welles, Volume 2, April 1, 1864\u2013December 31, 1866,** Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1911, 184\u2013186. See also Colonel W. de Raasloff, Peruvian Navy, to John Ericsson, 24 May 1862, **John Ericsson Letters,** _New York Historical Society_ : Ericsson was a Swede toiling for the Union and his correspondent offered to \"construct for your Government an Armor Clad Iron Steam Vessel of war, with revolving turret on the Monitor system. This vessel to be precisely similar to the six vessels of this class, which I am now building for the United States government. . . . for the sum of four hundred and fifty thousand dollars. . . . also willing to procure an experienced sea captain and crew to take the vessel to any port of Peru that you shall name, provided your Government agrees to pay all expenses connected with the voyage.\"\n\n112. Statement by William Seward, 23 February 1865, Washington, Oficios, 1865, _Archivo Hist\u00f3rico do Itamaraty\u2013Rio de Janeiro_\n\n113. Ibid., William Seward to Government of Brazil, 26 December 1864, Washington, Oficios, 1865.\n\n114. Frank Lawrence Osley, **King Cotton Diplomacy: Foreign Relations of the Confederate States of America,** Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959, 255.\n\n115. William K. Scarborough, ed., **The Diary of Edmund Ruffin, Volume 3: A Dream Shattered, June 1863\u2013June 1865,** Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1972, 664, 1 December 1864.\n\n116. C. M. Morris to President of Brazil, Box 1, Folder 3, **Confederate States of America Collection,** _Yale University._\n\n117. James Dwyer to C. M. Morris, 13 October 1864, Box 1, Folder 3, **Confederate States of America Collection.**\n\n118. CSA Resolution \"In Relation to the Seizure of the Confederate war-steamer Florida,\" 30 November 1864, **Catalogued Broadsides,** _University of Virginia\u2013Charlottesville._ See also **Confederate Imprint 238:** \"Report of the Committee on Foreign Relations,\" CSA, 30 November 1864, _Virginia Historical Society\u2013Richmond._ See also \"Journal of the Congress of the Confederate States of America, 1861\u20131865,\" Volume 4, 58th Congress, 2nd Session, Senate. Document No. 234, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 30 November 1864, _Huntington Library\u2013San Marino, California._\n\n119. Ibid., James Monroe, \"Special Duties of Consuls of the United States During the Civil War.\" Ignacio de Avellar Barboza da Silva to William Seward, 22 December 1864, FO 881\/2011, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens_ : This file contains a huge batch of correspondence on this incident.\n\nNOTES TO CHAPTER 10\n\n1. Thomas Wilson to William Seward, 14 July 1862, Record Group 59, Roll 2, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Bahia.**\n\n2. William Seward to Manoel Garcia da Rosa, 15 February 1868, [translation]: Legation of Portugal in Washington, Correspondence of the U.S. Government, 1835\u20131869, A28, M17, Torre 4 Piso Estante 1, 15, _Archivo Hist\u00f3ricoDiplom\u00e1tico, Minist\u00e9rio dos Negocios Estrangeiros\u2013Lisbon._\n\n3. Her Majesty's Commissioner to Lord Russell, 18 August 1865, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 75, Number 50.**\n\n4. Clipping, 22 July 1865, [translation]: Correspondence of Legation and Consulates of Portugal in U.S., 1852\u20131867, _Archivo Hist\u00f3rico-Diplom\u00e1tico, Minist\u00e9rio dos Negocios Estrangeiros\u2013Lisbon._\n\n5. **Philadelphia Inquirer,** 13 July 1865. For more on possible Portuguese connections to the Lincoln murder, see e.g. James Harvey, U.S. Minister to Portugal, to William Seward, 1866, in **Message of the President of the United States and Accompanying Documents to the Two Houses of Congress at the Commencement of the Second Session of the Fortieth Congress, Part I, Ex. Doc., No. 1,** Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, 1868, 686.\n\n6. C. Vann Woodward and Elizabeth Muhlenfeld, eds., **The Private Mary Chesnut: The Unpublished Civil War Diaries,** New York: Oxford University Press, 1984, 244, 15 May 1865.\n\n7. **New York Times,** 30 October 1864.\n\n8. **New York Times,** 22 November 1864.\n\n9. James Bond to U.S. Government, 15 October 1864, Record Group 59, Roll 2, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Para.**\n\n10. Douglas Audenreid Grier, \"Confederate Emigration to Brazil, 1865\u20131870,\" Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1968, 53, 59.\n\n11. Captain Frederick N. Colston, \"Recollections of the Last Months in the Army of Northern Virginia,\" **Southern Historical Society Papers,** 37 (January-December 1910): 1\u201315, 12.\n\n12. Undated Memo, **Edwin James Papers,** _University of South Carolina\u2013Columbia._ See also Frank J. Merli, ed., \"Alternatives to Appomattox: A Virginian's Vision of an Anglo-Confederate Colony on the Amazon, May 1865,\" **The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography,** 94 (Number 2, April 1986): 210\u2013219.\n\n13. Eugene C. Harter, **The Lost Colony of the Confederacy,** Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1985, ix. See undated clipping, Vertical Files: Immigration and Emigration, _Georgia Historical Society\u2013Savannah_ : \"nearly half of the eight or ten thousand Southerners who emigrated to foreign lands after the Civil War went to Brazil.\" See also Alfred Jackson Hanna and Kathryn Abbey Hanna, **Confederate Exiles in Venezuela,** Tuscaloosa: Confederate Publishing Company, 1960, 13: the authors estimate a total emigration globally of about 10,000. See Ibid., Douglas Audenreid Grier, 21, 22: 4000 rebels migrate to Brazil though \"some writers have put the figure as high as ten thousand.\" See undated Memo, **Edwin James Papers** : 4000 Southerners came to Brazil and 60 percent did not stay. See also David P. Werlich, **Admiral of the Amazon: John Randolph Tucker, His Confederate Colleagues and Peru,** Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1990; Margaret Amanda Pattison, **The Emigrant's VadeMecum or Guide to the 'Price Grant' in Venezuelan Guyana,** London: Trubner, 1868; Robert May, **The Southern Dream of a Caribbean Empire, 1854\u20131861,** Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1973; John Codman, **Ten Months in Brazil,** Boston: Lee and Shephard, 1867.\n\n14. Letter from Henry Shipley Stevens, 17 December 1865, F2513 S844, _Western Reserve Historical Society\u2013Cleveland._\n\n15. See undated Memorandum, **Edwin James Papers** : The settlements were Hastings at Santarem; Gunter on the Rio Doce; Iguape led by Ballard Dunn; Near Iguape led by Frank McMullen; Gaston's colony in Xiririca; William Norris's colony at Santa Barbara D'oeste.\n\n16. James Monroe, \"Special Duties of Consuls of the United States During the Civil War,\" Box 24, **James Monroe Papers,** _Oberlin College._\n\n17. See [translation]: Letters Received from the Legation and Consulate of Brazil in 1865 from U.S. Nationals after the Civil War, re: Emigration, 1865\u20131866, Washington Oficios, _Archivo Hist\u00f3rico do Itamaraty\u2013Rio de Janeiro._\n\n18. Manuscript of \"Hunting a Home in Brazil,\" by James Gaston, 55, _University of North Carolina\u2013Chapel Hill._\n\n19. Cyrus B. Dawsey and James M. Dawsey, **The Confederados: Old South Immigrants in Brazil,** Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1995, 174.\n\n20. **New York Herald,** 3 September 1865.\n\n21. Richard Maury to John Perkins, 8 July 1866, Series 1.4, Folder 19, **John Perkins Papers,** _University of North Carolina\u2013Chapel Hill._\n\n22. Unclear correspondent to John Perkins, 6 June 1866, **John Perkins Papers.**\n\n23. W. Ferguson to Edwin James, June 1984, **Edwin James Papers.**\n\n24. **Yorkville Enquirer,** 2 July 1868, **Edwin James Papers.**\n\n25. George Barnsley to Father, August 1865, **Edwin James Papers.**\n\n26. Ibid., Lawrence Hill, **Diplomatic Relations Between the United States and Brazil,** 251.\n\n27. David W. Blight, **Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory,** Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001, 36\u201337.\n\n28. J. D. Porter to Charles Nathan, 14 October 1867, **J. D. Porter Letters,** _University of North Carolina\u2013Chapel Hill._\n\n29. J. McF. Gaston, **Hunting a Home in Brazil,** Philadelphia: King & Baird, 1867, 227.\n\n30. **New York Times,** 25 December 1865.\n\n31. Lawrence F. Hill, \"The Confederate Exodus to Brazil,\" F2569, A5, H66 (\"verbatim reprint from the October 1935\/January\u2013April 1936 issues of the **Southwestern Historical Quarterly** \"), _Library of Virginia\u2013Richmond._ See e.g. **Edgefield Advertiser,** 2 May 1866, re: Report on trip to Brazil by delegation of \"Southern Colonization Society.\"\n\n32. Ibid., Douglas Audenreid Grier, 67, 68, 69.\n\n33. **New York Times,** 16 December 1866.\n\n34. Edward Thornton to Earl Russell, 2 November 1865, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 75, Number 50.**\n\n35. Blanche Henry Clark Weaver, \"Confederate Immigrants and Evangelical Churches in Brazil,\" **Journal of Southern History,** 18 (Number 4, November 1952): 446\u2013468; Blanche Henry Clark Weaver, \"Confederate Emigration in Brazil, **Journal of Southern History,** 27 (Number 1, February 1961): 33\u201353, 50: \"Difficulties would arise\" for Confederates, which were \"accentuated by the fact that many law enforcement officers were of African descent.\"\n\n36. Ibid., Eugene C. Harter, 53\u201354.\n\n37. Letter from James Bond, 4 June 1868, Record Group 59, Roll 2, **Despatches from U.S. Consuls in Para.**\n\n38. Herbert H. Smith, **Brazil: The Amazons and the Coast,** New York: Scribner's, 1879, 468.\n\n39. **Yorkville Enquirer,** 23 August 1867, **Edwin James Papers.**\n\n40. **New York Times,** 22 February 1867.\n\n41. John Codman, **Ten Months inBrazil: With Notes on the Paraguayan War,** New York: John Miller, 1872, 79, 132.\n\n42. J. D. Porter to \"My Dear Cousin,\" 5 July 1867, MSS 2P8342a1, **J. D. Porter Papers,** _Virginia Historical Society\u2013Richmond._ This focus on Africans in South America also arose in Venezuela. See Ibid., Alfred Jackson Hanna and Kathryn Abbey Hanna, **Confederate Exiles in Venezuela,** 58, 75. See William B. Hessletine and Hazel C. Wolf, **The Blue and Gray on the Nile,** Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961, 62, 103, 132.\n\n43. Alfredo Cordiviola, **Richard Burton, a Traveler in Brazil, 1865\u20131868,** Lewiston, Maine: Mellen, 2001, 80.\n\n44. Whitaker to F. O. Adams, 11 November 1874, Box 2, **Adams (Israel L. and Family) Papers,** _Louisiana State University\u2013Baton Rouge._\n\n45. Dr. Henry Price to Lafayette McLaws, 20 April 1866, Folder 18, **Lafayette McLaws Papers,** _University of North Carolina\u2013Chapel Hill._ At the same site, see also Folder 204: \"Latin American Projects,\" **Duff Green Papers.**\n\n46. Edward Thornton to Earl of Clarendon, 6 December 1865, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 75, Number 50.**\n\n47. Robert Brent Toplin, **The Abolition of Slavery in Brazil,** New York: Atheneum, 1972, 119.\n\n48. Ibid., Robert Edgar Conrad, ed., **Children of God's Fire: A Documentary History of Black Slavery in Brazil,** 417.\n\n49. **Anglo-Brazilian Times,** 24 January 1866.\n\n50. Charles Sumner to Louis Agassiz, 30 March 1865, in Beverly Wilson Palmer, **The Selected Letters of Charles Sumner, Volume 2,** Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1990, 275\u2013276.\n\n51. Charles Sumner to Francis Lieber, 24 December 1869 in Ibid., Beverly Wilson Palmer, 497\u2013498.\n\n52. Letter from Henry Shipley Stevens, 30 January 1866, _Western Reserve Historical Society._\n\n53. \"Confidential memorandum,\" circa 1865, Washington, Oficios, 1865, _Archivo Hist\u00f3rico do Itamaraty\u2013Rio de Janeiro._ See also Henry M. Price to Sir Frederick Bruce, 24 May 1865, FO 5\/1019, _Public Records Office\u2013Kew Gardens_ : This rebel asked London to sponsor a Confederate colony in Brazil as a spearhead against the U.S. (later he organized a colony in Venezuela). Frank J. Merli, **Great Britain and the Confederate Navy, 1861\u20131865,** Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1970.\n\n54. Gary Gallagher, ed., **Fighting for the Confederacy: The Personal Recollections of General Edward Porter Alexander,** Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989, 547\u2013548.\n\n55. Undated Memorandum, **Edwin James Papers.**\n\n56. George Barnsley to Father, August 1865, **Edwin James Papers.**\n\n57. Matthew Fontaine Maury to \"Corbin,\" 18 May 1861, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _Virginia Military Institute\u2013Lexington._\n\n58. Ibid., Lawrence Hill, **Diplomatic Relations Between the United States and Brazil,** 254.\n\n59. **New York Times,** 15 January 1868.\n\n60. Ibid., Manuscript by James Gaston, \"Hunting a Home in Brazil,\" 55.\n\n61. **New York Times,** 10 December 1865.\n\n62. **New York Times,** 3 December 1865.\n\n63. **Anglo-Brazilian Times,** 7 September 1865.\n\n64. William Van Vleck Lidgerwood to William Seward, 1867, in **Papers Relating to Foreign Affairs, Accompanying the Annual Message of the President to the Second Session, Thirty-Ninth Congress, Part II,** Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1867, 300.\n\n65. **Anglo-Brazilian Times,** 9 October 1865.\n\n66. **New York Herald,** 22 February 1866.\n\n67. **Anglo-Brazilian Times,** 4 November 1865.\n\n68. **New York Times,** 26 February 1866.\n\n69. **Anglo-Brazilian Times,** 24 November 1865.\n\n70. **Anglo-Brazilian Times,** 24 December 1865.\n\n71. **Anglo-Brazilian Times,** 23 June 1866.\n\n72. **Anglo-Brazilian Times,** 7 February 1867.\n\n73. Ibid., John Codman, **Ten Months in Brazil,** 79, 131\u2013132, 187, 189, 195\u2013196.\n\n74. Matthew Fontaine Maury to \"My Dear Corbin,\"22 October 1860, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _VMI._\n\n75. Matthew Fontaine Maury to \"Corbin,\" 18 May 1861, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _VMI._\n\n76. Hon. John Bell on \"Lieut. M. F. Maury[,] Speech . . . Delivered in the Senate of the United States, April 28 and 29, 1856.\" \"Congressional Globe, 1856,\" GC M45 B4.\n\n77. \"Captain Maury's Letter on American Affairs,\" August 1861, _American Antiquarian Society._\n\n78. Matthew Maury to Editor, 'London Times,' 22 December 1862, Scrapbook, **Richard Maury Papers,** _Duke University._\n\n79. Matthew Maury to Corbin, 1 May 1863, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _VMI._\n\n80. Richard Maury, **A Brief Sketch of Matthew Fontaine Maury During the War, 1861\u20131865,** Richmond: Whittet & Shep-person, 1915, 30.\n\n81. Matthew Maury to \"My Dear Nannie,\" 7 July 1863, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _VMI._\n\n82. Matthew Fontaine Maury to Captain de la Marche, Paris, 15 March 1862, Box 15, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _Library of Congress._\n\n83. Ferdinand Maxmilian to Matthew Maury, 4 September 1863, Box 18, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _Library of Congress._\n\n84. Matthew Maury to the Archduke, 9 October 1863, Box 18, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _Library of Congress._\n\n85. The Archduke to Matthew Maury, 24 October 1863, Box 18, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _Library of Congress._\n\n86. Matthew Maury to the Archduke, 10 November 1863, Box 19, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _Library of Congress._\n\n87. Matthew Maury to the Archduke, 22 December 1863, Box 19, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _Library of Congress._\n\n88. J. M. Maury to Matthew Maury, 12 April 1865, Box 1, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _Duke University._\n\n89. Letter from Matthew Fontaine Maury, 19 May 1865, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _VMI._\n\n90. Russian Minister to Matthew Fontaine Maury, 25 June 1860, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _VMI._\n\n91. Russian Grand Duke to Matthew Maury, 8 August 1861, Box 14, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _Library of Congress._\n\n92. Letter from Matthew Fontaine Maury, 5 September 1865, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _VMI._ See, Ibid., David W. Blight, **Race and Reunion,** 78. See also \"Decrees for the Encouragement of Immigration and Colonization. Office of Colonization. Mexico. November 1865.\" Series 1.4, Folder 16, **John Perkins Papers,** _University of North Carolina\u2013Chapel Hill._\n\n93. Matthew Maury to Corbin, 31 October 1865, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _VMI._\n\n94. Matthew Maury to \"My Dear Wife,\"27 November 1865, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _VMI._\n\n95. Matthew Maury to \"My Dear Sweet Brave Nannie,\" 7 December 1865, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _VMI._\n\n96. Undated Letter from Richard Maury, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _VMI._\n\n97. Matthew Maury to \"My Dear Children,\" 1 March 1866, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _VMI._\n\n98. Matthew Maury to \"Corbin,\"21 May 1866, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _VMI._\n\n99. Matthew Maury to \"Corbin,\" 19 May 1867, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _VMI._\n\n100. Richard Maury to John Perkins, 8 July 1866, Series 1.4, Folder 19, **John Perkins Papers.**\n\n101. Matthew Maury to Corbin, 29 January 1868, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _VMI._\n\n102. Matthew Fontaine Maury to Dear Ruston, 7 September 1870, Box 1, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _Duke University._\n\n103. Richard Maury to Matthew Maury, 9 September 1870, Box 1, **Matthew Fontaine Maury Papers,** _Duke University._\n\n104. Ibid., Richard Maury, **A Brief Sketch of Matthew Fontaine Maury,** 30.\n\n105. F. H. Farrar to John Perkins, 21 September 1866, Series 1.4, Folder 19, **John Perkins Papers.**\n\nNOTES TO CHAPTER 11\n\n1. William Clark Griggs, **The Elusive Eden: Frank McMullan's Confederate Colony in Brazil,** Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987, 127.\n\n2. Bell Wiley, \"Confederate War Exiles in Brazil,\" **Civil War Times Illustrated,** 15 (Number 9, January 1977): 22\u201332, 27, 30. See also Ibid., Eugene C. Harter, **The Lost Colony of the Confederacy,** 54.\n\n3. Ibid., Cyrus B. Dawsey and James M. Dawsey, **The Confederados,** 174.\n\n4. \"Additional Convention Between the United States and Great Britain,\" on the Slave Trade, \"Concluded June 3, 1870,\" Record Group 48, Roll 3, **Records of the Department of Interior.**\n\n5. See e.g. Ibid., Najia Aarim-Heriot, **Chinese Immigrants, African Americans and Racial Anxiety in the United States, 1848\u20131882.** See also \"Lista Dos Navios Americans\" with \"bandeira Portugeza\" carrying hundreds of \"coolies,\" 20 February 1864, \"[translation]: Correspondence of the Mixed Commission at the Cape of Good Hope, _Archivo Hist\u00f3ricoDiplom\u00e1tico, Minist\u00e9rio dos Negocios Estrangeiros\u2013Lisbon._\n\n6. W. C. Knight, Acting Consul Cape Town, to Chevalier Duprat, 18 January 1864, [translation]: Consul of Portugal, Cape of Good Hope, 1846\u20131876, _Archivo Hist\u00f3rico-Diplom\u00e1tico, Minist\u00e9rio dos Negocios Estrangeiros\u2013Lisbon._ In the same file see also Thomas Watson to Chevalier Duprat, 8 April 1864. See also George Frere and E. L. Layard, Cape Town, to Earl Russell, 26 January 1864, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 66, Number 49** : \"two large vessels have touched conveying coolies from Hong Kong . . . American vessels [with] Portuguese flag and papers.\"\n\n7. David Birmingham, **Portugal and Africa,** Athens: Ohio University Press, 1999, 18.\n\n8. From \"Ordnance Office War Department\" of U.S. to A. da Cunha, Charges d'Affaires of Portugal in U.S., 10 March 1871, [translation]: Legation of Portugal in Washington, Correspondence Received from Various Authorities and American Establishments, 1837\u20131888, Torre, 4 Piso, Estante 1, 17, A38, M19, _Archivo Hist\u00f3rico-Diplom\u00e1tico, Minist\u00e9rio dos Negocios Estrangeiros\u2013Lisbon._ In same file, see also E. G. Wines, U.S. Commissioner to A. da Cunha, 22 May 1871, re: invitation to \"International Penitentiary Congress.\"\n\n9. See e.g. U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Government Reform. Subcommittee on Human Rights and Wellness. **The Ongoing Tragedy of International Slavery and Human Trafficking: An Overview: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Human Rights and Wellness of the Committee on Government Reform,** 108th Congress, 1st Session. October 29, 2003. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 2004; Christian van den Anker, ed., **The Political Economy of New Slavery,** New York: Palgrave, 2004. Anna M. Troubnikoff, ed., **Trafficking in Women and Children: Current Issues and Developments,** Hauppauge, New York: Nova Science Publishers, 2003.\n\n10. Main Catalogue File, Description of \"Godfrey Barnsley Papers,\" _Duke University._\n\n11. C. Berrien to Godfrey Barnsley, 22 February 1867, Box 5, **Godfrey Barnsley Papers,** _Duke University._\n\n12. George Barnsley to \"Dear Father,\" 23 May 1867, Box 5, **Godfrey Barnsley Papers.**\n\n13. F. H. Farrar to John Perkins, 21 September 1866, Series 1.4, Folder 16, **John Perkins Papers.**\n\n14. J. D. Porter to Charles Nathan, 30 August 1867, 892-z, Folder 1, **J. D. Porter Papers,** _University of North Carolina\u2013Chapel Hill._ For more on the rebel migration to South America, see **Missouri Republican,** 17 June 1867; **The Daily Picayune,** 19 May and 9 June 1867; **Charleston Mercury,** 17 September 1867; **New Orleans Times,** 1 December and 8 December 1867.\n\n15. J. D. Porter to Charles Nathan, 29 November 1867, 892-z, Folder 1, **J. D. Porter Papers.**\n\n16. \"Biography of James McFadden Gaston,\" no date, 1469-(B)-z, Folder 1, _University of North Carolina\u2013Chapel Hill._\n\n17. J. Marshall McCue to Cyrus H. McCormick, 11 April 1857, 454-z, **J. Marshall McCue Letters,** _University of North Carolina\u2013Chapel Hill._\n\n18. Cyrus H. McCormick to J. Marshall McCue, 22 June 1867, **J. Marshall McCue Letters.**\n\n19. J. Marshall McCue to Cyrus H. McCormick, 22 June 1867, **J. Marshall McCue Letters.**\n\n20. Lucita Hardie Wait, \"Memories of a Childhood Spent in Brazil,\" 1937, M1879, Reel 1, **Hardie Family Papers,** _University of North Carolina\u2013Chapel Hill._\n\n21. **Columbia** [Ga.] **Sun and Times,** 5 February 1867.\n\n22. **New York Times,** 15 August 1867; **Montgomery Advertiser,** 10 August 1867.\n\n23. **New York Times,** 28 March 1867.\n\n24. George Barnsley to \"Father,\" 14 June 1867, Box 5, **Godfrey Barnsley Papers.**\n\n25. George Barnsley to Father, 23 April 1868, Box 5, **Godfrey Barnsley Papers.**\n\n26. George Barnsley to Father, 17 February 1872, Box 5, **Godfrey Barnsley Papers.**\n\n27. \"Our Life in Brazil,\" circa 1867, 1672-z, Folder 1, **Julia Louisa Hentz Keyes Papers,** _University of North Carolina\u2013Chapel Hill._\n\n28. J. D. Porter to unnamed correspondent, undated, 892-z, Folder 1, **J. D. Porter Papers.**\n\n29. Joseph Weed to \"Dear Sarah,\" 5 August 1874, 2109-z, Folder 1, **Joseph W. Weed Letters,** _University of North Carolina\u2013Chapel Hill._\n\n30. Robert S. Merriwether to \"My Dear Brother,\" circa 1872 and Affadavit, 14 September 1872, MSS 1 D 1124a 1-42, **Dabney Family Papers,** _Virginia Historical Society._ See also Betty Antunes de Oliveira, \"North American Immigration to Brazil: Tombstone Records of the 'Campo' Cemetery; Santa Barbara D'Oeste-Sao Paulo State-Brazil, 1978,\" F2513 O4, _Virginia Historical Society._\n\n31. Carolyn Smith Ward, **An American Brazilian Odyssey,** Charlotte: CSW, 1979, 35.\n\n32. Ibid., Gary Gallagher, ed., **Fighting for the Confederacy,** 530\u2013531. See also E. L. Jeffers, \"Brazil's American Confederates: 'Once a Rebel, Twice a Rebel, Always a Rebel,'\" **Virginia Country,** July-August 1986, 53\u201355, _Virginia Historical Society._\n\n33. Thomas L. Whigham, **The Paraguayan War: Causes and Early Conflict, Volume 1,** Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002, iv.\n\n34. Vitor Izecksohn, \"War, Reform and State-Building in Brazil and in the United States: Slavery, Emancipation and Decision-Making Processes in the Paraguayan and Civil Wars (1861\u20131870),\" Ph.D. dissertation, University of New Hampshire, 2001, 181, 335, 336. See also **Savannah** **Daily Morning News,** 21 November 1868: The President of Paraguay charges the U.S. Minister to Paraguay with being part of a conspiracy to assassinate him, joined by that nation's Foreign Minister. **Savannah Daily Morning News,** 29 October 1869: U.S. Minister to Paraguay says he is evacuating Asuncion as Brazilian troops plunder this capital, destroying and looting and ransacking archives. **Savannah Daily Morning News,** 29 November 1870: \"Americans are said to have fought with Brazil against Paraguay. . . . one historian notes, however, that the Brazilian army court-martialed and shot two American boys for signing on as mercenaries with Paraguay.\"\n\n35. **New York Times,** 25 November 1866.\n\n36. Clipping, no date, Washington, Oficios, 1865, _Archivo Hist\u00f3rico do Itamaraty._\n\n37. Reverend Ballard S. Dunn, **Brazil, the Home for Southerners,** New York: George B. Richardson, 1866, 40.\n\n38. John A. Salmond, **The Conscience of a Lawyer: Clifford J. Durr and American Civil Liberties, 1899\u20131975,** Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1990, 2.\n\n39. Dispatch from Ignacio Barboza da Silva, 22 May 1865, Washington, Oficios, 1865, _Archivo Hist\u00f3rico do Itamaraty._\n\n40. \"Letter from the Provincial President of Para to the Minister of Justice,\" 8 July 1865, in Robert Edgar Conrad, ed., **Children of God's Fire.**\n\n41. Ibid., **Children of God's Fire,** 232.\n\n42. Henry Thayer Mahoney and Marjorie Locke Mahoney, **Mexico and the Confederacy, 1860\u20131867,** San Francisco: Austin & Winfield, 1998, 101.\n\n43. Ibid., Reverend Ballard S. Dunn, 19.\n\n44. Minister of Agriculture to General Wood, no date, in Ibid., **British Parliamentary Papers: Correspondence Relative to the Slave Trade, Volume 75, Number 50.**\n\n45. **New York Times,** 25 July 1867.\n\n46. Diary of James M. Gaston, 29 November 1865, 1470, Box 2, Folder 18, **James M. Gaston Papers,** _University of North Carolina\u2013Chapel Hill._\n\n47. Ibid., \"Biography of James McFadden Gaston.\" But see Ibid., J. McF. Gaston, **Hunting a Home in Brazil,** 123: \"extractions from the Negro are greater, and the provision for his subsistence and comfort less than was experienced formerly in the United States.\"\n\n48. Ibid., Gaston, **Hunting a Home in Brazil,** 228.\n\n49. Ibid., Julia Louisa Hentz Keyes, \"Our Life in Brazil.\"\n\n50. \"The Last Confederates Live in Brazil,\" 1991, **Edwin James Papers,** _University of South Carolina\u2013Columbia._\n\n51. Ibid., Gaston, **Hunting a Home in Brazil,** 134.\n\n52. **Chester Reporter,** 6 May 1906, **Edwin James Papers.**\n\n53. Ibid., Julia Louisa Hentz Keyes, \"Our Life in Brazil.\"\n\n54. Undated Memorandum, **Edwin James Papers.**\n\n55. Ibid., Lucie Hardie Wait, \"Memories of a Childhood Spent in Brazil.\"\n\n56. Ibid., Bridgett M. Williams, \"James Monroe: Consul to Rio, 1863\u20131869,\" 90.\n\n57. Ibid., Gaston, **Hunting a Home in Brazil,** 55.\n\n58. Ibid., Joseph W. Weed to \"Dear Sarah,\" 5 August 1874, **Joseph W. Weed Letters.**\n\n59. Ibid., Diary of James M. Gaston, 29 November 1865, **James M. Gaston Papers.**\n\n60. Ibid., Joseph W. Weed to \"Dear Sarah,\" 5 August 1874, **Joseph W. Weed Letters.**\n\n61. Louis and Elizabeth Agassiz, **A Journey in Brazil,** New York: Praeger, 1969, 128\u2013129.\n\n62. Ibid., Julia Louisa Hentz Keyes, \"Our Life in Brazil.\"\n\n63. Ibid., \"Biography of James McFadden Gaston.\"\n\n64. **New York Times,** 15 August 1867.\n\n65. J. D. Porter to Charles Nathan, 29 November 1867, Folder 1, **J. D. Porter Letters.**\n\n66. O. Whitaker to Frank Adams, 12 June 1876, Box 2, **Adams (Israel L. and Family) Papers,** _Louisiana State University\u2013Baton Rouge._\n\n67. Ibid., Gaston, **Hunting a Home in Brazil,** 52.\n\n68. **New York Times,** 15 August 1867.\n\n69. **New York Times,** 25 February 1870.\n\n70. **Anglo-Brazilian Times,** 2 July 1866.\n\n71. Memo from A. Foster Elliott, 5 May 1866, Washington, Oficios, 1865, _Archivo Hist\u00f3rico do Itamaraty._\n\n72. **Anglo-Brazilian Times,** 23 April 1867.\n\n73. **Anglo-Brazilian Times,** 7 August 1868.\n\n74. **Anglo-Brazilian Times,** 8 May 1867.\n\n75. **Anglo-Brazilian Times,** 26 April 1867.\n\n76. Henry Sanford to U.S. Grant, 18 February [year unclear], in John Y. Simon, ed., **The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant, Volume 24, 1873,** Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2000, 375\u2013376.\n\n77. **New York Times,** 19 April 1876.\n\n78. James Watson Webb to William Seward, 3 May 1867, in **Message to the President of the United States and Accompanying Documents to the Two Houses of Congress at the Commencement of the Second Session of the Fortieth Congress, Part II,** Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1868, 251\u2013253\n\n79. **New York Times,** 14 July 1877.\n\n80. **New York Times,** 21 May 1871.\n\n81. George Barnsley to Editor, **New Orleans Times,** 20 August 1871, Box 5, **Godfrey Barnsley Papers.**\n\n82. George Barnsley to Father, 20 August 1871, Box 5, **Godfrey Barnsley Papers.**\n\n83. George Barnsley to Father, 17 February 1872, Box 5, **Godfrey Barnsley Papers.** Barnsley's complaints were not atypical and thus are worthy of quotation at length: See e.g. George Barnsley to Father, 30 October 1870, Box 5, **Godfrey Barnsley Papers.**\n\n84. George Barnsley to Father, 9 March 1868, Box 5, **Godfrey Barnsley Papers.**\n\n85. James R. Partridge to Hamilton Fish, 8 September 1871, in **Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, Transmitted to Congress with the Annual Message to the President, December 4, 1871,** Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1871, 64.\n\n86. James R. Partridge to Hamilton Fish, 2 December 1872, in **Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, Transmitted to Congress with the Annual Message of the President, December 2, 1872,** Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1873, 90. See also James Partridge to Hamilton Fish, 22 January 1872, in John Y. Simon, ed., **The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant, Volume 22: June 1, 1871\u2013January 31, 1872,** Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1998, 333.\n\n87. Report from Henry T. Blow, 5 November 1870, in Ibid., **Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States . . . 1871,** 43.\n\n88. **Savannah Daily Morning News,** 21 November 1868.\n\n89. **New York Times,** 31 December 1875.\n\nNOTES TO THE EPILOGUE\n\n1. Ibid., Eugene C. Harter, **The Lost Colony of the Confederacy,** 55.\n\n2. Ibid., Robert Brent Toplin, **The Abolition of Slavery in Brazil,** 212\u2013213. See also **Rio News,** 24 February 1888; **Jornal do Recife,** 21 February 1888; **Revista Illustrada,** 17 March 1888. See also **New York Times,** 16 April 1876.\n\n3. Ibid., John Codman, **Ten Months in Brazil,** 75.\n\n4. Isaac Myers, et al. to President Grant, April 1869, in **The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant, Volume 19,** 1995.\n\n5. **New York Times,** 4 December 1877.\n\n6. **New York Times,** 5 August 1877.\n\n7. **New York Times,** 6 August 1877.\n\n8. **New York Times,** 20 December 1880.\n\n9. Thomas J. Jarvis to John D. Whitford, 22 September 1885, 89.2, **John D.Whitford Papers,** _North Carolina State Archives._\n\n10. Thomas J. Jarvis to John D. Whitford, 3 August 1888, 89.2, **John D. Whit-ford Papers.**\n\n11. Thomas J. Jarvis to William L. Saunders, 27.1, **William Laurence Saunders Papers,** _North Carolina State Archives._\n\n12. John C. White to Mr. Evarts, 1879, in **Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, Transmitted to Congress, with the Annual Message of the President, December 1, 1879,** Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1879, 133\u2013134.\n\n13. Henry Hilliard to Mr. Evarts, 4 September 1879, in **Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, Transmitted to Congress, with the Annual Message of the President, December 6, 1880,** Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1880, 86.\n\n14. **New York Times,** 3 July 1878.\n\n15. **New York Times,** 31 May 1878.\n\n16. **New York Times,** 31 December 1877.\n\n17. **New York Times,** 16 April 1878.\n\n18. **Anglo-Brazilian Times,** 8 March 1878.\n\n19. **New York Times,** 6 May 1878.\n\n20. **New York Times,** 15 June 1886.\n\n21. **New York Times,** 25 January 1888.\n\n22. Letter from Stephen W. Hill to T. F. Bayard, 31 January 1888, in **Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, Transmitted to Congress, with the Annual Message of the President, December 3, 1888,** Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1889, 58.\n\n23. **Rio Daily News,** 5 March 1888, in Ibid., **Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States . . . 1888,** 59.\n\n24. **Rio Daily News,** 24 March 1888, in Ibid., **Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States . . . 1888,** 62.\n\n25. **Revista do Brasil,** 15 December 1907.\n\n26. **New York World,** 1 December 1907.\n\n27. Report from U.S. Vice Consul in Bahia, 1 December 1907, Box 12, **Richard Harding Davis Papers,** _University of Virginia\u2013Charlottesville._\n\n28. Department of State to Richard Harding Davis, 19 March 1908, Box 12, **Richard Harding Davis Papers.**\n\n29. **Baltimore Sun,** 25 October 1972.\n\n30. **Christian Science Monitor,** 3 June 1977.\n\n31. **New York Times,** 22 April 1972.\n\n32. **New York Times,** 3 November 1985.\n\n33. Interview with Elizabeth McAlpine MacKnight, 20 May 1978, Box 1, Folder 2, _Americana (Brazil) Oral History Project Collection\u2013Emory University._\n\n34. Sheila S. Walker, \"Africanity vs. Blackness: Race, Class and Culture in Brazil,\" **NACLA Report on the Americas,** 35 (Number 6, May\/June 2002): 16\u201320, 17, 19.\n\n35. Thomas J. Jarvis to T. F. Bayard, 14 May 1888, in Ibid., **Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States . . . 1888,** 72.\n\n36. **New York Times,** 4 July 1888.\n\n37. **Der Spiegel,** 19 May 2002.\n\n38. **Estado de S\u00e3o Paulo,** 28 April 2002; Fernando Henrique Cardoso, **The Accidental President of Brazil: A Memoir,** New York: Public Affairs, 2006, 257.\n\n39. **Los Angeles Times,** 23 June 2005.\n\n40. **New York Amsterdam News,** 22 December 2005.\n\n41. Louis Harlan, ed., **The Booker T. Washington Papers, 1860\u20131889, Volume 2,** Champaign-Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1972, 237.\n\n42. David J. Hellwig, **African-American Reflections on Brazil's Racial Paradise,** Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992.\n\n43. Eugene Robinson, **Coal to Cream: A Black Man's Journey Beyond Color to an Affirmation of Race,** New York: Free Press, 1999, 184, 31\u201332, 145.\n\n44. **Guardian** [London], 30 December 2005.\n\n## **Index**\n\nAbbot, Joel,\n\nAbbott, George, \u2013144\n\nAbolitionism: anti-abolitionist riot in New York City (1834), \u2013173\n\nBaquaqua and,\n\nin Brazil, \u201313, , , , , , \u2013245,\n\nBrazil's impact on Americans' attitude toward,\n\nCalifornia Gold Rush's impact on, , \u201388, \u201398\n\nin Great Britain, , ,\n\nin Haiti,\n\nhostility toward,\n\nin New York,\n\nSpain and, ,\n\nin Texas, n74\n\nWebb and, \u2013173\n\nWise (Henry Alexander) on,\n\nAbranches, Almeida and Co.,\n\nD'Abrantes, Marquis,\n\nAckerman, J. L.,\n\nAdams, John H.,\n\nAdams, John Quincy: on African Slave Trade, \u201321\n\nBrazilian slave trade, \u201328\n\non Portugal,\n\nRay and,\n\non search\/seizure of U.S.-flagged ships,\n\nsupport for Latin American independence,\n\nWise (Henry Alexander) and,\n\nAdams, Samuel,\n\nAdamson, Thomas,\n\nAfrica: decline in proportion of world's population,\n\nnearness to Brazil, , \u201334\n\nU.S. trade with, . _See also_ East Africa; West Africa\n\nAfrican Americans: emigration to Argentina,\n\nemigration to Brazil, \u2013250\n\nAfrican Labor Supply Association,\n\nAfrican Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church, ,\n\nAfrican Slave Trade, \u2013149\n\nAdams (John Quincy) on, \u201321\n\nAmerican involvement in, , , , , \u201334, \u201365, \u2013138, , \u2013163, ,\n\nAmerican Negroes involved in, \u201342\n\naverage number of slaves taken per year,\n\nbackers of, __\n\nbranding of slaves,\n\nBrazil in, \u201334\n\ncalls to reopen, \u2013134, ,\n\nchief site of,\n\nCivil War, influence on, \u2013171\n\nCivil War's ending,\n\nConfederate States of America (CSA), ,\n\ndecline in Africa's proportion of the world's population,\n\ndeportation of American Negroes to the Amazon River basin as a substitute for,\n\ndiplomacy in the Western hemisphere, , \u2013158\n\nexternal forces' effects on, , \u2013158\n\nfederal laws prohibiting U.S. citizens from participating in, , , , , , , n48\n\nfree trade,\n\nillicit trade in late 1850s, \u2013149,\n\nJefferson and,\n\nMaury (Matthew Fontaine) and, ,\n\nnorthward movement of, \u2013147,\n\nnumber of Africans shipped to Brazil, \u20133, , \u201354,\n\nnumber of Africans shipped to the New World, , n3, n34\n\nofficial closure of,\n\nopenness of,\n\nparticipation by Confederate expatriates in Brazil,\n\npeak period, \u20133,\n\nPortugal and, ,\n\nprice of slaves in Africa, , \u2013131\n\nprofitability of, , , , , , , n7\n\nprosecutions under slave trade acts,\n\nprovision of ships for, , , , , , , n34\n\nRoyal Navy's effect on, \u201364\n\nrunaways, \u201346\n\nin 1840s,\n\nsecessionists and, , ,\n\nswitching flags, \u201337, , , , n27\n\nThirteenth Amendment, \u201313\n\nas a transnational business,\n\ntwin towers of,\n\nviolence in West Africa,\n\nwaxing and waning of,\n\nbetween West Africa and South America,\n\nwhalers' role, \u201310, \u201337, \u201348,\n\nWise (Henry Alexander) and,\n\nZanzibar in,\n\nAfrican Society (London),\n\nAfrican Squadron (U.S. Navy's Anti-Slavery Squadron), \u2013142\n\navoidance of Cabinda,\n\nbase,\n\nchaplain to,\n\nConrad on,\n\nCSA privateers, , \u2013196\n\nCummings and,\n\nDavis (Jefferson) and,\n\nDouglass on,\n\nin East Africa, n116\n\neffectiveness, , , \u2013141,\n\nLawrence and,\n\npurpose,\n\nsize, ,\n\nslavers captured by,\n\nWebster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842,\n\nin West Africa, n116\n\nAgassiz, Elizabeth,\n\nAgassiz, Louis, ,\n\n\"Agnes\" (American ship), , ,\n\nAguiar, Luis Henrique Ferreira,\n\n\"Alabama\" (Confederate ship): in Bahia,\n\ncapture of the \"Tuscaloosa,\"\n\nflying Portuguese flag to avoid capture by,\n\nowner,\n\nAlexander, Edward Porter, , \u2013229\n\nAmazon River: free navigation of, , . _See also_ Deportation of American Negroes to the Amazon River basin\n\nAME (African Methodist Episcopal) Church, ,\n\n\"Amelia\" (American ship),\n\nAmerican Anti-Slavery Society,\n\nAmerican Colonization Society, n36\n\nThe Americas, slave population of,\n\nAmory, Thomas,\n\n**Anglo-Brazilian Times** (newspaper),\n\nAnglo-Spanish treaty (1835),\n\nAngola: Cummings in, \u201350\n\nCummings on,\n\nLuanda ( _see_ Luanda, Angola); slave trading in, , , , , , \u2013146, , , n52\n\nwealth\/prosperity in,\n\nAngolans: in Brazil,\n\nin Virginia,\n\nArgentina: Buenos Aires (once Buenos Ayres), , n74\n\nemigration of Blacks to,\n\nArnold, Benedict,\n\n\"Atilla\" (American slaver), n78\n\n\"Atlantic\" (American ship),\n\n\"Aunt Sylvy\" (a slave),\n\nAzores, slave trading in, \u2013145\n\nBahia, Brazil: burning of American ships in,\n\nillicit slave trade,\n\nSemmes's \"Alabama\" in,\n\nslave revolt in, \u201312,\n\n\"strict neutrality\" in,\n\nBailey, Adams, Jr.,\n\nBaltimore, privateers from,\n\nBanks, J. H., ,\n\nBaptista, Augusto Lopes, n57\n\nBaquaqua, Mahommah Gardo,\n\nBarnsley, George, expatriation to Brazil, , \u2013209, \u2013224, \u2013227\n\nBarnsley, Godfrey, , \u2013241\n\nBates, Edward,\n\nBeauregard, Pierre Gustave Toutant,\n\nBeckett, Henry, ,\n\nBeeckman, John H, ,\n\nBenjamin, Judah,\n\nBennett, James,\n\nBennett, Lerone, \u2013174\n\nBennett, Thomas,\n\nBento (a Brazilian slave),\n\nBetts, Samuel Rossiter,\n\nBlack, Jeremiah,\n\nBlair, Francis, Jr.,\n\nBlair, Montgomery,\n\nBlanco, Pedro,\n\nBlandy, A. A., \u2013200\n\nBlue, J. H.,\n\nBlumberg, Rhoda,\n\n\"Bonito\" (American slaver),\n\nBowen, William,\n\nBrackenridge, H. M.,\n\nBradbury, Captain,\n\nBradley, Henry, \u201326\n\nBrazil: abolitionism in, \u201313, , , , , , \u2013245,\n\nin African Slave Trade, \u201334\n\n\"Africanization\" of, ,\n\nalliance\/relations with the South, \u20132, , , , ,\n\nalliance with the United States, ,\n\nAmazon River, free navigation of, , 122 ( _see also_ Deportation of American Negroes to the Amazon River basin); American business interests in, \u2013110\n\nAmerican legation in,\n\nAmericans' attitudes toward Brazil, \u201328, \u2013105\n\nAngolans in,\n\nappointment of Southerners as Minister to Brazil, \u2013160, \u2013247\n\narmy\/police in, \u201393,\n\narrest\/imprisonment of American slavers,\n\nBahia ( _see_ Bahia, Brazil); black population of, ,\n\nCalhoun (John C.) on, ,\n\nCape S\u00e3o Roque,\n\nCatholicism in, \u2013103\n\nCivil War's effect on, , , \u2013230, n81\n\nclimate, , , , ,\n\ncoffee production, , , , n2\n\nConfederate expatriates in ( _see_ Confederate expatriates in Brazil); Confederate States of America (CSA) and, , , , \u2013197\n\nconfrontations between U.S. nations and Brazilians, \u201394\n\ncotton growing, , \u2013188, , n6\n\ndemise of the Confederate States of America,\n\ndemographic makeup of,\n\nDouglass on, , \u2013104,\n\nDutch in, ,\n\neconomic growth, \u201326\n\neducation in,\n\nelephantiasis in,\n\nemigration of Blacks to Brazil, \u2013250\n\nfear of foreign invasion,\n\nfear of slave revolts in, , \u201330,\n\nfears of American expansionism, , , \u2013119, \u2013123\n\nfilibustering by U.S. nationals,\n\nas a firewall protecting U.S. slavery,\n\nForeign Ministry,\n\nfree Blacks in, , , ,\n\nHilliard and, \u2013247\n\nindependence, \u201323\n\nlabor needs during American Civil War,\n\nLusophone culture of, ,\n\n\"Male revolt\" (1835), ,\n\nMaury (Matthew Fontaine) on, ,\n\nMeade (Richard Kidder,, Sr.) in,\n\nmechanics in,\n\nmiscegenation\/\"amalgamation\" in, , , ,\n\nmortality of foreigners in,\n\nnearness to Africa, , \u201334\n\nNew Yorkers in, \u2013205\n\nPara, , , \u2013200\n\nPernambuco ( _see_ Pernambuco, Brazil); plans for American seizure of its territory, , ,\n\nPortuguese in,\n\nprivateers in Brazilian waters,\n\nprofessionals in,\n\n\"race rules\" in, \u201395\n\nas \"racial\" horror and paradise, \u201314,\n\nracial prejudice, absence of, , \u2013104, \u2013161, , \u2013231, , n61\n\nRecife ( _see_ Pernambuco, Brazil); relations with Great Britain, , , \u201351, , ,\n\nrelations with Peru, \u2013123\n\nrelations with United States, \u201329, \u201377, \u201384, , , , \u2013209, \u2013237, \u2013247\n\nrelations with Uruguay, , \u2013229\n\nas a safety valve, ,\n\nS\u00e3o Paulo, \u2013212, ,\n\nsearch\/seizure of its ships by Royal Navy,\n\nSemmes and,\n\nskilled craftsmen in,\n\nslave population of, , , , n76\n\nslave revolts in, \u201312, , \u201382,\n\nslave trading ( _see_ Brazilian slave trade; Slave trading by Brazilian nationals); slave-holders in,\n\nslavery in ( _see_ Slavery in Brazil); slaves in ( _see_ Slaves in Brazil); Southern nationalists,\n\nto Southern secessionists, , ,\n\nSoutherners in,\n\n\"um pen a cozinha\" in,\n\nto U.S. Negroes, \u2013125\n\nWebb and, , , ,\n\nwhites in, , , ,\n\nWise (Henry Alexander) in, , , \u201371, , \u201379\n\nwomen in, \u2013102\n\nWright (William) in, , , \u201380,\n\nyellow fever in, ,\n\nBrazil Squadron (U.S. Navy), \u201350,\n\nBrazilian slave trade: by 1856,\n\nAmerican involvement in, , , \u201358, \u201363, \u201373\n\nCalifornia Gold Rush, \u201314\n\nCivil War's effect on, , , n81\n\ncredit system supporting,\n\ndecline of, n2\n\nearly th century,\n\neffect on Brazilian agriculture,\n\nEuropeans in, \u201365\n\nheadquarters of,\n\nlast introduction of slaves, n2\n\nMozambique in,\n\nin New York,\n\nNortheastern merchants in,\n\nnumber of Africans shipped to Brazil, \u20133, , \u201354,\n\npeak period, \u201336, , , \u2013131, n9\n\nprofitability of, \u20134, , \u201376, n13\n\nin 1830s, \u201324\n\nin 1850s,\n\nthrowing slaves overboard to escape importation tax, ,\n\nU.S. nationals in, , ,\n\nusual course of, n13\n\nWise (Henry Alexander) on, \u201365, \u201369, \u201374\n\nBrazilians: Americans' view of, , ,\n\nCatholicism of, \u2013103\n\nEwbank on,\n\nreligiosity of,\n\nBritain. _See_ Great Britain\n\nBritish Foreign Office,\n\nBritish Honduras, deportation of American Negroes to, \u2013180\n\nBritish Honduras Company,\n\nBritish Navy. _See_ Royal Navy\n\nBritish Squadron, ,\n\nBritish West Indies, deportation of American Negroes to,\n\nBrookhouse, Robert, , n52\n\nBrown, Edward,\n\nBrown, John: to Euro-Americans, \u201368\n\nexecutioner,\n\nPrice and, \u2013207\n\nSpanish interest in,\n\nWise (Henry Alexander) and, , ,\n\nBrown, John Henry,\n\nBryan, Edward,\n\nBuchanan, James: Calhoun (John C.) and, \u201383\n\non interference with slavery in the South,\n\nWise (Henry Alexander) and, ,\n\nBuenos Aires (once Buenos Ayres): American diplomat in,\n\nmurder of whites in, n74\n\nBunch, Robert,\n\nBurton, Richard,\n\nBush, George W.,\n\nCabinda, the Congo, slave trading in, \u201364, \u2013149\n\nCalhoun, James Edward,\n\nCalhoun, John C.: on Brazil,\n\non British suppression of the slave trade, , \u201356\n\nBuchanan and, \u201383\n\ndefense of slavery,\n\nFiganiere and, n13\n\ninfluence on U.S. foreign policy, ,\n\nIrving and,\n\nJollivet and,\n\non usual course of Brazilian slave trade, n13\n\nWebb and,\n\nWise (Henry Alexander) and, , , ,\n\nCalifornia Gold Rush, \u2013105\n\nabolitionism, , \u201388, \u201398\n\nAmericans' attitude toward Brazil, \u2013105\n\nBrazilian slave trade, \u201314\n\nconfrontations between U.S. nations and Brazilians, \u201394\n\nexpansionist sentiments,\n\nGold Rushers in Rio de Janeiro, \u201399\n\nhardening of regional differences in the U.S.,\n\nMaury (Matthew Fontaine) and, ,\n\nnormalcy of slavery,\n\nRio de Janeiro, Americans in,\n\nroutes to California,\n\nCallbreath, John,\n\nCape S\u00e3o Roque, Brazil,\n\nCape Town, Semmes in, \u2013190\n\nCardoso, Fernando Henrique, ,\n\n\"Carolina\" (American schooner),\n\nCarshaw, William L.,\n\nCarter, Jimmy,\n\nCarter, Rosalynn,\n\nCarvalho, Rafael Antonio de, \u201324\n\nCass, Lewis, ,\n\nCathcart, Captain,\n\nCathcart, Robert S., n90\n\nCatholicism in Brazil, \u2013103\n\nCazzam, A. H., ,\n\nCelestina, John,\n\nCemeterio dos Prietos Novos (Cemetery of the New Blacks), \u2013254\n\nCentral America, deportation of American Negroes to,\n\nChapman, Horatio,\n\n\"Charles F. A. Cole\" (American schooner), n57\n\n**Charleston Mercury** (newspaper),\n\nChase, Salmon,\n\nChestnut, Mary,\n\nChristie, W. D.,\n\nCitizenship, fluidity of,\n\nCivil War: African Slave Trade, influence of, \u2013171\n\nBritain's retreat from demanding right to search\/seize U.S.-flagged ships,\n\nburning of American ships off Brazil,\n\ncauses of, ,\n\ndamage done to U.S. commerce by Semmes,\n\neffect on Brazil, , , \u2013230, n81\n\nemigration of Confederates during,\n\nending of,\n\nimpact on South Africa,\n\nlabor needs in Brazil,\n\nMaryland Constitutional Convention (1864), , ,\n\nrestoration of California to Mexico, , , \u2013215\n\nsearch\/seizure of U.S.-flagged ships, ,\n\nslave trading by U. S. nationals during, \u2013168, \u2013187\n\nslavery's fate,\n\nsuppression of the slave trade, , \u2013185\n\nU.S. trade with Africa prior to, . _See also_ Confederate States of America (CSA)\n\nClary, J. B., \u2013153,\n\nClay, J. B., \u201347\n\nClayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850),\n\nClemson, Thomas G.,\n\nCleveland, Grover,\n\nCliffe, Jose, n13\n\nClink, John Jackson,\n\nCobb, Howell,\n\nCobden, Richard,\n\nCodman, John, , ,\n\nCoffee production in: Brazil, , , , n2\n\nCuba,\n\nSanto Domingo (now Dominican Republic),\n\nCoggeshall, George,\n\nCohen, Joshua,\n\nCole, John,\n\nCollantes, Calderon,\n\nCollins, Napoleon, \u2013196\n\nColonization of Blacks: of Africa,\n\nAmerican Colonization Society, n36\n\nof Latin America, , \u2013250\n\nLincoln and, \u2013174\n\npolitical rights for blacks, n34\n\nas a remedy for slavery, \u2013173. _See also_ Deportation of American Negroes to the Amazon River basin\n\nColston, Frederick N.,\n\n\"Columbia\" (American frigate),\n\nColumbus Wasson (later Vass\u00e3o), Steve,\n\nCompanhia Portuguesa. _See_ Portuguese Company\n\nConant, Roger,\n\nConfederate expatriates in Brazil (\"Confederados\"), \u2013245\n\nBrazilian expatriation scheme,\n\nBrazilian planters' response to,\n\nBrazil's war with Uruguay, \u2013229\n\nclass origins of,\n\nconduct of,\n\nconflicts with Northerners in Brazil,\n\ncrimes committed by, ,\n\ndesire to continue African slavery, \u2013203, \u2013207,\n\ndisappointment\/disillusionment, , , \u2013235, \u2013240\n\ndiscrediting of slaveholders and slavery,\n\ndownward social mobility among, \u2013241\n\neconomic and social capital of, \u2013213\n\nemigration during the Civil War,\n\nfear of being murdered in Brazil,\n\nfinancial ruin in U.S., \u2013209\n\nhatred of federal government, \u2013203\n\nhatred of Yankees,\n\nill-fatedness of the adventure, \u2013242\n\nlanguage barriers, , , ,\n\nlonesomeness,\n\nLusophone culture,\n\nmilitary service in Brazil,\n\nmodern-day,\n\nmotives for expatriation, \u2013203, \u2013228, \u2013207\n\n**New York Times** on, \u2013210, , \u2013239\n\nnumber of, \u2013201, , n13\n\nopposition to ending of slavery in Brazil, \u2013245\n\nin Para, \u2013200\n\nparticipation in slave trading,\n\npessimism about prospects for the U.S., \u2013206,\n\nprofessionals among,\n\nprohibition of importing slaves into Brazil, ,\n\nprosperity among,\n\nracial equality in Brazil,\n\nracial _vs._ ethnic bias among,\n\nreligious issues,\n\nremaining in 1876,\n\nrepatriation\/return to U.S., , , \u2013222, , , \u2013243\n\nsettlements of, ,\n\nslaveholding by, ,\n\nslaves brought by,\n\nsocieties promoting expatriation,\n\nin th century, \u2013251,\n\nas threats to security of the U.S.,\n\nU.S.\u2013British relations, \u2013209\n\nwelcome extended to, , \u2013212,\n\nConfederate States of America (CSA): African Slave Trade, ,\n\nBrazil and, , , , \u2013197\n\nBritish shipbuilding for,\n\nburning of American ships in Brazil,\n\nConfederate generals and militarists serving in Mexico, \u2013209\n\ndemise's effect on Brazil,\n\ndetachment of Texas from,\n\ndiplomatic recognition of, , ,\n\nexistence of slavery in Brazil,\n\nexpatriates in Brazil ( _see_ Confederate expatriates in Brazil); Great Britain and, \u2013154,\n\ngroundwork for,\n\nMaury as ambassador for,\n\nPortugal and,\n\nprivateers from, , ,\n\nslave-trading operatives, \u2013187, 188\u2013189; South African support for, \u2013190\n\nSpain and, \u2013155\n\nsympathy in Brazil, ,\n\nsympathy in Portugal,\n\nWise's (Henry Alexander) role,\n\n\"Congo\" (American schooner),\n\nConrad, Robert,\n\nConvention of 1824,\n\nConway, Chaplin,\n\n\"Cora\" (American slaver),\n\nCornwallis, Charles,\n\nCosta Soares, Samuel da, n52, n4\n\nCotton growing in: Brazil, , \u2013188, , n6\n\nIndia, \u2013157\n\nCrampton, John, \u2013117\n\nCratonick, Vincent,\n\nCrawford, Joseph T., \u2013148\n\nCuba: alliance\/relations with the South, ,\n\nAmerican expansionism, ,\n\ncoffee production,\n\nfears of slave revolts in,\n\nas a firewall protecting U.S. slavery,\n\nMaxwell, Wright and Co. in,\n\nprice of slaves in,\n\nprosperity in, n6\n\nslave trading in, \u2013146, n25, n6\n\nslavery in, ,\n\nSouthern filibustering expeditions to,\n\nSouthern nationalists,\n\nThirteenth Amendment,\n\nCummings, Andrew Boyd, \u201350, ,\n\nCunha, A. M. da,\n\nCunha, Antonio de Luis da,\n\nCunha Reis, Figaniere and Co. (aka Figaniere, Reis & Co.), ,\n\nCunha Reis, Manuel Bazilio da,\n\nCurrier, Nathaniel,\n\n\"Cyrus\" (American ship),\n\nDahlgren, J. A.,\n\nDahomey, King of, ,\n\nDavis, David Brion,\n\nDavis, Jefferson: African Squadron, opposition to,\n\ncapture of,\n\nemigration of bodyguard to Brazil,\n\nHilliard and,\n\nLouis Napoleon and,\n\nMaury (Matthew Fontaine) on,\n\nDavis, Margaret Lockhard,\n\nDe Bow, J. D. B., ,\n\n**De Bow's Review** (magazine), ,\n\nDe Villiers, Lord,\n\n\"Decatur\" (American ship),\n\nDelany, Martin,\n\nDeportation of American Negroes: to the Amazon River basin ( _see_ Deportation of American Negroes to the Amazon River basin); to British Honduras, \u2013180\n\nto British West Indies,\n\nto Central America,\n\nClayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850),\n\nto Guatemala,\n\nto Guyana,\n\nLincoln and, \u2013174, \u2013177, , \u2013182\n\nRadical Republicans, ,\n\nto San Salvador,\n\nSeward and, \u2013181, \u2013183\n\nSpain's view,\n\nDeportation of American Negroes to the Amazon River basin, \u2013127, \u2013197\n\nAmerican business interests, \u2013110\n\nBrazil's climate, ,\n\nBrazil's response,\n\nChase and,\n\nCongressional support for, \u2013176\n\nDouglass on,\n\neconomic boom in the basin,\n\nexclusion of France and England from the Amazon,\n\nManifest Destiny,\n\nMaury (Matthew Fontaine) and, , \u20136, , , , , \u2013127, , , , \u2013248\n\nprecedents, \u2013176\n\nright to emigrate,\n\nas a safety valve, ,\n\nas a substitute for suppressing the African Slave Trade,\n\nSumner and,\n\nTreaty of Union (1856),\n\nU. S. foreign policy, \u20136, \u2013112\n\nWebb and, , , \u2013179, \u2013183, , . _See also_ Colonization of Blacks\n\nDewing, Sammuel,\n\nDistrict of Columbia, slave trading in, __\n\n\"Dolphin\" (American brig), , n65\n\nDoolittle, James,\n\nDouglas, Stephen,\n\nDouglass, Frederick: on American attempts to suppress the slave trade,\n\non Brazil, , \u2013104,\n\non deportation of American Negroes to the Amazon River basin,\n\nMonroe and,\n\nas proposed Minister to Brazil,\n\non Wise (Henry Alexander),\n\nDow (owner of the \"Amelia\"),\n\nDrain, F. P.,\n\nDrinker, Sandwith, \u201362\n\nDu Bignon, John,\n\nDu Bois, W. E. B., ,\n\nDuchow, John, \u201387\n\nDumas, P. C.,\n\nDunn, Ballard S., \u2013230,\n\nDurr, Clifford, \u2013230\n\nDyer (a judge),\n\nEast Africa: African Squadron in, n116\n\nAmerican influence in,\n\nprofitability of slave trading in,\n\nRoyal Navy in, , \u2013148, , , n55\n\nslave trading by Portuguese nationals, \u201348\n\nslave trading by U. S. nationals, \u201348, , \u201362, \u2013145, , \u2013168,\n\nslave trading in,\n\nas a source of slaves, \u201343. _See also_ Mozambique\n\nEast India Cotton Company,\n\n\"Echo\" (American slaver),\n\nEcuador, response to colonization of Latin America,\n\nEdmonstone, Commodore,\n\nEdwards, Monroe, \u2013109\n\nEdwards, William H., ,\n\nEldridge, George, n45\n\n\"Eleanor\" (American slaver), n78\n\nEmancipation Proclamation (1863): Lincoln and, \u2013175\n\nSemmes on,\n\nslavery in the U.S., , \u2013175\n\nWebb on,\n\nEmigration: of Blacks to Argentina,\n\nof Blacks to Brazil, \u2013250\n\nof Confederates to Brazil ( _see_ Confederate expatriates in Brazil); right of,\n\nEngerman, Stanley,\n\n\"Erie\" (American corvette),\n\n\"Evangeline\" (American schooner), \u201335\n\nEwbank, Thomas: on Brazilians,\n\non race relations in Brazil,\n\nshackles in Brazil,\n\nsympathy for Brazilian slaves,\n\n_Excellent_ (brig),\n\n\"Fame\" (American whaler), \u201363, n67\n\nFarrar, F. H.,\n\nFehrenbacher, Don E.,\n\nFenton, Reuben E., \u2013159\n\nFerguson, Green,\n\nFiganiere, Reis & Co. (aka Cunha Reis, Figaniere and Co.), ,\n\nFiganiere, William: Calhoun (John C.) and, n13\n\nas Consul General,\n\nMaury (Matthew Fontaine) and,\n\nslave trading by, , n57\n\nSmith (James) and, n57\n\nFillmore, Millard,\n\n\"Fire-eaters,\"\n\n\"Firefly\" (American slaver), \u2013141\n\n\"Fleet Eagle\" (American slaver),\n\nFlores, Francisco Antonio, n2\n\nFlorida, slave trading in,\n\n\"Florida\" (Confederate cruiser), capture of, \u2013196\n\nFogel, Robert,\n\nFonseca, Manuel Pinto de: Cunha (Antonio de Luis da) and,\n\nfinancing of U.S. slave ships,\n\nMaxwell, Wright and Co., \u20139,\n\nParris and,\n\n_Porpoise_ and, \u201341\n\nPotter and,\n\nSa and,\n\nslave trading, \u20139, , , n4\n\nWise (Henry Alexander) on,\n\nFoot, Solomon, \u2013159\n\nFoote, Andrew,\n\nForbes, Lieutenant,\n\nFrance: exclusion from the Amazon River basin,\n\nMaury (Matthew Fontaine) and, ,\n\n_Freedom's Journal,_ , ,\n\nGabriel, Edmund, ,\n\nGabriel's Rebellion,\n\nGardner, Charlotte, \u201386\n\nGarrison, William Lloyd, ,\n\nGaston, James McFadden: on Brazilian cotton,\n\nexpatriation to Brazil, \u2013203, \u2013225, \u2013235\n\nGeggus, David,\n\n\"Georgia\" (Confederate ship), \u2013193\n\nGhent, Treaty of (1814),\n\n\"Glencliff\" (American slaver), n78\n\n**Godey's Lady Book,** \u2013100\n\nGordon, George: candidacy for Governor of Massachusetts,\n\neducation, n38\n\nParris and,\n\nin Rio de Janeiro, ,\n\nWise (Henry Alexander) and, ,\n\nGordon, Nathaniel, execution of, \u2013167,\n\nGraham, John, \u201322\n\nGraham, William, , \u2013119,\n\nGrant, Ulysses S., , ,\n\nGreat Britain: abolitionism in, , ,\n\ncolonization of Latin America,\n\nConfederate States of America (CSA) and, \u2013154,\n\nCuba falling into American hands,\n\ndeportation of American Negroes by Americans, \u2013117, \u2013181\n\ndeportations by, \u2013176\n\nequipment clause in anti-slave treaties,\n\nexclusion from the Amazon River basin,\n\nForeign Office ( _see_ British Foreign Office); relations with Brazil, , , \u201351, , ,\n\nrelations with Portugal, \u201318,\n\nrelations with Spain,\n\nrelations with United States, , , \u201331, \u201358, , , , , \u2013160, , , \u2013197\n\nretreat from demanding right to search\/seize U.S.-flagged ships,\n\nshipbuilding for Confederate States of America,\n\nsuppression of the slave trade, \u20138, , , , , , \u201351, \u201356, , \u201372, , , , , \u2013147, \u2013156, ,\n\nWebster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842, . _See also_ Royal Navy\n\nGreeley, Horace,\n\nGreen, Duff, , \u201356,\n\nGregg, Maxcy,\n\nGuatemala, deportation of American Negroes to,\n\nGuinea, price of slaves in, n5\n\nGuyana, deportation of American Negroes to,\n\nHaiti, abolitionism in,\n\nHall, Charles,\n\nHall, L. J.,\n\nHall, Robert,\n\nHamilton, Joseph,\n\nHamlin, Hannibal, , n39\n\nHarper, Robert,\n\nHarris, William, , n45\n\nHarrison, Pegram,\n\nHarvey (U.S. Minister in Lisbon),\n\nHawthorne Hotel (Salem, Massachusetts),\n\nHayden, Daniel S.,\n\nHaynes, Samuel B.,\n\n\"Hazard\" (American slaver), n78\n\nHelper, Hinton,\n\nHenderson (purchasing agent for Federal Government),\n\nHendricks, Charles,\n\n\"Henry Clay\" (American pilot boat),\n\nHenshaw, Edward,\n\nHerndon, William, \u2013116,\n\n\"Herschel\" (American vessel),\n\nHesketh, Robert,\n\nHigginbotham, A. Leon,\n\nHill, Pasco G.,\n\nHilliard, Henry W., \u2013246\n\nHodge (agent of British Honduras Company),\n\nHolden, Levi,\n\nHopkins, Edward,\n\nHotchkiss, Jedediah,\n\nHouston, Sam, , , \u2013135\n\nHowden, Lord (British Minister to Brazil),\n\nHowe, George,\n\nHudson, James, ,\n\nHunter, Mary Robinson, , \u201383,\n\nHunter, William,\n\nIrving, Washington,\n\n\"Itacas\" in Mozambique, n53\n\n\"J. J. Cobb\" (American slaver), \u2013164\n\nJackson, Donald,\n\nJackson, Stonewall: blockade-running fellow officer,\n\nMaury (Matthew Fontaine) compared to, ,\n\ntopographer of,\n\nJamaica, sugar production in, \u2013156\n\n_Jane_ (Netherlands barque),\n\nJansen (an American in Surinam),\n\nJarvis, Thomas J., ,\n\nJay, John,\n\nJefferson, Thomas, ,\n\nJefferson College Medical School,\n\nJim Crow laws,\n\nJohnson, Captain,\n\nJohnson, James,\n\nJohnson, Peter, \u201342\n\nJohnson, Robert, \u2013139\n\nJollivet, Thomas,\n\nJones, A. A.,\n\nJones, James T.,\n\nJudkins, James Henry, \u2013230\n\n\"Julia Moulton\" (American brig), n57\n\nKansas-Nebraska Act (1854), ,\n\nKarasch, Mary Catherine,\n\nKeefe, C. H.,\n\nKell, John McIntosh,\n\n\"Kentucky\" (American slaver),\n\nKeyes, Julia Louisa Hentz, , ,\n\nKimball family (of Northeast U.S.), \u2013143\n\nKing, Martin Luther, Jr.,\n\nKnights of the Golden Circle, ,\n\nKnow-Nothing Party, ,\n\nKrafft, Lewis,\n\nLamar, L. Q. C.,\n\nLatrobe (General Longstreet's A.A.G.),\n\nLavallette, Commodore,\n\nLawrence, John C., ,\n\n\"Leader\" (American merchant ship),\n\nLee, Robert E.: emigration of fellow officer to Brazil,\n\nMaury (Matthew Fontaine) compared to, , , , ,\n\nWise (Henry Alexander) and,\n\nLesseps, Ferdinand de,\n\nLewis, Oscar,\n\nLibby, Cyrus, \u201343, n38\n\n**The Liberator** (abolitionist organ), _52_\n\nLidgerwood, William Van Vleck, \u2013211\n\nLincoln, Abraham: assassination of,\n\ncolonization of Blacks, \u2013174\n\ndeportation of American Negroes, \u2013174, \u2013177, , \u2013182\n\nEmancipation Proclamation, \u2013175\n\nforeign policy,\n\nGordon's (Nathaniel) execution for slave trading,\n\nMaury (Matthew Fontaine) and,\n\nSemmes's tombstone for, \u2013191\n\non suppression of the African Slave Trade,\n\nwar against Mexico,\n\nLisboa, Mr. (Brazilian minister in Washington),\n\n**London Times** (newspaper),\n\nLong, R. S.,\n\nLuanda, Angola: American business community in, n52\n\nslave trading in, , \u2013184,\n\nas a twin tower of the African Slave Trade,\n\n\"Lucy Penniman\" (American barque),\n\nLyman, Albert, ,\n\nLyons, Lord, , , \u2013181\n\nMacaulay, Thomas,\n\nMace, Daniel, \u2013159\n\nMachado, J. A., n4\n\nMacKnight, Elizabeth McAlpine,\n\nMadiera and Mamore Railroad project, \u2013248\n\nMaia, Joaquim Jose Moreira,\n\nMaine: ship building for slave trading,\n\nslave trading tradition,\n\nManifest Destiny: deportation of American Negroes to the Amazon River basin,\n\nexpansion of the Navy, \u2013122\n\nMann, W. Grayson,\n\nManning, George,\n\nMansfield, Charles, n95\n\nMarcy, William, ,\n\nMartinez, Domingo,\n\nMartinique, slave revolt in,\n\n\"Mary Adeline\" (American brig), \u201345\n\n\"Mary Cushing\" (American vessel), n65\n\n\"Mary E. Smith\" (American schooner), , n2\n\nMaryland Constitutional Convention (1864), , ,\n\nMas, Ventura Buona,\n\nMaury, Dabney Herndon,\n\nMaury, J. M.,\n\nMaury, Matthew Fontaine, \u2013127, \u2013221\n\nAfrican Slave Trade, ,\n\nagent for,\n\non the Amazon River,\n\nannexation of Santo Domingo,\n\nanti-Washington sentiments,\n\nautodidacticism,\n\non Brazil,\n\nbrother-in-law,\n\nCalifornia Gold Rush, ,\n\ncitizenship, fluidity of,\n\nas Confederate ambassador,\n\nin Confederate Navy, _,_ ,\n\nconquest of Mexico and Central America,\n\non Davis,\n\ndefense of slave-exporting states, \u2013132, n26\n\ndeportation of American Negroes to the Amazon River basin, , \u20136, , , , , , \u2013127, , , , \u2013248\n\nexclusion of France and England from the Amazon, 122; expansion of the Navy, \u2013122\n\nexpatriation and, \u2013217\n\nFiganiere and,\n\nFrance and, ,\n\nfree navigation of the Amazon River,\n\nGraham and, , \u2013119\n\nGreat Britain and,\n\nhatred of the U.S.,\n\nHerndon and, \u2013116,\n\nhonors,\n\nHouston (Sam) and,\n\nas \"Inca,\"\n\nJackson (Stonewall) compared to,\n\nJefferson and,\n\nlameness,\n\nLee (Robert E.) compared to, , , , ,\n\nLincoln and,\n\nin London, , \u2013219\n\nManifest Destiny,\n\nManning and,\n\nMaximilian and, , , \u2013216\n\nin Mexico, \u2013218\n\nNapoleon and,\n\nNaval Academy, ,\n\nnephew,\n\noceanography, , ,\n\nodyssey of,\n\nas a plotter,\n\nportrait, __\n\nPortugal and, \u2013126\n\nrepresentativeness of,\n\nrestoration of California to Mexico, , , \u2013215\n\nRussian and, \u2013218\n\nseizure of Brazilian territory, , , ,\n\nslavery,\n\nsocial network of,\n\nson, , ,\n\nstatue of,\n\nstature of,\n\ntorpedoes,\n\ntreaty with Bolivia, \u2013120\n\ntreaty with Peru, \u2013120\n\nUSS Vincennes,\n\nVirginia Military Institute,\n\nVirginia State Library,\n\nWise (Henry) and,\n\nMaury, Richard, \u2013220\n\nMaximilian, Archduke Ferdinand: Blue on,\n\nMaury (Matthew Fontaine) and, , , \u2013216\n\nneed for military officers,\n\nMaxwell, Wright and Co.: in Cuba,\n\nFonseca and, \u20139\n\nParris and,\n\n_Porpoise_ and, \u201341\n\nin Rio de Janeiro, , \u201330,\n\nslave trading by, \u201341\n\nin West Indies,\n\nWise (Henry Alexander) and,\n\nWright (William) and,\n\nWright (William) on,\n\nMayo, Isaac, n55\n\nMcBlair, William, \u2013142\n\nMcCormick, Cyrus,\n\nMcCue, J. Marshall, \u2013227\n\nMcCullen, Frank,\n\nMcFalan, John R.,\n\nMcIntyre, Duncan,\n\nMcIntyre, Major,\n\nMcKinney, Bruce,\n\nMcLaughlin, Andrew,\n\nMcLaws, Lafayette,\n\nMeade, Richard Kidder, Jr.,\n\nMeade, Richard Kidder, Sr., \u2013160, ,\n\nMerriwether, Robert S.,\n\nMessrs. E. Lapitt & Co.,\n\nMessrs. Farham & Fry (Salem, Massachusetts),\n\nMexican War (1846-1848), ,\n\nMexico: Confederate generals and militarists serving in, \u2013209\n\nfears of U.S. seizing its territory,\n\nMaury (Matthew Fontaine) in, \u2013218\n\nneed for military officers,\n\nrelations with United States,\n\nrestoration of California to, , , \u2013215\n\nSemmes in, \u2013191\n\nMiles, William Porcher,\n\nMiller, James W.,\n\nMiller, John,\n\nMixed Commission (at Cape of Good Hope),\n\nMonroe, James (Ohio diplomat): as Consul, ,\n\nDouglass and,\n\non Semmes's destruction of Northern ships,\n\nslaves brought by Confederate expatriates in Brazil,\n\ntrip to Rio, \u2013194\n\nwelcome extended by Brazilians to Confederate expatriates,\n\nMorris, C. M.,\n\nMorton, Richard: Brazilian compared to American slaves,\n\non Brazilian women,\n\nin Rio de Janeiro, \u201395,\n\nMozambique: \"Itacas\" in, n53\n\nRoyal Navy in,\n\nslave trading in, , ,\n\nas source of slaves, \u201339\n\nNalle, Thomas,\n\nNapoleon: exile, n35\n\nflight of Portuguese king,\n\nMaury (Matthew Fontaine) and,\n\nSpanish struggle against,\n\nNapoleon, Louis, , ,\n\nNash, Ruth, \u201388,\n\nNationality, ease of,\n\nNew Orleans, slave trading in, , , n25\n\nNew York City: anti-abolitionist riot (1834), \u2013173\n\nNew Yorkers in Brazil, \u2013205\n\nslave trading in, \u2013129, \u2013132, , \u2013136, \u2013139, ,\n\nNew York City Anti-Slavery Society,\n\n**New York Herald** (newspaper),\n\n**New York Times** (newspaper) on: attractions of life in Brazil,\n\nBrazilian slaveholders,\n\nCivil War's effect Brazil,\n\nConfederate expatriates in Brazil, \u2013210, , \u2013239\n\nConfederate privateers,\n\ncotton trade, \u2013188\n\nduty on slave-grown products,\n\nemigration of Confederates during the Civil War,\n\nrepatriated Southerners, , \u2013243\n\nSoutherners in Brazil,\n\nU.S. alliance with Brazil,\n\nWood's reception in S\u00e3o Paulo, \u2013212\n\n**New York Tribune** (newspaper),\n\nNew York Vigilance Society,\n\nNicholson, William H., n45\n\n\"Nightingale\" (American slaver),\n\n\"Noc Daqui\" (American slaver),\n\n**North Star** (newspaper), \u2013104\n\nOgilvie (British merchant in Brazil),\n\nO'Hara, Charles,\n\nOrton, James,\n\nP. J. Farnham & Co. (New York),\n\nPalma, Joaquim de, \u2013170\n\nPanama, Brazilian Negro workers in, \u2013248\n\nPangburn, James Lamoureaux,\n\n\"Panther\" (American ship),\n\nPara, Brazil, , , \u2013200\n\nParker, William H., \u201386\n\nParris, Pedro: capture and enslavement of, \u201343,\n\nreversal of journey made by,\n\nship brought to America in, n39\n\nParris, Virgil, n39\n\nParsons, R. C.,\n\nPartridge, James R.,\n\nPatten, Lincoln, \u2013145\n\nPaula Souza, Antonio Francisco de,\n\nPaulo, Captain,\n\nPedro, Don, ,\n\nPendleton, Ralph Cross,\n\nPercival, Captain, \u201312\n\nPerkins, George Hamilton, \u2013141\n\nPernambuco, Brazil (now Recife): American business interests in, \u2013111\n\ncotton trade,\n\ndirt in, n95\n\nsympathy for Confederate States of America,\n\nPerry, Matthew Calbraith,\n\nPeru, relations with Brazil, \u2013123\n\nPhelan, Jack,\n\nPhillips, Richard, n61\n\nPhillips, Wendell,\n\nPickett, John F.,\n\nPierce, Hayward, estate of, n45\n\nPike, Nicholas,\n\nPinto, Manoel,\n\nPittman, Booker,\n\nPittman, Captain,\n\nPius IX, Pope,\n\nPolk, James K.: first cousin of,\n\nU.S. relations with Brazil, \u201384\n\nWise (Henry Alexander) and, ,\n\nPomeroy, Samuel Clarke, , n34\n\n\"Porpoise\" (American slaver), \u201342, , n38\n\nPorter, A. A.,\n\nPorter, J. D.: on Brazilians,\n\non destinations of Confederate expatriates,\n\nexpatriation to Brazil, , , \u2013228\n\nPortugal: Adams (John Quincy) on,\n\nAfrican Slave Trade, ,\n\nalliance\/relations with the South,\n\nAmerican slave traders,\n\nBritish enforcement of anti-slave statutes,\n\nBritish search\/seizure of Portuguese-flagged ships,\n\nConfederate States of America (CSA) and, ,\n\nemissaries in U.S.,\n\nJefferson and,\n\nMaury (Matthew Fontaine) and, \u2013126\n\nrefusal to abandon slave trading,\n\nrelations with Great Britain, \u201318,\n\nrelations with United States, \u201347, , , \u2013171\n\nsearch\/ seizure of its ships by Royal Navy,\n\nslave trading ( _see_ Slave trading by Portuguese nationals); sympathy for Confederate States of America,\n\nPortuguese Company (Companhia Portuguesa),\n\nPotter, James,\n\nPratt, Julius Howard, \u201389\n\nPrice, Henry, \u2013207\n\nPringle, John J.,\n\n**Provincial Freeman** (weekly newspaper), \u2013124\n\nPuerto Rico: slave revolt in,\n\nThirteenth Amendment,\n\nQuintuple Treaty of 1841,\n\nRaguet, Condy,\n\nRamirez, Salvador, ,\n\nRandall, M. J.,\n\nRay, Joseph,\n\nRaymond, Henry J.,\n\nReboucas, Andre,\n\nRecife, Brazil. _See_ Pernambuco, Brazil Reconstruction: emigration of Blacks to Brazil, \u2013250\n\nfilibustering by U.S. nationals in Brazil,\n\nReemlin, Chr.,\n\nRemsen, Peter, ,\n\nRepublican Association of Washington,\n\nRepublican Party: deportation of American Negroes, ,\n\nregional tensions,\n\nrun-up to ascension to power,\n\nsubsidization of black colonization of Latin America,\n\nRibeiro, Jose Luiz Whitaker,\n\nRice, Condoleezza,\n\nRichard, C. B.,\n\nRichardson, George, \u201341, n38\n\n**Rio Daily News** (newspaper), \u2013250\n\nRio de Janeiro: American Charg\u00e9s des Affaires in,\n\nAmerican Consul,\n\nAmerican emissary in,\n\nAmerican riot in,\n\nattempted insurrection in, \u201382\n\nblack corpses in, \u2013254\n\nBrazilian army\/police in, \u201393\n\nBritish Consul in,\n\nCalifornia Gold Rushers in, , \u201399\n\nCemeterio dos Prietos Novos (Cemetery of the New Blacks), \u2013254\n\nconfrontations between U.S. nations and Brazilians, \u201394\n\nfree Negroes in,\n\nharbor entrance, n29\n\ninternment of slaves in,\n\nMaxwell, Wright and Co. in, , \u201330,\n\nMonroe in,\n\nNash (Ruth) on,\n\nprostitutes in,\n\nroads in,\n\nrunaway slaves in,\n\nsale of U.S. ships in, , n48\n\nslave population of,\n\nslave trading in, , , , ,\n\nslaves in,\n\nsympathy for Confederate States of America,\n\nas a twin tower of the African Slave Trade,\n\nU.S. flagged ships in, n15\n\nwhite population of,\n\nWhitman on, \u2013101\n\nWright (William) in,\n\nRobinson, Eugene,\n\nRocha, Jose da Cosat de,\n\nRosas, Juan Manuel de, \u201390,\n\nRost, P. J.,\n\nRoyal Navy: British Squadron, ,\n\ndemands made on, n35\n\nin East Africa, , \u2013148, , , n55\n\neffect on African Slave Trade, \u201364\n\nenforcement of anti-slave statutes, , , ,\n\nrelations with U.S. Navy,\n\nsearch\/seizure of Brazilian-flagged ships,\n\nsearch\/seizure of Portuguese-flagged ships,\n\nsearch\/seizure of Spanish-flagged ships,\n\nsearch\/seizure of U.S.-flagged ships, , \u20138, , , \u201364, ,\n\ntactics used to deceive the,\n\nin West Africa, , , ,\n\nRuffin, Edmund,\n\ncapture of the \"Florida,\"\n\non reopening the slave trade,\n\non slave trading in Florida,\n\non slavery in Brazil,\n\nRuggles, David,\n\nRummels, Hardin R.,\n\nRuschenberger, W. S. W.,\n\nRussell, Lord,\n\nRussell, R. W.,\n\nSa, Bernardino de, , , n4\n\nSabino (Sabino Vieira),\n\n\"Sacramento\" (American vessel),\n\nSt. Croix, slave revolt in,\n\nSalem, Massachusetts: Brazilian slave trade,\n\nEast African slave trade, , , \u201362\n\nWest African slave trade,\n\n**Salem Register,**\n\n\"San Jacinto\" (American vessel),\n\nSan Salvador, deportation of American Negroes to,\n\nSanto Domingo (now Dominican Republic): American expansionism, ,\n\ncoffee production,\n\ndestruction of slavery in,\n\nSantos, Robert dos,\n\nS\u00e3o Paulo: Confederate expatriates in, ,\n\nWood's reception in, \u2013212\n\n**Savannah Daily Morning News** (newspaper),\n\nSchaeffer, L. M.,\n\nSchleiden, Rudolph,\n\nSchurz, Carl,\n\nScott, Robert G.,\n\n\"Sea Eagle\" (American ship),\n\nSemmes, Raphael, as a privateer, \u2013195\n\n\"Senator\" (American slaver), n47, n50\n\nSeward, William: cotton growing,\n\ndeportation of American Negroes, \u2013181, \u2013183\n\nseizure of U.S.-flagged ships,\n\nSouthern privateers, , \u2013196\n\nU.S. relations with Portugal,\n\non U.S. as an asylum for foreign slaves,\n\nWebb and, \u2013178, ,\n\nWilson (Thomas) and,\n\nSheriff, Abdul,\n\nSherman, William Tecumseh, \u2013170\n\nSierra Leone, slave trading in,\n\nSilva, Augustus Archer da, n52\n\nSilva, Ignacio Barboza da,\n\nSimmons, Dr.,\n\nSlave imperialism, ,\n\nSlave revolts: aboard the _Kentucky,_\n\nin Brazil, \u201312, , \u201382\n\nGabriel's Rebellion,\n\n\"Male revolt\" (1835), ,\n\nin Martinique,\n\nNat Turner's,\n\nin Puerto Rico,\n\nin St. Croix,\n\nSteno's Revolt,\n\nSlave ships: conditions aboard, \u201344, \u201361, n47, n50\n\nselling of American ships in foreign ports,\n\nSlave trading: in Angola, , , , , , \u2013146, , , n52\n\nin Azores, \u2013145\n\nbranding of slaves,\n\nby Brazilian nationals ( _see_ Slave trading by Brazilian nationals); in Cabinda, the Congo, \u201364, \u2013149\n\nas a cause of the Civil War, ,\n\nby Confederate expatriates in Brazil,\n\nby Confederate operatives, \u2013187, \u2013189\n\nin Cuba, \u2013146, n25, n6\n\nby diplomats, , ,\n\nin District of Columbia, _32_ ; in East Africa, , \u201349\n\nequipment clause in anti-slave treaties,\n\nexternal forces' effects on, \u2013158\n\nfederal laws prohibiting participation by U.S. citizens, ,\n\nFonseca and, \u20139, , , n4\n\nin Guinea, n5\n\nhourly limits on pursuing slavers,\n\nby joint stock companies,\n\nby King of Dahomey,\n\nby Maxwell, Wright and Co., \u201341\n\nin Mozambique, , ,\n\nin New Orleans, , , n25\n\nin New York City, \u2013129, \u2013132, , \u2013136, \u2013139, ,\n\nby Northeasterners, , \u2013143\n\nby Portuguese nationals ( _see_ Slave trading by Portuguese nationals); profitability of African Slave Trade, , , ,\n\nprofitability of Brazilian slave trade, \u20134, , \u201376\n\nprosecutions under slave trade acts,\n\nprotection provided by U.S. citizenship,\n\nprotection provided by U.S. flag,\n\nrunaways, \u201346\n\nin Sierra Leone,\n\nslavery distinguished from, ,\n\nsovereignty and,\n\nsuppression by Great Britain, \u20138, , , , , , \u201351, \u201356, , \u201372, , , , , \u2013147, \u2013156,  ( _see also_ Royal Navy); suppression by United States, , \u201331, , \u201350, , , , \u2013185, , n64\n\nU.S. courts and,\n\nby U.S. nationals ( _see_ Slave trading by U. S. nationals); Virginians' hostility toward,\n\nin West Africa, \u2013143, ,\n\nWright (William) and, \u20139\n\nin Zanzibar, \u201362, , , n59. _See also_ African Slave Trade; Brazilian slave trade\n\nSlave trading by Brazilian nationals: by Fonseca, \u20139, , , n4\n\nintroduction of yellow fever,\n\nSlave trading by Portuguese nationals: during the Civil War, \u2013169\n\nin East Africa, \u201348\n\ngovernment acquiescence in,\n\nline of demarcation,\n\nSlave trading by U. S. nationals, \u201365\n\narrest\/imprisonment of American slavers in Brazil,\n\nin the Azores, \u2013145\n\nin Brazil, , ,\n\nin Cabinda, \u201364, \u2013149\n\ncaptaining slave ships,\n\nduring Civil War, \u2013168, \u2013187\n\nconvictions for, , , \u2013167\n\ncunning\/deviousness\/guile of, ,\n\nDu Bois on,\n\nin East Africa, \u201348, , \u201362, \u2013145, , \u2013168,\n\nby expatriates in Brazil,\n\nfederal laws prohibiting, ,\n\nfederal officers involved in slave trading,\n\nGordon's (Nathaniel) execution for, \u2013167,\n\nby naturalized citizens, ,\n\nby naturalized Portuguese, , ,\n\nnorthward shift in focus from Brazil to Cuba, \u2013147,\n\nPortugal and,\n\nprovision of ships for slave trading, , , , , , , , n34, n48\n\nwar with Britain and,\n\nby whalers\/slave traders disguised as whalers, , \u201337, \u201348, , n63\n\nWise (Henry Alexander) on, \u201378\n\nSlavery: Americans' response to slavery in Brazil,\n\nin Brazil ( _see_ Slavery in Brazil); Brazil's impact on Americans' attitude toward,\n\nas a cause of the Civil War, ,\n\ncolonization as a remedy, \u2013173\n\nin Cuba, ,\n\ndefense of, , , ,\n\ndiscrediting of,\n\nexternal forces' effects on, \u2013158\n\nfate of,\n\nMaury (Matthew Fontaine) and,\n\nnormalcy of,\n\nslave trade distinguished from, ,\n\nslaves today,\n\nin United States ( _see_ Slavery in the United States)\n\nSlavery in Brazil: abolition of (1888), , \u2013245,\n\nambitions of Confederate States of America,\n\napplicability of slavery to California,\n\nCivil War's effect on, \u2013230\n\ndemand for slaves, \u201328, , \u2013109, ,\n\ndevolutionary spiral of,\n\nemancipation through \"free birth,\"\n\nMacaulay on,\n\nprohibition of importing slaves, , , n80\n\nRuffin on,\n\nshackles,\n\nSlavery in the United States: abolition of,\n\nbeing sold \"down the river,\" __\n\nBrazil and Cuba as firewalls protecting,\n\nBrazil as \"racial\" horror and paradise, \u201314\n\nconstitutional power to prohibit,\n\ndeath-note of,\n\ndiscrediting of,\n\nin the District of Columbia,\n\nearly th century,\n\nEmancipation Proclamation, , \u2013\n\nhemispheric understanding of, , , , , \u2013158,\n\ninterference with slavery in the South,\n\nkidnapping of free Negroes, \u201320\n\none drop rule,\n\nundermining of, \u201314\n\nU.S. as an asylum for foreign slaves,\n\nwestward expansion and,\n\nSlaves: in Brazil ( _see_ Slaves in Brazil); price in Africa, , \u2013131\n\nprice in Cuba,\n\nprice in Guinea, n5\n\nprice in the South,\n\nin United States ( _see_ Slaves in the United States)\n\nSlaves in Brazil: children of,\n\ncoffee production,\n\neating habits, n84\n\nethnic diversity among,\n\nEwbank on,\n\nJefferson on,\n\nmechanics among,\n\nparenthood among,\n\npopulation, , , , n76\n\nprice of, , , , ,\n\nin Rio de Janeiro,\n\nrunaways,\n\nskilled craftsmen among,\n\nslaves in the United States compared to, , , , , n124\n\nas vehicles for transporting goods, , \u201399\n\nSlaves in the United States: Chinese laborers as a replacement for, \u2013127,\n\ncolonization ( _see_ Colonization of Blacks); jump in population (1790-1820), n25\n\nplans to deport them to Brazil ( _see_ Deportation of American Negroes to the Amazon River basin); price of,\n\nslaves in Brazil compared to, , , , , n124\n\nSmith, E. Delafield,\n\nSmith, Herbert H.,\n\nSmith, James, n57\n\nSmith, Mary, ,\n\nSmith, Samuel, n45\n\n\"Solitaire\" (American vessel), n93\n\n\"The Sooy\" (American ship), , n19\n\nThe South: alliance\/relations with Brazil, \u20132, , , , ,\n\nalliance\/relations with Cuba, ,\n\nalliance\/relations with Portugal,\n\nappointment of Southerners as Minister to Brazil, \u2013160\n\ncessation of the slave trade,\n\nfilibustering expeditions to Cuba,\n\nneutralization of the North's advantages,\n\nprice of slaves in,\n\nsecessionists, ,\n\nseizure of Texas, ,\n\nslaves arriving from Cuba,\n\nSouthern nationalism,\n\nSpain and, \u2013155. _See also_ Confederate States of America (CSA)\n\nSouth African support for Confederate States of America, \u2013190\n\nSouth America, North American slave traders in, \u201319\n\nSouthern nationalism and search\/seizure of U.S.-flagged ships,\n\n**Southern Standard** (newspaper), ,\n\nSouto, Domingo Rodrigues, n55\n\nSouza, Jo\u00e3o Silveira e de,\n\nSouza Pinto, Bernadino de,\n\nSpain: abolitionism and, ,\n\nabolitionism in the U.S.,\n\nBritish enforcement of anti-slave statutes,\n\nBritish search\/seizure of Spanish-flagged ships,\n\ncolonization of Latin America,\n\nConfederate States of America (CSA) and, \u2013155\n\ndeportation of American Negroes by Americans,\n\nrelations with Great Britain,\n\nrelations with United States,\n\nsearch\/seizure of its ships by Royal Navy,\n\nstruggle against Napoleon,\n\nSpanish Foreign Ministry,\n\nSparhawk, John, n52\n\nSpratt, Leonidas W., , ,\n\nStapp, Walter,\n\nSteno's Revolt,\n\nSteve (freed slave),\n\nStevens, Henry Shipley, \u2013201,\n\nStevens, Milton, ,\n\nStevens, Thaddeus, n34\n\nStewart, C. S., , ,\n\nStillman, J. D. B.,\n\nStodder, Simon,\n\nStone, John,\n\nStoner, George,\n\nStory, Joseph,\n\nStuart, Charles,\n\nStuart, Edward Lewis,\n\nSugar production in Jamaica, \u2013156\n\nSumner, Charles, \u2013208\n\n\"Susan\" (American slaver),\n\nTakaki, Ronald,\n\nTanner, Mark, \u201342\n\nTappan, Arthur,\n\nTappan, Lewis,\n\nTavares, Francisco dos Santos,\n\nTemple, William,\n\nTempleton, John D.,\n\nTexas: abolitionism in, n74\n\ndetachment from the Confederacy,\n\nseizure of, ,\n\nslave trading in, n41\n\nThirteenth Amendment, \u201313\n\nThomas, Charles W.,\n\nThomas, James A.,\n\n\"Thomas Watson\" (American ship),\n\nThornton, Edward, ,\n\nTod, David,\n\nToplin, Robert,\n\nTotten (Commander of African Squadron),\n\nTrist, N. P., n55, n6\n\nTucker family of South Carolina, \u201346\n\nTurner, Nat, ,\n\n\"Tuscaloosa\" (American barque),\n\nTwain, Mark,\n\nTyler, John, ,\n\nTyrawley, Lord,\n\n\"Um pen a cozinha\" in,\n\n**Uncle Tom's Cabin** (Stowe),\n\nUnited States: coffee imports,\n\nslave trading ( _see_ Slave trading by U. S. nationals); slavery in ( _see_ Slavery in the United States); slaves in ( _see_ Slaves in the United States)\n\nU.S. Congress,\n\nU.S. courts, international slave trade and,\n\nU.S. foreign policy: African Slave Trade,\n\nalliance with Brazil, ,\n\nAmerican legation in Brazil,\n\nappointment of Southerners as Minister to Brazil, \u2013160\n\narrest\/imprisonment of American slavers in Brazil,\n\nBrazilian fears of American expansionism, , , \u2013119, \u2013123\n\nBritish enforcement of anti-slave statutes,\n\nCalhoun's (John C.) influence on, ,\n\ndeportation of American Negroes to the Amazon, \u20136, \u2013112\n\nfears of U.S. seizing Mexican territory,\n\nfederal laws prohibiting U.S. citizens from participating in African Slave Trade, , , , , , , n48\n\nLincoln and,\n\nprevention of the abuse of the American flag,\n\nprotection of commerce,\n\nrelations with Brazil, \u201329, \u201377, \u201384, , , \u2013160, , \u2013209, \u2013237, \u2013247\n\nrelations with Great Britain, , , \u201331, \u201358, , , , , , , \u2013197\n\nrelations with Mexico,\n\nrelations with Portugal, \u201347, , , \u2013171\n\nrelations with Spain,\n\nsearched\/ seizure of U.S.-flagged ships, , \u20138, , , , \u201364, , ,\n\nseizure of Texas, ,\n\nsuppression of the slave trade, , \u201331, , \u201350, , , ,\n\nU.S. Navy: ability to monitor slave trade, \u201361\n\nAfrican Squadron ( _see_ African Squadron); Anti-Slavery Squadron ( _see_ African Squadron); Brazil Squadron, ,\n\nexpansion of, \u2013122\n\nFiganiere and,\n\nillness aboard ships, \u201361\n\ninternational slave trade and,\n\nprimary mission, n64\n\nrelations with Royal Navy,\n\nsuppression of the slave trade, n64\n\nUniversity of Coimbra,\n\nUpham, Samuel, , ,\n\nUpshur, Abel P., , ,\n\nUruguay, war with Brazil, , \u2013229\n\nU.S.-flagged ships: African attacks on, \u201345\n\nin Rio de Janeiro, n15\n\nsale of, , n48\n\nsearch\/seizure of, , \u20138, , , , \u201364, , , , , , ,\n\nselling of American ships in foreign ports,\n\nswitching flags, \u201337, , , , n27\n\nUSS Bainbridge,\n\nUSS Boston,\n\nUSS Raritan, n38\n\nUSS Saratoga,\n\nUSS Vincennes,\n\nVass\u00e3o, Steve (previously Steve Columbus Wasson),\n\nVirginia: Angolans in,\n\nGabriel's Rebellion,\n\nslave exporting, \u2013132\n\nVirginia Military Institute,\n\nWade, Benjamin F., n34\n\nWait, Lucita Hardie, ,\n\nWalker, George D.,\n\nWalker, William, ,\n\nWalsh, Robert, \u201327\n\n\"Wanderer\" (American vessel), \u2013145\n\nWard, Charles,\n\nWarne, James Ox,\n\nWarren, John Esaias,\n\nWarwick, Dionne,\n\nWashington, Booker T.,\n\n\"Washington Barge\" (American schooner), n78\n\nWebb, James Watson: abolitionism, \u2013173\n\nBrazil, , , ,\n\nBrazil's complicity in Semmes' burning of American ships,\n\nCalhoun (John C.) and,\n\ncolonization of Africa,\n\ncolonization of Latin America,\n\ndeportation of American Negroes to the Amazon River basin, , , \u2013179, \u2013183, ,\n\non the Emancipation Proclamation,\n\non ending slavery in Brazil,\n\nHamlin and,\n\nhealth,\n\nMeade (Richard Kidder,, Sr.) and,\n\npersonality,\n\nSeward and, \u2013178, ,\n\nWebster, Daniel, ,\n\nWebster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842,\n\nWeed, Joseph W., ,\n\nWelles, Gideon: capture of the \"Florida,\"\n\ndeportation of American Negroes to the Amazon River basin,\n\nFoote and,\n\non Lincoln,\n\nWest Africa: African Squadron in, n116\n\nRoyal Navy in, , , ,\n\nslave trade between it and South America,\n\nslave trading in, \u2013143, ,\n\nviolence in, . _See also_ Angola\n\nWest Indies, Maxwell, Wright and Co. in,\n\nWestervelt, Minthone,\n\nWestward expansion: expansion of the Navy, \u2013122\n\nslavery in the United States,\n\nWestwood, J. J. C.,\n\nWetman, Mr. (British broker in Rio de Janeiro),\n\nWhaling: decline of American fleet, n63\n\nslave trading by whalers\/persons disguised as whalers, , \u201337, \u201348,\n\nWhitaker, Joseph, ,\n\nWhite, John C.,\n\n\"White Cloud\" (American barque),\n\nWhiting, Samuel,\n\nWhitman, Walt, \u2013101\n\nWigfall, Louis Trezevant,\n\n\"Wildfire\" (American slaver), __\n\n\"William\" (American schooner),\n\n\"William L. Coggeswell\" (American slaver),\n\nWilliams, George (\"Guilheme\"),\n\nWilliams, John,\n\nWilliams, Thomas: on Brazilian women,\n\ncharacter of,\n\nin Rio de Janeiro, , \u201399\n\nWilliams, William Richard,\n\nWillis, John, n52\n\nWillis, John G., ,\n\nWilmot, David,\n\nWilson, Henry, \u2013133\n\nWilson, J. Leighton,\n\nWilson, Thomas, \u2013195\n\nWilson, Woodrow,\n\nWinslow, Bradley,\n\nWise, Charles, \u2013137, \u2013146,\n\nWise, Henry Alexander, \u201384\n\nAdams (John Quincy) and,\n\nappearance,\n\nin Brazil, _,_ , \u201371, , \u201379\n\nBrazilian hostility towards,\n\non British suppression of the slave trade, \u201372\n\nBrown (John) and, , , _,_\n\nBuchanan and, ,\n\nCalhoun (John C.) and, , , ,\n\nin Confederacy,\n\nin Confederate Army,\n\ncongressional seat,\n\ncriticism of Brazilian slave trade, \u201365, \u201369, \u201374\n\ncriticism of slave trading by U. S. nationals, \u201378\n\ndefense of slave-exporting states, \u2013132\n\ndefense of slavery, , ,\n\nDouglass on,\n\nfear of slave revolts in Brazil,\n\non Fonseca,\n\nGordon (George) and, ,\n\nhealth,\n\nKnow-Nothing Party, ,\n\nLee (Robert E.) and,\n\nMaia on,\n\nMaury (Matthew Fontaine) and,\n\nMaxwell, Wright and Co.,\n\nNortherners despised by,\n\nopposition to African Slave Trade,\n\npolitical connections, ,\n\nPolk and, ,\n\nportrait, __\n\npresidential candidacy,\n\non slavery in the District of Columbia,\n\nthreats against Brazil,\n\nTyler and,\n\non war with Britain,\n\nWright (William) and, \u201378\n\nWood, Wallace, , \u2013212, \u2013236\n\nWoods, James, \u201397,\n\nWright, Robert, \u201380\n\nWright, William: in Brazil, , , \u201380,\n\non Maxwell, Wright and Co., ,\n\nslave trading, \u20139\n\nslaves belonging to, n54\n\nWise (Henry Alexander) and, \u201378\n\nWright family of Maryland,\n\nYancey, William L., , ,\n\nZanzibar: in African Slave Trade,\n\nAmerican influence in,\n\nslave trading in, \u201362, , , n59\n\n\"Zanzibar Room,\"\n\n\"Zete de Abril\" (Portuguese schooner), n65\n\n## **About the Author**\n\nGerald Horne is Moores Professor of History and African-American Studies at the University of Houston. His books include _Race Woman: The Lives of Shirley Graham Du Bois_ ; _Race War! White Supremacy and the Japanese Attack on the British Empire_ ; _Black and Brown: African Americans and the Mexican Revolution, 1910\u20131920_ ; _Red Seas: Ferdinand Smith and Radical Black Sailors in the United States and Jamaica_ ; and _The Color of Fascism: Lawrence Dennis, Racial Passing, and the Rise of Right-Wing Extremism in the United States_ ; all available from NYU Press.\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
+{"text":" \n# **Contents**\n\n  1. Cover\n  2. Contents\n  3. Dedication\n  4. Title Page\n  5. Copyright\n  6. Acknowledgements\n  7. Introduction: Why Feminism?\n  8. 1 Generations of Feminism\n    1. Acts of Memory\n    2. Dubious Contrasts\n    3. Rowbotham's 'Seventies' Feminism\n    4. The Collapse of a Vision\n    5. A New Fundamentalism\n    6. The Turn to 'Theory'\n    7. Political Agendas\n  9. 2 Gender to Queer, and Back Again\n    1. The Rise of Gender Theory\n    2. The Allure of Difference\n    3. The Romance of Otherness\n    4. The Joys of Queer\n    5. Transgender Dialogues\n    6. Back to Gender?\n    7. The Future of Gender\n  10. 3 Genes and Gender: The Return to Darwin\n    1. Science versus Culture?\n    2. Survival and Sexual Selection\n    3. Evolutionary Psychology: The New Contender\n    4. The Tale of the Female Ape\n    5. Theoretical Pluralists: The Enemy Within\n    6. Gene Talk versus Social Change\n    7. For Epistemic Diversity\n  11. 4 Psychic Life and its Scandals\n    1. Tricks of Memory\n    2. Dilemmas of Science\n    3. Troubled Vision\n    4. Feminist Denunciations\n    5. Fantasy versus Trauma\n    6. Models of Memory\n    7. Memory as Narrative\n    8. Betrayal versus Abuse?\n    9. Narratives in Context\n  12. 5 Gender Anxieties at the Limits of Psychology\n    1. Feminism Enters the Academy\n    2. Still Searching for Sex Differences\n    3. Feminist Psychology and Social Constructionism\n    4. Openness to Gender Heterodoxy\n    5. The Predicament of Men\n    6. Projects for Reforming Masculinity\n    7. Deconstructing Gender\n    8. Subjectivity and Change\n  13. 6 Cautionary Tales: Between Freud and Feminism\n    1. Opening Skirmishes\n    2. Imagining the Void\n    3. Oedipal Dramas and the Crisis of Paternal Authority\n    4. The First Bond and its Consequences\n    5. Retrenchment versus Renewal?\n    6. Sexual Difference versus Gender: Accepting Ambiguity\n  14. 7 Only Contradictions on Offer: Feminism at the Millennium\n    1. Snapshots of Gender\n    2. The Subject of Dependency\n    3. Family Values\n    4. Sweeping Anti-statism\n    5. Switching to the Subject\n    6. Activist Challenges\n    7. Disciplinary Feminism\n    8. Cultural Imperatives\n    9. Feminism without Politics\n    10. Political Futures\n  15. Notes\n  16. Index\n  17. Wiley End User License Agreement\n\n## Pages\n\n  1. ii\n  2. iii\n  3. iv\n  4. viii\n  5. \n  6. \n  7. \n  8. \n  9. \n  10. \n  11. \n  12. \n  13. \n  14. \n  15. \n  16. \n  17. \n  18. \n  19. \n  20. \n  21. \n  22. \n  23. \n  24. \n  25. \n  26. \n  27. \n  28. \n  29. \n  30. \n  31. \n  32. \n  33. \n  34. \n  35. \n  36. \n  37. \n  38. \n  39. \n  40. \n  41. \n  42. \n  43. \n  44. \n  45. \n  46. \n  47. \n  48. \n  49. \n  50. \n  51. \n  52. \n  53. \n  54. \n  55. \n  56. \n  57. \n  58. \n  59. \n  60. \n  61. \n  62. \n  63. \n  64. \n  65. \n  66. \n  67. \n  68. \n  69. \n  70. \n  71. \n  72. \n  73. \n  74. \n  75. \n  76. \n  77. \n  78. \n  79. \n  80. \n  81. \n  82. \n  83. \n  84. \n  85. \n  86. \n  87. \n  88. \n  89. \n  90. \n  91. \n  92. \n  93. \n  94. \n  95. \n  96. \n  97. \n  98. \n  99. \n  100. \n  101. \n  102. \n  103. \n  104. \n  105. \n  106. \n  107. \n  108. \n  109. \n  110. \n  111. \n  112. \n  113. \n  114. \n  115. \n  116. \n  117. \n  118. \n  119. \n  120. \n  121. \n  122. \n  123. \n  124. \n  125. \n  126. \n  127. \n  128. \n  129. \n  130. \n  131. \n  132. \n  133. \n  134. \n  135. \n  136. \n  137. \n  138. \n  139. \n  140. \n  141. \n  142. \n  143. \n  144. \n  145. \n  146. \n  147. \n  148. \n  149. \n  150. \n  151. \n  152. \n  153. \n  154. \n  155. \n  156. \n  157. \n  158. \n  159. \n  160. \n  161. \n  162. \n  163. \n  164. \n  165. \n  166. \n  167. \n  168. \n  169. \n  170. \n  171. \n  172. \n  173. \n  174. \n  175. \n  176. \n  177. \n  178. \n  179. \n  180. \n  181. \n  182. \n  183. \n  184. \n  185. \n  186. \n  187. \n  188. \n  189. \n  190. \n  191. \n  192. \n  193. \n  194. \n  195. \n  196. \n  197. \n  198. \n  199. \n  200. \n  201. \n  202. \n  203. \n  204. \n  205. \n  206. \n  207. \n  208. \n  209. \n  210. \n  211. \n  212. \n  213. \n  214. \n  215. \n  216. \n  217. \n  218. \n  219. \n  220. \n  221. \n  222. \n  223. \n  224. \n  225. \n  226. \n  227. \n  228. \n  229. \n  230. \n  231. \n  232. \n  233. \n  234. \n  235. \n  236. \n  237. \n  238. \n  239. \n  240. \n  241. \n  242. \n  243. \n  244. \n  245. \n  246. \n  247. \n  248. \n  249. \n  250. \n  251. \n  252. \n  253. \n  254. \n  255. \n  256. \n  257. \n  258. \n  259. \n  260. \n  261. \n  262. \n  263. \n  264. \n  265. \n  266. \n  267. \n  268. \n  269. \n  270. \n  271. \n  272. \n  273. \n  274. \n  275. \n  276. \n  277. \n  278. \n  279. \n  280. \n  281. \n  282. \n  283. \n  284. \n  285. \n  286. \n  287. \n  288. \n  289. \n  290.\n\nFor Peter\n\n# WHY FEMINISM?\n\nGender, Psychology, Politics\n\nLYNNE SEGAL\n\nPolity Press\nCopyright \u00a9 Lynne Segal 1999\n\nThe right of Lynne Segal to be identified as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.\n\nReprinted 2002, 2005\n\nPolity Press  \n65 Bridge Street  \nCambridge CB2 1UR, UK\n\nPolity Press  \n350 Main Street  \nMalden, MA 02148, USA\n\nAll rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purposes of criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.\n\nExcept in the United States of America, this book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.\n\nISBN 0-7456-2346-8\n\nISBN 0-7456-2347-6 (pbk)\n\nA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.\n\nTypeset in 11 on 13 pt Berling\n\nby Ace Filmsetting Ltd, Frome, Somerset\n\nPrinted and bound in Great Britain by Marston Book Services Limited, Oxford\n\nThis book is printed on acid-free paper.\n\nFor further information on Polity, visit our website: www.polity.co.uk Contents\n\n# Acknowledgments\n\nFewer people than usual helped me with this book, which says something about these times. As pressures to publish from within the administration of academic space encounter the shrinking possibilities for cross-over writing with mainstream publishers, and the fractiousness between feminists is matched by the decline in collective political engagements, I wasn't confident I could manage to write at all any more: no longer sure of whom I would be writing for, or why. But I am still lucky enough to find myself within networks in which feminism, and often even socialism, are lifetime commitments, which continue to inspire me. I would like to thank John Fletcher, Catherine Hall, Katherine Johnson, Cora Kaplan, Loretta Loach, Mandy Merck, David Newson, Sheila Rowbotham, Alan Sinfield, Barbara Taylor, Ruth Thackeray and Leonore Tiefer for advice, assistance or encouragement. I am very grateful for the support of my editor David Held. Above all, I value the love, generosity and rigorous red pen of Peter Osborne, without whom...\n\n# Introduction: Why Feminism?\n\nWhy is feminism still so contentious? Feminism grew too big for its marching boots in the closing years of the 1970s; since then, many of its exponents have taken a more reflexive turn. But the anxiety it generates has far from dissipated. Indeed, feminists even frighten each other. Today, maverick voices emerge on all sides, rebuking a politics they claim to espouse. 'Many a monster can march about flying the banner of \"freedom\" or \"feminism\"', philosopher Jean Bethke Elshtain alleges from the USA \u2013 condemning women who do not subordinate their own rights to the welfare of their children. In these pages, I try to make sense of the _m\u00e9lange_ of contemporary feminism. I wonder whether we can still look to it for a confrontational and broadly transformative politics and culture, or whether it has become little more than a blip in the march of economic neo-liberalism.\n\nIt is hard to avoid either idealizing or trashing one's past, feeding the unruly envy between and within political generations. It is harder still, and obviously foolhardy, to engage in any form of futurology. In all social movements, once the excitement of finding a new collective identity begins to ebb, everyday politics becomes a more discouraging, even tedious affair; a matter of competing interests and conflicting alliances. It never remains the revelation which first inspired new levels of self-confidence and hope, as it was when women's liberation erupted into the lives of many women at the close of the 1960s. Yesterday's visionaries are today's scapegoats, when not newly tamed and domesticated.\n\nThe declining passion for politics evident in many veteran feminists, accompanying the frank rejection of feminism by many young women, is part of a wider 'exhaustion of utopian energies' since the 1980s, a time often described as 'post-socialist', if not 'post-political'. There is a firm consensus at the close of the twentieth century that little, if anything, remains of a socialist left capable of winning popular support for its vision of a more egalitarian future. The verdict on feminism, and its now diverse aspirations, is more ambivalent. Its promotion of women's interests is usually endorsed in mainstream politics, while still anxiously traduced on every side. But the inequalities and divisions between women themselves have dramatically deepened, while many of the problems which energized feminists into collective action in the 1970s everywhere persist. This is both despite, and because of, the many gains achieved by women throughout the century. Some were consciously fought for; others were the more ambiguous, unintended consequences of changes in capitalism \u2013 pushing women into the future first, as exemplary low-paid, flexible workers.\n\nIndeed, current debates are obsessed with gender contrasts and conflicts, often packaged as slanging matches between feminists themselves: 'movement' feminists, like British old-timer Bea Campbell, are pitted against American 'celebrity' feminists\/anti-feminists, like Camille Paglia. Here women's political differences can be made to service antithetical desires: serious interest in gender issues _and_ the satisfaction of misogynist expectation. However dubious its delivery, though, there is no doubting the continuing social centrality of gender anxieties \u2013 whether triggered by family breakdown, new 'laddism', teenage pregnancy or some other form of sexual or social panic. This means that as a feminist it is hard to remain detached from the political arena, whether or not one feels able to preserve or refashion one's political visions or, harder still, one's collective engagements.\n\nYet, we must persist, why _feminism?_ Is the time for the renewal of feminism not long past, given the remarkable shifts in gender relations? Gender disruptions are indeed ubiquitous, as I illustrate throughout this book, but surely men are now often its victims, whether in the classroom, the workplace or the divorce courts. Moreover, publishers (especially feminist ones) have been suggesting that 'there is no market any more for specifically feminist books'. But that is only part of the story. Books about women? That is quite another matter. They are in huge demand. Never has more been written about the concerns of women. Nor has so much anxiety been manifest on the threat they pose to the serenity of men. At a time when gender distinctions have been disrupted and denaturalized everywhere, through the combined forces of economic, political and quite literal biomedical interventions, the question of women's difference and distinctive dispositions remains paramount. The dismantling of gender archetypes provokes their perpetual rearticulation, as I show in chapter 2. With feminism posed against women, and gender posed against politics, what in the world do we make of 'feminism' today?\n\nA mere generation ago, it caused little surprise when the American poet Adrienne Rich declared feminism a renaissance 'far more extraordinary and influential' in shifting perspectives than the effects of the move from theology to humanism in the European Renaissance. Partisan, for sure. But the decades of resurgent feminism did fundamentally transform our perceptions of both present and past. They threw up some revolutionary conceptions of the future in the process. Today, that word \u2013 the new 'f-word' \u2013 is in free fall, often arousing little more than a yawn. 'Feminism is boring', the British journalist Polly Toynbee moans, summing up the abiding apprehensions of her peers, women influential in the mainstream media. Boring, perhaps, but still capable of stirring up enormous animosity, and never left to rest in peace.\n\nSuitably distanced from feminism's supposedly dour defenders, Toynbee herself proceeds to produce a thoughtful summary of why women need feminism: continuing inequalities in their earnings, the difficulties of being torn between careers and children, their greater vulnerability to domestic violence and rape, especially when most financially dependent on a man \u2013 as the mothers of young children. Pass\u00e9, predictable, prosaic; yet the common sense of our age. Who wants yesterday's slogans? Who wants yesterday's woman? In fact, it is not just feminism, but participation in the public terrain of politics itself which is now commonly dismissed as 'boring', or assumed to be motivated by an exclusive self-interest, in a world where individualism has intensified with an awesome vengeance, demolishing most of its erstwhile critics; or at least, those whose politics cannot be reduced to the vivid provocation of rebellious lifestyles. The irony is that current forms of feminism display an extraordinary endurance and diversity; so varied, indeed, that common ground can be hard to find.\n\nWhat is feminism? Who is a feminist? Contention rather than accord is what we must explore in answering such questions today. This is a perplexing situation for those who identified with a movement which, during its activist peak, preferred to operate through consensus. Moving on from the burning questions, bonfires and street parades, the change in the self-conception of the women's movement was the beginning of an always ambivalent slide into the cultural mainstream: goodbye to 'Women's Liberation', with its clenched fist, its militant slogans and joyful songs ('The Women's Army is Marching'); hello to 'feminism', with its diffuse theoretical underpinnings and performative uncertainties ('doing feminism', 'doing gender'). 'Could you please say a few sentences without using the word \"struggle\"?', interviewers of feminists in the mid-1970s used to ask, when we held forth on our goals and aspirations, believing that we could work to better the lives of women everywhere. 'Could you please tell me what your struggle for health, housing, clean water, union recognition [or some other bread-and-butter issue], has to do with feminism?', one might easily hear today.\n\nThe difference is context. As I explore in my opening chapter, the women's liberation movement emerged at the close of the 1960s in critical dialogue with a broader left movement fighting for a more egalitarian world. Even in the USA, where more conventionally liberal movements, like the National Organization of Women, were always stronger than in Britain, one prominent wing of the movement was militantly leftist and radical. In the three decades of second-wave feminism, as I trace out in subsequent chapters, one can discern the successive dominance of three distinct styles and viewpoints, although earlier outlooks continue \u2013 often angrily \u2013 to contest more modish replacements. During the foundation and spread of the women's movement in the 1970s, there was an emphasis on women's shared needs, and struggles to end gender inequalities and cultural subordination. This turned into a dual and contradictory prioritizing of women's distinct 'difference' alongside recognition of multiple differences between women in the 1980s, accompanying the entrenchment of divisions within feminism itself. Subsequently, there has been a shift towards discursive analyses of the instability of _all_ identities and differences, as feminist theory found a home in the post-structuralist academy of the 1990s.\n\nOne explanation of the shift in feminist consciousness and priorities suggests that the early women's liberationist search for social transformation came up against women's own subjective resistance to change. Women's internalized submissiveness or nurturing sensitivities may, or may not, prove genuine enough. But the turn inward, often to psychoanalysis, was part of something wider. It was never going to be easy to persuade individual men to change, but it was going to be far harder to undermine the interconnecting worlds of home, jobs and cultural and public life which overwhelmingly reflect the principle of male authority. Nevertheless, in my view, feminism's distinct legacy still lies in its potential, however complex and difficult, to connect personal and cultural issues to economic and political affairs. This is why in this book I move back and forth between explorations of gender dynamics at the social and political level and attempts to theorize differences, identities and subjectivities in the psychological and symbolic domains. Throughout, I am seeking ways of negotiating the increasingly bitter tension between feminist activisms and academic feminisms \u2013 often misleadingly reduced to clashes between the economic versus the cultural; maldistribution versus misrecognition.\n\nIn my lifetime, feminists have always been interested in the autobiographies of women, hunting down the words of their foremothers and constructing their own tales of personal struggle and survival, whether in the quest for self-enlightenment or for solidarity with other women. In the most recent flowering of the genre, women academics have taken to writing their memoirs. And if their narratives display somewhat less disadvantage and hardship than many that preceded them, their proliferation carries its own story of the contradictions of feminism at the close of the twentieth century. These are times in which a woman \u2013 even, or perhaps especially, a fem-inist \u2013 can be accused of abusing her institutionalized power: an authority which she wields, not so much in the familiar female sphere of the family, as in the once seamlessly male world of the academy, or some other public position. The autobiographical writing of that most ostentatiously undutiful daughter of feminism, Jane Gallop, _Feminist Accused of Sexual Harassment_ (1997), springs immediately to mind. But she is joined by a host of other women memoirists of the 1990s, whose world is the university: today's most prestigous stronghold of feminist practice. What the feminist academic memoir brings to that world is a focus on the personal. Ironically, the more some women seem to be winning old gender battles, power-dressing for their jobs in the professional world, and narrowing the gender differences affecting their daily lives, the stronger the affirmation of women's unique affiliation to personal life. As Calista Flockhart \u2013 pocketing her millions from portraying the winsome, emotionally wobbly, lawyer, Ally McBeal \u2013 assures us, women can't 'have it all': 'I don't think there's an answer here, just anxiety and conflict'.\n\nWomen can't have it all, no doubt; and the political never did reduce to such dreams of personal transcendence. But in exploring the paradoxes of gender in this book I seek to promote a combination of theoretical questioning and political engagements which might enable more women to share in the self-questioning, the pleasures and, above all, the solidarities and egalitarian settlements that feminism, at its most generous, regards as the birthright of women everywhere.\n\nUsing conflicts over 'gender' as my key symbolic site, I see the cultural fluidities of sexual and gender identity celebrated in recent post-structuralist and queer feminist readings mocked by the return of a Darwinian fundamentalism and the rise of genetic determinism in popular culture and much of the social sciences. Fierce controversies over memory and trauma return us to the promise and the perils of relying upon the light that Freud seemed to shine on the strange working of the mind: rarely matched, however, by attention to the power relations and normative frames in which the language of desire is acquired, suppressed and distorted. In the 1970s feminists demanded public recognition of the extent of child sexual abuse; today, saturated with sensationalized tales of victimhood and abuse, some now deplore the curiously depoliticized fate of their protests when exploited by the media, or used to consolidate the need for expert advice and healing.\n\nMainstream culture has found many ways of accommodating feminism, ranging from the endorsement of women as sexually vulnerable and abused, through the managerial appropriation of equal opportunities to hypocritical applause for women's supposed caring virtues and values. What we have yet to see is movement towards fairer and more caring societies, whatever the rhetoric of New Labour in Britain or the machinations of Clinton in Washington. Approaching the millennium, media outlets select their favourite figures to assess the impact of three decades of feminism, hoping for simple messages which can be repackaged as new and contentious. They are easy to find. From one side, Germaine Greer wades in to announce that women today are regularly, even increasingly, demeaned and damaged, especially in sex with men: 'For all our liberation talk, rich, modern, western woman is continually, repeatedly mutilated'. She echoes the enthusiastically embraced gloom of another populist, white, Western feminist, drowning us in her rhetoric of the destruction of women's achievements in the twenty-first century: 'Feminists will be visible only in pornographic scenarios as stereotypically cartoonish uppity women, made happy and normal through rape'. From the opposite side, Rosalind Coward contends that it is time for Western feminists to stop viewing women as oppressed, because she sees instead 'situations where men are really becoming vulnerable and women potent'. In fact, feminism could still offer us something far richer than such simplistic gender-polarizing polemic.\n\nAs funding for welfare shrinks, the working day lengthens, inequality deepens and political protest is everywhere muted, it is women and children in particular who remain at the cutting edge of the contradictions between work and welfare markets and morality. Certain groups of men are known to be 'failing' today, both at school and in the job market, with destructive consequences. These consequences are all the more destructive because of the effects of gender: the assumption that men should always be the dominant sex. When wider questions of social inequality and gender justice are posed alongside problems of identities and belonging, the domain of feminism immediately expands. It is such a feminism which I believe we still need: we need the continuing provocation which its inquiries can still arouse; we need its collective efforts to find solutions when the dreams and realities of specific groups of women and men are most awry; we need its potential, at its most thoughtful, to embrace complexity and conflict in the experiences of individual women and men, as the resilience of images of masculinity as power are shaken by the actualities of shifting gender dynamics and the fragilities of gendered and sexual identities. Drawing primarily on the Anglo-American experience, _Why Feminism?_ attempts to lay out the potentialities and pitfalls of feminist consciousness for the century ahead.\n\n# 1  \nGenerations of Feminism\n\n> Politics makes comics of us all. Or we would weep.\n> \n> Sheila Rowbotham, _Dreams and Dilemmas_\n\nI have been thinking for some time now about relations between political generations and the enduring impact of those formative moments which first enable us to make some sense of the world, and our place within it \u2013 an unjust and shabby world, whatever our personal circumstances. Such moments remain all the more powerful if, like many of my own generation who became students in the 1960s, you have hoped \u2013 with whatever levels of scepticism and self-mockery \u2013 to participate in the making of history. They leave their mark, even as changing times cause one to rethink, perhaps even to renounce, one's former political presumptions. Yet what often leaves erstwhile political crusaders with little more than mournful and confusing feelings of loss and regret \u2013 whatever our capacities for irony \u2013 is the way in which new narratives emerge as collective memories fade, writing-over those which once incited our most passionate actions.\n\nSo it has been with Women's Liberation, that second wave of feminism which arose out of the upsurge of radical and socialist politics in the late 1960s. It grew rapidly as a mass social movement, peaking in the mid-1970s before dissolving as a coherent organization by the end of that decade. It affected the lives of millions of women. Over a quarter of a century later, however, the sparse amount of thoughtful scholarship analysing the distinctiveness of that upsurge of feminist activism must struggle for attention amidst a glut of texts delineating its contemporary academic progeny \u2013 largely scornful of its rougher parent, and the motley basements, living-rooms, workplaces and community centres in which it was hatched. This is not just a female Oedipal tale, as disobedient daughters distance themselves from their mothers' passions, seeking recognition for themselves. It is also a sibling affair, as feminists contend with each other; fearful, perhaps, of being overlooked should we fail to keep abreast of new theoretical fashions, or else unable to admit the inadequacies and contradictions of past attachments.\n\n## _Acts of Memory_\n\nA small band of feminist historians, mostly in the USA, who _are_ trying to recapture the diversity of the movement in which they participated, declare that they cannot recognize themselves, or others, in what they see as the distorting accounts of Women's Liberation circulating in contemporary feminism. Rosalyn Baxandall and Linda Gordon, for example, are gathering material for a multi-volume collection of literature from the movement in the USA. They are joined by others interested in archiving the local histories of Women's Liberation, such as Patricia Romney, documenting a group of fifty women of colour based in New York and Oakland, California, who \u2013 along with other black activists in the sixties and seventies \u2013 became the forgotten women who 'fell down the well' (as Carolyn Heilbrun puts it) in subsequent rewritings of women's liberation as exclusively white. These historians are well aware of the dangers of their proximity to their own research, of how memories are muted or reshaped by subsequent perspectives and interests, whether one's own or those of younger recorders. At a recent symposium on the history of women's liberation in the USA, Margaret Strobel recounted that even when rereading her _own_ diaries and letters she is amazed at their failure to match her current recollections of the events she recorded there.\n\nReading our own histories through the interpretations of others can be more unsettling still. Awareness of the tricks of memory, and the dearth of thoughtful reflections on a remarkable period of feminist activism fast being forgotten, prompted two other veteran US feminists, Rachel DuPlessis and Ann Snitow, to embark upon their own memoir project: not in search of 'truth unmodified', but to seek out the ambiguities and ambivalences with which those who gave birth to the movement would now recall their engagement in its past. Open, questioning and self-critical, as they introduce the rich and varied collection which ensues, they nevertheless argue compellingly that caricature and forgetting is the greater danger haunting women's political actions: 'For amnesia about political movements is not only an innocent effect of general forgetfulness, but is socially produced, packaged, promulgated, and perpetuated.' I agree. It is extraordinary \u2013 exciting and troubling in equal measure \u2013 to read these distinct and divergent accounts from women whose lives were shaped by their belief that collective action could (and, for a while, did) transform everything, from personal lives to workplace conditions, social policy, the law and almost every aspect of culture. It is important, if only to realize quite how strange their rhetoric and sensibilities appear in the current political climate; the words not so much of another generation, with less sophisticated ideas, as of another species.\n\nAs if foreseeing this impression, Meredith Tax mourns: 'I feel like one of the last surviving members of a nearly extinct species \u2013 the committed left-wing feminist'. Although still working successfully to promote women's writing and struggles through the international forum Women's WORLD (Women's World Organization for Rights, Literature and Development) which she helped to found in the 1990s, Tax knows she can no longer make her own voice heard at home. A pointed reminder of changing times, at least for those aware that it was she who published one of the earliest underground classics of women's liberation, _Woman and her Mind: The Story of Everyday Life_ (1970), which sold 150,000 copies in pamphlet form around the world. I could quote from it to this day.\n\nContemporary texts reviewing recent feminist history provide sobering examples of how the past is read through the concerns of the present: invalidating earlier meanings and projects as well as erasing their heterogeneity. Moreover, the displacement of former struggles and perspectives is all the more disconcerting when contemporary theorists, starting off from an abhorrence of binary logics and a scepticism about all attempts to generalize, go on to draw false contrasts and make reckless generalizations of their own. It is this which startles me when I read accounts of the distance self-proclaimed 'nineties' feminism has travelled from women's liberation, and what now appears neatly homogenized as 'seventies' feminism.\n\n## _Dubious Contrasts_\n\nA distinguished British collection of feminist thought, edited by Mich\u00e8le Barrett and Anne Phillips, _Destabilizing Theory_ (1992), highlights what it refers to as 'the gulf between feminist theory of the 1970s and 1990s'. It opens with the assertion: 'In the past twenty years the founding principles of contemporary western feminism have been dramatically changed, with previously shared assumptions and unquestioned orthodoxies relegated almost to history'. Quite so. But just what is being dispatched here? Was it all of a piece? And is it equally anachronistic for contemporary feminists?\n\n'Seventies' feminism is criticized for its 'false certainties'; its search for structural causes of women's oppression (indeed for its very notion of 'oppression'); its belief in women's shared interests (indeed, its very attachment to the notion of 'women' or 'woman'), and so forth. 'Nineties' feminism, in contrast, has replaced what is seen as the naive search for the social or material causes of women's oppression by complex elaborations of the discursively produced, hierarchical constitution of an array of key concepts: sexual difference in particular, binary oppositions in general, and the hetero\/sexualized mapping of the body as a whole. _Destabilizing Theory_ rejects what it proclaims to be the assumptions of 'Enlightenment' thought: 'a notion of a powerful and self-conscious political subject, a belief in reason and rationality, in social and political progress, in the possibility of grand schemes of social reform'. It is impressively cautious about the 'ambiguous status of theory', yet it still risks a few generalizations of its own: tending towards a totalizing dismissal of 'seventies' feminism, and the reduction of _dissimilar projects_ to common ground: 'Feminists have moved from grand theory to local studies, from cross-cultural analysis of patriarchy to the complex and historical interplay of sex, race and class, from notions of a female identity or the interests of women towards the instability of female identity and the active creation and recreation of women's needs and concerns.'\n\nA comparable tension can be found in an American collection aiming 'to call into question and problematize the presumptions of some feminist discourse': _Feminists Theorize the Political_ (1992), edited by Judith Butler and Joan Scott. Its introductory essay is also cautious about drawing comparisons between different phases of feminism, aware that contrasting 'post-modern' feminism with an earlier 'modernist' feminism buys into precisely the conceits of modernity itself, sharing all its enthusiasm for identification with the 'new' and over-confident renunciation of the 'old'. (Although it is surely a strange hostage to fortune to insist, on its opening page, that '\"post-structuralism\" indicates a field of critical practices that cannot be totalized'.) Circumspect and equivocal as Butler characteristically is, habitually preferring the interrogative to the more vulnerable affirmative mode, her influential writing is always _read_ as primarily deconstructive, privileging regulatory semiotic or semantic issues around 'subjectivity', 'identity' and 'agency'. Here, she insists that: 'To recast the referent as the signified, and to authorize or safeguard the category of women as a site of possible resignifications is to expand the possibilities of what it means to be a woman and in this sense to condition and enable an enhanced sense of agency'. Butler is certainly right to stress that 'what women signify has been taken for granted for too long'. But, in calling for 'the conditions to _mobilize the signifier_ in the service of an alternative production', she delineates a project which is distinctly different from the close attention to social _structures, relations_ and _practices_ which an earlier feminist project prioritized in pursuit of political-economic restructuring, and the transformation of public life and welfare.\n\nWhen women joined campaigns in support of demands for nurseries, reproductive rights, education and skill training; to assist women fighting low pay, discrimination and 'harassment' at work, violence and sexual abuse at home, militarism worldwide; to fight racism, legacies of imperialism and work within Third World development projects; found the women's health movement, and so on and so forth, they were engaged in 'an alternative production'. The sudden collectively confident embrace, or alarming display, of hitherto demeaned descriptions of womanhood \u2013 gaudily paraded on countless banners, T-shirts and badges \u2013 was certainly very much part of the process: 'The category \"women\", so fresh and surprising on that fictive but evocative Day One of the Second Wave, is familiar now, to some an oversimplication, to others banality'. The way representation carves out reality and moulds action is central to all political activity. None the less, a feminism which _begins_ with the textual practice of re-theorizing signifiers of subjectivity is one which is _incommensurate_ with, as well as distanced from, the perspectives and practices of Women's Liberation. It is simply not the same project, however sympathetic to many of those earlier goals someone like Butler clearly is. As others have noticed, the commitment to heterogeneity, multiplicity and difference underlying recent feminist theorizing can anomalously disguise a hegemonizing dismissal of theoretical frameworks not _explicitly_ informed by post-stucturalism. Joan Scott, at times, seems to exemplify this form of exclusion of theoretical diversity when she attacks 'resistance to poststructuralist theory' as resistance to 'theory' itself: 'Since it is in the nature of feminism to disturb the ground it stands on, even its own ground, _the resistance to theory_ is a resistance to the most radical effects of feminism itself'.\n\nHere is the problem: contemporary feminist theorizing rarely acknowledges the time and the place of political ideas. It addresses only abstract _theories_ and their refutation. It operates with an idea of the history of feminism as the evolution of academic theory and debate. Tellingly, both the British and North American feminist collections I have mentioned offer their readers a full index of _names_ \u2013 in which, incidentally, extraordinarily few of the influential feminist names of the 1970s appear \u2013 but no index of _topics._ In the Blackwell textbook _Feminist Thought,_ by Patricia Clough, dedicated to 'Women around the World Resisting Oppression, Domination, and Exploitation', there _is_ a context index, but interestingly neither hint nor whisper of abortion or reproductive rights, housework, childcare, nurseries, welfare provision, immigration, marriage, the family, poverty, the state, employment, trade unions, healthcare or violence against women. There is pornography, autobiography, film theory, literary criticism, Woman, Native, Other. However you cross-reference it, just a few aspects of women's actual resistance 'around the world' seem to have gone missing in this nineties text. Almost no effort is made to refer back to the activities and goals of Women's Liberation in these books, only an attempt to contrast theoretical positions as ideal types.\n\nThe reason is, of course, that this is an easy way to _teach_ feminism as an academic topic. But you cannot translate the time of theory and its fashions into political history, without absurd caricature: concealing conflicting perceptions and nuances with each categorical tag. Thus early Women's Liberation becomes, for example, a 'feminism of the subject', when it was not a theory about subjectivity at all \u2013 however much it concerned women struggling to make themselves visible in quite new ways. It is almost always described as a theory of 'equality', rather than of 'difference', when it was neither of these things \u2013 the one usually presented as merely an inversion of the other. Both of these descriptions miss the point. Women's Liberation in its heyday was a _theory and practice of social transformation_ : full of all the embroiled and messy actions, hostilities and compromises of collective political engagement. For the most part, it manoeuvred within a broader culture of the left: refusing to separate women off from wider struggles against inequality and subordination, but fighting the perpetual marginalization or neglect of what were often women's most specific interests and concerns. It endlessly debated questions of priorities, organization and alliances in the attempt to enrich women's lives and connect with other radical projects (heatedly discussing the varied \u2013 often opposed \u2013 interests of different groups of women, especially the most vulnerable). In the process, it transformed the very concept of the 'political', giving women a central place within it.\n\nMy sense of the recent history of feminism, in particular of the socialist-feminist strand of Women's Liberation flourishing in Britain in the early seventies, conflicts with Julia Kristeva's often cited stagist mapping of three generations of feminist thought, in her famous essay 'Women's Time', first published in 1979. There she depicts the first wave of feminism as a time when women, using a 'logic of identification', pursued liberal, egalitarian ends, followed by the emergence of a militant second phase, which rejected all 'patriarchal' thought and practice, attempting to create 'counter-societies' constructed around mythical notions of womanhood. This is the now familiar erection of a binary division between 'equality' feminism, followed by its opposite, 'difference' feminism: women first seek inclusion in, and later exclusion from, the masculine symbolic order. Drawing upon Derrida, Kristeva proposes a _third_ generation of feminism, which is critical of the binary of sexual difference itself, since 'it is now possible to gain some distance on these two preceding generations of women'. Toril Moi would later label and promote Kristeva's three stages as 'liberal', 'radical' and 'post-' feminism, again criticizing what she identified as the humanistic and essentialist errors of the first two stages of feminism, in order to advocate the theoretical work of post-feminist deconstruction.\n\nYet, as I hope to show, although they never used the rhetoric of deconstruction, the third stage now being labelled 'post-feminism' is not so removed from where many second-wave feminists came in. Attempting to avoid the problems of straightforward inclusion in, or exclusion from, the masculine symbolic order and a world organized primarily around men's interests was the problem many feminists tried to tackle all along (although using different conceptual tools, some borrowed from Sartre and de Beauvoir; some from Marx, Freud, Reich, Gramsci or Marcuse). The contrasts are not always as significant as recent re-tellings suggest. Here are the words of one feminist writer and activist who was for a few years tremendously influential as an inaugurator of _'stage one'_ of second-wave feminism, looking at her own first attempt to articulate feminism, thirty years on: 'When I read it over, despite all that has happened since, the intensity of loneliness returns. It was like walking over a moor in the mist, trying to speak, with the words sticking half formed in your throat. Such difficulty finding appropriate words, really a new political language, is not so surprising.' But then this writer, as we shall see, also knows how easily simplistic readings overwrite earlier formulations: 'perceptions can be there one minute, and gone the next'; 'as the years go by, what was once a contemporary account comes to reveal a particular historical moment, not simply because of what is said but in the very way it is written'.\n\n## _Rowbotham's 'Seventies' Feminism_\n\nIn my view, the most useful \u2013 and perhaps the only meaningful \u2013 way to think about the similarities and differences between different generations of feminism is by reflecting upon what defines a political generation and what smashes its hopes and dreams. On an International Women's Day march in the early seventies, Sheila Rowbotham carried a placard that read: **'Equal Pay is Not Enough. We want the Moon'.** (File under equal rights feminism? Perhaps not. Is the moon here a symbol of female difference? Not likely.) We got neither, as she wrote a decade later, but the radical heritage of Women's Liberation continues, she argued, whenever feminists work to realize the dream 'that all human beings can be _more_ than present circumstances allow'. That vision is not one of equal rights. It was called 'socialism' and it was being reshaped to service feminism.\n\nI want to focus on Sheila Rowbotham's writing as she has been one of the most careful chroniclers (and continuing committed exponents) of Women's Liberation in Britain, in the hope that it may be, as she puts it, 'neither falsely valued nor undervalued', but that feminists might reflect back upon 'the hurly-burly of battle, draw clarity from real muddles and learn from our mistakes.' Dream on!, one might feel, in these new comprehensively market-driven, mean-spirited times. Since memories find resonance only in pertinent contexts, Rowbotham adds, if you 'ignore the humdrum you fall into arrogance'. Rowbotham was one of the many inspirational voices of seventies feminism consciously attempting to create 'a movement which is confident, gleeful, generous and loving', even while already knowing that any such oppositional activity can have costly overheads which drain and exhaust the spirit. It was her lonely search to find the then unfamiliar words which could express her personal alienation, as one of the exceptionally few women trying to set down her thoughts in the sexist world of radical politics in the late 1960s, which resulted in the first pamphlet on Women's Liberation to be published in Britain \u2013 in January 1969. And it was she who proposed the first Women's Liberation conference in Britain, which occurred at Ruskin College in Oxford the following year. Most importantly, for my purposes here, it was her books which were read by tens of thousands of feminists throughout the world in the 1970s. They were hugely influential in the initial years of women's liberation. Moreover, Rowbotham would be criticized, early on, as representing a seventies feminism, unformed by psychoanalysis or structuralism. Today, of course, her flaws would be seen as an inattention to post-structuralism or 'post-modernity' \u2013 that paradoxical twist of modernity, contrarily repudiating linear narratives while depending on one.\n\nJoining the game of textual analysis, I recently re-read some of Rowbotham's books of the 1970s and early 1980s, something I do often to prevent my own long-term memories from dissolving (there seems nothing to be done about the crashing of short-term ones). Ironically, what is extraordinary about Rowbotham's writing is usually quite the reverse of what critics of seventies feminism imagine. It conveys an openness, chronic _lack_ of certainty, an almost infuriating tentativeness, reiteratively asserting: 'What we have developed through action and ideas has always to be subject to reassessment'; or, 'I am too encumbered by the particular to move with grace and delicacy between subjective experience and the broad sweep of social relationships'.\n\nFrom her earliest reflections, Rowbotham describes the search for the roots of women's subordination as a 'perilous and uncertain quest'. Her texts always stress what she calls 'the differing forms and historically specific manifestations of the power men hold over women in particular societies'. They focus sharply on the diversity and situational specificity of women: whether of class, race, employment, domestic situation or (although not at first, as she herself soon notes self-critically) sexual orientation: 'Our own indications are only tentative and incomplete.... Women's liberation is too narrow in social composition to comprehend the differences between middle class and working class, black and white, young and old, married and unmarried, country and townswomen'. Moreover, she writes, in 1972, 'it is clear that most of the isolated gains we can make can be twisted against women and that many partial gains are often a means of silencing one group at the expense of another'. She emphasizes the role of language as one of the crucial instruments of domination:\n\n> As soon as we learn words we find ourselves outside them.... The underground language of people who have no power to define and determine themselves in the world develops its own density and precision.... But it restricts them by affirming their own dependence upon the words of the powerful.... There is a long inchoate period during which the struggle between the language of experience and the language of theory becomes a kind of agony.\n\nIgnorant of post-structuralism Rowbotham may have been, writing these words in her mid-twenties, but not so ignorant, I would suggest, of the issues they address. Moreover, her voice was not a lone one; it feels to me like the remembered buzz in the air, what the women I knew best were tuned in to.\n\nShe tussles (a favourite word) endlessly with the problems of relying on direct experience, seeing it as both a strength and weakness \u2013 again, not so unlike, if less theoretically fine-tuned, than the essay by Joan Scott on the topic in the collection from the USA mentioned above, written twenty years later. She continuously affirms the pointlessness of attempting to pin down the nature of either 'women' or 'men', adding that: 'All revolutionary movements create their own ways of seeing.... But this is a result of great labour'. Her writing, like the forces which drew many women together in the early years of Women's Liberation, reflects the radical left (largely Marxist) thought of the day: 'An emergent female consciousness is part of the specific sexual and social conjuncture, which it seeks to control and transform.' So while questions of subjectivity and identity are most definitely not ignored (and when they appear, are quite as shifting, provisional and contingent as any postmodernist might desire), the goal is always to transform society, to make it a better place for all its members, especially its neediest and, in her words, 'gradually accumulate a shared culture of agitation'. She writes:\n\n> There is democracy in the making of theories which set out to rid the world of hierarchy, oppression and domination. The act of analysis requires more than concepts of sex and class, more than a theory of the subject, it demands that in the very process of thinking we transform the relations between thinker and thought about, theory and experience.... Analysis is not enough alone, for we enter the beings and worlds of other people through imagination, and it is through imagination that we glimpse how these might change.\n\nMany seventies feminists have recalled, like Rowbotham, the imaginative leap when they first began to turn outwards to other women, generating an almost open-ended desire for solidarity with just those women they had hitherto distanced themselves from: 'The mainspring of women's liberation was not a generalised antagonism to men but the positive assertion of new relationships between women, sisterhood'. Socialist feminists argued that while capitalist societies had changed the relative power and privileges of men, they had also consolidated women's inferior status, along with that of a multitude of other historically subordinated groups \u2013 predominantly along racialized and ethnic lines. So while it was not _inconceivable_ that women might gain equality with men in existing capitalist societies, it was thought that this would require such deep levels of cultural, economic and political change that they would already have become societies which were fundamentally different from any we have known.\n\n## _The Collapse of a Vision_\n\nThe state, in socialist-feminist analyses like those of Elizabeth Wilson or Mary McIntosh, was seen as not strictly 'patriarchal', but serving to regulate, and occasionally to restructure, the often contradictory and conflicting needs of a male-dominated market economy and the still intrinsically patriarchal arrangements of family life. It was from such analyses that they set about shaking out and making visible the separate and distinct needs and interests of women (kept hidden by familial rhetoric); campaigned against state policies and discourses which defined and enforced women's dependence on men; demanded an end to the scandalous social neglect of women and children at risk from men's violence; fought for more and better social provision and community resources; all the while seeking alliances with other oppressed groups. Strategic priorities were usually paramount, whether making demands on the state or on the trade unions, and even when elaborating utopian visions of communities and workplaces compatible with choice and flexibility: where the needs of all dependent people would not be hidden away in idealized, yet neglected and isolated, often impoverished, family units.\n\nThis socialist-feminist strand of Women's Liberation, chronicled in books like Rowbotham's _The Past Is Before Us,_ remained an active and influential source of ideas and strategies for promoting women's interests until the mid-1980s, usually working in diverse radical and reformist coalitions with other progressive forces. However, the frustration and defeats of a second term of Conservative rule (1983\u20137), targeting and weakening precisely those nooks and crannies in local government, resource centres and collective spaces which feminists and other radicals had managed to enter, gradually exhausted not only the political hopes, but even the dreams of many.\n\nIn recalling the early achievements of the women's movement in re-launching feminism, we also need to consider its limitations. The bustling energies and tight-knit friendships in the small groups most feminists liked to work within \u2013 even their principled structurelessness \u2013 could make women who didn't fit in feel all the more excluded from the imagined joys of 'sisterhood'. The fierce commitment to ideals of complete equality not only created what could prove inefficient structures, but often triggered suspicion and hostility towards those seen as arrogant or ambitious. The disavowal of envy and competitiveness between women made its concealed expression all the more embittered: 'If you want to be a good feminist, then be a good girl and think about everybody but yourself', as New York feminist Muriel Dimen would later tease those who wrapped themselves in unrealistic feminist rectitude. Above all, looking for shared experiences between women frequently meant disregarding the incongruous or divisive. Again, from the memoirs now emerging in the USA, Joan Nestle reflects how her embrace of feminism as a lesbian in the early 1970s made her a stronger person, who could properly value other women for the first time:\n\n> I learned new ways of seeing my woman's life, new understandings of gender oppression, a new language, but I also learned the boundaries beyond which the politics could not go.... We could talk about sex [but] not about desire. We could talk about work, but not about class as it expressed itself in the groups, most of which were dominated by middle-class women.\n\nTrue. But as Nestle quickly adds, these silences were made to be broken by the insights of feminism itself:\n\n> I realized that my experiences as a sexual deviant had given me insights into certain issues like pornography, prostitution, and gender questioning that while not the prevailing ones in the lesbian feminist seventies and eighties were too important to be buried.\n\nAny myth of women's cosy unity, fighting the combined subordinations of sex, race, class and heterosexism, could never hold for long: to this day, however, many dream of its return, harshly denouncing differing traitors to the cause \u2013 from 'liberals' and 'careerists' to 'purists', 'pornographers' or 'identity fetishists' \u2013 for its absence. Race would prove an even more explosive issue than class and sexual orientation. Poverty and racism were constant preoccupations of women's liberation, both in theory and in practice (especially in the USA, where so many pioneering feminists had emerged out of the civil rights movement), but feminist groups remained overwhelmingly white, and predominantly middle class. Conflict was soon breaking out everywhere, as particular groups of women expressed their sense of exclusion within the movement itself. In the USA Toni Cade's anthology _The Black Woman_ appeared in 1970, and the first National Black Feminist Organization and the Sisterhood of Black Single Mothers were both formed as early as 1973, although organizations of black women and women of colour did not reach their peak until the early 1980s. In Britain, the first black women's conference was held in 1979. As in the USA, the most painful clashes over race would occur in the second decade of resurgent feminism, with black women in both countries challenging the priorities of white feminist analysis over the previous decade: for privileging sexism over racism, and ignoring the particularities of ethnic difference.\n\nNevertheless, trying to learn to listen to, and act upon, black feminist perspectives was not initially a decisive factor in the fading of the socialist-feminist vision in Britain. On the contrary, black feminists then occupied the _same_ political spaces, and pursued largely _similar_ or _parallel_ strategic campaigns for expanding the choice and resources open to black women and their families. The political limitations they saw in what they defined as 'Euro-American' feminism, at that time, as Valerie Amos, Gail Lewis, Amina Mama and Pratibha Parmar made clear in 1984, was that it has 'contributed to an improvement in the material situation of white middle-class women often at the expense of their black and working class \"sisters.\"... The power of sisterhood stops at the point at which hard political decisions need to be made and political priorities decided'. The problem, as Barbara Smith saw it in the USA, was similar: how to 'build a women's movement that addresses the life circumstances and priorities of all women', one she connected with grassroots activism.\n\nThere were without doubt race and class-bound limitations, as well as unrecognized elitisms, prescriptive moralisms and self-policing, in the diverse perspectives and practices of Women's Liberation. But the precarious presumptions and faltering visions of many seventies feminists who yearned for a better world for all, including themselves, often had less to do with dogmatic certitudes, conceptual closure, binary thinking, identity politics or even false universalism, and much more to do with the floundering fortunes of grassroot or movement politics in harsh and unyielding times. The death knell of the seventies feminism I dwelt within was not simply the fall-out of internal conflict and divisions, whether over race, class or sexuality, although they did turn feminist political spaces into stressful combat zones. Rather, coming together as agitators, of whatever sex, race or ethnic specificity, to pursue goals which require, among other things, a more egalitarian and caring world, brought us up against a ferocious, if contradictory and erratic, political opponent. This is something a new generation of academically licensed theorists, turning inwards rather than outwards, often prefer to ignore.\n\nIn New York, veteran campaigner and author Vivian Gornick recalls: 'Then the unthinkable happened. Slowly, around 1980, feminist solidarity began to unravel. As the world had failed to change sufficiently to reflect our efforts, that which had separated all women before began to reassert itself now in us... the discrepancy between desire and actuality was too large to overcome'. Her contemporary trailblazer at the _Village Voice_ is even more convinced that the shift in economic fortunes and political conversation meant that there was soon 'no legitimate public language in which to describe utopian vision and systemic opposition'. In the end, the fundamental limitation of the utopian visions of feminist activists, hoping to transform both themselves and society as well, was our failure to see our own dependence on a wider left politics and social democratic consensus \u2013 whatever their shortcomings. As economic survival became more problematic for many more people, as the public mood shifted and an anti-government, market-driven culture became ever more hegemonic, the social world sustaining progressive thought and practice continued to wither.\n\nSince the 1980s, the ever more deregulated, universalized, interests of global capital have produced deepening social inequalities, nationally and internationally. In the process, they have ensured a significant increase in the pressures of time on most women, and of poverty for some women, even as others, especially when child-free, seem to prosper in the spaces which have opened up for them in the expanding managerial, service and professional world. Some feminists have managed to remain determinedly politically engaged. Having moved on from campaigns into study groups or graduate training, they have helped to create or sustain more focused groups in defence of reproductive rights, fighting for legal change, social policy reform, human rights organizations and Third World women's groups or, especially in the USA, creating centres for training women organizers. In Britain, government institutions, the media, work in education at all levels, have each provided spaces for promoting specific feminist ideas and practices. Black feminists have continued to organize against white racism, and to oppose the rise of religious fundamentalism in some of their own communities, while feminists from diverse backgrounds remain active in fighting against or supporting the survivors of sexual and domestic violence.\n\nNevertheless, times have changed irrevocably. Around 1980 it would have been hard to find a single self-respecting feminist in Britain who had not trekked out to Grunwick's factory in west London, in support of the predominantly Asian women on strike, or at least considered such action. Two decades later, it would be hard to find a self-respecting feminist who had even _heard_ of the predominantly Asian women on strike at Burnsall in Birmingham, as Melissa Benn has noted, over an almost identical set of issues: refusal of union recognition, low pay, and the use of dangerous chemicals; or who would have contemplated supportive action, if they had. As I write, women care workers in Tameside, in Greater Manchester, enter their second year on strike, not just against their own appalling pay and conditions, but just as much to protect the interests of the very vulnerable elderly people who were in their care. Yet there is little national concern from anyone for issues which would once have rallied passionate feminist support. It is true that those women's liberationists with the freedom, time and confidence to plunge into action in support of women facing the harshest forms of exploitation had a certain naivety \u2013 which today would be labelled arrogance \u2013 concerning their own ability to bring about radical change. But, as Rowbotham would later reflect, this was not just self-delusion: 'There was considerable upheaval not only in Europe and the US but globally in these years \u2013 the first symptoms of the fundamental changes which were to take shape from the mid 1970s.'\n\nLooking at a world transformed by feminism, which usually pays lip-service to ideas of equality in both the workplace and the home, intransigent domestic inequalities still mean that 80 per cent of employed wives with young children continue to shoulder most of the burdens of housework. The idealism and audacity with which the young American housewife Alix Kates Shulman could get her husband to sign her detailed Marriage Agreement is something we sorely miss. Published in 1971 in the mainstream women's magazine _Redbook,_ where it generated over 2000 letters of support (followed by front-page derision in the _New York Times Book Review_ from people as eminent as Norman Mailer and Joan Didion), it began: 'We reject the notion that the work which brings in money is more valuable. The ability to earn money is a privilege which must not be compounded by enabling the larger earner to buy out his\/her duties and put the burden either on the partner who earns less or on another person hired from outside.' A different time, a different place. Yet, the failure of such a politics, which could collectively fight for the restructuring of the workplace as well as demand change on the home front, means that an ever expanding group of women add to their increasing overload of work the burden of deeply resenting their husbands, and finding their home lives an arena of conflict and strife. This was the report from the domestic front issued by Arlie Hochschild in her book _The Second Shift_ (1989) and, even more forcefully, after the restructuring of the job-front, in _The Time Bind_ (1997). The legacy of seventies feminism, seen as a movement of social transformation aiming to increase the power and self-determination of women everywhere, is contradictory and diverse. But serious consideration of its successes and failures is grievously absent in most recent theoretical profiles.\n\n## _A New Fundamentalism_\n\nThere is another twist in this tale of two generations of feminism. In terms of the writing-over of earlier feminist narratives, the painful irony is that precisely when deconstruction and other forms of post-structuralism were imprinting themselves on academic feminism \u2013 promoting conceptual uncertainty, political indeterminacy and subjective fluidity \u2013 directly opposing discourses of female victimization, moral certainty and psychic essentialism now were entrenching themselves in a new form of feminist fundamentalism and contested activism in the 1980s. The voices of feminism which survived and gained followers internationally in the 1980s came from its best-known, North American, white spokeswomen, like Robin Morgan and Andrea Dworkin. These no longer expressed anything resembling socialist feminism, with its analysis of specific historical contexts, shifting institutional arrangements, particular social practices or the multiple discourses securing women's inequality and marginality. Rather, ideas denouncing the ageless dominance of 'masculine' values and behaviour were the ones most widely promulgated and seemingly accepted as the voice of feminism. A new and complacent romance around the feminine took precedence in the best-known forms of feminist thought, with women celebrated as essentially nurturing, non-violent and egalitarian; accompanying condemnation of the 'masculine' as ineluctably dominating, destructive and predatory.\n\nIt was this form of so-called 'cultural feminism' which I criticized in _Is the Future Female?_ (1987). The original subtitle of my book, 'Arguments for Socialist Feminism', was rejected by my feminist publisher, Virago Press, as already too unpopular to promulgate, leading to the more neutral 'Troubled Thoughts' of its published subtitle. The simplistic and reductive anti-pornography movement would soon emerge as the single most visible and highly funded feminist campaign of the 1980s \u2013 originating, and always most prominent, in the USA. In attempting (however defectively) to affiliate their gender politics with every other conceivable form of subordination, socialist feminism had generated cumbersome discourses, full of compositional complexities, caveats and uncertainties. Its rhetoric was a world apart from the fire and brimstone of the rising theoretician of anti-pornography feminism, Catharine MacKinnon, who was matched only by her comrade-at-arms, pornography's other foremost foe, Andrea Dworkin. Ironically, but far from coincidentally, the thing which pornographers and anti-pornographers most share is the desire to arouse: to pound an audience with their rhythmic, repetitive images \u2013 although it is only anti-pornographers who fixate on such exceptionally sadistic sexual imagery. The delivery of Dworkin and MacKinnon is evocative of puritan barnstorming down through the ages.\n\nIn my book _Straight Sex_ (1994), I traced the rise of a more pessimistic sexual conservatism within feminist thinking from the close of the 1970s, which insisted, misleadingly, that sexuality was the single overriding cause and manifestation of men's oppression of women \u2013 sprouting from its roots in pornography. Catharine MacKinnon later summarized her contentious rewriting of feminist history: 'feminism is a theory of how the erotization of dominance and submission creates gender, creates woman and man in the social form in which we know them'. Some feminists saw these moves, as I did, as part of a reaction to more conservative times, and the setbacks faced by many forms of feminist activism, especially in the USA, where it originated at the close of the 1970s. 'Pornography', Ann Snitow suggests, became a metaphor for women's defeat. Isolating sexuality and men's violence from other issues of women's poverty, social inequality and domestic overload was not only a defensive tactic for women, but one in perfect harmony with the rising tide of conservative backlash against radical politics more generally. The right has always liked to demonize sexuality, and have us see it as the source of all our ills. This ensured that they would move swiftly into an alliance with anti-pornography feminism. And however vigorously we hear it denied, Dworkin's and MacKinnon's alliance with the moral right is well documented.\n\nMeanwhile, as the 1980s progressed, it was either those, like Catharine MacKinnon, who offered some version of an increasingly totalizing and sanctimonious feminism (clinging to the moral highground of women's marginality and helplessness), or others, like Camille Paglia, with equally totalizing inversions of this position (caricaturing feminism as prudish and puritanical) who found favour with the media. Neither offered any challenge to traditional gender discourses.\n\n## _The Turn to 'Theory'_\n\nIn contrast, at the cutting edge of the new feminist scholarship of the 1980s, these same gender discourses were being broken down and questioned. It is hard to summarize the illuminations and provocations of academic feminism's current embrace of post-structuralist critiques of universalizing thought and emancipatory narratives (to which I return, in one form or another, in most of the following chapters) without courting the danger of homogenizing contemporary theorizing, much as it has erased the complexities of seventies feminism. The appropriation of post-structuralist priorities would inspire what has become known as 'feminist postmodernism', although this conceptually confused and confusing label is not accepted by some of those placed under its banner \u2013 Judith Butler, for one. At least three separate strands of thinking are usually lumped together under this heading \u2013 deriving from Jacques Lacan, Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault, respectively \u2013 despite their very different implications for feminism.\n\nThe first and for a while the most influential post-Lacanian strand, often simply called, misleadingly, 'French feminism' (which is discussed most fully in chapter 6), restricts its focus to the idea of sexual difference effaced by the spurious unity or wholeness of the Western 'subject' (Man): the white, male bourgeois subject of history who hides behind the abstract universals of the philosophical tradition. It stresses the need to fracture the universal or humanist self through attentiveness to its repressed or marginalized other: 'feminine' difference. Subversively imagined and rewritten as positive, the decentred side of the silenced and repressed 'feminine' is thought to enable women to 'foresee the unforeseeable', and escape the dichotomous conceptual order in which men have enclosed them. This new focus upon images of female corporeality has been seen by its exponents as presenting a fresh purchase on the old essentialism debate, transcending earlier forms of historical, sociological or psychoanalytic anti-essentialist arguments. The 'feminine feminine', H\u00e9l\u00e8ne Cixous and Luce Irigaray suggest, can emerge only once women find the courage to break out of the male imaginary and into a female one \u2013 once women begin to speak and write their sexuality, which is always plural, circular and aimless, in contrast to all existing singular, linear and phallocentric, masculine forms of symbolization. Such feminist reclaiming of the body unfolds here as always culturally and psychically inscribed female experience, not anatomical destiny, and is perhaps best seen as a form of aestheticized, high modernist, 'avant-gardism'. It is nevertheless still narrated in terms of a _universal_ corporeal subjectivity for women.\n\nThe attraction of such difference theory, which encourages the feminist to speak 'as a woman', is obvious. The revaluing of those aspects of women's lives and experiences previously ignored or demeaned in male-centred theorizing was, and remains, crucial to feminist research and practice. But there is still a problem which it cannot easily tackle (even if we ride with its own cheerfully embraced contradictions), once we turn from the academic to the political realm. As I have argued elsewhere, it is precisely ideas of sexual difference encompassing the experiences supposedly inscribing our distinctive 'femaleness', which most dramatically _divide,_ rather than unite, feminists attempting to fight for women's interests. It is easier for women to join forces around issues on the currently unfashionable economic front (demanding parity in wages and training) or on social policy (demanding more and better publicly funded welfare resources) than it has ever been for women to unite around issues of sexuality and the meanings we attach to the female body. Creatively exciting as the project of re-imagining female corporeality has proved to be for some feminists, its neglect of issues of class, race, ethnicity and other forms of marginality as equally constitutive of women's subjectivity and destiny has seemed exclusionary and disempowering to other feminists. Such criticism has been most forcefully expressed by black and ethnic minority feminist theoreticians: from Gayatri Spivak to Barbara Christian or Deborah McDowell. Some academic feminists like to quote Gayatri Spivak in support of their view that women today must 'take \"the risk of essence\" in order to think really differently'. However, Spivak herself has reconsidered her earlier suggestion for a 'strategic' use of a positive essentialism. Since such a move is viable only when it serves 'a scrupulously visible political interest', she now warns: 'The strategic use of essentialism can turn into an alibi for proselytizing academic essentialisms'. And it has.\n\nSpivak belongs to the second, more rigorous, Derridian strand of feminist post-structuralism, which is critical of the monolithic Lacanian version of difference theory. It questions all universalizing or totalizing theoretical tendencies, deconstructing every discursive patterning of the self, including that of 'woman'. Here, in tune with the input of black, Third World, lesbian, and other feminisms, _every_ generalization about women, including the feminist search for the causes of women's subordination or any generalized expressions of women's difference \u2013 whether seen in terms of responsibility for childrearing, reproductive and sexual experience, men's violence, phallogocentric language, a female imaginary, or whatever \u2013 is regarded with suspicion. This position is summed up by Donna Haraway:\n\n> There is nothing about being \"female\" that naturally binds women. There is not even such a state as \"being\" female, itself a highly complex category constructed in contested sexual scientific discourses and social practices.... The feminist dream of a common language, like all dreams for a perfectly true language, of a perfectly faithful naming of experience, is a totalizing and imperialistic one.\n\nHaraway wants to replace this dream with her own one of 'a powerful infidel heteroglossia... building and destroying machines, identities, categories, relationships, spaces, stories', seeking a place for women in a future 'monstrous world without gender'. Her dream is full of playful optimism about the future. For other more strictly deconstructive feminists, however, there is no theoretically defensible affirmative position, but only a reminder of the limits of concepts, as Spivak explains: 'the _absolutely_ other cannot enter into _any_ kind of foundational emancipatory project'. Such a deconstructive feminism certainly avoids the perils of generalizations about female subjectivity. But it courts the danger that its own interest in endlessly proliferating particularities of difference, and the partial, contradictory nature of women's identities, endorses a relativity and indeterminacy which works to undermine political projects.\n\nThe third, Foucauldian, strand of post-structuralist feminism returns us to the body \u2013 to its 'sexuality' rather than to sexual difference \u2013 but only as a site or target of ubiquitous technologies of classification, surveillance and control. Foucault's warning that oppositional discourses are inevitably caught up in the relations of domination they resist has been important in highlighting the traps facing emancipatory movements: of reproducing rather than transcending traditional frameworks of subjection. And his arguments about meaning and representation have proved particularly productive for lesbian and gay theorists. Here, feminists can learn much from Foucault's insights about the genealogy of discursive regulation, but next to nothing about how organized resistance might impinge on such all-encompassing regimes of power, other than through the discursively disruptive, micro-political strategies favoured by some lesbian theorists.\n\nDespite its influence on many feminists, especially via Judith Butler's suggestive ways of making 'gender trouble' by parody of the ties which bind the production of gender to heterosexual normativity, other feminists fear that a politics in which resistance is manifest primarily in individual performative subversion of the symbolic domain is inevitably voluntaristic and elitist. Moreover, while many 'Butlerians' still understand Butler as suggesting a type of individual transgressive 'performance' as the most relevant way of undermining existing gender dynamics, it is an interpretation she now rejects, for a more strategic engagement with 'the lived difficulty of political life'. Writing of cultural differences and the articulation of universal claims, she argues: 'What any of those terms will mean... will not be determinable outside the conflicts, institutional arrangements, and historical conditions in which they occur'. Quite so. Meanwhile, however, some feminists have used Foucault to reject earlier feminist analysis of power in relation to key structural and institutional sites. Again, the problem here is that it discourages analysis of just _where_ and _how_ women are best placed to combat the authority and privilege men commonly wield over them. This entails knowledge of and collective action within those particular sites which are most advantageous to women or which have proved receptive to change, while also pursuing strategies to undermine or transform those which remain most rigid and resistant to change.\n\n## _Political Agendas_\n\nAs discussed in later chapters, post-structuralism \u2013 especially in its Derridian and Foucauldian forms \u2013 has provided feminists with fresh conceptual tools for problematizing identities and social differences. It usefully emphasizes their hierarchically imposed and coercive nature, and the multiplicity of intertwining, destabilizing and exclusionary discourses or narratives in which subjectivities are historically enmeshed. It suggests the possibility (however difficult) of categorical resignifications or reconfigurations, as well as the need for acceptance of paradox and contradiction in conceptualizing change. Feminists need to pay heed to the normativities and exclusions of discourse, especially as they construct differences between women. But in a world of intensifying inequality, any concern with either gender justice or the fate of women overall must also engage us in social struggle for economic redistribution, alongside (and inevitably enmeshed with) issues of identity involving cultural recognition and respect. It is a socialist imaginary, combined with feminism, which has always stressed the sufferings caused by the material exploitation, deprivation and social marginalization of women and other oppressed groups around the world. These cannot be either superseded or replaced by battles over discursive marginalization and invalidation. The two objectives, though strategically distinct, are also intricately interwoven: the one turning feminists _outwards_ towards women in struggle, the other directing us _inwards,_ towards refiguring a hitherto abjected 'femininity'. Throughout this book I have aimed to keep both objectives in sight, pursuing theorizations sufficiently complex to embrace the intricacies of personal life, while refusing to give up on struggles for social justice and equality.\n\nHowever plural and irreducibly complex our characterization of the social, any politics seeking the most inclusive transformation of socio-economic and cultural life must strive to challenge the major systems of domination. This means trying to figure out just what they are at this historical moment: uncovering why, and how, they persist, as well as their interaction with whatever specific location we occupy. Fearful of totalizing generalizations we may be, and cautious we must be, but the most central global axes of economic exploitation and cultural oppression continue to construct and reconstruct themselves in the interrelated terms of 'gender' (tied in with sexual orientation), 'class' (tied in with nationality and ethnicity) and 'race' (tied in with nationality, ethnicity and religion) within what is the currently _ever more_ totalizing control of a transnational capitalist market. The invocation of specific differences can serve broadly based transformative ends, but only as part of _some wider political project_ seeking to dismantle these basic structures of domination.\n\nThe Anglo-American reception of post-structuralism, with its central place in nineties feminist theory, came to prominence at a political moment far removed from the one which generated the confident hopes that Women's Liberation took to the streets. Ironically, some explications and critiques of post-modernism present it as responsible for _installing_ feminism on the political agenda, as in Terry Eagleton's _The Illusions of Postmodernism;_ while others would see its influence as quite the reverse. Often distrustful, when not dismissive, of traditional forms of collective action and reformist political agendas, especially when class based, academic feminism faces an uphill task in describing how either attention to the discursive specificity of 'feminine' difference, or the proliferation of categorical heterogeneity and transgressive display, might ever again bring women together in any widely shared transformative feminist project. As Anne Phillips worries, introducing her own book _Democracy and Difference,_ when feminist theoretical work shifted from broadly social concerns to the more abstractly cultural, there was no settling of previous disputes: 'It was as if earlier debates had shunted themselves into a forlorn and deserted siding. Later journeys set off from a different station.' In particular, the more the attention to a language of difference, the less the interest in the effects of the continuing inequalities of class.\n\nWe need to remember that the word 'feminist' has a history. Sometimes feminists have focused directly on issues of sexual difference, at other times feminism has been more a movement for the transformation of the whole of society. At the close of the nineteenth century, 'feminism' first appeared in English to describe the movement of women campaigning for the right to vote, but within a few decades the concept had expanded to include a variety of different types of moral, economic, social and political campaigns waged by women. The second wave of Western feminism has similarly drawn upon different meanings, at times stressing common goals and social transformation (especially in its early days), at others emphasizing women's particularity or difference, often moving on to the embrace of political heterogeneity and conceptual fragmentation. The difficulties of generalizing from women's experiences (or 'corporeal existence', through whatever mode of representation) are not hard to document. Nevertheless, in ways I develop in chapter 2, it is premature to downplay the significance of gender in favour of a plurality of equivalent differences. The tenacity of men's power over women means feminists must just as tenaciously seek to emphasize the diverse and multiple effects of gender hierarchy on the lives and experiences of women. But if feminism is to address the problems of the many women who need it most, it must see that the specificities of women's lives do not reduce to gender, which means working in alliance with other progressive forces combating class, racialized, ethnic and other entrenched social hierarchies.\n\nInterestingly, one of the continuing threads between seventies and nineties feminisms (and there are many such threads, although we may not read about them in a significant number of nineties texts) is the continuing growth and vision of the international human rights movements, now often in the form of NGOs. However, even there, as Suzanne Gibson and Laura Flanders have described, it has proved far easier for women to get their demands taken seriously by the United Nations when they address gender-specific, apparently more politically acceptable issues like rape and violence against women, than when they address employment rights, illiteracy or poverty. Back in Britain, there will be little significant change in the situation of the women who are worst off until public resources are shifted to provide greater welfare provision, without the constraints of market considerations. Yet today's Foucauldian feminists who write about the state reject earlier feminist analysis of its structures and functions arguing that: 'In post-structuralist accounts of the state, \"discourse\" and \"subjectivity\" rather than structures and interests become the key terms'. In my view, such re-theorizing threatens to lead us further away from any analysis of the state itself, and the way in which it has been changing. The state now embraces market forces in most of the areas from which they were previously excluded, against the interests of, in particular, women with primary caring responsibilities, children and all dependent people.\n\nBritain, like North America, has been moving as fast as it can in quite the opposite direction from that which might assist those women in greatest need of economic and social support. This is why I remain a socialist feminist: still hoping for more dialogue than I find at present between different generations of feminism. Sometimes, as one of my colleagues writes when recalling his own formative moments in Northern Ireland, it is helpful if, without nostalgia, we summon up the 'courage of our anachronisms'.\n\n# 2  \nGender to Queer, and Back Again\n\n> Gendered self-consciousness has, mercifully, a flickering flame.\n> \n> Denise Riley, _Am I that Name_\n\nGender and second-wave feminism were born together, at the close of the 1960s. At least, gender has been used as an analytical category, rather than just a grammatical one, only since that time. Breaking out of the confines of what had been deemed women's biological fate, gender would explain the social construction of 'femininity', and the maintenance of men's power and privileges relative to women. Gender was the name for all the acquired, culturally diverse and hence mutable ways of becoming a woman \u2013 or a man. However, with 'man' the universal linguistic norm of humanity, it was overwhelmingly women who were seen as marked by gender, rather than men. Men and masculinity were not for some time studied by feminists in their own right. To begin with, all attention was focused on the position and the particularities of women and femininity.\n\nYet sorting through the differing costumes of gender, and the fashioning of them, would itself eventually come to be seen as limiting: only another way of confining women within their all too familiar enclosures \u2013 whether in aprons, negligees or nursemaid's caps. First, the nature and extent of gender similarities and differences (as distinct from biological, especially anatomical, _sex_ differences) provoked extensive feminist conflict. Next, attempts to fix the limits of the social and the psychic origins of gender difference came under scrutiny. Finally, the most extravagant trouble for gender theory would emerge from its ties to that third term to which both 'sex' and 'gender' have long been wedded: 'sexuality'. Nevertheless, some feminists fear that to abandon gender as a central category of analysis is ultimately to abandon feminism: born together, they will be buried together.\n\n## **_The Rise of Gender Theory_**\n\n'One is not born, but becomes, a woman'. With these fighting words delivered in 1949 in _The Second Sex,_ Simone de Beauvoir inspired almost all the newly emerging feminist writers two decades later to draw a distinction between sex and gender \u2013 at least in the Anglophone movement. In Britain, when such social scientists as Ann Oakley first stressed the distinction between biological 'sex' and socialized 'gender', they had in mind the secure internalization of contrasting patterns of behaviour. The initial purpose of 'gender' was thus to displace the role of biology in determining 'masculinity' and 'femininity'. Gender referred to apparently stable differences between men and women, but differences 'ineradicably over-ridden by cultural learning'. Its immediate consequence was to deny or minimize the existence of any fundamental differences between the sexes.\n\nFeminists in the 1970s developed the rudiments of gender analysis by introducing sociological notions of 'sex roles' and 'sex-role stereotyping' to explore the multitude of social forces operating throughout a person's lifetime to produce appropriate gender patterns. They studied the internal workings of the nursery, school and job market, as well as the broader structures of family life, sexuality, culture and politics. Gender was thus being used to refer both to the differences between men and women, and to the culturally diverse stereotypes or norms which were thought to determine those differences. Moreover, in seeing women as products of sexist culture, the dictates of 'femininity' were seen, for the most part, as subordinating and oppressive: 'Sexism has made of women a race of children, a class of human beings utterly deprived of self-hood, of autonomy, of confidence \u2013 worst of all, _it has made the false come true._ ' The young women who flocked to Women's Liberation at the close of the 1960s were unhappy with women's secondary status in society, and quickly produced a sea of statistics suggesting that women \u2013 to a greater or lesser extent depending on their circumstances \u2013 _suffered_ from their identity and role as women, both physically and mentally.\n\nThe notion of gender was soon put to multiple uses, depending on who was investigating it. To feminists in psychology, gender was primarily a set of personality characteristics or predispositions, although in 1974 North American gender theorist Sandra Bern would expeditiously provide a way of measuring 'androgyny', suggesting that many individuals shared both feminine and masculine traits. Affirming an optimistic idea, then current in feminism, that a more androgynous future offered one way out of the old restrictions of gender, in her early research Bern proposed that androgynous individuals were more adaptable than those who were sex-typed. A decade later (see chapter 5), some feminist psychologists, including Bern herself, had rejected their early focus on gender-related personality attributes or self-conceptions to stress instead of the acquisition of cognitive structures for organizing or framing perceptions in line with external 'gender schema', which ubiquitously emphasize gender dichotomy. Meanwhile, sociologists and anthropologists were studying gender at the structural rather than the individual or subjective level, often referring to what Gayle Rubin had labelled the 'sex\/gender system' to account for the systematic ways in which any particular society conceives and organizes kinship, reproduction, sexuality and its overall institutional practices and divisions of labour governing relations between the sexes.\n\nAt the same time, feminists in literary fields were busy analysing the symbolic construction of gender in forms of speech and other representational genres and practices. Wherever they looked, and whatever they studied \u2013 from high culture to pornography \u2013 they confirmed de Beauvoir's belief that women exist as 'the Other' in a male-centred world: 'defined and differentiated with reference to man and not he with reference to her'. Three decades on, de Beauvoir's compatriot Monique Wittig was reworking these ideas from the same foundation: 'The universal has been, and is, continually at every moment, appropriated by men.' Summarizing this insight in the USA, Elaine Showalter, the original doyenne of feminist literary criticism, would write: 'all speech is necessarily talk about gender, since in every language gender is a grammatical category, and the masculine is the linguistic norm'.\n\nThe shifting application of gender concepts, variously referring to individuals, social structures and symbolic systems, produced many of the puzzles and conflicts which continue to shadow it, both within and outside feminism. What is the connection between subjectivity and the socio-cultural relations of gender? Is gender neutrality possible, or are dominance and subordination intrinsic to gender differences? Were feminists aiming to eradicate gender, or merely to reform it? Does gender need to be refashioned to fit changing times? Is there some universal grounding, or set of determining factors, behind the transhistoric, global presence of men's greater access to power and privilege relative to women? How do changes in gender relations occur? How central or significant is gender in shaping women's and men's lives and experiences? What are the intersections of gender with other hierarchies of power and privilege?\n\nIn popular usage (and certain versions of what is known as 'liberal feminism'), there is no necessary relation between gender and power. Indeed, it is this potential symmetry between the two genders which leads French 'sexual difference theorists' to reject the concept altogether, as discussed below. Psychologists and clinicians, for the most part, see gender as involving harmony (or discord) between internalized concepts of self, biological sex and heterosexual object choice, with no reference to power. It is the psychoanalyst Robert Stoller who is usually credited with introducing 'gender' as an explanatory concept into the social sciences in 1968. With fellow clinicians in California, Stoller pioneered research on and treatment for gender-related problems. There is now a mushrooming medical interest in gender 'disorders', resulting in the diagnostic category of 'Gender Identity Disorder' entering the official list of psychopathologies in the USA ( _DSM-111_ ) in 1980, an affliction seen as manifest in cross-dressing and repeated desire to be the other sex.\n\nHowever, most feminists have always linked gender and power: indeed, were the two disconnected, there would be no need for feminism. Gender, as feminists have repeatedly demonstrated, is a central dynamic through which power is articulated: masculinity symbolizes power and authority; political power and moral authority is monopolized by men across all societies. Yet many men have little or no purchase on the power that is supposed to be the prerogative of their sex, while a significant minority of women have access to considerable power and privilege. Gender binaries never exist in pristine form. Women and men are always already inserted in contexts of race, class, age, sexual orientation and multiple other belongings: each with their deeply entrenched connections to power and authority, or the lack of it.\n\nIt is the difficulty of addressing the many questions surrounding gender, not least that of men's shifting and uneven purchase on power over others \u2013 including the women in closest proximity to them \u2013 which produced the more complex attempts to refigure 'gender theory' in the 1980s. Theorists searched for elaborations of gender broad enough to encompass its diverse social, psychological and cultural dynamics, mostly by stressing its intersections with class, race and other axes of power. Trying to analyse the different sites of gendered experiences and practices, feminists, in their more sophisticated formulations, began to theorize gender as an analytic tool for understanding cultural reality: seeing it as a category which operates in every sphere of human society, but in disparate ways which are neither fixed nor unitary. The historian Joan Scott, for example, distinguished four always interlinked but nevertheless distinct elements of gender, each forming part of the production of the perceived differences between the sexes in any specific context: (i) culturally available symbols which evoke multiple, often contradictory, representations; (ii) normative concepts for interpreting and using such symbols; (iii) social institutions and organizations; (iv) subjective identity. In line with the bulk of feminist reflection, Scott also emphasized that gender operates as a primary way of signifying relations of power: authority, strength, power are everywhere coded as masculine; dependence, weakness, the alien, subversive and bizarre, as feminine. Moreover, their metaphorical utilization is always intensified in times of crisis, or in the consolidation of new regimes of power.\n\nEven more hesitantly, the philosopher and psychotherapist Jane Flax argues that gender is not an object or set of objects, but rather that 'gendering' is always a complex and overdetermined, often conflicting, set of processes, which 'are provisional and must be reproduced and reworked throughout our lives.' From within sociology, Bob Connell has worked for many years to provide a 'systemic social theory of gender' which can encompass the movement, diversities, and personal and collective struggles encircling gender practices. Devoting slightly less time to cultural symbols and their discursive framings, he analyses the interplay between three central dynamics shaping and reshaping gender practices: sexual divisions of _labour_ in the home and the workplace; men's hold on state, juridical and all key sites of institutional _power,_ the patterns of _desire,_ or cathexis, first forged in the earliest relational bonds.\n\nHowever, it has not proved easy for feminists, or anyone else, to keep the complexities of the psychic, the social and the symbolic in play when trying to understand how the perceived differences and social exchanges between women and men are best understood. Pressures to simplify and collapse gender into individual sex differences, contrasting identities or fixed social roles feed the abiding tensions between those who stress the psychic life of difference, and those who study the social dynamics of the gender order.\n\n## **_The Allure of Difference_**\n\nOne is not born a woman; and Simone de Beauvoir, as feminists quickly noticed, seemed to dismiss as demeaning the most distinctive ways of becoming one. The veneration for men and masculinity pervading the _The Second Sex_ led many a feminist to distance herself from de Beauvoir, nowhere more passionately than in France itself. Nevertheless, with their account of a socially constructed 'femininity' as humbling and inhibiting women, second-wave feminists had early on been accused by others (and would often accuse each other) of playing down the differences between women and men and accepting the dominant dismissals of the feminine. The strident rebirth of feminism had focused first upon family life and women's dependent, undervalued, and not infrequently isolated and depressed domestic lives, especially when engaged in full-time mothering. From the USA, Ann Snitow would later trace feminists' repudiation of what came to be seen as the 'demon texts' of those early years. Most notorious was Shulamith Firestone's _The Dialectic of Sex,_ published in 1970, with its startling suggestion that feminism should 'free' women from their biology through technologies of artificial reproduction (a view immediately dismissed by most other feminists as hopelessly flawed). The iconoclastic view which nearly all early women's liberationists had in fact voiced was merely a challenge to the coercive norm of motherhood as women's defining destiny, the sole route to female happines: but that, of course, was in itself to prove incendiary, for women as much as for men.\n\nBy the mid-1970s the surge of interest in affirming women's lives in the face of rampant misogyny, feeding into the growth of women's studies in academic institutions and the rise of 'cultural feminism' in the wider women's movement, had begun to turn around earlier suspicions of the idea of women's distinctive characteristics, in favour of an appreciation of specific female experience. As early as 1973 Jane Alpert's essay 'Mother Right' appeared in the North American magazine _Ms.,_ arguing for a feminist 'matriarchal reorganization' of society as the alternative to a socialist vision. Soon afterwards more charismatic feminists, like the American poet Adrienne Rich, were writing lyrically of the revolutionary potential of women's bodies, and maternal experience \u2013 differentiating 'mothering' from existing patriarchal institutions of motherhood. Rich's work also reflected a powerful strand of lesbian theorizing of the 1970s. In an influential essay published in 1980, she spoke of the role of 'compulsory heterosexuality' in erasing lesbian consciousness from women's experience. Rich located 'lesbian existence' in the love and tenderness women have shown towards each other throughout history, identifying it as the building block of 'female power'. For Rich, the 'lesbian continuum' exists, if subterraneously, in all 'women-identified' women. In what would prove a controversial desexualization, Rich's lesbian continuum ranges from genital sexual activity to the gentle nurturing ways of women, who have provided for other women from the cradle to the grave.\n\nAn alternative critique of motherhood came from Nancy Chodorow's description of the effects of women's monopoly of parenting in the production of polarized and unequal gender identities: boys who are fearful of intimacy; girls who define themselves only in relation to others. Chodorow argued for change in, rather than celebration of, existing patterns of parenting. But the mothering themes of Rich and Chodorow helped inspire a new celebration of 'maternal thinking' and 'maternal practices', quickly evident in feminist writing at the close of the 1970s. To the dismay of some other feminists, it was one which largely ignored evidence of the frustration, aggression and intense ambivalence also present in women's mothering experiences.\n\nThe affirmation of gender difference was everywhere in feminist scholarship throughout the following decade, nowhere more strongly than in the USA where women's studies first set sail. From the widely acclaimed emphasis on women's separate styles of moral reasoning propounded by Carol Gilligan (who would eventually assume the first Chair of Gender Studies at Harvard University) to studies suggesting basic cognitive differences between women and men arising from women's separate 'ways of knowing', women were positioned in their own distinct, and supposedly shared, gendered space.\n\nMeanwhile, radical feminists in the USA extended this approach to singling out contrasts between male and female sexual practices (supposedly institutionalized through pornography) as pivotal to men's global dominance. In Catharine MacKinnon's influential theory, gender consolidates itself through eroticized domination and submission: 'the social relation between the sexes is organized so that men may dominate and women must submit and this relation is sexual \u2013 in fact, is sex'. MacKinnon, however, denies the existence of sexual difference as other than that of sexual domination (male) and sexual violation (female). The condition of coerced sexual subordination, or 'whore', constitutes the social meaning of 'woman' in the 'sexist social order' of heterosexuality: 'women are unimaginable without the violation and validation of the male touch'; 'What I've learned from women's experience with sexuality is that exploitation and degradation produce grateful complicity in exchange for survival'. Moreover, as discussed in the previous chapter, the popular appeal of MacKinnon-style anti-pornography feminism, in offering cheap and simplistic solutions to the endemic and seemingly increasing problem of men's violence, meant that her theory and political agenda was soon being promoted as the imprimatur of feminism by much of the media.\n\nAt its best, gender analysis aimed to highlight a complex array of shifting, often contradictory, sites of compliance or struggle around men's power and authority across symbolic, psychic and institutional realms. But what the very different understandings of gender I have cited have in common is their attempt to make a single site of gender regulation stand in for all the others, in order to consolidate gender contrasts, and assign them universal causes. The most structurally static of all the theories of gender, the MacKinnonite equation of gender with sexual coercion (and its related demand for state regulation to protect women from victimization in pornography) was sadly, as I have indicated, also the one which would capture media attention, and be broadcast as paradigmatic of feminism. Germaine Greer is receiving unprecedented media promotion to disseminate this very same message even as I write, insisting that anyone who refuses to see that domination is intrinsic to heterosexual genital penetration is 'in denial'. Meanwhile, throughout the reign of far right governments in Britain and the USA in the 1980s, best-selling books appeared from women calling themselves feminists which were overtly scornful of every aspect of the earlier feminist search for women's social and political equality with men, including their campaign in the USA for the Equal Rights Amendment, concurrently being derailed by Reagan. The pull of what is called 'difference theory', relating to women's distinctive bodily and social experiences, thus took centre stage in the most influential forms of Anglo-American feminism. Yet this very prioritizing of gender difference occurred alongside a sharply contrasting rejoinder to the disentangling of difference: attention to divisions between women themselves.\n\nThe flowering of black and other particularizing feminist voices in the 1980s launched an upsurge of anger at the false universality in previous feminist accounts of women's supposedly special qualities which, they argued, merely represented the experiences of white, middle-class, Western women. In the haunting words of Audre Lorde, who knew that 'all women do not suffer the same oppression simply because they are women', or Alice Walker, who declared it 'apparently, inconvenient, if not downright mind straining, for white women scholars to think of black women as women', black feminists challenged white women's failure to prioritize racism, poverty or ethnic specificities in their celebration of women's identity. Barbara Smith, one of the editors of the powerful anthology by American 'women of colour', _All the Women are White, All the Blacks are Men, But some of Us are Brave,_ published in 1982, declared that unless the vision of feminism was one which 'struggles to free _all_ women', it becomes 'merely female self aggrandizement'. Another of its editors, the influential Chicano writer Gloria Anzald\u00faa, would later develop the notion of the 'mestiza', to describe the predicament of people who occupy 'the borderlands' between cultures (like the Chicana, or Mexicans, in the USA).\n\nAttentive to cultural location, and its barely visible articulation, these women of colour nevertheless tended to adopt a strongly materialist feminism, stressing economic and structural oppression alongside what would soon emerge as a more fashionable, near exclusive, focus upon the complexities of linguistic and discursive hierarchies of subordination and abjection. In Britain, as in the USA, black women throughout the 1980s were equally insistent that 'white, mainstream feminist theory... does not speak to the experiences of Black Women and where it attempts to do so it is often from a racist perspective and reasoning'. Numerous Third World feminists, like Chandra Mohanty in her essay 'Under Western Eyes', now regularly spelt out the colonial presumptions in Western feminism's attempted universalization of women's subordination, emphasizing that the structuring of gender is always strongly marked by racial, cultural and other geopolitical relations of power.\n\nThe synchronicity of accounts of women's distinctive gender difference offered by some theorists in the 1980s and the forceful feminist assertion of a multiplicity of 'differences' (most crucially around race and ethnicity, alongside the celebration of lesbian consciousness) was a peculiarly volatile coexistence. It would lead many feminists to endorse a type of pragmatic, yet somewhat contradictory, pluralism towards issues of 'difference': their centrality and significance always in threat from their collision and proliferation. For example, while many nineties feminist texts equate a 'politics of difference' with attention to 'the specificity of black women's experience and the racism of white feminists', many of the black and Third World feminists they consider themselves to be embracing remain more ambivalent about the contemporary feminist focus on questions of subjectivity and difference. A confusion is at once apparent in the repeated affirmation that 'since the 1980s an erstwhile politics of identity has largely been superseded by a politics of difference'. It is unclear how the one concept is supposed to replace the other, when the two concepts are mutually constitutive: no identity without difference, and no difference without some kind of identification. This is particularly evident if we look at the next twist in the increasingly tangled tale of the move to 'difference theory' in the 1980s.\n\n## **_The Romance of Otherness_**\n\nFeminist scholars, influenced by developments in European philosophy, began using the tools of post-structuralist and psychoanalytic theory to challenge the reliance upon the category of experience in accounts of identity, or claims to difference. They were dismissive of most Anglo-American gender theory as mere sociological reductionism. Derrida's 'deconstructive' method of studying texts was used to uncover the metaphysical error of assuming that knowledge is grounded in some foundational experience, rather than in the shifting heterogeneity of discourses which serve to produce meaning. Following Ferdinand de Saussure's structural linguistics, meaning is seen here as constructed through the operation of linguistic contrasts or oppositions, rather than through correspondence with objects in the world. In Derridian theory, 'diff\u00e9rance' does not refer specifically to sexual difference, but rather to the endless dispersal of subjectivity and the inevitable deferral of meaning consequent upon the multiple applications and chronic instabilities of mutually interdepedendent, but nevertheless always hierarchical, binaries. The dominant 'masculine' term presupposes its 'feminine' underside, for instance, and vice versa. It is not just the case that these pervasive dichotomies cannot securely be held apart. Derrida also points to the set of exclusions necessary for their production: all that is outside the dialectic of negation cannot be represented in intelligent discourse. Nevertheless, within the snares of the binaries underpinning Western metaphysics \u2013 identity\/difference, presence\/absence, universality\/ particularity \u2013 the 'feminine' appears only as the underside, the negative, the perennial representative of 'otherness', in feminist appropriations of deconstruction.\n\nIn contrast, sexual difference is central to the whole order of representation in psychoanalytic post-structuralism. With little interest in sociological theories of gender, feminist psychoanalytic literature influenced by Lacan addressed the central place of sexual difference at the heart of psychic life. In this view, gender theorists have mistakenly focused on social and material aspects of women's subordination, ignoring the deeper _asymmetry_ between the sexes: the semiotic and symbolic structures which place women outside its categories of representation, irrespective of specific social and political arrangements. Here, it is argued that feminists need to begin from the emergence of subjectivity, or psychic individuality, which occurs in and through language, via entry into the Symbolic domain in which the phallus always already exists as the 'privileged signifier'. This ensures women's negative entry into culture. Women are constituted in terms of lack, and men \u2013 since the phallus is not the penis \u2013 in terms of the constant threat of lack.\n\nMost significantly, in this account, femininity is never securely acquired or completed. In Jacqueline Rose's well-known summary: 'the unconscious constantly reveals the failure of identity'. (This perspective differs from that of 'object-relations' psychoanalysis, like that of the early Chodorow, where women's mothering ensures that daughters successfully internalize a nurturing and receptive femininity.) But, if sexual difference is a site of instability and failure at the individual unconscious level, it is nevertheless presented as a permanent structure in the timeless Symbolic. Inescapable antagonism between the sexes is thus inscribed within the Lacanian formation of subjectivity, as I discuss more fully in chapter 6.\n\nMore surprisingly, it was precisely the imperious rejection of any possibility of affirming the feminine in Lacan's structuralist account of phallocentric culture which would lure post-Lacanian feminists to do just that: attempt to delineate the feminine in terms of its seditious 'Otherness', an imagined subterranean existence outside the phallogocentric laws of Man or God. The most sophisticated, indeed esoteric, forms of difference theory were expounded in the work of those who claimed the name of 'French Feminism'. H\u00e9l\u00e8ne Cixous and Luce Irigaray fought the erasure of the feminine in the Symbolic order by producing their dissident poetics of the 'feminine feminine' and, with Julia Kristeva, celebrated the subversive potential of the tactile, rhythmic semiosis of the pre-Oedipal, pre-symbolic, maternal murmurings and communications, in disordering the Symbolic order. Although accused by other equally prominent theorists, for example Gayatri Spivak, of Eurocentric essentialism in their exclusive convergence upon _sexual_ difference as the definitive difference constituting subjectivity (however devoid of fixity) French Feminism was nevertheless to prove highly influential in feminist scholarship. In a new type of romanticized 'feminist myth of origins', a nostalgia for the imaginary symbiosis of the lost (pre-Oedipal) mother-child bond came to serve as a crucial psychic space for articulating the feminine, as Mary Jacobus reflected in the late 1980s.\n\nHoping to bypass accusations of bias and exclusion, more recent sexual difference theorists have insisted upon the infinite heterogeneity, the absolute alterity, and complete absence of _any_ distinctive qualities in the 'feminine imaginary' they seek to liberate from the shackles of inescapable phallocentrism. In the words of Drucilla Cornell: 'Feminism demands nothing less than the unleashing of the feminine imaginary made possible, paradoxically, by the lack of grounding of the feminine in any of the identifications we know and imagine as Woman'. Speaking what they declare unspeakable, opposing all binaries by pitching the 'wholly Other' against phallogocentrism, privileging the opposition they aim to deprivilege, theorists of sexual difference have been straining conceptual coherence and intelligibility, along with political pertinence.\n\nRita Felski summarizes many of the incongruities others have noticed in these abstruse renditions in her essay 'The Doxa of Difference'. If it were the case that language and human culture has been an exclusively male creation, why should contemporary feminists be any more successful at freeing themselves from the inescapable grip of phallocentric thought than their predecessors, whom they judge to have failed? In fabricating an avant-garde semiotics of difference, other feminist struggles are frequently dismissed as merely superficial reforms complicit with the masculine symbolic. As Felski concludes: 'A vision of femininity as pure otherness cannot speak to the messy blend of tradition and innovation, of recuperation and recreation, of borrowing from the past and imagining the future, that shapes feminist practise.' Indeed, disdain for women's collective action separate from the delineation of feminine difference has accompanied French psychoanalytic feminism almost from its inception. 'We try not to be political', Julia Kristeva notoriously declared in an interview on British television in 1984. More menacingly, Irigaray attacked other feminists fighting for equality, rather than asserting the importance of sexual difference, with the apocalyptic warning: 'To want to abolish sexual difference is to call for a more complete genocide than every other destruction in history'.\n\nThere is an unbridgeable gap here between post-Lacanian difference theorists and those working, however critically, with more sociological applications of gender theory. Feminists, like me, who write about gender, cannot accept the idea that the overriding contradiction for feminists lies in an irreducible and irreversible asymmetry in the symbolic domain, unaffected by socio-historical shifts and pressures. The primary political point of gender theory, as I would choose to use it, is to explore the ways in which gendered identities are mutable cultural and historical productions, subjectively experienced as both precarious yet fundamental \u2013 with that precariousness most evident in men's uncertain hold on phallic masculinity. The experiences and practices which stabilize as gender identity operate at diverse and shifting levels: from the most uniquely constituted inner recesses of the psyche, through the more flexible familial or occupational organizations of daily life, to enduring gender hierarchies embedded in symbolic configurations and ruling cultural and political elites. Changes at one level (like the visibility of strong and confident women, with authority in the home, the workplace and public life) create ruptures and fissures which can begin to effect change at other levels. Moreover, gender identities and practices are always themselves permeated by the effects of class, race, ethnicity and nationality.\n\nIn contrast, difference theorists, as Rosi Braidotti explains, believe that gender theory deradicalizes feminism and ignores its central task, that of 'empowering a female feminist subject': 'The whole point of taking the trouble to define, analyse, and act on sexual difference as a project aiming at the symbolic empowerment of the feminine (defined as \"the other of the other\") is to turn it into a platform of political action for and by women.' Later, Braidotti, via Deleuze, tries to illustrate how this 'other of the other', the feminine desiring subject, might 'find the exit from the prison-house of phallogocentric language': 'To achieve this, we need a quiet, molecular, viral, and therefore unstoppable revolution within the self, multiplied over a multitude of different selves acting as historical agents of change.' For me, at least, these two political projects are not in dialogue. Simply put, with my own theoretical presuppositions, I am unable to provide an adequate account of Braidotti's position, since I can make scant sense of it as a politics.\n\nNot surprisingly, many feminists who were aware of, but often did not participate in, the never-ending battles over sameness versus difference, gender parity versus deconstruction\/rewriting of the feminine subject, were wearied and confused by these relentless theoretical reworkings, leading some to speak of an 'identity crisis in feminist theory'. More judiciously, others counselled acceptance of both sides of the binary of 'being' and 'not being' a woman, since the divide exists as a marker of women's equivocal entry into modernity, both offering and withholding the inclusion of women in its vision of the freedom and equality it promises the straight, white, male, as subject of his own estate.\n\nIn what remains for me the most perceptive and enlightening of all the reflections on identity, Ann Snitow's 'Gender Diary', written at the close of the 1980s, records her own chronically anxious personal and theoretical oscillations over needing to value and organize around being a 'woman', and needing to reject the very category 'woman', and all its baggage. She argues persuasively that feminists can no more finally choose between the two positions than they can avoid _having_ to choose within the twists and turns of ongoing political endeavour. Moreover, the divide always returns, in grassroots activism as well as in theory production, even though the issues propelling women into solidarity movements with other women are often not specifically gender issues. The grassroots women's movements she and other activist-oriented feminist scholars supported and studied, like the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo in Argentina (demonstrating against the state over the deaths of their kidnapped and murdered children), often fractured over the political remit of their struggle, beyond that of the expression of maternal outrage.\n\nThe fluctuations over minimizing or maximizing difference seem inevitable, at all levels of the intersecting realms of the biological, the psychological, the social and the symbolic. Snitow concludes that there can be no transcendence of gender: the paradoxical desires to express, and to escape from, the feminine (like the particular significance of the many other forces governing women's lives) will shift only through historical change, they will not be resolved through theoretical revisions.\n\n> From moment to moment we perform subtle psychological and social negotiations about just how gendered we choose to be.... One can be recalled to \"woman\" any time \u2013 by things as terrible as rape, as trivial as a rude shout in the street \u2013 but one can never stay inside \"woman\", because it keeps moving. We constantly find ourselves beyond its familiar cover.\n\nHer words echo those of the British theorist and poet Denise Riley, who similarly notes the fluctuations of gendered identity while arguing that the history of feminism has been a struggle against 'over-zealous identifications' of what women are supposed to be: 'feminism must negotiate the quicksands of \"women\" which will not allow it to settle on either identities or counter-identities, but which condemn it to an incessant striving for a brief foothold'. From this perspective, feminists can neither close down, nor retreat from, the questions gender raises: whether examining the myriad discourses in which it appears, or seeking equity in the diverse social relations it helps to structure.\n\n## **_The Joys of Queer_**\n\nSome feminists have come to accept the inevitability of living with the paradoxes of gender, wanting to assert difference inside sameness, and sameness inside difference. Others have sought nothing short of complete deliverance from its trappings. After the excitement and the anger which feminism once generated had dissipated \u2013 through internal conflicts and the recessionary tempo of the early 1980s \u2013 a fresh upsurge of political and theoretical ebullience emerged from lesbian and gay activists and scholars at the close of the decade. Feminism was a decisive influence on the emergence of gay and lesbian studies and activities (since the maintenance of the power and privileges of straight men was seen as pivotal to the policing of homosexuality), but its influence here had significantly declined, if not reversed, by the 1990s.\n\nThe inspiration for much of the new lesbian and gay agenda was the desire for an analytic and political separation of the category of sexuality from that of gender. Gayle Rubin's argument in 'Thinking Sex' (1984) is usually cited as the seminal influence; she departs from her earlier essay on the sex\/gender system to argue that the power relations of 'sexuality' cannot be reduced to those of 'gender'. Building on this distinction, Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick suggests that working with sexuality offers more space for deconstructive work on identity and its constraints, given 'its far greater potential for rearrangement, ambiguity, and representational doubleness', than does working with 'gender', since 'virtually all people are publicly and unalterably [ _sic_ ] assigned to one or other gender, and from birth'. Illustrating the growing appeal of this analytic separation, the editors of the most comprehensive North American lesbian and gay anthology, published in 1993, suggest: 'Lesbian\/gay studies does for _sex_ and _sexuality_ approximately what women's studies does for gender'.\n\nCatapulted into action by the calamity of death and suffering from AIDS (which decimated gay subcultures in the 1980s), armed with the diverse tools of discourse theory, deconstruction and psychoanalysis, a new flowering of lesbian and gay scholarship emerged under the banner of Queer Theory. Kicking off what some saw as the exclusionary and strictly gendered identities of 'lesbian' and 'gay', queer politics embraces every possible form of dissident sexualities, each demanding visibility in the straight world \u2013 not mere tolerance (at best), when closeted behind closed doors. 'What's Queer?', Sedgwick asks, and provides as part of her answer:\n\n> The experimental linguistic, epistemological, representational, political adventures attaching to the very many of us who may at times be moved to describe ourselves as (among other things) pushy femmes, radical faeries, fantasists, drags, clones, leatherfolk, ladies in tuxedoes, feminist women or feminist men, masturbators, bulldagers, divas, Snap! queens, butch bottoms, storytellers, transsexuals, aunties, wannabes, lesbian-identified men or lesbians who sleep with men, or... people able to relish, learn from, or identify with such.\n\nWith that colourful sweep, almost anybody, it seemed, who was sufficiently stylish, could jump onto the queer platform, which was fast emerging as the cutting edge of fashion in some of the largest Western academic, political and art forums of the 1990s. 'For this', as British sociologist Ken Plummer observes, 'is the Golden Age of gay and lesbian studies'. In a brilliant outpouring of texts, many of these confident new sexual outlaws set about the final trashing of gender, via the dismantling of the hetero\/homosexual hierarchy.\n\nThe addition of Foucault's writings to the arsenal of deconstructions of identity (as the alien, incoherent and unstable effect of discourse) would inspire more strategies of resistance to bodily inscriptions of gender. In his account of the history of sexuality, the discourses constructing and regulating the body and its activities are the primary site for the operation of power in modern societies. This form of domination is no longer primarily manifest in repressive decrees issuing from on high, but rather through the far more pervasive, subtle and elusive micro-practices for making sense of daily life. For the last two centuries, it has been sexuality (the body as metaphor for the soul) which increasingly grounded the truth of who and what we are: 'the project of a science of the subject has gravitated, in ever narrower circles, around the question of sex'. Here, sexual identities are implanted by professional discourses which have their origins in regulatory fictions organized around the heterosexual\/homosexual divide, tied to the masculine\/feminine, active\/passive polarities of gender.\n\nAppropriating Foucault for feminism, Judith Butler (who would quickly emerge as the single most cited feminist theorist of the 1990s) calls into question the need for a stable 'female' identity for feminist practice, and instead examines the potential of a radical critique of categories of identity in her book _Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity._ Here, she suggests that the three concepts of 'sex', 'gender' and 'sexuality' are established in discourse only through a process of reiteration, or enactment in repeated cultural performances, that congeal over time to produce the effect of identity. Gender performativity is not seen as a choice, but rather gender identities acquire what stability and coherence they have through a range of discourses available for delineating the body, all of which are framed within the coercive context of the 'heterosexual matrix' (a notion drawn from the work of Monique Wittig). Identities are always normative and hence exclusionary.\n\nWomen are _neither_ born _nor_ made; but our actions are rendered intelligible only by the involuntary performance (or flouting) of heteronormative cultural discourses. However, Butler sees possible subversive effects or potential for resignifications in performative display which exposes the _artificiality_ or constructedness of the oppositional markers of heterosexuality. Dissident sexual acts make 'trouble' for gender categories, disturbing the heterosexual matrix which secures sex and gender binaries: male\/female to active\/passive. The proliferation of sexual acts performed in non-heterosexual contexts thus disrupt and weaken normative gender framings. From diesel dykes to lipstick lesbians, drag queens to muscle men, perverse sexualities potentially reinscribe or resignify sex and gender categories through their transgressive mimicry or, in Butler's words, 'subversive repetition', of the heterosexual 'original', which is itself culturally crafted. Articulating what would become a founding statement of queer theory, Butler concluded: ' _In imitating gender, drag implicitly reveals the imitative structure of gender itself- as well as its contingency._ '  Though Butler herself would soon strike a cautionary note, her ideas encouraged an upsurge of delighted followers \u2013 even a _JUDY_ fanzine in California \u2013 among those who felt they could at last radically free themselves from the constraints of gender. Via a kind of improvisational theatrics for remaking the body, her fans were busy putting on, and off, the stylized practices and markings of gender, in non-normative or queer framings.\n\nWhat is so striking, and to some feminists was so disturbing, about the engagement of lesbian feminists with queer theory in the 1990s is its strategic reversal of the women-centred identity politics so forcefully expressed by the directly preceding, and still overlapping, generation of lesbian feminists. In terms of queer politics \u2013 not to mention the classical conception of perverse sexuality as deriving from gender inversion \u2013 the 'woman-identified-feminist' earlier celebrated by writers like Adrienne Rich (in what was called 'cultural feminism') was a very 'straight' sort of lesbian: a gender _conformist_ rather than a gender dissident, albeit outside sexual exchange with men. These rising lesbian rebels tended to exaggerate the homogeneity and rigidities of their feminist predecessors, but they issued a decisive challenge to what had become the increasingly restrictive moralisms of significant strands of radical, lesbian and cultural feminisms: sharing new norms of acceptable 'feminist' sexuality, modelled on an ideal of 'lesbian' sex. This involved the denunciation of the 'patriarchal' act of penetration, dildoes, exhibitionism, power plays, pornography, and any hint or echoes of what were seen as definitively oppressive 'heterosexual' fantasies and practices. As many lesbians would later conclude (and some already said back in the 1970s and 1980s), this was a period when the 'lesbian' was desexualized, to be presented as a political prototype in line with the dubious exhortation, 'Feminism is the theory; lesbianism is the practice': 'For five years I was terrified of getting my fingers near a vagina, lest they engage in a politically incorrect act.... We thought our sexuality was oceanic in those days, more transcendent than transgressive', queer theorist and AIDS activist Cindy Patton recalled in 1989. 'I survived lesbian feminism and still desire women', a Butler enthusiast would proudly inform her new mentor.\n\nOf course, quite a number of lesbian feminists had always resisted what they saw as a compulsory 'feminist sexuality', a few choosing instead to explore the lavishly diverse range of consensual desires, fantasies, pleasures and practices, most brilliantly memorialized in the sexual stories and pornographic fictions of Joan Nestle. However, queer emphasis on the political significance of sexual and bodily ambiguities encouraged far wider lesbian and feminist exploration of the profoundly perplexing nature of much sexual fantasy and practice, which had previously been muffled, if not actually censored. It similarly triggered awareness of the hitherto often repudiated links between power and desire; as indeed, had certain psychoanalytic feminisms, before it. More uniquely, it brought a host of once marginalized \u2013 often derided \u2013 agents to the forefront of queer analysis to unsettle or denaturalize the binary categories of gender, and to expand the possibilities for bodily experience. As Butler clarifies, hoping to reassure those feminists for whom her own political trajectory remains alien: To conceive of bodies differently seems to me part of the conceptual and philosophical struggle that feminism involves'. I agree.\n\nWith the eruption of new sexual agents, theoretically tooled for 'resistance to regimes of the normal', queer politics eagerly highlighted the deviant, disowned, often anonymous, sex acts which occur in the subterranean world of public life (in parks, clubs and toilets), as Michael Warner celebrates in his introduction to _Fear of a Queer Planet,_ (1993). Occasionally, queer helped to fashion the resistance of hitherto completely quarantined and invisible sexual groupings, as in the formation of the Intersex Society of North America in 1992, for individuals born with 'ambiguous' genitals. More often, it consolidated the rebellion of those once most marginalized within older lesbian and gay (not to mention 'straight') communities. No longer simply the object of medical and social surveillance and management, in compliance with heterosexualizing gender imperatives, the body became the site of resistance for those who felt newly empowered to engage in self-formation and self-fashioning, placing choice and flexibility at the centre of their lives. Ironically, the antiidentity project of Foucault, Butler and post-modern discourse generally, was helping to provide the motivation for a crafting of _new_ identities. The body was now the transcendent cultural metaphor for the blurring of boundaries between authenticity and artifice, material and virtual reality, our all-too-solid flesh and endlessly refurbishing machines.\n\n## **_Transgender Dialogues_**\n\nIt was what Robert Stoller saw as the pathological plight of transsexuals \u2013 desiring bodily modifications to align their genitals with their sense of self \u2013 which had prompted him to promulgate the notion of 'gender' as the core category of identity. With neat irony, today, transsexuals are embraced as part of a queer vanguard able to disturb and unsettle, if not transcend, that very category (although by no means all transsexuals see themselves as transgressive). 'I am a transsexual by choice, not by pathology', the ebullient Kate Bornstein affirms in her engaging book _Gender Outlaw: On Men, Women, and the Rest of Us._ Identifying as a transsexual lesbian, the thespian Bornstein argues that transsexuals who identify as 'transgendered' (a term recently coined to refer to all who _choose_ to engage in cross-gender practices) can be seen as finding a means of escape from the rigidly bipolar gender system: the cultural imperative to be either a man or a woman. Wittily teasing all those separatist feminists who make her so unwelcome, she boasts: 'I'm _probably_ the only lesbian to have successfully castrated a man and gone on to laugh about it on stage, in print and on national television'. More prosaically, Anne Bolin, in her essay on male-to-female transsexuals, published in 1994, argues that transgenderism has the potential to undermine and transcend the gender system by refusing the connections between biological sexual signifiers and performances of gender.\n\nBut this line of escape from gender would prove contentious, and not just (although, for sure) with homophobic or defensive heterosexuals, and straight or lesbian separatist feminists. In proclaiming the indeterminacy of gender, via dissident sexual practices, there is the danger of becoming more, rather than less, obsessed with its endless permutations. Exemplifying a cavalcade of queer self-presentations in the USA, Judith Halberstam applauds: The drag king can be male or female; she can be transgendered; she can be butch or femme.' That is so, and there is real pleasure and excitement in embodying (and for many in viewing) such transgressive figurations, which both mock and magnify the ways in which sex, gender and sexuality are habitually conceived and enacted. But, however parodic and pluralistic, to what extent is transsexualism an 'escape' from gender? How often is it read as emancipatory or subversive?\n\nIcons of mass culture, from Mae West to Madonna, Valentino to Michael Jackson, have always thrived on forms of sexual ambiguity which suggest the seductive appeal of a transgressive or perverse dynamic at the very heart of heterosexist culture. But with drag and queer display as popular (or unpopular) with reactionary as with radical audiences, its ability to unsettle and subvert normative structures of gender and sexuality seems no more powerful than its ability to mirror and to legitimate them. The uncanny strength of conventional sexual and gender binaries is their ability to triumph over the repeated attempts, both theoretical and performative, to dismantle and deconstruct them; to survive the copious evidence that behind heterosexual normality lies polymorphous perversion (as Freud is still loathed for telling us). As I explored in _Straight Sex,_ the braided hierarchies of sexuality and gender have a remarkable capacity to thrive precisely on their own contradictions.\n\nIt is not just that it can all be such very hard work (and very painful) trying to escape from one's assigned gender, striving to match one's appearance to whatever transgendered bodies seem to accord better with one's own feelings and fantasies of bodily authenticity \u2013 whether or not with a sense of freedom, or of drastic compulsion. It is also that the old gender markings are still _in place_ in transgendered bodies, as Mandy Merck spells out: 'Drag fascinates in its simultaneous display of contradictory sexual meanings, not in their resolution or dispersal. It no more transcends gender than Michael Jackson's surgically altered appearance transcends race'. Rather than transcending gender, the current fashionability of and preoccupation with transsexuality and bisexuality, cross-dressing and all the other attempts to combine and repackage gender and sexual signifiers, might be thought to keep us all the more in thrall to their now multiply exhausting demands and anxieties, fears and pleasures.\n\nAs Roger Lancaster ponders (after studying a variety of transgender practices in Latin America): 'Is male, phallic hegemony made, unmade, or re-made in this queer theatre of gender?' It could be any of these three, depending on the nature and context of its audience, and the understandings they bring to bear on it. The 'black queer diva' Marlon Riggs expresses 'his' own suspicions of transgressive performances (not to mention the incongruous readings which back his personal self-imagining!): 'Le Butch-Girl wonders, for instance, if her\/his permission to say gender-fuck is contingent upon knowing and articulating Fanon, Foucault, Gates, Gilroy, hooks, Hall, West, and the rest as well'. Indeed, Butler herself has repeatedly made such statements as: 'I don't think drag is a paradigm for the subversion of gender. I don't think that if we were all more dragged out gender life would be more expansive and less restrictive'; and '[Transgender practices] can work to destabilize or to retrench dominant notions of gender, and they can work to link normative gender with normative heterosexuality, _or_ to sever them from one another'.\n\nLancaster and Butler thus agree that transgenderism may have both radical and conservative, transgressive and conformist, ramifications. However, faithful to Foucauldian formulations, they also agree that it is no more 'fraudulent' than any other enactment of gender. This is what they see as its strength in providing a _commentary_ on gender, whether or not it is one which is decipherable by others. This perception leads Lancaster to reflect on the potential challenges to gender identity posed by heterosexuality itself.\n\n> The \"deceptions\" of the transvestites are different from those of \"real women\" in degree rather than in kind. Nor is the precarious posturing of their \"masculine\" partners so different from that of other \"men\". The \"real\" man in a relationship with a biological woman is no less vulnerable to the sudden revelation that his partner is more a \"man\" than he.\n\nThe latter point is one I have myself frequently illustrated, in both _Slow Motion_ and _Straight Sex,_ suggesting that although heterosexual engagement is quintessential to the confirmation of masculinity, it may also serve as its undoing.\n\nYet for all its commentary on gender and sexuality (available to those already enlightened), self-styled post-modern performances of flexible self-invention become more problematic, the closer the inspection of them. _The consummation of transsexual desire is the most decisive form of gender consolidation, notwithstanding its literal enactment of gender construction._ It is a perfect illustration of the fact that an awareness that gender is 'socially', 'performatively' or 'discursively' constructed, is very far from a dismantling of gender. Thus, while some queer theorists, as I have suggested, see transsexualism as the apogee of liberated sex, which has 'refused its imprisonment in the phallocentric orbit of gender', there are other queer theorists who emphasize that it merely literalizes and thereby 'works to stabilize the old sex\/gender system'. In the most nuanced study of transsexualism I have seen, Jay Prosser rejects the transgressive\/ literalizing binary to suggest instead that we simply listen carefully to transsexual and transgendered narratives for what they tell us about the continuing cultural force of feelings of biological embodiedness, and related gender belonging. These narratives, he suggests, 'produce not the revelation of the fictionality of gendered categories but the sobering realization of their ongoing foundational power'.\n\nCuriously, given the extraordinary degree of human reconstruction it involves, I suspect it is in its testimony to the continuing force of gender figurations that we can best explain why transsexualism is today, surprisingly, becoming _more_ acceptable, at this time of widespread anxiety over upheavals in gender relations. In both Britain and the USA, upmarket broadsheets have recently been seeking out and publicizing the most sympathetic articles and news commentary on transsexuals. Significantly, however, the people they cover have all slotted into the more traditional transsexual (as distinct from transgender) narrative of being 'born with the wrong body'. Here it is gender, rather than sex, which is seen as the fixed and fundamental category, and the genitals are seen as a type of 'mask' that doesn't fit: 'I do not have a psychological condition', Claire reports (who before her sex change operation had chosen the surprisingly 'manly' job of policeman), 'I never chose to be like this. I was born like this, it is not a whim. It is a medical condition.' These transsexuals describe themselves as 'nature's mistakes'. It is not so surprising, therefore, that the scientists who feel they know all about 'nature' (and are in tune with the _Zeitgeist_ in mainstream biological and social sciences) persevered until one of their number managed to come up with a correlation to enable journalists to rush into print to report that in one foetus in 10,000 the 'area of the brain responsible for gender develops in contradiction with the external sex organs'. It is an area of the brain which has mysteriously managed to escape the attention of other biological scientists, despite their obsessive, hundred-year search for it!\n\nWhether the pursuit of bodily transformation is seen as dictated by 'nature', conditioned by family and cultural experiences, or simply a form of freely chosen self-expression in selecting one's body of 'choice', the blurring which occurs is _not_ one between genders so much as one between subversive rebellion against, and conservative accommodation to, oppositional gender binaries. Moreover, self-construction resonates perfectly with the comprehensive commodification of contemporary capitalism. The prosthetic body becomes merely the latest, enormously profitable, consumer product, whether via cosmetic surgery, drugs, implants, or whatever the roving biomedical and fashion industry can come up with to accommodate individual fantasy to its new commercial technologies. More generally, as Alan Sinfield worries, queer theorists can be seen as 'particularly complicit' with an oppressive economic and political system: They celebrate the fluidity of the subject, which suits the marketing business very well; they present the moment-to-moment desperation of capitalism as analagous to gay cruising and as the best kind of life; they glamourise the \"risk\" in S\/M practices in the language of stock-market trading in derivatives.'\n\nA final problem with queer theory's programme of exposing the volatility and constraints of gender identity lies in its characteristic disdain for the psychic pain, fear and potential disintegration which so often accompanies gender uncertainties \u2013 outside the protective boundaries of academic or theatrical engagement. As the British psychoanalyst Adam Phillips remarks: 'Being blithe about transgression quickly becomes a way of forgetting that people actually suffer, and so of putting the (moral) emphasis in the wrong place.' That suffering, it is certainly true, is produced and constantly exacerbated by the invasive and pathologizing cruelties of heteronormativity. But that is not all there is to say about people's desire for a sense of identity and belonging. All identities provide a necessary coherence and stability, a familiar place from which to act. Indeed, as Jonathan Dollimore suggests, identity serves as a constant protection _against_ desire. However dissident, identities provide not only refuge and solidarity, but a way of disowning unwanted, disconcerting or embarrassing desires. Dollimore recounts the reflections of a gay man who is completely horrified to find that he desires a straight black woman, only to express his enormous satisfaction on learning that the object of his desire is reassuringly 'all-man': 'Oh god, the relief, the blessed relief!' After feminism, after gender theory, after queer theory, after all the flaunting of the inherent instabilities or fluidities of gender and sexuality, the problem remains: we still live in a world haunted by cultural and personal fixations on sexual opposition. As Prosser shows us, transsexual narratives 'return us to the complexities and difficulties that inevitably accompany real-life experiences of gender crossing and the personal costs of not simply being a man or a woman... [where] transition often proves a barely livable zone'.\n\n## **_Back to Gender?_**\n\nWe are all transsexuals now, Jean Baudrillard declares, with his reliably hyperbolic rhetoric. Pessimistic conservative that he is, despite his bizarre elevation as post-modern hero, Baudrillard mourns this new flexibility of desires and pleasures. Today we are all _'symbolically_ transsexuals', accelerating into a void where 'nothing is either masculine or feminine': 'Once the orgy has faded away, the liberation of sex will have had the effect of sending everybody in search of their \"gender\", their generic and sexual identity, with fewer and fewer answers given the circulation of signs and the multiplicity of pleasures'. Despite welcoming rather than lamenting the spaces where gender flexibilities and sexual ambiguities are free to flourish, I see things differently. We have transcended neither gender nor sexual hierarchies, although their enactments have certainly been subject to considerable upheaval: some, the product of organized resistance and transgressive agitation; most, the product of unintended displacements and commercial possibilities.\n\nAt least among the cosmopolitan cultural elite, the emergence of queer rhetorics and confrontational politics enhanced awareness of the tenuousness of both gendered and sexual identities, and the discontinuities in the ties that supposedly bind them. They also mobilized new alliances in the face of the violence of persisting homophobia and the harsh policing of any challenges to heterosexual conformity which do not keep to their designated niches \u2013 on stage, vaudeville, in carnivalesque festivities, or wherever they are permitted for one brief moment to entertain and titillate, but not lead astray, the presumptively heterosexual milieu. Transgression can be part of a wider culture of oppositional consciousness (its often disturbing impact strongest when it is new and surprising), and can help to build the progressive political struggle on many fronts. But that broader struggle has become less and less visible in recent lesbian and gay texts, which, in the context of the withering away of left alliances and principles, are more concerned with post-modern literary theory.\n\nThe British AIDS activist and theorist Simon Watney asks why the recent lesbian and gay studies movement has had so little to say about the experience of living with the AIDS epidemic: 'often preferring to view [it] through the binoculars of arcane literary theory, rather than the perspective of establishing and fulfilling urgent, practical research needs.' When such research is undertaken, of course, it immediately brings us back to all the ways (both symbolic and tangible) in which the now far less attractive issues of racialization and class are central to the formation and practices of sexuality, alongside gender and global relations of power. These include: the hugely diverse rates of longevity and suffering for those living with HIV and AIDS; the prospects or obstacles for sex education and safer-sex projects; the chronic sexual exploitation and abuse of particular groups of (mostly) young women and men; the detrimental biopolitics of multinational chemical corporations.\n\nWatney's misgivings about queer erudition and its distance from broader political analysis and activism marks him as a radical from another era, with different hopes, and different dreams: 'It is terribly easy to pose as a romantic Outsider, forever \"transgressing\" against evil norms of liberal humanism... it is rather more difficult to understand the real world, and the possibilities it provides both for growth and fulfilment and for misery'. Yet, his despair is also the theme of a host of other feminists, gay men, race and gender theorists who compare older visions of collective social transformation with what they see as the fragilities of individualized trangression. In the world we know, sexuality is lived through gender, race, class and other axes of power. The writings of those theorists and activists who have struggled together to make that world a more democratic and egalitarian place signal common concerns: 'Just as political economy needs a better appreciation of the stubbornness of cultural difference', Dennis Altman argues, from Australia, 'so does queer theory require some basic knowledge of political institutions and an appreciation of the ways in which economic globalisation is creating a newly universal sense of homosexuality as the basis for identity and lifestyle, not mere behaviour'. 'Rearranging the signs of gender too often becomes a substitute for challenging gender inequity', Suzanna Walter writes, from the USA: 'Wearing a dildo will not stop me from being raped as a woman or being harassed as a lesbian... it will not, short of \"passing\", keep me out of the ghettoes of female employment'. '\"Queer\" activists focus on \"queer\" issues, and racism, sexual oppression and economic exploitation do not qualify, depite the fact that the majority of \"queers\" are people of color, female or working class', her black compatriot Barbara Smith agrees. 'Transformation' not 'transgression', should be our watchword, Elizabeth Wilson, in Britain, insists. Sexual dissidence, as Alan Sinfield has always argued, should not be separated from broader aspirations for a fairer world: 'The task is less to applaud and hasten the disintegration of residual identities \u2013 the market will take care of that \u2013 than to assess and exert some influence over the emergence of new ones.'\n\nHowever, it could be argued that the more tenuous ties of queer theory's symbolic politics to more traditional political practices, and even the recuperability of its transgressive representations by market forces or hegemonic reframings are, in themselves, unfortunate only to the extent that they stand _alone_ as a politics. There is no intrinsic imperative to prevent multiple political engagements, other than the tendency of more aesthetic traditions to display a disdainful detachment from the inevitably compromising work of coalition (or even subcultural) building. It is a graver problem if, on its own terrain, queer perspectives miscontrue the punitive and restrictive production and regulation of gender and sexuality. Yet I suspect that this is the case. Queer theory's semiotically driven reflections rarely address the ways in which, throughout our lifetimes, we move in and out of the identifications, pleasures and vulnerabilities of gender settlements, structures of desire, and management of bodily capabilities: health, age and a myriad other belongings and exclusions play a central role. We are never simply subject to (or in rebellion against) sexual and gender norms or normativities. Against Foucauldian framings, the complexity of both psychic life and bodily investments are not homologous with polarizing gender discourses, or the social injunctions which render them intelligible. On the one hand, psychic life has an autonomous complexity which sexual difference, or gender identity, does not exhaust \u2013 however firmly or precariously experienced at conscious and unconscious levels. It is never fixed or even consistent in its manifestations. On the other hand, the external namings and rules which solicit gender and sexual performativity are not themselves seamless and unchanging. It is here that I would return to the work of certain feminist clinicians critically rethinking psychoanalysis as 'the discipline most practiced in the art of uncertainty', as the New York analyst Virginia Goldner put it.\n\nLike her colleagues Muriel Dimen, Arlene Harris or Jessica Benjamin, these scholarly clinicians describe how gender operates as an identificatory vehicle to establish, reject or maintain relationships with others. Gender is not internalized as a single entity, rather it operates subjectively within an array of often conflicting mental representations and self-perceptions. These are built up, first of all, as a consequence of powerful identifications with parents, siblings and significant others. But such identifications are stamped all over with the effects of the symbolic hierarchy of sexual difference, and the still widely prevalent \u2013 although domestically specific and individually unique \u2013 experience of contrasting gender expectations and personifications from mothers, fathers and other providers of love and care: the first objects of desire. 'It is these overdetermined, internally contradictory, deeply embedded relationship premises that are always at risk of collapsing under their own weight that constitute the pathogenic, wobbly \"bedrock\" of gender', Goldner concludes. Since the cultural dynamics of gender mean that it is never simply an elaboration of anatomical sexual difference, it will always be possible to question the meaning of 'masculinity' and 'femininity', and point to their uncertain content, both psychically and socially. The emancipatory point is, surely, the hope that we might feel better able to acknowledge and indulge real gender ambiguities, rather than feel driven to reify or eliminate them, whether in oneself or in others.\n\n## **_The Future of Gender_**\n\nIt is time to dwell upon the significance of these battles over gender, old and new, and to consider, finally, just what we want to do with gender. Repeatedly questioned about the materiality of the female body (as distinct from its forcible production in discourse), and in particular about its distinctive relation to pregnancy and childbirth, Butler responds by explaining that the very question itself is part of the discursive enforcement of a norm, which inevitably gives some women a sense of failure, loss, or inadequacy: 'If you are in your late twenties or your early thirties and you can't get pregnant for biological reasons, or maybe you don't want to, for social reasons \u2013 whatever it is \u2013 you are struggling with a norm that is regulating your sex'. True enough. And if you are in your teens, and eager to avoid pregnancy at all costs when having sex with men outside marriage, you are struggling against another set of regulations that may make contraception inaccessible, alongside normatively produced psychological constraints that often deny you the confidence and assertiveness to insist upon risk-free sex. But it is not norms or discourses which incite conception (or not) following 'unprotected' genital heterosexual acts. A foetus is neither implanted by language, nor dissolved by resignifications, although in most cultures it _is_ certainly emblematic of the most controlling and coercive regulations investing the female body. As Bob Connell writes: 'Bodies are not just the object of our will, whether individual or social, _they are also our fate_.'\n\nOf course, every aspect of the predicament of unplanned teenage pregnancy needs to be understood culturally and politically, not by closer inspection of female anatomy \u2013 except for researchers of effective contraception. We need to discern such things as the role of religion, sex education, access to contraception, girls' levels of self-assertiveness, relevant peer subcultures (of girls, and of boys), the life choices open to young women, and so on, and on. What we need here is not so much to study the historically specific and mutable sex\/gender system, as the prevailing gender\/sexuality regimes. Women with children have another set of needs which, apart from pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding, have next to nothing to do with female biology and, new reproductive technologies now permitting, possibly little to do with sexual engagement. Rather, they are almost all connected to the differing cultural arrangements for housework, childrearing and care in the home \u2013 which to date have been predominantly arranged along gendered lines. The question is whether, and if so how, it might be possible to register women's specific needs and interests in relation to current gender structures in the social, political and economic domain, while still rendering notions of gender less rather than more controlling. As I see it, this cannot be done without the closest possible attention to the ways in which gender and sexuality operate together at any historical moment, in all their psychic complexity, and as a structure of social relations and symbolic contrasts.\n\nSuch attention to complex and intricate detail is what gender theory, at its best, tried to offer: exploring the historicity of gender at all levels of analysis. At its best, I believe, it has the potential to help us envisage similarities and contrasts in gender practices which might serve to encourage the continuing production of more enabling, rather than constraining, forms of gender. Awareness of diversities in the operation of gender patterns at the social level has the potential to increase our tolerance of the ambiguities of gender identifications and internalizations at the psychic level. Writing of the latter, Muriel Dimen suggests that gender needs to be seen 'as an internally varied experience [which is] sometimes central and definitive, sometimes marginal and contingent'. It is this very contingency which, she argues, 'generates uncertainty, invites inquiry, and offers richness'. We need images of gender which would, for sure, be flexible, playful and plural but still recognizable as pertaining to the lives of women and men: to types of people who potentially share almost everything, with just a few small differences which, at different times, in different ways, bear an enormous historical weight. For all the talk of the disappearance of gender, the regulation of what is seen and often experienced as women's distinctive potential remains politically as prominent as ever. This is even clearer if we look beyond the affluent West, at the gender-specific effects of hunger and famine worldwide, where we would need to consider the 'missing women' \u2013approximately 100 million of them \u2013 who have died due to the effects of sex-selective infanticide and the lower levels of nutrition and healthcare received by girls and women compared with boys and men. As Jacqueline Zita concludes: 'Against the intellectual anorexia of post-modernism, this [\"sexed\"] body with its biology and history stubbornly returns with a weight that defies the transcendental promises of postmodernist fantasy and its idealist mechanism.'\n\nOne is not born a woman, but becomes one. However, quite what one becomes is always ambiguous, with only some of the signs of woman' to the fore, some of the time. This is where the interaction of gender and sexuality is at its most volatile. The way to fight the idea of sex, and its rigidly conceived ties to gender or sexuality as the _core_ of our being, is not to negate or eliminate our own complex psychic investments and social negotiations as gendered and sexually desiring beings. It is rather to highlight their complexity, and potential fluidity. It is also to mobilize in support of diverse struggles at the different sites where gender functions to constrain or suppress us \u2013 in both social and symbolic domains. As feminist schemes and dreams surely already suggest, sexual difference can be re-conceived, and re-enacted, in ways which work to undermine, rather than to shore up, strictly hierarchical conceptions of gender centred on affirming active\/heterosexual\/masculine dominance (symbolized as phallic). For her part, Gayle Rubin has always been clear that while sexuality is not reducible to gender, it is hardly disassociated: 'I never claimed that sexuality and gender were always unconnected, only that their relationships are situational, not universal'. While Butler, paradoxically, remains hostile to any attempt to draw too strong an analytic separation between gender and sexuality, given what she sees as their overlapping performative construction through regimes of heterosexuality \u2013 despite having inspired a generation of sexual dissidents into battle against existing gender significations. This is why, far from suggesting that gender does not exist, Butler can herself be seen as 'the reigning \"Queen\" of Gender', in Rubin's affectionately teasing accolade.\n\nIn the USA, just when queer theory and transgression gained academic modishness \u2013 when Donna Haraway was celebrating, dissidents flaunting and Baudrillard lamenting \u2013 the coming of a future 'monstrous world without gender', the most significant, most modest, most easily bestowed choices which might have been made available to young women entering adult sexual engagements were being systematically withdrawn. The encouragement of sexual self-confidence and knowledge, information about sexually transmitted diseases and reliable contraceptive resources were officially forbidden in the public arena of teenagers. In 1997 the Adolescent Family Life Act became federal law in the USA, making available a $100 million a year funding for 'sex education', with an exclusive 'abstinence only' focus. All fifty states in the USA agreed to its funding framework, which prohibited information about contraception or safer sex techniques, despite ample knowledge (even admitted by its promoters) that its chastity lessons meet none of its intended goals: to reduce teenage pregnancy and HIV transmission, and to raise the age at which young people become sexually active. One survey reported that students enrolled in an abstinence-only programme engaged in _more_ sex than those in a control group which, although publicized, failed to prevent the Clinton Administration from making such courses the single top priority of its National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. This is in line with figures from the Netherlands, where teenage pregnancy rates are over thirteen times lower than in the USA, and the average age of first intercourse is higher.\n\nOverwhelmingly targeting and intimidating young women, the transparent aim of abstinence-only sex education is to promote fear and ignorance about sexual activity: 'Pregnancy, AIDS, guilt, herpes, inability to concentrate in school, syphilis, embarrassment, abortion, shotgun wedding, gonorrhoea, selfishness, pelvic inflammatory disease, heartbreak, infertility, loneliness, loss of self-esteem, loss of reputation, being used... ectopic pregnancy, sexual violence, loss of a sense of responsibility toward others, loss of honesty, jealousy, depression, death', are listed as just _some_ of the hazards of non-marital sex in the Parent-Teacher's Guide to 'sex education', called \u2013 believe it or not \u2013 _Sex Respect._ It threatens, this time aiming at boys: There's no way to have premarital sex without hurting someone', fully aware that the age of marriage in the USA is, on average, a good ten years after the first sexual engagement with others. Helpful advice!\n\nIn her chilling account of the injurious effects of these pro-abstinence educational packages, Judith Levine illustrates their chronic dishonesty, and the callous perpetuation of falsehoods about the dangers of all contraceptives, and of even the safest sexual practices (like kissing!). As she notes mournfully, the desiring body, and pleasurable, consensual sex acts, are just nowhere to be found in sex education in the USA in the 1990s. Their anti-sex message is matched only by their rigid notion of gender roles: 'the peers who pressured were invariably male, and those who refused and delayed were female'. However transgressive they may wish to be, many young American girls are still terrifyingly coerced by the necessity to avoid pregnancy, and the scapegoating and potential financial penalties they face should they choose to mother, alone.\n\nThe world, mercifully, does not incorporate wholesale the worst excesses of the robust American right (hopefully recently forced into something of a retreat even in their own disgracefully vengeful domain), although they have a very powerful way of intimidating, or eliminating, opposition \u2013 world-wide. Meanwhile, the teenage pregnancy rate in England and Wales is only sightly lower than that in the USA: rivalling the very poorest parts of Western Europe; a startling seven times above that of the Netherlands, and far higher than any other EU country. In Britain, as in the USA, social inequality and inadequate sex education are a significant part of the problem, as British politicians are just beginning to admit.\n\nWhile the signs of liberal tolerance for choice and freedom in lifestyles can be found in specific arenas, such tolerance is all but submerged by the far greater buttressing of gender traditionalisms in most others: a common thread to almost every television drama I have watched of late, most of them home-grown in the UK, has been that any woman who disrupts the heterosexual dyad has only one choice: she must die. Not so much female transcendence as a waiting tomb \u2013for you know whom. And just as issues of pregnancy and parenthood still invest female bodies and women's deliberation in ways that remain gender specific, although strongly stamped by race, ethnicity and class, so too gender segregation at work and lower wages have become even more entrenched for poorer women (as discussed in my final chapter).\n\nWe have not, yet, done away with gender. And in the currently foreseeable future it looks unlikely that we will, for all the visibility of pluralities and ambiguities of identities and desires. Well before queer theory, social construction theorists often hoped to see the end of gender and sexual categorizing, usually based on the fallacious presumption that what is culturally forged is conceptually fragile and unstable. 'We must use whatever means we have to give up on gender', Suzanne Kessler (one of the early social construction theorists in psychology) argues today. She reaches this conclusion after surveying the burdens and indignities which surgeons have inflicted upon the small but significant number of infants born with ambiguous genitals to enable them to construct unequivocal gender identities. Babies with aberrant 'gender markers' have been scarred for life, and their erotic sensitivities ablated, by a medical profession committed to producing culturally approved binary sex and gender orthodoxies. These normalizing procedures, adopted by medical and psychological experts to construct the 'successful vagina' or the 'good enough penis', occur long before children are in any position to choose their gender, genitals or sexuality: a situation some of the (often erstwhile) 'intersexed' have contested during the 1990s.\n\nAnother pioneer of social construction theory, Ken Plummer, already foresees a fundamental shift in categories of sexuality and gender: In the late modern world, the very idea of \"being gay\" will be transformed into the idea of a multiplicity of sexual\/gendered\/relational\/emotional, etc., beings in the world.... The separate genders and their separate sexualities cannot so clearly be sustained'. Yet another pioneer, John Gagnon, writes similarly that a 'strong social constructionist position' should be seen as 'the first step in attempting to eliminate that gendering'. These social constructionists are wary of any talk of mental life. Indeed, Gagnon goes on to attack the emphasis on childhood and early object relations as a weakness of psychoanalysis. Ideally, they argue, there should be no limits or constraints on the relational interactions any individual can make throughout their life course.\n\nThis is not quite how I see it. Now is not the time for us to be forgetting gender. There are too many constraints which follow from its many paradoxes; even in a post-phallic world, some forms of gendered bodily difference are likely to be marked, although in different ways, at different times. Sometimes central to our lives, sometimes marginal, the gendered identifications we have made (most likely with people of both sexes) and the existing social structures of gender will continue to affect our desires as well as the connections we make (or fail to make) for giving and receiving sexual attention, recognition, nurturance and love, or for choosing (or being forced into) parenting and other caring work. The battles we wage around gender might one day allow these choices to be made in a world in which images of gender are more equal and more flexible than the cultural imperative to position ourselves within an oppositional phallic hierarchy, with its related privileges and constraints, have hitherto allowed them to be. As the lesbian feminist Biddy Martin suggests:\n\n> What we come to experience as our relation to sexual difference, our most deeply felt sense of gender is, in part, the consequence of reducing a complex set of articulations to a false unity under the sign of sex.... The goal, then, should not be to do away with gender, as if that were possible, or to leave it intact as though it were a state, or to override or contradict it with our more mobile desires. We might rather value it as an aspect of the uniqueness of personalities without letting it bind and control qualities, experiences, behaviors that the culture divides up rigidly between two supposedly different sexes.\n\nI agree.\n\n# **3**  \nGenes and Gender: The Return to Darwin\n\n> There is something immensely beguiling about strict adaptationism \u2013 the dream of an underpinning simplicity for the enormously complex and various world.\n> \n> Stephen Jay Gould, _New York Review of Books_\n\nIn the previous chapter I described how some feminists react to the constraints of gender by seeking deliverance from all its trappings \u2013 biological or cultural. In this one, I chart the opposite response to gender uncertainties, coming from writers who think they have found the true biological constraints on gender and sexual fluidities: 'Feminists, meet Mr. Darwin!', their champion in the USA announces. It is an odd time for the return of such fundamentalism. But the stakes are high. The goal is not just conceptual containment of potentially unlimited shifts in gender beliefs and practices. It is a return to the allegedly more rigorous authority of the biological sciences of much that has recently been understood as cultural. The hope is to defeat, once and for all, those cultural theorists who assume that 'ideas that draw upon the authority of nature nearly always have their origin in ideas about society'. Gender is a key symbolic site of this conflict.\n\nBack in the 1950s, in the era of the strictest observance of the truths of science and its pronouncements about nature, Roland Barthes began his semiological assault on the constant transformation of 'history' into myths of 'nature'. Forty years later, and his work might seem to be done. He and his intellectual kind convinced a generation of scholars that to engage in any search for the universal causes of human actions, or the foundational origins of civilization \u2013 however we might describe them \u2013 was to engage in the most oppressive and foolhardy form of metaphysics. Belief in universal truths (now derided as 'grand narratives') has broken down in Western culture, some of the most sophisticated theorists assure us, from the platforms of literary and cultural studies. Indeed, Britain's best-known scientist, Richard Dawkins, likes to protest, in language as poetic as he can muster, that scientists are made to 'feel like shabby curates among literary dukes'. But they are all wrong. There is a new form of fundamentalism in the social sciences and media world, which only a minority of cultural theorists have taken seriously. Meanwhile, the glittering prizes bestowed on Dawkins tell their own truth about intellectual authority.\n\nBy the late 1980s disillusionment with Marxism (following a decade of defeat for left agendas and campaigns in Britain and the USA) had expanded to include a critique of all the universalizing principles of the Western Enlightenment, among many former political idealists. Any belief in universal laws of human nature came to be seen as terminally suspect by those who designate these times 'post-modern'. Yet, not coincidentally, in the same period, a type of Darwinian fundamentalism was growing in strength and authority in both the physical and social sciences.\n\n## _**Science versus Culture?**_\n\nSpeaking from the most exalted academic platforms, with the authority of the Chair for the Public Understanding of Science, specifically created for him at Oxford University (by the Microsoft millionaire Charles Simonyi), Richard Dawkins pronounces as his first axiom of science: 'Plants and animals alike are all \u2013 in their immensely complicated, enmeshed ways doing the same fundamental thing, which is propagating genes.' The eternal truths of Darwin's grand narrative have returned with a vengeance to reshape intellectual agendas this _fin de si\u00e8cle,_ just as strongly as they did the last. A generation ago, appeals to evolutionary biology to explain cultural practices or social hierarchy were denounced as mere justifications for conservative prejudices. Today, the most simplistic forms of evolutionary theory are advanced by actively committed liberals and social reformers: manifest in Britain in the Blair government's favourite think-tank, Demos, preparing a report delineating the implications of evolutionary psychology for the shaping of social policy, _Matters of Life and Death: The World View from Evolutionary Psychology._ It is not the beneficiaries of Barthes, but the successors of C. P. Snow, who now win most of the media accolades in the revitalized and transformed 'Two Cultures' debate.\n\nFew things are more depressing for me to have to write about than the renaissance of a Darwinian fundamentalism, whether in mainstream media debate or in the most powerful strands of the social and biological sciences. The goal of life in this form of evolutionary theory is twofold: to survive and to mate. It is a goal, according to Dawkins, implanted in the genes of all living things \u2013 however redundantly the components of genes lie on most chromosomes, never once triggered into any action at all. True, Sigmund Freud saw the ability to love and to work as necessary for human happiness, and I have little difficulty accepting that he is highlighting two crucial sites of human activity. But accounts of 'loving' and 'working' direct us immediately towards quintessentially human narratives; 'surviving' and 'mating' strip away this human dimension. It is a barbed contrast for one such as me, and my long-standing friends, who saw the meaning of human life in collective co-operation in the shaping of history. Nevertheless, given its place in contemporary thought, we must look very seriously at this resurgence of Darwinian thinking.\n\nI hope to show how Nature and History are once again being confused at every turn, to the great impoverishment of both. The latest 'science' versus 'humanities' wars have been undertaken not just to reassert the presumed neutrality and rigours of science over the spirited and capricious fantasies of the imagination, but more importantly to defeat those who insist upon greater complexity and epistemic diversity, whatever their theoretical tools. However, there are sceptics within _both_ cultures, many of whom have been pointing for some time to the recurrent deployment of science to provide spurious legitimation for popular cultural convictions.\n\n## _**Survival and Sexual Selection**_\n\nIt is hard not to see the current return to Darwin as being fuelled, at least to some degree, by a reactive search to legitimize predestined gender and sexual distinctions in the face of the personal panic and social alarm generated by a combination of feminist challenges and the seemingly unstoppable institutional shifts in gender practices. In the late nineteenth century and the early twentieth, at a time of heightened imperial conflict, Darwin's ideas were appropriated by eugenic movements in many Western countries, using notions of inherited 'degeneracy', 'feeblemindedness' and the dangers of 'miscegenation', to justify all manner of class, 'race' and anti-immigrant restraints and prejudices. Today, they usually serve a somewhat different cause \u2013 not so much racial as gendered \u2013 although one which has surfaced before in earlier gender battles.\n\nIn _The Origin of Species_ (1859) Darwin documented the extraordinary _variation_ in living organisms, past and present. He surveyed the abundance of fossil records of species which had become extinct, and marvelled that from 'so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved'. His central idea was the assertion that all living things that have ever existed are related, and have descended from a common origin which emerged from inanimate materials as the simplest form of life \u2013 now thought to be about three billion years ago. Darwin originally referred to his central idea as a 'theory of descent with modification', rather than as a 'theory of evolution' (implying a notion of 'progress'), but the speedy advocacy of his ideas by Victorian scientists and eugenic enthusiasts encouraged him to speak of 'evolution' in his next book _The Descent of Man_ (1871). Unlike many of those who pronounce in his name today, Darwin believed that 'the present is the key to the past' (just as Marx had earlier remarked that 'human anatomy is a key to the anatomy of the ape'). Darwin did not believe, like his contemporary publicists, that the past holds the key to the future, the solution to the meaning of human life. On the contrary, he wrote: 'I have nothing to do with the origin of the primary mental powers, any more than with life itself'.\n\nSpecies have appeared and disappeared over time, Darwin argued, through a causal mechanism of 'Natural Selection, or Survival of the Fittest', which ensured that only those forms of life best suited to survive and reproduce themselves in any specific habitat would continue to exist as a species. Alongside the random process of 'natural selection' for survival, Darwin also wrote of 'sexual selection' for effective procreation in sexually reproducing species. The latter generated 'a struggle between the males for possession of the females', as well as choice and selection of males by females (although females were seen by Darwin as playing a more passive, secondary role in the process of evolution). In line with the panorama of imperial England, Darwin himself saw sexual hierarchy conjoined with racial hierarchy (indeed his most famous book is subtitled _The Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life_ ), producing white males at the pinnacle of evolution. However, today's Darwinians usually distance themselves, at least formally (although, as we shall find, not always effectively), from the Victorian racist dynamics of 'sexual selection', even as they enthusiastically affirm its sexist dynamics: males have an inherent advantage in the evolutionary 'arms race'.\n\nEven here, not all contemporary Darwinians are quite as explicit as the popular science writer Robert Wright, who throughout the 1990s has consistently ridiculed feminists seeking equality with men as doomed by their deliberate ignorance or foolish denial of the 'harsh Darwinian truths' about human nature: 'Feminists are right to dread some of the rhetorical resistance Darwinism will abet'. Expressing specious concern that feminism may falter from its own 'doctrinal absurdities', he challenges them to face up to the evolutionary basis for 'the \"natural\" male impulse to control female sexuality', 'men's natural tendencies to greater promiscuity', 'natural selection' for men to make 'the Madonna-whore distinction': 'Human males', in short, 'are by nature oppressive, possessive, flesh-obsessed pigs'. Wright admits that men are 'not beyond cultural improvement', but 'the bad news is [that] the average beer-drinking, two-timing, wife-beating lout isn't going to change his moral views': 'Some changes can't be made and others will come only at some cost'. As Wright likes to reassure himself and the many readers of his bestseller _The Moral Animal: Why We Are the Way We Are,_ feminists have managed to procure legislation against sexual harassment, and even elements of affirmative action for women, but they will never share power with men because they lack men's genes for competitiveness and risk-taking behaviour. The ideological motivation at stake here is as naked as the eponymous ape, adroitly summed up by three feminist biologists reviewing the book: 'This particular version of evolutionary psychology implies that affirmative action can only result in hiring or promoting inferior candidates.... Compared with amending the Constitution to assure equal rights for women, fighting our (allegedly) genetically determined bodies and minds is daunting indeed'. Feminists, back off!\n\nIdeological imbrication, enshrining both patriarchal precedent and capitalist market values, was embarrassingly prominent to many in the first blast of resurgent Darwinism with the publication of E. O. Wilson's _Sociobiology_ in 1975 and Richard Dawkins's _The Selfish Gene_ the next year, soon followed by other influential publications in the social sciences, such as David Barash's _The Whisperings Within_ (1979), and _The Evolution of Human Sexuality_ (1979), by the anthropologist Donald Symons. (Following the publication of _Sociobiology,_ the US magazine _Business Week_ ran a series of articles on 'The Genetic Defence of the Free Market', celebrating the evolutionary origins of men's competitive self-interest.) In the decade of resurgent feminism, these books offered a distinctive genetic underpinning for male dominance and aggression, female passivity and domestication, in terms of 'the optimizing of reproductive fitness' \u2013 albeit without any reference to actual genetic makeup. Sexual selection for competitive reproductive advantage was the particular Darwinian contribution to emerge as the fundamental postulate of sociobiology. It was an elaboration not so much of Darwin's own writing, as of its extension to accounts of differential 'parental investment' in offspring (in sperm, egg and the raising of progeny to reproductive age), first proposed by the somewhat less prominent US biologist Robert Trivers in 1974.\n\nOn this account, promiscuous male behaviour evolved in accordance with the maximum spread of the continuous 'low-cost' supply of copious sperm; prudent and passive female behaviour was selected to accommodate the 'high-cost', time-consuming, requirements for the monthly production, successful fertilization, gestation and survival to reproductive age, of the far more limited supply of female eggs. Dawkins reiterates the theme: 'The sex cells or \"gametes\" of males are smaller and more numerous than the gametes of females', concluding, 'it is possible to interpret _all_ other differences between the sexes as stemming from this one basic difference.... Female exploitation begins here'. The search for single overarching principles unifying all forms of knowledge drives this return to Darwin. All human behaviour, E. O. Wilson echoes, 'faithfully' obeys this one biological principle: 'It pays males to be aggressive, hasty, fickle and undiscriminating... females to be coy, to hold back until they can identify the male with the best genes'. Wilson manifests the peculiarity of this tunnel vision when he equates 'an American industrial city' in the late 1970s with 'a band of hunter-gatherers in the Australian desert': 'During the day the women and children remain in the residential area while the men forage for game or its symbolic equivalent in the form of barter or money.' Dream on!\n\nHowever, the Western media have carefully selected this particular theory of immutable human nature for survival: a picaresque, if impoverished, way of construing the issues of the day. In the early 1980s the biologist Randy Thornhill and his fellow workers, also in the USA, wrote of the 'rape-adaptation hypothesis', explaining why human males will rape when their capacity to reproduce successfully is thwarted. Thornhill was generalizing from observations of the so-called 'rape' of female flies by 'frustrated' male flies (the scorpionfly), leading him to conclude that 'high status men probably rarely actually rape'. We are offered not only an evolutionary rationale for the inevitability of male violence against women, but the added bonus of extenuating justification for the class and race dynamics of the very high acquittal rates of rich, white males accused of rape \u2013 like William Kennedy Smith \u2013compared with the speedy sentencing of the huge numbers of poor, black Americans, languishing on death row. David Barash drew similar conclusions from his observations of 'rape' in ducks (the mallard duck). It may be possible to tame men's proclivities to rape when denied status and resources, these sociobiologists admit, but they all hasten to add, like Symons before them, that any such attempts to go against nature 'might well entail a cure worse than the disease.'\n\nInside the academy, the circular, anthropomorphic arguments of sociobiology were briefly held at bay by widespread and vigorous rebuttal issuing both from biological and social scientists, who highlighted sociobiologists' careful selection of particular animals on which to project, and supposedly thereby explain, categories of behaviour derived from human consciousness, culture and conduct. Given that at this time sociobiologists could not even pretend to have direct knowledge of the nature or operation of their ontologically founding category \u2013 human genes \u2013 their designated units for natural selection (as distinct from the individual organism, or groups of living creatures), there could in principle be little, if any, convincing verification (and obviously no falsification) for those who doubted their uniform narrative of the causal origins of individual and collective behaviour. At this time, molecular biologists could not claim even a scrap of knowledge about any human genes which might bear the remotest relation to the specific universal activities they were supposed to explain: an awkward failing, one might have thought, for theorists whose mantra was scientific rigour and whose goal the defeat of loose or sentimental thought and language. (The situation is not so different today.)\n\nSince the 1980s billions of dollars have been pouring into biotechnology, bringing together the latest micro-electronic processors with techniques of gene splicing in the hope of commodifying and patenting new procedures for the production and handling of plant, animal and \u2013 most controversially of all \u2013 human life. These new genetic and computer technologies were developed in the 1970s, creating widespread investment frenzies which revitalized old dreams of brave new worlds, under human control. Meanwhile, global agrichemical, pharmaceutical and computer giants have also been pouring huge investments into genetic research since the late 1980s. As Andrew Ross outlines, despite meagre profits and very little to show for the many billions invested, 'a chorus of investors, executives, and industry boosters intoned the mantras of molecular biology as if it were some new kind of alchemy'. The 'genetic revolution' had arrived. It would usher in the multi-billion-dollar Human Genome Project, attempting to map and sequence all the genes of human DNA. In the USA, federal support for the project (originating from initiatives taken in the mid-1980s) was set at $200 million a year from 1988, with state support for genome research and sequencing also accelerating in Britain, France and Japan, trailed by other Western states.\n\nWith the thralldrom to dreams of genetic utopianism encouraging a return to the grand theory which first pointed us in that direction, the spread of neo-Darwinian ideas would soon prove unstoppable. What we have today is the most bizarre and muddled mix of genetic determinisms: one minute being used to set _limits_ on the potential for possible change in human affairs; the next minute promising us a _limitless_ prosthetic future, where nothing is impossible. Nature has framed strange formulations in her time, but none quite so strange as this.\n\n## _**Evolutionary Psychology: The New Contender**_\n\nThe ambivalent pull of new Darwinian thinking is nowhere stronger than in mainstream psychology, some of whose scholars, swimming smoothly with wider currents, have moved effortlessly from earlier espousals of cultural explanations for explaining human 'social behaviour' to promoting the greater utility of modern Darwinism, or new evolutionary psychology, for the same purpose. One such prominent British psychologist, John Archer, in the forefront of emphasizing the acquisition of sex differences primarily in terms of social learning theory in the heyday of environmentalism in the 1970s, re-emerged two decades later arguing that 'evolutionary theory accounts much better for the overall patterns of sex differences and for their origins'. 'Social role theory', he has come to believe, 'accounts very poorly, if at all, for the patterns of sex differences identified by evolutionary psychologists'.\n\nEvolutionary psychology emerged as the most conspicuous 'new' theoretical perspective within the field of psychology during the 1990s. Eager to replace all rival psychological theories and systems, the most distinguished representatives, like Tooby and Cosmides, believe evolutionary psychology will finally unify psychology with hard science; while David Buss recommends it as the new paradigm for all the social sciences, under the conceptual framework of natural selection. Similarly, Martin Daly and Margo Wilson assert: 'What evolutionary psychology aspires to become [ _sic_ ] is a Kuhnian paradigm shift'. Presumably by this they mean that they are aspiring to 'effect' such a shift \u2013 ironically, in the very discipline which helped inspire Thomas Kuhn himself to write his trail-blazing _The Structure of Scientific Revolutions_ (1962) in the first place. (Kuhn reveals in its preface that he had never known what it was like to live within a science where there was so little agreement about what problems are worth pursuing, or which empirical findings are of lasting significance, until he had the experience of spending some time among academic psychologists.)\n\nNowadays, evolutionary psychologists are somewhat less reliant on animal studies than sociobiologists have been. They are on the lookout instead for any universals of human behaviour and, on finding any hint of them, at once assume an adapted genetic origin. From the close of the 1980s, there have been attempts to apply Darwinian ideas in mainstream cognitive, developmental, individual, social, psychiatric and clinical pyschology, as human cognitive functioning and social behaviour is explained in terms of adaptations which must have been 'selected for' because they were successful in human and pre-human evolution. These 'selected' behaviour patterns are described by Archer, for example, as those which have produced 'individuals who are able to pursue the reproductive strategies appropriate for their own sex'. However, as was the case with sociobiology, it is just such presumed sex-differentiated reproductive strategies which take us back to the issues most strongly disputed by those who have been contesting men's institutionalized dominance over women since the 1970s: the inevitability of men's sexual harassment and violence; the inequality of women's domestic burdens and parenting activities.\n\nIn an article published in 1998 in the _American Psychologist,_ four evolutionary psychologists in the USA summarize achievements to date, after discussions and commentary with ten other leading thinkers in the field in both Europe and America. Their central concept of an evolutionary 'adaptation' is defined, somewhat more flexibly than by Archer, as an 'inherited and reliably developing characteristic that came into existence as a feature of a species through natural selection because it helped to directly or indirectly facilitate reproduction during the period of its evolution'. They then list thirty empirical 'discoveries' about human behaviour allegedly generated by evolutionary theory, many of them explaining gender contrasts. These include: sexually dimorphic mating strategies; men's preference for younger mates; male risk-taking in intrasexual competition for mates; patterns of spousal and same-sex homicide; design of male sexual jealousy; women's desire for mates with resources; sex-linked shifts in mate selection across the lifespan; causes of conjugal dissolution; mate guarding as a function of female reproductive value; waist-to-hip ratio as a determinant of attractiveness judgements.\n\nThe overview offered by Buss and his co-writers is one of the more cautious in arguing the case for evolutionary psychology \u2013 taking note, in particular, of one of its main critics, Stephen Jay Gould. However, it is not hard to suggest other explanations for the behaviour patterns they list, however widespread across differing cultures. One does not have to believe that evolution and genetics play no role in human affairs (indeed, it would be hard to make much sense of such a claim in describing the behaviour of any living organism), to point out that the apparent universality of certain practices does _not_ entail a genetic origin. Thus, even if we choose to overlook the weight of historical, anthropological and sociological evidence for enormous variability in the area of human sexual conduct, it would still be the case that the claimed universality of sexually dimorphic behaviour patterns could as easily be seen as a cultural _effect,_ rather than as an evolved adaptation operating as a _cause,_ of the hitherto (though now often challenged) global configuration of men's greater access to economic resources and social power and privilege compared with that of women.\n\nBuss himself has produced a plentiful body of research on what he calls 'mating strategies' in the USA, Britain, and thirty-five other cultures, all showing that men declare themselves to be far more promiscuous than women, and readier to have sex with any female strangers, so long as they are young and attractive. Women, in contrast, are said universally to report desiring (or having 'mating' preferences for) ambitious, industrious men, with good financial resources. Buss is researching the same furrow as many other evolutionary psychologists, who also assure us of the reality of men's predetermined sexual promiscuity which (together with their greater predisposition for violence and risk-taking) is one of the most repeated claims of evolutionary theorists. But this, of course, is precisely what those who stress the cultural rather than the biological basis of contrasting sexual conduct themselves predict, whether via individually based 'learning theory' or discursively mediated 'social construction' perspectives: in male-dominated societies boys learn to see heterosexual activity as a confirmation of masculinity (and certainly know that boasting about their desire to perform it is the single easiest way of proclaiming their 'virility': 'whoooa!'); girls learn to value committed relationships above casual sex (or, at least, certainly discover that they ought to say so to escape being branded whatever the local vernacular for 'slag' might be, thereby also avoiding the assaultive behaviour such labelling condones: 'I prefer a good cuddle, myself').\n\nThe more humorous side to the shallowness of all this research is that were men's promiscuous boasts, and women's prudent protestations, to be accepted as indicative of selectively evolved behaviour patterns, rather than \u2013 in line with my own more sceptical hypothesis \u2013 gender-differentiating, cultural 'identity work', a tiny minority of enormously hyperactive 'young and attractive' women would have to be obliging an army of dedicatedly randy men. As Dorothy Einon suggests in relation to her own research, in which heterosexual men reported having three or four times the number of sexual partners that women did, _the figures just don't compute_ : fibbing, whether or not self-deceiving, is the best name for this statistical game, however many cultures Buss and his cohorts dedicatedly interrogate. In fact, the one constant feature of changes in the pursuit of human sexual pleasure is their negative correspondence with reproductive ends.\n\nMartin Daly and Margo Wilson, the leading US psychologists using evolutionary theory to account for homicide and male violence, have been concerned to trace the negative relation between murder and genetic closeness. This is the inverse of the new orthodoxy of 'kin selection', used by evolutionary psychologists to explain the supposedly anomolous existence of 'altruism': genes are selected for co-operative or helping behaviour towards those with shared genes. It would explain, they tell us, why husbands are far more likely to murder their wives (genetically unrelated) than their biological children, and why a child is much more likely to be murdered, or physically abused, by a step-parent than a child with two biological parents. It would _not_ explain, of course, why an overwhelmingly greater number of human parents willingly adopt children, and most typically display remarkable love and concern for them (despite the obvious lack of narcissistic gratification that comes from close physical similarity, and genetic input); neither would it explain why the American sample of males (from Detroit) should be twelve times more likely than the British sample to kill blood relatives, and a massive forty times more likely to kill non-relatives. Further, it would not explain why midwives in both the USA and Britain have been reporting for several years that violence against women often _begins_ when that woman is pregnant with a man's baby, the latest figures reported in the UK estimating this to be true for one third of women who are attacked. If one must continue to take seriously the 'evolutionary rigour' supposedly on display in such explanations of male aggression in line with competitive reproductive fitness, then one must point out that it is precisely when pregnant to their live-in partners that 'females' cannot be impregnated by rival males. It is the time when they most fully 'obey' the so-called 'Darwinian' rules for 'kin-selection', carrying 50 per cent of the aggressor's genes.\n\nIt is the complete absence of any intellectually serious form of scientific rigour which most often accompanies psychology's postulated 'paradigm shift'. The ability to produce an evolutionary scenario for supposed universal behaviours does nothing to establish its validity (ignoring for the moment the instability of the 'universals' so often selected). As critics have noted, talk of 'natural selection' is merely an empty generalization unless it is can delineate something about the evolutionary history of a trait's development: the forces operating in particular contexts which select certain features because they enhance survival over other less adaptive ones which have disappeared. Convincing evolutionary biology must offer significant historical evidence of the utility of particular traits. Evolution occurs because there is _no_ unitary or general notion of fitness in biology. There is only adaptation to local conditions. Adaptive explanations require data, and it is this which evolutionary psychologists choose to ignore, thereby 'presenting simplistic and impoverished biology rather than genuine biology', as Looren de Jong and Van Der Steen observe of the controversies generated by the work of Tooby and Cosmides on supposed universal cognitive adaptations, like their 'cheater detection' module. To the chagrin of psychologists like Steven Pinker, this is also the view of one of the most famous theorists of language, Noam Chomsky, who, despite stressing an innate capacity for 'the language faculty', rejects adaptionist accounts of language development as mere 'fairy tale', one 'that probably would have shocked Darwin'. Echoing Kuhn, several decades later, the British geneticist Steve Jones comes to much the same conclusion in his review of Pinker's _How the Mind Works_ (1997), a tome in which Pinker explains cultural beliefs in Darwinian terms: 'If you want to find schizophrenia, go to a psychology department'.\n\nSadly, we don't need to go there at all. Evolutionary psychology's flimsy evolutionary speculations could be dismissed altogether, were it not for the almost daily promotion they receive in one media outlet or another. Retiring to bed after writing this section, I flashed on the television only to be greeted by Wilson and Daly themselves, once again elaborating their narratives of sex and violence in _Anatomy of Desire._ Unlike schizophrenia, these particular cognitive inventions are highly contagious.\n\nAgainst the grain of the new dominant trend to focus on gender rather than race, evolutionary psychologists have even managed to restore 'sexual selection' for classic Darwinian ethnocentrism. Leslie Zebrowitz, for instance, reports adaptation for men to prefer 'lighter skinned women'. The evolutionary explanation on offer is that light skin is seen as more attractive in women because it is a sign of fertility: women's skin is said to darken during periods of infertility, such as pregnancy, ingestion of contraceptives, and throughout infertile phases of the menstrual cycle (although no one seems to have noticed). The empirical evidence of skin preference cannot be attributed to Western standards of beauty, Zebrowitz reassures us, as it is documented cross-culturally. Really! For this argument to be convincing, one would have to believe that white racism had confined its influence to the West, and that cultural colour hierarchy, or 'pigmentocracy' \u2013 worked out with elaborate pyramidal precision by colonialists like the conquistadors of South America or the apartheid regime in South Africa \u2013 had never existed. Given the higher status accorded to lighter skinned people in most cultures over the last 400 years (after certain global episodes like slavery and colonialisms, old and new), you don't have to have read Toni Morrison's novel _The Bluest Eye_ (1970) to suggest that it is not too taxing a task to offer a few abiding cultural explanations for empirical findings such as these.\n\nWe can, and it seems that we will, bat this ball around for ever. 'New' evolutionary theorists like to distinguish themselves from 'old' social Darwinians, like Herbert Spencer, and also sociobiologists, by claiming that they eschew rigid biological determinism with their suggestion that genetic and environmental forces always interact. Quite so. However, as Tooby and Cosmides clarify, outlining the 'psychological foundations of culture': 'instead of culture manufacturing the psychology of social exchange [their characteristically market metaphor for social life] _de novo,_ content-specific evolved psychologies constitute the building blocks out of which cultures themselves are manufactured'. Although this move is presented as _less_ biologically reductionist, it can be seen as exactly the opposite. In the first instance \u2013 and no doubt, also in the last instance \u2013 for such thinkers, culture never exists autonomously from genetic selection.\n\nFor example, faced with evidence of the widespread, punitive cultural policing of individual nonconformity to gender and sexual norms (which are said to underlie the evolved reproductive fitness of males and females), the evolutionary psychologist will instantly retort that, of course, culture itself is _already_ selected for: 'Gender differences result from an interaction of evolved predispositions and the cultures created by people with these predispositions'. How could cultures be selected for, those stressing the relative autonomy of culture would immediately ask, when they are so very diverse? Some societies deny all sexual expression to women outside marriage on pain of death; in others, women are almost as likely as men today to have multiple sexual partners before, during and after marriage \u2013 if they choose to marry at all (and whether or not we speak the truth to prying psychologists). Insignificant detail, the evolutionary theorist will argue back: the important point is to establish that 'cultures are in some ways _constrained_ by the genes of the individuals making up the culture'. Constrained? It is rather unfortunate that Douglas Kenrick and Melanie Trost, the two evolutionary theorists I have just been quoting, illustrate their argument about biological limits with the rather silly example that a culture which required '10-year-olds to fly off a 1,000-foot cliff would not survive long'. Well, no; unless there was an airport on the cliff. A remark by Richard Lewontin, the Harvard geneticist and leading critic of such constraining applications of evolutionary theory, seems only too apt:\n\n> If we have to characterize social organization and its consequences, it is that social organization does not reflect the limitations of individual biological beings but is their _negation._... No individual human beings can fly by flapping his or her arms and legs. That indeed is a biological limitation.... [But] Individuals fly... they fly as a consequence of social organization.\n\nLewontin thinks he knows the way to settle this tedious argument, and I agree with him. But before returning to the enemy within \u2013 the _biologists_ who in my view deliver the _coup de gr\u00e2ce_ to evolutionary psychologists seeking assimilation to a biology they erroneously perceive as unified \u2013 I want to consider those feminists who have been convinced by evolutionary arguments, but use them to their own ends. Another type of enemy within, but within a different camp!\n\n## _**The Tale of the Female Ape**_\n\nAlthough many feminists have forcefully criticized the return to Darwin, others have joined the trend and become Darwinians themselves. It is an engaging coupling. For what they observe when they go down among the animals, survey our human ancestors or make comparisons across cultures is rather different from the more familiar formulations of their male peers, who reiterate legacies of male dominance, competition, promiscuity and violence. The number of women in biology, primatology and psychology has increased rapidly since the 1970s, as ever more women raced into further education. Accompanying the growth of feminism and women's studies, many shifted their focus from the male to the female ape. What a difference gender makes \u2013 the gender of the observer!\n\nNot male baboons, but females, we would soon be told, often dominate the social group, hold it together, and initiate sexual encounters. By 1982, Linda Fedigan, in _Primate Paradigms,_ had summarized the new research: it offered a challenge to the traditional stereotypes of female monkeys and apes, and a demonstration of female bonding and self-sufficiency in relation to caring for offspring within a rich variety of patterns of female sexual behaviour. The best known of the new female primatologists include Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, Jane Goodall, Meredith Small and Barbara Smuts. In _The Woman that Never Evolved_ (1981), Hrdy describes female monkeys and apes who are in different ways independent, assertive and competitive. Similarly, Small writes of many species of apes and monkeys where the female approaches the male, pushing her genitals in his face, slapping him, initiating sexual advances and clearly enjoying sexual games. Both Goodall and Smuts used their primate studies to rebut the standard evolutionary argument that female apes are more selective and prudent than male apes, indicating that adult female chimpanzees typically mate successively with almost every male in their group during certain phases of the oestrus cycle, while adult male chimpanzees can be extremely selective in their choice of sexual contact. Elsewhere, Smuts reports no consistent gender dimorphism in aggression across different primate species, arguing that environmental contexts affect both male and female aggression, as well as how the sexes influence each other.\n\nHowever, if we really want a glimpse of primate feminist Utopia (replacing the male dominance\/promiscuity thesis), we need to join those chimpanzee experts, like Frans de Waal or Wrangham and Peterson, observing the communities of the bonobo apes which, it is now generally agreed, are definitely dominated by coalitions between females. Among bonobos, living in resource-rich, gorilla-free areas, sexual activities are reported as more frequent and varied, including female to female genital rubbing (called the _hoka-hoka_ by the Mongandu of Central Africa) and male on male sexual activities. The female bonding in these close primate relatives is seen as cemented through such 'genito-genital' rubbing which, by serving to strengthen female coalitions, decreases male violence. Drawing on this research in support of her own political lesbian agenda in a recent issue of _Feminism and Psychology,_ Louise Silverstein argues that psychologists should pay much closer attention to 'the importance of lesbian _[sic]_ sex among our closest primate relatives', and explore 'the evolutionary implications of this same-sex behavior for decreasing male violence in human primate society'. She also mentions the possibility of deep evolutionary origins of practices like clitoridectomy in male attempts to limit the establishment of female power coalitions and to ensure the continuity of their own genes by preventing females from having multiple sexual partners.\n\nMore promiscuous than the male evolutionary theorist, the feminist evolutionary biologist or anthropologist has sought out the variability in protohumans, stressing that evolution has selected for reproductive flexibility, rather than universal patterns. Surveying human diversity, these feminist theorists tend to emphasize the absence of any single evolutionary patterns in human development, suggesting evolutionary processes have favoured instead patterns of 'plasticity and behavioral variation'. It is over a decade since the feminist biologist Ruth Bleier announced in 1986: 'Primatology thus serves as an example of the correction that a feminist perspective can effect in a field of knowledge... [it] is a lone example in the natural sciences of dramatic changes made under feminist viewpoints.' However, I am more sceptical than Bleier about the progressive impact feminists have managed to make through their interventions in primatology.\n\nWomen primatologists have certainly helped to undermine the androcentric language and interpretations of many of their peers, for whom the male predator remains the pre-eminent narrative. In their texts, much of the feminist-inflected focus in primatology appears more concerned about the dangers of anthropomorphism, and more self-reflexive. Women researchers have paid attention to the effects of differing social environments on the activities of male primates and, above all, collected information on female lives and behaviour. It was this research which first seriously challenged the consensus of the 1960s that the crucial transition to human evolution was via the hunter-gatherer adaptation: an account of human history memorialized in 1966 at the 'Man the Hunter' conference in Chicago, organized by Richard Lee and Irven de Vore. A succession of feminist palaeontologists and anthropologists during the 1970s and 1980s added to the work of women primatologists, all challenging what Linda Fedigan labelled the misleading 'baboonization' of protohominids, used to insist upon evolutionary selection for male dominance and aggression. As Adrienne Zihlman documents, women scientists collected ethnographic studies from fossil hominid records, and researched foraging societies, to uncover women's role in prehistory: often as efficient food-gatherers, sometimes as effective hunters, or in other ways engaged in subsistence, nutrition and work.\n\nYet, three decades after the first challenges to the hunting hypothesis, Zihlman reflects that all this new research on female behaviour seems to have resulted in little change in the traditional tale of human origins in most mainstream textbooks or educational documentaries, despite the critical mass of divergent data. As Linda Fedigan similarly notes, 'the reception of feminist critique by practicing scientists, including women scientists, has often been less than positive'. Furthermore, although offering forceful and vivid contrasts with earlier male researchers' neglect of female behaviour, the goal of restoring women to evolutionary history can itself prove problematic when used to explain human societies. It is vulnerable to some of the same traps as earlier sociobiological research. As anthropologist Susan Sperling wryly notes: 'The new female primate is dressed for success and lives in a troop that resembles the modern corporation: now everyone gets to eat power lunches on the savanna.' It is my impression that the newer studies on female primates _have_ influenced the mainstream agenda of evolutionary theorists, but not necessarily in ways which add to their theoretical or methodological sophistication.\n\nDawkins has no problem writing of the bonobo ape as being as genetically close to humans as any other type of ape. He merely adds, true to his unifying principle of natural selection propelled by the 'selfish' gene, that in this particular primate 'altruism at the level of the individual organism' just happens to be 'a means by which the underlying genes maximize their self-interest'. Similarly, Robert Wright is happy to take on board that 'there are a few eccentric sex-reversed species' (referring to the phalaropes or 'sea horses'), but 'these ostensible exceptions to Darwinian logic comply with and bolster it'. In the codes of his chosen theory, the zoologist Iver Mysterud urges all evolutionary theorists to show greater appreciation of the criticisms and the specific agendas of feminist biologists, in order to speed up the dissemination of evolutionary thinking and secure its status in the evolving 'hierarchies among scientists': 'Often, it is not an optimal long-term strategy to humiliate the \"enemy\" too much in the first round, if one can secure an ally in the next round by treating him or her politely\/gently'.\n\nThe work of one of Britain's leading evolutionary psychologists still doing animal research is typical of more recent agendas: Robin Dunbar's _Grooming, Gossip and the Evolution of Language_ (1996) sets out to offer a more woman-friendly, postfeminist evolutionary account of the origins of human behaviour. Dunbar writes that early, or protohuman, females were central to the invention of language, as a form of 'gossip': The conventional view is that language evolved to enable males to do things like co-ordinate hunts more effectively.... I am suggesting that language evolved to allow us to gossip'; 'the pressure to evolve language may well have come through the need to form and service female alliances'. Although more attentive to female behaviour, Dunbar nevertheless offers the same reductionist neglect of either the complexities of human evolution or the diversities of human behaviour. In his account, women today, as yesterday, and like females everywhere, want men for breeding; males today, as yesterday, are more aggressive than women, because of competition for females: 'The difference between the sexes reflects crucial differences in their reproductive strategies'. And once again, informing us that we can forget that old 'bugaboo of genetic determinism', we are 'reassured' that evolutionary theorists no longer ignore what they call cultural 'rules'. They no longer need to: 'Learning is _just_ another example of a Darwinian process: it is differential survival of traits (behavioural rules in this case) as a result of selection' So much, apparently, for the objections of those who stress the significance of culture, whose 'problem', we are told, 'is largely one of misinformation \u2013 sometimes exacerbated by a refusal to listen'.\n\nI think not. This is no refusal to listen, but obstinate attention to certain new twists in the curtailing of culture. What we have here is a biological absolutism more incompatible than ever with any serious recognition of the dynamics of culture, and its role in the formation of human existence. Such scientific grandiosity is always blind to its own ideological imbrication, even when, as in Dunbar, it parrots the most fatuous, market-driven homilies: 'The other key lesson of the Darwinian approach is that in real life nothing comes for free'; 'left to their own devices, people will be moderate and tolerant', but their behaviour in groups 'has sullied the history of our species since time immemorial'. Perhaps one could put them in fortune cookies, along with Steven Pinker's similar sub-Darwinian sack of cliches: _'Gratitude_ calibrates the desire to reciprocate according to the costs and benefits of the original act' (as every worker who contributes to their boss's profit will know); 'The love of kin comes naturally; the love of non-kin does not' (as children who are sexually abused \u2013 between 75 and 80 per cent of them by their biological fathers \u2013 might mutter). Love of kin 'is the fundamental fact of the social world, steering everything from how we grow up to the rise and fall of empires and religions' (who needs history, economics, sociology?). Enough! No more! This is helping no one.\n\nWhen Donna Haraway presented her comprehensive history of primatology, in _Primate Visions,_ paying attention to recent feminist work on female primates, it was almost universally panned by primatologists \u2013 including some self-defining feminists such as Meredith Small. What would prove so controversial in Haraway's overview was not any lack of interest in the findings of primatologists, which tell us a great deal about both primate behaviour and those who study them. Her critics objected, first of all, to the attention she paid to the particular discourses, goals and assumptions which researchers bring to their study of the material world, making all scientific knowledge itself a product of that _interaction_ between observers and their objects of study. They objected, even more strongly, to Haraway's questioning of the notion shared by most primatologists (whether focusing on male dominance or female bonding or anything else) that their studies provide us with knowledge about the growth and change in human societies and cultural formations, let alone a blueprint for them. Her views, however, are in agreement with those of some of the most eminent researchers in biology itself, reacting in equal horror to both the misuse of Darwin and the new 'gene talk' which some in their discipline condone or even flaunt.\n\n## _**Theoretical Pluralists: The Enemy Within**_\n\nAlthough an increasingly influential group of biologists, psychologists and other social scientists have been explaining the hottest topics of the day \u2013 from mate preference and 'detection of cheaters' to violence and rape \u2013 according to the adaptations of our ancestral genes, others have been moving in a different direction. There is so much more to biology than the current prominence of evolutionary theory might suggest that it is hard to know where to begin. I have been intimating that Darwin himself should not be held responsible for all the simplifications now advanced in his name. The palaeontologist Niles Eldredge, for example, writes of the 'reinvention' of Darwin, while the leading British neurobiologist Steven Rose similarly tries to 'rescue Darwin' from his 'over-solicitous friends'. Meanwhile, Gould reflects on what a very strange time it is 'to be a fundamentalist about adaptation and natural selection \u2013 when each major subdiscipline of evolutionary biology has been discovering other mechanisms as adjuncts to selection's centrality'. So, before proceeding further, perhaps we need to remind ourselves that Darwin's basic insight is as uncontentious as it is remarkable \u2013 except to religious fundamentalists!\n\nAll living things have descended over many millions of years from the very simplest living matter, diversifying, flourishing and dying out, through a variety of means, only some of which have to do with genes: mutation, selection, accident and contingency. The lineage defined as _Homo sapiens_ emerged in the Pleistocene age, a mere hundred thousand years ago. We all ought to be able to agree on this: whether or not we favour the orthodox Darwinian view of 'phyletic gradualism', the very slow and steady appearance of new species via 'the accumulation of innumerable slight variations' over thousands of years, favoured by Dawkins; or 'punctuated equilibrium', the sudden emergence of dramatic change following catastrophic natural events (like the Cambrian explosion, a short period between 535 and 530 million years ago, when nearly all multi-cellular animals first appear in fossil records), surrounded by huge spans of millions of years with little change at all in many fossil species \u2013 the theory favoured by Eldredge and Gould. It is clear, however, that to accept the principle of extended stability or stasis as the standard situation for successful and widespread species (with between five and ten million years of equilibrium in many invertebrate species) is to mute somewhat the favoured apocalyptic sting, not to mention the short-term monetarist rhetoric, in the neo-Darwinian tale. In Britain, after the excesses of the first brood of eugenicist Darwinians hoping to improve the human race had faded into ignominy, the second generation, like J. B. S. Haldane or Julian Huxley in the 1940s, emphasized the significance of random variations and historical contingency as forces in evolution, alongside natural selection. Today, the startling new enthusiasm for the idea that our gene histories determine our cultural futures occurs _despite,_ not _because of,_ new genetic knowledge. As another enemy of the new Darwinians, the Harvard geneticist Richard Lewontin, puzzles: 'the technical literature of evolutionary genetics has emphasized more and more the random and historically contingent nature of genetic change over time'.\n\nDawkins sees the 'sophisticated academic left', in sinister alliance with the fundamentalist right, as sharing 'a joint opposition to the theory of evolution'. But I have yet to meet any one who had any serious quarrel with it, however 'sophisticated' their theory of truth, as always mediated through language, and its differing discourses. The conflict is not with Darwin, but with Dawkins's, and others', 'dumbing down' of Darwin; ironically, the 'condescending and patronizing' practice he believes he has dedicated his life to combating. As many molecular biologists have noted, genes (and the gradual, small changes which can lead them to 'mutate', or change) are neither the _only,_ and far from the _necessary,_ driving forces of evolutionary history. In Steven Rose's pithy summary of those he calls the 'ultra-Darwinians': 'the individual gene is not the only level at which selection occurs'; 'natural selection is not the only force driving evolutionary change'; 'organisms are not indefinitely flexible to change'; 'organisms are not mere passive responders to selective forces but active players in their own destiny'. As discussed further in the next section, there is no unifying principle which drives either genetic or social change. On the one hand, tweaking a rat's whiskers causes changes in gene expression in the sensory cortex. On the other, quite staggering changes in the nature of the world have been propelled with very few, if any, ties to genetic change. This should be immediately obvious from the fact that as humans we share 99 per cent of our genes with primate apes. But with or without the primophilia which might seduce us back to the bonobo at play, we would have to agree that there is no parallel in their society to the changes which have occurred within human culture.\n\nThus Stephen Jay Gould, the ogre of new evolutionary theorists, remains close to the spirit of Darwin, despite his erudition on the _incommensurabilities_ between world history and natural evolution: 'In an unmeasurable blink of a geological eyelash, human cultural change has transformed the surface of our planet as no event of natural evolution could ever accomplish at Darwinian scales of myriad generations.' Human culture can always be passed on immediately to one's heirs (biological or otherwise) in speedy and direct Lamarckian fashion, while genetic evolution must move along the inordinately slower, indirect pathways of Darwinian random mutation, natural selection, or contingency. The central point, made repeatedly by the critics of contemporary Darwinians reversing the reel to explain why we are the way we are, is that changes in genetic structure, which may survive as adaptations to particular environments, are precisely what Darwin saw them to be: 'local adaptations'. The adaptations that may enable an organism to survive in one situation are not optimal in any general way, they will differ from those that promote survival in another. Genes which were not selected for may survive because they happen to reside alongside genes which were optimal for adaptation, or simply as by-products or co-options, of features which survived as contributing to reproductive fitness. Gould and Lewontin have called these fortuitous features which emerge and flourish, though they may not themselves have contributed to genetic fitness, 'exaptations' or 'spandrels'.\n\nIllustrating the non-adaptationist account of human mental functioning, Gould, Lewontin, Robert Brandon and many other scientific researchers have often commented that the complexity of the human brain and its extraordinary endowment, for example, was not selected for in order to enable humans to read and write (skills which emerged many centuries after the appearance of those bigger brains). Rather, these skills emerged as by-products of the potential of those already evolved brains. Indeed, historical evidence supporting genuine adaptive explanations is lacking for all higher mental processes, which is what makes their postulation by evolutionary psychologists so vacuous and facile. Against the fundamentalist or ultra-Darwinians, such Darwinian pluralists as Gould, Lewontin and Rose argue that what millions of years of genetic change has selected for in human species is not any single set of 'natural' rules for development ('sexual' or otherwise); rather, it has brought about the far more impressive, open and flexible trend towards ever greater complexity, ever greater adaptability: 'if biology is indeed destiny', Rose concludes, 'then that destiny is constrained freedom'. Inside biology, there is a multiplicity of explanatory levels, although many within the field have constantly to battle against the publicly favoured followers of genetic foundationalism in order to point this out.\n\n## _**Gene Talk versus Social Change**_\n\n_'Thanks for the genes, Mom',_ young gay Americans declare on their T-shirts, or simply ' _Xq28',_ the supposed location of the 'gay gene' in men. _'Gene Police! You \u2013 Out of the Pool!.'_ , other Americans jest, in warning buttons on their lapels. They are all tuned in to the new quasi-religious rhetoric coming from molecular biologists today working on the 'human genome project' (its birthplace and epicentre in the USA), seeking to map or sequence all the genetic material in the twenty-four different chromosomes to be found in human organisms. 'The Genetic Gods', as evolutionary biologist John Avise refers to genes, 'mastermind our lives... even our fears and aspirations'. Robert Sinsheimer, one of the two biologists largely responsible for initiating the project in the mid-1980s, declares: 'For the first time in all time, a living creature understands its origin and can undertake to design its future'. Another advocate for the genome project, Walter Gilbert, expounds his 'vision' of the 'Holy Grail', while fellow Nobel Prize scientist, and first director of the US government's genome project, James Watson, declares his dedication to the 'glorious goal'. (It was Watson's and Francis Crick's discovery of the double-helix structure of DNA in 1953 \u2013 with the unsung assistance of Rosalind Franklin \u2013 which laid the groundwork for the rising supremacy of molecular biology in the sciences, disturbing the erstwhile dominance of physics and its massive funding for military research.) With hubristic certainty, these champions of our DNA believe that genes alone reveal 'what it is to be human', holding the key to our future \u2013 the ultimate solution to all our problems, individual and social alike.\n\nIn Britain, gene talk is just as ubiquitous. In 1996 the late Hans Eysenck declared, quite falsely: 'molecular genetics... has enabled us to pinpoint specific gene alleles for specific emotional reactions'. Not only 'depression', but even 'a disposition to experience unpleasant life events', is inherited, his methodological clone Michael Eysenck had already broadcast to the world in 1986. One decade later, this startling claim is 'confirmed', once again with widespread media uptake in the British press, as Welsh psychologist Peter McGuffin claims to have located a 'gloom gene'. Nowadays, it seems, there is hardly an area of human behaviour, no matter how clearly culturally diverse and complex \u2013 from good mothering to divorce or moral turpitude \u2013 that is not thrust back onto genetic foundations. Such is the force of the current cultural hegemony of genetic anti-culturalism that few people even bother to report that those who look just a little closer at the research which generates such media publicity find it not remotely conclusive. Indeed, as we shall shortly see, some biologists argue that these claims only _sound_ intelligible to those who already close their eyes to the complexities of the behaviour of living things (as well as to the mobilities of language and representation).\n\nDespite the race to promote belief in the genetic control of human destiny from the 1980s, pursued aggressively by politicans and entrepreneurs in alliance with adroit stars from molecular biology, the Human Genome Project was from the beginning attacked by fellow biologists as 'bad science'. ' \"No, not the human genome!' \", was the response of one 'distinguished biologist' whom James Watson consulted; 'as though he were talking about syphilis', Watson laments. Another influential supporter of the project, James Wyngaarden, admitted in 1990: 'If you took a vote in the biological sciences on the project, it would lose overwhelmingly'. Indeed, many of the most eminent US molecular geneticists in the early 1990s, like almost all those in the Harvard University Medical School, launched a national campaign attempting to halt the project as a 'waste of resources', diverting funds from far more important areas of biological research and training into premature and pointless sequencing of DNA molecules. (While state budgeting for the genome project rose fivefold between 1988 and 1990 \u2013 and was set to rise to $3 billion over the next fifteen years \u2013 there was a large decline in funding for other projects.) Meanwhile, as more wealthy nations began to join in the venture of mapping the human genome, fearing to miss out on its popular scientific and industrial momentum, similar objections were raised by biologists elsewhere. Most graphically, the French newspaper _Le Figaro_ portrayed its goal as one attempting 'to list the millions of letters in an encyclopedia without having the power to interpret them, ignoring all vocabulary of syntax'.\n\nSuch distrust of the project was eminently rational. All biologists now know that between 90 and 95 per cent of the base pairs of DNA, being so painstakingly sequenced and entered as part of the human genome, are what is referred to as 'nitrons', or 'junk DNA', with _no_ known function. They do not code for anything at all. 'How are you going to identify a gene if it is interspersed with so much junk?', Watson was repeatedly asked, admitting that it 'is obviously going to be hard in some cases'. Hard indeed! The genome consists of more than _three billion_ nucleotide base pairs on each of the twenty-three pairs of human chromosomes, which are believed to contain a mere _100,000_ genes. (Genes are ordered sequences of nucleotides which actively encode for or send messages that have a specific functional outcome.) As the expert on Huntingdon's disease, Nancy Wexler explains, when looking for genetic mutations, 'What we are searching for is comparable to a fraction of an inch on the circumference of the globe!'\n\nBut problems do not end there. For the 'gene' sequences which operate to encode outcomes do not form any single or discrete set, unlike the theoretical entities assumed in models of genetic transmission, referred to as genes 'for' some particular outcome. Thus, even when 'gene' sequences have been tracked down, this does not tell us anything like as much as we might hope, because they are in constant and shifting interaction with their cellular environment such that the same DNA messages have multiple functions within a single context, and have different meanings in different contexts. Genetic activity is not constant, but modified by the presence or absence of other genes in the genome, by the cellular environment, and by a multitude of external circumstances, from temperature or exposure to different metals to viral infection and the presence or absence of all manner of other social and physical environmental features. Thus the same behavioural outcome can result from quite different gene sequences. For example, as Steven Rose reports, the gene mutation creating high levels of cholesterol in the blood can result from quite divergent mutations in different people. There are clearly a multitude of uncertainties in seeking the genetic origins of human behaviour.\n\nEven if we could agree on how to identify behaviour phenotypically (itself profoundly contentious for many of the complex manifestations now thought in need of genetic explanation), the molecular underpinnings are inevitably forbiddingly convoluted. Moreover, despite genome rhetoric, 'the' composite human genome, when it eventually is sequenced as a model of a Eurasian male, will correspond to no one, as there is genetically no hypothetical average person: every human genome is unique, with any two individuals differing by as much as three million bases.\n\nThis is why trying to understand and treat even the very rare, genetically 'simple' diseases, like haemophilia, proves hugely complicated. As Lewontin notes: 'hemophiliacs differ from people whose blood clots normally by one of 208 different DNA variations, all in the same gene'. This leads him to conclude:\n\n> The problem of telling a coherent causal story, and of then designing a therapy based on knowledge of the DNA sequence in such a case, is that we do not know _even in principle_ all of the functions of the different nucleotides in a gene, or how the specific context in which a nucleotide appears may affect the way in which the cell machinery interprets the DNA; nor do we have any but the most rudimentary understanding of how a whole functioning organism is put together from its protein bits and pieces... [B]ecause there is no single, standard, \"normal\" DNA sequence that we all share, observed sequence differences between sick and well people cannot, in themselves, reveal the genetic cause of a disorder. At the least, we would need the sequences of many sick and many well people to look for common differences between sick and well. But if many diseases are like hemophilia, common differences will not be found and we will remain mystified.\n\nLewontin, like Ruth Hubbard, Steven Rose, Hilary Rose and many others doing biological research, point to the dangers arising from the increasing popularity of DNA testing by employers, insurers and others. When patterns of transmission are unpredictable and depend upon unknown physical, social and psychological external factors, alongside complex and unstable internal cellular features, a new category of the 'potentially' ill or disabled can threaten the life chances made available to the perfectly healthy. Indeed, there are so many flaws in the vision of the human genome as supplying the ultimate causes of human behaviour that it is hardly surprising that its critics regard it as more treacherous than useful. They are not only concerned with the astronomical cost its sequencing entails, and the low probability of it generating useful knowledge, but even more with the very high probability of its abuse and misuse. Most of all, they fear that 'gene hunters' feed an ideological climate which diverts attention away from the analysis of environmental and social problems, in a deplorable repetition of the thinking and rhet-oric behind the delusions of eugenicists in the early decades of the twentieth century: inventing genes for 'nomadism', 'shiftlessness', 'pauperism' and 'criminality' to condemn the working class, immigrants and 'non-Aryans' alike.\n\nThe claims we now hear almost daily, linking genes with diseases (schizophrenia, manic depression or cancer), with social failure (unemployment, risk-taking, hyperactivity, shyness, gloom), with social and sexual deviance (alcoholism, homosexuality, even bad mothering) or with general misfortune (homelessness), are all boosted by the existence of the genome project. As Ruth Hubbard and Elijah Wald remark, each misleading claim of some new gene 'for' any specific condition is given maximum media exposure, although invariably based upon tiny samples of people, and rarely replicated:\n\n> Like mirages, many of these genes disappear when one tries to look at them closely \u2013 the claims about manic depression and schizophrenia genes were withdrawn soon after their announcement and the gene for alcoholism has met a similar fate. However, there are so many gene stories that people are left with the impression that our genes control everything.\n\nMeanwhile, the dangers of DNA testing stem not only from the uneven outcome of genetic markers, even those which have been shown to be reliably linked with disease, but from the fact that such knowledge at present bears negligible relation to possible cures. Thus knowledge of the biochemical abnormalities in sickle cell anaemia has been known for twenty-five years, with no cure in sight; just as there is no cure for Down's syndrome, Huntington's or Tay-Sachs disease. Even some of those who are strongly in favour of the Human Genome Project, such as Nancy Wexler, confess: For a while we may have the worst of all possible worlds \u2013 limited or no treatments, high hopes and probably unrealistic expectations, insurance repercussions \u2013 everything to challenge our inventiveness and stamina.' But it is precisely a _lack_ of inventiveness and stamina which genetic boosterism has encouraged: the denial of the intrinsic uncertainties and complexities in genetic transactions; and the reduction of social problems to flimsy biological speculations elevating dreams of genetic omnipotence and normalization. Such denial and reductionism was regularly flaunted by the molecular biologist David Koshland, while editor of the globally influential _Science_ magazine, when the Human Genome Project was being launched around the world at the close of the 1980s as 'a new technology to aid the poor, the infirm, and the underprivileged'. These were, of course, the very people in most danger of being scorned and neglected by beliefs in a genetic underclass, those who could be dismissed as the losers in life's genetic lottery' (in the words of the American psychologist Robert Plomin, who \u2013 most appropriately, given the hospital's origins and controversial history \u2013 was recruited in 1998 by the Maudsley Institute of Psychiatry in London). Meanwhile, Hollywood, like Aldous Huxley half a century earlier, is once again depicting the dystopian potential of this new genetic order, in such films as _Gataca._\n\nInverting earlier beliefs, it is now 'nature', rather than 'nurture', which has been deemed infinitely malleable in the dreams of some molecular biologists as well as their political and commercial sponsors. This is despite the billions invested in human biotechnology over the last forty years, so far producing so little in useful treatments \u2013 with the notable exceptions of the synthesis of a bacterial protein for use in haemophilia, and the engendering of the secretion of hormones in sheep which are useful for human growth. As the eminent British geneticist Steve Jones admitted in 1997, the idea of curing known inherited disease by replacing DNA is a 'piece of biological hubris': 'How the DNA in a virtually formless egg is translated into an adult body remains almost a mystery'. Undaunted, the conceptual shift to aggrandize the notion of 'genetic disease', and their biological elimination, continues apace, as often as not referring to psychological states which may well be _neither_ genetic, _nor_ diseases. The latter is likely to include the persistent, unreliable and unreplicated reports of biological markers for varieties of sexual and social deviance, mental illness and suffering \u2013 the very human predicaments rendered so ambiguous under critical conceptual scrutiny only a few decades ago.\n\nIronically, two contradictory trends have intensified rather than resolved old clashes between culture and science, to the detriment of useful collaboration. On the one hand, the rise of cultural studies encouraged interdisciplinary efforts to blur the demarcations between distinct disciplinary sources of knowledge, strongly supported by most (but not all) feminist scholarship. It emphasized the constitutive role of language and cultural context in different areas of scientific thought and practices \u2013 with their inbuilt normative investments. On the other hand, this exacerbated a counter-trend, sometimes taking the form of direct backlash against cultural studies and feminist critique, in which the very notion of 'culture' is vanishing from the favoured conceptual framework of the social and biological sciences \u2013 evident in a trend to replace 'social' with 'life' or 'human' sciences. As Evelyn Fox Keller argues persuasively: 'in terms that increasingly dominate contemporary discourse, \"culture\" has become subsumed under biology.' Evolutionary psychologists, as discussed above, have helped to consummate this particular disappearing act. Declaring their interest in culture or the effects of nurture on individual development, they nevertheless assume that 'culture is part of our biology'. In the view he favours, Henry Plotkin explains that this is so 'because the traits that _cause_ culture have been selected for'. More elaborately, Richard Dawkins, Daniel Dennett and Susan Blakemore refer to cultural inheritance as 'memes'. As Dawkins outlines, in strict analogy with his founding category of the 'gene', a 'meme' is 'anything that replicates itself from brain to brain, via an available means of copying.... The genes build the hardware. The memes are the software' Responding in dismay to such reductionist axioms, Steve Jones protests: 'Just as geneticists begin to realize how far it is between DNA and organism, their subject is being hijacked. Society is, it seems, little more than the product of genes'\n\n## _**For Epistemic Diversity**_\n\nIt is this peculiar form of ideological reductionism which enables today's genetic aficionados to believe they can replace earlier eugenicist enthusiasm for population control (via brutal government-sponsored sterilization campaigns against the 'unfit' and 'degenerate') with the more fashionable emphasis on the 'free choice' of individuals. Every person has a right to 'normal' genes: 'individuals have a right to be born with a normal, adequate hereditary environment' (as if we could all agree on what that 'normal' might be, or could remain in control of our 'choices' should we allow some expert to genetically engineer it!). Never before have social problems \u2013 present and future \u2013 been so mechanically translated into illusive individual responsibilities. The extraordinary presupposition is that attempts at tackling the escalating environmental pollutants which provoke disease (and genetic mutations), or the economic and social sources of rising poverty, homelessness, unemployment, crime, violence, family breakdown and mental illness, have all failed. Intervention must begin on what is now declared their true origins: genetic predispositions.\n\nIt is this doctrine which James Watson believes we will all eventually come to accept, giving thanks to those who work to produce the 'good genetic maps that allow us to locate culprit chromosomes': 'Ignoring genes is like trying to solve a murder without finding the murderer. All we have are victims.' To the contrary, as Ruth Hubbard and Elijah Wald point out, the lives of many women with breast cancer, for example, might have been saved if funding had been redirected from genetic research to decreasing the levels of radiation and environmental pollutants to which people are exposed. Even the discovery of cancer-triggering oncogenes, several decades ago, has not put a cure for cancer within reach. Instead, it has revealed just how complicated are the diverse processes which might transform normal cellular genes into oncogenic genes by viral infection and other external physical or chemical agents. Ironically, this is one of the few areas of genetic research where the key scientists met continual resistance from their peers, precisely because the factors affecting oncogenesis were environmental, which meant, as David Kevles explains, that their work was seen as not 'respectable genetics'.\n\nYet searching for oncogenes, which provide one key to the mechanisms producing cancer (however externally triggered, and hence preventable by attention to the environment), is itself far less problematic than the activities of many other gene hunters. One thinks immediately of Dean Hamer, and his team of colleagues at the National Cancer Institute in Maryland in the USA, searching for a 'gay gene' marker on the X chromosome. Yet to be replicated, and facing instant technical criticism for its neglect of the genetic makeup of the non-gay brothers of its sample of men, Hamer's research is based upon a study of forty self-declared homosexual brothers (recruited through advertisements in gay publications). It ignores what is probably the largest group of men who have sex with other men, at truck stops or in public toilets, those who are heterosexually married \u2013 since this would immediately put into question who is 'gay' and who is 'straight'. It also leaves out lesbian sexuality which, despite and because of the dramatic rise in the visibility of such practices since the rebirth of feminism, is hardly attributable to some massive genetic mutation.\n\nThe point is that attempting to reduce culture to biology, _or_ biology to culture, can only impoverish us all. There is not, and never could be, any single, unified project with the capacity to encompass the different levels of explanation necessary for understanding the complexity of human affairs. It is true that some who have turned of late to totalizing Darwinian or genetic visions have done so in criticism of recent cultural theorists' dismissal of the relevance of the body, and either its evolutionary history or changing biological potential. They rightly reject the idea that exploring the meanings we attach to bodily states, and their accompanying performative enactments (or psychic investments), is all we know, and all we ever need to know, about our corporeal reality. Such absolute cultural appropriation of the lifespans of any living creature is about as foolish as imagining that they are merely machines for the replication of DNA, irrespective of time and place.\n\nOne obvious illustration is the issue of human reproduction, so central in biological versus cultural contentions, for ultra-Darwinians, feminists and cultural theorists alike. The former see only sexually dimorphic adaptations for the most efficient gene dispersal. The latter, looking through the lens of culture, know that bodies are produced in particular discourses with strong normative and symbolic meanings. Thus, women's bodies are always defined by their capacity for pregnancy, even though they are reproductively infertile for significant portions of their lives, and their potential for childbearing is something women in the industrialized world choose _not_ to exercise throughout most of their lives. Clearly, the gene's-eye view for maximum reproductive advantage explains next to nothing about \u2013 indeed can only distort \u2013 the complexity and variation in women's lives and experiences: why women today continue to have fewer children; why they have them later in life; why in growing numbers they raise them independently of the biological father (whether from choice or force of circumstance); why a significant minority choose not to have children at all.\n\nHowever, knowing that we are not at the mercy of our genes does not mean that we can ignore women's reproductive biology. As described in the previous chapter, the body's biological capacity for impregnation can play a crucial role in the desires and fears which govern women's lives, at least some of the time. Moreover, it is not only cultural meanings, but also physiological events, which will be affected by cultural patterns, making reproductive cycles themselves culturally contingent. Thus, as the medical anthropologists Susan Sperling and Yewoubdar Beyene point out, there is no universal biological pattern for the female reproductive cycle, and hence, not even potentially, a universal biological experience. In non-industrial societies, for example, ovulation begins on average many years later than in Western countries, menopause occurs up to a decade earlier, and frequent pregnancy and prolonged lactation work to suppress the menstrual cycle. Thus while Western women now experience approximately _thirty-five_ years of ovulatory cycles, late menarche, early menopause and prolonged breastfeeding mean that in non-industrial societies the menstrual cycles experienced by women are approximately only _four_ years. Sperling and Beyene therefore rightly emphasize the necessity of analysing the autonomous complexity of both biology and culture in reproductive studies, if we are to gain any clear understanding of how either biological plasticity, or cultural diversity, interact to produce reproductive experience. The one does not reduce to the other.\n\nThe dream that the explanation of life, from the molecular to the social, can be explained in terms of a few overarching laws returns us to the founding metaphors of Western science, three centuries ago. Today, the favoured metaphor is that of the calculating machine or computer, especially endorsed by cognitive psychologists. As Donna Haraway notes: 'communications sciences and modern biologies are constructed by a common move \u2013 the translation of the world into a problem of coding, a search for a common language in which all resistance to instrumental control disappears and all heterogeneity can be submitted to disassembly, reassembly, investment and exchange'. She should know. Her own imagery of the 'feminist cyborg' is one which breaks down distinctions between organism and machine, destroying identities, categories and relationships, in the hope of building 'a montrous world without gender'.\n\nWe are living in an ideological climate where it seems increasingly easy to argue that we can, and we should, control biology, through claiming that individuals have a responsibility for their own genetic outcomes (despite the reality that 'the new genetics can diagnose but not treat'.) On the one side, we look backwards to the 'constraints' of our genetic heritage as the determinants of our fate; on the other, we look forwards to the 'freedoms' of infinitely malleable future, once we put our faith in the hands of the new Genetic Gods. These new gods are not, in fact, genes; but rather the molecular biologists themselves who spin stories about their ability to create genetic blueprints for 'normality'. This is the vision which is currently preferred to any which might argue for political change and collective endeavour to prevent the physical and social hazards of life being increasingly unevenly distributed \u2013 not according to genetic laws, but rather in line with socio-economic principles.\n\nA large part of the appeal of the new genetics is thus political. But it links up with another image of science especially influential in psychology. I have called this the psychologists' 'fear of the mind'. Psychologists have always oscillated between a focus on biology (including recent accounts of cerebral coding) and a focus on the environment \u2013 because human mental life is just too complex, too hard to grasp, too threatening, and the narratives of human experience too messy for the formulation of simple, clean theory. The life of the mind is quite unlike the predictable operation of a computer, however intricate its hardware or software. In the following chapters I turn to the complexities of psychic life and the engagement of feminist theory and politics with those who attempt its elucidation.\n\n# 4  \nPsychic Life and its Scandals\n\n> We spend our time inventing true accounts for ourselves, content like professional historians to change our versions of events under the pressure of the present... Or we modify the angle of vision while affecting to forget that it alone determines the field which the eye will encompass, hiding what is left that another eye will settle on.\n> \n> J.-B. Pontalis, _Love of Beginnings_\n\nWhenever I tell stories of my own childhood, my most loving partner has an incorrigible tendency to laugh. 'You always look so happy in childhood photographs', he points out, correctly; as if the child striving to look winsome is always a happy one. Complicit with his response, I usually tell tales of my early life more to entertain than to elicit sympathy. They all sound so bizarre and extreme in their elaboration of interminable family conflicts, indigenous betrayals, maternal absence and paternal indifference, that it is hard not to laugh. And it is important to add that I am recalling an affluent and stable, non-abusive, two-parent family here: a not atypically selfish, casually adulterous father; his often jealous and resentful live-in mistress and housekeeper; and my overemployed, not atypically embittered, professional working mother. The three children starting out from that household would all eventually be able to find meaningful work and loving relationships, although we would never be free from the anxieties and insecurities such unhappy families implant. But then the experiences we had were never so cruel, so very much at odds with the conventions of those around us, that we lacked the words to voice them.\n\n## **_Tricks of Memory_**\n\nHow should we scrutinize our reconstructions of childhood pleasures and pains? How, in the present, do we assess the significance \u2013 let alone the accuracy \u2013 of the images out of which we piece together our personal histories, as we sift through and reshuffle fragments of the past? This is the issue at the heart of the current crisis over memory, especially in relation to child abuse and therapeutic interventions. But it fans out to embrace a panoply of problems in people's desire to understand \u2013 and in these times, an even stronger desire _not_ to understand \u2013 the always complicated background to people's suffering, and their habitual, often harmful, ways. The uncertainties of memory have been used to excoriate already familiar objects of ridicule, especially Freud, although, day-to-day, any therapist from the ever-expanding empire of healers of the self will do. The new 'memoro-politics' (as they have been called) have also encouraged academic psychologists to step outside their characteristic computational rituals to pronounce on matters less trivial than the banal correlations routinely handed out to the media. Indeed, they have even been responsible for certain new alliances between experimental psychology and psychoanalysis, however provisional, where communication remains limited. At the heart of all this commotion over memory lies the continuing fallout from charges detonated when feminists in the 1970s began to perceive and denounce the hitherto concealed or repudiated prevalence of child sexual abuse. It was from that time that women were heard and were helped as they spoke of their own recollections of abuse \u2013 most often, incestuous abuse inside the family, with fathers or step-fathers as the perpetrators.\n\nMindful of the social and political dynamics at play, and especially the backlash against feminist achievements, I want to ponder here the difficulties surrounding any exploration of the psychological arena in the understanding of human affairs. Psychic life is always intrinsically problematic, as that unique and autonomous domain only knowable, even to its subjects, via the narratives and discourses available to make sense of it. Subjective concerns are not supposed to inform the theoretical work or conceptual innovation of scientists, who like to believe that they can, indeed that they must, remain quite detached from the objects which they study and the methods they employ. But for those scientific observers who are also psychologists, this is a rather extraordinary constraint. 'Psychologists', as one of its recently acclaimed cognitive heroes likes to boast, 'don't study their own minds; they study someone else's'. Yet, it is self-knowledge and the understanding of individual human actions which is supposedly the object of their disciplinary pursuit. Autobiographical material might therefore be thought to provide one of the richest sources we have to understand the strange complexities of the interaction between 'internal' and 'external' realities. Indeed, rather than requiring elimination as quintessentially unreliable or biased, autobiographical reflection could prove all the richer precisely for being, at any one time, so easily called into question, and in constant need of rethinking.\n\nLike all aspects of experience, memory depends upon wider cultural understandings, which themselves shift over time: 'Life is lived forward but it is understood backwards', to use Kierkegaard's much cited aphorism. Our own most cherished conceits, stubborn evasions or persistent illusions are all fashioned by a growing stock of cultural narratives, as we try to make sense of the past and its connections to our lives in the present. This, it seems to me, is what we need to study, not seek to evade. And this is why I see the appraisal of personal memories as one of the most important guides for thinking about psychological enquiry, in much the same way that such reflection inspired the most persistingly influential writer on human existence in modern times, Sigmund Freud. It was Freud's perpetual self-exploration which, for better or for worse, provided the framework for those in search of deeper psychological understanding of themselves over the subsequent hundred years; at least, those who could most freely choose and afford what they felt they needed, when seeking relief from intense personal miseries.\n\nMeanwhile, the most culturally ubiquitous narrative available for explaining all manner of social problems and individual failures and misfortunes today focuses upon the fate of the helpless and vulnerable child within the bad or abusive family. From popular television to the ceaseless production of self-help manuals in the Western world, stories of child abuse within dysfunctional families introduce one of the central moral tales of our time. However, fundamental as this story has become, it is surrounded by professional controversy and dissent, with some leading psychologists putting their authority behind its complete irrelevance: 'There is evidence that neither sexual abuse nor other forms of childhood trauma damage the adult personality', the late and highly respected cognitive psychologist Stuart Sutherland used to proclaim, adding that any talk of 'repressed' or 'recovered' memories of abuse 'defies everything that is known about memory and trauma'. Younger psychologists, with much the same message, follow in the footsteps of mentors like Eysenck and Sutherland, finding brief media prominence with publications dismissing the significance of parental influence and early family experience \u2013 as exemplified in the fanfare around Judith Harris's _The Nature Assumption_ (1998).\n\nIn contrast, the British Psychological Society, consulting its clinical members, has published a special report endorsing the existence and the significance of 'repressed' memories of childhood abuse: 'There are high levels of belief in the essential accuracy of recovered memories of child sexual abuse among qualified psychologists' [ _sic_ ]. __ (This is presumably their ungrammatical way of affirming the beliefs of psychologists, rather than public belief in psychologists' personal histories of abuse.) The American Psychiatric Association has gone further, supporting a notion of the repression of whole psychological formations, or of amnesia associated with distinct 'personalities', resulting from childhood abuse; this was ratified as Multiple Personality Disorder in the _Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders_ (DSM-III) in 1980 and later reclassified as Dissociative Identity Disorder in DSM-IV.\n\nThese battles over the significance of childhood trauma and the nature of memory are not only staged in the academy, the clinic and the media, they are also increasingly fought out in law courts and legislative bodies around the world. In the courts and in their aftermath, further difficulties arise as the framework of legal discourses is mapped onto the more precarious and provisional translations of the past into the present in clinical discourses.\n\n## **_Dilemmas of Science_**\n\nThe contemporary focus on the child is itself, to some extent, a testimony to the enormous significance of Freud for the culture and imagination of twentieth-century Western thought. It was Freud, of course, who most strongly insisted that as adults we are never as free as we would like to think from the often destructive residues of infantile fears, anxieties and longings. But this also means that we are never as rational as we would like to think, and that the line between impartial observation and the driving force of fantasy can be a blurred and broken one. Just as childhood intrudes into adulthood, fantasy fuels not only personal perceptions, but also shared constructions of reality. 'You only start seeing', as Jacqueline Rose condenses Freud's most basic message, 'when you know that your vision is troubled, fallible, off-key'. However, psychoanalysis has remained at the margins of academic debates in psychology, and for some time now there has been a renewed assault by a formidable range of philosophers, historians and critics on Freud's 'fraudulence' and 'fakery', with his work destined, in Frederick Crews's recent emotive indictments, for 'history's ashcan'. Interestingly, it is the continuing resonance of much of Freud's conceptual framework with the less reductive aspects of familiar cultural wisdom, itself derided in the cognitive sciences as 'folk psychology', which encourages its repeated repudiation within the academy, especially within psychology and psychiatry. Yet it is this congruence with the paradoxes of lived experience which motivated its rehabilitation within significant strands of feminist scholarship, especially in the humanities.\n\nMuch of the allure of psychoanalysis (its distinctiveness for its more sophisticated sympathizers) is its embrace of contradiction and conflict as central to human existence. Much of the scandal of psychoanalysis (for its closest and harshest critics, in mainstream psychology) is this same ingredient of contradiction and paradox. This puzzling complexity mocks psychologist's supposedly dispassionate construction of rational and orderly mechanistic models of mental functioning and their insistence upon computational methods for studying its outcomes. As Jerome Bruner, among others, frequently laments, no sooner had psychologists in the late 1950s begun to reverse their hitherto impoverished behaviouristic elimination of reference to mental states and cultural contexts than their new cognitive frameworks themselves began to rigidify. Having previously confined themselves to the diligent quantification of patterns of physical stimulus and response, the new 'cognitive revolution' briefly allowed academic psychologists the freedom to conceptualize the life of the mind, only to encourage them, all too soon, to bypass once again the culturally fluid and uniquely flexible human creative capacities for 'meaning-making'. Instead, cognitive psychology substituted new mechanistic models of universality in a language full of highly technical, strictly computational metaphors of 'information-processing'. The recent addition of Darwinian perspectives further encourages the construction of grandiose conceptual frameworks for generating context-free, speculative totalizations.\n\nMeanwhile, the fact that contradiction and paradox is something psychoanalytic reflection shares with much of what we would call 'common sense' fuels the fire of its detractors, even as it encourages its supporters. As Freud noted in 1909, when writing his preface to the second edition of the single most influential psychoanalytic text, _The Interpretation of Dreams,_ his work would be 'doomed to be sunk into complete silence' were its impact to depend upon 'the attitude adopted by reviewers in the scientific periodicals' (whether of his own day, or ours) rather than its usefulness to its 'educated and curious-minded readers'. Interestingly, this book, with its 'incalculable influence on modern consciousness', as Laura Marcus notes, sold only 351 copies in its first six years. The rejection of its scientific credentials was in line with the positivistic principle that psychology could only assert its claims as a science once it could distance itself definitively from the open-ended ambivalences to be found in 'folk psychology' or common sense: the inconsistencies and contradictions in people's perceptions or beliefs must be eliminated from the conceptual language of science. Instead, psychologists must present simple, certain truths which can be exactly measured and quantified.\n\nIt has often been noted that it is the experimental methods themselves which have generally dictated research in psychology. Yet, as Michael Billig and other more sceptical social psychologists have illustrated in their own fields of enquiry, 'far from anything being made more orderly', social psychologists have produced 'a sprawling mass of conflicting principles and research findings'. From his own discipline (anthropology), Clifford Geertz had long since analysed the scientific dilemma facing psychologists. With seductive self-restraint, he pointed out time and again that any attempt to understand the social lives of human beings \u2013 who live in history and have the capacity for language, intentions, visions, memories, hopes and passions \u2013 is unlikely to succeed if presented in terms of 'objectivized variables set in systems of closed causality'. Geertz is one of the main figures pioneering recent interpretative anthropology. His inspiring memoir, covering four decades of research, elegantly illustrates how the quest for what we really want to know about people \u2013 why they do what they do \u2013 tends to escape the dexterities of method undertaken in the pursuit of precise objective formulations. The attempt to predict and control human behaviour is not one which orientates us in the direction of understanding it.\n\nCertainly, on that heated topic of the moment, the nature and significance of memories of child abuse, we find that academic psychology has played almost no role in its contemporary prominence. Freud, however, has been held _responsible_ for it; responsible, moreover, as prime mover of its historical denial _and_ as the undeniable author of presumptions of its contemporary prevalence. Whether seen as shrouding it in secrecy, or flaunted as fashionable fiction, Freud is to blame both for the cultural disavowal _and_ the professional ratification of child sexual abuse. How could this have happened?\n\n## **_Troubled Vision_**\n\nLet us look at a vignette from life in a public school in Britain in the 1950s. 'Do you think I'm a pederast?', Paul Foot recalls being asked by Anthony Chenevix-Trench, his eminent housemaster at Shrewsbury public school. Chenevix-Trench, who quickly rose to claim the job of headmaster at Britain's most prestigious school, Eton, was relaxing after another of his regular beatings of adolescent boys, with leather strap on bare bottoms. Few of his younger pupils could hope to escape such humiliating chastisement for mistakes in their Greek translation, punishments joyfully delivered behind closed doors. Perhaps Chenevix-Trench was genuinely unsure of the nature of his 'perversion', exhibiting that strange but far from unfamiliar state of mind which Freud was to make central to his account of psychic life, when we both know and do not know something about ourselves, or others, at the same time: 'Do you think I'm a pederast?' 'Yes, indeed', a chorus of voices would immediately respond to the self-generated suspicions of any such exalted sadist today.\n\nIt is possible that Chenevix-Trench was genuinely unsure whether his behaviour was abusive. He apparently gained sexual pleasure not from acts of sodomy, but from causing pain on the exposed flesh of his younger pupils \u2013 and, of course, maybe it did belt into them a firmer knowledge of ancient Greek, in keeping with the proclaimed goal of the exercise. As Adam Mars-Jones comments, it is harder to be quite so 'unknowing' nowadays: 'The moment it becomes possible to consider such behaviour other than in terms of manly spontaneity, then it's all up with the innocent beating, weeping and kissing'. Mars-Jones was reviewing Christopher Hibbert's book _No Ordinary Place: Radley College and the Public School,_ where he explains that in the 1950s: 'Weeping and kissing a boy after beating him would not then have been considered so sexually dubious as it would today'. There's progress, most would agree. But, even today, some are not as discerning as others, and seem to remain no less confused than Chenevix-Trench himself, although we are supposedly far wiser about the nature and problem of paedophilia and child abuse. Indeed, Chenevix-Trench (to Foot's deep disgust) remains a hero; a hero, it is important to note, not for libertarian sex radicals proud to be sado-masochist, but rather for the self-righteous moralists of our time who, like his biographer Mark Peel, want to celebrate that particular teacher's battle against 'drift and complacency', and still cherish the use of the cane.\n\nWithout any doubt, it is Freud's descriptive categories \u2013 in these times as much the common sense of cultural critics like Mars-Jones as it is baloney to disciplinarians like Mark Peel (and many academic psychologists) \u2013 which remove the 'innocence' from these 'manly' beatings and explain their perpetrators' defensive connection to their own behaviour. Freudian reflections point us towards the conscious disavowal of what one unconsciously knows, and the widespread unconscious denial, displacement, and a projection of a sense of one's own wrong-doing into the punitive punishment of others, especially when it allows some disguised expression of repressed sexual pleasure. It is the language of psychoanalysis which resonates with and helps inform what cultural wisdom we have about what is more popularly called the 'blindness of the seeing eye'. Freud communicated a way of thinking about how we are able to deceive ourselves and others via a principled and vigorous passion far in excess of any conscious attempt to mislead. Indeed, to be 'knowing', in Western culture, usually means to have picked up something of Freud's legacy.\n\n## **_Feminist Denunciations_**\n\nNevertheless, it is important to be clear that it was not psychoanalysts but feminists who brought to prominence, and demanded action against, the hidden and horrific reality of child sexual abuse in the 1970s. Contrary to the disinterested status ascribed to and claimed by scientists and (somewhat less successfully) clinicians, it took a political movement to refocus scholarly attention on the significance of narratives of child sexual abuse. Moreover, it was Freud whom many feminists blamed for keeping the prevalence of child sexual abuse buried for so long. The volatile and contradictory relations between feminism and psychoanalysis provide both a telling instance of the ambivalence of Freud's legacy, and the selective uses made of his conceptual framework. As explored further in chapter 6, it was used, most often, to underwrite existing gender hierarchies and normative regimes; only sometimes, more subversively, to suggest their inevitable fissures and fragility. Accordingly, the cultural impact of the feminist attack on psychoanalysis, in this instance for falsifying women's experience of sexual abuse, has been shadowed by a somewhat more elite feminist emphasis on the necessity of returning to Freud.\n\nSome feminists, especially in the USA, such as Florence Rush in the 1970s, accused Freud of making the sexual abuse of children 'the best-kept secret in the world'. Rush's essay was part of a profound and abiding cultural consciousness-raising around the criminal extent of child sexual abuse, which helped inspire feminist campaigning against the appalling neglect of such practices. (This was several years before the commercial media and the psychoanalytic profession itself began to suggest the extent and tragic effects of child sexual abuse, after publications by Alice Miller and Jeffrey Masson the following decade.) The feminist assault on Freud built upon Susan Brownmiller's historical survey of rape, _Against our Will_ (1976), in which she had claimed that only with the advent of Freud had 'the male ideology of rape began to rely on the tenet that rape was something women desired'. Meanwhile, in stark contrast with such denunciations, feminists such as Juliet Mitchell in Britain were appropriating Freud as essential for any understanding of the nature and psychology of sexual difference.\n\nWhat was so significant about the beginnings of psychoanalysis in the 1890s was that Freud was listening very carefully, and uniquely sympathetically, to the stories of his predominantly female patients. He saw them as maligned by contemporary medical science (as in the views held by his mentor, Jean-Martin Charcot), which attributed their symptoms to hereditary degeneracy. Freud's early patients suffered from a diversity of painful physical and emotional symptoms which, insofar as they were seen as having no organic basis, were attributed to the psychical disorder of 'hysteria'. The tales these women told when encouraged to elaborate upon whatever thoughts came to mind, often involving disturbingly precocious sexual encounters with adults (and especially fathers), led Freud to speculate upon, and search for evidence of, a 'seduction' theory of neurosis: the idea that sexual assaults in childhood provided the original trauma paving the way for neurosis in later life.\n\nHowever, as Freud developed the foundations of psychoanalytic theory his paradigm case was, primarily, his own self-analysis \u2013 as in _The Interpretation of Dreams._ This led him to the further elaboration of unconscious mechanisms, the assumption of autonomous infantile sexuality and, in particular, the traumatic acquisition of sexual difference as mediated through the intense family drama embodying the Oedipus complex: the earliest desires, repressions and identifications connected with the first objects of love, fear and frustration \u2013 the parents. Again, it is important to notice that much of the strength and influence of psychoanalytic insight into mental suffering comes from the fact that Freud relied upon (and insisted his followers use) _self_ -understanding as the route to comprehending the symptoms of others, in radical contrast with the psychiatric tradition which has always emphasized the alien or abnormal nature of mental illness. Nevertheless, it should come as no surprise that Freud's account of psychosexual development and sexual difference both reflects and reproduces the pervasive cultural phallocentrism of Western thought, encoding men's intense anxieties over the acquisition of 'masculinity'. Despite seeing women as the victims of this culture, and despite his deep sympathy for, and at times identification with, the hysterical symptoms of his female patients, Freud remained largely uncritical of the various male- dominated institutions which fuel what he described as boys' fear and repudiation of 'femininity' ('castration anxiety'), and girls' envy of the attributes of 'masculinity' ('penis envy'), in the classic Oedipal narrative.\n\nFreud's theories thus reflect the psychological effects of the patriarchal, androcentric fantasies and logic of his time which, though now fiercely contested, still connect with the hierarchical structures and symbolisms of our own. All the same, if we are seeking individual targets to blame for the historical neglect of child sexual abuse, Freud is far from the most rational of choices. This is not only because his thoughts help us interpret the complex and muddied nature of psychic life, with its unpredictable, usually disavowed relation to interpersonal and cultural abuses of all sorts, but because most of the charges against him, in this instance, are largely inaccurate or confused.\n\n## **_Fantasy versus Trauma_**\n\nFreud's female patients did not come to him complaining of having been sexually abused, only to have Freud deny their abusive memories. Rather, it was Freud himself who tried to convince his patients of the truth of his own 'seduction theory', and they who, he claimed, repudiated it. Although patients provided highly charged accounts of incestuous experience in childhood, Freud wrote that they would emphasize that 'they have no feeling of remembering the scenes'. Ironically, in terms of the later insistence by his feminist critics that Freud deliberately chose to ignore or distort his patients' knowledge that they had been sexually abused, it was these patients' withholding of _their_ belief in _his_ suspicions of actual seduction which he at first took as their confirmation: 'This latter piece of behaviour seems to provide conclusive proof. Why should patients assure me so emphatically of their unbelief, if what they want to discredit is something which \u2013 from whatever motive \u2013 they themselves have invented?'\n\nMoreover, contrary to the accusations made by Rush or Masson's _Assault on Truth: Freud's Suppression of the Seduction Theory,_ Freud did not suddenly abandon his 'seduction theory' in 1897 \u2013 despite expressing his private doubts to his friend the Berlin physician Wilhelm Fliess in that year, and despite autobiographical reconstructions many years later. Nor was Freud's move towards the assertion of autonomous childhood sexuality and fantasy life (as Masson suggests, although Rush does not) merely a cowardly attempt to gain professional approval from medical colleagues. His next theoretical move, Freud himself seemed to believe, was no less unpopular: 'Few of the findings of psycho-analysis have met with such universal contradiction or have aroused such an outburst of indignation as the assertion that the sexual function starts at the beginning of life and reveals its presence by important signs in childhood'. In subsequent work Freud continued to refer in different ways to the harmful effects of 'seduction', writing as late as 1931, in his essay 'Female Sexuality': 'Actual seduction, too, is common enough.... Where [it] intervenes it invariably disturbs the natural course of the developmental processses, and it often leaves behind extensive and lasting consequences'. Although, it is true, as well as suspicious, that he no longer pointed to fathers as the most likely initiators, but to 'other children' or 'someone in charge of the child'.\n\nSurveying all of Freud's writings when researching their dictionary of psychoanalysis, Laplanche and Pontalis argue that even with his evolving framework of autonomous infantile sexuality, Freud 'continued to assert the existence, prevalence and pathogenic force of scenes of seduction actually experienced by children'. As many others have noticed, years after he came to believe that neurotic symptoms and memories of early sexual experience stemmed from psychical reality and unconscious fantasy, rather than from some single (or repeated) traumatic event, Freud also accepted his patients' accounts of actual seduction and abuse alongside his own emphasis on the significance of sexual _desires_ in childhood. Nevertheless, one would have to agree that his interest was always in the way external events become invested with fantasy, rather than in the traumatic events themselves, seeing the former as the crucial issue for therapy: 'up to the present we have not succeeded in pointing to any difference in the consequences, whether phantasy or reality has had the greater share in these events', Freud wrote in 1916, referring to stories of childhood seduction involving the father.\n\nHowever, Freud's own conceptual ambivalence and uncertainties, as he felt he must _choose_ between autonomous psychic life and external trauma, has not prevented many other analysts from suggesting that there is no essential contradiction between attributing adult symptoms to a destructive mix of the two \u2013 'real' and fantasized events. Indeed, in distinctively psychoanalytic mode, Laplanche has argued compellingly that _all_ material experiences are immediately invested with, and continuously worked and reworked through, psychic fantasy. Ironically, it is only those, like Masson, who broadcast Freud's 'betrayal' of women and children, who today feel that they still must _choose_ between psychic life and trauma: reducing the complex and harmful effects of childhood cruelty and abuse simply to truths in need of validation, or their enforced suppression. Writing of Freud's analysis of the bizarre, paranoid fantasies of Daniel Paul Schreber, a man who had been physically abused by his rigidly disciplinarian father, and whose chief delusion during his psychotic breakdown was that he had to change, and was indeed changing, into a woman as a way of redeeming the world, Masson remonstrates: 'he analysed Schreber's _so-called delusions_ on the basis of unconscious homosexual longings for his father, instead of on that father's sadistic physical manipulations of the young boy, and so on'. So-called delusions! Masson seems seriously to believe that a father's physical sadism would have no psychic consequences, other than to create a need for the abused person to be allowed to tell his or her story, and have it believed. Thus he writes:\n\n> I cannot think of a better therapy than exposing the inadequacies of therapy itself. Politicizing oneself by joining with other survivors in political actions is an excellent antidote to the powerlessness that psychiatry induces in its subjects. Becoming active in the struggle against psychiatry (and other forms of injustice) even in one's own mind, is a good alternative to the helplessness that psychiatry encourages in patients. Writing up one's own story, even if only for the instruction of other friends, especially if nothing is omitted, is to offer people the other side of the official story.\n\nIn fact, writing up his own story and thereby displaying his tragic delusional system was precisely what Schreber _was_ doing in his _Memoirs of my Nervous Illness,_ about which Freud was writing. Even if a 'survivors' group had somehow, anachronistically, presented itself to the very eminent Judge Schreber (who had been a highly respected lawyer and judge before his breakdown), one suspects that he could have made little use of it.\n\nA century later, many psychotherapists are working hard with the memories and fantasies of patients who have been seriously abused, some of them tracing the origins of diverse mental disorders directly to traumas of early childhood, others seeing a more nuanced interaction. The former, like Judith Herman, are more likely to be committed to the restorative power of 'telling the truth' about the past, if patients are to be helped to gain a 'newly liberated capacity for imagination and fantasy'. The latter are more concerned with simply listening to and helping to liberate patients from their destructive entrapment in narratives about the past, and less concerned with uncovering the 'facts' of the case. Like Lacan, they may even suggest that when the patient recalls events from the past in analysis: '[T]he stress is always placed more on the side of reconstruction than on that of reliving, in the sense we have grown used to calling _affective._... What is essential is reconstruction.... I would say \u2013 when all is said and done, it is less a matter of remembering than of rewriting history. However, no clinician, ever, is going to accuse his or her patients of telling untruths or lies about the past.\n\nSo why the fixation on the omissions of Freud? Part of the reason is simply the absorption of banalized Freudian notions into the superficial mix of the Western vernacular \u2013 we can all cite its 'scripture' to our own purposes. Indeed, with its highlighting of familial combat, infantile sexuality and congenital aggression, there is little to match it. Freud's theories are constantly taken up and adapted to the milieu in which they are used. With or without Freud, however, one thing which any society never wants to acknowledge is the regular occurrence of institutionalized forms of violence and abuse by the powerful against the vulnerable, most especially when it involves the sexual abuse of men's ideologically sanctioned power over women and children inside the family. It is certain that Freud's account of autonomous infantile sexuality helped some people, always more than ready to ignore or to rationalize away the horror of child sexual abuse, both within and without psychoanalytic institutions. I do not doubt earlier feminist accounts of the many supposedly therapeutic institutions and practitioners who have downplayed or dismissed the effects of child sexual abuse, perhaps in the name of Freud. This remains probable, despite surveys which suggest that Anna Freud, Donald Winnicott and other leading psychoanalysts of the mid-twentieth century were among the few observers who _did_ write about such abuse and its destructive effects. At the time, Anna Freud and those calling themselves the 'Freudians', most prominently Edward Glover, were always careful to distinguish between reality-oriented and primarily fantasy-originating images of objects. This was in contrast with Melanie Klein, and the 'Kleinians', who saw the influence of instinctually driven 'phantasy' in all perceptions of reality \u2013 leading some to accuse them of ignoring the influence of 'real events' in their patients' lives. Indeed, it was empirical researchers of the time, such as Simon Weinberg in his _Incest Behavior_ (1955), who, though _rejecting_ Freud as unscientific, were more likely to insist that child sexual abuse was an extremely rare occurrence.\n\nUndoubtedly, it took the sea-change of resurgent feminism for therapists in general, and the population at large, to hear and begin to act upon accounts of children's sexual exploitation and abuse \u2013 mostly through adult memories of childhood sexual trauma. Probably, it took this change for women to find the words, and have the confidence, to _tell_ such stories. (Although significant numbers of boys are sexually abused, the majority of 'victims' or 'survivors' that we hear about are still women, while their abusers, overwhelmingly, are men.) Nonetheless, it is now often through the tools of psychoanalytic therapy that the most moving accounts of child sexual abuse are recalled or 'recovered', as in Sylvia Fraser's _In my Father's House._\n\nContrary to an earlier feminist approach in the 1970s, which tended to dismiss the Freudian belief in the need to work with unconscious material, feminist therapists now trying to heal the sexually abused all emphasize the inaccessibility of memories of early trauma. Speaking from over two decades of work with sexually abused children at the Tavistock Clinic in London, Judith Trowell emphasizes the regular distortion of experience which occurs following such abuse. She understands this as a resort to unconscious defence mechanisms of disavowal, displacement and, in particular, dissociation, leading to the overall 'dampening down' of fantasy in sexually abused children (or adults who were once sexually abused), as they attempt to rid themselves of unbearable memories: 'they are lifeless, flat, avoidant, and have psychogenic amnesia'. Similarly, Valerie Sinason, perhaps the best-known British psychoanalytic psychotherapist currently working on child sexual abuse, writes of the confusing mixture of fantasy and reality found in survivors of abuse: 'Tragically, then, it is precisely those individuals who have been traumatized most who are the most likely to include distortions in their narrative.'\n\nRemarkably, in recent rotations of the conflictual relations between psychoanalysis and culture, when Freudians are not being accused of ignoring child abuse, they are being accused of inventing or exaggerating it. We are now witnessing a new backlash against Freud, fronted by Frederick Crews (ironically in the same media outlet as Masson's denunciation a decade earlier), to argue the reverse of the Rush\/Masson thesis: 'It was Freud himself who taught both his followers and his adversaries to take the seduction narratives seriously as productions of his patients'. Again just like Rush and Masson, but in the opposite direction, Crews continues to excoriate Freud for the fact that 'a number of parents and child-care providers are serving long prison terms... on the basis of therapeutically induced \"memories\" of child sexual abuse that never in fact occurred.... [T]he tradition of Freudian theory and practice unmistakably lies behind their tragic deception of both patients and jurors'. Unmistakably? You may rest assured! Many of his compatriots are keen to amplify Crews's latest onslaught: 'Freud did to the unconscious mind with his theories what New York does to the ocean with its garbage'. Freud had described children's primitive anxieties about adult sexuality (referring to the 'primal scene' of parental genital penetration) as intrinsically disturbing; no less, it seems, adults in our culture still regard his theories of childhood sexuality as intrinsically disturbing. As the eminent New York analyst Kurt Eissler wearily noted shortly before his death in 1999: 'No one is interested if you write positively about Freud, but as soon as you write negatively everybody applauds'.\n\nPerhaps we should treat this continued fear and loathing of Freud as merely comic, with its attempt to eradicate his influence by whatever contradictory means provide suitably sensationalized stories; except that we are usually dealing with tragic matters. Organizations to prevent 'Crimes against Children' (with their 'Believe the Child' bumper stickers) are now confronted by the 'False Memory Syndrome Foundation' (claiming to have 10,000 families on their lists of those who have been victims of false allegations of abuse). As the two currently take their battles into the courtrooms of the USA, 'memoro-politics' is becoming one of the most passionate topics of the day. Add to this conflagration the newly emerging third category of 'retractors', who come to denounce their families through therapy, only later to abjure the charges, and ever more people are being forced to start thinking very seriously indeed about the difficult topic of memory.\n\n## **_Models of Memory_**\n\nWhat is memory? There have been three main sources of knowledge of human memory in over a century of scientific reflection: behavioural research on memory (from Hermann Ebbinghaus's study, tellingly, of the recall of nonsense syllables in the 1880s, to the computer modelling of memory processes in the cognitive sciences today); neurological studies of brain localization; and psychodynamic approaches (which owe something to Freud). Of these, however, it is only the psychodynamic approach which has influenced people's own stories about themselves. 'Freud transformed Western consciousness more surely than the atomic bomb or the welfare state', Ian Hacking concludes from his exhaustive overview of the cultural impact of shifting notions of consciousness from the turn of the century. This is because the concepts of memory derived from the first two traditions, on their own, tell us next to nothing about the specific contexts or often troubling contents of human practices of remembering. Memories present themselves through narratives that make sense in the present, modifying individual events and assigning them different meanings at different times.\n\nPsychologists, in the footsteps of Ebbinghaus, set out to study what they saw as 'pure' memory in the laboratory, memorizing sequences (like nonsense syllables) in order to avoid 'contamination' from factors like meaning, affect, significance and context \u2013 the very essence of memory. The alternative tradition of Frederick Bartlett, which had analysed memory as a social practice in the 1930s, was soon sidelined, provoking the anthropologist Mary Douglas to observe: 'psychologists are institutionally incapable of remembering that humans are social beings. As soon as they know it, they forget it'. In tune with Douglas, the neuroscientists Gerald Edelman and Steven Rose have recently criticized the reductionist tendencies in their own discipline, which have sought to pin down the locations and molecular structure of memory processes in the brain. They have each illustrated that the recent findings of neuroscience rule out any mechanistic model of the brain: 'Given the diversity of the repertoires of the brain, it is extremely unlikely', Edelman writes, 'that any two selective events, even apparently identical ones, would have identical consequences... The mixture of events is individual and, in large measure, unpredictable'. Human memory, they both agree, has an intrinsically collective and social dimension, requiring models of the brain which introduce creativity and indeterminacy: 'whilst for each of us the experience of collective memory is an individual biological and psychological one', Rose concludes, 'its existence serves purposes which transcend the individual, welding together human societies by imposing shared understandings, interpretations, ideologies'.\n\nNevertheless, with the public clamour child sexual abuse has generated, there has been something of a rapprochement between the formerly conflicting traditions of academic psychology and psychoanalysis. The former favours mechanistic models of memory, from computers to filing cabinets; the latter, narrative construction and reconstruction, in highly charged emotional contexts. Parallels between experimental research on memory and contemporary psychoanalytic perspectives are easy to make, at least superficially. Although there are disagreements between the memory researchers, they have repeatedly shown that memory is unreliable. In their overview of research, published in 1997, Daniel Schacter and his co-workers conclude: 'An enormous body of results from cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience demonstrate that memories are vulnerable to distortion, and that confidence and vividness do not always go hand in hand with accuracy'. For example, in her well-known experiments Elizabeth Loftus and her co-workers found that it was relatively easy to use suggestion to induce 'false memory', or inaccurate recall, in both children and adults. In one study, subjects were made to believe that they had been lost in a shopping mall when young; in other studies researchers have been able to establish that the contents of reports about the same memory differ from one occasion to the next. Cognitive research also suggests that experiences which are not talked about are more likely to be forgotten. In the technical language of cognitive psychology: 'memory construction is mediated by control processes which vary from one recall to the next and use different cues to probe autobiographical knowledge on different occasions of retrieval'.\n\nLoftus has used her results to argue that adults do not forget traumatic events, like sexual abuse, although they may have periods when they do not recall them. But other cognitive researchers, like Lenore Terr, have suggested that memories for trauma may be 'encoded' in ways that make it harder to recall, although researchers are unclear about the mechanisms involved. Psychologists agree that nothing can be recalled accurately before the first birthday, little before the second, and that poor memory from before the fourth birthday is normal. However, despite the lack of verbal recall from early childhood, seen as largely due to the absence of language, some researchers, like Terr, have reported that children have ways of re-enacting their traumatic experiences. Overall, it is hard to fault the general conclusion from academic psychology that: 'Some recovered memories may be essentially accurate, some may be largely inaccurate but nonetheless partially based on experiences of the individuals other than actual abuse (for example, imagined abuse, or situations involving emotional abuse), and still others wholly inaccurate'.\n\nNevertheless, there are critical differences between the two traditions. Psychological research is interested in cognitive frameworks which are decontextualized and universal, not specific and embodied: exploring memory for discrete events, usually in unfamiliar settings, over relatively short periods of time. The pyschoanalytic notions of trauma and deferred action do not reduce to that of impressions which cannot be meaningfully encoded. As Erica Burman comments: 'Concern with providing a psychological explanation for the possibility of unconscious memories is not the same as indicating anything of the motives for its repression or the structure of the psychic apparatus involved'. Neither cognitive science, nor the rapidly advancing research in neuropsychology, have anything to say about individual life histories or the particularities of language and shared cultural narratives through which they are constructed. Indeed, if psychoanalysts have hoped to gain greater scientific respectability for their theories by aligning themselves with cognitive frameworks and neuropsychology, at least some of the latter have seen the need to engage with psychotherapeutic reflection to connect with any issues of significance in the public domain. Commenting on the limitations of their cognitive discourses, Martin Conway writes: 'although they describe or foreshadow cognitive mechanisms of memory they imply little about when or why such mechanisms are used', adding, 'psychodynamically meaningful situations can rarely (if ever) be created and controlled in a way acceptable to an experimenter'.\n\nEven the manner in which the recovered memory debate is conceptualized remains distinct in the competing perspectives. For academic psychology, prediction remains the fundamental problem. People must be clustered into types of individuals, or events into types of events, in order to make them statistically useful, for example, 'to predict who would repress and who would not'. For the psychoanalyst, prediction is never the issue. The problem resides in the attempt to understand, not to predict, human behaviour through persistent attention to the open-ended stories of a lifetime of precariously maintained repressed material, attempting to make sense of desires which insert themselves into consciousness and manifest themselves in behaviour, only to be repressed, and yet resurface all over again. The issue here is thus not so much whether any event has been remembered or forgotten ('encoded', or not), but of trying to see the way in which we memorialize the past through fantasy or imagination and in the patterns of behaviour we repeat.\n\n## **_Memory as Narrative_**\n\nThe reigning idea in the cognitive sciences since the 1960s, of memory as a storage and retrieval system along the lines of a filing cabinet or computer, thus seriously distorts the nature of human memory. When we recall the past, however recent or distant, we recall events. An occurrence is recalled as an event only when it becomes part of a narrative, something which moves the narrative forward, as the philosopher Paul Ricoeur exhaustively analyses in his three-volume _Time and Narrative._ It is this theoretical understanding of memory, as a cultural construction in the present, which is also emphasized by Ian Hacking, who concludes his history of the scientific study of memory by underlining the inevitable indeterminacy in people's attempts to describe their own past. Memory is always revised, retroactively. The so-called 'flashback' experience often reported by abuse survivors, for example, is no more likely to be a 'true' picture of the past than any other memory. We weave stories about the past from what we call memories, Hacking amplifies: 'They must mesh with the rest of the world and with other people's stories, at least in externals, but their role is in the creation of a life, a character, a self'; he recognizes that Freud was well aware of this aspect of memory from 'quite early in his career'. However, no Freudian loyalist (being more attuned to Foucauldian scepticism), Hacking, in yet another twist to accepted censure, criticizes Freud for his _relentless truth-seeking;_ this may not always have been successful (which seems likely), nor in the best interests of his patients, who may have been better off without the 'truth' (which to many might seem less likely).\n\nFreudian accounts of memory, stressing meaning, affect and hidden significance, are clearly more in tune with notions of memory as narrative. However, recent accounts of memory also suggest something of the historical limitations of psychoanalysis: its failure to focus on the historical conjuncture framing its intricate accounts of psychic life and familial dynamics. The social operations of power (most obviously, in relation to those seeking psychotherapy, of gender hierarchy) have imposed their silences on the way we experience ourselves, as well as derelictions in the way we are heard, inside and outside psychotherapeutic encounters.\n\nToday, a feminist-informed culture is less able or willing to conceal or ignore what are often compelling psychological and physical signs of sexual abuse. Indeed, we are more attentive nowadays to signs of sexual abuse than to _other_ forms of physical and emotional neglect and abuse of children, which often raise little public concern or condemnation. Certainly, most clinicians are clearer about the realities and dangers of child sexual abuse, despite (at least in the more classically Freudian) an awareness of the potential for 'self-deception' in the reconstructions of memory. One of Britain's leading Freudian thinkers, Peter Fonagy, sums up the way in which psychoanalytic interpretation is shaped by (as well as helping to shape) the cultural wisdom of its day, as follows:\n\n> The psychoanalytic or psychotherapeutic situation is irretrievably contaminated by its social context, which affects both the patient's and the analyst's anticipation. Psychoanalytic discourse that implicitly or explicitly denies the formative role of the cultural context leaves important aspects of personal biography fragmented and mystifying.\n\nSo contemporary psychoanalytic theorizing, despite its numerous schools, has for some time now been growing cautious about its constructions of memory and the past, seeing the affective processes operating in clinical encounters as generating a mutual process of meaning construction. Fonagy himself has recently attempted to clarify the psychoanalytic understanding of 'memory', arguing that few psychoanalysts nowadays assume that what they are doing is 'uncovering the past', as it actually happened, rather than reconstructing personal memories with equal inputs from both analyst and patient. Contrary to popular notions of 'Freudian' memories, he asserts: 'Memories evolve within the analysis, obtaining new understandings of the patient's personal history; the analysand's very \"being\" changes, conferring new meanings on the same memories'. As is common in contemporary psychoanalytic thought, he draws upon the notion of 'deferred action', or _'Nachtr\u00e4glichkeit',_ to explain the way in which the past works upon the present in the therapeutic relationship. Freud used this term repeatedly to clarify the strange nature of psychic temporality, suggesting that earlier experiences and memory traces can be _revised_ subsequently in the light of new experiences or the attainment of a new stage of development: 'I am working on the assumption that our psychical mechanism has come into being by a process of stratification: the material present in the form of memory-traces being subject from time to time to a _re-arrangement_ in accordance with fresh circumstances \u2013 to a _re-transcription',_ he wrote to Fliess in 1896. A memory may thus become a trauma only well after the event, by a process of deferred action.\n\nFonagy makes use of the research of the French psychoanalysts Jean Laplanche and J.-B. Pontalis, who had earlier clarified Freud's notion of deferred action to explain: 'It is not lived experience in general which undergoes deferred revision but, specifically, whatever has been impossible to incorporate fully into a meaningful context. The traumatic event is the epitome of such unassimilated experience'. Laplanche has since expanded this notion of deferred action, which he calls 'afterwardness', to account for the workings of narrativization in general, as individuals attempt a reworking, or 'better translation', of the past in the present. It is thus the experience of analysis itself, as his collaborator Pontalis explains, which bears the idea (one which Hacking also elaborates) that memory is a type of fiction: 'any story, however truthful it aims to be, is a reconstruction from the vantage-point of the _present'_.\n\nMany other prominent psychoanalysts and writers, especially those from the object-relations tradition, such as Christopher Bollas or Stephen Mitchell, now argue along remarkably similar lines, seeing psychic histories as worked out in analysis through negotiated interactions between patient and analyst. Some, like Donald Spence, explicitly distinguish 'narrative truth' from 'historical truth', again arguing that particular symptoms can never be traced back to their 'actual origins' (historical truth) by means of interpretative insights (narrative truth). Meanwhile the Lacanian psychoanalyst, from a somewhat different metaphysics of language, comes to essentially the same conclusion, since the 'real' is always that which eludes us: 'Let us be clear', Lacan announced, 'that we do not engage in retracing a succession of stages of development but rather in grasping how positions which are already taken up are retrospectively reorganised'.\n\nHowever, this new psychoanalytic consensus on the relationship between the psychological past and the present as an insistent and persisting \u2013 yet precarious and provisional \u2013 process of social negotiation, is precisely what many critics angrily reject, as we have already seen argued by Jeffrey Masson. For them it is crucial to insist upon a clear and permanent division between the 'fiction' of 'mere fantasies', and the 'truth' of 'genuine memories'. No blurring between the imaginary and the real must be allowed. Thus Masson denounces Freud for dismissing women's accounts of actual abuse as 'the fantasies of hysterical women who invented stories and told lies'. This extraordinary version of Freud's interactions with his early women patients is now widely believed, a journalistic clich\u00e9, as well as one endorsed by many psychologists (at least those who do not, as Stuart Sutherland did, underwrite its exact antithesis): 'Freud has now been exposed as a fraud because he did not want to change his theory to fit the evidence when he found that child sexual abuse had occurred. Freud invented the myth of the sexual child, while in fact his experiences with his patients showed the opposite had happened. Instead of revealing that adults had abused children, he led people to believe that children desired abuse'.\n\n## **_Betrayal versus Abuse?_**\n\nHowever fiercely reiterated, it is not hard to point out the caricature and confusion in such crude renderings of Freud and psychoanalysis. Nevertheless, and despite the contradictory denunciations from Crews and his cohorts, it is clear that psychoanalytic arguments _could_ legitimately be used in the service of recent constructions of 'false memory syndrome': memories never simply reflect back external reality. The forms of 'recovery therapy' which have emerged at the close of the twentieth century, most prominently in the USA, have not been primarily psychoanalytic. (In fact, their origins have been traced to the alternative trauma theory of Freud's rival, Pierre Janet, in the 1890s.) But 'false memory' exponents are, often correctly, seen as part of the cultural backlash against the influence of feminist revelations of the prevalence and significance of sexual abuse, organizing to legitimate the very low conviction rates of its perpetrators or in support of men who have been convicted. This has meant that Peter Fonagy's temporary decision to lend his psychoanalytic authority as an adviser to the False Memory Association in Britain has made his own thoughtful account of relations between subjectivity, memory and actuality appear somewhat compromised to feminists.\n\nThere are good reasons to avoid taking any absolute stand on what Fonagy has likened to 'a religious war' between those defending the victims of child abuse and those defending adults who claim to be falsely accused \u2013 although we may not favour his rather bland call for a 'middle road' between two equally deserving positions. More usefully, the combat over 'recovered' versus 'false' memory might help us to problematize the original binary, adding complexity and flexibility to all the terms we use for describing human experience. Valerie Sinason, a fierce defender of the sexually abused, who correctly stresses that the prevalence of unreported abuse far exceeds the existence of false accusations, nevertheless concedes that memory remains a confusing mixture of fantasy and reality. Indeed, she even agrees with the psychoanalyst Bob Hinshelwood that a 'false' memory of the past may represent a distorted account of the present evoked by the experience of an over-intrusive therapist, or by a true memory of some event that was falsified in the past, or perhaps some combination of the two.\n\nThis happens, of course, because the clinical phenomenon of 'transference' is the classic way in which the effects of past encounters are relived in the present. We continue, as we began, to appropriate others all our lives, on and off the couch: either, when fortunate, in the maintenance of supportive intimate relationships with others; or, less fortunately, and much more precariously, in fantasy relationships with others. Freud also introduced the idea of 'screen memory', which is a childhood memory characterized by its clarity, yet seeming insignificance. Like other slips of the tongue or neurotic symptoms, he saw these as compromise formations, involving condensation and displacement of one memory into another one, leading him to wonder of childhood recollections: 'are there memories of which we may say they _emerge from,_ or merely memories which are _related to,_ our childhood?'. As the feminist psychoanalyst Janice Haaken comments from the USA: 'the emotional truth of the past is never to the concrete facticity of events but is always bound up in interpretation, both in the initial experience of events and in the later elaboration and working through in memory'.\n\nAll this takes us back to those subjective concerns and autobiographical reflections which scientists would like to avoid: to the study of personal histories of both consciously and unconsciously motivated remembering and forgetting; but also to cultural narratives and normative discourses, which give us \u2013 or withhold from us \u2013 words and stories which can give utterance to experience via local assumptions, discursive framings and narrative conventions. Both memory researchers and psychoanalysts can agree that memory is unreliable and incomplete. But it is only from within the latter that there is some explanation of the more complex ways in which 'forgetting' is continuously, actively, _motivated._ Nevertheless, it is only from the political concerns and discourses of a feminist framework that some men's systematic abuse of their paternalistic power comes fully into focus. However inimical to the programmed workings of a computer, or to any other mechanistic models of memory storage and recall, the notion that avoidance, self-deception and half-truths are part of everyday interactions is what most of us have long observed, whether in ourselves or of others. This awareness is no more supportive of any notion of 'false memory syndrome' than it is of the truth of any particular 'recovered memory' of abuse. (We may also be aware, however, that it is those who are in positions of power who are far more likely to get away with their own evasions and self-deceptions.) What we should be able to learn from this hubbub over memory is something of the enormity of the work to be done in making sense of the past as it is lived in the present.\n\nChildhood memories are all too real; in adulthood, they remain the most vivid memories we are likely to have, and the only ones we never seem to lose: 'In my private dictionary', Pontalis writes, 'childhood and memory are synonymous'. It was then, in our beginnings, that we were most receptive to everything, least able to classify or forget. Over-supplied with childhood memories as we are, they are nevertheless, necessarily, suffused with fantasy and given meanings which \u2013 especially when originally accompanied by silence and distress \u2013 can and will shift, through the sense that we finally come to make of them, only _afterwards._ This is all the more true when some new experience evokes past pain, or pleasure.\n\nTherapists who are wary of accepting their patients' accounts of abuse experiences, seeing in childhood trauma the primordial route to all adult symptoms, emphasize instead a more complex action of the past on the present, the present on the past. They are concerned not to over-simplify the elaborate threads between the two, arguing that placing all emphasis on the linear power of some original trauma threatens to institutionalize patients into a sense of victimhood and powerlessness. In this climate of heightened awareness of child sexual abuse as _a_ (if for some _the_ ) main cause of adult disorders, the dangers of over-simplification are real enough \u2013 however much the converse is also true: that the False Memory Foundation thrives on the support of those who would like to turn back what they see as feminism's exaggerations of the extent and significance of sexual abuse.\n\nAlmost fifty years after the death of Virginia Woolf, Louise de Salvo published a biography of her in which she attributed Woolf's adult miseries and mental breakdowns to the sexual abuse she experienced as a child at the hands of her older half-brothers, Gerald and George Duckworth. In her own memoir, 'Sketch of the Past', begun two years before her suicide in 1941, Woolf had written of feeling 'ashamed or afraid' when caught looking at herself in the hall mirror as a child, a feeling about her body she would retain all her life. She then immediately recounts a memory of Gerald Duckworth lifting her onto the hallstand when she was around six, and commencing to explore her body and her 'private parts': 'I remember resenting \u2013 disliking it \u2013 what is the word for so dumb and mixed a feeling?' Woolf analyses her own strong reaction as proof that shame at the touching of certain bodily parts 'must be instinctive', an instinct linking her to all 'her ancestresses' through time. (Woolf had earlier written of George Duckworth's much later, and in her mind far more damaging, sexual advances on her as a teenager: although she used them as a type of running joke to entertain friends, she nevertheless saw herself as harmed by them.)\n\nAs though anticipating de Salvo, Woolf continues, immediately after describing the incident with Gerald, to expand on the difficulties of accounting for a person's life, which is always so 'immensely complicated': 'I do not suppose I have got at the truth.... In spite of all this, people write what they call 'lives' of other people; that is, they collect a number of events, and leave the person to whom it happened unknown', Thinking anachronistically for a moment, Woolf almost certainly would have rejected de Salvo's analysis. The central event of childhood for her, the one which brought it to a close, was the death of her mother when she was thirteen: 'the greatest disaster that ever happened', the most distressing aspect of which was that she could feel nothing other than 'the feeling that everything had come to an end'. It certainly seems likely that the Duckworth's sexual exploitation of their half-sister contributed to the sense of danger, shame and panic around sexuality so often to be found in Woolf's writing. But I find more compelling the conclusions of Hermione Lee, her next feminist biographer, that it 'distorts the thick complexity of her family life' to isolate and emphasize only her memories of child sexual abuse.\n\n## **_Narratives in Context_**\n\nDisputes over memory and trauma have kept pace with the growth of Multiple Personality Disorder (MPD), and the separate but increasingly popular psychiatric classification of Post-Traumatic-Stress-Disorder (PTSD); as mentioned above, these entered the diagnostic manual of the American Psychiatric Association (DSM-III) in 1980. Surveying the cultural background to the extraordinary explosion of cases of MPD, primarily in the USA, Hacking notes that in the early 1970s there were only twelve cases of the disorder known in that country. However, by the mid-1980s there were over 6000, and the numbers have expanded exponentially ever since, with nine out of ten diagnosed 'multiples' being women. There has been a parallel growth in the diagnosis of the more general category of PTSD: seen as connected, in particular, with the psychological effects of repressing the horrors of combat, although MPD is currently understood by those who use the label as a similar type of post-traumatic effect to the repression of childhood sexual abuse. As Allon Young points out, belief in PTSD created new career prospects and resources for psychologists and psychiatrists, especially those treating the stresses and strains of war veterans. But it also meant that ex-soldiers often needed to mimic the trauma\/repression model of psychological illness if they were to receive any psychological or material help.\n\nYoung and Hacking have both written of the 'looping effect' such notions of trauma and memory are likely to create on individual's self-perceptions, when war veterans could obtain treatment and a special pension only if they showed the memory losses thought characteristic of PTSD (the less they could remember about the stresses they had suffered, the more help they could get): 'The men who remembered very well the god-awful things that had happened were sometimes less able to benefit under this program, because PTSD was made to essentially involve not remembering but forgetting'. Without any doubt, one point which at least is clear is that when trying to understand the complexities of psychic life we need to remain attentive to the impact of particular cultural contexts upon individual processes of memory, and the way these help to shape the fashioning and refashioning of identity.\n\nHere is a personal vignette. Frightened of the dark, as a young child who was frequently asthmatic and insomniac, I knew that if I could manage to creep along squeaky corridors, past the bedroom of my father's mistress (the housekeeper), sidle into my parents' bedroom, past the sleeping body of my father, and crouch beside the figure of my sleeping mother, all fear and wheezing would vanish. A state of blissful serenity descended. But if, aware of my presence, my mother accidentally awakened my instantly angry father, all would be lost. I would be shouted at, returned at once, in disgrace, to agitated sleeplessness in my own room and trouble the next day. If I eventually succeeded in waking only my mother (by silently stroking her arm), we would both creep into the bathroom, where I would be given a very strong sleeping tablet, usually a Nembutal. Is this a memory of personal bliss \u2013 the fleeting moment of complete peace of mind and body beside my mother?; of abusive neglect \u2013 the stirring of paternal rage against a sick and frightened child?; of maternal carelessness \u2013 the giving of adult sleeping tablets to a child?; or what? It all depends on how I tell the tale, who is listening, and to the fact that my fantasies of safety beside my mother (accurate or not: I was later seriously poisoned by a drug \u2013 pure adrenaline \u2013 she had handed over to me in young adulthood) do seem stronger than the ubiquitous fear of my father (justified or not: my main fear seemed to be that he was somehow linked with evil spirits who lived under a huge desk that occupied the whole of the space in the annexe of my L-shaped bedroom, where a gloomy painting of a shipwreck hung \u2013 perhaps a Turner reproduction).\n\nJeffrey Masson may be right that there is no more important task for psychic health than being able to tell one's own story, given how much we suffer when our identity feels precarious (at least, outside the sympathetic arena of selfconsciously queer performativity). But we need also to hear those stories through the tales of our time, to question them, and to draft them anew. As Pontalis observed, 'One shouldn't write _one_ autobiography but ten of them or a hundred because, while we have only one life, we have innumerable ways of recounting that life (to ourselves)'. There is also a politics, as well as a social space, involved in the telling of stories \u2013 especially the stories we tell not just to ourselves, but for the attention of others. By asking new questions about men's power over women and children, within and beyond the family, feminism gave rise to stories of sexual abuse, and ways to challenge and survive it. Today, some of the feminists who first wrote of child sexual abuse now lament its prolixity.\n\nBack in the 1970s, Louise Armstrong called for a public 'speakout' on incest in the USA, attacking the 'patriarchal perogative' behind it \u2013 quickly confident that it could all be overturned. Today, saturated with tales of childhood abuse and steps for recovery, she argues that the point of such speakouts is almost completely lost: 'In breaking the silence we hoped to raise hell. Instead, we have raised for the issue a certain normalcy. We hoped to raise a passion for change. Instead what we raised was discourse \u2013 and a sizable problem-management industry'. On the one hand, the self-disclosure of survivors has been sensationalized and exploited by the media; on the other, it has been recuperated to reinforce the need for expert advice and support. Other feminists have similarly criticized the depoliticized fate of many feminist ideas in the service of self-help discourses: 'One of the ways in which the recovery movement has been most destructive to women, and to progressive polities', as Elayne Rapping notes, is in the insistence on a single, very simplistic narrative pattern to explain our lives'.\n\nFeminists like Louise Armstrong or Michele Davies now accuse Freudianism and the therapy industry generally of seducing and undermining feminism as a political movement for women's liberation, diverting its goals from social criticism to personal 'growth' and 'healing', calling this the liberal takeover of a radical movement. But such accusations fail to acknowledge that it was significant strands of feminism itself which revitalized psychoanalytic accounts, in their search for greater understanding of subjectivity, and the conflicts women faced in their own lives. Some feminists turned to Freud, and many women believe they have benefited from the rise of a feminist-informed therapeutic community. Freudians did not, in general, turn to feminism; many psychoanalysts to this day remain explicitly hostile towards it. Moreover, as we shall see in my next chapter, many feminists who are most concerned to explore the psychological dynamics of gender differences and conflicts are the ones who remain most antagonistic to Freud. There has indeed been a growth in psychological attempts to treat gender-related tensions and anxieties, but much of it, interestingly, is now concerned with the problems of boys and men. Moving on from the battles over memory and child sexual abuse, I want to tackle the whole sweep of contemporary personal, cultural and social anxieties surrounding gender, exploring what psychologists have been able to contribute, and the impact of feminism within that discipline.\n\n# 5  \nGender Anxieties at the Limits of Psychology\n\n> A profusion of images and fantasies, unstable and unintegrated, is more constitutive of the contemporary gendered subject than is the more stable, dichotomous world of gendered subjects of a century ago.\n> \n> Janice Haaken, _Pillars of Salt_\n\nNot Freud, but Darwin, provides the scientific credentials for the human sciences today, as we saw in chapter 3. But his supporters' faith in the intrinsic sexual polarities evolved to ensure 'reproductive success', stabilized over two million years, has not managed to prevent the escalation of gender anxieties. Neither the impassioned questioning, nor the staunch reaffirmation, of traditional gender polarities can shed much light on the continuing social disruption and, for some, disorientating change in the everyday lives of both women and men. Population surveys continue to inform us of people's apprehensions over gender issues. In Britain, Roy Porter and Sarah Dunant introduce their anthology of this _fin de si\u00e8cle,_ entitled _The Age of Anxiety,_ by citing evidence of the prevailing social and psychological unease, even panic, over gender matters: family breakdown, working mothers, single parents \u2013 reflecting, in particular, change in women's choices and objectives; fears of crime and violence \u2013 reflecting, it would appear, men's increasing levels of destructive behaviour, both against themselves and others.\n\nIn close agreement, when the training analyst Andrew Samuels carried out a survey of fourteen different psychotherapy organizations, across seven countries, he found that gender concerns were the primary political issues brought into therapy for every professional body he contacted, and across all countries \u2013 first of all, and usually overwhelmingly, gender issues for women, followed by gender issues for men. In the same vein, Joan Raphael-Leff and Rosine Josef Perelman, surveying female analysts' clinical work with women throughout the twentieth century, conclude that women have remained perennially uneasy over their sense of themselves as 'feminine', whether manifest in symptoms of tension, depression, anorexia or other forms of psychological distress and damage. Yet, women's gendered anxieties are today matched, if not surpassed, by evidence of men's fears around 'masculinity'. Certainly, it is men today who are most likely to commit suicide or call the Samaritans for help. Some theoreticians may view 'gender' as primarily an ideologically prescriptive term, but few could seriously doubt its continued significance in shaping people's sense of self-identity, whatever its diversity and instability. In chapter 2, I argued that 'gender' is best seen as an analytic term referring to a complex set of interacting forces (biological, social and symbolic) producing multiple contrasts at the level of individual experience, which are rarely as distinct as many would like them to be. At the experiential level, as Muriel Dimen comments, gender 'is variably meaningful, a variability which generates uncertainty, invites inquiry, and offers richness'. It is what psychologists have been able to contribute to that inquiry, and to the understanding and attempted amelioration of the high anxieties surrounding gender, to which I now turn.\n\n## _Feminism Enters the Academy_\n\nIt is no longer controversial to suggest that gender interrogations have produced some of the most dynamic debates in the social sciences and the humanities over the last twenty-five years. These have arisen both from the dramatic changes in routine gender practices, and from challenges to customary gender significations. Most significantly, they reflect the growing legitimacy and authority of feminist scholarship during those years; albeit always contested, and itself internally riven by theoretical and political disputes. Placing women at the centre of its analysis, feminist theorizing has been vigorously embroiled in all the wider battles of intellectual life in the late twentieth century, especially in literature, cultural studies, history and sociology. Beginning with methodological critiques of 'male-centred' empiricism in the 1960s (seen as marginalizing if not ruling out the particularities of women's lives in the name of a false universalism) it progressed to pursue new studies recording women's distinctive experiences (or women's 'voices'). As discussed in chapter 2, recent appropriations of post-structuralist thinking have led some feminists towards a more self-consciously, self-critical epistemology: problematizing experiential reports; pluralizing gender categories; questioning the stability of notions of identity or subjectivity; still all the while seeking to deconstruct existing normative knowledges while hoping to construct more self-reflexive, multi-faceted and liberatory alternatives.\n\nWithin mainstream psychology, however, feminism has made comparatively less of an impact than elsewhere. For nearly three decades most feminist psychologists, like feminist scholars more generally, have consistently criticized positivist methodologies and claimed a special affinity between their goals and a plurality of qualitative methods. Yet their critique of psychology's statistical traditions has remained marginal: 'Struggling with high critical theory, self-reflection and worries about \"so what?'\", as the American psychologists Michelle Fine and Corrine Bertram wrote in the British journal _Feminism and Psychology,_ 'we, nevertheless, tootle along with our chi-squares, our hypotheses and our \"limits on generalizability'\". This is despite the remarkable shift in the numbers of women entering the discipline: 400 per cent _more_ women than men studying psychology today, compared with the 50 per cent _less_ women than men back in 1969.\n\nThe difficulties faced by feminist psychologists hoping to reconstitute their discipline can be gauged from the fact that where it is most prominent, in the USA, the Psychology of Women section in the American Psychological Association is rated in the bottom third of interest or importance, whereas the Sex and Gender section of the equivalent American Sociology Association is the largest and most influential division. Nevertheless, in line with its distinct disciplinary concerns, sex-difference research (comparing and contrasting individual differences between women and men) increased a thousandfold once gender issues impacted upon experimental agendas from the late 1960s. But, once measured, and _any_ disparity recorded, the 'nature\/nurture' debate continued to provide the theoretical framing for much of this expanding research field.\n\n## _Still Searching for Sex Differences_\n\nBefore the 1960s stereotyped sex differences were mostly either simply assumed or, when measured, assigned axiomatically to biology. After that time, especially following Maccoby's and Jacklin's landmark publication in 1974, it became equally routine \u2013 although just as routinely challenged \u2013 to point out that there are more similarities than differences between the sexes, and to assign recorded psychological differences to environmental processes. Ten years later, Kay Deaux, overviewing psychological research from the previous decade, was, even more firmly, concluding that sex differences were 'surprisingly small in most cases' (amounting to no more than between 1 and 5 per cent of the average variance between women and men). She also emphasized the overriding importance of social context, or 'situational factors', in determining whether sex differences would be found, including the significance of the sex of the researcher: women, for example, apparently show more 'helping behaviour' if they are being observed, but not when unobserved; women conform more to group pressure in face-to-face situations, but not in 'situations that lack surveillance'. What we always need to ask, as Stephen Jay Gould insisted in his 1980s best-seller, _The Mismeasure of Man_ (echoed a decade later in Carole Tavris, _The Mismeasure of Woman),_ is just _who_ is doing the measuring, and for _what purpose?_ Today, methodological leaps in data analysis allow the presentation of ever more grandiose meta-analytic treatments of existing statistical correlations. And we are reminded, yet again, that there _are_ a few small sex differences in the average aptitudes and traits recorded on particular psychological measurements: these may, or may not, have some biological underpinning; they show far greater variability within than between biological sexes; and they change or, more precisely, appear to be decreasing, over time.\n\nHowever, if the developments in sex difference research spurred some women in psychology into heightened pursuit of them, arguing \u2013 as Alice Eagly and Carol Jacklin have done \u2013 that it is crucial for combating prevailing stereotypes and gender discriminations, many others are far more critical. Even the search for sex similarities, these critics suggest, merely endorses a way of looking at the world which remains trapped in the deliberations generated by polarized gender categories. Meanwhile, it would be hard not to notice that this particular research tradition, tirelessly measuring individual differences in cognitive or other psychological traits in order to offer up a few small differences, leaves psychologists with next to nothing to contribute to an understanding of the pervasive anxieties around the blurring of gender differences. A few small differences neither herald nor explain such very big anxieties. Yet, as the escalating genre of books about men and masculinities discussed below all testify, ongoing changes in gender arrangements have produced a pervasive sense of tension, suspicion and distrust in gender relations: this unease is, ironically, most obvious in recent documentation of men's fears and anxieties. Surveying men's differing psychological and social responses to changing gender relations in the late 1990s, one North American researcher reflects the views of most of his peers when he concludes: 'It's actually getting harder and harder for a young male to figure out how to _be a_ man'.\n\nAlthough it fails to address such anxieties, and is now matched by a parallel intensification of debate questioning its validity and utility, the research output on sex differences in individual attributes shows no sign of abating. On the contrary, it proliferates. It proliferates not only because it conforms to the quantitative methodologies still dominating psychological research and favoured by funding bodies, and also because of the new injunctions to publish or perish as our academies are forced to operate by the rules of commodity production (or perhaps, I should say, publish as you perish, if you come from the newer universities in Britain), but because the media, and the world at large, are always eager for the products of sex difference research, however trivial and inconsistent. In particular, they doggedly search out any purportedly 'new' evidence which can be interpreted in support of biological sex differences. The irony is that human beings are never simply at the mercy of their biology, even were there consistent evidence for significant sex differences which could be mapped on to the human genome. As suggested in chapter 3, any form of genetic reductionism flies in the face of all serious genetic theory since the 1970s, which rejects earlier assumptions that genes determine human action in any stable or straightforward way. A behavioural trait can be said to be genetic only if genes alone provide the best explanation for its origin, and this is simply not the case for _any_ complex human trait. A multiplicity of other mechanisms always interact with the compound genetic codings bearing upon any single human event.\n\n## _Feminist Psychology and Social Constructionism_\n\nMany feminist psychologists, however, have managed to introduce a rich new theoretical literature by turning away from the mainstream preoccupation with sex difference research and the quantitative study of individual attributes which it endorses. They have focused instead on the conflicts and difficulties accompanying the acquisition of normative gender and sexual identities in girls. The dominant theoretical explanations they favour make use of learning theory and cognitive theory, but in line with a more general social construction framework which pays close attention to social context and meanings. This framework meets the challenge that Naomi Weisstein mounted in 1968, alleging that 'psychology has nothing to say about what women are really like', because it has looked for inner traits at the expense of social context. Here gender attributes are not reduced to any fixed, specific set of individual abilities or traits, but nevertheless are seen as central, stable and abiding patterns of behaviour and cognitive frameworks typifying 'femininity' and reflecting women's subordinate position in society compared with men.\n\nFeminist work on the construction of gender, which most often adopts qualitative rather than quantitative methodologies, has introduced new perspectives and valuable research on a whole array of once stereotyped, trivialized or, most often, totally excluded topics (from menarche and motherhood to lesbian therapy or male violence), while also questioning the production of knowledge abstracted from its social context. As Leonore Tiefer recalled in her address to the American Women in Psychology Conference on its twentieth anniversary in 1989, there really was no research on sex and gender before the recent feminist input. This new research has provided a chilling catalogue of data, almost all of it indicating psychological disadvantages which women face compared with men throughout all the phases of their lives. As Rhoda Unger and Mary Crawford summarize the findings to date: 'Boys have no difficulty becoming \"men,\" but girls become \"women\" reluctantly and at a later age. Maturity does not confer status on women'. Beyond the academy, at its crucial interface with the media, it is the work of Carol Gilligan, and her studies of adolescent girls in the USA that has provided the best-known qualitative research, very much in line with this conclusion. According to one commentator in the USA, 'not a week seems to go by without Gilligan being quoted in a newspaper or on television about the way girls suddenly lose confidence and hope at age twelve'.\n\nThis work has been crucial in exposing how stereotypes of 'femininity' can undermine women's confidence, and dictate gendered performances which confirm rather than contest existing meanings and social practices securing men's dominance. Although we now often read reports of Western women's new confidence and multiple achievements, especially the rising expectations of younger women, these are matched by a steady accumulation of continuing problems women face attempting to negotiate their apparently more open and autonomous lives. Feminist psychologists have been able to show just how problematic most women's lives remain, despite their new Western freedoms: whether facing the continuing (some studies even suggest increasing) stigma of women's body weight, encountering menstrual tensions or menopausal distress, dealing with men's sexual violence and surviving child abuse, resisting racism, confronting the conflicts and ambivalences of motherhood, or simply struggling to communicate with men in contexts of unequal status and power. Deploying social constructionist perspectives, these detailed and focused studies explore how gender still operates as a system of social control of women. They all reject theories of sex differences at the level of the individual, offering convincing support for their shared view that, as Mary Crawford summarizes concisely: 'gender is not an attribute of individuals but a way of making sense of transactions'.\n\n## _Openness to Gender Heterodoxy_\n\nThese studies do have their critics, however, some of whom are feminist psychologists themselves. Although providing a significant body of work on the limitations facing women as a _group_ within their specific cultural contexts, some gender theorists, like me, have been troubled by the fact that in most of the feminist social constructionist studies it is always women, _as_ women, who face problems and suffer from the consequences. Isolating gender, and conceiving it only as 'difference', inevitably tends to flatten out conflicts and diversity between and, especially, within women's experiences and behaviour (notwithstanding explicit mindfulness to race, ethnicity, class and sexual orientation). It tends towards a form of gender absolutism, where alternative conceptual framings of women's experience find little space.\n\nMoreover, despite attention to social context and meaning, many feminist psychologists, typified by Gilligan, allude to consistent _internal_ dynamics as directing gender practices, whether through culturally reinforced predispositions or through the acquisition of shared meanings. The danger is that these constructivist accounts of gender identity may merely replace earlier biological reductionisms with new forms of cultural reductionism, whether in terms of the internalization of sex roles, the performance of social scripts, the deployment of dominant discourses, or the gender differentiating effects of mother-child relationships. Insofar as gender is seen as consistently internalized, the worn out biological\/social polarity has not been transcended to embrace any richer psychological hermeneutics attempting to encompass the contingent, precarious, often contradictory, processes through which the social becomes embodied. Conceptions of the social have been expanded, but how they impinge upon subjectivity remains insufficiently elaborated.\n\nIdentities are indeed social, but they are also exceedingly complex \u2013 both psychologically and in terms of their socio-cultural framing. One problem with social construction theory is that it has tended to erase the nuances of subjective conflict and ambivalence. It usually eschews any need for critical appropriation of psychoanalytic insights which, drawing on clinical data and detailed biographical observation, may open our eyes to the contradictory and disruptive _particularities_ of psychic life in relation to culture and history. Whereas social construction theories (however interpreted) lead us to expect the successful moulding of gender identities and behaviour, psychoanalytic reflections point us towards the continual _failure_ of psychic life fully to reflect consciously learned norms. For example, it is pertinent to recall that sex researchers from the time of the Kinsey report on male sexuality (1949) have suggested that 'the largest single category of homosexual men are heterosexually married'. Only through some understanding of the frequent failure of the inner world to reflect cultural norms does it become easier to see why it should be men who, although the favoured and most powerful sex, and despite the continual and ubiquitous policing of any 'effeminate' deviance, should so far outnumber women in seeking gender reassignment operations.\n\nIn view of contemporary gender anxieties, it seems to me that psychoanalytic accounts are indispensable for just this insight that sexual identity (and its normative ties with heterosexual desire) is only ever a precarious achievement, and in danger of subversion from within as well as from without. As we will see in the next chapter, some well-known gender theorists now practising as psychoanalysts in the USA, such as Muriel Dimen, use their case studies to illustrate the perennial ambiguities of supposed gender contrasts and differences: 'Sometimes these contrasts remain distinct, at other times they intersect, and at still other times they fuse and exchange identities'. But this openness to the central yet always fraught place of sexual difference in the grammar of the unconscious, which can often be found within psychoanalytic discourses, still comes mostly from those \u2013 like Nancy Chodorow, Jessica Benjamin, Jane Flax or Dimen herself \u2013 situated outside academic psychology.\n\nIdentities, of whatever sort, are also generated in social contexts which are nowadays always dynamic and shifting, involving a plurality of signifying practices and competing cultural narratives. A second problem with social construction frameworks, especially as interpreted by psychologists, is their tendency to limit the diversity of cultural meanings which gender encodes, as well as the performative potentialities and instabilities of even the most established social relations. Thus, seemingly at odds with psychological generalizations that 'girls become \"women\" reluctantly', some sociologists studying adolescents have been reporting how girls today, unlike boys in their own peer group, 'speak with a palpable sense of agency, confidence, determination and hope about their future lives, even if their plans may be considered less realistic in a wider context of women's work more generally'. Meanwhile, male managers, while still in fact monopolizing power and influence, feel 'besieged' on all sides, as Michael Roper reports, by economic changes and new competition from younger women, as well as other men.\n\nGender certainly remains a central principle of social organization. But it operates at multiple and shifting levels, no longer as homogeneous or exclusive as it once was in privileging straight (white) men. Psychologists studying how gender shapes identities and perceptions need to explore the very specific ways in which it functions, paying close attention to the effects of cultural ruptures detected by sociological or historical frameworks: these may be generated by shifts in employment patterns, changes in family structures and the visibility of non-normative sexual subcultures, the emergence of ethnic or national struggles, or reorganizations within educational and other cultural, religious and political bodies. Shifts in gender relations also trigger a variety of social movements engaging explicitly with gender politics and the competing ideologies and cultural perceptions they generate. Some are dedicated to embracing change \u2013 like feminism, lesbian and gay struggles, or anti-sexist men's politics; others to arresting it \u2013 like men's rights advocates and religious or ethnic fundamentalists. These new subcultural belongings, with their radical or conservative rhetorics, crucially shape gendered self-perceptions and collective aspirations, providing their own distinct narratives of life events generating widely differing forms of collective actions and individual experience.\n\nIt is thus only by travelling between disciplines, and drawing upon diverse theoretical traditions, that I think we can begin to put together an adequate framework for understanding gender issues. Of course, we are all _positioned_ as either male or female, and much of the time most of us may habitually enact gender behaviour more or less appropriate to the cultures to which we belong. Yet, if we choose to look for the _unexpected,_ the counter-intuitive, there is also evidence in most life histories to suggest that the supposedly psychological foundations of gender enactments fluctuate over time. This suggests the importance of collecting 'thick' data, which is rich enough to expose the fragility, contradiction and context-bound resistance or compliance within gendered experiences and performance. It is only from such data that we can learn that women's presumed sensitivity and concern is far from ubiquitous; just as men faced with the inevitability of caring for others (as single fathers, healthy partners of ailing loved ones, and so on) may reveal hitherto underused capacities for compassion, nurturing or sexual responsibility.\n\n## _The Predicament of Men_\n\nOne way to illustrate these theoretical arguments on the limits of psychology's role in explaining \u2013 or intervening in \u2013 contemporary gender problems, is by looking specifically at what many people now see as a, if not _the,_ burning issue of our time: the presumed 'crisis' of masculinity in the Western world. How should we respond to the explosion of discourse on men's anxieties, and anxieties about men? We should respond, I will suggest, by remaining attentive, above all, to the contradictions and silences in the literature.\n\nSeemingly completely at odds with the findings usually presented in feminist psychology texts, which have seen women as the disadvantaged sex, the new 'masculinity' literature uncannily mirrors them, in both methodology and outcome. It focuses upon men's own experiences, generates evidence of men's gender-specific suffering and has given birth to a new field of enquiry, 'Men's Studies'. We are told today that boys are failing in school, and from a very early age. Adolescent males are more miserable than adolescent girls. Moving onwards in life, men today have far higher incidences of suicide, alcoholism, drug addiction, serious accidents, cardiovascular disease, and significantly lower life expectancies than women. As the twentieth century draws to its close, men are presented as the threatened sex (at least in this literature), even as they remain, everywhere, the threatening sex.\n\nThe evidence for the increasing intellectual, emotional and physical impoverishment of 'men' is indeed startling for those used to reading about the converse and continuing disadvantages of 'women', as the sex still most distanced from economic, cultural and political power. The puzzle is that _both_ sides of this apparent contradiction are easily verified. This peculiarity is hard to grasp if you start from psychologists' preferred methodological habit of sampling individual performances and hunting down gender contrasts. More curiously, perhaps, the reality of the first set of problems around 'masculinity' are everywhere tied in with the persisting truth of women's secondary social status and identity. It is because 'manhood' still has a _symbolic_ weight denied to 'womanhood' that men's apparent failings loom so large, both to men themselves and to those around them. This is why literature on masculinity keeps circling the problem, with few credible exits in sight.\n\nThe most commonplace but crucial source of the ostensible contradiction is that men, like women, are not a homogeneous group. Indeed, it is _only_ in their ubiquitously cited and definitively enforced demarcation from 'women' that the deep and pervasive divisions between men can be ignored. The perpetuation and tenacity of men's power in day-to-day gender relations are easily established. Compared with women, in all parts of the world, men still have overwhelmingly greater access to cultural prestige, political authority, corporate power and individual wealth \u2013 whatever the costs, confusions and insecurities of individual men. But of course, it is only particular groups of men in any society who will occupy positions of public power and influence. Yet this is precisely what secures rather than undermines the hierarchical structuring of conceptions of gender through relations of dominance: the symbolic equation of 'masculinity' with power and 'femininity' with powerlessness. Despite forceful feminist critique, despite all the documented upheavals or 'crisis tendencies' in men's lives (as women gain greater independence and control over their own), the forces securing 'men' in power have been dented, but not, as yet, substantially dismantled. The meanings and fantasies accompanying the equation of men and power are thus largely undisturbed. What has been seriously disrupted, however, is the taken-for-granted legitimation of this hierarchy as natural and inevitable. Today that legitimation is as fiercely questioned by some as it is forcefully defended by others.\n\nAnd men do suffer. Pain was never the exclusive prerogative of women, whatever the distinctive role of some men's violence and sexual coercion in promoting it. Men's suffering is most easily accounted for when they are furthest removed from the status and authority which 'masculinity' presumptively confers. When we look more closely at the evidence offered for the 'crisis' in masculinity today, we can decipher a picture in which _all_ the most significant differences on display are differences between men themselves, rather than contrasts between men and women. Thus, as all official statistics in Britain indicate, it is _particular_ groups of men, especially unemployed, unskilled and unmarried men, who have far higher mortality and illness rates compared with other groups of men. Class, ethnicity and 'race', not gender, are the major predictors of educational failure, unemployment and crime. Unemployment is the common condition of the overwhelming majority of men who commit violent offences, while boys in caring, non-violent households in non-violent neighbourhoods, are hardly more likely to be violent than girls from similar backgrounds.\n\nHowever, rather than addressing the appallingly destructive consequences of inequalities between men \u2013 which do indeed have a serious gender dimension as boys and men anxiously compare themselves and compete _with each other \u2013_ we are far more likely to read largely spurious reports of contrasts between men and women. 'Are Boys in Terminal Decline?', the British broadsheet the _Independent_ asked in 1994, a question echoed by other serious newspapers, radio and television programmes ever since. Most suggest, for instance, that the 'Clever Girls', and the attention girls receive from feminist inclined teachers, create the problem for the 'Lost Boys'. As one representative and supposedly 'in-depth' reflection on 'The Problem of Co-Education' spelt out: 'Success for girls may now be being matched by failure for boys'. Similar alarmist rhetoric about boys has been appearing in most advanced industrial societies throughout the 1990s.\n\nYet, these comparisons obscure a reality where most boys are neither 'failing' nor lost'. They are doing better than ever at school, and even better again as they move from school to university, or into their careers. As the report by Madeleine Arnot and her co-workers on _Educational Reforms and Gender Equality in Schools_ indicates, while overall success at the British intermediate (GCSE) educational level is a little higher for girls than for boys, boys slightly outperform girls in final 'A-level' school examinations. The point is, it is only when gender contrasts can be presented in ways which question the traditional assumption that men _should_ be the dominant sex that any media attention is focused upon them. There is nothing at all new in the educational failure of working class and certain ethnic minority boys, whose alienation in school has always accompanied the assertion of a rebellious, anti-learning 'masculine' bravado. As Mich\u00e8le Cohen notes: 'The question that needs to be asked, then, is not \"Why are boys now underachieving?\", but rather that of why boy's underachievement has now become an object of concern'. What is new, now that girls overall are not falling behind boys in quite the way they used to, is the attempt to blame girls, or feminist teachers, for the problem. What is not so new is the diversion of attention away from the key problem: the moulding of masculinities.\n\nNevertheless, it is not only distortion, spurious gender comparisons or even the acute failures or distress of particular groups of boys and men that is currently feeding talk of 'crisis' in masculinity today. The ineluctable rise of men's studies and the accompanying glut of books on masculinity reveal a situation in academic and professional literature in which men and the audiences they are addressing clearly view their own 'masculinity' as an issue newly fraught with personal doubts, social anxieties and conceptual fragmentations. Echoing aspects of feminist thinking, 'masculinity' is seen here not only as damaging to others, especially women, but damaging to men themselves. As Roger Horrocks declares in his prototypical text, _Masculinity in Crisis_ (1994), men are 'haunted by feelings of emptiness, impotence and rage'.\n\nMale psychologists researching gender issues have endorsed the idea of a pervasive 'crisis of masculinity' and proceeded to offer their own explanations and remedies. An overview of most of the recent work done on the psychology of masculinity in the USA is provided in Ronald Levant's and William Pollack's weighty compendium _A New Psychology of Men_ (1995). Psychologists here argue that gender relations have shifted rapidly in recent decades, but that male role expectations are slower to change, producing dysfunctional behaviour in men. Bewildered and confused, they tell us, men are unable to take any pride in being a man. As they see it, men urgently require more sensitive understanding of their emotional conflicts, and new skills to tackle them.\n\nThe theoretical underpinning of this particular analysis of men's problems is elaborated most fully by the North American psychologist Joseph Pleck in his modified role theory perspective, the 'gender role strain' or 'conflict' approach. Here, it is not men's biology which creates the crisis of masculinity, nor even their psychology, but rather prescribed gender role expectations which are seen as restrictive, contradictory and confusing \u2013 promoting dysfunctional behaviour. To create better lives for men, it follows, these prescriptions can and must be changed. It is because men are unable to express their emotions that many men are driven to destructive behaviours: 'certain male problems (such as aggression and violence, homophobia, misogyny, detached fathering and neglect of health) are unfortunate but predictable results of the male socialization process'. Some contributors to this collection mix in reductive psychodynamic assumptions from a simplified 'object relations' theory: men as boys are forced to 'disidentify' from mothers too soon, creating lasting trauma.\n\n## _Projects for Reforming Masculinity_\n\nThe rapidly expanding psychological research on masculinity, much of it pursued by men, does provide useful surveys of contemporary men's lives: from fathering to health problems and increasing levels of self- and other directed violence. However, there are serious objections to an analysis of men's predicaments in terms of prescribed and conflicting gender roles, which I will quickly summarize here, as I (and others) have done many times before. The object of analysis \u2013 male role expectations \u2013 is systematically ambiguous. Pleck, for example, and most of his fellow researchers, say they reject the notion of internalized male sex role 'identity', stressing instead the low self-esteem produced by failure to fulfil shifting male role expectations, alongside the negative consequences and dysfunctional behaviour resulting from overconformity to them. But as we read these texts, we soon learn of men's 'nearly universal' inability to express emotions, leading to their over-reliance on aggression and failure to maintain intimacy with others. Since the notion of 'gender role identity' has been used in social psychology to refer to the acquisition of a stable set of gender-specific characteristics, the dysfunctional behaviours men are thought to share in these accounts seem _inseparable_ from the apparently rejected notion of internalized sex role _identities._\n\nAlso, we do not find in these studies any convincing account of what it is that keeps compelling men to overconform to male role expectations, or others to rebel against them. This surely needs some thoughtful explanation when it is men themselves (rather than women) who are seen as the losers here. Finally, there is a distinctive form of liberalism behind the analysis and the solutions offered by Levant and Pollack. Many men have yet to see the light, they suggest, but self-transformation is on the agenda once men are educated to see the concrete dangers of traditional male roles. However, since these authors believe that the light dawned during the mid-1970s, when feminist scholars criticized 'our traditional, phallocentric, gender-biased psychology', after which 'the edifice of traditional masculinity collapsed', one is simply left to wonder what has been holding things up? And why should it be now, rather than at the close of the 1970s (in the heyday of feminist critique, and the first publications by Pleck and others on the dangers of the male sex role) that things are going to change, with a bit of help from the sympathetic psychologist?\n\nWhat has been holding things up, some might suggest, is that the symbolic power, or 'phallic fantasies', of masculinity neither arise from, nor reduce to, any specific set of social 'expectations' or individual behaviour patterns. Rather, 'gender' encapsulates _shifting_ relations of difference between men and women, but differences _always already_ structured through the assumed dominance of masculinity over femininity. 'Masculinity' is an abstraction, condensing notions of power and authority: it is that which makes it always so precarious, rather than the individual foibles of frail and damaged men. It is also precarious, in many psychoanalytic readings, because no child, either male or female, emerges from the conflictual psychodynamics and emotional investments of family life without a certain measure of unconscious agitation and ambiguity over sexual difference and identity. 'Masculinity' is by definition opposed to 'femininity', these are relational concepts which derive their meaning from their difference from each other. This is why 'masculinity' is always at war with 'femininity', feeding gender battles and the continuing climate of misogyny (perhaps of increasing misogyny, if we consider the escalation of reported crimes of violence against women, internationally, over the last few decades). It is thus a mistake to think we can eliminate men's anxieties simply by reforming 'masculinity'. It is the complex edifice of polarized gender hierarchy, at the structural, interpersonal and psychic level, which have all to be undermined, before attempted _shifts_ in the meanings adhering to appropriate gender roles or identities have any secure context or foundation.\n\nMeanwhile, as Pleck and others take pains to establish, deploying a multitude of empirical data and diverse 'masculinity scales' and ratings, conspicuous displays of so-called 'feminine' skills may be just the sort of 'modernization' of men's behaviour which will increase their power as individual men (over both women and other men). Indeed, Robert Weiss's study of eight-five successful American businessmen (all upper middle class, white and identified as heterosexual), published in 1990, suggests the importance of men being able to transform their former masculine competitiveness into 'more or less affectionate alliances' with others, although the self-disclosure of feelings is carefully monitored. Other men are not so fortunate. 'Gentleness' as a skill is unlikely to be much of an asset to unemployed men \u2013 or women \u2013 who live by their wits. (There are only so many ways to rob a bank \u2013 unless, of course, you own it, or work as a commodity trader.) It is only their blindness to social issues, particularly those of class, which allows Pleck and his co-researchers to believe that the 'endorsement of masculinity ideology' is itself the decisive causal factor in explaining its existing correlation with 'problem behaviors' in young men.\n\nThe limitations of this personal re-skilling of men as a way of overturning men's 'traditional, phallocentric psychology' should be evident from the fact that 'machismo' derives from, and has become synonymous with, the behaviour of subordinated (originally Latino) men \u2013 working-class and ethnic minority. 'I want to be deep and not just macho', a popular cartoon depicting Victor Mature mocked the 'new man' politics of the late 1970s, reminding us of earlier attempts at gender reconstruction in the 1950s. It could serve as a precis of much recent research on masculinity in social psychology. Once we note the hybrid nature of masculinity and its internal hierarchies, traversed by class and race, we find that men have remained the dominant sex by constantly refashioning masculinity. Indeed, as Andrew Ross notes: 'the reason why patriarchy remains so powerful is due less to its entrenched traditions than to its versatile capacity to shape-change and morph the contours of masculinity to fit with shifts in the social climate; in this it shares with capitalism a modernizing hunger to seize the present and dictate the future'.\n\nAlthough aware of its historically specific and changing forms, and the very uneven distribution of power available to different groups of men in line with class, 'race' and other social hierarchies, Ross chooses to speak of 'patriarchy' to describe the continuing dominance of men as a sex, worldwide. He shares this preference with the Australian sociologist Bob Connell, who never loses sight of what he calls the 'patriarchal dividend', nor of the possible limitations of any project to reform masculinity, suggesting that it may only 'help modernize patriarchy rather than abolish it'. In his book _Masculinities_ (1995), Connell studies life histories collected from contrasting groups of Australian men to illustrate the ways in which the tensions and ambiguity _within_ conventional gender practices are never far from the surface, either psychologically or socially: whether he is exploring the contradictions of the compliant and passive labour that goes into acquiring the strong and active male body capable of succeeding in sport, the homosocial bonds consolidated through queer baiting, or the anxieties of those men who have embraced feminism.\n\nYet these inherent instabilities, which fracture even while they maintain gender arrangements, do not automatically promote resistance through a process of enlightened self-interest. On the contrary, as Connell illustrates, except for those who consciously embrace a feminist ideology, such tensions often produce no more than attempts to shore up a personal sense of gender dominance, by whatever means possible. The 'backlash' politics of moral conservatives, whether campaigning against women's reproductive rights, punitively stigmatizing single mothers, supporting harsh cutbacks in welfare provision and the elimination of equal opportunity legislation (while fighting to preserve and strengthen paternal rights) is only the most organized side of this. And while it is true that men's traditional place in the workplace and the home is now being constantly challenged and remade, we still see a continuing refusal (especially of men at the top levels of political and corporate life) to support social policies which recognize and could assist the smoother working of transformed gender relations. In Britain, for example, an emphasis on the introduction of tougher teaching styles, focused on boys' interests, alongside the hiring of successful male mentors to act as role models, have largely replaced earlier anti-sexist attempts to introduce issues of gender equality and to change existing gender cultures at school. Whether in the classroom or in the new prisons built for adolescent offenders, concern about failures or wrongdoing by 'boys' has led less to the questioning of dominant versions of 'masculinity' than to attempts to shore them up. As Lynn Raphael Reed writes of the new bellicose language and imagery of masculinity in Britain: 'We are asked to join the government \"crusade\", to use \"tough love\", send in \"hit squads\", \"name and shame\", have \"zero tolerance of failure\" and silence the \"doubts of cynics and the corrosion of the perpetual sceptics\".'\n\nWhether taking the form of social alarm over men's individual failings or personal shame over feelings of weakness and inadequacy, neither the anxieties surrounding masculinity nor the differing solutions for tackling them, are especially new. Indeed, anxiety and insecurity have _always_ accompanied men's assertions of virility, as Michael Kimmel's trawl through two centuries of writing about 'Manhood in America' reveals, in line with similar overviews by historians in Britain. But, as most feminists and their male sympathizers know only too well, any suggestion that men should simply abandon their quest for 'manhood', even now, has few followers. This is because the most ancient and easiest way of indulging, and at least partially assuaging, men's chronic fears of failure over whether they are 'man enough' has always been the expression of hostility towards women. Women have long been blamed for men's problems: they are the original threat, the fountain of all the forces of feminization. Confined to the separate sphere of the home, women emasculate their sons; allowed into the workplace, they threaten men's authority; today, in the public sphere, they undermine men's preserve with assertions of equality. The knowledge that it never was women who were responsible for men's dread of effeminacy, but men themselves in their collective attempt to affirm mastery over those they must definitively exclude to preserve the category of manhood, hardly offers any release for men's deep fear or resentment which, characteristically of phobic reaction, massively overestimates the power of what is feared.\n\nResearchers into men and masculinity who have been most concerned to find new practical directions for men in Britain, usually because they deal with the most damaging, and damaged, young men, all argue that you cannot separate out the problems of masculinity from the problems of society. Despite some conflicting tendencies and increasing diversity in men's lives, they paint a picture in which most men today are less secure in both their jobs and their families, and are likely to remain so, with unemployed men having the least secure emotional ties with either partners or children. The general prescription they offer is not only state-sponsored social investment in job creation, but genuine public encouragement in government policies, schools and youth work, for boys and men to become more involved in both domestic life and caring work. Of course, they recognize that the market-driven priorities of most Western governments at present have the opposite effect, encouraging longer hours at work, in an ever more competitive milieu. But this only makes the challenging of conventional gender cultures, and the revaluing of much that is understood and precariously enacted in the presumptively feminine domain, all the more urgent.\n\n## _Deconstructing Gender_\n\nSocial policies aimed at creating material opportunities for disadvantaged men would help alleviate some of the more destructive patterns of failure, violence and high-risk behaviour tied in with inequalities and differences between men. But without undermining the wider ramifications of gender as a cultural system, men will continue to displace their fears about themselves into contempt for women, and to express antipathy towards other men more excluded and subordinated than their own peers. We will never begin to understand what is at stake here, either for men or for women, without attention to projects which some would like to dismiss as the 'merely' cultural. For men to be able to accept their own multiple and conflicted identities, they need to be able to question and complicate the notion of 'masculinity' itself \u2013 all the meanings currently attached to sexual difference and gender identity which cluster around men as the dominant\/active\/powerful sex.\n\nThe writing on 'masculinity' most explicitly committed to the project of exposing the coercively constructed nature of sexual difference and gender binaries comes from texts influenced by deconstructive and Foucauldian scholarship. Their theorizing of 'gender' in terms of the discourses which position it in language eschews all universalizing or essentializing categories. Here 'masculinity', like its subordinated term 'femininity' (the two existing only in hierarchically imposed opposition to each other), can only ever be an anxiously claimed identity, one tied to linguistic and materialist practices that are never fixed or secure. Gender, at least in Western iconography, has for at least two centuries been conjoined with discourses of sexual desire which (as discussed in chapter 2) are construed in terms of heterosexual normativity positioning 'masculine' and 'feminine' desire as ineluctably 'active' and 'passive' encounter, respectively.\n\nIllustrating the analysis of 'masculinity' as a powerful, regulatory fiction \u2013 always haunted by what it attempts to exclude \u2013 the cultural theorist Homi Bhabha begins his evocative essay 'Are You a Man or a Mouse?' with the claim that: 'To speak of masculinity in general, sui generis, must be avoided at all costs'. As a discourse of 'self-generation', he continues, we need not so much to deny or disavow 'masculinity', as to 'draw attention to its prosthetic reality', to show how its claims to superiority are always grounded in contradiction, conflict and anxiety. Speaking personally, he adds: 'My own masculinity is strangely separated from me, turning into my shadow, the place of my filiation and my fading. My attempt to conceptualize its conditionality becomes a place to question it'. Bhabha also highlights how discourses of dominant 'masculinity' intertwine not only with discourses of heterosexuality, but also with those of nationality and race.\n\nMuch along these lines, Robert Reid-Pharr ruefully surveyed the success of the Million Man March in Washington in 1995, reflecting on how the image of an 'all-powerful masculinity was [being] offered as the solution to, and compensation for' the stark curtailments of resources and opportunities currently affecting so many in the USA. Mirroring Daniel Moynihan's scapegoating of black women a generation earlier, the dangers of such attempts at therapeutic reaffirmation of masculinity should be obvious: diverting attention from the pernicious racism that still, perhaps increasingly, dominates life in the USA, and damages black men in particular. Reid-Pharr concludes his analysis, wanting to replace such traditional patriarchal exhortations with his own alternative yearnings for 'a public dialogue and a civic life that celebrates multiplicity, that prizes ambiguity, and thereby recognizes the play of identity and difference that makes possible community as well as change'.\n\n## _Subjectivity and Change_\n\nCalling for the expansion of 'civic life' and 'community' to include and celebrate the lives of all people, however, takes us well beyond the theorizing of 'masculinity' simply as a discursive formation. The latter tends to have only the most tenuous grasp on gender relations and routines within the social institutions and organizations serving to maintain (or occasionally fracture) gender hierarchies. As we saw in chapter 2, 'gender' as an analytical category does indeed provide a set of discourses and available symbols, but it operates at multiple levels which require knowledge of diverse social structures and normative frameworks for the enacting of subjective identities, within which the singular details of particular life histories unfold. As some male gender theorists strongly committed to gender justice have argued for some time now, it is broader social forces, and political campaigns encouraging sexual and social equality, which provide the necessary background for the success of any programme for the individual reform of self-destructive and oppressive forms of masculinity.\n\nOne such campaign came from collectively organized gay subcultures, especially after the impact of HIV\/AIDS on politicized gay men in Western societies. It is these men who have probably done most to connect recent theoretical debates on the precarious nature of 'masculinity' with a sexual politics which works to undermine and challenge traditional masculinity. They analysed and fought the tenacious fear of gay men's sexuality (seen as symbolizing the 'receptive' or 'passive' male bodily encounters), while promoting attitudes of sexual responsibility and care ('safer sex') in men's sexual practices, so alien to many other men's carelessness, if not coercion, in sexual exchanges, whether with women or with men. They campaigned for increased public support for people living with HIV, while also exemplifying men's enduring and selfless potential to love, nurture and sustain the sick and the dying. Finally, and perhaps most inspiring of all, some gay men developed a vernacular for expressing and sharing their own terrifying fears and grief, confused impotence and rage, aching pain and continuing capacity for pleasure and love, in ways which are both cathartic and empowering for themselves and, especially, for others, in the extraordinary literature, poetry and artworks relating to AIDS. There are clearly many different ways of attempting to reform or refashion 'masculinity' in a manner less oppressive to women and, indeed, to many men themselves. However, it is only when men no longer occupy the elite levels of social power that 'masculinity' will finally shed its traditional symbolic trappings. Until then 'masculinity' will continue \u2013 as it always has \u2013 to haunt most men with fears of impotence and failure, even as it motivates some of them to threaten and seek to control women.\n\nAs discussed above, it was feminist psychologists who began the work of investigating the cultural dynamics of gender as they impact upon the lives of women, moving well beyond the individualistic frameworks of traditional psychology. Their point of departure was to address the role of normative notions of 'femininity' and gender hierarchy in the lifelines of girls and women, while paying somewhat less attention to the ambiguities and contextual changes in women's experiences and behaviours (and even less to the conflicts and contradictions in the lives of men). This would encourage other psychologists, often men in sympathy with feminism and sometimes feminist psychologists themselves, to address the increasing evidence of boys' and men's suffering and anxieties, illustrating the high costs of gender conformity, at least for some men. However, any single focus on gender identity can also mislead. Perceptions like that of 'masculinity in crisis', I have argued, conveniently obliterate a constellation in which almost every other social difference is of greater significance than gender _alone_ in throwing light upon the situation of those particular groups of men who are suffering most today.\n\nHowever utopian or pessimistic any feminist goal of dismantling the foundations of men's privileged place in the gender system, those of us who wish to know how gender operates will need to see its multiple and conflictual layers and meanings: its location at the social and symbolic level may well be at odds with its frequently anxious negotiation at the individual or interpersonal level. Few approaches have had more to say on this than that of psychoanalysis: the movement which, like feminism itself, was as defining an influence on people's perceptions of their own lives (both waking and sleeping) as on public and political discourse throughout the twentieth century.\n\n# 6  \nCautionary Tales: Between Freud and Feminism\n\n> I always find it uncanny when I can't understand someone in terms of myself.\n> \n> Sigmund Freud, _letter to Martha Bernays_\n\n'In the face of claims of its widely announced demise, psychoanalysis has never been more recognized in British intellectual life', the editorial of one of Britain's journals of cultural theory announced provocatively in the mid-1990s. Ironically, it is feminist scholarship which has inspired much of the writing on which this judgement is based \u2013 ironic because, only a few decades earlier, feminists had singled out Freud as their cardinal enemy, especially in the USA. As Juliet Mitchell recalls, 'there were calendars produced by the women's movement with dartboards over the head of Freud and a bull's eye dart through his eye'.\n\nEnthusiasm for psychoanalysis, shadowed by bitter denunciation, has engrossed feminist thought from the time of the inception of these two key movements of modernity, over a century ago. Mari Jo Buhle's recent overview of the complex entanglement of the two formations is particularly illuminating. The feminist and free-lover Emma Goldman sat enthusiastically in the audience when Freud first took psychoanalysis to America in 1909, speedily affirming its affinity with feminism and declaring Freud, whom she understood as attacking hypocrisy and being in favour of women's sexual emancipation, 'a giant among pygmies'. But her contemporary Charlotte Perkins Gilman rejected the growing women's interest in the new politics of selfhood \u2013 sexuality and maternity \u2013 wishing to refocus their attention on material conditions and employment. Such ambivalence has always been mutual, each side taking its turn to cherish or deride the other. Many powerful women could be found in the ranks of psychoanalysis, one of the earliest professions to welcome women, some of whom would very quickly make lasting theoretical innovations and provide its dominant figures \u2013 especially during and after the 1920s. Yet their male mentors, from Freud to Lacan, seemed to delight in teasing women who pursued equality with men, an equality they believed feminists would never manage to achieve.\n\nIn contrast to feminist scholarship, academic psychology has maintained a more durable disdain for its nearest rival, psychoanalysis, and thus remained outside the lasting encounter between feminism and psychoanalysis. To the lifelong chagrin of most psychologists, especially the best known, like Hans Eysenck in Britain, Freud's legacy has proved indestructible throughout the twentieth century. Eysenck would die still wondering how Freud had managed to hoodwink the popular imagination with his theory of the lasting significance of familial childhood experience for adult desires and discontents: 'recent genetic research', he wrote shortly before his death, 'has shown that environmental factors linked to the family have little influence on personality'. His own strict methodological regimes, tirelessly measuring people's responses to the questionnaires which produce conclusions like this (with their dubious relationship to actual 'genetic research'), have had comparatively less cultural impact, despite the growing phalanx of psychologists currently waging war on the significance of early childhood experience in the family.\n\nAs discussed in the previous chapter, psychology's disciplinary project has been predominantly one of measuring and theorizing individual differences in behaviour. Its optimistic emphasis on the development of technologies for behavioural or cognitive change popularized the idea that social problems are amenable to individual solution through the acquisition of skills and enlightenment. Thus it has been psychology's task, as Derrida (glossing Foucault) has commented, to _mask_ in the modern world 'a certain truth of madness... a certain truth of unreason'. The opposite is true of psychoanalysis. At least, in its classical form, it promises not solutions to social conflicts but a heightened awareness of their tragic inevitability. Far gloomier in social outlook, far more cautious in its expectations of change, its sombre vision has been one reason for its more contentious place in cultural debate.\n\n## _Opening Skirmishes_\n\nTraditionally, psychoanalysis has preferred to flaunt, rather than to disavow, the conservative side of its reflections on the links between subjectivity and the 'maladies' of modernity. Its pessimism of the intellect produces its own paralyses for those who wish to transform the relations it describes (and helps reinscribe) between sexed identity and gender hierarchy. But it is the inescapable significance of these links which continually recharges the dialogue between feminism and psychoanalysis, fuelled by their shared belief in the subjective and cultural centrality of ideas of sexual difference. This is the terrain, perhaps unfortunately, on which we encounter the battles between the two, and which I cover here. I say 'unfortunately', because it is in this area that psychoanalysis often moves farthest from what some of us see as its central strength: its potentially subversive account of psychological development, with its theories of subjectivity as always unstable and conflicting, diverse and disorderly. Instability is surely what we should expect when Freud saw subjectivity (or character) as formed through identifications with those we have loved and hated; in the beginning, those we loved as a child.\n\nYet the narratives grounding psychoanalytic theories of sexual difference have looked far from subversive to many feminists. Surveying the fractious relations between psychoanalysis and feminism, the British cultural critic Rachel Bowlby concluded: 'The one constant seems to be that neither side ever lets go: even when apart... they [are] always somewhere... on each other's mind'. When not damning Freud and his followers for inciting men to label women's search for independence a symptom of neurosis (as Betty Friedan and Germaine Greer have done), or cursing him for condoning \u2013 if not encouraging \u2013 men's sexual aggression and making child sexual abuse 'the best kept secret in the world' (as Susan Brownmiller and Florence Rush have accused), feminists were turning to his texts for theoretical inspiration.\n\nWhy? Why should there be this dogged return to a legacy so troubled and so troubling? 'What _is_ the attraction to psychoanalysis?', as Juliet Mitchell asked again, (apparently perplexed, as she surveyed the packed hall of expectant feminists who had turned up in 1994 to celebrate the twentieth anniversary of her book _Psychoanalysis and Feminism._ Her own answer, the one which first motivated her writing, was a belief in the _'political_ need' for psychoanalysis: it alone could explain the global tenacity of male domination, or patriarchy, and the difficulties feminists encountered in their political struggles for equality, with its account of the unconscious construction of sexual difference. Yet, as Mitchell and other feminists would hasten to add, the deeper attraction of psychoanalysis was that while, on the one hand, it seemed to explain why it was that sexual difference should appear to be such an immutable and absolute difference (more entrenched than any other social division), it could equally be used to challenge any proclaimed certainties, any normative theorizing, about what it means to be a 'woman' or a 'man'. Its enlightening presumption of the inevitable tensions, uncertainties and ambivalences at the heart of sexual difference and gender identity \u2013 which linger on, long after we outgrow the polymorphous, bisexual pleasures of infancy \u2013 was what made it possible, many feminists have felt, to wed psychoanalysis to feminism, however embittered the coupling might sometimes become: 'The radical potential in their marriage', as Jane Gallop wrote in 1982, 'is not a mystical fusion obliterating all difference and conflict, but a provocative contact which opens each to what is not encompassed by the limits of its identity'.\n\nLooked at more closely, however, this is still puzzling. For if what we are supposed to take from psychoanalysis is the inevitability of instability and complexity in the area of sexuality and sexual difference, challenging their naturalistic reduction to reproductive or gender norms, why has Freud's legacy so often been appropriated by those most dedicated to conservative moralizing about sexual difference, and women's place in the world, at least since the 1930s? It is not just Freud himself who moved towards incoherence when trying to solve dilemmas around sexual difference: repeatedly observing the worthlessness of equating 'masculinity' with 'activity' and 'femininity' with 'passivity', while immediately proceeding to reinstate the 'great antithesis' between 'masculinity' and 'femininity' as the 'bedrock' of the human psyche, _in just those terms_.\n\nFreud portrayed 'femininity' as it is culturally represented, and thus to some degree psychically stabilized; that is, through a defensive logic grounded in men's anxieties about their own 'masculinity'. From early childhood onwards, as Norman Mailer once summed things up for his sex: 'Being a man is the continuing battle of one's life'. Given, of course, 'one' is a man. For a woman, especially a feminist, the battle is somewhat different: to escape from both cultural and psychic investments in notions of 'castrated' or passive womanhood, which bolster fictions of 'phallic' masculinity. And it is here that psychoanalytic reflections have often proved less than useful in suggesting any routes for escape; indeed, not infrequently, they have treated any such attempt with derision.\n\nYet, it is true that against both biological and behaviouristic explanations of more straightforward pathways to gender identity, only psychoanalytic discourses seem to explain the continual _failure_ of individual psychic realities consistently to reflect the apparent certainties of social realities, exposing the inevitable incommensurability of the two. They also warn us of the unpredictable, often dangerous force of men's investment in the phallic lack projected onto female bodies: man has it _only_ insofar as woman lacks it. Freud, sadly, did not invent the idea of the phallus as a symbol of power and desire in language and consciousness (although he did not put it quite like that). Nor did he invent the dread and repudiation of 'femininity' in his patients and in himself. That is why feminists like me live with the paradox of wanting to assert psychoanalytic arguments, while also wanting to challenge them, aware that the convergence between unconscious fantasy and cultural understandings of sexual difference are always threatened and precarious. However, the rub is that feminist deployment of psychoanalytic discourses often ties itself in slipknots, securing rather than loosening the bonds which confine women in phallic fictions of sexual difference. We frequently find just such questioning of gender certainties immediately subdued by assertion of the 'absolute' nature of sexual difference in human subjectivity and social relations. Indeed, it is this grounding of sexual difference as the single overriding difference, side-lining all other psychic complexities and other social divisions (most obviously, of class and race) which has drawn most feminists to psychoanalysis in the first place.\n\n## _Imagining the Void_\n\nFor all their disagreements, this is what unites the two main trajectories of psychoanalytic feminism: Lacanianism and object-relations theory. The irony is that neither Lacan and his interpreters (analysing the alienated and illusory dynamics of subjectivity) nor the object-relations school (stressing the significance of pre-Oedipal attachment), were originally primarily concerned with questions of sexual difference at all. The Lacanian tradition, particularly in Britain and the USA, has been far more influential in theoretical debate and cultural analysis than in therapeutic practice. Indeed, Lacan (and his direct heir and amanuensis, Jacques-Alain Miller) systematically posed their own 'scientific', putatively logico-mathematical, abstractions against clinicians 'impure', humanistic discourses. And strange as it may seem in this new golden age of capitalist global supremacy, it was in the attempt to build a bridge to Marxism that feminists first sought to incorporate the ideas of Lacan, most notably Juliet Mitchell. For here the social order (seen as capitalist patriarchy) comes to constitute the individual through the acquisition of language \u2013 allowing no real boundary between the self and society, between the private or personal and the public or political.\n\nHowever, the popularity of Lacan in feminist theory since the late 1970s has proved the most acutely paradoxical of all of feminism's flirtations with psychoanalysis. Although he was publicly scornful of social strategies for undermining or transforming existing structures of sexual difference as 'culturalist' deviation (insofar as they were treating phallic primacy as a secondary formation), Lacan has nevertheless appeared to many feminists to offer the only way to rescue Freud from _biologistic_ phallocentrism \u2013 albeit at the price of acknowledging the intransigence of linguistic phallocentrism. He was uniquely influential in the late 1970s and early 1980s in inspiring now prominent feminist theoreticians, especially those engaged in literary and film studies, to hunt down the ubiquitous presence of phallic discourses and imagery, observing how they function as a fundamental area of oppression, internalized by women. However, it was a pursuit which others would sometimes come to see as ultimately self-defeating for feminist attempts to overturn phallocentrism, since for Lacan, 'strictly speaking, there can be no symbolization of the female _sexe;_ the female _sexe_ has the character of an absence, a void, a hole'.\n\nThe theorizing of Lacanian feminists who did revolt against Lacan's uniquely fatalistic phallicism, while staying within his theoretical framework, was to prove just as controversial. From the outrageous antics of Antoinette Fouque and her followers (who attempted to hijack the French 'Women's Movement' by obtaining an exclusive legal patent to use the term \u2013 a practice they continue to this day), to Luce Irigaray and H\u00e9l\u00e8ne Cixous, they have sought to subvert phallic law by affirming and expressing its 'unknowable', 'ineffable', 'excessive', defiantly 'feminine' Other. With a parallel, but somewhat distinct rhetoric and goal, Julia Kristeva would attempt to analyse the pre-Oedipal semiotic space of mother-infant communication. In the process, each encouraged attacks on the limitations of so-called 'equal-rights' feminism (a term which would come to include, and thereby excise, 'socialist feminism') \u2013 when not, like the formidable Fouque herself, attempting to bury it as a betrayal of women, having learned from Lacan 'not to yield to the feminist illusion'. We still suffer the fall-out from the particularly tedious and largely misleading polarization between 'equality' and 'difference' thrown up by this brand of French feminism, in timely harmony with North American 'cultural feminism'. More generally, and despite its very real strengths in encouraging greater awareness of the significant role of language and representation in the oppression of women, it seems to me that many of the feminist pirouettes on the Lacanian stage have served more to exhaust than invigorate radical theorizing \u2013 especially when they aim to taunt, while actually deferring to, the spirit of their master.\n\nThe point is this: if feminists believe Lacan, there are no intelligible strategies for overthrowing gender hierarchy. His theorizing is monolithic and ahistorical: 'no sexual revolution will shift these lines of division', the true Lacanian acolyte Eugenie Lemoine-Luccioni insists. In Lacanian space we are devoid of any autonomy, constituted through a language coextensive with sexual difference in the phallic order of the Symbolic. Here, the 'phallus' refers neither to a real organ, nor to an imaginary object invested with power, but rather to _the_ transcendental signifier (signifier of 'power and the advent of desire'), which is unaffected by shifts in social practices and relations across time, place and milieu, not to mention the idiosyncrasies of personal biography within which bodily encounters become so powerfully invested with meaning. Despite a multitude of teasingly asserted (and immediately rejected) speculations on the signifying chain linking the phallus to the veiled or fetishized male bodily organ, the penis, all that we ever learn for certain about this 'master signifier' and its privileged role is its functioning as the paternal metaphor which (following the structuralist methodology of Claude L\u00e9vi-Strauss) receives its place in the symbolic order in the 'name-of-the-Father'. The phallus is the power which, supposedly across all cultural domains and from the dawn of history, has identified the Father with the figure of the law, and hence conferred on men (and only men) the right to exchange women, operating as the third term which comes between mother and child: 'the phallus forbids the child the satisfaction of his or her own desire, which is the desire to be the exclusive desire of the mother'. The phallus, as a condition of discourse, constitutes women in terms of lack, and men in terms of the threat of lack, as the latter collectively struggle to identify with the _illusion_ of the father's imaginary potency.\n\n'Woman' is constituted in terms of lack, Lacan asserts, yet there is something which she experiences beyond lack: a feminine _jouissance_ or sexual satisfaction unique to her, _outside_ symbolization and intelligibility. It is this which has inspired H\u00e9l\u00e8ne Cixous and Luce Irigaray to embark upon their quest to inscribe the feminine by attempting to express the female 'imaginary' in texts characterized by playful excess, disruption, grammatical and syntactic subversion and other ambiguous games within the 'masculine' symbolic order. Irigaray has been perhaps the most influential: her search for an alternative to the 'One sex' economy of phallogocentrism has delighted her admirers with its enigmatic, poetic and allusive images of women's sexuality and the 'maternal' imaginary (the left-over or excess residue of maternal desire), seen as defying the limits of the 'paternal' Symbolic. However, it is a strange search which, insofar as it accepts the Lacanian Symbolic, must embrace both contradiction and incoherence in representing the supposedly unrepresentable. It has mystified other feminists seeking more political coherence and direction, or wary of its apparent celebration of women's traditional coding in terms of motherhood. As the male Lacanian Slavoj \u017di\u017eek declared recently (in criticism of some of his female rivals), the kernel that attempts to resist phallic authority (which we can, if we wish, call the 'feminine') is not a positive one: 'it can be defined only in terms of a certain impossibility, a deadlock, in purely negative ways'. More significantly, critics like Catherine Clement have questioned the belief that preserving women's positions as outsiders to the 'masculine' symbolic could significantly change, rather than help consolidate, a social system which marginalizes women.\n\nIn my opinion, the Lacanian trajectory does construct deadlock for feminism: the wish to overthrow phallocentrism (here seen as generated in the realm of the Imaginary) is necessarily reclaimed and thwarted by the timeless Symbolic. We see the impasse, for example, in the tensions within the work of one influential North American philosopher who, while actively engaged in both important feminist critique and politics, nevertheless pushes us into a tailspin by holding onto Lacan's Symbolic order. In _Beyond Accommodation_ Drucilla Cornell draws on Irigaray's notion of mimesis (imitating, affirming, performing 'the feminine') to declare it 'our only strategy' for subverting phallocentric culture: _'mimesis',_ she writes, 'tells us how to re-evolve with the definition of the feminine'. As she has more recently asserted, feminists 'must' fight the erasure of 'the feminine'. But the only way to do this, she warns women, is to 'make yourselves truly unreadable in terms of gender categories... the more unreadable you become, the better'. She admits that this is a long and arduous process, offering the caution, for good measure, that you never 'know for sure when you're doing it and when you're not!' Symptomatic of trying to make one's feminism compatible with Lacan, this imperative to fight erasure through erasure is a difficult decree. And if the way to struggle against the erasure of the feminine is to attack the readability of the feminine, how then can you have a politics? For politics surely must be _communicable,_ and unreadability alone is, to put it mildly, quite a disadvantage.\n\nFeminism has always had to live with a central paradox: that of wanting to hold on to the category of 'woman', to attack the linguistic and wider social denigration of the 'feminine', while also wanting to deconstruct and critique these notions. But, the question is, are women quite so trapped within the prison house of phallogocentrism as French feminism has suggested? 'In what manner of double-speak must feminism proceed', Judith Butler asks of Lacanian psychoanalysis and some of its feminist formulations, 'when it is understood as the unrepresentable in its paradoxical effort to represent itself?' More significantly, she continues: 'Is this structure of feminine repudiation not _reinforced_ by the very theory which claims that the structure is somehow prior to any given social organization, and as such resists social transformation?' As Juliet Flower MacCannell has commented, 'by and large, the most elaborated counter-theories of language from feminism still play off the Lacanian insights, rather than seeking alternative theories'. Some feminists who defend the Lacanian symbolic, such as Jacqueline Rose, like to point out that it cannot be seen as fixed because it is always 'the site of its own failing' (that is, its rupture by the unknowable 'real'), yet this hardly advances matters when the structure remains exactly the same: the lack remains the phallic lack, it is always the same failure within the same space which is being highlighted.\n\nAs I see it, we must take issue with the philosophical premises of Lacanian psychoanalysis, without denying the social fact of phallic privilege in language and representation and hence the difficulty of affirming the 'feminine'. We can dispute Lacan's two basic principles: first, that non-psychotic subjectivity is constructed solely in and through language; second, that the 'phallus' as paternal metaphor and symbol of male power is coextensive with the emergence of language \u2013 that it has a transcendental primacy, rather than a historically constructed one. We can accept the _historical_ primacy given to the 'phallus' as symbol of male power in language (and the related notion of the fantasy of 'castration' imposing a narcissistic 'wound' on the female body even as it orchestrates fear around the male body), while at the same time questioning \u2013 rather than insistently reproducing \u2013 its singular primacy in the Symbolic. Indeed the Saussurean linguistics Lacan draws upon gives no signifier any absolute privilege outside particular discourses: 'Unlike the phallus a signifier [in Saussurean linguistics] has no value in and of itself. No signifier can be privileged over any other signifier'. Lacan's law, that there can be no representation except through the phallus and the acceptance of castration, is thus internal to his own theory, _not_ any rule of access to language.\n\nMoving decisively away from Lacan, the French psychoanalyst Jean Laplanche rejects the thesis that there is no extra discursive basis to psychic reality, arguing, in a way that makes a lot of sense to me, that the unconscious is _not_ structured as a language, but rather consists of a disordered and conflictual array of enigmatic sexual messages derived from the verbal, non-verbal and behavioural investments which the child receives from the parents in the process of care. As John Fletcher has recently elaborated, Laplanche posits a primordial _passivity_ for both sexes in relation to sexuality, a sexuality which arises out of the penetrations and fantasies of the other (this time with a little 'o') who excites the infant in the process of its gestures of parental care. There can be no phallic binarism in the unconscious, Laplanche has always argued, since there is no negation and opposites can coincide without contradiction there. For Laplanche, the Oedipus complex and castration anxiety are neither primordial nor universal, but rather secondary and contingent ways available to the ego for elaborating and binding the anxieties accompanying the intrusive sexual excitations (or routine 'seductions') of infancy: 'The phallic stage fetishising of penis and clitoris serve defensively to extinguish those dangerous libidinal openings to the other in both sexes'. The central point here, as Philippe Van Haute neatly summarizes, is that 'the unconscious is essentially individual: your enigmatic signifiers are not mine'. In contrast, in Lacan, the marginalization of issues other than sexual difference, and the reduction of that difference to phallic difference, stabilizes rather than contests the culturally established repudiation of women's (or men's) bodily experience, interactions and pleasures outside phallic imagery.\n\n## _Oedipal Dramas and the Crisis of Paternal Authority_\n\nLacanianism has exacerbated classic Freudianism's refusal to engage seriously with, or to criticize, the various male-dominated institutions of our culture which fuel 'castration anxiety' and the Oedipal narrative, creating the boy's fear and repudiation of a 'femininity' always already equated with subordination in favour of a 'masculinity' always already equated with power and authority. With the Lacanian gaze focused firmly beyond the individual, tracking down further support for its philosophical analysis of desire-as-lack, there is little interest in the particulars of specific conflicting desires, or the possible diversity of subject positions, meanings and experiences (now or in the future) corresponding to the inevitable dissonance between tangible mothers and fathers in individual life histories in comparison with the powerful, wordly Father and archaic engulfing Mother of patriarchal (Oedipal) myth. It is this which, as David Macey comments, produces such 'a curiously asexual (and affectless) psychoanalysis', when what we need for the understanding of concrete subjectivity is 'a very specific analysis of conflicting desires and power'.\n\nIn reality, as others have now spelt out, the Oedipal drama is one with at least _five_ rather than three protagonists (however unevenly weighted the parts): the child with its real-life mother and father, alongside the Imaginary Father and the Imaginary Mother, to which the actual mother, actual father, or, rather, actual third term (ie the husband, or other intimate adult companion of the mother, who may well be a woman), never fully corresponds. Moreover, as those who have reflected upon the cultural basis of Oedipal theory sometimes suggest, it is possible to use Freud's notion of _Nachtr\u00e4glichkeit_ ('deferred action' or 'retrodetermination') to argue that the polarizing representation of father\/phallus\/masculinity as all-powerful does not arise all of a piece in the Oedipal experiences of late infancy, to inscribe phallic order and authority irrevocably as the sole means of distributing sexual positions. Rather, awareness of male domination seeps into experience and reinscribes it, again and again, reordering the experiences of childhood. Possible disruptions of the Oedipal narrative are only negated when the tale is fixed for all time in the Symbolic.\n\nDuring the 1980s Anglo-American feminists who wanted to move on from the theoretical limitations and intensifying political squabbles of the preceding decade's feminism that privileged notions of 'oppression' understood in terms of direct 'experience' often turned to French psychoanalytic feminism. Today, those feminists who are producing the most interesting analyses, especially in the area of sexuality, are the ones who are no longer taking Lacan as their point of departure, if they ever did. These theorists accept that it is psychical and social relations, not anatomies, which give the body its meanings, and that these meanings are mediated through existing phallocentric images and discourses. But they do not believe they are fully constituted by them. The anthropologist Gayle Rubin, who was one of the first to introduce Lacan's ideas to the USA in her classic essay 'The Traffic in Women' (1974), always argued against universalizing the L\u00e9vi-Straussian notion of kinship with which Lacan established the fixity of his Symbolic order. Today she strengthens this critique of Lacanian 'grandiosity' in presuming to advance _the_ theory of sexual difference:\n\n> I didn't want to get stuck in the Lacanian trap. It seemed to me, with all due respect to those very skilled at evading or manipulating the snares, that Lacan's work came with a dangerous tendency to create a kind of deep pit from which it would be hard to escape....I was concerned with the totalizing tendencies in Lacan, and the non-social qualities of the symbolic.... One of the nifty things about psychoanalytic approaches is that they explain both change and intractability. But there is something about the particular intractability of what is called the symbolic that I don't understand.... There is something intrinsically problematic about any notion that somehow language itself or the capacity for acquiring it requires sexual differentiation as primary differentiation.\n\nSimilarly, Teresa de Lauretis has for some time criticized feminist theorizing of subjectivity which adopts a conceptual framework of 'universal sexual opposition', rather than seeing the subject as constituted 'across languages and cultural representation; a subject engendered in the experience of race and class, as well as sexual relations; a subject, therefore, not unified but rather multiple, and not so much divided as contradicted'. (In 1994, however, de Lauretis did return, rather unsuccessfully in my view, to a critical reworking of the Lacanian symbolic, attempting to develop a formal model of 'perverse desire' in her book _The Practice of Love.)_ More hesitantly, Judith Butler criticizes the static Lacanian foundation for the subject's entry into language, suggesting that we should consider 'the conditions and limits of representation and representability as open to significant rearticulations and transformations under the pressure of social practices of various kinds'. Even Elizabeth Grosz, once a foremost feminist exponent of Lacan, suggests that perhaps 'now is the time to rethink' the value of a discourse of desire which fails to 'account for, to explain, or to acknowledge the existence of an active and explicitly female desire, and, more particularly, the active and sexual female desire for other women that defines lesbianism'.\n\nThis is certainly an advance on the earlier influential but constraining conclusions of British Lacanian feminists like Juliet Mitchell and Jacqueline Rose who seemed to feel, at least in the early 1980s, that for feminists to make the attempt to understand Lacan's exposition (no small enterprise, admittedly) of how 'the status of the phallus in human sexuality enjoins on the woman a definition in which she is simultaneously symptom and myth' was to go about as far as you could go. Since then, without abandoning Lacan, both have moved closer to Klein and a richer engagement with clinical issues, while Rose has herself highlighted the impasse in debates between feminists who defend, and those who contest, the Lacanian phallocentric account of feminine sexuality. She still sees no way beyond it, however. The irony is that two decades before Lacan elaborated his notion of the phallus in the late 1950s, he was already aware of the historically specific nature of the patriarchal family generating the development of Freud's classic Oedipal formation. As Mikkel Borch-Jacobsen argued in 1994, commenting upon Lacan's article 'Family Complexes in the Formation of the Individual' (1938), the Lacan of the 1930s was anxiously lamenting the threat to paternal power and authority posed by modern conceptions of marriage as a partnership of equals. He described modern family forms as fostering the 'social decline of the paternal imago' and 'a narcissistic debasement of the idealization of the father' resulting in a general crisis of identification.\n\nDespite Lacan's critical disclosure of the place of sexual difference in the structure of language, and of the significance of language in the formation of subjectivity and intelligibility, his account of the Symbolic can be seen as characteristic of many moves in psychoanalytic theorizing which attempt to shore up the inevitability of patriarchal authority as a fundamental structure of human desire. It thereby becomes as much a necessity in modern (or future) societies, as in traditionally patriarchal ones. Peter Dews points to parallels here between the worries of the young Lacan of the 1930s and the contemporary fears of Max Horkheimer and the early Frankfurt School over the weakening of men's autonomy through declining paternal authority.\n\nThe point to note is the extent to which fears over the shake-up of the gender order, characteristic of modernity, have served as the central motor of conservatism in psychoanalytic theorizing. Even Dews, a critical theorist of the left, chides Borch-Jacobsen for what he sees as his 'insouciant' conclusion that it is time to stop treating the Oedipus complex as a _'problem'_ , and to accept the changes which have occurred in our societies, which are now: _'defined_ by a general crisis of symbolic identifications \u2013 \"deficiency of the paternal function\", \"foreclosure of the name of the father\", perpetual questioning of the symbolic \"law\" and \"pact\", confusion of lineage and general competition of generations, battle of the sexes, and loss of family landmarks'. Meanwhile, the idea that _only_ the father, paternal imago or phallic signifier can interrupt the infant's early fusion with the mother, and hence rescue the individual from degenerative fixation at the level of infantile narcissistic omnipotence (and potential lawless thuggery) remains, with only a few significant exceptions, a key conservative trope of the psychoanalytic imagination, often even in its ostensibly most radical forms. \u017di\u017eek testifies to its undiminished prevalence when, reminiscent of both Horkheimer and the early Lacan, he comments: 'These Foucauldian practices of inventing new strategies, new identities [for undermining sexual difference], are ways of playing the late capitalist game of subjectivity', a game which produces 'multiple identities, nonidentity and cynical distance'. Phallocentrism, \u017di\u017eek declares, 'is not the enemy today'. (Not whose enemy?, one might well ask.) Rather it is the decline of this 'patriarchal-identitarian' dynamic which is the weapon of late capitalism for undermining resistance to it. What is more, such belief in the threat presumptively posed by the weakening of paternal authority and the phallic construction of sexual difference is by no means restricted to Lacanian psychoanalysis, nor to the male psychoanalytic voice. Quite the contrary, as we shall see.\n\n## _The First Bond and its Consequences_\n\nHowever, before returning to this issue, it is important to acknowledge that feminist object-relations theory set out precisely to reject any such emphasis on the importance of paternal authority and the Oedipal moment. It drew upon Melanie Klein and, in particular, the writings of the Independents of the British School of Psychoanalysis, Donald Winnicott, Ronald Fairbairn, Michael Balint and Harry Guntrip, to focus almost entirely on the mother-child relationship. In total contrast to Lacanian perspectives, their theorizing is about drawing attention to actual mothers and fathers (but mainly to mothers and mothering) and their place within prevailing structures and social relations of male dominance. But here, at least for quite a while, we encountered a mirror image of Lacanian reductionism: rather than ignoring the historic social and cultural production of gender categories, the psychic is collapsed back into the social relations of gender, with little space for any more complex exchange between the two. Feminist object-relations theory has played down the significance of symbolic phallocentrism, castration anxiety and penis envy, refocusing upon pre-Oedipal attachments or mother-infant bonding.\n\nHere female experience is bound up with mother-daughter ties, as in Nancy Chodorow's now classic text _The Reproduction of Mothering_ (1978), with its somewhat idealized account of the mutual identification between mother and daughter in contrast with the other-directed love between mother and son. It is the fact that it is _women_ who mother that secures the 'femininity' of girls in the form of nurturing and expressive capacities, which differ markedly from what becomes the emphasis on autonomy and firm boundaries of boys, although accompanying a less secure sense of 'masculinity'. For each sex there is a direct continuity between the self and the social environment, with neither the anguish and loss, on the one hand, nor the threat of annihilation and engulfment, on the other, seeming to play such a significant part in the experience of the child around the necessity for separation from the mother. This type of feminist object-relations theory is therefore at odds with most other psychoanalytic writing on the psychic life of the child. Furthermore, it loses its grip on what seemed to be the strength of classic pychoanalytic accounts of sexual difference: their stress on the unstable nature of sexed identity, and its uncomfortable failure to conform to social expectations.\n\nThe tight circuit of social determinism in this particular feminist account of the polarizing effects of the institution of mothering thus fixes identity all too smoothly along normative gender lines, through a narrative which dismisses the language of lack and absence around which Lacanian feminism rotates. It is from this perspective, for example, that Ethel Person writes: 'Most theorists now believe that the developmental lines of gender precede those of sexuality, a complete reversal of Freud's original formulation'. Rejecting Freud's 'patriarchal bias', Person argues that her fellow New York analysts seem to agree that 'we must look to the early identifications with the idealized mother-ego ideal in order to understand the greater portion of the feminine personality organization'. We now face a different dilemma. Many saw a tragic truth, reflecting Freud's perception of the inevitable frustrations of the human condition, in the stoical cynicism of Lacan's account of the necessary illusions of love and the romantic heterosexual bond ('For what is love other than banging one's head against a wall, since there is no sexual relation?') In contrast, there is a blueprint for personal salvation (and a corresponding attribution of failure) in the writing of object-relations theorists who, like Otto Kernberg and Ethel Person, remain firm believers in the consummation of human happiness through 'mature' heterosexual bonding. In this respect they are reminiscent of mainstream psychology's faith in the pathways to individual fulfilment.\n\nHere, for instance, is Person writing lyrically on the sharing of each other's subjective reality in love: '[Love] denies the barriers separating us, offering hope for a concordance of two souls.... The experience of love can make time stop.... [It] may confer a sense of inner rightness, peace and richness.... [It is] a mode of transcendence... a religion for two'. Above all, it is a family affair: 'a stable deep object relation with a person of the opposite sex'. From this perspective, through Klein and Balint to Kernberg and Person, the reinforcement of familial conservatism and heterosexual normativity continues, in a way largely absent from Freud and certainly from Lacan. As the most clinically and theoretically powerful tradition of psychoanalysis in Britain, Klein's successors have been passionately criticized by psychotherapists campaigning against what they see as the institutionalized homophobia of their profession: the largely unacknowledged exclusion of gays and lesbians from analytic training and the pathologizing of homosexual desire. The cause of their anger can be found in the pejorative views of Hanna Segal, describing homosexuality as both an attack on the parental couple and a repudiation of reality: 'The child has to accept the reality of the parents as a couple, and the couple as a creative relationship because that is what produces the baby.... Any deviation from sexuality of that kind is an internal attack on the parents as a couple, and in that sense is not really a complete healthy development'. Balint had earlier decreed: 'without normal intercourse, there is no real contentment'. Such thoughts feed the scare-mongering of Charles Socarides, a psychoanalyst from the USA, whose message that homosexuality 'operates against the cohesive elements in society' is currently traversing the globe. He adds for good measure, 'the forces allied against heterosexuality are formidable and unrelenting'.\n\n## _Retrenchment versus Renewal?_\n\nThe challenge to such conservative deployment of psychoanalysis, which draws on Freud's own early essays on the origins of sexuality (with their focus on actual sexual bodies and their infinite capacity for sensual pleasure), has disappeared from many of the later appropriations of it. Whether abandoning the study of bodily pleasures to explore the symbolic reign of the fraudulent phallus or, distancing itself from polymorphous perversity for conventional narratives of the gender-differentiating effects of maternal attachments, the potential challenge of the infinite waywardness of infantile sexuality persisting to undermine, or at least trouble, the acquisition of sexual and gender normativity is cast aside even within many feminist versions of psychoanalysis, in both clinical and theoretical settings. This leaves them poorly equipped to confront the conservative appropriations of psychoanalysis which press it into the service of reactionary dogma. Such normative appropriations of psychoanalysis flow inevitably from any model of sexuality which focuses exclusively upon the workings of an ineluctably heterosexual nuclear family \u2013 whether this is reduced to a relation with the paternal Symbolic, or seen as a vehicle for the retrieval in sexual maturity of the cross-sexed 'object relations' of childhood.\n\nThe irony is, of course, that Freud himself suggested that 'libidinal attachments to persons of the same sex play no less a part as factors in normal mental life... than do similar attachments to the opposite sex.' It was he who laid the seeds for challenging the pathologization of what we now call 'transgressive' sexualities, and he who knew that we have reasons to problematize (but in a way he always failed to develop) the normative assumptions of heterosexuality. As case histories often reveal, a heterosexual may have a fully narcissistic relation to someone of the 'opposite sex'. Yet, it is in Freud's name, not despite it, that the widely read and routinely cited Janine Chasseguet-Smirgel draws her farcically reductive links between the psychic and the social: 'reality resides', she writes, 'in the differences of sex and generation' and, it would seem, in little else. For her, there are no other issues, no other narratives, on which we need to draw to explain either individual or global 'reality', however particular the historical context. National and international conflict, nuclear weapons, war and genocide, all become gruesome effects of failure to accept sexual difference, as we have been warned, repeatedly, by psychoanalysts throughout the twentieth century. It is a failure usually seen, in line with Chasseguet-Smirgel, as 'fed by too lax an attitude on the part of the parents, especially [of course] the mother'. And we learn, from the same source: 'The Nazi regime, the S.S. and Hitler himself, lacked the paternal dimension'. Here, non-heterosexual activity becomes a synonym for murder and genocide. Today's moral right and conservative left are listening, and endlessly reiterating the message of the dangers of 'fatherlessness'.\n\nIt is also by appealing to Freud's authority that many analysts recycle the linguistic equation 'acceptance of female bodies' with 'acceptance of castration'. This literature still often alludes to a woman's (usually a lesbian's) 'disavowal of castration into adulthood' that must lead her to 'distort [her] relationship with reality'. Such analytic disavowal of the fantasmatic nature of female 'castration' continues the coercive mappings of 'reality' in terms of phallic monism, often (as in Egl\u00e9 Laufer or Chasseguet-Smirgel) while also, oddly, claiming to reject it. Outside Oedipal theory and cultural phallicism, beyond psychoanalytic conservatism, women are not castrated. The reality is, of course, that a woman cannot be castrated \u2013 unlike a man.\n\nThe populist dissemination of psychoanalytic accounts of sexual difference can produce even stranger narratives in, for example, supposedly feminist-friendly psychotherapeutic texts by men addressing the 'crisis' of masculinity. One such, apparently following in the footsteps of object-relations perspectives, _Why Men Hate Women,_ by the British men's therapist Adam Jukes, is not atypical. In the beginning was Mother. And the troubled bond with Her leads inevitably to male domination and male sexual aggression. For Jukes, male dominance does not derive from language, culture or institutional arrangements, but has its source in the boy's universal experience of separation from the supposedly mutually symbiotic mother-infant dyad. It is this which produces a monolithic 'masculinity', in the form of rock-solid gender clich\u00e9: 'The bottom line', he writes, 'is that male abusiveness and violence, our power and control, are not negotiable currency'. He banishes any nuances of men's sexuality. He disavows the possibility that men could consciously yearn for passive envelopment and conquest. He cannot see that men's bodies, outside phallic fantasy, are 'soft', open to pleasurable entry or painful assault, and that they too are rapeable \u2013 not so unlike women.\n\nApart from wondering where he has been all these years, we could certainly object that, despite his own theoretical affiliations (and those of his publishers), Jukes is barely Freudian at all. When Freud provided his first and fullest description of 'masochism' in 'The Three Essays on Sexuality', equating it with passivity and the desire to be copulated with, he was referring to its existence not in women _but in men,_ despite labelling the experience 'truly female'. Freud also complained: 'At no other point in one's analytic work does one suffer more from an oppressive feeling that all one's repeated efforts have been in vain... than when one is seeking to convince a man that a passive attitude to men does not signify castration and that it is indispensable in many relationships of life'. But even he, little more than Jukes, could conceive a reality where men can, where men do, positively, as men, embrace passivity and receptivity in relations with women or men, since, on Freud's analysis of sexual difference, this turns a man into 'woman' \u2013 as surely as, for him, the lesbian turns into a 'man'.\n\n## _Sexual Difference versus Gender: Accepting Ambiguity_\n\nIn contrast with the rigidities which classical Oedipal theory generates, where only strict _acceptance_ of sexual difference can deliver either the individual or the world from chaos, confusion and terror, others have suggested more flexible psychoanalytic tales, where the acceptance of gender identity does not reduce to a single psychic mapping or moment. 'Man is not only phallic', the analyst Monique Schneider comments, 'I even think that he could not be tolerated as penetrating if he were not enveloping at the same time'. Significantly, however, she adds: 'Generally, psychoanalysis doesn't want to know anything about this enveloping power because it reactivates a sort of deep feminine and maternal identification'. Along these lines, Dana Breen closes her introduction to a reappraisal of psychoanalytic readings, _The Gender Conundrum,_ with the suggestion that 'psychobisexuality is increasingly understood to be fundamental not just for sexuality but for psychic integration and structuring more generally'. Most importantly, she stresses that we must recognize the role of feminine identification in male sexuality and masculine development. But I am still not satisfied with this formulation. First, many of the readings in her collection do _not_ reflect such a consensus at all; second, we are not getting to the heart of the problem. This is not so much the need to embrace 'psychobisexuality', as to find \u2013 indeed, to help to create \u2013 _a new object of knowledge:_ one which can move beyond the restrictive polarization of gendered identities reflected, but also rationalized, within Oedipal theory.\n\nThis new kind of knowledge would recognize \u2013 in a way classical Freudianism never could \u2013 the existence of adult female bodies as other than deformities of, or receptacles for, male bodies and the making of babies, tied in with practices of maternalism. It would be able to see the links currently existing between experiences of sexual difference, and their history of embeddedness in notions of oppositional heterosexuality and familial responsibilities, without collapsing the one into the other. Our relation to a sense of sexual difference, as our most personal sense of identity, operates at both conscious and unconscious levels \u2013 often at odds with itself. It is one which is suffused with, but does not reduce to, all the wider linguistic, structural, interpersonal and familial ramifications of gender conceptions and practices. There needs to be theoretical scope for the operation of diversity, at both the psychic and the cultural level, where rigid gender contrasts no longer rule.\n\nSome feminist psychoanalysts, many of them in New York, for example Jessica Benjamin, Muriel Dimen, Virginia Goldner and Adrienne Harris (who in 1996 helped found the journal _Gender and Psychoanalysis_ ), are now determined to move decisively beyond some of the older barriers which keep reinscribing traditional gender ideology. Benjamin, for example, draws upon the infancy research of Daniel Stern and Elsa First to argue that it is possible for the child (unlike the more typical French or British psychoanalyst) to encompass a doubleness or tension in psychic life whereby the unconscious fantasy of maternal omnipotence can and does exist alongside the capacity for pre-Oedipal intersubjectivity between mother and child. She also discusses the potential for 'post-Oedipal' constellations, when the cross-gender identifications of early life survive to surmount the rigidity of the 'positive' Oedipal (or same-sex) identification. Similarly, Goldner and Dimen both point out that the powerful, polarizing gender identifications made by the child are always confusing, and in danger of collapsing under the weight of their own contradictions. This means, as Goldner spells out as a goal for analytic treatment: 'the ability to tolerate the ambiguity and instability of gender categories is more appropriate than the goal of 'achieving' a single, pure, sex-appropriate view of oneself'. The acceptance of gender ambiguity and instability is here the goal for mental health.\n\nHowever, these are all theorists who have abandoned the belief in the Holy Trinity: the view that it is only via the intervention of the 'father', and the acceptance of sexual difference, that the infant can free itself 'from the helpless subjection to the omnipotent mother and enter the reality of the wider world'. They do not accept, as Juliet Mitchell sternly tried to remind them in an exchange a few years ago, that: 'Sexuality is the process that enables one to find the gendered other as different from oneself so that she or he can be used as other for the purpose of engendering'. They reject the idea that sexual sameness or difference is the sole marker of identity, and argue for a more flexible interaction between identificatory and object love: rejecting the Oedipal dictum that where one identifies one cannot desire; what one desires, one must disown in oneself. Benjamin, for example, suggests that gender dimorphism itself represents only one side of gendered positions, the other side being the polymorphism of the psyche.\n\nWe may not be able, and certainly not yet, to abandon gender as a central analytic category, or to ignore its symbolically charged meanings as the child moves between identification with and desire for those it loves and fears. But this does not mean that we can only ever position ourselves within an _oppositional_ gender _hierarchy:_ notions of sexual difference are not the only markers of identity and difference, despite their power in the continuing patriarchal symbolism of global male dominance. Our identities and sexualities are still formed within the shadow of (hetero\/sexual) phallic constructions, but there exists no eternal writ that they must always be so formed (whatever personal and social panic this currently induces, especially in men). The spectre which haunts the majestic phallus is its reduction to the ranks of the mutable penis. Theorists like Kaja Silverman argue that it is possible to see historical moments when 'the equation of the male organ with the phallus [can] no longer be sustained'. Seeing such moments, she suggests in _Male Subjectivity at the Margins,_ paves the way for 'a collective loss of belief in the whole of the dominant fiction'.\n\nIt suggests, perhaps, not so much the way as the possibility. From within phallocentric culture it is far from easy to hold a vision of transcending the hierarchical binary of sexual difference, to acknowledge the integrity of the female body or the fluctuating subtleties of the male body. My view is that feminism still needs psychoanalysis, as it provides the fullest account we have of the complex and contradictory nature of subjectivities formed through desire and identification. But feminist reappraisals could also suggest the possibility of moving beyond the single binary opposition its patriarchal narrative of sexual difference describes and fortifies, with its phallic logic and conservative family romance: 'Sameness, like difference is a (motivated) fantasy not a natural fact \u2013 a construction, and, like all constructions of its time, provisional'. This would entail exploring the force _and_ the instabilities of those constructions preserving male dominance in family life and sexual regulation, as they intrude into psychic experience and shape the normative Oedipal narrative of child development. It would also direct our attention to the multiplicity of adult pleasures and desires. Were the instabilities and complexities of erotic life more central to psychoanalytic reflection, it might be easier to see how often, and how inevitably (and usually without succumbing to psychotic delusion), subjective experience implodes those binaries inscribing sexual difference. Pursuing such a course would mean that the feminist cycles of embracing or denouncing psychoanalysis could be broken, since, as Adam Phillips suggests: 'It is not so much the future of psychoanalysis that anyone should worry about, but rather the finding of languages for what matters most to us; for what we suffer from or for, for how and why we take our pleasures'.\n\nMost psychoanalytic theorizing, even when feminist, has still to liberate itself from the bedrock of sexual difference. It may, or may not, take longer to liberate actual women and men from the ambivalence, the confusion and the pain of living out the effects of cultural myths which generate antagonism of the sexes. In my final chapter, I return to the diverse aspirations and achievements of different formations of feminism as they draw very different conclusions about the situation of women at the end of the millennium. It is the ever-deepening divisions between women themselves which encourages what can be seen as the stand-off within feminism today between 'culture' and 'polities': between those who privilege cultural analysis and its deconstructions of subjectivity, on the one hand, in volatile conflict with those committed to women's political activism, or the production of knowledge in the service of such activism, on the other.\n\n# **7**  \nOnly Contradictions on Offer: Feminism at the Millennium\n\n> Feminism tries to empower women so that they can create the lives they want, but it also, and simultaneously, puts their very desires into question, for it asks whether there are wants women have not yet begun, or dared, to imagine.\n> \n> Muriel Dimen, _Contemporary Psychoanalysis_\n\nIt is hardly news to suggest that there is a contradiction at the heart of feminism. And in these times of rapid changes in gender practices and meta-narrative mistrust, most of its thoughtful exponents know better than to think we might eliminate it. Feminism, Joan Scott pronounces, has 'only paradoxes to offer'. Most have seen the dilemmas of feminism to be a result of the confusions generated between competing objectives. The first is its struggle to improve the lives and status of the majority of women, especially where they have appeared most vulnerable when classified as a sex \u2013 whether in their sexual, reproductive, working or social lives. It is campaigning for gender justice or equality that feminism presents itself in its decisively activist mode, most reminiscent of the 1970s. The second objective is to reinvent the meanings of womanhood, to imagine the feminine in ways which radically subvert existing symbolic binaries of sex, gender and sexuality. This is the declared stance of a 'nineties' feminist post-structuralism (confusingly also often labelled 'post-modern'). However, operating from within the symbolic frame from which it aims to liberate itself, it is less obvious how feminism should launch itself into acts or accomplishments outside 'the phallacy of masculine meaning'. Moreover, this tension \u2013 sometimes described as one between reformist and revolutionary goals \u2013 is heightened by recurring friction between personal and collective struggle. Where once Women's Liberationists hoped for harmony between their own search for empowerment and the needs of women in general, no such illusion is now possible.\n\nA resolution of the conflicts within feminism may not be either possible or desirable. But there surely are ways of embracing tension and contradiction in reviewing gender politics which can, even now, give richer meanings to our personal lives, and encourage collective endeavours towards more desirable futures. For reasons I try to draw together in this closing chapter, it seems unlikely that we can ever repackage feminism in a neat or orderly fashion. But attempting to summarize the very extensive changes in the situation of women and men, three decades after the resurgence of feminism, can help us decide whether there remain aspects of feminism which can still inspire a confrontational politics and culture, even in these times of widespread political quietude in the overdeveloped world. They would have to be feminist tendencies able to ally themselves with other progressive forces against the disparate sources of social inequality, cultural invalidation and personal misery.\n\n## _**Snapshots of Gender**_\n\nThe differing faces of feminism in the media, the academy and politics reflect competing aspects of women's lives today. Depending on our framing, we find two deeply contrasting images: one is gloomy; the other cheerful. Since the 1980s, at a time of mounting economic instability worldwide, there has been a huge expansion in low-waged, insecure jobs in Britain and the USA \u2013 the two countries with which I am most familiar. This has occurred alongside continuing attacks on welfare benefits, including the specific targeting of state assistance for single mothers and the disabled, as part of the spread of the low-tax, free-market tenets of economic neo-liberalism, which has accompanied global economic restructuring. The rolling back of social welfare has in turn incited a renewed emphasis on the importance of traditional family life and, in particular, fathers' rights and responsibilities. Women, overall more engaged in the work of childcare and nurturing, suffer specifically, or disproportionately, from welfare cutbacks and paternalistic rhetorics, and many remain at the harshest end of deepening inequalities worldwide, in low-paid, low-status jobs. Those who have researched the effects of the last two decades of change on women in Britain and North America, for example, report that while many women have made considerable progress since the 1980s, the lives of certain other women, especially single parents and the elderly (with a majority of women in both groups) were getting worse and worse. Moreover, receding expectations of social provision serve to undermine precisely those goals for which the women's movement in the 1970s fought so vigorously, leading to a turning away from militant protest and the disparaging of collective action. Thus, organized resistance to changes in government spending dramatically decreased over this period. Sylvia Bashevkin writes of the 'triple whammy' effect on many women in Britain, the USA and Canada: 'Work pressures, cuts to government spending, and the advocacy crunch \u2013 taken together \u2013 meant many women faced low pay, no job security, less of a government safety net on which to rely when they were old, sick or unemployed, and fewer opportunities to protest'. Those facing the harshest extremes of poverty were also less and less likely to be white, as racial disadvantage deepened in times of increasing inequality.\n\nIn the USA, political assaults on anything coded as feminist scholarship grew more vicious, as in Harold Bloom's denunciation of the 'rabblement' of 'inchoate would-be Parisians'. The soldiers of the conservative 'culture wars' now march out beyond their US birthplace and have acquired some unlikely followers along their way. At the same time, when absorbed into mainstream political agendas, feminist discourses have often been twisted to accommodate more traditional moral crusades waged in the name of women's and children's intrinsic need for 'protection' from predatory male sexuality (although certain forms of radical feminist analysis \u2013 most obviously that of Catharine MacKinnon \u2013 bears some responsibility for this appropriation).\n\nBack to basics, in the UK, women's pay as a percentage of men's has remained relatively stable, with women's average earnings still at least a third less than men's (women working part-time average only 58 per cent of men's hourly earnings; full-timers' hourly average has risen to 80 per cent of men's, but their weekly wage remains over a third less, due to men's longer hours, overtime and additional benefits). Indeed, women's lower wages relative to men persists throughout the world, and where women's share has risen (from around 62 per cent to 72 per cent in the USA since the 1970s) it is mainly attributable to the decline in men's wages. Meanwhile, housework and childcare are still primarily seen as women's responsibility in the overwhelming majority of households \u2013 including dual-income families. A more demanding workplace makes it harder than ever to harmonize jobs and outside commitments, especially for mothers. Thus, research consistently indicates that women have far less leisure time than men, and many feel guilty about neglecting their children's needs due to the demands of their jobs. Even in the poorest families living on benefit, men still have pocket money for themselves, while women do not, according to a recent report from the Policy Studies Unit in Britain. Men's violence against women and sexual abuse remain endemic. Indeed, the reporting of rape, child sexual abuse and serious violence against women has been increasing since the mid-1980s, yet conviction rates have been decreasing; meanwhile, funding for rape-counselling, women's refuges and the rehousing of battered women and their children has shrunk in both Britain and North America. Some might well wonder, some _do_ wonder, has feminism been on a hiding to nothing?\n\nYet, tilt the frame just a little, and the picture that comes into focus is much more optimistic. Welfare reform, new policies for single mothers and an emphasis on paternal responsibilities are characteristically couched in the language of autonomy and responsibility which was at the heart of seventies feminist rhetoric. Indeed, as others have noticed \u2013 and the mourning for Princess Diana in Britain encapsulated \u2013 the espousal of a new type of 'feminized', personalized or therapeutic rhetoric abounds today on radio, television and in a plethora of self-help books, borrowing the feminist consciousness-raising discourses of disclosure and shared pain. More-over, the choices open to women have increased remarkably in the closing decades of the twentieth century, mostly undermining former patriarchal presumptions: many women now delay motherhood; more cohabit and marry later; more divorce and separate; more remain childless; more raise children on their own. This has been made possible primarily by what has been called the 'feminization' of the economy. Full-time jobs in many manufacturing industries have been disappearing, as jobs in the service sector keep expanding. Clerical jobs still account for the largest group of women workers in developed countries, but women have also made rapid progress within most professional and managerial jobs, especially as doctors, lawyers, accountants and business administrators \u2013 even if rarely reaching the top levels. Indeed, rather than flaunting any observable or intrinsic 'difference' from men, childless young professional women are working longer hours, and earning slightly more (104 per cent) of equivalent men's earnings. They are, as Suzanne Franks' study reveals, 'the most desirable workers of all'.\n\nMeanwhile, the domain of women's lives, once near-invisible, has moved closer to the forefront of international politics, in dialogue which has become more blind to 'class', and more equivocal about 'race'. 50,000 people (mostly women) attended the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995 in Beijing, and the associated Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) Forum held nearby. The consequent Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, built upon twenty years of planning, debates and action, is an impressive statement urging the promotion of women's interests worldwide. Assessing its impact on government actions internationally a few years later, Charlotte Bunch concluded from her Center for Global Leadership at Rutgers University: 'The energy, the activity of Beijing, has not gone away'. As two other early women's liberation activists from the USA insist, the world really has changed:\n\n> It's hard now to evoke the sea of misogyny in which more than one generation of women struggled before the women's movement.... One general claim feels solid: gross and unapologetic prejudice against women is no longer an unremarked-upon given of everyday life. In the long years before second-wave feminism, women and girls were unquestionably belittled.... Humiliation seemed fitting and pride made one faintly ridiculous. The prevailing assumption of the inferiority of women was the starting point from which one planned one's moves and shaped one's life \u2013 whether acquiescent or angry. The very difficulty of describing this prefeminist atmosphere today is a measure of how dramatically things have changed.\n\nWhat are we to make of these radically contrasting configurations? How we respond \u2013 whether we see litttle progress, or believe feminism has got what it wanted and should perhaps retire gracefully \u2013 will clearly depend upon the type of feminism we espouse. As we have seen, there have always been, and will always be, differing versions of what feminism is about, with the 'new' or latest trajectories invariably keen to mark their distance from the 'old'. We must 'stop looking at all our problems through men's eyes and discussing them in men's phraseology', a self-defined 'new feminist' writes: 'At last we have done with the boring business of measuring everything that women want, or that is offered them, by men's standards'. This particular advocate of a 'difference-based' feminism was determined to distance her vision and goals from, in her words, 'old feminist' campaigns for equal pay and open access to men's jobs, or for labour market reforms which could not answer the needs of unwaged women. However, she was _not_ picking up on any post-structuralist theorizing of phallogocentrism, and women's nomadic, multifarious but ineluctable 'otherness' (the bedrock of those young women now 'Doing Feminism, Being Feminist' in the 1990s, some of whom call themselves 'the third wave'). Rather, Eleanor Rathbone \u2013 for it was she \u2013 represented the 'new' feminist vision of the early twentieth century, against the 'old' feminism of the previous decades in the last _fin de si\u00e8cle._ Her distance from our own 'new' feminism of the 1990s, which also likes to distinguish itself from an 'old equal-rights feminism', of the 1970s, is easily detectable in her very next comment on the occasion of that particular address. Only 'state intervention' and 'welfare reforms', she continued, could end women's economic dependence through the 'endowment of motherhood', thereby freeing women from men's control. How her 'old statist rhetoric' betrays her!\n\n## _**The Subject of Dependency**_\n\nWomen's economic dependence and welfare reforms are topics currently on everyone's minds, but generating primarily only thoughts of purging most of those receiving any benefits. Today in Britain, as in the USA, the political usage of the term 'dependency' has been refashioned through repeated discursive shifts. Via successive Atlantic crossings, the very notion of 'economic dependency' is becoming synonymous with 'welfare beneficiary', prefigured in the words of the American Democrat Daniel Moynihan in the 1970s: 'the issue of welfare is the issue of dependency'. Tracing this genealogical transformation, Nancy Fraser and Linda Gordon note its conjunction with a flourishing, deceptively feminist-sounding, self-help literature on autonomy which, by mystifying the link between the psychological and the political, inflates 'welfare dependency' into a personality syndrome, testifying to inadequacy. This is why single mothers can be demonized if they _don't_ work, even while married women with young children can be demonized if they _do._ Shifting a mother from 'dependence' on the state to reliance on a man for economic support, in this troubling slippage, supposedly removes her from the pathologies of 'dependence'. The truth is otherwise.\n\nThe continuing offensive against welfare provides, perhaps, the single most general threat to Western women's interests at present \u2013 at least for those many women who are not wealthy, and who still take the major responsibility for caring work in the home. As feminists in the 1970s made so clear, and sought so hard to transform, women are most vulnerable to the very worst pathologies of 'dependence' when they are most at the mercy of husbands or male partners, especially during and after pregnancy and childbirth. Indeed, midwives in Britain have recently been asked to look for signs of abuse in just such women, following alarming reports from midwives in the USA examining the bruised bodies of pregnant women, and those who have recently become mothers. Similar antitheses exist in relation to needy children. Carolyn Steedman has written eloquently of how the expansion of welfare in the late 1940s gave a particular confidence to working-class children like herself:\n\n> I think I would be a different person now if orange juice and milk and dinners at school hadn't told me, in a covert way, that I had a right to exist, was worth something... its central benefit being that, unlike my mother, the state asked for nothing in return. Psychic structures are shaped by these huge historical labels: \"charity\", \"philanthropy\", \"state intervention\".\n\nLiz Heron echoes these sentiments, although, like Steedman herself, she was well aware of the limitations of such services: it was their paternalistic, undemocratic delivery which made them vulnerable to subsequent attack. Introducing her anthology of autobiographical writings by girls growing up in Britain in the 1950s, Heron writes: 'Along with the orange juice and the cod-liver oil, the malt supplement and the free school milk, we may also have absorbed a certain sense of our own worth and the sense of a future that would get better and better, as if history were on our side'. Not any more! The shedding of public responsibility for the welfare of poorer women threatens to devastate the lives of millions of children, as it has done already in the USA since the 1980s.\n\nIncreasingly in Britain, as in the USA, the new myth of 'dependency culture' is used to condemn those receiving any form of state service, marking them out as vulnerable to 'welfare dependency'. Yet, as Mary McIntosh reports, despite the hassles and indignities they now face, surveys of single mothers have shown that a majority would still prefer dependence on the state to their experience of dependence on a man. However, that option is disappearing. In alliance with Reagan and the American Right, there was no doubting Margaret Thatcher's determination to overturn all traces of the post-war Keynesian economic orthodoxy with its support for spending on welfare \u2013 while upholding and abetting spending on warfare. What is somewhat less clear is the extent to which the Blair government, like Clinton's 'New' Democratic Party, is simply a continuation of the same pro-scarcity neoliberal policies undermining the public realm, while encouraging market forces into every institutional domain.\n\nTo date, Blair's self-declared respect for his Tory predecessors, his unlimited admiration for Clinton (despite the latter's capitulation to dismantling welfare), his government's tireless discourse of fiscal 'prudence' and obeisance towards the dynamism of unfettered market forces, his comprehensive ardour for Britain's 'special relationship' with the USA, have all impeded the production of any distinct or convincing alternative vision to the one he inherited. The legacy of neo-liberalism leaves the UK, in marked contrast to the rest of the EU, tailing the USA in its soaring inequality, with poverty in the USA estimated at twice that of any other advanced European nation, despite having the highest per capita income. (Sweden, with the longest tradition of social democratic organizations, still has the lowest incidence of poverty and inequality.)\n\nSearching for a 'third way' between the interventionist market constraints of welfare states and the turbulence of neo-liberalism, Blair \u2013 like Clinton \u2013 has moved towards what has been labelled the 'new paternalism'. This 'third way' fully endorses the earlier neo-liberal 'modernizing' crusade on restraining public spending, while insisting that market economics must reign supreme. Its characteristic 'new paternalism' (better seen as a 'new managerialism', in that women are as likely as men to implement its objectives) aims to tackle the escalating poverty, inequality, crime and social disintegration through closer supervision of the poor, rectifying what is seen as their personal inadequacies or fecklessness. Demanding an end to the 'poverty of ambition', social deprivation and welfare are to be reduced and managed through welfare-to-work regimes, with strong encouragement of private sector backing for training and resources in the public sector: these range from the teaching of parenting skills or job application techniques to finance and pension management. However, there is little evidence that 'workfare' serves as a springboard to real jobs, at least if we look at its implementation in New York over a period of several years: initial studies of the programme's success revealed that only 29 per cent of workfare participants who were forced off the welfare rolls were able to find even casual work. Meanwhile, although in acute tension with its aim of creating the fullest possible employment of poor and needy people (many of whom are women caring for children or other dependants), recent attempts to roll back welfare have also strongly promoted traditional nuclear family ideology and paternal responsibilities.\n\n## _**Family Values**_\n\nIn stark contrast with the repeated avowal of the 'pathologies' of 'welfare dependency' is the steadfast disavowal of knowledge of the actual casualties when women and children are most financially dependent on familial male authority. Such denial has been strenuously cultivated by the growing strength of 'family values' campaigners since the 1980s. 'Profamily' movements first arose in the 1970s as part of an explicit New Right backlash against feminism and sexual liberation, soon to be underwritten by Reagan and Thatcher. Two decades later, however, this neo-conservative rhetoric seems ubiquitous across the political spectrum. 'Strengthening the family has to be a number-one social priority', Tony Blair announced at the Labour Party Conference in Britain in 1995, embracing the double-dealing Communitarian Agenda of the American sociologist Amitai Etzioni, and echoing the sentiments of that other fading patriarch, Bill Clinton. (A married man, of course, can hardly be _more_ sexually conservative than to solicit blow jobs from his young employees!) This new family rhetoric, so powerfully promoted in the USA is, we should note, no longer explicitly anti-feminist, but hovers somewhere between post-feminist and anti-feminist agendas.\n\nMeanwhile, the knowledge that the traditional heterosexual marriage can create a living hell of cruelty, neglect and abuse is beaten back by what the American sociologist Judith Stacey calls the 'virtual social science' of distorted data about the dangers of 'fatherless', 'divorced' or 'lone-parent' families being constantly disseminated by the media. This encourages the continuing denial of lesbian and gay rights (as in campaigns to restrict custody and adoption rights to married heterosexuals) and obstructs official recognition of same-sex relationships. Furthermore, it dismisses the often invaluable role of friendships, community resources and wider structures of social support, which may be all that many individuals have to rely upon to keep them sane when most dependent on the family, for example those for whom childhood is, at the very best, a time of gritting the teeth and enduring. Most biographical narratives, clinical literature or serious self-reflection can swiftly trounce the supposedly caring values of pro-family warriors: yet such is the symbolic geography of that place we call 'home', they continue to flourish. A survey by the British charity National Chidren's Home Action in the late 1990s indicated that the main anxiety of 80 per cent of the children in their study was violence in the home (closely followed by bullying at school), figures which provoked the cultural critic Judith Williamson to mourn that despite all the talk about 'concern' for children, 'in material fact, we barely care for them at all'.\n\nEven the evils of paternal incest and domestic violence (recently once again deemed epidemic in US society by no less an authority than the conservative American Medical Association) are discarded for the evils of fatherlessness in the tendentious social scientific discourses of David Popenoe or David Blakenhorn in such books as _Rebuilding the Nest_ and _Fatherless America: Confronting our most Urgent Social Problem._ Mysteriously, these pathologies of abuse which feminists identified as part of the warp and weave of traditional, male-dominated family patterns have been rethreaded to appear as _themselves_ the product of family breakdown. Thus, when he lists the all-encompassing personal and social harms of 'fatherlessness', Blakenhorn moves on from citing 'crime' and 'adolescent pregnancy' to include 'child sexual abuse [and] domestic violence against women'. We are clearly not meant to unravel the twisted appropriation of what were initially neglected feminist concerns, now placed in the service of a traditional patriarchal orthodoxy.\n\n## _**Sweeping Anti-statism**_\n\nAgain looking anxiously at trends across the Atlantic, one can observe that the once explicit, but now more often disguised or denied, anti-feminist and anti-gay sentiments expressed in family values crusades match a sweeping anti-statist rhetoric \u2013 increasingly as prevalent on the left as the right. I was dismayingly alerted to further political reversals which may lie ahead for antiquated socialist feminists such as myself, by the recent thoughts about the state expressed by that once enduringly hopeful and combative feminist radical (and longstanding friend of mine), Barbara Ehrenreich. In her 'Confessions of a Recovering Statist', she publicly renounces _any_ hopes for progressive social reforms in the USA, whether around childcare or parental leave (or environmental reform). 'For the time being', she declares, 'we're not going to get anywhere with a progressive agenda consisting of... government initiatives. _Believe me, I have tried'._ She certainly has.\n\nEhrenreich contrasts the situation in the USA with the kinds of universal state provision she assumes is taken for granted in Western Europe. In the USA, Ehrenreich argues that there is now no combating the right's anti-state propaganda: that is, after two decades of radical conservative pressure, and after Clinton's welfare 'reform' which removed federal responsibility for assisting children in poverty, while at the same time authorizing millions of dollars to be spent not on sex education, contraception or to prevent violence against women, but rather on a puritanical morality which consigns single mothers to courses in 'abstinence education' (Clinton's way of having sex, perhaps!). Other feminist political scientists, based in the USA, such as Zillah Eisenstein and Anna Marie Smith, also express their increasing suspicions of the costs of what they call the 'insider strategy' or 'feminizing the mainstream'. They believe that feminist support for Clinton facilitated his successful presentation of 'feminine' and 'feminist' signifiers, making women's votes decisive in his re-election in 1996 (with the largest gender gap in the history of US presidential voting), but ultimately helping to neutralize opposition to his welfare cuts. Even some of the most sophisticated theoretical works, like Wendy Brown's _States of Injury,_ while skilfully exposing both the logic of victimhood and the theoretical incoherence in feminist rhetorics like that of Catharine MacKinnon, which demand state protection from 'pornographic' imagery, retain a near exclusive focus on 'the state as a negative domain for democratic political transformation', stressing the 'perils' attending _all_ feminist appeals to it for gender justice. Without wanting to deny the oppressive role of the modern state (not only in its official policing and militaristic role, but also in its protection of already dominant groups via normative regimes regulating access to welfare and social resources), it seems to me that those seeking a better world for all women can hardly afford to abandon struggles 'in and against' it.\n\nMeanwhile, although terminally pessimistic about feminists having any progressive alignment with mainstream politics in the USA, Ehrenreich herself is perhaps too optimistic about Europe. Here too, welfare 'reform' is under way. Some feminists in Britain are watching the New Labour government with their initial rising hopes often moving towards despairing resignation, and wondering how long Anglo-American contrasts will hold. There has been some progress, with support for childcare for single mothers, to encourage (or will it mean force?) them into jobs. But Blair's new Britain, as we have seen, still sanctifies the Thatcherite and old American way, with its litany for limiting public spending. As Mary McIntosh comments on the production of new terminology for the redefining of social needs: 'Typical of the new lexicon is the \"Benefit Integrity Project\", in which thousands of people who had previously been deemed severely disabled were deprived of their Disability Living Allowance'.\n\nSuch shifts in the vernacular of needs and entitlement indicate that it is the notion of universal welfare rights (as opposed to meagre provision for the poor) which is being eliminated. This serves to undermine the whole heritage and rationale of the British welfare state: one which relied upon progressive taxation to deliver a comprehensive social insurance system giving those in need of benefit a sense of entitlement. Using the defence that the 'deserving' poor \u2013 those who are absolutely unable to work for wages or have no crumb of private resources \u2013 can only be adequately assisted by removing benefits from the more 'affluent', progressive legislation involving general entitlements to child benefits, disability, or old age pensions, are now all under threat in Britain. Increasingly more people will have increasingly less reason to support a national insurance system from which they will, in principle, be excluded, feeding the destructively anti-social, anti-government feelings now so dominant in the USA: the sense that people get nothing in return for the taxes they pay, since they must take out private insurance for everything anyway. It has also been shown that welfare programmes regularly deteriorate once they assist only the most disadvantaged, and no longer cater for more powerful, middle-class interest groups. Comparing the failure of US rationing with the success of austerity measures in Britain during World War II, Harvey Levenstein concluded that the British, unlike the Americans, still had 'faith in their government'. In this age of socially regulated austerity, that faith in government and the social infrastructure of the public sector is being deliberately undermined.\n\nWith incentives to work as the prime focus of welfare reform, the hardship faced by significant numbers of women looks here to stay. These are the women trapped between the Scylla of longer hours at work and the Charybdis of increasing demands from children and other needy people at home, for which they are still held, and often feel, uniquely responsible. No amount of hollow familial ideology, contradictory workfare incentives or redefining of equality as 'social inclusion' solves the problems faced by so many working women today. As Suzanne Franks concludes: 'It seems unlikely the new millennium will bring a new balance of working and sharing \u2013 more likely a society that exacerbates the all or nothing divisions. Work will mean either the all-consuming 60-hour week or the insecure temporary life. Caring and everything else will have to fit in between.'\n\nYet pessimism is not entirely appropriate. It is false to claim that women's situation has stayed much the same, and even more misleading to suppose it has worsened. Women's growing economic independence has continued to undermine all the old structures of male domination, removing privileges which men could once take for granted at home and at work, and enhancing women's expectation \u2013 though not, perhaps, the practical choices open to them. Moreover, as Manuel Castells has exhaustively analysed, the displacement of the 'patriarchalism' which had ruled for millennia is increasingly global \u2013 notwithstanding its clashing and vicious entrenchment in certain nationalistic struggles. The dilemmas of the cultural transitions in gender practices indicate that new strategies are urgently needed to solve the increasing imbalance between caring commitments, employment practices and the rest of life. Everywhere gender relations still matter, generating conflict and anxiety for both sexes. They matter for women, who are usually the most directly affected by the conflictual demands of home and work. They matter for men: for the minority who attempt to participate in the home on equal terms, often with considerable strain; for the majority who have been slower to change, and face the resentment (and increasing levels of divorce and eviction) if they cannot, or will not, sustain more egalitarian relations. Most of all, gender issues matter for children and other dependent people in the home, who bear the brunt of poverty, overstretched and guilt-ridden carers and inadequate public services. It is clear that feminist concerns cannot be separated from struggles for an alternative vision and politics to those currently in command. Childcare provision, expanding social services, state regulation of minimum wages and maximum working hours, recognition of household diversity and strong incentives for the full sharing of caring in the home, would all form part of that vision \u2013 not unlike the socialist feminist agenda of a recent now-proscribed era. Accepting its elimination, Toril Moi has commented, '\"socialist feminism\" is not really a meaningful term in the 1990s'; although, curiously, she does want to know 'what kind of feminist a socialist feminist could be today?': the creature is dead, but its spectre survives her.\n\n## _**Switching to the Subject**_\n\nAs illustrated in chapter 1, welfare struggles were central to what is now seen as seventies 'equality' feminism: a democratizing, egalitarian and essentially modernist, reformist movement, with many utopian overtones. Back then, when 'reform or revolution' was the dominant rhetorical binary, most feminists stubbornly refused to choose, twisting and turning around it. Exchanging old binaries for new, 'equality or difference' has become _the_ central conundrum within feminist thought. The latter embraces, rather confusingly, both identity and \u2013 increasingly important in academic feminism \u2013 anti-identity politics: the joys and sorrows of subjectivity _and_ the question of its dismantling, each at different times harnessed to affirmations of a 'post-modernist' kind. Clashes over this conceptual divide continue to reverberate, feeding into the most futile and unhealthy of divisions within the left: that between class-based and cultural politics.\n\nOn its own, it is no secret that the theorizing of 'difference' paradigms in feminism, rightly suspicious of the chauvinisms, gaps and silences in old emancipatory rhetorics and practices of class, have tended to overshadow material differences within oppressed subject groups. Inside the Western academy, the intellectual prestige of post-structuralism and deconstruction led prominent feminist theoreticians to emphasize the discursive formations of selfhood via logics of exclusion and repudiation. Primarily concerned with ways of displacing or subverting the negation or subordination of the 'feminine' in language, or the silencing of women's voices in culture, the focus on identities, their affirmations and negations, has directed attention away from questions of redistributive justice and social restructuring, which were once central to socialist feminism \u2013 that current which is now so often excised from feminist texts, abridged into the retrospectively constructed 'equality' paradigm.\n\nIn a widely rehearsed debate on Italian feminism, for example, a minority, including Adriana Cavarero and Patrizia Romito, complain of the 'mamismo' in its mainstream movement, which has so exalted the 'maternal' that it plays into the hands of conservative forces violently hostile to change in traditional gender arrangements. Such exaltation certainly has little purchase on the reason Italian women have the _lowest_ birthrate in the developed world. More ironically, the tension between identitarian struggles (affirming hitherto demeaned or abjected subjectivities) and other political struggles prioritizing social equality and material need (which have often challenged or denied inherent subjective differences) have only deepened as the meanings of the 'difference' paradigm has expanded to include the multiply diverse, internally fragmented, post-colonial, anti-heterosexist, queer, 'in-between', subject positions occupied by women.\n\nIt is over a decade since Juliet Mitchell argued that feminism had unwittingly eased the way for new developments in capitalism, in an article assessing the effects of the first two decades of second-wave feminism. With its theorizing of the 'free play of multifarious differences', feminism has helped to construct an ideology that could disregard class and could side-line socio-economic comparisons to focus almost exclusively on the all-embracing opposition between men and women. It was easier in 1986, she noted, to get statistics on gender differences in educational achievement than on class comparisons. Twenty years ago the situation was completely the reverse. Misleadingly, in my view, Mitchell attributes far too much agency to feminism in assisting capitalist market forces, rather than seeing women as ensnared within them. Her words foreshadow those of many an incorrigible old chauvinist, like Norman Mailer, announcing that feminism was so successful because it 'was perfect for the corporation', promoting women as its 'gilt-edged peons'. More usefully, however, Mitchell highlighted, as others would soon also notice, the way in which feminist rhetoric and goals could be appropriated to legitimate technological, economic and legislative changes, which were not in themselves what feminists had been fighting for. Again we could look at Judith Stacey's work, in particular her study of women working for the Silicon Valley corporations, in _Brave New Families_.\n\nThe crucial point, and one often displaced in the turn to theorizing subjectivities in the 1980s, is the need to pay careful attention to the relationship between feminist discourses and practices as they at times contest, and at others are more likely to serve, shifting economic and social change. Such change has often little to do with eliminating the worst forms of social injustice, in a world where women in general continue to have significantly fewer resources and less power than men. If feminists are not to hide away in a largely misleading romance of women's ineluctable 'otherness', we will need to turn outwards more often: observing the zealously embraced centrality of many women in the new managerial and professional world, even as others are pushed more securely to the margins. Attending more closely to the mutating gendered dynamics of selective advancement and deterioration can also enlighten us about the refashioning of particular, class-based practices of masculinity which keep a small group of men at the very pinnacle of corporate power, despite having now to encourage women into their ranks, and even having to acquire the more expressive, conversational skills once coded as 'feminine'.\n\n## _**Activist Challenges**_\n\nDo not misunderstand me. I am well aware of the importance of the study of identities and differences: whether to explore how they are constructed and reconstructed, or to draw attention to all those subordinated and excluded by previously uncontested universalisms. Hierarchically gendered, sexualized, racialized or hybridized productions of identity are all _material_ in their injurious effects, and usually, though not necessarily, and in differing ways, tied up with the structuring of economic disadvantage and marginalization. Furthermore, it is identity-based politics which have so often inspired the cultures of activism which, in the best of times, form part of, or in other ways service, class-based trade-union and community struggles for better lives. As most feminists were once well aware, the really difficult challenge remains that of building culture and class coalitions, where sexism, racism and the radical complexities of other forms of exclusion or invalidation can find a place on the agenda. This is still the only way 'to prevent white male interests from dominating class politics and middle class interests from dominating cultural polities', as Andrew Ross concisely summarizes. If the left is ever to reconstitute itself as a popular movement, it can only do so by embracing the greatest possible diversity of progressive cultural alignments, while attending to the volatilities of 'class' itself, as it is culturally produced and experienced.\n\nThe ethnic and racialist provincialism of some earlier incarnations of feminism needed to be challenged by both the insights of black and Third World feminisms, on the one hand, and those theorists now emphasizing the intrinsic instabilities of being positioned as a 'woman', on the other: these two tendencies, retrospectively, are often confusingly conflated. Whether mapping the discourses or studying their modes of normalization, recent forms of feminist theory have usefully stressed the cultural particularities and psychic complexities of women's subjectivities (at least, when not submitting themselves to the dogged singularity of Lacan's law). However, for feminists in the academy, it was never going to be easy to return from the individual pleasures (or torments) of abstract thought to the heated exchanges of collective confrontation and strategic coalition.\n\nAs Jane Gallop, one of the most provocative and passionate defenders of feminist pedagogy, has mused: 'We don't seem very able to theorize about how we speak, as feminists wanting social change, from within our positions in the academy'. More bitterly, the African Americanist Hazel Carby pointed out in 1992 that the scholarly recognition of 'diversity and difference', and the inclusion of black writers in the syllabus of women's studies and literature departments in the USA over the last decade, has accompanied the significant and steady _decline_ in the percentage of black students reaching college. Observing how few alliances have been forged in recent times between the academy and the black working class and urban poor, Carby concludes (understandably, if somewhat harshly): 'Black cultural texts have become fictional substitutes for the lack of any sustained social and political relationships with black people in a society that retains many of its historical practices of apartheid in housing and schooling'. The problem, according to left critics of multiculturalism, is not that it politicizes the academy (to the horror of its right-wing critics), but that it constitutes politics as _primarily_ academic.\n\nIn a particularly painful debate on the links between theory and action published in 1996 in _Signs,_ some of the best-known feminist activists in the USA, all of whom are in or close to the academy, maintain that they no longer read feminist theory. Rightly or wrongly, they argue that it bears little relation to the empirical complexities of analysing the demands of the women in ongoing struggles to whom they are committed \u2013 most often women fighting for what they see as basic 'human' rights (rather than specifically women's concerns) for health, housing, better educational or other welfare resources, as well as an end to poverty. One problem is that the struggles these activists refer to require an overall vision of a radically egalitarian society, in considerable tension with the positioning of much recent feminist theory as anti-humanist, post-Enlightenment, and post-nation-state.\n\nThe form of feminist activism involving solidarity with women in struggle worldwide is thus one which harks back to the so-called 'equality' feminism of the 1970s. Theorizing subjectivities and differences rarely inspires engaged rapport with those who, in Temma Kaplan's words, are most 'crazy for democracy' \u2013 women leading human rights campaigns against the very worst exploitation and abuses, whether in Southern or Northern hemispheres. For where women are most actively engaged in grassroots struggles today, as Kaplan's research illustrates, is also where their leaders are blurring rather than affirming differences between groups in favour of reclaiming, on their own terms, a rhetoric of _universal_ human rights: for example, that 'all human beings are entitled to safe housing and a clean environment and that sometimes only women can secure them'. Patricia Williams, in _The Alchemy of Race and Rights,_ argues similarly that rights rhetoric has been and remains important for black struggles, even though, and in part just because, 'rights' are historically 'unstable and shifting'. On the one hand, then, it has been essential for feminists to dismantle notions of the disembodied, abstract universal, hitherto operating to exclude them in their particularity. On the other, the paradoxical empowerment of rights rhetoric is precisely that its universal ideal can _never_ be fixed, once and for all, but remains an abiding source of conflict and struggle, as Etienne Balibar, among others, has forcefully argued.\n\n## _**Disciplinary Feminism**_\n\nMeanwhile, whatever the political potential of appeals to 'ambiguous universalities', the grassroots movements for social justice which women are leading today require a variety of types of scholarly servicing, some of which are increasingly absent from the most esteemed forms of feminist theorizing, as it has moved from its earlier stronghold in sociology and the social sciences into English and the humanities (producing its own somewhat embittered rejoinder). Such servicing would need to encompass theories of world markets, and seek to explain why increasing globalization has gone hand in hand with the rolling back of welfare rights, even in developed capitalist countries such as Britain \u2013 although not, like Mitchell, in order to impugn feminist complicity. Without such theory, it is hard to know the possibilities and limits of effective resistance, especially when we are faced with the largely unjustified alarmism that nation-states are necessarily powerless in the face of such globalization. One might note here that the market dictatorship which has encouraged the crisis of public finance, allowing the wealthy worldwide to contribute less and less to the financing of public expenditure, is still dominated by Anglo-American capital and ideological convictions. There are continuing, large differences in state expenditures on welfare, with \u2013 contrary to most globalization rhetoric \u2013 no consistent effect on growth rates. Moreover, the global economy always displays strong national elements. While transnational corporations currently operate in the context of volatile world financial markets, both the production and consumption of most goods and services occurs at national levels: only 15 per cent of commodities derive from lower wage countries.\n\nFeminist studies, like cultural studies, began as a genuinely _interdisciplinary_ field of knowledge. But the current pressures of the academy are such that it is almost impossible to maintain genuinely cross-disciplinary interests and knowledge, so harnessed are we to ever narrower channels of disciplinary career and publication. Attending feminist conferences seemed once to promise access to areas of knowledge far removed from one's own, but the disciplining of feminism within the academy makes that much less likely today. Indicatively, the conference _At the Millennium: Interrogating Gender_ organized by _Woman: A Cultural Review,_ although explicitly 'interdisciplinary' in conception and subtitle, reflected the predominance of English and cultural studies in the vanguard of academic feminism. Indeed, I was the sole speaker from the social sciences. This stimulated distinctive modes of gender interrogation which, although certainly diverse, thoughtful and creative, authorized specific but mostly narrowly conceived visions of futurity: many of them in search of the most enabling metaphors for feminists to work with. One, for example, offered the 'trickster', as post-modern shape-shifter, who can be both man and woman, hence paying no deference to single categories like that of gender or sexuality. While helping us explore the instabilities of gender, however, its champion on this occasion (Gillian Beer) was careful to caution us that her particular future-orientated, feminist figurine has little concern for others, indeed performs her\/his tricks at the expense of others. Another (Elizabeth Bronfen) suggested the 'hysteric' as futuristic feminist icon. Once we depathologize her, we were told, she offers a strategy for questioning and teasing the master's narrative, revealing its fraudulence.\n\nThese playful, transgressive emissaries of change or resistance can help us not only to address the agonies and duplicities of subjectivities, but encourage us to attend to their potentially mutually contradictory descriptions of and investments in reality. They cannot, however, provide the theoretical resources most useful for women hoping for a stake in the future while positioned at the sharpest edge of struggles for justice and survival. That requires more attention to actually existing social relations and their discursive boundaries. One can see the same disciplinary dominance in an American volume, published in 1997, entitled _Generations: Academic Feminists in Dialogue;_ nineteen of the twenty-one contributors come from literature departments. Distinguishing what she sees as the 'personal' and 'political' strands of feminism from the 'intellectual', one contributor sums up her view of the intellectual dimension of feminism through a now prevalent but exclusively disciplinary lens: 'Intellectual feminism is analytical; it concerns itself with \"reading\" the representations of women in culture and its texts and artifacts'. Academic feminism has taken a very particular route here, one which might seem strange to the poet and short-story writer whom feminist literary scholars once studied, Grace Paley: 'Feminism means political consciousness. It means that you see the relationship between the life of women and the political life and power around her. From there you can take any route you want'.\n\nBut can we take any route we want as feminists within the academy today? There is an important connection between the last two problems I have been addressing: the academization of feminist politics and the logic of a narrow disciplinarity. Many feminists have worked hard to keep open a space for interdisciplinary work in the academy (which is not the same thing as renouncing scholarly expertise and academic specialization). Yet, the harsh irony is that the more disciplinarity has been undermined by philosophical and political critique of its founding assumptions, the more competing pressures inside the academy have forced disciplinary boundaries to tighten up in fiscally contracting times for higher education. Meanwhile, the move in academic fashions from sociology and the social sciences to English and the humanities was itself, at least in part, a sign of the decline of left politics after the close of the 1970s. There has been a corresponding change in the character of cultural studies, away from the sociology and cultural history of literature \u2013 manifest in the work of Raymond Williams and some of his ex-students, for example Terry Eagleton and Francis Mulhern, and in Stuart Hall and Birmingham cultural studies \u2013 towards more ahistorical and non-sociological theories of representation. Whether mourning the move away from the historicizing and contextualizing of culture, or castigating its reduction to 'recycled semiotics', a number of scholars, like Cary Nelson in the USA, have begun arguing for the repoliticization of cultural studies, and its opening up to other disciplinary resources: 'Recognizing how fragile and contingent both moral and historical consensus is', Nelson argues, 'only increases the need for advocacy and interpretation'. Similarly, among feminist scholars, even such a radical deconstructionist as Barbara Johnson has admitted: 'I think it's true that in order for certain things to happen, sites have to be occupied blindly or out of a passion for justice'. The most intellectually productive thing, she now concludes, is to be both politically committed at the same time as retaining 'skepticism toward the authority of existing cultural arrangements, [and] toward the supposed \"universality\" or \"impartiality\" of existing \"truths\" '.\n\n## _**Cultural Imperatives**_\n\nAlthough desiring greater cross-disciplinary communication in feminist forums, I am not endorsing those academics now making a name for themselves through an anti-theoretical populism. Least of all am I trying to jettison cultural analysis for what is often falsely posed against it as 'materialist'. Any feminism still seeking to overturn the indignities many women face (whether gender-specific or not, though the two are unlikely to be easily unravelled) needs to work to overcome the rifts which repeatedly arise between those advocating cultural and economic analysis as opposing priorities. For it is precisely cultural analysis of the pivotal place of sexual difference in the formation of subjectivity, combined with the coercive repetitions of gender in structuring social relations, that remains at the heart of gender politics worldwide, past and present. Whatever general rights and pragmatic distinctions need to be called upon in mobilizing support for women fighting for better lives, feminists cannot afford to retreat to reductive positions which would definitively distinguish the economic and political terrain from that which some would like to marginalize, if not jettison, as the discursive, or 'merely cultural' (as Judith Butler has described such dismissals). Indeed, few intellectual efforts are less politically productive, or more symptomatic of morbidity, than the attempts of left offshoots of the culture wars in the USA (now also making their appearance in Europe) to defend the supposedly 'real' left against a phony 'cultural' left. This was most egregiously expressed in the hoaxing of _Social Text_ by physicist Alan Sokal in 1996, with the assistance of two well-known feminist scholars (Barbara Epstein and Ruth Rosen), to the applause of many others (Katha Pollitt and Barbara Ehrenreich being two of the best known). It also seems to have motivated the philosopher Martha Nussbaum into accepting a platform offered her by the conservative US journal the _New Republic_ to pose feminists 'with eyes always on the material conditions of real women' and their 'real struggles' against the 'hip defeatism of Judith Butler', with her focus on the symbolic. (Illustrative of the muddle produced by such polarizing polemic, Nussbaum offers Catharine MacKinnon's work as exemplary of a 'materialist' feminism despite her exclusive focus on forms of sexual symbolism and what many see as politically dangerous ways of eliminating it.)\n\nEconomic realities and the shifting fortunes of women worldwide are, everywhere, enmeshed within cultural understandings of sexual difference, which still, on all sides, help to promote male paranoia, misogyny, homophobia and related violence against women, gays and other subordinated or dissident men. As we saw in chapter 4, there is no other way to understand the pervasive sense that women in the West are now the 'winners', and men the 'losers', in an ongoing battle of the sexes. We need to understand that it is this very terminology \u2013 the positioning of the sexes as embattled primarily with each other \u2013 which is quintessentially cultural, and which defers recognition that men, like women, are disparately affected by wider forces of economic restructuring, downsizing and increased job insecurity. Perceiving men as 'losers' obscures an array of crucial questions: which men are losing out?; according to what criteria? We will never understand what is at stake here in generating defensive masculinities by posing men as inferior to the very group over whom their 'manhood' should render them superior, without attention to 'the cultural' and its material embeddedness. The burgeoning literature on men and masculinities can reveal little about the predicament and anxieties of men unless it understands the dynamics of power which have hitherto structured gendered meanings and institutional practices. The one cannot be parted from the other \u2013 at least, not until women are everywhere already seen as commensurate to men.\n\n## _**Feminism without Politics**_\n\nThroughout this book I have conveyed a sense of the disruptions and strains caused by changing gender relations, everywhere apparent yet everywhere unresolved. Whether we notice them in the underachievement or misdeeds of boys, potential sexual hazards facing girls, the failures and uncertainties of men, the bitterness or overwork of married women, the impoverishment of lone mothers and their children, the deliberate provocations of sexual dissidents, daily fears of violence or simply in the continuing debates within and about feminism itself, gender is part of our very existence, our social being.\n\nThe proliferation of discourses about gender problems has given birth to a growth industry designed to handle some of the more manageable protests. Thus the delivery of individually packaged 'equal opportunities' is a key theme of the ever more compulsory implementation of human resource management for teaching improved social and interpersonal skills, flexibility, time-budgeting and resourcefulness: these are differently marketed across a broad social terrain from administrators to the jobless or homeless. Assessing its impact on management itself, some researchers have suggested that male managers adapt to the new discourses of gender equality by playing with their gendered identities and improving their interpersonal skills, thereby ensuring they remain in control. The provision of more personal and intimate resources to assist those grappling with gender troubles comes from an expanding array of individual and group therapies, and the explosion of self-help books. They encourage the sharing of feelings, vulnerabilities and anxieties, all geared towards greater self-understanding and self-acceptance. It is noteworthy that many of these therapies and most of the self-help agendas draw upon the resources of early feminist consciousness-raising, while discarding its political analysis and collective confrontational strategies.\n\nA feminist would hardly want to negate the dissemination of equal opportunity discourses and practices, even if suspicious of the instrumental absorption and reproduction of its message. It would be even more foolish to join the popular sport of ridiculing therapy, as though most of us are not to varying degrees in need of the personal support, greater self-awareness and emotional expressiveness it attempts to offer. Moreover, many radical therapists, like Susie Orbach and Andrew Samuels, have been using their clinical expertise to work with others offering more imaginative ways for approaching political issues \u2013 from crime and punishment to parenting and sexuality. And least of all, should we expect to find perfect harmony between our public and private selves, or any easy, or even necessary, integration of feminist theoretical work with effective political practice. Nevertheless, the diffuse acceptance and commercial marketing of 'equal ops', self-help and therapeutic cultures, return us to the expedient accommodation of mainstream culture to selective aspects of feminism, even as it rejects or ridicules others, sometimes managing a strange combination of the two: 'If feminism no longer has any consistent ideology, it still prides itself on its own righteousness'. Feminist rhetoric has been widely accepted (if still the butt of satire), especially insofar as it applauds a gentle type of care-based ethic, the affirmation of a benevolent 'femininity', open and sensitive to the needs and vulnerabilities of others (for example, in the media-friendly, widely promoted, work of Carol Gilligan or Jean Bethke Elshtain), but distanced from radical or threatening challenges, whether of thought or action.\n\nThe continuing dissemination of just such a 'feminist' into 'feminizing' personal ethos can offer a feminism _without_ an oppositional culture or politics, one which has encouraged some feminists to replace what they now describe as their former 'hardened' language of politics, with a 'cosier' language of feelings. However, the particular structure of feeling they elaborate, although frequently attributed to the effects of pain and suffering, is one which is always seen as adjustable. Not for them, the intractable terrors of paranoia, sadism or terminal despair. 'I suppose I am more interested in average grief, inner grief, the grief most of us feel', one such newly retrained psychotherapist reflected when interviewed in 1997. It is ironic that at a time when the air is full of therapeutic re-skilling, the man who provided the seedbed from which such diversified trainings have grown, is everywhere denounced for his 'fraudulence' and 'fakery'. Freud, as discussed in chapter 6, offered a far bleaker, more pessimistic vision. The cosier therapeutic version of feminism can easily slide into, or at least be used in the service of, a wider culture of blandness and denial: one which collapses the political into the personal, the collective into the individual. Such a culture can accommodate governments which pretend that they cannot change what it is _only_ in their power to change, while demanding that individuals \u2013 whether parents, teachers or simply as luckless souls \u2013 _can_ change what they have little hope of changing (given socially generated scarcity, deepening levels of inequality and ever-growing competitiveness). Joining those who suggest that the _political_ point of studying personal life has been disappearing from a lot of feminist writing, Juliet Mitchell argues that feminism now needs to put women back into a 'transformational' political arena, to ask of the personal: _'Does it become part of the political program or does it just stay there as the personal'_.\n\nIn Britain in the late 1990s, widespread publicity accompanied the appearance of a book declaring the dawn of a 'New Feminism': this time as a mainstream, majority movement in which women \u2013 from the Spice Girls to Cherie Blair and her husband's hundred new women MPs \u2013 can celebrate their own sudden power and achievements (in part thanks to Margaret Thatcher for normalizing female success). Its author, the journalist Natasha Walter, like Naomi Wolf before her, offers a form of power-feminism, applauding women's growing success, identification with their jobs and their ability to help each other. She reports on the penetration of feminist beliefs throughout society, reflected in mainstream culture and evident in the increasing support by men for women at home \u2013 if still from only a minority. Her book is useful, not only in outlining the real progress many women have made, but also in highlighting how much is still to be done. It is packed with pertinent statistics and the words of a diversity of women. Listing the multiple problems women still face, from grinding poverty, meagre childcare, dead-end jobs, inadequate public services to absence from power-elites, she wants more change to enable all women to find a place, where she hopes to see them, 'in the corridors of power'. However, her sketch of women's lives is one emptied of political theory or any specific strategies for combating the many obstacles she describes still confronting the majority of women. Instead, she appears to believe that it is feminism itself which has failed to deliver change for women, and this is because it 'gradually became primarily associated with sexual politics and culture'.\n\nBut quite how 'feminism' will manage to deliver, once it remedies its ways and adopts 'a new, less embattled ideal', remains mysterious. Walter's analysis promotes no particular collective political formations or affiliations. We are simply told: 'We must understand that feminism can give us these things now, if we really want them'. Fingers crossed! Although pleasantly symptomatic of many women's goodwill towards a 'feminism' they feel free to fashion, it lacks the very thing it hopes to promote: political seriousness. Introducing her follow-up collection a year later, again offering us 'feminism for a new generation', Walter is even more confident that feminism is 'on the move', evident in women's strong desire for a more equal society. The fact that our society is actually becoming ever more _unequal,_ and her authors often committed to a wholly individualistic ethic (one of them offers an exemplary tale of her heroine, Jade Beaumont, who believes that 'People should deal with their own problems; you shouldn't get yourself into situations you can't handle and then slop all over everybody else') does not give her pause for thought about the significance of the political ravine between personal declarations in favour of a fairer world, and its attainment. It should.\n\n## _**Political Futures**_\n\nThe last _fin de si\u00e8cle_ was seen as an optimistic era by many first-wave feminists. This time around, for all its internal conflicts and ambivalence, and despite co-option by commercial, conservative or gender-normalizing forces, feminism remains a powerful cultural presence. Walter is right about that. Despite the continuous presence of anti-feminist manoeuvres (sporadically operating with lethal effect, as in the antiabortion movement in the USA) and the frightening extremes of some men's misogyny and violence, women will not abandon their quest for personal autonomy and equality. After all, significant numbers live in a world where they experience its actuality, at least when young and childless. But, as time goes by, they too are increasingly likely to encounter painful injustices in gender settlements.\n\nThe multifarious voices still speaking in the name of feminism offer not so much paradoxes as full-blown contradictions. The more flexible and volatile our identities, bodies and lives are conceived to be in academic discourses deconstructing genders and sexualities, the more predictably social constraints and pressures, or personal compulsions, manifest themselves in the lives of many women, and men. With individual choice and personal responsibility the mantra of the 'Third Way', feminism's own 'women's right to choose' is mocked by a culture in which lack of childcare, fear of poverty or career demands means that more women feel they have no choice at all: the social supports they hoped for are absent. Meanwhile, as one staunch feminist campaigner laments: 'the tabloids feel free to vilify one woman for not wanting as many as two babies and another for trying to have more than two'. Until quite recently feminists still hoped to transform the relations between employment and family lives. Today, Blair's new Britain installs an old and punishing 'work' ethic which, despite feminist attention to the 'labours of love' from the 1960s onwards, remains incapable of questioning any of the old terms \u2013 whether that of 'labour' or 'love'. A decade ago, there was still a debate in the British and American media on the future of the nuclear family. Today the superiority of that family structure over all possible alternatives is once again everywhere trumpeted, even as its prevalence continues to decline.\n\nIn the most technologically innovatory of times, as some feminists write of women's particular affinity with the supposed freedoms of cyberspace (despite men's dominance of 90 per cent of its highways), many women face a future where we are leading the most comprehensively conservative of lives: less politically engaged, less utopian in vision, less time, even, for friends and family. Writing of the unexpected decline of leisure in the USA, Juliet Schor points out that since the 1970s there has been a steady increase in the number of hours on the job put in by fully employed workers, while the same alarms about expanding working hours are sounding in the UK. It is primarily women who are still somehow expected to make up for the hours lost from creating loving homes and healthy communities, simultaneously being applauded for how far they have come in gaining equality with men. Given the persisting strength of this aspect of traditional gender ideology, it is, as it always has been, the daily lives of women which most directly absorb the shocks and contradictions of these mean yet widely disparate times. What women do, when they do what is most expected of them as women, is not something best organized according to the dictates of profit or capitalist market relations. Therein lies the radical potential of feminism as an oppositional politics: one which dares to fight a culture and a political system which tries to numb us into acceptance that it can fulfil our needs and desires.\n\nWhy feminism? Because a feminism which is serious about the potential and obstacles to political change, and which knows that we are never outside either the personal or the cultural, still has something unique \u2013 if hardly 'new' \u2013 to offer. Part of that offering should be an understanding of the complexity of subjectivity, and the significance of representation, not to mention the difficulty of arguing for a socialist economics in the present climate. The special legacy of feminism lies in its striving to keep relating the personal and cultural to the economic and political, however forbidding and precarious that enterprise may be. Although academia has been the easy target of recent disparagement, feminism needs the time and resources it can still help to provide \u2013 so long as we can preserve it from the worst effects of reshaping by pseudo or actual market forces. It is more true than ever that few women have the time, even if they had the inclination (in these days when only instrumentalized self-serving is applauded), to sift through the differing versions of feminism. And this leaves a contentious minority of women to dominate the airwaves, especially those selected by commercial publishers for offering simple or sensationalized positions and prescriptions (invariably packaged as 'new' and 'subversive' on account of their discarding prior radical convictions). Part of the ongoing project of feminism should be the attempt to map out and assess which different pieces in the jigsaw of feminism get picked up, and why; it should also be asking, at any given time and place, who is selecting the fragments, and \u2013 however unintendedly \u2013 whose particular interests their delivery serves. This commands less media space, but is at the heart of the political presence of any movement.\n\nGiven the diversity of reformist, identitarian, deconstructive, activist, therapeutic and power feminisms, it is true that we can indeed take many different routes as feminists leaving the twentieth century. We need to learn from each other's journeys, and to recognize that what will engage the attention and further the interests of one group of women will not be most relevant to the needs of another. The political never simply reduces to the personal, nor to the unfettered analysis of culture, even though attention to desire, discourse and the promotion of caring and responsible sexual politics remains one of the crucial resources feminism delivers to politics. It is only by finding ways to foster effective vehicles for change that feminists can still hope to open spaces for more women to flaunt the diverse pleasures, entitlements and self-questioning to which recent feminist thinking has encouraged us to aspire (often, disconcertingly, in line with late capitalist consumerism). This means women collectively cherishing the existence of the left: whether in alliance with social democratic forces (fighting to preserve their redistributive egalitarian instincts, which will never be smoothly compatible with commercial entrepreneurialism, while opposing their traditional paternalism); with trade unions (continuing to overturn their erstwhile straight, white, male hegemony); with whatever manifestations of local or international struggles emerge to defend those at the sharpest end of market forces or regressive nationalisms, persisting racisms and xenophobia. Why feminism? Because its most radical goal, both personal and collective, has yet to be realized: a world which is a better place not just for some women, but for all women. In what I still call a socialist feminist vision, that would be a far better world for boys and men, as well.\n\n## **Notes**\n\n### _Introduction:_ Why Feminism?\n\n Jean Bethke Elshtain, _Public Man, Private Woman: Women in Social and Political Thought'_ , Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1981, p. 216.  J\u00fcrgen Habermas, 'The New Obscurity and the Exhaustion of Utopian Energies', in _Observations on the Spiritual Situation of the Age_ , ed. Habermas, Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press, 1984.  See Juliet Mitchell, 'Reflections on Twenty Years of Feminism', in _What is Feminism?_ , ed. J. Mitchell and A. Oakley, Oxford, Blackwell, 1986, p. 36.  This published comment is from Pat Woolley, founder of Redress Press in Australia, in Jane Sullivan, 'Sisters Ink: Tales from the Revolution', _Sydney Morning Herald Magazine: Good Weekend_ , 8 August 1988, p. 5; I have received several similar comments from erstwhile and current feminist publishers in Britain and the USA.  The majority of book buyers are said to be women, especially at the most popular end of the book market, in supermarkets. Information from Richard Knight at BookTrack, UK.  Adrienne Rich, 'Towards a Woman-Centered University', in _Lies, Secrets and Silences: Selected Prose, 1966\u20131978_ , New York, W. W. Norton, 1979, p. 126 (written 1973).  Polly Toynbee, 'Fay Plays the Fool', _The Guardian_ , 1 July 1998, p. 20.  See Catherine Hall, 'Feminism and Feminist History', in _White, Male and Middle Class_ , Cambridge, Polity Press, 1992, p. 12; Rosalind Coward, _Our Treacherous Hearts: Why Women Let Men Get their Way_ , London, Faber & Faber, 1992.  See Nancy Miller, 'Review Essay: Public Statements, Private Lives: Academic Memoirs for the Nineties', _Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society_, 1997, vol. 22, no. 4, 1997, p. 981.  Nicci Gerard, 'Interview: Calista Flockhart', in _The Observer Review_ , 14 June 1998, p. 11.  Germaine Greer, 'Thirty years ago I fought for women to say yes, yes, yes. Now we've forgotten how to say no', _The Observer Review_ , 19 October 1997, p. 4.  Andrea Dworkin, 'The Next Thousand Years', in ed. Charlotte Cole and Helen Windrath, The Female Odyssey: Visions for the 21st Century, London, Women's Press, 1999, p. 88.  Rosalind Coward, 'Do we Need a New Feminism?', _Women: A Cultural Review_ , forthcoming; Coward, _Sacred Cows_ , forthcoming.\n\n### Chapter 1 Generations of Feminism\n\n Patricia Romney, Unpublished Notes Prepared for Roundtable Discussion, 'Writing about a Visionary Movement in the \"Get Real\" World of the '90s: The History of Women's Liberation in the United States', 10th Berkshire Women's Conference, State University of North Carolina, June 1996.  Margaret Strobel, in ibid.  Rachel Blau DuPlessis and Ann Snitow, 'A Feminist Memoir Project', in _The Feminist Memoir Project: Voices from Women's Liberation_ , ed. DuPlessis and Snitow, New York, Three Rivers Press, 1998, p. 23; see also Katie King, _Theory in its Feminist Travels: Conversations in U.S. Women's Movements_ , Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1994.  Meredith Tax, 'For the People Hear Us Singing, \"Bread and Roses! Bread and Roses'\", in _Feminist Memoir Project_ , ed. DuPlessis and Snitow, p. 321.  Mich\u00e8le Barrett and Anne Phillips, 'Introduction', _Destabilizing Theory: Contemporary Feminist Debates_ , ed. Barrett and Phillips, Cambridge, Polity Press, 1992, p. 2.  Ibid. pp. 2\u20134. Mich\u00e8le Barrett had expressed her reservations about her own 'seventies' thinking in _Women's Oppression Today_ , London, Verso, 1988, in a new preface, indicating (accurately) that recent feminist debate has problematized the notion of 'women' and 'woman', while suggesting that the notion of oppression 'looks decidedly dated today'.  Barrett and Phillips, _Destabilizing Theory_ , pp. 5, 8, 6.  Judith Butler and Joan Scott, eds, _Feminists Theorize the Political_ , London, Routledge, 1992.  Ibid., p. xiii.  Butler, 'Contingent Foundations', in ibid., p.17; emphases in original.  DuPlessis and Snitow, _Feminist Memoir Project_ , p. 21.  Butler has at times distanced herself from the narrowness of some of the 'theory' debate within feminism, pointing out in 1993: 'It seems to me that the disagreements which exist among us as thinkers are perhaps less salient than others which now hold sway in public intellectual life'. Judith Butler, 'For a Careful Reading' in _Feminist Contentions: A Philosophical Exchange'_ , ed. Seyla Benhabib et al., London, Routledge, 1995, p. 132.  See, for example, Linda Gordon, 'Review of _Gender and the Politics of History_ by Joan Wallach Scott', _Signs_ 15, Summer, 1990.  Joan Wallach Scott, 'Response to Gordon', _Signs_ 15, Summer, 1990, p. 859. See also the measured and thoughtful account of the erasure of feminist theoretical heterogeneity in Susan Stanford Friedman, 'Making History', in _Feminism Beside Itself_ , ed. Diane Elam and Robyn Weigman, London, Routledge, 1995.  Patricia Clough, _Feminist Thought_ , Oxford, Blackwell, 1994.  Julia Kristeva, 'Women's Time' (1979), trans. Alice Jardine and Harry Blake, _Signs_ vol. 7, no. 1, 1981, p. 33.  Toril Moi, _Sexual\/Textual Politics, Feminist Literary Theory_ , New York, Methuen, 1985, p. 13.  Sheila Rowbotham, _Threads through Time: Writings on History and Autobiography'_ , London, Penguin, 1999, pp. 4, 2.  Sheila Rowbotham, _Dreams and Dilemmas_ , London, Virago, p. 354; emphasis added.  Ibid., pp. x, 351.  Ibid., p. 351.  Sheila Rowbotham, 'How to Get Your Man: _The Female Eunuch_ by Germaine Greer', in Oz, vol. 31, Nov.\u2013Dec. 1970, p. 19.  Sally Alexander and Barbara Taylor, 'In Defence of Patriarchy', in _People's History and Socialist Theory_ , ed. Raphael Samuel, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1981.  Rowbotham, _Dreams and Dilemmas_ , pp. 353, 2.  Sheila Rowbotham, _Woman's Consciousness, Man's World_ , Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1973, pp. 34, _66._  Rowbotham, _Dreams and Dilemmas_ , p. 83.  Ibid., pp. 59, 75.  Ibid., pp. 32\u20133.  Joan Scott, 'Experience', in _Feminists Theorize the Political_ , ed. Butler and Scott.  Rowbotham, _Woman's Consciousness, Man's World_ , p. 27.  Ibid., p. x. Rowbotham prefers, as she writes in 1972, the idea of 'consciousness moving' to 'consciousness raising', since 'your own perception is continually being shifted by how other women perceive what has happened to them.... The main difficulty, still, is that while the social composition of women's liberation remains narrow it isn't possible to move naturally beyond certain limitations in perspective', Rowbotham, _Dreams and Dilemmas_ , p. 59.  Rowbotham, _Dreams and Dilemmas_ , pp. 74, 208, 218.  Ibid., p. 83.  Ibid., p. 82.  Elizabeth Wilson, _Women and the Welfare State_ , London, Tavistock, 1977; Mary McIntosh, 'The State and the Oppression of Women', in _Feminism and Materialism: Women and Modes of Production_ , ed. Annette Kuhn and AnnMarie Wolpe, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978. Some later commentators, though sympathetic to the accounts of the state provided in this writing, would suggest, I think correctly, that they diminished the intrinsically male-dominated structures, practices and discourses of the many differing sectors of the state. See S. Franzway, D. Court and R. W. Connell, _Staking a Claim: Feminism, Bureacracy and the State_ , London, Paladin, 1989.  Mich\u00e8le Barrett and Mary McIntosh, _The Anti-Social Family_ , London, Verso, 1982.  Sheila Rowbotham, _The Past Is before Us: Feminism in Action since the 1960s_ , London, Pandora, 1989.  As Jo Freeman argued, from her own personal experience, in her widely read and frequently anthologized 'The Tryanny of Structure-lessness', _The Second Wave_ , vol. 2, no. 1, 1972.  Muriel Dimen, 'In the Zone of Ambivalence: A Journal of Competition', in _In Feminist Nightmares: Women at Odds_ , ed. Susan Weisser and Jennifer Fleishner, New York, New York University Press, 1994, p. 362.  Joan Nestle, 'A Ferns Feminist History', in _Feminist Memoir Project_ , ed. DuPlessis and Snitow, p. 345.  Valerie Amos, Gail Lewis, Amina Mama and Pratibha Parmar, 'Editorial: Many Voices, One Chant: Black Feminist Perspectives, _Feminist Review_ 17, Autumn 1984.  Barbara Smith '\"Feisty Characters\" and \"Other People's Causes'\", in _Feminist Memoir Project_ , ed. DuPlessis and Snitow, p. 481.  Vivian Gornick, 'What Feminism Means to Me', in ibid., p. 374.  Ellen Willis, 'My Memoir Problem', in ibid., p. 483.  Melissa Benn, 'Women and Democracy: Thoughts on the Last Ten Years', _Women: A Cultural Review_ , vol. 4, no. 3, 1993, p. 237.  Rowbotham, _Threads Through Time_ , p. 4.  Alix Kates Shulman, 'A Marriage Disagreement, or Marriage by Other Means', in _Feminist Memoir Project_ , ed. DuPlessis and Snitow, p. 291.  Arlie Russell Hochschild, _The Second Shift_ , New York, Viking, 1989; _The Time Bind: When Work Becomes Home and Home Becomes Work_ , New York, Henry Holt\/Metropolitan Books, 1997.  Lynne Segal, _Is the Future Female?: Troubled Thoughts on Contemporary Feminism_, London, Virago, 1987.  Catharine MacKinnon, _Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law_ , London, Harvard University Press, 1987, p. 149.  Ann Snitow, 'Retrenchment vs. Transformation: The Politics of the Antipornography Movement', ed. K. Ellis et al., in _Caught Looking: Feminism Pornography and Censorship_ , New York, Caught Looking, Inc., 1986.  Lisa Duggan and Nan Hunter, _Sex Wars: Sexual Dissent and Political Culture_ , London, Routledge, 1995.  'I do not consider my work to be \"postmodern\"', Butler writes, in _Feminist Contentions_ , ed. Benhabib et al., p. 133.  H\u00e9l\u00e8ne Cixous, 'The Laugh of the Medusa', in _New French Feminism_ , ed. E. Marks and I. de Courtivron, New York, Schoken Books, 1981, p. 256.  Cixous, ibid.; Luce Irigaray, _This Sex which Is Not One_ , Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press, 1985, p. 32.  See, for example, Laura Kipnis, 'Looks Good on Paper: Marxism and Feminism in a Postmodern World', in _Ecstasy Unlimited: On Sex, Capital, Gender, and Aesthetics_ , Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1993.  Lynne Segal, 'Whose Left? Socialism, Feminism and the Future', _New Left Review_ , no. 185, Jan.-Feb. 1991.  For imaginative political appropriations of 'French feminism' see, for example, Drucilla Cornell, _Beyond Accommodation: Ethical Feminism, Deconstruction and the Law_ , London, Routledge, 1991; Moira Gatens, _Imaginary Bodies: Ethics, Power and Corporeality_ , London, Routledge, 1996.  Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, 'French Feminism in an International Frame', _Yale French Studies_ , vol. 62, 1981, pp. 154\u201384; reprinted in Spivak, _In Other Worlds_ , London, Routledge, 1988; Barbara Christian, 'The Race for Theory', in _Gender and Theory: Dialogues on Feminist Criticism_ , ed. Linda Kauffman, Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1989; Deborah McDowell, 'The \"Practice\" of \"Theory\", in _Feminism Beside Itself_ , ed. Elam and Weigman.  See, for example, Alice Jardine, 'Men in Feminism: Odor di Uomo or Compagnons de Route?', in _Men in Feminism_ , ed. Alice Jardine and Paul Smith, London, Methuen, 1987, p. 58.  Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, _Outside in the Teaching Machine_ , London, Routledge, 1993, p. 4.  See, for example, Denise Riley, _Am I That Name?: Feminism and the Subject of 'Women' in History_ , London, Macmillan, 1988.  Donna Haraway, 'A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s', in _Feminism\/Postmodernism_ , ed. L. Nicholson, London, Routledge, 1990, pp. 197, 215.  Ibid., p. 215.  Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, 'Remembering the Limits: Difference, Identity and Practice', in _Socialism and the Limits of Liberalism_ , ed. Peter Osborne, London, Verso, 1991, p. 229; emphasis in original.  Judith Butler, _Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity_ , London, Routledge, 1990, p. 33. For critiques see Amanda Anderson, 'Debatable Performances: Restaging Contentious Feminisms', _Social Text_ , 54, vol. 16, no. 1, Spring, 1998; Tania Modleski, _Feminism without Women: Culture and Criticism in a \"Postfeminist\" Age_ , London, Routledge, 1991.  Butler, in _Feminist Contentions_ , ed. Benhabib et al., p. 131; See also Butler, _Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex_ , London, Routledge, 1993, p. 231; see also Peter Osborne and Lynne Segal, 'Gender as Performance: An Interview with Judith Butler', _Radical Philosophy_ , 67, Summer, 1994; reprinted in _A Critical Sense: Interviews with Intellectuals_ , ed. Osborne, London, Routledge, 1996.  See, for example, Gregor McLennan, 'Feminism, Epistemology and Postmodernism: Reflections on Current Ambivalence', _Sociology_ , vol. 29, no. 3, August 1995, pp. 391\u2013401.  See, for example, Nancy Fraser, 'From Redistribution to Recognition? Dilemmas of Justice in a \"Post-Socialist\" Age', _New Left Review_ , no. 212, July-August, 1995. For a discussion and critique of Fraser, see Judith Butler, 'Merely Cultural', _Social Text_ , vol. 15, nos 3\u20134, Fall\u2013Winter, 1997.  Terry Eagleton, _The Illusions of Postmodernism_ , Oxford, Blackwell, 1996, p. 22.  Anne Phillips, _Democracy and Difference_ , Cambridge, Polity Press, 1993, p. 7.  See Sheila Rowbotham, _Women in Movement: Feminism and Social Action_ , London, Routledge, 1992, pp. 8\u201315.  See Julie Peters and Andrea Wolper, eds, _Women's Rights Human Rights: International Feminist Perspectives_ , London, Routledge, 1995.  See Suzanne Gibson, 'On Sex, Horror and Human Rights', _Women: A Cultural Review_ , vol. 4, no. 3. Winter, 1993, Laura Flanders, 'Hard Cases and Human Rights: C. MacKinnon in the City of Freud', _The Nation_ , 9\u201316 August 1993, pp. 174\u20137. For a stimulating commentary on the challenge of human rights internationalism to the recent philosophical embrace of a 'politics of difference', see Bruce Robbins, 'Sad Stories in the International Public Sphere: Richard Rorty on Culture and Human Rights', _Public Culture_ , vol. 9, no. 2, Winter, 1997.  Rosemary Pringle and Sophie Watson, '\"Women's Interests\" and the Post-Structuralist State' in _Destabilizing Theory_ , ed. Barrett and Phillips, p. 65.  Jonathan R\u00e9e, quoted in Francis Mulhern, _The Present Lasts a Long Time: Essays in Cultural Politics_, Cork, Cork University Press, 1998, p. 5.\n\n### Chapter 2 Gender to Queer, and Back Again\n\n According to the feminist historian Joan Wallach Scott, _Gender and the Politics of History_ , New York, Columbia University Press, 1988, p. 29.  Simone de Beauvoir, _The Second Sex_ [1949], New York, Vintage Press, 1973, p. 301.  Ann Oakley, _Sex, Gender and Society_ , London, Temple Smith, 1972, p. 170.  Jane Chetwynd and Oonagh Hartnett, _The Sex Role System: Psychological and Sociological Perspectives_ , London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978.  Vivian Gornick and Barbara K. Moran, 'Introduction', in _Women in Sexist Society: Studies in Power and Powerlessness_ , ed. Gornick and Moran, New York, Basic Books, 1971, p. xxiv.  Sandra L. Bern, 'The Measurement of Psychological Androgyny', _Journal of Clinical Consulting Psychology_ , vol. 42, 1974; Bern, 'Sex Role Adaptability: One Consequence of Psychological Androgyny', _Journal of Personality and Social Psychology_ , vol. 31, no. 4, 1975.  Sandra L. Bern, 'Gender Schema Theory: A Cognitive Account of Sex Typing', _Psychological Review_ , vol. 88, no. 4, 1981, pp. 354\u201364; Susanne Kessler and Wendy McKenna, _Gender: An Ethnomethodological Approach_ , New York, Wiley, 1978.  Gayle Rubin, 'The Traffic in Women: Notes on the \"Political Economy\" of Sex', in _Towards an Anthropology of Women_ , ed. R. Reiter, New York, Monthly Review Press, 1975.  Beauvoir, _The Second Sex_ , p. 16.  Monique Wittig, 'The Mask of Gender', in _The Poetics of Gender_ , ed. Nancy K. Miller, New York, Columbia University Press, 1986, p. 66.  Elaine Showalter, 'Introduction: The Rise of Gender', in _Speaking of Gender_ , ed. E. Showalter, London, Routledge, 1989, p. 1.  Robert Stoller, _Sex and Gender_ , London, Hogarth Press, 1968.  See Susan Coates and Kenneth Zucker, 'Gender Identity Disorder in Children', in _Clinical Assessment of Children: A Biosocial Approach_ , ed. C. J. Kestenbaum and D. T. Williams, New York, New York University Press, 1988.  Joan Wallach Scott, 'Is Gender a Useful Category of Historical Analysis', in Scott, _Gender and Politics._  Jane Flax, _Disputed Subjects: Essays on Psychoanalysis, Politics and Philosophy_ , London, Routledge, 1993, p. 23.  R. W. Connell, _Gender and Power_ , Cambridge, Polity Press, 1987.  Ann Snitow, 'Feminism and Motherhood: An American Reading', _Feminist Review_ , no. 40, Spring, 1992, pp. 32\u201351.  Shulamith Firestone, _The Dialect of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution_ , New York, Morrow, 1970.  See Sheila Rowbotham, _The Past Is before Us: Feminism in Action since the 1960s_ , London, Pandora, 1989, esp. chapters 2 and 7.  Jane Alpert, 'Mother Right: A New Feminist Theory', _Ms._ , August 1973, pp. 52\u20135.  Adrienne Rich, _Of Women Born_ , London, Virago, 1977, p. 285.  Adrienne Rich, 'Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence', _Signs_ , vol. 5, no. 4, Summer, 1980.  Nancy Chodorow, _The Reproduction of Mothering: Psychoanalysis and the Sociology of Gender_ , Berkeley, University of California Press, 1978.  Jane Flax, 'Theorizing Motherhood', _Women's Review of Books_ , vol. 1, no. 9, 1984, p. 13.  Carol Gilligan, _In a Different Voice_ , London, Harvard University Press, 1982; Mary Belenky et al., _Women's Ways of Knowing: The Development of Self, Voice and Mind_ , New York, Basic Books, 1986.  Catharine MacKinnon, _Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law_ , Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1987, p. 3.  Ibid., pp. 219, 61.  Germaine Greer, _The Whole Woman_ , London, Transworld, 1999.  Sylvia Ann Hewlett, _A Lesser Life: The Myth of Women's Liberation in America_ , New York, William Morrow, 1986.  Audre Lorde, 'An Open Letter to Mary Daly', in _This Bridge Called my Back: Writings by Radical Women of Color_ , ed. C. Moraga and G. Anzaldua, Watertown, Mass., Persephone Press, 1981, p. 95; Alice Walker, 'One Child of One's Own: A Meaningful Digression within the Works', in _The Writer on her Work_ , ed. J. Sterburg, New York, W. W. Norton, 1980, p. 136.  Barbara Smith, 'Racism and Women's Studies', in _All the Women are White, All the Blacks are Men, But some of Us are Brave_ , ed. G. Hull, P. B. Scott and B. Smith, New York, Feminist Press, 1982, p. 49.  Gloria Anzaldua, _Borderlands\/La Frontera: The New Mestiza_ , San Francisco, Spinsters\/Aunt Lute, 1987.  Valerie Amos and Pratibha Parma, 'Challenging Imperial Feminism', _Feminist Review_ , no. 17, July 1984, p. 4.  Chandra Mohanty, 'Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses', in _Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism_ , ed. C. Mohanty, A. Russo and L. Torres, Bloomington, University of Indiana Press, 1991, pp. 51\u201380.  This equation occurs in the preface of a collection in which Chandra Mohanty worries that the post-modern critique of identity can mean the dissolution of the category of race, at the expense of a recognition of racism, while attention to differences can mean 'the generation of discourses of diversity and pluralism which are grounded in an apolitical, often individualized identity polities'. Mich\u00e8lle Barrett and Anne Phillips, 'Preface and Acknowledgements', _Destabilizing Theory: Contemporary Feminist Debates_ , Cambridge, Polity Press, 1992, p. viii; Chandra Talpole Mohanty, 'Feminist Encounters: Locating the Politics of Experience', in ibid., p. 75.  Joseph Bristow and Angela Wilson, 'Introduction', in _Activating Theory: Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual Politics_ , ed. Bristow and Wilson, London, Lawrence & Wishart, 1993, p. 2.  Jacques Derrida, _Writing and Difference_ , London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978.  Jacques Lacan, 'God and the _Jouissance_ of Woman: A Love Letter', as translated and reprinted in _Feminine Sexuality: Jacques Lacan and the Ecole Freudienne_ , ed. J. Mitchell and J. Rose, London, Macmillan, 1982, pp. 137\u201360.  Jacqueline Rose, 'Femininity and its Discontents', _Sexuality in the Field of Vision_ , London, Verso, 1986, p. 91.  Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, 'French Feminism in an International Frame', _Yale French Studies_ , vol. 62, 1981, pp. 154\u201384; reprinted in In _Other Worlds_ , London, Routledge, 1987.  Mary Jacobus, 'Freud's Mnemonic: Women Screen Memories, and Feminist Nostalgia', _Michigan Quarterly Review_ , vol. 26, no. 1, 1987, p. 118.  Drucilla Cornell, 'Rethinking the Time of Feminism', in _Feminist Contentions: A Philosophical Exchange_ , ed. Seyla Benhabib et al., London, Routledge, 1995, p.147.  Rita Felski, 'The Doxa of Difference', _Signs_ , vol. 23, no. 1, Autumn, 1997.  Ibid., p. 6.  Channel 4, 'Voices', 3 May 1984, cited in Ann Rosalind Jones, 'Julia Kristeva on Femininity: The Limits of Semiotic Polities', _Feminist Review_ , no. 18, Nov. 1984, p. 56.  Luce Irigaray, from _Je, tu, nous_ , cited in Toril Moi, _Simone de Beauvoir: The Maling of an Intellectual Woman_ , Oxford, Blackwell, 1994, p. 183.  Lynne Segal, _Slow Motion: Changing Masculinities, Changing Men_ , London, Virago, 1990, 1997. My examination of men and masculinity is grounded in this type of analysis.  Rosi Braidotti, with Judith Butler (interview), 'Feminism by any Other Name', _Differences_ , vol. 6, nos 2\u20133, Summer-Fall, 1994, pp. 47, 51, 54.  See Linda Alcoff, 'Cultural Feminism versus Post-Structuralism: The Identity Crisis in Feminist Theory', _Signs_ , vol. 13, no. 3, Spring, 1988.  Ann Snitow, 'A Gender Diary', in _Conflicts in Feminism_ , ed. M. Hirsch and E. Fox Keller, London, Routledge, 1990, p. 19.  Ibid., pp. 9, 36.  Denise Riley, _Am I that Name?: Feminism and the Category of 'Women' in History_ , London, Macmillan, 1988, p. 5.  As in Felski's conclusion to 'The Doxa of Difference', p. 19.  Gayle Rubin, 'Thinking Sex: Notes for a Radical Theory of the Politics of Sexuality', in _Pleasure and Danger: Exploring Female Sexuality_ , ed. C. Vance, London, Routledge, 1984.  Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, _Epistemology in the Closet_ , Berkeley, University of California Press, 1991, p. 34.  Henry Abelove, Michele Barale and David Halperin, _Lesbian and Gay Studies Reader_ , London, Routledge, 1993, p. xv.  Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, _Tendencies_ , London, Routledge, 1994, p. 8.  Ken Plummer, 'Speaking its Name', in _Modern Homosexualities: Fragments of Lesbian and Gay Experience_ , ed. Ken Plummer, London, Routledge, 1992, p. 3.  For example, see _Inside Out\/Outside In: Lesbian Theories, Gay Theories_ , ed. Diana Fuss, London, Routledge, 1992.  Michel Foucault, _The History of Sexuality_ , vol. 1, London, Allen Lane, 1979, p. 70.  Judith Butler, _Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity_ , London, Routledge, 1990.  Ibid., p. 33.  Monique Wittig, _The Straight Mind_ , London, Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1992.  Butler, _Gender Trouble_ , p. 31.  Ibid., p. 136.  See Peter Osborne and Lynne Segal, 'Gender as Performance: An Interview with Judith Butler', _Radical Philosophy_ , vol. 67, Summer, 1994; reprinted in _A Critical Sense: Interviews with Intellectuals_ , ed. Osborne, London, Routledge, 1996. Butler criticizes the idea that one can voluntaristically construct and deconstruct identities via transgressive performance in her next book, _Bodies that Matter: The Discursive Limits of Sex_ , London, Routledge, 1993.  See Segal, _Straight Sex_ , chapters 2 and 6; see also _Pleasure and Danger_ , ed. Vance.  See Ti-Grace Atkinson, _Amazon Odyssey: Collection of Writings_ , New York, Links Books, 1974.  Cindy Patton, 'Stonewall is a State of Mind', _Z Magazine_ , Nov. 1989, p. 106.  Quoted in Osborne and Segal, _Critical Sense_ , p. 34.  Joan Nestle, _A Restricted Country_ , Ithaca, NY, Fireband Press, 1987.  Baukje Prins, 'How Bodies Come to Matter: An Interview with Judith Butler', _Signs_ , vol. 23, no. 2, 1998, p. 277.  Michael Warner, 'Introduction', in _Fear of a Queer Planet: Queer Politics and Social Theory_ , ed. Warner, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1993, p. xxvi.  See Susan Bordo, _Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture and the Body_ , Berkeley, University of California Press, 1993; Kathy Davis, ed., _Embodied Practices: Feminist Perspectives on the Body_ , London, Sage, 1997.  Kate Bornstein, _Gender Outlaw: On Men, Women, and the Rest of Us_ , London, Routledge, 1994, p. 118.  Kate Bornstein, 'Transsexual Lesbian Playwright Tells All!', in _High Risk_ , ed. Amy Scholder and Ira Silverberg, London, Serpent's Tail, 1991, p. 261.  Anne Bolin, 'Transcending and Transgendering: Male-to-Female Transsexuals, Dichotomy and Diversity', in _Third Sex, Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History_ , ed. Gilbert Herdt, New York, Zone Books, 1994, pp. 447\u201386.  Mari Jo Buhle, _Feminism and its Discontents: A Century of Struggle with Psychoanalysis_ , Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1988, p. 349.  Judith Halberstam, 'Mackdaddy, Superfly, Rapper: Gender, Race and Masculinity in the Drag King Scene', _Social Text_ , 52\/3, vol. 15, nos 3\u20134, Fall\/Winter, 1997.  As Marjorie Garber, for instance, so skilfully depicts in her book _Vested Interests: Cross Dressing and Cultural Anxiety_ , London, Routledge, 1992.  Segal, _Straight Sex_ , chapter 5.  Mandy Merck, 'Figuring Out Andy Warhol', in _Pop Out: Queer Warhol_ , ed. Jennifer Doyle et al., London and Durham, NC, Duke University Press, 1996, p. 234.  Roger Lancaster, 'Transgenderism in Latin America: Some Critical Introductory Remarks on Identities and Practices', _Sexualities_ , vol. 1, no. 3, 1998, p. 263.  Marlon Riggs, 1992, quoted in Suzanna Walters, 'From Here to Queer: Radical Feminism, Postmodernism, and the Lesbian Menace (or, Why Can't a Woman Be More Like a Fag?)', _Signs_ , vol. 21, no. 4, Summer, 1996, p. 843.  In Osborne and Segal, _Critical Sense_ , p. 111.  Judith Butler, 'Afterword', _Sexualities_ , vol. 1, no. 3, 1998, p. 359.  Lancaster, 'Transgenderism', p. 266.  Arthur Kroker and Marilouise Kroker, 'Introduction', _The Last Sex: Feminism and Outlaw Bodies_ , ed. Kroker and Kroker, New York, St Martin's Press, 1993, p. 15. See also Halberstam, 'Mackdaddy'.  See Garber, _Vested Interests_ , p. 98. For the fullest illustration of queer theorists lining up on different sides of this debate, see Jay Prosser, _Second Skins: The Body Narratives of Transsexuality_ , New York, Columbia University Press, 1998, pp. 6\u201317.  Prosser, _Second Skins_ , p. 11.  Decca Aitkenhead, 'A Life More Ordinary', _The Guardian 2, 27_ August 1998, p. 3.  The research being quoted here, by Aitkenhead (ibid.), comes from Dick Swaab (at the Netherlands Institute for Brain Research in Amsterdam), who dissected the brains in autopsies of six transsexuals, reporting that in a tiny section of the hypothalamus no bigger than a pinhead, the BSTc, the size of the dead transsexual tissue was slightly smaller than that of an average woman and definitely smaller than that of an average man. Dick F. Swaab et al., 'Sexual Differentiation of the Human Hypothalamus: Differences according to Sex, Sexual Orientation, and Transsexuality', in _Sexual Orientation: Towards Biological Understanding_ , ed. Lee Ellis and Linda Ebertz, Westport, Conn., Praeger, 1997. Were one less in tune with the ideological underpinning of all this (biology alone holds the key to all things), one would certainly wonder at the bizarre leap to a causal explanation of transsexuality from this particular correlation, especially knowing the enormous levels of oestrogen hormones consumed by transsexuals, the levels of stress in their lives, and so on. For a report on this research see Kathleen Hayden, 'Researchers Discover a Biological Basis for Transsexuality', _Time Magazine_ , Vol. 146, November 1995, no. 20.  Alan Sinfield, _Gay and After_ , London, Serpent's Tail, 1998, p. 163.  Adam Phillips, On _Flirtation_ , London, Faber & Faber, 1994, p. 124.  Sukie la Croix, quoted in Jonathan Dollamore, 'Bisexuality', in _Lesbian and Gay Studies: A Critical Introduction_ , ed. Andy Medhurst and Sally Munt, London, Cassell, 1997, p. 252.  Prosser, _Second Skins_ , pp. 11\u201312. For another interesting analysis of the politics of transgenderism and the dilemmas of transsexuality, see Pat Califia, _Sex Changes: The Politics of Transgenderism_ , San Francisco, Cleis Press, 1997.  Jean Baudrillard, 'Transpolitics, Transexuality, Transaesthetics', in _The Disappearance of Art and Politics_ , ed. W. Stearns and W. Chaloupka, New York, St Martin's Press, 1992, pp. 20\u20132. (I thank Mandy Merck for drawing my attention to this particular text.)  Simon Watney, 'Lesbian and Gay Studies in the Age of AIDS', in _Lesbian and Gay Studies_ , ed. Medhurst and Munt, p. 369.  Ibid., p. 381.  Dennis Altman, 'The Uses and Abuses of Queer Studies', in _Gay and Lesbian Perspectives IV: Studies in Australian Culture_ , ed. Robert Aldrich and Garry Wotherspoon, Australian Centre for Lesbian and Gay Research, University of Sydney, 1998, p. 17.  Suzanna Walters, 'From Here to Queer', p. 856.  Barbara Smith, quoted in Walters, ibid., p. 864.  Elizabeth Wilson, 'Is Transgression Transgressive', in _Activating Theory_ , ed. Bristow and Wilson, p. 116; see also R. W. Connell, 'Bodies, Intellectuals and World Society', Plenary address to the British Sociological Association Annual Conference _Making Sense of the Body: Theory, Research and Practice_ , Edinburgh, April 1998 (publication forthcoming).  Sinfield, _Gay and After_ , p. 198.  Virginia Goldner, 'Towards a Critical Relational Theory of Gender', _Psychoanalytic Dialogues_ , vol. 1, no. 3, 1991, p. 251.  Ibid., p. 268.  Butler, in Osborne and Segal, _Critical Sense_ , p. 113.  Connell, 'Bodies'; emphasis added.  Muriel Dimen, 'Deconstructing Difference: Gender, Splitting, and Transitional Space, _Psychoanalytic Dialogues_ , vol. 1, no. 3, 1991, p. 349.  Martha Nussbaum writes that the economist Amartya Sen always began his economics courses by referring to these 100 million 'missing women' in her article, 'Through the Prism of Gender: How New Scholarship about Women's Lives is Changing our Understanding of the Past \u2013 and the Present', _Times Literary Supplement_ , 20 March 1998, p. 3.  Jacqueline Zita, _Body Talk: Philosophical Reflections on Sex and Gender_ , New York, Columbia University Press, 1998, p. 108.  Gayle Rubin with Judith Butler, 'Sexual Traffic', _More Gender Trouble: Feminism Meets Queer Theory_ , special issue of _Differences_ , vol. 6, nos 2\u20133, 1994, p. 97.  This is Butler's primary theme in her essay 'Against Proper Objects', _Differences_ , vol. 6, nos 2\u20133, 1994.  Rubin, 'Sexual Traffic', p. 97.  See Debra Haffner, 'What's Wrong With Abstinence-Only Sexuality Education Programs', _Siecus Reports_ , vol. 25, no. 4, April-May 1997.  Suan Flinn, 'The Clinton Administration's Adolescent Pregnancy Prevention Program: Ignorance Does Not Equal Abstinence', _Siecus Report_ , vol. 25, no. 4, April-May 1997, p. 18.  Martin Bright, 'UK Eyes Dutch Sex Lessons', _The Observer_ , 21 February 1999, p. 12.  Reported in the excellent overview by Judith Levine, 'How we're Hurting Children by Protecting them for Sex', in Levine, _Harmful to Minors_ , forthcoming.  Ibid.  Bright, 'Dutch Sex Lessons', p. 21.  Many of these have been scripted by women, for example, the many television dramas in the manner of Nanette Newman's _Bouquet of Barbed Wire._  Kessler estimates that between 1 and 2 per cent of infants at birth could be characterized as 'intersexed', in Suzanne Kessler, _Lessons from the Intersexed_ , New Brunswick, NJ, Rutgers University Press, 1998, p. 135. These include females with a large clitoris, fused labia or diminutive vaginas; males with a micropenis, unusual urethral opening; individuals with aberrant genitals, gonads or chromosomes from either sex, insofar as they can be assigned a sex.  Ken Plummer, 'Introduction', in _Modern Homosexualities_ , ed. Plummer, pp. 14\u201315.  John Gagnon, 'Commentary on \"Towards a Critical Relational Theory of Gender\" ', _Psychoanalytic Dialogues_ , vol. 1, no. 3, 1991, p. 274.  Biddy Martin, 'Extraordinary Homosexuals and the Fear of Being Ordinary', _Differences_ , vol. 6, nos 2\u20133, Summer-Fall, 1994, p. 103.\n\n### Chapter 3 Genes and Gender: The Return to Darwin\n\n Robert Wright, 'Feminists Meet Mr. Darwin', _New Republic_ , 28 November 1994, pp. 34\u20136.  Andrew Ross, _The Chicago Gangster Theory of Life: Nature's Debt to Society_ , London, Verso, 1994, p. 15.  Roland Barthes, _Mythologies_ [1957], London, Paladin, 1973.  Richard Dawkins, _Unweaving the Rainbow_ , London, Penguin, 1998, p. 29.  Ross, _Chicago Gangster_ , for one.  In Colin Hughes, 'The Guardian Profile, Richard Dawkins: The Man who Knows the Meaning of Life', _The Guardian: Saturday Review_ , 3 October 1998, p. 6.  _Matters of Life and Death: Demos Quarterly_ , no. 10, London, Demos Publications, 1996.  A latter-day Leavisite would, however, perhaps feel driven to cross sides and join forces with his old enemy, who at least retains some categorical faith in universal truths. C. P. Snow, _The Two Cultures_ , [1962], reprinted Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993.  See Daniel Kevles, _In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity_ , New York, Alfred Knopf, 1985; Hilary Rose, 'Moving on from both State and Consumer Eugenics?, in _Nature at the Millennium_ , ed. Noel Castree and Bruce Willis, London, Routledge, 1998.  Anne Fausto-Sterling, 'Sex and the Single Brain', in Fausto-Sterling, _Myths of Gender: Biological Theories about Women and Men_ , rev. edn, New York, Basic Books, 1992, p. 179.  Charles Darwin, _The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection_ [1859]; Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1968, p. 460.  Ibid., p. 435, where Darwin recapitulates the arguments of his book. See also Stephen Jay Gould, _Life's Grandeur: The Spread of Excellence from Plato to Darwin_ , London, Jonathan Cape, 1996, p. 137.  Karl Marx, 'Introduction', _Grundrisse_ [1857], trans. Martin Nicolaus, Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1973, p. 105.  Quoted in Steve Jones, _New York Review of Books_ , 6 Nov. 1997, p. 13.  Darwin, _Origin of Species_ , pp. 130\u20135.  Ibid., p. 136.  R. Dawkins and J. R. Krebs, 'Arms Races between and within Species', _Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Bulletin_ , vol. 295, 1979, pp. 489\u2013511.  Robert Wright, 'The Dissent of Woman: What Feminists can Learn from Darwinism', in _Matters of Life and Death: Demos Quarterly_ , no. 10, 1996, p. 23, adapted from 'Feminists Meet Mr. Darwin'.  Ibid., p. 22.  Robert Wright, _The Moral Animal: Why We Are the Way We Are: The New Science of Evolutionary Psychology_ , New York, Pantheon, 1994.  Anne Fausto-Sterling, Patricia Adair Gowaty and Marlene Zuck, 'Review Essay: Evolutionary Psychology and Darwinian Feminism', _Feminist Studies_ , vol. 23, no. 2, Summer, 1997, pp. 403\u201317, (404).  E. O. Wilson, _Sociobiology: The New Synthesis_ , Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1975; Richard Dawkins, _The Selfish Gene_ , Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1976, David Barash, _The Whisperings Within: Evolution and the Origins of Human Nature_ , New York, Harper & Row, 1979; Donald Symons, _The Evolution of Human Sexuality_ , New York, Oxford University Press, 1979.  Quoted in Dorothy Nelkin, 'The Social Power of Genetic Information', in _The Code of Codes: Scientific and Social Issues in the Human Genome Project_ , ed. D. Kevles and L. Hood, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1992, p. 181.  Robert Trivers, 'Parent-Offspring Conflict', _American Zoologist_ , no. 14, 1974, p. 249.  Dawkins, _Selfish Gene_ , pp. 153, 162; emphasis added.  E. O. Wilson, _On Human Nature_ , Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1978, pp. 552, 553.  Randy Thornhill and N. Thornhill, 'Human Rape: An Evolutionary Analysis', _Ethology and Sociobiology_ , vol. 4, 1983, p. 141; see also Thornhill et al., 'The Biology of Rape', in _Rape_ , ed. S. Tomaselli and R. Porter, Oxford, Blackwell, 1986.  Barash, _Whisperings_ , p. 54.  Symons, _Human Sexuality_ , p. 285.  M. Sahlins, _The Use and Abuse of Biology_ , London, Tavistock, 1977; Ashley Montague, ed., _Sociobiology Examined_ , Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1980; Dialectics of Biology Group, ed., _Against Biological Determinism_ , London, Alison & Busby, 1982; Dialectics of Biology Group, ed., _Towards a Liberatory Biology_ , London, Alison & Busby, 1982; Ruth Hubbard et al., eds, _Biological Woman: The Convenient Myth_ , Boston, Shenkman, 1982; R. C. Lewontin, Steven Rose and Leon Kamin, eds, _Not in Our Genes_ , Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1984; Lynda Birke and Jonathan Silverton, eds, _More than the Parts: Biology and Politics_ , London, Pluto Press, 1984; Ruth Bleier, _Science and Gender: A Critique of Biology and its Views of Women_ , Oxford, Pergamon, 1984.  Ross, _Chicago Gangster_ , p. 239.  See Rose, 'State and Consumer Eugenics?'; Daniel Kevles, 'Out of Eugenics: The Historical Politics of the Human Genome', in Kevles and Hood, _Human Genome Project_ , pp. 18\u201336.  John Archer, 'Sex Differences in Social Behavior: Are the Social Role and Evolutionary Explanations Compatible?', _American Psychologist_ , vol. 51, no. 9, Sept. 1996, pp. 909\u201317, (909, 914).  John Tooby and Leda Cosmides, 'The Psychological Foundations of Culture', in _The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture_ , ed. Jerome Barkow, Leda Cosmides, and John Tooby, New York, Oxford University Pess, 1992, p. 49; David Buss, 'Evolutionary Psychology: A New Paradigm for Social Science', _Psychological Inquiry_ , vol. 6, 1995, pp. 1\u201330.  Martin Daly and Margo Wilson, 'Homicidal Tendencies', in _Matters of Life and Death: Demos_ , no. 10, 1996, p. 44.  Reported in Henry Plotkin, _Evolution in Mind: An Introduction to Evolutionary Psychology_ , London, Penguin, 1997, p. 265.  Leda Cosmides, 'The Logic of Social Exchange: Has Natural Selection Shaped how Humans Reason?', _Cognition_ , vol. 31, 1989, pp. 187\u2013276; Barkow, Cosmides and Tooby, eds, _Adapted Mind;_ Buss, 'Evolutionary Psychology'; Steven Pinker, _How the Mind Works_ , London, Penguin, 1997.  Archer, 'Sex Differences', p. 916.  David Buss et al., 'Apatations, Exaptions, and Spandrels', _American Psychologist_ , vol. 53, no. 5, 1998, pp. 533\u201348 (535).  Ibid., p. 544.  David Buss, _The Evolution of Desire: Strategies of Human Mating_ , London, Harper Collins, 1994.  See Donald Symons and B. Ellis, 'Human Male-Female Differences in Sexual Desire', in _The Sociobiology of Sexual and Reproductive Strategies_ , ed. A. S. Rasa et al., New York, Oxford University Press, 1989, pp. 131\u201346. For a Darwinian account of male violence, see Martin Daly and Margo Wilson, _Homicide_ , New York, Aldine de Gruyter, 1988; David Buss, 'From Vigilance to Violences: Tactics of Mate Retention among American Undergraduates', _Ethology and Sociobiology_ , vol. 9, 1988, pp. 291\u2013317.  D. F. Einon, 'How Many Children Can One Man Have?, _Evolution and Human Behavior_ , vol. 19, 1998, pp. 413\u201326.  Daly and Wilson, _Homicide._  _Why Mothers Die: The Confidential Enquiry into Maternal Deaths_ , London, HMSO, Nov. 1998; reported in Sarah Boseley, 'Abuse Risk Higher during Pregnancy', _The Guardian_ , 24 Nov. 1998, p. 7.  H. Looren de Jong and W. J. Van Der Steen, 'Biological Thinking in Evolutionary Psychology: Rockbottom or Quicksand?', _Philosophical Psychology_ , vol. 11, no. 2, 1998, p. 196.  Noam Chomsky, _Powers and Prospects: Reflections on Human Nature and the Social Order_ , London, Pluto Press, 1996, p. 15.  Steve Jones, 'The Set Within the Skull: How the Mind Works', by Steven Pinker, _New York Review of Books_ , 6 November 1997, p. 14.  _Anatomy of Desire: Repression_ , Channel 4, 23 Nov. 1998, 10 p.m.  Leslie Zebrowitz, _Reading Faces: Window to the Soul_ , New York, Westview Press, 1997. I am grateful to Mandy Merck for drawing my attention to this research.  Tooby and Cosmides, in _Adapted Mind_ , p. 207.  Douglas Kenrick and Melanie Trost, 'The Evolutionary Perspective', in _The Psychology of Gender_ , ed. A. Beall and R. Sternberg, New York, Guilford Press, 1993, p. 150.  William Simon, _Postmodern Sexualities_ , London, Routledge, 1996; E. O. Lauman et al., _The Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States_ , Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1994.  Kenrick and Trost, 'Evolutionary Perspective', p. 164; emphasis added in first quotation.  Richard Lewontin, _Biology as Ideology: The Doctrine of DNA_ , London, Penguin, 1991, p. 121.  Linda Fedigan, _Primate Paradigms: Sex Roles and Social Bonds_ , Montreal, Eden Press, 1982.  Sarah Blaffer Hrdy, _The Woman that Never Evolved_ , Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1981.  Meredith Small, _Female Choices: The Sexual Behavior of Female Primates_ , Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press, 1993; _What's Love Got to Do with It?_ , New York, Anchor Books, 1995.  Jane Goodall, _The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior_ , Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1986; Barbara Smuts, 'The Evolutionary Origins of Patriarchy', _Human Nature_ , vol. 6, 1995, pp. 1\u201332.  Barbara Smuts, 'Gender, Aggression and Influence', in _Primate Societies_ , ed. Smuts et al., Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1987.  Frans de Waal, _Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals_ , Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1997; R. Wrangham and D. Peterson, _Demonic Males, Apes and the Origins of Human Violence_ , Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1996.  Louise B. Silverstein, 'New Directions for Evolutionary Psychology', _Feminism and Psychology_ , vol. 8, no. 3, 1998, p. 375.  Quoted in Fausto-Sterling et al., 'Evolutionary Psychology', p. 412.  Ruth Bleier, 'Introduction', in Bleier, _Feminist Approaches to Science_ , New York, Pergamon Press, 1986, p. 10.  Linda M. Fedigan, 'Science and the Successful Female: Why there Are so Many Women Primatologists', _American Anthropologist_ , vol. 96, 1994, pp. 529\u201340.  Richard Lee and Irven de Vore, eds, _Man the Hunter_ , Chicago, Aldine, 1968.  See Adrienne Zihlman, 'The Paleolithic Glass Ceiling', in _Women in Evolution_ , ed. Lori Hager, London, Routledge, 1997, esp. pp. 100\u20135.  Zihlman, ibid.; Linda M. Fedigan, 'Is Primatology a Feminist Science?' in _Women in Evolution_ , ed. Hager.  Fedigan, ibid., p. 67.  Susan Sperling, 'Baboons with Briefcases vs Langurs with Lipstick: Feminism and Functionalism in Primate Studies', in _The Gender Sexuality Reader_ , ed. Roger Lancaster and Micaela di Leonardo, London, Routledge, 1997, p. 256.  Dawkins, _Unweaving the Rainbow_ , p. 212.  Wright, 'Dissent of Woman', p. 19.  Iver Mysterud, 'Communicating Ideas about Humans and Evolutionary Theory', _Trends in Ecological Evolution_ , vol. 11, Feb. 1996, p. 310.  Robin Dunbar, _Grooming, Gossip and the Evolution of Language_ , London, Faber & Faber, 1996, pp. 79, 150.  Ibid., p. 184.  Ibid., p. 34; emphasis added.  Ibid., pp. 32, 143.  Pinker, _How the Mind Works_ , pp. 404, 429. For figures on perpetrators of child sexual abuse, see Jean La Fontaine, _Child Sexual Abuse_ , Cambridge, Polity Press, 1990, p. 121.  See Linda Fedigan, 'Is Primatology a Feminist Science?', in _Women in Human Evolution_ , ed. L. Hager, London, Routledge, 1997, p. 56.  Niles Eldredge, _Reinventing Darwin: The Great Debate at the High Table of Evolutionary Theory_ , New York, John Wiley, 1995; Steven Rose, _Lifelines: Biology, Freedom, Determinism_ , London, Penguin, 1997, p. 176.  Stephen Jay Gould, _New York Review of Books_ , 12 June 1997, p. 35.  Darwin, _Origin of Species_ , p. 435; N. Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould, 'Punctuated Equilibria: An Alternative to Phylogenetic Gradualism', in _Models in Paleobiology_ , ed. T. Schopf, San Francisco, Freeman, Cooper & Co., 1972.  J. B. S. Haldane, 'The Interaction of Nature and Nurture', _Annals of Eugenics_ , no. 13, 1946, pp. 197\u2013205; Julian Huxley, _Evolution: The Modern Synthesis_ , London, George Allen & Unwin, 1942.  Richard Lewontin, 'Survival of the Nicest?' _New York Review of Books_ , 22 Oct. 1998, p. 60.  Dawkins, _Unweaving the Rainbow_ , pp. 20, 22.  Rose, _Lifelines_ , p. 246.  Reported in Robert Plomin, _Genetics and Experience: The Interplay between Nature and Nurture: Individual Differences and Development Series_ , vol. 6, London, Sage, 1994, p. 14.  Gould, _Life's Grandeur_ , p. 220.  Ibid.; R. C. Lewontin, _The Doctrine of DNA: Biology as Ideology_ , London, Penguin, 1993; Robert Brandon, _Adaptation and Environment_ , Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1990.  R. C. Richardson, 'The Prospects for an Evolutionary Psychology: Human Language and Human Reasoning', _Minds and Machines_ , vol. 6, 1996, pp. 541\u201377.  Rose, _Lifelines_ , p. 245.  David Fernbach, 'Biology and Gay Identity', in _New Left Review_ , no. 228, March\u2013April 1998, p. 34.  Nelkin, in _Code of Codes_ , ed. Kevles and Hood, p. 182.  John Avise, _The Genetic Gods: Evolution and Belief in Human Affairs_ , Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1998, p. vii.  Quoted in Kevles, _Eugenics_ , p. 18.  Walter Gilbert, 'A Vision of the Grail', in _Code of Codes_ , p. 83; ed. Kevles and Hood, James Watson, 'A Personal View of the Project', in _Code of Codes_ , ed. Kevles and Hood, p. 165.  Ibid.  H. J. Eysenck, 'Emote Controls', _Times Higher Education Supplement_ , 17 May 1996, p. 24.  Heard on Greater London Radio, interview with Emma Freud, some time in 1986.  See P. McGuffin and R. Katz, 'Genes, Adversity and Depression', in _Nature, Nurture and Psychology_ , ed. R. Plomin and G. E. McClearn, Washington, DC, American Psychological Association, 1993.  See Fausto-Sterling, _Myths of Gender;_ Ruth Hubbard and Elijah Wald, _Exploding the Gene Myth_ , Boston, Beacon Press, 1993.  Watson, in _Code of Codes_ , ed. Kevles and Hood, p. 167.  James Wyngaarden, 'Reflections', in _Code of Codes_ , ed. Kevles and Hood, p. 357.  Ibid., pp. 300\u20133.  Quoted in Kevles, 'Out of Eugenics', p. 29.  Watson, in _Code of Codes_ , ed. Kevles and Hood, p. 171.  Nancy Wexler, 'Clairvoyance and Caution: Repercussions from the Human Genome Project, in _Code of Codes_ , ed. Kevles and Hood, p. 212.  Rose, _Lifelines_ , p. 116.  Lewontin, _Doctrine of DNA_ , p. 69; emphasis added.  Kevles, _Eugenics._  Ruth Hubbard and Elijah Wald, _The Ecologist_ , vol. 23, no. 5, Sept.\u2013Oct. 1993; see also Hubbard and Wald, _Exploding the Gene Myth_ , Boston, Beacon Press, 1993.  Wexler, in _Code of Codes_ , ed. Kevles and Hood, p. 243.  Daniel Koshland, 'Sequences and Consequences of the Human Genome', _Science_ , vol. 146, 1989, p. 189.  Robert Plomin, _The Guardian_ , Feb. 1996, cited in Rose, _Lifelines_ , p. 275.  Steve Jones, 'Biology and Bile', reviewing _The Double Helix: James Watson'_ in _Prospect_ , March 1997, p. 63.  Ibid., p. 62.  See Edward Yoxen, 'Constructing Genetic Disease', in _Cultural Perspectives in Biological Knowledge_ , ed. Troy Duster and Karen Garett, Norwood, NJ, Ablex, 1984, pp. 41\u201362.  Evelyn Fox Keller, 'Nature, Nurture and the Human Genome Project', in _Code of Codes_ , ed. Kevles and Hood, p. 297.  Plotkin, _Evolution in Mind_ , pp. 111, 231.  Dawkins, _Unweaving the Rainbow_ , pp. 302, 308.  Jones, 'Biology and Bile', p. 63.  Office of Technology Assessment, _Mapping Our Genes_ , quoted in Evelyn Fox Keller, 'Nature, Nurture, and the Human Genome Project', in _Code of Codes_ , ed. Kevles and Hood, p. 295.  Watson, in _Code of Codes_ , ed. Kevles and Hood, p. 167.  Hubbard and Wald, _Exploding the Gene Myth_ , p. 91.  Daniel Kevles, 'Pursuing the Unpopular: A History of Courage, Viruses, and Cancer' in _Hidden Histories of Science_ , ed. Robert Silvers, London, Granta, 1997, p. 81.  M. Baron, 'Genetic Linkage and Male Homosexual Orientation: Reasons to be Cautious', _British Medical Journal_ , vol. 307, no. 7, 1994, pp. 337\u20138; A. Fausto-Sterling and E. Balaban, 'Genetics and Male Sexual Orientation', _Science_ , vol. 261, 1994, p. 1257.  James Harrison, 'Roles, Identities and Sexual Orientation: Homosexuality, Heterosexuality, and Bisexuality', in _A New Psychology of Men_ , ed. Ronald Levant and William Pollack, New York, Basic Books, p. 375.  Dean H. Hamer et al., 'A Linkage Between DN Markers on the X Chromosome and Male Sexual Orientation', _Science_ , vol. 261, no. 5119, 6 July 1993. See also Michael Bailey and Richard Pillard, 'A Genetic Study of Male Sexual Orientation', _Archives of General Psychiatry_ , vol. 48, 1991, pp. 1089\u201396.  Susan Sperling and Yewoubdar Beyene, 'A Pound of Biology and a Pinch of Culture or a Pinch of Biology and a Pound of Culture?: The Necessity of Integrating Biology and Culture in Reproductive Studies', in _Women in Evolution_ , ed. Hager, p. 145.  John Dupr\u00e9, _The Disorder of Things_ , Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1993, p. 2.  Donna Haraway, 'A Manifesto for Cybourgs: Science, Technology and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s' in _Feminism\/Postmodernism_ , ed. Linda Nicholson, London, Routledge, 1990, p. 206.  Ibid., p. 223.  As Hilary Rose aptly summarizes, in _Nature at the Millennium_ , ed. Castree and Willis, p. 11.\n\n### Chapter 4 Psychic Life and its Scandals\n\n Steven Pinker, _How the Mind Works_ , London, Penguin, 1997, p. 563.  Quoted in Clifford Geertz, _After the Fact: Two Countries, Four Decades, One Anthropologist_ , Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1995, p. 166.  Stuart Sutherland, 'Welcome to the Doll House', _Times Higher Education Supplement_ , 16 May 1997, p. 29.  Judith Rich Harris, _The Nature Assumption: Why Children Turn Out the Way They Do_ , London, Bloomsbury, 1998.  British Psychological Society, _Recovered Memories: The Report of the Working Party of the British Psychological Society_ , Leicester, British Psychological Society, 1995, p. 29.  See John Morton, 'Cognitive Perspectives on Recovered Memories', in _Recovered Memories of Abuse: True or False?_ , ed. Joseph Sandler and Peter Fonagy, London, Karnac Books, 1997, p. 58.  Jacqueline Rose, _States of Fantasy_ , Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 144.  Frederick Crews et al., _The Memory Wars: Freud's Legacy in Dispute_ , London, Granta, 1997.  Jerome Bruner, _Acts of Meaning_ , Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1990.  Pinker, _How the Mind Works_ , 1997.  Sigmund Freud, _Interpretation of Dreams_ , Standard Edition, IV, xxv (Preface to 2nd edn, 1909), quoted in John Forrester, _Dispatches from the Freud Wars: Psychoanalysis and its Passions_ , London, Harvard University Press, 1997, pp. 166\u20137.  Laura Marcus, 'Introduction: The Interpretation of Dreams', in _Sigmund Freud's The Interpretation of Dreams: New Interdisciplinary Essays_ , ed. Marcus, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1999, p. 1.  Michael Billig, 'The Rhetoric of Social Psychology', in _Deconstructing Psychology_ , ed. I. Parker and J. Shotter, London, Routledge, 1990, p. 55.  Geertz, _After the Fact_ , p. 127.  Adam Mars-Jones, commenting upon and quoting Christopher Hibbert, in review of Christopher Hibbert, _No Ordinary Place: Radley College and the Public School, Observer Review_ , 10 August 1997, p. 18.  Mark Peel, _Land of Local Content: The Biography of Anthony Chevenix-Trench_ , Melbourne, Melbourne University Press, 1995.  Florence Rush, 'The Freudian Cover-up', _Chrysalis_ , no. 1, 1977, reprinted as _The Best Kept Secret: Sexual Abuse of Children_ , New York, MacGraw Hill, 1980.  See Valerie Sinason, ed., _Memory in Dispute_ , London, Karnac Books, 1998, p. 14.  Alice Miller, _For Your Own Good: The Roots of Violence in Child-Rearing_ , London, Virago, 1987; Alice Miller, _Thou Shalt Not Be Aware: Society's Betrayal of the Child_ , London, Pluto, 1986; Jeffrey M. Masson, _The Assault on Truth: Freud's Suppression of the Seduction Theory_ , London, Faber & Faber, 1984.  Susan Brownmiller, _Against our Will_ , Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1976, p. 130.  Some critics of Freud have disputed the absence of organic aetiology in Freud's patients; see Richard Webster, _Why Freud was Wrong: Sin, Science and Psychoanalysis_ , London, HarperCollins, 1996, pp. 76\u201386. Others feel that we tend to overlook the prevalence of hysterical symptoms at both the personal and the cultural level; see Elaine Showalter, _Hystories: An Inquiry into a Feminist Auto Da Fe_ , London, Picador, 1997.  For the fullest elaboration of this point see J. Schimek, 'Fact and Fantasy in the Seduction Theory: A Historical Review', _Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association_ , vol. 35, 1987, pp. 937\u201365.  Sigmund Freud, _The aetiology of hysteria_ [1953], Standard Edition, 111, p. 204.  Sigmund Freud, _An Autobiographical Study_ [1925], Standard Edition, XX, 1953, p. 33.  Sigmund Freud, _Female Sexuality_ [1931] in Pelican Freud Library, vol. 7; _On Sexuality_ , Harmondsworth, Penguin. 1977, p. 379.  J. Laplanche and J. -B. Pontalis 'Scene of Seduction; Theory of Seduction', in _The Language of Psychoanalysis_ , pp. 404\u20138.  Sigmund Freud, Lecture 23, in _Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis_ [1916], Pelican Freud Library, vol. 1, Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1977, p. 418.  Jeffrey Masson, 'The Tyranny of Psychotherapy', in _Psychotherapy and its Discontents_ , ed. W. Dryden, A. Feltham and A. Samuels, Milton Keynes, Open University Press, 1992, p. 16; emphasis added.  Ibid., p. 22.  Judith Lewis Herman, _Trauma and Recovery_ , New York, Basic Books, 1992, p. 202.  Lacan 1988, quoted in Ruth Leys, 'Traumatic Cures: Shell Shock, Janet, and the Question of Memory' in _Tense Past: Cultural Essays in Trauma and Memory_ , ed. Antze and Lambeck, London, Routledge, 1996, pp. 140\u20131.  See Ann Scott, 'Feminism and the Seductiveness of the 'Real Event', _Feminist Review_ , no. 28, 1988; _Real Events Revisited: Fantasy, Memory and Psychoanalysis_ , London, Virago, 1996.  For an overview of different psychoanalytic positions on the relation between internal and external objects, see Meir Perlow, _Understanding Mental Objects_ , London, Routledge, 1995, p. 126.  Simon Weinberg, _Incest Behavior_ , New York, Citadel Press, 1955.  Department of Health, _Child Protection: Messages from Research_ , London, HMSO, 1995, pp. 75\u20137.  Sylvia Fraser, _In my Father's House: A Memoir of Incest and Healing_ , London, Virago, 1989.  Judith Trowell, 'Memories of Abuse, or Abuse of Memories?: Discussion', in _Recovered Memories of Abuse_ , ed. Joseph Sandler and Peter Fonagy, pp. 23\u20134.  Valerie Sinason, 'Introduction', in _Memory in Dispute_ , ed. Sinason, p. 5.  Frederick Crews, 'The Unknown Freud', _New York Review of Books_ , 18 Nov. 1993, p. 61.  Ibid., p. 65.  Quoted in Ian Hacking, _Rewriting the Soul: Multiple Personality and the Sciences of Memory_ , Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1995, p. 136.  Sigmund Freud, 'From the History of an Infantile Neurosis' [ 1918], in _Case Histories II_ , Pelican Freud Library, vol. 9, Harmondsworth, 1979, p. 263.  Quoted in Janet Malcolm, _In the Freud Archives_ , London, Flamingo, 1986.  Hacking, _Rewriting the Soul_ , pp. 8, 122.  Ibid., p. 205.  Ian Hacking, 'Memory Sciences, Memory Polities', in _Tense Past_ ed. Antze and Lambeck, p. 70.  Frederick Bartlett, _Remembering_ , London, Cambridge University Press, 1932.  Mary Douglas, _How Institutions Think_ , London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986, p. 81.  Gerald M. Edelman, 'Memory and the Individual Soul: Against Silly Reductionism', in _Bright Air, Brilliant Fire: On the Matter of the Mind_ , New York, Basic Books, 1992, p. 69.  Steven Rose, _The Making of Memory_ : _From Molecules to Mind_ , London, Anchor Books, 1992, p. 56.  See John Morton, 'Cognitive Perspectives on Recovered Memories', in _Recovered Memories of Abuse_ , ed. Sandler and Fonagy.  Daniel L. Schacter et al., 'The Recovered Memories Debate: A Cognitive Neuroscience Perspective', in _Recovered Memories and False Memories_ , ed. Martin Conway, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1997, p. 1.  E. F. Loftus and J. A. Coan, 'The Construction of Childhood Memories', in _The Child Witness in Context: Cognitive, Social and Legal Perspectives_ , ed. D. Peters, New York, Kluwer, 1994; D. Poole and L. White 'Two Years Later: Effects of Question Repetition and Retention Interval on the Eyewitness Testimony of Children and Adults', _Developmental Psychology_ , vol. 29, no. 5, 1993, pp. 844\u201353.  Martin Conway, 'Introduction: What Are Memories?', in _Recovered Memories_ , ed. Conway, pp. 4\u20135.  E. F. Loftus, et al., 'Forgetting Sexual Trauma: What does it Mean when 38% Forget?', _Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology_ , vol. 62, 1994, pp. 1177\u201381.  E. F. Loftus, 'The Myth of Repressed Memory', in _Recovered Memories_ , ed. Conway; L. C. Terr, 'What Happens to Early Memories of Trauma? A Study of Twenty Children under Five at the Time of Documented Traumatic Events', _Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry_ , vol. 27, 1988, pp. 96\u2013104.  British Psychological Society, _Recovered Memories_ , p. 29.  Terr, 'Early Memories of Trauma'.  Schacter et al., in _Recovered Memories_ , ed. Conway, p. 89.  Erica Burman, 'Children, False Memories and Disciplinary Alliances: Tensions between Developmental Psychology and Psychoanalysis', _Psychoanalysis and Contemporary Thought_ , vol. 21, no. 3, Summer, 1998, p. 324.  Conway, in _Recovered Memories_ , pp. 14\u201315.  Ibid., p. 19.  Paul Ricoeur, _Time and Narrative_ , 3 vols, trans. Kathleen McLaughlin and David Pellauer, Chicago, Chicago University Press, 1984\u20138.  Hacking, _Rewriting the Soul_ , pp. 248, 251.  Peter Fonagy, 'A Psychoanalytic Understanding of Memory and Reconstruction', _British Psychological Society Psychotherapeutic Section Newsletter_ , no. 16, 1994, pp. 3\u201320.  Ibid., p. 10.  Freud, quoted in Laplanche and Pontalis, 'Deferrred Action; Deferred', in _The Language of Psychoanalysis_ , p. 112.  Ibid., pp. 111\u201312.  Jean Laplanche, 'Psychoanalysis, Time and Translation', in _Jean Laplanche: Seduction, Translation, Drives_ , ed. John Fletcher and Martin Stanton, London, Institute of Contemporary Arts, 1992, pp. 176\u20137.  J. -B. Pontalis, _Love of Beginnings_ , London, Free Association Books, 1993, p. xv.  Christopher Bollas, _Being a Character: Psychoanalysis and Self Experience_ , London, Routledge, 1993, p. 78; Stephen A. Mitchell, _Hope and Dread in Psychoanalysis_ , New York, Basic Books, 1993, p. 10.  Donald Spence, _Narrative Truth and Historical Truth: Meaning and Interpretation in Psychoanalysis_ , London and New York, Norton, 1982, p. 288.  Jacques Lacan, Seminair IV Session of 6 March 1957, quoted in John Forrester, _The Seduction of Psychoanalysis: Freud, Lacan and Derrida_ , Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990, p. 204.  Masson, in _Psychotherapy and its Discontents_ , ed. Dryden and Feltham, p. 15.  Masson, _Assault on Truth_ , p. 11.  Rosemary Rowley, 'Advancement of Women: The Third Phase', _WPA_ [Women in Psychology Association] _Annual Journal_ , 1997, p. 6.  Leys, in _Tense Past_ , ed. Antze and Lambek.  Burman, 'Disciplinary Alliances', p. 325.  Peter Fonagy, 'Forward', in _Memory in Dispute_ , ed. Sinason, p. xiv.  R. D. Hinshelwood, 'False Memory Syndrome \u2013 False Therapy Syndrome', in _Memory in Dispute_ , ed. Sinason; cited approvingly by Sinason in her introduction, ibid., p. 11.  Quoted in Laplanche and Pontalis, 'Screen Memory' in _The Language of Psychoanalysis_ , p. 411. See also S. Freud, _Screen Memories_ [....] Standard Edition, III, p. 304\u201322.  Janice Haaken, 'Sexual Abuse, Recovered Memory and Therapeutic Practice', _Social Text_ , no. 40, 1994, p. 118. See also Haaken, _Pillar of Salt: Gender, Memory, and the Perils of Looking Back_ , New Brunswick, Rutgers University Press, 1998.  Pontalis, _Love of Beginnings_ , p. 79.  Virginia Woolf, 'A Sketch of the Past', in James McConkey, _The Anatomy of Memory: An Anthology_ , Oxford, Oxford University Press.  See Hermione Lee, _Virginia Woolf_ , London, Chatto & Windus, 1996, pp. 154\u20139.  Woolf, in _Anatomy of Memory_ , p. 320.  Ibid., p. 328.  Lee, _Woolf, p._ 127.  Hacking, _Rewriting the Soul_ , p. 69.  Allon Young, 'Bodily Memory and Traumatic Memory', in _Tense Past._  Hacking, _Tense Past_ , p. 78.  Pontalis, _Love of Beginnings_ , p. xv.  Louise Armstrong, _Kiss Daddy Goodnight_ , New York, Pocket Books, 1978.  Louise Armstrong, 'Making an Issue out of Incest', in _The Sexual Liberals and the Attack on Feminism_ , ed. Dorchen Leibholdt and Janice Raymond, Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1990, p. 43.  See Linda Alcoff and Laura Gray, 'Survivor Discourse: Transgression or Recuperation?, _Signs_ , vol. 18, no. 2, 1993.  Elayne Rapping, _The Culture of Recovery: Making Sense of the Self-Help Movement in Women's Lives_ , Boston, Beacon Press, 1996, p. 9.  Louise Armstrong, _Rocking the Cradle of Sexual Politics: What Happened when Women Said Incest_ , London, Women's Press, 1996; Michele Davies, _Childhood Sexual Abuse and the Construction of Identity: Healing Sylvia_ , London, Taylor & Francis, 1995.  See, for example, Sheila Ernst and Marie Maguire, _Living with the Sphinx_ , London, Women's Press, 1987.  For recent confirmation that such negative attitudes persist, see Kendra Gilbert and Adrian Colye, 'Reconciling the Irreconcilable?: Psychoanalytic Psychotherapists' Constructions of Feminism and Psychoanalysis', forthcoming.\n\n### Chapter 5 Gender Anxieties at the Limits of Psychology\n\n Sarah Dunant and Roy Porter, eds, _The Age of Anxiety_ , London, Virago, 1996, p. 2.  Andrew Samuels, _The Political Psyche_ , London, Routledge, 1993, pp. 222\u20133.  Joan Raphael-Leff and Rosine Josef Perelman, eds, _Female Experience: Three Generations of British Women Psychoanalysts on Work with Women_ , London, Routledge, 1997.  Trefor Lloyd and Tristan Wood, eds, _What Next for Men_ , London, Working with Men, 1996.  Muriel Dimen, 'Deconstructing Difference: Gender, Splitting and Transitional Space', in _Psychoanalytic Dialogues_ , vol. 1, no. 3, 1995, p. 349.  See Diane Elam and Robyn Wiegman, _Feminism beside Itself_ , London, Routledge, 1995.  See Jill Morawski, _Practicing Feminism, Reconstructing Psychology_ , Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1994; Jeanne Marecek, 'Gender, Politics and Psychology's Ways of Knowing', _American Psychologist_ , vol. 50, 1995, pp. 162\u20133; Karen Henwood and Nick Pidgeon, 'Remaking the Link: Qualitative Research and Feminist Standpoint Theory', _Feminist Psychology_ , vol. 5, no. 1, 1995, pp. 7\u201330; Mary Gergen and Sara Davis, ed., _Towards a New Psychology of Gender_ , London, Routledge, 1997.  Michelle Fine and Corrine Bertram, 'Feminist Futures: A Retrospective'; _Feminism and Psychology_ , vol. 5, no. 4, Nov. 1995, p. 460.  Graham Richards, _Putting Psychology in its Place: An Introduction from a Critical Psychology Perspective_ , London, Routledge, 1995, p. 150.  Herbert Harari and Jean Peters, 'The Fragmentation of Psychology: Are APA Divisions Symptomatic?, _American Psychologist_ , vol. 42, 1987, p. 822; Judith Stacey, 'Disloyal to the Disciplines: A Feminist Trajectory in the Borderlands', in _Feminism in the Academy_ , ed. D. Stanton and A. Stewart, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1994, p. 312.  See, for example, Janet Spence, _Gender Issues in Contemporary Psychology_ , London, Sage, 1993, p. 5.  Helen Thompson, 'A Review of Recent Literature on the Psychology of Sex', _Psychological Bulletin_ , vol. 7,1910, pp. 335\u201342. See also R. W. Connell, _Gender and Power_ , Cambridge, Polity Press, 1987, p. 30.  Eleanor Maccoby and Carol Jacklin, _The Psychology of Sex Differences_ , Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1974.  Kay Deaux, 'From Individual Differences to Social Categories: Analysis of a Decade's Research on Gender', _American Psychologist_ , vol. 39, Feb. 1984, p. 107.  Stephen Jay Gould, _The Mismeasure of Man_ , New York, Norton, 1981; Carole Tavris, _The Mismeasure of Woman_ , New York, Simon & Schuster, 1992.  See, for example, Diane Halpern's exhaustive 1990s overview, _Sex Differences in Cognitive Abilities_ , 2nd edn, Hillsdale, NJ, Lawrence & Erlbaum, 1992; see also A. Feingold, 'Cognitive Gender Differences Are Disappearing', _American Psychologist_ , vol. 43, 1998, pp. 95\u2013103; J. S. Hyde and M. C. Linn, 'Gender Differences in Verbal Ability: A Meta-Analysis', _Psychological Bulletin_ , vol. 104, 1988, pp. 53\u201369; Janet K. Swim, 'Perceived Versus Meta-Analytic Effect Sizes: An Assessment of the Accuracy of Gender Stereotypes', _Journal of Personality and Social Psychology_ , vol. _66_ , no. 1, 1994, pp. 21\u201336.  Alice Eagly, 'On the Advantage of Reporting Sex Differences', _American Psychologist_ , vol. 45, 1990, pp. 560\u20132. Carol Jacklin, ed., _The Psychology of Gender_ , Aldershot, Edward Elgar, 1992. Those who think we should stop sex difference research include Roy Baumeister, 'Should we Stop Studying Sex Differences Altogether', _American Psychologist_ , vol. 43, 1988, p. 1093, and the contributors to Rachel Hare-Mustin and Jeanne Marecek, eds, _Making a Difference: Psychology and the Construction of Gender_ , New Haven, Yale University Press, 1990.  See Celia Kitzinger ed., 'Special Feature: Should Psychologists Study Sex Differences?', _Feminism and Psychology_ , vol. 4, no. 4, November 1994.  Michael Messner, _Politics of Masculinity: Men in Movements_ , London, Sage, 1997, p. xiv.  Nigel Edley and Margaret Wetherall, _Men in Perspective: Practice, Power and Identity_ , London, Prentice Hall, 1995, p. 30.  Sahorta Sarker, _Genetics and Reductionism_ , Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998.  See Celia Kitzinger, 'Editor's Introduction to \"Psychology Constructs the female\": A Reappraisal', _Feminism and Psychology_ , vol. 3, no. 2, 1993. Naomi Weisstein received a standing ovation after delivering 'Psychology Constructs the Female' to the American Studies Association at the University of California, Davis, in 1968.  Rhoda Unger and Mary Crawford, _Women and Gender: A Feminist Psychology_ , New York, McGraw Hill, 1992.  Leonore Tiefer, 'Retrospective: At the Age of 20 we are Old Enough to Learn from Our Past', paper presented to the 14th Annual Research Conference of the Association for Women in Psychology, Newport, RI, March 1989.  Unger and Crawford, _Women and Gender_ , p. 624.  Jennifer Wicke, 'Celebrity Material: Materialist Feminism and the Culture of Celebrity', _South Atlantic Quarterly_ , vol. 93, no. 4, Fall, 1994, p. 761; see also Lyn Mikel Brown and Carol Gilligan, _Meeting at the Crossroads: Women's Psychology and Girls' Development_ , Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1992.  Shirley Prendergast and Simon Forrest, '\"Hieroglyphs of the Heterosexual\": Learning about Gender in School', in _New Sexual Agendas_ , ed. Lynne Segal, Basingstoke, Macmillan, 1997; Helen Wilkinson, _No Turning Back_ , London, Demos, 1994; Helen Wilkinson and Geoff Mulgan, _Freedom's Children_ , London, Demos, 1995.  Esther Rothblum, 'The Stigma of Women's Weight: Social and Economic Realities', _Feminism and Psychology_ , vol. 2, no. 1, 1992, Helen Mason, _The Thin Woman_ , London, Routledge, 1997.  Jane Ussher, 'Research and Theory Related to Female Reproduction: Implications for Clinical Psychology', _British Journal of Clinical Psychology_ , vol. 31, 1992, pp. 129\u201351.  Pauline Bart and Eileen Moran, eds, _Violence against Women: The Bloody Footprints_, London, Sage, 1993.  Kum-Kum Bhavnani and Ann Phoenix, eds, _Feminism and Psychology: Special Issue on Shifting Identities Shifting Racism_ , vol. 4, no. 1, 1994.  Rozsika Parker, _Torn in Two: The Experience of Maternal Ambivalence_ , London, Virago, 1995.  Mary Crawford, _Talking Difference: On Gender and Language_ , London, Sage, 1995.  Ibid., p. 12.  See, for example, Michelle Fine, 'Reflections on a Feminist Psychology of Women: Paradoxes and Prospects', _Psychology of Women Quarterly_ , vol. 9, 1985, pp. 167\u201383; Mary Jane Parlee, 'Feminism and Psychology', in _Psychology of Gender_ , ed. Gergen and Davis.  Lynne Segal, _Is the Future Female?: Troubled Thoughts on Contemporary Feminism_ , London, Virago, 1987.  James Harrison, 'Roles, Identities, and Sexual Orientation: Homosexuality, Heterosexuality, and Bisexuality', in _A New Psychology of Men_ , ed. Ronald Levant and William Pollack, New York, Basic Books, 1995, p. 375.  Dimen, 'Deconstructing Difference', p. 339.  Jessica Benjamin, _Like Subjects, Love Objects_ , New Haven, Yale University Press, 1995; Nancy Chodorow, _Femininities, Masculinities, Sexualities_ , London, Free Association Books, 1994; Jane Flax, _Thinking Fragments_ , Berkeley, University of California Press, 1990.  Prendergast and Forrest, in _New Sexual Agendas_ , ed. Segal, p. 187; Harriet Bjerrum Nielson and Monica Rudberg, 'Gender Recipes Among Young Girls', _Young-Nordic Journal of Youth Research_ , vol. 2, no. 3, 1995.  Michael Roper, _Masculinity and the British Organization Man since 1945_ , Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1994.  Parker, _Torn in Two;_ Wendy Hollway and Brid Featherstone, _Mothering and Ambivalence_ , London, Routledge, 1997; Susan Kippax et al., _Surviving Safer Sex: Gay Community Responses to Aids_ , London, Falmer, 1993; Michael Kauffman, _Cracking the Armour: Power, Pain and the Lives of Men_ , Toronto, Viking, 1993.  Harry Brod, 'A Case for Men's Studies', in _Changing Men: New Directions in Research on Men and Masculinity_ , ed. Michael Kimmel, London, Sage, 1987.  Office for Standards in Education and Equal Opportunities Commission [Ofsted\/EOC], _The Gender Divide: Performance Differences between Boys and Girls at School_ , London, HMSO, 1996.  Lloyd and Wood, eds, _What Next for Men._  R. W. Connell, _Masculinities_ , Cambridge, Polity Press, 1995, pp. 82\u20136; Sian Griffith, ed., _Beyond the Glass Ceiling_ , Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1996; Natasha Walter, _The New Feminism_ , London. Virago, 1998, pp. 10\u201325.  John Charlton et al., 'Suicide Deaths in England and Wales: Trends in Factors Associated with Suicide Deaths', _Population Trends_ , no. 71, Spring, 1993.  The Commission on Children and Violence, _Children and Violence_ , London, Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, 1995.  These media programmes and newspaper articles are discussed in Debbie Epstein et al., 'Schoolboy Frictions: Feminism and Failing' Boys', in _Failing Boys: Issues in Gender and Achievement_ , ed. Epstein et al., Buckingham, Open University Press, 1998, p. 6. In this essay they point to similar rhetoric in other Western states.  Ibid., pp. 11\u201312.  Madeleine Arnot, Miriam David and Gaby Weiner, _Educational Reforms and Gender Equality in Schools_ , Manchester, Equal Opportunity Commission, 1996.  See Michele Cohen, 'A Habit of Healthy Idleness: Boy's Under-achievement in Historical Perspective', in _Failing Boys_ , ed. Epstein et al.; Tony Sewell, _Black Masculinities and Schooling: How Black Boys Survive Modern Schooling_ , Stoke-on-Trent, Trentham Books, 1997.  Girls have always outperformed boys in school up until the age of eleven; due to official attempts to keep a gender balance, in Britain in the 1950s and 1960s girls therefore had to score higher than boys to enter grammar schools. See Epstein et al., in _Failing Boys_ , ed. Epstein et al., p. 5.  Roger Horrocks, _Masculinity in Crisis: Myths, Fantasies and Realities_ , London and Basingstoke, Macmillan, 1994, p. 1.  Ronald Levant and William Pollack, eds, _A New Psychology of Men_ , Basic Books, 1995. This collection includes examples of most of the recent work being done on the psychology of masculinity in the USA; see also S. Oskamp and M. Costanzo, eds, _Gender Issues in Social Psychology_ , London, Sage, 1993; R. C Barnett, N. L. Marshall and J. Pleck, 'Men's Multiple Roles and their Relationship to Psychological Distress', _Journal of Marriage and the Family_ , vol. 54, no. 2, 1992.  Joseph Pleck, _The Myth of Masculinity_ , Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press, 1981; Pleck, 'The Gender Role Strain Paradigm: An Update', in _Psychology of Men_ , ed. Levant and Pollack.  Levant and Pollack, 'Introduction', in _Psychology of Men_ , ed. Levant and Pollack, p. 1.  See T. Brooks-Gunn and W. Mathews, _He and She: How Children Develop their Sex-Role Identity_ , Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice Hall, 1979.  Robert Weiss, _Staying the Course: The Emotional and Social Lives of Men who Do Well at Work_ , New York, Fawcett, Columbia, 1990, quoted in Schwalbe, _Unlocking the Iron Cage_ , New York, Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 27.  Joseph H. Pleck, Freya Lund Sonenstein and Lighton C. Ku, 'Masculinity Ideology and its Correlates', in _Gender Issues in Social Psychology_ , ed. Oskamp and Costanzo, London, Sage, 1993.  Andrew Ross, 'The Great White Dude', in _Constructing Masculinity_ , ed. Maurice Berger et al., London, Routledge, 1995, p. 172.  Some feminists, and gender theorists, have objected to discourses of 'patriarchy', except in terms of its literal meaning 'power of the father', on the grounds that it suggests a universal and unchanging structure of male dominance, diverting attention from the multiplicity of ways in which gender operates. Its shifting usage seems clear enough to me, but I prefer the notion of 'men's dominance' as a more precise description of the overall pattern of gender relations in modernity.  Connell, _Masculinities_ , p. 211.  See Susan Faludi, _Backlash: The Undeclared War against Women_ , New York, Crown, 1991.  Lynn Raphael Reed, ' \"Zero Tolerance\": Gender Performance and School Failure', in _Failing Boys_ , ed. Epstein, et al., p. 65.  Michael Kimmel, _Manhood in America: A Cultural History_ , New York, The Free Press, 1996; J. A. Mangan and James Walvin, eds, _Manliness and Morality_ , Manchester, Manchester University Press; Michael Roper and John Tosh, eds, _Manful Assertions: Masculinities in Britain since 1800_ , London, Routledge, 1991.  See _What Next for Men_ , ed. Lloyd and Wood.  Will Hutton, 'Why the Workplace is No Longer a Man's World', _The Observer_ , 8 Dec. 1996, p. 26.  See Sandy Ruxton, 'Boys Won't Be Boys: Tackling the Roots of Male Delinquency', in _What Next for Men_ , ed. Lloyd and Wood, p. 89; Peter Moss, 'Increasing Men's Involvement with their Children, in _What Next for Men_ , ed. Lloyd and Wood, p. 250.  Judith Butler, _Gender Trouble_ , London, Routledge, 1990; Lynne Segal, _Straight Sex: The Politics of Pleasure_ , London, Virago, 1994.  Homi Bhabha, 'Are You a Man or a Mouse?', in _Constructing Masculinity_ , ed. Berger et al., p. 58.  Robert Reid-Pharr, 'It's Raining Men', _Transitions: An International Review_ , vol. 6, no.l, 1996, p. 38.  Ibid.  Connell, _Masculinities;_ Messner, _Politics of Masculinity;_ Jeff Hearn, Mac an Ghaill, ed., _Understanding Masculinities_ , Milton Keynes, Open University Press, 1996; John Maclnness, _The End of Masculinity_ , Milton Keynes, Open University Press, 1998.  See Jeffrey Weeks, _Invented Moralities: Sexual Values in an Age of_ _Uncertainty_ , Cambridge, Polity Press, 1995; Edward King, _Safety in Numbers: Safer Sex and Gay Men_ , London, Cassell, 1993; Thorn Gunn, _The Man with Night Sweats_ , London, Faber & Faber, 1992; Mark Doty, _Heaven's Coast: A Memoir_ , London, Jonathan Cape, 1996.\n\n### Chapter 6 Cautionary Tales: Between Freud and Feminism\n\n Lesley Caldwell, 'Editorial', _New Formations: Psychoanalysis and Culture_ , no. 26, Autumn, 1995, p. vii.  Juliet Mitchell, 'Twenty Years On', in _New Formations: Psychoanalysis and Culture_ , no. 26, Autumn, 1995, p. 124.  Mari Jo Buhle, _Feminism and its Discontents: A Century of Struggle with Psychoanalysis_ , London, Harvard University Press, 1998; see also Lisa Appignanesi and John Forrester, _Freud's Women_ , London, Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 1992.  Emma Goldman quoted in Buhle, ibid., p. 2.  Charlotte Perkins Gihman, discussed in Buhle, ibid., p. 48.  H. J. Eysenck, 'Emote Controls', _Times Higher Education Supplement_ , 17 May 1996, p. 24.  One of the most recent, highly polemical efforts along these lines can be found in Judith Rich Harris, _The Nature Assumption: Why Children Turn Out the Way They Do_ , London, Bloomsbury, 1998.  Jacques Derrida, '\"To Do Justice to Freud\": The History of Madness in the Age of Psychoanalysis, _Critcal Inquiry_ , vol. 20, Winter, 1994, p. 239.  Rachel Bowlby, 'Still Crazy Afer All These Years', in _Feminism and Psychoanalysis_ , ed. Teresa Brennan, Routledge, 1989, p. 42.  Mitchell, 'Twenty Years On', p. 125.  Jane Gallop, _The Daughter's Seduction: Feminism and Psychoanalysis_ , Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press, 1982, p. xii.  Sigmund Freud, _Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality_ [1905, footnote added 1915], Penguin Freud Library, vol. 7, Harmondsworth, 1977, pp. 141\u20132.  Norman Mailer, _Advertisements for Myself_ , London, Putnam, 1959, p. 222.  See Elisabeth Roudinesco, _A History of Psychoanalysis in France 1925\u20131985_ , trans. Jeffrey Mehlman, London, Free Association Books, 1990, pp. 404\u20136.  Cited in David Macey, _Lacan in Contexts_ , London, Verso, 1988, p. 208.  Cited in Roudinesco, _Psychoanalysis in France_ , p. 423.  Cited in Stephen Heath, 'Difference' [ 1978], in _The Sexual Subject: A Screen Reader in Sexuality_, ed. M. Merck, London, Routledge, 1992, p. 63.  Jacques Lacan, 'The Signification of the Phallus', in _Lacapo, Ecrits: A Selection_ , pp. 281\u201391.  Lacan, 1957\u20138, quoted in _Feminine Sexuality_ , ed. Juliet Mitchell and Jacqueline Rose, trans. Rose, London, Macmillan, 1982, p. 39.  Luce Irigaray, _Speculum of the Other Woman_ , trans. Gillian Gill, Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press, 1985, p. 83.  Slavoj \u017di\u017eek, ' \"Postscript\" to Slavoj \u017di\u017eek and Renate Salec \"Lacan in Slovenia\"', in _A Critical Sense: Interviews with Intellectuals_ , ed. Peter Osborne, London, Routledge, 1996, p. 42.  See Ann Rosalind Jones, 'Editors' Introduction', in Catherine Clement, _The Weary Sons of Freud_ , London, Verso, 1987, p. 4.  Drucilla Cornell, _Beyond Accommodation: Ethical Feminism, Deconstruction and the Law_ , London, Routledge, 1991, p. 199.  Drucilla Cornell, 'Feminism, Deconstruction and the Law: Drucilla Cornell Interviewed by Peter Osborne', _Radical Philosophy_ , no. 73, Sept.-Oct. 1995, p. 30.  Judith Butler, 'Against Proper Objects', _More Gender Trouble: Feminism Meets Queer Theory_ , special issue of _Differences_ , vol. 6, nos 2\u20133, 1994, p. 19.  Juliet Flower MacCannell, 'Language', in _Feminism and Psychoanalysis: A Critical Dictionary_ , ed. Elizabeth Wright, Oxford, Blackwell, 1992, p. 213.  See Jacqueline Rose, _Why War: The Bucknell Lectures in Literary Theory_ , Oxford, Blackwell, 1993, p. 245.  David Macey, 'Phallus: Definitions', in _Feminism and Psychoanalysis_ , ed. Wright, p. 319.  See Jean Laplanche, _New Foundations of Psychoanalysis_ , trans. D. Macey, Oxford, Blackwell, 1989; John Fletcher and Michael Stanton, eds, _Jean Laplanche: Seduction, Translation, Drives_ , London, Institute of Contemporary Arts, 1992.  See John Fletcher, 'Introduction: Psychoanalysis and the Question of the Other' in Jean Laplanche, _Essays on Otherness_ , London, Routledge, 1999, pp. 44\u20135.  John Fletcher, 'Phallocentrism and the General Theory of Seduction', unpublished.  Philippe Van Haute, 'Fatal Attraction: Jean Laplanche on Sexuality, Subjectivity and Singularity in the work of Sigmund Freud', _Radical Philosophy_ , vol. 73, Sept.-Oct., 1995, p. 10.  David Macey, 'On the Subject of Lacan', in _Psychoanalysis in Context_ , ed. Anthony Elliott and Stephen Frosh, London, Routledge, 1994, p. 81.  John Brenkman, _Straight, Male, Modern_ , London, Routledge, 1993.  Gayle Rubin with Judith Butler, 'Sexual Traffic', _More Gender Trouble: Feminism Meets Queer Theory_ , special issue _of Differences_ , vol. 6, nos 2\u20133, 1994, p. 69.  Teresa de Lauretis, _Technologies of Gender: Essays on Theory, Film and Fiction_ , London and Basingstoke, Macmillan, 1987, p. 2.  Teresa de Lauretis, _The Practice of Love: Lesbian Sexuality and Perverse Desire_ , Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1994.  Judith Butler, 'Desire', in _Critical Terms for Literary Study_ , ed. Frank Lentricchia and Thomas McLaughlin, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1995, pp. 385; Butler, 'Against Proper Objects', p. 20.  Elizabeth Grosz, 'The Labors of Love. Analyzing Perverse Desire: An Interrogation of Teresa de Lauretis's _The Practice of Love', Differences_ , vol. 6, nos 2 and 3, 1994, p. 275.  Jacqueline Rose, 'Introduction', in _Feminine Sexuality_ , ed. Mitchell and Rose, p. 57.  Rose, _Why War_ , pp. 243\u20134.  Mikkel Borch-Jacobsen, 'The Oedipus Problem in Freud and Lacan', trans. Douglas Brick, _Critical Inquiry_ , vol. 20, Winter, 1994, p. 277.  Peter Dews, 'The Early Lacan and the Frankfurt School', in _Psychoanalysis in Context_ , ed. Elliott and Frosh, p. 61.  Dews, ibid., p. 60; Borch-Jacobsen, 'Oedipus Problem', p. 282; emphasis added.  \u017di\u017eek, 'Postscript', in _Critical Sense_ , ed. Peter Osborne, p. 42.  Ethel Person, 'The Influence of Values in Psychoanalysis: The Case of Female Psychology', in _Essential Papers on the Psychology of Women_ , ed. Claudia Zanardi, New York, New York University Press, 1990, pp. 314\u201315.  Lacan, 'Seminar of 21 January 1975', in _Feminine Sexuality_ , ed. Mitchell and Rose, p. 170.  Otto Kernberg, 'Boundaries and Structures in Love Relations', in _Internal World and External Reality_ , New York, Jason Aronson, 1980, p. 279.  Hanna Segal interviewed by Jacqueline Rose in _Women: A Cultural Review_ , vol. 1, no. 2, Summer, 1990, p. 207.  Michael Balint, 'Perversion and Genitality', in _Primary Love and Psycho-Analytic Technique_ , London, Tavistock, 1965, p. 136.  Cited in Susie Orbach, 'Beware the Prejudiced Analyst', _Guardian Weekend_ , 29 April 1995.  Freud, _Three Essays_ , pp. 56\u20137.  Janine Chasseguet-Smirgel, 'Being a Mother and a Psychoanalyst', in _Representations of Motherhood_ , ed. D. Bassin et al., New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1994, p. 125.  M. Egl\u00e9 Laufer, The Female Oedipus Complex and the Relationship to the Body', in _The Gender Conundrum_ , ed. D. Breen, London, Routledge, 1993, p. 76.  Laufer, ibid.; see also Chasseguet-Smirgel, 'Freud and Female Sexuality: The Consideration of some Blind Spots in the Exploration of the \"Dark Continent\"', in _Gender Conundrum_ , ed. Breen.  Adam Jukes, _Why Men Hate Women_ , London, Free Association Books, 1993, p. 317.  Freud, _Three Essays,'_ p. 160. See also Alain Gibeault, 'On the Feminine and the Masculine: Afterthoughts on Jacqueline Cosnier's Book, _Destins de la f\u00e9minit\u00e9'_ , in _Gender Conundrum_ , ed. Breen.  Sigmund Freud, 'Analysis Terminable and Interminable' [1937\u20139], Standard Edition, vol. XXIII London, Hogarth, 1964, p. 252.  Monique Schneider, interviewed in _Women Analyze Women_ , ed. E. H. Baruch and L. J. Serrano, New York, New York University Press, 1988; emphasis added.  Dana Breen, 'General Introduction', in _Gender Conundrum_ , ed. Breen, p. 35, citing Joyce McDougall.  Jessica Benjamin, 'The Omnipotent Mother', in _Representations of Motherhood_ , ed. Bassin et al., p. 132.  Virginia Goldner, 'Towards a Critical Relational Theory of Gender', _Psychoanalytic Dialogues_ , vol. 1, no. 3, 1991, p. 249. See also Muriel Dimen, 'Deconstructing Difference: Gender, Splitting, and Transitional Space', _Psychoanalytic Dialogues_ , vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 335\u201352.  Benjamin, in _Representations of Motherhood_ , ed. Bassin et al., p. 130.  Juliet Mitchell, 'Commentary on \"Deconstructing Difference: Gender, Splitting and Transitional Space', _Psychoanalytic Dialogues_ , vol. 1, no. 3, 1991, pp. 353\u20137.  Jessica Benjamin, 'An \"Over-inclusive\" Theory of Gender Development', in _Psychoanalysis in Context_ , ed. Elliott and Frosh, p. 120.  Kaja Silverman, _Male Subjectivity at the Margins_ , London, Routledge, 1992, p. 65.  Adam Phillips, _Terrors and Experts_ , London, Faber & Faber, 1995, p. 86.  Ibid., p. xvi.\n\n### Chapter 7 Only Contradictions on Offer: Feminism at the Millennium\n\n Joan Scott, _Only Paradoxes to Offer: French Feminists and the Rights of Man_ , Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1996.  Caroline Glendinning and Jane Miller, eds, _Women and Poverty in Britain: The 1990s_ , London, Harvester, 1992; Sylvia Bashevkin, _Women on the Defensive: Living through Conservative Times_ , Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1998.  Bashevkin, ibid. p. 95.  Harold Bloom, cited in Sandra M. Gilbert, 'Presidential Address 1996: Shadows of Futurity: The Literary Imagination, the MLA, and the Twenty-First Century', _Proceedings of the Modern Language Association_ , vol. 112, no. 3, May, 1997, p. 3.  See Lynne Segal, _Straight Sex: The Politics of Pleasure_ , London, Virago, 1994.  These figures come from the Incomes Data Service, 77 Bastwick Street, London, EC1V 3TT, Feb. 1999.  See Marlene Kim, 'Comments', in _Women and Unions: Forging a Partnership_ , ed. Dorothy Cobble, New York, International Labour Review Press, 1993.  B. Bagilhole, _Women, Work and Equal Opportunity_ , Aldershot, Avebury, 1994, p. 1.  See Suzanne Franks, _Having None of It: Women, Men and the Future of Work_ , London, Granta, 1999.  Joni Lovendeski, 'Sex, Gender and British Polities', _Parliamentary Affairs_ , vol. 49, no. 1, Jan. 1996, p. 10; Bashevkin, _Women on the Defensive_ , p. 120.  Reported in Mary McIntosh, 'Dependency Culture? Welfare, Women and Work', _Radical Philosophy_ , no. 91, Sept.-Oct., 1998, p. 5.  Sue Lees, _Carnal Knowledge: Rape on Trial_ , London, Penguin, 1996; Bashevkin, _Women on the Defensive_ , pp. 60, 116.  Information from _Social Focus on Women_ , quoted in _Who's Afraid of Feminism Seeing through the Backlash_ , ed. Ann Oakley and Juliet Mitchell, London, Penguin, 1997, p. 7.  Manuel Castells, 'The End of Patriarchalism: Social Movements, Family, and Sexuality in the Information Age', in _The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture_ , vol. 11: _The Power of Identity_ , Oxford, Blackwell, 1998, pp. 165\u201370.  Suzanne Franks, 'Vital Statistics', _The Guardian_ , 11 Jan. 1999, p. 7.  The declaration condemns violence against women, especially systemic rape in warfare, and encourages assistance for female victims of violence; recommends enactment of legislation to guarantee the right of women and men to equal pay for equal work; supports the promotion of businesses run by women and women's media networks; calls for women's equal participation in governments; promotes research on women's health, and so on. See a variety of reports from the Beijing conference in _Signs_ , vol. 22, no. 1, 1996, pp. 181\u2013226.  Charlotte Bunch, cited in Barbara Crossette, 'Women See Key Gains since Talks in Beijing', _New York Times_ , 8 March 1998.  Rachel Blau DuPlessis and Ann Snitow, 'A Feminist Memoir Project', in _The Feminist Memoir Project: Voices from Women's Liberation_ , New York, Three Rivers Press, 1998, p. 4.  For example, Leslie Heywood and Jennifer Drake, eds, _Third Wave Agenda: Doing Feminism, Being Feminist_ , Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1997; Special Issue: Third Wave Feminisms, _Hypatia: A Journal of Feminist Philosophy_ , ed. J. Zita, Summer, 1997.  Eleanor Rathbone, quoted in Susan Pedersen, 'The Failure of Feminism in the Making of the British Welfare State', _Radical History Review: The Women's Story_ , vol. 43, Winter, 1989, pp. 86\u2013110 (86).  Nancy Fraser and Linda Gordon, 'A Genealogy of \"Dependency\": Tracing a Keyword of the U.S. Welfare State', in Fraser, _Justice Interrupts: Critical Reflections on the \"Postsocialist\" Condition_ , New York and London, Routledge, 1997; Moynihan quoted in ibid., p. 138.  'News in Brief: Midwives to Look for Abuse of Women', _The Guardian_ , 29 Dec., 1997, p. 8.: 'There seems to be evidence of violence starting or being exacerbated when a woman is pregnant or postnatally, with the violence directed towards her stomach, breasts and genitals'.  Carolyn Steedman, 'Landscape of a Good Woman', in Steedman, _Past Tense: Essays in Writing, Autobiography and History_ , London, Rivers Oram Press, 1992, p. 36.  Liz Heron, _Truth, Dare or Promise: Girls Growing Up in the Sixties_ , London, Virago, 1985, p. 6.  Castells, 'The End of Patriarchalism', p. 235.  McIntosh, 'Dependency Culture?', p. 5.  See Katherine McFate et al., eds, _Poverty, Inequality and the Future of Social Policy_ , New York, Russell Sage, 1995.  Lawrence Mead, ed., _The New Paternalism: Supervising Approaches to Poverty_ , Washington, DC, Brookings Institution Press, 1997; Susanne MacGregor, 'Welfare, Neo-Liberalism and New Paternalism: Three Ways for Social Policy in Late Capitalist Societies, _Capital and Class_ , no. 67, Spring, 1999.  Tony Cutler and Barbara Waine, _Managing the Welfare State_ , Oxford, Berg, 1997.  Alan Finder, 'Evidence Is Scant that Workfare Leads to Full-Time Jobs', _New York Times_ , 12 April 1998, pp. 1, 30.  Judith Stacey, 'Families against the Family', _Radical Philosophy_ , no. 89, May-June 1998; _In the Name of the Family: Rethinking Family Values in the Postmodern Age_ , Boston, Beacon Press, 1996, ch. 4.  Lillian Rubin, _The Transcendent Child: Tales of Triumph over the Past_ , New York, HarperCollins, 1997.  Judith Williamson, 'This Life: Careless Talk Costs Lives', _The Guardian_ , 20 Dec. 1997.  Quoted in Carol Gilligan, 'Getting Civilized', in _Who's Afraid of Feminism_ , ed. Oakley and Mitchell, p. 15.  David Popenoe, _Disturbing the Nest: Family Change and Decline in Modern Societies_, New York, Aldine, 1988; _Rebuilding the Nest: A New Commitment to the American Family_ , ed. David Blakenhorn, Jean Bethke Elshtain and Steven Bayme, Milwaukee, Family Service American, 1991; David Blakenhorn, _Fatherless America: Confronting our most Urgent Social Problem_ , New York, Basic Books, 1995.  Barbara Ehrenreich, 'When Government Gets Mean: Confessions of a Recovering Statist', _The Nation_ , 17 Nov. 1997, p. 12; emphasis added.  See Anna Marie Smith, 'Feminist Activism and Presidential Politics: Theorizing the Costs of the \"Insider Strategy\" ', _Radical Philosophy_ , no. 83, May-June, 1997; Zillah Eisenstein, _Hatreds: Racialized and Sexualized Conflicts in the 21st Century_ , London, Routledge, 1996, p. 118.  Wendy Brown, _States of Injury Power and Freedom in Late Modernity_ , Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1995, p. x. In this book I do not address the influential strand of anti-pornography feminism, though I have done so frequently elsewhere, because I believe it has served primarily to reinvigorate the moral right, rather than any progressive left politics. See Segal, _Straight Sex;_ Segal and McIntosh, eds, _Sex Exposed: Sexuality and the Pornography Debates_ , New Brunswick, NJ, Rutgers University Press, 1992.  See, for example, McIntosh, 'Dependency Culture?', p. 2.  Ibid., p. 3.  Paul Pierson, _Dismantling the Welfare State? Reagan, Thatcher and the Politics of Retrenchment_ , Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1995.  Harvey Levenstein, _Paradoxes of Plenty: A Social History of Eating in Modern America_ , New York, Oxford University Press, 1993, p. 81.  Franks, 'Vital Statistics', p. 7; Franks, _Having None of It._  For the fullest overview see Castells, 'The End of Patriarchalism'.  Toril Moi, 'Psychoanalysis, Feminism, and Politics: A Conversation with Juliet Mitchell', _Materialist Feminism_ , special eds Toril Moi and Janice Radway, _South Atlantic Quarterly_ , vol. 93, no. 4, Fall, 1994, p. 937.  Patrizia Romito, ' \"Damned if You Do and Damned if You Don't\": Psychological and Social Constraints on Otherhood in Contemporary Europe', in _Who's Afraid of Feminism_ , ed. Oakley and Mitchell; Adriana Cavarero, 'The Politics of Sexual Difference', paper delivered to _Radical Philosophy Conference: Torn Halves: Theory and Politics in Contemporary Feminism_ , School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 9 Nov. 1996.  See Rita Felski, 'The Doxa of Difference', _Signs_ , vol. 23, no. 1, Autumn, 1997.  Cora Kaplan reminded me of Mitchell's argument in her talk at the conference entitled _At the Millennium: Interrogating Gender_ , Harkness Hall, London University, London, 9 Jan. 1998.  Juliet Mitchell, 'Reflections on Twenty Years of Feminism', in _What is Feminism?_ , ed. J. Mitchell and A. Oakley, Oxford, Blackwell, 1986, pp. 47, 48, 45.  Norman Mailer, quoted in David Denby, 'The Contender', _New Yorker_ , 20 April 1998, p. 70.  See, for example, Judith Stacey, _Brave New Families: Stories of Domestic Upheaval in the Late Twentieth Century_ , New York, Basic Books, 1990.  For a detailed and stimulating account of women and men working in the upper echelons of banking in the City of London, see Linda McDowell, _Capital Culture: Gender and Work in the City_ , Oxford, Blackwell, 1997.  Cynthia Salzman, _In the Shadows of Privilege: Women and Unions at Yale_ , forthcoming; Hank Johnson and Bert Klandermans, eds, _Social Movements and Culture_ (Social Movements, Protest, and Contention, vol. 4), Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1995.  Andrew Ross, _Real Love: In Pursuit of Cultural Justice_ , New York, New York University Press, 1998, pp. 5, 216.  Jane Gallop, _Around 1981: Academic Feminist Literary Theory_ , London, Routledge, 1992, p. 4.  Hazel V. Carby, 'The Multicultural Wars', _Radical History Review_ , vol. 54, 1992, pp. 7\u201318.  Heidi Hartmann et al., 'Bringing Together Feminist Theory and Practice: A Collective Interview', _Signs_ , vol. 21, no. 41, 1996.  Temma Kaplan, _Crazy for Democracy: Women in Grassroots Movements_ , London, Routledge, 1997, p. 1.  Patricia Williams, _The Alchemy of Race and Rights_ , Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, p. 149. See also John Anner, ed., _Beyond Identity Politics: Emerging Social Justice Movements in Communities of Color_ , Boston, South End Press, 1996. Reporting on the wave of black and immigrant-based struggles in the USA over the last decade, in all of which women have played a critical role, Anner similarly points to the need for shared political ideals to forge bonds between diverse 'identities' and communities of interest.  See Etienne Balibar, 'Ambiguous Universality', _Differences_ , vol. 7, no. 1, 1995.  For example, see Barbara Epstein, 'Why Post-structuralism is a Dead End for Progressive Thought', _Socialist Review_ , vol. 25, no. 2, 1995.  See Paul Hirst and Grahame Thompson, _Globalization in Question_ , Cambridge, Polity Press, 1996; Simon Bromley, 'Globalization', _Radical Philosophy_ , no. 80, Nov.\u2013Dec. 1996.  Paul Hirst and Grahame Thompson, 'Globalization: Ten Frequently Asked Questions and some Surprising Answers', _Soundings_ , no. 4, Autumn, 1996, p. 62.  Kim Moody, _Workers in a Lean World_ , London, Verso, 1997.  Theresa Ann Sears, 'Feminist Misogyny; or, What Kind of Feminist Are You?', in _Generations: Academic Feminists in Dialogue_ , ed. Ann Kaplan and Devoney Looser, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1997, p. 269.  Kathleen Hulley, 'Interview with Grace Paley', _Delta: Grace Paley_ , no. 14, May 1982, p. 32.  Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Lyotard, _The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge_ , trans. Geoff Bennington and Brian Massumi, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1984.  See the many interesting essays along these lines in Elizabeth Long, ed., _From Sociology to Cultural Studies_ , Oxford, Blackwell, 1997.  Cary Nelson, 'Manifesto of a Tenured Radical', New York, New York University Press, 1997, p. 51. See also Peter Osborne and Lynne Segal, 'Culture and Power: Interview with Stuart Hall', _Radical Philosophy_ , no. 86, Nov.\u2013Dec. 1997.  Barbara Johnson, _The Wake of Deconstruction_ , Oxford, Blackwell, 1995, pp. 94, 85.  See Judith Butler, 'Merely Cultural', _Social Text_ , nos 52\u201353, Fall\u2013Winter, 1997.  Alan D. Sokal, 'Transgressing the Boundaries: Towards a Transformative Hermeneutics of Quantum Gravity', _Social Text_ , nos 46\u20137, Spring\u2013Summer, 1996. For insightful discussion, see Ellen Willis, 'My Sokaled Life', _Village Voice_ , 25 June 1996, pp. 22\u20133.  Martha Nussbaum: 'The Hip Defeatism of Judith Butler: The Professor of Parody', _New Republic_ , 22 Feb. 1999, pp. 37, 43.  Ferdinand Mount, 'Death and Burial of the Utopian Feminist', _Sunday Times_ , 14 Dec. 1997, p. 15.  See, for example, Debbie Epstein et al., ed., _Failing Boys: Issues in Gender and Achievement_ , Milton Keynes, Open University Press, 1998.  David Collinson and Jeff Hearn, eds, _Men as Managers, Managers as Men: Critical Perspectives on Men, Masculinities and Managements_ , London, Sage, 1996.  In the late 1990s in Britain Susie Orbach and Andrew Samuels founded the pressure group Antidote, aiming to put the insights of psychotherapy to various political uses, ranging from the classroom to informing government policy.  David Sexton, 'Time to Dump the F-word', _Evening Standard: Features, 2_ Feb. 1999, p. 23.  Such sentiments were expressed by several feminists when interviewed by Nicci Gerard for the newspaper feature 'Where are they Now?', _Observer Review_ , 21 Dec. 1997, p. 5.  Mitchell, in Moi, 'Psychoanalysis, Feminism, and Polities', _Materialist Feminism_ , special eds Moi and Radway, p. 945; emphasis in the original.  Natasha Walter, _What is the New Feminism?_ , London, Little, Brown, 1998, p. 4.  Ibid., pp. 34, 9.  Helen Simpson, 'Lentils and Lilies: A Story', in _On the Move: Feminism for a New Generation_ , ed. Natasha Walter, London, Virago, 1999, p. 111. In her introduction (p. 3), Walter refers to Jade Beaumont as providing 'a heroine for our time'.  Sue Himmelweit, 'Not Much of a Choice', _Red Pepper_ , Oct. 1996, p. 25.  For example, Sadie Plant, _Zeroes and Ones: Digital Women and the New Technoculture_ , London, Fourth Estate, 1997.  Juliet Schor, _The Overworked American: The Unexpected Decline of Leisure_ , New York, Basic Books, 1991; WFD\/Management Today survey, London, May 1998.\n\n# Index\n\n##\n\n  * abuse , , , ; _see also_ child abuse; child sexual abuse\n  * academics, memoirs \n  * activism , \u2013, , , 271n59\n  * adaptationism , \u2013, , , \n  * Adolescent Family Life Act \n  * adolescents \u2013, , , \n  * AIDS \u2013, , \u2013\n  * Aitkenhead, Decca 244n92\n  * Alpert, Jane \n  * Altman, Dennis \u2013\n  * altruism , \n  * American Psychiatric Association , \n  * American Psychological Association \n  * _American Psychologist_ \n  * American Sociology Association \n  * American Women in Psychology \n  * amnesia \n  * Amos, Valerie \n  * androgyny \n  * Anner, John 271n59\n  * anthropology \u2013, , \n  * anti-pornography , , 270n38\n  * anti-statism \n  * Anzald\u00faa, Gloria \n  * Archer, John , \n  * Argentina, Mother of the Plaza de Mayo \n  * Armstrong, Louise \u2013\n  * Arnot, Madeleine \n  * Asian women strikers \u2013\n  * autobiographical material \u2013, , , \u2013\n  * Avise, John\n\n##\n\n  * baboons: _see_ primatology\n  * Balibar, Etienne \n  * Balint, Michael , \n  * Barash, David , \n  * Barrett, Mich\u00e8le , 234n6\n  * Barthes, Roland \u2013\n  * Bartlett, Frederick \n  * Bashevkin, Sylvia \n  * Baudrillard, Jean _66_ , \n  * Baxandall, Rosalyn \n  * Beer, Gillian \n  * behaviour: cultural causes ; gendered ; genetics , , , ; memory \u2013; phenotypes ; universalism \n  * Beijing Declaration , 268n16\n  * Bern, Sandra \n  * Benefit Integrity Project \u2013\n  * Benjamin, Jessica , , , \n  * Benn, Melissa \n  * Bertram, Corrine \n  * Beyene, Yewoubdar \n  * Bhabha, Homi \n  * Billig, Michael \n  * binary oppositions , \n  * biology ; absolutism ; culture \u2013, \u2013, ; diversity ; psychology ; sociobiology , \n  * biotechnology \u2013, \u2013\n  * black activism \n  * black culture \n  * black feminism , , , , , , \n  * Blair, Tony , , , \n  * Blakemore, Susan \n  * Blakenhorn, David , \n  * Bleier, Ruth \n  * Bloom, Harold \n  * body: ambiguities \u2013, , 246n122; castration ; female , \u2013; mapping ; materiality ; pregnancy \u2013; prosthetic \u2013; reclaimed , ; as site of resistance \n  * Bolin, Anne \u2013\n  * Bollas, Christopher \n  * Borch-Jacobsen, Mikkel , \n  * Bornstein, Kate \n  * Bowlby, Rachel \u2013\n  * boys , , \u2013; _see also_ mother-child relationships\n  * Braidotti, Rosi \u2013\n  * breast cancer \n  * Breen, Dana \n  * Bronfen, Elizabeth \u2013\n  * Brown, Wendy \n  * Brownmiller, Susan , \n  * Bruner, Jerome \n  * Buhle, Mari Jo \n  * Bunch, Charlotte \n  * Burman, Erica \n  * _Business Week_ \n  * Buss, David , , , \n  * Butler, Judith: bodily ambiguities ; cultural studies ; drag , ; feminist theorizing , , , 235n12; gender as performance , \u2013, 242n66; gender\/sexuality ; Lacan \u2013, ; pregnancy ; transgenderism \u2013\n\n##\n\n  * Cade, Toni \n  * Campbell, Bea \n  * cancer \n  * capitalism \u2013, , \u2013\n  * Carby, Hazel \n  * care-based ethic \n  * career\/mothering conflicts , \u2013; _see also_ work\n  * Castells, Manuel \n  * castration , , , , \n  * Cavarero, Adriana \n  * Charcot, Jean-Martin \n  * Chasseguet-Smirgel, Janine \u2013\n  * cheater detection , \n  * Chenevix-Trench, Anthony \u2013\n  * child abuse , , \u2013, \n  * child sexual abuse , 250n78; cultural backlash \u2013; feminism , \u2013, \u2013; Freud \u2013, , ; incest , ; memory , \u2013, ;Woolf \u2013\n  * childcare, single mothers \n  * childhood: care\/gender ; domestic violence ; Freud ; memory , , \u2013, \u2013; psychic life , ; sexuality , , , , ; trauma \u2013, ; _see also_ adolescents; boys; girls; infants\n  * Chodorow, Nancy , , \u2013\n  * Chomsky, Noam \n  * Christian, Barbara \n  * Cixous, H\u00e9l\u00e8ne , , , \n  * class: feminism ; oppression ; and race ; rape acquittals ; trade unions ; welfare benefits \n  * Cl\u00e9ment, Catherine \n  * Clinton, Bill , , \u2013\n  * Clough, Patricia \n  * cognitive differences \n  * cognitive psychology , \u2013\n  * Cohen, Michele \n  * collective action , , \n  * commodification, body \u2013\n  * competitiveness , \n  * Connell, Bob , , , \n  * consciousness-raising , , , 235\u20136n31\n  * Conway, Martin \u2013\n  * Cornell, Drucilla , \n  * Cosmides, Leda , , \n  * Coward, Rosalind \n  * Crawford, Mary , \n  * Crews, Frederick , \u2013, \n  * Crick, Francis \n  * cross-dressing , \n  * cultural feminism , , , \n  * cultural narrative , \n  * cultural studies , \u2013\n  * culture: behaviour ; and biology \u2013, \u2013, ; black ; gender ; and genetics ; oppression ; and politics ; psychoanalysis \u2013; sexuality , , \u2013\n  * cyberspace ,\n\n##\n\n  * Daly, Martin , , \n  * Darwin, Charles , \u2013, \u2013\n  * Darwinism , , \u2013, \u2013, , 249n42\n  * Davies, Michele \n  * Dawkins, Richard , , , , \u2013, , \n  * de Beauvoir, Simone , \u2013, \u2013\n  * de Jong, Looren \n  * de Lauretis, Teresa \n  * de Salvo, Louise \n  * de Saussure, Ferdinand , \n  * de Vore, Irven \n  * de Waal, Frans \n  * Deaux, Kay \n  * deconstruction , , , \n  * deferred action , \u2013, \n  * Deleuze, G. \n  * Demos \n  * Dennett, Daniel \n  * dependence , , ; _see also_ welfare dependency\n  * depression gene \u2013\n  * Derrida, Jacques , , , \n  * desire , , , \u2013, \u2013, , \n  * deviance, sexual \n  * Dews, Peter \n  * Didion, Joan \n  * diff\u00e9rance \n  * difference: cognitive ; gender \u2013, , ; and identity \u2013; politics , , 238n74; _see also_ sexual difference\n  * difference theory , \u2013, , \u2013, \n  * Dimen, Muriel , , , , , , \n  * disabled, welfare \n  * discourse and practice \n  * disease, genetics \u2013, , \n  * dissidence, sexual \u2013, \n  * DNA , , \u2013, , \n  * DNA testing , \n  * Dollimore, Jonathan \n  * domesticity \u2013, , ; _see also_ family life\n  * domination: institutionalized ; language ; male \u2013, , 236n35, 263n52; sexual \n  * Douglas, Mary \n  * drag , , \n  * Duckworth, Gerald and George \u2013\n  * Dunant, Sarah \n  * Dunbar, Robin \u2013\n  * DuPlessis, Rachel \n  * Dworkin, Andrea , ,\n\n##\n\n  * Eagleton, Terry , \n  * Eagly, Alice \n  * Ebbinghaus, Hermann , \n  * economy, feminized \n  * Edelman, Gerald \n  * educational performance, gender , \u2013, 262n53\n  * _Educational Reforms and Gender Equality in Schools_ \n  * Ehrenreich, Barbara , , \n  * Einon, Dorothy \n  * Eisenstein, Zillah \n  * Eissler, Kurt \n  * Eldredge, Niles , \n  * Elshtain, Jean Bethke , \n  * employment , , ; _see also_ work\n  * employment training \n  * environmental pollutants , \n  * Epstein, Barbara \n  * Equal Rights Amendment, USA \n  * equality feminism \u2013, , \n  * ethnicity , ; _see also_ race\n  * Etzioni, Amitai \n  * eugenics , , \n  * evolutionary biology \u2013, , \u2013, \n  * evolutionary psychology , \u2013, , \u2013\n  * experience , \u2013, , \u2013\n  * Eysenck, Hans , , \n  * Eysenck, Michael \u2013\n\n##\n\n  * Fairbairn, Ronald \n  * false memory \u2013, , \u2013, \n  * False Memory Syndrome Foundation \n  * family background , , , \n  * family life: conservatism ; dysfunctional ; gender relations \u2013, ; sexual abuse ; state ; structure , ; values \u2013; welfare \n  * fathers , , , \n  * Fedigan, Linda , \n  * Felski, Rita \u2013\n  * femininity ; anxieties ; Freud ; identification ; imaginary , ; and masculinity , , , , ; mothering \u2013; oppression \u2013; otherness , \u2013; power ; psychic \u2013; social construct , , \u2013; stereotypes \u2013\n  * feminism , \u2013, \u2013, \u2013; anthropology \u2013; capitalism \u2013; child sexual abuse , \u2013, \u2013; class ; collective action ; conflicts within , , , , \u2013, nl4; cultural backlash \u2013, ; Darwinism \u2013, \u2013; deradicalized \u2013; discourse\/practices , , ; exclusions , \u2013; Foucault \u2013; Freud \u2013, , ;Lacan , \u2013, ; metaphors \u2013; object-relations theory , \u2013; politics ; and post-structuralism , , \u2013, ; psychoanalysis , , , \u2013, \u2013; psychology , \u2013; psychotherapy ; sexuality ; societal transformation \u2013, , , ; solidarity \u2013; subjectivity \n  * feminisms , , , \u2013; academic , , \u2013, , \u2013; black , , , , , , ; cultural , , , ; difference-based ; equality \u2013, , , ; ethnic minority ; French , \u2013, \u2013, \u2013, 237n58; Italian ; Kristeva ; lesbian , \u2013; liberal ; materialist \u2013; modernist ; post-modern ; post-structuralist \u2013; power \u2013; radical \u2013, , ; second-wave \u2013, , , \u2013, , ; seventies ; socialist , , , , \u2013, , , , \u2013, \u2013, ; third wave ; Third World \n  * feminist literary criticism \n  * feminist publishing , \n  * feminist studies , , \u2013\n  * feminist theorizing \u2013, , , 235n12\n  * feminization of economy \n  * _Le Figaro_ \n  * Fine, Michelle \n  * Firestone, Shulamith \n  * First, Elsa \n  * Flanders, Laura \n  * Flax, Jane , \n  * Fletcher, John \n  * Fliess, Wilhelm , \n  * Flockhart, Calista \n  * folk psychology , \n  * Fonagy, Peter \u2013, \u2013\n  * Foot, Paul , \n  * Foucault, Michel , \u2013, \u2013\n  * Fouque, Antoinette , \n  * France: _see_ French feminism\n  * Frankfurt School \n  * Franklin, Rosalind \n  * Franks, Suzanne , \n  * Fraser, Nancy \n  * Fraser, Sylvia \n  * French feminism , \u2013, \u2013, \u2013, 237n58\n  * Freud, Anna \n  * Freud, Sigmund \u2013, ; child sexual abuse \u2013, , ; childhood ; deferred action , \u2013, ; femininity ; feminists \u2013, , ; homosexuality ; hysteria , \u2013, 254n21; _The Interpretation of Dreams_ \u2013, ; loving\/working ; masochism ; memory , , ; Oedipus complex \u2013; seduction theory , \u2013; self-deception ;\n  * self-exploration , ; sexual desire \u2013; sexual difference , , ; subjectivity \n  * Friedan, Betty \n  * Friedman, Susan Stanford 235n14\n  * fundamentalism , , , , \u2013\n\n##\n\n  * Gagnon, John \n  * Gallop, Jane , , \n  * gay gene , \n  * gay studies , \u2013; _see also_ queer theory\n  * gay subculture , ; _see also_ homosexuality\n  * Geertz, Clifford \n  * gender , , , , \u2013; behaviour ; child sexual abuse \u2013; cultural dynamics ; difference \u2013, , ; educational performance , \u2013, 262n53; evolutionary theory ; identity , , , , , , , \u2013; inequity ; not transcended ; observer , ; oppression ; passing ; as performance , \u2013, 242n66; and power , ; psychology ; and race ; Scott \u2013; and sex \u2013, , , \u2013; and sexuality , , , \u2013; social construct , , , , \u2013; social relations ; social sciences \u2013; subjectivity , ; symbolic construct \u2013; transgressions \n  * gender anxieties , \u2013, \\- , \u2013, \n  * Gender Identity Disorder \u2013\n  * gender relations ; changing ; family \u2013,  justice , ; masculinity \u2013; modernity 253n52; politics ; social movements ; transformed ; work \n  * gender roles , , \n  * gender theory \u2013, \u2013, \n  * gene splicing \u2013\n  * genetic predispositions \n  * genetics , \u2013, \u2013; behaviour , , , ; cancer ; and culture ; determinism \u2013; disease \u2013, ; gender roles , ; homosexuality ; politics ; research \n  * genital ambiguities \u2013, , 246n122\n  * Gibson, Suzanne \n  * Gilbert, Walter \n  * Gilligan, Carol , , \n  * Gilman, Charlotte Perkins \u2013\n  * girls, adolescent , \n  * globalization , , \u2013\n  * Glover, Edward \n  * Goldman, Emma \n  * Goldner, Virginia , \n  * Goodall, Jane \n  * Gordon, Linda , \n  * Gornick, Vivian \n  * Gould, Stephen Jay , \u2013, , , \u2013, \n  * Greer, Germaine , , \n  * Grosz, Elizabeth \n  * growth hormone \n  * Guntrip, Harry\n\n##\n\n  * Haaken, Janice , \n  * Hacking, Ian , \u2013, , , \n  * haemophilia , \n  * Halberstam, Judith \n  * Haldane, J. B. S. \n  * Hall, Stuart \n  * Hamer, Dean \n  * Haraway, Donna \u2013, , \u2013, \n  * Harris, Adrienne \n  * Harris, Arlene \n  * Harris, Judith \n  * Heilbrun, Carolyn \n  * Herman, Judith \n  * Heron, Liz \n  * heterosexuality , \u2013; coercive ; compulsory ; gender identity ; Greer ; marriage ; masculinity \n  * Hibbert, Christopher \u2013\n  * Hinshelwood, Bob \n  * history \u2013, \u2013, \n  * Hochschild, Arlie \n  * homicide \n  * homophobia \n  * homosexuality , , , ; _see also_ gay subculture; lesbianism; queer theory\n  * Horkheimer, Max \n  * Horrocks, Roger \n  * Hrdy, Sarah Blaffer \n  * Hubbard, Ruth , , \n  * Human Genome Project , , \u2013, \n  * human rights , \u2013, 238n74\n  * Huxley, Aldous \n  * Huxley, Julian \n  * hysteria , \u2013, 254n21\n\n##\n\n  * identity , ; desire ; and difference \u2013; gender , , , , , , , \u2013; politics of , ; postmodern \u20131n35; sexual , ; social construct ; unconscious ; vulnerable \n  * ideology \n  * imaginaries , , \n  * incest , , , \u2013, \n  * _Independent_ \n  * individualistic ethic \n  * industrial action \u2013\n  * infanticide, female \n  * infants ; genital ambiguity \u2013, , 246n122; sexuality , , \n  * International Women's Day march \n  * interpersonal skills \u2013, \n  * Intersex Society of North America \u2013\n  * lrigaray, Luce , , , , , \n  * Italian feminism\n\n##\n\n  * Jacklin, Carol , \n  * Jacobus, Mary \n  * Janet, Pierre \n  * Johnson, Barbara \n  * Jones, Steven \u2013, , \n  * Jukes, Adam \u2013\n\n##\n\n  * Kaplan, Cora 270n48\n  * Kaplan, Temma \u2013\n  * Keller, Evelyn Fox \n  * Kenrick, Douglas \n  * Kernberg, Otto \n  * Kessler, Suzanne , 246n122\n  * Kevles, David \n  * Kierkegaard, S. \n  * Kimmel, Michael \u2013\n  * kin selection \n  * Kinsey report \n  * Klein, Melanie , , , \n  * Koshland, David \n  * Kristeva, Julia , , , \n  * Kuhn, Thomas\n\n##\n\n  * labour divisions \u2013, \n  * Lacan, Jacques: Butler on \u2013, ; feminism , \u2013, ; memory\/truth , ; patriarchy \u2013; phallocentrism , , , \u2013; sexual difference \u2013, \u2013; symbolic \u2013, , , ; women\/lack , \n  * Lancaster, Roger \u2013\n  * language , , , \u2013, \u2013\n  * Laplanche, Jean , , \u2013, \u2013\n  * Latin America, transgenderism \n  * Laufer, Egl\u00e9 \n  * Lee, Hermione \n  * Lee, Richard \n  * left wing , , ; _see also_ socialist feminism\n  * leisure \n  * Lemoine-Luccioni, Eug\u00e9nie \n  * lesbian feminism , \n  * lesbian theorizing \u2013, \u2013, \u2013\n  * lesbianism: castration ; desexualized \u2013; desire ; as dissidence ; genetics ; primates ; rights ; _see also_ queer theory\n  * Levant, Ronald , \n  * Levenstein, Harvey \n  * Levine, Judith \n  * L\u00e9vi-Strauss, Claude , \n  * Lewis, Gail \n  * Lewontin, Richard , , , \u2013\n  * liberalism , \n  * Loftus, Elizabeth \n  * Lorde, Audre\n\n##\n\n  * MacCannell, Juliet Flower \n  * Maccoby, Eleanor \n  * McDowell, Deborah \n  * Macey, David \n  * McGuffin, Peter \n  * machismo \n  * McIntosh, Mary , \u2013, \n  * MacKinnon, Catharine , , \u2013, , , \n  * Mailer, Norman , , \n  * mallard ducks \n  * Mama, Amina \n  * managers, skills \u2013, \n  * Marcus, Laura \n  * marriage , \n  * Mars-Jones, Adam \u2013\n  * Martin, Biddy \u2013\n  * masculinity: as abstraction \u2013; Bhabha ; in crisis \u2013, \u2013, \u2013; and femininity , , , , ; gender relations \u2013; heterosexual ; inferiority ; liberalism ; men's anxieties , , ; phallic ; power ; psychic \u2013; reforming \u2013, \u2013, \u2013; shoring up ; and women \u2013, \n  * masochism \n  * Masson, Jeffrey , , , \u2013, \u2013, \n  * mating strategies \u2013, \n  * meaning and representation \u2013\n  * memes \n  * memoirs, academics \n  * memory \u2013; affective , ; and amnesia ; behaviour \u2013; child sexual abuse , \u2013, ; childhood , , \u2013, \u2013; cognitive psychology \u2013; false \u2013, , \u2013, ; as fiction \u2013; Freud , , ; and history \u2013; psychoanalysis , ; repressed ; storage\/retrieval ; trauma , \u2013\n  * men: competition , ; dominance \u2013, , , 236n35, 263n52; gender anxieties , , \u2013, \u2013, \u2013, ; as managers \u2013, ; mother-son relationship , \u2013, \u2013; patriarchy ; power , , , , ; self-esteem \u2013; sexuality , ; social inequality , , , ; suffering \u2013; as universal ; violence , , , \u2013, , , , 249n42; vulnerabilities , , , ; Wright \u2013; _see also_ masculinity\n  * men's studies , \n  * mentors \n  * Merck, Mandy \n  * mestiza \n  * midwives, reports on violence \u2013, , 269n22\n  * Miller, Alice \n  * Miller, Jacques-Alain \n  * Million Man March \n  * mimesis \n  * misogyny , , , \n  * Mitchell, Juliet , , , , , , , \n  * Mitchell, Stephen \n  * Mohanty, Chandra , \u20131n35\n  * Moi, Toril , \n  * monkey studies: _see_ primatology\n  * Morgan, Robin \n  * Morrison, Toni \n  * mother-child relationships , \u2013, \u2013\n  * motherhood , , \u2013, , ; _see also_ single mothers\n  * Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo \n  * Moynihan, Daniel , \n  * Mulhern, Francis \n  * multinationals , , \n  * Multiple Personality Disorder , \u2013\n  * murder, husband-wife \n  * Mysterud, Iver\n\n##\n\n  * National Black Feminist Organization \n  * National Cancer Institute \n  * National Children's Home Action \n  * National Organization of Women \n  * natural selection , , , \u2013\n  * nature and history \n  * nature\/nurture \u2013\n  * Nelson, Cary \n  * neo-Darwinism , \n  * neo-liberalism \n  * Nestle, Joan , \n  * Netherlands, pregnancy \n  * neuropsychology , \n  * _New York Times Book Review_ \n  * non-adaptationism \n  * Nussbaum, Martha\n\n##\n\n  * Oakley, Ann \n  * object-relations theory , , \u2013, , \u2013\n  * observer, gender , \n  * Oedipus complex \u2013, , , , \n  * oncogenes \n  * oppression ; femininity \u2013; state ; women , , \u2013, 234n6\n  * Orbach, Susie \n  * other , , \u2013,\n\n##\n\n  * Paglia, Camille , \n  * Paley, Grace \n  * Parmar, Pratibha \n  * passing, gender \n  * paternalism , , ; _see also_ fathers\n  * patriarchy , , , \u2013, , , 263n62\n  * Patton, Cindy \n  * pederasty \n  * Peel, Mark \n  * penis , \n  * penis envy \n  * Perelman, Rosine Josef \n  * performance , \u2013, 242n66\n  * Person, Ethel , \n  * personal, and political \u2013, \n  * Peterson, D. \n  * phallocentrism , , , \u2013, \n  * phallogocentrism , \n  * phallus , , , \u2013, , \n  * phantasy , \n  * phenotypes, behaviour \n  * Phillips, Adam , \n  * Phillips, Anne , \n  * phyletic gradualism \n  * Pinker, Steven , , \n  * Pleck, Joseph , \n  * Plomin, Robert \n  * Plotkin, Henry \n  * Plummer, Ken , \u2013\n  * Policy Studies Unit \n  * politics , ; and culture ; of difference , , 238n74; feminism ; gender relations ; genetics ; identity-based , ; and personal \u2013, ; psychoanalysis ; queer , ; sex \n  * Pollack, William , \n  * Pollitt, Katha \n  * Pontalis, J.-B. , , \u2013, , \n  * Popenoe, David \n  * population control \n  * pornography \u2013, \n  * Porter, Roy \n  * post-modernism , , 240\u20131n35\n  * post-structuralism: Anglo-American response ; Derrida , ; and feminism , , \u2013, ; Foucault \u2013; identity \u2013; state \u2013\n  * Post-Traumatic-Stress-Disorder \u2013\n  * poverty , , , , \u2013\n  * power: abused ; and gender , , , , ; masculinity\/femininity ;\n  * phallic \u2013; sexuality ; societal  pregnancy \u2013, , \u2013, , 269n22\n  * pregnancy prevention \u2013\n  * pre-Oedipal attachments , , , \n  * primatology \u2013, \u2013\n  * promiscuity , , \n  * Prosser, Jay , \u2013, 243\u20134n89\n  * psychic life , \u2013; analysis ; child , ; masculinity\/femininity \u2013; particularities ; sexuality ; and social \u2013\n  * psychoanalysis: cultural context \u2013; feminism , , , \u2013, \u2013; gender identity \u2013; memory , ; men's power ; political need ; psychology , , ; sexual difference , \u2013, ; women practitioners \n  * psychobisexuality \n  * psychology: biological ; cognitive , \u2013; fear of the mind ; feminism , \u2013; gender ; genetics \u2013; neo-Darwinism ; and psychoanalysis , , ; quantitative\/qualitative studies , \u2013, \u2013, \u2013; social \n  * psychotherapy , , \n  * public school life \u2013\n\n##\n\n  * queer politics , \n  * queer self-presentations \n  * queer theory , , , \u2013, 243\u20134n89\n\n##\n\n  * race: activism 271n59; and class ; feminism \u2013; and gender ; oppression ; post-modernism 241n35; poverty ; school performance \n  * racism , \n  * radical feminism \u2013, , \n  * rape , , , \n  * rape-adaptation hypothesis \u2013\n  * Raphael-Leff, Joan \n  * Rapping, Elayne \n  * Rathbone, Eleanor \u2013\n  * Reagan, Ronald \n  * _Redbook_ \n  * Reed, Lynn Raphael \n  * Reid-Pharr, Robert \n  * representations \u2013, \n  * reproduction , , , \n  * resistance , , \u2013, \n  * responsibility, personal \n  * Rich, Adrienne , , \n  * Ricoeur, Paul \n  * Riggs, Marlon \n  * right wing \u2013, , \n  * Riley, Denise , \n  * Robbins, Bruce 238n74\n  * Romito, Patrizia \n  * Romney, Patricia \n  * Roper, Michael \n  * Rose, Hilary \u2013\n  * Rose, Jacqueline , , , \n  * Rose, Steven , , , , \n  * Rosen, Ruth \n  * Ross, Andrew , , \n  * Rowbotham, Sheila , \u2013, \n  * Rubin, Gayle , , , , \n  * Rush, Florence , ,\n\n##\n\n  * Samuels, Andrew \u2013, \n  * Schacter, Daniel \n  * schizophrenia \n  * Schneider, Monique \n  * school failure, gender , \u2013, 262n53\n  * Schor, Juliet \n  * Schreber, Daniel Paul \u2013\n  * _Science_ \n  * scorpionflies \n  * Scott, Joan , , \u2013, \u2013, \n  * Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky \n  * seduction theory , \u2013\n  * Segal, Hanna \n  * Segal, Lynne , , \n  * self-deception \n  * self-esteem \u2013\n  * self-exploration , \n  * self-help books , , \n  * selfish gene \u2013\n  * sex ; desire , \u2013, \u2013; domination ; and gender \u2013, , , \u2013; identity , ; politics ; and reproduction , , ; roles , \n  * sex education \u2013, \u2013\n  * sex-reversed species \n  * sexual abuse , ; _see also_ child sexual abuse\n  * sexual difference: cultural analysis , , \u2013; feminism , \u2013; French feminists ; Freud , , ; Lacan \u2013, \u2013; language \u2013; psychic life \u2013; psychoanalysis , \u2013, ; similarities , , \u2013; social context ; stereotypes \u2013\n  * sexual harassment , \n  * sexual selection , \n  * sexuality: ambiguous \u2013, , , 246n122; childhood , , , , ; culture , , \u2013; deviance ; dissident \u2013, ; Foucault \u2013; and gender , , , \u2013; lesbian \u2013; male , ; passivity , ; pleasure ; power ; psychic\/social relations ; transgressive \u2013\n  * Showalter, Elaine \n  * Shulman, Alix Kates \n  * signifiers , \n  * _Signs_ \n  * Silverman, Kaja \n  * Silverstein, Louise \n  * Sinason, Valerie , \n  * Sinfield, Alan , \n  * single mothers , \u2013, , \u2013, \n  * Sinsheimer, Robert \n  * sisterhood , , \u2013\n  * skin colour \n  * Small, Meredith , \n  * Smith, Anna Marie \n  * Smith, Barbara , , \n  * Smuts, Barbara \n  * Snitow, Ann , \u2013, , \u2013\n  * Socarides, Charles \n  * social constructionism: femininity , , \u2013; gender , , , , \u2013; identity ; psychology \u2013\n  * social contexts \u2013, , \n  * social inequality ; adolescents \u2013; gender relations ; men , , , , ; race ; women , \n  * social justice , \n  * social learning theory \n  * social movements , , \n  * social role theory \n  * social sciences \u2013, , , \n  * social transformation \u2013, , , \n  * socialist feminism , , , , \u2013, ; and equal rights \u2013, \u2013; and right wing \u2013; social transformation , , \n  * sociobiologists , \n  * Sokal, Alan \n  * solidarity, feminist , \u2013\n  * Spence, Donald \n  * Sperling, Susan , \n  * Spivak, Gayatri , , \n  * Stacey, Judith , \n  * state , \u2013, , , 236n35\n  * Steedman, Carolyn \n  * stereotypes , \u2013, \u2013\n  * Stern, Daniel \n  * Stoller, Robert \u2013, \n  * Strobel, Margaret \n  * subcultures , \n  * subjectivity , , , , , \n  * subordination , \u2013; _see also_ oppression\n  * survival , , \n  * Sutherland, Stuart , \n  * Swaab, Dick 244n92\n  * Sweden, as social democracy \n  * symbolic, Lacan \u2013, , , \n  * Symons, Donald\n\n##\n\n  * Tavris, Carole \n  * Tax, Meredith \n  * Terr, Leonore \u2013\n  * Thatcher, Margaret \n  * Thornhill, Randy \n  * Tiefer, Leonore \n  * Tooby, John , , \n  * Toynbee, Polly \n  * transgenderism \u2013\n  * transgression , \u2013\n  * transsexualism \u2013, , , \u2013, 244n92\n  * transvestism , \n  * trauma , \u2013, , , , \u2013\n  * Trivers, Robert \n  * Trost, Melanie \n  * Trowell, Judith\n\n##\n\n  * UN Fourth World Conference on Women \n  * unemployment \n  * Unger, Rhoda \n  * universalism: behaviour ; false , ; masculine ; models ; truths \u2013\n  * USA: culture wars ; Equal Rights Amendment ; feminism , , \u2013, , ; incest \u2013; leisure ; masculinity \u2013, ; memory\/trauma \u2013; men\/universal ; National Organization of Women ; sex education \u2013; sexual abuse ; welfare reforms \u2013; Women's Liberation ; women's studies\n\n##\n\n  * Van Der Steen, W. J. \n  * Van Haute, Philippe \n  * _Village Voice_ \n  * violence: domestic , , ; male , , , \u2013, , , , 249n42; against women \u2013, , 268n16, 269n22\n\n##\n\n  * wage levels , \n  * Wald, Elijah , \n  * Walker, Alice \n  * Walter, Natasha \u2013\n  * Walter, Suzanna \n  * war veterans, trauma \u2013\n  * Warner, Michael \n  * Watney, Simon \n  * Watson, James , , \u2013\n  * Weinberg, Simon \n  * Weiss, Robert \n  * Weisstein, Naomi \u2013\n  * welfare benefit cuts \u2013, \u2013, \n  * welfare dependency \u2013, \n  * welfare entitlements , , \u2013\n  * welfare reform , , \u2013, \u2013\n  * welfare-to-work \n  * Wexler, Nancy , \n  * Williams, Patricia \n  * Williams, Raymond \n  * Williamson, Judith \n  * Wilson, E. O. , \n  * Wilson, Elizabeth , \n  * Wilson, Margo , , \n  * Winnicott, Donald , \n  * Wittig, Monique , \n  * women , \u2013; divisions ; empowering ; gender issues , ; human rights issues ; independence ; lack \u2013, ; and men , \u2013, ; oppressed , , \u2013, 234n6; Other ; paid\/unpaid work \u2013, , \u2013; reproductive cycle , ; resistant to change ; social status , , \u2013\n  * Women's Liberation , \u2013, , ; and feminism ; Ruskin College conference ; social transformation \u2013, ; social-feminism \u2013\n  * women's movement , \n  * women's studies \n  * Women's WORLD \n  * Woolf, Virginia \u2013\n  * work: flexibility ; hours ; labour division \u2013, , ; paid\/unpaid , \u2013, , \u2013; _see also_ employment\n  * work ethic \n  * work incentives \n  * workfare \n  * Wrangham, R. \n  * Wright, Robert \u2013, \n  * Wyngaarden, James\n\n##\n\n  * Young, Allon\n\n##\n\n  * Zebrowitz, Leslie \n  * Zihlman, Adrienne \n  * Zita, Jacqueline \n  * \u017di\u017eek, Slavoj ,\n\n# **Wiley End User License Agreement**\n\nGo to  www.wiley.com\/go\/eula to access Wiley's ebook EULA.\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
+{"text":"FORREST WOLLINSKY: PREDESTINED CROSSROADS\n\n[Book Three]\n\nBy\n\nLeonard D. Hilley II\nCopyright \u00a9 2016 Leonard D. Hilley II\n\nNocturnal Trinity Press\n\nAll Rights Reserved\n\n# Table of Contents\n\nTitle Page\n\nCopyright Page\n\nForrest Wollinsky: Predestined Crossroads (Forrest Wollinsky: Vampire Hunter, #3)\n\nChapter One\n\nChapter Two\n\nChapter Three\n\nChapter Four\n\nChapter Five\n\nChapter Six\n\nChapter Seven\n\nChapter Eight\n\nChapter Nine\n\nChapter Ten\n\nChapter Eleven\n\nChapter Twelve\n\nChapter Thirteen\n\nChapter Fourteen\n\nChapter Fifteen\n\nChapter Sixteen\n\nChapter Seventeen\n\nChapter Eighteen\n\nChapter Nineteen\n\nChapter Twenty\n\nChapter Twenty-One\n\nChapter Twenty-Two\n\nChapter Twenty-Three\n\nChapter Twenty-Four\n\nChapter Twenty-Five\n\nChapter Twenty-Six\n\nChapter Twenty-Seven\n\nChapter Twenty-Eight\n\nChapter Twenty-Nine\n\nChapter Thirty\n\nChapter Thirty-One\n\nChapter Thirty-Two\n\nChapter Thirty-Three\n\nChapter Thirty-Four\n\nChapter Thirty-Five\n\nChapter Thirty-Six\n\nChapter Thirty-Seven\n\nSign up for Leonard D. Hilley II's Mailing List\n\nAlso By Leonard D. Hilley II\nThis ebook is licensed for your personal enjoyment only. This ebook may not be re-sold or given away to other people. If you would like to share this book with another person, please purchase an additional copy for each recipient. Thank you for respecting the hard work of this author.\n\nThis is a work of fiction. The events and characters described herein are imaginary and are not intended to refer to specific places or living persons. The opinions expressed in this manuscript are solely the opinions of the author.\n\n\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\u2013\n\nFor Christal, as always.\n\n\"For almost every decision we make, there is always an unforeseen consequence not discovered until after it's too late.\"\u2014Forrest Wollinsky\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter One\n\nWinter 1889\n\nThe journey to deliver Varak, the half-blood vampire, to the Archdiocese in Freiburg, Germany was one of the harshest routes I had ever traveled, not to mention, one of the most depressing.\n\nWhen I had promised Albert the Were-rat that my father and I would escort the child across several countries to the proposed destination, my ambition had not taken into account the approaching fierce winter. Due to the rugged terrain, the frigid winds, and snow mixed with ice, traveling was painstakingly slow. Several times we had encountered mountain passes that were too treacherous to cross, forcing us to find an inn, seek an alternate route, or set up a campsite in the shelter of a crag until the road was cleared.\n\nIn many ways the obstacles seemed to dictate that delivering this child to the archbishop was being frowned upon by Fate and by the higher powers that had chosen me as a Vampire Hunter. These hindrances were warnings we were meant to heed, but acting upon my promise to Albert and due to my undying stubbornness, we continued onward.\n\nThis half-blood child was diabolical and should not be allowed to live. As an infant he appeared harmless, and indeed that was true, at least on the surface. In time, however, once he gained awareness of the charismatic persuasion power contained within him, he could usher forth as a fiendish tyrant worse than anything the world had yet seen. In my soul there was no denying this to be the solid truth. My nightmares continually reinforced these fears.\n\nThere would be grave consequences for protecting Varak and keeping him alive. A hefty penalty would be demanded by the powers that had chosen me. I understood that, but never in a thousand lifetimes would I have ever imagined how great that cost would be.\n\nIn addition to these dilemmas surrounding Varak, I grieved over Jacques' absence. The loss of his companionship made me ache inside. While I was happy that he and Matilda were going to have a child, he had been more like a father to me than a cousin and I selfishly suffered jealousy that his attentions and fatherly affections had turned elsewhere. In less than a year's time, I had lost my mother, Rose, and now Jacques. Off and on, Father seemed absent. Even though he traveled alongside me, his mind obsessed over other factors.\n\nFather slept on the seat across from me in the coach. He had bundled a heavy blanket into a wad, pressed it against near the corner of his side window, and used it for a pillow. Across his lap was a thick wool rug he favored to use as a blanket. Madeline sat with her back in the other corner with her legs slightly pointed toward Father. She had wrapped a small woolen blanket around Varak and cradled him in her arms.\n\nI sat on the seat across from them. Because of my height and width, I almost required the entire seat just to sit down. Neither of them could have squeezed in beside me had they wanted to. Sleeping comfortably along the journey had been nearly impossible for each of us.\n\nThe temperature inside the coach wasn't much warmer than the outside cold except we were protected from the bitter biting winds and snow. Our breath was visible when we exhaled, and I couldn't imagine how our coachman, Thomas, had been able to withstand the extreme wintery conditions seated near the top of the coach. Thomas wore two thick overcoats, heavy gloves, and double thick woolen britches, which possibly wasn't enough to keep him warm, but he had never complained one time.\n\nThe coach suddenly bounced, jarred us sharply, and creaked on what had been, until that moment, one of the smoothest roads we had traveled. The coach tilted to one side, so I slung my weight to the opposite side of my seat to counter it, which was possibly the only thing that prevented our coach from tipping over.\n\nThomas shouted at the horses, \"Whoa!\"\n\nI pulled the curtain slightly aside and peered through the ice-covered window. Dusk was upon us, making the thick forest trees along the road's edge even more ominous. Uncertainty settled over me since we had stopped in such a foreboding place. Thomas had insisted we had enough daylight to make the next village before nightfall where we could find a small inn. But this unexpected delay was inevitable.\n\nStrange misfortunes continued to plague us throughout this journey, and I had a difficult time shunning my suspicions that they kept occurring because of this child.\n\n\"What is it, son?\" Father asked, arousing from his sleep. \"Why have we stopped?\"\n\nI shook my head. \"I don't rightly know.\"\n\nMadeline gently rocked Varak in her arms. She smiled when I caught her gaze. The cute dimples at the edges of her narrow lips deepened. Her bright eyes sparkled, reminding me of Rose, and even though I ached inside, I couldn't resist smiling back. She had been kind and pleasant company during our trip, and I found her endearing like a lovesick fool in spite of our age difference.\n\nThe were-rat had chosen Madeline to accompany us to Freiburg to tend to Varak. She and Father had taken a liking toward one another, and at times the two acted like Varak was their own child, which disturbed me. It troubled me more that Father behaved that way since he knew what the child really was. She and Thomas didn't know because Father and I had sworn to maintain secrecy concerning the infant.\n\nFather sat upright, pulled his curtain aside, and peered out the window at the growing darkness. \"Well, boy, aren't you going out to see what's the matter?\"\n\nI reached for the door latch. \"I suppose I am.\"\n\nStepping outside the coach, I was rewarded with a harsh welcome of cold wind whipping across my bearded face. I shuddered. Thomas stood in front of the horses. The hard thin layer of snow crunched beneath my feet as I approached him. \"What's wrong?\"\n\nHe pointed. \"Bridge is blocked.\"\n\nRocks and snow had fallen onto the road and covered part of the bridge. The howling wind whistled across the narrow stream below. Most of the rocks didn't look too large or heavy, but clearing the path would take several hours. I walked to the roadblock and hefted one of the larger stones, tossing it aside.\n\n\"Forrest,\" he said. \"It will be dark in less than a half hour. We should focus more on setting up camp and getting a fire started. We can worry about moving the rocks in the morning. From the looks of it, we might be better off finding an alternate route come morning.\"\n\nI glanced back toward the coach and nodded. He was right. Getting a fire started was the most important thing. Once the night set in, the temperatures would plummet. At the back of the wagon, I lifted a trunk lid and took out several small dry logs. Deeper in the forest, owls hooted. The piercing howls of wolves echoed.\n\nBefore I turned with the firewood, something on the road caught my attention. Farther behind the coach I noticed a deep trench had been dug across the road, which seem odd. It appeared freshly dug.\n\nThomas stood near the rocky ledge, looking down. With all of the extra clothes he wore, he looked like a massive man, but underneath all the layers he was actually medium framed and thin like my father. I wondered why this man had owed Albert a favor. He had readily accepted this task of providing his horse and wagon to drive us halfway across Europe without ever questioning our intent or offering a single complaint.\n\nThe were-rat had sought seclusion and remained hidden underground because he couldn't risk being seen by mortals, and yet, these two people who traveled with us had somehow become indebted to him? Even though I was curious, I didn't ask. We all had our secrets.\n\nI set the logs at the edge of the road and joined Thomas. He regarded me with nervous eyes, but only for a moment before he looked down again. The stream below wasn't large or fast flowing, so it seemed strange that it had divided the rocky outcrop in half with a several hundred foot gap over time. Water and wind weathered out gorges, ravines, and mountainsides, but usually those water currents were much stronger.\n\nIn the dimming daylight the view of the darkening cliffside was like the barrier that divided good from evil. I imagined dusk at this crag during the summer months was livelier with hundreds of bats swarming into the night on their hunt for insects. But, this winter night, the bats were dormant, silent.\n\nThe coachman removed a glove and broke away the snot icicles that had formed on his gray moustache and beard, ignoring the thin ice attached to his thick bushy eyebrows. He tried to hand comb his beard straighter before his nervous beady eyes glanced up at the narrow ridgeline that followed the road to the ravine where we stood.\n\n\"This might sound odd, Forrest, but this small avalanche didn't occur from nature. It's not by chance.\" His voice was a near whisper and shaky, but not from the cold.\n\n\"What do you mean?\"\n\nThomas nodded toward the cliffside. \"Somebody has intentionally blocked this roadway.\"\n\nGlancing up, I could see that most of the debris had fallen from the peak of the ridge not too long ago since no fresh snow covered the surface. The fallen debris had not crumbled from the side of the rocks. The top edge was barren with several long smooth logs lying at the edge where it appeared someone had used them to dislodge the stones to make them tumble onto the road.\n\n\"Since it was almost dark,\" I said, \"I don't know if you noticed or not, but there's also a trench dug across the road. That's what had made the coach nearly tip over right before you stopped the horses.\"\n\nHis bushy white eyebrows rose, and he stared back at the coach. \"Really? No, I didn't notice that, but I wondered why the coach rocked so hard.\"\n\nInstinct caught my attention and I gave a shrewd stare toward the coach. \"I think we'd best get back to the others and quickly.\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\nI started running. \"Either we're under attack or about to get robbed.\"\n\nFrom the dark edge of the woods, two shadowy figures slinked toward the side of the coach and yanked open the side door. Madeline screamed.\n\n\"Forrest!\" Father shouted. \"Help us!\"\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Two\n\nMore frantic screams echoed from my father and Madeline. I raced faster while patting my coat pocket for a weapon, finding none. Every weapon I possessed was in my Hunter box inside the coach. It's nearly impossible to sleep with sharp stakes in your coat pocket without getting pricked whenever shifting from side-to-side and much safer to store them in the box.\n\nMadeline shrieked. Someone dragged her from the side of the coach toward the forest, but she stubbornly resisted, planting her feet and pushing backwards. She clutched Varak in one arm while flailing her fist at the assailant gripping her elbow. Father dove out the side door and landed on her attacker's back, wrapping his arms tightly around the person's throat.\n\nBy the time I reached the coach, Varak had been pulled from Madeline's grasp by the other assailant who darted quickly into the thick dark forest.\n\nFather held the other man in a chokehold and fought to prevent the young man from getting away. The man's panicked eyes peered at me for only a moment before my huge right fist struck him unconscious.\n\n\"Tie him up!\" I shouted.\n\nWithout knowing the exact direction the other assailant had run, I rushed into the dark forest. The dense trees and underbrush made running nearly impossible, but I didn't slow my pace. Instead my broad body snapped dead branches as I ran headlong between the firs and pines. Thick bramble with sharp thorns fastened to my pants, ripping and tearing, but I ignored the pain.\n\nDusk faded, welcoming the darkness of night. The needled branches obscured visibility, so I chased after the crunching sounds several rows of trees over.\n\nMy mind raced almost as quickly as I ran. The roadblock had been deliberate, but these two weren't normal highwaymen. They had not blocked the road so they could rob us of our gold or valuables. Their goal had been to take Varak, and that alarmed me for several reasons.\n\nHow did they even know the child was with us? Who were they and why had they taken him? Did they know that he was a half-blood vampire?\n\nIf they didn't know Varak was a hybrid, they'd be easier to deal with once I caught them. But if they did know ... They held a more sinister agenda. They wanted him for his power and what he'd eventually become.\n\nBranches snapped against my body. I kept running. My lungs ached from the cold night air, but I continued moving, with my hands out before me, shoving aside the bristled tree limbs. Suddenly I wondered about Varak's welfare. Surely whoever was carrying the child through this dense forest had already injured him by moving through these trees so quickly. I couldn't see any way the infant could escape injury.\n\nThe floor of the forest sloped downward. A huge log lay before me. How I knew in the depth of darkness other than whispered instinct was beyond me. I leapt over the log and landed where the gradient was even steeper. I tried to slow my descent but my boots skidded on the thick layers of ice-covered moss, causing my feet to slip out from under me. I fell hard, rolled, and slid down the steep hill. When I stopped sliding at the bottom, I didn't move. I simply lay there. I held my breath and stayed completely still, listening for footsteps.\n\nNo doubt my theatrical display of plummeting downhill reaching and grabbing for anything to slow my descent had silenced everything in the surrounding forest. If chipmunks could laugh, they were rolling over one another inside their tiny dens. At least none of my family or companions had witnessed it.\n\nWithout a light source in hand, and since the moon had not yet risen, I was practically blind. Never had I wished Jacques was at my side more than I did now so he could guide me with his night vision. That was a trait I truly coveted.\n\nAfter several minutes of silence, the underbrush and dead leaves crunched about thirty feet away in what sounded like cautious footsteps. I pushed myself up slightly and craned my neck, trying to detect the sound better. My hand rested upon a thick solid stick that I could use for a sturdy club. I took it and rose to my feet.\n\nAs much as I wanted no part in delivering Varak to the archbishop in Freiburg, I couldn't abandon the child with strangers who might have darker motives for taking him.\n\nThe slow footsteps crept through the trees, but instead of heading away from me, they moved toward me. I slipped my back against a wide tree trunk, held my breath, and waited, gripping the club tightly with both hands.\n\nI had been in some dark eerie places before. Nothing was darker than a vampire's crypt at midnight, but standing deep inside this dark forest and not knowing what was approaching brought uneasiness to a new level. Footsteps pressed down leaves and brittle twigs, heading to the spot where I had abruptly stopped sliding down the hill. The person or creature sniffed the air, trying to find me I assumed, but the air was filled with the scent of earth, damp leaves, and moss, making it more difficult to pinpoint my exact location.\n\nBecause of the surrounding darkness, I still didn't know what I was about to confront. I tightened my grip on the thick tree branch and eased around the side of the tree, keeping my boots on the tree's massive roots to decrease the chance of making more noise. When I peered around the tree, green eyes glanced in my direction. Before the creature ran or attacked, I swung the branch low, narrowly grazing it.\n\nA wicked growl escaped its mouth. It snarled and snapped at me. What I had thought had taken the child and fled turned out to be a wolf. An angrier wolf since I had attacked it.\n\n\"Sorry,\" I whispered. \"My mistake.\"\n\nIt snarled and growled, unforgivingly.\n\nInstead of retreating, I advanced. I smashed the tree branch hard on the ground, inches away from the wolf. Realizing I was a bigger foe and not afraid of it, the wolf slowly turned and disappeared into the forest without any further confrontation. Thankfully, it was a wolf and not a werewolf. I stood there for a few minutes, listening and wondering where Varak was and who had taken him.\n\nThe forest remained eerily quiet except for my heavy breathing.\n\nNo more footsteps disturbed the forest floor while I listened. Finally after a half hour of waiting for some type of disruption, I decided to return to the coach. At least we had captured one of the assailants. He had answers to the questions burning in my mind, and he'd give me those answers, one way or another. Only, he didn't know it yet.\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Three\n\nBy the time I fought my way back up the steep forest hillside, Thomas had a fire burning at the edge of the ridge. Father had set up a nice lean-to to block the cold wind while capturing the heat of the roaring fire. A bountiful stack of sticks and half-rotted logs lay near the tent, which seemed to be enough to keep the fire alive until daybreak. Wolves howled deeper in the forest.\n\nMadeline sat inside the lean-to sobbing while my father wrapped his arms around her shoulders, trying to console her. Her closeness to the child was understandable since she had been the one to nurture him for the past month and a half. I wondered how much of her affection was due to her role, and how much came from the child luring her with his mesmerizing eyes.\n\nI constantly felt his alluring power, which wasn't as strong as older vampires, but at least I was immune and able to resist his charms.\n\nNear the fire Thomas had bound our attacker's hands behind his back and the man sat on the edge of the road. His ankles were also tied tightly together. When Thomas noticed me standing at the edge of the forest, he met me at the road.\n\n\"Did you get his name?\" I asked.\n\nThomas shook his head. \"No. He has just awakened. You hit him pretty hard.\"\n\nI shrugged.\n\n\"I take it you lost his accomplice?\" he asked.\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"Why would they want the child?\"\n\n\"That's what I plan to find out.\" I walked toward the bound man, carrying the large club I had found in the forest.\n\nAfter I crossed the narrow road, the young man looked up at me with a slight sneer on his face. He looked to be in his early twenties. Shaggy black hair hung to his shoulders, and his beard was sparse. By his clothes he looked to be nothing more than an ordinary farmhand. His eyes weren't menacing like thieves I had encountered before, but some thieves were masters at playing innocent, often weaseling their ways out of blame.\n\n\"Why did you take the child?\"\n\nHe scoffed and shook his head, softly laughing.\n\n\"Where is he?\"\n\n\"In a place you'll never find him.\"\n\nI brought the branch up over my head and then swung it downward, striking his leg hard. He screamed and wailed. I'm certain if his hands weren't tied behind his back, he'd have hugged his leg. He fought to do so in spite of his tight restraints. His sudden tears glistened in the fire's glow. He panted with sharp sobs and looked at me with fear in his eyes.\n\nI examined the large stick and shook my head. \"I can't be certain if that cracking sound was from this tree branch or a bone in your leg. But I'm going to ask you once more. The next time I will strike your head, not your leg. Now where's the infant?\"\n\nThe man gulped air and whimpered. His defiance had disappeared and was replaced by intense fear. His voice became high-pitched and feminine when he replied, \"In the forest.\"\n\nI shook my head. \"I'm aware of that. Where in the forest?\"\n\nHe looked at me nervously but didn't want to offer an answer. I brought the club up again. He closed his eyes tightly and bit his lower quivering lip.\n\n\"Don't!\" a woman said behind me. \"I have the child. No need torturing my brother. It's not worth it. Here, take the infant.\"\n\nI lowered the stick and turned to face her. The young woman stood with Varak in her arms. She must have left the forest when she realized we had retained her brother.\n\nHer long black hair flowed down her shoulders and outlined her pale face. Under different circumstances, without my anger focused toward them for abducting Varak, I might have found her partially attractive and attempted a more cordial conversation. Deception and theft immediately alienated me from any person, making him or her an instant enemy.\n\nShe was extremely thin, even her face. She stood a few inches above five feet in height. For a couple of moments, I questioned whether she was the one I had chased into the trees. In my rush to aid Madeline, the culprit had seemed so much larger. My imagination had magnified the person.\n\nHowever, unlike me, this young lady didn't have thorns stuck in her clothes or abrasions on her face from running through the tree branches. Of course, for all I knew, she probably had planned a quick route of escape ahead of time. If nothing else, she knew the forest much better than I. Or due to my desperation to find Varak, I might have run right past her if she had crouched down, waiting for her brother to join her.\n\nMy adrenaline waned, and the cuts on my legs and hands stung. I glared at her. \"Why did you take the boy?\"\n\nSeeing the child, Madeline rushed from the lean-to and reached for Varak in sheer desperation. The girl readily handed him to her. Madeline hugged the child close and hummed as she walked back to the safety of the shelter.\n\nThe young lady glanced toward her brother. \"Do you mind untying him? Hasn't Drake suffered enough? He's in quite a bit of pain.\"\n\n\"You answer my questions, and he's free to go.\"\n\nThe young man sobbed. His face creased from his agony, and he looked sick from the pain.\n\n\"We were offered a great deal of money to intercept you.\" Her demeanor was calm and her smile almost boastful. \"And to take the child.\"\n\n\"Why? By whom?\"\n\nShe shrugged.\n\nI pointed toward the roadblock. \"That was your doing?\"\n\nShe shook her head. Her long black hair flowed from side to side like soft velvety ribbons. \"His actually. Neither of us is strong enough to have done that. He did it for us.\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\nShe half smiled, somewhat proud. \"As a distraction so we had a better chance to take the child. His plan worked.\"\n\n\"Don't provoke him, Ruby,\" Drake said, his face strained. He leaned back, propping himself on his restrained hands.\n\nI said, \"But there has to be a reason why he set you up to do this.\"\n\n\"All we know is that he has placed a bounty upon that baby,\" Ruby said. \"He told us if we didn't want to do this, he had others who would. We had aimed to collect it.\"\n\nMy jaw tightened. \"So you're willing to kidnap an infant for money?\"\n\nShe appeared hurt by my accusation, even though it was the truth. \"Times are hard. With winter upon us, we have no food and are hungry. The bounty is more money than we'd ever earn in a year working the fields. But we'd have never hurt the little boy.\"\n\n\"How do you know the man who hired you won't?\" I asked.\n\nHer eyes shifted back and forth while she thought. \"I ... we really don't know. I'm sorry, but we never considered his purpose.\"\n\nAt least she was being more honest now. Perhaps her need for money had blinded her. Hunger caused people to do hasty things, and as frail as she looked, she was probably near starvation.\n\n\"Why does he want the child?\"\n\n\"He didn't say exactly.\"\n\nI shook my head. \"It makes no sense why he'd hire the two of you instead of coming after us directly.\"\n\nHer brother whined. \"That's what we had asked him, too.\"\n\nThomas and Father came and stood beside me.\n\n\"And what was his reason?\" I asked.\n\n\"That there'd be less complications if we or someone else did it instead of him.\"\n\nFather glared at her. \"How's that?\"\n\nRuby's nervous eyes flicked from my father back to me. \"He looked a lot like you.\"\n\nI frowned. \"In what way?\"\n\n\"Other than him being much older and his face scarred, you're similar from a distance. The type of clothes you wear, the hat, and he said that he was a ... Hunter. Sounded quite odd the emphasis he had placed on that word since people hunt all kinds of animals in these forests. There's nothing unusual about that. But he insisted he didn't wish to fight against another Hunter.\"\n\nFather gave me an uneasy glance. She was ignorant of what the man had meant, but I understood fully. I didn't like the idea of fighting another Hunter, either. Doing so went against everything the Chosen were ordained to do. We were to be allies with one another, not enemies. But I knew why he wanted Varak, which wasn't something he'd have told these two when he had offered the reward. He planned to kill the child. I held no doubts about that.\n\n\"Did he give you his name?\" I asked.\n\nRuby stared at the ground, deep in thought. Her eyebrows rose, and she looked at me. \"Philip.\"\n\n\"If you had succeeded in taking the baby, where would you have met to exchange?\"\n\n\"In town. At the tavern.\"\n\n\"Which tavern?\"\n\nShe smiled. \"There's only one there.\"\n\nI glanced at Father. \"Can I borrow your knife?\"\n\nFather took it from its sheath and handed it to me.\n\nI knelt beside Drake and cut through the knots of the restraints binding his hands and feet. He immediately reached for his leg, wincing.\n\nRuby stood beside him and offered to help pull him to his feet. At first he was hesitant, but finally he took her hand and she pulled. When he placed weight upon it, he cried out and shook his head.\n\n\"It's broken, Ruby,\" he said, lifting his foot off the ground and bracing against her for support.\n\n\"You broke his leg,\" she said, glaring at me.\n\nI frowned back with a harsher stare. \"Yes, but he's still alive. Had I been forced to hunt you down in the forest to get Varak, it might have been much worse for the both of you. You kidnapped a baby and you think you should go unscathed? In some cities a person could kill you for what you've done and never be charged for such an offense.\"\n\nRuby stood in stunned silence thinking about what I had said. She offered no further argument and helped her brother hobble closer to the fire.\n\nThomas shook his head and walked to the coach. Since it had been a while since we had eaten, I guessed he was going to prepare something for us to eat.\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Four\n\nFather and I stood near the road. He looked at me with great concern. \"Another Hunter wants Varak?\"\n\n\"Seems so.\"\n\n\"What will you do?\"\n\nI sighed. \"Continue on to Freiburg like I promised.\"\n\n\"You ... um ... don't think he'd try to kill you, do you?\"\n\n\"It's possible,\" I said, trying to hide my nervousness.\n\n\"Does he want Varak so he can kill him?\" Father asked.\n\n\"That'd be my guess.\"\n\n\"How would he even know about the child or where we are for that matter?\"\n\nI took Father by the elbow and walked farther away from the others so they couldn't hear our conversation. \"In my heart I know what Varak will become. You know it too. I have no doubt about where his destiny ends. All of this was discussed with Albert, but none of us would do what needed to be done.\"\n\n\"You mean killing him?\"\n\nI nodded. \"Even now, I cannot do something like that. I just can't. Because I'm essentially protecting Varak by taking him to the archbishop, another Hunter has been issued to do what we have not.\"\n\n\"And this Hunter will kill you if necessary so he can kill Varak?\"\n\n\"I believe he will try.\"\n\nFather's eyes hollowed. He shook his head. \"Then give him the child, Forrest. Let the other Hunter perform his sworn duty.\"\n\n\"As much as I'd like to be done with this entire ordeal, handing the child over to another Hunter is the same as me breaking my promise.\"\n\nHe sighed. \"Which is worth more? Your life or Varak's? We know what Varak will evolve into. By keeping your promise you've also put a mark upon your head.\"\n\nI nodded. \"Yes, I've thought about this a lot during the past few weeks while we've been traveling. I've struggled inside.\"\n\n\"See? Then do what's right. Your promise is a violation of your duties, isn't it?\"\n\n\"That's what I fear. Since I've placed myself on the wrong side of my calling, a hefty price will be required of me. What exactly? I have no idea.\"\n\n\"Forrest, you should reconsider what you're doing. It's not safe to betray those who have granted such blessings to you.\"\n\nThe brightness of the moon shone over the ridgeline. Father's face was grim as he stared at me. His emotions stirred, but probably less deeply than my own. He looked away and turned to face the fire, watching Madeline. The longing in his eyes for her was obvious.\n\nSadness shadowed his voice. \"Son, I'm certain you realize how much I covet the gift you have. At times, I've not been able to hide my jealousy.\"\n\n\"I know,\" I said softly.\n\n\"Other than your mother giving birth to you, nothing else would have been as great to me as being one of the Chosen. Only the two of you I have held in higher esteem, so don't forsake your calling.\"\n\n\"So, if you had been Chosen, you'd kill this infant?\"\n\nFather remained silent. He didn't look toward me.\n\n\"Father, you couldn't stake Bodi because he was a small boy. I don't fault you for that, but I've seen the way you and Madeline act with Varak. You nor I could harm him, in spite of the knowledge we have.\"\n\nHe sighed. \"You're right, son. I couldn't either. But, if we manage to get Varak to Freiburg, I might lose you. That's not something I'm willing to sacrifice.\"\n\n\"You're not considering\u2014\"\n\n\"No, let me think on this for a while. There must be another solution.\"\n\n\"I hope so, but believe me, I've tried looking at every angle while we've traveled.\"\n\n\"We can sleep on it,\" Father said, glancing toward me. \"Maybe we'll know better in the morning.\"\n\nI shook my head. \"We cannot wait here until morning. Not with this other Hunter wanting Varak.\"\n\nHe frowned. \"What do you propose we do?\"\n\n\"I'm clearing the road.\"\n\n\"Now? In the dark?\"\n\nI shrugged. \"We'd be a lot farther east if this roadblock had not been set. Besides, I'm not left with any other choice. The more distance we put between us and Philip, the better.\"\n\n\"Why not meet with the Hunter and talk it out?\"\n\n\"There's no negotiation over this matter, Father. I assure you.\"\n\n\"We need to find a way.\"\n\n\"Go warm yourself, Father, and get something to eat. Make sure the girl and her brother get plenty to eat, too. I'll move enough rocks where the wagon can pass, and we'll move on.\"\n\n\"During the night? It'd be safer for us to remain near the fire.\"\n\nI didn't bother continuing the argument. I turned and started heaving aside the rocks. I understood Father was tired, and being scrunched on the narrow coach seat made his aching legs hurt even more. Sleeping was nearly impossible, especially for me. The coach was also cold, even if a pile of quilts was stacked upon us. The cold weather made his legs hurt worse.\n\nAfter a few minutes of his silence, I paused and looked over my shoulder. He had already returned to the fireside where he held his hands close to the flames. The bright flames revealed the comfort on his face.\n\nWhile I tossed more rocks, my mind delved to find understanding and reasoning for how Philip had learned about Varak so quickly. He was determined to obtain the child, and if his goal was to kill Varak, Philip had to be a seasoned Hunter. Age-wise I had recently turned nine-years-old, so I wasn't hardened to emotions like I'd eventually become. Since my childlike mind was still more compassionate, I viewed Varak as an infant and not a detrimental threat to the world\u2014yet.\n\nI wanted to believe what Albert had suggested. Having this child reared by a person of high moral standing might alter his future thirst for becoming an uncontrollable heartless tyrant. If there was even the slightest hope, and I had to admit, it was very slight, Varak deserved the chance to circumvent the expected destiny that lay before him. Like Hunters feared one of our own becoming a vampire, I imagined the fear a hybrid bestowed to the vampire hierarchies if he proclaimed himself an enemy of all vampires and sought to eradicate them. He could succeed without much of a challenge because he held the upper hand.\n\nThat slightest chance of hope was what I clung to at the moment, and yet, this Hunter knew where we were. How? The most probable reason was that his Hunter instinct had prompted him to act, but the more I thought about the situation, the less likely that seemed.\n\nAfter all, Albert had mentioned that it was almost impossible for a Hunter to discern a hybrid, at least not until after its bloodlust had overtaken all sensibility and rationality, and he left behind a massacre for the Hunters to discover.\n\nBut Varak was a child and his powers had yet to mature, so he couldn't attract the attention of a Hunter. Other than my father and myself, the were-rat and his boys were the only ones who even knew about Varak being a half-blood. With the superstitions most Gypsies kept, it was unlikely Esmeralda would have even told those closest to her that the child was a half-blood vampire. I was fairly certain they never knew she had been turned into a vampire, so it was doubtful any of them had sent the Hunter after Varak since he was one of their descendants. They, like her, would seek to keep him alive. So that left Albert, the were-rat.\n\nI found it difficult to believe Albert would have betrayed us and sent this Hunter after Varak. Had he done so to test my loyalty? Surely if this other Hunter approached me, he'd challenge me for the child and harshly rebuke me for not doing what was expected of a Hunter. If I refused to surrender the boy, Philip would go to any means necessary to get Varak, even kill me.\n\nI didn't like the idea of fighting another Hunter, but faced with such a situation, I'd have no other option. For Varak to live, I needed to remain alive.\n\nThen, the forewarning Albert had given dawned upon me. He had said that one day I'd be faced with the task of killing someone who wasn't an undead or a supernatural creature. I'd be forced to kill another human and the ordeal would forever taint me inside, breaking my resolve to remain pure and making me colder. The were-rat seemed determined to set all the proper elements into place, leaving me with no other choices but to follow through.\n\nA rise of anger pulsed through me. I began throwing the rocks aside quicker. His betrayal cut deeply. I had trusted Albert, and he had stood with us to destroy Duke Raginwulf and the Gypsy witch, but he had done so probably more for his own advantageous needs rather than for London's or my own.\n\nNow I wondered if Albert had been the one who had sent the vampire Trenton after me, nearly killing me, and then left the bounty money the following morning.\n\nWhat was his purpose?\n\nMy mind raced.\n\nTurning Varak over to the Archdiocese directly contradicted my duties as a Hunter. My disobedience wrought dangers that I now recognized. Albert might have sent this Hunter to pursue us, however, many more might be summoned to track me and slay the hybrid because of my disobedience to the Chosen.\n\nWhile that might explain Philip's reasons for following us, it didn't explain why the Hunter needed to hire the brother and sister to kidnap the child. Neither had the fighting skills or ruthlessness to succeed. He had to have known that by looking at them. They were simply poor desperate farmhands who needed food more than money. And whom he was using for a greater advantage.\n\nRuby had mentioned the rockslide had been used for ... a distraction. I hurried to throw, roll, and hurl the last rocks off the road and bridge that allowed enough room for the coach to pass.\n\n\"Everyone get into the wagon!\" I shouted.\n\nEveryone around the fire paused and looked toward me with great alarm.\n\nI ran toward them.\n\nHow could I have allowed myself to be misdirected again?\n\nFather hobbled toward me. \"What is it?\"\n\n\"Get in the wagon. Thomas, get to the coachman seat. We need to get out of here. Now.\"\n\n\"Son, what's going on?\"\n\n\"The Hunter. He's here.\"\n\n\"What? Are you certain?\"\n\nI nodded and pointed at Madeline. \"Get Varak into the coach. Hurry.\"\n\n\"Forrest,\" Father said. \"You're acting like a madman.\"\n\nI opened the coach door and grabbed my Hunter box. \"Get into the wagon, Father. We don't have much time.\"\n\n\"What are you doing?\" he asked.\n\n\"Father, get into the wagon.\" I dug through my box, grabbing my dagger, and the gun. \"The Hunter's here.\"\n\nFather frowned. \"Here? He's nowhere around.\"\n\n\"He's been here the entire time. Now, let's move. Otherwise we might all be dead,\" I replied.\n\nThomas sat on the driver's seat and nervously grabbed the reins. I helped Madeline step up into the coach. Father kept looking around but made no attempt to get inside. Finally I grabbed him by the back of his coat and heaved him through the coach door.\n\n\"No need for that,\" he said, frowning.\n\nAfter I placed what few weapons I could use to defend myself against a Hunter, I closed the Hunter box and slid it onto the seat.\n\nRuby stood beside Drake and offered her hand to help him stand.\n\nI shook my head. \"You two stay here.\"\n\n\"What?\" She whined with a feel-sorry-for-me face. \"You're going to leave us here and him with a broken leg?\"\n\n\"Ask the man who hired you for help, if you need a way home. Besides, there's no room for the two of you in the coach.\" I nodded toward Thomas and pointed. \"Head on across the bridge.\"\n\n\"You're not riding with us?\" Thomas asked.\n\n\"No. I'm following along on foot to keep watch,\" I replied. \"I will catch up with you.\"\n\n\"No need for that, Forrest,\" a man said. \"Just hand over the child and you're free to go. We'll have no troubles or contentions between us.\"\n\nI turned to see the Hunter behind me. He was a massive man, my equal in height and weight, if my assumptions were correct, but he was a lot older and more experienced at everything a Hunter knew. The scars on his face were visible even through his beard. His eyes were cold and his gaze was worse than any vampire's heartless stare, sending chills down my back. He had survived a lot of fights and his severe scars testified to that fact. It didn't take but a second's time to realize he wasn't a sensible person.\n\nI shook my head. \"I'm afraid I cannot allow that.\"\n\nA wild grin crept across his face. It was the answer he had hoped to hear. He pulled a dagger from his belt. \"Then your problems are just beginning.\"\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Five\n\nI never had to say another word to Thomas, nor did he hesitate, as our danger was evident. He leaned forward, cracked the whip above the horse's head, causing it to bolt ahead, pulling the coach forward toward the bridge. He then snapped the reins and yelled commands until the horse was running at full speed.\n\nPhilip faced me with his knife at his side. The ease at which he held the blade informed me that this was his weapon of choice and one he enjoyed using. His menacing gaze indicated he was eager to shed blood. Mine.\n\nAlthough I held my dagger, it was with far less confidence. I frowned at him, attempting to be more intimidating, but my lack of scars was a fairly good indicator of my fighting inexperience. \"So that's it? You're just going to attack another Hunter?\"\n\nHis jaw tightened. \"You were given a choice.\"\n\n\"Hunters don't kill other Hunters. There's already too few Hunters in this world without us killing one another.\"\n\nWith the number of vampires escalating, we needed more Hunters than what were in the world. Those of the Chosen were few. Many like my father coveted being tapped with such a calling, so much so that I had encountered self-appointed Hunters who foolishly hoped to make their fortunes slaying vampires but instead reaped early graves. Being a Hunter I could discern an actual Hunter. And Philip was definitely one.\n\nHe frowned. \"Your actions contradict what you've said. The number of vampires has increased. But from what I understand, you've gone rogue and that child with you is a half-blood, which is far more dangerous than a legion of vampires. So you've proven yourself useless to our cause.\"\n\n\"Is that what Albert told you?\" I asked.\n\nMentioning the name jolted him slightly, causing his eyes to widen slightly, but he rebounded quickly without replying.\n\nI grinned. \"That's what I thought. Hunter instinct didn't reveal to you what the baby is or his location. The were-rat sent you with the knowledge.\"\n\n\"Does it rightly matter where I got the information since you're one to ignore the dangers of what a half-blood could do if left to survive?\"\n\n\"It does matter, actually.\"\n\nPerplexed, Philip gave me an odd stare and chuckled. \"Why?\"\n\n\"Because Albert didn't want to kill the child, either. It was he who insisted we take the child to Freiburg's cathedral for the archbishop to rear. This was his idea, but for my father and I, it was a setup.\"\n\n\"So the were-rat duped you?\" He shrugged.\n\n\"And you, too, apparently.\"\n\nHe ground his teeth. \"The child still cannot be allowed to live. There isn't any need for blood to be shed between the two of us, Forrest. As you've already stated, Hunters shouldn't attack one another. Just let me do my duty. I'll be on my way and you can be on yours.\"\n\n\"No. I won't allow you to harm him.\"\n\n\"Why would you keep this child alive?\"\n\n\"Because there is hope that his destined path can be altered.\"\n\nPhilip's brow narrowed. Fury set in his gaze. \"You're a fool. You cannot coddle a poisonous asp and expect it to gradually acquire affection for you. Eventually it turns and bites you. Regardless of how well you have treated it, it is still deadly and will kill you without hesitation at the first opportunity that arises. A half-blood is no different.\"\n\n\"He is an infant\u2014\"\n\n\"Don't be blinded by the smallness of the vessel. It's the vile content, deep inside, which longs to come to the surface. It will only magnify and never lessen.\" He pointed his dagger at me. \"You need to realize it is not human.\"\n\n\"He is half.\"\n\n\"Fool! Have you been mesmerized by its gaze? Has he charmed you into being his servant?\"\n\n\"No,\" I replied. \"I'm immune to\u2014\"\n\nPhilip nodded with a sly grin. \"See? You've already felt his power. Upbringing will not lessen what he already is.\"\n\n\"Time will tell.\"\n\nThe Hunter lunged toward me and slashed his dagger. I recoiled but almost failed to avoid the blade. \"Seems we're at a standstill when it comes to reasoning.\"\n\n\"There isn't any rationalization with you.\"\n\nHe came at me again. I watched his eyes, waiting for him to strike. He looked to the left, I reacted, but his hand made an underhand slice to the right. His eyes had deliberately tricked me. The sharp blade split open a long section of my thick coat sleeve, narrowly missing flesh. He took a quick step back and then shot forward again. This time I kept my eyes on his dagger, stepped slightly to the side, and gripped his wrist tightly. I yanked him in the direction he had thrust the blade, and pulled him off balance.\n\nHis feet fought to slow his momentum but he was unable to gain traction upon the icy edge of the road. He fell forward and rolled into the thick bramble.\n\nI considered running to catch up with the coach, but I wasn't certain how fast this Hunter was. If he were swifter, he'd catch up and attack me from behind. Plus, I wasn't certain what other weapons he might have.\n\nFrom the dark embankment he growled and rose. In the light of the campfire his eyes looked dark and sinister and nothing like I imagined an aged Hunter's eyes to appear. I worried if this was what I'd eventually look like after years of slaying vampires. His frigid gaze fastened upon me. Death gleamed in his eyes. Like I had felt power leap from aged vampires, a similar energy stirred around him, not necessarily evil, but not untainted either.\n\n\"You're a young Hunter, aren't you?\" he asked, cocking a brow. He sensed my weaknesses compared to what power he yielded. \"Na\u00efve and trusting, that's why you won't kill the child.\"\n\nHe stepped from the embankment and walked slowly across the road toward me. His eyes regarded me in the same manner mine often viewed vampires and other undead creatures. He was enslaved to his need to kill. I was his enemy, only because I had chosen to hope Varak could somehow be redeemed. But I wasn't foolish. I knew my limitations. I wasn't strong enough to beat him. His rage overrode my strength. In a knife fight, he'd shred me open and watch me bleed to death. He held no compassion for me, no mercy.\n\nI never expected to fight to the death with another Hunter. It wasn't something I had ever imagined until after I had taken Varak. I understood why I was Philip's enemy.\n\nHe leaned forward and rushed toward me with lightning speed. His blade was extended outward so he could plunge it into my gut, or change the angle quickly and slash me high or low. I wasn't certain how to defend his advance. Even though my blade was out, I was too worried about getting stabbed to consider a counterattack.\n\nMy mind focused on the blade and his swift advance. The blade shone in the fire's light. Before he was able to stab or slash, I attempted to run, but I tripped over my large feet and tumbled sideways. I pivoted, fighting my fall, but I had nothing to grab to correct my balance.\n\nThe Hunter turned slightly, trying to follow my accidental direction and slice me with the blade, but I fell outside his reach. His right boot caught my feet, tripping him. He hit the ground, growled out of frustration, and rolled around to get up. From behind Ruby swung the club and struck him in the back of the head hard, sending him to the ground unconscious. He dropped so fast the pain had never registered on his face.\n\nShe held the club overhead, staring down at Philip, waiting to see if he was going to try to get up again. Until this moment, I had completely forgot about her and Drake. After she was satisfied that he wasn't getting back up for a while, she lowered the club and with bewildered eyes, she stared at me. \"Did he say that he wanted to kill that baby we had taken?\"\n\nI nodded.\n\n\"Why?\"\n\n\"It's best you don't know.\"\n\n\"What's a half-blood? The baby looked normal to me,\" she said.\n\nI ignored the question and nodded toward the Hunter. \"Thanks for ... \"\n\nRuby grinned. \"Thanks for the food.\"\n\nI took some of the longer twine that Drake had been tied with earlier before I had cut through the knots. I flipped Philip facedown and tied his wrists together tighter than normal, hoping he didn't possess the strength to snap the restraints. I didn't want him to get loose until someone happened upon him and cut him free.\n\n\"Ruby, you two don't need to be nearby when he awakens, but with Drake's leg, I can't see any quick way for you to get far.\"\n\n\"You regret breaking my leg now?\" Drake asked.\n\nI narrowed my gaze at him, and he swallowed hard. \"Perhaps a little. But don't forget why I did what I did.\"\n\nI reached into the Hunter's coat pockets and found his wallet and coin pouch. I tossed them to Ruby. She smiled. \"When we first met him, he had a horse.\"\n\n\"Did he?\"\n\nShe nodded.\n\n\"Then it's probably tied nearby. But I've never heard one.\" Tied horses grew impatient and usually protested with some type of nay or stomping of feet. \"Wait here.\"\n\nDrake scoffed. \"Where do you think I'll go?\"\n\nI grinned. \"Not far.\"\n\nI jogged along the crude mountain pass road until a soft whinny caught my attention. Tied at the edge of the road was a dark mare. I untied her, swung up onto the saddle, and rode back to the campfire.\n\n\"You're taking it for yourself?\" Ruby asked. \"When my brother's injured?\"\n\nSwinging off the saddle, I shook my head. \"No. I'm going to help Drake onto the saddle, and then you slide in front of him. Ride to your home, but not too quickly. You don't want Drake to fall off. You might not be able to get him on the horse again, or a fall might hurt his leg even worse.\"\n\nRuby tucked her long strands of hair behind her ears and offered a radiant smile. After helping them both onto the saddle, I searched the saddlebags and took all the Hunter's weapons stored inside.\n\n\"What kind of weapons are those?\" she asked.\n\nI shrugged. \"Let's hope you never need to find out. Now, you two head on home.\"\n\n\"You just going to leave the Hunter there?\"\n\n\"I'm sure someone will come along in the morning to free him.\"\n\n\"And if they don't?\" she asked.\n\n\"I imagine he'll become quite cold after the fire dies down. Now go.\"\n\nRuby tapped the mare's sides softly. The horse began walking.\n\nOnce they were farther away, I searched through Philip's pockets and took any other Hunter weapons he had. I found his dagger on the ground and tossed it over the ravine and hoped it landed in the stream. Even if it didn't, I doubted he'd ever find it again. Other than Dominus I had encountered a few Hunters without contention but none had befriended me like Dominus, and I hated being on this one's bad side. Under the current conditions, there was no redeeming myself with Philip. I needed to catch up to the others, and we needed to put a lot of distance between this aged, mentally disturbed Hunter and us.\n\nTraveling faster to Freiburg might help, but Philip already knew our destination. Albert had told him. Albert had mentioned that our paths would probably pass again. After his betrayal, to that I held no doubts. I definitely intended to seek the were-rat out in the future, but our meeting would not be pleasant. He had a lot of explaining to do.\n\nStaring at Philip's face, I worried that I'd become what this man was, and that deeply disturbed me. I supposed even the righteous slayings of vampires and the undead affected a person's mind over time. Shoving a stake into the heart of a vampire was justified, but the subconscious could become suppressed from guilt since in appearance a vampire still looked like a human. Dominus had partly warned me, but I truly hoped to keep my sanity intact regardless of the number of vampires I slayed during my travels. While awake, slaying vampires was different than what can be projected in a nightmare where the mind doesn't necessarily distinguish the living from the undead.\n\nAs I hurried down the road toward the bridge, I thought about the issue at hand. Weighing both sides of the arguments, I was still torn in making a solid decision. There wasn't any accurate way to predict what was best. I had chosen mercy and hope for a child that might eventually possess neither in his regard for society.\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Six\n\nAfter I had crossed the bridge and rounded the next bend of the descending mountain road, I realized I might end up walking through the night before I ever caught up to my father and the others. But at least the moon shone brightly in the clear night sky.\n\nWolves howled in the wooded valley below.\n\nThe large oaks and maples on both sides of the road weren't tightly knit together like the pine and fir forest I had run through when I had searched for Varak. No thick underbrush and bramble weaved in-between the tree trunks, either. The moonlight cast odd shadows through the leafless canopy and at times, I could have sworn somebody was running from one tree to the other, following me.\n\nShoving my hands into my coat pockets, I gripped a stake in each gloved hand. While I was fairly certain Philip was still restrained, I didn't believe I was alone. Besides, Philip wasn't one who would hide amongst the trees. As angry as he'd be when he finally awoke, if he caught up to me, he'd be certain to make a direct attack. However, since Ruby and Drake had left on his horse, his journey on foot slowed him down quite a bit.\n\nA part of me worried that leaving him bound and weaponless had not been the right thing to do. I didn't know what lurked in this mountainous area, but if a vampire came upon Philip, it wouldn't hesitate to drain the Hunter's blood or possibly turn him into one of the damned, creating something as bad as what Varak was. I cringed. It would be my fault and another iniquity against the Chosen, something that would ensure additional penance.\n\nThe Hunter had left me little choice though. He could kill me; I could kill him, or we surrendered the child to him to kill. None were outcomes I favored.\n\nCrisp leaves smashed underfoot in the forest. When I stopped, the crunching sounds did as well. I picked up my pace, disliking the shadowy trees more and more by the second. As I walked, the footsteps followed.\n\nThe wind howled, slicing through the trees and causing me to tighten my coat near the collar and tip my hat forward. The frozen road crunched under the thudding of my heavy steps. Whoever or whatever was in the forest kept its distance and seemed to avoid being seen whenever I glanced toward the trees. Perhaps it followed me from its curiosity, and I was fine with that, as long as it never charged toward me to attack.\n\nWhile watching the trees from the corner of my eye, my mind returned to Albert again. I couldn't make any sense out of why he had set us up. His actions surrounding Varak were sinister and hypocritical. Several times he had offered to turn me into a were-rat, but I had declined. I couldn't see that being the reason he'd sent the Hunter after us. If he were truly vindictive about my decision, he could have clawed or bitten me in the tunnels during our pursuit of the vampire or the Gypsy witch, but he had never made any such attempt. He seemed to honor my refusal without bitterness, which was why his underhanded betrayal angered me.\n\nSomething else troubled me now as I continued down the road. Thomas and Madeline. Albert had offered their services to me because these two owed him favors, but I wondered if that were true. After encountering a Hunter dead set on killing me for the baby, were these two we traveled with trustworthy or did they have ulterior motives?\n\nThe descending road arced toward the left. I partway jogged. I was about a mile from the small town we had intended to reach before the roadblock had slowed our pace.\n\nTo the right side of the widening road, the forest ended. A crude rock wall lined the edge of the road, perhaps to prevent a wagon or coach from slipping over the embankment during the icier times of the winter, but it also offered a nice overlook of the town below.\n\nA flickering torch caught my attention. Parked farther down at the edge of the rock wall was our coach. Thomas stood in front of the horse with a bag of feed slipped over the horse's mouth. Frothy sweat dripped from the horse and steam rose off its body.\n\nThomas turned at the sound of my heavy footsteps. He gasped. I guessed his reaction was from how the brightness of the moon had obscured my shadow on the roadway, but I was wrong. It was what stood behind me that horrified him. The air grew even colder, making my next breath so painful that I expected it to be my last.\n\nI sensed something behind me. Glancing over my shoulder, I swung around to the shadowed outline of a creature that made me flinch. My eyes adjusted enough for me to see more details. Its ears were pointed. The creature was nude. Its skin was ebony and hairless. Its bald head was dome shaped. The beady red eyes shimmered like flames and it had rows of sharp jagged teeth.\n\nAt first glance, I thought this was a ghoul. I grabbed the torch from the sconce on the coach.\n\n\"No, Forrest,\" Thomas said. \"Don't. It's a plague-demon. If it touches you, you'll die within minutes.\"\n\nWas this what had followed me through the forest?\n\nThe demon gnashed its teeth. I held the torch between it and me. Small bubbling pustules formed all over its skin, swelling and popping, leaking pus, and cycling through the little eruptions over and over.\n\n\"Fire won't hurt it,\" Thomas said.\n\n\"How do you know this?\" I asked.\n\n\"Because it has come for me.\"\n\nI stared at him over my shoulder. \"What?\"\n\nHe nodded. Fear shrouded his face. \"Albert sent it.\"\n\n\"Albert?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"He sent this demon after you? Why? To kill you?\"\n\nA look of utter gloom overshadowed his face. \"I owed him a debt. One I could never repay. He offered me a challenge that either freed me of what I owed or I paid with my life. Either way, I didn't owe him anything afterwards.\"\n\n\"What was the deal?\"\n\nThomas sighed. \"If I could get you, your father, and the child to Freiburg before the plague-demon caught up to us, I kept my life and owed him nothing, provided I never returned to London.\"\n\n\"And after you died, we became essentially stranded?\"\n\nThomas looked down. \"Yes.\"\n\n\"Well, you're not dead yet.\"\n\n\"Let me accept my Fate, Forrest. Don't jeopardize your life for mine.\"\n\nPerhaps this was why the entire time he had driven during the worst winter conditions he had never issued a complaint. It certainly explained his nervousness when we had come to the roadblock. His goal had been to stay ahead of the demon. But I didn't think this creature was able to pursue a horse and coach so quickly, even with our delay at the bridge.\n\n\"Thomas, I'm a Hunter. No need to sacrifice your life to it. There has to be ways to kill it.\"\n\nI turned toward the demon and thrust the torch at it. It didn't move, nor did it show any fear of the fire. Its intense stare focused on Thomas and ignored me, not even regarding the torch or me as a threat.\n\n\"Fire isn't one of them, Hunter,\" a female said from the hillside above me. \"I've been tracking him for hours through the woods. Don't you dare rob me of my kill!\"\n\nI glanced in her direction. Her silhouette showed her pull back the bowstring and fire. The arrow pierced into the back of the vile demon's head and disintegrated. Its black body stiffened. Red flames surfaced on its skin through its leaking pustules and the demon crumbled into a heap of ash.\n\nShe ran down the road toward us. Her hand dusted away the thick ash until a polished stone the size of a small grape became visible. She picked it up and examined it in my torch's flame. With a slight smile, she said, \"An emerald this time.\"\n\n\"An emerald? From a demon?\" Thomas asked with keen curiosity.\n\n\"Reward for my service. The last three had been sapphires.\"\n\n\"There were more?\" Thomas asked.\n\nShe nodded.\n\nHe glanced toward me. \"He mentioned only one.\"\n\n\"Albert cannot be taken at his word,\" I replied.\n\nThomas whispered, \"I suppose not.\"\n\nI held the torch above my head to look at the young lady. The bright flame revealed more of her. She had streaked her face with mud, which had dried and become cakey and was starting to crumble. Dead branches and weeds had been tucked into her oily braids. I supposed to help conceal her as she slinked through the trees and shrubs. In her disguise it was difficult to judge her true appearance.\n\nHer odor, on the other hand, was ripe like soured sweat. I had seen fewer boys with less filth upon them after a day of labor in the muddy fields than what she had traipsed during her hunt for these demons. Of course, I had no idea how long she had been out on this particular hunt, either.\n\nAround her neck hung a strange pair of goggles. The lenses were bulged and connected with a leather strap. She tucked the gem into a small pouch on her narrow belt. Then she took a wide mouthed jar from the small pack on her shoulders. After unscrewing the lid, she filled the jar with the smoldering ash and sealed it shut.\n\nHer eyes glanced toward me. Her soft voice was more pleasant than I expected. \"Thank you, Hunter, for not robbing me of my kill. Did you really think fire would affect a demon?\"\n\n\"I had hoped.\"\n\nShe laughed in a wild high-pitched tone. \"Demons come from the pits of Hell where they find comfort in the flames. You offered no real threat to him at all.\"\n\n\"We greatly appreciate your help ... Miss\u2014\" I said, looking at her.\n\n\"Penelope,\" she replied. \"And you are, Hunter?\"\n\n\"Forrest, and this is our coachman, Thomas.\"\n\nShe did a slight elegant curtsey in spite of her grimy exterior.\n\nThomas removed the feedbag from the horse's mouth. \"We should get going, Forrest. If she's killed four of them, there's bound to be more.\"\n\nI nodded.\n\n\"You need to take me along,\" Penelope said.\n\n\"We don't have enough room,\" I replied.\n\n\"That's gratitude for you. Leave me out in the cold after I saved your friend's life.\" She scrunched her nose.\n\n\"There's hardly room in the seat for me,\" I said.\n\nShe grinned. \"Then it will be nice and cozy, eh? I don't mind. Really. As cold as it is, it will keep us warm until we reach our next destination.\"\n\nI stood with a long awkward silence, which was broken by Thomas smacking my shoulder and laughing softly. \"The two of you will manage quite splendidly, regardless of how little room you have.\"\n\nMy brow narrowed as I watched him climb up onto his seat.\n\n\"Besides,\" Penelope said, \"more of these demons will appear. They seldom travel alone, but these seem determined in infecting whomever they've been sent after. Even though I've only encountered one at a time, I've killed four in the last half hour. They're coming after Thomas, aren't they?\"\n\nHe nodded nervously.\n\n\"Interesting,\" she said.\n\n\"What?\" I asked.\n\n\"With their dedicated determination, I would've assumed they had come after you since you're the Hunter. He's just a coachman.\"\n\n\"No, the demon wasn't my problem,\" I replied.\n\n\"He has another Hunter hunting him,\" Thomas said.\n\nShe cocked a brow and pursed her lips for a moment. \"Really? Why?\"\n\n\"It's a long explanation,\" I said.\n\n\"We have plenty of time.\" Her face beamed beneath the layer of dried mud. Bits of loose debris flaked off her skin.\n\nI looked up at Thomas. \"What exactly did you owe Albert?\"\n\n\"Now isn't the time to discuss it, Forrest. Honestly, we need to be moving onward. I will drive through the night, if necessary, to prevent us from encountering any more demons.\"\n\nPenelope nodded. \"That's wiser than stopping along the way. Plague demons seldom appear during the day.\"\n\n\"So travel at night and sleep during the day?\" I asked.\n\nShe shrugged. \"Shouldn't be any different than what a Vampire Hunter does anyway, correct?\"\n\n\"Depends upon the vampire,\" I replied. \"I'd rather stake them in their crypts during the daylight hours whenever possible.\"\n\nThomas glanced over his shoulder to the road behind us and then he narrowed his gaze at me. \"Please, Forrest, let's go.\"\n\n\"What about Madeline?\" I asked. \"Was she indebted to Albert as well?\"\n\nHe shrugged. \"I don't know. You need to ask her. Now get inside, so we can travel on.\"\n\nPenelope smiled and opened the coach door. \"Should I get in first?\"\n\nI shrugged. \"Only if you want me to crush you by accident. It's probably safer if I get settled first.\"\n\nShe waited for me to squeeze inside the coach and seat myself before she climbed in. I slid over as far as I possibly could, and she fit beside me with more room than I had imagined she'd have. She placed her bow at our feet and yanked the door closed.\n\nFather snored, and Madeline opened one eye momentarily before closing it and returning to sleep, if she had awakened at all. I doubted our presence had even registered with her. At least I hoped she was still deeply asleep because I wanted to learn more about the Demon-hunter without any interruptions from Madeline or Father.\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Seven\n\n\"How did you kill that demon?\" I asked.\n\n\"You worry about slaying the vampires. Let me kill the demons.\"\n\n\"What's that hanging around your neck?\"\n\n\"My spectacles? You like them?\"\n\nI nodded.\n\nPenelope untied the leather strap and handed the odd glasses to me. \"Take a look.\"\n\nI placed the spectacles against my eyes and peered through the lenses. Immediately everything in the coach brightened as though we were in daylight or had several bright oil lanterns lit. The outer rim of the glasses was solid brass with thick brads fastening the goggles against the thick leather. On the right lens were crosshairs to zero in on a target. I pulled back the curtain and gazed outside. Everything was bright in the forest. I marveled and turned toward her. \"Where did you get these?\"\n\n\"I had a craftsman make them for me,\" she replied. \"Since most demons are active during the night, I needed a better way to see in the darkness. No need to give them an advantage over me.\"\n\n\"I'd love to get a pair of those. Were they expensive?\"\n\n\"I had to kill one Astaroth demon and two lesser abyssal demons to earn enough money to pay the metal crafter.\" She picked up her bow and pointed at a round lens. Brass protected the glass. \"He also made this, so I can have almost pinpoint accuracy.\"\n\n\"Do all of the demons you've killed leave behind gems?\"\n\nPenelope shook her head. \"No. An Astaroth is extremely rare to happen upon. They are seldom seen. It left me several large diamonds, which I sold to a gem crafter. The lessers each left large garnets of rare colors, so I fetched a good bit of money for those. But I have killed dozens of demons and not reaped a single gem or gold nugget. These plague demons have been consistent thus far, but I don't understand why. Of course I've never seen them travel alone or have a replacement emerge soon after I have killed one. They usually are sent in small numbers to infect an entire city.\"\n\n\"What did you kill it with?\"\n\n\"You saw the arrow, didn't you?\"\n\n\"I thought I had, but it must have dissolved when it struck the demon. The arrow wasn't there after the demon turned to ash. That's why I asked.\"\n\nShe smiled. \"The arrow was consumed by the plague, which is a protective measure for these demons. But the poisoned arrow destroyed the disease, causing the demon to incinerate. These demons don't have blood. The plague oozes through their veins, keeping them alive until they gut themselves inside a group of people in a town or city and the disease is released. You kill the plague and they die. Fire can't hurt them, but the poison I use can.\"\n\n\"So you have a poison that destroys the plague? How'd you happen upon that?\"\n\n\"A healer. But most folks would probably consider her a witch.\"\n\n\"I see. Is she in your town?\"\n\nShe shook her head. \"No. She lives in the forest. Deep in the forest. She doesn't like visitors.\"\n\n\"But she likes you?\" I asked.\n\nPenelope shrugged her narrow shoulders. \"After she accidentally summoned a demon during one of her rituals, she sought me out. I killed the demon for her, and we sort of entered into a bartering exchange. She has ... medicines I need, and I trade her things she needs.\"\n\n\"Like what?\"\n\n\"Witches need a vast array of ingredients for their incantations. Demon dust is obviously something easy for me to obtain. Vampire dust, on the other hand, I occasionally get whenever a Hunter is kind enough to allow me to go along on one of his kills.\"\n\nI was still staring at her through the goggles. She batted her eyelids at me with a flirty smile, which might have worked better if she didn't have the cakey mud smeared across her face and the twigs and ferns tucked in her matted hair. A bath would have helped as well.\n\n\"I'm all out of vampire dust,\" I replied.\n\nShe rolled her eyes, sighed, and looked away. \"Like you'd be carrying it on you to begin with.\"\n\nI chuckled. \"To be honest with you, our funds for our journey have almost depleted, so my father and I will probably seek to find a place where a reward is being offered to kill a vampire.\"\n\n\"Your father is a Hunter, too?\"\n\nI shook my head and whispered, \"He hunts them, but he's not one of the Chosen.\"\n\nShe winked. \"Ah, I see. I suppose he's sensitive about that?\"\n\nI nodded.\n\n\"I know a place,\" she said, looking toward me with a broad smile. \"Where you could earn money for killing a vampire.\"\n\n\"Is it far from here?\"\n\n\"We should reach it by daylight, depending upon which route your coachman decides to take. If any other plague demons are following us, they won't likely surface after the sun rises. It would give us enough time to find the lair. You kill the vampire, I get its dust, and then you return to get the money. Afterwards, your coachman heads to the next point of your destination. Where are you traveling to anyway?\"\n\n\"Freiburg,\" I replied.\n\nHer brow rose. \"That far away?\"\n\nI nodded.\n\n\"Why?\"\n\n\"The child Madeline's holding. We're taking him there.\"\n\n\"To the Archdiocese?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\nHer eyes widened with excitement. \"Would you mind if I traveled there with you?\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\n\"I've heard about the beauty of the cathedral and the town. It's always been a place I've wanted to venture to. Since I do most of my traveling on foot, it's unlikely I'd ever get to go. So do you mind letting me ride along?\"\n\n\"If you're not too crowded?\"\n\nAgain her broad smile widened. It was cute in spite of her ... muddy cheeks. \"Not at all. I have plenty of room right here beside you. You put off enough body heat to dispel the cold. Do you think the others will mind? My coming along?\"\n\nThere was something about her that intrigued me. Maybe it was the softness of her voice or the look in her eyes when she stared at me, but I rather liked the thought of traveling with someone who was closer to my age. Besides, she had not only saved Thomas from the demon, she had ensured that I hadn't been infected by it. I didn't have much knowledge about demons. By having her with us, I could learn a lot from her.\n\nHer eyes showed her eagerness for my answer. I smiled. \"I don't think there will be any objections.\"\n\n\"Thanks.\" Penelope scrunched her nose and scooted against the doorframe. She tucked her arms tightly to her sides. \"I hate that we're traveling through the night instead of stopping at an inn though.\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\nAs she closed her eyes, a grim smile formed on her face. \"I'm embarrassed to say that I have developed quite a foul odor from tracking and killing those demons. I apologize. I didn't ... realize it until after getting inside these tight quarters beside you.\"\n\n\"I probably don't smell any better after my earlier run-ins.\" I thought about my plummet down the mossy hill and landing in all the half-frozen mud and debris, not to mention how much I had sweated from my nervous near-death encounter with Philip.\n\n\"I'm afraid it's much more different.\"\n\n\"Why is that?\"\n\n\"You're a man, and well, men tend to sweat a lot, especially after a hard day's work. There's seldom a man in my village that you cannot smell far before you see him. Even deer musk isn't that bad.\" She grinned. \"But a lady needs better cleanliness.\"\n\nLady? I almost scoffed, but watching her through the goggles, I read the sincerity on her face. The meekness in her voice caused me to view her in a different light. She was genuinely embarrassed. Based upon our first meeting and seeing her now, I couldn't ever imagine her in a frilly dress. It contradicted her rugged appearance. She had more dirt encrusted around her fingers and beneath her short fingernails than I did, and she still regarded herself as a lady, in spite of everything else. But like me, she took her calling seriously, and sometimes, that demanded us to step outside our normal boundaries.\n\nA tear trickled from her eye and the cakey mud quickly claimed it.\n\nI felt sadness for her. \"You're amongst friends, so no need to fret.\"\n\nShe frowned and pointed toward my father and Madeline. \"They're asleep. What would they fret over right now anyway?\"\n\nI shrugged with a teasing smile. \"The less they'll complain.\"\n\nShe thrust a playful elbow into my ribs with a soft giggle so lovely I could have listened to her laugh for hours. I found myself attracted to her and liked her being close to me.\n\nI turned slightly in the seat to see her without constantly straining my neck. \"Whenever we reach this town you mentioned where the vampire is, we'll find an inn or a bathhouse.\"\n\nPenelope didn't reply, so I decided to change the subject.\n\n\"How long have you been a Demon-hunter?\"\n\n\"Eight years.\"\n\nShe had been killing demons for almost as long as I had been alive, and she didn't have any visible scars. \"How old were you when you killed your first one?\"\n\n\"Twelve, I think. It's hard to remember. How about you? How old were you when you killed your first vampire?\"\n\nI froze. I didn't wish to reveal my actual age to her. For some reason, I thought she'd think less of me or treat me like a child. I frowned, pretending to be deep in thought. \"Like you said, it is hard to remember, isn't it?\"\n\nHer thick dirty eyebrows rose. She remained skeptical for a few moments. \"It can be.\"\n\n\"What prompted you to hunt demons? Few men your age would dare hunt down demons.\"\n\nPenelope looked at me with a sense of pride glowing on her face. \"Like Vampire Hunters, we're Chosen, too.\"\n\n\"I didn't realize that.\"\n\nShe smiled. \"There are those who hunt demons without being Chosen, but they usually end up possessed or sacrificed. While I'm not exactly immune from being possessed, it's a lot harder for a demon to gain the control over me to enter my mind or body.\"\n\n\"I'm resistant to a vampire's compulsion, and even a master's. Thus far, anyway.\"\n\n\"I guess such abilities were deemed upon us so we can slay the demons and vampires. Otherwise, we'd become victims.\"\n\n\"How is it that you know so much about Vampire Hunters?\"\n\nPenelope folded her hands together and rested them on her lap. \"My father was one of the Chosen.\"\n\n\"Was?\"\n\nBiting her lower lip, she turned toward the window, but she didn't attempt to move the curtain to peer outside. \"I've not seen him in years, so ... I suppose he might still be alive.\"\n\n\"If it eases your mind any, the Hunters I know travel constantly, sometimes moving across the oceans and through many countries. The older ones become drifters. My guess is they do so to draw less attention to themselves or to protect their loved ones. Maybe he's traveling elsewhere?\"\n\n\"Maybe. How long have you been a Hunter?\"\n\n\"Less than a year.\"\n\nShe offered a bewildered stare. \"How many kills?\"\n\n\"Nearly a couple of dozen.\"\n\n\"Impressive. Where did you and the others depart in this coach?\"\n\n\"London.\"\n\nShe looked stunned. \"So tell me why you're taking the baby to Freiburg when there are other cathedrals along the way?\"\n\nThat was a good question since I had discovered Albert had betrayed us. \"I don't rightly know.\"\n\n\"And why take the child to a cathedral and not an orphanage?\"\n\n\"The child's welfare could become greatly jeopardized in an orphanage.\"\n\nPenelope looked at me and realized I was still looking at her through the spectacles. \"You like those, huh?\"\n\nI nodded. \"I like to see who I'm talking to.\"\n\n\"You're at the advantage then.\"\n\nI lowered them. \"Here, I'll give them\u2014\"\n\n\"No. I'll let you keep using them while we ride, but should we be forced to exit the coach due to a demon attack, I'll need them back.\" She smiled. \"You can hold onto them but only if you answer a question for me. Deal?\"\n\n\"Depends upon what information you're fishing for.\"\n\n\"Fair enough. I'd rather you tell me than for me to draw my own conclusions.\"\n\n\"That isn't a question,\" I said with a teasing smile.\n\nPenelope stared at Varak, took a deep breath, and sighed. \"This child must be of the utmost importance for a Hunter to escort ... him? It's a boy?\"\n\n\"Yes, and now I've answered your question.\"\n\nShe elbowed me slightly and shook her head. \"That was a question, Forrest, but not the question.\"\n\nI tsk'ed with my tongue. \"You need to be more specific.\"\n\n\"The boy is very important for you\u2014a Hunter\u2014to be escorting him across several countries to get him to the Archdiocese. Why is he this important and why are you protecting him?\"\n\n\"That's two questions. You said one.\"\n\n\"It was asked as a single question.\" Penelope gave a me a shrewd narrowing of the eyes and scrunched her nose.\n\nI shook my head. \"It had two whys. Which question do you wish to have answered?\"\n\nThe expression on her face indicated that she knew I was teasing because I half expected her to hit me. Instead of being agitated, she grinned. \"Fine. I'll rephrase the question. Why is he so important that you need to protect him? Anyone could deliver him to the Archdiocese.\"\n\nI handed her the spectacles.\n\n\"You're not going to answer?\" she asked.\n\nI shook my head.\n\n\"Why not?\"\n\n\"It's safer you don't know.\"\n\nHer brow furrowed. \"Phht. Really? I kill demons, Forrest, sometimes on a daily basis. You realize that, so whatever reasons you have for making this journey pales in comparison to what you think you're protecting me from. Unless you're hiding something else from me?\"\n\nI turned slightly on the seat.\n\nShe placed her hand onto the back of mine. \"Your coachman said that another Hunter is hunting you. Is that really true?\"\n\nI nodded.\n\n\"Has he attacked you?\"\n\n\"Yes. His intent was to kill me.\"\n\nPenelope rubbed the back of my hand. \"Because of this baby?\"\n\nI stared through the darkness to where the baby was cradled in Madeline's arm. Even though I couldn't see them without the aid of the spectacles, I sensed his presence. He wasn't quite a year old yet, and Madeline continued nursing him, but his aura was growing stronger. I wondered if Penelope could detect his power yet or not, or if Demon-hunters were even capable of sensing what Vampire Hunters could?\n\nVarak definitely could influence others to do his bidding. He couldn't speak yet, but he commanded his persuasion in subtle unexplained ways. His eyes were captivating, and Madeline had been endeared to him in the same manner as Esmeralda and the former wet-nurse had been. They were willing to fight and sacrifice their lives in order to save his. The same had occurred when Ruby had held the baby for less than an hour. Her knocking the other Hunter unconscious wasn't her idea. Varak had somehow indicated to her the threat this Hunter presented to the child. Ruby was small and frail compared to the Hunter, and obeying his request for the reward would have outweighed her decision to attack the man. Had he not lost consciousness, he could have killed her in an instant.\n\nVarak was already powerful and those unknowingly yielding themselves to him would never suspect he was inside their minds controlling their thoughts. It would be ludicrous for anyone to believe, except for me or any other Hunter. Even my father forgot what Varak truly was at times.\n\nThe things babies needed the most were food, shelter, and love. Of the three, love was the most important. Love shaped minds early, allowing a child to feel safe and sheltered. Babies couldn't ask to be loved. That came from the parents, but Varak was different. His real parents were dead. His life had already been threatened many times, and to survive long enough for him to reach adulthood, he needed dedicated, undying devotion. He already understood that his life was endangered. Such knowledge could only come from what he truly was\u2014a half-blood.\n\nPenelope had separated her spectacles into two separate lenses and placed one on my lap. Then she enveloped her tiny hand around the side of mine. I closed my hand gently around hers. \"Did you hear my question, Forrest?\"\n\nI jerked around toward her. \"I'm sorry. My mind was drifting.\"\n\n\"I thought maybe you were thinking about something else. It's late. You can stare through the goggle I handed you, if you wish to look at me while we talk.\" She placed hers to her eye and faced me. \"I can see you now, too.\"\n\n\"You didn't break them, did you?\"\n\n\"No. They fasten back together rather easily.\"\n\nI placed the one to my eye. \"What did you ask?\"\n\n\"The hunter is after you about this baby. Why?\"\n\n\"Penelope,\" I said softly.\n\n\"Forrest, since I'm traveling with you, I need to know why he's pursuing you over this child. I cannot think of any logical reason for him doing that. So let me know if me fighting alongside you against this Hunter is worth even sacrificing my life, okay? That's fair enough, isn't it?\"\n\nI sighed and whispered close to her ear. \"It is. And if you decide it's not worth it, we let you off at the next town.\"\n\nShe squeezed my hand and nuzzled closer so we spoke only in whispers. \"Okay.\"\n\n\"Varak is a half-blood. He's half vampire and half human, considered by Hunters to be an abomination to the human population.\"\n\n\"A half-blood?\" Her eyebrow above the goggle rose. \"Are you certain? That's so rare most people regard it as only a legend.\"\n\n\"I wish that were the case, but it isn't,\" I replied.\n\n\"How are you certain?\"\n\n\"We know Varak's origin. He's already capable of influencing those who are taking care of his needs.\"\n\n\"According to the legend, since you're a Hunter, you're supposed to ... kill him but you don't intend to?\"\n\n\"That sums it up,\" I replied. \"So do you want us to let you off at the next town or do you still wish to go to Freiburg with us?\"\n\n\"To be honest, I couldn't carry out those orders, either. I'm surprise any Hunter could. But, you know, I cannot recall in history where a half-blood has ever reigned, can you?\"\n\nI shook my head.\n\n\"Where is it written that all half-bloods are evil?\"\n\n\"I don't know.\"\n\n\"Me, either. Does the archbishop know you're coming?\" she asked.\n\n\"My guess is no. But we were given strict instructions not to tell him what Varak is. Madeline and the coachman don't know. Just my father and myself, and now you.\"\n\nHer mouth came closer to my ear. Her whispered breath was hot when she spoke. Chill bumps prickled down my neck and back. I closed my eyes. My stomach felt odd because of her closeness. \"I wish to continue to Freiburg with you, Forrest. You might be intimidating to a lot of people, but you seem to have a gentle heart. I like talking to you and don't mind sharing this seat with you at all. I hope you feel the same, too.\"\n\nBefore I replied, she softly pressed her lips to my cheek. I swallowed hard.\n\n\"It's late,\" she said. \"If you don't mind, I'd like to get some sleep.\"\n\n\"Perfectly fine by me. I'm tired, too.\"\n\nWith the gentle rocking of the coach, it didn't take long for me to fall asleep. Dreams this night were more pleasant than any I had had in months.\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Eight\n\nA sliver of light shone through the curtain where my shoulder had pushed it aside while I slept. The light caught my closed eyes perfectly, prompting me to awaken. I shifted slightly and discovered Penelope had snuggled against me during the night. Her face was nuzzled against my chest and her arm wrapped around my waist. Her hand clung to my side like she was hugging me, and my right hand rested on her back.\n\nShe breathed softly. The warmth of her embrace brought strange excitement to my chest and stomach that I didn't understand. I found comfort from her closeness and hoped she didn't awaken for hours. I didn't want her to stop holding me. I felt less alone and isolated with her pressed against me.\n\nI glanced up and noticed Father staring intently at me. His eyes questioned without him uttering a single word. A slight grin crossed his lips.\n\n\"Where did she come from?\" he asked softly.\n\nI explained what had occurred while he was asleep.\n\n\"Plague demons?\"\n\nI nodded.\n\nHis brow furrowed. \"This journey gets more livelier the farther we go.\"\n\n\"It's been eventful,\" I replied.\n\n\"And she's traveling with us?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"To Freiburg?\"\n\nI nodded.\n\n\"She hunts demons?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\nVarak stirred in Madeline's arms, causing her to awaken. She pulled a thin blanket to cover him while she let him nurse.\n\nFather stared at Penelope for a few moments before his eyes shifted to look into mine again. \"You reckon she ever bathes?\"\n\nEven though she was asleep I found myself offended by his question. My jaw tightened and I spoke in a low even tone. \"She was trying to keep herself concealed while tracking demons through the forests. I imagine she doesn't always look like this, but you're free to ask her when she awakens.\"\n\n\"Son, I didn't mean that like it sounded.\"\n\nI picked bits of dried fern sprigs and twigs from her tight braids with my left hand, trying not to disturb her sleep. She took a deep breath, raised her head slightly, and rubbed her cheek against my chest. Dried mud crumbled. Small pieces of dirt clods slid down my shirt and formed a tiny pile at the top of my belt.\n\nFather said, \"I just thought that demons could sense a human's presence, even in disguise.\"\n\n\"Something else you need to ask her. I don't know enough about demons to tell you.\"\n\n\"Perhaps she can train you.\"\n\n\"I'm willing to learn.\"\n\nI peered down at her. Her brow furrowed, and she blinked several times before looking up into my eyes. I held my breath. Her hazel eyes were bright, almost sparkling and more beautiful than a priceless gemstone.\n\n\"You're stomach's growling,\" she said, easing up.\n\nMy hand eased off her back.\n\n\"He's always hungry,\" Father said.\n\nShe jolted up and glanced in his direction. I quickly introduced her to Madeline and Father.\n\nAfter Penelope slid away from me, I suddenly felt cold without the warmth of her body next to mine. She lifted the curtain slightly and peered out. \"We've reached the outskirts of a city with a large cathedral.\"\n\nThomas slowed the coach. I leaned beside her and peered out. Even with the coachman driving through the entire night, we were still days away\u2014or weeks dependent upon the weather and terrain\u2014from arriving at Freiburg. As magnificent as this cathedral was, this wasn't the Archdiocese.\n\nHe stopped the coach along a side street at a small inn. Once he tied the horse, Penelope opened the door and hurried out. I followed, but slightly slower since I had to maneuver my large frame through the narrow door. I turned and helped Father and Madeline climb down. She clutched Varak to her chest.\n\nThe overcast sky hinted of cold rain or snow and added a gloomy tint to this rundown set of buildings on the edge of the city.\n\n\"Where are we?\" I asked.\n\nThomas rubbed his bloodshot eyes and grinned. \"Strasbourg, France. We're less than a week from reaching Freiburg. If I can get a few quick hours of sleep while everyone eats, I'll push onward at noon.\"\n\nI glanced toward Father. \"Our funds are nearly depleted. Penelope says that she knows where we might obtain a decent reward to slay a vampire.\"\n\nFather eyed her nervously.\n\nShe grinned, but with all the dirt and debris covering her, it wasn't exactly a reassuring smile.\n\n\"Is this true?\" Father asked.\n\n\"Yes,\" she replied. She pointed toward a building across the street. \"We need to talk to a man in that shop. The vampire isn't in this city. He's farther down the route, perhaps twenty miles from Freiburg.\"\n\n\"How do you know this?\" I asked. \"You said that you've never been close to Freiburg.\"\n\n\"I haven't. I know because ... my father had made it his objective to slay that vampire. He had learned about the reward in that shop. He sent me a post after he visited here and set off to slay the vampire. That was the last I've ever seen or heard from him.\"\n\nFather frowned and glanced at me. \"Her father is a Vampire Hunter? One of the Chosen?\"\n\nShe nodded. \"He is.\"\n\n\"So what do we do if we visit the man offering the reward and the vampire's already been slain?\"\n\n\"If that's true, then there's hope my father's still alive, provided he's the one who returned to claim the bounty. But if the vampire still preys upon the living it means he failed and is dead.\" Her desperate eyes flicked toward me. \"I need to know, Forrest. I wasn't trying to be selfish or deceitful by traveling with you. Don't you understand?\"\n\n\"Of course. If it were my father's life, I'd need to know, too.\"\n\n\"And should the vampire already be slain, I'll cover the cost of the trip,\" she said.\n\nFather shook his head. \"No, that's not necessary.\"\n\n\"I insist.\"\n\nPenelope glanced at her appearance in a large storefront window and looked surprised by her reflection. She untied her braids and shook her head back and forth, sending a small shower of dust, dirt, and debris into the cold breeze. \"I can't go into that shop or anywhere like this.\"\n\nThomas climbed into the coach, pulled the door shut behind him, and scrunched along one of the seats to sleep.\n\n\"I think Father and I can get enough scraped together so you can get cleaned up.\"\n\nShe shook her head and grinned. \"No need, Forrest. I have gems I can sell or trade. I have money tucked away in my belt, too.\"\n\n\"Breakfast?\" I asked Father.\n\nHe nodded.\n\nPenelope patted Madeline's arm and looked at Varak for a moment. \"Would you like to bathe with the baby, too? I will pay.\"\n\nA kind smile broadened on Madeline's face. She looked relieved and her eyes moistened, nearing tears. \"Thank you, young lady. That's generous of you.\"\n\nIt had been several days since we had the luxury of staying in an inn, partly due to the unpredictable weather and also due to our depleting funds.\n\nI looked at Penelope and pointed. \"When you two are finished, we'll be in that bakery at the corner. Come eat with us.\"\n\nPenelope gave me a slight, blushful smile. She nodded and turned quickly to the inn door.\n\nAfter Madeline followed Penelope into the inn, Father and I walked to the small bakery. The aroma of fresh bread and pastries wafted down the narrow street. We ordered several types of pastries, coffee, cheese, and fresh goat milk. Surprisingly the stacks of food weren't as expensive as I expected.\n\n\"Will Thomas be safe left alone?\" Father asked.\n\n\"According to Penelope, most demons won't materialize in the daylight, but we won't stop here too long.\"\n\nFather stared at the stacks of pastries and cheese at the center of our table. \"I don't know. Your appetite has increased a lot since London, and you're not a fast eater.\"\n\nI chuckled. \"I like to enjoy the food, well most of it. There have been some rough meals along the way.\"\n\nHe winced and his expression was comical. \"Some rough ale, too, son. I really think the one farmer gave us horse piss.\"\n\n\"None of that, today,\" I said, sipping the hot coffee. \"If we have enough money, perhaps we should see about baths, too?\"\n\nFather shrugged. \"Get one if you must. Wanting to impress her?\"\n\n\"Penelope?\"\n\n\"Yes.\" He took a huge bite of an apple tart.\n\nI blushed. \"I don't like being dirty all the time.\"\n\n\"It doesn't matter to the undead. They have foul odors of their own.\"\n\n\"I know, but I don't want to blend in with them.\"\n\nHe grinned and shook his head.\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"She's struck you pretty hard already, eh?\"\n\n\"I wouldn't say that\u2014\"\n\nFather downed a glass of milk. \"Neither of you can hide your interest for one another. Your eyes give it away, and so do hers.\"\n\n\"You think she's interested in me?\"\n\nFather rested his elbows on the table, grabbed another hunk of cheese, and smiled with pride. \"Of course she is. What girl wouldn't be interested in you? You're more handsome than I, tall and muscular like a Roman statue, and have a soft demeanor in spite of your size. She likes you ... a lot.\"\n\n\"But her age\u2014\"\n\nFather sighed. \"Let's settle something in your mind right now while it's just you and I alone. Okay?\"\n\nI shrugged.\n\n\"Forget about the calendar years for your age from this day forward. Since you're one of the Chosen, clearly a man in size, and have been gifted with knowledge from each vampire you have slain, you're not a boy anymore. Sure, you will make the occasional mistakes that a child will make, but overall, you're not a lad. Your body and mind have matured into manhood, skipping the awkward stages. It was beyond your control, but face it, son, you're every bit a man. I've seen men my age act younger and more irresponsible than you. But one thing I know for certain, you don't think like a child. You haven't for quite some time.\"\n\nHearing those words come from my father meant the world to me. My chest swelled with pride. My eyes heated with tears, but I resisted their flow. I smiled. \"I appreciate that, Father.\"\n\n\"I cannot deny the truth, so why should you?\"\n\nI stared at the food on my plate.\n\n\"What's wrong?\"\n\n\"What you said is true, about me growing older so quickly, but ... it gets all awkward when I'm close to her. My stomach gets nervous. My hands and underarms sweat. I get these odd feelings inside and don't know what to say or do. I think she'll laugh at me.\"\n\nFather grinned. \"Every man and woman goes through those emotions and that awkwardness. It's part of maturation. But this much I've learned, and take it to heart. Tell her how you feel, even if it seems awkward, even if you're uncertain of how she feels. The awkwardness is magnified in your mind more so than what she actually sees. A woman seeks sincerity. But the longer you resist telling her, the less she'll believe you're interested in her, and she'll turn her attention elsewhere.\"\n\n\"But what if she doesn't feel the same way?\"\n\n\"At least you'd know, right? But the two of you were quite cozy this morning.\"\n\nI chuckled nervously. My face heated, and I imagined it was bright red. \"We weren't that way when we fell asleep. I awoke with her burrowed against my chest. Maybe she got cold?\"\n\nFather laughed heartily, causing the others seated around us to look in our direction. Nearly a minute passed before his laughter ceased. His eyes dripped tears, and he wiped them away. \"Sorry. I'm not laughing at you. But trust me on this, son. If she didn't feel safe around you and didn't have any interest in you, I don't care how cold it was, she'd have still placed as much distance between the two of you as possible. Not even a thread of her clothing would have touched yours.\"\n\nI sipped my coffee but refused to make eye contact, thinking about Penelope.\n\n\"You still don't believe me, do you?\"\n\nI didn't know what to say, but I still held my doubts.\n\n\"You have doubts,\" he said, as if reading my thoughts.\n\n\"How do you know?\"\n\n\"I've been there. Every man goes through these feelings. But watch her eyes, her smile, and how she acts when she's near you. The best advice I can give you, is for you to take that chance to tell her how you feel. Don't think about rejection. If that happens, the next time you talk to a woman you're interested in, telling her how you feel will become easier.\"\n\nI stared at my father in silence. Since Jacques had headed to America, Father had stepped back into his rightful place as the man who could offer me the sound advice that I needed. Not only that, he hadn't taken a drink of any ale or spirits since the last time he had gotten drunk. I'm not certain what Jacques had said when he had scolded Father, but I didn't think that was the reason behind his devoted sobriety. I believe he did it because it bettered him and strengthened our relationship. Maybe he also thought about how Momma would feel if she saw him lost in his stupors. Whatever had changed him inside, I was just thankful it had occurred.\n\nFather said, \"You always point toward Fate. She's a Demon-hunter, the daughter of a Vampire Hunter. Perhaps Fate has purposely crossed your paths. Have you considered that yet?\"\n\nI frowned at the suggestion, but until that moment, I hadn't thought about such a possibility.\n\nBefore I replied, he nodded toward the door. I glanced over my shoulder and saw Penelope through the glass. My heart raced. A lump formed in my throat, and for nearly half a minute I had stopped breathing. I glanced toward Father and his face was frozen by a stunned expression. Neither of us recognized this to be the same Demon-hunter that we had parted with nearly an hour earlier.\n\nFather cleared his throat, nearly choking on whatever he had been chewing. \"Just remember what I told you.\"\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Nine\n\nPenelope walked through the door, saw me, and blushed with a nervous smile. While she and I had talked for a couple of hours during the night, I found myself at a loss for words like I was staring at someone I'd never met.\n\nHer curly brown hair, still partially damp, had been combed and spilled across her shoulders. She wasn't wearing a dress, nor did I think she would, being as we were about to find out if the bounty on the vampire remained valid. No traces of mud were on her face or in her hair.\n\nShe wore a new pair of dark leather pants, a brown undershirt, and a dark leather vest. Where she had found a place to buy these clothes on such short notice was beyond me. She walked toward our table and offered a flattered grin, even though I hadn't said a single word. Perhaps my speechless expression and gaping mouth impressed her with how overwhelmed I was by her beauty. I didn't know what to say or how to act. I was stunned.\n\nFather's chair scooted back, and he rose to his feet. His hand smacked the back of my elbow. I glanced to him to see his frown and head nod for me to rise and pull out a chair for her. I did so quickly, nearly knocking my own chair over while halfway tripping over my feet to grab the back of the chair beside mine. She noticed my immense nervousness and bit her lower lip while watching my clumsy display, but she seemed adulated.\n\nI pulled her chair back, allowing her to lower onto her seat while moving the chair closer to the table. Her hair and skin smelled of sweet roses.\n\n\"Thank you, Forrest,\" she said softly.\n\nI barely heard her words, simply taking in her radiance, and without realizing it, I said aloud, \"You're so beautiful.\"\n\nThe silence afterwards hung for what seemed an eternity. Her cheeks reddened, even though she had freshly powdered them before her arrival. Her wide smile grew even wider, and she tilted her head slightly so she could see me, but her nervous glances toward my awestruck gaze were brief, volleying back and forth from my eyes to the table and back again.\n\nI wanted to speak but my dry throat had constricted. My chest hurt and I wondered if my breathing would ever return to a normal rate. I stood there unable to take my eyes off her.\n\nFather lowered himself back into his chair. He motioned with a nod and his eyes for me to return to my chair instead of standing beside her like a gawking fool. Believe me, it was implied, without him ever saying a word. His gazes, frowns, and expressions held their own vocabulary that I had learned since birth. Momma had had fewer but each was easily interpreted.\n\nMy face and neck felt like they were on fire; no doubt redder than the ripest autumn apple. I kept clearing my throat, trying to get the muscles to relax.\n\nFather mercifully broke the silence. \"Where is Madeline?\"\n\nPenelope took a quick breath, still smiling, and said, \"I rented a room for half a day. She didn't want to take Varak out into the cold after she had bathed him. She asked that we bring her some food back.\"\n\nFather rose and stacked several items onto a napkin. He glanced toward me while choosing a few more pastries, probably for Thomas. My eyes pleaded for him not to leave, but his giddy smile implied that he took slight pleasure in my discomfort. \"You two take your time and enjoy breakfast. After you eat and talk to the man offering the bounty, let me know what our plans for the rest of the day are. No sense in me slowing you down.\"\n\nHe hobbled toward the door and opened it.\n\nPenelope turned slightly in her chair. \"The room is\u2014\"\n\nFather paused at the door. \"I'll ask at the desk. No hurries.\"\n\nThe door closed.\n\nA thousand thoughts rushed through my mind, but none aided me in what I should say or do. How was I supposed to act? I rubbed my sweaty hands on my pants, trying to find the words. Nothing coherent surfaced.\n\nShe and I exchanged several nervous glances at one another. The quiet expounded. I wondered what had changed since we had parted earlier? Inside the coach we had talked about a lot of things but now, complete silence. I was confused. We were both the same people, but her beauty captivated me. I suppose I feared I'd do something foolish to alter her feelings toward me. I was afraid of making stupid childish mistakes.\n\nFather had said that she liked me. I liked her. Both of us could do nothing except exchange silent stares. Her eyes still looked at me with interest like she had in the coach, and her repeated smiles awaited me to start conversation.\n\nI took a deep breath and shook my head. I was a Vampire Hunter and had killed zombies, ghouls, and vampires, and yet, I couldn't express my thoughts to the most beautiful young lady I'd ever met? I had even come close to death a couple of times, and here I sat more frightened than ever. I chastised myself for being a coward.\n\nTimidly she sat, looking at the food and her teacup, but she hadn't reached for a single thing.\n\n\"Here,\" I finally said, grabbing one of the apple tarts and setting it on her plate. \"Those are really good.\"\n\nHer eyes met mine, and she smiled. \"Thank you.\"\n\nI lifted the tea decanter and filled her cup with steaming hot tea.\n\nPenelope eyed the apple tart on her plate. Without looking at me, she said, \"Did you really mean what you said earlier as you were seating me?\"\n\nMy stomach tensed. I swallowed hard. Yes, I had meant the words, but I hadn't meant to blurt them out. Nothing had escaped my lips any truer than what I had told her. I wiped my hands again. Sweat beaded on my brow.\n\nI glanced at her. Her hopeful eyes stared at me, and her folded hands shook slightly, making me realize that she was just as nervous inside as I was, and asking the question had been difficult for her to even ask.\n\nFather's words came to mind. Tell her how you feel, even if it seems awkward, even if you're uncertain of how she feels.\n\n\"The words rushed out without me realizing it,\" I said, almost apologetically.\n\nPenelope broke our gaze and stared at the table.\n\n\"But,\" I said, \"if I could clarify something since I just blurted that out earlier? You are the most beautiful lady I've ever seen. That's why I cannot take my eyes off of you.\"\n\nI couldn't believe I had gotten the words out without stuttering or mumbling or dying. Perspiration welled beneath my arms, down my back, and down my chest. A lump rose in my throat. My heartbeat pulsed in my ears. The rest of the dining room seemed invisible. I even felt dizzy. When folks joked that love hurt, I now understood partially why. I was close to passing out for telling a woman how pretty she was. I was afraid to know how much worse it got from there.\n\nShe studied my face for several moments. A smile curled her lips. \"No one's ever said those words to me before.\"\n\n\"Ever?\"\n\nShe shrugged. \"Other than my mother and father? No. But it's expected from them.\"\n\nI sighed. \"But it's true. You are beautiful.\"\n\nPenelope bit into the tart, chewed, and nodded her approval. \"I'm surprised I didn't frightened you off when we first met, but at least now I don't reek of that awful sweat and all the mud is gone, too.\"\n\nI smiled. \"I never complained, did I?\"\n\nShe leaned closer to me and stared into my eyes with a deepness no one had ever shown me. I didn't want to look away, and oddly I didn't feel uncomfortable. I imagined that my eyes reflected the same emotions as hers. Her gaze was the same as Jacques' had been for Matilda and her for him. They had fallen in love, and I suspected I had already fallen for Penelope. I stared at her narrow lips longer than I should have. There was the briefest of moments when I almost leaned forward to kiss her. But instead I realized where we were, in a public place where such was frowned upon, so I fought the urge and resisted. I smiled and placed my hand atop hers and squeezed. Our fingers entwined a few seconds later.\n\nI sipped more coffee while she ate, and we kept holding hands. My appetite had decided to vanish, which was a rarity considering how hungry I had been when Father and I had entered the bakery. My former nervousness when she had entered had also waned, but my uncertainty and doubts arose.\n\nI thought about Rose and how I had profusely argued with myself to not have strong feelings toward her, and why we could never proceed beyond simple friendship. Of course the argument had been all mine and my justification for not ever falling in love. Nothing had ever been verbally exchanged between Rose and I because I had made certain the conversation never occurred. The situation was part of the reason why I had left Romania in the first place. Being a Hunter, I knew my biggest weakness was the ones closest to my heart. The same had been true for my father, and I was convinced it held true for me as well.\n\nVampires were heartless masters of torturing the mind over the physical body. They could kill an adversary easily, but driving a man to absolute insanity before killing him was an even greater reward. They thrived on such authority. Father had nearly been destroyed after Momma had been murdered. He still suffered from losing her. I had personally witnessed the torment ripping him apart, which had made abandoning Rose easier at the time.\n\nAnd yet, my feelings for Penelope were far stronger than any stirrings I had ever held for Rose. What my father had expressed was most likely correct. Due to the intellect I was gaining from the minds of vampires I had slain, my mind had matured. I was no longer a child. I viewed the possibility of love slightly different than I had only a few months prior. Without the intellect adhering to my rationality, I doubted I'd even talk to Penelope, much less be holding her hand.\n\nFather had mentioned Fate being what brought Penelope and I together. Could that be true? Possibly. And if so, since she hunted demons and I hunted vampires, we made a nearly invincible team.\n\nOther than exchanging smiles and glances, we finished our breakfast and I paid the tab. She grabbed her coat off the rack near the door and slipped it on. I had been so caught up in her appearance, I didn't remember her taking it off. Outside the door we turned our attention to the shop across the square.\n\nDark clouds loomed overhead. Beads of sleet bounced off my hat, the street, and the awnings. The cold morning breeze whistled as the buildings sliced its strength.\n\nShe squeezed my hand and smiled up at me.\n\n\"You ready?\" I asked.\n\nPenelope offered a slight nod and pulled a hood over her head. Together we walked through the nearly silent square to the shop.\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Ten\n\nI reached to open the shop door, and she pulled my hand, shaking her head.\n\n\"Are you okay?\" I asked.\n\nSadness came to her eyes. She took a deep breath, closed her eyes, and released it. When she opened her eyes, tears shimmered. \"I thought I could do this ... Forrest, what if my father failed? What if he's dead?\"\n\n\"Then we kill this vampire,\" I replied with boldness and slight anger in my voice. I took her hand into both of mine.\n\nPenelope read the determination in my eyes and nodded. When it came to slaying a vampire, I had been successful each time thus far, but if this vampire had killed her father, I swore that I'd find and slay it. I would end its existence for the pain it had caused her.\n\nI opened the shop door and allowed her to enter first. The shop smelled of various incenses. Smoke drifted in tiny spirals from brass canisters. Stacks of silk cloth in various colors were piled on one table. Another table was covered with dried ginseng roots, turnips, potatoes, and truffles. Dried flowers and herbs hung from the rafters. Fishing nets and supplies hung on one wall. Hats for men and women were on another table. The shop contained a hodgepodge of items without focusing upon any specific wares.\n\nAn elderly stooped man and I assumed his aged wife stood behind the counter. No other customers were in the shop, but the day was still early. From the look of the nearly abandoned, rundown section of town, business probably stayed slow.\n\n\"Excuse me,\" Penelope said. \"But I was wondering if the bounty for the vampire in the Black Forest is still unclaimed?\"\n\nThe elderly man adjusted his wire-rimmed glasses and the wrinkles around his eyes deepened as he peered at her. \"Lorcan? Is that the vampire you're speaking of?\"\n\nShe nodded.\n\nHe made an odd smile, showing his yellowed teeth. \"Yes! It is, actually. Several Hunters have sought directions and information to the Black Forest, but none have ever returned to claim the bounty.\"\n\nShe stiffened. Her voice broke when she spoke. \"I see.\"\n\nThe man stared at her for a few moments. He pressed his glasses firmer against his nose, squinting. \"You look familiar, young lady. Have you been in our shop before?\"\n\nShe shook her head. \"No.\"\n\nHe turned toward his wife. \"She looks familiar, doesn't she Abigail?\"\n\nAbigail nervously looked up from her needlework, glancing a brief moment in our direction. She nodded and looked down at her needle. Her voice was rough and scratchy when she spoke. \"Yes, Karl. She does.\"\n\nKarl rubbed his chin and shook his head. \"My old mind can't keep my memories straight. I could swear you've been here before.\"\n\n\"No, but my father was here a few ... years ago.\"\n\n\"Oh?\"\n\n\"Yes. Wilbur Hastens.\"\n\n\"One second,\" Karl said in a shaky voice. His aged fingers shook as he thumbed through some papers in a drawer. He licked his thumb and pulled up one document and held it close to his face to read it. After he lowered it, he nodded. \"He sought the reward for the same vampire you seek.\"\n\nPenelope glanced back at me with tears in her eyes. I stepped beside her and wrapped my arm across her shoulder. She turned and buried her face against my chest. Her hands clenched my shirt and formed tight fists around the material.\n\n\"I'm so sorry,\" he said. He studied her for a few moments, as if he was trying to figure out why she was crying. After failing to make the connection, he glanced toward me with what sounded like a complete repeat of his pitch to entice people to collect the bounty. \"A lot of Hunters have sought to kill this vampire but not one has ever returned to collect the bounty. But, the good news is that the bounty has more than doubled.\"\n\n\"Good news?\" I asked with a firm frown.\n\nKarl looked at Penelope still confused, and then to my angered gaze. \"Forgive me. I ... I shouldn't have worded it like that. But, you're a Hunter, too, aren't you?\"\n\nI nodded.\n\n\"There's another bounty for a vampire in a cemetery nearby, if you're interested in a quicker reward? Granted, the reward to slay Adnet is about a forth of what Lorcan's is, but it's than a half hour's walk on foot. Isn't that correct, Abigail?\"\n\nShe nodded but didn't look in our direction. She stuck the long needle into the thick cloth. \"Less than a half hour. Not far.\"\n\nMy jaw tightened. Anger swelled inside of me, not toward the old man, but for Penelope's loss and her pain. She sobbed against my chest. \"Give me the information for both of them.\"\n\n\"Certainly,\" the old man replied with a shrewd grin. \"Give me a few minutes to write out the directions for both Lorcan and Adnet. And in the adjoining room, I have wares a Hunter like yourself might be interested in.\"\n\nI held her close, rubbed her shoulders, and rested my chin atop her head. \"Just because your father never returned for the bounty doesn't mean he's dead. Perhaps he was sidetracked or changed his mind.\"\n\n\"If he changed his mind, he'd have returned home before now.\"\n\n\"Maybe, but lots of things happen when one travels abroad. Cling to the hope that he's still alive for now. Until we have proof otherwise, no need to abandon the likelihood of him being amongst the living.\"\n\nShe squeezed me tightly and then released me. She patted my muscled stomach with her hand and formed a tight smile as she looked up at me.\n\n\"Care to see what wares he has?\" I asked.\n\n\"Sure.\"\n\nWe walked into the adjoining room to find three small tables layered with various weapons used to slay vampires. There were stakes made from different types of wood and in assorted sizes. Other items were tacked to the wall as well. The first weapon on the wall that caught my attention was a polished wooden crossbow. I took it off the large nail and stared down the sight to check the straightness of the flight groove. Pure perfection. Great attention had gone into every detail of its design. The wood grain was nearly black, which made it almost invisible in the dark. Power pulsed from the wood into my hands with a slight tingling sensation, causing me to examine it even more closely.\n\n\"That's a nice bow,\" she said, running her fingers down the dark wood. \"Do you prefer a crossbow over a regular bow?\"\n\n\"My mentor had one and let me use it. I've never shot a short bow like yours. For me these are easier to maneuver and require less time to aim. I think I'll buy this one.\" Without stating it aloud, I believed I was meant to find and purchase this crossbow, even though I didn't understand why. But I never argued with my Hunter's intellect.\n\nI found a dusty wooden crate beneath one table. It was filled with empty, corked globe-shaped bottles that I liked to fill with garlic juice and toss at vampires. Since such an attack only worked if the bottle shattered, I needed to restock the ones I had destroyed and fill these to use later. I counted out eight and placed them into a small empty crate. On a table with garlands of garlic cloves were small bottles labeled: Holy Water. I took a half dozen bottles of holy water, the biggest garland of garlic, and placed them in with the empty bottles.\n\n\"I'm set. Do you see anything you want?\" I asked. \"Since we are hunting vampires and not demons, do you have any stakes?\"\n\nPenelope shook her head. \"I've never hunted vampires, but wouldn't a wooden arrow through the heart work?\"\n\n\"Yes, but you might consider having a few stakes for backup in case something happens to your bow. Vampires move faster than a mortal's eye can track, and vampires tend to be somewhat cautious in their approach if you're holding a stake.\"\n\nShe grabbed several wooden stakes off the table and practiced downward motions with each in her right hand until she found a couple that suited her.\n\nWe returned to the old man at the counter. He had two pieces of yellow parchment in his hand. On the top parchment he had drawn the map to find Adnet's lair at the cemetery. It looked like a simple run to the crypt, stake the vampire, and return for the reward. In and out. Such arrangements are ideal but rare, and drew immediate skepticism on my part.\n\n\"Why hasn't anyone slain this vampire yet?\" I asked.\n\n\"A few have tried and failed.\"\n\n\"Why? What do you know about Adnet?\"\n\nThe old man adjusted his glasses and then rubbed the stubble on his chin. \"No one rightly knows. He settled in the cemetery after the last war. None of those who have entered the cemetery have ever made it to his crypt.\"\n\n\"Were they actual Hunters?\" I asked.\n\nHe shook his head. \"Very few Hunters visit the outskirts of the city. As you have probably noticed most of the buildings here are empty or rundown. We're still recovering from the war. Most of the residents packed up and moved away. Some refuse to leave. It's their homes, but labor ... finding a trade, tis hard here. People get desperate and are willing to do almost anything to make money. That includes risking their lives to slay a vampire.\"\n\n\"So Adnet killed them?\"\n\n\"We don't know. A few returned and swore the cemetery is haunted. Right, Abigail?\"\n\nShe paused with her needlework, nodded, and said, \"Haunted.\"\n\nI placed the crate of supplies and the crossbow on the counter. \"I'd like to buy these.\"\n\nHe rummaged through the crate, counting out the items, and then he looked at the crossbow. He held it up, admiring it. \"Fine crossbow. I almost hate to part with it.\"\n\n\"Why?\" I asked.\n\n\"This one came from an Irish weapon-maker living in Bucharest, at least that's how the story goes. Finest craftsman I've even seen.\"\n\nI frowned, staring at the crossbow. \"His name?\"\n\n\"Roy, I think.\" He scratched his wrinkled forehead and nodded. \"Yes, Roy.\"\n\nRose's father? No wonder I had felt a connection with the weapon. He fashioned all types of weapons exclusively for Hunters. This one shouldn't have been in a shop for sale though. A Hunter would never have parted with it. \"How did you get it?\"\n\nHe closed his eyes for several moments while rubbing his chin. \"Let me think. If I recall correctly, a peddler brought it in. He was having difficulty selling door to door with all the empty houses, of course, and decided to ask if I'd buy any of his supplies. When I saw the crossbow, I figured I'd eventually sell it to a Hunter. And if I didn't, it was worth far more than the modest price he had asked.\"\n\nI nodded. \"So how much for all of this?\"\n\nHe adjusted his glasses, and pointed at each item, counting again. Finally he gave me the price, which I thought was too modest, given the bow's quality, but with our money almost gone, I couldn't have offered more if I had wanted. After paying him, I barely had enough to buy one meal to split between all of us. We had no choice but to slay the local vampire.\n\nThe old man smiled. \"Can I help you with anything else?\"\n\nI pointed to the goggles tethered around Penelope's neck. \"Do you happen to have any goggles like these?\"\n\nHis brows rose with interest when he noticed them. He leaned partway across the counter, squinting. Penelope stepped closer for him to see. His lower lip tightened over his upper one while he thought. Finally, he shook his head. \"No, I've not seen anything like that, but in our kind of business here, we get odds and ends all the time. I never know from one week to the next what a traveler might bring in to trade.\"\n\n\"Okay, thanks.\"\n\n\"Anything else?\" he asked.\n\n\"What should we bring back as proof we've slain these vampires?\" I asked.\n\nKarl frowned. His brow furrowed deeply. \"What do you usually turn in as proof?\"\n\n\"If you know what types of jewelry he wears, that's usually something. Or we can bring back his ashes.\"\n\n\"I don't know if Adnet wears any jewelry, but if he does, that will suffice.\"\n\nI shrugged.\n\n\"If there's any other way I can help you?\" he said.\n\n\"Do you happen to have a garlic press?\" I asked.\n\nHe nodded. \"Sure. Follow me.\"\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Eleven\n\nMy eyes stung and my throat itched after pressing enough garlic to fill three of the globe bottles with garlic juice. Penelope and I reeked of garlic. If anything, neither of us needed to worry about vampires trying to bite us anytime soon. However, I feared the odor would alert the slumbering vampire before we could get close enough to stake him. Overall, I was just glad it hadn't been onions we'd pressed.\n\nOnce she and I stepped outside the shop into the cold, she asked, \"Have you seen that crossbow before?\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"Do you know the craftsman?\"\n\n\"He crafted my Hunter box and carved some of my stakes.\"\n\n\"So it's a good bow?\"\n\n\"If he made it, it'd be one of the best a Hunter could get.\"\n\nPenelope smiled. \"Then that's good for you.\"\n\nI nodded.\n\nThe ominous sky was dark with thick gray clouds that hung lower than normal. For a moment I was reminded of the blizzard sky on the late afternoon when I had encountered my first vampire. It wasn't something I'd ever forget, and I supposed I'd be reminded of it with each winter storm that arose.\n\nA few snowflakes floated along with the twirling breeze. The old buildings looked abandoned, even though we knew several that were not. The old shops reflected the depressive spirit of those who continued to reside here. The aftereffects of any war left scars, and it often took decades, sometimes generations, before the townspeople fully recovered. It was a common scene throughout the unrest in Europe, and one that I had grown tired of seeing, but the wars weren't about to lessen. In fact, I feared they'd become far worse.\n\nMidway across the square, Penelope took our rolled map from the small crate I was carrying. After unrolling it, she studied it while we walked toward the inn. \"Do you think this graveyard is haunted?\"\n\nI laughed softly. \"Have you ever seen a ghost?\"\n\nShe gave me a serious side-glance. \"Would you laugh at me if I said that I have?\"\n\nI stopped and looked at her. \"No, I would never laugh at you. Have you seen one?\"\n\nPenelope gave a reassured smile before she nodded. \"A few actually. You never have?\"\n\nI turned and started walking. \"I've felt the coldness of one's presence, but as far as actually seeing one? No. I don't deny their existence though.\"\n\n\"I'd worry about you if you did,\" she said, playfully crinkling her nose at me.\n\n\"Why?\"\n\n\"You kill vampires and I kill demons. We both know zombies, ghouls, and were-creatures exist, so why not ghosts?\"\n\n\"Don't forget magic.\"\n\nShe grinned and her eyes sparkled. \"That, too.\"\n\n\"Pixies and fairies?\" I gave a sly grin.\n\n\"And leprechauns, too. Especially if you're a wee bit Irish.\"\n\nI was glad to see her smile again. I had hurt inside when I watched her cry. I wanted to make her aches go away.\n\nI placed the crate beneath my left arm and pulled open the inn door, allowing her to walk through first. I followed her down the narrow hall until she stopped outside a door and unlocked it.\n\nFather sat in an old rocker with a quilt covering him from the neck down. He was snoring. Madeline sat with her back against the headboard of the bed. Varak was cradled in her arms. The child was alert and staring around the room. When he heard us enter, he sat upright, watching us.\n\nPenelope glanced toward Varak and stared at him for several seconds before turning toward me. She visibly shivered, leaning closer to me as I set the crate onto a small round table. \"His eyes ...\"\n\nI nodded.\n\n\"Wake your father and let's head to the cemetery,\" she whispered. \"I'm not very comfortable being near the child.\"\n\n\"I told you.\"\n\nI crossed the room and gently shook my father's shoulder. Alarmed, his eyes popped open. He took a deep breath and put his hand over his heart. \"Heavens, son, I didn't even hear you come in.\"\n\n\"Sorry,\" I said, grinning.\n\n\"So did you get the directions to find a vampire?\" he asked.\n\n\"For two different ones,\" I replied.\n\n\"Two?\"\n\nPenelope nodded. \"One is nearby, and the other one is on the way to Freiburg in the Black Forest.\"\n\n\"We could use the extra money,\" he said. \"Since our party keeps growing.\"\n\n\"Don't worry,\" she said. \"I'll earn my keep.\"\n\nFather smiled. \"I wasn't implying that you are a burden to us, but we still need to eat and find lodging whenever the weather's unfavorable.\"\n\n\"I know,\" she replied with a narrow smile. \"But I refuse to expect others' charity.\"\n\n\"She makes more than we do, Father, and she doesn't even collect bounties.\"\n\nPenelope laughed softly.\n\nFather folded the quilt and placed it onto the rocker's seat. He came to the table where she had placed the map and studied it for a few moments. He frowned with confusion. \"What's the catch?\"\n\n\"What do you mean?\"\n\n\"It seems too ... easy?\"\n\nPenelope laughed. \"The old man said that the cemetery is haunted.\"\n\n\"Don't tell me that you two believe that?\"\n\nI shrugged. \"We won't know until we get there.\"\n\n\"Did he indicate how far we needed to travel to get there?\"\n\n\"Less than a half hour on foot,\" I said.\n\n\"In this cold?\" Father asked with wide eyes.\n\n\"You don't have to go. Penelope and I can probably handle it.\"\n\n\"No,\" he replied in a gruff tone. \"I'll manage.\"\n\nI imagined his legs still ached from the cramped seating arrangement in the coach and the cold weather would make them hurt even more. \"We could get Thomas to drive us out there, but he was up all night and intends to head on to Freiburg once he awakens,\" I replied.\n\n\"Do we even have enough time to walk there and back by noon?\"\n\n\"Not if we keep standing around talking, Father.\"\n\nHe pointed his finger at me and shook it, before giving way to a grin. Then he noticed the crossbow on the table. He picked it up and studied it. His eyebrows rose, and he stared at me. \"If I had to wager, son, I'd say Roy carved this himself.\"\n\nI nodded.\n\nPenelope looked impressed. \"Just by looking at it, you know who made it?\"\n\nFather smiled. \"He's a master woodworker and craftsman. None better. Where'd you happen upon this, son?\"\n\n\"Bought it from the man who drew the two maps.\"\n\n\"I see.\" He stared at me with sudden uneasiness.\n\nI knew what he was thinking without even asking. Roy had gifted my Hunter box to me, refusing to accept anything in return since he considered his craftsmanship the most suitable donation to aid the Chosen in their pursuit of slaying vampires. A disease cursed him from setting foot in the sunlight, so he housed himself underground where he diligently worked on weapons for Hunters to eradicate the undead.\n\nMost likely, Roy had gifted this crossbow to a Hunter. Since the Hunter no longer possessed it, he was probably dead.\n\nFather put on his overcoat and limped toward the door. \"Madeline, we will return as quickly as possible.\"\n\nShe nodded. \"Be careful.\"\n\nPenelope walked to the bedside and handed her an opal. \"In case we don't get back before the noon hour to checkout, give this gem to the keeper as payment. It's more than enough to compensate for the rest of the day, if necessary.\"\n\n\"Thank you.\"\n\n\"Barter for some food, too,\" she said with a sly smile.\n\nI met Father at the door. \"I need to get my Hunter box from the coach.\"\n\nHe patted his pockets and his lips formed a snarl from his frustration. \"I left my cross and stakes in the coach, too.\"\n\nWe hurried out of the inn. When we reached the coach, I twisted the handle downward as quietly as possible, hoping not to awaken Thomas. The door creaked slightly as I pulled it outward. I reached inside, grabbed the handle of my box, and pulled it to me without scraping the floor.\n\nAfter I stepped aside, Father leaned inside the coach and patted under the seat until he found his silver cross and his bundled stakes. He picked up Penelope's pack and bow and turned to hand them to her. She smiled as she took them. Several feathered ends of arrows protruded from the top of the pack.\n\nThe wind whistled softly through the barren trees at what appeared to have been a park, possibly before the war. I carried my box to a round, frozen water fountain and set the box on the icy brick wall. When I unlatched the clasps, Penelope was standing at my side. I never heard her approach.\n\nI put the fresh bottles of garlic juice into the box. The garlic odor lofted.\n\nShe reached into my box and took out a bottle of blessed salt. \"This stuff works on vampires, too?\"\n\nI shrugged. \"I've never used it. Supposedly a salt barrier can drive a vampire to insanity since they must count every grain. Sounds farfetched to me.\"\n\n\"Some vampires are insane to begin with,\" she said. \"I've heard older women talk about how fairies have to count the grains, too.\"\n\n\"Don't tell me you've seen fairies,\" I said.\n\n\"No, but I'm hopeful.\" She leaned against me, bumping against my ribcage with her shoulder. \"By drawing the proper symbols inside a circle of salt, I can trap a demon.\"\n\n\"That works?\"\n\nPenelope shrugged. \"It's supposed to. I've not tried it yet, but the healer told me how and drew the diagram for me.\"\n\n\"This is the same healer that accidentally summoned a demon during one of her rituals?\"\n\nShe nodded.\n\n\"With such a dreadful error in her incantation, I don't know that I'd trust her drawing to trap a demon. It might agitate it more.\"\n\nA slight giggle escaped her lips. \"I see your point. I've only killed demons from a distance, which I consider much safer and keeps me scar free. Besides, it takes a lot of salt to draw the circle and the symbols.\"\n\nI pulled six short narrow arrows from the box, examining the sharpened tips by pressing my thumb against them. All seemed sturdy.\n\n\"You were already carrying arrows without a crossbow?\" she asked.\n\n\"Only because these are unique.\"\n\n\"Oh? In what way, dear Hunter.\" She beamed a playful smile at me, clasping her hands together at her chest and swaying toward me. Her dramatic actions reminded me of a play Father and I had watched before leaving London. It appeared she had seen the same one, but her feigned actions were better than the actors we had seen.\n\nI gave her an odd look.\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"Theater?\"\n\nShe laughed. \"Sorry. I can get silly when I feel nervous.\"\n\n\"You're nervous?\"\n\n\"I've never helped slay a vampire before. But why are those arrows unique?\"\n\nI explained the enchanted shrubbery in London and how the Gypsy witch had blessed them to attack and stake vampires.\n\n\"And you plan to use those in the crossbow against this vampire?\"\n\n\"I'm hopeful,\" I said with a grin.\n\nFather held the map and faced south where only frames of buildings remained. Burnt skeletons of once thriving trees displayed the sorrow of their deaths when whatever troops had come through scorching the terrain. The old cobblestone road was covered by dried weeds and bramble and was barely visible.\n\nFather lowered the map and pointed. \"We follow the old road to find the cemetery.\"\n\nI snapped the latches shut on my box and hefted it, grabbing the loaded crossbow in my other hand. \"I'm ready.\"\n\nPenelope nodded and followed behind me. We walked past Father, and he took up the rear.\n\nWe didn't walk long before the remnants of the old road eroded into broken rocks, large holes, and thicker thorny bramble. Dry brittle strands of ivy threaded together overhead forming a thick canopy of vines and dead leaves, deepening the shadowy gloom that shrouded the path into near darkness. Between the heavily overcast sky and the darkened trees, one would believe it was dusk, even though we had yet to reach the noon hour.\n\nAlthough I didn't express my sudden concern, I recalled what Jacques had told me almost a year earlier about how a vampire can move during the day provided the sun was somehow fully blocked. Some vampires were even capable of controlling mists and fog, as I had learned in London. The elements of the weather and our surroundings were more than favorable for this vampire to emerge from hiding and attack us before we even reached the cemetery or his lair.\n\nHowever, worse things loomed that none of us had even considered.\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Twelve\n\nThe closer to the cemetery we walked, the worse the terrain became. No longer were the thin vines draped, connecting overhead and between the trees, but giant thick thorns capable of impaling a man grew on black treelike branches that spiraled around one another to form a wicked tunnel. Such could have only been brought to life by the curse of a vindictive witch.\n\nAn oppressive cloud of misery overshadowed me, draining me of hope and driving me toward despair. Whispers taunted me, drawing me toward one of the sharpened thorns, trying to persuade me to ram my chest against it and pierce my heart. I resisted, but the mental image of one of these black thorns staked through my heart while a widening pool of blood spread beneath my suspended body looked terrifyingly realistic. I wanted to think of pleasant thoughts, memories, anything except such a grueling death, but my mind was frozen upon this depiction of an unpleasant fate.\n\nAfter a few seconds, I took another step into the narrowing tunnel. The pattern of the interwoven branches, thorns, and the never-ending spiral was mesmerizing, making me dizzy. I shook my head, trying to steady my next step, hopeful that I didn't fall against one of the sharp thorns. Because of the thickness of the coiled vines and the countless thorn tips, no alternate path existed. A small child couldn't press through the sides of this deadly tunnel wall. It was either continue forward or turn back. But my mind pressed me to go forward. Chattering whispers buzzed near my ears, as annoying as mosquitoes seeking blood, and urged me to sacrifice my life's blood, but offering no reason for such martyrdom.\n\nWhatever sensation was pricking at my mind, was trying to overwhelm and control me, but a vampire wasn't causing it, I was certain of that, since none had ever been able to compel me. This tunnel had been formed by magic. I detected it, and it was far darker than any spells I had encountered before. Once I realized what was beckoning me to end my life, I was better able to resist.\n\nI reached into my pocket and found the blessed protective talisman Matilda had given me in London. I rubbed it between my thumb and forefinger. Energy tingled against my skin. The evil whispering chants lessened but didn't completely dissolve.\n\nA hand grabbed my elbow and tugged. I spun around.\n\nPenelope stood, looking at me. \"You feel the overpowering darkness, too?\"\n\nI nodded. The feeling was everywhere.\n\n\"Close your eyes,\" she said.\n\nI did. Sharp pellets struck my face and bounced off my leather hat like sleet. I opened my eyes. She held out a handful of the blessed salt.\n\n\"What are you doing?\" I asked.\n\n\"The salt should break the oppressive spell that's overshadowing us. Hold out your hand.\" She poured some of the salt into my hand. \"Eat it.\"\n\nI placed the salt on my tongue and let it dissolve. The uneasiness cocooned around me, and the whispers suddenly dispelled.\n\nPenelope hurried to my father and placed salt on his tongue. After his eyes indicated he was aware of his surroundings, she returned to me. \"Forrest, the cemetery isn't haunted like the people have told the old man. They walked into this oppressive wall of anguish. But whoever placed the curse here didn't do it to keep people out. It's here to keep the vampire trapped inside the cemetery.\"\n\n\"Even without the overpowering spell of gloom, I doubt he'd chance coming through these thorns. He could easily stake himself.\"\n\n\"I think that's the intent,\" Father whispered. \"Some of the dreadful thoughts that came to mind ... I've had better nightmares and drunken hallucinations.\"\n\n\"I agree.\" I glanced to each of them. \"Are you ready to continue or should we turn back?\"\n\nFather sighed. \"My head's clear now. I'm ready.\"\n\n\"You?\" I asked her.\n\n\"Of course. I realized what was happening before either of you.\"\n\nI leaned toward her, pressed my cheek against hers, and whispered, \"Thank you.\"\n\nShe turned her face slightly and kissed my cheek. \"You're welcome. But we're not in the cemetery yet. Who knows what else lies ahead.\"\n\n\"Always the pessimist, aren't you?\" I said with an even smile.\n\n\"When it comes to vampires and demons, it's better to be cautious than carefree.\"\n\n\"That's true.\"\n\nI turned back toward the path. Since the other Hunter had threatened my life, I couldn't shake the feeling of the price I'd have to pay for keeping Varak alive. And with what had just happened, I feared this was only the beginning. I wanted to turn back, but we needed the bounty for this vampire. It would take weeks of menial labor to earn a fraction of the reward money. With plague demons after Thomas, and the Hunter or Hunters searching for me, we didn't have time to sacrifice. We needed to reach Freiburg quickly.\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Thirteen\n\nThe strange whispering vanished, at least for me, but the dark tunnel narrowed. I took each step more cautiously, watching the shallow shadow recesses and expecting something to lash out and attack or latch onto my leg and pull me into the thorns. I attempted to make my body smaller, which made walking more difficult.\n\nWhile the narrowing tunnel was dark, we didn't need a lantern to see our way. Occasionally shreds of clothing or leather hung from the tips of the thorns where others had passed too closely. I wondered how many had braved the steps this far into the passageway. Like Karl had said, desperate people were willing to put their lives on the line when they lacked food or if they had hungry children.\n\nThe thorn-encrusted tunnel twisted in a slight curve toward the right. It seemed we had walked forever, and still we had not seen the first tombstone. The tunnel had come into existence long after the cemetery had been established because no one in their right mind would have troubled themselves to travel through here to bury the dead. But the longer we walked, the more I wondered if this tunnel even ended at a cemetery. Like Father and I had questioned the shortness of the map, the route to the cemetery had seemed too easy on paper. Nothing Karl had told us or drawn even indicated this winding, dangerous path.\n\nI stopped and faced Penelope and Father. \"You two okay?\"\n\nThey nodded.\n\n\"You want to turn back?\" I asked.\n\nPenelope glanced to my Father.\n\nHe shrugged. \"I'm not tired, if that's what you're implying.\"\n\n\"No, Father, that's not why I'm asking. We've moved at such a slow pace that none of us should be weary. I'm wondering if we missed something before we got into this passageway.\"\n\n\"You think there's another way into the cemetery?\" she asked.\n\n\"The winding branches forming this tunnel aren't an accident,\" I said.\n\nPenelope nodded. \"I told you they are here to keep the vampire inside the cemetery and prevent him from escaping.\"\n\n\"I agree. But that means someone is using magic to keep this vampire as a prisoner. But why?\"\n\n\"Maybe,\" Father said. \"But if he cannot get out to feed, he might be withered inside his crypt and unable to defend himself. An easy kill and easy money.\"\n\n\"If collecting the bounty for this vampire was easy, why hasn't anyone claimed it yet?\"\n\n\"The people got frightened and ran out?\" Father suggested.\n\n\"Possibly some of them did, but I've noticed some shredded clothing on the thorns. Some of those people might have made it into the cemetery to face a hungry vampire. They wouldn't have escaped death.\"\n\n\"Doesn't seem anyone died along the path,\" Father said. \"No skeletons.\"\n\n\"Unless their bodies were dragged into the cemetery?\"\n\n\"I don't know, Forrest,\" Penelope said. \"While the thorns certainly could keep a vampire trapped, they are also an obvious deterrent to keep humans out. According to Karl, most of them fled and told him and his wife that the place was haunted.\"\n\n\"With those horrid voices whispering in my head,\" Father said, \"I'd think so, too, if we hadn't discover it was a spell. Let's go a little ways farther, son. If we don't reach the cemetery, we turn back and pack the coach.\"\n\nI nodded.\n\nI turned, holding the crossbow as if I intended to fire. Other than the magic looming around us, I expected something else to appear. \"Do you sense any demons, Penelope?\"\n\n\"I haven't yet.\"\n\n\"Could a witch's magic mask their presence?\"\n\nShe was silent for several moments while we crept deeper into the dark passageway. \"I've never heard of it, but I imagine if the witch held dark intentions and was powerful enough, she might be able to control one. I know the healer summoned one.\"\n\n\"Do you have weapons to use at close range, if a demon emerges?\"\n\n\"Yes.\" She slid her arm through her bow and knelt to look through her pack. She pulled out a dagger. Runic symbols were engraved into the handle and the blade. \"This is the best demon killer I have besides my bow. Of course, holy water can work, depending upon the type of demon. Bibles can work, too. Crosses, if you know the proper scriptures.\"\n\n\"I'm at a loss there,\" I said.\n\nShe cocked a brow at me and opened her mouth, but I shook my head and interrupted her.\n\n\"Let's not discuss it now. I spend too much time explaining my views about religion and that is sacred to me. The important question right now is, 'do you know the proper scriptures?'\"\n\nPenelope nodded. \"I do, but I'm surprised you don't. Strange how many of the same weapons work against demons and vampires.\"\n\n\"I know. Let's go.\"\n\nThe tunnel curved back to the left and straightened. Ahead of us light filtered through, where I guessed the exit to this long thorny passageway finally ended. I almost let out a huge sigh of relief when a loud sound echoed from behind us.\n\n\"Get out of my head!\" the deep harsh voice bellowed.\n\n\"Son?\" Father said. \"Hurry!\"\n\nPenelope pushed her hand against my back. \"Someone's coming.\"\n\nI glanced over my shoulder but didn't see anyone in the dark tunnel. But whoever was approaching continued cursing, growling, and he was getting closer. By my guess, he was probably around the bend of the tunnel, but who or what he was, or even his intentions; there wasn't any way for us to know.\n\nAs we approached the faint light, the tunnel widened. I hurried my steps into a slight jog. At the end of the winding branches a rusted gate stood as the last obstacle. I pushed it open, and the hinges whined.\n\nThe soil on the other side of the gate was gray. Aged tombstones, some broken, tilted, or shattered, were clustered beneath dark leafless trees forking wicked branches toward the overcast sky. Some of the other tombstones were fashioned with little cherubs or stone vases. Scattered across the graveyard were three stone crypts larger than most cottages. Large menacing statues shaped like angels or hooded clerics held stone swords and daggers as if protectors of the dead, or the undead. Knowing a vampire resided inside one of the three stone crypts made me leery, but it wasn't dark enough for him to emerge.\n\nI tugged my chained watch from an inner pocket and checked the time. It was three hours until noon. If ever I needed an old Hunter's intellect to bless me, it was now. The vampire slept inside one of these crypts or possibly even a grave, but I didn't expect any hints to be given to me. Hunters received guidance but we were never given full knowledge about everything. We were expected to hunt, which was why we were chosen, but being pressed for time, I selfishly desired a pinpointed location. I shook my head. It wasn't happening. My spiritual Hunter advisors were eerily silent.\n\nSurveying the graveyard, looking for the slightest clue, I said, \"We made it through.\"\n\nThe voice inside the tunnel shrieked with agony. I shoved the gate closed, but it wouldn't prevent anyone else from opening it.\n\n\"But we're not alone,\" Penelope said.\n\n\"Probably another Hunter wanting to get the reward before we do,\" Father said through tight lips.\n\n\"Someone help me!\" the man in the tunnel shouted. \"The vines are wrapping me up!\"\n\nI turned and grabbed the gate.\n\nPenelope placed her hand atop mine and shook her head. \"No, Forrest. It's probably a trap. You go back in there, and it might be a demon who wants to kill you.\"\n\n\"But can't you tell if it's a demon?\" I asked.\n\nHer eyes widened. \"Not always. Some use such convincing disguises it's hard to discern whether they are humans or not. And besides that, the magic shrouding the tunnel has a distorting influence. While your intention is to help the person, if he's actually human, the magic could distort your appearance to him, making him believe you're a demon or monster. He might kill you when you try to free him.\"\n\nFather glanced at me. \"It could be worse than that.\"\n\n\"How?\"\n\n\"There might not be anyone else in the tunnel at all. Think about the enchanted hedges. The spell over them was to yank the vampire into the hedgerow and stab him until a branch staked through his heart. I don't know what nightmarish visions you two suffered when we first walked into the thorns, but those voices want blood. They crave blood.\"\n\n\"I got that impression, too,\" I whispered.\n\n\"It makes sense,\" Penelope said.\n\n\"Why?\" I asked.\n\n\"Dark magic by a witch with a dark soul,\" she replied. \"The ones who practice black magic need to offer blood in their sacrifices. Perhaps blood feeds the wicked wall.\"\n\nI told them about how the voices had tried to convince me to impale myself.\n\nFather swallowed hard. His brow furrowed. \"Mine was worse. The voices ... they wanted me to shove each of you into the giant thorns. I'd have never done it. I'd have impaled myself first, but having those thoughts haunts me.\"\n\n\"Those thick plants need blood,\" Penelope said.\n\n\"No skeletal remains on the path though,\" I said.\n\n\"But there were remnants of clothes,\" she replied. \"The vines might have ways of pulling the bodies into the wall and dissolving them as food, leaving no trace of its victims.\"\n\n\"The only thing that saved us was the salt?\" I asked.\n\n\"For now,\" she replied.\n\nI took in the information, biting my lower lip. \"Then let's find this vampire, slay him, and get out of here. But, we stick close to one another.\"\n\nFather pointed toward the closest tree line. \"I don't think there's another exit out of the cemetery.\"\n\nHe was right. The cemetery was a large circle surrounding by towering rows of thorny vines like the tunnel but these formed a wall by connecting to the outer perimeter trees. There wasn't any way to cross through them. The only good thing about the enclosure was it made an excellent wind barrier, and the temperature seemed warmer than back at the edge of the city.\n\n\"We have three crypts, Father. Which should we check first?\" I asked.\n\nHe frowned. \"Why are you asking me? Don't you know?\"\n\n\"I don't. But you've hunted vampires longer than I have. I was curious as to what clues you'd look for in determining where he might be.\"\n\nFather ran his hand through his beard, eyeing each crypt. \"While I'm not certain, I'd go to the farthest first.\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\nHe shrugged. \"Given how he's apparently imprisoned in the cemetery, that crypt is the farthest from the entrance, which intimidates those with lesser fortitude.\"\n\nMade sense to me. \"All right. Stick close. We need to keep check on the entrance in case it is a human hoping to slay the vampire and get the bounty. We don't want to accidentally kill someone who isn't an undead.\"\n\nPenelope placed her hand on my forearm. Her eyes narrowed as she glanced across the cemetery.\n\n\"What is it?\" I asked.\n\n\"Something evil.\"\n\n\"A demon?\"\n\n\"Not necessarily. But I sense it. Do you?\"\n\nI scanned the areas around the crypts and the tall tombstones, seeing nothing. I didn't sense anything out of the ordinary. No forewarnings pricked at my mind. I shook my head.\n\n\"Sorry I cannot be of more help,\" she said. \"I think whatever spell holds the thorny barriers in place has affected my psychic sensors.\"\n\n\"I'm still having problems from it, too,\" I replied. \"But I'm under the impression that once someone gets inside the cemetery, they're not meant to leave. Let's keep going, but we need to stay alert. If you're sensing an evil presence, I believe we're going to find it. Soon.\"\n\nAt the path that led to a crossroads was the first large angelic statue with magnificent feathered wings. It must have been at least ten feet tall. In its right hand it thrust a long sword upward, as if leading a charge into a great battle. The smooth face beckoned peace while the sword shouted war. Its left hand was empty with its palm held upward. It had held something at one point in time.\n\nI shuffled my feet at the statue's base to move aside leaves. My foot tapped a solid object. I stooped and brushed aside the leaves. On the ground was an open book carved from stone that this angel must have held. I assumed the book was supposed to be the Holy Bible, but I didn't open the subject for debate.\n\n\"Let's go,\" I said.\n\nWe causally made our way to the crossroads where another statue stood. Unlike the angelic representative, this sculpture exhibited evil. The face was featureless, except for the catlike eyes that receded into its head. A hooded cloak draped over the forehead almost covering the eyes from view. A long robe covered its body. Both hands extended forward, frozen in cupped formations, but no weapon was in its hands. On the ground was the massive stone scythe that had somehow been dislodged from its stone grip.\n\nCrows cawed from the perimeter trees.\n\nI glanced at the dark statue's eyes. I couldn't imagine anyone having the bravery to enter this cemetery at night. These statues were intimidating enough in the daylight. Shrouded in complete darkness? Even I would hesitate further investigation.\n\nBeyond the center of the crossroads, the rock-covered path was buried beneath thick layers of dry leaves, but we didn't need to follow the road to reach the crypts. However we couldn't cross the cemetery without making noise. I kicked my way through the leaves while Penelope and Father crunched them underfoot. My boot struck something and it rolled across a rock-covered grave. It was a hat. A Hunter's hat.\n\nPenelope rushed to it and picked it up. She examined it and looked inside. When her eyes met mine, her lower lip trembled.\n\n\"What's wrong?\"\n\n\"It's my father's,\" she replied.\n\n\"You're sure?\"\n\nShe nodded. Tears tugged at the edges of her eyes. I lowered my Hunter box to the ground and rushed to her. I wrapped an arm around her and squeezed her tightly.\n\nI whispered, \"It doesn't mean he's dead. It's only his hat.\"\n\nPenelope pulled back, her chest heaving as she fought her building sobs. She took several deep breaths, trying to calm herself. \"You're right. Besides, I can't lose my self-control here, not when there's a vampire nearby.\"\n\nShe wrapped her arms around my neck and hugged me tightly.\n\n\"Forrest,\" Father said with urgency rising in his voice.\n\nStill hugging Penelope, I saw the creature, raised the crossbow and fired before he finished his warning. The arrow plunged through the ghoul's head, causing it to stagger for a few moments before it dropped backwards on the ground. It wasn't dead. Only fire completely destroyed a ghoul, at least in my experiences. They were the creepiest creatures I had ever fought and without fire, you couldn't kill them. Hack them into a thousand pieces and each piece crawled, moved, trying to find a living creature to kill and devour, even after they weren't physically able to do so. A strange sound erupted from its odd mouth like nothing I'd ever heard before. It sprang to its feet and turned until it located us. Its long pointy tongue hung from its mouth, dripping drool. At the edge of the closest crypt were three more with wide crazed eyes focused on us. I should have known not to shoot it because where there's one ghoul, there's generally a few more. Sometimes, a whole lot more.\n\nThey were diabolical creatures, and now we knew what Penelope had sensed. I wasn't sure how we were going to escape or kill them.\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Fourteen\n\n\"You ever fight a ghoul?\" I asked Penelope.\n\nShe shook her head, staring at them with frightened awe. \"I've only read about them, and my father ... He told me stories about them. I doubt they were true.\"\n\n\"Unlike zombies, they have enough intelligence to hunt and kill humans. Fire's the only thing that will destroy them.\"\n\n\"Can we outrun them?\" she asked.\n\n\"I can't,\" Father said.\n\nThe ghoul with the arrow stuck in its head pointed at me, jumped and squealed. The other three rushed toward us with strange gurgling sounds rattling from their oversized mouths. They snarled and ran on all fours.\n\n\"Father, grab my box.\"\n\nHe gave me a perplexed stare. \"Don't jest with me in a time like this.\"\n\n\"Grab it!\"\n\nFather grabbed the handle tightly and glared at me. I stooped, slung him partway over my left shoulder while he held onto the box, and then I ran toward the crypt near the center of the cemetery.\n\n\"Penelope, run to that crypt over there,\" I said, nodding toward it.\n\nShe sprinted ahead of me.\n\n\"Forrest! Put me down,\" he said.\n\n\"Do you want to live or get eaten alive by those things?\"\n\n\"Never mind. Run! The damned things are running toward us like wild dogs.\"\n\nPenelope tripped over a small grave marker hidden under the leaves. She hit the ground hard and groaned, grabbing her ankle. As I neared her, she attempted to push herself up. She looked toward me and her face twisted from the pain. I flung the crossbow to my left hand, reached down and grabbed the pack secured on her back, lifting it and her off the ground without a pause in step.\n\nFew times in my early years was I ever thankful for my abnormally large size and incredible strength, and this was one of those occasions. I ran full speed with Father propped over my shoulder while carrying Penelope like a baggage trunk in my right hand. My feet clopped like a Clydesdale on pavement as I hurried to the crypt. A few months ago, I would have probably tripped over my huge feet, trying to run, but Jacques had convinced me to keep practicing my running, which I had done, a lot, and it had helped.\n\nI glanced toward the crypt, but kept my attention focused more on the leaf-covered ground because I didn't want to fall like she had. I couldn't imagine how bad that would be for Father should I topple forward, and he crashed to the hard ground. Physically, he was in bad enough shape without any added injuries.\n\n\"Hurry, Forrest,\" Father said, slapping my lower back with his free hand, as if his encouragement could make me run any faster. Maybe in the panic, he thought I was a Clydesdale? \"They're getting closer.\"\n\nI rounded toward the other side of the crypt, lowered Penelope to the ground, and Father dropped my Hunter box. \"Prepare yourself, Father.\"\n\n\"What?\"\n\nI brought him over my shoulder, cradled him in my arms, and then slung him into the air. He frantically waved his arms before he landed on the top of the roof. \"What the Hell, son? Are you trying to kill me?\"\n\nI reached for Penelope's waist.\n\nShe shook her head defiantly, trying to back away. \"Oh, no. Don't you dare!\"\n\nI grabbed her and boosted her up where Father could reach her hands and pull her onto the roof.\n\n\"I see where your affections lie, son! Throw your decrepit old father into the air like a bundle of tied straw, but she\u2014\"\n\n\"There isn't time for arguments,\" I said, grabbing my box off the ground.\n\n\"What about you, Forrest?\" she asked, reaching a hand downward.\n\n\"Not even the two of you can possibly pull me up there. Just keep your voices down and don't draw attention to yourselves.\"\n\nFather gave me a worried look, but said nothing.\n\nThe four ghouls came around the corner of the crypt toward me, their long wet tongues swaying and dribbling viscous foamy spittle. Their strange yellow eyes turned blacker than ink. Their mouths elongated, and they flexed their hands, pointing their claws.\n\nI turned to run and a fifth ghoul stood blocking my path. This ghoul was shorter than the others, but not any less deadly. Faint purplish blood vessels pulsed on its ashen gray face. The large eyes resembled globs of black tar enveloped beneath an oozy sheen. Its ears were pointed back, reminding me of the plague demon. It hissed and ran its long rough tongue across its jagged yellow teeth.\n\n\"Forrest,\" Penelope gasped, obviously as shocked to see this one as I was. I had only counted four, but there could be a dozen more.\n\nThere was madness in this creature's eyes. Raspy sounds echoed in its throat. It gnashed its teeth and growled. I swung my Hunter box with all my strength, smacking it square in the side of its head. The impact crushed its skull with a sick crunching sound, pivoted its head sideways, and sent the ghoul rolling across the leaves. Although it was injured, it wasn't dead. I carried the arc with the momentum and careened the box around at the ones behind me, hoping to incapacitate them for a few minutes. I only struck two of them, which caused the other two to scramble from my reach. I ran.\n\nGhouls were cowardly in some respects, which was why they traveled in packs and tended to hunt solitary victims. If their intended terrified victim was injured and scrambling for his life, a pack of ghouls became bolder and pursued.\n\nGlancing back over my shoulder, I noticed the ghouls clambering together into a group. None of them seemed to notice that Father and Penelope were on the roof of the crypt, which was good. I had put some distance between me and the five ghouls, but I didn't have any idea where to go.\n\nWithout a substantial amount of help, I didn't have any chance of pulling myself up to one of the rooftops. None of the trees had lower branches I could climb, and since the ghouls could see me inside this small cemetery, they wouldn't easily stop their pursuit despite their injuries.\n\nI wanted to slink to the side of the crypt, out of view, but I needed to be in a position where I could keep an eye on the ghouls. If they crept up behind me while I wasn't aware of their location, I'd die quickly. No doubts about that.\n\nFather had said that they were pursuing us like a pack of wild dogs, and that was true. They also held the same type of mentality. Ghouls were stronger in groups, quick to rip and tear a human apart. I'd never seen a solitary ghoul. They actually relied upon one another. Because of this, I should have delayed my initial attack when I had shot the first one until after we had located where the rest of the group was.\n\nThe one thing I knew best about the ghouls was how much I absolutely despised them.\n\nI dropped to my knees and opened my box. I considered using my pistol, but I didn't want to waste silver bullets on something they wouldn't actually kill. I had stove matches and flint, but no flammable liquids. Starting a fire out in the open would only frighten them away until the fire burned out, and I needed a large fire capable of consuming them. Such was the dilemma.\n\nThe five ghouls moved in unison at a slow gait like hunting dogs on the scent of birds, ready to flush a covey out of hiding. They remained low, on all fours, sniffing the air, making strange guttural sounds, and they used large tombstones to hide behind as they peered around.\n\nClosing my box of hunting tools, I left it on the ground. With the tip of my dagger, I pricked my finger and squeezed several drops of blood onto the corner of the box. I smeared the blood across the box with my thumb and grabbed my crossbow before rushing toward the nearest crypt. When I reached the wall, I glanced to see their location. They scrambled across the ground to my box; almost apelike in how they carried themselves. They sniffed the box and clawed at it with their long sharp nails. They obviously smelled the blood. One tried chewing on a corner of the box but didn't seem happy with the taste. A couple of the ghouls found my smeared blood and licked at the box hungrily, smacking at the others when they attempted to nudge their way closer. They gnashed and growled at one another, but I doubted their bickering would last long since there was little blood to fight over.\n\nI made my way around the far side of the crypt. A protective iron fence ran alongside the building, approximately four feet away from the wall. It was a safeguard to prevent people from plummeting over the edge onto the carved rock stairs that led down to an iron gate below. The set of stairs led to a lower level where a casket was probably stored, and I contemplated heading down. At the bottom of the stairs a large pile of leaves, at least knee-deep, had collected over time from the wind blowing them through the fence.\n\nIt appeared to be a good fire source, but how could I set a trap?\n\nAn old iron gate secured the sepulcher. It could be locked, but I doubted it would be. Of course as corroded as the gate was, it could be wielded shut by the thick rust.\n\nIf I could get inside the crypt, kick in enough leaves, and get the ghouls lured inside ... Phht. The ghouls would follow me regardless of anything else. I didn't need to worry about that. I was more concerned about getting cornered inside by the ghouls. I didn't like the odds of fighting against five ghouls inside a tight space. But what choice did I have? The entire cemetery was magically sealed inside the thickly coiled thorny vines. One could only run so long around the circular graveyard before suffering exhaustion and falling victim to these ungodly creatures or the vampire, if one resided in the cemetery.\n\nThat was the first moment such a thought had dawned on me. Did the vampire we had come to slay actually exist?\n\nHoarse gurgling sounds echoed softly from the other side of the crypt. The ghouls were coming for me. I had gifted them with the taste of blood and now they wanted more. A strange sound echoed farther away, like the scraping of a sharp object being dragged along a stone. A few seconds later, the sound occurred again, but at a different location in the cemetery, and then at another spot. The rough scraping noises reverberated faster, making an ear-piercing painful sound. I had no idea what was responsible for those noises, but the ghouls had not made them and seemed to have ignored them.\n\nI hurried to the bottom of the steps. Grabbing the gate, I was alarmed by how close their growls were overhead. They were trying to squeeze their heads through the iron bars of the fence. Ghouls were smarter than zombies, but not overly intelligent. Their hunger controlled them more and desperation set in their eyes as they peered down at me. Nothing registered in their minds that they could have simply followed the fence until they found the stairs. Instead, they sought to get through the iron bars.\n\nI pushed the small iron gate open. It didn't budge. I yanked on it and shook it hard. Bits of rust cascaded off the bars. The hinges squeaked. The ghouls lunged at the fence above, reaching through the bars with their long pale arms, and swiping their claws uselessly. I was thankful they had not figured out how to follow the fence to get to the stairs.\n\nI shoved the gate, pushing my weight against it. It moved slightly where the latch connected but still resisted. The ghouls growled louder, sometimes moaning from their anticipation. I was a big enough meal to satiate all of their hunger, provided they reached me, but I was just outside their reach.\n\n\"Forrest!\" Penelope yelled. \"Are you okay?\"\n\nAll five ghouls stiffened and turned toward the direction of her voice.\n\nWell, I was. I cringed, shook my head, and grumbled.\n\nThe ghouls scurried along the fence, tugging the bars as they moved. When they reached the end of the fence, one noticed the stairs and hobbled down two of the steps. Its long winding tongue curled. It bore sharp jagged teeth. Instead of a growl, it seemed to purr for a moment with contentment and a sense of accomplishment.\n\nI took a step back from the gate and kicked the door latch hard. The gate swung inward with screeching hinges. I raked the leaves inside the door with the side of my boot, as many as I could. I glanced up the steps. The five ghouls descended. Their black eyes grew wider and more menacing, possessed by their insatiable hunger.\n\nThey turned their heads slightly and their jaws popped loudly. Their mouths were larger and their jaws came unhinged so they could take larger bites and rip the flesh from my bones. Coldness rushed through me, and suddenly the thought of being impaled by one of the massive sharp thorns in the passageway had seemed a much better fate than how I pictured myself dying now.\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Fifteen\n\nI rushed into the crypt, kicking more leaves into a huge pile near the door. In hindsight, I don't know why I had thought this would be a good plan. Leaf debris was a quick burst of heat and fire, rapidly escalating and plummeting in strength almost as fast. The rising flames poised a greater chance of causing the ghouls to flee rather than harming them. I needed a longer lasting fuel for the fire to destroy the ghouls. There wasn't anything useable inside the crypt. The entire sepulcher was made from stone. No wooden rafters. Even the coffin was carved out of stone.\n\nThe first ghoul charged through the door without hesitation. I sidestepped and cupped my huge hand around the back of its hairless head, lifting it into the air. I turned and smashed its face against the stone wall. Bones crunched. Its forehead sunk inward and bits of shattered teeth showered down. It yelped. I flung it hard against the opposite wall and it collapsed to the cold floor.\n\nI pulled my dagger as the next two dashed toward me. I kicked the one to my left, knocking it out the door into the other two. The other ghoul leapt into the air and landed on my chest. Its rotten breath reeked of death and decay. It opened its large mouth wide enough to take off my head. I staggered backwards, trying to avoid its mouth, especially the teeth, when I noticed it had raised its clawed hand into the air. It swung, aiming for my throat, hoping\u2014I guessed\u2014to gash open my tenderest flesh to spill the greatest amount of blood.\n\nBefore it flailed downward, I toppled, falling fast to the hard floor. I rammed my dagger into its gut as I hit the floor. It squealed in pain. I grabbed it by the throat and squeezed, pushing the dagger deeper. Black blood leaked over my hand. It gurgled for a moment and desperately raked its claws across my arm. The thickness of my coat prevented a deep gash, but it had cut me. The scent of my blood invited the other three to rush inside the tight quarters.\n\nI yanked my dagger free and flung the ghoul toward its three companions, missing, but I rolled and pushed myself to my feet. The ghoul I had smashed against the wall writhed on the floor. It wasn't dead but at least it wasn't a threat yet.\n\nI moved to the other side of the stone coffin and faced the four ghouls. I pushed the coffin lid aside. The coffin was empty. It was a shame the vampire wasn't lying asleep or dormant inside. I had once executed a vampire with the indiscriminate help of hungry ghouls who had torn him and his offspring apart. It would have been good to use this vampire as a distraction while I escaped the crypt. That wasn't an option though.\n\nThe ghouls formed a semi-circle, facing me, and slowly moved inward to trap me in the corner. I could have run for the narrow door, but not without at least two of them latching onto me with their sharp claws and trying to bite me. With the large number of sharp teeth each ghoul had, it didn't take but a few strong bites to cause rapid blood loss for a victim. The slightest bite, however, could infect the person and curse him or her to slowly transform into a ghoul. These were other reasons why I hated encountering and killing ghouls and another situation where I missed Jacques. Werewolves were resistant to most undead infections. I was not. So even though I greatly outsized them, I couldn't risk one sinking its teeth into me. And besides that, I needed to survive so I could get Penelope and Father down off the roof. I believed it would take the three of us together to get through the tunnel safely.\n\nI hefted the stone coffin lid upright and held it so the long narrow side was horizontal, and I used it as a shield. The stone lid was heavier than I estimated, and I strained to carry it. My arms and back ached.\n\nThe ghouls seemed confused with me holding it. Fighting the burning sensation of fatigue building in my biceps, forearms, and my hands, I growled with ferocity. The noise partially startled them for a moment, perhaps they thought I was transforming into some sort of beast, but I took the opportunity of their hesitation to rush at them. With the lid I pushed two of the ghouls across the floor and smashed them against the wall. The other two were too swift to get pinned or trapped. One leapt over the lid while the other scurried underneath.\n\nI left the heavy coffin lid against the wall with the two ghouls struggling unsuccessfully to get the weight off of them. I turned quickly to face the escaped ghouls. One of the two still had the arrow protruding from its head. I grabbed the arrow shaft, pulled, and swung the ghoul into the air. It bounced off the far wall and dropped beside its injured companion.\n\nThe last standing ghoul leapt onto my back, growling and slashing. I winced as the claws cut through my overcoat. I tried to reach over my shoulder, but the wicked creature stayed outside of my reach and refused to let go. Fiery lines of pain surfaced where its claws had penetrated through the leather material and into my flesh. I had never heard an instance where the claws spread the ghoul infection, but I supposed it was possible. Something for me to worry about later.\n\nA second before I would have rammed my back against the wall in an attempt to crush the ghoul, a line of brightness cut through the shadows. Air whooshed past my head, the ghoul fell slack, and dropped to the floor. A fiery arrow smoldered in its head. Smoke drifted from its ears, nose, and mouth. Its body twitched and spasmed before growing stiff. I glanced toward the door. Penelope flashed a broad smile. \"Can't let you have all of the fun.\"\n\n\"Where's Father?\"\n\n\"Still on the roof. I had to jump. I needed to know you were okay.\"\n\nI winced, rolled my shoulders, and turned my back toward her so she could inspect the lacerations.\n\n\"You have a lot of cuts but none are deep or look severe.\"\n\nI sighed. \"What about disease from their claws?\"\n\n\"I don't know.\"\n\n\"We need to get out of here,\" I said. \"But I don't want to leave these creatures alive, just in case others come to the cemetery seeking to slay the vampire. I had thought about using the leaves to start a fire, but it might not be hot enough to kill them.\"\n\n\"They're not getting around too good right now.\"\n\n\"They'll recover, given time.\"\n\nThe two beneath the coffin lid were trapped between the lid and the wall. The two against the other wall were panting and sprawled out on the floor, but neither made any attempt to crawl. The one she had shot with the flaming arrow wasn't moving. If anything the fire had obliterated its brain, but I doubted its body wouldn't eventually try to become mobile again.\n\n\"I have an idea,\" I said.\n\n\"What?\"\n\nI carefully grabbed the brain-dead ghoul by one foot and tossed it into the empty coffin, and then I grabbed the two against the far wall and placed them inside as well. I hurried to the heavy stone lid. \"When I lift this, throw them into that coffin, too.\"\n\nShe nervously glanced to the ghouls and then to me.\n\n\"Both are probably suffering from broken bones, but be quick and make certain you don't get bitten. Are you ready?\"\n\nPenelope pursed her lips. \"Ready? Forrest, you could ask me that a hundred years from now and I still wouldn't be ready to touch one of them.\"\n\nI gave her an even stare as I reached for the lid. \"They're hideous creatures. I agree. But leaving them where they can recover and kill again isn't something any Hunter should do.\"\n\nShe nodded. We were both obligated to tasks neither of us enjoyed.\n\nI heaved the stone lid, and she grabbed each ghoul by one foot and dragged them like burlap bags of sand. She put them into the coffin, and I slid the lid across until it was flush with all sides.\n\nI arched and stretched my back, and groaned with some relief.\n\n\"You think they can slide the top aside to escape?\" she asked.\n\nI gave a slight shrug. \"I doubt they can budge it.\"\n\n\"Will they die?\"\n\n\"All but one.\"\n\nPenelope gave an incredulous stare. \"They'll eat one another?\"\n\n\"That would be my guess. They cannibalize whenever there's no other choice.\"\n\nPanic widened her eyes. \"And there's five of them in this cemetery, which is closed off from the rest of the town. They don't appear to be lacking for food.\"\n\nI nodded. \"For ghouls, they looked quite healthy, if one can measure such a thing, which means a lot of people have come into this cemetery on a fairly regular basis.\"\n\n\"My father?\" She closed her eyes and clenched tight fists.\n\n\"He's a Hunter with intellect. There's a good chance he found a way to escape.\"\n\n\"I hope so.\"\n\n\"Sometimes, hope is all we have.\"\n\nOutside the scraping stone sound echoed again.\n\n\"What is that?\" I asked.\n\n\"I'm not sure. Your father and I heard it earlier.\"\n\n\"You didn't see what made it?\"\n\nShe shook her head. \"We should help your father down and find where that vampire is. It's obvious he wasn't in here.\"\n\n\"What if there isn't a vampire in this cemetery?\" I asked.\n\n\"You don't think there is?\"\n\n\"I'm not certain, but I'm beginning to wonder.\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\n\"The whole place seems like a giant trap,\" I replied.\n\n\"For what purpose?\"\n\n\"I don't know, but these ghouls patrolled the cemetery. The thorny giant vines make a quick escape almost impossible.\"\n\n\"Are you proposing that we leave without looking for the vampire?\"\n\nI shook my head. \"No, we need to collect the bounty if he is here. A quick search should tell us.\"\n\nI scooped up a huge pile of leaves in my arms and covered the lid of the coffin.\n\n\"What are you doing?\"\n\nI grabbed another armful of leaves and piled them around the coffin. \"Roasting the ghouls.\"\n\n\"That will work?\"\n\n\"It won't hurt to try. With enough leaves burning around the stone coffin, it will be like a brick oven, magnifying and trapping the heat inside. They should cook.\"\n\n\"Provided they don't escape?\"\n\n\"They fear fire. Even if they slid the lid over a little, they'd see the flames and scrunch away into a corner. But I don't think they have the strength to move the lid.\"\n\nPenelope gathered a lot of the leaves and piled them on top of the lid. When the leaves completely covered the coffin, I struck a long match against the stone wall and lit leaves at each corner of the coffin.\n\nThe fire rose.\n\nI grabbed my crossbow and walked to the door with her. Once we stepped outside the door, I yanked the small iron gate back into place. The latch clicked shut. I picked up a thick piece of iron that had fallen from the overhead fence and bent it around the small gate and the bar where the latch had been welded. Even if the ghouls survived the fire and pried the lid off the coffin, they'd never get through the gate.\n\nThe stone-scraping sounds reverberated again, only faster and closer. She and I exchanged glances.\n\n\"Forrest!\" Father yelled. \"Come quick! I need your help!\"\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Sixteen\n\nPenelope and I came up the steps to discover what was making the sounds. She limped slightly.\n\n\"Are you okay?\" I asked.\n\n\"I'll be fine.\"\n\n\"You hurt yourself coming off the roof?\"\n\nShe shook her head. \"No, it was when I tripped and fell earlier, but dropping from the roof didn't help it any.\"\n\nThe rough scraping sounds came from near the crypt where Father was. At first I didn't see what was making the noise, until I saw what appeared to be large statues moving, but they weren't statues at all. They were living creatures made out of stone.\n\nThree gargoyles.\n\nThere was that moment of disbelief when I questioned if I was walking in a nightmare. Seeing these things made me stand silent. Captivated, I found myself admiring how these gargoyles moved effortlessly, being as heavy as they had to be.\n\nPenelope placed her hand on mine. \"When I said that I sensed evil earlier, it wasn't the ghouls but it definitely is associated with them.\"\n\nThe stone creatures were half my size but probably four times my weight. Each step or movement they made produced a stone-raking-stone sound. Their wings rose and shifted as they walked, helping them keep their balance. Due to their weight and size, they weren't fast movers. At least they didn't seem to be.\n\nFather edged himself higher on the roof until he noticed us. He waved us toward him with desperation.\n\nAll three gargoyles were slate gray like the tombstones and the crypt buildings. They had noticed Father and were approaching his building.\n\nI glanced at Penelope. \"What do you know about gargoyles?\"\n\nShe shook her head. \"Only that they're not supposed to be alive.\"\n\n\"These apparently are.\"\n\n\"I see that, too.\"\n\n\"How do you kill something made from stone?\"\n\n\"You cannot kill stone since it isn't alive.\"\n\nGood point. \"But something has brought them to life.\"\n\nShe nodded. \"Some type of magic or they might actually be demons trapped inside the stones.\"\n\n\"Then these are more your type for slaying rather than mine.\"\n\n\"No, I'm seeing them for the first time like you.\"\n\nFather glared at me. \"You two going to stand there and gawk or help me down before they kill me?\"\n\n\"Be patient, Father. They are stiff and slow and barely moving. You're probably safer being on the roof than for us to get you down.\"\n\nThe smallest gargoyle squatted, stretched its wings, and propelled itself into the air. It landed with a thunderous crash on the rooftop not far from where Father stood. The vibrations from its landing caused Father to stumble. He grabbed the ledge and peered back at its demonic face.\n\nI was stunned. These stone creatures had seemed sluggish, and I had underestimated their agility and speed.\n\n\"Do you mind mulling through your theory again, son?\" he said. \"Don't take too long thinking about it because this thing is going to flatten me.\"\n\nFather edged his way to the corner of the roof. He was about to jump. I can't say that I blamed him, but doing so would probably kill him.\n\nI ran toward the building. The other two gargoyles noticed me and stamped their feet in rapid succession, making an incredibly loud noise while shaking the ground. If their actions were meant to frighten me, they were partly successful. However, I was more frightened about Father jumping and killing himself than I was for what danger I was placing myself into to rescue him.\n\n\"Hold on!\" I said.\n\nHe made an odd face. \"To what exactly?\"\n\n\"Patience,\" I replied, rushing toward the side of the crypt.\n\n\"She left me about five minutes ago, son. Don't think she's coming back anytime soon, either.\"\n\n\"Jump!\"\n\nFather looked at me questionably. I still wasn't quite close enough to catch him, but by my estimate I'd be under him before he reached the ground. He glanced over his shoulder. The gargoyle wobbled in its gait toward him. It widened its muscular stone arms like it wanted to hug him, but he and I both knew it was going to embrace him and crush him to death.\n\nHe jumped.\n\nI caught him with both arms as I ran. I didn't stop running, trying to put as much distance between them and I as I could.\n\n\"Forr\u2014rrest!\" Penelope said.\n\nThe two gargoyles that had been stamping their feet were flying overhead. While I was not completely certain, it seemed they had been ramping up speed to get into the air. They weren't after me though. They were circling over her.\n\nShe hobbled and winced with each step. She had twisted her ankle worse than she had let on. One of the gargoyles swooped downward. She dove toward a tall obelisk gravestone and flung her arms over her face. The gargoyle dipped and careened, trying to miss the pointed tombstone, but the tip pierced through its thin stone wing, cracking it. The slight splintering cracks didn't shatter the wing but caused the beast to tug the wing inward, and it dropped hard to its side.\n\nIts heavy impact sank the creature several inches into the ground. It pushed with its massive left stone hand to lift itself, but only rocked back and forth like a tortoise stuck on its back. It appeared it needed both hands to upright itself, but its weight was pinning down its other arm.\n\nPenelope pulled herself to her feet and placed her back against the tombstone. The grounded gargoyle snorted and puffed like an angry bull, still trying to right itself to get at her. The one in the air circled and was in a downward glide, coming straight at her.\n\n\"Go help her, son,\" Father said. \"I'll hide behind a tree since I don't have any idea how to fight something like that.\"\n\nI put him down. \"I don't know either.\"\n\n\"Well, one of us better come up with something or we're all dead.\"\n\nPenelope watched the gliding gargoyle. With her back pressed against the tombstone, she clung to it, watching\u2014I supposed\u2014to see what it was going to do. While she stood there, I ran back toward the crossroads.\n\n\"What are you doing?\" Father shouted.\n\nI sprinted to the dark robed statue and leaned down to pick up the stone scythe. The weapon was heavy, almost too heavy for me to get my fingers beneath it and pry it off the ground. After I lifted it and wrapped my arms around the section where the curved blade attached to the handle, I drug it down the road toward Penelope.\n\nThe gargoyle widened its wings and circled around, gliding in at a lower descent the second time. The clawed toes on its feet spread out and lengthened.\n\n\"Run, Penelope,\" I said, huffing. I hefted the scythe and leaned forward, pressing each step firmly down and pushing off with my feet.\n\nPenelope glanced toward me and then looked at the gargoyle. It descended fast. I kept rushing toward her, but at the speed it was dropping, if she waited any longer, she was dead.\n\nThe gargoyle aimed at her with its feet, but she rolled out of the way. The winged beast snorted, tried to pull itself upward, but due to its weight, it crashed to the ground. It maintained its balance after running a few steps and turned.\n\nPenelope crawled toward me. I ran past her, lifting the long scythe and propping it against my shoulder. The gargoyle stood about ten feet in height. It turned toward me, sensing my approach. Its hideous bat-like face contorted. Orange flames blazed behind its eyes. Even with my weapon in hand, the creature held no obvious fear of me. I brought down the scythe and balanced it in both hands, and then I swung my entire body around to get the most momentum for the stone weapon as I could. It didn't help.\n\nThe long curved blade made of stone, cracked and crumbled when it struck the gargoyle. It hissed and stomped its way toward me. The ground shook beneath my feet. I took a step back when it lunged to grip me with both of its huge clawed hands. Wrapping the stone handle in my arms, I used it like one would use a battering ram against a door, and struck the creature in the center of the chest. A gurgling sound echoed inside its throat that I assumed could be nothing other than sheer laughter.\n\nI tried to back away, but it grasped the stone handle in its thick hands and yanked. I released the handle or otherwise, it would have pulled me into its reach. It slammed the handle on the ground and it shattered into a dozen pieces. I examined the fragments, but nothing seemed useful enough a weapon for me to claim.\n\n\"Forrest,\" Penelope said in a nervous whisper. \"The other one is approaching.\"\n\nSo we had two gargoyles approaching and neither she nor I had weapons to defend ourselves. The third gargoyle continued struggling on the ground, trying to roll free of the small crater it had created when it had crashed to the ground.\n\n\"Any suggestions?\" I asked.\n\n\"I'd say run, but we're limited to where.\"\n\nI nodded and picked up a stone fragment from the handle. I lobbed it hard at the bat-faced gargoyle in front of me. The fragment struck and disintegrated into a puff of dust. The creature's brow tightened and its mouth widened, revealing a double row of teeth set inside its jaws.\n\nI had seen gargoyles atop buildings in many of the countries I had traveled through. Each one was crafted with unique faces, resembling what the artist believed a demon might look like. These were no different, except they were alive. Gargoyles were believed to be guardians to frighten off evil spirits, but these seemed to be possessed by some unseen power, and not one I believed to befriend or protect humans from.\n\nThe gargoyle hissed, flexed its massive wings, and rushed toward me. I attempted to step to the side, but it caught my arm. As heavy as these creatures were, I never anticipated one rushing that fast toward me. It held me firmly in its tight painful grip.\n\n\"Forrest!\" Penelope exclaimed, covering her mouth with her hand.\n\nI gripped the creature's thick stone finger and tried to pry them apart or at least loosen its grip, but I didn't possess enough strength. I pulled back and placed my feet against its chest, pushing and pulling and yanking. Nope. It had me.\n\nIt leaned closer, pressing its face to mine. It snorted and chuffed with breath like brimstone. With its free hand it wrapped its fingers around my throat and tightened. Immediately I couldn't breathe. It had cut off my windpipe and if it tightened anymore, it could pop my head from my shoulders.\n\nThe world was growing dim. Blackness was covering my vision. In desperation, I swung a hard fist into its face, not certain where the strike might land, but I wasn't going to die without at least trying to fight.\n\nI hit its nose. It leveled a harsh frown. Those eyes blazed with angry flames. Penelope had picked up part of the scythe blade that still had a curved edge and she slashed at its stone wings. Its eyes widened and it turned toward her. The distraction was enough for it to loosen its grip, but it didn't release me. I took several deep breaths.\n\nMy ears rang, but faintly I heard stone striking stone. She was still trying to do some sort of damage to the gargoyle but from my angle I couldn't tell if she was having any success.\n\nI placed one hand on the forefinger of the beast and the other on its thumb. Using all the strength I had, I couldn't pull his fingers any wider apart. Penelope groaned and grunted, striking the winged beast over and over, making a dull thwacking noise with each hit. She didn't seem to be hurting it any, but she was annoying the hell out of it.\n\nIt formed a fist with its free hand and swung around hard and fast. Its fist narrowly missed her, but its long draping wings sliced through the air toward her. She fell backwards, crashing to the ground. If she had waited another second, it would have removed her head from her shoulders. It turned and tried to stomp her. While on her back, she used her elbows and pushed with her feet to crawl awkwardly away, just barely keeping herself outside of its reach. Panic and helplessness claimed her face.\n\nIt swung to the side, using the long trail of its wing to strike at her. For a stone creature it definitely held unpredictable tactics. She kept crawling, scooting away, but the gargoyle refused to allow her escape. It stomped one foot after the other, trying to flatten her, but fortunately she stayed one step ahead of it.\n\nWith my fist I struck the side of the gargoyle's face again and again. My flailing went unnoticed by the creature as its determination to kill her controlled it. It clutched me closer to its chest without any thought that it was still holding me. I reached for the chiseled crevices between its chest and neck, hoping to find a handhold to get more leverage and pry myself free.\n\nMy fingers caught in a small narrow groove of the stone chain that was carved around its neck. I grabbed hold, pulled, and one of the links cracked and fell loose. A gem about the size of my fist glowed inside the hole. I struck my fist against the opening several times. Bits of dust and rock chunks cascaded from the opening. I hit the gem once more and it slipped from the opening and landed on the ground.\n\nIt craned its neck around and peered at me. Its mouth widened momentarily, revealing its large teeth. A deep intake of air rushed through its mouth. I anticipated a nasty roar or growl, but instead, the creature dismantled at every joint, dropping to the ground in a series of pieces. The fingers clamped around my neck released me and dropped at my feet.\n\nI rubbed my neck and gulped air. When most of the dizziness passed, I walked to Penelope. I offered my hand and helped her to her feet.\n\n\"What happened to it?\" she asked.\n\nI shook my head. \"When I dislodged that gem, it fell apart.\"\n\nShe brushed herself off.\n\nGlancing around, I said, \"Where's the other one?\"\n\nShe shrugged and frowned, gazing across the cemetery. \"I don't know. How can something that large move so quickly?\"\n\n\"I have no idea.\"\n\nI took the piece of scythe from her and hurried to the gargoyle still stuck on the ground. I walked around so I could see its face. It snarled and swiped at me with its clawed hand but I remained outside of its reach. A chain necklace wrapped around its neck, too.\n\nFather picked up the glowing yellow gem from the disassembled gargoyle and rejoined us. I was trying to get past the gargoyles claws to strike the necklace on its chest. \"Careful, Forrest.\"\n\n\"Did you see where the other gargoyle went?\" I asked.\n\n\"No.\" A winged shadow passed overhead. He looked to the sky. \"Ah, it's in the air.\"\n\nI stepped toward the angered gargoyle and waited for it to swing at me. After it did, I lunged inward and struck the necklace hard. The chain cracked but held in place, not allowing me to dislodge the gem. I shook my head in frustration. I glanced toward Penelope and Father. \"I don't think this one's getting up anytime soon. While the other one is in flight, we should at least examine the other two crypts for the vampire.\"\n\nFather nodded. \"And then what?\"\n\n\"We head out through the passageway. I can't see how this can get much worse.\"\n\n\"Hunter!\" the deep voice beckoned from near the large angelic statue. It was Philip. Another person stood beside him. Philip shoved the man to his knees and placed a knife to the man's throat. \"Your coachman refuses to tell me where the child is. Tell me where the boy is and your coachman lives.\"\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Seventeen\n\n\"Don't tell him, Forrest,\" Thomas said in a solemn tone. \"You know my destiny. And we're already running behind schedule.\"\n\nI glanced at my watch. It was after eleven a.m. I had never intended to spend this much time at the cemetery. Of course, when you're fighting to survive, time escapes at a rapid pace, not exactly begging one's attention.\n\n\"Is this what you've been reduced to, Philip?\" I asked. \"Blackmail and killing innocent people? That's not the true heart of a Hunter.\"\n\nBlood dripped from Philip's arm that hung to his side. His fatigued face revealed that he had been injured. By the thorns? Had Philip been the one who had cried out from inside the passageway? He blinked hard and shook his head for several seconds. I wondered if his vision was blurred. He staggered slightly, found his balance, and pressed the dagger against Thomas' neck. Thomas stiffened. The whites of his eyes revealed his fear of death. Regardless of the coachman's bravery, he didn't really want to die.\n\nPhilip glared at me. His scars seemed more prominent than before. He spoke through gritted teeth. \"To save humanity from that child's eventual wrath, I'll do whatever's necessary.\"\n\n\"Hunters don't kill Hunters.\" I walked toward him, placing my hand on my dagger.\n\n\"Forrest!\" Father said in a harsh whisper. \"Just tell him where Varak is. Let's be done with this.\"\n\nI frowned at him and shook my head. Penelope seemed to agree with Father and nodded toward me with pleading eyes. The child had even made her uneasy.\n\nThe darkness in Philip's gaze consumed him. He was beyond reason. He might have been a good Hunter at one time in his life, but his obsession to kill Varak was akin to pure hate-filled evil. That's when I wondered if he truly wanted to kill the child, or did he have an ulterior motive? Did he want to use the child to gain power and influence over others, which was something else that went against a Hunter's credo?\n\nMy mind had sorted through a lot of issues during the past few weeks. I held no doubt that killing undead creatures might eventually tarnish a good Hunter's soul. But what if more than that had occurred with Philip? What if a Hunter killed an insane vampire that had been without any rationality at all? Hunters absorbed a good portion of a vampire's memories without any assurance that the memory impressions received would benefit the Hunter. Was it possible to absorb the madness of a mentally disturbed vampire and those mental persuasions overrode the rationality and competency an adept Hunter once had?\n\nDominus had probably killed as many vampires as Philip, possibly even more, but had shown none of the alterations Philip was exhibiting. Although I had no way to know, I had to assume at this particular moment that Philip was being controlled by something other than what we Hunters claimed our allegiance to.\n\nThomas had done nothing to provoke Philip, and yet the Hunter held a knife at the coachman's throat. Even if I agreed with Father and wanted to get rid of the child, Philip wouldn't be the one I'd hand him over to. I wasn't sure what he'd do.\n\n\"What's your answer, Hunter?\" Philip asked.\n\nBefore I could reply, the gargoyle swooped down from behind Philip and thrashed its talons into the Hunter's back, knocking him forward before yanking him upward. Thomas dove aside, rolled, and slowly rose to his feet, uncertain of what had happened. Once he realized he had been spared, he hurried to us.\n\nThe gargoyle arced its wings slightly to the right in an attempt to miss an oversized tombstone, but with the added weight of the Hunter, it failed to rise any higher. Instead, it dropped Philip near the robed statue at the crossroads and landed abruptly on the other side of him.\n\nThe Hunter rolled several times and when he stopped, he wasn't conscious, but for a few moments, I thought he was dead. The gargoyle turned. Its heavy feet thudded as it walked. Its interest was keenly directed at the unmoving Hunter.\n\nEven with all the threats Philip had made, I couldn't allow his fate to end here, but the four of us weren't a match against this gargoyle. It had been sheer luck that I had found a way to destroy the other one.\n\nI glanced at Thomas. \"Are you okay?\"\n\nHe nodded.\n\n\"We can't allow it to kill Philip,\" I said, looking at Father and Penelope.\n\nFather gave me a perplexed stare. \"You cannot be serious?\"\n\n\"He's a fellow Hunter,\" I replied.\n\n\"One who wishes to kill all of us,\" Father said. \"Especially you, I might add.\"\n\n\"I'm aware of that.\"\n\n\"What do you propose?\" she asked.\n\n\"Distract the gargoyle. Thomas and I will pull Philip to safety.\"\n\nThomas shook his head. \"I will do no such thing, Forrest. This madman dragged me through the most horrible tunnel and put a knife to my throat. I'd rather face the plague demons Albert has sent after me than to offer any aid to that man.\"\n\nI shrugged. \"I can't say I blame you.\"\n\nPenelope threw a fist-sized rock and hit the gargoyle in the back of the head. It stopped its approach toward the Hunter and craned its neck around. The next rock struck its flat nose, exploding into a cloud of dust. It growled, widening its mouth, and flexed its wings while forming huge fists.\n\nThe gargoyle roared and marched toward her with heavy steps. She took several steps backwards and winced each time she put her right foot down. Father wrapped his arm with hers to keep her from having to place her weight upon her weak ankle.\n\n\"We distracted it, Forrest,\" Father said. \"I have no idea what you plan to do, but you need to do something fast.\"\n\nThe stone creature's face contorted with the most evil hideous expressions I've ever seen. It hurried toward Father and Penelope, neither of which were able to outrun it.\n\nWhat had I been thinking?\n\nI hadn't been. I had been reacting without considering they were placing their lives into jeopardy to spare the Hunter.\n\nFather hobbled, using what strength he could offer to help support her weight. They moved across the leafier section of the cemetery, but the gargoyle didn't even need to rush to shorten the distance between them.\n\nShe and Father were nearing one of the crypts, but not quickly enough. The gargoyle bellowed deeply, something that sounded like a note of triumph mixed with rolling laughter. It kicked a large swath of leaves out of its path as it strode closer. The ground shook slightly from its awkward steps.\n\nI scanned the area around me, trying to figure out what I could use for a weapon. The stone scythe hadn't helped earlier with the other gargoyle, and if a gem kept this one together like the other one, I knew I'd never survive a hand-to-hand fight with it. One stern punch from it would prove fatal.\n\nFather and Penelope reached the wall of the crypt and turned to look at me. The gargoyle's right foot stomped hard on the top of a leaf-covered grave. Its enormous weight crushed through the grave plot and sunk. The creature toppled forward and landed facedown. Its huge wings fanned with fury, and it pushed with its hands to stand, but due to its excessive mass it appeared to be unable to get up.\n\nI motioned them to keep moving, and I ran toward the angelic statue, found the large stone book on the ground and picked it up. While she and Father hurried farther away from the gargoyle, I carried the book and walked upon the gargoyle's back between its wings. It fought to pry its foot free from the sinkhole but it was wedged tightly in the ground. I lifted the book over my head and brought it down, hammering the top of its head.\n\nIt roared, shuffling its wings, rocking back and forth. I almost lost my balance, but I brought up the book and struck its head again and again. The solid stone book chiseled at the back of its head, chipping away bits of the skull until larger fractures appeared. Several more hammered thrusts dislodged thick hand-sized chunks of stone. I kept striking and expected the stone book to shatter, but it didn't. After finally busting its head to pieces, the creature stopped moving altogether.\n\nI dropped the heavy book and sighed. My shoulders slumped. I lowered myself and sat upon the gargoyle's back, panting. Aches ran through my body. Every abrasion, bruise, and cut magnified, but at least we were all alive.\n\nFather and Penelope limped to me.\n\nThomas came up and patted my shoulder, smiling.\n\n\"After I catch my breath,\" I said. \"I'll crush the other gargoyle.\"\n\nFather looked at me with a sense of pride and smiled. Penelope leaned her head against my chest and wrapped her arms around me. Enjoying her warmth and closeness, I embraced her, resting my chin atop her head.\n\n\"Thomas,\" I said. \"See if you can dislodge the gem on this beast's chest.\"\n\nHe nodded.\n\n***\n\nAfter several minutes of holding Penelope and catching my breath, I slipped away, took the book, and decapitated the other gargoyle. We collected the three large gems that had somehow functioned like their hearts and placed them inside her pack. A search of the other two crypts proved fruitless.\n\nNo vampire.\n\nFather frowned with disgust and leaned his back against the crypt wall. \"No vampire? So why the ruse of offering a reward? Nothing but undead creatures and gargoyles.\"\n\nI walked to where Philip lay unconscious on the ground. Blood leaked from his nose and mouth. His back had been flayed open where the gargoyle's huge talons had slashed into him, but if he were like me, I expected he'd heal fast and survive. He still had not awakened. With how he had been staggering and shaking his head before the gargoyle attacked him, I wondered if the thorns that had snagged him were also poisonous.\n\n\"What do we do with him?\" Penelope asked.\n\nI shrugged. \"He's breathing but there isn't any way we can carry him through the thorny passageway. It was difficult enough keeping our own awareness of our surroundings.\"\n\nThomas nodded. \"I thought I was going to die in that tunnel. I almost did. The vines lashed out at us but I managed to avoid them. One vine wrapped around his arm and tried to pull him into them.\"\n\n\"That's why his arm is bleeding?\"\n\n\"Yes. I made it to the end of the tunnel, but he somehow freed himself and caught up to me before I stepped into the cemetery.\"\n\nI knelt beside the Hunter and examined his wrists. Dark bruises encircled them from where I had restrained him with the ropes. As raw as his skin was and the deepness of the surrounding bruising, he must had fought against the tight ropes until he finally broke free. But he wasn't healing.\n\n\"If you leave him here, son, he's going to keep coming for you.\"\n\nI flicked my gaze toward him. His haunted expression detailed his concern for my wellbeing. \"I don't know about that. None of his previous injuries are healing, and I think the vines must have poisoned or weakened him. I'm not going to kill him, but I don't have any rope to tie him, either.\"\n\nPenelope fished through her pack until she brought out a tied bundle of rope. \"I do.\"\n\nShe handed me the rope. Father shook his head. \"Let me do it this time, son. I can guarantee he won't get free of my knots. I've worked on ships before you were born. A sailor has to learn a vast variations of knots.\"\n\nI handed him the rope and chuckled. \"We don't want him to lie here and starve to death.\"\n\nFather brought the Hunter's huge hands around behind his back. He frowned. \"I don't want him killing you, either. If you still refuse to hand over the child, he's not going to give up his pursuit.\"\n\n\"He's right, Forrest,\" Penelope said.\n\n\"None of us can predict the future. We don't actually know what Varak will become, but I'm not certain this Hunter has been telling us the truth.\"\n\n\"Why do you say that?\" she asked.\n\n\"It's just a feeling that came over me when he threatened to kill Thomas.\"\n\n\"Hunter instinct?\" Father asked.\n\n\"Could be,\" I said with a shrug.\n\nFather finished tying the knots and strained to stand. I extended my hand toward him, he took it, and I pulled him to his feet. He shook his head. \"I can't believe there wasn't a vampire here.\"\n\n\"Other than us digging up the graves, we've checked all the possible places. But if the vampire was actually in the ground, the dirt on the surface would be fresh and loose. No new graves have been dug here in a long time.\"\n\nThomas nodded.\n\n\"So no bounty?\" Father said with disappointment.\n\nI smiled. \"We have the gems from the gargoyles. I say we return to that shop and find out what's really happening.\"\n\n\"You think they'll buy these gems?\" he asked.\n\n\"I don't believe they expect us to return.\" I grabbed my Hunter box and my crossbow.\n\nPenelope picked up her father's hat and held it close to her chest while she scanned the cemetery one last time. Her eyes didn't moisten with tears, but her jaw tightened with determination. The bright sparkles in her eyes were ablaze. She glanced toward me with a slight smile, reaching for my hand. I took it and we walked side by side to the tunnel entrance. We each had a lot of burning questions that we intended to find the answers for.\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Eighteen\n\nThe four of us made our way through the tunnel unscathed. The oddest thing about our exit was how the thorny vines retreated from us. Some of the climbers had wilted. Shed thorns had fallen to the path as well like leaves after the first frost. The large magical vine seemed to be dying. The whispering sounds that had plagued my mind before were now silent.\n\nFather wore his anger on his face. He didn't have to verbally express why he was angry. It had to do with the fake bounty when he knew we needed the funds for traveling. He had been that way when I was growing up. If ever he was shorted in a trade that was when he grew the most hostile. He pinched pennies, but when you lived in a war-torn country that's under government oppression, you kept a watchful eye over every single cent because it was necessary to survive. A thief was a chief enemy, regardless of the sum he had stolen.\n\nFather's hostility finally got the better of him. \"Why would they do this, Forrest?\"\n\n\"They are the only ones who can tell us the exact reason for what they've done. But my speculation is that they were sending gullible bounty hunters to feed the gargoyles and ghouls. And if that's the case, I don't understand why they'd do that.\"\n\n\"It could explain why all the people on the outskirts have vanished,\" Penelope said.\n\nThe wind whipped and whistled through the trees as we passed beneath them. Our coach was within sight. A man dressed in a drab suit stood admiring the horse. Unlike the others we had met in this rundown section of town, he appeared to have better fortune and possibly a fair amount of money.\n\n\"Can I help you?\" I asked when we came closer.\n\nHe turned with a start and his eyes widened for a moment. \"Ah, I am looking over this fine horse and coach. The elderly couple at the shop across the square offered to sell them to me at such a reasonable price. How old would you say this horse is?\"\n\nThomas stepped to the horse, placed a hand on the bridle, and glared at the stranger. \"This horse is not for sale, sir. Neither is the coach.\"\n\nThe man was taken back. \"They clearly expressed that it is and so is the coach. Don't attempt to move in and swoop up the offer.\"\n\n\"The couple is mistaken,\" I said. \"The horse and coach belong to this man. We've traveled with him for weeks.\"\n\nThe man turned with a fierce glare. \"What scheme are the lot of you working here? They suggested the price, and I shall meet their offer.\"\n\n\"They cannot sale what they do not rightfully own,\" I said, stepping up to the man and staring down at him.\n\nHe studied me for a few minutes and took a couple of steps back. \"Then why would they make such an offer?\"\n\n\"They're deceitful people,\" Father said.\n\n\"If there's any schemes, it's been on their part. We plan to find out what they're doing,\" I said. \"I suggest you move along.\"\n\nHe opened his mouth to reply but noticed my harsh frown and nodded, turning quickly away.\n\nI placed my Hunter box inside the coach and loaded the crossbow. Father stood beside me with a look of concern. \"Father, stay here with Thomas. Penelope and I will go to the shop.\"\n\n\"Stay? But I want to go with you.\"\n\n\"Thomas might need your help in case that man comes back.\"\n\n\"It's doubtful he'll return. You scared him quite good. I think I should accompany the two of you. I want answers.\"\n\n\"We all do.\"\n\n\"But we put our lives on the line and were betrayed.\"\n\n\"I know.\"\n\nFather shook his head with a scoured expression on his face. \"Very well, but if you're not back in a quarter of the hour, I'm coming to make certain the two of you are okay.\"\n\nI smiled.\n\nPenelope placed her father's Hunter hat upon her head and grinned. Her long wavy hair flowed to her shoulders and some strands covered her eyes.\n\n\"Suits you,\" I said, brushing her hair from her eyes.\n\nShe wrapped her right arm around my left and pressed against me to keep weight off her hurt ankle while we walked. \"Is your father always so overly concerned about you like that?\"\n\nI offered a shrug and chuckled. \"He's my father.\"\n\n\"He treats you like a little child sometimes.\"\n\nI could only nod.\n\nShe shook her head. \"My father sent me into the dark woods to hunt by myself when I was ten years old. He taught me to be independent and allowed me to work out my problems, not that you're not independent or\u2014\"\n\nI smiled down at her. \"We lost Momma not even a year ago. He has a difficult time ... letting go.\"\n\nSadness came to her eyes, and she looked at the cobblestone. \"I'm sorry, but I didn't mean you're not independent.\"\n\n\"It's okay. I understand what you were trying to say.\"\n\n\"You've been quite resourceful in keeping us alive,\" she said with a broad smile.\n\nI squeezed her hand.\n\nOnce we reached the outside of the shop, I pulled the three gems from her pack and dropped them inside my coat pocket. I turned the doorknob with my left hand and held the crossbow to my side so it wasn't noticeable when we first entered.\n\nThe door hinges creaked as the door widened. Karl looked up from what he was working on at the counter. His wrinkled brow rose, and he adjusted his glasses, looking again in sheer disbelief. He glanced toward his wife who was sewing a piece of cloth to a quilt. \"Abigail, we have company.\"\n\n\"Who?\" she asked with a near growl.\n\n\"The Hunter,\" he said nervously.\n\n\"Which Hunter?\"\n\nHe whispered, \"The one who was here earlier.\"\n\n\"I told you something was wrong,\" she said in a stern whisper.\n\nKarl forced a smile in an attempt to hide his nervousness. \"Can we sell you more wares? Or\u2014\"\n\nI leveled the crossbow and aimed at his head, walking straight for him. \"No, we want to know why you sent us after a vampire that doesn't exist.\"\n\nHis face reddened. Sweat beaded his brow. His feeble hands shook. \"Whatever do you mean?\"\n\n\"You offered us a bounty to kill a vampire in the local cemetery, remember? No vampire was there,\" I said.\n\n\"Maybe you didn't follow the map's directions properly,\" Abigail said with a harsh scratchy voice. She coughed up phlegm and spit on the floor. \"Do you even know what a cemetery is?\"\n\n\"We followed the directions perfectly,\" Penelope said, raising her bow at the woman. She studied the old woman more closely than the previous time we had visited.\n\n\"How dare you raise a weapon at me!\" the old woman hissed. \"Come into our shop, threatening our lives. It's not our fault you probably got lost, or perhaps you're both seeking money without actually having to kill a vampire. We've had cowards do that before.\"\n\n\"How long have you been deceiving folks and sending them to their deaths?\" I asked. \"How many people have died?\"\n\n\"You know not whom you're messing with,\" Abigail said, rising from her chair and pointing her crooked finger at me. Her voice strained. \"Be on your way before you soon find out.\"\n\nKarl became uncomfortable, swallowed hard, and tugged at his shirt collar.\n\nI balanced the crossbow and placed my finger on the trigger. \"Why did you offer to sell our horse and coach to a man?\"\n\nKarl paled. Sweat beads trickled down his aged brow.\n\nMy jaw tightened and I took a step closer. \"You didn't expect to see us return, did you?\"\n\nHis Adam's apple bulged. His breath grew more ragged.\n\n\"And what about the bow I'm holding? The man who crafted it was an acquaintance of mine. He builds weapons for Vampire Hunters. The only way you'd have this weapon is if that Hunter is dead. We Hunters never part with any weapon Roy makes for us. True justice for the Hunter would be for me to pull the trigger and fire an arrow through your head. That'd square up the deal nicely.\"\n\nKarl shook his head. His trembling hands slammed onto the countertop, so he wouldn't fall.\n\n\"I've warned you Hunter,\" Abigail said. \"Put down your weapon or your doom falls upon you.\"\n\nI chuckled. I didn't know why the threat coming from a tiny bent woman had seemed so funny, but I suddenly burst into laughter.\n\n\"Only fools laugh before their demise,\" she said. \"And you're an enormous fool.\"\n\nI stood across the counter from him, reached into my pocket, and brought out the three gems, setting them on the counter. Karl looked at them and his eyes narrowed. He glanced toward his wife. \"He killed them.\"\n\nAbigail stepped out from behind the quilting table. Her eyes fastened upon the gems. \"What?\"\n\n\"He killed the protectors.\" Karl's voice still sounded old and weary, but it flowed with a tinge of surprise and hope.\n\n\"How?\" she asked.\n\nI glanced toward her. \"We were at the cemetery, as you now can see.\"\n\n\"You will suffer for this, Hunter,\" she said with a scowl.\n\n\"Like the other victims?\"\n\n\"Worse.\"\n\n\"How could you betray Hunters who are trying to protect cities and villages from the undead scourge?\" I asked. I raised the crossbow and turned toward Abigail.\n\nPenelope tapped the hat on her head. \"What became of my father?\"\n\nAn odd smile curled on Abigail's lips. She flashed her teeth. \"Like the two of you, he managed to escape the cemetery.\"\n\n\"Did you kill him?\" she asked, pulling the bowstring back.\n\nThe old woman sneered. \"And what if I\u2014\"\n\nKarl shook his head and waved his hands, stepping between Abigail and Penelope. \"No. No, we didn't. He headed south. Please, don't shoot her.\"\n\n\"Don't grovel like a whiny little child, Karl. Show some backbone. The charade's over. They've no doubt discovered the ghouls and fled.\"\n\n\"The ghouls are dead,\" I said. \"We killed them.\"\n\n\"You lie!\"\n\nI smiled evenly. \"We stuffed them inside a coffin and roasted them.\"\n\nThe old woman's eyes hollowed. Her face drew slack. Her lower jaw trembled and her mouth moved but no words came out.\n\nI grabbed Karl by the collar and yanked him toward me. \"It was all one big trap, wasn't it? Lure in Hunters or your own neighbors to collect a bounty for a vampire that didn't exist, just so you can feed the ghouls and gargoyles?\"\n\n\"My children,\" Abigail said in a pitiful small voice. Her eyes were vacant. \"You killed my children.\"\n\n\"They were ghouls,\" Penelope replied.\n\nKarl's eyes moistened with tears. \"Yes, now. But once they had been Abigail's children before ghouls infected them during the last war. She couldn't kill them, even though they had become these vile creatures, but she ... we couldn't keep them in our home, you understand. They'd have infected us, too. But we couldn't let them roam the streets. There'd be a mass infestation within a few weeks. So we bound them to the cemetery, gave them protectors\u2014\"\n\n\"But they needed food,\" I said. \"So you set an elegant trap to snare unsuspecting humans and Hunters?\"\n\n\"Yes-s-s,\" Abigail said. Her eyes darkened and shifted toward us.\n\n\"Forrest,\" Penelope said. \"Maybe we should work our way back toward the door?\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\n\"Just a feeling,\" she said, scrunching her nose.\n\n\"What type of feeling?\"\n\n\"I suppose like when you get your instinct premonitions. Please, Forrest, step aside. She's a demon.\"\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Nineteen\n\nThe old woman glanced toward me. Her dark eyes widened. I sensed evil permeating around her, dark and spiteful. Her venomous voice grew raspier. \"You killed my children.\"\n\n\"They were already dead,\" Penelope said, keeping her aim on the old woman. \"Undead.\"\n\n\"The magical thorn barrier. How'd you accomplish that?\" I asked Karl. \"That was part of the snare. Who created it?\"\n\nHis eyes grew fearful. He shook his head.\n\nAbigail pushed herself to Karl's side. \"When it comes to protecting my children, there's no limit to what I'd do.\"\n\nPenelope lowered her bow and tugged my coat.\n\n\"What?\" I said, glancing over my shoulder.\n\n\"Maybe you should step back now?\" she said. \"Since I'm the Demon-hunter.\"\n\n\"She doesn't look like a\u2014\"\n\nAbigail's skin tightened on her face, splitting at her scalp and around her nose and ears. The illusion of what had been an old woman was actually something far worse. Her tongue lengthened, quite like a ghoul, but her eyes flickered like hot molten metal. She peeled her skin from her face, revealing scaly green skin like a snake.\n\n\"How?\" I asked. My curiosity mesmerized me. I knew about shifters and Were creatures, but how did a woman become a demon?\n\nKarl's eyes pleaded for help. \"It wasn't my doing, Hunter. She's the one. I didn't have a choice.\"\n\n\"Forrest, move!\" Penelope shouted.\n\nI stepped back and tried to pull Karl with me, but the demon wrapped her arms around him. Her strange tongue darted out and licked the side of his face, leaving a slick trail of viscous drool. She opened her mouth, revealing her jagged teeth and reared her head back. She was going to bite his throat. The old man trembled, closed his eyes, and screamed. He tried the wipe the saliva from his face where his skin was blistering.\n\nPenelope fired an arrow, striking the demon in the throat. It rammed its sharply clawed hand through Karl's back before releasing him and spinning around to flee. She clutched at the arrow.\n\nKarl dropped to his knees, wept, and convulsed with pain. Blood soaked through the back of his shirt.\n\nPenelope pulled her dagger and ran after the demon. She chased the demon past the quilting table where it grabbed sharp shears and turned, slashing wildly. Penelope dodged to the side to avoid getting cut. The demon pulled the shears close to its side. Penelope didn't give the demon a chance for another attack. She lopped the dagger through the air, striking dead center of its throat.\n\nBlack blood dripped from its neck. It clutched the hilt, tugged, but failed to pull out the blade. It dropped to its knees. Panting through its open mouth, its eyes bore at her, and gurgling sounds rose in its throat. It uselessly tried to speak, but the dagger and arrow had severed those abilities. Using both hands, it gripped the hilt and slowly extracted the blade. Blood gushed out.\n\nThe demon sat for a few moments longer before dropping facedown on the floor. I kept my bow trained on it, just in case it bolted up to attack again. Some creatures were quite successful at faking their deaths as I had learned once before in a difficult situation. From that day forward, I made certain what I had intended to kill was actually dead before I turned my back on it.\n\nPenelope walked to the demon and picked her dagger up off the floor. After kicking it several times, she joined me as I knelt beside Karl. He jerked in pain. His head tilted upward, and he looked to find me.\n\nI glanced at Penelope. \"How did she turn into a demon?\"\n\n\"She was half demon,\" Karl sputtered. Blood and spittle frothed in his mouth. He wheezed. \"But she had the ability to present herself as either one whenever she wished.\"\n\n\"Half demon?\" I asked. \"Were the ghouls really her children?\"\n\nKarl's eyes dimmed. He was losing blood, but I believed she might have poisoned him with her claws. \"She adopted them, after they became ghouls.\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\nHe coughed. More blood dripped from the sides of his mouth. \"For pets.\"\n\n\"And the vampire bounty?\"\n\n\"Her doing. The demon part of her hated humans but loved the undead ghouls. She chose them over our own people. The biggest reason most of this part of the city has vacated wasn't because they had moved away.\" He coughed violently. \"She had beguiled most of them into going to the cemetery.\"\n\n\"What about the thorns?\" I asked.\n\nKarl gasped, taking shallower breaths. \"She foolishly bargained with a greater demon to fashion the vines to captivate humans into sacrificing themselves. I'm surprised you ... got past them. Those ... sacrificed, offered ... blood, not only to her and the plants, but to the greater ... demon she had summoned for ... help.\"\n\nPenelope squatted down. \"Why did you stay with her?\"\n\nKarl opened his eyes. A slight smile showed on his bloody lips. \"It wasn't love or devotion, as you can see. She didn't hesitate to kill me, did she?\"\n\n\"You're not dead yet,\" I said.\n\nHis body spasmed. \"There's nothing capable of mending me. I've lived ... a full life. Not a life of freedom but it does no good to complain at this point. Sorry for the deception. Look ... in the top drawer behind the counter. There's ... money to ... compensate you for ridding my life of her agony and destroying her. It's more money than the faux reward ... covers other bounty, too.\"\n\n\"What about the vampire in the Black Forest?\" I asked. \"Is that a misdirection, too?\"\n\n\"No, Hunter,\" he said weakly. His eyes dimmed, starting to glaze. \"He's very real and quite dangerous. One of the strongest ... masters alive.\"\n\nPenelope leaned closer to him. \"Is my father still alive?\"\n\n\"Last I had heard, yes. He headed south. When he learned of our deceit, he never returned. Peace to you.\" He lowered his head and became still.\n\n\"He's dead,\" she said.\n\nI rose. \"Are you certain the demon is? She didn't dissolve into ash.\"\n\n\"Not all demons do. The plague ones did because the arrows kill the plague, which causes them to self-combust. And she's part human, so\u2014\"\n\nI walked behind the counter and opened the top drawer. Neat stacks of polished gold and silver coins filled half of the drawer. Some were German coins and others French or Spanish. On the coins being worth far more than the bounties offered, Karl had not lied. I found a medium sized drawstring bag and stuck all the coins inside, and then I tied it shut. We now had enough money to travel extensively without worry.\n\nI felt guilty in a way for taking the coins, but since Karl and Abigail had betrayed us, and they were now dead, I didn't consider it robbery by any means. However, I was still bound by the contract, and my honor, to kill the vampire in the Black Forest. Since we'd cut directly through the forest to get to the Archdiocese, it wasn't out of our way.\n\nI dropped the hefty bag of coins into my coat pocket. Penelope knelt beside the demon. It was making odd grunting sounds. Was the demon still alive and had attacked her?\n\nI rushed from behind the counter to where she was. Her arm moved like she was using a handsaw. Before I reached her, she stood and held the demon's head in her hand.\n\n\"The demon is dead,\" she said with a sly grin.\n\n\"You mean that it wasn't?\"\n\n\"You wanted me to make certain.\"\n\nI'd yet met a creature that could survive without its head. Ghouls were an exception; only decapitated ghouls weren't really capable of inflicting much harm to a human, unless the human was foolish enough to pick its body up. The hand of a ghoul was still capable of strangling a person to death, but that required someone placing the hand to his throat. Appendages couldn't hunt for prey and were unnerving to behold.\n\nPenelope chunked the demon head to the floor.\n\n\"So you get no reward for killing that one?\" I asked.\n\n\"It's half human, so the only way I would have been compensated for killing her was if she had a bounty placed on her by another. As far as I know, no one has posted a reward.\"\n\n\"In a way, Karl paid us, but I never knew such a possibility existed where a demon and human produced a child.\"\n\nShe wiped the blood off her dagger on the quilt Abigail had been sewing. \"The child you're protecting is half vampire and half human. If that's possible, why couldn't there be a hybrid between human and demon?\"\n\nShe made a logical point. I had just never considered it.\n\nPenelope smiled. \"In fact, offspring between humans and demons is probably more common than we even know.\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\n\"Some demons are seductive and easily tempt humans into relationships, at least for a while, until they produce children.\"\n\nI shook my head. \"I've heard of exorcisms performed by priests, supposedly the priests cast out demons. But all the demons I've seen have been in physical form. How does a demon possess a human?\"\n\nPenelope sheathed her dagger. \"They can't. Those aren't demons. Those are evil spirits. Huge difference and a dangerous feat to perform. Not my calling or duty. I will never attempt to drive one out.\"\n\nI frowned. \"But priests ... do they really excise them?\"\n\n\"Not like they think they do. Most people who have been possessed die when the evil spirit leaves the body. It rips and tears its way out, causing as much damage as it can. They want to inflict pain. They thrive on it.\"\n\n\"But only priests can do that?\"\n\nShe shook her head. \"Priests have the person bound when they begin their exorcisms. It's not because these clergy are holy that the spirits tear out of the human body. Most likely the priest has agitated and annoyed the spirit until its rage can no longer be controlled. All the more reason they kill the ones they possess. If ever you're in the room where someone is trying to excise these spirits, run.\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\n\"They will seek another host,\" she replied. \"But generally not a priest. What a lot of people don't know is almost as many priests get killed as those who have spirits cast out of them.\"\n\n\"Because the priest is supposed to be holy?\"\n\nShe shook her head. \"Revenge. They turn their aggression toward the priests and kill them. Then they will seek another human that's close by. That's why you don't want to be the only other person in the room. It's actually safer if the spirit stays in its host.\"\n\n\"Won't the possessed person kill others?\"\n\n\"Not always, but if the spirit is actually detected, measures can be taken to prevent evil deeds.\"\n\n\"Like what?\"\n\nHer face became grim. \"Asylums, unfortunately, are often filled with those who suffer possession.\"\n\n\"Won't the spirits simply leave the host and pursue someone not locked away?\"\n\n\"They're content inside the people's body because they can torment their minds endlessly without fear of the host killing himself.\"\n\n\"So those aren't demons?\" I asked.\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"Good to know. Let's go back into the room where I got the vials. I'd like to get more supplies from the room where I found this bow, and then we need to hurry.\"\n\nShe nodded.\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Twenty\n\nAfter rummaging through the various weapons and equipment, we returned to the counter half expecting Abigail to have somehow arisen even though she had been decapitated. However, she and Karl were still dead and their bodies had not been disturbed. As strange as it sounded, I felt like we were being watched. The atmosphere thickened and became colder. The chill in the air was suddenly disrupted by a wisp of air that slithered past me, brushing my face.\n\nPenelope stood still near the quilt. Her eyes became troubled.\n\n\"What's wrong?\" I asked.\n\n\"Do you sense it?\"\n\n\"I felt it, actually.\"\n\nShe glanced toward me with apprehension. She eased her way toward the quilting table, peeled back the quilt in progress, and found a pentagram drawn in faded blood. Beside this was a leather-covered spellbook. She took the book and slipped into her coat pocket.\n\n\"You sure that's a good idea?\" I asked.\n\nPenelope shrugged. \"I think the healer I trade with will like this.\"\n\nShe took the bottle of blessed salt from her pocket and sprinkled salt over the pentagram. The tabletop burst into flames. She tried to put out the fire with the quilt, but the flames shot even higher.\n\n\"I think we'd best get out of here. Fast,\" she said.\n\nNo argument from me. I grabbed the large crate filled with glass vials, dried herbs, and wooden stakes I had packed in the supply room. Penelope had found a quiver filled with arrows and slung it over her shoulder. She took new bowstrings and a leather pouch to tie around her waist. We hurried to the door and exited.\n\nFather was halfway across the square coming toward us. \"Well?\"\n\n\"It's a long story,\" I said. \"One that will help pass the time once we start traveling again.\"\n\n\"Money?\" he asked.\n\nI nodded. \"Lots of it.\"\n\n\"Then we should head into the city to get supplies before we cross the Rhine.\"\n\nA hot whooshing sound hissed behind us. The fire shot through the chimney and crawled across the wooden shingled roof.\n\n\"You set the place on fire?\" Father asked with a stern frown.\n\nI shook my head. \"No, sir.\"\n\n\"What do you call that?\"\n\n\"No denying it's fire, Father, but we didn't start it.\"\n\nPenelope said, \"The woman had some sort of protection spell hanging, I suppose, so when they died the shop went up in flames.\"\n\n\"You killed them? Son, we needed the money, but\u2014\"\n\n\"Again, it's a long story. One we can tell on the way out of the city. But we did nothing except defend ourselves.\"\n\n\"Ah, very well,\" he replied.\n\n\"Still it's best we leave before we are actually accused of burning the shop down.\"\n\n***\n\nThomas drove the coach into the city. The architecture of the cathedral was the most spectacular building I had ever seen, holding me in awe of its beauty and its haunting carved statues and gargoyles. These intimidating stone creatures overlooked the streets and were mirrored images of the ones in the cemetery, but thankfully, not alive. Of course, that was merely speculation on my part, and I was about to climb the towers to see for myself.\n\nAfter Father and I bought essential food items that could be stored in the storage compartment of the coach, Thomas drove across the Rhine River. Dependent upon the terrain and weather we should reach Freiburg in as little as a week. But that didn't take into account how long it would take for us to seek out the vampire inside the Black Forest and slay him.\n\nPenelope and I told Father what had happened with the shopkeepers. He sat stunned and in disbelief, but never argued that we had done anything inappropriate. He did offer the occasional question to draw out more information, but he, like me, had never heard of someone who was half demon and half human. The thought alarmed him, and he was less cordial with Madeline and kept more distance from Varak, even though the child had taken quite a liking toward him.\n\nFor me, I could never get past looking at the child's strange sky-blue eyes that often seemed to be trying to search into my mind and look into my soul. The strange aura that surrounded him brought chills to me, and I constantly reminded myself that getting the child to the Archdiocese was my responsibility.\n\nWith daylight hours fading she suggested that she and I nap until after the sunset, just in case more plague demons tried to kill Thomas. As long as the coach kept moving, it was unlikely we'd have to protect him, but with a week more to travel, we'd have to find a place to stop. The horse needed to eat, drink, and rest. At least we had gold and silver coins to find a decent place to stay during the night and hopefully one with a stable.\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Twenty-One\n\nThe first two nights that we had stopped in a town or village, no plague demons had come to attack and kill Thomas. Penelope and I had stood watch. I wondered if she had killed all of the ones Albert the Were-rat had sent, or if this was an attempt to get us to let our guard down.\n\nPenelope had suggested that perhaps when we had crossed the Rhine, the demons somehow were not permitted to pass over the water or had lost their ability to track Thomas. While it was a hopeful thought, I still didn't think it was the last we'd encounter those demons.\n\nAs the third morning arrived, she and I were exhausted. The thick overcast morning indicated snowstorms were fast approaching. Thomas decided to get an early departure for the day in case the weather made the roads impassable. I didn't mind so long as Penelope and I were allowed to sleep.\n\nStaying up throughout each night had not been the only reason I felt overly exhausted. My disturbing nightmares prevented me from restful sleep. The closer we got to our destination where we'd encounter the vampire, the worse the dreams became. I held the impression that he knew we were coming for him, and he didn't fear us. In fact, he was eager for our arrival.\n\nDreams of blood and slaughter caused my heart to race. At times, these visions seemed to be the vampire's vivid memories being displayed into my mind, as though he was boasting of his prowess, and indicating with an arrogant dominance that I was incapable of slaying him. Seeing these things disturbed me on a deeper level. He was trying to get inside my mind, and I suppose, in a way, he had because I had never received memories from a living vampire. I received portions of the memories of a vampire I had slain, soon after it was turned to ash, but for this vampire to prick his way into my mind from such a far distance was frighteningly impressive.\n\nThe only thing that had prevented me from rising in screaming fits was Penelope's arm draped across my chest. I sensed her warmth and closeness, even in the depths of these horrid nightmares, and a part of me knew the dreams weren't real. However, during my waking hours, my mind recalled and dwelt upon some of the worst incidents in those dreams. I wondered if these were premonitions.\n\nSeveral times I had wanted to share these nightmares with my father. Perhaps I should have, but I expected his advice would be to avoid slaying the vampire at all. In many ways, realizing the power this vampire held, not entering his lair was the most solid suggestion for me to take since he knew we were coming.\n\nPenelope and I slept for the better part of the third day while we traveled. When Father awoke me, the temperature had plummeted and the coach was moving at an abnormally slow place.\n\n\"Is something wrong?\" I asked Father, rubbing my eyes. Penelope slept with her head against my chest. The peaceful look on her face made me not want to awaken her. I wondered how a lady who killed wicked demons rested so well. She half smiled in her sleep. Even though I'd rather leave her sleeping, I gently shook her. She pulled away, opening her eyes. I glanced at Father. \"Why are we traveling so slow?\"\n\n\"Weather's getting worse,\" he replied.\n\nI slid aside the curtain and tried to scrap away the thin layer of ice that had formed on the inside of the glass. The dimming brightness of the day had not completely disappeared, but the sun was shrouded by thick grayness. The fir tree branches were bent harshly, covered by several inches of snow. From what I could tell, the only reason our horse could still pull the coach was due to the groove other carriages ahead of us had cut through the deepening snow. With the giant wet flakes dropping, the entire road would soon disappear beneath a blanket of white.\n\nTwo feet of snow or more covered the edges of the road. The forest on both sides of the road was so thickly coated that even the needles and bark of the trees gleamed white. No browns or greens were visible.\n\nPenelope shivered, pulled the heavy rug we used as a blanket up over us, and pressed against me for additional warmth.\n\n\"Father, rap on the top of the carriage to get Thomas' attention. We need to stop at the first possible place. We'll freeze to death if we get stranded on the trail.\"\n\nHe nodded, turned, and hammered his fist three times.\n\nThomas stopped the coach.\n\nA few seconds later, he opened the door. Outside he shook himself, knocking off several inches of snow from his hat and shoulders. He peered down the darkening road before glancing at me nervously. \"Yes? Daylight is fleeting.\"\n\n\"I didn't mean for you to stop,\" I said.\n\nHe shook more snow from his heavy coat and broke away icicles on his moustache and beard. He tapped his hat against his fist to shatter a thin layer of ice and raked it off. His face glowed cherry red. \"Sorry, but with this howling wind, I'd never hear a word you said from out here.\"\n\n\"Any idea how far from a town or village we are?\"\n\n\"There's a clearing ahead, Forrest. Looks like maybe a village or small city perhaps.\"\n\n\"You think it's a place where we can stop? We can't go much farther. It's far too cold for you to keep driving.\"\n\nHe nodded. \"Yes, frightfully cold out here. I'm stopping there anyway. That had been my plan all along. Demons or not, if that snow keeps falling at the rate it is, the ol' horse won't be able to keep pulling. I'm surprised he's lasted this long.\"\n\nThomas slammed the door shut and returned to the box seat.\n\nMadeline wrapped Varak in another blanket and then covered both of them with a thick wool blanket. When the door had opened, what little heat we had generated amongst ourselves had been sucked out. I hoped the clearing ahead was a village where we could find an inn to spend the night.\n\nAbout a quarter of an hour later, the coach wheels rattled when we reached the cobblestone street. Without knowing whether our accommodations would be mediocre or lavish, I didn't really care so long as we were able to get out of the extreme cold.\n\nExiting the coach, we stood inside a dark recess beneath the arch of a massive wall. The rock building looked to be an old castle and the long wall went for as far as I could see. Mortar between some rocks was cracked and pieces of the wall had shifted over time. Along the adjoining walls, awnings covered narrow walkways. And the archway where we stood was also shielded from the wind. Glass boxes shielded the flames of the gaslight streetlamps.\n\nSnow continued to fall but not as heavily as it had been along the road. In some areas of the sky, the evening stars twinkled. The worst part of the storm seemed to have passed.\n\nI watched the lingering snowflakes pelt softly, quietly, and like I'd always noticed during heavy snow there was a different type of silence when the snow began forming drifts. It seemed nature slept, seeking shelter and warmth in places where the snow couldn't penetrate.\n\nDeep in the forests several wolves broke the silence with long wailful howls. Madeline turned toward the forest with a start, holding Varak a bit tighter.\n\nSeveral watchtowers with pointed gothic gables were in view and spires rose off other buildings in the near distance. Some of the smaller houses had round tower roofs and others polygonal dormers. The angles prevented the heavy snow from staying on the roofs. The place didn't seem to be a large village but more a cluster of tall houses and buildings displaying gothic architecture.\n\nTwo men dressed in long dark overcoats and dark hats retrieved what little baggage we had. They looked like brothers and stood around my height. They were broad in the shoulders with long arms and very large hands. Their faces were extremely thin, making their delicate skin hug their skulls in a firm outline. One offered to take my Hunter box from me, but I shook my head and held it tight in hand. Two more men came and took the horse by its bridle and led it through an open door to what I suspected was the stables. These two men were almost identical to the others, and not a one had spoken a word of greeting to us.\n\nTwo rotund women with bunt gray hair offered meek greetings from a door beneath the awning and motioned us to follow them inside. Their smiles enhanced their chubby cheeks. Of all the inns Father and I had stayed at during our journeys, this was perhaps the most unusual. We glanced toward one another with uncertainty and were reluctant to readily obey. Father glanced toward me since I was the largest I suppose, but he hugged himself for warmth as did Thomas. It was foolish to stay out in the horrible cold any longer. This was a place for lodging. I took the initiative and headed toward the door.\n\nAfter we stepped inside to a large room where a fire burned inside a wide hearth, they closed the door. They showed us where to remove our coats, hats, and boots near the door. I shed my thick overcoat and hung it on a large peg at the side of the door. Thomas and Father did the same. We hung our hats closer to the fire where they'd dry. I set my Hunter box and crossbow beneath my hanging coat where they were partially hidden.\n\nThe low ceilings kept the heat of the roaring fire concentrated around us, and made it difficult to breathe. A few minutes earlier, I had nearly gone numb from being inside the cold coach, and now sweat rolled off my body. Not that I was complaining. I could tell by the smile on my father's face that he was more than satisfied being surrounded by such warmth. Cold weather was his nemesis ever since he had suffered horrible injuries to his legs.\n\nOver the fire a black pot bubbled with a fine aroma lofting into the room. Finely polished chairs with plush pillows were set beside small reading tables and one roll top desk. All were hand-carved from maple.\n\nBeveled dark paneling covered the walls and the ceiling. The lit candles at each table flickered, reflected off the polished wood. A hand-carved cuckoo clock hung on the wall with such detail. One cherished the artwork more than an object that depicted the proper time of day. I walked closer and observed it. Strange as it seemed, the clock looked familiar to me. The little carved people were joining hands, dressed in lederhosen near a painted stream where a carved bear peered into the water, looking at the fish.\n\n\"Gorgeous,\" Penelope whispered, standing beside me with a broad smile.\n\nI nodded.\n\nThis room was more elegant and larger than the cottage I had grown up in. Several single cots were lined against the wall, covered with designed quilts. A strange sensation came over me, and everything held familiarity like I'd been here before. I became dizzy, my stomach nauseous, so I placed my hand against the wall to steady myself. The feeling passed a few seconds later.\n\nPenelope placed her hands on my arm. \"You okay?\"\n\n\"Yes. Fine.\"\n\nOne of the women smiled at Penelope and Madeline. \"This way, ladies.\"\n\nPenelope gave me a strange glance. I shrugged.\n\nThe woman noticed her concern. \"I imagine after your long journey, you'd like to bathe and change into fresh clothes?\"\n\nPenelope smiled and nodded graciously.\n\nA fine dressed gentleman stepped through another side door and motioned us to follow him. The extraordinarily thin man led us to a large room filled with hot humid steam so thick it looked like fog. He walked with stiff posture. \"My name is Jensen, and I've been asked by your host to make certain everything is to your satisfaction. Have you need of anything, do not hesitate to ask.\"\n\n\"That's kind of you,\" Father said.\n\n\"You're quite welcome, sir. Leave your clothes here,\" Jensen said with a haughty proper tone, and with a wave of his hand, he pointed toward a narrow bench. His short black hair looked glossy and combed to perfection. He sported a thin moustache, also glossy, and curled the ends slightly upward. \"I will see to it these are cleaned and pressed. When you have finished bathing, there are robes in the corner for you to wear.\"\n\n\"We've not yet checked in,\" I said. \"Is there somewhere for me to pay for our stay.\"\n\nJensen turned on his heel and faced me, clasping his hands behind his back. He offered a reassuring smile. \"You're a Hunter, are you not?\"\n\nI nodded with a confused frown.\n\n\"Ah, sir ... Forrest, is it?\"\n\n\"Yes? How'd\u2014\"\n\nHis smile widened. \"Your name isn't unknown in these parts. Our host has graciously extended his hospitality to you. We're to accommodate your every need. As his guests all is taken care of, and there is no charge to you and your party. Enjoy your hot bath in this fine mineral water that rises naturally from the hot springs below. Some insist it has healing properties. But if one is skeptical, perhaps it does not?\"\n\nJensen left the room and closed the door behind him.\n\nI cocked a brow and looked at Father. He grinned. \"How did he know my name?\"\n\n\"Jacques told you that Vampire Hunters have reputations that often precede them.\"\n\n\"True,\" I said, still frowning. \"But, I've done nothing worthy of drawing attention to myself.\"\n\n\"I wouldn't worry too much over it,\" he replied. \"Enjoy the notoriety. Everything's free.\"\n\n\"Nothing's free,\" I whispered. \"There's always a price.\"\n\nHe chuckled. \"Tonight it is, son. I don't know about you, but I want to wash all this sweat and grim off my body.\"\n\nFather began undressing and looked at the large pool of water. He grinned and his brow rose. Eagerness brightened his eyes.\n\nThe water was white in color with thick steam rising off the surface. Although I had never seen anything like this in other cities, I felt like I had been here before. Most of the major cities we had traveled through had bathhouses, but never any that were filled with steaming white water. I supposed the minerals were the reason the water was white, but I found myself like Father and wanting to wash away days of sweat, grim, and in my case, dried blood from my cuts.\n\nAfter I undressed and placed my filthy clothes on the bench, I slipped slowly into the hot water. I winced and gasped. At first it seemed too hot, almost like I was going to boil myself, but after I adjusted to the temperature, I leaned my back against the pool wall and closed my eyes.\n\nThe heat of the water soothed my aching muscles, bruises, and seeped into the healing cuts on my back. I took a deep breath and slowly exhaled. I felt so relaxed that it wouldn't have taken much to drift off to sleep.\n\nFather sighed and splashed water as he sank. \"They might have to pry me out of here, son. I've never felt this good since ... before my legs were severely broken. This hot water ... my legs aren't hurting at all.\"\n\nHidden by a curtain of steam, Thomas slipped into the pool at the other side.\n\n\"Have you been here before?\" I asked the coachman.\n\n\"No, I haven't.\"\n\n\"What is this place?\" Father asked.\n\n\"An inn,\" he replied. \"That's what the sign said at the end of the lane. Based upon its structure, though, I think it must have been a castle prior.\"\n\nFather glanced at me with a sly grin. \"Probably quite expensive then? That is, of course, if we had to pay.\"\n\nI shrugged. \"Even if that wasn't the case, Father, we have more than enough to stay for a night.\"\n\n\"We might be here longer if the snow continues,\" Father replied.\n\n\"The sky was starting to clear before we came indoors,\" I said.\n\n\"That's good news,\" Thomas said. \"Three days of traveling and we've not encountered another one of those demons. Has Penelope any theory for that?\"\n\nI shook my head. \"No. She thinks she might have killed all that Albert had sent, or the river has been a deterrent. Who knows? Maybe his power doesn't extend this far.\"\n\n\"I keep looking when we're traveling. I'm too fearful to think there's no more.\"\n\n\"Don't let down your guard because we haven't.\"\n\n\"I don't plan to.\"\n\nFather placed his face into the water and vigorously scrubbed it. Then he looked at me. \"You think maybe the owner's generosity stems from him needing your services as a Hunter?\"\n\nI had not thought about that. \"That might be possible.\"\n\n\"Seems a good barter, if that's the case,\" Father said.\n\nDepends upon the vampire.\n\nFather slumped deeper into the water until his head was fully submerged. He stayed under for nearly half a minute, and then he blew out long streams of bubbles before pushing himself above the water's surface again. Streams of water rolled down his face. He ran his hand through his beard, laughing, and then he wiped his eyes and stared at me. I had never seen him act so jovial before.\n\nHe pressed his back into the corner of the pool and rested each arm atop the bricked pool wall, lounging. \"Forrest, you seem quite comfortable with the young lady. Penelope has taken a liking to you. Have you expressed your feelings for her?\"\n\nEven though my skin was already red from the heated water, I imagined that my cheeks had probably gotten redder. \"We've talked. But most of our time we've kept ourselves more focused on keeping Thomas alive and killing ghouls and gargoyles, but those are things you're aware of.\"\n\n\"I'm not trying to embarrass you, son. Honest. I'm happy for you. I was simply trying to see if you've come to the place where it's not so difficult to tell her your feelings.\"\n\nI nodded. \"It's easier. A lot easier. I appreciate the advice you gave me, and for abruptly running off that morning and leaving us all alone when I was scared out of my mind.\"\n\nHe laughed. \"It's like a bird teaching its young how to fly. It nudges the young one out of the nest. But they learn to fly on the way down, most of them.\"\n\n\"In my case, you kicked me off the side of a mountain with jagged rocks at the bottom.\"\n\n\"You're alive, aren't you? She's still traveling with us. If she didn't share your interests, you'd have parted ways well before now. She's never been uncomfortable around you.\"\n\n\"She's a little too close at times,\" I replied.\n\n\"And that bothers you?\"\n\nAs much as I enjoyed traveling with Penelope beside me in the coach, I still struggled internally about things Father insisted I shouldn't. \"I suppose not, but then ... as I told you before about my age\u2014\"\n\n\"Given what you are, son, and the knowledge you've attained, that isn't a relevant point for you,\" he said, pointing his finger at me. \"And, not a matter that needs expressed right now.\"\n\nHe pointed toward where Thomas was hidden in the fog.\n\n\"The point is, son, the two of you are interested in one another. There's the courting process\u2014\"\n\nI shook my head. \"That's a bit premature.\"\n\n\"It needs considering.\"\n\n\"Maybe after all the dangers are past.\"\n\n\"Those never end for you, Forrest. You know that. Or her, either, considering the creatures she slays.\"\n\nThat was true.\n\n\"One step at a time,\" I said.\n\nFather grinned. \"You've never followed that route.\"\n\n\"What do you mean by that?\"\n\n\"You never crawled as a child. You were walking quicker than others your age. And the next thing we all knew, you were grown.\"\n\nI wondered what I had missed from bypassing my youth and immediately becoming a man at the age of eight. I had to admit I had to adapt rather quickly. In retrospect the hardest part was ignoring the childhood fears most children experienced. When you had to fight and slay vampires, you didn't have any choice except to quash those fears without allowing them time to fester and grow. In my situation the three major fears I contended with were: losing family members or friends to the undead, getting killed, or getting turned into a vampire. How did I deal with those? By slaying the vampires before they had a chance to act on any of those circumstances.\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Twenty-Two\n\nI stayed in the hot water until the skin on my hands resembled a wrinkled plum. I'd have remained in the pool until deep in the night but I didn't know if Penelope and Madeline had returned to the room yet. I didn't want Penelope to feel uncomfortable. She had already expressed how Varak made her feel. I marveled that she, who killed demons, held an uneasiness toward the child like I did.\n\nI grabbed one of the thick robes, put it on, and tied the belt around my waist. Already I missed the soothing warmth of the water. I could have stayed several more hours. At least the room was steamy and hot. Once I stepped back into the narrow hallway and headed to our room, I expected the temperature would decrease quite a bit. It wouldn't be as harrowingly cold as outside the castle for which I was thankful.\n\nI returned to the room, opened the door, and entered at the same time Penelope came through the other bedroom door that led to the adjoining hall. Our eyes met and widen with shock. Neither of us had expected anyone else to be in the room, and she seemed as surprised as me that we were the only two here. Just us. Alone together. She was wearing a robe over a silken gown that flowed to her ankles. Even though we were fully covered, we both became uncomfortable and stared at the floor.\n\nWhile gazing downward, I causally glanced up to watch her without raising my head. She was blushing, and she cupped her hands together and held them at her waist. She was overcome with shyness, as was I, but I noticed she was sneaking glances toward me, too. I had never felt so awkward. I was more at a loss for words than when Father had left us alone together at breakfast.\n\nI finally braved looking up and opened my mouth to speak but Madeline came through the door and closed it behind her. She glanced toward Penelope.\n\n\"Where's Varak?\" Madeline asked, nervously glancing around the room.\n\nPenelope frowned. \"I thought you had him?\"\n\nMadeline shook her head and placed a hand over her heart. \"No. The maid said that she'd give him to you while I bathed.\"\n\n\"I've not seen him,\" she replied.\n\nMadeline became frantic, covered her face with her hands, and turned toward the door. She gulped deep breaths and kept looking around the room as though she had no idea what she should do. This was the first time in weeks that she had not kept Varak within her sight. She held him most of the time except whenever we stayed in an inn, like now. When she could, she placed him on the floor and let him crawl. He was able to hold himself up when he found something sturdy to hang onto and had even taken several steps but wasn't able to walk on his own yet.\n\nShe paced side to side for a few moments before she finally decided to reach for the doorknob. The door opened and a maid stepped in with the infant. Madeline snatched the child from the woman's hands and hugged him close.\n\n\"He's a delightful little boy,\" the woman said with a smile. \"We gave him a bath while you relaxed in yours. He's so adorable that I almost hate to hand him back. It's rare for us to see infants, so when we do, we want to hold onto them and pamper them.\"\n\nMadeline scowled.\n\nVarak held himself upright in Madeline's arms, staring around the room with his bright eyes. She carried him across the room to one of the cots but kept a wary stare toward the maid. Her attachment to Varak troubled me. Could we even get her to part with him once we reached the Archdiocese in Freiburg?\n\nThe child had already ensnared her to become his permanent caretaker. I wondered to what extent he controlled her or did he at all? Perhaps she had taken affection and sympathy toward him because he didn't have parents. He was an orphan. It wasn't impossible and seemed logical if I chose to ignore the possibility of the child already being able to tap into his charms.\n\nFather and Thomas came into the room. The maid showed us where the cupboard was before giving the pot of stew several stirs with the large ladle.\n\n\"Should you need any assistance, ring that bell.\" She pointed to the brass table-bell on the reading table. \"Have a good night.\"\n\nFather combed his beard with his fingers. He looked around the room, studying the walls.\n\n\"Is something wrong?\" I asked.\n\nHe made an odd face. \"No. After getting cleaned up so well, I'd just like to trim this wild beard. I don't see any mirrors in here, either. You mind trimming it for me later?\"\n\n\"Not at all,\" I replied. \"You might want to eat first anyway.\"\n\n\"That only means you have to pick out bits of food, which is why it needs trimmed.\"\n\nI shrugged. \"It's only food.\"\n\nPenelope had found the bowls and stood at the pot filling them. She was far different than the night we had first met. I had seen the rugged side of her that night, but almost ever since, she had presented herself with more elegancy than what my parents had taught me.\n\nAfter we had eaten, Father set the map on the bed that detailed where the vampire resided in a small village in the Black Forest near Offenburg. Friedhof was the name of the village, according to the old man who had drawn it.\n\n\"Friedhof?\" I said, glancing toward Thomas. Being inside the coach while he drove, we seldom were fortunate to see any of the road signs. \"Are we anywhere near this place?\"\n\nThomas paled and swallowed hard. He rubbed the side of his face. \"We are in Friedhof.\"\n\nFather frowned. \"You're certain?\"\n\nThe coachman nodded.\n\nFather looked at me. \"Do you think this inn is where the vampire resides?\"\n\nEverything about this room I recognized, even though I had never physically been here. I knew the details of this room, the bath pool, and some of the outside architecture looked familiar to me. From my dreams?\n\n\"He's here,\" I said in a near whisper. \"I think he's the one who holds the deed and title to this castle.\"\n\nPenelope sat on the edge of the bed and placed her hand on my arm.\n\n\"You're sure, son?\"\n\nI nodded.\n\n\"How do you know?\" Thomas asked.\n\n\"I've dreamt vividly about this place several times since we left London.\"\n\n\"So the owner hasn't extended his open invitation to us to hire you?\" Father asked.\n\nI shook my head. \"It doesn't seem so. Maybe he has invited me for a challenge?\"\n\n\"What kind of challenge?\" Penelope asked.\n\n\"To see which one of us survives our conflict.\"\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Twenty-Three\n\n\"How is there contention between the two of you when you've never met?\" Penelope asked.\n\n\"Easy. He's a vampire, and I'm a Hunter.\"\n\n\"That automatically defines it?\"\n\n\"Sums it up nicely in my book,\" I said.\n\n\"You've never pardoned a vampire?\"\n\n\"Have you ever let a demon go free?\"\n\nHer eyes narrowed, and she quickly looked away.\n\n\"You have?\" I asked.\n\n\"A few,\" she replied.\n\n\"Why?\"\n\n\"It's difficult to explain.\"\n\n\"Try.\"\n\nShe huffed and her lips tightened. \"I've allowed some to live in order to glean useful information.\"\n\n\"In what way?\" Father asked.\n\nI frowned. \"How can you trust they'll even tell you the truth?\"\n\nPenelope sat on the edge of the bed and folded her hands on her lap. \"I have the ability to enslave a demon under my control if I choose. Not a powerful demon, but an imp or some of the lessers. I link my mind to its, which is why I choose one with less strength. A mightier demon could reverse the link to enslave me or drive me to insanity or kill me.\"\n\n\"But how does that guarantee they tell the truth?\" I asked.\n\n\"When I enslave them, they cannot lie or they burst into flames.\"\n\n\"What about those plague demons?\" Thomas asked. \"The ones trying to kill me. Can you enslave them?\"\n\nShe shook her head and bit her lower lip. \"Good Heavens, no. That'd be suicide. They'd infect me with the disease.\"\n\n\"Through your thoughts?\" Father asked, perplexed. \"How?\"\n\nShe shrugged. \"I don't know, but I've been warned never to do so through strong intuition, so I understand partly why Forrest reacts to some of his premonitions. But, Forrest, why do you consider all vampires to be evil and unworthy to be pardoned?\"\n\n\"They have no soul. They're ruthless and feed upon other humans.\"\n\n\"You're blanketing all vampires to be exactly the same?\"\n\n\"When it comes to how they stalk their prey and sire offspring, I see no difference in any of them. There's only one I've protected,\" I replied.\n\nHer eyes flicked toward Varak and quickly back toward me.\n\nI nodded. \"And that's only because I swore to do so and you know the reason I cannot.\"\n\n\"Fair enough,\" she said.\n\n\"But the vampire in this village,\" I said. \"There's no reason he should know me yet or that I'd even be headed\u2014\"\n\nIt dawned upon me.\n\n\"What is it, Forrest?\" Father asked.\n\n\"Albert.\"\n\nFather frowned. \"You think he'd alert this vampire that you'd be passing this direction?\"\n\n\"I can think of no other.\"\n\nPenelope gave me a worried look.\n\n\"What's wrong, Penelope?\" I asked.\n\n\"Then everything unfolds here tonight.\"\n\n\"What do you mean?\" Thomas asked.\n\n\"The demons that had been sent after you have hidden, but I have a feeling they will emerge again soon to kill you.\"\n\nA gentle rap came at the door. We all turned. Someone rapped again.\n\n\"Yes?\" I asked.\n\nThe door opened promptly.\n\nJensen, who had led us to the men's bathing pool, entered. In his arms was a neat stack of clothes. He acquiesced a slight nod and a friendly smile. In his elegant voice, he said, \"I'm afraid your old coat is in tatters, Hunter, and all of your clothes were ... shall we say, are not even useable as filthy rags. But your host has a gracious heart, offering new clothes his tailor fashioned well before your arrival.\"\n\n\"We can't accept these,\" I said. By accepting the apparel, in a sense he assured we were indebted to him. No words needed to enforce it. It was implied.\n\n\"He insists. In fact, he's offered his invitation for all of you to dine with him tonight at midnight.\"\n\n\"So late?\" Father asked.\n\nHe laughed softly. \"The night is just beginning for him.\"\n\n\"Who exactly is our host?\" I asked.\n\n\"You don't know?\" Jensen asked somewhat amused. \"There is no mistake for your arrival here. He has been expecting you for quite some time, and this is the exact day he predicted you'd arrive.\"\n\n\"Who?\"\n\n\"Count Lorcan,\" he replied. Jensen set the clothes on the cushioned bench. \"Please be prompt arriving at the banquet hall. Not a second too late. Going through this door, you'll find the banquet hall straight down at the end of the corridor. Ladies, the wardrobe against the wall opens into a small changing room.\"\n\n\"How is it he knew of our arrival when we had never sought to come here until a few days ago?\" I asked.\n\nJensen studied me with his brow raised for several moments before offering a polite smile. \"My guess is you already know the answer to that question, dear Hunter, but if you haven't figure it out by the time you arrive at his table, certainly ask him. Lorcan is a man who greatly treasures the company of others and loves intriguing conversation. I'm certain the two of you will get along splendidly. He's talked for days about how he longs to meet you.\"\n\nI could not ascertain whether that was intended as a threat or not. I had hoped Jensen would tell me how Lorcan knew such details as to validate my suspicions. I held no doubt that somehow Lorcan had reached through the netherworld of my dreams and tethered to my thoughts and plans. He could see me, but he had veiled himself where I could not visualize him. It proved he possessed a great deal of power and possibly more than any other vampire I'd faced prior. While these matters were imposing, my curiosity outweighed my fear.\n\nStill smiling politely, Jensen walked to the door, grabbed the knob, and turned to face us before he closed it. \"Remember, promptness, midnight.\"\n\nI nodded.\n\nJensen closed the door.\n\nFather's brow furrowed. \"Son, I feel uneasy about this entire situation.\"\n\n\"As do I,\" Penelope said.\n\n\"There's not anything else we can do,\" I said.\n\n\"We could leave,\" Thomas suggested, glancing nervously to the door.\n\nI shook my head. \"How? We have no idea where those men took the horse. I assume it was the stables where they had gone, but we don't rightly know. And if we found the horse, we'd still need to find the wagon, hitch the horse to it ... His guards or servants would apprehend us well before we could succeed in doing all of that.\"\n\nFather sighed and wadded up the map. \"You cannot exactly slay a vampire when he knows we've come to do so.\"\n\n\"Or since he's invited us to eat with him,\" Penelope said softly. \"Not proper etiquette, now is it Forrest?\"\n\nI gave her a pretend stern glance, and she crinkled her nose, smiling. Even though we hadn't known one another long, I could tell when she was being playful. I chuckled.\n\nRegardless of the dinner invitation, she didn't need to question my intent. She knew I'd not leave this former castle without attempting to stake Lorcan. I imagined he was thinking the same. I was quite certain he knew.\n\n\"Perhaps he wishes to eat us for dinner?\" Thomas asked, and I knew his question was not in jest. I tried not to smile.\n\n\"But he's predicted your arrival for longer than we've known he existed,\" Father said. \"You mentioned you've seen this place in your dreams? Have you ever seen him?\"\n\n\"No. He's kept himself hidden from me. I sensed his power. He's strong. I sense him now. The most disturbing part of those dreams was the amount of bloodshed.\"\n\n\"You've witnessed him killing people in your dreams?\" Penelope asked.\n\n\"No. I suppose what I'm trying to say is that I detected the volume of blood he's shed and drank from the numerous people he's killed during his lifetime as a vampire. My guess, it's in the hundreds.\"\n\nThomas looked uneasily. \"Then we're nothing more than fodder.\"\n\n\"We have plenty of stakes,\" Father said. \"We tuck them into our pockets, behind our belts\u2014\"\n\n\"Then he immediately views us as a threat,\" I said.\n\n\"And you don't him?\"\n\nI shrugged. \"He is, but nothing in my dreams indicated he seeks to harm or kill me.\"\n\n\"Then what, son, would he want?\"\n\nI thought about his question for several moments. The answer came as if prompted to me, but not from a previous Hunter's wisdom. Lorcan whispered it to me.\n\n\"I think you were right earlier, Father. He wishes to hire me.\"\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Twenty-Four\n\n\"Hire you?\" Father said with a most curious stare. \"I've never known a vampire to hire a Hunter. The thought is preposterous.\"\n\n\"Even though you were the one who suggested it?\" I asked with a wide grin.\n\nHe frowned and waved me off. \"Just an old man foolishly thinking out loud, son. Wisdom comes with age, but so does senility. It was an absurd thought.\"\n\n\"Perhaps, but I don't think so,\" I replied. \"The impression in my mind about tonight's invitation is the same gut feeling I've gotten in the past, and they've never been wrong before.\"\n\n\"So you're proposing that we go to his banquet room without any weapons at all? And what happens if we're not right about his invitation?\"\n\n\"It's insane,\" Thomas said, shaking his head.\n\nPenelope shook her head. \"I think Forrest's right. Jensen insists that we're guests here. Lorcan's gifted us with new clothes, a lavish bath and room, and food. Why go through all that trouble only to kill and feast upon us?\"\n\nThomas frowned at her. \"Read Hansel and Gretel sometime. He's made us more presentable before he kills us. Could all this just be a part of his ritual?\"\n\n\"Son, don't forget the most important issue of this argument. He's a vampire. It's too great a risk for us to enter his chambers or dining room without some sort of way to defend ourselves. Besides, I know you. You'd never allow yourself to be hired by a vampire.\"\n\nI frowned and rubbed my bearded chin.\n\n\"Forrest?\" Penelope said. \"You wouldn't?\"\n\n\"I'd like to hear his proposal,\" I replied. \"He'd be hiring me to slay another vampire anyway.\"\n\n\"But what about what you said earlier?\" she asked.\n\nI placed my index finger to my lips and shook my head.\n\nHer eyes and Father's widened, realizing the Count was possibly hearing everything we had said.\n\n\"When we reach the banquet hall,\" I said, \"Remember not to gaze directly into his eyes or he can compel you.\"\n\nThey nodded. Thomas paled and visibly shook.\n\nI slipped my hand around Penelope's. \"You and Madeline need to change into the clothes Jensen brought.\"\n\nFather walked to Madeline and took Varak from her. He smiled. \"I can watch him while you dress.\"\n\nShe smiled with gratitude.\n\nPenelope took the women's clothing and opened the wardrobe doors. The room on the other side was in complete darkness. She took a burning lamp off a table and walked through the hollow wardrobe. The lamp lit up the small room and she smiled at me before pulling the doors closed again.\n\nI found my clothes easily since they were so much wider and larger than anyone else's. I hurried and slipped into them while the women were in the other room. Thomas did the same with his across the room near the hearth. Father sat on the edge of the bed with Varak on his knee. The child smiled and giggled and Father smiled in return. The largest part of my heart wanted Varak not to be what he was probably destined to become. I truly did.\n\nWhile I buttoned my shirt, I wondered what Lorcan's motive was. I agreed with Penelope that Jensen kept insisting we were guests and according to him, Lorcan had been eagerly awaiting our arrival for some time. That was the same sensation I had felt in my dreams.\n\n***\n\nWe arrived at the banquet hall a few minutes before midnight. In spite of the long room, the table was modest with ten finely carved high-back chairs positioned on each side. Count Lorcan's chair was at the far end and regal like a king's. The back and seat were thickly padded.\n\nOn the opposite stone wall were six large life-size paintings. Three were beautiful women dressed in ballroom dresses and wearing different gemstone necklaces, bracelets, and rings. The other three paintings were men dressed in elegant, if not regal, attire. They resembled one another enough for me to believe they must be siblings, perhaps Lorcan's own children?\n\nLorcan was already seated. He sat stiff and proper. His pale complexion glowed in contrast to his solid black long sleeved shirt. By the way the cloth shimmered beneath the candle chandelier, I assumed it was silk. He wore a ruby ring on his right hand and a sapphire ring on his left. He motioned to us and smiled. \"Welcome guests! Please, come and be seated. And Forrest, please, sit here beside me. We've so much to discuss.\"\n\nThomas hurried to the farthest chair from Lorcan where place settings were. For some unexplained reason, he couldn't hide his nervousness in the presence of the vampire. I didn't quite understand his anxiety. Upon his first encounter with the plague demon, before Penelope had arrived and killed it, he had bravely accepted the potential fate of death from the plague demon calmer than whatever suspicions he believed he'd be dealt at the hands of Philip.\n\nI sat to the left of Lorcan, Penelope sat beside me, and Father sat directly across from me. Madeline held Varak and sat beside Father.\n\nAn elegantly dressed manservant came to the table with a bottle of wine. Lorcan smiled at us while the man filled our glasses.\n\n\"This wine comes from my vineyards. I do hope you find the taste to your liking,\" he said. When all our glasses were filled, he lifted his glass to toast, and being polite, we did the same. \"A toast! To possibilities.\"\n\nI sipped the wine. It tasted sweet with the hint of a nutty flavor.\n\nLorcan set down his wine goblet and glanced at me. The skin on his face was tight, drawn in. For those who noticed this first, they'd be disturbed by his appearance, but I doubted anyone that made eye contact with him ever noticed his corpselike appearance. His striking blue eyes were piercing, almost icy white. A person's gaze was immediately drawn to them, which made them susceptible to his glamour. Fortunately, I didn't succumb to his charm.\n\nHe waved his hand toward the food on the table. \"Please, help yourselves.\"\n\nA roasted pheasant rested on a large plate with all types of side dishes and breads neatly placed around the bird. Everyone glanced nervously toward me for approval, or perhaps more their concern on whether eating the food was safe. Since I hadn't perceived any malice from Lorcan yet, I took one of the bird's legs and a piece of bread, placing them upon my plate.\n\nAfter I took several bites, the others began putting food onto their plates.\n\nLorcan leaned toward me. \"I trust that your journey through the Black Forest thus far has been a pleasant one?\"\n\n\"Other than the heavy snow,\" I replied.\n\nLorcan laughed softly. \"Ah, I'm afraid I have no control over that. How are you liking your stay at my castle?\"\n\nI offered a cordial smile, still concerned about being this close to a vampire and not having a weapon. \"It's been nice so far.\"\n\n\"I sense your apprehension, Hunter. Relax. You wonder whether this hospitality is genuine or short-lived. I understand. But I assure you, this invitation comes with no strings attached.\"\n\nFather frowned. \"What exactly has no strings attached?\"\n\nLorcan pursed his lips and forced a smile, glancing toward Father. He was annoyed by my father's interruption. \"I have need of your son's services, which is a matter he and I need to discuss since he is the Hunter.\"\n\nNormally, Father found offense in being considered less a vampire hunter than I, but he didn't seem to acknowledge the snide insult. \"A vampire hiring a Hunter to kill another vampire?\"\n\nLorcan's jaw tightened.\n\n\"Father, please.\"\n\nFather shook his head and turned his attention to the food. \"My apologies. And my compliments to your cook. Excellent food.\"\n\n\"Duly noted,\" Lorcan said. He turned toward me again.\n\n\"Is that what you're doing? Hiring me to kill another vampire?\" I asked.\n\n\"It is an offer I'd like for you to consider. As I said, you may refuse to slay this vampire and be on your way in the morning without fear of any repercussions.\"\n\n\"Why have you chosen me? Certainly other Hunters have passed this way.\"\n\n\"Indeed they have, Forrest, but none have shown the integrity that you've displayed.\"\n\n\"And how did you learn of me?\" I asked, tearing a piece of bread in half and dipping it into the wine sauce.\n\nLorcan smiled and folded his hands in a prayer-like manner. \"We've visited, you and I, but on a different plane. I know you've sensed my presence.\"\n\nI narrowed my eyes. \"Yes, and why have you invaded my dreams? How have you done so?\"\n\n\"I simply wished to learn more about you. Few Hunters have the ability to kill so many masters in such a short amount of time like you have. Of course, you should know that this would capture the attention of other vampires, especially that of other master vampires.\"\n\n\"Like yourself?\"\n\nHe feigned a smile. \"I'd be a fool if I didn't keep my best interests at heart, would I not? Learning of your success against three powerful masters stirred me with concern, as it has throughout the entire undead realm. You've caused a ripple-effect, which shall not go unnoticed, so I'd rather befriend you than find myself on the wrong side of your stake.\"\n\nI suppressed my laughter. He'd always be an enemy to me regardless. I refused to ever entertain the friendship of any vampire. I'd never allow myself to trust one. I had already seen the spite of masters and those had held no compassion toward others, and apparently not for their own kind if Lorcan was truly seeking to hire me to slay another vampire.\n\nI chewed the bread, took a sip of the wine, and swallowed. \"Tell me about this vampire you wish to have slain, and better yet, why do you seek his death? Can't you kill him?\"\n\nLorcan eased to the side his chair, stuck his elbow on the armrest, and rested his chin atop his fist. \"Diplomacy has its downsides amongst ruling vampires, Forrest. A master vampire who rips the head off a rival ruling vampire tends to lose favor with the great vampire council. In case you're unaware of the family that rules over the council, they are the upper echelon, those directly descended from Count Dracula himself.\"\n\n\"As I have understood,\" I replied, \"Dracula's descendants have more to trouble themselves over than minor skirmishes like yours.\"\n\nLorcan's eyes narrowed. \"And how would you know of such things?\"\n\n\"Even vampires are known to namedrop when they're faced with death, thinking they'll strike fear into my heart and cause me to reconsider.\"\n\nLorcan leaned back in his seat and laughed. \"So you don't negotiate?\"\n\nI stared into his eyes, unflinching. \"With a vampire, never.\"\n\nHis laughter and smile ceased. He studied me for several moments. \"I see. Does that limit you killing this other vampire for me then? As I said, you're free to decline my offer.\"\n\n\"You've yet given me a reason for why you view this master as a threat.\"\n\nLorcan smiled evenly. \"He has plotted to kill my family members. More specifically, my children.\"\n\nI nodded toward the six paintings on the wall. \"I suppose these are they?\"\n\nFather turned and looked over his shoulder. His cheek was puffed with a hunk of bread. \"Nice family.\"\n\nLorcan nodded. \"Yes. My children.\"\n\n\"He has made attempts?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"What are his reasons for doing so?\"\n\n\"Territorial rights,\" Lorcan replied.\n\nI frowned.\n\n\"By government treaties set by the Vlad's vampire council, the mountains of the Black Forest were deeded to me. Ambrose, the other master, does not like that I have six children and view them as a greater threat than myself.\"\n\n\"Why is that?\" Father asked with a full mouth.\n\nLorcan's eyes narrowed, but he didn't bother looking in my father's direction. I simply shook my head at Father.\n\n\"Why does this Ambrose view them as a threat if the territory has already been deeded to you? And does that imply you rule over the human governments or are you the overseer?\" I asked.\n\n\"I'm the overseer, but since I have six children, I can place them into prominent positions throughout the Black Forest,\" Lorcan replied. \"Doing so prevents Ambrose from trying to infiltrate my lands with lesser vampires of his own.\"\n\n\"And where are your children now?\"\n\nLorcan smiled. \"They reside in this old castle with me. Until Ambrose has been ... slain, I cannot establish their rightful places in the mountains. I had wanted them to dine with us tonight, but I thought that might be too daunting for all of you.\"\n\nI gave a shrug and looked again at their pictures on the wall. Each woman was beautiful. Their eyes held intense confidence, and their smiles curled with tinges of mischief. The three men had stern gazes that could make a brave man cower. Their chiseled facial features displayed the coldness of their hearts. These men could be ruthless once they resided over an area of the Black Forest. They probably already were. Whoever the artist was, he or she had captured the essence of Lorcan's children.\n\n\"Where does Ambrose reside?\" I asked.\n\n\"Schaffhausen, Switzerland.\"\n\n\"Is that his assigned territory?\"\n\nLorcan nodded.\n\n\"And why is it not satisfactory to him?\"\n\n\"It should be,\" he replied. \"Splendid city. A fantastic place, but for whatever reason, he covets being farther north and wishes to settle within my forest.\"\n\n\"Have you not spoken with him? Offered a meeting to resolve the dispute?\"\n\n\"We've exchanged letters, which is a painfully slow process, but we've never met in person.\"\n\n\"Then how do you know he wishes to have your children slain?\"\n\n\"There have been attempts on each of them during this past year,\" Lorcan said softly. \"Usually at banquets and balls with other esteemed rulers.\"\n\n\"How do you know it is Ambrose?\"\n\nLorcan glanced toward Penelope and smiled. She looked away. \"We captured each would-be slayer, compelled them, and they told us who had hired them.\"\n\n\"Other Hunters?\"\n\nLorcan grinned and glanced toward my father. \"No. He's not that resourceful. Common folks who think they are capable of killing vampires and nearly get themselves killed for attempting it.\" He glanced back to me. \"I realize it is unorthodox for me to hire a Hunter to kill another vampire, but when it comes to protecting my children and preventing the wrath of the council from raining down upon me for taking the law into my own hands, I cannot find a greater ally than a Hunter.\"\n\nPenelope slipped her hand under the table and squeezed my leg. I looked at her and she subtly shook her head.\n\n\"You have something you wish to contribute?\" Lorcan asked her.\n\n\"I'm curious as to what your reward is?\"\n\n\"Fair enough. One thousand gold marks.\"\n\nFather's fork dropped from his hand and clattered against his plate. His eyes widened, and he coughed to prevent choking on whatever he had been trying to swallow. He pounded his chest with his fist a couple of times. His face reddened and tears moistened his eyes. He gave me a stern look that indicated that I should accept the offer.\n\n\"That's not enough?\" Lorcan asked, giving Father an amused smile.\n\nFather tried to clear his throat, but it was too scratchy for him to speak. He waved his hand, shook his head, and sipped the wine but still declined an answer.\n\nLorcan turned toward me. \"Is that not a fair enough offer?\"\n\nI held no emotion on my face. I took a sip of wine and set down the goblet. \"Might I inform you of my decision in the morning? Before we could even accept, we have to meet the archbishop in Freiburg.\"\n\nHe offered a courteous smile. \"Of course. Again, there's no threat if you decide not to accept the offer. I will simply have to look for another Hunter.\"\n\n\"If you wish me to consider your offer, I have one stipulation.\"\n\nLorcan's brow rose. \"And what is that, Hunter?\"\n\n\"Stop your attempted intrusions into my mind while I sleep,\" I said evenly.\n\nHe held a smirk for several moments. \"Attempted?\"\n\n\"Any further attempts at all whether I'm awake or sleeping,\" I replied, \"and I will not entertain your offer, and instead, regard you as a hostile enemy.\"\n\n\"You have my word,\" Lorcan said through gritted teeth.\n\nI stood. \"Thank you for extending your hospitality to us.\"\n\nHe rose as well. \"Indeed, Hunter, this conversation has been quite ... informative.\"\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Twenty-Five\n\nWhen we returned to our room and closed the door, Father shook his head in disbelief. He was panting from exhilaration, not exhaustion. \"You need to think about this offer, Forrest?\"\n\n\"Of course,\" I replied. \"Why wouldn't I?\"\n\n\"One thousand gold marks,\" he replied. \"That's more than you and I could earn over the rest of our lifetimes.\"\n\n\"That's a huge exaggeration, Father. But we don't know that he's telling the truth,\" I whispered.\n\n\"Forrest's right,\" Penelope said. \"We don't know.\"\n\nI stood as close to them as possible. Speaking in whispers didn't guarantee the vampires couldn't hear us. Their magnified hearing was capable of eavesdropping for quite some distance. Besides that, most castles had hidden passageways, and as old as this one was, it was possible for someone to be listening on the other side of our walls where we couldn't see or detect them.\n\n\"We have another issue to consider,\" I whispered.\n\n\"What?\" Father asked in a hushed tone.\n\n\"We're not dealing with just one vampire. There are seven. We are outnumbered. Even with our best weapons, should they turn on us, we're dead.\"\n\nFather frowned. \"You suspect he might do that? Don't you think his offer is legitimate?\"\n\nI shrugged. \"He doesn't seem to be lying. I believe he genuinely wants Ambrose slain, but we cannot ignore the possibility of being attacked or killed by them.\"\n\n\"For the amount of money he's offering\u2014\"\n\n\"Look, Father, even if we are successful slaying Ambrose, who's to say Lorcan won't kill us when we return to collect his reward?\"\n\nThomas sat on the edge of a cot and cleared his throat. His complexion was pasty pale. \"Whatever you decide, Forrest, my journey ends when we reach Freiburg and you hand the child over to the Archdiocese, provided no additional plague demons arise and kill me.\"\n\nI nodded. \"I have no issue with that. Your obligation ends there.\"\n\n\"I'm sorry,\" he said softly.\n\n\"No need to be. We appreciate your services thus far.\"\n\n\"Albert never gave me any other choice.\"\n\nI smiled. \"Everyone has a choice. Action or inaction. You chose to act in order to survive, and we've chosen to protect you.\"\n\nHe offered a humble smile. \"We've not reached Freiburg yet.\"\n\n\"Penelope and I will do all we can to ensure that we do.\"\n\nShe smiled at Thomas. \"We will.\"\n\nFrustrated, Father paced the floor. \"Do you realize how much that money could help us? How long it would last?\"\n\nI'd never known my father to be greedy, but he wanted that money more than his next breath. We had always had a modest lifestyle. Things were lean at times, but no different than it had been for most other families in Romania. Poverty was rampant. People fought for survival, sometimes going a few days without eating a meal. One thousand gold marks was an extremely large amount of money for us. I understood that, but it put a strange glint in his eyes, worse than when he had fought his cravings against consuming strong drinks.\n\n\"The money issue is secondhand, Father. Everything else needs to be weighted.\"\n\n\"Son\u2014\"\n\n\"You and Jacques were the ones who hammered it into my head about not making hasty decisions, remember?\"\n\nHe nodded.\n\n\"You were both right. If we go after Ambrose strictly because of greed, we're dead. A dead man cannot spend a thousand gold marks or even one. Money does a corpse no good at all,\" I said.\n\n\"Unless you're Lorcan,\" Penelope said with a wide grin.\n\n\"You know what my point is,\" I replied.\n\nShe nodded. \"I know. Just trying to lessen the tension.\"\n\n\"Money should never be the main objective. Slaying the vampire and learning as much about him or her is what needs to be first on our minds. We need to calculate the risks and ensure we know where his lair is.\"\n\nFather sat in a cushioned chair with a slight grin. \"You're talking like you want to slay him?\"\n\nI sighed. \"It's my obligation as a Hunter to rid the world of all vampires.\"\n\nPenelope eased close and whispered, \"Even Lorcan and his children?\"\n\nI nodded. \"It's late. Everyone needs to get some sleep. I'll stand watch until morning.\"\n\n\"You need your sleep, too,\" she said.\n\n\"I'll sleep in the coach when we depart tomorrow morning. Someone needs to remain awake throughout the night.\"\n\nI retrieved my Hunter box from near the door and set it on a reading table. I lay several sharp stakes beside the box for easy access. I placed several bottles of garlic juice on another table. I had two bottles of holy water left, which wasn't a lot when I faced the possibility of fighting seven vampires. Once we reached Freiburg, I needed to restock.\n\n***\n\nMorning came without incident or confrontation. I never detected one sound in the outer hallways or behind any of our walls. While I had sat and waited, expecting the worst from Lorcan, my mind entertained the idea of what Penelope had suggested. Were all vampires pure evil? Was it unfair and unjust for me to place them all into the same category?\n\nHunters weren't given any guidelines. There wasn't a manual filled with commandments, at least none I had found. We had Hunter's instinct and intuition, but nowhere was it explicitly written that vampires were necessarily evil. Of course my first confrontation with Baron Randolph had left me with the impression that all vampires were self-serving, vain, and merciless. Then the next few reinforced those attributes. This prejudiced me to believe no vampire was capable of compassion or mercy.\n\nEven one night's thoughts concerning the true nature of vampires didn't dissuade my self-proclaimed credo. They were vile creatures of darkness, soulless, and doomed for eternity. Perhaps they despised mortals because those of us who believed in an afterlife held to the hope they'd never have again. Who truly understood what fractured in their minds after they turned into vampires? The transformation affected their entire beings. Over time, most people's minds deteriorated somewhat, and as I had noted with Philip, who was a Hunter and not a vampire, there was an actual threat to mankind whenever a mentally deranged person became a vampire. Although it was merely speculation on my part, I believed Philip had absorbed the mental inclinations of one of these lunatics. He no longer possessed rationality. But when it came to Varak, neither had I.\n\nPenelope eased off her cot, slipped her robe on, and came to sit beside me. She smiled. Her curly hair was frizzed and looked like a damaged windblown daisy after an intense rain. She leaned her head against my shoulder. \"You want to get some sleep? I can watch the door until we're ready to go.\"\n\n\"I'm fine. People have been moving outside in the hall. Servants, I suppose.\" I looked at the cuckoo clock. It was almost 5 a.m.\n\nShe stared up into my eyes in a way that made me feel funny inside. I stared at her lips, and she did mine. My stomach felt nervous. Without realizing I was moving, I leaned down to kiss her and Father abruptly wheezed and cleared his throat, startling she and I.\n\nWe pulled away from one another and turned to look at him. His eyes were still closed but he rolled over, facing our direction. He'd be awake within a few minutes. Once he tossed and turned, sleep lost its grip on him.\n\nI released a long sigh. I glanced at her again, but the moment was lost.\n\nSomeone rapped at the door. Father sat up on the edge of the bed, as did Thomas and Madeline.\n\nA few seconds later, the door opened. Jensen stepped into the room. His eyes regarded the stakes on the table. He suddenly looked concerned and partially confused. It showed a lack of gratitude toward Lorcan on our part.\n\nHis eyes shifted toward me. \"I do hope you had a pleasant night's sleep. Count Lorcan has requested your presence for breakfast in the banquet hall. He has matters to discuss while the stable hands are getting your horse and coach ready for you to depart.\"\n\nWe nodded. After Jensen left, I packed my weapons into the box, and we hurriedly dressed. I don't believe anyone rushed because they wanted to eat. We were ready to leave the castle and travel to Freiburg.\n\n\"Have you made your decision?\" Father asked.\n\n\"I have.\"\n\n\"And?\"\n\n\"We will accept the offer.\"\n\nFather's mouth dropped. His eyes grew fierce with excitement. He patted my shoulder with great enthusiasm.\n\n\"One thing, Father.\"\n\n\"What is it?\" he asked.\n\n\"When we get to the banquet hall, let me do the talking. Lorcan was quite perturbed that you kept interrupting him earlier in the night.\"\n\nFather grinned. \"I'll be silent.\"\n\n\"And try not to divulge your zeal for the money, okay?\"\n\nHe nodded, but I knew he'd never succeed. His eyes and smile were a direct reflection of how he felt inside. No matter how hard he tried, he'd never vanquish his lust for the reward.\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Twenty-Six\n\nLorcan sat at the head of the table when we arrived. He didn't seem as jovial as he had been near midnight. I couldn't tell if he was angry or simply impatient at hearing my answer. Of course with sunrise approaching in a couple of hours, I imagined he was ready to retreat to the darkness of his casket or sepulcher. It stood to reason a vampire might get cranky like a mortal when he doesn't get rest.\n\nAfter we took our seats, he rested his elbows upon the table and stared at me. \"What have you decided?\"\n\n\"We will slay Ambrose for you,\" I replied.\n\nHe grinned with satisfaction. \"Splendid. How did you arrive at your decision, if I may ask?\"\n\nI crossed my arms and leaned back in my chair, attempting to look like I had spent a long time coming to my reasoning during the night. \"I suppose if I had children and someone was trying to kill them, I'd find a way to eradicate such an enemy. And I wouldn't care whom I had to hire to carry it out. Although I've not met your children, I can tell they are of the utmost prominence based upon their portraits on the wall.\" Perhaps I had been too flattering, but I simply wanted to pack our belongings and travel on our way to Freiburg. Even though Lorcan had promised I could reject the offer without repercussions, I wanted to depart in the most amicable way possible.\n\n\"What is your business in Freiburg?\" he asked. His eyes focused on Madeline and Varak. He suddenly seemed interested in them when earlier in the night he had not.\n\n\"Personal.\"\n\nHe frowned at me. \"Ah, I see. No coaxing it out of you?\"\n\n\"It is not of your concern.\"\n\nLorcan studied me for several moments in silence, trying to read me. He gave a disappointed smile. \"You find it difficult to trust me?\"\n\n\"Trust isn't something I readily offer anyone.\"\n\n\"You're wise, Hunter. Trust must be earned. A foolish man who trusts a stranger often suffers great loss and tragedy. That's why I have taken additional means in the hope I can prove my trustworthiness to you.\"\n\nI frowned. \"What do you mean?\"\n\n\"Flora!\" Lorcan shouted.\n\nOur attention turned to the tall slender brunette standing at the side door beneath the paintings. Her long curly hair hung down around her shoulders. Flora wore an elegant royal blue gown like she had when the artist had painted her image onto the canvas. Her alabaster skin was flawless. With high cheekbones and a narrow-bridge nose, her face displayed aristocracy, more so than her father's did. My first impression was that she was haughty and regarded herself in a separate class altogether than any of us. Not that I could argue such a point because we were paupers in comparison.\n\nA tall man stood limply at her side, standing only because she held him upright. In spite of her thin appearance, she was incredibly strong. The man must have been over twice her weight and stood about my height. She was holding him up by his shirt collar with one hand. Without much effort, she flung his body toward the table. He landed a few feet away, and the man didn't move. He wasn't breathing.\n\n\"Forrest?\" Penelope whispered. \"That's Philip, isn't it?\"\n\nI rose. Lorcan placed a fierce grip around my wrist, preventing me from leaving the table. If he chose, he could snap my arm with little effort. \"Is he dead?\"\n\nLorcan nodded. \"Yes.\"\n\nI pulled my arm, and he freed me of his hold.\n\n\"You killed him?\"\n\nHe smiled. \"You should be relieved.\"\n\n\"Why's that?\" I asked.\n\n\"He came to the castle at 3 a.m. with the intent of finding and killing you. He arrived on horseback, covered with ice and snow. Determination was what had kept him going. A normal person would have died from the frigid cold. But not him. He was raving mad. What's odd, Forrest, is that he held no interest in slaying me or my children. He was, however, insistent on killing you.\" A strange amused smile curled on his lips. \"What would possess a Hunter to kill another Hunter? I've never heard any reports of a Hunter turning against another within their league. Especially not with the passion he exhibited. He considered you his enemy. Why is that, Hunter?\"\n\n\"He didn't tell you?\" I asked.\n\nLorcan shook his head. \"No. But it makes me wonder what trespasses you've committed against him?\"\n\n\"None.\"\n\n\"And yet he's pursued you?\"\n\nI shrugged and tried to appear dumbstruck.\n\n\"Come now, Forrest. You're amongst friends. While none of us were able to compel him to get the answers we wanted, we know he has ruthlessly tracked you for quite some time. For what purpose?\"\n\n\"We didn't see eye to eye.\"\n\n\"Apparently not,\" Lorcan said. \"But there has to be more to this.\"\n\n\"Like what?\" I asked.\n\n\"How'd he know you were in my castle of all places?\"\n\n\"I don't know.\" And that was the truth. I didn't understand how he had escaped from the cemetery. Father had tied Philip better than I had the time before, and yet, he had somehow caught up to us. I didn't have any idea how he had done so, and certainly, I was dumbfounded at how he knew where we were lodging for the night. He had to have had help. What worried me was who had helped him and guided him to us? Was it through another Hunter's intellect? Had we not stopped at this inn for the night, he would have found us on the road and confronted me probably for the last time.\n\nLorcan's eyes narrowed. \"You really don't know, do you?\"\n\nI shook my head.\n\n\"Nonetheless, he was your mortal enemy, and we've ensured he won't ever make another attempt to kill you.\"\n\nI walked around the table. Philip lay face down on the floor. I grabbed his shoulder and flipped him over. Rage had frozen in his facial expressions. He had not feared death or the vampires. He had probably tried to fight them off, but even he wasn't a match for Lorcan's children. His determination to defeat them was only so he could find where Varak was.\n\nTwo sets of bite marks were on his neck with two more sets near each wrist. If my guess was correct, Lorcan's children had drained him of his blood. They had feasted on a Hunter's blood, which boosted their strength far greater than normal. Now was not the time for me to make any accusations or even hope to combat any of his children. We were outnumbered, and with their increased strength, it would be like trying to fight a dozen or more vampires.\n\nI checked Philip's mouth for blood but found none.\n\n\"And this is supposed to build my trust in you?\" I asked.\n\n\"Shouldn't it? He was your enemy. We killed him. This is my way of showing loyalty to my oath. My gesture of good faith,\" Lorcan said with genuine pride in his voice.\n\nI knelt in silence beside Philip's body. I grieved over his death, not for who he was as a person, but because another Hunter was dead. Because I had vowed to protect the hybrid infant, Philip was dead.\n\nLorcan turned in his seat, offering a reassuring smile. \"Do you not realize that I sense your skepticism, and what Hunter wouldn't be skeptical making a pact with a vampire? It's not like you're dealing with the Devil.\"\n\nI had my doubts about that.\n\nLorcan continued, \"Just like another Hunter seeking to kill you, it's doubtful many vampires would dare consider the thought of a master vampire hiring a Hunter to kill another master. Perhaps this is why destiny crossed our paths. Hunters hate you and you have befriended the vampire who killed your enemy.\"\n\nAnger stirred inside me. I wanted to blurt out how wrong he was and that he was forever my lifelong enemy. He certainly wasn't my friend. Killing the Hunter, which did prevent me from killing him or being killed, could be viewed more as a threat, his way of proving the strength of his family, which was daunting on a whole other level. Philip had far more experience slaying vampires than I did. I'm certain Lorcan was aware of that.\n\nThe more vampires I encountered, the better I had become at determining how old vampires were. The older the vampire, the greater his or her strength. I didn't know if vampires were able to determine the same thing about Hunters. I guessed it was possible, and if Lorcan could, he knew I was still a novice Hunter.\n\nI kept an even expression on my face. The last thing I needed to show was my inner rage or the slightest hint of fear. I didn't have fear for myself, but for Penelope, my father, and the others. I feared what might happen to them if I didn't keep my temper in check. For the first time since I had expressed my feelings to Penelope, I recalled why I had predetermined the risks of falling in love. It wasn't my death that was the greatest loss. It was hers and the agony of living without her.\n\nFather must have sensed the potential threat, too. He kept looking at Philip and then he glanced toward Flora who stood at the door. She held a defiant look when she gazed at me, almost like she wanted me to attack her father. I knew better. Lorcan had already shown me his strength when he had gripped my wrist. Without a weapon, I wasn't physically capable of fighting him or her. Flora could be at my throat before I saw her move, especially with her enhanced power.\n\nI rose to my feet, standing beside Philip's corpse. \"I appreciate you having an interest in my welfare.\" I expressed the words, but I was torn inside with gut-wrenching sickness. It troubled me that a Hunter was dead and in a way, I had offered thanks to the vampires who had killed him. It was difficult swallowing the vile taste of guilt.\n\nLorcan smiled. \"It's not just your welfare, Hunter, but the rest of your party, too.\"\n\nI frowned.\n\nLorcan stood. \"Come. All of you. Let me show you.\"\n\nHe walked toward the door where his daughter stood. She slid her arm around the crook of his, and they led the way down the long dark corridor. The walls were made of massive stones. Every ten feet a lit iron sconce was fastened to the wall. This area was the older section of the castle and had not been renovated like our inn room and bathhouse had been.\n\nThe long hallway was cool with a dank smell. The path we walked seemed endless. I was reminded of the long outer wall when we had arrived. This arched tunnel must be inside that wall.\n\nLorcan glanced over his shoulder and smiled. \"Not much farther.\"\n\nUneasiness settled over me. Father and Penelope both gave me nervous glances. Perhaps they felt the same as I did. Was he leading us into a trap?\n\nAgain we had left our weapons in the room, and I was already having second thoughts. I had never expected to see Philip dead at the hands\u2014well the fangs, I suppose\u2014of Lorcan's children. Even had I suspected they had killed another Hunter, I knew our weapons would not help us. Not at this particular moment anyway and not with their increased strength.\n\nPhilip might have been capable of defending himself against two of the siblings, but it was highly improbable that he had any knowledge of the total number of vampires in this castle. One master and six of his offspring. Of course, there could be even more than that, if each sibling had made sires, too. But depending upon how long the siblings had been vampires, their strength and prowess might equal that of a master. Philip never had a chance to survive against such odds. Even if I was fighting by his side, we'd have been easily defeated. The unity of these vampires was too powerful for a couple of Hunters. I wondered if Lorcan realized the dangers of assigning each of his children to a different section of his territory within the Black Forest. The farther away from one another they were, the weaker they became.\n\nLorcan and Flora turned to the right at the first hall that connected to the corridor we were walking along. This corridor was shorter and the iron bars on each side of the hall looked about as inviting as any prison cell might present itself to an unsuspecting victim.\n\nBut there weren't any prisoners here. Each barred room held a different torture device. If the rock walls could scream, I had a good idea of the terror they'd reveal. Spiked weapons, stretching racks, and metal enclosures that were placed over roaring fires to cook prisoners alive. Lorcan and his family were more demented than I had credited them. I suppose Philip had gotten off easier than previous prisoners.\n\nWe passed all of those rooms and entered the circular room at the end of the corridor. Inside this room a banister encircled a pit below. Flora placed her hands upon the smooth railing. Her father stood beside her.\n\n\"Look below.\"\n\nExcept for Madeline, the rest of us stepped to the side of the rail with extreme caution and gazed down. She remained outside the room, cradling Varak, gently rocking him. Down at the bottom of the pit were eight plague demons like the ones Penelope had killed. I frowned and caught Lorcan's intense stare.\n\nHe smiled. \"Until your arrival, we've never encounter such demons within our halls. Like the Hunter, are these also your enemy, Forrest?\"\n\nI shook my head. \"Not mine, but our coachman's.\"\n\n\"I see. And why is that?\" he asked.\n\n\"You don't know?\"\n\n\"I wouldn't be asking you if I did.\"\n\n\"You have no knowledge of Albert the Were-rat?\" I asked warily.\n\nHe shook his head, slightly puzzled by the name. \"No. What significance does this were-rat have with these demons?\"\n\nUntil this moment, I truly had thought Lorcan had received word about me through Albert. While vampires could mask lies, I didn't perceive him as being dishonest. And the plague demons had seemed to have caught him off guard, too.\n\n\"Thomas?\" I said.\n\nThomas nervously rubbed his moustache, swallowed hard, and held onto the banister to hold himself upright. \"Albert sent these after me.\"\n\n\"Why?\" Lorcan asked.\n\n\"As punishment for not repaying my debt to him.\"\n\n\"I see. So you have a death sentence hanging over you? Rather than face your rightful punishment, you've decided to flee?\" Lorcan asked.\n\nI shook my head. \"No, the demons are more of a test, or in this case, a twisted game.\"\n\n\"Game?\" Lorcan asked. \"What sort of game?\"\n\n\"If Thomas succeeds in getting us to Freiburg without getting killed by one of the plague demons, his debt is cleared.\"\n\nLorcan said, \"I see. Interesting. Then if I were all of you, I'd gather your belongings and finish your journey to Freiburg. Your horse and coach should be ready and awaiting you at the entrance. These demons are trapped here and cannot escape to follow you.\"\n\nPenelope looked at the demons in the pit with eagerness in her gaze. She wanted to kill them. I sensed her detestation toward them was the same as mine toward vampires. \"Why are these demons confined to the pit?\"\n\nFlora said, \"As a precaution for the castle's safety, there is a summoning circle on the pit floor that draws invading demons here.\"\n\n\"Who drew the circle?\" Penelope asked.\n\n\"I did,\" Flora replied with a prideful smile.\n\nLorcan chuckled softly. \"She has taken a keen interest in demons and other dark arts.\"\n\n\"You realize these demons carry the plague?\"\n\nFlora's smile didn't fade. \"Indeed I do.\"\n\nPenelope regarded Flora with a skeptical glare.\n\nFlora pursed her lips. \"It's not like I keep them as pets.\"\n\n\"Then why do you?\"\n\n\"To study them and their behaviors.\"\n\n\"These have only one purpose, and that's to infect villages and cities with the Black Death.\"\n\nFlora crinkled her nose. \"They are the most boring of demons.\"\n\nPenelope's brow rose. \"Oh? What ones are interesting?\"\n\n\"The incubus has been ... shall I say, the most exciting,\" Flora replied with a sly grin before taking in a deep breath, closing her eyes, and shuddering.\n\nPenelope turned toward me with a stunned expression. \"Can we get out of here?\"\n\nMadeline gave me a worried look, too.\n\nI glanced to the others. \"Let's go.\"\n\nThey all turned to walk through the corridor filled with various torture chambers. Thomas hurried ahead of everyone, almost running. Apparently he didn't believe these demons were trapped and could escape. I held my own doubts about that as well.\n\nFather limped beside Madeline and Penelope followed. I took a step toward the door, but Lorcan placed his hand firmly on my shoulder, turning me.\n\n\"Forrest?\" Lorcan said. \"One more thing?\"\n\nI faced him. \"Yes?\"\n\nHe handed me a leather pouch that was tied shut. \"There are one hundred marks inside. An advance, if you will.\"\n\n\"We've not done anything yet,\" I replied. \"I'd rather not take the money until after Ambrose has been slain.\"\n\n\"Forrest, Ambrose resides well on the other side of Freiburg. You'll have need of food and boarding expenses. Or are you considering forfeiting my offer altogether?\"\n\n\"No, I accept. I never go back on my word.\"\n\nLorcan smiled, placed the pouch into the palm of my hand, and then gently folded my fingers over the pouch. \"Good.\"\n\n\"And what do you wish for me to bring back as proof of his death?\" I asked.\n\n\"Proof?\"\n\nI nodded.\n\n\"Ambrose wears an amber broach that encases a large stag beetle, and on his left hand is a ruby ring. Either of those or both should suffice,\" Lorcan said.\n\n\"Very well.\"\n\nHe smiled. \"At least now you'll have less obstacles since the other Hunter has suffered his demise. As for the demons, Flora will keep them bound in the pit.\"\n\n\"You didn't turn Philip, did you?\"\n\nLorcan chuckled softly. \"You've never seen my children eat. A Hunter's blood divided between six adult children? Not a drop was left. Besides, he was a raving lunatic. I certainly don't need someone else to keep on a leash.\"\n\nFlora flicked her gaze toward me. Hunger shown in her eyes and my neck burned where she stared, longing to bite me. She seemed to have problems restraining her bloodlust. I wondered if she had recently become a vampire because she exhibited the signs of an untamed vampire, lacking control of her hunger. Regardless, she made me uncomfortable, but I tried not to show it. She licked her lips before smiling seductively, showing the slightest tips of her fangs. I'd have thought her much more attractive had she been human. Be that as it may, I couldn't wait to get outside the castle and travel farther away.\n\n\"How can you be certain this was all of the plague demons?\" I asked.\n\nFlora rested a hand on her hip and flipped her long curls to one side. \"Whoever sent them, only sent eight.\"\n\n\"But Penelope has killed several of them.\"\n\n\"Yes. They dissolve into ash, but they can reappear elsewhere. But as long as they remain in physical form, they are confined inside the pit and cannot materialize elsewhere.\"\n\nI hoped she was telling the truth and provided I didn't somehow offend her before our departure, maybe she'd ensure their confinement until we reached Freiburg. I couldn't know that she would, but I didn't dare ask, either. No sense intriguing her amusement since she seemed like one who enjoyed playing morbid games with mortals' lives. Sort of like Albert ...\n\n\"If I may ask,\" Lorcan said, \"what is your state of affairs in Freiburg? Does it have to do with the child the maiden tends to?\"\n\nIt was already partially a question he had asked before. I guessed he wanted to throw me off guard. I studied his eyes for several moments. I felt his power leap toward me, trying to penetrate my thoughts. I frowned and formed fists. \"I warned you about trying to probe my thoughts.\"\n\nFlora bore her fangs in an instant and hissed. Her eyes peered black and narrowed. She moved across the floor toward me.\n\n\"Daughter, no.\" Lorcan placed his hand between her and me. \"My apologies, Forrest. Forgive me. Force of habit.\"\n\nI relaxed my hands and nodded. Flora retracted her fangs, but she didn't look away from me. She attempted to look intimidating, but I ignored her. At this particular moment, I knew not to turn my back toward her.\n\n\"But it is the child. Why Freiburg? Why are you taking him there?\"\n\n\"He's an orphan,\" I replied.\n\n\"There are orphanages and cathedrals all through the countries you've traveled, are there not? We have them here, even though we're a small village. And you're passing all of them in preference of Freiburg.\"\n\n\"I am. More than that, I cannot tell you.\"\n\n\"I find it strange that your journey has been plagued by such adversity,\" Lorcan said.\n\n\"And it hasn't ended yet,\" I replied.\n\n\"Flora and I shall escort you to your room. It has been a pleasure.\"\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Twenty-Seven\n\nWhen Thomas drove the coach through the castle gates, the snow was no longer falling. Winds during the night had blown a good portion of the snow off the road. The sun peeked at the top of the mountainside, presenting a pastel sky of reds, purples, and pinks. I was ecstatic that we were on our way.\n\nFlora had made me uneasy. Vampires could compel most mortals, but a beautiful vampire held a stronger seduction, drawing unsuspecting victims to her by enticing their lusts first. Even at a young age, I realized people tended to judge others upon first glance, and often the plain common folk were quickly ignored while our interests were drawn to those with unnatural beauty and charisma. Sadly, some people sacrificed their dearest possessions in their pursuit of obtaining what they believed to be the perfect spouse; only to later find themselves wallowing in sorrow when they realized what was on the surface was far more beautiful than the monster contained within.\n\nFlora was dangerous, and probably had been so before she had been turned, using her looks and charm to obtain the things she desired without question or argument. As a vampire she could influence others to do her bidding for hundreds of years, provided she wasn't slain well beforehand.\n\nFather cleared his throat and adjusted himself in his seat. I tossed him the pouch of coins. He caught the pouch, frowned, and shook it in his hand. The sound of jostling coins brought a curious hopeful smile to his face. \"What is this?\"\n\n\"He gave us one hundred marks.\"\n\nHis mouth dropped in awe.\n\n\"You know what this means, don't you Father?\"\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"Regardless of whether or not I've made the right decision in slaying Ambrose for Lorcan, there's no declining the offer now.\"\n\nPenelope leaned her head against my shoulder. \"His daughter seems more unpredictable than he is. I don't care if she did deny it, but she views demons as pets. She has a fetish for them. A vampire who holds affection for demons is quite unsettling. She has eight plague demons in her possession. Do you realize how great a threat that is to the population of neighboring towns and cities?\"\n\n\"You think she'd use them to infect a city?\" I asked.\n\n\"Don't you? Imagine how she could blackmail a king or queen into giving her whatever she wanted. If they denied her, she could use one demon to prove her point and keep the other seven in reserve.\"\n\nI hadn't considered that. Manipulation was the agenda of most ruling vampires, and Flora definitely fit that mold. Mentally, she had a passion to watch others suffer. It wouldn't have surprised me to learn that the torture devices were toys she used on peasants whenever she became bored.\n\nBut Penelope was right. Flora could choose whatever city she desired and claim it for her own. She had been the only one of the six that we had met, and if she were the least dangerous of Lorcan's children, I couldn't imagine what Philip had faced when he had fought for his life. The others had conveniently excused themselves from our presence, which I considered more intimidating because it left us wondering about their true nature. All we really knew about them was what the paintings on the wall revealed.\n\nFrowning, I said, \"Once we reach Freiburg, won't these demons that Albert sent after Thomas dissolve or return to wherever he had summoned them from?\"\n\n\"We can hope but at this point, there's no way to know. If she's completely bound them to the circle in the pit, she now controls them.\"\n\nFather shook his head. \"What she could do with those demons is more frightening than the turmoil most vampires cause, if she chooses to use them to spread the plague.\"\n\n\"I agree. But we don't have time to concern ourselves over that just yet. We're a day and a half's journey from Freiburg. If what Lorcan says is true, then we don't have to worry ourselves with the plague demons. But that doesn't mean I don't have to worry about other Hunters trying to get Varak before we hand him over to the archbishop.\"\n\nMadeline leveled a frightened stare at me while hugging the child tightly. The boy cooed and giggled, as innocently like any child his age would. How I wished I were able to see ahead in time to know what this child would become, so I could feel more at ease. My mind was torn between hope and sorrowful regret, as I longed to keep the world safer. But I knew I couldn't allow harm to come to Varak while he was in our possession. Once Varak was at the Archdiocese, I was released of my oath and hoped that in the future I didn't need to rectify the situation, but I knew in the back of my mind my worries would continue to linger.\n\nWith a broad smile, Father stacked the gold coins in his hand.\n\nI rubbed my burning eyes and yawned. The coach rocked steadily, making it more difficult to stay awake. \"I'm going to get some sleep since it will be several hours before we stop.\"\n\nFather stared at the coins, not hearing a single word I had said. I shrugged and leaned against the wall. Penelope lay against me and placed her arm around my waist. The warmth the coach had absorbed from being stored inside Lorcan's stables was being drawn away by the winter's frosty grasp, in much the same way Death sucked the last fragments of life from a dying man or woman. I pulled a blanket over us to fight the chill that was building inside the coach, and I surrendered to sleep.\n\n***\n\nMy sleep had been uneventful. No dreams or nightmares came, and thankfully, no attempts from Lorcan to venture into my mind had occurred either. Perhaps he could keep his word, but only time would tell.\n\nNightfall had settled. I rubbed my eyes and shook my head. I was still groggy. Father held a small lantern and sat at the window. He pulled the curtain aside and looked outside.\n\n\"I've slept through the entire day?\" I asked.\n\nHe nodded. \"I'm surprised you never awakened yourself with all your raucous snoring. I'd have stuffed cotton in my ears if I'd had some.\"\n\n\"I was snoring?\"\n\n\"Like a giant bear.\" Penelope playfully jabbed me with her elbow. \"You kept me from sleeping.\"\n\nFather smiled. \"Her snoring wasn't as loud as yours, son, but she was trying hard to complete.\"\n\n\"What?\" she asked. \"I don't snore.\"\n\n\"Yes, young lady, you do,\" Father said.\n\nI stared out the window. \"Why are we still traveling?\"\n\n\"My guess is that Thomas wants to get to Freiburg as quickly as possible. He's only stopped a few times to feed and water the horse.\"\n\n\"Even after the demons have been bound, he's reluctant to stay the night elsewhere?\" I asked.\n\n\"Do you place full confidence in her claim that she will keep them bound?\"\n\nI sighed. \"Not really, but he's going to freeze to death.\"\n\n\"Death comes to us all eventually, son. I'd rather freeze to death than die from the plague.\"\n\n\"Unfortunately, we don't always get to choose our time of death or how we die. I suppose it's best not to know, but some forewarning would be nice,\" I said.\n\nHe nodded. \"And sometimes you survive against incredible odds. You live when you should have died.\"\n\nI knew he was talking about his own near death experience.\n\n\"Get Thomas' attention,\" I said.\n\nFather turned and hammered his fist against the top of the coach. Thomas shouted, \"Whoa!\"\n\nA few seconds after the coach stopped, Thomas opened the door.\n\n\"Are we not stopping for the night?\" I asked.\n\n\"We are approximately a half hour from reaching Freiburg,\" he replied.\n\n\"So soon?\"\n\nHe smiled. \"I have kept the horse at a faster gait. The road has been better than what it was during the previous few days. Less snow, so the extra speed shouldn't stress him. We're almost there.\"\n\nA sense of relief passed through me. It was good this part of our journey was coming to an end. \"Great news. Press on.\"\n\nThomas smiled and closed the door. A few seconds later, he shrieked. The volume of his terrified screams decreased as something dragged him into the forest.\n\nPenelope grabbed her bow and flung open the door, but Thomas was nowhere in sight. I opened my Hunter box, searched through the contents, and stuffed various items into my coat pockets. With a stake in one hand and my loaded crossbow in the other, I squeezed through the door and stepped onto the icy road.\n\n\"Where is he?\" I asked.\n\nShe shook her head and whispered, \"I don't know.\"\n\n\"Demons?\"\n\n\"I don't sense any.\"\n\nThe horse shuffled his feet back and forth, making nervous whinnies. His eyes were wide.\n\nPenelope took her night spectacles and separated the lenses, handing me one of them.\n\nFaint moonlight spilled overhead, cascading downward through the firs and leafless deciduous trees. Snarls came from the shadowed recesses within the trees. I stepped around Penelope to shield her while scanning the trees with the night goggle lens. Whatever had taken him had carried him behind the larger trees out of sight.\n\n\"Thomas!\" I shouted, holding the stake tightly to my side.\n\n\"Is that really a good idea?\" she asked.\n\n\"Be ready,\" I whispered.\n\n\"For what?\" She took her half of the spectacles and used the long leather strap to tie and secure it against her right eye.\n\n\"A werewolf,\" I replied.\n\nShe pulled an arrow from her quiver and lined it up on her bow. \"Will an arrow kill it?\"\n\n\"No, but it causes a great deal of pain. Aim for a vulnerable spot.\"\n\n\"Like what exactly?\"\n\n\"An eye or the throat.\"\n\n\"And that won't kill it?\"\n\n\"No. It's difficult to kill a were creature.\"\n\nThomas wailed in agony. Claws slashed through him, making wet sloppy sounds. He was silent in an instant. He was dead.\n\nAnger pulsed through me. For all Thomas had endured to reach Freiburg and to come this close, a werewolf killed him. Since Jacques was a werewolf, I tended to be more permissive and not view them as enemies. However, after meeting Ulrich I understood that not all werewolves were affable toward the human population or even to those they once considered to be a part of their pack.\n\n\"Thomas is dead,\" I whispered.\n\n\"That's what I feared.\" Her voice crackled.\n\n\"Whatever happens, do not get bitten or scratched,\" I said. \"Or you'll become all hairy.\"\n\n\"Does that mean you'd like me less?\"\n\n\"It would change things quite a bit for both of us.\"\n\nBranches snapped on the other side of the coach. Thomas had been killed in the forest on this side of the road. \"There's more than one.\"\n\n\"I heard the footsteps, too,\" she said. She turned and pressed her back against mine. \"You watch that side and I'll watch this one.\"\n\nThe horse stamped its feet. I couldn't see where these creatures were or their advancement. Deep breaths came from the edge of the trees ahead of me, but this creature blended in with the darkness quite well.\n\nI pressed the lens firmly against my eye and squinted to hold it like an ocular. I held the crossbow ahead of me, waiting for the slightest movement that helped pinpoint its location.\n\nFather eased the coach door open. \"Is everything okay out there?\"\n\n\"Close the door,\" I whispered. \"Thomas is dead.\"\n\nHe leaned forward and looked out. \"Dead? How?\"\n\n\"Werewolves,\" Penelope said softly.\n\nFather eased the door closed.\n\n\"See anything?\" I whispered.\n\nShe didn't reply. Her arm pressed against my back and the bowstring twung! A fierce growl softened to painful yelps, moaning and crying. \"The eye is a soft spot.\"\n\nThe beast I faced growled and leapt from the shadows. It was massive and muscular, almost the size of a small bear. It charged, growling. I fired the crossbow, striking its upper thigh. It roared from the pain. The arrow slowed the creature's pace slightly, but it kept coming toward me, snarling and raising its sharp-clawed hands, ready to slice through me. Nothing heightened the anger of a werewolf like a painful injury.\n\nI dropped the crossbow and pulled my revolver from my coat pocket, firing three rapid shots into its chest when only one was necessary. The werewolf dropped and spasmed on the road before stiffening in death.\n\nI turned and nearly knocked Penelope down. I didn't realize how close she was standing to me. Her wide eyes stared at the one she had shot with her bow. I walked toward it. It was writhing on the road with an arrow protruding from its eye. It was so preoccupied trying to pry out the arrow that it never even noticed my approach. I aimed and fired one silver bullet into its forehead, ending its struggle permanently.\n\nThe smell of burnt gunpowder wafted on the air. The gunshots echoed deep into the forest, reverberating for miles.\n\n\"They're dead?\" she asked.\n\n\"Yes. I used silver bullets. Automatically guarantees the death of werewolves.\" I listened for more movement along the forest floor but heard nothing. \"Any other werewolves out here? I have more silver bullets if you'd like your fate to be like theirs. Show yourselves!\"\n\nFour sets of footsteps scrambled away from the road, all running in different directions. With their keen sense of smell and hearing, they had no doubt witnessed the death of these two on the road. Mostly likely one of the two I had killed was an alpha. Both could be alphas if one was male and the other female, but in this darkness, I wasn't about to check. Since one of them had killed Thomas, I really didn't care to know. Both deserved death and if any of the others returned, I'd shoot them without hesitation.\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Twenty-Eight\n\nI almost went into the forest to search for Thomas' body, but I couldn't bear to see his torn body. The ground was frozen cold, so we couldn't bury him. We certainly couldn't haul his eviscerated remains into the coach either. He had deserved a much better ending for his life. I had promised to protect him and had failed to keep him safe.\n\nI grieved. Fighting burning tears of regret, I took a deep breath and opened the coach door.\n\n\"Is everything okay?\" Father asked.\n\n\"Two of the werewolves are dead and the others have fled deeper into the forest. Do you know how to drive this coach, Father?\"\n\nHe stared absently at me for several moments before giving a slight nod. \"I can.\"\n\n\"We'll get you bundled to weather this cold. It's not too far until we reach the city,\" I said.\n\nPenelope placed her hand on mine. \"Ride up there with him, Forrest.\"\n\nFather stepped out of the coach with the burning lantern in his hand. In the faint glow of the light, Father's nervousness was evident. He looked toward the trees at the edge of the dark road, possibly assuming he'd be the next to get attacked by one of the werewolves.\n\nI offered my hand to Penelope to help her climb into the coach. After she seated herself, I secured the door.\n\nFather glanced toward me. \"You're sure Thomas is dead? Because if he isn't\u2014\"\n\n\"From the sounds of him being sliced open and his guts falling out? He's dead.\"\n\n\"Unless you've seen the body, son, you can't be absolutely certain.\"\n\nI sighed. \"Being as I don't know for certain where his body is, don't you think we'd put ourselves at greater risk by searching for him in the dark? I don't like the idea of leaving Penelope, Madeline, and the baby alone. The other werewolves fled, but it doesn't guarantee they won't return.\"\n\nHowls echoed deeper in the forests. Seconds later, others answered. They were all around us on both sides of the road.\n\n\"You're right. As much as it pains me, it's best we travel on. Thomas was a good man.\"\n\n\"I agree. Here, let me help you up into the seat,\" I said.\n\nUsually he adamantly insisted on doing any physical activity without assistance, but he offered no argument. I don't know if he realized he couldn't possibly balance and pull himself up the side of the coach or if he was more worried that the remaining werewolves were circling back.\n\nOnce he grabbed the rails, I boosted him to the top of the coach.\n\nHe glanced down. \"You mind handing me the lantern?\"\n\n\"We'll attract less attention without it,\" I replied.\n\nFather grumbled obscenities under his breath. I draped a heavy rug over my shoulder, grabbed the rails, and climbed up the narrow steps.\n\n\"What are you doing?\" he asked, scooting over on the bench.\n\n\"Keeping you company.\"\n\n\"Company? Out here?\" His pretend protest wasn't too convincing.\n\nI took the thick rug and covered his legs with it. \"It was Penelope's suggestion.\"\n\nI caught his wide grin in the dim moonlight. \"You'd best not ruin what you have with her, son. You won't find another as grand.\"\n\n\"And what do I have?\" I asked with a grin. \"You just like her because she insists that you're taken care of.\"\n\nFather laughed, released the wheel brake, and tapped the reins on the horse's back. \"What's wrong with that?\"\n\nThe horse trudged forward and gradually increased its pace. The cold night air stung my face. I was glad my full beard covered my chin and cheeks to lessen the cold. I marveled at how Thomas had withstood the brutal cold. He had been extremely thin but never complained. Surprisingly, he'd never suffered any frostbite either.\n\nI glanced toward the trees where I estimated he had died, but I was unable to see his remains even from the high seat. I couldn't believe less than ten minutes earlier he had been breathing, alive, and so quickly, gone. Life was fragile.\n\nFather offered me a shrewd stare and shook his gloved finger. \"Don't tell me you don't realize what you have with Penelope, son. She feels for you the same as you do her. Neither of you can hide it. There was a reason for the two of you to meet, and it wasn't those plague demons, either. Have you told her that you love her?\"\n\n\"You said that it was evident.\"\n\n\"Have you told her?\"\n\n\"No, well, yes, a little, but not at great length. But from how you describe us, if it's evident to you, she already knows.\"\n\n\"That's not the same thing. A woman needs to hear it, son. Hell, we all need to hear it.\" His voice cracked. He wiped away a tear. \"Cause there comes a time when the woman you love might no longer be with you. No other pain in this world hurts as badly as that. Trust me. I know.\"\n\nI placed my arm across my father's back and hugged him close. In comparison to my size, he was small, but whenever painful memories of Momma tugged his heartstrings, he seemed so much smaller. \"I know, Father.\"\n\nHe sobbed and patted my hand. \"So you need to tell her.\"\n\n\"I will.\"\n\nThe horse picked up its pace. The moonlight spilled through the trees, forming odd shadows as the coach rolled down the road. Patches of ice shimmered. Riding atop the coach offered an incredible sense of freedom. The breezing wind exhilarated me in spite of its biting cold. I watched the shadows, half expecting the werewolf pack to regroup and attack, but they never did. If anything, they had probably returned to the road to claim their dead.\n\nFather sat in silence for several miles. His thoughts were on Momma. He remained torn inside over her loss. Those scars had never healed, and I never expected them to during his living years. It was times like this when I truly hoped a Heaven existed. A place where people crossed a threshold after they died to be reunited with their deceased loved ones. That was the hope the common folks clung to and what the cathedral priests insisted to be true, provided you followed their strict doctrines. Indeed, the thoughts of such a place offered peace and reassurance, which was something every person needed. True love never died, even after someone had. Love and memories lived on.\n\n\"I'm sorry, son,\" Father said.\n\n\"For what?\"\n\nThe hurt in his voice prevented him from saying more.\n\n\"Father, I love you, and I hurt inside because of your pain. I cannot imagine how much you ache inside.\"\n\n\"You don't miss her?\" he asked. \"Doesn't your heart break because you cannot tell her you love her, too?\"\n\n\"Of course I miss her. I wish I could tell her every day, but the love you shared with Momma was different than a son's love for his mother. That's part of why I'm reluctant telling Penelope my feelings and letting her know that I love her. I see how this still haunts and affects you, and I\u2014I don't think I'm strong enough to sustain that kind of loss and pain.\"\n\nFather turned in the coach seat and faced me. \"Do you know what would have hurt me more? If I had never told her how I felt, we'd never have fallen in love, and instead of this loss, I'd be living with the regret of what I would have otherwise missed in life. It's okay to hurt inside. It's okay to grieve, but it's not okay to cower and never take that chance to find true love. Remember that.\"\n\nHe slapped my leg hard and looked toward the road again.\n\nI thought about Penelope and how close we had come together within such a short amount of time. We were good friends and strange as it seemed, we didn't need to fully express our feelings in words. We had melded that understanding in our minds and our emotions, but Father was right. I needed to express to her more than I had over breakfast that morning. We never knew how short our lives would be. Thomas was a prime example of unexpected death. It could have been any one of us though, and we still had a few more hours of traveling before we reached Freiburg.\n\nWe rode without speaking for a long while. The tree lines on both sides of the road grew thinner. I suspected we were getting closer to the outskirts of Freiburg. I felt the sudden relief lessen the tension in my shoulders.\n\nThe coach axles creaked and scraped as the wheels passed over holes and loose stones. Father stiffened in the seat and pulled back on the reins. The horse planted its feet, but due to the road's descent and the icy patches, it skidded, trying to stop. The poor horse slid for several yards as the weight of the wagon pressed against it. Father pulled the wagon brake.\n\nI glanced toward him. \"What is it?\"\n\n\"Don't you see them?\" He pointed.\n\nFrom the edges of the road, four people dressed in hooded robes stepped directly across our path. They each held lanterns that glowed to life.\n\n\"I see them,\" I replied, placing my hand on my revolver and stood. \"State your purpose. I have a revolver.\"\n\nThe second one from my right stepped forward, lowered his hood, and lifted an empty hand. \"Sir, may I approach? We offer no harm to any man. But what I must ask is vitally urgent.\"\n\n\"Yes, come ahead,\" I replied.\n\nAs he came closer, the moonlight and the light from his lantern reflected off the large silver cross hanging on his necklace. Not a werewolf. That was always good to know upfront. In his other hand he rubbed rosary beads. His nimble steps and his facial expression revealed he was more nervous than I was.\n\nHe stopped less than five yards from the horse. From the distance it was difficult to determine his age. His head was bald. \"Is your destination to visit the archbishop at the Archdiocese?\"\n\n\"It is,\" I replied. \"Who asks?\"\n\n\"Father Lucas. Would you be Forrest?\"\n\nMy eyes narrowed. I pulled the gun from my coat pocket.\n\n\"Son!\" Father scolded in a harsh whisper. \"He's a priest for God's sake.\"\n\n\"So he says,\" I whispered. I kept my eyes on the man. We had had enough unpleasant surprises on our journey. \"How do you know my name?\"\n\n\"The archbishop has sent us to intercept you.\"\n\n\"Intercept us? Why? Is he prohibiting our visit?\"\n\nLucas graciously smiled and shook his head. \"No, it's nothing like that. He's offering your group refuge, but getting there requires a slight alternate route.\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\n\"Because there are people who wish to kill you before you get to the Archdiocese.\"\n\n\"What people?\"\n\nThe priest stepped closer, rubbing the beads harder. \"They call themselves Hunters. They have every entrance into the cathedral guarded. The archbishop has sent us to offer you safe passage as he is concerned about possible bloodshed.\"\n\n\"As am I,\" I replied.\n\nThe priest offered a slight smile and nodded. \"But first, he has asked me to seek the reason for your arrival. To see if our accompanying you is acceptable in the eyes of our Lord.\"\n\nI frowned, not exactly sure how to take that statement. How would asking our purpose now make any difference to their God? What prompted the archbishop to send these priests then, if not for some type of conviction to aid us? Questions for another time. \"We have an orphaned child, and we were asked to deliver him to the archbishop in Freiburg.\"\n\n\"Why there particularly?\"\n\n\"Father, I wish I knew. It was a request and I swore I'd honor it. With my life if necessary.\"\n\n\"A noble gesture. I'm certain the archbishop will be pleased to hear, but we must hurry.\"\n\n\"If all the entrances are being guarded, how did the four of you even get past them?\"\n\nThe priest smiled. \"We have our ways, Forrest.\"\n\n\"Did you receive word about our arrival before these Hunters came?\"\n\nHe shook his head.\n\n\"But they told you my name?\"\n\n\"Yes. And they asked of the child, but never disclosed why they wanted him. The archbishop does not want any blood spilled on our sanctuary grounds. Such contradicts the sole reason for the cathedral's existence.\"\n\nFather cleared his throat. \"So, can you guarantee our safety?\"\n\nLucas walked toward the coach. \"With the guidance and strength of our Lord, we will do all we can. If you permit us, we will drive the carriage into the city and keep you hidden inside the coach.\"\n\n\"Won't people find it odd for priests to be driving the coach?\" I asked.\n\n\"Not at all. The men are looking for you. Not us.\"\n\n\"The Hunters will be suspicious seeing this coach under the control of priests.\"\n\nLucas smiled. \"They will never see us.\"\n\n\"Come on, son,\" Father said. \"Let's climb down.\"\n\nFather checked the brake and tied the lead lines around the brake handle. He turned and lowered one foot onto the first step. I took his hand and helped keep him steady as he slowly made his way down to the bottom. By the time I reached the road, the other three priests had gathered beside the horse.\n\nI didn't sense any threat from them. Nothing at all indicated they had come to cause us problems or further delay, but I was uncomfortable being near them. Perhaps it could have been their association to the cathedral I was most wary of, simply because I didn't understand the reasons behind their undying loyalty to a religion that clashed violently against other religions around the world, trying to quash and obliterate them. While they openly told their parishioners to love one another, the direct leadership practiced something entirely different by killing all who opposed them, sometimes entire villages and civilizations. I had witnessed it in Bucharest and had never forgotten it.\n\nI stubbornly refused to cast aside the folk traditions my mother had taught me in favor of the cathedrals, especially since their goal was to annihilate all of the other world beliefs. It seemed ungodly to me.\n\nTwo of the priests climbed to the box seat and sat. The other two awkwardly positioned themselves atop the baggage compartment at the rear of the coach and held to metal handles while Father and I climbed back inside the coach.\n\nI didn't have any idea how they planned to sneak us past the Hunters, but for the moment, I was thankful to be back inside, out of the cold.\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Twenty-Nine\n\nPenelope looked concern when Father and I climbed back into the coach and sat down. When the horse began pulling us, she peered out the window. \"Why are we moving?\"\n\nI explained the situation.\n\n\"Hunters are waiting at the cathedral?\" she asked.\n\nI nodded.\n\nShe placed her hand into mine. \"How did they know we were coming? Albert?\"\n\nWhile I believed Albert had sent Philip after me, and nothing had swayed my thoughts about that, I didn't think Albert had informed the Hunters waiting in Freiburg. But since Varak was a hybrid child, still innocent, an uninformed Hunter would never perceive this child any differently than a normal child. If I didn't know the boy's heritage, I'd never suspect the child to be half vampire. Everything about him on the surface demonstrated a typical infant incapable of any wrongdoing. So I really had no idea why these Hunters knew, except being told through Hunter's intellect, which to my understanding should not occur.\n\n\"I'm not sure,\" I replied.\n\n\"But you're still delivering Varak to the archbishop?\"\n\n\"Yes. Afterwards, I have no further obligations.\"\n\nPenelope leaned her head against my shoulder. Since I had slept through the entire day, I wasn't tired. I peered out the window. We were outside the forest now. The faint moonlight was enough to reveal the city buildings.\n\nThe driver slowed the horse several blocks into the city, turned onto a narrow side street, and stopped the coach in the darkness. The coach jostled as the priests climbed down.\n\nThe door opened. \"Come. Everyone out.\"\n\n\"Where are we going?\" I asked.\n\n\"We cannot risk driving the coach any closer to the cathedral,\" he replied. \"We take the underground tunnels while the city sleeps.\"\n\nMadeline hugged Varak. \"Will it be safe?\"\n\n\"It's the route we took to not be seen,\" the priest replied. \"Please, hurry.\"\n\nI grabbed my Hunter box while Penelope collected her bow and quiver. Father got out and helped Madeline climb down with Varak. The baby cried. She rocked him and gently shushed in his ear.\n\nThe cold night air and the eerie silence of the dark streets seemed almost worse than when we had stopped on the forest road. In some ways, I expected it to be more harrowing since these Hunters were all that stood between the Archdiocese and us.\n\n\"How many Hunters are here?\" I asked the priest closest to me.\n\n\"At least a dozen,\" he replied.\n\n\"It is exactly a dozen,\" Father Lucas said. \"Aren't you a Hunter, too?\"\n\n\"I am.\"\n\nHe sighed. \"It must be a heavy burden you bear.\"\n\n\"What's that?\" I asked.\n\n\"To be hunted by your own.\" He walked to me, took something from his pocket, and then rubbed an oily substance on my forehead. He spoke a blessing in Latin, which basically asked God's blessings upon my soul. \"The longer we linger above ground, the more danger you're in. Come. With a dozen men, they have enough to patrol the area, looking for you.\"\n\nHe turned and walked away.\n\nA dozen Hunters in one place? Such was unheard of. Dominus had spoken about Hunters fighting in pairs, and he was the only Hunter I had ever fought side by side with. But a dozen? To kill me and this child? At this point, I didn't expect any negotiations. They'd kill me on sight. Nothing deterred their obsession and since I hadn't given the child to Philip, I was marked for death, too, because sending a dozen Hunters against one was overkill.\n\nI was confused. They knew our destination, my name. How? Dominus might know, but he wasn't here to ask. Again, I missed receiving Jacques' advice. Something seemed amiss, and as usual, when I needed Hunter's insight the most, the spirits remained silent.\n\nBells gonged across the city, signifying the time. An hour before midnight. Perhaps it wasn't as bad as being midnight, but each heavy gong echoed an eerie tone, shattering the stillness of the night.\n\nI stopped at the side of a building and reached into my pocket.\n\n\"What are you doing?\" Penelope asked.\n\n\"Loading my gun and the crossbow.\"\n\n\"You plan to fight them?\"\n\n\"To keep you, Father, and the others safe, I'll do whatever's necessary. I'll even die if I must to protect you.\"\n\nPenelope placed her hand against my stomach. \"You're not fighting them alone, Forrest.\"\n\nShe leaned up and kissed me. With my huge hands fumbling with the bullets in the dark, I didn't respond readily, so she turned to follow the swaying lanterns the priests carried.\n\nOnce the gun was loaded, I hurried to catch up to her. There were so many things I longed to tell her, but this wasn't the proper time or place. I wished I could stop everything else around us to talk heart to heart with her without outside interruptions.\n\nA lot of changes were about to take place that I had never expected, and even if I possessed the foresight, I doubted the outcomes would have been any different.\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Thirty\n\nThe underground tunnels were better maintained than the ones we had seen in London. Flickering torches inserted into iron sconces dimly lit the arched corridors. The torches were few and scattered, offering enough light to see the paths to each side of the water trenches. The dark shadowed recesses remained ample places for attackers to hide.\n\nIron lattices closed off some of the smaller side tunnels but didn't seem to be locked. Water gently flowed along the stone channels; the sound was deceptively reminiscent of a slow moving stream meandering through a mossy forest. Within the darkness it was easy to imagine being in such a place, but my attention focused more on potential enemies emerging with the intent of killing us.\n\nThe priests walked four abreast in a determined march. They moved fast enough that Father had a difficult time keeping up with them. Had they not carried oil lanterns, Father and Madeline would have probably lost sight of them. Penelope and I were able to use her night spectacles, which helped, but with only one lens each, it also limited us.\n\nMadeline cradled Varak as she walked. He seemed to be asleep. Father fought to stay beside her while they walked.\n\nPenelope and I stayed behind everyone else, constantly looking over our shoulders or toward the upcoming side tunnels. If any Hunters were down here, we wanted to see them before they attacked.\n\nSince I didn't have any knowledge of the city layout, I didn't know how far from the Archdiocese we were. These tunnels intersected and probably covered several miles. Without guidance it wasn't difficult to get lost. I imagined a person could walk in circles for days and die of starvation before finding a way out.\n\nWater splashed about twenty yards ahead of us. The four priests stopped and pressed themselves shoulder to shoulder, forming a tight human wall.\n\nI moved closer to them. \"What was that?\"\n\n\"An intruder,\" Lucas said.\n\n\"A Hunter?\"\n\n\"Possibly,\" he replied. \"We're less than two blocks from the cathedral.\"\n\nA large shadowed outline of a man moved past the lit sconce toward us and stopped.\n\n\"If it is one of them,\" I said, \"make certain you get the child to the archbishop.\"\n\nHe nodded.\n\nI jumped and stepped across the trench. Penelope followed without hesitation. The man remained near the light. I had the feeling that he stood in the path where we needed to go, and he didn't have any intention of moving. There wasn't anything we could do to avoid a confrontation with him.\n\nHe stepped away from the light and toward me. \"Hunter, give us the child. Whatever you had hoped to accomplish has failed. Your hope and your life ends here.\"\n\nI held my crossbow in my left hand aimed toward the rock floor. I raised my revolver and aimed for his chest. He was a massive man but a shot through the heart killed almost anything except the undead. He reared back his head and roared with laughter. I've never understood why someone would laugh when a loaded gun was pointed directly at him. Myself, I'd be looking for the quickest way to avoid getting shot. As large as he was, he wasn't swift enough to avoid the bullet's path or escape its speed, but he didn't seem to care. He kept laughing.\n\nMy finger tightened on the trigger, but the Hunter didn't make any effort to move. Before I squeezed the trigger, I was struck from my blindside, heaved into the air, and slammed to the ground on the other side of the trench. My crossbow dropped from my hand the moment I was hit. Upon landing, my gun jarred loose and slid across the floor until it hit the wall.\n\n\"Forrest!\" Penelope shouted.\n\n\"Son!\"\n\nSomething heavy landed atop me, pinning me down. I struggled to pull free, but my arms were wrapped tightly. I gnashed my teeth and growled, flexing my muscles, fighting to break free of his strong grip. I rolled to one side, pulling my assailant up slightly, and then I slung myself the opposite directions. His hold loosened enough that I was able to pull my right arm back and then I came around, clutching his throat. It was then I realized my attacker had been a second Hunter. Where he had come from, I didn't know because I had not seen anyone standing at the wall.\n\nTightening my grip around his neck, I slammed him against the wall a few feet from one of the torches. Both of his hands wrapped around my wrist as he fought to break my hold. I punched his gut several times with my left fist. He groaned and jerked with each blow. His throat muscles tightened and from the strange rasping sounds coming from his open mouth, his breathing was being cut off.\n\n\"Forrest, look out!\" Father said.\n\nI turned to the side, narrowly escaping the knife's blade. The knife thrown by the other Hunter struck the one I was choking in the chest, causing him to immediately release my wrist. His eyes widened as he realized what had happened. He slumped against the wall with his head bobbing slightly side to side. Instinctively, his hands made a feeble attempt to grip the hilt of the knife, but his zeal to fight was gone. His hands dropped to his sides. I watched the last moments of his life fade from his drooping eyes before I finally allowed his heavy body to collapse on the ground, which shoved the blade deeper into his chest.\n\nBefore the other Hunter attacked or threw another knife, I scooped my revolver off the ground. I turned toward him and fired. The bullet lodged into his shoulder. He growled in pain and rushed toward me. An arrow caught him in the throat. He staggered forward, gasping and wrapping his hand around the arrow shaft, but he kept coming. Anger and determination set in his crazed eyes.\n\nI rushed toward him and struck his jaw with a harsh right. He fell backwards. In spite of the arrow, he tried to catch himself before he hit the ground but failed. He landed on his back, and I planted my knee on his chest.\n\nHe snapped the arrow shaft flush at this throat. Blood spurted from the hole. He gasped. His eyes grew fierce. His voice deepened. \"You won't succeed. You cannot get past all of us.\"\n\n\"He's a child,\" I whispered near his ear.\n\n\"We know. That's why you must hand him over.\" He lifted his head off the floor, grabbed the arrow tip protruding out the back of his neck, and yanked it out before lowering his head. Blood spilled into a pool beneath him. Deep laughter rumbled in his throat, eventually going silent.\n\nI rose to my feet and glanced toward the priests. They had surrounded Madeline and Varak and stood with their backs toward her. They appeared ready to fight to protect her, even though they had no visible weapons.\n\nFather stepped beside me. He looked down and shook his head in regret. \"Two dead Hunters.\"\n\nNausea welled inside of me. Although I hadn't killed either one of them, I couldn't shake the guilt pressing down on me.\n\nPenelope frowned at the dead Hunter with disgust. \"Had to break my arrow, didn't you?\"\n\nI sighed. These Hunters wouldn't have come to Freiburg if I hadn't brought Varak. I walked over to pick up my crossbow, which by some miracle had not fired when I dropped it.\n\n\"Are you okay?\" Penelope asked.\n\n\"No. Hunters are dying because of me.\"\n\n\"Only because they are unwilling to look at your viewpoint,\" she replied.\n\nI shrugged. \"That doesn't matter. Vampire Hunters are not plentiful.\"\n\n\"And yet a dozen have shown here to oppose you?\" she asked.\n\nI glanced at Father. \"Have you ever heard of anything like this? A dozen Hunters seeking to execute another Hunter?\"\n\n\"No, son. Never. Nor have I seen more than a pair working together at a time, and that was to slay vampires, not one another.\"\n\nI felt tears burning in my eyes. My shoulders drooped. A dozen Hunters had been summoned to kill me. And three dead were because of me. I had never imagined I'd be on the wrong side of the Chosen. I hadn't been a Hunter for more than a year. The burden of what was occurring was too much to withstand.\n\nI was ready to surrender myself to the remaining Hunters and allow them to decide my fate before any more of them were killed. If protecting and keeping Varak alive was worthy of death, my life needed to end now. Perhaps I had carried this mission too far. I had tarnished my calling and was no longer worthy of being one of the Chosen.\n\n\"Forrest?\" Penelope said softly. She knelt beside the Hunter she had shot with an arrow.\n\nI looked at her. Surprise widened her eyes. \"What is it?\"\n\nShe took a deep breath and licked her lips. \"These men ... they're not Hunters.\"\n\nI frowned and came closer. \"What do you mean?\"\n\nFather stepped nearer, too.\n\n\"See this mark?\" She turned the man's hand palm up. On his wrist a dark symbol was inked into his skin. It resembled an eye, but not a human one. Something darker and evil.\n\n\"What is that?\" I asked.\n\n\"A demon mark. The Mark of Krowl. Check the other man.\"\n\nI hurried and turned his right hand up. The same mark was on this man's wrist, too.\n\nI whispered, \"If they're not Hunters, why do they want Varak?\"\n\n\"I don't believe these men have any intention to kill him.\"\n\n\"They want him because of what he is?\"\n\nShe nodded. \"They are the cult worshippers of the demon Krowl. At the very least, they've taken his mark in return for gain, depending upon their level of loyalty.\"\n\n\"Loyalty?\"\n\n\"Yes. They offer animal sacrifices to appease Krowl. The greater length they go to praise him, the larger their reward. These men are on the highest tier.\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\n\"They've been sent after Varak, knowing they must be willing to sacrifice their lives to get him. They cannot retreat. Krowl has probably blessed them and extracted all fear from their minds. They have no fear of dying. In their minds, death holds a great reward if they die while killing you.\"\n\n\"So there's nothing I can say to convince them to abandon their pursuit?\"\n\nShe shook their head. \"No. But if they get the child ... they will use his power to destroy everything the Papacy views as holy.\"\n\n\"The Papacy? Why?\"\n\n\"Because Jesuits discovered their cult years ago and tried to convert them. When they refused to worship in the manner the Jesuits insisted, the priests slaughtered nearly all of the Krowl worshippers as worthless infidels. A few dozen escaped.\"\n\n\"How do you know about this?\" Father asked.\n\n\"As a Demon-hunter, I seek out all the information I can find about the demons. I have ancient tomes stored and hidden at my homestead. Books my father purchased around the world while he was slaying vampires. He brought them to me as gifts. I've studied them thoroughly. My father warned me about this group and told me the story. The reason they know we're here and what Varak is, is because their minds have become attuned to Krowl's.\"\n\nI frowned. \"By attuned, do you mean that he speaks directly to them?\"\n\n\"Yes, and through them. He controls their minds and greatly influences their actions.\"\n\n\"Then Krowl knows these two men were killed?\"\n\n\"I'm afraid so.\"\n\nLucas and the other priests came to us. \"We can't stay in these tunnels any longer. We don't mind escorting you to the Archdiocese, but we aren't willing to sacrifice our lives by simply standing in one spot.\"\n\n\"I agree,\" I said.\n\n\"Too many passages converge into this one. If those two have already found you, the others will come soon,\" he said. \"We must go.\"\n\nHe turned and walked away. The priests walked ahead with Madeline close behind. Father lingered behind with us as we walked. I didn't believe we'd reach the cathedral without encountering more cultists. The two had been difficult to take down, but if Krowl had actually seen his servants die, he'd sent more than two the next time. A lot more than two.\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Thirty-One\n\n\"Why are Krowl's zealots posing as Hunters?\" I asked.\n\n\"We might not ever know the true reason, but I think it is to confuse you,\" she said.\n\n\"Confuse me?\"\n\n\"You mentioned it before. A true Hunter wouldn't set out to kill another Hunter. For a dozen Hunters to come after you, threatening to kill you, that's more than enough to shake anyone's resolve. Hasn't that made you question whether you're doing the right thing by delivering Varak to the Archdiocese?\"\n\nI nodded.\n\nIt was exactly how I felt. I had come to the point of laying down my life for my disobedience in bringing Varak to Freiburg. Other than Albert's prediction of what the child would become, I had never been warned about sparing the hybrid. It had been sternly implied by Albert and myself. Even now, I hadn't received any direct insight to inform me of exactly what should be done. I only knew what I believed to be the right solution.\n\nAhead of us the tunnel brightened. I smelled burnt sulfur. A thin layer of smoke hung overhead. Fire flickered along the passageway floor. In between the building smoke and the rising flames, the large shadows of six zealots standing side by side loomed. All were dressed like Hunters and every one of them was an imposter.\n\nFather Lucas and the other priests stopped walking. They shielded Madeline and Varak behind themselves. Each priest took his silver cross in hand and held them up where these Krowl followers could see them, which gave me an idea.\n\nOne of the shadowed men said, \"Give us the child.\"\n\nI threw a globe-shaped bottle of holy water as hard as I could, striking the man's forehead. The glass shattered, splashing the water on his face and neck. Some of the holy water struck a man to each side of him. The man's limp body dropped.\n\nI didn't expect the holy water to have the same effect on these men as it would vampires, but it did something I had hoped might occur. The other two men dropped to their knees, clutching their heads in their hands, screaming at the top of their lungs.\n\n\"What did you do?\" Penelope asked.\n\n\"You said that Krowl was linked to their minds?\"\n\nShe nodded.\n\n\"I figured since priests used holy water when they excised demons, the water should work on these cultists as well.\" I pulled my silver cross from my pocket.\n\n\"But they're not possessed by evil spirits, Forrest,\" she said. \"He's only linking himself to their minds. It's not the same thing.\"\n\n\"Then how do you explain that?\" I pointed to the three men on their knees in anguish.\n\n\"I\u2014I don't know.\"\n\nI shrugged. \"I don't either. Maybe the holy water blocks his link?\"\n\nLucas glanced toward us with a confused stare.\n\n\"Do you know a rite of exorcism?\" Penelope asked him.\n\nHe nodded. \"Of course we do. Why?\"\n\n\"Forrest splashed them with holy water to sever the demon's control over them. Maybe if you excise it will finish breaking Krowl's bond with them.\"\n\nLucas turned toward the anguished men and chanted in Latin. The other three priests joined in. As their voices rose in unison, the cultists fell facedown on the floor in agony, squeezing the sides of their heads. They weren't about to recover enough to attack us anytime soon.\n\nI took my last bottle of holy water from my pocket and flung it toward the other three men who had stepped away from their ailing companions. The bottle struck the man's cheek. The impact knocked him unconscious. He dropped to the floor, but the bottle didn't break. The two men beside him leaned down and shook him, trying to awaken him. Getting no response, they turned toward us.\n\nPenelope fired an arrow into the closest man's chest. He gasped and spiraled around, but he didn't fall. His thick overcoat might have prevented the arrow from going deep enough to be fatal. By my estimate, she had missed his heart but had probably punctured his lung. Without my noticing she pulled another arrow and fired again. This arrow caught his shoulder. He clumsily spun and fell backwards into the burning debris on the floor. He wailed, tried to push himself out of the fire, but instead, he fell deeper into the flames.\n\nThe three cultists that the priests were chanting a rite over lay still. I didn't know if they were dead or not, but at least for now, we didn't need to worry about fighting them.\n\nThat left only one more who was uninjured in the tunnel we needed to be concerned about. With my silver cross dagger, I rushed toward the cultist and yelled at Lucas, \"Take Madeline and the baby into the Archdiocese!\"\n\nThe Krowl worshipper snarled at me. He widened his stance, expecting me to plow into him, but instead, I reached down for the unbroken vial of holy water. I uncorked it and flung most of the contents into his face. As he dropped to his knees, I pressed the silver cross to his forehead. Even though I didn't know a whole lot about combating demons, I had the impression they fled from whatever people believed to be holy.\n\nWhen the cross touched his flesh, he struggled momentarily. He clutched my wrist with both hands, but his fingers trembled too badly for him to maintain a strong enough grip. Before he collapsed into unconsciousness, a deep voice bellowed through the man's mouth in a language I didn't recognize.\n\nPenelope stood beside me. \"We need to catch up to them.\"\n\nI glanced around. \"Where's Father?\"\n\n\"He went with Madeline.\"\n\n\"Did you hear that strange voice?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"Any idea what he said?\"\n\n\"Since it was Krowl, I imagine it wasn't good,\" she replied. \"Probably a curse.\"\n\nWe ran along the narrow path near the right-hand wall to avoid the smoldering debris. The fire had died down, but the smoke became a lot thicker. My eyes and throat burned. Tears blurred my vision, further obstructing my view through the smoky haze. Once we made our way outside the smoke-filled section of the tunnel, the priests' lanterns became visible. They were making their way up a spiral set of stairs.\n\nI wiped the tears from my eyes and slowed my pace, carefully searching through the shadows and behind us, wondering if more cultists might make a last effort to stop us, but none did.\n\nWe hurried up the stairs and stepped out inside the front entrance of the cathedral. Father stood next to Madeline and Varak. We stopped beside them near a large bowl of water. Burning candles flickered everywhere, on the walls, the tables, and railings, lighting the entire sanctuary. The vaulted ceilings seemed to rise forever without end, as the glow of the candles didn't carry that far.\n\nThe four priests were talking to a man wearing an elegant red robe in the wide center aisle. I assumed this to be the archbishop. The priests appeared to show humbleness as they stood before him. They spoke in hushed tones, occasionally glancing in our direction. After several minutes, the archbishop motioned us toward him.\n\nHe was tall, thin, and slightly stooped. His short gray hair was almost hidden beneath the tall mitre hat he wore. The smoothness of his face indicated he was probably in his early forties. His kind smile and peaceful gaze dispensed comfort, almost making you forget your deepest fears and worries. I had met few men with such charismatic appeal.\n\n\"According to Father Lucas,\" the archbishop said, \"you have incapacitated eight of the twelve cultists who have attempted to imprison us because of your intended arrival. You're safe in our sanctuary. They cannot pass through these doors.\"\n\n\"But they can,\" Penelope said.\n\nThe man shook his head and offered a kind smile. \"Child, you mustn't worry. They cannot. They arrived in a group of twelve. A cult's strength is strongest when they gather all thirteen of their highest council. They only brought twelve.\"\n\nShe shook her head. \"No. There are thirteen. Krowl is the thirteenth. He came with them. He was linked inside each of them.\"\n\nThe archbishop narrowed his eyes for a moment, thinking, and then he returned to his peaceful, reassuring smile. \"This is a holy sanctuary, blessed by God and our priests. The doors have been locked and secured. Even if the demon broke through the doors, he cannot cross the threshold into our cathedral.\"\n\n\"Krowl can,\" she said.\n\nThe archbishop's smile partially faded. He didn't like his authority challenged. His voice became angry. \"The demon you speak of cannot defile our holy sanctuary. I believe I know more about demons than you.\"\n\nA brief flash of anger stirred in her eyes. She took a quick deep breath, somehow calming herself. \"I'm a Demon-hunter. I've killed various types of demons. The majority of them cannot enter into your sanctuary, but Krowl is different. He can, and if you don't help me, he's going to burst through that door and kill all of us.\"\n\n\"How is he any different than other demons? How can he defile our cathedral and not be instantly destroyed by the holiness of our Lord?\"\n\n\"Because of the Papacy,\" she replied.\n\n\"What?\" the archbishop frowned. \"How dare you speak such blasphemy.\"\n\nFather Lucas stepped up and took her by the arm forcefully. \"It's time that you should leave.\"\n\nPenelope yanked free of his hold. \"No. I've not finished explaining. Krowl is a demon dedicated to destroying everything you hold holy. He has no fear of what you've blessed because of the Jesuit priests who slaughtered his worshippers.\"\n\n\"Those cultists were infidels, unbelievers, and worthy of the fate they received,\" the archbishop replied.\n\nShe shook her head. \"To call such judgment puts you into God's place, but you're not God. You're a man.\"\n\nThe four priests gasped in horror. They looked around in fear as if the earth would shake and lightning hurled from the ceilings.\n\nAnger tightened her brow. \"Krowl knows this. He sees this. His vile hatred and lust for revenge is far greater than your petty faith. He will take great pleasure in torturing you until you are dead. And unless I get your cooperation, he's coming to kill all of us, but especially you.\"\n\nFather Lucas frowned at her. \"We took care of eight of the cultists in the passageway. That should have made him weaker.\"\n\nShe smiled and shook her head. \"No, it has made him stronger.\"\n\n\"How?\"\n\n\"Krowl had possessed the twelve men, so his power and strength were spread out amongst them. Each time his power was cast out of one, the others increased in power. After driving Krowl out of the other eight, instead of us weakening him, we have allowed him to grow stronger inside the other four. He's outside the door. I sense him and his anger is growing, but if you'll help me, I can draw him out and kill him.\"\n\nLucas flicked his gaze to the archbishop. The pale archbishop wiped perspiration from his brow and nodded.\n\n\"What do you need?\" Lucas asked.\n\n\"Blessed salt. At least a pound of it,\" she replied.\n\nLucas motioned to one of the other priests. He hurried down a side aisle and through another door.\n\nPenelope lowered her quiver to the floor and untied a side pouch I'd never noticed. She removed her silver dagger with odd symbols etched into its blade and handle. \"Everyone clear the center aisle. This is where I plan to capture him.\"\n\nThe archbishop gave her a skeptical gaze. \"Capture him? Exactly what do you mean?\"\n\nShe didn't reply with word or gesture. Instead, she busied herself with various tools inside the pouch.\n\n\"Wait,\" I whispered to her.\n\n\"What, Forrest?\" She beamed with her cute smile. \"I don't have much time.\"\n\n\"You're not planning to use the symbol the healer gave you, are you?\"\n\n\"I'm left with little choice.\"\n\n\"It might not work or it might cause something more catastrophic.\"\n\nShe shook her head. \"No. I studied the one Flora had trapped those plague demons with. I believe the same circle will work. Trust me?\"\n\nWith my life, apparently. I looked at the archbishop. \"Just do what she says.\"\n\nHe held a strange side-glance toward me. His face flushed red, from anger I guessed. It was easy to see he didn't like someone else telling him what to do. At this point, I really didn't care. I wanted this demon destroyed before he had a chance to take Varak and commit horrible atrocities against mankind. Penelope was the best hope we had to destroy Krowl, provided she had been given the correct symbol to use.\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Thirty-Two\n\nWe cleared the center aisle and positioned ourselves along the outer edge of the cathedral pews. I took a few minutes to admire the vaulted ceilings, the towering pillars, and the stained glass windows. The artwork was breathtaking. I'd been in a few cathedrals, but of all the ones I had ever entered, this was the most picturesque one. Great detail had been painstakingly patterned into every facet with untiring dedication.\n\nThe priest returned with a large bag of salt and handed it to Penelope. She untied the drawstring and carefully formed a large circle on the floor. The layer of salt was at least an inch thick and three inches wide. Once she finished the circle, she began making smaller symbols inside the circle. She paused after she completed each one, closed her eyes, and chanted before starting the next one.\n\nNo one spoke while she worked. I was too intrigued, wondering what each symbol meant. Her delicate artwork was quite exquisite and an amazing talent I wasn't aware that she possessed. After she finished, she walked to the altar, took three lit candles, and positioned them equal distance from one another around the outside of the circle. She studied her layout for several moments. She walked to the edge of the circle and seemed careful not to allow the toes of her shoes to touch the salt. She outstretched her left hand over the salt symbols and pricked her finger with the dagger until several drops of blood dropped, combining with the salt.\n\nThe four priests and the archbishop looked appalled. They frowned with curiosity, whispering amongst themselves.\n\nPenelope positioned herself between the salt circle and the altar. \"Everyone be prepared. He's coming.\"\n\nThe front entrance doors rattled, shook. The intensity increased, shaking with violent urgency. The priests looked at one another in terror as the doors splintered inward and showered into millions of tiny wood fragments. The last four cultists stood side by side at the threshold. These men appeared much larger than all the others. Pure evil hardened their faces. Their attention was on Penelope, but none of them moved.\n\n\"See?\" the archbishop said. His voice was haughty. His smile was more prideful than a humble man's should be. He stood, holding his elegant staff in hand. \"They cannot come inside.\"\n\nPenelope ignored him.\n\nNo sooner had he spoken the words than did these four men rush through the door. The archbishop released a high-pitched scream. His staff clattered on the floor.\n\nThe four men ran down the center aisle straight for Penelope. All four spoke in unison with loud bellowing voices that weren't theirs and echoed off the walls and the vaulted ceiling. It was Krowl speaking through all of them. \"Today your blood spills as a sacrifice to me unless you kneel and offer me your homage.\"\n\nTwo of the priests fainted between the pews. The other two paled and held their crosses out before them. The archbishop was stunned. He lowered himself into the pew. His lips trembled. When he glanced toward me, I shook my head with disappointment. I wondered why Albert wanted the child to be brought to this particular cathedral. This man was a coward and apparently lacked real faith in his god.\n\n\"Neither are happening, Krowl,\" Penelope said sternly.\n\nThe four men stood near the circle but dared not attempt to cross it.\n\nShe raised her hands and spoke phrases in Latin. The hundreds of burning candles in the sanctuary were snuffed in an instant. We stood in complete darkness. A deep guttural growl bellowed near where Penelope stood in the aisle. Bluish-white flickering sparks permeated off a giant demon's horn-covered back. Full of muscle and thickly scaled skin, Krowl towered ten feet in height. His hideous face had sharp tusks that hung from his odd shaped mouth. Drool dripped from his mouth. He was the most hideous creature I had ever seen.\n\nPenelope stood less than a foot away from him, unafraid. To me, it seemed he could have struck her with the palm of his hand and probably killed her instantly, but he didn't budge. He was trapped inside the salt symbol she had drawn, frozen.\n\nShe lifted the dagger high in her right hand. \"To the abyss!\"\n\n\"Fool!\" Krowl shouted, writhing in pain as flames licked up from the floor and blazed around his legs. \"Banishing me to the abyss has sealed your fate for far worse curses in your life. You shall know undying misery. You foolish, foolish girl!\"\n\nThe flames rose and engulfed him. He released a high-pitched howl, bursting several of the stain-glassed windows. In an instant, he vanished.\n\nThe two conscious Priests rushed with their lanterns toward the center aisle. The four men lay dead on the floor. Apparently when he was pulled from their minds, they were unable to withstand it.\n\nPenelope lay on the floor. I hurried and knelt beside her. She was panting. Her eyes were closed. Sweat covered her face. What she had done seemed to have drained her strength. She was exhausted. I sat beside her, and she curled herself against me, resting her head against my chest.\n\n\"I told you it would work,\" she said with a wide grin.\n\n\"That you did.\"\n\nThe two priests began lighting candles.\n\nFather came to us. \"Are you okay?\"\n\nShe gave a slight nod.\n\nAfter a few minutes, the archbishop found the courage to stand and left the bench where he had sat terrified while she banished the demon.\n\n\"What is this magic you have cast within our sanctuary?\" he demanded.\n\n\"What?\" I asked, glaring at him.\n\n\"No magic,\" she said weakly.\n\n\"The symbol,\" he replied. \"Your blood offering upon it. These are things witches perform, not saints. Not Christians.\"\n\nPenelope took a deep breath, frowned. She attempted to push herself up but still didn't have adequate strength. \"I am not a witch. I'm a Demon-hunter.\"\n\nThe archbishop glanced around the sanctuary. \"Where are the others of your coven?\"\n\n\"Coven?\" she said. \"I have no coven.\"\n\n\"You must. Where are the other twelve? Otherwise, you'd not possess such power.\"\n\n\"You said that about Krowl's circle, too,\" she said softly. \"Thirteen for power? Is that what you consider a coven to be?\"\n\n\"Yes. It's what the Papacy has known for centuries. Twelve is the absolute,\" he replied. \"Thirteen is\u2014\"\n\n\"Is it now?\" Penelope replied, finding enough strength to sit on her knees. Fury creased her brow. \"Then what you claim as reasons for your faith is nothing more than covens, too.\"\n\n\"How dare you make such claims. You blasphemer.\"\n\n\"It's in your scriptures,\" she replied. \"Twelve tribes of Israel plus one God equals thirteen. Jesus and twelve disciples equals thirteen. Is that not the same mathematics you're using?\"\n\nThe archbishop paled. His posture stiffened and his jaw tightened. Perhaps he had never looked at those groups in the same light as she described. He didn't offer a rebuttal.\n\n\"You seem resentful that I was the one who banished him and not you,\" she said. \"But it's not a competition. I don't cast evil spirits out. I kill or banish demons. When they are banished they are trapped inside a fiery pocket in the center of the earth where they cannot escape. What you and your fellow priests do by excising the evil spirits you incorrectly call demons doesn't kill them, it sends them out to find a new host to possess. You don't eliminate the problem. Instead you allow the demon to torment another poor soul.\"\n\n\"I watched you add your blood to whatever you had drawn on the floor. How is that not magic? Dark sorcery?\" he asked with a less accusatory tone. \"And do you not use a spell of some sort?\"\n\n\"No different than any prayer you offer for blessings, healing, or a divine touch.\"\n\n\"Are you comparing yourself with me?\" he asked in a condescending manner.\n\n\"Not at all,\" she replied.\n\nFather looked at me. \"Are you certain we should leave Varak with this man? A man who has no appreciation for what Penelope has done to save not only our lives, but his? She risked her life to confront Krowl and banish him, and rather than acknowledging her success, he's retorted with accusations and condemnation. I've never seen such an ungrateful sack of bones in my entire life, and one who considers himself holy at that. He's a disgrace for what the Archdiocese deserves to have as an Archbishop, and I perceive nothing holy about him.\"\n\nThose words cut deep. The archbishop looked genuinely disconcerted and hurt. His sad eyes regarded each of us, one by one. \"My apologies. You're right. I've placed my authority equal to God and unfairly judged your actions.\"\n\n\"True,\" I replied. \"You did. And even worse is your cowardice after the demon appeared. Surely one who believes in the power of his God would not have trembled in the presence of something that should be considered weaker. Yet, you did, and two of your priests fainted. I view you as someone far less worthy of the position granted to you by the ones who placed you in this cathedral.\"\n\nI stood and helped Penelope to her feet. Even after she stood, she clung tightly to my hand. Her legs were still weak and without holding onto me, she'd have collapsed. I helped her to the closest pew where she quickly sat down.\n\n\"I oversee a lot of issues as the archbishop, within the church and with city officials, but understand that it's not every day a priest or bishop expects to encounter a fiendish demon from the pits of Hell. Even those of us who excise demons must have a pure heart by offering penance and confessing our sins before our Lord. Without doing so, we are not worthy challengers to even rebuke the weakest demon. If we're not spotless and without blemish, an unleashed demon can rip us to shreds or worse, it can possess us.\"\n\nI frowned. \"Are you saying that you weren't afraid of Krowl?\"\n\n\"No. I was terrified.\"\n\n\"Because you lack faith?\"\n\n\"No. As I said, I had not offered penance or confessed my sins for the day.\"\n\n\"And what sins would a man of your status be subjected to?\" I asked.\n\n\"Every man is assaulted by various lusts and stray thoughts, even I. Entertaining such thoughts for a long amount of time is considered sin in itself. Gaining excess money, power, or even misleading others are dangerous temptations, especially when the one who benefits from these actions are intentionally committing them. Some would also say even if they aren't intentional, they are sin just the same.\"\n\n\"And such are what held you back this evening?\" I asked.\n\nHe shook his head. \"No. I'm simply expressing there's a wild array of enticements. Minds wander. Had I known I was about to face a demon face-to-face, I could have been prepared. But, since Krowl emerged through his believers, my mind was racing to determine if I could face him.\"\n\nI didn't believe him. What I had seen was genuine fear, and that wasn't something so easily dismissed. But he was in a high position within the Catholic Church and was trying to find a redeemable way to make his actions seem less cowardice. Reacting in fear like he had wasn't easily counterfeited. It was real. Since I was tired and didn't wish to be in Freiburg any longer than necessary, I decided not to press the issue further. He held no authority over me, so his spinelessness wasn't necessarily my concern.\n\nThe archbishop offered a friendly smile. \"I realize I've made a horrible first impression, and for that, I simply ask your forgiveness. I'm sincerely sorry for my behavior.\" The archbishop tucked his chin to his chest and closed his eyes.\n\nI glanced toward Father and then to Penelope. Both shrugged. I believed they were as exhausted and ready to leave as I was.\n\n\"Accepted,\" I replied.\n\nThe archbishop opened his eyes. Both Father and Penelope nodded toward him. \"You truly are gracious. You've traveled a long distance to bring me this child. The only forewarning of your arrival was Krowl's cultists who had come to take him by force. The child must be of some importance for a demon to bring twelve men to try to kill you. Do you mind explaining exactly why the demon wanted him and why this particular place was chosen?\"\n\nSadly, the archbishop could never know the truth about the child. The consequences were too severe. I shook my head. \"Penelope should have asked while she held him captive in the circle and before she banished him forever.\"\n\nHe frowned. \"You don't know?\"\n\n\"I'm afraid that knowledge went into the abyss with the demon.\"\n\n\"Then what is your purpose for bringing him to this Archdiocese?\"\n\n\"He's an orphan,\" I replied.\n\n\"Yes, Father Lucas informed me. But our curiosity begs one question, 'Why this cathedral?'\"\n\n\"It was a request, and nothing more can I provide. What matters is that we've fulfilled our part by getting him here safely,\" I replied.\n\n\"And why should I accept this child? Do you realize the cost of rearing a child and having someone nurture and oversee the child's welfare?\"\n\n\"Varak has a caretaker. Madeline is more than happy to tend to his needs.\"\n\nMadeline walked over to us, rocking the boy in her arms. Varak slept in absolute peace with a little smile curled on his lips.\n\nThe archbishop stared down at the child and then to her. \"Is this true? You'll care for the child if we provide a place for him?\"\n\nShe smiled eagerly, in spite of the tears moistening her eyes. \"Of course. I cannot picture my life without him.\"\n\nA tender smile came to his face. He could tell the love she held for the child, as could we, but in ways, I wondered if her love wasn't actually an obsession.\n\nA short time later, Father Lucas showed us to the rooms where we could stay the night. I had insisted we get rooms in town, but the priests assured us that all the inns had closed for the night. I was content knowing we had succeeded in getting the hybrid child to Freiburg, and more elated to learn that I hadn't been the direct target of other Hunters. However, my sleep wasn't any more peaceful.\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Thirty-Three\n\nThe following morning the priests were gracious enough to fill my empty vials with holy water. They had witnessed how effective a weapon it was against the cultists, but after I explained how it aided me against vampires, they were happy to bless as much water as I needed.\n\nWe left the Archdiocese and walked to the nearest lodge where we could buy a hearty breakfast. We discussed our plans to reach Schaffhausen to slay Ambrose. A train could get us to the city within a few hours. Father expressed selling the horse and coach so we weren't constantly reminded of Thomas. In a way, I agreed, but I didn't want to dismiss Thomas' contribution for how close he had gotten us to Freiburg. It was a shame he had died like he had, but dying from the plague would have been far worse.\n\nWith Madeline remaining at the Archdiocese, we were down to three, which was more manageable and reduced our costs greatly.\n\nAs we rose to leave, Penelope noticed a newspaper on the table next to ours. The two sailors who had been eating at the table had gone and left the paper behind. Strangely the newspaper was from America and the date more recent than I might have expected, being as no one could have traveled to Schaffhausen from the west coast of America in so little time.\n\nPenelope read the headlines about a great fire in Seattle, Washington in the United States. She scanned through the various photographs in the newspaper. Her eyes widened.\n\n\"What is it?\" I asked.\n\nShe pointed at the photo. \"Look.\"\n\nI frowned, looking closer, nodding. \"The city was engulfed in flames. What else am I missing?\"\n\n\"The demon. Don't you see him? In the midst of the flames.\"\n\nI shook my head. \"No.\"\n\nShe gasped.\n\n\"What's wrong?\"\n\nPenelope looked at me with fear in her eyes. She pointed to different places in the photograph. \"There are dozens of them, Forrest. The fire that burned Seattle occurred because a portal to Hell had been opened.\"\n\n\"What?\" I asked, slightly grinning.\n\n\"You don't believe me?\" She looked hurt. \"Do you think I'd jest about that?\"\n\n\"I don't see any demons in the photographs,\" I replied. \"Honest.\"\n\nShe bit her lower lip and closed her eyes. When she opened them, she studied the pictures again, shaking her head. \"Maybe you can't see them because you aren't a Demon-hunter?\"\n\nI shrugged. \"I suppose that could be why. But I really don't see them. I see fire, smoke, and steam from the water hitting the flames. Nothing else. Sorry. But did you notice the date of the paper?\"\n\nShe glanced at it. \"So? You think this is a hoax?\"\n\n\"It might be. I cannot see how a traveler from America could arrive here in such a short amount of time. That would be beyond record time for the world's fastest ship. It cannot be done.\"\n\n\"Perhaps it's a sign by a higher force, giving me the information so I can act quickly.\"\n\n\"Or it's a trap.\"\n\n\"A trap? How and by whom?\" she asked.\n\n\"Penelope, you just banished a powerful demon who placed a curse upon you before it was silenced from our world.\"\n\n\"And you think this newspaper would be the curse? The story is very troubling.\"\n\nI shrugged. \"I don't know much about curses and how they work.\"\n\nShe stared at the paper for several minutes, flipping from page to page, and then she neatly folded it where the front story was the only article visible. \"Forrest, I don't think it's a curse. I believe there's a reason I've been given the information, even though, like you said, it doesn't seem possible to get this newspaper so quickly except my help is required.\"\n\n\"In what way, Penelope?\" I asked, taking her hand into mine.\n\n\"To seal it? I'm not sure, but I have to travel to Seattle to be certain.\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\n\"If the portal has been opened and hasn't been closed, the world edges toward total destruction. Come with me?\"\n\nFather frowned at her. \"We have plans to take the train to Schaffhausen. Can't this wait until after\u2014\"\n\nShe shook her head. \"No. Don't you understand how dangerous such a portal is?\"\n\n\"I imagine it presents an enormous danger.\" I rubbed my thumb against the back of her hand. \"Penelope, as much as I want to help, I'm not a Demon-hunter. Father isn't either. We'd be useless in such a battle.\"\n\nShe placed her hands over her eyes and shook her head. After a few seconds, she pulled back her hair and paced the floor. \"It's my duty to go, Forrest.\"\n\n\"It's suicide if you go alone,\" I said. \"Please stay with us? After we slay Ambrose, we'll all travel to Seattle. We'll have more than enough money to board a fast ship.\"\n\nPenelope looked at me. She was torn inside. Her eyes reflected her inner turmoil. \"I want to, Forrest. I think I'm falling in ... No, I am in love with you. I've never felt this way before.\"\n\nFather's face reddened. He gave me a hopeful smile and walked out the door, giving us added privacy.\n\n\"Penelope, I've never felt this strongly about anyone else, either,\" I replied. \"I know I love you, too. Father and I have vowed to slay Ambrose. We could use your help. Had Lorcan not already given us a deposit, we'd leave with you now. Accompany us, and once we've slain him, we will sail with you to Seattle.\"\n\nI pulled her close and embraced her. She buried her face against the center of my chest. Hot tears soaked into my undershirt.\n\n\"We cannot wait that long,\" she said. \"As it is, even if I leave on a ship tomorrow, it will be months before I reach Seattle. By then, I might be too late.\"\n\nI hugged her tighter and whispered into her ear. \"Then don't go. Won't Demon-hunters nearer to Seattle be alerted and travel there to eradicate these demons?\"\n\nPenelope pulled back and looked up into my eyes. \"It's possible, but again, the dangers of an open portal to Hell are catastrophic.\"\n\n\"If you're the only one who arrives in Seattle, the portal will have been opened for at least three months before you can get a chance to close it.\"\n\n\"It's better than no one sealing it at all.\"\n\n\"Do you even know how to seal a portal?\" I asked.\n\nShe looked away.\n\n\"You don't, do you?\"\n\nHer eyes flicked to mine. \"I'll find a way.\"\n\n\"Won't demons guard and protect the portal, so more of their kind can pass through?\"\n\nHer tiny shoulders shrugged. \"I don't know, Forrest. I've never dealt with a situation like this before.\"\n\n\"All the more reason why you don't need to go alone.\"\n\nShe sighed. \"I don't see any alternative. I must obey my instinct and my calling.\"\n\nI recognized the determination in her eyes. I couldn't talk her out of going or delaying her departure. I forced a smile and embraced her tightly. With her in my arms, I ached terribly inside. Tears etched down my cheeks. I shook, and her arms tightened around my waist. She sobbed, too.\n\nI paid for our breakfast, and we met Father outside. He stood in a corner of the building smoking his pipe outside of the brisk wind. When his gaze met mine, his eyes saddened. I suppose he read the pain in my eyes.\n\n\"What's your decision?\" he asked her.\n\nPenelope bit her lower lip and looked away.\n\n\"Father, do you mind letting us have some time to ourselves?\"\n\nHe puffed his pipe, offered a forced smile, and nodded. \"I will go get the horse and coach and see if I can get a decent offer at one of the stables. Where shall we meet later?\"\n\nI pulled my watch from my pocket and checked the time. \"Here, for lunch?\"\n\nHe nodded. The sadness in his eyes didn't lessen, but he didn't try to persuade Penelope with arguments. I imagine he expected I already had. He turned and walked down the street.\n\nShe and I took a short walk, found a bench, and in spite of the cold winter wind, we sat huddled together. Few words were exchanged between us. We held one another close, and after neither of us could shed any more tears, I stared into her beautiful eyes for the longest time. I couldn't shake the hurt inside. I had told her how much I loved her and how I needed her to be a part of my life. Nothing persuaded her to stay, even though she said that she felt the same. I felt like there was more I needed to tell her, but I had said everything I could think of. I suppose there aren't any proper sequences of words that can explain the cries of a tattered heart as it struggles to piece itself whole once more.\n\nShe placed her hand to my cheek and smiled. I swallowed hard, trying to make the painful lump in my throat disappear. I leaned closer to her, and we shared our first real kiss. Her warm lips were soft and salty from her tears. A flood of emotions poured through me as her lips pressed against mine and she wrapped her arms around my neck. If I could have picked a moment to last forever, this would have been it.\n\nI wrapped my arms around her waist and never wanted to let her go. I loved everything about her and feared releasing her. But it was getting close to noon. The sun slipped behind thick dismal clouds. \"Are you certain you cannot wait until after Father and I kill the vampire?\"\n\nShe placed both hands on my cheeks. Fresh tears dampened her eyes. \"I want to, truly I do, but what if you learned about a city being overrun by vampires. Would you stay with me or go fulfill the duty you've been chosen to do?\"\n\nI closed my eyes, unable to answer.\n\n\"See?\" she said. \"You'd do what you needed to do and what you believed was required of you.\"\n\nI nodded. I tried to sound bold, but the tears and pain fractured my voice. \"Penelope, we've not known one another long, but I've never wanted to part ways since we've met. I certainly didn't expect one of us to leave this soon.\"\n\nShe leaned her head against my chest and sighed. She didn't say anything more. I stood and hefted her in my arms, carrying her back to the lodge. Father stood in the corner out of the wind, cleaning out his pipe. He had my Hunter box and her quiver. How he managed to bring all of our belongings by himself was beyond me.\n\nPenelope stepped inside the lodge to get our table while I helped Father gather our things.\n\n\"I sold the horse and coach. Not for what they were worth, but we're pressed for time\u2014\"\n\n\"That's good, Father. Something's better than nothing.\"\n\nFather asked a lot of questions, but I hurt too much inside to offer any answers. He nodded and offered a sympathetic smile. \"When you need to talk, son, I'll be here to listen. Heartaches are hell.\"\n\nI felt lost and numb inside. My stomach ached worse than any other time I could remember. I wanted to hold her so badly and never let her go, but I knew I couldn't. It wouldn't be right. She'd resent me if I kept her from going.\n\nI had even considered getting rooms for the night and hoped by morning, a new premonition might occur to convince her to stay. But I feared if we stayed together another night, we'd give into our intimacy for one another to consume our sorrow. I wasn't anywhere near ready in my mind to leap that chasm, especially since we were parting ways, and perhaps she wasn't either, even though we both seemed to be dying on the inside.\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Thirty-Four\n\nWhile we sat at the table for lunch, I had no appetite at all. I was experiencing the worst stomach and chest pains imaginable, so I pushed my plate aside. Whenever I glanced toward her, tears burned my eyes. Tears leaked down her cheeks. I tried to speak, but no words came. Even Father didn't attempt to start conversation. He face was flushed. He wasn't able to look at either of us.\n\nAfter the quietest lunch ever, Father and I walked her to the river's dock where she purchased a ticket. Father stood beside me on the dock. Penelope took my hands and stared into my eyes. Sadness and regret filled her eyes.\n\n\"Are you certain you cannot delay your departure until after we slay Ambrose?\" I asked.\n\nShe shook her head. \"I wish I could.\"\n\nI considered abandoning the pursuit of Ambrose until later, but I had already taken Lorcan's deposit. I'm certain the vampire would consider that theft, if he learned we had left for North America.\n\n\"I want you to have these,\" she said, untying the goggles from around her neck. \"I know how much you like them.\"\n\nI shook my head. \"Penelope ... I can't take these. You need them when you're fighting.\"\n\nShe placed them into my hands and closed my fingers over them. \"I can get another pair. Besides, I want you to have something to remember me until I return.\"\n\n\"Do you really think I could ever forget you, Penelope? I never shall. You possess my heart, and still I ask that you wait until we can accompany you.\"\n\nShe rose on tiptoe and kissed my lips softly. I leaned down and we kissed more passionately. When she pulled back, she said, \"This isn't goodbye, Forrest. It's just that I need obey what I know in my heart I must do. Like you did when you brought Varak to the Archdiocese in spite of all the obstacles. Our paths will cross again.\"\n\nPenelope hurried toward the plank. I noticed Father wiping away tears as she boarded the ship. I ached inside even though I could still see her, but seeing her walking away, getting farther from my touch, I thought my heart would cease beating or explode from the intensifying ache. Inside, I wanted to run after her. I should have gone with her to help her like she had helped us.\n\nShe had promised once she had gone and sealed the portal in Seattle that she would board the next ship and sail to meet me in Bucharest. I feared it would never happen. I didn't believe I'd ever see her again. My doubts reinforced my former oath to walk this world alone and not to give my heart to another.\n\nPenelope had helped us get Varak to Freiburg and safely inside the Archdiocese where the archbishop and nuns could protect him. We had protected the child against great odds and from the attack of a dozen demon cultists, which had forced Penelope to kill a powerful demon that had marked her with a curse. But I had never fathomed she'd leave my side to become vulnerable to something she considered an actual threat. I had thought we'd fight the battles together.\n\nWe were both similar in our projected dark destinies. Before it was revealed that the cultists weren't actual Hunters who had been sent to kill me because I had committed a major transgression against the Chosen, I had accepted that my punishment was being issued. I was to compensate for what could be no less than direct disobedience against those who had called me into their Order as a Vampire Hunter. The dangers of allowing a half-blood vampire human was too great a risk and worthy of my death. Because of that, I feared tremendous loss in my life, overshadowing doom, and heartache unlike what I was experiencing right now. Deep inside, I truly didn't believe I'd escape unscathed for protecting Varak. Bad events were coming. I sensed it. And Penelope could become my first painful loss.\n\nA day away from her would be painful, but the voyage along various rivers and across the seas was months in one direction. I didn't have any way to reach her or to know the outcome when she eventually faced the demons. All I could do was wonder what had occurred until ... if  ... we ever met again. Could she get the portal sealed before a horde of demons killed her? Evil spirits had never possessed her, but from what I understood, these demons must be stronger than any she had faced before if they torn open a portal from Hell.\n\nFather and I stood, waving. Penelope waved back. After a half hour of watching the ship sail down the river, Father wiped tears from his eyes. \"I'm sorry, son. There was nothing to convince her to stay?\"\n\n\"No, Father. She holds to her obligations as stubbornly as I do. I suppose we were right for one another.\" My voice broke, and I wiped tears from my eyes.\n\nFather sniffed and rubbed his nose with the back of his hand. \"There are no words at a time like this. I'm sorry.\"\n\nI shrugged and stared at the spectacles she had given me.\n\n\"Come on,\" he said. \"Let me buy you a drink. It won't erase your pain, but it might numb it a bit.\"\n\nI clasped my father's shoulder. \"No, Father. That's okay. I need to experience this pain and hope it eases over time. Numbing it only prolongs it.\"\n\nHe smiled. His bloodshot eyes remained wet from his crying. \"Son, you are indeed a man.\"\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Thirty-Five\n\nThere are many levels of pain. Some are physical injuries that heal slowly over time. Those brutal inflictions to the heart and mind and soul seldom heal enough to completely vanish. They might fade, but often memories jar and bump the bruise again, causing the tenderness to swell. An anguish soul never heals. One just has to deal with it the best way possible.\n\nThe first two days aboard the train were steady but slow. I believed we could have ridden on horseback to our destination faster than the steam engine train traveled, but not during the harsh winter weather.\n\nFather and I sat across from one another. He read a couple of books he had purchased before our departure in Freiburg and seldom spoke while I stared out the window thinking about Penelope. I was thankful for the quiet and enjoyed the scenery outside the window.\n\nI reserved crying until after he had fallen asleep. Tears seemed the greatest comfort, and I wondered about Penelope and how she was faring. I felt absurd, wondering if she had already forgotten me. Her absence hurt so much.\n\nI stared at my Hunter box between my feet and thought back to the night when the vampire had attacked Father, and I had learned my fate. While I had faulted my father for several months for not having told me sooner, I understood why he had not and his purpose for not doing so. I was his son, his only child. All he wanted was to protect me from the grief and agony that came from being a Vampire Hunter. His delay had not been strictly from selfishness or jealousy, as I had believed. It was parental love in its purest form.\n\nThe train pulled into the Schaffhausen station a few hours before sunset. As we stepped off the train, Father said, \"Did you enjoy the ride?\"\n\n\"It was pleasant enough,\" I said, tightening my coat collar and straightening my hat to brace myself from the harsh cold wind.\n\nHe tapped tobacco into his pipe and smiled. \"I tried not to disturb you since you have so much on your mind.\"\n\n\"I appreciate that, Father.\"\n\nFather lighted his pipe and puffed small streams of smoke. \"Shall we find an inn first?\"\n\nI nodded. \"That would be good. We get settled first, find somewhere to dine, and then follow that map to where Ambrose's lair is. Provided Lorcan has been honest with us.\"\n\n\"You're skeptical about everything, son.\"\n\n\"It pays to be if you wish to live a long life. Besides, he's a vampire, and I will never trust one of them.\"\n\n\"When do you wish to attempt to slay him?\" Father asked.\n\n\"If his lair is where the map indicates, we do it while it's still daylight. I'd rather stake him while he's resting in his coffin. Quicker, quieter, and easier.\"\n\nFather grinned.\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"You only want to get this done faster so you can take a ship to catch up with Penelope.\"\n\nI shrugged. \"I do, but we still have to collect the bounty from Lorcan before I can consider sailing to Seattle. We cannot afford to leave any loose ends. Besides, such a trip will be costly since we have no idea how long we'll need to reside in America. We'll need the rest of the money.\"\n\n\"That's true.\"\n\nBy the time we found an inn and put our belongings inside, the sun was an hour from setting. We happened upon a man who had a horse harnessed to a small wagon. He was young, probably still in his late teens, and lanky. He offered us a ride near our destination for a small fee. I gladly accepted because with Father's stiff legs, it'd take us three times longer on foot.\n\nAfter a half hour, the driver turned toward us. \"From where have you two traveled?\"\n\n\"London,\" I replied.\n\n\"You've journeyed far,\" he replied.\n\n\"We have.\"\n\nHe frowned. \"What's your interest in this old mountain trail? Most folks in the city won't come anywhere near the trail. They believe the surrounding woods are haunted. A lot of tourists have come to this trail but most have never returned.\"\n\n\"Really?\" Father asked.\n\n\"Yes. Near the top, I am told, is a cave that overlooks the Rhine River. But with all the stories, I'd never attempt walking along the trail. I certainly would never enter the cave.\"\n\nHe stopped the wagon near an old cemetery. Most of the carved grave markers were crude crosses. \"This is as far as I will take you. My old horse, if he gets spooked, I'd never catch him. I could, however, wait for your return down the mountain, if you'd like. Money upfront, of course, being as so few ever return.\"\n\nI smiled and shook my head. \"No, thanks. We might be here for a while.\"\n\nHis eyes widened. \"Overnight?\"\n\nI shrugged. \"Depends upon the circumstances.\"\n\nThe young man shook his head. \"No amount of money could tempt me to stay out here in the dark.\"\n\n\"Then you had best hurry,\" Father said.\n\nThe driver laughed nervously. He tapped the reins several times and made the horse turn around. \"When you return to the city, if you need my services again, you can find me at the same place.\"\n\nI waved. \"Thanks. Be safe.\"\n\n\"Worry more for yourselves!\" He snapped a whip over the horse's head, making the horse move even faster.\n\nFather glanced toward the narrow road that wound along the river's edge and then abruptly cut upward through tall leafless trees. The steep incline looked to be more than Father could handle. He gave me a nervous glance.\n\n\"I can go inspect it, Father, if you'd like?\"\n\nHe sternly shook his head, which I expected. \"I'll be fine. Ever since that hot bath at Lorcan's castle, my legs haven't hurt as badly.\"\n\n\"Is that so?\"\n\nHe nodded.\n\n\"Let's see if we can reach the area where the road levels off. That might be where the cave is.\" I placed my crossbow into a holster on the back of my coat, picked up my Hunter box, and walked ahead of him.\n\nAfter fifteen minutes of brisk walking, sweat rolled off me in spite of the cold. Somehow, Father had managed to keep up with me. He panted and puffed, wiping profuse sweat from his face with his handkerchief.\n\n\"Are you okay?\" I asked.\n\nHe leaned forward, placing his hands on his knees, and took several deep gulps of air. \"Never better.\"\n\nI grinned and released a deep laugh.\n\nFather frowned and pointed a shaking finger. \"Since my legs were crushed, I should add.\"\n\n\"Okay,\" I said.\n\n\"I did keep up with you, and considering everything else, that's pretty good for your old man.\"\n\n\"You did great. At least going down will be easier,\" I replied.\n\nFather glanced at the steep descending path and wiped his brow again, shaking his head. He mumbled curses under his breath.\n\nAt the sharp curve of the road was a clear view of the Rhine River. Roaring water echoed where the falls cascaded. Clouds of water spray hung in the air, and even though the winter air was frosty, I almost wanted to swim after the exhausting climb we had endured.\n\nThe road split to the left and the right at the top of the hill. The tall leafless trees forked their way into the darkening sky. At the end of the left path was a dark oval cut into the side of the rocks. If the map was true, this was Ambrose's lair.\n\nI thought it odd that Ambrose would choose a cave for a lair when Lorcan had an entire castle. Of course, from what the young driver had told us, people believed the area to be haunted, which allowed more privacy, but still ... a cave?\n\nI sat on a large boulder and patted the area beside me. \"Let's rest for a few minutes. That climb took a lot out of me.\"\n\n\"Me, too.\"\n\nWiping sweat from my brow, I said, \"The morning would be better for us to slay him, Father.\"\n\nHe panted and shrugged. \"But we're here now. Why ride out tonight if you wanted to wait until morning.\"\n\nI chuckled. \"For one, I didn't really believe a cave existed up here. And if we didn't find one, we could easily camp the night and catch a ride back to town in the morning.\"\n\n\"So what now? Inspect the cave or camp out?\"\n\nI stared at the cave entrance for several moments. It seemed quiet. Even though it was dark enough outdoors, most vampires didn't tend to rise until closer to midnight. I suppose there was no hard tenet for that, but it would be best to know the size of the cave ahead of time and since it was still early, I doubted we'd encounter vampires near the opening.\n\n\"I want to look inside the cave.\"\n\n\"Now?\" Father's brow rose and his eyes widened.\n\nI nodded.\n\nFather took his handkerchief and wiped sweat from his face. The fear in his eyes was evident even in the darkness. His breathing changed, too. He was nervous.\n\nI opened my box, took out my revolver, and checked the chamber. Loaded. I slid it into my coat pocket. I grabbed two weighted stakes.\n\n\"Here,\" Father said, placing the sack of gold marks into the box. \"I don't want to lose them if we're forced to run.\"\n\nI nodded.\n\n\"That's a lot of holy water,\" Father said, still wiping sweat from his brow.\n\n\"Let's hope we don't need to use it all tonight.\" I slid several bottles into my pocket.\n\nHe glanced nervously toward the cave opening. \"You think we will?\"\n\n\"I really don't believe we're going to encounter any vampires this early in the night, but we need to prepare ourselves, just in case.\" I handed him two vials of holy water. Dusk was settling over us. \"Let's go.\"\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Thirty-Six\n\nI adjusted the straps on the spectacles Penelope had given me, so they'd fit my large head properly. Instantly, everything around me appeared to be surrounded by light. Right inside the ominous cave I found an oil lantern left by the last victim that had dared to enter. The skeletal remains of his hand and arm were still attached to the lantern.\n\nI shook the lantern and the finger bones dropped to the dusty cave floor. I wanted to inspect the cave while we were here. There was enough oil in the lantern to burn at least a half hour, which I hoped was more than adequate time to slay Ambrose and leave when we returned in the morning light.\n\nFather struck a match against the cave wall and lit the wick. I let him hold the lantern, and I adjusted the Penelope's night goggles to fit my head and put them on. With the goggles I had no need of the lantern, but Father did.\n\nStrange scraping sounds fluttered and whooshed outside the cave. We peered out to see large winged creatures circling the trees. They looked like giant bats. Some of them flitted toward the bare tree branches, attached their clawed feet around the limbs, and hung upside down.\n\n\"In God's name,\" Father whispered.\n\n\"I don't think they're associated with God,\" I replied.\n\nFather gave me an angered side-glance. \"Nor do I. We need to hurry back down the path, son.\"\n\n\"No. Let's hurry and inspect this part of the cave. We might be fortunate to find Ambrose's coffin, and I can stake him before he has awakened.\"\n\n\"Okay. But even if we kill Ambrose, how do you propose we get past those demon beasts?\" he asked.\n\n\"A problem we deal with afterwards.\"\n\nThe cave began as a narrow tunnel and widened into a large room. I noticed several sepulchers carved from stone. Two of them were already open.\n\nI scanned the room holding a stake in hand, trying to find where the awakened vampires were. Three sepulchers away stood one of them. She was a beautiful voluptuous woman with her dark hair curled into a bunt. Her piercing dark eyes were alluring and her smile captivated me. It was like she could reach inside my soul and remove all my pain. She whispered coaxing words with her smooth sultry voice kissing at the edge of my ears. The lure of her beauty spellbound me. I didn't see the vampire. I saw a beautiful woman.\n\nSlowly, I lowered the stake in my hand. I felt at peace.\n\nShe licked her lips and glided toward me, stopping inches from me. I couldn't take my eyes off her beauty.\n\n\"I could never abandon you,\" she whispered. \"Not like Penelope did.\"\n\nThe mention of Penelope's name shook me, breaking me from her charm. It was then I noticed my father's stern whispers. \"Forrest! Forrest! Snap out of it! She's trying to compel you.\"\n\nI blinked, suddenly seeing a hideously wrinkled woman instead of the mirage she had presented. The vampire continued smiling as if I were still under her lure. She eased closer and I brought up the stake and plunged it through her heart. Her eyes widened. She shrieked a second before collapsing to dust.\n\nNever had a vampire glamoured me. She could have easily killed me. All I could guess was that she was much older than any vampire I had encountered prior. The fact she held me within inches of biting my throat frightened me.\n\n\"Forrest!\" Father shouted.\n\nI turned to see a male vampire rushing at him. Father held a stake, but he was too hesitant. I flung a bottle of holy water. It missed the vampire but it shattered on the rock ceiling. The holy water splashed onto its face. It hissed, gnashing its fangs, and immediately turned its attention toward me.\n\nAs it rushed toward me, I reached over my shoulder and took my crossbow. Before the vampire was halfway across the room, I fired. The enchanted arrow struck through the vampire's heart. I retrieved the arrow and reloaded the crossbow. I loved those enchanted arrow stakes and wished I had cut dozens of them when I had been in London.\n\nFather hurried to where I stood. The scraping wings of the massive bat creatures outside the cave were getting louder. It sounded like hundreds of them had gathered in the trees. Retreating was probably as dangerous as sliding the lids off the sepulchers and staking the vampires.\n\nI gripped the corner of another sepulcher lid and pried it slowly to the side. Inside lay another beautiful female. Her eyes were closed. Her hands were crossed over her stomach. She didn't move or breathe. In essence, she appeared to be a corpse. Dead. But after the other two, I knew she was an undead. A vampire.\n\nI positioned the stake over her heart and drove it hard and fast through her chest. Her eyes widened and she flashed fangs before turning to ash.\n\n\"Fools!\"\n\nI turned toward the narrow passage way that lead farther into the cave. The silver-haired vampire loomed large and angered. He wore an amber broach with a stage beetle enclosed inside like Lorcan had described. It was Ambrose.\n\n\"Who has sent you, Hunter?\" he demanded. \"Lorcan?\"\n\nI turned and faced him. \"Yes. He hired me to slay you.\"\n\nAmbrose frowned. \"I don't know which comes as a greater surprise: A Hunter who has allowed himself to be hired by a vampire, or a master vampire too afraid to slay an opposing master, so he hires someone else to do it.\"\n\n\"Lorcan did indicate that he hoped to bewilder you in such a way,\" I replied.\n\n\"I do hope he paid you handsomely,\" Ambrose said in a cold even tone. \"No amount of gold is worth your death though, is it? But having you as one of my children, Hunter, I must commend Lorcan for gifting me a prize far greater than whatever gold coins he has offered you.\"\n\n\"Son,\" Father said softly. \"I\u2014I don't think we're getting out of this alive. Just know, I love you. I've always been proud of you. You're the best son I could have ever hoped for.\"\n\nAmbrose laughed. \"How touching. Your father fears death, but you Hunter, you do not?\"\n\nI pulled Father behind me and turned my head slightly. \"Run for the door.\"\n\n\"With those creatures outside?\"\n\n\"The lesser of two evils,\" Ambrose said. \"Either way, you have no hope.\"\n\n\"Go, Father,\" I whispered. \"Know I love you, too.\"\n\n\"Children, rise!\" Ambrose shouted. \"We have intruders! Kill them!\"\n\nThe lids of the sepulchers burst into the air all around the room. Father turned and ran for the cave entrance. I pulled my revolver and shot three vampires in the head. Although silver bullets won't kill vampires, they inflict a great deal of pain. These three dropped to the dusty floor, writhing in pain. I fired three more shots, aiming toward any vampire running toward Father.\n\nI was struck in the back hard, plowed to the ground by a vampire, but I rolled to the side swiftly. The vampire lost its grip. I yanked a stake from behind my belt and drove it through the beast's heart. It crumbled.\n\nFather was almost to the door, still holding the lantern. A vampire grabbed him from behind and twisted his arm in an unnatural way. Bones snapped.\n\nFather screamed.\n\nI shoved myself to my feet and ran toward him. Tears burned in my eyes. I plunged a stake through another vampire that was approaching my father. I missed the heart, but caused enough pain to stop its pursuit.\n\nThree more vampires rushed to cut me off, preventing me from reaching Father. Pain creased on his face as vampires clawed through his clothing. Rage burned inside of me, but I couldn't push through the vampires holding me back.\n\nI clutched one vampire by the throat, lifted his light body into the air, and staked him. I reached for the next and did the same. Glancing around the room, dozens of vampires had entered the room. There must have been over a hundred of them inside this cave. The odds were too great, even if Penelope had come to aid us. I reached into my coat pocket and tossed four enchanted arrows into the air.\n\nThe arrows were swift to take down the four closest vampires. Once the vampires dropped as ash, the arrows quickly zipped through the air in search of four more. I holstered my crossbow and made it to my father. He lay on the dusty floor. Blood spilled out from several nasty wounds. He didn't see me. He was in shock. His eyes were distant. With the blood pouring from him, I didn't see any way he was going to survive, but I wasn't about to leave him behind. I heaved him up off the floor and placed him over my shoulder. I grabbed my Hunter box and ran for the entrance.\n\nI glanced back before leaving the cave. Most of the vampires had retreated through the passageway where Ambrose had emerged. The four enchanted arrows whooshed through the air, killing any vampire within their vicinity. The good thing was that none of the vampires were pursuing. They had seen how effective the arrows were. Ambrose had apparently decided to hide as well.\n\nThe giant winged bat creatures were hanging all through the tree branches. Several dozen of them were in the high branches right outside the cave. I lay Father onto the large boulder where we had sat earlier.\n\n\"Hold on, Father. Please, don't die.\" Tears trickled down my cheeks. \"I can't lose you, too.\"\n\nBut he wasn't moving. His eyes peered at me, frozen in death. I placed my ear to his nose. No breath.\n\nMy heart hammered in my chest. I took in huge gulps of air. With the help of the goggles, I quickly inspected his throat. No vampire had bitten him. I don't think any had intended to.\n\nI placed my ear to his chest, hoping for the slightest heartbeat. Nothing. I bunched up his blood soaked shirt inside my fists, sobbing.\n\nI rose with rage inside me. I grabbed my box and started back for the cave entrance when something huge slapped my chest, lifting me off the ground. I landed on my back, all the air escaping my lungs. A loud roar bellowed. I grabbed my box, preparing to get to my father, so I could carry his body down the narrow path, but was yanked off the ground by one of the winged creatures.\n\nIts huge talons pressed into my shoulders. It lifted upwards, narrowly missing the treetops, which probably would have shredded through me. The creature soared past the tree line and over the river. I lowered the box between my thighs and squeezed together to prevent it from falling. I slid my dagger from its sheath and stabbed at the thing's leg.\n\nIt shrieked and lowered its head toward me, trying to bite me. I plunged the dagger through the softness of its neck and cut sharply to the left. It plummeted downward. Its wings drooped over my head. Taking its claw-like appendages at the tips of its wings, I spread my arms out, trying to catch the air, hoping to glide away from the water, but it was useless.\n\nThe creature and I plummeted, striking the icy cold water. Darkness engulfed me.\n\n|  |\n\n---|---|---\n\n# Chapter Thirty-Seven\n\nI drifted halfway between consciousness and what I considered touching Death's door. My body ached, especially along my ribs and the back of my head. I couldn't feel anything below my waist. Try as I might, I couldn't even wiggle a toe.\n\n\"He's coming around, Ian. I told you he wouldn't die easily. He's a big strong man, full of muscle.\"\n\n\"Brother, he is busted up pretty badly. He has severe bruising all down his spine. Doubtful he can ever walk again. And as bad as he is, he probably won't last a week.\"\n\n\"Ah, but you're wrong. I know it.\" He cackled with bizarre laughter. \"Look. Look. Here. Look here.\"\n\n\"What is it, Gunner?\" Ian asked with a tone of disgust.\n\n\"These marks. They be made by a bear!\"\n\nI attempted to open my eyes but only got that in-between blurred phase like looking through the murky water of a stream. These two men ... I could barely see the outlines of their faces. I must have hit my head harder than the pain registered. These two men were hideously disfigured, mainly their teeth. Their teeth were long and twisted, yellowed. Surely I was still trapped inside a nightmare, and if I were, I didn't see any way of climbing out.\n\n\"A bear? We have very few bears near us,\" Ian said firmly. \"The waterfall is too harsh.\"\n\nGunner laughed in what sounded like chattering. \"That's what's so unique. You know\u2014you know what it means?\"\n\n\"What? You bumbling fool?\"\n\n\"He's ... he's going to become one of them.\"\n\n\"One of who?\"\n\n\"Like us. He's going to change.\"\n\n\"The scars are most likely from something else, like a jagged tree branch where the river current dragged him over the falls.\"\n\n\"No, it's a bear,\" Gunner said undeterred.\n\nIan sighed. He leaned closer to my chest where Gunner had pointed and started sniffing what I assumed must be claw marks because I wasn't capable of rising up and looking. His clammy hands touched my chest muscles. I tensed. He sniffed.\n\n\"You're right, Gunner. A bear.\"\n\nGunner giggled and clapped his hands. \"He's going to change then.\"\n\n\"We can't be certain, but we can be hopeful. If he does, at least his body should heal of these injuries.\"\n\n\"And if he don't?\"\n\n\"He'll probably die.\"\n\nGunner made a sad groan. \"Mustn't give up hope. Say, where'd you put that box we found?\"\n\n\"Near the door,\" Ian replied.\n\nGunner rushed away. A few moments later he dragged the box across the floor. \"Hefty damn thing to tote. Wonder what be inside?\"\n\n\"Might as well look.\"\n\nThe latches unsnapped and the hinges creaked. \"My, my, Ian.\"\n\n\"What is it?\"\n\n\"Ah, he be a Vampire Hunter!\" His voice rose to a near squeal. He came to my side and placed his cold hands on my shoulder and looked down at my face. Still a blurred image. \"Keep fighting to live, mate.\"\n\nMy lips moved, but only slight scratchy sounds came out.\n\n\"All his vials are intact,\" Gunner said. \"Nothing wet inside. Ooh, look.\"\n\n\"What?\" Ian said.\n\n\"He has a sack of coins.\"\n\n\"So?\"\n\n\"No reason. Just ... he must kill a lot of vampires to get money like this. I've always wanted to hunt vampires.\"\n\n\"Look at him, Gunner! Look at the shape he's in. Is this how you'd like to end up?\"\n\nGunner huffed. \"Well, no. Not particularly, no.\"\n\n\"Vampire hunting isn't a profession you pick. It picks you.\"\n\nGunner came back to my side and patted my shoulder.\n\n\"Rest easy, friend,\" Gunner said. \"It's two weeks until the next full moon. We'll keep you safe while you recover. Took a nasty fall off the cliffside, you did. That rocky waterfall didn't do ya any favors, either. But when the full moon rises, new blessings befall ya, they will.\"\n\nI moaned and tried to raise my head. Couldn't.\n\n\"Let him be, Gunner. Let him rest. Pawing at him won't help the situation none.\"\n\n\"But ... a Were-bear. Doesn't that excite you?\"\n\n\"Not particularly, no.\"\n\n\"Why not?\"\n\n\"Because he could eat us.\"\n\n\"Always thinking the downside, aren't you? Never look at the good.\"\n\nIan growled. \"What's good about it? Poor chap nearly falls to his death, you jump into the frigid water and pull him out, but the only real mercy might have been if you'd have left 'em to die.\"\n\n\"Ian? Surely, you don't mean that?\"\n\n\"Gunner, what if he wasn't scratched by a shifter bear? Hmm? He's never going to go anywhere. For him to survive, requires our waiting on him hand and foot, day after day, and if that happens\u2014\"\n\n\"I'll tend to him. Me.\"\n\n\"Every detail?\" Ian asked.\n\n\"Every one.\"\n\n\"Then for your sake and his, I pray the bear was a shifter. It's all the hope you both have.\"\n\nGunner clapped his hands softly. \"He'll turn, Ian. He'll turn. You'll see. The great Vampire Hunter will transform into a bear.\"\n\n\"Come on, Gunner. Let him be. We need to catch fish for the day and find some dry firewood. Since the cave gets cold at night, we need to make it warmer for him. He's injured so he'll need food. Soup. Fish soup. Find some healing roots if you can.\"\n\n\"On it, brother!\" Gunner hurried away.\n\nHad I heard him correctly? I had been attacked by a bear-shifter? I never encountered a bear ... Wait. Something huge had struck me not too far outside the cave. That much I did remember, but I never saw what it had been.\n\nI wanted to snap fully awake to get a grip on reality, to discover the truth. I healed quickly or at least I always had in the past. But I'd never lost the feeling in my legs before. That concerned me.\n\nAfter I no longer heard the brothers talking, I tried to rise up again, but to no avail. I sobbed. Tears crested in my eyes and spilled down my cheeks. I couldn't stop their flow. Everything I held dear in my life was gone. First Momma, now Father, and Penelope ... she was sailing across the world to face a possible horde of demons alone. I feared I'd never see her again.\n\nI lay here, helpless and unable to move. I couldn't even talk. Had those who had chosen me to be a Hunter turned their backs on me? Was I cursed because I had kept Varak alive? Every step of our journey from London to Freiburg had been filled with misfortune, and as I had feared, a heavy price would be demanded for keeping the hybrid child alive. I couldn't image a heftier cost because my life was all I had left. Death would have been a blessing instead of suffering this anguish inside.\n\nLorcan had betrayed us. He was the reason Father was dead. The whole slay-his-enemy had been a scheme geared\u2014I reasoned\u2014to kill me because I was a Hunter. Perhaps Flora wasn't the only one who enjoyed torture games. I had been used as a gift offering to Ambrose from Lorcan. I doubted it was for peace, but Lorcan wanted to keep his children safe. For a vampire, there was no greater energy surge than for one to drink a Hunter's blood. But Ambrose had mentioned that he planned to turn me. Either way, had Ambrose succeeded, Lorcan had never intended for me to stake Ambrose. He knew the odds were too high for me and my father to be victorious. It was a suicide mission on our part.\n\nAlbert had offered to turn me into a were-rat on several occasions, insisting that I'd gain incredible strength and foresight by doing so. I had denied his offer each time. Now that I understood a bear were-creature might have attacked me, I hoped it was true. If there was one thing an angry bear possessed, it was rage. After all the sorrowful ordeals I had survived, my rage was building and longed to be released. Combining my rage with the rage of a massive bear, it would be far more magnified than I could ever hope to contain.\n\nThe events since we had left London flashed through my mind. My hot tears ceased, and for years to come, I didn't expect to experience the comfort of tears to soothe any of my inner emotional pains or loss. Coldness had suddenly frozen my tear well and slowly gripped my heart.\n\nYes, I hoped what Ian had predicted about the claw marks coming from a shifter was true. And if it were, I was about to evolve into something ruthless and unforgiving. I was going after Lorcan, his children, Ambrose and even Albert. There would be nothing to stop me. Each would suffer my rage. I'd pursue them to the ends of the earth if necessary, but I would find and slay each one.\n\nMy first transformation was two weeks away, if a bear shifter had actually infected me, and for some unexplained reason, I believed this to be true. Two weeks was a long time to fume over the atrocities others had committed against me and my family. When my rage eventually released, it would explode like a volcano. Ultimate destruction followed. A lot of undead and paranormal creatures were going to die at my hands. I'd never stop until I found each one of them and held them accountable for their transgressions.\n\nI had nothing else of value in this life except my soul. With the raging anger festering inside, I even dared Death to attempt his claim before I had satisfied my vengeance. For a while, his role would become my occupation. I'd bury those he had failed to remove from the earth and turn them to ash.\n\nIn the territories where the undead reigned, they'd fear my coming. Some vampires might stake themselves rather than face my wrath. As Jacques had mentioned almost a year earlier, my reputation eventually preceded me. While that might ultimately prove to be true, I hoped it occurred after my rage began to settle. The last thing I wanted was for Ambrose, Lorcan, or Albert to know I was coming for them. If Death could creep into homes unseen and unheard in the dead of night, perhaps I could do the same. The undead were about to witness their greatest unexpected nightmare. Me. But unlike Death, I'd show my enemies no mercy. They had taken from me, and now they'd know the ultimate price they'd pay.\n\nTHE END\n\n[Author's Note: The hardest part in writing this book was the death of Forrest's father after the two of them had finally gotten closer. However, in Succubus: Shadows of the Beast, where Forrest first appears (almost 120 years later), this is how he mentioned his father's passing. I knew John's fate when I started this book and dreaded when the scene took place. I shed tears, but Forrest's losses are what changes him and hardens his view against the undead even more. Due to all his losses, he undergoes a transformation that coincides with his character, not just physically, but mentally and spiritually as well. Internal hardships and struggles are what change all of us. Life isn't necessarily fair, or how we often wish it were. But whenever we come to a crossroads, we have a choice to make: Which path should I take? In this book, Forrest encountered a lot of crossroads. His decisions for each are what he must reflect for the rest of his life. While he cannot change them, he will learn from them.]\n\nForthcoming:\n\nForrest Wollinsky: Vampire Hunter [Blood Pact] Book 4\n\nForrest Wollinsky: Vampire Hunter [2016]\n\nForrest Wollinsky: Blood Mists of London [2016}\n\nForrest Wollinsky: Predestined Crossroads [2016]\n\nForrest Wollinsky: Blood Pact [Forthcoming]\n\nSuccubus: Shadows of the Beast\n\nRaven\n\nOther works by Leonard D. Hilley II:\n\nThe Predator of Darkness Series (Sci-fi suspense thrillers):\n\nPredators of Darkness: Aftermath\n\nBeyond the Darkness\n\nThe Game of Pawns\n\nDeath's Valley\n\nThe Deimos Virus: Target Earth\n\nThe Chronicles of Aetheaon Series (Epic Fantasy):\n\nShawndirea [Book One]\n\nLady Squire: Dawn's Ascension [Book Two]\n\nDevils Den\n\n# Don't miss out!\n\nClick the button below and you can sign up to receive emails whenever Leonard D. Hilley II publishes a new book. There's no charge and no obligation.\n\n<https:\/\/books2read.com\/r\/B-A-HXSB-FHUJ>\n\nConnecting independent readers to independent writers.\nAlso by Leonard D. Hilley II\n\nDee's Mystery Solvers\n\nDee\"s Mystery Solvers: Witch Cat\n\nForrest Wollinsky: Vampire Hunter\n\nForrest Wollinsky: Blood Mists of London\n\nForrest Wollinsky: Predestined Crossroads\n\nJustin McKnight Series\n\nDevils Den\n\nNocturnal Trinity\n\nSuccubus: Shadows of the Beast\n\nRaven\n\nThe Chronicles of Aetheaon\n\nShawndirea: Book One\n\nLady Squire: Dawn's Ascension\n\nThe Darkness Series\n\nPredators of Darkness: Aftermath\n\nBeyond the Darkness\n\nThe Game of Pawns\n\nDeath's Valley\n\nThe Deimos Virus: Target Earth\n\nStandalone\n\nForrest Wollinsky: Vampire Hunter\n\nPredators of Darkness Series [Books 1-3]\n\nWatch for more at Leonard D. Hilley II's site.\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
+{"text":" \n**NIKOLAI GOGOL,**  \ngeb. 1809 in der Ukraine, war von Kindheit auf ein eher kr\u00e4nklicher, unansehnlicher Zeitgenosse, der jeher dem Spott seiner Mitmenschen ausgesetzt war und als menschliches R\u00e4tsel galt. Die Versuche, eine Schauspiellaufbahn einzuschlagen und mit einer Verserz\u00e4hlung erfolgreich zu werden, schlugen fehl. Durch die Bekanntschaft mit dem bedeutenden russischen Dichter Alexander Puschkin bekam er die M\u00f6glichkeit Gelegenheitsjobs als Privatlehrer auszu\u00fcben und begann durch dessen wertvolle Impulse und Ideen Prosatexte zu schreiben. Sein erster ukrainisch-volkst\u00fcmlicher Erz\u00e4hlband _Abende auf dem Weiler_ bei Dikanka machten ihn schnell bekannt; ebenso beliebt wurde die Kom\u00f6die _Der Revisor_ und sein Hauptwerk _Die toten Seelen_. Aus religi\u00f6sem Wahn oder einer Psychose heraus begann er seine Werke anzuzweifeln, verbrannte das Manuskript des zweiten Teils _der toten Seelen_ und verweigerte schlie\u00dflich die Nahrungsaufnahme, die 1852 in Moskau zu seinem Tod f\u00fchrte.\n\n## Zum Buch\n\nEs sind wunderliche Sachen, die vor der st\u00e4dtischen Kulisse St. Petersburgs geschehen: Hunde, die eine Briefkorrespondenz f\u00fchren, eine Nase auf freiem Fu\u00df, ein M\u00e4ntel stehlendes Gespenst... Gogols literarische Welt ist grotesk, er verfremdet das, was uns eigentlich vertraut ist. Gegenst\u00e4nde werden personifiziert, Menschen verdinglicht. Das D\u00e4monische ist allseits pr\u00e4sent, Schein und Sein nie klar getrennt; zu entbl\u00f6\u00dfen versucht er es mit Humor und \u00dcberspitzungen im Erz\u00e4hlton. Ein scharfer und zugleich humoriger Blick auf die Gesellschaft St. Petersburgs in der ersten H\u00e4lfte des 19. Jahrhunderts.\n\nDie Petersburger Erz\u00e4hlungen versammeln:  \n _Der Mantel, Die Nase, Der Newskij-Prospekt,  \nDas Portr\u00e4t, Aufzeichnungen eines Irren_.\n\n\u00bbWir sind alle aus Gogols Mantel hervorgegangen\u00ab \u2013 diese Worte Dostojewskis machen die Bedeutung Gogols f\u00fcr die russische Literatur deutlich. Er leitet nicht nur die nat\u00fcrliche Schule ein, sondern ebnet auch die Wege zum russischen Surrealismus. Besonders auff\u00e4llig und eigen ist seine Kombination der Darstellung realistischer gesellschaftlicher Verh\u00e4ltnisse mit phantastischen und grotesken Elementen. Gogols Sarkasmus zielt auf die Schattenseiten des Menschen ab, nicht wenig davon generiert er aus sich selbst heraus: _\u00bbKeiner meiner Leser wu\u00dfte, da\u00df er, als er \u00fcber meine Helden lachte, \u00fcber mich gelacht hat... ich nahm irgendeine meiner schlechten Eigenschaften, verfolgte sie in einem anderen Stande oder Berufe, bem\u00fchte mich, sie mir als meinen Todfeind vorzustellen, der mir die empfindlichste Kr\u00e4nkung zugef\u00fcgt h\u00e4tte und setzte ihm nun mit Bosheit, Spott und allem was mir einfiel, zu.\u00ab_\n\n_\u00bbWie unmittelbar, wie stark ist Gogol! Das ist einfach begeisternd und nichts weiter. Er ist der gr\u00f6\u00dfte russische Schriftsteller.\u00ab_ Anton Tschechow\nNikolai Gogol\n\nPetersburger Erz\u00e4hlungen\nNikolai Gogol\n\n# Petersburger  \nErz\u00e4hlungen\n\nAus dem Russischen von  \nAlexander Eliasberg\n\n**Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek**  \nDie Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet \u00fcber https:\/\/dnb.d-nb.de abrufbar.\n\nEs ist nicht gestattet, Abbildungen und Texte dieses Buches zu scannen, in PCs oder auf CDs zu speichern oder mit Computern zu ver\u00e4ndern oder einzeln oder zusammen mit anderen Bildvorlagen zu manipulieren, es sei denn mit schriftlicher Genehmigung des Verlages.\n\nAlle Rechte vorbehalten\n\n\u00a9 by marixverlag in der Verlagshaus R\u00f6merweg GmbH, Wiesbaden 2015  \nDer Text basiert auf der Ausgabe marixverlag, Wiesbaden 2015  \nCovergestaltung: network! Werbeagentur GmbH, M\u00fcnchen  \nBildnachweis: Sergej Alexandrowitsch Alimow (*1938),  \nB\u00fchnenentwurf f\u00fcr den Film \u00bbDie Nase\u00ab von Nikolai Vassilievich Gogol.  \n1998\u20132001, Zentrales K\u00fcnstlerhaus, Moskau. Rechte bei dem K\u00fcnstler.  \neBook-Bearbeitung: Bookwire GmbH, Frankfurt am Main\n\nISBN: 978-3-8438-0484-4\n\nwww.verlagshaus-roemerweg.de\n_\u00bbWie seltsam, wie unfa\u00dfbar spielt doch unser Schicksal mit uns! Erlangen wir je das, was wir uns w\u00fcnschen? Erreichen wir das, wozu uns unsere Kr\u00e4fte zu bef\u00e4higen scheinen? Alles kommt immer anders.\u00ab_\n\nGogol, Aufzeichnungen eines Irren\n\n## INHALT\n\nDIE NASE\n\nDAS PORTR\u00c4T\n\nDER MANTEL\n\nDER NEWSKIJ-PROSPEKT\n\nAUFZEICHNUNGEN EINES IRREN\n\n## DIE NASE\n\n### I\n\nAm 25. M\u00e4rz geschah in Petersburg etwas ungew\u00f6hnlich Seltsames. Der Barbier Iwan Jakowlewitsch, der auf dem Wosnessenskij-Prospekt wohnte (sein Familienname ist in Vergessenheit geraten und selbst auf seinem Ladenschilde, das einen Herrn mit einer eingeseiften Wange und der Inschrift: \u00bbUnd wird auch zur Ader gelassen\u00ab darstellt, nicht erw\u00e4hnt), der Barbier Iwan Jakowlewitsch erwachte ziemlich fr\u00fch am Morgen und roch den Duft von warmem Brot. Er setzte sich im Bette auf und sah, wie seine Gattin, eine recht ehrenwerte Dame, die sehr gerne Kaffee trank, frischgebackene Brote aus dem Ofen nahm.\n\n\u00bbHeute m\u00f6chte ich keinen Kaffee, Praskowja Ossipowna,\u00ab sagte Iwan Jakowlewitsch, \u00bbstatt dessen m\u00f6chte ich warmes Brot mit Zwiebeln.\u00ab (Das hei\u00dft, Iwan Jakowlewitsch wollte wohl das eine und das andere, er wu\u00dfte aber, da\u00df es unm\u00f6glich war, beides auf einmal zu verlangen, denn Praskowja Ossipowna mochte solche Launen nicht.) \u2013 Soll nur der Dummkopf Brot essen, umso besser f\u00fcr mich, \u2013 sagte sich die Gattin: \u2013 so bleibt mehr Kaffee f\u00fcr mich \u00fcbrig. \u2013 Und sie warf ein Brot auf den Tisch.\n\nIwan Jakowlewitsch zog des Anstandes halber einen Frack \u00fcber sein Hemd, setzte sich an den Tisch, nahm etwas Salz, schnitt zwei Zwiebeln zurecht, ergriff das Messer, machte eine wichtige Miene und begann das Brot zu zerteilen. Als er es in zwei H\u00e4lften geschnitten hatte, blickte er hinein und sah darin zu seinem Erstaunen etwas Weibliches. Iwan Jakowlewitsch kratzte vorsichtig mit dem Messer und tastete mit dem Finger. \u2013 Es ist etwas Festes, \u2013 sagte er sich, \u2013 was kann es sein?\n\nEr bohrte mit den Fingern und zog \u2013 eine Nase heraus!... Iwan Jakowlewitsch lie\u00df die H\u00e4nde sinken; er fing an, sich die Augen zu reiben und es zu betasten: eine Nase, tats\u00e4chlich eine Nase! Sie kam ihm sogar bekannt vor. Iwan Jakowlewitschs Gesicht zeigte Entsetzen. Dieses Entsetzen war aber nichts im Vergleich mit der Emp\u00f6rung, die sich seiner Gattin bem\u00e4chtigte.\n\n\u00bbWo hast du diese Nase abgeschnitten, du Unmensch?\u00ab schrie sie ihn w\u00fctend an. \u00bbVerbrecher! Trunkenbold! Ich selbst werde dich bei der Polizei anzeigen. Du R\u00e4uber! Drei Herren haben mir schon gesagt, da\u00df du beim Rasieren so heftig an den Nasen ziehst, da\u00df sie fast abrei\u00dfen.\u00ab\n\nIwan Jakowlewitsch war aber mehr tot als lebendig: er erkannte, da\u00df die Nase dem Kollegien-Assessor Kowaljow geh\u00f6rte, den er jeden Mittwoch und Sonntag zu rasieren pflegte.\n\n\u00bbHalt, Praskowja Ossipowna! Ich will sie in einen Lappen einwickeln und in die Ecke legen: sie wird dort eine Zeitlang liegen, und dann trage ich sie weg.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbIch will davon nichts wissen! Niemals werde ich dulden, da\u00df in meiner Wohnung eine abgeschnittene Nase herumliegt!... Du angebrannter Zwieback, du! Du kannst nur mit dem Messer auf dem Streichriemen herumfahren, wirst aber bald deine Pflichten nicht mehr erf\u00fcllen k\u00f6nnen, du Taugenichts, du Vagabund! Soll ich mich vielleicht deinetwegen vor der Polizei verantworten?... Du Schmierfink, du Dummkopf! Hinaus mit ihr, hinaus! Trag sie, wohin du willst! Da\u00df ich von ihr nicht mehr h\u00f6re!\u00ab\n\nIwan Jakowlewitsch stand wie zerschmettert da. Er \u00fcberlegte und \u00fcberlegte und wu\u00dfte nicht, was er sich denken sollte. \u00bbWei\u00df der Teufel, wie das nur m\u00f6glich ist,\u00ab sagte er endlich und kratzte sich hinter dem Ohre: \u00bbOb ich gestern betrunken heimgekommen bin oder nicht, wei\u00df ich nicht mehr. Es scheint doch eine au\u00dfergew\u00f6hnliche Sache zu sein, denn das Brot ist etwas Gebackenes, die Nase aber etwas ganz anderes. Ich kann gar nichts verstehen!\u00ab Iwan Jakowlewitsch verstummte. Der Gedanke, da\u00df die Polizei bei ihm die Nase entdecken und ihn zur Verantwortung ziehen k\u00f6nnte, bedr\u00fcckte ihn furchtbar. Ihm schwebte schon ein roter, sch\u00f6n mit Silber gestickter Kragen und ein Degen vor... und er bebte am ganzen Leibe. Endlich griff er nach seinen Unterkleidern und seinen Stiefeln, zog sich an, wickelte die Nase, unter gewichtigen Ermahnungen Praskowja Ossipownas, in einen Lappen und trat auf die Stra\u00dfe.\n\nEr wollte sie entweder irgendwo liegen lassen, z.B. auf einem Pfosten vor einem Tore, oder sie wie zuf\u00e4llig verlieren und dann in eine Seitengasse einbiegen. Er begegnete aber ungl\u00fccklicherweise Bekannten, die ihn sofort fragten: \u00bbWohin gehst du?\u00ab oder: \u00bbWen willst du so fr\u00fch rasieren?\u00ab, und Iwan Jakowlewitsch konnte keinen geeigneten Augenblick erwischen. Einmal hatte er die Nase schon verloren, aber ein Schutzmann winkte ihm von weitem mit der Hellebarde und sagte: \u00bbHeb auf, was du weggeworfen hast!\u00ab Iwan Jakowlewitsch mu\u00dfte die Nase aufheben und in die Tasche stecken. Ihn \u00fcberfiel Verzweiflung, um so mehr, als das Publikum auf der Stra\u00dfe best\u00e4ndig zunahm, je mehr Gesch\u00e4fte und L\u00e4den ge\u00f6ffnet wurden.\n\nEr beschlo\u00df, zu der Isaaksbr\u00fccke zu gehen: vielleicht gelingt es ihm, die Nase in die Newa zu werfen?... Aber ich f\u00fchle mich schuldig, weil ich noch gar nichts \u00fcber Iwan Jakowlewitsch, diesen in vielen Beziehungen ehrenwerten Menschen, gesagt habe.\n\nIwan Jakowlewitsch war wie jeder ordentliche russische Handwerker ein furchtbarer Trunkenbold und, obwohl er jeden Tag fremde B\u00e4rte rasierte, immer unrasiert. Der Frack Iwan Jakowlewitschs (Iwan Jakowlewitsch trug niemals einen gew\u00f6hnlichen Rock) war gescheckt, d.h. schwarz, voller gelblichbrauner und grauer Flecken; der Kragen gl\u00e4nzte, und an Stelle von drei Kn\u00f6pfen waren nur F\u00e4dchen zu sehen. Iwan Jakowlewitsch war ein gro\u00dfer Zyniker, und wenn der Kollegien-Assessor Kowaljow ihm beim Rasieren sagte: \u00bbDeine H\u00e4nde stinken immer, Iwan Jakowlewitsch!\u00ab, so antwortete Iwan Jakowlewitsch mit der Frage: \u00bbWarum sollten sie stinken?\u00ab \u2013 \u00bbIch wei\u00df es nicht, mein Bester, aber sie stinken,\u00ab entgegnete der Kollegien-Assessor, worauf ihm Iwan Jakowlewitsch, nachdem er eine Prise genommen, die Wangen und die Stellen unter der Nase, hinter den Ohren und unter dem Kinne, kurz alles, was ihm einfiel, einseifte.\n\nDieser ehrenwerte B\u00fcrger stand schon auf der Isaaksbr\u00fccke. Er sah sich um, beugte sich dann \u00fcber das Gel\u00e4nder, als ob er sehen wollte, ob viele Fische unter der Br\u00fccke schwimmen, und warf das L\u00e4ppchen mit der Nase vorsichtig ins Wasser. Es war ihm, als h\u00e4tte er sich von einer Last von zehn Pud befreit. Iwan Jakowlewitsch l\u00e4chelte. Statt sich auf den Weg zu machen, um die Beamten zu rasieren, ging er auf ein Lokal mit der Inschrift auf dem Schilde: \u00bbSpeisen und Tee\u00ab zu, um sich ein Glas Punsch geben zu lassen, als er pl\u00f6tzlich am Ende der Br\u00fccke einen Revieraufseher von vornehmem Aussehen, mit breitem Backenbart, einem Dreimaster und einem Degen stehen sah. Iwan Jakowlewitsch erstarrte, aber der Revieraufseher winkte ihm mit dem Finger und sagte: \u00bbKomm mal her, mein Bester!\u00ab\n\nIwan Jakowlewitsch wu\u00dfte, was sich geh\u00f6rt: er zog schon von weitem die M\u00fctze, kam schnell heran und sagte: \u00bbIch begr\u00fc\u00dfe Euer Wohlgeboren!\u00ab\n\n\u00bbNein, nein, Bruder, nichts von Wohlgeboren, sag mir lieber, was du dort auf der Br\u00fccke gemacht hast!\u00ab\n\n\u00bbBei Gott, Herr, ich ging zum Rasieren und wollte nur nachsehen, ob das Wasser schnell flie\u00dft.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbDu l\u00fcgst, du l\u00fcgst, so kommst du mir nicht davon. Antworte bitte!\u00ab\n\n\u00bbIch will Euer Gnaden zwei-, sogar dreimal in der Woche unentgeltlich rasieren,\u00ab antwortete Iwan Jakowlewitsch.\n\n\u00bbNein, Freund, das sind Dummheiten! Ich werde schon so von drei Barbieren rasiert, und sie rechnen sich dies zur Ehre an. Sag mir lieber, was du dort getan hast!\u00ab\n\nIwan Jakowlewitsch erbleichte... Hier h\u00fcllen sich aber die Geschehnisse in einen Nebel, und es ist vollkommen unbekannt, was da weiter geschah.\n\n### II\n\nDer Kollegien-Assessor Kowaljow erwachte ziemlich fr\u00fch und machte mit seinen Lippen \u00bbBrrr...\u00ab, wie er es stets beim Erwachen tat, ohne den Grund daf\u00fcr angeben zu k\u00f6nnen. Kowaljow streckte sich und lie\u00df sich den kleinen Spiegel geben, der auf dem Tische stand. Er wollte sich den Pickel ansehen, der am Tage vorher auf seiner Nase erbl\u00fcht war; zu seinem gr\u00f6\u00dften Erstaunen sah er aber an Stelle der Nase eine vollkommen glatte Fl\u00e4che! Kowaljow erschrak, lie\u00df sich Wasser geben und rieb sich die Augen mit dem Handtuch: die Nase war wirklich weg! Er fing an, die Stelle mit der Hand zu bef\u00fchlen, kniff sich auch ins Fleisch, um festzustellen, ob er nicht schlafe: nein, er schlief wohl nicht. Der Kollegien-Assessor Kowaljow sprang aus dem Bette und sch\u00fcttelte sich \u2013 die Nase war noch immer weg!... Er lie\u00df sich sofort seine Kleider geben und machte sich auf den Weg, direkt zum Ober-Polizeimeister.\n\nIndessen mu\u00df ich aber einiges \u00fcber Kowaljow sagen, damit der Leser erfahre, welcher Art Kollegien-Assessor er war. Die Kollegien-Assessoren, die diesen Grad dank ihren Bildungszeugnissen erlangen, lassen sich gar nicht mit den Kollegien-Assessoren vergleichen, die es im Kaukasus geworden sind. Es sind zwei v\u00f6llig verschiedene Arten. Die gebildeten Kollegien-Assessoren... Ru\u00dfland ist aber ein sehr merkw\u00fcrdiges Land, und wenn man etwas \u00fcber einen Kollegien-Assessor sagt, so werden es alle Kollegien-Assessoren von Riga bis Kamtschatka unbedingt auf sich beziehen; ebenso ist es auch mit allen andern Titeln und Graden. Kowaljow war ein kaukasischer Kollegien-Assessor. Er bekleidete diesen Rang erst seit zwei Jahren und mu\u00dfte daher immer daran denken; um sich noch mehr Ansehen und Gewicht zu verleihen, nannte er sich niemals einfach Kollegien-Assessor, sondern stets Major. \u00bbH\u00f6r mal, meine Liebe,\u00ab sagte er zu einem Weibe, das auf der Stra\u00dfe Vorhemden feilbot: \u00bbKomm zu mir in die Wohnung; ich wohne in der Ssadowajastra\u00dfe, und frage blo\u00df nach dem Major Kowaljow \u2013 ein jeder wird es dir zeigen.\u00ab Begegnete er aber einer jungen Sch\u00f6nen, so gab er ihr au\u00dferdem einen geheimen Auftrag und f\u00fcgte hinzu: \u00bbFrag nur nach der Wohnung des Majors Kowaljow, mein Kind!\u00ab Aus diesem Grunde wollen auch wir den Kollegien-Assessor in Zukunft Major nennen.\n\nDer Major Kowaljow pflegte jeden Tag auf dem Newskij-Prospekt spazieren zu gehen. Sein Hemdkragen war stets au\u00dferordentlich sauber und sorgf\u00e4ltig gest\u00e4rkt. Sein Backenbart war von jener Art, wie ihn auch jetzt noch die Gouvernements- und Kreislandmesser, die Architekten und Regiments\u00e4rzte, auch die Beamten f\u00fcr verschiedene Auftr\u00e4ge tragen, \u00fcberhaupt alle M\u00e4nner, die volle und rote Wangen haben und sehr gut Boston spielen: dieser Backenbart geht mitten durch die Wange und reicht bis zu der Nase. Der Major Kowaljow trug an seiner Uhrkette eine Menge von Petschaften aus Karneol, die teils Wappen und teils Inschriften trugen, wie \u00bbMittwoch\u00ab, \u00bbDonnerstag\u00ab, \u00bbMontag\u00ab usw. Der Major Kowaljow war nach Petersburg in Gesch\u00e4ften gekommen, und zwar, um eine seinem Grade entsprechende Stellung zu suchen: wom\u00f6glich das Amt eines Vize-Gouverneurs, sonst aber das eines Exekutors an irgendeinem angesehenen Departement. Der Major Kowaljow war auch gar nicht abgeneigt zu heiraten, aber nur in dem Falle, wenn die Braut zweihunderttausend Rubel mitbek\u00e4me. Nun kann der Leser selbst urteilen, wie es diesem Major zumute war, als er statt seiner recht h\u00fcbschen und m\u00e4\u00dfig gro\u00dfen Nase eine ganz dumme, glatte Fl\u00e4che gewahrte.\n\nZum Ungl\u00fcck lie\u00df sich keine einzige Droschke auf der Stra\u00dfe blicken, und so mu\u00dfte er zu Fu\u00df gehen, in seinen Mantel geh\u00fcllt, das Gesicht mit dem Taschentuch verdeckt, als ob er Nasenbluten h\u00e4tte. \u2013 Vielleicht ist es mir nur so vorgekommen: es kann ja nicht sein, da\u00df die Nase so dumm verschwindet \u2013 dachte er sich und trat in eine Konditorei, um einen Blick in den Spiegel zu werfen. Gl\u00fccklicherweise waren in der Konditorei keine Besucher; die Kellner kehrten die Stuben und stellten die St\u00fchle auf; andere, mit verschlafenen Augen, trugen hei\u00dfe Pasteten herein; auf den Tischen und St\u00fchlen lagen die mit Kaffee begossenen Zeitungen vom gestrigen Tage. \u00bbGott sei Dank, es ist niemand da,\u00ab sagte er, \u00bbnun kann ich in den Spiegel schauen.\u00ab Er ging \u00e4ngstlich zum Spiegel und blickte hinein. \u00bbTeufel, so eine Gemeinheit!\u00ab sagte er und spie aus. \u00bbWenn doch an Stelle der Nase wenigstens etwas anderes w\u00e4re, aber so nichts, gar nichts!...\u00ab\n\nEr bi\u00df die Z\u00e4hne verdrie\u00dflich zusammen und trat aus der Konditorei auf die Stra\u00dfe, entschlossen, entgegen seiner Gepflogenheit niemand anzusehen und niemand zuzul\u00e4cheln. Pl\u00f6tzlich blieb er wie angewurzelt vor der Einfahrt eines Hauses stehen; vor seinen Augen geschah etwas Unfa\u00dfbares: vor der Einfahrt hielt eine Equipage, der Schlag wurde ge\u00f6ffnet, ein Herr in Uniform sprang geb\u00fcckt aus dem Wagen und eilte die Treppe hinauf. Wie gro\u00df war der Schreck und zugleich das Erstaunen Kowaljows, als er in ihm seine eigene Nase erkannte! Bei diesem ungew\u00f6hnlichen Anblick drehte sich alles vor seinen Augen um; er f\u00fchlte, da\u00df er kaum noch stehen k\u00f6nne; aber er entschlo\u00df sich, koste es was es wolle, zu warten, bis jener wieder in die Equipage steigen w\u00fcrde; dabei bebte er am ganzen Leibe wie im Fieber. Nach zwei Minuten trat die Nase wieder aus dem Hause. Sie trug eine goldgestickte Uniform mit hohem Stehkragen, Beinkleider aus S\u00e4mischleder und einen Degen an der Seite. An dem Hut mit dem Federbusch konnte man ersehen, da\u00df sie im Range eines Staatsrates stand. Alles wies darauf hin, da\u00df sie gerade Besuche machte. Sie sah nach rechts und nach links, rief dem Kutscher: \u00bbFahr zu!\u00ab, stieg ein und fuhr davon.\n\nDer arme Kowaljow war beinahe von Sinnen. Er wu\u00dfte nicht, was er von einem so seltsamen Ereignis denken sollte. Wie war es blo\u00df m\u00f6glich, da\u00df die Nase, die sich noch gestern in seinem Gesicht befunden hatte und die weder fahren noch gehen konnte, eine Uniform trug! Er lief der Equipage nach, die gl\u00fccklicherweise nicht weit fuhr und vor dem Kaufhause hielt.\n\nEr st\u00fcrzte ins Kaufhaus und dr\u00e4ngte sich durch die Reihe alter Bettelweiber mit verbundenen Gesichtern und zwei L\u00f6chern f\u00fcr die Augen, \u00fcber die er sich fr\u00fcher so oft lustig gemacht hatte. Im Kaufhause waren nur wenig Leute. Kowaljow war so aufgeregt, da\u00df er keinen Entschlu\u00df fassen konnte und nur nach jenem Herrn aussp\u00e4hte; endlich sah er ihn vor einem Laden stehen. Die Nase hielt ihr Gesicht in dem hohen Stehkragen verborgen und betrachtete mit tiefem Interesse irgendwelche Waren.\n\n\u2013 Wie soll ich sie ansprechen? \u2013 dachte sich Kowaljow. \u2013 An allem, an der Uniform und dem Hut ist zu erkennen, da\u00df sie im Range eines Staatsrates steht. Wei\u00df der Teufel, wie man das macht! \u2013\n\nEr fing an, zu h\u00fcsteln; die Nase verharrte aber in ihrer Stellung.\n\n\u00bbMein Herr,\u00ab sagte Kowaljow, sich innerlich Mut zusprechend: \u00bbMein Herr...\u00ab\n\n\u00bbWas w\u00fcnschen Sie?\u00ab fragte die Nase, indem sie sich umdrehte.\n\n\u00bbEs erscheint mir so merkw\u00fcrdig, mein Herr... ich denke... Sie sollten doch wissen, wo Sie hingeh\u00f6ren. Pl\u00f6tzlich finde ich Sie, und wo?... Sie werden doch zugeben...\u00ab\n\n\u00bbVerzeihen Sie, ich kann unm\u00f6glich verstehen, wovon Sie sprechen... Fassen Sie sich bitte klarer.\u00ab\n\n\u2013 Wie soll ich es ihr klar machen? \u2013 dachte sich Kowaljow. Dann fa\u00dfte er sich ein Herz und begann: \u00bbIch kann nat\u00fcrlich... \u00fcbrigens bin ich Major. Sie werden doch zugeben, da\u00df es sich f\u00fcr mich nicht schickt, ohne Nase zu sein. Eine H\u00e4ndlerin, die auf der Woskressenskij-Br\u00fccke gesch\u00e4lte Orangen verkauft, kann sich noch ohne Nase behelfen; aber ich, der ich die Aussicht auf eine Anstellung habe... und au\u00dferdem in vielen H\u00e4usern verkehre und mit Damen bekannt bin: mit der Frau Staatsrat Tschechtarjowa und anderen... Urteilen Sie selbst... Ich wei\u00df nicht, mein Herr (bei diesen Worten zuckte der Major Kowaljow die Achseln)... verzeihen Sie... wenn man es vom Standpunkte des Pflichtbewu\u00dftseins und des Ehrgef\u00fchls ansieht... Sie k\u00f6nnen es selbst verstehen...\u00ab\n\n\u00bbIch verstehe gar nichts,\u00ab antwortete die Nase. \u00bbFassen Sie sich klarer.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbMein Herr,\u00ab sagte Kowaljow mit W\u00fcrde, \u00bbich wei\u00df nicht, wie ich Ihre Worte auffassen soll... Die ganze Angelegenheit erscheint mir doch klar... oder Sie wollen nicht... Sie sind doch meine eigene Nase!\u00ab\n\nDie Nase sah den Major an und zog die Brauen zusammen.\n\n\u00bbSie t\u00e4uschen sich, mein Herr: ich lebe ganz f\u00fcr mich. Au\u00dferdem k\u00f6nnen zwischen uns keinerlei intime Beziehungen bestehen. Nach den Kn\u00f6pfen Ihrer Uniform zu schlie\u00dfen, geh\u00f6ren Sie zu einem ganz anderen Ressort.\u00ab Mit diesen Worten wandte sich die Nase von ihm weg.\n\nKowaljow war g\u00e4nzlich verwirrt und wu\u00dfte nicht, was er tun und sogar was er sich denken sollte. In diesem Augenblick h\u00f6rte er das angenehme Rascheln eines Damenkleides: eine \u00e4ltere Dame mit vielen Spitzen an der Toilette, n\u00e4herte sich ihm, von einem jungen M\u00e4dchen gefolgt. Letztere trug ein wei\u00dfes Kleid, das wundersch\u00f6n auf ihrer schlanken Figur sa\u00df, und einen gelben Hut, so leicht wie ein Schaumkuchen. Hinter ihnen stand ein baumlanger Haiduck mit m\u00e4chtigem Backenbart und einem ganzen Dutzend von Mantelkr\u00e4gen.\n\nKowaljow kam n\u00e4her. Er zog den Kragen seines Battisthemdes hervor, ordnete die Petschaften an seiner goldenen Uhrkette und wandte seine Aufmerksamkeit der grazi\u00f6sen jungen Dame zu, die gebeugt wie eine Fr\u00fchlingsblume, das wei\u00dfe H\u00e4ndchen mit den durchscheinenden Fingern an die Stirne f\u00fchrte. Kowaljow l\u00e4chelte noch heiterer, als er unter ihrem Hut ein rundliches, schneewei\u00dfes Kinn und einen Teil der in der Farbe der ersten Fr\u00fchlingsrosen leuchtenden Wange gewahrte; aber pl\u00f6tzlich prallte er zur\u00fcck, wie wenn er sich verbrannt h\u00e4tte. Er erinnerte sich, da\u00df er an Stelle der Nase absolut nichts mehr hatte, und Tr\u00e4nen entstr\u00f6mten seinen Augen. Er drehte sich um, um dem Herrn in der Uniform zu sagen, da\u00df er sich blo\u00df als Staatsrat verstelle, da\u00df er ein Spitzbube und ein Schuft sei und nichts weiter als seine eigene Nase... Die Nase war aber schon verschwunden: sie hatte sich verfl\u00fcchtigt, wahrscheinlich um noch einige Besuche zu machen.\n\nDies versetzte Kowaljow in Verzweiflung. Er ging zur\u00fcck und blieb eine Minute lang in der S\u00e4ulenhalle stehen, gespannt nach allen Seiten blickend, ob er die Nase nicht wieder finden w\u00fcrde. Er erinnerte sich sehr gut, da\u00df sie einen mit Federn geschm\u00fcckten Hut und eine goldgestickte Uniform trug; aber er hatte sich weder ihren Mantel, noch die Farbe der Equipage und der Pferde gemerkt und wu\u00dfte sogar nicht, ob hinten ein Lakai und in was f\u00fcr einer Livree gestanden hatte. Au\u00dferdem fuhren hier so viele Equipagen und so schnell vorbei, da\u00df es schwer war, sich eine zu merken; und selbst wenn er sie erkannt h\u00e4tte, w\u00e4re es ihm unm\u00f6glich, sie anzuhalten. Der Tag war sch\u00f6n und sonnig. Auf dem Newskij-Prospekt wimmelte es von Menschen; eine ganze Blumenkaskade von Damen wogte \u00fcber das Trottoir von der Polizei- bis zur Anitschkinbr\u00fccke. Da sieht er einen ihm bekannten Hofrat, den er, besonders in Gegenwart von Fremden, Oberstleutnant zu titulieren pflegt. Da ist Jaruschkin, Abteilungsvorstand im Senat, ein guter Freund von ihm, der im Bostonspiel immer verliert, wenn er acht spielt. Und da ist ein anderer Major, der seinen Assessorgrad im Kaukasus erworben hat und der ihn mit der Hand zu sich heranwinkt...\n\n\u00bbHol ihn der Teufel!\u00ab sagte Kowaljow: \u00bbHe, Kutscher, fahr mich direkt zum Polizeimeister!\u00ab\n\nKowaljow stieg in die Droschke und rief dem Kutscher jeden Augenblick zu: \u00bbFahr so schnell du kannst!\u00ab\n\n\u00bbIst der Polizeimeister anwesend?\u00ab fragte er, in den Flur tretend.\n\n\u00bbZu Befehl, nein,\u00ab antwortete der Portier: \u00bbDer Herr Polizeimeister sind eben ausgefahren.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbWas!\u00ab\n\n\u00bbJawohl,\u00ab f\u00fcgte der Portier hinzu: \u00bbEs ist zwar noch nicht lange her, aber er ist ausgefahren; w\u00e4ren Sie um eine Minute fr\u00fcher gekommen, so h\u00e4tten Sie ihn vielleicht noch erwischt.\u00ab\n\nKowaljow stieg, ohne das Taschentuch vom Gesicht zu nehmen, wieder in die Droschke und rief mit verzweifelter Stimme: \u00bbFahr zu!\u00ab\n\n\u00bbWohin?\u00ab fragte der Kutscher.\n\n\u00bbGeradeaus!\u00ab\n\n\u00bbWie, geradeaus? Hier mu\u00df man wenden: nach rechts oder nach links?\u00ab\n\nDiese Frage brachte Kowaljow zur Besinnung und zwang ihn, wieder nachzudenken. Er h\u00e4tte sich wohl vor allem an die Polizeiverwaltung wenden m\u00fcssen, nicht etwa weil seine Lage in irgendeiner direkten Beziehung zur Polizei st\u00fcnde, sondern weil die letztere ihre Anordnungen schneller treffen k\u00f6nnte, als irgendein anderes Ressort. Genugtuung von dem Ressort zu verlangen, in dem die Nase, nach ihrer Behauptung, diente, w\u00e4re unklug gewesen, da man schon aus den eigenen Worten der Nase ersehen konnte, da\u00df es f\u00fcr sie nichts Heiliges gab und sie auch in diesem Falle ebenso l\u00fcgen w\u00fcrde, wie sie schon gelogen hatte, als sie behauptete, Kowaljow noch nie gesehen zu haben. Kowaljow wollte schon dem Kutscher den Befehl geben, zur Polizeiverwaltung zu fahren, als ihm wieder der Gedanke kam, da\u00df dieser Gauner und Spitzbube, der sich schon bei der ersten Begegnung so gewissenlos benommen hatte, den g\u00fcnstigen Augenblick ben\u00fctzen und die Stadt verlassen k\u00f6nnte, \u2013 dann w\u00e4re alles Suchen vergebens, oder es k\u00f6nnte auch, Gott beh\u00fcte, einen ganzen Monat dauern. Endlich gab ihm wohl der Himmel selbst einen guten Gedanken. Er beschlo\u00df, sich an die Zeitungsexpedition zu wenden und rechtzeitig eine Anzeige aufzugeben mit genauer Personalbeschreibung der Nase, damit jeder, der ihr begegnete, sie ihm wiederbringen oder wenigstens ihren Aufenthaltsort angeben k\u00f6nnte. Als er diesen Entschlu\u00df gefa\u00dft hatte, befahl er dem Kutscher, nach der Zeitungsexpedition zu fahren; er bearbeitete w\u00e4hrend der ganzen Fahrt den R\u00fccken des Kutschers mit der Faust und feuerte ihn an: \u00bbSchneller, du Spitzbube! Schneller, du Schurke!\u00ab \u2013 \u00bbAch, Herr!\u00ab sagte der Kutscher, den Kopf sch\u00fcttelnd und sein Pferd, das langhaarig wie ein Bologneser war, mit dem Z\u00fcgel schlagend. Die Droschke hielt endlich, und Kowaljow st\u00fcrzte atemlos in ein kleines Zimmer, wo ein grauhaariger Beamter im alten Frack, mit einer Brille auf der Nase, hinter einem Tische sa\u00df und, einen G\u00e4nsekiel zwischen den Z\u00e4hnen, die eingenommenen Kupferm\u00fcnzen zahlte.\n\n\u00bbWo gibt man hier Anzeigen auf?\u00ab rief Kowaljow. \u00bbAh, guten Tag!\u00ab\n\n\u00bbMeine Hochachtung!\u00ab entgegnete der grauhaarige Beamte, die Augen hebend. Dann richtete er sie wieder auf die Geldhaufen.\n\n\u00bbIch habe eine Anzeige...\u00ab\n\n\u00bbEntschuldigen Sie, wollen Sie bitte etwas warten,\u00ab sagte der Beamte, indem er mit der Rechten eine Zahl auf das Papier schrieb und mit dem Finger der Linken zwei Kugeln auf dem Rechenbrett verschob. Ein galonnierter Lakai von einem recht sauberen \u00c4u\u00dferen das von einer langen Dienstzeit in einem aristokratischen Hause zeugte stand mit einem Zettel in der Hand neben dem Tisch und hielt es f\u00fcr angebracht, seine Bildung zu zeigen: \u00bbGlauben Sie es mir, mein Herr, der Hund ist keine achtzig Kopeken wert, d.h. ich w\u00fcrde f\u00fcr ihn auch keine vier Kopeken geben, aber die Gr\u00e4fin liebt ihn! Darum verspricht sie dem Finder hundert Rubel! Wenn man sich h\u00f6flich ausdr\u00fccken will, wie z.B. wir beide uns ausdr\u00fccken, so sind die Geschm\u00e4cker der Menschen ganz unberechenbar. Wenn man schon ein Hundeliebhaber ist, so halte man sich einen Jagdhund oder einen Pudel; man gebe f\u00fcnfhundert Rubel aus, man gebe sogar tausend Rubel aus, daf\u00fcr soll es aber ein guter Hund sein!\u00ab\n\nDer ehrenwerte Beamte h\u00f6rte ihm mit ernster Miene zu und z\u00e4hlte zugleich die Buchstaben auf dem Zettel, den der Lakai mitgebracht hatte. Rechts und links standen noch eine Menge alter Frauen, Handlungsgehilfen und Hausknechte mit Zetteln in den H\u00e4nden. Auf einem dieser Zettel hie\u00df es, da\u00df ein n\u00fcchterner Kutscher von seinem Besitzer in fremde Dienste gegeben werde; in einem anderen wurde eine wenig benutzte, im Jahre 1814 aus Paris mitgebrachte Equipage feilgeboten; hier wurde ein leibeigenes M\u00e4del von neunzehn Jahren, das waschen konnte und auch f\u00fcr andere Arbeiten taugte, ausgeschrieben; dort eine solide Droschke, an der eine der beiden Federn fehlte; ein junger, feuriger Apfelschimmel von siebzehn Jahren; neue, aus London bezogene R\u00fcben- und Radieschensamen; ein Landgut mit allem Zubeh\u00f6r: mit einem Stall f\u00fcr zwei Pferde und einem Platz, auf dem man einen prachtvollen Birken- oder Tannengarten anlegen konnte; eine Anzeige \u00fcber den Verkauf alter Stiefelsohlen nebst Aufforderung, sich zwischen 8 und 3 Uhr bei der Versteigerung derselben einzufinden. Das Zimmer, in dem sich diese ganze Gesellschaft befand, war klein und die Luft darin au\u00dferordentlich stickig; aber der Kollegien-Assessor Kowaljow konnte es nicht sp\u00fcren, da er sich das Taschentuch vors Gesicht hielt und auch, weil seine Nase sich Gott wei\u00df wo befand.\n\n\u00bbMein Herr, darf ich Sie bitten... Ich habe Eile...\u00ab sagte er schlie\u00dflich mit Ungeduld.\n\n\u00bbGleich, gleich!... Zwei Rubel dreiundvierzig Kopeken!... Einen Augenblick!... Ein Rubel vierundsechzig Kopeken!\u00ab sagte der grauhaarige Herr, indem er den alten Weibern und den Hausknechten die Zettel ins Gesicht warf. \u00bbWas w\u00fcnschen Sie?\u00ab fragte er endlich, sich an Kowaljow wendend.\n\n\u00bbIch bitte...\u00ab sagte Kowaljow: \u00bbes liegt ein Schwindel oder ein Betrug vor, \u2013 ich wei\u00df es noch nicht. Ich bitte Sie nur zu annoncieren, da\u00df derjenige, der mir diesen Spitzbuben herbeischafft, eine betr\u00e4chtliche Belohnung erhalten wird.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbDarf ich Sie fragen: wie ist Ihr Familienname?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbNein, was brauchen Sie meinen Familiennamen? Ich kann ihn nicht angeben. Ich habe viele Bekannte: die Frau Staatsrat Tschechtarjowa, die Frau Stabsoffizier Pelageja Grigorjewna Podtotschina... Wenn sie es, Gott beh\u00fcte, erfahren! Sie k\u00f6nnen einfach schreiben: ein Kollegien-Assessor oder noch besser: Ein Herr im Majorsrange.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbIst Ihnen ein Leibeigener entlaufen?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbAch was, Leibeigener! Das w\u00e4re noch keine so gro\u00dfe Gemeinheit! Mir ist die... Nase ausger\u00fcckt...\u00ab\n\n\u00bbHm! Ein sonderbarer Familienname! Hat Sie dieser Herr Nase um eine gro\u00dfe Summe bestohlen?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbDas hei\u00dft die Nase... Sie haben mich nicht richtig verstanden! Die Nase, meine eigene Nase ist unbekannt wohin verschwunden. Der Teufel hat mir einen Streich spielen wollen!\u00ab\n\n\u00bbJa, auf welche Weise ist sie verschwunden? Ich kann es nicht verstehen.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbAuch ich kann Ihnen nicht sagen, auf welche Weise; das Wichtigste aber ist, da\u00df sie jetzt in der Stadt umherf\u00e4hrt und sich Staatsrat tituliert. Darum bitte ich Sie zu annoncieren, da\u00df derjenige, der sie einfangen sollte, sie mir unverz\u00fcglich bringen m\u00f6chte. Bedenken Sie doch selbst: wie soll ich ohne diesen so wichtigen K\u00f6rperteil leben? Das ist doch keine kleine Zehe, die im Stiefel steckt und deren Fehlen kein Mensch bemerkt. Ich bin jeden Donnerstag bei der Frau Staatsrat Tschechtarjowa; die Frau Stabsoffizier Pelageja Grigorjewna Podtotschina, \u2013 sie hat ein h\u00fcbsches T\u00f6chterchen, \u2013 ist auch eine gute Bekannte von mir; urteilen Sie selbst, was soll ich jetzt machen... Ich kann mich doch bei diesen Damen unm\u00f6glich sehen lassen.\u00ab\n\nDer Beamte \u00fcberlegte sich den Fall: seine fest zusammengekniffenen Lippen wiesen darauf hin.\n\n\u00bbNein, ich kann eine solche Anzeige nicht einr\u00fccken,\u00ab sagte er endlich nach langem Schweigen.\n\n\u00bbWie? Warum?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbSo. Die Zeitung k\u00f6nnte um ihren guten Ruf kommen. Wenn jeder schreiben wollte, da\u00df ihm seine Nase ausger\u00fcckt sei, so... Man spricht auch so schon genug, da\u00df viel zu viele sinnlose und falsche Ger\u00fcchte gedruckt werden.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbWarum sollte denn diese Sache sinnlos sein? Ich kann es wirklich nicht einsehen...\u00ab\n\n\u00bbSie k\u00f6nnen es nicht einsehen. Aber in der vorigen Woche hatten wir folgenden Fall. Es kam ein Beamter, genau so wie Sie jetzt kommen, und brachte einen Zettel mit einer Anzeige, f\u00fcr die ihm zwei Rubel dreiundsiebzig Kopeken berechnet wurden; die Anzeige lautete, da\u00df ein schwarzer Pudel entlaufen sei. Man sollte doch meinen, es sei nichts dabei! Aber das Ganze war ein Pasquill: mit dem Pudel war der Kassierer, ich wei\u00df nicht mehr welcher Beh\u00f6rde, gemeint.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbMeine Anzeige handelt aber nicht von einem Pudel, sondern von meiner eigenen Nase; und das ist doch fast dasselbe wie wenn sie von mir selbst handelte.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbNein, eine solche Anzeige kann ich nicht aufnehmen.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbWenn ich aber wirklich die Nase verloren habe?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbWenn Sie sie verloren haben, so geht es einen Arzt an. Man sagt, es g\u00e4be solche, die einem eine beliebige Nase ansetzen k\u00f6nnen. Ich sehe \u00fcbrigens, da\u00df Sie ein lustiger Herr sind und in Gesellschaft gern scherzen.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbIch schw\u00f6re Ihnen, bei Gott! Wenn es nicht anders geht, so will ich es Ihnen zeigen.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbWarum die M\u00fche!\u00ab sagte der Beamte, indem er eine Prise nahm. \u00bbWenn es Ihnen \u00fcbrigens keine M\u00fche macht,\u00ab f\u00fcgte er neugierig hinzu, \u00bbso m\u00f6chte ich es mir doch anschauen.\u00ab\n\nDer Kollegien-Assessor nahm sich das Taschentuch vom Gesicht.\n\n\u00bbIn der Tat, sehr merkw\u00fcrdig!\u00ab sagte der Beamte: \u00bbDie Stelle ist so vollkommen glatt wie ein frischgebackener Pfannkuchen. Ganz unwahrscheinlich glatt!\u00ab\n\n\u00bbNun, jetzt werden Sie wohl nicht mehr widersprechen? Nun sehen Sie selbst, da\u00df Sie die Anzeige aufnehmen m\u00fcssen. Ich werde Ihnen sehr dankbar sein und bin froh, da\u00df diese Gelegenheit mir das Vergn\u00fcgen verschafft hat, Sie kennen zu lernen.\u00ab Der Major lie\u00df sich, wie man daraus ersehen kann, zu einer gemeinen Schmeichelei herab.\n\n\u00bbAbdrucken kann ich es wohl, das ist nicht schwer,\u00ab sagte der Beamte, \u00bbaber ich kann darin keinen Nutzen f\u00fcr Sie erblicken. Wenn Sie wollen, so lassen Sie es von jemand, der sich darauf versteht, als ein seltenes Naturereignis beschreiben und in der \u203aNordischen Biene\u2039 ver\u00f6ffentlichen (hier nahm er wieder eine Prise), zur Belehrung der Jugend (er schneuzte sich), oder zur allgemeinen Unterhaltung.\u00ab\n\nDer Kollegien-Assessor war nun ganz niedergeschlagen. Sein Blick fiel auf den unteren Teil des Zeitungsblattes, wo sich die Theateranzeigen befanden; er wollte schon l\u00e4cheln, als er auf den Namen einer h\u00fcbschen Schauspielerin stie\u00df, und seine Hand fuhr schon in die Tasche, um nachzusehen, ob er noch einen blauen Lappen habe, da doch Personen im Stabsoffiziersrange seiner Meinung nach nur im Parkett sitzen d\u00fcrfen; aber der Gedanke an die Nase verdarb alles!\n\nDer Beamte selbst schien durch die schwierige Lage Kowaljows ger\u00fchrt. Er wollte seinen Kummer wenigstens etwas lindern und hielt es f\u00fcr angebracht, seine Teilnahme in einigen Worten auszudr\u00fccken: \u00bbEs tut mir wirklich sehr leid, da\u00df Ihnen so etwas passiert ist. Wollen Sie nicht eine Prise nehmen? Dies hilft gegen Kopfweh und Melancholie; selbst gegen H\u00e4morrhoiden ist es gut.\u00ab Mit diesen Worten reichte der Beamte Kowaljow seine Tabaksdose, indem er den Deckel mit dem Bildnis einer hutgeschm\u00fcckten Dame sehr geschickt aufklappte.\n\nDiese un\u00fcberlegte Handlung brachte Kowaljow um seine Geduld. \u00bbIch verstehe nicht, wie Sie jetzt spa\u00dfen k\u00f6nnen,\u00ab sagte er erregt: \u00bbSehen Sie denn nicht, da\u00df mir gerade das fehlt, womit ich schnupfen k\u00f6nnte? Hol der Teufel Ihren Tabak! Ich kann ihn gar nicht sehen, nicht nur Ihren schlechten Beresin-Tabak, sondern selbst wenn Sie mir einen echten Rap\u00e9 angeboten h\u00e4tten!\u00ab Mit diesen Worten verlie\u00df er tief gekr\u00e4nkt die Zeitungsexpedition und begab sich zum Polizeikommiss\u00e4r.\n\nKowaljow kam zum Polizeikommiss\u00e4r in dem Augenblick, als dieser sich streckte und sagte: \u00bbAch, wie gut werde ich jetzt an die zwei Stunden schlafen!\u00ab Daraus kann man ersehen, da\u00df der Kollegien-Assessor ihm ziemlich ungelegen kam. Der Polizeikommiss\u00e4r war ein Besch\u00fctzer aller K\u00fcnste und Handwerke, zog aber eine Reichsbanknote allen anderen Dingen vor. \u00bbDas ist ein Gegenstand,\u00ab pflegte er zu sagen, \u00bbes gibt nichts Besseres als diesen Gegenstand: er braucht nicht gef\u00fcttert zu werden, er nimmt wenig Platz ein, findet in jeder Tasche Unterkunft und zerbricht nicht, wenn man ihn fallen l\u00e4\u00dft.\u00ab\n\nDer Polizeikommiss\u00e4r empfing Kowaljow ziemlich k\u00fchl und sagte, da\u00df die Zeit nach dem Mittagessen f\u00fcr eine Untersuchung nicht geeignet sei; die Natur selbst h\u00e4tte bestimmt, da\u00df der Mensch nach dem Essen ausruhen m\u00fcsse (der Kollegien-Assessor konnte daraus ersehen, da\u00df dem Polizeikommiss\u00e4r die Ausspr\u00fcche der Weisen des Altertums nicht unbekannt waren); einem ordentlichen Menschen werde aber niemand die Nase abbei\u00dfen.\n\nEr traf damit den wundesten Punkt. Es ist zu bemerken, da\u00df Kowaljow au\u00dferordentlich empfindlich war. Alles, was man \u00fcber ihn selbst sagte, konnte er noch verzeihen, er vergab aber nichts, was seinen Titel oder Dienstgrad verletzte. Er glaubte sogar, da\u00df in den Theaterst\u00fccken alles erlaubt sei, was sich auf die Subaltern-Offiziere bezieht, die Stabsoffiziere d\u00fcrfe man aber in keiner Weise antasten. Der Empfang durch den Polizeikommiss\u00e4r verwirrte ihn so, da\u00df er den Kopf sch\u00fcttelte, die H\u00e4nde etwas spreizte und, im Bewu\u00dftsein seiner W\u00fcrde, erkl\u00e4rte: \u00bbOffen gestanden, habe ich nach so beleidigenden \u00c4u\u00dferungen nichts mehr zu sagen...\u00ab Und mit diesen Worten ging er.\n\nEr kam nach Hause, m\u00fcde und abgespannt. Es dunkelte schon. So traurig und h\u00e4\u00dflich erschien ihm seine Wohnung nach all diesem vergeblichen Suchen. Als er ins Vorzimmer trat, erblickte er auf dem schmutzigen Ledersofa seinen Lakai Iwan; er lag auf dem R\u00fccken und spuckte auf die Zimmerdecke, wobei er ziemlich geschickt immer die gleiche Stelle traf. Diese Gleichg\u00fcltigkeit machte ihn rasend; er schlug ihn mit seinem Hute auf den Kopf und sagte: \u00bbSchwein, du machst immer Dummheiten!\u00ab\n\nIwan sprang sofort auf und beeilte sich, ihm aus dem Mantel zu helfen.\n\nDer Major trat m\u00fcde und traurig in sein Zimmer, lie\u00df sich in einen Sessel sinken und sagte endlich, nachdem er einigemal geseufzt hatte:\n\n\u00bbMein Gott! Mein Gott! Womit habe ich dieses Ungl\u00fcck verdient? Wenn mir ein Arm oder ein Bein fehlte, so w\u00e4re es immer noch besser; aber ohne die Nase ist der Mensch wei\u00df der Teufel was: kein Vogel und kein B\u00fcrger, man m\u00f6chte ihn einfach packen und zum Fenster hinauswerfen! H\u00e4tte man sie mir doch im Kriege abgeschnitten oder im Duell, oder h\u00e4tte ich es selbst verschuldet; sie ist aber um nichts und wieder nichts verschwunden, ganz dumm!... Aber nein, es kann nicht sein,\u00ab f\u00fcgte er nach einigem Nachdenken hinzu: \u00bbEs ist nicht wahrscheinlich, da\u00df eine Nase verschwinden kann, es ist ganz unwahrscheinlich. Ich tr\u00e4ume wohl, oder es kommt mir nur so vor; vielleicht habe ich aus Versehen statt Wasser den Branntwein getrunken, mit dem ich mir nach dem Rasieren das Kinn einreibe. Dieser dumme Iwan hat ihn nicht weggestellt, und so habe ich ihn wohl getrunken.\u00ab Um sich zu \u00fcberzeugen, da\u00df er nicht betrunken sei, kniff sich der Major so schmerzhaft ins Fleisch, da\u00df er selbst aufschrie. Dieser Schmerz \u00fcberzeugte ihn vollkommen davon, da\u00df er im Wachen handle und lebe. Er trat vorsichtig vor den Spiegel und machte erst die Augen zu in der Hoffnung, da\u00df die Nase vielleicht doch noch auf ihrem Platze erscheinen werde; aber im gleichen Augenblick taumelte er zur\u00fcck und sagte: \u00bbSo eine Karikatur!\u00ab\n\nEs war einfach unbegreiflich. Wenn ihm noch ein Knopf, ein silberner L\u00f6ffel, eine Uhr oder etwas \u00e4hnliches abhanden gekommen w\u00e4re, \u2013 aber so etwas und das in seiner eigenen Wohnung!... Der Major Kowaljow zog alle Umst\u00e4nde in Betracht und kam zum Schlu\u00df, das Wahrscheinlichste sei, da\u00df die Frau Stabsoffizier Podtotschina, die ihn gerne zum Schwiegersohn haben wollte, die Schuld am Ungl\u00fcck trage. Er selbst machte wohl dieser Tochter gerne den Hof, vermied aber die Konsequenzen. Als die Frau Stabsoffizier ihm unumwunden erkl\u00e4rte, da\u00df sie ihre Tochter mit ihm verheiraten wolle, zog er sich mit seinen Komplimenten vorsichtig zur\u00fcck, unter der Behauptung, da\u00df er zu jung sei und noch an die f\u00fcnf Jahre dienen m\u00fcsse, um genau zweiundvierzig Jahre alt zu werden. Darum hatte sich die Frau Stabsoffizier wohl aus Rachedurst entschlossen, sein \u00c4u\u00dferes zu verunstalten, und dies irgendeiner alten Hexe bestellt; es war ja auf keine Weise anzunehmen, da\u00df die Nase einfach abgeschnitten worden sei: niemand war in seinem Zimmer gewesen, und der Barbier Iwan Jakowlewitsch hatte ihn schon am Mittwoch rasiert; die Nase war aber am Mittwoch und sogar Donnerstag noch da \u2013 das wu\u00dfte er sehr genau; au\u00dferdem h\u00e4tte er doch einen Schmerz gesp\u00fcrt, und die Wunde w\u00e4re nicht so schnell zugeheilt und so glatt wie ein Pfannkuchen geworden. Er schmiedete Pl\u00e4ne: ob er die Frau Stabsoffizier in aller Form vors Gericht laden oder pers\u00f6nlich zu ihr gehen sollte, um sie zur Rechenschaft zu ziehen. Seine Gedanken wurden durch den Lichtschein unterbrochen, der in allen Ritzen der T\u00fcre aufleuchtete und ank\u00fcndigte, da\u00df Iwan die Kerze im Vorzimmer angez\u00fcndet hatte. Bald erschien Iwan selbst mit der Kerze in der Hand, die das Zimmer hell beleuchtete. Die erste Bewegung Kowaljows war, das Taschentuch zu ergreifen und die Stelle zu verh\u00fcllen, wo sich noch gestern die Nase befunden hatte, damit der dumme Kerl nicht das Maul aufrei\u00dfe, wenn er seinen Herrn in einem so sonderbaren Zustande s\u00e4he.\n\nIwan war noch nicht in seine Kammer gegangen, als im Vorzimmer eine unbekannte Stimme ert\u00f6nte: \u00bbWohnt hier der Kollegien-Assessor Kowaljow?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbTreten Sie n\u00e4her, der Major Kowaljow wohnt hier,\u00ab sagte Kowaljow, indem er aufsprang und die T\u00fcre \u00f6ffnete.\n\nHerein trat ein Polizeibeamter von sympathischem Aussehen, mit einem nicht zu hellen und nicht zu dunklen Backenbart und ziemlich vollen Wangen; es war derselbe, der zu Beginn unserer Erz\u00e4hlung am Ende der Isaaksbr\u00fccke gestanden hatte.\n\n\u00bbSie haben Ihre Nase zu verlieren geruht?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbGewi\u00df.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbSie ist gefunden worden.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbWas sagen Sie?\u00ab rief der Major Kowaljow. Er war vor Freude sprachlos. Er starrte den vor ihm stehenden Revieraufseher an, auf dessen vollen Lippen und Wangen der helle Widerschein des Kerzenlichtes zitterte. \u00bbAuf welche Weise?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbAuf eine h\u00f6chst sonderbare Weise: man hat sie kurz vor ihrer Abreise erwischt. Sie stieg eben in die Postkutsche, um nach Riga zu fahren. Sie hatte auch schon l\u00e4ngst einen auf den Namen irgendeines Beamten ausgestellten Pa\u00df in H\u00e4nden. Merkw\u00fcrdigerweise habe ich sie selbst erst f\u00fcr einen Herrn gehalten; zum Gl\u00fcck hatte ich aber meine Brille bei mir und merkte sofort, da\u00df es eine Nase war. Ich bin ja kurzsichtig, und wenn Sie vor mir stehen, so sehe ich wohl, da\u00df Sie ein Gesicht haben, kann aber die Nase und den Bart nicht unterscheiden. Meine Schwiegermutter, d.h. die Mutter meiner Frau, sieht ebenfalls nichts.\u00ab\n\nKowaljow geriet au\u00dfer sich. \u00bbWo ist sie denn? Wo? Ich will gleich hinlaufen.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbBem\u00fchen Sie sich bitte nicht. Ich wu\u00dfte, da\u00df Sie sie sehr vermissen, und habe sie darum gleich mitgebracht. Merkw\u00fcrdig ist auch, da\u00df der Hauptbeteiligte an dieser Sache der spitzb\u00fcbische Barbier aus der Wosnessenskij-Stra\u00dfe ist, der bereits im Arrest sitzt. Ich hatte ihn schon l\u00e4ngst der Trunksucht und Gaunerei verd\u00e4chtigt; erst vorgestern hat er in einem Laden ein Dutzend Kn\u00f6pfe gestohlen. Ihre Nase ist aber ganz unver\u00e4ndert.\u00ab Mit diesen Worten steckte der Revieraufseher die Hand in die Tasche und holte die in ein Papier eingewickelte Nase hervor.\n\n\u00bbJa, das ist sie!\u00ab rief Kowaljow. \u00bbJa, das ist sie! Trinken Sie doch mit mir heute ein T\u00e4\u00dfchen Tee!\u00ab\n\n\u00bbIch w\u00fcrde es f\u00fcr eine gro\u00dfe Ehre halten, aber es geht leider nicht: ich mu\u00df mich von hier sofort ins Zuchthaus begeben... Alle Lebensmittelpreise sind \u00fcbrigens betr\u00e4chtlich gestiegen... Ich habe aber meine Schwiegermutter, d.h. die Mutter meiner Frau, auf dem Halse und auch meine Kinder; der \u00c4lteste berechtigt zu den sch\u00f6nsten Hoffnungen und ist sehr klug; aber ich habe gar keine Mittel, um ihm eine ordentliche Erziehung zu geben...\u00ab\n\nAls der Revieraufseher gegangen war, verharrte der Kollegien-Assessor einige Minuten in einer seltsamen Gem\u00fctsverfassung und konnte fast nichts sehen oder f\u00fchlen: die pl\u00f6tzliche Freude hatte ihm fast das Bewu\u00dftsein geraubt. Er ergriff die wiedergefundene Nase vorsichtig mit beiden H\u00e4nden und sah sie noch einmal aufmerksam an.\n\n\u00bbJa, das ist sie! Ja, das ist sie!\u00ab sagte Major Kowaljow. \u00bbDa ist auch das Pickelchen links, das sich gestern gezeigt hat.\u00ab Der Major lachte fast vor Freude.\n\nAber auf dieser Welt ist nichts von Dauer, darum ist auch die Freude in der zweiten Minute niemals so lebhaft wie in der ersten; in der dritten Minute schwindet sie noch mehr und geht dann unmerklich in der gew\u00f6hnlichen Stimmung unter, wie auch der von einem ins Wasser geworfene Stein erzeugte Kreis schlie\u00dflich auf der glatten Oberfl\u00e4che verschwindet. Kowaljow wurde nachdenklich und begriff, da\u00df die Sache noch nicht erledigt war: die Nase ist wohl wieder da, aber man mu\u00df sie noch auf ihren Platz setzen.\n\n\u00bbWas, wenn sie nicht festsitzen wird?\u00ab\n\nBei dieser Frage, die er an sich selbst richtete, erbleichte der Major.\n\nMit einer unbeschreiblichen Angst st\u00fcrzte er zum Tisch und r\u00fcckte den Spiegel heran, um die Nase nicht schief anzusetzen. Seine H\u00e4nde zitterten. Ganz vorsichtig hielt er sie an den alten Platz. Oh, Schrecken! Die Nase wollte nicht halten!... Er f\u00fchrte sie an den Mund, erw\u00e4rmte sie ein wenig mit dem Atem und setzte sie wieder auf die glatte Stelle zwischen seinen Wangen: aber die Nase wollte nicht halten.\n\n\u00bbNa, na! Sitz doch, du Dumme!\u00ab sagt er zu ihr; die Nase war aber wie h\u00f6lzern, und wenn sie auf den Tisch fiel, gab es einen seltsamen Ton, als ob es ein St\u00fcck Kork w\u00e4re. Die Z\u00fcge Kowaljows verzerrten sich wie im Krampfe. \u00bbWird sie denn nicht anwachsen?\u00ab sagte er sich voller Angst. Aber so oft er sie auch an ihren Platz setzte, seine M\u00fche blieb immer erfolglos.\n\nEr rief Iwan und schickte ihn nach dem Arzt, der in der sch\u00f6nsten Wohnung im ersten Stock des gleichen Hauses wohnte. Der Arzt, ein stattlicher Mann, nannte einen wundersch\u00f6nen pechschwarzen Backenbart und eine frische, gesunde Gattin sein eigen, pflegte Morgens frische \u00c4pfel zu essen und hielt seinen Mund ungew\u00f6hnlich sauber: er sp\u00fclte ihn jeden Morgen fast dreiviertel Stunden lang und putzte die Z\u00e4hne mit B\u00fcrsten von f\u00fcnf verschiedenen Sorten. Der Arzt kam augenblicklich. Er erkundigte sich, vor wieviel Tagen das Ungl\u00fcck geschehen, ergriff den Major Kowaljow am Kinn und gab ihm mit dem Daumen einen Nasenst\u00fcber auf die Stelle, wo sich fr\u00fcher die Nase befunden hatte, so da\u00df der Major den Kopf in den Nacken warf und ihn ziemlich heftig an die Mauer schlug. Der Medikus erkl\u00e4rte, das habe nichts auf sich; er empfahl ihm, von der Wand wegzur\u00fccken und lie\u00df ihn den Kopf erst nach rechts neigen; er betastete die Stelle, wo fr\u00fcher die Nase gesessen hatte, sagte: \u00bbHm!\u00ab, lie\u00df ihn dann den Kopf nach links wenden, sagte wieder: \u00bbHm!\u00ab und gab ihm zum Schlu\u00df wieder einen Nasenst\u00fcber mit dem Daumen, so da\u00df der Major Kowaljow den Kopf zur\u00fcckwarf wie ein Gaul, dem man die Z\u00e4hne untersucht. Nach dieser Probe sch\u00fcttelte der Medikus den Kopf und sagte: \u00bbNein, es wird nicht gehen. Bleiben Sie lieber so wie Sie sind, sonst kann es noch schlimmer werden. Die Nase kann man wohl befestigen; ich k\u00f6nnte es sogar jetzt gleich tun, aber ich versichere Ihnen, es w\u00e4re f\u00fcr Sie schlimmer.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbDas ist ja wundersch\u00f6n! Wie soll ich ohne die Nase leben?\u00ab sagte Kowaljow. \u00bbSchlimmer als jetzt kann es doch nicht werden. Da soll doch der Teufel dreinfahren! Wo kann ich mich mit einem solchen Pasquillgesicht zeigen? Ich komme in gute Gesellschaft: auch heute abend mu\u00df ich zwei Besuche machen. Ich habe viele Bekannte: die Frau Staatsrat Tschechtarjowa, die Frau Stabsoffizier Podtotschina... wenn ich auch mit ihr jetzt nur noch durch Vermittlung der Polizei verkehre. Haben Sie Erbarmen!\u00ab fuhr Kowaljow mit flehender Stimme fort: \u00bbGibt es denn kein Mittel? Befestigen Sie sie doch irgendwie, wenn auch nicht gut, da\u00df sie nur irgendwie festsitzt; ich kann sie ja in schwierigen F\u00e4llen mit der Hand festhalten. Zudem tanze ich nicht und kann daher keine unvorsichtige Bewegung machen, die schaden k\u00f6nnte. Und was das Honorar f\u00fcr Ihren Besuch betrifft, so seien Sie versichert, da\u00df ich bereit bin, soweit es meine Mittel gestatten...\u00ab\n\n\u00bbGlauben Sie mir,\u00ab sagte der Arzt weder zu laut noch zu leise, doch au\u00dferordentlich \u00fcberzeugend und eindringlich: \u00bbich praktiziere nicht aus Habgier. Ich nehme f\u00fcr die Besuche wohl Geld, aber nur, um niemand durch die Weigerung zu kr\u00e4nken. Gewi\u00df, ich kann Ihnen die Nase wohl ansetzen; aber ich gebe Ihnen mein Ehrenwort, wenn Sie es mir so nicht glauben wollen, da\u00df es f\u00fcr Sie schlimmer w\u00e4re. Verlassen Sie sich auf das Walten der Natur. Waschen Sie die Stelle \u00f6fter mit kaltem Wasser, und ich versichere Ihnen, da\u00df Sie dann ohne Nase ebenso gesund sein werden, wie mit der Nase. Ich rate Ihnen, die Nase in Spiritus zu legen, oder, noch besser, zwei E\u00dfl\u00f6ffel starken Branntwein und warmen Essig hineinzutun \u2013 dann k\u00f6nnen Sie sie recht vorteilhaft verkaufen. Ich will sie Ihnen sogar selbst abnehmen, wenn Sie nicht zuviel verlangen.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbNein, nein! Ich verkaufe sie um nichts in der Welt!\u00ab schrie der Major Kowaljow verzweifelt: \u00bbDann soll sie schon lieber zugrunde gehen!\u00ab\n\n\u00bbVerzeihen Sie!\u00ab sagte der Arzt aufbrechend: \u00bbIch wollte Ihnen n\u00fctzlich sein... Was kann ich tun! Jedenfalls haben Sie meinen guten Willen gesehen.\u00ab Mit diesen Worten ging der Arzt in sch\u00f6ner Haltung aus dem Zimmer. Kowaljow hatte in seiner tiefen Erregung sein Gesicht gar nicht gesehen und nur die aus den \u00c4rmeln seines schwarzen Fracks hervorlugenden schneewei\u00dfen Manschetten bemerkt.\n\nAm n\u00e4chsten Tag entschlo\u00df er sich, bevor er eine Klage einreichte, der Frau Stabsoffizier zu schreiben: ob sie nicht bereit w\u00e4re, ihm kampflos das, was ihm geh\u00f6rte, zur\u00fcckzugeben. Der Brief lautete wie folgt:\n\n#### Sehr geehrte Alexandra Grigorjewna!\n\nIch kann Ihre Handlungsweise, die f\u00fcr einen Unbeteiligten so befremdend ist, unm\u00f6glich begreifen. Seien Sie versichert, da\u00df Sie, wenn Sie so handeln, gar nichts erreichen und mich keineswegs zwingen k\u00f6nnen, Ihre Tochter zu heiraten. Glauben Sie mir: die Geschichte mit der Nase ist mir gut bekannt, genau wie der Umstand, da\u00df Sie und niemand anders die Hauptschuldige sind. Das pl\u00f6tzliche Verschwinden derselben von ihrem Platze, ihre Flucht und ihr Auftauchen erst in der Gestalt eines Beamten, dann in ihrer eigenen Gestalt ist nur eine Folge der Hexereien, die von Ihnen oder von anderen, die sich gleich Ihnen mit dergleichen Dingen besch\u00e4ftigen, betrieben werden. Ich meinerseits halte es f\u00fcr meine Pflicht, Ihnen zu erkl\u00e4ren: wenn die erw\u00e4hnte Nase sich nicht noch heute auf ihrem Platze befindet, werde ich mich gezwungen sehen, den Schutz der Gesetze anzurufen.\n\nIm \u00fcbrigen verbleibe ich in vorz\u00fcglicher Hochachtung\n\nIhr ergebenster Diener  \nPlaton Kowaljow.\n\n#### Sehr geehrer Herr Platon Kusmitsch!\n\nIhr Brief hat mich in h\u00f6chstes Erstaunen versetzt. Ich mu\u00df Ihnen offen gestehen, da\u00df ich es von Ihnen niemals erwartet h\u00e4tte, am allerwenigsten aber Ihre ungerechten Anklagen. Ich versichere Ihnen, da\u00df ich den Beamten, von dem Sie sprechen, weder in einer Maskierung, noch in seiner wahren Gestalt bei mir empfangen habe. Mich hat wohl Philipp Iwanowitsch Potantschikow besucht. Er hat sich zwar wirklich um die Hand meiner Tochter beworben, aber ich habe ihm, obwohl er ein trefflicher, n\u00fcchterner Mensch und sehr gebildet ist, keinerlei Hoffnung gegeben. Sie sprechen auch noch von der Nase. Wenn Sie damit meinen, ich h\u00e4tte Ihnen eine Nase drehen, d.h. Sie abweisen wollen, so wundere ich mich, da\u00df Sie selbst davon sprechen, w\u00e4hrend ich, wie Sie selbst wissen, anderer Ansicht war: wenn Sie jetzt gleich in \u00fcblicher Form um die Hand meiner Tochter anhalten, so bin ich bereit, Ihren Wunsch zu erf\u00fcllen, denn dies war immer auch mein sehnlichster Wunsch. In dieser Hoffnung bin ich, stets zu Ihren Diensten,\n\nAlexandra Podtotschina.\n\n\u00bbNein,\u00ab sagte Kowaljow, als er den Brief gelesen, \u00bbsie ist unschuldig. Es kann nicht sein! Der Brief ist so abgefa\u00dft, wie ihn ein Mensch, der ein Verbrechen auf dem Gewissen hat, niemals abfassen kann.\u00ab Der Kollegien-Assessor verstand sich darauf, da er im Kaukasusgebiet schon \u00f6fters an gerichtlichen Untersuchungen teilgenommen hatte. \u00bbAuf welche Weise mag es so gekommen sein? Da kennt sich nur der Teufel aus!\u00ab sagte er zuletzt und lie\u00df die H\u00e4nde sinken.\n\nInzwischen hatte sich das Ger\u00fccht \u00fcber dieses au\u00dfergew\u00f6hnliche Ereignis in der ganzen Residenz verbreitet, und zwar, wie es so geht, nicht ohne gewisse Ausschm\u00fcckungen. Damals waren alle Geister f\u00fcr das \u00dcbersinnliche eingenommen: das Publikum hatte sich erst vor kurzem f\u00fcr die Versuche mit dem Magnetismus interessiert. Auch waren die tanzenden St\u00fchle in der Konjuschennaja-Stra\u00dfe noch so frisch in Erinnerung, da\u00df es nicht zu verwundern ist, da\u00df bald darauf das Ger\u00fccht aufkam, die Nase des Kollegien-Assessors Kowaljow spaziere um drei Uhr auf dem Newskij-Prospekt. Nun versammelte sich da jeden Tag eine Menge von Neugierigen. Jemand erz\u00e4hlte, die Nase halte sich im Junckerschen Kaufladen auf, und neben Juncker entstand ein solcher Auflauf, da\u00df sogar die Polizei einschreiten mu\u00dfte. Ein Spekulant von ehrw\u00fcrdigem Aussehen mit Backenbart, der vor dem Theater trockenes Geb\u00e4ck verkaufte, lie\u00df sch\u00f6ne, feste Holzb\u00e4nke anfertigen, auf denen die Neugierigen gegen Bezahlung von achtzig Kopeken stehen durften. Ein verdienter Oberst verlie\u00df eigens zu diesem Zweck seine Wohnung und dr\u00e4ngte sich mit M\u00fche durch die Menge; aber zu seiner gro\u00dfen Entr\u00fcstung sah er im Fenster des Kaufladens statt der Nase eine ganz gew\u00f6hnliche wollene Unterjacke und eine Lithographie, die ein junges M\u00e4dchen darstellte, das seinen Strumpf in Ordnung brachte, und einen Gecken mit modischer Weste und einem Spitzbart, der sie hinter einem Baume beobachtete, eine Lithographie, die seit mehr als zehn Jahren an der gleichen Stelle hing. Der Oberst drehte sich um und sagte emp\u00f6rt: \u00bbWie kann man nur mit solchen albernen und unwahrscheinlichen Ger\u00fcchten das Volk verwirren?\u00ab Sp\u00e4ter kam das Ger\u00fccht auf, da\u00df die Nase des Majors Kowaljow nicht auf dem Newskij-Prospekt, sondern im Taurischen Garten herumspaziere; sie befinde sich schon seit langer Zeit dort; auch Chosrew-Mirza habe, als er dort gewohnt, sich sehr \u00fcber dieses seltsame Naturspiel gewundert. Einige Studenten der Chirurgischen Akademie begaben sich dorthin. Eine vornehme und angesehene Dame wandte sich brieflich an den Aufseher des Gartens mit der Bitte, ihren Kindern dieses seltene Ph\u00e4nomen zu zeigen und, wenn m\u00f6glich, eine f\u00fcr die Jugend belehrende und n\u00fctzliche Erkl\u00e4rung zu geben.\n\nAlle diese Ereignisse waren den st\u00e4ndigen Besuchern der Empf\u00e4nge in der gro\u00dfen Welt, die die Damen gerne unterhielten und deren Material um jene Zeit ersch\u00f6pft war, ganz besonders angenehm. Eine Minderheit ehrenwerter und wohlgesinnter Leute aber war au\u00dferordentlich unzufrieden. Ein Herr sagte emp\u00f6rt, er k\u00f6nne nicht begreifen, wie sich blo\u00df in diesem aufgekl\u00e4rten Zeitalter derartige dumme Ger\u00fcchte verbreiten k\u00f6nnen, und er wundere sich nur, da\u00df die Regierung nicht einschreite. Dieser Herr war offenbar einer von denjenigen, die die Regierung in alle Dinge einmischen m\u00f6chten, sogar in ihre t\u00e4glichen Streitigkeiten mit ihren Gattinnen. Bald darauf... aber hier werden die Ereignisse wieder von einem Nebel verh\u00fcllt, und es ist unbekannt, was weiter geschah.\n\n### III\n\nIn dieser Welt kommen die unsinnigsten Dinge vor, zuweilen solche, die ganz unwahrscheinlich sind: dieselbe Nase, die als Staatsrat spazieren gefahren war und in der Stadt solches Aufsehen erregt hatte, befand sich pl\u00f6tzlich wieder, als ob nichts geschehen w\u00e4re, auf ihrem Platz, d.h. zwischen den beiden Wangen des Majors Kowaljow. Dies war schon am 7. April der Fall. Als der Major erwachte und in den Spiegel sah, erblickte er seine Nase! Er bef\u00fchlte sie mit der Hand, \u2013 es war wirklich die Nase! \u00bbAha!\u00ab sagte Kowaljow und wollte schon vor Freude barfu\u00df einen Tanz auff\u00fchren, wurde aber von Iwan, der gerade ins Zimmer trat, daran verhindert. Er lie\u00df sich sofort das Waschwasser bringen und sah beim Waschen wieder in den Spiegel \u2013 die Nase war da! Als er sich abtrocknete, sah er noch einmal in den Spiegel, \u2013 die Nase war da!\n\n\u00bbSchau mal her, Iwan, ich glaube da sitzt ein Pickelchen auf der Nase!\u00ab sagte er und dachte bei sich: \u2013 Was, wenn Iwan mir sagt: \u203aNein, Herr, es ist gar kein Pickelchen und auch keine Nase da!\u2039 \u2013\n\nIwan sagte aber: \u00bbEs ist kein Pickelchen da: die Nase ist ganz rein!\u00ab\n\n\u00bbSch\u00f6n ist es, hol mich der Teufel!\u00ab sagte der Major zu sich selbst und knipste mit den Fingern. In diesem Moment blickte der Barbier Iwan Jakowlewitsch ins Zimmer, aber so scheu wie eine Katze, die man eben wegen Entwendung eines St\u00fcckes Speck gez\u00fcchtigt hat.\n\n\u00bbSag es mir gleich: sind deine H\u00e4nde sauber?\u00ab schrie ihm Kowaljow schon von weitem zu.\n\n\u00bbJa, sie sind sauber.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbDu l\u00fcgst!\u00ab\n\n\u00bbBei Gott, sie sind sauber, Herr!\u00ab\n\n\u00bbNun, pa\u00df auf!\u00ab\n\nKowaljow setzte sich. Iwan Jakowlewitsch band ihm eine Serviette um und verwandelte in einem Augenblick sein ganzes Kinn und einen Teil seiner Wange mittels des Pinsels in eine Cr\u00e8me, wie man sie bei Namenstagsfeiern in Kaufmannsh\u00e4usern auftr\u00e4gt. \u00bbJa, sieh mal an!\u00ab sagte Iwan Jakowlewitsch zu sich selbst, indem er die Nase ansah; dann wandte er seinen Kopf und blickte die Nase von der Seite an. \u00bbSieh mal an! Wenn man es sich \u00fcberlegt,\u00ab fuhr er fort und betrachtete lange die Nase. Endlich hob er ganz leicht und mit der gr\u00f6\u00dften Vorsicht zwei Finger, um die Nasenspitze zu erwischen. Iwan Jakowlewitsch hatte schon einmal dieses System.\n\n\u00bbNa, na, pa\u00df auf!\u00ab rief Kowaljow. Iwan Jakowlewitsch lieh die H\u00e4nde sinken, verlor jeden Mut und wurde so verwirrt wie noch nie. Schlie\u00dflich fing er an, mit dem Rasiermesser ganz behutsam unter dem Kinn zu kitzeln, wie unbequem es auch war und wie schwer es ihm auch fiel, ohne den St\u00fctzpunkt auf dem Geruchsorgan zu rasieren; endlich \u00fcberwand er doch alle Hindernisse, indem er seinen rauhen Daumen gegen die Wange und den Unterkiefer stemmte, und rasierte den Major gl\u00fccklich zu Ende.\n\nAls alles fertig war, kleidete Kowaljow sich rasch an, mietete eine Droschke und fuhr in eine Konditorei. Beim Eintreten rief er schon von weitem: \u00bbKellner, eine Tasse Schokolade!\u00ab Dann lief er zum Spiegel: die Nase war da. Er wandte sich lustig um und musterte ironisch, mit einem Auge blinzelnd, zwei Offiziere, deren einer eine Nase kaum so gro\u00df wie einen Westenknopf hatte. Darauf begab er sich in die Kanzlei des Departements, in dem er sich um einen Vizegouverneurs-Posten, oder wenigstens um den eines Exekutors bewarb. Als er das Empfangszimmer durchschritt, blickte er in den Spiegel \u2013 die Nase war da. Dann besuchte er einen anderen Kollegien-Assessor, oder Major, einen gro\u00dfen Sp\u00f6tter, dem er schon mehr als einmal auf dessen sp\u00f6ttische Bemerkungen gesagt hatte: \u00bbIch kenne dich, du bist immer so giftig!\u00ab Unterwegs dachte er sich: \u2013 W\u00e4lzt sich der Major, wenn er mich sieht, nicht vor Lachen, so ist es ein sicherer Beweis daf\u00fcr, da\u00df alles sich auf seinem Platze befindet. \u2013 Aber der Kollegien-Assessor sagte nichts. \u00bbWie sch\u00f6n, hol mich der Teufel!\u00ab sagte Kowaljow zu sich selbst. Unterwegs begegnete er der Frau Stabsoffizier Podtotschina nebst Tochter; er machte eine Verbeugung und wurde mit freudigen Ausrufen begr\u00fc\u00dft; also war alles in bester Ordnung. Er unterhielt sich mit ihnen sehr lange, nahm sogar seine Tabaksdose aus der Tasche und stopfte sich absichtlich vor ihren Augen sehr lange Schnupftabak in beide L\u00f6cher, wobei er zu sich selbst sagte: \u00bbSeht ihr es, ihr dummen Hennen! Die Tochter werde ich aber doch nicht heiraten. So einfach, _par amour_ , dagegen, \u2013 mit Vergn\u00fcgen!\u00ab Von nun an zeigte sich der Major Kowaljow, als ob nichts vorgefallen w\u00e4re, auf dem Newskij-Prospekt, in den Theatern und \u00fcberall. Auch seine Nase sa\u00df, als w\u00e4re nichts vorgefallen, auf ihrem Platz und man konnte ihr nicht anmerken, da\u00df sie sich von ihm entfernt hatte. Man sah jetzt den Major Kowaljow immer in bester Laune; er l\u00e4chelte, verfolgte alle h\u00fcbschen Damen und blieb sogar einmal vor einem Laden im Gro\u00dfen Kaufhaus stehen und kaufte sich ein Ordensband; wozu er es kaufte, blieb unbekannt, denn er hatte gar kein Recht auf irgendeinen Orden.\n\nSo eine Geschichte hat sich in der nordischen Residenz unseres ausgedehnten Vaterlandes ereignet! Wenn wir uns jetzt alle Umst\u00e4nde \u00fcberlegen, sehen wir, da\u00df an ihr vieles unwahrscheinlich ist. Schon ganz abgesehen davon, da\u00df ein solches unnat\u00fcrliches Verschwinden einer Nase und ihr Auftauchen an verschiedenen Orten in der Gestalt eines Staatsrates sehr sonderbar ist, \u2013 wie konnte es Kowaljow nicht eingesehen haben, da\u00df man den Verlust einer Nase nicht gut durch die Zeitungsexpedition anzeigen kann? Ich will damit nicht gesagt haben, da\u00df er f\u00fcr die Anzeige zu teuer bezahlt h\u00e4tte; das ist unwesentlich, und ich bin gar nicht so habgierig; aber es ist unanst\u00e4ndig, unpassend, unsch\u00f6n! Und dann: wie ist die Nase in das gebakkene Brot geraten und was hatte Iwan Jakowlewitsch damit zu tun?... Nein, ich verstehe es nicht, absolut nicht! Was ich aber am allerwenigsten verstehe, ist, da\u00df sich ein Autor ein solches Thema w\u00e4hlen kann. Ich finde es, offen gestanden, ganz unbegreiflich! Das ist wirklich... Nein, nein, ich kann es nicht verstehen! Erstens bringt es auch nicht den geringsten Nutzen dem Vaterlande, zweitens... aber auch zweitens bringt es keinen Nutzen. Ich wei\u00df einfach nicht, was es ist...\n\nUnd doch, wenn man das eine, das andere und das dritte auch zugeben kann, sogar da\u00df... und wo gibt es keinen Unsinn? Wenn man es sich aber \u00fcberlegt, so steckt doch etwas dahinter. Man mag jagen, was man will, solche Ereignisse kommen wirklich vor, \u2013 selten, aber sie kommen vor.\n\n## DAS PORTR\u00c4T\n\n### I\n\nNirgends blieben so viele Menschen stehen wie vor dem kleinen Bilderladen im Schtschukinschen Kaufhause. Dieser Laden stellte in der Tat die bunteste Ansammlung von wunderlichen Dingen dar; die Bilder waren zum gr\u00f6\u00dften Teil mit \u00d6lfarben gemalt, mit einem dunkelgr\u00fcnen Lack \u00fcberzogen und steckten in dunkelgelben Rahmen aus unechtem Gold. Eine Winterlandschaft mit wei\u00dfen B\u00e4umen, ein knallroter Abend, der wie eine Feuersbrunst aussieht, ein fl\u00e4mischer Bauer mit einer Pfeife im Munde und einem gebrochenen Arm, mehr einem Truthahn in Manschetten als einem Menschen \u00e4hnlich, \u2013 das ist der Inhalt der meisten Bilder. Zu erw\u00e4hnen sind noch einige Portr\u00e4tstiche: das Bildnis des Chosrew-Mirza in einer Lammfellm\u00fctze, die Bildnisse irgendwelcher Gener\u00e4le mit schiefen Nasen in Dreimastern... Au\u00dferdem ist die Eingangst\u00fcre eines solchen Ladens gew\u00f6hnlich mit bunten volkst\u00fcmlichen Holzschnitten auf gro\u00dfen Bogen beh\u00e4ngt, die von der angeborenen Begabung des Russen zeugen. Eines dieser Bilder stellt die Prinzessin Miliktrissa Kirbitjewna dar, ein anderes die Stadt Jerusalem, \u00fcber deren H\u00e4user und Kirchen man ganz ungeniert mit roter Farbe gefahren ist, welche auch einen Teil der Erde und zwei betende russische Bauern in Fausthandschuhen mitgenommen hat. F\u00fcr alle diese Kunstwerke gibt es nur wenig K\u00e4ufer, daf\u00fcr eine Menge Zuschauer. Irgendein Nichtstuer von einem Lakaien steht vor ihnen mit der Wirtshausmenage in der Hand da und l\u00e4\u00dft seinen Herrn warten, der die Suppe sicher in einem nicht zu hei\u00dfen Zustande l\u00f6ffeln m\u00fcssen wird. Vor ihm steht ebenso sicher ein Soldat in einem Mantel, dieser Kavalier des Tr\u00f6delmarktes, der zwei Federmesser zu verkaufen hat; auch eine H\u00e4ndlerin aus der Ochta-Vorstadt mit einer Schachtel voller Schuhe ist dabei. Ein jeder ist auf seine Art entz\u00fcckt; die Bauern tippen gew\u00f6hnlich mit den Fingern auf die Bilder; die Kavaliere betrachten sie mit ernster Miene; die jungen Lakaien und die Lehrlinge lachen und necken einander mit den dargestellten Karikaturen; die alten Lakaien in den Friesm\u00e4nteln sehen sich die Bilder nur darum an, weil sie doch irgendwie die Zeit totschlagen m\u00fcssen; aber die H\u00e4ndlerinnen, die jungen russischen Weiber, eilen rein aus Instinkt her, um sich anzuh\u00f6ren, was sich das Volk erz\u00e4hlt, und um sich anzuschauen, was sich das Volk anschaut.\n\nUm diese Zeit blieb vor dem Laden der zuf\u00e4llig vorbeigehende junge Maler Tschartkow unwillk\u00fcrlich stehen. Der alte Mantel und der gar nicht elegante Anzug lie\u00dfen auf einen Menschen schlie\u00dfen, der sich mit Selbstaufopferung seiner Kunst ergeben hat und dem es an Zeit fehlt, um sich um seine Toilette zu k\u00fcmmern, die doch sonst f\u00fcr die Jugend einen geheimnisvollen Zauber hat. Er blieb vor dem Laden stehen und lachte erst innerlich \u00fcber die h\u00e4\u00dflichen Bilder. Schlie\u00dflich bem\u00e4chtigte sich seiner eine unwillk\u00fcrliche Nachdenklichkeit: er fragte sich, wer alle diese Kunstwerke brauchte. Da\u00df das russische Volk alle diese Prinzen Jeruslan Lasarewitschs, die \u00bbFresser\u00ab und \u00bbS\u00e4ufer\u00ab, die \u00bbFomas\u00ab und \u00bbJeremas\u00ab bewunderte, erschien ihm gar nicht sonderbar: die dargestellten Gegenst\u00e4nde waren dem Volke zug\u00e4nglich und verst\u00e4ndlich: wo blieben aber die K\u00e4ufer f\u00fcr die bunten, schmutzigen \u00d6lbilder? Wer brauchte diese fl\u00e4mischen Bauern, diese roten und blauen Landschaften, die einigen Anspruch auf eine h\u00f6here Stufe der Kunst erheben, die aber nur die tiefste Erniedrigung der Kunst spiegeln? Sie schienen durchaus nicht die Arbeiten eines kindlichen Autodidakten zu sein; sonst w\u00e4re in ihnen trotz der gef\u00fchllosen Karikiertheit des Ganzen ein starker innerer Drang zum Ausdruck gekommen. Aber man sah an ihnen nichts als Stumpfsinn und kraftlose, altersschwache Talentlosigkeit, die sich eigenm\u00e4chtig neben die wahre Kunst gestellt hat, w\u00e4hrend ihr nur ein Platz unter den niedrigen Handwerken zukommt; eine Talentlosigkeit, die aber ihrem Berufe treu geblieben ist und in die Kunst selbst das Handwerksm\u00e4\u00dfige hineingebracht hat. Die gleichen Farben, die gleiche Manier, die gleiche gewohnte Hand, die eher einem roh gebauten Automaten als einem Menschen anzugeh\u00f6ren scheint!...\n\nLange stand er vor diesen schmierigen Bildern, an die er zuletzt gar nicht mehr dachte, w\u00e4hrend der Besitzer des Ladens, ein farbloses M\u00e4nnchen in einem Friesmantel, mit einem seit dem letzten Sonntag nicht mehr rasierten Kinn, auf ihn seit geraumer Zeit einredete, mit ihm feilschte und den Preis ausmachte, ohne sich erst erkundigt zu haben, was ihm gefiel und was er brauchte. \u00bbF\u00fcr diese B\u00e4uerlein und f\u00fcr die kleine Landschaft verlange ich einen F\u00fcnfundzwanziger. Diese Malerei! Die blendet einfach den Blick! Die Bilder kommen direkt vom Markt, der Lack ist noch nicht trocken. Oder dieser Winter hier, nehmen Sie doch den Winter! F\u00fcnfzehn Rubel! Was der Rahmen allein schon wert ist! Ist das ein prachtvoller Winter!\u00ab Der H\u00e4ndler schnellte mit den Fingern gegen die Leinwand, als wollte er auf diese Weise die G\u00fcte des Winters zeigen. \u00bbBefehlen Sie, da\u00df ich die Bilder zusammenbinde und Ihnen nachschicke? Wo geruhen Sie zu wohnen? Heda, Junge, eine Schnur her!\u00ab\n\n\u00bbWart einmal, Bruder, nicht so schnell,\u00ab sagte der Maler, gleichsam zu sich kommend, als er sah, da\u00df der flinke H\u00e4ndler die Bilder in allem Ernst zusammenband. Er genierte sich ein wenig, nichts zu kaufen, nachdem er so lange im Laden gestanden hatte; darum sagte er: \u00bbWart einmal, ich will nachsehen, ob sich nicht hier etwas f\u00fcr mich findet!\u00ab Er b\u00fcckte sich und fing an, die auf dem Boden aufgeh\u00e4uften abgeriebenen und verstaubten alten Bilder aufzuheben, die hier offenbar nicht den geringsten Respekt genossen. Es waren alte Familienportr\u00e4ts von Menschen, deren Nachkommen sich wohl auf der ganzen Welt nicht mehr finden lie\u00dfen; v\u00f6llig unkenntliche Darstellungen auf zerrissener Leinwand; Rahmen, von denen die Vergoldung abgefallen war; mit einem Worte allerlei altes Ger\u00fcmpel. Aber der Maler sah sich die Sachen dennoch an, indem er sich heimlich dachte: \u00bbVielleicht l\u00e4\u00dft sich hier doch etwas finden.\u00ab Er hatte mehr als einmal geh\u00f6rt, wie man bei solchen kleinen H\u00e4ndlern zuweilen Bilder gro\u00dfer Meister entdeckte.\n\nAls der Ladenbesitzer sah, f\u00fcr welche Dinge der Kunde sich interessierte, nahm er wieder seine gew\u00f6hnliche Haltung an, stellte sich w\u00fcrdevoll vor die Ladent\u00fcr und begann die Vor\u00fcbergehenden in sein Gesch\u00e4ft zu locken, indem er mit der einen Hand ins Innere des Ladens wies: \u00bbHierher, V\u00e4terchen! Hier sind Bilder! Treten Sie nur ein! Sind soeben vom Markte gekommen.\u00ab Er hatte sich schon fast heiser geschrien, zum gr\u00f6\u00dften Teil fruchtlos; er hatte sich auch zur Gen\u00fcge mit dem vor der T\u00fcr seines Ladens gegen\u00fcber stehenden Lumpenh\u00e4ndler unterhalten, als er sich pl\u00f6tzlich erinnerte, da\u00df er in seinem Laden noch einen Kunden hatte; nun wandte er dem Publikum den R\u00fccken zu und begab sich ins Innere des Ladens. \u00bbNun, V\u00e4terchen, haben Sie sich schon etwas ausgesucht?\u00ab Der Maler stand aber schon seit geraumer Zeit unbeweglich vor einem Bildnis in einem m\u00e4chtigen, einst wohl prunkvollen Rahmen, auf dem hier und da noch Reste der Vergoldung gl\u00e4nzten.\n\nDas Portr\u00e4t stellte einen alten Mann mit bronzefarbenem, welkem, breitknochigem Gesicht dar; die Gesichtsz\u00fcge schienen im Augenblick einer krampfartigen Bewegung erfa\u00dft zu sein und zeugten von einem gar nicht nordischen Temperament: der gl\u00fchende S\u00fcden spiegelte sich in ihnen. Der Alte war in ein weites asiatisches Gewand geh\u00fcllt. Wie besch\u00e4digt und verstaubt das Portr\u00e4t auch war, erkannte Tschartkow, sobald er das Gesicht vom Staube gereinigt hatte, die Spuren der Arbeit eines gro\u00dfen K\u00fcnstlers. Das Portr\u00e4t schien unvollendet; die Kraft des Pinselstriches war aber erstaunlich. Am ungew\u00f6hnlichsten waren die Augen; der K\u00fcnstler schien auf sie die ganze Kraft seines Pinsels und seine ganze Sorgfalt verwendet zu haben. Die Augen sahen einen buchst\u00e4blich an, sie schauten sogar aus dem Bild selbst heraus und durchbrachen durch ihre ungew\u00f6hnliche Lebendigkeit die Harmonie des ganzen Bildes. Als er das Portr\u00e4t zu der T\u00fcr brachte, sahen die Augen noch durchdringender. Fast den gleichen Eindruck machten sie auf das drau\u00dfen stehende Volk. Eine Frau, die hinter ihm stehengeblieben war, rief: \u00bbEr schaut, er schaut!\u00ab und wich zur\u00fcck. Auch Tschartkow selbst empfand ein unangenehmes, ihm selbst unverst\u00e4ndliches Gef\u00fchl und stellte das Bild auf den Boden.\n\n\u00bbNun, nehmen Sie doch das Portr\u00e4t!\u00ab sagte der H\u00e4ndler.\n\n\u00bbWas soll es kosten?\u00ab fragte der K\u00fcnstler.\n\n\u00bbWas soll ich daf\u00fcr viel verlangen? Geben Sie mir drei Viertelrubel daf\u00fcr!\u00ab\n\n\u00bbNein.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbWas geben Sie denn?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbZwanzig Kopeken,\u00ab sagte der K\u00fcnstler und schickte sich zum Gehen an.\n\n\u00bbWas Sie mir f\u00fcr einen Preis bieten! F\u00fcr zwanzig Kopeken werden Sie nicht einmal den Rahmen bekommen! Sie haben wohl die Absicht, es morgen zu kaufen? Herr, Herr, kommen Sie zur\u00fcck! Schlagen Sie wenigstens zehn Kopeken auf. Nun, nehmen Sie es, nehmen Sie es, geben Sie die zwanzig Kopeken her. Ich gebe es, nur um den Anfang zu machen, nur weil Sie heute der erste K\u00e4ufer sind.\u00ab Darauf machte er eine Handbewegung, die zu sagen schien: \u00bbFort mit Schaden!\u00ab\n\nSo hatte Tschartkow ganz unerwartet das alte Portr\u00e4t gekauft; dabei dachte er sich: \u00bbWozu habe ich es gekauft? Was brauche ich es?\u00ab Es war aber nichts mehr zu machen. Er holte aus der Tasche ein Zwanzigkopekenst\u00fcck, gab es dem H\u00e4ndler, nahm das Portr\u00e4t unter den Arm und schleppte es mit sich fort. Unterwegs erinnerte er sich, da\u00df das Zwanzigkopekenst\u00fcck, das er hergegeben hatte, sein letztes war. Seine Gedanken verd\u00fcsterten sich pl\u00f6tzlich, \u00bbHol's der Teufel! Ekelhaft ist es auf dieser Welt!\u00ab sagte er sich mit dem Gef\u00fchl eines Russen, dem es schlecht geht. Und er eilte fast mechanisch mit schnellen Schritten, gleichg\u00fcltig gegen alles auf der Welt. Der halbe Himmel war noch vom roten Licht des Abendrots umfangen, die nach Westen schauenden H\u00e4user waren noch schwach von seinem warmen Licht \u00fcbergossen, aber das kalte, bl\u00e4uliche Licht des Mondes schien immer greller. Halb durchsichtige leichte Schatten, die von den H\u00e4usern und den Menschenbeinen geworfen wurden, legten sich als Schweife auf den Boden. Der Maler fing schon an, den Himmel zu bewundern, der von einem eigent\u00fcmlichen, durchsichtigen, feinen, Ungewissen Licht \u00fcbergossen war, und seinen Lippen entfuhren fast gleichzeitig die Worte: \u00bbWas f\u00fcr ein zarter Ton!\u00ab und \u00bbEs ist \u00e4rgerlich, hol's der Teufel!\u00ab Er r\u00fcckte das Bild, das unter seinem Arm rutschte, zurecht und beschleunigte die Schritte.\n\nM\u00fcde und schwei\u00dfbedeckt erreichte er seine Behausung in der f\u00fcnfzehnten Linie der Wassiljewskij-Insel. Mit M\u00fche und schwer atmend stieg er die mit Schmutzwasser \u00fcbergossene und mit Spuren von Hunden und Katzen gezierte Treppe hinauf. Auf sein Klopfen bekam er keine Antwort: sein Diener war nicht zu Hause. Er lehnte sich ans Fenster und wartete geduldig, bis hinter ihm endlich die Schritte seines Burschen in blauem Hemd ert\u00f6nten \u2013 seines Dieners, Modells, Farbenreibers und Bodenkehrers, der \u00fcbrigens die B\u00f6den gleich nach dem Kehren mit seinen Stiefeln wieder beschmutzte. Der Bursche hie\u00df Nikita und pflegte die ganze Zeit, wo sein Herr nicht zu Hause war, vor dem Tore zu verbringen. Nikita gab sich lange Zeit M\u00fche, mit dem Schl\u00fcssel ins Schl\u00fcsselloch zu geraten, das infolge der Dunkelheit unsichtbar war. Endlich war die T\u00fcr aufgemacht. Tschartkow trat in sein Vorzimmer, in dem es unertr\u00e4glich kalt war, wie es bei allen Malern zu sein pflegt, was sie \u00fcbrigens nicht merken. Ohne Nikita seinen Mantel zu geben, trat er in sein Atelier, ein quadratisches, gro\u00dfes, doch niederes Zimmer mit zugefrorenen Fensterscheiben, das mit allerlei k\u00fcnstlerischem Ger\u00fcmpel angef\u00fcllt war: St\u00fccken von Gipsarmen, mit Leinwand bespannten Rahmen, angefangenen und aufgegebenen Skizzen und einer \u00fcber die St\u00fchle geworfenen Draperie. Er war sehr m\u00fcde; er legte den Mantel ab, stellte das mitgebrachte Portr\u00e4t zwischen zwei kleine Bilder und warf sich auf das schmale Sofa, von dem man nicht sagen konnte, da\u00df es mit Leder bezogen w\u00e4re; die Reihe der Messingn\u00e4gel, die einst das Leder festgehalten hatten, prangten schon l\u00e4ngst ganz f\u00fcr sich, w\u00e4hrend das Leder gleichfalls ganz f\u00fcr sich blieb, so da\u00df Nikita darunter die schmutzigen Str\u00fcmpfe, Hemden und die ganze schmutzige W\u00e4sche zu verwahren pflegte. Nachdem Tschartkow eine Weile gesessen und gelegen hatte, soweit es das schmale Sofa \u00fcberhaupt erlaubte, verlangte er schlie\u00dflich nach einer Kerze.\n\n\u00bbEs ist keine Kerze da,\u00ab sagte Nikita.\n\n\u00bbWieso ist keine da?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbEs war ja auch gestern keine da,\u00ab sagte Nikita. Der Maler erinnerte sich, da\u00df es gestern tats\u00e4chlich keine Kerze gegeben hatte; er beruhigte sich und verstummte. Dann lie\u00df er sich entkleiden und zog seinen stark abgetragenen Schlafrock an.\n\n\u00bbJa noch etwas, der Hausherr ist dagewesen,\u00ab sagte Nikita.\n\n\u00bbSo, er wollte wohl das Geld holen? Ich wei\u00df es,\u00ab entgegnete der Maler und winkte wegwerfend mit der Hand.\n\n\u00bbEr ist aber nicht allein dagewesen,\u00ab sagte Nikita.\n\n\u00bbMit wem denn?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbIch wei\u00df nicht, mit wem... Mit irgendeinem Revieraufseher.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbWas wollte denn der Revieraufseher?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbIch wei\u00df nicht, was er wollte; er sagte, die Miete sei noch immer nicht bezahlt.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbWas soll denn daraus werden?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbIch wei\u00df nicht, was daraus werden soll; er sagte: \u203aWenn er nicht zahlen will, so soll er ausziehen.\u2039 Sie wollten beide morgen wiederkommen.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbSollen sie nur kommen,\u00ab sagte Tschartkow mit trauriger Gleichg\u00fcltigkeit, und die tr\u00fcbe Stimmung bem\u00e4chtigte sich seiner nun g\u00e4nzlich.\n\nDer junge Tschartkow war ein Maler mit einem Talent, das viel versprach: sein Pinsel zeigte zuweilen blitzartig eine feine Beobachtungsgabe, Intelligenz und einen starken Drang, der Natur nahezukommen. \u00bbPa\u00df auf, Bruder,\u00ab hatte ihm sein Professor mehr als einmal gesagt: \u00bbDu hast Talent, und es w\u00e4re S\u00fcnde, wenn du es zugrunde richtetest; dir fehlt aber Geduld; wenn dich etwas anzieht, wenn dir irgend etwas gef\u00e4llt, so bist du davon ganz hingerissen, und alles andere ist f\u00fcr dich Mist, alles andere ist dir nichts wert, und du willst es nicht mehr anschauen. Pa\u00df auf, da\u00df aus dir kein modischer Maler wird: deine Farben sind schon jetzt schreiend, deine Zeichnung ist nicht streng genug und zuweilen sogar ganz schwach, die Linie ist nicht zu sehen; du jagst der neumodischen Beleuchtung nach, Effekten, die zu allererst in die Augen springen, \u2013 pa\u00df auf, da\u00df du nicht in die englische Manier verf\u00e4llst. Nimm dich in acht: die gro\u00dfe Welt zieht dich schon jetzt an; ich sehe dich oft ein elegantes Halstuch tragen oder auch einen gl\u00e4nzenden Hut... Es ist allerdings verlockend, man kann sich leicht herablassen, modische Bildchen und Portr\u00e4ts des Geldes wegen zu malen; dabei geht aber das Talent zugrunde, statt sich zu entfalten. Habe Geduld! \u00dcberlege dir jede Arbeit; gib die Eleganz auf, \u2013 sollen nur die andern Geld verdienen, deine Zukunft wird dir nicht entgehen!\u00ab\n\nDer Professor hatte zum Teil recht. Unser Maler sp\u00fcrte zuweilen wirklich das Verlangen, ein wenig \u00fcber die Schnur zu hauen und elegant aufzutreten, mit einem Worte hie und da seine Jugend zu zeigen; dabei hatte er sich aber doch in seiner Gewalt. Zuweilen war er im Stande, wenn er einmal den Pinsel ergriffen, alles \u00fcbrige zu vergessen und sich von der Arbeit nicht anders als von einem sch\u00f6nen, unterbrochenen Traum loszurei\u00dfen. Sein Geschmack entwickelte sich zusehends. Er hatte noch kein Verst\u00e4ndnis f\u00fcr die ganze Tiefe eines Raffael, begeisterte sich aber schon f\u00fcr den schnellen, breiten Pinselstrich eines Guido Reni, blieb zuweilen vor den Bildnissen Tizians stehen und bewunderte die Flamen. Das Dunkel, das die alten Bilder h\u00fcllt, hatte sich vor ihm noch nicht ganz gelichtet; aber er ahnte schon etwas in diesen Bildern, obwohl er innerlich seinem Professor nicht zustimmen konnte, da\u00df die alten Meister so unerreichbar hoch \u00fcber uns st\u00fcnden: er glaubte sogar, das neunzehnte Jahrhundert h\u00e4tte sie in manchen Dingen erheblich \u00fcberholt; die Nachahmung der Natur sei in der letzten Zeit farbiger, lebhafter und getreuer geworden; mit einem Worte, er urteilte so, wie die Jugend zu urteilen pflegt, die schon etwas erfa\u00dft hat und sich dessen mit Stolz bewu\u00dft ist. Zuweilen \u00e4rgerte er sich, wenn er sah, wie irgendein zugereister Maler, ein Franzose oder Deutscher, der manchmal sogar kein K\u00fcnstler aus innerem Berufe war, nur durch seine flotte Manier, die geschickte Pinself\u00fchrung und die Leuchtkraft der Farben allgemeines Aufsehen erregte und in einem Augenblick ein ganzes Verm\u00f6gen verdiente. Solche Gedanken kamen ihm aber in den Sinn, nicht wenn er ganz von seiner Arbeit hingerissen, Speise und Trank und die ganze Welt verga\u00df, sondern wenn an ihn die Not herantrat, wenn er kein Geld hatte, um sich Pinsel und Farben zu kaufen, und wenn der zudringliche Hausherr zehnmal am Tage kam, um das Geld f\u00fcr die Wohnung zu mahnen. In solchen Augenblicken besch\u00e4ftigte sich seine hungrige Phantasie mit dem beneidenswerten Los eines reichen Malers; dann kam ihm sogar der Gedanke, der so oft einen russischen Kopf zu durchzukken pflegt: alles aufzugeben und sich vor Kummer allem zum Trotz ganz dem Trunke zu ergeben.\n\n\u00bbJa, habe Geduld, habe Geduld!\u00ab sagte er ge\u00e4rgert. \u00bbAuch die Geduld hat einmal ein Ende. Habe Geduld! Womit soll ich aber morgen mein Essen bezahlen? Niemand wird mir doch etwas borgen. Und wenn ich meine Bilder und Zeichnungen verkaufe, so wird man mir f\u00fcr alles zwanzig Kopeken geben. Allerdings habe ich von allen diesen Arbeiten einen Nutzen gehabt: eine jede von ihnen ist nicht umsonst unternommen worden, bei jeder habe ich doch auch etwas gelernt. Aber was habe ich davon? Es sind nur Studien und Versuche, und es werden immer nur Studien und Versuche bleiben und kein Ende nehmen. Wer wird sie kaufen, solange mein Name unbekannt ist? Wer braucht auch die Zeichnungen nach der Antike, die Aktstudien, oder meine unvollendete liebe \u203aPsyche\u2039, oder die perspektivische Ansicht meines Zimmers, oder das Portr\u00e4t meines Nikita, obwohl es unvergleichlich besser ist als die Portr\u00e4ts irgendeines modischen Malers? Was denke ich mir noch? Warum qu\u00e4le ich mich und m\u00fche mich wie ein Sch\u00fcler mit dem Abc ab, w\u00e4hrend ich wohl im Stande bin, mich wie mancher andere hervorzutun und Geld zu verdienen?\u00ab\n\nAls der Maler diese Worte gesprochen, mu\u00dfte er pl\u00f6tzlich erzittern und erbleichen: ihn starrte hinter einem der Bilderrahmen ein krampfhaft verzerrtes Gesicht an: zwei schreckliche Augen bohrten sich in ihn, als wollten sie ihn auffressen; auf dem Munde stand der schreckliche Befehl geschrieben, zu schweigen. Er wollte vor Entsetzen aufschreien und Nikita rufen, der im Vorzimmer bereits ein lautes Schnarchen ert\u00f6nen lie\u00df, hielt aber pl\u00f6tzlich inne und fing zu lachen an: die Angst war im Nu gewichen; es war das neuangeschaffte Portr\u00e4t, das er inzwischen schon vergessen hatte. Das Mondlicht, das das Zimmer f\u00fcllte, fiel auf das Bild und verlieh ihm eine seltsame Lebendigkeit. Er fing an, das Bild zu betrachten und zu reinigen. Er tauchte einen Schwamm ins Wasser, fuhr damit einigemal \u00fcber die Leinwand, wusch damit den Staub und den Schmutz ab, die sich auf dem Bilde festgesetzt hatten, h\u00e4ngte es vor sich an die Wand und mu\u00dfte sich noch mehr \u00fcber die ungew\u00f6hnliche Arbeit wundern: das ganze Gesicht war fast lebendig, und die Augen blickten ihn so durchdringend an, da\u00df er zuletzt zusammenfuhr, zur\u00fcckwich und erstaunt ausrief: \u00bbEr schaut, er schaut mit Menschenaugen!\u00ab Pl\u00f6tzlich fiel ihm eine Geschichte ein, die er einmal vor langer Zeit von seinem Professor geh\u00f6rt hatte, die Geschichte von einem Portr\u00e4t des ber\u00fchmten Lionardo da Vinci, an dem der gro\u00dfe Meister mehrere Jahre gearbeitet hatte und das er immer noch f\u00fcr unvollendet hielt, w\u00e4hrend es die andern, nach dem Berichte Vasaris, f\u00fcr das vollkommenste und vollendetste hielten. Am vollendetsten waren darin die Augen, \u00fcber die die Zeitgenossen staunten: selbst die allerkleinsten, kaum sichtbaren \u00c4derchen waren nicht vernachl\u00e4ssigt und auf die Leinwand gebannt. Aber in diesem Portr\u00e4t, das jetzt vor ihm stand, war etwas Ungew\u00f6hnliches. Das war schon keine Kunst mehr, das zerst\u00f6rte sogar die Harmonie des Bildes selbst; es waren lebendige, es waren menschliche Augen! Sie schienen aus dem Gesicht eines lebendigen Menschen herausgeschnitten und in das Bild eingesetzt zu sein. Hier fehlte jener hohe Genu\u00df, der die Seele beim Anblick eines wahren Kunstwerkes erfa\u00dft, wie schrecklich auch der dargestellte Gegenstand sein mag; hier empfand man ein krankhaftes, peinigendes Gef\u00fchl. \u00bbWas ist das?\u00ab fragte sich unwillk\u00fcrlich der K\u00fcnstler: \u00bbEs ist immerhin die Natur, die lebendige Natur; woher kommt dann dieses sonderbare, unangenehme Gef\u00fchl? Oder ist die sklavische, genaue Nachahmung der Natur schon ein Vergehen und erscheint als ein gellender, unharmonischer Aufschrei? Oder wirkt der Gegenstand, wenn man ihn ohne Teilnahme und Sympathie, ganz gef\u00fchllos erfa\u00dft, immer nur als eine erschreckende Wirklichkeit, ohne von der unfa\u00dfbaren Idee, die allen Dingen innewohnt, durchleuchtet zu sein, wirkt als jene Wirklichkeit, die man vor sich hat, wenn man, um einen sch\u00f6nen Menschen zu erfassen, nach dem Messer des Anatomen greift, sein Inneres blo\u00dflegt und einen absto\u00dfenden Menschen erblickt? Warum erscheint die einfache, gemeine Natur bei dem einen Maler so erleuchtet, da\u00df man durchaus keinen gemeinen Eindruck hat; im Gegenteil, man glaubt sogar einen Genu\u00df zu haben und nachher alle Dinge um sich ruhiger und gleichm\u00e4\u00dfiger dahinflie\u00dfen zu sehen? Und warum erscheint die gleiche Natur bei einem anderen Maler so gemein und schmutzig, obwohl er ihr ebenso treu ist wie der andere? Aber nein, nein, nein es ist nichts Erleuchtendes in ihr. Es ist ganz wie eine Landschaft in der Natur: sie mag noch so gro\u00dfartig sein, aber es fehlt ihr immer etwas, wenn keine Sonne am Himmel steht.\u00ab\n\nEr ging wieder auf das Portr\u00e4t zu, um diese wunderlichen Augen n\u00e4her zu betrachten, und merkte mit Schrecken, da\u00df sie ihn wirklich ansahen. Es war keine Kopie der Natur mehr; es war jene seltsame Lebendigkeit, von der das Gesicht eines aus dem Grabe auferstandenen Toten erf\u00fcllt sein mag. War es das Mondlicht, das Tr\u00e4ume mit sich bringt und alles in eine andere Gestalt kleidet, die den Gestalten des positiven Tages entgegengesetzt ist, oder hatte es einen anderen Grund, \u2013 jedenfalls war es ihm pl\u00f6tzlich, er wu\u00dfte selbst nicht warum, schrecklich, allein im Zimmer zu sitzen. Er trat still vom Portr\u00e4t weg, wandte sich um und bem\u00fchte sich, es nicht mehr anzusehen, aber seine Augen schielten immer wieder unwillk\u00fcrlich hin. Zuletzt war es ihm sogar unheimlich, im Zimmer auf und ab zu gehen: es schien ihm, da\u00df gleich jemand anders anfangen w\u00fcrde, hinter ihm auf und ab zu gehen, und er sah sich jedesmal \u00e4ngstlich um. Er war niemals feige gewesen; aber seine Phantasie und seine Nerven waren sehr empfindlich, und an diesem Abend h\u00e4tte er sich auch selbst seine unwillk\u00fcrliche Angst nicht erkl\u00e4ren k\u00f6nnen. Er setzte sich in einen Winkel, aber auch hier war es ihm, als w\u00fcrde ihm gleich jemand \u00fcber seine Schulter ins Gesicht blicken. Selbst das Schnarchen Nikitas, das aus dem Vorzimmer her\u00fcberklang, vermochte seine Angst nicht zu verscheuchen. Schlie\u00dflich erhob er sich \u00e4ngstlich, ohne die Augen zu heben, von seinem Platz, ging hinter den Bettschirm und legte sich aufs Bett. Durch die Ritzen im Bettschirm sah er sein vom Mondlicht erleuchtetes Zimmer und das direkt vor ihm h\u00e4ngende Portr\u00e4t. Die Augen bohrten sich noch schrecklicher, noch bedeutungsvoller in ihn und schienen nur ihn allein anschauen zu wollen. Von einem beklemmenden Gef\u00fchl erdr\u00fcckt, entschlo\u00df er sich, vom Bett aufzustehen, ergriff ein Laken, ging auf das Portr\u00e4t zu und h\u00fcllte es ganz ein.\n\nNachdem er dies getan, legte er sich etwas beruhigt ins Bett und begann \u00fcber die Armut und das elende Los des K\u00fcnstlers nachzudenken und \u00fcber den dornenvollen Pfad, der ihm in diesem Leben bevorstand; indessen blickten aber seine Augen unwillk\u00fcrlich durch die Ritze im Bettschirm auf das in das Laken geh\u00fcllte Portr\u00e4t. Das Mondlicht lie\u00df die Leinwand noch wei\u00dfer erscheinen, und es schien ihm, als fingen die schrecklichen Augen an, durch das Laken hindurchzuleuchten. Entsetzt blickte er hin, als wollte er sich \u00fcberzeugen, da\u00df es nur Einbildung sei. Aber in der Tat... er sieht, er sieht es klar: das Laken ist nicht mehr da... das Portr\u00e4t ist ganz aufgedeckt und schaut an allem vorbei direkt auf ihn, blickt in sein Inneres... Es wurde ihm kalt ums Herz. Und er sieht: der Alte r\u00fchrt sich und st\u00fctzt sich mit beiden H\u00e4nden gegen den Rahmen, streckt beide Beine heraus und springt aus dem Bilde... Durch die Ritze im Bettschirm ist nur noch der leere Rahmen zu sehen. Im Zimmer t\u00f6nen Schritte, die immer n\u00e4her und n\u00e4her an den Bettschirm kommen! Dem armen Maler klopft furchtbar das Herz. Mit vor Angst verhaltenem Atem erwartet er, da\u00df der Alte gleich zu ihm hinter dem Bettschirm hereinblicken w\u00fcrde. Da blickt er auch schon wirklich hinter den Bettschirm, es ist das gleiche bronzefarbene Gesicht mit den gro\u00dfen Augen. Tschartkow versuchte aufzuschreien, f\u00fchlte aber, da\u00df er keine Stimme hatte, er versuchte sich zu r\u00fchren, irgendeine Bewegung zu machen, aber seine Glieder wollten sich nicht regen. Mit offenem Munde und stokkendem Atem blickte er auf das seltsame lange Phantom in dem weiten asiatischen Talar und wartete, was es wohl anfangen w\u00fcrde. Der Alte setzte sich fast zu seinen F\u00fc\u00dfen hin und holte dann etwas aus den Falten seines weiten Gewandes. Es war ein Sack. Der Greis band ihn auf, ergriff die beiden Zipfel und sch\u00fcttelte ihn: mit dumpfem Klirren fielen schwere lange Rollen auf den Boden; eine jede war in blaues Papier gewickelt und mit der Inschrift \u00bb1000 Dukaten\u00ab versehen. Der Alte streckte seine langen knochigen H\u00e4nde aus den weiten \u00c4rmeln heraus und fing an, die Rollen aufzuwickeln. Das Gold blitzte auf. Wie gro\u00df auch die schwere Beklemmung und die bewu\u00dftlose Angst des Malers waren, richtete er doch seine Blicke auf das Gold und beobachtete regungslos, wie es von den knochigen H\u00e4nden aufgewickelt wurde, wie es leuchtete, fein und dumpf klirrte und dann wieder ins Papier eingerollt wurde. Da bemerkte er eine Rolle, die weiter als die anderen bis dicht an das Bettbein an seinem Kopfende gerollt war. Fast krampfhaft griff er danach und sah zugleich voller Angst, ob der Alte es nicht bemerkt h\u00e4tte. Der Alte schien aber sehr besch\u00e4ftigt; er packte alle seine Rollen zusammen, tat sie wieder in den Sack und ging, ohne Tschartkow anzublicken, hinter den Bettschirm. Tschartkows Herz klopfte heftig, als er h\u00f6rte, wie sich die schl\u00fcrfenden Schritte durch das Zimmer entfernten. Er dr\u00fcckte, am ganzen Leibe zitternd, die Rolle in der Hand fest zusammen und h\u00f6rte pl\u00f6tzlich, wie die Schritte sich wieder dem Bettschirm n\u00e4herten: der Alte hatte offenbar bemerkt, da\u00df ihm eine der Rollen fehlte. Da blickte er wieder zu ihm hinter den Schirm. Der Maler dr\u00fcckte seine Rolle voller Verzweiflung mit aller Kraft zusammen, machte eine krampfhafte Anstrengung, schrie auf \u2013 und erwachte.\n\nEr war ganz in kalten Schwei\u00df gebadet; sein Herz schlug so heftig, wie es \u00fcberhaupt schlagen konnte; seine Brust war beengt, als ob ihr der letzte Atemzug entweichen wollte. \u00bbWar es denn nur ein Traum?\u00ab fragte er sich, indem er sich mit beiden H\u00e4nden an den Kopf fa\u00dfte. Aber die entsetzliche Lebendigkeit der Erscheinung hatte so gar nichts von einem Traume. Er sah schon in wachem Zustande, wie der Alte in seinen Rahmen zur\u00fcckkehrte, er sah sogar den Saum seines weiten Gewandes vorbeihuschen, und seine Hand f\u00fchlte ganz deutlich, da\u00df sie vor einem Augenblick etwas Schweres gehalten hatte. Das Mondlicht durchflutete sein Zimmer und lie\u00df in dessen dunklen Ecken hier eine Leinwand, dort einen Gipsarm und eine auf einem Stuhle zur\u00fcckgelassene Draperie, hier eine Hose und dort ein Paar ungeputzte Stiefel hervortreten. Nun merkte er erst, da\u00df er nicht mehr im Bette lag, sondern auf seinen Beinen dicht vor dem Portr\u00e4t stand. Wie er hingeraten war, konnte er selbst nicht begreifen. Noch mehr wunderte er sich dar\u00fcber, da\u00df das Portr\u00e4t ganz aufgedeckt war und da\u00df das Laken wirklich fehlte. Regungslos vor Entsetzen blickte er das Bild an und sah, wie die lebendigen menschlichen Augen ihn anstarrten. Kalter Schwei\u00df trat ihm ins Gesicht; er wollte vom Bilde Weggehen, f\u00fchlte aber, da\u00df seine F\u00fc\u00dfe wie angewurzelt waren. Und da sieht er \u2013 es ist kein Traum mehr \u2013 er sieht, wie die Z\u00fcge des Alten zucken, wie seine Lippen sich ihm entgegenspitzen, als wollten sie ihn aussaugen... Mit einem Schrei der Verzweiflung prallte er zur\u00fcck \u2013 und erwachte.\n\n\u00bbWar denn auch das ein Traum?\u00ab Sein Herz klopfte so, als wollte es zerrei\u00dfen, und er tastete mit den H\u00e4nden um sich. Ja, er liegt im Bett, in der gleichen Lage, in der er eingeschlafen war. Vor ihm ist der Bettschirm; das Mondlicht f\u00fcllt das Zimmer. Durch die Ritze im Bettschirm sieht er das Bild, es ist ordentlich in das Laken geh\u00fcllt, so wie er es selbst eingeschlagen hat. Es war also doch ein Traum! Aber seine zusammengeballte Hand hat noch immer das Gef\u00fchl, als halte sie etwas. Das Herz klopft ihm heftig, beinahe entsetzlich; die Last auf der Brust ist unertr\u00e4glich. Er heftet seine Augen auf die Ritze und starrt unverwandt auf das Laken. Da sieht er ganz deutlich, wie das Laken langsam aufgeht, als versuchten zwei H\u00e4nde hinter ihm, es abzuwerfen. \u00bbMein Gott, mein Gott, was ist das!\u00ab schrie er auf; er bekreuzigte sich voller Verzweiflung \u2013 und erwachte.\n\nAuch das war ein Traum! Er sprang halb wahnsinnig, fast bewu\u00dftlos aus dem Bett und konnte sich unm\u00f6glich erkl\u00e4ren, was mit ihm vorging: war es ein Alpdruck, ein Hausgeist, ein Fieberwahn oder eine lebendige Erscheinung. Indem er sich bem\u00fchte, seine Aufregung und seine gespannten Pulse, die er in allen Adern f\u00fchlte, ein wenig zu stillen, trat er ans Fenster und \u00f6ffnete eine Luke. Der kalte Wind, der ins Zimmer hereinwehte, brachte ihn wieder zum Bewu\u00dftsein. Das Mondlicht lag noch immer auf den D\u00e4chern und auf den wei\u00dfen Hausmauern, obwohl kleine Wolken immer \u00f6fter \u00fcber den Himmel zogen. Alles war still; nur ab und zu wurde das Rasseln einer fernen Droschke h\u00f6rbar, deren Kutscher in einer unsichtbaren Rebengasse, in Erwartung eines versp\u00e4teten Fahrgastes, von seiner faulen M\u00e4hre in den Schlaf gewiegt, auf dem Bocke duselte. Lange blickte er hinaus, den Kopf aus dem Fester gesteckt. Am Himmel zeigten sich schon die ersten Spuren des nahenden Morgenrots; schlie\u00dflich f\u00fchlte er M\u00fcdigkeit, schlug das Fenster zu, ging zum Bett, legte sich hin und versank bald in einen festen Schlaf.\n\nEr erwachte sehr sp\u00e4t mit dem unangenehmen Gef\u00fchl, das sich des Menschen nach einem Aufenthalte in einem dunstigen Raum bem\u00e4chtigt; sein Kopf schmerzte in einer unangenehmen Weise. Im Zimmer war es tr\u00fcbe; eine unangenehme Feuchtigkeit erf\u00fcllte die Luft und drang durch die Ritzen der mit Bildern und grundierter Leinwand verstellten Fenster ins Zimmer. Griesgr\u00e4mig, unzufrieden wie ein begossener Hahn setzte er sich auf sein zerfetztes Sofa und wu\u00dfte nicht, was er anfangen, was er unternehmen sollte; pl\u00f6tzlich erinnerte er sich seines Traumes. In dem Ma\u00dfe, als er sich auf alles besann, erschien ihm der Traum so bedr\u00fcckend, da\u00df ihm sogar ein Zweifel kam, ob es wirklich nur ein Traum und ein gew\u00f6hnliches Fieberdelirium gewesen sei, ob er nicht eine Vision gehabt habe. Er ri\u00df das Laken herunter und sah sich das seltsame Portr\u00e4t bei Tageslicht an. Die Augen waren tats\u00e4chlich von einer ungew\u00f6hnlichen Lebendigkeit, doch er konnte an ihnen nichts sonderlich Schreckliches finden; aber ein unerkl\u00e4rliches unangenehmes Gef\u00fchl blieb dennoch in seiner Seele. Bei alldem konnte er sich doch nicht ganz davon \u00fcberzeugen, da\u00df es nur ein Traum gewesen sei. Es schien ihm, als ob im Traume auch ein seltsamer Fetzen der Wirklichkeit enthalten gewesen w\u00e4re. Selbst der Blick und der Gesichtsausdruck des Alten schienen zu sagen, da\u00df er ihn in der letzten Nacht besucht habe; seine Hand f\u00fchlte noch immer die Schwere eines Gegenstandes, den sie erst eben gehalten habe und den ihr jemand vor einem Augenblick entrissen h\u00e4tte. Er hatte den Eindruck, da\u00df, wenn er die Rolle fester gehalten h\u00e4tte, sie auch nach dem Erwachen in seiner Hand geblieben w\u00e4re.\n\n\u00bbMein Gott, wenn ich doch nur einen Teil dieses Geldes haben k\u00f6nnte!\u00ab sagte er mit einem schweren Seufzer. In seiner Phantasie fielen alle die Rollen mit der verlockenden Inschrift \u00bb1000 Dukaten\u00ab wieder aus dem Sack. Die Papierh\u00fcllen \u00f6ffneten sich, das Gold blitzte auf und wurde wieder eingerollt, \u2013 er aber sa\u00df da, starrte regungslos und sinnlos in die leere Luft, au\u00dferstande, sich von diesem Bilde loszurei\u00dfen, wie ein Kind, das vor einer s\u00fc\u00dfen Speise sitzt und zusieht, wie sie die andern verzehren, w\u00e4hrend ihm das Wasser im Munde zusammenl\u00e4uft.\n\nPl\u00f6tzlich wurde an die T\u00fcr geklopft, und dieses Klopfen weckte Tschartkow auf eine h\u00f6chst unangenehme Weise. Es kam der Hausherr in Begleitung des Revieraufsehers, dessen Erscheinen f\u00fcr die kleinen Leute bekanntlich noch peinlicher ist als das Gesicht eines Bittstellers f\u00fcr den Reichen. Der Besitzer des kleinen Hauses, in dem Tschartkow wohnte, war eines der Gesch\u00f6pfe, wie sie die Hausbesitzer irgendwo in der f\u00fcnfzehnten Linie der Wassiljewskij-Insel, auf der Petersburger Seite oder in einem entlegenen Winkel der Kolomna-Vorstadt immer zu sein pflegen, ein Gesch\u00f6pf, wie es ihrer in Ru\u00dfland viele gibt und deren Charakter sich ebenso schwer bestimmen l\u00e4\u00dft wie die Farbe eines abgetragenen Rockes. In seiner Jugend war er Hauptmann und ein gro\u00dfer Schreier gewesen, wurde auch im Zivildienste verwendet, verstand sich meisterhaft aufs Pr\u00fcgeln, war r\u00fchrig, geckenhaft und dumm; aber im Alter vereinigten sich alle diese scharf ausgepr\u00e4gten Eigenschaften zu einem tr\u00fcben und ungewissen Gemisch. Er war schon verwitwet und au\u00dfer Dienst, trug sich nicht mehr elegant, prahlte nicht, war nicht mehr so rauflustig und liebte nur noch Tee zu trinken und dabei allerlei Unsinn zu schwatzen; er ging in seinem Zimmer auf und ab und putzte den Talglichtstummel; am Ende eines jeden Monats besuchte er p\u00fcnktlich seine Mieter und mahnte den Zins; oft trat er mit dem Schl\u00fcssel in der Hand auf die Stra\u00dfe, um sich das Dach seines Hauses anzusehen; er jagte einigemal am Tage den Hausknecht aus der Kammer, in die sich jener zum Schlafen verkroch; mit einem Wort, er war ein Mann au\u00dfer Dienst, dem nach dem ganzen z\u00fcgellosen Leben und den langen Fahrten in der sch\u00fcttelnden Postkutsche nur noch die gemeinsten Gewohnheiten \u00fcbrigblieben.\n\n\u00bbBelieben Sie doch selbst zu sehen, Waruch Kusmitsch,\u00ab sagte der Hausherr zum Revieraufseher, die H\u00e4nde spreizend: \u00bbEr zahlt nicht den Zins, er zahlt ihn einfach nicht.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbWas soll ich machen, wenn ich kein Geld habe! Warten Sie ein wenig, ich werde schon bezahlen.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbIch kann nicht warten, V\u00e4terchen,\u00ab sagte der Hausherr erbost, die Hand mit dem Schl\u00fcssel schwingend. \u00bbDa wohnt bei mir der Oberstleutnant Potogonkin, seit sieben Jahren wohnt er schon bei mir; Anna Petrowna Buchmisterowa hat sich bei mir eine Magenremise und einen Stall f\u00fcr zwei Pferde gemietet, drei leibeigene Diener h\u00e4lt sie bei sich, \u2013 solche Leute habe ich hier bei mir wohnen! Offen gestanden, ist es bei mir nicht \u00fcblich, da\u00df die Mieter die Wohnung nicht bezahlen. Wollen Sie den Zins augenblicklich bezahlen oder die Wohnung r\u00e4umen.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbJa, wenn Sie sich einmal verpflichtet haben, so belieben Sie zu zahlen,\u00ab sagte der Revieraufseher, indem er leicht den Kopf sch\u00fcttelte und seinen Finger zwischen zwei Kn\u00f6pfe seines Uniformrocks steckte.\n\n\u00bbAber womit soll ich bezahlen? Das ist die Frage. Ich habe jetzt keinen Heller.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbIn diesem Falle entsch\u00e4digen Sie doch Iwan Iwanowitsch mit den Erzeugnissen Ihres Berufs,\u00ab sagte der Revieraufseher. \u00bbVielleicht wird er sich bereit erkl\u00e4ren, statt Geld Bilder zu nehmen.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbNein, V\u00e4terchen, f\u00fcr die Bilder danke ich. Wenn es noch wenigstens Bilder mit einem vornehmen Inhalt w\u00e4ren, die man an die Wand h\u00e4ngen k\u00f6nnte: zum Beispiel irgendein General mit einem Ordensstern an der Brust oder ein Portr\u00e4t des F\u00fcrsten Kutusow; da hat er aber einen Bauern gemalt, einen ganz gew\u00f6hnlichen Bauern in einem Hemd, seinen Diener, der ihm die Farben reibt. Wie kommt das Schwein dazu, da\u00df man es abkonterfeit! Ich werde ihm noch den Buckel vollhauen: er hat mir alle N\u00e4gel aus den Riegeln herausgezogen, der Hallunke. Schauen Sie nur, was er f\u00fcr Gegenst\u00e4nde malt: sein eigenes Zimmer hat er gemalt. Wenn es wenigstens ein aufger\u00e4umtes und sauberes Zimmer w\u00e4re; er hat es aber mit dem ganzen Dreck, der bei ihm herumliegt, dargestellt. Schauen Sie nur, wie er mir das Zimmer verdreckt hat; sehen Sie es sich nur an! Andere Mieter wohnen bei mir zu sieben Jahren, Oberstleutnants, Anna Petrowna Buchmisterowa... Nein, ich sage Ihnen, es gibt keinen \u00e4rgeren Mieter als so einen Kunstmaler: er lebt wie ein Schwein, da\u00df Gott erbarm.\u00ab\n\nDas alles mu\u00dfte der arme Maler geduldig anh\u00f6ren. Der Revieraufseher betrachtete indessen die Bilder und Studien und zeigte dabei, da\u00df sein Herz doch lebendiger war als das des Hausherrn und da\u00df ihm sogar k\u00fcnstlerische Interessen nicht ganz fremd waren.\n\n\u00bbHe,\u00ab sagte er, mit dem Finger auf eine Leinwand tippend, auf der eine nackte Frau dargestellt war: \u00bbDas Sujet ist recht pikant... Und warum hat dieser da einen schwarzen Fleck unter der Nase? Hat er eine Prise genommen?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbEs ist ein Schatten,\u00ab antwortete Tschartkow m\u00fcrrisch, ohne ihn anzublicken.\n\n\u00bbNun, den Schatten h\u00e4tten Sie an eine andere Stelle setzen k\u00f6nnen, unter der Nase ist er viel zu sichtbar,\u00ab sagte der Revieraufseher. \u00bbUnd wessen Portr\u00e4t ist dieses da?\u00ab fuhr er fort, auf das Portr\u00e4t des Alten zugehend. \u00bbDer ist gar zu schrecklich! Ist er auch in Wirklichkeit so schrecklich? Mein Gott, er schaut ja einen wirklich an! Ein wahrer Donnerer! Wen haben Sie da abkonterfeit?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbEinen gewissen...\u00ab sagte Tschartkow und kam nicht weiter: etwas krachte. Der Revieraufseher hatte wohl den Rahmen des Portr\u00e4ts infolge der rohen Konstruktion seiner Polizeih\u00e4nde zu kr\u00e4ftig angefa\u00dft; die Seitenleisten brachen ein; eine von ihnen fiel zu Boden, und gleichzeitig fiel mit schwerem Klirren eine in blaues Papier eingewickelte Rolle herab. Tschartkow sah die Inschrift: \u00bb1000 Dukaten.\u00ab Wie wahnsinnig st\u00fcrzte er hin, packte die Rolle und dr\u00fcckte sie krampfhaft mit der Hand zusammen, die von der schweren Last abw\u00e4rts gezogen wurde.\n\n\u00bbHat nicht eben Geld geklirrt?\u00ab fragte der Revieraufseher, der etwas zu Boden fallen h\u00f6rte, aber infolge der Schnelligkeit, mit der sich Tschartkow \u00fcber die Rolle gest\u00fcrzt hatte, nicht sehen konnte, was es war.\n\n\u00bbWas geht es Sie an, was ich hier habe?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbDas geht mich insofern an, als Sie sofort dem Hausherrn den Zins bezahlen m\u00fcssen; denn Sie haben Geld und wollen nicht zahlen; das geht es mich an.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbIch werde ihn heute noch bezahlen.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbWarum wollten Sie dann nicht schon fr\u00fcher bezahlen und machen dem Hausherrn Scherereien, so da\u00df er die Polizei bel\u00e4stigen mu\u00df?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbWeil ich dieses Geld nicht anr\u00fchren wollte. Ich werde ihn heute noch bezahlen und morgen ausziehen, denn ich will bei einem solchen Hausherrn nicht l\u00e4nger bleiben.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbNun, Iwan Iwanowitsch, er wird bezahlen,\u00ab sagte der Revieraufseher, sich an den Hausherrn wendend. \u00bbWenn Sie aber bis heute abend nicht vollst\u00e4ndig befriedigt sind, so wird es der Herr Kunstmaler schon entschuldigen m\u00fcssen!\u00ab Mit diesen Worten setzte er seinen Dreimaster auf und verlie\u00df die Wohnung. Der Hausherr folgte ihm mit gesenktem Kopf und, wie es schien, in Gedanken versunken.\n\n\u00bbGott sei Dank, da\u00df der Teufel sie geholt hat!\u00ab sagte Tschartkow, als er die T\u00fcr im Vorzimmer ins Schlo\u00df fallen h\u00f6rte. Er blickte ins Vorzimmer hinaus, schickte Nikita fort, um ganz allein zu bleiben, schlo\u00df die T\u00fcr hinter ihm ab und begann, in sein Zimmer zur\u00fcckgekehrt, unter heftigem Herzklopfen die Rolle aufzuwickeln. Sie enthielt lauter funkelnagelneue und wie Feuer gl\u00e4nzende Dukaten. Fast wahnsinnig sa\u00df er \u00fcber dem goldenen Haufen und fragte sich immer noch: \u00bbIst es kein Traum?\u00ab Die Rolle enthielt genau tausend Dukaten; sie sah von au\u00dfen genau so aus, wie er sie im Traume gesehen hatte. Einige Minuten w\u00fchlte er in den Dukaten, musterte sie und konnte sich noch immer nicht beruhigen. In seiner Phantasie erwachten pl\u00f6tzlich alle Geschichten von den vergrabenen Sch\u00e4tzen und den Schatullen mit Geheimf\u00e4chern, die die Ahnen f\u00fcr ihre verarmten Enkel zur\u00fccklassen, fest davon \u00fcberzeugt, da\u00df diese dereinst ruiniert sein werden. Er dachte sich: \u00bbIst es nicht irgendeinem Gro\u00dfvater eingefallen, seinem Enkel ein Geschenk zu hinterlassen und es in den Rahmen des Familienportr\u00e4ts einzuschlie\u00dfen?\u00ab Von einem romantischen Wahn erf\u00fcllt, fragte er sich sogar, ob hier nicht irgendein geheimnisvoller Zusammenhang mit seinem eigenen Schicksal bestehe. Ob die Existenz des Portr\u00e4ts nicht irgendwie mit seiner eigenen Existenz Zusammenh\u00e4nge und ob nicht schon in der blo\u00dfen Anschaffung des Portr\u00e4ts eine F\u00fcgung des Schicksals liege. Er begann neugierig den Rahmen des Portr\u00e4ts zu untersuchen. Dieser hatte an der einen Seite eine H\u00f6hlung, die so geschickt und unmerklich von einem Brettchen verdeckt war, da\u00df, wenn nicht die m\u00e4chtige Hand des Revieraufsehers den Bruch verursacht h\u00e4tte, die Dukaten wohl bis ans Ende aller Zeiten darin verborgen geblieben w\u00e4ren. Indem er das Portr\u00e4t betrachtete, bewunderte er wieder die herrliche Malerei und die ungew\u00f6hnliche Ausarbeitung der Augen: sie erschienen ihm nicht mehr schrecklich, aber in seiner Seele blieb noch immer ein unwillk\u00fcrliches unangenehmes Gef\u00fchl. \u00bbNein,\u00ab sagte er zu sich selbst, \u00bbwessen Gro\u00dfvater du auch seist, ich lasse dich daf\u00fcr hinter Glas und in einen goldenen Rahmen setzen.\u00ab Er legte die Hand auf den goldenen Haufen, und bei dieser Ber\u00fchrung fing sein Herz heftig zu klopfen an. \u00bbWas soll ich mit ihnen anfangen?\u00ab fragte er sich, die Dukaten anstarrend. \u00bbJetzt bin ich f\u00fcr wenigstens drei Jahre versorgt; ich kann mich in meinem Zimmer einschlie\u00dfen und arbeiten. Jetzt habe ich Geld f\u00fcr die Farben; auch f\u00fcr Essen, Tee, f\u00fcr alle Auslagen und f\u00fcr die Wohnung; nun wird mich niemand mehr st\u00f6ren und \u00e4rgern. Ich kaufe mir eine gute Gliederpuppe, bestelle mir einen Torso und ein Paar F\u00fc\u00dfe aus Gips, stelle mir eine Venus auf und schaffe mir Stiche nach den ersten Meistern an. Und wenn ich drei Jahre ohne \u00dcbereilung und nicht des Geldes wegen, f\u00fcr mich allein arbeite, \u00fcberhole ich sie alle und kann ein ber\u00fchmter K\u00fcnstler werden.\u00ab\n\nSo sprach er im Einklang mit der Vernunft, die ihm zufl\u00fcsterte; doch aus seinem Innern klang noch eine andere, lautere Stimme. Er sah das Gold noch einmal an, und seine zweiundzwanzig Jahre und seine \u00fcbersch\u00e4umende Jugend sagten etwas ganz anderes. Nun hatte er in seiner Macht alles, was er bisher nur aus der Ferne mit neidischen Augen angeschaut und bewundert hatte, w\u00e4hrend ihm das Wasser im Munde zusammenlief. Ach, wie klopfte ihm das Herz, als er daran dachte! Einen modernen Frack kaufen, sich nach den langen Fasten ordentlich sattessen, eine sch\u00f6ne Wohnung mieten, sofort ins Theater gehen, in eine Konditorei, in eine... und so weiter... Er packte das Geld und war mit einem Satze auf der Stra\u00dfe.\n\nZu allererst begab er sich zu einem Schneider, lie\u00df sich vom Kopf bis zu den F\u00fc\u00dfen neu bekleiden und betrachtete sich wie ein Kind fortw\u00e4hrend im Spiegel; er kaufte sich Parf\u00fcms und Pomade, mietete, ohne zu handeln, die erste beste Wohnung auf dem Newskij-Prospekt mit Spiegeln und gro\u00dfen Fensterscheiben; kaufte sich so ganz nebenbei ein teures Lorgnon, eine Menge Halsbinden, viel mehr als er brauchte, lie\u00df sich vom Friseur die Haare kr\u00e4useln, fuhr zweimal in einer feinen Equipage ohne jeden Zweck durch die Stadt, \u00fcbera\u00df sich in einer Konditorei an Konfekt und kehrte in ein franz\u00f6sisches Restaurant ein, von dem er bisher einen eben so unklaren Begriff gehabt hatte wie vom chinesischen Staate. Hier a\u00df er zu Mittag, die H\u00e4nde in die H\u00fcften gestemmt, mit hochm\u00fctigen Blicken die anderen G\u00e4ste musternd und sich in einem fort vor dem Spiegel die gebrannten Locken richtend. Hier trank er auch eine Flasche Champagner, den er bisher auch nur vom H\u00f6rensagen kannte. Der Wein stieg ihm in den Kopf; er trat auf die Stra\u00dfe lebhaft und unternehmungslustig und war, wie man in Ru\u00dfland sagt, \u00bbselbst dem Teufel kein Bruder\u00ab. Er ging stolz wie ein Pfau \u00fcber das Trottoir und musterte alle durch sein Lorgnon. Auf der Br\u00fccke gewahrte er seinen alten Professor und huschte geschickt an ihm vorbei, als h\u00e4tte er ihn gar nicht bemerkt. Der Professor stand noch lange wie zu Stein erstarrt auf der Br\u00fccke, w\u00e4hrend sein Gesicht ein Fragezeichen ausdr\u00fcckte.\n\nSeine ganze Habe \u2013 Staffelei, Rahmen, Bilder wurden noch am gleichen Abend in die neue prachtvolle Wohnung gebracht. Die besseren Sachen stellte er sichtbar auf, die weniger guten warf er in eine Ecke; dann ging er durch die prunkvollen Zimmer und betrachtete sich fortw\u00e4hrend in den Spiegeln. In seinem Herzen regte sich der un\u00fcberwindliche Wunsch, den Ruhm gleich auf der Stelle am Schwanze zu packen und sich der Welt zu zeigen. Er glaubte schon die Rufe zu h\u00f6ren: \u00bbTschartkow, Tschartkow! Haben Sie schon das Bild Tschartkows gesehen? Was f\u00fcr einen flotten Pinsel hat doch dieser Tschartkow! Welch ein starkes Talent!\u00ab Er ging verz\u00fcckt im seinem Zimmer auf und ab und schweifte in seiner Phantasie Gott wei\u00df wo herum. Am anderen Tag steckte er sich zehn Dukaten in die Tasche und begab sich zum Herausgeber einer verbreiteten Zeitung, um ihn um gro\u00dfm\u00fctige F\u00f6rderung zu bitten; der Journalist empfing ihn ungemein freundlich, sprach ihn mit \u00bbVerehrtester\u00ab an, dr\u00fcckte ihm beide H\u00e4nde, erkundigte sich eingehend nach dem Namen, Vatersnamen und Adresse, und schon am n\u00e4chsten Tag erschien in der Zeitung gleich nach einer Anzeige \u00fcber eine neuerfundene Sorte von Talglichtern ein Artikel mit der \u00dcberschrift: \u00bbVon der ungew\u00f6hnlichen Begabung Tschartkows!\u00ab \u2013 \u00bbWir beeilen uns, den gebildeten Bewohnern der Residenz zu einer neuen, man kann wohl sagen, in jeder Beziehung herrlichen Erscheinung zu gratulieren. Alle sind darin einig, da\u00df wir wohl eine Menge wunderbarer Physiognomien und sch\u00f6ner Gesichter haben; es fehlte aber bisher an einem Mittel, sie auf eine wundert\u00e4tige Leinwand zu bannen, um sie der Nachwelt zu \u00fcberliefern. Dieser Mangel ist jetzt aufgehoben; es hat sich ein Maler gefunden, der in sich alles, was man dazu braucht, vereinigt. Die Sch\u00f6ne kann jetzt \u00fcberzeugt sein, da\u00df sie mit der ganzen Grazie ihrer luftigen, leichten, bezaubernden, angenehmen, wunderbaren Anmut, die an einen \u00fcber Fr\u00fchlingsbl\u00fcten schwebenden Falter gemahnt, verewigt sein wird. Der ehrw\u00fcrdige Familienvater wird sich von seiner ganzen Familie umgeben sehen. Der Kaufmann, der Soldat, der B\u00fcrger, der Staatsmann, ein jeder wird seine T\u00e4tigkeit mit neuem Eifer fortsetzen k\u00f6nnen. Eilt, eilt, vom Spaziergang, vom Gange zu einem Freund, zu einer Kusine, in ein gl\u00e4nzendes Gesch\u00e4ft, eilt, woher es auch sei. Das gro\u00dfartige Atelier des K\u00fcnstlers (Newskij-Prospekt, Nummer soundsoviel) ist mit Werken seines Pinsels angef\u00fcllt, der eines Van Dyck und eines Tizian w\u00fcrdig w\u00e4re. Man wei\u00df nicht, wor\u00fcber man mehr staunen soll: \u00fcber die Naturtreue und die \u00c4hnlichkeit mit den Originalen, oder \u00fcber die ungew\u00f6hnliche Lebendigkeit und Frische der Pinself\u00fchrung. Ehre sei Ihnen, Herr K\u00fcnstler! Sie haben ein gl\u00fcckliches Los in der Lotterie gezogen. Vivat Andrej Petrowitsch! (der Journalist liebte wohl famili\u00e4re Wendungen). Machen Sie sich und auch uns ber\u00fchmt. Mir verstehen Sie zu sch\u00e4tzen. Der allgemeine Zulauf und zugleich auch irdische G\u00fcter, \u2013 obwohl mancher Journalist gegen diese k\u00e4mpft, \u2013 werden Ihr Lohn sein.\u00ab\n\nMit geheimer Wonne las der Maler diese Reklame, und sein Gesicht erstrahlte. Man sprach von ihm schon in der Presse, \u2013 das war f\u00fcr ihn neu. Einigemal las er die Zeilen durch. Der Vergleich mit Van Dyck und Tizian schmeichelte ihm sehr. Der Satz: \u00bbVivat Andrej Petrowitsch!\u00ab gefiel ihm gleichfalls sehr: man nannte ihn in der Zeitung mit seinem Vor- und Vatersnamen, \u2013 diese Ehre war ihm bisher ganz und gar unbekannt. Er fing an, mit schnellen Schritten auf und ab zu gehen und sich das Haar zu zerzausen; bald setzte er sich in einen Sessel, bald stand er auf und setzte sich auf das Sofa, wobei er sich immer vorstellte, wie er die Besucher und Besucherinnen empfangen w\u00fcrde; bald trat er vor die Leinwand und machte eine elegante Geste mit dem Pinsel, indem er sich bem\u00fchte, der Hand einen m\u00f6glichst grazi\u00f6sen Schwung zu verleihen.\n\nAm n\u00e4chsten Tage klingelte es an seiner T\u00fcr; er beeilte sich selbst aufzumachen. Es war eine Dame, in Begleitung eines Lakaien in pelzgef\u00fctterter Livree; zugleich mit der Dame erschien ihre Tochter, ein junges M\u00e4dchen von achtzehn Jahren.\n\n\u00bbMonsieur Tschartkow?\u00ab fragte die Dame.\n\nDer Maler verbeugte sich.\n\n\u00bbEs wird \u00fcber Sie so viel geschrieben; man sagt, Ihre Portr\u00e4ts seien der Gipfel der Vollkommenheit.\u00ab Mit diesen Worten nahm die Dame ihr Lorgnon vor die Augen und eilte zur Wand, an der jedoch nichts hing. \u00bbWo sind denn Ihre Portr\u00e4ts?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbMan hat sie hinausgetragen,\u00ab antwortete der Maler, etwas verwirrt. \u00bbIch bin soeben in diese Wohnung gezogen, und die Bilder sind unterwegs... sie sind noch nicht hier.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbWaren Sie schon in Italien?\u00ab fragte die Dame, ihr Lorgnon auf ihn richtend, da sie nichts anderes fand, worauf sie es h\u00e4tte richten k\u00f6nnen.\n\n\u00bbNein, ich war noch nicht dort, wollte aber hin... Ich habe es \u00fcbrigens nur aufgeschoben... Hier ist ein Sessel; sind Sie nicht m\u00fcde?...\u00ab\n\n\u00bbIch danke, ich habe lange genug in der Equipage gesessen. Da sehe ich endlich Ihre Werke!\u00ab sagte die Dame, zu der Wand gegen\u00fcber laufend und das Lorgnon auf die auf dem Boden stehenden Studien, Skizzen, Perspektiven und Portr\u00e4ts richtend. _\u00bbC'est charmant_ , Lise! Lise, _venez ici_. Ein Zimmer im Stile Teniers'. Siehst du? Eine Unordnung, ein Durcheinander, ein Tisch, darauf eine B\u00fcste, eine Hand, eine Palette; da ist auch Staub... siehst du, wie der Staub gemalt ist! _C'est charmant!_ Und hier auf dem anderen Bilde eine Frau, die sich das Gesicht w\u00e4scht \u2013 _quelle jolie figure!_ Ach, ein B\u00e4uerlein! Lise! Lise! Ein B\u00e4uerlein im russischen Hemd! Siehst du: ein B\u00e4uerlein! Sie malen also nicht nur Portr\u00e4ts?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbAch, das ist nichts... ich habe es nur zum Zeitvertreib gemacht... es sind Studien...\u00ab\n\n\u00bbSagen Sie, welche Meinung haben Sie von den jetzigen Portr\u00e4tmalern? Nicht wahr, es gibt unter ihnen keinen, der wie Tizian w\u00e4re? Es fehlt diese Kraft im Kolorit, es fehlt diese... wie schade, da\u00df ich es Ihnen nicht russisch erkl\u00e4ren kann. (Die Dame war eine Liebhaberin der Malerei und hatte mit ihrem Lorgnon alle Galerien Italiens durchrast.) \u00dcbrigens Monsieur Nohl... ach, wie der malt! Welch ein ungew\u00f6hnlicher Pinsel! Ich finde, da\u00df seine Gesichter sogar mehr Ausdruck haben als die des Tizian. Sie kennen Monsieur Nohl nicht?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbWer ist dieser Nohl?\u00ab fragte der Maler.\n\n\u00bbMonsieur Nohl. Ach, ist das ein Talent! Er hat ihr Portr\u00e4t gemalt, als sie erst zw\u00f6lf Jahre alt war. Sie m\u00fcssen unbedingt zu uns kommen. Lise, du wirst ihm dein Album zeigen. Wissen Sie, wir sind hergekommen, damit Sie sofort mit ihrem Portr\u00e4t beginnen.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbGewi\u00df, ich bin sofort bereit.\u00ab Er schob im Nu die Staffelei mit einem fertig bespannten Rahmen heran, nahm die Palette in die Hand und richtete seinen Blick auf das blasse Gesichtchen der Tochter. W\u00e4re er Kenner der menschlichen Natur, so h\u00e4tte er darin sofort den Ausdruck einer beginnenden kindlichen Leidenschaft f\u00fcr B\u00e4lle, einer qu\u00e4lenden Langweile an Vormittagen und an Nachmittagen und des Wunsches, im neuen Kleide auf der Promenade herumzulaufen, die schweren Spuren eines stumpfen Eifers f\u00fcr allerlei K\u00fcnste, den ihr die Mutter zwecks Hebung ihrer Seele und ihrer Gef\u00fchle einfl\u00f6\u00dfte, gelesen. Der Maler sah aber in diesem zarten Gesichtchen nur die f\u00fcr den Pinsel verlockende, beinahe porzellanartige Durchsichtigkeit, die bezaubernde leichte Mattigkeit, den feinen, leuchtenden Hals und die aristokratische Zierlichkeit. Er machte sich schon im voraus bereit, zu triumphieren, die Leichtigkeit und den Glanz seines Pinsels zu zeigen, der bisher nur mit den harten Z\u00fcgen der rohen Modelle, den strengen Antiken und den Kopien nach einigen klassischen Meistern zu tun gehabt hatte. Er stellte sich schon im Geiste vor, wie ihm dieses zarte Gesichtchen geraten w\u00fcrde.\n\n\u00bbWissen Sie,\u00ab sagte die Dame mit einem sogar beinahe r\u00fchrenden Gesichtsausdruck: \u00bbIch m\u00f6chte... sie hat jetzt ein Kleid an; offen gestanden, m\u00f6chte ich sie nicht in diesem Kleide gemalt sehen, an das wir so gew\u00f6hnt sind: ich m\u00f6chte, sie w\u00e4re ganz einfach gekleidet und s\u00e4\u00dfe im Schatten gr\u00fcner B\u00e4ume; im Hintergrunde sollen aber irgendwelche Felder, Herden oder ein W\u00e4ldchen zu sehen sein... man soll es ihr nicht ansehen, da\u00df sie eben im Begriff ist, zu irgendeinem Ball oder einer modischen Abendunterhaltung zu fahren. Unsere B\u00e4lle t\u00f6ten, offen gestanden, die Seele und die letzten Reste der Gef\u00fchle... Einfachheit, verstehen Sie, ich m\u00f6chte mehr Einfachheit.\u00ab (Ach! In den Gesichtern der Mutter und der Tochter stand aber geschrieben, da\u00df sie schon so viel auf B\u00e4llen getanzt hatten, da\u00df sie fast w\u00e4chsern geworden waren.)\n\nTschartkow machte sich an die Arbeit: er setzte sein Modell in einen Sessel, durchdachte sich die Arbeit, fuhr mit dem Pinsel durch die Luft, fixierte im Geiste die Hauptpunkte, kniff einigemal ein Auge zusammen, beugte sich zur\u00fcck, sah noch einmal aus gr\u00f6\u00dferer Entfernung hin und begann mit der Untermalung, die auch sofort fertig war. Mit der Untermalung zufrieden, machte er sich an die Ausf\u00fchrung; die Arbeit ri\u00df ihn hin; er hatte schon alles vergessen, sogar da\u00df er sich in Gesellschaft aristokratischer Damen befand; er fing sogar an, gewisse Malerangewohnheiten zu zeigen und verschiedene Laute von sich zu geben und zu tr\u00e4llern, wie es oft die Maler tun, wenn sie mit der ganzen Seele bei der Arbeit sind. Er zwang sogar sein Modell, das zuletzt unruhig hin und her r\u00fcckte und gro\u00dfe M\u00fcdigkeit zeigte, ganz ungeniert mit einem blo\u00dfen Wink des Pinsels, den Kopf zu heben.\n\n\u00bbGenug, f\u00fcrs erste Mal ist es genug,\u00ab sagte die Dame.\n\n\u00bbNoch ein bi\u00dfchen!\u00ab bat der Maler, der ganz hingerissen war.\n\n\u00bbNein, es ist Zeit! Lise, es ist schon drei!\u00ab sagte sie, indem sie eine kleine Uhr, die an goldener Kette an ihrem G\u00fcrtel hing, hervorholte. Dann schrie sie auf: \u00bbAch, es ist schon so sp\u00e4t!\u00ab\n\n\u00bbNur noch ein Weilchen!\u00ab sagte Tschartkow mit der flehenden Stimme eines Kindes.\n\nDie Dame schien aber diesmal gar nicht geneigt, seinen k\u00fcnstlerischen Bed\u00fcrfnissen entgegenzukommen und versprach, das n\u00e4chste Mal etwas l\u00e4nger zu bleiben.\n\n\u00bbEs ist aber \u00e4rgerlich,\u00ab dachte sich Tschartkow: \u00bbmeine Hand war gerade so sch\u00f6n in Schwung gekommen.\u00ab Und er erinnerte sich, da\u00df ihn niemand zu unterbrechen und zu st\u00f6ren wagte, als er noch in seinem Atelier auf der Wassiljewskij-Insel arbeitete; Nikita pflegte unbeweglich auf einem Fleck zu sitzen, und er konnte ihn, so lange er wollte, malen; Nikita brachte es sogar fertig, in der angegebenen Stellung einzuschlafen. Unzufrieden legte er Pinsel und Palette auf einen Stuhl und blieb nachdenklich vor der Leinwand stehen.\n\nEin Kompliment der vornehmen Dame weckte ihn aus seiner Versunkenheit. Er st\u00fcrzte zur T\u00fcre, um die beiden hinauszubegleiten; auf der Treppe erhielt er die Einladung, in der n\u00e4chsten Woche bei ihnen zu essen, und kehrte mit vergn\u00fcgter Miene in sein Zimmer zur\u00fcck. Die aristokratische Dame hatte ihn ganz bezaubert. Bisher hatte er solche Gesch\u00f6pfe als etwas Unerreichbares angesehen, als etwas, was nur dazu geboren sei, um in einer pr\u00e4chtigen Equipage mit livrierten Lakaien und einem eleganten Kutscher vorbeizusausen und einen gleichg\u00fcltigen Blick auf den im \u00e4rmlichen Mantel zu Fu\u00df vorbeigehenden Menschen zu werfen. Nun ist aber eines dieser Gesch\u00f6pfe in sein Zimmer getreten; er malt sein Bildnis und ist in ein aristokratisches Haus zum Essen geladen. Er war ungemein zufrieden und wie berauscht; daf\u00fcr belohnte er sich mit einem feinen Mittagessen und einem Theaterbesuch am Abend und fuhr wieder ohne jeden Zweck in einer vornehmen Equipage durch die Stadt.\n\nAlle diese Tage wollte ihm seine gewohnte Arbeit nicht in den Sinn. Er bereitete sich nur vor und wartete auf das L\u00e4uten an der T\u00fcr. Endlich kam die aristokratische Dame mit ihrer blassen Tochter wieder. Er lie\u00df sie Platz nehmen, r\u00fcckte die Leinwand heran, was er jetzt recht geschickt und mit einem Anspruch auf vornehme Manieren tat, und machte sich an die Arbeit. Der sonnige Tag und die gute Beleuchtung unterst\u00fctzten ihn. Er entdeckte in seinem grazi\u00f6sen Modell vieles, was, auf die Leinwand gebannt, dem Portr\u00e4t eine hohe Qualit\u00e4t verleihen k\u00f6nnte; er sah, da\u00df hier etwas Au\u00dferordentliches geschaffen werden konnte, wenn es ihm gel\u00e4nge, alles so vollendet wiederzugeben, wie ihm jetzt das Original erschien. Sein Herz fing sogar zu beben an, als er f\u00fchlte, da\u00df es ihm gelingen werde, etwas wiederzugeben, was den anderen entgangen war. Die Arbeit nahm ihn ganz gefangen; er versenkte sich in sie und dachte nicht mehr an die aristokratische Abstammung des Modells. Mit stockendem Atem sah er, wie ihm die leichten Z\u00fcge und das fast durchsichtige, zarte Fleisch des siebzehnj\u00e4hrigen M\u00e4dchens gerieten. Er erhaschte jede Schattierung, die gelblichen T\u00f6ne, den kaum sichtbaren bl\u00e4ulichen Anflug unter den Augen und war schon im Begriff, auch den kleinen Pickel, der auf der Stirne erbl\u00fcht war, festzuhalten, als er pl\u00f6tzlich die Stimme der Mutter vernahm: \u00bbAch, wozu das? Das ist nicht n\u00f6tig,\u00ab sagte die Dame. \u00bbAuch das... hier, an einigen Stellen... es scheint mir etwas gelb, und auch hier die dunklen Fleckchen.\u00ab Der Maler begann ihr zu erkl\u00e4ren, da\u00df gerade diese Fleckchen und der gelbe Ton sich besonders gut machten und die angenehmen und zarten T\u00f6ne des Gesichts bewirkten. Darauf bekam er zur Antwort, da\u00df sie gar nichts bewirkten und gar keinen Ton ausmachten und da\u00df es ihm nur so vorkomme. \u00bbAber erlauben Sie, da\u00df ich nur hier, an dieser Stelle ein wenig mit gelber Farbe nachfahre,\u00ab sagte der K\u00fcnstler einf\u00e4ltig. Aber man erlaubte es ihm nicht. Man erkl\u00e4rte ihm, da\u00df Lise heute ausnahmsweise etwas indisponiert sei und da\u00df sie sonst niemals gelb auss\u00e4he; ihr Gesicht sei vielmehr von einer erstaunlichen Frische. Traurig machte er sich an die Beseitigung dessen, was sein Pinsel auf die Leinwand gebannt hatte. Es verschwanden viele fast unmerkliche Z\u00fcge, und mit ihnen verschwand auch zum Teil die \u00c4hnlichkeit. Er begann dem Portr\u00e4t ganz gef\u00fchllos das allgemeine Kolorit zu verleihen, das man auswendig kennt und das selbst die nach der Natur gemalten Gesichter in kalte Idealgestalten verwandelt, wie man sie auf Sch\u00fclerarbeiten sieht. Aber die Dame war sehr zufrieden, da\u00df das verletzende Kolorit beseitigt war. Sie \u00e4u\u00dferte nur ihr Erstaunen dar\u00fcber, da\u00df die Arbeit so lange daure, und f\u00fcgte hinzu, da\u00df sie geh\u00f6rt habe, er pflege sonst ein Portr\u00e4t in zwei Sitzungen fertigzumachen. Der Maler wu\u00dfte nicht, was darauf zu antworten. Die Damen erhoben sich und schickten sich zum Gehen an. Er legte den Pinsel weg, begleitete sie bis zur T\u00fcr und stand dann lange nachdenklich und unbeweglich vor dem Portr\u00e4t.\n\nDas Portr\u00e4t blickte ihn ganz dumm an, aber in seinem Kopfe schwebten noch die leichten weiblichen Z\u00fcge, die Farben und luftigen T\u00f6ne, die er wahrgenommen und die sein Pinsel so grausam vernichtet hatte. Ganz von ihnen erf\u00fcllt, stellte er das Portr\u00e4t zur Seite und holte das K\u00f6pfchen der Psyche hervor, das er einst skizzenhaft hingeworfen und dann aufgegeben hatte. Es war ein geschickt gemaltes, aber durchaus ideales, kaltes Gesichtchen, das nur aus ganz allgemeinen Z\u00fcgen bestand, die sich noch nicht in lebendiges Fleisch gekleidet hatten. Um die Zeit totzuschlagen, fuhr er nun mit dem Pinsel nach und dachte dabei an alle Einzelheiten, die er im Gesicht des aristokratischen Modells wahrgenommen hatte. Jene Z\u00fcge und T\u00f6ne erstanden hier in der gel\u00e4uterten Form, in der sie erscheinen, wenn der K\u00fcnstler, nachdem er sich an der Natur sattgesehen, sich von ihr entfernt und ein ihr gleichwertiges Werk schafft. Die Psyche erwachte zum Leben, und die schwach angedeutete Idee wurde allm\u00e4hlich zu lebendigem Fleisch. Der Gesichtstypus des aristokratischen jungen M\u00e4dchens teilte sich wie von selbst der Psyche mit, und diese erhielt dadurch einen eigenartigen Ausdruck, der ihr den Wert eines wirklich originellen Werkes verlieh. Er hatte sich anscheinend wie im einzelnen, so auch im allgemeinen alles zunutze gemacht, was ihm das Original geboten, und versenkte sich ganz in diese Arbeit. Einige Tage lang war er nur mit ihr besch\u00e4ftigt. Bei dieser Arbeit trafen ihn auch die beiden bekannten Damen. Er hatte nicht Zeit gehabt, das Bild von der Staffelei zu nehmen. Beide Damen schrien freudig \u00fcberrascht auf und schlugen die H\u00e4nde zusammen.\n\n\u00bbLise, Lise! Ach, wie \u00e4hnlich! _Superbe, superbe!_ Wie sch\u00f6n ist doch Ihr Einfall, sie in ein griechisches Kost\u00fcm zu kleiden! Ach, diese \u00dcberraschung!\u00ab\n\nDer K\u00fcnstler wu\u00dfte nicht, wie den Damen die angenehme T\u00e4uschung auszureden. Geniert, mit gesenktem Kopf sagte er leise: \u00bbEs ist Psyche.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbSie haben sie als Psyche dargestellt? _C'est charmant!\u00ab_ sagte die Mutter l\u00e4chelnd, worauf auch die Tochter l\u00e4chelte.\n\n\u00bbNicht wahr, Lise, es steht dir am besten, als Psyche dargestellt zu sein? _Quelle id\u00e9e d\u00e9licieuse!_ Aber diese Arbeit! Ein wahrer Correggio. Offen gestanden habe ich wohl viel von Ihnen gelesen und geh\u00f6rt, habe aber nicht gewu\u00dft, da\u00df Sie so ein Talent haben. Nein, Sie m\u00fcssen unbedingt auch mein Portr\u00e4t malen.\u00ab Die Dame wollte offenbar auch als eine Psyche dargestellt werden.\n\n\u2013 Was soll ich mit ihnen anfangen? \u2013 fragte sich der Maler. \u2013 Wenn sie es selbst wollen, so soll die Psyche als das gelten, was sie in ihr sehen wollen. \u2013 Dann sagte er laut: \u00bbWollen Sie noch ein wenig sitzen: ich will nur hie und da mit dem Pinsel nachfahren.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbAch, ich f\u00fcrchte, da\u00df Sie sie... sie ist jetzt so \u00e4hnlich...\u00ab\n\nDer Maler erriet, da\u00df die Bef\u00fcrchtungen den gelben Ton betrafen, und beruhigte die beiden, indem er sagte, er wolle nur etwas mehr Glanz und Ausdruck den Augen verleihen. In Wirklichkeit qu\u00e4lte ihn doch zu sehr das Gewissen, und er wollte dem Portr\u00e4t wenigstens etwas mehr \u00c4hnlichkeit mit dem Original verleihen, damit ihm niemand absolute Schamlosigkeit vorwerfen k\u00f6nne. In der Gestalt der Psyche begannen nun in der Tat die Z\u00fcge des blassen M\u00e4dchens deutlicher hervorzutreten.\n\n\u00bbGenug!\u00ab sagte die Mutter, die schon bef\u00fcrchtete, da\u00df die \u00c4hnlichkeit allzu gro\u00df werden k\u00f6nnte. Dem Maler wurde jeglicher Lohn zuteil: ein L\u00e4cheln, Geld, Komplimente, ein herzlicher H\u00e4ndedruck und eine Einladung zum Mittagessen, \u2013 mit einem Worte, tausend schmeichelhafte Belohnungen.\n\nDas Portr\u00e4t erregte in der Stadt Aufsehen. Die Dame zeigte es ihren Freundinnen. Alle staunten \u00fcber die Kunst, mit der der Maler es verstanden hatte, die \u00c4hnlichkeit zu wahren und zugleich dem Original Anmut zu verleihen. Das letztere wurde nat\u00fcrlich nicht ohne Neid bemerkt. Der Maler war pl\u00f6tzlich von Auftraggebern belagert. Die ganze Stadt schien sich von ihm malen lassen zu wollen. An seiner T\u00fcr ging fortw\u00e4hrend die Klingel. Einerseits h\u00e4tte es f\u00fcr ihn gut sein k\u00f6nnen, da ihm die unendliche Mannigfaltigkeit der Gesichter eine gro\u00dfe Praxis bot. Zu seinem Ungl\u00fcck waren es aber lauter Menschen, mit denen es schwer auszukommen war; hastige, vielbesch\u00e4ftigte Menschen, oder solche, die der gro\u00dfen Welt angeh\u00f6rten und folglich noch mehr besch\u00e4ftigt als die anderen, und somit \u00e4u\u00dferst ungeduldig waren. Von allen Seiten wurde verlangt, da\u00df er gut und schnell arbeite.\n\nDer Maler sah bald die Unm\u00f6glichkeit ein, die Portr\u00e4ts wirklich zu vollenden, und da\u00df er es durch Geschicklichkeit und flotte Pinself\u00fchrung ersetzen m\u00fcsse: es galt nur das Ganze, den allgemeinen Ausdruck zu erfassen, ohne sich mit dem Pinsel in die feineren Einzelheiten zu versenken; es war, mit einem Wort, ganz unm\u00f6glich, der Natur in ihrer Vollendung nachzusp\u00fcren. Es ist au\u00dferdem zu bemerken, da\u00df die Menschen, die sich von ihm malen lie\u00dfen, noch viele andere Anspr\u00fcche an ihn stellten. Die Damen verlangten, da\u00df die Portr\u00e4ts vorwiegend die Seelen und die Charaktere darstellten, alles \u00fcbrige aber mitunter ganz weggelassen werden d\u00fcrfe: da\u00df alles Eckige abgerundet, jeder Fehler gegl\u00e4ttet und sogar wom\u00f6glich ganz vernachl\u00e4ssigt werde, \u2013 mit einem Wort, da\u00df das Portr\u00e4t in dem Beschauer Bewunderung, wenn nicht gar Liebe wecke. Darum nahmen auch die Damen, wenn sie ihm sa\u00dfen, mitunter einen solchen Ausdruck an, da\u00df der Maler nur so staunte: die eine bem\u00fchte sich, Melancholie, die andere Vertr\u00e4umtheit zu mimen; die dritte wollte um jeden Preis ihren Mund kleiner erscheinen lassen und spitzte ihn so, da\u00df er sich schlie\u00dflich in einen Punkt, kaum so gro\u00df wie ein Stecknadelkopf, verwandelte. Dabei verlangten sie von ihm alle \u00c4hnlichkeit und ungezwungene Nat\u00fcrlichkeit. Auch die M\u00e4nner waren durchaus nicht besser als die Damen: der eine wollte mit einer starken, energischen Wendung des Kopfes dargestellt werden. Der andere mit nach oben gerichteten durchgeistigten Augen; ein Gardeleutnant forderte, da\u00df aus seinen Augen Gott Mars blikke; der Zivilbeamte w\u00fcnschte, da\u00df sein Gesicht m\u00f6glichst viel Offenheit und Edelsinn ausdr\u00fccke, und da\u00df die Hand auf einem Buche mit der deutlich lesbaren Inschrift: \u00bbEr trat immer f\u00fcr die Wahrheit ein\u00ab ruhe.\n\nSolche Zumutungen machten den Maler anfangs schwitzen: alle diese Dinge wollten ja \u00fcberlegt sein, w\u00e4hrend man ihm nur wenig Zeit dazu lie\u00df. Endlich begriff er, was man von ihm wollte, und machte sich keine M\u00fche mehr. Schon aus wenigen Worten erfa\u00dfte er, als was sich der und jener dargestellt sehen wollte. Wer nach dem Gott Mars verlangte, dem malte er den Mars ins Gesicht; wer sich f\u00fcr einen Byron hielt, dem verlieh er die Pose und die Wendung Byrons. Wollte sich eine Dame als Corinna, Undine oder Aspasia dargestellt sehen, \u2013 er ging immer mit der gr\u00f6\u00dften Bereitwilligkeit auf alles ein und verlieh einem jeden au\u00dferdem auch eine gewisse Anmut, die bekanntlich niemals schadet, f\u00fcr die man dem Maler aber auch Un\u00e4hnlichkeit verzeiht. Bald staunte er selbst \u00fcber die wunderbare Schnelligkeit und Flottheit seines Pinsels. Die sich von ihm malen lie\u00dfen, waren aber selbstverst\u00e4ndlich entz\u00fcckt und erkl\u00e4rten ihn f\u00fcr ein Genie.\n\nTschartkow wurde in jeder Beziehung zu einem Modemaler. Er fing an, Diners zu besuchen, Damen in die Galerien und sogar auf die Promenade zu begleiten, sich elegant zu kleiden und laut zu verk\u00fcnden, da\u00df der K\u00fcnstler der Gesellschaft angeh\u00f6ren und seinen Stand hochhalten m\u00fcsse, w\u00e4hrend die K\u00fcnstler sich sonst wie die Schuster kleideten, kein Benehmen h\u00e4tten, den feineren Ton nicht beobachteten und jeder Bildung entbehrten. In seiner Wohnung und in seinem Atelier sah er auf \u00e4u\u00dferste Ordnung und Reinlichkeit; er stellte sich zwei gro\u00dfartige Lakaien an, nahm elegante Sch\u00fcler auf, wechselte einigemal am Tage allerlei Morgenanz\u00fcge und kr\u00e4uselte sich das Haar. Er vervollkommnete immer mehr seine Manieren, mit denen er die Besucher empfing, und widmete sich der Versch\u00f6nerung seines \u00c4u\u00dferen mit allen m\u00f6glichen Mitteln, um auf die Damen einen angenehmen Eindruck zu machen; mit einem Worte, bald konnte man in ihm den bescheidenen jungen Maler, der einst von niemand gesehen, in seinem Loch auf der Wassiljewskij-Insel gearbeitet hatte, nicht mehr wiedererkennen. \u00dcber die anderen Maler und \u00fcber die Kunst urteilte er nun sehr scharf: er behauptete, da\u00df den alten Meistern eine viel zu hohe Bedeutung zugemessen werde, da\u00df sie alle vor Raffael keine Menschen, sondern Heringe gemalt hatten; da\u00df es nur eine Einbildung der Beschauer sei, wenn behauptet werde, in diesen Bildern sei etwas Heiliges enthalten; da\u00df Michelangelo ein Prahler sei, der \u00fcberall nur mit seinen anatomischen Kenntnissen habe prahlen wollen; da\u00df ihm jede Grazie fehle, und da\u00df man den wahren Glanz und die wahre Kraft der Pinself\u00fchrung und des Kolorits nur heutzutage, im jetzigen Jahrhundert suchen d\u00fcrfe.\n\nSo brachte er die Rede nat\u00fcrlich und unwillk\u00fcrlich auf sich selbst. \u00bbNein,\u00ab pflegte er zu sagen, \u00bbich kann nicht verstehen, wie die andern sich so abm\u00fchen k\u00f6nnen: ein Mensch, der sich einige Monate mit einem Bilde plagt, ist meiner Ansicht nach ein Arbeiter und kein K\u00fcnstler; ich kann unm\u00f6glich glauben, da\u00df er Talent hat. Das Genie schafft k\u00fchn und schnell. Dieses Portr\u00e4t da\u00ab, sagte er, sich an die Besucher wendend, \u00bbhabe ich in zwei Tagen gemalt, dieses K\u00f6pfchen in einem Tag, dieses hier in einigen Stunden, und dieses in etwas mehr als einer Stunde. Nein, ich... ich mu\u00df gestehen, da\u00df ich es nicht als Kunst ansehen kann, was Strich auf Strich entsteht; es ist Handwerk und keine Kunst.\u00ab\n\nSo sprach er zu seinen Besuchern, und die Besucher staunten \u00fcber die Kraft und den Schwung seines Pinsels und stie\u00dfen sogar Rufe des Erstaunens aus, als sie h\u00f6rten, wie schnell die Werke entstanden waren. Hinterher sagten sie zueinander: \u00bbDas ist ein Talent! Ein wahres Talent! Schauen Sie nur, wie er spricht, wie seine Augen leuchten! _Il a quelque chose d'extraordinaire dans toute sa figure!\u00ab_\n\nEs schmeichelte dem K\u00fcnstler, solche \u00c4u\u00dferungen zu h\u00f6ren. Wenn in den Zeitungen lobende Aufs\u00e4tze erschienen, freute er sich wie ein Kind, obwohl er das Lob mit eigenem Gelde bezahlt hatte. Er trug so ein Zeitungsblatt immer bei sich und zeigte es wie zuf\u00e4llig seinen Bekannten und Freunden, und das machte ihm selbst eine einf\u00e4ltige Freude. Sein Ruhm wuchs, und er hatte immer mehr Arbeit und Auftr\u00e4ge. Schon fingen ihn die immer gleichen Portr\u00e4ts und Gesichter, deren Posen und Wendungen er auswendig kannte, zu langweilen an. Er malte sie schon ohne gro\u00dfe Lust und bem\u00fchte sich nur irgendwie den Kopf zu skizzieren, \u00fcberlie\u00df aber die Vollendung seinen Sch\u00fclern. Fr\u00fcher hatte er sich noch immerhin bem\u00fcht, eine neue Stellung zu erfinden, den Beschauer durch Kraft und Effekt zu verbl\u00fcffen. Jetzt langweilte ihn aber auch das schon. Sein Geist war zu m\u00fcde, Neues zu erfinden. Das konnte er nicht mehr und hatte auch keine Zeit dazu: das Leben voller Zerstreuung und die Gesellschaft, in der er eine Rolle spielen wollte, lenkte ihn von der Arbeit und vom Denken ab. Sein Pinsel wurde k\u00e4lter und stumpfer, und er schlo\u00df sich f\u00fcr sich selbst unmerklich in eint\u00f6nige, bestimmte, l\u00e4ngst abgeleierte Formen ein. Die gleichf\u00f6rmigen, kalten, zugekn\u00f6pften, immer gepflegten Gesichter der Milit\u00e4r- und Zivilbeamten boten seinem Pinsel kein zu weites Feld; er interessierte sich nicht mehr f\u00fcr die prunkvollen Drapierungen, f\u00fcr die starken Bewegungen und Leidenschaften. Von geschickten Gruppierungen, k\u00fcnstlerischer Dramatik und erhabener Komposition war nicht mehr die Rede; er sah vor sich nur die Uniform, das Korsett und den Frack, vor denen der wahre K\u00fcnstler nur K\u00e4lte empfindet und jede Phantasie schwindet. An seinen Werken konnte man nun auch die gew\u00f6hnlichsten Qualit\u00e4ten nicht mehr finden, und trotzdem wurden sie noch immer gekauft und erfreuten sich der Ber\u00fchmtheit, obwohl die wahren Kenner und K\u00fcnstler beim Anblick seiner letzten Arbeiten nur die Achseln zuckten. Manche aber, die Tschartkow fr\u00fcher gekannt hatten, konnten unm\u00f6glich begreifen, wie ein Talent, dessen Anzeichen sich in ihm einst so leuchtend offenbart hatten, so spurlos verschwinden konnte, und bem\u00fchten sich zu ergr\u00fcnden, wie im Menschen eine Begabung zu einer Zeit erl\u00f6schen konnte, wo er gerade die volle Entfaltung aller seiner Kr\u00e4fte erreicht.\n\nDer berauschte K\u00fcnstler h\u00f6rte aber von diesem Gerede nichts. Er war schon wie an Geist, so auch an Jahren gereift: er fing an dick zu werden und in die Breite zu gehen. In den Zeitungen und Zeitschriften las er schon die Epitheta: \u00bbUnser verehrter Andrej Petrowitsch, unser hochverdienter Andrej Petrowitsch.\u00ab Schon bot man ihm allerlei Ehren\u00e4mter an und lud ihn zur Teilnahme an Pr\u00fcfungen und Komitees ein. Schon fing er an, wie es alle \u00e4lteren Leute tun, f\u00fcr Raffael und die alten Meister Partei zu ergreifen, doch nicht etwa, weil er sich von ihrem hohen Werte \u00fcberzeugt h\u00e4tte, sondern um sie den jungen K\u00fcnstlern vor die Nase zu reiben. Schon fing er an, wie es in diesem reifen Alter \u00fcblich ist, der ganzen Jugend, ohne Ausnahme, Unmoral und schlechte Gesinnung vorzuwerfen. Schon glaubte er, da\u00df alles in dieser Welt h\u00f6chst einfach gesch\u00e4he, da\u00df es eine Inspiration von oben gar nicht g\u00e4be und da\u00df alles dem gleichen strengen Gesetze der Ordnung und Gleichf\u00f6rmigkeit unterworfen werden m\u00fcsse. Mit einem Worte, sein Leben erreichte schon jenes Alter, wo alles, was im Menschen dr\u00e4ngt und atmet, zusammenschrumpft, wo die T\u00f6ne des machtvollen Bogens immer schw\u00e4cher in sein Inneres dringen und sich nicht mehr als gellende T\u00f6ne um sein Herz winden, wo die Ber\u00fchrung mit der Sch\u00f6nheit keine jungfr\u00e4ulichen Kr\u00e4fte mehr in Feuer und Flamme verwandelt, wo aber alle zu Asche verbrannten Gef\u00fchle dem Klirren des Goldes zug\u00e4nglicher werden, seiner verlockenden Musik immer aufmerksamer lauschen und sich von ihr unmerklich einschl\u00e4fern lassen. Der Ruhm kann einem, der ihn gestohlen und nicht verdient hat, keinen Genu\u00df geben: er l\u00e4\u00dft nur einen, der seiner w\u00fcrdig ist, erzittern. Darum wandten sich all seine Gef\u00fchle und sein ganzes Streben dem Golde zu. Das Gold wurde ihm zur Leidenschaft, zum Ideal, zur Angst, zum Genu\u00df, zum Ziel. Die Haufen von Banknoten in seinen Truhen wuchsen best\u00e4ndig, und wie jeder, dem diese schreckliche Gabe zuf\u00e4llt, fing er an sich zu langweilen, zu einem gegen alles au\u00dfer Gold gleichg\u00fcltigen, sinnlosen Geizhals und Sammler zu werden und war schon im Begriff, sich in eines jener sonderbaren Gesch\u00f6pfe zu verwandeln, von denen es in unserer gef\u00fchllosen Welt so viele gibt, auf die ein lebendiger f\u00fchlender Mensch nur mit Grauen blickt und dem sie als wandelnde steinerne S\u00e4rge erscheinen, die eine Leiche an Stelle eines Herzens bergen. Aber ein Ereignis ersch\u00fctterte ihn m\u00e4chtig und weckte alles Lebendige in ihm.\n\nEines Tages fand er auf seinem Tisch ein Schreiben, mit dem die Akademie der K\u00fcnste ihn, als ihr w\u00fcrdigstes Mitglied, aufforderte, zu kommen, um ein Urteil \u00fcber ein neues Werk abzugeben, das ein russischer K\u00fcnstler aus Italien, wo er sich vervollkommnete, geschickt hatte. Dieser K\u00fcnstler war einer seiner einstigen Kollegen, der von fr\u00fchester Jugend an eine Leidenschaft f\u00fcr die Kunst in sich trug und sich mit der gl\u00fchenden Seele eines Eiferers in sie versenkte; er hatte sich von seinen Freunden, Verwandten, von allen seinen geliebten Gewohnheiten losgerissen und war dorthin geeilt, wo unter dem sch\u00f6nen Himmel die gro\u00dfartige Pflanzst\u00e4tte der K\u00fcnste bl\u00fcht, \u2013 in das herrliche Rom, dessen Name allein das feurige Herz eines K\u00fcnstlers so voll und m\u00e4chtig schlagen l\u00e4\u00dft. Dort vertiefte er sich wie ein Einsiedler in die Arbeit und lie\u00df sich durch nichts von ihr ablenken. Er k\u00fcmmerte sich nicht darum, was man von seinem Charakter sprach, von seiner Unf\u00e4higkeit, mit Menschen umzugehen, von seiner Mi\u00dfachtung gegen die Sitten der Gesellschaft und von der Erniedrigung, die er der Kunst durch seinen \u00e4rmlichen, uneleganten Anzug zuf\u00fcgte. Er k\u00fcmmerte sich nicht darum, ob ihm seine Kollegen z\u00fcrnten oder nicht. Unerm\u00fcdlich besuchte er die Galerien und stand stundenlang vor den Werken der gro\u00dfen Meister, um ihrer wunderbaren Pinself\u00fchrung nachzusp\u00fcren. Er vollendete kein Werk, ohne sich zuvor vor diesen gro\u00dfen Lehrmeistern gepr\u00fcft und aus ihren Werken einen stummen doch beredten Rat geholt zu haben. Er beteiligte sich nicht an den ger\u00e4uschvollen Gespr\u00e4chen und Debatten und trat weder f\u00fcr noch gegen die Puristen ein. Er lie\u00df einem jeden Gerechtigkeit widerfahren und sch\u00f6pfte aus allem nur das, was darin wirklich sch\u00f6n war; zuletzt erkor er sich den g\u00f6ttlichen Raffael zu seinem einzigen Lehrer, \u2013 ebenso wie ein gro\u00dfer Meister der Dichtkunst, der verschiedene, von vielen Vorz\u00fcgen und erhabenen Sch\u00f6nheiten erf\u00fcllte Werke gelesen hat, zuletzt nur Homers Ilias als einziges Handbuch beh\u00e4lt, nachdem er gefunden, da\u00df sie alles, was man nur wolle, enthalte und da\u00df es nichts g\u00e4be, was sich nicht schon in ihr in einer tiefen und gro\u00dfen Vollkommenheit widerspiegelte. Daf\u00fcr hatte der K\u00fcnstler aus dieser Schule eine erhabene Idee des Schaffens, eine m\u00e4chtige Sch\u00f6nheit des Denkens und eine hohe Vollkommenheit seines himmlischen Pinsels gesch\u00f6pft.\n\nAls Tschartkow in den Saal trat, traf er bereits eine Menge von Geladenen an, die sich vor dem Bilde versammelt hatten. Ein tiefes Schweigen, wie es in einer so gro\u00dfen Ansammlung von Kunstkennern nur selten anzutreffen ist, herrschte diesmal im ganzen Saal. Er beeilte sich, eine vielsagende Kennermiene aufzusetzen, und n\u00e4herte sich dem Bilde. Gott, was erblickte er da!\n\nKeusch, makellos und sch\u00f6n wie eine Braut stand vor ihm das Kunstwerk. Bescheiden, g\u00f6ttlich, unschuldig und einfach wie ein Genie erhob es sich \u00fcber allem. Die himmlischen Gestalten schienen, wie \u00fcber die vielen auf sie gerichteten Blicke erstaunt, ihre sch\u00f6nen Wimpern schamhaft zu senken. Mit dem Gef\u00fchl eines unwillk\u00fcrlichen Staunens betrachteten die Kenner dieses neue, nie gesehene Werk. Alles schien hier vereint: das Studium Raffaels, das sich im hohen Adel der Stellungen spiegelte, das Studium Correggios, von dem die Vollendung der Pinself\u00fchrung zeugte. M\u00e4chtiger als alles sprach aber daraus die in der Seele des K\u00fcnstlers selbst eingeschlossene Sch\u00f6pfergabe. Auch der letzte Gegenstand im Bilde war von ihr durchdrungen; in allen Dingen war das Gesetz und die innere Kraft erfa\u00dft; wie auch jene sanfte Rundung der Linien, die in der Natur enthalten ist und die nur das Auge des sch\u00f6pferischen K\u00fcnstlers ersp\u00e4ht, w\u00e4hrend sie beim Kopisten eckig ger\u00e4t. Man sah, wie der K\u00fcnstler alles, was er aus der \u00e4u\u00dferen Welt gesch\u00f6pft, zuerst in seine eigene Seele eingeschlossen und dann erst dieser innersten Quelle als einen harmonischen, feierlichen Gesang entsteigen lassen hatte. Und es wurde selbst den Uneingeweihten klar, was f\u00fcr ein unerme\u00dflicher Abgrund zwischen einem Kunstwerk und einer einfachen Kopie nach der Natur liegt. Es ist fast unm\u00f6glich, die ungew\u00f6hnliche Stille zu beschreiben, von der alle, die ihre Blicke auf das Bild hefteten, ergriffen waren: kein Ger\u00e4usch, kein Ton; das Bild erschien aber von Minute zu Minute erhabener: immer strahlender und wunderbarer l\u00f6ste es sich von allem, was es umgab, los und wurde zuletzt zu einem Augenblick, zur Frucht des dem K\u00fcnstler vom Himmel eingegebenen Gedankens, \u2013 zu einem Augenblick, vor dem das ganze Leben des Menschen nur als eine Vorbereitung erschien. Die G\u00e4ste, die das Bild umringten, waren dem Weinen nahe. Alle Geschmacksrichtungen, alle k\u00fchnen und gesetzwidrigen Verirrungen des Geschmacks schienen sich zu einer stummen Hymne auf das g\u00f6ttliche Werk zu vereinigen.\n\nUnbeweglich, mit offenem Munde stand Tschartkow vor dem Bilde und kam erst dann wieder zu sich, als die G\u00e4ste und Kenner allm\u00e4hlich das Schweigen brachen, um \u00fcber den hohen Wert des Werkes zu sprechen, und sich an ihn mit der Bitte wandten, seine Meinung zu \u00e4u\u00dfern. Er wollte schon seine gewohnte, gleichg\u00fcltige Miene aufsetzen, er wollte eine der \u00fcblichen, abgeschmackten Ansichten verh\u00e4rteter K\u00fcnstler zum besten geben, wie: \u00bbJa, gewi\u00df, man kann dem K\u00fcnstler die Begabung wohl nicht absprechen; es ist schon etwas daran; man sieht, da\u00df er etwas ausdr\u00fccken wollte; was aber die Hauptsache betrifft...\u00ab und dann selbstverst\u00e4ndlich einiges Lob hinzuf\u00fcgen, das keinem K\u00fcnstler wohlbekommen w\u00e4re, er wollte es tun, aber die Worte erstarben auf seinen Lippen, Tr\u00e4nen und Schluchzen entrangen sich ihm, und er st\u00fcrzte wie ein Wahnsinniger aus dem Saal.\n\nEine Minute lang stand er unbeweglich und bewu\u00dftlos mitten in seinem gro\u00dfartigen Atelier. Sein tiefstes Wesen, sein ganzes Leben war in einem Augenblick erwacht, als w\u00e4re seine Jugend zur\u00fcckgekehrt, als seien die erloschenen Funken seines Talents von neuem entfacht. Von seinen Augen fiel pl\u00f6tzlich die Binde. Oh Gott! So erbarmungslos die besten Jahre seiner Jugend zugrunde richten, den Funken des Feuers verl\u00f6schen, das vielleicht in seiner Brust gegl\u00fcht hatte, das sich vielleicht jetzt in Majest\u00e4t und Sch\u00f6nheit entwickelt und vielleicht ebensolche Tr\u00e4nen der Bewunderung und der Dankbarkeit hervorgerufen h\u00e4tte! Dies alles zugrunde richten, ohne jedes Mitleid zugrunde richten! In diesem Augenblick schien die ganze Spannung, das ganze Streben seiner Seele, das er einst so gut gekannt hatte, wieder erwacht. Er ergriff den Pinsel und trat vor die Leinwand. Schwei\u00df der Anstrengung trat ihm auf die Stirn; er verwandelte sich ganz in einen einzigen Wunsch, er entbrannte in einem einzigen Gedanken: er wollte einen gefallenen Engel darstellen. Dieses Thema entsprach am besten dem Zustande seiner Seele. Aber ach! Seine Figuren, Posen, Gruppierungen und Einf\u00e4lle gerieten gezwungen und unharmonisch. Sein Pinsel und seine Phantasie hatten sich zu sehr in enge Grenzen eingeschlossen, und der ohnm\u00e4chtige Versuch, alle Schranken und Fesseln, die er sich selbst auferlegt hatte, zu sprengen, erweckte den Eindruck von Fehlerhaftigkeit und Unnatur. Er hatte die erm\u00fcdend lange Stufenleiter der allm\u00e4hlich zu erwerbenden Kenntnisse und die ersten Elementargesetze der k\u00fcnftigen Gr\u00f6\u00dfe mi\u00dfachtet. Er f\u00fchlte Verdru\u00df. Er lie\u00df alle seine letzten Werke, alle die leblosen Modebildchen, die Portr\u00e4ts von Husaren, Damen und Staatsr\u00e4ten aus seinem Atelier entfernen; er schlo\u00df sich allein in seinem Zimmer ein, befahl niemand vorzulassen und versenkte sich ganz in die Arbeit. Wie ein geduldiger J\u00fcngling, wie ein Sch\u00fcler sa\u00df er an seiner Arbeit. Aber wie grausam undankbar war alles, was unter seinem Pinsel erstand! Auf jedem Schritt hemmte ihn die Unkenntnis der urspr\u00fcnglichsten Elemente; die einfache bedeutungslose Technik k\u00fchlte seinen ganzen Eifer und stand vor seiner Phantasie als eine Schwelle, die sie nicht zu \u00fcbertreten vermochte. Sein Pinsel wandte sich unwillk\u00fcrlich den auswendig gelernten Formen zu, die H\u00e4nde falteten sich immer auf die gleiche angelernte Weise, die K\u00f6pfe wagten es nicht, eine ungew\u00f6hnliche Stellung anzunehmen, selbst die Falten der Gew\u00e4nder erinnerten an angelernte Formeln und wollten sich den ihnen unbekannten K\u00f6rperstellungen nicht f\u00fcgen. Und all das f\u00fchlte und sah er selbst!\n\n\u00bbHabe ich aber wirklich einmal Talent gehabt?\u00ab fragte er sich endlich: \u00bbHabe ich mich nicht get\u00e4uscht?\u00ab Mit diesen Worten ging er auf seine fr\u00fcheren Werke zu, die er einst so keusch, so uneigenn\u00fctzig, dort, in der elenden Kammer auf der entlegenen Wassiljewskij-Insel geschaffen hatte, fern von allen Menschen, frei von \u00dcberflu\u00df und Launen. Er ging nun auf sie zu und begann sie aufmerksam zu betrachten, und zugleich mit ihnen erstand vor ihm sein ganzes fr\u00fcheres \u00e4rmliches Leben. \u00bbJa,\u00ab sagte er sich verzweifelt, \u00bbich habe wohl ein Talent gehabt! \u00dcberall, an allem sehe ich seine Anzeichen und Spuren...\u00ab\n\nEr hielt inne und erzitterte pl\u00f6tzlich am ganzen Leibe: seine Augen begegneten anderen Augen, die ihn regungslos anstarrten. Es war jenes ungew\u00f6hnliche Portr\u00e4t, das er im Schtschukinschen Kaufhause gekauft hatte. Es war die ganze Zeit \u00fcber von andern Bildern verstellt gewesen und ihm ganz aus dem Ged\u00e4chtnis geschwunden. Aber jetzt, als alle die modischen Portr\u00e4ts und Bilder, die sein Atelier gef\u00fcllt hatten, entfernt waren, blickte es pl\u00f6tzlich zugleich mit den fr\u00fcheren Werken seiner Jugend hervor. Als er sich der ganzen sonderbaren Geschichte des Bildes erinnerte, als er sich erinnerte, da\u00df dieses seltsame Portr\u00e4t gewisserma\u00dfen die Ursache seiner Wandlung gewesen war, da\u00df der Schatz, den er auf eine so wunderbare Weise gewonnen, in ihm alle die eitlen Regungen, die sein Talent zugrunde gerichtet, geweckt hatte, \u2013 verfiel er beinahe in Raserei. Er lie\u00df das verha\u00dfte Portr\u00e4t augenblicklich hinaustragen. Aber die seelische Erregung wollte sich trotzdem nicht legen: alle seine Gef\u00fchle, sein ganzes Wesen waren bis auf den Grund ersch\u00fcttert, und er erfuhr jene entsetzliche Qual, die in der Natur nur als erstaunliche Ausnahme vorkommt, wenn ein schwaches Talent versucht, sich in einem Werke zu \u00e4u\u00dfern, das sein K\u00f6nnen \u00fcbersteigt, \u2013 jene Qual, die in der Seele des J\u00fcnglings auch Gro\u00dfes zeugen kann, aber in einem Manne, der die Grenze der Jugendtr\u00e4ume \u00fcberschritten hat, sich in einen fruchtlosen Durst verwandelt, \u2013 jene schreckliche Qual, die den Menschen zu schrecklichen Verbrechen f\u00e4hig macht. Seiner bem\u00e4chtigte sich ein schrecklicher, an Raserei grenzender Neid. Die Galle trat ihm ins Gesicht, wenn er nur ein Werk erblickte, das den Stempel eines Talents trug. Er knirschte mit den Z\u00e4hnen und verzehrte es mit den Blicken eines Basilisken. In seiner Seele entstand der teuflischste Plan, den ein Mensch je gehegt hat, und er begann ihn mit rasender Energie zu verwirklichen. Er fing an, alles Beste, was die Kunst je hervorgebracht, zusammenzukaufen. Sobald er ein gutes Bild um teures Geld erstanden, brachte er es behutsam in sein Zimmer, st\u00fcrzte sich mit der Mut eines Tigers dar\u00fcber, zerri\u00df und zerschnitt es in St\u00fccke und trat es mit den F\u00fc\u00dfen; das alles begleitete er mit einem woll\u00fcstigen Gel\u00e4chter. Die zahllosen von ihm aufgespeicherten Geldmittel lieferten ihm alle Mittel, um dieses h\u00f6llische Bed\u00fcrfnis zu befriedigen. Er band alle seine Gelds\u00e4cke auf und \u00f6ffnete alle seine Truhen. Kein Ungeheuer der Barbarei hat noch so viele herrliche Kunstwerke vernichtet, wie dieser w\u00fctende R\u00e4cher. Auf allen Auktionen, bei denen er erschien, mu\u00dfte ein jeder jede Hoffnung auf den Erwerb eines Kunstwerkes aufgeben. Es war, als h\u00e4tte der erz\u00fcrnte Himmel selbst diese furchtbare Gei\u00dfel in die Welt geschickt, um ihr ihre ganze Harmonie zu nehmen. Diese f\u00fcrchterliche Leidenschaft verlieh ihm ein grauenhaftes Kolorit: sein Gesicht war immer gelb vor Galle. Weltverachtung und Weltverleugnung spiegelten sich in seinen Z\u00fcgen. In ihm hatte sich gleichsam jener schreckliche D\u00e4mon verk\u00f6rpert, den Puschkin in idealisierter Gestalt geschildert. Aus seinem Munde kam nichts als giftige Worte und ewiger Tadel. Er glich einer Harpye, und wenn ihn jemand, selbst einer von seinen Bekannten, auf der Stra\u00dfe von weitem erblickte, so beeilte er sich, ihm aus dem Wege zu gehen und behauptete, da\u00df eine solche Begegnung gen\u00fcge, um einem Menschen den ganzen Tag zu vergiften.\n\nZum Gl\u00fcck f\u00fcr die Welt und f\u00fcr die Kunst konnte solch ein gespanntes und gewaltt\u00e4tiges Leben nicht lange dauern: das Ma\u00df der Leidenschaften war f\u00fcr seine schwachen Kr\u00e4fte zu unregelm\u00e4\u00dfig und kolossal. Anf\u00e4lle von Raserei und Wahnsinn kamen immer \u00f6fter, und schlie\u00dflich wurde das alles zu einer schrecklichen Krankheit. Ein grausames Fieber, mit galoppierender Schwindsucht vereint, fiel so heftig \u00fcber ihn her, da\u00df von ihm schon nach drei Tagen nur ein Schatten \u00fcbrigblieb. Dazu gesellten sich auch alle Anzeichen eines hoffnungslosen Irrsinns. Manchmal konnten ihn selbst mehrere M\u00e4nner nicht festhalten. Die l\u00e4ngstvergessenen, lebendigen Augen des ungew\u00f6hnlichen Portr\u00e4ts schwebten ihm immer \u00f6fter vor, und dann wurde seine Raserei ganz entsetzlich. Alle, die sein Krankenlager umstanden, erschienen ihm als grauenhafte Portr\u00e4ts. Das Portr\u00e4t verdoppelte, vervierfachte sich vor seinen Augen; alle W\u00e4nde schienen mit Portr\u00e4ts bedeckt zu sein, die in ihn ihre unbeweglichen, lebendigen Augen bohrten; schreckliche Portr\u00e4ts blickten von der Decke und vom Boden: das Zimmer dehnte und verl\u00e4ngerte sich in die Unendlichkeit, um m\u00f6glichst viel dieser unbeweglichen Augen fassen zu k\u00f6nnen. Der Arzt, der sich verpflichtet hatte, ihn zu behandeln, und der schon einiges von seiner seltsamen Geschichte geh\u00f6rt hatte, gab sich alle M\u00fche, den geheimen Zusammenhang zwischen den Gespenstern, die jener sah, und den Ereignissen seines Lebens zu ergr\u00fcnden, brachte es aber nicht fertig. Der Kranke begriff und f\u00fchlte nichts au\u00dfer seinen Qualen und gab nur schreckliche Schreie und unverst\u00e4ndliche Worte von sich. Endlich ri\u00df sein Lebensfaden in einem letzten, bereits lautlosen Schmerzensausbruch. Der Anblick seiner Leiche war schrecklich. Von seinen gro\u00dfen Reicht\u00fcmern konnte man nichts finden; als man aber die zerschnittenen St\u00fccke der erhabenen Kunstwerke, deren Wert Millionen \u00fcberstieg, fand, begriff man, was er f\u00fcr einen entsetzlichen Gebrauch von ihnen gemacht hatte.\n\n### II\n\nEine Menge von Equipagen, Droschken und Kutschen stand vor der Einfahrt des Hauses, in dem die Auktion des Nachlasses eines jener reichen Kunstliebhaber stattfand, die, von Zephiren und Amoretten umschwebt, ihr ganzes Leben im s\u00fc\u00dfen Schlummer verbracht und ohne ihr Dazutun den Ruhm von M\u00e4zenen erworben haben, indem sie dazu in einf\u00e4ltigster Weise die Millionen verwandten, die ihre solideren V\u00e4ter und oft sogar sie selbst durch fr\u00fchere Arbeit angesammelt hatten. Solche M\u00e4zene gibt es heute bekanntlich nicht mehr, und unser XIX. Jahrhundert hat schon l\u00e4ngst die langweilige Physiognomie eines Bankiers angenommen, der seine Millionen nur in Gestalt einer auf dem Papiere stehenden Reihe von Ziffern genie\u00dft. Der lange Saal war von einer sehr bunten Menge von Besuchern gef\u00fcllt, die wie die Raubv\u00f6gel zu einem unbeerdigten Leichnam zusammengeflogen waren. Hier sah man eine ganze Flottille russischer H\u00e4ndler aus dem gro\u00dfen Kaufhause und selbst vom Tr\u00f6delmarkte in blauen deutschen R\u00f6cken. Ihr Aussehen und Gesichtsausdruck waren hier viel sicherer und freier und hatte nichts von der s\u00fc\u00dflichen Dienstfertigkeit, die der russische Kaufmann stets in seinem Laden vor dem Kunden zeigt. Hier achteten sie gar nicht auf ihre gesellschaftliche Stellung, obwohl sich im gleichen Saale eine Menge von den Aristokraten befanden, vor denen sie an einem andern Orte bereit w\u00e4ren, mit ihren B\u00fccklingen den Staub abzuwischen, den sie mit ihren eigenen Stiefeln hereingetragen. Hier gaben sie sich ganz ungezwungen, betasteten ohne Umst\u00e4nde die B\u00fccher und Bilder, um sich von der G\u00fcte der Ware zu \u00fcberzeugen, und \u00fcberboten k\u00fchn die Preise, die die gr\u00e4flichen Kenner nannten. Hier waren auch viele von den obligaten Liebhabern, die jeden Morgen statt des Fr\u00fchst\u00fccks eine Auktion genie\u00dfen; aristokratische Kenner, die es f\u00fcr ihre Pflicht halten, keine Gelegenheit Vorbeigehen zu lassen, um ihre Sammlung zu vergr\u00f6\u00dfern und die in der Zeit zwischen zw\u00f6lf und eins nichts anderes zu tun haben; schlie\u00dflich jene adligen Herren, deren Kleider und Geldmittel gleich gering sind und die t\u00e4glich ohne jede eigenn\u00fctzige Absicht herkommen, einzig um zu sehen, wie die Sache endet, wer mehr und wer weniger bietet, wer wen \u00fcberbietet und wem was zuf\u00e4llt. Eine Menge von Bildern stand ohne jede Ordnung umher; dazwischen gab es auch M\u00f6bel und B\u00fccher mit dem Monogramm ihres einstigen Besitzers, der vielleicht gar nicht das lobenswerte Interesse gehabt hatte, in sie hineinzublicken. Chinesische Vasen, marmorne Tischplatten, neue und alte M\u00f6bel mit geschwungenen Linien, mit Greifen, Sphinxen und L\u00f6wentatzen, vergoldete und nicht vergoldete L\u00fcster und Lampen, \u2013 alles war hier durcheinandergeworfen ohne die Ordnung, in der man diese Sachen in Kaufl\u00e4den stehen sieht. Alles bildete ein Chaos der K\u00fcnste. Das Gef\u00fchl, das wir beim Anblick einer Auktion empfinden, ist \u00fcberhaupt beklemmend: sie gemahnt uns irgendwie an eine Beerdigung. Der Saal, in dem die Auktion stattfindet, ist immer d\u00fcster; die von M\u00f6beln und Bildern verstellten Fenster lassen nur sp\u00e4rliches Licht eindringen; das Schweigen, in dem alle Gesichter erstarrt sind, die Grabesstimme des Auktionators, der mit seinem Hammer klopft und eine Totenmesse f\u00fcr die hier auf eine so sonderbare Weise zusammengeratenen K\u00fcnste zelebriert, \u2013 dies alles scheint den unangenehmen Eindruck noch zu verst\u00e4rken.\n\nDie Auktion schien im vollen Gange. Eine ganze Menge anst\u00e4ndiger Menschen dr\u00e4ngte sich dicht zusammen und tat sehr gesch\u00e4ftig. Die Rufe: \u00bbNoch ein Rubel! Noch ein Rubel! Noch ein Rubel!\u00ab die von allen Seiten t\u00f6nten, lie\u00dfen dem Auktionator keine Zeit, die schon vervierfachten Preise auszurufen. Die Menge ereiferte sich wegen eines Portr\u00e4ts, das die Aufmerksamkeit aller, die nur etwas Verst\u00e4ndnis f\u00fcr die Malerei hatten, fesseln mu\u00dfte. Die hohe Meisterschaft des Malers kam darin unzweifelhaft zum Ausdruck. Das Portr\u00e4t war offenbar schon einigemal restauriert worden und stellte die dunklen Z\u00fcge eines Asiaten im weiten Gewande, mit einem ungew\u00f6hnlichen, sonderbaren Gesichtsausdruck dar; am meisten staunten aber alle, die sich um das Portr\u00e4t dr\u00e4ngten, \u00fcber die ungew\u00f6hnliche Lebendigkeit der Augen. Je l\u00e4nger man sie ansah, um so tiefer schienen sie einem ins Innere zu blicken. Diese Eigent\u00fcmlichkeit, dieser ungew\u00f6hnliche Kunstgriff des Malers fesselte die Aufmerksamkeit fast aller. Viele von den Bewerbern waren schon zur\u00fcckgetreten, weil der Preis ganz ungeheuerlich hinaufgetrieben worden war. Zuletzt blieben nur zwei Aristokraten, bekannte Kunstliebhaber \u00fcbrig, von denen keiner auf eine solche Erwerbung verzichten wollte. Sie ereiferten sich und h\u00e4tten den Preis wohl wahnwitzig hinaufgetrieben, wenn nicht pl\u00f6tzlich einer von den Betrachtern die Worte gesprochen hatte: \u00bbGestatten Sie mir, da\u00df ich Ihren Streit f\u00fcr eine Weile unterbreche: vielleicht habe ich mehr als irgend jemand Anrecht auf die Erwerbung dieses Portr\u00e4ts.\u00ab\n\nDiese Worte lenkten sofort die Aufmerksamkeit aller auf den Sprechenden. Es war ein schlanker junger Mann von etwa f\u00fcnfunddrei\u00dfig Jahren, mit langen schwarzen Locken. Sein angenehmes, von einer heiteren Sorglosigkeit erf\u00fclltes Gesicht spiegelte eine Seele wider, der alle Aufregungen der gro\u00dfen Welt fern waren; seine Kleidung erhob keinerlei Anspruch auf Mode: alles zeugte von einem K\u00fcnstler. Es war in der Tat der Maler B., den viele von den Anwesenden pers\u00f6nlich kannten.\n\n\u00bbWie seltsam Ihnen meine Worte auch erscheinen m\u00f6gen,\u00ab fuhr er fort, als er die auf ihn gerichtete allgemeine Aufmerksamkeit sah, \u2013 \u00bbwerden Sie, wenn Sie sich entschlie\u00dfen, meine kurze Geschichte anzuh\u00f6ren, vielleicht doch einsehen, da\u00df ich wohl das Recht hatte, sie zu sprechen. Alles best\u00e4rkt mich in der Gewi\u00dfheit, da\u00df dieses Portr\u00e4t dasselbe ist, das ich suche.\u00ab\n\nEine durchaus nat\u00fcrliche Neugierde leuchtete in fast allen Augen auf, und der Auktionator selbst hielt mit dem Hammer in der erhobenen Hand inne und schickte sich an, zuzuh\u00f6ren. Zu Beginn der Erz\u00e4hlung wandten viele ihre Blicke unwillk\u00fcrlich dem Portr\u00e4t zu, hefteten sie aber dann auf den Erz\u00e4hler allein, in dem Ma\u00dfe, als seine Erz\u00e4hlung immer fesselnder wurde.\n\n\u00bbSie kennen den Stadtteil, den man Kolomna nennt,\u00ab so begann er die Erz\u00e4hlung. \u00bbHier ist alles ganz anders als in den anderen Teilen Petersburgs: hier ist weder Hauptstadt noch Provinz. Wenn man in die Stra\u00dfen von Kolomna kommt, glaubt man zu f\u00fchlen, wie man von allen jugendlichen W\u00fcnschen und Bestrebungen verlassen wird. Die Zukunft blickt hier nicht herein, hier ist alles still und au\u00dfer Dienst, \u2013 hier sammelt sich der Niederschlag der Brandung der Hauptstadt. Hierher ziehen verabschiedete Beamte, Witwen, unbemittelte Menschen, die angenehme Beziehungen zum Senat unterhalten und sich daher selbst zum st\u00e4ndigen Aufenthalt in Kolomna verurteilt haben; K\u00f6chinnen au\u00dfer Dienst, die sich den ganzen Tag auf den M\u00e4rkten dr\u00e4ngen, allerlei Unsinn mit dem Kr\u00e4mer im kleinen Laden zusammenschwatzen und jeden Tag f\u00fcr f\u00fcnf Kopeken Kaffee und f\u00fcr vier Kopeken Zucker einkaufen; schlie\u00dflich die ganze Kategorie von Menschen, die man mit dem Worte \u203aaschgrau\u2039 bezeichnen kann; Menschen, deren Kleidung, Gesichter, Haare und Augen eine tr\u00fcbe aschgraue F\u00e4rbung haben, wie ein Tag, der weder st\u00fcrmisch, noch heiter, sondern weder das eine noch das andere ist: ein Nebel senkt sich herab und nimmt allen Gegenst\u00e4nden die Konturen. Hierher sind auch verabschiedete Theaterdiener, verabschiedete Titularr\u00e4te, verabschiedete Marss\u00f6hne mit einem ausgestochenen Auge und geschwollenen Lippen zu z\u00e4hlen. Diese Menschen sind absolut leidenschaftslos: sie gehen einher, ohne etwas anzuschauen, und schweigen ohne an etwas zu denken. Sie haben in ihren Behausungen nicht viele Sachen stehen; ihre ganze Habe besteht oft aus einer Flasche reinen russischen Schnapses, den sie den ganzen Tag ununterbrochen saufen, ohne da\u00df er ihnen in den Kopf steigt, welches Vergn\u00fcgen sich an Sonntagen die jungen deutschen Handwerker leisten, diese Studenten der Mjeschtschanskaja-Stra\u00dfe, die allein \u00fcber das ganze Trottoir herrschen, wenn Mitternacht vor\u00fcber ist.\n\n\u00bbDas Leben in Kolomna ist furchtbar still; nur selten sieht man hier eine Equipage fahren, h\u00f6chstens eine mit Schauspielern, die allein durch ihr Gepolter und Gerassel die allgemeine Stille st\u00f6rt. Hier gehen alle zu Fu\u00df; die Droschkenkutscher fahren oft ohne Fahrg\u00e4ste mit einer Ladung Heu f\u00fcr ihre zottigen M\u00e4hren. Eine Wohnung kann man hier schon f\u00fcr f\u00fcnf Rubel im Monat finden, sogar mit Morgenkaffee. Die Witwen, die von der Pension leben, bilden die hiesige Aristokratie; sie f\u00fchren sich anst\u00e4ndig auf, kehren ihre Stuben oft und unterhalten sich mit ihren Freundinnen \u00fcber die hohen Fleisch- und Kohlpreise; sie haben oft eine junge Tochter bei sich, ein schweigsames, stilles, manchmal anmutiges Gesch\u00f6pf, ein ekelhaftes H\u00fcndchen und eine Wanduhr mit einem traurig tickenden Pendel. Dann kommen die Schauspieler, denen ihr Gehalt nicht erlaubt, in einen anderen Stadtteil zu ziehen, ein freies Volk, das wie alle K\u00fcnstler, nur dem Genu\u00df lebt. So ein Schauspieler sitzt im Schlafrock da, repariert eine Pistole, klebt aus Pappe allerlei im Haushalt n\u00fctzliche S\u00e4chelchen, spielt mit einem Freunde, der ihn besucht, Dame oder Karten und verbringt damit den ganzen Vormittag; ebenso verbringt er auch den Abend, nur da\u00df er sich am Abend manchmal auch noch einen Punsch leistet. Nach diesen Aristokraten und gro\u00dfen Tieren von Kolomna folgt ein ungew\u00f6hnlich, niedriges Gesindel. Es ist ebenso schwer alle diese Leute zu nennen, wie die Lebewesen aufzuz\u00e4hlen, die in altem Essig keimen. Es gibt hier alte Weiber, welche beten; alte Weiber, welche saufen; alte Weiber, welche zugleich beten und saufen; alte Weiber, die sich auf eine unerkl\u00e4rliche Weise durchschlagen, die wie Ameisen B\u00fcndel alter Lumpen und W\u00e4sche von der Kalinkin-Br\u00fccke zum Tr\u00f6delmarkt schleppen, nur um sie dort f\u00fcr f\u00fcnfzehn Kopeken zu verkaufen; mit einem Worte, die ungl\u00fccklichste Hefe der Menschheit, deren Lage zu verbessern selbst der wohlt\u00e4tigste Volkswirtschaftler keine Mittel w\u00fc\u00dfte.\n\nIch habe alle diese Leute aufgez\u00e4hlt, um Ihnen zu zeigen, wie oft diese Leute in die Lage kommen, rasche, zeitweilige Hilfe zu suchen und Anleihen machen zu m\u00fcssen; darum lassen sich unter ihnen Wucherer eigener Art nieder, die ihnen kleine Darlehen gegen Pfand und hohe Zinsen geben. Diese kleinen Wucherer sind oft unvergleichlich gef\u00fchlloser als die gro\u00dfen, weil sie ihre T\u00e4tigkeit unter lauter Bettlern, die ihre Lumpen offen zur Schau tragen, aus\u00fcben, welche ein reicher Wucherer, der nur mit Leuten, die ihn in Equipagen besuchen, zu tun hat, nie zu Gesicht bekommt. Darum erstarb in ihren Herzen allzufr\u00fch jedes menschliche Gef\u00fchl. Unter diesen Wucherern gab es einen... aber ich mu\u00df vorausschicken, da\u00df die Geschichte, die ich Ihnen erz\u00e4hle, ins vergangene Jahrhundert, und zwar in die Regierungszeit der verstorbenen Kaiserin Katharina II. geh\u00f6rt. Sie k\u00f6nnen sich selbst denken, da\u00df das Aussehen und das innere Leben von Kolomna sich inzwischen erheblich ver\u00e4ndert haben m\u00fcssen. Unter den Wucherern gab es also einen, ein in allen Beziehungen ungew\u00f6hnliches Gesch\u00f6pf, das sich in diesem Stadtteile schon seit langer Zeit niedergelassen hatte. Er kleidete sich in weite asiatische Gew\u00e4nder; seine dunkle Gesichtsfarbe zeugte von seiner s\u00fcdlichen Herkunft; welcher Nation er aber angeh\u00f6rte, ob er ein Inder, Grieche oder Perser war, das wu\u00dfte niemand sicher. Der fast ungew\u00f6hnlich hohe Wuchs, das dunkle, hagere, sonnenverbrannte Gesicht von einer unergr\u00fcndlich unheimlichen Farbe, die gro\u00dfen, ungew\u00f6hnlich brennenden Augen, die \u00fcberh\u00e4ngenden dichten Brauen unterschieden ihn scharf und kra\u00df von allen aschgrauen Bewohnern der Hauptstadt. Selbst seine Behausung glich gar nicht den kleinen h\u00f6lzernen H\u00e4usern. Es war ein steinerner Bau von der Art, wie sie einst die genuesischen Kaufleute in gro\u00dfer Menge errichteten, mit unregelm\u00e4\u00dfigen Fenstern verschiedener Gr\u00f6\u00dfe und eisernen L\u00e4den und Riegeln. Dieser Wucherer unterschied sich von allen anderen schon dadurch, da\u00df er imstande war, einem jeden, vom \u00e4rmsten alten Weibe bis zum verschwenderischen H\u00f6fling, jede beliebige Summe zu verschaffen. Vor seinem Hause erschienen oft die gl\u00e4nzendsten Equipagen, aus denen manchmal der Kopf einer eleganten Weltdame herausblickte. Das Ger\u00fccht behauptete nat\u00fcrlich, da\u00df seine eisernen Truhen ungez\u00e4hlte Haufen von Geld, Wertsachen, Brillanten und allerlei Pf\u00e4nder enthielten, da\u00df ihm aber die Habgier, die die anderen Wucherer auszeichne, fremd sei. Er gab das Geld gern her, teilte die Zahlungstermine scheinbar g\u00fcnstig ein, lie\u00df aber die Zinsen mittels sonderbarer arithmetischer Operationen in eine schwindelhafte H\u00f6he steigen. Das behauptete wenigstens das Ger\u00fccht. Was aber am seltsamsten war und viele in Erstaunen setzen mu\u00dfte, war das sonderbare Schicksal aller, die von ihm Geld erhielten; sie beschlossen alle ihr Leben auf eine elende Weise. Ob es blo\u00df die allgemeine Meinung der Menschen war, ein dummes abergl\u00e4ubisches Geschw\u00e4tz, oder ein mit Absicht verbreitetes Ger\u00fccht, \u2013 das blieb unbekannt. Aber einige F\u00e4lle, die sich in kurzer Zeit vor den Augen aller abspielten, waren allen gegenw\u00e4rtig und verbl\u00fcffend.\n\nUnter den damaligen Aristokraten fiel besonders ein J\u00fcngling aus bester Familie auf, der sich schon in jungen Jahren im Staatsdienste ausgezeichnet hatte, ein leidenschaftlicher Verehrer alles Wahren und Erhabenen, ein Eiferer f\u00fcr alles, was die Kunst und der Geist des Menschen gezeugt haben, ein k\u00fcnftiger M\u00e4zen. Er wurde bald auch von der Kaiserin nach Verdienst ausgezeichnet, die ihn mit einem wichtigen Posten betraute, der durchaus seinen eigenen Anforderungen entsprach, \u2013 einem Posten, in dem er f\u00fcr die Wissenschaften und f\u00fcr alles Gute viel tun konnte. Der junge W\u00fcrdentr\u00e4ger umgab sich mit K\u00fcnstlern, Dichtern und Gelehrten. Er wollte allen Arbeit geben, alle f\u00f6rdern. Er unternahm auf eigene Kosten eine Menge n\u00fctzlicher Ver\u00f6ffentlichungen, vergab eine Menge von Auftr\u00e4gen, schrieb verschiedene Preise aus, verausgabte f\u00fcr diese Zwecke einen Haufen von Geld und geriet schlie\u00dflich in Schwierigkeiten. Von gro\u00dfm\u00fctigem Streben erf\u00fcllt, wollte er sein Werk jedoch nicht aufgeben und suchte \u00fcberall nach Darlehen; schlie\u00dflich wandte er sich an den uns bekannten Wucherer. Nachdem er von ihm ein bedeutendes Darlehen erhalten, ver\u00e4nderte sich dieser junge Mensch in k\u00fcrzester Zeit; er wurde zum Unterdr\u00fccker und Verfolger aller aufstrebenden Geister und Talente. In allen Werken sah er nur die Schattenseiten und mi\u00dfdeutete jedes Wort. Ungl\u00fccklicherweise brach gerade die franz\u00f6sische Revolution aus. Das diente ihm als Vorwand zu allerlei Gemeinheiten. Er fing an, in allen Dingen eine revolution\u00e4re Gesinnung zu sehen und \u00fcberall Anspielungen zu wittern. Er wurde so argw\u00f6hnisch, da\u00df er zuletzt sich selbst verd\u00e4chtigte; er schenkte jeder schrecklichen, ungerechten Denunziation Geh\u00f6r und machte eine Menge von Menschen ungl\u00fccklich. Selbstverst\u00e4ndlich mu\u00dften solche Handlungen schlie\u00dflich auch dem Throne bekannt werden. Die gro\u00dfm\u00fctige Kaiserin entsetzte sich und sprach, vom Edelmut, der die Tr\u00e4ger der Krone ziert, beseelt, Worte, die uns zwar nicht genau \u00fcberliefert werden konnten, deren tiefster Sinn sich aber den Herzen vieler eingepr\u00e4gt hatte. Die Kaiserin bemerkte, da\u00df es nicht die monarchische Regierung sei, die die hohen und edlen Seelenregungen und die Sch\u00f6pfungen des Geistes, der Dichtung und der K\u00fcnste unterdr\u00fccke und verfolge; da\u00df vielmehr die Monarchen allein ihre Besch\u00fctzer gewesen seien; da\u00df die Shakespeares und Moli\u00e8res sich ihres hochherzigen Schutzes erfreut h\u00e4tten, w\u00e4hrend Dante in seiner republikanischen Heimat kein Obdach h\u00e4tte finden k\u00f6nnen; da\u00df die wahren Genies stets in den Perioden des Glanzes und der Macht der Staaten und der Herrscher aufgekommen seien, nicht aber in den Zeiten h\u00e4\u00dflicher politischer Erscheinungen und republikanischer Schreckensherrschaft, die der Welt noch keinen einzigen wahren Dichter geschenkt habe; da\u00df man die Dichter und K\u00fcnstler auszeichnen m\u00fcsse, weil sie doch nur Ruhe und den sch\u00f6nsten Frieden den Seelen einfl\u00f6\u00dften, nicht aber Aufruhr und Murren; da\u00df die Gelehrten, Dichter und alle schaffenden K\u00fcnstler Perlen und Diamanten in der kaiserlichen Krone seien: sie schm\u00fccken und erleuchten das Zeitalter des gro\u00dfen F\u00fcrsten. Mit einem Worte, die Kaiserin, die diese Worte sprach, war in jenem Augenblick von einer g\u00f6ttlichen Sch\u00f6nheit. Ich erinnere mich, da\u00df die alten Leute davon nicht ohne Tr\u00e4nen sprechen konnten. Alle zeigten gro\u00dfe Teilnahme f\u00fcr den ungew\u00f6hnlichen Fall. Zur Ehre unseres Volkes mu\u00df bemerkt werden, da\u00df dem russischen Herzen stets die Neigung innewohnt, die Partei des Unterdr\u00fcckten zu ergreifen. Der W\u00fcrdentr\u00e4ger, der das ihm geschenkte Vertrauen mi\u00dfbraucht hatte, wurde exemplarisch bestraft und seines Postens enthoben. Aber eine weit strengere Strafe las er in den Mienen seiner Mitb\u00fcrger: es war eine entschiedene und allgemeine Verachtung. Es l\u00e4\u00dft sich gar nicht sagen, wie schwer seine ehrgeizige Seele darunter litt: Stolz, gekr\u00e4nkte Eigenliebe, zusammengest\u00fcrzte Hoffnungen, \u2013 alles hatte sich verewigt, und sein Lebensfaden ri\u00df unter Anf\u00e4llen eines schrecklichen Wahnsinns.\n\nEin anderer erstaunlicher Fall spielte sich auch vor aller Augen ab: unter den Sch\u00f6nen, an denen unsere nordische Hauptstadt damals gar nicht arm war, \u00fcbertraf eine alle die anderen. Es war eine eigenartig herrliche Verbindung unserer nordischen Sch\u00f6nheit mit der Sch\u00f6nheit des S\u00fcdens, \u2013 ein Diamant, wie man ihn nur selten findet. Mein Vater pflegte zu sagen, er h\u00e4tte in seinem Leben niemals etwas \u00c4hnliches gesehen. Alles schien sich in ihr vereinigt zu haben: Reichtum, Geist und seelische Sch\u00f6nheit. Eine Menge von Bewerbern umschw\u00e4rmte sie, und unter diesen fiel besonders der F\u00fcrst R. auf, der edelste und beste von allen jungen Leuten, der sch\u00f6nste von Angesicht wie auch von ritterlicher Gesinnung, das hohe Ideal der Romane und der Frauen. Ein Grandison in jeder Beziehung. F\u00fcrst R. war leidenschaftlich, wahnsinnig verliebt; eine gleiche Liebe wurde ihm auch von ihr entgegengebracht. Aber ihren Verwandten kam die Partie unpassend vor. Die Erbg\u00fcter des F\u00fcrsten geh\u00f6rten ihm schon l\u00e4ngst nicht mehr, die Familie war in Ungnade, und die schlechte Verm\u00f6genslage war allen bekannt. Pl\u00f6tzlich verl\u00e4\u00dft der F\u00fcrst die Hauptstadt, um seine Verh\u00e4ltnisse in Ordnung zu bringen, und kehrt nach kurzer Zeit von einem unerh\u00f6rten Reichtum und Glanz umgeben zur\u00fcck. Die gl\u00e4nzenden B\u00e4lle und Feste, die er gibt, erregen selbst bei Hofe Aufsehen. Der Vater der Sch\u00f6nen schenkt ihm seine Huld, und die Stadt erlebt die interessanteste Hochzeit. Woher diese Wandlung und der unerh\u00f6rte Reichtum des Br\u00e4utigams kamen, vermochte niemand zu erkl\u00e4ren; aber man erz\u00e4hlte sich, da\u00df er irgendein Abkommen mit dem r\u00e4tselhaften Wucherer getroffen und von ihm ein gr\u00f6\u00dferes Darlehen bekommen habe. Wie dem auch war, die ganze Stadt interessierte sich f\u00fcr diese Hochzeit, und Braut und Br\u00e4utigam wurden zum Gegenstand des allgemeinen Neides. Allen war ihre gl\u00fchende, treue Liebe bekannt, die langen Qualen, die sie zu erdulden gehabt hatten, und die hohen Vorz\u00fcge der beiden. Hei\u00dfbl\u00fctige Frauen malten sich im voraus die paradiesischen Wonnen aus, die die jungen Gatten genie\u00dfen sollten. Es kam aber alles anders. In einem Jahre geschah im Gatten eine schreckliche Wandlung. Sein bis dahin so edler und sch\u00f6ner Charakter wurde auf einmal von argw\u00f6hnischer Eifersucht, von Unduldsamkeit und ewigen Launen vergiftet. Er wurde zum Tyrannen und Peiniger seiner Frau und lie\u00df sich sogar, was niemand vorausgesehen h\u00e4tte, zu den unmenschlichsten Handlungen und selbst Schl\u00e4gen herbei. Nach einem Jahre schon h\u00e4tte niemand die Frau wiedererkennen k\u00f6nnen, die noch vor kurzem so gegl\u00e4nzt und ganze Scharen ergebener Verehrer angezogen hatte. Endlich hatte sie nicht mehr die Kraft, das schwere Los l\u00e4nger zu tragen, und brachte selbst die Rede auf Scheidung. Der Mann geriet schon beim blo\u00dfen Gedanken daran in Raserei. Im ersten Wutausbruch st\u00fcrzte er mit einem Messer in der Hand in ihr Zimmer und h\u00e4tte sie zweifellos erstochen, wenn man ihn nicht rechtzeitig ergriffen und daran verhindert h\u00e4tte. Im Anfalle von Wut und Verzweiflung wandte er nun das Messer gegen sich selbst und beschlo\u00df sein Leben in den schrecklichsten Qualen.\n\nAu\u00dfer diesen beiden F\u00e4llen, die sich vor den Augen der ganzen Gesellschaft zugetragen hatten, berichtete man noch von einer ganzen Reihe anderer, die sich in den niederen Gesellschaftsschichten abgespielt und die fast alle ebenso entsetzlich geendet hatten. In einem Falle war ein ehrlicher n\u00fcchterner Mensch zu einem Trunkenbold geworden; in einem anderen begann ein Kaufmannsgehilfe seinen Herrn zu bestehlen; in einem dritten erstach ein Fuhrmann, der diesen Beruf einige Jahre ehrlich ausge\u00fcbt hatte, wegen eines Groschens seinen Fahrgast. Selbstverst\u00e4ndlich hatten alle solche Erz\u00e4hlungen, die oft nicht ohne \u00dcbertreibungen wiedergegeben wurden, den bescheidenen Bewohnern von Kolomna eine unwillk\u00fcrliche Angst eingejagt. Niemand zweifelte, da\u00df in diesem Menschen ein unsauberer Geist wohnte. Man erz\u00e4hlte sich, da\u00df er solche Bedingungen stellte, vor denen einem die Haare zu Berge stiegen und die keiner der Ungl\u00fccklichen einem andern mitzuteilen wagte; da\u00df sein Geld die Hand verbrenne, von selbst gl\u00fchend werde und mit irgendwelchen seltsamen Zeichen versehen sei... mit einem Worte, es gab \u00fcber ihn eine Menge unsinniger Ger\u00fcchte. Es ist bemerkenswert, da\u00df die ganze Bev\u00f6lkerung von Kolomna, diese ganze Welt der armen alten Frauen, kleinen Beamten, kleinen Schauspieler und der \u00fcbrigen kleinen Leute, die wir eben aufgez\u00e4hlt haben, es vorzog, die bitterste Not zu leiden, als sich an den schrecklichen Wucherer zu wenden; man fand sogar verhungerte alte Frauen auf, die es vorgezogen hatten, ihr Fleisch zu t\u00f6ten, als ihre Seelen zu verderben. Wenn man ihm auf der Stra\u00dfe begegnete, empfand man ein unwillk\u00fcrliches Grauen. Die Fu\u00dfg\u00e4nger wichen vorsichtig zur\u00fcck und sahen sich dann noch mehrmals nach ihm um, seine in der Ferne verschwindende unglaublich hohe Gestalt mit den Augen verfolgend. Schon in seinem \u00c4u\u00dferen lag so viel Ungew\u00f6hnliches, da\u00df ihm ein jeder unwillk\u00fcrlich eine \u00fcbernat\u00fcrliche Existenz zuschrieb. Diese starken Z\u00fcge, so tief wie bei keinem anderen Menschen eingemei\u00dfelt; diese gl\u00fchende, bronzene Gesichtsfarbe; diese ungew\u00f6hnlich buschigen Augenbrauen, die unertr\u00e4glichen schrecklichen Augen, selbst die weiten Falten seines asiatischen Gewandes, \u2013 alles schien zu sagen, da\u00df vor den Leidenschaften, die diesen K\u00f6rper bewegten, alle Leidenschaften der anderen Menschen verbla\u00dften. Mein Vater blieb regungslos stehen, so oft er ihm begegnete, und konnte sich niemals der Worte enthalten: \u203aDer Teufel, der leibhaftige Teufel!\u2039 Aber ich mu\u00df Sie jetzt schnell mit meinem Vater bekannt machen, der nebenbei bemerkt die Hauptperson in meiner Geschichte ist.\n\nMein Vater war ein in vielen Beziehungen merkw\u00fcrdiger Mensch. Er war ein Maler, wie es ihrer wenige gibt, \u2013 eines der Wunder, wie sie nur dem jungfr\u00e4ulichen Scho\u00dfe Ru\u00dflands entstammen, ein Autodidakt, der ganz von selbst, ohne Schule und Lehrer, in seiner Seele alle Gesetze und Regeln gefunden hatte, nur vom Drange nach Vervollkommnung beseelt, ein Mensch, der aus Gr\u00fcnden, die ihm selbst vielleicht unbekannt waren, nur den einen, ihm von seiner Seele gewiesenen Weg ging; eines jener urspr\u00fcnglichen Wunder, die die Zeitgenossen oft mit dem verletzenden Wort \u203aIgnorant\u2039 titulieren und die, ohne sich durch die Beschimpfungen und die eigenen Mi\u00dferfolge abk\u00fchlen zu lassen, immer neuen Eifer und neue Kr\u00e4fte finden und sich in ihrer Seele weit von den Werken entfernen, die ihnen den Titel \u203aIgnorant\u2039 einbrachten. Durch einen hochentwickelten inneren Instinkt f\u00fchlte er in jedem Gegenstand den ihm innewohnenden Gedanken \u2013 er erfa\u00dfte ganz von selbst den wahren Sinn des Wortes \u203aHistorienmalerei\u2039; er begriff, warum ein einfacher Kopf, ein einfaches Portr\u00e4t Raffaels, Lionardos, Tizians oder Correggios als Historienmalerei gelten d\u00fcrfe und warum manches Riesengem\u00e4lde mit historischem Inhalt ein blo\u00dfes _\u203atableau de genre\u2039_ sei, trotz aller Anspr\u00fcche des Malers auf Historie. Sein inneres Gef\u00fchl wie auch seine eigene \u00dcberzeugung lie\u00dfen seinen Pinsel sich christlichen Sujets zuwenden, der h\u00f6chsten und letzten Stufe des Erhabenen. Er kannte weder Ehrgeiz noch Reizbarkeit, die den Charakter so vieler Maler auszeichnen. Er war ein fester Charakter, ein ehrlicher, offener Mensch, \u00e4u\u00dferlich etwas grob, auch nicht ohne Stolz, und urteilte \u00fcber alle Menschen zugleich milde und streng. \u203aWas soll ich mich um sie k\u00fcmmern?\u2039 pflegte er zu sagen: \u203aIch arbeite ja nicht f\u00fcr sie. Ich werde meine Werke nicht in den Salon tragen. Wer mich versteht, der wird mir danken, und wer mich nicht versteht, der wird vor dem Bilde auch so zu Gott beten. Man darf einem Menschen aus der vornehmen Gesellschaft nicht vorwerfen, da\u00df er nichts von Malerei versteht: daf\u00fcr versteht er sich auf Karten, auf guten Wein und auf Pferde; was braucht so ein vornehmer Herr noch mehr zu verstehen? Wenn er von solchen Dingen kostet und dann zu kl\u00fcgeln anf\u00e4ngt, so wird er erst recht unangenehm werden! Jedem das Seine, m\u00f6ge sich jeder mit seinen Sachen besch\u00e4ftigen. Was mich betrifft, so ist mir ein Mensch, der offen erkl\u00e4rt, da\u00df er gar nichts versteht, lieber als einer, der heuchelt und behauptet, Dinge zu verstehen, die er nicht versteht, und nur alles verdirbt und verunreinigt.\u2039 Er arbeitete gegen eine bescheidene Bezahlung, d.h. gegen eine, die ihm gerade noch ausreichte, um seine Familie zu ern\u00e4hren und seine eigene Arbeitskraft zu erhalten. Au\u00dferdem verweigerte er niemals einem anderen K\u00fcnstler die Hilfe; er hatte noch den einfachen, frommen Glauben seiner Vorfahren, und vielleicht darum erschien in den von ihm gemalten Antlitzen von Heiligen ganz von selbst jener erhabene Ausdruck, den selbst manche gl\u00e4nzende Talente nicht zu erreichen verm\u00f6gen. Schlie\u00dflich errang er durch seine beharrliche Arbeit und das Festhalten am Wege, den er sich selbst vorgezeichnet, auch die Achtung derjenigen, die ihn einen Ignoranten und einen hausbackenen Autodidakten nannten. Er bekam fortw\u00e4hrend Auftr\u00e4ge, Kirchenbilder zu malen, und die Arbeit ri\u00df bei ihm niemals ab. Eine dieser Arbeiten fesselte ihn ganz besonders. Ich kann mich an das Sujet nicht mehr genau erinnern, ich wei\u00df nur, da\u00df auf dem Bilde der Geist der Finsternis dargestellt werden sollte. Lange \u00fcberlegte er sich, welche Gestalt ihm zu geben: er wollte in seinem Gesicht alles Schwere und den Menschen Bedr\u00fcckende verk\u00f6rpern. W\u00e4hrend solcher \u00dcberlegungen ging ihm zuweilen die Gestalt des geheimnisvollen Wucherers durch den Sinn, und er dachte sich unwillk\u00fcrlich: \u203aDer w\u00e4re doch das beste Modell f\u00fcr den Teufel!\u2039 Stellen Sie sich nun sein Erstaunen vor, als eines Tages, wie er in seinem Atelier arbeitete, an die T\u00fcr geklopft wurde und der schreckliche Wucherer bei ihm eintrat. Er f\u00fchlte, wie ein Zittern durch seinen ganzen K\u00f6rper lief.\n\n\u203aBist du Maler?\u2039 fragte jener ganz ohne Umst\u00e4nde.\n\n\u203aJa, ich bin Maler,\u2039 antwortete mein Vater verdutzt und wartete, was nun kommen w\u00fcrde.\n\n\u203aGut. Male mein Portr\u00e4t. Vielleicht werde ich bald sterben, und Kinder habe ich nicht; aber ich will nicht ganz sterben, ich will leben. Kannst du mein Portr\u00e4t so malen, da\u00df es wie lebendig w\u00e4re?\u2039\n\n\u00bbMein Vater dachte sich: \u203aWas kann ich mir Besseres w\u00fcnschen? Er will mir selbst f\u00fcr den Teufel auf meinem Bilde sitzen.\u2039 Er versprach es ihm. Sie einigten sich \u00fcber die Zeit und den Preis, und schon am n\u00e4chsten Tage nahm mein Vater Palette und Pinsel und begab sich zu ihm. Der von hohen Mauern eingefa\u00dfte Hof, Hunde, eiserne T\u00fcren und Riegel, bogenf\u00f6rmige Fenster, mit merkw\u00fcrdigen Teppichen bedeckte Truhen und schlie\u00dflich auch der sonderbare Hausherr selbst, der sich vor ihm unbeweglich hinsetzte, \u2013 das alles machte auf meinen Vater einen seltsamen Eindruck. Die Fenster waren wie absichtlich unten so verstellt und verbarrikadiert, da\u00df das Licht nur von oben hereindrang. \u203aHol's der Teufel, wie gut ist jetzt sein Gesicht beleuchtet!\u2039 sagte sich mein Vater und begann mit Gier zu malen, als f\u00fcrchtete er, da\u00df die g\u00fcnstige Beleuchtung verschwinden k\u00f6nnte. \u203aDiese Kraft!\u2039 sagte er vor sich hin: \u203aWenn ich ihn auch nur halb so \u00e4hnlich darstelle, wie ich ihn jetzt sehe, so erschl\u00e4gt er alle meine Heiligen und Engel: sie werden vor ihm erblassen. Diese teuflische Kraft! Er wird mir einfach aus der Leinwand springen, wenn ich der Natur auch nur ein wenig treu bleibe. \u2013 Was f\u00fcr ungew\u00f6hnliche Z\u00fcge!\u2039 wiederholte er fortw\u00e4hrend vor sich hin, seinen Eifer verdoppelnd, und schon sah er einige der Z\u00fcge auf der Leinwand erstehen. Je mehr er sich ihnen aber n\u00e4herte, ein um so schwereres, bangeres Gef\u00fchl, das ihm selbst unverst\u00e4ndlich war, bem\u00e4chtigte sich seiner. Aber er nahm sich doch vor, jeden noch so unmerklichen Zug und Ausdruck zu verfolgen. Vor allem machte er sich an die Ausarbeitung der Augen. In diesen Augen lag so viel Kraft, da\u00df es zun\u00e4chst undenkbar schien, sie so wiederzugeben, wie sie in der Natur waren. Aber er entschlo\u00df sich, koste es, was es wolle, in ihnen jeden feinsten Strich und Ton aufzusp\u00fcren, ihr Geheimnis zu ergr\u00fcnden... Kaum hatte er aber angefangen, sich in sie mit seinem Pinsel zu vertiefen, als in seiner Seele eine so seltsame Abscheu, ein so unerkl\u00e4rliches dr\u00fcckendes Gef\u00fchl erwachte, da\u00df er den Pinsel f\u00fcr eine Weile weglegen mu\u00dfte, ehe er weitermalen konnte. Schlie\u00dflich konnte er es nicht mehr ertragen: er f\u00fchlte, wie sich diese Augen in seine Seele bohrten und in ihr eine unfa\u00dfbare Unruhe weckten. Am zweiten und am dritten Tage war dieses Gef\u00fchl noch schrecklicher. Es wurde ihm unheimlich zumute. Er warf den Pinsel weg und sagte sehr entschieden, da\u00df er nicht weitermalen k\u00f6nne. Man mu\u00df gesehen haben, wie sich der schreckliche Wucherer bei diesen Worten ver\u00e4nderte. Er fiel meinem Vater zu F\u00fc\u00dfen und flehte ihn an, das Portr\u00e4t zu vollenden, indem er sagte, da\u00df davon sein Schicksal und sein Dasein in der Welt abh\u00e4nge; da\u00df mein Vater mit seinem Pinsel schon seine lebendigen Z\u00fcge erfa\u00dft habe; da\u00df, wenn er sie treu wiedergeben w\u00fcrde, sein Leben durch eine \u00fcbernat\u00fcrliche Kraft im Bilde festgehalten sein werde; da\u00df er dann nicht ganz sterben werde; da\u00df er noch l\u00e4nger in der Welt bleiben m\u00fcsse. Mein Vater f\u00fchlte Grauen: diese Worte erschienen ihm so seltsam und schrecklich, da\u00df er Pinsel und Palette wegwarf und Hals \u00fcber Kopf aus dem Zimmer st\u00fcrzte.\n\n\u00bbDie Erinnerung daran peinigte ihn den ganzen Tag und die ganze Nacht, am Morgen bekam er aber vom Wucherer das Portr\u00e4t zur\u00fcck; eine Frau, das einzige Wesen, das bei ihm diente, brachte es ihm; sie erkl\u00e4rte, da\u00df ihr Herr das Portr\u00e4t weder haben noch bezahlen wolle und es meinem Vater zur\u00fcckschicke. Am Abend des gleichen Tages erfuhr mein Vater, da\u00df der Wucherer gestorben war und da\u00df man Anstalten machte, ihn nach den Gebr\u00e4uchen seiner Religion zu beerdigen. Das alles kam ihm unbegreiflich und seltsam vor. Indessen begann im Charakter meines Vaters von diesem Tage an eine merkliche Ver\u00e4nderung: er f\u00fchlte sich von einer bangen Unruhe ergriffen, deren Ursache er selbst nicht begreifen konnte, und lie\u00df sich bald darauf zu einer Tat herbei, die von ihm kein Mensch erwartet h\u00e4tte. Seit einiger Zeit hatten die Arbeiten einer seiner Sch\u00fcler angefangen, die Aufmerksamkeit eines kleinen Kreises von Kennern und Liebhabern auf sich zu ziehen. Mein Vater hatte sein Talent schon fr\u00fcher erkannt und ihm daher sein besonderes Wohlwollen geschenkt. Pl\u00f6tzlich f\u00fchlte er Neid gegen diesen Sch\u00fcler. Die allgemeine Teilnahme und das Gerede wurden ihm unertr\u00e4glich. Das Ma\u00df seines \u00c4rgers wurde aber voll, als er erfuhr, da\u00df der Sch\u00fcler den Auftrag erhalten hatte, ein Bild f\u00fcr eine neuerbaute reiche Kirche zu malen. Das machte ihn w\u00fctend. \u203aNein, dieser Milchbart darf nicht triumphieren!\u2039 sagte er: \u203aDu bist noch zu jung, Bruder, um einen Alten zu blamieren! Ich habe ja noch, Gott sei Dank, Kraft genug. Wir wollen sehen, wer wen blamieren wird.\u2039 Und der aufrechte, herzensreine Mann wandte allerlei Intrigen und R\u00e4nke an, die er bisher verabscheut hatte; schlie\u00dflich setzte er es durch, da\u00df f\u00fcr das Bild ein Wettbewerb ausgeschrieben wurde und da\u00df auch andere K\u00fcnstler ihre Arbeiten einliefern durften. Dann schlo\u00df er sich in seinem Zimmer ein und machte sich mit Feuereifer an die Arbeit. Er schien alle seine Kr\u00e4fte und sein ganzes Wesen in das Bild hineinlegen zu wollen. Und es wurde daraus in der Tat eines seiner besten Werke. Niemand zweifelte, da\u00df er der Sieger im Wettstreit sein w\u00fcrde. Alle Bilder waren eingeliefert, und alle unterschieden sich von dem seinen wie die Nacht von dem Tage. Pl\u00f6tzlich aber machte eines der Mitglieder der Kommission, wenn ich nicht irre eine geistliche Amtsperson, eine Bemerkung, die alle verbl\u00fcffte. \u203aDas Bild des K\u00fcnstlers zeugt allerdings von viel Talent,\u2039 sagte er, \u203aaber den Gesichtern fehlt die Heiligkeit; im Gegenteil, in den Augen steckt etwas D\u00e4monisches, als h\u00e4tte ein unsauberes Gef\u00fchl seinen Pinsel geleitet.\u2039 Alle sahen das Bild noch einmal an und mu\u00dften sich von der Richtigkeit dieser Worte \u00fcberzeugen. Mein Vater st\u00fcrzte auf sein Bild zu, als wollte er die Stichhaltigkeit der verletzenden Bemerkung nachpr\u00fcfen, und sah mit Entsetzen, da\u00df er fast allen Gesichtern die Augen des Wucherers verliehen hatte. Sie blickten so d\u00e4monisch und vernichtend, da\u00df er selbst unwillk\u00fcrlich zusammenfuhr. Das Bild wurde zur\u00fcckgewiesen, und mein Vater mu\u00dfte zu seinem unbeschreiblichen Verdru\u00df h\u00f6ren, da\u00df sein Sch\u00fcler den Sieg davongetragen hatte. Die Wut, in der er nach Hause zur\u00fcckkehrte, l\u00e4\u00dft sich gar nicht beschreiben. Beinahe h\u00e4tte er meine Mutter geschlagen; er jagte die Kinder hinaus, zerbrach all seine Pinsel und die Staffelei, ri\u00df von der Wand das Portr\u00e4t des Wucherers und lie\u00df sich ein Messer geben und im Kamin Feuer machen, in der Absicht, das Portr\u00e4t in St\u00fccke zu schneiden und zu verbrennen. Bei diesem Vorhaben traf ihn ein Freund, der zuf\u00e4llig ins Zimmer trat, ein Maler gleich ihm, ein lustiger Patron, der mit sich stets zufrieden war, nach keinen hohen Zielen strebte, vergn\u00fcgt jede Arbeit machte, die sich ihm gerade bot, und mit noch gr\u00f6\u00dferem Vergn\u00fcgen sich an einem Schmause und Zechgelage beteiligte.\n\n\u203aWas machst du da? Was willst du verbrennen?\u2039 fragte er und trat an das Portr\u00e4t heran. \u203aErlaube doch, es ist eines deiner besten Werke. Das ist der vor kurzem gestorbene Wucherer; es ist ein h\u00f6chst vollkommenes Werk. Du hast den Mann nicht blo\u00df getroffen, du bist ihm auch in die Augen eingedrungen. Die Augen haben selbst bei seinen Lebzeiten niemals so geblickt, wie sie bei dir blicken!\u2039\n\n\u203aIch will mal sehen, wie sie im Feuer blicken werden!\u2039 sagte mein Vater und machte eine Bewegung, um das Portr\u00e4t in den Kamin zu werfen.\n\n\u203aHalt ein, um Gottes willen!\u2039 sagte der Freund, indem er ihm in die Hand fiel. \u203aGib es dann lieber mir, wenn es dein Auge so sehr beleidigt.\u2039 Mein Vater weigerte sich anfangs, willigte aber schlie\u00dflich doch ein, und der lustige Patron trug, \u00fcber seine Erwerbung sehr erfreut, das Portr\u00e4t heim.\n\nAls er fort war, f\u00fchlte sich mein Vater pl\u00f6tzlich ruhiger. Es war, als w\u00e4re ihm zugleich mit dem Portr\u00e4t eine Last vom Herzen gefallen. Er wunderte sich nun selbst \u00fcber seine Geh\u00e4ssigkeit, seinen Neid und die offensichtliche Ver\u00e4nderung seines Charakters. Als er sich seine Handlungsweise \u00fcberlegt hatte, sp\u00fcrte er Trauer in seiner Seele und sagte sich nicht ohne Zerknirschung: \u203aNein, das war eine Strafe Gottes; mein Bild ist mit Recht unterlegen. Es war mit der Absicht begonnen worden, um meinen N\u00e4chsten zugrunde zu richten. Das d\u00e4monische Gef\u00fchl des Neides hat meinen Pinsel geleitet, und ein d\u00e4monisches Gef\u00fchl hat sich auch dem Bilde mitgeteilt.\u2039 Er suchte sofort seinen fr\u00fcheren Sch\u00fcler auf, umarmte ihn, bat ihn um Verzeihung und gab sich jede M\u00fche, sein Vergehen wieder gut zu machen. Nun konnte er wieder ruhig arbeiten, aber sein Gesicht zeigte immer wieder einen nachdenklichen Ausdruck. Er betete immer mehr, war \u00f6fter schweigsam und urteilte nicht mehr so streng \u00fcber die Menschen; selbst seine \u00e4u\u00dferen Umgangsformen wurden milder. Bald darauf ersch\u00fctterte ihn ein Ereignis noch mehr. Er hatte seinen Freund, der sich das Portr\u00e4t von ihm erbettelt hatte, lange nicht gesehen. Schon wollte er ihn aufsuchen, als jener pl\u00f6tzlich selbst zu ihm ins Zimmer trat. Nach einigen Worten und Fragen von den beiden Seiten sagte jener: \u203aNicht umsonst hast du das Portr\u00e4t verbrennen wollen, Bruder. Hol es der Teufel, es ist etwas Schreckliches darin... Ich glaube nicht an Hexerei, aber in diesem Portr\u00e4t steckt, du magst sagen, was du willst, etwas Teuflisches...\u2039\n\n\u203aWieso?\u2039 fragte mein Vater.\n\n\u203aGleich nachdem ich es bei mir im Zimmer aufgeh\u00e4ngt hatte, beschlich mich ein so bedr\u00fcckendes Gef\u00fchl, als wollte ich jemand erstechen. Mein Lebtag habe ich nicht gewu\u00dft, was Schlaflosigkeit ist, jetzt aber habe ich nicht nur die Schlaflosigkeit kennen gelernt, sondern auch solche Tr\u00e4ume, da\u00df... Ich vermag selbst nicht zu sagen, ob es blo\u00df Tr\u00e4ume sind oder etwas anderes: es ist mir, wie wenn ein Teufel mich w\u00fcrgte, und dabei sehe ich immer den verfluchten Alten vor mir. Mit einem Worte, ich kann dir meinen Zustand gar nicht beschreiben. Etwas \u00c4hnliches habe ich noch nie erlebt. Alle diese Tage irrte ich wie ein Verr\u00fcckter herum: ich f\u00fchlte fortw\u00e4hrend irgendeine Angst, irgendeine unangenehme Erwartung. Ich f\u00fchle, da\u00df ich kein einziges lustiges, aufrichtiges Wort sprechen kann; es ist mir, als ob in mir ein Spion s\u00e4\u00dfe. Erst als ich das Portr\u00e4t meinem Neffen schenkte, der selbst danach verlangte, war es mir, als ob mir ein Stein vom Herzen gefallen w\u00e4re: pl\u00f6tzlich f\u00fchlte ich mich wieder lustig, wie du mich jetzt siehst. Ja, Bruder, einen sch\u00f6nen Teufel hast du fertig gekriegt!\u2039\n\nMein Vater h\u00f6rte seinen Bericht mit gespannter Aufmerksamkeit an und fragte schlie\u00dflich: \u203aBefindet sich das Portr\u00e4t jetzt bei deinem Neffen?\u2039\n\n\u203aAch was, beim Neffen! Der hielt es auch nicht aus!\u2039 sagte der lustige Patron. \u203aDie Seele des Wucherers scheint ins Portr\u00e4t gefahren zu sein: er springt aus dem Rahmen, geht durch das Zimmer, und was mein Neffe \u00fcber ihn erz\u00e4hlt, ist einfach unfa\u00dfbar. Ich w\u00fcrde ihn f\u00fcr verr\u00fcckt halten, wenn ich es zum Teil nicht auch selbst erlebt h\u00e4tte. Er hat das Portr\u00e4t irgendeinem Bildersammler verkauft, und auch dieser hielt es nicht aus und verkaufte es weiter.\u2039\n\nDiese Erz\u00e4hlung machte auf meinen Vater einen starken Eindruck. Er wurde tief nachdenklich, verfiel in Hypochondrie und war zuletzt ganz davon \u00fcberzeugt, da\u00df sein Pinsel als teuflisches Werkzeug gedient habe, da\u00df das Leben des Wucherers auf irgendeine Weise zum Teil wirklich ins Portr\u00e4t gefahren sei und die Menschen beunruhige, indem es ihnen teuflische Gedanken eing\u00e4be, die K\u00fcnstler vom Wege abbringe, gr\u00e4\u00dflichen Neid erzeuge usw. Die drei Ungl\u00fccksf\u00e4lle, die sich bald darauf ereigneten, die drei pl\u00f6tzlichen Tode: der seiner Frau, seiner Tochter und seines kleinen Sohnes sah er als eine himmlische Strafe an und fa\u00dfte den unab\u00e4nderlichen Entschlu\u00df, die Welt zu fliehen. Als ich neun Jahre alt geworden war, gab er mich auf die Kunstakademie, rechnete dann mit allen seinen Gl\u00e4ubigern ab und zog sich in ein entlegenes Kloster zur\u00fcck, wo er bald darauf die M\u00f6nchsweihen empfing. Dort setzte er durch seine strenge Lebensf\u00fchrung und durch die peinliche Befolgung aller Klosterregeln die M\u00f6nche in Erstaunen. Als der Prior des Klosters von seiner Kunst erfuhr, gab er ihm den Auftrag, f\u00fcr die Klosterkirche ein Altarbild zu malen. Aber der dem\u00fctige Bruder weigerte sich entschieden und sagte, da\u00df er unw\u00fcrdig sei, den Pinsel zu ergreifen, weil dieser entweiht sei, und da\u00df er erst durch M\u00fche und gro\u00dfe Opfer seine Seele l\u00e4utern m\u00fcsse, um der Ehre teilhaftig zu werden, solch ein Werk zu unternehmen. Man wollte ihn dazu nicht zwingen. Er erschwerte f\u00fcr sich selbst, soweit es ging, die Strenge des kl\u00f6sterlichen Lebens. Zuletzt erschien ihm auch dieses nicht streng genug. Mit Genehmigung des Priors entfernte er sich in eine Einsiedelei, um ganz allein zu sein. Dort baute er sich aus Baum\u00e4sten eine Zelle, lebte nur von rohen Wurzeln, schleppte Steine von einem Ort zum andern und stand von Sonnenaufgang bis zum Sonnenuntergang immer auf dem gleichen Fleck, die Arme gen Himmel erhoben und unausgesetzt Gebete sprechend \u2013 mit einem Worte, er erfand wohl alle denkbaren Stufen der Kasteiung und jener unfa\u00dfbaren Selbstaufopferung, f\u00fcr die man h\u00f6chstens in der Heiligenlegende Beispiele finden kann. So kasteite er lange, mehrere Jahre hindurch seinen K\u00f6rper und st\u00e4rkte ihn zugleich mit der belebenden Kraft des Gebets. Endlich kam er eines Tages ins Kloster und sagte dem Prior mit fester Stimme: \u203aNun bin ich bereit; wenn es Gott gef\u00e4llig ist, werde ich das Werk vollenden.\u2039 Der Gegenstand, den er w\u00e4hlte, war die Geburt des Heilands. Ein ganzes Jahr arbeitete er daran, ohne seine Zelle zu verlassen, von karger Kost lebend und ununterbrochen betend. Nach Ablauf des Jahres war das Bild fertig. Es war tats\u00e4chlich ein Wunder der Malkunst. Es ist zu bemerken, da\u00df weder die Klosterbr\u00fcder noch der Prior viel Verst\u00e4ndnis f\u00fcr die Malerei hatten, aber alle waren \u00fcber den ungew\u00f6hnlich heiligen Ausdruck der Gestalten erstaunt. Das Gef\u00fchl g\u00f6ttlicher Demut und Milde im Antlitz der allerreinsten Gottesmutter, die sich \u00fcber das Kind beugte, die tiefe Weisheit in den Augen des g\u00f6ttlichen Kindes, das schon das feierliche Schweigen der vom g\u00f6ttlichen Wunder ersch\u00fctterten heiligen drei K\u00f6nige zu seinen F\u00fc\u00dfen in der Zukunft zu schauen schien, und endlich die heilige, unaussprechliche Stille, von der das ganze Bild erf\u00fcllt war \u2013 dies alles stellte sich in einer so harmonischen Kraft und machtvollen Sch\u00f6nheit dar, da\u00df der Eindruck magisch war. Alle Klosterbr\u00fcder fielen vor dem neuen Bilde in die Knie, und der ger\u00fchrte Prior sprach: \u203aNein es ist unm\u00f6glich, da\u00df ein Mensch mit Hilfe der menschlichen Kunst allein ein solches Kunstwerk geschaffen hat: eine heilige, h\u00f6here Macht hat deinen Pinsel geleitet, und der Segen des Himmels senkte sich auf dein Werk herab.\u2039\n\nUm diese Zeit beendete ich das Studium an der Akademie, erhielt die goldene Medaille und mit ihr die beseligende Aussicht auf eine Italienreise \u2013 den sch\u00f6nsten Traum eines jungen K\u00fcnstlers. Mir blieb nur noch, mich von meinem Vater zu verabschieden, den ich seit zw\u00f6lf Jahren nicht gesehen hatte. Ich mu\u00df gestehen, da\u00df selbst sein Bild aus meiner Erinnerung geschwunden war. Ich hatte schon einiges von der strengen Heiligkeit seines Lebens geh\u00f6rt und stellte ihn mir als einen rauhen Einsiedler vor, der gegen alles in der Welt au\u00dfer seiner Zelle und seinen Gebeten gleichg\u00fcltig sei, als einen ausgemergelten, durch das ewige Fasten und Wachen ersch\u00f6pften Menschen. Wie war ich aber erstaunt, als ich vor mir einen sch\u00f6nen, beinahe g\u00f6ttlichen Greis erblickte! Sein Gesicht zeigte nicht die geringste Spur von Kasteiungen: es leuchtete vor himmlischer Heiterkeit. Der schneewei\u00dfe Bart und die feinen, beinahe luftigen Haare vom selben silbernen Wei\u00df flossen malerisch \u00fcber seine Brust und die Falten seiner schwarzen Kutte und fielen bis zum Strikke herab, mit dem er sein \u00e4rmliches M\u00f6nchsgewand umg\u00fcrtete. Am meisten war ich aber erstaunt, als ich aus seinem Munde Worte und Gedanken \u00fcber die Kunst h\u00f6rte, die ich, offen gestanden, lange in meiner Seele bewahren werde, und ich w\u00fcnsche aufrichtig, da\u00df auch jeder meiner Br\u00fcder in der Kunst dasselbe tue.\n\n\u203aIch habe dich erwartet, mein Sohn,\u2039 sagte er mir, als ich auf ihn zuging, um mir seinen Segen zu erbitten. \u203aEs steht dir ein Weg bevor, dem dein Leben nun folgen wird. Dein Weg ist rein, irre von ihm nicht ab. Du hast ein Talent; das Talent ist das kostbarste Geschenk Gottes \u2013 richte es nicht zugrunde. Erforsche und studiere alles, was du erblickst, mache alles deinem Pinsel untertan; lerne aber, in allem die darin verborgene Idee erkennen und bem\u00fche dich am meisten, das hohe Geheimnis der Sch\u00f6pfung zu ergr\u00fcnden. Selig ist der Auserw\u00e4hlte, der es beherrscht. F\u00fcr diesen gibt es in der ganzen Natur nichts Gemeines. Der sch\u00f6pfende K\u00fcnstler ist im Geringen ebenso gro\u00df wie im Gro\u00dfen; im Ver\u00e4chtlichen gibt es f\u00fcr ihn nichts Ver\u00e4chtliches, denn es ist sichtbar von der sch\u00f6nen Seele des Sch\u00f6pfers durchleuchtet, und das Ver\u00e4chtliche erh\u00e4lt dadurch einen erhabenen Ausdruck, weil es im Fegefeuer seiner Seele gel\u00e4utert worden ist... Die Ahnung vom G\u00f6ttlichen, vom himmlischen Paradiese ist f\u00fcr den Menschen in der Kunst enthalten, und schon darum ist sie erhabener als alles. Ebenso wie feierliche Ruhe \u00fcber jede weltliche Unruhe erhaben ist, so erhaben ist auch die Sch\u00f6pfung \u00fcber die Zerst\u00f6rung; wie der Engel schon durch die keusche Unschuld seiner lichten Seele \u00fcber die zahllosen Heere und die hochm\u00fctigen Leidenschaften des Satans erhaben ist, so steht auch die hehre Sch\u00f6pfung der Kunst \u00fcber allen Dingen der Welt. Bringe ihr alles zum Opfer und liebe sie mit deiner ganzen Leidenschaft \u2013 nicht mit der Leidenschaft, die irdisches Begehren atmet, sondern mit der stillen, himmlischen Leidenschaft: ohne sie hat der Mensch nicht die Gewalt, sich \u00fcber die Erde zu erheben und die wunderbaren T\u00f6ne des Friedens anzustimmen; denn das hehre Werk der Kunst steigt auf die Erde herab, nur um allen Ruhe und Vers\u00f6hnung einzufl\u00f6\u00dfen. Es kann in der Seele kein Murren wecken, sondern strebt als klingendes Gebet zu Gott empor. Aber es gibt Augenblicke, finstere Augenblicke...\u2039 Er hielt inne, und ich merkte, da\u00df sein leuchtendes Antlitz pl\u00f6tzlich wie von einer fl\u00fcchtigen Wolke verd\u00fcstert wurde. \u203aEs gab ein Ereignis in meinem Leben,\u2039 sagte er. \u203aIch kann auch heute nicht begreifen, wer jenes seltsame Wesen war, das ich malte. Es war wie eine teuflische Erscheinung. Ich wei\u00df, die Welt leugnet die Existenz des Teufels, und darum werde ich von ihm nicht sprechen; ich will nur sagen, da\u00df ich ihn mit Abscheu malte: damals f\u00fchlte ich nicht die geringste Liebe f\u00fcr mein Werk. Ich wollte mich gewaltsam bezwingen und alles in mir unterdr\u00fccken, um seelenlos treu der Natur zu folgen. Es war keine Sch\u00f6pfung der Kunst, und darum sind die Gef\u00fchle, die sich der Menschen bei seinem Anblick bem\u00e4chtigen, aufr\u00fchrerische, unruhige Gef\u00fchle und nicht die eines K\u00fcnstlers, denn der K\u00fcnstler atmet selbst in der Unruhe Ruhe. Man sagte mir, das Portr\u00e4t gehe von Hand zu Hand und verbreite die qu\u00e4lendsten Eindr\u00fccke; es erzeuge im K\u00fcnstler Neid, finsteren Ha\u00df gegen seinen Bruder und das geh\u00e4ssige Bestreben, alles zu unterdr\u00fccken und zu verfolgen. Der Allm\u00e4chtige m\u00f6ge dich vor solchen Leidenschaften bewahren! Es gibt nichts Schrecklicheres als sie. Es ist besser, selbst die ganze Bitternis aller m\u00f6glichen Verfolgungen zu kosten, als einen andern zu verfolgen. Bewahre die Reinheit deiner Seele. Wer ein Talent in sich birgt, der mu\u00df an Seele reiner als alle sein. Einem andern wird vieles verziehen, was ihm nicht verziehen wird. Wenn ein Mensch in hellem festlichen Gewande aus dem Hause getreten ist, so gen\u00fcgt schon ein einziger Schmutzspritzer von einem Wagen, damit die Menge ihn umringe, auf ihn mit dem Finger weise und von seiner Unsauberkeit spreche, w\u00e4hrend die gleiche Menge die vielen Schmutzspritzer an anderen Menschen, die ihre Werktagskleider anhaben, nicht sieht; denn auf den Werktagskleidern sind die Flecken nicht sichtbar.\u2039\n\nEr segnete und umarmte mich. Nie im Leben war ich von solcher R\u00fchrung ersch\u00fcttert wie an diesem Tag. And\u00e4chtig, mit einem Gef\u00fchl, das mehr als Sohnesliebe war, fiel ich ihm an die Brust und k\u00fc\u00dfte seine herabflie\u00dfenden silbernen Haare.\n\nTr\u00e4nen gl\u00e4nzten in seinen Augen. \u203aMein Sohn, erf\u00fclle mir meine einzige Bitte,\u2039 sagte er beim Abschied. \u203aVielleicht wird es sich f\u00fcgen, da\u00df du irgendwo das Portr\u00e4t findest, von dem ich sprach \u2013 du wirst es an den ungew\u00f6hnlichen Augen und an ihrem nat\u00fcrlichen Ausdruck erkennen \u2013 so vernichte es um jeden Preis...\u2039\n\nSie k\u00f6nnen selbst urteilen, ob es mir m\u00f6glich war, ihm nicht zu schw\u00f6ren, seine Bitte zu erf\u00fcllen. F\u00fcnfzehn Jahre lang konnte ich nichts finden, was auch entfernt der Beschreibung, die mir mein Vater gab, entsprochen h\u00e4tte. Aber auf dieser Auktion...\u00ab\n\nDer K\u00fcnstler sprach den Satz nicht zu Ende und richtete seinen Blick auf die Wand, um das Portr\u00e4t noch einmal zu sehen. Die gleiche Bewegung machten augenblicklich auch alle Zuh\u00f6rer, und alle Augen suchten das ungew\u00f6hnliche Portr\u00e4t. Zum h\u00f6chsten Erstaunen aller hing es aber nicht mehr an der Wand. Ein unruhiges Gemurmel lief durch die ganze Menge, und gleich darauf lie\u00df sich deutlich das Wort vernehmen: \u00bbGestohlen!\u00ab Jemand hatte sich die Aufmerksamkeit der von der Erz\u00e4hlung hingerissenen Zuh\u00f6rer zunutze gemacht und das Bild entwendet. Lange noch blieben die Anwesenden best\u00fcrzt, und niemand wu\u00dfte, ob man die ungew\u00f6hnlichen Augen tats\u00e4chlich gesehen hatte, oder ob es nur ein Traum war, der ihren durch das lange Betrachten alter Bilder erm\u00fcdeten Augen vorgeschwebt.\n\n## DER MANTEL\n\nAn einer Ministerialabteilung... ich will die Ministerialabteilung nicht genauer bezeichnen. Es gibt nichts Unangenehmeres, als mit Angeh\u00f6rigen einer Ministerialabteilung, eines Regiments, einer Kanzlei, kurz, mit irgendeiner Amtsperson zu tun zu haben. Jeder Privatmensch glaubt heutzutage, man wolle in seiner Person die ganze Korporation beleidigen.\n\nMan erz\u00e4hlt, vor kurzem sei eine Beschwerde eines Kapit\u00e4n-Isprawniks, ich wei\u00df nicht mehr genau von welcher Stadt, eingelaufen, in der er beweist, da\u00df alle staatlichen Institutionen zugrunde gehen, und da\u00df sogar sein geheiligter Name mi\u00dfbraucht werde: als Beleg f\u00fcgte er seiner Beschwerdeschrift einen sehr dicken Band eines Romans bei, in dem mindestens alle zehn Seiten ein Kapit\u00e4n-Isprawnik auftritt, stellenweise sogar in vollst\u00e4ndig betrunkenem Zustand.\n\nZur Vermeidung etwaiger Unannehmlichkeiten ziehe ich es vor, die Ministerialabteilung, von der die Rede ist, \u00bbeine Ministerialabteilung\u00ab zu nennen.\n\nAn \u00bbeiner Ministerialabteilung\u00ab war also \u00bbein Beamter\u00ab angestellt. Man kann nicht behaupten, da\u00df es ein irgendwie bemerkenswerter Beamter war: er war klein, etwas pockennarbig, etwas rothaarig und anscheinend auch etwas kurzsichtig, er hatte eine kleine Glatze, runzlige Wangen und eine sogenannte h\u00e4morrhoidale Gesichtsfarbe... Da ist schon einmal das Petersburger Klima daran schuld. Was seinen Beamtenrang betrifft, so war er das, was man einen ewigen Titularrat nennt, einer jener Ungl\u00fccklichen, \u00fcber die schon verschiedene Schriftsteller, welche den lobenswerten Grundsatz haben, nur Wehrlose anzugreifen \u2013 ihre Witze gerissen haben. Sein Name war Baschmatschkin. Dieser Name* stammt offenbar von einem Schuh ab; der Zusammenhang l\u00e4\u00dft sich aber nicht mehr genau feststellen. Sein Vater und sein Gro\u00dfvater, sogar sein Schwager \u2013 kurz, alle Baschmatschkins trugen nur Stiefel, die sie dreimal im Jahre besohlen lie\u00dfen.\n\nMit dem Vor- und Vatersnamen hie\u00df er Akakij Akakijewitsch. Mancher Leser wird diesen Namen sonderbar und gesucht finden, ich kann aber versichern, da\u00df man ihn durchaus nicht gesucht hatte: die Umst\u00e4nde hatten sich so gef\u00fcgt, da\u00df es unm\u00f6glich ein anderer Name sein konnte. Dies geschah so: Akakij Akakijewitsch kam zur Welt, wenn mich mein Ged\u00e4chtnis nicht t\u00e4uscht, in der Nacht zum 23. M\u00e4rz. Seine selige Mutter, eine brave Beamtenfrau, wollte, wie sich's geh\u00f6rt, den Taufnamen w\u00e4hlen. Ihr Bett stand der T\u00fcre gegen\u00fcber, rechts von ihr sa\u00df der Pate \u2013 der Senatsbeamte Iwan Iwanowitsch Jeroschkin, ein trefflicher Mensch, links die Patin \u2013 Arina Ssemjonowna Bjelobrjuschkowa, Polizeioffiziersgattin, eine Dame von hervorragenden Tugenden. Der W\u00f6chnerin wurden drei Namen vorgeschlagen: Mokius, Sossius und Chosdasates. \u00bbNein,\u00ab meinte die selige Mutter, \u00bbdie Namen sind etwas bunt.\u00ab Man tat ihr den Gefallen und schlug den Kalender an einer andern Stelle auf, da fand man wieder drei Namen: Trifilius, Dula und Barachasius.\n\n\u00bbSo ein Pech!\u00ab sagte die Alte, \u00bbschon wieder solche Namen. Ich habe noch nie solche nennen h\u00f6ren. Wenn es noch Baradates oder Baruch w\u00e4re, aber mein Gott: Trifilius und Barachasius!\u00ab\n\nMan bl\u00e4tterte weiter und kam auf die Namen Pausikachius und Bachtisius. \u00bbNun, ich seh' schon,\u00ab sagte die Alte, \u00bbda\u00df es ihm so bestimmt ist. Dann soll er schon lieber wie sein Vater hei\u00dfen. Sein Vater hie\u00df Akakij, so wollen wir ihn auch Akakij taufen.\u00ab So kam der Name Akakij Akakijewitsch zustande.\n\nW\u00e4hrend der Taufzeremonien machte das Kind eine sehr saure Miene, als ob es schon w\u00fc\u00dfte, da\u00df es nur bis zum Titularrat kommen w\u00fcrde. So ging alles zu, und ich habe es absichtlich mit dieser Ausf\u00fchrlichkeit geschildert, damit der Leser selbst einsieht, da\u00df unser Held keinen andern Namen tragen konnte.\n\nEs l\u00e4\u00dft sich nicht mehr feststellen, wann Akakij Akakijewitsch in die Kanzlei eintrat und durch wessen Vermittlung er diesen Posten erhielt. Viele Kanzleivorst\u00e4nde hatten einander abgel\u00f6st, er sa\u00df aber immer auf dem gleichen Platz und bekleidete immer das gleiche Amt eines Kopisten; man mu\u00dfte glauben, da\u00df er schon ganz fertig mit der Glatze und mit der Beamtenuniform zur Welt gekommen sei. Von seinen Kollegen wurde er mit wenig R\u00fccksicht behandelt, und selbst die Bureaudiener erhoben sich nicht von ihren Pl\u00e4tzen, wenn er vorbeiging; sie schenkten ihm so viel Beachtung, wie einer gew\u00f6hnlichen Fliege, die durchs Wartezimmer fliegt. Die Vorgesetzten behandelten ihn k\u00fchl und despotisch. So ein Gehilfe des Amtsvorstandes schob ihm die Papiere einfach vor die Nase, ohne die Worte: \u00bbMachen Sie eine Abschrift davon,\u00ab oder: \u00bbDa ist eine interessante, nette Akte,\u00ab oder sonst eine angenehme Bemerkung, wie sie in vornehmen \u00c4mtern \u00fcblich sind. Er nahm die Akten, ohne hinzusehen, wer ihm den Auftrag gab, und ob der betreffende \u00fcberhaupt dazu berechtigt war, und machte sich gleich an die Arbeit.\n\nDie j\u00fcngeren Beamten machten ihn zur Zielscheibe ihrer Witze und Streiche, soweit ihr Witz eben reichte. Sie erz\u00e4hlten in seiner Gegenwart unglaubliche Geschichten, in denen er als Held auftrat; sie behaupteten, da\u00df er von seiner Wirtin, einer siebzigj\u00e4hrigen Alten, geschlagen w\u00fcrde, und fragten ihn, wann er sie endlich heiraten wolle; sie sch\u00fctteten ihm auch Papierschnitzel auf den Kopf und nannten dies Schnee. Akakij Akakijewitsch sagte aber zu all dem kein Wort, als ob sie alle f\u00fcr ihn Luft w\u00e4ren, sogar die G\u00fcte seiner Abschriften wurde dadurch nicht beeintr\u00e4chtigt, und trotz aller Ablenkungen und Bel\u00e4stigungen sah man nie einen Schreibfehler in seinen Arbeiten. Wenn es schon gar zu arg wurde, wenn man ihn am Arm zupfte oder sonstwie am Schreiben hinderte, sagte er: \u00bbLassen Sie mich doch! Warum qu\u00e4len Sie mich?\u00ab Diese Worte klangen so r\u00fchrend und mitleiderregend, da\u00df ein junger Beamter, der dem Beispiel der andern folgend, ihn einmal verh\u00f6hnen wollte, unter dem Eindruck dieser Worte wie vom Blitze getroffen innehielt und seit diesem Vorfalle pl\u00f6tzlich alles in einem andern Licht zu sehen begann. Eine seltsame Macht trennte ihn von allen seinen Kollegen, die er fr\u00fcher f\u00fcr anst\u00e4ndige und wohlerzogene Menschen gehalten hatte. Und noch lange nachher, selbst in den fr\u00f6hlichsten Stunden, tauchte vor ihm oft das Bild des kleinen kahlk\u00f6pfigen Beamten auf mit den r\u00fchrenden Worten: \u00bbLassen Sie mich doch! Warum qu\u00e4len Sie mich?\u00ab In diesen Worten klang aber der Ausruf: \u00bbIch bin ja dein Bruder.\u00ab Und der arme junge Beamte bedeckte sein Gesicht mit den H\u00e4nden und zuckte zusammen, wenn er sah, wie unmenschlich oft ein Mensch ist, wie roh und grausam die gebildetsten und erzogensten Menschen sein k\u00f6nnen, ja, selbst solche, die allgemein f\u00fcr edel und gut gelten...\n\nMan findet wohl kaum einen Beamten, der so sehr seinem Dienste zugetan ist, wie es Akakij Akakijewitsch war. Er versah seinen Dienst nicht nur mit Eifer \u2013 auch mit Liebe. In der ewigen Anfertigung von Abschriften sah er eine abwechselungsreiche und pr\u00e4chtige Welt vor sich. Manchmal strahlte sein Gesicht; unter den Buchstaben hatte er einzelne Lieblinge, und wenn solche vorkamen, war er ganz au\u00dfer sich vor Freude, er l\u00e4chelte ihnen freundlich zu, und man konnte in seinem Gesicht wirklich lesen, welchen Buchstaben er gerade schrieb. Wenn die Bef\u00f6rderungen nur vom Eifer der Beamten abhingen, so w\u00e4re er zu seinem eigenen Erstaunen wohl l\u00e4ngst Staatsrat geworden; alles, was er erreichte, war aber, wie sich seine Kollegen ausdr\u00fcckten, ein Ehrenzeichen f\u00fcr langj\u00e4hrige treue Dienste nebst den dazu geh\u00f6renden H\u00e4morrhoiden.\n\nMan kann \u00fcbrigens nicht sagen, da\u00df ihn niemand zu w\u00fcrdigen verstand. Ein Amtsvorstand, der ihn in seiner Herzensg\u00fcte f\u00fcr die langen Dienstjahre belohnen wollte, lie\u00df ihm einmal eine Arbeit anvertrauen, die wichtiger war, als das gew\u00f6hnliche Abschreiben: er sollte n\u00e4mlich aus einem fertig vorliegenden Bericht einen neuen f\u00fcr eine andere Beh\u00f6rde machen. Die Arbeit bestand nur in der Ab\u00e4nderung der \u00dcberschrift und in der Transponierung der Zeitw\u00f6rter aus der ersten in die dritte Person. Diese Arbeit strengte ihn so sehr an, da\u00df der Schwei\u00df nur so herunterlief; endlich sagte er:\n\n\u00bbNein, geben Sie mir lieber etwas zum Abschreiben.\u00ab\n\nVon nun an lie\u00df man ihn nur Abschriften machen. Au\u00dfer dieser Arbeit hatte er f\u00fcr nichts in der Welt Interesse. Er sah auch nie auf seine Kleidung: sein Rock hatte l\u00e4ngst die vorschriftsm\u00e4\u00dfige gr\u00fcne Farbe verloren und war nun mehligbraun. Er trug einen engen, ganz niedrigen Kragen, und sein Hals, der eigentlich gar nicht \u00fcberm\u00e4\u00dfig lang war, erschien aus diesem Grunde so lang wie bei den Gipskatzen mit den nickenden K\u00f6pfen, die von russischen \u00bbItalienern\u00ab dutzendweise auf den K\u00f6pfen herumgetragen werden. An seinem Rock blieb immer etwas kleben oder h\u00e4ngen, bald ein Endchen Faden, bald ein Heuhalm. Er hatte ferner die ungew\u00f6hnliche F\u00e4higkeit, an einem Fenster just in dem Augenblick vorbeizugehen, wenn aus ihm gerade irgendwelcher Unrat auf die Stra\u00dfe gesch\u00fcttet wurde, und so trug er auf seinem Hut Melonenrinden und \u00e4hnliche Abf\u00e4lle davon. Dem Leben auf der Stra\u00dfe schenkte er nie Beachtung und stach in dieser Beziehung von den j\u00fcngeren Beamten ab, die sich freilich etwas zu viel f\u00fcr die Vorg\u00e4nge auf der Stra\u00dfe interessierten und oft sogar schmunzelnd feststellen, da\u00df bei einem Herrn, der auf der anderen Stra\u00dfenseite geht, eine Hosenstrippe sich losgemacht hat und baumelt.\n\nAkakij Akakijewitsch sah \u00fcberall die gleichm\u00e4\u00dfig geschriebenen Zeilen vor sich und nur wenn \u00fcber seiner Schulter pl\u00f6tzlich ein Pferdekopf auftauchte und ihn mit hei\u00dfem Atem anpustete, bemerkte er, da\u00df er sich nicht mitten in einer Zeile, sondern mitten auf der Stra\u00dfe befand. Zu Hause angelangt, setzte er sich sofort zu Tisch und verschlang seine Kohlsuppe und sein Zwiebelfleisch, ohne auf den Geschmack dieser Speisen zu achten; er a\u00df sie mit den Fliegen und sonstigen Beilagen, die Gott gerade spendete. Sobald er sich ges\u00e4ttigt hatte, zog er ein Tintenfa\u00df hervor und begann Abschriften von mitgebrachten Akten anzufertigen. Wenn f\u00fcrs Amt gerade nichts zu tun war, machte er Abschriften zu seinem eigenen Vergn\u00fcgen, mit besonderer Vorliebe von solchen Aktenst\u00fccken, die an eine hochstehende oder eine neu ernannte Pers\u00f6nlichkeit gerichtet waren; auf die sch\u00f6ne Fassung und auf den Inhalt sah er weniger.\n\nSelbst in jenen Stunden, wo der graue Petersburger Himmel dunkel wird und das ganze Beamtenvolk seinen Hunger je nach seinem Gehalt und nach seinen Neigungen gestillt hat; wenn alle ausgeruht haben vom Federgekritzel in den Kanzleien, vom Herumrennen in eigenen und fremden Gesch\u00e4ften und von aller M\u00fche, die der Mensch sich freiwillig und oft mehr als gut ist auferlegt; wenn die Beamten zu Vergn\u00fcgungen eilen, mit denen sie den Rest des Tages ausf\u00fcllen; der eine rennt ins Theater, der andere geht einfach auf die Stra\u00dfe, um den Damen unter die H\u00fcte zu schauen, mancher sucht eine Abendgesellschaft auf, um einem jungen M\u00e4dchen \u2013 einem Stern des engen Beamtenhimmels \u2013 die Cour zu schneiden; die meisten begeben sich zu einem Kollegen, der irgendwo im vierten oder dritten Stock in einer Mahnung von zwei bescheidenen Zimmern nebst K\u00fcche oder Vorzimmer haust, die mit einigem modernen Komfort ausgestattet ist \u2013 einer Lampe oder einem anderen Luxusgegenstand, der manche Entbehrung gekostet hat; mit einem Wort, selbst in jenen Stunden, wenn die Beamten Whist spielen, Tee trinken, billigen Zwieback knuspern, ihre langen Pfeifen rauchen und in den Spielpausen irgendeinen Klatsch aus der besseren Gesellschaft, f\u00fcr die der Russe in allen Lebenslagen Interesse hat, er\u00f6rtern, oder aus Ermangelung eines anderen Gespr\u00e4chsstoffes die alte Anekdote vom Kommandanten, dem gemeldet wurde, jemand habe dem Denkmal Peters des Gro\u00dfen den Schwanz abgehackt, wiedererz\u00e4hlen; kurz, wenn alle Zerstreuung suchen, machte Akakij Akakijewitsch eine Ausnahme. Nie sah man ihn in einer Gesellschaft. Nachdem er sich satt geschrieben, ging er zu Bett und l\u00e4chelte selig beim Gedanken: was werde ich wohl morgen zum Abschreiben bekommen.\n\nSo flo\u00df das friedliche Leben dieses Menschen dahin, der bei vierhundert Rubeln Jahresgehalt mit seinem Los zufrieden war; es h\u00e4tte vielleicht bis ins hohe Alter hinein so flie\u00dfen k\u00f6nnen, wenn es nicht verschiedene Mi\u00dfgeschicke g\u00e4be, mit denen nicht nur der Lebensweg eines Titularrats bes\u00e4t ist, sondern auch der eines Geheimen, eines Wirklichen Geheimen, eines Hofrats wie \u00fcberhaupt eines jeden Rats, und selbst solcher Leute, die niemand Rat erteilen und niemand um Rat fragen.\n\nIn Petersburg haben alle diejenigen, die an die vierhundert Rubel Jahresgehalt bekommen, einen grimmigen Feind: es ist unser nordischer Frost, von dem \u00fcbrigens behauptet wird, er sei der Gesundheit zutr\u00e4glich. Um neun Uhr morgens, gerade um die Stunde, wenn die Ministerialbeamten ins Amt gehen, verteilt er an alle, ohne Ansehung der Person, so heftige Nasenst\u00fcber, da\u00df die armen Menschen gar nicht wissen, wo sie ihre Nasen hintun sollen. Und wenn der Frost selbst den h\u00f6chststehenden Beamten so zusetzt, da\u00df sie Kopfschmerzen bekommen und da\u00df ihre Augen tr\u00e4nen, dann sind die armen Titularr\u00e4te ganz schutzlos. Sie rennen, in ihre d\u00fcnnen M\u00e4ntel geh\u00fcllt, was sie rennen k\u00f6nnen die f\u00fcnf, sechs Stra\u00dfen bis zum Amt und trampeln dann im Portierzimmer so lange mit den Beinen, bis sie sich erw\u00e4rmen und die eingefrorene Begabung zur amtlichen T\u00e4tigkeit wieder auftaut.\n\nAkakij Akakijewitsch sp\u00fcrte seit einiger Zeit heftiges Stechen im R\u00fccken und in der einen Schulter, obwohl er den festgesetzten Weg von der Wohnung in die Kanzlei immer im schnellsten Tempo zur\u00fccklegte. Und da fiel es ihm ein, sein Mantel m\u00fcsse nicht ganz in Ordnung sein. Er unterzog ihn gleich einer eingehenden Untersuchung und stellte fest, da\u00df der Stoff an einigen Stellen, und zwar gerade im R\u00fccken und auf der Schulter so d\u00fcnn wie Kanevas geworden war: das Tuch war ganz durchgewetzt und auch das Futter war arg zerrissen. Es mu\u00df hier erw\u00e4hnt werden, da\u00df dieser Mantel von den Kollegen arg bekrittelt wurde; sie w\u00fcrdigten ihn nicht einmal der Bezeichnung \u00bbMantel\u00ab und nannten ihn ver\u00e4chtlich Morgenrock. Der Mantel hatte auch wirklich ein ganz eigent\u00fcmliches Aussehen: der Kragen wurde von Jahr zu Jahr kleiner, denn er mu\u00dfte zum Flikken anderer schadhafter Stellen herhalten. Diese Ausbesserungen zeugten von einer nicht allzu gro\u00dfen Kunstfertigkeit des Schneiders und nahmen sich wenig sch\u00f6n aus.\n\nAkakij Akakijewitsch kam zum Entschlu\u00df, den Mantel dem Schneider Petrowitsch in Behandlung zu geben. Dieser wohnte irgendwo im vierten Stock eines Hinterhauses und befa\u00dfte sich, trotz seines schielenden Auges und seines pockennarbigen Gesichts, mit ziemlichem Erfolg mit dem Ausbessern von Hosen und Fr\u00e4cken der Beamten und auch anderer Menschen: nat\u00fcrlich, wenn er nicht gerade betrunken war oder andere Gedanken im Kopfe hatte. Dieser Schneider verdient eigentlich gar nicht, da\u00df ich von ihm viel spreche; da es aber einmal Sitte ist, alle handelnden Personen einer Erz\u00e4hlung genau zu beschreiben, so mu\u00df ich auch diesen Petrowitsch vorf\u00fchren. Vor Jahren, als er noch Leibeigener war, hie\u00df er einfach Grigorij; den Namen Petrowitsch legte er sich erst dann zu, als er frei wurde und an den Feiertagen \u2013 zun\u00e4chst nur an den gro\u00dfen, sp\u00e4ter aber an allen Tagen, die im Kalender mit einem Kreuz bezeichnet sind \u2013 zu trinken begann. In dieser Beziehung war er den Sitten seiner V\u00e4ter treu, und wenn er dar\u00fcber mit seiner Frau polemisierte, schalt er sie eine weltliche Person und eine Deutsche. Da schon einmal von der Frau die Rede ist, so m\u00fc\u00dfte ich auch ihr einige Worte widmen; das einzige, was ich sagen kann, ist aber nur das: Petrowitsch hatte eine Frau, sie trug statt eines Kopftuches ein H\u00e4ubchen und war anscheinend nicht sonderlich sch\u00f6n: wenn sie durch die Stra\u00dfe ging, schenkten ihr h\u00f6chstens Gardesoldaten einige Beachtung, und selbst diese drehten den Schnurrbart und gaben einen eigent\u00fcmlichen Laut von sich, sobald sie ihr unter die Haube geschaut hatten.\n\nAkakij Akakijewitsch ging also zu Petrowitsch hinauf; die Treppe war schmutzig und feucht und von einem Schnapsduft erf\u00fcllt, der allen Petersburger Hintertreppen eigen ist. Unterwegs \u00fcberlegte er sich, wieviel wohl Petrowitsch f\u00fcr die Arbeit verlangen w\u00fcrde; er war entschlossen, keineswegs mehr als zwei Rubel zu zahlen. Die Wohnungst\u00fcr stand offen, denn Frau Petrowitsch bereitete gerade irgendein Fischgericht, und die K\u00fcche war so voller Rauch, da\u00df man selbst die Schaben nicht unterscheiden konnte. Akakij Akakijewitsch passierte die K\u00fcche, ohne von der Frau gesehen zu werden, und kam in einen Raum, wo Petrowitsch selbst auf einem einfachen Tisch, mit untergeschlagenen Beinen wie ein t\u00fcrkischer Pascha thronte, und zwar, wie alle Schneider bei der Arbeit, mit nackten F\u00fc\u00dfen; das erste, was Akakij Akakijewitsch in die Augen sprang, war die gro\u00dfe Zehe, deren verst\u00fcmmelter Nagel an eine Schildkr\u00f6tenschale gemahnte. Er hatte mehrere Fitzen Zwirn und N\u00e4hseide um den Hals h\u00e4ngen und arbeitete gerade an einem au\u00dferordentlich zerlumpten Kleidungsst\u00fcck. Seit drei Minuten m\u00fchte er sich mit einem Faden ab, der durchaus nicht in das Nadel\u00f6hr gehen wollte; er schimpfte auf die Dunkelheit und auf den Faden: \u00bbEr will nicht, der Hund! Der Halunke bringt mich noch ins Grab!\u00ab\n\nAkakij Akakijewitsch tat es leid, da\u00df er Petrowitsch in so schlechter Laune antraf: er liebte es, seine Auftr\u00e4ge ihm dann zu erteilen, wenn der Schneider etwas angeheitert, oder, wie seine Frau sich ausdr\u00fcckte, \u00bbstinkbesoffen wie ein Teufel\u00ab war. In diesem Zustande war er sehr entgegenkommend und nachgiebig, er machte sogar h\u00f6fliche Verbeugungen und dankte f\u00fcr den Auftrag. Allerdings kam dann sp\u00e4ter die Frau mit der Behauptung, er sei betrunken gewesen und habe nur daher diesen billigen Preis gemacht: mit einem Zehnkopekenst\u00fcck war aber auch sie zu bes\u00e4nftigen. Jetzt schien Petrowitsch n\u00fcchtern, und in solchen Augenblicken war er stets hart und eigensinnig und machte ganz wahnsinnige Preise. Akakij Akakijewitsch \u00fcberblickte gleich die Situation und wollte eigentlich abziehen; es war aber zu sp\u00e4t. Petrowitsch sah ihn mit seinem einzigen Auge durchdringend an, und Akakij Akakijewitsch murmelte verlegen:\n\n\u00bbGuten Tag, Petrowitsch!\u00ab\n\n\u00bbRecht guten Tag, Herr...\u00ab erwiderte Petrowitsch und schielte auf die H\u00e4nde des Gastes, um zu sehen, was er mitgebracht habe.\n\n\u00bbIch komme, Petrowitsch, um... das hei\u00dft...\u00ab\n\nAkakij Akakijewitsch gebrauchte mit besonderer Vorliebe Pr\u00e4positionen, Adverbien, und ganz bedeutungslose Partikel. War die Sache aber irgendwie schwierig, so pflegte er seinen Satz nicht zu Ende zu sprechen; er begann oft seine Rede mit den Worten: \u00bbDies ist wirklich ganz, sozusagen...\u00ab und blieb dann stehen, in der Meinung, er habe seine Gedanken klar ausgedr\u00fcckt.\n\n\u00bbWas gibt's denn?\u00ab fragte Petrowitsch und musterte dabei mit seinem einzigen Auge die ganze Kleidung Akakij Akakijewitschs vom Kragen bis zu den \u00c4rmeln, Rocksch\u00f6\u00dfen und Knopfl\u00f6chern; dies alles war ihm wohlbekannt, denn es war seine eigene Arbeit; die Schneider sind einmal so, da\u00df sie immer zuerst die Kleidung betrachten.\n\n\u00bbIch komme also, Petrowitsch... wei\u00dft du, dieser Mantel da... das hei\u00dft, das Tuch ist ja ganz gut; es ist nur etwas verstaubt und sieht daher alt aus, es ist aber ganz neu; aber da, an einer Stelle, im R\u00fccken, und auch hier in der Schulter, ist es etwas abgerieben, und auch auf der anderen Schulter, siehst du? Das w\u00e4re alles. Die Arbeit ist ja nicht gro\u00df...\u00ab\n\nPetrowitsch nahm den Morgenrock in die Hand, breitete ihn auf dem Tische aus und griff nach seiner runden Tabaksdose, deren Deckel mit dem Bildnis eines Generals geschm\u00fcckt war; wer der dargestellte General war, lie\u00df sich nicht mehr feststellen, denn gerade auf der Stelle des Gesichts hatte der Deckel ein von einem Finger herr\u00fchrendes Loch, das nun mit einem viereckigen St\u00fcck Papier \u00fcberklebt war. Petrowitsch nahm eine Prise, betrachtete den Morgenrock von neuem, hielt ihn gegen das Licht und sch\u00fcttelte den Kopf. Darauf wandte er seine Aufmerksamkeit dem Futter zu und sch\u00fcttelte abermals den Kopf; dann \u00f6ffnete er wieder die Dose mit dem \u00fcberklebten Generalskopf, nahm eine t\u00fcchtige Prise, stellte die Dose weg und sagte endlich:\n\n\u00bbNein, da ist nichts zu machen. Der Mantel taugt nichts.\u00ab\n\nBei diesen Worten bekam Akakij Akakijewitsch Herzklopfen.\n\n\u00bbWarum denn, Petrowitsch?\u00ab fragte er mit flehender, kindlicher Stimme. \u00bbEr ist ja nur an den Schultern etwas abgerieben; du wirst doch schon einen passenden Fleck finden, um es auszubessern...\u00ab\n\n\u00bbJa, ein Fleck l\u00e4\u00dft sich wohl finden,\u00ab sagte Petrowitsch, \u00bbaber wie soll ich ihn ann\u00e4hen? Das Tuch ist ja schon ganz faul, wenn man es mit der Nadel anr\u00fchrt, f\u00e4llt es auseinander.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbNun, wo's auseinanderf\u00e4llt, da setzt du gleich einen Fleck hin.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbWorauf soll ich denn den Fleck befestigen? Der Stoff ist zu sehr abgetragen. Sie k\u00f6nnen es meinetwegen Tuch nennen, das Zeug fliegt aber beim ersten Windsto\u00df in Fetzen auseinander.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbVersuchs einmal. Wie w\u00e4re es denn sonst wirklich...\u00ab\n\n\u00bbNein!\u00ab sagte Petrowitsch sehr entschieden. \u00bbDa kann ich nichts machen, die Sache ist hoffnungslos. Machen Sie sich lieber Fu\u00dflappen daraus f\u00fcr den Winter; denn Str\u00fcmpfe halten ja nicht gen\u00fcgend warm, die Deutschen haben sie erfunden, um mehr Geld zu verdienen. (Petrowitsch liebte von Zeit zu Zeit Ausf\u00e4lle gegen die Deutschen zu machen.) Was aber den Mantel betrifft, so m\u00fcssen Sie sich halt einen neuen machen lassen.\u00ab\n\nBeim Worte \u00bbneu\u00ab wurde es Akakij Akakijewitsch ganz schwindelig, das ganze Zimmer drehte sich um ihn; das einzige, was er noch deutlich sah, war der mit Papier \u00fcberklebte General auf Petrowitschs Tabaksdose.\n\n\u00bbEinen neuen?\u00ab sagte er wie im Traume. \u00bbIch habe ja kein Geld.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbJawohl, einen neuen Mantel,\u00ab best\u00e4tigte Petrowitsch mit grausamer Gelassenheit.\n\n\u00bbNun, und wenn es unbedingt ein neuer sein mu\u00df, wie w\u00e4re es dann...\u00ab\n\n\u00bbSie meinen, was er kosten w\u00fcrde?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbJa.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbJa, da m\u00fc\u00dften Sie schon hundertf\u00fcnfzig Rubel anlegen,\u00ab sagte Petrowitsch und kniff dabei seine Lippen bedeutungsvoll zusammen. Er liebte \u00fcberhaupt starke Effekte und setzte gern einen in Verlegenheit, um dann den Gesichtsausdruck des so \u00dcberrumpelten zu beobachten.\n\n\u00bbWas! Hundertf\u00fcnfzig Rubel f\u00fcr einen Mantel!\u00ab schrie der arme Akakij Akakijewitsch auf; er schrie wohl \u00fcberhaupt zum ersten Mal in seinem Leben, denn er zeichnete sich sonst durch seinen ruhigen stillen Ton aus.\n\n\u00bbJawohl,\u00ab sagte Petrowitsch, \u00bbund dann kommt es noch auf die G\u00fcte des Mantels an. Wenn wir einen Marderkragen nehmen und die Kapuze mit Seide f\u00fcttern, so k\u00f6nnen es auch zweihundert werden.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbPetrowitsch, ich bitte dich,\u00ab flehte Akakij Akakijewitsch, die auf einen Effekt berechneten Ausf\u00fchrungen Petrowitsch ignorierend, \u00bbVersuchs doch mit einer Reparatur; vielleicht kann mir der Mantel doch noch eine kurze Zeit dienen.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbNein, es w\u00e4re schade um die Arbeit und auch ums Geld,\u00ab sagte Petrowitsch.\n\nDiese Antwort wirkte auf den Armen ganz niederschmetternd, und er ging fort. Petrowitsch blieb noch eine Zeitlang in der gleichen Haltung mit zusammengekniffenen Lippen m\u00fc\u00dfig sitzen; er freute sich, da\u00df er nicht nachgegeben und auch das ehrsame Schneiderhandwerk nicht herabgew\u00fcrdigt hatte.\n\nAkakij Akakijewitsch ging durch die Stra\u00dfe wie ein Nachtwandler. \u00bbSo stehen die Sachen,\u00ab sprach er zu sich selbst, \u00bbich h\u00e4tte wirklich nicht erwartet, da\u00df sie so stehen...\u00ab Nach einer Pause f\u00fcgte er noch hinzu: \u00bbAlso, so ist's! So weit ist es gekommen! Ich h\u00e4tte es wirklich nicht erwartet.\u00ab Nach einer weiteren Pause sagte er noch: \u00bbSo, so! Ganz unerwartet kommt es... Es ist schon so eine Sache...\u00ab Er wollte eigentlich nach Hause, ging aber in einer ganz verkehrten Richtung. Unterwegs streifte ein Kaminkehrer seine Schulter, die nun ganz schwarz wurde; von einem Neubau fiel ihm eine ganze Ladung M\u00f6rtel auf den Kopf. Er sah und h\u00f6rte nichts und kam erst dann einigerma\u00dfen zur Besinnung, als er gegen einen Polizeisoldaten anprallte, der seine Hellebarde zur Seite gestellt hatte und gerade im Begriff war, eine Prise Schnupftabak zu nehmen.\n\n\u00bbWas rennst du einem in die Schnauze hinein?\u00ab schrie ihn dieser an. \u00bbKannst du denn nicht auf dem Trottoir gehen?\u00ab\n\nDiese Bemerkung r\u00fcttelte ihn auf; er kehrte um und war bald zu Hause. Hier sammelte er seine Gedanken und \u00fcberblickte mit klarem Auge die Lage; er setzte sein Selbstgespr\u00e4ch fort, aber nicht mehr in abrupten Ausrufen, wie vorhin, sondern in vern\u00fcnftigen S\u00e4tzen, wie man mit einem klugen Freunde \u00fcber eine intime Angelegenheit spricht:\n\n\u00bbMit dem Petrowitsch kann man ja jetzt gar nicht reden; er ist wohl etwas... Seine Frau hat ihn offenbar vorhin gepr\u00fcgelt. Ich will ihn lieber noch einmal, und zwar Sonntag fr\u00fch, aufsuchen: da wird er noch vom Samstag abend etwas verkatert sein und sich st\u00e4rken wollen; die Frau wird ihm aber kein Geld hergeben; wenn ich ihm da ein Zehnkopekenst\u00fcck in die Hand dr\u00fccke, wird er mit sich schon reden lassen und dann...\u00ab\n\nAm n\u00e4chsten Sonntag machte er sich wirklich auf den Weg; er sah Frau Petrowitsch gerade das Haus verlassen und st\u00fcrzte sofort die vier Treppen hinauf. Petrowitsch sah wirklich so aus, wie Akakij Akakijewitsch erwartet hatte: er war ganz verschlafen und konnte kaum den Kopf halten. Als er aber erfuhr, um was es sich handelte, wurde er wieder ganz wild.\n\n\u00bbNein, daraus wird nichts. Sie m\u00fcssen schon einen neuen bestellen.\u00ab\n\nNun dr\u00fcckte ihm Akakij Akakijewitsch die zehn Kopeken in die Hand.\n\n\u00bbIch danke ergebenst,\u00ab sagte der Schneider. \u00bbIch werde f\u00fcr Ihr Wohl etwas zu mir nehmen; was aber den Mantel betrifft, so k\u00f6nnen Sie ganz beruhigt sein: mit ihm ist nichts anzufangen. Daf\u00fcr will ich Ihnen einen ganz vorz\u00fcglichen neuen machen.\u00ab\n\nAkakij Akakijewitsch machte noch einen sch\u00fcchternen Versuch, \u00fcber die Instandsetzung des alten zu sprechen. Petrowitsch lie\u00df ihn aber gar nicht ausreden:\n\n\u00bbEinen neuen will ich Ihnen gern machen und werde mir die gr\u00f6\u00dfte M\u00fche geben, Sie zufrieden zu stellen. Man k\u00f6nnte ihn auch nach der ganz neuen Mode machen: mit versilberten Haken am Kragen.\u00ab\n\nJetzt erst sah Akakij Akakijewitsch ein, da\u00df er unbedingt einen neuen Mantel brauche, und diese Einsicht betr\u00fcbte ihn au\u00dferordentlich. Wo sollte er denn das Geld hernehmen? Zu Weihnachten w\u00fcrde es allerdings eine Gratifikation geben, \u00fcber diese Summe hatte er aber schon l\u00e4ngst verf\u00fcgt: er brauchte neue Beinkleider, schuldete dem Schuster f\u00fcr das Ansetzen eines neuen Oberleders zu alten Stiefeln und wollte sich noch drei Hemden und zwei jener W\u00e4schest\u00fccke, die man in einem Buche nicht gut nennen kann, machen lassen. Kurz, die ganze Gratifikation hatte bereits ihre feste Bestimmung; selbst wenn der Direktor ihm statt der \u00fcblichen vierzig Rubel, f\u00fcnfundvierzig oder gar f\u00fcnfzig bewilligte, so w\u00fcrde auch das im Vergleich zu der n\u00f6tigen Summe ein Tropfen im Meere sein.\n\nPetrowitsch pflegte allerdings oft einen so horrenden Preis zu fordern, da\u00df selbst seine Frau dagegen protestierte: \u00bbBist du denn verr\u00fcckt? Manchmal arbeitest du ganz umsonst und jetzt verlangst du einen Preis, den du selbst nicht wert bist!\u00ab\n\nEs war also zu erwarten, da\u00df Petrowitsch seine Forderung auf achtzig Rubel herabsetzte; wo aber die achtzig Rubel hernehmen? Die H\u00e4lfte davon w\u00e4re noch aufzutreiben gewesen, sogar etwas mehr als die H\u00e4lfte; wo aber die andere H\u00e4lfte hernehmen? \u2013 Hier mu\u00df der Leser erfahren, wo Akakij Akakijewitsch die erste H\u00e4lfte hernehmen wollte. Von jedem ausgegebenen Rubel pflegte er n\u00e4mlich eine halbe Kopeke in eine Sparb\u00fcchse zu tun. Am Ende eines jeden Semesters nahm er die Kupferm\u00fcnzen heraus und wechselte sie gegen Silber um. So machte er es seit vielen Jahren, und die ersparte Summe betrug nun etwas \u00fcber vierzig Rubel. Die H\u00e4lfte war also vorhanden. Es fehlten aber noch immer vierzig Rubel. Akakij Akakijewitsch dachte lange nach und entschlo\u00df sich endlich, ein Jahr lang seine t\u00e4glichen Ausgaben aufs m\u00f6glichste herabzusetzen, also abends keinen Tee zu trinken und kein Licht zu machen, die Schreibarbeiten aber im Zimmer der Wirtin zu verrichten; bei den G\u00e4ngen in der Stadt die F\u00fc\u00dfe recht vorsichtig zu setzen und so die Schuhe zu schonen; schlie\u00dflich zu Hause als einzige Bekleidung seinen alten baumwollenen Schlafrock, der so ehrw\u00fcrdig alt war, da\u00df ihn selbst der Zahn der Zeit verschonte, zu tragen und m\u00f6glichst wenig W\u00e4sche zum Waschen zu geben.\n\nDiese Entbehrungen kamen ihn anfangs schwer an; er gew\u00f6hnte sich aber allm\u00e4hlich an diese Lebensweise und kam schlie\u00dflich ganz gut auch ohne Abendessen aus; daf\u00fcr aber hatte er geistige Nahrung in den ewigen Gedanken an den neuen Mantel. Sein Leben wurde reicher und inhaltsvoller, als ob er pl\u00f6tzlich geheiratet h\u00e4tte und seinen Lebensweg nicht mehr allein ginge: ein neuer Lebensgef\u00e4hrte begleitete ihn auf allen Wegen, und dies war ein gut wattierter, dauerhafter, neuer Mantel. Er wurde viel lebhafter, und sein Charakter festigte sich, denn nun hatte er ein Lebensziel. Seine Sch\u00fcchternheit, Unentschlossenheit und Unbeholfenheit waren ganz verschwunden. Seine Augen leuchteten, und durch seinen Kopf zogen ganz verwegene Gedanken: \u00bbsoll ich mir vielleicht doch einen Marderkragen machen lassen?\u00ab\n\nAlle diese Gedanken lenkten ihn so sehr ab, da\u00df er einmal beim Abschreiben beinahe einen Fehler gemacht h\u00e4tte. Er kam aber noch rechtzeitig zu sich, seufzte auf und bekreuzigte sich. Mindestens einmal im Monat suchte er Petrowitsch auf, um mit ihm \u00fcber den Mantel zu konferieren: es wurde er\u00f6rtert, wo man das Tuch am vorteilhaftesten kaufen und wieviel man daf\u00fcr zahlen solle. Er ging dann immer etwas besorgt, aber befriedigt heim und tr\u00e4umte von dem Tag, an dem er endlich den Mantel bekommen w\u00fcrde.\n\nDie Sache ging viel schneller, als er erwartete. Die Gratifikation betrug zu seiner gro\u00dfen \u00dcberraschung weder vierzig, noch f\u00fcnfundvierzig, sondern sechzig Rubel. Vielleicht ahnte der Direktor, da\u00df Akakij Akakijewitsch einen Mantel brauchte, oder war es nur ein reiner Zufall? Jedenfalls wurde dadurch die Sache sehr beschleunigt: er brauchte nur noch zwei bis drei Monate zu hungern, um die achtzig Rubel beisammen zu haben. Sein sonst so ruhiges Herz pochte lebhaft. Als die achtzig Rubel endlich da waren, ging er sofort mit Petrowitsch in einen Tuchladen.\n\nSie kauften ganz vorz\u00fcglich ein; \u2013 das fiel ihnen nicht schwer, denn sie hatten seit einem halben Jahr s\u00e4mtliche Tuchl\u00e4den abgesucht und alle Preise erfragt; Petrowitsch behauptete, es g\u00e4be gar kein besseres Tuch als dieses. Zum Futter nahmen sie Baumwollzeug, aber von der allerbesten Sorte; Petrowitsch meinte, es sei viel besser und sogar eleganter als Seide. Auf den Marderkragen mu\u00dften sie verzichten, denn der Preis war wirklich zu hoch; sie nahmen daf\u00fcr Katzenfell, ebenfalls von der besten Sorte; man konnte es aus einiger Entfernung f\u00fcr Marder halten.\n\nPetrowitsch brauchte zur Anfertigung des Mantels zwei Wochen; es war n\u00e4mlich viel Stepparbeit dabei, sonst w\u00e4re der Mantel fr\u00fcher fertig gewesen. Die Arbeit sollte zw\u00f6lf Rubel kosten; dies war auch das Aller\u00e4u\u00dferste, denn alles war mit Seide gen\u00e4ht, und jede Naht wurde von Petrowitsch mit den Z\u00e4hnen gegl\u00e4ttet, die im Tuch verschiedene eingepre\u00dfte Ornamente zur\u00fccklie\u00dfen.\n\nEs war an einem... ich wei\u00df nicht mehr, welcher Wochentag es war, jedenfalls war es aber der feierlichste Tag in Akakijs Leben, als er seinen Mantel bekam. Petrowitsch brachte ihn fr\u00fch morgens gerade um die Stunde, als Akakij Akakijewitsch ins Amt gehen wollte. Es war die passendste Zeit, denn die K\u00e4lte war schon recht empfindlich und wurde von Tag zu Tag strenger. Petrowitsch kam mit dem Mantel so feierlich an, wie es einem t\u00fcchtigen Schneider ziemt. Sein Gesicht hatte einen so ernsten und bedeutungsvollen Ausdruck, wie es Akakij Akakijewitsch bei ihm noch nie gesehen hatte. Er war sich der Wichtigkeit seines Werkes wohl bewu\u00dft und schien den Abgrund zu messen, der einen Flickschneider von einem solchen trennt, der neue Sachen anfertigt. Der Mantel war in ein reines Taschentuch geh\u00fcllt, das soeben von der Waschfrau gekommen war; erst, nachdem der Mantel ausgepackt war, steckte Petrowitsch das Tuch zum weiteren Gebrauch in die Tasche. Er nahm den Mantel mit beiden H\u00e4nden und warf ihn sehr elegant Akakij Akakijewitsch auf die Schultern, dann zog er ihn mit einer geschickten Bewegung hinten zurecht; hierauf drapierte er ihn etwas legerer. Akakij Akakijewitsch wollte den Mantel auch richtig, wie es einem \u00e4lteren Herrn ziemt, mit den \u00c4rmeln anprobieren; auch die \u00c4rmel sa\u00dfen vorz\u00fcglich. Mit einem Worte: der Mantel pa\u00dfte wunderbar. Petrowitsch lie\u00df sich nicht die Gelegenheit zu der Bemerkung entgehen, er habe den billigen Preis nur darum gemacht, weil er ohne Firmenschild in einer Nebengasse wohne und weil er Akakij Akakijewitsch so gut kenne; auf dem Newskij-Prospekt h\u00e4tte die Arbeit allein mindestens f\u00fcnfundsiebzig Rubel gekostet.\n\nAkakij Akakijewitsch wollte aber jede Diskussion \u00fcber diesen Gegenstand vermeiden, auch machten ihm die hohen Ziffern, mit denen Petrowitsch nur so herumwarf, ordentlich angst. Er bezahlte, dankte und ging sofort, mit dem neuen Mantel angetan, ins Amt. Petrowitsch begleitete ihn hinunter und blieb dann auf der Stra\u00dfe stehen, um den Mantel aus einiger Entfernung zu betrachten, dann rannte er durch ein Seiteng\u00e4\u00dfchen vor, so da\u00df er Akakij Akakijewitsch \u00fcberholte, um den Mantel wieder von einer anderen Seite in Augenschein zu nehmen.\n\nAkakij Akakijewitsch ging seinen Weg zum Amt in der rosigsten Laune. Bei jedem Schritt f\u00fchlte er den neuen Mantel auf seinen Schultern sitzen und l\u00e4chelte still in sich hinein. Zwei Vorteile sprangen ihm besonders in die Augen: erstens war der Mantel warm, zweitens war er sch\u00f6n.\n\nMit diesem Gedanken besch\u00e4ftigt kam er in die Kanzlei, legte den Mantel im Vorzimmer ab, betrachtete ihn noch einmal von allen Seiten und \u00fcbergab ihn endlich dem Portier mit der Weisung, auf ihn ganz besonders acht zu geben. Die Nachricht, da\u00df Akakij Akakijewitsch einen neuen Mantel habe, und da\u00df der Morgenrock nicht mehr existiere, verbreitete sich unter den Beamten wie ein Lauffeuer. Alle begaben sich ins Portierzimmer, um den Mantel zu begutachten. Akakij Akakijewitsch mu\u00dfte von allen Seiten Gratulationen entgegennehmen; anfangs strahlte er dabei, wurde aber dann verlegen. Man best\u00fcrmte ihn, er m\u00fcsse doch unbedingt die Neuanschaffung, wie es sich geh\u00f6rt, einweihen und ein Fest veranstalten; da wurde er ganz verlegen und wu\u00dfte nicht, wie er dem entrinnen sollte. Er war ganz rot und machte den Versuch, den Kollegen einzureden, der Mantel sei gar nicht neu, es sei vielmehr der alte Mantel.\n\nEiner der Vorgesetzten, der offenbar zeigen wollte, da\u00df er es nicht verschm\u00e4he, mit seinen Untergebenen zu verkehren, nahm sich seiner an und sagte:\n\n\u00bbIch will statt Akakij Akakijewitsch ein kleines Fest veranstalten und lade Sie hiermit f\u00fcr heute abend zum Tee ein; au\u00dferdem ist heute zuf\u00e4llig mein Namenstag.\u00ab\n\nDie Beamten gratulierten nun auch dem Vorgesetzten und nahmen die Einladung mit Dank an. Akakij Akakijewitsch wollte anfangs ablehnen, als man ihm aber bewies, da\u00df es sich nicht schicke, willigte er ein. Der Gedanke, da\u00df er nun die Gelegenheit haben werde, auch abends den neuen Mantel zu tragen, machte ihm sogar gro\u00dfe Freude. Dieser ganze Tag war f\u00fcr ihn ein Festtag. Auch nach Hause zur\u00fcckgekehrt, bewahrte er die gleiche rosige Stimmung. Er h\u00e4ngte den Mantel sorgf\u00e4ltig auf einen Wandhaken, betrachtete noch einmal das sch\u00f6ne Tuch und das Futter und nahm dann noch seinen alten, g\u00e4nzlich unbrauchbaren Mantel vor, um Vergleiche anzustellen. Der Unterschied war wirklich so gro\u00df, da\u00df er lachen mu\u00dfte. Und auch w\u00e4hrend seiner Mahlzeit l\u00e4chelte er beim Gedanken an den desperaten Zustand seines alten Morgenrocks. Er a\u00df mit gutem Appetit. Nach beendeter Mahlzeit lie\u00df er f\u00fcr diesmal seine gewohnte Abschreibearbeit ruhen und rekelte sich selig auf seinem Bett, bis der Abend anbrach. Dann kleidete er sich rasch um, zog seinen Mantel an und machte sich auf den Weg.\n\nWo der Vorgesetzte wohnte, der die Beamten zu sich eingeladen hatte, kann ich leider nicht angeben. Mein Ged\u00e4chtnis hat sich etwas getr\u00fcbt, und alle Stra\u00dfen und Gassen Petersburgs sind in meinem Kopf durcheinandergeraten. Eines steht fest: der Beamte wohnte in einem besseren Stadtteil, folglich in ziemlich gro\u00dfer Entfernung von der Wohnung des Akakij Akakijewitsch. Er ging anfangs durch ganz leere und sp\u00e4rlich beleuchtete Stra\u00dfen; je mehr er sich aber dem Ziele n\u00e4herte, um so belebter und vornehmer wurde die Gegend. Es begegneten ihm immer mehr Passanten, darunter auch solche mit teuren Biberkragen auf ihren M\u00e4nteln, auch viele elegante Damen sah er auf seinem Weg; die einfachen messingbeschlagenen Vorstadtschlitten wurden immer seltener, dagegen tauchten viele elegant lackierte Schlitten mit B\u00e4renfelldecken auf, die von Kutschern mit roten Samtm\u00fctzen gelenkt wurden. Alles kam unserm Akakij Akakijewitsch ganz neu vor; er war seit vielen Jahren wieder zum erstenmal abends auf der Stra\u00dfe. Er blieb neugierig vor der Auslage einer Bilderhandlung stehen und versenkte sich in die Betrachtung eines Bildes, auf dem eine sch\u00f6ne Dame dargestellt war, die sich gerade einen Schuh auszog und dabei ihr wirklich sch\u00f6nes F\u00fc\u00dfchen zeigte, w\u00e4hrend ein Herr mit Backenbart sie durch eine hinter ihrem R\u00fccken befindliche T\u00fcre beobachtete.\n\nAkakij Akakijewitsch sch\u00fcttelte den Kopf und ging l\u00e4chelnd weiter. Warum l\u00e4chelte er? Weil er in eine Welt hineingeschaut hatte, die ihm zwar fremd war, f\u00fcr die aber doch ein jeder etwas Interesse hat, oder weil ihm der \u00fcbliche Gedanke durch den Kopf ging: \u00bbNein, diese Franzosen! Wenn die schon etwas machen, so ist es sozusagen...\u00ab Vielleicht dachte er auch gar nicht daran; ich konnte ihm ja nicht ins Herz sehen und seine Gedanken lesen.\n\nEndlich erreichte er die Wohnung seines Vorgesetzten. Dieser lebte auf einem gro\u00dfen Fu\u00df: die Wohnung befand sich im zweiten Stock, und die Stiege war sogar beleuchtet. Im Vorzimmer stand bereits eine lange Reihe Galoschen, daneben dampfte und summte ein Samowar. An der Wand hingen viele Mantel und Paletots, darunter auch solche mit Biberkragen und Samtaufschlagen. Aus dem Nebenzimmer drangen Stimmen und Ger\u00e4usche, die ganz deutlich wurden, als sich die T\u00fcr \u00f6ffnete und ein Diener herauskam, der ein Tablett mit leeren Tassen, einem Milchtopf und einem Zwiebackkorb trug. Die Beamten waren wohl vollz\u00e4hlig versammelt und hatten anscheinend die erste Tasse Tee geleert.\n\nAkakij Akakijewitsch h\u00e4ngte nun seinen Mantel eigenh\u00e4ndig an die Wand und trat ein; er sah Kerzen, Beamte, Kartentische und Pfeifen vor sich und h\u00f6rte den L\u00e4rm vieler Stimmen und umherger\u00fcckter St\u00fchle. Er blieb verlegen mitten im Zimmer stehen und wu\u00dfte nicht, was er nun anfangen sollte. Man hatte ihn aber bereits bemerkt; die Kollegen begr\u00fc\u00dften ihn st\u00fcrmisch und gingen dann alle ins Vorzimmer hinaus, um den Mantel noch einmal in Augenschein zu nehmen. Akakij Akakijewitsch wurde ganz rot vor Verlegenheit, doch freute es ihn aufrichtig, da\u00df der Mantel allen so gut gefiel. Die Kollegen lie\u00dfen nat\u00fcrlich sehr bald ihn und seinen Mantel in Ruhe und wandten sich dem Whist zu. Der L\u00e4rm, das Stimmengewirr und die vielen Leute, kurz all das Ungewohnte wirkte auf den sch\u00fcchternen Akakij direkt bet\u00e4ubend; er wu\u00dfte nicht, wie er sich zu benehmen hatte und wo er seine H\u00e4nde und seine ganze Gestalt hintun sollte. Endlich lie\u00df er sich an einem der Spieltische nieder und begann den Spielern in die Karten zu schauen. Dies langweilte ihn auf die Dauer, und bald begann er zu g\u00e4hnen, denn die Stunde, um die er gew\u00f6hnlich zu Bett ging, war l\u00e4ngst vor\u00fcber. Er wollte sich verabschieden, man hielt ihn aber mit Gewalt zur\u00fcck: er m\u00fcsse noch unbedingt zur Feier des Tages Champagner trinken.\n\nBald kam das Abendessen, das aus einem Fleischsalat, kaltem Kalbsbraten, einer Pastete, Kuchen und Champagner bestand. Akakij Akakijewitsch mu\u00dfte zwei Glas davon trinken; dies heiterte ihn etwas auf, doch verga\u00df er f\u00fcr keinen Augenblick, da\u00df es schon zw\u00f6lf Uhr war und da\u00df er eigentlich l\u00e4ngst im Bett sein sollte. Er f\u00fcrchtete, wieder mit Gewalt zur\u00fcckgehalten zu werden und schlich sich unbemerkt ins Vorzimmer. Er fand da seinen Mantel auf dem Boden liegen, was ihn sehr betr\u00fcbte. Er hob ihn auf, putzte ihn sorgf\u00e4ltig und war bald auf der Stra\u00dfe.\n\nAuf der Stra\u00dfe herrschte noch immer reges Leben. Viele Gemischtwarenl\u00e4den \u2013 diese Versammlungslokale der Dienerschaft und auch anderer Menschen \u2013 waren noch ge\u00f6ffnet; andere L\u00e4den waren geschlossen, doch verriet der durch die T\u00fcrspalten dringende Lichtschein, da\u00df inwendig noch Leben herrschte und da\u00df manches Dienstm\u00e4dchen ihren Klatsch noch nicht beendet hatte. Akakij Akakijewitsch ging seinen Weg in der besten Gem\u00fctsverfassung und lie\u00df sich sogar hinrei\u00dfen, eine Zeitlang einer Dame zu folgen, bei der jeder K\u00f6rperteil ungew\u00f6hnliche Beweglichkeit verriet; sie verschwand aber wie ein Blitz aus seinem Gesichtskreis. Er wunderte sich selbst \u00fcber seine Unternehmungslust und ging zu seiner fr\u00fcheren gem\u00e4chlichen Gangart \u00fcber. Er kam allm\u00e4hlich in die stilleren entlegeneren Stra\u00dfen, die auch bei Tageslicht wenig anheimelnd sind, um so weniger aber nachts. Die Laternen wurden immer seltener, und ihr Licht wurde tr\u00fcber, denn in der Vorstadt sparte man offenbar mit dem \u00d6l. Endlose Bretterz\u00e4une zogen sich hin, und weit und breit war kein Mensch zu sehen. Man sah nur noch glitzernden Schnee und die kleinen H\u00e4uschen, in denen alles schlief. Er n\u00e4herte sich der Stelle, wo die lange Stra\u00dfe auf einen ungeheuer weiten Platz m\u00fcndete. Der Platz war so weit, da\u00df man die H\u00e4user auf der anderen Seite kaum sehen konnte.\n\nIrgendwo in der Ferne flackerte die Laterne eines Schilderh\u00e4uschens, das am Ende der Welt zu stehen schien. Die Stimmung Akakij Akakijewitschs schlug etwas um. Eine seltsame Angst bem\u00e4chtigte sich seiner, als er diesen weiten Platz betrat, und sein Herz empfand etwas wie drohendes Unheil. Er blickte nach allen Seiten und f\u00fchlte sich pl\u00f6tzlich wie auf dem Meere. Er beschlo\u00df, lieber gar nicht hinzuschauen und ging mit geschlossenen Augen weiter. Als er sie \u00f6ffnete, um festzustellen, wie weit es noch bis zum Ende des Platzes sei, erblickte er vor seiner Nase mehrere M\u00e4nner mit langen Schnurrb\u00e4rten. Es wurde ihm dunkel vor den Augen, und sein Herz begann zu zittern.\n\n\u00bbDer Mantel geh\u00f6rt mir!\u00ab schrie ihn einer der Unbekannten an, ihn am Kragen packend.\n\nAkakij Akakijewitsch wollte um Hilfe schreien, ein Mann hielt ihm aber seine Faust in der Gr\u00f6\u00dfe eines Beamtenkopfes vor die Nase und sagte:\n\n\u00bbVersuch nur zu schreien!\u00ab\n\nAkakij Akakijewitsch f\u00fchlte noch, wie ihm der Mantel vom Leibe gerissen wurde und wie man ihm einen t\u00fcchtigen Fu\u00dftritt versetzte. Dann taumelte er, fiel in den Schnee und verlor das Bewu\u00dftsein. Als er nach einigen Minuten zu sich kam, war er wieder allein. Es war kalt, und der Mantel war fort. Er begann zu schreien; seine Stimme konnte aber nicht bis ans Ende des Platzes dringen. Er lief verzweifelt und schreiend auf das Schilderh\u00e4uschen zu. Der Wachsoldat erwartete ihn, auf seine Hellebarde gest\u00fctzt, voller Neugier; es interessierte ihn, warum dieser Mensch so rannte und schrie. Akakij Akakijewitsch fragte ihn mit keuchender Stimme, warum er auf seinem Posten schlafe und gem\u00fctlich zuschaue, wie ein Mensch ausgeraubt werde.\n\nDer Wachsoldat erkl\u00e4rte, nichts gesehen zu haben; er habe wohl gesehen, wie Akakij Akakijewitsch mitten auf dem Platze von zwei M\u00e4nnern gestellt worden sei, doch glaubte er, es seien seine Freunde gewesen; was aber den Mantel betr\u00e4fe, so m\u00f6chte er, statt zu schreien, sich lieber morgen zum Revieraufseher bem\u00fchen, dieser werde den Mantel und die Diebe schon ausfindig machen.\n\nAkakij Akakijewitsch erreichte endlich seine Wohnung in einem schrecklichen Zustand: die wenigen Haare, die er noch an den Schl\u00e4fen und im Nacken hatte, waren zerzaust, und seine ganze Kleidung war mit Schnee bedeckt. Die alte Wirtin eilte auf sein heftiges Pochen zur T\u00fcre, mit nur einem Schuh bekleidet und das Hemd vorne versch\u00e4mt mit der Hand zusammenhaltend. Sie sah Akakij Akakijewitschs Zustand und taumelte erschrocken zur\u00fcck. Als er ihr den Sachverhalt erkl\u00e4rt hatte, schlug sie die H\u00e4nde zusammen und meinte, er m\u00fcsse sich an den Polizeiinspektor wenden; der Revieraufseher w\u00fcrde ihn nur mit leeren Versprechungen abspeisen; mit dem Polizeiinspektor sei sie dagegen bekannt, denn ihre fr\u00fchere K\u00f6chin, die Finnin Anna, sei jetzt bei ihm als Kinderm\u00e4dchen angestellt; sie s\u00e4he ihn fast t\u00e4glich auf der Stra\u00dfe und jeden Sonntag in der Kirche \u2013 er sei also offenbar ein guter und ordentlicher Mensch. Akakij Akakijewitsch ging traurig zu Bett, und jedermann, der sich in eine fremde Lage versetzen kann, wird wohl begreifen, wie er diese Nacht zubrachte.\n\nAm n\u00e4chsten Morgen ging er ganz fr\u00fch zum Polizeiinspektor; man sagte ihm, dieser schlafe noch. Er kam um zehn wieder \u2013 der Polizeiinspektor schlief noch immer. Als er um elf kam \u2013 war der Inspektor ausgegangen. Schlie\u00dflich kam er um die Mittagszeit; die Schreiber wollten ihn nicht vorlassen und verlangten zu wissen, in welcher Angelegenheit er k\u00e4me. Akakij Akakijewitsch zeigte nun zum erstenmal in seinem Leben, da\u00df auch er energisch sein konnte, und erkl\u00e4rte, er m\u00fcsse den Polizeiinspektor unbedingt pers\u00f6nlich sprechen; es handle sich um eine wichtige amtliche Angelegenheit, und wenn sie ihn nicht vorlie\u00dfen, wolle er sich beschweren. Die Schreiber mu\u00dften nachgeben, und einer von ihnen holte den Polizeiinspektor. Dieser nahm die Erz\u00e4hlung Akakij Akakijewitschs h\u00f6chst sonderbar auf. Er zeigte wenig Interesse f\u00fcr seinen Mantel, begann ihn dagegen auszufragen, was er denn \u00fcberhaupt in der sp\u00e4ten Stunde auf der Stra\u00dfe zu suchen gehabt h\u00e4tte, und ob er nicht gar in einem verd\u00e4chtigen Hause gewesen sei. Diese Fragen machten ihn err\u00f6ten und er ging heim, ohne erfahren zu haben, ob der Polizeiinspektor in der Sache etwas zu unternehmen gedenke.\n\nAn diesem Tage ging er nicht ins Amt, was ihm zum erstenmal im Leben passierte. Am n\u00e4chsten Tag ging er aber doch hin, und zwar wieder in seinem alten Morgenrock, der noch trauriger aussah, als je. Einzelne Beamte rissen selbst bei dieser traurigen Geschichte ihre Witze; die meisten waren aber so ger\u00fchrt, da\u00df sie sogar eine Kollekte f\u00fcr einen neuen Mantel veranstalteten. Da die Beamtenschaft kurze Zeit vorher durch zwei andere Kollekten \u2013 f\u00fcr ein Bildnis des Direktors und f\u00fcr die Subskription auf ein Werk, das ein Freund des Direktors verfa\u00dft hatte, ausgepl\u00fcndert worden war, ergab diese Kollekte ein \u00fcberaus trauriges Resultat. Ein Kollege gab aber Akakij Akakijewitsch den Rat, er m\u00f6chte sich doch nicht an den Revieraufseher wenden: dieser w\u00fcrde das Gestohlene vielleicht wieder finden, um den Vorgesetzten seine T\u00fcchtigkeit zu beweisen, doch werde der Mantel in den H\u00e4nden der Polizei bleiben, es habe ja keiner einen gesetzlichen Beweis, da\u00df der Mantel ihm geh\u00f6re. Er m\u00f6chte sich doch an \u00bbeinen gewissen W\u00fcrdentr\u00e4ger\u00ab wenden, der bei seinen guten Beziehungen die Sache erfolgreicher durchf\u00fchren k\u00f6nne.\n\nAkakij Akakijewitsch entschlo\u00df sich also, jenen \u00bbW\u00fcrdentr\u00e4ger\u00ab aufzusuchen. Welches Amt diese Person bekleidete, ist auch heute noch nicht aufgekl\u00e4rt. Es mu\u00df bemerkt werden, da\u00df der \u00bbW\u00fcrdentr\u00e4ger\u00ab seine W\u00fcrde erst seit kurzem erhalten hatte; vorher hatte er gar keine. Das Amt, das diese Pers\u00f6nlichkeit bekleidete, war \u00fcbrigens gar nicht so hervorragend, denn es gibt noch viel h\u00f6here \u00c4mter. Manche Leute sind aber stets geneigt, auch das minder Bedeutende f\u00fcr sehr bedeutend zu halten. Der betreffende Beamte gab sich auch die gr\u00f6\u00dfte M\u00fche, den Anschein einer sehr bedeutenden Pers\u00f6nlichkeit zu erwecken; so hatte er verf\u00fcgt, da\u00df ihn die Untergebenen jeden Morgen unten an der Treppe erwarteten, und da\u00df niemand ohne Anmeldung vorgelassen werde. \u00dcberall mu\u00dfte die strengste Ordnung herrschen: der Kollegienregistrator hatte jedes Gesuch dem Gouvernementssekret\u00e4r vorzulegen, dieser meldete es dem Titularrat und so kam die Sache schlie\u00dflich auch in seine Hand. Es ist schon einmal so in unserem heiligen Ru\u00dfland, da\u00df jeder Beamte bestrebt ist, es seinen Vorgesetzten gleich zu tun. So hat einmal ein Titularrat, der zum Vorstand einer kleinen Kanzlei ernannt wurde, in seinem Amtslokal ein eigenes kleines K\u00e4mmerchen als \u00bbSitzungssaal\u00ab eingerichtet; an der T\u00fcr dieses Zimmers standen zwei gallonierte Diener mit roten Aufschl\u00e4gen, die wie Logenschlie\u00dfer aussahen und jeden Besucher zu melden hatten, obwohl der \u00bbSitzungssaal\u00ab so klein war, da\u00df in ihm ein gew\u00f6hnlicher Schreibtisch kaum Platz hatte.\n\nDer \u00bbW\u00fcrdentr\u00e4ger\u00ab waltete seines Amtes mit gro\u00dfer W\u00fcrde und Wichtigkeit. Das System beruhte in erster Linie auf Strenge. \u00bbStrenge, Strenge und \u2013 Strenge,\u00ab so pflegte er seinen Untergebenen immer einzusch\u00e4rfen; dies war aber ganz \u00fcberfl\u00fcssig, denn die wenigen Beamten, die er unter sich hatte, waren auch so gen\u00fcgend eingesch\u00fcchtert. Wenn er durch die Kanzlei ging, lie\u00dfen alle die Arbeit ruhen und sprangen ehrerbietig auf. Im Verkehr mit den Untergebenen gebrauchte er eigentlich nur folgende drei Redewendungen: \u00bbWie unterstehen Sie sich? Wissen Sie auch, mit wem Sie sprechen? Denken Sie daran, vor wem Sie stehen?\u00ab Im Grunde genommen war er sehr gutm\u00fctig, freundlich und liebensw\u00fcrdig, der Geheimratstitel hatte ihm aber ganz den Kopf verdreht. Wenn er mit Gleichgestellten verkehrte, gab er sich sehr einfach und nat\u00fcrlich und machte den Eindruck eines anst\u00e4ndigen und gescheiten Menschen. Kaum sah er aber einen Menschen vor sich, der im Dienstrange etwas unter ihm stand, so wurde er schweigsam und verschlossen und machte einen recht j\u00e4mmerlichen Eindruck. Er hatte oft Lust, an einem interessanten Gespr\u00e4ch teilzunehmen, aber gleich kam ihm der Gedanke: wird es meine W\u00fcrde nicht beeintr\u00e4chtigen, wenn ich mich so famili\u00e4r und herablassend zeige? Und so schwieg er meistens und galt daher f\u00fcr sehr langweilig.\n\nZu diesem \u00bbW\u00fcrdentr\u00e4ger\u00ab kam nun Akakij Akakijewitsch mit seinem Anliegen, und zwar in einem Augenblick, der f\u00fcr ihn h\u00f6chst ung\u00fcnstig war; dem W\u00fcrdentr\u00e4ger kam der Besuch aber sehr gelegen. Er unterhielt sich gerade mit einem zugereisten Jugendfreund, den er seit Jahren nicht gesehen hatte, als ihm der Besuch eines gewissen Baschmatschkin gemeldet wurde.\n\n\u00bbWer ist's?\u00ab fragte er kurz.\n\n\u00bbEin Beamter.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbSo! Der kann warten, ich habe jetzt keine Zeit.\u00ab\n\nIch mu\u00df bemerken, da\u00df der W\u00fcrdentr\u00e4ger log, denn er hatte Zeit im \u00dcberflu\u00df. In der Unterhaltung mit dem Jugendfreund waren alle Gespr\u00e4chsstoffe l\u00e4ngst ersch\u00f6pft, und sie bestand nun darin, da\u00df sie sich abwechselnd auf die Schultern klopften und dazu sagten: \u00bbSo ist's, Iwan Abramowitsch\u00ab \u2013 \u00bbJa, ja, Stepan Warlamowitsch!\u00ab Er lie\u00df aber den Besuch warten, um den Freund, der seit Jahren auf dem Lande lebte und alle Herrlichkeiten des Staatsdienstes vergessen hatte, zu zeigen, wie die Beamten bei ihm antichambrieren m\u00fcssen. Endlich war diese Unterhaltung beendet, beide sa\u00dfen rauchend in h\u00f6chst bequemen Lehnsesseln, als dem Geheimrat pl\u00f6tzlich der vorhin gemeldete Besuch einfiel. Er sagte dem Sekret\u00e4r, der ihm Papiere zur Unterschrift gebracht hatte und in ehrerbietiger Haltung an der T\u00fcre stand:\n\n\u00bbIch glaube, dort wartet irgendein Beamter. Sagen Sie ihm, er m\u00f6chte eintreten.\u00ab\n\nAls der W\u00fcrdentr\u00e4ger die kl\u00e4gliche Gestalt und die sch\u00e4bige Uniform des Akakij Akakijewitsch erblickte, herrschte er ihn br\u00fcsk an:\n\n\u00bbSie w\u00fcnschen?\u00ab\n\nDiesen br\u00fcsken Ton hatte er noch acht Tage vor seiner Ernennung zum Geheimrat vor einem Spiegel einge\u00fcbt.\n\nAkakij Akakijewitsch, der auch ohnehin ganz versch\u00fcchtert war, verlor nun ganz die Fassung. Er erz\u00e4hlte, so gut er konnte, seine gewohnten Partikel \u00f6fter als sonst gebrauchend, er h\u00e4tte einen ganz neuen Mantel gehabt, der nun gestohlen worden sei, und darum wende er sich an seine Exzellenz mit der Bitte, dem Polizeipr\u00e4sidenten \u00fcber die Sache zu schreiben und so bei der Suche nach dem Mantel behilflich zu sein. Diese Zumutung kam dem Geheimrat etwas bunt vor.\n\n\u00bbKennen Sie denn die Vorschriften nicht? Wo stehen Sie jetzt? Wissen Sie denn nicht, da\u00df die Gesuche an die Kanzlei zu richten sind, wo sie vom Kanzleivorstand entgegengenommen werden, der sie dem Abteilungsvorstand vorlegt, und dann erst vom Sekret\u00e4r mir \u00fcberbracht werden?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbEw. Exzellenz,\u00ab stotterte Akakij Akakijewitsch mit dem Aufwand seiner ganzen Geistesgegenwart und aus allen Poren schwitzend, \u00bbich wagte es, mich direkt an Ew. Exzellenz zu wenden, weil auf die Sekret\u00e4re \u2013 sozusagen kein Verla\u00df ist...\u00ab\n\n\u00bbWas?\u00ab schrie der Geheimrat auf. \u00bbWo haben Sie sich mit solchem Geiste angesteckt? Wo haben Sie diese Ideen her? Wie unterstehen Sie sich, als junger Beamter hier solche Reden zu f\u00fchren?\u00ab\n\nDer \u00bbW\u00fcrdentr\u00e4ger\u00ab schien gar nicht zu bemerken, da\u00df Akakij Akakijewitsch hoch in den F\u00fcnfzigern stand und h\u00f6chstens noch im Vergleich zu ihm selbst, der etwa siebzig Jahre alt war, \u00bbjung\u00ab genannt werden konnte.\n\n\u00bbWissen Sie auch, mit wem Sie reden? Begreifen Sie, wen Sie vor sich haben? Begreifen Sie es? Ich frage Sie, ob Sie es begreifen?\u00ab\n\nEr stampfte mit dem Fu\u00dfe und schrie so laut, da\u00df auch jeder andere Mensch an der Stelle des Akakij Akakijewitsch erschrokken w\u00e4re. Auf Akakij Akakijewitsch machte dieser Auftritt aber einen solchen Eindruck, da\u00df er am ganzen Leibe bebte und taumelte; wenn ihn zwei herbeigeeilte Diener nicht gest\u00fctzt h\u00e4tten, w\u00e4re er zu Boden gefallen. Der \u00bbW\u00fcrdentr\u00e4ger\u00ab war mit dem erzielten Effekt, der alle seine Erwartungen \u00fcbertraf, sehr zufrieden; er warf einen Seitenblick auf den Freund, um zu sehen, welchen Eindruck dieser von der gro\u00dfartigen Szene hatte und stellte mit Genugtuung fest, da\u00df auch dieser verdutzt und sogar etwas erschrocken war.\n\nWie Akakij Akakijewitsch die Treppe herunterkam und wie er auf die Stra\u00dfe gelangte \u2013 das konnte er sp\u00e4ter selbst nicht begreifen; eine solche R\u00fcge hatte er noch nie im Leben bekommen, und noch dazu von einem Geheimrat eines fremden Ressorts. Er ging mit offenem Mund und taumelnd durch den Schneesturm, der drau\u00dfen w\u00fctete, ohne auf den Weg zu achten. Der kalte Wind wehte ihn nach Petersburger Art von allen vier Seiten zugleich an. Er bekam auch sofort eine Halsentz\u00fcndung, und als er endlich zu Hause anlangte und sich ins Bett legte, hatte er bereits die Sprache verloren. Solche Wirkungen kann manchmal eine t\u00fcchtige R\u00fcge haben!\n\nAm n\u00e4chsten Tage hatte er hohes Fieber. Mit der gro\u00dfm\u00fctigen Unterst\u00fctzung des Petersburger Klimas entwickelte sich die Krankheit rapider, als man erwarten konnte. Der herbeigerufene Arzt betastete seinen Puls und verschrieb ihm hei\u00dfe Umschl\u00e4ge, damit dem Kranken wenigstens etwas von den Wohltaten der Medizin zuteil werde; zugleich erkl\u00e4rte er ihm, er habe h\u00f6chstens zwei Tage zu leben. Der Wirtin sagte er aber:\n\n\u00bbVerlieren Sie keine Zeit und bestellen Sie gleich einen Fichtensarg; ein Eichensarg wird wohl zu teuer kommen.\u00ab\n\nOb Akakij Akakijewitsch diese Worte geh\u00f6rt hatte, und, wenn er sie geh\u00f6rt hatte, ob sie auf ihn einen Eindruck machten, ob es ihm da um sein armseliges Leben leid tat \u2013 wei\u00df kein Mensch, denn er hatte hohes Fieber und phantasierte. Seltsame Gesichte verfolgten ihn unaufh\u00f6rlich. Er sah den Schneider Petrowitsch, bei dem er einen neuen Mantel mit Fangeisen f\u00fcr die Diebe bestellte; er glaubte sich von Dieben umgeben, und er flehte die Wirtin an, sie m\u00f6chte doch einen Dieb, der sich zu ihm unter die Decke geschlichen h\u00e4tte, herausziehen; er fragte, warum der alte Morgenrock vor ihm h\u00e4nge, da er doch einen neuen Mantel habe; zuweilen kam es ihm vor, als stehe er noch immer vor dem Geheimrat, der ihm eine R\u00fcge erteilte, und da wiederholte er immer: \u00bbIch bitte Ew. Exzellenz um Vergebung!\u00ab Dann schimpfte er wieder in so unfl\u00e4tigen Ausdr\u00fccken, da\u00df die alte Wirtin, die von ihm noch nie derartige Worte vernommen hatte, sich erschrocken bekreuzigte, um so mehr, weil diese Ausdr\u00fccke immer der Anrede \u00bbEw. Exzellenz\u00ab folgten. Dann redete er ganz unsinniges Zeug; das einzige, was man daraus verstehen konnte, war, da\u00df seine Gedanken sich immer um den Mantel drehten. Schlie\u00dflich gab der arme Akakij Akakijewitsch seinen Geist auf.\n\nSein Zimmer wurde nicht versiegelt und von seinem Nachla\u00df wurde keine Inventur aufgenommen: erstens hatte er keine Erben und zweitens bestand der ganze Nachla\u00df aus einem B\u00fcndel G\u00e4nsefedern, einem Buch wei\u00dfen Kanzleipapiers, drei Paar Socken, einigen Hosenkn\u00f6pfen und dem alten Morgenrock, den der Leser schon kennt. Wem diese Gegenst\u00e4nde zufielen, ist unbekannt; ich habe mich daf\u00fcr nicht interessiert. Akakij Akakijewitsch wurde begraben, und Petersburg schien ihn gar nicht zu vermissen. So verschwand ein Wesen, da\u00df ganz schutzlos war, dem niemand eine Tr\u00e4ne nachweinte und f\u00fcr das sich niemand interessierte, selbst die Naturforscher nicht, die auch eine gew\u00f6hnliche Fliege einfangen, um sie mit dem Mikroskop zu betrachten; ein Gesch\u00f6pf, das jeden Spott voller Demut \u00fcber sich ergehen lie\u00df, das so mir nichts dir nichts zugrunde ging, das aber vor seinem Lebensende einen lichten Gast empfangen hatte \u2013 in Gestalt des Mantels, der sein armseliges Leben f\u00fcr einen Augenblick mit hellem Glanz erf\u00fcllte \u2013 und das schlie\u00dflich vom Ungl\u00fcck zermalmt wurde, das auch die M\u00e4chtigen der Erde nicht verschont.\n\nEinige Tage nach seinem Tode kam ein Bureaudiener in seine Wohnung mit dem Befehl, er m\u00f6chte doch sofort ins Amt kommen: der Herr Amtsvorstand brauche ihn. Der Bote kehrte aber unverrichteter Dinge zur\u00fcck und richtete aus, Akakij Akakijewitsch werde nicht mehr kommen. Auf die Frage \u00bbWarum?\u00ab sagte er:\n\n\u00bbEr ist gestorben. Vor vier Tagen war die Beerdigung.\u00ab Auf diese Weise erfuhr man in der Ministerialabteilung von seinem Hinscheiden; am n\u00e4chsten Tage sa\u00df auf seinem Platz ein neuer Beamter, der viel gr\u00f6\u00dfer war als der Verstorbene und der die Buchstaben nicht so steil, sondern viel schr\u00e4ger setzte.\n\nWer h\u00e4tte sich gedacht, da\u00df die Geschichte von Akakij Akakijewitsch noch nicht zu Ende ist, und da\u00df es ihm verg\u00f6nnt war, noch einige Tage nach seinem Tode Aufsehen zu erregen, wohl als Entgelt f\u00fcr sein unbemerkt gebliebenes Leben? So war es in der Tat, und hier nimmt unsere traurige Geschichte eine phantastische Wendung.\n\nIn Petersburg verbreitete sich das Ger\u00fccht, in der Gegend der Kalinkinbr\u00fccke treibe sich jede Nacht ein Gespenst in einer Beamtenuniform herum, das einen ihm gestohlenen Mantel suche und unter diesem Vorwande allen Passanten, ohne Ansehen der Person, die M\u00e4ntel herunterrei\u00dfe: M\u00e4ntel mit Watte, mit Katzen-, Biber-, Fuchs-, B\u00e4ren- und Nerzfell, kurz, mit allen Fellen und H\u00e4uten, mit denen die Menschen die eigene Haut bedekken. Ein Ministerialbeamter hatte das Gespenst mit eigenen Augen gesehen und in ihm den verstorbenen Akakij Akakijewitsch erkannt; er bekam solche Angst, da\u00df er wie verr\u00fcckt davonlief und nur noch sah, wie ihm das Gespenst mit dem Finger drohte. Unausgesetzt liefen Klagen, nicht nur von Titular-, sondern auch von Hofr\u00e4ten ein, das Gespenst habe ihnen den Mantel abgenommen und sie h\u00e4tten sich dadurch bedenkliche Erk\u00e4ltungen zugezogen.\n\nAn die Polizei erging der Befehl, den Toten tot oder lebendig einzufangen und exemplarisch zu bestrafen. Es w\u00e4re ihr auch beinahe gegl\u00fcckt: in der Kirjuschkingasse erwischte ein Wachsoldat den Toten gerade in dem Augenblick, als dieser im Begriff war, einem ausgedienten Musikanten, der vor Jahren Fl\u00f6te geblasen hatte, seinen Friesmantel wegzunehmen. Er hatte das Gespenst am Kragen gepackt und der Obhut zweier herbeigerufener Kameraden \u00fcbergeben; er selbst holte seine Tabaksdose hervor, um seine Nase, die schon sechsmal eingefroren war, mit einer Prise zu beleben. Der Tabak war wohl auch f\u00fcr einen Toten zu stark, denn kaum hatte sich der Wachsoldat ein Quantum Tabak in die Nase gestopft, als das Gespenst so heftig zu niesen begann, da\u00df alle drei die Augen schlie\u00dfen mu\u00dften. W\u00e4hrend sich die Soldaten die Augen rieben, war das Gespenst spurlos verschwunden, und sie zweifelten sp\u00e4ter, ob sie es \u00fcberhaupt in den H\u00e4nden gehabt hatten. Von nun an bekamen alle Wachsoldaten solche Angst vor Toten, da\u00df sie selbst lebende Verbrecher zu verhaften f\u00fcrchteten und ihnen nur von weitem zuriefen: \u00bbNa, du!! Mach, da\u00df du weiterkommst!\u00ab Das Gespenst des toten Beamten wurde infolgedessen ganz frech und zeigte sich zuweilen auch diesseits der Kalinkinbr\u00fccke.\n\nNun wollen wir zu dem \u00bbW\u00fcrdentr\u00e4ger\u00ab zur\u00fcckkehren, der eigentlich den phantastischen Verlauf unserer, \u00fcbrigens h\u00f6chst wahrhaften Geschichte verursacht hatte. Zur Steuer der Wahrheit sei hier festgestellt, da\u00df er bald nach dem Auftritt mit Akakij Akakijewitsch etwas wie Mitleid versp\u00fcrte. Denn Mitgef\u00fchl war diesem Beamten nicht fremd, und nur sein hoher Rang hinderte ihn, seine Herzensregungen zum Durchbruch kommen zu lassen. Sobald der zugereiste Freund gegangen war, fiel ihm wieder der Titularrat ein. Dann verfolgte ihn fast t\u00e4glich das Bild des bleichen Akakij Akakijewitsch, f\u00fcr den die R\u00fcge so traurige Folgen gehabt hatte. Endlich entschlo\u00df er sich, einen seiner Beamten hinzuschicken, um zu erfahren, wie es ihm gehe und ob ihm nicht irgendwie zu helfen w\u00e4re. Als er nun erfuhr, da\u00df Akakij Akakijewitsch ganz pl\u00f6tzlich gestorben war, f\u00fchlte er Gewissensbisse und war auch dann den ganzen Tag schlechter Laune.\n\nUm diese Laune zu vertreiben und sich etwas zu zerstreuen, begab er sich abends zu einem seiner Freunde, wo er eine sehr angenehme Gesellschaft antraf: Lauter Herren des gleichen Dienstranges wie er, so da\u00df er sich ganz ungezwungen benehmen konnte. Dies \u00fcbte auf ihn einen wunderbaren Einflu\u00df: er wurde gespr\u00e4chig und liebensw\u00fcrdig und verbrachte den ganzen Abend in der besten Stimmung. Beim Souper trank er zwei Glas Champagner, der bekanntlich recht g\u00fcnstig auf die Stimmung wirkt. Der Champagner weckte in ihm die Lust zu einigen Extravaganzen: er beschlo\u00df n\u00e4mlich, nach dem Souper nicht gleich nach Hause zur\u00fcckzukehren, sondern eine Dame, mit der er recht intim befreundet war, zu besuchen; sie hie\u00df Karolina Iwanowna und war, wenn ich nicht irre, deutscher Herkunft. Der \u00bbW\u00fcrdentr\u00e4ger\u00ab war \u00fcbrigens nicht mehr jung, und galt als musterhafter Gatte und Familienvater. Zwei S\u00f6hne, von denen der eine bereits im Staatsdienst war, und eine sechzehnj\u00e4hrige Tochter mit einem etwas gebogenen, aber h\u00fcbschen N\u00e4schen k\u00fc\u00dften ihm jeden Morgen die Hand mit dem Gru\u00dfe: _\u00bbBon jour, Papa!\u00ab_ Seine Gattin, eine gut konservierte und stattliche Dame, lie\u00df ihn zuerst ihre Hand k\u00fcssen und k\u00fc\u00dfte dann die seinige.\n\nEr war also in seinem Familienleben recht gl\u00fccklich, und doch pflegte er freundschaftlichen Verkehr mit einer Dame, die in einem andern Stadtteil wohnte und die weder sch\u00f6ner noch j\u00fcnger war als seine Frau; solche R\u00e4tsel kommen alle Tage vor, und wir wollen sie hier nicht n\u00e4her untersuchen.\n\nDer \u00bbW\u00fcrdentr\u00e4ger\u00ab ging die Treppe hinunter, setzte sich in seinen Schlitten und befahl dem Kutscher: \u00bbZu Karolina Iwanowna!\u00ab In seinen warmen Pelzmantel geh\u00fcllt, befand er sich in jenem gl\u00fcckseligen Zustand, den der Russe so sehr liebt: man denkt an nichts, und die angenehmsten Gedanken kommen einem ganz von selbst in den Kopf, so da\u00df man ihnen gar nicht nachzulaufen braucht. Er dachte an den so vergn\u00fcgt verbrachten Abend und an alle guten Witze, die da aufgetischt wurden; er wiederholte sie jetzt leise vor sich hin und fand sie noch immer so gelungen und wirkungsvoll wie vorhin. Zuweilen wurde er durch den h\u00f6chst l\u00e4stigen Wind abgelenkt, der ohne ersichtlichen Grund von irgendwo kam, ihn mit Schnee \u00fcbersch\u00fcttete, schmerzhaft ins Gesicht zwickte und den Pelzkragen wie ein Segel aufbl\u00e4hte, so da\u00df er mit ihm ordentlich zu k\u00e4mpfen hatte.\n\nPl\u00f6tzlich f\u00fchlte sich der \u00bbW\u00fcrdentr\u00e4ger\u00ab am Kragen gepackt. Als er sich umwandte, erblickte er einen \u00e4lteren Beamten, in dem er zu seiner Best\u00fcrzung Akakij Akakijewitsch erkannte. Das Gesicht des Beamten war leichenbla\u00df. Der Schreck des W\u00fcrdentr\u00e4gers steigerte sich aber ins Grenzenlose, als der Tote den Mund, dem der kalte Hauch des Grabes entstr\u00f6mte, \u00f6ffnete und die Worte sprach:\n\n\u00bbDa bist du ja! Endlich hab' ich dich beim Kragen erwischt! Deinen Mantel suche ich ja eben. Du wolltest dich nicht meines Mantels annehmen und hast mir noch obendrein eine R\u00fcge erteilt, jetzt wirst du mir daf\u00fcr den deinigen hergeben!\u00ab\n\nDer arme \u00bbW\u00fcrdentr\u00e4ger\u00ab war halbtot. Er, der in seiner Kanzlei vor seinen Untergebenen so energisch aufzutreten verstand, war jetzt so au\u00dfer sich vor Schreck, da\u00df er einen Ohnmachtsanfall bef\u00fcrchtete; so geht es \u00fcbrigens in ernsten Augenblicken vielen, die sonst ein imposantes Auftreten haben. Er zog sich selbst den Mantel von seinen Schultern und schrie dem Kutscher mit wilder Stimme zu: \u00bbRasch nach Hause!\u00ab Als der Kutscher diesen Ton h\u00f6rte, der gew\u00f6hnlich von noch wirksameren Ausbr\u00fcchen begleitet war, duckte er sich und schlug w\u00fctend auf die Pferde ein. In sechs Minuten hielt der Schlitten vor dem Hause. So kam der \u00bbW\u00fcrdentr\u00e4ger\u00ab bleich, erschrocken und seines Mantels beraubt, statt zur Karolina Iwanowna \u2013 nach Hause. Er ging sofort in sein Zimmer, wo er eine ganz schreckliche Nacht verbrachte. Am n\u00e4chsten Morgen sah er so schlecht aus, da\u00df seine Tochter ihm beim Morgengru\u00df sagte:\n\n\u00bbDu bist ja heute ganz bla\u00df, Papa!\u00ab\n\nDer Papa erwiderte aber darauf gar nichts und erz\u00e4hlte auch kein Wort davon, wo er die letzte Nacht gewesen war und was er noch vorgehabt hatte. Dieser Vorfall machte auf ihn einen starken Eindruck. Seine Untergebenen bekamen jetzt viel seltener die Worte: \u00bbWie unterstehen Sie sich? Wissen Sie, mit wem Sie reden?\u00ab zu h\u00f6ren; wenn er diese Worte auch noch zuweilen gebrauchte, so doch erst immer nach Anh\u00f6rung der Sache.\n\nDas Merkw\u00fcrdigste aber war, da\u00df das Gespenst von jenem Tage an sich nicht mehr sehen lie\u00df: der Mantel des \u00bbW\u00fcrdentr\u00e4gers\u00ab schien ihm ausgezeichnet zu passen. Wenigstens h\u00f6rte man nichts mehr von neuen Manteldiebst\u00e4hlen. Viele Leute konnten sich aber noch immer nicht beruhigen und behaupteten, das Gespenst tauche noch immer hier und da in den entlegeneren Stadtbezirken auf. Ein Wachsoldat aus der Kolomnavorstadt hatte das Gespenst des toten Titularrats auch wirklich noch einmal gesehen. Dieser Soldat war von Natur etwas schw\u00e4chlich, so da\u00df ihn einmal ein junges Schwein, das ihm unter die F\u00fc\u00dfe lief, zum gr\u00f6\u00dften Gaudium der Droschkenkutscher zum Fallen brachte; sie mu\u00dften ihm auch sp\u00e4ter daf\u00fcr, da\u00df sie \u00fcber ihn gelacht hatten, je eine halbe Kopeke Entsch\u00e4digung zahlen. Dieser Wachsoldat war also so schwach, da\u00df er sich nicht traute, das Gespenst zu stellen. Er verfolgte es nur schweigend durch die finsteren Stra\u00dfen, bis es sich umwandte und fragte: \u00bbWas willst du denn?\u00ab wobei es ihm eine so m\u00e4chtige Faust zeigte, wie sie auch bei lebenden Menschen nicht oft vorkommt. Der Wachsoldat murmelte: \u00bbGar nichts...\u00ab und machte sofort kehrt. Das Gespenst war aber viel gr\u00f6\u00dfer gewachsen, als es Akakij Akakijewitsch bei Lebzeiten war, und hatte einen m\u00e4chtigen Schnurrbart. Es schlug anscheinend die Richtung zur Obuchowschen Br\u00fccke ein und verschwand in der Nacht.\n\n* Baschmak (russ.) = Schuh\n\n## DER NEWSKIJ-PROSPEKT\n\nEs gibt nichts sch\u00f6neres als den Newskij-Prospekt, wenigstens in Petersburg nicht: f\u00fcr Petersburg bedeutet er alles. Welcher Glanz fehlt noch dieser sch\u00f6nsten Stra\u00dfe unserer Hauptstadt? Ich wei\u00df, da\u00df keiner von den blassen und beamteten Einwohnern Petersburgs diese Stra\u00dfe gegen alle Kostbarkeiten der Welt eintauschen w\u00fcrde. Nicht nur der F\u00fcnfundzwanzigj\u00e4hrige, der einen wundervollen Schnurrbart und einen prachtvoll gen\u00e4hten Rock besitzt, sondern auch der, auf dessen Kinn wei\u00dfe Stoppeln sprie\u00dfen und dessen Kopf so kahl ist, wie ein silbernes Tablett, ist vom Newskij-Prospekt entz\u00fcckt. Und erst die Damen! Oh, den Damen ist der Newskij-Prospekt noch angenehmer! Und wem ist er nicht angenehm? Kaum hat man den Newskij-Prospekt betreten, so atmet man nichts als m\u00fc\u00dfiges Herumschlendern. Wenn man sogar ein wichtiges, unaufschiebbares Gesch\u00e4ft vor hat, so vergi\u00dft man es, sobald man auf dem Newskij ist. Dies ist der einzige Ort, wo die Menschen nicht von irgendeiner Notwendigkeit getrieben erscheinen, nicht vom Gesch\u00e4ftsinteresse, von dem das ganze Petersburg ergriffen ist. Der Mensch, dem man auf dem Newskij-Prospekt begegnet, scheint weniger Egoist zu sein, als einer, den man in der Morskaja-, Sorochowaja-, Litejnaja-, Mjeschtschanskaja- und in jeder anderen Stra\u00dfe trifft, wo Gier und Habsucht auf allen Gesichtern ausgepr\u00e4gt sind, die vorbeigehen und in Equipagen und in Droschken vorbeijagen. Der Newskij-Prospekt ist die wichtigste Verkehrsader von ganz Petersburg. Ein Bewohner des Petersburger oder des Wyborger Stadtteils, der seinen Freund, welcher im Peski-Stadtteil oder am Moskauer Tor wohnt, schon seit mehreren Jahren nicht besucht hat, kann sicher darauf rechnen, da\u00df er ihm auf dem Newskij-Prospekt begegnet. Kein Adre\u00dfbuch und keine Auskunftsstelle k\u00f6nnen so zuverl\u00e4ssige Nachrichten geben wie der Newskij-Prospekt. Der Newskij-Prospekt ist allm\u00e4chtig! Er ist die einzige Zerstreuung f\u00fcr das an Spazierg\u00e4ngen so arme Petersburg! Wie sauber sind seine B\u00fcrgersteige gekehrt, und, mein Gott, wieviel F\u00fc\u00dfe hinterlassen auf ihm ihre Spuren! Der plumpe schmutzige Stiefel des gedienten Soldaten, unter dem selbst das Granitpflaster zu bersten scheint, das winzige, wie Rauch leichte Sch\u00fchchen der jungen Dame, die ihr K\u00f6pfchen den gl\u00e4nzenden Schaufenstern zuwendet, wie die Sonnenblume der Sonne, der rasselnde S\u00e4bel des von Hoffnungen erf\u00fcllten F\u00e4hnrichs, der in ihn eine scharfe Spur kratzt, \u2013 alles l\u00e4\u00dft ihn die Macht der Kraft und die Macht der Schw\u00e4che f\u00fchlen. Wie schnell wechseln hier die phantastischen Bilder im Laufe eines einzigen Tages ab! Wieviel Ver\u00e4nderungen mu\u00df er in vierundzwanzig Stunden erleiden!\n\nFangen wir mit dem fr\u00fchen Morgen an, wo ganz Petersburg nach hei\u00dfen, frischgebackenen Broten riecht und von alten Weibern in zerrissenen Kleidern und M\u00e4nteln wimmelt, die die Kirchen und die mitleidigen Passanten \u00fcberfallen. Um diese Stunde ist der Newskij-Prospekt leer: die dicken Ladenbesitzer und ihre Kommis schlafen noch in ihren holl\u00e4ndischen Hemden, oder seifen sich ihre edlen Wangen ein, oder trinken Kaffee; die Bettler versammeln sich vor den T\u00fcren der Konditorei, wo der verschlafene Ganymed, der gestern mit den Tassen Schokolade wie eine Fliege herumgeflogen ist, ohne Halsbinde, mit einem Besen in der Hand erscheint und ihnen ausgetrocknete Kuchen- und Speisereste hinwirft. Durch die Stra\u00dfen zieht arbeitendes Volk; manchmal sieht man hier auch einfache russische Bauern, die in kalkbeschmierten Stiefeln, die selbst der Katharinenkanal, der wegen seiner Sauberkeit ber\u00fchmt ist, nicht abwaschen k\u00f6nnte, zur Arbeit eilen. Um diese Stunde sollen sich Damen hier lieber nicht zeigen, denn das russische Volk wendet gerne so kr\u00e4ftige Ausdr\u00fccke an, die sie wohl auch nicht im Theater zu h\u00f6ren bekommen. Manchmal sieht man hier auch einen verschlafenen Beamten mit einer Aktentasche unter dem Arm, den der Weg nach seinem Departement zuf\u00e4llig \u00fcber den Newskij f\u00fchrt. Man kann mit Bestimmtheit sagen, da\u00df um diese Tageszeit, d.h. bis zur Mittagsstunde, der Newskij-Prospekt f\u00fcr niemand ein Ziel bildet; er ist f\u00fcr alle nur ein Mittel: er f\u00fcllt sich allm\u00e4hlich mit Menschen, die ihre Besch\u00e4ftigungen, ihre Sorgen und ihren \u00c4rger haben und an ihn gar nicht denken. Der russische Bauer spricht von zehn Kopeken oder von sieben Kupfergroschen, die alten M\u00e4nner und Frauen schwingen die Arme oder sprechen mit sich selbst, manchmal mit recht ausdrucksvollen Geb\u00e4rden, aber niemand h\u00f6rt ihnen zu und niemand lacht \u00fcber sie, h\u00f6chstens einige Jungen in bunten Hausr\u00f6cken, die mit leeren Schnapsflaschen oder fertigen Stiefeln in den H\u00e4nden wie der Blitz \u00fcber den Newskij-Prospekt schie\u00dfen. Um diese Zeit darf man nach Belieben gekleidet sein, \u2013 wenn man sogar statt eines Hutes eine Tellerm\u00fctze auf hat, auch wenn der Kragen zu weit aus der Halsbinde hervorsteht, \u2013 niemand wird es merken.\n\nUm 12 Uhr wird der Newskij-Prospekt von den Hofmeistern aller Rationen mit ihren Z\u00f6glingen in Batistkragen \u00fcberfallen. Die englischen Johns und die franz\u00f6sischen Coqs gehen Arm in Arm mit den ihrer v\u00e4terlichen Obhut anvertrauten Z\u00f6glingen und erkl\u00e4ren ihnen mit geb\u00fchrender W\u00fcrde, da\u00df die Schilder \u00fcber den Kaufl\u00e4den zu dem Zwecke angebracht seien, damit man erfahren k\u00f6nne, was in den Kaufl\u00e4den selbst vorhanden sei. Die Gouvernanten, die blassen Misses und die rosigen Mademoiselles schreiten majest\u00e4tisch hinter den leichtbeschwingten, koketten kleinen M\u00e4dchen einher und befehlen ihnen, die linke Schulter etwas h\u00f6her zu ziehen und sich besser zu halten; kurz, der Newskij-Prospekt ist um diese Stunde ein p\u00e4dagogischer Newskij-Prospekt. Aber gegen 2 Uhr nimmt die Zahl der Gouvernanten, der P\u00e4dagogen und der Kinder ab; sie werden allm\u00e4hlich von den z\u00e4rtlichen V\u00e4tern der letzteren verdr\u00e4ngt, die Arm in Arm mit ihren buntgekleideten, nervenschwachen Lebensgef\u00e4hrtinnen gehen. Allm\u00e4hlich gesellen sich zu ihnen alle, die mit ihren wichtigen h\u00e4uslichen Angelegenheiten fertig geworden sind: sie haben mit ihrem Hausarzt \u00fcber das Wetter und \u00fcber den kleinen Pickel gesprochen, der sich auf der Nase gebildet hat, haben sich nach dem Befinden ihrer Pferde und ihrer Kinder, die \u00fcbrigens gute F\u00e4higkeiten an den Tag legen, erkundigt, haben den Theaterzettel und eine wichtige Meldung in der Zeitung \u00fcber die neueingetroffenen und die abgereisten Personen gelesen und schlie\u00dflich eine Tasse Kaffee oder Tee getrunken; zu ihnen gesellen sich diejenigen, denen das beneidenswerte Los zugefallen ist, den gesegneten Posten eines Beamten f\u00fcr besondere Auftr\u00e4ge zu bekleiden. Zu ihnen gesellen sich auch diejenigen, die im Ausw\u00e4rtigen Amte dienen und sich durch ihre vornehmen Besch\u00e4ftigungen und Angewohnheiten auszeichnen. Mein Gott, was gibt es doch f\u00fcr sch\u00f6ne \u00c4mter und Posten! Wie erheben und erquicken sie das Herz! Ich aber stehe leider nicht im Staatsdienste und bin des Vergn\u00fcgens beraubt, die feine, edle Behandlung durch die Vorgesetzten zu f\u00fchlen. Alles, was Sie auf dem Newskij-Prospekt sehen, ist von Wohlanst\u00e4ndigkeit erf\u00fcllt: Die Herren tragen lange R\u00f6cke und halten die H\u00e4nde in den r\u00fcckw\u00e4rtigen Taschen, die Damen \u2013 rosa, wei\u00dfe und bla\u00dfblaue Atlasm\u00e4ntel und elegante H\u00fcte. Hier k\u00f6nnen Sie Backenb\u00e4rte sehen, die einzigen Backenb\u00e4rte, die mit ungew\u00f6hnlicher und erstaunlicher Kunst hinter die Halsbinden gek\u00e4mmt sind, samtweiche, atlassene Backenb\u00e4rte, schwarz wie Zobel oder wie Kohle, die aber leider nur das Privileg des Ausw\u00e4rtigen Amtes allein bilden. Den Beamten der anderen Departements hat die Vorsehung die schwarzen Backenb\u00e4rte versagt; sie m\u00fcssen zu ihrem gr\u00f6\u00dften \u00c4rger r\u00f6tliche Backenb\u00e4rte tragen. Hier sehen Sie Schnurrb\u00e4rte, so herrlich, wie man sie mit keiner Feder beschreiben, mit keinem Pinsel darstellen kann; Schnurrb\u00e4rte, denen die bessere H\u00e4lfte des Lebens geweiht ist, die den Gegenstand der gr\u00f6\u00dften Sorgfalt bei Tag und bei Nacht bilden; Schnurrb\u00e4rte, mit den herrlichsten Parf\u00fcms begossen, mit den kostbarsten und seltensten Pomaden gesalbt; Schnurrb\u00e4rte, die f\u00fcr die Nacht in das feinste Velinpapier gewikkelt werden; Schnurrb\u00e4rte, die von der r\u00fchrendsten Anh\u00e4nglichkeit ihrer Besitzer betraut werden und auf die alle Vor\u00fcbergehenden neidisch sind. Tausende Sorten von bunten, leichten H\u00fcten, Kleidern, T\u00fcchern, an denen ihre Besitzerinnen zuweilen ganze zwei Tage lang h\u00e4ngen, blenden jeden der durch den Newskij-Prospekt geht. Es ist, als h\u00e4tte sich eine ganze Wolke von Schmetterlingen pl\u00f6tzlich von den Blumenstengeln erhoben und schw\u00e4rme \u00fcber den schwarzen K\u00e4fern des m\u00e4nnlichen Geschlechts. Hier kann man solchen Taillen begegnen, wie man sie nicht mal im Traume gesehen hat: es sind feine, d\u00fcnne Taillen, nicht st\u00e4rker als ein Flaschenhals, \u2013 wenn man ihnen begegnet, tritt man respektvoll auf die Seite, um sie nicht irgendwie unvorsichtig mit dem unh\u00f6flichen Ellenbogen anzusto\u00dfen; Angst und Scheu \u00fcbermannen einen, da\u00df man nicht mit einem unvorsichtigen Atemzug dieses herrliche Produkt der Natur und der Kunst zerbreche. Und was f\u00fcr Damen\u00e4rmeln kann man auf dem Newskij-Prospekt begegnen! Ach, diese Herrlichkeit! Sie haben einige \u00c4hnlichkeit mit zwei Luftballons, so da\u00df die Dame pl\u00f6tzlich in die Luft steigen k\u00f6nnte, wenn der Herr sie nicht festhielte; denn es ist ebenso leicht und angenehm, eine Dame in die H\u00f6he zu heben, wie ein mit Champagner gef\u00fclltes Glas an die Lippen zu f\u00fchren. Nirgends begr\u00fc\u00dft man sich bei einer Begegnung so vornehm und so ungezwungen wie auf dem Newskij-Prospekt. Hier kann man das einzige L\u00e4cheln sehen, das L\u00e4cheln, das der Gipfel der Kunst ist, ein L\u00e4cheln, vor dem man zuweilen vor Vergn\u00fcgen schmelzen kann, vor dem man sich pl\u00f6tzlich so winzig wie ein Grashalm f\u00fchlt und die Augen niederschl\u00e4gt, zuweilen aber auch ein L\u00e4cheln, vor dem man sich h\u00f6her als die Spitze des Admiralit\u00e4tsturmes d\u00fcnkt und den Kopf hebt. Hier begegnet man Menschen, die \u00fcber ein Konzert oder \u00fcber das Wetter mit ungew\u00f6hnlichem Anstand und einem ungew\u00f6hnlichen Gef\u00fchl f\u00fcr eigene W\u00fcrde sprechen. Hier begegnet man Tausenden von unfa\u00dfbaren Charakteren und Erscheinungen. Du lieber Gott, was f\u00fcr seltsame Charaktere trifft man auf dem Newskij-Prospekt! Es gibt hier eine Menge solcher Menschen, die bei einer Begegnung mit Ihnen unbedingt auf Ihre Stiefel schauen, und, wenn Sie vorbeigegangen sind, sich umwenden, um sich Ihre Rockfalten anzusehen. Ich kann bis jetzt nicht begreifen, woher das kommt. Ich hatte anfangs geglaubt, es seien lauter Schuhmacher, aber das entspricht durchaus nicht den Tatsachen: sie sind zum gr\u00f6\u00dften Teil an allerlei Departements angestellt, viele von ihnen sind imstande, ein amtliches Schreiben von einer Amtsstelle an eine andere bestens abzufassen; oder es sind Menschen, die sich mit Spazierengehen und mit dem Lesen von Zeitungen in Konditoreien besch\u00e4ftigen, \u2013 mit einem Worte, es sind zum gr\u00f6\u00dften Teil anst\u00e4ndige Menschen. In dieser gesegneten Zeit zwischen 2 und 3 Uhr nachmittags, die man die Zeit der Bewegung der ganzen Hauptstadt nennen kann, findet die Hauptausstellung der besten menschlichen Erzeugnisse statt: der eine zeigt einen eleganten \u00dcberrock mit dem sch\u00f6nsten Biberkragen; der andere eine herrliche griechische Nase; der dritte tr\u00e4gt einen wunderbaren Backenbart zur Schau; die vierte ein Paar sch\u00f6ne Augen und einen wunderbaren Hut; der f\u00fcnfte \u2013 einen Ring mit einem Talisman auf dem gepflegten kleinen Finger; die sechste \u2013 ein F\u00fc\u00dfchen in einem entz\u00fcckenden Schuh; der siebente \u2013 eine staunenswerte Krawatte; der achte \u2013 einen verbl\u00fcffenden Schnurrbart. Aber es schl\u00e4gt drei, die Ausstellung ist zu Ende, die Menge verzieht sich... Um 3 Uhr ist eine neue Ver\u00e4nderung. Auf dem Newskij-Prospekt bricht pl\u00f6tzlich der Fr\u00fchling an: er wimmelt auf einmal ganz von Beamten in gr\u00fcnen Uniformr\u00f6cken. Die hungrigen Titular-, Hof- und sonstigen R\u00e4te bem\u00fchen sich, ihre Schritte zu beschleunigen. Die jungen Kollegien-Registratoren, die Gouvernements- und Kollegien-Sekret\u00e4re beeilen sich, die Zeit auszun\u00fctzen und einmal durch den Newskij-Prospekt mit einer Miene zu gehen, als h\u00e4tten sie beileibe nicht sechs Stunden in der Kanzlei gesessen. Aber die alten Kollegien-Sekret\u00e4re, Titular- und Hofr\u00e4te gehen schnell mit gesenkten K\u00f6pfen: sie haben andere Dinge im Sinn, als die Spazierg\u00e4nger zu mustern; sie haben sich von ihren Sorgen noch nicht ganz losgerissen; in ihren K\u00f6pfen ist ein Wirrwarr, ein ganzes Archiv begonnener und nicht beendeter Amtsgesch\u00e4fte; statt der Ladenschilde sehen sie lange Zeit nur Aktenschachteln oder das runde Gesicht des Kanzleivorstandes vor sich.\n\nVon 4 Uhr ab ist der Newskij-Prospekt leer, und man kann auf ihm kaum noch einem Beamten begegnen. Man sieht h\u00f6chstens eine N\u00e4herin aus dem W\u00e4schegesch\u00e4ft, die mit einem Karton in den H\u00e4nden \u00fcber den Newskij-Prospekt l\u00e4uft; irgendein ungl\u00fcckliches Opfer eines menschenfreundlichen Winkeladvokaten, das nun in seinem Friesmantel betteln gehen kann; irgendeinen zugereisten Sonderling, dem alle Stunden gleich sind; irgendeine lange Engl\u00e4nderin mit einem Strickbeutel und einem Buch in der Hand; einen Gesch\u00e4ftsdiener, einen Russen im baumwollenen Rock, mit hoher Taille und einem d\u00fcnnen B\u00e4rtchen, der immer auf dem Sprung lebt und an dem sich alles bewegt: der R\u00fccken, die Arme, die Beine und der Kopf, wenn er bescheiden \u00fcber das Trottoir geht; manchmal auch einen armen Handwerker... sonst begegnet man um diese Stunde auf dem Newskij-Prospekt niemand.\n\nSobald sich aber die D\u00e4mmerung auf die H\u00e4user und die Stra\u00dfen senkt, wenn der in eine Bastmatte geh\u00fcllte Nachtw\u00e4chter auf die Leiter steigt, um die Laternen anzuz\u00fcnden und in den niederen Ladenfenstern solche Stiche erscheinen, die sich am Tage nicht zu zeigen trauen, \u2013 dann wird der Newskij-Prospekt wieder lebendig und beginnt sich zu regen. Dann bricht jene geheimnisvolle Stunde an, wo die Lampen allen Dingen ein verlockendes, wunderbares Licht verleihen. Man begegnet vielen jungen Leuten, zum gr\u00f6\u00dften Teil Junggesellen, in warmen R\u00f6cken und M\u00e4nteln. Um diese Zeit l\u00e4\u00dft sich ein gewisses Ziel vermuten, oder, besser gesagt, etwas, was einem Ziele \u00e4hnlich sieht, etwas au\u00dferordentlich Unbewu\u00dftes; alle Schritte werden beschleunigt und werden \u00fcberhaupt ungleichm\u00e4\u00dfig; lange Schatten gleiten \u00fcber die Mauern und das Pflaster und erreichen mit ihren K\u00f6pfen beinahe die Polizeibr\u00fckke. Die jungen Kollegien-Registratoren, Gouvernements- und Kollegiensekret\u00e4re gehen sehr lange auf und ab; aber die alten Kollegien-Registratoren, Titular- und Hofr\u00e4te sitzen zum gr\u00f6\u00dften Teil zu Hause, denn sie sind verheiratete Leute oder haben bei sich deutsche K\u00f6chinnen, die ihnen die Speisen sehr schmackhaft zubereiten. Jetzt begegnet man hier wieder den ehrenwerten Greisen, die mit solcher W\u00fcrde und so wunderbarem Anstand um zwei Uhr auf dem Newskij-Prospekt spazierengegangen sind. Sie rennen ebenso schnell wie die jungen Kollegien-Registratoren, um einer Dame, die sie schon aus der Ferne bemerkt haben, unter den Hut zu sehen, einer Dame, deren dicke Lippen und dick bemalte Wangen vielen Spazierg\u00e4ngern so sehr gefallen, am meisten aber den Ladenkommis, den Gesch\u00e4ftsdienern und den Kaufleuten, die in deutschen R\u00f6cken in einem ganzen Rudel, gew\u00f6hnlich Arm in Arm, Spazierengehen.\n\n\u00bbHalt!\u00ab rief um diese Zeit der Leutnant Pirogow und zupfte den neben ihm gehenden, mit einem Frack und einem Mantel bekleideten jungen Mann am \u00c4rmel. \u00bbHast du sie gesehen?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbIch habe sie gesehen: herrlich, ganz wie Peruginos Bianca.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbVon welcher sprichst du?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbVon ihr, von der mit den dunklen Haaren... Was f\u00fcr Augen! Gott, was f\u00fcr Augen! Die ganze Figur, der Umri\u00df, das Oval des Gesichts \u2013 ein wahres Wunder!\u00ab\n\n\u00bbIch spreche aber von der Blondine, die hinter ihr nach jener Seite ging. Warum folgst du dann nicht der Br\u00fcnetten, wenn sie dir so gut gef\u00e4llt?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbWas denkst du dir!\u00ab rief der junge Mann im Frack err\u00f6tend. \u00bbSie ist doch nicht eine von jenen, die jeden Abend auf dem Newskij-Prospekt herumspazieren; sie mu\u00df eine sehr vornehme Dame sein,\u00ab fuhr er mit einem Seufzer fort: \u00bbder Mantel allein wird seine achtzig Rubel gekostet haben!\u00ab\n\n\u00bbEinfaltspinsel!\u00ab rief Pirogow und stie\u00df ihn gewaltsam nach jener Richtung, wo ihr leuchtender Mantel wehte. \u00bbGeh, du Narr, sonst verpa\u00dft du sie! Ich gehe aber der Blondine nach.\u00ab Die beiden Freunde trennten sich.\n\n\u00bbWir kennen euch alle!\u00ab dachte bei sich Pirogow mit einem selbstgef\u00e4lligen und selbstbewu\u00dften L\u00e4cheln, \u00fcberzeugt, da\u00df es keine Sch\u00f6nheit g\u00e4be, die ihm widerstehen k\u00f6nnte.\n\nDer junge Mann im Frack und Mantel ging mit sch\u00fcchternen und bebenden Schritten nach der Seite, wo der bunte Mantel wehte, bald in grellen Farben leuchtend, wenn sie sich einer Laterne n\u00e4herte, bald im Dunkel verschwindend, wenn sie sich von der Laterne entfernte. Sein Herz klopfte, und er beschleunigte unwillk\u00fcrlich seine Schritte. Er wagte nicht einmal daran zu denken, da\u00df er irgendein Recht auf die Aufmerksamkeit der sich entfernenden Sch\u00f6nen erlangen k\u00f6nne, noch viel weniger konnte er den schwarzen Gedanken zulassen, auf den der Leutnant Pirogow angespielt hatte; er wollte nur das Haus sehen, sich merken, wo dieses herrliche Wesen wohnte, das auf den Newskij-Prospekt vom Himmel herabgeflogen schien und das wohl gleich wieder unbekannt wohin entschweben wird. Er lief so schnell, da\u00df er unaufh\u00f6rlich solide Herren mit grauen Bakkenb\u00e4rten vom Trottoir stie\u00df. Dieser junge Mann geh\u00f6rte zu der Klasse, die bei uns eine ziemlich seltene Erscheinung bildet und zu den B\u00fcrgern Petersburgs nur im gleichen Ma\u00dfe z\u00e4hlt, in dem eine uns im Traume erscheinende Person zu der Welt der Wirklichkeit geh\u00f6rt. Dieser exklusive Stand ist sehr ungew\u00f6hnlich in dieser Stadt, wo fast alle Einwohner entweder Beamte, oder Kaufleute, oder deutsche Handwerker sind. Er war K\u00fcnstler. Nicht wahr, eine seltsame Erscheinung \u2013 ein Petersburger K\u00fcnstler? Ein K\u00fcnstler im Lande des Schnees, im Lande der Finnen, wo alles na\u00df, glatt, flach, bleich, grau und neblig ist! Diese K\u00fcnstler gleichen gar nicht den italienischen K\u00fcnstlern, die so stolz und hei\u00dfbl\u00fctig sind wie Italien und sein Himmel; sie sind vielmehr zum gr\u00f6\u00dften Teil ein gutm\u00fctiges, sanftes V\u00f6lkchen, sch\u00fcchtern und sorglos. So ein K\u00fcnstler h\u00e4ngt mit einer stillen Liebe an seiner Kunst, trinkt in seinem kleinen Zimmer mit zwei Freunden Tee, spricht bescheiden \u00fcber den geliebten Gegenstand und denkt niemals an einen \u00dcberflu\u00df. So ein K\u00fcnstler l\u00e4dt irgendeine alte Bettlerin zu sich ein und zwingt sie geschlagene sechs Stunden zu sitzen, um ihre elende, ausdruckslose Miene auf die Leinwand zu bannen. Er zeichnet die perspektivische Ansicht seines Zimmers, in dem allerhand k\u00fcnstlerisches Ger\u00fcmpel herumliegt: H\u00e4nde und F\u00fc\u00dfe aus Gips, die durch die Zeit und den Staub kaffeebraun geworden sind, zerbrochene Staffeleien, eine umgeworfene Palette; einen Freund, der die Gitarre spielt, mit Farben beschmierte W\u00e4nde und ein offenes Fenster, durch das man die blasse Newa und arme Fischer in roten Hemden sieht. Sie haben fast alle ein graues, tr\u00fcbes Kolorit \u2013 den unausl\u00f6schlichen Stempel des Nordens. Dabei h\u00e4ngen sie mit aufrichtigem Entz\u00fccken an ihrer Arbeit. Sie haben oft ein wahres Talent, das, wenn es nur in die frische Luft Italiens k\u00e4me, sich sicher ebenso frei, gro\u00df und grell entfalten w\u00fcrde wie eine Pflanze, die man aus dem Zimmer endlich in die frische Luft bringt. Sie sind im allgemeinen sch\u00fcchtern: ein Ordensstern und eine dicke Epaulette verwirren sie derma\u00dfen, da\u00df sie unwillk\u00fcrlich den Preis ihrer Werke herabsetzen. Sie tragen sich zuweilen elegant, aber diese Eleganz erscheint bei ihnen zu auffallend und hat einige \u00c4hnlichkeit mit einem Flick auf einem alten Anzug. Man sieht sie manchmal in einem vorz\u00fcglichen Frack und einem schmutzigen Mantel, in einer kostbaren Samtweste und einem mit Farben beschmierten Rock \u2013 so sieht man auch auf ihren unvollendeten Landschaften zuweilen eine mit dem Kopf nach unten gezeichnete Nymphe, die der K\u00fcnstler, mangels eines anderen Platzes, auf den schmierigen Grund eines fr\u00fcheren Werkes hingeworfen, an dem er einst mit solchem Genu\u00df gearbeitet hatte. Er sieht einem niemals gerade in die Augen; tut er es doch, so blickt er tr\u00fcb und nichtssagend; es ist niemals der Habichtblick eines Beobachters oder der Falkenblick eines Kavallerieoffiziers. Das kommt daher, weil er zur gleichen Zeit ihre Z\u00fcge und die Z\u00fcge irgendeines gipsenen Herkules sieht, der in seinem Zimmer steht, oder weil ihm ein Bild vorschwebt, das er zu malen beabsichtigt. Darum beantwortet er die Fragen oft unzusammenh\u00e4ngend, manchmal falsch, und die sich in seinem Kopfe vermischenden Gegenst\u00e4nde vergr\u00f6\u00dfern noch mehr seine Sch\u00fcchternheit. Zu diesem Schlage geh\u00f6rte auch der von uns geschilderte junge Mann, der Maler Piskarjow, ein sch\u00fcchterner und scheuer Mensch, in dessen Seele aber Funken eines Gef\u00fchls glommen, die bei einer g\u00fcnstigen Gelegenheit zu einer Flamme auflodern konnten. Mit heimlichem Beben eilte er dem Gegenstande seiner Bewunderung nach, der ihn so tief ersch\u00fcttert hatte, und er schien selbst \u00fcber seine K\u00fchnheit zu staunen. Das unbekannte Gesch\u00f6pf, das seine Augen, Gedanken und Gef\u00fchle so m\u00e4chtig anzog, wandte pl\u00f6tzlich den Kopf und sah ihn an. Mein Gott, was f\u00fcr g\u00f6ttliche Z\u00fcge! Die blendend wei\u00dfe entz\u00fcckende Stirne war von achatgleichen Haaren beschattet. Sie bildeten wunderbare Locken, fielen zum Teil unter dem Hute hervor und ber\u00fchrten die Wangen, die von der abendlichen K\u00e4lte leicht ger\u00f6tet waren. Die Lippen schienen von einem ganzen Schwarm entz\u00fcckender Tr\u00e4ume versiegelt. Alles, was von den Erinnerungen der Kindheit zur\u00fcckbleibt, was beim Scheine der stillen Lampe Tr\u00e4ume und eine stille Begeisterung weckt \u2013 alles schien in ihren harmonischen Lippen vereinigt, flo\u00df in ihnen zusammen und spiegelte sich in ihnen. Sie blickte Piskarjow an, und unter diesem Blicke erbebte sein Herz; ihr Blick war streng: ihre Z\u00fcge dr\u00fcckten Entr\u00fcstung aus angesichts dieser frechen Verfolgung; aber auf diesem sch\u00f6nen Gesicht war sogar der Zorn ber\u00fcckend. Von Scham und Scheu ergriffen, blieb er stehen und schlug die Augen nieder; wie kann man aber diese Gottheit verlieren, ohne das Heiligtum gefunden zu haben, in dem sie sich niedergelassen hat? Solche Gedanken kamen dem jungen Tr\u00e4umer in den Sinn, und er entschlo\u00df sich, sie weiter zu verfolgen. Damit sie es aber nicht merke, blieb er weit hinter ihr zur\u00fcck, blickte sorglos nach allen Seiten und betrachtete die Ladenschilder, lie\u00df aber dabei keinen Schritt der Unbekannten aus den Augen. Es kamen immer weniger Passanten vorbei, die Stra\u00dfe wurde stiller, die Sch\u00f6ne sah sich um, und es kam ihm vor, als leuchtete ein leichtes L\u00e4cheln auf ihren Lippen. Er erzitterte am ganzen Leibe und traute seinen Augen nicht. Nein, es war das tr\u00fcgerische Laternenlicht, da\u00df auf ihrem Gesicht eine Art L\u00e4cheln hervorgezaubert hatte; es waren seine eigenen Gedanken, die sich \u00fcber ihn lustig machten. Aber ihm stockte der Atem, alles in ihm wurde zu einem einzigen Zittern, alle seine Gef\u00fchle gl\u00fchten, und alles vor ihm war von einem Nebel umfangen; das Trottoir enteilte unter seinen F\u00fc\u00dfen, die Equipagen mit den galoppierenden Pferden schienen unbeweglich, die Br\u00fccke zog sich in die L\u00e4nge und brach in ihrer W\u00f6lbung, das Haus stand auf dem Dache, ein Schilderh\u00e4uschen fiel auf ihn nieder, und die Hellebarde des Schutzmanns schien zugleich mit den goldenen Lettern des Ladenschildes und der gemalten Schere auf der Wimper seines Auges zu gl\u00e4nzen. Dies alles hatte ein einziger Blick, eine einzige Wendung des h\u00fcbschen K\u00f6pfchens bewirkt. Ohne etwas zu h\u00f6ren, zu sehen und zu verstehen, folgte er den leichten Spuren der sch\u00f6nen F\u00fc\u00dfchen und bem\u00fchte sich, die Schnelligkeit seiner Schritte zu hemmen, die sich im gleichen Takte wie sein Herz bewegten. Zuweilen packte ihn ein Zweifel, ob ihr Gesichtsausdruck in der Tat so wohlwollend gewesen sei, und dann blieb er f\u00fcr einen Augenblick stehen; aber das Herzklopfen, eine un\u00fcberwindliche Gewalt und die Aufregung aller seiner Gef\u00fchle trieben ihn vorw\u00e4rts. Er bemerkte sogar nicht, wie vor ihm pl\u00f6tzlich ein vierst\u00f6ckiges Haus auftauchte, wie alle vier erleuchteten Fensterreihen ihn zugleich anblickten und wie das Gel\u00e4nder vor der Einfahrt ihn eisern abwehrte. Er sah wie die Unbekannte die Treppe hinaufflog, wie sie sich umwandte, den Finger auf die Lippen legte und ihm bedeutete, ihr zu folgen. Seine Knie zitterten, seine Gedanken gl\u00fchten; ein Blitz der Freude durchzuckte sein Herz: Nein, es war kein Traum mehr! Gott, wieviel Freude in einem einzigen Augenblick! Ein so herrliches Leben in diesen zwei Minuten!\n\nAber war das alles kein Traum? War denn sie, f\u00fcr deren himmlischen Blick allein er sein ganzes Leben hingeben k\u00f6nnte, in der N\u00e4he deren Wohnung zu sein er schon f\u00fcr eine unsagbare Seligkeit hielt, war sie denn ihm soeben wirklich so wohl gewogen? Er flog die Treppe hinauf. Er empfand keinen einzigen irdischen Gedanken, er war nicht von der Flamme einer irdischen Leidenschaft entz\u00fcndet, \u2013 nein, er war in diesem Augenblick rein und s\u00fcndlos wie ein keuscher J\u00fcngling, der noch das Ungewisse, geistige Bed\u00fcrfnis nach Liebe atmet. Das, was in einem verdorbenen Menschen k\u00fchne W\u00fcnsche geweckt haben w\u00fcrde, das heiligte seine Gedanken noch mehr. Dieses Vertrauen, das ihm dieses schwache, sch\u00f6ne Gesch\u00f6pf entgegenbrachte, dieses Vertrauen hatte ihm das Gebot einer strengen Ritterlichkeit auferlegt, das Gel\u00fcbde, alle ihre Befehle sklavisch zu befolgen. Er wollte nur, da\u00df diese Befehle m\u00f6glichst schwer und unerf\u00fcllbar seien, damit er sie mit einer noch gr\u00f6\u00dferen Anspannung seiner Kr\u00e4fte befolgen k\u00f6nnte. Er zweifelte nicht daran, da\u00df irgend ein geheimes und zugleich wichtiges Ereignis die Unbekannte bewogen hatte, sich ihm anzuvertrauen; da\u00df sie von ihm irgendwelche wichtige Dienste verlangen w\u00fcrde, und er f\u00fchlte schon in sich eine Kraft und eine Entschlossenheit, alles zu wagen.\n\nDie Treppe wand sich hinauf, und zugleich mit ihr wanden sich seine schnellen Gedanken. \u00bbVorsichtiger!\u00ab erklang wie eine Harfe ihre Stimme und erf\u00fcllte alle seine Adern mit einem neuen Beben. In der dunklen H\u00f6he des vierten Stockes klopfte die Unbekannte an die T\u00fcr; die T\u00fcr \u00f6ffnete sich, und sie traten zusammen ein. Eine Frau von gar nicht \u00fcblem Aussehen empfing sie mit der Kerze in der Hand und sah Piskarjow so sonderbar und so frech an, da\u00df er unwillk\u00fcrlich seine Augen niederschlug. Sie traten in ein Zimmer. Drei weibliche Gestalten in drei verschiedenen Ecken boten sich seinen Blicken. Die eine legte Karten; die andere sa\u00df am Pianino und spielte mit zwei Fingern eine Art alte Polon\u00e4se; die dritte sa\u00df vor einem Spiegel, k\u00e4mmte mit einem Kamme ihr langes Haar und dachte gar nicht daran, beim Eintritt eines Unbekannten diese Besch\u00e4ftigung zu unterbrechen. Eine eigent\u00fcmliche, unangenehme Unordnung, wie man sie nur im Zimmer eines gleichg\u00fcltigen Junggesellen trifft, herrschte hier \u00fcberall. Die recht guten M\u00f6belst\u00fccke waren von Staub bedeckt; die Spinne hatte die Stuckverzierungen des Plafonds mit ihrem Gewebe \u00fcberzogen; durch die halbge\u00f6ffnete T\u00fcr sah man im Nebenzimmer einen mit einem Sporn versehenen Stiefel und den roten Vorsto\u00df einer Uniform leuchten; eine laute M\u00e4nnerstimme und weibliches Lachen klangen ganz ungezwungen.\n\nMein Gott, wo war er hingeraten! Anfangs wollte er seinen Wahrnehmungen nicht trauen und musterte aufmerksamer die Gegenst\u00e4nde, die das Zimmer f\u00fcllten; aber die kahlen W\u00e4nde und die Fenster ohne Vorh\u00e4nge wiesen auf das Fehlen einer sorgenden Hausfrau hin; die abgelebten Gesichter dieser elenden Gesch\u00f6pfe, von denen sich das eine dicht vor seiner Nase hinsetzte und ihn ebenso ruhig betrachtete, wie einen Fleck auf einem fremden Kleide, \u2013 dies alles gab ihm die \u00dcberzeugung, da\u00df er in eine ekelhafte Spelunke geraten war, wo das von der oberfl\u00e4chlichen Bildung und der schrecklichen \u00dcberv\u00f6lkerung der Hauptstadt gezeugte elende Laster nistete, in eine Behausung, wo der Mensch alles Reine und Heilige, was das Leben schm\u00fcckt, gottesl\u00e4sterlich erdr\u00fcckt und verspottet hat, wo die Frau, diese Zierde der Welt, diese Krone der Sch\u00f6pfung sich in ein seltsames, doppelsinniges Gesch\u00f6pf verwandelt, wo sie zugleich mit der Reinheit der Seele alles Weibliche eingeb\u00fc\u00dft und sich alle ekelhaften Manieren und die Frechheit des Mannes angeeignet und schon aufgeh\u00f6rt hat, jenes schwache, jenes herrliche, und von uns so verschiedene Wesen zu sein. Piskarjow ma\u00df sie vom Kopf bis zu den F\u00fc\u00dfen mit seinen erstaunten Blikken, als wollte er sich \u00fcberzeugen, ob es dieselbe sei, die ihn auf dem Newskij-Prospekt bezaubert und hingerissen hatte. Aber sie stand vor ihm noch ebenso sch\u00f6n; ebenso sch\u00f6n waren noch ihre Haare und ebenso himmlisch schienen ihre Augen. Sie war noch recht frisch; sie war erst siebzehn Jahre alt; man konnte ihr ansehen, da\u00df sie erst vor kurzer Zeit von dem schrecklichen Laster ergriffen worden war: es wagte noch nicht an ihren Wangen zu r\u00fchren, sie waren noch frisch und leicht ger\u00f6tet; sie war sch\u00f6n.\n\nEr stand unbeweglich vor ihr und war schon bereit, sich ebenso einf\u00e4ltigen Tr\u00e4umereien hinzugeben wie fr\u00fcher. Aber dieses lange Schweigen langweilte die Sch\u00f6ne, und sie l\u00e4chelte vielsagend, ihm gerade in die Augen blickend. Doch dieses L\u00e4cheln war von einer eigenen, elenden Frechheit erf\u00fcllt: es war so seltsam und pa\u00dfte ebenso zu ihrem Gesicht, wie der Ausdruck von Fr\u00f6mmigkeit zu der Fratze eines Wucherers oder ein Kontobuch zu einem Dichter. Er erbebte. Sie \u00f6ffnete ihren h\u00fcbschen Mund und begann etwas zu sprechen, aber es war so dumm, so abgeschmackt... Es war, als ob zugleich mit der Unschuld auch der Verstand den Menschen verlie\u00dfe! Er wollte nichts h\u00f6ren. Er war au\u00dferordentlich komisch und einf\u00e4ltig wie ein Kind. Statt dieses Wohlwollen auszun\u00fctzen, statt sich \u00fcber diesen Zufall zu freuen, wie sich an seiner Stelle wohl jeder andere gefreut haben w\u00fcrde, st\u00fcrzte er wie eine Gazelle aus dem Zimmer und lief auf die Stra\u00dfe.\n\nMit gesenktem Kopf und herabh\u00e4ngenden Armen sa\u00df er in seinem Zimmer wie ein Bettler, der eine kostbare Perle gefunden und sie gleich wieder ins Meer hat fallen lassen. \u00bbEine solche Sch\u00f6nheit, so g\u00f6ttliche Z\u00fcge! Und wo? An welchem Ort?...\u00ab Das war alles, was er sagen konnte.\n\nIn der Tat, nie empfinden wir schmerzvolleres Mitleid als beim Anblick einer Sch\u00f6nheit, die vom verderblichen Odem des Lasters ber\u00fchrt worden ist. Wenn sich zum Laster noch die H\u00e4\u00dflichkeit gesellt; aber die Sch\u00f6nheit, eine zarte Sch\u00f6nheit... Wir k\u00f6nnen sie in unseren Gedanken doch nur mit S\u00fcndlosigkeit und Reinheit verbinden. Die Sch\u00f6ne, die den armen Piskarjow so bezaubert hatte, war in der Tat eine wunderbare, ungew\u00f6hnliche Erscheinung. Ihre Anwesenheit in dieser ver\u00e4chtlichen Gesellschaft schien um so ungew\u00f6hnlicher. Alle ihre Z\u00fcge waren so rein geformt, der ganze Ausdruck des sch\u00f6nen Gesichts war von solchem Adel gezeichnet, da\u00df man sich unm\u00f6glich denken konnte, das Laster h\u00e4tte schon seine schrecklichen Krallen in sie geschlagen. Sie h\u00e4tte f\u00fcr einen leidenschaftlichen Gatten eine kostbare Perle, eine ganze Welt, ein ganzes Paradies, ein ganzer Reichtum sein k\u00f6nnen; sie w\u00e4re ein herrlicher, stiller Stern in einem bescheidenen Familienkreise, wo sie mit einer einzigen Bewegung ihrer herrlichen Lippen s\u00fc\u00dfe Befehle erteilen w\u00fcrde. Sie k\u00f6nnte eine Gottheit in einem \u00fcberf\u00fcllten Saale sein, auf dem strahlenden Parkett, im Scheine der Kerzen, unter der stummen Andacht der zu ihren F\u00fc\u00dfen liegenden Schar von Verehrern. Aber ach! der schreckliche Wille eines H\u00f6llengeistes, der danach strebt, die Harmonie des Lebens zu st\u00f6ren, hatte sie mit Hohngel\u00e4chter in diesen schrecklichen Abgrund geworfen.\n\nVon einem herzzerrei\u00dfenden Mitleid erf\u00fcllt, sa\u00df er vor der heruntergebrannten Kerze. Die Mitternacht war l\u00e4ngst vor\u00fcber, die Turmuhr schlug halb eins, er aber sa\u00df unbeweglich, schlaflos, unt\u00e4tig. Der Schlummer ben\u00fctzte seine Unbeweglichkeit und fing schon an, sich seiner langsam zu bem\u00e4chtigen, das Zimmer fing an zu verschwinden, nur noch die Kerzenflamme allein leuchtete durch die Visionen, als pl\u00f6tzlich ein Klopfen an der T\u00fcre ihn auffahren und zu sich kommen lie\u00df. Die T\u00fcr ging auf, und ein Lakai in reicher Livree trat ein. In sein einsames Zimmer hatte noch niemals eine reiche Livree hineingeblickt, zudem zu einer so ungew\u00f6hnlichen Stunde... Er konnte nichts begreifen und starrte mit Ungeduld und Neugierde den Lakai an.\n\n\u00bbDie Dame,\u00ab sagte der Lakai mit einer h\u00f6flichen Verbeugung, \u00bbbei der Sie vor einigen Stunden gewesen sind, l\u00e4\u00dft Sie zu sich bitten und schickt einen Wagen nach Ihnen.\u00ab\n\nPiskarjow stand in stummem Erstaunen da: Einen Wagen, ein livrierter Lakai!... Nein, es ist wohl ein Mi\u00dfverst\u00e4ndnis...\n\n\u00bbH\u00f6ren Sie einmal, mein Lieber,\u00ab sagte er sch\u00fcchtern, \u00bbSie haben sich wohl in der Adresse geirrt. Die Dame hat Sie zweifellos nach jemand anders geschickt und nicht nach mir.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbNein, mein Herr, ich habe mich nicht geirrt. Sie haben doch geruht, die Dame zu Fu\u00df zum Hause in der Litejnaja, ins Zimmer im vierten Stocke zu begleiten?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbJa, ich.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbNun, dann kommen Sie bitte schnell mit. Die Gn\u00e4dige will Sie unbedingt sehen und bittet Sie, zu ihr ins Haus zu kommen.\u00ab\n\nPiskarjow lief die Treppe hinunter. Drau\u00dfen wartete wirklich ein Wagen. Er stieg ein, der Schlag wurde zugeklappt, die Pflastersteine dr\u00f6hnten unter den R\u00e4dern und Hufen, und die erleuchtete Perspektive der H\u00e4user mit den Laternen und den Ladenschildern flog an den Wagenfenstern vorbei. Piskarjow dachte w\u00e4hrend der ganzen Fahrt nach und wu\u00dfte nicht, wie sich dieses Abenteuer zu erkl\u00e4ren. Ein eigenes Haus, ein Wagen, ein Lakai in einer reichen Livree... Dies alles reimte sich gar nicht mit dem Zimmer im vierten Stock, mit den staubigen Fenstern und dem verstimmten Pianino zusammen. Die Equipage hielt vor einer hell erleuchteten Einfahrt, und er war ganz erstaunt \u00fcber die Reihe von Equipagen, das Stimmengewirr der vielen Kutscher, die hellerleuchteten Fenster und die T\u00f6ne der Musik. Der Lakai in der reichen Livree half ihm aus dem Wagen und f\u00fchrte ihn respektvoll in einen Flur mit Marmors\u00e4ulen, in dem ein goldstrotzender Portier stand, \u00fcberall M\u00e4ntel und Pelze herumlagen und eine helle Lampe brannte. Eine luftige Treppe mit gl\u00e4nzendem Gel\u00e4nder f\u00fchrte inmitten von Wohlger\u00fcchen hinauf. Schon war er auf der Treppe, schon trat er in den ersten Saal und erschrak und taumelte vor den vielen Leuten zur\u00fcck. Die ungew\u00f6hnliche Buntheit der G\u00e4ste verwirrte ihn; es war ihm, als h\u00e4tte irgendein D\u00e4mon die ganze Welt in eine Menge verschiedener St\u00fccke zerbr\u00f6ckelt und diese St\u00fccke ohne jeden Sinn und Plan vermischt. Strahlende Damenschultern und schwarze Fr\u00e4cke, L\u00fcster, Lampen, luftige, schwebende T\u00fcllgewebe, \u00e4therleichte B\u00e4nder und die dicke Ba\u00dfgeige, die hinter dem Gel\u00e4nder des wundervollen Chors hervorschaute, \u2013 alles blendete ihn. Er sah auf einmal eine solche Menge ehrenwerter Greise und Halbgreise mit Ordenssternen auf den Fr\u00e4kken, von Damen, die so leicht, stolz und grazi\u00f6s \u00fcber das Parkett glitten, oder in Reihen nebeneinander sa\u00dfen; er h\u00f6rte so viele franz\u00f6sische und englische Worte; au\u00dferdem waren die jungen M\u00e4nner in den schwarzen Fr\u00e4cken von einem solchen Anstand erf\u00fcllt, sprachen und schwiegen mit solcher W\u00fcrde, verstanden so ausgezeichnet, nichts \u00dcberfl\u00fcssiges zu sagen, scherzten so majest\u00e4tisch, l\u00e4chelten so ehrfurchtsvoll, trugen so wunderbare Backenb\u00e4rte zur Schau und verstanden so kunstvoll ihre sch\u00f6nen H\u00e4nde zu zeigen, indem sie ihre Halsbinden zurechtzupften; die Damen waren so luftig, so tief in vollkommene Zufriedenheit und Wonne versunken, schlugen so entz\u00fcckend die Augen nieder, \u2013 da\u00df... aber schon das dem\u00fctige Aussehen Piskarjows, der sich \u00e4ngstlich an eine S\u00e4ule lehnte, zeigte, da\u00df er ganz die Fassung verloren hatte. In diesem Augenblick dr\u00e4ngte sich die Menge um eine tanzende Gruppe. Die T\u00e4nzerinnen waren in durchsichtige Sch\u00f6pfungen von Paris geh\u00fcllt, in Kleider, die aus Luft gewebt schienen; fl\u00fcchtig ber\u00fchrten sie mit ihren funkelnden F\u00fc\u00dfchen das Parkett und schienen noch \u00e4therischer, als wenn sie es \u00fcberhaupt nicht ber\u00fchrten. Aber eine von ihnen war sch\u00f6ner als alle, prachtvoller und gl\u00e4nzender als alle gekleidet. Ein unsagbarer feiner Geschmack spiegelte sich in ihrem ganzen Aufputz, und dabei hatte man den Eindruck, als k\u00fcmmerte sie sich gar nicht um ihn, als sei alles ganz von selbst entstanden. Sie sah und sah zugleich auch nicht auf die Zuschauer, die sich um sie dr\u00e4ngten, sie hielt ihre langen Wimpern gleichg\u00fcltig gesenkt, und das blendende Wei\u00df ihres Gesichtes erschien noch blendender, wenn sich bei einer Senkung des Kopfes ein leichter Schatten auf ihre entz\u00fcckende Stirn legte.\n\nPiskarjow wandte alle M\u00fche an, um sich durch die Menge zu schieben und die Sch\u00f6ne n\u00e4her zu sehen; aber irgendein gro\u00dfer Kopf mit dunklem Kraushaar verdeckte sie zu seinem gr\u00f6\u00dften \u00c4rger immer wieder vor ihm; au\u00dferdem hatte ihn die Menge so eingezw\u00e4ngt, da\u00df er weder sich vorw\u00e4rtszudr\u00e4ngen, noch zur\u00fcckzuweichen wagte, aus Furcht, irgendeinen Geheimrat anzusto\u00dfen. Da hat er sich aber doch vorgedr\u00e4ngt und einen Blick auf seine Kleidung geworfen, um sie etwas in Ordnung zu bringen. Du lieber Himmel, was ist denn das?! Er hat ja einen \u00fcber und \u00fcber mit Farben beschmierten Rock an: in der Eile hatte er ganz vergessen, sich vor dem Aufbruch anst\u00e4ndig umzuziehen. Er err\u00f6tete bis \u00fcber die Ohren, senkte den Kopf und wollte in die Erde versinken; aber auch das war ganz unm\u00f6glich: hinter ihm stand eine ganze Mauer von Kammerjunkern in gl\u00e4nzenden Uniformen. Er w\u00fcnschte sich weit fort von der Sch\u00f6nen mit der herrlichen Stirne und den sch\u00f6nen Wimpern. Voller Angst hob er die Augen, um festzustellen, ob sie ihn nicht ansehe. Mein Gott, sie stand ja vor ihm!... Aber was ist das, was ist das? \u00bbDas ist sie!\u00ab rief er pl\u00f6tzlich ganz laut. Es war in der Tat sie, dieselbe, der er auf dem Newskij begegnet war und die er bis zu ihrer Wohnung begleitet hatte.\n\nSie hob indessen ihre Wimpern und sah alle mit ihrem heiteren Blick an. \u00bbAch, wie sch\u00f6n!...\u00ab das war alles, was er mit stokkendem Atem sagen konnte. Sie lie\u00df ihre Blicke im Kreise schweifen, \u2013 ein jeder wollte ihre Aufmerksamkeit auf sich lenken, aber sie wandte mit einer eigent\u00fcmlichen Erm\u00fcdung und Gleichg\u00fcltigkeit die Blicke von allen ab und richtete sie auf Piskarjow. Oh, welch ein Himmel! Welch ein Paradies! Sch\u00f6pfer, gib mir die Kraft, es zu ertragen! Das Leben kann es nicht fassen, dieser Blick mu\u00df es zerst\u00f6ren und die Seele entf\u00fchren! Sie gab ihm ein Zeichen, aber nicht mit der Hand und nicht durch ein Nicken des Kopfes, nein, in ihren alles zermalmenden Augen kam dieses Zeichen so leise, so unmerklich zum Ausdruck, da\u00df niemand es wahrnehmen konnte; er aber sah und verstand es. Der Tanz dauerte lange; die m\u00fcde Musik schien allm\u00e4hlich zu ersterben und zu erl\u00f6schen, schwang sich dann wieder auf, kreischte und dr\u00f6hnte; endlich war der Tanz zu Ende. Sie setzte sich; ihre erm\u00fcdete Brust hob sich unter den zarten T\u00fcllwolken; ihre Hand (Sch\u00f6pfer, was f\u00fcr eine wundervolle Hand!) sank auf ihre Kniee, fiel auf ihr luftiges Gewand, und ihr Kleid schien unter der Last dieser Hand Musik zu atmen, und seine zarte Fliederfarbe unterstrich noch mehr das blendende Wei\u00df dieser herrlichen Hand. Nur einmal diese Hand ber\u00fchren, \u2013 und nichts mehr! Keine anderen W\u00fcnsche, \u2013 alle anderen W\u00fcnsche sind zu k\u00fchn... Er stand hinter ihrem Stuhl und wagte nicht, zu sprechen, wagte nicht zu atmen. \u00bbSie haben sich wohl gelangweilt?\u00ab sagte sie: \u00bbAuch ich habe mich gelangweilt. Ich merke, da\u00df Sie mich hassen...\u00ab f\u00fcgte sie hinzu, indem sie ihre langen Wimpern senkte.\n\n\u00bbSie hassen? Ich?... Ich?...\u00ab wollte der ganz fassungslose Piskarjow sagen; er h\u00e4tte auch gewi\u00df eine Menge unzusammenh\u00e4ngender Worte gesagt, aber in diesem Augenblick nahte ihr ein Kammerherr mit einem sch\u00f6n frisierten Toupet und machte einige witzige und angenehme Bemerkungen. Er zeigte nicht ohne Anmut eine Reihe recht sch\u00f6ner Z\u00e4hne und trieb mit jedem Witz einen spitzen Nagel in Piskarjows Herz. Endlich wandte sich zum Gl\u00fcck jemand an den Kammerherrn mit irgendeiner Frage.\n\n\u00bbWie unertr\u00e4glich!\u00ab sagte sie und richtete auf ihn ihre himmlischen Augen. \u00bbIch werde mich am anderen Ende des Saales hinsetzen: finden Sie sich dort ein!\u00ab Sie glitt durch die Menge und verschwand. Er bahnte sich wie wahnsinnig den Weg durch das Gedr\u00e4nge und stand schon neben ihr.\n\nSie war es wirklich! Sie sa\u00df wie eine K\u00f6nigin, sch\u00f6ner und herrlicher als alle, und suchte ihn mit den Augen.\n\n\u00bbSie sind hier?\u00ab sagte sie leise. \u00bbIch will mit Ihnen aufrichtig sein: die Umst\u00e4nde unserer Begegnung sind Ihnen wohl merkw\u00fcrdig vorgekommen. Glauben Sie denn, da\u00df ich zu den ver\u00e4chtlichen Gesch\u00f6pfen geh\u00f6ren k\u00f6nne, unter denen Sie mich trafen? Ihnen erscheinen meine Handlungen wohl sonderbar, aber ich will Ihnen das Geheimnis enth\u00fcllen. Sind Sie imstande,\u00ab sagte sie, indem sie auf ihn ihre Augen richtete, \u00bbes niemand zu verraten?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbOh, gewi\u00df, gewi\u00df, gewi\u00df!...\u00ab\n\nIn diesem Augenblick trat aber an sie ein \u00e4lterer Herr heran, er begann mit ihr in einer Sprache zu reden, die Piskarjow unverst\u00e4ndlich war, und reichte ihr den Arm. Sie warf einen flehenden Blick auf Piskarjow und bedeutete ihm durch ein Zeichen, auf seinem Platze zu bleiben und auf sie zu warten; aber er war in seiner Ungeduld nicht imstande, irgendwelche Befehle, selbst solche aus ihrem Munde, zu befolgen. Er ging ihr nach, aber die Menge dr\u00e4ngte sich zwischen sie. Er konnte ihr fliederfarbenes Kleid nicht mehr sehen; von Unruhen ergriffen, dr\u00e4ngte er sich von einem Zimmer ins andere und stie\u00df alle unbarmherzig zur Seite; aber in allen Zimmern sa\u00dfen lauter gro\u00dfe Tiere beim Whist, in vollkommenes Schwelgen geh\u00fcllt. In der Ekke eines Zimmers stritten einige \u00e4ltere Herren \u00fcber die Vorz\u00fcge des Milit\u00e4rdienstes gegen\u00fcber dem Zivildienste; in einer anderen Ecke machten einige junge M\u00e4nner in gutsitzenden Fr\u00e4cken fl\u00fcchtige Bemerkungen \u00fcber das mehrb\u00e4ndige Werk eines ernsten Dichters. Piskarjow f\u00fchlte, wie ein \u00e4lterer Herr von respektgebietendem Aussehen ihn am Knopfe seines Fracks festhielt und sein Urteil \u00fcber eine recht treffende Bemerkung, die er gemacht, h\u00f6ren wollte; er stie\u00df ihn aber roh zur Seite und merkte sogar nicht, das jener einen ziemlich hohen Orden am Halse hatte. Er lief in ein anderes Zimmer, \u2013 sie war dort nicht, in ein drittes, \u2013 auch dort war sie nicht. \u00bbWo ist sie denn? Gebt sie mir! Oh, ich kann nicht leben, ohne sie zu sehen! Ich will h\u00f6ren, was sie mir sagen wollte!\u00ab Aber all sein Suchen war vergeblich. Unruhig, erm\u00fcdet dr\u00fcckte er sich in eine Ecke und blickte in die Menge; seine gespannten Augen sahen aber alles getr\u00fcbt. Endlich sah er um sich deutlich die W\u00e4nde seines eigenen Zimmers. Er hob die Augen: vor ihm stand der Leuchter mit fast erloschener Flamme; die ganze Kerze war geschmolzen; der Talg hatte sich auf seinen alten Tisch ergossen...\n\nEr hatte also nur geschlafen! Mein Gott, welch ein herrlicher Traum! Wozu mu\u00dfte er auch erwachen? Warum hatte es nicht noch eine Minute gedauert? Sie w\u00e4re doch sicher wieder erschienen! Das Morgengrauen blickte mit seinem unangenehmen, tr\u00fcben Scheine zu ihm ins Zimmer und \u00e4rgerte ihn. Das Zimmer lag so grau und unordentlich vor ihm... Oh wie absto\u00dfend ist doch die Wirklichkeit! Was ist sie im Vergleich zu einem Traume. Er entkleidete sich schnell, legte sich ins Bett und h\u00fcllte sich in die Decke: er wollte unbedingt das entschwundene Traumbild zur\u00fcckrufen. Ihn \u00fcberkam wieder der Schlaf, er tr\u00e4umte aber von Dingen, die er gar nicht sehen wollte: bald erschien ihm der Leutnant Pirogow mit einer Pfeife, bald ein Diener der Kunstakademie, bald ein wirklicher Staatsrat, bald der Kopf einer Finnin, deren Bildnis er einmal gemalt hatte, und \u00e4hnlicher Unsinn.\n\nEr lag bis zur Mittagstunde im Bett und bem\u00fchte sich, wieder einzuschlafen, sie erschien aber nicht. Wenn sie doch nur f\u00fcr einen Augenblick ihre herrlichen Z\u00fcge zeigen wollte, wenn er doch nur einen Augenblick ihre leichten Schritte h\u00f6ren, ihre blo\u00dfe, wie der Schnee auf den h\u00f6chsten Bergesgipfeln leuchtende Hand sehen k\u00f6nnte!\n\nEr hatte alles von sich geworfen, alles vergessen, und sah mit best\u00fcrzter, hoffnungsloser Miene, nur von dem einen Traumbilde erf\u00fcllt. Er wollte nichts anr\u00fchren; seine Augen blickten teilnahmslos und leblos durchs Fenster auf den Hof, wo ein schmutziger Wasserf\u00fchrer Wasser ausschenkte, das in der Luft einfror, und die Stimme eines Hausierers meckerte: \u00bbAlte Kleider zu verkaufen!\u00ab Alles Allt\u00e4gliche und Wirkliche ber\u00fchrte seltsam sein Ohr. So sa\u00df er bis zum Abend und warf sich dann voller Sehnsucht ins Bett. Lange k\u00e4mpfte er gegen die Schlaflosigkeit, und schlie\u00dflich \u00fcberwand er sie. Wieder hatte er einen Traum, einen gemeinen, h\u00e4\u00dflichen Traum. \u00bbGott, erbarme dich meiner, zeig' sie mir, wenn auch nur f\u00fcr einen Augenblick!\u00ab Er wartete wieder auf den Abend, er schlief wieder ein, und tr\u00e4umte wieder von irgendeinem Beamten, der ein Beamter und zugleich ein Fagott war. Oh, das war unertr\u00e4glich! Endlich erschien sie! Er sah ihren Kopf, ihre Locken... sie sah ihn an... Oh, wie kurz! Und wieder versank alles in einem Nebel und wurde von einem dummen Traumgesicht verdeckt.\n\nEndlich wurden diese Traumgesichte zu seinem eigentlichen Leben, und sein ganzes Leben nahm von nun an eine merkw\u00fcrdige Form an: er schlief, sozusagen, im Wachen und wachte im Schlafen. H\u00e4tte ihn jemand stumm vor seinem leeren Tische sitzen oder durch die Stra\u00dfen gehen sehen, so mu\u00dfte er ihn f\u00fcr einen Nachtwandler halten oder f\u00fcr einen vom Alkohol vergifteten Menschen: so ausdruckslos war sein Blick. Seine angeborene Zerstreutheit entwickelte sich noch mehr und verjagte von seinem Gesicht gewaltsam alle Gef\u00fchle und Regungen. Nur beim Anbruch der Nacht wurde er wieder lebendig.\n\nDieser Zustand zerr\u00fcttete seine Kr\u00e4fte, und seine schrecklichste Qual war, da\u00df der Schlaf anfing, ihn ganz zu fliehen. Um seinen einzigen Reichtum zu erhalten, wandte er alle Mittel an, um den Schlaf wiederzuerlangen. Er hatte geh\u00f6rt, es g\u00e4be wohl ein Mittel, den Schlaf wiederzuerlangen \u2013 man brauche nur Opium einzunehmen. Wo verschafft man sich aber Opium? Er erinnerte sich eines persischen Kaufmanns, der mit Schals handelte und der ihn bei fast jeder Begegnung bat, ihm eine junge Sch\u00f6ne zu malen. Er beschlo\u00df, zu diesem Perser zu gehen, in der Annahme, da\u00df jener wohl sicher Opium habe.\n\nDer Perser empfing ihn, mit untergeschlagenen Beinen auf einem Sofa sitzend. \u00bbWozu brauchst du Opium?\u00ab fragte er ihn.\n\nPiskarjow erz\u00e4hlte ihm von seiner Schlaflosigkeit.\n\n\u00bbGut, ich will dir Opium geben, du mu\u00dft mir aber eine junge Sch\u00f6ne malen. Sie mu\u00df sehr sch\u00f6n sein! Die Brauen schwarz, und die Augen gro\u00df wie Oliven; ich selbst soll aber neben ihr liegen und eine Pfeife rauchen! H\u00f6rst du, sie mu\u00df sch\u00f6n sein, sehr sch\u00f6n!\u00ab\n\nPiskarjow versprach ihm alles. Der Perser ging f\u00fcr einen Augenblick hinaus und brachte ein Glas mit einer dunklen Fl\u00fcssigkeit. Er go\u00df einen Teil davon in ein Fl\u00e4schchen und gab es Piskarjow mit der Weisung, nicht mehr als sieben Tropfen in Wasser zu nehmen. Piskarjow ergriff gierig das kostbare Gl\u00e4schen, das er auch nicht f\u00fcr einen Haufen Goldes wieder hergegeben h\u00e4tte, und st\u00fcrzte nach Hause.\n\nZu Hause angelangt, go\u00df er einige Tropfen in ein Glas Wasser, nahm es ein und warf sich aufs Bett.\n\nGott, diese Freude! Sie! Wieder sie, aber schon in einer ganz anderen Welt! Wie schon sitzt sie am Fenster eines freundlichen Landh\u00e4uschens! Ihre Kleidung atmet solche Schlichtheit, wie sie nur ein Dichter ersinnen kann. Das Haar auf ihrem Kopfe... Gott, wie einfach ist ihre Haartracht und wie gut steht sie zu ihrem Gesicht! Ein knappes T\u00fcchlein liegt ganz lose auf ihrem schlanken Halse; alles an ihr ist so bescheiden, alles von einem geheimnisvollen, unbeschreiblichen Geschmack erf\u00fcllt. Wie lieblich ist ihr grazi\u00f6ser Gang! Wie musikalisch der Tritt ihrer F\u00fc\u00dfe und das Rascheln ihres einfachen Kleides! Wie sch\u00f6n ihre Hand mit dem aus Haaren geflochtenen Armband. Sie spricht zu ihm mit Tr\u00e4nen in den Augen: \u00bbVerachten Sie mich nicht: ich bin gar nicht die, f\u00fcr die sie mich halten. Sehen Sie mich doch aufmerksamer an und sagen Sie mir: bin ich denn dessen f\u00e4hig, was Sie von mir denken?\u00ab \u00bbOh, nein, nein, soll jeder, der solches zu denken wagt...\u00ab\n\nEr erwachte aber ger\u00fchrt, zerqu\u00e4lt, mit Tr\u00e4nen in den Augen. \u00bbEs w\u00e4re besser, wenn du gar nicht existiertest, wenn du in dieser Welt nicht lebtest, sondern nur die Sch\u00f6pfung eines begeisterten K\u00fcnstlers w\u00e4rest! Ich w\u00fcrde dann niemals von der Leinwand weichen, ich w\u00fcrde dich ewig anschauen und dich k\u00fcssen, ich w\u00fcrde nur durch dich leben und atmen wie in einem sch\u00f6nen Traum, und dann w\u00e4re ich gl\u00fccklich; andere W\u00fcnsche h\u00e4tte ich nicht. Ich w\u00fcrde dich vor dem Einschlafen und vor dem Erwachen wie meinen Schutzengel anrufen, ich w\u00fcrde auf dich warten, wenn ich etwas G\u00f6ttliches und Heiliges darzustellen h\u00e4tte. Aber jetzt... welch ein schreckliches Leben! Was n\u00fctzt es mir, da\u00df sie lebt? Ist denn das Leben eines Wahnsinnigen seinen Verwandten und Freunden, die ihn einst geliebt haben, angenehm! Gott, was ist unser Leben! Ein ewiger Kampf zwischen Traum und Wirklichkeit!\u00ab\n\nBeil\u00e4ufig solche Gedanken besch\u00e4ftigten ihn ununterbrochen. Er dachte sonst an nichts, er nahm fast keine Speise zu sich und wartete mit der Ungeduld und der Leidenschaftlichkeit eines Liebhabers auf den Abend und auf das ersehnte Traumgesicht. Die st\u00e4ndige Richtung seiner Gedanken auf ein Ziel erlangte schlie\u00dflich eine solche Gewalt \u00fcber sein ganzes Sein und seine Phantasie, da\u00df das ersehnte Bild ihm fast jeden Tag erschien, und zwar immer in einer, der Wirklichkeit gerade entgegengesetzten Lage, denn seine Gedanken waren vollkommen rein wie die Gedanken eines Kindes. Durch diese Tr\u00e4ume wurde der Gegenstand seiner Sehnsucht selbst gel\u00e4utert und verkl\u00e4rt.\n\nDas Opium erhitzte seine Gedanken noch mehr, und wenn es je einen bis zum h\u00f6chsten Grade des Wahnsinns, ungest\u00fcm, schrecklich, allverzehrend und st\u00fcrmisch Liebenden gegeben hat, so war dieser Ungl\u00fcckliche er.\n\nVon allen seinen Traumgesichten freute ihn eines mehr als alle anderen: er sah sein Atelier vor sich. Er war so heiter und sa\u00df so frohgemut mit der Palette in der Hand! Und auch sie war dabei. Sie war schon seine Frau. Sie sa\u00df auf seiner Seite, den reizenden Ellenbogen auf die Stuhllehne gest\u00fctzt und sah seiner Arbeit zu. In ihren schmachtenden, m\u00fcden Augen lag eine Last von Gl\u00fcck; alles im Zimmer atmete paradiesische Seligkeit; es war so hell, so sch\u00f6n aufger\u00e4umt. Gott, sie lehnte ihr reizendes K\u00f6pfchen an seine Brust... Einen sch\u00f6neren Traum hatte er noch nie gehabt. Er erwachte diesmal irgendwie frischer und weniger zerstreut als sonst. In seinem Kopfe schwirrten seltsame Gedanken. \u00bbVielleicht ist sie durch einen unverschuldeten, schrecklichen Zufall in das Laster hineingezogen,\u00ab dachte er sich: \u00bbVielleicht sehnt sich ihre Seele nach Reue; vielleicht m\u00f6chte sie sich selbst aus ihrem schrecklichen Zustande befreien. Darf ich denn gleichg\u00fcltig ihrem Untergange zusehen, w\u00e4hrend ich ihr doch blo\u00df die Hand zu reichen brauche, um sie vor dem Ertrinken zu retten?\u00ab\n\nSeine Gedanken gingen noch weiter. \u00bbMich kennt niemand,\u00ab sagte er zu sich selbst, \u00bbniemand k\u00fcmmert sich um mich, und auch ich k\u00fcmmere mich um niemand. Wenn sie aufrichtige Reue \u00e4u\u00dfert und ihren Lebenswandel \u00e4ndert, werde ich sie heiraten. Ich mu\u00df sie heiraten und werde sicher viel besser tun, als viele, die ihre Haush\u00e4lterinnen und oft sogar die ver\u00e4chtlichsten Gesch\u00f6pfe, heiraten. Meine Tat wird aber uneigenn\u00fctzig und vielleicht sogar gro\u00df sein; ich werde der Welt ihre sch\u00f6nste Zierde wiedergeben!\u00ab\n\nAls er einen so leichtsinnigen Plan gefa\u00dft, f\u00fchlte er, wie ihm das Blut ins Gesicht scho\u00df; er trat vor den Spiegel und erschrak selbst vor seinen eingefallenen Wangen und seinem blassen Gesicht. Er kleidete sich sorgf\u00e4ltig an, wusch sich, k\u00e4mmte sich das Haar, zog einen neuen Frack und eine elegante Weste an, warf sich den Mantel um und trat auf die Stra\u00dfe. Er atmete die frische Luft und f\u00fchlte sein Herz erfrischt wie ein Genesender, der zum erstenmal nach einer langen Krankheit ins Freie tritt. Sein Herz klopfte, als er sich der Stra\u00dfe n\u00e4herte, die sein Fu\u00df seit jener verh\u00e4ngnisvollen Begegnung nicht mehr betreten hatte.\n\nLange suchte er das Haus; sein Ged\u00e4chtnis schien ihn im Stich zu lassen. Er ging zweimal durch die Stra\u00dfe und wu\u00dfte nicht, vor welchem Hause stehen zu bleiben. Endlich kam ihm eines bekannt vor. Er lief schnell die Treppe hinauf und klopfte an die T\u00fcr; die T\u00fcr ging auf, und wer trat ihm entgegen? Sein Ideal, das geheimnisvolle Bild, das Original seiner Traumgesichte, diejenige, die sein Leben, sein schreckliches, qualvolles, s\u00fc\u00dfes Leben ausgemacht hatte, \u2013 sie, sie selbst stand vor ihm. Er erzitterte; er war von Freude ergriffen und konnte sich vor Schw\u00e4che kaum auf den F\u00fc\u00dfen halten. Sie stand vor ihm noch ebenso sch\u00f6n da, obwohl ihre Augen verschlafen waren, obwohl ihr nicht mehr ganz frisches Gesicht bla\u00df war; aber sie war immer noch herrlich.\n\n\u00bbAch!\u00ab rief sie, als sie Piskarjow erblickte, und rieb sich ihre verschlafenen Augen (es war aber schon zwei Uhr): \u00bbWarum sind Sie damals von uns weggelaufen?\u00ab\n\nEr setzte sich ersch\u00f6pft auf einen Stuhl und sah sie an.\n\n\u00bbIch bin eben aufgewacht; man hat mich erst um sieben Uhr fr\u00fch heimgebracht. Ich war ganz betrunken,\u00ab f\u00fcgte sie mit einem L\u00e4cheln hinzu.\n\nAch, w\u00e4re sie doch lieber stumm und der Sprache beraubt, statt solche Reden zu f\u00fchren! Sie hatte ihm pl\u00f6tzlich wie in einem Panorama ihr ganzes Leben gezeigt. Aber er fa\u00dfte sich dennoch ein Herz und entschlo\u00df sich, zu versuchen, auf sie durch Ermahnungen einzuwirken. Er nahm sich zusammen und hielt ihr mit zitternder und zugleich leidenschaftlicher Stimme das Schreckliche ihrer Lage vor. Sie h\u00f6rte ihm mit aufmerksamem Gesicht und mit jenem Erstaunen zu, das wir bei einem unerwarteten und seltsamen Anblick zeigen. Sie blickte mit einem leisen L\u00e4cheln auf ihre Freundin, die, in einer Ecke sitzend, in ihrer Besch\u00e4ftigung \u2013 sie reinigte einen Kamm \u2013 innehielt und ebenso aufmerksam dem neuen Prediger zuh\u00f6rte.\n\n\u00bbIch bin allerdings arm,\u00ab sagte Piskarjow nach einer langen, belehrenden Ermahnung, \u00bbwir werden aber arbeiten, wir werden uns bem\u00fchen, unser Leben zu verbessern. Es gibt nichts Angenehmeres, als alles nur sich selbst zu verdanken. Ich werde an meinen Bildern arbeiten, du wirst, an meiner Seite sitzend, mich zur Arbeit begeistern und dabei sticken oder irgendeine andere Handarbeit machen \u2013 so werden wir keinen Mangel leiden.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbUnm\u00f6glich!\u00ab unterbrach sie ihn mit einem Ausdruck von Verachtung. \u00bbIch bin keine W\u00e4scherin und keine N\u00e4herin, da\u00df ich arbeiten sollte.\u00ab\n\nGott, in diesen Worten kam ihr ganzes gemeines, ver\u00e4chtliches Wesen zum Ausdruck, das Leben voller Leere und M\u00fc\u00dfiggang, diesen beiden getreuen Begleitern des Lasters.\n\n\u00bbHeiraten Sie doch mich!\u00ab rief mit frecher Miene ihre Freundin, die bisher in der Ecke geschwiegen hatte. \u00bbWenn ich Ihre Frau geworden bin, so werde ich so sitzen!\u00ab Bei diesen Worten verzerrte sie ihr elendes Gesicht zu einer dummen Grimasse, die die Sch\u00f6ne zum Lachen brachte.\n\nAch, das war schon zu viel! Das ging \u00fcber seine Kraft! Er st\u00fcrzte hinaus, als h\u00e4tte er alle Gef\u00fchle und Gedanken verloren. Sein Verstand hatte sich getr\u00fcbt: er irrte den ganzen Tag durch die Stra\u00dfen, ohne Ziel, ohne etwas zu sehen, zu h\u00f6ren oder zu f\u00fchlen. Niemand wu\u00dfte, ob er irgendwo \u00fcbernachtet hatte oder nicht; von einem niedrigen Instinkt getrieben, kam er erst am n\u00e4chsten Tag, bla\u00df, in schrecklichem Zustande, mit zerzaustem Haar und mit dem Ausdruck von Wahnsinn im Gesicht in seine Wohnung zur\u00fcck. Er schlo\u00df sich in sein Zimmer ein, lie\u00df niemand herein und verlangte nichts.\n\nEs vergingen vier Tage, und die T\u00fcre seines Zimmers wurde noch immer nicht ge\u00f6ffnet; schlie\u00dflich war eine ganze Woche vergangen, \u2013 das Zimmer blieb immer noch verschlossen. Man st\u00fcrzte zu seiner T\u00fcre, man rief ihn, er gab aber keine Antwort; endlich brach man die T\u00fcre auf und fand seinen leblosen K\u00f6rper mit durchschnittener Kehle. Ein blutiges Rasiermesser lag auf dem Boden. An den krampfhaft ausgestreckten Armen und dem schrecklich verzerrten Gesichtsausdruck konnte man erkennen, da\u00df seine Hand gezittert und da\u00df er sich noch lange gequ\u00e4lt hatte, ehe seine s\u00fcndige Seele seinen Leib verlassen.\n\nSo ging das Opfer einer wahnsinnigen Leidenschaft, der arme Piskarjow zugrunde, der stille, sch\u00fcchterne, bescheidene, kindlich einf\u00e4ltige Mensch, der in sich einen Funken von Talent trug, das sich vielleicht mit der Zeit zu einer gro\u00dfen und hellen Flamme entwickelt haben w\u00fcrde. Niemand beweinte ihn; niemand zeigte sich bei seiner entseelten Leiche, au\u00dfer der gew\u00f6hnlichen Figur des Revieraufsehers und des gleichg\u00fcltigen Polizeiarztes. Sein Sarg wurde in aller Stille, sogar ohne irgendwelche Riten, auf die Ochta geschafft. Hinter ihm folgend, weinte nur ein einziger Mensch, ein alter Soldat, und das auch nur, weil er ein Glas Branntwein zu viel getrunken hatte. Sogar der Leutnant Pirogow kam nicht, um die Leiche des Ungl\u00fccklichen zu sehen, dem er bei Lebzeiten seine hohe Gunst erwiesen hatte. \u00dcbrigens hatte er ganz andere Dinge im Sinn: ihn besch\u00e4ftigte ein au\u00dferordentliches Erlebnis. Wollen wir uns aber ihm zuwenden.\n\nIch mag keine Leichen, und es ist mir immer unangenehm, wenn ich einem langen Leichenzuge begegne und ein alter, als eine Art Kapuziner verkleideter Soldat sich mit der linken Hand eine Prise nimmt, weil die Rechte die Fackel halten mu\u00df. Ich f\u00fchle immer \u00c4rger, wenn ich einen reichen Katafalk und einen mit Samt \u00fcberzogenen Sarg sehe; aber mein \u00c4rger vermischt sich mit Trauer, wenn ich sehe, wie auf einem Lastfuhrwerke ein gew\u00f6hnlicher, ungestrichener und unbedeckter Sarg eines armen Mannes gef\u00fchrt wird, dem nur irgendein armes Bettelweib, das ihm an einer Wegkreuzung begegnet, folgt, weil sie nichts anderes zu tun hat.\n\nIch glaube, wir haben den Leutnant Pirogow in dem Augenblick verlassen, wo er sich von dem armen Piskarjow trennte und der Blondine vor ihnen nacheilte. Diese Blondine war ein zierliches und recht interessantes kleines Gesch\u00f6pf. Sie blieb vor jedem Laden stehen und betrachtete die ausgestellten G\u00fcrtel, Halst\u00fccher, Ohrringe, Handschuhe und andere Bagatellen, sie drehte sich ununterbrochen hin und her, blickte nach allen Seiten und auch zur\u00fcck. \u203aDu meine Liebe!\u2039 sagte Pirogow, seiner selbst sicher, indem er die Verfolgung fortsetzte und das Gesicht mit dem Mantelkragen verdeckte, um nicht von einem seiner Bekannten gesehen zu werden. Aber es ist wohl nicht \u00fcberfl\u00fcssig, dem Leser zu melden, was f\u00fcr ein Mensch der Leutnant Pirogow war.\n\nBevor wir erkl\u00e4ren, was f\u00fcr ein Mensch der Leutnant Pirogow war, wollen wir einiges \u00fcber die Gesellschaft sagen, zu der Pirogow geh\u00f6rte.\n\nEs gibt Offiziere, die in Petersburg eine eigene, mittlere Gesellschaftsschicht darstellen. Bei einer Abendunterhaltung oder einem Diner im Hause eines Staatsrats oder wirklichen Staatsrats, der diesen Dienstrang nach vierzigj\u00e4hriger M\u00fche erlangt hat, kann man immer einen von ihnen treffen. Einige T\u00f6chter, so bleich und farblos wie Petersburg selbst, von denen einige schon \u00fcberreif sind, ein Teetisch, ein Klavier und eine h\u00e4usliche Tanzunterhaltung sind undenkbar ohne ein leuchtendes Epaulett, das beim Lampenlicht zwischen einer wohlerzogenen Blondine und dem schwarzen Frack eines Bruders oder eines Hausfreundes gl\u00e4nzt. Es ist au\u00dferordentlich schwer, so ein kaltbl\u00fctiges junges M\u00e4dchen in Stimmung und zum Lachen zu bringen; es geh\u00f6rt eine gro\u00dfe Kunst dazu, oder richtiger, gar keine Kunst. Man mu\u00df so sprechen, da\u00df es weder allzu klug, noch allzu komisch sei, und dabei stets an die Bagatellen denken, die die Frauen so lieben. Das mu\u00df man den erw\u00e4hnten Herren lassen: sie haben ein besonderes Talent, diese farblosen Sch\u00f6nen zum Lachen und zum Zuh\u00f6ren zu zwingen. Die vom Lachen erstickten Ausrufe: \u00bbAch, h\u00f6ren Sie auf! Sch\u00e4men Sie sich doch, einen so zum Lachen zu bringen!\u00ab sind oft ihr bester Lohn. In der h\u00f6heren Gesellschaft kommen sie nur selten vor, oder richtiger gesagt, nie. Hier sind sie ganz von den Menschen verdr\u00e4ngt, die man in dieser Gesellschaft Aristokraten nennt. Im \u00fcbrigen gelten sie als gebildete und wohlerzogene Menschen. Sie sprechen gerne \u00fcber die Literatur, loben Bulgarin, Puschkin und Gretsch und fertigen Orlow mit Verachtung und geistreichen Sticheleien ab. Sie vers\u00e4umen keinen einzigen \u00f6ffentlichen Vortrag, und wenn er auch nur von der Buchhaltung oder sogar vom Forstwesen handelt. Im Theater begegnet man ihnen bei jedem St\u00fcck, h\u00f6chstens solche St\u00fccke ausgenommen, die wie \u00bbFilatka\u00ab ihren w\u00e4hlerischen Geschmack verletzen.\n\nIm Theater sind sie immer anwesend. F\u00fcr die Theaterdirektion sind sie die n\u00fctzlichsten Menschen. Sie sch\u00e4tzen in den St\u00fckken haupts\u00e4chlich sch\u00f6ne Verse, und lieben es, die Schauspieler laut vor die Rampe zu rufen; viele von ihnen, die in staatlichen Lehranstalten unterrichten oder junge Leute zum Eintritt in diese Lehranstalten vorbereiten, schaffen sich zuletzt ein Kabriolett und ein Paar Pferde an. Dann wird ihr Wirkungskreis noch weiter; schlie\u00dflich bringen sie es so weit, da\u00df sie eine Kaufmannstochter heiraten, die Klavier zu spielen versteht, an die hunderttausend Rubel mitbekommt und eine Menge b\u00e4rtiger Verwandter hat. Diese Ehre k\u00f6nnen sie jedoch nicht fr\u00fcher erlangen, als bis sie es wenigstens zum Obersten gebracht haben, denn die russischen Kaufleute, deren B\u00e4rte immer noch etwas nach Sauerkohl riechen, wollen ihre T\u00f6chter unbedingt mit Gener\u00e4len oder wenigstens Obersten verheiratet sehen.\n\nDas sind die wichtigsten Charakterz\u00fcge der jungen Leute dieser Art. Der Leutnant Pirogow verf\u00fcgte aber au\u00dferdem noch \u00fcber eine Menge anderer Talente, die nur ihm allein eigen waren. Er deklamierte vorz\u00fcglich Verse aus dem \u00bbDmitrij Donskoi\u00ab und aus \u00bbVerstand schadet\u00ab und verstand ausgezeichnet, Rauchringe aus seiner Pfeife steigen zu lassen, von denen er zuweilen ganze zehn St\u00fcck aufeinanderreihen konnte. Er verstand auch sehr angenehm den bekannten Witz zu erz\u00e4hlen, da\u00df \u00bbdie Kanone ein Ding f\u00fcr sich und auch das Einhorn ein Ding f\u00fcr sich sei\u00ab.\n\nEs ist \u00fcbrigens ziemlich schwer, alle Talente aufzuz\u00e4hlen, mit denen das Schicksal den Leutnant Pirogow ausgestattet hatte. Er liebte es, \u00fcber eine Schauspielerin oder T\u00e4nzerin zu sprechen, dr\u00fcckte sich aber dabei viel weniger scharf aus, als \u00fcber dieses Thema junge F\u00e4hnriche gew\u00f6hnlich zu sprechen pflegen. Er war mit seinem Dienstrang, den er erst vor kurzem bekommen hatte, sehr zufrieden; er pflegte zwar manchmal, wenn er sich aufs Sofa legte, zu sagen: \u00bbAch, ach, ach! Alles ist eitel, was ist denn dabei, da\u00df ich Leutnant bin?\u00ab aber in seinem Inneren schmeichelte ihm doch seine neue W\u00fcrde; beim Gespr\u00e4ch versuchte er oft wie nebenbei darauf anzuspielen, und als er einmal auf der Stra\u00dfe einem Regimentsschreiber begegnete, der ihm nicht h\u00f6flich genug erschien, hielt er ihn sofort an und gab ihm in wenigen, aber eindringlichen Worten zu verstehen, da\u00df er einen Leutnant und nicht etwa einen anderen Offizier vor sich habe. Er bem\u00fchte sich, dies besonders sch\u00f6n auszudr\u00fccken, da in diesem Augenblick gerade zwei gar nicht \u00fcble Damen vorbeigingen. Pirogow hatte \u00fcberhaupt eine Leidenschaft f\u00fcr alles Sch\u00f6ne und erwies dem Maler Piskarjow seine Gunst; dies kam vielleicht auch daher, weil er zu gerne sein m\u00e4nnliches Antlitz auf einem Bilde abkonterfeit gesehen h\u00e4tte. Aber genug von den Eigenschaften Pirogows. Der Mensch ist ein so merkw\u00fcrdiges Gesch\u00f6pf, da\u00df es ganz unm\u00f6glich ist, alle seine Vorz\u00fcge auf einmal darzulegen; je genauer man ihn betrachtet, um so mehr neue Eigenschaften entdeckt man an ihm, so da\u00df man mit der Aufz\u00e4hlung nie zu Ende k\u00e4me. Pirogow verfolgte also unausgesetzt die Unbekannte und unterhielt sie ab und zu mit Fragen, die sie nur selten, kurz und mit unartikulierten Lauten beantwortete. Sie gelangten durch das nasse Kasantor in die Mjeschtschanskaja-Stra\u00dfe \u2013 die Stra\u00dfe der Tabak- und Kraml\u00e4den, der deutschen Handwerker und der finnischen Nymphen. Die Blondine beschleunigte ihre Schritte und schl\u00fcpfte in das Tor eines ziemlich schmierigen Hauses. Pirogow folgte ihr. Sie lief eine enge, dunkle Treppe hinauf und trat in eine T\u00fcr, durch die ihr auch Pirogow k\u00fchn folgte. Er sah sich in einem gro\u00dfen Zimmer mit schwarzen W\u00e4nden und verr\u00e4ucherter Decke. Auf dem Tische lag ein Haufen eiserner Schrauben, Schlosserwerkzeuge, gl\u00e4nzender Kaffeekannen und Leuchter; der Fu\u00dfboden war mit Messing- und Eisensp\u00e4nen bedeckt. Pirogow merkte sofort, da\u00df es die Wohnung eines Handwerkers war. Die Unbekannte flatterte grazi\u00f6s wie ein Vogel in eine Seitent\u00fcre. Pirogow besann sich einen Augenblick, entschlo\u00df sich aber dann, der russischen Regel zu folgen und weiter vorzudringen. Er kam in ein anderes Zimmer, das dem ersten gar nicht glich: es war sauber und ordentlich, was darauf hinwies, da\u00df der Wirt ein Deutscher war. Pirogow sah vor sich ein Bild, das ihn in Erstaunen versetzte. Vor ihm sa\u00df Schiller \u2013 nicht der Schiller, der den \u00bbWilhelm Tell\u00ab und die \u00bbGeschichte des Drei\u00dfigj\u00e4hrigen Krieges\u00ab geschrieben hatte, sondern der bekannte Klempnermeister Schiller aus der Mjeschtschanskaja-Stra\u00dfe. Neben Schiller stand Hoffmann, nicht der Dichter Hoffmann, sondern der recht t\u00fcchtige Schuhmachermeister aus der Offiziersstra\u00dfe, ein gro\u00dfer Freund Schillers. Schiller sa\u00df betrunken auf einem Stuhle, stampfte mit dem Fu\u00df und sprach etwas mit gro\u00dfem Eifer. Dies alles h\u00e4tte Pirogow noch nicht so sehr in Erstaunen gesetzt, wie die au\u00dferordentlich seltsame Stellung dieser beiden Personen. Schiller sa\u00df da mit erhobenem Kopf, die ziemlich dicke Nase vorgestreckt, und Hoffmann hielt diese Nase mit zwei Fingern fest und bewegte die Schneide seines Schuhmachermessers auf der Oberfl\u00e4che der Nase. Die beiden Herren sprachen deutsch, und darum konnte der Leutnant Pirogow, der von der deutschen Sprache nur \u00bbguten Morgen\u00ab verstand, von der ganzen Sache nichts verstehen. Schiller sagte \u00fcbrigens, heftig gestikulierend, folgendes: \u00bbIch will sie nicht, ich brauche die Nase nicht! Die Nase allein kostet mich drei Pfund Tabak im Monat. Ich zahle im schlechten russischen Laden, denn im deutschen Laden gibt es keinen russischen Tabak \u2013, ich zahle im schlechten russischen Laden f\u00fcr jedes Pfund vierzig Kopeken; das macht im Monat einen Rubel und zwanzig Kopeken; zw\u00f6lf mal ein Rubel zwanzig Kopeken macht vierzehn Rubel vierzig Kopeken. H\u00f6rst du, mein Freund Hoffmann? F\u00fcr die Nase allein schnupfe ich aber Rap\u00e9, denn ich will nicht an Feiertagen schlechten russischen Tabak schnupfen. Im Jahre verschnupfe ich zwei Pfund Rap\u00e9, zu zwei Rubel das Pfund. Sechs Rubel und vierzehn Rubel vierzig Kopeken macht zwanzig Rubel vierzig Kopeken f\u00fcr den Tabak allein! Das ist ja Raub am hellichten Tag! Ich frage dich, mein Freund Hoffmann, habe ich nicht recht?\u00ab Hoffmann, der auch selbst betrunken war, antwortete bejahend. \u2013 \u00bbZwanzig Rubel vierzig Kopeken! Ich bin ein Schwabe; ich habe in Deutschland einen K\u00f6nig. Ich will die Nase nicht! Schneide mir die Nase ab! Hier ist meine Nase!\u00ab\n\nWenn nicht das pl\u00f6tzliche Erscheinen des Leutnants Pirogow, so h\u00e4tte Hoffmann seinem Freund Schiller zweifellos so mir nichts, dir nichts die Nase abgeschnitten, denn er hielt das Messer schon so in der Hand, als wollte er eine Sohle zuschneiden.\n\nSchiller \u00e4rgerte sich sehr dar\u00fcber, da\u00df eine unbekannte, ungebetene Person so ungelegen dazwischenkam. Obwohl er sich im angenehmen Zustande des Bier- und Weinrausches befand, f\u00fchlte er doch, da\u00df die Anwesenheit eines fremden Zeugen in dieser Situation und bei dieser Besch\u00e4ftigung etwas unpassend sei. Pirogow machte indessen eine leichte Verbeugung und sagte mit dem ihm eigenen Anstand: \u00bbEntschuldigen Sie bitte...\u00ab\n\n\u00bbMarsch hinaus!\u00ab antwortete Schiller gedehnt.\n\nDies verdutzte den Leutnant Pirogow. Eine solche Behandlung war ihm ganz neu. Das L\u00e4cheln, das auf seinem Gesicht gespielt hatte, war pl\u00f6tzlich verschwunden. Er sagte mit dem Gef\u00fchl gekr\u00e4nkter W\u00fcrde: \u00bbEs kommt mir so merkw\u00fcrdig vor, mein Herr... Sie haben es wohl nicht bemerkt... ich bin Offizier...\u00ab\n\n\u00bbWas ist ein Offizier! Ich bin ein deutscher Schwabe. Ich selbst,\u00ab \u2013 Schiller schlug hierbei mit der Faust auf den Tisch \u2013 \u00bbich selbst werde Offizier sein: anderthalb Jahre Junker, zwei Jahre Leutnant, und ich bin gleich morgen Offizier. Aber ich will nicht dienen! Mit einem Offizier mache ich es so: pfff!\u00ab Schiller hielt sich bei diesen Worten die Hand vor den Mund und blies darauf.\n\nDer Leutnant Pirogow merkte, da\u00df ihm nichts anderes \u00fcbrig blieb, als sich zu entfernen; aber diese Behandlung, die f\u00fcr seinen Dienstgrad so beleidigend war, ber\u00fchrte ihn unangenehm. Er blieb auf der Treppe einige Male stehen, als wollte er Mut fassen und sich \u00fcberlegen, auf welche Weise er Schiller seine Frechheit heimzahlen k\u00f6nnte. Schlie\u00dflich sagte er sich, da\u00df er Schiller entschuldigen k\u00f6nne, da sein Kopf so von Bier- und Weind\u00e4mpfen angef\u00fcllt sei; zudem erinnerte er sich der h\u00fcbschen Blondine, und er entschlo\u00df sich, die Angelegenheit zu vergessen. Am n\u00e4chsten Tage erschien der Leutnant Pirogow fr\u00fch des Morgens in der Klempnerwerkst\u00e4tte Schillers. Im Vorzimmer empfing ihn die h\u00fcbsche Blondine und fragte mit ziemlich strenger Stimme, die zu ihrem Gesichtchen so gut pa\u00dfte: \u00bbWas w\u00fcnschen Sie?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbAh, guten Morgen, meine Sch\u00f6ne! Haben Sie mich nicht erkannt? Dieser Schelm, diese h\u00fcbschen \u00c4uglein!\u00ab\n\nBei diesen Worten versuchte Pirogow mit artiger Geb\u00e4rde ihr Kinn zu fassen; aber die Blondine schrie erschrocken auf und fragte ebenso streng: \u00bbWas w\u00fcnschen Sie?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbNur Sie zu sehen, sonst w\u00fcnsche ich nichts,\u00ab sagte der Leutnant Pirogow mit einem recht liebensw\u00fcrdigen L\u00e4cheln und ging auf sie zu; als er aber merkte, da\u00df die scheue Blondine durch die T\u00fcre schl\u00fcpfen wollte, f\u00fcgte er hinzu: \u00bbMeine Liebe, ich mu\u00df mir Sporen machen lassen. K\u00f6nnen Sie mir Sporen anfertigen? Um Sie zu lieben, braucht man \u00fcbrigens keine Sporen, sondern eher einen Zaum. Was f\u00fcr h\u00fcbsche H\u00e4ndchen!\u00ab\n\nDer Leutnant Pirogow war bei Erkl\u00e4rungen dieser Art immer au\u00dfergew\u00f6hnlich liebensw\u00fcrdig.\n\n\u00bbIch will gleich meinen Mann rufen,\u00ab rief die Deutsche und ging hinaus. Nach ewigen Minuten erblickte Pirogow Schiller, der mit verschlafenen Augen vor ihn trat; er schien den gestrigen Rausch noch nicht ganz ausgeschlafen zu haben. Als er den Offizier erblickte, erinnerte er sich an die Vorg\u00e4nge von gestern wie an einen Traum. Seine Erinnerungen entsprachen zwar in keiner Weise der Wirklichkeit, aber er f\u00fchlte, da\u00df er irgendeine Dummheit begangen hatte, und trat daher dem Offizier mit sehr strenger Miene entgegen. \u00bbIch kann f\u00fcr die Sporen nicht weniger als f\u00fcnfzehn Rubel verlangen,\u00ab sagte er, um Pirogow loszuwerden, denn es war ihm, als einem ordentlichen Deutschen sehr unangenehm, einen Menschen vor sich zu haben, der ihn in einer unanst\u00e4ndigen Verfassung gesehen hatte. Schiller liebte es, ganz ohne Zeugen, mit nur zwei oder drei Freunden zu trinken und schlo\u00df sich sogar von seinen Gesellen ab.\n\n\u00bbWarum denn so teuer?\u00ab fragte Pirogow freundlich.\n\n\u00bbEs ist eben deutsche Arbeit,\u00ab versetzte Schiller kaltbl\u00fctig, sich das Kinn streichelnd. \u00bbEin Russe wird es wohl f\u00fcr zwei Rubel machen.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbSch\u00f6n, um Ihnen zu zeigen, da\u00df ich Sie liebe und Ihre Bekanntschaft machen m\u00f6chte, will ich die f\u00fcnfzehn Rubel bezahlen.\u00ab\n\nSchiller sann eine Minute lang nach: als ehrlicher Deutscher hatte er doch Gewissensbisse. Um Pirogow zu bewegen, den Auftrag zur\u00fcckzuziehen, erkl\u00e4rte er, er k\u00f6nne die Sporen nicht fr\u00fcher als in zwei Wochen herstellen. Aber Pirogow erkl\u00e4rte sich ohne Widerspruch damit einverstanden.\n\nDer Deutsche wurde wieder nachdenklich und \u00fcberlegte sich, wie diese Arbeit so auszuf\u00fchren, da\u00df sie wirklich f\u00fcnfzehn Rubel wert sei.\n\nIn diesem Augenblick trat die Blondine in die Werkst\u00e4tte und suchte etwas auf dem Tisch, auf dem die vielen Kaffeekannen standen. Der Leutnant benutzte Schillers Versunkenheit, ging auf sie zu und dr\u00fcckte ihren Arm, der bis zur Schulter entbl\u00f6\u00dft war.\n\nDas gefiel Schiller gar nicht. \u00bbFrau!\u00ab schrie er.\n\n\u00bbWas wollen Sie denn?\u00ab entgegnete die Blondine.\n\n\u00bbGeh in die K\u00fcche!\u00ab Die Blondine entfernte sich.\n\n\u00bbAlso in zwei Wochen?\u00ab sagte Pirogow.\n\n\u00bbJa, in zwei Wochen,\u00ab antwortete Schiller nachdenklich. \u00bbIch habe jetzt sehr viel Arbeit.\u00ab\n\n\u00bbAuf Wiedersehen, ich komme noch vorbei!\u00ab\n\n\u00bbAuf Wiedersehen!\u00ab antwortete Schiller und schlo\u00df hinter ihm die T\u00fcr.\n\nDer Leutnant Pirogow entschlo\u00df sich, seine Bem\u00fchungen nicht aufzugeben, obwohl ihn die Deutsche sehr energisch abwies. Er konnte gar nicht begreifen, da\u00df man ihm widerstehen k\u00f6nnte, um so weniger, als seine Liebensw\u00fcrdigkeit und sein hoher Rang ihm alles Recht auf Aufmerksamkeit verliehen. Es ist allerdings auch zu bemerken, da\u00df Schillers Frau bei ihrer Anmut sehr dumm war. \u00dcbrigens verleiht die Dummheit einer h\u00fcbschen Gattin einen besonderen Reiz. Ich habe jedenfalls viele M\u00e4nner gekannt, die \u00fcber die Dummheit ihrer Frauen entz\u00fcckt waren und in ihr alle Anzeichen kindlicher Unschuld sahen. Die Sch\u00f6nheit wirkt Wunder. Alle inneren M\u00e4ngel einer sch\u00f6nen Frau erscheinen nicht absto\u00dfend, sondern im Gegenteil besonders anziehend; sogar das Laster selbst atmet an ihnen Anmut; ist aber diese Anmut nicht vorhanden, so mu\u00df die Frau zwanzigmal kl\u00fcger sein als der Mann, um, wenn nicht Liebe, so doch wenigstens Achtung zu wecken. Schillers Frau war \u00fcbrigens, trotz ihrer Dummheit, ihrer Pflicht als Gattin treu, und darum fiel es Pirogow ziemlich schwer, bei seinem k\u00fchnen Unternehmen einen Erfolg zu erringen. Die \u00dcberwindung von Hindernissen ist aber immer mit einem eigenen Genu\u00df verbunden, und die Blondine wurde f\u00fcr ihn von Tag zu Tag interessanter: Er erkundigte sich recht oft nach seinen Sporen, und das wurde Schiller auf die Dauer l\u00e4stig. Er wandte alle M\u00fche an, um mit den Sporen fertig zu werden; endlich waren sie fertig.\n\n\u00bbAch, was f\u00fcr eine wunderbare Arbeit!\u00ab rief der Leutnant Pirogow, als er die Sporen sah. \u00bbGott, wie sch\u00f6n sind sie gemacht! Unser General besitzt keine solchen Sporen.\u00ab\n\nEin Gef\u00fchl von Selbstzufriedenheit ergriff Schillers Seele. Seine Augen blickten ziemlich vergn\u00fcgt, und er fing an, sich mit Pirogow innerlich auszus\u00f6hnen. \u2013 Der russische Offizier ist ein kluger Mann! \u2013 dachte er bei sich.\n\n\u00bbNicht wahr, Sie k\u00f6nnten mir auch eine Fassung f\u00fcr einen Dolch oder f\u00fcr einen anderen Gegenstand anfertigen?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbOh ja, gewi\u00df kann ich das!\u00ab antwortete Schiller mit einem L\u00e4cheln.\n\n\u00bbDann machen Sie mir eine Fassung f\u00fcr einen Dolch. Ich werde ihn Ihnen bringen. Ich habe einen guten t\u00fcrkischen Dolch, aber ich m\u00f6chte mir f\u00fcr ihn eine andere Fassung machen lassen.\u00ab\n\nDies wirkte auf Schiller wie eine Bombe. Er runzelte die Stirne. \u2013 Da haben wir es! \u2013 sagte er zu sich und verw\u00fcnschte sich innerlich, weil er diesen Auftrag selbst herausgefordert hatte. Er hielt es f\u00fcr unehrlich, ihn jetzt abzulehnen; au\u00dferdem hatte der russische Offizier seine Arbeit gelobt. \u2013 Er sch\u00fcttelte einigemal den Kopf und erkl\u00e4rte sich einverstanden; aber der Ku\u00df, den Pirogow beim Weggehen ganz frech der h\u00fcbschen Blondine mitten auf den Mund dr\u00fcckte, brachte ihn ganz aus der Fassung.\n\nIch halte es nicht f\u00fcr \u00fcberfl\u00fcssig, den Leser mit Schiller etwas n\u00e4her bekannt zu machen. Schiller war ein echter Deutscher im vollen Sinne des Wortes. Schon als Zwanzigj\u00e4hriger, in jenem gl\u00fccklichen Alter, wo der Russe in den Tag hinein zu leben pflegt, hatte Schiller sein ganzes Leben im voraus eingeteilt und wich dann von dieser Einteilung unter keinen Umst\u00e4nden ab. Er hatte sich vorgenommen, jeden Morgen um sieben Uhr aufzustehen, um zwei Uhr zu Mittag zu essen, in allen Dingen p\u00fcnktlich zu sein und sich jeden Sonntag zu betrinken. Er hatte sich vorgenommen, im Laufe von zehn Jahren ein Kapital von f\u00fcnfzigtausend Rubeln zusammenzusparen, und dieser Vorsatz war ebenso unab\u00e4nderlich wie das Schicksal selbst, denn eher wird der Beamte vergessen, in das Portierzimmer seines Vorgesetzten hineinzublicken, als da\u00df ein Deutscher sich entschlie\u00dft, seinen Vorsatz zu \u00e4ndern. Niemals und unter keinen Umst\u00e4nden \u00fcberschritt er die ein f\u00fcr allemal festgesetzten Auslagen, und wenn der Kartoffelpreis stieg, so gab er keine Kopeke mehr aus, sondern setzte nur das Quantum herab; er blieb dabei zwar etwas hungrig, aber er gew\u00f6hnte sich daran. Seine P\u00fcnktlichkeit ging so weit, da\u00df er sich vorgenommen hatte, seine Frau nicht mehr als zweimal im Laufe von vierundzwanzig Stunden zu k\u00fcssen; um diese Zahl einzuhalten, und ihr ja keinen \u00fcberz\u00e4hligen Ku\u00df zu geben, tat er nie mehr als einen Teel\u00f6ffel Pfeffer in seine Suppe; an Sonntagen wurde diese Regel \u00fcbrigens nicht so streng befolgt, denn Schiller trank an diesem Tage zwei Flaschen Bier und eine Flasche K\u00fcmmel, auf den er \u00fcbrigens immer schimpfte. Er trank ganz anders als ein Engl\u00e4nder, der gleich nach dem Mittagessen seine T\u00fcre zuriegelt und sich ganz allein betrinkt. Als Deutscher trank er vielmehr immer mit Begeisterung und in Gesellschaft des Schuhmachermeisters Hoffmann oder des Tischlermeisters Kunz, der ebenfalls ein Deutscher und ein gro\u00dfer S\u00e4ufer war. So war der Charakter des edlen Schiller, der schlie\u00dflich in eine \u00e4u\u00dferst schwierige Lage geraten war. Er war zwar Phlegmatiker und ein Deutscher, aber die Handlungsweise Pirogows erregte in ihm zuletzt etwas wie Eifersucht. Er zerbrach sich den Kopf und konnte doch nichts ausdenken, auf welche Weise er sich von diesem russischen Offizier befreien konnte. Pirogow rauchte indessen im Kreise seiner Kameraden die Pfeife \u2013 die Vorsehung selbst hat es schon einmal so eingerichtet, da\u00df Offiziere und Pfeife unzertrennlich sind \u2013 er rauchte also im Kreise seiner Kameraden die Pfeife und spielte mit bedeutungsvoller Miene und einem angenehmen L\u00e4cheln auf das Techtelmechtel mit einer h\u00fcbschen Deutschen an, mit der er schon sehr intim zu sein behauptete, w\u00e4hrend er in Wirklichkeit fast jede Hoffnung aufgegeben hatte, sie jemals zu erobern.\n\nEines Tages spazierte er durch die Mjeschtschanskaja und blickte immer wieder auf das Haus, an dem das Schild Schillers mit den Kaffeekannen und den Samowars prangte; zu seiner gr\u00f6\u00dften Freude erblickte er das K\u00f6pfchen der Blondine, die sich aus einem Fenster beugte und die Vor\u00fcbergehenden musterte. Er blieb stehen, warf einen Handku\u00df hinauf und rief: \u00bbGuten Morgen!\u00ab Die Blondine nickte ihm wie einem Bekannten zu.\n\n\u00bbIst Ihr Mann eigentlich zu Hause?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbEr ist zu Hause,\u00ab antwortete die Blondine.\n\n\u00bbUnd wann ist er nicht zu Hause?\u00ab\n\n\u00bbAn Sonntagen pflegt er nicht zu Hause zu sein,\u00ab antwortete die einf\u00e4ltige Blondine.\n\n\u2013 Das ist nicht schlecht \u2013 dachte Pirogow bei sich \u2013 diesen Umstand m\u00fc\u00dfte man ausn\u00fctzen. \u2013 Am folgenden Sonntag schneite er zu der Blondine ins Haus hinein. Schiller war tats\u00e4chlich nicht zu Hause. Die h\u00fcbsche Hausfrau erschrak; aber Pirogow ging diesmal sehr vorsichtig vor. Er behandelte sie mit dem gr\u00f6\u00dften Respekt und zeigte, indem er sich verbeugte, die ganze Sch\u00f6nheit seiner biegsamen, enggeschn\u00fcrten Taille. Er scherzte sehr nett und h\u00f6flich, aber die dumme Deutsche antwortete ihm auf alles sehr einsilbig. Nachdem er alles M\u00f6gliche versucht und eingesehen hatte, da\u00df er sie f\u00fcr nichts zu interessieren vermochte, machte er ihr schlie\u00dflich den Vorschlag, etwas zu tanzen. Die Deutsche erkl\u00e4rte sich damit augenblicklich einverstanden, denn alle deutschen Frauen und M\u00e4dchen tanzen \u00fcberaus gern. Pirogow gr\u00fcndete darauf viele Hoffnungen: erstens machte ihr das Vergn\u00fcgen; zweitens konnte er dabei seine ganze Gewandtheit und Geschicklichkeit zeigen; drittens kann man beim Tanzen leicht intim werden: man kann die h\u00fcbsche Deutsche umarmen und damit den Anfang machen; kurz, er hoffte auf einen vollst\u00e4ndigen Erfolg. Er fing an, eine Gavotte zu tr\u00e4llern, denn er wu\u00dfte, da\u00df man bei deutschen Frauen und M\u00e4dchen ganz allm\u00e4hlich vorgehen m\u00fcsse. Die h\u00fcbsche Deutsche trat in die Mitte des Zimmers und hob das sch\u00f6ne F\u00fc\u00dfchen. Diese Stellung entz\u00fcckte Pirogow derma\u00dfen, da\u00df er \u00fcber sie herfiel, um sie zu k\u00fcssen; die Deutsche fing zu schreien an und erh\u00f6hte dadurch ihren Reiz in den Augen Pirogows. Er \u00fcbersch\u00fcttete sie mit K\u00fcssen, als pl\u00f6tzlich die T\u00fcr aufging, und Schiller in Begleitung Hoffmanns und des Tischlermeisters Kunz ins Zimmer trat. Diese ehrw\u00fcrdigen Handwerker waren alle so betrunken wie die Schuster.\n\nAber... ich \u00fcberlasse es den Lesern selbst, sich den Zorn und die Entr\u00fcstung Schillers auszumalen.\n\n\u00bbRohling!\u00ab schrie er in h\u00f6chster Emp\u00f6rung: \u00bbWie wagst du es, meine Frau zu k\u00fcssen? Du bist ein Schuft und kein russischer Offizier. Hol mich der Teufel! Nicht wahr, mein Freund Hoffmann? Ich bin ein Deutscher und kein russisches Schwein.\u00ab (Hoffmann antwortete bejahend.) \u00bbOh, ich will keine H\u00f6rner tragen! Mein Freund Hoffmann, pack ihn am Kragen; ich will nicht!\u00ab fuhr er fort, heftig mit den H\u00e4nden fuchtelnd, wobei sein Gesicht dem roten Tuche seiner Weste \u00e4hnlich wurde. \u00bbIch lebe seit acht Jahren in Petersburg, ich habe in Schwaben eine Mutter und in N\u00fcrnberg einen Onkel; ich bin ein Deutscher und kein geh\u00f6rntes Rindvieh! Zieh ihm alles aus, mein Freund Hoffmann! Halt ihn an Armen und Beinen fest, mein Kamerad Kunz!\u00ab\n\nUnd die Deutschen packten Pirogow an Armen und Beinen.\n\nVergeblich versuchte er sich freizumachen; diese drei Handwerker waren die kr\u00e4ftigsten unter allen Petersburger Deutschen und behandelten ihn so roh und unh\u00f6flich, da\u00df ich, offen gestanden, gar keine Worte finde, um dieses beklagenswerte Ereignis zu schildern.\n\nIch bin \u00fcberzeugt, da\u00df Schiller am n\u00e4chsten Tag von einem heftigen Fieber gesch\u00fcttelt wurde und wie ein Espenblatt zitterte, indem er jeden Augenblick das Erscheinen der Polizei erwartete, und da\u00df er Gott wei\u00df was alles daf\u00fcr gegeben h\u00e4tte, wenn das gestrige Erlebnis nur ein Traum gewesen w\u00e4re. Nun lie\u00df sich aber nichts mehr \u00e4ndern. Nichts l\u00e4\u00dft sich mit dem Zorn und der Emp\u00f6rung Pirogows vergleichen. Schon der blo\u00dfe Gedanke an die f\u00fcrchterliche Beschimpfung brachte ihn in Raserei. Sibirien und Knute hielt er f\u00fcr die geringste Strafe, die Schiller verdiente. Er eilte nach Hause, um sich umzuziehen und dann direkt zum General zu gehen und diesem in den grellsten Farben den von den deutschen Handwerkern ver\u00fcbten groben Unfug zu schildern. Zugleich wollte er auch eine schriftliche Anzeige beim Generalstab machen; und wenn die zudiktierte Strafe ungen\u00fcgend ausfiele, wollte er sich an noch h\u00f6here Instanzen wenden.\n\nAber die Sache endete doch sonderbar: auf dem Heimwege kehrte er in einer Konditorei ein, a\u00df zwei Bl\u00e4tterteigkuchen, las einiges in der \u00bbNordischen Biene\u00ab und verlie\u00df das Lokal mit weniger Zorn. Au\u00dferdem verf\u00fchrte ihn der recht angenehme k\u00fchle Abend, ein wenig durch den Newskij-Prospekt zu spazieren; um neun Uhr hatte er sich schon beruhigt und war zur Einsicht gekommen, da\u00df es nicht gut gehe, den General an einem Sonntag zu bel\u00e4stigen. Au\u00dferdem sei dieser zweifellos irgendwohin abberufen worden. Darum begab er sich zu einem Gesellschaftsabend bei einem Vorsitzenden einer Kontrollkommission, wo er eine recht angenehme Gesellschaft von vielen Beamten und Offizieren seines Regiments antraf. Dort verbrachte er vergn\u00fcgt den Abend und zeichnete sich bei der Mazurka so aus, da\u00df nicht nur die Damen, sondern auch die Herren entz\u00fcckt waren.\n\n\u2013 Wie wunderbar ist doch unsere Welt eingerichtet! \u2013 dachte ich mir, als ich vorgestern durch den Newskij-Prospekt schlenderte und mich dieser beiden Ereignisse erinnerte. \u2013 Wie seltsam, wie unfa\u00dfbar spielt doch unser Schicksal mit uns! Erlangen wir je das, was wir uns w\u00fcnschen? Erreichen wir das, wozu uns unsere Kr\u00e4fte zu bef\u00e4higen scheinen? Alles kommt immer anders. Dem einen hat das Schicksal die herrlichsten Pferde geschenkt, und er f\u00e4hrt mit ihnen gleichg\u00fcltig spazieren, ohne auf ihre Sch\u00f6nheit zu achten, w\u00e4hrend ein anderer, dessen Herz von Leidenschaft f\u00fcr Pferde gl\u00fcht, zu Fu\u00df gehen mu\u00df und sich damit begn\u00fcgt, da\u00df er mit der Zunge schnalzt, wenn an ihm ein sch\u00f6ner Traber vorbeigef\u00fchrt wird. Der eine hat einen vorz\u00fcglichen Koch, aber leider einen so kleinen Mund, da\u00df er nicht mehr als zwei St\u00fcckchen verzehren kann; der andere hat einen Mund in der Gr\u00f6\u00dfe des Schwibbogens am Generalstabsgeb\u00e4ude und mu\u00df sich leider mit einem deutschen Mittagessen aus Kartoffeln begn\u00fcgen. Wie seltsam spielt doch das Schicksal mit uns! \u2013 Am seltsamsten sind aber die Ereignisse, die sich auf dem Newskij-Prospekt abspielen. Oh, traut diesem Newskij-Prospekt nicht! Ich h\u00fclle mich immer in meinen Mantel, wenn ich \u00fcber ihn gehe, und bem\u00fche mich, die Gegenst\u00e4nde, denen ich begegne, gar nicht anzusehen. Alles ist Trug, alles ist Traum, alles ist ganz anders, als es erscheint! Ihr glaubt wohl, dieser Herr, der in dem vorz\u00fcglich gen\u00e4hten Rock spazieren geht, sei sehr reich? \u2013 keine Spur: er besteht nur aus seinem Rock. Ihr denkt wohl, da\u00df diese beiden dicken Herren, die vor der im Bau befindlichen Kirche stehengeblieben sind, \u00fcber ihre Architektur sprechen? \u2013 durchaus nicht: sie sprechen davon, wie merkw\u00fcrdig die beiden Kr\u00e4hen einander gegen\u00fcbersitzen. Ihr meint, dieser Enthusiast, der mit den H\u00e4nden fuchtelt, spr\u00e4che dar\u00fcber, da\u00df seine Frau aus dem Fenster mit einem Papierball auf einen ihm g\u00e4nzlich unbekannten Offizier geworfen habe? \u2013 durchaus nicht: er spricht \u00fcber Lafayette. Ihr glaubt, da\u00df diese Damen... aber den Damen soll man am allerwenigsten trauen. Schaut m\u00f6glichst wenig in die Schaufenster hinein: die Bagatellen, die da ausgestellt sind, sind wohl sch\u00f6n, schmecken aber nach einer furchtbaren Menge von Banknoten. Gott beh\u00fcte euch davor, den Damen unter die H\u00fcte zu blicken. Wie anziehend auch in der Ferne der Mantel einer Sch\u00f6nen des Abends weht, niemals werde ich ihr aus Neugierde folgen. Man gehe um Gotteswillen m\u00f6glichst weit von der Laterne weg! Man gehe an ihr so schnell als m\u00f6glich vor\u00fcber! Es ist noch ein Gl\u00fcck, wenn sie euch euren eleganten Rock mit ihrem stinkenden \u00d6l betropft. Aber auch abgesehen von der Laterne, alles atmet hier Betrug. Er l\u00fcgt zu jeder Stunde, dieser Newskij-Prospekt, am meisten aber dann, wenn die Nacht sich als dichte Masse \u00fcber ihn senkt und die wei\u00dfen und gelben Hausmauern hervortreten l\u00e4\u00dft, wenn die ganze Stadt dr\u00f6hnt und blitzt, wenn Myriaden von Equipagen sich \u00fcber die Br\u00fccken w\u00e4lzen, die Vorreiter schreien und im Sattel h\u00fcpfen, und wenn der D\u00e4mon selbst die Lampen entz\u00fcndet, nur um alles in einem falschen Lichte erscheinen zu lassen.\n\n## AUFZEICHNUNGEN EINES IRREN\n\n3. Oktober.\n\nHeute hat sich etwas Au\u00dfergew\u00f6hnliches ereignet. Ich stand des Morgens ziemlich sp\u00e4t auf, und als Mawra mir meine geputzten Stiefel brachte, fragte ich sie, wie sp\u00e4t es sei. Als ich h\u00f6rte, da\u00df es schon l\u00e4ngst zehn geschlagen habe, beeilte ich mich, mich anzukleiden. Offengestanden, ich w\u00e4re am liebsten gar nicht ins Departement gegangen, da ich schon wu\u00dfte, welch eine saure Miene unser Abteilungschef machen w\u00fcrde. Er pflegt mir schon seit l\u00e4ngerer Zeit zu sagen: \u00bbWas hast du f\u00fcr ein Durcheinander im Kopfe, mein Bester? Manchmal rennst du wie ein Irrsinniger herum, bringst die Akten so durcheinander, da\u00df der Satan selbst sich nicht auskennt, schreibst den Titel mit einem kleinen Anfangsbuchstaben und setzt weder Datum noch Nummer hin.\u00ab So ein verdammter Reiher! Er beneidet mich sicher, weil ich im Kabinett des Direktors sitze und f\u00fcr Seine Exzellenz die Federn zuschneide. Mit einem Worte, ich w\u00e4re gar nicht ins Departement gegangen, wenn nicht die Hoffnung, den Kassierer zu sehen und von diesem Juden wenigstens einen kleinen Vorschu\u00df auf mein Gehalt zu erbetteln. Das ist auch so ein Gesch\u00f6pf! Da\u00df er auch nur einmal das Gehalt f\u00fcr einen Monat vorausbezahlt \u2013 du lieber Gott, eher bricht das J\u00fcngste Gericht herein. Man mag ihn bitten, bis man zerspringt, und wenn man auch in der gr\u00f6\u00dften Klemme sitzt, der alte Teufel gibt keinen Pfennig her. Bei sich daheim l\u00e4\u00dft er sich aber von seiner eigenen K\u00f6chin ohrfeigen; da\u00df wei\u00df die ganze Welt. Ich sehe nicht ein, was es f\u00fcr einen Vorteil haben soll, im Departement zu dienen: man hat ja gar keine Einnahmen dabei. In der Gouvernementsverwaltung, in der Zivilkammer, im Rentamt ist es doch ganz anders: dort sitzt mancher Beamter in sch\u00e4bigem Frack, mit einer Fratze, die man anspucken m\u00f6chte, in seinem Winkelchen und schreibt, aber was sich der Kerl f\u00fcr eine Villa leistet! Mit einer vergoldeten Porzellantasse wage man sich an ihn gar nicht heran: \u00bbDas ist ja ein Geschenk f\u00fcr einen Doktor!\u00ab sagte er; man gebe ihm aber entweder ein Paar Traber, oder einen Wagen, oder einen Biberpelz im Werte von dreihundert Rubeln. Er sieht so bescheiden aus und spricht so zart: \u00bbLeihen Sie mir doch Ihr Messerchen, ich will mir ein Federchen zuschneiden,\u00ab \u2013 dabei rupft er aber den Bittsteller so, da\u00df ihm kein Hemd am Leibe bleibt. Freilich ist unser Dienst edler, alles ist von einer Sauberkeit, wie man sie in einer Gouvernementsverwaltung nie zu Gesicht bekommt, die Tische sind aus Mahagoni, und alle Vorgesetzten sagen zu einem \u00bbSie\u00ab... Ja, ich mu\u00df gestehen, wenn nicht dieser edle Dienst, so h\u00e4tte ich das Departement schon l\u00e4ngst verlassen.\n\nIch zog meinen alten Mantel an und nahm den Schirm, denn es regnete in Str\u00f6men. Auf den Stra\u00dfen war niemand; ich sah nur einige einfache Weiber, die ihre Rocksch\u00f6\u00dfe \u00fcber den Kopf geschlagen hatten, einige altrussische Kaufleute mit Regenschirmen und einige Kanzleidiener. Von besserem Publikum sah ich nur einen Beamten. Ich traf ihn an einer Stra\u00dfenecke. Als ich ihn erblickte, sagte ich mir: \u2013 Aha, mein Lieber, du gehst gar nicht ins Departement; du steigst jener Dame nach, die dort vorne l\u00e4uft, und schaust ihr auf die F\u00fc\u00dfchen. \u2013 Was f\u00fcr eine Bestie ist doch so ein Beamter! Er gibt selbst einem Offizier nichts nach: kaum sieht er so ein Wesen in einem H\u00fctchen, sofort hat er mit ihr angebandelt. Als ich mir dieses dachte, sah ich eine Equipage vor einem Laden halten, an dem ich gerade vor\u00fcberging. Ich erkannte sie sofort: es war die Equipage unseres Direktors. \u2013 Er hat in diesem Laden nichts zu suchen \u2013 dachte ich mir \u2013 es wird wohl seine Tochter sein. \u2013 Ich dr\u00fcckte mich an die Wand. Der Lakai \u00f6ffnete den Wagenschlag, sie h\u00fcpfte heraus wie ein V\u00f6gelchen. Wie bezaubernd blickte sie nach rechts und links und bewegte Brauen und Augen... Du lieber Gott, ich war verloren, ganz verloren!... Was braucht sie bei solchem Regen auszufahren! Nun soll mir einer sagen, da\u00df die Frauen keine Leidenschaft f\u00fcr Tand haben. Sie erkannte mich nicht, und auch ich bem\u00fchte mich, mich in meinen Mantel zu h\u00fcllen, um so mehr als ich einen schmierigen und altmodischen Mantel anhatte. Man tr\u00e4gt jetzt M\u00e4ntel mit einem langen Kragen, ich hatte aber einen mit mehreren kurzen Kr\u00e4gen an; auch ist das Tuch meines Mantels gar nicht dekatiert. Ihr H\u00fcndchen hatte nicht Zeit gehabt, in die Ladent\u00fcre zu schl\u00fcpfen, und blieb auf der Stra\u00dfe zur\u00fcck. Ich kenne dieses H\u00fcndchen. Es hei\u00dft Maggie. Es war noch keine Minute vergangen, als ich ein feines Stimmchen h\u00f6rte: \u00bbGuten Tag Maggie!\u00ab Du lieber Gott, wer spricht denn da? Ich sah mich um und erblickte zwei Damen, die unter einem Regenschirm gingen: eine alte und eine ganz junge; sie waren schon vorbeigegangen, ich h\u00f6rte aber neben mir wieder das Stimmchen: \u00bbDu solltest dich sch\u00e4men, Maggie!\u00ab Teufel nochmal: ich sah, da\u00df Maggie ein H\u00fcndchen beschn\u00fcffelte, das den beiden Damen folgte. \u2013 Aha! \u2013 dachte ich mir: \u2013 Bin ich auch nicht betrunken? Ich glaube aber, das passiert mit mir nur selten. \u2013 \u00bbNein, Fid\u00e8le, du irrst dich,\u00ab \u2013 ich sah mit eigenen Augen, da\u00df Maggie diese Worte sprach: \u00bbIch war, wau, wau, ich war, wau, wau, sehr krank.\u00ab Ach, dieses H\u00fcndchen! Offengestanden, ich war sehr erstaunt, als ich den Hund mit einer Menschenstimme sprechen h\u00f6rte; aber sp\u00e4ter, als ich mir alles \u00fcberdachte, h\u00f6rte ich auf, dar\u00fcber zu staunen. Es hat doch in der Welt tats\u00e4chlich eine Menge \u00e4hnlicher F\u00e4lle gegeben. Man sagt, in England sei ein Fisch ans Ufer geschwommen, der zwei Worte in einer merkw\u00fcrdigen Sprache gesagt habe, die die Gelehrten schon seit drei Jahren zu bestimmen suchen und noch immer nicht bestimmt haben. Ich habe in der Zeitung auch \u00fcber zwei K\u00fche gelesen, die in einen Laden kamen und ein Pfund Tee verlangten. Ich war aber noch viel mehr erstaunt, als Maggie sagte: \u00bbIch habe dir ja geschrieben, Fid\u00e8le; Polkan hat dir wahrscheinlich meinen Brief nicht \u00fcbergeben!\u00ab Teufel nochmal: Ich habe mein Lebtag noch nie geh\u00f6rt, da\u00df ein Hund schreiben kann. Richtig schreiben kann nur ein Edelmann. Allerdings pflegen auch Kaufleute, Ladengehilfen und sogar Leibeigene zu schreiben; aber ihr Schreiben ist meistens mechanisch: man findet darin weder Kommas, noch Punkte, noch einen Stil.\n\nDas setzte mich in Erstaunen. Ich gestehe, seit einiger Zeit h\u00f6re und sehe ich zuweilen solche Dinge, die noch kein Mensch gesehen und geh\u00f6rt hat. \u2013 Ich will mal diesem Hunde nachgehen, \u2013 sagte ich zu mir selbst, \u2013 und erfahren, wer er ist und was er sich denkt. \u2013 Ich machte meinen Schirm auf und folgte den beiden Damen. Wir durchquerten die Gorochowaja, bogen dann in die Mjeschtschanskaja, ein, dann in die Stoljarnaja, kamen zur Kokuschkin-Br\u00fccke und blieben schlie\u00dflich vor einem gro\u00dfen Hause stehen. \u2013 Dieses Haus kenne ich \u2013 sagte ich mir \u2013 es ist Swjerkows Haus. \u2013 So ein Ungeheuer von einem Haus! Was f\u00fcr Leute wohnen nicht alles darin: so viele K\u00f6chinnen, so viele Zugereiste! Von uns Beamten gibt es da aber so viele wie Hunde: der eine sitzt auf dem anderen und treibt den dritten an. Ich habe da auch einen Freund, der sehr gut Trompete spielt. Die Damen stiegen in den f\u00fcnften Stock hinauf. \u2013 Gut \u2013 dachte ich mir \u2013 heute gehe ich noch nicht hinauf, ich will mir nur das Haus merken und bei der n\u00e4chsten Gelegenheit daraus Nutzen ziehen. \u2013\n\n4. Oktober.\n\nHeute ist Mittwoch, und darum war ich bei unserem Direktor im Kabinett. Ich kam absichtlich etwas fr\u00fcher, setzte mich hin und schnitt alle Federn zurecht. Unser Direktor ist wahrscheinlich ein sehr kluger Mann. Sein Kabinett ist voller B\u00fccherschr\u00e4nke. Ich las die Titel einiger von ihnen: solch eine Gelehrsamkeit, da\u00df sich unsereins gar nicht heranwagen darf, alles entweder franz\u00f6sisch oder deutsch. Und wenn man ihm ins Gesicht blickt \u2013 du lieber Gott, was f\u00fcr eine W\u00fcrde leuchtet aus seinen Augen! Ich habe noch nie geh\u00f6rt, da\u00df er ein \u00fcberfl\u00fcssiges Wort gesagt h\u00e4tte. Wenn man zu ihm mit den Papieren kommt, fragt er nur: \u00bbWas f\u00fcr ein Wetter ist heute?\u00ab \u2013 \u00bbEs ist feucht, Euer Exzellenz!\u00ab Ja, er ist doch etwas anderes als unsereins! Ein Staatsmann. \u2013 Ich merke jedoch, da\u00df er mich besonders lieb hat und auch seine Tochter... Ach, verdammt!... Nichts, gar nichts, Schweigen! \u2013 Ich las in der \u00bbNordischen Biene\u00ab. Was f\u00fcr ein dummes Volk sind diese Franzosen! Was wollen sie denn eigentlich? Lieber Gott, ich w\u00fcrde sie alle hernehmen und mit Ruten z\u00fcchtigen! In der gleichen Zeitung las ich auch die Beschreibung eines Balles, die einen Kursker Gutsbesitzer zum Verfasser hat. Kursker Gutsbesitzer schreiben sehr sch\u00f6n. Da merkte ich, da\u00df es schon halb eins schlug, unser Direktor aber noch immer nicht aus seinem Schlafzimmer herausgekommen war. So um halb zwei ereignete sich etwas, was keine Feder zu beschreiben vermag. Die T\u00fcre ging auf, ich dachte, es sei der Direktor, und sprang mit den Papieren vom Stuhle auf; es war aber sie, sie selbst! Alle Heiligen, wie war sie gekleidet! Ihr Kleid war so wei\u00df wie ein Schwan, Gott, wie herrlich! Und als sie mich anblickte, so war es wie die Sonne! Bei Gott, wie die Sonne! Sie nickte mir zu und sagte: \u00bbWar Papa noch nicht hier?\u00ab Ach, ach, ach, diese Stimme! Ein Kanarienvogel, tats\u00e4chlich ein Kanarienvogel! \u00bbEure Exellenz,\u00ab wollte ich ihr sagen, \u00bblassen Sie mich nicht strafen, und wenn Sie mich schon strafen wollen, so strafen Sie mich mit Ihrem eigenen H\u00e4ndchen!\u00ab Aber meine Zunge versagte, und ich sagte nur: \u00bbNein, er war noch nicht hier.\u00ab Sie sah mich an, sah auf die B\u00fccher und lie\u00df ihr Taschentuch fallen. Ich st\u00fcrzte hin, um es aufzuheben, glitt auf dem verdammten Parkett aus und h\u00e4tte mir beinahe die Nase zerschlagen; aber ich hielt mich noch aufrecht und hob das Taschentuch auf. Alle Heiligen, was f\u00fcr ein Taschentuch! Der feinste Batist! Ambra, ganz wie Ambra! Er duftet f\u00f6rmlich nach dem Generalsrang! Sie dankte und l\u00e4chelte leise, so da\u00df ihre zuckers\u00fc\u00dfen Lippen sich fast gar nicht regten, und dann ging sie. Ich blieb noch eine Stunde lang sitzen, als pl\u00f6tzlich der Lakai eintrat und sagte: \u00bbGehen Sie, Aksentij Iwanowitsch, heim, der Herr ist schon aus dem Hause gegangen.\u00ab Ich kann dieses Lakaienvolk nicht ausstehen: Immer r\u00e4keln sie sich im Vorzimmer und geben sich nicht mal die M\u00fche, mit dem Kopf zu nicken. Und noch mehr als das: einer dieser Bestien fiel es einmal ein, mir, ohne vom Platze aufzustehen, eine Prise anzubieten. \u00bbWei\u00dft du denn nicht, du dummer Knecht, da\u00df ich ein Beamter und von adeliger Abstammung bin?\u00ab Ich nahm jedoch meinen Hut, zog selbst meinen Mantel an, denn diese Herren geben sich niemals die M\u00fche, einem in den Mantel zu helfen, und ging. Zu Hause lag ich fast die ganze Zeit auf dem Bett. Dann schrieb ich ein sehr h\u00fcbsches Gedicht ab: \u00bbLiebster Schatz blieb aus ein St\u00fcndchen, doch mir wars, als w\u00e4r's ein Jahr! Immer dacht ich an ihr M\u00fcndchen und ans seidenweiche Haar!\u00ab Das hat wohl Puschkin verfa\u00dft. Gegen Abend h\u00fcllte ich mich in meinen Mantel, ging vors Haus seiner Exzellenz und wartete, ob sie nicht erscheinen w\u00fcrde; aber sie erschien nicht.\n\n6. November.\n\nDer Abteilungschef brachte mich heute ganz aus der Fassung. Als ich ins Departement kam, rief er mich zu sich und sagte zu mir folgendes: \u00bbSag mir, bitte, was tust du eigentlich?\u00ab \u2013 \u00bbWas ich tue? Ich tue gar nichts.\u00ab \u2013 \u00bb\u00dcberlege es dir doch: du bist ja bald vierzig Jahre alt, es ist Zeit, da\u00df du Verstand annimmst. Was denkst du dir eigentlich? Glaubst du vielleicht, da\u00df ich deine Streiche nicht kenne? Du l\u00e4ufst ja der Tochter des Direktors nach. Schau dich selbst an und bedenke, was du bist! Du bist eine Null. Du hast keinen Heller. Betrachte wenigstens dein Gesicht im Spiegel, wie kannst du daran auch nur denken!\u00ab Hol ihn der Teufel! Weil sein Gesicht einige \u00c4hnlichkeit mit einer Apothekerflasche hat, weil er auf dem Kopfe einen gekr\u00e4uselten Haarschopf hat, weil er den Kopf hoch tr\u00e4gt und mit irgendeiner Rosenpomade schmiert, glaubt er, ihm allein sei alles erlaubt. Ich verstehe, warum er so b\u00f6se auf mich ist. Er beneidet mich. Vielleicht hat er schon gemerkt, da\u00df ich bevorzugt werde. Aber ich spucke auf ihn. Auch eine gro\u00dfe Sache \u2013 ein Hofrat! Hat sich eine goldene Uhrkette an den Bauch geh\u00e4ngt, l\u00e4\u00dft sich Stiefel zu drei\u00dfig Rubel das Paar machen \u2013 hol ihn der Teufel! Bin ich vielleicht von niederem Stande, stamme ich von einem Schneider oder von einem Unteroffizier ab? Ich bin ein Edelmann! Ich kann mich noch hinaufdienen. Ich bin nur zweiundvierzig Jahre alt, und in diesem Alter beginnt erst der richtige Dienst. Wart, Freundchen! Auch wir werden noch einmal Oberst sein und, so Gott will, vielleicht noch mehr. Auch wir werden uns eine Wohnung anschaffen, vielleicht eine bessere als die deinige. Was hast du dir in den Kopf gesetzt, da\u00df es au\u00dfer dir keinen anst\u00e4ndigen Menschen gibt. Wenn ich einen feinen Frack nach der neuesten Mode anziehe und mir eine Krawatte umbinde, wie du eine tr\u00e4gst, so reichst du nicht an meine Schuhsohle heran. Ich habe blo\u00df keine Mittel, das ist mein Ungl\u00fcck.\n\n8. November.\n\nIch war im Theater. Man spielte den \u00bbRussischen Narren Filatka\u00ab. Ich habe viel gelacht. Es gab noch eine Posse mit sehr lustigen Versen \u00fcber die Gerichtsschreiber, besonders \u00fcber einen gewissen Kollegien-Registrator; die Verse waren sehr frei, und ich mu\u00dfte mich wundern, da\u00df die Zensur sie hat passieren lassen; von den Kaufleuten hie\u00df es aber ganz offen, da\u00df sie das Volk betr\u00fcgen und da\u00df ihre S\u00f6hne tolle Streiche machen und nach dem Adelsstande streben. Es gab auch ein sehr am\u00fcsantes Couplet \u00fcber die Journalisten: diese schimpfen gerne auf alles, und der Autor bittet das Publikum um Schutz. Die Autoren schreiben heute sehr am\u00fcsante St\u00fccke. Ich besuche gerne das Theater. Wenn ich nur einen Groschen in der Tasche habe, kann ich mich nicht beherrschen und mu\u00df hinein. Unter unseren Beamten gibt es aber solche Schweine, die niemals ins Theater gehen; h\u00f6chstens, wenn man ihnen ein Billett schenkt. Eine Schauspielerin sang sehr sch\u00f6n. Ich mu\u00dfte an sie denken... Ach, verdammt!... Nichts, gar nichts... Schweigen.\n\n9. November.\n\nUm acht Uhr ging ich ins Departement. Der Abteilungschef tat so, als bemerkte er mein Erscheinen gar nicht. Auch ich meinerseits tat so, als w\u00e4re zwischen uns nichts vorgefallen. Ich sah die Akten durch und verglich sie miteinander. Um vier Uhr ging ich fort. Ich kam an der Wohnung des Direktors vorbei, aber es war niemand zu sehen. Nach dem Essen lag ich meistenteils wieder auf dem Bett.\n\n11. November.\n\nHeute sa\u00df ich im Kabinett unseres Direktors und schnitt f\u00fcr ihn dreiundzwanzig Federn und f\u00fcr sie... ei! ei!... f\u00fcr Ihre Exzellenz vier Federn. Er hat es sehr gern, wenn auf dem Tische m\u00f6glichst viel Federn bereitliegen. Gott, das mu\u00df ein Kopf sein! Er schweigt immer, aber im Kopfe, glaube ich, \u00fcberlegt er sich alles. Ich m\u00f6chte so gern wissen, wor\u00fcber er haupts\u00e4chlich denkt und was f\u00fcr Pl\u00e4ne in diesem Kopfe entstehen. Ich m\u00f6chte mir das Leben dieser Herren n\u00e4her ansehen, alle diese Equivoquen und Hofintrigen: wie sie sind und was sie in ihrem Kreise treiben, das m\u00f6chte ich wissen! Ich wollte schon einigemal ein Gespr\u00e4ch mit Seiner Exzellenz beginnen, aber die Zunge, hol sie der Teufel, versagte mir ihren Dienst; ich sagte blo\u00df, da\u00df es drau\u00dfen kalt oder warm sei, sonst konnte ich aber nichts mehr herausbringen. Ich m\u00f6chte so gern in den Salon hineinblicken, dessen T\u00fcre manchmal offen steht, und dann auch noch in ein anderes Zimmer, hinter dem Salon. Ach, diese reiche Einrichtung! Was f\u00fcr Spiegel und Porzellan! Ich m\u00f6chte so gerne auch in die Zimmer hineinblicken, die Ihre Exzellenz bewohnt, \u2013 da m\u00f6chte ich hineinschauen! Ins Boudoir, wo alle die D\u00f6schen, Gl\u00e4schen stehen, so zarte Blumen, da\u00df man gar nicht hinzuhauchen wagt, wo ihr Kleid liegt, das eher an Luft als an ein Kleid erinnert. Ich m\u00f6chte in ihr Schlafzimmer hineinblicken... dort sind wohl solche Wunder, dort ist solch ein Paradies, wie man es nicht einmal im Himmel findet. Ich m\u00f6chte das B\u00e4nkchen sehen, auf das sie, wenn sie vom Bette aufsteht, ihr F\u00fc\u00dfchen setzt, wie sie sich das schneewei\u00dfe Str\u00fcmpfchen anzieht... Ei! ei! ei! nichts, gar nichts... Schweigen.\n\nHeute ging mir pl\u00f6tzlich ein Licht auf: ich erinnerte mich an das Gespr\u00e4ch der beiden H\u00fcndchen, das ich auf dem Newskij-Prospekt geh\u00f6rt hatte. \u2013 Gut, \u2013 sagte ich mir, \u2013 jetzt werde ich alles erfahren. Ich mu\u00df nur die Briefe abfangen, die diese gemeinen Hunde einander schreiben. Aus ihnen werde ich wohl manches erfahren. \u2013 Offen gestanden, rief ich einmal Maggie zu mir heran und sagte ihr: \u00bbH\u00f6r einmal, Maggie, wir sind jetzt allein; wenn du willst, schlie\u00dfe ich auch die T\u00fcre ab, so da\u00df uns niemand sehen wird, \u2013 erz\u00e4hle mir alles, was du \u00fcber dein Fr\u00e4ulein wei\u00dft: was sie treibt und wie sie ist? Ich will dir schw\u00f6ren, da\u00df ich es niemand verraten werde.\u00ab Aber das listige Hundevieh zog den Schweif ein, duckte sich und ging leise aus dem Zimmer, als h\u00e4tte es nichts geh\u00f6rt. Ich habe schon l\u00e4ngst vermutet, da\u00df der Hund viel kl\u00fcger ist als der Mensch; ich bin sogar \u00fcberzeugt, da\u00df er zu sprechen versteht und es nur aus Trotz nicht tut. So ein Hund ist ein hervorragender Politiker: er merkt sich alles, jeden Schritt, den der Mensch tut. Nein; ich gehe morgen unbedingt in Swjerkows Haus, nehme Fid\u00e8le ins Gebet und eigne mir, wenn es geht, alle Briefe an, die Maggie ihr geschrieben.\n\n12. November.\n\nUm zwei Uhr ging ich aus, mit dem festen Vorsatz, Fid\u00e8le zu sehen und zu vernehmen. Ich verabscheue den Kohlgeruch, der aus allen Kramladen in der Mjeschtschanskaja dringt; au\u00dferdem kommt aus dem Torwege eines jeden Hauses ein so h\u00f6llischer Gestank, da\u00df ich mir die Nase zuhielt und, so schnell ich konnte, weiterlief. Auch diese verdammten Handwerker verpesten die Luft mit dem Ru\u00df und Rauch aus ihren Werkst\u00e4tten, so da\u00df ein anst\u00e4ndiger Mensch hier unm\u00f6glich Spazierengehen kann. Als ich in den sechsten Stock hinaufgestiegen war und gel\u00e4utet hatte, kam ein M\u00e4dchen heraus, gar nicht \u00fcbel von Aussehen, mit kleinen Sommersprossen im Gesicht. Ich erkannte sie: es war dieselbe, die damals mit der Alten ging. Sie err\u00f6tete leicht, und ich begriff sofort: Du willst wohl einen Mann, meine Liebe! \u2013 \u00bbWas w\u00fcnschen Sie?\u00ab fragte sie. \u2013 \u00bbIch mu\u00df mit Ihrem H\u00fcndchen sprechen.\u00ab Das M\u00e4del war dumm! Ich merkte sofort, da\u00df sie dumm war! Das H\u00fcndchen kam indessen selbst bellend hereingelaufen; ich wollte es packen, aber das garstige Vieh h\u00e4tte mich beinahe in die Nase gebissen. Ich erblickte jedoch in der Ecke den Korb, in dem der Hund zu schlafen pflegt. Ach, das ist doch alles, was ich brauche! Ich ging auf ihn zu, durchw\u00fchlte das Stroh und holte zu meinem unbeschreiblichen Vergn\u00fcgen ein kleines Papierb\u00fcndel hervor. Als das gemeine Hundevieh es sah, bi\u00df es mich erst in die Wade und begann, als es merkte, da\u00df ich seine Papiere genommen hatte, zu winseln und zu schmeicheln; ich aber sagte: \u00bbNein, mein Schatz, leb wohl!\u00ab und st\u00fcrzte hinaus. Ich glaube, das M\u00e4del hielt mich f\u00fcr verr\u00fcckt, denn es erschrak au\u00dferordentlich. Nach Hause zur\u00fcckgekehrt, wollte ich mich gleich an die Arbeit machen und die Briefe durchsehen, denn bei Kerzenlicht sehe ich nicht gut; der Mawra fiel es aber gerade ein, den Boden zu scheuern. Diese dummen Finnenweiber sind immer zur ungelegenen Zeit reinlich. Darum ging ich aus, um einen kleinen Spaziergang zu machen und mir den Fall zu \u00fcberlegen. Nun werde ich endlich alle Einzelheiten, alle Hintergedanken, alle geheimen Triebfedern kennen lernen und alles ergr\u00fcnden. Diese Briefe werden mir alles enth\u00fcllen. Die Hunde sind ein kluges Volk, sie kennen alle politischen Zusammenh\u00e4nge, und darum werde ich wohl auch alles N\u00e4here \u00fcber unseren Direktor finden: das Portr\u00e4t und alle Taten dieses Mannes. Es wird auch einiges \u00fcber sie darin stehen... nichts, Schweigen! Gegen Abend kam ich nach Hause. Lag die meiste Zeit auf dem Bett.\n\n13. November.\n\nNun, wollen wir mal sehen! Der Brief ist recht leserlich, in der Schrift liegt aber etwas H\u00fcndisches. Lesen wir ihn einmal:\n\n\u00bbLiebe Fid\u00e8le! Ich kann mich noch immer nicht an deinen kleinb\u00fcrgerlichen Namen gew\u00f6hnen. Konnte man dir denn wirklich keinen besseren geben? Fid\u00e8le, Rosa, was f\u00fcr ein banaler Ton! Aber lassen wir das alles beiseite. Ich freue mich sehr, da\u00df es uns eingefallen ist, einander zu schreiben.\u00ab\n\nDer Brief ist ziemlich korrekt geschrieben. Die Interpunktionszeichen und sogar der Buchstabe \u00bbjatj\u00ab stehen immer auf dem richtigen Platz. Ich glaube gar, selbst unser Abteilungsvorstand kann nicht so korrekt schreiben, obwohl er behauptet, irgendwo eine Universit\u00e4t besucht zu haben. Sehen wir mal weiter.\n\n\u00bbMir scheint, es geh\u00f6rt zu den gr\u00f6\u00dften Freuden im Leben, seine Gedanken, Gef\u00fchle und Eindr\u00fccke mit einem anderen teilen zu k\u00f6nnen.\u00ab\n\nHm!... Dieser Gedanke ist einem aus dem Deutschen \u00fcbersetzten Werke entnommen. Auf den Titel kann ich mich nicht besinnen.\n\n\u00bbIch sage das aus Erfahrung, obwohl ich in der Welt nicht weiter als bis vor unser Haustor herumgelaufen bin. Lebe ich nicht in h\u00f6chster Zufriedenheit? Mein Fr\u00e4ulein, das der Papa Sophie nennt, liebt mich bis zur Bewu\u00dftlosigkeit.\u00ab\n\nEi, ei!... nichts, gar nichts! Schweigen!\n\n\u00bbAuch der Papa liebkost mich sehr oft. Ich trinke Tee und Kaffee mit Sahne. Ach, _ma ch\u00e8re_ , ich mu\u00df dir sagen, da\u00df ich gar kein Vergn\u00fcgen an den gro\u00dfen abgenagten Knochen finde, die unser Polkan in der K\u00fcche fri\u00dft. Knochen sind nur gut vom Wild und auch das nur, wenn noch niemand das Mark aus ihnen herausgesogen hat. Es ist sehr gut, mehrere Saucen durcheinanderzumischen, doch nur solche ohne Kapern und ohne Gr\u00fcnzeug; aber ich kenne nichts Schlimmeres als die Angewohnheit, den Hunden aus Brot geknetete K\u00fcgelchen zu geben. Da beginnt irgendein Herr, der bei Tische sitzt und allerlei Zeug in seinen H\u00e4nden gehalten hat, mit diesen selben H\u00e4nden Brot zu kneten; dann ruft er dich heran und schiebt dir so ein K\u00fcgelchen ins Maul. Es nicht annehmen w\u00e4re unh\u00f6flich, \u2013 so fri\u00dft man es, obgleich mit Ekel, aber man fri\u00dft es doch...\u00ab\n\nWei\u00df der Teufel, was das ist! So ein Unsinn! Als ob es keinen besseren Gegenstand g\u00e4be, \u00fcber den man schreiben k\u00f6nnte. Schauen wir mal auf der n\u00e4chsten Seite nach, vielleicht steht dort etwas Vern\u00fcnftigeres.\n\n\u00bb... Ich will dich sehr gerne \u00fcber alle Ereignisse unterrichten, die sich bei uns abspielen. Ich habe dir schon einiges \u00fcber den wichtigsten Herrn erz\u00e4hlt, den Sophie Papa nennt. Er ist ein sehr sonderbarer Mensch...\u00ab\n\nAha, da ist es endlich! Ja, ich habe es gewu\u00dft: sie haben einen politischen Blick f\u00fcr alle Dinge. Sehen wir mal nach, was da \u00fcber den Papa steht.\n\n\u00bb... ein sehr sonderbarer Mensch. Er schweigt meistens und redet nur sehr selten. Aber vor einer Woche sprach er fortw\u00e4hrend mit sich selbst: \u203aWerde ich ihn kriegen oder werde ich ihn nicht kriegen?\u2039 Oder er nimmt in die eine Hand ein St\u00fcck Papier, ballt die andere leer zusammen und fragt: \u203aWerde ich ihn kriegen oder werde ich ihn nicht kriegen?\u2039 Einmal wandte er sich auch an mich mit der Frage: \u203aWie glaubst du, Maggie, werde ich ihn kriegen oder nicht kriegen?\u2039 Ich konnte absolut nichts verstehen! Ich beschn\u00fcffelte nur seinen Stiefel und ging fort. Sp\u00e4ter, _ma ch\u00e8re_ , nach einer Woche kam der Papa hocherfreut heim. Den ganzen Vormittag besuchten ihn Herren in Galauniformen und gratulierten ihm zu etwas. Bei Tisch war er so aufger\u00e4umt, wie ich ihn noch nie gesehen habe, und erz\u00e4hlte immer Witze. Nach Tisch hob er mich aber zu seinem Hals und sagte: \u203aSchau mal, Maggie, was ist denn das?\u2039 Ich sah nur ein B\u00e4ndchen. Ich beschn\u00fcffelte es, konnte aber gar keinen Duft wahrnehmen; schlie\u00dflich leckte ich vorsichtig daran: es schmeckte etwas salzig.\u00ab\n\nHm! Dieses Hundevieh erlaubt sich, scheint mir, etwas zu viel... da\u00df es nur keine Schl\u00e4ge kriegt! Er ist also ehrgeizig! Das mu\u00df ich mir merken.\n\n\u00bb... Leb wohl, _ma ch\u00e8re_! Ich mu\u00df laufen usw. usw.... Morgen schreibe ich den Brief fertig. \u2013 Nun, guten Tag! Ich bin wieder mit dir. Heute war mein Fr\u00e4ulein Sophie...\u00ab\n\nAh! Sehen wir mal, was mit Sophie los war. Diese Gemeinheit! Nichts, gar nichts... fahren wir fort.\n\n\u00bb... war mein Fr\u00e4ulein Sophie in au\u00dferordentlicher Aufregung. Sie r\u00fcstete sich zu einem Ball, und ich freute mich sehr, da\u00df ich dir in ihrer Abwesenheit schreiben kann. Meine Sophie ist immer sehr froh, wenn sie auf einen Ball gehen kann, obwohl sie sich beim Ankleiden fast immer \u00e4rgert. Ich kann nicht verstehen, warum sich die Menschen ankleiden. Warum laufen sie nicht einfach so herum wie z.B. wir? So ist es so gut und bequem. Ich verstehe auch nicht, was das f\u00fcr ein Vergn\u00fcgen ist, auf einen Ball zu gehen, _ma ch\u00e8re_. Sophie kommt von einem Ball immer erst gegen sechs Uhr fr\u00fch heim, und ich erkenne fast immer an ihrem blassen, elenden Aussehen, da\u00df man der \u00c4rmsten nichts zu essen gegeben hat. Ich mu\u00df gestehen, ich k\u00f6nnte so nicht leben. Wenn ich keine Sauce mit Rebhuhn oder keinen gebratenen H\u00fchnerfl\u00fcgel bek\u00e4me, so... so wei\u00df ich wirklich nicht, was mit mir gesch\u00e4he. Auch Sauce mit Gr\u00fctze schmeckt nicht schlecht; aber gelbe oder wei\u00dfe R\u00fcben oder Artischocken werden mir niemals gefallen.\u00ab\n\nEin auffallend ungleichm\u00e4\u00dfiger Stil! Man sieht gleich, da\u00df es kein Mensch geschrieben hat: er f\u00e4ngt an, wie es sich geh\u00f6rt, und schlie\u00dft ganz h\u00fcndisch. Sehen wir uns noch dieses Brieflein an. Es ist etwas lang. Hm! Es steht auch kein Datum dabei.\n\n\u00bbAch, Liebste, wie deutlich l\u00e4\u00dft sich das Nahen des Fr\u00fchlings f\u00fchlen. Mein Herz klopft so, als erwarte es jemand. In meinen Ohren ist ein ewiges Rauschen, so da\u00df ich oft minutenlang mit erhobenem Beinchen lauschend an der T\u00fcr stehe. Ich will dir er\u00f6ffnen, da\u00df ich viele Verehrer habe. Oft sitze ich auf der Fensterbank und betrachte sie. Ach, wenn du w\u00fc\u00dftest, was es f\u00fcr Scheusale unter ihnen gibt! Mancher ungeschlachte K\u00f6ter, dem die Dummheit im Gesicht geschrieben steht, geht wichtig \u00fcber die Stra\u00dfe und bildet sich ein, er sei eine h\u00f6chst vornehme Person und alle m\u00fc\u00dften ihn bewundern. Keine Spur! Ich schenkte ihm nicht die geringste Beachtung und tat so, als h\u00e4tte ich ihn \u00fcberhaupt nicht gesehen. Und was f\u00fcr eine schreckliche Dogge bleibt manchmal vor meinem Fenster stehen! H\u00e4tte sie sich auf die Hinterbeine gestellt, was das rohe Vieh wohl gar nicht kann, so w\u00e4re sie um einen Kopf gr\u00f6\u00dfer als der Papa meiner Sophie, der doch recht gro\u00df gewachsen und auch dick ist. Diese dumme Dogge ist sicher ein furchtbar frecher Kerl. Ich knurrte sie an, aber sie machte sich nichts draus, und verzog keine Miene! Sie streckte nur die Zunge heraus, lie\u00df die m\u00e4chtigen Ohren h\u00e4ngen und blickte in mein Fenster hinauf, \u2013 so ein Bauer! Aber glaubst du denn wirklich, _ma ch\u00e8re_ , da\u00df mein Herz f\u00fcr all dies Werben unempfindlich sei? Ach, nein... H\u00e4ttest du nur einen gewissen Kavalier gesehen, der \u00fcber den Zaun des Nachbarhauses geklettert kommt und Tresor hei\u00dft... Ach, _ma ch\u00e8re_ , was er f\u00fcr ein Schn\u00e4uzchen hat!...\u00ab\n\nPfui, zum Teufel!... Solches Gesudel! Wie kann man nur seine Briefe mit solchen Dummheiten anf\u00fcllen! Man zeige mir einen Menschen! Ich will einen Menschen sehen, mich verlangt nach geistiger R\u00fchrung, die meine Seele speist und erg\u00f6tzt; statt dessen aber dieser Unsinn... Wenden wir die Seite um, vielleicht wird es besser?\n\n\u00bb... Sophie sa\u00df am kleinen Tisch und n\u00e4hte etwas. Ich blickte zum Fenster hinaus, denn ich beobachte gern die Passanten; pl\u00f6tzlich trat der Diener herein und meldete: \u203aHerr Teplow!\u2039 \u2013 \u203aIch lasse bitten!\u2039 rief Sophie und fing an, mich zu umarmen. \u203aAch, Maggie, Maggie! Wenn du nur w\u00fc\u00dftest, wer das ist: er ist br\u00fcnett und Kammerjunker und hat Augen so schwarz wie Achat!\u2039 Und Sophie lief in ihr Zimmer. Einen Augenblick sp\u00e4ter erschien ein junger Kammerjunker mit schwarzem Backenbart; er trat vor den Spiegel, brachte sein Haar in Ordnung und sah sich im Zimmer um. Ich knurrte eine Weile und setzte mich dann auf meinen Platz. Sophie kam bald wieder und beantwortete seinen Kratzfu\u00df mit einem vergn\u00fcgten Nicken; ich tat aber so, als bemerkte ich nichts, und sah ruhig zum Fenster hinaus; aber ich neigte meinen Kopf etwas zur Seite und gab mir M\u00fche zu h\u00f6ren, was sie sprachen. Ach, _ma ch\u00e8re_ , was f\u00fcr dummes Zeug redeten sie zusammen! Sie sprachen davon, da\u00df eine Dame beim Tanz statt der einen Figur eine andere gemacht habe; da\u00df irgendein Herr Bobow in seinem Jabot ganz wie ein Storch ausgesehen h\u00e4tte und beinahe hingeplumpst w\u00e4re! da\u00df irgendeine Frau Lidina sich einbilde, blaue Augen zu haben, w\u00e4hrend sie in Wirklichkeit gr\u00fcne habe, und dergleichen mehr. Wenn man diesen Kammerjunker mit meinem Tresor vergleichen wollte! dachte ich mir. Du lieber Himmel, dieser Unterschied! Erstens hat der Kammerjunker ein vollkommen glattes, breites Gesicht mit einem Backenbart ringsherum, es sieht aus, als h\u00e4tte er sich das Gesicht mit einem schwarzen Tuch umbunden; Tresor hat aber ein feines Schn\u00e4uzchen und eine kleine wei\u00dfe Stelle mitten auf der Stirn. Tresors Taille kann man mit der des Kammerjunkers gar nicht vergleichen. Wie anders sind auch die Augen, die Manieren, das ganze Benehmen. Ach, welch ein Unterschied! Ich wei\u00df nicht, _ma ch\u00e8re_ , was sie an ihrem Teplow gefunden hat. Warum ist sie so entz\u00fcckt von ihm?...\u00ab\n\nAuch mir scheint, da\u00df hier etwas nicht stimmt. Es kann nicht sein, da\u00df Teplow sie so bezaubert hat. Lesen wir weiter:\n\n\u00bbMir scheint, wenn ihr dieser Kammerjunker gef\u00e4llt, so wird ihr auch bald der Beamte gefallen, der beim Papa im Kabinett zu sitzen pflegt. Ach, _ma ch\u00e8re_ , wenn du nur w\u00fc\u00dftest, was das f\u00fcr ein Scheusal ist! Ganz wie eine Schildkr\u00f6te in einem Sack...\u00ab\n\nWas mag das wohl f\u00fcr ein Beamter sein?...\n\n\u00bbSein Familienname klingt sehr merkw\u00fcrdig. Er sitzt immer da und schneidet die Federn zurecht. Das Haar auf seinem Kopfe hat gro\u00dfe \u00c4hnlichkeit mit Heu. Der Papa verwendet ihn manchmal zu Boteng\u00e4ngen...\u00ab\n\nMir scheint, dieses gemeine Hundevieh spielt auf mich an. Aber ist denn mein Haar wie Heu?\n\n\u00bbSophie kann sich gar nicht des Lachens enthalten, wenn sie ihn ansieht.\u00ab\n\nDu l\u00fcgst, verdammtes Hundevieh! So eine b\u00f6se Zunge! Als ob ich nicht w\u00fc\u00dfte, da\u00df es nichts als Neid ist! Als ob ich nicht w\u00fc\u00dfte, wessen Streiche es sind! Es sind Streiche des Abteilungsvorstandes. Hat doch dieser Mensch mir ewigen Ha\u00df geschworen, und so schadet er mir auf Schritt und Tritt. Sehen wir uns indessen noch einen Brief an. Vielleicht kl\u00e4rt sich dann die Sache von selbst.\n\n_\u00bbMa ch\u00e8re_ Fid\u00e8le, entschuldige, da\u00df ich so lange nicht geschrieben habe. Ich war wie in einem Rausch. Wie richtig hat doch ein Dichter gesagt, die Liebe sei ein zweites Leben. Au\u00dferdem gibt es bei uns im Hause gro\u00dfe Ver\u00e4nderungen. Der Kammerjunker sitzt jetzt bei uns jeden Tag. Sophie ist wahnsinnig in ihn verliebt. Papa ist sehr vergn\u00fcgt. Ich h\u00f6rte sogar von unserem Grigorij, der den Boden kehrt und fast immer mit sich selbst spricht, da\u00df die Hochzeit bald stattfinden werde, denn der Papa wolle Sophie durchaus mit einem General oder einem Kammerjunker oder einem Oberst verheiratet sehen...\u00ab\n\nHol's der Teufel! Ich kann nicht weiter lesen... Immer ist's ein Kammerjunker oder ein General. Alles Beste, was es auf der Welt gibt, f\u00e4llt immer den Kammerjunkern oder den Gener\u00e4len zu. Hol's der Teufel! Wie gerne m\u00f6chte auch ich General werden, doch nicht um ihre Hand usw. zu erlangen, \u2013 nein, ich m\u00f6chte nur deshalb General werden, um zu sehen, wie sie vor mir scharwenzeln und alle diese h\u00f6fischen Kunstst\u00fccke und Manieren zeigen werden, und um ihnen dann zu sagen, da\u00df ich auf sie beide spucke. Hol's der Teufel, es ist \u00e4rgerlich! Ich habe die Briefe dieses dummen Hundes in St\u00fccke gerissen.\n\n3. Dezember.\n\nEs kann nicht sein, es ist erlogen! Es wird nie zu einer Hochzeit kommen! Was ist denn dabei, da\u00df er Kammerjunker ist? Das ist ja doch nur ein Titel und keine sichtbare Sache, die man in die Hand nehmen k\u00f6nnte. Weil er Kammerjunker ist, hat er doch kein drittes Auge auf der Stirn. Seine Nase ist doch auch nicht aus Gold gemacht, sondern genau so wie die meine und wie die eines jeden Menschen; er riecht doch und i\u00dft nicht mit ihr, er niest mit ihr und hustet nicht. Ich wollte schon einigemal dahinter kommen, worauf alle diese Unterschiede beruhen. Warum bin ich Titularrat und woraus folgt, da\u00df ich Titularrat bin? Vielleicht bin ich gar kein Titularrat? Vielleicht bin ich ein Graf oder ein General und sehe nur wie ein Titularrat aus. Vielleicht wei\u00df ich selbst noch nicht, wer ich bin. Es gibt doch so viele Beispiele in der Weltgeschichte: ein ganz einfacher Mensch, nicht einmal ein Adliger sondern ein Kleinb\u00fcrger oder sogar Bauer entpuppt sich pl\u00f6tzlich als hoher W\u00fcrdentr\u00e4ger als ein Baron oder wie hei\u00dft es noch... Wenn aus einem Bauern so etwas werden kann, was kann dann alles aus einem Edelmann werden? Da komme ich z.B. in Generalsuniform zu unserm Chef: auf der rechten Schulter habe ich eine Epaulette, auf der linken Schulter eine Epaulette, ein blaues Band \u00fcber die Achsel, \u2013 nun, was wird dann meine Sch\u00f6ne sagen? Was wird ihr Papa, unser Direktor sagen? Oh, er ist doch sehr ehrgeizig! Er ist ein Freimaurer, ganz gewi\u00df ein Freimaurer; er tut zwar so, als w\u00e4re er dies und jenes, aber ich habe es gleich bemerkt, da\u00df er ein Freimaurer ist: wenn er jemand die Hand reicht, so streckt er nur zwei Finger aus. Kann ich denn nicht jetzt gleich in diesem Augenblick zum General-Gouverneur, oder zum Intendanten oder zu etwas \u00c4hnlichem ernannt werden? Ich m\u00f6chte gerne wissen, warum ich Titularrat bin? Warum gerade Titularrat?\n\n5. Dezember.\n\nIch las heute den ganzen Vormittag Zeitungen. Merkw\u00fcrdige Dinge gehen in Spanien vor. Ich kann mich in ihnen so gar nicht ordentlich zurechtfinden. Man schreibt, der Thron sei erledigt, und die St\u00e4nde h\u00e4tten wegen der Wahl eines Thronfolgers Schwierigkeiten; darum g\u00e4be es Aufst\u00e4nde. Dies kommt mir au\u00dferordentlich seltsam vor. Wie kann blo\u00df der Thron erledigt sein? Man sagt, irgendeine Donna werde den Thron besteigen m\u00fcssen. Aber eine Donna kann den Thron nicht besteigen, es ist ganz unm\u00f6glich. Auf dem Throne mu\u00df doch ein K\u00f6nig sitzen. \u00bbAber es gibt keinen K\u00f6nig,\u00ab sagen die Leute. Es kann doch nicht sein, da\u00df es keinen K\u00f6nig gibt. Ein Staat kann nicht ohne einen K\u00f6nig bestehen. Es gibt wohl einen K\u00f6nig, er h\u00e4lt sich aber wohl irgendwo unerkannt auf. Vielleicht befindet er sich sogar dort an Ort und Stelle, aber irgendwelche Familiengr\u00fcnde oder Bef\u00fcrchtungen seitens der Nachbarstaaten wie Frankreich und der anderen zwingen ihn, sich verborgen zu halten, oder es gibt irgendwelche andere Ursachen.\n\n8. Dezember.\n\nIch war schon bereit, ins Departement zu gehen, aber verschiedene Gr\u00fcnde und Erw\u00e4gungen hielten mich davon ab. Die spanischen Angelegenheiten wollten mir nicht aus dem Sinn. Wie kann es nur sein, da\u00df eine Donna K\u00f6nigin wird? Man wird es nicht zulassen. Erstens wird es England nicht gestatten. Dazu auch die politische Lage von ganz Europa, der Kaiser von \u00d6sterreich, unser Kaiser... Ich mu\u00df gestehen, alle diese Ereignisse haben mich derma\u00dfen ersch\u00fcttert, da\u00df ich den ganzen Tag gar nichts tun konnte. Mawra sagte mir, ich sei bei Tisch \u00e4u\u00dferst zerstreut gewesen. Ich glaube, ich habe in meiner Zerstreutheit tats\u00e4chlich zwei Teller auf den Boden geschmissen, die auch zerbrachen. Nach dem Essen ging ich zu der Rutschbahn, konnte aber aus dem Schauspiel nichts Belehrendes sch\u00f6pfen. Die meiste Zeit lag ich zu Bett und dachte \u00fcber die spanischen Angelegenheiten nach.\n\nIm Jahre 2000, d. 43. April.\n\nDer heutige Tag ist ein Tag des gr\u00f6\u00dften Triumphs! Spanien hat einen K\u00f6nig. Er ist pl\u00f6tzlich da. Dieser K\u00f6nig bin ich. Gerade heute habe ich es erfahren. Ich mu\u00df gestehen, es erleuchtete mich wie ein Blitz. Ich verstehe nicht, wie ich mir nur denken und einbilden konnte, da\u00df ich ein Titularrat sei. Wie konnte mir nur dieser verr\u00fcckte, wahnsinnige Gedanke in den Kopf kommen? Es ist noch ein Gl\u00fcck, da\u00df es niemand eingefallen ist, mich ins Irrenhaus zu sperren. Jetzt ist mir alles klar. Jetzt sehe ich alles deutlich vor mir liegen. Und bisher, \u2013 ich verstehe es gar nicht, \u2013 bisher lag vor mir alles wie im Nebel. Ich glaube, das alles kommt daher, weil die Menschen sich einbilden, das menschliche Gehirn befinde sich im Kopfe; dem ist aber gar nicht so: es wird von einem Winde vom Kaspischen Meere hergebracht. Zuerst erkl\u00e4rte ich der Mawra, wer ich bin. Als sie h\u00f6rte, da\u00df vor ihr der K\u00f6nig von Spanien steht, schlug sie die H\u00e4nde zusammen und starb fast vor Schreck; die Dumme hat noch nie einen K\u00f6nig von Spanien gesehen. Ich gab mir jedoch M\u00fche, sie zu beruhigen, und versicherte sie in gn\u00e4digen Worten meines Wohlwollens, indem ich ihr sagte, ich z\u00fcrne ihr gar nicht, weil sie mir zuweilen die Stiefel so schlecht geputzt habe. Das sind doch einfache Leute: man kann zu ihnen nicht von h\u00f6heren Gegenst\u00e4nden sprechen. Sie erschrak, weil sie \u00fcberzeugt war, da\u00df alle spanischen K\u00f6nige Philipp II. gleichen. Ich machte ihr aber klar, da\u00df zwischen mir und Philipp fast nicht die geringste \u00c4hnlichkeit bestehe und da\u00df ich keinen einzigen Kapuziner bei mir habe. Ins Departement ging ich heute nicht. Mag es der Teufel holen! Nein, Freunde, jetzt werdet ihr mich nicht mehr hinlocken: ich werde eure garstigen Akten nicht mehr abschreiben!\n\nden 86. Martember, zwischen Tag und Nacht.\n\nHeute kam unser Exekutor, um mir zu sagen, ich solle ins Departement kommen; ich sei seit mehr als drei Wochen nicht mehr in den Dienst gegangen.\n\nAber die Menschen sind ungerecht: sie rechnen nach Wochen. Das haben die Juden eingef\u00fchrt, weil sich ihr Rabbiner um diese Zeit w\u00e4scht. Zum Spa\u00df ging ich aber doch ins Departement. Der Abteilungsvorstand glaubte, ich werde mich vor ihm verbeugen und mich entschuldigen: ich sah ihn aber nur gleichg\u00fcltig, nicht zu b\u00f6se und auch nicht zu gn\u00e4dig an und setzte mich auf meinen Platz, als bemerkte ich niemand. Ich betrachtete dieses ganze Kanzleigesindel und dachte mir: \u00bbWenn ihr nur w\u00fc\u00dftet, wer hier zwischen euch sitzt!...\u00ab Du lieber Gott, was h\u00e4tten sie f\u00fcr einen L\u00e4rm gemacht! Auch der Abteilungsvorstand selbst w\u00fcrde sich vor mir so tief verbeugen, wie er sich jetzt vor dem Direktor verbeugt. Man legte einige Akten vor mich hin, damit ich einen Exzerpt aus ihnen mache. Ich ber\u00fchrte sie aber mit keinem Finger. Nach einigen Minuten gerieten alle in Unruhe. Es hie\u00df, der Direktor komme. Viele Beamte liefen hinaus, um von ihm bemerkt zu werden, aber ich r\u00fchrte mich nicht von der Stelle. Als er durch unsere Abteilung ging, kn\u00f6pften alle ihre Fr\u00e4cke zu; mir fiel es aber gar nicht ein! Was ist so ein Direktor? Soll ich mich etwa vor ihm erheben? Niemals! Was ist er f\u00fcr ein Direktor? Er ist nur ein St\u00f6psel, und kein Direktor. Ein ganz gew\u00f6hnlicher St\u00f6psel, einer, mit dem man die Flaschen zukorkt, und weiter nichts! Am meisten am\u00fcsierte es mich, als man mir ein Papier vorlegte, damit ich es unterschreibe. Sie glaubten, ich w\u00fcrde ganz unten am Rande des Bogens hinschreiben: Tischvorsteher Soundso \u2013 fiel mir gar nicht ein! Ich schrieb auf die sichtbarste Stelle, wo der Direktor des Departements seine Unterschrift zu setzen pflegt: \u00bbFerdinand VIII.\u00ab Man mu\u00df gesehen haben, was f\u00fcr ein ehrfurchtsvolles Schweigen da eintrat; ich winkte aber nur mit der Hand, sagte: \u00bbIch brauche keine Zeichen der Untert\u00e4nigkeit!\u00ab und verlie\u00df das Zimmer. Aus der Kanzlei begab ich mich direkt in die Wohnung des Direktors. Er selbst war nicht zu Hause. Der Lakai wollte mich nicht einlassen, aber ich sagte ihm so etwas, da\u00df er nur die H\u00e4nde sinken lie\u00df. Ich ging direkt ins Toilettenzimmer. Sie sa\u00df vor dem Spiegel; als sie mich sah, sprang sie auf und wich vor mir zur\u00fcck. Ich erkl\u00e4rte ihr aber, da\u00df ich der K\u00f6nig von Spanien bin. Ich sagte ihr nur, da\u00df ihr ein Gl\u00fcck bevorstehe, wie sie es sich gar nicht vorstellen k\u00f6nne, und da\u00df wir trotz der R\u00e4nke der Feinde Zusammenkommen werden. Ich wollte sonst nichts mehr sagen und ging hinaus. Oh, wie heimt\u00fcckisch ist doch so ein Weib! Ich habe erst jetzt begriffen, was das Weib ist. Bisher hat noch niemand gewu\u00dft, in wen es verliebt ist; erst ich habe es entdeckt. Das Weib ist in den Teufel verliebt. Jawohl, ich meine es ganz ernst. Die Physiker schreiben dummes Zeug, wenn sie behaupten, sie sei dies und jenes; sie liebt aber nur den Teufel. Sehen Sie, wie sie aus der Loge im ersten Rang ihre Lorgnette auf jemand richtet. Sie glauben wohl, sie betrachte diesen dicken Herrn mit den Ordenssternen? Keine Spur: sie blickt auf den Teufel, der hinter dem R\u00fccken des Dicken steht. Da hat er sich in seinen Frack versteckt. Da winkt er ihr von dort aus mit dem Finger! Und sie wird ihn heiraten, sie wird ihn ganz gewi\u00df heiraten. Auch alle diese hohen Herrn, die V\u00e4ter, die sich wie Aale winden und zum Hofe streben, welche sagen, sie seien Patrioten und dies und jenes; diese Patrioten wollen nur staatliche L\u00e4ndereien in Pacht bekommen! Sie sind imstande, Vater und Mutter und selbst Gott zu verkaufen, diese ehrgeizigen Christus-Verk\u00e4ufer! Es ist nichts als Ehrgeiz, und der Ehrgeiz kommt daher, weil sich unter der Zunge ein kleines Bl\u00e4schen befindet und in diesem Bl\u00e4schen ein kleines W\u00fcrmchen, so gro\u00df wie ein Stecknadelkopf, sitzt; und dies alles macht ein gewisser Barbier, der in der Gorochowaja wohnt. Ich kann mich auf seinen Namen nicht besinnen; es ist aber als sicher bekannt, da\u00df er in Gemeinschaft mit einer Hebamme den mohammedanischen Glauben \u00fcber die ganze Welt verbreiten will; man sagt ja, da\u00df sich in Frankreich schon der gr\u00f6\u00dfte Teil der Bev\u00f6lkerung zum Glauben Mohammeds bekennt.\n\nGar kein Datum. Der Tag hatte kein Datum.\n\nIch ging heute auf dem Newski-Prospekt spazieren. Seine Majest\u00e4t der Kaiser fuhr vorbei. Alle Leute zogen die M\u00fctzen, und ich tat es auch; dabei lie\u00df ich mir es jedoch nicht anmerken, da\u00df ich der K\u00f6nig von Spanien bin. Ich hielt es f\u00fcr unpassend, mich hier in Gegenwart aller erkennen zu geben, denn zuerst mu\u00df ich mich doch bei Hofe vorstellen. Mich hielt nur das eine zur\u00fcck, da\u00df ich bisher noch kein spanisches Nationalkost\u00fcm habe. Wenn ich doch wenigstens einen K\u00f6nigsmantel h\u00e4tte. Ich h\u00e4tte ihn mir von einem Schneider machen lassen, aber diese Schneider sind die reinen Esel; au\u00dferdem vernachl\u00e4ssigen sie ihr Handwerk, geben sich mit anderen Aff\u00e4ren ab und pflastern zum gr\u00f6\u00dften Teil die Stra\u00dfen. Ich habe mich entschlossen, mir den K\u00f6nigsmantel aus meinem neuen Uniformfrack zu machen, den ich erst zweimal getragen habe. Damit diese Schurken ihn nicht verderben, beschlo\u00df ich, ihn mir selbst hinter verschlossenen T\u00fcren zu n\u00e4hen, so da\u00df es niemand sieht. Ich zerschnitt den ganzen Frack mit der Schere, denn der Schnitt mu\u00df ein ganz anderer sein.\n\nAuf das Datum besinne ich mich nicht.  \nEinen Monat gab es auch nicht.  \nWei\u00df der Teufel, was es war.\n\nDer Mantel ist vollkommen fertig. Als ich ihn mir umwarf, schrie Mawra auf. Aber ich kann mich noch nicht entschlie\u00dfen, mich bei Hofe vorzustellen: die Deputation aus Spanien ist noch immer nicht da. Ohne die Deputierten geht es nicht: So wird mir jedes Gewicht meiner W\u00fcrde fehlen. Ich erwarte sie von Stunde zu Stunde.\n\nden 1.\n\nIch wundere mich \u00fcber die Saumseligkeit der Deputierten. Was f\u00fcr Gr\u00fcnde m\u00f6gen sie aufgehalten haben? Vielleicht Frankreich? Ja, Frankreich ist wohl die mi\u00dfg\u00fcnstigste Macht. Ich ging auf die Post und erkundigte mich, ob die spanischen Deputierten eingetroffen seien; der Postmeister ist aber furchtbar dumm, er wei\u00df von nichts. \u00bbNein,\u00ab sagte er, \u00bbes gibt hier keine spanischen Deputierten, wenn Sie aber einen Brief schreiben wollen, so nehmen wir ihn nach dem festgesetzten Tarif an.\u00ab Hol's der Teufel, was brauche ich einen Brief? Ein Brief ist Unsinn. Briefe schreiben nur die Apotheker, und auch das nur, nachdem sie sich die Zunge mit Essig befeuchtet haben: sonst k\u00f6nnte man leicht Flechten auf dem ganzen Gesicht kriegen.\n\nMadrid, den 30. Februarius.\n\nSo bin ich nun in Spanien, und es geschah so schnell, da\u00df ich kaum Zeit hatte, zu mir zu kommen. Heute fr\u00fch erschienen bei mir die spanischen Deputierten, und ich stieg mit ihnen in die Equipage. Die ungew\u00f6hnliche Schnelligkeit kam mir befremdend vor. Wir fuhren so schnell, da\u00df wir schon nach einer halben Stunde die Grenze Spaniens erreichten. \u00dcbrigens gibt es jetzt in ganz Europa Eisenbahnen, und auch die Dampfer fahren sehr schnell. Ein sonderbares Land dieses Spanien! Als wir ins erste Zimmer traten, erblickte ich eine Menge Menschen mir rasierten Sch\u00e4deln. Ich erriet jedoch gleich, da\u00df das Granden oder Soldaten sein m\u00fcssen, weil diese sich die K\u00f6pfe rasieren. Sehr merkw\u00fcrdig kam mir das Benehmen des Reichskanzlers vor, der mich an der Hand hereinf\u00fchrte; er stie\u00df mich in ein kleines Zimmer und sagte: \u00bbSitz hier, und wenn du dich K\u00f6nig Ferdinand nennen wirst, so werde ich dir jede Lust dazu austreiben.\u00ab Ich wu\u00dfte aber, da\u00df es nur eine Versuchung war, und antwortete ihm verneinend, worauf mich der Kanzler zweimal mit dem Stock auf den R\u00fccken schlug und zwar so schmerzhaft, da\u00df ich beinahe aufgeschrieen h\u00e4tte; ich beherrschte mich aber, da ich mich erinnerte, da\u00df es ein Ritterbrauch ist, jeden der ein hohes Amt antritt, zu schlagen; in Spanien werden n\u00e4mlich die Rittersitten auch heute noch beobachtet. Als ich allein geblieben war, beschlo\u00df ich, mich den Staatsgesch\u00e4ften zu widmen. Ich machte die Entdeckung, da\u00df China und Spanien das gleiche Land sind und nur aus Unbildung f\u00fcr verschiedene L\u00e4nder gehalten werden. Ich empfehle einem jeden das Wort Spanien auf ein Blatt Papier zu schreiben; es wird n\u00e4mlich China daraus werden. Mich betr\u00fcbte aber au\u00dferordentlich ein Ereignis, das morgen stattfinden soll. Morgen um sieben Uhr wird sich etwas sehr Merkw\u00fcrdiges ereignen: die Erde wird sich auf den Mond setzen. Auch der ber\u00fchmte englische Chemiker Wellington schreibt dar\u00fcber. Offen gestanden, empfand ich eine Unruhe im Herzen, als ich an die au\u00dferordentliche Zartheit und Zerbrechlichkeit des Mondes dachte. Der Mond wird ja gew\u00f6hnlich in Hamburg gemacht und zwar sehr schlecht. Ich wundere mich, da\u00df England nicht darauf aufmerksam geworden ist. Ein lahmer B\u00f6ttcher hat ihn hergestellt, und der dumme Kerl hat offenbar keine Ahnung vom Monde gehabt. Er nahm dazu ein geteertes Seil und einen Teil Baum\u00f6l; darum verbreitet sich \u00fcber die Erde ein solcher Gestank, da\u00df man sich die Nase zuhalten mu\u00df. Darum ist auch der Mond selbst eine so zarte Kugel, da\u00df die Menschen auf ihm unm\u00f6glich leben k\u00f6nnen; es leben dort nur die Nasen allein. Darum k\u00f6nnen wir auch unsere Nasen nicht sehen, weil sie sich alle auf dem Monde befinden. Und als ich mir dachte, da\u00df die Erde eine schwere Materie ist und, wenn sie sich auf den Mond setzt, alle unsere Nasen zu Mehl zermalmen kann, bem\u00e4chtigte sich meiner eine solche Unruhe, da\u00df ich Str\u00fcmpfe und Schuhe anzog und in den Saal des Reichsrats eilte, um der Polizei den Befehl zu geben, es nicht zuzulassen, da\u00df die Erde sich auf den Mond setze. Die rasierten Granden, von denen ich im Saale des Reichsrates eine gro\u00dfe Menge traf, waren sehr kluge Menschen; als ich ihnen sagte: \u00bbMeine Herren, retten wir doch den Mond, denn die Erde will sich auf ihn setzen!\u00ab \u2013 so eilten alle augenblicklich, meinen k\u00f6niglichen Wunsch auszuf\u00fchren, und viele kletterten die Wand hinauf, um den Mond herunterzuholen; in diesem Augenblick trat aber der Reichskanzler herein. Als sie ihn sahen, liefen alle davon. Ich blieb als K\u00f6nig allein zur\u00fcck. Der Kanzler schlug mich aber zu meinem Erstaunen mit dem Stock und jagte mich in mein Zimmer. Eine solche Macht haben in Spanien die Volkssitten!\n\nJanuar desselben Jahres, der auf den Februarius folgt.\n\nIch kann noch immer nicht verstehen, was f\u00fcr ein Land dieses Spanien ist. Die Volkssitten und die Hofetikette sind hier ganz ungew\u00f6hnlich. Ich verstehe nichts, ich verstehe nichts, ich verstehe gar nichts. Heute hat man mir den Sch\u00e4del rasiert, obwohl ich, so laut ich konnte, schrie, ich wolle kein M\u00f6nch werden. Aber ich kann mich nicht mehr erinnern, was mit mir geschah, als man anfing, mir kaltes Wasser auf den Kopf zu gie\u00dfen. Solche H\u00f6llenqualen habe ich noch nie empfunden. Ich war nahe daran, rasend zu werden, so da\u00df man mich nur mit M\u00fche festhalten konnte. Ich kann die Bedeutung dieser sonderbaren Sitte nicht begreifen. Eine dumme, unsinnige Sitte! Mir ist die Unvernunft der K\u00f6nige, die sie bisher noch nicht abgeschafft haben, unverst\u00e4ndlich. Ich glaube, da\u00df ich allem Anscheine nach in die H\u00e4nde der Inquisition gefallen bin und da\u00df der Mann, den ich f\u00fcr den Kanzler gehalten, der Gro\u00dfinquisitor selbst ist. Aber ich kann noch immer nicht verstehen, wie der K\u00f6nig der Inquisition verfallen konnte. Allerdings kann hier Frankreich die Hand im Spiele haben, und insbesondere Polignac. Was f\u00fcr eine Bestie ist doch dieser Polignac! Er hat geschworen, mir bis an mein Lebensende zu schaden. Und so verfolgt er mich unaufh\u00f6rlich; aber ich wei\u00df, Freund, da\u00df dich England anstiftet. Die Engl\u00e4nder sind gro\u00dfe Politiker. Sie haben \u00fcberall ihre Hand im Spiele. Das wei\u00df die ganze Welt: wenn England Tabak schnupft, so mu\u00df Frankreich niesen.\n\nDen 25.\n\nHeute kam der Gro\u00dfinquisitor wieder in mein Zimmer, aber als ich seine Schritte in der Ferne vernahm, verkroch ich mich unter einen Stuhl. Als er mich nicht im Zimmer sah, fing er an, mich zu rufen. Erst schrie er: \u00bbPoprischtschin!\u00ab \u2013 Ich gab keinen Ton von mir. Dann: \u00bbAksentij Iwanowitsch! Titularrat! Edelmann!\u00ab \u2013 Ich schwieg noch immer. \u2013 \u00bbFerdinand VIII., K\u00f6nig von Spanien!\u00ab \u2013 Ich wollte schon den Kopf herausstecken, sagte mir aber: \u00bbNein, Bruder, du f\u00fchrst mich nicht an! Ich kenne dich: du wirst mir wieder kaltes Wasser auf den Kopf gie\u00dfen.\u00ab Aber er entdeckte mich und jagte mich mit dem Stock unter dem Stuhle hervor. Dieser verdammte Stock tut furchtbar weh. Daf\u00fcr hat mich jedoch die Entdeckung, die ich heute machte, entlohnt: ich erfuhr, da\u00df jeder Hahn sein Spanien hat: es befindet sich in seinem Gefieder, in der N\u00e4he des Schwanzes. Der Gro\u00dfinquisitor verlie\u00df mich aber erbost und mir irgendeine Strafe androhend. Ich achte aber nicht auf seine ohnm\u00e4chtige Wut, denn ich wei\u00df, da\u00df er nur wie eine Maschine, als ein Werkzeug Englands handelt.\n\nDa 34tum Mon. Ihra Februar 349.\n\nNein, ich kann es nicht l\u00e4nger ertragen. Gott, was machen sie mit mir! Sie gie\u00dfen mir kaltes Wasser auf den Kopf! Sie sehen nicht auf mich, sie h\u00f6ren nicht auf mich. Was habe ich ihnen getan? Warum qu\u00e4len sie mich so? Was wollen sie von mir Armem? Was kann ich ihnen geben? Ich habe nichts. Ich habe keine Kraft, ich kann alle diese Qualen nicht ertragen, mein Kopf brennt, und alles wirbelt vor meinen Augen. Rettet mich! Nehmt mich von hier fort! Gebt mir ein Dreigespann so schnell wie der Wind! Steig ein, Kutscher, klinge, mein Gl\u00f6ckchen, schwingt euch auf, Pferde, und tragt mich aus dieser Welt fort! Weiter, immer weiter, da\u00df ich nichts mehr sehe. Da ballt sich der Himmel vor mir zu Wolken; ein Sternchen funkelt in der Ferne; der Wald mit den dunklen B\u00e4umen und dem Monde jagt an mir vorbei; blaugrauer Nebel breitet sich zu meinen F\u00fc\u00dfen aus; eine Saite klingt im Nebel; auf der einen Seite liegt das Meer, auf der anderen Italien; da lassen sich auch russische Bauernh\u00e4user erkennen. Ist es nicht mein Haus, das dort in der blauen Ferne sichtbar wird? Sitzt nicht meine Mutter am Fenster? M\u00fctterchen, rette deinen armen Sohn! Lasse eine Tr\u00e4ne auf seinen kranken Kopf fallen! Schau, wie sie ihn qu\u00e4len! Dr\u00fckke den Armen, Verlassenen an deine Brust! Es ist kein Platz f\u00fcr ihn auf dieser Welt! Man hetzt ihn herum! M\u00fctterchen, erbarme dich deines kranken Kindes!... Wi\u00dft ihr \u00fcbrigens, da\u00df der Bey von Algier eine Beule unter der Nase hat?...\n\n## **Weitere lieferbare Literatur im marixverlag**\n\nGilbert Keith Chesterton\n\n**Pater Brown Geschichten**\n\nGebunden mit Schutzumschlag\n\nca. 256 S.; Format: 12,5 x 20 cm\n\nISBN: 978-3-7374-0954-4\n\n**\u00bbEr ist so lustig, da\u00df man fast glauben k\u00f6nnte, er habe Gott erfunden.\u00ab**\n\n_Franz Kafka_\n\nNiemand k\u00e4me wohl auf die Idee Monsieur Dupin oder Sherlock Holmes zu untersch\u00e4tzen. Chestertons Father Brown hingegen ist unscheinbar, sieht sogar etwas einf\u00e4ltig aus \u2013 was ihm immer wieder zum Vorteil gereicht \u2013 und ist dazu noch Priester. Dieser wohl eigenwilligste und interessanteste Held der klassischen Kriminalliteratur schl\u00e4gt seine Widersacher wie alle anderen gro\u00dfen Detektive nat\u00fcrlich vor allem mit genialer List und Intelligenz. Doch dar\u00fcber hinaus hat er einen pers\u00f6nlichen Vorteil, den keiner seiner Detektivkollegen mitbringt und der sich bei der Aufkl\u00e4rung der abenteuerlichen F\u00e4lle immer wieder als unverzichtbar erweist: Als Priester wei\u00df er mehr \u00fcber die S\u00fcnden und Abgr\u00fcnde der Menschen und so ist es ihm ein leichtes, die kriminellen Absichten und Geheimnisse der T\u00e4ter zu durchschauen.\n\nGeorg Trakl\n\n**In den Nachmittag gefl\u00fcstert**\n\nGedichte\n\nGebunden mit Schutzumschlag\n\nca. 256 S.; Format: 12,5 x 20 cm\n\nISBN: 978-3-7374-0953-7\n\n**\u00bbSein Werk, aus reinster Lyrik bestehend, ist von mythischer, magischer Sch\u00f6nheit.\u00ab**\n\n_Otto Basil_\n\nGeorg Trakls lyrisches Werk besticht durch die sinnliche Kraft seiner Bilder und eine \u00bbLyrik in Moll\u00ab. Er wird zu den bedeutendsten Fr\u00fchexpressionisten deutscher Sprache gez\u00e4hlt. Sein hermetisches Schaffen weist jedoch weit dar\u00fcber hinaus. Gebrandmarkt als Vertreter der \u00bbD\u00e9cadence \u00ab, die den Verfall stilisiert anstatt eine soziale Utopie zu entwerfen, tr\u00e4umt er von einem neuen, \u00bbnat\u00fcrlichen\u00ab Menschen, von einer Erneuerung der paradiesischen Unschuld in der Gesellschaft. Charakteristisch f\u00fcr seine Gedichte sind Visionen von d\u00fcsterer Farbenpracht und eine melodisch-rhythmische Sprache. Im vorliegenden Band sind die Gedichte aus den Jahren 1909\u20131914 nebst einer Einf\u00fchrung von Katharina Maier enthalten.\n\nJoachim Ringelnatz\n\n**Wie ich mich auf dich freue!**\n\nLiebesgedichte\n\nGebunden mit Schutzumschlag\n\nca. 160 S.; Format: 12,5 x 20 cm\n\nISBN: 978-3-7374-0955-1\n\n**\u00bbSein eigentliches k\u00fcnstlerisches Element war die Sprachphantastik, das erfinderische Spiel des Wortes, das er mit handwerklichem Sinn f\u00fcr Farbe und Kraft behandelte; das konnte l\u00e4rmende Kaskaden geben.\u00ab**\n\n_Theodor Heuss_\n\nJoachim Ringelnatz ist den meisten Lesern vor allem als Meister der komischen und frechen Lyrik bekannt. Sein poetisches Werk hinterl\u00e4sst aber auch eine Reihe von Liebesgedichten und offenbart eine einf\u00fchlsame, leidenschaftliche aber nicht weniger humorvolle Seite. Nie beliebig, immer eigen und \u00bbringelnatzig\u00ab-originell ist er auch in seinen Liebesgedichten. Dieser Band versammelt die sch\u00f6nsten, heitersten und erotischsten Liebesgedichte aus dem Gesamtwerk des gro\u00dfen deutschen Lyrikers.\n\nFranziska zu Reventlow\n\n**Herrn Dames Aufzeichnungen**\n\nOder Begebenheiten aus einem merkw\u00fcrdigen Stadtteil\n\nGebunden mit Schutzumschlag\n\n224 S.; Format: 12,5 x 20 cm\n\nISBN: 978-3-86539-374-6\n\n**\u00bbIhr Zynismus kannte keine Grenzen, doch immer alles mit Grazie.\u00ab**\n\n_Annette Kolb_\n\nFreie Liebe, das Leben als nie endendes Fest, Dandys, Spinner, Sp\u00e4taufsteher, Esoteriker \u2013 das sind Elemente und Menschen, die die Welt der M\u00fcnchener Boh\u00e8me ausmachen. Und mittendrin: Herr Dame, der in seiner Naivit\u00e4t den M\u00fcnchener Bohemiens das ein oder andere Geheimnis entlockt und die ein oder andere \u00fcberspielte Unwissenheit zu Tage f\u00f6rdert. Auf liebevolle und doch hin und wieder schmunzelnde Art portr\u00e4tiert Fanny zu Reventlow in Herrn Dames Aufzeichnungen das Leben der M\u00fcnchener Boh\u00e8me sowie ausgew\u00e4hlte Personen ihres eigenen Umfelds und schafft so den skurrilen Schl\u00fcsselroman der Schwabinger Boh\u00e8me.\n\nMark Twain\n\n**Der gefeierte Springfrosch von Calaveras County**\n\nZeitlose Kurzgeschichten\n\nGebunden mit Schutzumschlag;\n\n224 S.; Format: 12,5 x 20 cm\n\nISBN: 978-3-7374-0951-3\n\n**\u00bbWenn wir bedenken, dass wir alle verr\u00fcckt sind, ist das Leben erkl\u00e4rt.\u00ab**\n\n_Mark Twain_\n\nIn dieser Auswahl der besten Mark Twain-Kurzgeschichten zeigt der Altmeister immer wieder, dass der Wilde Westen abseits aller Klischees auch eine sehr komische Seite hat. Twain, der als \u00bbVater der amerikanischen Literatur\u00ab bezeichnet wird, erz\u00e4hlt hier \u00fcber Greenhorns und Aufschneider, Leichenbestatter und Kannibalismus. Er erkl\u00e4rt, wie man eine Erk\u00e4ltung kuriert und warum L\u00fcgen eine Kunst ist und f\u00e4llt in seinem ber\u00fchmten Aufsatz ein vernichtendes Urteil \u00fcber die \u203afurchtbare deutsche Sprache\u2039, die sich angeblich jeglichem gesunden Menschverstand widersetzt. Mark Twain besitzt einen scharfen, intelligenten aber auch liebevollen Blick f\u00fcr die Eigent\u00fcmlichkeiten seiner Mitmenschen. Sein trockener Humor und seine s\u00fcffisante Sprache machen die Geschichten so zu dem was sie sind: komisch, kurzweilig, zeitlos.\n\n**Weitere Titel finden Sie auf unserer Homepage: www.verlagshaus-roemerweg.de**\n\n### Kontakt zum Verlag\n\nVerlagshaus R\u00f6merweg GmbH\n\nR\u00f6merweg 10\n\nD-65187 Wiesbaden\n\nTel: +49 (0) 611 98698 12\n\nFax: +49 (0) 611 98698 26\n\ninfo@verlagshausroemerweg.de\n\nwww.verlagshaus-roemerweg.de\n\nhttps:\/\/www.facebook.com\/marixverlag\n\nhttps:\/\/twitter.com\/marixverlag\n\n# INHALT\n\n  1. DIE NASE\n  2. DAS PORTR\u00c4T\n  3. DER MANTEL\n  4. DER NEWSKIJ-PROSPEKT\n  5. AUFZEICHNUNGEN EINES IRREN\n  6. Weitere lieferbare Literatur im marixverlag\n  7. Kontakt zum Verlag\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
+{"text":"\n\nThis ebook was transcribed by Les Bowler.\n\n\n\n\n\n                            RAILWAY ADVENTURES\n                              AND ANECDOTES:\n                  EXTENDING OVER MORE THAN FIFTY YEARS.\n\n\n                         EDITED BY RICHARD PIKE.\n\n                              THIRD EDITION.\n\n                                * * * * *\n\n    \"The only _bona fide_ Railway Anecdote Book published\n    on either side of the Atlantic.\"--_Liverpool Mercury_.\n\n                                * * * * *\n\n                     LONDON: HAMILTON, ADAMS, AND CO.\n                          NOTTINGHAM: J. DERRY.\n\n                                * * * * *\n\n                                  1888.\n\n                               NOTTINGHAM:\n             J. DERBY, PRINTER, WHEELER GATE AND HOUNDS GATE.\n\n\n\n\nPREFACE.\n\n\nAlthough railways are comparatively of recent date we are so accustomed\nto them that it is difficult to realize the condition of the country\nbefore their introduction.  How different are the present day ideas as to\nspeed in travelling to those entertained in the good old times.  The\ncelebrated historian, Niebuhr, who was in England in 1798, thus describes\nthe rapid travelling of that period:--\"Four horses drawing a coach with\nsix persons inside, four on the roof, a sort of conductor besides the\ncoachman, and overladen with luggage, have to get over seven English\nmiles in the hour; and as the coach goes on without ever stopping except\nat the principal stages, it is not surprising that you can traverse the\nwhole extent of the country in so few days.  But for any length of time\nthis rapid motion is quite too unnatural.  You can only get a very\npiece-meal view of the country from the windows, and with the tremendous\nspeed at which you go can keep no object long in sight; you are unable\nalso to stop at any place.\"  Near the same time the late Lord Campbell,\ntravelling for the first time by coach from Scotland to London, was\nseriously advised to stay a day at York, as the rapidity of motion (eight\nmiles per hour) had caused several through-going passengers to die of\napoplexy.\n\nIt is stated in the year 1825, there was in the whole world, only one\nrailway carriage, built to convey passengers.  It was on the first\nrailway between Stockton and Darlington, and bore on its panels the\nmotto--\"Periculum privatum, publica utilitas.\"  At the opening of this\nline the people's ideas of railway speed were scarcely ahead of the canal\nboat.  For we are told, \"Strange to say, a man on horseback carrying a\nflag headed the procession.  It was not thought so dangerous a place\nafter all.  The locomotive was only supposed to go at the rate of from\nfour to six miles an hour; an ordinary horse could easily keep ahead of\nthat.  A great concourse of people stood along the line.  Many of them\ntried to accompany the procession by running, and some gentlemen on\nhorseback galloped across the fields to keep up with the engine.  At a\nfavourable part of the road Stephenson determined to try the speed of the\nengine, and he called upon the horseman with the flag to get out of his\nway!  The speed was at once raised to twelve miles an hour, and soon\nafter to fifteen, causing much excitement among the passengers.\"\n\nGeorge Stephenson was greatly impressed with the vast possibilities\nbelonging to the future of railway travelling.  When battling for the\nlocomotive he seemed to see with true prescience what it was destined to\naccomplish.  \"I will do something in course of time,\" he said, \"which\nwill astonish all England.\"  Years afterwards when asked to what he\nalluded, he replied, \"I meant to make the mail run between London and\nEdinburgh by the locomotive before I died, and I have done it.\"  Thus was\na similar prediction fulfilled, which at the time he uttered it was\ndoubtless considered a very wild prophecy, \"Men shall take supper in\nLondon and breakfast in Edinburgh.\"\n\nFrom a small beginning railways have spread over the four quarters of the\nglobe.  Thousands of millions of pounds have been spent upon their\nconstruction.  Railway contractors such as Peto and Brassey at one time\nemployed armies of workmen, more numerous than the contending hosts\nengaged in many a battle celebrated in history.  Considering the mighty\nrevolutions that have been wrought in social affairs and in the commerce\nof the world by railways, John Bright was not far wrong when he said in\nthe House of Commons \"Who are the greatest men of the present age?  Not\nyour warriors, not your statesmen.  They are your engineers.\"\n\nThe Railway era, although of modern date, has been rich in adventures and\nincidents.  Numerous works have been written upon Railways, also memoirs\nof Railway Engineers, relating their struggles and triumphs, which have\ncharmed multitudes of readers.  Yet no volume has been published\nconsisting exclusively of Railway Adventures and Anecdotes.  Books having\nthe heading of Railway Anecdotes, or similar titles, containing few of\nsuch anecdotes but many of a miscellaneous character, have from time to\ntime appeared.  Anecdotes, racy of the Railway calling and circumstances\nconnected with it are very numerous: they are to be found scattered in\nParliamentary Blue Books, Journals, Biographies, and many out-of-the-way\nchannels.  Many of them are highly instructive, diverting, and\nmirth-provoking, having reference to persons in all conditions.  The\n\"Railway Adventures and Anecdotes,\" illustrating many a quaint and\npicturesque scene of railway life, have been drawn from a great variety\nof sources.  I have for a long time been collecting them, and am willing\nto believe they may prove entertaining and profitable to the railway\ntraveller and the general reader, relieving the tedium of hours when the\nmind is not disposed to grapple with profounder subjects.\n\nThe romance of railways is in the past and not in the future.  How\ndesirable then it is that a well written history of British Railways\nshould speedily be produced, before their traditions, interesting\nassociations, and early workers shall be forgotten.  A work of such\nmagnitude would need to be entrusted to a band of expert writers.  With\nan able man like Mr. Williams, the author of _Our Iron Roads_, and the\n_History of the Midland Railway_, presiding over the enterprise, a\nhistory might be produced which would be interesting to the present and\nto future generations.  The history although somewhat voluminous would be\na necessity to every public and private library.  Many of our railway\ncompanies might do worse than contribute 500 or 1000 pounds each to\nencourage such an important literary undertaking.  It would give an\nimpetus to the study of railway matters and it is not at all unlikely in\nthe course of a short time the companies would be recouped for their\noutlay.\n\nBefore concluding, it is only right I should express my grateful\nacknowledgments to the numerous body of subscribers to this work.  Among\nthem are noblemen of the highest rank and distinction, cabinet ministers,\nmembers of Parliament, magistrates, ministers of all sections of the\nChristian church, merchants, farmers, tradesmen, and artisans.  Through\ntheir helpful kindness my responsibility has been considerably lightened,\nand I trust they will have no reason to regret that their confidence has\nbeen misplaced.\n\n\n\n\nCONTENTS.\n\nA.B.C. and D.E.F.                                         171\nAccident, Abergele, The                                   220\n,, Beneficial Effect of a Railway                         186\n,, Extraordinary                                          128\n,, ,,                                                     265\n,, Remarkable                                             172\n,, Versailles, The                                         96\nAction, A Novel                                           255\nAdvantages of Railway Tunnels                             126\nAdvertisement, Remarkable                                 124\nAdventure, Remarkable                                     146\nAffrighted Toll Keeper                                     19\nAgent, The Insurance                                      269\nAir-ways, instead of Railways                              83\nAlarmist Views                                             28\nAlmost Dar Now                                            122\nAmerican Patience and Imperturbability                    183\nA'penny a Mile                                            170\nArmy with Banners, An                                     207\nAtmospheric Railroad Anticipated                           14\nBaby Law                                                  216\nBalloonists, Extraordinary Escape of                      275\nBavarian Guards and Bavarian Beer                         198\nBill, Expensive Parliamentary                             102\n,, First Railway                                           16\nBishop, A Disingenuous                                    267\n,, An Industrious                                         248\nBlunder, An Extraordinary                                 254\nBookshops, Growth of Station                              130\nBooking-Clerk and Buckland, The                           248\nBookstalls, Messrs. Smith's                               131\nBrahmin, The Polite                                       260\nBride's Lost Luggage, A                                   142\nBrassey's, Mr., Strict Adherence to his Word              264\nBrougham's, Lord, Speech                                   60\nBox, Shut up in a large                                   273\nBuckland's, Mr. Frank, First Railway Journey              175\nBuckland, Mr. Frank, and his Boots                        261\nBridge, Awful Death on a Railroad                         273\nBully Rightly Served, The                                 190\nBurning the Road Clear                                    179\nBusiness, Railway Facilities for                          118\nCalculation as to Railway Speed                            28\nCapture, Clever                                           105\nCatastrophe                                               165\nCarlist Chief as a Sub-contractor, A                      213\nCarriage, The Duke's                                       60\nCasuality, Curious                                        193\nChase after a Runaway Engine, A                           136\nChild's Idea on Railways, A                               179\nChild, Remarkable Rescue of a                             249\nClaim for goodwill for a Cow killed on the Railway        268\nClergy, Appealing to the                                   83\nClever, Quite too                                         181\nCoach _versus_ Railway Accidents                          198\nCompensation for Land                                     106\n,, A Widow's Claim for                                    242\nCompetition, Early Railway                                 27\n,, For Passengers                                         167\n,, Goods                                                  135\nConductor, A Wide-awake                                   184\nCoincidences, Remarkable                                  291\nCook's Railway Excursions, Origin of                       87\nCool Impudence and Dishonesty                             248\nCoolness, A Little Boy's                                  258\nConstable, The Electric                                    92\nContracts, Expensive                                      263\nContractor, An Accommodating                              113\nContractors and the Blotting Pad, Rival                    99\nContrast, National                                        171\nConversion of the Gauge                                   243\nCounsel, The bothered Queen's                             247\nCourting on a Railway thirty miles an hour                159\nCrimea, The First Railway in the                          156\nCroydon.  It's                                            271\nCurious Classification, A                                 294\nCustom of the Country, The                                234\nCuvier's Description of the Locomotive                     21\nDamages easily adjusted                                   127\nDay.  The Great Railway Mania                             114\nDeath.  Faithful unto                                     153\nDecision.  A Quick                                         95\nDecoy Trunk, The                                          224\nDeodand.  The                                              88\nDifficulties encountered in making Surveys                 31\nDifficulty solved, A                                      181\nDiscovery, A Great                                        144\nDiscussion, An Unfortunate                                 89\nDisguise, Duty in                                         283\nDissatisfied Passengers                                   236\nDoctor and the Officers, The                              246\nDog Ticket                                                 91\nDown Brakes, or Force of Habit                            192\nDrink.  That accursed                                     274\nDrinking from the Wrong Bottle                            262\nDriving a last spike                                      224\nDropping the letter \"L\"                                   267\nDukes and the traveller, The two                          114\nDying Engine Driver, The                                  191\nEarly American Railway Enterprise                          66\nEarly Morning Ride                                        187\nEarly Steam Carriages                                      15\nElevated Sight-seers Wishing to Descend                    59\nEngine Driver, A Brave                                    247\n,, A Mad                                                  278\nEngine Driver's Presence of Mind                          232\n,, Driving                                                230\n,, Fascination                                            166\nEngineer and Scientific Witness                           133\n,, Very Nice to be a Railway                              113\nEntertaining Companion                                    195\nEpigram, Railway                                          124\nEpitaph, An Engine Driver's                                86\n,, on the Victim of a Railway Accident                     85\nEscape, Providential                                      128\nEscapes from being Lynched, Narrow                        153\nEverett's Reply to Wordsworth's Protest                   123\nEvidence of General Salesman                               78\n,, Picture                                                111\nEvil, A Dreaded                                           145\nExcursionists put to the proof                            294\nExtracts from Macready's Diaries                          138\nFares, Cheap                                              188\nFault, At                                                 241\nFemale Fragility                                          250\nFlutter caused by the murder of Mr. Briggs                253\nFog Signals                                               121\nForged Tickets                                            217\nFourth of July Facts                                      244\nFraud on the Great Northern Company, Immense              161\nFrauds, Attempted                                         140\nFreak, Singular                                           170\nFreaks of Concealed Bogs                                  138\nFrightened at a Red Light                                 223\nGirl, A Brave                                             273\nGoat and the Railway, The                                 155\nGood Things of Railway Accidents                          186\nGravedigger's Suggestion, A                               257\nGray, Thomas.  A Railway Projector                         22\nGreenlander's First Railway Ride, A                       255\nGrowing Lad, A                                            217\nHartington, The Marquis of, on George Stephenson          283\nHair-Dresser, The anxious                                  79\nHeroism of a Driver                                       270\nHighlander and a Railway Engine, The                      138\nHoax, Accident                                            167\nHorses _versus_ Railways                                  262\nHow to bear losses                                        214\nImpressions, A Mexican Chief's Railway                    278\nIncident, An amusing                                      258\n,, An Electric Tramway                                    282\nInformation, Obtaining                                    154\nInsulted Woman, An                                        235\nInsured                                                   202\nJudge's feeling against Railways, A County Court          150\nKangaroo Attacking a Train, A                             209\nKemble's Letter, Fanny                                     35\nKid-Gloved Samson, A                                      184\nKiss in the Dark, A                                       256\nLady and her Lap-dog, The                                 242\n,, An Exacting                                            183\nLegislation, Railway                                      100\nLiabilities of Railway Engineers for Errors               127\nLiability of Companies for Delay of Trains                191\nLife upon a Railway, by a Conductor                       148\nLoan Engineering, or Staking out a Railway                172\nLocomotive, A Smuggling                                   234\n,, Dangerous                                              292\nLuggage, Lost                                             112\n,, in Railway Carriages                                   281\n,, What is Passengers'                                    243\nMadman in a Railway Carriage, A                           201\nMarriage, A Railway                                       139\n,, and Railway Dividends                                  228\nMatch, A Runaway                                           93\nMerchant and his Clerk, The                               160\nMistake, A slight                                         263\nMonetary Difficulties in Spain                            212\nMoney.  Lost and Found                                     87\nMonkey Signalman, A                                       294\nNavvy's Reason for not going to Church, A                  80\nNervousness                                               259\nNew Trick.  A                                             203\nNewspaper Wonder, A                                       211\nNewton, Sir Isaac's Prediction of Railway Speed            14\nNotice, Copy of a                                         237\n,, A curious                                              154\n,, A remarkable                                           252\n,, to Defaulting Shareholders, A Novel                     95\nNot to be caught                                          246\nNovel Attack, A                                           197\n,, Obstruction                                            215\nObjections, Sanitary                                       77\nOpposition, A Landowner's                                 110\n,, English and American                                    71\n,, Parliamentary                                           29\n,, to Making Surveys                                       75\nOrders, My                                                280\nParody upon the Railway Mania                             118\nPassengers and other Cattle                               158\n,, Third-class                                            143\nPeto, Sir Morton, and the Balaclava Railway               156\nPeto's, Sir Morton, Railway Mission                       104\nPhillippe and the English Navvies, Louis                  125\nPhotographing an Express Train                            259\nPolite Irishman, The                                      194\nPortmanteau, His                                          130\nPost Office and Railways.  The                            119\nPower of Locomotive Engines, Gigantic                      94\nPractice, Sharp                                            80\nPrejudice against carrying Coals by Railways               84\n,, Removed                                                 81\nPresentiment, Mrs. Blackburne's                            56\nProfitable Damages                                        295\nPrognostications of Failure                                73\nPullman's Carriages                                       295\nRace, A Curious                                           254\nRailway, An Early                                          20\n,, An Early Ride on the Liverpool and Manchester           61\n,, Announcement                                            17\n,, Enterprise                                             296\n,, Travelling, Early                                       63\n,, Destroyers in the Franco-German War                    223\n,, from Merstham to Wandsworth                             16\n,, Liverpool and Manchester                                32\n,, Manners                                                272\n,, Merthyr Tydvil                                          17\n,, A Profitable                                           260\n,, Opening of the Darlington and Stockton                  26\n,, Romance                                                 93\n,, Sleeper, A                                             246\n,, Signals                                                120\n,, Switch Tender and his Child                            199\n,, Train turned into a Man-trap                           185\n,, Up Vesuvius                                            274\nRailways, Elevated                                        214\n,, A Judgment                                             268\n,, Origin of                                               13\nRailroad Incident                                         214\n,, Tracklayer                                             216\nRails, Expansion of                                       158\nRector and his Pig.  The                                  103\nRedstart, The Black                                       199\nRejoinder, A smart                                        158\nReproof for Swearing                                      189\nRequest, A Polite                                         136\nRide from Boston to Providence in 1835, A                  81\nRobinson's, Crabb, First Railway Journey                   65\nRuling Occupation strong on Sunday                        186\nSafety on the Floor                                       147\nSeat, The Safest                                          268\nScotch Lady and her Box                                   272\nScene at a Railway Junction, Extraordinary                134\n,, Before a Sub-Committee on Standing Orders              176\nSecurity for Travelling                                   229\nSell, A                                                   241\nSeizure of a Railway Train for Debt                       208\nShe takes Fits                                            210\nShrewd Observers                                           20\nSignalman, An Amateur                                      97\nSingular Circumstance                                     125\nSleeper, A Heavy                                          276\nSounds, Remarkable Memory for                             266\nSnag's Corners                                            210\nSnake's Heads                                              81\nSnowed up on the Pacific Railway                          237\nSpeed of Railway Engines                                   30\nSteam defined                                             137\n,, Pulling a Tooth by                                     276\nSteel Rails                                               193\nStephenson Centenary, The                                 284\n,, ,, George Robert Stephenson's Address                  286\n,, ,, Rev. T. C. Sarjent's Address at the                 288\n,, ,, Sir William Armstrong's Address at the              284\nStephenson's Wedding Present, George                      194\nStopping a Runaway Couple                                 200\nStumped                                                   293\nSwindling, Ingenious                                      292\nTaken Aback                                               152\nTaking Him Down a Peg                                     252\nTaste, Loss of                                            291\nTay Bridge Accident                                       245\nTelegraph, Extraordinary use of the Electric              111\nTicket, A Lost                                            164\n,, Your                                                   271\nTraffic-Taking                                             86\nTrain Stopped by Caterpillars, A                          204\nTravelling, Effects of Constant Railway                   281\n,, in Russia                                              204\n,, Improvement in Third-Class                             143\nTrent Station                                             192\nTrip, An Unpleasant Trial                                  72\nTunnel, In a Railway                                      137\nVery Cool                                                 199\nWaif, An Extraordinary                                    245\nWard's, Artemus, Suggestion                               197\nWatkin, Sir Edward, on Touting for Business               269\nWay, A Quick                                              138\nWay-Leaves                                                 13\nWedding at a Railway Station                              166\nWhat are you going to do?                                 189\nWhistle, Steam                                             98\nWolves on a Railway                                       197\nWordsworth's Protest                                      122\nYankee Compensation Case, A                               218\n\n\n\nORIGIN OF RAILWAYS\n\n\nThe immediate parent of the railway was the wooden tram-road, which\nexisted at an early period in colliery districts.  Mr. Beaumont, of\nNewcastle, is said to have been the first to lay down wooden rails as\nlong ago as 1630.  More than one hundred and forty years elapsed before\nthe invention was greatly improved.  Mr. John Carr, in 1776 (although not\nthe first to use iron rails), was the first to lay down a cast-iron\nrailway, nailed to wooden sleepers, for the Duke of Newcastle's colliery\nnear Sheffield.  This innovation was regarded with great disfavour by the\nworkpeople as an interference with the vested rights of labour.  Mr.\nCarr's life, as a consequence, was in much jeopardy and for four days he\nhad to conceal himself in a wood to avoid the violence of an indignant\nand vindictive populace.\n\n\n\n\nWAY-LEAVES.\n\n\nRoger North, referring to a visit paid to Newcastle by his brother, the\nLord Keeper Guildford, in 1676, writes:--\"Another remarkable thing is\ntheir _way-leaves_; for when men have pieces of ground between the\ncolliery and the river, they sell the leave to lead coal over the ground,\nand so dear that the owner of a rood of ground will expect 20 pounds per\nannum for this leave.  The manner of the carriage is by laying rails of\ntimber from the colliery down to the river exactly straight and parallel,\nand bulky carts are made with four rowlets fitting these rails, whereby\nthe carriage is so easy that one horse will draw four or five chaldron of\ncoals, and is an immense benefit to the coal merchants.\"\n\n\n\n\nSIR ISAAC NEWTON'S PREDICTION OF RAILWAY SPEED.\n\n\nIn a tract by the Rev. Mr. Craig, Vicar of Leamington, entitled \"Astral\nWonders,\" is to be found the following remarkable passage:--\"Let me\nnarrate to you an anecdote concerning Sir Isaac Newton and Voltaire.  Sir\nIsaac wrote a book on the Prophet Daniel, and another on the Revelations;\nand he said, in order to fulfil certain prophecies before a certain date\nterminated, namely 1260 years, there would be a certain mode of\ntravelling of which the men in his time had no conception; nay, that the\nknowledge of mankind would be so increased that they would be able to\ntravel at the rate of fifty miles an hour.  Voltaire, who did not believe\nin the Holy Scriptures, got hold of this, and said, 'Now look at that\nmighty mind of Newton, who discovered gravity, and told us such marvels\nfor us all to admire, when he became an old man and got into his dotage,\nhe began to study that book called the Bible; and it appears that in\norder to credit its fabulous nonsense, we must believe that mankind's\nknowledge will be so much increased that we shall be able to travel fifty\nmiles an hour.  The poor 'dotard!' exclaimed the philosophic infidel,\nVoltaire, in the complaisancy of his pity.  But who is the dotard now?\"\n\n\n\n\nTHE ATMOSPHERIC RAILROAD ANTICIPATED.\n\n\n                                _First Voice_.\n\n    \"But why drives on that ship so fast,\n    Without or wave or wind?\"\n\n                               _Second Voice_.\n\n    \"The air is cut away before,\n    And closes from behind.\"\n\n                                                  --_The Ancient Mariner_.\n\nThis is the exact principle of the atmospheric railroad, and it is,\nperhaps, worthy of note as a curious fact that such a means of locomotion\nshould have occurred to Coleridge so long ago.\n\n                             W. Y. Bernhard Smith, in _Notes and Queries_.\n\n\n\n\nEARLY STEAM CARRIAGES.\n\n\nStuart, in his \"Historical and Descriptive Anecdotes of Steam Engines and\nof their Inventors and Improvers,\" gives a description of what was\nsupposed to be the first model of a steam carriage.  The constructor was\na Frenchman named Cugnot, who exhibited it before the Marshal de Saxe in\n1763.  He afterwards built an engine on the same model at the cost of the\nFrench monarch.  But when set in motion it projected itself onward with\nsuch force that it knocked down a wall which stood in its way, and--its\npower being considered too great for ordinary use--it was put aside as\nbeing a dangerous machine, and was stowed away in the Arsenal Museum at\nParis.  It is now to be seen in the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers.\n\nMr. Smiles also remarks that \"An American inventor, named Oliver Evans,\nwas also occupied with the same idea, for, in 1772, he invented a steam\ncarriage to travel on common roads; and, in 1787, he obtained from the\nState of Maryland the exclusive right to make and use steam carriages.\nThe invention, however, never came into practical use.\n\n\"It also appears that, in 1784, William Symington, the inventor of the\nsteamboat, conceived the idea of employing steam power in the propulsion\nof carriages; and, in 1786, he had a working model of a steam carriage\nconstructed which he submitted to the professors and other scientific\ngentlemen of Edinburgh.  But the state of the Scotch roads was at that\ntime so horrible that he considered it impracticable to proceed further\nwith his scheme, and he shortly gave it up in favour of his project of\nsteam navigation.\n\n\"The first English model of a steam carriage was made in 1784 by William\nMurdoch, the friend and assistant of Watt.  It was on the high-pressure\nprinciple and ran on three wheels.  The boiler was heated by a spirit\nlamp, and the whole machine was of very diminutive dimensions, standing\nlittle more than a foot high.  Yet, on one occasion, the little engine\nwent so fast that it outran the speed of the inventor.  Mr. Buckle says\nthat one night after returning from his duties in the mine at Redruth, in\nCornwall, Murdoch determined to try the working of his model locomotive.\nFor this purpose he had recourse to the walk leading to the church, about\na mile from the town.  The walk was rather narrow and was bounded on\neither side by high hedges.  It was a dark night, and Murdoch set out\nalone to try his experiment.  Having lit his lamp, the water shortly\nbegan to boil, and off started the engine with the inventor after it.  He\nsoon heard distant shouts of despair.  It was too dark to perceive\nobjects, but he shortly found, on following up the machine, that the\ncries for assistance proceeded from the worthy pastor of the parish, who,\ngoing towards the town on business, was met on this lonely road by the\nhissing and fiery little monster, which he subsequently declared he had\ntaken to be the Evil One in _propria persona_.  No further steps,\nhowever, were taken by Murdoch to embody his idea of a locomotive\ncarriage in a more practical form.\"\n\n\n\n\nFIRST RAILWAY BILL.\n\n\nThe first Railway Bill passed by Parliament was for a line from\nWandsworth to Croydon, in 1801, but a quarter of a century elapsed before\nthe first line was actually constructed for carrying passengers between\nStockton and Darlington.  People still living can remember the mail\ncoaches that plied once a month between Edinburgh and London, making the\njourney in twelve or fourteen days.  The _Annual Register_ of 1820 boasts\nthat \"English mail coaches run 7 miles an hour; French only 4.5 miles;\nthe former travelling, in the year, forty times the length of miles that\nthe French accomplish.\"  These coaches were a great improvement on the\nprevious method of sending the mails.  In 1783 a petition to Parliament\nstated that \"the mails are generally entrusted to some idle boy, without\ncharacter, mounted on a worn-out hack.\"\n\n                               \"_Progress of the World_\" by M. G. Mulhall.\n\n\n\n\nRAILWAY FROM MERSTHAM TO WANDSWORTH.\n\n\nCharles Knight thus describes this old line:--\"The earliest railway for\npublic traffic in England was one passing from Merstham to Wandsworth,\nthrough Croydon; a small, single line, on which a miserable team of\ndonkeys, some thirty years ago, might be seen crawling at the rate of\nfour miles an hour, with several trucks of stone and lime behind them.\nIt was commenced in 1801, opened in 1803; and the men of science of that\nday--we cannot say that the respectable name of Stephenson was not among\nthem, (Stephenson was then a brakesman at Killingworth)--tested its\ncapabilities and found that one horse could draw some thirty-five tons at\nsix miles an hour, and then, with prophetic wisdom, declared that\nrailways could never be worked profitably.  The old Croydon railway is no\nlonger used.  The genius loci must look with wonder on the gigantic\noffspring of the little railway, which has swallowed up its own sire.\nLean mules no longer crawl leisurely along the little rails with trucks\nof stone through Croydon, once perchance during the day, but the whistle\nand the rush of the locomotive are now heard all day long.  Not a few\nloads of lime, but all London and its contents, by comparison--men,\nwomen, children, horses, dogs, oxen, sheep, pigs, carriages, merchandise,\nfood,--would seem to be now-a-days passing through Croydon; for day after\nday, more than 100 journeys are made by the great railroads which pass\nthe place.\"\n\n\n\n\nRAILWAY ANNOUNCEMENT.\n\n\nThe following announcement was published in a London periodical, dated\nAugust 1, 1802:--\"The Surrey Iron Railway is now completed over the high\nroad through Wandsworth town.  On Wednesday, June 8, several carriages of\nall descriptions passed over the iron rails without meeting with the\nleast obstacle.  Among these, the Portsmouth wagon, drawn by eight horses\nand weighing from eight to ten tons, passed over the rails, and did not\nappear to make the slightest impression upon them.\"\n\n\n\n\nMERTHYR TYDVIL RAILWAY.\n\n\nAn Act of Parliament was granted for a railway to Merthyr Tydvil in 1803,\nand the following year the first locomotive which ran on a railway is\ndescribed in a racy manner by the _Western Mail_, as follows:--\"Quaint,\nrattling, puffing, asthmatic, and wheezy, the pioneer of ten thousand\ngilding creations of beauty and strength made its way between the\nwhite-washed houses of the old tramway at Merthyr.  It has a dwarf body\nplaced on a high framework, constructed by the hedge carpenter of the\nplace in the roughest possible fashion.  The wheels were equally rough\nand large, and surmounting all was a huge stack, ugly enough when it was\nnew, but in after times made uglier by whitewash and rust.  Every\nmovement was made with a hideous uproar, snorting and clanking, and this,\naided by the noise of the escaping steam, formed a tableau from which,\nmet in the byeway, every old woman would run with affright.  The Merthyr\nlocomotive was made jointly by Trevithick, a Cornishman, and Rees Jones,\nof Penydarran.  The day fixed for the trial was the 12th of February,\n1804, and the track a tramway, lately formed from Penydarran, at the back\nof Plymouth Works, by the side of the Troedyrhiw, and so down to the\nnavigation.  Great was the concourse assembled; villagers of all ages and\nsizes thronged the spot; and the rumour of the day's doings even\npenetrated up the defiles of <DW75> Vawr and <DW75> Vach, bringing down old\napple-faced farmers and their wives, who were told of a power and a speed\nthat would alter everything, and do away with horses altogether.  Prim,\ncosy, apple-faced people, innocent and primitive, little thought ye then\nof the changes which the clanking monster was to yield; how Grey Dobbin\nwould see flying by a mass of wood and iron, thousands of tons of weight,\nbearing not only the commerce of the country, but hundreds of people as\nwell; how rivers and mountains would afford no obstacle, as the mighty\nazure waves leap the one and dash through the other.  On the first engine\nand trains that started on the memorable day in February, twenty persons\nclustered like bees, anxious, we learn in the 'History of Merthyr,' to\nwin immortality by being thus distinguished above all their fellows; the\ntrains were six in number, laden with iron, and amidst a concourse of\nvillagers, including the constable, the 'druggister,' and the class\ngenerally dubbed 'shopwors' by the natives, were Richard Crawshay and Mr.\nSamuel Homfray.  The driver was one William Richards, and on the engine\nwere perched Trevithick and Rees Jones, their faces black, but their eyes\nbright with the anticipation of victory.  Soon the signal was given, and\namidst a mighty roar from the people, the wheels turned and the mass\nmoved forward, going steadily at the rate of five miles an hour until a\nbridge was reached a little below the town that did not admit of the\nstack going under, and as this was built of bricks, there was a great\ncrash and instant stoppage.  Trevithick and Jones were of the\nold-fashioned school of men who did not believe in impossibilities.  The\nfickle crowd, too, who had hurrahed like mad, hung back and said 'It\nwon't do'; but these heroes, the advance-guard of a race who had done\nmore to make England famous than battles by land or sea, sprang to the\nground and worked like Britons, never ceasing until they had repaired the\nmishap, and then they rattled on, and finally reached their journey's\nend.  The return journey was a failure, on account of gradients and\ncurves, but the possibility of success was demonstrated; and from this\nrun on the Merthyr tramway the railway age--marked with throes and\nsuspense, delays, accidents, and misadventures--finally began.\"\n\n\n\n\nAN AFFRIGHTED TOLL-KEEPER.\n\n\nThere is a story told by Coleridge about the steam engine which\nTrevithick exhibited at work on a temporary railroad in London.\nTrevithick and his partner Captain Vivian, prior to this exhibition were\nriding on the carriage on the turnpike road near to Plymouth.  It had\ncommitted sundry damage in its course, knocking down the rails of a\ngentleman's garden, when Vivian saw the toll-bar in front of them closed\nhe called to Trevithick to slacken speed which he did just in time to\nsave the gate.  The affrighted toll-keeper instantly opened it.  \"What\nhave us got to pay?\" asked Captain Vivian, careful as to honesty if\nreckless as to grammar.\n\n\"Na-na-na-na!\" stammered the poor man, trembling in every limb, with his\nteeth chattering as if he had got the ague.\n\n\"What have us got to pay, I ask?\"\n\n\"Na-noth-nothing to pay!  My de-dear Mr. Devil, do drive as fast as you\ncan!  Nothing to pay!\"\n\n\n\n\nAN EARLY RAILWAY.\n\n\nMore than twenty years before the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester\nRailway, the celebrated engineer Trevithick constructed, not only a\nlocomotive engine, but also a railway, that the London public might see\nwith their own eyes what the new high pressure steam engine could effect,\nand how greatly superior a railway was to a common road for locomotion.\nThe sister of Davies Gilbert named this engine \"Catch me who can.\"  The\nfollowing interesting account in a letter to a correspondent was given by\nJohn Isaac Hawkins, an engineer well known in his day.\n\n\"Sir,--Observing that it is stated in your last number (No. 1232, dated\nthe 20th instant, page 269), under the head of 'Twenty-one Years'\nRetrospect of the Railway System,' that the greatest speed of\nTrevithick's engine was five miles an hour, I think it due to the memory\nof that extraordinary man to declare that about the year 1808 he laid\ndown a circular railway in a field adjoining the New Road, near or at the\nspot now forming the southern half of Euston Square; that he placed a\nlocomotive engine, weighing about ten tons, on that railway--on which I\nrode, with my watch in hand--at the rate of twelve miles an hour; that\nMr. Trevithick then gave his opinion that it would go twenty miles an\nhour, or more, on a straight railway; that the engine was exhibited at\none shilling admittance, including a ride for the few who were not too\ntimid; that it ran for some weeks, when a rail broke and occasioned the\nengine to fly off in a tangent and overturn, the ground being very soft\nat the time.  Mr. Trevithick having expended all his means in erecting\nthe works and enclosure, and the shillings not having come in fast enough\nto pay current expenses, the engine was not again set on the rail.\"\n\n\n\n\nSHREWD OBSERVERS.\n\n\nSir Richard Phillips was a man of foresight, for, in the year 1813, he\nwrote the following words in his \"Morning Walk to Kew,\" a book of some\npopularity in its day:--\"I found delight in witnessing at Wandsworth the\neconomy of horse labour on the iron railway.  Yet a heavy sigh escaped me\nas I thought of the inconceivable millions of money which had been spent\nabout Malta, four or five of which might have been the means of extending\ndouble lines of iron railway from London to Edinburgh, Glasgow, Holyhead,\nMilford, Falmouth, Yarmouth, Dover, and Portsmouth.  A reward of a single\nthousand would have supplied coaches and other vehicles of various\ndegrees of speed, with the best tackle for readily turning out; and we\nmight ere this have witnessed our mail coaches running at the rate of ten\nmiles an hour, drawn by a single horse, or impelled fifteen miles an hour\nby Blenkinsop's steam engine.  Such would have been a legitimate motive\nfor overstepping the income of a nation; and the completion of so great\nand useful a work would have afforded rational ground for public triumph\nin general jubilee.\"  Mr. Edgeworth, writing to James Watt on the 7th of\nAugust, 1813, remarks, \"I have always thought that steam would become the\nuniversal lord, and that we should in time scorn post-horses.  An iron\nrailroad would be a cheaper thing than a road on the common\nconstruction.\"\n\n\n\n\nCUVIER'S DESCRIPTION OF THE LOCOMOTIVE.\n\n\nThe celebrated Cuvier, in an address delivered by him before the French\nInstitute in the year 1816, thus referred to the nascent locomotive:--\"A\nsteam engine, mounted upon a carriage whose wheels indent themselves\nalong a road specially prepared for it, is attached to a line of loaded\nvehicles.  A fire is lit underneath the boiler, by which the engine is\nspeedily set in motion, and in a short time the whole are brought to\ntheir journey's end.  The traveller who, from a distance, first sees this\nstrange spectacle of a train of loaded carriages traversing the country\nby the simple force of steam, can with difficulty believe his eyes.\"\n\nThe locomotive thus described by Cuvier was the first engine of the kind\nregularly employed in the working of railway traffic.  It was impelled by\nmeans of a cogged wheel, which worked into a cogged rail, after the\nmethod adopted by Mr. Blenkinsop, upon the Middleton Coal Railway, near\nLeeds; and the speed of the train which it dragged behind it was only\nfrom three to four miles an hour.\n\nTen years later, the same power and speed of the locomotive were still\nmatters of wonderment, for, in 1825, we find Mr. Mackenzie, in his\n\"History of Northumberland\" thus describing the performances on the Wylam\nCoal Railroad:--\"A stranger,\" said he, \"is struck with surprise and\nastonishment on seeing a locomotive engine moving majestically along the\nroad at the rate of four or five miles an hour, drawing along from ten to\nfourteen loaded wagons, weighing about twenty-one-and-a-half tons; and\nhis surprise is increased on witnessing the extraordinary facility with\nwhich the engine is managed.  This invention is indeed a noble triumph of\nscience.\"\n\nIn the same year, the first attempt was made to carry passengers by\nrailway between Stockton and Darlington.  A machine resembling the yellow\ncaravan still seen at country fairs was built and fitted up with seats\nall round it, and set upon the rails, along which it was drawn by a\nhorse.  It was found exceedingly convenient to travel by, and the number\nof passengers between the two towns so much increased that several bodies\nof old stage coaches were bought up, mounted upon railway wheels, and\nadded to the carrying stock of the Stockton and Darlington Company.  At\nlength the horse was finally discarded in favour of the locomotive, and\nnot only coals and merchandise, but passengers of all classes, were drawn\nby steam.\n\n                                                         --_Railway News_.\n\n\n\n\nA RAILWAY PROJECTOR.\n\n\nIn the year 1819, Thomas Gray--a deep thinker with a mind of\ncomprehensive grasp--was travelling in the North of England when he saw a\ntrain of coal-wagons drawn by steam along a colliery tramroad.  \"Why,\" he\nquestioned the engineer, \"are not these tramroads laid down all over\nEngland, so as to supersede our common roads, and steam engines employed\nto convey goods and passengers along them, so as to supersede horse\npower?\"  The engineer replied, \"Just propose you that to the nation, sir,\nand see what you will get by it!  Why, sir, you will be worried to death\nfor your pains.\"  Nothing daunted by this reply, Thomas Gray could\nscarcely think or talk upon any other subject.  In vision he saw the\ncountry covered with a network of tramroads.  Before his time the famous\nDuke of Bridgewater might have some misgivings about his canals.  It is\nrelated on a certain occasion some one said to him, \"You must be making\nhandsomely out of your canals.\"  \"Oh, yes,\" grumbled he in reply, \"they\nwill last my time, but I don't like the look of these tramroads; there's\nmischief in them.\"  Mr. Gray, with prophetic eye, saw the great changes\nwhich the iron railway would make in the means of transit throughout the\ncivilized world.  In 1820 he brought out his now famous work, entitled\n\"Observations on a General Iron Railway, or Land Steam Conveyance, to\nsupersede the necessity of horses in all public vehicles; showing its\nvast superiority in every respect over all the present pitiful methods of\nconveyance by Turnpike-roads, Canals, and Coasting Traders: containing\nevery species of information relative to Railroads and Locomotive\nEngines.\"  The book is illustrated by a plate exhibiting different kinds\nof carriages drawn on the railway by locomotives.  He evidently\nanticipated that the locomotive of the future would be capable of going\nat a considerable speed, for on the plate is engraved these lines:--\n\n    \"No speed with this can fleetest horse compare;\n    No weight like this canal or vessel bear.\n    As this will commerce every way promote,\n    To this let sons of commerce grant their vote.\"\n\nMr. Gray in his book exhibits a marvellous insight into the wants and\nrequirements of the country.  He remarks, \"The plan might be commenced\nbetween the towns of Manchester and Liverpool, where a trial could soon\nbe made, as the distance is not very great, and the commercial part of\nEngland would thereby be better able to appreciate its many excellent\nproperties and prove its efficacy.  All the great trading towns of\nLancashire and Yorkshire would then eagerly embrace the opportunity to\nsecure so commodious and easy a conveyance, and cause branch railways to\nbe laid down in every possible direction.  The convenience and economy in\nthe carriage of the raw material to the numerous manufactories\nestablished in these counties, the expeditious and cheap delivery of\npiece goods bought by the merchants every week at the various markets,\nand the despatch in forwarding bales and packages to the outposts cannot\nfail to strike the merchant and manufacturer as points of the first\nimportance.  Nothing, for example, would be so likely to raise the ports\nof Hull, Liverpool, and Bristol to an unprecedented pitch of prosperity\nas the establishment of railways to those ports, thereby rendering the\ncommunication from the east to the west seas, and all intermediate\nplaces, rapid, cheap, and effectual.  Anyone at all conversant with\ncommerce must feel the vast importance of such an undertaking in\nforwarding the produce of America, Brazils, the East and West Indies,\netc., from Liverpool and Bristol, _via_ Hull, to the opposite shores of\nGermany and Holland, and, _vice versa_, the produce of the Baltic, _via_\nHull, to Liverpool and Bristol.  Again, by the establishment of morning\nand evening mail steam carriages, the commercial interest would derive\nconsiderable advantage; the inland mails might be forwarded with greater\ndespatch and the letters delivered much earlier than by the extra post;\nthe opportunity of correspondence between London and all mercantile\nplaces would be much improved, and the rate of postage might be generally\ndiminished without injuring the receipts of the post office, because any\ndeficiency occasioned by a reduction in the postage would be made good by\nthe increased number of journeys which mail steam carriages might make.\nThe London and Edinburgh mail steam carriages might take all the mails\nand parcels on the line of road between these two cities, which would\nexceedingly reduce the expense occasioned by mail coaches on the present\nfooting.  The ordinary stage coaches, caravans, or wagons, running any\nconsiderable distance along the main railway, might also be conducted on\npeculiarly favourable terms to the public; for instance, one steam engine\nof superior power would enable its proprietors to convey several coaches,\ncaravans, or wagons, linked together until they arrive at their\nrespective branches, when other engines might proceed on with them to\ntheir destination.  By a due regulation of the departure and arrival of\ncoaches, caravans, and wagons along these branches the whole\ncommunication throughout the country would be so simple and so complete\nas to enable every individual to partake of the various productions of\nparticular situations, and to enjoy, at a moderate expense every\nimprovement introduced into society.  The great economy of such a measure\nmust be obvious to everyone, seeing that, instead of each coach changing\nhorses between London and Edinburgh, say twenty-five times, requiring a\nhundred horses, besides the supernumerary ones kept at every stage in\ncase of accidents, the whole journey of several coaches would be\nperformed with the simple expense of one steam engine.  No animal\nstrength will be able to give that uniform and regular acceleration to\nour commercial intercourse which may be accomplished by railways; however\ngreat animal speed, there cannot be a doubt that it would be considerably\nsurpassed by mail steam carriages, and that the expense would be\ninfinitely less.  The exorbitant charge now made for small parcels\nprevents that natural intercourse of friendship between families resident\nin different parts of the kingdom, in the same manner as the heavy\npostage of letters prevents free communication, and consequently\ndiminishes very considerably the consumption of paper which would take\nplace under a less burdensome taxation.\"\n\nMr. Gray's book would no doubt excite ridicule and amazement when\npublished sixty years ago.  The farmers of that day might well be excused\nfor incredulity when perusing a passage like the following:--\"The present\nsystem of conveyance,\" says Mr. Gray, \"affords but tolerable\naccommodation to farmers, and the common way in which they attend markets\nmust always confine them within very limited distances.  It is, however,\nexpected that the railway will present a suitable conveyance for\nattending market-towns thirty or forty miles off, as also for forwarding\nconsiderable supplies of grain, hay, straw, vegetables, and every\ndescription of live stock to the metropolis at a very easy expense, and\nwith the greatest celerity, from all parts of the kingdom.\"\n\nA writer in Chambers's Journal, 1847, remarks:--\"It was not until after\nfour or five years of agitation, and several editions of Mr. Gray's work\nhad been published and successively commented upon by many newspapers,\nthat commercial men were roused to give the proposed scheme its first\ngreat trial on the road between Liverpool and Manchester.  The success of\nthat experiment, insured by the engineering skill of Stephenson, was the\nsignal for all that has since been done both in this island and in other\nparts of the world.  Unfortunately, the public has been too busy these\nmany years in making railways to inquire to whom it owes its gratitude\nfor having first expounded and advocated their claims; and probably there\nare few men now living who have served the public as effectually, with so\nlittle return in the way of thanks or applause, as Mr. Thomas Gray, the\nproposer in 1820 of a general system of transit by railways.\"\n\nPoor Gray!  He was far ahead of his times.  Public men called him a bore,\nand people in Nottingham, where he resided, said he was cracked.  The\n_Quarterly Review_ declared such persons are not worth our notice, and\nthe _Edinburgh Review_ said \"Put him in a straight jacket.\"  Thus the\nworld is often ignorant of its greatest benefactors.  Gray died in\npoverty.  His widow and daughters earned their living by teaching a small\nschool at Exeter.\n\n\n\n\nOPENING OF THE DARLINGTON AND STOCKTON RAILWAY.\n\n\nIn the autumn of 1825 the _Times_ gave an account of the origin of one of\nthe most gigantic enterprises of modern times.  In that year the\nDarlington and Stockton Railway was formally opened by the proprietors\nfor the use of the public.  It was a single railway, and the object of\nits promoters was to open the London market to the Durham Collieries, as\nwell as to facilitate the obtaining of fuel to the country along its line\nand certain parts of Yorkshire.  The account of the opening says:--\n\nA train of carriages was attached to a locomotive engine of the most\nimproved construction, and built by Mr. George Stephenson, in the\nfollowing order:--(1) Locomotive engine, with the engineer and\nassistants; (2) tender with coals and water; next six wagons loaded with\ncoals and flour; then an elegant covered coach, with the committee and\nother proprietors of the railway; then 21 wagons fitted up on the\noccasion for passengers; and, last of all, six wagons loaded with coals,\nmaking altogether a train of 38 carriages, exclusive of the engine and\ntender.  Tickets were distributed to the number of nearly 300 for those\nwhom it was intended should occupy the coach and wagons; but such was the\npressure and crowd that both loaded and empty carriages were instantly\nfilled with passengers.  The signal being given, the engine started off\nwith this immense train of carriages.  In some parts the speed was\nfrequently 12 miles per hour, and in one place, for a short distance,\nnear Darlington, 15 miles per hour, and at that time the number of\npassengers was counted to 450, which, together with the coals,\nmerchandise, and carriages, would amount to nearly 90 tons.  After some\nlittle delay in arranging the procession, the engine, with her load,\narrived at Darlington a distance of eight miles and three-quarters, in 65\nminutes, exclusive of stops, averaging about eight miles an hour.  The\nengine arrived at Stockton in three hours and seven minutes after leaving\nDarlington, including stops, the distance being nearly 12 miles, which is\nat the rate of four miles an hour, and upon the level part of the railway\nthe number of passengers in the wagons was counted about 550, and several\nmore clung to the carriages on each side, so that the whole number could\nnot be less than 600.\n\n\n\n\nEARLY RAILWAY COMPETITION.\n\n\nThe first Stockton and Darlington Act gave permission to all parties to\nuse the line on payment of certain rates.  Thus private individuals might\nwork their own horses and carriages upon the railway and be their own\ncarriers.  Mr. Clepham, in the _Gateshead Observer_, gives an interesting\naccount of the competition induced by the system:--\"There were two\nseparate coach companies in Stockton, and amusing collisions sometimes\noccurred between the drivers--who found on the rail a novel element for\ncontention.  Coaches cannot pass each other on the rail as on the road;\nand at the more westward public-house in Stockton (the Bay Horse, kept by\nJoe Buckton), the coach was always on the line betimes, reducing its\neastward rival to the necessity of waiting patiently (or impatiently) in\nthe rear.  The line was single, with four sidings in the mile; and when\ntwo coaches met, or two trains, or coach and train, the question arose\nwhich of the drivers must go back?  This was not always settled in\nsilence.  As to trains, it came to be a sort of understanding that light\nwagons should give way to loaded; as to trains and coaches, that the\npassengers should have preference over coals; while coaches, when they\nmet, must quarrel it out.  At length, midway between sidings a post was\nerected, and a rule was laid down that he who had passed the pillar must\ngo on, and the coming man go back.  At the Goose Pool and Early Nook, it\nwas common for these coaches to stop; and there, as Jonathan would say,\npassengers and coachmen 'liquored.'  One coach, introduced by an\ninnkeeper, was a compound of two mourning coaches, an approximation to\nthe real railway coach, which still adheres, with multiplying exceptions,\nto the stage coach type.  One Dixon, who drove the 'Experiment' between\nDarlington and Shildon, is the inventor of carriage lighting on the rail.\nOn a dark winter night, having compassion on his passengers, he would buy\na penny candle, and place it lighted amongst them, on the table of the\n'Experiment'--the first railway coach (which, by the way, ended its days\nat Shildon, as a railway cabin), being also the first coach on the rail\n(first, second, and third class jammed all into one) that indulged its\ncustomers with light in darkness.\"\n\n\n\n\nCALCULATION AS TO RAILWAY SPEED.\n\n\nThe Editor of _The Scotsman_, having engaged in researches into the laws\nof friction established by Vince and Coloumb, published the results in a\nseries of articles in his journal in 1824 showing how twenty miles an\nhour was, on theoretic grounds, within the limits of possibility; and it\nwas to his writings on this point that Mr. Nicholas Wood alluded when he\nspoke of the ridiculous expectation that engines would ever travel at the\nrate of twenty, or even twelve miles an hour.\n\n\n\n\nALARMIST VIEWS.\n\n\nA writer in the _Quarterly Review_, in 1825, was quite prophetical as to\nthe dangers connected with railway travelling.  He observes:--\"It is\ncertainly some consolation to those who are to be whirled at the rate of\n18 or 20 miles an hour by means of a high-pressure engine, to be told\nthat there is no danger of being sea-sick while on shore, that they are\nnot to be scalded to death, nor drowned, nor dashed to pieces by the\nbursting of a boiler; and that they need not mind being struck by the\nflying off or breaking of a wheel.  What can be more palpably absurd or\nridiculous than the prospect held out of locomotives travelling _twice as\nfast_ as stage coaches!  We should as soon expect the people of Woolwich\nto suffer themselves to be fired off upon one of Congreve's Ricochet\nRockets, as trust themselves to the mercy of such a machine going at such\na rate.  We will back old Father Thames against the Woolwich Railway for\nany sum.  We trust that Parliament will, in all railways it may sanction,\nlimit the speed to _eight or nine miles an hour_, which we entirely agree\nwith Mr. Sylvestor is as great as can be ventured on with safety.\"\n\n\n\n\nPARLIAMENTARY OPPOSITION.\n\n\nOn the third reading of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway Bill in the\nHouse of Commons, The Hon. Edward Stanley moved that the bill be read\nthat day six months, assigning, among other reasons, that the railway\ntrains worked by horses would take ten hours to do the distance, and that\nthey could not be worked by locomotive engines.  Sir Isaac Coffin\nseconded the motion, indignantly denouncing the project as fraught with\nfraud and imposition.  He would not consent to see widows' premises\ninvaded, and \"how,\" he asked, \"would any person like to have a railroad\nunder his parlour window? . . .  What, he would like to know, was to be\ndone with all those who had advanced money in making and repairing\nturnpike-roads?  What with those who may still wish to travel in their\nown or hired carriages, after the fashion of their forefathers?  What was\nto become of coach-makers and harness-makers, coach-masters and coachmen,\ninnkeepers, horse-breeders, and horse-dealers?  Was the House aware of\nthe smoke and noise, the hiss and whirl, which locomotive engines,\npassing at the rate of ten or twelve miles an hour, would occasion?\nNeither the cattle ploughing in the fields or grazing in the meadows\ncould behold them without dismay. . . .  Iron would be raised in price\n100 per cent., or, more probably, exhausted altogether!  It would be the\ngreatest nuisance, the most complete disturbance of quiet and comfort in\nall parts of the kingdom, that the ingenuity of man could invent!\"\n\n\n\n\nSPEED OF RAILWAY ENGINES.\n\n\nAt the present day it is amusing to read the speeches of the counsel\nemployed against an act of Parliament being passed in favour of the\nrailway between Liverpool and Manchester.  Mr. Harrison, who appeared on\nbehalf of certain landowners against the scheme, thus spoke with regard\nto the powers of the locomotive engine:--\"When we set out with the\noriginal prospectus--I am sorry I have not got the paper with me--we were\nto gallop, I know not at what rate, I believe it was at the rate of\ntwelve miles an hour.  My learned friend, Mr. Adam, contemplated,\npossibly in alluding to Ireland, that some of the Irish members would\narrive in wagons to a division.  My learned friend says, that they would\ngo at the rate of twelve miles an hour, with the aid of a devil in the\nform of a locomotive, sitting as a postillion upon the fore-horse, and an\nHonourable Member, whom I do not see here, sitting behind him to stir up\nthe fire, and to keep it up at full speed.  But the speed at which these\nlocomotive engines are to go has slackened; Mr. Adam does not now go\nfaster than five miles per hour.  The learned Sergeant says, he should\nlike to have seven, but he would be content to go six.  I will show you\nhe cannot go six; and probably, for any practical purposes, I may be able\nto show, that I can keep up with him by the canal.  Now the real evidence\nto which you alone can pay attention shows, that practically, and for\nuseful purposes, upon the average, and to keep up the rate of speed\ncontinually, they may go at something more than four miles an hour.  In\none of the collieries, there is a small engine with wheels four feet in\ndiameter, which, with moderate weights has gone six; but I will not\nadmit, because, in an experiment or two, they may have been driven at the\nrate of seven or eight miles an hour--because a small engine has been\ndriven at the rate of six, that this is the average rate at which they\ncan carry goods upon a railroad for the purpose of commerce, for that is\nthe point to which the Committee ought to direct their attention, and to\nwhich the evidence is to be applied.  It is quite idle to suppose, that\nan experiment made to ascertain the speed, when the power is worked up to\nthe greatest extent, can afford a fair criterion of that which an engine\nwill do in all states of the weather.  In the first place, locomotive\nengines are liable to be operated upon by the weather.  You are told that\nthey are affected by rain, and an attempt has been made to cover them;\nbut the wind will affect them, and any gale of wind which would affect\nthe traffic on the Mersey, would render it impossible to set off a\nlocomotive engine, either by poking up the fire, or keeping up the\npressure of the steam till the boiler is ready to burst.  I say so, for a\nscientific person happened to see a locomotive engine coming down an\ninclined plane, with a tolerable weight behind it, and he found that the\nstrokes were reduced from fifty to twelve, as soon as the wind acted upon\nit; so that every gale that would produce an interruption to the\nintercourse by the canals, would prevent the progress of a locomotive\nengine, so that they have no advantage in that respect.\"\n\n\n\n\nDIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED IN MAKING RAILWAY SURVEYS.\n\n\nDifficulties connected with making surveys of land were encountered from\nthe very commencement of railway enterprise.  The following dialogue on\nthe subject took place in the Committee of the House of Commons, April\n27, 1825.  Mr. Sergeant Spankie was the questioner and George Stephenson\nwas the respondent.\n\n_Q_.  \"You were asked about the quality of the soil through which you\nwere to bore in order to ascertain the strata, and you were rather\ntaunted because you had not ascertained the precise strata; had you any\nopportunity of boring?\"\n\n_A_.  \"I had none; I was threatened to be driven off the ground, and\nseverely used if I were found upon the ground.\"\n\n_Q_.  \"You were right, then, not to attempt to bore?\"\n\n_A_.  \"Of course, I durst not attempt to bore, after those threats.\"\n\n_Q_.  \"Were you exposed to any inconvenience in taking your surveys in\nconsequence of these interruptions?\"\n\n_A_.  \"We were.\"\n\n_Q_.  \"On whose property?\"\n\n_A_.  \"On my Lord Sefton's, Lord Derby's, and particularly Mr. Bradshaw's\npart.\"\n\n_Q_.  \"I believe you came near the coping of some of the canals?\"\n\n_A_.  \"I believe I was threatened to be ducked in the pond if I\nproceeded; and, of course we had a great deal of the survey to make by\nstealth, at the time the persons were at dinner; we could not get it by\nnight, and guns were discharged over the grounds belonging to Captain\nBradshaw, to prevent us; I can state further, I was twice turned off the\nground myself (Mr. Bradshaw's) by his men; and they said, if I did not go\ninstantly they would take me up, and carry me off to Worsley.\"\n\nCommittee.  _Q_.  \"Had you ever asked leave?\"\n\n_A_.  \"I did, of all the gentlemen to whom I have alluded; at least, if I\ndid not ask leave of all myself, I did of my Lord Derby, but I did not of\nLord Sefton, but the Committee had--at least I was so informed; and I\nlast year asked leave of Mr. Bradshaw's tenants to pass there, and they\ndenied me; they stated that damage had been done, and I said if they\nwould tell me what it was, I would pay them, and they said it was two\npounds, and I paid it, though I do not believe it amounted to one\nshilling.\"\n\n_Q_.  \"Do you suppose it is a likely thing to obtain leave from any\ngentleman to survey his land, when he knew that your men had gone upon\nhis land to take levels without his leave, and he himself found them\ngoing through the corn, and through the gardens of his tenants, and\ntrampling down the strawberry beds, which they were cultivating for the\nLiverpool market?\"\n\n_A_.  \"I have found it sometimes very difficult to get through places of\nthat kind.\"\n\nIn some cases, Mr. Williams remarks, large bodies of navvies were\ncollected for the defence of the surveyors; and being liberally provided\nwith liquor, and paid well for the task, they intimidated the rightful\nowners, who were obliged to be satisfied with warrants of committal and\ncharges of assault.  The navvies were the more willing to engage in such\nundertakings, because the project, if carried out, afforded them the\nprospect of increased labour.\n\n\n\n\nLIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAY.\n\n\nMr. C. F. Adams, jun., remarks:--\"It was this element of spontaneity,\ntherefore,--the instant and dramatic recognition of success, which gave a\npeculiar interest to everything connected with the Manchester and\nLiverpool railroad.  The whole world was looking at it, with a full\nrealizing sense that something great and momentous was impending.  Every\nday people watched the gradual development of the thing, and actually\ntook part in it.  In doing so they had sensations and those sensations\nthey have described.  There is consequently an element of human nature\nsurrounding it.  To their descriptions time has only lent a new\nfreshness.  They are full of honest wonder.  They are much better and\nmore valuable and more interesting now than they were fifty years ago,\nand for that reason are well worth exhuming.\n\n\"To introduce the contemporaneous story of the day, however, it is not\nnecessary even to briefly review the long series of events which had\nslowly led up to it.  The world is tolerably familiar with the early life\nof George Stephenson, and with the vexatious obstacles he had to overcome\nbefore he could even secure a trial for his invention.  The man himself,\nhowever, is an object of a good deal more curiosity to us, than he was to\nthose among whom he lived and moved.  A living glimpse at him now is\nworth dwelling upon, and is the best possible preface to any account of\nhis great day of life triumph.  Just such a glimpse of the man has been\ngiven to us at the moment when at last all difficulties had been\novercome--when the Manchester and Liverpool railroad was completed; and,\nliterally, not only the eyes of Great Britain but those of all civilized\ncountries were directed to it and to him who had originated it.  At just\nthat time it chanced that the celebrated actor, John Kemble, was\nfulfilling an engagement at Liverpool with his daughter, since known as\nMrs. Frances Kemble Butler.  The extraordinary social advantages the\nKemble family enjoyed gave both father and daughter opportunities such as\nseldom come in the way of ordinary mortals.  For the time being they\nwere, in fact, the lions of the stage, just as George Stephenson was the\nlion of the new railroad.  As was most natural the three lions were\nbrought together.  The young actress has since published her impressions,\njotted down at the time, of the old engineer.  Her account of a ride side\nby side with George Stephenson, on the seat of his locomotive, over the\nas yet unopened road, is one of the most interesting and life-like\nrecords we have of the man and the enterprise.  Perhaps it is the most\ninteresting.  The introduction is Mrs. Kemble's own, and written\nforty-six years after the experience:--\n\n\"While we were acting at Liverpool, an experimental trip was proposed\nupon the line of railway which was being constructed between Liverpool\nand Manchester, the first mesh of that amazing iron net which now covers\nthe whole surface of England, and all civilized portions of the earth.\nThe Liverpool merchants, whose far-sighted self-interest prompted to wise\nliberality, had accepted the risk of George Stephenson's magnificent\nexperiment, which the committee of inquiry of the House of Commons had\nrejected for the Government.  These men, of less intellectual culture\nthan the Parliament members, had the adventurous imagination proper to\ngreat speculators, which is the poetry of the counting house and wharf,\nand were better able to receive the enthusiastic infection of the great\nprojector's sanguine hope than the Westminster committee.  They were\nexultant and triumphant at the near completion of the work, though, of\ncourse, not without some misgivings as to the eventual success of the\nstupendous enterprise.  My father knew several of the gentlemen most\ndeeply interested in the undertaking, and Stephenson having proposed a\ntrial trip as far as the fifteen-mile viaduct, they, with infinite\nkindness, invited him and permitted me to accompany them: allowing me,\nmoreover, the place which I felt to be one of supreme honour, by the side\nof Stephenson.  All that wonderful history, as much more interesting than\na romance as truth is stranger than fiction, which Mr. Smiles's biography\nof the projector has given in so attractive a form to the world, I then\nheard from his own lips.  He was rather a stern-featured man, with a dark\nand deeply marked countenance: his speech was strongly inflected with his\nnative Northumbrian accent, but the fascination of that story told by\nhimself, while his tame dragon flew panting along his iron pathway with\nus, passed the first reading of the Arabian Nights, the incidents of\nwhich it almost seemed to recall.  He was wonderfully condescending and\nkind, in answering all the questions of my eager ignorance, and I\nlistened to him with eyes brimful of warm tears of sympathy and\nenthusiasm, as he told me of all his alternations of hope and fear, of\nhis many trials and disappointments, related with fine scorn, how the\n\"Parliament men\" had badgered and baffled him with their book-knowledge,\nand how, when at last they had smothered the irrepressible prophecy of\nhis genius in the quaking depths of Chat Moss, he had exclaimed, 'Did ye\never see a boat float on water?  I will make my road float upon Chat\nMoss!'  The well-read Parliament men (some of whom, perhaps, wished for\nno railways near their parks and pleasure-grounds) could not believe the\nmiracle, but the shrewd Liverpool merchants, helped to their faith by a\ngreat vision of immense gain, did; and so the railroad was made, and I\ntook this memorable ride by the side of its maker, and would not have\nexchanged the honour and pleasure of it for one of the shares in the\nspeculation.\"\n\n                                            \"LIVERPOOL, August 26th, 1830.\n\n\"MY DEAR H--: A common sheet of paper is enough for love, but a foolscap\nextra can only contain a railroad and my ecstasies.  There was once a man\nborn at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, who was a common coal-digger; this man had\nan immense constructiveness, which displayed itself in pulling his watch\nto pieces and putting it together again; in making a pair of shoes when\nhe happened to be some days without occupation; finally--here there is a\ngreat gap in my story--it brought him in the capacity of an engineer\nbefore a Committee of the House of Commons, with his head full of plans\nfor constructing a railroad from Liverpool to Manchester.  It so happened\nthat to the quickest and most powerful perceptions and conceptions, to\nthe most indefatigable industry and perseverance, and the most accurate\nknowledge of the phenomena of nature as they affect his peculiar labours,\nthis man joined an utter want of the 'gift of gab;' he could no more\nexplain to others what he meant to do and how he meant to do it, than he\ncould fly, and therefore the members of the House of Commons, after\nsaying 'There is a rock to be excavated to a depth of more than sixty\nfeet, there are embankments to be made nearly to the same height, there\nis a swamp of five miles in length to be traversed, in which if you drop\nan iron rod it sinks and disappears; how will you do all this?' and\nreceiving no answer but a broad Northumbrian, 'I can't tell you how I'll\ndo it, but I can tell you I _will_ do it,' dismissed Stephenson as a\nvisionary.  Having prevailed upon a company of Liverpool gentlemen to be\nless incredulous, and having raised funds for his great undertaking, in\nDecember of 1826 the first spade was struck in the ground.  And now I\nwill give you an account of my yesterday's excursion.  A party of sixteen\npersons was ushered into a large court-yard, where, under cover, stood\nseveral carriages of a peculiar construction, one of which was prepared\nfor our reception.  It was a long-bodied vehicle with seats placed across\nit back to back; the one we were in had six of these benches, and was a\nsort of uncovered _char a banc_.  The wheels were placed upon two iron\nbands, which formed the road, and to which they are fitted, being so\nconstructed as to slide along without any danger of hitching or becoming\ndisplaced, on the same principle as a thing sliding on a concave groove.\nThe carriage was set in motion by a mere push, and, having received this\nimpetus, rolled with us down an inclined plane into a tunnel, which forms\nthe entrance to the railroad.  This tunnel is four hundred yards long (I\nbelieve), and will be lighted by gas.  At the end of it we emerged from\ndarkness, and, the ground becoming level, we stopped.  There is another\ntunnel parallel with this, only much wider and longer, for it extends\nfrom the place we had now reached, and where the steam carriages start,\nand which is quite out of Liverpool, the whole way under the town, to the\ndocks.  This tunnel is for wagons and other heavy carriages; and as the\nengines which are to draw the trains along the railroad do not enter\nthese tunnels, there is a large building at this entrance which is to be\ninhabited by steam engines of a stationary turn of mind, and different\nconstitution from the travelling ones, which are to propel the trains\nthrough the tunnels to the terminus in the town, without going out of\ntheir houses themselves.  The length of the tunnel parallel to the one we\npassed through is (I believe) two thousand two hundred yards.  I wonder\nif you are understanding one word I am saying all this while?  We were\nintroduced to the little engine which was to drag us along the rails.\nShe (for they make these curious little fire horses all mares) consisted\nof a boiler, a stove, a platform, a bench, and behind the bench a barrel\ncontaining enough water to prevent her being thirsty for fifteen\nmiles,--the whole machine not bigger than a common fire engine.  She goes\nupon two wheels, which are her feet, and are moved by bright steel legs\ncalled pistons; these are propelled by steam, and in proportion as more\nsteam is applied to the upper extremities (the hip-joints, I suppose) of\nthese pistons, the faster they move the wheels; and when it is desirable\nto diminish the speed, the steam, which unless suffered to escape would\nburst the boiler, evaporates through a safety valve into the air.  The\nreins, bit, and bridle of this wonderful beast, is a small steel handle,\nwhich applies or withdraws the steam from its legs or pistons, so that a\nchild might manage it.\n\n\"The coals, which are its oats, were under the bench, and there was a\nsmall glass tube affixed to the boiler, with water in it, which indicates\nby its fullness or emptiness when the creature wants water, which is\nimmediately conveyed to it from its reservoirs.  There is a chimney to\nthe stove, but as they burn coke there is none of the dreadful black\nsmoke which accompanies the progress of a steam vessel.  This snorting\nlittle animal, which I felt rather inclined to pat, was then harnessed to\nour carriage, and Mr. Stephenson having taken me on the bench of the\nengine with him, we started at about ten miles an hour.  The steam horse\nbeing ill adapted for going up and down hill, the road was kept at a\ncertain level, and appeared sometimes to sink below the surface of the\nearth and sometimes to rise above it.  Almost at starting it was cut\nthrough the solid rock, which formed a wall on either side of it, about\nsixty feet high.  You can't imagine how strange it seemed to be\njourneying on thus, without any visible cause of progress other than the\nmagical machine, with its flying white breath and rhythmical, unvarying\npace, between these rocky walls, which are already clothed with moss and\nferns and grasses; and when I reflected that these great masses of stone\nhad been cut asunder to allow our passage thus far below the surface of\nthe earth, I felt as if no fairy tale was ever half so wonderful as what\nI saw.  Bridges were thrown from side to side across the top of these\ncliffs, and the people looking down upon us from them seemed like pigmies\nstanding in the sky.  I must be more concise, though, or I shall want\nroom.  We were to go only fifteen miles, that distance being sufficient\nto show the speed of the engine, and to take us to the most beautiful and\nwonderful object on the road.  After proceeding through this rocky\ndefile, we presently found ourselves raised upon embankments ten or\ntwelve feet high; we then came to a moss or swamp, of considerable\nextent, on which no human foot could tread without sinking, and yet it\nbore the road which bore us.  This had been the great stumbling-block in\nthe minds of the committee of the House of Commons; but Mr. Stephenson\nhas succeeded in overcoming it.  A foundation of hurdles, or, as he\ncalled it, basket-work, was thrown over the morass, and the interstices\nwere filled with moss and other elastic matter.\n\n\"Upon this the clay and soil were laid down, and the road does float, for\nwe passed over it at the rate of five and twenty miles an hour, and saw\nthe stagnant swamp water trembling on the surface of the soil on either\nside of us.  I hope you understand me.  The embankment had gradually been\nrising higher and higher, and in one place where the soil was not settled\nenough to form banks, Stephenson had constructed artificial ones of\nwoodwork, over which the mounds of earth were heaped, for he said that\nthough the woodwork would rot, before it did so the banks of earth which\ncovered it would have been sufficiently consolidated to support the road.\nWe had now come fifteen miles, and stopped where the road traversed a\nwide and deep valley.  Stephenson made me alight and led me down to the\nbottom of this ravine, over which, in order to keep his road level, he\nhas thrown a magnificent viaduct of nine arches, the middle one of which\nis seventy feet high, through which we saw the whole of this beautiful\nlittle valley.  It was lovely and wonderful beyond all words.  He here\ntold me many curious things respecting this ravine; how he believed the\nMersey had once rolled through it; how the soil had proved so unfavorable\nfor the foundation of his bridge that it was built upon piles, which had\nbeen driven into the earth to an enormous depth; how while digging for a\nfoundation he had come to a tree bedded in the earth, fourteen feet below\nthe surface of the ground; how tides are caused, and how another flood\nmight be caused; all of which I have remembered and noted down at much\ngreater length than I can enter upon here.  He explained to me the whole\nconstruction of the steam engine, and said he could soon make a famous\nengineer of me, which, considering the wonderful things he has achieved,\nI dare not say is impossible.  His way of explaining himself is peculiar,\nbut very striking, and I understood, without difficulty, all that he said\nto me.  We then rejoined the rest of the party, and the engine having\nreceived its supply of water, the carriage was placed behind it, for it\ncannot turn, and was set off at its utmost speed, thirty-five miles an\nhour, swifter than a bird flies (for they tried the experiment with a\nsnipe).  You cannot conceive what that sensation of cutting the air was;\nthe motion is as smooth as possible, too.  I could either have read or\nwritten; and as it was, I stood up, and with my bonnet off 'drank the air\nbefore me.'  The wind, which was strong, or perhaps the force of our own\nthrusting against it, absolutely weighed my eyelids down.\n\n\"When I closed my eyes this sensation of flying was quite delightful, and\nstrange beyond description; yet strange as it was, I had a perfect sense\nof security, and not the slightest fear.  At one time, to exhibit the\npower of the engine, having met another steam-carriage which was\nunsupplied with water, Mr. Stephenson caused it to be fastened in front\nof ours; moreover, a wagon laden with timber was also chained to us, and\nthus propelling the idle steam-engine, and dragging the loaded wagon\nwhich was beside it and our own carriage full of people behind, this\nbrave little she-dragon of ours flew on.  Farther on she met three carts,\nwhich, being fastened in front of her, she pushed on before her without\nthe slightest delay or difficulty; when I add that this pretty little\ncreature can run with equal facility either backwards or forwards, I\nbelieve I have given you an account of all her capacities.  Now for a\nword or two about the master of all these marvels, with whom I am most\nhorribly in love.  He is a man from fifty to fifty-five years of age; his\nface is fine, though careworn, and bears an expression of deep\nthoughtfulness; his mode of explaining his ideas is peculiar and very\noriginal, striking, and forcible; and although his accents indicates\nstrongly his north country birth, his language has not the slightest\ntouch of vulgarity or coarseness.  He has certainly turned my head.  Four\nyears have sufficed to bring this great undertaking to an end.  The\nrailroad will be opened upon the fifteenth of next month.  The Duke of\nWellington is coming down to be present on the occasion, and, I suppose,\nwhat with the thousands of spectators and the novelty of the spectacle,\nthere will never have been a scene of more striking interest.  The whole\ncost of the work (including the engines and carriages) will have been\neight hundred and thirty thousand pounds; and it is already worth double\nthat sum.  The directors have kindly offered us three places for the\nopening, which is a great favour, for people are bidding almost anything\nfor a place, I understand.\"\n\nEven while Miss Kemble was writing this letter, certainly before it had\nreached her correspondent, the official programme of that opening to\nwhich she was so eagerly looking forward was thus referred to in the\nLiverpool papers:\n\n\"The day of opening still remains fixed for Wednesday the fifteenth\ninstant.  The company by whom the ceremony is to be performed, is\nexpected to amount to eight or nine hundred persons, including the Duke\nof Wellington and several others of the nobility.  They will leave\nLiverpool at an early hour in the forenoon, probably ten o'clock, in\ncarriages drawn by eight or nine engines, including the new engine of\nMessrs. Braithwaite and Ericsson, if it be ready in time.  The other\nengines will be those constructed by Mr. Stephenson, and each of them\nwill draw about a hundred persons.  On their arrival at Manchester, the\ncompany will enter the upper stories of the warehouses by means of a\nspacious outside wooden staircase, which is in course of erection for the\npurpose by Mr. Bellhouse.  The upper storey of the range of warehouses is\ndivided into five apartments, each measuring sixty-six feet by fifty-six.\nIn four of these a number of tables (which Mr. Bellhouse is also\npreparing) will be placed, and the company will partake of a splendid\ncold collation which is to be provided by Mr. Lynn, of the Waterloo\nHotel, Liverpool.  A large apartment at the east end of the warehouses\nwill be reserved as a withdrawing room for the ladies, and is partitioned\noff for that purpose.  After partaking of the hospitality of the\ndirectors, the company will return to Liverpool in the same order in\nwhich they arrive.  We understand that each shareholder in the railway\nwill be entitled to a seat (transferable) in one of the carriages, on\nthis interesting and important occasion.  It may be proper to state, for\nthe information of the public, that no one will be permitted to go upon\nthe railway between Ordsall lane and the warehouses, and parties of the\nmilitary and police will be placed to preserve order, and prevent\nintrusion.  Beyond Ordsall lane, however, the public will be freely\nadmitted to view the procession as it passes: and no restriction will be\nlaid upon them farther than may be requisite to prevent them from\napproaching too close to the rails, lest accidents should occur.  By\nextending themselves along either side of the road towards Eccles any\nnumber of people, however great, may be easily accommodated.\"\n\nOf the carrying out on the 15th the programme thus carefully laid down, a\ncontemporaneous reporter has left the following account:--\n\n\"The town itself [Liverpool] was never so full of strangers; they poured\nin during the last and the beginning of the present week from almost all\nparts of the three kingdoms, and we believe that through Chester alone,\nwhich is by no means a principal road to Liverpool, four hundred extra\npassengers were forwarded on Tuesday.  All the inns in the town were\ncrowded to overflowing, and carriages stood in the streets at night, for\nwant of room in the stable yards.\n\n\"On the morning of Wednesday the population of the town and of the\ncountry began very early to assemble near the railway.  The weather was\nfavourable, and the Company's station at the boundary of the town was the\nrendezvous of the nobility and gentry who attended, to form the\nprocession at Manchester.  Never was there such an assemblage of rank,\nwealth, beauty, and fashion in this neighbourhood.  From before nine\no'clock until ten the entrance in Crown street was thronged by the\nsplendid equipages from which the company was alighting, and the area in\nwhich the railway carriages were placed was gradually filling with gay\ngroups eagerly searching for their respective places, as indicated by\nnumbers corresponding with those on their tickets.  The large and elegant\ncar constructed for the nobility, and the accompanying cars for the\nDirectors and the musicians were seen through the lesser tunnel, where\npersons moving about at the far end appeared as diminutive as if viewed\nthrough a concave glass.  The effect was singular and striking.  In a\nshort time all those cars were brought along the tunnel into the yard\nwhich then contained all the carriages, which were to be attached to the\neight locomotive engines which were in readiness beyond the tunnel in the\ngreat excavation at Edge-hill.  By this time the area presented a\nbeautiful spectacle, thirty-three carriages being filled by elegantly\ndressed persons, each train of carriages being distinguished by silk\nflags of different colours; the band of the fourth King's Own Regiment,\nstationed in the adjoining area, playing military airs, the Wellington\nHarmonic Band, in a Grecian car for the procession, performing many\nbeautiful miscellaneous pieces; and a third band occupying a stage above\nMr. Harding's Grand Stand, at William the Fourth's Hotel, spiritedly\nadding to the liveliness of the hour whenever the other bands ceased.\n\n\"A few minutes before ten, the discharge of a gun and the cheers of the\nassembly announced the arrival of the Duke of Wellington, who entered the\narea with the Marquis and Marchioness of Salisbury and a number of\nfriends, the band playing 'See the conquering hero comes.'  He returned\nthe congratulations of the company, and in a few moments the grand car,\nwhich he and the nobility and the principal gentry occupied, and the cars\nattached to it, were permitted to proceed; we say permitted, because no\napplied power, except a slight impulse at first, is requisite to propel\ncarriages along the tunnel, the <DW72> being just sufficient to call into\neffect the principle of gravitation.  The tunnel was lighted with gas,\nand the motion in passing through it must have been as pleasing as it was\nnovel to all the party.  On arriving at the engine station, the cars were\nattached to the _Northumbrian_ locomotive engine, on the southern of the\ntwo lines of rail; and immediately the other trains of carriages started\nthrough the tunnel and were attached to their respective engines on the\nnorthern of the lines.\n\n\"We had the good fortune to have a place in the first train after the\ngrand cars, which train, drawn by the _Phoenix_, consisted of three open\nand two close carriages, each carrying twenty-six ladies and gentlemen.\nThe lofty banks of the engine station were crowded with thousands of\nspectators, whose enthusiastic cheering seemed to rend the air.  From\nthis point to Wavertree-lane, while the procession was forming, the grand\ncars passed and repassed the other trains of carriages several times,\nrunning as they did in the same direction on the two parallel tracks,\nwhich gave the assembled thousands and tens of thousands the opportunity\nof seeing distinctly the illustrious strangers, whose presence gave\nextraordinary interest to the scene.  Some soldiers of the 4th Regiment\nassisted the railway police in keeping the way clear and preserving\norder, and they discharged their duty in a very proper manner.  A few\nminutes before eleven all was ready for the journey, and certainly a\njourney upon a railway is one of the most delightful that can be\nimagined.  Our first thoughts it might be supposed, from the road being\nso level, were that it must be monotonous and uninteresting.  It is\nprecisely the contrary; for as the road does not rise and fall like the\nground over which we pass, but proceeds nearly at a level, whether the\nland be high or low, we are at one moment drawn through a hill, and find\nourselves seventy feet below the surface, in an Alpine chasm, and at\nanother we are as many feet above the green fields, traversing a raised\npath, from which we look down upon the roofs of farm houses, and see the\ndistant hills and woods.  These variations give an interest to such a\njourney which cannot be appreciated until they are witnessed.  The signal\ngun being fired, we started in beautiful style, amidst the deafening\nplaudits of the well dressed people who thronged the numerous booths, and\nall the walls and eminences on both sides the line.  Our speed was\ngradually increased till, entering the Olive Mountain excavation, we\nrushed into the awful chasm at the rate of twenty-four miles an hour.\nThe banks, the bridges over our heads, and the rude projecting corners\nalong the sides, were covered with masses of human beings past whom we\nglided as if upon the wings of the wind.  We soon came into the open\ncountry of Broad Green, having fine views of Huyton and Prescot on the\nleft, and the hilly grounds of Cheshire on the right.  Vehicles of every\ndescription stood in the fields on both sides, and thousands of\nspectators still lined the margin of the road; some horses seemed\nalarmed, but after trotting with their carriages to the farther hedges,\nthey stood still as if their fears had subsided.  After passing Whiston,\nsometimes going slowly, sometimes swiftly, we observed that a vista\nformed by several bridges crossing the road gave a pleasing effect to the\nview.  Under Rainhill Bridge, which, like all the others, was crowded\nwith spectators, the Duke's car stopped until we passed, and on this, as\non similar occasions, we had excellent opportunities of seeing the whole\nof the noble party, distinguishing the Marquis and Marchioness of\nSalisbury, the Earl and Countess of Wilton, Lord Stanley, and others, in\nthe fore part of the car; alongside of the latter part was Mr. Huskisson,\nstanding with his face always toward us; and further behind was Lord\nHill, and others, among whom the Mayor of Liverpool took his station.  At\nthis place Mr. Bretherton had a large party of friends in a field,\noverlooking the road.  As we approached the Sutton inclined plane the\nDuke's car passed us again at a most rapid rate--it appeared rapid even\nto us who were travelling then at, probably, fifteen miles an hour.  We\nhad a fine view of Billings Hill from this neighbourhood, and of a\nthousand various  fields.  A grand stand was here erected,\nbeautifully decorated, and crowded with ladies and gentlemen from St.\nHelen's and the neighbourhood.  Entering upon Parr Moss we had a good\nview of Newton Race Course and the stands, and at this time the Duke was\nfar ahead of us; the grand cars appeared actually of diminutive\ndimensions, and in a short time we saw them gliding beautifully over the\nSankey Viaduct, from which a scene truly magnificent lay before us.\n\n\"The fields below us were occupied by thousands who cheered us as we\npassed over the stupendous edifice; carriages filled the narrow lanes,\nand vessels in the water had been detained in order that their crews\nmight gaze up at the gorgeous pageant passing far above their masts\nheads.  Here again was a grand stand, and here again enthusiastic\nplaudits almost deafened us.  Shortly, we passed the borough of Newton,\ncrossing a fine bridge over the Warrington road, and reached Parkside,\nseventeen miles from Liverpool, in about four minutes under the hour.  At\nthis place the engines were ranged under different watering stations to\nreceive fresh water, the whole extending along nearly half a mile of\nroad.  Our train and two others passed the Duke's car, and we in the\nfirst train had had our engine supplied with water, and were ready to\nstart, some time before we were aware of the melancholy cause of our\napparently great delay.  We had most of us, alighted, and were walking\nabout, congratulating each other generally, and the ladies particularly,\non the truly delightful treat we were enjoying, all hearts bounding with\njoyous excitement, and every tongue eloquent in the praise of the\ngigantic work now completed, and the advantages and pleasures it\nafforded.  A murmur and an agitation at a little distance betokened\nsomething alarming and we too soon learned the nature of that lamentable\nevent, which we cannot record without the most agonized feelings.  On\ninquiring, we learnt the dreadful particulars.  After three of the\nengines with their trains had passed the Duke's carriage, although the\nothers had to follow, the company began to alight from all the carriages\nwhich had arrived.  The Duke of Wellington and Mr. Huskisson had just\nshaken hands, and Mr. Huskisson, Prince Esterhazy, Mr. Birch, Mr. H.\nEarle, Mr. William Holmes, M.P., and others were standing in the road,\nwhen the other carriages were approaching.  An alarm being given, most of\nthe gentlemen sprang into the carriage, but Mr. Huskisson seemed\nflurried, and from some cause, not clearly ascertained, he fell under the\nengine of the approaching carriages, the wheel of which shattered his leg\nin the most dreadful manner.  On being raised from the ground by the Earl\nof Wilton, Mr. Holmes, and other gentlemen, his only exclamations\nwere:--\"Where is Mrs. Huskisson?  I have met my death.  God forgive me.\"\nImmediately after he swooned.  Dr. Brandreth, and Dr. Southey, of London,\nimmediately applied bandages to the limb.  In a short time the engine was\ndetached from the Duke's carriage, and the musician's car being prepared\nfor the purpose, the Right Honourable gentleman was placed in it,\naccompanied by his afflicted lady, with Dr. Brandreth, Dr. Southey, Earl\nof Wilton, and Mr. Stephenson, who set off in the direction of\nManchester.\n\n\"The whole of the procession remained at least another hour uncertain\nwhat course to adopt.  A consultation was held on the open part of the\nroad, and the Duke of Wellington was soon surrounded by the Directors,\nand a mournful group of gentlemen.  At first it was thought advisable to\nreturn to Liverpool, merely despatching one engine and a set of\ncarriages, to convey home Lady Wilton, and others who did not wish to\nreturn to Liverpool.  The Duke of Wellington and Sir Robert Peel seemed\nto favour this course; others thought it best to proceed as originally\nintended: but no decision was made till the Boroughreeve of Manchester\nstated, that if the procession did not reach Manchester, where an\nunprecedented concourse of people would be assembled, and would wait for\nit, he should be fearful of the consequences to the peace of the town.\nThis turned the scale, and his Grace then proposed that the whole party\nshould proceed, and return as soon as possible, all festivity at\nManchester being avoided.  The _Phoenix_, with its train, was then\nattached to the _North Star_ and its train, and from the two united a\nlong chain was affixed to his Grace's car, and although it was on the\nother line of rail, it was found to draw the whole along exceedingly\nwell.  About half-past one, we resumed our journey; and we should here\nmention that the Wigan Branch Railway Company had erected near Parkside\nbridge a grand stand, which they and their friends occupied, and from\nwhich they enthusiastically cheered the procession.  On reaching the\ntwentieth mile post we had a beautiful view of Rivington Pike and\nBlackstone Edge, and at the twenty-first the smoke of Manchester appeared\nto be directly at the termination of our view.  Groups of people\ncontinued to cheer us, but we could not reply; our enjoyment was over.\nTyldesley Church, and a vast region of smiling fields here met the eye,\nas we traversed the flat surface of Chat Moss, in the midst of which a\nvast crowd was assembled to greet us with their plaudits; and from the\ntwenty-fourth mile post we began to find ourselves flanked on both sides\nby spectators extending in a continuous and thickening body all the way\nto Manchester.  At the twenty-fifth mile post we met Mr. Stephenson\nreturning with the _Northumbrian_ engine.  In answer to innumerable and\neager inquiries, Mr. Stephenson said he had left Mr. Huskisson at the\nhouse of the Rev. Mr. Blackburne, Vicar of Eccles, and had then proceeded\nto Manchester, whence he brought back medical assistance, and that the\nsurgeons, after seeing Mr. Huskisson, had expressed a hope that there was\nno danger.  Mr. Stephenson's speed had been at the rate of thirty-four\nmiles an hour during this painful errand.  The engine being then again\nattached to the Duke's car, the procession dashed forward, passing\ncountless thousands of people upon house tops, booths, high ground,\nbridges, etc., and our readers must imagine, for we cannot describe, such\na movement through an avenue of living beings, and extending six miles in\nlength.  Upon one bridge a tri- flag was displayed; near another\nthe motto of \"Vote by ballot\" was seen; in a field near Eccles, a poor\nand wretchedly dressed man had his loom close to the roadside, and was\nweaving with all his might; cries of \"No Corn Laws,\" were occasionally\nheard, and for about two miles the cheerings of the crowd were\ninterspersed with a continual hissing and hooting from the minority.  On\napproaching the bridge which crosses the Irwell, the 59th regiment was\ndrawn up, flanking the road on each side, and presenting arms as his\nGrace passed along.  We reached the warehouses at a quarter before three,\nand those who alighted were shown into the large upper rooms where a most\nelegant cold collation had been prepared by Mr. Lynn, for more than one\nthousand persons.  The greater portion of the company, as the carriages\ncontinued to arrive, visited the rooms and partook in silence of some\nrefreshment.  They then returned to their carriages which had been\nproperly placed for returning.  His Grace and the principal party did not\nalight; but he went through a most fatiguing office for more than an hour\nand a half, in shaking hands with thousands of people, to whom he stooped\nover the hand rail of the carriage, and who seemed insatiable in their\ndesire to join hands with him.  Many women brought their children to him,\nlifting them up that he might bless them, which he did, and during the\nwhole time he had scarcely a minute's respite.  At half-past four the\nDuke's car began to move away for Liverpool.\n\n\"They would have been detained a little longer, in order that three of\nthe engines, which had been to Eccles for water, might have dropped into\nthe rear to take their places; but Mr. Lavender represented that the\ncrowd was so thickening in upon all sides, and becoming so clamorous for\nadmission into the area, that he would not answer for the peace of the\ntown, if further delay took place.  The three engines were on the same\nline of rail as the Duke, and they could not cross to the other line\nwithout getting to a turning place, and as the Duke could not be delayed\non account of his keeping the crowd together, there was no alternative\nbut to send the engines forward.  One of the other engines was then\nattached to our train, and we followed the Duke rapidly, while the six\ntrains behind had only three engines left to bring them back.  Of course,\nwe kept pace with the Duke, who stopped at Eccles to inquire after Mr.\nHuskisson.  The answer received was that there was now no hope of his\nlife being saved; and this intelligence plunged the whole party into\nstill deeper distress.  We proceeded without meeting any fresh incident\nuntil we passed Prescot, where we found two of the three engines at the\n6.5 mile post, where a turning had been effected, but the third had gone\non to Liverpool; we then detached the one we had borrowed, and the three\nset out to meet the six remaining trains of carriages.  Our carriages\nwere then connected with the grand cars, the engine of which now drew the\nwhole number of nine carriages, containing nearly three hundred persons,\nat a very smart rate.  We were now getting into vast crowds of people,\nmost of them ignorant of the dreadful event which had taken place, and\nall of them giving us enthusiastic cheers which we could not return.\n\n\"At Roby, his Grace and the Childwalls alighted and proceeded home; our\ncarriages then moved forward to Liverpool, where we arrived about seven\no'clock, and went down the great tunnel, under the town, a part of the\nwork which, more than any other, astonished the numerous strangers\npresent.  It is, indeed, a wonderful work, and makes an impression never\nto be effaced from the memory.  The Company's yard, from St. James's\nStreet to Wapping, was filled with carriages waiting for the returning\nparties, who separated with feelings of mingled gratification and\ndistress, to which we shall not attempt to give utterance.  We afterwards\nlearnt that the parties we left at Manchester placed the three remaining\nengines together, and all the carriages together, so as to form one grand\nprocession, including twenty-four carriages, and were coming home at a\nsteady pace, when they were met near Newton, by the other three engines,\nwhich were then attached to the rest, and they arrived in Liverpool about\nten o'clock.\n\n\"Thus ended a pageant which, for importance as to its object and grandeur\nin its details, is admitted to have exceeded anything ever witnessed.  We\nconversed with many gentlemen of great experience in public life, who\nspoke of the scene as surpassing anything they had ever beheld, and who\ncomputed, upon data which they considered to be satisfactory, that not\nfewer than 500,000 persons must have been spectators of the procession.\"\n\nSo far from being a success, the occasion was, after the accident to Mr.\nHuskisson, such a series of mortifying disappointments and the Duke of\nWellington's experience at Manchester had been so very far removed from\ngratifying that the directors of the company felt moved to exonerate\nthemselves from the load of censure by an official explanation.  This\nthey did in the following language:--\n\n\"On the subject of delay which took place in the starting from\nManchester, and consequently in the arrival at Liverpool, of the last\nthree engines, with twenty-four carriages and six hundred passengers,\nbeing the train allotted to six of the engines, we are authorized to\nstate that the directors think it due to the proprietors and others\nconstituting the large assemblage of company in the above trains to make\nknown the following particulars:\n\n\"Three out of the six locomotive engines which belonged to the above\ntrains had proceeded on the south road from Manchester to Eccles, to take\nin water, with the intention of returning to Manchester, and so getting\nout of that line of road before any of the trains should start on their\nreturn home.  Before this, however, was accomplished, the following\ncircumstances seemed to render it imperative for the train of carriages\ncontaining the Duke of Wellington and a great many of the distinguished\nvisitors to leave Manchester.  The eagerness on the part of the crowd to\nsee the Duke, and to shake hands with him, was very great, so much so\nthat his Grace held out both his hands to the pressing multitude at the\nsame time; the assembling crowd becoming more dense every minute, closely\nsurrounded the carriages, as the principal attraction was this particular\ntrain.  The difficulty of proceeding at all increased every moment and\nconsequently the danger of accident upon the attempt being made to force\na way through the throng also increased.  At this juncture Mr. Lavender,\nthe head of the police establishment of Manchester, interfered, and\nentreated that the Duke's train should move on, or he could not answer\nfor the consequences.  Under these circumstances, and the day being well\nadvanced, it was thought expedient at all events to move forward while it\nwas still practicable to do so.  The order was accordingly given, and the\ntrain passed along out of the immediate neighbourhood of Manchester\nwithout accident to anyone.  When they had proceeded a few miles they\nfell in with the engines belonging to the trains left at Manchester, and\nthese engines being on the same line as the carriages of the procession,\nthere was no alternative but bringing the Duke's train back through the\ndense multitude to Manchester, or proceeding with three extra engines to\nthe neighbourhood of Liverpool (all passing places from one road to the\nother being removed, with a view to safety, on the occasion), and\nafterwards sending them back to the assistance of the trains\nunfortunately left behind.  It was determined to proceed towards\nLiverpool, as being decidedly the most advisable course under the\ncircumstances of the case; and it may be mentioned for the satisfaction\nof any party who may have considered that he was in some measure left in\nthe lurch, that Mr. Moss, the Deputy Chairman, had left Mrs. Moss and\nseveral of his family to come with the trains which had been so left\nbehind.  Three engines having to draw a load calculated for six, their\nprogress was of course much retarded, besides a considerable delay which\ntook place before the starting of the last trains, owing to the\nuncertainty which existed as to what had become of the three missing\nengines.  These engines, after proceeding to within a few miles of\nLiverpool, were enabled to return to Park-side, in the neighbourhood of\nNewton, where they were attached to the other three and the whole\nproceeding safely to Liverpool, where they arrived at ten in the\nevening.\"\n\nThe case was, however, here stated, to say the least, in the mildest\npossible manner.  The fact was that the authorities at Manchester had,\nand not without reason, passed a very panic-stricken hour on account of\nthe Duke of Wellington.  That personage had been in a position of no\ninconsiderable peril.  Though the reporter preserved a decorous silence\non that point, the ministerial car had on the way been pelted, as well as\nhooted; and at Manchester a vast mass of not particularly well disposed\npersons had fairly overwhelmed both police and soldiery, and had taken\ncomplete possession of the tracks.  They were not riotous but they were\nvery rough; and they insisted on climbing upon the carriages and pressing\ntheir attentions on the distinguished inmates in a manner somewhat at\nvariance with English ideas of propriety.  The Duke's efforts at\nconciliatory manners, as evinced through much hand-shaking, were not\nwithout significance.  It was small matter for wonder, therefore, that\nthe terrified authorities, before they got him out of their town,\nheartily regretted that they had not allowed him to have his own way\nafter the accident to Mr. Huskisson, when he proposed to turn back\nwithout coming to it.  Having once got him safely started back to\nLiverpool, therefore, they preferred to leave the other guests to take\ncare of themselves, rather than have the Duke face the crowd again.  As\nthere were no sidings on that early road, and the connections between the\ntracks had, as a measure of safety, been temporarily removed, the\nministerial train in moving towards Liverpool had necessarily pushed\nbefore it the engines belonging to the other trains.  The unfortunate\nguests on those other trains, thus left to their fate, had for the rest\nof the day a very dreary time of it.  To avoid accidents, the six trains\nabandoned at Manchester were united into one, to which were attached the\nthree locomotives remaining.  In this form they started.  Presently the\nstrain broke the couplings.  Pieces of rope were then put in requisition,\nand again they got in motion.  In due time the three other engines came\nalong, but they could only be used by putting them on in front of the\nthree already attached to the train.  Two of them were used in that way,\nand the eleven cars thus drawn by five locomotives, and preceded at a\nshort distance by one other, went on towards Liverpool.  It was dark, and\nto meet the exigencies of the occasion the first germ of the present\nelaborate system of railroad night signals was improvised on the spot.\nFrom the foremost and pioneer locomotive obstacles were signalled to the\ntrain locomotives by the very primitive expedient of swinging the lighted\nend of a tar-rope.  At Rainhill the weight of the train proved too much\nfor the combined motive-power, and the thoroughly wearied passengers had\nto leave their carriages and walk up the incline.  When they got to the\nsummit and, resuming their seats, were again in motion, fresh delay was\noccasioned by the leading locomotive running into a wheel-barrow,\nmaliciously placed on the track to obstruct it.  Not until ten o'clock\ndid they enter the tunnel at Liverpool.  Meanwhile all sorts of rumours\nof general disaster had for hours been circulating among the vast\nconcourse of spectators who were assembled waiting for their friends, and\nwhose relief expressed itself in hearty cheers as the train at last\nrolled safely into the station.\n\nWe have also Miss Kemble's story of this day, to which in her letter of\nAugust 25th she had looked forward with such eager interest.  With her\nfather and mother she had been staying at a country place in Lancashire,\nand in her account of the affair, written in 1876, she says:--\n\n\"The whole gay party assembled at Heaton, my mother and myself included,\nwent to Liverpool for the opening of the railroad.  The throng of\nstrangers gathered there for the same purpose made it almost impossible\nto obtain a night's lodging for love or money; and glad and thankful were\nwe to put up with and be put up in a tiny garret by an old friend, Mr.\nRadley, of the Adelphi, which many would have given twice what we paid to\nobtain.  The day opened gloriously, and never was an innumerable\nconcourse of sight-seers in better humour than the surging, swaying crowd\nthat lined the railroad with living faces. . .  After this disastrous\nevent [the accident to Mr. Huskisson] the day became overcast, and as we\nneared Manchester the sky grew cloudy and dark, and it began to rain.\nThe vast concourse of people who had assembled to witness the triumphant\narrival of the successful travellers was of the lowest order of mechanics\nand artisans, among whom great distress and a dangerous spirit of\ndiscontent with the government at that time prevailed.  Groans and hisses\ngreeted the carriage, full of influential personages, in which the Duke\nof Wellington sat.  High above the grim and grimy crowd of scowling faces\na loom had been erected, at which sat a tattered, starved-looking weaver,\nevidently set there as a _representative man_, to protest against this\ntriumph of machinery, and the gain and glory which the wealthy Liverpool\nand Manchester men were likely to derive from it.  The contrast between\nour departure from Liverpool and our arrival at Manchester was one of the\nmost striking things I ever witnessed.\n\n                                     MANCHESTER, _September_ 20_th_, 1830.\n\nMY DEAREST H--:\n\n                                * * * * *\n\n\"You probably have by this time heard and read accounts of the opening of\nthe railroad, and the fearful accident which occurred at it, for the\npapers are full of nothing else.  The accident you mention did occur, but\nthough the unfortunate man who was killed bore Mr. Stephenson's name, he\nwas not related to him.  [Besides Mr. Huskisson, another man named\nStephenson had about this time been killed on the railroad].  I will tell\nyou something of the events on the fifteenth, as though you may be\nacquainted with the circumstances of poor Mr. Huskisson's death, none but\nan eye-witness of the whole scene can form a conception of it.  I told\nyou that we had had places given to us, and it was the main purpose of\nour returning from Birmingham to Manchester to be present at what\npromised to be one of the most striking events in the scientific annals\nof our country.  We started on Wednesday last, to the number of about\neight hundred people, in carriages constructed as I before described to\nyou.  The most intense curiosity and excitement prevailed, and though the\nweather was uncertain, enormous masses of densely packed people lined the\nroad, shouting and waving hats and handkerchiefs as we flew by them.\nWhat with the sight and sound of these cheering multitudes and the\ntremendous velocity with which we were borne past them, my spirits rose\nto the true champagne height, and I never enjoyed anything so much as the\nfirst hour of our progress.  I had been unluckily separated from my\nmother in the first distribution of places, but by an exchange of seats\nwhich she was enabled to make she rejoined me, when I was at the height\nof my ecstasy, which was considerably damped by finding that she was\nfrightened to death, and intent upon nothing but devising means of\nescaping from a situation which appeared to her to threaten with instant\nannihilation herself and all her travelling companions.  While I was\nchewing the cud of this disappointment, which was rather bitter, as I\nexpected her to be as delighted as myself with our excursion, a man flew\nby us, calling out through a speaking trumpet to stop the engine, for\nthat somebody in the directors' car had sustained an injury.  We were all\nstopped accordingly and presently a hundred voices were heard exclaiming\nthat Mr. Huskisson was killed.  The confusion that ensued is\nindescribable; the calling out from carriage to carriage to ascertain the\ntruth, the contrary reports which were sent back to us, the hundred\nquestions eagerly uttered at once, and the repeated and urgent demands\nfor surgical assistance, created a sudden turmoil that was quite\nsickening.  At last we distinctly ascertained that the unfortunate man's\nthigh was broken.\n\n\"From Lady W--, who was in the duke's carriage, and within three yards of\nthe spot where the accident happened, I had the following details, the\nhorror of witnessing which we were spared through our situation behind\nthe great carriage.  The engine had stopped to take in a supply of water,\nand several of the gentlemen in the directors' carriage had jumped out to\nlook about them.  Lord W--, Count Batthyany, Count Matuscenitz, and Mr.\nHuskisson among the rest were standing talking in the middle of the road,\nwhen an engine on the other line, which was parading up and down merely\nto show its speed, was seen coming down upon them like lightning.  The\nmost active of those in peril sprang back into their seats; Lord W--\nsaved his life only by rushing behind the duke's carriage, Count\nMatuscenitz had but just leaped into it, with the engine all but touching\nhis heels as he did so; while poor Mr. Huskisson, less active from the\neffects of age and ill health, bewildered too by the frantic cries of\n'Stop the engine: Clear the track!' that resounded on all sides,\ncompletely lost his head, looked helplessly to the right and left, and\nwas instantaneously prostrated by the fatal machine, which dashed down\nlike a thunderbolt upon him, and passed over his leg, smashing and\nmangling it in the most horrible way.  (Lady W-- said she distinctly\nheard the crushing of the bone).  So terrible was the effect of the\nappalling accident that except that ghastly 'crushing' and poor Mrs.\nHuskisson's piercing shriek, not a sound was heard or a word uttered\namong the immediate spectators of the catastrophe.  Lord W-- was the\nfirst to raise the poor sufferer, and calling to his aid his surgical\nskill, which is considerable, he tied up the severed artery, and for a\ntime at least, prevented death by a loss of blood.  Mr. Huskisson was\nthen placed in a carriage with his wife and Lord W--, and the engine\nhaving been detached from the directors' carriage, conveyed them to\nManchester.  So great was the shock produced on the whole party by this\nevent that the Duke of Wellington declared his intention not to proceed,\nbut to return immediately to Liverpool.  However, upon its being\nrepresented to him that the whole population of Manchester had turned out\nto witness the procession, and that a disappointment might give rise to\nriots and disturbances, he consented to go on, and gloomily enough the\nrest of the journey was accomplished.  We had intended returning to\nLiverpool by the railroad, but Lady W--, who seized upon me in the midst\nof the crowd, persuaded us to accompany her home, which we gladly did.\nLord W-- did not return till past ten o'clock, at which hour he brought\nthe intelligence of Mr. Huskisson's death.  I need not tell you of the\nsort of whispering awe which this event threw over our circle; and yet\ngreat as was the horror excited by it, I could not help feeling how\nevanescent the effect of it was, after all.  The shuddering terror of\nseeing our fellow-creature thus struck down by our side, and the\nbreathless thankfulness for our own preservation, rendered the first\nevening of our party at Heaton almost solemn; but the next day the\noccurrence became a subject of earnest, it is true, but free discussion;\nand after that was alluded to with almost as little apparent feeling as\nif it had not passed under our eyes, and within the space of a few\nhours.\"\n\n\n\n\nMRS. BLACKBURNE'S PRESENTIMENT.\n\n\nMiss Kemble was mistaken in stating Mr. Huskisson after his accident was\nremoved to Manchester.  He was conveyed to the vicarage, at Eccles, near\nManchester.  Of the vicar's wife, Dean Stanley's mother thus writes,\n(January 17, 1832,):--\"There is one person who interests me very much,\nMrs. Tom Blackburne, the Vicaress of Eccles, who received poor Mr.\nHuskisson, and immortalised herself by her activity, sense, and conduct\nthroughout.\"  A writer in the _Cornhill Magazine_, for March, 1884,\nreferring to the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway,\nremarks:--\"In celebration of this experiment, for even then most people\nonly looked upon it as a doubtful thing, the houses of the adjacent parts\nof Lancashire were filled with guests.  Mr. John Blackburne, M.P., asked\nhis brother and sister-in-law, Mr. and Mrs. Thomas Blackburne, to stay at\nHale Hall, near Liverpool, (which his ancestors in the direct line had\npossessed since 1199,) and to go with his party to the ceremony and fetes\nof the day.\n\nThe invitation was accepted, and Mr. and Mrs. Blackburne went to Hale.\nNow, however, occurred one of those strange circumstances utterly\ncondemned by critics of fiction as 'unreal,' 'unnatural,' or\n'impossible;' only in this case it happened to be true, in spite of all\nthese epithets.  Mrs. Blackburne, rather strong-minded than otherwise, at\nall events one of the last women in the world to be affected by\nimagination, became possessed by an unmistakable presentiment, which made\nher feel quite sure _that her presence was required at home_; _and she\nwent home at once_.  There were difficulties in her way; every carriage\nwas required, but she would go.  She drove to Warrington, and from thence\n'took boat' up the Irwell to Eccles.  Canal boats were then regular\nconveyances, divided into first and second classes.  There were no mobs\nor excitement anywhere on the 14th, and Mrs. Blackburne got quickly to\nEccles without any adventures.  When there, except that one of her\nchildren was unwell, she could find nothing wrong, or in the least likely\nto account for the presentiment which had driven her home in spite of all\nthe natural enough, ridicule of her husband and friends at Hale.\n\nEarly on the morning of the 15th, an incident occurred, the narration of\nwhich may throw some light on the temper of the times.  Mr. Barton, of\nSwinton, came to say that a mob was expected to come from Oldham to\nattack the Duke of Wellington, then at the height of his unpopularity\namong the masses; for just by Eccles three miles of the line was left\nunguarded, 'Could Mr. Blackburne say what was to be done?'\n\n'My husband is away,' said the Vicaress, 'but I know that about fifty\nspecial constables were out last year, the very men for this work, if\ntheir licenses have not expired.'\n\n'Never mind licenses,' replied Mr. Barton, with a superb indifference to\nform, quite natural under the circumstances.  'Where can I find the men?'\n\n'Oh,' replied Mrs. Blackburne, 'I can get the men for you.'\n\nMr. Barton hesitated, but soon with gratitude accepted the offer, and\nwith the help of the churchwardens and constables 'a guard for the Duke'\nwas soon collected on the bridge of Eccles, armed with staves and clubs\nto be dispersed along the line.\n\nThis done, she had a tent put up for herself and children, with whom were\nLord Wilton's little daughters, the Ladies Elizabeth and Katherine\nEgerton, and their governess.  The tent was just above the cutting and\nlooked down on to it, and they would have a good view of the first train,\nexpected to pass about eleven o'clock.  The morning wore on, the crowds\nwere increasing, and low murmurs of wonder were heard.  It was thought\nthat the experiment had failed.  A few of the villagers came into the\nfield, but none troubled the little band of watchers.  The bright\nsunshine had passed away, and it had become dark, with large hot drops of\nrain, forerunners of a coming thunderstorm.  The people lined the whole\nof the way from Manchester to Liverpool, and, as far as the eye could\nreach, faces were seen anxiously looking towards Liverpool.  Suddenly a\nstrange roar was heard from the crowd, not a cheer of triumph, but a\nprolonged wail, beginning at the furthest point of travelling along the\nswarming banks like the incoming swirl of a breaker as it runs upon a\ngravelled beach.\n\nLike a true woman, her first thought was for her husband, as Mrs.\nBlackburne heard the words repeated on all sides, 'An accident!'  'The\nVicarage!'  She flew across the field to the gate and met a sad\nprocession bringing in a sorely-wounded yet quite conscious man.  She saw\nin a moment that he had medals on his coat, and had been very tall, so\nthat it could not be as she feared.  The relief of that moment may be\nimagined.  Then the quiet presence of mind, by practice habitual to her,\nand the ready flow of sympathy left her no time to think of anything but\nthe sufferer, who said to her pathetically, 'I shall not trouble you\nlong!'  She had not only the will but the power to help, even to\nsupplying from her own medicine chest and stores, kept for the poor,\neverything that the surgeons required.\n\nIt was Lord Wilton who suggested the removal of Mr. Huskisson to Eccles\nVicarage and improvised a tourniquet on the spot, while soon the medical\nmen who were in the train did what they could for him.  Mr. Blackburne,\nas will be remembered, was not with his wife, and only the presentiment\nwhich had brought Mrs. Blackburne home had given the means of so readily\nand quickly obtaining surgical necessaries and rest.  Mr. Blackburne,\nwriting to his mother-in-law the day after this accident, referring to\nMr. Huskisson, remarks:--\"To the last he retained his senses.  Lord\nGranville says when the dying man heard Wilton propose to take him to\nthis house he exclaimed, 'Pray take me there; there I shall indeed be\ntaken care of.'\n\nBut fancy my horror!  _Not one word did I know of his being here till I\nhad passed the place_, _and was literally eating my luncheon at\nManchester_!  In vain did I try to get a conveyance, till at last the\nDuke of Wellington sent to me and ordered his car to start, and I came\nwith him back, he intending to come here; but the crowd was so _immense_\nthat the police dared not let him get out.  To be sure, when my people on\nthe bridge saw me standing with him, they did shout, 'That's as it should\nbe--Vicar for us!'  He said, 'These people seem to know you well.'\n\n_Entre nous_, at the door I met my love, and after a good cry (I don't\nknow which was the greatest fool!) set to work.  The poor fellow was glad\nto see me, and never shall I forget the scene, his poor wife holding his\nhead, and the great men weeping, for they all wept!  He then received the\nSacrament, added some codocils to his will, and seemed perfectly\nresigned.  But his agonies were dreadful!  Ransome says they must have\nbeen so.  He expired at nine.  We never left him till he breathed his\nlast.  Poor woman!  How she lamented his loss; yet her struggles to bear\nwith fortitude are wonderful.  I wish you could have heard him exclaim,\nafter my petition 'Forgive us our trespasses as we forgive . . . '  'I\nhave not the smallest ill-will to any one person in the whole world.'\nThey stay here until Saturday, when they begin the sad journey to convey\nhim to Sussex.  They wanted to bury him at Liverpool, but she refused.  I\nforgot to tell you that he told Lawrence before starting that he _wished\nhe were safe back_.\"\n\nMr. Huskisson was not buried at Chichester, for at last Mrs. Huskisson\nconsented to the popular wish that his body might have a public funeral\nat Liverpool, where a statue of him by Gibson now stands in the\ncemetery.\"\n\n\n\n\nELEVATED SIGHT-SEERS WISHING TO DESCEND.\n\n\nSir J. A. Picton, in his _Memorials of Liverpool_, relates an amusing\nincident connected with the opening of the railway at that town.  \"On the\nopening of the railway,\" he remarks, \"of course, every point and 'coin of\nvantage' from whence the procession could be best seen was eagerly\navailed of.  A tolerably high chimney had recently been built upon the\nrailway ground, affording a sufficient platform on the scaffolding at the\ntop for the accommodation of two or three persons.  Two gentlemen\nconnected with the engineer's department took advantage of this crowning\neminence to obtain a really 'bird's eye view' of the whole proceedings.\nThey were wound up by the tackle used in hoisting the bricks, and enjoyed\nthe perspective from their airy height to their hearts' content.  When\nall was over they, of course, wished to descend, and gave the signal to\nbe let down again, but alas! there was no response.  The man in charge,\nexcited by the events of the day, confused by the sorrowful news by which\nit was closed, and, it may be, oblivious from other causes, had utterly\nforgotten his engagement and gone home.  Here was a prospect!  The shades\nof evening were gathering, the multitudes departing, and every\nprobability of being obliged to act the part of St. Simeon of Stylites\nvery involuntarily.  Despair added force and strength to their lungs, and\nat length--their condition and difficulty having attracted\nattention--they were relieved from their unpleasant predicament.\"\n\n\n\n\nTHE DUKE'S CARRIAGE.\n\n\nA correspondent of the _Athenaeum_, in 1830, speaking of the carriage\nprepared for the Duke of Wellington at the opening of the Liverpool and\nManchester Railway, remarks: \"It rather resembled an eastern pavilion\nthan anything our northern idea considers a carriage.  The floor is 32\nfeet long by 8 wide, gilt pillars support a crimson canopy 24 feet long,\nand it might for magnitude be likened to the car of Juggernaut; yet this\nhuge machine, with the preceding steam engine, moved along at its own\nfiery will even more swimmingly, a 'thing of heart and mind,' than a ship\non the ocean.\"\n\n\n\n\nLORD BROUGHAM'S SPEECH.\n\n\nAt a dinner given at Liverpool in celebration of the opening of the\nLiverpool and Manchester Railway, Lord Brougham thus discourses upon the\nmemorable event and the death of Mr. Huskisson:--\"When I saw the\ndifficulties of space, as it were, overcome; when I beheld a kind of\nmiracle exhibited before my astonished eyes; when I saw the rocks\nexcavated and the gigantic power of man penetrating through miles of the\nsolid mass, and gaining a great, a lasting, an almost perennial conquest\nover the powers of nature by his skill and industry; when I contemplated\nall this, was it possible for me to avoid the reflections which crowded\ninto my mind, not in praise of man's great success, not in admiration of\nthe genius and perseverance he had displayed, or even of the courage he\nhad shown in setting himself against the obstacles that matter afforded\nto his course--no! but the melancholy reflection that these prodigious\nefforts of the human race, so fruitful of praise but so much more\nfruitful of lasting blessing to mankind, have forced a tear from my eye\nby that unhappy casualty which deprived me of a friend and you of a\nrepresentative!\"\n\n\n\n\nAN EARLY RIDE ON THE LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAY.\n\n\nNo account of its first beginnings would, however, be complete for our\ntime, which did not also give an idea of the impressions produced on one\ntravelling over it before yet the novelty of the thing had quite worn\naway.  It was a long time, comparatively, after September, 1830, before\nthe men who had made a trip over the railroad ceased to be objects of\ndeep curiosity.  Here is the account of his experience by one of these\nfar-travelled men, with all its freshness still lingering about it:--\n\n\"Although the whole passage between Liverpool and Manchester is a series\nof enchantments, surpassing any in the Arabian Nights, because they are\nrealities, not fictions, yet there are epochs in the transit which are\npeculiarly exciting.  These are the startings, the ascents, the descents,\nthe tunnels, the Chat Moss, the meetings.  At the instant of starting, or\nrather before, the automaton belches forth an explosion of steam, and\nseems for a second or two quiescent.  But quickly the explosions are\nreiterated, with shorter and shorter intervals, till they become too\nrapid to be counted, though still distinct.  These belchings or\nexplosions more nearly resemble the pantings of a lion or tiger, than any\nsound that has ever vibrated on my ear.  During the ascent they become\nslower and slower, till the automaton actually labours like an animal out\nof breath, from the tremendous efforts to gain the highest point of\nelevation.  The progression is proportionate; and before the said point\nis gained, the train is not moving faster than a horse can pace.  With\nthe slow motion of the mighty and animated machine, the breathing becomes\nmore laborious, the growl more distinct, till at length the animal\nappears exhausted and groans like the tiger, when overpowered in combat\nby the buffalo.\n\n\"The moment that the height is reached and the descent commences, the\npantings rapidly increase; the engine with its train starts off with\naugmenting velocity; and in a few seconds it is flying down the declivity\nlike lightning, and with a uniform growl or roar, like a continuous\ndischarge of distant artillery.\n\n\"At this period, the whole train is going at the rate of thirty-five or\nforty miles an hour!  I was on the outside, and in front of the first\ncarriage, just over the engine.  The scene was magnificent, I had almost\nsaid terrific.  Although it was a dead calm the wind appeared to be\nblowing a hurricane, such was the velocity with which we darted through\nthe air.  Yet all was steady; and there was something in the precision of\nthe machinery that inspired a degree of confidence over fear--of safety\nover danger.  A man may travel from the Pole to the Equator, from the\nStraits of Malacca to the Isthmus of Darien, and he will see nothing so\nastonishing as this.  The pangs of Etna and Vesuvius excite feelings of\nhorror as well as of terror; the convulsion of the elements during a\nthunderstorm carries with it nothing but pride, much less of pleasure, to\ncounteract the awe inspired by the fearful workings of perturbed nature;\nbut the scene which is here presented, and which I cannot adequately\ndescribe, engenders a proud consciousness of superiority in human\ningenuity, more intense and convincing than any effort or product of the\npoet, the painter, the philosopher, or the divine.  The projections or\ntransits of the train through the tunnels or arches are very\nelectrifying.  The deafening peal of thunder, the sudden immersion in\ngloom, and the clash of reverberated sounds in confined space combine to\nproduce a momentary shudder or idea of destruction--a thrill of\nannihilation, which is instantly dispelled on emerging into the cheerful\nlight.\n\n\"The meetings or crossings of the steam trains flying in opposite\ndirections are scarcely less agitating to the nerves than their transits\nthrough the tunnels.  The velocity of their course, the propinquity or\napparent identity of the iron orbits along which these meteors move, call\nforth the involuntary but fearful thought of a possible collision, with\nall its horrible consequences.  The period of suspense, however, though\nexquisitely painful, is but momentary; and in a few seconds the object of\nterror is far out of sight behind.\n\n\"Nor is the rapid passage across Chat Moss unworthy of notice.  The\ningenuity with which two narrow rods of iron are made to bear whole\ntrains of wagons, laden with many hundred tons of commerce, and bounding\nacross a wide, semi-fluid morass, previously impassable by man or beast,\nis beyond all praise and deserving of eternal record.  Only conceive a\nslender bridge of two minute iron rails, several miles in length, level\nas Waterloo, elastic as whalebone, yet firm as adamant!  Along this\nsplendid triumph of human genius--this veritable _via triumphalis_--the\ntrain of carriages bounds with the velocity of the stricken deer; the\nvibrations of the resilient moss causing the ponderous engine and its\nenormous suite to glide along the surface of an extensive quagmire as\nsafely as a practiced skater skims the icy mirror of a frozen lake.\n\n\"The first class or train is the most fashionable, but the second or\nthird are the most amusing.  I travelled one day from Liverpool to\nManchester in the lumber train.  Many of the carriages were occupied by\nthe swinish multitude, and others by a multitude of swine.  These last\nwere naturally vociferous if not eloquent.  It is evident that the other\npassengers would have been considerably annoyed by the orators of this\nlast group, had there not been stationed in each carriage an officer\nsomewhat analogous to the Usher of the Black Rod, but whose designation\non the railroad I found to be 'Comptroller of the Gammon.'  No sooner did\none of the long-faced gentlemen raise his note too high, or wag his jaw\ntoo long, than the 'Comptroller of the Gammon' gave him a whack over the\nsnout with the butt end of his shillelagh; a snubber which never failed\nto stop his oratory for the remainder of the journey.\"\n\nTo one familiar with the history of railroad legislation the last\nparagraph is peculiarly significant.  For years after the railroad system\nwas inaugurated, and until legislation was invoked to compel something\nbetter, the companies persisted in carrying passengers of the third class\nin uncovered carriages, exposed to all weather, and with no more\ndecencies or comforts than were accorded to swine.\n\n\n\n\nEARLY RAILWAY TRAVELLING.\n\n\nA writer in _Notes and Queries_ remarks:--\"On looking over a diary kept\nby my father during two journeys northward in 1830-31, I thought the\nreaders might be amused with his account of what he saw of railway\ntravelling, then in its infancy:--\n\n\"Monday, Oct. 11, 1830, Darlington.--Walked to the railroad, which comes\nwithin half-a-mile of the town.  Saw a steam engine drawing about\ntwenty-five wagons, each containing about two tons and a half of coals.\nA single horse draws four such wagons.  I went to Stockton at four\no'clock by coach on the railroad; one horse draws about twenty-four\npassengers.  I did not like it at all, for the road is very ugly in\nappearance, and, being only one line with occasional turns for passing,\nwe were sometimes obliged to wait, and at other times to be drawn back,\nso that we were full two hours going eleven miles, and they are often\nmore than three hours.  There is no other conveyance, as the cheapness\nhas driven the stage-coaches off the road.  I only paid 1s. for eleven\nmiles.  The motion was very unpleasant--a continual jolting and\ndisagreeable noise.\"\n\nOn Sept. 1, 1831, he remarks:--\"The railroad to Stockton has been\nimproved since I was here, as they are now laying down a second line.\"\n\n\"Wednesday, Oct. 27, 1830.--Left Manchester at ten o'clock by the\nrailroad for Liverpool.  We enter upon it by a staircase through the\noffice from the street at present, but there will, I suppose, be an open\nentrance, by-and-bye; they have built extensive warehouses adjoining.  We\nwere two hours and a half going to Liverpool (about thirty-two miles),\nand I must think the advantages have been a good deal overrated, for,\nprejudice apart, I think most people will allow that expedition is the\nonly real advantage gained; the road itself is ugly, though curious and\nwonderful as a work of art.  Near Liverpool it is cut very deeply through\nrock, and there is a long tunnel which leads into a yard where omnibusses\nwait to convey passengers to the inns.  The tunnel is too low for the\nengines at present in use, and the carriages are drawn through it by\ndonkeys.  The engines are calculated to draw fifty tons. . .  I cannot\nsay that I at all liked it; the speed was too great to be pleasant, and\nmakes you rather giddy, and certainly it is not smoother and easier than\na good turnpike road.  When the carriages stop or go on, a very violent\njolting takes place, from the ends of the carriages jostling together.  I\nhave heard many say they prefer a horse-coach, but the majority are in\nfavour of the railroad, and they will, no doubt, knock up the coaches.\"\n\n\"Monday, Sept. 12, 1831.--Left Manchester by coach at ten o'clock, and\narrived in Liverpool at half-past two. . .  The railroad is not supposed\nto answer vastly well, but they are making a branch to Warrington, which\nwill hurt the Sankey Navigation, and throw 1,500 men out of employment;\nthese people are said to be loud in their execrations of it, and to\nthreaten revenge.  It is certain the proprietors do not all feel easy\nabout it, as one living at Warrington has determined never to go by it,\nand was coming to Liverpool by our coach if there had been room.  He\nwould gladly sell his shares.  A dividend of 4 per cent. had been paid\nfor six months, but money had been borrowed. . . .  Charge for tonnage of\ngoods, 10s. for thirty-two miles, which appears very dear to me.\"\n\n\n\n\nCRABB ROBINSON'S FIRST RAILWAY JOURNEY.\n\n\n\"June 9th, 1833.--(Liverpool).  At twelve o'clock I got upon an omnibus,\nand was driven up a steep hill to the place where the steam carriages\nstart.  We travelled in the second class of carriages.  There were five\ncarriages linked together, in each of which were placed open seats for\nthe travellers, four or five facing each other; but not all were full;\nand, besides, there was a close carriage, and also a machine for luggage.\nThe fare was four shillings for the thirty-one miles.  Everything went on\nso rapidly that I had scarcely the power of observation.  The road begins\nat an excavation through a rock, and is to a certain extent insulated\nfrom the adjacent country.  It is occasionally placed on bridges, and\nfrequently intersected by ordinary roads.  Not quite a perfect level is\npreserved.  On setting off there is a slight jolt, arising from the chain\ncatching each carriage, but, once in motion, we proceeded as smoothly as\npossible.  For a minute or two the pace is gentle, and is constantly\nvarying.  The machine produces little smoke or steam.  First in order is\nthe tall chimney; then the boiler, a barrel-like vessel; then an oblong\nreservoir of water; then a vehicle for coals; and then comes, of a length\ninfinitely extendible, the train of carriages.  If all the seats had been\nfilled, our train would have carried about 150 passengers; but a\ngentleman assured me at Chester that he went with a thousand persons to\nNewton fair.  There must have been two engines then.  I have heard since\nthat two thousand persons or more went to and from the fair that day.\nBut two thousand only, at three shillings each way, would have produced\n600 pounds!  But, after all, the expense is so great that it is\nconsidered uncertain whether the establishment will ultimately remunerate\nthe proprietors.  Yet I have heard that it already yields the\nshareholders a dividend of nine per cent.  And Bills have passed for\nmaking railroads between London and Birmingham, and Birmingham and\nLiverpool.  What a change it will produce in the intercourse!  One\nconveyance will take between 100 and 200 passengers, and the journey will\nbe made in a forenoon!  Of the rapidity of the journey I had better\nexperience on my return; but I may say now that, stoppages included, it\nmay certainly be made at the rate of twenty miles an hour.\n\n\"I should have observed before that the most remarkable movements of the\njourney are those in which trains pass one another.  The rapidity is such\nthat there is no recognizing the features of a traveller.  On several\noccasions, the noise of the passing engine was like the whizzing of a\nrocket.  Guards are stationed in the road, holding flags, to give notice\nto the drivers when to stop.  Near Newton I noticed an inscription\nrecording the memorable death of Huskisson.\"\n\n                                               --_Crabb Robinson's Diary_.\n\n\n\n\nEARLY AMERICAN RAILWAY ENTERPRISE.\n\n\nMr. C. F. Adams, in his work on _Railroads_: _Their Origin and Problems_,\nremarks:--\"There is, indeed, some reason for believing that the South\nCarolina Railroad was the first ever constructed in any country with a\ndefinite plan of operating it exclusively by locomotive steam power.  But\nin America there was not--indeed, from the very circumstances of the\ncase, there could not have been--any such dramatic occasions and\nsurprises as those witnessed at Liverpool in 1829 and 1830.\nNevertheless, the people of Charleston were pressing close on the heels\nof those at Liverpool, for on the 15th of January, 1831--exactly four\nmonths after the formal opening of the Manchester and Liverpool road--the\nfirst anniversary of the South Carolina Railroad was celebrated with due\nhonor.  A queer-looking machine, the outline of which was sufficient in\nitself to prove that the inventor owed nothing to Stephenson, had been\nconstructed at the West Point Foundry Works in New York during the summer\nof 1830--a first attempt to supply that locomotive power which the Board\nhad, with sublime confidence in possibilities, unanimously voted on the\n14th of the preceding January should alone be used on the road.  The name\nof _Best Friend_ was given to this very simple product of native genius.\nThe idea of the multitubular boiler had not yet suggested itself in\nAmerica.  The _Best Friend_, therefore, was supplied with a common\nvertical boiler, 'in form of an old-fashioned porter-bottle, the furnace\nat the bottom surrounded with water, and all filled inside of what we\ncall teats running out from the sides and tops.'  By means of the\nprojections or 'teats' a portion at least of the necessary heating\nsurface was provided.  The cylinder was at the front of the platform, the\nrear end of which was occupied by the boiler, and it was fed by means of\na connecting pipe.  Thanks to the indefatigable researches of an\nenthusiast on railroad construction, we have an account of the\nperformances of this and all the other pioneers among American\nlocomotives, and the pictures with which Mr. W. H. Brown has enriched his\nbook would alone render it both curious and valuable.  Prior to the\nstockholders' anniversary of January 15th, 1831, it seems that the _Best\nFriend_ had made several trips 'running at the rate of sixteen to\ntwenty-one miles an hour, with forty or fifty passengers in some four or\nfive cars, and without the cars, thirty to thirty-five miles an hour.'\nThe stockholders' day was, however, a special occasion, and the papers of\nthe following Monday, for it happened on a Saturday, gave the following\naccount of it:--\n\n\"Notice having been previously given, inviting the stockholders, about\none hundred and fifty assembled in the course of the morning at the\ncompany's buildings in Line Street, together with a number of invited\nguests.  The weather the day and night previous had been stormy, and the\nmorning was cold and cloudy.  Anticipating a postponement of the\nceremonies, the locomotive engine had been taken to pieces for cleaning,\nbut upon the assembling of the company she was put in order, the\ncylinders new packed and at the word the apparatus was ready for\nmovement.  The first trip was performed with two pleasure cars attached,\nand a small carriage, fitted for the occasion, upon which was a\ndetachment of United States troops and a field-piece which had been\npolitely granted by Major Belton for the occasion. . .  The number of\npassengers brought down, which was performed in two trips, was estimated\nat upward of two hundred.  A band of music enlivened the scene, and great\nhilarity and good humour prevailed throughout the day.\"\n\nIt was not long, however, before the _Best Friend_ came to serious grief.\nNaturally, and even necessarily, inasmuch as it was a South Carolina\ninstitution, it was provided with a <DW64> fireman.  It so happened that\nthis functionary while in the discharge of his duties was much annoyed by\nthe escape of steam from the safety valve, and, not having made himself\ncomplete master of the principles underlying the use of steam as a source\nof power, he took advantage of a temporary absence of the engineer in\ncharge to effect a radical remedy of this cause of annoyance.  He not\nonly fastened down the valve lever, but further made the thing perfectly\nsure by sitting upon it.  The consequences were hardly less disastrous to\nthe _Best Friend_ than to the chattel fireman.  Neither were of much\nfurther practical use.  Before this mishap chanced, however in June,\n1831, a second locomotive, called the _West Point_, had arrived in\nCharleston, and this last was constructed on the principle of\nStephenson's _Rocket_.  In its general aspect, indeed, it greatly\nresembled that already famous prototype.  There is a very characteristic\nand suggestive cut representing a trial trip made with this locomotive on\nMarch 5th, 1831.  The nerves of the Charleston people had been a good\ndeal disturbed and their confidence in steam as a safe motor shaken by\nthe disaster which had befallen the _Best Friend_.  Mindful of this fact,\nand very properly solicitous for the safety of their guests, the\ndirectors now had recourse to a very simple and ingenious expedient.\nThey put what they called a 'barrier car' between the locomotive and\npassenger coaches of the train.  This barrier car consisted of a platform\non wheels upon which were piled six bales of cotton.  A fortification was\nthus provided between the passengers and any future <DW64> sitting on the\nsafety valve.  We are also assured that 'the safety valve being out of\nthe reach of any person but the engineer, will contribute to the\nprevention of accidents in the future, such as befel the _Best Friend_.'\nJudging by the cut which represents the train, this occasion must have\nbeen even more marked for its 'hilarity' than the earlier one which has\nalready been described.  Besides the locomotive and the barrier car there\nare four passenger coaches.  In the first of these was a <DW64> band, in\ngeneral appearance very closely resembling the minstrels of a later day,\nthe members of which are energetically performing on musical instruments\nof various familiar descriptions.  Then follow three cars full of the\nsaddest looking white passengers, who were present as we were informed to\nthe number of one hundred and seventeen.  The excursion was, however,\nhighly successful, and two-and-a-quarter miles of road were passed over\nin the short space of eight minutes--about the speed at which a good\nhorse would trot for the same distance.\n\nThis was in March, 1831.  About six months before, however, there had\nactually been a trial of speed between a horse and one of the pioneer\nlocomotives, which had not resulted in favour of the locomotive.  It took\nplace on the present Baltimore and Ohio road upon the 28th of August,\n1830.  The engine in this case was contrived by no other than Mr. Peter\nCooper.  And it affords a striking illustration of how recent those\nevents which now seem so remote really were, that here is a man until\nvery recently living, and amongst the most familiar to the eyes of the\npresent generation, who was a contemporary of Stephenson, and himself\ninvented a locomotive during the Rainhill year, being then nearly forty\nyears of age.  The Cooper engine, however, was scarcely more than a\nworking model.  Its active-minded inventor hardly seems to have aimed at\nanything more than a demonstration of possibilities.  The whole thing\nweighed only a ton, and was of one horse power; in fact it was not larger\nthan those handcars now in common use with railroad section-men.  The\nboiler, about the size of a modern kitchen boiler, stood upright and was\nfitted above the furnace--which occupied the lower section--with vertical\ntubes.  The cylinder was but three-and-a-half inches in diameter, and the\nwheels were moved by gearing.  In order to secure the requisite pressure\nof steam in so small a boiler, a sort of bellows was provided which was\nkept in action by means of a drum attached to one of the car-wheels over\nwhich passed a cord which worked a pulley, which in turn worked the\nbellows.  Thus, of Stephenson's two great devices, without either of\nwhich his success at Rainhill would have been impossible--the waste steam\nblast and the multitubular boiler--Peter Cooper had only got hold of the\nlast.  He owed his defeat in the race between his engine and a horse to\nthe fact that he had not got hold of the first.  It happened in this\nwise.  Several experimental trips had been made with the little engine on\nthe Baltimore and Ohio road, the first sections of which had recently\nbeen completed and were then operated upon by means of horses.  The\nsuccess of these trips was such that at last, just seventeen days before\nthe formal opening of the Manchester and Liverpool road on the other side\nof the Atlantic, a small open car was attached to the engine--the name of\nwhich, by the way, was _Tom Thumb_--and upon this a party of directors\nand their friends were carried from Baltimore to Ellicott's Mills and\nback, a distance of some twenty-six miles.\n\nThe trip out was made in an hour, and was very successful.  The return\nwas less so, and for the following reason:--\n\n\"The great stage proprietors of the day were Stockton and Stokes; and on\nthat occasion a gallant grey, of great beauty and power, was driven by\nthem from town, attached to another car on the second track--for the\ncompany had begun by making two tracks to the Mills--and met the engine\nat the Relay House on its way back.  From this point it was determined to\nhave a race home, and the start being even, away went horse and engine,\nthe snort of the one and the puff of the other keeping tune and time.\n\n\"At first the grey had the best of it, for his _steam_ would be applied\nto the greatest advantage on the instant, while the engine had to wait\nuntil the rotation of the wheels set the blower to work.  The horse was\nperhaps a quarter of a mile ahead when the safety valve of the engine\nlifted, and the thin blue vapour issuing from it showed an excess of\nsteam.  The blower whistled, the steam blew off in vapoury clouds, the\npace increased, the passengers shouted, the engine gained on the horse,\nsoon it lapped him--the silk was plied--the race was neck and neck, nose\nand nose--then the engine passed the horse, and a great hurrah hailed the\nvictory.  But it was not repeated, for, just at this time, when the\ngrey's master was about giving up, the band which draws the pulley which\nmoved the blower slipped from the drum, the safety valve ceased to\nscream, and the engine--for want of breath--began to wheeze and pant.  In\nvain Mr. Cooper, who was his own engineer and fireman, lacerated his\nhands in attempting to replace the band upon the wheel; the horse gained\nupon the machine and passed it, and although the band was presently\nreplaced, and the steam again did its best, the horse was too far ahead\nto be overtaken, and came in the winner of the race.\"\n\n\n\n\nENGLISH AND AMERICAN OPPOSITION.\n\n\nWhat wonder that such an innovation as railways was strenuously opposed,\nthreatening, as it did, the coaching interest, and the posting interest,\nthe canal interest, and the sporting interest, and private interests of\nevery variety.  \"Gentlemen, as an individual,\" said a sporting M.P. for\nCheltenham, \"I hate your railways; I detest them altogether; I wish the\nconcoctors of the Cheltenham and Oxford, and the concoctors of every\nother scheme, including the solicitors and engineers, were at rest in\nParadise.  Gentlemen, I detest railroads; nothing is more distasteful to\nme than to hear the echo of our hills reverberating with the noise of\nhissing railroad engines, running through the heart of our hunting\ncountry, and destroying that noble sport to which I have been accustomed\nfrom my childhood.\"  And at Tewkesbury, one speaker contended that \"any\nrailway would be injurious;\" compared engines to \"war-horses and fiery\nmeteors;\" and affirmed that \"the evils contained in Pandora's box were\nbut trifles compared with those that would be consequent on railways.\"\nEven in go-aheadative America, some steady jog trotting opponents raised\ntheir voices against the nascent system; one of whom (a canal\nstockholder, by the way) chronicled the following objective arguments.\n\"He saw what would be the effect of it; that it would set the whole world\na-gadding.  Twenty miles an hour, sir!  Why you will not be able to keep\nan apprentice-boy at his work; every Saturday evening he must take a trip\nto Ohio, to spend the Sabbath with his sweetheart.  Grave plodding\ncitizens will be flying about like comets.  All local attachments must be\nat an end.  It will encourage flightiness of intellect.  Veracious people\nwill turn into the most immeasurable liars; all their conceptions will be\nexaggerated by their magnificent notions of distance.  'Only a hundred\nmiles off!  Tut, nonsense, I'll step across, madam, and bring your fan!'\n'Pray, sir, will you dine with me to-day at my little box at Alleghany?'\n'Why, indeed, I don't know.  I shall be in town until twelve.  Well, I\nshall be there; but you must let me off in time for the theatre.'  And\nthen, sir, there will be barrels of pork, and cargoes of flour, and\nchaldrons of coals, and even lead and whiskey, and such-like sober things\nthat have always been used to sober travelling, whisking away like a set\nof sky-rockets.  It will upset all the gravity of the nation.  If two\ngentlemen have an affair of honour, they have only to steal off to the\nRocky Mountains, and there no jurisdiction can touch them.  And then,\nsir, think of flying for debt!  A set of bailiffs, mounted on\nbomb-shells, would not overtake an absconded debtor, only give him a fair\nstart.  Upon the whole, sir, it is a pestilential, topsy-turvy,\nharum-scarum whirligig.  Give me the old, solemn, straightforward,\nregular Dutch canal--three miles an hour for expresses, and two for\nordinary journeys, with a yoke of oxen for a heavy load!  I go for beasts\nof burthen: it is more primitive and scriptural, and suits a moral and\nreligious people better.  None of your hop-skip-and-jump whimsies for\nme.\"\n\n                                              --_Sharpe's London Journal_.\n\n\n\n\nAN UNPLEASANT TRIAL TRIP.\n\n\nMr. O. F. Adams remarks:--\"A famous trial trip with a new locomotive\nengine was that made on the 9th of August, 1831, on the new line from\nAlbany to Schenectady over the Mohawk Valley road.  The train was made up\nof a locomotive, the _De Witt Clinton_, its tender, and five or six\npassenger coaches--which were, indeed, nothing but the bodies of stage\ncoaches placed upon trucks.  The first two of these coaches were set\naside for distinguished visitors; the others were surmounted with seats\nof plank to accommodate as many as possible of the great throng of\npersons who were anxious to participate in the trip.  Inside and out the\ncoaches were crowded; every seat was full.  What followed the starting of\nthe train has thus been described by one who took part in the affair:--\n\n\"'The trucks were coupled together with chains or chain-links, leaving\nfrom two to three feet slack, and when the locomotive started it took up\nthe slack by jerks, with sufficient force to jerk the passengers who sat\non seats across the tops of the coaches, out from under their hats, and\nin stopping they came together with such force as to send them flying\nfrom their seats.\n\n\"They used dry pitch-pine for fuel, and, there being no smoke or\nspark-catcher to the chimney or smoke stack, a volume of black smoke,\nstrongly impregnated with sparks, coal, and cinders, came pouring back\nthe whole length of the train.  Each of the outside passengers who had an\numbrella raised it as a protection against the smoke and fire.  They were\nfound to be but a momentary protection, for I think in the first mile the\nlast one went overboard, all having their covers burnt off from the\nframes, when a general melee took place among the deck passengers, each\nwhipping his neighbour to put out the fire.  They presented a very motley\nappearance on arriving at the first station.\"  Here, \"a short stop was\nmade, and a successful experiment tried to remedy the unpleasant jerks.\nA plan was soon hit upon and put into execution.  The three links in the\ncouplings of the cars were stretched to their utmost tension, a rail from\na fence in the neighbourhood was placed between each pair of cars and\nmade fast by means of the packing yarn from the cylinders.  This\narrangement improved the order of things, and it was found to answer the\npurpose when the signal was again given and the engine started.'\"\n\n\n\n\nPROGNOSTICATIONS OF FAILURE.\n\n\nIn the year 1831, the writer of a pamphlet, who styled himself\n_Investigator_, essayed the task of \"proving by facts and arguments\" that\na railway between London and Birmingham would be a \"burden upon the trade\nof the country and would never pay.\"  The difficulties and dangers of the\nenterprise he thus sets forth:--\n\n\"The causes of greater danger on the railway are several.  A velocity of\nfifteen miles an hour is in itself a great source of danger, as the\nsmallest obstacle might produce the most serious consequences.  If, at\nthat rate, the engine or any forward part of the train should suddenly\nstop, the whole would be cracked by the collision like nutshells.  At all\nturnings there is a danger that the latter part of the train may swing\noff the rails; and, if that takes place, the most serious consequences\nmust ensue before the whole train can be stopped.  The line, too, upon\nwhich the train must be steered admits of little lateral deviation, while\na stage coach has a choice of the whole roadway.  Independently of the\nvelocity, which in coaches is the chief source of danger, there are many\nperils on the railway, the rails stand up like so many thick knives, and\nany one alighting on them would have but a slight chance of his life . .\n.  Another consideration which would deter travellers, more especially\ninvalids, ladies, and children, from making use of the railways, would be\nwant of accommodation along the line, unless the directors of the railway\nchoose to build inns as commodious as those on the present line of road.\nBut those inns the directors would have in part to support also, because\nthey would be out of the way of any business except that arising from the\nrailway, and that would be so trifling and so accidental that the\nlandlords could not afford to keep either a cellar or a larder.\n\n\"Commercial travellers, who stop and do business in all the towns and by\nso doing render commerce much cheaper than it otherwise would be, and who\ngive that constant support to the houses of entertainment which makes\nthem able to supply the occasional traveller well and at a cheap rate,\nwould, as a matter of course, never by any chance go by the railroad; and\nthe occasional traveller, who went the same route for pleasure, would go\nby the coach road also, because of the cheerful company and comfortable\ndinner.  Not one of the nobility, the gentry, or those who travel in\ntheir own carriages, would by any chance go by the railway.  A nobleman\nwould really not like to be drawn at the tail of a train of wagons, in\nwhich some hundreds of bars of iron were jingling with a noise that would\ndrown all the bells of the district, and in the momentary apprehension of\nhaving his vehicle broke to pieces, and himself killed or crippled by the\ncollision of those thirty-ton masses.\"\n\n\n\n\nSIR ASTLEY COOPER'S OPPOSITION TO THE LONDON AND BIRMINGHAM RAILWAY.\n\n\nRobert Stephenson, while engaged in the survey of the above line,\nencountered much opposition from landed proprietors.  Many years after\nits completion, when recalling the past, he said:--\"I remember that we\ncalled one day on Sir Astley Cooper, the eminent surgeon, in the hope of\novercoming his aversion to the railway.  He was one of our most\ninveterate and influential opponents.  His country house at Berkhampstead\nwas situated near the intended line, which passed through part of his\nproperty.  We found a courtly, fine-looking old gentleman, of very\nstately manners, who received us kindly and heard all we had to say in\nfavour of the project.  But he was quite inflexible in his opposition to\nit.  No deviation or improvement that we could suggest had any effect in\nconciliating him.  He was opposed to railways generally, and to this in\nparticular.  'Your scheme,' said he, 'is preposterous in the extreme.  It\nis of so extravagant a character as to be positively absurd.  Then look\nat the recklessness of your proceedings!  You are proposing to cut up our\nestates in all directions for the purpose of making an unnecessary road.\nDo you think, for one moment, of the destruction of property involved by\nit?  Why, gentlemen, if this sort of thing be permitted to go on you will\nin a very few years _destroy the nobility_!'\"\n\n\n\n\nOPPOSITION TO MAKING SURVEYS.\n\n\nA great deal of opposition was encountered in making the surveys for the\nLondon and Birmingham Railway, and although, in every case, as little\ndamage was done as possible, simply because it was the interest of those\nconcerned to conciliate all parties along the line, yet, in several\ninstances, the opposition was of a most violent nature; in one case no\nskill or ingenuity could evade the watchfulness and determination of the\nlords of the soil, and the survey was at last accomplished at night by\nmeans of dark lanterns.\n\nOn another occasion, when Mr. Gooch was taking levels through some of the\nlarge tracts of grazing land, a few miles from London, two brothers,\noccupying the land came to him in a great rage, and insisted on his\nleaving their property immediately.  He contrived to learn from them that\nthe adjoining field was not theirs and he therefore remonstrated but very\nslightly with them, and then walked quietly through the gap in the hedge\ninto the next field, and planted his level on the highest ground he could\nfind--his assistant remaining at the last level station, distant about a\nhundred and sixty yards, apparently quite unconscious of what had taken\nplace, although one of the brothers was moving very quickly towards him,\nfor the purpose of sending him off.  Now, if the assistant had moved his\nstaff before Mr. Gooch had got his sight at it through the telescope of\nhis level, all his previous work would have been completely lost, and the\nsurvey must have been completed in whatever manner it could have been\ndone--the great object, however, was to prevent this serious\ninconvenience.  The moment Mr. Gooch commenced looking through his\ntelescope at the staff held by his assistant, the grazier nearest him,\nspreading out the tails of his coat, tried to place himself between the\nstaff and the telescope, in order to intercept all vision, and at the\nsame time commenced shouting violently to his comrade, desiring him to\nmake haste and knock down the staff.  Fortunately for Mr. Gooch, although\nnature had made this amiable being's ears longer than usual, yet they\nperformed their office very badly, and as he could not see distinctly\nwhat Mr. Gooch was about--the hedge being between them--he very simply\nasked the man at the staff what his (the enquirer's) brother said.  \"Oh,\"\nreplied the man, \"he is calling to you to stop that horse there which is\ngalloping out of the fold yard.\"  Away went Clodpole, as fast as he could\nrun, to restrain the unruly energies of Smolensko the Ninth, or whatever\nother name the unlucky quadruped might be called, and Mr. Gooch in the\nmeanwhile quietly took the sight required--he having, with great\njudgment, planted his level on ground sufficiently high to enable him to\nsee over the head of any grazier in the land; but his clever assistant,\nas soon as he perceived that all was right, had to take to his heels and\nmake the shortest cut to the high road.\n\nIn another instance, a reverend gentleman of the Church of England made\nsuch alarming demonstrations of his opposition that the extraordinary\nexpedient was resorted to of surveying his property during the time he\nwas engaged in the pulpit, preaching to his flock.  This was accomplished\nby having a strong force of surveyors all in readiness to commence their\noperations, by entering the clergyman's grounds on the one side at the\nsame moment that they saw him fairly off them on the other, and, by a\nwell organised and systematic arrangement, each man coming to a\nconclusion with his allotted task just as the reverend gentleman came to\na conclusion with his sermon; and before he left the church to return to\nhis home, the deed was done.\n\n                               --Roscoe's _London and Birmingham Railway_.\n\n\n\n\nSANITARY OBJECTIONS.\n\n\nMr. Smiles, in his _Life of George Stephenson_, remarks:--\"Sanitary\nobjections were also urged in opposition to railways, and many wise\ndoctors strongly inveighed against tunnels.  Sir Anthony Carlisle\ninsisted that \"tunnels would expose healthy people to colds, catarrhs,\nand consumption.\"  The noise, the darkness, and the dangers of tunnel\ntravelling were depicted in all their horrors.  Worst of all, however,\nwas 'the destruction of the atmospheric air,' as Dr. Lardner termed it.\nElaborate calculations were made by that gentleman to prove that the\nprovision of ventilating shafts would be altogether insufficient to\nprevent the dangers arising from the combustion of coke, producing\ncarbonic acid gas, which in large quantities was fatal to life.  He\nshowed, for instance, that in the proposed Box tunnel, on the Great\nWestern Railway, the passage of 100 tons would deposit about 3090 lbs. of\nnoxious gases, incapable of supporting life!  Here was an uncomfortable\nprospect of suffocation for passengers between London and Bristol.  But\nsteps were adopted to allay these formidable sources of terror.  Solemn\ndocuments, in the form of certificates, were got up and published, signed\nby several of the most distinguished physicians of the day, attesting the\nperfect wholesomeness of tunnels, and the purity of the air in them.\nPerhaps they went further than was necessary in alleging, what certainly\nsubsequent experience has not verified, that the atmosphere of the tunnel\nwas 'dry, of an agreeable temperature, and free from smell.'  Mr.\nStephenson declared his conviction that a tunnel twenty miles long could\nbe worked safely and without more danger to life than a railway in the\nopen air; but, at the same time, he admits that tunnels were nuisances,\nwhich he endeavoured to avoid wherever practicable.\"\n\n\n\n\nELEVATED RAILWAYS.\n\n\nIn the _Gentleman's Magazine_ for June, 1830, it is stated:--\"There are\nat present exhibiting in Edinburgh three large models, accompanied with\ndrawings of railways and their carriages, invented by Mr. Dick, who has a\npatent.  These railways are of a different nature from those hitherto in\nuse, inasmuch as they are not laid along the surface of the ground, but\nelevated to such a height as, when necessary, to pass over the tops of\nhouses and trees.  The principal supports are of stone, and, being placed\nat considerable distances, have cast-iron pillars between them.  The\ncarriages are to be dragged along with a velocity hitherto unparalleled,\nby means of a rope drawn by a steam engine or other prime mover, a series\nbeing placed at intervals along the railway.  From the construction of\nthe railway and carriages the friction is very small.\"\n\n\n\n\nEVIDENCE OF A GENERAL SALESMAN.\n\n\nThe advantages London derives from railways, in regard to its supply of\ngood meat, may be gathered from the evidence given by Mr. George Rowley\nin 1834, on behalf of the Great Western Railway Company.\n\n\"You have been a general salesman of live and dead stock of all\ndescriptions in Newgate Market 32 years?\"--\"Yes.\"\n\n\"What is about the annual amount of your sales?\"--\"I turn over 300,000\npounds in a year.\"\n\n\"Would a railway that facilitated the communication between London and\nBristol be an advantage to your business?\"--\"I think it would be a\nspecial advantage to London altogether.\"\n\n\"In what way?\"--\"The facility of having goods brought in reference to\nlive stock is very important; I have been in the habit of paying Mr.\nBowman, of Bristol, 1,000 pounds a-week for many weeks; that has been for\nsending live hogs to me to be sold, to be slaughtered in London; and I\nhave, out of that 1,000 pounds a-week as many as 40 or 50 pigs die on the\nroad, and they have sold for little or nothing.  The exertion of the pigs\nkills them.\"\n\n\"The means of conveying pigs on a railway would be a great\nadvantage?\"--\"Yes, as far as having the pigs come good to market, without\nbeing subject to a distemper that creates fever, and they die as red as\nthat bag before you, and when they are killed in good health they die a\nnatural colour.\"\n\n\"Then do I understand you that those who are fortunate enough to survive\nthe journey are the worse for it?\"--\"Yes, in weight.\"\n\n\"And in quality?\"--\"Yes!  All meat killed in the country, and delivered\nin the London market dead, in a good state, will make from 6d. to 8d. a\nstone more than what is slaughtered in London.\"\n\n\n\n\nTHE ANXIOUS HAIR-DRESSER.\n\n\n\"Clanwilliam mentioned this evening an incident which proves the\nwonderful celerity of the railroads.  Mr. Isidore, the Queen's coiffeur,\nwho receives 2,000 pounds a year for dressing Her Majesty's hair\ntwice-a-day, had gone to London in the morning to return to Windsor in\ntime for her toilet; but on arriving at the station he was just five\nminutes too late, and saw the train depart without him.  His horror was\ngreat, as he knew that his want of punctuality would deprive him of his\nplace, as no train would start for the next two hours.  The only resource\nwas to order a special train, for which he was obliged to pay 18 pounds;\nbut the establishment feeling the importance of his business, ordered\nextra steam to be put on, and convoyed the anxious hair-dresser 18 miles\nin 18 minutes, which extricated him from all his difficulties.\"\n\n                                      _Raike's Diary from_ 1831 _to_ 1847.\n\n\n\n\nSHARP PRACTICE.\n\n\nSir Francis Head, Bart., in his _Stokers and Pokers_, remarks:--\"During\nthe construction of the present London and North Western Railway, a\nlandlady at Hillmorton, near Rugby, of very sharp practice, which she had\nimbibed in dealings for many years with canal boatmen, was constantly\nremarking aloud that no navvy should ever \"do\" her; and although the\nrailway was in her immediate neighbourhood, and although the navvies were\nher principal customers, she took pleasure on every opportunity in\nrepeating the invidious remark.\n\n\"It had, however, one fine morning scarcely left her large, full-blown,\nrosy lips, when a fine-looking young fellow, walking up to her, carrying\nin both hands a huge stone bottle, commonly called a 'grey-neck,' briefly\nasked her for 'half a gallon of gin;' which was no sooner measured and\npoured in than the money was rudely demanded before it could be taken\naway.\n\n\"On the navvy declining to pay the exorbitant price asked, the landlady,\nwith a face like a peony, angrily told him he must either pay for the gin\nor _instantly_ return it.\n\n\"He silently chose the latter, and accordingly, while the eyes of his\nantagonist were wrathfully fixed upon his, he returned into her measure\nthe half gallon, and then quietly walked off; but having previously put\ninto his grey-neck half a gallon of water, each party eventually found\nthemselves in possession of half a gallon of gin and water; and, however\neither may have enjoyed the mixture, it is historically recorded at\nHillmorton that the landlady was never again heard unnecessarily to boast\nthat no navvy could _do_ her.\"\n\n\n\n\nA NAVVY'S REASON FOR NOT GOING TO CHURCH.\n\n\nA navvy at Kilsby, being asked why he did not go to church? duly answered\nin geological language--\"_Why_, _Soonday hasn't cropped out here yet_!\"\nBy which he meant that the clergyman appointed to the new village had not\nyet arrived.\n\n\n\n\nSNAKES' HEADS.\n\n\nOne of the earliest forms of rails used by the Americans consisted of a\nflat bar half-an-inch thick spiked down to longitudinal timbers.  In the\nprocess of running the train, the iron was curved, the spikes loosened,\nand the ends of the bars turned up, and were known by the name of snakes'\nheads.  Occasionally they pierced the bottoms of the carriages and\ninjured passengers, and it was no uncommon thing to hear passengers\nspeculate as to which line they would go by, as showing fewest snakes'\nheads.\n\n\n\n\nPREJUDICE REMOVED.\n\n\nMr. William Reed, a land agent, was called, in 1834, to give evidence in\nfavour of the Great Western Railway.  He was questioned as to the\nbenefits conferred upon the localities passed through by the Manchester\nand Liverpool Railway.  He was asked, \"From your knowledge of the\nproperty in the neighbourhood, can you say that the houses have not\ndecreased in value?\"  \"Yes; I know an instance of a gentleman who had a\nhouse very near, and, though he quarrelled very much with the Company\nwhen they came there, and said, 'Very well, if you will come let me have\na high wall to keep you out of sight,' and a year-and-a-half ago he\npetitioned the Company to take down the wall, and he has put up an iron\nrailing, so that he may see them.\"\n\n\n\n\nA RIDE FROM BOSTON TO PROVIDENCE IN 1835.\n\n\nThe early railway enterprise in America was not regarded by all persons\nwith feelings of unmixed satisfaction.  Thus we read of the railway\njourney taken by a gentleman of the old school, whose experience and\nsensations--if not very satisfactory to himself--are worth\nrecording:--\"July 22, 1835.--This morning at nine o'clock I took passage\nin a railroad car (from Boston) for Providence.  Five or six other cars\nwere attached to the locomotive, and uglier boxes I do not wish to travel\nin.  They were made to stow away some thirty human beings, who sit cheek\nby jowl as best they can.  Two poor fellows who were not much in the\nhabit of making their toilet squeezed me into a corner, while the hot sun\ndrew from their garments a villanous compound of smells made up of salt\nfish, tar, and molasses.  By and bye, just twelve--only twelve--bouncing\nfactory girls were introduced, who were going on a party of pleasure to\nNewport.  'Make room for the ladies!' bawled out the superintendent,\n'Come, gentlemen, jump up on the top; plenty of room there.'  'I'm afraid\nof the bridge knocking my brains out,' said a passenger.  Some made one\nexcuse and some another.  For my part, I flatly told him that since I had\nbelonged to the corps of Silver Greys I had lost my gallantry, and did\nnot intend to move.  The whole twelve were, however, introduced, and soon\nmade themselves at home, sucking lemons and eating green apples. . .  The\nrich and the poor, the educated and the ignorant, the polite and the\nvulgar, all herd together in this modern improvement of travelling.  The\nconsequence is a complete amalgamation.  Master and servant sleep heads\nand points on the cabin floor of the steamer, feed at the same table, sit\nin each other's laps, as it were, in the cars; and all this for the sake\nof doing very uncomfortably in two days what would be done delightfully\nin eight or ten.  Shall we be much longer kept by this toilsome fashion\nof hurrying, hurrying, from starting (those who can afford it) on a\njourney with our own horses, and moving slowly, surely, and profitably\nthrough the country, with the power of enjoying its beauty, and be the\nmeans of creating good inns.  Undoubtedly, a line of post-horses and\npost-chaises would long ago have been established along our great roads\nhad not steam monopolized everything. . . .  Talk of ladies on board a\nsteamboat or in a railroad car.  There are none!  I never feel like a\ngentleman there, and I cannot perceive a semblance of gentility in any\none who makes part of the travelling mob.  When I see women whom, in\ntheir drawing rooms or elsewhere, I have been accustomed to respect and\ntreat with every suitable deference--when I see them, I say, elbowing\ntheir way through a crowd of dirty emigrants or lowbred homespun fellows\nin petticoats or breeches in our country, in order to reach a table\nspread for a hundred or more, I lose sight of their pretensions to\ngentility and view them as belonging to the plebeian herd.  To restore\nherself to her caste, let a lady move in select company at five miles an\nhour, and take her meals in comfort at a good inn, where she may dine\ndecently. . . .  After all, the old-fashioned way of five or six miles,\nwith liberty to dine in a decent inn and be master of one's movements,\nwith the delight of seeing the country and getting along rationally, is\nthe mode to which I cling, and which will be adopted again by the\ngenerations of after times.\"\n\n                                        --_Recollections of Samuel Breck_.\n\n\n\n\nAPPEALING TO THE CLERGY.\n\n\nMr. C. F. Adams remarks:--\"During the periods of discouragement which, a\nfew years later, marked certain stages of the construction of the Western\nroad, connecting Worcester with Albany--when both money and courage\nseemed almost exhausted--Mr. De Grand never for a moment faltered.  He\nmight almost be said to have then had Western railroad on the brain.\nAmong other things, he issued a circular which caused much amusement and\nnot improbably some scandal among the more precise.  The Rev. S. K.\nLothrop, then a young man, had preached a sermon in Brattle Street Church\nwhich attracted a good deal of attention, on the subject of the moral and\nChristianizing influence of railroads.  Mr. De Grand thought he saw his\noccasion, and he certainly availed himself of it.  He at once had a\ncircular printed, a copy of which he sent to every clergyman in\nMassachusetts, suggesting the propriety of a discourse on 'The moral and\nChristianizing influence of railroads in general and of the Western\nrailroad in particular.'\"\n\n\n\n\nAIR-WAYS INSTEAD OF RAILWAYS.\n\n\nIn the _Mechanics' Magazine_ for July 22nd, 1837, is to be found the\nfollowing remarkable suggestion:--\"In many parts of the new railroads,\nwhere there has been some objection to the locomotive engines, stationary\nones are resorted to, as everyone knows to draw the vehicles along.  Why\nmight not these vehicles be balloons?  Why, instead of being dragged on\nthe surface of the ground, along costly viaducts or under disagreeable\ntunnels, might they not travel two or three hundred feet high?  By\nballoons, I mean, of course, anything raised in the air by means of a gas\nlighter than the air.  They might be of all shapes and sizes to suit\nconvenience.  The practicability of this plan does not seem to be\ndoubtful.  Its advantages are obvious.  Instead of having to purchase, as\nfor a railway, the whole line of track passed over, the company for a\nballoon-way would only have to procure those spots of ground on which\nthey proposed to erect stationary engines; and these need in no case be\nof peculiar value, since their being a hundred yards one way or the other\nwould make little difference.  Viaducts of course would never be\nnecessary, cuttings in very few occasions indeed, if at all.  The chief\nexpense of balloons is their inflation, which is renewed at every new\nascent; but in these balloons the gas once in need never to be let out,\nand one inflation would be enough.\"\n\nThe same writer a few years later on observes:--\"One feature of the\nair-way to supersede the railway would be, that besides preventing the\ndestruction of the architectural beauties of the metropolis, now menaced\nby the multitudinous network of viaducts and subways at war with the\nexisting thoroughfares, it would occasion the construction of numerous\nlofty towers as stations of arrival and departure, which would afford an\nopportunity of architectural effect hitherto undreamed of.\"\n\n\n\n\nPREJUDICE AGAINST CARRYING COALS BY RAILWAYS.\n\n\nRev. F. S. Williams in an article upon \"Railway Revolutions,\"\nremarks:--\"When railways were first established it was never imagined\nthat they would be so far degraded as to carry coals; but George\nStephenson and others soon saw how great a service railways might render\nin developing and distributing the mineral wealth of the country.\nPrejudice had, however, to be timidly and vigorously overcome.  When it\nwas mentioned to a certain eminent railway authority that George\nStephenson had spoken of sending coals by railway: 'Coals!' he exclaimed,\n'they will want us to carry dung next.'  The remark was reported to 'Old\nGeorge,' who was not behind his critic in the energy of his expression.\n'You tell B--,' he said, 'that when he travels by railway, they carry\ndung now!'  The strength of the feeling against the traffic is\nsufficiently illustrated by the fact that, when the London and Birmingham\nRailway began to carry coal, the wagons that contained it were sheeted\nover that their contents might not be seen; and when a coal wharf was\nfirst made at Crick station, a screen was built to hide the work from the\nobservation of passengers on the line.  Even the possibility of carrying\ncoal at a remunerative price was denied.  'I am very sorry,' said Lord\nEldon, referring to this subject, 'to find the intelligent people of the\nnorth country gone mad on the subject of railways;' and another eminent\nauthority declared: 'It is all very well to spend money; it will do some\ngood; but I will eat all the coals your railway will carry.'\n\n\"George Stephenson, however, and other friends of coal, held on their\nway; and he declared that the time would come when London would be\nsupplied with coal by railway.  'The strength of Britain,' he said, 'is\nin her coal beds; and the locomotive is destined, above all other\nagencies, to bring it forth.  The Lord Chancellor now sits upon a bag of\nwool; but wool has long ceased to be emblematical of the staple commodity\nof England.  He ought rather to sit upon a bag of coals, though it might\nnot prove quite so comfortable a seat.  Then think of the Lord Chancellor\nbeing addressed as the noble and learned lord on the coal-sack?  I'm\nafraid it wouldn't answer, after all.'\"\n\n\n\n\nAN EPITAPH ON THE VICTIM OF A RAILWAY ACCIDENT.\n\n\nA correspondent writes to the _Pall Mall Gazette_:--\"Our poetic\nliterature, so rich in other respects, is entirely wanting in epitaphs on\nthe victims of railway accidents.  A specimen of what may be turned in\nthis line is to be seen on a tombstone in the picturesque churchyard of\nHarrow-on-the-Hill.  It was, I observe, written as long ago as 1838, so\nthat it can be reproduced without much danger of hurting the feelings of\nthose who may have known and loved the subject of this touching elegy.\nThe name of the victim was Port, and the circumstances of his death are\nthus set forth:--\n\n    Bright was the morn, and happy rose poor Port;\n    Gay on the train he used his wonted sport.\n    Ere noon arrived his mangled form they bore\n    With pain distorted and overwhelmed with gore.\n    When evening came and closed the fatal day,\n    A mutilated corpse the sufferer lay.\"\n\n\n\n\nAN ENGINE-DRIVER'S EPITAPH.\n\n\nIn the cemetery at Alton, Illinois, there is a tombstone bearing the\nfollowing inscription:--\n\n    \"My engine is now cold and still.\n    No water does my boiler fill.\n    My coke affords its flame no more,\n    My days of usefulness are o'er;\n    My wheels deny their noted speed,\n    No more my guiding hand they heed;\n    My whistle--it has lost its tone,\n    Its shrill and thrilling sound is gone;\n    My valves are now thrown open wide,\n    My flanges all refuse to glide;\n    My clacks--alas! though once so strong,\n    Refuse their aid in the busy throng;\n    No more I feel each urging breath,\n    My steam is now condensed in death;\n    Life's railway o'er, each station past,\n    In death I'm stopped, and rest at last.\"\n\nThis epitaph was written by an engineer on the old Chicago and\nMississippi Railroad, who was fatally injured by an accident on the road;\nand while he lay awaiting the death which he knew to be inevitable, he\nwrote the lines which are engraved upon his tombstone.\n\n\n\n\nTRAFFIC-TAKING.\n\n\nBetween the years 1836 and 1839, when there were many railway acts\napplied for, traffic-taking became a lucrative calling.  It was necessary\nthat some approximate estimate should be made as to the income which the\nlines might be expected to yield.  Arithmeticians, who calculated traffic\nreceipts, were to be found to prove what promoters of railways required\nto satisfy shareholders and Parliamentary Committees.  The Eastern\nCounties Railway was estimated to pay a dividend of 23.5 per cent.; the\nLondon and Cambridge, 14.5 per cent.; the Sheffield and Manchester, 18.5\nper cent.  One shareholder of this company was so sanguine as to the\nsuccess of the line that in a letter to the _Railway Magazine_ he\ncalculated on a dividend of 80 per cent.  Bitter indeed must have been\nthe disappointment of those railway shareholders who pinned their faith\nto the estimates of traffic-takers, when instead of receiving large\ndividends, little was received, and in some instances the lines paid no\ndividend at all.\n\n\n\n\nMONEY LOST AND FOUND.\n\n\nOn Friday night, a servant of the Birmingham Railway Company found in one\nof the first-class carriages, after the passengers had left, a pocket\nbook containing a check on a London Bank for 2,000 and 2,500 pounds in\nbank notes.  He delivered the book and its contents to the principal\nofficer, and it was forwarded to the gentleman to whom it belonged, his\naddress being discovered from some letters in the pocket book.  He had\ngone to bed, and risen and dressed himself next morning without\ndiscovering his loss, which was only made known by the restoration of the\nproperty.  He immediately tendered 20 pounds to the party who had found\nhis money, but this being contrary to the regulations of the directors,\nthe party, though a poor man, could not receive the reward.  As the\ntemptation, however, was so great to apply the money to his own use, the\nmatter is to be brought before a meeting of the directors.\n\n                                                 --_Aris's Gazette_, 1839.\n\n\n\n\nORIGIN OF COOK'S RAILWAY EXCURSIONS.\n\n\nMr. Thomas Cook, the celebrated excursionist, in an article in the\n_Leisure Hour_ remarks:--\"As a pioneer in a wide field of thought and\naction, my course can never be repeated.  It has been mine to battle\nagainst inaugural difficulties, and to place the system on a basis of\nconsolidated strength.  It was mine to lay the foundations of a system on\nwhich others, both individuals and companies, have builded, and there is\nnot a phase of the tourist plans of Europe and America that was not\nembodied in my plans or foreshadowed in my ideas.  The whole thing seemed\nto come to me as by intuition, and my spirit recoiled at the idea of\nimitation.\n\n\"The beginning was very small, and was on this wise.  I believe that the\nMidland Railway from Derby to Rugby _via_ Leicester was opened in 1840.\nAt that time I knew but little of railways, having only travelled over\nthe Leicester and Swannington line from Leicester to Long Lane, a\nterminus near to the Leicestershire collieries.  The reports in the\npapers of the opening of the new line created astonishment in\nLeicestershire, and I had read of an interchange of visits between the\nLeicester and Nottingham Mechanics' Institutes.  I was an enthusiastic\ntemperance man, and the secretary of a district association, which\nembraced parts of the two counties of Leicester and Northampton.  A great\nmeeting was to be held at Leicester, over which Lawrence Heyworth, Esq.,\nof Liverpool--a great railway as well as temperance man--was advertised\nto preside.  From my residence at Market Harborough I walked to Leicester\n(fifteen miles) to attend that meeting.  About midway between Harborough\nand Leicester--my mind's eye has often reverted to the spot--a thought\nflashed through my brain, what a glorious thing it would be if the\nnewly-developed powers of railways and locomotion could be made\nsubservient to the promotion of temperance.  That thought grew upon me as\nI travelled over the last six or eight miles.  I carried it up to the\nplatform, and, strong in the confidence of the sympathy of the chairman,\nI broached the idea of engaging a special train to carry the friends of\ntemperance from Leicester to Loughborough and back to attend a quarterly\ndelegate meeting appointed to be held there in two or three weeks\nfollowing.  The chairman approved, the meeting roared with excitement,\nand early next day I proposed my grand scheme to John Fox Bell, the\nresident secretary of the Midland Counties Railway Company.  Mr. Paget,\nof Loughborough, opened his park for a gala, and on the day appointed\nabout five hundred passengers filled some twenty or twenty-five open\ncarriages--they were called 'tubs' in those days--and the party rode the\nenormous distance of eleven miles and back for a shilling, children\nhalf-price.  We carried music with us, and music met us at the\nLoughborough station.  The people crowded the streets, filled windows,\ncovered the house-tops, and cheered us all along the line, with the\nheartiest welcome.  All went off in the best style and in perfect safety\nwe returned to Leicester; and thus was struck the keynote of my\nexcursions, and the social idea grew upon me.\"\n\n\n\n\nTHE DEODAND.\n\n\nIt was a principle of English common law derived from the feudal period,\nthat anything through the instrumentality of which death occurred was\nforfeited to the crown as a deodand; accordingly down to the year 1840\nand even later, we find, in all cases where persons were killed, records\nof deodands levied by the coroners' juries upon locomotives.  These\nappear to have been arbitrarily imposed and graduated in amount\naccordingly as circumstances seemed to excite in greater or less degree\nthe sympathies or the indignation of the jury.  In November, 1838, for\ninstance, a locomotive exploded upon the Liverpool and Manchester line,\nkilling its engineer and fireman; and for this escapade a deodand of\ntwenty pounds was assessed upon it by the coroner's jury; while upon\nanother occasion, in 1839, when the locomotive struck and killed a man\nand horse at a street crossing, the deodand was fixed at no less a sum\nthan fourteen hundred pounds, the full value of the engine.  Yet in this\nlast case there did not appear to be any circumstances rendering the\ncompany liable in civil damages.  The deodand seems to have been looked\nupon as a species of rude penalty imposed on the use of dangerous\nappliances, a sharp reminder to the companies to look sharply after their\nlocomotives and employes.  Thus upon the 24th of December, 1841, on the\nGreat Western Railway, a train, while moving through a thick fog at a\nhigh rate of speed, came suddenly in contact with a mass of earth which\nhad slid from the embankment at the side on to the track.  Instantly the\nwhole rear of the train was piled up on the top of the first carriage,\nwhich happened to be crowded with passengers, eight of whom were killed\non the spot, while seventeen others were more or less injured.  The\ncoroner's jury returned a verdict of accidental death, and at the same\ntime, as if to give the company a forcible hint to look closer to the\ncondition of its embankment, a deodand of one hundred pounds was levied\non the locomotive and tender.\n\n\n\n\nAN UNFORTUNATE DISCUSSION.\n\n\nTwo gentlemen sitting opposite each other in a railway carriage got into\na political argument; one was elderly and a staunch Conservative, the\nother was young and an ultra-Radical.  It may be readily conceived that,\nas the argument went on, the abuse became fast and furious; all sorts of\nunpleasant phrases and epithets were bandied about, personalities were\nfreely indulged in, and the other passengers were absolutely compelled to\ninterfere to prevent a _fracas_.  At the end of the journey the\ndisputants parted in mutual disgust, and looking unutterable things.  It\nso happened that the young man had a letter of introduction to an\ninfluential person in the neighbourhood respecting a legal appointment\nwhich was then vacant, which the young man desired to obtain, and which\nthe elderly gentleman had the power to secure.  The young petitioner,\nfirst going to his hotel and making himself presentable, sallied forth on\nhis errand.  He reached the noble mansion of the person to whom his\nletter of introduction was addressed, was ushered into an ante-room, and\nthere awaited, with mingled hope and fear, the all-important interview.\nAfter a few minutes the door opened and, horrible to relate! he who\nentered was the young man's travelling opponent, and thus the opponents\nof an hour since stood face to face.  The confusion and humiliation on\nthe one side, and the hauteur and coldness on the other, may be readily\nimagined.  Sir Edward C--, however--for such he was--although he\ninstantly recognized his recent antagonist, was too well-bred to make any\nallusion to the transaction.  He took the letter of introduction in\nsilence, read it, folded it up, and returned it to the presenter with a\nbitter smile and the following speech: \"Sir, I am infinitely obliged to\nmy friend, Mr. --, for recommending to my notice a gentleman whom he\nconceives to be so well fitted for the vacant post as yourself; but\npermit me to say that, inasmuch as the office you are desirous to fill\nexists upon a purely Conservative tenure, and can only be appropriately\nadministered by a person of Conservative tendency, I could not think of\ndoing such violence to your well-known political principles as to\nrecommend you for the post in question.\"  With these words and another\nsmile more grim than before, Sir Edward C-- bowed the chapfallen\npetitioner out, and he quickly took his way to the railway station,\nsecretly vowing never again to enter into political argument with an\nunknown railway traveller.\n\n                                   --_The Railway Traveller's Handy Book_.\n\n\n\n\nDOG TICKET.\n\n\nShortly after telegraphs were laid alongside of railways, a principal\nofficer of a railway company got into a compartment of a stopping train\nat an intermediate station.  The train had hardly left, when an elderly\ngentleman, in terms of endearment, invited what turned out to be a little\nSkye terrier to come out of its concealment under the seat.  The dog came\nout, jumped up, and appeared to enjoy his journey until the speed of the\ntrain slackened previous to stopping at a station, the dog then\ninstinctively retreated to its hiding place, and came out again in due\ncourse after the train had started.  The officer of the company left the\ntrain at a station or two afterwards.  On its arrival at the London\nticket platform the gentleman delivered up the tickets for his party.\n\"Dog ticket, sir, please.\"  \"Dog ticket, what dog ticket?\"  \"Ticket, sir,\nfor Skye terrier, black and tan, with his ears nearly over his eyes;\ntravelling, for comfort's sake, under the seat opposite to you, sir, in a\nlarge carpet bag, red ground with yellow cross-bars.\"  The gentleman\nfound resistance useless; he paid the fare demanded, when the\nticket-collector--who throughout the scene had never changed a\nmuscle--handed him a ticket that he had prepared beforehand.  \"Dog\nticket, sir; gentlemen not allowed to travel with a dog without a dog\nticket; you will have to give it up in London.\"  \"Yes, but how did you\nknow I had a dog?  That's what puzzles me!\"  \"Ah, sir,\" said the\nticket-collector, relaxing a little, but with an air of satisfaction,\n\"the telegraph is laid on our railway.  Them's the wires you see on the\noutside; we find them very useful in our business, etc.  Thank you, sir,\ngood morning.\"  It is needless to tell what part the principal officer\nplayed in this little drama.  On arrival in London the dog ticket was\nduly claimed, a little word to that effect having been sent up by a\nprevious train to be sure to have it demanded, although, as a usual\npractice, dog tickets are collected at the same time as those of\npassengers.\n\n                                          --_Roney's Rambles on Railways_.\n\n\n\n\nTHE ELECTRIC CONSTABLE.\n\n\nThe first application of the telegraph to police purposes took place in\n1844, on the Great Western Railway, and, as it was the first intimation\nthieves got of the electric constable being on duty, it is full of\ninterest.  The following extracts are from the telegraph book kept at the\nPaddington Station:--\n\n\"Eton Montem Day, August 28, 1844.--The Commissioners of Police having\nissued orders that several officers of the detective force shall be\nstationed at Paddington to watch the movements of suspicious persons,\ngoing by the down train, and give notice by the electric telegraph to the\nSlough station of the number of such suspected persons, and dress, their\nnames (if known), also the carriages in which they are.\"\n\nNow come the messages following one after the other, and influencing the\nfate of the marked individuals with all the celerity, certainty, and\ncalmness of the Nemesis of the Greek drama:--\n\n\"Paddington, 10.20 a.m.--Mail train just started.  It contains three\nthieves, named Sparrow, Burrell, and Spurgeon, in the first compartment\nof the fourth first-class carriage.\"\n\n\"Slough, 10.50 a.m.--Mail train arrived.  _The officers have cautioned\nthe three thieves_.\"\n\n\"Paddington, 10.50 a.m.--Special train just left.  It contained two\nthieves; one named Oliver Martin, who is dressed in black, _crape on his\nhat_; the other named Fiddler Dick, in black trousers and light blouse.\nBoth in the third compartment of the first second-class carriage.\"\n\n\"Slough, 11.16 a.m.--Special train arrived.  Officers have taken the two\nthieves into custody, a lady having lost her bag, containing a purse with\ntwo sovereigns and some silver in it; one of the sovereigns was sworn to\nby the lady as having been her property.  It was found in Fiddler Dick's\nwatch fob.\"\n\nIt appears that, on the arrival of the train, a policeman opened the door\nof the \"third compartment of the first second-class carriage,\" and asked\nthe passengers if they had missed anything?  A search in pockets and bags\naccordingly ensued, until one lady called out that her purse was gone.\n\n\"Fiddler Dick, you are wanted,\" was the immediate demand of the police\nofficer, beckoning to the culprit, who came out of the carriage\nthunder-struck at the discovery, and gave himself up, together with the\nbooty, with the air of a completely beaten man.  The effect of the\ncapture so cleverly brought about is thus spoken of in the telegraph\nbook:--\n\n\"Slough, 11.51 a.m.--Several of the suspected persons who came by the\nvarious down-trains are lurking about Slough, uttering bitter invectives\nagainst the telegraph.  Not one of those cautioned has ventured to\nproceed to the Montem.\"\n\n\n\n\nRUNAWAY MATCH.\n\n\nSir Francis Head in his account of the London and North-Western Railway\nremarks:--\"During a marriage which very lately took place at --, one of\nthe bridesmaids was so deeply affected by the ceremony that she took the\nopportunity of the concentrated interest excited by the bride to elope\nfrom church with an admirer.  The instant her parents discovered their\nsad loss, messengers were sent to all the railway stations to stop the\nfugitives.  The telegraph also went to work, and with such effect that,\nbefore night, no less than four affectionate couples legitimately married\nthat morning were interrupted on their several marriage jaunts and most\nseriously bothered, inconvenienced, and impeded by policemen and\nmagistrates.\"\n\n\n\n\nA RAILWAY ROMANCE.\n\n\nAn incident of an amusing though of a rather serious nature occurred some\nyears ago on the London and South-Western Railway.  A gentleman, whose\nplace of residence was Maple Derwell, near Basingstoke, got into a\nfirst-class carriage at the Waterloo terminus, with the intention of\nproceeding home by one of the main line down trains.  His only\nfellow-passengers in the compartment were a lady and an infant, and\nanother gentleman, and thus things remained until the arrival of the\ntrain at Walton, where the other gentleman left the carriage, leaving the\nfirst gentleman with the lady and child.  Shortly after this the train\nreached the Weybridge station, and on its stopping the lady, under the\npretence of looking for her servant or carriage, requested her male\nfellow-passenger to hold the infant for a few minutes while she went to\nsearch for what she wanted.  The bell rang for the starting of the train\nand the gentleman thus strangely left with the baby began to get rather\nfidgety, and anxious to return his charge to the mother.  The lady,\nhowever, did not again put in any appearance, and the train went on\nwithout her, the child remaining with the gentleman, who, on arriving at\nhis destination took the child home to his wife and explained the\ncircumstance under which it came into his possession.  No application\nhas, at present, it is understood, been made for the \"lost child,\" which\nhas for the nonce been adopted by the gentleman and his wife, who, it is\nsaid, are without any family of their own.\n\n\n\n\nGIGANTIC POWER OF LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.\n\n\nSir Francis Head remarks:--\"The gigantic power of the locomotive engines\nhourly committed to the charge of these drivers was lately strangely\nexemplified in the large engine stable at the Camden Station.  A\npassenger engine, whose furnace-fire had but shortly been lighted, was\nstanding in this huge building surrounded by a number of artificers, who,\nin presence of the chief superintendent, were working in various\ndirections around it.  While they were all busily occupied, the fire in\nthe furnace--by burning up faster than was expected--suddenly imparted to\nthe engine the breath of life; and no sooner had the minimum of steam\nnecessary to move it been thus created, than this infant Hercules not\nonly walked _off_, but without the smallest embarrassment walked\n_through_ the 14-inch brick wall of the great building which contained\nit, to the terror of the superintendent and workmen, who expected every\ninstant that the roof above their heads would fall in and extinguish\nthem.  In consequence of the spindle of the regulator having got out of\nits socket the very same accident occurred shortly afterwards with\nanother engine, which, in like manner, walked through another portion of\nthis 14-inch wall of the stable that contained it, just as a\nthorough-bred horse would have walked out of the door.  And if such be\nthe irresistible power of the locomotive engine when feebly walking in\nits new-born state, unattended or unassisted even by its tender, is it\nnot appalling to reflect what must be its momentum when, in the full\nvigour of its life, it is flying down a steep gradient at the rate of 50\nmiles an hour, backed up by, say, 30 passenger carriages, each weighing\non an average 5.5 tons?  If ordinary houses could suddenly be placed in\nits path, it would, passengers and all, run through them as a musket-ball\ngoes through a keg of butter; but what would be the result if, at this\nfull speed, the engine by any accident were to be diverted against a mass\nof solid rock, such as sometimes is to be seen at the entrance of a\ntunnel, it is impossible to calculate or even to conjecture.  It is\nstated by the company's superintendent, who witnessed the occurrence,\nthat some time ago an ordinary accident happening to a luggage train near\nLoughborough, the wagons overrode each other until the uppermost one was\nfound piled 40 feet above the rails!\"\n\n\n\n\nNOVEL NOTICE TO DEFAULTING SHAREHOLDERS.\n\n\nIn the early days of railway enterprise there was often much difficulty\nin obtaining the punctual payment of calls from the shareholders.  The\nLeicester and Swannington line was thus troubled.  The Secretary,\nadopting a rather novel way to collect the calls, wrote to the\ndefaulters:--\"I am therefore necessitated to inform you, that unless the\nsum of 2 pounds is paid on or before the 22nd instant, your name will be\nfurnished to one of the principal and most pressing creditors of the\ncompany.\"  The missives of the Secretary generally had the desired\neffect.\n\n\n\n\nA QUICK DECISION.\n\n\nThe elder Brunel was habitually absent in society, but no man was more\nremarkable for presence of mind in an emergency.  Numerous instances are\nrecorded of this latter quality, but none more striking than that of his\nadventure in the act of inspecting the Birmingham Railway.  Suddenly in a\nconfined part of the road a train was seen approaching from either end of\nthe line, and at a speed which it was difficult to calculate.  The\nspectators were horrified; there was not an instant to be lost; but an\ninstant sufficed to the experienced engineer to determine the safest\ncourse under the circumstances.  Without attempting to cross the road,\nwhich would have been almost certain destruction, he at once took his\nposition exactly midway between the up and down lines, and drawing the\nskirts of his coat close around him, allowed the two trains to sweep past\nhim; when to the great relief of those who witnessed the exciting scene,\nhe was found untouched upon the road.  Without the engineer's experience\nwhich enabled him to form so rapid a decision, there can be no doubt that\nhe must have perished.\n\n                                                 --_The Temple Anecdotes_.\n\n\n\n\nTHE VERSAILLES ACCIDENT IN 1842.\n\n\nMr. Charles F. Adams thus describes it:--\"On the 8th of May, 1842, there\nhappened in France one of the most famous and horrible railroad\nslaughters ever recorded.  It was the birthday of the king, Louis\nPhillipe, and, in accordance with the usual practice, the occasion had\nbeen celebrated at Versailles by a great display of the fountains.  At\nhalf-past five o'clock these had stopped playing, and a general rush\nensued for the trains then about to leave for Paris.  That which went by\nthe road along the left bank of the Seine was densely crowded, and was so\nlong that it required two locomotives to draw it.  As it was moving at a\nhigh rate of speed between Bellevue and Menden, the axle of the foremost\nof these two locomotives broke, letting the body of the engine drop to\nthe ground.  It instantly stopped, and the second locomotive was then\ndriven by its impetus on top of the first, crushing its engineer and\nfireman, while the contents of both the fire-boxes were scattered over\nthe roadway and among the _debris_.  Three carriages crowded with\npassengers were then piled on top of this burning mass, and there crushed\ntogether into each other.  The doors of the train were all locked, as was\nthen, and indeed is still, the custom in Europe, and it so chanced that\nthe carriages had all been newly painted.  They blazed up like pine\nkindlings.  Some of the carriages were so shattered that a portion of\nthose in them were enabled to extricate themselves, but no less than\nforty were held fast; and of these such as were not so fortunate as to be\ncrushed to death in the first shock perished hopelessly in the flames\nbefore the eyes of a throng of impotent lookers-on.  Some fifty-two or\nfifty-three persons were supposed to have lost their lives in this\ndisaster, and more than forty others were injured; the exact number of\nthe killed, however, could never be ascertained, as the telescoping of\nthe carriages on top of the two locomotives had made of the destroyed\nportion of the train a visible holocaust of the most hideous description.\nNot only did whole families perish together--in one case no less than\neleven members of the same family sharing a common fate--but the remains\nof such as were destroyed could neither be identified nor separated.  In\none case a female foot was alone recognisable, while in others the bodies\nwere calcined and fused into an undistinguishable mass.  The Academy of\nSciences appointed a committee to inquire whether Admiral D'Urville, a\ndistinguished French navigator, was among the victims.  His body was\nthought to be found, but it was so terribly mutilated that it could be\nrecognized only by a sculptor, who chanced some time before to have taken\na phrenological cast of his skull.  His wife and only son had perished\nwith him.\n\n\"It is not easy now to conceive the excitement and dismay which this\ncatastrophe caused throughout France.  The new invention was at once\nassociated in the minds of an excitable people with novel forms of\nimminent death.  France had at best been laggard enough in its adoption\nof the new appliance, and now it seemed for a time as if the Versailles\ndisaster was to operate as a barrier in the way of all further railroad\ndevelopment.  Persons availed themselves of the steam roads already\nconstructed as rarely as possible, and then in fear and trembling, while\nsteps were taken to substitute horse for steam power on other roads then\nin process of construction.\"\n\n\n\n\nAN AMATEUR SIGNALMAN.\n\n\nMr. Williams in his book, _Our Iron Roads_, gives an account of a foolish\nact of signalling to stop a train; he says:--\"An Irishman, who appears to\nhave been in some measure acquainted with the science of signalling, was\non one occasion walking along the Great Western line without permission,\nwhen he thought he might reduce his information to practical use.\nAccordingly, on seeing an express train approach, he ran a short distance\nup the side of the cutting, and began to wave a handkerchief very\nenergetically, which he had secured to a stick, as a signal to stop.  The\nwarning was not to be disregarded, and never was command obeyed with\ngreater alacrity.  The works of the engine were reversed--the tender and\nvan breaks were applied--and soon, to the alarm of the passengers, the\ntrain came to a 'dead halt.'  A hundred heads were thrust out of the\ncarriage windows, and the guard had scarcely time to exclaim, 'What's the\nmatter?' when Paddy, with a knowing touch of his 'brinks,' asked his\n'honour if he would give him a bit of a ride?'  So polite and ingenuous a\nrequest was not to be denied, and, though biting his lips with annoyance,\nthe officer replied 'Oh, certainly; jump in here,' and the pilgrim was\nensconced in the luggage van.  But instead of having his ride 'for his\nthanks,' the functionary duly handed him over to the magisterial\nauthorities, that he might be taught the important lesson, that railway\ncompanies did not keep express trains for Irish beggars, and that such\ncostly machinery was not to be imperilled with impunity, either by their\nfreaks or their ignorance.\"\n\n\n\n\nSTEAM WHISTLE.\n\n\nIn the early days of railways, the signal of alarm was given by the\nblowing of a horn.  In the year, 1833, an accident occurred on the\nLeicester and Swannington railway near Thornton, at a level crossing,\nthrough an engine running against a horse and cart.  Mr. Bagster, the\nmanager, after narrating the circumstance to George Stephenson, asked \"Is\nit not possible to have a whistle fitted on the engine, which the steam\ncan blow?\"  \"A very good thought,\" replied Stephenson.  \"You go to Mr.\nSo-and-So, a musical instrument maker, and get a model made, and we will\nhave a steam whistle, and put it on the next engine that comes on the\nline.\"  When the model was made it was sent to the Newcastle factory and\nfuture engines had the whistle fitted on them.\n\n\n\n\nEXEMPTION FROM ACCIDENTS.\n\n\nMr. C. F. Adams, remarks:--\"Indeed, from the time of Mr. Huskisson's\ndeath, during the period of over eleven years, railroads enjoyed a\nremarkable and most fortunate exemption from accidents.  During all that\ntime there did not occur a single disaster resulting in any considerable\nloss of life.  This happy exemption was probably due to a variety of\ncauses.  Those early roads were in the first place, remarkably well and\nthoroughly built, and were very cautiously operated under a light volume\nof traffic.  The precautions then taken and the appliances in use would,\nit is true, strike the modern railroad superintendent as both primitive\nand comical; for instance, they involve the running of independent pilot\nlocomotives in advance of all night passenger trains, and it was, by the\nway, on a pioneer locomotive of this description, on the return trip of\nthe excursion party from Manchester after the accident to Mr. Huskisson,\nthat the first recorded attempt was made in the direction of our present\nelaborate system of night signals.  On that occasion obstacles were\nsignalled to those in charge of the succeeding trains by a man on the\npioneer locomotive, who used for that purpose a bit of lighted tarred\nrope.  Through all the years between 1830 and 1841, nevertheless, not a\nsingle serious railroad disaster had to be recorded.  Indeed, the\nluck--for it was nothing else--of these earlier times was truly amazing.\nThus on this same Liverpool and Manchester road, as a first-class train\non the morning of April 17, 1836, was moving at a speed of some thirty\nmiles an hour, an axle broke under the first passenger carriage, causing\nthe whole train to leave the rails and throwing it down the embankment,\nwhich at that point was twenty feet high.  The carriages were rolled\nover, and the passengers in them turned topsy-turvy; nor, as they were\nsecurely locked in, could they even extricate themselves when at last the\nwreck of the train reached firm bearings.  And yet no one was killed.\"\n\n\n\n\nRIVAL CONTRACTORS AND THE BLOTTING PAD.\n\n\nIn rails, the same system has prevailed.  Ironmasters have been pitted\nagainst each other, as to which should produce an apparent rail at the\nlowest price.  At the outset of railways the rails were made of iron.\nCompetition gradually produced rails in which a core, of what is\ntechnically called \"cinder,\" is covered up with a skin of iron; and the\ncleverest foreman for an ironmaster was the man who could make rails with\nthe maximum of cinder and the minimum of iron.  In more than one instance\nhas it been known in relaying an old line the worn-out rails have been\nsold at a higher price per ton than the new ones were bought for; yet\nthis would hardly open the eyes of the buyers.  The contrivances which\nare resorted to to get hold of one another's prices beforehand by\ncompeting contractors are manifold; and, when they attend in person, they\ncommonly put off the filling up of their tender till the last moment.\nOnce a shrewd contractor found himself at the same inn with a rival who\nalways trod close on his heels.  He was followed about and\ncross-questioned incessantly, and gave vague answers.  Within\nhalf-an-hour of the last moment he went into the coffee room and sat\nhimself down in a corner where his rival could not overlook him.  There\nand then he filled up his tender, and, as he rose from the table, left\nbehind him the paper on which he had blotted it.  As he left the room his\nrival caught up the blotting paper, and, with the exulting glee of a\nconsciously successful rival, read off the amount backwards.  \"Done this\ntime!\" was his mental thought, as he filled up his own tender a dollar\nlower, and hastened to deposit it.  To his utter surprise, the next day\nhe found that he had lost the contract, and complainingly asked his rival\nhow it was, for he had tendered below him.  \"How did you know you were\nbelow me?\"  \"Because I found your blotting paper.\"  \"I thought so.  I\nleft it on purpose for you, and wrote another tender in my bedroom.  You\nhad better make your own calculations next time!\"\n\n                                      --_Roads and Rails_, by W. B. Adams.\n\n\n\n\nRAILWAY LEGISLATION.\n\n\nA writer in the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ remarks:--\"The expenses,\ndirect and incidental, of obtaining an Act of Parliament have been in\nmany cases enormous, and generally are excessive.  The adherence to\nuseless and expensive forms of Parliamentary Committees in what are\ncalled the standing orders, or general regulations for the observance of\npromoters of railway bills, on the one part, and the itching for\nopposition of railway companies, to resist fancied inroads on vested\nrights, supposed injurious competition, on the other part, have been\namongst the sources of excessive expenditure.  Mr. Stephenson mentioned\nan instance showing how Parliament has entailed expense upon railway\ncompanies by the system complained of.  The Trent Valley Railway was\nunder other titles originally proposed in 1836.  It was, however, thrown\nout by the standing orders committee, in consequence of a barn of the\nvalue of 10 pounds, which was shown upon the general plan, not having\nbeen exhibited upon an enlarged sheet.  In 1840, the line again went\nbefore Parliament.  It was opposed by the Grand Junction Railway Company,\nnow part of the London and North-Western.  No less than 450 allegations\nwere made against it before the standing orders subcommittee, which was\nengaged twenty-two days in considering those objections.  They ultimately\nreported that four or five of the allegations were proved, but the\ncommittee nevertheless allowed the bill to proceed.  It was read a second\ntime and then went into committee, by whom it was under consideration for\nsixty-three days; and ultimately Parliament was prorogued before the\nreport could be made.  Such were the delays and consequent expenses which\nthe forms of the House occasioned in this case, that it may be doubted if\nthe ultimate cost of constructing the whole line was very much more than\nwas expended in obtaining permission from Parliament to make it.  This\nexample serves to show the expensive formalities, the delays, and\ndifficulties, with which Parliament surround railway legislation.\nAnother instance, quoted by the same authority, will show not only the\nabsurdity of the system of legislation, but also the afflicting spirit of\ncompetition and opposition with which railway bills are canvassed in\nParliament, and the expensive outlay incurred by companies themselves.\n\n\"In 1845, a bill for a line now existing went before Parliament with\neighteen competitors, each party relying on the wisdom of Parliament to\nallow their bill at least to pass a second reading!  Nineteen different\nparties condemned to one scene of contentious litigation!  They each and\nall had to pay not only the costs of promoting their own line, but also\nthe costs of opposing eighteen other bills.  And yet conscious as\ngovernment must have been of this fact, Parliament deliberately abandoned\nthe only step it ever took on any occasion of subjecting railway projects\nto investigation by a preliminary tribunal.  Parliamentary committees\ngenerally satisfied themselves with looking on and watching the ruinous\ngame of competition for which the public are ultimately to pay.  In fact,\nrailway legislation became a mere scramble, conducted on no system or\nprinciple.  Schemes of sound character were allowed to be defeated on\nmerely technical grounds, and others of very inferior character were\nsanctioned by public act, after enormous Parliamentary expenses had been\nincurred.  Competing lines were granted, sometimes parallel lines through\nthe same district, and between the same towns.\"\n\n\n\n\nAN EXPENSIVE PARLIAMENTARY BILL.\n\n\nA writer in the _Popular Encyclopaedia_ observes:--\"But the most\nconspicuous example in recent times, which overshadowed all others, of\nexcessive expenditure in Parliamentary litigation as well as in land and\ncompensation, is supplied in the history of the Great Northern Company.\nThe preliminary expenses of surveys, notices to landowners, etc.,\ncommenced in 1844, and the Bill was introduced into the House of Commons\nin 1845, when it was opposed by the London and North-Western, the Eastern\nCounties, and the Midland Railways.  It was further opposed successively\nby two other schemes, called the London and York and the Direct Northern.\nThe contest lasted eighty-two days before the House of Commons, more than\nhalf the time having been consumed by opposition to the Bill.  The Bill\nwas allowed to stand over till next year (1846), when it began, before\nthe Committee of the House of Lords, where it left off in the Lower House\nin the year 1845 on account of the magnitude of the case.  The Bill was\nbefore the Upper House between three and four weeks, and in the same year\n(1846) it was granted.  The promoters of the rival projects were bought\noff, and all their expenses paid, including the costs of the opposition\nof the neighbouring lines already named, before the Great Northern bill\nwas passed; and the 'preliminary expenses,' comprising the whole\nexpenditure of every kind up to the passing of the bill was 590,355\npounds, or more than half-a-million sterling, incurred at the end of two\nyears of litigation.  Subsequently to the passing of the Act an\nadditional sum of 172,722 pounds was expended for law engineering\nexpenses in Parliament to 31st December, 1857, which was spent almost\nwholly in obtaining leave from Parliament to make various alterations.\nThus it would appear that a sum total of 763,077 pounds was spent as\nParliamentary charges for obtaining leave to construct 245 miles, being\nat the rate of 3,118 pounds per mile.\"\n\n\n\n\nTHE RECTOR AND HIS PIG.\n\n\n\"I have been a rector for many years,\" writes a clergyman, \"and have\noften heard and read of tithe-pigs, though I have never met with a\nspecimen of them.  But I had once a little pig given to me which was of a\nchoice breed, and only just able to leave his mother.  I had to convey\nhim by carriage to the X station; from thence, twenty-three miles to Y\nstation, and from thence, eighty-two miles to Z station, and from there,\neight miles by carriage.  I had a comfortable rabbit-hutch of a box made\nfor him, with a supply of fresh cabbages for his dinner on the road.  I\nstarted off with my wife, children, and nurse; and of these impediments\npiggy proved to be the most formidable.  First, a council of war was held\nover him at X station by the railway officials, who finally decided that\nthis small porker must travel as 'two dogs.'  Two dog tickets were\ntherefore procured for him; and so we journeyed on to Y station.  There a\nsecond council of war was held, and the officials of Y said that the\nofficials of X (another line) might be prosecuted for charging my piggy\nas two dogs, but that he must travel to Z as a horse, and that he must\nhave a huge horse-box entirely to himself for the next eighty-two miles.\nI declined to pay for the horse-box--they refused to let me have my\npig--officials swarmed around me--the station master advised me to pay\nfor the horse-box and probably the company would return the extra charge.\nI scorned the probability, having no faith in the company--the train (it\nwas a London express) was already detained ten minutes by this wrangle;\nand finally I whirled away bereft of my pig.  I felt sure that he would\nbe forwarded by the next train, but as that would not reach Z till a late\nhour in the evening, and it was Saturday, I had to tell my pig tale to\nthe officials; and not only so, but to go to the adjacent hotel and hire\na pig-stye till the Monday, and fee a porter for seeing to the pig until\nI could send a cart for him on that day.  Of course the pig was sent\nafter me by the next train; and as the charge for him was less than a\nhalfpenny a mile, I presume he was not considered to be a horse.  Yet\nthis fact remains--and it is worth the attention of the Zoological\nSociety, if not of railway officials--that this small porker was never\nrecognised as a pig, but began his railway journey as two dogs, and was\nthen changed into a horse.\"\n\n\n\n\nSIR MORTON PETO'S RAILWAY MISSION.\n\n\nMr., afterwards Sir S. Morton Peto, having undertaken the construction of\ncertain railways in East Anglia, was at this time in the habit of\nspending a considerable part of the year in the neighbourhood of Norwich,\nand, with his family, joined Mr. Brock's congregation.  It will\nafterwards appear how many important movements turned upon the friendship\nwhich was thus formed; but it is only now to be noted that, in the course\nof frequent conversations, the practicability was discussed of attempting\nsomething which might serve to interest and improve the large number of\nlabourers employed on the works in progress.  They were part of that\npeculiar body of men which had been gradually formed during a long course\nof years for employment in the construction, first of navigable canals,\nand then of railways, and called, from their earlier occupation,\n\"navvies.\"  They were drawn from diverse parts of the British Islands,\nand professed, in some instances, hostile forms of religion, but were\ndistinguished chiefly by extreme ignorance and all but total spiritual\ninsensibility.  They had, at the same time, a common life and an\nunwritten law, affecting their relations to each other, their employers,\nand the rest of the world.  That they were accessible to kind\nattentions--clearly disinterested--followed from their being men, but\nthey required to be approached with the greatest caution and patience.\nMr. Brock's wide and various sympathy, joined with his friend's steady\nsupport, led--under the divine blessing--to measures which proved very\nsuccessful.  Mr. Peto constructed commodious halls capable of being moved\nonward as the line of railway advanced, and affording comfortable shelter\nfor the men in their leisure hours, and furnished with books and\npublications supplying amusement, useful information, and religious\nknowledge.  To give life to this apparatus, Christian men, carefully\nselected, mingled familiarly with the rude but grateful toilers, helping\nthem to read and write, encouraging them to acquire self-command, and\nabove all, especially when they were convened on Sundays, presenting and\npressing home upon them the words of eternal life.\n\nMr. Brock had liberty to draw on the \"Railway Mission Account,\" at the\nNorwich Bank, to any extent that he found necessary, and in a short time\nhe had a body of the best men, he was accustomed to say, that he ever\nknew at work upon all the chief points of the lines.  No part of his now\nextended labours gave him greater delight than in superintending these\nmissionaries, reading their weekly journals, arranging their periodical\nmovements, counselling and comforting them in their difficulties, and\nvisiting them, sometimes apart and at other times at conferences for\nunited consultation and prayer, held at Yarmouth, Ely, or March.\n\nResults of the best character, of which the record is on high, arose out\nof these operations.\n\n                           --Birrell's _Life of the Rev. W. Brock_, _D.D._\n\n\n\n\nCLEVER CAPTURE.\n\n\nA few days ago (1845), a gentleman left Glasgow in one of the day trains,\nwith a large sum of money about his person.  On the train arriving at the\nEdinburgh terminus, the gentleman left it, along with the other\npassengers, on foot for some distance.  It was not long, however, before\nhe discovered that his pocket book, containing 700 pounds, in bank notes\nwas missing.  He immediately returned to the terminus, where the first\nperson he happened to find was the stoker of the train that had brought\nhim to Edinburgh, who, on being spoken to, remembered seeing the\ngentleman leaving the terminus, and another person following close behind\nhim, whom he supposed to be his servant; he further stated, that the\nsupposed servant had started to return with the train which had just left\nfor Glasgow.  The gentleman immediately ordered an express train, but as\nsome time elapsed before the steam could be got up, it was feared the\ngentleman and the stoker would not reach Glasgow in time to secure the\nculprit.  However, having gone the distance in about an hour, they had\nthe satisfaction of seeing the train before them close to the Cowlairs\nstation, just about to descend the inclined plane and tunnel, and thus\nwithin a mile and a half of the end of their journey.  The stoker\nimmediately sounded his whistle, which induced the conductor of the\npassenger train to conclude that some danger was in the way, who had his\ntrain removed to the other line of rails, which left the road then quite\nclear for the express train, which drove past the other with great speed,\nand arrived at the terminus in sufficient time to get everything ready\nfor the apprehension of the robber.  The stoker, who thought he could\nidentify the robber, assisted the police in searching the passenger\ntrain, when the person whom he had taken for the gentleman's servant was\nfound with the pocket book and also the 700 pounds safe and untouched.\nThe gentleman then offered a handsome reward to the stoker, who refused\nit on the plea that he had only done his duty; not satisfied, however,\nwith this answer, he left 100 pounds with the manager, requesting him to\npay the expenses of the express train, and particularly to reward the\nstoker for his activity, and to remit the remainder to his address.\nShortly after he received the whole 100 pounds, accompanied with a polite\nnote, declining any payment for the express train, and stating that it\nwas the duty of the company to reward the stoker, which they would not\nomit to do.\n\n                                                     --_Stirling Journal_.\n\n\n\n\nCOMPENSATION FOR LAND.\n\n\nMr. Williams, in _Our Iron Roads_, gives much interesting information\nupon the subject of compensation for land and buying off opposition to\nrailway schemes.  He says:--\"One noble lord had an estate near a proposed\nline of railway, and on this estate was a beautiful mansion.  Naturally\naverse to the desecration of his home and its neighbourhood, he gave his\nmost uncompromising opposition to the Bill, and found, in the Committee\nof both Houses, sympathizing listeners.  Little did it aid the projectors\nthat they urged that the line did not pass within six miles of that\nprincely domain; that the high road was much closer to his dwelling; and\nthat, as the spot nearest the house would be passed by means of a tunnel,\nno unsightliness would arise.  But no; no worldly consideration affected\nthe decision of the proprietor; and, arguments failing, it was found that\nan appeal must be made to other means.  His opposition was ultimately\nbought off for twenty-eight thousand pounds, to be paid when the railway\nreached his neighbourhood.  Time wore on, funds became scarce, and the\ncompany found that it would be best to stop short at a particular portion\nof their line, long before they reached the estate of the noble lord who\nhad so violently opposed their Bill, by which they sought to be released\nfrom the obligation of constructing the line which had been so obnoxious\nto him.  What was their surprise at finding this very man their chief\nopponent, and then fresh means had to be adopted for silencing his\nobjections!\n\n\"A line had to be brought near to the property of a certain Member of\nParliament.  It threatened no injury to the estate, either by affecting\nits appearance or its intrinsic worth; and, on the other hand, it\nafforded him a cheap, convenient, and expeditious means of communication\nwith the metropolis.  But the proprietor, being a legislator, had power\nat head-quarters, and by his influence he nearly turned the line of\nrailway aside; and this deviation would have cost the projectors the sum\nof _sixty thousand pounds_.  Now it so happened that the house of this\nhonourable member, who had thus insisted on such costly deference to his\npeculiar feelings respecting his property, was afflicted with the dry\nrot, and threatened every hour to fall upon the head of its owner.  To\npull down and rebuild it, would require the sum of thirty thousand\npounds.  The idea of compromise, beneficial to both parties, suggested\nitself.  If the railway company rebuilt the house, or paid 30,000 pounds\nto the owner of the estate, and were allowed to pursue their original\nline, it was clear that they would be 30,000 pounds the richer, as the\nenforced deviation would cost 60,000 pounds; and, on the other hand, the\nowner of the estate would obtain a secure house, or receive 30,000 pounds\nin money.  The proposed bargain was struck, and 30,000 pounds was paid by\nthe Company.  'How can you live in that house,' said some friend to him\nafterwards, 'with the railroad coming so near?'  'Had it not done so,'\nwas the reply, 'I could not have lived in it at all.'\n\n\"One rather original character sold some land to the London and\nBirmingham Company, and was loud and long in his outcries for\ncompensation, expatiating on the damages which the formation of the line\nwould inevitably bring to his property.  His complaints were only stopped\nby the payment of his demands.  A few months afterwards, a little\nadditional land was required from the same individual, when he actually\ndemanded a much larger price for the new land than was given him before;\nand, on surprise being expressed at the charge for that which he had\ndeclared would inevitably be greatly deteriorated in value from the\nproximity of the railway, he coolly replied: 'Oh, I made a mistake\n_then_, in thinking the railway would injure my property; it has\nincreased its value, and of course you must pay me an increased price for\nit.'\n\n\"On one occasion, a trial occurred in which an eminent land valuer was\nput into the witness box to swell the amount of damages, and he proceeded\nto expatiate on the injury committed by railroads in general, and\nespecially by the one in question, in _cutting up_ the properties they\ninvaded.  When he had finished the delivery of this weighty piece of\nevidence, the counsel for the Company put a newspaper into his hand, and\nasked him whether he had not inserted a certain advertisement therein.\nThe fact was undeniable, and on being read aloud, it proved to be a\ndeclaration by the land valuer himself, that the approach of the railway\nwhich he had come there to oppose, would prove exceedingly beneficial to\nsome property in its immediate vicinity then on sale.\n\n\"An illustration of the difference between the exorbitant demands made by\nparties for compensation, and the real value of the property, may be\nmentioned.  The first claim made by the Directors of the Glasgow Lunatic\nAsylum on the Edinburgh and Glasgow railway is stated to have been no\nless than 44,000 pounds.  Before the trial came on, this sum was reduced\nto 10,000 pounds; the amount awarded by the jury was 873 pounds.\n\n\"The opposition thus made, whether feigned or real, it was always\nadvisable to remove; and the money paid for this purpose, though\nostensibly in the purchase of the ground, has been on many occasions\nimmense.  Sums of 35,000, 40,000, 50,000, 100,000, and 120,000 pounds,\nhave thus been paid; while various ingenious plans have been adopted of\nremoving the opposition of influential men.  An honourable member is said\nto have received 30,000 pounds to withdraw his opposition to a Bill\nbefore the House; and 'not far off the celebrated year 1845, a lady of\ntitle, so gossip talks, asked a certain nobleman to support a certain\nBill, stating that, if he did, she had the authority of the secretary of\na great company to inform him that fifty shares in a certain railway,\nthen at a considerable premium, would be at his disposal.'\n\n\"One pleasing circumstance, however, highly honourable to the gentleman\nconcerned, must not be omitted.  The late Mr. Labouchere had made an\nagreement with the Eastern Counties Company for a passage through his\nestate near Chelmsford, for the price of 35,000 pounds; his son and\nsuccessor, the Right Honourable Henry Labouchere, finding that the\nproperty was not deteriorated to the anticipated extent, voluntarily\nreturned 15,000 pounds.\n\n\"The practice of buying off opposition has not been confined to the\nproprietors of land.  We learn from one of the Parliamentary Reports that\nin a certain district a pen-and-ink warfare between two rival companies\nran so high, and was, at least on one side, rewarded with such success,\nthat the friends of the older of the two projected lines thought it\nexpedient to enter into treaty with their literary opponent, and its\neditor very soon retired on a fortune.  It is also asserted, on good\nauthority, that, in a midland county, the facts and arguments of an\neditor were wielded with such vigour that the opposing company found it\nnecessary to adopt extraordinary means on the occasion.  Bribes were\noffered, but refused; an opposition paper was started, but its conductors\nquailed before the energy of their opponent, and it produced little\neffect; every scheme that ingenuity could devise, and money carry out,\nwas attempted, but they successively and utterly failed.  At length a\nDirector hit on a truly Machiavellian plan--he was introduced to the\nproprietor of the journal, whom he cautiously informed that he wished to\nrisk a few thousands in newspaper property, and actually induced his\nunconscious victim to sell the property, unknown to the editor.  When the\nbargain was concluded, the plot was discovered; but it was then too late,\nand the wily Director took possession of the copyright of the paper and\nthe printing office on behalf of the company.  The services of the\neditor, however, were not to be bought, he refused to barter away his\nindependence, and retired--taking with him the respect of both friends\nand enemies.\"\n\n\n\n\nA LANDOWNER'S OPPOSITION.\n\n\nIn _Herepath's Railway Journal_ for 1845 we meet with the following:--\"A\nlearned counsel, the other day, gave as a reason for a wealthy and\naristocratic landowner's opposition to a great line of railway\napproaching his residence by something more than a mile distance, that\n'His Lordship rode horses that would not bear the puff of a steam\nengine.'  Truly this was a most potent reason, and one that should weigh\nheavily against the scheme in the minds of the Committee.  His Lordship\nhas a wood some two miles off, between which and his residence this\nrailway is intended to pass.  His lordship is fond of amusing himself\nthere in hunting down little animals called hares, and sometimes treats\nhimself to a stag hunt.  Not the slightest interference is contemplated\nwith his lordship's pastime, or rather pursuit, for such it is, occupying\nnearly his whole time, and exercising all the ability of which he is\npossessed; but still he objects to the intrusion.  The bridge that is to\nbe constructed by the Company to give access to the wood, or forest, is\nin itself all that could be wished, forming, rather than otherwise, an\nornamental structure to his lordship's grounds; but then he fears that\nshould an engine chance (of course, these chances are not within his\ncontrol) to pass under the bridge at the same moment as he is passing\nover, his high blood horses would prance and rear, and suffer injury\ntherefrom.  His lordship is very careful and proud of his horse-flesh,\nand thinks it hard, and what the legislature ought not to tolerate, that\nthey (his horses) are to be worried, or subjected to the chance of it, by\nmaking a railway to serve the public wants!\n\n\"This _noble_ man is of opinion, too, that, should the railway be made,\nhe is entitled to an enormous amount of compensation; and, through his\nagent, assigns as a reason for his extravagant demand--we do not\nexaggerate the fact--that he is averse to railways in general, and\nconsiders the system as an unjustifiable invasion of the province of\nhorse-flesh.  This horse jockey lord thereby excuses his conscience in\nopposing and endeavouring to plunder the railway company as far as he\npossibly can.\"\n\n\n\n\nPICTURE EVIDENCE.\n\n\nAmongst laughable occurrences that enlivened the committee rooms during\nthe gauge contest, was a scene occasioned by a parliamentary counsel\nputting in as evidence, before the committee on the Southampton and\nManchester line, a printed picture of troubles consequent on a break of\ngauge.  The picture was a forcible sketch that had appeared a few days\nbefore in the pages of the _Illustrated London News_.  Opposing counsel\nof course argued against the production of the work of art as testimony\nfor the consideration of the committee.  After much argument on both\nsides the chairman decided in favour of receiving the illustration, which\nwas forthwith put, amidst much laughter, into the hands of a witness, who\nwas asked if it was a fair picture of the evils that arose from a break\nof gauge.  The witness replying in the affirmative, the engraving was\nthen laid before the committee for inspection.\n\n                                     --_Railway Chronicle_, June 13, 1846.\n\n\n\n\nEXTRAORDINARY USE OF THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.\n\n\nOct. 7, 1847.  An extraordinary instance has occurred of the application\nof the electric telegraph at the London Bridge terminus of the South\nEastern Railway.\n\nHutchings, the man found guilty and sentenced to death for poisoning his\nwife, was to have been executed at Maidstone Goal at twelve o'clock.\nShortly before the appointed hour for carrying the sentence into effect,\na message was received at the London Bridge terminus, from the Home\nOffice, requesting that an order should be sent by the electric telegraph\ninstructing the Under-Sheriff at Maidstone to stay the execution two\nhours.  By the agency of the electric telegraph the communication was\nreceived in Maidstone with the usual rapidity, and the execution was for\na time stayed.  Shortly after the transmission of the order deferring the\nexecution, a messenger from the Home Office conveyed to the railway the\nSecretary of State's order, that the law was to take its course, and that\nthe culprit was to be at once executed.  The telegraph clerk hesitated to\nsending such a message without instructions from his principals.  The\nmessenger from the Home Office could not be certain that the order for\nHutchings's execution was signed by the Home Secretary, although it bore\nhis name; and Mr. Macgregor, the chairman, with great judgment and\nhumanity, instantly decided that it was not a sufficient authority in\nsuch a momentous matter.\n\nAn officer of confidence was immediately sent to the Secretary of State,\nto state their hesitation and its cause, as the message was, in fact, a\ndeath warrant, and that Mr. Walter must have undoubted evidence of its\ncorrectness.  On Mr. Walter drawing the attention of the Secretary of\nState to the fact, that the transmission of such a message was, in\neffect, to make him the Sheriff, the conduct of the railway company, in\nrequiring unquestionable evidence and authority, was warmly approved.\nThe proper signature was affixed in Mr. Walter's presence; and the\ntelegraph then conveyed to the criminal the sad news, that the suspension\nof the awful sentence was only temporary.  Hutchings was executed soon\nafter it reached Maidstone.\n\n                                                --_Annual Register_, 1847.\n\n\n\n\nLOST LUGGAGE.\n\n\nSir Francis Head, giving an account of the contents of the Lost Luggage\nOffice, at Euston Station, observes:--\"But there were a few articles that\ncertainly we were not prepared to meet with, and which but too clearly\nproved that the extraordinary terminus-excitement which had suddenly\ncaused so many virtuous ladies to elope from their red shawls--in short,\nto be all of a sudden not only in 'a bustle' behind, but all over--had\nequally affected men of all sorts and conditions.\n\n\"One gentleman had left behind him a pair of leather hunting breeches!\nanother his boot-jacks!  A soldier of the 22nd regiment had left his\nknapsack containing his kit.  Another soldier of the 10th, poor fellow,\nhad left his scarlet regimental coat!  Some <DW36>, probably overjoyed\nat the sight of his family, had left behind him his crutches!!  But what\nastonished us above all was, that some honest Scotchman, probably in the\necstasy of suddenly seeing among the crowd the face of his faithful\n_Jeanie_, had actually left behind him the best portion of his\nbagpipes!!!\n\n\"Some little time ago the superintendent, on breaking open, previous to a\ngeneral sale, a locked leather hat-box, which had lain in this dungeon\ntwo years, found in it, under the hat, 65 pounds in Bank of England\nnotes, with one or two private letters, which enabled him to restore the\nmoney to the owner, who, it turned out, had been so positive that had\nleft his hat-box at an hotel at Birmingham that he made no inquiry for it\nat the railway office.\"\n\n\n\n\nVERY NICE TO BE A RAILWAY ENGINEER.\n\n\nA lady in conversation with a railway engineer observed, \"It must be very\nnice to be a railway engineer, and be able to travel about anywhere you\nwant to go to for nothing.\"\n\n\"Yes, madam,\" was the reply, \"It would, as you say, be very nice to\ntravel about for nothing, _if we were not paid for it_.  But you see,\" he\nremarked, \"railway engineers are like the cabman's horse.  The cabman has\na very thin horse.  'Doesn't your horse have enough to eat?' inquired a\nbenevolent lady passenger.  'Oh yes, ma'am,' replied cabby, 'I give him\nlots o' victuals to eat, only, you see, he hasn't any time to eat 'em.'\nSo it is with the railway engineer; he has lots of pleasure of all kinds,\nonly he has not any time to take it.\"\n\n\n\n\nAN ACCOMMODATING CONTRACTOR.\n\n\nOne railway of some scores of miles hung fire; the directors were\ncongested with their fears of exceeding the estimates, and so a shrewd\nman of business, a contractor, i.e., a man with a mind contracted to\nprofit and a keen eye to discern the paths of profit, called on them.\nThis man had made his way upward, and passing through the process of\nsub-contracting, had obtained a glimpse of the upper glories.  And thus\nhe relieved the directors from their difficulties, by proffering to make\nthe railway complete in all its parts, buy the land at the commencement,\nand, if required, to engage the station-clerks at the conclusion, with\nall the staff complete, so that his patrons might have no trouble, but\nbegin business off-hand.  But the latter condition--the staff and\nclerks--being simply a matter of patronage, the directors kept that\ntrouble in their own hands.\n\nOur contractor loomed on the directors' minds as a guardian angel, a\nguarantee against responsibilities, backed by sufficient sureties, so the\nmatter was without delay handed over to him, and he knew what to do with\nit.\n\n                                      --_Roads and Rails_, by W. B. Adams.\n\n\n\n\nTHE TWO DUKES AND THE TRAVELLER.\n\n\nThe following amusing anecdote is related of a commercial traveller who\nhappened to get into the same railway carriage in which the Dukes of\nArgyle and Northumberland were travelling.  The three chatted familiarly\nuntil the train stopped at Alnwick Junction, where the Duke of\nNorthumberland got out, and was met by a train of flunkeys and servants.\n\"That must be a great swell,\" said the \"commercial,\" to his remaining\ncompanion.  \"Yes,\" responded the Duke of Argyle, \"he is the Duke of\nNorthumberland.\"  \"Bless my soul!\" exclaimed the \"commercial.\"  \"And to\nthink that he should have been so condescending to two little snobs like\nus!\"\n\n\n\n\nTHE GREAT RAILWAY MANIA DAY.\n\n\nNever had there occurred, in the history of joint-stock enterprise, such\nanother day as the 30th of November, 1845.  It was the day on which a\nmadness for speculation arrived at its height, to be followed by a\ncollapse terrible to many thousand families.  Railways had been gradually\nbecoming successful, and the old companies had, in many cases, bought\noff, on very high terms, rival lines which threatened to interfere with\ntheir profits.  Both of these circumstances tended to encourage the\nconcoction of new schemes.  There is always floating capital in England\nwaiting for profitable employment; there are always professional men\nlooking out for employment in great engineering works; and there are\nalways scheming moneyless men ready to trade on the folly of others.\nThus the bankers and capitalists were willing to supply the capital; the\nengineers, surveyors, architects, contractors, builders, solicitors,\nbarristers, and Parliamentary agents were willing to supply the brains\nand fingers; while, too often, cunning schemers pulled the strings.  This\nwas especially the case in 1845, when plans for new railways were brought\nforward literally by hundreds, and with a recklessness perfectly\nmarvellous.\n\nBy an enactment in force at that time, it was necessary, for the\nprosecution of any railway scheme in Parliament, that a mass of documents\nshould be deposited with the Board of Trade, on or before the 30th of\nNovember in the preceding year.  The multitude of these schemes in 1845\nwas so great that there could not be found surveyors enough to prepare\nthe plans and sections in time.  Advertisements were inserted in the\nnewspapers offering enormous pay for even a smattering of this kind of\nskill.  Surveyors and architects from abroad were attracted to England;\nyoung men at home were tempted to break the articles into which they had\nentered with their masters; and others were seduced from various\nprofessions into that of railway engineers.  Sixty persons in the\nemployment of the Ordnance Department left their situations to gain\nenormous earnings in this way.  There were desperate fights in various\nparts of England between property-owners who were determined that their\nland should not be entered upon for the purpose of railway surveying, and\nsurveyors who knew that the schemes of their companies would be\nfrustrated unless the surveys were made and the plans deposited by the\n30th of November.  To attain this end, force, fraud, and bribery were\nfreely made use of.  The 30th of November, 1845, fell on a Sunday; but it\nwas no Sunday at the office near the Board of Trade.  Vehicles were\ndriving up during the whole of the day, with agents and clerks bringing\nplans and sections.  In country districts, as the day approached, and on\nthe morning of the day, coaches-and-four were in greater request than\neven at race-time, galloping at full speed to the nearest railway\nstation.  On the Great Western Railway an express train was hired by the\nagents of one new scheme.  The engine broke down; the train came to a\nstand-still at Maidenhead, and, in this state, was run into by another\nexpress train hired by the agents of a rival project; the opposite\nparties barely escaped with their lives, but contrived to reach London at\nthe last moment.  On this eventful Sunday there were no fewer than ten of\nthese express trains on the Great Western Railway, and eighteen on the\nEastern Counties!  One railway company was unable to deposit its papers\nbecause another company surreptitiously bought, for a high sum, twenty of\nthe necessary sheets from the lithographic printer, and horses were\nkilled in madly running about in search of the missing documents before\nthe fraud was discovered.  In some cases the lithographic stones were\nstolen; and in one instance the printer was bribed, by a large sum, not\nto finish in proper time the plans for a rival line.  One eminent house\nbrought over four hundred lithographic printers from Belgium, and even\nthen, and with these, all the work ordered could not be executed.  Some\nof the plans were only two-thirds lithographed, the rest being filled up\nby hand.  However executed, the problem was to get these documents to\nWhitehall before midnight on the 30th of November.  Two guineas a mile\nwere in one instance paid for post-horses.  One express train steamed up\nto London 118 miles in an hour-and-a-half, nearly 80 miles an hour.  An\nestablished company having refused an express train to the promoters of a\nrival scheme, the latter employed persons to get up a mock funeral\ncortege, and engage an express train to convey it to London; they did so,\nand the plans and sections came _in the hearse_, with solicitors and\nsurveyors as mourners!\n\nCopies of many of the documents had to be deposited with the clerks of\nthe peace of the counties to which the schemes severally related, as well\nas with the Board of Trade; and at some of the offices of these clerks,\nstrange scenes occurred on the Sunday.  At Preston, the doors of the\noffice were not opened, as the officials considered the orders which had\nbeen issued to keep open on that particular Sunday, to apply only to the\nBoard of Trade; but a crowd of law agents and surveyors assembled, broke\nthe windows, and threw their plans and sections into the office.  At the\nBoard of Trade, extra clerks were employed on that day, and all went\npretty smoothly until nine o'clock in the evening.  A rule was laid down\nfor receiving the plans and sections, hearing a few words of explanation\nfrom the agents, and making certain entries in books.  But at length the\nwork accumulated more rapidly than the clerks could attend to it, and the\nagents arrived in greater number than the entrance hall could hold.  The\nanxiety was somewhat allayed by an announcement, that whoever was inside\nthe building before the clock struck twelve should be deemed in good\ntime.  Many of the agents bore the familiar name of Smith; and when 'Mr.\nSmith' was summoned by the messenger to enter and speak concerning some\nscheme, the name of which was not announced, in rushed several persons,\nof whom, of course, only one could be the right Mr. Smith at that\nparticular moment.  One agent arrived while the clock was striking\ntwelve, and was admitted.  Soon afterwards, a carriage with reeking\nhorses drove up; three agents rushed out, and finding the door closed,\nrang furiously at the bell; no sooner did a policeman open the door to\nsay that the time was past, than the agents threw their bundles of plans\nand sections through the half-opened door into the hall; but this was not\npermitted, and the policeman threw the documents out into the street.\nThe baffled agents were nearly maddened with vexation; for they had\narrived in London from Harwich in good time, and had been driven about\nPimlico hither and thither, by a post-boy who did not, or would not, know\nthe way to the office of the Board of Trade.\n\nThe _Times_ newspaper, in the same month, devoted three whole pages to an\nelaborate analysis, by Mr. Spackman, of the various railway schemes\nbrought forward in 1845.  \"There were no less than 620 in number,\ninvolving an (hypothetical) expenditure of 560 millions sterling; besides\n643 other schemes which had not gone further than issuing prospectuses.\nMore than 500 of the schemes went through all the stages necessary for\nbeing brought before Parliament; and 272 of these became Acts of\nParliament in 1846--to the ruin of thousands who had afterwards to find\nthe money to fulfil the engagements into which they had so rashly\nentered.\n\n                                              --_Chambers's Book of Days_.\n\n\n\n\nPARODY UPON THE RAILWAY MANIA.\n\n\nAbout the time of the bursting of the railway bubble, or the collapse of\nthe mania of 1844-5, the following clever lines appeared:--\n\n    \"There was a sound of revelry by night.\"--_Childe Harold_.\n\n    \"There was a sound that ceased not day or night,\n       Of speculation.  London gathered then\n    Unwonted crowds, and moved by promise bright,\n       To Capel-court rushed women, boys, and men,\n       All seeking railway shares and scrip; and when\n    The market rose, how many a lad could tell,\n       With joyous glance, and eyes that spake again,\n    'Twas e'en more lucrative than marrying well;--\n    When, hark! that warning voice strikes like a rising knell.\n\n    Nay, it is nothing, empty as the wind,\n       But a 'bear' whisper down Throgmorton-street;\n    Wild enterprise shall still be unconfined;\n       No rest for us, when rising premiums greet\n       The morn to pour their treasures at our feet;\n    When, hark! that solemn sound is heard once more,\n       The gathering 'bears' its echoes yet repeat--\n    'Tis but too true, is now the general roar,\n    The Bank has raised her rate, as she has done before.\n\n    And then and there were hurryings to and fro,\n       And anxious thoughts, and signs of sad distress\n    Faces all pale, that but an hour ago\n       Smiled at the thoughts of their own craftiness.\n       And there were sudden partings, such as press\n    The coin from hungry pockets--mutual sighs\n       Of brokers and their clients.  Who can guess\n    How many a stag already panting flies,\n    When upon times so bright such awful panics rise?\"\n\n\n\n\nRAILWAY FACILITIES FOR BUSINESS.\n\n\nA gentleman went to Liverpool in the morning, purchased, and took back\nwith him to Manchester, 150 tons of cotton, which he sold, and afterwards\nobtained an order for a similar quantity.  He went again, and actually,\nthat same evening, delivered the second quantity in Manchester, \"having\ntravelled 120 miles in four separate journeys, and bought, sold, and\ndelivered, 30 miles off, at two distinct deliveries, 300 tons of goods,\nin about 12 hours.\"  The occurrence is perfectly astounding; and, had it\nbeen hinted at fifty years ago, would have been deemed impossible.\n\n                                               --_Railway Magazine_, 1840.\n\n\n\n\nRAILWAYS AND THE POST-OFFICE.\n\n\nIt might naturally be thought that the new and quicker means of transport\nafforded by the railway would be eagerly utilised by the Post-office.\nThere were, however, difficulties on both sides.  The railway companies\nobjected to running trains during the night, and the old stage-coach\noffered the advantage of greater regularity.  The railway was quicker,\nbut was at least occasionally uncertain.  Thus, in November, 1837, the\nfour daily mail trains between Liverpool and Birmingham on ten occasions\narrived before the specified time, on eight occasions were exact to time,\nand on 102 occasions varied in lateness of arrival from five minutes to\nfive hours and five minutes.  There were all sorts of mishaps and long\ndelays by train.  The mail guard, like the passenger guard, rode outside\nthe train with a box before him called an \"imperial,\" which contained the\nletters and papers entrusted to his charge.  In very stormy weather the\nmail guard would prop up the lid of his imperial and get inside for\nshelter.  On one occasion when the mail arrived at Liverpool the guard\nwas found imprisoned in his letter-box.  The lid had fallen and fastened\nin the male travesty of \"Ginevra.\"  Fortunately for him it was a\nburlesque and not a tragedy.  Bags thrown to the guards at wayside\nstations not unfrequently got under the wheels of the train and the\ncontents were cut to pieces.  On one occasion, on the Grand Junction, an\nengine failed through the fire-bars coming out.  The mails were removed\nfrom the train and run on a platelayer's \"trolly,\" but unfortunately the\ncontents of the bags took fire and were destroyed.  But many of these\nmishaps were obviated by the invention of Mr. Nathaniel Worsdell, a\nLiverpool coachbuilder, in the service of the railway, who took out a\npatent in 1838 for an appliance for picking up and dropping mail bags\nwhile the train was at full speed.  This is still used.  The loads of\nrailway vehicles, it may be mentioned, were limited by law to four tons\nuntil the passage of the 5 and 6 Vic., c. 55.  In 1837, when the weight\nof the mails passing daily on the London and Birmingham line was only\nabout 14cwt., the late Sir Hardman Earle suggested that a special\ncompartment should be reserved for the mail guard in which he could sort\nthe letters _en route_.  The first vehicle specially set apart for mail\npurposes was put upon the Grand Junction in 1838.  From this humble\nbeginning has gradually developed the express mails, in which the chief\nconsideration is the swift transit of correspondence, and which are\ntherefore limited in the number of the passengers they are allowed to\ncarry.  The cost of carrying the mails in 1838 and 1839 between\nManchester and Liverpool by rail, including the guard's fare, averaged\nabout 1 pound a trip, or half of the cost of sending them by coach.  The\nprice paid to the Grand Junction for carriage of mails between Manchester\nand Liverpool and Birmingham was 1d. a mile for the guard and 0.75d. per\ncwt. per mile for the mails.  This brought a revenue of about 3,000\npounds a year.  When the Chancellor of the Exchequer proposed and carried\nthe imposition of the passenger duty, in 1832, the company intimated to\nthe Post-office that they should advance the mail guard's fare 0.5d. per\nmile.  In 1840 an agreement was negotiated between the Post-office and\nrailway authorities to convey the mails between Lancashire and Birmingham\nfour times daily for 19 pounds 10s. a day, with a penalty of 500 pounds\non the railway company in case of bad time keeping.  This agreement was\nnot carried into effect.\n\n                                                  --_Manchester Guardian_.\n\n\n\n\nRAILWAY SIGNALS.\n\n\nThe history of railway signals is a curious page in the annals of\npractical science.  For some years signals seem scarcely to have been\ndreamt of.  Holding up a hat or an umbrella was at first sufficient to\nstop a train at an intermediate station.  At level crossings the gates\nhad to stand closed across the line of rails, and on the top bar hung a\nlamp to indicate to drivers that the way was blocked.  In 1839, Colonel\nLandman, of the Croydon line, said that he should avoid the danger at a\njunction during a fog by going slowly, tolling a bell, beating a drum, or\nsounding a whistle.  The first junction signal was denominated a\nlighthouse.  The difficulties attending junctions may be judged of by the\nfact that when the Bolton and Preston line was ready for opening it was\nagreed that no train should attempt to enter or leave the North Union\nline at Euxton junction within fifteen minutes of a train being due on\nthe main line which might interfere with it.  The movable rails at\njunctions had to be removed by hand and fixed into position by hammer and\npin.  Mr. Watts, engineer to the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway, is\nbelieved to have been one of the first to use the tapering movable\nswitch.  One of Mr. Watts's men invented the back weight, another\ndesigned the crank, while a third suggested the long rod.  These\nimprovements were all about the year 1846.  The first fixed signal set up\nat stations was an ordinary round flag pole having a pulley on the top,\nupon which was hoisted a green flag to stop a train and a red one to\nindicate danger on the road.  The night signal was a hand lamp hoisted in\nthe same way.  These were superseded by a signal on which an arm was\nworked at the end of a rod, and a square lamp with two sides, red and\nwhite, having blinkers working on hinges to shut out the light.  These\nwere used until 1848.  The semaphores only came into practical use some\n20 years ago, and it is remarkable that the first time they were used on\nthe Liverpool and Manchester line they were the cause of a slight\ncollision.  The use of signal lights on trains was much advanced by two\naccidents which occurred on the North Union line on the 7th September,\n1841.  One of these happened at Farrington, where two passenger trains\ncame into collision.  The other happened at Euxton, where a coal train\nran into a stage coach which was taking passengers to Southport.  The\nRev. Mr. Joy was killed, and several others, including the station\nmaster, who lost one leg, were injured.  These were the first serious\naccidents investigated by the now Government Inspector of Railways, Sir\nFrederic Smith, who was appointed by the Board of Trade under Lord\nSeymour's Act.\n\n                                                  --_Manchester Guardian_.\n\n\n\n\nFOG-SIGNALS.\n\n\nDuring the prevalence of fogs, when neither signal-posts nor lights are\nof any use, detonating signals are frequently employed, which are affixed\nto the rails, and exploded by the iron tread of the advancing locomotive.\nAll guards, policemen, and pointsmen who are not appointed to stations,\nand all enginemen, gatemen, gangers and platelayers, and tunnel-men, are\nprovided with packets of these signals, which they are required always to\nhave ready for use whilst on duty; and every engine, on passing over one\nof these signals, is to be immediately stopped, and the guards are to\nprotect their train by sending back and placing a similar signal on the\nline behind them every two hundred yards, to the distance of six hundred\nyards; the train may then proceed slowly to the place of obstruction.\nWhen these detonating signals were first invented, it was resolved to\nascertain whether they acted efficiently, and especially whether the\nnoise they produced was sufficient to be distinctly heard by the engine\ndriver.  One of them was accordingly fixed to the rails on a particular\nline by the authority of the company, and in due time the train having\npassed over it, reached its destination.  Here the engine driver and his\ncolleague were found to be in a state of great alarm, in consequence of a\nsupposed attack being made on them by an assassin, who, they said, lay\ndown beside the line of rails on which they had passed, and deliberately\nfired at them.  The efficiency of the means having thus been tested, the\napprehensions of the enginemen were removed, though there was at first\nevident mortification manifested that they had been made the subjects of\nsuch a successful experiment.\n\n                                      --F. S. Williams's _Our Iron Roads_.\n\n\n\n\n\"ALMOST DAR NOW.\"\n\n\nThe following anecdote, illustrative of railroad facility, is very\npointed.  A traveller inquired of a <DW64> the distance to a certain\npoint.  \"Dat 'pends on circumstances,\" replied darkey.  \"If you gwine\nafoot, it'll take you about a day; if you gwine in de stage or homneybus,\nyou make it half a day; but if you get in one of _dese smoke wagons_, you\nbe almost dar now.\"\n\n\n\n\nWORDSWORTH'S PROTEST.\n\n\nLines written by Wordsworth as a protest against making a railway from\nKendal to Windermere:--\n\n    \"Is there no nook of English ground secure\n    From rash assault?  Schemes of retirement sown\n    In youth, and 'mid the world kept pure\n    As when their earliest flowers of hope were blown,\n    Must perish; how can they this blight endure?\n    And must he, too, his old delights disown,\n    Who scorns a false, utilitarian lure\n    'Mid his paternal fields at random thrown?\n    Baffle the threat, bright scene, from Orrest-head,\n    Given to the pausing traveller's rapturous glance!\n    Plead for thy peace, thou beautiful romance\n    Of nature; and if human hearts be dead,\n    Speak, passing winds; ye torrents, with your strong\n    And constant voice, protest against the wrong!\"\n\n\n\n\nTHE HON. EDWARD EVERETT'S REPLY TO WORDSWORTH'S PROTEST.\n\n\nThe Hon. Edward Everett in the course of his speech at the Boston\nRailroad Jubilee in commemoration of the opening of railroad\ncommunication between Boston and Canada, observed, \"But, sir, as I have\nalready said, it is not the material results of this railroad system in\nwhich its happiest influences are seen.  I recollect that seven or eight\nyears ago there was a project to carry a railroad into the lake country\nin England--into the heart of Westmoreland and Cumberland.  Mr.\nWordsworth, the lately deceased poet, a resident in the centre of this\nregion, opposed the project.  He thought that the retirement and\nseclusion of this delightful region would be disturbed by the panting of\nthe locomotive and the cry of the steam whistle.  If I am not mistaken,\nhe published one or two sonnets in deprecation of the enterprise.  Mr.\nWordsworth was a kind-hearted man, as well as a most distinguished poet,\nbut he was entirely mistaken, as it seems to me, in this matter.  The\nquiet of a few spots may be disturbed, but a hundred quiet spots are\nrendered accessible.  The bustle of the station-house may take the place\nof the Druidical silence of some shady dell; but, Gracious Heavens, sir,\nhow many of those verdant cathedral arches, entwined by the hand of God\nin our pathless woods, are opened to the grateful worship of man by these\nmeans of communication?\n\n\"How little of rural beauty you lose, even in a country of comparatively\nnarrow dimensions like England--how less than little in a country so vast\nas this--by works of this description.  You lose a little strip along the\nline of the road, which partially changes its character; while, as the\ncompensation, you bring all this rural beauty,\n\n    'The warbling woodland, the resounding shore,\n    The pomp of groves, the garniture of fields,'\n\nwithin the reach, not of a score of luxurious, sauntering tourists, but\nof the great mass of the population, who have senses and tastes as keen\nas the keenest.  You throw it open, with all its soothing and humanizing\ninfluences, to thousands who, but for your railways and steamers, would\nhave lived and died without ever having breathed the life-giving air of\nthe mountains; yes, sir, to tens of thousands who would have gone to\ntheir graves, and the sooner for the prevention, without ever having\ncaught a glimpse of the most magnificent and beautiful spectacle which\nnature presents to the eye of man, that of a glorious curving wave, a\nquarter-of-a-mile long, as it comes swelling and breasting toward the\nshore, till its soft green ridge bursts into a crest of snow, and settles\nand digs along the whispering sands.\"\n\n\n\n\nREMARKABLE ADVERTISEMENT.\n\n\nThe most astonishing kind of property to leave behind at a railway\nstation is mentioned in an advertisement which appeared in the newspapers\ndated Swindon, April 27th, 1844.  It gave notice \"That a pair of bright\nbay horses, about sixteen hands high, with black switch tails and manes,\"\nhad been left in the name of Hibbert; and notice was given that unless\nthe horses were claimed on or before the 12th day of May, they would be\nsold to pay expenses.  Accordingly on that day they were sold.\n\n                                                      --_Household Words_.\n\n\n\n\nRAILWAY EPIGRAM.\n\n\nIn 1845, during the discussions on the Midland lines before the Committee\nof the House of Commons, Mr. Hill, the Counsel, was addressing the\nCommittee, when Sir John Rae Reid, who was a member of it, handed the\nfollowing lines to the chairman:--\n\n    \"Ye railway men, who mountains lower,\n    Who level locks and valleys fill;\n    Who thro' the _hills_ vast tunnels _bore_;\n    Must now in turn be _bored by Hill_.\"\n\n\n\n\nSINGULAR CIRCUMSTANCE.\n\n\nA certain gentleman of large property, and who had figured, if he does\nnot now figure, as a Railway Director, applied for shares in a certain\nprojected railway.  Fifty, it seems were allotted to him.  Whether that\nwas the number he applied for or not, deponent saith not; but by some\nmeans nothing (0) got added to the 50 and made it 500.  The deposit for\nthe said 500 was paid into the bankers', the scrip obtained, and before\nthe mistake could be detected and corrected--for no doubt it was only a\nmistake, or at most a _lapsus pennae_--the shares were sold, and some\n2000 pounds profit by this very fortunate accident found its way into the\npocket of the gentleman.\n\n                                             --_Herepath's Journal_, 1845.\n\n\n\n\nLOUIS PHILIPPE AND THE ENGLISH NAVVIES.\n\n\nWhittlesea Will, William Elthorpe, from Cambridgeshire, had a large\nrailway experience; during the construction of Longton Tunnel, he told me\nthe following story:--\"Ye see, Mr. Smith (Samuel Smith, of Woodberry\nDown), I was a ganger for Mr. Price on the Marseilles and Avignon Line in\nFrance, and I'd gangs of all nations to deal with.  Well, I could not\nmanage 'em nohow mixed--there were the Jarman Gang, the French Gang, the\nEnglish, Scotch, and Irish Gangs, of course; the Belgic Gang, the Spanish\nGang, and the Peamounter Gang--that's a Gang, d'ye see, that comes off\nthe mountains somewhere towards Italy.\"  \"Oh, the Piedmontese, you mean.\"\n\"Well, you may call 'em Peedmanteeze if you like, but we call'd 'em\nPeamounters--and so at last I hit on the plan of putting each gang by\nitself; gangs o' nations, the Peamounter gang here, the Jarman gang\nthere, and the Belgic gang there, and so on, and it worked capital, each\ngang worked against the other gang like good 'uns.\n\n\"Well one day our master, Mr. Price, gave the English gang a great\nentertainment at a sort of Tea Garden place, near Paris, called Maison\nLafitte, and we were coming home along the road before dark--it was a\nsummer's evening--singing and shouting pretty loud, I dare say, when a\nfat, oldish gentleman rode into the midst of us and pulling up said,\ntaking off his hat--'I think you are English Navigators.'  'Well, and\nwhat if we are, old fellow, what's that to you?'  'Why, you are making a\nvery great noise, and I noticed you did not make way for me, or salute me\nas we met, which is not polite--every one in France salutes a gentleman.\nI've been in England, I like the English,' by this time his military\nattendants rode up, and seeing him alone in the midst of us were going to\nride us down at once but the old boy beckoned with his hand for them to\nhold back, and continued his sarmont.  'I should wish you,' says he,\nquite pleasant, 'whilst you remain in France to be orderly, obliging,\ncivil, and polite; it's always the best--now remember this: and here's\nsomething for you to remember Louis Philippe by;' putting his hand into\nhis pocket, he pulled out what silver he had, I suppose, threw it among\nus, and rode off--but, my eyes, didn't we give him a cheer!\"\n\n\n\n\nADVANTAGES OF RAILWAY-TUNNELS.\n\n\nWe cannot help repeating a narrative which we heard on one occasion, told\nwith infinite gravity by a clergyman whose name we at once inquired\nabout, and of whom we shall only say, that he is one of the worthiest and\nbest sons of the kirk, and knows when to be serious as well as when to\njest.  \"Don't tell me,\" said he to a simple-looking Highland brother, who\nhad apparently made his first trial of railway travelling in coming up to\nthe Assembly--\"don't tell me that tunnels on railways are an unmitigated\nevil: they serve high moral and aesthetical purposes.  Only the other day\nI got into a railway carriage, and I had hardly taken my seat, when the\ntrain started.  On looking up, I saw sitting opposite to me two of the\nmost rabid dissenters in Scotland.  I felt at once that there could be no\npleasure for me in that journey, and with gloomy heart and countenance I\nleaned back in my corner.  But all at once we plunged into a deep tunnel,\nblack as night, and when we emerged at the other end, my brow was clear\nand my ill-humour was entirely dissipated.  Shall I tell you how this\ncame to be?  All the way through the tunnel I was shaking my fists in the\ndissenters' faces, and making horrible mouths at them, and _that_\nrelieved me, and set me all right.  Don't speak against tunnels again, my\ndear friend.\"\n\n                                                    --_Fraser's Magazine_.\n\n\n\n\nDAMAGES EASILY ADJUSTED.\n\n\nIt is related that the President of the Fitchburg Railroad, some thirty\nyears ago, settled with a number of passengers who had been wet but not\nseriously injured by the running off of a train into the river, by paying\nthem from $5 to $20 each.  One of them, a sailor, when his terms were\nasked, said:--\"Well, you see, mister, when I was down in the water, I\nlooked up to the bridge and calculated that we had fallen fifteen feet,\nso if you will pay me a dollar a foot I will call it square.\"\n\n\n\n\nLIABILITIES OF RAILWAY ENGINEERS FOR THEIR ERRORS.\n\n\nAn action was tried before Mr. Justice Maule, July 30, 1846--the first\ncase of the kind--which established the liability of railway engineers\nfor the consequences of any errors they commit.\n\nThe action was brought by the Dudley and Madeley Company against Mr.\nGiles, the engineer.  They had paid him 4,000 pounds for the preparation\nof the plans, etc., but when the time arrived for depositing them with\nthe Board of Trade they were not completely ready.  The scheme had\nconsequently failed.  This conduct of the defendant it was estimated had\ninjured the company to the extent of 40,000 pounds.  The counsel for the\nplaintiff did not claim damages to this amount, but would be content with\nsuch a sum as the jury should, under the circumstances, think the\ndefendant ought to pay, as a penalty for the negligence of which he had\nbeen guilty.  For Mr. Giles, it was contended, that the jury ought not,\nat the worst, to find a verdict for more than 1,700 pounds, alleging that\nthe remainder 2,300 pounds had been paid by him in wages for work done,\nand materials used.\n\nThe jury, however, returned a verdict to the tune of 4,500, or 500 pounds\nbeyond the full sum paid him.\n\nBut, what said the judge?  That \"it was clear that the defendant had\nundertaken more work than he could complete, and that he should not be\nallowed to gratify with impunity, and to the injury of the plaintiffs,\nhis desire to realise in a few months a fortune which should only be the\nresult of the labour of years.\"\n\n\n\n\nEXTRAORDINARY ACCIDENT.\n\n\nYesterday afternoon, as the Leeds train, which left that terminus at a\nquarter-past one o'clock, was approaching Rugby, and within four miles of\nthat station, an umbrella behind the private carriage of Earl Zetland\ntook fire, in consequence of a spark from the engine falling on it, and\npresently the imperial on the roof and the upper part of the carriage\nwere in a blaze.  Seated within it were the Countess of Zetland and her\nmaid.  The train was proceeding at the rate of forty miles an hour.\nUnder these circumstances, Her Ladyship and maid descended from the\ncarriage to the truck, when--despite the caution to hold on given by a\ngentleman from a window of one of the railway carriages--the maid threw\nherself headlong on the rail, and was speedily lost sight of.  On the\narrival of the train at Rugby an engine was despatched along the line,\nwhen the young woman was found severely injured, and taken to the\nInfirmary at Leicester.  Lady Zetland remained at Rugby, where she was\njoined by His Lordship and the family physician last night, by an express\ntrain from Euston-square.  How long will railway companies delay\nestablishing a means of communication between passengers and the guard?\n\n                                                --_Times_, Dec. 9th, 1847.\n\n\n\n\nPROVIDENTIAL ESCAPE.\n\n\nOn Monday, at the New Bailey, two men, named William Hatfield and Mark\nClegg, the former an engine-driver and the latter a fireman in the employ\nof the London and North-Western Railway, were brought up before Mr.\nTrafford, the stipendiary magistrate, and Captain Whittaker, charged with\ndrunkenness and gross negligence in the discharge of their duty.  Mr.\nWagstaff, solicitor, of Warrington, appeared on behalf of the Company,\nand from his statement and the evidence of the witnesses it appeared that\nthe prisoners had charge of the night mail train from Liverpool to\nLondon, on Saturday, December 25, 1847.  The number of carriages and\npassengers was not stated, but the pointsman at the Warrington junction\nbeing at his post, waiting for the train, was surprised to hear it coming\nat a very rapid rate.  He had been preparing to turn the points in order\nto shunt the train on to the Warrington junction, but as the train did\nnot diminish in speed, but rather increased as it approached, he,\nanticipating great danger if he should turn the points, determined on the\ninstant upon letting the train take its course, and not turning them.\nMost fortunate was it that he exercised so much judgment and sagacity,\nfor, in consequence of the acuteness of the curve at Warrington junction\nand the tremendous rate at which the train was proceeding--not less than\nforty miles an hour--it does not appear that anything could have\notherwise prevented the train from being overturned, and a frightful\nsacrifice of human life ensuing.  Meantime the train continued its\nfrightful progress; but the mail guard seated at the end of the train,\nperceiving that it was going on towards Manchester, instead of staying at\nthe junction, signalled to the engine-driver and fireman, but without\neffect, no notice whatever being taken of the signal.  Finding this to be\nthe case, he, at very considerable risk, passed over from carriage to\ncarriage till he reached the engine, where he found both the prisoners\nlying drunk.  At length, at Patricroft, however, he succeeded in stopping\nthe train just before it reached that station, a distance of 14 miles\nfrom Warrington.  This again appears to be almost a miraculous\ncircumstance, for at the Patricroft station, on the same line as that on\nwhich the mail train was running was another train, containing a number\nof passengers, who thus escaped from the consequences of a dreadful\ncollision.  The prisoners were, of course, immediately given into\ncustody, and convoyed to the New Bailey prison, while, other assistance\nbeing obtained, the train was taken back again to Warrington junction.\nThe regulation is in consequence of the sharp curve at this junction,\nthat the trains shall not run more than five miles an hour.  The bench\nsentenced both prisoners to two months hard labour.\n\n                                                  --_Manchester Examiner_.\n\n\n\n\nHIS PORTMANTEAU.\n\n\nAn English traveller in Germany entered a first-class carriage in which\nthere was only one seat vacant, a middle one.  A corner seat was occupied\nby a German, who evidently had placed his portmanteau on the opposite\none--at least the traveller suspected that this was the case.  The latter\nasked, \"Is this seat engaged?\"  \"Yes,\" was the reply.  When the time for\nthe departure of the train had almost arrived, the Englishman said, \"Your\nfriend is going to miss the train, if he is not quick.\"  \"Oh, that is all\nright.  I'll keep it for him.\"  Soon the signal came and the train\nstarted, when the passenger seized the portmanteau, and threw it out of\nthe window, exclaiming, \"He's missed his train but he mustn't lose his\nbaggage!\"  That portmanteau was the German's.\n\n\n\n\nGROWTH OF STATION BOOKSHOPS.\n\n\nThe gradual rise of the railway book-trade is a singular feature of our\nmarvellous railway era.  In the first instance, when the scope and\ncapabilities of the rail had yet to be ascertained, the privilege of\nselling books, newspapers, etc., at the several stations was freely\ngranted to any who might think proper to claim it.  Vendors came and\nwent, when and how they chose, their trade was of the humblest, and their\nprofits were as varying as their punctuality.  By degrees the business\nassumed shape, the newspaper man found it his interest to maintain a\n_locus standi_ in the establishment, and the establishment, in its turn,\ndiscerned a substantial means of helping the poor or the deserving among\nits servants.  A <DW36> maimed in the company's service, or a married\nservant of a director or secretary, superseded the first batch of\nstragglers and assumed responsibility by express appointment.  The\nresponsibility, in truth, was not very great at starting.  Railway\ntravelling, at the time referred to, occupied but a very small portion of\na man's time.  The longest line reached only thirty miles, and no\ntraveller required anything more solid than his newspaper for his hour's\nsteaming.  But as the iron lengthened, and as cities remote from each\nother were brought closer, the time spent in the railway carriage\nextended, travellers multiplied, and the newspaper ceased to be\nsufficient for the journey.  At this period reading matter for the rail\nsensibly increased; the tide of cheap literature set in.  French novels,\nunfortunately, of questionable character were introduced by the newsman,\nsimply because he could buy them at one-third less than any other\npublication selling at the same price.  The public purchased the wares\nthey saw before them, and very soon the ingenious caterers for railway\nreaders flattered themselves that there was a general demand amongst all\nclasses for the peculiar style of literature upon which it had been their\ngood fortune to hit.  The more eminent booksellers and publishers stood\naloof, whilst others, less scrupulous, finding a market open and\nready-made to their hands were only too eager to supply it.  It was then\nthat the _Parlour Library_ was set on foot.  Immense numbers of this work\nwere sold to travellers, and every addition to the stock was positively\nmade on the assumption that persons of the better class, who constitute\nthe larger portion of railway readers, lose their accustomed taste the\nmoment they smell the engine and present themselves to the railway\nlibrarian.\n\n                  --Preface to a Reprinted Article from the _Times_, 1851.\n\n\n\n\nMESSRS. SMITHS' BOOKSTALLS.\n\n\nThe following appeared in the _Athenaeum_, 27th Jan., 1849.  \"The new\nbusiness in bookselling which the farming of the line of the\nNorth-Western Railway by Mr. Smith, of the Strand, is likely to open up,\nengages a good deal of attention in literary circles.  This new shop for\nbooks will, it is thought, seriously injure many of the country\nbooksellers, and remove at the same time a portion of the business\ntransacted by London tradesmen.  For instance, a country gentleman\nwishing to purchase a new book will give his order, not as heretofore, to\nthe Lintot or Tonson of his particular district, but to the agent of the\nbookseller on the line of railway--the party most directly in his way.\nInstead of waiting, as he was accustomed to do, till the bookseller of\nhis village or of the nearest town, can get his usual monthly parcel down\nfrom his agent 'in the Row'--he will find his book at the locomotive\nlibrary, and so be enabled to read the last new novel before it is a\nlittle flat or the last new history in the same edition as the resident\nin London.  A London gentleman hurrying from town with little time to\nspare will buy the book he wants at the railway station where he takes\nhis ticket--or perhaps at the next, or third, or fourth, or at the last\nstation (just as the fancy takes him) on his journey.  It is quite\npossible to conceive such a final extension of this principle that the\nretail trade in books may end in a great monopoly:--nay, instead of\nseeing the _imprimatur_ of the Row or of Albermarle Street upon a book,\nthe great recommendation hereafter may be 'Euston Square,' 'Paddington,'\n'The Nine Elms,' or even 'Shoreditch.'  Whatever may be the effect to the\npresent race of booksellers of this change in their business--it is\nprobable that this new mart for books will raise the profits of authors.\nHow many hours are wasted at railway stations by people well to do in the\nworld, with a taste for books but no time to read advertisements or to\ndrop in at a bookseller's to see what is new.  Already it is found that\nthe sale at these places is not confined to cheap or even ephemeral\npublications;--that it is not the novel or light work alone that is asked\nfor and bought.\n\n\"The prophecy of progress contained in the above paragraph has been\nfulfilled so far as the North-Western and Mr. Smith are concerned.  His\nexample, however, was not infectious for other lines; and till within the\nlast three months, when the Great Northern copied the good precedent, and\nentered into a contract with Mr. Smith and his son, the greenest\nliterature in dress and in digestion was all that was offered to the\nwants of travellers by the directors of the South-Western, the Great\nWestern, and other trunk and branch lines with which England is\nintersected.  A traveller in the eastern, western, and southern counties\nwho does not bring his book with him can satisfy his love of reading only\nby the commonest and cheapest trash--for the pretences to the appearance\nof a bookseller's shop made at Waterloo, at Shoreditch, at Paddington,\nand at London Bridge, are something ridiculous.  This should not be.  It\nshows little for the public spirit of the directors of our railways that\nsuch a system should remain.  Mr. Smith has, we believe, as many as\nthirty-five shops at railway stations, extending from London to\nLiverpool, Chester and Edinburgh.  His great stations are at Euston\nSquare, Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool and Edinburgh.  He has a\nrolling stock of books valued at 10,000 pounds.  We call his stock\nrolling, because he moves his wares with the inclinations of his readers.\nIf he finds a religious feeling on the rise at Bangor, he withdraws\nDickens and sends down Henry of Exeter or Mr. Bennett; if a love for\nlighter reading is on the increase at Rugby, he withdraws Hallam and\nsends down Thackeray and Jerrold.  He never undersells and he gives no\ncredit.  His business is a ready-money one, and he finds it his interest\nto maintain the dignity of literature by resolutely refusing to admit\npernicious publications among his stock.  He can well afford to pay the\nheavy fee he does for his privilege; for his novel speculation has been a\ndecided hit--of solid advantage to himself and of permanent utility to\nthe public.\"\n\n                                             --_Athanaeum_, Sept. 5, 1851.\n\n\n\n\nA RESIDENT ENGINEER AND SCIENTIFIC WITNESS.\n\n\nShortly after the first locomotives were placed on the London and\nBirmingham Railway, a scientific civilian, who had given very positive\nevidence before Parliament as to the injury to health and other\nintolerable evils that must arise from the construction of tunnels, paid\na visit to the line.  The resident engineer accompanied him in a\nfirst-class carriage over the newly-finished portion of the works.  As\nthey drew near Chalk Farm the engineer attracted the attention of his\nvisitor to the lamp at the top of the carriage.  \"I should like to have\nyour opinion on this,\" he said.  \"The matter seems simple, but it\nrequires a deal of thought.  You see it is essential to keep the oil from\ndropping on the passengers.  The cup shape effectually prevents this.\nThen the lamps would not burn.  We had to arrange an up-cast and\ndown-cast chimney, in order to ensure the circulation of air in the lamp.\nThen there was the question of shadow;\"--and so he continued, to the\ngreat edification of his listener, for five or six minutes.  When a\nsatisfactory conclusion as to the lamp had been arrived at, the learned\nman looked out of the window.  \"What place is this?\" said he.  \"Kensal\nGreen.\"  \"But,\" said the other, \"how is that?  I thought there was one of\nyour great tunnels to pass before we came to Kensal Green.\"  \"Oh,\"\nreplied the Resident, carelessly, \"did you not observe?  We came through\nChalk Farm Tunnel very steadily.\"  The man of science felt himself\ncaught.  He made no more reports upon tunnels.\n\n                          --_Personal Recollections of English Engineers_.\n\n\n\n\nEXTRAORDINARY SCENE AT A RAILWAY JUNCTION.\n\n\nA most extraordinary and unprecedented scene occurred on Monday morning\nat the Clifton station, about five miles from Manchester, where the East\nLancashire line forms a junction with the Lancashire and Yorkshire.  The\nEast Lancashire are in the habit of running up-trains to Manchester, past\nthe Clifton junction, without stopping, afterwards making a declaration\nto the Lancashire and Yorkshire Company of the number of passengers the\ntrains contain, and for whom they will have to pay toll.  The Lancashire\nand Yorkshire Company object to this plan, and demand that the trains\nshall stop at Clifton, so that the number of passengers can be counted,\nand give up their tickets.  The East Lancashire Company say that in\naddition to their declaration, the other parties have access to all their\nbooks, and to the returns of their (the East Lancashire Company's)\nservants; and that the demand to take tickets, or to count, is only one\nof annoyance and detention, adopted since the two companies have become\ncompetitors for the traffic to Bradford.  Towards the close of last week,\nthe dispute assumed a serious aspect, by one of the Lancashire and\nYorkshire Company's agents at Manchester (Mr. Blackmore) threatening that\nhe would blockade or stop up the East Lancashire line, at the point of\njunction, with a large balk of timber.  The East Lancashire Company got\nout a summons against Mr. Blackmore on Saturday; but, notwithstanding\nthis, the Lancashire and Yorkshire Company's manager proceeded on Monday\nto carry the threat into execution, despite the presence of a large body\nof the county police.  The East Lancashire early trains were allowed to\npass upon the Lancashire and Yorkshire line without obstruction; but at\nhalf-past 10 o'clock in the morning, as the next East Lancashire train to\nManchester was one which would not stop at Clifton, but attempt to pass\non to Manchester, a number of labourers, under the direction of Captain\nLaws, laid a large balk of timber, secured by two long iron crowbars,\nacross the down rails to Manchester of the Lancashire and Yorkshire line,\nbehind which was brought up a train of six empty carriages, with its\nengine at the Manchester end.  When the East Lancashire train came in\nsight, it was signalled to stop, and the Lancashire and Yorkshire\nCompany's servants went and demanded the tickets from the passengers.\nThis demand, however, was fruitless, inasmuch as the East Lancashire\nparties had taken the tickets from the passengers at the previous\nstation--Ringley.  The first act of the East Lancashire Company's\nservants was to remove the balk of timber, and this they did without\nhindrance.  They next attempted to force before them the Lancashire and\nYorkshire blockading train.  This they were not able to do.  The East\nLancashire Company then brought up a heavy train laden with stone, and\ntook up a position on the top line to Manchester.  Thus the Lancashire\nand Yorkshire Company's double line of rails was completely blocked\nup--one line by their own train, and the other by the stone train of the\nEast Lancashire Company.  In this position matters remained till near 12\no'clock.  There were altogether eight trains on the double lines of rails\nof the two companies, extending more than half a mile.  After which the\nblockade was broken up, and the various trains were allowed to pass\nonwards--fortunately without accident or injury to the passengers.\n\n                                --_Manchester Examiner_, March 13th, 1849.\n\n\n\n\nGOODS' COMPETITION.\n\n\nWithin the last fortnight, we understand, the London and North-Western,\nin conjunction with the Lancashire and Yorkshire, have commenced carrying\ngoods between Liverpool and Manchester, a distance of 31 miles, at the\nruinously low figure of 6d. per ton, where they used to have 8s.  We\nfurther hear that the 6d. includes the expenses of collection and\ndelivery.  The cause is a competition with the East Lancashire and the\ncanal.  At a very low estimate it has been calculated that every ton\ncosts 6s. 3d., so that they are losing 5s. 9d. on every 6d. earned, or\n860 per cent.\n\nHow long this monstrous competition is to continue the directors only\nknow, but the loss must be frightful on both sides.  Chaplin and Horne\nhad 10s. a ton for collecting and delivering the goods at the London end\nof the London and North-Western Railway, and, though the expense must be\nless in such comparatively small towns as Liverpool and Manchester, it\ncan hardly be less than a half that, 5s.  Therefore, allowing only 1s.\n3d. for the bare railway carriage, which is under a halfpenny a ton a\nmile, we have 6s. 3d., the estimate showing the above-mentioned loss of\n5s. 9d. on every 6d. earned.\n\n                                 --_Herepath's Journal_, Sept. 29th, 1849.\n\n\n\n\nA POLITE REQUEST.\n\n\nAn amusing illustration of the formal politeness of a railway guard\noccurred some years ago at the Reigate station.  He went to the window of\na first class carriage, and said: \"If you please, sir, will you have the\ngoodness to change your carriage here?\"  \"What for?\" was the gruff reply\nof Mr. Bull within.  \"Because, sir, if you please, the wheel has been on\nfire since half-way from the last station!\"  John looked out; the wheel\nwas sending forth a cloud of smoke, and without waiting to require any\nfurther \"persuasive influences,\" he lost no time in condescending to\ncomply with the request.\n\n\n\n\nA CHASE AFTER A RUNAWAY ENGINE.\n\n\nMr. Walker, the superintendent of the telegraphs of the South-Eastern\nRailway Company, remarks:--\"On New Year's Day, 1850, a collision had\noccurred to an empty train at Gravesend, and the driver having leaped\nfrom his engine, the latter darted alone at full speed for London.\nNotice was immediately given by telegraph to London and other stations;\nand, while the line was kept clear, an engine and other arrangements were\nprepared as a buttress to receive the runaway, while all connected with\nthe station awaited in awful suspense the expected shock.  The\nsuperintendent of the railway also started down the line on an engine,\nand on passing the runaway he reversed his engine and had it transferred\nat the next crossing to the up-line, so as to be in the rear of the\nfugitive; he then started in chase, and on overtaking the other he ran\ninto it at speed, and the driver of the engine took possession of the\nfugitive, and all danger was at an end.  Twelve stations were passed in\nsafety; it passed Woolwich at fifteen miles an hour; it was within a\ncouple of miles of London when it was arrested.  Had its approach been\nunknown, the money value of the damage it would have caused might have\nequalled the cost of the whole line of telegraph.\"\n\n\n\n\nSTEAM DEFINED.\n\n\nAt a railway station, an old lady said to a very pompous looking\ngentleman, who was talking about steam communication.  \"Pray, sir, what\nis steam?\"  \"Steam, ma'am, is ah!--steam, is ah! ah! steam is--steam!\"\n\"I knew that chap couldn't tell ye,\" said a rough-looking fellow standing\nby; \"but steam is a bucket of water in a tremendous perspiration.\"\n\n\n\n\nIN A RAILWAY TUNNEL.\n\n\nMr. Osborne in the _Sunday at Home_, says, \"I have heard from a friend a\nstrange story of a tunnel, which I will try to tell you as it was told to\nme.  A well-known engineer was walking one day through a tunnel, a narrow\none, and as he was going along, supposing himself safe, he thought his\near caught the far-off rumble of a train _in the tunnel_.  After stopping\nand listening for a moment, he became sure it was so, and that he was\ncaught, and could not possibly get out in time.  What was he to do?\nShould he draw himself up close to the side wall, making himself as small\nas possible, that the train might not touch him.  Or should he lie down\nflat between the rails and let the train pass over him.  Being an\nengineer, and knowing well the shape of things, he decided to lie down\nbetween the rails as his best chance.  He had to make up his mind\nquickly, for in a minute or so the whole train came to where he lay, and\nwent thundering over him, and--did him no harm whatever.  But he\nafterwards told his friends, that in that brief moment of time, while the\ntrain was passing over, he saw his whole past life spread out like a map,\nlike an illuminated transparency, with every particular circumstance\nstanding out plain.\"\n\n\n\n\nA QUICK WAY.\n\n\nSome years ago, when a new railway was opened in the Highlands, a\nHighlander heard of it, and bought a ticket for the first excursion.  The\ntrain was about half the distance to the next station when a collision\ntook place, and poor Donald was thrown unceremoniously into an adjacent\npark.  After recovering his senses, he made the best of his way home,\nwhen the neighbours asked him how he liked his ride.  \"Oh,\" replied\nDonald, \"I liked it fine; but they have an awfu' nasty quick way in\nputtin' ane oot.\"\n\n\n\n\nHIGHLANDER AND A RAILWAY ENGINE.\n\n\nWe remember hearing a story of an old Highland peasant who happened to\nsee a railway engine for the first time.  He was coming down from the\nGrampians into Perthshire, and he thus described the novel monster as it\nappeared in his astounded Celtic imagination:--\"I was looking doon the\nglens, when I saw a funny beast blowing off his perspiration; an' I ran\ndoon, an' I tried to stop him, but he just gave an awfu' skirl an'\ndisappeared into a hole.\"--(meaning, of course, a tunnel).\n\n                                                          --_Once a Week_.\n\n\n\n\nEXTRACTS FROM MACREADY'S DIARIES.\n\n\n\"July 3rd, 1845.--Brewster called to cut my hair; he told me the\ntradesmen could not get paid in London, for all the money was employed in\nrailroads.\"\n\n\"June 19th, 1850.--We were surprised by the entrance of Carlyle and Mrs.\nC--.  I was delighted to see them.  Carlyle inveighed against\nrailroads--he was quite in one of his exceptious moods.\"\n\n\n\n\nFREAKS OF CONCEALED BOGS.\n\n\nGreat difficulties have often been encountered by engineers in carrying\nearth embankments across low grounds, which, under a fair, green surface,\nconcealed the remains of ancient bogs, sometimes of great depth.  Thus,\non the Leeds and Bradford Extension, about 600 tons of stone and earth\nwere daily cast into an embankment near Bingley, and each morning the\nstuff thrown in on the preceding day was found to have disappeared.  This\nwent on for many weeks, the bank, however, gradually advancing, and\nforcing up on either side a spongy black ridge of moss.  On the\nSouth-Western Railway a heavy embankment, about fifty feet high, crossed\na piece of ground near Newham, the surface of which seemed to be\nperfectly sound and firm.  Twenty feet, however, beneath the surface an\nold bog lay concealed; and the ground giving way, the fluid, pressed from\nbeneath the embankment, raised the adjacent meadows in all directions\nlike waves of the sea.  A culvert, which permitted the flow of a brook\nunder the bank, was forced down, the passage of the water entirely\nstopped, and several thousand acres of the finest land in Hampshire would\nhave been flooded but for the exertions of the engineer, who completed a\nnew culvert just as the other had become completely closed.  The\nNewton-green embankment, on the Sheffield and Manchester line, gave way\nin like manner, and to such an extent as to spread out two or three times\nits original width.  In this case it was found necessary to carry the\nline across the parts which yielded, under strong timber shores.  On the\nDundalk and Enniskillen line a heavy embankment twenty feet high suddenly\ndisappeared one night in the bog of Meghernakill, nearly adjoining the\nriver Fane.  The bed of the river was forced up, and the flow of the\nwater for the time was stopped, and the surrounding country heavily\nflooded.  A concealed bog of even greater extent, on the Durham and\nSunderland Railway, near Aycliff, was crossed by means of a\ndouble-planked road, about two miles in length.  A few weeks after the\nline had been opened, part of the road sank one night entirely out of\nsight.  The defect was made good merely by extending the floating surface\nof the road at this portion of the bog.\n\n                                                     --_Quarterly Review_.\n\n\n\n\nA RAILWAY MARRIAGE.\n\n\nIn Maine, a conductor--too busy, we suggest, saying \"Go ahead!\" to be\nparticular about wedding formalities--invited his betrothed and a\nminister into a car, and while the train was in motion was married;\nleaving that station a bachelor, at this station he was a married man!\nIt is but one of a thousand examples of life as it goes in this fast\ncountry.\n\n                                                      --_New York Nation_.\n\n\n\n\nATTEMPTED FRAUDS.\n\n\nFeb. 29, 1849, _Central Criminal Court_.--Robert Duncan, aged 47,\nstaymaker, Mary Duncan, his wife, who surrendered to take her trial, and\nPierce Wall O'Brien, aged 30, printer, were indicted for conspiring\ntogether to obtain money from the London and North-Western Railway\nCompany by false pretences.\n\nFrom the statement of Mr. Clarkson and the evidence, it appeared that the\ncharges made against the prisoners involved a most impudent attempt at\nfraud.  It appears that on the 5th of September last year an accident\noccurred to the up mail train from York, near the Leighton Buzzard\nstation, but, although some injury was occasioned to the train, it seemed\nthat none of the passengers received any personal injury.  On the 26th of\nOctober following, however, the company received a communication from Mr.\nHarrison, requiring compensation on behalf of defendant, Robert Duncan,\nfor an injury alleged to have been sustained by his wife upon the\noccasion of the collision referred to, it being represented, also, that\nher brother, the defendant O'Brien, who was travelling with her at the\ntime from York, had likewise received serious injury by the same\naccident.  The company immediately sent a medical gentleman to the place\ndescribed as the residence of these persons, No. 59, George Street,\nSouthwark, and he there saw the man Robert Duncan, who represented that\nhis wife was dangerously ill, and that the result of the accident on the\nrailway was a premature confinement, and that her life was in danger.\nMr. Porter was then introduced to the female defendant, whom he found in\nbed, apparently in great pain, and she confirmed her husband's statement.\nIn the same house the prisoner O'Brien was found in bed, and he also told\nthe same story about the accident on the railway.  It appeared that some\nsuspicion was entertained by the company of the general character of the\ntransaction, and they had been instituting inquiries.  On the 2nd of\nNovember they received another letter from the prisoner Robert Duncan, in\nwhich he made an offer to accept 60 pounds for the injury his wife had\nreceived, and also stating that Mr. O'Brien was willing to accept a\nsimilar amount for the damage he had sustained.  At this it appeared Mr.\nHarrison resolved not to have anything further to do with the matter,\nunless he received satisfactory proof of the truth of the story told by\nthe parties; and another solicitor was employed by the defendants, who\nbrought an action against the company for damages for the alleged injury,\nand he proceeded so far as to give notice of trial.  The case, however,\nnever went before a jury in that shape, and by this time it was\ndiscovered that there was no truth in the story told by the defendants.\nIt was proved at the period when the accident was alleged to have\noccurred to the female defendant, she was residing with her husband, and\nwas in her usual health.  With regard to O'Brien, there was no evidence\nto show that he was upon the train at the time the accident happened,\nbut, according to the testimony of a witness named Darke, during the\nperiod when the negotiation was going on with the company, O'Brien\nrequested him to write a letter to Mr. Harrison to the effect that he was\nriding in the same carriage with Mrs. Duncan and her brother at the time\nof the accident, and he was aware of her having been injured, and gave\nhim a written statement to that effect, which he copied.  This witness,\nin cross-examination, admitted that at the time he wrote the statement he\nwas perfectly well aware it was false, and he also said that\nnotwithstanding this, he made no difficulty in doing what O'Brien\nrequested, and also that he should have been ready to make a solemn\ndeclaration of the truth of the statement if he had been required to do\nso.\n\nA verdict of \"Not Guilty\" was taken as to the female prisoner, on the\nground that she was acting under the control of her husband.  The jury\nreturned a verdict of \"Guilty\" against the two male defendants.\n\nMr. Clarkson said he was instructed to state that, at the period of the\ncatastrophe on board the Cricket steam-boat, the prisoners obtained a sum\nof 70 pounds from the company to which that vessel belonged, by the false\npretence that they had received injury upon the occasion.\n\nThe Recorder sentenced Duncan to be imprisoned for twelve, and O'Brien\nfor six months.\n\n                                                        _Annual Register_.\n\n\n\n\nA BRIDE'S LOST LUGGAGE.\n\n\nThe trouble which is bestowed by railway companies to cause the\nrestitution of lost property is incalculable.  Some years ago, a young\nlady lost a portmanteau from the rest of her luggage--a pardonable\noversight, for she was a bride starting on a honeymoon trip.  The\nbridegroom--never on such occasions an accountable being--had not noticed\nthe misfortune.  When the loss was discovered, and application made\nrespecting it, the lady spoke positively of having seen it at the station\nwhence they started, then again at a station where they had to change\ncarriages; she saw it also when they left the railway; it was all safe,\nshe averred, at the hotel where they stopped for a few days.  She was\nalso certain that it was among the rest of the \"things\" when they again\nstarted for a watering-place; but, when they arrived there, it was\nmissing.  It contained a new riding habit, value fifteen pounds.  The\nsearch that was instituted for this portmanteau recalled that of\nTelemachus for Ulysses; the railway officials sent one of their clerks\nwith a _carte blanche_ to trace the bride's journey to the end of the\nlast mile, till some tidings of the strayed trunk could be traced.  He\nwent to every station, to every coach-office in connection with every\nstation, to every town, to every hotel, and to every lodging that the\nhappy couple had visited.  His expenses actually amounted to fifteen\npounds.  He came back without success.  At length the treasure was found;\nbut where?  At the by-station on another line, whence the bride had\nstarted from home a maiden.  Yet she had positively declared, without\ndoubt or reservation, that she had, \"with her own eyes,\" seen the trunk\non the various stages of her tour; this can only be accounted for by the\npeculiar flustration of a young lady just plunged into the vortex of\nmatrimony.  The husband paid the whole of the costs.\n\n\n\n\nTHIRD-CLASS PASSENGERS.\n\n\nThe conveyance of passengers at cheap fares was from the commencement of\nrailways a great public concern, and it was soon found necessary that the\nlegislature should take action in the matter.  Accordingly, by the\nRegulation of Railways Act, 1844, all passenger railways were required to\nrun one train every day from end to end of their line, carrying\nthird-class passengers at a rate not exceeding one penny a mile, stopping\nat all stations, starting at hours approved by the Board of Trade,\ntravelling at least twelve miles an hour, and with carriages protected\nfrom weather.  This enactment greatly encouraged the poorer classes in\nrailway travelling; but the companies were slow to carry out the new\nregulations cheerfully.  The trains were timed at most inconvenient\nhours; to undertake a journey of any considerable length in one day at\nthird-class fare was almost out of the question.  In fact, a\nshort-sighted policy of doing almost everything to discourage third-class\ntravelling was adopted by the Companies.\n\nA traveller having started on a long journey, thinking to be able to\ntravel all the way third-class, would find at some stage of the route\nthat he had arrived, only a few minutes perhaps, after the departure of\nthe cheap train to his destination, with no alternative but to wait for\nhours or proceed by the express and pay accordingly.  Moreover, the\nthird-class carriages were provided with the very minimum of comfort.  It\nwas not seen by the railway executive of that time that the policy\nadopted was actually prejudicial to their own interests.\n\n                                        _Our Railways_, by Joseph Parsloe.\n\n\n\n\nIMPROVEMENT IN THIRD-CLASS TRAVELLING.\n\n\nThe Rev. F. S. Williams, in an article in the _Contemporary Review_,\nentitled \"Railway Revolutions,\" remarks:--\"We need not go back so far as\nthe time when third-class passengers had to stand in a sort of cattle-pen\nplaced on wheels; it is only a few years since the Parliamentary trains\nwere run in bare fulfilment of the obligations of Parliament, and when a\njourney by one of them could never be looked upon as anything better than\na necessary evil.  To start in the darkness of a winter's morning to\ncatch the only third-class train that ran; to sit, after a slender\nbreakfast, in a vehicle the windows of which were compounded of the\nlargest amount of wood and the smallest amount of glass, and which were\ncarefully adjusted to exactly those positions in which the fewest\ntravellers could see out of them; to stop at every roadside station,\nhowever insignificant; and to accomplish a journey of 200 miles in about\nten hours--such were the ordinary conditions which Parliament in its\nbounty provided for the people.  Occasionally, moreover, the monotony of\nprogress was interrupted by the shunting of the train into a siding,\nwhere it might wait for more respectable passenger trains and fast goods\nto pass.\"\n\n\"We remember,\" says a writer, \"once standing on the platform at\nDarlington when the Parliamentary train arrived.  It was detained for a\nconsiderable time to allow a more favoured train to pass, and, on the\nremonstrance of several of the passengers at the unexpected detention,\nthey were coolly informed, \"Ye mun bide till yer betters gaw past, ye are\nonly the <DW65> train.\"\n\n\"If there is one part of my public life,\" recently said Mr. Allport\n(Midland Railway) to the writer, \"in which I look back with more\nsatisfaction than anything else, it is with reference to the boon we\nconferred on third-class passengers.  When the rich man travels, or if he\nlies in bed all day, his capital remains undiminished, and perhaps his\nincome flows in all the same.  But when a poor man travels he has not\nonly to pay his fare, but to sink his capital, for his time is his\ncapital; and if he now consumes only five hours instead of ten in making\na journey, he has saved five hours of time for useful labour--useful to\nhimself, to his family, and to society.  And I think with even more\npleasure of the comfort in travelling we have been able to confer upon\nwomen and children.  But it took,\" he added, \"five-and-twenty years' work\nto get it done.\"\n\n\n\n\nA GREAT DISCOVERY.\n\n\nConfound that Pope Gregory who changed the style!  He, or some one else,\nhas robbed the month of February, in ordinary years, of no less than\nthree days, for Mr. George Sutton, the solicitor, has discovered and\nestablished by the last Brighton Act of Parliament that February has\n_really thirty-one days_, while that good-for-nothing Pope led us to\nbelieve it had only twenty-eight.  The language of the 45th clause of the\nAct or of the bill which went into the Lords is:--\n\n\"That so much of the said Consolidation Act as enacts that the ordinary\nmeetings of the company, subsequent to the first ordinary meeting\nthereof, shall be held half-yearly on the 31st day of July, and\n_thirty-first day of February_ in each year, or within one month before\nor after these days shall be, and the same is hereby repealed.\"\n\nThe next clause enacts, we suppose by reason of \"the 31st of February\"\nbeing an inconvenient day, that the meetings shall be held on the 31st of\nJanuary and the 31st of July, a month before or a month after.\n\nOn account of the great value of an addition of three days to our years,\nand, therefore, an annual addition to our lives of three days, we beg to\npropose that a handsome testimonial be given to Mr. George Sutton, the\neminent solicitor of the Brighton Railway Company, the author of the Act\nand the discoverer of the Pope's wicked conduct.  We further propose that\nit be given him on \"the 31st day of February\" next year, and that his\nsalary be paid on that day, and no other, every year.\n\n                                  --_Herepath's Journal_, June 24th, 1854.\n\n\n\n\nA DREADED EVIL.\n\n\nWhen the old Sheffield and Rotherham line was contemplated, \"A hundred\nand twenty inhabitants of Rotherham, headed by their vicar, petitioned\nagainst the bill, because they thought the canal and turnpike furnished\nsufficient accommodation between the two towns, and because they dreaded\nan incursion of the idle, drunken, and dissolute portion of the Sheffield\npeople as a consequence of increasing the facilities of transit.\"  For a\ntime the opposition was successful but eventually the Lord's Committee\nyielded to the perseverance of the promoters of the bill.\n\n                                    _Sheffield and Rotherham Independent_.\n\n\n\n\nREMARKABLE ADVENTURE.\n\n\nA young lady some years ago thus related an adventure she met with in\ntravelling.  \"After I had taken my seat one morning at Paddington, in an\nempty carriage, I was joined, just as the train was moving off, by a\nstrange-looking young man, with remarkably long flowing hair.  He was, of\ncourse, a little hurried, but he seemed besides to be so disturbed and\nwild that I was quite alarmed, for fear of his not being in his right\nmind, nor did his subsequent conduct at all reassure me.  Our train was\nan express, and he inquired eagerly, at once, which was the first station\nwe were advertised to stop.  I consulted my Bradshaw and furnished him\nwith the required information.  It was Reading.  The young man looked at\nhis watch.\n\n\"'Madam,' said he, 'I have but half-an-hour between me and, it may be,\nruin.  Excuse, therefore, my abruptness.  You have, I perceive, a pair of\nscissors in your workbag.  Oblige me, if you please, by cutting off all\nmy hair.'\n\n\"'Sir,' said I, 'it is impossible.'\n\n\"'Madam,' he urged, and a look of severe determination crossed his\nfeatures; 'I am a desperate man.  Beware how you refuse me what I ask.\nCut my hair off--short, close to the roots--immediately; and here is a\nnewspaper to hold the ambrosial curls.'\n\n\"I thought he was mad, of course; and believing that it would be\ndangerous to thwart him, I cut off all his hair to the last lock.\n\n\"'Now, madam,' said he, unlocking a small portmanteau, 'you will further\noblige me by looking out of the window, as I am about to change my\nclothes.'\n\n\"Of course I looked out of the window for a very considerable time, and\nwhen he observed, 'Madam, I need no longer put you to any inconvenience,'\nI did not recognise the young man in the least.\n\n\"Instead of his former rather gay costume, he was attired in black, and\nwore a grey wig and silver spectacles; he looked like a respectable\ndivine of the Church of England, of about sixty-four years of age; to\ncomplete that character, he held a volume of sermons in his hand,\nwhich--they appeared so to absorb him--might have been his own.\n\n\"'I do not wish to threaten you, young lady,' he resumed, 'and I think,\nbesides, that I can trust your kind face.  Will you promise me not to\nreveal this metamorphosis until your journey's end?'\n\n\"'I will,' said I, 'most certainly.'\n\n\"At Reading, the guard and a person in plain clothes looked into our\ncarriage.\n\n\"'You have the ticket, my love,' said the young man, blandly, and looking\nto me as though he were my father.\n\n\"'Never mind, sir; we don't want them,' said the official, as he withdrew\nhis companion.\n\n\"'I shall now leave you, madam,' observed my fellow-traveller, as soon as\nthe coast was clear; 'by your kind and courageous conduct you have saved\nmy life and, perhaps, even your own.'\n\n\"In another minute he was gone, and the train was in motion.  Not till\nthe next morning did I learn from the _Times_ newspaper that the\ngentleman on whom I had operated as hair cutter had committed a forgery\nto an enormous amount, in London, a few hours before I met him, and that\nhe had been tracked into the express train from Paddington; but\nthat--although the telegraph had been put in motion and described him\naccurately--at Reading, when the train was searched, he was nowhere to be\nfound.\"\n\n\n\n\nSAFETY ON THE FLOOR.\n\n\nMany concussions give no warning of their approach, while others do, the\nusual premonitory symptoms being a kind of bouncing or leaping of the\ntrain.  It is well to know that the bottom of the carriage is the safest\nplace, and, therefore, when a person has reason to anticipate a\nconcussion, he should, without hesitation, throw himself on the floor of\nthe carriage.  It was by this means that Lord Guillamore saved his life\nand that of his fellow passengers some years since, when a concussion\ntook place on one of the Irish railways.  His Lordship feeling a shock,\nwhich he knew to be the forerunner of a concussion, without more ado\nsprang upon the two persons sitting opposite to him, and dragged them\nwith him to the bottom of the carriage; the astonished persons at first\nimagined that they had been set upon by a maniac, and commenced\nstruggling for their liberty, but in a few seconds they but too well\nunderstood the nature of the case; the concussion came, and the upper\npart of the carriage in which Lord Guillamore and the other two persons\nwere was shattered to pieces, while the floor was untouched, and thus\nleft them lying in safety; while the other carriages of the train\npresented nothing but a ghastly spectacle of dead and wounded.\n\n                                   --_The Railway Traveller's Handy Book_.\n\n\n\n\nLIFE UPON THE RAILWAY, BY A CONDUCTOR.\n\n\nThe Western Division of our road runs through a very mountainous part of\nVirginia, and the stations are few and far between.  About three miles\nfrom one of these stations, the road runs through a deep gorge of the\nBlue Ridge, and near the centre is a small valley, and there, hemmed in\nby the everlasting hills, stood a small one-and-a-half-story log cabin.\nThe few acres that surrounded it were well cultivated as a garden, and\nupon the fruits thereof lived a widow and her three children, by the name\nof Graff.  They were, indeed, untutored in the cold charities of an\noutside world--I doubt much if they ever saw the sun shine beyond their\nown native hills.  In the summer time the children brought berries to the\nnearest station to sell, and with the money they bought a few of the\nnecessities of the outside refinement.\n\nThe oldest of these children I should judge to be about twelve years, and\nthe youngest about seven.  They were all girls, and looked nice and\nclean, and their healthful appearance and natural delicacy gave them a\nready welcome.  They appeared as if they had been brought up to fear God\nand love their humble home and mother.  I had often stopped my train and\nlet them get off at their home, having found them at the station some\nthree miles from home, after disposing of their berries.\n\nI had children at home, and I knew their little feet would be tired in\nwalking three miles, and therefore felt that it would be the same with\nthese fatherless little ones.  They seemed so pleased to ride, and\nthanked me with such hearty thanks, after letting them off near home.\nThey frequently offered me nice, tempting baskets of fruit for my\nkindness; yet I never accepted any without paying their full value.\n\nNow, if you remember, the winter of '54 was very cold in that part of the\nState, and the snow was nearly three feet deep on the mountains.\n\nOn the night of the 26th of December, of that year, it turned around\nwarm, and the rain fell in torrents.  A terrible storm swept the mountain\ntops, and almost filled the valleys with water.  Upon that night my train\nwas winding its way, at its usual speed, around the hills and through the\nvalleys, and as the road-bed was all solid rock, I had no fear of the\nbanks giving out.  The night was intensely dark, and the winds moaned\npiteously through the deep gorges of the mountains.  Some of my\npassengers were trying to sleep, others were talking in a low voice, to\nrelieve the monotony of the scene.  Mothers had their children upon their\nknees, as if to shield them from some unknown danger without.\n\nIt was near midnight, when a sharp whistle from the engine brought me to\nmy feet.  I knew there was danger by that whistle, and sprang to the\nbrakes at once, but the brakesmen were all at their posts, and soon\nbrought the train to a stop.  I seized my lantern and found my way\nforward as soon as possible, when what a sight met my gaze!  A bright\nfire of pine logs illuminated the track for some distance, and not over\nforty rods ahead of our train a horrible gulf had opened its maw to\nreceive us!\n\nThe snow, together with the rain, had torn the whole side of the mountain\nout, and eternity itself seemed spread out before us.  The widow Graff\nand her children had found it out, and had brought light brush from their\nhome below, and built a large fire to warn us of our danger.  They had\nbeen there more than two hours watching beside that beacon of safety.  As\nI went up where that old lady stood drenched through by the rain and\nsleet, she grasped my arm and cried:\n\n\"Thank God! Mr. Sherbourn, we stopped you in time.  I would have lost my\nlife before one hair of your head should have been hurt.  Oh, I prayed to\nheaven that we might stop the train, and, my God, I thank thee!\"\n\nThe children were crying for joy.  I confess I don't very often pray, but\nI did then and there.  I kneeled down by the side of that good old woman,\nand offered up thanks to an All Wise Being for our safe deliverance from\na most terrible death, and called down blessings without number upon that\ngood old woman and her children.  Near by stood the engineer, fireman,\nand brakesmen, the tears streaming down their bronzed cheeks.\n\nI immediately prevailed upon Mrs. Graff and the children to go back into\nthe cars out of the storm and cold.  After reaching the cars I related\nour hair-breadth escape, and to whom we were indebted for our lives, and\nbegged the men passengers to go forward and see for themselves.  They\nneeded no further urging, and a great many of the ladies went also,\nregardless of the storm.  They soon returned, and their pale faces gave\nfull evidence of the frightful death we had escaped.  The ladies and\ngentlemen vied with each other in their thanks and heartfelt gratitude\ntowards Mrs. Graff and her children, and assured her that they would\nnever, never forget her, and before the widow left the train she was\npresented with a purse of four hundred and sixty dollars, the voluntary\noffering of a whole train of grateful passengers.  She refused the\nproffered gift for some time, and said she had only done her duty, and\nthe knowledge of having done so was all the reward she asked.  However,\nshe finally accepted the money, and said it should go to educate her\nchildren.\n\nThe railway company built her a new house, gave her and her children a\nlife pass over the road, and ordered all trains to stop and let her get\noff at home when she wished, but the employes needed no such orders, they\ncan appreciate all such kindness--more so than the directors themselves.\n\nThe old lady frequently visits my home at H-- and she is at all times a\nwelcome visitor at my fireside.  Two of the children are attending school\nat the same place.\n\n                            --_Appleton's American Railway Anecdote Book_.\n\n\n\n\nA COUNTY COURT JUDGE'S FEELING AGAINST RAILWAYS.\n\n\nIn a County Court case at Carlisle, reported in the _Carlisle Journal_,\nof October 31st, 1851, the judge (J. K. Knowles, Esq.) is represented to\nhave said:--\"You may depend upon it, if I could do anything for you, I\nwould, for I detest all railways.  If they get a verdict in this case it\nwill be the first, and I hope it will be the last.\"\n\n\n\n\nRAILWAY TICKETS.\n\n\nA writer in that valuable miscellany _Household Words_, remarks:--\"About\nthirteen years ago, a Quaker was walking in a field in Northumberland,\nwhen a thought struck him.  The man who was walking was named Thomas\nEdmonson.  He had been, though a Friend, not a very successful man in\nlife.  He was a man of integrity and honour, as he afterwards abundantly\nproved, but he had been a bankrupt, and was maintaining himself as a\nclerk at a small station on the Newcastle and Carlisle line.  In the\ncourse of his duties in this situation, he found it irksome to have to\nwrite on every railway ticket that he delivered.  He saw the clumsiness\nof the method of tearing the bit of paper off the printed sheet as it was\nwanted, and filling it up with pen and ink.  He perceived how much time,\ntrouble, and error might be saved by the process being done in a\nmechanical way; and it was when he set his foot down on a particular spot\non the before mentioned field that the idea struck him how all that he\nwished might be done by a machine--how tickets might be printed with the\nnames of stations, the class of carriage, the dates of the month, and all\nof them from end to end of the kingdom, on one uniform system.  Most\ninventors accomplish their great deeds by degrees--one thought suggesting\nanother from time to time; but, when Thomas Edmonson showed his family\nthe spot in the field where his invention occurred to him, he used to say\nthat it came to his mind complete, in its whole scope and all its\ndetails.  Out of it has grown the mighty institution of the Railway\nClearing House; and with it the grand organization by which the Railways\nof the United Kingdom act, in regard to the convenience of individuals,\nas a unity.  We may see at a glance the difference to every one of us of\nthe present organized system--by which we can take our tickets from\nalmost any place to another, and get into a carriage on almost any of our\ngreat lines, to be conveyed without further care to the opposite end of\nthe kingdom--and the unorganized condition of affairs from which Mr.\nEdmonson rescued us, whereby we should have been compelled to shift\nourselves and our luggage from time to time, buying new tickets, waiting\nwhile they were filled up, waiting at almost every point of the journey,\nand having to do it with divers companies who had nothing to do with each\nother but to find fault and be jealous.\n\n\"On Mr. Edmonson's machines may be seen the name of Blaycock; Blaycock\nwas a watchmaker, and an acquaintance of Edmonson's, and a man whom he\nknew to be capable of working out his idea.  He told him what he wanted;\nand Blaycock understood him, and realized his thought.  The third machine\nthat they made was nearly as good as those now in use.  The one we saw\nhad scarcely wanted five shillings worth of repairs in five years; and,\nwhen it needs more, it will be from sheer wearing away of the brass-work,\nby constant hard friction.  The Manchester and Leeds Railway Company were\nthe first to avail themselves of Mr. Edmonson's invention; and they\nsecured his services at their station at Oldham Road, for a time.  He\ntook out a patent; and his invention became so widely known and\nappreciated, that he soon withdrew himself from all other engagements, to\nperfect its details and provide tickets to meet the daily growing demand.\nHe let out his patent on profitable terms--ten shillings per mile per\nannum; that is, a railway of thirty miles long paid him fifteen pounds a\nyear for a license to print its own tickets by his apparatus; and a\nrailway of sixty miles long paid him thirty pounds, and so on.  As his\nprofits began to come in, he began to spend them; and it is not the least\ninteresting part of his history to see how.  It has been told that he was\na bankrupt early in life.  The very first use he made of his money was to\npay every shilling that he ever owed.  Ho was forty-six when he took that\nwalk in the field in Northumberland.  He was fifty-eight when he died, on\nthe twenty-second of June last year.\"\n\n\n\n\nTAKEN ABACK.\n\n\nFour young cavalry officers, travelling by rail, from Boulogne to Paris,\nwere joined at Amiens by a quiet, elderly gentleman, who shortly\nrequested that a little of one window might be opened--a not unreasonable\ndemand, as both were shut, and all four gentlemen were smoking.  But it\nwas refused, and again refused on being preferred a second time, very\ncivilly; whereupon the elderly gentleman put his umbrella through the\nglass.  \"Shall we stand the impertinence of this bourgeois?\" said the\nofficers to one another.  \"Never.\"  And they thrust four cards into his\nhand, which he received methodically, and looked carefully at all four;\nproducing his own, one of which he tendered to each officer with a bow.\nImagine their feelings when they read on each--\"Marshal Randon, Ministre\nde Guerre.\"\n\n\n\n\nFAITHFUL UNTO DEATH.\n\n\nThe engineer of a train near Montreal saw a large dog on the track.  He\nwas barking furiously.  The engineer blew the whistle at him, but he did\nnot stir, and crouching low, he was struck by the locomotive and killed.\nThere was a bit of white muslin on the locomotive, and it attracted the\nattention of the engineer, who stopped the train and went back.  There\nlay the dead dog, and a dead child, which had wandered upon the track and\ngone to sleep.  The dog had given his signal to stop the train, and had\ndied at his post.\n\n\n\n\nNARROW ESCAPES FROM BEING LYNCHED.\n\n\nA writer in _All the Year Round_, observes:--\"A dreadful accident down in\n'Illonoy,' had particularly struck me as a warning; for there, while the\nshattered bodies were still being drawn from under the piles of shivered\ncarriages, the driver on being expostulated with, had replied:\n\n'I suppose this ain't the first railway accident by long chalks!'\n\nUpon which the indignant passengers were with difficulty prevented from\nlynching the wretch; but he fled into the woods, and there for a time\nescaped pursuit.\n\nBut, two other railway journeys pressed more peculiarly on my mind; one\nwas that of eight or ten weeks ago, from Canandaigua to Antrim.  It was\nthere a gentleman from Baltimore, fresh from Chicago, told me of a\nrailway accident he had himself been witness to, only two days before I\nmet him.  The 2.40 (night) train from Toledo to Chicago, in which he\nrode, was upset near Pocahontas by two logs that had evidently been\nwilfully laid across the rails.  On inquiry at the next station, it was\ndiscovered that a farmer who had had, a week before, two stray calves\nkilled near the same place, had been heard at a liquor store to say he\nwould 'pay them out for his calves.'  This was enough for the excited\npassengers, vexed at the detention, and enraged at the malice that had\nexposed them to danger and death.  A posse of them instantly sallied out,\nbeleaguered the farmer's house, seized him after some resistance, put a\nrope round his neck, dragged him to the nearest tree, and would have then\nand there lynched him, had not two or three of the passengers rescued\nhim, revolver in hand, and given him up to the nearest magistrate.\"\n\n\n\n\nCURIOUS NOTICE.\n\n\nThe following notice, for the benefit of English travellers, was\nexhibited some years ago in the carriage of a Dutch railway:--\"You are\nrequested not to put no heads nor arms out of te windows.\"\n\n\n\n\nOBTAINING INFORMATION.\n\n\nBut one of the most difficult things in the world is the levity with\nwhich people talk about \"obtaining information.\"  As if information were\nas easy to pick up as stones!  \"It ain't so hard to nuss the sick,\" said\na hired nurse, \"as some people might think; the most of 'em doesn't want\nnothing, and them as does doesn't get it.\"  Parodying this, one might\nsay, it is much harder to \"obtain information\" than some people think;\nthe most don't know anything, and those who do don't say what they know.\nHere is a real episode from the history of an inquiry, which took place\nfour or five years ago, into the desirability of making a new line of\nrailway on the Border.  A witness was giving what is called \"traffic\nevidence,\" in justification of the alleged need of the railway, and this\nis what occurred:--\n\n_Mr. Brown_ (the cross-examining counsel for the opponents of the new\nline)--Do you mean to tell the committee that you ever saw an inhabited\nhouse in that valley?\n\n_Witness_--Yes I do.\n\n_Mr. Brown_--Did you ever see a vehicle there in your life?\n\n_Witness_--Yes, I did.\n\n_Mr. Brown_--Very good.\n\nSome other questions were put, which led to nothing particular: but, just\nas the witness--a Scotchman--was leaving the box, the learned gentleman\nput one more question:--\n\n_Q_.--I am instructed to ask you, if the vehicle you saw was not the\nhearse of the last inhabitant?\n\n_Answer_--It was.\n\n                                                    --_Cornhill Magazine_.\n\n\n\n\nTHE GOAT AND THE RAILWAY.\n\n\nIn Prussian Poland the goods and cattle trains are prohibited from\ncarrying passengers under any conditions, and, however urgent their\nnecessities, the only exception allowed being the herd-keepers in charge\nof cattle.  So strictly is this regulation enforced that even medical men\nare not allowed to go by them when called for on an emergency, and where\nlife and death may be the result of their quick transit.  This is\ngenerally considered a great hardship, the more so as there are only two\npassenger trains daily on the above railroads.  But the inventive genius\nof a small German innkeeper at Lissa has hit upon a clever plan of\ncircumventing the government regulations in a perfectly legitimate\nmanner.  He keeps a goat, which he hires out to persons wanting to\nproceed in a hurry by a cattle train, at the rate of 6d. per station, the\npassenger then applying for a ticket as the person in charge of the goat,\nwhich he obtains without any difficulty.  In this manner a well-known\nnobleman, residing at Lissa, is frequently seen travelling by the cattle\ntrain to Posen, in the passenger's carriage, and the goat is so tame that\na very slender silk ribbon suffices to keep it from straying.\n\n\n\n\nTHE FIRST RAILWAY IN THE CRIMEA.\n\n\nDuring the Russian War, in 1854, when the whole country was horror-struck\nwith the report of the sufferings endured by our brave soldiers in the\nCrimea, Mr. Peto, in the most noble and disinterested manner, and at the\ncost of his seat in the House of Commons for Norwich--which city he had\nrepresented for several years--constructed for the Government a line of\nrailway from Balaclava to the English camp before Sebastopol, which at\nthe end of the war, with its various branches, was 37 English miles in\nlength and had 10 locomotives on it.  In recognition of this patriotic\nservice the honour of a baronetcy was, in the following year, conferred\nupon him by Her Majesty.\n\n                                                         --_Old Jonathan_.\n\n\n\n\nTHE BALACLAVA RAILWAY.\n\n\nThe following interesting extract from a communication to the _Times_, by\nSir Morton Peto, Bart., respecting the construction of the railway from\nBalaclava to the British camp is worthy of preservation.  Sir Morton\nremarks:--\"It was in the midst of the dreary winter of 1854, when the\nBritish army was suffering unparalleled hardships before Sebastopol, that\nit was resolved to construct a railway from Balaclava to the British\ncamp.  Let honour be given where honour is due.--The idea emanated from\nthe Duke of Newcastle.  His Grace applied to our firm to assist in\ncarrying out the design.  The sympathies of all England were excited at\nthe time by the sufferings of our troops.  Every one was emulous to\ncontribute all that could be contributed to their succour and support.\nThe firm of which I am a partner was anxious to take its share in the\ngood work, and, on the Duke of Newcastle's application, we cheerfully\nundertook to make all the arrangements for carrying his Grace's views\ninto execution, on the understanding that the work should be considered\nNational; and that we should be permitted to execute it without any\ncharge for profit.\n\nWe accordingly placed at the disposal of Her Majesty's Government the\nwhole of our resources.  We fitted out transports with the stores\nnecessary for the construction of the railway; employed and equipped\nhundreds of men to execute the works; provided a commissariat exclusively\nfor their use; engaged medical officers to attend to their health, and\nplaced the whole service under the direction of the most experienced\nagents on our staff.  These important preliminaries were arranged so\neffectually, and with so much despatch, that the Emperor of the French\nsent an agent to this country to instruct himself as to the mode in which\nwe equipped the expedition.\n\nEvery item shipped by us for the works was valued before shipment at its\nselling price; and for all these items of valuation, as well as for the\npayments which we made for labour, we received the certificate of the\nmost eminent engineer of the day (the late lamented Mr. Robert\nStephenson).  We undertook the execution of the Balaclava Railway as a\n'National' work, agreeing to execute it without profit.  We performed our\ncontract to the letter.  We never profited by it to the extent of a\nsingle shilling.\n\nThe works (nearly seven miles of railway) were executed in less than a\nmonth; an incredibly short space of time, considering the season of the\nyear, the severity of the climate, and the difficulties to which,\nconsidering the distance from home, we were all of us exposed.  It is a\nmatter of history that they eventuated in the taking of the great\nfortress of Sebastopol.  Before the railway was made, all the shot, all\nthe shell, and all the ammunition necessary for the siege, had to be\ncarried from Balaclava to the camp, a distance of five miles up hill,\nthrough mud and sludge, upon the backs of the soldiers.  An immense\nproportion of our troops was told off for this most laborious service; of\nwhom no less than 25 per cent per month perished in its execution.  On\nthe day the railway was opened, it carried to the camp of the British\narmy, in 24 hours, more shot and shell than had been brought from\nBalaclava for six weeks previously.\n\nTo our principal agent in the Crimea, the late Mr. Beattie, the greatest\ncredit was due for the way in which the arrangements were made, and the\nwork executed on that side.  Mr. Beattie's labours were so arduous, and\nhis efforts so untiring, that he died of fatigue within six weeks after\nthe completion of the work--a victim, absolutely, to his unparalleled\nexertions.  The only favour in connection with these works which the Duke\nof Newcastle ever granted at our request, he granted to the family of\nthis lamented gentleman.  Mr. Beattie left a widow and four children to\ndeplore his loss, and through the favour of the Duke of Newcastle, the\nwidow, who now resides with her father, an estimable clergyman in the\nNorth of Ireland, enjoys a pension as the widow of a colonel falling in\nthe field.\"\n\n\n\n\nPASSENGERS AND OTHER CATTLE.\n\n\nAt the Eastern Counties meeting (1854) the solicitor cut short a clause\nabout passengers, animals, and cattle, by reading it \"passengers and\nother cattle.\"  We do not recollect passengers having been classed with\ncattle before.  Perhaps the learned gentleman's eyesight was defective,\nor the print was not very clear.\n\n\n\n\nEXPANSION OF RAILS.\n\n\nRobert Routledge, in his article upon railways, remarks:--\"It may easily\nbe seen on looking at a line of rails that they are not laid with the\nends quite touching each other, or, at least, they are not usually in\ncontact.  The reason of this is that space must be allowed for the\nexpansion which takes place when a rise in the temperature occurs.  The\nneglect of this precaution has sometimes led to damage and accidents.  A\ncertain railway was opened in June, and, after an excursion train had in\nthe morning passed over it, the midday heat so expanded the iron that the\nrails became, in some places, elevated to two feet above the level, and\nthe sleepers were torn up; so that in order to admit the return of the\ntrain, the rails had to be fully relaid in a kind of zigzag.  In June,\n1856, a train was thrown off the metals of the North-Eastern Railway, in\nconsequence of the rails rising up through expansion.\"\n\n\n\n\nA SMART REJOINDER.\n\n\nAn American railway employe asked for a pass down to visit his family.\n\"You are in the employ of the railway?\" asked the gentleman applied to.\n\"Yes.\"  \"You receive your pay regularly?\"  \"Yes.\"  \"Well, now, suppose\nyou were working for a farmer, instead of a railway, would you expect\nyour employer to hitch up his team every Saturday night and carry you\nhome?\"  This seemed a poser, but it wasn't.  \"No,\" said the man promptly,\n\"I wouldn't expect that; but if the farmer had his team hitched up and\nwas going my way, I should call him a contemptible fellow if he would not\nlet me ride.\"  Mr. Employe came out three minutes afterwards with a pass\ngood for three months.\n\n\n\n\nCOURTING ON A RAILWAY THIRTY MILES AN HOUR.\n\n\nAn incident occurred on the Little Miami Railway which outstrips, in\npoint of speed and enterprise, although in a somewhat different field,\nthe lightning express, \"fifty-cents-a-mile\" special train achievement\nwhich attended the delivery of the recent famous \"defalcation report\" in\nthis city.  The facts are about thus: A lady, somewhat past that period\nof life which _the world_ would term \"young\"--although she might differ\nfrom them--was on her way to this city, for purposes connected with\nactive industry.  At a point on the road a traveller took the train, who\nhappened to enter the car in which the young lady occupied a seat.  After\nwalking up and down between the seats, the gentleman found no unoccupied\nseat, except the one-half of that upon which the lady had deposited her\nprecious self and crinoline--the latter very modestly expansive.  Making\na virtue of necessity--a \"stand-ee\" berth or a little self-assurance--he\nmodestly inquired if the lady had a fellow-traveller, and took a seat.\n\nAs the train flew along with express speed, the strangers entered into a\ncosy conversation, and mutual explanations.  The gentleman was pleased,\nand the lady certainly did not pout.  After other subjects had been\ndiscussed, and worn thread-bare, the lady made inquiries as to the price\nof a sewing machine, and where such an article could be purchased in this\ncity.  The gentleman ventured the opinion that she had \"better secure a\nhusband first.\"  This opened the way for another branch of conversation,\nand the broken field was industriously cultivated.\n\nBy the time the train arrived at the depot in this city, the gentleman\nhad proposed and been accepted (although the lady afterwards declared she\nregarded it all as a good joke).  The party separated; the gentleman, all\nin good earnest, started for a license, and the lady made her way to a\nboarding-house on Broadway, above Third, for dinner.  At two o'clock the\ngentleman returned with a license and a Justice, to the great\nastonishment of the fair one, and after a few tears and\nhalf-remonstrative expressions, she submitted with becoming modesty, and\nthe Squire performed the little ceremony in a twinkling.  If this is not\na fast country, a search-warrant would hardly succeed in finding one.\n\n                                                --_Cincinnati Commercial_.\n\n\n\n\nTHE MERCHANT AND HIS CLERK.\n\n\nA London merchant resided a few miles from the City, in an elegant\nmansion, to and from which he journeyed daily, and invariably by third\nclass.  It happened that one of the clerks in his employ lived in a\ncottage accessible by the same line of railway, but he always travelled\nfirst class; the same train thus presenting the anomaly of the master\nbeing in that place which one would naturally assign to the man, and the\nman appearing to usurp the position of the master.  One day these two\nalighted at the terminus in full view of each other.  \"Well,\" said Mr.\nB--, in that tone of banter which a superior so frequently thinks it\nbecoming to adopt, \"I don't know how you manage to ride first-class, when\nin these hard times I find third-class fare as much as I can afford.\"\n\"Sir,\" replied the clerk, \"you, who are known to be a person of wealth\nand position, may adopt the most economical mode of travelling at no more\nrisk than being thought eccentric, and even with the applause of some for\nyour manifest absence of pride.  But, as for myself, I cannot afford to\nindulge in such irregularities.  Among the persons I travel with I am\nreported to be a well-paid _employe_, and am respected accordingly; to\nmaintain this reputation I am compelled to travel in the same manner as\nthey do, and were I to adopt an inferior mode, it would be attributed to\nsome serious falling off of income; a circumstance which would occasion\nme not only loss of consideration among my _quondam_ fellow-travellers,\nbut one which, upon coming to the ears of my butcher, baker, and grocer,\nmight seriously injure my credit with those highly respectable, but\ncertainly worldly minded tradesmen.\"  Mr. B-- was not slow in recognizing\nthe full force of the argument, more particularly as the question of his\nown liberality was involved, nor did he hesitate to give it a practical\napplication by immediately increasing the salary of his clerk; not only\nto the amount of a first-class season ticket, but something over.\n\n                                   --_The Railway Traveller's Handy Book_.\n\n\n\n\nREMARKABLE WILL.\n\n\nSome years ago an old gentleman of very eccentric habits, Mr. John\nYounghusband, of Abbey Holme, Cumberland, died, and his will has proved\nto be of the most eccentric character.  The Silloth Railway runs through\npart of his property, an arrangement to which he was most passionately\naverse; and though years have elapsed since then, his bitterness was in\nno way assuaged.  In his will he leaves near 1000 pounds to a solicitor\nwho opposed the making of the railway; the rest of his money he bequeaths\nto a comparative stranger upon these conditions--that the legatee never\nspeaks to one of the directors of the railway, that he never travels upon\nit, that he never sends cattle or other traffic by it; and should he\nviolate any of these conditions, the estate reverts to the ordinary\nsuccession.  To Mr. John Irving and the other directors of the Silloth\nline Mr. Younghusband has sarcastically bequeathed a _farthing_.\n\n\n\n\nIMMENSE FRAUD ON THE GREAT-NORTHERN RAILWAY.\n\n\nIn the _Annual Register_ for 1856, November 14th, we read, \"Another fraud\nconnected with the transfer of shares and stock, but on a far grander\nscale, and by a much more pretentious criminal, has been discovered.\n\n\"Of late some strange discrepancies had been observed in the accounts of\nthe Great-Northern Railway Company, and in particular that the amount\npaid for dividends considerably exceeded the rateable proportion to the\ncapital stock.  An investigation was directed.  The registrar of shares,\nMr. Leopold Redpath, expressed a decided opinion that the investigation\ninto his department would be useless, and, on its being pressed,\nabsconded.  The investigation developed a long-continued system of frauds\nof vast amount, to the amount, it was said, of nearly 250,000 pounds.\n\n\"Mr. Leopold Redpath passed in society as a gentleman of ample means,\ngreat taste, and possessed of the Christian virtue of charity in no\ncommon degree.  He had a house in Chester Terrace, handsomely furnished,\nand a \"place\" at Weybridge complete with every luxury that wealth could\nprocure; gave good dinners with excellent wines; kept good horses and\nneat carriages.  He was a governor of Christ's Hospital, the St. Ann's\nSchools, and subscribed freely to the most useful charities of London.\nHis appointment on the Great-Northern was worth 300 pounds per annum; but\nit was supposed that this was only of consequence to Mr. Redpath as\naffording him a regular occupation and an opportunity of operating in the\nshare-market, in which he was known to have extensive dealings.  The\ndirectors of the railway appear to have been perfectly aware that their\nservant was living far beyond his salary, but they considered him to be a\nvery successful speculator.  Upon this splendid bubble being blown up,\nRedpath fled to Paris; but, finding that the French authorities were not\ninclined to protect him, he returned to London and surrendered himself.\n\n\"The mode in which this gigantic swindler had committed his frauds is\nsimple enough.  Having charge of the books in which the stock of the\ncompany is registered, he altered the sum standing in the name of some\n_bona fide_ stockholder to a much larger sum, generally by placing a\nfigure before it, by which simple means 500 became 1,500, or 2,500\npounds, or any larger number of thousands.  The surplus stock thus\n_created_ Redpath sold in the stock-market, forging the name of the\nsupposed transferer, transferring the sum to the account of the supposed\ntransferee in the register, and either attesting it himself, or causing\nit to be attested by a young man, his protege and tool, but who appears\nto have been free from guilty cognizance.  In some instances the fraud\nwas but the more direct course of making a fictitious entry of stock, and\nthen selling it.  By these processes the number of shareholders and the\namount of stock on the company's register became greatly magnified,\nwhile, as the _bona fide_ holders of stock remained credited with their\nproper investments, there was no occasion for suspicion on their part.\nHow Redpath dealt with subsequent transfers of the fictitious stock does\nnot appear.  The prisoner was subjected to repeated examination before\nthe police magistrates, when this prodigious falsification was thoroughly\nsifted, and the prisoner was finally committed for trial at the Central\nCriminal Court in the following year.  It is said that the value of the\nleases, furniture, and articles of taste in Redpath's house in Chester\nTerrace is estimated at 30,000 pounds, and at Weybridge at a still larger\nsum.  It is also said that Redpath and Robson, whose forged transfer of\nCrystal Palace shares has been recorded in this chronicle, were formerly\nfellow clerks.\n\n\"Lionel Redpath was tried, January 16th, 1857, at the Central Criminal\nCourt, and, being found guilty, was sentenced to transportation for life.\nAt the same time a junior clerk in his office, Charles Kent, was also\ncharged as his partner in the crime.  It appeared that Kent had acted on\nmany occasions as attesting witness to the forged transfers which Redpath\nhad employed to carry out his ends; but, as no guilty knowledge on the\npart of the former was shown, he was acquitted.\n\n\"The railway company at first attempted to repudiate the forged stock\nwhich Redpath had put into circulation, but pressing remonstrances, not\nunaccompanied by threats, having been made by the Committee of the Stock\nExchange, they consented to acknowledge it.  Then came the question by\nwhom the loss was to be borne; a question which was not solved until\nafter considerable litigation.  The directors asserted that it ought to\nbe paid out of the current income of the year, and so it was ultimately\ndecided.  This led to a further question between the guaranteed\nshareholders and the rest of the company.  For the diminution of the\nyear's earnings caused by taking up the fictitious stock being so great\nas to render it impossible to satisfy the guaranteed dividends out of the\nresidue, it was contended on the part of the holders of those shares\nthat, by the provisions of the deed of settlement, the deficiency ought\nto be made up out of the next year's profits, so that the guarantee that\nthey should receive their specified dividends was not clogged with the\ncondition in case a sufficient amount of earnings in each year was made\nto pay them.  This dispute led to a Chancery suit, the decree in which\nwas in favour of the holders of the guaranteed shares.\"\n\n\n\n\nA LOST TICKET.\n\n\n\"Now, then, make haste there, will you, an' give up your ticket,\"\nexclaimed a railway guard to a bandsman in the Volunteers returning from\na review.  \"Didna I tell ye I've lost it?\"  \"Nonsense, man; feel in your\npockets, you cannot hae lost it.\"  \"Can I no?\" was the drunken reply;\n\"man, that's naething, I've lost the big drum!\"\n\n\n\n\nMELANCHOLY ACCIDENT.--SINGULAR ACTION.\n\n\nThe _Annual Register_ contains the following interesting case.  July 25,\n1857.--At the Maidstone Assizes an action arising out of a singular and\nmelancholy accident was tried.  The action, Shilling _v._ The Accidental\nInsurance Company, was brought by Charlotte Shilling, widow and\nadministratrix of Thomas Shilling, to recover from the defendants the sum\nof 2000 pounds, upon a policy effected by the deceased on the life of her\nfather-in-law, James Shilling.  The husband of the plaintiff, Thomas\nShilling, carried on the business of a builder at Malling, a short\ndistance from Maidstone.  His father, James Shilling, lived with him; he\nwas nearly 80 years old, and very infirm, and his son used to drive him\nabout occasionally in his pony chaise.  In the month of March, last year,\nan application was made to the defendants to effect two policies for 2000\npounds each upon the lives of Thomas Shilling and James Shilling, and to\nsecure that sum in the event of either of them dying from an accident,\nand the policies were completed and delivered in the following month of\nJune.  On the evening of the 11th of July, 1856, about half-past 7\no'clock, the father and son went from Malling with a pony and chaise, for\nthe purpose of proceeding to a stone quarry at Aylesford, where Thomas\nShilling had business to transact, and they never returned home again\nalive.  There where two roads by which they could have got to the quarry\nfrom Malling, one of which was rather a dangerous one to be taken with a\nvehicle and horse, on account of a steep bank leading to the river Medway\nbeing on one side and the railway passing close to the other; but this\nroute, it appears, was much shorter than the other, which was nearly two\nmiles round, and it was consequently constantly used both by pedestrians\nand carriages.  About 8 o'clock the pony and chaise and the father and\nson were seen on this road, and upon arriving at the gate leading to the\nquarry, Thomas Shilling got out, leaving the pony and chaise in charge of\nhis father.  Mr. Garnham, the owner of the quarry, was not at home, and\nwhile one of the labourers was conversing with Thomas Shilling, the sound\nof an approaching train was heard, and the men advised him to go back to\nhis pony, for fear it should take fright at the train, and he said he\nwould do so, as it had been frightened by a train on a previous occasion.\nHe accordingly went towards the gate where he had left the pony and\nchaise, and from that time there was no evidence to show what took place.\nThe family sat up the whole night awaiting the return of their relatives\nin the utmost possible alarm at their absence; but nothing was heard of\nthem until the following morning, when a bargeman found the drowned pony\nand the chaise and the dead bodies of the father and son floating in the\nMedway, near the spot where the chaise had been last seen on the previous\nevening.  They were taken home, and a coroner's inquest was held, and the\nonly conclusion that could be arrived at was that the pony had taken\nfright at the noise of the train, which appeared to have passed about the\ntime, and that he had jumped into the river, which at this spot was from\n12 to 14 feet deep.\n\nThe policy on the life of the father had been assigned to the son, whose\nwidow claimed the two sums insured from the defendants.  That payable on\nthe death of the son they paid: but they refused to pay that due on the\nfather's policy, and pleaded to the action several pleas, alleging\ncertain violations of the conditions; and singularly enough, considering\nthat they had not disputed the son's policy on the same ground, they now\npleaded that the death was not the result of accident, but arose from\nwanton and voluntary exposure to unnecessary danger.\n\nThe jury found a verdict for the plaintiff.\n\n\n\n\nA CATASTROPHE.\n\n\nAu old lady was going from Brookfield to Stamford, and took a seat in the\ntrain for the first and last time in her life.  During the ride the train\nwas thrown down an embankment.  Crawling from beneath the _debris_\nunhurt, she spied a man sitting down, but with his legs laid down by some\nheavy timber.  \"Is this Stamford?\" she anxiously inquired.  \"No, madam,\"\nwas the reply, \"this is a catastrophe.\"  \"Oh!\" she cried, \"then I hadn't\noughter got off here.\"\n\n\n\n\nWEDDING AT A RAILWAY STATION.\n\n\nBaltimore has had what it calls a romantic wedding at Camden Station.  A\nfew moments before the departure of the outbound Washington train, a\ngentleman accompanied by a lady and another gentleman, whose clerical\nappearance indicated his profession, alighted from a carriage and entered\nthe depot.  Upon the locks of the leader of the party the snows of fifty\nwinters had evidently fallen, while the lady had apparently reached that\nage when she is supposed to have lain aside her matrimonial cap.  Quietly\napproaching the officer on duty within the station, they asked for a room\nwhere a marriage ceremony might be privately performed.  The request was\nreadily granted, and under the leadership of the obliging officer, the\nparty was conducted to the despatch room, a small lobby in the eastern\npart of the building, where in a few minutes the twain were made man and\nwife.  With pleasant smiles, and a would-be-congratulated look upon their\ncountenances, they mingled with the crowd in waiting; and when the gates\nwere thrown open, arm in arm they boarded the train, their\nfellow-passengers all the while ignorant of the interesting ceremony.\n\n                                                    --_Illustrated World_.\n\n\n\n\nENGINE FASCINATION.\n\n\nThe fascination which engines and their human satellites exercise over\nsome minds is very great; and while speaking on the subject, I am\nreminded of a young man who haunted for years one of our chief termini:\nhe was the son of a leading west end confectioner, so that his early\ntraining had in no way disposed him to an engineering life; but he was\nthe most remarkable accumulation of statistics in connection therewith I\nover knew.  The line employed several hundreds of engines, and he not\nonly knew the names of all of them, but when they were made, and who had\nmade them; when each one had last been supplied with a new set of tubes\nat the factory--this last, of course only referred to the engines\nemployed on the main line, which he had an opportunity of seeing, and\nwould miss when they were laid up for repair--and how this had had the\npressure on its safety-valve increased, and this had been diminished.  He\nhad such a retentive memory for these and kindred facts, that I have seen\nthe foreman of the works appeal to him for information, which was never\nlacking.  His penchant was so well known that he had special permission\nfor access to the works.\n\n                                                   --_Chambers's Journal_.\n\n\n\n\nCOMPETITION FOR PASSENGERS.\n\n\nMr. Galt remarks:--\"In the summer of 1857 the London and North-Western\nand Great Northern railways contended with each other for the passenger\ntraffic from London to Manchester.  First-class and second-class\npassengers were conveyed at fares, there and back, of seven and sixpence\nand five shillings respectively, the distance being 400 miles, and four\nclear days were allowed in Manchester.  As might have been expected,\ntrains were well filled, and, but for the fact that the other traffic was\nmuch interfered with, the fares would, it is said, have been\nremunerative.  As it was, it is said the shareholders lost 1 per cent.\ndividend.\n\n\"Another memorable contest was carried on about the year 1853 between the\nCaledonian and the Edinburgh and Glasgow Companies.  The latter suddenly\nreduced the fares between Edinburgh and Glasgow for the three classes\nfrom eight shillings, six shillings, and four shillings, to one shilling,\nninepence, and sixpence.  The contest was continued for\na-year-and-a-half, and cost the Edinburgh and Glasgow Company nearly 1\nper cent. in their dividends.\"\n\n\n\n\nACCIDENT HOAX.\n\n\nThe following impudent hoax, contained in a letter which appeared in the\n_Times_ in 1860, was most annoying to the officials of the Great Northern\nCompany.  It is headed:--\n\n                 \"Accident on the Great Northern Railway.\n                      \"To the Editor of the _Times_.\n\n\"Sir,--I beg to inform you of a serious accident, attended by severe\ninjury, if not loss of life, which occured to-day to the 8 o'clock a.m.\ntrain from Wakefield, on the Great Northern railway, near Doncaster, by\nwhich I was a passenger.  As the train approached Doncaster, about 9\no'clock, the passengers were suddenly alarmed by the vehement oscillation\nof the carriages.  In a few seconds the engine had run off the line,\ndragging the greater part of the train with it across the opposite line\nof rails.  By this time the concussion had become so vehement that the\ngrappling chains connecting the engine, tender, and first carriage with\nthe rest of the train providentially snapped.  This circumstance saved\nthe lives of many.  But the engine, tender, and first carriage were\nhurled over the embankment, all three being together overturned, and the\nlatter (a second-class one) nearly crushed.  The stoker was severely\ninjured on the head, and his recovery is more than doubtful; the engine\ndriver contrived to leap off in time to save himself with a few bruises.\nThe shrieks of the passengers in the overturned carriage (three women and\nfive men) were fearful; and for some time their extrication was\nimpossible.  One middle-aged woman had her thigh broken, another her arm\nfractured.  One old man had one, if not two of his ribs broken.  The\npassengers in the other carriages, in one of which I was travelling, were\nless seriously injured, though sufficiently so to talk about\ncompensation, instead of assisting in earnest those with broken limbs.\nThe line of rails was torn up for a considerable distance.  Owing to the\ntelegraph being out of gear, some delay in communicating with Doncaster\nwas experienced.  A surgeon and various hands at length arrived with a\nspecial train for the injured passengers, who, after long delay, were\nremoved to Doncaster.  I, of course, as a medical man, rendered what\nassistance I could.  Those worst injured were conveyed to the Railway\nArms, the recovery of more than one being doubted by myself.  At length a\nfresh train started from Doncaster, and we reached London nearly two\nhours after due.\n\nThe carelessness of the Company will, I hope, be the subject of your\nseverest animadversion.  The accident was caused by the tire of one of\nthe right wheels of the engine having flown off; and it is clear that the\nengine was not in a condition to ply between the stations of the Great\nNorthern railway.\n\nI have no objection to your use of my name if you think fit to publish\nit.\n\n                                                    Your obedient servant,\n                                    Thomas Waddington, M.D., of Wakefield.\n                                  Morley's Hotel, Charing Cross, March 26.\n\nTo the above letter the following reply was sent to the _Times_.\n\n                 \"Alleged Accident on the Great Northern.\n                      \"To the Editor of the _Times_.\n\n\"Sir,--The Directors of the Great Northern railway will feel much obliged\nby the insertion of the following statement in the _Times_ to-morrow\nrelative to a letter which appeared therein to-day, signed 'Thomas\nWaddington, M.D., of Wakefield,' and headed, 'Accident on the Great\nNorthern railway.'\n\nThere was no accident whatever yesterday on the Great Northern railway.\n\nThe trains all reached King's Cross with punctuality, the most irregular\nin the whole day being only five minutes late.  No such person as Thomas\nWaddington is known at Morley's Hotel, whence the letter in question is\ndated.\n\n                                              I am, Sir, yours faithfully,\n                                           Seymour Clark, General Manager,\n                                                   King's Cross, March 27.\n\nIn the _Times_ on the day following appeared a letter from the real Dr.\nWaddington, of Wakefield, (Edward not \"Thomas\") confirmatory of the\nimpudence of the hoax.\n\n           \"The alleged Accident on the Great Northern railway.\n                      \"To the Editor of the _Times_.\n\n\"Sir,--My attention has been called to a letter in the _Times_ of\nyesterday (signed 'Thomas Waddington, M.D., of Wakefield') the signature\nof which is as gross and impudent a fabrication as the circumstances\nwhich the writer professes to detail.  I need only say there is no 'M.D.'\nhere named Waddington but myself, and that I was not on the Great\nNorthern or any other Railway on the 26th inst, when the accident is\nalleged to have occured.\n\nHaving obtained possession of the original letter, I have handed it to my\nsolicitors, in the hope that they may be enabled to discover and bring to\njustice the perpetrator of this very stupid hoax.\n\n                                         I am, Sir, your obedient servant,\n                                                   Edward Waddington, M.D.\n\n   Wakefield, March 28.\n\n\n\n\nA'PENNY A MILE.\n\n\nTwo costers were looking at a railway time-table.\n\n\"Say, Jem,\" said one of them, \"vot's P.M. mean?\"\n\n\"Vy, penny a mile, to be sure.\"\n\n\"Vell, vot's A.M.?\"\n\n\"A'penny a mile, to be sure.\"\n\n\n\n\nSINGULAR FREAK.\n\n\nIn October, 1857, Mr. Tindal Atkinson applied to Mr. Hammill, at Worship\nStreet Police Court, to obtain a summons under the following strange\ncircumstances:--\n\n\"Mr. Atkinson stated that he was instructed on behalf of the Directors of\nthe Eastern Counties Railway Company to apply to the magistrate under the\nterms of their Act of Incorporation, for a summons against Mr. Henry\nHunt, of Waltham-Cross, Essex, for having unlawfully used and worked a\ncertain locomotive upon a portion of their line, without having\npreviously obtained the permission or approval of the engineers or agents\nof the company, whereby he had rendered himself liable to a penalty of 20\npounds.  He should confine himself to that by stating that in the dark,\non the night of Thursday, the 1st instant, a locomotive engine belonging\nto Mr. Hunt was suddenly discovered by some of the company's servants to\nbe running along the rails in close proximity to one of the regular\npassenger trains on the North Woolwich line.  So great was the danger of\na collision, that they were obliged to instantly stop the train till the\nstranger engine could get out of the way, to the great terror of the\npassengers by the train, and as he was instructed it was almost the\nresult of a merciful interposition of Providence that a collision had not\noccurred between them, in which event it would probably have terminated\nfatally, to a greater or lesser extent.  He now desired that summonses\nmight be granted not only against the owner of the engine so used, but\nalso against the driver and stoker of it, both of whom, it was obvious,\nmust have been well aware of their committing an unlawful act, and of the\nperilous nature of the service in which they were engaged when they were\nrunning an engine at such a time and place.\n\n\"Mr. Hammill said it certainly was a most extraordinary proceeding for\nanyone to adopt, and after the learned gentleman's statement he had no\nhesitation whatever in granting summonses against the whole of the\npersons engaged in it.\"\n\n\n\n\nA.B.C. AND D.E.F.\n\n\nA gentleman travelling in a railway carriage was endeavouring, with\nconsiderable earnestness, to impress some argument upon a\nfellow-traveller who was seated opposite to him, and who appeared rather\ndull of apprehension.  At length, being slightly irritated, he exclaimed\nin a louder tone, \"Why, sir, it's as plain as A.B.C.\"  \"That may be,\"\nquietly replied the other, \"but I am D.E.F.\"\n\n\n\n\nNATIONAL CONTRAST.\n\n\nThe contrast which exists between the character of the French and English\nnavvy may be briefly exemplified by the following trifling anecdote:--\n\n\"In excavating a portion of the first tunnel east of Rouen towards Paris,\na French miner dressed in his blouse, and an English \"navvy\" in his white\nsmock jacket, were suddenly buried alive together by the falling in of\nthe earth behind them.  Notwithstanding the violent commotion which the\nintelligence of the accident excited above ground, Mr. Meek, the English\nengineer who was constructing the work, after having quietly measured the\ndistance from the shaft to the sunken ground, satisfied himself that if\nthe men, at the moment of the accident, were at the head of \"the drift\"\nat which they were working, they would be safe.\n\nAccordingly, getting together as many French and English labourers as he\ncould collect, he instantly commenced sinking a shaft, which was\naccomplished to the depth of 50 feet in the extraordinary short space of\neleven hours, and the men were thus brought up to the surface alive.\n\nThe Frenchman, on reaching the top, suddenly rushing forward, hugged and\nsaluted on both cheeks his friends and acquaintances, many of whom had\nassembled, and then, almost instantly overpowered by conflicting\nfeelings--by the recollection of the endless time he had been imprisoned\nand by the joy of his release--he sat down on a log of timber, and,\nputting both his hands before his face, he began to cry aloud most\nbitterly.\n\nThe English \"navvy\" sat himself down on the very same piece of\ntimber--took his pit-cap off his head--slowly wiped with it the\nperspiration from his hair and face--and then, looking for some seconds\ninto the hole or shaft close beside him through which he had been lifted,\nas if he were calculating the number of cubic yards that had been\nexcavated, he quite coolly, in broad Lancashire dialect, said to the\ncrowd of French and English who were staring at him, as children and\nnursery-maids in our London Zoological Gardens stand gazing\nhalf-terrified at the white bear, \"YAW'VE BEAN A DARMNATION SHORT TOIME\nABAAOWT IT!\"\n\n                                       Sir F. Head's _Stokers and Pokers_.\n\n\n\n\nREMARKABLE ACCIDENT.\n\n\nThe most remarkable railway accident on record happened some years ago on\nthe North-Western road between London and Liverpool.  A gentleman and his\nwife were travelling in a compartment alone, when--the train going at the\nrate of forty miles an hour--an iron rail projecting from a car on a\nside-track cut into the carriage and took the head of the lady clear off,\nand rolled it into the husband's lap.  He subsequently sued the company\nfor damages, and created great surprise in court by giving his age at\nthirty-six years, although his hair was snow white.  It had been turned\nfrom jet black by the horror of that event.\n\n\n\n\nENGINEERING LOAN, OR STAKING OUT A RAILWAY.\n\n\n\"Beau\" Caldwell was a sporting genius of an extremely versatile\ncharacter.  Like all his fraternity, he was possessed of a pliancy of\nadaptation to circumstances that enabled him to succumb with true\nphilosophy to misfortunes, and also to grace the more exalted sphere of\nprosperity with that natural ease attributed to gentlemen with bloated\nbank accounts.\n\nFertile in ingenuity and resources, Beau was rarely at his wit's end for\nthat nest egg of the gambler, a stake.  His providence, when in luck, was\nsuch as to keep him continually on the _qui vive_ for a nucleus to build\nupon.\n\nBeau, having exhausted the pockets and liberality of his contemporaries\nin Charleston, S.C., was constrained to \"pitch his tent\" in fresh\npastures.  He therefore selected Abbeville, whither he was immediately\nexpedited by the agency of a \"free pass.\"\n\nSnugly ensconced in his hotel, Beau ruminated over the means to raise the\n\"plate.\"  The bar-keeper was assailed, but he was discovered to have\nscruples (anomalous barkeeper!)  The landlord was a \"grum wretch,\" with\nno soul for speculation.  The cornered \"sport\" was finally reduced to the\nalternative of \"confidence of operation.\"  Having arranged his scheme, he\nrented him a precious <DW64> boy, and borrowed an old theodolite.  Thus\nequipped, Beau betook himself to the abode of a neighbouring planter,\nnotorious for his wealth, obstinacy, and ignorance.  Operations were\ncommenced by sending the <DW65> into the planter's barn-yard with a\nflagpole.  Beau got himself up into a charming tableau, directly in front\nof the house.  He now roared at the top of his voice,\n\"72,000,000--51--8--11.\"\n\nAfter which he went to driving small stakes, in a very promiscuous\nmanner, about the premises.\n\nThe planter hearing the shouting, and curious to ascertain the cause, put\nhis head out of the window.\n\n\"Now,\" said Beau, again assuming his civil engineering _pose_, \"go to the\nright a little further--there, that'll do.  47,000--92--5.\"\n\n\"What the d---l are you doing in my barn-yard?\" roared the planter.\n\nBeau would not consent to answer this interrogation, but pursuing his\nbusiness, hallooed out to his \"<DW65>\"--\n\n\"Now go to the house, place your pole against the kitchen door,\nhigher--stop at that.  86--45--6.\"\n\n\"I say there,\" again vociferated the planter, \"get out of my yard.\"\n\n\"I'm afraid we will have to go right through the house,\" soliloquized\nBeau.\n\n\"I'm d--d if you do,\" exclaimed the planter.\n\nBeau now looked up for the first time, accosting the planter with a\ncourteous--\n\n\"Good day, sir.\"\n\n\"Good d---l, sir; you are committing a trespass.\"\n\n\"My dear friend,\" replied Beau, \"public duty, imperative--no\ntrespass--surveying railroad--State job--your house in the way.  Must\ntake off one corner, sir,--the kitchen part--least value--leave the\nparlour--delightful room to see the cars rush by twelve times a day--make\nyou accessible to market.\"\n\nBeau, turning to the <DW65>, cried out--\n\n\"Put the pole against the kitchen door again--so, 85.\"\n\n\"I say, stranger,\" interrupted the planter, \"I guess you ain't dined.  As\ndinner's up, suppose you come in, and we'll talk the matter over.\"\n\nBeau, delighted with the proposition, immediately acceded, not having\ntasted cooked provisions that day.\n\n\"Now,\" said the planter, while Beau was paying marked attention to a\nyoung turkey, \"it's mighty inconvenient to have one's homestead smashed\nup, without so much as asking the liberty.  And more than that, if\nthere's law to be had, it shan't be did either.\"\n\n\"Pooh! nonsense, my dear friend,\" replied Beau, \"it's the law that says\nthe railroad must be laid through kitchens.  Why, we have gone through\nseventeen kitchens and eight parlours in the last eight miles--people\ndon't like it, but then it's law, and there's no alternative, except the\nparty persuades the surveyor to move a little to the left, and as curves\ncosts money most folks let it go through the kitchen.\"\n\n\"Cost something, eh?\" said the planter, eagerly catching at the bait\nthrown out for him.  \"Would not mind a trifle.  You see I don't oppose\nthe road, but if you'll turn to the left and it won't be much expense,\nwhy I'll stand it.\"\n\n\"Let me see,\" said Beau, counting his fingers, \"forty and forty is\neighty, and one hundred.  Yes, two hundred dollars will do it.\"\nUnrolling a large map, intersected with lines running in every direction,\nhe continued--\"There is your house, and here's the road.  Air line.  You\nsee to move to the left we must excavate this hill.  As we are desirous\nof retaining the goodwill of parties residing on the route, I'll agree on\nthe part of the company to secure the alteration, and prevent your house\nfrom being molested.\"\n\nThe planter revolved the matter in his mind for a moment and exclaimed:--\n\n\"You'll guarantee the alteration?\"\n\n\"Give a written document.\"\n\n\"Then it's a bargain.\"\n\nThe planter without more delay gave Beau an order on his city factor for\nthe stipulated sum, and received in exchange a written document,\nguaranteeing the freedom of the kitchen from any encroachment by the C.\nL. R. R. Co.\n\nBefore leaving, Beau took the planter on one side and requested him not\nto disclose their bargain until after the railroad was built.\n\n\"You see, it mightn't exactly suit the views of some people--partiality,\nyou know.\"\n\nThe last remark, accompanied by a suggestive wink, was returned by the\nplanter in a similar demonstration of _owlishness_.\n\nBeau resumed his theodolite, drove a few stakes on the hill opposite, and\nproceeded onward in the fulfilment of his duties.  As his light figure\nreceded into obscurity and the distance, the planter caught a sound\nvastly like 40--40--120--200.--And that was the last he ever heard of the\nrailroad.\n\n                              _Appleton's American Railway Anecdote Book_.\n\n\n\n\nMR. FRANK BUCKLAND'S FIRST RAILWAY JOURNEY.\n\n\nMr. Spencer Walpole remarks:--\"Of Mr. Buckland's Christ Church days many\ngood stories are told.  Almost every one has heard of the bear which he\nkept at his rooms, of its misdemeanours, and its rustication.  Less\nfamiliar, perhaps, is the story of his first journey by the Great\nWestern.  The dons, alarmed at the possible consequences of a railway to\nLondon, would not allow Brunel to bring the line nearer than to Didcot.\nDean Buckland in vain protested against the folly of this decision, and\nthe line was kept out of harm's way at Didcot.  But, the very day on\nwhich it was opened, Mr. Frank Buckland, with one or two other\nundergraduates, drove over to Didcot, travelled up to London, and\nreturned in time to fulfil all the regulations of the university.  The\nDean, who was probably not altogether displeased at the joke, told the\nstory to his friends who had prided themselves in keeping the line from\nOxford.  'Here,' he said, 'you have deprived us of the advantage of a\nrailway, and my son has been up to London.'\"\n\n\n\n\nSCENE BEFORE A SUB-COMMITTEE ON STANDING ORDERS.\nPETITIONING AGAINST A RAILWAY BILL, 1846.\n\n\n\"Well, Snooks,\" began the Agent for the Promoters, in cross-examination,\n\"you signed the petition against the Bill--aye?\"\n\n\"Yees, zur.  I zined summit, zur.\"\n\n\"But that petition--did you sign that petition?\"\n\n\"I do'ant nar, zur; I zined zummit, zur.\"\n\n\"But don't you know the contents of the petition?\"\n\n\"The what, zur?\"\n\n\"The contents; what's in it.\"\n\n\"Oa!  Noa, zur.\"\n\n\"You don't know what's in the petition!--Why, ain't you the petitioner\nhimself?\"\n\n\"Noa, zur, I doan't nar that I be, zur.\"\n\n[\"Snooks!  Snooks!  Snooks!\" issued a voice from a stout and\nbenevolent-looking elderly gentleman from behind, \"how can you say so,\nSnooks?  It's your petition.\"  The prompting, however, seemed to produce\nbut little impression upon him for whom it was intended, whatever effect\nit may have had upon the minds of those whose ears it reached, but for\nwhose service it was not intended].\n\n\"Really, Mr. Chairman,\" observed the Agent for the Bill, who appeared to\nhave no idea of _Burking_ the inquiry, \"this is growing interesting.\"\n\n\"The interest is all on your side,\" remarked the Agent for the petition\n(against the Bill).\n\n\"Now, Snooks,\" continued the Agent for the Bill, \"apply your mind to the\nquestions I shall put to you, and let me caution you to reply to them\ntruly and honestly.  Now, tell me--who got you to sign this petition?\"\n\n\"I object to the question,\" interposed the Agent for the petition.  \"The\nmatter altogether is descending into mean, trivial, and unnecessary\ndetails, which I am surprised my friend opposite should attempt to\ntrouble the Committee with.\"\n\n\"I can readily understand, sir,\" replied the other, \"why my friend is so\nanxious to get rid of this inquiry--simple and short as it will be; but I\ntrust, sir, that you will consider it of sufficient importance to allow\nit to proceed.  I purpose to put only a few questions more on this\nextraordinary petition against the Bill (the bare meaning of the name of\nwhich the petitioner does not seem to understand) for the purpose of\neliciting some further information respecting it.\"\n\nThe Committee being thus appealed to by both parties, inclined their\nheads for a few moments in order to facilitate a communication in\nwhispers, and then decided that the inquiry might proceed.  It was\nevident that the matter had excited an interest in the minds and breasts\nof the honourable members of the Committee; created as much perhaps by\nthe extreme mean and poverty-stricken appearance of the witness--a\nmiserable, dirty, and decrepit old man--as by the disclosures he had\nalready made.\n\n\"Well, Snooks, I was about to ask you (when my friend interrupted me) who\ngot you to sign the petition, or that zummit as you call it?\"\n\n\"Some genelmen, zur.\"\n\n\"Who were they--do you know their names?\"\n\n\"Noa, zur, co'ant say I do nar 'em a', zur.\"\n\n\"But do you know any of them, was that gentleman behind you one?\"\n\n[The gentleman referred to was the fine benevolent-looking individual who\nhad previously kindly endeavoured to assist the witness in his answers,\nand who stood the present scrutiny with marked composure and\ncomplaisance].\n\n\"Yees, zur, he war one on 'em.\"\n\n\"Do you know his name?\"\n\n\"Noa, zur, I doant; but he be one of the railway genelmen.\"\n\n\"What did he say to you, when he requested you to sign the petition?\"\n\n\"He said I ware to zine (pointing to the petition) that zummit.\"\n\n\"When and where, pray, did you sign it?\"\n\n\"A lot o' railway genelmen kum to me on Sunday night last; and they wo'\nmake me do it, zur.\"\n\n\"On Sunday night last, aye!\"\n\n\"What, on Sunday night!\" exclaimed one honourable member on the extreme\nright of the Chairman, with horror depicted on his countenance; \"are you\nsure, witness, that it was done in the evening of a Sabbath?\"\n\n\"The honourable member asks you, whether you are certain that you were\ncalled upon by the railway gentlemen to sign the petition on a Sunday\nevening?  I think you told me last Sunday evening.\"\n\n\"Oa, yees, zur; they kum just as we war a garing to chapel.\"\n\n\"Disgraceful, and wrong in the extreme!\" ejaculated the honourable\nmember.\n\n\"And did not that gentleman\" (continued the Agent for the Bill), \"nor any\nof the railway gentlemen, as you call them, when they requested you to\nsign, explain the nature and contents of the petition?\"\n\n\"Noa, zur.\"\n\n\"Then you don't know at this moment what it's for?\"\n\n\"Noa, zur.\"\n\n\"Of course, therefore, it's not your petition as set forth?\"\n\n\"I doant nar, zur.  I zined zummit.\"\n\n\"Now, answer me, do you object to this line of railway?  Have you any\ndislike to it?\"\n\n\"O, noa, zur.  I shud loak to zee it kum.\"\n\n\"Exactly, you should like to see it made.  So you have been led to\npetition against it, though you are favourable to it?\"\n\nThe petitioner against the Bill did not appear to comprehend the precise\ndrift of the remark, and his only reply to the wordy fix into which the\nlearned agent had drawn him was made in the dumb-show of scratching with\nhis one disengaged hand (the other being employed in holding his hat) his\nuncombed head--an operation that created much laughter, which was not\ndamped by the Agent's putting, with a serious face, a concluding question\nor remark to him to the effect that he presumed he (the witness) had not\npaid, or engaged to pay, so many guineas a day to his friend on the other\nside for the prosecution of the opposition against the Bill--had he; yes,\nor no?  The witness's appearance was the only and best answer.\n\nThe petition, of course, upon this _expose_, was withdrawn.\n\nThis, the substance of what actually took place before one of the\nSub-Committees on Standing orders will give some idea of the nature of\nmany of the petitions against Railway Bills, especially on technical\npoints.  It will serve to show in some measure what heartless mockeries\nthese petitions mostly are; the moral evils they give birth to--and that,\neven while complaining of errors, they are themselves made up of\nfalsehood.\n\n\n\n\nAN IDEA ON RAILWAYS.\n\n\nA happy comment on the annihilation of time and space by locomotive\nagency, is as follows:--A little child who rode fifty miles in a railway\ntrain, and then took a coach to her uncle's house, some five miles\nfurther, was asked on her arrival if she came by the cars.  \"We came a\nlittle way in the cars, and all the rest of the way in a carriage.\"\n\n\n\n\nBURNING THE ROAD CLEAR.\n\n\nIt is related of Colonel Thomas A. Scott, that on one occasion, when\nmaking one of his swift trips over the American lines under his control,\nhis train was stopped by the wreck of a goods train.  There was a dozen\nheavily loaded covered trucks piled up on the road, and it would take a\nlong time to get help from the nearest accessible point, and probably\nhours more to get the track cleared by mere force of labour.  He surveyed\nthe difficulty, made a rough calculation of the cost of a total\ndestruction of the freight, and promptly made up his mind to burn the\nroad clear.  By the time the relief train came the flames had done their\nwork and nothing remained but to patch up a few injuries done to the\ntrack so as to enable him to pursue his way.\n\n\n\n\nHARSH TREATMENT OF A MAN OF COLOUR.\n\n\nMy treatment in the use of public conveyances about these times was\nextremely rough, especially on \"The Eastern Railroad,\" from Boston to\nPortland.  On the road, as on many others, there was a mean, dirty, and\nuncomfortable car set apart for  travellers, called the \"Jim\nCrow\" car.  Regarding this as the fruit of slaveholding prejudice, and\nbeing determined to fight the spirit of slavery wherever I might find it,\nI resolved to avoid this car, though it sometimes required some courage\nto do so.  The <DW52> people generally accepted the situation, and\ncomplained of me as making matters worse rather than better, by refusing\nto submit to this proscription.  I, however, persisted, and sometimes was\nsoundly beaten by the conductor and brakeman.  On one occasion, six of\nthese \"fellows of the baser sort,\" under the direction of the conductor,\nset out to eject me from my seat.  As usual, I had purchased a\nfirst-class ticket, and paid the required sum for it, and on the\nrequirement of the conductor to leave, refused to do so, when he called\non these men \"to snake me out.\"  They attempted to obey with an air which\nplainly told me they relished the job.  They, however, found me _much\nattached_ to my seat, and in removing me tore away two or three of the\nsurrounding ones, on which I held with a firm grasp, and did the car no\nservice in some respects.  I was strong and muscular, and the seats were\nnot then so firmly attached or of as solid make as now.  The result was\nthat Stephen A. Chase, superintendent of the road, ordered all passenger\ntrains to pass through Lynn, where I then lived, without stopping.  This\nwas a great inconvenience to the people, large numbers of whom did\nbusiness in Boston, and at other points of the road.  Led on, however, by\nJames N. Buffum, Jonathon Buffum, Christopher Robinson, William Bassett,\nand others, the people of Lynn stood bravely by me, and denounced the\nrailway management in emphatic terms.  Mr. Chase made reply that a\nrailroad corporation was neither a religious nor a reformatory body; and\nthat the road was run for the accommodation of the public; and that it\nrequired the exclusion of the <DW52> people from its cars.  With an air\nof triumph he told us that we ought not to expect a railroad company to\nbe better than the Evangelical Church, and that until the churches\nabolished the \"<DW64> pew,\" we ought not to expect the railroad company to\nabolish the <DW64> car.  This argument was certainly good enough as\nagainst the Church, but good for nothing as against the demands of\njustice and equity.  My old and dear friend, J. N. Buffum, made a point\nagainst the company that they \"often allowed dogs and monkeys to ride in\nfirst-class cars, and yet excluded a man like Frederick Douglass!\"  In a\nvery few years this barbarous practice was put away, and I think there\nhave been no instances of such exclusion during the past thirty years;\nand <DW52> people now, everywhere in New England, ride upon equal terms\nwith other passengers.\n\n                                 --_Life and Times of Frederick Douglass_.\n\n\n\n\nQUITE TOO CLEVER\n\n\nThe elder Dumas was at the railway station, just starting to join his\nyacht at Marseilles.  Several friends had accompanied him, to say\ngood-bye.  Suddenly he was informed that he had a hundred and fifty\nkilogrammes excess of luggage.  \"Ho, ho!\" cried Dumas.  \"How many\nkilogrammes are allowed?\"  \"Thirty for each person,\" was the reply.\nSilently he made a mental calculation, and then in a tone of triumph bade\nhis secretary take places for five.  \"In that way,\" he explained, \"we\nshall have no excess.\"\n\n\n\n\nA DIFFICULTY SOLVED.\n\n\nAmong the improvements that have been carried out at Windsor during the\nautumn, has been an entire alteration in the draining of the Home Park\nabout Frogmore.  New drains have been laid, and the waste earth has been\nused to level the ground.  This portion of the Royal domain was almost\nwild at the beginning of the present reign.  It consisted of fields, with\nlow hedges and deep ditches, and was intersected by a road, on which\nstood several cottages and a public-house.  It was quite an eyesore, and\nPrince Albert was at his wit's end to know how to convert it into a park\nand exclude the public, as before this could be done, it was necessary to\nmake a new road in place of the one it was desired to abolish, and\naltogether a large outlay was inevitable; and even in those days, it was\nout of the question to apply to Parliament for the amount required,\nwhich, I believe, was about 80,000 pounds.\n\nThe difficulty, however, was solved in rather a strange way.  In the\nearly days of railroads they were looked upon as nuisances, and the\nauthorities at Windsor Castle were firmly resolved that no line should\napproach the Royal borough, in which resolution they were warmly\nsupported by the equally stupid and short-sighted managers of Eton\nCollege.  Although the inhabitants sighed for a railway, none was brought\nnearer than Slough.  At this moment, when the park question was being\nagitated, the South Western Directors brought forward a proposition that\nthey should make a line into Windsor, running along one side of the Home\nPark, and right under the Castle.  This audacious idea was regarded with\nindignation at the Castle, until a hint was received that possibly, if\nRoyal interest were forthcoming to support the plan, the Company might be\nable to facilitate the proposed alterations; and it then came out,\nstrangely enough, they had fixed the precise sum needed (80,000 pounds)\nas compensation for the disturbance of the Royal property.  No more was\nheard of the objections to the scheme, which had been so vehemently\ndenounced a few days before, but, no sooner did it transpire that the\nSouth-Western plan was not opposed by the Castle interest than down came\nthe Great-Western authorities in a fever of indignation, for it appeared\nthey had received an explicit promise that, if Windsor was ever\ndesecrated by a railway, they should have the preference.  So resolute\nwas their attitude, that so far as I remember, the sitting of Parliament\nwas actually protracted in order that their Bill might be passed; not\nthat they got it without paying, for they gave 20,000 pounds for an old\nstable and yard which were required for their station, and which happened\nto stand on Crown property.  Things were sometimes managed strangely\nenough in those days.\n\n                                                 --_Truth_, Dec. 29, 1881.\n\n\n\n\nAN EXACTING LADY.\n\n\nA lady of fashion with a pugdog and a husband entered the train at\nPaddington the other day.  There were in the carriage but two persons, a\nwell-known Professor and his wife; yet the lady of fashion coveted, not\nindeed his chair, but his seat.  \"I wish to sit by the window, sir,\" she\nsaid, imperiously, and he had to move accordingly.  \"No, sir, that won't\ndo,\" she said, as he meekly took the next place.  \"I can't have a\nstranger sitting close to me.  My husband must sit where you are.\"\n\n                                                   _Gentleman's Magazine_.\n\n\n\n\nAMERICAN PATIENCE AND IMPERTURBABILITY.\n\n\nAbout an hour after midnight, on our journey from Boston to Albany, we\ncame to a sudden pause where no station was visible; and immediately,\nvery much to my surprise, the engine-driver, conductor, and several\npassengers were seen sallying forth with lanterns, and hastening down the\nembankment on our right.  \"What are they going to do now?\" said I to a\ngentleman, who, like myself, kept his seat.  \"Only to take a look at some\ncars that were smashed this morning,\" was the reply.  On opening the\nwindow to observe the state of affairs, as well as the darkness would\nallow, there, to be sure, at the bottom and along the side of the high\nbank, lay an unhappy train, just as it had been upset.  The locomotive on\nits side was partly buried in the earth; and the cars which had followed\nit in its descent lay in a confused heap behind.  On the top of the bank,\nnear to us, the last car of all stood obliquely on end, with its hind\nwheels in the air in a somewhat grotesque and threatening attitude.  All\nwas now still and silent.  The killed and wounded, if there were any, had\nbeen removed.  No living thing was visible but the errant engineer and\nothers from our train clambering with lanterns in their hands over a\nprostrate wreck, and with heedless levity passing critical remarks on the\ncatastrophe.  Curiosity being satisfied all resumed their places, and the\ntrain moved on without a murmur of complaint as to the unnecessary, and,\nconsidering the hour, very undesirable delay.  I allude to the\ncircumstance, as one of a variety of facts that fell within my\nobservation, illustrative of the singular degree of patience and\nimperturbability with which railway travellers in America submit\nuncomplainingly to all sorts of detentions on their journey.\n\n                    _Things as they are in America_, by W. Chambers, 1853.\n\n\n\n\nA WIDE-AWAKE CONDUCTOR.\n\n\nDana Krum, one of the conductors on the Erie Railway, was approached\nbefore train time by an unknown man, who spoke to him as if he had known\nhim for years.  \"I say, Dana,\" said he, \"I have forgotten my pass, and I\nwant to go to Susquehanna; I am a fireman on the road, you know.\"  But\nthe conductor told him he ought to have a pass with him.  It was the\nsafest way.  Pretty soon, Dana came along to collect tickets.  Seeing his\nman, he spoke when he reached him.  \"Say, my friend, have you got the\ntime with you?\"  \"Yes,\" said he, as he pulled out a watch, \"it is twenty\nminutes past nine.\"  \"Oh, it is, is it?  Now, if you don't show me your\npass or fare, I will stop the train.  There is no railway man that I ever\nsaw who would say 'Twenty minutes past nine.'  He would say,\n'Nine-twenty.'\"  He settled.\n\n\n\n\nA KID-GLOVED SAMSON.\n\n\nA correspondent of the _Chicago Journal_ relates the following feat of\nstrength, to which he was witness:--\n\n\"On Sunday, about nine o'clock A.M., as the train westward was within\nthree or four miles of Chicago, on the Fort Wayne road, a horse was\ndiscovered on the stilt-work between the rails.  The train was stopped,\nand workmen were sent to clear the track.  It was then discovered that\nthe body of the horse was resting on the sleepers.  His legs having\npassed through the open spaces, were too short to reach the ground.\nBoards and rails were brought, and the open space in front of the horse\nfilled up, making a plank road for him in case he should be got up, and\nby means of ropes one of his fore feet was raised, and there matters came\nto a halt.  It seemed that no strength or stratagem could avail to\nrelease the animal.  Levers of boards were splintered, and the men tugged\nat the ropes in vain, when a passenger, who was looking quietly on,\nstepped forward, leisurely slipped off a pair of tinted kids, seized the\nhorse by the tail, and with tremendous force hurled him forward on the\nplank road.  No one assisted, and, indeed, the whole thing was done so\nquickly that assistance was impossible.  The horse walked away looking\nfoolish, and casting suspicious side-glances towards his caudal\nextremity.  The lookers-on laughed and shouted, while the stranger\nresumed his kids, muttering something about the inconvenience of railway\ndelays, lit a cigar, and walked slowly into the smoking car.  He was\nfinely formed, of muscular appearance, was very fashionably dressed, wore\na moustache and whiskers of an auburn or reddish colour, and to all\nquestions as to who he was, only answered that he was a Pennsylvanian\ntravelling westward for his health.  The horse would certainly weigh at\nleast twelve hundred.\"\n\n\n\n\nA RAILWAY TRAIN TURNED INTO A MAN-TRAP.\n\n\nA branch of the Bombay presidency runs through a wild region, the\ninhabitants of which are unsophisticated savages, addicted to thievery.\nThe first day the line was opened a number of these Arcadians conspired\nto intercept the train, and have a glorious loot.  To accomplish their\nobject they placed some trunks of trees across the rails; but the engine\ndriver, keeping a very sharp look out, as it happened to be his first\ntrip on the line in question, descried the trunks while yet they were at\na considerable distance from him.  The breaks were then put on, and when\nthe locomotive had approached within a couple of feet of the trunks it\nwas brought to a standstill.  Then, instantaneously, like Roderick Dhu's\nclansmen starting from the heather, natives, previously invisible,\nswarmed up on all sides, and, crowding into the carriages, began to\npillage and plunder everything they could lay their hands upon.  While\nthey were thus engaged, the guard gave the signal to the driver, who at\nonce reversed his engine and put it to the top of its speed.  The reader\nmay judge of the consternation of the robbers when they found themselves\nwhirled backwards at a pace that rendered escape impossible.  Some poor\nfellows that attempted it were killed on the spot.\n\n                                   --_Central India Times_, June 22, 1867.\n\n\n\n\nTHE RULING OCCUPATION STRONG ON SUNDAY.\n\n\nIn an Episcopal church in the north, not one hundred miles from Keith, a\nporter employed during the week at the railway station, does duty on\nSunday by blowing the bellows of the organ.  The other Sunday, wearied by\nthe long hours of railway attendance, combined, it may be, with the\nsoporific effects of a dull sermon, he fell sound asleep during the\nservice, and so remained when the pealing of the organ was required.  He\nwas suddenly and rather rudely awakened by another official when\napparently dreaming of an approaching train, as he started to his feet\nand roared out, with all the force and shrillness of stentorian lungs and\nhabit, \"Change here for Elgin, Lossiemouth, and Burghead.\"  The effect\nupon the congregation, sitting in expectation of a concord of sweet\nsounds, may be imagined--it is unnecessary to describe it.\n\n                                               --_Dumfries Courier_, 1866.\n\n\n\n\nTHE GOOD THINGS OF RAILWAY ACCIDENTS.\n\n\nWe have always thought that, except to lawyers and railway carriage and\nlocomotive builders, railway accidents were great misfortunes, but it is\nevident we were wrong and we hasten to acknowledge our error.  Speaking\non Thursday with a respectable broker about the heavy damages (2,000\npounds) given the day before on account of the Tottenham accident against\nthe Eastern Counties Company in the Court of Exchequer, he observed, \"It\nis rather good when these things happen as it moves the stock.  I have\nhad an order for some days to buy Eastern Counties at 56 and could not do\nit, but this verdict has sent them down one per cent., and enabled me now\nto buy it.\"  With all our railway experience we never dreamt of such a\nbenefit as this accruing from railway accidents, but it is evidently\namong the possibilities.\n\n                           --_Herepath's Railway Journal_, June 7th, 1860.\n\n\n\n\nBENEFICIAL EFFECT OF A RAILWAY ACCIDENT.\n\n\nA gentleman who was in a railway collision in 1869, wrote to the _Times_\nin November of that year.  After stating that he had been threatened with\na violent attack of rheumatic fever; in fact, he observed, \"my condition\nso alarmed me, and my dread of a sojourn in a Manchester hotel bed for\ntwo or three months was so great, that I resolved to make a bold sortie\nand, well wrapped up, start for London by the 3.30 p.m. Midland fast\ntrain.  From the time of leaving that station to the time of the\ncollision, my heart was going at express speed; my weak body was in a\nprofuse perspiration; flashes of pain announced that the muscular fibres\nwere under the tyrannical control of rheumatism, and I was almost beside\nmyself with toothache.  From the moment of the collision to the present\nhour no ache, pain, sweat, or tremor has troubled me in the slightest\ndegree, and instead of being, as I expected, and indeed intended, in bed\ndrinking _tinct. aurantii_, or absorbing through my pores oil of\nhorse-chestnut, I am conscientiously bound to be at my office bodily\nsound.  Don't print my name and address, or the Midland Company may come\ndown upon me for compensation.\"\n\n\n\n\nAN EARLY MORNING RIDE TO THE RAILWAY STATION.\n\n\nIn the course of his peregrinations, the railway traveller may find\nhimself in some out-of-the-way place, where no regular vehicle can be\nobtained to convey him to the station, and this _contretemps_ is\naggravated when the time of departure happens to be early in the morning.\nCaptain B--, a man of restless energy and adventurous spirit, emerged\nearly one morning from a hovel in a distant village, where from stress of\nweather he had been compelled to pass the night.  It was just dawn of\nday, and within an hour of the train he wished to go by would start from\nthe station, about six miles distant.  He had with him a portmanteau,\nwhich it would be impossible for him to carry within the prescribed time,\nbut which he could not very well leave behind.  Pondering on what he\nshould do, his eye lighted on a likely looking horse grazing in a field\nhard by, while in the next field there was a line extended between two\nposts, for the purpose of drying clothes upon.  The sight of these\nobjects soon suggested the plan for him to adopt.  In an instant he\ndetached the line, and then taking a piece of bread from his pocket,\ncoaxed the animal to approach him.  Captain B-- was an adept in the\nmanagement of horses, and as a rough rider, perhaps, had no equal.  In a\nfew seconds he had, by the aid of a portion of the line, arranged his\nportmanteau pannier-wise across the horse's back, and forming a bridle\nwith the remaining portion of the line, he led his steed into the lane,\nand sprang upon his back.  The horse rather relished the trip than\notherwise, and what with the unaccustomed burden, and the consciousness\nthat he was being steered by a knowing hand, he sped onwards at a\nterrific pace.  While in mid career, one of the mounted police espied the\ncaptain coming along the road at a distance; recognizing the horse, but\nnot knowing the rider, and noticing also the portmanteau, and the uncouth\nequipment, this rural guardian of the peace came to the conclusion that\nthis was a case of robbery and horse stealing; and as the captain neared\nhim, he endeavoured to stop him, and stretched forth his hand to seize\nthe improvised bridle, but the gallant equestrian laughed to scorn the\nimpotent attempt, and shook him off, and shot by him.  Thus foiled, the\npoliceman had nothing to do than to give chase; so turning his horse's\nhead he followed in full cry.  The clatter and shouts of pursuer and\npursued brought forth the inhabitants of the cottages as they passed, and\nmany of these joined in the chase.  Never since Turpin's ride to York, or\nJohnny Gilpin's ride to Edmonton, had there been such a commotion caused\nby an equestrian performance.  To make a long story short, the captain\nreached the station in ample time; an explanation ensued; a handsome\napology was tendered to the patrol, and a present equally handsome was\nforwarded, together with the abstracted property, to the joint owner of\nthe horse and the clothes-line.\n\n\n\n\nCHEAP FARES.\n\n\nIn the year 1868, Mr. Raphael Brandon brought out a book called _Railways\nand the Public_.  In it he proposes that the railways should be purchased\nand worked by the government; and that passengers, like letters, should\ntravel any distance at a fixed charge.  He calculates that a threepenny\nstamp for third-class, a sixpenny stamp for second-class, and a shilling\nstamp for first-class, should take a passenger any distance whether long\nor short.  With the adoption of the scheme, he believes, such an impetus\nwould be given to passenger traffic that the returns would amount to more\nthan double what they are at present.  There may be flaws in Mr.\nBrandon's theory, yet it may be within the bounds of possibility that\nsome great innovator may rise up and do for the travelling public by way\nof organization what Sir Rowland Hill has done for the postage of the\ncountry by the penny stamp.\n\n\n\n\nWHAT ARE YOU GOING TO DO?\n\n\nThe above question was asked by a man of his friend who had been injured\nin a railway accident, \"I am first going in for repairs, and then for\n_damages_,\" was the answer.\n\n\n\n\nREPROOF FOR SWEARING.\n\n\nThe manager of one of the great Indian railways, in addressing a European\nsubordinate given to indulge in needless strong language, wrote as\nfollows:--\"Dear sir, it is with extreme regret that I have to bring to\nyour notice that I observed very unprofessional conduct on your part this\nmorning when making a trial trip.  I allude to the abusive language you\nused to the drivers and others.  This I consider an unwarrantable\nassumption of my duties and functions, and, I may say, rights and\nprivileges.  Should you wish to abuse any of our employes, I think it\nwill be best in future to do so in regular form, and I beg to point out\nwhat I consider this to be.  You will please to submit to me, in writing,\nthe form of oath you wish to use, when, if it meets my approval, I shall\nat once sanction it; but if not, I shall refer the same to the directors;\nand, in the course of a few weeks, their decision will be known.\nPerhaps, to save time, it might be as well for you to submit a list of\nthe expletives generally in use by you, and I can then at once refer\nthose to which I object to the directors for their decision.  But,\npending that, you will please to understand that all cursing and swearing\nat drivers and others engaged on the traffic arrangements in which you\nmay wish to indulge must be done in writing, and through me.  By adopting\nthis course you will perceive how much responsibility you will save\nyourself, and how very much the business of the company will be\nexpedited, and its interests promoted.\"\n\n\n\n\nTHE BULLY RIGHTLY SERVED.\n\n\nIn the _Railway Traveller's Handy Book_, there is an account of an\noccurrence which took place on the Eastern Counties line:--\"A big hulking\nfellow, with bully written on his face, took his seat in a second-class\ncarriage, and forthwith commenced insulting everybody by his words and\ngestures.  He was asked to desist, but only responded with language more\nabusive.  The guard was then appealed to, who told him to mind what he\nwas about, shut the door, and cried 'all right.'  Thus encouraged the\nmiscreant continued his disgraceful conduct, and became every moment more\noutrageous.  In one part of the carriage were four farmers sitting who\nall came from the same neighbourhood, and to whom every part along the\nline was well known.  One of these wrote on a slip of paper these words,\n'Let us souse him in Chuckley Slough.'  This paper was handed from one to\nthe other, and each nodded assent.  Now, Chuckley Slough was a pond near\none of the railway stations, not very deep, but the waters of which were\nblack, muddy, and somewhat repellent to the olfactory nerves.  The\nstation was neared and arrived at; in the meantime the bully's conduct\nbecame worse and worse.  As they emerged from the station, one of the\nfarmers, aforesaid, said to the fellow, 'Now, will you he quiet?'  'No, I\nwon't,' was the answer.  'You won't, won't you?' asked a second farmer.\n'You're determined you won't?' inquired a third.  'You're certain you\nwon't?' asked the fourth.  To all of which queries the response was in\nnegatives, with certain inelegant expletives added thereto.  'Then,' said\nthe four farmers speaking as one man, and rising in a body, 'out you go.'\nSo saying, they seized the giant form of the wretch, who struggled hard\nto escape but to no purpose; they forced him to the window, and while the\ntrain was still travelling at a slow pace, and Chuckley Slough appeared\nto view, they without more ado thrust the huge carcass through the\nwindow, and propelling it forward with some force, landed it exactly in\nthe centre of the black, filthy slough.  The mingled cries and oaths of\nthe man were something fearful to hear; his attempts at extrication and\nincessant slipping still deeper in the mire, something ludicrous to\nwitness; all the passengers watched him with feelings of gratified\nrevenge, and the last that was seen of him was a huge black mass, having\nno traces of humanity about it, crawling up the bank in a state of utter\nprostration.  In this instance the remedy was rather a violent one; but\nless active measures had been found to fail, and there can be little\ndoubt that this man took care ever afterwards not to run the risk of a\nsimilar punishment by indulging in conduct of a like nature.\"\n\n\n\n\nLIABILITY OF COMPANIES FOR DELAY OF TRAINS.\n\n\nThere have been cases where claims have been made and recovered in courts\nof law for loss arising from delay in the arrival of trains, but the law\ndoes not render the company's liability unlimited.  A remarkable case\noccurred not long since.  A Mr. Le Blanche sued the London and\nNorth-Western Company for the cost of a special train to Scarborough,\nwhich he had ordered in consequence of his being brought from Liverpool\nto Leeds, too late for the ordinary train from Leeds to Scarborough.  A\njudgment in the county court was given in favour of the applicant.\n\nThe railway company appealed to the superior court, and the points raised\nwere argued by able counsel, when the decision of the county court judge\nwas confirmed.  The company was determined to put the case to the utmost\npossible test, and on appealing to the Supreme Court of Judicature the\njudgment was reversed, the decision being to the effect that, whilst\nthere was some evidence of wilful delay, the measure of damage was wrong.\n\n                                      --_Our Railways_, by Joseph Parsloe.\n\n\n\n\nTHE DYING ENGINE DRIVER.\n\n\nDoubts have been expressed whether our iron ships will ever be regarded\nin the same affectionate way as \"liners\" used to be regarded by our \"old\nsalts.\"  It has been supposed that the latest creations of science will\nnot nourish sentiment.  The following anecdote shows, however, as\nromantic an attachment to iron as was ever manifested towards wood.  On\nthe Great Western Railway, the broad gauge and the narrow gauge are\nmixed; the former still existing to the delight of travellers by the\n\"Flying Dutchman,\" whatever economical shareholders may have to say to\nthe contrary.  The officials who have been longest on the staff also\ncling to the broad gauge, like faithful royalists to a fast disappearing\ndynasty.  The other day an ancient guard on this line was knocked down\nand run over by an engine; and though good enough medical attendance was\nat hand, had skill been of any use, the dying man wished to see \"the\ncompany's\" doctor.  The gentleman, a man much esteemed by all the\nemployes, was accordingly sent for.  \"I am glad you came to see me start,\ndoctor, (as I hope) by the up-train,\" said the poor man.  \"I am only\nsorry I can do nothing for you, my good fellow,\" answered the other.  \"I\nknow that; it is all over with me.  But there!--I'm glad it was _not one\nof them narrow-gauge engines that did it_!\"\n\n                                                 --_Gentleman's Magazine_.\n\n\n\n\n\"DOWN BRAKES,\" OR FORCE OF HABIT.\n\n\nAn Illinois captain, lately a railroad conductor, was drilling a squad,\nand while marching them by flank, turned to speak to a friend for a\nmoment.  On looking again toward his squad, he saw they were in the act\nof \"butting up\" against a fence.  In his hurry to halt them, he cried,\n\"Down brakes!  Down brakes!\"\n\n\n\n\nTRENT STATION.\n\n\nThis station on the Midland system is often a source of no little\nperplexity to strangers.  Sir Edward Beckett thus humorously describes\nit:--\"You arrive at Trent.  Where that is I cannot tell.  I suppose it is\nsomewhere near the river Trent, but then the Trent is a very long river.\nYou get out of your train to obtain refreshment, and having taken it, you\nendeavour to find your train and your carriage.  But whether it is on\nthis side or that, and whether it is going north or south, this way or\nthat way, you cannot tell.  Bewildered, you frantically rush into your\ncarriage; the train moves off round a curve, and then you are horrified\nto see some lights glaring in front of you, and you are in immediate\nexpectation of a collision, when your fellow-passenger calms your fears\nby telling you that they are only the tail lamps of your own train.\"\n\n\n\n\nSTEEL RAILS.\n\n\nThe first steel rail was made in 1857, by Mushet, at the Ebbw-Vale Iron\nCo.'s works in South Wales.  It was rolled from cast blooms of Bessemer\nsteel and laid down at Derby, England, and remained sixteen years, during\nwhich time 250 trains and at least 250 detached engines and tenders\npassed over it daily.  Taking 312 working days in each year, we have the\ntotal of 1,252,000 trains and 1,252,000 detached engines and tenders\nwhich passed over it from the time it was first laid before it was\nremoved to be worked over.\n\nThe substitution of steel for iron, to an extent rendered possible by the\nBessemer process, has worked a great and abiding change in the condition\nof our ways, giving greater endurance both in respect of wear and in\nresistance to breaking strains and jars.\n\nTwo steel rails of twenty-one feet in length were laid on the 2nd of May,\n1862, at the Chalk Farm Bridge, side by side with two ordinary rails.\nAfter having outlasted sixteen faces of the ordinary rails, the steel\nones were taken up and examined, and it was found that at the expiration\nof three years and three months, the surface was evenly worn to the\nextent of only a little more than a quarter of an inch, and to all\nappearance they were capable of enduring a great deal more work.  The\nresult of this trial was to induce the London and North Western to enter\nvery extensively into the employment of steel rails.\n\n                                       _Knight's Dictionary of Mechanics_.\n\n\n\n\nCURIOUS CASUALTY.\n\n\nOut of three truck loads of cattle on the Great Western Railway two of\nthe animals were struck dead by the lightning on Monday afternoon, July\n5, 1852, not very far from Swindon.  What renders it remarkable is, that\none animal only in each of the two trucks was struck, and five or six\nanimals in each escaped uninjured.  The animal killed in one of the\ntrucks was a bull, the cows escaping injury, and in the other truck it\nwas a bull or an ox that was killed.\n\n\n\n\nGEORGE STEPHENSON'S WEDDING PRESENT.\n\n\nA correspondent, writing to the _Derbyshire Courier_ the week following\nthe Stephenson Centenary celebration at Chesterfield, remarks:--\"The\nother day I met a kindly and venerable gentleman who possesses quite a\nfund of anecdotes relating to the Stephensons, father and son.  It\nappears we have, or had, relations of old George residing in Derby.\nYears ago, says my friend, an old gentleman, who by his appearance and\ncarriage was stamped as a man distinguished among his fellow-men, was\ninquiring on Derby platform for a certain engine-driver in the North\nMidland or the Birmingham and Derby service, whose name he gave.  On the\ndriver being pointed out, the gentleman, with the rough but pleasing\nnorth-country burr in his voice, said, after asking his name, \"Did you\nmarry --?\"  \"Yes, sir.\"  \"Then she's my niece, and I hope you'll make her\na good husband.  I have not had the chance of giving you a wedding\npresent until now.\"  Then slipping into his hand a bank note for 50\npounds, he talked of other matters.  The joy of the engine-driver at\nreceiving so welcome a present was not greater than being recognised and\nkindly received by his wife's illustrious uncle, George Stephenson.\"\n\n\n\n\nTHE POLITE IRISHMAN.\n\n\nIt's a small matter, but a gentleman always feels angry at himself after\nhe has given up his seat, in a railway car, to a female who lacks the\ngood manners to acknowledge the favour.  The following \"hint\" to the\nladies will show that a trifle of politeness properly spread on, often\nhas a happy effect.\n\nThe seats were all full, one of which was occupied by a rough-looking\nIrishman; and at one of the stations a couple of evidently well-bred and\nintelligent young ladies came in to procure seats, but seeing no vacant\nones, were about to go into a back car, when Patrick rose hastily, and\noffered them his seat, with evident pleasure.  \"But you will have no seat\nyourself?\" responded one of the young ladies with a smile, hesitating,\nwith true politeness, as to accepting it.  \"Never ye mind _that_!\" said\nthe Hibernian, \"ye'r welcome to 't!  I'd ride upon the cow-catcher till\nNew York, any time, for a smile from such _jintlemanly_ ladies;\" and\nretreated hastily to the next car, amid the cheers of those who had\nwitnessed the affair.\n\n\n\n\nAN ENTERTAINING COMPANION.\n\n\nOnce, during a tour in the Western States, writes Mr. Florence, the\nactor, an incident occurred in which I rather think I played the victim.\nWe were _en route_ from Cleveland to Cincinnati, an eight or ten-hour\njourney.  After seeing my wife comfortably seated, I walked forward to\nthe smoking car, and, taking the only unoccupied place, pulled out my\ncigar case, and offered a cigar to my next neighbour.  He was about sixty\nyears of age, gentlemanly in appearance, and of a somewhat reserved and\nbashful mien.  He gracefully accepted the cigar, and in a few minutes we\nwere engaged in conversation.\n\n\"Are you going far west?\" I inquired.\n\n\"Merely so far as Columbus.\"  (Columbus, I may explain is the capital of\nOhio.)  \"And you, sir?\" he added, interrogatively.\n\n\"I am journeying toward Cincinnati.  I am a theatrical man, and play\nthere to-morrow night.\"  I was a young man then, and fond of avowing my\nprofession.\n\n\"Oh, indeed!  Your face seemed familiar to me as you entered the car.  I\nam confident we have met before.\"\n\n\"I have acted in almost every State in the Union,\" said I.  \"Mrs.\nFlorence and I are pretty generally known throughout the north-west.\"\n\n\"Bless me?\" said the stranger in surprise, \"I have seen you act many\ntimes, sir, and the recollection of Mrs. Florence's 'Yankee Girl,' with\nher quaint songs, is still fresh in my memory.\"\n\n\"Do you propose remaining long in Columbus?\"\n\n\"Yes, for seven years,\" replied my companion.\n\nThus we chatted for an hour or two.  At length my attention was attracted\nto a little, red-faced man, with small sharp eyes, who sat immediately\nopposite us and amused himself by sucking the knob of a large walking\nstick which he carried caressingly in his hand.  He had more than once\nglanced at me in a knowing manner, and now and then gave a sly wink and\nshake of the head at me, as much as to say, \"Ah, old fellow, I know you,\ntoo.\"\n\nThese attentions were so marked that I finally asked my companion if he\nhad noticed them.\n\n\"That poor man acts like a lunatic,\" said I, _sotto voce_.\n\n\"A poor half-witted fellow, possibly,\" replied my fellow-traveller.  \"In\nyour travels through the country, however, Mr. Florence, you must have\noften met such strange characters.\"\n\nWe had now reached Crestline, the dinner station, and, after thanking the\nstranger for the agreeable way in which he had enabled me to pass the\njourney up to this point, I asked him if he would join Mrs. Florence and\nmyself at dinner.  This produced an extraordinary series of grimaces and\nwinks from the red-faced party aforesaid.  The invitation to dinner was\npolitely declined.\n\nThe repast over, our train sped on toward Cincinnati.  I told my wife\nthat in the smoking car I had met a most entertaining gentleman, who was\nwell posted in theatricals, and was on his way to Columbus.  She\nsuggested that I should bring him into our car, and present him to her.\nI returned to the smoking car and proposed that the gentleman should\naccompany me to see Mrs. Florence.  The proposal made the red-faced man\nundergo a species of spasmodic convulsions which set the occupants of the\ncar into roars of laughter.\n\n\"No, I thank you,\" said my friend, \"I feel obliged to you for the\ncourtesy, but I prefer the smoking car.  Have you another cigar?\"\n\n\"Yes,\" said I, producing another Partaga.\n\nI again sat by his side, and once more our conversation began, and we\nwere quite fraternal.  We talked about theatres and theatricals, and then\nadverted to political economy, the state of the country, finance and\ncommerce in turn, our intimacy evidently affording intense amusement to\nthe foxy-faced party near us.\n\nFinally the shrill sound of the whistle and the entrance of the conductor\nindicated that we had arrived at Columbus, and the train soon arrived at\nthe station.\n\n\"Come,\" said the red-faced individual, now rising from his seat and\ntapping my companion on the shoulder, \"This is your station, old man.\"\n\nMy friend rose with some difficulty, dragging his hitherto concealed feet\nfrom under the seat, when, for the first time, I discovered that he was\nshackled, and was a prisoner in charge of the Sheriff, going for seven\nyears to the state prison at Columbus.\n\n\n\n\nNOVEL ATTACK.\n\n\nAuxerre, November 15th, 1851.--Last week, at the moment when a railway\ntender was passing along the line from Saint Florentin to Tonnerre, a\nwolf boldly leaped upon it and attacked the stoker.  The man immediately\nseized his shovel and repulsed the aggressor, who fell upon the rail and\nwas instantly crushed to pieces.\n\n                                                             --_National_.\n\n\n\n\nWOLVES ON A RAILWAY.\n\n\nIn 1867, \"A cattle train on the Luxemburg Railway was stopped,\" says the\n_Nord_, \"two nights back, between Libramont and Poix by the snow.  The\nbrakesman was sent forward for aid to clear the line, and while the\nguard, fireman, engine-driver, and a customs officer were engaged in\ngetting the snow from under the engine they were alarmed by wolves, of\nwhich there were five, and which were attracted, no doubt, by the scent\nof the oxen and sheep cooped up in railed-in carriages.  The men had no\nweapons save the fire utensils belonging to the engine.  The wolves\nremained in a semicircle a few yards distant, looking keenly on.  The\nengine-driver let off the steam and blew the whistle, and lanterns were\nwaved to and fro, but the savage brutes did not move.  The men then made\ntheir way, followed by the wolves, to the guard's carriage.  Three got in\nsafe; whilst the fourth was on the step one of the animals sprang on him,\nbut succeeded only in tearing his coat.  They all then made an attack,\nbut were beaten off, one being killed by a blow on the head.  Two hours\nelapsed before assistance arrived, and during that time the wolves made\nseveral attacks upon the sheep trucks, but failed to get in.  None of the\ncattle were injured.\"\n\n\n\n\nARTEMUS WARD'S SUGGESTION.\n\n\n\"I was once,\" he remarks, \"on a slow California train, and I went to the\nconductor and suggested that the cowketcher was on the wrong end of the\ntrain; for I said, 'You will never overtake a cow, you know; but if you'd\nput it on the other end it might be useful, for now there's nothin' on\nearth to hinder a cow from walkin' right in and bitin' the folks!\"\n\n\n\n\nCOACH VERSUS RAILWAY ACCIDENTS.\n\n\nA coachman once remarked, \"Why you see, sir, if a coach goes over and\nspills you in the road there you are; but if you are blown up by an\nengine, where are you?\"\n\n\n\n\nBAVARIAN GUARDS AND BAVARIAN BEER.\n\n\n\"In England,\" says Mr. Wilberforce, \"the guard is content to be the\nservant of the train; in Germany he is in command of the passengers.\n'When is the train going on?' asked an Englishman once of a foreign\nguard.  'Whenever I choose,' was the answer.  To judge from the delays\nthe trains make at some of the stations, one would suppose that the guard\nhad uncontrolled power of causing stoppages.  You see him chatting with\nthe station-master for several minutes after all the carriages have been\nshut up, and at last, when the topics of conversation are exhausted, he\ngives a condescending whistle to the engine-driver.  Time seems never to\nbe considered by either guards or passengers.  Bavarians always go to the\nstation half-an-hour before the train is due, and their indifference to\ndelay is so well known that the directors can put on their time book 'As\nthe time of departure from small stations cannot be guaranteed, the\ntravellers must be there twenty-five minutes beforehand.'\"  Mr.\nWilberforce should not have omitted to mention the main cause of these\ndelays, which appears at the same time to constitute the final cause of a\nBavarian's existence--Beer.  Guards and passengers alike require\nalcoholic refreshment at least at every other station.  At Culmbach, the\nfountain of the choicest variety of Bavarian beer, the practice had risen\nto such a head that, as we found last summer, government had been forced\nto interfere.  To prevent trains from dallying if there was beer to drink\nat Culmbach was obviously impossible.  The temptation itself was removed;\nand no beer was any longer allowed to be sold at that fated railway\nstation, by reason of its being so superlatively excellent.\n\n                                                --_Saturday Review_, 1864.\n\n\n\n\nTHE RAILWAY SWITCH-TENDER AND HIS CHILD.\n\n\nOn one of the railroads in Prussia, a few years ago, a switch-tender was\njust taking his place, in order to turn a coming train approaching in a\ncontrary direction.  Just at this moment, on turning his head, he\ndiscerned his little son playing on the track of the advancing engine.\nWhat could he do?  Thought was quick at such a moment of peril!  He might\nspring to his child and rescue him, but he could not do this and turn the\nswitch in time, and for want of that hundreds of lives might be lost.\nAlthough in sore trouble, he could not neglect his greater duty, but\nexclaiming with a loud voice to his son, \"Lie down,\" he laid hold of the\nswitch, and saw the train safely turned on to its proper track.  His boy,\naccustomed to obedience, did as his father commanded him, and the fearful\nheavy train thundered over him.  Little did the passengers dream, as they\nfound themselves quietly resting on that turnout, what terrible anguish\ntheir approach had that day caused to one noble heart.  The father rushed\nto where his boy lay, fearful lest he should find only a mangled corpse,\nbut to his great joy and thankful gratitude he found him alive and\nunharmed.  Prompt obedience had saved him.  Had he paused to argue, to\nreason whether it were best--death, and fearful mutilation of body, would\nhave resulted.  The circumstances connected with this event were made\nknown to the King of Prussia, who the next day sent for the man and\npresented him with a medal of honour for his heroism.\n\n\n\n\nVERY COOL.\n\n\nSome years ago at a railway station a gentleman actually followed a\nperson with a portmanteau, which he thought to be his, but the fellow,\nunabashed, maintaining it to be his own property, the gentleman returned\nto inquire after his, and found, when too late, that his first suspicions\nwere correct.\n\n\n\n\nTHE BLACK REDSTART.\n\n\nA railway carriage had been left for some weeks out of use in the station\nat Giessen, Hesse Darmstadt, in the month of May, 1852, and when the\nsuperintendent came to examine the carriage he found that a black\nredstart had built her nest upon the collision spring; he very humanely\nretained the carriage in its shed until its use was imperatively\ndemanded, and at last attached it to the train which ran to\nFrankfort-on-the-Maine, a distance of nearly forty miles.  It remained at\nFrankfort for thirty-six hours, and was then brought back to Giessen, and\nafter one or two short journeys came back again to rest at Giessen, after\na period of four days.  The young birds were by this time partly fledged,\nand finding that the parent bird had not deserted her offspring, the\nsuperintendent carefully removed the nest to a place of safety, whither\nthe parent soon followed.  The young were, in process of time, full\nfledged and left the nest to shift for themselves.  It is evident that\none at least of the parent birds must have accompanied the nest in all\nits journeys, for, putting aside the difficulty which must have been\nexperienced by the parents in watching for every carriage that arrived at\nGiessen, the nestlings would have perished from hunger during their stay\nat Frankfort, for everyone who has reared young birds is perfectly aware\nthat they need food every two hours.  Moreover, the guard of the train\nrepeatedly saw a red-tailed bird flying about that part of the carriage\non which the nest was placed.\n\n\n\n\nSTOPPING A RUNAWAY COUPLE.\n\n\nCaptain Galton who some years ago was the government railway inspector,\nin one of his reports relates the following singular circumstance.  \"A\ngirl who was in love with the engine-driver of a train, had engaged to\nrun away from her father's house in order to be married.  She arranged to\nleave by a train this man was driving.  Her father and brother got\nintelligence of her intended escape; and having missed catching her as\nshe got into the train, they contrived, whether with or without the\nassistance of a porter is not very clear, to turn the train through\nfacing points, as it left the station, into a bog.\"  The captain does not\npursue the subject further in his report, so that we are left in\nignorance as to the success of the plan for stopping a contemplated\nrunaway marriage.\n\n\n\n\nA MADMAN IN A RAILWAY CARRIAGE.\n\n\nWe subjoin from the _Annual Register_ for 1864 an account of an alarming\noccurrence which took place July 4th of that year:--\"In one of the\nthird-class compartments of the express train leaving King's Cross\nStation at 9.15 p.m., a tall and strongly-built man, dressed as a sailor,\nand having a wild and haggard look, took his seat about three minutes\nbefore the train started.  He was accompanied to the carriage by a woman,\nwhom he afterwards referred to as his wife, and by a man, apparently a\ncab-driver, of both of whom he took leave when the train was about to\nstart.  It had scarcely done so, when, on putting his hand to his pocket,\nhe called out that he had been robbed of his purse, containing 17 pounds,\nand at once began to shout and gesticulate in a manner which greatly\nalarmed his fellow-travellers, four in number, in the same compartment.\nHe continued to roar and swear with increasing violence for some time,\nand then made an attempt to throw himself out of the window.  He threw\nhis arms and part of his body out of the window, and had just succeeded\nin placing one of his legs out, when the other occupants of the carriage,\nwho had been endeavouring to keep him back, succeeded in dragging him\nfrom the window.  Being foiled in this attempt, he turned round upon\nthose who had been instrumental in keeping him back.  After a long and\nsevere struggle, which--notwithstanding the speed the train was running\nat--was heard in the adjoining compartments, the sailor was overcome by\nthe united exertions of the party, and was held down in a prostrate\nposition by two of their number.  Though thus secured, he still continued\nto struggle and shout vehemently, and it was not till some time\nafterwards, when they managed to bind his hands and strap him to the\nseat, that the passengers in the compartment felt themselves secure.\nThis train, it may be explained, makes the journey from London to\nPeterborough, a distance little short of eighty miles, without a single\nstoppage; and as the scene we have been describing began immediately\nafter the train left London, the expectation of having to pass the time\nusually occupied between the two stations (one hour and fifty minutes)\nwith such a companion must have been far from agreeable.  While the\nstruggle was going on, and even for some time afterwards, almost frantic\nattempts were made to get the train stopped.  The attention of those in\nthe adjoining compartment was readily gained by waving handkerchiefs out\nof the window, and by-and-by a full explanation of the circumstances was\ncommunicated through the aperture in which the lamp that lights both\ncompartments is placed.  A request to communicate with the guard was made\nfrom one carriage to another for a short distance, but it was found\nimpossible to continue it, and so the occupants of the compartments\nbeyond the one nearest the scene of the disturbance could learn nothing\nas to its nature, a vague feeling of alarm seized them, and all the way\nalong to Peterborough a succession of shouts of 'Stop the train,' mixed\nwith the frantic screams of female passengers, was kept up.  On the\narrival of the train at Peterborough the man was released by his captors\nand placed on the platform.  No sooner was he there, however, than he\nrushed with a renewed outburst of fury on those who had taken the chief\npart in restraining his violence, and as he kept vociferating that they\nhad robbed him of his money, it was some time before the railway\nofficials could be got to interfere--indeed, it seemed likely for some\ntime that he would be allowed to go on in the train.  As remonstrances\nwere made from all quarters to the station-master to take the fellow into\ncustody, he at length agreed, after being furnished with the names and\naddresses of the other occupants of the carriage, to hand him over to the\npolice.  The general impression on those who witnessed the sailor's fury\nseemed to be that he was labouring under a violent attack of delirium\ntremens, and he had every appearance of having been drinking hard for\nsome days.  Had there been only one or even two occupants of the\ncompartment besides himself, there seems every reason to believe that a\nmuch more deadly struggle would have ensued, as he displayed immense\nstrength.\"\n\n\n\n\nINSURED.\n\n\nThe engine of an ordinary railway train broke down midway between two\nstations.  As an express train was momentarily expected to arrive at the\nspot, the passengers were urgently called upon to get out of the\ncarriages.  A countryman in leather breeches and top-boots, who sat in a\ncorner of one of the carriages, comfortably swathed in a travelling\nblanket, obstinately refused to budge.  In vain the porter begged him to\ncome out, saying the express would reach the spot in a minute, and the\ntrain would in all probability be dashed to pieces.  The traveller pulled\nan insurance ticket out of his breeches pocket, exclaiming, \"Don't you\nsee I've insured my life?\" and with that he set up a horse laugh, and\nsunk back into his corner.  They had to force him out of the train, and\nan instant afterwards the express ran into it.\n\n\n\n\nA NEW TRICK.\n\n\nA novel illustration of the ingenuity of thieves has been afforded by an\nincident reported from the continent.  For some time past a North German\nrailway company had been suffering from the repeated loss of goods which\nwere sent by luggage train, and which, notwithstanding all research and\nprecautions, continued to disappear in a very mysterious manner.  The\nsecret which the inquiries set on foot had failed to discover was at\nlength revealed by a rather amusing accident.  A long box, on one side of\nwhich were words equivalent to \"This side up,\" had, in disregard of this\ncaution, been set up on end in the goods shed.  Some time afterwards the\nemployes were not a little startled to hear a voice, apparently\nproceeding from the box in question, begging the hearers to let the\nspeaker out.  On opening the lid, the railway officials were surprised\nand amused to find a man inside standing on his head.  In the explanation\nwhich followed, the fellow wanted to account for his appearance under\nsuch unusual circumstances as due to the result of a wager, but he was\ngiven into custody, and it was soon found that the thieves had adopted\nthis method of conveying themselves on to the railway premises, and that\nduring the absence of the employes they had let themselves out of the box\nwhich they at once filled with any articles they could lay their hands\non, refastened the lid, and then decamped.  But for the unfortunate\ninability of human nature to endure an inverted position for an\nindefinite period, the ingenious authors of the scheme might have\nflourished a long time without detection.\n\n\n\n\nA TRAIN STOPPED BY CATERPILLARS.\n\n\n_Colonies and India_ quotes from a New Zealand paper the following\nstory:--In the neighbourhood of Turakina an army of caterpillars,\nhundreds of thousands strong, was marching across the railway line, bound\nfor a new field of oats, when the train came along.  Thousands of the\ncreeping vermin were crushed by the wheels of the engine, and suddenly\nthe train came to a dead stop.  On examination it was found that the\nwheels of the engine had become so greasy that they kept on revolving\nwithout advancing--they could not grip the rails.  The guard and the\nengine driver procured sand and strewed it on the rails, and the train\nmade a fresh start, but it was found that during the stoppage\ncaterpillars in thousands had crawled all over the engine, and all over\nthe carriages inside and out.\n\n\n\n\nTRAVELLING IN RUSSIA.\n\n\nOf course, travelling in Russia is no longer what it was.  During the\nlast quarter of a century a vast network of railways has been constructed\nand one can now travel in a comfortable first-class carriage from Berlin\nto St. Petersburg or Moscow, and thence to Odessa, Sebastopol, the Lower\nVolga, or even the foot of the Caucasus; and, on the whole, it must be\nadmitted that the railways are tolerably comfortable.  The carriages are\ndecidedly better than in England, and in winter they are kept warm by\nsmall iron stoves, such as we sometimes see in steamers, assisted by\ndouble windows and double doors--a very necessary precaution in a land\nwhere the thermometer often descends to 30 degrees below zero.  The\ntrains never attain, it is true, a high rate of speed--so at least\nEnglish and Americans think--but then we must remember that Russians are\nrarely in a hurry, and like to have frequent opportunities of eating and\ndrinking.  In Russia time is not money; if it were, nearly all the\nsubjects of the Tsar would always have a large stock of ready money on\nhand, and would often have great difficulty in spending it.  In reality,\nbe it parenthetically remarked, a Russian with a superabundance of ready\nmoney is a phenomenon rarely met with in real life.\n\nIn conveying passengers at the rate of from fifteen to thirty miles an\nhour, the railway companies do at least all that they promise, but in one\nvery important respect they do not always strictly fulfil their\nengagements.  The traveller takes a ticket for a certain town, and on\narriving at what he imagines to be his destination, he may merely find a\nrailway station surrounded by fields.  On making inquiries he finds to\nhis disappointment, that the station is by no means identical with the\ntown bearing the same name, and that the railway has fallen several miles\nshort of fulfilling the bargain, as he understood the terms of the\ncontract.  Indeed, it might almost be said as a general rule railways in\nRussia, like camel drivers in certain Eastern countries, studiously avoid\nthe towns.  This seems at first a strange fact.  It is possible to\nconceive that the Bedouin is so enamoured of tent life and nomadic\nhabits, that he shuns a town as he would a man-trap; but surely civil\nengineers and railway contractors have no such dread of brick and mortar.\nThe true reason, I suspect, is that land within or immediately without\nthe municipal barrier is relatively dear, and that the railways, being\ncompletely beyond the invigorating influence of healthy competition, can\nafford to look upon the comfort and convenience of passengers as a\nsecondary consideration.\n\nIt is but fair to state that in one celebrated instance neither engineers\nnor railway contractors were to blame.  From St. Petersburg to Moscow the\nlocomotive runs for a distance of 400 miles, almost as \"the crow\" is\nsupposed to fly, turning neither to the right hand nor to the left.  For\nfifteen weary hours the passenger in the express train looks out on\nforest and morass and rarely catches sight of human habitation.  Only\nonce he perceives in the distance what may be called a town; it is Tver\nwhich has been thus favoured, not because it is a place of importance,\nbut simply because it happened to be near the straight line.  And why was\nthe railway constructed in this extraordinary fashion?  For the best of\nall reasons--because the Tsar so ordered it.  When the preliminary survey\nwas being made, Nicholas learned that the officers intrusted with the\ntask--and the Minister of Ways and Roads in the number--were being\ninfluenced more by personal than by technical considerations, and he\ndetermined to cut the Gordian knot in true Imperial style.  When the\nMinister laid before him the map with the intention of explaining the\nproposed route, he took a ruler, drew a straight line from the one\nterminus to the other, and remarked in a tone that precluded all\ndiscussion, \"You will construct the line so!\"  And the line was so\nconstructed--remaining to all future ages, like St. Petersburg and the\nPyramids, a magnificent monument of autocratic power.\n\nFormerly this well-known incident was often cited in whispered philippics\nto illustrate the evils of the autocratic form of government.  Imperial\nwhims, it was said, override grave economic considerations.  In recent\nyears, however, a change seems to have taken place in public opinion, and\nsome people now venture to assert that this so-called Imperial whim was\nan act of far-seeing policy.  As by far the greater part of the goods and\npassengers are carried the whole length of the line, it is well that the\nline should be as short as possible, and that branch lines should be\nconstructed to the towns lying to the right and left.  Apart from\npolitical considerations, it must be admitted that a great deal may be\nsaid in support of this view.\n\nIn the development of the railway system there has been another\ndisturbing cause, which is not likely to occur to the English mind.  In\nEngland, individuals and companies habitually act according to their\nprivate interests, and the State interferes as little as possible;\nprivate initiative acts as it pleases, unless the authorities can prove\nthat important bad consequences will necessarily result.  In Russia, the\n_onus probandi_ lies on the other side; private initiative is allowed to\ndo nothing until it gives guarantees against all possible bad\nconsequences.  When any great enterprise is projected, the first question\nis--\"How will this new scheme affect the interests of the State?\"  Thus,\nwhen the course of a new railway has to be determined, the military\nauthorities are always consulted, and their opinion has a great influence\non the ultimate decision.  The consequence of this is that the railway\nmap of Russia presents to the eye of the tactician much that is quite\nunintelligible to the ordinary observer--a fact that will become apparent\nto the uninitiated as soon as a war breaks out in Eastern Europe.  Russia\nis no longer what she was in the days of the Crimean war, when troops and\nstores had to be conveyed hundreds of miles by the most primitive means\nof transport.  At that time she had only about 750 miles of railway; now\nshe has more than 11,000 miles, and every year new lines are constructed.\n\n                                          _Russia_, by D. M. Wallace, M.A.\n\n\n\n\nAN ARMY WITH BANNERS.\n\n\nAs giving an idea of the old way of signalling and precautions employed\nto ensure safety on the Hudson River Railroad nearly forty years ago, we\nappend the following from the _Albany Journal_.  It should be premised\nthat this road extends from New York to East Albany, a distance of only\n144 miles:--\n\n\"AN ARMY WITH BANNERS.--As you are whirled along over the Hudson River\nRailroad at the rate of 40 miles an hour, you catch a glimpse, every\nminute or two, of a man waving something like a white pocket handkerchief\non the end of a stick, with a satisfactory sort of expression of\ncountenance.  If you take the trouble to count, you will find that it\nhappens some two hundred times between East Albany and Thirty-first\nstreet.  It looks like rather a useless ceremony, at first glance, but is\na pretty important one, nevertheless.\n\n\"There are 225 of these 'flagmen' stationed at intervals along the whole\nlength of the line.  Just before a train is to pass, each one walks over\nhis \"beat,\" and looks to see that every track and tie, every tunnel,\nswitch, rail, clamp, and rivet, is in good order and free from\nobstruction.  If so, he takes his stand with a white flag and waves it to\nthe approaching train as a signal to 'come on'--and come on it does, at\nfull speed.  If there is anything wrong, he waves a red flag, or at night\na red lamp, and the engineer, on seeing it, promptly shuts off the steam,\nand sounds the whistle to 'put down the brakes.'  Every inch of the road\nis carefully examined after the passage of each train.  Austrian\nespionage is hardly more strict.\"\n\n\n\n\nSEIZURE OF A RAILWAY TRAIN FOR DEBT.\n\n\nThe financial difficulties under which some railway companies have\nrecently laboured were brought to a crisis lately in the case of the\nPotteries, Shrewsbury, and North Wales Railway, a line running from\nLlanymynech to Shrewsbury, with a projected continuation to the\nPotteries.  A debenture holder having obtained a judgment against the\ncompany, a writ was forthwith issued, and a few days back the sheriff's\nofficers unexpectedly presented themselves at the company's principal\nstation in Shrewsbury, and formally entered upon possession.  The down\ntrain immediately after entered the station, and the bailiffs, without\nhaving given any previous intimation to the manager, whose office adjoins\nthe station, seized the engines and carriages, and refused to permit the\noutgoing train to start, although many passengers had taken tickets.\nUltimately the manager obtained the requisite permission, and it was\narranged that the train should make the journey, one of the bailiffs\nmeanwhile remaining in charge.  The acting-sheriff refused a similar\nconcession with regard to the further running of the trains, and it being\nfair day at Shrewsbury, and a large number of persons from various\nstations along the line having taken return tickets, much inconvenience\nto the public was likely to ensue.  The North Wales section of this line\nwas completed in August last at a cost of a little over 1,100,000 pounds,\nand was opened for passenger and goods traffic on the 13th of that month.\nAs has already been stated, the ordinary traffic of the line was, after\nthe enforcement of the writ, permitted to be continued, with the proviso\nthat a bailiff should accompany each train.  This condition was naturally\nvery galling to the officials of the railway company, but they\nnevertheless treated the representative of the civil law with a marked\npoliteness.  On the night of his first becoming a constant passenger by\nthe line he rode in a first-class carriage to Llanymynech, and on the\nreturn journey the attentive guard conducted him to a similar compartment\nwhich was devoted to his sole occupation.  On arriving at Kennerly the\nbailiff became conscious of the progress of an elaborate process of\nshunting, followed by an entire stoppage of the train.  After sitting\npatiently for some minutes it occurred to him to put his head out of the\nwindow and inquire the reason for the delay, and in carrying out the idea\nhe discovered that the train of which his carriage had lately formed a\npart was vanishing from sight round a distant curve in the line.  He lost\nno time in getting out and making his way into the station, which he\nfound locked up, according to custom, after the passage through of the\nlast down train.  Kennerly is a small roadside station about 12 miles\nfrom Shrewsbury, and offers no accommodation for chance guests; and, had\nit been otherwise, it was of course the first duty of the bailiff to look\nafter the train, of which he at that moment was supposed to be in\n\"possession.\"  There being no alternative, he started on foot for\nShrewsbury, where he arrived shortly after midnight, having accomplished\na perilous passage along the line.  It appeared, on inquiry, that in the\ncourse of the shunting the coupling-chain which connected the tail coach\nwith the body of the train had by some means become unlinked; hence the\naccident.  The bailiff accepted the explanation, but on subsequent\njourneys he carefully avoided the tail-coach.\n\n                                                     _Railway News_, 1866.\n\n\n\n\nA KANGAROO ATTACKING A TRAIN.\n\n\nThe latest marsupial freak is thus given by a thoroughly reliable\ncorrespondent of the _Courier_ (an Australian paper):--A rather exciting\nrace took place between the train and a large kangaroo on Wednesday night\nlast.  When about nine miles from Dalby a special surprised the kangaroo,\nwho was inside the fences.  The animal ran for some distance in front,\nbut getting exhausted he suddenly turned to face his opponent, and jumped\nsavagely at the stoker on the engine, who, not being able to run, gamely\nfaced the \"old man\" with a handful of coal.  The kangaroo, however, only\nreached the side of the tender, when, the step striking him, he was\n\"knocked clean out of it\" in the one round.  No harm happened beyond a\nbit of a scare to the stoker, as the kangaroo picked himself up quickly\nand cleared the fence.\n\n\n\n\nSHE TAKES FITS.\n\n\nSome time ago, an old lady and gentleman were coming from Devenport when\nthe train was crowded.  A young man got up and gave the old lady a seat,\nwhile his companion, another young gent, remained stedfast and let the\nold gent stand.  This did not suit the old gentleman, so he concluded to\nget a seat in some way, and quickly turning to the young man on the seat\nbeside his wife, he said:--\"Will you be so kind as to watch that woman\nwhile I get a seat in another carriage?  She takes fits!\"  This startled\nthe young gent.  He could not bear the idea of taking charge of a fitty\nwoman, so the old gentleman got a seat, and his wife was never known to\ntake a fit afterwards.\n\n\n\n\nSNAGS' CORNERS.\n\n\nThe officials of a Michigan railroad that was being extended were waited\nupon the other day by a person from the pine woods and sand hills who\nannounced himself as Mr. Snags, and who wanted to know if it could be\npossible that the proposed line was not to come any nearer than three\nmiles to the hamlet named in his honour.\n\n\"Is Snags' Corners a place of much importance?\" asked the President.\n\n\"Is it?  Well, I should say it was!  We made over a ton of maple sugar\nthere last spring!\"\n\n\"Does business flourish there?\"\n\n\"Flourish!  Why, business is on the gallop there every minute in the\nwhole twenty-four hours.  We had three false alarms of fire there in one\nweek.  How's that for a town which is to be left three miles off your\nrailroad?\"\n\nBeing asked to give the names of the business houses, he scratched his\nhead for awhile, and then replied--\n\n\"Well, there's me, to start on.  I run a big store, own eight yokes of\noxen, and shall soon have a dam and a sawmill.  Then there's a blacksmith\nshop, a post-office, a doctor, and last week over a dozen patent-right\nmen passed through there.  In one brief year we've increased from a\nsquatter and two dogs to our present standing, and we'll have a lawyer\nthere before long.\"\n\n\"I'm afraid we won't be able to come any nearer the Corners than the\npresent survey,\" finally remarked the President.\n\n\"You won't!  It can't be possible that you mean to skip a growing place\nlike Snags' Corners!\"\n\n\"I think we'll have to.\"\n\n\"Wouldn't come if I'd clear you out a place in the store for a ticket\noffice?\"\n\n\"I don't see how we could.\"\n\n\"May be I'd subscribe 25 dols.,\" continued the delegate.\n\n\"No, we cannot change.\"\n\n\"Can't do it nohow?\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"Very well,\" said Mr. Snags as he put on his hat.  \"If this 'ere railroad\nthinks it can stunt or <DW36> Snags' Corners by leaving it out in the\ncold it has made a big mistake.  Before I leave town to-day I'm going to\nbuy a windmill and a melodeon, and your old locomotives may toot and be\nhanged, sir--toot and be hanged!\"\n\n\n\n\nA NEWSPAPER WONDER.\n\n\nThe _Railway Journal_, an American newspaper, containing the latest\nintelligence with respect to home and foreign politics, the money market,\nCongress debates, and theatrical events, is now printed and published\ndaily in the trains running between New York and San Francisco.  All the\nnews with which its columns are filled is telegraphed from different\nparts of the States to certain stations on the line, there collected by\nthe editorial staff travelling in the train, and set up, printed, and\ncirculated among the subscribing passengers while the iron horse is\npersistently traversing plains and valleys, crossing rivers, and\nascending mountain ranges.  Every morning the traveller may have his\nnewspaper served up with his coffee, and thus keep himself informed of\nall that is going on in the wide world during a seven days' journey\ncovering over three thousand miles of ground.  He who pays his\nsubscription at New York, which he can do at the railway ticket-office,\nreceives the last copy of his paper on the summit of the Sierra Nevada.\nThe production of a news-sheet from a flying printing office at an\nelevation of some ten thousand feet above the level of the sea is most\nassuredly a performance worthy of conspicuous record in journalistic\nannals, and highly creditable to American enterprise.\n\n\n\n\nMONETARY DIFFICULTIES IN SPAIN.\n\n\nSir Arthur Helps, in his life of Mr. Brassey, remarks:--\"There were few,\nif any, of the great undertakings in which Mr. Brassey embarked that gave\nhim so much trouble in respect of the financial arrangements as the\nSpanish railway from Bilbao to Tudela.  The secretary, Mr. Tapp, thus\nrecounts the difficulties which they had to encounter:--\n\n\"'The great difficulty in Spain was in getting money to pay the men for\ndoing the work--a very great difficulty.  The bank was not in the habit\nof having large cheques drawn upon it to pay money; for nearly all the\nmerchants kept their cash in safes in their offices, and it was a very\ndebased kind of money, coins composed of half copper and half silver, and\nvery much defaced.  You had to take a good many of them on faith.  I had\nto send down fifteen days before the pay day came round, to commence\ngetting the money from the bank, obtaining perhaps 2,000 or 3,000 pounds\na day.  It was brought to the office, recounted, and put into my safe.\nIn that way I accumulated a ton-and-a-half of money every month during\nour busy season.  When pay week came, I used to send a carriage or a\nlarge coach, drawn by four or six mules, with a couple of civil guards,\none on each side, together with one of the clerks from the office, a man\nto drive, and another--a sort of stableman--who went to help them out of\ntheir difficulty in case the mules gave any trouble up the hilly country.\nI was at the office at six o'clock, and I was always in a state of\nanxiety until I knew that the money had arrived safely at the end of the\njourney.  More than once the conveyance broke down in the mountains.  On\none occasion the axle of our carriage broke in half from the weight of\nthe money, and I had to send off two omnibuses to relieve them.  I had\nthe load divided, and sent one to one section of the line and one to the\nother.\n\n\"'Q.--Was any attempt made to rob the carriage?\n\n\"'A.--Never; we always sent a clerk armed with a revolver as the\nprincipal guard.  We heard once of a conspiracy to rob us; but, to avoid\nthat, we went by another road.  We were told that some men had been seen\nloitering about the mountain the night before.'\"\n\n\n\n\nA CARLIST CHIEF AS A SUB-CONTRACTOR.\n\n\nThe natural financial difficulties of constructing a railway in Spain\nwere added to by the strange kind of people Mr. Brassey's agents were\nobliged to employ.  One of the sub-contractors was a certain Carlist\nchief whom the government dared not arrest on account of his great\ninfluence.  Mr. Tapp thus relates the Carlist chief's mode of settling a\nfinancial dispute:--\n\n\"When he got into difficulties, Mr. Small, the district agent, offered\nhim the amount which was due to him according to his measured work.  He\nhad over 100 men to pay, and Mr. Small offered him the money that was\ncoming to him, according to the measurement, but he would not have it,\nnor would he let the agent pay the men.  He said he would have the money\nhe demanded; and he brought all his men into the town of Orduna, and the\nmen regularly bivouacked round Mr. Small's office.  They slept in the\nstreets and stayed there all night, and would not let Mr. Small come out\nof the office till he had paid them the money.  He attempted to get on\nhis horse to go out--his horses were kept in the house (that is the\npractice in the houses of Spain); but when he rode out they pulled him\noff his horse and pushed him back, and said that he should not go until\nhe had paid them the money.  He passed the night in terror, with loaded\npistols and guns, expecting that he and his family would be massacred\nevery minute, but he contrived eventually to send his staff-holder to\nBilbao on horseback.  The man galloped all the way to Bilbao, a distance\nof twenty-five miles, and went to Mr. Bartlett in the middle of the\nnight, and told him what had happened.  Mr. Bartlett immediately sent a\ndetachment up to the place to disperse the men.  This Carlist threatened\nthat if Mr. Small did not pay the money he would kill every person in the\nhouse.  When he was asked, 'Would you kill a man for that?' he replied,\n'Yes, like a fly,' and this coming from a man who, as I was told, had\nalready killed fourteen men with his own hand, was rather alarming.  Mr.\nBrassey and his partners suffer a great amount of loss by their contracts\nfor the Bilbao railway.\"\n\n\n\n\nHOW TO BEAR LOSSES.\n\n\nDuring the construction of the Bilbao line, shortly before the proposed\nopening, it set in to rain in such an exceptional manner that some of the\nworks were destroyed.  The agent telegraphed to Mr. Brassey to come\nimmediately, as a certain bridge had been washed down.  About three hours\nafterwards another telegram was sent, stating that a large bank was\nwashed away; and next morning, another, stating the rain continued, and\nmore damage had been done.  Mr. Brassey, turning to a friend, said,\nlaughingly: \"I think I had better wait until I hear that the rain has\nceased, so that when I do go, I may see what is left of the works, and\nestimate all the disasters at once, and so save a second journey.\"\n\nNo doubt Mr. Brassey felt these great losses that occasionally came upon\nhim much as other men do; but he had an excellent way of bearing them,\nand, like a great general, never, if possible, gave way to despondency in\nthe presence of his officers.\n\n\n\n\nRAILROAD INCIDENT.\n\n\nAn Englishwoman who travelled some years ago in America writes:--\"I had\nfound it necessary to study physiognomy since leaving England, and was\nhorrified by the appearance of my next neighbour.  His forehead was low,\nhis deep-set and restless eyes significant of cunning, and I at once set\nhim down as a swindler or a pickpocket.  My conviction of the truth of my\ninference was so strong that I removed my purse--in which, however,\nacting by advice, I never carried more than five dollars--from my pocket,\nleaving in it only my handkerchief and the checks for my baggage, knowing\nthat I could not possibly keep awake the whole morning.  In spite of my\nendeavours to the contrary, I soon sunk into an oblivious state, from\nwhich I awoke to the consciousness that my companion was withdrawing his\nhand from my pocket.  My first impulse was to make an exclamation; my\nsecond, which I carried into execution, to ascertain my loss, which I\nfound to be the very alarming one of my baggage checks; my whole property\nbeing thereby placed at this vagabond's disposal, for I knew perfectly\nwell that if I claimed my trunks without my checks the acute\nbaggage-master would have set me down as a bold swindler.  The keen-eyed\nconductor was not in the car, and, had he been there, the necessity for\nhabitual suspicion incidental to his position would so far have removed\nhis original sentiments of generosity as to make him turn a deaf ear to\nmy request; and there was not one of my fellow-travellers whose\nphysiognomy would have warranted me in appealing to him.  So,\nrecollecting that my checks were marked Chicago, and seeing that the\nthief's ticket bore the same name, I resolved to wait the chapter of\naccidents, or the reappearance of my friends.  With a whoop like an\nIndian war-whoop the cars ran into a shed--they stopped--the pickpocket\ngot up--I got up too--the baggage-master came to the door.  'This\ngentleman has the checks for my baggage,' said I, pointing to the thief.\nBewildered, he took them from his waistcoat pocket, gave them to the\nbaggage-master, and went hastily away.  I had no inclination to cry 'stop\nthief!' and had barely time to congratulate myself on the fortunate\nimpulse which had led me to say what I did, when my friends appeared from\nthe next carriage.  They were too highly amused with my recital to\nsympathize at all with my feelings of annoyance, and one of them, a\ngentleman filling a high situation in the east, laughed heartily, saying,\nin a thoroughly American tone, 'The English ladies must be cute customers\nif they can outwit Yankee pickpockets.'\"\n\n\n\n\nNOVEL OBSTRUCTION.\n\n\nOn a certain railroad in Louisiana the alligators have the bad habit of\ncrawling upon the track to sun themselves, and to such an extent have\nthey pushed this practice that the drivers of the locomotives are\nfrequently compelled to sound the engine whistle in order to scare the\ninterlopers away.\n\n                                                   --_Railway News_, 1867.\n\n\n\n\nBABY LAW.\n\n\nThe railways generously permit a baby to be carried without charge; but\nnot, it seems, without incurring responsibility.  It has been lately\ndecided, in \"Austin _v._ the Great Western Railway Company,\" 16 L. T.\nRep., N. S., 320, that where a child in arms, not paid for as a\npassenger, is injured by an accident caused by negligence, the company is\nliable in damages under Lord Campbell's Act.  Three of the judges were\nclearly of opinion that the company had, by permitting the mother to take\nthe child in her arms, contracted to carry safely both mother and child;\nand Blackburn, J., went still further, and was of opinion that,\nindependently of any such contract, express or implied, the law cast upon\nthe company a duty to use proper and reasonable care in carrying the\nchild, though unpaid for.  It may appear somewhat hard upon railway\ncompanies to incur liabilities through an act of liberality, but they\nhave chosen to do so.  The law is against them, that is clear; but they\nhave the remedy in their own hands.  There was some reason for exempting\na child in arms, for it occupies no place in the carriage, and is but a\ntrifling addition of weight.  But now it is established that the company\nis responsible for the consequences of accident to that child, the\ncompany is clearly entitled to make such a charge as will secure them\nagainst the risk.  The right course would be to have a tariff, say\none-fifth or one-fourth of the full fare, for a child in arms; and if\nstrict justice was done, this would be deducted from the fares of the\npassengers who have the ill-luck to face and flank the squaller.\n\n                                                      --_Law Times_, 1867.\n\n\n\n\nRAILROAD TRACKLAYER.\n\n\nThe railroad tracklayer is now working along regularly at the rate of a\nmile a day.  The machine is a car 60 feet long and 10 feet wide.  It has\na small engine on board for handling the ties and rails.  The ties are\ncarried on a common freight car behind, and conveyed by an endless chain\nover the top of the machinery, laid down in their places on the track,\nand, when enough are laid, a rail is put down on each side in proper\nposition and spiked down.  The tracklayer then advances, and keeps on its\nwork until the load of ties and rails is exhausted, when other car loads\nare brought.  The machine is driven ahead by a locomotive, and the work\nis done so rapidly that 60 men are required to wait on it, but they do\nmore work than twice as many could do by the old system, and the work is\ndone quite as well.  The chief contractor of the road gives it as his\nopinion that when the machine is improved by making a few changes in the\nmethod of handling rails and ties it will be able to put down five or six\nmiles per day.  This will render it possible to lay down track twelve\ntimes as fast as the usual rate by hand, and it will do the work at less\nexpense.  The invention will be of immense importance to the country in\nconnection with the Pacific railroad, which it was calculated could be\nbuilt as fast as the track could be laid, and no faster; but hereafter\nthe speed will be determined by the grading, which cannot advance more\nthan five miles a day.  Thirty millions of dollars have already been\ninvested on the Pacific railroad, and if the time of completion is\nhastened one year by this tracklayer, as it will be if Central and Union\nCompanies have money enough to grade each five miles a day, there will be\na saving of three million dollars on interest alone on that one road.\n\n                                                --_Alla California_, 1868.\n\n\n\n\nA GROWING LAD.\n\n\n\"This your boy, ma'am?\" inquired a collector of a country woman, \"he's\ntoo big for a 'alf ticket.\"  \"Oh, is he?\" replied the mother.  \"Well,\nperhaps he is now, mister; but he wasn't when he started.  The train is\never so much behind time--has been so long on the road--and he's a\ngrowing lad!\"\n\n\n\n\nFORGED TICKETS.\n\n\nAttempts to defraud railway companies by means of forged tickets are\nseldom made, and still more seldom successful.  In 1870, a man who lived\nin a toll-house near Dudley, and who rented a large number of tolls on\nthe different turnpikes, in almost every part of the country, devised a\nplan for travelling cheaply.  He set up a complete fount of type,\ncomposing stick, and every requisite for printing tickets, and provided\nhimself with  papers, colours, and paints to paint them, and\nplain cards on which to paste them; and he prepared tickets for journeys\nof great length, and available to and from different stations on the\nLondon and North-Western, Great Western, and Midland lines.  On arriving\none day at the ticket platform at Derby, he presented a ticket from\nMasbro' to Smethwick.  The collector, who had been many years in the\nservice of the company, thought there was something unusual in the\nticket.  On examination he found it to be a forgery, and when the train\narrived at the platform gave the passenger into custody.  On searching\nhis house, upwards of a thousand railway tickets were discovered in a\ndrawer in his bedroom, and the apparatus with which the forgeries were\naccomplished was also secured.  On the prisoner himself was the sum of\n199 pounds 10s., and it appeared that he came to be present at the annual\nletting of the tolls on the different roads leading out of Derby.  The\npunishment he received was sufficiently condign to serve as a warning to\nall who might be inclined to emulate such attempts after cheap\nlocomotion.\n\n                                           --Williams's _Midland Railway_.\n\n\n\n\nA YANKEE COMPENSATION CASE.\n\n\nA horny-handed old farmer entered the offices of one of the railroad\ncompanies, and inquired for the man who settled for hosses which was\nkilled by locomotives.  They referred him to the company's counsel, whom,\nhaving found, he thus addressed:--\n\n\"Mister, I was driving home one evening last week--\"\n\n\"Been drinking?\" sententiously questioned the lawyer.\n\n\"I'm centre pole of the local Tent of Rechabites,\" said the farmer.\n\n\"That doesn't answer my question,\" replied the man of law; \"I saw a man\nwho was drunk vote for the prohibition ticket last year.\"\n\n\"Hadn't tasted liquor since the big flood of 1846,\" said the old man.\n\n\"Go ahead.\"\n\n\"I will, 'Squire.  And when I came to the crossing of your line--it was\npretty dark, and--zip! along came your train, no bells rung, no whistles\ntooted, contrary to the statutes in such cases made and provided,\nand--whoop! away went my off-hoss over the telegraph wires.  When I had\ndug myself out'n a swamp some distance off and pacified the other\ncritter, I found that thar off-hoss was dead, nothing valuable about him\nbut his shoes, which mout have brought, say, a penny for old iron.\nWell--\"\n\n\"Well, you want pay for that 'ere off-hoss?\" said the lawyer, with a\nscarcely repressed sneer.\n\n\"I should, you see,\" replied the farmer, frankly; \"and I don't care about\ngoing to law about it, though possibly I'd get a verdict, for juries out\nin our town is mostly made up of farmers, and they help each other as a\nmatter of principle in these cases of stock killed by railroads.\"\n\n\"And this 'ere off-hoss,\" said the counsel, mockingly, \"was well bred,\nwasn't he?  He was rising four years, as he had been several seasons\npast.  And you had been offered 500 pounds for him the day he was killed,\nbut wouldn't take it because you were going to win all the prizes in the\nnext race with him?  Oh, I've heard of that off-horse before.\"\n\n\"I guess there's a mistake somewhere,\" said the old farmer, with an air\nof surprise; \"my hoss was got by old man Butt's roan-pacing hoss, Pride\nof Lemont, out'n a wall-eyed no account mare of my own, and, now that\nhe's dead, I may say that he was twenty-nine next grass.  Trot?  Why,\nFred Erby's hoss that he was fined for furious driving of was old Dexter\nalongside of him!  Five hundred pounds!  Bless your soul, do you think\nI'm a fool, or anyone else?  It is true I was made an offer for him the\nlast time I was in town, and, for the man looked kinder simple, and you\nknow how it is yourself with hoss trading, I asked the cuss mor'n the\nanimal might have been worth.  I asked him forty pounds, but I'd have\ntaken thirty.\"\n\n\"Forty?\" gasped the lawyer; \"forty?\"\n\n\"Yes,\" replied the farmer, meekly and apologetically; \"it kinder looks a\nbig sum, I know, for an old hoss; but that 'ere off-hoss could pull a\nmighty good load, considering.  Then I was kinder shook up, and the pole\nof my waggon was busted, and I had to get the harness fixed, and there's\nmy loss of time, and all that counts.  Say fifty pounds, and it's about\nsquare.\"\n\nThe lawyer whispered softly to himself, \"Well, I'll be hanged!\" and\nfilled out a cheque for fifty pounds.\n\n\"Sir,\" said he, covering the old man's hand, \"you are the first honest\nman I have met in the course of a legal experience of twenty-three years;\nthe first farmer whose dead horse was worth less than a thousand pounds,\nand could trot better without training.  Here, also, is a free pass for\nyourself and your male heirs in a direct line for three generations; and\nif you have a young boy to spare we will teach him telegraphing, and find\nhim steady and lucrative employment.\"\n\nThe honest old farmer took the cheque, and departed, smiting his brawny\nleg with his horny hand in triumph as he did so, with the remark--\n\n\"I knew I'd ketch him on the honest tack!  Last hoss I had killed I swore\nwas a trotter, and all I got was thirty pounds and interest.  Honesty is\nthe best policy.\"\n\n                                                          --_Once a Week_.\n\n\n\n\nABERGELE ACCIDENT.\n\n\nThe Irish mail leaving London at shortly after seven A.M., it was timed\nin 1868 to make the distance to Chester, one hundred and sixty-six miles,\nin four hours and eighteen minutes; from Chester to Holyhead is\neighty-five miles, for running which the space of one hundred and\ntwenty-five minutes was allowed.  Abergele is a point on the seacoast in\nNorth Wales, nearly midway between these two places.  On the 20th of\nAugust, 1868, the Irish mail left Chester as usual.  It was made up of\nthirteen carriages in all, which were occupied--as the carriages of that\ntrain usually were--by a large number of persons whose names, at least,\nwere widely known.  Among these, on this particular occasion, were the\nDuchess of Abercorn, wife of the then Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, with\nfive children.  Under the running arrangements of the London and\nNorth-Western line a goods train left Chester half-an-hour before the\nmail, and was placed upon the siding at Llanddulas, a station about a\nmile-and-a-half beyond Abergele, to allow the mail to pass.  From\nAbergele to Llanddulas the track ascended by a gradient of some sixty\nfeet to the mile.  On the day of the accident it chanced that certain\nwagons between the engine and the rear end of the goods train had to be\ntaken out to be left at Llanddulas, and, in doing this, it became\nnecessary to separate the train and to leave five or six of the last\nwagons in it standing on the main line, while those which were to be left\nwere backed on to a siding.  The employe whose duty it was to have done\nso, neglected to set the brake on the wagons thus left standing, and\nconsequently when the engine and the rest of the train returned for them,\nthe moment they were touched, and before a coupling could be effected,\nthe jar set them in motion down the incline toward Abergele.  They\nstarted so slowly that a brakeman of the train ran after them, fully\nexpecting to catch and stop them, but as they went down the grade they\nsoon outstripped him, and it became clear that there was nothing to check\nthem until they should meet the Irish mail, then almost due.  It also\nchanced that the wagons thus loosened were oil wagons.\n\nThe mail train was coming up the line at a speed of about thirty miles an\nhour, when its engine-driver suddenly perceived the loose wagons coming\ndown upon it around the curve, and then but a few yards off.  Seeing that\nthey were oil wagons, he almost instinctively sprang from his engine, and\nwas thrown down by the impetus and rolled to the side of the road-bed.\nPicking himself up, bruised but not seriously hurt, he saw that the\ncollision had already taken place, that the tender had ridden directly\nover the engine, that the colliding wagons were demolished, and that the\nfront carriages of the train were already on fire.  Running quickly to\nthe rear of the train, he succeeded in uncoupling six carriages and a\nvan, which were drawn away from the rest before the flames extended to\nthem by an engine which most fortunately was following the train.  All\nthe other carriages were utterly destroyed, and every person in them\nperished.\n\nThe Abergele was probably a solitary instance, in the record of railway\naccidents, in which but one single survivor sustained any injury.  There\nwas no maiming.  It was death or entire escape.  The collision was not a\nparticularly severe one, and the engine driver of the mail train\nespecially stated that at the moment it occurred the loose wagons were\nstill moving so slowly that he would not have sprung from his engine had\nhe not seen that they were loaded with oil.  The very instant the\ncollision took place, however, the fluid seemed to ignite and to flash\nalong the train like lightning, so that it was impossible to approach a\ncarriage when once it caught fire.  The fact was that the oil in vast\nquantities was spilled upon the track and ignited by the fire of the\nlocomotive, and then the impetus of the mail train forced all of its\nleading carriages into the dense mass of smoke and flame.  All those who\nwere present concurred in positively stating that not a cry, nor a moan,\nnor a sound of any description was heard from the burning carriages, nor\ndid any one in them apparently make an effort to escape.\n\nThough the collision took place before one o'clock, in spite of the\nefforts of a large gang of men who were kept throwing water on the line,\nthe perfect sea of flame which covered the line for a distance of some\nforty or fifty yards could not be extinguished until nearly eight o'clock\nin the evening, for the petroleum had flowed down into the ballasting of\nthe road, and the rails were red-hot.  It was, therefore, small occasion\nfor surprise that when the fire was at last gotten under, the remains of\nthose who lost their lives were in some cases wholly undistinguishable,\nand in others almost so.  Among the thirty-three victims of the disaster,\nthe body of no single one retained any traces of individuality; the faces\nof all were wholly destroyed, and in no case were there found feet or\nlegs or anything approaching to a perfect head.  Ten corpses were finally\nidentified as those of males, and thirteen as those of females, while the\nsex of ten others could not be determined.  The body of one passenger,\nLord Farnham, was identified by the crest on his watch, and, indeed, no\nbetter evidence of the wealth and social position of the victims of this\naccident could have been asked for than the collection of articles found\non its site.  It included diamonds of great size and singular brilliancy;\nrubies, opals, emeralds; gold tops of smelling bottles, twenty-four\nwatches--of which but two or three were not gold--chains, clasps of bags,\nand very many bundles of keys.  Of these, the diamonds alone had\nsuccessfully resisted the intense heat of the flame; the settings were\nnearly all destroyed.\n\n\n\n\nRAILWAY DESTROYERS IN THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR.\n\n\nOne obvious means of hampering the military operations of the Germans was\nthe cutting of railroads, so as to interrupt and overthrow on-coming\ntrains.  This method was resorted to by bands of volunteers, calling\nthemselves \"The Wild Boars of Ardennes,\" and \"Railway Destroyers.\"  Here\nagain the invaders incurred great odium by announcing that, on the\ndeparture of a train in the disaffected districts, the mayor and\nprincipal inhabitants should be made to take their places on the engine,\nso that if the peasants chose to upset the conveyance, their surest\nvictims would be their own compatriots.\n\n                                                --_Annual Register_, 1870.\n\n\n\n\nFRIGHTENED AT A RED LIGHT.\n\n\nA driver, not on duty, had been drinking, and was, in company with his\nfireman, walking in the vicinity of the Edgware Road, when he suddenly\nstarted violently, and seizing his mate's arm, shouted--\n\n\"Hold hard, mate--hold hard!\"\n\n\"What's the matter?\" cried the fireman.\n\n\"Matter!\" roared the driver, \"why, you're a-running by the red light;\"\nand he pointed to the crimson glare which streamed through a glass bottle\nin a chemist's window.\n\n\"Come along; that's nothing,\" said the fireman, trying to drag him on.\n\n\"What, run by the red light, and go afore Dannel in the morning?\"\nretorted the driver, and no persuasion could or did get him to pass the\nshop.  He was a Great Western man, and the \"Dannel\" whom he held in such\nwholesome awe was the celebrated engineer, now Sir Daniel Gooch, and\nchairman of that line.  He was then the locomotive chief, and renowned\nabove all other things for maintaining discipline among his staff, while\nthey cherished a feeling for him very much akin to what we hear of the\nclannish enthusiasm of the ancient Scotch.\n\n\n\n\nTHE DECOY TRUNK.\n\n\nAugust 27, 1875.  The Metropolitan magistrates have had before them a\ncase which seems likely to show how some, at least, of the robberies at\nrailway stations are accomplished.  Some ingenious persons, it appears,\nhave devised a way by which a trunk can be made to steal a trunk, and a\nportmanteau to annex a portmanteau.  The thieves lay a trunk artfully\ncontrived on a smaller trunk; the latter clings to the former, and the\nowner of the larger carries both away.  The decoy trunk is said to be\nfitted with a false bottom, which goes up when it is laid on a smaller\ntrunk, and with mechanism inside which does for the innocent trunk what\nPolonius recommended Laertes to do for his friend, and grapples it to its\nheart with hooks of steel.  In fact, the decoy duck--we do not know how\nbetter to describe it--is made to perform an office like that of certain\nflowers, which suddenly close at the pressure of a fly or other insect\nwithin their cup and imprison him there.\n\n                                                --_Annual Register_, 1875.\n\n\n\n\nDRIVING A LAST SPIKE.\n\n\nThere are now two lines crossing the American continent.  The western\nsection of the new route goes through on the thirty-parallel--far enough\nsouth from the Rocky Mountains for the current of the train's own motion\nto be acceptable even in December, and to be a grateful relief in June.\nBeginning at San Francisco, the additional line runs south through\nCalifornia to Fort Yuma on the Colorado river; thence along the southern\nborder of the territories of Arizona and New Mexico, and across the\ncentre of Kansas, until it joins the lines connecting the Southern States\nwith New York.  The undertaking is a vast one, and has been one of some\ndifficulty; but its completion has been the occasion of very little\ndisplay.  Never was a great project of any kind brought to a successful\nresult with so much of active work and so little of actual talk.  A cable\nmessage a line in length told the story a month ago to European readers,\nand none of the American papers appear to have dealt with the matter as\nanything out of the ordinary run of daily events.\n\nFar otherwise was it with the finishing touch twelve years ago to the\nother Transcontinental line.  The whole world heard of what was then\ndone.  All the bells in all the great cities of the United States rang\nout jubilant peals as the last stroke sent home the last spike on the\nlast rail of the new highway of travel.  The news was flashed by\ntelegraph everywhere throughout the Union, and that there might be no\ndelay in its transmission and no hindrance to its simultaneous reception,\na certain pre-arranged signal was given and all the wires were for the\ntime being kept free of other business.  There were cases in which, to\nsave time in ringing out the glad news, the message was conveyed on\nspecial wires right up to the bell towers; and everywhere there was a\nfeeling that a great victory had been won.  Preceding the consummation,\nthere had been some wonderful feats in railroad construction.  From the\nMissouri river on the one side and from the Sacramento on the other, the\ntwo companies--the Union Pacific and the Central Pacific--advanced\nagainst each other in friendly rivalry.  The popular idea was that the\nlength of the line of each company would be measured to the point at\nwhich it joined rails with the other.  This was hardly the case; but an\narrangement was come to after the completion of the work which has given\nthis notion the strength of a tradition.  The greater part of the Union\nPacific route was over comparatively even ground, and it was not until\nthe Salt Lake region was being approached that any serious constructive\ndifficulties presented themselves.  It was otherwise with the company\nadvancing eastward.  The line had to be carried over the Sierra Nevada,\nthe ascent beginning almost from the starting point, and rising seven\nthousand feet in a hundred miles.  On the other side of the mountain\nrange, the descent was in turn formidable.  Over this part of the road it\nwas impossible to proceed rapidly.  The work was surrounded with\ndifficulties, and there were competent engineers who had no confidence\nthat it could be carried out.  Progress could only be made at the outset\nat the rate of about twenty miles each year; but in this slow work there\nwas time to profit by experience, so that eventually, when it became a\nquestion simply of many hands, the platelayer went forward with the swing\nof an army on the march.  Then it was that the two companies went\nvigorously into the race of construction.  In one day, in 1868, the Union\nmen were able to inform the Central men by telegraph that they had laid\nas many as six miles since morning.  A few days afterwards the response\ncame from the Central men that they had just finished as their day's work\na stretch of seven miles.  Spurred to fresh activity by this display, the\nUnion men next reported to the other side a complete stretch for a day's\nwork of seven and a half miles!  The answer came back in the\nextraordinary announcement that the workers for the Central Company were\nprepared to lay ten miles in one day!  The Union people were inclined to\nregard this as mere boasting, and the Vice-President of the company\nimplied as much when he made an offer to bet ten thousand dollars that in\none day such a stretch of railroad could not be well and truly laid.  It\nis not on record that the bet was taken up.  But the fact remains that it\nwas made, that the Central army of workers heard of it, and that they\ndetermined to make good the pledge given in their name.  So a day was\nfixed for the attempt.  From the Union side men came to take note of the\nwork and to measure it, and their verdict at the close of the day's toil\nwas that not only had the promised ten miles been constructed, but that\nthe measurement showed two hundred feet over!  And this, on the words of\nan authority, is how it was done:--When the car loaded with rails came to\nthe end of the track, the two outer rails on either side were seized with\niron nippers, hauled forward off the car, and laid on the ties by four\nmen who attended exclusively to this work.  Over these rails the cars\nwere pushed forward and the process repeated.  Then came a gang of men\nwho half-drove the spikes and screwed on the fish-plates on the dropped\nrails.  At a short interval behind these came a gang of Chinamen, who\ndrove home the spikes already inserted and added the rest.  A second\nsquad of Chinamen followed, two deep, on each side of the single track,\nthe inner men carrying shovels and the outer men wielding picks, their\nduty being to ballast the track.  Every movement was thus carefully\narranged, and there was no loss of time.  The average rate of speed at\nwhich the work was done was 1 min. 47.5 secs. to every 240 feet of\nperfected track.  There was, of course, an army of disciplined helpers,\nwhose duty it was to bring up the materials.  In this great feat of\nconstruction more than four thousand men found employment in various\ncapacities.  When they had carried their line four miles further east,\nthe Central and the Union men met each other, the point of connection\nbeing known as Promontory.  Afterwards the two companies made an\narrangement whereby the Union Pacific relinquished fifty-three miles of\nroad to the Central, thus fixing on Ogden as the western terminus of the\none line and the eastern terminus of the other.  The popular belief is\nthat the fifty-three miles were obtained by the Central Pacific directors\nas an acknowledgement of the greater engineering difficulties they had to\novercome in laying their part of the track, and that they served a\nhandicapping purpose at the end of this wonderful railroad competition.\n\nThe placing of the final tie on the Pacific lines, as has been hinted,\nwas a ceremonious undertaking.  The event took place on Monday, March\n10th, 1869.  Representatives were present from almost every part of the\nUnion, and the construction parties, not yet wholly dispersed, made up a\ngreater crowd than had been seen at Promontory before or is likely ever\nto be seen there again--for, with the fixing of the termini at another\npoint, the glory of the place has departed.  The connecting tie had been\nmade of California laurel.  It was beautifully polished, and bore a\nseries of inscribed silver plates.  The tie was carefully placed, and\nover it the rails were laid by picked men on behalf of each company.  The\nspikes were then inserted--one of gold, silver, and iron, from Arizona;\nanother of silver, from Nevada; and a third of gold, from California.\nPresident Stanford, of the Central Pacific, armed with a hammer of solid\nsilver, drove the last spike, the blow falling precisely at noon, and the\nnews of the completion of the road being flashed abroad as it fell.  Then\nthe two locomotives, one from the west and the other from the east, drew\nup to each other on the single line, coming into gentle collision, that\nthey in their way, in the pleasing conceit of their drivers, might\nsymbolise the fraternisation that went on.  It does not spoil the story\nof the ceremony to state that the laurel tie, with its inscriptions and\nits magnificent mountings, was only formally laid, and that it became\nfrom that day a relic to be officially cherished; and it should be added\nthat the more serviceable tie which replaced it was cut into fragments by\nmen eager to have some memento of the occasion.  Other ties for a time\nshared the same fate, until splinters of what was claimed to be \"the last\ntie laid\" became as common as pieces of the Wellington boots the great\ncommander is said to have left behind him at Waterloo.\n\nWith the junction of the two lines, it became possible to make safely in\none week an overland journey that not many years before required months\nin its execution, and was attended by many hardships and dangers.  It\nwas, however, a route better known even in the days when the legend of\nthe pilgrims over it was \"Pike's Peak or bust!\" than is the region\ncrossed by the new southern line.  This line opens up what is practically\nan undiscovered and an unsettled country, but the region traversed has\nbeen ascertained to be so rich in resources as to fully justify the heavy\nexpenditure involved in the construction of the line.  In another year\nthe line will become a powerful agent in the development of the Union,\nfor it will then be connected with the lines that run through Texas into\nLouisiana, and New Orleans and San Francisco will be brought into direct\ncommunication with each other.  This, in fact, has been a prominent\nobject in the undertaking.  The effect of it will be to cheapen the\ntariff on goods from the Pacific Coast to Europe, and will, it is\nbelieved, have the effect of controlling a large share of the Asiatic\ntrade.\n\n                                      --_Leeds Mercury_, April 23rd, 1881.\n\n\n\n\nMARRIAGE AND RAILWAY DIVIDENDS.\n\n\nMarriage would not seem to have any close connection with railroad\ntraffic, but we find an officer of an East Indian railroad company\nexplaining a falling off in the passenger receipts of the year (1874) by\nthe fact that it was a \"twelfth year,\" which is regarded by the Hindoos\nas so unfavourable to marriage that no one, or scarcely any one, is\nmarried.  And, as weddings are the great occasions in Hindoo life when\nthere is great pomp and a general gathering together of friends, they\ncause a great deal of travelling.\n\n\n\n\nSECURITY FOR TRAVELLING.\n\n\nA civil engineer, of long experience in connection with railways, gives\nsome reassuring statements as to the precautions taken in keeping the\nlines in order.  The majority of accidents occur, not from defects in the\nline, but from imperfections in the living agents who have charge of the\nsignals and other arrangements of trains in transit.  The engineer\nsays:--\"To begin at the bottom, we have the ganger of the 'beat,' a man\nselected from the waymen after several years' service for his aptitude\nand steadiness, whose duty it is to patrol his length of two or three\nmiles every morning, and to make good fastenings, etc., afterwards\nsuperintending his gang in packing, replacing rails, sleepers, and other\nnecessary repairs.  Over the ganger is the inspector of permanent way,\nresponsible for the gangers doing their duty, who generally goes over all\nhis district once a day on the engine, and walks one or more gangers'\nbeats.  The inspectors, again, are under the district superintendent or\nengineer, who makes frequent inspections both by walking and on the\nengine.  The ganger, if in want of men or materials, reports to his\ninspector, who, if they are required, sends a requisition to the\nengineer, keeping a small stock at his head-quarters to supply urgent\ndemands.  The engineer in his turn keeps the whole in harmony,\nsanctioning the employment of the necessary men, and ordering the\nmaterials, the only check upon the number of men or quantity of materials\nbeing the total half-yearly expenditure.  Directors never within my\nexperience grudge an outlay necessary to keep the line in good order;\nbut, should they limit the expenditure from financial motives, it would\nthen clearly be the duty of the engineer to recommend a reduction of\nspeed to a safe point.  Occasionally, idle gangers are met with, who are\nalways asking for more men, and as naturally meeting with refusal.\n\n\n\n\nTHE NUMBER ONE HUNDRED AND TWENTY.\n\n\nLord Lymington, M.P., relates the following amusing tale of his\nexperience with an inquiring and hospitable gentleman in Arkansas:--\"He\nintroduced himself to me very kindly on learning that I was a traveller\nand an Englishman, and offered me the hospitalities of the town.  It was\nvery obliging of him, but unfortunately I could not stay, so we had a\nchat while I was waiting for the train.  During this chat his eye fell on\na portmanteau of mine which I had caused to be marked, for convenience\nsake and easy identification, with the cabalistic figures 120.  This he\nscanned for some time with ill-concealed curiosity, and finally, turning\nto me, said rather abruptly, 'If I am not mistaken, you are a nobleman,\nare you not?'  I admitted that such was my unhappy lot.  'Then,' he said,\n'I presume that number there on your valise is what they call in the\nnobility armorial bearings, is it not--in fact, your crest?'  'Hardly\nthat,' I modestly replied.  'A number is only borne as a crest, I\nbelieve, by much more illustrious persons--for example, the Beast in the\nApocalypse.'  'Oh!' he replied, and then, after meditating a moment or\ntwo, asked, 'Have your family been long in England?'  'Yes,' I said,\n'they have been there for some time.  But why do you ask?'  'Perhaps the\nnumber refers,' he replied, 'to the number of generations, just as they\nrecite them in the Old Testament, you know?'  'Yes,' I unhesitatingly and\nwith prompt mendacity replied, 'that is exactly it, and I don't see how\nyou hit it so cleverly.'  He smiled all over with delight as the train\nrushed up, and waved kind farewells to me as long as we were in sight.\"\n\n\n\n\nENGINE DRIVING.\n\n\nBut the regulator once in his hand, the engine-driver has only begun his\nexperience.  He goes through an apprenticeship with different varieties\nof engines.  He must pick up what knowledge he can himself, and he must\nalways be on the alert to benefit from the experience of others.  The\nlocomotive in its varying \"moods\" must be his constant study, and he must\nwork it so that he shall not infringe more than an average share of a\nmultiplicity of rules and regulations.  The best position in the service,\napart from that of superintendence, is in the driving of an express\nengine, and the greatest honour that can be conferred on an engine-driver\nis to select him to take charge of the locomotive on a Royal train.  Only\nthe best men are picked out to drive the Queen, and the best engine on\nthe road is detailed for the Royal service; and although on those\noccasions railway officials, who are the superiors of the driver, get on\nthe foot-boards, the latter is for the time being master of the\nsituation.  Should the locomotive superintendent dictate to him, it would\nbe to confess that the driver was unworthy of his high trust, and so the\nsuperintendent is content to look on; but it is the contentment born of\nthe conviction that he has chosen for the task a driver whose experience\nis great, and whose watchfulness and care and knowledge of enginery have\ngiven him a claim to the chief service his company has for him.  Not that\nthere is any more risk in running the Queen's train than in running an\nordinary passenger express.  In fact, the risk is reduced to a minimum.\nA pilot engine has gone before to keep the way clear.  The pilot engine\nis fifteen minutes in advance of the Royal carriages at every station,\nand the space travelled over in that fifteen minutes is kept free and\nunobstructed.  The speed of the train is carefully regulated, and amongst\nother provisions for security the siding points are for the moment\nspiked.  Every crossing gate is guarded from the time of the passage of\nthe advance engine until the train follows in its wake.  Everything is\ndone to make the Royal journey over a railroad a safe one.  Such\narrangements, however, if they add to the responsibility, heighten also\nthe pride a man feels in being the Queen's driver.\n\nSo far as the companies are concerned, it may be said that there is a\nfair field and no favour all the way from the fire-box in the\ncleaning-shed up to the footboard on the locomotive that takes Her\nMajesty from Windsor to Ballater.  Promotion comes practically as a\nresult of competitive examination.  The mistake of a weak appointment is\nsoon rectified, and the precautions taken to test a man's capacity in one\ngrade before raising him to another are an absolute barrier to\nincompetence.  But there are circumstances under which a man's chances\nare weakened.  His responsibilities make him liable for the faults of\nothers, and mistakes of this kind go to his discredit.  Then if he is not\ncompanionable, or is over-confident, tricks may be played which will\nprevent his going forward as rapidly as he otherwise would.  Mr. Reynolds\ntells the story of a driver who had come to a dead stop on a journey\nbecause he was short of steam.  The cause was a mystery.  There appeared\nto be nothing wrong with the engine or the fire, and apparently the\nboiler was also in trim.  It was eventually found that some one had put\nsoft soap in the tender, and the water there being hot, the soap was\ngradually dissolved and introduced into the boiler, with the result that\nthe grease covered the tubes, and together with the suds prevented the\ntransmission of heat to the water.  An enemy had done this, but under the\nrules the driver was responsible for his engine, and he was suspended;\nonly, however, to be reinstated when once the mischief was traced to the\nperpetrator.  Even an act which to the ordinary spectator is a marvellous\nexample of presence of mind may, interpreted by the company's rules, be\nan offence on the part of the engine-driver.  An engine attached to a\ntrain broke from the tender in the course of its journey, and became\nseparated.  Noticing the mishap, the driver slackened speed, allowed the\ntender and carriages to come up, and while the train was still in motion\nhe and the fireman adroitly secured the runaway, and no harm was done.\nThe men interested did not think it advisable to report the occurrence.\nBut the clever management of the engine had been noticed by a peasant in\na field, and Hodge, in his wonderment, began to talk about the affair all\nround the country-side.  Then the story found its way to a station\nmaster, and thence to headquarters, and an inquiry brought the matter to\nlight, and ended in the two men being advised not to do the same thing\nagain.  It was held that under the circumstances the train should have\nbeen stopped.\n\n\n\n\nENGINE DRIVERS' PRESENCE OF MIND.\n\n\nAn able writer upon railway topics remarks:--\"I have alluded to a\ndriver's coolness and resolution in an accident, but no chronicle ever\nhas or ever will be written which will tell one tithe of the accidents\nwhich the courage and presence of mind of these men have averted.  A\nrailway ran over a river--indeed, it might be called an arm of the sea:\nas it was the inlet to an important harbour, provision was obliged to be\nmade for the shipping, and so the piece of line which crossed the water,\nat a height of seventy feet, was, in fact, a bridge which swung round\nwhen large vessels had to pass.  I need hardly say that such a point was\ncarefully guarded.  At each end, at a fitting distance, a man was placed\nspecially to indicate whether the bridge was open or shut.  One day, as\nthe express was tearing along on its up journey, the driver received the\nusual 'all right' signal; but to his horror, on coming in full sight of\nthe bridge, he found it was wide open, and a gulf of fatal depth yawning\nbefore him.  He sounded his brake-whistle, that deep-toned scream which\nsignals the guard, and he and his fireman held on, as before described,\nto the brake and regulator.  The speed of the train was, of course,\nchecked; but so short was the interval, so great had been the impetus,\nthat it seemed almost impossible to prevent the whole train from going\nover into the chasm.  Had the rails been in the least degree slippery,\nany of the brakes out of order, or the driver less determined, there\nwould then have occurred the most fearful railway accident ever known in\nEngland; but by dint of quick decision and cool courage the danger was\naverted; the train was brought to a standstill when the buffers of the\nengine absolutely and literally overhung the chasm.  Three yards more,\nand a different result might have had to be chronicled.\n\n\"Some of my readers may remember an incident in railway history which\ndates back to our first great Exhibition.  I mention it here for its\nsingularity, and for my having known the driver whose coolness was so\nmarked.  In ascending a very long gradient, the hindmost carriages of the\ntrain snapped their couplings when at the top; the engine rattled on with\nthe remainder, while these ran down the <DW72>, which was several miles in\nlength, with a velocity which, of course, increased every moment.  To\nmake matters worse, the next train on the same line was comparatively\nclose behind, and, in fact, shortly came in sight.  The driver of this\nsecond train, a watchful and experienced hand, saw the carriages rushing\ntowards him, and divined that they were on the same line.  If he\ncontinued steaming on, of course, in a couple of minutes he would come\ninto direct collision with them, while, on the other hand, if he ran\nback, the carriages would probably gather such way that they would leap\nfrom the bank.  So, with great presence of mind and wonderful judgment of\nspeed, he ran back at a pace not quite as fast as the carriages were\napproaching, so that eventually they overtook him, and struck his moving\nengine with a blow that was scarcely more perceptible than the jar\nusually communicated by coupling on a fresh carriage.  When this was\ndone, all the rest was easy; he resumed his down journey, and pushed the\nfrightened passengers safely before him until they reached their\ndestination, where the officials, as may readily be supposed, were in a\nstate of frantic despair at the loss of half the train.\"\n\n\n\n\nA SMUGGLING LOCOMOTIVE.\n\n\nA singular adaptation of the locomotive has just been made in Russia.\nInformation having been given to the authorities at Alexandrovo, on the\nPolish frontier, that the locomotive of the express leaving that station\nfor Warsaw had been ingeniously converted into a receptacle for smuggled\ngoods, it was carefully examined during its sojourn at the station.\nThough nothing was found wrong, it was deemed advisable that a\ncustom-house official should accompany the train to its destination, when\nthe engine furnace and boiler were emptied and deliberately taken to\npieces.  In the interior was discovered a secret compartment containing\none hundred and twenty-three pounds of foreign cigars and several parcels\nof valuable silk.  Several arrests were made, including that of the\ndriver; but his astonishment at finding the engine to which he had been\nso long accustomed converted into a hardened offender against the laws\nwas so genuine that he was released and allowed to return to his duties.\n\n\n\n\nTHE CUSTOM OF THE COUNTRY.\n\n\nAn English lady accustomed to travelling abroad, and able to converse\nfluently in the languages of the countries she visited, recently found\nherself alone in a railway carriage in Germany, when two foreigners\nentered with pipes in their mouths, smoking strong tobacco furiously.\nShe quietly told them in their own language that it was not a smoking\ncarriage, but they persisted in continuing to smoke, remarking that it\nwas \"the custom of the country,\" upon which the lady took from her pocket\na pair of gloves and commenced cleaning them with benzoline.  Her\nfellow-passengers expressed their disgust at the nauseous effluvium, when\nshe remarked that it was the custom of her country.  She was soon left in\nthe sole possession of the carriage.\n\n                                                                --_Truth_.\n\n\n\n\nAN INSULTED WOMAN.\n\n\nMark Twain in his interesting work \"A Tramp Abroad,\" thus refers to a\nrailroad incident:--\"We left Turin at 10 the next morning by a railway,\nwhich was profusely decorated with tunnels.  We forgot to take a lantern\nalong, consequently we missed all the scenery.  Our compartment was full.\nA ponderous, tow-headed, Swiss woman, who put on many fine-lady airs, but\nwas evidently more used to washing linen than wearing it, sat in a corner\nseat and put her legs across into the opposite one, propping them\nintermediately with her up-ended valise.  In the seat thus pirated sat\ntwo Americans, greatly incommoded by that woman's majestic coffin-clad\nfeet.  One of them begged her, politely, to remove them.  She opened her\nwide eyes and gave him a stare, but answered nothing.  By-and-by he\npreferred his request again, with great respectfulness.  She said, in\ngood English, and in a deeply offended tone, that she had paid her\npassage and was not going to be bullied out of her 'rights' by ill-bred\nforeigners, even if she _was_ alone and unprotected.\n\n\"'But I have rights also, madam.  My ticket entitles me to a seat, but\nyou are occupying half of it.'\n\n\"'I will not talk with you, sir.  What right have you to speak to me?  I\ndo not know you.  One would know that you come from a land where there\nare no gentlemen.  No _gentleman_ would treat a lady as you have treated\nme.'\n\n\"'I come from a land where a lady would hardly give me the same\nprovocation.'\n\n\"'You have insulted me, sir!  You have intimated that I am not a\nlady--and I hope I am _not_ one, after the pattern of your country.'\n\n\"'I beg that you will give yourself no alarm on that head, madam but at\nthe same time I must insist--always respectfully--that you let me have my\nseat.'\n\n\"Here the fragile laundress burst into tears and sobs.\n\n\"'I never was so insulted before!  Never, never!  It is shameful, it is\nbrutal, it is base, to bully and abuse an unprotected lady who has lost\nthe use of her limbs and cannot put her feet to the floor without agony!'\n\n\"'Good heavens, madam, why didn't you say that at first!  I offer a\nthousand pardons.  And I offer them most sincerely.  I did not know--I\n_could_ not know--that anything was the matter.  You are most welcome to\nthe seat, and would have been from the first if I had only known.  I am\ntruly sorry it all happened, I do assure you.'\n\n\"But he couldn't get a word of forgiveness out of her.  She simply sobbed\nand snuffled in a subdued but wholly unappeasable way for two long hours,\nmeantime crowding the man more than ever with her undertaker-furniture,\nand paying no sort of attention to his frequent and humble little efforts\nto do something for her comfort.  Then the train halted at the Italian\nline, and she hopped up and marched out of the car with as firm a leg as\nany washerwoman of all her tribe!  And how sick I was to see how she had\nfooled me!\"\n\n\n\n\nDISSATISFIED PASSENGERS.\n\n\nAny one wanting a fair and yet amusing account of what really occurs to a\nperson travelling in America should read G. A. Sala's book called\n_America Revisited_.  He speaks of a gentleman from the Eastern States\nwhom he met in the train across the continent, and who thus held forth\nupon the difference between reality and guide-books:--\n\n\"There ain't no bottling up of things about me.  This overland journey's\na fraud, and you oughter know it.  Don't tell me.  It's a fraud.  This\nRing must be busted up.  Where are your buffalers?  Perhaps you'll tell\nme that them cows is buffalers.  They ain't.  Where are your prairie\ndogs?  They ain't dogs to begin with, they're squirrels.  Ain't you\nashamed to call the mean little cusses dogs?  But where are they?  There\nain't none.  Where are your grizzlies?  You might have imported a few\ngrizzlies to keep up the name of your railroad.  Where are your herds of\nantelopes scudding before the advancing train?  Nary an antelope have you\ngot for to scud.  Rocky Mountains, sir?  They ain't rocky at all--they're\nas flat as my hand.  Where are your savage gorges?  I can't see none.\nWhere are your wild injuns?  Do you call them loafing tramps in dirty\nblankets, injuns?  My belief is that they are greasers looking out for an\nengagement as song and dance men.  They're 'beats,' sir, 'dead beats,'\nthey're 'pudcocks,' and you oughter be told so.\"\n\nAnother passenger in the train with Mr. Sala was of a poetic mind, and he\nsoftly sang to himself during the whole journey over the Rocky Mountains\nthe following effusion:--\n\n          Beautiful snow,\n          Beautiful snow,\n          B-e-e-e-eautiful snow,\n    How I'd like to have a revolver and go\n    For the beast that wrote about beautiful snow.\n\n\n\n\nCOPY OF A NOTICE.\n\n\nThe following is a verbatim copy of a notice exhibited at Welsh railway\nstation.  It is, perhaps, only a little more incomprehensible than\nBradshaw.  \"List of Booking: You passengers must careful.  For have them\nlevel money for ticket and to apply at once for asking tickets when will\nbooking window open.  No tickets to have after the departure of the\ntrains.\"\n\n\n\n\nSNOWED UP ON THE PACIFIC RAILWAY.\n\n\nA writer in the _Leisure Hour_ remarks:--\"It is no joke when a town like\nNew York or London is blocked up for a few hours by snow.  Both labour\nand capital have then to submit to a strike from nature; but it is a more\nserious matter when a man is snowed up in the middle of the Pacific\nRailway.  He is not then kept at home, but kept away from it; he is not\nin the midst of comforts, but most unpleasantly out of their reach.  He\nmay, too, have to endure his privations and annoyances for a week, or\neven a month. . .  Avalanches, in spite of snow-sheds and galleries,\nspring into ravines which the trains have to cross. . . .  It was,\nhowever, with some little alarm that the writer found himself caverned\nfor a considerable time under one of these dark snow-sheds.  The\ndifficulty of running through the snow impediments had so exhausted the\nfuel that it was necessary to go to a wood-station in the mountains.  As\nit was the favourite resort of avalanches, the prudent conductor of our\ntrain directed the pilot to back the carriages into a snow-shed, and then\nbe off the more quickly with engine and tender for a supply of fuel.  It\nwas bitterly cold and in the dead of night.  The snow was piled up around\nthe gallery, and had in many places penetrated through the crevices.  The\nsilence was profound.  The sense of utter loneliness and desolation was\ncomplete.  The return of the engine after a lengthened absence was a\nrelief, like the spring sun following an arctic winter.\n\n\"The first parties snowed up were wholly unprepared.  They had had their\ndollar meal at the last station, and were far enough from the next when\nfixed in the bank.  It was, however, a rare harvest for the nearest\nstore.  The necessity of some was the opportunity of others.  Food of\ninferior quality brought fabulous prices.  A dispute, involving a heavy\nwager, arose about one article of fare.  Was it antelope or not?  The\nvendor admitted that a very lean old cow had been sacrificed on the\npressing occasion.\n\n\"For a little while some fun was got out of the trouble of snowed-up\ntrains.  Delicate attentions were tendered by gentlemen as cooks' mates\nto the ladies.  Oyster-cans were converted into culinary utensils, and\ntelegraph wire proved excellent material for gridirons.  Many a joke was\npassed in the train kitchen, and hearty was the appetite for the rude\nviands thus rudely dressed.  But when the food grew more difficult to\nobtain, and the wood supply became less and less, the mirth was\nconsiderably slackened.  It is true that despatches were sent off for\nhelp, and cargoes of provisions were steamed up as near as the snow would\npermit; but it was hard work to carry over the snow, and insufficient was\nthe supply.  Frightful growlings arose from the men and sad lamentations\nfrom the women.  Short allowance of food, with intense cold, could not be\npositively enjoyed any time; but to be cooped up within snow walls in\nsuch a desolate region, far from expecting friends or urgent business,\nwas most annoying.  One spoke of absolute necessity to be at his office\nwithin the week, as heavy bills had to be prepared for.  Another was\ngoing about an important speculation, which would utterly break down if\nhe were detained three days.  Alas! he was there above three weeks.\n\n\"The sorrows of the heart were worse.  A mother was there hastening to\nnurse a sick daughter.  A father had been summoned to the dying bed of\nhis son.  A husband was hoping to clasp again a wife from whom a long\nvoyage had separated him.  One poor fellow was an especial object of\nsympathy.  He was hastening to an anxiously waiting bride.  He had to\ncool the ardour of his passion in the snow-bound car, and pass the day\nappointed for his wedding in shivering reflections.  In one of the snow\ndepths was detained an interesting couple who had casually met on the\nwestern side and were obeying the mandate of the heart and of friends in\nproceeding to the east to effect their happy union.  The three weeks they\nwere compelled to pass together, under these cold and trying\ncircumstances, must have given them a famous insight into each other's\ncharacter, and this before the knot was tied.\n\n\"The story is told of one resolute man who, though but newly married, had\nbeen compelled to take a business journey.  He was most impatient to\nreturn home, and was awhile confounded with his unfortunate imprisonment.\nWhen he found that little chance existed for an early escape, his heart\nprompted him to a bold enterprise.  He was still two hundred miles from\nhome.  He had no guide before him but the telegraph posts.  He could\nexpect little provision on the way, as the stations were frozen up; but,\nsustained by conjugal affection, the good fellow set off on his lonely\nwalk over the snow.  Notwithstanding terrible sufferings, and some free\nfighting with wolves, he did his march in five days only.  What a\ngreeting he deserved!\n\n\"Those who had not his courage and strength were compelled to endure the\ncars.  Americans are not folks to whine about a trouble; they succeed so\noften that their faith is strong.  Though the most luxurious of people,\nthe men--and the women too--can bear reverses nobly.  But they never\ndream of Oriental submissiveness.  They struggle hard to rise, and make\nthe best of things till a change comes.  So with those in the cars.  They\nsoon found amusements; they chatted and laughed, played games and sang;\nthe best jokes were recollected and repeated, and the liveliest tales\nwere told; charades were acted; a judge and jury scene afforded much\namusement; lectures were given to approving assemblies.  The Sundays were\ndecently observed, and services were held morning and evening; reading\nwas dispensed with, and the sermons were extempore perforce.\n\n\"The worst part of their sufferings came when for forty-eight hours they\nwere under a snow-shed without light, and with the stoves empty.  As, for\nthe maintenance of warmth, every crevice in the cars was stopped, the\nmisery of close and unwholesome atmosphere was added to their sorrows.\nThe writer, as an old traveller, has had some experience of odd sleeping\ndens, and has been obliged at times to inhale a pestiferous air, though\nhe has never endured so much from this discomfort as in his winter\npassage on the Pacific Railway.  For hours in the long nights, as well as\nin the day, he preferred standing outside on the platform, with the\nthermometer from fifteen to twenty-five below zero, rather than encounter\nthe foul atmosphere and stifling heat within.\n\n\"Meanwhile the brave Chinamen were summoned to the rescue.  They are\ncapital fellows to withstand the cold, and work with a will to clear a\npassage.  For a distance of two hundred miles the blockade existed, and\nseveral trains were thus caught on the way.  Eight hundred freight wagons\nwere detained at Cheyenne.  At one period the cold was 30 degrees below\nzero.  The worst part of the road was toward Sherman, 8,252 feet above\nthe sea.  Wyoming and West Nebraska were the coldest regions.\n\n\"In this great blockade, strange to say, the mortality was but small.\nThree died during the imprisonment, and two in consequence of cold.  But\nan interesting compensation was made, for five births took place in this\nseason of trial.  The principal sufferers were those in the second-class\ncarriages.  Room, however, was made for the more delicate in the already\ncrowded first-class cars.\"\n\n\n\n\nA SELL.\n\n\nThe _Indianapolis News_ is responsible for the following story.  A\nrailroad official of Indianapolis had, among other passes, one purporting\nto carry him freely over the Warren and Tonawanda Narrow-Gauge Railway.\nHappening to be near Warren, he thought he would use this pass.  Now, it\nappears that some enterprising citizens of Pennsylvania once proposed to\nlay a pipe-line for petroleum between Warren and Tonawanda.  The\nLegislature having refused to sanction their scheme, they \"engineered\" a\nbill for building a narrow-gauge line, which passed, the oil capitalists\nnot conceiving that they had any interest in opposing it.  It is needless\nto say the narrow-gauge line was the \"desiderated pipe-line.\"  The\nenterprising citizens carried their joke so far as to issue annual passes\nover the road, receiving others in return.  When the traveller sought for\nthe Warren station on this line he found a chimney, and for the\nnarrow-gauge an iron-lined hole in the ground.  It is hardly surprising\nthat now he is moved to anger at the slightest reference to the \"Warren\nand Tonawanda Narrow Gauge.\"\n\n\n\n\nAT FAULT.\n\n\nIt is rather a serious matter that our public companies, and especially\nour railway companies, are doing their best to degrade our language.  I\nam not going to be squeamish and object strongly to the use of the word\n_Metropolitan_, though I think it indefensible.  Still, it is too bad of\nthem to persist in using the word _bye-laws_ for _by-laws_--so\nestablishing solidly a shocking error.  The word _bye_ has no existence\nin England except as short for _be with you_, in the phrase _Good-bye_.\nThe so called by-laws are simple laws by the other laws, and have nothing\nto do with any form of salutation.  In a bill of the Great Western\nRailway I find the announcement that tickets obtained in London on any\nday from December 20th to 24th will be available for use on _either_ of\nthose days--this _either_ meaning the five days from the 20th December to\nthe 24th inclusive.  Either of five!  After this I am not surprised that,\nin a contribution of my own to a daily paper, the editor gravely altered\nthe phrase _the last-named_, applied to one of three people, to _latter_.\nIn a railway advertisement I read a day or two ago, \"From whence.\"  Now,\nwhat is the good of such fine words as _whence_ and _thence_ if they are\nthus to be ill-used?  Surely the railway companies might have some one\ncapable of seeing that their grammar has some pretence to correctness.\n\n                                                 --_Gentleman's Magazine_.\n\n\n\n\nA WIDOW'S CLAIM FOR COMPENSATION.\n\n\nSome time ago a railway collision on one of the roads leading out of New\nYork killed, among others, a passenger living in an interior town.  His\nremains were sent home, and a few days after the funeral the attorney of\nthe road called upon the widow to effect a settlement.  She placed her\nfigures at twenty thousand dollars.  \"Oh! that sum is unreasonable,\"\nreplied the attorney.  \"Your husband was nearly fifty years old.\"  \"Yes,\nsir.\"  \"And lame?\"  \"Yes.\"  \"And his general health was poor?\"  \"Quite\npoor.\"  \"And he probably would not have lived over five years?\"\n\"Probably not, sir.\"  \"Then it seems to me that two or three thousand\ndollars would be a fair compensation.\"  \"Two or three thousand!\" she\nechoed.  \"Why, sir, I courted that man for ten years, run after him for\nten more, and then had to chase him down with a shotgun to get him before\na preacher!  Do you suppose that I'm going to settle for the bare cost of\nshoe leather and ammunition?\"\n\n\n\n\nTHE LADY AND HER LAP-DOG.\n\n\nThe following scene occurred at the high-level Crystal Palace line:--\"A\nnewspaper correspondent was amused at the indignation of a lady against\nthe porters who interfered to prevent her taking her dog into the\ncarriage.  The lady argued that Parliament had compelled the companies to\nfind separate carriages for smokers, and they ought to be further\ncompelled to have a separate carriage for ladies with lap-dogs, and it\nwas perfectly scandalous that they should be separated, and a valuable\ndog, worth perhaps thirty or forty guineas, should be put into a dog\ncompartment.  I have some of the B stock of the railway, upon which not a\npenny has ever been paid, and I could not help comparing my experience of\nthis particular line of railway with that of my fellow-traveller, and\nwondering what sort of a train that would be which would provide\naccommodation for all the wants and wishes of railway travellers.\"\n\n\n\n\nWHAT IS PASSENGERS' LUGGAGE?\n\n\nA gentleman removing took with him on the Great Western railway articles\nconsisting of six pairs of blankets, six pairs of sheets, and six\ncounterpanes, valued at 16 pounds, belonging to his household furniture.\nThey were in a box, which was put in the luggage van and lost.  The\nquestion at law was whether these articles came within the definition,\n\"ordinary passengers' luggage,\" for which, if lost, the passenger could\nclaim damages from the Company.\n\nThe judges of the Court of Queen's Bench sitting in Banco have decided\nthat such is not personal luggage.\n\n\"Now,\" (said the Lord Chief Justice) \"although we are far from saying\nthat a pair of sheets or the like taken by a passenger for his use on a\njourney might not fairly be considered as personal luggage, it appears to\nus that a quantity of articles of that description intended, not for the\nuse of the traveller on the journey, but for the use of his household,\nwhen permanently settled, cannot be held to be so.\"\n\n                            --_Herepath's Railway Journal_, Jan. 10, 1871.\n\n\n\n\nCONVERSION OF THE GAUGE.\n\n\nThe conversion of the gauge on the South Wales section of the Great\nWestern railway in 1872 was of the heaviest description, the period of\nlabour lasting from seventeen to eighteen hours a day for several\nsuccessive days.  It was the greatest work of its kind, and nothing\nexactly like it will ever be done in England again.  The lines of rail to\nbe connected would have made about 400 miles in single length, the number\nof men employed was about 1500; and the time taken was two weeks nearly.\nOatmeal and barley water was made into a thin gruel and given to the men\nas required.  It was the only drink taken during the day.  I had not a\nsingle case of drunkenness or illness.  I have often heard these men\nspeak with great approbation of the supporting power of oatmeal drink.\n\n                                               --_J. W. Armstrong_, _C.E._\n\n\n\n\nFOURTH-OF-JULY FACTS.\n\n\nAt a banquet in Paris attended by Americans in celebration of the late\nFourth of July, Mr. Walker's speech in reply to the toast of the material\nprosperity of the United States and France, and the establishment of\ncloser commercial relations between them, was especially striking and\ninteresting.  He remarked, \"In 1870 the cost of transporting food and\nmerchandise between the Western and Eastern States was from a\ncent-and-a-half to two cents a ton a mile.  I well remember a\nconversation which I had in 1870 or 1871 with Mr. William B. Ogden, of\nChicago, one of the modest railway kings of that primitive period.  In a\nvein of sanguine prophecy, Mr. Ogden exclaimed to me, 'Mr. Walker, you\nwill live to see freight brought from Chicago to New York at a cent a ton\na mile!'  'Perhaps so,' I replied; 'but I fear this result will not be\nreached in my time.'  In 1877 or 1878 the cost had fallen to\nthree-eighths of a cent a ton a mile, and although this price was not\nremunerative, I was told by one of the highest authorities in railway\nmatters that five-eighths of a cent would be perfectly satisfactory.  The\neffect of this reduction in the cost of transportation is precisely as\nthough the unexhaustible grain fields and pastures across the Mississippi\nhad been moved bodily eastward to the longitude of Ohio and Western New\nYork.  It is estimated that it takes a quarter of a ton of bread and meat\nto feed a grown man in Massachusetts for a year.  The bread and meat come\nto him from the far west, and I have no doubt that it will astonish you\nto be told, as it lately astonished me, that a single day of this man's\nlabour, even if it be of the commonest sort, will pay for transporting\nhis year's subsistence for a thousand miles.\"\n\n\n\n\nTAY BRIDGE ACCIDENT.\n\n\nDec. 28, 1879.  A fearful disaster occurred in Scotland.  As the train\nfrom Edinburgh to Dundee was crossing the bridge, two miles in length,\nwhich spans the mouth of the Tay, a terrible hurricane struck the bridge,\nabout four hundred yards of which was, with the train, dashed into the\nsea below.  About seventy persons were in the train, of whom not one\nescaped, nor, when the divers were able to descend, could a single body\nbe found in the carriages, or among the bridge girders, and some days\nelapsed before any were recovered.  No conclusive evidence could be\nproduced to show whether the train was blown off the rails and so dragged\nthe girders down, or whether the bridge was blown away and the train ran\ninto the chasm thus made.  The night was intensely dark, and the wind\nmore violent than had ever been known in the country.\n\n                                                  _Annual Register_, 1879.\n\n\n\n\nAN EXTRAORDINARY WAIF.\n\n\nThe following is a translation from the Norwegian newspaper\n_Morgenbledet_, dated Feb. 20th:--\"By private letter from Utsue, an\nisland on the western coast of Norway, is communicated to Dapposten the\nintelligence that on the 12th inst. some fishermen pulled on the Firth to\nhaul their nets, and had hardly finished their labour when they sighted\nan extraordinary object some distance further out.  The superstitious\nfears of sea monsters which have been written a good deal about lately\nheld them back for some time, but their curiosity made them approach the\nsupposed sea monster, and, to their great surprise, they found that it\nwas something like a building.  As the sea was calm they immediately\ncommenced to tow it to shore, where it was hauled up on the beach, and\nwas then found to be a damaged railway wagon.  The wheels were off, the\nwindows smashed, and one door hanging on its hinges.  By the name on it,\n\"Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway,\" it was at once surmised that it must\nhave been one of the wagons separated from the train which met with the\ndisaster on the Tay Bridge.  In the carriage was a portmanteau containing\ngarments, some of them marked 'P.B.'  The wagon was sent, on the 14th, to\nHangesund, to be forwarded thence to Bergen.\"\n\n\n\n\nA RAILWAY SLEEPER.\n\n\nA railway pointsman, caught napping at his post and convicted of wilful\nnegligence, said to the gaoler who was about to lock him up, \"I always\nsupposed that the safety of a railroad depended on the soundness of its\nsleepers?\"  \"So it does,\" replied the gaoler, \"but such sleepers are\nnever safe unless they are bolted in.\"\n\n\n\n\nNOT TO BE CAUGHT.\n\n\nThe following incident is said to have occurred on the North London\nRailway:--Some time ago a passenger remarked, in the hearing of one of\nthe company's servants, how easy it was to \"do\" the company, and said, \"I\noften travel from Broad Street to Dalston Junction without a\nticket--anyone can do it--I did it yesterday.\"  When he alighted he was\nfollowed by the official, who asked him how it was done.  For a\nconsideration he agreed to tell him.  This being given, \"Now,\" said the\ninquirer, \"how did you go from Broad Street to Dalston Junction yesterday\nwithout a ticket?\"  \"Oh,\" was the reply, \"I walked.\"\n\n\n\n\nTHE DOCTOR AND THE OFFICERS.\n\n\nThe following is rather a good story from the Emerald Isle:--A doctor and\nhis wife got into a train near--well, we will not say where.  In the same\ncarriage with the doctor were two strange officers.  The doctor's wife\ngot into another compartment of the same train, the doctor not having\nseen his wife in the hurry, neither knew that they were travelling by the\nsame train until both had got into different carriages.  Said one of the\nofficers to his companion, \"That is the ugliest woman I ever saw.\"  \"She\nis,\" replied the Son of Mars.  \"I should not like to be obliged to kiss\nher,\" responded the first speaker.  \"I should not mind doing it,\"\nsullenly said the doctor.  \"You never would, sir, think of such a thing,\"\nsaid the officer.  \"I'll bet you a sovereign I will,\" answered the man of\n\"pills and potions.\"  \"Done,\" said the officer.  So when they all got out\nat the station, the doctor went forward and kissed his wife, and won his\nsovereign--the easiest-earned fee he had ever received.  The officers\nlooked rather astonished when he presented his wife to them.\n\n\n\n\nTHE BOTHERED QUEEN'S COUNSEL.\n\n\nMr. Merewether, Q.C., got into the train one morning with a whole batch\nof briefs and a talkative companion.  He wanted to go through his briefs,\nbut his companion would not let him work.  He tried silence, he tried\ngrunting, he tried sarcasm.  At length, when they came to Hanwell, the\ngossip hit upon the unfortunate remark, \"How well the asylum looks from\nthe railway!\"  \"Pray, sir,\" replied Mr. Merewether, \"how does the railway\nlook from the asylum?\"  The man was silent.\n\n\n\n\nA BRAVE ENGINE DRIVER.\n\n\nAn American contemporary says:--\"John Bull, of Galion (Ohio), ought to\nhave his name recorded in an enduring way, for few have ever behaved so\nnobly as that engine driver of the New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio\nrailroad.  As he was driving a passenger train last month he found that,\nthrough somebody's blunder, a freight train was approaching on the same\ntrack, and a collision was inevitable.  He could have saved his own life\nby leaping from the engine, but, dismissing all thoughts of himself, he\nresolved to try and save the passengers committed to his care.  So he\nreversed the engine and set the air-brakes, and then put on full steam,\nstarted the locomotive ahead, broke the coupling attached to the train,\nand dashed on to receive the shock of the collision.  The passengers\nescaped all injury, while the brave engineer was so badly hurt that he\ndied in a few hours.  Such heroism as this should not go unnoticed.\"  The\n_Cincinnati Inquirer_ says: \"He remained in the car until the engine\nleaped into the air and was dashed into the ditch, when he attempted to\nspring to the ground, but had his foot caught between the frames of the\nengine and tender, striking his head on the ground and causing the fatal\ninjuries.  Railroad men say that the act of detaching the engine as he\ndid, not even derailing the baggage car with his engine at the high rate\nof speed, and all in 150 feet, is without parallel in railroading.  A\npurse of 500 dollars was raised by the grateful passengers.  The body has\nbeen shipped to Galion for burial.\"\n\n\n\n\nAN INDUSTRIOUS BISHOP.\n\n\nIn noticing the \"Life of the Rt. Rev. Samuel Wilberforce, D.D., Lord\nBishop of Oxford, and afterwards of Winchester,\" a writer in the\n_Athenaeum_ remarks:--\"Busy he was, both in Oxford and in London, and his\ncorrespondence with all kinds of people was unusually large.  A large\nproportion of his letters were written in the railway train, and dated\nfrom 'near' this town, or 'between' this and that.  We remember to have\nheard from one who was his companion in a railway carriage that before\nthe journey was half-finished the adjoining seat was littered with\nenvelopes of letters which he had read, and with the answers he had\nwritten since he started.  All this undeniably shows energy and\ndetermination, and power to work.\"\n\n\n\n\nCOOL IMPUDENCE AND DISHONESTY.\n\n\nSome days since, the trains of the North London Railway were all late,\nand consequently every platform was crowded.  At one of the stations an\nunfortunate passenger attempted to enter an already over-crowded\nfirst-class compartment, but one of the occupants stoutly resisted the\nintrusion.  Thereupon, the unfortunate one said, \"I will soon settle\nthis,\" and called the guard to the carriage door.  He then requested the\nofficial to ask two of the occupants to produce their tickets, which\nproved to be third-class ones.  In spite of the delinquents protesting\nthere was no room in the train elsewhere, they were ejected, and the\nunfortunate one took their place.  The other passengers were naturally\nrather indignant; and, seeing this, the successful intruder quietly said,\n\"I am very sorry to have had to turn those two gentlemen out, especially\nas I have heard them say they were already late for an important\nengagement in the city; and I am all the more sorry, seeing that I only\nhold a third-class ticket myself.\"\n\n                                                                --_Truth_.\n\n\n\n\nTHE BOOKING-CLERK AND BUCKLAND.\n\n\nMr. Frank Buckland had been in France and was returning via Southampton,\nwith an overcoat stuffed with natural history specimens of all sorts,\ndead and alive.  Among them was a monkey, which was domiciled in a large\ninside breast-pocket.  As Buckland was taking his ticket, Jocko thrust up\nhis head and attracted the attention of the booking-clerk, who\nimmediately--and very properly--said, \"You must take a ticket for that\ndog, if it's going with you.\"  \"Dog,\" said Buckland, \"it's no dog, it's a\nmonkey.\"  \"It is a dog,\" replied the clerk.  \"It's a monkey,\" retorted\nBuckland, and proceeded to show the whole animal, but without convincing\nthe clerk, who insisted on five shillings for the dog-ticket to London.\nNettled at this, Buckland plunged his hand into another pocket and\nproduced a tortoise, and laying it on the sill of the ticket window said,\n\"Perhaps you'll call that a dog too.\"  The clerk inspected the tortoise.\n\"No,\" said he, \"we make no charge for them--they're insects.\"\n\n\n\n\nREMARKABLE RESCUE OF A CHILD.\n\n\nAn engineer on a locomotive going across the western prairie day after\nday, saw a little child come out in front of a cabin and wave to him, so\nhe got in the habit of waving back to the child, and it was the day's joy\nto see this little one come out in front of the cabin door and wave to\nhim while he answered back.  One day the train was belated, and it came\non to the dusk of the evening.  As the engineer stood at his post he saw\nby the headlight that little girl on the track, wondering why the train\ndid not come, looking for the train, knowing nothing of her peril.  A\ngreat horror seized upon the engineer.  He reversed the engine.  He gave\nit in charge of the other man, and then he climbed over the engine, and\nhe came down on the cowcatcher.  He said though he had reversed the\nengine, it seemed as though it were going at lightning speed, faster and\nfaster, though it was really slowing up, and with almost supernatural\nclutch he caught the child by the hair and lifted it up, and when the\ntrain stopped, and the passengers gathered around to see what was the\nmatter, there the old engineer lay, fainted dead away, the little child\nalive and in his swarthy arms.\n\n\n\n\nFEMALE FRAGILITY.\n\n\nThere was a time when American women prided themselves on their\nfragility.  To be healthy, strong or plump was thought to be the height\nof vulgarity, and refinement was held to be inseparable from leanness and\nconsumption.  These views still obtain--so it is said--in Boston, and\nespecially in Bostonian literary circles; but elsewhere the American\nwoman is growing plump and healthy, and is actually proud of it.  While\nwise men are heartily glad of this change in female sentiment and tissue,\nit must be admitted that there is one form of feminine fragility which\nhas its value.  There is a rare condition of the bony system in which the\nbones are so fragile that the slightest blow is sufficient to break them.\nA baby thus afflicted cannot be handled, even by the most experienced\nmother, without danger; and a man with fragile bones is so liable to be\nbroken, that there is sometimes no safety for him outside of a glass\ncase.  The late Mrs. Baker--for that was her latest name--was not so\nfragile that she could not be handled by a careful man, but still a very\nlight blow would usually break her.  She did not share the Bostonian\nopinion of the vulgarity of strength, but she was, nevertheless, very\nproud of her fragility, and by its aid her husband managed to amass a\ncomfortable fortune within three years after their marriage.  She is\nperhaps the only fragile woman on record of whom it can be said that her\nwhole value consisted in her fragility, but, as her story shows, her\nfragility was the sole capital invested in her husband's business.  In\nJanuary, 1870, Mrs. Baker--then a single woman, as to whose maiden name\nthere is some uncertainty--was married to Mr. Wheelwright--James G.\nWheelwright, of Worcester, Mass.  Her husband married her on account of\nher well-known fragility, but he treated her with such kindness that in\nthe whole course of their married life he never once broke her, even by\naccident.  In February, 1870, the Wheelwrights removed to Utica, N.Y.,\nand one day Mr. Wheelwright took his wife to the railway station, and had\nher break her leg in a small hole on the platform.  He at once sued the\nrailway company for 10,000 dols., being the value set by himself on his\nwife's leg, and ten days afterwards accepted 5,000 dols. as a compromise,\nand withdrew the suit The Wheelwrights left Utica in June, 1870, and in\nthe following August the dutiful Mrs. Wheelwright, who now called herself\nMrs. Thomas, broke her other leg in a hole in the platform of the railway\nstation at Pittsburg.  Again her husband sued the railway company for\n15,000 dols., and compromised for 6,500 dols.  The leg was mended\nsuccessfully, and in July, 1871, we find the Thomases, now passing under\nthe name of Mr. and Mrs. Smiley, at Cincinnati, where Mr. Smiley, after\nlong searching, discovered a piece of ragged and uneven sidewalk, upon\nwhich his wife made a point of falling and breaking her right arm.  This\ntime the city was sued for 15,000 dols., and Mr. Smiley proved that his\nwife was a school teacher by profession, and that the breaking of her arm\nrendered it impossible for her to teach, for there as on that she could\nnot wield a rod or even a slipper.  The city paid the 15,000 dols. and\nthe Smileys, having by honest industry thus made 26,500 dols., removed to\nChicago, and entered their names on the hotel register as Mr. and Mrs.\nMcGinnis, of Portland, Me.  On the second day after their arrival at the\nhotel, Mr. McGinnis found an eligible place on the piazza for Mrs.\nMcGinnis to break another leg, which that excellent woman promptly did.\nThe usual suit of 15,000 dols. was brought, and the hotel-keeper, fearing\nthat the notoriety of the suit would injure his hotel, was glad to\ncompromise by paying 8,000 dols.  By this time, it is understood, Mrs.\nMcGinnis was willing to retire from business, but her husband had set his\nheart on making 50,000 dols., and like a good wife she consented to break\nsome more bones.  It should be said that there was very little pain\nattending a fracture of any one of the lady's bones, and that she did not\nin the least mind the monotony of lying in bed while the broken bones\nknitted themselves together.  There can, therefore, be no charge of\ncruelty brought against her husband.  Indeed, she herself entered with a\nhearty goodwill into the scheme of making a living with her bones, and\nwould go out to break a leg with as much cheerfulness as if she was going\nto a theatre.  In March, 1872, Mrs. Wilkins--hitherto known as Mr.\nMcGinnis--walked into an open trench in a street in St. Louis and broke\nanother leg.  This time the suit brought by Mr. Wilkins against the city\ndid not succeed, and the inquiries which were put on foot as to the\nantecedents of the Wilkinses fairly frightened them out of the city.\nThey turned up a month later in Detroit, where the weather was still\ncold, and much snow had recently fallen.  There were still 16,000 dollars\nto be made before the industrious pair would have the whole of their\ndesired 50,000 dollars, and it was decided that Mrs. Wilkins--who had\nchanged her name to Mrs. Baker--should fall on the icy pavement and break\nboth arms.  This, it was estimated, would be worth at least 8,000 dols.,\nand it was hoped that the subsequent judicious breakage of two legs on\nthe premises of a Canadian railway would bring in 8,000 dols. more, after\nwhich the Bakers intended to retire from business.  Early one morning Mr.\nBaker took his wife out and had her fall on a nice piece of ice, where\nshe broke both arms.  Unfortunately, she fell more heavily than was\nnecessary, and, in addition, broke her neck and instantly expired.  The\ngrief of Mr. Baker naturally knew no bounds, and he sued for 25,000\ndols., all of which he recovered.  He had thus made 59,500 dols. by the\naid of his fragile wife, and demonstrated that as a source of steady\nincome a woman who breaks easily is almost priceless.  Still, nothing\ncould console him for the loss of his beloved partner, and he is to-day a\nlonely and unhappy man.\n\n                                                       --_New York Times_.\n\n\n\n\nTAKING HIM DOWN A PEG.\n\n\nA guard of a railway train, upon the late occasion of a _hitch_, which\ndetained the passengers for some time, gave himself so much importance in\ncommanding them, that one old gentleman took the wind out of his sails by\ncalling him to the carriage door, and saying, \"May I take the liberty,\nsir, of asking you what occupation you filled previous to being a railway\nguard?\"\n\n\n\n\nA REMARKABLE NOTICE.\n\n\nOn a certain railway, the following notice appeared:--\"Hereafter, when\ntrains moving in opposite directions are approaching each other on\nseparate lines, conductors and engineers will be required to bring their\nrespective trains to a dead halt before the point of meeting, and be very\ncareful not to proceed till each train has passed the other.\"\n\n\n\n\nFLUTTER CAUSED BY THE MURDER OF MR. BRIGGS.\n\n\nMy vocations led me to travel almost daily on one of the Great Eastern\nlines--the Woodford Branch.  Every one knows that Muller perpetrated his\ndetestable act on the North London Railway, close by.  The English middle\nclass, of which I am myself a feeble unit, travel on the Woodford branch\nin large numbers.  Well, the demoralization of our class,--which (the\nnewspapers are constantly saying it, so I may repeat it without vanity)\nhas done all the great things which have ever been done in England,--the\ndemoralization of our class caused, I say, by the Bow tragedy, was\nsomething bewildering.  Myself a transcendentalist (as the _Saturday\nReview_ knows), I escaped the infection; and day after day I used to ply\nmy agitated fellow-travellers with all the consolations which my\ntranscendentalism and my turn for French would naturally suggest to me.\nI reminded them how Julius Caesar refused to take precautions against\nassassination, because life was not worth having at the price of an\nignoble solicitude for it.  I reminded them what insignificant atoms we\nall are in the life of the world.  Suppose the worse to happen, I said,\naddressing a portly jeweller from Cheapside,--suppose even yourself to be\nthe victim, _il n'y a pas d'homme necessaire_.  We should miss you for a\nday or two on the Woodford Branch; but the great mundane movement would\nstill go on, the gravel walks of your villa would still be rolled,\ndividends would still be paid at the bank, omnibuses would still run,\nthere would still be the old crush at the corner of Fenchurch street.\nAll was of no avail.  Nothing could moderate in the bosom of the great\nEnglish middle class their passionate, absorbing, almost blood-thirsty\nclinging to life.\n\n                                 --Matthew Arnold's _Essays in Criticism_.\n\n\n\n\nAN EXTRAORDINARY BLUNDER.\n\n\nA correspondent, writing from Amelia les Bains, says:--A very singular\nblunder was committed the other day by the officials of a railway station\nbetween Prepignan and Toulon.  A gentleman who had been spending the\nwinter here with his family, left last week for Marseilles, taking with\nhim the body of his mother-in-law, who died six weeks ago, and who had\nexpressed a wish to be buried in the family vault at Marseilles.  When he\nreached Marseilles and went with the commissioner of police--whose\npresence is required upon these occasions--to receive the body from the\nrailway officials, he noticed to his great surprise that the coffin was\nof a different shape and construction from that which he had brought from\nhere.  It turned out upon further inquiry that a mistake had been\ncommitted by the officials, who had sent on to Toulon the coffin\ncontaining his mother-in-law's body, believing that it held the remains\nof a deceased admiral, which was to be embarked for interment in Algeria,\nwhile the coffin awaiting delivery was the one which should have been\nsent on.  The gentleman who was placed in this awkward predicament,\nhaving requested the railway officials to communicate at once with Toulon\nby telegraph, proceeded thither himself with the coffin of the admiral,\nbut the intimation had arrived too late.  He ascertained when he got\nthere that the first coffin had been duly received, taken on board, amid\n\"the thunder of fort and of fleet,\" the state vessel which was waiting\nfor it, and despatched to Algeria.  He at once called upon the maritime\nprefect of Toulon, and explained the circumstances of the case, but\nthough a despatch-boat was sent in pursuit, the other vessel was not\novertaken.  He is now at Toulon awaiting her return, and I believe that\nhe declines to give up the coffin containing the deceased admiral until\nhe regains possession of his mother-in-law's remains.\n\n\n\n\nA CURIOUS RACE.\n\n\nIn July, 1877, a carrier-pigeon tried conclusions with a railway train.\nThe bird was a Belgian voyageur, bred at Woolwich, and \"homed\" to a house\nin Cannon Street, City.  The train was the Continental mail-express timed\nnot to stop between Dover and Cannon Street Station.  The pigeon,\nconveying an urgent message from the French police, was tossed through\nthe railway carriage window as the train moved from the Admiralty Pier,\nthe wind being west, the atmosphere hazy, but the sun shining.  For more\nthan a minute the bird circled round till it attained an altitude of\nabout half-a-mile, and then it sailed away Londonwards.  By this time the\nengine had got full steam on, and the train was tearing away at the rate\nof sixty miles an hour; but the carrier was more than a match for it.\nTaking a line midway between Maidstone and Sittingbourne, it reached home\ntwenty minutes before the express dashed into the station; the train\nhaving accomplished seventy-six-and-a-half miles to the pigeon's seventy,\nbut being badly beaten for all that.\n\n                                                   --_All the Year Round_.\n\n\n\n\nA GREENLANDER'S FIRST RAILWAY RIDE.\n\n\nHans Hendrik, a native of Greenland, thus describes his first journey by\nrail in America:--\"Then our train arrived and we took seats in it.  When\nwe had started and looked at the ground, it appeared like a river, making\nus dizzy, and the trembling of the carriage might give you headache.  In\nthis way we proceeded, and whenever we approached houses they gave\nwarning by making big whistle sound, and on arriving at the houses they\nrung a bell and we stopped for a little while.  By the way we entered a\nlong cave through the earth, used as a road, and soon after we emerged\nfrom it again.  At length we reached our goal, and entered a large\nmansion, in which numbers of people crowded together.\"  He likens the\npeople going out of the railway-station to a \"crowd of church-goers, on\naccount of their number.\"\n\n                                              --_Good Words_, April, 1880.\n\n\n\n\nA NOVEL ACTION.\n\n\nWill bad table manners vitiate legal grounds of action?  A collision\nrecently occurred while an Italian commercial traveller was eating a\nBologna sausage in a railway train.  The shock of the collision drove the\nknife so violently against his mouth as to widen it.  He brought suit for\ndamages.  The defence was that the injuries were caused by the knife;\nthat the knife should never be carried to the mouth, and that the\nplaintiff, having injured himself by reason of his bad habit of eating,\nmust take the consequences and pay his own doctor's bill.  The case is\nnot yet finally decided.\n\n                                                --_Echo_, Oct. 1st., 1880.\n\n\n\n\nA KISS IN THE DARK.\n\n\nOn one of the seats in a railway train was a married lady with a little\ndaughter; opposite, facing them, was another child, a son, and a <DW52>\n\"lady\" with a baby.  The mother of these children was a beautiful matron\nwith sparkling eyes, in exuberant health and vivacious spirits.  Near her\nsat a young lieutenant, dressed to kill and seeking a victim.  He scraped\nup an acquaintance with the mother by attentions to the children.  It was\nnot long before he was essaying to make himself very agreeable to her,\nand by the time the sun began to decline, one would have thought they\nwere old familiar friends.  The lieutenant felt that he had made an\nimpression--his elation manifested it.  The lady, dreaming of no wrong,\nsuspecting no evil, was apparently pleased with her casual acquaintance.\nBy-and-by the train approached a tunnel.  The gay lieutenant leaned over\nand whispered something in the lady's ear.  It was noticed that she\nappeared as thunderstruck, and her eyes immediately flamed with\nindignation.  A moment more and a smile lighted up her features.  What\nchanges?  That smile was not one of pleasure, but was sinister.  It was\nunperceived by the lieutenant.  She made him a reply which apparently\nrejoiced him very much.  For the understanding properly this narrative,\nwe must tell the reader what was whispered and what was replied.  \"I mean\nto kiss you when we get into the tunnel!\" whispered the lieutenant.  \"It\nwill be dark; who will see it?\" replied the lady.  Into earth's\nbowels--into the tunnel ran the train.  Lady and  nurse quickly\nchange seats.  Gay lieutenant threw his arms around the lady sable,\npressed her cheek to his, and fast and furious rained kisses on her lips.\nIn a few moments the train came out into broad daylight.  White lady\nlooked amazed--<DW52> lady, bashful, blushing--gay lieutenant befogged.\n\"Jane,\" said the white lady, \"what have you been doing?\"  \"Nothing!\"\nresponded the <DW52> lady.  \"Yes, you have,\" said the white lady, not\nin an undertone, but in a voice that attracted the attention of all in\nthe carriage.  \"See how your collar is rumpled and your bonnet smashed.\"\nJane, poor  beauty, hung her head for a moment, the \"observed of\nall observers,\" and then, turning round to the lieutenant, replied:\n\"_This man kissed me in the tunnel_!\"  Loud and long was the laugh that\nfollowed among the passengers.  The white lady enjoyed the joke\namazingly.  Lieutenant looked like a sheep-stealing dog, left the\ncarriage at the next station, and was seen no more.\n\n                                                           --_Cape Argus_.\n\n\n\n\nTHE GRAVEDIGGER'S SUGGESTION.\n\n\nThe Midland Railway, on being extended to London, was the occasion of the\nremoval of a vast amount of house property, also it interfered to a\ncertain extent with the graveyard belonging to Old St. Pancras Church.\nThe company had purchased a new piece of ground in which to re-inter the\nhuman remains discovered in the part they required.  Amongst them was the\ncorpse of a high dignitary of the French Romish Church.  Orders were\nreceived for the transmission of the remains to his native land, and the\ndelicate work of exhuming the corpse was entrusted to some clever\ngravediggers.  On opening the ground they were surprised to find, not\nbones of one man, but of several.  Three skulls and three sets of bones\nwere yielded by the soil in which they had lain mouldering.  The\ndifficulty was how to identify the bones of a French ecclesiastic amid so\nmany.  After much discussion, the shrewdest gravedigger suggested that,\nbeing a Frenchman, the darkest  skull must be his.  Acting upon\nthis idea, the blackest bones were sorted and put together, until the\nrequisite number of rights and lefts were obtained.  These were\nreverently screwed up in a new coffin, conveyed to France, and buried\nwith all the pomp and circumstance of the Roman Catholic Church.\n\n\n\n\nAN AMUSING INCIDENT.\n\n\nAn American correspondent writes:--\"I have just finished reading a most\namusing incident, and, as it occurs in a book not likely to fall into the\nhands of many of the members, I am tempted to relate it, although it\nmight prove to be 'stale.'  Well, to begin: It tells of a maiden lady,\nwho, having arrived at the mature age of 51 without ever having seen a\nrailway train, decides to visit New York.  The all-important day having\narrived, she seats herself calmly on the platform of the country station,\nand gazes with amazement as the train draws up, takes on its passengers,\nand pursues its journey.  As she stares after it the stationmaster asks\nher why she did not get on if she wishes to go to New York.  'Get on,'\nsays Miss Polly, in surprise, 'get on!  Why, bless me, if I didn't think\nthis whole concern went!'  Being placed on the next train, she proceeds\non her way, when, finally, having seen so many wonderful things, she\nconcluded not to be astonished, whatever may happen.  A collision occurs\nand the gentleman next to her is thrown to the end of the car among a\nheap of broken seats.  She supposes it to be the usual manner of\nstopping, and quietly remarks: 'Ye fetch up rather sudden, don't ye?'\"\n\n\n\n\nA LITTLE BOY'S COOLNESS.\n\n\nThe suit of William O'Connor against the Boston and Lowell Railroad at\nLawrence has resulted in a verdict for the plaintiff in $10,000, one-half\nthe amount sued for.  This suit grew out of an accident which occurred\nAugust 27th, 1880.  The plaintiff was the father of a child then between\nfive and six years old.  He and his brother, three years older, were\ncrossing a private way maintained by the railroad for the Essex Company,\nand the younger boy, while walking backward, stepped between the rail and\nplanking of the roadway inside and was unable to extricate his foot.  At\nthat moment the whistle of a train was heard within a few hundred feet\nand out of sight around a curve, and it appeared from the evidence that\nthe older brother, finding himself unable to relieve his brother, ran\ndown the track toward the train; but finding that he could not attract\nthe attention of the trainmen to his brother's condition, and that he\nmust be run over, ran back to him, and, telling him to lie down, pulled\nhim outward and down and held him there until the train had passed.  Both\nfeet of the little fellow were cut off or mangled so that amputation was\nnecessary.  The theory of the defence was that the boy was not caught,\nbut while running across the track, fell and was run over.  But the\ntestimony of the older brother was unshaken in every particular.  It\nwould be difficult to match the nerve, thoughtfulness, and disregard of\nself displayed by this boy, who at that time was less than nine years\nold.\n\n\n\n\nPHOTOGRAPHING AN EXPRESS TRAIN.\n\n\nAn interesting application of the instantaneous method of photography was\nrecently made by a firm of photographers at Henley-on-Thames.  These\nartists were successful in photographing the Great Western Railway\nexpress train familiarly known as the \"Flying Dutchman,\" while running\nthrough Twyford station at a speed of nearly sixty miles an hour.  The\ndefinition of this lightning-like picture is truly wonderful, the details\nof the mechanism on the flying locomotive standing out as sharply as the\nimmovable telegraph posts and palings beside the line.  The photographers\nare now engaged, we believe, in constructing a swift shutter for their\ncamera which will reduce the period of exposure of the photographic plate\nto 1-500th of a second.  The same artists have also executed some\ncharming pictures of the upper Thames, with floating swans and moving\nboats, which cannot but win the admiration of artists and all lovers of\nthe picturesque.\n\n                                 --_Cassell's Family Magazine_, Nov. 1880.\n\n\n\n\nNERVOUSNESS.\n\n\nSurely people are far more _nervous_ now than they used to be some\ngenerations back.  The mental cultivation and the mental wear which we\nhave to go through tends to make that strange and inexplicable portion of\nour physical construction a very great deal too sensitive for the work\nand trial of daily life.  A few days ago I drove a friend who had been\npaying us a visit over to our railway station.  He is a man of fifty, a\nremarkably able and accomplished man.  Before the train started, the\nguard came round to look at the tickets.  My friend could not find his;\nhe searched his pockets everywhere, and although the entire evil\nconsequence, had the ticket not turned up, could not possibly have been\nmore than the payment a second time of four or five shillings, he got\ninto a nervous tremor painful to see.  He shook from head to foot; his\nhand trembled so that he could not prosecute his search rightly, and\nfinally he found the missing ticket in a pocket which he had already\nsearched half-a-dozen times.  Now contrast the condition of this\nhighly-civilized man, thrown into a painful flurry and confusion at the\ndemand of a railway ticket, with the impassive coolness of a savage, who\nwould not move a muscle if you hacked him in pieces.\n\n                                                    --_Fraser's Magazine_.\n\n\n\n\nA PROFITABLE RAILWAY.\n\n\nThe shortest and most profitable railway in the world is probably to be\nseen at Coney Island, the famous suburban summer resort of New York.\nThis is the \"Marine Railway,\" which connects the Manhattan Beach Hotel\nand the Brighton Beach Hotel.  It is 2,000 feet in length, is laid with\nsteel rails, and has a handsome little station at each end.  Its\nequipment consists of two locomotives and four cars, open at the sides,\nand having reversible seats; and a train of two cars is run each way\nevery five minutes.  The cost of this miniature road, including stations\nand equipment, was 27,000 dols., and it paid for itself in a few weeks\nafter it was opened for business.  The operating expenses are 30 dols. a\nday, and the average receipts are 450 dols. a day the entire season, 900\ndols. being sometime taken in.  The fare charged is five cents.  The\nproperty paid a profit last year of 500 dols. per cent on its cost.\n\n\n\n\nTHE POLITE BRAHMIN.\n\n\nOwing to the various dialects in the South of India, as a matter of\nconvenience the English language is much used for personal communication\nby the natives of different parts of the Presidency of Madras.  Mr.\nEdward Lear, who has travelled much in that part of the country, gives\nthe following interesting account of a journey:--\"I was in a second-class\nrailway carriage going from Madras to Bangalore.  There was only one\nother passenger beside myself and servant, and he was a Brahmin, dressed\nall in white, with the string worn over the shoulder, by which you may\nalways recognise a Brahmin.  He had a great many boxes and small\narticles, which took up a great deal of room in the compartment, and when\nat the next station the door was opened for another passenger to get in,\nthe guard said:--\n\n\"'You cannot have all those boxes inside the carriage; some of them must\nbe taken out.'\n\n\"'Oh, sir,' said the Brahmin in good English, 'I assure you these\narticles are by no means necessary to my comfort, and I hope you will not\nhesitate to dispose of them as you please.'\n\n\"Accordingly, therefore, the boxes were taken away.  Then the newcomer\nstepped in; he was also a native, but dressed in quite a different manner\nfrom the Brahmin, his clothing being blue, green, red, and all the\ncolours of the rainbow, so that one saw at once the two persons were from\ndifferent parts of India.  Presently he surprised me by saying to the\nBrahmin,\n\n\"'Pray, sir, excuse me for having given you the trouble of removing any\npart of your luggage; I am really quite sorry to have given you any\ninconvenience whatever.'\n\n\"To which the Brahmin replied, 'I beg sir, you will make no apologies; it\nis impossible you can have incommoded me by causing the removal of those\ntrifling articles; and, even if you have done so, the pleasure of your\nsociety would afford me perfect compensation.'\"\n\n\n\n\nMR. FRANK BUCKLAND AND HIS BOOTS.\n\n\nMr. Spencer Walpole furnishes some interesting and amusing gossip about\nthe late Mr. Frank Buckland, describing some of his many eccentricities,\nand telling many stories relative to his peculiar habits.  He had, it\nseems, a great objection to stockings and boots and coats, his favourite\nattire consisting of nothing else than trousers and a flannel shirt.\nBoots were his special aversion, and he never lost an opportunity of\nkicking them off his feet.\n\n\"On one occasion,\" we are told, \"travelling alone in a railway carriage,\nhe fell asleep with his feet resting on the window-sill.  As usual, he\nkicked off his boots, and they fell outside the carriage on the line.\nWhen he reached his destination the boots could not, of course, be found,\nand he had to go without them to his hotel.  The next morning a\nplatelayer, examining the permanent way, came upon the boots, and\nreported to the traffic manager that he had found a pair of gentleman's\nboots, but that he could not find the gentleman.  Some one connected with\nthe railway recollected that Mr. Buckland had been seen in the\nneighbourhood, and, knowing his eccentricities, inferred that the boots\nmust belong to him.  They were accordingly sent to the Home Office, and\nwere at once claimed.\"\n\n\n\n\nDRINKING FROM THE WRONG BOTTLE.\n\n\nAn incident has occurred on one of the suburban lines which will\ncertainly be supposed by many to be only _ben trovato_, but it is a real\nfact.  A lady, who seemed perfectly well before the train entered a\ntunnel, suddenly alarmed her fellow-passengers during the temporary\ndarkness by exclaiming, \"I am poisoned!\"  On re-emerging into daylight,\nan awkward explanation ensued.  The lady carried with her two bottles,\none of methylated spirit, the other of cognac.  Wishing, presumably, for\na refresher on the sly, she took advantage of the gloom; but she applied\nthe wrong bottle to her lips.  Time pressed, and she took a good drain.\nThe consequence was she was nearly poisoned, and had to apply herself\nhonestly and openly to the brandy bottle as a corrective, amidst the\nironical condolence of the passengers she had previously alarmed.\n\n                                                          --_Once a Week_.\n\n\n\n\nHORSES VERSUS RAILWAYS.\n\n\nA horse for every mile of road was the allowance made by the best\ncoachmasters on the great routes.  On the corresponding portions of the\nrailway system the great companies have put a locomotive engine per mile.\nIf a horse earned a hundred guineas a year, out of which his cost had to\nbe defrayed, he did well.  A single locomotive on the Great Northern\nRailway (and that company has 611 engines for 659 miles of line) was\nstated by John Robinson, in 1873, to perform the work of 678\nhorses--work, that is, as measured by resistance overcome; for the\nhorses, whatever their number, could not have reached the speed of fifty\nmiles an hour, at which the engines in questions whirled along a train of\nsixteen carriages, weighing in all 225 tons.  There are now upwards of\n13,000 locomotives at work in the United Kingdom, each of them earning on\nthe average, 4,750 pounds per annum.  But we have at the same time more\nhorses employed for the conveyance of passengers than we had in 1835.  In\nomnibus and station work--waiting upon the steam horse--there is more\ndemand for horseflesh than was made by our entire coaching system in\n1835.\n\n\n\n\nA SLIGHT MISTAKE.\n\n\nAn Irish newspaper is responsible for the following:--\"A deaf man named\n<DW75> was run down and killed by a passenger train on Wednesday morning.\nHe was injured in a similar way about a year ago.\"\n\n\n\n\nEXPENSIVE CONTRACTS.\n\n\nAn interesting glimpse into the inner working of State, and especially\nRussian, Government railways was afforded in a recent discussion on\nrailway management in Russia, published by the _Journal_ of the German\nRailroad Union.  During this debate it appears that the details were\npublished of the famous contract of the late American Winans with the\nGovernment concerning the Nicholas Railroad.  By the use of considerable\nmoney, Winans succeeded in making a contract, to extend from July 1st,\n1866, for eight years, by which the Government was to pay him for oiling\ncars and small car repairs at an agreed rate per passenger and per ton\nmile.  In addition to this he received a fixed sum of about 15,000 pounds\n(78,000 dols.) per year for painting and maintaining the interior of the\npassenger cars; 6,000 pounds for keeping up the shops, and finally 8,000\npounds yearly for renewing what rolling stock might be worn out.  The St.\nNicholas line was eventually taken over by the Great Russian Company,\nwhich in 1872 succeeded in making the Government annul the contract by\npaying Winans a penalty of 750,000 pounds, which the Great Russian\nCompany paid back with interest within four years.  If the contract had\nbeen continued it would have cost the company more than one-third of its\nnet earnings, since the saving amounts to nearly 523,000 pounds per\nannum.  Another contract which the Government had made for the same road\nwith a sleeping-car company was settled shortly afterward by the\nGovernment taking from the company the few cars it had on hand, and\npaying 75,000 pounds for them and 10,000 pounds a year for the unexpired\nseven years of the contract.\n\n\n\n\nMR. BRASSEY'S STRICT ADHERENCE TO HIS WORD.\n\n\nThe following is one of such stories, illustrative of one phase of Mr.\nBrassey's character--his strict adherence to his word, under all\ncircumstances.\n\nWhen the \"Sambre and Meuse\" was drawing towards completion, Mr. Brassey\ncame along as usual with a staff of agents inspecting the progress of the\nwork.  Stopping at Olloy, a small place between Mariembourg and Vireux,\nnear a large blacksmith's shop, the man, a Frenchman or Belgian, came\nout, and standing up on the bank, with much gesticulation and flourish,\nproceeded to make Mr. Brassey a grand oration.  Anxious to proceed, Mr.\nBrassey paid him no particular attention, but good naturedly endeavoured\nto cut the matter short, with \"Oui, oui, oui,\" and at length got away,\nthe Frenchman apparently expressing great delight.\n\n\"Well, gentlemen, what are you laughing at, what is the joke?\" said he to\nhis staff as they went along.\n\n\"Why, sir, do you know what that fellow said, and for what he was\nasking?\"\n\n\"No, indeed, I don't; I supposed he was complimenting me in some way, or\nthanking me for something.\"\n\n\"He _was_ complimenting you, sir, to some tune, and asking, as a souvenir\nof his happy engagement under the Great Brassey, that you would of your\ngoodness make him a present of the shop, iron, tools, and all belonging!\"\n\n\"Did he, though!  I did not understand that.\"\n\n\"No sir, but you kept on saying, 'Oui, oui, oui,' and the fellow's\ndelighted, as he well may be, they're worth 50 or 60 pounds.\"\n\n\"Oh, but I didn't mean that, I didn't mean that.  Well, never mind, if I\nsaid it, he must _have_ them.\"\n\nIt must be borne in mind, that at that time, at best, Mr. Brassey knew\nvery little French, and his staff were well aware of the fact.\"\n\nSep. 13, 1872.\n\n                                                                     S. S.\n\n\n\n\nEXTRAORDINARY ACCIDENT.\n\n\nIn a leading article in the _Birmingham Post_, Nov. 12th, 1880, the\nwriter remarks:--\"The report of Major Marindin on the collision which\ntook place between two Midland trains, in Leicestershire, about a month\nago, has just been published, but it adds nothing to the information\ngiven at the time when the accident happened.  The case was, as the\nreport says, one of a remarkable, if not unprecedented nature, for the\ncollision arose from a passenger train running backwards instead of\nforwards nearly half-a-mile, without either driver or stoker noticing\nthat its movement was in the wrong direction.  Shortly after the train\nhad passed the village station of Kibworth, where it was not timed to\nstop, the driver observed a knocking sound on his engine.  He pulled up\nthe train in order to ascertain the cause of this, and finding that\nnothing serious was the matter, proceeded on his journey again, or rather\nintended to do so, for, by an extraordinary mistake, he turned the screw\nthe wrong way, so as to reverse the action of the engine, and to direct\nthe train back to Kibworth.  There, a mineral train was making its way\ntowards Leicester, and as the line was on a sharp incline the result\nmight have been a most destructive collision.  It was, however, reduced\nto one of a comparatively mild description by the promptness and\nefficiency with which the brakes were applied to both the trains.  Had\nnot the mineral train been pulled up, and the passenger train lowered\nfrom a speed of twenty to three or four miles an hour, probably the whole\nof the passengers would have been crushed between the two engines.  The\npassengers, therefore, owed their safety to the excellent brake-power\nwhich was at command.  The excuse offered by the driver of the passenger\ntrain for turning the engine backwards was the shape of the reversing\nscrew, which was of a construction not commonly used on the Midland line,\nthough many of the company's engines were so fitted.  The fireman had\nalso his apology for making the same oversight.  He said he was at the\ntime stooping down to adjust the injector.  Major Marindin, though\nadmitting that the men were experienced, careful, and sober, refuses to\naccept either of these excuses; but he can supply no better reason\nhimself for the amazing oversight they committed.  The only satisfactory\npart of the report is that in which the working of the brake mechanism is\nspoken of.  The passenger train had the Westinghouse brake fitted to all\nthe carriages, and such was its efficiency that, had it extended to the\nengine and tender as well, Major Marindin believes the accident would\nhave been entirely prevented.\"\n\n\n\n\nREMARKABLE MEMORY FOR SOUNDS.\n\n\nAmong strange mental feats the strangest perhaps yet recorded are the\nfollowing singular feats of memory for sound, related in the _Scientific\nAmerican_.  In the city of Rochester, N. Y., resides a boy named Hicks,\nwho, though he has only lately removed from Buffalo to Rochester, has\nalready learned to distinguish three hundred locomotive engines by the\nsound of their bells.  During the day the boy is employed so far from the\nrailway that he seldom hears a passing train; but at night he can hear\nevery train, his house being near the railroad.  To give an idea of his\nwonderful memory for sounds (and his scarcely less wonderful memory for\nnumbers also) take the following cases.  Not long ago young Hicks went to\nSyracuse, and while there, he, hearing an engine coming out of the\nround-house, remarked to a friend that he know the bell, though he had\nnot heard it for five years: he gave the number of the engine, which\nproved to be correct.  Again, not long since, an old switch-engine, used\nin the yards at Buffalo, was sent to Rochester for some special purpose.\nIt passed near Hicks' house, and he remarked that the engine was number\nso and so, and that he had not heard the bell for six years.  A boarder\nin the house ran to the railroad, and found the number given by Hicks was\nthe correct one.  To most persons the bells on American locomotives seem\nall much alike in sound and _timbre_, though, of course, a good ear will\nreadily distinguish differences, especially between bells which are\nsounded within a short interval of time.  But that anyone should be able\nin the first place to discriminate between two or three hundred of these\nbells, and in the second place to retain the recollection of the slight\npeculiarities characterising each for several years, would seem\naltogether incredible, had we not other instances--such as Bidder's and\nColburn's calculating feats, Morphy's blindfold chess-play, etc.--of the\namazing degree in which one brain may surpass all others in some special\nquality, though perhaps, in other respects, not exceptionally powerful,\nor even relatively deficient.\n\n                                     --_Gentleman's Magazine_, March 1880.\n\n\n\n\nA DISINGENUOUS BISHOP.\n\n\nMax. O'Rell, the French author, in his book _John Bull at Home_, writes\nEnglish people are very great on words; lying is unknown.  I was\ntravelling by rail one day with an English bishop.  There were five in\nour compartment.  On arriving at a station we heard a cry, \"Five minutes\nhere!\"  My lord bishop, with the greatest haste, set to work to spread\nout travelling-bag, hat-box, rug, papers, &c.  A lady appeared at the\ndoor, and asked, \"Is there room here?\"  \"Madam,\" replied the bishop, \"all\nthe seats are full.\"  When the poor lady had been sent about her\nbusiness, we called his lordship's attention to the fact that there were\nonly five of us in the carriage, and that, consequently all the seats\nwere not taken.  \"I did not say that they were,\" answered my lord; \"I\nsaid that they were _full_.\"\n\n\n\n\nDROPPING THE LETTER \"L.\"\n\n\nIn an advertisement by a railway company of some unclaimed goods, the \"l\"\ndropped from the word \"lawful,\" and it reads now, \"People to whom these\npackages are directed are requested to come forward and pay the _awful_\ncharges on the same.\"\n\n\n\n\nTHE SAFEST SEAT IN A RAILWAY CARRIAGE.\n\n\nThe _American Engineer_, as the result of scientific calculations and\nprotracted experience, says the safest seat is in the middle of the last\ncar but one.  There are some chances of danger, which are the same\neverywhere in the train, but others are least at the above-named place.\n\n\n\n\nRAILWAYS A JUDGMENT.\n\n\nIn _White's Warfare of Science_ there is an account of a worthy French\nArchbishop who declared that railways were an evidence of the divine\ndispleasure against innkeepers, inasmuch that they would be punished for\nsupplying meat on fast days by seeing travellers carried by them past\ntheir doors.\n\n\n\n\nCLAIM FOR GOODWILL FOR COW KILLED ON THE RAILWAY.\n\n\nA farmer living near the New York Central lost a cow by a collision with\na train on the line; anxious for compensation he waited upon the manager\nand after stating his case, the manager said, \"I understand she was thin\nand sick.\"  \"Makes no difference,\" replied the farmer.  \"She was a cow,\nand I want pay for her.\"  \"How much?\" asked the manager.  \"Two hundred\ndollars!\" replied the farmer.  \"Now look here,\" said the manager, \"how\nmuch did the cow weigh?\"  \"About four hundred, I suppose,\" said the\nfarmer.  \"And we will say that beef is worth ten cents a pound on the\nhoof.\"  \"It's worth a heap more than that on the cow-catcher!\" replied\nthe indignant farmer.  \"But we'll call it that, what then?  That makes\nforty dollars, shall I give you a cheque for forty dollars?\"  \"I tell you\nI want two hundred dollars,\" persisted the farmer.  \"But how do you make\nthe difference?  I'm willing to pay full value, forty dollars.  How do\nyou make one hundred and sixty dollars?\"  \"Well, sir,\" replied the\nfarmer, waxing wroth, \"I want this railroad to understand that I'm going\nto have something special for the goodwill of that cow!\"\n\n\n\n\nTHE INSURANCE AGENT.\n\n\nAn agent of an accident insurance company entered a smoking car on a\nwestern railroad train a few days ago, and, approaching an exceedingly\ngruff old man, asked him if he did not want to take out a policy.  He was\ntold to get out with his policy, and passed on.  A few minutes afterwards\nan accident occurred to the train, causing a fearful shaking to the cars.\nThe old man jumped up, and seizing a hook at the side of the car to\nsteady himself, called out, \"Where is that insurance man?\"  The question\ncaused a roar of laughter among the passengers, who for the time forgot\ntheir dangers.\n\n                                       --_Harper's Weekly_, May 8th, 1880.\n\n\n\n\nTOUTING FOR BUSINESS AND FRAUDS.\n\n\nSir Edward Watkin observed at the half-yearly meeting of the South\nEastern Railway Company, January, 1881:--\"The result of this compensating\nlaw under which the slightest neglect makes the company liable, and the\nonly thing to be considered is the amount of damages--the effect of this\nunjust law is to create a new profession compounded of the worst elements\nof the present professions--viz., expert doctors, expert attorneys, and\nexpert witnesses.  You will get a doctor to swear that a man who has a\nslight knock on the head to say that he has a diseased spine, and will\nnever be fit for anything again, and never be capable of being a man of\nbusiness or the father of a family.  The result of that is all we can do\nis to get some other expert to say exactly the contrary.  Then you have a\nclass of attorneys who get up this business.  We had an accident, I may\ntell you, at Forrest-hill two years ago.  Well, there was a gentleman--an\nattorney in the train.  He went round to all the people in the train and\ngave them his card; and, having distributed all the cards in his\ncard-case, he went round and expressed extreme regret to the others that\nhe could not give them a card; but he gave them his name as 'So and So,'\nhis place was in 'Such a street,' and the 'No, So and So' in the City.\nThat was touting for business.  Now, there is a very admirable body\ncalled the \"Law Association.\"  Why does not the Law Association take hold\nof cases of that kind?  Well, you saw in the paper the case of Roper _v._\nthe South Eastern.  Now that was a peculiar thing.  Roper declared that\nfrom an injury he had received in a slight accident at the Stoney-street\nsignal box, outside Cannon-street he was utterly incapacitated, and that,\nfor I don't know how many weeks and months, he was in bed without\nceasing.  The doctors, I believe, put pins and needles into him, but he\nnever flinched, and when the case came before the court we found that\nsome of the medical experts declared that it was just within the order of\nProvidence that in twenty years he might get better; but these witnesses\nthought that the chances were against it, and that he would be a hopeless\n<DW36>.  So evidence was given as to his income; and the idea was to\ncapitalise it at 8,000 pounds.  That man had paid 4d. for his ticket I\nthink--I forget the exact amount.  Our counsel, the Attorney-General,\nwent into the thing, with the very able assistance of Mr. Willis, who\ndeserves every possible credit.  We also had Mr. Le Gros Clarke, the\neminent consulting surgeon of the company, and Dr. Arkwright from the\nnorth of England, and they told us that in their opinion it was a\nswindle.  And it was a swindle.  The result of it was, the\nAttorney-General put his foot down upon it, and declared that it was a\nswindle, and the jury unanimously non-suited Mr. Roper.  Well, singularly\nenough, when I say he had paid 4d., I think it was not absolutely proved\nthat he was in the train at all.  But although this was a case in which\nthe jury said there was no case, and where the Judge summed up strongly\nthat it was a fraud, and where the most eminent surgeon said it was an\nabsolute delusion altogether, and where, in point of fact, justice was\ndone entirely to you as regards the verdict, you have 2,300 pounds to pay\nfor costs of one kind or another in defending a case of swindling,\nbecause when you try to recover the costs the man becomes bankrupt, and\nyou won't get a farthing; and I do mean to say I have described a state\nof the law and practice that ought to excite the reprobation of every\nhonest man in England.\"\n\n\n\n\nHEROISM OF A DRIVER.\n\n\nAn engine-driver on the Pennsylvania Railway yesterday saved the lives of\n600 passengers by an extraordinary act of heroism.  The furnace door was\nopened by the fireman to replenish the fire while the train was going at\nthirty-five miles an hour.  The back draught forced the flames out so\nthat the car of the locomotive caught fire, and the engine-driver and the\nfireman were driven back over the tender into the passenger car, leaving\nthe engine without control.  The speed increased, and the volume of flame\nwith it.  There was imminent danger that all the carriages would take\nfire, and the whole be consumed.  The passengers were panic-stricken.  To\njump off was certain death; to remain was to be burned alive.  The\nengine-driver saw that the only way to save the passengers was to return\nto the engine and stop the train.  He plunged into the flames, climbed\nback over the tender, and reversed the engine.  When the train came to a\nstandstill, he was found in the water-tank, whither he had climbed, with\nhis clothes entirely burnt off, his face disfigured, his hands shockingly\nburned, and his body blistered so badly that the flesh was stripped off\nin many places.  Weak and half-conscious he was taken to the hospital,\nwhere his injuries were pronounced serious, with slight chance of\nrecovery.  As soon as the train stopped the flames were easily\nextinguished.  The unanimous testimony of the passengers is that the\nengine-driver saved their lives.  His name is Joseph A. Sieg.\n\n                                          --_Daily News_, Oct. 24th, 1882.\n\n\n\n\nIT'S CROYDON.\n\n\nAs an early morning train drew up at a station, a pleasant looking\ngentleman stepped out on the platform, and, inhaling the fresh air,\nenthusiastically observed to the guard, \"Isn't this invigorating?\"  \"No,\nsir, it's Croydon,\" replied the conscientious employe.\n\n\n\n\nYOUR TICKET.\n\n\nOn a Georgia railroad there is a conductor named Snell, a very clever,\nsociable man, fond of a joke, quick at repartee, and faithful in the\ndischarge of his duties.  One day as his train well filled with\npassengers, was crossing a low bridge over a wide stream, some four or\nfive feet deep, the bridge broke down, precipitating the two passenger\ncars into the stream.  As the passengers emerged from the wreck they were\nborne away by the force of the current.  Snell had succeeded in catching\nhold of some bushes that grew on the bank of the stream, to which he held\nfor dear life.  A passenger less fortunate came rushing by.  Snell\nextended one hand, saying, \"Your ticket, sir; give me your ticket!\"  The\neffect of such a dry joke in the midst of the water may be imagined.\n\n                                                    --_Harper's Magazine_.\n\n\n\n\nAN OLD SCOTCH LADY ON THE LOSS OF HER BOX.\n\n\nDean Ramsay in his _Reminiscences_ remarks:--\"Some curious stories are\ntold of ladies of this class, as connected with the novelties and\nexcitement of railway travelling.  Missing their luggage, or finding that\nsomething has gone wrong about it, often causing very terrible distress,\nand might be amusing, were it not to the sufferer so severe a calamity.\nI was much entertained with the earnestness of this feeling, and the\nexpression of it from an old Scottish lady, whose box was not forthcoming\nat the station where she was to stop.  When urged to be patient, her\nindignant exclamation was, \"I can bear ony pairtings that may be ca'ed\nfor in God's providence; but I canna stan' pairtin' frae ma claes.\"\n\n\n\n\nRAILWAY MANNERS.\n\n\nA gentleman was travelling by rail from Breslau to Oppeln and found\nhimself alone with a lady in a second-class compartment.  He vainly\nendeavoured to enter into conversation with the other occupant of the\ncarriage; her answers were invariably curt and snappish.  Baffled in his\nattempts, he proceeded to light a cigar to while away the time.  Then the\nlady said to him: \"I suppose you have never travelled second-class\nbefore, else you would know better manners.\"  Her travelling companion\nquietly rejoined: \"It is true, I have hitherto only studied the manners\nof the first and third-classes.  In the first-class the passengers are\nrude to the porters, in the third-class the porters are rude to the\npassengers.  I now discover that in the second-class the passengers are\nrude to each other.\"\n\n\n\n\nA BRAVE GIRL.\n\n\nKate Shelley, to whom the Iowa Legislature has just given a gold medal\nand $200, is fifteen years old.  She lives near Des Moines, at a point\nwhere a railroad crosses a gorge at a great height.  One night during a\nfurious storm the bridge was carried away.  The first the Shelleys knew\nof it was when they saw the headlight of a locomotive flash down into the\nchasm.  Kate climbed to the remains of the bridge with great difficulty,\nusing an improvised lantern.  The engineer's voice answered her calls,\nbut she could do nothing for him, and he was drowned.  As an express\ntrain was almost due, she then started for the nearest station, a mile\ndistant.  A long, high bridge over the Des Moines River had to be crossed\non the ties--a perilous thing in stormy darkness.  Kate's light was blown\nout, and the wind was so violent that she could not stand, so she crawled\nacross the bridge, from timber to timber, on her hands and knees.  She\ngot to the station exhausted, but in time to give the warning, though she\nfainted immediately.\n\n                                   --_Detroit Free Press_, May 13th, 1882.\n\n\n\n\nSHUT UP IN A LARGE BOX.\n\n\nThe Merv correspondent of the _Daily News_ in a letter dated the 30th of\nApril, 1881, remarks, \"I was very much amused by the description given me\nby some Tekkes of the Serdar's departure for Russia.  It seems that my\ninformants accompanied him up to the point where the trans-Caspian\nrailway is in working order.  'They shut Tockme Serdar and two others in\na large box (sanduk) and locked him in, and then dragged him away across\nthe Sahara.  And,' added the speakers, 'Allah only knows what will happen\nto them inside that box.'  The box, I need hardly say, was a railway\ncarriage.\"\n\n\n\n\nAWFUL DEATH ON A RAILROAD BRIDGE.\n\n\nA man commonly known as \"Billy\" Cooper, of the town of Van Etten, was\nwalking on the railroad track at a point not far distant from his home.\nIn crossing the railroad bridge he made a miss-step, and, slipping, fell\nbetween the ties, but his position was so cramped that he was unable to\nget out of the way of danger.  There, suspended in that awful manner,\nwith the body dangling below the bridge, he heard a train thundering\nalong in the distance, approaching every moment nearer and nearer.  No\none will ever know the struggles for life which the poor fellow made, but\nthey were futile; with arms pinioned to his sides he was unable to signal\nthe engineer.  The train came sweeping on upon its helpless victim until\nwithin a few feet of the spot, when the engineer saw the man's head and\nendeavoured to stop his heavy train.  But too late; the moving mass\npassed over, cutting his head from the shoulders as clean as it could\nhave been done by the guillotine itself.  Cooper was 60 years of age.\n\n                                              --_Ithaca_ (N.Y.) _Journal_.\n\n\n\n\nTHAT ACCURSED DRINK.\n\n\nAn English traveller in Ireland, greedy for information and always\nfingering the note-book in his breast pocket, got into the same railway\ncarriage with a certain Roman Catholic archbishop.  Ignorant of his rank,\nand only perceiving that he was a divine, he questioned him pretty\nclosely about the state of the country, whisky drinking, etc.  At last he\nsaid, \"You are a parish priest, yourself, of course.\"  His grace drew\nhimself up.  \"I _was_ one, sir,\" he answered, with icy gravity.  \"Dear,\ndear,\" was the sympathizing rejoinder.  \"That accursed drink, I suppose.\"\n\n\n\n\nRAILWAY UP VESUVIUS.\n\n\nThis railway, the last new project in mountain-climbing, is now finished.\nIt is 900 metres in length, and will enable tourists to ascend by it to\nthe very edge of the crater.  The line has been constructed with great\ncare upon a solid pavement, and it is believed to be perfectly secure\nfrom all incursions of lava.  The mode of traction is by two steel ropes\nput in motion by a steam engine at the foot of the cone.  The wheels of\nthe carriages are so made as to be free from any danger of leaving the\nrails, besides which each carriage is furnished with an exceedingly\npowerful automatic brake, which, should the rope by any chance break,\nwill stop the train almost instantaneously.  One of the chief\ndifficulties of the undertaking was the water supply; but that has been\nobviated by the formation of two very large reservoirs, one at the\nstation, the other near the observatory.\n\n                                                  --_Railway Times_, 1879.\n\n\n\n\nEXTRAORDINARY ESCAPE OF BALLOONISTS.\n\n\nYesterday evening, Aug. 6th, 1883, a special train of \"empties,\" which\nleft Charing-cross at 5.55 to pick up returning excursionists from\nGravesend, had some extraordinary experiences, such as perhaps had hardly\never occurred on a single journey.  On leaving Dartford, where some\npassengers were taken up, the train was proceeding towards Greenhithe,\nwhen the driver observed on the line a donkey, which had strayed from an\nadjoining field.  An endeavour was made to stop the train before the\nanimal was reached, but without success, and the poor beast was knocked\ndown and dragged along by the firebox of the engine.  The train was\nstopped, and with great difficulty the body of the animal, which was\nkilled, was extricated from beneath the engine.  While this was in\nprogress, a balloon called the \"Sunbeam,\" supposed to come either from\nSydenham or Tunbridge Wells, passed over the line, going in the direction\nof Northfleet.  The two aeronauts in the car were observed to be short of\ngas, and were throwing out ballast, but, notwithstanding this, the\nballoon descended slowly, and when some distance ahead of the train was,\nto the horror of the passengers, seen to drop suddenly into the railway\ncutting two or three hundred yards only in advance of the approaching\ntrain.  The alarm whistle was sounded, and the brakes put on, and as the\nballoon dragged the car and its occupants over the down line there seemed\nnothing but certain death for them; but suddenly the inflated monster,\nnow swaying about wildly, took a sudden upward flight, and, dragging the\ncar clear of the line, fell into an adjoining field just when the train\nwas within a hundred yards of the spot.  The escape was marvellous.\n\n\n\n\nPULLING A TOOTH BY STEAM.\n\n\n\"Dummy,\" is a deaf mute newsman on the Long Island Railroad.  Lately he\nhad suffered much in mind and body from an aching tooth.  He did not like\ndentists, but he resolved that the tooth must go.  He procured a piece of\ntwine, and tied one end of it to the tooth and the other end to the rear\nof an express train.  When the train started, Dummy ran along the\nplatform a short distance, and then dropped suddenly on his knees.  The\nengine whistled, and dummy cried, but the train took the tooth.\n\n\n\n\nA HEAVY SLEEPER.\n\n\nIt happens, in numerous instances, that virtuous resolves are made\novernight with respect to early rising, which resolves, when put to the\ntest, are doomed only to be broken.  Some years ago a clergyman, who had\noccasion to visit the West of England on very important business, took up\nhis quarters, late at night, at a certain hotel adjacent to a railway,\nwith a view of starting by the early train on the following morning.\nPrevious to retiring to rest, he called the \"boots\" to him, told him that\nhe wished to be called for the early train, and said that it was of the\nutmost importance that he should not oversleep himself.  The reverend\ngentleman at the same time confessed that he was a very heavy sleeper,\nand as there would be probably the greatest difficulty in awakening him,\nhe (the \"boots\") was to resort to any means he thought proper in order to\neffect his object.  And, further, that if the business were effectually\naccomplished, the fee should be a liberal one.  The preliminaries being\nthus settled, the clergyman sought his couch, and \"boots\" left the room\nwith the air of a determined man.  At a quarter to five on the following\nmorning, \"boots\" walked straight to \"No. twenty-three,\" and commenced a\nvigorous rattling and hammering at the door, but the only answer he\nreceived was \"All right!\" uttered in a very faint and drowsy tone.  Five\nminutes later, \"boots\" approached the door, placing his ear at the\nkeyhole, and detecting no other sound than a most unearthly snore, he\nunceremoniously entered the room, and laying his brawny hands upon the\nprostrate form of the sleeper, shook him violently and long.  This attack\nwas replied to by a testy observation that he \"knew all about it, and\nthere was not the least occasion to shake him so.\"  \"Boots\" thereupon\nleft the room, somewhat doubtingly, and only to return in a few minutes\nafterwards and find the Rev. Mr. -- as sound asleep as ever.  This time\nthe clothes were stripped off, and a species of baptismal process was\nadopted, familiarly known as \"cold pig.\"  At this assault the enraged\ngentleman sat bolt upright in bed, and with much other bitter remark,\ndenounced \"boots\" as a barbarous follow.  An explanation was then come\nto, and the drowsy man professed he understood it all, and was _about_ to\narise.  But the gentleman who officiated at the -- hotel, having had some\nexperience in these matters, placed no reliance upon the promise he had\njust received, and shortly visited \"No. twenty-three\" again.  There he\nfound that the occupant certainly had got up, but it was only to replace\nthe bedclothes and to lie down again.  \"Boots\" now felt convinced that\nthis was one of those cases which required prompt and vigorous handling,\nand without more ado, therefore, he again stripped off the upper\nclothing, and seizing hold of the under sheet, he dragged its depository\nbodily from off the bed.  The sleeping man, sensible of the unusual\nmotion, and dreamily beholding a stalwart form bent over him, became\nimpressed with the idea that a personal attack was being made upon him,\nprobably with a view to robbery and murder.  Under this conviction, he,\nin his descent, grasped \"boots\" firmly by the throat, the result being\nthat both bodies thus came to the floor with a crash.  Here the two\nrolled about for some seconds in all the agonies of a death struggle,\nuntil the unwonted noise and the cries of the assailants brought several\npersons from all parts of the hotel, and they, seeing two men rolling\nfrantically about in each other's arms, and with the hand of each\ngrasping the other's throat, rushed in and separated them.  An\nexplanation was of course soon given.  The son of the church was\neffectually awakened, he rewarded the \"boots,\" and went off by the train.\n\nFortune subsequently smiled upon \"boots,\" and in the course of time he\nbecame proprietor of a first-rate hotel.  In the interval the Rev. Mr. --\nhad risen from a humble curate to the grade of a dean.  Having occasion\nto visit the town of --, he put up at the house of the ex-boots.  The two\nmen saw and recognized each other, and the affair of the early train\nreverted to the mind of both.  \"It was a most fortunate circumstance,\"\nsaid the dean, \"that I did not oversleep myself on that morning, for from\nthe memorable journey that followed, I date my advancement in the Church.\nBut,\" he continued, with an expression that betokened some tender\nrecollection, \"if I ever should require you to wake me for an early train\nagain, would you mind placing a mattress or feather-bed on the floor?\"\n\n                                   --_The Railway Traveller's Handy Book_.\n\n\n\n\nA MAD ENGINE-DRIVER.\n\n\nA startling event happened at an early hour yesterday morning (Jan. 8th,\n1884), in connection with the mail train from Brest, which is due in\nParis at ten minutes to five o'clock.  Whilst proceeding at full speed\nthe passengers observed the brakes to be put on with such suddenness that\nfears were entertained that a collision was imminent, especially as the\nspot at which the train was drawn up was in utter darkness.  Upon the\nguard reaching the engine he found the stoker endeavouring to overpower\nthe driver, who had evidently lost his reason.  After blocking the line\nthe guard joined the stoker, and succeeded in securing the unfortunate\nman, but not until he had offered a desperate resistance.  The locomotive\nwas then put in motion, the nearest station was reached without further\nmisadventure, and the driver was placed in custody.  The train ultimately\narrived in Paris after two hours' delay.\n\n\n\n\nA MEXICAN CHIEF'S RAILWAY IMPRESSIONS.\n\n\nSteam and gunpowder have often proved the most eloquent apostles of\ncivilization, but the impressiveness of their arguments was, perhaps,\nnever more strikingly illustrated than at the little railway station of\nGallegos, in Northern Mexico.  When the first passenger train crossed the\nviaduct, and the Wizards of the North had covered the festive tables with\nthe dainties of all zones, the governor of Durango was not the most\ndistinguished visitor; for among the spectators on the platform the\nnatives were surprised to recognise the Cabo Ventura, the senior chief of\na hill-tribe, which had never formally recognised the sovereignty of the\nMexican Republic.  The Cabo, indeed, considered himself the lawful ruler\nof the entire _Comarca_, and preserved a document in which the Virey\nGonzales, _en nombre del Rey_--in the name of the King--appointed him\n\"Protector of all the loyal tribes of Castro and Sierra Mocha.\"  His\ndiploma had an archaeological value, and several amateurs had made him a\nliberal offer, but the old chieftain would as soon have sold his scalp.\nHis soul lived in the past.  All the evils of the age he ascribed to the\ndemerits of the traitors who had raised the banner of revolt against the\nlawful king; and as for the countrymen of Mr. Gould, the intrusive\n_Yangueses_, his vocabulary hardly approached the measure of his contempt\nwhen he called them _herexes y combusteros_--heretics and humbugs.\n\n\"But it cannot be denied,\" Yakoob Khan wrote to his father, \"that it has\npleased Allah to endow those sinners with a good deal of brains;\" and the\nvoice of nature gradually forced the Cabo to a similar conclusion, till\nhe resolved to come and see for himself.\n\nWhen the screech of the iron Behemoth at last resounded at the lower end\nof the valley, and the train swept visibly around the curve of the\nriver-gap, the natives set up a yell that waked up the mountain echoes;\nmen and boys waved their hats and jumped to and fro, in a state of the\nwildest excitement.  Only the old Cabo stood stock-still.  His gaze was\nriveted upon the phenomenon that came thundering up the valley; his keen\neye enabled him to estimate the rate of speed, the trend of the up-grade,\nthe breadth, the length, the height of the car.  When the train\napproached the station, the crowd surged back in affright, but the Cabo\nstood his ground, and as soon as the cars stopped he stepped down upon\nthe track.  He examined the wheels, tapped the axles, and tried to move\nthe lever; and when the engine backed up for water, he closely watched\nthe process of locomotion, and walked to the end of the last car to\nascertain the length of the train.  He then returned to the platform and\nsat down, covering his face with both hands.\n\nTwo hours later the Governor of Durango found him in still the same\nposition.\n\n\"Hallo, Cabo,\" he called out, \"how do you like this?  What do you think\nnow of America Nueva?\"  (\"New America,\" a collective term for the\nrepublics of the American continent).\n\nThe chieftain looked up.  \"_Sabe Dios_--the gods know--Senor Commandante,\nbut _I_ know this much: With Old America it's all up.\"\n\n\"Is it?  Well, look here: would you now like to sell that old diploma?  I\nstill offer you the same price.\"\n\nThe Cabo put his hand in his bosom, drew forth a leather-shrouded old\nparchment, and handed it to his interlocutor.  \"Vengale, Usted--it's\nworthless and you are welcome to keep it.\"  Nevertheless, he connived\nwhen the Governor slipped a gold piece into the pouch and put it upon his\nknees, minus the document.\n\nBut just before the train started, the Governor heard his name called,\nand stepped out upon the platform of the palace-car, when he saw the old\nchieftain coming up the track.\n\n\"I owe you a debt, senor,\" said he, \"_y le pagare en consejo_, I want to\npay it off in good advice: Beware of those strangers.\"\n\n\"What strangers?\"\n\n\"The caballeros who invented this machine.\"\n\n\"Is that what you came to tell me?\" laughed the Governor as the train\nstarted.\n\nThe old Cabo waved his hand in a military salute.  \"_Estamos ajustade_,\nSenor Commandante, this squares our account.\"\n\n                                         --_Atlantic Monthly_, Jan., 1884.\n\n\n\n\nMY ORDERS.\n\n\n\"Ticket, sir!\" said an inspector at a railway terminus in the City to a\ngentleman, who, having been a season ticket holder for some time,\nbelieved his face was so well known that there was no need for him to\nshow his ticket.  \"My face is my ticket,\" replied the gentleman a little\nannoyed.  \"Indeed!\" said the inspector, rolling back his wristband, and\ndisplaying a most powerful wrist, \"well, my orders are to punch all\ntickets passing on to this platform.\"\n\n\n\n\nLUGGAGE IN RAILWAY CARRIAGES.\n\n\nThe question of the liability of railway companies in the event of\npersonal accident through parcels falling from a rack in the compartments\nof passenger trains has been raised in the Midlands.  In December last, a\ntailor named Round was travelling from Dudley to Stourbridge, and, on the\ntrain being drawn up at Round Oak Station, a hamper was jerked from the\nracks and fell with such force as to cause him serious injury.  Certain\nmedical charges were incurred, and Mr. Round alleged that he was unable\nto attend to his business for five weeks in consequence of the accident.\nHe therefore claimed 50 pounds by way of compensation.  Sir Rupert\nKettle, before whom the case was tried, decided that the company was not\nliable, and could not be held responsible for whatever happened in\nrespect to luggage directly under the control of passengers.  The case is\none of some public interest, inasmuch as a parcel falling from a rack is\nnot an uncommon incident in a railway journey.  Moreover, the hamper in\nquestion belonged, not to the plaintiff, but to a glass engraver, and\ncontained four empty bottles, two razors, and a couple of knives.\n\n                                         --_Daily News_, March 29th, 1884.\n\n\n\n\nEFFECTS OF CONSTANT RAILWAY TRAVELLING.\n\n\nA writer in _Cassell's Magazine_ remarks:--\"We hear individuals now and\nthen talking of the ease with which the season-ticket holder journeys\nbackwards and forwards daily from Brighton.  By the young, healthy man,\nno doubt, the journey is done without fatigue; but, after a certain time\nof life, the process of being conveyed by express fifty miles night and\nmorning is anything but refreshing.  The shaking and jolting of the best\nconstructed carriage is not such as we experience in a coach on an\nordinary road; but is made up of an infinite series of slight\nconcussions, which jar the spinal column and keep the muscles of the back\nand sides in continued action.\"  Dr. Radcliff, who has witnessed many\ncases of serious injury to the nervous system from this cause,\ncontributed the following conclusive case some years ago to the pages of\nthe _Lancet_:--\"A hale and stout gentleman, aged sixty-three, came to me\ncomplaining of inability to sleep, numbness in limbs, great depression,\nand all the symptoms of approaching paralytic seizure.  He was very\nactively engaged in large monetary transactions, which were naturally a\nsource of anxiety.  He had a house in town; but, having been advised by\nthe late Doctor Todd to live at Brighton, he had taken a house there, and\ntravelled to and fro daily by the express train.  The symptoms of which\nhe complained began to appear about four months after taking up his\nresidence at Brighton, and he had undergone a variety of treatment\nwithout benefit, and was just hesitating about trying homaeopathy when I\nsaw him.  I advised him to give up the journey for a month, and make the\nexperiment of living quietly in town.  In a fortnight his rest was\nperfectly restored, and the other symptoms rapidly disappeared, so that\nat the end of the month he was as well as ever again.  After three\nmonths, he was persuaded to join his family at Brighton, and resumed his\ndaily journeys.  In a few days his rest became broken and in two months\nall the old symptoms returned.  By giving up the journeys and again\nresiding in town, he was once more perfectly restored; but, it being the\nend of the season, when the house at Brighton could not readily be\ndisposed of, and yielding to the wishes of his family, he again resumed\nhis journeys.  In a month's time he was rendered so seriously unwell that\nhe hesitated no longer in taking up his permanent abode in town; and\nsince that time--now more than two years ago--he has enjoyed perfect\nhealth.\"\n\n\n\n\nAN ELECTRIC TRAMWAY INCIDENT.\n\n\nThe following appeared in the _Irish Times_ (Dublin, 1884): \"It is not\ngenerally known that the country people along the line of the electric\nrailway make strange uses of the insulated rails, which are the medium of\nelectricity on this tramway, in connection with one of which an\nextraordinary and very remarkable occurrence is reported.  People have no\nobjection to touch the rail and receive a smart shock, which is, however,\nharmless, at least so far.  On Thursday evening a ploughman, returning\nfrom work, stood upon this rail in order to mount his horse.  The rail is\nelevated on insulators 18 inches above the level of the tramway.  As soon\nas the man placed his hands upon the back of the animal it received a\nshock, which at once brought it down, and falling against the rail it\ndied instantly.  The remarkable part is, that the current of electricity\nwhich proved fatal to the brute must have passed through the body of the\nman and proved harmless to him.\"\n\n\n\n\nDUTY IN DISGUISE.\n\n\nA gate-keeper in the employ of the Hessian Railway Company was recently\nthe hero of an amusing incident.  His wife being ill, he went himself to\nmilk the goat; but the stubborn creature would not let him come near it,\nas it had always been accustomed to have this operation performed by its\nmistress.  After many fruitless efforts, he at length decided to put on\nhis wife's clothes.  The experiment succeeded admirably; but the man had\nnot time to doff his disguise before a train approached, and the\ngatekeeper ran to his accustomed post.  His appearance produced quite a\nsensation among the officials of the passing train.  The case was\nreported and an inquiry instituted, which however resulted in his favour,\nas the railway authorities granted the honest gate-keeper a gratuity of\nten marks for the faithful discharge of his duties.\n\n\n\n\nTHE MARQUIS OF HARTINGTON ON GEORGE STEPHENSON.\n\n\nThe Marquis of Hartington, when laying the foundation stone of a public\nhall to be erected in memory of the inventor and practical introducer of\nrailway locomotion, expressed himself as follows:--\"That almost all the\nprogress which this country has made in the last half-century is mainly\ndue to the development of the railway system.  All the other vast\ndevelopments of the power of steam, all the developments of manufacturing\nand mining industry would have availed but little for the greatness and\nprosperity of this country--in fact they could hardly have existed at all\nif there had been wanting those internal communications which have been\nfurnished by the locomotive engine to railways brought into use by\nStephenson.  The changes which have been wrought in the history of our\ncountry by the invention, the industry, and perseverance of one man are\nsomething that we may call astounding.  There are some things which\nexceed the dreams of poetry and romance.  We are justly proud of our\nimperial possessions, but the steam engine, and especially the locomotive\nsteam-engine, the invention of George Stephenson--has not only increased\nthe number of the Queen's subjects by millions, but has added more\nmillions to her Majesty's revenues than have been produced by any tax\never invented by any statesman.  Comfort and happiness, prosperity and\nplenty, have been brought to every one of her Majesty's subjects by this\ninvention in far greater abundance than has ever been produced by any\nlaw, the production of the wisest and most patriotic Parliament.  The\nresults of the career of a man who began life as a herd boy, and who up\nto eighteen did not know how to read or write, and yet was able to confer\nsuch vast benefits upon his country and mankind for all time, is worthy\nof a national and noble memorial.\"\n\n\n\n\nTHE STEPHENSON CENTENARY.\n\n\nOf all celebrations in the North of England there was never the like of\nthe centenary of the birth-day of George Stephenson, June 9th, 1881.  The\nenthusiastic crowds of people assembled to honour the occasion were never\nbefore so numerous on any public holiday.  Sir William Armstrong, C.B.,\nin his speech at the great banquet remarked:--\"The memory of a great man\nnow dead is a solemn subject for a toast, and I approach the task of\nproposing it with a full sense of its gravity.  We are met to celebrate\nthe birth of George Stephenson, which took place just 100 years ago--a\ndate which nearly coincides with that at which the genius of Watt first\ngave practical importance to the steam-engine.  Up to that time the\ninventive faculties of man had lain almost dormant, but with the advent\nof the steam-engine there commenced that splendid series of discoveries\nand inventions which have since, to use the words of Dr. Bruce,\nrevolutionised the state of the world.  Amongst these the most momentous\nin its consequences to the human race is the railway\nsystem--(cheers)--and with that system including the locomotive engine as\nits essential element, the name of George Stephenson will ever be\npre-eminently associated.  In saying this, I do not mean to ignore the\nimportant parts played by others in the development of the railway\nsystem; but it is not my duty on this occasion to review the history of\nthat system and to assign to each person concerned his proper share of\nthe general credit.  To do this would be an invidious task, and out of\nplace at a festival held in honour of George Stephenson only.  I shall,\ntherefore, pass over all names but his, not even making an exception in\nfavour of his distinguished son.  (Cheers.)  It seldom or never happens\nthat any great invention can be exclusively attributed to any one man;\nbut it is generally the case that amongst those who contribute to the\nultimate success there is one conspicuous figure that towers above all\nthe rest, and such is the figure which George Stephenson presents in\nrelation to the railway system.  (Cheers.)  To be sensible of the\nbenefits we have derived from railways and locomotives let us consider\nfor a moment what would be our position if they were taken from us.  The\npresent business of the country could not be carried on, the present\npopulation could not be maintained, property would sink to half its\nvalue--(hear, hear)--and instead of prosperity and progress we should\nhave collapse and retrogression on all sides.  (Cheers.)  What would\nNewcastle be if it ceased to be a focus of railways?  How would London be\nsupplied if it had to fall back upon turnpike roads and horse traffic?\nIn short, England as it is could not exist without railways and\nlocomotives; and it is only our familiarity with them that blunts our\nsense of their prodigious importance.  As to the future effects of\nrailways, it is easy to see that they are destined to diffuse industrial\npopulations over those vast unoccupied areas of the globe that abound in\nnatural resources, and only wait for facilities of access and transport\nto become available for the wants of man.  There is yet scope for an\nenormous extension of railways all over the world, and the fame of\nStephenson will continue to grow as railways continue to spread.  (Loud\ncheers.)  But I should do scant justice to the memory of George\nStephenson if I dwelt only on the results of his achievements.  Many a\ngreat reputation has been marred by faults of character, but this was not\nthe case with George Stephenson.  His manly simplicity and frankness, and\nhis kindly nature won for him the respect and esteem of all who knew him\nboth in the earlier and later periods of his career--(cheers)--but the\nprominent feature in his character was his indomitable perseverance,\nwhich broke down all obstacles, and converted even his failures and\ndisappointments into stepping stones to success.  It was not the desire\nfor wealth that actuated him in the pursuit of his objects, but it was a\nnoble enthusiasm, far more conducive to great ends than the hope of gain,\nthat carried him forward to his goal.  Unselfish enthusiasm such as his\nalways gives a tone of heroism to a character, and heroism above all\nthings commands the homage of mankind.  Newcastle may well be proud of\nits connection with George Stephenson, and the proceedings of this day\ntestify how much his memory is cherished in this his native district.\nAny memorial dedicated to him would be appropriate to this occasion, and\nif such memorial were connected with scientific instruction it would be\nin harmony with his well-known appreciation of the value of scientific\neducation, and of the sacrifices he made to give his son the advantage of\nsuch an education.  (Cheers.)  I now, gentlemen, have to propose to you\nthe toast which has been committed to me, and which is 'Honour to the\nmemory of George Stephenson, and may the college to be erected to his\nmemory prove worthy of his fame.'  I must ask you to drink this toast\nstanding; and consider that the birth of Stephenson is a subject of\njubilation.  I think that although he is dead we may drink that toast\nwith hearty cheering.  (Hear, hear, and loud cheers.)\n\nMr. George Robert Stephenson, who was warmly cheered on rising to respond\nto the toast, said: \"Mr. Mayor and gentlemen,--Let me, in the first place\nthank Sir William Armstrong for the many kind words he has uttered in\nhonour of the memory of George Stephenson.  It is true that he was, as\nSir William said, one of the most kind-hearted and unselfish men that\never lived; but I suppose that no man has had a more up-hill struggle\nduring the present century.  (Cheers).  I have now in my possession\ndocuments that would show in his early life the extraordinary and\npeculiar nature of the opposition that was brought against him as a poor\nman.  He was opposed by many of the leading engineers of the day; some of\nthese men using language which, it is not incorrect to say, was not only\ninjurious but wicked.  This is not the proper occasion to weary you with\na long speech, but with the view of showing the peculiar mode of\nengineers reporting against each other, I could very much wish, with your\npermission, to read a few sentences from documents that I have in my\npossession, dating back to 1823.  (Hear, hear).  This, gentlemen, will\nclearly show the sort of opposition I have alluded to.  It occurs at the\nend of a report by an opponent upon some projected work on which the four\nbrothers were engaged:--'But we cannot conclude without saying that such\na mechanic as Mr. Stephenson, who can neither calculate, nor lay his\ndesigns on paper, or distinguish the effect from the cause, may do very\nwell for repairing engines when they are constructed, but for building\nnew ones, he must be at great loss to his employers, from the many\nalterations that will take place in engine-building, when he goes by what\nwe call the rule of thumb.'  In a preceding sentence he is taunted with\nbeing like the fly going round on a crank axle, and shouting 'What a dust\nI am kicking up.'  Gentlemen, the dust that George Stephenson kicked up\nformed itself into a cloud, and in every part of the globe to which it\nreached it carried with it and planted the seeds of civilization and\nwealth.  Notwithstanding the hard and illiberal treatment to which he was\nexposed, he was not beaten; on the contrary, by his genius and his\nnever-failing spirit, he raised himself above the level of the very men\nwho opposed every effort he made towards the advancement of engineering\nscience--efforts which have resulted in a vast improvement of our means\nfor extracting the valuable products of the earth, and also of our means\nof conveying them at a cheap rate to distant markets.  It is not too much\nto say that George Stephenson headed a movement by which alone could\nemployment have been found for an ever-increasing population.\"\n\nIn the town of Chesterfield the Centenary was celebrated most\nbefittingly.  It was there the father of railways spent his latter days,\nand there he died.  Although there was not such a flood of oratory as at\nNewcastle-upon-Tyne, many interesting speeches were delivered in\nconnection with the event.  We give some extracts from an address\ndelivered by the Rev. Samuel C. Sarjant, B.A., Curate-in-Charge at that\ntime--delivered at Holy Trinity Church, Chesterfield.  An address which,\nfor ability, nice discrimination of thought, and true appreciation of the\nsubject, would not disgrace any pulpit in Christendom:--\n\n\"We meet to-day for the highest of all purposes, the worship of Almighty\nGod.  But we also meet to show our regard for the memory of one of the\ngreat and gifted dead.  It is no small distinction of this town that the\nlast days of George Stephenson were spent in it.  And it adds to the\ninterest of this church that it contains his mortal remains.  With little\ninternally to appeal to the eye, or to gratify taste, this church has yet\na spell which will draw visitors from every part of the world.  Men will\ncome hither from all lands to look with reverence upon the simple resting\nplace of him who was the father of the Locomotive and of the Railway\nsystem.  And perhaps the naked simplicity which marks that spot is in\nkeeping with a life, the grandeur of which was due solely to the man\nhimself, and not to outward helps and circumstances . . .\n\n\"Toil has its roll of heroes, but few, if any, of them are greater than\nhe whose birth we commemorate to-day.  He was pre-eminently a self-made\nman, one who 'achieved' greatness by his own exertions.  Granting that he\nwas gifted with powers of body and mind above the average, these were his\nonly advantages.  The rest was due to hard work, patient, persistent\neffort.  He had neither wealth, schooling, patrons, nor favouring\ncircumstances.  He comes into the arena like a naked athlete to wrestle\nin his own strength with the difficulties before him.  And these were\nmany and great!\n\n\"I need not dwell upon the details of a life which is so well known to\nmost, and to some present so vividly, from personal intercourse and\nfriendship.  We all know what a battle he fought, how nobly and well,\nfirst striving by patient plodding effort to remove his own ignorance,\ncheerfully bending himself to every kind of work that came in his way,\nand seeking to gain not only manual expertness, but a mastery of\nprinciples.  We know how he went on toiling, observing, experimenting,\nsaying little--for he was never given to the 'talk of the lips'--but\ndoing much, letting slip no chance of getting knowledge, and of turning\nit to practical account.  He was one of those, who\n\n    While his companions slept\n    Was toiling upwards in the night.\n\nAnd in due time his quiet work bore fruit.  He invented a safety-lamp\nwhich alone should have entitled him to the gratitude of posterity.  He\nthen set himself to improve the locomotive, and fit it for the future\nwhich his prescient mind discerned, and on a fair field he vanquished all\ncompetitors.  He then sought to adapt the roadway to the engine and make\nit fit for its new work.  And then, hardest task of all, he had to\nconvince the public that railway travelling was a possible thing; that it\ncould he made safe, cheap, and rapid.  In doing this he was compelled to\ndesign, plan, and execute almost everything with his own mind and hand.\nAll classes and interests were against him, the engineers, the land\nowners, the legislature, and the public.  He had to encounter the\nphantoms of ignorance and fear, the solid resistance of vested interests,\nand the bottomless quagmires of Chat Moss.  But he triumphed!  And it was\na well-earned reward as he looked down from his pleasant retreat at\nTapton upon the iron bands which glistened below, to know that they were\npart of a network which was spreading over the whole land and becoming\nthe one highway of transit and commerce.  Nor was this all his\nsatisfaction.  He knew that Europe and America were welcoming the\nrailway, and that it was promising to link together the whole civilized\nworld.\n\n\"Of the 'profit' of his labours to humanity I scarcely venture to speak,\nsince it cannot possibly be told in a few words.  The railway system has\nrevolutionised society.  It has powerfully affected every class, every\ninterest and department of life.  It has given an incredible impulse to\ncommerce, quickened human thought, created a new language, new habits,\ntastes and pleasures.  It has opened up fields of industry and enterprise\ninaccessible and unknown before.  It has cheapened the necessaries and\ncomforts of life, enhanced the value of property, promoted the fellowship\nof class with class, and brought unnumbered benefits and advantages\nwithin the reach of all.  And it is yet, as to the world at large, but in\nthe infancy of its development.\n\n\"How much, then, do we owe, under God, to George Stephenson.  How much,\nnot merely to his energy and diligence, but to his courage, patience, and\nuprightness?  For these qualities, quite as much as gifts of genius and\ninsight, contributed to his final success.  He was crowned because he\nstrove 'lawfully.'  His patience was as great in waiting as his energy in\nworking.  He did not work from greed or self-glorification; and therefore\nthe hour of success, when it came, found him the same modest,\nself-restrained man as before.  He neither overrated the value of the\nsystem which he had set up, nor made it a means of speculation and\ngambling.  He was a man of sterling honesty and uprightness--of\nself-control, simple in his habits and tastes, given to plain living and\nhigh thinking.  And yet he was most kindly, genial, and cheery, of strong\naffections, considerate of his workpeople, tender to his family, full of\nlove to little children and pet animals, brimming with fun and good\nhumour.  He had the gentleness of all noble natures, the largeness of\nmind and heart which could recognise ability and worth in others, and\ngive rivals their due.  For the young inventor, or for such of his\nhelpers as showed marked diligence or promise, he had ready sympathy and\naid.  Nor ought we to pass unnoticed his love of nature and of natural\nbeauty.  Strong throughout his whole life, this was especially\nconspicuous at its close.  Such leisure as his last days brought was\nspent amidst flowers and fruits, gardens and greeneries which he had\nplanned and filled, and from the midst of whose treasures he could look\nforth over venerable trees and green fields upon a wide and varied\nlandscape.  And yet, even in this relaxation, the old energy and\nearnestness of purpose asserted themselves.  He toiled and experimented,\nwatching the growth of his plants and flowers with more than professional\npains.  Nor is it improbable that the ardour which led him to confine\nhimself for hours together in a heated and unhealthy atmosphere led to\nhis fatal illness.\n\n\"We are bound, then, to mark and admit how much the moral element in the\nworker contributed to his success, and to the freshness of the regard\nwhich is felt for his memory and name.  England is proud of his works,\nbut prouder still of the man who did them.  Far different would have been\nthe result if impatience, ungenerousness, and love of greed had marred\nhis life and work.  The tributes of respect which we gladly lay upon his\ntomb to-day, would probably have been placed elsewhere.\"\n\n\n\n\nREMARKABLE COINCIDENCES.\n\n\nMany years ago the editor of this book and an elderly lady, the widow of\na well-known farmer, took tickets from Little Bytham for Edenham in\nLincolnshire.  They were the only passengers, and as the railway passed\nfor nearly two miles through Grimsthorpe park, she asked the driver if he\nwould stop at a certain spot which would have saved us both perhaps\nhalf-a-mile's walk.  The request was politely refused.  After going a\ngood distance the train was suddenly pulled up.  I opened the window and\nfound it had stopped at the very spot we desired.  The stoker came\nrunning by with a fine hare which the train had run over.  I said we can\nget out now and he said, Oh yes.  And so through this strange\nmisadventure to poor pussy our walk was much shortened.\n\nSome years before the above occurrence I was travelling by the early\nmorning mail train from the Midlands to the West of England.  At Taunton\nI perceived a crowd of persons gathered at the front of the train.  I\nwent forward and saw a corpse was being removed from the van to a hearse\noutside the station.  On reading the inscription on the coffin plate I\nwas somewhat taken aback to find my own name.  So Richard Pike living and\nRichard Pike dead had been travelling by the same train.  Perhaps rarely,\nif ever, have two more singular circumstances occurred in connection with\nrailway travelling.\n\n\n\n\nLOSS OF TASTE.\n\n\nSerjeant Ballantine in his _Experiences of a Barrister's Life_,\nsays:--\"There was a singular physical fact connected with him (Sir Edward\nBelcher), he had entirely lost the sense of taste; this he frequently\ncomplained of, and could not account for.  A friend of mine, an eminent\nmember of the Bar, suffers in the same way, but is able to trace the\nphenomenon to the shock that he suffered in a railway collision.\"\n\n\n\n\nINGENIOUS SWINDLING.\n\n\nA party of gentlemen who had been to Doncaster to see the St. Leger run,\ncame back to the station and secured a compartment.  As the train was\nabout to start, a well-dressed and respectable looking man entered and\ntook the only vacant seat.  Shortly after they had started, he said,\n\"Well, gentlemen, I suppose you have all been to the races to-day?\"  They\nreplied they had.  \"Well,\" said the stranger, \"I have been, and have\nunfortunately lost every penny I had, and have nothing to pay my fare\nhome, but if you promise not to split on me, I have a plan that I think\nwill carry me through.\"  They all consented.  He then asked the gentleman\nthat sat opposite him if he would kindly lend him his ticket for a\nmoment; on its being handed to him he took it and wrote his own name and\naddress on the back of the ticket and returned it to the owner.  Nothing\nmore was said until they arrived at the place where they collected\ntickets; being the races, the train was very crowded, and the\nticket-collector was in a great hurry; the gentlemen all pushed their\ntickets into his hands.  The collector then asked the gentleman without a\nticket for his, who replied he had already given it him.  The collector\nstoutly denied it.  The gentleman protested he had, and, moreover, would\nnot be insulted, and ordered him to call the station-master.  On the\nstation-master coming, he said he wished to report the collector for\ninsulting him.  \"I make a practice to always write my name and address on\nthe back of my ticket, and if your man looks at his tickets he will find\none of that description.\"  The man looked and, of course, found the\nticket, whereupon he said he must have been mistaken, and both he and the\nstationmaster apologised, and asked him not to report the case further.\n\n\n\n\nDANGEROUS LUGGAGE.\n\n\nComplaints are sometimes made of the want of due respect paid on the part\nof porters to passengers' luggage.  It appears that occasionally a like\nlack of caution is manifested by owners to their own property.  It is\nsaid that on a train lately on a western railway in America, some\npassengers were discussing the carriage of explosives.  One man contended\nthat it was impossible to prevent or detect this; if people were not\nallowed to ship nitro-glycerine or dynamite legitimately, they'd smuggle\nit through their baggage.  This assertion was contradicted emphatically,\nand the passenger was laughed at, flouted, and ignominiously put to\nscorn.  Rising up in his wrath, he produced a capacious valise from under\nthe seat, and, slapping it emphatically on the cover, said, \"Oh, you\nthink they don't, eh?  Don't carry explosives in cars?  What's this?\" and\nhe gave the valise a resounding thump, \"Thar's two hundred good dynamite\ncartridges in that air valise; sixty pounds of deadly material; enough to\nblow this yar train and the whole township from Cook County to\nChimborazo.  Thar's dynamite enough,\" he continued; but he was without an\nauditor, for the passengers had fled incontinently, and he could have sat\ndown upon twenty-two seats if he had wanted to.  And the respectful way\nin which the baggage men on the out-going trains in the evening handled\nthe trunks and valises was pleasant to see.\n\nThe neglect of carefulness appears, in one instance at least, to have\ninvolved inconvenience to the offending official.  \"An unknown genius,\"\nsays an American periodical, \"the other day entrusted a trunk, with a\nhive of bees in it, to the tender mercies of a Syracuse\n'baggage-smasher.'  The company will pay for the bees, and the doctor\nthinks his patient will be round in a fortnight or so.\"\n\n                                            --Williams's _Our Iron Roads_.\n\n\n\n\nSTUMPED.\n\n\nSeveral Sundays ago a Philadelphia gentleman took his little son on a\nrailway excursion.  The little fellow was looking out of the window, when\nhis father slipped the hat off the boy's head.  The latter was much\ngrieved at his supposed loss, when papa consoled him by saying that he\nwould \"whistle it back.\"  A little later he whistled and the hat\nreappeared.  Not long after the little lad flung his hat out of the\nwindow, shouting, \"Now, papa, whistle it back again!\"  A roar of laughter\nin the car served to enhance the confusion of perplexed papa.  Moral:\nDon't attempt to deceive little boys with plausible stories.\n\n\n\n\nEXCURSIONISTS PUT TO THE PROOF.\n\n\nA good story is told of the Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincoln Railway\nCompany.  A week or two since, the company ran an excursion train to\nLondon and back, the excursion being intended for their workmen at Gorton\nand Manchester.  There was an enormous demand for the tickets; so\nenormous that the officials began, to use an expressive term, \"to smell a\nrat.\"  But the sale of the tickets was allowed to proceed.  The journey\nto London was made, and a considerable number of the passengers\ncongratulated themselves upon the remarkably cheap outing they were\nhaving.  But on the return journey they made a most unpleasant discovery.\nTheir tickets were demanded at Retford, and then the ticket-collectors\ninsisted upon the holder of every ticket proving that he was in the\nemploy of the company.  The result can be imagined.  There were more\npersons in the train who had no connection with the company than there\nwere of the company's employes; and the former had either to pay a full\nfare to and from London, or to give their names and addresses preparatory\nto being summoned.  We hear, from a reliable source, that the fares thus\nobtained amount to about 300 pounds.\n\n                                                 --_Echo_, Sept. 23, 1880.\n\n\n\n\nA MONKEY SIGNALMAN.\n\n\nWe learn from the _Colonies_ that a monkey signalman manages the railway\ntraffic at Witenhage, South Africa.  The human signalman has had the\nmisfortune to lose both his legs, and has trained a baboon to discharge\nhis duties.  Jacky pushes his master about on a trolly, and, under his\ndirections, works the lever to set the signals with a most ludicrous\nimitation of humanity.  He puts down the lever, looks round to see that\nthe correct signal is up, and then gravely watches the approaching train,\nhis master being at hand to correct any mistake.\n\n\n\n\nA CURIOUS CLASSIFICATION.\n\n\nThe guard of an English railway carriage recently refused to allow a\nnaturalist to carry a live hedgehog with him.  The traveller, indignant,\npulled a turtle from his wallet and said, \"Take this too!\"  But the guard\nreplied good naturedly, \"Ho, no, sir.  It's dogs you can't carry; and\ndogs is dogs, cats is dogs, and 'edge'ogs is dogs, but turtles is\nhinsects.\"\n\n\n\n\nPULLMAN'S CARRIAGES.\n\n\nIn the discussion on Mr. C. Douglas Fox's recent paper on the\nPennsylvania railway, Mr. Barlow, the engineer of the Midland, observed\nthat there was a certain attractive power about a Pullman's carriage,\nwhich ought not to be overlooked, a power which brought passengers to it\nwho would not otherwise travel by railway.  A Pullman's carriage weighed\nsomewhere about twenty tons.  The cost of hauling that weight was about\n1.5d. per mile; that was the sum which the Midland Company proposed to\ncharge for first-class passengers, so that one first-class passenger\nwould pay the haulage of the carriage.  If the attractive power of the\ncarriage brought more than one first-class passenger it would of course\npay itself.\n\n                              _Herepath's Railway Journal_, Jan. 23, 1875.\n\n\n\n\nPROFITABLE DAMAGES.\n\n\nThe Springfield _Republican_, of 1877, is responsible for the following\nstory:--\"The industry of railroading has developed some thrifty\ncharacters, among whom a former employe of the New York, New Haven, and\nHartford road deserves high rank.  He was at one time at work in the\nSpringfield depot, and while taking a trunk out of a baggage car from\nBoston he was thrown over and hurt, the baggage-smashing art being for a\ntime reversed.  The injured employe suffered terribly, and crawled around\non crutches until the Boston and Albany and the New Haven roads united\nand gave him 6000 dollars.  He was cured the next day.  Shortly\nafterwards a man on the Boston and Albany road was killed, and the\nCompany gave his widow 3,000 dollars.  The former <DW36>, who had scored\n6,000 dollars already, soon married her, and thus counted 9,000 dollars.\nHe recovered his health so completely that he was able again to work on\nthe railroad, but finally, not being hurt again within a reasonable time,\nhe retired to a farm which he had bought with a part of the proceeds of\nhis former calamities.\"\n\n\n\n\nRAILWAY ENTERPRISE.\n\n\nIt would be difficult to close this series of Railway Anecdotes more\nappropriately than in the words of George Stephenson's celebrated son\nRobert at a banquet given to him at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, in August, 1850.\n\"It was but as yesterday,\" he said, \"that he was engaged as an assistant\nin tracing the line of the Stockton and Darlington Railway.  Since that\nperiod, the Liverpool and Manchester, the London and Birmingham, and a\nhundred other great works had sprung into vigorous existence.  So\nsuddenly, so promptly had they been accomplished, that it appeared to him\nlike the realization of fabled powers, or the magician's wand.  Hills had\nbeen cut down, and valleys had been filled up; and where this simple\nexpedient was inapplicable, high and magnificent viaducts had been\nerected; and where mountains intervened, tunnels of unexampled magnitude\nhad been unhesitatingly undertaken.  Works had been scattered over the\nface of our country, bearing testimony to the indomitable enterprise of\nthe nation and the unrivalled skill of its artists.  In referring thus to\nthe railway works, he must refer also to the improvement of the\nlocomotive engine.  This was as remarkable as the other works were\ngigantic.  They were, in fact, necessary to each other.  The locomotive\nengine, independent of the railway, would be useless.  They had gone on\ntogether, and they now realized all the expectations that were\nentertained of them.  It would be unseemly, as it would be unjust, if he\nwere to conceal the circumstances under which these works had been\nconstructed.  No engineer could succeed without having men about him as\nhighly-gifted as himself.  By such men he had been supported for many\nyears past; and, though he might have added his mite, yet it was to their\nco-operation that all his success was owing.\"\n\n\n\n\n***","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
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+{"text":" \nCopyright \u00a9 2016 by Nigel Hamilton\n\nAll rights reserved\n\nFor information about permission to reproduce selections from this book, write to trade.permissions@hmhco.com or to Permissions, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company, 3 Park Avenue, 19th Floor, New York, New York 10016.\n\nwww.hmhco.com\n\nLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data\n\nNames: Hamilton, Nigel.\n\nTitle: Commander in chief : FDR's battle with Churchill, 1943 \/ Nigel Hamilton.\n\nDescription: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt : Boston, 2016. Includes bibliographical references and index.\n\nIdentifiers: LCCN 2015037253  \nISBN 9780544279117 (hardcover)  \nISBN 9780544277441 (ebook)\n\nSubjects: LCSH: World War, 1939\u20131945\u2014United States. | Roosevelt, Franklin D. (Franklin Delano), 1882\u20131945 | Churchill, Winston, 1874\u20131965. | World War, 1939\u20131945\u2014Diplomatic history. | Command of troops\u2014Case studies. | World War, 1939\u20131945\u2014Campaigns. | Great Britain\u2014Foreign relations\u2014United States. | United States\u2014Foreign relations\u2014Great Britain.\n\nClassification: LCC D753 .H249 2016 | DDC 940.53\/2273\u2014dc23\n\nLC record available at <http:\/\/lccn.loc.gov\/2015037253>\n\nv1.0516\n\nMaps by Mapping Specialists, Ltd.\n\nCover design by Brian Moore\n\nCover photograph \u00a9 Hulton Archive\/Getty Images\n\nThe author is grateful for permission to quote from the following: Diary of Lord Halifax, 1941\u20131942, reprinted by permission of the Borthwick Institute for Archives, University of York. Letters and diaries of Margaret Lynch Suckley, reprinted by permission of the Wilderstein Preservation, Rhinebeck, N.Y.\n_For Lady Ray_\n\n# Prologue\n\nIN _THE MANTLE OF COMMAND: FDR AT WAR, 1941\u20131942,_ I described how President Franklin Roosevelt first donned the cloak of commander in chief of the Armed Forces of the United States in war\u2014a world war stretching from disaster at Pearl Harbor to his \"great pet scheme,\" Operation Torch: the triumphant Allied invasion of North Africa in November 1942, which stunned Hitler and signified one of the most extraordinary turnabouts in military history.\n\n_Commander in Chief: FDR at War, 1943_ addresses the next chapter of President Roosevelt's war service: a year in which, moving to the offensive, the President had not only to direct the efforts of his generals but keep Prime Minister Winston Churchill, his \"active and ardent lieutenant,\" in line. Roosevelt's struggle to keep his U.S. subordinates on track toward victory, without incurring the terrible casualties that would have greeted their military plans and timetable, proved mercifully successful that fateful year, but his assumption that Churchill would abide by the strategic agreements they had made proved illusory. Thus, although Roosevelt's patient, step-by-step direction of the war led to historic victories of the Western Allies in Tunisia in the spring of 1943, and again in Sicily in August of that year\u2014results that assured the President a cross-Channel assault would be decisive when launched, in the spring of 1944\u2014the British prime minister did not agree. The President's resultant \"battle royal\" with Churchill\u2014who was in essence commander in chief of all British Empire forces\u2014became one of the most contentious strategic debates in the history of warfare.\n\nThis dramatic, repeated struggle forms the centerpiece or core of this volume, for it is not too bold to say that upon its outcome rested the outcome of World War II, and thus the future of humanity. The struggle took most of the year\u2014 _das verlorene Jahr,_ as German military historians would call it. Had Churchill prevailed in his preferred strategy, the war might well have been lost for the Allies, at least in terms of the defeat of Hitler. Even though the President won out over the impetuous, ever-evasive British prime minister, the fallout from Churchill's obstinacy and military mistakes would be profound. Not only was American trust in British sincerity severely damaged, but the need to keep the Prime Minister sweet, and loyal to the agreements he had only reluctantly made for Operation Overlord, led to dangerously naive plans for the Allied invasion of mainland Italy in September 1943\u2014plans involving an airborne landing on Rome, and a gravely compromised amphibious landing in the Gulf of Salerno, south of Naples: Avalanche.\n\nThe reality was, Winston Churchill had remained a Victorian not only in his colonial-imperialist mindset, as President Roosevelt often remarked, but in his understanding of modern war\u2014and the Wehrmacht. He grievously underestimated the Wehrmacht's determination to hold fast to the last man at the very extremity of the European mainland, giving rise to fantasies of easy Allied victory, and a possible gateway to central Europe that would make Overlord unnecessary.\n\nFortunately, the President's absolute determination in 1943 to prepare his armies for modern combat and to then stand by the Overlord assault as the decisive battle of the Western world rendered Churchill's opposition powerless. The Prime Minister's strategic blindness would prove tragically expensive in human life, but mercifully it did not lose the war for the Allies. The President may justly be said to have saved civilization\u2014but it was a near-run thing.\n\nTo a large extent the facts of this dark saga are well known to military historians. However, because President Roosevelt began to assemble but did not live to write his own account of the war's military direction, and since others did go on to recount their own parts\u2014sometimes with great literary skill\u2014the President's true role and performance as U.S. commander in chief has often gone unappreciated by general readers. Churchill, who was nothing if not magnanimous in victory, certainly attempted in his memoirs to pay tribute to Roosevelt's leadership, but in his concern to regain the prime ministership he had lost in 1945 he could not always bring himself to tell the truth. Nor was he ashamed of this. As he had boasted after the Casablanca Conference, he fully intended to tell the story of the war from his point of view\u2014and where necessary to suborn history to his own agenda: \"to wait until the war is over and then to write his impressions so that, if necessary, he could correct or bury his mistakes.\" During the war itself he had openly and publicly expressed his loyalty to President Roosevelt as the mastermind directing Allied strategy\u2014a surprise even to Joseph Goebbels\u2014but in private he nevertheless let it be known that he himself was the real directing genius. As King George VI's private secretary, Sir Alan Lascelles, noted in his diary on November 10, 1942, though in his Mansion House speech extolling the successful U.S. invasion of Morocco and Algeria the Prime Minister \"gave the credit for its original conception to Roosevelt,\" Sir Alan believed \"it belongs more truly to himself.\" By the time General Eisenhower took the surrender of all Axis forces in North Africa six months later, this notion of the Prime Minister as sole military architect of Allied strategy and performance had grown to ridiculous levels. Not only was Churchill given credit for having \"built up the 8th Army into the wonderful fighting machine that it has become\"\u2014despite Churchill's original refusal to appoint General Montgomery to command the army, and his opposition to the new military tactics Montgomery was employing\u2014but Lascelles was convinced, like King George, that \"Winston is so essentially the father of the North African baby that he deserves any recognition, royal or otherwise, that can be given to him . . . He has himself publicly given the credit for 'Torch' to Roosevelt, but I have little doubt that W. was really its only begetter.\"\n\nAided by his \"syndicate\" of researchers, civil servants, and historian-aides, Churchill was able to have his day in literary court, in his six-volume opus, _The Second World War,_ which helped win him the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1953\u2014a work that, as Professor David Reynolds has shown, was often economical with the truth. For the memory of President Roosevelt\u2014whose funeral Churchill had not even attended\u2014it was, however, near-devastating, since its magisterial narrative placed Churchill at the center of the war's direction and President Roosevelt very much at the periphery.\n\nIn many ways, then, this book and its predecessor are a counternarrative, or corrective: my attempt to tell the story of Roosevelt's exercise of high command from his\u2014not Churchill's\u2014perspective.\n\nIn my first volume I selected fourteen episodes, centering on President Roosevelt's \"great pet scheme\": his Torch invasion of Northwest Africa, and the near mutiny of his generals to stop this and plump instead for a suicidal invasion of northern France in 1942. In this new volume I have selected twelve representative episodes of 1943, beginning with the Casablanca Conference in January and ending with the invasion of Salerno in September. While this has entailed omitting many important events and aspects of Roosevelt's presidency as U.S. commander in chief\u2014some of which, like the development of the atom bomb, progress in the Pacific, and questions of saving the Jews in Europe, will be addressed in a final volume\u2014they continue to give us a clearer picture of how President Roosevelt operated when wearing, so to speak, his military mantle in World War II. By following him closely in his study, in the Oval Office and the Map Room at the White House, at his \"camp\" at Shangri-la and his family home at Hyde Park; on his historic trip abroad to Africa (the first president ever to fly in office, and the first to inspect troops on the battlefield overseas); and on his long inspection tour of military installations and training camps in the United States (during which he authorized the secret air ambush of Admiral Yamamoto), we are able to see him at last as we have previously been able to see so many of his subordinate military officers and officials of World War II\u2014that is to say, from _his_ perspective.\n\nIt will be noted that, as hostilities approach their climax in the fall of 1943, the political ramifications take on a more urgent role. Churchill may have been completely wrong in his understanding of the Wehrmacht, and a menace to Allied unity in his Mediterranean mania\u2014one that drove even his own chiefs of staff to the brink of resignation. But Churchill's understanding of the deepening rift and rivalry with the Soviets bespoke his greatness as a leader. Many thousands of miles removed from the continent of Europe, President Roosevelt needed the Prime Minister by his side not as military adviser\u2014given that Churchill's judgment and obstinacy were more millstone than help, as Churchill's doctor himself recognized\u2014but as the President's political partner in leading the Western democracies.\n\nAs the final pages of this volume demonstrate, Winston Churchill was thus invited to spend long weeks with the President in Washington and at Hyde Park, in a deeply symbolic act of unity\u2014as much in confronting Stalin as Hitler.\n\nThe degree to which President Roosevelt began to rely on Churchill's loyal political support and his political acumen in the summer and fall of 1943\u2014before the Tehran and Yalta Conferences\u2014are thus a testament to the importance of their relationship in world history. Churchill had rattled the unity of the Allies that year to the very brink of collapse by pressing for a military strategy that would arguably have lost the war for the Allies had not President Roosevelt overruled him. In political terms, however, it was to be his steadfast, statesmanlike partnership with the President of the United States that would ensure the democracies, under their combined leadership, had at least a chance of ending World War II with western Europe under safe guardianship in relation to Soviet \"Bolshevization.\"\n\nTo better understand FDR's direction of the military is thus to me important not only in terms of a greater appreciation of President Roosevelt's actions, but in understanding the foundations of the world we live in today. From boasting only the world's seventeenth-most-powerful military in 1939, the United States gradually took upon itself the successful leadership of the democratic world under Roosevelt's command\u2014and became the most powerful nation on earth, bar none. How exactly President Roosevelt directed this transformation and the operations of his armed forces across the globe\u2014with what aims, with what challenges, with what lessons\u2014is to me of abiding interest in the world we've inherited. For good or ill, America's military power under a freely elected president remains in large part the basis of the continuing role of the United States in attempting to provide leadership and world security, however imperfect.\n\nThis, then, is the record of FDR as U.S. commander in chief in the crucial year 1943\u2014a year in which the United States went on the offensive both in the West and in the East\u2014as seen from the President's point of view. Upon his leadership depended the outcome of the world war: success or failure.\nPART ONE\n\n* * *\n\n#  _A Secret Journey_\n**1**\n\n# A Crazy Idea\n\nIT WAS LATE in the evening of Saturday, January 9, 1943, when a locomotive pulling the _Ferdinand Magellan_ and four further carriages departed from a special siding beneath the Bureau of Engraving in Washington, D.C.\u2014the federal government's massive printing house for paper money, and thus a sort of Fort Knox of the capital.\n\nAboard was the President of the United States, his secretary, his White House chief of staff, his naval aide, his White House counselor, and his doctor, all traveling to Hyde Park for the weekend, as usual. Or so it seemed.\n\nThe Secret Service had insisted the President use for the first time the massive new railway carriage reconstructed for him\u2014the first such railcar to be made for the nation's chief executive since Lincoln's presidency. Boasting fifteen-millimeter armored steel plate on the sides, roof, and underside, the carriage had three-inch-thick bulletproof glass in all its windows. Best of all, it had a special elevator to raise the President, in his wheelchair, onto the platform of the car\u2014which weighed 142 tons, the heaviest passenger carriage ever used on U.S. rail track.\n\nThe car was \"arranged with a sitting room, a dining room for ten or twelve persons, a small but well arranged kitchen, and five state rooms,\" Admiral William Leahy, the President's military chief of staff, recorded in his diary. \"Dr. McIntire, Harry Hopkins, Miss Tully, and I occupied the state rooms, and Captain McCrea joined us in the dining room. Other cars accommodated the Secret Service men, the apothecary, the communications personnel, and the President's valet,\" Chief Petty Officer Arthur Prettyman.\n\nTheir luggage had been taken to the baggage car separately, an hour earlier. But was the President really going to Hyde Park? If so, why the thousand pounds of bottled water? Why clothes for two weeks away? Why the four Filipino members of the crew of the USS _Potomac,_ the presidential yacht, replacing the normal Pullman staff? Why Eleanor, the First Lady, and Louise Macy, the new wife of Harry Hopkins, bidding them goodbye at the underground siding?\n\nSomething was up\u2014something unique. Even historic.\n\nAmong the few who did know of the President's real destination, most had counseled against it. Even the President's naval aide, Captain John McCrea, opposed the idea when the President tricked McCrea into supplying information on the geography, history, and significant towns of the region of North Africa. Following the successful Torch landings in Algeria and Morocco on November 8, 1942, the President had explained to McCrea\u2014whose knowledge of the sea exceeded his knowledge of land\u2014U.S. troops would be fighting in battle, and he'd found himself, as U.S. commander in chief, sadly ignorant of the terrain. \"See if you can help me correct that deficiency,\" he'd instructed McCrea, \"by means of travel folders, etcetera, put out by travel agencies.\"\n\n_Travel agencies?_ As the President had quickly assured McCrea, \"in the planning and preparatory stages\" of Operation Torch, he hadn't wanted to draw attention to \"that area.\" \"But now that the troops are there,\" he'd added, \"that restraint is removed.\"\n\nInnocent of any ulterior motive, McCrea had assembled a raft of informative material. \"The President was pleased with it and confided: 'Just the sort of information I want.'\"\n\nSome weeks later, though, \"late one afternoon, early in December the President sent for me, sat me down at the corner of his desk and this is about the way it went.\n\n\"The Pres: 'John, I want to talk to you in great confidence and the matter about which I am talking is to be known to no one except those who need to know.' Since this was the first time the Pres. had ever spoken to me thus, naturally I was greatly curious,\" McCrea later narrated in his somewhat stilted literary style. The President had then confided, \"'Since the landing of our troops in No[rth] Africa, I have been in touch with Winston by letter. I feel we should meet soon and resolve some things and that that meeting should take place in Africa. Winston has suggested Khartoum\u2014I'm not keen on that suggestion. Marrakech and Rabat have been suggested. I'm inclined to rule out those areas, and settle for Casablanca.' And then to my amazement the President said: 'What do you think of the whole idea?'\"\n\nMcCrea had been stunned.\n\n\"As quickly as I could,\" McCrea recalled, \"I gathered my wits and proceeded about as follows. 'Right off the top of my head Mr. Pres. I do not think well of the idea. I think there is too much risk involved for you.'\"\n\nThe President had been unmoved. \"Our men in that area are taking risks, why shouldn't their Commander in Chief share that risk?\"\n\nMcCrea was a seasoned sailor\u2014an aspect he thought might be a more effective counter. \"'The Atlantic can be greatly boisterous in the winter months,'\" he had pointed out, \"'and a most uncomfortable passage is a good possibility\u2014'\n\n\"'Oh\u2014we wouldn't go by ship. We would fly,' said he.\"\n\n_Fly?_\n\nMcCrea was shocked. No U.S. president had flown while in office\u2014ever. \"This was a great surprise to me because I knew he did not regard flying with any degree of enthusiasm,\" McCrea recounted. Mr. Roosevelt had not flown in a decade, in fact, since traveling to Chicago from New York before the 1932 election. In terms of the President's safety, waging a world war, it seemed a grave and unnecessary risk\u2014especially in terms of distance, and flight into an active war zone. But the President was the president.\n\nMcCrea had therefore softened his objection. \"I quickly saw that I was being stymied and I tried to withdraw a bit.\n\n\"'Mr. Pres.,' said I, 'you have taken me quite by surprise with this proposal. I would like to give it further thought. Right off the top of my head I wouldn't recommend it.'\"\n\nWhen, the next morning, Captain McCrea went upstairs to the President's Oval Study, carrying with him some of the latest reports, secret signals, decoded enemy signals, and top-secret cables from the Map Room\u2014of which he was the director\u2014he'd recognized the futility of opposing the idea. It was a colossal risk, he still thought, but he knew the President well enough to know that, if Mr. Roosevelt had raised the matter, it was because his mind was probably already made up, and he was simply looking for the sort of reaction he would be likely to meet from others.\n\n\"He laughed lightly,\" McCrea recalled\u2014informing him that Prime Minister Churchill had already responded positively to the suggestion, in fact was gung ho for such a meeting\u2014\"'Winston is all for it.'\"\n\nMcCrea had remained concerned, though. Security would present a problem not only during the broad Atlantic crossing, he warned, but in North Africa itself. \"I still think the risk is great and if you are determined to go I will do all possible to manage that risk,\" he'd assured the President. But the risks were real. \"From what I have read in the despatches and the press,\" he'd said, for example, \"affairs in No[rth] Africa are in a state of much confusion.\" Casablanca itself was a notorious gathering place for spies and expatriates. And worse. \"I would suppose that No[rth] Africa is full of people who would take you on for $10\u2014\"\n\n_Assassination?_\n\n\"Why I said that I'll never know,\" McCrea later reflected. It was almost rude, \"\u2014but I did and at the moment, of course, I felt it. He laughed heartily.\"\n\nMcCrea was not being timorous. Several weeks later his concern was validated\u2014Admiral Fran\u00e7ois Darlan, the new French high commissioner under the Allied commander in chief in the Mediterranean, General Eisenhower, was murdered in broad daylight in Algiers.\n\nBy then, however, the trip had been prepared in great detail, and the President would hear no more attempts to dissuade him.\n\nMaintaining secrecy for the trip had not been easy, however. There was, for instance, the problem of idle gossip. The British had been making their own travel arrangements for Prime Minister Churchill. By secret cable from his \"bunker\" beneath Westminster, in London, Mr. Churchill's office had duly informed the British ambassador in Washington, D.C., Viscount Halifax. Halifax had told his wife.\n\nIt had been McCrea who had then taken the telephone call from a distraught, elderly Colonel Edmund Starling, who\u2014going back to the days of President Wilson\u2014was chief of the Secret Service detail responsible for the President's safety at the White House. \"The Colonel said it was urgent he see me at once,\" McCrea recalled. \"He came to the Map Room and we went out into the corridor, out of earshot of the Map Room personnel. This is about the way it [went]:\n\n\"Col\u2014Is anything going on here about the movements of the President of which I should be apprised?\"\n\nMcCrea had been noncommittal. \"I don't understand what you are driving at, Colonel. Could you be more specific?\" he'd responded.\n\n\"Col\u2014Well, it is this. A taxi cab driver here in Washington called the W.[hite] H.[ouse] today and told the telephone operator that he wanted to talk to someone in authority who had to do with the movements of the President.\" On being put through to Colonel Starling, he was asked to come straight to the White House. He'd left \"just a few minutes ago. His story was that he had answered a call to the British Embassy this forenoon and there he had picked up a couple of ladies and had driven them in town to a Woodward & Lothrop Dept. store. On the way in they had talked at some length and that one lady had said to the other that the President was going soon to North Africa where he would meet with Mr. Churchill. He, the driver, had no way of knowing whether or not it was so, but nevertheless if it was, he thought it was something that shouldn't be talked about.\"\n\nThis was a serious understatement.\n\nOh, the British. Often so pompous about rank and privilege\u2014and so casual with regard to high-level gossip shared in the presence of the \"servant class.\"\n\nIt hadn't boded well, but there was little McCrea had been able to do; an important summit of wartime leaders could hardly be canceled or reconvened because of an ambassador's wife's shopping trip.\n\nThe President was more amused by the incident than concerned. What he worried about was his longtime White House military aide, Major General Edwin \"Pa\" Watson. The general wouldn't be going, the President had told McCrea. \"Pa has suffered a heart attack last spring,\" the President had explained, \"and while he is now back on active duty Ron [McIntire, the President's doctor] thinks he is in no condition to stand the stress and strain of a long air trip across the Atlantic and on to Casablanca. I dread telling Pa that I have decided he should not go with us.\"\n\nMcCrea could only marvel at a president more concerned not to upset his loyal military aide than for his own safety. The President had reason to be concerned, however. \"I intentionally put off telling Pa as long as possible and when he brought the appointment list to me this morning,\" Roosevelt told McCrea on January 7, 1943, \"I broke the news to him and told him that on Ron's advice because of the considerable flying involved and his recent heart attack that I was not taking him on this trip. Pa was shocked\u2014slumped in his chair and broke into tears\u2014and remarked perhaps his usefulness around the W.H. was about at an end. I comforted him as best I could but to little avail. After a bit he recovered his composure and withdrew. Now John, I told you last evening I would enter the House Chamber [of Congress, for the upcoming State of the Union address] this noon on your arm. If I do that I think it would be a further shock to Pa. Will you please run Pa down at once and tell him that I neglected to tell him this a.m. that as usual I would enter the House Chamber this noon on his arm. That might soften the blow a bit of his not going to No. Africa with us.\"\n\nOnce again Captain McCrea had been amazed at the President's concern for the feelings of others, while directing the administration of his country in a global war. Also the President's innocence, too: for it would be the President's naval aide who would suffer the full force of General Watson's disappointment at being excluded from the North Africa trip, however much the President wished to sugar the pill.\n\nIt had not taken long. In General Watson's room next to the Oval Office, where Pa Watson acted as the President's appointments secretary, guarding all access to the Chief Executive, McCrea had endured a tirade from the general. If he himself was forbidden to travel, Watson said, why should the President\u2014who'd had his own heart problems\u2014go? Watson \"thought the Pres. was badly advised about making the trip\u2014the risk was too great for him to take. Why hadn't I informed him about the trip? 'I've always taken you in my confidence,' said he, 'and in this important instance you have not taken me into your confidence.'\n\n\"I calmed Pa down as best I could,\" McCrea related. \"I told him of the charge given me by the President that no one, absolutely no one, should know about this trip except those who needed to know\u2014and he [the President] laid great emphasis on that point. That he would tell you himself in due course that you could not make the trip and that he would tell me when he had done so.\"\n\nThis did little to solace the Army general\u2014who was, after all, still the President's military aide. The Navy had trumped him. \"There was just no comforting Pa,\" McCrea recalled. \"He was deeply disturbed and repeated over and over again that the Pres. was badly advised in the decision to make this hazardous trip. 'I hope you didn't encourage him in that,'\" he'd demanded accusingly. \"I told Pa that I had done everything I possibly could to dissuade the President\u2014but to no avail. That insofar as I knew the deal had been made with Mr. Churchill and that was it. And then Pa exclaimed with much emphasis: 'There is only one so and so around here who is crazy enough to promote such a thing, and his name is Hopkins'\"\u2014the President's White House counselor.\n**2**\n\n# Aboard the Magic Carpet\n\nGENERAL WATSON WAS wrong about Harry Hopkins. Recently married, Hopkins had no great wish to go to Casablanca. His wife said goodbye to him \"at the rear door\" of the _Ferdinand Magellan,_ Hopkins jotted in his diary that night. Eleanor had shown no emotion, but Louise had been a bag of nerves\u2014as was Hopkins, who worried about the weeks he'd be away from Washington. A survivor of stomach cancer and major intestinal surgery before the war began, Hopkins required constant medication. Above all, though, he had no wish to leave his new bride. Over Thanksgiving, at a cast party for S. N. Behrman's new play on Broadway, _The Pirate,_ he'd been heard to say to a friend, as he introduced his young consort: \"Look, Dyke,\u2014I ought to be dead\u2014and here I am married!\"\n\nA charming and pretty gadabout, Louise was a socialite who, to her discomfort, had swiftly found herself accused of impropriety after the wedding, thanks to people envious of Hopkins's proximity to the President\u2014people such as the financier Bernard Baruch, who'd failed to obtain a job in the Roosevelt war administration. \"I must say that I didn't like the idea of leaving a little bit,\" Hopkins confided to his diary before going to sleep, for \"Louise had been very unhappy all evening because of the political attacks on us.\"\n\nFor his part, Admiral Bill Leahy\u2014the President's chief of staff at the White House, but also now the chairman of the Combined Chiefs of Staff\u2014was equally reluctant to go. The sailor had suffered a bad bout of flu in recent days, and did not relish the long journey by train and then air. Nor did he savor what was awaiting him at the secret destination: a continuing international political imbroglio that in his view had been pretty much screwed up by people who didn't understand the military difficulties of the situation.\n\nThere were others, too, who were anxious. Daisy Suckley, the President's cousin and longtime confidante, had already said her goodbye the day before, and wasn't therefore at the Bureau of Engraving platform. She'd argued strenuously against such \"a long trip,\" she noted in her own diary, one \"with definite risks\" that included enemy interception, accidents, even assassination. \"But one _can't_ and _mustn't_ think of that.\" On the plus side there were, she acknowledged, exotic places the President would get to see. And people, too. \"W. Churchill first and foremost, of course,\" she'd added. Others, however, he would not. He'd asked to meet Stalin, \"but Stalin answered that he could not possibly leave Russia now\u2014One can understand that,\" she allowed, given the great winter battle still being fought to the death at Stalingrad.\n\nFala, the President's beloved Scottish terrier, was not going, either, Daisy noted. The President had asked his wife if she would look after him. Like Stalin, the First Lady had said she was too busy. The President had therefore asked Daisy, who'd originally given him the terrier, as a gift, and she'd agreed to do so.\n\n\"I wished him all the best luck on this secret trip,\" Daisy recorded the next night, after saying goodbye\u2014more devoted to him than ever. \"He is leaving as if to go north to Hyde Park,\" which was near her own baronial home, Wilderstein. \"At a certain siding,\" though, \"the train will be picked up by the regular engine & start south for Miami\u2014He goes with all one's prayers.\"\n\nAt Baltimore the locomotive was, indeed, decoupled. Instead of continuing north, a new locomotive bore it south, toward its destination a thousand miles away: through Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, to the former Pan American Clipper terminus.\n\nFor his own part, President Roosevelt was glad to get away. Despite the winter cold, the capital was a cauldron of rumor, gossip, political rivalry, and competitive ambitions. Looked after by his valet, Petty Officer Prettyman, and his Filipino crew from the presidential yacht, the USS _Potomac,_ he ate and slept well. Rising late on Sunday, January 10, 1943, he lifted the shades of his compartment. The passengers had been instructed that, in order to maintain absolute secrecy, they were to \"keep the shades down all day,\" as he wrote Daisy that night\u2014confiding that he \"found myself waving to an engineer & fear he recognized me.\"\n\nMinor mishaps always amused FDR.\n\nAll day, as the heavy, shaded train bore on, the President went through his White House papers, dictating final letters and memoranda to Grace Tully, his secretary, who would be leaving the train in Florida before they reached Miami. He then said goodnight and retired early, knowing they would all have to rise before first light the following morning.\n\nWoken early on January 11, Hopkins donned a robe and made his way to the President's stateroom, where he \"found the President alone.\" Together they \"laughed over the fact that this unbelievable trip was about to begin. I shall always feel that the reason the President wanted to meet Churchill,\" Hopkins surmised, \"was because he wanted to make a trip.\"\n\nRoosevelt had become \"tired of having other people, particularly myself, speak for him around the world. For political reasons he could not go to England,\" Hopkins noted\u2014despite Eleanor having found her husband a nice potential apartment in London, complete with elevator, where he could stay if he chose to meet Churchill there. But the President had balked at the political ramifications. The new, potentially more hostile, isolationist Congress, elected the previous November, would have a field day, he feared. Certain members of Congress and rich, right-wing newspaper owners would accuse the President either of kowtowing to the British or colluding with foreign allies without first telling members of his visit, let alone getting their consent.\n\nLondon, then, had been out\u2014and the North African battlefield in. Roosevelt would travel as U.S. commander in chief, not as president\u2014thus permitting him to insist upon absolute secrecy, with no press correspondents following him. He \"wanted to go to see our troops,\" Hopkins noted, and \"he was sick of people telling him that it was dangerous to ride in airplanes. He liked the drama of it. But above all, he wanted to make a trip.\"\n\nWhether Hopkins was right was debatable, but the sheer drama of the President's secret getaway from Washington was\u2014like his \"escape\" from the press to Newfoundland for the Atlantic Charter meeting in 1941\u2014undeniable.\n\nGrace Tully duly disembarked to stay with relatives. Then, at Miami, the party detrained and was driven by car to the former Pan American Airways terminal by the harbor. Two huge flying boats were waiting, bobbing on the water.\n\n\"My God! Why, that's the Pres[ident]. Why didn't they let me know he was to be one of my passengers?\" the captain of the first boat, the _Dixie Clipper,_ exclaimed. \"It's somewhat of a shock to know you are flying the Pres. of the U.S.\"\n\nWith its giant 152-feet cantilevered wingspan, four fifteen-hundred-horsepower Wright Twin Cyclone engines, plus sponsons attached to both sides of its hull to provide extra lift and ease of embarkation, the Clipper\u2014leased by the U.S. Navy, and its crew given Navy rank\u2014duly took off from the predawn waters of the harbor and made first for Trinidad, in the Caribbean, fourteen hundred miles away. \"The sun came up at about 7:30,\" Roosevelt wrote to Daisy, \"& I have never seen a more lovely sunrise\u2014just your kind. We were up about a mile\u2014above a level of small pure white clouds so we couldn't even see the Bahamas on our left\u2014but soon we saw Cuba on the right & then Haiti.\"\n\nThe President had known she'd continue to worry on his account, and wanted to reassure her\u2014not only the first president to fly abroad while in office, but the first since Lincoln to visit a battlefield in war. Taking a celestial fix of sun and moon, the captain turned the forty-four-ton behemoth, like a flying carpet, southeastward. \"Then out over the Caribbean\u2014high up\u2014I felt the altitude at 8 or 9,000 feet\u2014and so did Harry and Ad. Leahy\u2014The cumulus white clouds were amazingly beautiful but every once in a while we could not go over them & had to go through one\u2014\n\n\"At last\u20145 p.m.\u2014we saw the N.E. Coast of Venezuela & then the islands of the Dragon's Mouth with Trinidad on the left\u2014The skipper made a beautiful soft landing & Ad. Oldendorf came out & took us ashore to the U.S. Naval Base\u2014one of 'my' eight which we got for the 50 destroyers in 1940. It is not yet finished but operating smoothly.\"\n\nThe U.S. naval base at Trinidad had come with a hotel, situated at Macqueripe on the north coast, \"& thither we went for the night,\" the President related. However, there had then occurred a serious hiccup, unrelated to the dinner he was served. \"Ad. Leahy felt quite ill\u2014he had flu ten days ago\u2014Ross McI[ntire] is worried as he is 68 & his temp. is over 100\u2014we will decide in the a.m.\"\n\nIn the morning, on January 12, the doctor found Admiral Leahy still feverish. \"Up at 4 a.m. This is not civilized,\" the President joked in his letter to Daisy. However, \"Leahy seemed no better & we had to leave him behind\u2014He hated to stay but was a good soldier & will go to the Naval Hospital & get good care\u2014I hope he won't get pneumonia\u2014I shall miss him as he is such an old friend & a wise counselor.\"\n\nIf the President was concerned, though, he did not show it, for he never mentioned Leahy again in his letters to Daisy, despite the fact that Leahy was to have chaired daily meetings not only of the U.S. chiefs of staff but the British chiefs of staff, in their role as the Combined Chiefs of Staff, in Casablanca. The President was on top form: confident he could manage the summit quite successfully on his own, even without Leahy's wisdom.\n\nThus the _Dixie Clipper_ flew on a further thousand miles to Brazil, filled its tanks with fuel at Bel\u00e9m, and set off for its great \"hop\" across the Atlantic, carrying its august passenger and small, slightly diminished entourage\u2014followed closely by the backup Clipper, lest the _Dixie Clipper_ experience engine trouble and have need to ditch.\n\nReflecting their earlier days as transoceanic first-class passenger planes, each Clipper boasted a lounge, a fourteen-seat dining room, changing rooms, and beds normally for thirty-six passengers\u2014with a honeymoon suite at the rear. They required considerable piloting skills, however\u2014takeoffs and landings in choppy, windswept water always an especial concern. The _Dixie Clipper_ 's sister plane, _Yankee Clipper,_ for example, would snag its wing several weeks later in Lisbon Harbor, with the loss of twenty-four lives.\n\nMeantime, landing smoothly at the old British trading post of Bathurst (later renamed Banjul) on the Gambia River on January 13, after a twenty-eight-hour flight, the _Dixie Clipper_ moored offshore. Arrangements had been made for the President to transfer to the light cruiser USS _Memphis,_ ordered up from Natal by FDR's chief of naval operations, Admiral King\u2014there to provide the President with a secure overnight stay where he would not be exposed to tsetse fly. As it was still light, however, he took the opportunity to tour the waterfront\u2014the President seated in a whaleboat as the local British naval commander acted as his guide during a forty-minute cruise amid dozens of tenders and oil tankers. Loading and unloading beneath the evening sun, their crews seemed oblivious to the fact that the upright figure seated in the midst of the whaleboat party, in his civilian clothes and hat, together with Hopkins, McIntire, and McCrea, was the President of the United States.\n\nFinally, hoisted aboard the USS _Memphis,_ the President was given the flagship admiral's stateroom, \"where I've had a good supper & am about to go to bed,\" he described, delighted to be in African waters.\n\nGiven Roosevelt's childhood dream of going to naval college instead of Harvard (a hope dashed by his mother), his long love of naval history, and his nearly eight years as assistant secretary of the Navy, being piped aboard an American warship as commander in chief for the first time in World War II was inspiring for the President. Yet the sentiment paled beside thoughts of what was to come. The next morning would see him embark for a further \"1,200 mile hop in an Army plane,\" this time overland, as he wrote to Daisy\u2014bound for \"that well known spot 'Somewhere in North Africa.' _I_ don't know just where,\" he added, in self-censoring mode. \"But don't worry\u2014All is well & I'm getting a wonderful rest.\" He felt positively refreshed. \"It's funny about geography\u2014Washington seems the other side of the world but not Another Place\u2014That is way off,\" he wrote of Hyde Park, \"& also very close to\u2014\"\n\nThere Roosevelt left the sentence, however\u2014unwilling to give hostage to fortune, lest prying eyes open, or see, his letter to the distant cousin whose romantic adoration he'd encouraged, especially after his mother's death two years earlier. \"Lots of love\u2014Bless you,\" he ended.\n\nTo his wife, Eleanor, he meanwhile wrote in a similarly informative, if less tender, vein\u2014telling her he'd be seeing their son Elliott when he arrived, and signing off: \"Ever so much love and don't do too much\u2014and I'll see you soon. Devotedly, F.\"\n\nHe was almost there: not only the journey of a lifetime, but bringing the agenda of a lifetime. At Casablanca the President wished not only to map the defeat of the Axis powers in World War II, but commence discussions of the world to follow.\nPART TWO\n\n* * *\n\n#  _Total War_\n**3**\n\n# The United Nations\n\nEVEN BEFORE THE war began for the United States, the President had been thinking of the postwar world.\n\nEnlisting the help of his prot\u00e9g\u00e9, Assistant Secretary of State Sumner Welles, the President had begun drafting ideas immediately after drawing up the Atlantic Charter, in August 1941. What he wanted to create, he'd told Welles, was a postwar organization that the Americans, British, and Russians would embrace as military guardians, and that all sovereign democratic nations could subscribe to. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor several months later had made the need for a viable postwar system all the more urgent: a new world order that would make such wars of imperial conquest difficult if not impossible. He'd therefore charged Welles with modeling the project on the twenty-six countries whose representatives he'd assembled over Christmas 1941 in Washington\u2014a group the President had decided, in a moment of inspiration, to announce to the world as \"the United Nations.\"\n\nProperly constituted, the United Nations authority would, the President determined, avoid the disaster of the League of Nations\u2014which neither the United States nor the Soviet Union had joined when it was formed. Building on the \"Declaration of the United Nations,\" which had been signed in Washington on January 1, 1942, the United Nations would, this time, have teeth: the world's \"Four Policemen,\" as the President called them.\n\nFirst, the Germans and Japanese would have to be defeated\u2014but the military might of the three foremost antifascist fighting nations could then be turned into a global peacekeeping coalition: the United States, the Soviet Union, and Britain. He had then added China, a nation that had been fighting the Japanese since 1937\u2014thereby forcing the Japanese to keep an army of more than a million men on the Chinese mainland. Once the war was won, the President proposed, this same group of the world's major military powers could be employed not only to disarm the Axis nations for all time, but to police the world thereafter on behalf of the United Nations authority, ensuring that no Hitler or Mussolini or Hirohito would ever again upset global security by force of arms or conquest.\n\nWith laudable dedication, Welles\u2014running the U.S. State Department under the sickly secretary of state, Cordell Hull\u2014had thereupon set about the business, leaving the President to focus, meantime, on the best military strategy to defeat the Axis powers.\n\nUnder the aegis of the State Department, Welles had quietly set up a host of secret committees and subcommittees, asking members to think ahead on the President's behalf and produce for Mr. Roosevelt at the White House their specific recommendations and alternatives, on a regular basis. \"What I expect you to do,\" Roosevelt had instructed Welles, \"is to have prepared for me the necessary number of baskets so that when the time comes all I have to do is to reach into a basket and fish out a number of solutions that I am sure are sound and from which I can make my own choice.\"\n\nWelles had done as ordered\u2014magnificently, in retrospect. As historians would later note, neither Britain nor the Soviet Union, the other two primary nations conducting the war against Hitler, did anything in 1942 to address the needs or opportunities of the postwar world on an international scale\u2014a \"disastrous blockage at the top\" in the case of the British. By contrast, bringing together an extraordinary cross section of the nation's foremost minds and political figures in once-weekly meetings in Washington, Welles had single-handedly, in the midst of a global war being fought from Archangel to Australia, gotten his various teams working on the political, military, economic, labor, and even social (health, drug trafficking, refugees, nutrition, etc.) blueprints the President wanted for his vision of the democratic postwar world.\n\nAn extraordinary bipartisan group of Democratic and Republican senators and congressmen from the Capitol\u2014including the chairman of the House Foreign Affairs Committee, the ranking minority member of the House Foreign Affairs Committee, a former chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, the current chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, and a senior current Republican member of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee\u2014had joined with Welles's handpicked, representative minds from the State Department, the Agriculture Department, and the Board of Economic Warfare, as well as members outside government, including individuals from the press, the Council on Foreign Relations, and the academy, to provide the President with the necessary guideposts and alternatives he wanted at hand.\n\nThough at first Welles had assumed the issues would be handled by the President in a peace conference after the conclusion of the war, as had been the case in the aftermath of World War I, the President had soon changed his mind\u2014reckoning that if the postwar system could be settled before the war's end, it could avoid the unfortunate fate of the Versailles conference of 1919. Instead, the President had asked the committees to report their interim findings, via Welles, as swiftly as possible: concerned that America's allies, too, should help him address the challenge _before,_ rather than after, the end of hostilities. By October 1942, therefore, as American troops readied for the Torch invasion of Northwest Africa\u2014a draft outline of the postwar UN organization had begun to take shape.\n\nWelles's teams, the President found, had done a grand job\u2014indeed, Welles suggested that the putative \"United Nations authoritative body\" could already start functioning during the war itself. It would comprise a General Assembly of United Nations, seating representatives of all eligible countries of the world. It would also have a small Executive Council, incorporating the four major powers to arm and lead the organization with strength and simplicity. By April 1942, in fact, after discussing the matter with Mr. Roosevelt, Welles (who had made himself chairman of the Subcommittee on Political Problems, an international organization) had suggested the way the Executive Council should be set up: the President's Four Policemen\u2014the United States, Britain, the Soviet Union, and China\u2014being given permanent seats on an Executive Council together with a small number of further, rotating seats reserved for members elected by the full United Nations authority, in order to give the council more balance and connection with the main Assembly.\n\nAs Welles's committees had advanced their confidential proposals in Washington, British Foreign Office officials in London had become anxious lest Churchill's lack of interest in postwar planning leave Great Britain out on a limb. \"His Majesty's Government have not yet defined their views on questions or made any response to Mr. Welles's expression of opinion,\" the head of the British Economic and Reconstruction Department had complained as late as September 3, 1942, only weeks before Torch.\n\nLittle was done to rectify this failure, however, in view of the Prime Minister's full-time preoccupation with Britain's military operations, and his aversion to postwar planning\u2014which would inevitably involve the continuing transformation of the British Empire into a Commonwealth of Nations rather than a colonial enterprise directed by Parliament in London. \"I hope these speculative studies will be entrusted mainly to those on whose hands time hangs heavy,\" Churchill had mocked his foreign minister's attempt to produce a British version of Welles's work, \"and that we shall not overlook Mrs. Glass's Cookery Book recipe for Jugged Hare\u2014'First catch your hare.'\"\n\nIn Moscow, too, there had been a complete lack of interest in planning for a democratic future\u2014Stalin's Soviet government simply refusing to comment on or respond to cables from its Russian ambassador in Washington, imploring the USSR to get involved in international postwar proposals.\n\nFor FDR, the failure of Joseph Stalin to participate in discussions about the postwar world was galling if perhaps inevitable, given the history of the Soviet Union since the Russian Revolution: its protracted civil war, Stalin's Great Terror and purge trials, and its ever-darkening development as a communist police state based on intimidation, arrest, torture, imprisonment, deportation, and execution. Nevertheless, as president of the world's biggest and most advanced economy, Roosevelt wanted to give the Russians\u2014who were bearing in blood the brunt of Hitler's war of conquest\u2014at least the chance to be a party to his proposals. And if Stalin, the absolute dictator of the Soviet Union, would not sit down to discuss them, then the President would begin the discussions without him\u2014in Casablanca.\n\nHitler had declared that democracy was a relic of the past. The President, working with Winston Churchill, would now show him he was wrong: that democracy was, in fact, on the move.\n\nCasablanca, then, was to be much more than a military powwow. Weeks before he left the White House on his secret journey, the President had begun to rehearse his developing vision with other world leaders such as Jan Christiaan Smuts, the prime minister of South Africa, whom he'd known since the summer of 1918.\n\nThen, too, the end of the world war had seemed at hand. Twenty-four years later, Roosevelt was \"drawing up plans now for the victorious peace which will surely come\" and hoped to discuss them with the former guerilla leader of the anti-British Boers, if Smuts could see his way to come to Washington. A more durable and effective outcome was necessary than the ill-fated Versailles Treaty. \"As you know,\" the President explained, \"I dream dreams but am, at the same time, an intensely practical person, and I am convinced that disarmament of the aggressor nations is an essential first step, followed up for a good many years to come by a day and night inspection of that disarmament and a police power to stop at its source any attempted evasion of the rules.\"\n\nThis time, then, postwar peace would not be guaranteed by treaties that could be broken with impunity, but by irresistible force\u2014on behalf of the community of nations. There were \"many other things to be worked out,\" Roosevelt had added in his letter to Smuts, such as decolonization, effected over time, but with no backsliding by the old European powers, as after World War I\u2014whether by the British, the Dutch, the French, the Belgians, the Spanish, or the Portuguese. \"Perhaps Winston has told you of my thought of certain trusteeships to be exercised by the United Nations where stability of government for one reason or another cannot at once be assured. I am inclined to think that the [colonial] mandate system\"\u2014instituted in the wake of the Versailles Treaty and the League of Nations\u2014\"is no longer the right approach, for the nation which is given the mandate soon comes to believe that it carries sovereignty with it.\"\n\nColonialism, in other words, was to be gradually but responsibly phased out in the aftermath of World War II, and a new postcolonial world ushered in.\n\nAs prime minister of a former British colony now enjoying self-government and Dominion status within the British Commonwealth, Smuts's reaction was important as Roosevelt sought to picture a viable postwar world and the problems he might encounter in getting international agreement.\n\nSmuts\u2014whose Boer countrymen had, like the Americans, risen up against British colonial rule\u2014understood the President's strong feelings on that score, but was facing a new election and could not travel. The prime minister of Canada, Mackenzie King, could, however\u2014and once more the President had asked if King could come spend a few days with him at the White House, after the Torch invasion, so that he could rehearse his notions of what would, effectively, be the endgame.\n\nArriving from Ottawa by train, King had thus made his way to 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue on the morning of December 4, 1942, three weeks after Torch. Alert to the dangers of premature leaks, rumor, and outright hostility among Republican politicians and newspaper owners who still hated him for his New Deal program, the President was chary of committing thoughts to paper lest they be used against him. Thankfully, the Canadian prime minister dictated each night a careful record of his day\u2014and it is to this diary we owe our most authentic account of the President's military and political strategy for ending the war, and the peace he hoped to mold thereafter, before leaving for Africa.\n\nThe President, King had found on arrival, was \"sitting up in his bed\" on the second floor of the White House mansion, \"wearing a gray sweater,\" smoking. He'd been \"reading newspapers. Gave me a very hearty welcome. Began at once by saying he was having a [hard] time with the new Congress,\" given the loss of so many Democratic seats in the November midterm elections, \"but hoped that would go by.\"\n\nSenator Robert Taft of Ohio, the leading isolationist opponent of the New Deal in Congress and eldest son of Republican president William Howard Taft, was a particular sore, the President had remarked\u2014quoting to King an account in that day's paper. Taft was reported to be opposing the President's attempt to make a new deal with the Panamanian government over the Panama Canal area.\n\nThe President had smiled mischievously. \"Asked me,\" King recorded, \"if I knew the U.S. owned the largest red-light district anywhere.\"\n\nMackenzie King\u2014a staunch, Bible-obsessed Presbyterian who had forsworn alcohol for the duration of the war\u2014was well aware how much Roosevelt enjoyed teasing him. When King confessed his ignorance, the President had \"described how one of his ancestors,\" William H. Aspinwall, had given up hope of building a transcontinental railway across \"the isthmus of Panama, having mortgaged [his] homes in the States.\" Then suddenly he'd heard gold had been \"discovered in California. He knew at once that his railway would be a success and half a dozen offers were immediately made by wealthy men to complete his road. Later, when De Lesseps came to develop the canal, the red-light district developed in that area. The U.S. are now wishing to get control of certain parts and had to purchase this area . . .\"\n\nIt was typical of Roosevelt to use the irony of a vexing situation to render it less frustrating\u2014U.S. senators \"querulous about different things\" such as this while the President struggled to win a global war and create the basis for subsequent peace.\n\nBeneath African palms, in complete privacy and in secret, the President would soon, he told Mackenzie King, be able to discuss his vision for the world that would follow war: especially his idea of a United Nations Security Council led by the four powers.\n\nFirst, however, the war had to be won by the United Nations. Roosevelt had already explained his current strategy to the supreme commander of the Soviet Armies, Joseph Stalin, in a cable he'd dispatched from the White House on November 19, 1942. \"American and British Staffs are now studying further moves in the event that we secure the whole south shore of the Mediterranean from Gibraltar to Syria,\" the President had informed Stalin. \"Before any further step is taken, both Churchill and I want to consult with you and your Staff because whatever we do next in the Mediterranean will have a definite bearing on your magnificent campaign and your proposed moves this coming Winter.\" U.S. and British armies were not only forcing Hitler to keep substantial numbers of troops, artillery, tanks, and planes in Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, and northern France to defend against the threat of Allied invasion in the West, but were forcing Hitler to do so in the Mediterranean now, in order to keep Italy fighting as a primary Axis partner; this would make it difficult, if not impossible, for Hitler to achieve unilateral military victory against the Russians.\n\nStalin had not immediately responded to the request, however, as the President confided to King\u2014the Russian dictator's focus having been on the Russian counteroffensive that began that day at Stalingrad. A week later, on November 25, Roosevelt cabled again. The President had congratulated Stalin on the Russian breakthrough west of Stalingrad, which threatened to cut off the German salient stretching as far east as the Volga. In order to remind his Russian counterpart that the United States was fighting a _global,_ not simply regional, war, however, he'd informed Stalin of a similar U.S. game changer in the Pacific, where the U.S. Navy had decimated the Japanese fleet attempting to reinforce the Japanese army on Guadalcanal. The Japanese had been compelled to evacuate the island, and U.S. forces were now \"sinking far more Jap ships and destroying more planes than they can build.\"\n\nThis time Stalin _had_ responded. \"As regards operations in the Mediterranean, which are developing so favorably, and may influence the whole military situation in Europe, I share your view that appropriate consultations between the Staffs of the United States, Great Britain and the USSR have become desirable,\" the Russian premier wired back to the White House on November 27, 1942. But beyond this\u2014and his congratulations on the U.S. Navy's success in the Pacific as well as American-British operations in North Africa\u2014he declined to be specific. In particular he had ignored the idea of a meeting of national leaders, not even according it a mention.\n\nFinally, on December 2, the President had decided to get to the point. In yet another cable sent from the Map Room at the White House, he'd urged Stalin to address \"the necessity for reaching early strategic decisions\" through \"an early meeting.\" This was not simply because military staffs, conferring on their own, would be unable to reach decisions \"without our approval,\" but because Roosevelt felt \"we should come to some tentative understanding about the procedures which should be adopted in the event of a German collapse\"\u2014i.e., the postwar.\n\nFor this, it would be vital to meet in person, the President had emphasized. \"My most compelling reason is that I am very anxious to have a talk with you,\" he'd written. \"My suggestion would be that we meet secretly in some secure place in Africa that is convenient to all three of us. The time, about January fifteenth to twentieth [1943]. We would each of us bring a very small staff of our top Army, Air and Naval commanders.\" He thought a rendezvous in \"southern Algeria or at or near Khartoum,\" in Egypt, would fit the bill.\n\nMackenzie King had been awed and delighted by the President's initiative\u2014touched that Roosevelt would share with him both the background and his confidential intentions: his game plan.\n\nStill waiting for Stalin's response, the President had the next day discussed with King the problem of Churchill and Great Britain\u2014to which Canada, as a Dominion of the British Empire, was constitutionally tethered. The President still deplored Churchill's stand over India and unwillingness to abide by the terms of the Atlantic Charter he'd signed up to; also Churchill's dislike of the Beveridge Plan for postwar social security in Britain. Churchill's obstinacy in pursuing the postwar revival of the \"British Empire,\" rather than inspiring and leading a new, postcolonial \"British Commonwealth of Nations,\" came under the President's caustic fire\u2014as well as Churchill's aversion to the notion of postwar United Nations trusteeships. \"When I asked him about Churchill's attitude, he said the reply which he [Churchill] had made in discussing these things was a rather sad one,\" King recorded that night. \"It was to the effect that he [Churchill] would not have anything to do with any of these questions. That when the war was over he [Churchill] would be through with public life,\" and would turn to \"writing.\"\n\nThat evening, December 5, 1942, there had been cocktails at 7:30 p.m., mixed by the President himself. (\"The President said: we will not ask Mackenzie to take any cocktails tonight. I appreciated,\" the wartime teetotaler noted, \"his anticipating my refusal.\") There was then dinner with Harry Hopkins and his wife, Louise. And several short documentary and newsreel films, in black and white and in color.\n\nLooking at the documentary footage that had been spliced together\u2014some of it \"going back to the days of his governorship in the N.Y. state,\" as well as events like Roosevelt's \"flight to Chicago at the time of the [1932] Convention\"\u2014\"reviews of troops, etcetera\"\u2014King had found himself amazed. \"It made me marvel how a man had ever stood what he did in dealing with crowds over so many years,\" the quiet Canadian had noted, given the President's physical disability and the demands of America's almost continuous electoral process, compared to the Canadian parliamentary system. \"What was the most interesting was the way in which he, from the outset, had stood for the new deal and the rights of the common man in all his addresses,\" King dictated. \"It was a real recreation and most pleasant,\" he'd added. \"As it was getting on toward 10, I asked the President if he did not think he should retire and let him rest. He said no, we want to have a talk about another matter. He had said earlier in the day: 'I want to speak particularly about Stalin tonight.'\"\n\nIn the President's Oval Study (or \"chart room,\" as King called it in the nightly diary he dictated), \"the President sat on the sofa and told me to come and sit beside him there, to get his good ear, the right ear.\n\n\"He then ordered a horse's neck for each of us: ginger ale and the rind of an orange. Harry Hopkins came in and sat down for a few minutes and then retired. The President then started in at once on what he has in mind as a post-war programme. I looked up at the clock at that moment. The hands were exactly at 10 to 10.\"\n\nA fervent believer in spiritualism as well as Christianity, King was forever watching the hands of the clock for signs of significance. Given the magnitude of the President's global problems\u2014war in the Pacific, war in China and Asia, war in the Soviet Union, war in the Mediterranean, war in the Atlantic, war in the Aleutians, preparations for eventual cross-Channel landings\u2014it had seemed extraordinary to Mackenzie King that the President of the United States could set these concerns aside, in his mind, and share his thinking on the world that would come _after_ the war was won.\n\nBefore addressing the matter of Stalin, the President had given his own views on the objectives or principles that should guide the victorious nations. \"We talked of the 4 freedoms. Two of which,\" the President remarked, \"we cannot do much about.\" Freedom of religion, Roosevelt had explained, was \"something that the people have to work out for themselves. The State cannot impose anything. The freedom of speech: that too is something that will take care of itself\"\u2014though the President wished something could be done \"to prevent exaggerated and untrue statements\" from being broadcast or printed, especially the near-treasonable articles constantly being published by \"sensational papers,\" such as Colonel McCormick's right-wing, isolationist _Chicago Tribune._\n\nThis left \"the other two\" freedoms, which were perhaps more crucial, at least in planning a postwar universe: \"freedom from fear and freedom from want.\"\n\nOf the two, the President told King, \"the first is necessarily the most important, as the second depends on it. As respects freedom from fear,\" the President had continued, \"that can only be brought about when we put an end to arming nations against each other.\" In the case of Germany and Japan, the arms treaties signed after World War I had proven useless. The German and Japanese capacity for making war must therefore be completely and irrevocably destroyed, once and for all time, he felt. This was something that could not be secured by negotiation, \u00e0 la Versailles Treaty, but only achieved by a policy of \"unconditional surrender\" to the Allies, the President explained.\n\nIt was the first time King had heard President Roosevelt use the term, and he listened most carefully as the President explained.\n\n\"My great hero in all of this today,\" Roosevelt remarked, \"is General Grant. In bringing the civil war to an end, Grant demanded to Lee unconditional surrender. He would make no agreements, no negotiated peace.\" Repeating the point, the President said: \"I think there should be no negotiated peace\" at all with the Germans and Japanese. \"It should be an unconditional surrender. After Grant had gathered in all the guns, ammunition, etc., there were quantities of horses remaining. Grant turned to Lee and said to let the horses go back to the field. For the people to use them in the cultivation of the soil, get back to the art of peace. That I think at present is what we should do with Germany. Deprive her of all right to make planes, tanks, guns, etc., but not take away any of her territories nor prevent her development in any way.\"\n\nKing had asked if the President was confident of dictating unconditional surrender to the forces of the Third Reich on that basis. \"He replied: 'yes'\"\u2014with Japan to follow: \"that he thought what should be done was to defeat Germany first; demand unconditional surrender and then for the 3 powers: Britain, U.S. and Russia to turn to Japan and say: now we demand the same of you. If you want to save human life, you must surrender unconditionally at once. If not, the 3 of us will bring all our forces to bear, and will fight till we destroy you. Russia would then be persuaded to attack Japan. It would not take a year to bring about her defeat. He was not sure the Japanese would accept any unconditional surrender, and would probably seek to fight on. However that plan of campaign would bring its results\"\u2014the world finally and definitively spared the possibility of a renascence of German or Japanese militarism\u2014ever. \"If the Japanese did not accept unconditional surrender,\" he added in a remark that would have immense significance later, \"then they should be bombed till they were brought to their knees.\"\n\nThinking of the ever-burgeoning size of America's air forces as well as the terrifying new bomb\u2014using vital Canadian minerals such as radium and uranium\u2014that he'd ordered to be developed, the President confided to King how the United States would have to push its forces to within bombing distance of Japan, while the war in Europe went on. \"At present, Russia is too busy to attack Japan, and Japan is too busy to attack Russia.\"\n\nUnconditional surrender it was, then, as the President's war aim\u2014not to placate or encourage the Russians, as some subsequently assumed, nor in punitive revenge against the Germans or the Japanese, as others did. And especially not to mollify liberals in America, who were complaining that the United States was installing former fascists, like Admiral Darlan, to administer liberated territories, instead of getting rid of them, as still others later speculated. Rather, the President saw unconditional surrender quite clearly at that moment as the basis for lasting postwar security\u2014leading to a postwar peace to be overseen by the United Nations, using the four most powerful antifascist nations: the United States, Russia, and Britain, together with China (which the United States was supporting as the most populous and potentially important nation in the Pacific)\u2014acting as the world's \"international police\" on the UN's behalf: the basis of the UN Security Council.\n\nEach of the policing powers would have its \"own air force\" to enforce the disarmament of Germany and Japan, the President explained to King\u2014able thereby to cauterize any attempt by such nations to step out of line and make war on others. Colonialist imperialism would, over time, become a thing of the past, with nations reverting to their original boundaries after Hitler's war. \"Keep everything as it was\" was how the President explained his vision\u2014territorial changes agreed only by democratic plebiscite, not war. \"Russia to develop Russia but to make an agreement not to take any territory. Not to try to change system of government of other countries by propaganda.\"\n\nWas all this a pipe dream?\n\n\"The President then said: 'to effect all this, of course, [we] would have to get Stalin to agree,'\" King recorded, careful to note Roosevelt's actual words.\n\nStalin was a dictator\u2014but a dictator more concerned with absolute rule over his own vast territory, stretching from Archangel to Vladivostok, than elsewhere: especially in a world revolution that he would find less easy to control. \"He said that he believed he [Stalin] would. That he thought Molotov was an Imperialist but he believed Stalin was less and less on those lines.\"\n\nHowever abhorrent Russian communism was, one had to be realistic. Since \"it was clear that the U.S., Britain, China could not defeat Russia\" by force of arms\u2014something even Hitler was failing to do, with more than two hundred Wehrmacht divisions and his Luftwaffe\u2014it would be futile to try. Better, he thought, to see if the Soviets could be drawn into an international system that guaranteed Russia would never be attacked by the Germans or another Hitler. Quoting a former Republican Senate leader, Jim Watson, the President said to King: \"If you cannot beat him, join him. The thing to do was to get them all working on the same lines,\" under the aegis of a supranational United Nations.\n\nCommunist or not, the President had continued, Russia was going to be, after the war, \"very powerful. The thing to do now was to get plans definitely made for disarmament\" of Germany and Japan, with Russia onboard\u2014hence his attempt to set up a secret summit with Stalin and Churchill.\n\nThe Canadian prime minister, in his diary, had acknowledged being thrilled. It was clear that, in sharing his notion of unconditional surrender both of the Third Reich and the Empire of Japan, the President was speaking without vengeance or rancor, but almost as a surgeon might, prior to taking out a tumor.\n\nPostoperatively, in the case of the Third Reich after the war's end, \"there should be put into Germany immediately a committee or commission of inspectors,\" Roosevelt said to him, \"say 3\u2014one to be chosen from Canada; one from South America, and one from China,\" on behalf of the United Nations. \"They should have their staffs, and their business would be to inspect day after day, year in and year out, all the factories of Germany to see that no war material should be manufactured. If any such were discovered, the Germans were to be told that unless that stopped within a week's time, that certain of their cities would be bombed. The cities would be named: Frankfurt, Cologne, and probably the cities where the manufacturing is taking place. If they went ahead, despite this threat, they might then be told that from now on, all imports and exports in and out of Germany would be stopped. That no trains passed out of their countries. Persons would be stopped at the borders.\" Blockaded, in other words, or \"ostracized,\" as King had reflected.\n\nYet if Mackenzie King had been impressed by the President's visionary thinking early in December, 1942\u2014less than twelve months after Pearl Harbor\u2014he'd been equally moved by the depth of Roosevelt's _moral and social_ purpose. In Britain, Winston Churchill had dismissed the Beveridge Report, which outlined possible future British social and health policies\u2014as pie in the sky: a dismissive view that was echoed by the British ambassador on Mackenzie King's visit to Washington, when King met with him. Americans were \"all much excited about the Beveridge Report,\" Lord Halifax had confided in his own diary. \"I told them all that, just as with the Malvern Conference Report, so with this, they [Americans] always know much more about it than I do!\"\n\nThe President of the United States certainly knew more than the British ambassador about the postwar social blueprint for Britain. \"The President said the Beveridge report has made a real impression in this country,\" King recorded. \"The thought of [medical and employment] insurance from the cradle to the grave. 'That seems to be a line that will appeal,'\" Roosevelt had said to King at dinner. \"You and I should take that up strongly. It will help us politically as well as being on the right lines in the way of reform\"\u2014a remark King correctly interpreted as meaning \"the President has in mind a fourth term and that he feels it will come as a result of winning the war, and the social programme to be launched.\"\n\nAs president of the United States, Mr. Roosevelt \"did not think the country will stand for socialism,\" King recorded the President's caution, but he did make clear that improving the condition of America's working people was as much a part of his vision of the postwar world as would be international security achieved through unconditional surrender of the Axis warrior nations, and disarmament closely monitored by the United Nations. \"I felt in listening to the President that he was naturally anxious to be responsible for planning the new order,\" King reflected\u2014a new order that would snatch the wind from the sails of those idly or idealistically espousing communism, since it would guarantee the well-being and security of the majority of ordinary people, without communist barbarity or oppression.\n\nAs a deeply devout Christian who read the New Testament first thing in the morning and last thing at night, Mackenzie King had thus listened to the President's _tour d'horizon_ with growing \"relief,\" he admitted\u2014the opportunity to discuss with the President of the United States \"social questions and reform, instead of these problems of war and destruction. I felt tremendously pleased. It may be that when the war is over, new force and energy will come forward toward the furtherance of these larger social aims. It was midnight when I got to bed . . . From the moment I turned out the light until waking I slept very soundly.\"\n\nThe world, after this war, was clearly going to be very different from the one bequeathed by the victors of World War I.\n**4**\n\n# What Next?\n\nWHAT HAD MOST moved Mackenzie King on his stay at the White House early in December, 1942, were the little details that went hand in hand with his discussions with the President.\n\nAfter lunch in the small dining room upstairs in the White House mansion one day, King noticed \"on the President's desk\" among the bric-a-brac, \"a little bronze of his mother,\" which touched him deeply. Fresh from her trip to England, the President's wife, the First Lady, had been present\u2014the President proud, King had happily noted, of what Eleanor had accomplished there as a spokesperson, so to speak, of American idealism.\n\nThe President's health, though, was another matter. On the afternoon of December 4, 1942, for example, King had been somewhat alarmed by Roosevelt's physical condition. \"Had tea alone with the President at 5:20 in his circular chart room [the Oval Study]. The President poured tea himself.\" The two leaders had spoken of manpower and mobilization\u2014problems common to both countries. However, \"I noticed that his hand was very, very shaky,\" King had dictated\u2014the tea in danger of spilling. The President looked \"rather tired,\" but as they talked he'd \"brightened up.\"\n\nHere again Prime Minister Mackenzie King's testimony, in the detailed diary he was keeping, would offer the most intimate clues to the President's mind in late 1942. No other war leader was exploring a postwar vision such as the President was doing; Churchill could only dream of the past; Hitler, only of the German _Volk_ and of ruthless conquest. And who knew what Stalin dreamed of? Would the President be well enough, however, to get his allies to cooperate and carry out his grand vision of the postwar world? Would Congress and the American public embrace it, or go back to isolationism? And what of the war itself?\n\nTurning to confront the President on the sofa, King had therefore asked him, face to face: \"What are the immediate plans, supposing you get complete possession of North Africa, what next?\"\n\nFrom the point of view of military strategy in order to achieve political ends, it was a most interesting question.\n\nThe President seemed glad that King had raised it. \"That of course is the next problem,\" Roosevelt replied. \"I wanted to speak of it.\" To his great disappointment, despite the success of the President's Torch operation, which they'd opposed almost to the point of mutiny, his U.S. generals and admirals were still out of sync with their commander in chief. In fact his generals and admirals were now out of sync with each other, and the British.\n\n\"For some time past,\" Roosevelt confided to the Canadian prime minister\u2014whose country was supplying a vast amount of war material to the Allied effort, as well as significant numbers of troops, and the crucial materials for development of an atomic bomb in the United States\u2014\"we have had the Chiefs of Staff both here and in England working on the strategic side of things.\" There were \"at least 10 different places\" where the Allies _could_ advance, from northern Norway to the Balkans. \"No decision was reached as yet,\" though, Mackenzie King recorded the President's lament, since \"it was very hard,\" the President said, \"to get the different Chiefs of Staff to agree on a plan.\"\n\nHarry Hopkins had been little help in this respect. Hopkins was by nature and ability a \"fixer\"\u2014a highly intelligent man, brilliant at absorbing reports, and able to see beyond hurdles. Never having fired a gun or seen war at close quarters, however, Hopkins had erratic military judgment, to say the least. He had urged the President to declare war early in 1941, before the nation was ready to fight a one-ocean war, let alone two. Then\u2014having become convinced the Russians were not going to be defeated by the Germans in 1941\u2014he had urged throughout 1942 a cross-Channel invasion of France rather than the President's \"great pet scheme\" of Torch, believing the North African operation might actually fail. Even if successful, it would be a diversion of decisive American effort, he felt.\n\nHopkins, as a civilian, could at least be forgiven for his ignorance of military realities\u2014especially the lack of American experience in fighting an enemy as battle-hardened, ideologically driven, and professional as German troops marching to Hitler's triumphant tune. However, Hopkins's military innocence had been mirrored by most senior, professional desk generals and admirals in the U.S. War and Navy Departments in Washington. Despite the success of Torch, the U.S. chiefs were _once again_ urging, early in December, that a cross-Channel Allied invasion be mounted in the spring of 1943, or latest by the summer of '43\u2014without American soldiers or their field commanders having seen more than a few days of battle, and that only against conflicted Vichy French forces.\n\nMackenzie King was as skeptical of the chances of a cross-Channel attack succeeding in 1943 as the President\u2014indeed, more so given the \"fiasco\" of the Canadian raid on Dieppe three months earlier. Still mourning the loss of so many thousands of Canadian soldiers killed or wounded and captured on the beaches of the little French seaport on August 19, 1942\u2014almost all of them brave volunteers, sacrificed to no real purpose other than to demonstrate the futility of a premature cross-Channel assault\u2014the Canadian prime minister had been alarmed by Hopkins's views the day he arrived at the White House. The President's counselor had shared with him \"the need of a decision being fairly quickly made as to what the campaign for next year [1943] was to be. He said the military heads could not yet make up their mind but he thought that decision would have to be made at once if supplies were to be gotten in to the right place. It would seem to him it would probably have to be from England on Europe\"\u2014i.e., for a cross-Channel assault in 1943\u2014\"and that great quantity of supplies would have to be gotten across immediately.\"\n\nThe notion that Allied forces could defeat the Wehrmacht simply by _supplies_ had seemed to the Canadian premier unbelievably optimistic. To King's profound relief the President, however, declared he didn't agree with Hopkins\u2014or with his U.S. War Department staff. He reminded King how it was only through his own and Churchill's combined efforts that the Allied war against Hitler had been saved from disaster that year, 1942, by insisting on Operation Gymnast (which was then renamed Torch). \"It is a good thing Winston and I kept it out [on the table] as we did,\" the President had remarked of the invasion of Northwest Africa\u2014for \"during early 1941, army and navy were all for direct attack across the Channel in the spring of 1942.\" The plans for a Second Front invasion \"kept taking longer and longer, after spring of 1942. Then it was to be on in the summer.\" Again, this had proved impossible, at least in sufficient force to assure success. \"Could not get ships, etc. Then the next plan was that they would try in the spring of 1943.\" At that prospect, the President had, in the summer of 1942, finally drawn the line as U.S. commander in chief, convinced that U.S. forces would have to gain actual combat experience fighting the Wehrmacht if a difficult cross-Channel invasion were to have any chance of success. \"The President then said that he and Winston [had decided they] would get together in June\" of 1942, to work out a new strategy. Tobruk's fall, and the failure of the British to halt Rommel's advance in Libya, had put the kibosh on any hopes of British-American success across the English Channel, where twenty-five German divisions were awaiting their arrival. \"The President then said he had told Churchill: 'I go back to my first love, which is to attack via North Africa.'\" Such a strategic blow would secure the Atlantic port of Dakar and, in terms of lines of communication and resupply, enable the Allies to use \"the short route from Britain to Africa, and short route from U.S. to Africa.\" Torch would coincide with the British, reinforced with U.S. tanks and air groups, getting \"control of North Egypt and with good luck\" lead to \"control of the Mediterranean.\"\n\n\"I felt the soft place was Southern Europe,\" Roosevelt had reminded King\u2014who'd been staying with him at the White House the previous spring, when the strategic debate had burned fiercely. Side by side with that southern European\/North African strategy, the President had meanwhile wanted \"a strong hitting force pointed at Germany from the North\" as a permanent threat\u2014forcing Hitler to keep his twenty-five or thirty German divisions stationed along the North Sea and Atlantic coasts of Europe, well away from Russia.\n\nIt was in the Mediterranean, however, that U.S. forces could best actually fight and gain crucial command and battle experience, the President had explained to King\u2014at the very extremity of German lines of communication and resupply. The campaign in Northwest Africa was already drawing huge Axis military forces to the Southern Front, across the Mediterranean, forcing Germany and Italy to meet the Allies in combat there\u2014the Germans using vital, battle-hardened and battle-worthy troops, planes, and military resources that could not, as a result, be sent to reinforce their war on the Eastern Front.\n\nThe Mediterranean thus offered the U.S. Army, Air Forces, and Navy a priceless opportunity: namely to rehearse and perfect the command and combat skills they would need in fighting ruthless, highly disciplined, strongly motivated German forces in Europe, _before_ being expected to undertake anything as daunting as a contested cross-Channel invasion\u2014an operation of war that had not been successfully attempted, after all, in almost a thousand years, since the time of William the Conqueror.\n\nBattle experience, then, was the crux of the matter: the reason why the President so profoundly disagreed with Hopkins; with Secretary of War Henry Stimson; with General George Marshall, U.S. Army chief of staff; and with all the voices in Washington baying again for an immediate cross-Channel Second Front. As U.S. commander in chief he, President Roosevelt, had a responsibility to ensure the nation did not embark on a course of military action that would fail\u2014especially when there was no need to do so, as he confided to Mackenzie King in another talk on December 6, 1942, as King prepared to return to Canada. He had, \"this afternoon, sent word to the Chiefs of Staff in Washington and also to the joint staffs in England to ask exactly what they had thus far decided about the next moves, and what were the points they were still debating. He said when you think it took from January till June before we settled on Africa and definite plans for the campaign, you see it is time we get the next step settled or next move determined.\" As president and commander in chief, however, he had his own view\u2014which he now shared with King.\n\n\"In many ways,\" the President confided, \"he wished for nothing more than let the fighting continue in Africa indefinitely. We are able to get supplies across, so much easier to Africa than to any other place. We can wear down the Germans there by a process of attrition\"\u2014just as U.S. forces were doing in the Pacific, in the Solomon Islands, while learning the art of modern combat. \"He said: I feel the same about the Japs. As long as we can go on the wearing down in the one place, we are coming nearer to certain victory in the end.\"\n\nMackenzie King, as prime minister of Canada, had breathed a sigh of relief. When asked by the President if his Canadian generals were also pressing for an immediate Second Front, King responded that, unlike the generals in Washington, the Canadian generals \"felt it was better to keep a strong hitting force pointed at Germany from the North,\" but _not_ to launch such an actual invasion before there was a reasonable chance it would succeed. The President \"said he felt that very strongly\" too, King recorded.\n\n\"It would be a great mistake,\" Roosevelt had remarked, \"to do anything which would take away the German armies that are now concentrated in occupied France and in the North\u2014anything which would make them less fearful of an enemy invasion,\" in terms of threat. Beyond that potent menace, however, the President had explained to King, he had no actual wish to launch a D-day landing any time soon across the English Channel, with forces and commanders still inexperienced in combat. \"He thought that what the Canadians had done at Dieppe\"\u2014where almost a thousand men were slaughtered in a matter of a few hours, and two-thirds of their forces were killed, wounded, or captured by the Germans, without even getting off the beaches\u2014\"was a very necessary part of the campaign,\" for it had \"made clear how terribly dangerous the whole business of invasion across the Channel was.\"\n\nThese had been the President's own words. They explained why the President was so determined to stop his top military staff from insisting upon a suicidal assault in the wrong place, at the wrong time. The Second Front should be kept as a _threat_ \u2014but no actual cross-Channel invasion be launched until 1944, when U.S. mass production could ensure superiority in arms; more important still, it would be a time by which Allied forces in Africa and the Mediterranean would have learned the lessons of modern combat: how to defeat the Germans in battle. Only then would it be fair to ask huge numbers of American sons\u2014perhaps two million\u2014to land across the defended beaches of northern France and fight their way to Berlin.\n\nMackenzie King thus set off to return to Ottawa that evening, December 6, 1942, deeply relieved: knowing the President would do nothing rash before the military forces of the Western Allies\u2014Canada, the United States, and Britain\u2014had proven themselves in combat and were ready: preferably in 1944, unless by some miracle the Germans collapsed. In the meantime, the President hoped, he confided to King, that Stalin would cease parrying his appeals for a summit, and would help start an international dialogue on the postwar world\u2014with history at stake.\n**5**\n\n# Stalin's _Nyet_\n\nFINALLY, ON DECEMBER 6, 1942, shortly after Mackenzie King left Washington, the President heard back from Stalin. Although the Russian dictator \"welcomed the idea of a meeting of the leaders of the Governments of the three countries to determine a common line of military strategy,\" he himself would \"not be able to leave the Soviet Union. I must say that we are having now such a strenuous time that I cannot go away even for a day.\" Around Stalingrad, he explained, \"we are keeping encircled a group of German troops and hope to finish them off.\"\n\nThe question of postwar agreements was not even mentioned.\n\nGiven the amount of aid\u2014more than 10 percent of Russia's war needs\u2014that the United States was supplying the Russians, the President cabled back that he was \"deeply disappointed that you feel you cannot get away for a conference with me in January.\" Stalin was known never to have gone near the Russian front.\n\nThe President urged Stalin to reconsider. The date proposed was still five weeks in the future. \"There are many matters of vital importance to be discussed between us. These relate not only to vital strategic decisions but also to things we should talk over in a tentative way in regard to emergency policies we should be ready with if and when conditions in Germany permit. These would include also other matters relating to future policies about North Africa and the Far East which cannot be discussed by our military people alone.\" If Stalin could not see a way to leave Moscow in January, what about \"meeting in North Africa about March first\"?\n\nTo this plea, however, there was no response from Moscow for a week. When the reply came, it was only to say Stalin regretted \"it is impossible for me to leave the Soviet Union either in the near future or even at the beginning of March. Front business absolutely prevents it, demanding my constant presence near our troops.\"\n\nAbout this patent untruth the President could only shake his head, knowing Stalin never went anywhere near his brave Russian troops. The rest of Stalin's message\u2014asking what exactly were the \"problems which you, Mr. President, and Mr. Churchill intended to discuss at our joint conference,\" and wondering if these could not be dealt with \"by correspondence\"\u2014had been similarly disappointing, despite the Russian dictator's assurance \"there will be no disagreement between us.\"\n\nThe chances of that, Roosevelt knew, were slim\u2014especially given Stalin's hope that \"the promises about the opening of a second front in Europe given by you, Mr. President, and by Mr. Churchill in regard of 1942 and in any case in regard of the spring of 1943, will be fulfilled, and that a second front in Europe will be actually opened by the joint forces of Great Britain and the United States of America in the spring of next year.\"\n\nThat hope\u2014as the President had confided to Prime Minister Mackenzie King\u2014was pie in the sky. Unless the Germans showed signs of collapse in 1943, he was simply not going to approve such a strategy until U.S. forces and commanders were battle-hardened in the Mediterranean that year\u2014just as was taking place in New Guinea and the Solomon Islands in the South Pacific, at the extremity of Japanese lines of communication.\n\nIt was Stalin who would inevitably be disappointed, then, once he learned of Roosevelt's implacable decision. Though the President's own generals and admirals, his war secretary, his counselor Hopkins, and even his ambassador to London, John Winant, might echo Stalin's appeals for an immediate cross-Channel assault, the President was simply not going to authorize mass American\u2014and Canadian\u2014suicide. Each day, by contrast, the President was more confident of \"certain victory in the end\"\u2014if the Allies made no more mistakes.\n\nWith Stalin still saying _nyet_ to a summit meeting, however\u2014whether in January or in March, 1943\u2014the President had cabled Churchill on December 14, 1942, to say they should go ahead without him. In Casablanca, as he confided to Captain McCrea.\n\nBefore he left, however, the President decided he must do two important things. First, get the nation behind him. And second, his generals.\n**6**\n\n# Addressing Congress\n\nAS THE SEVENTY-EIGHTH Congress prepared to reassemble with a much-diminished Democratic majority, the President decided to use his annual State of the Union address, on January 7, 1943, not only to review the past year but to share something of his vision of the future.\n\nThe speech went through no fewer than nine full iterations over \"many days,\" starting before Christmas and extending beyond the New Year, Judge Rosenman (the President's primary speechwriter, together with the playwright Robert Sherwood and Harry Hopkins) later recalled. Finally, at noon on January 7, the President was driven to the Capitol to deliver his \"sermon.\"\n\n\"The past year,\" the President began boldly, \"was perhaps the most crucial for modern civilization. The Axis powers knew that they must win the war in 1942\u2014or eventually lose everything. I do not need to tell you,\" he added to loud cheers, \"that our enemies did not win the war in 1942.\"\n\nStep by step the President reminded members of Congress and those listening on radios at work, or in their homes, of the year's most significant military actions. \"In the Pacific area our most important victory in 1942 was the air and naval battle off Midway Island. That action is historically important because it secured for our use communication lines stretching thousands of miles in every direction. In placing this emphasis on the Battle of Midway, I am not unmindful of other successful actions in the Pacific, in the air and on land and afloat, especially those on the Coral Sea and New Guinea and in the Solomon Islands. But these actions were essentially defensive. They were part of the delaying strategy that characterized this phase of the war. During this period we inflicted steady losses upon the enemy\u2014great losses of Japanese planes and naval vessels, transports and cargo ships. As early as one year ago, we set as a primary task in the war of the Pacific a day-by-day and week-by-week and month-by-month destruction of more Japanese war materials than Japanese industry could replace. Most certainly, that task has been and is being performed by our fighting ships and planes. And a large part of this task has been accomplished by the gallant crews of our American submarines who strike on the other side of the Pacific at Japanese ships\u2014right up at the very mouth of the harbor of Yokohama. We know that as each day goes by, Japanese strength in ships and planes is going down and down, and American strength in ships and planes is going up and up. And so I sometimes feel that the eventual outcome can now be put on a mathematical basis. That will become evident to the Japanese people themselves when we strike at their own home islands, and bomb them constantly from the air\"\u2014just as Japan had begun the war with aerial bombing.\n\nJapan was not the nation's first priority, however. Nazi Germany was\u2014and would remain so, in terms of global American strategy, as long as Roosevelt remained president. \"Turning now to the European theater of war,\" the President explained, \"during this past year it was clear that our first task was to lessen the concentrated pressure on the Russian front by compelling Germany to divert part of her manpower and equipment to another theater of war. After months of secret planning and preparation in the utmost detail, an enormous amphibious expedition was embarked for French North Africa from the United States and the United Kingdom in literally hundreds of ships. It reached its objectives with very small losses, and has already produced an important effect upon the whole situation of the war. It has opened to attack what Mr. Churchill well described as 'the underbelly of the Axis,' and it has removed the always dangerous threat of an Axis attack through West Africa against the South Atlantic Ocean and the continent of South America itself. The well-timed and splendidly executed offensive from Egypt by the British 8th Army was a part of the same major strategy of the United Nations. Great rains and appalling mud and very limited communications have delayed the final battles of Tunisia. The Axis is reinforcing its strong positions. But I am confident that though the fighting will be tough, when the final Allied assault is made, the last vestige of Axis power will be driven from the whole of the south shores of the Mediterranean.\n\n\"I cannot prophesy,\" he added sternly. \"I cannot tell you when or where the United Nations are going to strike next in Europe. But we are going to strike\u2014and strike hard. I cannot tell you whether we are going to hit them in Norway, or through the Low Countries, or in France, or through Sardinia or Sicily, or through the Balkans, or through Poland\u2014or at several points simultaneously. But I can tell you that no matter where and when we strike by land, we and the British and the Russians will hit them from the air heavily and relentlessly. Day in and day out we shall heap tons upon tons of high explosives on their war factories and utilities and seaports. Hitler and Mussolini will understand now the enormity of their miscalculations\u2014that the Nazis would always have the advantage of superior air power as they did when they bombed Warsaw, and Rotterdam, and London and Coventry. That superiority has gone forever. Yes,\" he concluded his strategic survey, \"the Nazis and the Fascists have asked for it\u2014and they are going to get it.\"\n\nTo reinforce this message the President announced with pride that, \"after only a few years of preparation and only one year of warfare, we are able to engage, spiritually as well as physically, in the total waging of a total war.\"\n\nThe phrase, for the United States, meant complete focus on war production on a scale that dwarfed anything ever done before\u2014exceeding the production figures of America's enemies combined. In the past year the United States had manufactured \"48,000 military planes\u2014more than the airplane production of Germany, Italy, and Japan put together,\" as well as \"56,000 combat vehicles, such as tanks and self-propelled artillery\"\u2014figures that would double again in 1943. \"I think the arsenal of democracy is making good,\" the President congratulated America. \"These facts and figures that I have given will give no great aid and comfort to the enemy,\" he explained his reason for releasing such numbers. \"On the contrary, I can imagine that they will give him considerable discomfort. I suspect that Hitler and Tojo will find it difficult to explain to the German and Japanese people just why it is that 'decadent, inefficient democracy' can produce such phenomenal quantities of weapons and munitions\u2014and fighting men.\" For, along with the \"miracle of production, during the past year our armed forces have grown from a little over 2,000,000 to 7,000,000\" men in uniform.\n\nSeven _million?_ And that figure rising?\n\nThough the figures were astounding, and though the strategic initiative was now in the President's hands (his personal secretary noting how the \"President becomes more and more the central figure in the global war, the source of initiative and authority in action, and, of course, responsibility\"), the President was clearly unwilling, it became clear, to leave matters there. \"In this war of survival we must keep before our minds not only the evil things we fight against,\" he asked his audience, \"but the good things we are fighting _for._ We fight to retain a great past\u2014and we fight to gain a greater future.\" With that, he proceeded to outline the terms on which he proposed to end the war. And what to do after the war was won.\n\n\"We, and all the United Nations, want a decent peace and a durable peace. In the years between the end of the first World War and the beginning of the second World War, we were not living under a decent or a durable peace. I have reason to know that our boys at the front are concerned with two broad aims beyond the winning of the war; and their thinking and their opinion coincide with what most Americans here back home are mulling over. They know, and we know, that it would be inconceivable\u2014it would, indeed, be sacrilegious\u2014if this nation and the world did not attain some real, lasting good out of all these efforts and sufferings and bloodshed and death.\"\n\nThe good he wanted was, he proceeded to explain, a sort of renewed New Deal:\n\n> The men in our armed forces want a lasting peace, and, equally, they want permanent employment for themselves, their families, and their neighbors when they are mustered out at the end of the war.\n\n> Two years ago I spoke in my annual message of four freedoms. The blessings of two of them\u2014freedom of speech and freedom of religion\u2014are an essential part of the very life of this nation; and we hope that these blessings will be granted to all men everywhere.\n\n> The people at home, and the people at the front, are wondering a little about the third freedom\u2014freedom from want. To them it means that when they are mustered out, when war production is converted to the economy of peace, they will have the right to expect full employment\u2014full employment for themselves and for all able-bodied men and women in America who want to work.\n\n> They expect the opportunity to work, to run their farms, their stores, to earn decent wages. They are eager to face the risks inherent in our system of free enterprise,\n\nthe President allowed. On the other hand,\n\n> They do not want a postwar America which suffers from undernourishment or slums\u2014or the dole. They want no get-rich-quick era of bogus \"prosperity\" which will end for them in selling apples on a street corner, as happened after the bursting of the boom in 1929.\n\n> When you talk with our young men and our young women, you will find they want to work for themselves and for their families; they consider that they have the right to work; and they know that after the last war their fathers did not gain that right.\n\n> When you talk with our young men and women, you will find that with the opportunity for employment they want assurance against the evils of all major economic hazards\u2014assurance that will extend from the cradle to the grave. And this great government can and must provide this assurance.\n\n> I have been told that this is no time to speak of a better America after the war. I am told it is a grave error on my part.\n\n> I dissent.\n\n> And if the security of the individual citizen, or the family, should become a subject of national debate, the country knows where I stand.\n\n> I say this now to this 78th Congress, because it is wholly possible that freedom from want\u2014the right of employment, the right of assurance against life's hazards\u2014will loom very large as a task of America during the coming two years.\n\n> I trust it will not be regarded as an issue\u2014but rather as a task for all of us to study sympathetically, to work out with a constant regard for the attainment of the objective, with fairness to all and with injustice to none.\n\nThese were the fighting words of a president who, quite clearly, was intending to stand for a fourth term, as Mackenzie King had inferred.\n\nNot content with this domestic sally, however, the President then waded into national security on an international scale\u2014national security that would require the end of American isolationism. \"We cannot make America an island in either a military or an economic sense,\" he pointed out. \"Hitlerism, like any other form of crime or disease, can grow from the evil seeds of economic as well as military feudalism. Victory in this war is the first and greatest goal before us. Victory in the peace is the next. That means striving toward the enlargement of the security of man here and throughout the world\u2014and, finally, striving for the fourth freedom\u2014freedom from fear.\" However, to attain freedom from fear meant taking a new role as peacekeeper in a \"shrinking\" globe, thanks to the \"conquest of the air.\" It was fruitless to imagine the clock could be turned back, once the war was won.\n\n> Undoubtedly a few Americans, even now, think that this nation can end this war comfortably and then climb back into an American hole and pull the hole in after them.\n\n> But we have learned that we can never dig a hole so deep that it would be safe against predatory animals. We have also learned that if we do not pull the fangs of the predatory animals of this world, they will multiply and grow in strength\u2014and they will be at our throats again once more in a short generation.\n\n> Most Americans realize more clearly than ever before that modern war equipment in the hands of aggressor nations can bring danger overnight to our own national existence or to that of any other nation\u2014or island\u2014or continent.\n\n> It is clear to us that if Germany and Italy and Japan\u2014or any one of them\u2014remain armed at the end of this war, or are permitted to rearm, they will again, and inevitably, embark upon an ambitious career of world conquest. They must be disarmed and kept disarmed, and they must abandon the philosophy, and the teaching of that philosophy, which has brought so much suffering to the world.\n\nStep by step the President was leading his audience, and radio listeners, toward his notion of a United Nations authority.\n\n> After the first World War we tried to achieve a formula for permanent peace, based on a magnificent idealism. We failed. But, by our failure, we have learned that we cannot maintain peace at this stage of human development by good intentions alone.\n\n> Today the United Nations are the mightiest military coalition in all history. They represent an overwhelming majority of the population of the world. Bound together in solemn agreement that they themselves will not commit acts of aggression or conquest against any of their neighbors, the United Nations can and must remain united for the maintenance of peace by preventing any attempt to rearm in Germany, in Japan, in Italy, or in any other nation which seeks to violate the Tenth Commandment\u2014\"Thou shalt not covet.\"\n\nThe President's words, clearly, were not only directed against isolationists in America, but were a preview of what he would announce internationally in the next few weeks. An announcement, to be given from the podium of a global stage, that would make public the fact that the United States was stepping up to the plate; would not this time back off, following victory, but was going to embrace a new, world-historical role as a leader of the democratic nations\u2014if he could get those nations to support his vision.\n**7**\n\n# A Fool's Paradise\n\nREACTION TO ROOSEVELT'S ambitious State of the Union address was, somewhat to the President's surprise, decidedly positive.\n\nThe British ambassador, certainly, was impressed. Viscount Halifax had spent almost an hour at the dentist before going to the Capitol, where he was \"herded on to the floor\" with other diplomats \"where we had good places. The President's speech was forceful and well-delivered and well-received,\" he recorded that night in his diary, remarking on the \"very warm personal reception both at the beginning and end. The warmth of applause for China as compared with Russia and ourselves was very noticeable,\" he'd added\u2014with understandable concern. The President, however, had spoken \"with great confidence. I thought what he said on the domestic side was pretty strong and likely to be provoking to his domestic critics, as it seemed to be 'Let us have as much unity as we can, but I am going to go ahead with my social policy, and if you don't like it, let the country judge, and I know what their verdict will be,' but the general impression of it seems to have been that it was conciliatory. The informality of all Congress proceedings on these occasions is striking,\" he'd reflected, \"by contrast with our affairs at home\"\u2014the ambassador amazed when, in reelecting its Speaker, Sam Rayburn, the day before, \"the House [of Representatives] sang 'Happy birthday to you'!\"\n\nIf the President was delighted by the reception, however, he had little time to bask in it. Following a quick lunch at the Capitol, he returned to the White House\u2014there to face in the Oval Office a smaller but equally critical audience he'd summoned: the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, who would be flying to Casablanca that very evening, ahead of the President, aboard C-54 transport planes.\n\nAdmiral Leahy had warned the President that there had been no breakthrough in the Joint Chiefs' continuing dissension over U.S. global strategy. They were at loggerheads not only about whether to launch a cross-Channel invasion that year, but what to do in the Pacific.\n\nThe ringleaders of the continuing argument against a Mediterranean strategy in 1943 were\u2014as had been the case throughout the previous year\u2014the President's Republican secretary of war, Henry Stimson, and General Marshall. Colonel Stimson had openly bet the President that his \"great pet scheme\"\u2014the Torch invasion\u2014would fail. When it didn't\u2014in fact proved a triumphant success\u2014Stimson had found himself embarrassed. On November 20, 1942, for example, former ambassador William Bullitt, who had been U.S. envoy to Russia and France and who was currently working for Secretary Frank Knox at the Navy Department on Constitution Avenue, had rubbed salt in Stimson's wounded pride. He'd asked Stimson \"how I liked to be a mere housekeeper of the War Department now that the President had taken over all relations with the military men.\"\n\nStimson had been infuriated by the remark. \"I told him that so long as I was constitutional adviser to the President, he would not do it,\" Stimson had countered. \"But Bullitt's remark,\" he confessed in the privacy of his diary, \"irritated and annoyed me.\"\n\nFortunately the President was nothing if not sensitive to people's feelings. Some days later he'd spoken with Stimson on the phone. They'd had \"a talk on the situation and on my duties as Secretary of War. I told him then of Bill Bullitt's recent fresh visit to me and his remark asking me how I liked being merely a housekeeper for the Army. The President said 'What!' and made it very clear that he was going to use me for a great deal more than that. He said Bullitt was always a problem child.\" This was \"very reassuring and satisfactory and balm to my soul after the troubles and suspicions,\" Stimson had confessed, \"that I had been through for the last two or three days.\"\n\nThe President's solace, however, hadn't stopped the elderly war secretary from working behind the scenes to question the President's military strategy in the Mediterranean\u2014which he still thought utterly misguided.\n\nOn December 12, 1942, for example, Stimson had recorded he'd had a \"long talk\" with General Marshall and also Jack McCloy, the assistant secretary of war, as to \"what we are going to do after the North African campaign and what it is going to lead to; and from this talk and other talks that I have had with Marshall and particularly the talk which I had with the President last evening, I am very much more relieved because the trend is now to get back onto the sound line of an attack up in the originally planned route\"\u2014namely the possibility of a cross-Channel attack \"next summer.\"\n\nSummer '43?\n\nAs the President had confided to Mackenzie King, as president and commander in chief he did not favor a cross-Channel attack until U.S. forces had had ample time, in the Mediterranean, to first learn the arduous business of how to defeat the Wehrmacht in combat\u2014which might well take all of 1943, given that the English Channel became too rough to cross by September.\n\nClearly the secretary was not listening. Inviting General Stanley Embick, the former deputy U.S. Army chief of staff, to his office at the Pentagon two days later, on December 14, 1942, Stimson had been determined not to be seen as a mere War Department housekeeper. Embick had been requested to report not to General Marshall but directly to Stimson on \"the question of what we shall do after the African adventure.\"\n\nThe relationship between the two men went back decades\u2014Embick having attended the Command and General Staff College with Stimson in World War I. At age sixty-four, he was now \"head of our elder statesmen in military matters and has been made the head of a board of strategy together with Admiral Wilson of the Navy,\" Stimson noted. \"I knew that he had always been very skeptical about the North African adventure,\" the war secretary added\u2014anxious to know if the general had changed his mind.\n\nEmbick hadn't. \"His position was very much the same as mine,\" Stimson had recorded with satisfaction in his diary, \"and I found it was confirmed today. We both feel that the North African adventure has done a great deal of good,\" he allowed\u2014though only because of luck, he maintained. As a result, \"we have thus far gotten through without being knocked out by a great many of the perils that we might very well have had fall upon us and spoil the whole expedition.\" Among these \"perils\" was German forces being ordered to invade or granted passage through Spain and shipped across the Mediterranean into Spanish Morocco\u2014there to strike American forces in the flank. \"Embick laid great stress on keeping the gate open [to Tunisia] and not impairing the forces that were under George Patton in Casablanca for that [defensive] purpose\"\u2014i.e., denying Patton the chance to fight in Tunisia rather than guarding U.S. lines of communication running back from Tunisia to Casablanca. Morocco, both Stimson and Embick felt, should be kept well supplied and protected by large numbers of U.S. troops, to guard against a mythical German riposte through Spain, across the Mediterranean, and then across Spanish Morocco. \"We regard that as the sine qua non of the whole adventure,\" Stimson dictated in his diary.\n\n\"Embick was strongly of the opinion that it would be impossible to go any further in adventures in Sardinia or Sicily after we are successful in Tunis,\" Stimson noted frankly\u2014though making sure to exclude such passages from his later memoirs. \"Our shipping absolutely forbids that,\" he asserted, \"and the line of supplies has become so long that it would be intolerable. So his thought is that after Tunis is cleaned out, if it is, if there is any surplus of American troops left over, we should send them up to Great Britain to be ready for the next attack there,\" Stimson recorded, together with his own approval. In fact the secretary had called in the head of the War Department's Operations Division, General John Hull, to join the discussion; \"I found that he was in complete accord with both Embick and myself.\"\n\nInterrupted by visitors\u2014a senator and governor from Idaho there to discuss the equipping of the National Guard in Idaho\u2014Stimson had then returned to his office, where talk of the \"next attack\" across the English Channel in the summer of 1943 moved yet deeper into fantasy\u2014in fact, seemed even more reckless than what Stimson had promoted in 1942. \"Both Embick and Hull feel that the next step after we get back on the rails again up in Great Britain,\" he'd confided in his diary, \"and are prepared to go forward, is not an attack on one of the peninsulas\"\u2014i.e., Brittany or Normandy\u2014\"but an attack on the flat coast near Havre and the port of Calais, landing in a large number of places.\"\n\nThe problem of first gaining experience in battle and amphibious operations against the German Wehrmacht\u2014the President's main objection to launching a cross-Channel attack prematurely\u2014was thus simply ignored by Stimson and the senior officers of the War Department. The name Dieppe was simply never mentioned in Stimson's diary. Or the savage lessons of the 1942 disaster, only four months earlier.\n\nStimson was seventy-five years old; Embick, sixty-five.\n\nIn younger men, such ill-considered ardor could perhaps have been forgiven. But for two individuals who had enjoyed distinguished military careers and had themselves served in war, albeit in a different age, to task tens of thousands of inexperienced U.S. servicemen and their field commanders with a perilous invasion across the English Channel, at the most heavily defended area\u2014the Pas-de-Calais\u2014was willful fixation. The tragic slaughter of so many Canadian troops at Dieppe was well known in Washington professional military circles, despite attempts by the British to cover up the appalling number of Canadian casualties. To imagine U.S. forces would, without more experience in amphibious operations, do better than brave Canadians in invading the fortified Pas-de-Calais area of northern France was pure hubris\u2014the secretary and his colleagues at the Pentagon steadfastly refusing to see the Mediterranean as a necessary proving ground for the armed forces of the United States.\n\nThe first serious encounter-battles after Torch had, after all, begun to take place already in the last days of November and early in December, 1942, in the Medjerda Valley, outside Tunis. There, Eisenhower's U.S. and British forces, including amphibious units and paratroopers, had gotten a rude shock. The sheer professionalism of German armored and infantry units, backed by Mark IV panzers with long-barreled 75mm guns as well as deadly 88mm antiaircraft artillery used in an antitank role, had stunned the inexperienced Allied forces. Aware it could take months before he could break through to Tunis\u2014especially since General Marshall insisted that a whole U.S. army be kept back, guarding against the improbable threat of a German attack out of Spanish Morocco\u2014General Eisenhower had therefore begun plotting an alternative end-run further south, which in theory could strike through the thinly held German flank in Tunisia. If successful this would, the young commander in chief of Allied forces in the western Mediterranean hoped, reach the Mediterranean coast, east of Tunis, before the Germans could be reinforced by Rommel's Panzerarmee Afrika, retreating from Libya. Eisenhower had wanted to use George Patton for the job. He was overruled by General Marshall, who, with Secretary Stimson, remained obsessed with Patton being kept in the rear, defending the Allied flank.\n\nQuite how, if Stimson, Marshall, and Embick, together with a whole cohort of planners and operations officers at the Pentagon, so feared a German counteroffensive via Spain, they could seriously imagine a cross-Channel invasion by virgin U.S. troops against twenty-five or thirty German divisions in northern France would magically succeed was something the President found hard to comprehend.\n\nFor the moment, however, the President had not interfered: trusting that, as American troops met German forces in Tunisia and the penny dropped, they would see sense. The British, after all, had taken three years of war to find a combat commander and the troops who could, at Alamein, defeat the Wehrmacht in battle. How on earth did Marshall, Stimson, Hull, and Embick imagine American forces would do so overnight?\n\nNot even reports of mounting casualties and the need for reinforcements in Tunisia\u2014not Morocco\u2014seemed to dent Stimson's obsession, however. Indeed, by early January, 1943, Stimson seemed to be living in a fool's paradise in his huge new office suite inside the vast 2.3-million-square-foot Pentagon building, on the south side of the Potomac River, completed only a week after the Torch landings.\n\nStimson had not been invited to the Casablanca meeting, but learning that the President wanted the Joint Chiefs of Staff to assemble for a briefing at the White House after his State of the Union address on January 7, 1943, before they left for Africa by plane, Stimson had decided he must have a \"long talk with General Marshall this morning on the subject of the future strategy of the war. There are some conferences impending between the war leaders of America and Britain,\" he anxiously noted in his diary\u2014wisely withholding the location.\n\nStimson was relieved to hear that Marshall and the senior officers of the War Department opposed further operations in the Mediterranean that year, once Tunis was reached. \"Our people are adhering to their old [cross-Channel] line\u2014the one I have approved throughout\u2014and Marshall said that thus far they had the backing of the President,\" he noted\u2014erroneously. \"In a word, it is that just as soon as the Germans are turned out of Tunisia and the north coast of Africa is safely in the hands of the Allies we shall accumulate our forces in the north and prepare for an attack this year upon the north coast of France\u2014preferably one of the two northwest peninsulas\"\u2014Cherbourg and Brittany.\n\nAt least the notion of landings in the Pas-de-Calais had been dropped\u2014even the War Department's most gung ho planners conceding that the Pas-de-Calais might be tough. \"The one is selected,\" Stimson noted of Brittany, \"but I do not care to mention it yet. We think that we can probably hold such a lodgment but even if we don't, even if our forces should be finally dislodged, it would be at such a terrible cost to Germany as to cripple her resistance for the following year.\"\n\nAn amphibious cross-Channel invasion of France\u2014the Brittany peninsula\u2014in the summer of 1943, on the open acceptance it might fail and require its survivors to be evacuated, like the British at Dunkirk in 1940? An invasion that would nevertheless \"cripple\" the Germans, in order to facilitate a United States relaunch of the invasion the following year, 1944?\n\nIt was small wonder Admiral Leahy had noted that \"no agreement could be reached by the opposing elements\" on December 28, 1942\u2014Stimson and Marshall's discussions at the Pentagon epitomizing, sadly, the complete lack of realism exhibited in the higher echelons of the U.S. War Department, only hours before the U.S. chiefs were due to leave to meet their British opposite numbers in Casablanca.\n\nThe President, however, was not of like mind. And was about to correct them, in the nicest way he knew how.\n**8**\n\n# Facing the Joint Chiefs of Staff\n\nAT 3:00 P.M. on January 7, 1943, Admiral Leahy and the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, as well as the secretary of the Joint Chiefs, General John Deane, sat down beside the President in the Oval Office to discuss the strategic impasse.\n\nMr. Roosevelt proceeded to run the two-hour meeting in his inimitable manner: refusing to follow an agenda but rather, with the greatest friendliness, asking each of the chiefs to present the case as they saw it: once Tunis was secured, where next? \"At the conference the British will have a plan, and stick to it,\" the President warned. Were they all, he asked innocently, \"agreed that we should meet the British united in advocating a cross-Channel operation?\"\n\nThey were, they said. But _when?_ And _where?_\n\nTo his credit, General Marshall, on behalf of the chiefs, was too honest to lie. All were not agreed about the timing, he confessed. Somewhat sheepishly, he explained to the Commander in Chief \"that there was not a united front on that subject, particularly among our planners\"\u2014especially his own chief Army planning officer, Brigadier General Albert Wedemeyer.\n\n\"The Chiefs of Staff themselves regarded an operation in the north\"\u2014i.e., across the English Channel\u2014\"more favorably than one in the Mediterranean\" once Tunis was secured, \"but the question was still an open one,\" he admitted. \"He said that to him the issue was purely one of logistics; that he was perfectly willing to take some tactical hazards or risks but that he felt we had no right to take logistical hazards. He said that the British were determined to start operations,\" after Tunisia, \"in the Mediterranean\"\u2014leaving \"Bolero [an early code name for a cross-Channel invasion] for a later date. He said the British pressed the point that we must keep the Germans moving. They lay great stress on accomplishing the collapse of Italy which would result in Germany having to commit divisions not only to Italy but also to replace Italian divisions now in other occupied countries,\" regions such as southern France, Corsica, the Balkans, and the Eastern Front.\n\nThe advantage for the British, Marshall continued, would be a secure Allied sea route to Suez and India, and a base for major operations in southern Europe\u2014not only knocking Italy out of the war but holding out the possibility that Turkey might abandon its neutrality and join the United Nations. In this scenario, were it to be selected, the island of Sicily, Marshall said, was considered by him to be the best target of assault, once the campaign in Tunisia was completed: \"a more desirable objective\" than Sardinia, he explained, but one that, in terms of amphibious assault, \"would be similar to an operation across the Channel,\" since the \"Germans have been in Sicily longer,\" and \"there were many more and much better airfields for them than in Sardinia.\"\n\nSicily, then, was the British preference. An amphibious assault on the island dominating the Mediterranean would offer a kind of rehearsal for a future cross-Channel invasion\u2014certainly a better one than Sardinia. But should the United States consent to further operations in the Mediterranean at all? By continuing offensive operations in the northern Mediterranean, whether in assaulting Sardinia or Sicily, Allied forces would be subject to \"air attack from Italy, southern France, Corsica, possibly Greece, as well as a concentrated submarine attack,\" Marshall argued, which could lead to a loss of 20 percent of Allied ships. To this logistical nightmare the general \"also pointed out the danger of [neutral] Spain becoming hostile, in which case we would have an enemy in possession of a defile [across the Mediterranean] on our line of communications.\"\n\nFear of superior German forces in the Mediterranean and scarcity of Allied shipping thus led General Marshall to \"personally favor,\" instead of further difficult operations in the Mediterranean, \"an operation against the Brest peninsula\"\u2014i.e., the Brittany coast of northern France, across the widest part of the English Channel. \"The losses there will be in troops,\" Marshall acknowledged, according to the minutes of the meeting, taken by General Deane, the secretary of the committee, \"but he said that, to state it cruelly, we could replace troops whereas a heavy loss in shipping\" incurred in further operations in the Mediterranean against Sardinia or Sicily, \"might completely destroy any opportunity for successful operations against the enemy [across the English Channel] in the near future.\"\n\nThe President was shocked\u2014as historians would be, years later, when the minutes of the meeting were published. Taking vast U.S. casualties in order to hit the ports or beaches of northern France that year, rather than waiting until commanders and men had successful battle experience in the Mediterranean?\n\nWhat was the hurry? Landing as yet completely inexperienced U.S. forces\u2014commanders and infantry\u2014across the widest part of the English Channel, to be set upon by upwards of twenty-five German divisions? Why invite such a potential disaster when they did not have to? Very politely, the President \"then asked General Marshall what he thought the losses would be in an operation against the Brest Peninsula.\"\n\nMarshall, placed on the spot, had \"replied that there would of course be losses but that there were no narrow straits on our lines of communication\" like Gibraltar\u2014both in terms of reinforcement or evacuation\u2014\"and we could operate with fighter protection from the United Kingdom.\"\n\nThe President could only rub his eyes. No mention of the _two hundred miles_ that Allied fighters would have to fly before they, like the assault ships, even reached the heavily defended invasion points, nor the proximity of twenty-five all-German infantry and armored divisions already stationed in western France, waiting and in constant training to repel an assault on its Atlantic coast, as they had done at Dieppe. No mention of the ease with which Germans could reinforce their Wehrmacht troops there, using short lines of communication from the Reich\u2014and further armored forces they could quickly commit to battle. No mention, either, of the Luftwaffe's ability to use French airfields to attack the invading forces. Above all, no mention of the Canadian catastrophe at Dieppe the previous August, only four months ago. Merely a heartless disdain for the U.S. casualties that would be suffered, in comparison with landing craft\u2014and a deeply, deeply questionable assumption that the invasion would, as Marshall had assured Stimson that morning, be at such \"terrible cost to Germany as to cripple her resistance for the following year.\"\n\nMarshall's presentation of the strategy he recommended the United States should best adopt, as chief of staff of the U.S. Army, was thus lamentable\u2014as even Marshall himself seemed aware, once forced to defend his position.\n\nThe President, however, was a model of tact\u2014unwilling to humble Marshall before his fellow chiefs. How, exactly, he then questioned Marshall, was such a landing at Brest to be actually mounted by U.S. forces\u2014and how did Marshall expect the Germans to respond?\n\nMarshall twisted in the wind. \"The President had questioned the practicability of a landing on the Brest Peninsula,\" General Deane noted in the minutes of the meeting; \"General Marshall replied that he thought the landing could be effected but the difficulties would come later in fighting off attacks from German armored units\"\u2014though \"U.S. airplanes, flown from the United States, could give the troops help.\"\n\nAgain, the President was amazed. U.S. air power such as U.S. Army Air Forces were giving U.S. and British ground forces in Tunisia, in the battles of Medjez-el-Bab and Longstop Hill\u2014where American casualties were reported as heavy, and the Allies were just beginning to learn how tough it was to defeat the Germans in battle? Tellingly, the President therefore \"asked why,\" if Marshall thought a cross-Channel invasion was the best course, \"the British opposed the Brest Peninsula operation?\"\n\nEmbarrassed, Marshall had to concede \"he thought they feared that the German strength would make such an operation impracticable.\"\n\nTo Admiral Leahy's equally direct question as to when Marshall thought such a U.S. invasion of the Brest Peninsula could be \"undertaken,\" Marshall had responded: \"some time in August.\"\n\nAugust 1943.\n\nIt was clear to both President Roosevelt and Admiral Leahy that General Marshall had not done his homework. Above all, the Army chief of staff had no practical idea how a U.S. cross-Channel assault could possibly succeed that very year\u2014in six months' time.\n\nAmerican armed forces currently had only eight weeks' battlefield experience\u2014and most of this fighting ill-armed Vichy French forces, not German troops. How, then, were they to miraculously produce by August of that year the commanders and warriors capable of mounting a successful contested Allied landing in German-occupied Brittany, so close to the German Reich, and then hold out against\u2014let alone defeat\u2014Hitler's concentration of dozens of German infantry and panzer divisions stationed in northern France? And was Marshall really contemplating\u2014as he'd said to Stimson that morning\u2014the possible, even likely, defeat of U.S. armies on the field of battle, and a Dunkirk-like evacuation from Brest? How would the public at home in America\u2014who in any case favored winning the war against Japan over the difficulties of war in Europe\u2014react to that?\n\nThe President had not been impressed. Choosing, by contrast, to back further operations in the Mediterranean, where the Allies had \"800,000 or 900,000 men\" and were currently in the ascendant, would furnish U.S. forces with a good opportunity to gain tough, amphibious battle experience against retreating German troops, far from the Reich, and in a relatively safe theater of war. U.S. operations in the South Pacific were, after all, providing such experience at the very extremity of Japanese lines of communication and resupply, on the other side of the world. With half a million troops that \"might be built up in the United Kingdom for an attack on either Brest or Cherbourg,\" in Normandy, there was certainly every reason to consider a plan for their commitment to battle, if the Germans showed signs of collapse\u2014but the President saw no reason to rush such a decision. He therefore asked whether \"it wouldn't be possible for us to build a large force in England and leave the actual decision\" as to its use \"in abeyance for a month or two.\"\n\nGeneral Marshall took the point\u2014saying he \"would have a study prepared as to the limiting dates before which a decision must be made.\"\n\nGeneral Henry \"Hap\" Arnold, the Army Air Forces commanding officer, did not dare say a word\u2014and Admiral King, embarrassed, very few.\n\nThere would, then, be no immediate decision on a U.S. Second Front in France that year\u2014leaving the chiefs ample opportunity to discuss, with the British at Casablanca, the question of whether to assault Sardinia or Sicily if they crossed the Mediterranean after securing Tunis.\n\nThis left only the overall politico-military strategy of the war to be addressed. Which, without further ado, the President now rehearsed. \"The President said he was going to speak to Mr. Churchill about the advisability of informing Mr. Stalin that the United Nations were to continue on until they reach Berlin,\" the minutes of the meeting recorded, \"and that their only terms would be unconditional surrender.\"\n\nIn the months and years that followed, wild claims would be made that, at Casablanca, the President had thoughtlessly and unilaterally announced a misguided war policy that \"naturally increased the enemy's will to resist and forced even Hitler's worst enemies to continue fighting to save their country,\" as the chief planner on Marshall's team at Casablanca put it. Moreover, that it was a policy his own staff vainly disagreed with, and that neither Churchill, his staff, nor his government had had any idea of it, prior to the President's announcement.\n\nLike so much popular history, this allegation lacked substance. Not only had the President discussed the matter with Prime Minister Mackenzie King a month prior to the White House meeting with the U.S. Chiefs of Staff, but the President's determination to pursue unconditional surrender of the Axis powers had been widely discussed by Sumner Welles's committees when conceptualizing the United Nations authority and end-of-war requirements\u2014which were in turn shared with senior British government officers. In speaking of it to his generals on January 7, 1943, the President made clear his wish that the chiefs factor this objective into their discussions on military strategy with the British at Casablanca. Thanks to Torch, the war against Germany and Japan was no longer one of defense against Axis attack, but of Allied offense\u2014offense that would not stop until Berlin was reached, and then Tokyo.\n\nNo negotiations. No ifs and buts. No concessions, or anything that could later be revoked. Nothing but _complete and unconditional_ surrender of the Germans and Japanese, and their \"disarmament after the war,\" as the President put it to his Joint Chiefs of Staff, sharing with them as well his notion of a four-nation postwar policing force on behalf of the United Nations, which they, as the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, would have to lead.\n\nAs for the cross-Channel invasion, he would, the President said, follow the Combined Chiefs' advice on the timing \"as they thought best.\" For himself, he was anxious to hammer out with America's allies not only the matter of German and Japanese postwar disarmament but other \"political questions\" that he would discuss with Mr. Churchill at Casablanca\u2014and hopefully then at another \"meeting between Mr. Churchill, the Generalissimo [Chiang Kai-shek], Mr. Stalin and himself some time next summer,\" perhaps at the port of Nome, in Alaska, which was also the final stop for planes flying Lend-Lease supplies to the Soviet Union.\n\nThe Joint Chiefs did not demur. With that\u2014save for a brief discussion of planes for Russia, and French sovereignty versus U.S. military government in North Africa\u2014the meeting ended. The Commander in Chief had spoken, and the chiefs had been given their orders. They would depart that very evening for North Africa, where the President was to join them on January 14, if all went well.\nPART THREE\n\n* * *\n\n#  _Casablanca_\n**9**\n\n# The House of Happiness\n\nEARLY ON THE morning of January 14, 1943, the President and his party boarded a four-engine Douglas C-54 Skymaster of U.S. Air Transport Command about twenty miles outside Bathurst. \"Normally, the air route from Bathurst to Casablanca would be entirely over land,\" Captain McCrea later recalled. \"On this occasion,\" however, \"a swing to seaward was made in order to afford the President an aerial view of Dakar and St. Louis, Senegal, French West Africa.\"\n\nThe route would allow the President to see the coastline he'd studied for over a year, when thinking about a possible U.S. invasion of Northwest Africa\u2014especially Dakar. First occupied by tribal Africans, then Portuguese, Dutch, British, and finally French slave traders, Dakar was a fabled port. Following the French surrender at Compi\u00e8gne in 1940, it had posed the danger that, if occupied by the Germans, it could become an impregnable African base for German naval and U-boat operations in the southern Atlantic. Thanks to Torch, however, it was now under American control\u2014the port and fortress having been ceded by its governor-general to General Eisenhower and his French commissioner, Admiral Darlan, on December 7, 1942.\n\nPassing over Dakar, \"the French Battleship _Richelieu_ was clearly observed alongside a seawall as were several other ships at anchor in the harbor,\" McCrea noted. There was a special reason, also, that Roosevelt wished to see the battleship, for it symbolized both the challenge and the success of Torch. With its eight fifteen-inch guns, eighty-five-hundred-mile cruising range, and fifteen-hundred-man crew, the _Richelieu_ had been the first modern battleship built by the French since the 1922 Naval Treaty. Completed in 1940, too late to defend France against the Nazis, it had nevertheless helped defeat France's former allies and anti-Nazis\u2014Major General Charles de Gaulle's ill-fated attempt to seize the seaport on behalf of the Free French having been ignominiously repelled that year. For two years the _Richelieu_ had then stood sentinel against the Allies, on behalf of the Vichy government and in accordance with the terms of Mar\u00e9chal Philippe P\u00e9tain's capitulation to the Third Reich.\n\nAn hour later, two hundred miles further north, at the mouth of the Senegal River, the C-54 flew over \"the very old French port\" of Saint-Louis as well\u2014giving the Allies two American-controlled ports which, thanks to their strategic importance on the Atlantic seaboard, were to be of inestimable significance to the Allies for the remainder of the war. \"Then inland over the desert,\" the President described his route in a letter he penned that night to Daisy.\n\nOn the early-morning drive to the Bathurst airfield, Roosevelt had been upset by the extreme poverty of the people\u2014which said very little for the British and their colonial rule over Gambia, despite having suppressed the slave trade in 1833. Now, over the West African desert, there were no people at all. \"Never saw it before\u2014worse than our Western Desert\u2014Not flat at all & not as light as I had thought,\" he described to Daisy, \"\u2014more a brown yellow, with lots of rocks and wind erosion.\"\n\nThe Skymaster, with its wingspan of 117 feet and space for forty-nine troops, was not nearly as luxurious as the Pan American Clipper. For five hours they flew at six thousand feet, until at last they caught sight, inland, of \"a great chain of mountains\u2014snowy top,\" Roosevelt recorded\u2014explaining that the \"Atlas run from the Coast in Southern Morocco East and North, then East again till they lose themselves in Tunis\": the goal of General Eisenhower's current campaign.\n\n\"In approaching the Atlas mountains the cruising altitude was gradually increased from 8,000 feet to 12,000 feet,\" Captain McCrea remembered the flight\u2014adding his own vivid recollection of how he'd persuaded the President to take oxygen for the first time. \"The President was seated amidships, on the starboard side of the plane,\" he recalled\u2014ever the naval officer. \"I was seated directly across the aisle from him, & Ron McIntire was seated immediately in front of me. Harry Hopkins was seated well forward in the plane. Both Ron and I were quickly aware that the pilot was increasing altitude gradually. Ron suggested that I enquire from our pilot as to how much altitude he was going to level off at. This I did.\" Told that the pilot expected to cruise at about twelve thousand feet, \"I squared away in my seat,\" and the President's doctor, \"turning outboard, addressed me in a low tone of voice over his shoulder. 'John,' said he, 'how about putting on your oxygen mask? I want the President to put his on but if I suggest it to him he will no doubt make a fuss. If he sees you put on your mask he no doubt will follow.' In a few seconds I reached for my mask and proceeded to adjust it. Sure enough when the Pres. saw me putting on my mask he started to fumble with his. I promptly moved across the aisle, straightened out his mask harness and adjusted it for him.\" The doctor then put his own mask on, as did Hopkins\u2014\"And thus we were all set when shortly thereafter we reached 12,000 feet\u2014an altitude which [was] maintained while crossing the Atlas Mountains.\"\n\n\"We flew over a pass at 10,000 ft. & I tried a few whiffs of oxygen,\" the President wrote that night to Daisy. In truth he was more interested in the terrain than the air. \"North of the Mts. we suddenly descended over the first oasis of Marrakesh\u2014a great city going back to the Berbers even before the Arabs came\u2014We may go there if Casablanca is bombed.\"\n\nThey were approaching the battlefield.\n\nIn Washington the President had done his homework on the Berbers\u2014Lieutenant George Elsey, in the Map Room, managing to get Lieutenant Commander S. E. Morison, a distinguished naval scholar from Harvard, a fifteen-minute interview with the President, \"who asked questions I was unable to answer,\" as Morison subsequently wrote Elsey. Morison had therefore researched a \"brief memorandum\" on the subject of the Berbers for the President. In this, the historian had pointed out that the Berbers, according to Egyptian inscriptions, dated as far back as 1700 B.C., and were \"an entirely distinct race from the Phoenecian [ _sic_ ] Carthaginians, who are comparative newcomers in Africa.\" The Berbers, by contrast, were \"the aborigines of North Africa, with a distinct language and writing,\" and possibly the original inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula. \"They are a 'white' or 'Nordic' race, brown or hazel eyed, and no darker than the North American Indians in complexion.\"\n\nMorison's report had only whetted the President's curiosity aboard the C-54 Skymaster as they approached Casablanca\u2014which, despite air raid sirens going off at various times, was not in fact targeted by long-range German bombers from Tunisia. For all their vaunted efficiency, it seemed the Germans had no idea the President was planning to meet Churchill there, let alone intending to stay almost two weeks\u2014Goebbels recording, afterward, his near-disbelief that the _Sicherheitsdienst_ of the great Third Reich had actually intercepted enemy phone calls, yet had taken the name Casablanca to be Casa Blanca, or White House, Washington, D.C.\n\nThose \"in the know\" at the real White House, however, had remained on tenterhooks lest the President, whose leadership of the Allies seemed so crucial to winning the war, fall victim to accident or assassination.\n\nIn particular, Mike Reilly, head of the White House Secret Service detail, had furiously objected to the idea of such a well-known venue\u2014fears that had only increased when he arrived in Casablanca in advance of the President. Concerned the city was full of agents, assassins, and former Vichy officials of dubious reliability, Reilly had instantly tried to have the summit moved to Marrakesh, several hours' drive further south. Told that only the President could order this, he'd nevertheless persuaded the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, who'd arrived on January 12, not to go meet the U.S. Commander in Chief in person on his arrival at Medouina airport on the afternoon of January 14, lest they attract unwarranted attention.\n\nLanding at the airfield, the President was not in the least put out. Filming of a new Hollywood movie called _Casablanca_ had, by complete coincidence, recently been completed in Los Angeles, and had been flown to Washington and shown to the President at the White House on Christmas Eve. The film\u2014starring Humphrey Bogart, Paul Henreid, and Ingrid Bergman\u2014had charmed him, and the climax at the faux-Medouina airport (\"Round up the usual suspects!\") had made him much more interested in the fabled city, its kasbah, its \u00e9migr\u00e9s and spies, than in presidential protocol. \"At last at 4 p.m. Casablanca & the ocean came in sight\u2014I was landed at a field 22 miles from the town,\" he recorded in his letter to Daisy. \"Who do you suppose was at the airport?\" he wrote rhetorically. Not the U.S. chiefs but Lieutenant Colonel Elliott Roosevelt, his second son, standing beside Mike Reilly! And \"looking very fit & mighty proud of his D.F.C. [Distinguished Flying Cross]\"\u2014awarded for dangerous low-level reconnaissance missions, flown both before and during the Torch invasion.\n\nAs Roosevelt proudly told his son when they got into the camouflaged car, this trip marked the first time he'd flown in a decade. And with that the President shared with Elliott his amazement at the progress in air travel in only a few decades. There had been some flights in his early career that had been positively hair-raising, he recounted, when he was assistant secretary from 1913 to 1920. \"In naval airplanes. Inspection trips. The kind of flying,\" he chuckled, thinking of the open biplane cockpits, \" _you'll_ never know.\" By contrast, this, his first transatlantic trip, had given him a dramatic idea of \"what so many of our flyers are doing, the sort of thing aviation's going through these days, and developments of flying. Gives me,\" he'd told Elliott\u2014who knew this far better than his father\u2014\"a perspective.\"\n\nFather and son were then \"driven under heavy guard & in a car with soaped windows\" not to Rick's Caf\u00e9, the President wrote Daisy, but to \"this delightful villa belonging to a Mme. Bessan whose army husband is a prisoner in France\u2014She & her child were ejected as were the other cottage owners & sent to the hotel in town.\"\n\nHe had, in short, arrived.\n\nSelection of the villa, indeed of the city, had only been made a few weeks earlier by Eisenhower's chief of staff, Walter Bedell Smith, and Churchill's military assistant, Brigadier Ian Jacob.\n\nJacob had judged Casablanca a far better location than Fedala, further north and also on the ocean. The Villa Dar es Saada, in particular, had \"the most magnificent drawing room leading out on to a large verandah,\" plus a dining room at one end, and a \"principal bedroom complete with private bathroom\" at the other, on the same floor. There were two further rooms upstairs. Along with thirteen other villas it was situated in a \"garden suburb\" of Casablanca known as Anfa: an area a mile wide, built \"on a knoll about a mile inland and 5 miles south-west of the center of town.\" There was a large forty-room hotel nearby for the Combined Chiefs of Staff and their staffs, with a \"view out over the Atlantic, or overland to Casablanca\" that was \"truly magnificent,\" as Jacob noted in an account he wrote at the time. \"The dazzling blue of the water, the white of the buildings in Casablanca, and the red soil dotted with green palms and bougainvillea and begonia,\" he recorded, \"made a beautiful picture in the sunlight\"\u2014bounded, by the time the President arrived, with hastily erected barbed wire, antiaircraft guns, and an entire U.S. infantry battalion restricting all access to a single checkpoint.\n\nAlthough elaborate steps, Elliott Roosevelt later recalled, had been taken to keep news of the President's impending arrival quiet, the heavily guarded compound could have fooled no one\u2014least of all the \"French fascists\" left behind by the hastily departing French-German 1940 armistice team. Such individuals were armed, as Elliott caustically put it, \"with German money in their pockets.\" After several air raid alarms\u2014though no German planes\u2014Mike Reilly had certainly had enough, however. Having persuaded the U.S. Chiefs of Staff not to greet the President at the airport, or even at his villa, he now begged them to use their collective military influence, once they did see the President, to get him to change his plans and move south to safer quarters in Marrakesh.\n\nWarned of this, Roosevelt dismissed the very idea. As president he was U.S. commander in chief. He felt on top form\u2014even without his chief of staff, who he'd counted on to keep his Joint Chiefs of Staff in line. Casablanca was the scene of recent battle, and one of the largest artificial ports in the world. Having spent four days and nights getting to the city in a succession of trains, floatplanes, tenders, transport aircraft, and limousines, he was \"'agin' it,\" and \"said so, often enough and forcefully enough,\" Elliott remembered, \"to carry the day.\"\n\nIn the meantime he wanted to see where he'd sleep.\n\n\"When Father got his first look,\" Elliott remembered, \"he whistled.\"\n\nThe bedroom's d\u00e9cor reminded the President of a French brothel. \"Now all we need is the madam of the house,\" he laughed, throwing back his head. \"Plenty of drapes, plenty of frills,\" Elliott recalled. \"And a bed that was\u2014well, perhaps not all wool, but at least three yards wide. And his bathroom featured one of those sunken bathtubs, in black marble.\"\n\nThe plumbing, too, worked fine. Wheeling his father around the house, Elliott found him more at home than he could have imagined possible. Guarded by a battalion of U.S. troops, in an area of Morocco under American rather than French or British military command, the Villa Dar es Saada\u2014meaning \"House of Happiness\"\u2014was the finest private residence in the suburb. It boasted almost twenty-eight-foot-high ceilings, steel-shuttered windows, and looked out over a beautifully terraced garden with vine-covered trellis. The two rooms upstairs could be used as bedrooms\u2014one for Hopkins, and one for Elliott.\n\nAnother of the President's sons, Lieutenant Franklin Roosevelt Jr., would also be coming\u2014unannounced. His destroyer, the USS _Mayrant,_ had covered the Torch invasion and was still stationed offshore. Learning of this and having once served as a midshipman with the regional naval commander (the brilliant Rear Admiral John L. Hall), Captain McCrea immediately arranged for FDR Jr. to be brought the next day to Anfa, without being told the reason. \"He sighted me and burst out 'My God, Captain, is Pa here?\" McCrea recalled humorously. \"I told him his suspicion was correct and I took him across the street\"\u2014telling him to be \"prepared for a surprised parent. The Pres. indeed was surprised, and father and son indulged in fond embrace\"\u2014followed by \"an invitation to stay for lunch which, of course, Franklin did.\"\n\nAll in all the Villa Dar es Saada was a house of happiness, thanks to Brigadier Jacob: the President's pro tempore White House and his family residence, established in an American realm, guarded by American soldiers\u2014not a British colony or quasi-colony, such as Khartoum or Cairo, the two cities Churchill had recommended.\n\nOnce installed, the President asked Harry Hopkins to go fetch Churchill, whose villa, the Mirador, was only \"fifty yards away,\" as Hopkins recorded. It would be the first time they'd seen each other since Churchill's fateful visit to Washington at the time of the British surrender of Tobruk, seven months before. The President could only marvel at how times had changed.\n\nChurchill, for his part, was equally excited\u2014in fact had arrived two days early to prepare for the arrival of the \"Boss.\" In his speech at the Mansion House in London on November 10, 1942, announcing the success of Torch, Churchill had openly revealed that the \"President of the United States, who is Commander in Chief of the armed forces of America, is the author of this mighty undertaking and in all of it I have been his active and ardent lieutenant.\"\n\nReading the text of the speech, Hitler's Reichsminister f\u00fcr Propaganda had been fascinated. Churchill, Goebbels had noted in his diary, was not only openly ascribing the Allied victories to the huge superiority now enjoyed by American arms, but \"he also admits that the whole invasion plan came from Roosevelt's brain, and that he is only a loyal servant to Roosevelt's plans.\"\n\nHitherto, Goebbels had assumed from British newspaper articles that Churchill was the brains behind Allied operations in the European theater\u2014something he'd found \"comforting,\" as he'd noted cynically, \"since all previous military operations he's been behind have ended up as disasters.\" Churchill's public acknowledgment that the U.S. president was now in charge heralded something different\u2014indeed, alarming.\n\n\"The Americans are now out of the starter's block. Their next target is Tripoli,\" Goebbels had recorded; in fact, idle armchair strategists in America and England were assuming the Allies would soon clear Axis forces from North Africa entirely. \"They already imagine themselves invading Italy and foresee themselves invading Germany via the Brenner Pass. All this, of course, a very simple and plausible calculation,\" Goebbels had added sarcastically, \"\u2014if it weren't for us being there!\"\n\nThis was the crux of the matter\u2014for the quality of armed German resistance was something the prognosticators of whom Goebbels spoke, whether in the United States or Britain, seemed incapable of appreciating. Tunisia was to be the key to thwarting Allied strategic ambitions, Goebbels had been told by the F\u00fchrer\u2014who saw the battle for Tunis becoming a new Verdun. \"If we hang on to Tunis, then nothing is lost in North Africa,\" he'd recorded. And already, as General Eisenhower and his invasion forces attempted to come to terms with the business of real combat with real Germans\u2014as opposed to ill-armed Vichy defenders\u2014Hitler was being proven right, on the field of battle rather than in the print of newspaper columnists.\n\nWinston Churchill had been educated as a soldier at Sandhurst and boasted a lifetime's military experience, from the North-West Frontier to the Sudan and South Africa. Like so many commentators in the press, he had visualized a swift Allied advance\u2014by Montgomery's Eighth Army marching from the east and by Eisenhower's First Army from the west. \"I never meant the Anglo-American Army to be stuck in North Africa,\" the Prime Minister had chided his British chiefs of staff on November 15, 1942, only a week after the Torch invasion\u2014irritated by the celerity with which Hitler had reinforced his meager forces in Tunisia by air, and the slowness of British and American ground troops spearheading Eisenhower's thrust from Algeria. In one of his instantly memorable turns of phrase, the Prime Minister had berated them, saying the Torch invasion was \"a springboard, and not a sofa.\"\n\nIt became a classic Churchillian metaphor, oft repeated. In truth, though, it masked a huge difference between Allied and German soldiery. For the simple fact was, whether volunteers or conscripts, Allied soldiers were not like the Germans or the Japanese. As Roosevelt had confided in 1942 to Field Marshal John Dill, the British liaison to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Allied troops did not have, for the most part, the kind of ruthless, even fanatical obedience to orders and discipline that characterized German and Japanese forces. Only by adopting a careful, step-by-step approach to war, evading ventures that posed unnecessary risks; only by undertaking offensive operations within the capabilities of Allied troops; only by applying the advantages of U.S. mass production; and only by pursuing global military strategies that built upon Allied strengths\u2014fusing air, naval, and ground forces\u2014could the Allies actually defeat the Wehrmacht and the Japanese. Not by prime ministerial exhortation, however inspiring.\n\nChurchill's bon mot reflected an aging yet still wonderfully indefatigable English leader. At heart he remained a dashing young cavalryman, as on the North-West Frontier in his early days of service, or in the Sudan fighting the self-proclaimed Mahdi at the turn of the century, in 1898. Half a century later, his \"Action this day\" tags\u2014the red stickers he would attach to his brilliantly written memos demanding immediate response by his staff\u2014were a tribute to his abiding energy as he approached seventy: spearing lethargy and electrifying traditional British bureaucratic pen-pushers, sclerotic after centuries of imperial paperwork. However, they masked a profound flaw in the Prime Minister's makeup as his country's quasi\u2013commander in chief in 1943: the irreconcilable difference between his grand strategic ideas and his too-often ill-considered opportunism\u2014a difference affecting tens of thousands of soldiers' lives.\n\nAfter the war the former prime minister would go to great lengths to cast himself, in his six-volume epic _The Second World War,_ not only as a lonely oracle but architect of war. Inasmuch as he saw better than any of his contemporaries the ebb and flow of military history, necessitating that Britain withstand the predations of Hitler's Third Reich until it could be rescued, he was by 1943 being proven right. He had, after all, lost every battle against the Germans since 1940, yet with his U.S. partner in war was helping to force Hitler, thanks to Torch, onto the defensive. Once Tunis fell, the Allies would possess a springboard for eventual victory in Europe, he felt\u2014provided the Russians continued to face the brunt of Hitler's Wehrmacht in the East. But beyond that his military strategy did not go, since he did not believe a cross-Channel attack could possibly succeed. In reality he had no idea how, in fact, the Third Reich could be defeated, beyond constant peripheral pressure and air attack.\n\nAs the two Allied leaders met at 6:00 p.m. at the President's villa on January 14, 1943, there was thus, behind the bonhomie and goodwill, a distinct divergence of opinion. The Prime Minister's agenda was how to placate the United States, defer operations against Japan, and by \"closing the ring\" around the Third Reich\u2014sheering off its allies, such as Italy, as they went, and hoping to get the peoples of occupied Europe to rise up against the Germans\u2014engender Hitler's fall, followed by that of Hirohito. Thence to return the world, as he saw it, to its former European imperialist setup, before the F\u00fchrer, the Duce, and Tojo's gang of admirals and generals had upset the balance of power.\n\nThe President, for his part, had a quite different vision. Not only a vision of the future, but how to achieve that future: the endgame. Their clash of objectives in Casablanca, behind the scenes, thus promised to be historic.\n**10**\n\n# Hot Water\n\nKNOWING VIA Field Marshal Dill, in Washington, that the U.S. chiefs of staff did not favor a delay in launching a Second Front that year, Churchill had told his British chiefs they would have to do again what they had done the previous spring: show willing, while stringing the Americans along, in order to pursue a more opportunistic course in the Mediterranean. The chiefs of staff were thus merely to pretend to be agreeable to closing down \"the Mediterranean activities by the end of June with a view to 'Round-up'\"\u2014an Allied 1943 cross-Channel invasion\u2014\"in August.\" The final decision on a Second Front, however, would be made, he instructed them, \"on the highest levels\"\u2014i.e., by himself and the President. For Mr. Roosevelt, he was sure, would agree with him it was impossible: the Germans, in northern France, were just too strong in the number of divisions they had there.\n\nWith this in mind Churchill had made haste to set off for Casablanca on January 11, together with a huge retinue of staff officers and clerks. Bad weather threatened to vitiate his plan\u2014but had not stopped it.\n\nServing as Churchill's military assistant, Brigadier Ian Jacob had been wary of the contingent the Prime Minister was taking, instead of the small staff the President had requested. \"I was rather horrified at the size of the party which had been gotten together,\" Jacob wrote in his contemporary account. \"The whole added up to a pretty formidable total.\" Some members of the party could, of course, be concealed and housed onboard the communications ship that was being sent out, HMS _Bulolo,_ he recognized. \"But knowing as I did from conversations with Beetle [Bedell] Smith that the Americans would bring a very modest team, I was rather afraid that the President or the Chiefs of Staff might take offense at the size of our party, & that the success of the conference might be endangered. I put this point to the P.M. on Sunday morning before I left Chequers [the prime ministerial retreat], & he said the party was to be cut down. However, when we went into the question on Monday with the Chiefs of Staff we found that there were few if any people who could be discarded, & it was decided that the best policy would be to take a full bag of clubs, leaving some of them concealed as it were in the locker\u2014i.e. the ship.\"\n\nDespite bad weather delaying the takeoff of the main Boeing Clipper, Churchill had insisted the primary team fly still on January 13 using land-based aircraft. The staff were thus farmed out among four RAF American-built Liberator (B-24) planes, each of which could normally take only seven \"passengers.\" As a result the Prime Minister had found himself cramped in a bomb bay bunk, flying without heat, which had not left him in the best of moods. This had not improved when, after asking his manservant, Sawyers, to run him a bath on arrival at the Villa Mirador, he had found it neither hot nor deep enough. \"You might have thought the end of the world had come,\" Jacob described. \"Everyone was sent for in turn, all were fools, and finally the P.M. said he wouldn't stay a moment longer, & would move into the hotel [Anfa] or to Marrakesh\"\u2014where he'd spent a pleasant month in 1932.\n\nIn the event, food and drink\u2014drink especially\u2014had \"had its mellowing influence,\" as the Prime Minister lunched with General Marshall and the Fifth U.S. Army commander, Lieutenant General Mark Clark, and \"the excitement died down. Plumbers were assembled from all directions, and somehow or other the water was kept hot in the future.\"\n\nBath or no bath, Churchill did, however, take great pains to be amenable to Marshall and Clark\u2014reporting to the British chiefs of staff on the evening of their first day's work in Casablanca, on January 13, that \"some kind\" of cross-Channel \"Sledgehammer\" operation in Brittany would have to be undertaken that very year, if only to support U.S. efforts. \"Only in this way should we be taking our fair share of the burden of the war,\" he'd told them at their first meeting with him, at 4.30 p.m.\n\nBrigadier Jacob also noted, however, the Prime Minister's openness to undertaking different operations. The son of a field marshal, Jacob was a first-class administrator, with a crystal-clear mind, fair judgment, loyalty to his superiors, and a talent for lucid exposition, which the Prime Minister particularly valued. A U.S. agenda had been lined up and sent from Washington, which \"contained a list of every topic under the sun, but the most important thing,\" the military assistant noted, \"was to get settled in broad outline our combined strategy for 1943, and then to get down to brass tacks and decide how exactly to carry it out. One couldn't decide in detail what to do unless one knew what one's strategic aim was to be. At the same time one could hardly fix one's strategic aims unless one examined in detail what operations we were capable of carrying out and what we were not.\"\n\n\"Not\" meant a cross-Channel invasion that year.\n\nJacob did try to see the problem from a U.S. perspective, however, asking Sir John Dill's view as the British representative on the Combined Chiefs of Staff in Washington\u2014and was not surprised when Dill warned that there was a \"general fear of commitments in the Mediterranean, and secondly, a suspicion that we did not understand the Pacific problem and would not put our backs into the work there once Germany had been defeated. Thus although the Americans were honestly of the opinion that Germany was the primary enemy, they did not see how quite to deal with her, especially as they felt there were urgent and great tasks to be done in Burma and the Pacific.\" These tasks involved logistical and operational struggles between General MacArthur and Admiral Nimitz\u2014the Army versus the Navy in terms of distribution of resources\u2014and the right combination of those forces and campaign strategy. They had already led to much infighting, as well as uneven effort, such as at Guadalcanal, \"where the U.S. Marines were thrown ashore, and then it was found that there was no follow-up, no maintenance organization, and no transport.\"\n\nAlong with the British chiefs of staff, the Prime Minister also interrogated Dill, who repeated his assessment of U.S. positions and problems. Delighted that he'd come early to the conference, Churchill was sure he could handle the President. The Prime Minister's \"view was clear,\" Jacob recorded Churchill's approach, expressed now in front of Dill and the British chiefs of staff. \"He wanted to take plenty of time. Full discussion, no impatience\u2014the dripping of water on a stone.\" The big British contingent was to methodically wean the small American team away from its fixation on a major cross-Channel assault that year to more gradual, peripheral operations in the Mediterranean, with a smaller operation in Brittany, perhaps, to get a toehold at least on the continent. \"In the meantime,\" while the chiefs met their opposite numbers in the daily Combined Chiefs of Staff meetings at the Anfa Hotel, \"he would be working on the President, and in ten days or a fortnight,\" Churchill was confident, \"everything would fall into place. He also made no secret of the fact that he was out to get agreement on a programme of operations for 1943 which the Military people might well think beyond our powers, but which he felt was the least that could be thought worthy of two great powers.\"\n\nTo the alarm of the British chiefs, then, the Prime Minister was all for action, on multiple fronts. To start with, he \"wanted the cleansing of the North African shore to be followed by the capture of Sicily. He wanted the reconquest of Burma, and he wanted the invasion of Northern France, on a moderate scale perhaps. Operations in the Pacific should not be such as to prevent fulfilment of his programme. The Chiefs of Staff were dismissed on this note, and the rest of the evening,\" before the President's arrival the next day, \"was given up to ice-breaking dinner parties.\"\n**11**\n\n# A Wonderful Picture\n\nPRESIDENT ROOSEVELT, for his part, was all for icebreaking. \"I marveled at the way the Army just moved in and took charge and ran the whole operation,\" even Captain McCrea later noted\u2014speaking as a sailor.\n\nBrigadier Jacob, who had reconnoitered and recommended the venue, was equally delighted by the U.S. Army's efforts, especially the catering: \"certainly excellent, mostly U.S. Army rations, too. Of course it was supplemented with local produce,\" including oranges, which\u2014\"large and juicy, with the best flavor of any oranges in the world\"\u2014formed \"a part of every meal.\" The \"cooking too was good, and as again the whole thing was free, a genial warmth spread over our souls,\" he recorded.\n\nMcCrea agreed. \"So well was this done that on the first evening of our arrival the President was able to entertain at dinner Prime Minister Churchill and the Combined Chiefs of Staff (both the U.S. Joint Chiefs and British Chiefs of Staff), plus Col. Roosevelt and Averell Harriman\u2014some twelve persons in all.\"\n\nChurchill had hurried over with Hopkins at around 7:00 p.m. No formal notes were made of what was said between the President and Prime Minister, but the \"three of us had a long talk over the military situation,\" Hopkins wrote in his notes that night. The winter weather in the mountains had slowed the campaign in Tunisia, and Montgomery had yet to take Tripoli and advance toward Tunisia, but the plan of campaign was that the two Allied pincers would eventually trap the German and Italian forces in the Cape Bon Peninsula: forcing them either to attempt a Dunkirk-style evacuation or surrender. It was what would happen thereafter\u2014locally, regionally, and internationally\u2014that was the biggest problem to be resolved in the coming days.\n\nThe Combined Chiefs of Staff had been having cocktails at the Anfa Hotel when Hopkins arrived with the presidential summons. Dutifully, the bevy of generals and admirals\u2014Generals Marshall and Arnold, Admiral King, General Alan Brooke, Admiral Dudley Pound, Air Marshal Charles Portal, Admiral Louis Mountbatten, as well as the Lend-Lease administrator, Averell Harriman\u2014trooped over.\n\nThe dinner, in the President's villa, went rather well. \"People were tired, that first night,\" Elliott recalled, \"but it didn't stop anybody from enjoying himself\"\u2014particularly as there was no attempt to limit the consumption of wine or liquor. General Hap Arnold recounted how he had just been down to the harbor to see the damage inflicted on the brand-new French battleship _Jean Bart_ during the Torch invasion\u2014the airman delighted to see that American thousand-pound bombs had smashed \"holes in bow and stern large enough to take a small bungalow.\" Others gave their own impressions of the city and its kasbah.\n\nAdmiral King \"became nicely lit up towards the end of the evening,\" Brooke scrawled in his diary that night. \"As a result\" the admiral became \"more and more pompous, and with a thick voice and many gesticulations explained to the President the best way to organize the Political French organization for control of North Africa!\"\u2014something King would never have dared do when sober. \"This led to arguments with PM who failed to appreciate fully the condition King was in. Most amusing to watch.\"\n\nThe dinner was certainly a far cry from life at Hitler's headquarters in East Prussia, where the F\u00fchrer had ceased to dine with his senior military staff. He'd stopped listening even to music at night, refused to go near the battle front or to make any public pronouncements\u2014and was still demanding that no mention be made in the Nazi media of the increasingly catastrophic situation around Stalingrad.\n\n\"I busied myself filling glasses,\" Elliott Roosevelt later recalled. \"After dinner, Father and Churchill sat down on a big, comfortable couch that had been set back to the big windows. The steel shutters were closed. The rest of us pulled up chairs in a semicircle in front of the two on the couch.\" \"Many things discussed,\" Arnold noted in his diary\u2014including their leaders' safety. \"Everyone tried to keep President and Prime Minister from making plans to get too near front,\" given that both men \"seemed determined\" to go, and \"could see no real danger.\"\n\n\"We have come many miles and must stay long enough to solve very important problems,\" Arnold finished his nightly jotting\u2014aware how much responsibility the President carried, for good or ill. And he quoted the British prime minister, whose words had the sober ring of history, despite the immense quantity of alcohol the Prime Minister had imbibed. \"Churchill: 'This is the most important meeting so far. We must not relinquish initiative now that we have it. You men are the ones who have the facts and who will make plans for the future.'\"\n\nAn air raid siren then wailed, bringing the postprandial get-together almost to a close. \"At about 1:30 a.m. an alarm was received,\" General Brooke noted in green ink in his own leather-bound diary, \"lights were put out, and we sat around the table with faces lit by 6 candles. The PM and President in that light and surroundings would have made,\" he scribbled, \"a wonderful picture.\"\n\nRembrandt might have painted it, but sadly, no photographs were taken that evening\u2014though other, iconic photos would be, at the climax of the conference, ten days later. None could fail to be aware, however, just how symbolic was the meeting: the leaders of the two main Western democracies, gathering together with their chiefs of staff on the still-scarred battlefield of a foreign land, there to plan the further strategy and military operations against Hitler's Germany, Mussolini's Italy, and Hirohito's Japan. There would clearly be problems, especially political; but the new, dominating role of the United States was unmistakable\u2014visible not only in the planes, tanks, artillery, and equipment factories were churning out at an ever-increasing rate across North America but their presence now in Northwest Africa, thousands of miles from American shores, barely eight weeks since the huge and successful amphibious U.S. invasion.\n\nNot all was positive in the House of Happiness, however.\n\n\"Well after midnight, the P.M. took his leave,\" Elliott later recalled. The President \"was tired but still in a talkative mood\"\u2014and talk he did to his son. To Elliott the President confided his continuing distrust not only of the French, in regard to their tottering colonial empire, but of Churchill, too, in that respect. This might well complicate his dream of a United Nations authority committed to the principles of the Atlantic Charter, after the war. \"The English mean to maintain their hold on their colonies. They mean to help the French maintain _their_ hold on _their_ colonies. Winnie is a great man for the status quo,\" the President said sadly to Elliott. \"He even _looks_ like the status quo, doesn't he?\"\n\nElliott's version of events was considered suspect by some, but Prime Minister Mackenzie King's contemporary record of his stay at the White House the previous month, as well as the diary kept by Daisy Suckley, the President's cousin, would lend credence to the overall veracity of Elliott's account, published immediately after the war's end. The President had disliked Admiral Darlan\u2014but that did not mean he approved of de Gaulle, who harbored dictatorial ambitions. \"Elliott,\" the President said to his son, \"de Gaulle is out to achieve one-man government in France\"\u2014and was committed to the revival of its colonial empire. \"I can't imagine a man I would distrust more. His whole Free French movement is honeycombed with police spies\u2014he has agents spying on his own people. To him, freedom of speech means freedom from criticism . . . of him.\"\n\nWhich led the President to turn to \"the problem of the colonies and the colonial markets, the problem of which he felt was at the core of all chances for future peace\" across the globe. \"'The thing is,' he remarked thoughtfully, replacing a smoked cigarette in his holder with a fresh one, 'the colonial system means war. Exploit the resources of an India, a Burma, a Java; take all the wealth out of those countries, but never put anything back into them, things like education, decent standards of living, minimum health requirements\u2014all you're doing is storing up the kind of trouble that leads to war. All you're doing is negating the value of any kind of organizational structure for peace before it begins.\" And with that he'd chortled: \"The look that Churchill gets on his face when you mention India!\"\n\nTo Elliott the President then explained his notion of trusteeships: that \"France should be restored as a world power, then to be entrusted with her former colonies as a trustee. As trustee, she was to report each year on the progress of her stewardship, how the literacy rate was improving, how the death rate declining, how disease being stamped out, how . . .\"\n\nPhased decolonization, under the aegis of the United Nations, in other words.\n\n\"Wait a minute,\" Elliott had countered, \"Who's she going to report all this to?\"\n\nAnd with that his father had set out\u2014to Elliott's amazement\u2014his vision of the \"United Nations\" postwar \"organization.\" Also his notion of policemen: the \"big Four\u2014ourselves, Britain, China, the Soviet Union\u2014we'll be responsible for the peace of the world\"\u2014once the war was won. \"It's already high time for us to be thinking of the future, building for it,\" Roosevelt remarked.\n\n\"Three-thirty, Pop,\" his son pointed out.\n\n\"Yes. Now I _am_ tired,\" the President acknowledged. \"Get some sleep yourself, Elliott.\"\n\nAnd with that the eve of the defining conference of World War II came to a close.\n**12**\n\n# In the President's Boudoir\n\nELLIOTT OVERSLEPT. When he staggered downstairs for breakfast on January 15, it was to find the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff already assembled in his father's boudoir.\n\nIt was 10:00 a.m.\u2014and the President was listening to what had transpired at the preliminary Combined Chiefs of Staff meeting the previous day, at the Anfa Hotel.\n\nIn insisting the conference take place in American-held Morocco, the President had chosen wisely\u2014for it was vital the U.S. chiefs be exposed to the actual Torch battlefield in Northwest Africa. Instead of concocting strategy and operations thousands of miles away, in the safety and comfort of the Pentagon and the Mall, they would have a chance to meet the men and commanders on the ground who were fighting Germans now, not Vichy French troops. It was also crucial that the U.S. chiefs be separated for a time from their dangerously irresponsible planners, who had very little idea of modern hostilities in facing the Wehrmacht\u2014or the fanatical Japanese. In the many documents accumulating in his Map Room at the White House\u2014U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff minutes, Combined Chiefs of Staff minutes, Joint Strategic Survey minutes, Joint Intelligence Committee minutes, Joint Staff Planners Reports, recommendations and analyses of the differences between British and U.S. strategic views since November 1942\u2014he had never seen a single mention of the need for American combat experience.\n\nThe plethora of paper evinced dutiful, unstinting research and statistical evidence gathered in Washington\u2014but no common sense. That the Western Allies were holding half of the Luftwaffe's entire operational strength on the Western and Mediterranean Fronts was calculated down to the nearest plane; the number of Wehrmacht divisions capable of offensive and defensive operations was tallied and enumerated; the amount of German naval vessels and U-boats estimated. Yet the need for American battle _experience_ \u2014and lessons\u2014in matching up to professional German foes had seemed a closed book to such bureaucrats and staffers.\n\nAt the time of Casablanca\u2014as well as after the war\u2014there would thus be righteous indignation over the President's decision to allow only a handful of staff officers to accompany the U.S. chiefs on the trip to North Africa. Led by the War Office's chief planning officer, Brigadier General Albert Wedemeyer\u2014who was one of the few permitted to travel with General Marshall to Casablanca\u2014these men would complain they had been thrown to English wolves: a British prime minister taking with him a vast retinue of planners and operations officers and clerks committed to a vague British, rather than an Allied, military strategy for 1943.\n\nWedemeyer, in particular, would complain they'd been duped; that the President had made a terrible mistake; had through naivet\u00e9 brought a military team simply too small to confront the host of staff officers accompanying the wily Churchill. Moreover, that the British had tricked the American contingent into abandoning their preferred Second Front invasion that summer, 1943. The British staff officers, Wedemeyer would complain, had been backed by yet _more_ staffers aboard HMS _Bulolo,_ anchored for their special use in Casablanca Harbor. Using this communications ship, the British planners were able to cable London and put their hands on any fact or figure they needed to support their alternative British plans, and thus defeat American counterproposals; whereas the U.S. contingent, despite being in a U.S. compound in a U.S. military area guarded by U.S. artillery and antiaircraft guns, was virtually captive in terms of British bureaucratic firepower.\n\n\"They swarmed upon us all like locusts,\" Wedemeyer lamented in a letter from North Africa to General Thomas Handy, the assistant chief of staff in the War Department's Operations Division (OPD) in Washington, and \"had us on the defensive practically all the time\"\u2014backed by \"a plentiful supply of planners and various other assistants, with prepared plans to insure that they not only accomplished their purpose but did so in stride and with fair promise of continuing in the role of directing strategy the whole course of the war.\"\n\nGeneral Wedemeyer was certainly not alone in perceiving a British conspiracy to subvert the swifter course of World War II. General Handy, who received Wedemeyer's letter in Washington and passed it on to other generals at the Pentagon, was of like mind, bewailing afterward that \"the British on the planning level just snowed them under.\"\n\nYet another U.S. planner later recalled how \"we were overwhelmed by the large British staff.\"\n\nBrigadier General J. E. Hull, heading up the OPD at the Pentagon, was even more embarrassed than Wedemeyer and Handy by the U.S. unpreparedness for paper battle. \"The British had come down there in droves,\" he later recalled, \"and every one of them had written a paper about something that was submitted by the British Chiefs of Staff to the American chiefs of Staff for agreement.\"\n\nIn sum, \"We came, we listened,\" Wedemeyer recoined Caesar's famous epigram, \"and we were conquered.\"\n\nAll this was true\u2014bearing out Brigadier Jacob's nervousness at the size of the British team Churchill insisted should be flown to Casablanca. Yet in terms of the Allied strategy that President Roosevelt was now to lay down at Casablanca, it completely missed the point. For the reality was: Wedemeyer and his colleagues were still living in a fool's paradise. And the moment of truth\u2014not only the President's truth, but truth on the ground\u2014had arrived.\n\nInexperienced U.S. planning officers like Brigadier General Wedemeyer were the real problem\u2014not the British.\n\nThe U.S. War Department's final planning document, produced by the Joint Strategic Survey Committee and sent over to the White House Map Room for the President to review before he departed from Washington, had said it all: stating baldly that once Tunisia and Libya were secured, the Allies' Mediterranean Front should be closed down. Mussolini's Italy, in the planning committee's view, could be forced to surrender by air bombing alone. All U.S. Army forces should be switched to Britain \"for a land offensive against Germany in 1943\"\u2014without gaining any further amphibious experience, or campaign lessons in facing and fighting German forces.\n\nThankfully the President had confided to Mackenzie King, in early December, his unwillingness to tackle a cross-Channel invasion before American commanders and troops were blooded and had the measure of their opponents\u2014which could best be done in the Mediterranean, where this could be achieved, as he said, without risking a major setback. His interrogation of General Marshall at the White House before the chiefs left for Casablanca on January 7 had only convinced him more deeply that a premature invasion of northern France would be a disaster\u2014and he had insisted no decision should therefore be made for several months. It was thus with decided relief that President Roosevelt found, at midmorning in his bedroom on his first full day in Casablanca, January 15, 1943, that the penny had finally dropped, at least among his chiefs of staff.\n\nMaking his chiefs fly to Casablanca had, he found, already worked\u2014without British intervention. Once in Morocco, Marshall had finally talked to Allied commanders on the battlefield. As Marshall now confessed in the villa's bordello-like bedroom, he had spoken not only to Admiral Mountbatten\u2014the British chief of Combined Operations, who'd been responsible for the disastrous Dieppe landings\u2014but at great length with General Mark Clark. Clark had been Eisenhower's deputy in the Torch invasion, and had just been promoted to command the U.S. Fifth Army in Morocco, both to defend against mythical German invasion across the Mediterranean and prepare for future offensive operations. General Clark had informed the chief of staff of the U.S. Army that there was no chance of a cross-Channel operation succeeding in the summer of 1943.\n\nNo chance whatever.\n\nThis was music to the President's ears\u2014for he had half-expected to have to do battle once again against his own team, lest in the interval since their meeting in the Oval Office on January 7 they revert to their insistence on a cross-Channel invasion in 1943.\n\nGeneral Clark's battlefield testimony, however, had applied the necessary dose of cold reality. Clark\u2014a man who certainly did not lack courage, having fetched General Henri Giraud from Vichy-held southern France in person by submarine to assist in the Torch invasion\u2014had been emphatic. To Marshall he'd explained that \"there must be a long period of training before any attempt is made to land against determined resistance\"\u2014especially Wehrmacht resistance of the kind that would meet a cross-Channel invasion. In particular he'd \"pointed out many of the mishaps that occurred in the landing in North Africa which would have been fatal had the resistance been more determined,\" as Marshall now relayed to the President. In fact, General Clark had himself undergone a Pauline conversion. In London, the previous summer, he'd deplored the idea of landings in Northwest Africa as an unnecessary \"sideshow.\" Now, however, he felt American amphibious operations in 1943 \"could be mounted more efficiently from North Africa\"\u2014and certainly with less loss of life\u2014than from the British Isles and the United States, across the English Channel.\n\nHitler's Atlantic Wall, the fighting general had made clear to Marshall, was no joke. The American military was not up to such a gargantuan task, he'd realized\u2014and was backed by the latest British planning reports. The British, it seemed, had done the numbers that Marshall's team had failed to appreciate in Washington. They looked formidable. As General Brooke had pointed out in his first presentation on January 14, the day before, at the Anfa Hotel, \"the rail net in Europe would permit the movement of seven [German] divisions a day from east to west which would enable them to reinforce their defenses of the northern coast of France rapidly.\"\n\n_A day?_\n\nBy contrast, Marshall now acknowledged to the President, in the Mediterranean theater the Germans \"can only move one division from north to south each day, in order to reinforce their defense of southern Europe.\"\n\nIf the U.S. armies were to acquire the combat experience necessary to assault Hitler's Atlantic Wall, then it would best be gained in the Mediterranean, at the extremity of German lines of communication. Northern France was, by contrast, the very closest to the German border. General Clark thus favored a continuation of the war in the Mediterranean, Marshall admitted to the President, where \"the lines of communication\" for the Allies would be \"shorter,\" and where the \"troops in North Africa have had experience in landing operations.\" Not only did the Allies already possess sufficient American and British forces in the Mediterranean\u2014naval, air, and ground\u2014to knock Italy out of the war that year by invading Sardinia or Sicily \"once the Axis had been forced out of Tunisia,\" but, as Clark had pointed out, the Mediterranean offered the opportunity for U.S. units to gain the battle exposure they needed, in a relatively secure environment where even local setbacks would not be disastrous to Allied strategy. This was something that could not be said for a premature cross-Channel assault.\n\nLest there be any misunderstanding, the necessary \"training\" for eventual combat against tough German defenders of the West Wall, Clark had repeated to Marshall, would be infinitely \"more effective if undertaken in close contact with the enemy,\" in current combat. Not in the United States or Britain, Clark had insisted, but in real time, in the Mediterranean.\n\nIn the strangest of venues, then, reality had finally set in. The Mediterranean, not northern France, should be the proving ground for as-yet-untested U.S. troops, Marshall now agreed\u2014not only in terms of combat but in developing effective coalition command in 1943\u2014operations involving British, Canadian, French, and other forces, on a front where the Allies could steadily improve their fighting skills, however much the Russians would, doubtless, complain. Not to mention Marshall's Pentagon team.\n\nHeaded by Brigadier General Wedemeyer, Marshall's operations planners would be devastated, the President was aware\u2014as would the secretary of war, Mr. Stimson. But Wedemeyer and Stimson were suffering from delusion\u2014dangerous delusion. However doggedly they urged a cross-Channel attack that year, it was not their lives that would be on the line, but the lives of tens of thousands of Americans\u2014facing a Wehr- macht whose true fighting ability they had not even begun to measure.\n\nIt was, as Captain McCrea recalled, a \"long conference in the President's bed room\" and one that only \"broke up well past noon.\"\n\nThis was, in retrospect, the turning point of the war, in terms of the Allied military struggle against the Axis powers\u2014clinching not only the strategy but the timing of America's game plan in conducting World War II. Mass American suicide in a premature Second Front would once again be avoided that year, thanks to the President's military realism. Instead, mercifully, the United States military would back only those operations that promised success: success that would boost morale at home and validate the President's step-by-step strategy for prosecuting the war.\n\nVictory rather than disaster: this would now be the order of the day.\n\nAs General Clark had now recommended, U.S. forces would be instructed to learn their deadly trade on the periphery of Europe that year, before meeting the deadliest challenge in 1944: one that even Hitler had balked at attempting in 1940, when Britain was on its knees: a massive cross-Channel invasion. Finally, after thirteen months of war, the Commander in Chief and his chiefs of staff were on the same page.\n\nGeneral Marshall's belated recognition, on January 15, that the President's strategy was probably right would now cement the methodical, stone-by-stone U.S. progress in World War II. The question of \"What next?\" after Tunisia was, effectively, over\u2014before the first plenary session of the Combined Chiefs of Staff meetings began at the Anfa Hotel that afternoon.\n\nAmerican grand strategy for 1943 was clear: attritional warfare at the extremity of the enemy's lines of communication, enabling U.S. forces to learn how to defeat the Wehrmacht in battle.\n\nAnd to make sure this policy had a good chance of succeeding, the President said he wanted to see the general commanding the Allies in the Mediterranean from his headquarters in Algiers: young General Dwight D. Eisenhower.\n\nEisenhower seemed to the President to be a bit \"jittery\" as, shortly before 4:00 p.m. on January 15, the two men sat down by the picture window in the President's villa, Dar es Saada.\n\nIt was for a good reason. General Dwight Eisenhower, or Ike, as he was familiarly known, had undergone a hair-raising flight from Algiers to see the President and the chiefs of staff. Two of his Flying Fortress's engines had conked out, and he'd been told he must get ready to parachute from the aircraft. This he'd begun to do\u2014chiding, as he did so, his naval aide for the time it was taking him to refasten one of his general's shoulder pins, which had been accidentally knocked out. \"Haven't you ever fastened a star before?\" Ike had barked at the hapless officer, whose hands were shaking uncontrollably. \"Yes, sir, but never with a parachute on,\" the aide had squeaked.\n\nFortunately the pilot had nursed the surviving two engines long enough to land at Medouina airport, and Eisenhower had immediately been driven to the Anfa Hotel to appear before the Combined Chiefs of Staff.\n\nDissatisfied by Allied progress\u2014or lack of progress\u2014in Tunisia, the Combined Chiefs of Staff had treated the young general roughly, expressing frank disappointment at his failure to seize Tunis at the very start of the campaign, and also at the German rebuff given to his second attempt, earlier that month.\n\nEisenhower's logistical excuses had seemed somewhat lame to the chiefs, more than two months after the Torch landings. On paper, after all, he possessed more than three hundred thousand soldiers under his command in Northwest Africa, ranged against \"only\" sixty-five thousand German troops in Tunisia. His latest plan for an end run\u2014an armored right-hook thrusting out of the Tunisian mountains toward the sea at Sfax, designed to carve a wedge between von Arnim's army in Tunisia and Rommel's retreating army in Libya\u2014sounded ill-conceived to General Brooke, who'd had actual battle experience against German forces in the spring and summer of 1940. Ultra decrypts that very day had shown Rommel to be dispatching the veteran Twenty-First Panzer Division from Libya to deal with just such an Allied threat. Instead of dividing and conquering the German forces in North Africa, the Anglo-American forces might themselves be split apart. Where was the doctrine of concentration of force rather than dispersion of effort\u2014dispersion that could only encourage the Germans to see their chance to counterattack and defeat the Allies in detail?\n\n\"Eisenhower is hopeless!\" Brooke had noted in frustration in his diary, in late December, reflecting that the American general \"submerges himself in politics and neglects his military duties, partly, I'm afraid, because he knows little if anything about military matters.\"\n\nBrooke was not alone in his criticism of Eisenhower. While \"spying out the land\" for the President and Prime Minister's visit, Brigadier Jacob, too, had been appalled by Eisenhower's Allied headquarters. \"The chief impression I got was of a general air of restless confusion, with everyone trying their best in unnatural conditions. I was assured on all sides that there was no Anglo-American friction at all. But the simple fact of having a mixed staff is quite enough to reduce the overall efficiency by at least a half . . . The British members of the staff, who occupy many of the key positions, have to work with U.S. officers who are entirely ignorant and inexperienced, and have to operate on a system which is quite different from the one to which they are accustomed. They find their task harassing and irritating in the extreme. Many are inclined to doubt whether a combined Allied Staff is a practical arrangement, and think the experiment should not be repeated, and should be brought to an end as soon as possible.\"\n\nEmerging from his interrogation by the chiefs at the Anfa Hotel, Eisenhower suspected his number might be up as coalition commander in chief in the theater. \"His neck is on the noose, and he knows it,\" even his naval aide, Lieutenant Commander Harry Butcher, noted in his diary. At his headquarters in town General Patton recorded the same. \"He thinks his thread is about to be cut,\" Patton would scribble, after talking with Ike\u2014urging Eisenhower to \"go to the front\" instead of returning to the huge Allied headquarters in Algeria, many hundreds of miles behind the fighting.\n\nRoosevelt, however, saw things differently\u2014very differently. From the President's point of view, Eisenhower had done extremely well\u2014indeed, given the friction that would arise between de Gaulle and General Giraud over control of French anti-Vichy forces, Ike had achieved miracles in planting the American flag across Vichy-held Algeria and Morocco in only a few weeks, leaving no real chance the Germans could strike the Allies in the flank, as Secretary Stimson and General Marshall feared.\n\nThe fact remained: whether General Brooke liked it or not, only an American supreme commander was going to be able to direct the campaign. For good or ill, a system of workable coalition command, in combat, had still to be developed\u2014and it was a blessing that the President had journeyed, as U.S. commander in chief, to see Eisenhower in person, in the active theater of war, whatever might be the disappointments of the British and American chiefs of staff.\n\nHaving first put the young general at ease, the President thus listened with interest as Dwight Eisenhower explained what the Allies were up against in advancing across the same mountain range the President had overflown in Morocco, as well as the atrocious mud and winter weather conditions in Tunisia. Hitler had managed to get sixty-five thousand German troops across the Mediterranean from Italy, together with high-quality equipment, including new Panther and Tiger tanks\u2014the latter armed with 88mm guns\u2014but he had been aided, too, by French pusillanimity, the French forces in Tunisia failing to fire a single shot to delay, let alone stop, the Germans.\n\nEven that French timidity had been outweighed by the political and military leadership problems with which the French had confronted Eisenhower as Allied commander in chief in Northwest Africa. General Giraud had succeeded Admiral Darlan as French commissioner, but was proving a disappointment\u2014a \"good Division Commander,\" possibly, but wholly lacking in \"political sense\" and with \"no idea of administration. He was dictatorial by nature and seemed to suffer from megalomania,\" Eisenhower had already explained to the chiefs\u2014a view he now repeated to the President. \"In addition,\" Giraud \"was very sensitive and always ready to take offense. He did not seem to be a big enough man to carry the burden of civil government in any way. It had been far easier,\" Eisenhower remarked candidly, \"to deal with Admiral Darlan,\" despite Darlan's record as a P\u00e9tainite Nazi appeaser.\n\nThe President laughed. If only his many critics in America knew! Feckless French troops were deserting by the hundreds, in the field, rather than risk their lives against the ruthless Wehrmacht. So much for coalition fighting. Getting the French to stop squabbling amongst themselves over currency, supplies, pensions, and administrative aspects of the U.S. occupation had also proven a minefield\u2014permitting Eisenhower, as the general himself acknowledged, too little time to focus properly on the battlefront, where progress had been painfully slow. The Wehrmacht forces facing U.S. troops in the Gafsa and T\u00e9bessa sectors were, Eisenhower made clear, first class. The \"opposition was tough,\" Elliott Roosevelt\u2014who was acting as his father's aide-de-camp\u2014recorded, \"while we were just beginning to learn about war first hand.\"\n\nThis was exactly the kind of honest appraisal the President wanted to hear, from the lips of the top U.S. commander in the theater\u2014confirming what General Clark had told General Marshall.\n\n\"No excuses, I take it,\" the President commented.\n\n\"No, sir. Just hard work.\" Or fighting.\n\nIn which case, the President raised the next question, what was the general's estimate of how long it would take to clear North Africa of Axis forces?\n\nAt the White House in late November, 1942, General Bedell Smith, Eisenhower's chief of staff, had personally assured the President that fighting would be over by mid-January 1943. It was now mid-January.\n\n\"What about it? What's your guess?\" the President pressed Ike. \"How long'll it take to finish the job?\"\n\n\"Can I have one 'if,' sir?\"\n\nThe President chuckled, Elliott remembered, and bade him give his best estimate.\n\n\"With any kind of break in the weather, sir, we'll have 'em all either in the bag or in the sea by late spring.\"\n\n\"What's late spring mean? June?\"\n\n\"Maybe as early as the middle of May. June at the latest.\"\n\nElliott recalled being surprised by the young general's cautious estimate, as this\u2014five months of further campaigning\u2014would make a switch of naval, air, and army forces to England, in order to mount a massive amphibious invasion of France across the English Channel that summer, almost impossible. The notorious fall weather would preclude a late-summer amphibious assault\u2014as Hitler, too, had similarly decided in the summer of 1940, after the Luftwaffe had been rebuffed in the Battle of Britain.\n\n\"Father looked satisfied,\" Elliott clearly remembered\u2014and summoned the Combined Chiefs of Staff, once again, to his villa, at 5:30 p.m.\n\nThe President asked Winston Churchill to attend the meeting at the Villa Dar es Saada, too\u2014for the session would be, in effect, a presidential briefing, backed by the President's \"active and ardent lieutenant.\"\n\nOne by one the generals and admirals\u2014Marshall, King, Arnold, Brooke, Pound, Dill\u2014entered, together with Air Marshal Arthur Tedder, Admiral Mountbatten, General Hastings Ismay, and Harry Hopkins. Once seated, the President asked General Eisenhower to give yet another presentation of \"the situation on his front\"\u2014an indication that, as President, he was fully behind his prot\u00e9g\u00e9.\n\nThe President then briefly reviewed the outlook with the assembled chieftains\u2014and made clear to them his own preference. As Brooke noted in his diary, \"we did little except that President expressed views favouring operations in the Mediterranean.\"\n\nAware that General Marshall might feel he'd lost face among the Combined Chiefs of Staff after arguing so hard for an end to Mediterranean operations and a switch to the U.K. for a cross-Channel attack that year, the President asked Marshall to stay behind and have dinner with him. He also invited Eisenhower.\n\nElliott made old-fashioneds (sugar, bitters, and whiskey) for the generals\u2014and, joined by Franklin Jr., the five men sat down in the President's dining room for a first-class Moroccan meal.\n\nTypically, Roosevelt wanted Marshall to feel he was respected, even if his advice had been wrong. He therefore deliberately raised again his wish to inspect troops not only in Morocco but closer to the frontline, near the Tunisian border.\n\n\"Out of the question, sir,\" Marshall stated unequivocally. Even with a fighter escort, the President's slow C-54 could be attacked by Luftwaffe planes\u2014\"it would just draw attackers,\" Eisenhower added frankly, \"like flies to honey.\"\n\nThe President reluctantly backed off the idea\u2014allowing Marshall to feel he had won at least a tactical victory.\n\nSatisfied, Marshall and Eisenhower departed the villa after dinner and the President then spent quality time with his sons, talking about the family. \"Father got to bed early that night: before midnight,\" Elliott recalled.\n\nThe President had cause to feel the conference was off to a good start. The flight to North Africa had been historic. But so, too, had been the President's first full day in Casablanca. By its end he'd ensured that the great Allied military conference would result in compromise and cooperation, _not contention_ \u2014thus injecting not only unity of Allied military purpose but a transfusion of realism into the veins of the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, who were, in all truth, more green regarding modern warfare than Eisenhower.\n\nInstead of insisting upon mass American slaughter on the beaches of northern France that August, the U.S. chiefs could now set about mapping a detailed course of operations that year that would, above all, be _within the capabilities_ of the Western Allies\u2014whatever Stalin might plead, when eventually informed.\n\nBesides: if the Russian dictator had wanted to argue for a Second Front in Europe that year, he should have taken the trouble to show up.\n\nWith that, having bidden his guests goodnight, the President retired and went to sleep, confident that, though the Allies had much to learn in combat, they would do so in the coming months, and that all would be well\u2014with 1944 the year when the coup de gr\u00e2ce could be given and the Third Reich brought to an ignominious end.\n\nHow difficult it would be to steer his coalition partners, however, remained to be seen. If the British were difficult, how much more so were the French. Moreover, how to keep the Russians happy with such a timetable, when they were facing two-thirds of the Wehrmacht on the Eastern Front, would be tougher still.\nPART FOUR\n\n* * *\n\n#  _Unconditional Surrender_\n**13**\n\n# Stimson Is Aghast\n\nAT THE PENTAGON, Secretary Stimson was aghast on hearing the \"bad news\" from General McNarney.\n\nJoseph McNarney was the U.S. Army deputy chief of staff, standing in for General Marshall. His news related to \"how the British were forcing us to do some more in the Mediterranean\" after Tunis, rather than switching U.S. forces to a cross-Channel invasion, to be launched from England that year. In Washington, D.C., however, the secretary of war could do nothing.\n\nTwo days later Stimson's heart sank still further with the \"somber news that I had been getting yesterday from the conference in Africa where it seems to be clear that the British are getting away with their own theories,\" he recorded, \"and that the President must be yielding to their views as against those of our own General Staff and the Chief of Staff. So it looks as if we were in for further entanglements in the Mediterranean, and this seems to me a pretty serious situation unless the Germans are very much less strong than I think we should assume.\"\n\nStimson's continuing lack of realism was deplorable, given the lack of U.S. experience in mounting an operation as vast and serious as a cross-Channel invasion would be, if undertaken that year. At the same time, the war secretary's fear of \"perfidious Albion\" was well warranted. Could British assurances they would eventually participate in a Second Front honestly be believed? The answer was clearly no.\n\nFor all their criticisms of Eisenhower's tardiness in Tunisia, the British were not actually willing or able to say how the Third Reich could be _defeated_ , rather than surrounded. As Admiral King reported to the President when the U.S. chiefs of staff came to the Villa Dar es Saada the following evening, January 16, for a two-hour session with Mr. Roosevelt, \"the Joint Chiefs of Staff have been attempting to obtain the British Chiefs of Staff concept of how the war should be _won_ \"\u2014and had had little luck. It seemed the British had no idea.\n\nIn his diary General Sir Alan Brooke, after his own experience in battle against German forces in 1940, remained implacably opposed to a cross-Channel attack unless the Wehrmacht was first weakened and brought to its knees elsewhere. He complained, in his diary, at the \"slow tedious process\" it was to get the U.S. team to accept his \"proposed policy.\" In a postwar annotation to the diary, he would even pen a diatribe against General Marshall. Among \"Marshall's very high qualities he did not possess those of a strategist,\" Brooke (by then Lord Alanbrooke of Brookeborough) would claim. \"It was almost impossible to make him grasp the true concepts of a strategic situation. He was unable to argue out a strategic situation and preferred to hedge and defer decisions until such time as he had to consult his assistants\"\u2014assistants who were \"not of the required calibre.\"\n\nBrooke was being disingenuous\u2014for Marshall, like Admiral King, was an excellent strategist; what he lacked was the ability to see how important it was to match U.S. strategy to reality. Neither general properly understood the need to create armies and army commanders who could defeat the Wehrmacht _in battle_ \u2014irrespective of wearing down German forces on other fronts.\n\nHour after hour Marshall thus pressed Brooke and the British to explain how exactly a further campaign in the Mediterranean would, in itself, _defeat the Third Reich_ \u2014something neither Brooke nor his colleagues Admiral Pound (who was suffering from an undiagnosed brain tumor) and Air Marshal Portal could answer. Brooke's assertions that the Germans would thereby be \"worn down\" to a point where they could not send reinforcements to northern France seemed particularly lame, given the likelihood that, if the Allies fought on in Italy, as Brooke envisioned, it would be the Allies who would be worn down rather than the Germans.\n\nMarshall and Brooke thus went at each other hammer and tongs. Almost five hours of discussion at the Anfa Hotel\u2014however irritating to Brooke\u2014did at least permit the American team to challenge and rehearse the different possible military alternatives for 1943 with relentless honesty within the framework of overall war strategy.\n\nThe result was a consensus: there were no alternatives. If forced to fight on that year in the relative safety of the Mediterranean theater, the U.S. chiefs accepted, then it would be best to tackle Sicily, once North Africa was cleared\u2014giving the Allies the amphibious-assault-landing experience necessary for a 1944 cross-Channel invasion.\n\nThe President had been right, they reluctantly agreed as they went over the requirements for a successful Second Front with their British opposite numbers. General Brooke had pointed to forty German divisions available in or close to France\u2014and a Luftwaffe that was still a potent weapon of war. By contrast, after the expected capture of Tunis in the spring of 1943, the Allies would have but twenty-one to twenty-four divisions ready to assault northern France even by the fall\u2014and as Admiral Pound, the British navy chief, pointed out, \"this was too late since the weather was liable to break in the third week of September and it was essential to have a port by then.\" August 15, 1943, would be the cutoff date, weatherwise, were a cross-Channel invasion to be undertaken that year\u2014moreover, according to the commander of the British amphibious forces, Vice Admiral Mountbatten, it would take all of three months to get the necessary landing craft from the Mediterranean to the United Kingdom. Any hope that the RAF or USAAF could interdict German air forces over Brest were scotched by Air Marshal Portal, the RAF chief, \"since it was out of range.\" Even if the Cherbourg-Normandy area was chosen, \"with limited air facilities in the [Cherbourg] Peninsula we should possibly find ourselves pinned down at the neck of the Peninsula by ground forces whose superiority we should be unable to offset by the use of air,\" Portal pointed out. And once the Germans realized the Allies were not actually going to attack Italy and southern Europe from North Africa, they would \"quickly bring up their air forces from the Mediterranean, realizing that we could not undertake amphibious operations on a considerable scale both across the Channel _and_ in the Mediterranean.\"\n\nThe simple fact, then, was: \"no Continental operations on any scale were in prospect before the spring of 1944,\" General Arnold concluded.\n\nIf the Combined Chiefs were agreed on 1944 for a major cross-Channel assault, at what point should \"further operations\" in the Mediterranean be halted, though? How exploit Allied strength in the Mediterranean, once achieved, without risking stalemate requiring more and more reinforcements\u2014thus vitiating the success of the cross-Channel campaign planned for 1944? As General Marshall memorably put it, the Mediterranean could become a dangerous \"suction pump\" on American manpower and arms. What Marshall therefore wanted from Brooke, Pound, and Portal, as a strategist, was an acknowledgment of that danger: an agreement that, if operations in the Mediterranean became stalled or an expensive dead end, the very combat experience the Allies were seeking would thereby be wasted, and a successful cross-Channel invasion in 1944 be rendered impossible.\n\nThis danger General Brooke refused to validate, as only an owl-eyed, intelligent, but obstinate Ulsterman could\u2014while paying lip service to the notion of an eventual cross-Channel attack in 1944.\n\nWould Brooke keep his word, though, the U.S. team wondered? Would the British even undertake an offensive to reopen the Burma Road they had lost to the Japanese in 1942, which was vital in order to supply United Nations forces in China?\n\nMarshall had to hope they would. The British, after all, were America's primary allies in the global war. At the Villa Dar es Saada Marshall therefore reported to the President on January 16 his understanding that, after the amphibious invasion of Sicily that summer, \"the British were not interested in occupying Italy, inasmuch as this would add to our burdens without commensurate returns.\"\n\nThese were famous last words\u2014or hopes.\n\nThe President was as concerned as Marshall over getting bogged down in Italy, and \"expressed his agreement with this view.\" Between them, however, they would have to make the British back off such a potential dead end\u2014the President working on Churchill, Marshall on Brooke. Neither of them had any idea of the nightmares ahead, though, in this regard.\n\nIn the meantime, crediting British good faith, the chiefs moved on to other strategic concerns. By Monday, January 18, in fact, Roosevelt had been able to get outline agreement on pretty much all he had wanted at Casablanca. The Combined Chiefs had agreed to his strategy for 1943: further operations in the Mediterranean, after the capture of Tunis, targeted on Sicily, with simultaneous preparations for a cross-Channel assault to be made earliest in late 1943, if there were signs of sudden German collapse; otherwise a full-scale assault early in 1944 on the Cherbourg Peninsula, targeted on Berlin. In Asia there was to be a 1943 British offensive in Burma to open the overland supply route to China. And in the Pacific, further advances that would take the Allies closer to the Japanese mainland\u2014which would be ultimately bombed into submission, or subjected to land assault if required, after the defeat of Nazi Germany.\n\nIn this respect the President had invited Churchill to lunch with him privately at the Villa Dar es Saada on the eighteenth, before the afternoon meeting he'd convened with the chiefs of staff\u2014for he wanted something of major importance from Churchill: formal agreement to his \"unconditional surrender\" policy.\n\nChurchill raised no objection whatever\u2014in fact the Prime Minister found himself positively inspired by the President's proposals for prosecuting the war to the bitter end, gaily promising not only that the British would launch their offensive into Burma (Operation Anakim) under General Wavell that year but would \"enter into a treaty,\" if necessary, to assure him that Britain would fight alongside the United States to ensure the ultimate \"defeat of Japan.\" In reporting the day's deliberations to his cabinet that night, Churchill informed his colleagues in London that the Combined Chiefs of Staff in Casablanca were \"now I think unanimous in essentials about the conduct of the war in 1943,\" and that in respect of the strategy decided upon at the meeting held in the President's villa with the Combined Chiefs, \"Admiral Q [FDR] and I were in complete agreement.\" Moreover, Churchill cabled, he and the President were in agreement that, at the conclusion of the conference, there would be a public \"declaration of firm intention of the United States and the British Empire to continue the war relentlessly until we have brought about the 'unconditional surrender' of Germany and Japan.\"\n\nHistorians would later argue over the merits and demerits of such a war policy, but the fact that neither the U.S. chiefs of staff nor the British prime minister and his War Cabinet in London opposed the President's \"unconditional surrender\" policy gives some idea of how much in control of such war strategies was the President. Time would tell how it would go down once announced to the world, but in the meantime Mr. Roosevelt had come too far to remain closeted in the Anfa camp. He had chosen as his _nom de plume_ Admiral Q, in prior secret communications with Churchill\u2014a humorous reference to his Spanish literary hero, Don Quixote. (Hopkins was \"Mr. P.\" for Sancho Panza.) Whether he was tilting at windmills in seeking unconditional surrender of the Axis nations would only become clear in the fullness of time\u2014and war. In the meanwhile he wanted to get out and visit with his commanders and the troops in the field, like Lincoln.\n\nOn the evening of January 19, the President went to dine with General Patton at his palatial headquarters in Casablanca\u2014listening with fascination and amusement to the cavalryman as, in his distinctive high-pitched voice, he described his recent landings under French fire, and expounded upon the primacy of the tank in modern warfare.\n\nTwo days later, at 9:20 a.m., the President left Casablanca by car with Patton \"for an inspection of the United States Army forces stationed in the vicinity of Rabat, some 85 miles to the northeast,\" as Captain McCrea recorded. U.S. troops lined the entire route as the fifteen cars in the cavalcade made their way north, covered by a U.S. Air Force umbrella.\n\nRecalled General Clark, the President \"started asking questions, and I don't think he stopped all day. He transferred to a jeep at Rabat, where Major-General E. N. Harmon, commanding the Second Armored Division, was introduced and joined us for that part of the trip. The President was driven within a few feet of the front rank of the troops, which were lined with their vehicles.\" Then on to review the men of the Third Infantry Division. \"A stiff wind made the flags and banners stand out smartly, and the outfits were polished and alert, so that the President had a fine time, seemed pleased with what he saw, and showed his pride for what they had accomplished.\" And in the afternoon, the Ninth U.S. Infantry Division, commanded by Major-General Manton Eddy.\n\n\"I went 'up the line' this a.m. beyond Rabat,\" the President wrote Daisy that night, and \"reviewed about 30,000 Am[erican]. Troops,\" followed by a visit to Fort Mehdia\u2014\"a very stirring day for me & a complete surprise to the Troops.\"\n\nGiven his paralysis, driving in an army jeep caused the President intense pain, but he bore it with equanimity: pleased as punch to review combat-readying soldiers on the battlefield\u2014the brim of his soft Panama hat turned up as he held onto the jeep's guardrail.\n\nOne British staffer, witnessing the inspection, later recalled how \"fortunate\" he was \"in being invited by an American colonel to watch President Roosevelt inspecting an American battalion. I was the only British officer present and I was told it was an historic occasion\u2014the first time a President of the United States had ever inspected an American unit on foreign soil. Instead of the parade receiving the visiting officer with a general salute, being inspected and then marching past, the President arrived first and took up his seat (in his jeep because of course he was paralyzed) at the saluting base. Then the photographers got busy, taking him from all angles, from above and below\"\u2014the brigadier disgusted by the photographers \"who buzzed round the commanding officer and the leading ranks like flies round a horse's ears. They put down wooden boxes to stand on and photographed the leading ranks from above; they lay on the ground and photographed them from the snake's eye view, rolling out of the way to avoid being kicked. Even I, on the touch line, wanted to kick them. The proceedings were most undignified. Then the battalion formed up in line and the President, with two fierce and heavily armed detectives on his jeep and four others, one looking to each point of the compass, in a following jeep, drove down the line. Finally he decorated a soldier and then drove off.\"\n\nBrigadier Davy had been a highly decorated commander and then staff officer in Egypt, but like so many British colleagues he had simply no understanding of America: of its immigrant history, or the miracle by which ethnically and socially disparate citizens were being molded into a world power based on democratic principles and the President's four freedoms. No picture was ever taken indicating the President's paralysis, but press photographers were aware the whole nation would respond to images of the U.S. commander in chief out in Africa, inspecting his troops. Moreover, from the point of view of public opinion in America, where the majority of people favored dealing with Japan before Germany, such patriotic images were of inestimable importance.\n\nTelling his son Elliott about the trip that evening, the President certainly brimmed with pride and excitement. \"I wish you could have seen the expression on the faces of some of those men in the infantry division. You could hear 'em say, 'Gosh\u2014it's the old man himself!' And Father roared with laughter,\" Elliott recalled. He'd eaten field rations there with Generals Clark and Patton. And Harry Hopkins. \"Harry!\" he now called upstairs. \"How'd you like that lunch in the field, hunh?\"\n\nHopkins, running a bath, thought for a moment. Then he called back down that, although the food had been somewhat Spartan, he'd loved the music. \"'Oh yes,' said Father. ' _Chattanooga Choo-Choo,_ _Alexander's Rag-Time Band,_ and that one about Texas, where they clap their hands, _you_ know . . .'\n\n\"' _Deep in the Heart of Texas?_ '\n\n\"'That's right. And some waltzes.'\" The President paused. \"'Elliott, tell me,'\" he continued: \"'Would any army in the world but the American army have a regimental band playing songs like that while the Commander-in-Chief ate ham and sweet potatoes and green beans right near by? Hmmm?\" He even showed Elliott the mess kit he'd eaten lunch out of, which he'd brought back with him. When Elliott said he would surely have been able to obtain one in America, if he wanted, the President was appalled. \"But I _ate_ out of _this_ one, at Rabat,\" he told his son with childlike pride, \"the day I saw three divisions of American soldiers, who are fighting a tough war. It's a good souvenir. I'll take it home with me.\"\n\nThe President had also visited Port Lyautey, he told Elliott, and seen the sunken warships. He'd laid a wreath at the American section of the local cemetery\u2014and had looked at the graves of the French who'd opposed them.\n\nIn a world at war, the Commander in Chief wanted to do right by those men\u2014and if it was hubris to imagine he could in person get America's allies to combine in effecting his two-part vision of the world war and the postwar, then that was a designation the \"Emperor of the West\"\u2014as Eisenhower's British political adviser, Harold Macmillan, described him\u2014accepted. Inspecting three entire U.S. divisions in the theater of combat, he felt his vision was at least grounded in America's burgeoning emergence as a world power: a power that would soon become capable, with its allies, of slaying the Nazi monster, _unconditionally_ \u2014and the Japanese demon thereafter. For this he would need, however, not only the Prime Minister, but the Emperor of the East: Joseph Stalin. Also, probably, the two rivals for leadership of the French empire: Generals Henri Giraud and Charles de Gaulle\u2014the latter due to arrive the next day.\n**14**\n\n# De Gaulle\n\nGETTING Major General de Gaulle to appear in Casablanca had been a trial from the start. \"On our arrival at Casablanca at the first military meeting with the Pres.,\" Captain McCrea later recalled, \"the Prime Minister informed the Pres. that General De Gaulle, despite his invitation to the Casablanca conference by the P.M., had decided not to attend.\"\n\nSince Major General de Gaulle was the leader of the Free French movement in London, it was considered vital to get him and General Giraud, the French high commissioner under Eisenhower, to meld the forces under one authority, if they were to contribute to the liberation not only of North Africa and France but of Europe.\n\nDe Gaulle's refusal to come to Casablanca had thus been a nasty shot across the President's bows. Roosevelt was \"greatly\" annoyed, McCrea recalled. \"The Pres. told the P.M. rather sternly, I thought, that it was up to the P.M. to get De Gaulle there. At this the P.M. took off on De Gaulle about as follows: 'I tell you Mr. President, Gen. De Gaulle is most difficult to handle. We house him. We feed him. We pay him and he refuses to raise a finger in support of our war effort. He states vigorously every time he gets a chance to do it that he is entitled to military command. I ask you Mr. President what sort of a military command could either of us give him?'\n\n\"The Pres. acknowledged that no doubt De Gaulle was hard to handle and there continued about as follows: 'Winston, this is a shotgun marriage'\u2014referring of course to the hoped-for collaboration between De Gaulle and Giraud\u2014and continued, 'We have our party here, referring to Giraud, and I feel it is up to you to get _your_ party here.' I inwardly squirmed a bit,\" McCrea confessed, \"at the bluntness of the Pres. remarks, but he, of course, put a light touch on the proceedings with a hearty laugh. I felt easier.\"\n\nThis was typical FDR. Whether it was wise was another matter. It bespoke, however, Roosevelt's urgency\u2014for it was vital, in his mind, for the Western Allies to retain the cohesion of their military coalition if they were to persuade the Soviets to go on fighting the Wehrmacht on the Eastern Front. Especially once the time came to inform Stalin that the Allies were _not_ going to launch a Second Front in 1943 unless the Germans collapsed that summer\u2014which seemed unlikely.\n\nDay after day Churchill had duly attempted to get de Gaulle to fly out to Casablanca. \"De Gaulle refused Churchill's invitation to come from London,\" the President himself wrote Daisy with a mixture of amusement and irritation. \"He has declined a second invitation\u2014says he will not be 'duressed' by W.S.C. & especially by the American President\u2014Today I asked W.S.C. who paid De Gaulle's salary\u2014W.S.C. beamed\u2014good idea\u2014no come\u2014no pay!\"\n\nThe next day Roosevelt heard that de Gaulle had finally consented. \"De Gaulle will come! Tomorrow!\" the President wrote Daisy in excitement on January 21. But if the President thought that by bringing de Gaulle and Giraud together, he could achieve a genuine marriage, he was to be profoundly mistaken. By contrast Winston Churchill, who had been dealing with the quirky, proud, and imperious Major General de Gaulle for two and a half years, knew exactly what was to be expected.\n\nQuite why the President would take personal charge of negotiations with the senior French leaders and officials was a mystery to the British prime minister\u2014who possessed a far deeper understanding of political realities on the European side of the Atlantic than the President.\n\nAmerican political policy in Northwest Africa seemed disastrously amateur, even the U.S. vice consul at Marrakesh acknowledged. From public relations to economics and intelligence, the various Washington agencies \"who came to North Africa were at loggerheads with State Department policy,\" Kenneth Pendar afterward recorded. \"The heads of all the agencies cooperated, but their subordinates left the French feeling that we, as Americans, had no clear policy or ideology of any kind.\"\n\nThis was all too true. It was also inevitable, perhaps, as the United States emerged from its long isolationist slumber and felt its way as the world's foremost military power. Early in the twentieth century the United States had considered, then balked at, becoming an empire; now, however, it had little alternative, whether that empire was to be territorial or post-territorial. And this exposed a major weakness in the American system of government\u2014for though the President might make military decisions as U.S. commander in chief, political decisions were another matter. Not only Congress but the free media of the country were entitled to \"weigh in\"\u2014making unity of approach virtually impossible. Secretary Hull was even more skeptical of de Gaulle than the President. He was equally opposed to the restoration of France's colonial empire in the postwar world save as trusteeships\u2014for how could American sons be expected to give their lives merely to reestablish a colonial yoke they themselves had thrown off in 1783?\n\nThe President\u2014like General Eisenhower\u2014was thus faced with an awkward military task: harnessing British and French forces to the yoke of the Western Allies, without committing the United States to restitution of their colonial empires.\n\nNot even Roosevelt's personal representative at Eisenhower's headquarters, Robert Murphy, had had any idea of the President's long-range political plans when preparing the Torch invasion: namely, that \"Roosevelt was planning to encourage extensive reductions in the French empire,\" as the diplomat delicately put it in his memoirs. Once he met with the President at the Villa Dar es Saada, however, Murphy had been quickly brought up to speed\u2014and recognized the postwar agenda the President was seeking. Having congratulated Murphy on the \"Darlan deal\" that had brought such quick Vichy surrender, the President had then looked reproachfully at his emissary. \"But you overdid things a bit in one of the letters you wrote to Giraud before the landings, pledging the United States Government to guarantee the return to France of every part of her empire. Your letter may make trouble for me after the war.\" Without further ado, the President had gone on to discuss \"with several people, including Eisenhower and me, the transfer of control of Dakar, Indochina, and other French possessions, and he did not seem fully aware how abhorrent his attitude would be to all empire-minded French including De Gaulle and also those with whom I had negotiated agreements.\"\n\nIt was the President's long-term political agenda that set the cat among the pigeons, rather than his modest military expectations. And late on the evening of Friday, January 22, 1943, after a delightful meal with the Sultan of Morocco at the Villa Dar es Saada, the President realized he was playing with fire.\n\nCaptain McCrea remembered the fateful night in Casablanca vividly. He had hand-delivered the President's invitation to the Sultan at his palace near Rabat the day before. \"No Hollywood director could have put on a more colorful spectacle,\" McCrea recalled. \"The Court Yard ankle deep in white sand,\" the cavalry \"dressed in colorful costumes, the white horses draped in red blankets\"\u2014and the Sultan asking if he might bring with him his young teenage son, the Crown Prince, to meet the President.\n\nAt 7:40 p.m. on the twenty-second, the Sultan had duly arrived with his \"entourage\"\u2014\"magnificently attired in white silk robes\" and \"bearing several presents\u2014a gold-mounted dagger for the President in a beautiful inlaid teakwood case, and two golden bracelets and high golden tiara for Mrs. Roosevelt.\" In return, the Sultan was given a signed photograph of the President in a heavy silver frame, engraved with the presidential seal.\n\nIt was hardly a fair exchange\u2014yet the Sultan of Morocco and his son were delighted, for the evening was historic: it was the first time the Sultan had ever been allowed to meet the head of any foreign state other than France.\n\nSeating the Sultan on his right, the President had proceeded to lay out, verbally over dinner, a magic table of postcolonial dreams for the country. Morocco, after all, had only been colonized by the French early in the twentieth century, becoming a \"protectorate\" in 1912; it could become a sovereign country once again, in the war's aftermath.\n\nChurchill, seated on the President's left, had grown \"more and more disgruntled,\" Elliott Roosevelt recalled, as the President discussed living standards for the nation's Muslims, better education, and \"possible oil deposits\" in the country. \"The Sultan eagerly pounced on this; declared himself decidedly in favor of developing any such potentialities, retaining the income therefrom; then sadly shook his head as he deplored the lack of trained scientists and engineers among his countrymen, technicians who would be able to develop such fields unaided,\" Elliott wrote. \"Father suggested mildly that Moroccan engineers and scientists could of course be educated and trained under some sort of reciprocal educational program with, for instance, some of our leading universities in the United States.\"\n\nGeneral Charles Nogu\u00e8s, who as the French resident general had also been invited to the dinner but had been placed further down the table, \"had devoted his career to fortifying the French position in Morocco,\" according to Robert Murphy's account, and \"could not conceal his outraged feelings\" at Roosevelt's talk of postcolonial development and American investment. At the end of dinner \"the Sultan assured Father,\" Elliott recalled, \"he would petition the United States for aid in the development of his country. His face glowed. 'A new future for my country!'\"\n\nIt was also a new approach to decolonization: discussion, both at table and beyond. As word spread, in the days and weeks afterward, the story of the dinner would become legendary among Moroccans as a \"proof of our sincerity in the Atlantic Charter,\" another American official remembered\u2014almost every Arab in Morocco feeling \"he knew the whole story of this _diffa_ and everything that was said, just as if he had been there.\"\n\n\"It was a delightful dinner, everybody\u2014with one exception\u2014enjoying himself immensely,\" Elliott later recalled.\n\nThe exception was not General Nogu\u00e8s, however; Elliott meant Mr. Churchill. For his part, Robert Murphy remembered the Prime Minister, thanks to his \"rare abstinence,\" being \"unnaturally glum throughout the evening\"\u2014as well as uncomfortable at the mention of the end of colonial empires. Captain McCrea, however, recalled Churchill's clever solution to the alcohol problem.\n\n\"As to no alcoholic beverage being served [in deference to the Sultan],\" the President's naval aide recalled, \"the P.M. I think was taken by surprise. At any rate he started to glower, the glower being more pronounced during the small talk which preceded the dinner. The Pres. noted this and I think was rather amused.\" In the meantime, \"directly dinner was announced seats were taken,\" and shortly after dinner started, an \"amusing incident took place. One of our Secret Service men entered the dining area and whispered to me that a Royal Marine, the P.M.'s orderly, wanted to speak to me . . . He informed me that a most important message had been received at the P.M.'s nearby villa which required immediate attention. I indicated where the P.M. was seated and told the Marine to so inform the P.M.\" This he did. \"The P.M. after a word with the Pres, withdrew. In about twenty minutes or thereabouts the P.M. returned. No doubt the message referred to was urgent,\" McCrea allowed, \"but on his return it was evident that the P.M. had taken time out to have a quickie or so while handling the urgent dispatch. After dinner and when the guests had departed the Pres. had a good laugh about it all, remarking 'Winston did not tell me what the message was about. Do you suppose he can have arranged it?'\"\n\nIt was already 10:00 p.m. \"The Sultan obviously wanted to stay and discuss more specifically and with loving emphasis some of the points Father had raised during the dinner,\" Elliott recounted, \"but Father's work for the evening was cut out for him. A signal to Captain McCrea then, to stay and take notes; one to Robert Murphy and Harry Hopkins; one to me to hold myself in readiness to act as Ganymede\u2014and all the others left. The stage was set for Charles de Gaulle.\"\n\nIt had been Theodore Roosevelt's dictum\u2014using a supposed West African proverb\u2014that a successful leader should \"speak softly and carry a big stick.\" Franklin Roosevelt preferred, however, to keep his stick well concealed, relying on the force of his personality, his high intelligence, his self-confidence, and his passionate interest in the future to steer people in what he considered the right direction. Even the generally dismissive General Patton, who despised politicians, had been won over by him.\n\nGeneral Marshall had disappointed Patton when dining with him at Casablanca on arrival\u2014\"Never asked a question,\" Patton had noted in his diary. The President, by contrast, never stopped asking questions. Patton had spent one and a half hours with him on January 16\u2014the President (whom Patton referred to as A-1) \"most affable and interested. We got on fine.\" The next day Patton had seen the President again, and \"we all talked over one and one-quarter hours, then went to see B-1 \"\u2014Churchill.\n\nChurchill, the general had sniffed in his diary, \"speaks the worst French I have ever heard, his eyes run, and he is not at all impressive.\" On January 18 Patton had again ridden in the President's car for an inspection of the battalion guarding the Anfa enclave. Then on January 19 he'd invited the President to dinner at his headquarters\u2014the President afterward asking Patton to sit and talk with him, alone, \"in car while P.M waited, for about 30 minutes. He really appeared as a great statesman,\" Patton jotted in his diary\u2014and on January 21 the President asked Patton once again to ride with him in his car, together with General Clark, following lunch and his inspection of the three U.S. divisions at Rabat. \"Coming back we talked history and armor about which he knows a lot,\" Patton recorded. \"F.D.R. says that in Georgia,\" in the Soviet Union, \"there are Crusaders' Castles intact and that hundreds of suits of armor exist. Then he got on to politics\"\u2014with somewhat withering remarks about Vice President Henry Wallace as his potential heir, or even Harry Hopkins; \"neither of them had any personality,\" he claimed, which would rule out any hope of their winning election. Even Churchill drew the President's less-than-complimentary appraisal in terms of empire and future global security. \"He also discussed the P.M. to his disadvantage. Says India is lost and that Germany and Japan must be destroyed.\" Above all, however, the President listened\u2014especially to Patton's military judgment. The general pointed out how green American forces still were, in terms of fighting. \"People speak of Germany and Japan as defeated,\" the general warned sagely, but \"we have never even attacked them with more than a division.\"\n\nChurchill's ill grace at dinner with the Sultan particularly irritated Patton\u2014who claimed the Sultan had \"especially asked\" to see the President in private, \"before Churchill arrived,\" as he did not seem to like the Prime Minister. Already on arrival the Prime Minister appeared, it had seemed to Patton, \"in a very bad temper . . . No wine, only orange juice and water. Churchill was very rude, the President was great, talking volubly in bad French and really doing his stuff,\" Patton recorded that night. The tanker had personally driven the Sultan home. \"On way Sultan said, 'Truly your President is a very great man and a true friend of myself and my people. He shines by comparison with the other one\"\u2014the \"boor\" Churchill.\n\nPatton was being unfair, however\u2014for neither he nor Captain McCrea had any idea of the real cause of Churchill's distemper.\n\nThe President did. After the Sultan's departure, the Prime Minister quickly explained. De Gaulle had just visited him, before dinner, at the Villa Mirador\u2014and had scotched any prospect that his arrival would lead to the unification of the Free French movement in London and the French Imperial Council in Algiers, under Giraud.\n\nDe Gaulle had been not only intransigent, but rude to the point of insult\u2014\"a very stony interview,\" as Churchill described it to the President. The Prime Minister thus begged the President not to see de Gaulle that night, but to put off the meeting to the next day, when de Gaulle would have had more time to simmer down.\n\nThe President, however, insisted de Gaulle be brought straight to him. Thus did the Free French major general arrive at the Villa Dar es Saada, along with two aides, at 10:20 p.m., \"with black clouds swirling around his high head and with very poor grace\" according to the President's son: there to meet the U.S. commander in chief whose troops had \"liberated\" Algeria and Morocco.\n**15**\n\n# An Acerbic Interview\n\nIN A CABLE to his secretary of state, the President had explained just why he was attempting to accomplish a \"shotgun\" wedding of the Free French leader from London, where anti-Vichy feeling was high, and the French high commissioner under General Eisenhower from Algiers, where former Vichy administrators and officers still predominated. Though Roosevelt claimed it to be for unity of the French cause, the truth was, the President felt he must give critics of his use of former Vichy personnel in North Africa a sign\u2014a symbol not just of reconciliation but proof that though the United States had acted out of expedience, it was fully resolved to defeat fascism in all its forms.\n\nDe Gaulle, unhappily, was loath to oblige\u2014raising serious questions about what kind of \"liberation\" the Americans were intending to bring to Europe. \"It had been my hope that we could avoid political discussions at this time,\" the President cabled to Hull, in part to explain why he hadn't thought to bring the secretary of state to Casablanca, \"but I found on arrival that American and British newspapers had made such a mountain out of a rather small hill that I should not return to Washington without having achieved settlement of this matter.\"\n\nKnocking de Gaulle's and Giraud's heads together, he imagined with presidential hubris, he would show the free world there was a good, just, fair, and effective alternative to Nazi rule, illustrated by men of goodwill coming together to make democracy work once again, as the Nazis were forced to retreat.\n\nSitting on the large sofa in the villa's drawing room, the President thus bade de Gaulle sit beside him, and attempted, in his best conversational French, to apply salve to the major general's wounded pride as a Frenchman summoned to appear before an American on what de Gaulle had always thought of as French soil: the President beginning by explaining how he'd come to Casablanca, as U.S. commander in chief, to discuss military operations against the Axis powers in the Mediterranean for the coming year. Mr. Stalin had been invited, but had been unable to leave the Stalingrad front. The purpose of the Casablanca meeting was, therefore, to \"get on with the war,\" and answer the question \"Where do we go from here?\"\n\nIn this context, the President elaborated, he appreciated there were different political views on how North Africa, once liberated from the Nazi yoke, should fare, but the war was not yet won; the \"problem of North Africa should be regarded,\" therefore, \"as a military one and that the political situation should be entirely incident to the military situation.\" How to bring \"as much pressure as possible to bear on the enemy at the earliest possible moment\" in Tunisia was the order of the day, he claimed; Admiral Darlan, for all his faults, had done his best to make this happen, and General Giraud, his successor, was doing the same. Surely, by moving his London Free French committee to Algiers and fusing it with Giraud's organization, the war could be won more swiftly than if the French war effort were to be hobbled, right at the beginning, by political dissension?\n\nDe Gaulle, however, seemed to be a man from a different planet. That American forces had come thousands of miles, and suffered a thousand deaths at the hands of French troops while attempting to roll back the Axis tide and evict the Germans in North Africa as the first step toward the defeat of Hitler was\u2014at least at that moment\u2014a matter of complete indifference to the French general. He'd hoped, rather, for an invitation to come to Washington to meet with the President as the leader of the Free French movement, and for security reasons (Free French headquarters was reputed to leak like a proverbial sieve) had not been told of the Casablanca Conference\u2014just as he had not been told beforehand of the Torch invasion. Feeling insulted, he'd therefore resisted Churchill's invitation to fly out to Casablanca, not only out of pique, but because he foresaw matters of political importance being decided and would have no time to prepare for such discussions, he claimed. Forced nevertheless to present himself, on pain of the Free French movement being stripped of all funds and support in London, he'd reluctantly agreed to travel\u2014promising nothing, however. His arrival at Medouina airport had then given him an indication how low he was on the American totem pole: no band playing \"La Marseillaise\"; the windows of the car taking him to Anfa soaped lest he be recognized; American troops and sentries everywhere\u2014and in a country he considered a part of France, not a protectorate.\n\nInterrupting Roosevelt, de Gaulle \"made some remark to the President with reference to the sovereignty of French Morocco,\" Captain McCrea wrote in his notes of the meeting that night\u2014having been asked to stand outside while the President and the general talked. It was, he added, \"a relatively poor point of vantage\u2014a crack in a door slightly ajar,\" and with the Frenchman's voice so low \"as to be inaudible to me.\"\n\nMoroccan sovereignty was not what the President was prepared to discuss with the somewhat mad major general from London, however\u2014especially after spending the evening with Morocco's rightful ruler. Morocco had become a French protectorate only in 1912, barely thirty years ago; it could not by any stretch of the imagination be considered \"French\" soil, in the President's eyes, and de Gaulle's assumption that the country was to be reestablished as part of the \"French Empire,\" thanks to American blood and courage, aroused Roosevelt's deepest anticolonial feelings.\n\nReestablishing imperial French sovereignty over colonized peoples promised a hiding to nothing, whereas the opportunity to get \"advanced\" Western nations to embrace the notion of responsible development in former colonies, encouraging global trade and education, would offer, he felt, mutual benefits. Above all, it would give moral _purpose_ to the postwar democracies, especially if the struggle between capitalism and communism worsened. The President therefore dismissed de Gaulle's remarks over French sovereignty over Morocco, \"stating that the sovereignty of the occupied territories\"\u2014territories occupied now by U.S. forces of liberation\u2014\"was not under consideration.\" Moreover, he stated, it would be up to the occupied countries\u2014like mainland France, once liberated\u2014to elect their own postwar governments to help decide such matters, not jump the gun and be saddled with decisions made by warring factions in exile; in fact, \"none of the contenders for power in North Africa had the right to say that he, and only he, represented the sovereignty of France,\" Roosevelt claimed\u2014neither Giraud nor de Gaulle. \"The President pointed out,\" McCrea recorded, \"that the sovereignty of France, as in our country, rested with the people, but that unfortunately the people of France were not now in a position to exercise that sovereignty. It was, therefore, necessary for the military commander in the area [General Eisenhower] to accept the political situation as he found it and to collaborate with those in authority in the country at the time that the occupation took place so long as those in authority chose to be of assistance to the military commander. The President stated that any other course of action would have been indefensible.\"\n\nNor did Roosevelt stop there. It was not, he said, simply a matter of temporary accommodation and practicality. With the whole of mainland France now under German occupation and no legitimate or elected French government in exile, it was the task of the Allies\u2014the United Nations\u2014\"to resort to the legal analogy of 'trusteeship,'\" not committees of self-appointed exiles. It was the President's view \"that the Allied Nations fighting in French territory at the moment were fighting for the liberation of France and that they should hold the political situation in 'trusteeship' for the French people. In other words, the President stated that France is in the position of a little child unable to look out and fend for itself and that in such a case, a court would appoint a trustee to do the necessary.\" He pointed out that General Giraud understood this very well, and wanted only \"to get on with the war\"\u2014namely, the \"urgent task of freeing French territory of the enemy.\" Only then could questions of sovereignty, empire, and the like be addressed. \"The President stated that following the Civil War in our home country, there was conflict of political thought and that while many mistakes were made, nevertheless, the people realized that personal pride and personal prejudices must often be subordinated for the good of the country as a whole, and the contending French leaders could well follow such a program. The only course of action that could save France, said the President, was for all her loyal sons to unite to defeat the enemy, and that when the war was ended, victorious France could once again assert the political sovereignty which was hers over her homeland and her empire. At such time all political considerations would be laid before the sovereign people themselves and that by the use of the democratic processes inherent throughout France and its empire, political differences would be resolved.\"\n\nDe Gaulle looked stunned by such paternalistic American arrogance. He'd endured, he felt, one insult after another that day. \"No troops presented honors,\" he later recalled of his arrival at Medouina, \"although American sentries maintained a wide periphery around us.\" Instead, some American cars had driven up to the plane. \"I stepped into the first one,\" he recorded\u2014as well as his shame when Brigadier General William Wilbur, \"before getting in with me, dipped a rag in the mud and smeared all the windows. These precautions were taken in order to conceal the presence of General de Gaulle and his colleagues in Morocco,\" de Gaulle lamented, using the third person. Once inside the barbed-wire compound, moreover, he'd felt even more insulted. \"In short, it was captivity,\" he remembered feeling\u2014a giraffe incarcerated in an American zoo. \"I had no objection to the Anglo-American leaders' imposing it on themselves, but the fact that they were applying it to me, and furthermore on territory under French sovereignty, seemed to me a flagrant insult.\" Meeting five-star General Giraud, his former commander from 1940, that afternoon, de Gaulle\u2014though a mere major general\u2014blamed Giraud for not feeling similarly aggrieved. \"What's this? I ask you for an interview four times over and we have to meet in a barbed-wire encampment among foreign powers? Don't you realize,\" de Gaulle sneered, \"how odious this is from a purely national point of view?\"\n\nGiraud didn't. In fact, given that U.S. troops had now liberated Morocco from Nazi control, as laid down under the 1940 armistice agreement, he considered de Gaulle the one who was odious and insulting, especially when de Gaulle had pulled from his pocket a copy of Giraud's letter of loyalty to Marshal P\u00e9tain, written the previous spring after his escape from a German prison in Germany and seeking safety from the Nazis in Vichy France. Once Hitler had ordered the occupation of the whole of metropolitan France, Giraud had immediately revoked his letter, and had consented to be brought by Allied submarine to Algeria to take military command of the anti-Axis forces. He'd found it typical of de Gaulle to commence discussions of French unity by producing a copy of such a past document from his pocket; with de Gaulle, you were either subordinate to him or against him. Worst of all, de Gaulle's main opponent seemed neither Hitler nor even Giraud, but the U.S. president.\n\n\"Franklin Roosevelt was governed by the loftiest ambitions,\" de Gaulle allowed later\u2014but not the sort of ambitions of which de Gaulle approved. \"His intelligence, his knowledge and his audacity gave him the ability, the powerful state of which he was the leader afforded him the means, and the war offered him the occasion to realize them. If the great nation he directed had long been inclined to isolate itself from distant enterprises and to mistrust a Europe ceaselessly lacerated by wars and revolutions, a kind of messianic impulse now swelled the American spirit and oriented it toward vast undertakings,\" the major general described in his haughty prose\u2014undertakings, at any rate, that were antithetical to de Gaulle and to the reconstitution of the French Empire under him. Once America had \"yielded\" to \"that taste for intervention in which the instinct for domination cloaked itself,\" he recorded\u2014ignoring France's capitulation to Hitler, Japan's attack at Pearl Harbor, and Hitler's declaration of war on the United States\u2014\"from the moment America entered the war, Roosevelt meant the peace to be an American peace, convinced that he must be the one to dictate its structure, that the states that had been overrun should be subject to his judgment, and that France in particular should recognize him as its savior and arbiter.\"\n\nThis was not far from the truth. The fact that Americans, not Frenchmen, were being asked by their president and commander in chief to die, if necessary, to liberate de Gaulle's country\u2014a country that had put up the most feeble fight against the Germans in 1940, and had submitted to an abject armistice with almost no protest ever since, indeed had attempted to prevent U.S. forces from landing in Morocco and Algeria while not lifting a finger to stop the Germans from occupying Tunisia\u2014was of zero interest to de Gaulle, who deprecated Roosevelt as \"a star actor\" unwilling to share the limelight de Gaulle craved. \"In short, beneath his patrician mask of courtesy,\" de Gaulle wrote, \"Roosevelt regarded me without benevolence.\"\n\nAt 10:55 p.m. the interview came to an end. The \"Frenchman unfolded his complete height,\" Elliott recalled, \"and marched with formality and no backward glance to the door.\"\n\nThe President was as put out as was de Gaulle. A seminal political encounter of the war had taken place, pitting American progressive political ideas against recalcitrant French imperialist ideology. There had certainly been no meeting of minds. What it showed was that the President's views on postwar world democracy, as enshrined in the Atlantic Charter, were going to be very, very difficult to apply.\n\nChurchill then came back to the Villa Dar es Saada and, together with Harry Hopkins, Robert Murphy, and Harold Macmillan, they rehashed the evening's discussions and their implications.\n\nOutwardly, the President seemed unconcerned. \"Father seemed unperturbed by the mighty sulk to which de Gaulle treated him,\" Elliott recalled, as well as his father's philosophical attitude. \"The past is past, and it's done,\" the President pronounced, attempting to be positive. \"We've nearly solved this thing now. These two:\"\u2014meaning Generals Giraud and de Gaulle\u2014\"equal rank, equal responsibility in setting up the Provisional Assembly. When that's done, French democracy is reborn. When that Provisional Assembly starts to act, French democracy takes its first steps. Presently French democracy will be in a position to decide for itself what is to become of Giraud, or of de Gaulle. It will no longer be our affair.\" A democratically elected French government would decide.\n\nIn his own mind, however, Roosevelt was far from happy. He was already worried whether his notion of global postwar democracy, based on the Atlantic Charter, would be honored in Europe, once the Russians began pushing back the Germans on the Eastern Front.\n\nThe Soviets were a major concern. His brief interview with de Gaulle had indicated all too clearly, though, just how obstinately the old imperial powers would seek to reestablish and then hang on to their colonial possessions\u2014the \"unity of her vast Empire,\" as de Gaulle proudly called it\u2014rather than pursue the ideal of postwar, postimperial commonwealths of sovereign countries bound by history and culture, not the gunboat. And in this respect, Churchill was little different from de Gaulle.\n\nHow, though, persuade those dying empires to embrace the _future_ rather than the past? How encourage them to join in creating a new world order, not reestablish the tottering colonial empires that had doomed Europe and the Far East after World War I?\n\nWhen Churchill finally left the House of Happiness at half past midnight, the President went to bed but asked Elliott to sit with him, and in the quiet of his Casablanca villa, he unburdened his soul.\n\nThough he'd said to Churchill they must move on with the prosecution of the war and not permit themselves to be sidetracked by French factionalism, the President was in truth deeply affected by his contretemps with de Gaulle.\n\n\"We've talked, the last few days,\" the President told his son, \"about gradually turning the civil control of France over to a joint Giraud\u2013de Gaulle government, to administer as it is liberated. An interim control, to last only until free elections can again be held . . . but how de Gaulle will fight it!\" he snorted. Not only did de Gaulle speak of himself as a sort of Joan of Arc, but his dream was the restoration of France on the back of its colonies. \"He made it quite clear that he expects the Allies to return all French colonies to French control immediately upon their liberation. You know,\" Roosevelt confided to his son, \"quite apart from the fact that the Allies will have to maintain military control of French colonies here in North Africa for months, maybe years, I'm by no means sure in my own mind that we'd be right to return France to her colonies at all, ever, without first obtaining in the case of each individual colony some sort of pledge, some sort of statement of just exactly what was planned, in terms of each colony's administration\"\u2014much as Congress had done with regard to the Philippines in 1932.\n\nElliott was amazed. \"Hey, listen, Pop. I don't quite see this. I know the colonies are important\u2014but after all, they _do_ belong to France . . . how come we can talk about not returning them?\"\n\nRoosevelt's retort was instant. \" _How_ do they belong to France?\" he countered. \"Why does Morocco, inhabited by Moroccans, belong to France? Or take Indo-China. The Japanese control that colony now. Why was it a cinch for the Japanese to conquer that land? The native Indo-Chinese have been so flagrantly downtrodden that they thought to themselves: Anything must be better, than to live under French colonial rule! Should a land belong to France?\" he demanded. \"By what logic and by what custom and by what historical rule?\"\n\n\"I'm talking about another war, Elliott,\" the President told his son, \"his voice suddenly sharp,\" Elliott recalled. \"I'm talking about what will happen to our world, if after _this_ war we allow millions of people to slide back into the same semi-slavery.\"\n\nHe looked deadly serious. \"Don't think for a moment, Elliott, that Americans would be dying in the Pacific tonight, if it hadn't been for the shortsighted greed of the French and the British and the Dutch. Shall we allow them to do it all, all over again?\"\n\nIt would be hard enough to revive the battered economies of the world and guard against the insidious, antidemocratic ideology of communism, but how much harder it promised to be if Britain, France, and the Netherlands committed themselves to huge military and financial outlays to perpetuate imperialism. They would then be, he predicted, sucked into vain efforts to stop calls for self-government and self-determination in their former colonies\u2014a recipe for postwar disaffection, revolt, and wars.\n\n\"One sentence, Elliott. Then I'm going to kick you out of here. I'm tired. This is the sentence: When we've won the war, I will work with all my might and main to see to it that the United States is not wheedled into the position of accepting any plan that will further France's imperialist ambitions, or that will aid or abet the British Empire in _its_ imperial ambitions.\"\n\nAnd with that the President pointed to the door\u2014and the light switch.\n\nBefore he returned to his photoreconnaissance unit in Algiers, Elliott Roosevelt had one more talk with his father. It was clear de Gaulle's determination to reassert French imperialism still enervated the President. De Gaulle had at least been open about his aims, however\u2014to the point of outright rudeness. Churchill was, by contrast, keeping his own counsel for later. The President therefore interrogated Elliott as to opinion among U.S. troops and airmen\u2014what did they, who were risking their lives, think?\n\nBefore Elliott could respond, his father launched into another deeply felt articulation of his views. \"You see, what the British have done, down the centuries, historically, is the same thing. They've chosen their allies wisely and well. They've always been able to come out on top, with the same reactionary grip on the peoples of the world and the markets of the world, through every war they've ever been in.\n\n\" _This_ time,\" his father continued, \" _we're_ Britain's ally. And it's right we should be. But . . . first at Argentia, later in Washington, now here at Casablanca,\" the President reminded Elliott, \"I've tried to make it clear to Winston\u2014and the others\u2014that while we're their allies, and in it to victory by their side, they must never get the idea that we're in it just to help them hang on to the archaic, medieval Empire ideas.\"\n\nElliott agreed, but his father wasn't done. \"I hope they realize they're not senior partner.\" America was\u2014and would be more and more so, as the war progressed and the postwar world took shape. The United States was \"not going to sit by, after we've won, and watch their system stultify the growth of every country in Asia and half the countries in Europe to boot,\" he warned. Britain had \"signed the Atlantic Charter\" at Argentia, and \"I hope they realize the United States government means to make them live up to it.\"\n\nThese were perhaps the most impassioned words Elliott had ever heard his father say\u2014spoken after inspecting thirty thousand young Americans preparing for imminent combat, and having visited the cemetery of those who had already fallen. They also helped explain his father's determination to insist upon unconditional surrender of the Axis powers, precluding any possibility of negotiated armistice with nations simply too dangerous to be allowed ever to rearm.\n\nOperation Symbol had been the code name given to the Casablanca Conference. The biggest symbol of Roosevelt's intent to end German, Italian, and Japanese military empires and establish a completely new, postimperialist global order would be, the President had planned, his forthcoming announcement to the world, on the field of battle, of his implacable condition for ending the war.\n\nHour after hour the President had hoped that de Gaulle would make at least a tentative agreement to work with General Giraud\u2014one that could be announced at the President's looming press conference.\n\nDe Gaulle refused, however, to make any accommodation with his French rival. In particular he turned down a draft communiqu\u00e9 drawn up by Robert Murphy and Harold Macmillan, Eisenhower's British political adviser\u2014declaring he would not be party to any solution to French political matters \"brought about by the intervention of a foreign power, no matter how high and how friendly.\"\n\nThe President, with a kind of bemused amazement, breathed another sigh of vexation. \"Finished the staff conferences\u2014all agreed\u2014De Gaulle a headache\u2014said yesterday he was Jeanne d'Arc & today that he is Georges Clemenceau,\" he scribbled to Daisy\u2014for de Gaulle now insisted on a compact with Giraud in which he, Major General de Gaulle, would be the French political leader in exile, while Giraud would be merely the French military commander in chief\u2014whom de Gaulle could dismiss. Giraud, who had come to hate de Gaulle with Gallic venom over the past few days, refused. There would thus be no unification of the Free French and Algiers committees\u2014and with that, de Gaulle prepared to leave Casablanca.\n\nThe President was disappointed, but tried not to be unduly concerned.\n\nDe Gaulle, for his part, believed he'd made his point: proving to the President of the United States and the world that he, on behalf of _La France,_ was not going to toady to American wishes, or dollars. He certainly seemed to have no idea how rude he'd been, or how small he appeared, in the President's eyes, despite his six-foot-six-inch height. History had given him the chance to lead a great reconciliation of neutral, Vichy, and Free French nationals in the struggle to defeat the Axis powers and to usher in a new world. Instead, he'd pursued the politics of personal ambition and an implacable view of French honor. However laudable the latter, it was sheer obstructionism in terms of the war against the Third Reich\u2014something de Gaulle seemed unable to comprehend. To his aide, Hettier de Boislambert, he confided, the night he'd met the President at the Villa Dar es Saada: \"You see, I have met a great statesman today, I think we got along and understood each other well\"\u2014but the truth was the very opposite.\n\nFor his part, Churchill was dumbfounded. Learning that de Gaulle was refusing to sign the proposed communiqu\u00e9, prior to the President's press conference, \"he was beside himself with rage,\" the historian of the Churchill\u2013de Gaulle relationship later chronicled. \"General de Gaulle's farewell visit to the Prime Minister was therefore uncommonly animated, even by Churchillian standards; the latter chose to omit any reference to it in his memoirs. Not so General de Gaulle,\" Fran\u00e7ois Kersaudy chronicled.\n\nKersaudy was not exaggerating. De Gaulle's account, recording how Churchill had threatened to \"denounce\" him \"in the Commons and on the radio\" unless he signed the communiqu\u00e9, pulled no punches. The Prime Minister was \"free to dishonor himself,\" de Gaulle had retorted. \"In order to satisfy America at any cost, he was espousing a cause unacceptable to France, disquieting to Europe, and regrettable to England.\"\n\nChurchill was apoplectic, but in one sense de Gaulle was right. The President was a true statesman, and even if he disliked de Gaulle for making difficulties, he understood him, for all his foibles, as a statesman in the making. Thus at the Villa Dar es Saada shortly before noon on January 24, Roosevelt accepted that de Gaulle would simply not sign an interim communiqu\u00e9 or agreement of a three-man Committee for the Liberation of France\u2014and did not turn away from Charles d'Arc, so to speak. Instead, in his inimitable fashion, the President asked for at least a _symbol_ of French purpose in fighting the Nazis. \"In human affairs the public must be offered some drama,\" Roosevelt said to the general. \"The news of your meeting with General Giraud in the midst of a conference in which both Churchill and I are taking part, if it were to be accompanied by a joint declaration of the French leaders\u2014even only a theoretical agreement\u2014would produce the dramatic effect required.\"\n\nThe President's almost Olympian approach and charm moved de Gaulle, as Churchill's did not. \"'Let me handle it,'\" de Gaulle later recalled his response. \"'There will be a communiqu\u00e9, even though it cannot be yours.' Thereupon I presented my [French] colleagues to the President and he introduced me to his.\"\n\nThe press conference was due to take place at midday, but Harry Hopkins, mistaking de Gaulle's sudden graciousness, rushed out and grabbed General Giraud, asking him and Churchill to enter, in the hope that, if he could get \"the four of them into a room together,\" then \"we could get an agreement.\"\n\nThis was silly, in view of de Gaulle's stalwart refusal to allow a \"foreign power\" to dictate French agreements. Moreover, Churchill's renewed \"diatribe and his threats against me, with the obvious intention of flattering Roosevelt's disappointed vanity,\" as de Gaulle put it in his memoirs, only made matters worse. But Roosevelt would not have been Roosevelt, the leader of the United Nations and a man of almost heartbreaking humanity, if he had not attempted a different approach. He therefore made one last request of de Gaulle, \"on which he had set his heart,\" as de Gaulle recalled.\n\n\"Would you agree to [at least] being photographed beside me and the British Prime Minister, along with General Giraud?\" he asked, in \"the kindest manner.\"\n\n\"By all means,\" de Gaulle responded, \"for I have the highest regard for this great soldier.\"\n\n\"Would you go so far as to shake General Giraud's hand in our presence and in front of the camera?\"\n\n\"My answer, in English, was, 'I shall do that for you.' Whereupon Mr. Roosevelt, delighted, had himself carried into the garden where four chairs had been prepared beforehand, with innumerable cameras trained on them and several rows of reporters lined up with their pens poised.\"\n**16**\n\n# The Unconditional Surrender Meeting\n\n\"CASABLANCA, FRENCH MOROCCO,\" the AP reporter (once his report was cleared for release) described, was \"probably the most important gathering of leaders of two great nations in history.\" It was also, the reporter maintained, even more extraordinary for the setting\u2014the results \"disclosed in the most informal press conference ever held.\"\n\nThe picture, in the midst of a global war, was certainly unique\u2014the scene a \"garden of a villa on the outskirts of Casablanca,\" where \"the entire area for blocks around was full of troops, anti-aircraft equipment and barbed wire. The correspondents were told they would have a conference at noon. They assembled in the rear garden of the villa, which is a luxurious gleaming white home with many windows overlooking the Atlantic. In the garden were two white leather chairs. A microphone was in front of them for newsreel camera men. Red flowers were in profusion. Inside, reporters could see Harry A. Hopkins and his son, who is now a corporal, rushing around making arrangements. Then Lieut. Colonel Elliott Roosevelt appeared at the rear door carrying two more chairs. The President appeared. He wore a gray business suit and a black tie, and, as usual was smoking a cigarette in a long holder. A minute later Prime Minister Churchill walked out with a cigar in his mouth.\"\n\nThe two giant, giraffe-like French generals in their kepis were also brought out. \"Some photographers called out, 'Generals shake hands!'\" Captain McCrea recounted\u2014and, as agreed with de Gaulle, when the President said, \"Why not? You two Frenchmen are loyal to your country and that warrants a handshake anytime,\" they did so\u2014not only once but twice, since cameramen complained they'd failed, in their surprise, to get a good photo the first time.\n\n\"The four actors put on their smiles,\" de Gaulle later recorded\u2014in a chapter of his memoirs that he titled \"Comedy.\" \"The agreed-upon gestures were made. Everything went off perfectly! America would be satisfied, on such evidence, that the French question had found its _deus ex machina_ in the person of the President.\"\n\nGiraud was as sniffy of the proceedings as de Gaulle, but for the opposite reason: to wit, his profound hostility to de Gaulle, a mere major general who had only minimal support from Frenchmen in Northwest Africa, appearing on the same stage\u2014especially after having been so rude to him ever since he'd arrived. The very suggestion the two Frenchmen might work amicably together seemed to him dishonest, however noble its intention. \"Excellent photos that will be transmitted across the world, and be seen as documentary evidence of irrefutable veracity,\" he recalled sarcastically several years later. \"That,\" he added, \"is how public opinion is fashioned.\"\n\nIt was\u2014unabashedly, since Allied unity was as important a weapon in the war as military arms. Even the President's naval aide was amazed. \"The pictures went all over the world and I would suppose contributed to French unity in all parts of the globe,\" McCrea reflected, for even he had not foreseen the power of such simple imagery. \"The President literally cajoled the two proud and greatly different persons into making a gesture of friendship\u2014and did it well, indeed. The generals bade farewell to the President and the Prime Minister and then withdrew\u2014forthwith,\" leaving the President to explain to reporters from across the world the purpose of the summit that had just concluded.\n\nIn his business suit and tie, sitting with his long legs crossed, the President \"invited the assembled newsmen to seat themselves on the lawn and make themselves comfortable for the discussion which was to follow,\" the AP reporter described. \"It was a beautiful day\u2014brilliant sunshine and with these two heads of state the correspondents heard a complete description of the purpose and the reasons of bringing the British and our own Chiefs of Staff together in North Africa for discussions necessary for further prosecution of the war.\"\n\nThe President certainly looked the picture of confidence and good health. Referring to Torch, he began by reminding his audience how the current campaign in North Africa had begun. \"This meeting,\" he explained, \"goes back to the successful landing operations last November, which as you all know were initiated as far back as a year ago, and put into definite shape shortly after the Prime Minister's visit to Washington in June.\n\n\"After the operations of last November,\" the President went on, \"it became perfectly clear, with the successes, that the time had come for another review of the situation, and a planning for the next steps, especially steps to be taken in 1943.\" It was for this reason he'd arranged for Churchill to come to Casablanca, \"and our respective staffs came with us, to discuss the practical steps to be taken by the United Nations for prosecution of the war. We have been here about a week.\"\n\nFor the journalists who had been kept in the dark since the President's State of the Union address on January 7 in Washington, D.C., two weeks before, this was something of a bombshell. The very fact that the two leaders of the Western democratic alliance could have spent _an entire week_ on the recent field of battle without anyone knowing was a shock\u2014the more so as no American president had ever previously traveled abroad in wartime, or even flown in an airplane while in office. Yet here he was, in bright Moroccan sunlight, addressing them\u2014largely extempore and in person.\n\n> I might add, too, that we began talking about this after the first of December [1942], and at that time we invited Mr. Stalin to join us at a convenient meeting place. Mr. Stalin very greatly desired to come, but he was precluded from leaving Russia because he was conducting the new Russian offensive against the Germans along the whole line. We must remember that he is Commander in Chief [of the Soviet armies], and that he is responsible for the very wonderful detailed plan which has been brought to such a successful conclusion since the beginning of the offensive.\n\nKnowing the Russians had cornered the German Sixth Army at Stalingrad, the President had felt certain the surviving Germans would now be killed or forced to surrender\u2014whatever Hitler might order to the contrary. It was a tremendous Soviet victory in the making, after months of the most lethal, often hand-to-hand, combat of the war, involving vast casualties. Soon the Western Allies would be achieving a similar, momentous victory, however, the President implied. \"In spite of the fact that Mr. Stalin was unable to come, the results of the staff meeting have been communicated to him, so that we will continue to keep in very close touch,\" Roosevelt assured the reporters. Meantime, with regard to the many meetings and discussions between the U.S., British, and French generals, the President expressed his great satisfaction as U.S. commander in chief. What had taken place was different, he said, from, say, Lincoln's visits to his generals in the field, or those of Allied leaders in World War I. This was now _coalition_ warfare, on a global scale, but with the leaders and their military staffs working in the closest cooperation and harmony:\n\n> I think it can be said that the studies during the past week or ten days are unprecedented in history. Both the Prime Minister and I think back to the days of the first World War when conferences between the French and British and ourselves very rarely lasted more than a few hours or a couple of days. The [U.S. and British] Chiefs of Staffs have been in intimate touch; they have lived in the same hotel. Each man has become a definite personal friend of his opposite number on the other side.\n\n> Furthermore, these conferences have discussed, I think for the first time in history, the whole global picture. It isn't just one front, just one ocean, or one continent\u2014it is literally the whole world; and that is why the Prime Minister and I feel that the conference is unique in the fact that it has this global aspect.\n\n> The Combined Staffs, in these conferences and studies during the past week or ten days, have proceeded on the principle of pooling all of the resources of the United Nations. And I think the second point is that they have reaffirmed the determination to maintain the initiative against the Axis powers in every part of the world.\n\nOver the past ten days, the President explained, the talks had examined how the Western Allies were to keep \"the initiative during 1943,\" moreover to keep sending \"all possible material aid to the Russian offensive, with the double object of cutting down the manpower of Germany and her satellites, and continuing the very great attrition of German munitions and materials of all kinds which are being destroyed every day in such large quantities by the Russian armies. And, at the same time, the Staffs have agreed on giving all possible aid to the heroic struggle of China\u2014remembering that China is in her sixth year of the war\u2014with the objective, not only in China but in the whole of the Pacific area, of ending any Japanese attempt in the future to dominate the Far East.\"\n\nIt was at this point that the President, looking down at his notes, came to the crux of his outdoor statement\u2014its historic import belied by the lush surroundings. \"Another point,\" he began:\n\n> I think we have all had it in our hearts and our heads before, but I don't think that it has ever been put down on paper by the Prime Minister and myself, and that is the determination that peace can come to the world only by the total elimination of German and Japanese war power.\n\n> Some of you Britishers know the old story\u2014we had a General called U.S. Grant. His name was Ulysses Simpson Grant, but in my, and the Prime Minister's, early days he was called \"Unconditional Surrender\" Grant.\n\n> The elimination of German, Japanese, and Italian war power means _the unconditional surrender_ by Germany, Italy, and Japan. That means a reasonable assurance of future world peace. It does not mean the destruction of the population of Germany, Italy, or Japan, but it does mean the destruction of the philosophies in those countries which are based on conquest and the subjugation of other people.\n\nIn order to give extra emphasis to the announcement, the President now declared: \"This meeting is called the 'unconditional surrender meeting.'\"\n\nUnconditional surrender. No negotiation or acceptance of a compromise peace or armistice. And an implacable aim that would be pursued West and East.\n\n> While we have not had a meeting of all of the United Nations, I think that there is no question\u2014in fact we both have great confidence that the same purposes and objectives are in the minds of all of the other United Nations\u2014Russia, China, and all the others.\n\n> And so the actual meeting\u2014the main work of the Conference\u2014has been ended. Except for a certain amount of resultant paper work, it has come to a successful conclusion. I call it a meeting of the minds in regard to all military operations, and, thereafter, that the war is going to proceed against the Axis powers according to schedule, with every indication that 1943 is going to be an even better year for the United Nations than 1942.\n\nThe fifty journalists in the garden of the Villa Dar es Saada were stunned. So, too, was Churchill.\n\nTrue, the Prime Minister had agreed to the unconditional-surrender policy and even recommended it be part of the President's final pronunciamento, at the conclusion of the conference. Yet he seemed visibly surprised at the emphasis the President had placed upon it, as Captain McCrea vividly recalled. \"I was standing nearby and when the President made that remark the P.M. snapped his head toward the Pres., giving the impression, to me at least, that the phrase came as a surprise to him.\"\n\nPondering this in later years, McCrea could not quite explain the Prime Minister's body language\u2014\"I shall never forget,\" he wrote, \"the quick turn of the head by the P.M. when the Unconditional Surrender of the Axis Forces was announced as to how the war would end.\"\n\nThe fifty journalists, for their part, sat mesmerized. If they found themselves disappointed that the President was not willing to be more specific in terms of actual, forthcoming military operations, the Prime Minister followed up the President's statement by asking them to understand why the enemy should not be told in advance what the Allies would undertake that year\u2014and why the Allies could be grateful for what had already happened, now that the United States was in command. \"Tremendous events have happened. This enterprise which the President has organized\u2014and he knows I have been his active Lieutenant since the start\u2014has altered the whole strategic aspect of the war . . . We are in full battle, and heavy action will impend.\" He asked reporters therefore to convey to the world at home \"the picture of unity, of thoroughness, and integrity of the political chiefs.\" The Allies were going to win the war. \"Even when there is some delay there is design and purposes,\" he insisted, \"and as the President has said, the unconquerable will to pursue this quality,\" he sought to find a quotable phrase, \"until we have procured the unconditional surrender of the criminal forces who plunged the world into storm and ruin.\"\n\nUnconditional surrender, then, it was\u2014the news soon flashing across the world, once the two leaders were out of harm's way.\n\nReports and images of the \"unconditional surrender meeting\" and the President's trip sent shockwaves across the Third Reich.\n\nThe President and Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces of the United States: Inspecting his troops on the battlefield. Ten days of U.S.-British military discussions\u2014and with the French, too. Every battlefront of the globe examined, and its needs factored into the Allies' strategy for the prosecution of a global, offensive war\u2014a war not only to win against the Axis powers, but to permit no compromise, no negotiated armistice, no agreement save unconditional surrender. And the President seated in the sun on a Moroccan lawn, speaking with such naturalness and confidence regarding the inevitable defeat of the Third Reich that those who'd experienced the German victories of the previous summer\u2014the fall of Tobruk, the second massive German offensive toward the Volga and the Caucasus\u2014could only rub their eyes in wonder. \"F.D.R.'s 'unconditional surrender' pronouncement\" had swept \"practically all other news from today's newspapers . . . It will, no doubt, prove to be,\" predicted King George VI's private secretary, \"one of the most momentous of all such conferences since that of Lucca\"\u2014when in 56 B.C. Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus had renewed their triumvirate.\n\nIn the wake of Torch the tide had truly turned. In Berlin, Reichsminister Goebbels\u2014who had been busy preparing the final touches for a forthcoming address of his own\u2014was literally speechless.\n\nAt first Goebbels could scarcely believe what he read and saw in newsreel film being distributed throughout the neutral countries. In his diary Goebbels expressed utter consternation\u2014especially at the failure of the German intelligence services to learn the whereabouts of a ten-day, top-level enemy conference involving the political leaders of the Western world, together with the chiefs of staff of their air, ground, and naval forces. Even on January 26, 1943, two days after the conclusion of the actual press conference and departure of the principals, Goebbels had been idly noting\u2014alongside secret reports that the terrible battle of attrition at Stalingrad was \"reaching its end\"\u2014that it seemed \"pretty certain that Churchill is in Washington.\"\n\nThe next day Goebbels noted that the rumors of a parley between Roosevelt and Churchill were gaining strength, \"only we still don't know where these gangster bosses are meeting.\"\n\nGoebbels, ever skeptical, had made nothing of the speculation. His own attention was locked on the approaching tenth anniversary of the Nazis' assumption of power, when he would make his own grand announcement at a huge, mass rally of Nazi Party stalwarts in the Sportpalast\u2014urging them with all the declamatory zeal he could summon to devote themselves to their fresh task: to make available to the F\u00fchrer the men, materiel, and conviction necessary for Germany to embark on a third, this time successful, great offensive on the Eastern Front . . . _totaler Krieg:_ total war _._\n\nGoebbels was thus floored by the seemingly authentic reports that finally reached Berlin on January 28, 1943. \"The sensational event of the day, is the news that Churchill and Roosevelt have met in Casablanca,\" the Reichsminister dictated in his diary. He made no effort to conceal his amazement. \"So the discussions have not, as we assumed, been taking place in Washington but on the hot coals of Africa. Once again our intelligence services have completely failed\u2014unable even to identify the place where the talks were taking place,\" he fulminated. \"They've been held now for almost a fortnight, and they're being heralded by the enemy press as the gateway to victory.\"\n\nEver anxious to see signs of Allied dissension, Goebbels had assumed Churchill and Roosevelt, if they were meeting in Washington, might well be sparring over which man should take the reins of the Allied offensive war effort. Reading the transcript of the Roosevelt-Churchill press conference in Casablanca, the Reichsminister became aware, however, that the earth had shifted. \"It's worth noting,\" he reflected in his diary, \"that Churchill officially designates himself now as Roosevelt's adjutant; no such humiliation has probably been seen in British history.\"\n\nHumiliation or not, the threat was becoming daily more real. Not only were the anti-Axis armies targeting Nazi Germany, Goebbels was aware, but so were their political leaders, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin\u2014leaders who, like Hitler, had taken command of their country's armed forces, and were now coordinating those forces against the Third Reich\u2014in complete contrast to the motley democratic forces of the late 1930s.\n\nBarely a year since Pearl Harbor and the F\u00fchrer's ill-considered declaration of war on the United States, the President's appearance in Casablanca was a startling turnaround\u2014his \"unconditional surrender meeting\" all the more disturbing to Goebbels, since it made clear there would be no peace feelers or possibility of a negotiated settlement with the leaders of the Third Reich. Along with the imminent extinction of von Paulus's Sixth Army at Stalingrad, Goebbels knew, Hitler's dreams of conquest and declaration of war on the United States now looked not only an unwise gamble, but raised the specter of the Thousand Year Reich\u2014so gloriously proclaimed in the 1930s\u2014being crushed in the nearest future, unless the Nazi Party, under their once victorious F\u00fchrer, found some way to turn the tables.\n\nSince the F\u00fchrer still refused to appear in public at such a fateful time\u2014he had not been seen in Berlin since the previous September\u2014his propaganda minister recognized that he, Joseph Goebbels, would have to work the harder to rally the German nation at home.\n\nAccepting that the battle of Stalingrad would now end in utter defeat\u2014the F\u00fchrer confiding to Goebbels he'd had to sacrifice General Paulus's army lest the whole extended German frontline in Russia be broken\u2014the Reich minister had intended to use the approaching German catastrophe in Russia to new advantage: namely as a wake-up call to the German Volk, once the battle of Stalingrad ended. The fate of so many hundreds of thousands of German soldiers would illustrate, as nothing else could, the mortal threat of Bolshevism\u2014and the need for supreme, self-sacrificing heroism on the part of the loyal German soldier if they were to survive the struggle against Soviet communism.\n\nThe news from the Western (in fact, Southern) Front, however, eclipsed even Stalingrad. Coming after what the President had revealed in his State of the Union address on January 7, that the United States was on course to outmanufacture the collective output of the Axis powers several times over, the Casablanca declaration by the leaders of the world's foremost capitalist democracies\u2014democracies working with the Soviet Union\u2014now deprived Goebbels of his \"anti-Bolshevist\" German master card.\n\nEvery day there was more news in neutral countries about Casablanca. Film, photographs, newspaper stories\u2014and discussion of what the conference would now presage for Nazi Germany. It completely turned the world's attention to the _Western,_ not Eastern, Front, Goebbels lamented\u2014removing the primary fear of Bolshevism. Overnight, in short, the communist threat had been replaced, thanks to Casablanca, by a dramatically announced determination of the Western democratic powers to destroy all vestige of Nazism as a danger to, and scourge of, mankind\u2014far worse, in effect, than the dangers of communism.\n\nThe very words _unconditional surrender_ \u2014following the President's use of _total war_ in his State of the Union address to Congress\u2014infuriated Goebbels as a master of propaganda. Curt and harsh, they gave no hint of dissension or disunity among the United Nations now lined up against the Third Reich\u2014unsettling Goebbels's ever-maneuvering assumptions, since it showed just \"how confident the enemy now feels, or claims to feel, and how much we'll have to do,\" he noted, \"to counter their machinations.\"\n\nFor the second time that month, then, the President of the United States had beaten Goebbels to the punch. Instead of the Reich minister's still-undelivered declaration of total war surprising the world and striking fear in the hearts of Germany's enemies, his _totaler Krieg_ speech, if Hitler authorized it, would now be viewed outside Nazi circles as a desperate effort, at best, of an unashamedly totalitarian regime to meet the prospect of defeat; at worst a sort of glorified willingness to countenance the complete destruction of the German nation rather than sparing it by surrender.\n\nTo make matters worse for Dr. Goebbels, however, the F\u00fchrer had declined to make him the sole director of the _totaler Krieg_ initiative, lest the Reich minister (and gauleiter of Berlin) become too powerful in Germany. Instead, Hitler had agreed only to a triumvirate of mediocrities to steer the extended mobilization program, enjoying circumscribed powers\u2014with Goebbels granted a \"watching brief.\" Isolated, ill, frustrated, depressed, and blaming others rather than himself for the Wehrmacht's failure on the Eastern Front, the F\u00fchrer even rejected Goebbels's renewed appeals that Hitler return to the capital and rally the nation at such a time of crisis both on the Eastern and Southern Fronts.\n\nFor Goebbels as Reichsminister f\u00fcr Propaganda, this made Roosevelt's dramatic appearance in Morocco especially galling: the U.S. president seen by photographers, cameramen, and reporters so relaxed in the garden of a sunlit villa in Casablanca, while the F\u00fchrer remained unseen by anybody: hiding out of sight at his freezing headquarters in East Prussia, moaning helplessly as he surveyed on his tabletop maps the sharp arrows of Russian advances, lancing into his besieged remaining forces at Stalingrad . . .\n\nIt was in this context that Goebbels had been heard to say\u2014by Albert Speer, the Reich armaments minister, no less\u2014that Germany did not have a leadership crisis, but a \"Leader crisis.\"\n\nGoebbels was not alone in thinking this\u2014though few if any dared say so aloud. Goebbels was especially disturbed by reports from the _Sicherheitsdienst_ concerning new anti-Nazi graffiti appearing on the walls of German cities. Some of these openly accused the F\u00fchrer of mass murder\u2014not of Jews, but of German soldiers, in forcing the Sixth Army to fight to the death at Stalingrad rather than allowing the men to retreat. There were even rumors circulating that Hitler was either dead or suffering mortal sickness in Prussia.\n\nHowever hard Dr. Goebbels tried, then, it seemed impossible to \"counter\" the sensational international effect of the Casablanca Conference. In his diary the minister thus cursed the way he and the F\u00fchrer had been outmaneuvered.\n\nThe very lack of military specifics in the President's Casablanca press conference\u2014or even in the final official conference communiqu\u00e9 issued after _weeks_ of military discussions held by the most senior Allied generals and admirals\u2014aroused still further concern in Goebbels's suspicious, ever-calculating, yet in many ways brilliant mind. \"They're trying to conceal the real decisions they've made at the conference,\" he dictated in his diary, \"clearly to lull us into complacency. But there's no possible doubt in my mind the Anglo-Saxons are planning to invade the mainland of Europe when it suits them. We'll have to prepare for surprises,\" he noted on January 28. \"From week to week,\" he added, \"the war is moving into a bitter, ruthless stage.\" And two days later, at the stated request of the absent F\u00fchrer, Goebbels delivered before an audience of invited Nazis in the Berlin Sportpalast\u2014and on German radio\u2014Hitler's tenth-anniversary proclamation, celebrating the Nazis' seizure of power in 1933.\n\nCompared with the President's Casablanca announcement, the proclamation was a dud.\n\nWithout new victories to boast of, indeed with the Russians erasing the last pockets of resistance in Stalingrad, Hitler had been reduced in the proclamation to a vague catalog of Nazi \"achievements\" over the past decade, as well as an assertion that National Socialism would \"inspire everybody to fulfill his duty.\" If not, the F\u00fchrer warned, woe betide the slacker. The Nazi Party \"will destroy whoever attempts to shirk his duty,\" he'd written\u2014having agreed with Goebbels on the phone that the most savage measures, including execution, were to be taken against any who dared contest the increased mobilization measures that would now be enacted.\n\nThanks to the F\u00fchrer and his accomplices, the war\u2014Hitler's war\u2014would indeed move now \"into a bitter, ruthless stage.\"\n\nThree weeks thereafter Dr. Goebbels would, finally, be permitted by the F\u00fchrer to deliver, in person, his long-awaited _totaler Krieg_ speech at the Berlin Sportpalast.\n\nGoebbels was careful, in the days before, to pass word around that he'd be issuing more than a proclamation. One Goebbels biographer later described it as \"the most important mass meeting\" of Goebbels's egregious life. Ignoring the President's recent reference to Germany's war of conquest and its subjugation of other peoples, Goebbels intended instead to portray Germany's struggle as a noble European battle, waged by the Third Reich and its allies against \"international Jewry,\" and a fight to vanquish the forces of Jewish-sponsored chaos and aggression.\n\n\"Behind the Soviet divisions storming toward us we see the Jewish liquidation commandos, and behind them the specter of terror, mass hunger, and complete anarchy,\" Goebbels described. The goal of Bolshevism, he declared, \"is Jewish world revolution. The Jews want to spread chaos across the Reich and Europe, so that in the resultant despair and hopelessness they can establish their international, Bolshevist, concealed-capitalist tyranny.\" International Jewry, he sneered, was an \"evil fermentation of decomposition\"\u2014a threat that \"finds its cynical pleasure in plunging the world into chaos, and thereby bringing about the fall of thousand-year-old cultures to which it has contributed nothing.\"\n\nConsidering Jews had made German culture and science world famous, and that the Jewish percentage of Germany's population in 1933 had been less than 1 percent, Goebbels's claims were not only preposterous, but malevolent beyond belief\u2014masking, sadly, the real truth: the SS liquidation teams that Hitler and Heinrich Himmler had unleashed when attacking the Soviet Union, as well as the deliberate extermination of innocent Jewish civilians across Europe. Yet before an audience of fifteen thousand Nazi stalwarts, Goebbels's newsreel cameramen \"captured extraordinary scenes of emotion,\" his biographer would describe. \"Within minutes the audience was leaping to its feet, saluting, screaming, and chanting\"\u2014their cries of \"F\u00fchrer command! We obey!\" foreshadowing the shrill madness of Orwell's _Animal Farm._\n\n\"The orgiastic climax was reached by the question: 'Do you want total war? Do you want war more total, if need be, and more radical than we can even begin to conceive of today?' And then, almost casually, 'Do you agree that anybody who injures our war effort should be put to death?'\"\n\n\"The bellow of assent each time was deafening,\" Goebbels's biographer would record\u2014the Reich minister's speech interrupted more than two hundred times by literally hysterical applause. Not least would be the climax, when Goebbels reached his frenzied, rhetorical \"masterpiece,\" modeled on Hitler's earlier \"masterpieces.\"\n\n\"Nun, Volk, steh auf, und Sturm, brich los!\"\u2014\"Now, people of Germany, rise up\u2014and storm: _break loose!_ \"\nPART FIVE\n\n* * *\n\n#  _Kasserine_\n**17**\n\n# Kasserine\n\nSHORTLY AFTER THE President's return to Washington, the last pocket of forty thousand starving soldiers of the German Sixth Army at Stalingrad raised the white flag\u2014knowing their chances of survival as prisoners of war were dim.\n\nThe SS and Wehrmacht had ruthlessly conquered, murdered, executed, pillaged, and despoiled too much, too mercilessly, since the launch of Operation Barbarossa to expect much mercy. Of the 113,000 German soldiers taken prisoner in the battle for the Russian city of Stalingrad, few would ever return to their Vaterland. \"I'm not cowardly, just sad that I can give no greater proof of my bravery,\" one soldier had written in his last, despairing letter home, \"than to die for such pointlessness, not to say crime.\"\n\nFor the Soviet armies, Stalingrad, not Torch, was the turning point of the war. Russian forces had been fighting the Wehrmacht and its Romanian, Hungarian, Finnish, Italian, Dutch, and other Axis assault forces relentlessly since June 1941. In those seventeen months, the Soviets had taken phenomenal casualties before finally learning how to halt and defeat Germans in battle. Americans had been in battle barely a few weeks.\n\nThe campaign in Tunisia against predominantly German forces would now evidence the same learning process, if on a considerably smaller scale.\n\nAs Allied units began to meet German rather than Vichy French forces in combat, the situation suddenly resembled chaos in Russia at the start of Barbarossa. Even as Roosevelt presided over the conference at Casablanca, in fact, armored German forces struck at the Allied line in the Eastern Dorsal region of the Atlas Mountains, manned by poorly armed French troops. Some thirty-five hundred troops immediately surrendered; the rest ran for their lives. \"The French began showing signs of complete collapse along the front as early as the seventeenth,\" Eisenhower jotted in his diary on January 19, 1943. \"Each day the tactical situation has gotten worse.\"\n\nThe President, who seldom if ever interfered in tactical dispositions, had urged while at Casablanca that another well-armed U.S. division be sent up the line from northern Morocco, but Marshall and Stimson's obsession with a possible German counterinvasion via Spain and Spanish Morocco had tied Eisenhower's hands. Transportation was a further fetter. \"We've had our railroad temporarily interrupted twice,\" Ike lamented. \"I'm getting weary of it, but can't move the troops (even if I had enough) to protect the lines.\" Wisely waiting for better weather and more troops, he wanted to hold fast until Montgomery's British Eighth Army drew closer from Libya, and a proper, integrated Allied offensive could be readied within the capabilities of largely green troops.\n\nThe Germans, however, would not oblige. On January 30, 1943, five days after the President's departure from Morocco, the Twenty-First Panzer Division \"struck Faid Pass in a three-pronged attack as precise as a pitchfork,\" campaign historian Rick Atkinson aptly described\u2014killing almost a thousand French defenders in a day. Then, luring counterattacking U.S. armored forces into a trap, the Germans decimated both U.S. infantry and tanks\u2014leaving Wehrmacht forces, backed by Stuka dive-bombers, in control of Fa\u00efd Pass and the Eastern Dorsal.\n\nThis, however, was just the beginning. On February 14 the Germans launched a Valentine's Day massacre. Warned that German armor was on the move, Eisenhower wanted to withdraw fifty-nine-year-old Lloyd Fredendall's II Corps to safer positions in the Grand Dorsal, but General Fredendall resisted, and Eisenhower felt too much of a tenderfoot to insist, especially since Fredendall was a prot\u00e9g\u00e9 of General Marshall's. The result would soon be a bloodbath\u2014this time American.\n\nA German officer \"could not help wondering whether the officers directing the American effort knew what they were doing.\" They didn't. Their forces were dispersed and were mutually unsupporting, as well as lacking effective air cover. They were, in short, completely unprepared for the two German armored contingents about to hit them: General von Arnim's _Fr\u00fchlingswind_ assault through the Fa\u00efd Pass to Sidi Bou Zid, and Field Marshal Rommel's attack further south: _Morgenluft._ \"We are going to go all out for the total destruction of the Americans,\" Field Marshal Kesselring, the German commander in chief South, declared.\n\n\"You're taking too many trips to the front,\" General Marshall had criticized Eisenhower at Algiers, after flying there from Casablanca. \"You ought to depend more on reports,\" he'd advised\u2014obtusely. Patton had counseled the opposite.\n\nEisenhower's deference to Marshall's authority pretty much condemned the Allies to defeat\u2014Eisenhower still too young to defy the U.S. Army chief of staff. \"Absolute priority\" alerts had been sent out, once Ultra intelligence decrypts of German signals recognized something big was up, but it was too late. As German forces smashed their way forward with the latest Tiger tanks, new Nebelwerfer multiple-nozzled mortars, and Stuka ground-attack dive-bombers dovetailing with the Wehrmacht advance, American officers began openly yelling at their men to flee for their lives. In less than twelve hours von Arnim and Rommel's pincers had closed, having seized the high spine of the central Dorsal and threatening to end run the entire Allied line in Tunisia.\n\nAbsolute pandemonium characterized the initial U.S. response\u2014followed once again by brave American tankers, ordered to counterattack, being lured into German 88mm mobile-artillery traps: almost a hundred American tanks destroyed with their crews, twenty-nine artillery guns, seven half-tracks, and sixteen hundred casualties suffered at Sidi Bou Zid alone. And this was just the start. Open Allied radio communications allowed the Germans to know American whereabouts and moves without difficulty. Huge Allied gasoline and ammunition dumps were blown up or surrendered, as were three U.S. airfields. The German 88s and Tiger tanks had a field day. The battle became a rout as American troops retreated, pell-mell. Fredendall abandoned his laboriously carved subterranean hideout, far behind the frontlines. By February 17 his corps had been thrown back fifty miles\u2014in three days. On February 19 Rommel then attacked at Kasserine. Panic ensued, with the British First Army commander of the overall Tunisian front ordering \"no further withdrawal,\" and to \"fight to the last man.\" Or last American, wags sneered.\n\nFredendall even began moving his headquarters back to Constantine\u2014more or less where Torch had begun, in November.\n\nConcerned that he had not sufficient supplies or reserves to fight much beyond Kasserine, Rommel was satisfied with what he'd achieved; he obtained grudging consent to withdraw, sowing forty-three thousand mines as he did, and blowing up all bridges. He had given the Allies a \"bloody nose\"\u2014inflicting six thousand casualties, destroying almost 220 tanks and over 200 artillery guns, for less than a thousand German casualties, and had set back the Allied timetable for advance by months.\n\nJoseph Goebbels, ecstatic at the reception given to his _totaler Krieg_ speech, was further delighted by the news of German victory in Tunisia, which went some way to overcome public despondency when word of the surrender of Stalingrad was finally released.\n\nOnce again German troops had proven they were the best soldiers in the world and could not be beaten, even by numerically larger forces. \"The Americans have made a really terrible showing,\" Goebbels noted in his diary\u2014\"absolutely awful. Which is reassuring, in the event the Americans try to mount an invasion of continental Europe against German troops. They will probably be so smashed up,\" he commented, \"they won't know what hit them.\"\n\nThe next day, still savoring the news from Tunisia, he reflected: \"This U.S. defeat gives us an excellent insight into American fighting ability in case of an American invasion of Europe. I think our soldiers would sooner rip their throats out than let them into Germany. At any rate, the spirit here among the German people is hard to beat.\"\n\nHitler was _au\u00dferordentlich zufrieden_ with Rommel\u2014extraordinarily pleased, Goebbels added, after speaking with the F\u00fchrer.\n**18**\n\n# Arch-Admirals and Arch-Generals\n\nIN WASHINGTON, NEWS of the American defeat at Kasserine was met with disbelief.\n\nThe secretary of war and senior officers in the War Department who had urged the President to mount a cross-Channel invasion in the summer of 1943, as soon as Tunisia was cleared of enemy forces\u2014even in tandem with an invasion of Sicily, should the President insist on Operation Husky, as it was code-named, to placate British anxiety to clear the Mediterranean sea route to Suez and India\u2014were chastened. The prospects for a successful cross-Channel assault now looked pretty dire, even to Pentagon fantasists. For a moment, in fact, it looked as if Tunisia might be cleared not of Axis forces, but of American.\n\nStimson, sadly, took this as a sign the Allies should not have landed in Northwest Africa at all. The President demurred. The lesson, in his view, was the opposite: namely the need for more battle experience against German troops.\n\nCombat, command, and campaign experience: these were crucial\u2014not only at unit level, but in senior command and international-coalition cooperation. It was not only Fredendall who failed in battle. Colonel\u2014later Brigadier General\u2014Paul Robinett would afterward write, \"One would have to search all history to find a more jumbled command structure than that of the Allies in this operation.\" Until the onset of battlefield defeat, however, no one had seemed interested in command structures or battle techniques against a German enemy. In Tripoli, General Montgomery had organized a special \"study week\" or teach-in to \"check up on our battle technique,\" launching it with a two-hour address that one British general thought \"one of the best addresses I have ever heard and that is saying a lot.\" Thanks to Rommel's attack only a handful of U.S. officers were sent to attend, however, and among those who did go, General Patton was heard boasting, \"I may be old, I may be slow, I may be stoopid, and I know I'm deaf, but it just don't mean a thing to me.\"\n\nOn his return to Morocco, once the true extent of American debacle became clear, even Patton began to rethink his supercilious judgment. \"The show was very bad\u2014very bad indeed,\" he confided in a letter to his wife. The matter of how to fight the Germans in battle had come to mean life or death to ninety thousand American soldiers in Tunisia. Even Stimson, in Washington, was shocked. \"Heavy fighting is going on,\" he'd noted in his diary on February 15, \"and we have yet to see whether the Americans can recover themselves and stand up to it.\" That they hadn't, in the days thereafter, was galling.\n\nTwo days later Stimson was acknowledging that Rommel had mounted a veritable \"coup\" in southern Tunisia. \"He has attacked our thin line of American troops in that region with a comparatively overwhelming force of tanks and has driven them back some thirty miles. Eisenhower has been expecting it and two or three days ago sent a full appraisal of the situation and of his expectation,\" Stimson recorded, \"and he has withdrawn his force to a new line I hope without suffering irretrievable losses.\" The secretary worried, nevertheless, that the very distance that reinforcements would have to travel would count against the Allies. \"We had such good luck in the beginning but these things were lost sight of\"\u2014thanks largely to his and Marshall's obsession with a German flank attack across Spain and the Mediterranean. \"Now they will begin to count against us,\" he lamented. \"Nevertheless we must not forget the tremendous and permanent gains which our adventure has brought us\u2014the thus far safe occupation of northwest Africa; the acquisition of Dakar and west Africa; the diversion of Hitler's troops from the eastern front, and the irretrievable losses which he has suffered aided by that fact. All of these gains to us are, I hope, permanent and well worth any local setbacks.\"\n\nElderly and obstinate to a fault when it came to the stark, bloody business of fighting real Germans in real battle, Stimson was still thinking of \"gains\" in strategic terms, however\u2014not in combat and command experience: the blooding of those who had to do America's fighting, and who deserved better of their senior officers. Yet as the hours went by and reports came in of panic, desertions in the field, mass flight, surrenders, and demolitions, Stimson felt it was time to be honest. On February 18 he finally gave a press conference that even Joseph Goebbels found \"extraordinary in its frankness.\"\n\n\"Today I had a sharp reverse to report to the press at the press conference,\" Stimson admitted frankly in his diary, having \"decided to make no effort to whitewash it but to present it in its sharp outlines and simply in my own language to admit that it was a sharp setback and it would be folly to try to minimize it and it would be still greater folly to exaggerate it . . . I talked it over with Marshall afterwards. The only thing Marshall was worried about is that there are two extra divisions that apparently Rommel hasn't used of armored forces and is wondering where those are. Incidentally he told me that when they were in Casablanca the President wanted to divert another one of the divisions from George Patton's force at the gates of Gibraltar and ship them up into the attack in Tunisia. The Staff, however, had refused to agree to this.\"\n\nThe true lesson\u2014that Tunisia was America's military training ground\u2014still eluded Stimson, though. Despite his own trip to Casablanca and then Algiers, General Marshall seemed similarly blinkered. At the Pentagon, Stimson shared with Marshall, on Marshall's return, his feeling they'd had extraordinary \"luck so far and all the excitement of the success of the first attack, but now the length of communications is going to tell and we are going to be under constant pressure from the President, among others, to strip our force at the Gate [in Morocco] and send them out to Tunisia to meet the pressure that is going on there. He agreed with me that this would be disastrous.\"\n\nDisastrous?\n\nThat Marshall and Stimson should have continued to take counsel of such fears of a German invasion of Morocco through Spain and across the Straits of Gibraltar, even in mid-February 1943, was almost risible; certainly it made their continuing urging of a cross-Channel attack that coming summer, in tandem with the plan to invade Sicily, jejune beyond belief.\n\nFortunately, saner minds saw the situation differently. In the press, at least, the U.S. debacle in Tunisia did at least serve to dampen public ardor for a cross-Channel assault that year.\n\nIn Berlin, Dr. Goebbels was derisive. Reading British reports of the battle, expressing ill-concealed contempt for American fighting skills, Goebbels likened the situation to that of German forces having to fight with disappointing allies. \"So the English now have their own Italians,\" he mocked. \"We can grant them that. The British have always known how to get others to fight their battles; now they have to acknowledge Americans are even better at it,\" he sneered. As if this were not enough, he went on: \"The Americans prefer to fight their battles in Hollywood rather than on the rough ground of Tunisia, where instead of facing paper tanks they're up against German panzers.\" And given the awe of Rommel once again being expressed in London newspapers, his endlessly suspicious mind made him wonder if the British, in the aftermath of the battle, were using the American defeat to quieten calls for a Second Front, which the British wisely knew would fail\u2014or at any rate \"delay\" the cross-Channel assault Stalin was calling for. \"They're seriously doubting if they can really put together a successful Second Front.\"\n\nKasserine, then, provided a wake-up call for the Allies. Obtaining authorization from Marshall to dismiss Fredendall and replace him with General George Patton, Eisenhower told Patton to fire the incompetent and \"to be perfectly cold-blooded about it.\"\n\nDimly\u2014despite the lurid stories that General Wedemeyer and others had spread about how the British had \"put one over\" the American team at Casablanca, resulting in the outrageous delay of a Second Front\u2014even the senior officers of the War Department began to come to their senses: accepting the President was right. A Second Front would never work until U.S. forces were battle-hardened and had had a chance to rehearse large-scale amphibious landings in Sicily.\n\nKasserine, moreover, put a temporary damper on the U.S. War and Navy Departments' ridiculous obsession with rank rather than experience.\n\nNo sooner had the Torch landings taken place than Admiral King had begun pressing his colleagues to back his bid to be promoted _above_ four-star rank. \"It seems to me that the time has come to take up the matter of more 'full' Admirals and more 'full' generals,\" he had written in a special memorandum to Admiral Leahy and General Marshall (though not to Lieutenant General Arnold) soon after the Torch invasion. Theater commanders in chief now needed to have four-star rank, to keep up with the British; this then meant that the Joint Chiefs, though not Arnold, should have even higher rank, he felt. \"I therefore suggest that we consider the matter and make appropriate recommendations to the President,\" he'd urged.\n\nNot satisfied with the idea of merely a fifth star for the chiefs, King wanted wholly new ranking nomenclature in the U.S. Armed Forces\u2014indeed, he had his own pet proposal. \"We need also to recognize that there is need to prepare for ranks higher than that of Admiral and General. As to such ranks, I suggest Arch-Admiral and Arch-General,\" he gave his considered view, \"rather than Admiral of the Fleet and Field Marshal.\"\n\nArch-Admiral King? Arch-General Marshall?\n\nNo one was impressed. King had continued to push, however. In the days leading up to Kasserine, Secretary Stimson had learned from Secretary Knox that Marshall was now slated to become a field marshal. He was appalled.\n\nTrue, before Kasserine, on February 12, General Eisenhower had been promoted to temporary four-star rank in order to give him further authority as Allied commander in chief in Algiers. But for General Marshall to become an American \"field marshal\" when he had never actually held a field command as a general?\n\nStimson had asked Marshall what he thought of the idea. \"Marshall was dead against any such promotion,\" Stimson noted with relief in his diary. \"He said it would destroy all his influence both with the Congress and with the people, and he said that it really all came from the lower Admirals of the Navy Department forcing this upon King and Knox and upon the President.\" Stimson thus immediately wrote to the President, on February 16, in the midst of the battle in Tunisia, to try and scotch the idea\u2014which the President did. Fiddling with more stars and \"field marshal\" titles\u2014which would require Stimson and Knox putting the proposal in person before the Senate and House Armed Services Committees\u2014seemed to Roosevelt a very poor way of defeating Field Marshal Rommel.\n\nFor his part, Dwight Eisenhower had not wanted a fourth star, even. He'd immediately cabled to thank the President for his temporary promotion to full general, in the field\u2014but seven days later he wrote privately to his son John, at college. \"It is possible that a necessity might arise for my relief and consequent demotion,\" he warned\u2014glad to be able to say that his colonel's silver oak leaf in the regular army couldn't be taken away, whatever happened.\n\nEisenhower's untrumpeted humility did him proud. True, Ike had placed too much trust in Marshall's prot\u00e9g\u00e9, Fredendall. Only the cordite of _Blitzkrieg_ combat could have exposed the dire weaknesses in American command and battlefield skills in the end, however. Along with many thousands of platoon, company, battalion, brigade, division, and corps commanding officers, Eisenhower himself would have to learn the \"hard\" way. As he wrote to his son, \"You are quite mistaken in thinking that the work you are now doing is useless in the training of yourself for war.\" He was there, at college, to train his \"mind to think. That is essential. No situation whether general or special, is ever the same in war as it was foreseen or anticipated. You must be able to think as the problem comes up.\" And he instanced having to use Admiral Darlan to obtain swift surrender of Vichy forces in Morocco and Algeria to save American lives.\n\nIt was this very quality that President Roosevelt liked in Eisenhower. The President was certain Ike would mature in theater command. Far from demoting Eisenhower, the President was proud of the way he had handled himself and his relations with the British\u2014authorizing General Alexander, his new field deputy, to take over day-to-day handling of the battlefront on February 19; his treatment of the press (Eisenhower accepting \"full responsibility\" for the debacle, off the record, with reporters); his quiet removal of General Fredendall; and his patient refusal to advance the launch date for Husky, the invasion of Sicily, by a month, as Winston Churchill pressed him to do, lest it prejudice the conditions for Husky's success.\n\nNo: in the President's view young General Eisenhower, at age fifty-two, was doing just fine\u2014and U.S. troops, too. The President had seen them, in person, at Rabat, and was confident they'd learn the crucial lessons soon enough. Rommel was withdrawing from Kasserine, and would shortly be given his own drubbing by Montgomery at Medenine, on the Gulf of Gab\u00e8s\u2014probably the most perfect defensive one-day battle of the twentieth century.\n\nIt would all turn out for the best. It was Stalin who worried the President\u2014for the ramification of the President's patient war strategy was this: that the United States would, by its step-by-step approach, win the global war, yet in delaying a Second Front, might well risk Russian domination of Europe in the war's aftermath.\n\nMilitary prosecution of the war, in other words, was becoming every day more freighted with political consequences.\n**Total War**\n\n* * *\n\n> On January 7, 1943, President Roosevelt announces \"total war\" to Congress, then secretly embarks for North Africa aboard a Boeing clipper. He will be the first U.S. president to fly while in office, and the first to visit the battlefield abroad in time of war.\n\n**En Route to Casablanca**\n\n* * *\n\n> Via Trinidad and Brazil, the President flies across the Atlantic to Gambia, where he tours the harbor in an American tender and spends the night on the USS _Memphis_.\n\n> Then, using a special ramp for his wheelchair, Roosevelt (with Captain Bryan) flies in a C-54 transport up the coast of northwest Africa to Casablanca, Morocco.\n\n**Casablanca**\n\n* * *\n\n> German intelligence mistakes \"Casablanca\" for \"Casa Blanca,\" the White House, concluding that FDR and Churchill planned to meet in Washington.\n\n> Meanwhile, in secret, FDR establishes his headquarters in a Moroccan villa (with his sons Elliott and Franklin Jr. and Harry Hopkins). His task: to set the Allies\u2014and the U.S. chiefs of staff\u2014on an implacable course for offensive victory in World War II.\n\n**Directing World Strategy**\n\n* * *\n\n> At his villa headquarters, FDR assembles the Combined Chiefs of Staff. He must stop his own generals from committing U.S. forces to mass suicide before they have combat experience. He must also get the British to agree to a 1944 cross-Channel strategy. And get the fractious French to fight the Nazis, not each other.\n\n**Visiting Troops on the Battlefield**\n\n* * *\n\n> Generals Eisenhower, Clark, and Patton agree with FDR: U.S. forces need more combat experience before launching a cross-Channel invasion. The presence of the President on the North African battlefield is meanwhile inspiring.\n\n**Unconditional Surrender**\n\n* * *\n\n> Churchill has mixed feelings, but his British government applauds the policy Roosevelt announces to the press and to the world on behalf of the Allies: no negotiation with tyranny, and \"unconditional surrender\" of the Axis powers.\n\n**End of Empires**\n\n* * *\n\n> What should the Allies fight for? FDR and Churchill do not share the same vision, the President tells his son. They are at loggerheads over colonization: FDR is unwilling to sacrifice American lives just to restore British and French empires.\n\n> At Casablanca, FDR invites the Sultan of Morocco to dine, and admires the sunset with Churchill in Marrakesh. Before flying home, he insists on visiting Liberia, which became independent in 1847.\n\n**_Totaler Krieg_ **\n\n* * *\n\n> At the Sportpalast in Berlin, Goebbels announces _totaler Krieg_ (total war), not only as a battle of ideology, but of will.\n\n> Back in the States, the President tours the nation's military training camps where soldiers prepare for combat overseas. In secret, he orders P-38s from Guadalcanal to \"get Yamamoto,\" the man directing Japan's war in the Pacific.\n\n**19**\n\n# Between Two Forces of Evil\n\nTHE ENIGMA THAT was Russia\u2014its communist purges in the late 1930s; its appeasement of Hitler in its infamous Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact in the summer of 1939; its subsequent occupation of eastern Poland, in the wake of Hitler's _Blitzkrieg_ attack on western Poland; its similarly egregious invasion of Finland and the Winter War that had resulted in Russian annexation of 10 percent of Finnish territory, in Karelia; its fearsome NKVD police-state methods to maintain absolute communist control of the entire Soviet Union; its displacement and enforced migration of vast populations to Siberia; its veritable paranoia in terms of capitalistic, foreign influence or sway over its citizens\u2014had not given most Americans much reason to support the Soviets, save as opponents of the even more egregious Germans.\n\nThe sheer refusal of Russian soldiers and citizens\u2014often ill armed and ill trained\u2014to cede their country to the German troops who had overrun all of Europe had aroused belated popular admiration in America, and growing confidence that Hitler\u2014despite his control of Europe from Norway to Greece, and the whole of central Europe to the Crimea and Ukraine\u2014could, in truth, be beaten. What would happen then, though? Would the Soviets, obedient on pain of death to absolute communist rule from the Kremlin, permit those countries of Europe liberated by the Soviets to become genuine, capitalist, functioning democracies? Or would they be \"Sovietized\" by Russia?\n\nThe President had been thinking of such matters with increasing concern in the fall of 1942, as he'd confided to the Canadian prime minister, Mackenzie King. The prospect, however, had become all the stronger once it became clear that Hitler had overplayed his hand at Stalingrad, and his Sixth Army was going to get a hammering on the Volga\u2014indeed, that he might lose not only his Sixth Army at Stalingrad but his armies in the Caucasus, by the Black Sea, too. From being on the desperate defensive, the Russians would then begin to pose a mortal threat to the Third Reich\u2014with or without a Second Front.\n\nCertainly this was an eventuality that, in the privacy of his diary, Joseph Goebbels pondered. Far from causing him to question the Nazi ideology that he and Hitler had pursued over the past two decades, it only caused him to dedicate himself the more determinedly to the _Ausrottung_ of the people he blamed for Europe's travails: the Jews, as he'd declared in his _totaler Krieg_ speech. He now gave orders for the last Jews left in Berlin to be rounded up and sent to be liquidated in SS concentration camps\u2014noting how much more psychologically free this made him feel. He also recorded his determination to stamp out any protest in Germany to his total-war policy in the most ruthless manner\u2014in other words, via execution\u2014as well as ruthless reprisals to be taken against any acts of disrespect or attempted assassination of Nazi officials in the occupied countries of Europe.\n\nBetween these two forces of pure evil, it was difficult to say which was the worst. The President had therefore, on November 19, 1942, asked his former ambassador to the Soviet Union, William C. Bullitt, to furnish him with a private report on how he saw the future of Europe, following the successful Torch landings. In particular, Roosevelt wanted to have the former ambassador's reading of Russian intentions.\n\nBill Bullitt had taken his time. He'd recently been used by the President as an ambassador at large, conducting a presidential mission to West Africa, Egypt, Libya, Palestine, Syria, Iraq, and Iran in the spring of 1942. Independently wealthy thanks to his second marriage, he had then become director of public relations to the secretary of the Navy, Frank Knox. It had taken him two months to comply with the President's new request\u2014too late, unfortunately, for the Casablanca Conference\u2014but when it was ready, it was dynamite.\n\n\"Dear Mr. President,\" Bullitt's covering letter ran, written on January 29, 1943, the day before the President's return to Washington. \"The appended will take thirty minutes of your time. It is as serious a document as any I have ever sent you.\" He warned that \"its conclusion is that you should talk with Stalin as soon as possible\"\u2014and wished Roosevelt good luck in the attempt.\n\nThe President _did_ read it\u2014and swiftly invited Bullitt to lunch at the White House to discuss its implications for Allied political and military strategy.\n\nBullitt's report pulled no punches. Having served as America's very first envoy to Moscow, he had, after all, an almost unrivaled perspective both on Stalin and the Russians. In addition, for an American he had a keen perspective on Europe, having been U.S. ambassador to France for four years, right up to the German conquest of France in 1940.\n\nBullitt's portrait of Stalin and his Soviet aims was uncompromising. His memorandum began by trashing former Republican president Herbert Hoover's notion that Stalin had changed his philosophy, wanted no annexations, and was only interested in Russian security. The dictator was reported, in the view of such innocents as Hoover, \"to be determined to have the Soviet Union evolve in the direction of liberty and democracy, freedom of speech and freedom of religion. We ought to pray that this is so,\" Bullitt allowed; \"for if it is so, the road to a world of liberty, democracy and peace will be relatively easy.\" If this was not so, however, \"the road will be up-hill all the way.\" The free world would be tilting in one direction, the oppressive Soviet Union or empire in another.\n\nIn these circumstances, Bullitt felt, America must do everything to halt the Russian tilt before it was too late. It was, he wrote, \"in our national interest to attempt to draw Stalin into cooperation with the United States and Great Britain, for the establishment of an Atlantic Charter peace,\" such as the President's teams in Washington were mapping out. \"We ought to try to accomplish this feat, however improbable success may seem,\" for America would then be on the side of right, not merely might. But in dealing with Stalin, Bullitt was adamant, it was imperative to strip away any illusion.\n\n\"The reality is that the Soviet Union, up to the present time, has been a totalitarian dictatorship in which there has been no freedom of speech, no freedom of the press, and a travesty of freedom of religion; in which there has been universal fear of the OGPU [secret police] and Freedom from Want has been subordinated always to the policy of guns instead of butter.\" Stalin might well be persuaded to close down the nefarious Comintern, fomenting world communist revolution\u2014but only because, in the end, Stalin actually _had_ no real interest in world revolution by communists; his interest was only in communist-controlled nations serving as \"5th column for the Soviet State\" or empire. World communist revolution was but \"a secondary objective.\"\n\nAs Bullitt pointed out from his intimate, personal knowledge of the dictator, Joseph Stalin had no illusions\u2014or even belief in communism as a motivating faith. He \"lets no ideological motives influence his actions,\" Bullitt warned. Whether the global future lay with the ideal of communism or the president's four freedoms, Stalin was indifferent. His only goal was to maintain and extend the power of the Soviet Union: greater Russia, in effect, as a police state ruled by fear. \"He is highly intelligent. He weighs with suspicious realism all factors involved in advancing the interests or boundaries of the Soviet Union. He moves where opposition is weak. He stops where opposition is strong. He puts out pseudopodia\"\u2014amoeba-like tentacles\u2014\"rather than leaping like a tiger. If the pseudopodia meet no obstacle, the Soviet Union flows on.\"\n\nThe moral, then, was that the United States must do everything in its power to show genuine _desire_ for cooperation, as well as to \"prove to Stalin that, while we have intense admiration for the Russian people and will collaborate fully with a pacific Soviet State, we will resist a predatory Soviet State just as fiercely as we are now resisting a predatory Nazi State.\" If not, \"we shall have fought a great war not for liberty but for Soviet dictatorship.\"\n\nThis was a sobering eventuality.\n\n\"How can we make sure that this will not happen,\" Bullitt asked rhetorically, \"and achieve our own aim in a world of freedom and democracy?\"\n\nIt would be a case of America Inc. versus Russia Red.\n\nPresident Roosevelt nodded his head in agreement\u2014for whatever was published in liberal-minded newspapers and journals in the United States, he himself had no illusions about Stalin, or the nature of the Soviet terror state, maintained entirely by patriotism and fear. Moreover, he was pleased to see Bullitt supporting his presidential policy of unconditional surrender of the Nazis and Japanese\u2014whereas there were many, including Third Secretary George Kennan in Moscow, who favored making a deal with the German generals, or non-Nazis, to help fight the Soviet regime. To the President this would be tantamount to condoning German militarism, wars of conquest, and use of terror against its own citizens\u2014whether Jews or gypsies, political prisoners or priests\u2014just as it would be were Japan's example of inhumanity\u2014its savage, genocidal war in China and its atrocity-ridden rampage across the Southwest Pacific\u2014to be condoned. Unconditional surrender and disarmament of the Axis powers was a sine qua non of a permanent postwar peace in the world, beginning on a new page, the President felt strongly\u2014and Bullitt, in his report, did not contest this.\n\nOne by one the President ticked Bullitt's points: that unless Russia was pressured into declaring war on Japan, for example, following German capitulation, the United States would be tied down, having to fight its way unaided, island by island, until it could finally bomb and invade the Japanese heartland, which might take years\u2014while in the meantime Russia's amoeba would be left free to spread across Europe, infecting defenseless nations and hitching them to Stalin's Sovietizing wagon.\n\nThe answer to that, in Bullitt's view, was to press Stalin, while U.S. Lend-Lease assistance was still critical to Soviet military victory against the Wehrmacht, into agreeing not only to enter the war against Japan in due course, but to sign up to a formal agreement committing the Allies to establish a postwar democratic Europe\u2014not, as was the alternative, a group of communist puppet states subservient to the Soviet Union.\n\nThis, as Bullitt articulately put it, could only be done by securing an early meeting with Stalin, since \"our bargaining position will be hopeless after the defeat of Germany,\" when Russian troops would in all likelihood be in occupation of all central Europe up to the Elbe\u2014perhaps even up to the Rhine. Churchill, too, must be harnessed to a European, rather than imperial British, cause, alongside the United States\u2014with everything done, from this moment forth, to prepare the governments in exile and future European leaders to establish strong democratic structures that Stalin's fifth columnists could not successfully subvert.\n\nWorld disarmament was, in Bullitt's realistic view, impossible\u2014yet he doubted whether U.S. public opinion would willingly support yet another war in Europe to defend defenseless individual states. Ergo, rather than disarm those states, or press such states to disarm, they should be encouraged to arm themselves against Russian interference\u2014forming a U.S.-and-British-supported coalition or alliance. They should be urged to become a European bloc of \"Integrated Europe,\" which Stalin would not dare challenge. \"Soviet invasion finds barriers in armed strength,\" Bullitt emphasized, \"not in Soviet promises.\"\n\nThis prediction\u2014an early 1943 version of what became, in 1948, the Western European Union and NATO\u2014was very much the President's thinking. Using Lend-Lease as a lever, it would involve a carrot-and-stick approach to get Stalin, as soon as possible, to dissolve the Comintern as the instigator of world communist revolution; to agree to eventual entry into the war against Japan, once Germany was defeated; and to agree, in a formal document, to sign up to a United Nations world authority guaranteeing the independence and self-government of sovereign states\u2014with the United States and Britain, as two of the world's Four Policemen, ready and willing to use air, naval, and, if necessary, ground forces to counter any attempt, by anyone, to invade such sovereign states.\n\nWould Joseph Stalin, dictator of a police state supposedly wedded to Marxist-Leninist communist ideology, willingly sign up to a democratic concept like this, however\u2014a charter that would be a permanent indictment of the Russian police state?\n\nAs Bullitt acknowledged, the Russians would have the \"whip hand\" at the end of the war. In all frankness, moreover, there seemed little evidence the Soviets, led and ruled by Stalin, were going to undergo a Pauline conversion and become guardians of democracy and freedom, together with the United States, Britain, and China, across the globe\u2014at least not anytime soon. It was therefore imperative that the United States and Britain\u2014since China, for all its millions of people, was in no position to police anyone, indeed would probably have to cede Manchuria to the Soviets\u2014ensure that their own troops reached, as soon as possible, a demarcation line in Europe beyond which Stalin's troops could not march without going to war with the United States, the Soviet Union's great provider.\n\nWhere, exactly, as Bullitt surveyed the world in January 1943, would this line be, however\u2014 _and how could the Western allies hope to reach it before the Russians?_\n\nThis, indeed, was an interesting question.\n\nA colleague of Bullitt's\u2014Bullitt did not name him in his report\u2014had recently posited the end-of-war Sovietization of Europe would include \"at least Finland, the Baltic States, Poland, Rumania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and the entire Balkan peninsula including probably European Turkey\"\u2014unless, Bullitt argued, the President beat Stalin to the punch. The United States should therefore \"define as Europe the Europe of 1938,\" he suggested\u2014\"minus Bessarabia, which should go to the Soviet Union\"\u2014and seek to save that version of Europe from the predatory clutches of the Russian bear. In this respect there was, Bullitt reemphasized, \"only one sure guarantee that the Red Army will not cross into Europe\u2014the prior arrival of American and British Armies in the eastern frontiers of Europe.\"\n\nThe eastern frontiers of Europe\u2014when U.S. forces still did not have a single soldier on the European continent?\n\nAnticipating the President's frown, Bullitt had admitted in his report: \"To state this is to state what appears to be an absurdity, if the assumption is made that we can reach the eastern frontiers of Europe only by marching through France, Italy and Germany\" before the Russians. However Bullitt had a better alternative. \"It may . . . be possible to reach this frontier before the Red Army,\" the former ambassador and now assistant to the U.S. Navy secretary wrote, \"if we make our attack on the Axis not by way of France and Italy but by way of Salonika and Constantinople.\"\n\nOh dear! __ the President sighed. Bullitt clearly had less idea of geography as it pertained to military matters than a schoolchild. Had he never heard of the disastrous \"Salonika Front\" in World War I, or Churchill's fatal Allied assault in the Dardanelles in 1915\u2014not to speak of the First and Second Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913?\n\nThe President had recently heard similar Balkan proposals being trotted out by Prime Minister Churchill and the French high commissioner, General Giraud, at Casablanca. Given the disaster in the Dardanelles in 1915, it had been utterly amazing to hear Winston recommending such a military strategy. Yet General Giraud was just as unrealistic, the President had found. Both were men of great courage\u2014but in the search for alternatives to \"war by attrition,\" they were given to fantasies that were almost criminal in terms of the loss of human life to which their ill-considered ventures would lead\u2014Churchill's Gallipoli fiasco having cost the Western Allies no fewer than a quarter million casualties.\n\nIgnoring this, Churchill had at Casablanca favored pressing Turkey's president to declare war on Hitler, and revival of the idea of a Dardanelles campaign. He'd asked Giraud whether he agreed\u2014at which the five-star French general had countered with his own equally amazing notion of Allied military strategy.\n\n\" _Tout simple,_ \" Giraud had opined. \"First, liberate Africa. Which is being done. This should be finished by spring this year. Then, without wasting a minute, occupy the three big Mediterranean islands: Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. Establish a base there, primarily air forces, to assault the mainland of Europe. As soon as the forces are ready, invade the coast of Italy, between Livorno and Genoa. Seize the Po valley. Clean up the rest of the Italian peninsula, and prepare to strike into the heart of Europe on the axis: Udine [northwest of Venice, between the Alps and the Adriatic] and Vienna, backed by air power serviced from bases across the whole of Italy. In one blow Germany can thus be invaded through the Danube valley: we will isolate the Balkans on the right, and have France on the left, and we will beat the Russians to Vienna, which is not to be sniffed at,\" he'd announced. \"After that, following the fall of Germany, the business of Japan will be a piece of cake. QED.\"\n\nClearly Giraud\u2014who still pressed to be made Allied commander in chief in the Mediterranean instead of General Eisenhower, rather than have to deal with political matters he abhorred\u2014saw himself as a modern Napoleon, though about a foot taller.\n\nAt Casablanca, Churchill had not discouraged this idea\u2014though the President had refused to countenance such craziness. It was therefore nothing short of galling, at lunch at the White House, to have to listen to former ambassador Bullitt, the director of public relations in the Navy Department, now recommending, as an American, such military b\u00eatises.\n\nBullitt claimed, to the President's concern, he was not alone in Washington in advancing such a war strategy. His discussions at the Navy Department and elsewhere had convinced him, Bullitt maintained, that \"there is a large body of military opinion in Washington that favors\u2014on purely military grounds\u2014striking at the Axis by way of Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria and Rumania rather than by way of France and Italy.\"\n\nDump the whole idea of a cross-Channel attack?\n\nOn paper the notion appeared bold and imaginative\u2014if wars were conducted on paper. Like Giraud, Bullitt seemed convinced the Western Allies could make straight for central Europe, and secure its boundaries before the Russians got there, without problem\u2014irrespective of the terrain. Or the Germans. \"This is a question for you and Churchill, and your military advisors to decide,\" Bullitt allowed\u2014convinced that Churchill, who was nothing if not imaginative, would be of like mind.\n\nThe conclusion to Bullitt's twenty-four-page report to the President had climaxed with a three-point politico-military recommendation. Roosevelt should persuade Churchill to subscribe to a \"policy of an integrated, democratic Europe.\" \"Conversations between you and Stalin\" should then be arranged. But behind the scenes, while negotiating on paper with Stalin, an \"immediate study of an attack on the Axis by way of Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria and Rumania\" should be ordered by the President.\n\nThere was even a fourth recommendation: namely that Bullitt's archrival at the State Department, Sumner Welles, be fired\u2014thus empowering the deeply anti-Soviet secretary, Cordell Hull, to take Bill Bullitt as his deputy, as the Allies raced through the Balkans into central Europe.\n\nQED.\n\nBullitt's report\u2014which would later be quoted as a kind of Lost Ark that could have changed the course of history, had it been followed\u2014was, in its military naivet\u00e9, as senseless as it was callous in respect to the lives that would have been lost in pursuing such a course. Lunching with Bullitt, the President could only shake his head at a man so right about the Soviets and so wrong about military matters.\n\nWinston Churchill, for his part, did not feel the same way. While the President had returned straightaway from North Africa to Washington via Liberia, Bathurst, Natal, and Jamaica (where a recuperated Admiral Leahy was picked up), the Prime Minister had nevertheless flown, against the advice even of his own cabinet, to Turkey, in a vain attempt to get President Ismet Inonu to join the Western Allies\u2014and thus open the way to an invasion of southern Europe via the Balkans and Constantinople: the dream that had consumed him in 1915 and had led to his resignation as First Lord of the Admiralty when it failed.\n\nRoosevelt had been skeptical whether President Inonu would comply with Churchill's request, any more than Portugal or Spain or Sweden could be expected to give up their neutrality in the war. He had, however, authorized Churchill to share with Inonu the President's notions of unconditional surrender and a postwar United Nations authority\u2014not only as a bulwark against future wars of aggression, but as a counter to future Russian expansionism.\n\nThe President had cautioned Churchill, however, neither to promise too much military aid, if Inonu did decide to join the war, nor to suggest that the Allies were planning a new invasion of Salonika, as in 1915. The Germans, he warned, would be tougher even than Atat\u00fcrk's army at Gallipoli\u2014and the mountains beyond Salonika would make an Allied campaign a dead end. His remit, in terms of the U.S.-British coalition, was merely to explore the possibility of airfields and military staging bases being established in Turkey, and if not, to encourage Turkey in its neutrality: dissuading it from any thought of alliance or cooperation with the Third Reich, and encouraging it as a bulwark against communism. This, to his great credit, Churchill had attempted to do as part emissary, part negotiator, flying to Adana and meeting with Inonu onboard their two trains. To the relief of Sir Alexander Cadogan and General Brooke, the Prime Minister had been surprisingly circumspect\u2014relying on his gifts of ratiocination and literary composition. No sooner had he arrived, therefore, than he handed President Inonu a paper he'd written en route to Turkey called \"Morning Thoughts: Note on Postwar Security\"\u2014a copy of which he was careful to cable to the President in Washington.\n\nLike Bullitt's report, Churchill's Turkish memorandum was to become an important historical document.\n\nIn Churchillian prose (Cadogan noting in his diary, \"He was awfully proud of it\"), the Prime Minister's paper summarized the outcome of the Casablanca Conference and the outlook for the world at the end of the war. As soon as the \"unconditional surrender of Germany and Italy\" was achieved, the \"unconditional surrender\" of Japan, too, would be procured\u2014with subsequent \"disarmament of the guilty nations\" enforced by the victors. (\"On the other hand no attempt will be made to destroy their peoples or to prevent them gaining a living and leading a decent life in spite of all the crimes they have committed,\" Churchill added the rider.) Reparations would not be demanded by the Western countries \"as was tried last time,\" though Russia would have to be helped \"in every possible way in her work of restoring the economic life of her people\" after suffering \"such a horrible devastation\" as Hitler had inflicted. This, then, led to the President's plans for a United Nations authority.\n\nThe authority was to be \"a world organization for the preservation of peace based upon the conceptions of freedom of justice and the revival of prosperity\"\u2014one that would not be \"subject to the weakness of former League of Nations.\" It would be held together under the military protection of the victors, who would \"continue fully armed, especially in the air.\" \"None can predict with certainty that the victors will never quarrel amongst themselves, or that the United States may not once again retire from Europe, but after the experiences which all have gone through, and their sufferings and the certainty that a third struggle will destroy all that is left of culture, wealth and civilization of mankind and reduce us to the level almost of wild beasts, the most intense effort will be made by the leading Powers,\" Churchill summarized, \"to prolong their honorable association and by sacrifice and self-restraint to win for themselves a glorious name in human annals.\" Great Britain would \"do her utmost to organize a coalition of resistance to any act of aggression committed by any power;\" moreover, \"it is believed that the United States will cooperate with her and even possibly take the lead of the world, on account of her numbers and strength, in the good work of preventing such tendencies to aggression before they break into open war.\"\n\nThough it might not be as magically phrased as some of his prose masterpieces and speeches, Churchill's memorandum reflected the extent to which he now understood and agreed with the President's vision of the United Nations and postwar world security at this moment in the war. Given such a future, then, would not Turkey wish to guarantee its own security \"by taking her place as a victorious belligerent and ally at the side of Great Britain, the United States and Russia,\" Churchill had asked President Inonu?\n\nIt was a beguiling prospect, but President Inonu, understandably, had declined. The Prime Minister's paper certainly exuded confidence in the inevitable eventual victory of the Allies\u2014but it seemed oblivious to Hitler's likely actions in the meantime. The document made no mention of this, or of the military problems inherent in mounting an invasion of southern and central Europe through northern Italy and\/or the Balkans. Or even of Stalin's possible reaction to such a change in Allied military strategy\u2014a change that, if it stalled in the Mediterranean without a Second Front, would give Stalin every reason to scorn the President's plans for unconditional surrender and the establishment of a postwar United Nations authority as idle nonsense.\n\nBoth Bullitt's report and Churchill's memorandum were, to be sure, written before the reality of war against the Wehrmacht finally set in. In this respect the American defeat at Kasserine, two weeks after Bullitt's report, had quickly poured cold water on any idea in Washington or London that the Allies could race anywhere, let alone through the Balkans. At his private luncheon at the White House with the President, Bullitt had thus backed off his Balkan idea\u2014for the moment. It was too early to be contemplating ambitious American campaigns in the Mediterranean when for a moment it looked as if U.S. forces would be driven out of Tunisia. Besides, the public would have to be encouraged to support a more interventionist role in American foreign policy if the President was to have any genuine credence in exploiting its current creditor-status with Stalin.\n\nIn this respect, at least, the President's vision of the postwar peace seemed to be gaining traction, unaffected by the reverse at Kasserine\u2014in fact it began to become clear, as the weeks went by, that the President's State of the Union address was bearing amazing, anti-isolationist fruit.\n\nRoosevelt had assumed his State of the Union address, with its description of \"total war,\" its call for the disarmament of America's enemies, and his outline of postwar social programs and international security, would be strongly contested in Congress and outside. Far from it. His speech\u2014and press coverage of the Casablanca \"unconditional surrender meeting\"\u2014seemed to trigger, the President found, a sort of national American awakening to world responsibility that had never really existed before.\n\nBurgeoning pride at the success of the Torch invasion and MacArthur's advances in the Pacific\u2014where, in the battle of the Bismarck Sea, American B-25s carrying five-second five-hundred-pound bombs, carried out \"the most devastating air attack on ships in the entire war,\" in the words of naval historian S. E. Morison (sinking seven of the eight Japanese transports seeking to reinforce Lae following the evacuation of Guadalcanal)\u2014left the noninterventionist voices of Charles Lindbergh, Joseph P. Kennedy, and Senators William Borah, Robert LaFollette, Hiram Johnson, Arthur Vandenberg, and Burton K. Wheeler looking like defeatists. The Casablanca summit\u2014trumpeted in newspaper reports and pictures, as well as in movie-house newsreels shown across the country\u2014lent a moral grandeur to the turnaround in the fortunes of war: photographs of brave, cigar-wielding Winston Churchill sitting beside the President, declaring himself to be his \"active lieutenant,\" French generals shaking hands, the President inspecting and eating with U.S. forces in the field . . . Even Lord Halifax, the British ambassador, was full of congratulations when writing to the Prime Minister, extolling the results of the Casablanca Conference and noting in his diary how, in America, Republicans and Democrats were beginning to talk of the future in a new and wholly different way.\n\nLord Halifax was learning, himself, to see the world in a different way. Since his appointment to the embassy and America's entry into the war, he had had to meet with people of every stripe and to learn the complexities and nuances of the American political system, with its checks and balances\u2014and vituperative press. As a result Halifax had become a more astute observer of trends in the United States than in his home country, where his aristocratic airs and way of life (hunting, shooting) had inured him, as a notorious appeaser, to the fact that the younger, post\u2013World War I generation would, in fact, fight Hitler\u2014but not for a colonialist, class-riven British Empire they no longer believed in. The President's latest postwar vision, which Roosevelt had shared with him in private talks at the White House, struck Ambassador Halifax not only as positive, but one that even former isolationist Americans seemed more and more willing to embrace. Even the former U.S. president, Herbert Hoover, who lunched with Lord Halifax on January 8, 1943, after the President's address to Congress, had expressed a more \"friendly\" view of America's association with Britain than before, the ambassador had found. \"We discussed a great many post war things,\" Halifax recorded in his diary\u2014relieved to hear the former president was \"absolutely convinced of the necessity of our working together\" as nations. \"On the whole I was cheered by my talk with him and by his estimate of what American public opinion will accept in the way of international cooperation.\" Hitherto, public opinion had opposed any American treaty or involvement with other countries that could be \"represented as infringement of [American] national sovereignty. This was the rock on which [President] Wilson broke\u2014the idea that some League or conference should dictate United States action.\" But now\u2014at least in Hoover's opinion\u2014public opinion was changing, as were former president Hoover's own attitudes. \"These difficulties would not in his view arise if you had some international organisation that would content itself with expressing moral opinions and leave it to the joint policemen, whom he sees as the United States, ourselves, and, if she will play, Russia, to take action on their own,\" Halifax noted. The United Nations\u2014or \"whatever the international body was\" that would be set up at the war's end\u2014would \"make a report and recommendation to the policemen,\" which the policemen could either carry out or not.\n\nThis exploratory notion of a United Nations Security Council was a momentous reversal\u2014and when in Washington Lord Halifax addressed assembled British consuls from main U.S. cities, several days later, the ambassador advised them to push the notion of the \"British Commonwealth,\" rather than \"Empire,\" as having \"a biggish part to play\" in the coming times\u2014yet to exercise \"self-restraint, when Americans threw their weight around.\"\n\nAmerica, henceforth, would be top dog, Halifax made clear. From that meeting the ambassador had then gone to the State Department \"to discuss the draft of a scheme for what the Americans call the rehabilitation of the world.\"\n\nRehabilitation it certainly would be. The Russian ambassador, Maxim Litvinov, was present at the State Department meeting, too. \"We got along fairly well and all did our best to be accommodating to one another. Some difference of opinion as to whether the inner management committee of the thing should be composed of the four Powers,\" as a security council, \"or, as we [British] had suggested, seven\"\u2014which would \"permit Canada as a great supplier to be on [it], probably a South American, and one of the smaller European allies. Litvinoff made a strong argument about this thing being used as a pattern for the future, and consequently the importance of keeping the four big powers undiluted. I thought there was a good deal in his argument,\" Halifax noted, approving the Russian's view.\n\nTen days later, on January 18, 1943, barely a week after the President's State of the Union address, Halifax was noting that Dr. Alan Valentine, president of the University of Rochester\u2014a Democrat who had campaigned for the Republican Wendell Willkie in the 1940 presidential election, organizing \"Democrats for Willkie\" in opposition to a third term for FDR\u2014\"did not think there was much danger of isolation.\" In fact, Valentine now found Willkie \"too emotional and immature.\" A new \"American State [Department] book about American policy in the last ten years\" had shown \"how paralyzed their Executive was,\" after World War I, \"owing to the prevalence of isolationist thought.\" Even Willkie himself, when Halifax dined with him on January 27, emphasized the change of Republican mind\u2014now claiming \"that historically the Republican party had not been isolationist and had only accidentally been thrown into isolationism after the last war by Wilson's attempt to monopolise the international ticket. He was apprehensive lest something of the kind should happen again, and spoke very earnestly about the necessity of nothing being said in British quarters\" of Republicans backing away from an internationalist stance, lest this actually revive isolationist sentiment. \"He spoke with great certainty, as did Claire Luce\"\u2014a Republican congresswoman from Connecticut and wife of the publisher of _Life_ magazine\u2014\"about the Republican party in 1944 being victorious.\"\n\nBy the time the President returned from North Africa, therefore, it had been to find his utopian hen had laid its eggs\u2014indeed, the next day Halifax noted a long talk with Henry Luce \"about the prospects of the Republican Party being isolationist after the war.\" Luce dismissed the very idea, just as Willkie had\u2014in fact claimed, like Willkie, that isolationism had been an aberration\u2014the United States having \"only accidentally got into that line in 1920,\" according to Luce. Halifax was then stunned as Luce proceeded to advance Roosevelt's internationalist agenda. \"On the post-war business Luce said that he wanted to make a careful examination of just what an international police force might mean,\" but was not averse to it. \"He said that there had been a curious revolution in American feeling in the last few years\"\u2014in fact, in the last few weeks. \"A short time ago, if you had listened to any argument between the isolationists and internationalists, the isolationists would at once have clinched the argument by saying: 'You want to police the world, do you?' which was generally held to be conclusive against it. Now, he said, American public opinion was completely convinced that an international police force was desirable.\"\n\nWhen Halifax went to see the President in person at the White House on February 15, he was told that columnist Walter Lippmann, no less, was talking of \"the United States being established in some European base after the war,\" so that \"any infraction of European peace\" should at once be addressed: the forerunner of NATO.\n**20**\n\n# Health Issues\n\nTHOUGH IT WAS too early to crow, the President thus seemed decidedly proud, Halifax found. His step-by-step military strategy for prosecuting the war had been set in stone at the Casablanca Conference\u2014with the target, in writing, of almost a million U.S. troops and their weapons to be conveyed to Britain by December 31, 1943, ready to launch a full-scale invasion across the English Channel in April or May 1944. As Averell Harriman noted, based on his conference notes, a \"new joint command (COSSAC, acronym for Chief of Staff to the Supreme Allied Commander) was created to begin immediate planning for this climactic operation known later as Overlord.\"\n\nThe postwar world, too, with luck, might well turn out the way the President envisioned, with the growing support of the American public, the Republican Party, and America's British partners\u2014though the latter would have a difficult row to hoe if they chose to reestablish their colonial empire as Churchill wished.\n\nIt was in this context that FDR's health raised some concern, however. Although in the immediate aftermath of his trip to Africa Roosevelt had seemed energized and rejuvenated, in the weeks following the Casablanca Conference it was evident that the journey had taken a physical toll on the President. At least to those in close contact with him. His cousin Daisy, especially.\n\nDaisy Suckley had been relieved to see the President looking so well on his return\u2014yet she remained disappointed by the meager medical attention her hero appeared to be receiving as president of the United States. After ten years in the Oval Office, Mr. Roosevelt still relied on a simple U.S. Navy doctor as his personal White House physician: Dr. Ross McIntire, who'd been on his staff since 1933 and could be relied upon \"to keep a close mouth\" about the President's medical condition.\n\nMcIntire was an eye, ear, nose, and throat specialist by early training as an intern. He'd had an undistinguished record thereafter, becoming a simple naval dispensary physician, onboard and onshore. Nevertheless, he'd been recommended to the new president by former president Woodrow Wilson's floundering doctor, Cary Grayson\u2014one incompetent recommending another, it would be claimed. Beyond daily treatment of Roosevelt's notorious sinus problems, McIntire appeared to do little for his patient other than keep at bay those doctors who might offer the President more expert medical attention, in view of his fragile health: practitioners who might equally, however, blab inadvertently to reporters employed by Colonel McCormick, owner of the _Chicago Times-Herald,_ or Cissy Patterson, owner of the _Washington_ _Times-Herald_ \u2014both of them sworn enemies of the Democratic president and determined to oppose his reelection if he stood for a fourth term.\n\nDespite McIntire's mediocre medical talents, the President, then, had been content to continue with a single doctor\u2014in fact, in 1938 Roosevelt had appointed McIntire surgeon general of the U.S. Navy, in addition to his White House duties, and soon had him promoted to the rank of rear admiral\u2014with responsibility for what became a vast naval medical system, involving 175,000 doctors, nurses, and professional medical staff. Such enlarged duties, however, were plainly incompatible with continuing daily care of the paralyzed chief executive.\n\nSuch was Roosevelt's authority, however, that by 1943 no one dared question McIntire's solitary supervision of the President, in spite of worrying signs of deterioration in FDR's health, even in the run-up to his historic flight to Africa.\n\nStaying with the President on December 4, 1942, for example, the Canadian prime minister, Mackenzie King, had been alarmed by the President's physical condition. When he'd first gone in to see him, King reflected, \"the President was smoking a cigarette in bed while reading the papers. I felt that even at that hour of the morning, he seemed a little tired and breath still a bit short.\"\n\nGiven the President's vast responsibilities and the fact that his mental acuity seemed in no way impaired, King had given no further thought to the matter. The trip to North Africa, meanwhile, had seemingly done wonders for his state of mind and body, the President's staff felt on the President's return, as did visitors to the White House. \"The President was in fine form,\" the secretary of war recorded in his diary on February 3\u2014\"one of the best and most friendly talks I have ever had. He was full of his trip, naturally, and interspersed our whole talk with stories and anecdotes.\" Though he found them amusing, Stimson was nevertheless discouraged \"to see how he clung to the ideal of doing all this sort of work himself.\"\n\nThe war secretary was seventy-four and in excellent health; the President, sixty-two. Stimson noticed nothing amiss in Roosevelt's form other than his messy approach to administration, which Stimson deplored. \"He was very friendly but, as I expected, takes a different and thoroughly Rooseveltian view of what historic good administrative procedure has required in such a case as we have in North Africa,\" the secretary noted. \"He wants to do it all himself. He says he did settle all the matters that were troubling Eisenhower when he was over there\"\u2014and even claimed Robert Murphy was in North Africa not \"as a diplomat to report to Hull but as a special appointee of his own to handle special matters on which he reported to Roosevelt direct. This was a truly Rooseveltian position. I told him frankly over the telephone that it was bad administration and asked him what a Cabinet was for and what Departments were for,\" he recorded, \"but I have small hopes of reforming him. The fault is Rooseveltian and deeply ingrained. Theodore Roosevelt had it to a certain extent but never anywhere nearly as much as this one.\"\n\nStimson's criticism of the President was well founded, though his recommendation, namely that the United States should simply administer French North Africa in the same way as the War Department had ruled Cuba, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico, belied the secretary of war's ongoing turf battle with Cordell Hull rather than the tricky realities of the situation. With regard to the President's health, however, neither Stimson nor the majority of the President's visitors seemed alert to any problems.\n\nOnly Daisy Suckley paid attention to what was happening\u2014or not happening. After she met with the President, at Hyde Park, she confided her concern to her diary\u2014noting disorienting symptoms of transcontinental air travel that would later be called jet lag. \"All his party have been feeling miserable since they got back,\" she recorded on February 7. \"He just hasn't let himself give in until he got here\u2014Then he 'let go' & feels exhausted\u2014the President finding it hard, he said, to rise in the mornings, and sleeping late.\"\n\nWas it merely desynchronosis\u2014disruption of circadian sleep rhythms\u2014though, Daisy wondered? After Pearl Harbor the President had stopped swimming daily in the White House pool. He was still smoking several packs of cigarettes a day, but his doctor seemed to pay little or no attention to the President's elevated blood pressure, or to his cardiac condition\u2014despite the fact that there had been worries on that account even before the 1940 election, when he'd been beset by heart problems he couldn't keep from those around him.\n\n\"His color was bad; his face was lined and he appeared to be worn out. His jaw was swollen as a result of a tooth infection . . . And I learned there was worry over strain on Roosevelt's heart,\" the chairman of the Democratic National Committee, James Farley, recalled later. Bill Bullitt was more specific; he would claim that he'd been present at a White House dinner in early 1940 when the President had suffered \"a very slight heart attack\" and had collapsed.\n\nA _heart attack?_ It was little wonder McIntire had been concerned at the height the airplane would have to fly on its journey to Casablanca and then home. On the positive side, however, the President had shown the world he was on the top of his form at Casablanca. Even the dark areas beneath his eyes had vanished, people noticed. \"He looks well,\" Daisy acknowledged in her diary\u2014her anxiety being more over the risk of a flying accident than his health at this stage. The plane carrying Averell Harriman and Brigadier Vivian Dykes\u2014senior British aide to Field Marshal Dill in Washington\u2014back to England had in fact crashed on landing in Wales. Though Harriman survived, Dykes had perished. As Daisy implored the President: \"I told him we all thought he _should not_ take the risks of such a trip.\"\n\n\"Well\u2014not for some time anyway,\" the President had responded at Hyde Park, where he reclaimed Fala, his Scottie\u2014hugging the woolly black dog to his breast. When Daisy left to go back to her job at the president's library, which had been created in 1939 and for which she had been working since 1941, \"Fala looked at me,\" she wrote, \"but trotted after the P.\"\n\nDaisy was not convinced, however\u2014and became less so when the President then fell ill again and again in February. The President's physician showed little concern. \"Allied successes lessened the nervous strain,\" was all Dr. McIntire would later comment in a memoir he wrote, \"and the President not only picked up weight but lost some of his care lines.\"\n\nWas the President really all right, though? Or were underlying, potentially serious health issues not being sufficiently addressed?\n\nTo Daisy, his confidante, the President had once remarked that \"he caught everything in sight,\" as he put it. There was nothing new in this, he'd added\u2014\"all his life had been that way.\" His near-fatal bout with virulent flu in 1918; his contracting of poliomyelitis in 1921; his repeated sinusitis; his collapses from possible heart or vascular failure\u2014these were but the more dramatic examples of his proneness to infection and other ailments, he accepted.\n\nIllness was not something Roosevelt dwelt upon or paid much attention to\u2014an attitude Eleanor, his wife, did not discourage, since it absolved her of marital anxieties at a moment when she herself was undertaking such a demanding schedule as First Lady at the White House, spokesperson for the underprivileged, and mother to six children, not to speak of grandchildren.\n\nThis left Cousin Daisy, though, to worry all the more on behalf of the President. \"The P. looked very tired, but did his usual part of 'Exhibit A,' as he calls it\"\u2014entertaining, for example, a party he was hosting at the White House on Valentine's Day, February 14, without Eleanor, who'd flown to Indiana. \"At nine, he said he had to go to work & left the guests, calling to me to go with him. He got on the sofa in his study and said he was exhausted\u2014He looked it. He said: 'I'm either Exhibit A, or left completely alone.'\"\n\nDaisy was flabbergasted. \"It made me feel terrible\u2014I've never heard a word of complaint from him, but it seemed to slip out, unintentionally, & spoke volumes,\" she had penned in her diary that night. The wife of the President's military aide and appointments secretary, Mrs. Watson, had \"said at lunch, on Friday, that 'he is the loneliest man in the world.' I know what she means. He has no real 'home life' in which to relax, & 'recoup' his strength & his peace of mind. If he wasn't such a wonderful character, he would sink under it.\"\n\nToward the end of February, 1943, he did, in fact, sink, laid low yet again, this time by what he afterward called \"sleeping sickness or Gambia fever or some kindred bug in that hell-hole of yours,\" as the President complained in a letter to the Prime Minister in London, that \"left me feeling like a wet rag. I was no good after 2 p.m. and, after standing it for a week or so, I went to Hyde Park for five days.\" Daisy looked after him there, recording in her diary on February 27 that it was \"the P.'s. 4th day in bed, & he still feels somewhat miserable though his fever has gone. Last Tuesday, without any warning, he felt ill about noon. He lay on his study sofa & slept 'til 4.30, when he found he had a temp. of 102. The Dr. found it was toxic poisoning, but they can't ascribe it to anything they know of . . . The P. doesn't look well but is improving.\" After having supper with him, eating from trays, she gave him the aspirin Dr. McIntire had prescribed\u2014and almost wept when he said: \"Do you know that I have never had anyone just sit around and take care of me like this before.\" Apart from nurses when he was very unwell, \"he is just given his medicine or takes it himself. Everyone else has been too busy to sit with him, doing nothing.\"\n\nIf the President's condition\u2014his tiredness, his fevers, and his everlasting sinus infections\u2014caused him now to draw back a little from the more commanding role he'd taken in directing the U.S. military, this was understandable\u2014in fact, to many in the War Department it was a relief, as planning for the Husky invasion, slated for July that year, went ahead. Even the U.S. setback at Kasserine had not worried him unduly or diminished his confidence in young General Eisenhower; it was, after all, proof of his wisdom in insisting American forces learn the skills of modern combat in a \"safe\" region of the Mediterranean, where they could swiftly recover.\n\nWhen Eisenhower's naval aide, Lieutenant Commander Butcher, was brought to the Oval Office to report to the Commander in Chief on March 26, 1943, one of the first questions the President asked him was to give an account of the Kasserine debacle\u2014from Eisenhower's perspective. \"He wanted to know how things were going\" in North Africa, Butcher recorded. Naturally, he knew them from \"official reports,\" but he wanted to have the story from the horse's mouth. He was \"inquisitive about Fredendall and other commanders at the front, the retreat of the Americans naturally being in his mind. I explained to him the reluctance Ike had in relieving Fredendall, and his hope that the change to Patton could be handled in such a way that Fredendall's fine qualities, particularly for training, would not be lost to the army.\"\n\nTo Butcher's surprise the President\u2014who himself hated to have to fire people\u2014seemed more interested in U.S. intelligence. He \"wanted to know the circumstances that caused our G-2 [head of military intelligence] to predict that the main thrust of the Germans would come through the Ousseltia Pass rather than at Sidi Bou Zid. I explained to him [British Brigadier] Mockler-Ferryman's reliance on one source of information, namely the interception of radio communications [Ultra] and that since this source theretofore had proven reliable, not only Mockler-Ferryman but [British General] Anderson, had relied on the 'Mock's' advice in this instance. This reliance had caused General Anderson to hold his reserve in the North when it may have been used to extra advantage to help Americans farther South.\" It was unfortunate, but a lesson learned in the use and misuse of\u2014or overreliance upon\u2014Ultra.\n\nCertainly the President's faith in Eisenhower was rewarded in March when Rommel, in ill health, was withdrawn to Germany to recuperate. The day of the Desert Fox was over; that of the President's prot\u00e9g\u00e9, Dwight D. Eisenhower, had come. He might not have the battlefield prowess of Rommel, Patton, or Montgomery, but he had something far more valuable to the Allies: the ability to get the soldiers, airmen, and sailors of an international coalition to fight together under his leadership. The result was often messy, sometimes contentious, and media-sensitive. As the President told Eisenhower's naval aide, however, such was the price of democracy. The virtue of the Casablanca Conference had been that it enabled the President, as de facto commander in chief of the Western Allies, to make his historic decisions on a 1944 Second Front as well as on unconditional surrender, without the press (let alone the enemy) even knowing he was in Casablanca. \"He said for the first time all participants were enabled to explore each others' minds, get all the cards on the table, and reach decisions without distractions. These distractions, he said, are caused by newspaper men gaining small segments of the complete story and printing them under headlines that frequently mislead the public and failed to portray the complete story. 'In most conference[s], particularly where newspaper men have access to the conferees,' the President said, 'almost every participant has a pet newspaper man. By button-holing such friends, newspaper men can get a part of the story and the whole issue becomes tried in the press on the basis of only a small part of all the facts. The result is distortion to the public and disruption to the conferences.'\"\n\nNo truer words were spoken by an American president\u2014yet this had been the reality of American democracy since George Washington, and would never change. All one could do was, at certain times, employ a certain guile in order that the job got done. At this, the President, by his third term in office, was a past master\u2014in war as well as in peace. \"At Casablanca,\" he told Eisenhower's aide, \"we had a secluded spot, well guarded and free from the press. Thus we were able to talk freely without feeling someone would start promoting his point of view in the press by means of contact with his favorite reporter.\" So pleased was he with the \"result of Casablanca\" that he had arranged for the administration's looming \"food conference,\" addressing the needs of allies and liberated countries, to take place in Virginia, \"guarded by military police,\" and with \"no press permitted . . . I think the press will cry out against this arrangement,\" but the \"public good\" was sometimes more important than \"public discussion.\" Moreover, once the decisions were announced, there was freedom enough to debate the matters. \"I am planning to make another swing around the country,\" he told Butcher, taking a group of White House correspondents who would only be allowed to file reports once the tour was over. \"The press will yowl again I imagine, but the public seemed to appreciate that trip. In any event,\" he made clear, \"I am going to do it again,\" yowls or no yowls.\n\nSubtly, the President had been passing on to Eisenhower his advice on how best to deal with \"distortions\" and \"distractions\" of a free press\u2014something Butcher was able to convey to Eisenhower as soon as he returned. Along with the President's parting words. \"The principal message the President asked me to convey\u2014and he spoke repeatedly of the General as 'Ike'\u2014was: \"Tell Ike that not only I but the whole country is proud of the job he has done. We have every confidence in his success.\"\n\nAs the President prepared for his second \"swing around the country\" aboard the _Ferdinand Magellan,_ Eisenhower duly readied his two Allied armies in Tunisia\u2014gathering his twenty divisions like bloodhounds for the final act of the President's North African invasion: a battle the Germans themselves began to call \"Tunisgrad.\" More than a quarter million Axis troops were now hemmed in on the Cape Bon Peninsula, fighting for their lives. Two thousand German troops were being flown into the arena each day from southern Europe; Mussolini was begging the F\u00fchrer to make peace with Stalin in order to save the Italian Empire; and three hundred thousand Allied troops were massing for the kill.\nPART SIX\n\n* * *\n\n#  _Get Yamamoto!_\n**21**\n\n# Inspection Tour Two\n\nBEGINNING ON APRIL 13, 1943, the President set off by train for his latest two-week, seventy-six-hundred-mile inspection tour of U.S. military training bases: from South Carolina to Alabama, Georgia to Arkansas, Oklahoma to Colorado, Missouri to Kentucky. Following his repeated bouts of ill health in February, these inspections would allow the Commander in Chief to see\u2014and be seen by\u2014tens of thousands of young aviators, Marines, tank crews, infantrymen, Women's Army Auxiliary Corps trainees, and Navy crewmen.\n\nOnce again the President took Daisy Suckley with him\u2014since Eleanor had her own agenda to fulfill\u2014as well as his other cousin, Polly Delano, who was considered a \"law unto herself,\" but who amused the President: the two women giving him the sense of being looked after. (Eleanor did agree to join the train, in Texas, for a brief three-day detour to Monterrey, to meet the Mexican president, \u00c1vila Camacho.)\n\nThe President wanted to judge for himself whether young American servicemen, currently training at home, would fight abroad. Hundreds of young pilots taking off and landing, parades of ten to fifteen thousand men, tanks firing live shells in mock battle, soldiers in hand-to-hand fighting (\"the sort of thing they have in the Pacific jungles, with the Japs\u2014It's all horrible when you stop to analyze it, but it's a fight for survival,\" Daisy noted, amazed).\n\nThe tour, the President was pleased to find, belied any German and Japanese assumptions that U.S. troops were too \"soft\" for the ruthlessness of modern warfare. Above all, however, it was the sheer magnitude of American mobilization for war\u2014in manpower, munitions, organization\u2014that awed the President's party aboard the _Ferdinand Magellan._\n\n\"The impression I have is of vastness, and a miracle of quick construction,\" Daisy noted in Denver, where they inspected the Remington Rand Ordnance Plant. Propelled by Japan's sneak attack, America had become a new \"melting pot,\" with \"50% men and women at Remington, cheerful, well-fed human beings, who, with all their lack of culture, are the backbone of the country, & probably the finest 'mass' of population in the world,\" she noted proudly. \"The women were dressed in pale blue 1-piece overalls (much like Mr. Churchill's air raid zipper suit) and red bandannas tied tightly about their heads . . . People were collected all along the route full of spontaneous enthusiasm. Women & girls jumping, waving, laughing & cheering. The men grinning broadly & waving.\"\n\nAt the President's polio-rehabilitation center at Warm Springs in Georgia, Roosevelt stood tall, kept upright by his heavy steel leg braces, \"holding on to his chair,\" and \"made a serious, soft voiced little speech\" to the hundred patients assembled in Georgia Hall, then was \"wheeled to the door of the dining room where he stayed to shake hands with each patient that filed through.\" Using \"the little car he has had _for years_ down here\"\u2014a 1938 Ford Roadster with brakes and accelerator he could operate by hand, as well as a license plate reading \"F.D.R.- 1\u2014The President\"\u2014Roosevelt himself drove his guests around the area.\n\nDaisy\u2014visiting the Warm Springs center for the first time\u2014was deeply moved. \"It is certainly a monument to him, his imagination and his faith & his love for his fellow sufferers, and it is very lovely. Peaceful and beautiful. The houses homelike and attractive, mainly white, among trees.\" For the first time in months the President swam\u2014and insisted Daisy and Polly swim too. He had seemed desperately tired when they left Washington. Now he was \"visibly expanding and blossoming.\"\n\nOne night\u2014after a simple, homely dinner which he loved, in contrast to the \"pallid\" White House food that Eleanor's cook, Mrs. Nesbitt, made and which Roosevelt \"detested\"\u2014Roosevelt took out \"his stamps; the rest of us read. F. complained of a headache\" and the women took his temperature\u2014which was fortunately normal. He'd seemed actually happy, though.\n\nWith the physical support of his new naval aide, Rear Admiral Wilson Brown\u2014Captain McCrea having been assigned to command of the new U.S. cruiser, _Iowa_ \u2014the President was still able to stand and, by swinging his muscular torso, even walk. Visiting Fort Riley, in Kansas, he actually proceeded on foot to the exit of the amphitheater, where fifteen thousand troops had gathered for an Easter service. At the railway station, as the _Ferdinand Magellan_ slowly pulled out, officers and men saluted the Commander in Chief. \"It was a beautiful sight and the kind of thing that brings a lump in your throat, specially when the commander in chief is a man like F. & crippled besides\u2014Our driver told us he had not the slightest idea that F. couldn't walk, that his brother officers also had never thought of it,\" Daisy noted. \"F. is all the more an inspiration to them\u2014.\"\n\nAt dinner on the train on April 19, they were joined by Sumner Welles, and the Mexican ambassador, Francisco Castilia N\u00e1jero. \"We stayed up until 10 listening to them talk about the future peace\u2014Very interesting,\" Daisy recorded in her diary. There was, she recognized, a steeliness in her champion that was never going to allow him to let up until he'd achieved his dream\u2014with little trace of magnanimity toward those responsible for the global holocaust the Nazis and Japanese were so adamantly pursuing. The \"perpetrators of the war, like Hitler, Himmler, etc. shall be court-martialed in their own country\" and hanged or \"liquidated,\" as Daisy noted, quoting Hitler's sickening word\u2014\"not sent to some distant island to turn into heroes and martyrs, with the danger of their trying to come back.\"\n\nThe President might show deep and natural empathy for his fellow polio sufferers, she recognized, and great charm toward visitors of every stripe\u2014but his forgiveness did not extend to the Nazi \"Aryans\" who were exterminating not only the handicapped but, it was becoming increasingly evident, millions of Jews, homosexuals, gypsies, and political prisoners; sickening atrocities, moreover, that the Japanese were also reportedly committing, not only in the treatment of the populations of the countries Japanese troops had overrun, from China to the Philippines, but American POWs.\n\nIn his diary, Secretary Stimson made note of what the Operations Division of the War Department had learned. Colonel Ritchie \"gave me a dreadful picture of what is happening to our prisoners of war at the hands of the Japanese in the Philippines. I have been thoroughly churned up over it ever since. They are being killed off and are dying off under mistreatment. The situation is frightful. Yet it is very dangerous for us to make it public because of the reprisals which would be undoubtedly visited upon these,\" he wrote\u2014aware American prisoners would be tortured and executed for smuggling out news of their mistreatment. Nor could the United States threaten retaliation, \"because we have only a few hundred prisoners\" thanks to the Japanese code of Bushido, \"while they have a good many thousands of our men . . . MacArthur is vowing vengeance and is keeping the score of injuries to our men which he has heard of which some day he hopes to live to avenge.\"\n\nNews of the execution of captured crewmembers from Doolittle's air raid on Tokyo the previous year had aroused similar outrage\u2014Stimson wanting Secretary Hull to issue a warning there would be American \"reprisals\" for such \"an act of barbarism\" if it went on.\n\nFor such barbarians the President possessed, Daisy recognized, no sympathy. He would not permit MacArthur to carry out reprisals in the Pacific. But when, during his tour of U.S. training camps and manufacturing plants, a decrypt arrived via the communications car of the President's train of a Japanese signal giving the forthcoming flying itinerary of the Japanese commander in chief\u2014the man who had launched the sneak attack on Pearl Harbor in peacetime, killing twenty-four hundred Americans in a single morning\u2014the President, aboard the _Ferdinand Magellan,_ had had no hesitation whatever.\n**22**\n\n# Get Yamamoto!\n\nSEVERAL WEEKS BEFORE leaving on his inspection tour the President had invited MacArthur's air commander, General George Kenney, to give him a literal bird's-eye view of the campaign in the Southwest Pacific, when Kenney accompanied MacArthur's chief of staff to Washington to ask for more reinforcements.\n\nIn Kenney\u2014a World War I pilot almost as highly decorated (Silver Star and Distinguished Flying Cross) as MacArthur himself\u2014MacArthur had recognized the right man to revolutionize the U.S. Army Air Forces in war: not only in combatting Japanese fliers and in bombing ground installations, but in decimating Japanese supply vessels. The result had proved transformative\u2014and the President wanted to know how Kenney had done it.\n\nWhereas carrier-plane pilots of the U.S. Navy had become expert at low-level attacks on Japanese shipping, the U.S. Army Air Forces' pilots had not, Kenney explained. He had therefore hurled himself into the challenge\u2014developing new skip-bombing techniques and modified B-25 mast-height gunship tactics, which he'd ordered to be rehearsed against a partially sunken vessel off Port Moresby. Under his leadership the vessel-attack planes had adopted a new technique: to fly in at 150 feet\u2014with P-38s and 40s providing higher air cover, and B-17s higher still.\n\nAt the White House the President had thus been enthralled as Kenney described his new approach. \"I talked for some time with President Roosevelt, who wanted to hear the whole story of the war in our theater in detail,\" Kenney later recalled his first visit to the Oval Office, \"as well as a blow-by-blow description of the Bismarck Sea Battle.\"\n\nKenney's description of the battle had been especially telling, for the flier had explained how the Ultra secret decrypts of Japanese communications that the President was seeing in his Map Room in Washington had enabled Kenney to put into effect his deadly new aerial war tactics in the field.\n\n\"In the nose of a light fast bomber,\" as Kenney also explained to Eisenhower's naval aide\u2014for transmission to Ike in Algiers\u2014the general had installed \"eight 50-caliber machine guns. Two planes thus equipped would approach a merchant vessel at low level, one from stern to bow, the other from the side. The one approaching lengthwise the ship would open fire with the eight guns at 1500 yards. No pilot was permitted to go on a mission until he could shoot so accurately that with the first burst at 1500 yards, he could sweep the ship from bow to stern or vice versa. The purpose was to keep the anti-aircraft fire from the ship so the accompanying member of the team could approach the side of the vessel just above the wave tops and drop a bomb that would skip on the water and hit the ship on the side just above or below the water line.\"\n\nThe President had been intrigued to learn not only of such American air force ingenuity and specialized training, but the integration of air and naval tactics.\n\nCode breaking had been the key, though. In the battle of the Bismarck Sea, between March 2 and 4, Admiral Yamamoto's order for Japan's vital troopship-reinforcement convoy, bringing fresh troops up to Rabaul and from there to New Guinea, had been deciphered.\n\nThe first Japanese division to arrive in Rabaul, the Fifty-First Division, had hugged the coast of New Britain and then set off by convoy across the Solomon Sea\u2014unaware the Americans knew its route and composition. Flying at high altitude, Kenney's B-17 bombers had sunk two of its transport ships, but the remaining six, escorted by eight destroyers and a hundred planes, had ploughed on. Expecting B-17s at high altitude again over the Dampier Strait, the Japanese fighters giving air cover to the convoy had failed to spot Kenney's one hundred retrained American and Australian B-25s, A-20s, and Beaufighter pilots skimming low across the water\u2014the aircraft so low the Japanese sailors thought they were torpedo planes. In short order all surviving Japanese transports had been sunk, the infantry drowned, and four of the eight destroyers destroyed\u2014the core of the Japanese Fifty-First Division extinguished in a single day.\n\nThe President was clearly delighted. His grasp of the intricate mosaic of islands in the Southwest Pacific amazed Kenney, given the President's other responsibilities. \"I found the President surprisingly familiar with the geography of the Pacific, which made it quite easy to talk with him about the war out there,\" the general recalled with admiration and affection after the war. \"He wanted to know how I was making out on getting airplanes. I told him that so far my chances didn't look very good. When he asked why, I said that among reasons given me was that he had made so many commitments elsewhere that there were no planes left to give me.\"\n\nThe President had taken this in good spirit; he had \"laughed and said he guessed he'd have to look into the matter and see if a few couldn't be found somewhere that might be sent me. He said that if anybody was a winner, he should be given a chance to keep on winning.\"\n\nBacking winners was important in war, the President recognized\u2014and was a key to Roosevelt's growing style of military command: assessing, encouraging, and supporting those whom he saw as inspirational and effective.\n\nThe President did manage to find Kenney more planes, to Kenney's relief. However, if the President was keen to back a winner in Kenney's air force leadership in the Pacific, he was similarly open to depriving the Japanese of _their_ outstanding military leadership, if he could.\n\nGeneral Kenney's visit to the White House\u2014a visit repeated on March 25, 1943, when Kenney had attended a Congressional Medal of Honor ceremony\u2014had convinced the President that American fliers were finally proving better than their opponents in the Pacific. Especially when given the advantage of Ultra intelligence.\n\nAs the _Ferdinand Magellan_ made its way across the American Midwest and South, stopping at military training camp after training camp, the President found himself, as Daisy noted, more and more confident in American professionalism. And though the matter was too secret to share with Daisy or her companion, Polly Delano\u2014moreover, too secret ever to be revealed in his lifetime\u2014he now had an opportunity to show his faith in his American airmen.\n\nOver several days, starting on April 14, an extraordinary series of further decrypts had been brought to the President aboard the _Magellan_ by Ship's Clerk William Rigdon, an assistant working for Admiral Brown, the President's naval aide, whose job it was to bring the latest fruits of Ultra to the President's attention twice a day.\n\n\"The communications car housed a diesel-powered radio transmitting and receiving station,\" Rigdon recounted later, \"that kept the President in constant touch with the Map Room at the White House. Special codes, held only by the Map Room and the car, were used. This car was just behind the engine. The Magellan was at the rear. Between the two I walked many miles taking messages to the President and picking up those he wished to send.\"\n\nSome were trivial. Others were more serious. One of them, in particular, related not to security for the President's train schedule\u2014the twenty-six members of the Secret Service traveling with him, as well as military details protecting him at every stage of his 7,668-mile trip\u2014but to the travel plans of another dominant figure in the war, with perhaps even more control over the struggle in the Pacific than the President: Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto.\n\n\"From Solomons Defense Force to Air Group #204, Air Flotilla #26,\" it began. \"On 18 April C in C Combined Fleet will visit RXZ [Ballale Island, off Bougainville], R_ [Shortland] and RXP [Buin] in accordance following schedule: 1. Depart RR [Rabaul] at 0600 in a medium attack plane escorted by 6 fighters. Arrive RXZ at 0800. Proceed by minesweeper . . . At each of the above places the Commander-in-Chief will make a short tour of inspection and at _ he will visit the sick and wounded, but current operations should continue.\"\n\nIn case of \"bad weather\" the preliminary message had ended, \"the trip will be postponed.\"\n\nA trip by the commander in chief of Japan's Combined Fleet, Admiral Yamamoto, to Ballale, Bougainville? An inspection tour by air and sea to a forward area of the Solomon Islands within reach of U.S. Air Force planes? Times and details of his itinerary?\n\nThe decrypted signal seemed almost impossible to believe. Admiral Yamamoto usually stayed on his grand battleship, the _Musashi,_ at Truk, in the Caroline Islands, eight hundred miles to the north of Rabaul. Moving to a temporary forward command post at Rabaul, however, his strategy after the loss of Guadalcanal had been to pummel the Americans with massive air attacks before they could bring up enough forces to exploit their victory: Operation I-Go. By assigning not only Japanese ground-force pilots operating from airfields in the Solomons but hundreds of well-trained carrier pilots to assist them, Yamamoto had been able to apply massive Japanese air power to the initiative, involving more than 350 planes\u2014the largest Japanese air assault since Pearl Harbor.\n\nMercifully, the Japanese air armada had been thwarted by Ultra intelligence\u2014allowing Allied naval ships to disperse in good time, and U.S. Army and Naval Air Force units to be ready, off the ground, to meet the approaching aerial fleet each time it flew. A single Allied destroyer, a corvette, several Dutch merchant vessels, and an oiler had been sunk, and twelve Allied aircraft lost, but these were small pickings for such a concentrated and expensive air offensive\u2014a fact that Japanese pilots, despite acknowledging the loss of forty-nine Japanese planes, had misconstrued in their after-action reports. Admiral Yamamoto had, instead, been told the fliers of his Third Fleet and Eleventh Fleet had sunk one American cruiser, two destroyers, and twenty-five transport ships, moreover had shot down 134 U.S. planes, as well as destroying 20 on the ground.\n\nThe admiral had been well satisfied\u2014in fact had sent Emperor Hirohito in Tokyo his own version of the triumph, which could be seen as avenging, in part, the recent losses of Guadalcanal and Buna. The Emperor had immediately responded with a congratulatory signal: \"Please convey my satisfaction to the Commander in Chief, Combined Fleet, and tell him to enlarge the war result more than ever.\"\n\nThe radio messages giving the itinerary of Admiral Yamamoto's inspection tour raised a number of questions. Was Yamamoto planning an extension of I-Go attacks? Was it a morale booster by the Japanese commander in chief, in person?\n\nThe message did not say\u2014but its import was clear to all, from the South Pacific to the _Ferdinand Magellan._ Just as Yamamoto's planes had been able to hit Guadalcanal as part of I-Go, so could U.S. fliers hit Bougainville, on the admiral's itinerary\u2014either attacking the admiral on the minesweeper to which he was slated to transfer, or in the air.\n\nWhy, though, had Yamamoto chosen to send such a message by radio?\n\nAs it later transpired, the admiral's administrative staff officer had wanted the warning order to be couriered by air, and then hand-delivered to its recipients. He'd been told by the communications officer at Rabaul not to worry, however; the Japanese naval code JN 25 had recently been changed and was unbreakable. The signal that first went out was dated April 13, 1943.\n\n\"We've hit the jackpot,\" the U.S. watch officer of Station Hypo, the two-thousand-man decoding unit in Hawaii, declared when the decrypt was handed to him. \"This is our chance to get Yamamoto.\"\n\nIf, that was, Admiral Nimitz, the commander in chief in the Central Pacific, agreed. And if the U.S. commander in chief in Washington signed off on the attempt.\n\nThere were important repercussions to be considered. An aerial interception of Japan's most famous\u2014or infamous\u2014admiral might well squander, whether successful or not, America's prize weapon in the struggle against Japan: Ultra. Was it worth such a gamble? And what if it did not, in fact, succeed? Not only would Yamamoto be left in command of all Japanese forces in the Pacific, but the war-winning contribution of Ultra would have been given away, for nothing.\n\nIronically, Admiral Nimitz worried about something else when first shown the decrypt. Would a successor to Admiral Yamamoto prove a better Japanese commander in chief?\n\nIn view of the fact that Yamamoto enjoyed almost godlike status, not only among Japanese forces in the Pacific but at home in Japan, killing him would, without doubt, make a huge dent in Japanese war morale, just as Japanese forces dug in for a do-or-die struggle in the countries they had conquered.\n\nThere were other questions, too. In the time-honored ethics of American warmaking, was it even acceptable to assassinate an enemy commander\u2014since assassination was what such an interception, if successful, would be? As at Midway, Nimitz felt it would be a mistake _not_ to use such a priceless intelligence breakthrough\u2014but deferred, as before Midway, to Washington's decision.\n\nThe matter was thus passed for authorization to Admiral King\u2014who passed it to Navy Secretary Frank Knox.\n\nKnox\u2014who had himself recently carried out an inspection tour of U.S. naval forces in the Pacific\u2014passed the information via the White House Map Room to the _Ferdinand Magellan._\n\nThe President's response was immediate and uncompromising: \"Get Yamamoto.\"\n\nSecretary Knox, at the Navy Department, needed no further prompting. He instructed Admiral Nimitz to go ahead. In turn Nimitz gave the final green light on April 17, 1943, to Admiral Halsey\u2014commanding Allied forces in the Solomons area.\n\nThere was now only one day to go. F 4 F Wildcats and F 4 U Corsairs had insufficient range for such a mission, but new U.S. Army Air Forces P-38s, flown by Army Air Forces, Marine, and Navy pilots, could do it. Vice Admiral Pete Mitscher, commander air, Solomon Islands, had already begun to explore different proposals with his subordinates. His U.S. Navy fliers recommended they attack the Japanese vessel that Yamamoto was to board at Ballale, but the U.S. Army Air Forces ace, Major John Mitchell, commanding the 339th Fighter Squadron, assigned to carry out the attack, felt it would be easier to spot the admiral's plane\u2014a heavily armed but slow (265 mph) Mitsubishi G4M \"Betty\" bomber\u2014than it would be to identify an indeterminate Japanese minesweeper. Such a ship would undoubtedly be escorted by other vessels, as well as shielded by extensive Japanese air cover, to judge by the U.S. planes sent up to protect Secretary Knox on his recent visit.\n\nMitscher wisely yielded the decision on April 17 to the man who would have to carry out the mission. Assembling a fighter group of eighteen Lockheed P-38 G Lightnings, Mitchell\u2014who planned a five-leg, low-level end run way out to sea before reaching Bougainville, so as to have the advantage of surprise\u2014asked for special auxiliary-fuel drop tanks flown up from MacArthur's men on New Guinea. He also decided that the best point to intercept Yamamoto's flight would be just as the admiral's Betty bomber\u2014similar to the Betty bombers that had sunk HMS _Prince of Wales,_ the battleship on which the President had attended divine service with Churchill off Argentia, in August 1941\u2014reduced speed to land.\n\nTension was high. Mitchell was certainly aware just how much hinged on his mission, for Secretary Knox had sent a further signal to Nimitz on April 17, which Admiral Nimitz immediately forwarded to Admiral Halsey. Halsey sent it with a covering note to Admiral Mitscher\u2014who placed it before Mitchell. It read, as the fliers later recalled: \"SQUADRON 339. P-38 MUST AT ALL COSTS REACH AND DESTROY. PRESIDENT ATTACHES EXTREME IMPORTANCE TO MISSION.\"\n\nAlmost seventy years later a similar targeted killing of an enemy commander in war\u2014Osama bin Laden\u2014would be revealed to an astonished world within hours. Because of the need to preserve the secret of Ultra in 1943, however, the President had accepted that the mission to assassinate Admiral Yamamoto, code-named Operation Vengeance, would not\u2014perhaps ever\u2014be made public. Other than acknowledging Japanese media reports, if the operation was successful, nothing would be said.\n\nEarly on the first anniversary of the Doolittle Raid the U.S. Squadron 339 fighter group\u2014reduced to sixteen planes owing to two aborts\u2014thus set off from Fighter Strip Number Two, Henderson Field, Guadalcanal, on its thousand-mile mission for the President.\n\nResembling huge flying catamarans\u2014their single-pilot cockpits strung between two pontoon-like fuselages, each mounting a massive 1,325-horse-power engine and capable of speeds up to 400 miles per hour\u2014the Lightnings wave-hopped in complete radio-silence for some six hundred miles to the west of the Solomon island chain and across the open Solomon Sea, in order to avoid radar and visual detection. Using a special naval compass, Mitchell then swung to the east, aiming to circle in from the ocean\u2014four of his best pilots designated as killer sharks, while the remainder dealt with the six Japanese Zeros protecting their commander in chief.\n\nThe attack\u2014the longest-distance fighter-intercept mission of World War II\u2014went like clockwork. A stickler for punctuality, Admiral Yamamoto had rejected his staff's protests that his inspection tour would be too risky. Precisely on time, his bomber slowed to land at Ballale, Bougainville, at 9:35 a.m. on April 18, 1943.\n\nMitchell's men were already there, sixty seconds early: surprised only that there were two Bettys, not one. Both would have to be shot down.\n\nThe ensuing melee took but a few minutes\u2014the \"killer\" fighters attacking from below the Japanese bombers and their escort, the rest climbing above the encounter to fend off Zeros that would inevitably begin to take off from Buin airfield. As the lumbering Betty bombers dived to escape, the two lead P-38 pilots closed up on them, using the 20mm cannons and machine guns mounted in the planes' noses. Inside his bomber, Yamamoto, dressed in his green field-combat uniform but wearing white gloves, was killed instantly in his seat\u2014the plane soon plummeting to earth in the jungle, amid smoke and flames. The other bomber was also shot down, crashing into the ocean. One American P-38 was lost, but the rest then turned for home, taking the direct route and encountering no opposition.\n\nIgnoring all prohibition against radio transmissions that might give away the specific target of the operation, one of the P-38 pilots, with one engine already feathering for lack of fuel after a thousand miles of flying, radioed to fighter control at Henderson Field as he came in to land: \"That son of a bitch will not be dictating any peace terms in the White House.\"\n**23**\n\n# \"He's Dead?\"\n\nSO SECRET WAS the Yamamoto operation\u2014and so worried did Admiral King become, when leaks of the mission to journalists were only censored at the last minute\u2014that the men of 339 Squadron, unlike Doolittle's Tokyo team, could not be decorated for their extraordinary bravery and professionalism. So shocking, however, was the death of Admiral Yamamoto to the Japanese government, that news of his passing was kept from the Japanese public for more than a month\u2014and only confirmed to American code breakers, in the meantime, by the absence of Yamamoto's name or rank in Japanese naval signals decoded in Hawaii and Washington.\n\nAboard the _Ferdinand Magellan_ on April 18, after visiting Camp Gruber, Oklahoma, and messing with the troops training there, the President was informed that the mission had been successful. Pearl Harbor had finally been avenged\u2014the author of the sneak attack dead in the jungle his men had so ruthlessly conquered, and where so many Japanese atrocities had been committed.\n\nKeeping the success of Operation Vengeance a secret among American forces, ironically, proved harder than keeping the Ultra secret from the Japanese. In the days after the mission, more sorties were flown up the Solomons \"Slot\" to Bougainville, in full view of Japanese radar and spotters, to make the fatal interception seem less extraordinary; reporters, meanwhile, were forbidden to file stories directly linking Guadalcanal's U.S. air aces to the great admiral's death.\n\nIn the context of a titanic battle of wills, courage, and morale in the Pacific, it was almost impossible to maintain the fiction of an accidental death of an enemy commander as iconic as Yamamoto, however, either in American signals or media reports. Admiral Mitscher had immediately reported to Admiral Halsey by telegram, for example, informing him Mitchell's P-38s had \"shot down two bombers escorted by 6 Zeros flying close formation . . . April 18 seems to be our day\"\u2014a reference to Colonel Doolittle's raid the year before. This had not necessarily given the game away, but Bull Halsey\u2014known for his ebullient, take-no-prisoners personality\u2014had signaled straight back, \"Congratulations to you and Major Mitchell and his hunters. Sounds as if one of the ducks in their bag was a peacock.\"\n\nInevitably, as the weeks went by, an AP reporter dutifully tracking a story that was common knowledge on Guadalcanal, blew it in Australia in May 1943\u2014despite being warned it should not be used. Admiral King was incensed\u2014just as he had been the year before, when a similar report had been published ascribing the great victory at Midway to naval code-breaking. Nimitz ordered a full-scale investigation and disciplinary action, with orders that every pilot on Guadalcanal, as well as staff officers and flight mechanics, be questioned. Four citations for Medal of Honor awards were withdrawn, and Halsey, blaming the pilots, declared they should be court-martialed, stripped of their rank, and jailed.\n\nBy a miracle, the Japanese, however, proved unable or unwilling to investigate too closely their suspicions. The sheer shock and shame of the admiral's death\u2014the six Zero pilots wishing to commit ritual suicide for their utter failure to protect him\u2014caused a wave of gloom to spread from Bougainville to the Emperor's palace in Japan. Yamamoto's ashes were taken back to Japan aboard his battleship, the _Musashi,_ and after lying in state in Tokyo, were interred in a state funeral.\n\nIn later years there would be claims that Admiral Yamamoto's death had been a dangerous gamble and counterproductive, given that his earlier objections to war with the United States would have made him, if brought back into the Japanese government, more willing than his successor (who was killed in 1944) or other Japanese admirals to negotiate an armistice.\n\nPresident Roosevelt certainly had no truck with such hypotheticals. He had laid down a policy of unconditional surrender on the basis that neither the Germans nor the Japanese could ever again be trusted to keep the peace unless forced into complete surrender\u2014and the way Japanese troops were fighting, from the Aleutians to the Solomon islands they had conquered, and the atrocities they were committing, bore out his contention. In Yamamoto's cabin aboard the _Musashi_ the admiral had left a poem he'd recently written, lamenting his \"dead comrades\" in the war\u2014but declaring \"with an iron will I will drive deep \/ Into the camp of the enemy \/ And will show the true blood of a Japanese man.\"\n\nJapan's retreat into medievalism, like Germany's, was something America could only end by force of arms\u2014not negotiation. In depriving the Japanese of their greatest admiral in the war, Roosevelt had struck an incalculable blow to the Japanese military machine and national morale at a critical moment in the war.\n\nCertainly, as the President continued his national inspection tour, he was seen to be in great form. The training establishments he'd visited had given him a potent sense of American willingness to fight\u2014and to win. At a press conference he convened onboard the _Ferdinand Magellan_ on April 19, he spoke of the \"great improvement I have seen since last September in the training of troops of all kinds,\" and referred to the \"cutting down of the age of the higher officers than in the last war.\" There was, too, higher \"morale\" to be seen among the troops as they learned the deadlier skills of modern combat\u2014\"there is a great eagerness on their part to get into the 'show' and get it over with.\" Moreover, the strategy he'd settled at Casablanca seemed to be working out. In North Africa, putting Kasserine behind them, American troops were moving in for the kill in Tunisia, close to the time frame Eisenhower had given him at the Villa Dar es Saada. And in the Atlantic\u2014following the President's order to Admiral King to resolve the interservice argument regarding air coverage of the mid-Atlantic and the alarming success of U-boat wolfpacks or face dismissal\u2014King had buckled.\n\nFinally setting aside his childlike struggle with the U.S. Army Air Forces over which service should be responsible for antisubmarine air patrolling, King\u2014in fear of losing his job\u2014had convened a conference of all parties in Washington at the beginning of March. Chastened, he'd belatedly established a special headquarters in the Navy Department, the so-called U.S. Tenth Fleet, to direct the anti-U-boat campaign: a campaign that would use new ASDIC 271M centimetric radar capable of detecting a submerged submarine four miles away; high-frequency radio direction finding (HFRDF) to pinpoint where U-boats were signaling from; \"baby flattops\" the President had earlier ordered to be constructed from merchant ship hulls as convoy escort carriers; incoming new Bogue-class aircraft carriers; and most important of all: American Liberator long-distance bomber planes.\n\nBased on the Boeing B-24 USAAF bomber, but equipped with torpedo-like depth charges, radar, and Leigh lights to illuminate U-boats surfacing for night attacks on shipping, the Liberators would now almost instantly turn the tide of war in the Atlantic\u2014completely disproving King's assumption that convoying was the only answer. Within weeks the new combination had worked\u2014the results beginning to show already in April 1943. Sinkings of German U-boats increased\u2014dramatically.\n\nThe President was relieved\u2014and Admiral King relieved not to be relieved of his command. By May the demise of the wolfpack menace would become a rout, forcing the commander of the German navy, Admiral D\u00f6nitz, to admit defeat that month and recall his entire submarine fleet to safety in Europe, pending the construction of more modern submarines with \"snorkels\" that could hopefully evade air detection.\n\nAnd with regard to the death of Admiral Yamamoto? The President was careful to say nothing to anyone until May 21, 1943, when giving his 898th press conference.\n\n\"Mr. President,\" one reporter asked innocently, \"would you care to comment on the death of the Japanese admiral (Isoroku Yamamoto), who forecast he would write the peace in the White House?\"\n\n\"He's dead?\" the President asked, as if stunned.\n\n\"Q[uestioner]: The Japanese radio announced it. Yamamoto. Killed in action while directing operations in an airplane.\"\n\n\"The President: Gosh! (loud laughter)\"\n\n\"Q: Can we quote that, sir?\"\n\n\"The President: Yes. (more laughter).\"\n\nTo his own staff the President was less deceptive. In truth he could never forgive Yamamoto for his role in attacking Pearl Harbor, causing the deaths of so many thousands of Americans there and in the aftermath, after the many years of hospitality and education Yamamoto had enjoyed in the United States. Two days after the press conference, the President thus had his secretary, Grace Tully, type a letter, headed The White House, dated May 23, 1943, and which he signed.\n\n\"Dear Bill,\" the President scrawled across the top of the letter in his own hand as a memo to Admiral Leahy, \"Please see that the Old Girl gets the following:\n\n> 'Dear Widow Yamamoto,\n\n> Time is a great leveler and somehow I never expected to see the old boy at the White House anyway. Sorry I can't attend the funeral because I approve it. Hoping he is where we know he ain't.\n\n> Very sincerely yours,\n\n> Franklin D. Roosevelt'\n\n\"And ask her to visit you at the Wilson House this summer,\" Roosevelt added in a postscript to Leahy.\n\nIt wasn't kind, or gracious; indeed the President never sent the letter. But it reflected something of what, in his heart of hearts, he really felt about Japanese perfidy. And his profound satisfaction that he'd been able to see Admiral Yamamoto get his just deserts.\n\nEnding his long inspection tour at Washington's Union Station on April 29, the President certainly had good reason to be in high spirits.\n\nApril had been a bountiful month for the Allies. Admiral Mineichi Koga would be a very poor replacement for Yamamoto\u2014indeed, I-Go was called off, and on Guadalcanal the 339th Squadron's seventy-six pilots did not encounter a single Japanese plane in combat for the rest of April and the whole of May. Staging out of the Ellice Islands\u2014which Marines had captured the previous October\u2014Admiral Nimitz's long-range bombers had been able on April 20 to hit Tarawa, the atoll that was impeding future invasion of the Marshall Islands\u2014some twenty-four hundred miles from Hawaii. General MacArthur had begun to revise his strategy in order to do more with less\u2014persuaded by Washington, in fact, to drop his costly notion of step-by-step advance and merely bypass Japanese \"fortresses\" in the Pacific, such as Rabaul, if possible. Such strongpoints would thus be allowed to wither on the vine as MacArthur's air forces, ground forces, and naval vessels pursued a leapfrogging, or island-hopping, campaign instead.\n\nAll in all, then, the Allies stood fair to succeed in a two-ocean war\u2014if they made no more mistakes, and capitalized on their growing productive and fighting strengths. By the end of the current year, the President had been told by Secretary Stimson, the U.S. Army would have some 8.2 million well-trained men and women in uniform\u2014including more than 2.5 million U.S. Air Forces personnel. With a target of a million U.S. combat troops to be ferried in the coming months to bases in Britain, the President felt the Allies had every prospect of mounting a successful 1944 Second Front, and be on course to win the war that year, or early in 1945\u2014after which the unconditional surrender of the Japanese could be obtained, he was confident, within months.\n\nSuch heady confidence, though, rested on a fundamental assumption: that Winston Churchill and the British would stand by the agreements made at Casablanca.\n\nThat, however, as Admiral Leahy and General Marshall informed the President at the White House on April 30, was probably misguided. Instead, the Prime Minister, they'd learned, was intent upon coming to Washington with a huge new posse of military advisers and clerks\u2014determined to convince the President his whole strategy was wrong.\nPART SEVEN\n\n* * *\n\n#  _Beware Greeks Bearing Gifts_\n**24**\n\n# Saga of the Nibelungs\n\nWITH EVERY NEW day, the news from North Africa had been getting better, the President had felt\u2014under American leadership and arms.\n\nBy the end of April, American forces in North Africa outnumbered British, French, and other national contingents 60 percent to 40. From a frontline west of Bizerte that ran first south, then east to Enfidaville on the Tunisian coast, more than three hundred thousand Allied troops were preparing to launch Operation Strike: the final Allied offensive in North Africa to drive the Axis forces into the sea. Italian troops were beginning to desert in increasing numbers, but German troops were paradoxically selling their lives ever more dearly in battles to hold onto djebels and hilltops many thousands of miles from their homes\u2014infused with a blind, arrogant loyalty to their comrades, scorn for their opponents, and a suicidal unwillingness to question either what they were doing in North Africa or why they maintained such slavish faith in their f\u00fchrer.\n\nCertainly the F\u00fchrer was indifferent to their fate. At his meeting with Mussolini near Salzburg on April 8, he'd dismissed out of hand the notion of a negotiated armistice with Stalin, or revival of the Ribbentrop Pact. As at Stalingrad, he was banking upon his understanding of the unique German psyche: that the members of his chosen Volk would stay loyal to each other, whatever happened; and that, in the manner of the Nibelungen myths, they would only gain greater nourishment for their national pride from stories of heroic valor and self-sacrifice, even death in distant fields. _Nibelungentreue_ \u2014whether on the Volga or in the mountains of Tunisia. Not dishonorable retreat or evacuation.\n\nThe tenacity and blind courage shown by soldiers of the Wehrmacht to their comrades in battle in North Africa certainly suggested Hitler was right. German casualties had escalated as the end approached, yet in contrast to Italian troops, far from dispiriting the German survivors, the likely outcome appeared to make no discernible dent on their morale in the field. Nor would the F\u00fchrer countenance plans for Axis flight. Just as he had ordered von Paulus to die rather than surrender his last remaining forces at Stalingrad, so now Allied code breakers read with amazement the decrypted signals in which, from his East Prussian headquarters at the Wolfschanze, or Wolf's Lair, the F\u00fchrer not only ordered more infantry reinforcements to be flown into the last Axis redoubt\u2014which was now down to only sixty-seven panzers\u2014but declined to permit the word _evacuation_ to be spoken.\n\nThe Saga of the Nibelungs was thus being enacted\u2014in real life. Allied planners had assumed in early April that Hitler could, if he chose, save as many as thirty-seven thousand men of the Wehrmacht per day by evacuation\u2014the better to defend the shores of mainland Europe. There came, however, no such order. Instead, on April 13, the F\u00fchrer had dispatched his historic cable to General von Arnim, in command of the quarter million Axis troops in Tunisia. Except for a few \"useless mouths\" to be airlifted or shipped out of Tunisia, the Axis forces were ordered to fight to the death\u2014killing as many of the Allies as possible before they were themselves felled.\n\nIt was a bloody, tragic prospect. Yet thanks to his insistence on Torch as the means by which American forces could first learn how to defeat the vaunted Wehrmacht in battle before embarking on a Second Front, it was also a tribute to the President's patience and determination not to undertake military operations beyond the capabilities of his forces. General Patton\u2014\"our greatest fighting general,\" he called him\u2014had restored morale in II Corps after Kasserine, and was now slated to command all American troops in Husky, the invasion of Sicily, in July\u2014which would allow the Allies to rehearse a major assault landing, this time against Axis defenders, not Vichy French. Meantime, U.S. air forces were beginning to take a huge toll of Axis shipping as well as of the Luftwaffe. Above all, despite the mischief being sewn by the American and English press\u2014delighting in the rivalry between U.S. and British exploits in the field\u2014General Eisenhower was doing a magnificent job in holding together the Allied military coalition in North Africa.\n\nThis, more than anything, was what reinforced the President's faith in the outcome of his grand strategy. Hitler and Hirohito might well wish to see their populations obliterated rather than save them, but as long as the Allies held together and continued to build upon their combined strength, they would prevail, he was certain. The timetable General Eisenhower had given him at Casablanca for clearing North Africa of Axis forces, as the final Allied offensive kicked off on May 6, 1943, looked remarkably prescient\u2014indeed, in a brilliant armored coup, British tanks from Montgomery's Eighth Army, stalled beneath the high ground at Enfidaville, performed a magnificent end run, or left hook, which took them into the city of Tunis itself within twenty-four hours, on May 7\u2014where they took the unconditional surrender of all Axis troops there. Infantry and tanks of General Bradley's U.S. II Corps force simultaneously smashed their way down from the mountains in the northwest\u2014including famously bloody combat around Hill 232\u2014into the port city of Bizerte.\n\nGeneral von Arnim's days, perhaps hours, seemed numbered\u2014U.S. and RAF planes swooping on any German or Italian vessel attempting to leave North African shores, while Luftwaffe attempts to fly in final supplies were shot down.\n\nBy contrast, the _Queen Mary_ \u2014the vessel bearing the British prime minister\u2014was making a mercifully safe passage across the Atlantic\u2014indeed was approaching the East Coast of the United States surrounded by U.S. destroyers and escort vessels, the sky above thick with U.S. planes watching for U-boats as it made its way toward the Statue of Liberty without mishap. Ensconced in the grand staterooms he'd ordered to be reconstructed for his voyage (the transatlantic liner having earlier been converted into an Allied troopship), Mr. Churchill was toasting every new report from London and Algiers: drunk not so much from champagne as sheer excitement over the imminent Allied victory in Tunisia\u2014one that would soon exceed the German Sixth Army surrender at Stalingrad.\n\nAfter his long years of military failure, the Prime Minister felt wonderfully, arrogantly alive, his staff later recalled: seemingly certain he could, by the force of his ebullient personality and the scores of staff officers and advisers he was bringing with him, reverse the agreements he'd made on behalf of his country at Casablanca.\n**25**\n\n# A Scene from _The Arabian Nights_\n\nAT THE WHITE HOUSE, the President, having discussed with Admiral Leahy and General Marshall what the British might be plotting, still found it hard to believe.\n\nThe President had hitherto been under the impression that his partnership with his \"active and ardent lieutenant\" was a firm and happy one. Had the two leaders not motored together, after the Casablanca Conference, to Marrakesh\u2014the fabled Berber city at the foot of the Atlas Mountains? Had they not spent the night there, in the house occupied by the American vice consul, Kenneth Pendar? Had they not settled together into \"one of the showplaces of the world,\" as Pendar afterward described it, a \"stylized, modernized version of a south Moroccan _kasbah_ \"? Had not Churchill asked to be shown up the famous tower, and had he not counted the sixty steps before asking whether Pendar thought it possible \"for the President to be brought up here? I am so fond of this superb view that it has been my dream to see it with him\"? And had it not so been arranged\u2014the six-foot-three-inch paralyzed president of the United States borne up the sixty-foot tower by his attendants \"with his arms around their shoulders, while another went ahead to open doors, and the rest of the entire party followed\"? With Churchill humming \"Oh, there ain't no war, there ain't no war,\" had not the President \"amidst much laughing on his part and sympathizing with his carriers\" been brought up to the open terrace of the tower, and had not a wicker chair been \"fetched for him and the Prime Minister,\" allowing the two leaders to sit and survey the vast Atlas range? \"Never have I seen the sun set on those snow-capped peaks with such magnificence,\" Pendar\u2014who ordered highballs to be fetched and served\u2014certainly recalled. \"There had evidently been snow storms recently in the mountains, for they were white almost to their base, and looked more wild and rugged than ever, their sheer walls rising some 12,000 feet before us.\"\n\nHad not Pendar explained the history of the great twelfth-century Koutoubia Mosque tower that they could see some distance away, dominating the city? As the sun finally disappeared, had not electric lights come on at the top of every mosque, calling the faithful to prayer? \"From where we were, we could see the going and coming of the innumerable Arabs on camel- and mule-back, as they made their way in and out of the city gate. Both Mr. Roosevelt and Mr. Churchill were spellbound by the view,\" Pendar recalled. It had been a far, far cry from Washington, D.C.\u2014followed later by more cocktails in the salon.\n\nHad not the President\u2014after slicing off the top of a huge profiterole representing the Koutoubia tower, in the manner of Alexander the Great\u2014then raised a toast to the English king? Had not Churchill responded by raising a toast to the head of state before them: the President? For his part Pendar, sitting between such exalted modern rulers, had found himself \"surprised,\" he later recorded. Traveling in England, he'd seen Mr. Churchill often in the prewar days, and had felt \"sure that no one could eclipse his personality.\" Now, however, he was \"struck by the fact that, though Mr. Churchill spoke much more amusingly than the President\"\u2014mesmerizing listeners with his antiquated yet masterly use of language, and his descriptive, imaginative storytelling ability\u2014it was Mr. Roosevelt who \"dominated any room they were in.\" Reflecting on this, Pendar attributed it not to Roosevelt's larger physique when compared to the diminutive prime minister, nor to his rank \"merely because he was President of the United States;\" no, Pendar had afterward mused, it had resided much more in the radiance of the President's \"being\": his lionine head and Caesar-like _presence._ Also an intense curiosity about others\u2014others as real people, not simply an audience to entertain or impress. In this respect, despite the Prime Minister's extraordinary mind, the President exhibited, Pendar thought, \"a more spiritual quality than Mr. Churchill, and, I could not help but feel, a more profound understanding of human beings,\" rather than just the course of history. Most surprising to Pendar, perhaps, had been the President's seeming indifference to his own disability\u2014as if employing his abundant interest in people not only to engage those he met in conversation, but to deflect attention from his own paralyzed lower limbs. Nor did he seem to mind being contradicted or corrected, as Churchill did\u2014Pendar recalling how he'd talked \"at length about the Morocco and the Arab problem\" with the President at dinner\u2014who was not only well informed, but _listened._ \"To my amazement and delight, I found that the President had an extraordinary and profound grasp of Arab problems, of the conflict of Koranic law with our type of modern life and its influence on Mohammedans, and of the Arab character with its combination of materialism and highly developed intuition.\" In the presence of a diplomat steeped in the history and culture of Morocco, the President had seemed fascinated to hear Pendar's views\u2014Pendar subsequently recalling how, \"some six months later, when I was in London talking with Averell Harriman,\" who had attended the dinner, Harriman \"began to laugh and said: 'I will never forget your conversation with the President. I enjoyed hearing you explain to him, in no uncertain terms, that the New Deal simply wouldn't work in Morocco.'\"\n\nHad not the two potentates then \"set to work,\" after dinner, writing cables to Stalin and Chiang Kai-shek to tell them, cautiously, of the Casablanca meeting\u2014cables that Churchill's ubiquitous secretaries typed, then retyped to incorporate further corrections and revisions? The President, at one point, had been \"wheeled into his room so he could work alone at his dressing table which he used as his desk\"\u2014anxious not to dismay Stalin by revealing the Western Allies would not launch a Second Front before 1944, by which time their forces would have sufficient combat and command experience to make such landings in northern France decisive for the outcome of the war . . .\n\nWhy, then, three months later, was Winston Spencer Churchill on his way to Washington with an army of staff officers and advisers to argue against a cross-Channel invasion even in 1944? What alternative plan did Mr. Churchill have for continuing the war?\n**26**\n\n# The God Neptune\n\nTHE PRESIDENT WAS as much in the dark about Churchill's plans as were his Joint Chiefs of Staff. In fact the more so, since he had fondly imagined that he and the Prime Minister were very much in unison with regard to the Allied prosecution and timetable of the war.\n\nInstead, according to the President's best information, Churchill's ever-fertile mind was changing from day to day. According to sources known to the British representative on the Combined Chiefs of Staff Committee in Washington, Field Marshal Dill, the Prime Minister was said to be settling more and more on ditching the notion of a cross-Channel attack, and instead exploiting the Allies' impending victory in North Africa in the Mediterranean.\n\nChurchill's preference, it was reported, was to pursue, instead, an opportunistic strategy of multipronged Allied attacks following the invasion of Sicily: not only on the Italian mainland but in the Aegean and the Balkans in late 1943 and 1944, especially if\u2014President Inonu's unwillingness nothwithstanding\u2014Turkey could be persuaded to enter the war on the Allied side. By this scattershot, indirect method Churchill apparently hoped the Allies would not only draw away from the Eastern Front crucial German forces that Hitler might otherwise employ to hold back the Russian armies, but would provide the Western Allies with the launch pad for a drive into central Europe via the \"soft underbelly\" of southern Europe: an Allied advance such as the one General Giraud had outlined to him at Casablanca. Or through the Balkans\u2014an avenue of advance that harked back to Churchill's abiding Dardanelles obsession. Either way, such a peripheral strategy would serve to avoid a Second Front bloodbath across the English Channel, which the Prime Minister had always feared.\n\nMore disturbingly\u2014again, according to Field Marshal Dill\u2014the British chiefs of staff were now deferring to their prime minister's ideas. The result would be to delay, if not rule out, the agreed Second Front assault across the English Channel to 1945\u2014two years away\u2014at the earliest.\n\nHow the Russians would respond to such delay was predictable. So too would be the response of the American press and public, if they learned of it.\n\nIt was small wonder, then, that the U.S. chiefs of staff had grown each day more worried as the _Queen Mary,_ which had left port on May 5, drew closer\u2014even as Allied forces moved in for the kill in Tunisia.\n\n\"Some of our officers have a fear that Great Britain is desirous of confining allied military effort in Europe to the Mediterranean Area in order that England may exercise control thereof regardless of what the terms of peace may be,\" Admiral Leahy had noted in his diary on May 2\u2014his contacts in the State Department fueling his fear that the British were \"principally concerned with a post war control of the Mediterranean.\" Moreover, in view of rumors the Russians were already exploring peace feelers with German representatives, Leahy was doubly concerned lest the Soviets would fight only to liberate Soviet republics, not to defeat the Third Reich. In this potential scenario, Hitler would remain master of western and central Europe, making nonsense of the President's \"Germany First\" strategy since Pearl Harbor.\n\nFor his part, Secretary of War Henry Stimson worried about Churchill's eloquence\u2014and what he saw as the President's unwillingness to put Churchill in his place.\n\nStimson had not attended the Casablanca Conference, but what he had gleaned of it had been alarming\u2014an account obtained in large part from officers such as Major General Wedemeyer. The British team had run rings around their American \"opponents,\" he'd been told, not only because the U.S. team had been too small, but because the President himself was too accommodating to the British.\n\nBy May 7, with U.S. troops entering Bizerte and British troops entering Tunis, Stimson was cock-a-hoop at the \"great victory\" at hand\u2014one that would \"hearten the Russians and discourage the Germans.\" The Western Allies should therefore be thinking big, not small, in his view: of direct assault, not peripheral piddling.\n\nIn Britain and America, where \"we are now deliberating over the future conduct of the campaign,\" the impending triumph in Tunisia \"will I hope stiffen the resolution of our British allies for a northern [European] offensive,\" Stimson wrote in his diary\u2014and he became especially nervous when Marshall told him, the next day, that the President had only agreed \"in principle\" to what the U.S. chiefs were going to say to the British chiefs when they finally arrived.\n\nWould the President be swayed by Churchill's anti\u2013Second Front rhetoric, once the Prime Minister arrived at the White House for the new conference\u2014code named, ominously, Trident? Was Churchill a new version of the great god Neptune, rising out of the sea to defeat American strategy for winning the war?\n\nAs the British arrival-day neared, General Marshall, for his part, \"expressed his reservation as to how firmly the President would hold to his acquiescence\" to the U.S. chiefs' position. \"I fear it will be the same story over again,\" Stimson despondently recorded in his diary. Repudiation redux: \"The man from London will arrive with a program of further expansion in the Mediterranean and will have his way with our Chief, and the careful and deliberate plans of our Staff will be overridden. I feel very troubled by it,\" Stimson lamented\u2014the British contingent expected to arrive in Washington the next evening, May 11, 1943.\n**27**\n\n# A Battle Royal\n\nWHEN HEARING THE sheer size and composition of the approaching British contingent\u2014160 officers, with their assistants and chief clerks\u2014the Canadian prime minister thought it a crazy gamble. \"I was astonished when I saw the list of names,\" Mackenzie King noted in his diary, the day of their scheduled arrival in New York. \"It is a tremendous risk to have so complete a representation of the military heads, chiefs and their experts and advisers cross the ocean at one and the same time.\"\n\nWhy, though, had they come at all? Had not the overall strategy and timetable for the war in 1943 and 1944 been agreed at Casablanca?\n\nThe President had summoned all his chiefs of staff once again to the White House on May 9. There, in the Oval Office at 2:30 p.m., he'd rehearsed with Leahy, Marshall, King, and Arnold \"the attitude that should be taken by the U.S. Chiefs of Staff at the conference with the British war officials who will arrive in Washington Tuesday,\" as the President's chief of staff noted dryly in his diary.\n\nAll had been agreed. \"The principal contention of the American government will be a cross Channel invasion of Europe at the earliest practicable date and full preparation for such an invasion by the Spring of 1944,\" Leahy had recorded that night\u2014adding sniffily: \"It is expected that the British Chiefs of Staff will not agree to a cross channel invasion until Germany has collapsed under pressure from Russia and from allied air attack.\"\n\nNo cross-Channel Second Front before the Germans _collapsed?_\n\nThe likely British proposal seemed to Leahy a pretty awful way to run a war\u2014one that would either leave Hitler in control of mainland Europe, or if not, give the Russians a head start in the overrunning of western Europe. Though thanks to his fever he had not attended the Casablanca Conference, Leahy had read all the minutes and final agreements, as well as hearing firsthand from the President, Marshall, Arnold, and King the accords the British had made. What on earth were the British up to now, he wondered?\n\nEarly on the evening of Tuesday, May 11, the U.S. chiefs of staff congregated for the third time in a week at the White House. The arrival of the _Queen Mary_ in New York Harbor had been reported, and the Prime Minister's huge retinue had apparently entrained for the capital. Then at \"six forty-five p.m. the American Chiefs of Staff accompanied the President,\" Leahy recorded in his diary, \"to meet a special train bringing to Washington the British Prime Minister and his War Staff.\"\n\n\"Reached Washington at 6:30 pm where we were met by Roosevelt, Marshall, Dill, etc,\" a tired General Alan Brooke recorded in his own diary that night.\n\nAmbassador Halifax was there to greet them, too. Churchill and his secretaries were immediately whisked off by the President to the White House; Brooke was invited to stay with Field Marshal Dill, his former boss.\n\nIt was a \"hot and sticky night,\" Brooke noted before he went to bed at Dill's rented house in Virginia.\n\nHe was nervous\u2014embarrassed at the friendliness being shown by his American hosts, given that he was carrying a veritable bombshell. He'd been required first to go to the recently opened Statler, where the rest of the British party would be accommodated, to attend \"a cocktail party given in our honour\" by his hosts, the American chiefs. \"From there,\" he recorded in his diary, \"we did not escape till 8.15 pm.\" \"I must now prepare my opening remarks for tomorrow's Combined Chiefs of Staff conference and muster up all our arguments,\" he added to his entry. \"We have a very heavy week's work in front of us!\"\n\nAt the White House, the Prime Minister and his closest personal staff were meantime shown to the rooms where they would stay. The First Lady, however, was nowhere to be found. Irritated that the President had seen fit to receive Churchill for an unspecified length of time in the White House, and knowing her husband was having to steel himself for the confrontation he was rather dreading, she had simply decamped\u2014going in the opposite direction, to their house in New York.\n\nFor his part, Churchill had begun to show signs of anxiety over his mission\u2014in fact he'd suggested he might stay at the British Embassy on Massachusetts Avenue. Roosevelt had refused to hear of it\u2014figuring it might be better to suborn the recalcitrant prime minister under lock and key, so to speak, in the White House mansion, where he'd have a better chance of countering whatever it was that Winston was harboring or plotting in his brilliant but sometimes dangerously inventive mind.\n\nInstead of cocktails, then, the President wined and dined Churchill on Pennsylvania Avenue, with just his daughter, Anna Boettiger, and Harry and Louise Hopkins, present. Though the Prime Minister's office assistant, Leslie Rowan, and Churchill's aide-de-camp, Commander Tommy Thompson, were asked to eat with them, no invitation was extended to Churchill's military advisers. The dinner ended shortly after 9:00, after which the President invited Churchill to his Oval Study on the second floor. There the two men talked until after midnight.\n\nSecretary Stimson, at his own house across the Potomac, remained on tenterhooks. As he noted anxiously in his diary the following day: \"Churchill arrived last night with a huge military party, evidently equipped for war on us.\"\n\n\"I fear it will be the same story over again,\" the secretary lamented\u2014furious that Churchill had come with such a huge contingent. He was all the more concerned since General Arnold had suffered \"a severe heart attack\" immediately after the May 9 Joint Chiefs meeting at the White House. The U.S. chiefs would thus be fielding a man short at the top, and might, Stimson feared, now be overwhelmed by their British colleagues in the talks\u2014talks he had not been asked to attend.\n\nThough the air in Washington remained warm and sticky on the morning of May 12, the atmosphere in the White House seemed somewhat frosty\u2014a far cry from the happy spirit that had invested the Casablanca Conference. The President only went to his office at 11:10 a.m., where he had a succession of appointments\u2014the American Legion, the mayor of Chicago, American labor leaders (regarding the national coal strike\u2014the largest single strike ever called in the United States, involving more than half a million miners demanding more pay). And then lunch in his Oval Study with Hopkins, Churchill, and Lord Beaverbrook\u2014former British minister of munitions, who had come without portfolio, as he was no longer in the British cabinet or government.\n\nIf there was open debate at the White House lunch, none recorded it. Indeed, no one recorded the luncheon\u2014reflecting, perhaps, the awkwardness. Given that Beaverbrook was an outspoken advocate of a Second Front to be mounted as soon as possible\u2014at the very latest, he pleaded, in the spring of 1944\u2014and since Harry Hopkins remained an unrepentant advocate of priority being given to such a direct, cross-Channel strategy, even by inexperienced troops, the Prime Minister was on his own at table. At all events, Churchill's narrative of the trip, written seven years later, jumped straight from joyful arrival in Washington, the night before, to a fictitious account of the discussion that took place that afternoon with the Combined Chiefs of Staff\u2014pretending in his memoirs that he, too, was in favor of a spring 1944 Second Front.\n\nThis was, in truth, mendacious\u2014for minutes of the meeting, held in the Oval Office immediately after lunch, were kept by General Deane, secretary of the Combined Chiefs of Staff: minutes that documented, in writing, the rift between the President's and the Prime Minister's views on global strategy.\n\nAnxious to maintain at least a semblance of Allied unity, the President opened the meeting at 2:30 p.m. with a look back across the past year\u2014reminding the generals how far the United Nations had come since their last get-together in Washington. It was, he said, \"less than a year ago when they had all met in the White House, and had set on foot the moves leading up to TORCH. It was very appropriate that they should meet again just as that operation was coming to a satisfactory conclusion\"\u2014for Allied troops had already \"seized Bizerte and British troops had fought their way into Tunis,\" General Deane noted the President's words. Given complete Allied air and naval control of the southern Mediterranean now exercised by the Allies under General Eisenhower, no Dunkirk-like evacuation of German or Italian forces was possible. It had taken time, but Torch had led, methodically, to a great Allied victory.\n\nWhat a turnaround the campaign in Tunisia had brought, he remarked. The final surrender of German and Italian troops was expected momentarily, and might possibly number over 150,000 men\u2014perhaps even a quarter million. The invasion and subsequent combat had thus provided the Allies with the safe learning experience they needed. Its sequel had been decided upon at the recent Casablanca Conference, the President recapitulated: namely \"operation HUSKY,\" the invasion of Sicily, which he hoped \"would meet with similar good fortune,\" as the Allies made ready to throw \"every resource of men and munitions against the enemy\" under July's full moon. The chiefs were assembled now, however, in Washington, to review what should happen after the fall of Sicily: \"What next?\"\n\nWith that, the President asked Mr. Churchill to give his own introductory remarks.\n\nIt was a delicate moment.\n\nChurchill's lengthy _tour d'horizon_ in the President's study, delivered with his characteristic rhetorical flair, bons mots, cadences, and flattering flourishes, certainly impressed his listeners for its brilliance (\"very good opening address,\" General Brooke noted in his diary). However, it completely failed to dispel the U.S. chiefs' fears of what the British were plotting. With every word, in fact, it became clearer that, whereas the President had seen Torch operations in the Mediterranean in 1943 as a means to gain the vital battle and command experience necessary for a cross-Channel Second Front in 1944, the British were not so confident\u2014indeed, were not seriously interested in crossing the Channel anytime soon, unless the Germans collapsed. Thus the U.S. chiefs were compelled to listen as the Prime Minister lyrically described the triumph of Torch and the imminent conquest of Sicily as the means to a much richer, more byzantine, strategic end: not the defeat of Germany but merely the further clearing of Britain's vital seaway to India, and a staging post for expeditions into the \"soft underbelly of Europe,\" beginning with the knocking of Italy out of the Axis coalition.\n\nBefore the assembled generals and admirals, Winston Churchill proceeded to outline how, surely, it ought to be the objective of the Allies, after securing Sicily, to invade Italy, obtain its surrender, then exploit the huge gap this would leave in the Adriatic and the Balkans, where twenty-five Italian divisions were currently helping the Germans in Yugoslavia. Once Italy fell out of the Axis alliance, those Italian forces would be hors de combat\u2014offering an even softer European \"underbelly.\" If, in turn, the Turks saw such a door into southern, mainland Europe opening, they might be persuaded to join the Allies or at least be encouraged to permit the Allies to use Turkish positions and airfields in order to attack the Third Reich from the south and southeast\u2014thus disposing of the need for a cross-Channel operation at all, unless it were to be conducted as a pro forma operation, following the \"collapse\" of the Germans, similar to 1918, after the \"defection\" of Bulgaria.\n\n1918?\n\n_Bulgaria?_\n\nThere was a deathly hush in the Oval Office. Admiral Leahy, as chairman of the Combined Chiefs of Staff, was caustic in the entry he made in his office diary that evening. \"The prime Minister spoke at length on the advantages that would accrue to the allied cause by a collapse or a surrender of Italy through its effect on the invaded countries of the near East and Turkey. In regard to a cross channel [Second Front] invasion in the near future,\" the admiral added with ill-concealed disgust, \"it is apparently his opinion that adequate preparations cannot be made for such an effort in the Spring of 1944.\" Such an invasion, Churchill had allowed, \"must be made at sometime in the future.\" Sometime\u2014but not 1944.\n\nEven though Admiral Leahy, Admiral King, General Marshall, and General McNarney (deputizing for the literally heart-stricken General Arnold) had all been told by Field Marshal Dill to expect something on these lines, they still found themselves speechless. That Churchill would openly contradict and defy the strategy laid down by the President of the United States and agreed to at Casablanca, in front of the President and to his face, before his top military advisers, seemed incredible. \"There was no indication in his talk of a British intention to undertake a cross channel invasion of Europe either in 1943 or 1944,\" Leahy repeated in frustration. In order to be quite clear as to the Prime Minister's precise argument, he added that the Prime Minister was recommending that no such invasion take place \"unless Germany should collapse as a result of the Russian campaign and our intensified bombing attack.\"\n\nNo cross-Channel invasion, then, even in 1944, unless there was a German collapse.\n\nAll eyes thus turned to the President.\n\nTo General Brooke's irritation, the President contradicted the Prime Minister. In the nicest yet firmest way possible the President made abundantly clear he did _not_ agree with Churchill's new alternative strategy. \"The President in a brief following talk,\" Leahy noted, \"advocated a cross channel invasion at the earliest practicable date and not later than 1944.\"\n\nTo the relief of the U.S. chiefs of staff, the President explained that, in order to make certain of success in mounting a spring 1944 cross-Channel assault, U.S. operations in the Mediterranean _must_ be curtailed as soon as possible after the fall of Sicily. The Allies would by then have all the command and battle experience they needed from the Mediterranean\u2014in the air, on land, and at sea\u2014for a Second Front invasion from Britain. In combat skills, in field command, in coalition planning and fighting, and in logistics. Mr. Roosevelt therefore categorically \"expressed disagreement with any Italian adventure beyond the seizure of Sicily and Sardinia.\"\n\nThe President's tone had now turned from warm politeness to firmness. With regard to the Far East, he made clear he was disappointed by the latest British refusal to carry out the Anakim offensive that had been agreed upon at Casablanca, and stated \"that the air transport line to China\"\u2014which Chiang Kai-shek was pleading be intensified\u2014must \"be placed in full operating condition without any delay, and that China must be kept in the war.\"\n\nWith that, the strange meeting in the President's study came to a close.\n\nBrooke, in his diary, was alarmed, noting the President \"showed less grasp of strategy\" than the Prime Minister.\n\nThe two top military teams then filed out. As the chief of staff to the Prime Minister, General Ismay, later recounted, \"there was an unmistakable atmosphere of tension\" and \"it was clear there was going to be a battle royal.\"\n**28**\n\n# No Major Operations Until 1945 or 1946\n\nEVEN CHURCHILL'S OWN wife, Clementine, worried lest the United States abandon its \"Germany First\" policy. In fact, Clemmie sent Winston cable after cable, while he was staying at the White House, expressing her abiding fear that, in the aftermath of the massive German surrender in Tunisia\u2014with the numbers of German and Italian prisoners reportedly mounting by the hour\u2014the United States might consider the campaign at an end, and choose to redirect its primary efforts to the Pacific. \"I'm so afraid the Americans will think that a Pacific slant is to be given to the next phase of the war,\" she wrote him on May 13. \" _Surely_ the liberation of Europe _must_ come first,\" she confided. And in a PS she added that she'd just heard of the \"terrific\" RAF bomber raid on Duisburg, in the Ruhr. \"Do re-assure me that the European front will take 1st place all the time,\" she begged.\n\nWinston, however, was Winston: endowed with inspirational intellectual energy and romantic imagination yet burdened, too, by an often fatal penchant for peripheral rather than direct, frontal attack. It was a tendency that went back to his justifiable indignation as an infantry battalion commander in the trenches of the Western Front in World War I before the Battle of the Somme, and the bloodbath he witnessed on the plains of France.\n\nChurchill's alternative\u2014his Dardanelles landings\u2014had proven just as futile as Allied offensives on the Western Front in World War I, however. There had simply been no easy military alternative to frontal attacks in World War I in the West\u2014attacks that did, when no diplomatic solution could be found, ultimately decide the outcome once U.S. troops were committed to battle in France in 1918. Certainly the Prime Minister was fully entitled to ask his own chiefs of staff and then the Combined Chiefs to explore other scenarios before confirming the Casablanca decision to pursue a cross-Channel invasion\u2014but that was not how Churchill presented his case at the White House.\n\nNor was it the case the next morning, when the first so-called Trident meeting of the Combined Chiefs of Staff opened in the Board of Governors Room of the Federal Reserve Building on Constitution Avenue. There, to Admiral Leahy's disgust, it became clear that an extension of the war in the Mediterranean and the Balkans rather than the agreed assault of northern Europe was no mere Churchillian fantasy. General Brooke, the bespectacled, owlish-looking \"strongman\" on the British team, announced he was even _more_ opposed to a cross-Channel Second Front in 1944 than Prime Minister Churchill.\n\nBrooke's apostasy in seeking to overturn the Casablanca agreement on a 1944 Second Front was potentially crippling to the Allied military alliance.\n\nA solitary, self-contained man of incisive mind, Brooke had done his best since succeeding Sir John Dill as British Chief of the Imperial General Staff in 1941 to curb the Prime Minister's penchant for madcap schemes\u2014especially red herrings that detracted from the Allies' primary strategic effort. Now, however, as CIGS, Brooke was supporting Churchill's alternative strategy.\n\nHow, though, the U.S. chiefs countered, would an as-yet-unplanned invasion of the mainland of Italy, the Balkans, and Greek islands miraculously lead to the collapse or defeat of the Third Reich?\n\nIn hindsight\u2014given German determination to pursue the war to the bitter end\u2014it couldn't. But in truth that was not Brooke's real reason, in May 1943, for backing rather than dissuading the Prime Minister. The fact was, despite the success of the Western Allies in North Africa, he too had lost faith in the essential feasibility of a Second Front in 1944.\n\nBrooke had commanded heavy British artillery in World War I and large numbers of troops in France early in World War II\u2014command that had ended in tearful defeat. The humiliation of British evacuation first at Dunkirk and then Brest, Cherbourg, and Saint-Nazaire in 1940, on top of the complete collapse of the French armies, had cut to his heart. Half-French himself, he simply lacked belief that an Allied cross-Channel invasion could ever succeed. The Wehrmacht drubbing given to Operation Jubilee, Mountbatten's August 1942 mini-rehearsal at Dieppe for an eventual cross-Channel assault landing, had in Brooke's view proved the point. The German massacre of an entire Canadian brigade on the beaches of the little French seaport was clearly a beach too far, given the literally dozens of tough Wehrmacht divisions stationed across northern Europe to repel such an attempted invasion\u2014including panzer divisions.\n\nThe result was that in Washington, General Brooke exuded not energy\u2014which at least his Prime Minister did\u2014but a kind of dour, Northern Irish Protestant skepticism amounting to obstructionism. Not only about plans, moreover, but about people.\n\nAt Casablanca he had gotten a very poor impression of General Eisenhower as a fighting commander\u2014blind to the way the young Allied commander in chief was not only learning on the job, but inventing a new kind of coalition command that might be messy and might result in many an upset or failure, but which brought together the collective _power_ of Western arms\u2014naval, air, and army\u2014in a way that even the most disciplined of German troops could not stand up to, in the end. Even news of the surrender of General von Arnim together with many hundreds of thousands of Axis troops at Cape Bon, when he received it immediately after the meeting in the President's study, failed to change Brooke's mind, or convince him the Allies would ever be ready to fight whole German armies in northern France, unless the German government collapsed, as in 1918.\n\nWearing his trademark round black spectacles, Brooke sat in his chair at the Combined Chiefs of Staff meeting the next day, May 13, 1943\u2014his thick black mustache and slightly hooked nose giving him a fierce, intimidating countenance. He listened silently as Admiral Leahy was first acknowledged as the chairman of the proceedings and then read aloud to the meeting the U.S. chiefs' opening paper. This was titled \"A Global Strategy, A Memorandum by the United States Chiefs of Staff.\" Copies of the document, moreover, had been handed to all the chiefs around the table. Looking through the document as Leahy spoke, Brooke hated it.\n\nWord for word the document set down in typed script the strategy the President had outlined the day before at the White House. The \"concept of defeating Germany first involves making a determined attack against Germany on the Continent at the earliest practicable date,\" the U.S. chiefs' document stated, \"and we consider that all proposed operations in Europe should be based primarily on the basis of contributions to that end.\"\n\nLest there be any misunderstanding on this score, Admiral Leahy spelled it out in the simplest of sentences: \"It is the opinion of the United States Chiefs of Staff that a cross-Channel invasion of Europe is necessary to an early conclusion of the war with Germany.\"\n\nNot to be outdone, General Brooke responded by handing across the table copies of the British chiefs of staff counterpaper\u2014a paper that Brooke then read aloud to the meeting.\n\nEntitled \"Conduct of the War in 1943\u201344,\" the document was three times as long as Leahy's. In it the British chiefs argued that Italy might _not_ surrender after the fall of Sicily, or by the threat of Allied bombing.\n\nIn order to achieve Italy's capitulation, the British paper contended, there would probably be need for \"amphibious operations against either the Italian islands or the mainland.\" This \"continuance of Mediterranean operations\" would, \"of course have repercussions elsewhere and will affect BOLERO,\" the cross-Channel assault, as well as operations in the Pacific, the document allowed. However, the fruits of Italian collapse would, the British chiefs argued, be worth the cost of delaying the cross-Channel invasion for several years, for it would make possible \"increasing supplies to the Balkan resistance groups, and by speeding up our aid to Turkey.\"\n\nSilence again ensued\u2014the two Allies at a strategic stalemate.\n\nAfter a pause, General Marshall, the chief of staff of the U.S. Army, pointed out that, as the President had said the day before, there was no reason to venture into southern Europe at all. The Ploesti refineries, in Romania, which provided Germany's all-important oil supplies, should certainly be bombed by long-distance B-25 and B-17 bombers, operating from the Mediterranean. In fact, Marshall continued, the use of vastly superior and constantly increasing Allied air power \"might enable us to economize in the use of ground forces in the Mediterranean Area,\" since footling amphibious and ground operations would not achieve more than local advantage\u2014while merely delaying the Allies' main offensive capability. The Allies would then \"deeply regret not being ready to make the final blow against Germany, if the opportunity presented itself, by reason of having dissipated ground forces in the Mediterranean Area.\"\n\nAgain, there was silence.\n\nBrooke countered that Allied air power was all very well, as in bombing the Ploesti oil refineries, \"but this must be examined in relation to the whole picture of knocking Italy out of the war.\"\n\nTo this Marshall delivered the stunning rejoinder: namely that the aim of the \"Europe First\" strategy had never been to focus on _Italy_ \u2014Germany's junior partner in crime. The objective was to defeat _Nazi Germany,_ their real adversary. Thus, rather than dispersing their forces in subsidiary ventures, he rebuked Brooke, \"we should direct our attention to knocking Germany out of the war.\"\n\nThe first formal Combined Chiefs of Staff (COS) meeting of the Trident Conference now turned into a free-for-all, as General Brooke, under attack, revealed more and more of his hand\u2014this time claiming that by dumping the Casablanca agreement they would help Stalin\u2014for if Italy fell, the Germans would be compelled to deny reinforcements to their Eastern Front and instead occupy and defend the Italian mainland, as well as defending the Balkans and Aegean Islands, just as they had done when compelled to send German reinforcements to Tunisia. Hitler would thus be able to provide \"20 [percent] less on the Russian front,\" aiding the Soviets.\n\nThis aspect might well be so, Leahy, Marshall, and King accepted. But would not the mere _threat_ of Allied invasion compel Hitler to station that number of divisions in Italy and the Balkans\u2014much as he had stationed four hundred thousand German troops in Norway, and twenty-five divisions in France? Brooke's other claim, namely that successful Allied amphibious operations to seize yet more Mediterranean islands and occupy the Italian mainland would then provide a springboard from which to mount an attack on southern France, sounded equally irrelevant. Since when had _southern France_ been deemed a way of \"knocking Germany out of the war\"?\n\nPushed against the ropes, General Brooke was thus driven to confess his deeper fear: that, unless fighting continued in the Mediterranean, \"no possibility of an attack into [northern] France would arise\"\u2014 _for it would surely fail._ Even if Allied troops succeeded in achieving a beachhead across the English Channel, the subsequent battle or campaign in northern France, he believed, would be a disaster\u2014for the Allies. Even after a bridgehead had been established, \"we could get no further,\" he predicted. \"The troops employed would be for the most part inexperienced.\" With only fifteen to twenty U.S. and British divisions, the Bolero operation would be \"too small and could not be regarded in the same category as the vast Continental armies which were counted in 50's and 100's of divisions\" in the previous war.\n\nAt this defeatist assertion, however, General Marshall really bridled. The discussion was \"now getting to the heart of the matter,\" he acknowledged. The big lesson of Torch\u2014and in planning for the forthcoming invasion of Sicily\u2014was the way such a campaign, inevitably, \"sucked in more and more troops.\" If \"further Mediterranean operations were undertaken,\" Marshall pointed out, \"then in 1943 and virtually all of 1944 we should be committed, except to a Mediterranean policy.\" Not only would this subsidiary campaign detract from the war in the Pacific, in terms of supplies, but it would mean \"a prolongation of the war in Europe, and thus a delay in the ultimate defeat of Japan, which the people of the U.S. would not tolerate. We were now at the crossroads\u2014if we were committed to the Mediterranean\" rather than northern France in 1944, then \"it meant a prolonged struggle and one which was not acceptable to the United States.\"\n\nPinned against the ropes, poor Brooke now blamed a paucity of men. He explained that the \"British manpower position was weak,\" and its forces were, in all candor, not up to the challenge of a cross-Channel invasion\u2014neither that year, 1943, when a lodgment area in Brittany might possibly be attained (though one that would be easily cauterized by the Germans, he claimed), nor in 1944, either.\n\nThe U.S. chiefs were stunned by Brooke's open confession.\n\n\"No major operations,\" Brooke affirmed, adding insult to injury, \"would be possible until 1945 or 1946.\"\n\nAgain, the U.S. chiefs could hardly believe their ears, especially when Brooke explained \"that in the previous war there had always been some 80 French Divisions available to our side.\" Now there would only be a handful, if that. Any advance from the Channel \"towards the Ruhr would necessitate clearing up behind the advancing Army and would leave us with long lines of communication,\" subject to German air and land counterattack. Not only was British manpower \"weak,\" but the RAF lacked mobility, having concentrated on bombing German cities, not supporting land armies; its planes and crews were therefore ill-equipped to support an invasion or subsequent campaign.\n\nDespite the current Allied victory in Tunisia, the picture that Brooke presented was, then, bleak in terms of the defeat of Hitler's Third Reich.\n\nThe two Western Allies were at loggerheads.\n\nWithout the British as allies, an American invasion of Europe was a nonstarter, and the President's \"Germany First\" strategy\u2014as well as unconditional surrender of the Axis powers\u2014would be in tatters.\n\nNo major cross-Channel operations until 1945, perhaps 1946?\n\nWhen the President, at the White House, heard what Brooke had, at the Federal Reserve Building, openly declared\u2014an assertion going further even than the Prime Minister had revealed at the meeting at the White House the previous day\u2014he was amazed. So this was the \"vast amount of work\" the British chiefs had been doing\u2014as Churchill had boasted in a telegram to the President from the _Queen Mary_ as it neared New York\n\nThe President was disappointed; in fact he was shocked. The British position seemed not only disingenuous but deceitful, in retrospect. Where the President had seen Torch and its Sicilian sequel as a crucial learning curve and rehearsal for a Second Front to be launched across the English Channel in 1944, the British had clearly backed Torch and the impending invasion of Sicily only to secure the Mediterranean as a shorter sea-lane to their occupation troops in India\u2014while doing their best to _avoid_ frontal combat with the Nazis in northern Europe.\n\nThe President shook his head. That very morning he had been discussing with the president of the Czechoslovak government in exile, Dr. Edvard Benes, the unconditional surrender of Germany, and what might be done to partition or police the country to ensure the Germans could never threaten world peace for a third time. Now, at lunchtime, he was hearing from Air Marshal Charles Portal that the British chiefs had no intention of launching a cross-Channel attack before 1945 or, possibly, 1946, three _years_ away. How could this new stance be explained to the majority of Americans who saw Japan, not Germany, as the nation's primary enemy, yet had loyally backed the President's \"Germany First\" strategy?\n\nThe President had been told, in December 1942, that almost two million Jews had in all probability already been \"liquidated\" by Hitler's SS troops. How many more Jews and others would Hitler exterminate by 1946? And all this so that Britain could sit out the war in Europe, at its periphery\u2014not even willing to open the road to China, but hanging on to India and merely waiting for the United States to win back for Great Britain its lost colonial Empire in the Far East? It seemed a pretty poor performance.\n\nAlthough disappointed, the President was not defeated. Great leadership demanded positive, not negative, thinking, and Portal, as an airman, did not sound quite as obstinate or defeatist as Brooke.\n\nThe British were visitors in a foreign land, and the best way to coax them out of their funk was, the President felt, to encourage them to overcome their understandable fears, not berate them; to help, not shame, their generals into recovering the confidence they would need to partner the U.S. military in mounting a cross-Channel invasion next spring.\n\nThe home team must therefore, the President decided, be firm in class, but as nice as possible outside. He'd already planned with Marshall that the Combined Chiefs were all to be taken to Williamsburg, in Virginia, at the weekend\u2014any talk concerning conference matters strictly forbidden. For his own part, while the U.S. chiefs of staff hosted their opposite numbers at the site of the first British settlement in America (a source of cultural pride for the British visitors, but also a reminder of the successful American revolution to wrest independence from the British), the President now decided he wouldn't in fact take Churchill to Hyde Park, as he'd originally planned. Instead he would take him to his little mountaintop camp at Shangri-la. There he would work on him\u2014insisting that Lord Beaverbrook, as an ardent supporter of an immediate Second Front, come too. And Eleanor, who'd returned from New York, would be asked to at least drive with them to the cottage\u2014thus prohibiting Churchill from any attempt to talk alternative Allied military strategy.\n\nExtreme hospitality would thus be the order of the day. By burying the British with kindness, after working hours, the American hosts, in Williamsburg and at Shangri-la, would hopefully encourage their visitors to overcome their fears and confirm the Casablanca commitment to a fully fledged trial-by-combat cross-Channel invasion of northern France next spring: April or May 1944.\n\nSuch was the plan. Whether it would work was another matter.\n\nAt Shangri-la, once they settled in, the President took Churchill fishing. They settled by a local stream\u2014the wheelchair-bound president \"placed with great care by the side of a pool,\" Churchill recollected, where he \"sought to entice the nimble and wily fish. I tried for some time myself at other spots.\"\n\nIt was in vain. \"No fish were caught,\" Churchill recalled. Nor was Winston's mind changed about a doomed Second Front.\n\nThe three days in the Maryland mountains thus became something of a test of wills.\n\nShangri-la and the President's handling of Churchill on May 14, 15, and 16, 1943, mirrored Casablanca and the president's handling of de Gaulle\u2014 _prisonnier,_ as de Gaulle had complained, in the President's Anfa camp. Now it was the Prime Minister's turn to feel that way.\n\nShangri-la was neither the White House nor Hyde Park. Instead it was, as Churchill later put it, \"a log cabin, with all modern improvements.\" He watched \"with interest and in silence\" as General Pa Watson brought the President not war documents but colorful stamps: \"several large albums and a number of envelopes full of specimens he had long desired,\" after which Roosevelt \"stuck them in, each in its proper place, and so forgot the cares of State.\"\n\nFor all the pretty mountain setting, the proximity to nature, and the restful quiet, the Prime Minister would not yield. The more the President and his supporting cast worked on him\u2014both Hopkins and Beaverbrook attacking Churchill's obsessive argument for the invasion of Italy and the Balkans rather than northern France\u2014the more determined Churchill became. So testy, in fact, that he even declined the President's request that he accept an invitation from Madame Chiang Kai-shek to go to New York, where she was staying while receiving medical treatment\u2014risking, as Churchill candidly described his refusal, the \"unity of the Grand Alliance,\" given the importance of the Generalissimo's struggle against the Japanese in China.\n\nRefusing to commit Britain to the 1944 cross-Channel invasion threatened, however, a far greater schism in the unity of the Grand Alliance than Madame Chiang Kai-shek's wrath. As obstinate as de Gaulle, the Prime Minister relentlessly clung to his Mediterranean preference, fearful of a cross-Channel debacle.\n\nPondering Churchill's behavior at the time, Sir Charles Wilson, the Prime Minister's doctor, wondered if the Prime Minister was suffering some sort of physiological problem. Churchill had, after all, hitherto pursued the \"special relationship\" with the United States with extraordinary patience, deference, and understanding. Now he was neither patient nor deferential, and certainly unwilling to conceive the strategic problem from an American perspective. His failure to grasp the import of what he was demanding\u2014an extra year, perhaps two, of war in Europe without a Second Front, and a further year after that to defeat Japan\u2014raised serious questions about the Prime Minister's state of mind. He'd come down with pneumonia in February (at the same time the President had fallen ill, after returning from Casablanca), which had been more serious than could be made public at the time\u2014and in its aftermath, Dr. Wilson wondered whether it might have affected Churchill's judgment. Wilson himself had been stricken by fever on the voyage to America aboard the _Queen Mary,_ and had had to be hospitalized in New York. When finally he caught up with his patient in Washington on May 17, he was frankly shocked. The Prime Minister had just returned from Shangri-la with the President\u2014and what Wilson heard was amusing, but not encouraging.\n\nThe Prime Minister had, according to members of the President's entourage and Lord Beaverbrook, lost nothing of his extraordinary memory. On the return trip to Washington the presidential party had passed several Civil War battlefields, and Harry Hopkins regaled Dr. Wilson with an account of how Winston, hearing Hopkins could recite only two lines of John Greenleaf Whittier's famous Civil War poem, had recited the entire poem. \"While we were still asking ourselves how he could do this when he hadn't read the darned thing for thirty years, his eye caught a sign pointing to Gettysburg. That really started him off,\" Hopkins recounted in awe\u2014Churchill's summary of the battle, with character portraits of the rebel generals Jackson and Lee, being equally amazing. About the current war, however, \"Hopkins was a good deal less flattering about the P.M.'s contribution to the discussions which had begun on May 12 in the oval study of the White House,\" Dr. Wilson recalled. \"Indeed, he looked pretty glum as he assured me that I had not missed anything.\"\n\nThe impasse appeared to be the same as the one the year before, when the Prime Minister had journeyed to the White House for the same reason: namely to explain why the British could not agree to a cross-Channel invasion that year. The British surrender at Tobruk, moreover, had made his point: the British were simply not ready for such a challenge in 1942, at a moment when they might even lose control of the Middle East to Rommel's advancing Panzerarmee Afrika.\n\nNow, eleven months later, \"damn it all,\" Churchill was back, with \"the old story once more, shamelessly trotted out and brought up to date,\" Dr. Wilson recalled with concern, recording in his diary the sense of frustration felt by Hopkins: Churchill simply refusing to countenance the Casablanca strategy, unless Italy was swiftly defeated and the Third Reich miraculously fell apart. Hopkins had even imitated Churchill, saying: \"Bulgaria's defeatism in 1918 brought about the collapse of Germany; might not Italy's surrender now have similar consequences? It will surely cause a chill of loneliness to settle on the German people and might very well be the beginning of the end.\"\n\nLoneliness as the beginning of the end\u2014without the Wehrmacht actually being defeated in battle, or even forced back onto German soil? To those who remembered the consequences of the \"collapse of Germany\" at the end of World War I, this was understandably alarming.\n\nDr. Wilson had asked Hopkins \"what the President made of all this.\"\n\n\"'Not much,'\" Hopkins had answered. \"'This [idea of] fighting in Italy does not make sense to him,'\" he'd explained the President's view. United States naval, air, and ground forces had been sent to the Mediterranean\u2014against the advice of Hopkins, Stimson, Marshall, and the U.S. chiefs of staff, it was true\u2014to learn _how_ to defeat German troops in close combat, the President had insisted. As soon as the Sicily invasion and campaign were won, those forces\u2014commanders and troops\u2014were to be switched to England for the invasion of northern France in the spring of 1944, in accordance with the President's strategy. \"He wants the twenty divisions, which will be set free when Sicily has been won, to be used in building up the force that is to invade France in 1944,\" Hopkins made clear.\n\nAt the Pentagon and Navy Department, the U.S. chiefs of staff were similarly frustrated.\n\nBrooke's stonewalling, once the chiefs returned from Williamsburg, was especially irritating. \"A very decided deadlock has come up,\" Secretary Stimson noted in his diary on May 17, after speaking with General Marshall. \"The British are holding back dead from going on with Bolero. They have done the same thing in regard to Anakim [the campaign to retake Burma] and are trying to divert us off into some more Mediterranean adventure. Fortunately,\" he added, \"the President seems to be holding out.\" Stimson decided he must call the White House and make sure, though. \"I called up the President, told him that I had prepared myself fully by reading all the minutes and was ready to talk with him at any time that he wanted to, although I did not want to intrude myself on him. He told me he was coming to the conclusion that he would have to read the Riot Act to the other side and would have to be stiff.\"\n\nStimson, conscious of how the President liked to quote Lincoln, told him how President Lincoln had remarked of General Franz Sigel that, though he couldn't \"skin the deer,\" he \"could at least hold a leg.\" By his intransigence, however, the Prime Minister was in danger of causing the Western Allies\u2014Americans and British\u2014to be Sigels in the war against Hitler: only daring to hold the Nazi leg while the Russians did the skinning. \"Stalin,\" he told the President, \"won't have much of an opinion of people who have done that,\" he warned, \"and we will not be able to share much of the post-war world with them.\"\n\nThe President did not need reminding. Yet how _compel_ an ally like Britain to conform to American strategy?\n\nThe most worrying thing was that Churchill was now threatening to disrupt the Western military alliance just at the moment when the President was becoming more and more anxious to pressure Stalin to sign up to a postwar United Nations authority while the United States\u2014furnishing more than 10 percent of Russia's war needs\u2014still had significant leverage. All in all it was too bad\u2014with no breakthrough in sight.\n\nWhatever Stimson, Hopkins, the U.S. chiefs of staff, and later critics might say about Churchill's sudden intransigence in May 1943, however, it is important to note that Churchill and his British contingent were not the only ones arguing in Washington against a Second Front. The prospect of heavy casualties in head-on combat with the Wehrmacht in northern France was sobering. Outside the War Department more and more people were objecting\u2014especially people in the Navy Department who foresaw a long war with Japan if the \"flower of our army and air force\" was first expended \"in combat with Germany,\" as Bill Bullitt, assistant to the secretary of the Navy, warned in a renewed memorandum he wrote for the President on May 12.\n\nIt was vital the President should, Bullitt argued, put more pressure on Stalin to declare war on Japan at the conclusion of the war against Hitler, lest the United States should have wasted its manpower and resources in a cross-Channel campaign that could get bogged down, as in World War I\u2014thus leaving itself, even after assumed victory, having to fight against Japan \"while the Soviet Union is at peace,\" and Britain contributing only insignificantly to the defeat of the Japanese. In that situation, \"we shall have no decisive voice in the settlement in Europe,\" Bullitt warned. \"Europe will be divided into Soviet and British spheres of influence\u2014according to present Soviet and British plans\u2014and further wars in the near future will be rendered inevitable.\"\n\nBullitt's recommendation, once again, was the same as Churchill's\u2014to drive swiftly into central Europe through the Dardanelles.\n\nAfter Roosevelt's death, Bill Bullitt would spend the rest of his own life lancing the memory of the President for having failed to take his recommendation. Only American \"boots on the ground\" in central Europe would stop Stalin's \"Sovietization,\" Bullitt pointed out again in his memorandum\u2014and the Balkans was the place to plant those boots.\n\nThe President could only groan at this extra pressure from his own American side, given the latest British intransigence. Bullitt might have an excellent understanding of Russian communism; his Balkans strategy, however, remained militarily illiterate. Moreover, his latest political recommendation, namely that the President should threaten Stalin with a switch of American forces to the Pacific unless he agreed in writing not to Sovietize central Europe, was, at a time when the Western Allies did not have a single boot on the ground in Europe, less than realistic.\n\nNo, the fact was, the President had little option but to stick to his own program: refusing to countenance a quagmire in the Balkans or the northern Italian mountains, and instead holding to the timetable for a U.S.-British Second Front that had been agreed at Casablanca: spring 1944. This strategy, if followed, would at least take U.S. and British forces to Berlin, ending the Third Reich and saving the western part of Europe from Sovietization. He would meantime continue to press Stalin, in order to see if he could get the Soviets to sign up to his postwar plan and to declare war on Japan as soon as Germany was defeated. Without a genuine plan to launch a Second Front by 1944, however, it was unlikely to get very far, as Secretary Stimson had commented.\n\nTo produce such a genuine plan, he would have somehow to bring the British back into the fold, or the Second World War might well end in failure.\nPART EIGHT\n\n* * *\n\n#  _The Riot Act_\n**29**\n\n# The Davies Mission\n\nON THE SURFACE, the great victories at Stalingrad and then Tunisgrad boded well for Allied cooperation in eventually defeating the Third Reich.\n\nIn truth, however, relations with the Soviet Union were not good\u2014indeed were getting worse. Stalin's rejection of the President's invitation to the summit at Casablanca (or alternative venues the President had offered) had resulted in the sheer scale of the Russian war effort being underappreciated in the West. Even Stalin's own ambassador to Washington, Maxim Litvinov, had warned the Russian Foreign Ministry that such standoffish behavior was counterproductive, indeed would make it harder, not easier, to get the Western Allies to commit to a timely Second Front.\n\nStalin had paid no heed. This was hard for even the most sympathetic of American observers and reporters to understand. In terms of Allied military cooperation, Russia was, sadly, a write-off\u2014Stalin constantly demanding more U.S.-British convoyed deliveries of war materials to Murmansk, yet refusing to order Russian aircrews to fly out of northern Russia to protect them, lest they leave the borders of the Soviet Union and not come back. This had led to, and continued to result in, terrible British and American shipping losses, not only in Lend-Lease war materials and food but Allied lives as well. Nor would the paranoid dictator allow Allied officers, or representatives, to monitor whether the contents of the convoys were being efficiently unloaded at Murmansk, or were appropriate to actual Russian war needs. The Russians had also refused for months to respond to whether U.S. bomber crews could land in the Soviet Union if they bombed the Ploesti oil fields in Romania\u2014and when they finally did respond, they refused to allow Ploesti raids to be launched from Russian airfields, despite being at war with the Third Reich and its eastern European partners, Romania and Hungary. Whether it was paranoid fear that Russians might become infected by rich capitalist partners, or that Russia's capitalist allies might obtain genuine, accurate, and detailed information\u2014military, political, economic, social\u2014about the Soviet Union, no one really knew. Nor had this changed as the tide of war against Hitler turned. As Western diplomats and journalists\u2014who were forbidden to venture outside Moscow without close supervision\u2014complained, there was virtually not a single Russian who dared question, counter, or ignore Stalin's oppressive policies for fear of arrest, imprisonment, or even execution.\n\nMore troubling still had been the sickening revelation, in April 1943, that more than twenty thousand Polish officers, police officers, and members of the intelligentsia had, on Stalin's orders, been murdered in cold blood by Soviet occupation forces in 1940, during the time of the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact.\n\nThat disclosure\u2014the decomposing Polish bodies unearthed by the Germans in the Katyn forest near the Russian city of Smolensk, but the Soviets denying culpability\u2014had given cause for grave trepidation in the West, especially among Polish forces in exile.\n\nNothing, but nothing, could excuse such mass murder. News of the massacre, at a moment when the tide of war had turned and the forces of the Third Reich seemed to be everywhere on the defensive, had offered the embattled Dr. Goebbels a heaven-sent opportunity to demonstrate to the German Volk, as well as people abroad, just how merciless a Russian victory in the war, and a subsequent Russian-imposed \"peace,\" would be.\n\nStalin naturally protested it was a Nazi ruse. He denounced the leader of the Polish government in exile for suggesting Russian complicity, loudly claiming the Nazis, not the Soviets, had been responsible for the massacre. Both Roosevelt and Churchill had on good authority been told the bitter truth, however: that it was Stalin himself who had given the orders for the mass execution in 1940.\n\nWith Stalin's Soviet Union such an uncooperative, undemocratic, often downright evil partner of the Western democracies\u2014though one that was still taking the brunt of casualties in the war against Hitler\u2014both Roosevelt and Churchill were put in the iniquitous position of publicly accepting, or declining to comment on, Russian lies over the Katyn massacre. Besides, in the balance of atrocities, the Germans were still way ahead of the Soviets, both in SS mass-murder concentration camps and in the treatment of Russian POWs. Continued do-or-die Russian resistance to Hitler on the Eastern Front was crucial\u2014no matter how ungrateful, paranoid, deceitful, and barbarous the Russians, and however chilling the prospect of postwar Sovietization.\n\nHow maintain that morally dubious anti-Nazi coalition, though\u2014let alone seek to move the Russian communists from their reign of terror into a more positive postwar world?\n\nIt was in this respect that the relationship, or partnership, between the President and the Prime Minister was of the highest importance for the history of humanity. And in Washington, in May 1943, Prime Minister Churchill was coming very close to breaking it.\n\nHitherto, Churchill had taken the same view as the President\u2014that the enemy of my enemy is my friend, however odious in certain respects. But with Churchill threatening to pull out of the Casablanca accords and refusing to mount a Second Front in 1944, the question arose: would Stalin remain a friend? As Secretary Stimson warned, without a cross-Channel invasion\u2014one that would force Hitler to fight on two fronts\u2014would not the Russians lose military respect or faith in the Western Allies, and be minded to seek an armistice with the Third Reich, even a new Ribbentrop Pact that would leave Hitler master still of all western and central Europe?\n\nRoosevelt didn't think Stalin would stoop to that, after the millions of casualties the German onslaught had already cost the Russians. But it could certainly undermine the President's attempts to get Russian agreement to make air bases available and declare war on Japan, if and when the war with Hitler was successfully concluded, as well as getting Soviet participation in the postwar security system the President had in mind. The Second Front, in other words, was a sine qua non: a test that the Western, democratic Allies _must_ meet if they were serious not only about the war but the postwar. Not footling around in the Mediterranean, but a willingness to face up to the war's greatest challenge: D-day, as it would become known.\n\nThe President thus changed his mind about a summit with Stalin\u2014feeling it would be better to keep Churchill _out of_ any meeting for the moment, if one could be obtained, lest the Prime Minister's opposition to a cross-Channel operation give away their weak hand: namely the fundamental unwillingness of the British to countenance the heavy casualties involved in a Second Front. Somehow, Roosevelt was aware, to defeat the Nazis he must keep the Russians fighting in the East\u2014and get the British to _fight_ in the West, not footle about in the South!\n\nThis was easier said than done. His cables to Stalin after Casablanca had deliberately, perhaps disingenuously, held out the possibility of a Second Front being mounted in the summer of 1943, after Husky; how then was he to explain to Stalin the Western Allies were not only abandoning any plans to launch a Second Front in 1943, but that the purpose of Churchill's current visit to Washington, together with a military staff of 160 advisers, was to argue against a Second Front _even in 1944?_ In fact, according to Churchill's Chief of the Imperial General Staff, that no Second Front should be planned before 1945 or even 1946?\n\n\"The Soviet troops have fought strenuously all winter and are continuing to do so,\" Stalin had assured the President in March. The F\u00fchrer had lost more than a whole army at Stalingrad, but he had many more at hand\u2014perhaps as many as two hundred divisions, including whole panzer armies. The Germans were preparing for \"spring and summer operations against the USSR,\" Stalin wrote; \"it is therefore particularly essential for us that the blow from the West be no longer delayed, that it be delivered this spring or in early summer\"\u2014i.e., 1943.\n\nIt was in this context that the President had summoned another former ambassador to Moscow, Joseph Davies, to the White House the day after Churchill set sail for Washington. As the President explained to Davies, he'd decided to send Stalin a new letter by hand, to be delivered in such a way that Stalin would be forced to respond to the President's renewed request for a private meeting.\n\nDavies was elderly and had been particularly naive in his acceptance of Russian propaganda regarding their communist show trials, arrests, and deportations in the 1930s. He was sincere in his judgment of Hitler and the barbarity of Nazism, however, and his evaluation of the Soviet will to defend Russia had proven more sophisticated than that of the U.S. military attach\u00e9 in Moscow\u2014in fact, he'd been the man who correctly reported to the President that Operation Barbarossa, Hitler's invasion of the USSR in June 1941, was going to fail. As an emissary to show goodwill and firmness of American purpose in prosecuting the war against Hitler, the President could not have chosen better. The new, private letter Davies would hand carry would be a direct, personal invitation from the President to meet somewhere that summer and resolve their differences over strategy and timing\u2014one the Russian dictator could not now refuse without giving offense to the President of the one country in the world supplying the Soviet Union with a significant amount of its war needs.\n\nThe Prime Minister was not now to be invited to the proposed summit, the President made clear in the letter\u2014though he could not give the true reason, even to Davies, who would doubtless be asked by the dictator, once he reached the Kremlin. Since the President could not reveal Churchill's impending visit to Washington and his reported unwillingness, supported by his chiefs of staff, to launch a timely Second Front, he had merely told Davies he wished to meet Stalin, informally, to discuss the long-term future with him. Not, in other words, to address the matter of impending operations, but rather the conclusion of the war: unconditional Axis surrender, winning the war against Japan, and the establishment of a postwar United Nations authority. It would be, the President explained to Davies, a preliminary discussion, man to man, without risking, Roosevelt told his emissary, any international arguments over British\u2014or French\u2014postwar colonial empires. \"Churchill will understand,\" the President had assured Davies when giving him his instructions in the Oval Office on May 5. \"I will take care of that.\"\n\nAs Davies set off for Moscow via the Middle East, Churchill had arrived in Washington\u2014and the Prime Minister's refusal to countenance a Second Front had only reinforced the President's determination to meet Stalin alone. Davies would hopefully convince the Russian dictator that the Western Allies were united and sincere in their commitment to launch a Second Front\u2014the President's willingness to travel halfway across the world to meet in person with the Russian leader surely a gauge of that sincerity.\n\nIn the meantime, however, the President was determined to bring Winston Churchill to heel, lest he and his huge military team cause the Grand Alliance, rather than the Third Reich, to collapse.\n\nThis, in essence, was the challenge of Trident: suborning Neptune.\n\nAdding to the behind-the-scenes war drama was the fact that the British chiefs of staff now parted company\u2014physically and metaphorically\u2014with their own Prime Minister.\n\nThe chiefs' weekend in Williamsburg, Virginia, went well\u2014the officers glad to be out of Washington not only to be able to relax but to get to know their Allied counterparts as human beings. Talks had then resumed at the Federal Reserve Board building at 10:30 a.m. on Tuesday, May 18, 1943.\n\nAdmiral Leahy, General Marshall, and Admiral King had feared the worst in terms of British intransigence, once back in uniform, so to speak. So worried, in fact, were the U.S. Joint Chiefs that they came to the table with a compromise whereby they would ask only for a minimum \"lodgment area\" across the English Channel in 1944, if the British were still so afraid of failure, and would only seek to expand it the following year, 1945.\n\nOnce seated in the room, however, it was to find the \"battle royal\" was already won. To their astonishment, the President's tactic of extreme hospitality appeared to have worked\u2014the weekend away in Williamsburg, with wholesome food and wine and civil conversation having seemingly done the trick. Aided also by Field Marshal Dill\u2014who'd reasoned with his successor as CIGS, General Brooke, that he must give in or risk a breakdown in what was a historic military coalition between the United States and Great Britain. The American people, the field marshal had made clear to his British compatriot, would not stand for the war in the Pacific being deliberately starved of men and resources for years, simply so the British could fiddle around in the Mediterranean\u2014leaving Hitler's legions in almost complete control of continental Europe. A firm date for a cross-Channel invasion _must_ be tied down, and the necessary forces assembled to make it work.\n\nA new paper on \"The Defeat of Germany\"\u2014not Italy\u2014had therefore been ordered from both planning staffs over the weekend, while the Prime Minister was away at Shangri-la, to define exactly how Hitler was to be brought to unconditional surrender\u2014namely by defeating Germany, not simply Mussolini's Italy. By Monday night, May 17, the British version, approved by General Brooke, had been ready. When General Marshall read it through at the meeting on Tuesday, May 18, he was delighted. Though it talked a lot about further interim operations in the Mediterranean, it \"appeared that [even] if Mediterranean operations were undertaken in the interval, a target date for April 1944 should be agreed on for cross-Channel operations.\" In writing.\n\nGeneral Marshall breathed a sigh of relief. Brooke then confirmed this was the case, the date formally recorded in the minutes of the meeting.\n\nApril 1944.\n\n_Mirabile dictu,_ Marshall reflected. General Brooke had seemingly dropped his call for a postponement of a Second Front until 1945 or 1946, and was now definitely onboard\u2014if, in the meantime, operations in the Mediterranean were allowed to continue that summer. \"The rate of build-up of German forces in western Europe would greatly exceed our own on the Continent unless Mediterranean operations were first undertaken to divert or occupy German reinforcements,\" Brooke maintained. \"If these operations were first undertaken,\" Brooke conceded, \"April 1944 might well be right for a target date, though the actual operation would be more likely to be possible of achievement in May or June.\"\n\nGenuine, serious military preparations for a massive spring 1944 cross-Channel invasion by the Western Allies could now commence, the generals agreed\u2014with only the thorny question left as to how far to limit interim 1943\u201344 operations in the Mediterranean so that they did not prejudice preparations for D-day.\n\nLeahy, Marshall, and King were still skeptical. The matter of \"interim\" operations in the Mediterranean would, they predicted, prove tortuous\u2014but at Marshall's insistence a formal commitment to D-day had been given by the British, in writing. Some seven battle-hardened U.S. and British divisions would be withdrawn that very fall from the Mediterranean theater to the United Kingdom. There they would begin training and rehearsals for the spring 1944 D-day assault. It seemed a reasonable compromise.\n\nFor Secretary Stimson, at the Pentagon, the British climbdown was as much a relief as it was to General Marshall.\n\nThe Prime Minister, meantime, had been kept well away from the daily Combined Chiefs meetings. Instead, he had been pressed by the President to go address a joint session of Congress again\u2014\"a very good speech, noteable for its good, downright eloquence,\" Stimson recorded, after attending the performance on Capitol Hill, \"on the main lines of war history and strategy and also for the adroitness with which he avoided any allusions to the real points of issue which are now being fought over between the staffs of the two countries.\n\n\"These points of difference have come out sharply in the two plans and it is taking all Marshall's tact and adroitness to steer the conference through to a result which will not be a surrender but which will not be an open clash. The President seemed to be helping us,\" Stimson added\u2014Mr. Roosevelt adopting the same approach as his U.S. team, as \"indicated by his telephone talk with me the other evening.\" The President, Marshall had reported to the Secretary, was not only \"taking the same line\" but \"insisting that the planners decide what will be the cost in shipping and men for the 'big point' (as the President called it)\": the cross-Channel invasion. Only when these requirements had been met would the planners be permitted, the President had said, to \"determine from what is left over what can be done otherwise\" in the Mediterranean.\n\nThe Second Front, in other words, would now be First Priority for the Western Allies.\n\nAs to the sincerity of the British volte face not all were convinced, however. Admiral King, in particular, remained less than happy. Though the British seemed resigned to join the U.S. in launching a Second Front invasion in April or May 1944, they were insisting on so many landing craft, naval forces, air forces, ground forces, and logistics being assigned in the \"interim\" to the Mediterranean that\u2014in King's eyes\u2014this could well prejudice the success of the primary cross-Channel strategy. More significantly to King\u2014a true believer in prosecuting the war in the Pacific more robustly, now that the Americans and Australians were on the successful offensive there\u2014such an interim policy threatened to slow down Nimitz's and MacArthur's plans, thus allowing the Japanese to \"dig in.\" The result would inevitably be grave American casualties\u2014an aspect that seemed not to register with the British, whose main forces were being held in India as an army of colonial occupation, and were making every excuse not to take the offensive against the Japanese.\n\nThere was, moreover, public impatience in America to consider.\n\n\"I am very much afraid that, if the British succeed in getting us pulled out any further onto the limb in the Mediterranean,\" Stimson noted, \"we shall face a widespread loss of support for the war among our people.\" This was serious. \"Polls show that the public would be very much more interested in beating Japan than in beating the European Axis [powers],\" he acknowledged, thanks to Pearl Harbor\u2014something that could easily translate into \"all kinds of personal and party politics\" that could damage the bipartisan, \"Germany First\" war effort. This danger extended, he knew, to his fellow Republicans across the country, who were once again demanding that General MacArthur be recalled from Australia to stand in the 1944 presidential election\u2014a campaign in which MacArthur would doubtless call for a switch of U.S. priority to the Pacific to face not Hitler, but America's \"true\" enemy, Japan.\n\nWhat Stimson and Marshall failed to realize, however, was that General Brooke had now parted company with his prime minister\u2014and that Winston Churchill would be the problem, not the British chiefs of staff.\n**30**\n\n# A Dozen Dieppes in a Day\n\nSEATED AT THE Federal Reserve Board in the Combined Chiefs of Staff meetings, General Brooke had failed to noticed the Prime Minister's increasingly divergent trajectory. Even the President, living with the Prime Minister each day at the White House, had been unaware of what Churchill was saying behind his back.\n\nHearing from Admiral Leahy on May 18 that the British chiefs had backed off their opposition to a 1944 or 1945 invasion of France, the President had been delighted by news of his team's success. This would be of inestimable help when and if he met with Stalin, since he would now be able to reveal to the Russian leader, in person and in all honesty, a firm date for the Second Front. It would be a formal U.S.-British military commitment that, even though Stalin had fervently hoped it would take place in 1943, would nevertheless encourage the Soviets to hold out against Hitler's impending summer offensive on the Eastern Front.\n\nThe President was crowing too early, however.\n\nThe first intimation the Prime Minister was charting his own course in opposition even to his own British team had come on the evening of May 18, 1943\u2014reported to the President by none other than the Canadian prime minister, Mackenzie King, who had accepted the President's invitation to attend the latest meeting of the Pacific War Council and to stay at the White House.\n\nFrom his train, Mackenzie King had gone to Pennsylvania Avenue to settle in and have a word with his fellow prime minister. It had been 6:00 p.m., but Churchill was in bed, in the Queen Elizabeth Room on the second floor. He had looked \"very frail,\" and was wearing \"a white night-gown of black and white silk,\" King described in his diary. \"He has lost the florid coloring and his face was quite white. Looked soft and flabby. He had a glass of Scotch beside him near his bed,\" and \"looked to be very tired\"\u2014as well he might. On a special writing tray Churchill was still, after some seven hours, working on the draft of the address the President had asked him to give to Congress the following day. He was keen for Mackenzie King to read the text\u2014anxious not to say anything impolitic, given that people in Washington were already talking about the 1944 presidential election, still more than a year away. \"He indicated that he had not completed his speech and would be taking a little sleep before dinner, which I took to mean that he would not wish the conversation to take up too long.\"\n\nThe two prime ministers had first talked of the recent Allied victory in Tunisia, where General von Arnim had finally surrendered on May 12. It was \"really shocking\" Churchill claimed, \"the way the Germans came in at the end\"\u2014\"giving themselves up, falling and crawling; some of them waving plumes [white flags], and [he] said that an hour before, when they thought they could win, they were most savage and brutal. He imitated their different attitudes in his own face.\"\n\nThis was vintage Churchill: his vivid imagination running free (since he had obviously not been present at the surrender), yet amazingly astute in his reading of German moral duplicity: able to switch from barbarous hubris toward other humans to shameless appeals for \"humanitarian\" clemency when they themselves were overpowered.\n\nOnce again Mackenzie King found himself entranced by the British prime minister's mind and his colorful use of language. They swiftly moved on to the reason for Churchill's presence in Washington, however. \"Churchill began to tell me about the conferences here,\" King noted in his diary that night. \"Said that they were discussing the plans. That he and the Americans were very good in accepting Roosevelt's decisions in the end\"\u2014as they had at Casablanca. \"He thought that he and Roosevelt were very much of the same view,\" even if there were \"differences of emphasis.\"\n\nPrime Minister King was baffled. This was not what he'd been told that very afternoon on his visit to the Canadian legation in Washington. There he'd been informed that \"the Americans were pressing for a cross-Channel Second Front\"\u2014\"invasion from the North\"\u2014whereas \"the British plan was for invasion [of Europe] from the South, either through the Balkans or [southern] France. Views had not yet been reconciled.\"\n\nHow, then, could Roosevelt and Churchill be on the same page? Was Churchill now accepting the President's Second Front strategy? Or was the President accepting Churchill's new strategy\u2014and what was it, in fact? A second Dardanelles? Had he misunderstood? What was Churchill really saying\u2014or not saying?\n\nIt was at this point that Churchill made clear \"that as far as he was concerned, the plan was to follow on the decisions of the Casablanca conference,\" which had authorized landings in Sicily in July that year, in Operation Husky\u2014 _but had not explicitly gone further than that,_ he now claimed. \"The thing to do was to get Italy out of the war,\" Churchill explained. \"Altogether he believed this could be done, and said he would not treat them [Italians] too badly if they were to give up and particularly if they were to yield up their fleet. If he could get the fleet, he would be prepared to use it to attack the Japanese.\" Meantime, however, there was the matter of Europe\u2014and the defeat of Hitler. \"The plan was to start the invasion of Europe through Sicily and Sardinia,\" Churchill now told Mackenzie King, confidentially, \"either on through the Balkans or possibly through [southern] France depending on how matters developed.\" It would be easier than a cross-Channel attack.\n\n\"They would be getting footholds all along the way, and Russia might put on a very strong offensive and they [the Allies] would be working toward Russia\"\u2014via \"southern Europe,\" the Prime Minister explained. \"There was a chance, too, that Turkey might come in,\" King noted Churchill's words, \"though not until she got plenty of equipment. He was not pressing her at present.\"\n\nKing\u2014aware that the Pacific Council would have to wrestle with the implications of Churchill's alternative new strategy, so similar to his notorious failure in World War I\u2014pressed Winston to explain in more detail.\n\nLest there be any misunderstanding, Churchill privately confided that he remained as implacably opposed to the notion of a cross-Channel Second Front as he had been the year before\u2014indeed _more_ so, now, after the catastrophe of Dieppe. \"Speaking of invasion [of France] from the North,\" across the English Channel, \"he said that he did not want to see the beaches of Europe covered with slain bodies of Canadians and Americans. That there might be many Dieppes [suffered] in a few days,\" were such an operation to be launched. \"That he, himself, could provide 16 divisions which would include ours [i.e., Canadians] but there was only one American division in England. This was all they had against the numerous divisions Germany could muster; unless Americans were prepared to send a large number of divisions to cross at the same time, he did not see how they could attempt anything of the kind.\" It would be, King again recalled Winston's actual words, \"slaughter\"\u2014\"a dozen Dieppes in a day.\" \"I thought,\" King noted, \"this was pretty strong language.\"\n\nMackenzie King was now doubly dubious as to Churchill's claim that he and the President\u2014let alone the U.S. chiefs of staff\u2014were of the same mind. \"I asked if the Americans were likely to make much difficulty over these particular plans,\" King noted. \"He replied that the President and he were very close together; that they could not settle all these things at once. They had to run along for a time\"\u2014in order to dupe the U.S. Joint Chiefs. \"The President was inclined more his way and he thought that his [U.S] chiefs of staff would accept loyally his decisions in the end.\"\n\nMackenzie King said nothing. In truth he was gobsmacked, however.\n\nYes, the President had indeed insisted, at their last meeting, in December 1942, that further operations should first be carried out in the Mediterranean in 1943, in order to learn the hard, attritional lessons of modern war before attempting anything as hazardous as a cross-Channel invasion. But the President had never said anything to suggest he believed the Allies should attempt to defeat the Third Reich by attacking from the south. Was Churchill, with his \"glass of Scotch\" on the table beside his bed, making this all up? Was he living\u2014as he tended to do, in the eyes of the abstemious Canadian who had vowed not to drink liquor for the duration of the war\u2014in an alcohol-laced cocoon? Alcohol seemed certainly to fuel Churchill's fertile imagination and brilliant rhetorical skills\u2014but did it equip him to _listen_ to what President Roosevelt and the Combined Chiefs were telling him rather than to his own voice?\n\nDimly, though, Churchill seemed aware the President had been keeping him away from the Combined Chiefs of Staff over the weekend\u2014indeed from anyone who might become alarmed over his Mediterranean ambitions. \"He said that the President and he had been off together at Blue Ridge over the week-end,\" at Shangri-la. The following weekend, however, Churchill \"wanted to see a few friends,\" and was going to insist he be allowed to stay at the British Embassy on Massachusetts Avenue, where he could meet with and telephone anyone he wanted. \"Thus far, he had not seen hardly any.\"\n\nKing was somewhat alarmed, but held his tongue, unwilling to disconcert Churchill on the eve of his important appearance before Congress\u2014which, as prime minister of Canada, King had been invited to attend.\n\nMackenzie King's worst fears indeed materialized the next day when, at the Capitol at midday on May 19\u2014the very day Ambassador Davies arrived in Moscow bearing the President's private letter to Stalin\u2014Churchill followed up his congressional address by talking frankly to senior members of Congress.\n\n\"After the luncheon, members of the Senate and representatives of the foreign committee came into the room, and Mr. Churchill was subjected to a quiz,\" Mackenzie King\u2014who attended this meeting, too\u2014recorded that night in his diary. \"He faced squarely the question as to strategy. Told those present that he felt the great objective now was to knock Italy out of the war.\" This would, he said, \"clear the Mediterranean which would mean a through route to India, China; make all the contacts with the Orient much easier. He believed the great offensive was coming against Germany on the part of Russia,\" and \"in the Southern part by allied forces pressing up through the Balkans, and there would be a relief of the pressure on Russia. They might, too, get some of the satellite states of Germany to change their attitude. They would also get additional help from Yugoslavia where some 10 [Italian] divisions were tied up there which could be added to the allied numbers. Thought that all this would be helpful to Stalin. He thought the Germans could be driven entirely out of Italy and would probably leave Italy to look after herself.\"\n\nKing was puzzled. Driven entirely out of Italy? Churchill's forecast of Hitler's likely reaction to an Allied invasion of Italy and the Balkans\u2014especially after the example of German tenacity in reinforcing Tunisia over the past six months\u2014sounded disturbingly naive, even schoolboyish. His prediction, moreover, seemed at odds\u2014very poor odds\u2014with his defeatism concerning the prospects for a Second Front. To the postprandial group of senators and congressmen, Churchill \"made it pretty plain,\" King noted, \"he did not favor any immature attack on Europe from the North,\" across the English Channel. \"He spoke of the few divisions they have in Britain\u2014I think 18 altogether including our own, only 1 American division, and that Hitler was able to move many divisions from one part of the continent to the other in a very short time. Referred to the scarcity of ships, etc\"\u2014going \"pretty far in making clear the plan is to attack across the Mediterranean into Europe either via [southern] France, Sicily or further East [in the Balkans], without designating what locality would be first.\"\n\nEven more astonishing to the Canadian prime minister was Churchill's complete lack of shame or caution in opposing the President's strategy in front of U.S. lawmakers, behind the President's back\u2014having \"instructed them,\" Mackenzie King noted, that with regard to questions they were welcome \"to try and knock him off his [strategic] perch.\" He even outlined the idea of a \"peace conference,\" similar to Versailles in 1919, that would take place, perhaps in England, at the end of hostilities\u2014with both Republican as well as Democratic members of Congress \"invited\" to participate.\n\nVersailles, then, moved to Westminster . . .\n\nThat Churchill was playing a dangerous double game became clear later that afternoon when the President invited the Combined Chiefs of Staff to the White House, following their afternoon meeting at the Federal Reserve Building. The President had heard via Admiral Leahy that the chiefs had confirmed their agreement to an April or May 1944 cross-Channel Second Front\u2014but that tempers in the morning's meeting, when addressing remaining \"interim\" operations in 1943, had become so frayed the secretaries had been asked to leave the room while the chiefs dueled it out.\n\nGeneral Marshall's contention that further operations in the Mediterranean that fall would inevitably suck in the forces needed for a successful cross-Channel attack had hit home\u2014Brooke defending his own strategy by claiming a cross-Channel attack would never succeed unless the Wehr- macht was first forced to fight hard not only on the Russian front but in Italy. Heavy fighting in Italy was thus the prerequisite of a successful invasion in the spring of 1944. \"After the capture of a bridgehead\" in northern France, \"a Cherbourg might be seized, but the provision of the necessary forces to cover this would be difficult unless the Germans were greatly weakened or unable to find reserves,\" Brooke had warned. A serious military campaign in Italy, in other words, would be the weakening blow: essential in order to make the April or May 1944 operation work.\n\nMarshall had countered that such a strategy might very well achieve the opposite. The British, he'd summarized, were exaggerating the ease of a campaign in Italy, while perilously underestimating the need to throw maximum logistical effort into the real priority: the cross-Channel invasion. It should, Marshall reminded Brooke and the other committee members, \"be remembered that in North Africa a relatively small German force had produced a serious factor of delay to our operations,\" given the mountainous terrain. \"A German decision to support [defend] Italy might make intended operations extremely difficult and time consuming.\"\n\nNo truer warning to the British was ever given in World War II\u2014though Brooke would never admit, either then or in retrospect, that Marshall was right. Marshall had, Brooke merely confided to his diary that night, \"suggested that the meeting should be cleared for an 'off the record' meeting between Chiefs of Staff alone. We then had a heart to heart and as a result of it at last found a bridge across which we could meet! Not altogether a satisfactory one, but far better than a break up of the conference.\"\n\nThe compromise was certainly vague and open-ended. Rather than halting major offensive operations in the Mediterranean after the successful seizure of Sicily, as the President and Marshall wished, Eisenhower would be authorized to capitalize on any signs of an Italian collapse to seize airfields in southern Italy\u2014but only assigning experienced Allied forces for the remainder of the summer. Then\u2014at the very latest on November 1, 1943\u2014the best battle-hardened U.S. and British divisions were to be withdrawn from combat and transferred to Britain to prepare for D-day. This, they all agreed, should be mounted either in April or in early May, 1944.\n\nThis compromise, confirmed by all, had duly been reported by the Combined Chiefs when summoned to meet with the President in the Oval Office at 6:00 p.m.\n\nThey were then joined by the Prime Minister, on his return from the Capitol.\n\nNine Allied divisions were to be ferried in the assault across the English Channel on D-day itself, with twenty more in the days that followed\u2014a massive rolling offensive backed by Allied air power and naval support. Whatever was left in the Mediterranean could be used by Eisenhower to \"eliminate Italy from the war and contain the maximum number of German divisions.\"\n\nAccording to the minutes of the Oval Office meeting, \"the PRIME MINISTER indicated his pleasure that the Conference was progressing as well as it was and also that a cross-Channel operation had finally been agreed upon. He had always been in favor of such an operation and had to submit to its delay in the past for reasons beyond control of the United Nations.\"\n\nGiven what Churchill had told U.S. congressional representatives _that very afternoon_ \u2014namely, that he did not favor what he saw as a \"dozen Dieppes in a day\" on the beaches of northern France\u2014and given that he favored, instead, an Allied offensive through Italy and the Balkans, this was tantamount to perjury, unless the Prime Minister had truly had a Pauline conversion.\n\nOnly time would tell.\n**31**\n\n# The Future of the World at Stake\n\nHALF AN HOUR after the Combined Chiefs departed the White House, the President dined upstairs with Mackenzie King, Churchill, and Crown Princess Martha of Norway.\n\nIn deference to Princess Martha, the three leaders put aside any discussion of military strategy, and after the meal the President arranged for a Sherlock Holmes film to be shown as light relief. Churchill then \"begged off\" and went to bed, as did Princess Martha, leaving the President to talk quietly with his Canadian guest.\n\nGingerly, Mackenzie King sought to find out the President's intentions, in terms of Allied military strategy. \"Tonight when I was talking alone with the President and asking how he and Churchill had got on, he said he thought an agreement was practically in final shape by now; that he, himself, would probably want to recast it a little more in the way of bringing up to the beginning some matters that were near the end.\"\n\nThe British had said they couldn't carry out the Anakim offensive to which they'd committed themselves at Casablanca, and there had been initial, heated discussion of this; the primary decision, however, was the Second Front in 1944. The President wanted to ensure the British commitment was not only firm but set down in ink, on paper, and in official accords\u2014which Admiral Leahy, the Combined Chiefs chairman, had assured him would be drawn up formally by the weekend. As the President explained to Mackenzie King, it was vital to tie down and chain the wily British to a solid commitment, not simply rely on the understanding he thought they had come to at Casablanca. \"He wanted to emphasize the building up of the forces in Britain so as to be certain of an attack from the North in the spring of 1944. He said he felt that this was the top feature of it all. He did not use that expression but that was the inference. It meant the determining blow in the spring of next year.\"\n\nListening to this, King was somewhat perplexed. Given what Churchill had said openly at the Capitol, in King's hearing, it seemed the President and the British prime minister, though sleeping under the same roof, were poles apart. Mackenzie King therefore relayed to the President what Churchill had said at the Capitol\u2014including the Prime Minister's remarks about a Versailles-type conference in London.\n\nPresident Roosevelt \"put his hands to his face and shook his head, a bit as much as to say he wished that part had been left well alone,\" King recorded the President's pained reaction. \"He then said to me that he did not know that there would be any peace conference,\" given its connotation with Versailles 1919. \"As far as he was concerned, there would be total surrender\" of Germany and Japan. And certainly nothing \"in the nature of a Versailles conference,\" which Congress would have to ratify.\n\nHearing of Churchill's behavior at the Capitol, the President had reason to be anxious, however. He liked Winston, in fact he felt enormous affection, bordering on love, for him at times. But he had cause never to quite trust him\u2014and for that reason he preferred to see Stalin alone, without the Prime Minister. Who knew if Churchill would start hedging over the Second Front, if they met _\u00e0 trois?_\n\nIt was going to be difficult enough to explain to Stalin that the Western Allies were not going to launch a Second Front before spring 1944. If Churchill, in a tripartite meeting, were to begin talking in front of Stalin of dumping the invasion of France and concentrating Allied efforts instead in the Mediterranean and the Balkans, the Soviets\u2014preparing at that very moment for the onslaught of _fifty-nine_ concentrated German divisions aimed toward Kursk\u2014would rightfully be incensed: vitiating any hope of the Third Reich being defeated any time soon, or of Russian assistance in the war against Japan, or of arriving at a common postwar security agreement. The notion of a United Nations assembly, with a security council of the Four Policemen acting in concert, would thus be out the window.\n\nThe President's postwar vision still filled King with awe\u2014as did King's possible role in it. According to the President, the United Nations organization would have a \"supreme council representing all the United Nations,\" and would need at its head \"someone who would fill the position of moderator\u2014someone who would keep his eye on the different countries to see that they were complying with the agreements made in connection with the peace, for example, limitation of armaments, not rebuilding, munitions, etc\u2014not be allowed to build airplanes or any of the paraphernalia of war. It would be the Moderator's duty possibly to warn in advance and, if necessary, to have the council meet to take such action as necessary\"\u2014a person who would \"have the confidence of all the nations.\" And, having abjured any idea he himself might take that role, after the presidency, Roosevelt intimated he thought Mackenzie King, at the end of the war, would make an excellent such secretary general.\n\nKing was understandably flattered\u2014but in the meantime, like Roosevelt, he remained perplexed by the contradictions in Churchill's character. At the Pacific War Council, Winston had flatly denied in front of the Chinese representative that he'd ever made a formal undertaking to mount Operation Anakim, a British offensive from Indian territory to help China\u2014even though Dr. T. V. Soong had documentary evidence of the commitment.\n\nLike Mackenzie King, the President had shaken his head over such unnecessary falsehoods\u2014\"The President said that the trouble with Winston is that he cannot get over thinking of the Chinese as so many pigtails.\" Similarly, over India, Churchill was as stubborn and indifferent to world opinion as he could get away with\u2014having instructed the viceroy of India to make sure the American minister in Delhi not be permitted to interfere in any way with Mahatma Gandhi's 1943 hunger strike\u2014and cabling Lord Halifax to tell all Americans in Washington that the British government \"will not in any circumstances alter the course it is pursuing about Gandhi,\" even if this resulted in Gandhi's death. He'd insisted, moreover, on speaking in public of \"British forces\" rather than \"British Commonwealth forces\"\u2014which was much resented in Canada, and would be even more resented once Canadian forces went into combat in Sicily. Churchill was, in short, a law unto himself\u2014and yet the repository of such underlying humanity, understanding of history, and noble sentiment that it was impossible not to admire him.\n\nThe question, then, remained: Would Churchill stand by what he'd told the President and Combined Chiefs of Staff earlier that evening in the Oval Office\u2014or by what he'd told members of Congress that afternoon at the Capitol?\n\nThe matter was not academic; the future of the world was literally at stake\u2014and Prime Minister Mackenzie King now watched Churchill's double game with growing concern.\n\nWhen addressing the Pacific War Council the next day, May 20, at noon, Churchill refrained from discussing strategy in Europe in front of the President. Late in the afternoon, however, the Prime Minister addressed a special meeting of the chiefs of staff of Britain and Canada and representatives of other parts of the British Empire, held in the White House dining room, which the President had kindly made available to him.\n\nLord Halifax, who attended this \"imperial\" meeting, dismissed it in his diary. Churchill's \"long speech of fifty minutes about the war\" had been \"very well done but with nothing very fresh in it except two or three things that could have been said in five minutes. I never saw anybody who loves the sound of words, and his own words more.\" General Brooke, exhausted by the Combined Chiefs of Staff meetings (involving yet another \"off the record\" battle), dozed off, but Mackenzie King listened very, very carefully.\n\n\"After a moment's pause,\" King recorded that night, Churchill \"started in saying he would sharpen and heighten somewhat the points he had made in his address before Congress.\" This the British prime minister proceeded to do, \"following pretty much the sequence\" King had heard on the Hill. In this there was \"little else that was new.\" \"The most interesting part,\" King noted that night, however, \"was the account he gave as to why it would be advisable to proceed against Europe from Africa as a base.\" It was, Churchill stated, \"advisable to get ahold of a few islands in the Mediterranean, use them as stepping-stones toward Europe. The great effort should be made to get Italy out of the war.\"\n\nFew could argue with this\u2014or with Churchill's magnanimity. Unconditional surrender was an agreed Allied policy, but one should not be \"too particular about the terms on which peace could be made with Italy,\" Churchill suggested. \"Her people had never had their hearts in the war. He was not anxious to see their country destroyed. If he could get the Italian fleet, that would be an immense gain. He would then have more ships to be employed against the Japanese . . .\" With regard to the Second Front, whether in 1943 or 1944, he was strangely reticent, however\u2014and King remained uncertain whether Churchill had really changed his view that it \"would be slaughter.\"\n\nGiven the loss of so many Canadian lives in the Dieppe assault the previous August, Mackenzie King was understandably sensitive to this, having noted it was \"pretty strong language and indicated a feeling that Dieppe had been a real sacrifice, perhaps an unnecessary one.\" At any rate, the \"picture he presented was of the beaches being long and in stratas; in some places, water deeper than others. Very difficult to land troops. He was determined not to have men sacrificed anymore than could be helped.\"\n\nWhatever the U.S. and British chiefs might agree upon, then, it was still questionable whether Churchill was really willing to commit British and Canadian troops to a Second Front. In fact he \"spoke emphatically about not being in too great a hurry to invade Europe even from the South,\" Mackenzie King noted. \"He said opinion was divided as to the best way to win against Germany. Some thought bombing would be sufficient. There was no harm, however, in trying other methods, as well, while trying to do the best they could with bombing.\"\n\nIf bombing was Churchill's only plan to defeat Germany, it did not sound very convincing to King. Moreover, it was certainly not how the President and the Combined Chiefs of Staff, in their long and trying meetings, were approaching the question of how to vanquish the Third Reich and move on to defeat Japan. Churchill seemed unabashed, though. He was not, as King recognized, a strategist in the true sense of the word, but an _opportunist_ \u2014opposed down to his entrails to \"giving commitments versus tactics,\" as King noted. And with that the Commonwealth meeting had ended.\n\nMackenzie King was to spend the night aboard his train, since he would be returning to Canada, via New York, on May 21. Harry Hopkins had asked King to see the President before leaving the White House, however, and this the Canadian did after midday, on the twenty-first, in the Oval Office. Despite the heat the President \"looked very fresh and cool. Was seated on his swing chair. I sat to his left looking out of the window toward the garden. A lovely feeling. An ideal office with a little court opening out of the room.\" The President seemed confident the Allies now had an agreed plan for winning the war\u2014and one he could put to Stalin, confiding again to King his invitation to meet the Russian dictator in the Bering Strait.\n\nWhat might be Churchill's reaction at being deliberately excluded, the President then asked King, given Churchill's erratic position over a Second Front? To encourage the President, King assured him that Winston\u2014who had, after all, had his own private meeting with Stalin the previous summer\u2014would get over it. Besides, the main thing was not the Prime Minister's pride or dependability, but the President's hugely important global goal\u2014moral, military, and political\u2014that promised to shape the postwar world.\n\nOn that note the two leaders parted company\u2014though King wanted also to say goodbye to Churchill. He therefore walked from the Oval Office through to the White House mansion and up to Churchill's guestroom, just after 1:00 p.m. There he found the Prime Minister still in his underwear, dressed \"in his white linen under-garments; little shirt without sleeves and little shorts to his knees, otherwise feet quite bare excepting for a pair of slippers. He really was quite a picture but looked like a boy\u2014cheeks quite pink and very fresh.\"\n\nKing said he wanted \"to be perfectly clear in my own mind what is to be done,\" in terms of military strategy\u2014strategy that involved tens of thousands of Canadian lives\u2014lest there be any misunderstanding.\n\nTo this, Churchill responded by saying \"there will be no invasion of Europe this year from Britain. I tell you that\"\u2014but the Mediterranean was another matter. There, Canadian troops would shortly take part in the invasion of Sicily in July, to gain battle experience. Canadians would, in fact, \"be in the forefront of the battle.\" Moreover, instead of returning direct to London, Churchill himself was going \"to Africa from here\"\u2014a \"dead secret.\"\n\nWhat of Allied war strategy _beyond Sicily,_ though?\n\nDelicately, King \"did say that I thought there was a certain possibility of divergence of view\" between the senior Canadian forces' commander and \"some of the plans he, Churchill, had in mind; also between some of the plans that our own chiefs of staff or the British chiefs might have.\" The Canadian War Cabinet was prepared to go along with what would \"best serve\" the need to win the war\u2014but only a strategy that was feasible \"in the opinion of the military advisers who had charge of the strategy of the war.\" In other words, the Combined Chiefs of Staff.\n\nChurchill, somewhat surprised, reassured King there was no divergence\u2014indeed that King was at liberty to speak with General Brooke, the CIGS, before returning to Canada, if he was in any way unsure or confused.\n\nStill the Canadian prime minister remained skeptical, however. He had another talk with the Canadian minister of national defense that afternoon\u2014who said he had it direct from Brigadier Jacob, Churchill's military assistant, that the strategy agreed by the Combined Chiefs of Staff would now stand. \"In the light of this,\" King noted, \"I thought it was just as well not to attempt to see Sir Allen [ _sic_ ] Brooke. It might have looked to the Defense Ministers that I was distrustful of them\"\u2014and of Churchill.\n\nThat he had every right to be, however, would only become clear after Mackenzie King's departure.\n**32**\n\n# The President Loses Patience\n\nEVEN GENERAL BROOKE was disbelieving.\n\nThe President had spent the weekend at Shangri-la, while Winston Churchill moved for a few days to more comfortable quarters at the British Embassy on Massachusetts Avenue. Once the two leaders returned to the White House, however, the Combined Chiefs of Staff were asked to come to the Oval Office\u2014and on the afternoon of Monday, May 24, they did: there to present the final terms of the Trident agreement. When they sat down before the President and Prime Minister, however, it was to find Neptune flatly refusing to accept the agreement they had reached.\n\nBrooke had known his prime minister to be an occasionally maddening individual\u2014obstinate, brilliant, sometimes tender, sometimes rude, and with a predilection for chasing red herrings. But to behave like a spoiled adolescent in front of the President of the United States of America\u2014a president who was not only directing a global war but was furnishing the materials and fighting men to win it\u2014seemed to Brooke the height of folly.\n\nAs Brooke understood it, the Combined Chiefs had been summoned to be thanked. Instead, Brooke found, \"the PM entirely repudiated the paper we had passed, agreed to, and been congratulated on at our last meeting!!\" as he recorded with exasperation that night. \"He wished to alter all the Mediterranean decisions! He had no idea of the difficulties we had been through,\" the Ulsterman exploded in the privacy of his diary, \"and just crashed in 'where angels fear to tread.' As a result he created [a] situation of suspicion in the American Chiefs that we had been [going] behind their backs, and had made matters far more difficult for us in the future!\"\n\nBrooke was riven by shame and embarrassment. \"There are times when he drives me to desperation! Now we are threatened by a redraft by him and more difficulties tomorrow!\"\n\nGeneral Marshall was equally furious. Admiral King boiled. Admiral Leahy, as chairman of the Combined Chiefs, was simply outraged. \"From four-thirty to seven p.m. the British and American Chiefs of Staff presented to the President and the Prime Minister their report of agreements reached during the present conference,\" he noted in his own diary that night. \"The Prime Minister refused to accept the Mediterranean agreement.\"\n\nThe Combined Chiefs' report had made no commitment by the Allies to invade mainland Italy, but instead only to \"plan such operations in exploitation of Husky as are best calculated to eliminate Italy from the war, and to contain\"\u2014either by threat or by operations\u2014\"the maximum number of German divisions\" while the cross-Channel invasion of northern France was readied for launching on May 1, 1944.\n\nMr. Churchill, Leahy noted in exasperation, had other ideas. He \"spent an hour advocating an invasion of Italy with a possible extension to Yugoslavia and Greece.\"\n\nLeahy was as incredulous as Brooke. An \"extension\" of operations to Yugoslavia, Greece, and the Aegean that risked making a May 1944 cross-Channel Second Front impossible? Churchill was undeterred, however\u2014and adamant.\n\nSince Churchill was not only British prime minister but quasi\u2013commander in chief of all British Commonwealth forces, this was a major stumbling block. \"Final decision was by his request postponed until tomorrow,\" Leahy recorded.\n\nAs Brooke feared, this made the U.S. team almost apoplectic. Oh, perfidious Albion! \"The Prime Minister's attitude is an exact agreement with the permanent British policy of controlling the Mediterranean Sea, regardless of what may be the result of the war,\" Leahy noted in disgust in his diary. \"It has been consistently opposed by the American Chiefs of Staff,\" he added, \"because of the probability that American troops will be used in the Mediterranean Area\"\u2014\"at the expense of direct action against Germany.\" It was a Churchillian demand \"which in our opinion [will] prolong the war.\" If, that was, it did not lose it.\n\nIn shock and no little confusion, the British and American chiefs were ushered out of the White House and into their cars.\n\nChurchill went straight to his room. After dinner and a movie there was a meeting in the President's Map Room, with Harry Hopkins and the Prime Minister's chief of staff, General Ismay.\n\nIn the narrow, windowless room, its walls hung with giant maps and thousands of the most secret reports, cables, and memoranda locked in filing cabinets in the center, the President pulled no punches. The date for the cross-Channel invasion was now set, he told Churchill, and the forces for it must be withdrawn from the Mediterranean by November 1, 1943\u2014period.\n\nChurchill was furious. Returning finally to his room at 2:00 a.m., the Prime Minister summoned his doctor.\n\nSir Charles Wilson found \"the P.M. pacing his room\"\u2014and blaming the President. \"There was no welcoming smile. When I asked him how he had been he did not answer. He had other things to think about besides his health. He stopped and said abruptly, 'Have you noticed that the President is a very tired man? His mind seems closed; he seems to have lost his wonderful elasticity.'\"\n\nDr. Wilson\u2014ignorant of the cause\u2014watched as Churchill \"went up and down his room, scowling at the floor.\" \"The President is not willing to put pressure on Marshall,\" he explained. \"He is not in favour of landing in Italy. It is most discouraging. I only crossed the Atlantic for this purpose. I cannot let the matter rest where it is.\"\n\nDr. Wilson could prescribe sleeping medication, but he could do nothing to change the situation. Nor could Churchill. The President had said no\u2014and there was little that could be done without seriously undermining, even wrecking, the Western alliance. The Prime Minister would have to accept defeat. The die, after all, was now cast. Even the Canadians were getting ready for a cross-Channel assault in 1944, with no interest in fighting in Italy\u2014let alone Yugoslavia. Once back in Ottawa, Prime Minister Mackenzie King was preparing to tell his War Cabinet that it had been agreed in Washington that \"the big battle will come early next year.\" Moreover, that \"the Canadian army will be used along with the American army and the British army to make the final assault on Europe from the North\"\u2014not Italy or the Balkans. And \"that we may expect the end of the war not before the end of this winter but before the end of another winter (1945).\"\n\nChurchill continued to pace. He had not become prime minister of Great Britain and the one leader able to stand up to Hitler, however, by caving in to force majeure\u2014particularly pressure from his own countrymen. Dr. Wilson's medication would permit him to sleep, briefly\u2014but not to alter his convictions.\n\nBefore the Combined Chiefs of Staff could reappear before their political and military masters at the White House on the morning of May 25, therefore, Churchill began a new attack on the Trident agreement.\n\nThat the Prime Minister meant well was not at issue. Long-term geopolitical British considerations had to be taken into account. But singlehandedly to attempt to bend the president of the United States to follow a British agenda was foolhardy\u2014especially in opposition to his own military team.\n\nDr. Wilson had already been worried lest the Prime Minister, by undertaking so many responsibilities, by refusing to delegate, by drinking so much, and by making so many wild trips abroad, might be approaching a mental breakdown, or \"a gradual waning of his powers, brought on by his own improvidence, by his contempt for common sense and by the way he has been doing the work of three men. There is no hour of the night when I can be certain that he is in his bed and asleep. Of course, this cannot go on forever.\"\n\nIt couldn't\u2014and explained in part the Prime Minister's amazing behavior, to the embarrassment of all, especially the President.\n\nThe Combined Chiefs assembled again in Roosevelt's office at 11:35 a.m. Once again they were treated to Churchill at his most petulant. \"We were therefore exactly as we had started so far as the paper we had submitted to the President and PM was concerned,\" Brooke recounted in despair in his diary, adding, in his slashing hand, \"the PM had done untold harm by rousing suspicions as regards ventures in the Balkans which we had been endeavouring to suppress.\"\n\nChurchill, Secretary Stimson afterward learned from the President, \"acted like a spoiled boy the last morning when he refused to give up on one of the points\u2014Sardinia\u2014that was in issue. He persisted and persisted until Roosevelt told him that he, Roosevelt, wasn't interested in the matter and that he had better shut up.\"\n\nFor that, at least, General Brooke was grateful to the President.\n\nWith the President's final loss of patience and his stern word to Churchill, the meeting had mercifully come to an end.\n\nDebate was over\u2014and with that dramatic finale, the Trident Conference done. D-day, to be called Operation Overlord, would take place, come hell or high water, in the spring of 1944.\n\nA grand, celebratory luncheon for the Prime Minister, Combined Chiefs of Staff, and all the senior staff officers involved in the conference was given by the President at the White House at 1:30 p.m. on May 25.\n\nEarly the next morning, Roosevelt drove down with Churchill to the special Clipper terminal on the Potomac River. The 160 members of the British military contingent would be sailing home from New York, but the Prime Minister and General Brooke were to board a huge Boeing seaplane that would fly them first to Newfoundland, and from there to North Africa.\n\nThe President had been skeptical regarding Churchill's new mission\u2014as the Prime Minister was aware. It had not stopped Churchill, however, and the two leaders had come to a compromise. Churchill had assured the President he had no motive other than to review British and Allied HQ preparations in Algiers for the impending assault on Sicily, Operation Husky. Given the President's chariness, Churchill had felt compelled to suggest that General Marshall accompany him, as a gage of his fealty to the President and the war strategy finally and formally agreed between allies. The President had thought this an excellent idea\u2014General Marshall flying, so to speak, as a U.S. marshal.\n\nPoor Marshall had not been consulted.\n\nAt the Pentagon, Secretary Stimson had been furious\u2014on Marshall's behalf. \"Marshall told me of it,\" Stimson recorded in his diary, \"and said he rather hated to be traded like a piece of baggage.\"\n\nThe U.S. war secretary remained deeply suspicious, moreover. Churchill was \"going to take Marshall along with him\" for no other purpose, Stimson protested, than \"to work on him to yield on some of the points that Marshall has held out on in regard to the Prime Minister's excursions in the eastern Mediterranean.\" This was too bad. General Marshall was worn out having to deal with Churchill's two-week visit, along with his vast retinue of military chiefs and advisers seeking to overturn the Casablanca agreement. Of all people, the general now surely deserved a break. In this respect, \"to think of picking out the strongest man there is in America, and Marshall is surely that today, the one on whom the fate of the war depends, and then to deprive him in a gamble of a much needed opportunity to recoup his strength by about three days' rest and send him off on a difficult and rather dangerous trip across the Atlantic Ocean where he is not needed except for Churchill's purpose is I think going pretty far,\" Stimson frothed in his diary, outraged by the iniquity. \"But nobody has any say\"\u2014the President being the elected president, by far and away the most powerful man in America, and this his will.\n\nFor his part, the President found it ironic he was having to send Marshall to North Africa to keep the irrepressible Churchill on the rails. Roosevelt was not sorry, though. Seeing Eisenhower, Clark, Patton, perhaps, and the general lay of the land following General Eisenhower's great victory at Tunis would be no bad thing for his Army chief of staff. The number of Axis troops that had surrendered was now said to have exceeded even those at Stalingrad; the omens were good.\n\nWord had also come from Moscow, moreover, that Stalin had finally agreed to a personal meeting. This would probably now take place in August. The President would pretend to be going to Canada to see Prime Minister King\u2014and secretly fly north across Alaska to the projected rendezvous with the Russian dictator. It was a relief, in these circumstances, that he, the President, would be able to convince Stalin that the Western Allies were united in their resolve to mount the Second Front in the spring of 1944\u2014and important that Marshall hold the Prime Minister tightly to this agreement. No more reneging, or alternative ventures, or pessimistic doomsaying behind his back!\n\nThe cross-Channel invasion would not take place in 1943, to Stalin's likely disappointment, but it would definitely be mounted in overpowering, U.S.-dominated force in May 1944\u2014and would, the President was confident, lead to the end of the war, either at the end of 1944, or early 1945. Only Churchill, in his unpredictable way, could possibly mess this plan up.\n\nAdmiral Leahy remained suspicious. As he noted with scarcely concealed distrust, the \"agreements finally reached\" were excellent, and would advance the American cause: to defeat Hitler. \"This is, of course, based on an assumption that the agreements will be carried out by our allies.\"\n\nIronically, General Brooke was just as skeptical as Leahy\u2014at least with regard to his boss, the Prime Minister. Churchill's great qualities did not include consistency of military strategy. As Brooke had noted in exhaustion on May 24, summarizing his colleagues' contributions to the \"Global Statement of Strategy\" that the Combined Chiefs had drawn up, Admiral King was still besotted by war in the Pacific theater; General Marshall was too bold, willing to chance a cross-Channel invasion that would risk putting into the cauldron of battle \"some 20 to 30 divisions, irrespective of what happens on the Russian front, with which he proposes to clear Europe and win the war\"; Air Marshal Portal, by contrast, was imagining the war in Europe would be won by \"bombing\" alone; Admiral Pound was believing \"anti-U-boat warfare\" was the key; while Brooke himself favored all-out war in the Mediterranean, not to defeat Germany, per se, but to \"force a dispersal of German forces, help Russia, and thus eventually produce a situation where cross-Channel operations are possible.\"\n\n\"And Winston???\" Brooke had continued, rhetorically, in the privacy of his diary. \"Thinks one thing at one moment and another at another moment. At times the war may be won by bombing and all must be sacrificed to it. At others it becomes essential for us to bleed ourselves dry on the Continent because Russia is doing the same. At others our main effort must be in the Mediterranean, directed against Italy or the Balkans alternatively, with sporadic desires to invade Norway and 'roll up the map in the opposite direction to Hitler'! But more often than all he wants to carry out ALL operations simultaneously irrespective of shortages of shipping!\"\n\nTo his credit, Churchill was not unaware of or even embarrassed by his own impetuous, pepper-spray, relentlessly demanding\/urging nature\u2014\"I am arrogant, but not conceited,\" he told a companion in 1943\u2014but had no idea Brooke was keeping such a candid journal, especially one that might be used to indict him, later, as a volatile commander in chief of lamentably poor and inconsistent judgment. After all he, Winston Spencer Churchill, would ensure his own skills as a writer and historian would make certain he came out smelling of roses\u2014as he openly confided in North Africa some days later. Veracity would not be his objective as an eventual memoirist\/historian, he would tell General Eisenhower and a dozen top American and British generals invited to dinner at Eisenhower's headquarters in Algiers. Having imbibed several whiskeys, he announced that \"it was foolish to keep a day-by-day diary because it would simply reflect the change of opinion or decision of the writer\"\u2014a diary \"which, when and if published, makes one appear indecisive and foolish.\"\n\nTo illustrate his dictum Churchill instanced the daily journal of British Field Marshal Sir Henry Wilson. Sir Henry had left copious diaries detailing his role before and during World War I. In one entry he had unwisely forecast: \"There will be no war.\" This was unfortunate because \"on the next day war was declared,\" Churchill told his enthralled listeners.\n\nSince Eisenhower's naval aide was himself keeping a daily diary this was unwise, but Churchill had by then imbibed too much alcohol to care.\n\nThe English field marshal, Churchill went on happily, had subsequently been assassinated on his doorstep by Irish republicans, in 1922\u2014leaving the question of what to do with his precious war diaries. \"The wife had insisted the diary be published post-humously,\" Eisenhower's aide recorded, \"and, consequently, General Wilson was made to appear foolish. For his part, the Prime Minister said, he would much prefer to wait until the war is over and then to write his impressions so that, if necessary, he could correct or bury his mistakes.\"\n\n_Bury his mistakes._ It was a telling phrase.\n\nFlying to North Africa with Winston, however, General Marshall would at least exert adult supervision, the President was satisfied. Marshall could be counted upon not to permit the Prime Minister to veer off into any wild ventures now that the cardinal issue of the Second Front and its timing had been formally resolved.\n\nThis still left open, however, the question of command.\n\nWho should be the cross-Channel assault supreme commander\u2014an appointment that, in order to help bolster the somewhat tentative British commitment, the President had at Casablanca suggested should go to a British officer?\n\nIn the wake of Trident, however, the President was not so sure. General Marshall's faith in Bolero, now renamed Operation Overlord, had been constant and unremitting. Might not General Marshall, an American, be a surer bet as supreme commander\u2014not only in making certain the assault was actually carried out on time, but in dealing at close quarters with a British prime minister whose penchant for meddling in battles was now notorious?\n\nBy spending time not only with General Eisenhower but with English field and staff generals at Ike's headquarters in Algiers, Marshall would get to know potential British colleagues, generals, and subordinates better, the President felt. As well as the British prime minister.\n\nBy contrast, Churchill was concerned that, if the Second Front was indeed to be launched at American insistence, his candidate for supreme command, General Alan Brooke, should be on the best of terms with the President. There thus arose, on May 26, an added irony, as the two army chiefs of staff of their respective nations boarded the former British Overseas Airways Boeing 314 A seaplane, registration number G-AGBZ, bobbing on the Potomac early that morning. Churchill had duly boarded the Clipper, having made his farewells. Aware that he'd promised Brooke command of Overlord, however, he had told the CIGS to go and sit for a few minutes with the President in his car, in case the President decided to raise the matter.\n\nThe President gave nothing away. \"He was as usual most charming,\" Brooke noted in his diary that night, \"and said that next time I came over I must come to Hyde Park to see where my father and Douglas [Brooke's brother] had looked for birds.\"\n\nRoosevelt's invitation was typical of the President\u2014wanting the conference to end on a happy, personal note. Brooke was certainly touched, and the two men shook hands.\n\nThe ornithologist and his thorny opposite number, General Marshall, then took their seats inside the body of the huge Boeing seaplane as its engines roared to life, ready for takeoff\u2014the President waiting to watch. Both Marshall and Brooke were now contenders to command the greatest amphibious invasion in human history\u2014one that would undoubtedly, as Hitler himself remarked, \"decide the war.\"\nPART NINE\n\n* * *\n\n#  _The First Crack in the Axis_\n**33**\n\n# Sicily\u2014and Kursk\n\nAT THE WHITE HOUSE on the evening of July 9, President Roosevelt was giving a state dinner for General Giraud. He was also waiting patiently for word from General Eisenhower as to how the invasion of Sicily, timed to start soon after midnight in the Mediterranean, was going. Had Allied deception measures worked? Were the Germans waiting for the Allied armies to come ashore in the south? How would Italian forces fight on their home soil?\n\nFinally Admiral Brown, his naval aide, brought him the news.\n\nTaking General Giraud upstairs to his study, Roosevelt met Daisy Suckley, who was staying in the Blue Room, on the landing. The President had told her the dinner would go on until a quarter to eleven, so Daisy was happily sewing a seam on her new nightgown when \"the elevator door suddenly opened\u2014I heard the P's voice\u2014I grabbed my diary, my pen, my workbox, & my nightgown\u2014started to flee! The President stopped me, laughing, halfway down the hall already, & followed by the General. My thimble flew to the right, my spool to the left. The General laughed & we shook hands\u2014the P. spoke over his shoulder as he was wheeled into his study: 'The General & I are going to have a heart to heart talk\u2014We have landed in Sicily! The word has just come!\"\n\nFor his part, Admiral Leahy noted in his own diary: \"During the dinner the president announced that British-American-Canadian troops were in process of invading Sicily. Our best information indicates that the enemy force now on the island consists of 4 or 5 Italian divisions and two German divisions, which we should be able to defeat in time if the landing is successful.\"\n\nThe President was pleased, but like Leahy, he was determined not to give way to overexpectations. Failure would delay but by no means wreck the agreed timetable for a cross-Channel assault the next year; victory, however, would give the Allied forces\u2014including French troops fighting under Eisenhower's command\u2014further confidence that they could mount a major amphibious invasion and defeat the Wehrmacht in combat: the prerequisite for a successful Overlord.\n\nAnd with that quiet confidence the President set off the next day to spend the weekend in Shangri-la with his de facto domestic deputy president, former Justice James Byrnes\u2014his head of the Office of War Mobilization\u2014and Byrnes's wife, as well as Harry Hopkins and his wife, and Daisy Suckley. After watching a movie in the mess hall, \"We sat around,\" Daisy Suckley, \"to get news about the invasion of Sicily\u2014During dinner, we had tried also, but static is very bad and reception not good up on this hill, even when the weather is clear . . .\"\n\nThe President had every reason to be hopeful.\n\nOperation Husky was the largest amphibious invasion ever attempted in war: three thousand Allied vessels, troop planes, and hundreds of gliders setting 160,000 soldiers ashore in Sicily in a single day from across the Mediterranean, departing from ports and airfields in Algeria, Tunisia, Malta, Libya, and Egypt in appalling weather (which caused almost half the gliders from Tunisia to land in the sea) to their rendezvous at dawn on July 10.\n\nGeneral Eisenhower had overruled his own planners and had accepted General Montgomery's preference for a concentrated invasion of the southeastern corner of Sicily, stretching from Gela to the Gulf of Noto and Cassibile. This was just as well, since the German commander in chief, General Kesselring, sent the first of his two panzer divisions (with 160 tanks and 140 field guns) to the west of Sicily\u2014leaving only a single panzer division in the east. However hard they fought, the men of the remaining Hermann G\u00f6ring Panzer Division were unable to prevail against Allied troops debauching across twenty-six beaches there. Italian defenders, ill armed and ill motivated, for the most part crumpled under the weight and power of the Allied bombardment.\n\nDespite the poor weather\u2014with gale force 7 winds\u2014the invasion thus proved brilliantly successful.\n\nAt the Pentagon in Washington there was an air of near jubilation, especially when the casualty rolls turned out to be less than a seventh of what had been estimated. Once again it was the President, in his capacity as U.S. commander in chief, who had made victory happen. Over the objections of his top generals and secretary of war in January, he'd insisted upon success in the Mediterranean in 1943, rather than sure defeat in France. How wise he'd been proven, all now agreed; only two German divisions in Sicily, instead of more than two dozen in France.\n\nMany things went wrong in the landings, not simply owing to the high wind but also because of friendly fire: trigger-happy naval gunners shooting down dozens of Allied aircraft. Patton's Seventh Army landing at Gela was initially touch-and-go, requiring naval artillery to beat off determined Axis counterattacks\u2014Kesselring having instructed the Hermann G\u00f6ring tanks and troops to move \"at once and with all forces attack and destroy whatever opposes the division. The F\u00fchrer has ordered all forces to be brought into operation immediately in order to prevent the enemy from establishing itself.\"\n\nFor the Germans, it proved a losing battle, as it had for Vichy defenders in Torch. For the Allies, however, the military lessons provided by Husky would not only be legion but gold\u2014not least in terms of intelligence, deception measures, command experience, army air and naval cooperation, and cohesion. Launched in such overwhelming, concentrated Allied force, there was little the Germans could do to halt it. A U.S. general, Dwight D. Eisenhower, was the Allied supremo, with one American and one British army field commander serving under him. George Patton, who had commanded the invasion forces at Casablanca, now led the U.S. Seventh Army, with excellent U.S. corps and divisional commanders such as Omar Bradley, Geoffrey Keyes, Manton Eddy, and Terry Allen coming to the fore. Montgomery again commanded the British Eighth Army\u2014this time with both veteran and untried troops, including a full Canadian corps determined to obliterate the \"fiasco\" of Dieppe. Inter-Allied coalition command was rehearsed in real time, as well as interservice cooperation\u2014improving exponentially as the battle for Sicily progressed.\n\nWith the Allies achieving complete naval and air superiority over Axis forces in the Mediterranean, moreover, and Patton and Montgomery's ground forces threatening to strike out from the beaches of Sicily, there arose a real prospect that the Italians\u2014who for the most part were refusing to fight to defend their homeland\u2014might overthrow Mussolini and submit to unconditional surrender without the Allies needing to invade Italy.\n\nHitler's hand was forced, therefore. He would have to call off his latest offensive on the Eastern Front and deal with the Western Allies before they dealt with him.\n**34**\n\n# The F\u00fchrer Flies to Italy\n\nON JULY 13, three days after the Western Allies landed in Sicily, the F\u00fchrer summoned his army commanders to his headquarters in East Prussia.\n\nHe had changed his mind. Operation Citadel, his massive, long-awaited offensive on the Eastern Front, was doomed. Nervous lest the Western Allies stab him in the back just as the Wehrmacht attacked in Russia, he had already scaled back his objectives for the battle. Instead of seeking to push deeper into the Soviet Union, he had decided to destroy the Russian armies in situ, near the city of Kursk, where their forces formed a salient that could be pinched off by German armies thrusting north and south. In this way, the Soviet armies would be decimated\u2014destroying any chance of a Russian offensive that year, and allowing Hitler to deal decisively with any Allied operation in the west or south.\n\nTo their consternation, Hitler now told his generals he was going to call off the Kursk offensive\u2014the biggest tank onslaught yet of the war\u2014in mid-battle. It had been raging for eight days and the Wehrmacht, according to Field Marshal Erich von Manstein, was now on the cusp of victory: ready to close its pincers and destroy Russian forces left in the salient. But as Hitler explained, \"the Western Allies had landed in Sicily,\" and \"the situation there had taken an extremely serious turn,\" Manstein recalled. \"The Italians were not even attempting to fight, and the island was likely to be lost. Since the next step might well be a landing in the Balkans or Lower Italy [the heel], it was necessary to form new armies in Italy and the western Balkans. These forces must be found from the Eastern Front, so 'Citadel' would have to be discontinued.\"\n\nManstein felt as if the wind had been knocked out of him. The Allied invasion of Sicily, in other words, would now save the Russians from the drubbing the Wehrmacht was poised to administer in the East\u2014Manstein later cursing that \"Hitler ruled that 'Citadel' was to be called off on account of the situation in the Mediterranean. And so,\" the field marshal went on, \"the last offensive in the east ended in fiasco.\"\n\nEven more symbolic for the course of World War II, however, it caused Hitler to fly south, to Berchtesgaden, hopefully to meet with Mussolini in person there.\n\nIn the event, Mussolini refused to fly to Berchtesgaden. Ignoring the poor performance of the 230,000 Italian troops he'd stationed in Sicily to defend the island against Allied assault, the Duce blamed the F\u00fchrer for the success of the U.S., Canadian, and British invasion. The Luftwaffe, he complained, had withheld the necessary planes and equipment with which to defend such a big island, and the responsibility, he claimed, was therefore Hitler's.\n\nReturning to the White House from Shangri-la, by contrast, the President was intensely proud of the Allied performance in Operation Husky. \"The news from Sicily is pretty good. Thank Heaven,\" the President's cousin Daisy noted in her diary on July 14\u2014the President confident Stalin would now see the merit of Allied strategy, which had clearly taken Hitler completely by surprise, and was threatening, overnight, to sever the German-Italian partnership in the Axis Pact.\n\nFrom all he'd heard, Stalin was nothing if not astute. With Hitler now compelled to send major forces to southern Europe, rather than to the Eastern Front, indeed to move forces away from battle on the Russian front, Stalin would eventually recognize both the political and military ramifications, he was sure. On July 15 the President therefore cabled to congratulate Stalin on the stalwart Russian defense of Kursk\u2014urging him, however, to respond \"about that other matter which I _still_ feel to be of great importance to _you_ and _me_ \": namely their meeting together to discuss the end of the war\u2014and the postwar.\n\n\"The P. is awaiting word from Stalin as to when they can meet\u2014I hate to have the P. take the risk, but he feels it essential for the future,\" Daisy recorded in the privacy of her diary. \"If it occurs now it will be in Alaska; if it occurs late in the Fall, it will be North Africa.\" Stalin might \"not feel able to leave Russia now,\" she allowed; in fact she actually hoped so, as she considered \"the risk of the trip\" for the President, \"is very great.\"\n\nThere was no response from Stalin, however.\n\nAt Hyde Park the following Monday, July 19, Daisy noted the President \"looked preoccupied & a little worried.\" He had \"on his mind his possible meeting with Stalin in Alaska\u2014Stalin has set no date & has [still] not committed himself.\" The President had, however, finally informed Churchill of his invitation to Stalin\u2014but had not extended the invite to include the Prime Minister. \"The P. said W.S.C. wanted to go to the meeting, but F.D.R. won't let him,\" Daisy noted, surprised, but accepting the President's logic. The stakes, in terms of postwar peace and international security, were too high to take the risk of Churchill embarrassing him by his opposition to a cross-Channel assault. \"He wants to talk, man to man, with Stalin, & try to establish a constructive relationship. He says that the meeting may result in a complete stalemate, or that Stalin may refuse to work along with the United Nations, or, as he hopes, that Stalin will be willing to work with the U.N.,\" but it was, surely, worth trying. \"How much F.D.R. has on his shoulders! It is always more & more, with the passing months, instead of less & less, as he deserves,\" she mused\u2014and, she added sagely, as \"he gets older.\"\n\nHitler rushed two more German divisions to Sicily to stiffen the Axis line, as well as warning his panzer reserve group on the Eastern Front to prepare to head south to Italy. He knew, however, it was hopeless to imagine he could hold on to Sicily itself, given the weight of the Allied assault and the flight of his supposed Italian partners. With Patton racing forces northeast to Palermo, and Bradley and Montgomery pushing the German panzer, paratroop, and infantry defenders back toward Mount Etna, the war seemed to many observers, on all sides, to be, if not won, then winnable in the near future: Sicily the keystone to a possible collapse of the Axis Pact, and even German solicitations for peace . . .\n\nFor his part, Hitler agonized over what to do about Mussolini\u2014knowing he would have to breathe fire into the Duce's soul if he was to stop an Italian surrender that would expose his entire southern European flank to Allied invasion. Yet to his chagrin, waiting at the Berghof\u2014the holiday home in the Bavarian Alps he'd bought with the royalties earned from _Mein Kampf_ \u2014he simply could not persuade Mussolini to come meet him in Germany.\n\nEvery day the situation had become more menacing\u2014for both men. Even Hitler's most loyal supporter, Dr. Goebbels, was forced to acknowledge that, thanks to the Western Allies, Operation Citadel in the East had failed. The Allied forces invading Sicily were simply too massive. \"The English and the Americans are expanding their bridgehead on a scale that's really stunning,\" the Reich minister had already noted in his diary on July 17. \"The question keeps coming up, how on earth we will be able to deal with war on two fronts, which we're slipping into. It has always been Germany's misfortune, past and present,\" he mused. In the circumstances, it would be \"almost a miracle were we able to hang on to Sicily.\"\n\nAll Goebbels could think of now was to drive a wedge between the Russians\u2014who were still demanding a Second Front that very year\u2014and the Western Allies. \"We haven't really any other alternative than to try to ease the situation through political means,\" he reflected. Ignoring the millions of Jews and others the Nazi SS had \"liquidated\"\u2014with more being \"exterminated\" every day\u2014he wondered how, in view of the evidence of the massacre of Poles at Katyn, the Western Allies could imagine they could seriously do business with Russian barbarians. Could Katyn be the wedge issue?\n\nPolitical possibilities aside, the F\u00fchrer had meantime to hold together his military alliance, Goebbels recognized: the Third Reich, the Empire of Italy, and their satellites and puppet regimes, from Norway, Hungary, and Romania to Bulgaria. It was an Axis military coalition that suddenly appeared in grave jeopardy\u2014the once-triumphant Axis forces rocked on their heels both in Russia and the Mediterranean. \"What's undeniable is that we find ourselves in a really critical situation,\" Goebbels admitted in his diary. \"In previous summers,\" he reflected\u2014thinking of 1940, 1941, and 1942\u2014\"that was never the case.\" Now, however, it was different. \"For the first time since the beginning of the war we've not only nothing to show for our summer offensive but we're forced to fight tooth and nail to defend ourselves\u2014something that is casting a dark shadow over world opinion in the neutral countries.\"\n\nIf the mountain would not come to Mohammed, then Mohammed must to the mountain go, Hitler was forced to accept. \"The F\u00fchrer has flown to Italy,\" Goebbels thus noted on July 19, on hearing the news from his liaison officer. \"It's good the F\u00fchrer is going to have it out with the Duce,\" the Reich minister added, having learned the meeting would take place north of Venice, \"for Mussolini is the heart and soul of Italian resistance, and it's always been noticeable that after he's only been a couple of hours with the F\u00fchrer, Italian politics and its war effort get a whole new infusion of blood.\"\n\nFlown to Treviso airport, the F\u00fchrer was then taken by train to Feltre, and from there by limousine to the chosen meeting spot: Villa Gaggia. There the two fascist leaders finally conferred.\n\nDespite a two-hour monologue by the F\u00fchrer there was no infusion of blood or confidence, however; midway through the meeting the Duce was told the Allies were bombing Rome.\n\nThe summit proved so disappointing the two dictators decided neither to issue a communiqu\u00e9 nor make the meeting public. Confiding to his diary the inevitable, bitter conclusion behind the false bonhomie, Goebbels recognized that \"we will have to move into Italy.\"\n\n\"We\" meant the Wehrmacht. And with this decision the war took a new, yet more ruthless and destructive turn.\n\nMussolini's protestations of loyalty to the Axis Pact, Hitler knew, were sincere, but they were not backed by the Italian people\u2014especially the aristocracy, royal family, and upper middle class. Flying back to his Wolf's Lair headquarters, the F\u00fchrer ordered Field Marshal Rommel to prepare something akin to Operation Anton, the previous November, when German and Italian troops had secretly readied themselves to occupy the remaining Vichy-administered area of metropolitan France. German troops would now be ordered to occupy the country of their own war partner, Italy, _by force;_ it would, cynically, be called Operation Axis.\n\nIt was not a moment too soon, from Hitler's perspective. Days later, on July 25, the Italian Grand Council of Fascism convened its first meeting to take place since the early days of the war, in the Palazzo Venezia, in Rome. By a vote of 19 to 7, the members affirmed asking the king to save Italy from destruction, in view of the critical situation in Sicily and the bombing of the Rome rail yards, which President Roosevelt had personally authorized on the very day Hitler met with Mussolini.\n\nGoebbels had assumed the American bombing might stiffen Italian resolve to defend their mother country, as it had in Germany. Instead, however, it caused the Rome police to arrest Mussolini as he left the palace\u2014bundling him into an ambulance and taking him to a destination unknown. Marshal Pietro Badoglio, former chief of the Italian General Staff who had resigned in 1940 after disagreeing with Mussolini's war strategy, was tasked with heading a new government\u2014\"our grimmest enemy,\" as Hitler referred to Badoglio: knowing Badoglio would, inevitably, terminate the Axis Pact.\n\nIt was war in the Mediterranean, then, not in Russia, that had seized the world's headlines and seemed suddenly to bring the global struggle against predatory fascism to a climax. Hitler fired off instructions for the arrest, if possible, of the new Italian government and the members of the royal family, before they could pursue surrender to the United Nations. They were too wily, however, and German forces in Italy still too thin on the ground to effect such a move.\n\nSo anxious did the F\u00fchrer become that he now decided the Mediterranean must take priority over the Eastern Front. He therefore gave final orders to transfer to Italy his top SS armored divisions from Russia\u2014telling Field Marshal von Kluge, who protested at the removal of the Wehrmacht's vital striking reserve, \"We are not master here of our own decisions.\"\n\nThe Western Allies were\u2014or seemed to be.\n**35**\n\n# Countercrisis\n\nAS HITLER CONFRONTED the crisis caused by the overwhelming Allied invasion of Sicily and the imminent defection of Italy from the Axis Pact, there arose a countercrisis or dilemma for the Allies\u2014their biggest, in many ways, since Pearl Harbor.\n\nThis would be one of the great ironies of history: that at a moment when victory seemed to many to be within reach that year, the prosecution of the war by the Allies lurched and wobbled\u2014with recriminations, accusations, and blame that have continued among war historians and writers to this day.\n\nThe President had pressed Stalin again and again for a one-on-one meeting\u2014determined to assure him, in person, that the United States, as the dominant partner in the Western Alliance, was committed to opening a Second Front at the earliest possible time.\n\n\"Referring to the Second Front,\" former ambassador Davies had told Stalin as the President's personal emissary on May 20, \"no-one, I told him, had been more disappointed when, after consideration of all the risks and logistics involved in a cross-channel operation, and also the hazards as affecting the world battleground\u2014the Pacific as well as the Atlantic and the Mediterranean\u2014that for the sake of an assured victory, he [the President] had to agree to postponement of the Second Front cross-channel operation. No one, I said, was more firm in the belief that the quickest and most direct way to defeat Hitler was by a cross-channel invasion, when it could be done after every available means had been exhausted to prevent disaster and assure success.\"\n\nOvercoming Stalin's leeriness of Churchill with regard to a Second Front had been a tough assignment, Davies had told the President on his return to Washington on June 3. \"Stalin said to me expressly that he could accept neither the African invasion [Torch] nor the Air Attack on Germany as the Second Front . . . He was suspicious, not only of the British, but of us, as well,\" Davies had reported. \"They are convinced that Churchill, if he can help it, will consent to a cross-channel crossing only when there is no risk to them\"\u2014the British. \"They believed that Britain is stalling on a cross-channel operation,\" both to \"save her manpower\" and to \"divert the attack through the Balkans and Italy\" in order to \"protect the classic British Foreign policy of walling Russia in, closing the Dardanelles, and building a countervailing balance of power against Russia.\"\n\nThis was a pretty astute reading of British policy\u2014but one that completely ignored the problem of defeating Hitler and the Nazis. As Stalin had pointed out to Davies, Allied operations in the Mediterranean were simply not on the scale of war as on the Eastern Front\u2014where the \"Germans had not less than three million\" troops \"attacking another three million of the Red Army\u2014a total of at least six million\u2014ten times as many as engaged in the African campaign.\"\n\nStalin had seemed to Davies to be disappointed in the Western Allies, yet mollified by Davies's sincerity\u2014and the President's firm commitment to mounting a Second Front as soon as feasible.\n\nFor his part, the President nevertheless continued to worry lest his \"active and ardent lieutenant\" become too ardent in terms of Mediterranean operations in the wake of success in Sicily. He'd heard from General Marshall that the Prime Minister was once again seized by excitement, and was plotting a new course in London\u2014one he'd coyly revealed to Secretary Stimson, who was visiting American forces in Britain.\n\nThe Prime Minister was still only paying lip service to the Trident agreement, Stimson reported to Washington, after meeting with Churchill\u2014and might well go off on a Mediterranean tangent unless leashed by the President. So worried had Stimson become, in fact, that he'd made a transatlantic telephone call to the Pentagon on July 17, a week after the invasion of Sicily. \"The scrambling noise over the wires produced a peculiar effect on Marshall's voice,\" Stimson noted in his diary that night, \"rendering the tones quite unrecognizable,\" but the secretary found he could \"recognize the peculiarities\" of Marshall's speech. \"I began telling him of my conferences with the P.M., particularly last Monday the 12th. I summed up what I thought was his position, namely, that he was honestly ready to keep the pledge as to 'Roundhammer' [Overlord] but was impulsively likely to branch out into commitments which would make it impossible\"\u2014tying up in the Mediterranean the very battle-hardened U.S. and British forces and landing craft needed for a successful cross-Channel invasion early in 1944. Churchill seemed to Stimson to be fixated on seizing the Italian capital\u2014that \"he was very set on a march to Rome.\" More worrying still in terms of the suction-pump effect of the Mediterranean, Anthony Eden, the British foreign secretary, \"was dead set on the Balkans and Greece.\"\n\nThe President had winced at the news. Churchill had even claimed that General Eisenhower's \"heart,\" too, was invested in a bold new stroke in the Mediterranean\u2014such as an airborne drop near the Italian capital: Operation Giant. Stimson was concerned that a dangerous overconfidence seemed to be infecting not only Churchill's bunker in London, but possibly Algiers.\n\nThe acting commander of American forces in Britain, General Jacob Devers, had assured Stimson, however, that Eisenhower's three service commanders in the Mediterranean\u2014all of whom were British\u2014had poured as much cold water on Eisenhower's idea as did Devers. Not only was this because of \"the danger of executing an operation beyond the reach of air cover,\" but because of the \"drain on landing craft\"\u2014craft that would be needed for Overlord. Others, too, were putting an oar into the debate\u2014Stimson even told Marshall of a telegram to Churchill from Field Marshal Smuts, supporting Anthony Eden's Balkan aspirations. Marshall responded that he had not seen this\u2014and was worried by the news. \"Marshall said that in the light of these circumstances he thought I ought to go as promptly as possible to see Eisenhower where I would be able to round out what I had gotten here in London with the views of the people in Africa.\"\n\nThe U.S. secretary of war having to fly to North Africa to try and head off an abrogation of the Trident agreements?\n\nThe situation, from the point of view of clear Allied purpose, was alarming, but it only became worse in the days that followed. On July 19, the day Hitler flew to Italy, the Prime Minister had warned his chiefs of staff, Stimson learned, to prepare plans to dump the Second Front if operations in the Mediterranean prospered and the seven battle-hardened divisions were not sent back to the U.K. In which case, the Prime Minister had said, he favored Allied assault landings in Norway, mounted from England with whatever forces remained in Britain or could be scraped together.\n\n_Norway?_\n\nOccupied by some four hundred thousand German troops, Norway was the mountainous country where Churchill's ill-fated Franco-British Expeditionary Force had been completely worsted by a German counterinvasion and its survivors evacuated in the spring of 1940.\n\nIt was a disturbing scenario. On Thursday, July 22, Stimson had had it out with Churchill\u2014who was soliciting Stimson's help in getting U.S. restrictions on the sharing of atom-bomb research lifted between the two nations.\n\nThe latest reports of heavy fighting around Catania had only reinforced Churchill's continuing skepticism regarding Overlord. He \"said that if he had 50,000 men ashore on the French channel coast, he would not have an easy moment because he felt that the Germans could rush up in sufficient force to drive them back. On my direct questioning he admitted that if he was C-in-C, he would not figure the Roundhammer [Overlord] operation [as feasible]; but being as it was, he having made his pledge, then he would go with it loyally. I said to him that was like hitting us in the eye and he said 'Oh, no, if we start anything we will go through with it with utmost effort.'\"\n\nIn the meantime, Churchill pointed out, there was Italy\u2014a country begging to be invaded by the Allies. The Prime Minister was, as he told Stimson, surely \"justified in supporting his faith in the Italian expedition,\" given the potential rewards. \"He spoke of two possibilities; one, going to Rome with the advantages that would come from this, even without capitulation; and second, with an Italian capitulation, it would throw open the whole of Italy as far as the north boundary and would give us opportunities to go and attack southern France. He asserted that he was not in favor of attacking the Balkans with troops, but merely wished to supply them with munitions and supplies.\"\n\nThis was, at least, a mercy. For an hour and a half the two men\u2014one approaching sixty-nine, the other, seventy-six\u2014battled over strategy and tactical operations: Stimson attempting to point out the inevitable suction effect of major operations in the Mediterranean that would \"hinder\" Overlord, Churchill denying this; Stimson claiming he had the support of the \"entire General Staff\" in the \"Roundhammer [Overlord] proposition,\" Churchill claiming Eisenhower to be \"strongly in favor of going as far as he could in Italy.\"\n\nStimson had been understandably perturbed\u2014unaware, even as he spoke and exchanged cables with Marshall, that it was not only Churchill who now favored immediate exploitation of seeming Allied success in the Mediterranean. For Churchill's excitement was being replicated among senior U.S. generals in the Pentagon, in Marshall's own War Department.\n\nOn July 17, as tanks of Patton's Seventh U.S. Army raced to Palermo in the west of Sicily, the War Department's chief of Operations Division, Lieutenant General John Hull, declared he'd had a change of heart.\n\nHull's defection from the Trident strategy aroused fierce debate in the Pentagon. From \"the very beginning of this war,\" Hull\u2014who had hitherto been General Marshall's most loyal subordinate\u2014wrote, \"I have felt that the logical plan for the defeat of Germany was to strike at her across the channel by the most direct route.\" He'd now changed his mind, he declared. In a document he drew up for his deputy, General Handy, and his War Department team, Hull pointed out the strategic harvest to be garnered in the Mediterranean. As he put it, \"it is a case where you cannot have your cake and eat it.\" With half a million U.S., British, and Canadian troops in the Mediterranean, and barely 180,000 U.S. troops in England, he'd come to \"the belief that we should now reverse our decision and pour our resources into the exploitation of our Mediterranean operations.\" Summarizing his extraordinary change of mind, he concluded: \"As to Germany, in my opinion, the decision should be an all-out effort in the Mediterranean.\"\n\nNot only did General Hull's renunciation set off furious disputation at the Pentagon, it played straight into the hands of senior admirals in the Navy Department: sailors who had refused to move their offices into the Pentagon and were now in favor of backing out of a cross-Channel \"Germany First\" strategy, too\u2014a change of objectives that would permit Japan to become America's Enemy Number One. Reexamining the Trident agreement to send seven battle-hardened divisions from the Mediterranean to the United Kingdom by November 1, 1943, the Joint War Plans Committee, representing the three U.S. armed services, now declared it \"unsound.\"\n\nThe chief of staff to Admiral King, Admiral \"Savvy\" Cooke, agreed with the JWP Committee. He'd never been convinced a cross-Channel assault could succeed, and thought that, if the Western Allies simply limited their future operations to the Mediterranean, more U.S. vessels and resources would be available to send to the Pacific.\n\nGeneral Marshall was understandably aghast. Other planners like Brigadier General Wedemeyer, who was actually visiting American headquarters in the Mediterranean, vociferously protested, feeling it folly to divide and disperse impending Allied effort in Europe, when all logistical and fighting focus should be concentrated on an agreed _Schwerpunkt_ , or focal point. Analyzing combat reports from Sicily\u2014where German troops were fighting to the death to defend an Italian island that not even Italians were willing to defend\u2014Wedemeyer recognized how tough it was going to be to defeat the German enemy; he felt \"our [English] cousins\" must somehow be made aware \"that this European theater struggle will never be won by dispersing our forces around the Axis citadel,\" as he responded to General Handy, referring to Churchill's \"closing the ring\" policy. \"Even though HUSKY is successful after a bitter struggle,\" he'd warned from Algiers the week before the invasion of Sicily, \"we could never drive rampant up the boot, as the P.M. so dramatically depicts in his concept of our continued effort over here.\" Not only would an Italian campaign require \"greatly increased resources than those now envisaged or available in the area,\" but to ensure success\u2014or even security against German counteroffensive measures\u2014the cross-Channel invasion \"would be even more remote, in fact, maybe crossed off the books for 1944.\"\n\nBut if not Rome, where next? Even Wedemeyer had to concede the Allies must continue to do _something_ in the next nine months, before Overlord was mounted.\n\nThis, then, was the strategic conundrum facing the President as U.S. commander in chief in the summer of 1943, even as the war seemed, for the Allies, to be so nearly won.\n**36**\n\n# A Fishing Expedition in Ontario\n\nIT HAD BEEN agreed at the Trident Conference in Washington in May that another high-level military parley would probably have to be convened, once the invasion of Sicily was completed. Though Churchill had suggested Washington as the venue, once again the President had demurred. As one of the President's White House Map Room officers, Lieutenant Elsey\u2014who encrypted and decoded almost daily signals between the White House and 10 Downing Street\u2014recorded, \"the President recommended to the Prime Minister that this Anglo-American conference be held in Quebec, a happier place in summer than Washington. Quebec offered the advantages of a delightful climate and appropriate and comfortable quarters at the historic Citadel and the Chateau Frontenac.\"\n\nBefore meeting with Churchill and his chiefs of staff, however, Roosevelt still hoped to meet with Stalin. \"By mid-July when it seemed unlikely that Marshal Stalin would be able to leave his armies, even briefly, during their first summer offensive, the President suggested to Mr. Churchill that time would be ripe for their conference around the first of September.\"\n\nThe triumph of the Allied landings on July 10 had, however, made even this date seem too distant to Churchill, who now had the bit between his teeth\u2014his wonderfully pugnacious head spinning with romantic excitement as he saw himself entering Rome like a victorious Caesar in the next few weeks. \"The very rapid changes on the several fronts and, in particular, the overwhelming success of the Sicilian campaign made it imperative to hold the meeting earlier,\" Lieutenant Elsey recounted. \"The degeneration of Italian resistance and the possibility of complete Italian collapse, greatly increased by the unexpected fall of Mussolini on July 25th, gave birth to new problems only faintly foreseen in the spring. As Mr. Churchill said, 'We shall need to meet together to settle the larger issues which the brilliant victories of our forces have thrust upon us about Italy as a whole.' The Prime Minister pressed for a very early date in August but the President replied that he would be unable to arrive in Quebec earlier than August 17.\"\n\nThe tragedy of late 1943 was now to unfold, almost inexorably\u2014Churchill seemingly blind to Hitler's likely response to the Allied invasion of Italy. As Hitler's war aims crystallized into a ruthless German defend-or-die strategy, without having to rely on weak allies, the Allies' conduct of the war fractured\u2014with grave political as well as military ramifications. If Churchill was right, the Third Reich might, if the Allies put every man into the field in Italy, collapse\u2014with vast political ramifications on top of military, since the Wehrmacht still held a solid front deep inside Russia. But what if Churchill and the generals like Hull in the Pentagon were _wrong?_ What if Hitler meant to fight to the bitter end on all fronts\u2014and was backed wholeheartedly by his Volk?\n\nHolding the reins of global political as well as military unity on behalf of the Western Allies, at least, the President decided he must present to the people of America and the world a clear picture of the war's positive progress\u2014and ultimate aims. Calling in Robert Sherwood, Judge Rosenman, and Harry Hopkins, he therefore spent many days at Shangri-la and in the White House working on a major new Fireside Chat.\n\nBroadcast from the White House on the evening of July 28, 1943, the President's radio address certainly seemed a success: the President sounding confident, inspiring, and clear-minded: conveying to listeners a sense of wise direction in prosecuting the war to its appointed end\u2014and beyond.\n\nROOSEVELT HAILS \"FIRST CRACK\" IN THE AXIS; OUTLINES POST-WAR AID FOR ALL U.S. FORCES, ran the _New York Times_ front-page headline on July 29, the newspaper giving extended coverage to every aspect of his speech\u2014the President's first since February that year, \"when he predicted invasion of the Continent of Europe.\" It was, the _Times_ described, \"a radio address as varied in its subject matter as the vast pattern of total war,\" one in which the President had \"counseled against complacency, urged much greater efforts if Hitler and Tojo are to be defeated, as he promised, 'on their home grounds,'\"\u2014and one which, the _Times_ added, \"announced the end of coffee rationing due to the improved shipping situation.\"\n\nWas the war's direction really so clear, though? Was the speech not in truth window-dressing? Was not the \"first crack\" a split less in the Axis ability to wage war\u2014given that German troops were reported moving ruthlessly into new, former Italian positions across the Mediterranean, and Field Marshal Rommel was reported to be preparing for the German defense of Greece\u2014than in the Allies' _own_ situation? Were not the Allies the ones with a problem?\n\nAt the State Department there were problems, as well. Former ambassador Bill Bullitt had been circulating throughout top circles in Washington a new paper urging an American invasion of the Balkans, before Soviet forces could reach central Europe, regardless of the military inanity of such a scheme. And to cap this, there were stories that Secretary of State Cordell Hull\u2014at the insistence of his wife\u2014was demanding the head of the President's right-hand man in postwar planning, Sumner Welles, on the grounds he was a homosexual\u2014a story Bill Bullitt, who coveted Welles's job as assistant secretary of state, had been leaking to the press.\n\nAnd as if all this was not enough, there were indications that the Russians were exploring possible peace-feelers with the Germans\u2014suggestions bruited in \"official circles\" that Stalin \"may have forsaken President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill on unconditional surrender\" and was planning \"to establish a European order on his own [communist] concepts and under the aegis of Moscow,\" as the _New York Times_ reported.\n\nSo much happening, so fast\u2014and so many conflicting voices and calls in the great democracies of America and Britain!\n\nIt was small wonder the President felt, once again, exhausted. He longed to get away from Washington, and in cooler climes think things through, so that he could hopefully keep the Allied coalition together and pointing in the same direction.\n\nOn July 30, he thus went ahead with his latest plan. It would be another secret trip: this time \"to Canada on a fishing and vacation expedition,\" as Admiral Leahy, his White House chief of staff, noted in his diary. On the beautiful lakes of Ontario, the weather would be less hot\u2014and devoid of journalists, or anyone else. Away from the madding crowd the President could fish in peace, and think for a whole week.\n\nThe _Ferdinand Magellan_ duly pulled out from the Bureau of Engraving's special siding in Washington at 9:45 p.m.\n\nThe President was far from alone. In addition to Admiral Leahy he was taking his doctor, Vice Admiral McIntire; his naval aide, Rear Admiral Brown; his military aide, Major General Pa Watson; his two secretaries, Grace Tully and Dorothy Brady; twenty Secret Service men; his secret communications personnel; and Filipino crewmembers from the USS _Potomac_ and Shangri-la.\n\nThe President had still heard nothing from Stalin, and thus knew as much or as little as the _New York Times_ correspondent in Moscow concerning the dictator's intentions or thoughts. \"The Stalin meeting is 'on,'\" his cousin Daisy had noted in her diary on July 28 after speaking to the President on the phone\u2014which was to say the meeting wasn't off, and might still take place at Fairbanks, Alaska, to which he could fly from Ontario, using the nearest air base to his fishing expedition.\n\nDaisy hated the idea. \"It is much too dangerous,\" she recorded her anxiety about such \"trips by air.\" \"But he feels he has to, so he has to\u2014His feelings are mixed about them, he told me\u2014He doesn't want to go, but he has to put every possible effort into going because he thinks it will help in planning the future of the world\u2014so\u2014all we can do is wish him Godspeed and pray that all will go well.\"\n\nThe fishing part of the plan, at least, went well\u2014the bulk of it spent in McGregor and Georgian Bays, Ontario. \"The days were interesting in providing fresh air and sunburn for all of us, and for me the nights were reasonably busy with messages to and from our British Allies in regard to the Italian campaign, the proposal to make Rome an open city which military authorities do not look with favor upon, and the general war situation,\" Leahy recorded.\n\nHarry Hopkins joined the party on August 4, in case they were to fly from there to meet Stalin, and though Leahy felt the vacation was a \"success in giving all of us a change and exposure to the air and the sun,\" he did acknowledge \"that on a vacation for relaxation we should have gone to bed earlier than midnight which was the usual hour.\"\n\n\"For a week we lived in the train which remained a few yards from a landing from which we embarked each day on our daily fishing expeditions\u2014each member of the party contributing a dollar a day for prizes,\" Leahy added. \"The fish caught were small-mouth bass, wall-eyed pike, and what was either a pickerel or pike that the guides called snakes. In the final settlement of our pool at the weekend only the President and I were the winners.\"\n\nAir, sun, and pool winners, however, were not enough to solve the growing strategic crisis: one the President knew would be waiting for him once he got back to the White House.\n**37**\n\n# The President's Judgment\n\nTO A CONSIDERABLE extent, the brewing Allied crisis was inevitable in a coalition, the President accepted, for each ally had its own concerns and war aims.\n\nThe President certainly did not take amiss Churchill's excitement over Mediterranean operations, or even the Prime Minister's loyalty to a decaying British empire. Churchill was, he felt, merely misguided\u2014the product of high Victorian imperialism. As the President had discussed with former ambassador Davies, in a conversation that Davies had then related to Stalin, \"British imperialism had contributed much to civilization, as well as to their people but, under modern conditions, there were now some aspects of it which did not conform to the American viewpoint. These variances in points of view were not such, however, as would or should be permitted to jeopardize a common effort for victory, and for the preservation of post-war peace. The Statute of Westminster [the Adoption Act of 1942, legally recognizing the independence of the Dominions] had given proof that modern England was conscious of the need for change, and with great courage and nobility had given independence of action in foreign affairs to the colonies and dominions.\"\n\nStalin, looking up from his doodling pad, had queried the reason for excluding Churchill from the proposed meeting with the President, demanding to know \"Why?\"\n\n\"I replied,\" Davies recounted, \"that Roosevelt and Churchill respected and admired each other, and although they did not always see eye to eye, they were always loyal. They were 'big' men, and on matters of difference, each could be relied upon. In fact, each would insist on finding common ground to win the war.\"\n\nThis was, however, to tiptoe around the matter of the Second Front\u2014and the more the Italians caved in, the more brazen had become Churchill's call for exploitation in the Mediterranean\u2014leaving the notion of Overlord as an Allied cross-Channel invasion to wither, the Prime Minister hoped, on the vine.\n\nFor the President this was not a surprise. He had gotten to know Churchill, on the Prime Minister's repeated visits to the White House, probably better than any American during the course of the war. The Prime Minister's moods, swinging from gravity to elation, were part and parcel of his colorful character as a leader. Churchill's approach to modern war was, the President accepted, wonderfully exuberant if often flawed. Certainly, with respect to what would now happen in Europe, the Prime Minister seemed to be giving way to a dangerous assumption: namely that Hitler might be toppled in the same way that Mussolini had been brought down.\n\nUnhappily, despite a lifetime spent as a military officer and warrior-politician, Churchill seemed not to understand the nature of the problem confronting the Allies. This was not so much the F\u00fchrer as the Germans themselves. The Prime Minister's abiding belief was that, once shorn of its allies, the men of the Third Reich would be unable to defend the vast territories they had so rapidly overrun when the Allies had been weak and disjointed. The Allies had now only to \"close the ring,\" as the Prime Minister saw it, and sooner or later Germany would collapse, as it had in 1918\u2014without the Western Allies having to take the great gamble of a cross-Channel assault and campaign in northern France. Churchill thus failed, in the President's view, to fully credit what had happened in Germany under Hitler\u2014and how German forces, like the Japanese, would fight to the bitter end to defend the territory they had seized, _even without the F\u00fchrer's orders;_ that they would make the Allies pay for every meter of advance in blood, whether in the Balkans, Greece, Italy, or France.\n\nRoosevelt's insistence on unconditional surrender had therefore been no aberration, or momentary thoughtlessness, as certain writers\u2014even Churchill himself in a forgetful moment\u2014would later aver. Rather, it went back to the President's childhood sojourns in Germany, and spoke to the President's deep-seated cognizance of the collective German mentality. Roosevelt's unwavering judgment was that, whatever happened with the Italians, the Germans\u2014like the Japanese\u2014would go on fighting until beaten in battle; moreover, that their nations must be completely disarmed after the war's end and the world kept safe from any prospect of their military renascence. \"The President believed also,\" Davies had told Stalin on May 20, \"that, despite differences in ideology and methods of government\" between capitalism and communism, \"it was entirely possible that our countries could live together in peace, in a decent world, with mutual respect, reciprocal consideration and joint safety, against a possible militant Japan, Germany or any other would-be disturbers of the Peace . . . Together, they could maintain and enforce law and order to preserve a just Peace, or there would be renewed disastrous wars.\"\n\nStalin had affirmed his complete agreement. \"You can tell your President that so far as Germany is concerned, I will support him to any length he thinks necessary, no matter how soever, to destroy Germany's war potential for the future. Our people and our country have suffered immeasurably because of it. It is vital to us that Germany's war potential be destroyed. As to Japan, he said, the President already knew what their position was and needed no assurance.\"\n\nGoebbels's April announcement of _totaler_ _Krieg,_ in Roosevelt's view, had merely confirmed his judgment of Germany as the world's most dangerous nation, given the size and ruthlessness of its Wehrmacht and the abiding belief that _Macht ist Recht_ : might is right. Any notion that the Germans would be easily pried from their conquests across Europe was therefore wishful thinking. The struggle to defeat the Germans and the Japanese would be hard and bloody, as he'd stated in his White House broadcast on July 18\u2014for there was no alternative to battle. And bloodshed.\n\nWhat was important was for the Allies therefore to make no mistakes. To proceed methodically, building up command and combat experience, and trained, well-armed forces in order to defeat the Wehrmacht completely and relentlessly in combat, as Grant and his generals had done in the Civil War. Fantasies of victory merely by peripheral operations were seductive in terms of saving lives, but in the end they were idle. Only by relentless concentration of force, in focused application of America's growing output as the arsenal of modern democracy, would the Allies be enabled to win within a reasonable time frame.\n\nThe President's judgment of Wehrmacht intentions and abilities, moreover, was reinforced by reports he was receiving from his intelligence services. Access to the extraordinary riches of Ultra posed the danger that one sought in the decrypts for what one wanted to see. Churchill, who read Ultra decrypts every day and often \"raw\" ones\u2014i.e., uninterpreted by his military staff\u2014had fastened tightly on those indicating that Hitler only intended his troops to stand in northern Italy, at the foot of the Alps. By contrast, the President was less beholden to that one source, and remained skeptical. On July 10, as the troops of the Western Allies had stormed ashore in Sicily, the latest OSS intelligence bulletin from Brigadier General Bill Donovan, who directed U.S. espionage services abroad, had been couriered to the White House Map Room. Rear Admiral Brown, the President's naval assistant, had himself brought it to the President\u2014a report predicting the Italians would soon betray their Axis partner and sue for surrender. With stark realism, however, Donovan's report had also warned that the Germans \"are quite prepared to treat the Italians as they would an enemy.\" They would thus squash their former partners like cockroaches\u2014and fight the harder once free of coalition allies they largely despised.\n\nThe President had agreed with Donovan\u2014who had won the Medal of Honor and the Distinguished Service Medal fighting the Germans in France in World War I. The Allies, the President was sure, must not be complacent, or be swayed by armchair strategists. Italy's collapse would certainly be a political triumph for the Allies, and was certainly worth pursuing. It could also be dangerous, however, if it encouraged Churchill and like-minded peripheralists to jump to conclusions about Italian assistance, or German unwillingness to fight in southern Italy.\n\nAs the days of high summer unfolded, Donovan's prediction did indeed become reality. The Germans, it would become clear to even the most starry-eyed, were very, very different from their southern neighbors\u2014neighbors the Germans had always held in suspicion but now began to treat with merciless, murderous contempt.\n\nThe profound cultural difference between the two Axis enemies would, in fact, climax in the summer and fall of 1943\u2014exposing the fault lines of what Churchill called the Grand Alliance, and threatening to sunder what had, in July, appeared to be the approach of Hitler's end.\nPART TEN\n\n* * *\n\n#  _Conundrum_\n**38**\n\n# Stalin Lies\n\nAS THE _Ferdinand Magellan_ made its way back from Ontario to Washington, the President finally heard from Stalin. Once decoded, the cable\u2014dated August 8, 1943\u2014was handed to him. It was a long message agreeing to a meeting. Not, however, the meeting Roosevelt was hoping for.\n\nIn surprisingly friendly English, the Russian marshal\u2014who had gotten himself promoted as the first civilian to hold that rank by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR on March 6, 1943, in recognition of his role as supreme commander in chief of the armed forces of the Soviet Union\u2014began by apologizing. His focus as a Russian marshal had had to be on his \"primary duty\u2014the direction of action at the front. I have frequently to go to the different parts of the front and to submit all the rest to the interests of the front,\" he kept repeating\u2014blatantly lying, since he had only once ever gone near the front, and that only for a few hours. \"I hope that under such circumstances you will fully understand that at the present time I cannot go on a long journey and shall not be able, unfortunately, during this summer and autumn to keep my promise given to you through Mr. Davi[e]s. I regret it very much, but, as you know, circumstances are sometimes more powerful than people who are compelled to submit to them.\" He was, however, willing to agree meantime to a later \"meeting of the responsible representatives\" of the United States and the Soviet Union at Archangel, on the north coast of Russia, or Astrakhan, on the south, Caspian, coast\u2014i.e., on Russian territory, and terms.\n\nIf the President was unable to go to such a summit, so distant from Washington, Stalin continued, Mr. Roosevelt could send a \"responsible and fully trusted person\"; moreover, he was quite happy for Churchill to attend the get-together\u2014thus making it a \"meeting of the representatives of the three countries.\" In the meantime they should raise, in advance, the \"questions which are to be discussed,\" and the \"drafts of proposals which are to be accepted at the meeting.\" He added his belated congratulations to \"you and the Anglo-American troops on the occasion of the outstanding successes in Sicily which are resulted [ _sic_ ] in collapse of Mussolini and his gang.\"\n\nThe dictator's excuses for not meeting the President might be specious, but what was clear, now that the battle of Kursk was over and Mussolini toppled, was that Stalin saw no need to travel to America or to Alaska, cap in hand. He could afford to play hard to get\u2014or please.\n\nThe President was understandably disappointed, given the phenomenal amount of Lend-Lease equipment, food, chemicals, and metals being shipped to the USSR. Even Marshal Zhukov, Russia's greatest general, would admit after the war that \"the Americans shipped over to us _materi\u00e8l_ without which we could not have equipped our armies held in reserve or been able to continue the war.\" As Zhukov explained, \"We did not have enough munitions [and] how would we have been able to turn out all those tanks without the rolled steel sent to us by the Americans?\"\u2014let alone the four hundred thousand trucks dispatched.\n\n\"Drafts of proposals,\" meantime, made the President frown. Not only might it be more difficult to get agreement on the President's United Nations authority plan if preconference proposals had to go through the endless (and appropriately colored) red tape of Russian communist bureaucracy, but Churchill's presence might let the cat out of the bag\u2014namely, that Churchill and his generals were once again tilting away from a cross-Channel Second Front in favor of exploitation in the Mediterranean. And dangerous overoptimism in London.\n\nOne American chaplain in London, Colonel Maurice Reynolds, had openly forecast that the war might be over in five months\u2014that he would not be \"surprised if we all went home for Christmas. The rats are beginning to leave the sinking ship\u2014one [Mussolini] has left already,\" he'd been quoted in _Stars and Stripes,_ the U.S. Army newspaper.\n\nThis was an almost tragic assumption, given the tough fighting that lay ahead with the Germans. Not only was Allied strategy in danger of being compromised by naive opportunism, but if the Western Allies pulled out of their commitment to a Second Front, the President recognized, there would be tough problems with America's Russian partner\u2014with grave consequences for the peoples of central and even western Europe.\n\nThe disagreement between the U.S. generals at the Pentagon, and the growing continental divide between the Allies, was thus the unhappy scenario that faced the President when he finally entered the White House on the morning of August 9 for a whirlwind round of meetings. He'd agreed to meet Churchill and the British chiefs of staff in Quebec around August 15. This gave him only a few days to get his ducks back in a row.\n\nHe saw Secretary Hull for lunch, General Marshall at 2:00 p.m., Lord Halifax, the British ambassador, at 2:30, and dined with Hopkins that evening. He called his cousin Daisy to tell her what a great fishing trip he'd had\u2014\"a real success\u2014the place much like the Maine Coast\u2014rocky, wooded, 100s of islands, cool on the whole, very nice\u2014He says he'll take me there, perhaps, next year!\" But he also confided to her his latest plan: that he was determined to do his best to head off another Trident-like battle royal in the Canadian capital. He would therefore see Churchill in private at Hyde Park _before_ the Quebec meeting of the Combined Chiefs of Staff even began\u2014and twist Churchill's arm there until the Prime Minister backed off.\n**39**\n\n# War on Two Western Fronts\n\nIN HIS FIRESIDE CHAT radio broadcast, the President had denied there was any disunity between the Allies. \"You have heard some people say that the British and the Americans can never get along well together\u2014you have heard some people say that the Army and the Navy and the Air Forces can never get along well together\u2014that real cooperation between them is impossible.\" He'd denied the assertions, as U.S. president and commander in chief. \"Tunisia and Sicily have given the lie, once and for all, to these narrow-minded prejudices. Ahead of us are much bigger fights. We and our Allies will go into them as we went into Sicily\u2014together. And we shall carry on together,\" he'd claimed\u2014lauding the achievements of the Soviet Union as America's ally, too.\n\nBehind the fa\u00e7ade of unity, however, the conduct of the coalition war was in grave peril. Moreover, with Stalin calling for a meeting of foreign ministers in the fall, before the Allied leaders or their representatives got together, it would become impossible to conceal British pressure to defer or abandon the Second Front in favor of further operations on the Southern, or Mediterranean, Front.\n\nEven the President's postwar vision was in danger of unraveling\u2014from within. Two _New York Times_ journalists, John Crider and Arthur Krock, had now openly reported, while the President was fishing in Canada, on the growing rift between the secretary of state, Cordell Hull, and Undersecretary Welles\u2014reports that had been carried in other newspapers, too.\n\nThe President had therefore summoned both Welles and Hull to the Oval Office on August 10, the day after his return\u2014a meeting at which Hull declared he could not work with Welles, and that one of them must resign.\n\nAs if this was not enough, the President had read carefully his war secretary's \"Brief Report on Certain Features of Overseas Trip,\" which Henry Stimson had sent over to the White House, following his return from London and North Africa\u2014a report so alarming in terms of Allied strategy that the President had asked Stimson to lunch with him on August 10, immediately after his meeting with Hull and Welles. The lunch would precede the meeting he had convened with the Joint Chiefs of Staff at 2:30 in the Oval Office, to discuss \"the attitude to be taken by the U.S. Chiefs of Staff at the coming conference [in Quebec] with our opposite members from London,\" as Admiral Leahy put it in his diary.\n\nAn unfortunate breakdown in Allied war strategy was approaching\u2014at the very moment when, in the Southwest Pacific, American destroyers had sunk all four Japanese destroyers of the \"Tokyo Express\" seeking to reinforce their troops on Kolombangara in the Solomons; a moment when, in the North Pacific, U.S. and Canadian troops were preparing to land on Kiska Island in the Aleutians; a moment when, in Sicily, the retreating German troops were beginning to evacuate their forces across the Strait of Messina to the Italian mainland; and when, in Russia, the Wehrmacht was being forced to retreat on a three-hundred-mile front, giving up Orel and Belgorod\u2014cities occupied by German troops since October 1941.\n\nOf one thing the President was absolutely certain at this strategic crossroads for the Allies, however: that whatever anyone said or posited, the war might very well _not_ be over by Christmas\u2014even by Christmas 1944. He must therefore redouble his efforts to keep the Allied coalition together, marching to the same tune.\n\nAnd place. Berlin. Then Tokyo.\n\nReading over the materials the Joint Chiefs of Staff had sent him, prior to their meeting at the White House, the President appreciated their clear strategic reasoning, especially their August 9 memorandum, with its various enclosures.\n\nThe President was not, however, amused by the wording of one enclosure: a paper prepared by the Operations Division of the War Office, dated August 8, which stuck in his craw. In it the authors, headed by General Handy, painted the Torch invasion and year of victories since 1942 as wasteful and unnecessary\u2014in fact as having set back the defeat of Germany by a year. A cross-Channel invasion in 1943 \"was the one chance to end the war in Europe this year. If this had happened,\" General Handy claimed, \"all that has been gained would be insignificant by comparison.\"\n\nClearly the authors had never reflected on Dieppe. Or Kasserine. Or Sicily, for that matter, where the fighting had become remorseless. They had certainly never faced a German soldier in battle. It was, arguably, one of the most egregious underestimations of the enemy ever produced by a senior general of the U.S. military\u2014neither _combat_ nor _battle experience_ ever appearing in the document. All arguments had merely been laid out in terms of numbers of men furnishable to the front.\n\nThe President had shaken his head over that. Would these armchair planners never learn?\n\nFortunately, the Joint Chiefs of Staff had themselves prepared two far more mature papers, on August 7 and 9, attempting to \"develop a strategic concept for the defeat of the Axis in Europe.\" These papers concluded that, thanks to the Allied invasion of Sicily, the German offensive at Kursk had had to be curtailed; that the Wehrmacht would no longer be able to go on the attack or seek victory on the Eastern Front; and that therefore German strategy would now likely be one of fierce fighting to attain \"a satisfactory negotiated peace.\" As they warned, however, the Axis \"still retains strong defensive power. A defensive strategy on the part of the Axis might develop into a protracted struggle and result in a stalemate on the Continent.\" Therefore, \"the rapidly improving position of the United Nations in relation to the Axis in Europe demands an abrogation of opportunistic strategy and requires the adoption and adherence to sound strategic plans which envisage decisive military operations conducted at times and places of our choosing\u2014not the enemy's.\"\n\nThis, at least, was sensible. \"We must not jeopardize our sound over-all strategy,\" the memorandum argued, \"simply to exploit local successes in a generally accepted secondary theater, the Mediterranean, where logistical and terrain difficulties preclude decisive and final operations designed to reach the heart of Germany.\"\n\nThis new memorandum, Roosevelt felt, was far better argued than Handy's counterdocument. What it did not do was explain how the Western Allies could simply put major offensive operations against Germany on hold for nine months while they prepared Overlord. Not only would a nine-month hiatus be difficult to excuse to people at home, but it would be harder still to excuse to the Russians, currently facing three-quarters of the German Wehrmacht in combat on the Eastern Front. As the President chided Marshall, who had brought the memorandum to the White House for him to read on August 9, at 2:00 p.m., \"the planners were always conservative and saw all the difficulties\"; he was sure \"more could usually be done than they were willing to admit,\" as Marshall noted on his return to the Pentagon. By 11:00 a.m. the next day Marshall therefore wanted new planning documents that would meet the President's concerns. As Marshall reported Mr. Roosevelt's wishes:\n\n> That between Overlord and Priceless [further major operations in the Mediterranean] he was insistent on Overlord but felt that we could do more than was now proposed for Priceless. His idea was that the seven battle-experienced divisions should be provided for Overlord but that an equal number of divisions from the U.S. should be routed to Priceless.\n\n> He stated that he did not wish to have anything to do with an operation in the Balkans, nor to agree to a British expedition which would cost us ships, landing craft, withdrawals, etc. But he did feel that we should secure a position in Italy to the north of Rome and that we should take over Sardinia and Corsica and thus set up a serious threat to southern France.\n\nMarshall was stunned\u2014able only to protest that \"we had strained programmed resources well to the limit in the agreements now standing.\" Moreover, though Overlord would have priority of resources, a multifront strategy by the Western Allies, if adopted too heavily in the Mediterranean, would impose grave constraints on Overlord and its chances of success.\n\nThe President seemed unimpressed by Marshall's response\u2014as the general was aware. Clearly the President saw Marshall as maintaining a kind of ideological focus on Overlord, which seemed not only bureaucratic but wooden and out of touch with political reality. The American people, furnishing the weapons and the soon-to-be eleven million soldiers for the war\u2014as well as paying the taxes to fund it\u2014could not be expected to condone _nine months_ of a virtual cease-fire at this juncture, during which anything might happen\u2014both positive and negative.\n\nRather, the President sounded determined the Allies should keep the initiative, now that they had the Germans on the run. General Brooke, the British CIGS, was right to see Italy as a major theater of war, where major German forces could be forced to fight, rather than switch divisions back to the Eastern Front. Once in Italy, moreover, the Allies could maintain the offensive initiative: possessing the airfields from which to bomb southern Germany, and bases for the troops from which to mount an invasion of southern France if it were deemed opportune, thus helping Overlord\u2014indeed offering an alternative lodgment if Overlord did not succeed. The President, Marshall penned in the note he made at the Pentagon, therefore wanted to see him \"at noon tomorrow\" with the logistical implications of a two-front campaign on the European mainland. \"Incidentally, he said he did not like my use of the word 'critical' because he wanted assistance in carrying out his conception rather than difficulties placed in the way of it\u2014all of this in a humorous vein,\" Marshall reported to his staff.\n\nThe President had spoken. He was U.S. commander in chief, and it was for Marshall, as U.S. Army chief of staff, to ensure the President's conception be carried out, not keep harping on \"critical\" insufficiencies, or jeopardy. Period.\n\nOnce the Joint Chiefs of Staff were seated in the Oval Office at 2:15 on the afternoon of August 10\u2014and with the secretary of war, Mr. Stimson, having been invited to witness the meeting, following his lunch with the President\u2014Mr. Roosevelt held forth: explaining the political context behind the next decisions that must be made at Quebec, where they would be conferring with their British opposite numbers.\n\nThe \"British Foreign Office does not want the Balkans to come under the Russian influence,\" he told them. Therefore, \"Britain wants to get to the Balkans first\"\u2014understandably. However, he himself rather doubted the Russians wanted or were in a position to \"take over the Balkan states\" such as Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Albania, and Greece. They would, he predicted, prefer rather to \"establish kinship,\" or associative relationship, \"with the other Slavic people\" in southern Europe. \"In any event,\" he went on, he \"thought it unwise to plan military strategy on a gamble as to political results,\" rather than what was possible or desirable militarily. A major U.S. campaign in the Balkans would have no guarantee of succeeding, indeed might well fail. It would certainly distract from the cross-Channel invasion scheduled for May 1944\u2014a gamble the United States couldn't take.\n\nGeneral Marshall agreed wholeheartedly. If the shift of the seven battle-hardened Allied divisions designated for Overlord from the Mediterranean did not take place, it would, he pointed out, \"simply invite having these extra divisions used for invasion in the Balkans. This would meet the Prime Minister's and Mr. Eden's desires, but would make the Mediterranean operation so extensive as to have a disastrous effect on the main effort from England\"\u2014a warning that prompted Admiral King to suggest \"to the President that if the British insist upon abandoning Overlord or postponing the operation indefinitely, we should abandon the project as in carrying it on we would simply waste our substance.\"\n\nAdmiral King's disgust with the British prompted the President to reassert the crucial necessity of mounting Overlord as the number one priority. Indeed, to the amazement of his own advisers, the President then \"said we can, if necessary, carry out the project ourselves. He was certain that the British would be glad to make the necessary bases in England available to us.\"\n\nThe United States mounting the cross-Channel invasion _without_ British participation?\n\nIn the long months since Pearl Harbor, there had been threats to switch military priority to the Pacific, but never such a gesture of scorn for British timidity and avoidance of decisive battle\u2014certainly never before by the President.\n\nIn part the bleak picture of British cowardice was the result of Secretary Stimson's journey to London and Algiers. On his return he had painted a disturbing portrait of Churchill's intentions, but the President didn't think, in the end, it would come to a breach in the alliance. The British, he was certain, could not afford to let down, before the whole world, the major ally that had saved them from German and Japanese victory. Moreover, the United States was not averse, the President explained, to establishing air bases in southern Italy and opening a fighting front in Italy; it was just a matter of saying no to an advance further north than the capital, lest the Allies be drawn into Hitler's web.\n\n\"He was for going no further into Italy than Rome,\" Stimson noted with satisfaction that night, \"and that for the purpose of establishing bases. He was for setting up as rapidly as possible a larger force in Great Britain for the purpose of Roundhammer [Overlord] so that as soon as possible and before the actual time of landing we should have more soldiers in Britain dedicated to that purpose than the British. He said he wanted to have an American commander and he thought that would make it easier if we had more men in the expedition at the beginning. I could see that the military and naval conferees were astonished and delighted at his definiteness.\"\n\nThey were. \"The President stated that, frankly, his reason for desiring American preponderance in force,\" General Deane wrote in his minutes of the meeting, following discussion of the American divisions that could be shipped to England before D-day (fifteen in number), was \"to have the basis for insisting on an American commander. He wished that preponderance of force to be sufficient to make it impossible for the British to disagree with the suggestion.\"\n\nThe new strategy was thus clear. War on two western fronts\u2014but the Italian front limited to a line just north of Rome. And an American supreme commander for Overlord, lest the British try to renege on their commitment to a cross-Channel invasion.\n\n\"The President then summed up the discussion by stating that our available means seem to fit in pretty well with our plans. He outlined these as insistence upon the continuation of the present Overlord buildup and carrying out that operation as our main effort,\" Deane recorded. Moreover, the President wanted to have enough Americans in Britain \"in order to justify an American commander\" for Overlord, he restated. Together with this, he was in favor of leaving Eisenhower with sufficient forces in the Mediterranean to establish U.S. air power in southern Italy (where weather conditions permitted takeoff and landing almost every day, compared to often prohibitive flying conditions over England). Such forces on the southern European front would give the Allies strategic flexibility if for any reason the Overlord operation was repelled, but the President was emphatically \"opposed to operations in the Balkans.\" Yes, it would be good to have an army able to stop the Russians from overrunning countries in south-central Europe as they advanced\u2014but the Western Allies still did not have a single boot on the mainland of Europe, and the Balkans were in any case a nightmare in terms of terrain. Knowing the Germans, the Wehrmacht would contest every yard. It was, therefore, \"unwise to plan military strategy based on a gamble as to political results.\"\n\n\"I came away with a very much lighter heart on the subject of our military policy than I have had in a long time,\" Stimson dictated at home in his diary, delighted with his commander in chief's stance. \"He was more clear and definite than I have ever seen him since we have been in this war.\"\n\nWhat pleased Stimson even more was that the President now wanted an American in charge of Overlord\u2014something Stimson, in a letter he'd brought with him to the White House for the President, had also recommended. He'd shown his draft letter to Marshall before leaving the Pentagon that morning, pleading for Marshall to be the man, and Marshall had not demurred (though anxious that Stimson not tell the President he had seen the recommendation, lest he be seen to be pursuing personal ambition).\n\nThe loss of Marshall from Washington\u2014were he to be Overlord's supreme commander\u2014would be dire, but it was necessary, Stimson felt, to show the British that America meant business: Overlord the only way that \"Germany can be really defeated and the war brought to an end.\"\n\nWhether the President would select Marshall as supreme commander, however, was quite another matter. As would be the British chiefs' reaction to the President's strategy, once they all reached Quebec.\n\nAnd with that the President prepared to meet his counterpart, the Right Honorable Winston Churchill and his wife at Hyde Park on August 12, 1943.\n\nThe planning for the endgame in World War II in Europe was now coming to a climax.\n**40**\n\n# The F\u00fchrer Is Very Optimistic\n\nTHE PRESIDENT'S INSISTENCE that Churchill meet him at Hyde Park before the Quebec Conference was not motivated by politeness or hospitality. For good or ill, the President was aware the meeting with the British prime minister might well determine the course of World War II\u2014and its aftermath.\n\nStrategic flexibility or inflexibility\u2014that was the question in Churchill's eyes. Opportunism or strategic determination\u2014this was the question in Roosevelt's.\n\nThe question of who was right and who was wrong would vex political and military historians for the next seventy years. Time was certainly of the essence\u2014the President having received reports of ever-increasing German atrocities in the occupied countries of Europe. The latest of these had come on August 10, the day he met with the Joint Chiefs at the White House. From London, the U.S. ambassador to the Polish government in exile, Tony Biddle, had reported German mass murder\u2014genocidal pogroms\u2014on a scale never seen before in human history.\n\nThe President, in his broadcast on July 31, had already warned neutral countries not to give asylum to war criminals, but Biddle felt this would not be enough. As he put it, \"apart from the punishment of war criminals for the crimes they have committed, it has become more imperative than ever to restrain the Germans from committing further the mass murder of the Polish population in Poland. This becomes all the more urgent since it may be anticipated that the policy of exterminating the population of entire provinces, as is practiced in Poland, may also be applied by the Germans in the present final stages of the war to the people in other German-occupied territories, like the Czechs, Yugoslavs, French and those in the occupied parts of the U.S.S.R.,\" his report warned\u2014noting the Germans had already \"exterminated\" the majority of the Jewish population, and were deporting to concentration camps hundreds of thousands of Poles, while men between the ages of fourteen and fifty were being taken to Germany as slave labor. \"Women, children and old people are sent to camps to be killed in gas chambers which previously served to exterminate the Jewish population of Poland,\" he reported. As if this were not enough, it \"may be presumed that the Germans are reckoning in the possibility of a defeat, and have consequently decided to exterminate the largest possible proportion of the Polish population\" in a kind of apocalyptic conflagration\u2014quoting Fritz Sauckel, the Reich minister of slave labor, saying as recently as June 19, 1943, in Krak\u00f3w: \"If the Germans lose the war, we shall see that nothing remains either here or elsewhere in Europe.\" The Germans would, in other words, not only resort to a scorched-earth policy, but torch peoples as well.\n\nIt was thus imperative, Roosevelt considered, to end the Nazi nightmare in Europe as soon as could be achieved\u2014something that would never be accomplished by opportunistic operations in the eastern Mediterranean and Aegean, however much Churchill and the British Foreign Office feared an eventual Sovietization in central Europe.\n\nChurchill, too, was all for finishing the war as swiftly as possible; he merely saw the challenge differently. Imaginative, impetuous, and excitable, he was pulled in all directions, as General Brooke noted in his diary\u2014but least of all in the direction of a cross-Channel landing and campaign. When writing his epic, six-volume memoirs of the conflict, Churchill would title his fifth volume _Closing the Ring._ The \"Theme of the Volume\" (a mantra he liked to insert in the frontispiece to each work) was the story of \"How Nazi Germany was Isolated and Assailed on All Sides.\"\n\nCould Hitler and his regime be swiftly toppled by being \"isolated,\" however? In the excitement of the summer of 1943, Churchill was minded to think so. The Germans would surely cave in once they saw\u2014like the Italians\u2014the game was up, and only destruction faced their nation if they sought to fight on. His July 19 minute to his chiefs of staff maintained the \"right strategy for 1944\" would be to pursue the Germans \"certainly to the Po,\" after Husky, with the option of attacking westward to the south of France or northeastward toward Vienna, \"and meanwhile to procure the expulsion of the enemy from the Balkans and Greece.\" Moreover, rather than launch a costly cross-Channel assault, to prepare an Allied invasion of Norway, to be mounted \"under the cover of 'Overlord.'\" Encirclement around the fringe _s_ of mainland Europe, he'd considered, would lead to \"Hitler and Mussolini\" being \"disposed of in 1944.\"\n\nIt was this vision\u2014tantamount to fantasy, unfortunately\u2014that had come to obsess the Prime Minister, and which underlay his latest, enlarged mission to North America: some 230 men embarked on the _Queen Mary_ to take Churchill's latest strategy to Quebec, which they reached on August 10.\n\nIt was a mission, however, that the President was determined to preempt by insisting on meeting Churchill first\u2014in private. The British must be held to the only policy that would actually defeat Nazi Germany, rather than merely ringing it. This meant a spring 1944 cross-Channel invasion, with no holds barred\u2014and no more backtracking by the British. Once the two men got together at Hyde Park, the President had decided, moreover, he would have to use his trump card.\n\nAs Roosevelt prepared to meet his recalcitrant ally, Hitler had meantime asked Dr. Goebbels to fly from Berlin to the Wolf's Lair to \"discuss the whole situation from every point of view.\"\n\nThe F\u00fchrer, Goebbels found when he arrived on August 10, had decided to abandon his main Axis ally. The new Badoglio government would \"betray\" Germany, he was certain, despite its assurances of loyalty to the Axis Pact. A telephone conversation between Churchill and Roosevelt had been intercepted, and both Goebbels and Hitler were scornful. \"These plutocrat leaders imagine things in Italy as being much more positive for them than they really are. The F\u00fchrer knows every trick in the book, though,\" Goebbels noted with evil satisfaction in his diary. \"German troops are now streaming into Italy\"\u2014in fact, German flags were already flying over Mantua and Genoa. \"There's no danger of anything too terrible happening. The F\u00fchrer is absolutely determined he's not going to surrender Italy as a battlefield. He has no intention of letting the Americans and the British get to northern Italy. The worthwhile part of the country, at least, will remain in our possession.\"\n\nHaving overcome his initial panic and fury over Mussolini's arrest, Hitler now actually _welcomed,_ he said, the impending capitulation of Italy: a nation that had no national will, he felt, beyond the popular fascist speeches of the Duce. Mussolini no longer impressed him, in retrospect. The Duce had failed to declare war in September 1939, when his intercession might have gotten England to back away from world war; moreover, at home in Italy, Mussolini had failed to crush the monarchical, aristocratic conservative elements who considered him a fly-by-nighter.\n\nTo maintain his power, a dictator must be perceived by his own people to be ruthless, Hitler understood\u2014and by preparing to crush the forces of Italy and move Wehrmacht troops immediately to occupy the entire Italian peninsula, the F\u00fchrer would be seen to be asserting his absolute will\u2014Aryan, egalitarian, merciless. Actions that would speak louder than any words.\n\nWas Hitler assuming too much of his _Volksgenossen_ \u2014his fellow citizens?\n\nIn 1943 Hitler would only appear in public twice\u2014an isolation at his headquarters that filled Dr. Goebbels, as a master of public relations, with disappointment, even anxiety. Yet the F\u00fchrer seemed to know better than his chief propagandist that he had no need to show himself in public, or even inspect his troops. With drums, banners, swastikas, and film and press fanfare, he had as F\u00fchrer given the German Volk what they yearned for: order, authority, a new place\u2014a supreme place\u2014in the European sun; a sense of belonging to a dynamic, productive community with rational if draconian goals\u2014and sufficient pride in their country's history and extraordinary military achievements to defend it and its conquests now to the death, literally. He was therefore confident he had the willing, even enthusiastic, obedience of his troops\u2014troops who would fight all the harder and more effectively _without_ the hindrance of an always-unreliable Axis ally. Italy's military missteps in Greece and North Africa in 1941 had dragged German forces into a southern theater of war that had distracted from the F\u00fchrer's main priority, the defeat of Russia\u2014in fact were now affording the Western Allies a possible stepping-stone into Europe. Without the millstone of Italian allies, however, that stepping-stone could be transformed into a _Sumpf:_ a bog, where the Western Allies could become enmeshed, ensnared, mired. If, that was, the Allies could be tempted into further fighting in the Mediterranean and Aegean.\n\nWhile always keeping the Atlantic Wall as strong as possible, ensuring there were enough divisions stationed in France to defeat any attempt at a Second Front, he would now lure the British and Americans to the south of _Festung Europa,_ Hitler told Goebbels. He would thereby buy time without taking great losses, or facing a real threat to the Reich itself: the Vaterland. True, in the probable event of Italian surrender to the Allies, vital German divisions and air force groups would have to take over the positions hitherto held by Italian units in the Mediterranean and Aegean, stretching from Sardinia to Samos\u2014forces that could not then be used on the Eastern Front. But with no-nonsense German military control not only of Italy and of the eastern Adriatic\u2014from Slovenia to Albania, Greece and Crete, with all their airfields\u2014the Western Allies would be at a disadvantage. Given the mountainous terrain and the fighting efficiency of Wehrmacht and Luftwaffe units, the Americans and British would be hard put to form a Mediterranean front that had any hope anywhere of reaching Germany.\n\nWith every week and every month the Western Allies would be held in the Mediterranean _Sumpf._ Germany would thus have time, Hitler calculated, to finish the development of the Third Reich's secret weapons\u2014long-range rockets and ballistic missiles\u2014and to deploy them, from January 1944 onwards.\n\nRoosevelt had boasted that America was the arsenal of democracy. But as F\u00fchrer of the Third Reich he would show how, using not only slave labor in Germany but products manufactured in France and the occupied countries for the Third Reich, the Third Reich was the arsenal of Europe. Not even mass RAF night raids and U.S. Air Force daylight bombing could turn the tables. Allied air force losses in conducting mass raids of German cities were unsustainable in the long run. Under the leadership of Albert Speer, the production of German armaments was being dispersed away from big cities, while evacuation of families would deny the Allies the collapse of German civilian morale.\n\nHitler's fascination, in fact obsession, with the minutiae of weaponry might be mocked by some of his generals, but in a war of numbers, it was the quality of weapons that counted, along with the sheer discipline of German Wehrmacht soldiery in combat. U.S. and British industrial output might statistically outstrip that of the Third Reich, but the technical truth was, he sneered, their weapons were inferior, their soldiery less ruthless, and the demands of their various theaters of war too global. By contrast, now that Italy's ill-fated campaign in North Africa was over, the Third Reich had the advantage: cohesion. A single continent as its battlefield, with Germany at its epicenter\u2014its high command able to furnish reinforcements in any direction, especially if Goebbels, G\u00f6ring, and other senior officials could squeeze out still more military personnel from the workforce, and more slave labor from the occupied countries\u2014including Italy now.\n\nWith the Japanese reaffirming their pact with Berlin, and drawing an ever more significant portion of U.S. and British military effort to the Far East and Pacific, the chances of the Western Allies mounting a Western Front\u2014at least a successful Second Front\u2014if they were tied down in the Mediterranean were, in Hitler's mind, distinctly dim.\n\nGoebbels was thus delighted by the f\u00fchrer he'd met at the Wolfschanze. It was no mask of confidence Hitler was putting on for his generals, his headquarters staff, or his visitors in the high and late summer of 1943, the Reich minister judged: it was real.\n\nThe South Tyrol, annexed by Italy from the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918, would be occupied by German forces and henceforth become part and parcel of the Third Reich. \"We just have to keep our nerve and not be distracted by the enemy's panic-machine,\" Goebbels noted. \"Whatever they cook up in Washington and London, they won't find consuming as easy as preparing. It'll take quite a while for the Italian crisis to sort itself out.\" The F\u00fchrer was determined to hold the Alps and Italy as far as the Po, but \"the rest of Italy is worth nothing,\" intrinsically, Goebbels recorded\u2014adding, though, that \"in private and in the greatest secrecy,\" Hitler had stated he would not only try and arrest Marshal Badoglio, King Emmanuel, and \"the whole baggage\" in Rome, but was planning to \"defend the Reich as far south in Italy as possible,\" as he'd confided to Goebbels already in June.\n\nThis latter intention would have the gravest implications for the Allies\u2014who could decode high-grade German communications from Hitler's headquarters, but not read Hitler's mind. \"The fundamental principle of our war strategy is to keep the war as far as possible from the borders of the homeland,\" Goebbels noted on August 10. \"It is absolutely the right principle,\" he reflected. \"As long as we can master the war in the air\"\u2014especially with better _Flak_ and new jet fighters\u2014\"the German people can be trusted to stick it out for a pretty long time.\" The harvest in Germany looked good, with more that could be brought in from occupied countries. Using slave labor, the outlook for the Third Reich was thus far more positive than the way the foreign press was depicting it. If the Western Allies could be lured to commit themselves to all-out war on the Southern Front rather than a Second Front, they could be savaged\u2014perhaps even repelled\u2014by the sheer professionalism and ruthless energy of the Wehrmacht. Certainly the Allies could be held at bay, far from the Reich, and in close combat\u2014with London and the British Isles, meantime, under aerial bombardment by secret weapons: \"our planned measures to be taken in the coming months.\" \"With regard to our countermeasures against the British,\" Goebbels confided, \"the F\u00fchrer thinks they can be launched in great numbers by January or February [1944] at the latest. He's going to set upon London with a fury never witnessed before. He's anticipating great things from our missiles. They've been fully tested; we just have to accelerate production to the level we need. So we have to be patient.\"\n\nAs for the Eastern Front, moreover, Hitler seemed confident the Russians could be held\u2014indeed had been beaten badly, in effect, at Kursk. As such they could be thrashed again that winter, if the Western Allies were kept at bay in the south. \"It will take time, and we have to be patient,\" Goebbels repeated\u2014Hitler interested in why Stalin had recently withdrawn his two ambassadors, Litvinov and Maisky, from Washington and London.\n\nPuzzled, Hitler and Goebbels wondered if there was an opportunity to cleave the Allies apart. Stalin could not defeat the Wehrmacht without the Western Allies mounting a Second Front\u2014something that, if the Allies still balked at such a mission, might well lead to a breakdown in the Allied alliance far more momentous than the looming collapse of the Axis Pact. \"We have to let our apples ripen. It would be a real irony of world history if we were to be courted by both the Soviets and the Anglo-Americans in this situation\u2014which is not inconceivable,\" Goebbels noted. \"It sounds absurd, but it is a possibility. In any event we've got to do our best to work on the current difficulties between them. As long as we don't have a disaster on the Eastern Front, our situation will be secure.\"\n\nIf Germany's Eastern and Southern Fronts were held, and the enemy's air offensive was parried, Germany would remain politically and militarily in the ascendant. \"The F\u00fchrer is very optimistic,\" Goebbels described, \"perhaps too optimistic. But it's good to see him in such good form. Either way we're going to put everything we can, to the last breath, into the struggle.\" He hadn't seen Hitler looking so fresh and on such a high for ages\u2014\"he told me that as soon as things get dangerous, all his aches and pains disappear and he feels healthy as never before.\"\n\nA renewed German peace with Stalin, as in the Ribbentrop Pact of 1939? It didn't seem likely, as things stood. But over time?\n\nProviding the Soviets were willing to leave Germany in control of the Ukraine\u2014with its all-import grain harvest, and the Donets Basin, with its huge reserves of coal\u2014the F\u00fchrer seemed willing to parley. In the meantime 1943, far from being a _verlorene Jahr,_ a lost year, the Third Reich would remain in almost complete military control of the whole of Europe\u2014moreover able to deal with Jewish and Resistance problems more ruthlessly than ever.\n\nThis, then, was Hitler's strategy\u2014one that was far more effective in the short term than his enemies or even his own generals admitted, then or later. Mussolini's arrest and the probable defection of the Italians as his Axis ally were removing the biggest burden from Hitler's back\u2014not increasing it, as so many assumed in their excitement. Winston Churchill and his British parliamentary colleagues, especially Anthony Eden, were known to be pressing for exploitation in the eastern Mediterranean. This was all to the good, as Goebbels had joyfully discussed with Hitler. Dissension among the Allies would make the F\u00fchrer's task the simpler, with no sign of Stalin willing to confer with his Western counterparts\u2014only ever-increasing scolding in the Moscow press at the failure of the Western powers to mount a Second Front.\n\nJust one thing could thus imperil the F\u00fchrer's warplan: American insistence on the mounting of a massive, all-out cross-Channel invasion of northern France in 1944, in coordination with the Soviets, that would crush Germany between them\u2014Hitler's age-old nightmare.\n\n#\n\n**Churchill on the Wrong Warpath**\n\n* * *\n\n> With hundreds of advisers and staff officers, Churchill arrives in New York in May 1943 aboard the _Queen Mary_ (here bringing back U.S. troops two years later) to oppose agreed-upon U.S.-British strategy.\n\n> On Capitol Hill he inveighs against a cross-Channel Allied invasion before 1945 or 1946, citing impossible odds.\n\n**Axis Surrender in North Africa**\n\n* * *\n\n> In Tunisia, a quarter million Axis troops in North Africa surrender to Eisenhower on May 12, 1943, the culmination of the President's \"great pet scheme.\" For FDR this proves the Allies are on the road to military victory in Europe; for Churchill it means the Allies should stay in the Mediterranean.\n\n**Reading Churchill the Riot Act**\n\n* * *\n\n> Churchill is intransigent; the U.S. secretary of war accuses the British of cowardice. The President takes the Prime Minister to Shangri-la to fish, while the U.S. chiefs of staff work on Churchill's military team. Eventually FDR has to give Churchill a talking-to. Following the invasion of Sicily and southern Italy, U.S. troops will be withdrawn to England for a definite 1944 D-day. Churchill is furious.\n\n**Sicily\u2014and Kursk**\n\n* * *\n\n> On July 10, 1943, the Western Allies take the war to Europe, invading Sicily. The magnitude of the landings stuns Hitler\u2014who calls off Operation Citadel, his great summer battle on the Eastern Front to destroy Stalin's Soviet armies at Kursk.\n\n**The Fall of Mussolini**\n\n* * *\n\n> With Italian troops running from the Allies in Sicily, Hitler flies to Italy to encourage Mussolini to fight on rather than surrender. Six days later, the Duce is arrested by his own people. The Germans will have to fight for Italy instead.\n\n**Churchill Returns\u2014Yet Again**\n\n* * *\n\n> Once again Churchill returns to Hyde Park, this time with his daughter Mary, to persuade FDR to abandon U.S. strategy for an Allied cross-Channel invasion in 1944. The Prime Minister is convinced it will be a disaster, and that better results will be obtained from Mediterranean operations.\n\n> The President refuses to listen to such defeatism. He threatens to withhold the Manhattan Project's atomic bomb discoveries from Britain. The two men join the Canadian PM and the Combined Chiefs of Staff in Quebec. There the D-day plans for spring 1944 will be cast in stone.\n\n**The First Crack in the Axis**\n\n* * *\n\n> In Ottawa, the President announces \"the first crack in the Axis.\" The Allies suffer their own cracks, however. Churchill misunderstands German determination to fight, even in other people's countries, and Stalin\u2014facing two-thirds of the Wehrmacht\u2014loses faith in Allied willingness to defeat the Axis.\n\n**The Reckoning**\n\n* * *\n\n> At Hyde Park (driving his own car), FDR tries to keep the Allies focused on the defeat of Nazi Germany, rather than become too embroiled in the Mediterranean. For all of Winston's faults, though, FDR needs the Prime Minister to help save western Europe from postwar Soviet domination once the Nazis are beaten.\n\n> At Salerno, south of Naples, on September 9, 1943, FDR's worst fears are realized. Churchill's vision of a \"soft underbelly\" is not soft. Fortunately, as Commander in Chief the President has stood firm, and U.S. preparations for D-day in 1944 will, he hopes, erase Churchill's near-fatal misjudgment.\n\n**41**\n\n# A Cardinal Moment\n\nMRS. CHURCHILL HAD felt unwell, following the turbulent sea voyage from Scotland, so Churchill, summoned to stay a few days with the President at Hyde Park, arrived by train from Canada at the small railway halt near the President's home around midday on August 12, 1943, without her. He had, though, his twenty-year-old daughter, Mary, in tow, a bubbly, charming subaltern in the Women's Auxiliary Territorial (equivalent to National Guard) Service.\n\nContrary to General Brooke's sour mien in Quebec, where he was preparing to meet the U.S. chiefs, the Prime Minister was full of joy at the latest news of secret negotiations for Italian surrender with Marshal Badoglio's representative. Ever the historian in attempting to set current events within the larger picture of the past, he felt the coalition nations had reached \"one of the cardinal moments\" of the war, as he'd put it in a cable to the President when calling for a tripartite meeting with Stalin, rather than waiting for the President to meet with Stalin one-on-one. In his telegram he'd claimed \"our Mediterranean strategy\" had already gained all that Stalin had \"hoped for from a cross-Channel second front\" that year\u2014dooming the German offensive at Kursk\u2014and that a Big Three meeting \"would be one of the milestones of history.\"\n\nThe President, for his part, worried that, far from being a milestone of history, it would be a millstone, if the Russians learned Churchill and his 230-man entourage were all for pulling out of Overlord yet again. Worse, in fact, if the Russians\u2014who were still facing some two hundred Wehr- macht divisions on the Eastern Front\u2014lost all faith in the Western Allies. Stalin's unwillingness to meet before the fall had at least given the President time to reassert his role as leader of the Western nations. Roosevelt therefore arrived at Springwood ahead of Churchill on August 12, shortly after breakfast.\n\nRather than incurring an immediate contretemps, the President had decided to show no outward concern, but to treat Churchill and his daughter with his usual affable hospitality and respect. He'd therefore instructed that Winston's lovely painting of Marrakesh, which the Prime Minister had brought over in person in May, at the time of the Trident Conference, should be hung in the main room of the new Library at Hyde Park before the Prime Minister's arrival, as well as Raymond Perry Neilson's vibrant new canvas of the both of them at the Atlantic Charter meeting, on the deck of the _Prince of Wales,_ flanked by their chiefs of staff.\n\nGreeting Churchill and his daughter\u2014who was in uniform\u2014the President drove them in person to Hyde Park. Given the oppressive summer heat, he also arranged, once they were settled in, for swimming at Val-Kill, Eleanor's cottage: the President driving Churchill there in his special Ford, the swim to be followed by fish chowder from an old Delano family recipe, and hot dogs cooked by the First Lady herself.\n\nThe Prime Minister certainly showed no disappointment at the simple outdoors fare, indeed he entered into the spirit of the country weekend as to the manor born\u2014even eating the hot dogs he was served. \"Mr. C. ate 1 & 1\/2,\" Daisy Suckley recorded with amusement in her diary, \"and had a special little ice-pail for his scotch.\"\n\nDaisy thought Churchill \"a strange little man,\" though. \"Fat & round, his clothes bunched up on him. Practically no hair on his head\"\u2014a fact that compelled him to seek shelter from the sun's harsh glare under \"a 10-gallon hat.\" When he undressed, Daisy was even more amused. \"In a pair of [swimming] shorts, he looked exactly like a kewpie,\" she described.\n\nReturning to her own family mansion at Wilderstein that evening, Daisy noted that \"Churchill adores the P\"\u2014\"loves him, as a man, looks up to him, defers to him, leans on him. He is older than the P. but the P. is a bigger person, and Churchill recognizes it. I saw in Churchill, too, an amount of real greatness I did not suspect before. Speaking of South Africa, Ch.[urchill] said General Smuts is one of the really great men of the world\u2014a prophet\u2014a 'seer'\u2014his very words\u2014He wants to get him to London, for his 'mind on post war Europe' . . .\"\n\nThe President, too, was an admirer of Jan Christiaan Smuts.\n\nSmuts's support for Roosevelt's vision of the United Nations had certainly been encouraging. But in terms of military strategy, Smuts's overoptimism was as worrying as Churchill's, the President felt\u2014seemingly unaware, despite or perhaps because of his great reputation as a guerilla fighter in the Boer War, just how difficult it would be to fight the Wehr-macht head-on, and thus, like Churchill, now contesting the feasibility of Overlord.\n\nTo add to the British Commonwealth preference for peripheral rather than head-to-head combat, also, there was Anthony Eden, the British Balkanist\u2014who would be attending the Quebec Conference and clashing horns with Secretary Hull. This would make the President's task doubly difficult. The President gave no hint of anxiety, however, even to Daisy.\n\n\"The P. was relaxed and seemingly cheerful in the midst of the deepest problems,\" she described. As the President explained to Churchill, the imminent surrender of Italy was a most welcome development\u2014but it would not win the war against Germany. Nor could it be counted upon, in all likelihood, to keep Russia as an ally in the war against the Axis. Germany would arguably be more powerful alone than burdened by an ally like Italy. This could have serious ramifications\u2014not only in the event that Stalin sought a separate peace with Hitler or an alternative German government, but in terms of Russian cooperation in the war against Japan, slated to follow the defeat of Germany.\n\nThere was also the question of whether Russia would agree to be a participant in a United Nations security system thereafter, if the Western Allies failed to carry out Overlord\u2014and instead put their energies into a doomed campaign in the Dardanelles, to spite the Russians. As Secretary Stimson had put it in the memorandum he'd brought with him to lunch with the President two days before, the \"Prime Minister and his Chief of the Imperial Staff,\" General Brooke, were still \"frankly at variance with\" Overlord. \"The shadow of Passchendaele and Dunkerque still weigh too heavily over the imagination of these leaders of his government. Though they have rendered lip service to the operation, their hearts are not in it.\" Nor were their heads\u2014though it was difficult to understand British reasoning that \"Germany can be beaten by a series of attritions in northern Italy, in the eastern Mediterranean, in Greece, in the Balkans, Rumania and other satellite countries, and that the only heavy fighting which needs to be done will be done by Russia. To me, in the light of the post-war problems which we shall face, that attitude towards Russia seems terribly dangerous,\" Stimson had written. \"None of these methods of pinprick warfare can be counted on by us to fool Stalin,\" he'd warned. And he'd pointed to the year 1864, \"when the firm unfaltering tactics of the Virginia campaign were endorsed by the people of the United States in spite of the hideous losses in the Wilderness, Spottsylvania [ _sic_ ], and Cold Harbor.\" Overlord was the only way \"Germany can be really defeated and the war brought to an end.\"\n\nStimson was certainly right to question the Prime Minister's loyalty to the Trident agreement. The day after his first talk with Churchill in London, on July 13, the Prime Minister had minuted his chiefs of staff with an immortal phrase that would come to personify his irrepressible but often unrealistic spirit. In the minute he had scorned the notion of landing merely on the toe of Italy, across the narrow Sicilian strait at Messina; \"why should we,\" he'd asked his generals, \"crawl up the leg like a harvest bug, from the ankle upwards? Let us rather strike at the knee\"\u2014an amphibious assault north of Naples, \"thus cutting off and leaving behind all Axis forces in Western Sicily and all ditto in the toe, ball, heel and ankle. It would seem that two or three good divisions could take Naples and produce decisive results if not on the political attitude of Italy then upon the capital. Tell the planners to throw their hat over the fence,\" the Prime Minister had declared in July, adding it was \"of the utmost urgency.\"\n\nTwo or three whole divisions, to be transported by sea, put ashore by landing craft, and reinforced more than two hundred miles behind the current German-Italian frontline?\n\nThe feasibility of this was something that had not concerned the Prime Minister. He'd seemed on the Mediterranean warpath, delighted with Smuts's supportive cable, and responding to it with excitement. \"I believe the President is with me: Eisenhower in his heart is naturally for it. I will in no circumstances allow the powerful British and British-controlled forces in the Mediterranean to stand idle.\" He would bring a Polish division from Persia, he would use Canadians and Indians\u2014all rushed in to exploit the imminent \"collapse\" of Italian forces. \"Not only must we take Rome and march as far north as possible in Italy but our right hand must give succour to the Balkan Patriots.\" If the Americans declined to cooperate \"we have ample forces to act by ourselves.\"\n\nChurchill's claim, in retrospect, was as ridiculous as the President's remark to his chiefs that U.S. troops could mount Overlord on their own, if the British reneged on the operation. The two statements were, however, an alarming indication as to how much the two Allies were now separating, not converging, in their war strategy. It was therefore up to the President to stitch them back together\u2014if he could.\n\nIn the circumstances, the President felt he had no option but to play his biggest card: the atom bomb.\n**42**\n\n# Churchill Is Stunned\n\nBEFORE LEAVING WASHINGTON, the President had rehearsed over lunch with Stimson the latest position over U.S. atomic bomb research\u2014which he'd placed under the war secretary's direction the previous year.\n\nWhen swift development of research had been in danger of stalling for lack of sufficient funding, early in January, 1943, Roosevelt had found the necessary money. Critical Canadian supplies of the necessary raw materials, moreover, had been contracted with the cooperation of the President's friend, Prime Minister Mackenzie King\u2014leaving the British, essentially, with only a cadre of theoretical physicists and no possibility of producing such a weapon by themselves. For months Churchill had been pressing for a bilateral agreement to pool research and its dividends\u2014the U.S. authorities refusing to cooperate, however, on grounds of American national security. Only the President had the authority to decide.\n\nIf Churchill would not adhere to the American Overlord strategy, as per the Trident agreement reached in May, the President thus quietly indicated to the Prime Minister that the United States would have to withhold an agreement to share development of the atomic weapon. If, by contrast, the British were willing to stand by the agreed Anglo-American Overlord strategy, then the President would go ahead and sign an agreement to share its atomic research program with the British\u2014 _and not the Russians._ This would, in itself, assure the Western Allies of a reserve weapon that could, if indeed it worked, stop the Soviets from spilling into western, perhaps even central, Europe.\n\nThe Prime Minister was shocked by the President's proposed deal. For Churchill personally, it would be a climbdown even more embarrassing than at the climax of the Trident Conference. Before leaving for Hyde Park on August 10, Churchill had gaily assured Prime Minister Mackenzie King in Quebec that the \"president is a fine fellow. Very strong in his views, but he comes around.\" This had not only been smug but clearly presumptuous, it seemed.\n\nThe President's firmness certainly surprised Winston. How would he explain backing off his opposition to Overlord, in Quebec, after bringing 230 staffers to argue his case? An agreement on the atomic bomb project must, of necessity, remain as secret as the research itself; he would thus not be able to reveal, let alone explain, the quid pro quo arrangement, save to a handful of his British team back in Quebec. It would also be politically problematic at home in England. A groundswell of resentment was already forming there against the United States, given that America was so clearly becoming the dominant partner in the Western Alliance. It might well affect the Prime Minister's support in Parliament, and room for maneuver in the War Cabinet.\n\nIn his heart of hearts, Churchill therefore continued to hope events on the ground in Europe would make Overlord unnecessary: that if the Allies' fall and winter operations against the Germans prospered in Italy and the Mediterranean, they would find Overlord unnecessary. Or if German defense forces in northern France swelled to an even greater extent, threatening disaster for Overlord, then he could always request the right to cancel the Overlord landings . . .\n\nIn any event, after swallowing the bitter pill, Winston Churchill recognized he would have to agree to the President's terms\u2014for the moment. He thus gave his assent.\n\nOverlord would go ahead as the number one Allied operation\u2014the decisive Allied operation\u2014with priority over all other commitments.\n\nChurchill was disappointed, but took his defeat graciously.\n\nThere was one further potion, however, Churchill must take before the two men left Hyde Park, the President made clear.\n\nChurchill waited to hear it.\n\nThe supreme commander of Overlord must be an American, since the largest contingent in the cross-Channel invasion would ultimately be from the United States. This decision, too, the Prime Minister would have to convey to General Brooke.\n\nChurchill was shocked\u2014the President's insistence an understandable blow to his patriotic British pride.\n\nIn the circumstances, though, there was nothing he could say, other than: Yes, Mr. President.\n\nThe historic deal, then, was struck.\n\nChurchill was not happy with the outcome\u2014indeed, he woke in the night \"unable to sleep and hardly able to breathe.\" He got up and \"went outside to sit on a bluff overlooking the river,\" where he \"watched the dawn,\" he later recalled.\n\nThe worst, at least, was over, however\u2014leaving the Western Allies with a clear, unified timetable and strategy for defeating Hitler's Third Reich. Considering that, at the Oval Office on August 10, Admiral King had suggested switching U.S. priority to the Pacific, Churchill had been skating on very thin ice\u2014with the gravest consequences for world history.\n\nFortunately the President had gotten the Prime Minister to concur. And with their new accord, the brief Hyde Park summit came to a happy end\u2014the Western Allies on the same page.\n\nChurchill tried to persuade the President they should both now go straight to Quebec to meet with the Combined Chiefs\u2014and thus spare Winston the humiliation of reporting his change of stance alone. The President said no, however.\n\nMrs. Roosevelt was about to tour American forces, hospitals, and installations in the Pacific theater for six weeks, and the President wanted to see her off. He wished, in particular, to give her a personal letter for General MacArthur in order to facilitate her tour once she arrived in Australia. Though they conducted more or less separate lives, Roosevelt was more proud of Eleanor as First Lady, and guardian of his social conscience, perhaps, than ever. He also wanted to have lunch with Secretary Hull in Washington and concert their approach to Italian government after unconditional surrender, before they both went to Quebec.\n\nTaking Churchill to the station, meantime, the President bade him and his daughter farewell. The following evening, August 15, Roosevelt himself boarded the _Ferdinand Magellan_ together with Harry Hopkins, who did not look at all well\u2014\"white, blue around the eyes, with red spots on his cheek bones,\" Daisy Suckley commented\u2014and set off, southwards. Traveling through the summer night the little presidential party made its way back to the White House. It had been quite a weekend.\nPART ELEVEN\n\n* * *\n\n#  _Quebec 1943_\n**43**\n\n# The German Will to Fight\n\nIN THE GENERAL narrative of the Second World War, the famous Quebec Conference of August 1943 would be seen as the moment when the Allies\u2014the Western Allies\u2014laid down their D-day strategy and timetable\u2014an Overlord operation scheduled to take place on May 1, 1944.\n\nIn reality, however, the decision had already been taken in May 1943, at the Trident Conference\u2014and in writing. Overruling Churchill\u2014and General Hull's brief planning revolt at the Pentagon\u2014the President had thereafter stuck to his guns. There was therefore no reason for Churchill to have brought his 230-man team to the Canadian capital, from a military point of view\u2014or for them to stay. General Eisenhower was handling the secret Italian surrender negotiations with Marshal Badoglio's representative, and the decision to appoint an American, not a British, supreme commander for Overlord had been agreed by Churchill at Hyde Park, in deference to the President's wishes. Had Churchill simply told his British team of the new deal\u2014trading partnership in the atomic bomb's development for British commitment to a clear American D-day strategy\u2014and had they returned to their ship, the _Queen Mary,_ the Quebec Conference need not have taken place.\n\nInstead, of course, it did take place\u2014bringing the British and American military teams almost to blows. At one point the noise of a revolver being fired in the conference room\u2014which had been cleared of clerks and junior officers\u2014would be thought to be the start of a gunfight.\n\nThe British, in short, acted at Quebec with extraordinary ill grace\u2014loath to accept a policy in the Mediterranean that did not envisage or permit exploitation of what they saw as a unique opportunity, after the toppling of Mussolini, to strike at the outer pillars supporting the Third Reich. In his war memoirs Churchill would title this section of his account \"Italy Won.\" But as the historian of Churchill's _opus magnum_ would later point out, Italy was _not_ won.\n\nInstead, the Allied campaign in Italy would arguably prove the most ill-conceived Allied offensive of the war thus far: a sad reflection, in all truth, of Churchill's misconception of modern combat. Far from being a victory, it would drag on for almost two years, never putting the Allies anywhere near a breakthrough, and causing the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Italian civilians long after their government had surrendered unconditionally. It would incur almost a third of a million Allied casualties\u2014killed and wounded\u2014for no other gain than could have been made at virtually no cost in September 1943. And this largely because Churchill and his military team completely underestimated the German will to fight, not for their homeland but for every inch of other people's territory as if it was their own: a demonstration of blinkered yet also professional approach to battle that had few parallels in the history of war.\n\nThe difference between Germans and Italians in their response to the Allied onslaught would say it all. On July 19, 1943, the largest single bombing raid of the war had taken place in Italy. More than five hundred B-17s and B-24s of Major General James Doolittle's North African Strategic Air Forces had pounded Rome's railway marshaling-yards and nearby airfields.\n\nThe raid had destroyed the equivalent of two hundred miles of railway track, and\u2014in spite of millions of warning leaflets dropped the previous day\u2014had resulted in some seven hundred civilian deaths: enough, when rumors of vast casualties spread among the Italian population, not only to frighten the Italian government to end Mussolini's long reign as Duce, but to begin surrender negotiations with the Allies under a different leader, Marshal Badoglio, in order to avoid more destruction of their Italian homeland.\n\nThe Italians had not reckoned on the German response to their imminent capitulation, however\u2014not only German forces in Italy, but Germans at home in the Fatherland, where German cities faced the same, indeed far worse, bombing than Rome experienced. Five days after the U.S. bombing of the Rome railway network, there had taken place an even bigger air raid, or series of raids: this time the combined heavy bombers of the RAF and USAAF attacking from airfields in Britain the northern German city of Hamburg\u2014Operation Gomorrah. Employing not hundreds but thousands of bombers in rolling attacks, night and day for an entire week, the Allies created a literal firestorm\u2014with temperatures of 1,000 degrees Celsius, hurricane winds of 150 miles per hour, and melting asphalt in the streets. By its end, Operation Gomorrah had killed some forty-two thousand people\u2014the majority, civilians\u2014injured thirty-seven thousand more, left the center of Hamburg in utter ruin, and had caused a million people to evacuate the burning city. Yet the result was the very opposite of reaction in Italy.\n\nInstead of calls for the arrest of their country's dictator and immediate unconditional surrender to the Allies, as in Italy, there was reported to be an even more relentless determination in Germany to continue to prosecute war to the death. It was as if any hope of conscience\u2014 _Gewissen_ \u2014had now been incinerated in Germany. Certainly it removed any sense of guilt at having been the first to launch such a war of ruthless conquest by _Blitz_ and _Blitzkrieg._ The Allied raid on Hamburg\u2014which would soon be replicated on Berlin\u2014merely reinforced German stoicism: a collective will that was expressed in yet deeper loyalty to the nation's leader and calls for the F\u00fchrer, in their fury, to exact German revenge. In particular, for him to use, finally, the secret weapons he and Goebbels had publicly alluded to.\n\nAt his Wolfschanze headquarters near Rastenburg, far from Hamburg and Berlin, Hitler thus viewed the Allied bombing raids on those cities as more inherently counterproductive than his own earlier raids on London and Coventry in 1940 and 1941. Bombing would not bring Germany to its knees. The fact was, the Allies could not defeat the Third Reich, Hitler reasoned, unless they could defeat his primary weapon, the Wehrmacht. The German armies embodied the highest Teutonic virtues of obedience, courage, group loyalty, and self-sacrifice\u2014and as he studied his maps and daily Abwehr intelligence reports, he rightly saw no signs whatever of an Allied intention to follow up the mass bombing of German cities with a ground offensive on Germany via the beaches of northern France\u2014at least not for another year.\n\nTo the extent that, if they did attempt to breach the Atlantic Wall in the late summer of 1943, the Allied invasion forces would be crushed by his German divisions in France, the delay was disappointing to the F\u00fchrer\u2014and to Goebbels. However, if the Allies didn't dare launch such an assault in 1943, as Hitler pointed out to his panicky generals, then there was no cause for alarm. The German Volk and the German Wehrmacht were too unified and imbued with too much resolve to simply collapse; rather, they would hold fast at home, despite the bombing, and fight hard and harshly abroad. They would treat every attack on German forces in the occupied countries as if it was an assault on the Vaterland\u2014in fact on the very honor and courage of the German nation. Meantime, German scientists and engineers would make available the new, secret weapons they had devised that would give Germany the wherewithal, if not to win the war, then to negotiate favorable armistices with Germany's enemies.\n\nThe war was not over, Hitler thus made clear. There was everything to gain by continuing to fight, implacably and fearlessly, to preserve the Third Reich they had so heroically created out of the ashes of World War I and the stupid Weimar Republic. Once he overcame his fury over Italy's imminent defection, in fact, Hitler was seen to regain his composure\u2014and confidence. Fall weather was approaching; it would soon make conditions for an Allied cross-Channel assault impossible. For all their superiority in the air, at sea, and on land, the Western Allies were, in sum, _in no position to invade Germany_ \u2014and without such an invasion there was little chance the Russians could, either. In fact, judging by the American and British performance against modest numbers of German troops defending Sicily\u2014where only sixty thousand Wehrmacht troops had been committed\u2014the Allies might not be able to seize control of much of the Italian mainland, whether or not the post-Mussolini government surrendered unconditionally.\n\nBy stamping on the Italians and by using the Italian mainland\u2014with its mountain ranges that would provide good defensive positions\u2014as a Hindenburg Line of the Third Reich, the Germans had nothing to lose, Hitler reckoned. And much to gain scientifically in the meantime.\n\nFor all his mistakes\u2014holding on in North Africa, despite Rommel's recommendation of evacuation after Alamein and Torch; holding on at Stalingrad rather than a calculated withdrawal; launching Operation Citadel instead of using his armored forces to entice and then crush a Russian offensive\u2014Hitler was about to show that he had, in fact, a better grasp of the German war machine he'd built up over the past decade than his own generals. He was backed loyally and enthusiastically by the spirit of a whole nation, he felt, and was in a position to fight the war to the bitter, bitter end.\n\nThat Hitler was not wrong was certainly the view later taken by German official historians, in a kind of bemused, retrospective awe.\n\nIn fanning the flames of _Volksgemeinschaft,_ involving a profound sense of national German community, identity, and destiny, Hitler had built upon quite the opposite of what most observers\u2014even the Nazi elite, on occasion\u2014assumed. The \"belief that under National Socialism the Germans were, so to speak, subjected to total communicative and ideological brainwashing\" by Hitler and his Nazi accomplices was simply not fact, the official historians concluded. \"The widespread view that systematic government propaganda kept the population ready and willing for war, or even created a unified 'national' feeling among them, ignores reality,\" the historians pointed out. \"Identification with the nation could not be produced on command, and as a rule propaganda was convincing only to those already converted.\"\n\nGerman nationalism, stretching back decades before Hitler, was in truth \"the precondition for propaganda being successful, not the other way around.\" Hitler and Goebbels's propaganda had succeeded so well, in other words, because it hinged upon \"established nationalist beliefs.\" The \"spreading of racist, xenophobic, or authoritarian stereotypes\" had, as instanced in the conquest of Poland and huge swaths of the Soviet Union, worked so effectively because such propaganda was directed at \"soldiers already predisposed to them.\" In a country like Germany, given the country's warring history since ancient times, Hitler had understood as an Austrian outsider that the very concept of democracy was foreign. German intellectuals had for centuries sneered at it\u2014and had avoided practical politics, preferring philosophy, the arts, and science. With its rich history of land warfare at the epicenter of Europe, and its distaste for thinking through or dealing with the necessary compromises involved in civilized society, Germany's people could therefore, in the wake of deep economic depression and defeat in World War I, be encouraged to focus on a supposedly egalitarian, simplistic expression of nationalist German identity: one that, in order to cohere and remain strong, must see others\u2014whether foreigners or Jews, communists or non-Aryans\u2014as enemies: enemies to be excluded, disrespected, defeated. And where deemed necessary, simply liquidated, without remorse or compunction.\n\nAnyone who objected to the nationalistic program in Germany was \"othered,\" while \"in foreign affairs\" the \"seed was planted for the future offensive war of extermination,\" the German official historians concluded. \"War, established as a permanent component of German politics as an inheritance from the First World War, from then on became the natural means of achieving political ends both at home and abroad.\" Far from becoming a nation of warrior-serfs obeying a draconian f\u00fchrer, in other words, nationalistic Germans had become loyal and obedient members of a community\u2014proud and arrogant citizens of a revived empire: a third Reich, a _Volksgemeinschaft,_ a \"master race\" of individuals each cognizant at some level and largely supportive of the genocide being directed against Jews in Germany as well as outside Germany on their behalf; supportive, too, of barbarous treatment of enemies such as Russian _Untermenschen,_ since the denigration of \"others\" only increased and inflamed this powerful sense of national German identity.\n\nWhat Hitler had intuited, then, as Italy's new leaders prepared to defect from the Axis Pact, was what many of his own generals did not: namely that the war would not be won or lost by cleverness or better tactical strategy in the East, the South, or the West, per se\u2014tactics such as the fighting withdrawals that these German generals suggested, or the marshaling of armored reserves using the latest panzers in German counterstrikes. The war could only be won, in the end, by employing Germany's national _spirit:_ the amazing solidarity of its people, bonding in a nationalist saga that Hitler saw as mythic in the noblest, Nibelungen sense: a demonstration of national pride and unity by seventy million people at home, but especially so abroad when acting as military overlords\u2014an achievement unmatched, in many eyes, since the Romans.\n\nThis national German unity that the F\u00fchrer had channeled and directed would never be broken by aerial bombing or by peripheral Allied operations, let alone by the cowardly defection of Germany's partners. It was not, in the end, a matter of winning or losing; it was a matter of hunkering down and asserting German moral and military strength, in dark days as well as fair ones. German forces had won, in the shortest time, almost unimaginable victories and territories. All genuine Germans were participants, implicated in its sins and a part of Germany's new trial by fire. No one would be spared. There was thus no talk of the future, the postwar world, because the concept no longer existed\u2014only the current defend-or-die struggle.\n\nBy fighting offensively in the Mediterranean in the hopes of German collapse, then, the Allies might well, Hitler recognized, play into German hands. Wehrmacht forces would be operating closer to home, the Allies further away from theirs. Moreover, German forces would have the advantage of mountainous terrain, easily defensible lines, highly disciplined and well-armed troops who would fight _even better_ when shorn of their weak, former ally, Italy, once the Italian government capitulated. Moreover, by continuing\u2014in fact expanding\u2014its massed daylight and nighttime bomber attacks that inevitably killed so many German civilians, the Allies could truthfully be portrayed as barbarians\u2014giving Hitler not only the \"right\" to use new weapons of mass destruction in reply, but impelling the German Volk to _demand_ he use them: _Vergeltungswaffen,_ as the secret weapons were soon called\u2014weapons of revenge. Winged but pilotless flying bombs, launched from easily constructed concrete ramps and aimed to fall indiscriminately on Allied cities. And also ballistic missiles, with even greater range\u2014and so high and fast they were impossible to shoot down.\n\nAs Hitler had assured Mussolini at Feltre, there was no need to fear the Allies\u2014especially the British: their cities would, the F\u00fchrer forecast, be \"razed to the ground,\" as they deserved. And unless the Allies dared take the risk of attacking Germany proper with ground troops, the Allies could not win. Moreover, if they tried to do so by launching a cross-Channel invasion, they would be easily repelled. Ergo, the Third Reich was bound, the F\u00fchrer predicted, to prevail.\n\nThis, then, was the challenge facing the Allies even at the very moment when they seemed to be winning the war, both in Russia and the Mediterranean in the high summer of 1943. By underestimating German determination to fight on mercilessly in southern Europe, the Allies were heading toward disaster.\n\nOnly the President could now steer the Allies through these rapids, and to his great credit Roosevelt tried. Yet in truth he failed\u2014forcing him to paper over the true military debacle, which now, as in a Greek tragedy, unfolded.\n**44**\n\n# Near-Homicidal Negotiations\n\nAFTER A HECTIC day at the White House on August 16, 1943, the President prepared to set off by train to Canada\u2014hoping Churchill had done as he'd promised: getting his chiefs of staff to back off proposals for more extensive operations in the Mediterranean, once southern Italy was in Allied hands. And to start putting all British efforts into Overlord under an American commander.\n\nChurchill certainly did the latter\u2014to the consternation of General Brooke, who took the news badly. As Brooke noted in his diary, the Prime Minister \"had just returned from being with the President and Harry Hopkins\" at the President's home in Hyde Park. \"Apparently the latter pressed very hard for the appointment of Marshall as Supreme Commander for the cross Channel operations and as far as I can gather Winston gave in, in spite of having promised me the job!!\"\n\nSince Churchill still did not believe, in his heart of hearts, that Overlord would ever really be mounted, he had shown no sympathy when speaking with Brooke on his return to Quebec. Nor did he tell Brooke that it was the President's decision, not Hopkins's. More importantly, however, he did not tell Brooke what had been agreed with the President regarding the prioritization of Overlord over all other opportunistic operations\u2014hoping that the redoubtable Brooke would fight hard in the Combined Chiefs meetings for maximum possible interim American support in the Mediterranean.\n\nAs the Prime Minister admitted to General Marshall, when dining with the general in Quebec on the evening of August 15, he'd \"changed his mind regarding Overlord,\" and now agreed \"that we should use every opportunity to further that operation.\" But when Marshall said the first meeting of the Combined Chiefs of Staff that day had been pretty contentious over the issue of Overlord priority, and that the U.S. chiefs were adamantly opposed to prejudicing the success of a spring 1944 Overlord by overambitious \"bolstering\" operations in Italy in the coming months, the Prime Minister had \"finally dropped the subject, saying 'give us time.'\"\n\nIn relaying Churchill's comment to his fellow American chiefs the next day, General Marshall assumed Churchill meant time for the British chiefs to swallow the inevitable, and put their energies behind Overlord rather than Italy. Marshall was wrong, however. Churchill was not one to give up so easily\u2014and one way or another, the Prime Minister remained bent on pursuing his \"soft underbelly\" strategy, whether or not it prejudiced the success of Overlord.\n\nMarshall had, after all, agreed to an amphibious American landing south of Naples, at Salerno, in two or three weeks' time, as Churchill knew\u2014in fact the operation, codenamed Avalanche, had filled Churchill with excitement. If all went well, not only would the amphibious assault secure the unconditional surrender of Italy but it would cut off German troops in the foot of Italy and open the road not only to Naples but to Rome. The consequences were irresistible. Once the Italians\u2014who were still occupying positions all across southern Europe, from the south of France to Greece and the Balkans, on behalf of the Axis Pact\u2014came over to the Allies, the soft underbelly of Europe would, Churchill remained certain, become the gateway to central Europe, promising to make a cross-Channel assault either unnecessary or pro forma. And a Russian inundation of central and western Europe impossible.\n\nChurchill's duplicity, in other words, arose not from a perfidious British effort to extend British imperial influence, as some U.S. generals such as Admiral Leahy posited at the time, but from a genuinely held belief that Overlord would fail. And, conversely, out of a genuine belief that opportunistic Allied operations in the Mediterranean\u2014especially if Turkey could be persuaded to join the Allies\u2014would succeed.\n\nIn both matters Churchill would be proved utterly wrong. As the historian of Churchill's memoirs, David Reynolds, would write, Churchill was profoundly if understandably deceitful in writing his fabled account of that fateful summer and autumn\u2014but the Prime Minister was not insincere in his faith in a Mediterranean rather than a doomed Normandy strategy. His was a faith based not only upon fear of failure in northern France, but also a deep and abiding fear of Russian motives and intentions\u2014and in this respect the President was just as concerned. It was certainly something that he was taking very, very seriously as on August 16, 1943, Roosevelt set forth from the secret siding near the White House at 8:20 p.m. to join the Prime Minister in Quebec.\n\nBy the time the President's train arrived in Quebec, via Montreal\u2014where Fala's presence on the platform banished any attempts by the Secret Service to maintain secrecy\u2014on the evening of August 17, 1943, the Combined Chiefs of Staff of the United States and Britain had been at loggerheads for three days, and were getting close, he was informed, to homicide.\n\nGeneral Brooke, chairing the Combined Chiefs of Staff meetings (since they were being held on \"British,\" or non-U.S., soil), felt he was being driven almost out of his mind by American unwillingness to see the connection between operations in the Mediterranean and Overlord. \"I entirely failed to get Marshall to realize the relation between cross Channel and Italian operations, and the repercussions which the one exercises on the other,\" Brooke noted in exasperation on August 15. \"It is quite impossible to argue with him as he does not even begin to understand a strategic problem.\"\n\nThis was the pot calling the kettle black. If anything, the reality was the reverse. Brooke's obstinate insistence, along with that of his irrepressible prime minister, upon overambitious Allied operations in Italy would, just as Marshall had feared, become a near-fatal drag on trained Allied manpower and logistical support for Overlord, as well as incurring a far higher Allied death toll than was necessary. Had Brooke devoted himself to how best to achieve the maximum German commitment of troops and reserves in the Mediterranean by the minimum of effective Allied operations, the course of World War II for the Allies would have been far better served. Far from later acknowledging his mistake, Brooke\u2014who was promoted to the rank of field marshal in 1943 and then raised to the peerage as Lord Alanbrooke in 1946\u2014would go to his grave in 1963, arguing he'd always been right: that the German defense of Italy and the casualties the Werhmacht suffered by the summer of 1944 had contributed mightily to Overlord's success.\n\nThis was ridiculous. The Western Allies were to suffer 312,000 troops killed, wounded, and missing\u2014including 60,000 Allied deaths\u2014in the eighteen-month Italian campaign, without ever getting much further than the Po. The Wehrmacht would suffer 434,000 casualties, including 48,000 men killed in Italy by May 1945\u2014but though it did keep German divisions from the Eastern Front, it had little or no effect upon Overlord, since the Germans would have been forced to keep troops stationed across southern Europe (as they did in Norway) in fear of invasion, whatever happened in Normandy. It would become a heavy price in blood, destruction, and civilian misery to have paid for British strategy\u2014a strategy based on a fatal illusion, or delusion: that the Allies would be able to achieve great things in a country that was ideally suited to defense, not offense.\n\nThe fact was, as Churchill's military biographer, Carlo D'Este, would write, Churchill and Brooke had utterly failed to predict \"the casualties that would be incurred\" by their obsession with warmaking in Italy. \"During their twenty months in Italy the Allies fought one bloody battle after another, for reasons no one ever understood,\" D'Este would lament. \"Allied strategy in Italy seemed to be not to win, but rather to drag out the war for as long as possible,\" he would write in retrospective frustration, a tragedy that \"simply distracted the Allies from their real task: crossing the English Channel and opening the endlessly delayed second front.\"\n\nNor was this hindsight. Marshall's understanding of the \"strategic problem,\" far from being ignorant, as Brooke described it, was prophetic\u2014and Marshall's unrelenting argument with the British chiefs of staff was greatly to his credit in counseling caution before sending tens, even hundreds of thousands of men\u2014American, British, Canadian, French, Polish, and others\u2014to their deaths in Italy and southern Europe. In this respect Brooke's diary gave but a glimpse of the fierce altercations and traded accusations coloring their meetings.\n\nBrooke was implacable. \"Dined by myself as I wanted to be with myself!\" he noted on August 15, after hearing he was no longer to command Overlord, and having learned from Field Marshal Dill that General Marshall, now the presumed supreme commander-to-be, was \"threatening to resign if we pressed our point\" on overambitious Mediterranean operations. The next day Brooke himself was near resignation\u2014\"Marshall has no strategic outlook of any kind, and [Admiral] King has only one thought and that is based on the Pacific,\" he penned in his special green ink\u2014the traditional color reserved for chiefs of the Imperial General Staff in Britain. The Combined Chiefs had had to ask all secretaries, stenographers, and planners to leave the room, and had argued for three hours without agreement. \"This is the sixth of these meetings with the American chiefs that I have run,\" Brooke noted, \"and I do not feel that I can possibly stand any more!\"\n\nAdmiral Leahy was certainly stunned by the extreme acerbity. \"The British and U.S. Staffs today got into a very frank discussion of a difference of opinion as to the value of the Italian campaign to our common war effort against Germany,\" Leahy recorded in his diary that night. He felt Marshall's willingness to go ahead with occupation of southern Italy to secure the Foggia airfields, from which the U.S. Army Air Forces could bomb southern Germany and the Ploesti oil fields in Romania, was \"very positive in his attitude toward the Mediterranean committment [ _sic_ ],\" but Brooke seemed ungrateful, and dissatisfied. When Brooke suggested the Combined Chiefs divert Allied forces on their way out to the Far East and the Pacific to mount a bigger campaign in Italy, King's language lit the borealis lights. \"Admiral King was very undiplomatic to use a mild term for his attitude,\" Leahy confided.\n\nAdmiral King was once again reaching the end of his tether. If the British devoted too much effort to Italy, then the \"build up in England would be reduced to that of a small Corps\" for Overlord, as Brooke mocked King's approach\u2014in which case King would favor \"the whole war [being] reoriented towards Japan.\"\n\nIt was small wonder. Ignoring King, Brooke had argued for an immediate, major Allied campaign in Italy to reach as far north as Turin and Milan. Not content with those objectives, Brooke had even pressed to \"retain\" in the Mediterranean three of the seven battle-hardened divisions earmarked for Overlord, and perhaps all seven, if German resistance in Italy was fierce . . .\n\nMarshall was almost apoplectic at this, causing Brooke to grudgingly admit, under pressure, that \"'battle experienced' troops were required for Overlord\" if it was to succeed. Brooke remained furious, however, noting that night, \"It is not a cheerful thought to feel that I have a continuous week of such days ahead of me!\"\n\nThe American chiefs felt the same.\n\nAs the Combined Chiefs of Staff discussions became ever more strident, Brooke had descended into the foulest of moods. He later confessed that \"it took me several months to recover\" from what he called the \"blow\" at being passed over for the cross-Channel supreme command\u2014something doubly disappointing since he had begun to yearn to get away from the Prime Minister, he confessed, and be able to command troops in battle once again.\n\nThe imminent arrival of the President had made it imperative that the chiefs come to an accord, however. Though the British team pushed the struggle over strategy to the very brink on August 16, 1943, they finally and reluctantly gave in. The decisions made at the Trident Conference in May would stand. Overlord would, they confirmed, be top Allied priority\u2014and the seven battle-hardened divisions the President wanted would be transferred from the Mediterranean to Britain by November. Whatever could be achieved in Italy in the interim would be undertaken jointly by the Allies with remaining forces in the Mediterranean, on an ad hoc basis, to keep as many German forces away from France and Russia as possible\u2014but under no circumstances were operations to be considered in the Balkans or elsewhere in the eastern Mediterranean.\n\nThere were, besides, equally important decisions still to be reached concerning Southeast Asia and the Pacific. The difference of opinion over strategy in Europe was therefore papered over at the conference. It was not a perfect result, but better than an outright split.\n\nMeeting the President on his arrival in Quebec and bringing him up to speed regarding the recommendations of the Combined Chiefs of Staff, Admiral Leahy told him of the long days of contention\u2014and the result.\n\nAs Lieutenant Elsey later recalled, Leahy was very much the President's lynchpin. \"He was already at Quebec, and Roosevelt looked to him, in the summer residence of the governor general, the Citadel, as the top dog. Roosevelt looked to him rather than reaching out to King, Arnold, and Marshall. Leahy was the channel of communication from the chiefs to FDR. He, Leahy, really _was_ the chief of staff to the President, and was dealt with as such, and Roosevelt saw relatively little of the Joint Chiefs during the Quebec Conference. Things came to him from Leahy, their views.\"\n\nThe President, after all, had not come to Quebec to do their job. In truth he'd come for a very different reason.\n**45**\n\n# A Longing in the Air\n\nPRIOR TO THE President's arrival in Canada, a team from his White House Map Room had traveled to the Citadel in Quebec to set up a map room there, as Lieutenant Elsey afterward explained. They were \"standing by the President's map room on his arrival at the Citadel to acquaint him with all the latest developments of the war. War reports had been radioed to the train during our trip up from Washington, but a more complete picture was available here for the President. The Prime Minister had his own map room in another part of the Citadel.\" Special telephone communications with Washington and the White House had also been set up, \"so that the President was never out of instantaneous communication with Washington.\" \"Direct telegraph wire service,\" also, \"was available between the Citadel and the White House.\"\n\nOnce the President was established in the Citadel, the wires grew hot with new cables\u2014for the President was found to be batting drafts of a big speech back and forth with Judge Rosenman and Robert Sherwood, his speechwriters in Washington. On August 14, before leaving, he'd told them he wanted something he could broadcast to the whole world from Ottawa, on the eve of what looked like imminent Italian collapse and surrender. As he'd explained, he'd set the strategy and the timing of Overlord in stone. Though there would be much fighting still to be done, the war was moving into a new gear, political as well as military\u2014and it was time to speak to the people of the United Nations: to make sure the moral aims and objectives of the Western Allies were clear and noble, before their first soldiers set foot on the mainland of Europe, early in September.\n\nBefore the President could give his speech, however, his Map Room received a very different kind of cable\u2014this time from Moscow.\n\nThe telegram was from Marshal Stalin, dated Kremlin, August 22, 1943. It was not friendly.\n\nHaving refused every invitation to meet with the President for the past ten months, the Soviet dictator now declared he was fed up with the Soviet Union being treated as \"a passive third observer\" of agreements made by the United States and Britain with liberated countries, as well as with others \"dissociating themselves\" from Hitler. \"I have to tell you that it is impossible to tolerate such a situation any longer,\" the quasi-emperor cabled. \"I propose to establish,\" he declared, a three-power military-political \"Commission\" to handle such matters, immediately, \"and to assign Sicily as the place of residence of the Commission.\"\n\nStalin's arrogant new signal from Moscow made the President \"mad,\" Harriman recalled, as it did Mackenzie King. When, two days later, Stalin sent _another_ cable, yet again turning down the President's invitation to meet at Fairbanks, Alaska, but demanding that a \"Soviet Representative\" be part of Eisenhower's secret negotiations with the Badoglio government for unconditional Italian surrender, the President became doubly incensed.\n\nExcept for his epistolary relationship with Stalin, the President had come to feel proud of the way his war strategy since Pearl Harbor had played out\u2014thus far. He'd even treated Churchill with extraordinary patience and good humor when the Prime Minister had gotten into an interminable argument over Sumatra, after the President's arrival.\n\nSumatra?\n\n\"Mr. Churchill strongly advocated the establishment of an allied aviation base on the north end of Sumatra instead of the west coast of Burma,\" Leahy had protested, amazed at the Prime Minister's chutzpah. Instead of helping reestablish Burmese road communications with China\u2014which Chiang Kai-shek considered vital for U.S. supplies\u2014Sumatra would offer the prospect of air cover for a British invasion of Singapore, Churchill had argued: an objective that had never hitherto been raised before the Combined Chiefs. Even General Brooke had cringed. The Prime Minister's latest obsession had led to distracting arguments that continued for three long days\u2014leaving Brooke furious and ashamed of his boss. An assault on Sumatra had never been seriously examined by the British chiefs\u2014in fact the idea had only come to Churchill on the transatlantic voyage to Canada, Brooke railed in his diary, \"in a few idle moments,\" yet here was the Prime Minister \"married to the idea that success against Japan can only be secured through the capture of the north tip of Sumatra\"\u2014and \"wants us to press the Americans for its execution!\" The Prime Minister was acting like \"a peevish temperamental prima donna,\" and proving \"more unreasonable and trying than ever this time.\"\n\nChurchill would not give up his bone of contention, however\u2014as if in lockjaw. Not even the President had been able to silence him on the subject. When the two leaders went on a quick fishing trip for the day in Laurentides Park, forty miles from Quebec, on August 20, and in the governor-general's cabin were eating the small trout they'd caught, Averell Harriman witnessed the sight of Churchill _still_ going at the subject hammer and tongs with the President\u2014who responded with glass and silverware.\n\nThere was simply insufficient shipping for such a venture, the President patiently pointed out to Churchill, even if they wanted such a strategy\u2014which they didn't. Reopening the supply route to China was the real priority. The President \"used most of the glasses and salt-cellars on the table making a 'V'-shaped diagram to describe the Japanese position\" from western China to the South Pacific, \"indicating the advantages of striking [Japan] from either side.\" Instead of laboriously trying to \"remove the outer ones,\" such as Singapore and Sumatra, \"one by one,\" the Allies should, the President said, simply go for the enemy's jugular\u2014\"thereby capturing the sustaining glasses\" behind the outliers\u2014Roosevelt corralling the glassware with a sweep of his hand.\n\nChurchill had remained unpersuaded, though\u2014the argument mirroring, Harriman later reflected, their earlier \"disputations over striking across the Channel or in the Mediterranean. Roosevelt once again favored the straight-line approach,\" Churchill the peripheral. As the President shared with Mackenzie King, however, Winston's military misjudgments might be truly appalling, but they were vastly outweighed by Churchill's profound _political_ wisdom: wisdom that would be crucial in the next phase of the war\u2014especially when both men saw the tone of Stalin's cable. The war against Hitler, and then Hirohito, was set\u2014but avoiding future war with Russia was not.\n\nDespite the war of words traded by the chiefs of staff at the Ch\u00e2teau de Frontenac, then, the irony was this: that an extraordinary measure of harmony seemed to persist between the President and the Prime Minister\u2014both of them staying in the Citadel, where they lunched and dined together every day.\n\nWhat the President, in contrast to his chiefs, recognized was that the very unity of the Allies was being tested\u2014not merely by the challenge of defeating the forces of Hitler and Hirohito in battle, but by the need to deal with Stalin. _And that the Western Allies must not fail this test._\n\nTo the world, the Allied summit at Quebec in the summer of 1943 thus held a symbolic importance far outweighing any recommendations the Combined Chiefs of Staff might make: an alliance that must be seen by the world as growing closer and closer, not further apart. Though it could not be revealed to the public, possession of an atomic bomb, if nuclear fission worked, would give the Western Allies huge authority in ensuring a world free of German- or Japanese-style militarism and aggression\u2014or Russian. The President had even gotten British acceptance of the draft Joint Four-Power Declaration he'd asked Sumner Welles to draw up in writing before his meeting with Churchill at Hyde Park, together with a suggested United Nations Protocol document. All in all, this was a tremendous achievement for such an alliance between the Old World and the New: an achievement the President was determined to emphasize in the speech he intended to deliver in Ottawa, the capital of Canada. And Stalin's rude new cables only made him the more determined to make it strong.\n\nTo outsiders, the President thus appeared in an even more confident frame of mind than usual on August 25, as Mr. Roosevelt and the governor-general, the Earl of Athlone, were driven to the seat of Canadian government, having traveled to Ottawa by train from Quebec. \"It was estimated that there were a crowd of approximately 30,000 people on hand at Parliament Hill and its vicinity to welcome President Roosevelt and to hear his address,\" the official chronicler of the President's trip noted. \"This was said to be the largest crowd ever to welcome a distinguished visitor to Ottawa, even exceeding the welcome accorded to King George VI and Queen Elizabeth\" in 1939.\n\n\"The setting of the ceremony was one of the finest if not the finest ever provided for a Presidential speech,\" the _New York Times_ agreed the next day. \"Through streets packed with people and lined with sailors, soldiers, airmen and uniformed women in all services, the President drove from the railroad station into the parliamentary grounds in his open car.\" As people swarmed over the lawn, the President, \"looking down on the waving crowd, turned to Prime Minister King and said, 'I shall never forget this sight.' The crowd in turn looked up at the magnificent Gothic building with its tower stretching up into the blue sky, as imposing a monument to parliamentary government as exists in the world. Carved over the portal are the lines by a Canadian poet descriptive of this great country: 'The wholesome sea is at her gates, her gates both east and west.'\"\n\nThe President was determined to give no hint of weakness\u2014physical or moral. He \"stood throughout the ceremony,\" Mackenzie King recorded in his diary. \"Quite an effort as one could see, and shaking a good deal as he held on a chair and the stand\"\u2014kept upright by his steel leg braces.\n\nRobert Sherwood and Rosenman\u2014\"the firm of Sherwood and Rosenman, astrologers,\" as they signed their first draft\u2014had been tasked with helping the President compose an address that would encompass his political philosophy, as well as his vision of the war's purpose\u2014and the future. The two speechwriters had thus done their best and had arranged for the first finished draft to be flown to Canada, along with a plea that they be invited to Quebec to incorporate the new military decisions being made there. \"It was signed with a drawing (by Sherwood) of a tall thin man\u2014Sherwood; and a short fat man,\" Rosenman recalled humorously.\n\nThe President had turned down their request, however\u2014for he had no intention of announcing the military decisions he'd made, either to the Germans or to the Japanese. He liked the \"astrologers'\" initial draft, however, which he then worked on \"very carefully, making many changes in language here and there, which strengthened it,\" Rosenman later recalled. Most significantly he'd added a whole new section relating to the postwar. \"The Ottawa speech was not a major policy speech in any sense of the word,\" Rosenman explained its tenor. \"It was, however, important,\" for in it the President declined to mention the Russians\u2014at all.\n\nWhat Roosevelt had decided to do, instead of talking about the things his military advisers were discussing with their counterparts, was to raise instead, at a critical moment in the prosecution of the war, a rallying cry for the democracies. A call for the United States and the United Nations to put isolationism finally and forever behind them, and embrace his larger, moral vision of the future. He therefore \"discarded the last few pages of our draft,\" Rosenman recalled, \"and wrote a new conclusion with an optimistic note.\" A note that would follow his grimmer picture of the turmoil that Hitler and the Japanese had brought to mankind. \"We did not choose this war,\" the President reminded his audience\u2014\"and that 'we' includes each and every one of the United Nations. War was violently forced upon us by criminal aggressors who measure their standards of morality by the extent of the death and destruction they can inflict upon their neighbors.\"\n\nWith war forced upon them, the United Nations were now pulling harder and harder _together,_ the President emphasized. He mocked the panickers who, after Pearl Harbor, had \"made a great 'to-do' about the invasion of the continent of North America\"\u2014especially the Aleutian Islands. \"I regret to say that some Americans and some Canadians wished our Governments to withdraw from the Atlantic and the Mediterranean campaigns and divert all our vast supplies and strength to the removal of the Japs from a few rocky specks in the North Pacific\"\u2014from which the Japanese had now wisely retreated, he pointed out. America was, he made clear, taking upon itself a much, much larger challenge. \"Today, our wiser councils have maintained our efforts in the Atlantic area, and the Mediterranean, and the China Seas, and the Southwest Pacific with ever-growing contributions.\" It was in this context he himself had come to Canada\u2014\"Great councils are being held here on the free and honored soil of Canada\u2014councils which look to the future conduct of this war and to the years of building a new progress for mankind.\"\n\n> During the past few days in Quebec, the Combined Staffs have been sitting around a table\u2014 _which is a good custom,_\n\nthe President explained,\n\n> \u2014talking things over, discussing ways and means, in the manner of friends, in the manner of partners, _and_ may _I_ even say in the manner of members of the same family. (applause)\n\n> We have talked constructively of our common purposes in this war\u2014of our determination to achieve victory in the shortest possible time\u2014of our essential cooperation with our great and brave fighting allies.\n\n> And we have arrived, harmoniously, at certain definite conclusions. Of course, I am not at liberty to disclose just what these conclusions are. But, in due time, we shall communicate the secret information of the Quebec Conference to Germany, Italy, and Japan. (applause) We _will_ (shall) communicate this information to our enemies in the only language their twisted minds seem capable of understanding. (laughter and applause).\n\nAs the _New York Times_ reporter described, \"Thirty thousand persons had gathered on the lawns in front of the building to welcome the President and to hear him speak and their cheers rolled up in a storm when he uttered that warning.\"\n\n> Sometimes I wish that that great master of intuition, the Nazi leader, could have been present in spirit at the Quebec Conference\u2014I am thoroughly glad that he wasn't there in person. (laughter) If he and his generals had known our plans they would have realized that discretion is still the better part of valor and that surrender would pay them better now than later.\n\nHitler and his Volk were, however, unlikely to surrender without a great deal more bloodshed.\n\n> The evil characteristic that makes a Nazi a Nazi is his utter inability to understand and therefore to respect the qualities or the rights of his fellowmen. His only method of dealing with his neighbor is first to delude him with lies, then to attack him treacherously, then beat him down and step on him, and then either kill him or enslave him. _And_ the same thing is true of the fanatical militarists of Japan.\n\n> Because their own instincts and impulses are essentially inhuman, our enemies simply cannot comprehend how it is that decent, sensible individual human beings manage to get along together and live together as (good) neighbors.\n\n> That is why our enemies are doing their desperate best to misrepresent the purposes and the results of this Quebec Conference. They still seek to divide and conquer allies who refuse to be divided just as cheerfully as they refuse to be conquered. (applause)\n\n> We spend our energies and our resources and the very lives of our sons and daughters because a band of gangsters in the community of Nations declines to recognize the fundamentals of decent, human conduct . . .\n\n> We are making sure\u2014absolutely, irrevocably sure\u2014that this time the lesson is driven home to them once and for all. _Yes,_ we are going to be rid of outlaws _this time._ (applause)\n\nUnder the heading \"Much Post-War Discussion,\" the _Times_ reporter noted the President's speech then addressed a much bigger challenge than merely winning the war. \"There was much talk\" in the speech, he added, \"of the post-war world.\"\n\n> Every one of the United Nations believes that only a real and lasting peace can justify the sacrifices we are making,\n\nthe President claimed,\n\n> and our unanimity gives us confidence in seeking that goal.\n\n> It is no secret that at Quebec there was much talk of the postwar world. That discussion was doubtless duplicated simultaneously in dozens of nations and hundreds of cities and among millions of people.\n\n> There is a longing in the air. It is not a longing to go back to what they call 'the good old days.' I have distinct reservations as to how good 'the good old days' were. (laughter) I would rather believe that we can achieve new and better days.\n\n> Absolute victory in this war will give greater opportunities to the world, because the winning of the war in itself is certainly proving to all of us up here that concerted action can accomplish things. Surely we can make strides toward a greater freedom from want than the world has yet enjoyed. Surely by unanimous action in driving out the outlaws and keeping them under heel forever, we can attain a freedom from fear of violence.\n\n> I am everlastingly angry only at those who assert vociferously that the four freedoms and the Atlantic Charter are nonsense because they are unattainable. If those people had lived a century and a half ago they would have sneered and said that the Declaration of Independence was utter piffle. If they had lived nearly a thousand years ago they would have laughed uproariously at the ideals of Magna Carta. And if they had lived several thousand years ago they would have derided Moses when he came from the Mountain with the Ten Commandments.\n\n> We concede that these great teachings are not perfectly lived up to today, but I would rather be a builder than a wrecker, hoping always that the structure of life is growing\u2014not dying.\n\n> May the destroyers who still persist in our midst decrease. They, like some of our enemies, have a long road to travel before they accept the ethics of humanity.\n\n> Some day, in the distant future perhaps\u2014but some day, it is certain\u2014all of them will remember with the Master, \"Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself.\"\n\nMackenzie King, standing behind the President, was deeply moved. \"I noticed that he had the speech in a ring binder so as to prevent the leaves slipping away. He followed what he was saying by running his little finger along the lines as he spoke. He was given a most attentive hearing and a fine ovation at the close.\"\n\nIt was small wonder. Rosenman was both right and wrong in writing that the Ottawa address was not a \"policy speech.\" In its deeply personal way, using the simplest of language, it was perhaps the most heartfelt moral speech the President would ever give, cutting to the essence of what he believed: spoken to an audience in the open sunshine and through microphones and radio to the world, on behalf of a country that was rapidly becoming the most powerful nation on the earth: a nation that, with enough determination, would be able with its democratic allies to safeguard at war's end the future of humanity.\n**46**\n\n# The President Is Upset\u2014with the Russians\n\nFOLLOWING THE PRESIDENT'S speech, there was lunch at Government House, following which Mr. Mackenzie King took FDR on a drive through the city, and showed him his two homes, Kingsmere and Laurier House, where they had tea.\n\nOn the drive Roosevelt confided to King how glad he was to have gotten from Churchill the now firm, formal British commitment to launch \"an attack from Britain to the North of France,\" and that \"he believed he could get a million men across [to England] during the remainder of the summer and on in the autumn,\" that very fall, 1943, ready for D-day on May 1, 1944. He felt, in retrospect, that the Quebec discussions had been, despite the fierce arguments, ultimately satisfactory and boded well for the successful prosecution of the war. Was that all, though?\n\n\"The most important of all he told me,\" King dictated that night, \"was in answer to the question which I asked him: how satisfied he was with the conclusions of the conference.\"\n\nExpecting the President, from what he'd shared, to say that he was\u2014especially in view of his rapturously received speech that day\u2014the Canadian prime minister was stunned. \"He replied instantly that everything was most satisfactory until last night\u2014just after 6. A telegram came from Stalin at that time which was most disconcerting; very rude and wholly uncalled for. It was the reply to the invitation that had been sent him to meet Winston and himself somewhere, the suggestion having been made in particular of Nome, Alaska. Stalin had replied that he, himself would arrange a conference, and it would be in Sicily\"\u2014but not between leaders, only \"on a lower level.\" He, Stalin, had other things to attend to, of \"greater importance.\"\n\n\"I asked the President what it meant. He said there were only two interpretations. The most charitable one is that [just] like the Russians, they are one day with you, and the next day, they are prepared to take a very opposite course and be against you. You never feel sure of them. They may one day be very cheerful on your side; later, very down against you.\"\n\nAnd the other?\n\n\"The other interpretation\u2014which is a very serious one and which is quite possible\u2014is that Stalin is trying to work up a record against us\"\u2014in order to have an excuse \"to make a separate peace with Germany. In this way, get us out of the war [with Hitler], leaving it to us to bring the war to a conclusion. He said that would be a very serious matter as the German armies would then be quite free of the Russian attack from the rear and,\" as King noted with alarm, \"could devote all their energies to fighting against our forces.\"\n\nCertainly, the two leaders of North America agreed, the very threat of making a separate peace with Germany would give Stalin more leverage in making further demands for American aid and for more Allied operations in the West\u2014as well as more concessions in terms of the end-of-war\/postwar. Demands, amounting to blackmail, that Stalin \"could not hope to get out of a peace conference,\" as King noted.\n\n\"We talked a good deal of the conference,\" King summarized; \"of what had been achieved. He was greatly pleased that all had been so harmonious\" with the British, in the end. But the President \"made no bones about telling me how deeply concerned he was\"\u2014about Russia.\n\nThe President's concern was palpable\u2014and understandable. Not only was Stalin an unreliable ally, constantly refusing to get together to discuss the prosecution of the war, but more worryingly still, refusing to get together to discuss either the endgame or postgame.\n\nRoosevelt found himself amazed not only by the arrogance of the Soviet leader, after refusing to attend the summit meetings, but at his shameless hypocrisy. Cocooned in secrecy and almost pathological security in the Kremlin, Stalin was still forbidding any but the barest information about Russian forces and operations to be shared with the United States or Britain, his allies, and had declined to meet with the President and Prime Minister\u2014yet was now fiercely decrying them for not including him in their deliberations. Given that the Soviets would permit virtually no Allied access to Russian cities, organizations, or individuals, his sudden demand that Soviet politico-military representation be set up in Sicily, an island thousands of miles from Moscow and which the Western Allies had only captured a few days previously, was significant. Stalin, clearly, was flexing his muscles: dictator of a power or quasi-empire now boasting two hundred army divisions in the field, on the Eastern Front\u2014and the Western Allies still without a single division on the mainland of Europe.\n\nIt was, in other words, Stalin taking stock of the resolve of the Western Allies\u2014a test that would best be met by a demonstration of Allied unity, not irritation.\n\nMackenzie King and Harriman\u2014who had few illusions about the nature of the Soviet police state\u2014seemed nevertheless surprised by how offended the President seemed to be over Stalin's two cables, once they heard their content. As Harriman put it, at the time, surely \"one can't be annoyed with Stalin for being aloof and then be dismayed with him because he rudely joins the party.\"\n\nThe President _was_ dismayed, however\u2014and not merely at Stalin's gatecrashing with regard to imminent Italian surrender negotiations. There was the question of how Stalin would behave, once he arrived at the bigger \"party,\" when German surrender was in sight: a dictator running an impenetrable police state at home, yet announcing he wished to be treated as a controlling presence in Western councils: even dictating where the political-military surrender commission should be located.\n\nHowever dismaying, it was clear that the balance of power within the United Nations was changing. In the spring of 1943, nervous about Hitler's impending Kursk offensive, Stalin had felt compelled to make certain concessions to his capitalist allies, such as closing down the egregious Comintern\u2014which he'd finally done in May 1943. As the dictator explained to a Reuters correspondent, \"the dissolution of the Communist International\" as the purveyor of world communist revolution since 1919 would, once effected, increase the \"pressure by all peace-loving nations against the common foe, Hitlerism, and expose the lie of the Hitlerites that Moscow allegedly intends to interfere in the life of other states and to 'bolshevize' them.\"\n\nNow, in late August, 1943, Stalin sounded quite different. With the great German offensive at Kursk called off thanks to the Allied invasion of Sicily, and with Russian armies pushing the Wehrmacht out of Orel and Kharkov\u2014moreover with a huge Russian battle in the offing to move forward their forces from the Dnieper River in the south\u2014Stalin clearly felt he could bang the Allied drum without having to leave Russia to meet with the President or Prime Minister.\n\nFar from intimidating the President, however, let alone hammering a wedge between the President and British prime minister, Stalin's outburst now served to bring the leaders of the Western alliance closer to each other than Stalin could ever have imagined.\n\nBehind the scenes at Quebec and Ottawa a deep and consequential _political_ shift began to take place\u2014a \"sort of changed attitude,\" as Roosevelt put it to Mackenzie King on the way back to Quebec. The President and his Joint Chiefs of Staff might hold Churchill's fantasies of defeating the Wehrmacht via the Mediterranean\u2014whether through Italy, Yugoslavia or Greece, Turkey or the Balkans\u2014to be just that: fantasy. But in terms of Soviet intentions, the President was very much on the same page as the Prime Minister. Stalin might make outward concessions to the Western Allies, such as closing down the Comintern, and even easing Soviet restrictions on religion\u2014which the Soviet leader now also did. But the dictator himself remained a godless Russian psychopath\u2014\"Ivan the Terrible,\" directing two hundred divisions on the field of battle.\n\nIt was at this point that the President\u2014who still nursed serious qualms not only about Churchill's military judgment but his backward, Victorian views on colonial empire and postwar social reconstruction\u2014paused to reconsider his approach to the Grand Alliance. He still hoped he could come to a military understanding with Stalin, since neither he nor Stalin could defeat Hitler without the other. Moreover he still hoped he could come to a political understanding with the Russians, where the two powers\u2014who clearly would be the dominant world powers at the war's end\u2014could agree to disagree in terms of their own ideologies. But he needed, he recognized, a Plan B if Stalin did not cooperate in the postwar world the President envisioned\u2014or even failed to cooperate in the end-of-war scenario that would come either in 1944 or 1945.\n\nWinston Churchill might be the most infuriating partner in terms of his military obsessions, his impetuous whims, and his failure to follow a consistent strategy. He was, nevertheless, a political partner of huge and possibly historic importance in the world that was fast approaching: a democratic partner more important, in terms of dealing with Russia, than Harriman, or Hopkins, or former ambassador Davies\u2014all of whom had been to Moscow and had firsthand knowledge of Stalin\u2014perhaps realized.\n\nWhat, though, was Stalin's real plan\u2014if indeed he had one? Stalin was refusing to meet the President, either one-on-one or with the Prime Minister. Clearly the dictator wanted to conceal and safeguard Russian intentions behind a wall of paranoid secrecy, using a front of apparatchiks and spokesmen who never dared speak with authority, but referred everything to Stalin, on pain of dismissal or death.\n\nFor his part, Churchill didn't necessarily believe that Stalin would conclude a separate peace with Germany, despite the 1939\u20131941 Ribbentrop Pact, since \"the hatreds between the two races\"\u2014the millions killed\u2014\"have now become a sanitary cordon in themselves,\" as Churchill told the President, and cabled his deputy prime minister in London that night. To Mackenzie King Churchill said the same: that the Russians and the Germans had \"come to hate each other with an animal hate.\" So conscious were the Germans of their crimes against humanity in Russia and the likely repercussions, in fact, that they would probably \"prefer to open their Western front to British and American armies and have them conquer Germany rather than Stalin,\" Churchill thought (and hoped), if \"Stalin went on winning.\" But the tone of Stalin's message boded ill for agreement between the Allies themselves in prosecuting the war. Which raised the question: what _was_ Stalin's version of the endgame?\n\nWithout a single American or British boot on the mainland of Europe, the Western Allies were in a weak position, still, to inhibit Stalin. Would he use the new power of his many hundreds of Russian divisions\u2014four hundred in total, it was calculated, stationed across the entire Soviet Union\u2014to dictate the territorial and political outcome of the war in Europe?\n\nTo both Harriman and Mr. Roosevelt, the Prime Minister said he \"foresaw 'bloody consequences in the future'\"\u2014\"using 'bloody' in the literal sense,\" as Harriman noted. \"'Stalin is an unnatural man. There will be grave troubles,'\" Churchill declared\u2014and openly rebuked Eden, who, like Harriman, considered the cable from Stalin \"not so bad.\" \"There is no need for you to attempt to smooth it over,\" he snapped, \"in the Foreign Office manner.\"\n\nThe President felt the same as Churchill\u2014the Soviets a strange yet brave people, in the service of another psychopath.\n\nSome historians would later resent and question Churchill's anti-Soviet stance, but there can be little doubt in retrospect that, though Churchill would be proven completely wrong about Hitler, the Wehrmacht, and the progress of the war in Italy, he was extraordinarily prescient about Stalin and the Russians\u2014and that the President was of like mind. Where Roosevelt and Churchill differed, however, was in how to deal with the Russian threat to freedom and democracy, as the Western Allies understood those ideals.\n\nWith no American or British forces yet on the mainland of Europe, the Western Allies were hamstrung. By the same token, however, without an Allied Second Front the Russians could not defeat the forces of the Third Reich. Ergo, if the Third Reich was to be defeated and the Nazi nightmare brought to an end, there would _have_ to be a military agreement between the three countries, irrespective of political considerations. It would be up to the President and the Prime Minister, if possible, to turn that military agreement into a political accord, setting out a road map for postwar Europe and the world that both sides could live with. It might not prove possible to reach, but it would be worth trying to. The example of the disastrous Versailles Peace Conference in 1919, which had been tasked with solving end-of-war issues that had not been discussed or agreed in advance, was too awful to contemplate.\n\nEncouraging Russia, then\u2014a country or empire that had not been a party to the 1919 peace talks, but which had been the elephant in the room there\u2014to take a responsible role in the postwar world was now the biggest challenge for Roosevelt and Churchill.\n\nBoth men had been present at Versailles, and both knew the task of an enduring postwar security settlement would be no easier. Also that Russia would be, together with the United States, the key player. In spite of the terrible losses the Soviets had suffered since Hitler's invasion in 1941, the USSR still comprised more than 170 million people: the largest nation, or union of so-called republics, in Europe. It was more than twice the size of Nazi Germany in population\u2014and many times its size in territory. Its wartime economy might be a disaster, its industry dependent largely on slave labor, its military dependent on American Lend-Lease aid, and its society ruled by fear, incarceration, deportation, and execution; nevertheless, it now boasted the largest number of troops in the world\u2014in excess of thirteen million men in 1943. After utter disarray and retreat in the summer of 1941, Soviet forces had finally turned the tables on the mighty Wehrmacht: by numbers, willingness to take casualties, determination to fight for the homeland, fear of what further atrocities the dreaded Nazis would commit if they were not repelled; and younger, better, nonpolitical professional military leadership on the field of battle. Patriotic pride, moreover, had swelled and grown as the Soviet armies successfully defended Mother Russia\u2014the Communist Party taking a secondary, background role. Stalin's Great Terror and his Purges of the 1930s had been set aside\u2014for the moment at least. As supreme commander in chief of the Soviet Armed Forces, Joseph Stalin was not only the effective, single ruler and dictator of the USSR, but he was in a position to begin moving Russia toward a less repressive future, _if he so chose:_ something his ambassador to Washington, Maxim Litvinov, had begged him to do, before Stalin had recalled him from America.\n\nWould Stalin dare\u2014or want\u2014to take that course, though?\n\nIt seemed unlikely, as Churchill intuited\u2014especially after reading the latest, more detailed investigation of the Katyn massacre. Behind Soviet propaganda, directed and controlled from Moscow, Marshal Stalin remained an arguably certifiable psychopath: a mass murderer living with his own terror, namely that of being assassinated. And of flying. His refusal to meet with the President, as well as his recent decision to withdraw his highly experienced Soviet ambassadors from Washington and London and replace them with apparatchiks, offered little hope of an open, democratic future for the Russian-dominated world\u2014at least one based on the four freedoms to which the President referred in his Ottawa speech.\n\nStalin's latest cables to Quebec were thus dispiriting, at a moment of Allied joy and hope, on the eve of Italian surrender. The telegrams convinced both Churchill and the President that the defeat of the Third Reich and Japan\u2014which would still entail a vast military effort\u2014would be but the first act in a new struggle for control of those occupied nations: nations such as Poland, currently ruled by the Germans, whose people innocently hoped for independence, self-determination, free elections, and freedom from fear.\n\nThis was, in actuality, the saddest of prospects, even as the unconditional surrender of Italy loomed.\n\nChurchill, too, saw the moment as a watershed. He had earlier favored Sumner Welles's notion of grand regional or hemispheric councils, representing \"spheres of influence\" across the postwar world; now, suddenly, it became clear to him\u2014as to the President\u2014that there would, essentially, be but two such spheres: Anglo-American versus Russian. A rivalry, moreover, that would not necessarily be confined to central Europe, if Stalin's talk of southern Europe\u2014of Sicily and Italy\u2014was anything to go by.\n\nIn many ways it was a tragedy: a road not taken. Had Stalin been a different leader, a statesman willing to rise to the challenge of advancing and protecting a postwar world based upon the four freedoms, the challenge of the future could, in the aftermath of Hitler and Hirohito's demise, have been that of a secure, spirited, economic, social, and cultural opportunity for the progress of all nations. Instead, a very different prospect arose: a darker world of communist dictatorships and puppet states, modeled on the Soviets, answering to Moscow.\n\nUnless Stalin were assassinated, or the Allies could somehow prevail upon the Russians to abandon the notion of tyrannous rule by fear, the postwar future thus suddenly looked bleak to Churchill and the President\u2014despite the grandeur of a United Nations coalition that had successfully turned the tide against two empires, German and Japanese, still committing crimes against humanity on a scale of mass murder not seen for centuries, if ever.\n\nAll therefore now seemed to depend on a Russian dictator: a Soviet supreme commander in chief who was, as Averell Harriman later remarked, \"the most inscrutable, enigmatic and contradictory person I have ever known.\" It was a sobering prospect.\n\nThe Canadian prime minister accompanied the President to the station at 7:00 p.m. on August 25. \"As the last word,\" King recorded in his diary, \"I reached over to the President and said quietly God bless and help you.\"\n\nRoosevelt's talks with the Canadian prime minister had left Mackenzie King at once awed and anxious. In his library at Laurier House, the Canadian premier had shown the President and Grace Tully, the President's secretary, not only his private library but a \"photograph of Hitler.\" The President had \"instantly reacted to it with a shudder at the appearance of the man.\" King had also \"pointed out the handbill of the time of Lincoln's assassination\"\u2014a reminder how seldom violence was separable from politics, their chosen profession.\n\n\"I was unfortunately pretty tired and unable to take in or contribute to the conversation as much as I would have liked, but I felt throughout how real was the affection the President had for myself and felt drawn more closely to him than ever,\" King recorded that night. \"I confess, too, one came to feel he had a much more profound grasp of the situation than I had, at times, believed him to have. By that, I mean not a knowledge of the facts but the understanding of history and places and the like which are so essential to the understanding of great movements. The kind of thing that Churchill possesses in so great a degree.\"\n\nIn his pedantic, cautious way the Canadian had come to see, increasingly, just how blessed was the free world in having such titans of humanity as their two great leaders\u2014and how vital it was to create a durable system of international security and development _while they were still in office_. Moreover one that would survive them\u2014since, \"unhappily, we could not rely on having the President and himself at the head of affairs for all time,\" as King remarked to Churchill. \"That any post-war order would have to take account of the persons who might take their places, and that each nation would want its say.\"\n\nWinston Churchill, Mackenzie King reflected, was \"not so democratic at heart as the President. He still remains a monarchist and a Conservative,\" whereas \"Roosevelt is clearly for the people and they know it.\" To be sure, \"Churchill is for his country and its institutions\"\u2014including its \"great Empire,\" King allowed. Thinking especially of India, though, King deplored continuing colonialist complacency at high levels in England, where \"less believe in the abilities of people to govern themselves\" than was the case in the United States and Canada.\n\nThe future shape and peace of the world, however, was at stake: leading inexorably to the question of whether the President would stand for an unprecedented fourth term. \"We talked,\" King had already noted, \"of the next elections,\" which would take place the following year, in November. Health was a factor, the President had acknowledged. \"He quite clearly has it in mind to run again but says he will not travel about; will not do any speaking over the radio and not make many speeches. He dislikes Willkie\"\u2014his Republican opponent in the 1940 presidential election\u2014\"but says he has been encouraging Willkie's renomination in order to get more or less a split in the Opposition [Republican] party which he believes will come if Willkie is nominated. He said that Willkie was all right on foreign policy which was important, but it would be dangerous if a Republican isolationist were to get the nomination.\"\n\nAmerican participation, even leadership, in the new world order was quite clearly the President's goal\u2014thus redeeming the failure of President Woodrow Wilson to get Senate ratification of U.S. membership in the League of Nations in 1920. As Churchill pointed out, it was not the League of Nations that had failed; rather, it was the nations who had failed the League of Nations\u2014something the President was determined would _not_ be the case this time.\n\nThus arose, at Quebec in the summer of 1943, the greatest irony of the war: that the United States and its Western Allies were, in effect, faced with two potentially competing struggles. The first, to pursue the fight against the odious, genocidal Axis powers to obtain their unconditional surrender; the second, to achieve a global postwar democratic system that would not be prejudiced or sundered by the emerging power of a Russian-directed Soviet Union\u2014a communist quasi-empire ruled by a psychopath scarcely less dangerous to humanity than Adolf Hitler.\nPART TWELVE\n\n* * *\n\n#  _The Endgame_\n**47**\n\n# Close to Disaster\n\nTHE PRESIDENT HAD laid down the strategy and timetable of the war to defeat the Third Reich and then Japan, on behalf of the Western Allies; Churchill, for all that he feared a bloodbath in northern France, had had to comply. Yet to achieve the political results of the war that he wanted\u2014a new world order\u2014the President had need of Stalin. And in dealing with Stalin, he also had need of Winston Churchill, as a demonstration of unity between the U.S. and British governments. Roosevelt therefore asked the Prime Minister to come stay with him in Washington after Quebec. They would be together when the Italians, as seemed likely, surrendered. Above all, though, they would be together in showing Stalin there was no rift in the Western Allies: that the U.S.-British coalition was inviolable, and would remain so.\n\nEarly on August 26, 1943, the _Ferdinand Magellan_ pulled into the little halt at Highland, north of New York, and the President was driven up to his family home. \"The P. came from Ottawa, looking well,\" Daisy Suckley noted in her diary, \"but tired. He said he would try to get rested before Churchill comes to Wash.[ington] next Wednesday. The Quebec Conference was a success but Russia is a worry\u2014the P. said a message had come from Stalin which was 'rude\u2014stupidly rude.' Churchill wanted to send back an answer\u2014even ruder!\"\n\nStalin was not the only problem. There was the question of how Hitler would react, once the Italians surrendered and U.S. and British armies landed on the mainland of Europe, as they planned to do in the coming days. Though in a sense it was only a diversion in order to keep the Germans from beating the Russians and away from the eventual beaches of Normandy, the Allied assault on Italy would reveal whether Churchill was right, or the President: whether the Germans would collapse, or whether Italy would turn out to be a hornet's nest.\n\nAll too soon they would find out.\n\nIn the domestic comfort of his Hyde Park home, Roosevelt meantime took things easy\u2014with Admiral Leahy at his side. \"Today ends a three day restful visit with the President at Hyde Park, where there were no demands on any of us at any time,\" Leahy noted in his diary on August 29, 1943, \"and where we were completely relaxed after our strenuous Staff Conference in Canada.\" \"The P. was very cheerful & seemed relaxed,\" Daisy recorded. Taking the sun at his cottage he \"sent for some eggs & bread & butter\u2014He toasted the bread on the electric toaster, sitting by the fire on the sofa,\" and to unwind \"talked about a good many phases of the present situation.\"\n\nThe first landings in mainland Italy would begin on September 3, 1943: a crossing of the Strait of Messina by troops of Montgomery's British Eighth Army, which would hopefully draw Axis forces into close combat\u2014and away from the primary invasion site: Salerno, where the major Allied assault would take place a week later. The Salerno landings would be a massive three-division invasion in the Gulf of Salerno, 270 miles north of Montgomery's army; it would plant major Allied forces close to Naples under U.S. general Mark Clark, and hopefully cut off German forces facing the British. Not content with this sweeping plan, Marshall had urged Eisenhower to use his Eighty-Second Airborne Division\u2014not to ensure the success of the Salerno landings but to mount a yet more ambitious landing, 200 miles further north still. On Rome, from the air.\n\nThis operation would be called Giant II\u2014perhaps the most misguided military undertaking of the war thus far. Churchill thought it a masterstroke, which would enable the Allies to seize Rome, the Italian capital, by coup de main. Were Rome to fall to the Allies, and the Italians turn against their former partners, who knew what might then transpire? The Third Reich might collapse like a house of cards.\n\nThe President remained doubtful; taking Rome would be nice in terms of morale and publicity, but it led nowhere, strategically, given the terrain in northern Italy. And Hitler, he was sure, would not fold his hand that easily. He thus left the campaign to Marshall and the chiefs of staff, confident that General Eisenhower would not be pressed into doing anything too foolish.\n\nAs it turned out, however, Eisenhower _was_ so pressed\u2014and the Allies, in the days that followed, came very close to disaster in Italy.\n**48**\n\n# A Darwinian Struggle\n\nHITLER, FOR HIS part, was contemptuous of Roosevelt's call for Allied unity in Quebec, as was Goebbels. The President's speech in Ottawa was dismissed as rhetoric. \"It consisted of dull, stupid scolding and lacked any political substance,\" Goebbels sniffed in his diary. \"It's not worth bothering about. One can see from the speech, and the terrific reception it was given by Canadian members of Parliament, though, just how half-witted the public is over there. Roosevelt threatens military operations, but refrains from being specific, because he probably can't be. He ends by quoting Jesus, which is all-of-a-piece with his bizarre and misbegotten character.\"\n\nFor both the Reich minister and the F\u00fchrer, the world was now entering the vortex of a great Darwinian struggle of survival\u2014a struggle in which only the strongest would emerge. Italy was exhibiting weakness, would most likely crumble, and would have to be sacrificed on an altar of blood; Germany, by contrast, would only grow stronger, more savage\u2014and more ruthless once unencumbered by allies.\n\nThose among the Allies who hoped Germany's generals or Wehrmacht soldiers would lose heart in their leader were to be disappointed. Hitler and Goebbels's _Weltanschauung,_ including their _Nibelungentreue,_ was to be largely replicated among German civilians across the Third Reich\u2014and among German troops across the occupied countries. Goebbels noted, for example, how contented were German soldiers, returning on leave from the frontline to their relatives in the German homeland\u2014yet how angry, stunned, and surprised they were at the effects of RAF and U.S. Air Force bombing on the civilian population.\n\nThe question, then, arose for Goebbels as the propaganda genius of the Third Reich: could the war be prolonged for another six months or a year by stubborn German defense of the nations the Wehrmacht had conquered in western, southern, and eastern Europe\u2014keeping the enemy as far as possible from Germany until the F\u00fchrer's _Vergeltungswaffen,_ or V-bombs, were ready to be launched?\n\nOn his last visit to the Wolf's Lair, Goebbels had found the F\u00fchrer disinclined to think Kharkov as being in danger\u2014at least, if it was in danger, there should be no mention of it in public. \"Wir k\u00e4mpfen an allen Fronten, im S\u00fcden wie im Osten, m\u00f6glichst weit vom heimatlichen Boden entfernt, um den Krieg vom Reichsgebiet fernzuhalten\"\u2014\"We are fighting on all fronts\u2014in the South as well as the East, as far from home ground as possible\u2014in order to keep the war as far as we can from the Reich,\" Hitler had declared\u2014while doing everything in his power as f\u00fchrer to counter Allied air power, from expediting German antiaircraft guns to greater priority for jet-engined Messerschmitt fighters, better radar, and new interception tactics.\n\nAs this was ordered, the question of a political solution had meantime become more and more tempting. How could Goebbels and the German Foreign Ministry exploit the widely suspected split between the Western Allies and the Soviets? Could they persuade either Churchill or Stalin to negotiate an armistice with the Third Reich, and thus avoid war on two fronts?\n\n\"I ask the F\u00fchrer whether he thinks we might be able to make an accommodation with Stalin, over time,\" Goebbels noted on his next visit to the Wolf's Lair. \"For the moment, however, the F\u00fchrer thinks not,\" he recorded, disappointed. Moreover, the F\u00fchrer was unwilling to surrender, if negotiations could be started, the Ukraine: the breadbasket of Europe and crucial for Germany's food needs. \"In general,\" Goebbels noted, \"he thinks it more likely we would have more success in doing something with the British rather than the Soviets.\" As the British came to realize that fighting the Wehrmacht on European soil was very different from war in faraway North Africa, they would surely \"come to their senses\"\u2014especially once German V-bombs began to rain down on London.\n\n\"It's true Churchill is an absolute anti-Bolshevist,\" Goebbels agreed with Hitler\u2014a Churchillian stance that might be manipulated to get him to abandon his antifascist rhetoric and agenda in favor of anticommunism. Given Churchill's Mansion House speech, in November 1942, warning that he would never allow the dissolution of the British Empire, the Prime Minister might well be open to new peace feelers, Hitler intimated, if convinced Britain could not win the war militarily. Churchill was \"naturally pursuing British imperial objectives in this war, as in the last. Now that he has Sicily in his pocket he's in a good position,\" Goebbels recorded their conversation. \"The Italians will never get Sicily back, for with Calabria and Sicily in British hands Churchill will control the whole Mediterranean as an English ocean, for all time . . . So the F\u00fchrer thinks the English rather than the Russians will be more willing to come to an arrangement in the end.\"\n\nKnowing Churchill, Goebbels was skeptical, however. \"I don't see any sign of this happening,\" he admitted in the privacy of his diary, whatever Hitler might think\u2014though he did not dare say so to the F\u00fchrer. Besides, the matter of an armistice either with the British or the Russians was academic, since the split between the Allies had not reached the point where they could be prised apart\u2014yet. Nevertheless, the \"controversy between the Soviets and the Anglo-Americans is really serious,\" Goebbels noted with satisfaction. \"Our information from Quebec is quite clear about that.\" However, \"the F\u00fchrer doesn't think the crisis in the enemy camp is ripe enough to exploit at the moment. So we have to wait, and make sure we get both our fronts back under control. That is a sine qua non: that we have to stand firm where we are. A faltering military power can't be looking for an arrangement.\"\n\nSeptember 1943, then, would reveal whether the Allied coalition was going to hold together, or could be brought to stalemate on the battlefield and either the Western Allies or Russia be persuaded to sue for an armistice with Germany.\n**49**\n\n# A Talk with Archbishop Spellman\n\n\"I LEFT QUEBEC by train, and arrived at the White House on September 1,\" Churchill recorded in his memoirs. \"I deliberately prolonged my stay in the United States in order to be in close contact with our American friends at this critical moment in Italian affairs.\"\n\nNews had come from General Eisenhower that the post-Mussolini government of Italy, under Marshal Badoglio, had secretly agreed to surrender, once American and British troops were established on the mainland of Italy\u2014and two days later, on September 3, Montgomery's troops crossed the Strait of Messina to Reggio, where they encountered negligible opposition. Italian forces simply abandoned their posts, in anticipation of imminent surrender, while Wehrmacht forces laid mines, detonated bridges, and staged a fighting withdrawal from Calabria.\n\nStaying in Washington with the President, the Prime Minister seemed dangerously overconfident about impending victory in Italy. \"Churchill does not think,\" Mackenzie King had already noted in his diary on August 31, as the British prime minister set off from Quebec, that \"the further fighting in Italy will occasion anything like the loss of life that the fighting in Sicily has occasioned.\"\n\nThe President certainly wished Winston to be by his side when the Italian surrender took place. But in truth, there was a more important, underlying reason for Churchill to stay at the White House\u2014a purpose both men had agreed was vital not only to the winning of the war, but the postwar. For whatever happened on the ground in Italy, it was understood by the two leaders, the unity of the _Western_ Allies must be further symbolized, beyond the conference in Canada, and an incontrovertible message of common purpose be sent not just to Hitler and the world, but to Stalin in Moscow.\n\nThe Western Allies, this message went, would hold together in pursuing the defeat of Germany\u2014 _and beyond._\n\nThough he could barely contain his excitement over Montgomery's crossing at Messina and Clark's impending invasion at Salerno, Churchill made every effort to be patient and good company to the President. Mrs. Roosevelt was still on her tour of the Pacific, requiring Daisy Suckley to stand in for her as White House hostess, and at Hyde Park. In her diary she noted the \"intensely interesting\" conversations at table\u2014the President \"full of charm, always tactful, even when he has to be 'painfully' truthful & perhaps harsh. He is harsh, but with a smile which tells you you are wrong, but there is no ill-feeling toward you because of the wrong\u2014It's more that you are mistaken\u2014in all probability because you don't know the facts. I've never known a person who so consistently tries not to hurt people.\"\n\nChurchill, by contrast, \"snaps out disapproval. They say he fights with everyone\"\u2014not just Hitler; \"jumps all over them. One person alone he doesn't jump on,\" Daisy added, however, \"& that is the P.! The P. laughs about it: he says that if the P.M. ever did jump on him, he would just laugh at him! As I have said before, the P.M. loves F.D.R.\" Moreover, Daisy had had this confirmed, from the highest authority, for \"Mrs C[hurchill]. told me that, too, out of a clear sky.\"\n\n\"The P.M. recognizes in the P. a man with a greater soul & a broader outlook than his own\u2014It is very evident to a person who has had such wonderful opportunities to see them as I have. I consider W.S.C. a 'great man,' also, but he has not yet achieved the spiritual freedom of F.D.R. . . . They get along beautifully, and understand each other. The P. is all for the Democratic ideal because he loves it & believes in it. The P.M. is working for it because he thinks it is inevitable . . .\"\n\nDaisy was naturally biased, but she was also perspicacious\u2014and one of the only people, other than the President's White House doctor, who was watching Roosevelt's health. Churchill's daughter Mary, traveling now with her mother, Clementine, found \"the pres magnetic & full of charm\" as she wrote in her own diary; \"his sweetness to me is something I shall always remember\u2014But he is a raconteur,\" she noted, and in all honesty, aged only twenty, she found his stories \"tedious\" at times, though \"at other times it is interesting & fun\"\u2014a \"cute, cunning old-bird\u2014if ever there was one. But I still know who gets my vote,\" she added loyally\u2014her father probably the most eloquent raconteur alive. \"Every evening FDR makes extremely violent cocktails in his study. Fala attends\u2014& it is all very agreeable & warm. At dinner Mummie is on his right, & several nights no other guests being there I've been on his left. I am devoted to him & admire him tremendously\u2014He seems to have fearless courage & an art of selecting the warmest moment of the iron.\"\n\nStill so young, Mary thought both her father and the President indestructible. She did, however, find herself intrigued, as was Daisy Suckley, by the \"contrast\" between their two characters. \"To me,\" she noted in her diary, Roosevelt \"seems at once idealistic\u2014cynical\u2014warm hearted & generous\u2014worldly-wise\u2014na\u00efve\u2014courageous\u2014tough\u2014thoughtful\u2014charming\u2014tedious\u2014vain\u2014sophisticated\u2014civilised\u2014all these and more for 'by their works ye shall know them'\u2014And what a stout hearted champion he has been for the unfortunate & the battling\u2014and what a monument he will always have in the minds of men. And yet while I admire him intensely and could not but be devoted to him after his great personal kindness to me\u2014yet, I must confess [he] makes me laugh & he rather bores me.\"\n\nThe truth was, the President had had other things on his mind, despite doing his best to keep the Churchills and their daughter entertained. He'd dined on September 2 with Winston and Averell Harriman\u2014who was to be his new ambassador to the Soviet Union\u2014to discuss Russia. Also present at the meal was Francis Spellman, the archbishop of New York, who was returning after a long inspection tour of American units overseas, as the vicar military responsible for all Catholic priests in the United States.\n\nThe next morning\u2014the day Montgomery's troops crossed onto the mainland of Italy\u2014Spellman came to see the President privately at the White House for another hour. The Archbishop was concerned about the Allied bombing of Rome\u2014where he'd spent the greater part of his adult life. Spellman had shown as little concern about the alleged extermination of European Jews as his mentor who had promoted him to the top American see in 1939: the pope, Pius XII. Now that Rome itself was threatened with heavy bombing, however, Spellman was deeply worried. Moreover, he was becoming concerned over Russian designs on European countries yet to be liberated\u2014especially Catholic Poland.\n\nAs Spellman had found on his tour overseas, American officials in Iran (where the majority of U.S. Lend-Lease supplies were now being delivered) were disgusted at the way the Russians behaved. It was as if every Russian lived in terror of being accused of cooperation with their allies, or worse: sharing secrets with a quasi-enemy. Spellman's \"information is that two of the four freedoms as we understand them,\u2014freedom of expression and freedom of religion,\u2014do not exist in Russia.\"\n\nThe President was all too aware of this. What to do, though? Spellman had hitherto raised no protest over the President's conduct of the war, and at the White House he now found the President extraordinarily frank about the chances of American forces being able to stop two hundred Russian divisions from doing whatever Stalin pleased, at a time when the United States did not yet have a single boot on mainland Europe. The President certainly hoped to \"get from Stalin a pledge not to extend Russian territory beyond a certain line,\" but there was little the United States could do when Stalin \"had the power to get them anyway\"\u2014\"them\" being Finland (which had been a Russian duchy from 1809 through 1917), the Baltic States (a part of the Russian Empire from the eighteenth century until 1917), the eastern half of Poland (partitioned by Russia, Prussia, and Austria in the wake of the Russo-Polish war of 1792, and much of it a czardom until 1918), and Bessarabia (a czarist governorate from 1812 until 1917). Such countries might _want_ to retain their recent independence, but the President was sanguine. \"There is no point to oppose these desires of Stalin, because he has the power to get them anyhow. So better give them gracefully.\"\n\n\"Give\" them?\n\nIn later years\u2014especially once the United States became a nuclear superpower, with global military reach\u2014Roosevelt's acceptance of the inevitable would be seen as shocking, even immoral, especially for a president who was so idealistic. Right-wing American critics of Roosevelt such as Senators Robert A. Taft and Arthur H. Vandenberg, fired by American exceptionalism, would deplore such a \"giveaway,\" but the criticism reflected their historical ignorance and lack of realism. No one at that time had any idea how the United States could have approached the matter differently, given U.S. military weakness, with no soldiers yet in mainland Europe\u2014and little idea how effective those soldiers would be, once they reengaged with Wehrmacht forces on European soil.\n\nAt a moment when the Third Reich still extended from the shores of France to the Ukraine, and when Hitler, Goebbels, and Ribbentrop seriously hoped to split the Allied alliance and compel the British to negotiate an armistice in the manner of Munich in 1938, or get Stalin to renew the Ribbentrop Pact, the President saw his main priority in avoiding a premature collapse of the Grand Alliance before the Western Allies even landed in force on the European mainland. As he made clear to Spellman, one had to be realistic. Over time, he was sure, the Russians would become more civilized\u2014especially when having to interact and compete with Western economies. Unless they somehow remained a closed society, under lock and key, they would eventually be forced to adapt to Western cultural influences.\n\nSuch a long-term view left open the question of the imminent fate of western European nations, however\u2014nations the United States _could,_ realistically, hope to save, as long as the President could get Churchill and the British to throw themselves wholeheartedly into the cross-Channel assault the following spring. Once these nations were liberated, however, would the American public support tough American peacekeeping, in countering Russian influence, after the war? Taking soundings nationwide, Judge Rosenman had warned the President that, politically, he would have to be more careful in his speechmaking with regard to postwar security, if he or any Democratic nominee wished to prevail in the 1944 election. \"People are almost twice as much interested in domestic affairs as international affairs,\" Rosenman passed on to the President the conclusion of a recent opinion poll. Two-thirds of those polled did not wish even to provide \"aid to foreign countries after the war,\" let alone have to keep the peace in Europe.\n\nSuch findings did not stop the President from pursuing his vision of a United Nations authority, with the Four Policemen acting on the UN's behalf. It did, however, cause him to wonder how far he could single-handedly change or guide American public opinion to back such a vision. What would be the fallout, the President and the Archbishop wondered, if the United States did _not_ take the leading role? Would Britain\u2014virtually bankrupt and, pace Churchill, far more concerned with avoiding the dissolution of its colonial empire than maintaining European peace\u2014be able to marshal sufficient will and force of arms to do the job: namely holding the Soviets at bay, if and when they began to \"Bolshevize\" the continent after the fall of Hitler?\n\nFrom reports of communist governments in exile in Moscow it was evident Stalin intended, if possible, to install communist puppet regimes beyond Russia's borders: in Germany, Austria, and probably other bordering states. This would make it unnecessary for the Soviets to keep their forces there, beyond establishing bases. Roosevelt \"agreed this is to be expected. Asked further, whether the Allies would not do something from their side which might offset this move in giving encouragement to the better elements, just as Russia encourages the Communists, he declared that no such move was contemplated [by the United States]. It is therefore probable that Communist Regimes would expand, but what could we do about it?\"\n\nArchbishop Spellman was disappointed\u2014but could see the problem: namely the American electorate. Although, in the wake of the President's State of the Union speech and his Casablanca summit, there had been a growing acceptance in Republican circles of the idea of American involvement in international decision-making once the war was won, there was still a deep core of the American public wedded to isolationism.\n\nTo push through American membership in a United Nations organization, given President Wilson's failure in 1920 with respect to the League of Nations, would already be a tremendous challenge. To achieve this, Roosevelt was ready to stand for a fourth term in 1944. But offering a platform of American intercession in European politics, with the possibility of yet another war to be fought there\u2014this time with the Soviet Union, which not even Hitler's two hundred divisions had been able to defeat\u2014was unlikely to fly.\n\nThe President sounded, for once, almost defeatist. \"France might possibly escape\" such a puppet fate, if its people elected a sufficiently socialist government, so that \"eventually the Communists might eventually accept it. On the direct question whether the odds were that Austria, Hungary or Croatia would fall under some sort of Russian protectorate, the answer was clearly yes.\" Hopefully, with the Soviets industrializing their economy, the outlook would not necessarily be so terrible in terms of European people's standard of living. \"It is natural that the European countries will have to undergo tremendous changes in order to adapt to Russia, but he hopes that in ten or twenty years the European influences would bring the Russians to become less barbarian.\"\n\nThe President's hopes on this score would, in the end, take more than forty years to be met\u2014not ten or twenty. Spellman, however, did not contest the President's crystal ball after his own foreign trip, for it seemed too grounded. The archbishop was only disappointed that Mr. Roosevelt, normally such a figure of moral as well as physical courage, should be so laissez-faire. As the President put it: \"The European people will have to endure the Russian domination, in the hope that in ten or twenty years they will be able to live well with the Russians\"\u2014the Russians gradually becoming more civilized, while the Europeans became more egalitarian. \"Finally he hopes, the Russians will get 40% of the Capitalist regime, the capitalists will retain only 60% of their system, and so an understanding will be possible. This is the opinion of Litvinoff,\" too, the recent Soviet ambassador to Washington, the President averred.\n\nLitvinov had been recalled to Moscow, however, not simply for talks, but to be replaced in October by a \"barbarian\" apparatchik: Andrei Gromyko.\n\nSpellman, who had spent so many years at the Vatican earlier in his career, wondered at the almost dispirited view of the President regarding the future of Europe: the very cradle of civilization, and the home of so many Christians. Roosevelt had always been against \"spheres of influence\" in the world, but was now talking of \"an agreement among the Big Four. Accordingly the world will be divided into spheres of influence: China get the Far East; the U.S. the Pacific; Britain and Russia, Europe and Africa. But as Britain has predominantly colonial interests it might be assumed that Russia will predominate.\"\n\nIt was an unenviable scenario for Europe. \"Although Chiang Kai-shek will be called in on the great decisions concerning Europe, it is understood that he will have no influence on them,\" the President explained. \"The same thing might become true\u2014although to a lesser degree\u2014for the U.S.,\" in terms of meager American \"influence on decisions concerning Europe.\" The President \"hoped, 'although it might be wishful thinking,' that the Russian intervention in Europe might not be too harsh.\"\n\nStalin \"not too harsh\"?\n\nWas the President serious? American knowledge about the Soviet regime, thanks to Russian secrecy, was admittedly minimal, but from the head of U.S. foreign intelligence, General Donovan, the President had received an all-too-real picture of Stalin's system of mass deportation, arrests, executions, and rule of fear. The President's realism concerning Russia, in fact, went way back to his instructions when sending Ambassador Bullitt to Moscow to establish the first U.S. embassy in Soviet Russia: \"You will be more or less in the position of Commander Byrd\u2014cut off from civilization.\"\n\nThe President's view of communist Russians as \"barbarians\" had not changed since then. Tragic though it might be, Stalin the Barbarian had survived as dictator of the USSR. As had communist Russia itself, despite facing the greatest war-assault ever mounted in military history.\n\nWas Russian nationalist barbarianism reason enough, though, for the United States to hold back and watch while the struggle for Europe was\u2014as in the 1930s\u2014left to others? Could a near-bankrupt Britain be expected to master events in western Europe any better than it had in 1940, let alone in central or eastern Europe? Its military forces had been evacuated from the continent in Norway and at Dunkirk in 1940, been trounced in North Africa and rebuffed with ease at Dieppe in 1942, and even in 1943 its prime minister was really only backing a 1944 cross-Channel attack in deference to the President's will\u2014Churchill concerned, still, that it could be a disaster if indeed it took place . . .\n\nBritain, in short, could not be depended upon as a military power in Europe in its own right.\n\nIf Soviet domination of Europe was to be the ultimate price of defeating the Nazis, then, should American sons be sent to Europe at all? Here the President sounded more positive, for he was by no means defeatist about the larger, global picture. The League of Nations had been \"no success, because the small states were allowed to intervene,\" he said\u2014leading to a state of anarchy that Hitler had exploited, allowing him to conquer most of Europe by force. The lesson was therefore simple. Once Hitler was defeated, it had to be assumed postwar peace could only be guaranteed by \"the four big powers (U.S., Britain, Russia, China).\" The United States would be supreme in its own hemisphere, and across the Pacific. But did that mean that the security of the heartland of modern civilization\u2014a civilization built on the foundations laid by the Greeks and the Romans\u2014should be handed over to the British, who were weak, and the Russians, \"because they are big, strong and simply impose themselves\"? the vicar military asked.\n\nThe President shrugged\u2014unsure how the future would play out, and whether American voters would support a permanent American presence in Europe. All that could be said with certainty at this juncture was that, after waging two vast and destructive wars in Europe in the space of thirty years, Germany was clearly too powerful a nation to be allowed to threaten world peace again. It should, he thought, be divided up into numerous states\u2014\"Bavaria, Rhineland, Saxony, Hesse, Prussia,\" and \"disarmed for forty years,\" he asserted. \"No air force, no civilian aviation, no German would be authorized to learn flying.\" Austria, though Catholic, could not be saved from a \"Russian dominated Communist Regime.\" Hungary, by contrast, might be saved\u2014\"He likes the Hungarians. He wants them to come over,\" Spellman quoted the President's view. \"He would be ready to accept them on the Allied side as they are, if they come over.\" The only states where self-determination would actually be guaranteed\u2014presumably by Britain\u2014would be in western Europe: \"Plebiscites would be held in the following countries: France, Italy, Netherlands, Belgium, Norway, Greece\"\u2014but not even Czechoslovakia, which he doubted could be saved in time.\n\nWestern Poland, on September 3, 1943, went unmentioned.\n\nThe Allied \"side.\"\n\nHungary coming \"over\" . . .\n\nIt was clear the President foresaw a division of Europe into an Allied West and a Russian-dominated East in the not-too-distant future, now that British Eighth Army troops, having crossed onto mainland Italy, were beginning to fight their way north.\n\nSpellman, who had supported Roosevelt against the bitter denunciations of Father Charles Coughlin in 1936, as well as in confronting the Axis powers after Pearl Harbor, was made acutely aware by the President of the domestic political challenge: how to get the American public to endorse, after the fall of the Third Reich, even the remotest possibility of another war to \"save\" specific nations in central Europe, and push back the Soviets, once they established themselves there.\n\nLeaving the conundrum up to the President, the Archbishop focused, for his part, on pressing for Rome\u2014as well as its environs in a twenty-mile safe zone\u2014to be considered an \"open city\" in order to protect the Vatican and Rome's historic churches: \"what to do for Holy See,\" as he put it.\n\nNevertheless, the President's somewhat dispirited \"realism\" worried him. Was the President ailing?\n**50**\n\n# The Empires of the Future\n\nTHOUGH NOT PRIVY to the President's discussions with the British prime minister, young Mary Churchill was aware that, though almost a decade younger than her father, Mr. Roosevelt was not one hundred percent well.\n\nDecades older than Mary, Daisy Suckley was noticing the same\u2014and was concerned. The President had returned from Canada in apparent good health, yet sported \"dark rings under his eyes\"\u2014and was finding it more difficult to exhibit the abiding confidence and humor that were his trademark as a leader.\n\nFor his part Harry Hopkins seemed ill\u2014but that, at least, showed in public. In Roosevelt's case, the President refused to show weakness, let alone signs of illness. \"This is one noticeable way in which the P. is so outstanding,\" Daisy noted. Others seemed positively \"shell-shocked\" by the pace and demands of government and command in war, whereas the President \"is completely normal mentally & spiritually, although he has in a way, more responsibility than anyone,\" she described. Roosevelt would not even permit Ross McIntire, his doctor, to accompany him to Hyde Park\u2014nor would he allow McIntire to bring in a medical consultant to assess his cardiac and circulatory health, lest word leak out he might not be up to the trials of a fourth presidential election, were he to stand.\n\nDaisy thus worried that Churchill's extended stay at the White House, with his wife, daughter, and immediate staff\u2014military, clerical, private\u2014to boot, was simply too demanding at a time when the First Lady was still away: leaving the President to have to take care of even the most basic aspects of hospitality.\n\nWhat she did not quite understand was that Churchill was now the only man in the world who could help the President not only shoulder his great burdens, but stop the \"barbarians\" from occupying too much of eastern, central, and western Europe as the war progressed.\n\nThe responsibilities of being a national leader, and on top of that commander in chief in a world war, were almost literally crushing\u2014and Daisy was certainly right to be anxious.\n\nHitler, for his part, was unwell, living in isolation, intimate only with his mistress, Eva Braun, and his dog, Blondi; Stalin associated only with those in literal terror of him\u2014even instructing the NKVD to \"investigate\" his son and daughter by his second wife, Nadezhda Alliluyeva, who had allegedly committed suicide in 1932. (Of his first wife, Ekatarina, who had died of tuberculosis in 1907, a year after their marriage, Stalin had reportedly said: \"With her died my last warm feelings for humanity.\")\n\nGiven that the Quebec Conference was over and that its military decisions would henceforth be carried out by the Combined Chiefs of Staff, twelve days of entertaining the Churchills did seem rather long, however, to Daisy. It appeared so even more to the press, who wondered why Churchill needed to spend so much time in Washington with the President. What was Churchill busy plotting now, if the big decisions had supposedly been made at Quebec? skeptics wondered.\n\nIt was in this respect that Dr. Goebbels was more insightful than Allied journalists. The fact that Churchill was spending so much time with the President in America spoke volumes to him. The Reichsminister and F\u00fchrer might still hope for signs of a split in the Allied coalition, one that might help preserve the Third Reich and its armies. The President, however, seemed still master of world opinion. Hitler had spent only a few hours with Mussolini at Feltre, before the Duce's arrest. By contrast, hosting Churchill for almost two weeks, the President was demonstrating to the world the _solidarity_ of the Western Allies\u2014an even more symbolic demonstration, in fact, than the Quebec Conference.\n\nTaking his cue, Churchill had settled in and talked to the President at length about the Russian menace, in front of Cardinal Spellman and others. As a result of those conversations, in fact, a new idea of Western unity began to emerge in the Prime Minister's fertile brain.\n\nAt 10:00 p.m. on September 5, Winston Churchill left the President and with his wife, Clemmie, and his daughter Mary, departed the White House and took the train to Boston.\n\nThe Prime Minister had cabled Field Marshal Smuts, the South African prime minister, writing: \"I think it inevitable that Russia will be the greatest land power in the world after this war which will have rid her of the two military powers, Japan and Germany, who in our lifetime have inflicted upon her such heavy defeats. I hope, however, that the 'fraternal association' of the British Commonwealth and the United States together with sea and air power, may put us on good terms and in a friendly balance with Russia at least for the period of re-building. Further than that I cannot see with mortal eye, and I am not as yet fully informed about celestial telescopes.\"\n\nUnrecognized by most historians, however, this was in fact a new turning point in the war, as Churchill now sought not only to wed Britain to the United States in terms of defeating Hitler, but beyond that in dealing with the Soviet Union.\n\nThe truth was, without the help of the United States there was little hope Britain could, on its own, do much of anything to halt the advance of Soviet forces in Europe, or even combat Soviet communist \"influence\" there. _In partnership with the United States,_ however, it could\u2014possibly. It would require girding up the people of the United States to the challenge, but it was perhaps for this reason, rather than to perpetuate British colonialism, that he had been put on this earth. Churchill had earned huge respect for his moral courage in confronting Hitler, when Britain stood alone; as Prime Minister he now felt he must, as far as possible, use that continuing respect and public support to buck up the President; to help Americans, not simply Britons, embrace a new, quasi-imperial global role as the guarantors, as far as possible, of democracy and the four freedoms.\n\nIt was a tragedy the present war could not end as the triumph of democracy over fascism and tyranny, but as the President said, it could take a generation or more before the Russians cast off communist dictatorship and embraced anything like the four freedoms.\n\nDistinct from Western norms of civilization, the Soviet Union remained a tyranny based on fear, paranoid secrecy, incarceration, deportation, mock justice, xenophobia, and ruthlessly Russian\u2014as opposed to international\u2014self-interest. How much better would history have been served had Stalin never been born! Stalin had, however\u2014and his tough, dictatorial leadership had at least ensured the Soviet armies succeeded in halting Hitler's mad invasion, just as Napoleon's invasion army had been destroyed in the heart of Russia. Somehow, Churchill mused, it would be for the United States not only to create a United Nations authority that would help preserve the peace after the defeat of Hitler and the Japanese but\u2014in partnership with the British\u2014face up to the Russians . . .\n\nFortunately the Prime Minister liked to work long and late. No sooner had the train pulled out than \"he started to compose his speech,\" his secretary, Elizabeth Layton, wrote home, and together with Churchill's shorthand stenographer, Patrick Kinna, she took down his words over four hours of nighttime railroad dictation: his speech to be given at Harvard University on September 6, on the acceptance there of an honorary degree.\n\nChurchill had already given some of the most memorable, indeed historic, speeches in the annals of rhetoric\u2014rich in metaphor and in the sheer magnitude of his historical perspective. His Harvard University address, however, was to be special in that, three years before his famous \"Iron Curtain\" speech, Churchill now made an open appeal to the youth of America to assume responsibility not only to help win the war against current tyranny but to continue to do so thereafter: safeguarding democracy on behalf of those who could not, by virtue of their weakness, do so on their own.\n\nTo the \"youth of America, as to the youth of Britain, I say 'You cannot stop,'\" Churchill declared the next day in Harvard's famous Yard. \"There is no halting-place at this point. We have now reached a stage in the journey where there can be no pause. We must go on. It must be world anarchy or world order.\" As he put it, \"We do not war primarily with race as such. Tyranny is our foe, whatever trappings or disguise it wears, whatever language it speaks, be it external or internal, we must forever be on our guard, ever mobilized, ever vigilant, always ready to spring at its throat. In all this,\" he emphasized as a British prime minister speaking in America, \"we march together. Not only do we march and strive shoulder to shoulder at this moment under the fire of the enemy on the fields of war or in the air, but also in those realms of thought which are consecrated to the rights and dignity of man.\" The British Commonwealth and the United States were now joined at the hip\u2014not only in their common language, but in their willingness to fight alongside, even subordinate to, one another.\n\nThe Combined Chiefs of Staff was the clearest manifestation of this development: acting not only as the transatlantic advisory body to the two elected leaders, but as the de facto strategic command center of the forces of the United Nations. Churchill was therefore unapologetic in claiming it would be a \"most foolish and improvident act on the part of our two Governments, or either of them, to break up this smooth-running and immensely powerful machinery the moment the war is over. For our own safety, as well as for the security of the rest of the world, we are bound to keep it working and in running order after the war\u2014probably for a good many years, not only until we have set up some world arrangement to keep the peace but until we know that it is an arrangement which will really give us that protection we must have from danger and aggression\"\u2014a protection \"we have,\" as Britons, \"already had to seek across two vast world wars.\"\n\nIn all but name this was a warning not only to Hitler, but to Stalin: that the English-speaking democracies of the world should\u2014and would\u2014hold together to confront and defeat tyranny and the evils of a police state. \"Various schemes of achieving world security while yet preserving national rights, tradition and customs are being studied and probed,\" the Prime Minister acknowledged: a search to develop a system more durable and effective than the League of Nations. \"I am here to tell you,\" he declared, though, \"that whatever form your system of world security may take, however the nations are grouped and ranged, whatever derogations are made from national sovereignty for the sake of the large synthesis, nothing will work soundly or for long without the united effort of the British and American peoples.\"\n\n\"If we are together,\" Churchill declared, \"nothing is impossible. If we are divided all will fail,\" he warned. How proud Americans and Britons could be, then, \"young and old alike\" to live at a time in the story of man when \"these great trials came upon it\"\u2014and had found, he declared, \"a generation that terror could not conquer and brutal violence could not enslave.\"\n\nThe speech even contained the most stunning suggestion: that not only should Britons and Americans continue their military alliance after the war, but even resume a \"common citizenship.\"\n\nWhile there was little enthusiasm expressed in America for common citizenship\u2014the United States, after all, having waged a revolutionary war to achieve independence from the British Empire\u2014Churchill's remarks, at the very moment when cables were being exchanged between the President's Map Room and the Kremlin regarding the need for high-level U.S., British, and Soviet meetings, were welcomed by newspapers in America, England, and United Nations countries. An initial meeting of the Big Three's foreign ministers was in the works for October; then a Big Three summit to be held hopefully in November or December, 1943 . . .\n\nBeyond the imminent amphibious Allied assault at Salerno and airdrop on Rome, then, there were larger issues at stake.\n\nThe United States was at last entering upon its manifest destiny not only as a world power, but as _the_ leading power of the free world, Churchill accepted\u2014and while no one knew which way France and other occupied countries would eventually turn, there was no doubt as to where he, the President's \"ardent lieutenant\" and \"representative of the British War Cabinet,\" stood.\n\nIt would not be easy. \"The price of greatness is responsibility,\" Churchill solemnly warned at Harvard. \"Let us go forward in malice to none and good will to all. Such plans offer far better prizes than taking away other people's provinces or lands or grinding them down in exploitation. The empires of the future,\" the once-implacable British imperialist maintained, \"are the empires of the mind.\"\n\nSuch a bold assertion of Anglo-American solidarity would not stop Stalin from controlling those eastern and central European countries the Soviet armies might well overrun, as they combined with the United States and Britain to defeat the forces of the Third Reich. It left no doubt, however\u2014whether in Hitler's mind, Goebbels's, or Stalin's\u2014that the Western Allies, led by the United States and Britain, would not rest until the evils of the Third Reich were ended, and in the aftermath that they would remain united: intent upon blocking any attempt by Stalin to expand into western Europe a Soviet empire of gulag and fear.\n**51**\n\n# A Tragicomedy of Errors\n\nWHILE CHURCHILL GAVE his support to the notion of a new, internationalist America, General Eisenhower faced the problem of the military and political prosecution of the current war in the Mediterranean.\n\nIt did not go quite as planned. Indeed, blame for the near-catastrophe that befell the Allies in Italy ultimately rested with the two commanders in chief in Washington, historians would rightly aver\u2014for the failure to make clear to Eisenhower that his task was merely to occupy southern Italy while the Overlord invasion of northern France was prepared permitted the most dangerous optimism and false hopes to spread among the senior ranks of U.S. and British forces in the Mediterranean.\n\nThus the tragedy unfolded.\n\nChurchill, so magnificent in his appreciation of the larger forces of history and tyranny, once again demonstrated an impetuous military opportunism\u2014an aspect of his character he had never been able to control. Without General Brooke at his side in Washington to restrain him, he yearned for the Allies to swiftly seize Rome, as in the days of the Caesars\u2014rightly seeing in it a prize whose capture would electrify both the free and the occupied countries of the world. The image across the world evoked by Italian unconditional surrender and the Allied occupation of Rome would be the second \"crack in the Axis\" that the President had spoken of in Ottawa.\n\nThese were understandable political and moral ambitions for the Allies\u2014achievements that would impress the Soviets (who were still nowhere near evicting the German armies from the USSR).\n\nUnfortunately, neither agenda took account of the Wehrmacht's likely response. Nor did it account for the invidious dilemma into which it placed Badoglio's Italian government: whether the country was to be destroyed alongside the Germans\u2014or by the Germans.\n\nAs the days of early September passed, then, the various headquarters in the Mediterranean suffered a fatal lack of clear strategic direction from the President, the Prime Minister, and the Combined Chiefs of Staff. The President favored only a limited Allied military campaign, but was less than clear where it should end\u2014whether in the south of Italy, in order to secure the important all-weather Foggia airfields, or as far as Rome. In fact, in a moment of levity, having summoned the chiefs to the White House to discuss the \"strategic situation in light of Italian collapse,\" he suggested that \"a new slogan should be adopted\" for the campaign in Italy: \"Save the Pope\"  He was not anxious to go further, however, lest the buildup for Overlord be compromised.\n\nBy contrast the Prime Minister wanted to drive right up to the mountains of Tuscany, and there \"establish a fortified line to seal off the north of Italy; a line prepared in depth which Italian divisions should help us man and so strong that it would make it very costly for the Germans to do anything effective against us.\" In the meantime, he urged, the Allies should do everything in their power to seize the Dodecanese islands such as Rhodes and put pressure on Turkey to enter the war. The Allies would then possess a huge staging post in southern Europe to strike, in the event of a German collapse, toward southern France, the Balkans, Greece, or even northern Italy through the so-called Ljubljana Gap and Austria.\n\nBehind the rejoicing over the recent conquest of Sicily and the first Allied boots on the mainland of Europe, across the Messina Strait\u2014where Italian forces simply fled, and British Eighth Army troops had only to follow retreating Wehrmacht survivors of the Sicilian campaign\u2014the real situation for the Allies began, in all truth, to border on the farcical.\n\n\"He is host & hostess & housekeeper all in one,\" Daisy reflected of her hero, the President\u2014for it seemed really amazing with what ease Roosevelt had switched from a meeting of the Joint Chiefs of Staff at the White House to arranging trips of his English guests to Williamsburg, Virginia, or from reviewing British Eighth Army progress with General Ismay, at Hyde Park, to showing his guests his library before they finally left. Major military forces\u2014land, sea, and air\u2014were being committed to battle in the Mediterranean, but without clear and realistic strategic objectives passed down the Allied chain of command, the situation in the Mediterranean became daily more complicated.\n\nTasked with obtaining, if possible, the unconditional surrender of all Italian forces in Italy, southern France, the Balkans, and Greece, General Eisenhower had begun parleys with the emissaries of Marshal Badoglio, while having to decide what to do about General Patton's latest scandal (a report by the U.S. chief medical officer in the Mediterranean claiming Patton was psychologically and behaviorally unfit to command U.S. forces after striking battle-traumatized soldiers); planning and commanding an invasion of Italy with limited resources (since Overlord was now to have logistical priority) and unclear strategic objectives; and having to meld as supreme commander in the Mediterranean the international ground, navy, and air force contributions to that uncertain challenge.\n\nIn the Torch invasion and campaign, the Allies had made a plethora of errors\u2014errors that had taken place in an area occupied only by Vichy troops. This had permitted the U.S. and supporting British troops to establish themselves in overwhelming force before Hitler could react. In Husky, again, only two German divisions were on hand to repel boarders\u2014even Hitler conceding it would be impossible to hold Sicily for more than a few weeks. But now, as the Allies prepared to invade the mainland of southern Europe in considerable force and from two different directions, the challenge changed. Montgomery had already complained on August 19 that his \"Baytown\" landing across the Messina Strait had no strategic objective; when pressed, Eisenhower's land forces commander, General Alexander, could only say Montgomery was to \"engage enemy forces in the southern tip of Italy,\" and thus give \"more assistance\" to \"Avalanche\"\u2014the four-division assault on Salerno, three hundred miles away on Italy's west coast, near Naples.\n\nThree hundred miles, Monty had whistled! \"If Avalanche is a success, then we should reinforce that front for there is little point in laboriously fighting our way up Southern Italy,\" his headquarters staff had protested\u2014vainly. For his part, Montgomery, having faced the cream of the Afrika Corps since the battle of Alamein, was deeply skeptical whether Avalanche, south of Naples, would be the sort of walkover that Eisenhower and Alexander's headquarters assumed. Or Mark Clark\u2014the as-yet-untested commander of the U.S. Fifth Army, tasked with the amphibious assault there. \"The Germans had some 15 Divisions in Italy and at least four could be concentrated fairly quickly against the 5 American Army,\" Montgomery wrote in his diary after listening to Clark's presentation of the Avalanche plan. He vigorously disputed, as the Allies' most professional if slow field commander, any idea of an easy run. So did the swifter Patton, when shown the task given to Clark. Given the hills surrounding the beautiful beaches, the \"avalanche\" might well come to a halt on the shore without chance of reaching Naples\u2014let alone Rome.\n\nAs if this was not all, the plan\u2014pressed by General Marshall\u2014to land U.S. airborne troops on Rome was even less prudent; indeed Giant II, as it was code-named, was arguably one of the most ill-conceived near-blunders of the entire war.\n\nGeneral Eisenhower later confided that he \"wanted very much to make the air drop on Rome,\" and was so \"anxious to get in there,\" at Marshall's urging, that he removed the Eighty-Second Airborne Division from Mark Clark's Avalanche invasion force for the purpose. Somewhat surprised, General Matt Ridgway was thus ordered by the Allied commander in chief Mediterranean to drop his Eighty-Second Airborne Division on the Italian capital instead.\n\nEisenhower's chief of staff, General Bedell Smith\u2014a brilliant staff officer, but wholly ignorant of combat\u2014proved equally naive, not only then but even after the event. He considered it would have been a \"bold move, and it would have caught the Germans off balance\"\u2014causing Field Marshal Kesselring to retreat \"immediately . . . Caught by the surprise of the American airborne landing in Rome and with his communications cut, Kesselring would have been compelled to retire to the North, and to abandon all southern and central Italy,\" Smith later asserted.\n\nAt West Point, such boldness might have been lauded\u2014in theory. Would the Italians, even if they were ordered to surrender to the Allies by Marshall Badoglio, actually lift a finger, however, to challenge let alone fight the Germans, who had two armored divisions surrounding Rome, and more approaching? Although General Alexander had browbeaten General Castellano, Badoglio's secret representative, into promising four divisions of Italian troops to aid Ridgway's assault from the sky, Montgomery certainly remained deeply skeptical. The \"Italians won't do anything\" he predicted\u2014and Ridgway and his artillery director, General Max Taylor, feared the same. Indeed\u2014though trashed after the war by both Bedell Smith and general Eisenhower's intelligence chief, Brigadier Kenneth Strong\u2014Ridgway and Taylor refused to commit thousands of their paratroopers' lives to a wild plan, concocted in an \"all night session\" in a tent in Sicily, without further research. General Taylor and a companion\u2014Colonel William Gardiner\u2014were therefore authorized to go behind the enemy lines, in advance of the airborne drop, to interview the commander of all Italian forces in Rome.\n\nTransported in disheveled uniforms\u2014posing as POWs being taken from the coast at Gaeta to the outskirts of the capital, then in an ambulance with frosted windows to the Italian War Office in Rome\u2014Taylor and Gardiner only got to see General Carbonari at 9:30 p.m. on September 7, roughly twenty-four hours before the 150 C-54 paratroopers' planes of the Eighty-Second Airborne Division were due to take off from Sicily. A draft Instrument of Surrender\u2014approved by President Roosevelt and by Prime Minister Churchill\u2014had been signed on behalf of Badoglio on September 3, but had been held back in order to give the Germans no chance of preempting the Eighty-Second Airborne's drop on Rome, or Clark's invasion at Salerno, at dawn on September 9.\n\nThe paratroopers, however, did not go in\u2014mercifully. Once Taylor reached Rome, General Carbonari explained that there were twelve thousand German paratroopers and twenty-four thousand men of the German Third Panzer Grenadier Division, with tanks, encircling the city. The American landing area was _twenty miles_ from Rome; only two U.S. battalions could be airlifted in the first wave, and the Italian divisions had ammunition for only a few hours fighting\u2014if that.\n\nTaylor and Gardiner were agog. General Alexander, a Brit, had predicted Clark's land forces would reach Rome from Salerno, hundreds of miles away, in only three\u2014five, at maximum\u2014days, to relieve them. It was a prediction near-criminal in its credulity\u2014and cavalierness. Without genuine Italian assistance from the four Italian divisions, Taylor foresaw, the Eighty-Second's airdrop would be a bloodbath: an American one. He rightly demanded to see Marshal Badoglio\u2014who, when roused from his bed, was even more defeatist, Taylor found.\n\nBadoglio had seen no fighting since 1940, and now disavowed the very Instrument of Surrender he had authorized by cable\u2014saying he had not signed it, and had only given way to temporary telephone agreement when General Alexander threatened his emissary to destroy Rome by bombing. His representative in the negotiation \"did not know all the facts,\" he told Taylor; \"Italian troops cannot possibly defend Rome.\" In fact he predicted grave \"difficulties\" for the Allies if they landed at Salerno, given the number of German troops in the area and those streaming down with more tanks from the north. When Taylor tried the same tactic as General Alexander\u2014threatening to bomb the Eternal City, unless the Italians carried out the proposed surrender\u2014Badoglio merely looked at him. \"Why would you want to bomb the city of the people who are trying to aid you?\"\n\nTrying\u2014but not very hard. Certainly not hard enough to save the Eighty-Second Airborne Division from extinction.\n\nThere followed a veritable tragicomedy of errors as Taylor's secret wireless signals to Eisenhower's headquarters and to General Ridgway, in Sicily, failed to get through. By the time Eisenhower called off the operation\u2014sending Alexander's American deputy, General Lemnitzer, in person to Sicily to stop it\u2014more than fifty C-47s with their paratroop companies were already in the air, circling the departure airfield. Firing an emergency warning flare, Lemnitzer\u2014crammed behind the pilot in a British Beaufighter\u2014managed to land with the cancel order, and the planes were instructed by radio to return to base.\n\nIt was a near-run thing.\n\nBut for Mark Clark's Fifth Army there was no cancellation or reprieve as, like the cavalry in the famous Charge of the Light Brigade, they were convoyed through the night toward the beaches of Salerno, and a most unwelcome welcome.\n**52**\n\n# Meeting Reality\n\nTOUCHING DOWN AT dawn on September 9, 1943, the Western Allies finally met reality. It was to be the most venomously contested amphibious invasion since Dieppe\u2014contested by major Wehrmacht forces.\n\nWith the assent of the President and the Prime Minister, the \"unconditional surrender\" of all Italian forces had finally been announced on Allied radio in Algiers by General Eisenhower at 6:30 p.m. on September 8, in order to give the Germans the least possible time to man the beaches at Salerno. There was no confirming announcement on Rome radio by Marshal Badoglio, however\u2014and for ten minutes it looked as if the Allies would have egg as well as blood on their faces.\n\nAll Eisenhower could do was continue to bluff\u2014by reading aloud on Allied radio in Algiers the text of Marshal Badoglio's supposed surrender proclamation\u2014which the Marshal was still refusing to confirm. This proclamation ordered the Italian military on the mainland and abroad to \"cease all acts of hostility against the Anglo-American forces wherever they may be.\"\n\nBadoglio's hand was thus forced. After much handwringing, the seventy-one-year-old marshal\u2014fearing arrest, even execution, by stalwart Italian fascists\u2014felt he had no option but to confirm the surrender on Rome radio and seek to save himself. At 7:20 p.m. he did so\u2014and immediately made himself scarce. Together with the royal family in the capital he fled the city on the only still-open road, in a convoy of carabinieri-protected vehicles, and bearing boxes of lire to bribe loyal fascists at roadblocks.\n\nIt was an ignominious end to the Pact of Steel: the final act of Italy's venal participation in the war\u2014first as Hitler's partner in world crime, then as partner to the approaching Allies, which Badoglio now offered, on behalf of the Italian government, to become.\n\nOthers were skeptical. \"The House of Savoy never finished a war on the same side it started, unless the war lasted long enough to change sides twice,\" a Free French newspaper commented sarcastically. The inheritors of Rome's great empire in ancient times, the Italians now merely blew with the wind. \"If you analyze the matter in cold blood there is no doubt the Italians have carried out a really good double-cross; they change sides on one day!!!\" Montgomery wrote the next day to friends in England. \"I wouldn't trust them a yard, and in any case they are quite useless when it comes to fighting.\"\n\nThis was the real issue\u2014for the Germans, by contrast, were very good when it came to fighting. And merciless. As Field Marshal Kesselring remarked of the Italians, \"I loved these people. Now I can only hate them\"\u2014hate that was now authorized to be channeled into vengeance on an unsparing scale, not only against Italian military units, but women, children, and the elderly. \"No mercy must be shown to the traitors,\" Kesselring instructed General von Vietinghoff, his Tenth Army commander. Nor was it: the Italian general commanding the Salerno coastal division was executed in his headquarters even before the Germans turned on the approaching Allies\u2014and the same fate befell tens of thousands of Italian troops across the country, as well as partisans, indeed anyone who challenged German military occupation or was seen to be aiding the Allies.\n\nGeneral Sir Harold Alexander had willfully overestimated Italian assistance while utterly underestimating German resistance\u2014fatally misleading the Allied commander in chief, General Eisenhower, as well as the Fifth Army commander, General Mark Clark.\n\nAs the ground-forces commander of the assault, Clark had meantime hourly become more anxious. He'd thought the removal of his airborne division a terrible mistake, and had not been amused by Eisenhower's offhand dismissal of his doubts. \"'Well, Wayne'\u2014he always called me Wayne,\" Clark recalled Eisenhower's words, \"When it drops [on Rome], it passes to your command!' And I said, 'Thanks, Ike, that's five hundred miles away!\"\n\nWith the belated decision to call off the airdrop on Rome, Clark had no airborne division to worry about in Rome\u2014indeed, no airborne division at all. \"As dusk came I was on the bridge. I could see the silhouettes of a hundred ships with my men in them. And I had never had such a forlorn feeling in my life,\" he later recounted. Shorn of the Eighty-Second Airborne, the fifty-five thousand men (British and American) of his Fifth Army thus sailed into a trap\u2014\"spitting right into the lion's mouth.\"\n\nAlerted that an Allied armada of almost a hundred ships was anchoring twelve miles offshore in the Gulf of Salerno, Kesselring had sent out his orders. The enemy \"must be completely annihilated and in addition thrown into the sea. The British and Americans must realize that they are hopelessly lost against the concentrated German might.\" Facing a barrage of Luftwaffe planes, lethal 88mm guns, and dense machine-gun fire, the Allied invasion force went into battle\u2014the scene soon resembling something out of Dante's _Inferno_ as both the clear Italian water and the sandy beaches ran with blood. As the veteran AP reporter Don Whitehead heard someone remark, \"Maybe it would be better for us to fight without an [Italian] armistice.\"\n\nWith operations now in the hands of General Eisenhower, there was nothing President Roosevelt, as the U.S. commander in chief in Washington, could do but leave the battle to the men in combat.\n\nLate in the evening of September 9, once his meeting with the Joint Chiefs of Staff was over, the President therefore set off in the _Ferdinand Magellan_ for Hyde Park with his British guests, the Prime Minister and his family. He had delivered another Fireside Chat the previous night, from the Diplomatic Reception Room, to announce the armistice with Italy\u2014and to warn his listeners against complacency or idle assumptions. He welcomed the Italian people, who were \"at last coming to the day of liberation from their real enemies, the Nazis.\" But \"let us not delude ourselves that this armistice means the end of the war in the Mediterranean. We still have to drive the Germans out of Italy as we have driven them out of Tunisia and Sicily; we must drive them out of France and all other captive countries; and we must strike them on their own soil from all directions. Our ultimate objectives in this war will continue to be Berlin and Tokyo,\" he made clear.\n\n\"I ask you to bear these objectives constantly in mind\u2014and do not forget that we still have a long way to go before we attain them,\" he'd warned. \"The great news that you have heard today from General Eisenhower does not give you license to settle back in your rocking chairs and say, 'Well, that does it. We've got 'em on the run. Now we can start the celebration.' The time for celebration is not yet. And I have a suspicion that when this war does end, we shall not be in a very celebrating frame of mind. I think that our main emotion will be one of grim determination that this shall not happen again.\n\n\"During the past weeks,\" he continued, \"Mr. Churchill and I have been in constant conference with the leaders of our combined fighting forces. We have been in constant communication with our fighting allies, Russian and Chinese, who are prosecuting the war with relentless determination and with conspicuous success on far distant fronts. And Mr. Churchill and I are here together in Washington at this crucial moment. We have seen the satisfactory fulfillment of plans that were made in Casablanca last January and here in Washington last May. And lately we have made new, extensive plans for the future,\" he added\u2014a coded reference to Overlord. \"But throughout these conferences we have never lost sight of the fact that this war will become bigger and tougher, rather than easier, during the long months that are to come.\n\n\"This war does not and must not stop for one single instant. Your fighting men know that. Those of them who are moving forward through jungles against lurking Japs\u2014those who are landing at this moment, in barges moving through the dawn up to strange enemy coasts\u2014those who are diving their bombers down on the targets at roof-top level\u2014every one of these men knows that this war is a full-time job and that it will continue to be that until total victory is won.\"\n\nAt Hyde Park, once the party arrived, the Prime Minister found himself on tenterhooks. Though the President tried as far as possible to keep the Churchills, including young Mary, entertained, Winston remained anxious. Giant II had been canceled; fearing savage Wehrmacht reprisals, Badoglio had reportedly attempted to renege on the Italian surrender.\n\nThe news that did come through was not good\u2014indeed, with more German troops racing toward the battle zone at Salerno in succeeding days, Clark not only asked Eisenhower's authority to use troops of the Eighty-Second Airborne Division, but to drop them on the very beaches of Salerno, to bolster the infantry\u2014and even ordered contingency plans be made for possible evacuation, \u00e1 la Dunkirk.\n\nDaisy Suckley, watching the President, was amazed at his sang-froid. \"Sunday, September 12, 1943,\" she wrote in her diary, three days into the invasion. \"Sitting on his wheelchair, with all the Churchill party standing around, he sent for Jennings, and, in two minutes arranged for the visit, next week-end,\" of his son John Roosevelt and John's wife, Anne, \"with two children & a nurse, and 6 Norwegians with a maid.\"\n\nThe President had spent the morning driving his visitors about the estate, \"at the wheel, his dog Fala beside him,\" and had arranged for lunch to be served for them all \"at his own cottage (higher up the hillside than Mrs R's Val-Kill).\" Following this they'd lain on the veranda\u2014Churchill telling his daughter Mary the colors he would use, were he painting the scene, and commenting with a smile on \"the wisdom of God in having made the sky _blue_ & the trees _green._ 'It wouldn't have been nearly so good the other way round.'\"\n\n\"To me these moments with Papa are the golden peaks of my life,\" Mary noted in her diary\u2014aware that, between them, the President and the Prime Minister had it in them to protect and preserve civilization as they knew it. Then, after dinner, where the President had proposed the health of his guests Winston and Clemmie, who were celebrating their thirty-fifth wedding anniversary, \"FDR drove us down to the train,\" the subaltern jotted in her diary.\n\n\"God Bless You,\" Daisy heard Churchill say, leaning into the President's car. \"I'll be over with you, next spring.\"\n\n\"Next spring\" had meant before D-day. There was a long way to go before Overlord, however. Behind the bonhomie, the war in Europe was now entering a critical time for the Western Allies.\n\nChurchill's moral and political sturdiness had certainly bucked up the President, but his military judgment, once again, was of a different order. The campaign in Italy upon which he'd so set his heart would now, inexorably, prove the very quagmire that General Marshall and the U.S. chiefs had foretold.\n\nEven Churchill's doctor recorded how anxious, at the White House the week before, Winston had become: his thoughts \"wandering to the coming landing at Salerno. That is where his heart is. As the appointed day draws near, the P.M. can think of nothing else. On this landing he has been building all his hopes. There are no doubts in his mind; anyway he admits none. It must succeed, and then Naples will fall into our hands. Last night, when the stream of his conversation was in spate, he talked of meeting Alex [General Alexander] in Rome before long\u2014the capture of Rome has fired his imagination; more than once he has spoken about Napoleon's Italian campaign.\"\n\nAt Hyde Park, three days after Clark's landings, Dr. Wilson had then noted the effect on Winston when the troops landed on the Salerno beaches and \"it did not prove to be a walk-over. On the contrary, the news that filtered into Hyde Park, where we had followed the President, was disquieting: the Germans had launched a strong counter-attack and the situation was very uncertain.\"\n\nThis was the reverse of what Churchill had so confidently forecast. There would be heavy casualties and loss of life, it seemed\u2014American as well as British. \"These things always seem to happen when I am with the President,\" the Prime Minister confided to Wilson, thinking of Tobruk the previous year\u2014Sir Charles noting: \"Poor Winston, he had been so anxious to convince Roosevelt that the invasion of Italy would yield a bountiful harvest at no great cost.\" Now that the first bill had come in, it was proving almost prohibitively expensive\u2014both in human life and in the very vessels and logistical backup the U.S. chiefs wanted transferred to Britain for D-day. \"When we left Hyde Park tonight, on the long journey to Halifax,\" Wilson recorded in his diary, \"the situation was still very obscure.\"\n\nChurchill was embarrassed\u2014and as his train bore him back to Canada, where he was to embark for Britain, the news from Italy only became more forbidding. Instead of seemingly effortless victory initially\u2014the Italian fleet having sailed south from Taranto to join the Allies, pursued by German U-boats and Luftwaffe that sank many of them\u2014Eisenhower's ground campaign turned sour. By September 16, Eisenhower was admitting to his naval aide that, if the Salerno battle ended in disaster,\" he himself would \"probably be out.\"\n\nFor his part, Churchill saw his once-glorious predictions for an Allied campaign in southern Europe exposed as wishful thinking. He'd earlier called upon his British chiefs of staff to be much bolder in their plans, and to \"use all our strength against Italy,\" even without American help. He'd even recommended making plans for British assault landings as far north along the coast of Italy as possible, in order to \"cut off\" as many Germans as they could. Far from throwing their proverbial hats further over the fence, as Churchill had urged his military team, the Prime Minister was now faced with having to eat his own. Though from his train he cabled directly Eisenhower's field deputy, General Alexander, urging him to go ashore in person at Salerno and avoid another Dardanelles fiasco, it could not alter the bitter, bitter truth: namely that the Allied campaign in Italy, as planned, had been based upon a false premise: not only that the Italians would help, but that the Germans would fail to offer a serious defense of Italy south of the Po.\n\nThe next day, as Churchill's train bore him to Halifax, where HMS _Renown_ would take him across the Atlantic, things sounded \"no better,\" Sir Charles noted. \"I have never seen him more on edge during a battle. Three 'bloodys' bespattered his conversation, and twice, while I was with him, he lost his temper with his servant, shouting at him in a painful way. He got up and walked down the train.\" Without information he seemed bereft. \"'Has any news come in?' he kept demanding. In truth, \"the reports that are reaching him only leave him more anxious,\" his doctor noted. \"There is a dreadful hint, though it is carefully covered up, that we might be driven into the sea. It appears, as far as I can tell, that the P.M. is largely responsible for this operation; if anyone is to blame, he is the man; and, from the way things seem to be going, I suppose he is beginning to think that there might be a good deal to explain.\"\n\nWithout the President to calm him, Churchill was metaphorically at sea\u2014and soon was in reality, where he remained \"immured in his cabin\" the whole voyage home, firing off telegrams to General Alexander to do more, and other wild cables, too, such as to General Maitland Wilson to accelerate a British seizure of the Dodecanese islands in the Aegean\u2014without the agreement of the President\u2014and be ready for potentially war-altering operations in the Balkans, where the Germans might, following the Italian surrender, be forced to withdraw to the Danube . . .\n\nTo Sir Charles Wilson this was all of a piece: the Prime Minister a bundle of nerves when things did not go in the way he had optimistically and impetuously planned.\n\nAt Hyde Park, however, the President neither blamed Winston nor worried unduly. He'd gotten to talk at length with young General Mark Clark during his stay in Casablanca, and was confident the U.S. troops\u2014many of them in their first battle\u2014would acquit themselves well. Moreover that General Eisenhower would recognize the gravity of the crisis and commit all he could to rectify the situation.\n\nNeither Rome nor even Naples was the point, after all. Even if Clark failed to make much headway, the Italians had surrendered\u2014unconditionally. All the Allies had to do, now, was secure the vital Foggia airfields, and bring the Germans to battle in Italy over the next months, until D-day was launched.\n\nIf Clark was forced to evacuate, after all, Allied troops could be sent to reinforce Montgomery's Eighth Army in Calabria. All would be well. Most importantly, the United States had demonstrated to the Soviets an absolute determination to fight on the mainland of Europe\u2014first in southern Italy, then across the Channel. He and Churchill would show Stalin they meant business, and would follow through on their promises\u2014moreover, that it would be best for the Russians to maintain civil discourse with the Western Allies in the fight to defeat the Third Reich.\n\nThe President thus slept a full ten hours after Churchill's train left the Hudson railway halt. He would spend only three days out of the next two weeks in Washington.\n\nThe fact was, he had bigger things on his mind than Salerno: his meeting with the Russian dictator, who in a flurry of new cables had finally agreed to a meeting of the Big Three\u2014though not outside Russia. His tone had been, however, more \"civil,\" as the principal private secretary to King George VI had noted in his diary at Buckingham Palace in London; \"he re-iterates his wish to have a three-party meeting,\" Sir Alan Lascelles aptly put it, \"but he won't go outside Russia, and I don't see how the President is to be got inside it.\"\n\nWhat had changed the Russian dictator's attitude?\n\nThere was much speculation\u2014though few were sure. Certainly, in terms of public attention, the Allied conference at Quebec, coming on top of the summit at Casablanca, had monopolized the attention of the free world. Russia was losing the very respect it was looking for, internationally\u2014Stalin conspicuous by his absence at such conferences, a fact that, in view of the many invitations to take part, began to suggest an ominous Russian agenda rather than genuine commitment to the anti-Axis cause and the Atlantic Charter\/Declaration of the United Nations.\n\nAbove all, though, the war had moved into a new phase: the endgame. American, British, and Canadian troops were now on the mainland of Europe, only eight hundred miles from Berlin\u2014while Russians were still fighting deep in the Soviet Union, more than a thousand miles from the German capital. As a result, Russian media calling for an immediate Second Front, instead, sounded silly\u2014however strategically necessary a cross-Channel assault might be in terms of the military defeat of the Third Reich. The President and Mr. Churchill, in short, appeared to be in control of the moral and political dimensions of the war, even the military\u2014leaving the Russians out on a limb, despite the almost obscene casualties they were suffering in their struggle to evict the Germans from their country.\n\nIn the new cables, Stalin still speciously claimed his presence was needed on a daily basis to control the battles raging on the Eastern Front (\"where more than 500 divisions are engaged in the fighting in all\"), but he now went out of his way not only to compliment the President on the \"new brilliant success in Italy\" but to acknowledge, for the first time, something even more significant. As Stalin put it, in his telegram to the President on September 11, \"the successful landing at Naples and break between Italy and Germany will deal one more blow upon Hitlerite Germany and will considerably facilitate the actions of the Soviet armies at the Soviet-German front.\"\n\nThis latter acknowledgment was, for Roosevelt, especially gratifying. Not only was the President relieved that his long, patient striving to convene a Big Three summit seemed about to pay off, but for the first time since Torch, Stalin had conceded that the President's strategy of landing in Sicily and then the mainland of Italy was having a major military impact on the war on Stalin's own Eastern Front. First at Kursk\u2014where the Germans had called off the battle early\u2014and now in the helter-skelter Russian advance in the Ukraine, where the Wehrmacht was being defeated in battle largely because Hitler simply had insufficient reserves to put into the line. The initiatives taken by the Western Allies had effectively spoiled any chance of the Wehrmacht defeating the Soviets that year.\n\n\"Everything turns on Italy at the moment,\" Goebbels had himself acknowledged on September 11, while staying with Hitler. Granted, \"the enemy hasn't the faintest idea of the real situation in Northern and Central Italy. They are still imagining we'll pull back our divisions over the Brenner to the homeland, and they'll be able to unleash a huge aerial attack on Berlin from airfields in southern Italy.\" Clearly the Allies hadn't reckoned on the German genius for combat. The ruthless German occupation of Rome and other Italian cities was being greeted with applause in the Third Reich, evoking shades of 1940 and the German occupation of Paris: the German Volk __ expressing \"rage against the Italians,\" who had nefariously betrayed them\u2014a people who would now be treated with the same remorseless cruelty that the Wehrmacht had shown their former Ribbentrop Pact partners when launching Barbarossa in 1941.\n\nAt the Wolf's Lair, the Reichsminister for Propaganda had even gotten Hitler to deliver the speech he'd desperately wanted the F\u00fchrer to give, in order to bolster morale in Germany. It had been recorded at the OKW headquarters and relayed by radio in Berlin to the nation on September 10: a speech given in measured tones without the usual Hitler histrionics. Instead, it had soberly denounced those Italians who had failed their Duce and who were now giving an example of cowardice and treachery that would go down in the annals of dishonor. Germany had consistently been compelled to bail out its ailing partner, in the Balkans and in North Africa\u2014\"the name of Field Marshal Rommel will forever be attached to this German effort\"\u2014but the Reich had now been \"betrayed\" by reactionary elements in Italy. \"Italy's defection will have little military impact,\" the F\u00fchrer claimed, \"since the battle in that country has primarily been carried and conducted by German forces. We'll now be freed of all restrictions and constraints.\"\n\nHitler's calm, measured tone would be balm to those in Germany wondering at the massive Allied air raids, the arrest of Mussolini, and then the unconditional surrender of the Italian government\u2014his speech worth \"seven divisions,\" as Goebbels put it. Hitler even made open mention of his secret weapons program. With Germany's enemies a thousand kilometers from the Reich, only their bombers could seek to \"terrorize\" the German population\u2014and in that connection \"there are,\" the F\u00fchrer announced, \"technical and organizational measures now being developed not simply to completely stop the terror bombing attacks, but to repay them with other, more effective measures\"\u2014his _Vergeltungswaffen,_ or V-1 and V-2 weapons.\n\nThe F\u00fchrer's speech worked \"like a refreshing thunderstorm,\" Goebbels noted\u2014\"one of the best,\" he reflected, \"he has delivered in the whole war.\"\n\nStill and all, Goebbels acknowledged, the Allied invasion of the European continent was now a game changer. Though the F\u00fchrer was confident the Wehrmacht could hold back the Allied armies south of Rome if they were fortunate, the divisions required for such a campaign would make it impossible to restrain the gathering Soviet tide on the Eastern Front: thus starving the German line of the reserves they desperately needed, especially on the line of the Dnieper, where little had been done to prepare solid defensive positions.\n\nAs Goebbels dictated in his diary, not only was the Allied invasion of Italy a lance in the German flank, but the situation in the East was \"absolutely critical,\" with German troops pulling further and further back. \"We see here what the unexampled betrayal of the Italians has caused us. If we'd had at hand the divisions we've had to send to Italy since the fall of Mussolini available to go into action on the Eastern Front, the current crisis would never have arisen. The superiority the Russians have over us is not that big\u2014you can see that in the way we've slowed their advance.\"\n\nIt was, for the Reich, a tragedy, he wrote. \"We have about eight divisions in northern Italy and in southern Italy another eight, so about sixteen divisions, fitted out with first-class personnel and equipment. The F\u00fchrer is convinced that with these sixteen divisions we'll be able to deal with the crisis in Italy,\" with a further fifty thousand troops in Sardinia and four thousand in Corsica who could be switched to Italy\u2014battle terrain that would be \"tabula rasa,\" with no concern about civilian casualties or destruction. Yet the absence of those very divisions from the Eastern Front was now galling. \"If we only had fifteen or twenty intact first-class divisions to put into battle, we'd be able to throw back the Soviets without any doubt whatsoever. But we're having to send those fifteen, twenty divisions south to the Italian theater,\" Goebbels wailed.\n\nFor German leaders accustomed to seize whatever they wished from weakly defended European neighbors, the arrest of Mussolini, the defection of Italy as an ally, and the arrival of the Western Allies on the mainland of Europe now threatened, in other words, to stretch and bring down the whole Axis edifice\u2014with the Allies possessing the upper hand.\n\nIf only the Western Allies would have launched a Second Front that year, Goebbels mused. A cross-Channel invasion by the Anglo-Americans would have given the Wehrmacht and Luftwaffe a real chance to defeat the Allies using the forces the Germans had in France, while retaining sufficient first-class divisions to deal with Stalin's forces on the Eastern Front. \"But that would be too good to be true,\" Goebbels lamented. Instead, the Western Allies had brought the war to the mainland of _Italy:_ not only obtaining the unconditional surrender of its government at very little cost to themselves, but opening the floodgates, in the east, to Stalin's armies, against whom the Wehrmacht would now have insufficient reserves. And with the F\u00fchrer too anxious about a fall invasion of France or even the Netherlands by the Allies to dare withdraw German divisions from the Atlantic Wall.\n\nIt would be up to valiant German troops both on the Eastern Front and the Southern Front, then, to show the Soviets and the Anglo-Americans the true mettle of the Wehrmacht. In Italy, Goebbels noted with a kind of sneering satisfaction, Allied troops would now face a ruthless German military machine unencumbered by Italians\u2014and with more German divisions streaming down from the north, they would demonstrate their prowess in killing, without question or remorse. Italians who did not lay down their arms, or who sought to impede the German military occupation of Italy in any way, would simply be shot or slaughtered\u2014as would civilians who aided partisans. Ruthlessness had gotten the Third Reich to its hitherto unimaginable string of imperial conquests\u2014and would now be applied as mercilessly as in Russia. _Totaler Krieg._\n\n\"The main purpose of my visit to the High Command Headquarters is fulfilled,\" Goebbels thus noted with satisfaction, on September 12. \"I think G\u00f6ring was right when he said to me that we have thereby won a battle. The F\u00fchrer's speech will be worth whole divisions on the Eastern Front and in Italy. I spend a little time chatting with the F\u00fchrer. He himself seems pleased he's gotten the speech out of the way. He wishes me all the best in my work and for my health . . . He promises to give another speech in the Sportpalast [in Berlin], to start the Winter Assistance Program. I'll make sure he'll get to taste once more just what it's like to be in touch with the Volk. Our farewell is very warm. I wish the F\u00fchrer all the best.\"\n\nAt 8:00 p.m. the Reich minister heard the latest news on the radio of \"our operations in Italy, which are going very well,\" at Salerno, on top of the F\u00fchrer's recorded speech\u2014which the Russians had failed to jam. \"A little more work, a little more talk. Then I fall into bed, dead tired. There'll be a mountain of work waiting for me in Berlin.\"\n**53**\n\n# A Message to Congress\n\nGOEBBELS WAS, HOWEVER, misinformed about the Italian campaign. Though the Allied assault landings at Salerno came close to the very \"brink of obliteration,\" as the American campaign historian Rick Atkinson recorded six decades later, the line held.\n\nIt was touch-and-go, however. According to Rommel's son, Manfred, Hitler\u2014buoyed by early reports of Wehrmacht victory at Salerno\u2014\"discussed with my father the possibility of launching a counter-offensive to retake southern Italy and possibly Sicily.\" Ordered in panic by General Alexander to cease dawdling and save Clark, however, General Montgomery\u2014who feared just such a Rommel riposte, as the Desert Fox had attempted at Medenine\u2014finally renewed his advance. As Clark himself related, years later, \"we had a hard time . . . Monty was sending me messages: 'Hang on, we're coming!' And I'd send back: 'Hurry up\u2014I'm not proud, come and get me.' So it was really something.\"\n\nIn truth it was Clark himself who saved Fifth Army, since his U.S. VI Corps commander, Major General Ernest Dawley\u2014another prot\u00e9g\u00e9 of General Marshall's\u2014proved a broken reed. Clark himself went ashore to take personal command, in a magnificent display of courage and leadership in battle. He persuaded General Ridgway to drop airborne troops on the beaches, and with U.S. and Royal Navy vessels firing almost as many shells as at Iwo Jima and Okinawa, later, Clark's men fought off the German counterassault.\n\nEisenhower had meantime warned the chiefs of staff of the possible need to evacuate the landings\u2014a message passed on to the President and to Churchill\u2014but the crisis eventually passed. Necessity\u2014the need to fight harder or die at Salerno\u2014had proven the ultimate mother of virtue.\n\nHitler was furious, as was Goebbels, but the President was relieved. \"You know from the news of the past few days,\" the President began his Message to Congress on September 17, 1943, as the Allied situation at Salerno seemed to stabilize, \"that every military operation entails a legitimate military risk and that occasionally we have checks to our military plans\u2014checks which necessarily involve severe losses of men and materials.\n\n\"The Allied forces are now engaged in a very hard battle south of Naples,\" he admitted. \"Casualties are heavy. The desperation with which the Germans are fighting reveals that they are well aware of the consequences to them of our occupation of Italy. The Congress and the American people can rest assured that the landing on Italy is not the only landing we have in mind. That landing was planned at Casablanca,\" he claimed\u2014bending the truth somewhat, since post-Husky operations had not actually been discussed in more than principle. Still and all, such planning had certainly taken place during the early summer. At Quebec, he explained, \"the leaders and the military staffs of Great Britain and the United States made specific and precise plans to bring to bear further blows of equal or greater importance against Germany and Japan\u2014with definite times and places for other landings on the continent of Europe and elsewhere.\"\n\nCongress should be aware, then, that even though reverses lay ahead, the story of the Allied prosecution of the war was proceeding according to a genuine timetable and a larger, overall strategy\u2014a strategy that was American, not British, but one calculated to succeed on behalf of the United Nations.\n\nThe President also pointed to the difference between Allied liberation and Nazi occupation\u2014the \"food, clothing, cattle, medicines, and household goods\" systematically stolen by the Germans in \"satellite and occupied Nations,\" whereas the Allies had a \"carefully planned organization, trained and equipped to give physical care to the local population\u2014food, clothing, medicine.\" He lauded the advance of the Allied armies from Sicily to the mainland of Italy on September 3\u2014stating: \"History will always remember this day as the beginning of the answer to the prayer of the millions of liberty-loving human beings not only in these conquered lands but all over the world.\" However, \"there is one thing I want to make perfectly clear. When Hitler and the Nazis go out, the Prussian military clique must go with them.\"\n\nUnconditional surrender\u2014without negotiation. \"The war-breeding gangs of militarists must be rooted out of Germany\u2014and Japan\u2014if we are to have any real assurance of future peace,\" he asserted. Surrender negotiations with the Italian government, of necessity, had had to be conducted in secret, in order that the Nazis not be able to seize Marshal Badoglio or his associates in Rome, but he wanted Americans and Congress to know \"that the policy which we follow is an expression of the basic democratic tradition and ideals of this Republic. We shall not be able to claim that we have gained total victory in this war if any vestige of Fascism in any of its malignant forms is permitted to survive anywhere in the world.\"\n\nBearing a banner of American democracy, the United States was, in other words, on the move\u2014producing planes, tanks, and mat\u00e9riel on a scale that beggared description: fifty-two thousand airplanes, twenty-three thousand tanks, forty thousand artillery guns in the first six months of 1943 alone, he reported. American shipyards were launching \"almost five ships a day.\"\n\nThe war had become \"essentially a great war of production. The best way to avoid heavy casualty lists is to provide our troops with the best equipment possible\u2014and plenty of it,\" the President asserted. Although the nation had come a long way since his State of the Union address just before the Casablanca Conference, he now cautioned that \"we are still a long, long way from ultimate victory in any major theater of the war.\" It would entail \"a hard and costly fight up through Italy\u2014and a major job of organizing our positions before we can take advantage of them.\n\n\"Likewise,\" in the British Isles \"we must be sure we have assembled the strength to strike not just in one direction but in many directions\u2014by land and sea and in the air\u2014with overwhelming forces and equipment.\" Moreover, to \"break through\" the Japanese defensive ring stretching from the \"mandated islands to the Solomons and through the Netherlands East Indies to Malaysia and China\" would be a challenge. \"In all of history, there has never been a task so tremendous as that which we now face,\" he stated candidly. And warned: \"Nothing we can do will be more costly in lives than to adopt the attitude that the war has been won\u2014or nearly won. That would mean a letdown in the great tempo of production which we have reached, and would mean that our men who are now fighting all over the world will not have that overwhelming superiority of power which has dealt so much death and destruction to the enemy and at the same time has saved so many lives.\"\n\n\"Overwhelming superiority of power\"\u2014directed at the right time and at the right place\u2014to produce the necessary outcome: the unconditional surrender of the Third Reich and the Empire of Japan. Their total disarmament. And a \"national cooperation with other Nations\" in order that \"world aggression be ended and that fair international relationships be established on a permanent basis\": these were the military and political objectives the President was pursuing on behalf of the United States\u2014on a global scale.\n\nAware there were those who resented him in his role as U.S. commander in chief as much as they had resented him as president in tackling the Great Depression and New Deal, Roosevelt dismissed the narrow-minded critics who, \"when a doughnut is placed in front of them, claim they can only see the hole in it\"\u2014people who lacked \"war-winning ideals.\" \"Obviously,\" he added, \"we could not have produced and shipped as much as we have, we could not now be in the position we now occupy in the Mediterranean, in Italy, or in the Southwest Pacific or on the Atlantic convoy routes or in the air over Germany and France, if conditions in Washington and throughout the Nation were as confused and chaotic as some people try to paint them\"\u2014paintings \"eagerly sought by Axis propagandists in their evil work.\" For himself he remained proud of the \"amazing\" job that \"the American people and their Government\" were doing \"in carrying out a vast program which two years ago was said to be impossible of fulfillment.\"\n\nNothing, the President claimed, could now halt the Allies, whatever the Germans and Japanese threw at them.\n**54**\n\n# Achieving Wonders\n\nIN BERLIN, THE master of Axis propaganda read the text of the President's latest Message to Congress carefully.\n\n\"The American struggle isn't just against Nazism,\" Dr. Goebbels noted, \"it's also against militarism. We know these words. The British and the Americans have always used them to try to carve the Reich into little pieces,\" he sneered. \"More significant was what he says about American output. The numbers are way behind their needs; nevertheless,\" he confessed, \"as far as airplane production goes, the U.S. has achieved wonders.\"\n\nIn proof of what he saw as his own analytic intelligence, however, the Mephistopheles of public relations and propaganda thought he could discern Roosevelt's deeper motive behind his Message to Congress\u2014and the free world. \"It's quite clear,\" Goebbels noted, \"that the whole enemy press is being brought to bear to distract attention from Soviet successes on the Eastern Front\u2014and make sure their own public isn't made uneasy.\"\n\nAt a time of unease in Washington political circles over ultimate Soviet intentions, there was considerable truth in this. The President was certainly banging a proud American drum to remind the American public of the war's _global_ dimensions\u2014the manner in which control of the Mediterranean would release naval vessels for the Far East, closing the gap between Northwest Australia and Ceylon, thereby forcing \"General Tojo and his murderous gang\" to \"look to the north, to the south, to the east, or to the west,\" where he would only see \"closing in on them, from all directions, the forces of retribution under Generalissimo Chiang-Kai-shek, General MacArthur, Admiral Nimitz, and Admiral Lord Mountbatten,\" the new supreme commander of Allied forces in the Indian Ocean. But the President's target audience went beyond American or even English shores. Published not only in nearly every newspaper in America and abroad, the President's long congressional address was once again directed at Moscow.\n\nWhether at Hyde Park, Quebec, Ottawa, or the White House, the President had taken great pains to demonstrate over recent weeks just how solid was the U.S.-British alliance. Now he wished to back that image, in writing, with quotable numbers: statistical proof of new, global American power that would not be content with Hitler's fall, but was to be harnessed to a postwar democratic agenda.\n\nHis conversation with Archbishop Spellman had reflected his unusually despondent mood; two weeks later, though, with American and British troops having established a hard-won lodgment on the mainland of Italy, and U.S. air forces already beginning to bomb factories in southern Germany, he seemed to have recovered his confidence: a confidence he would certainly need if he was to bring the American electorate, via his own efforts and the Congress, to ditch isolationism for good and take responsibility for the survival and development of a democratic postwar world.\n\nChurchill's stay, in other words, had acted as a tonic, despite the crisis at Salerno\u2014and the President was fired up.\n\nRanked seventeenth in the table of world military strengths in 1939, the United States was now primus inter pares, with an all-American military, economic, and political agenda, based on the clear goals of the four freedoms, that the President was determined to fulfill come hell or high water\u2014with or without Soviet participation.\n\nExactly what would happen if the Soviets did _not_ participate in an endgame agreement\u2014indeed, what exactly such a political agreement should comprise\u2014was still to be decided.\n\nAs Churchill had said to Mackenzie King before leaving Quebec to join the President in Washington, it was impossible to predict whether the \"Germans will give up this autumn.\" It was, as Winston put it with characteristic wit, \"like trying to bet on the Derby. No one could tell exactly what would happen. He spoke of the small numbers the British and Americans have in armies compared with the Germans\"\u2014and with the Russians.\n\nThe President had been \"very mad\" at Stalin at the time, and had deliberately refrained from responding to the Russian's rude cables\u2014ignoring him and working with Churchill to show the strength of the Western, Anglo-American coalition. Somehow, though, in the interests of postwar peace, agreement would nevertheless _have_ to be obtained on the \"post-war order,\" however powerful the Russian land armies. Compromise would be necessary, involving sad concessions\u2014ones that would hopefully preserve, at least, the western nations of Europe within an Allied, democratic embrace: the \"Allied side.\" While meantime encouraging the Soviets to join an international security system, not stand outside it.\n\nCould such a system of postwar security be negotiated with the inscrutable Russians? Would it be effective? Would the American public even support security guarantees of foreign countries on another continent, in another hemisphere, at the risk of a further war? It was small wonder that, in relation to the \"post-war order,\" Churchill had given to Mackenzie King a \"desultory sort of account of the scheme that he, himself, had in mind, and what the President had talked of, but there was nothing very definite about it. Nothing is to be published at present as coming out of the [Quebec] Conference. Some months will be needed to consider the matter.\"\n\nWith Stalin's sudden willingness to tackle \"the matter\"\u2014first through a preliminary meeting of foreign ministers, then a summit of the Allied leaders, perhaps\u2014planning for the future of the world was, however, becoming hot: red hot.\n\nIn the hopes therefore of obtaining formal Russian participation\u2014participation in a four-power postwar security structure; participation in a global United Nations authority; and formal international agreements to be made on the future of Germany and the countries that had aided Hitler militarily, from Austria to Bulgaria and Rumania\u2014the President thus authorized Secretary Hull to attend the preliminary Moscow Conference of foreign ministers of the Big Three, plus a representative from China.\n\nThe President had wanted Sumner Welles to attend, despite his recent resignation as undersecretary of state, but Hull was insistent that _he_ should represent the United States as secretary of state, and the President\u2014needing congressional support for the mission and its outcome\u2014had acquiesced. The war was moving toward a climax, as even the Russians were aware. After almost a year of pressure to get together and get with a formally agreed Allied program, the Russian dictator had, it appeared, finally seen the light. The foreign ministers' conference would begin in only four weeks' time\u2014on October 11, 1943\u2014and might last as long as a month.\n\nThere in Moscow, the President hoped, the secretary would pave the way for the leaders of the Four Policemen to sit down together and discuss postwar security\u2014and how to avoid the fate of the League of Nations. The President, Churchill, Stalin, and Chiang Kai-shek would also have to decide the war's endgame: how, exactly, Nazi Germany was finally to be defeated and its military disarmed. Following which, the Empire of Japan.\n\nWith that vast challenge looming, the President wheeled himself from the Oval Office to the mansion, stopping by the Map Room to check on messages from London, Moscow, and Chungking. Where the national leaders would meet, when exactly, how he would travel\u2014by air or sea\u2014and how they would get along, Roosevelt had little idea, but he was suddenly supremely confident.\n\n\"Of course he knew better than anyone else what was good for the United States,\" Lieutenant George Elsey remembered the spirit the President conveyed. \"That was the attitude at that point. He was supreme in every respect!\"\u2014the Map Room off-limits to all but five people in the world, not only to safeguard the most sensitive and secret military information, including Ultra, but because it enabled the President to be the only person with a complete picture of the war's progress\u2014and perils. \"'I'm in control; this is the way it's going to be\u2014it's going to be the way I want it'\u2014this was the sense I had of his perception of himself as the war went on,\" Elsey recalled.\n\nFranklin Roosevelt had every reason to feel supreme. As president he had not only brought America out of the Great Depression without resorting to the kind of tyranny that had been occasioned in Germany and elsewhere, but he had subsequently become\u2014in the least dictatorial yet most dominating manner\u2014a most successful U.S. commander in chief in war. A global \"war for civilization,\" as he rightly called it.\n\nThe President's generals and admirals had \"no reason to challenge or contradict his leadership,\" Elsey pointed out, since in setting the ongoing strategy of the war\u2014at times against their dissenting voices\u2014he had so ably brought the United States now within sight of eventual victory.\n\nMany great battles still lay ahead, as well as further disagreements with Churchill and the British over military operations and policy. Churchill's obsession with war in the Mediterranean would continue, despite disastrous expeditions in the Greek islands that would drive his own generals as mad as it did the American military in the next weeks\u2014Churchill resisting to the bitter end the British commitment to the mounting of Overlord the following spring.\n\nFor all his faults as quasi\u2013commander in chief of British Empire forces, however, Winston Churchill's loyalty to the President, as the de facto commander in chief of the forces of the Western Allies, had never snapped; nor had Churchill's acumen in terms of Stalin and the Russians, and his moral courage. This would be of inestimable value in the coming months.\n\nThere would be dire problems of agreement with the Soviet Union, the President was all too aware\u2014Russians who would have no gratitude to the United States for having helped save them, nor genuine interest in the Four Freedoms in a postwar world. There was also the matter of a fourth presidential election, and the President's always-precarious health. Moreover, what exactly should be done with Nazi Germany in the aftermath of victory\u2014disarmament or dismemberment. How best to help the Chinese, and plan the defeat of Japan. And how best to then turn Japan from aggression to peaceful coexistence . . .\n\nThese were but some of the politico-military challenges remaining, as the President began planning his second trip to North Africa later that fall\u2014hopefully there to meet with Chiang Kai-shek, Churchill, and Stalin.\n\nThe road from Torch had certainly been rocky, over the past year, but what a year of achievement it had been!\n\nHis secretary of war and Joint Chiefs of Staff were now finally on the same page\u2014 _his_ page. So was Churchill\u2014if he could be kept there. From faltering first offensive combat in Tunisia, the United States had in less than one year moved to the brink of what would become the greatest global military performance in its history: a massive American-led invasion and campaign in 1944 that would hopefully win the Second World War in Europe. And after that, Japan.\n\nWith that, the President left the Map Room and went up to bed. \n\n# Acknowledgments\n\nReaders of _The Mantle of Command: FDR at War, 1941\u20131942_ will know how indebted I am to those who have helped me in recounting, afresh, one of the most important stories of the twentieth century.\n\nMy task was to challenge the widely held perception of Franklin Delano Roosevelt as a hands-off U.S. commander in chief in World War II, and to demonstrate, rather, just how important was his role in directing U.S. and Allied strategy, even though he did not live to record it. Now, with publication of _Commander in Chief: FDR's Battle with Churchill, 1943,_ I am in debt again to a number of people. First off, I'd like to thank my commissioning editor, Bruce Nichols, without whose guidance, editing, and support this book could not have been published. And his assistant, Ben Hyman; my copyeditor, Melissa Dobson; and the indefatigable manuscript supremo, Larry Cooper\u2014indeed the whole team at Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. At a time when my longtime London publisher had rejected the manuscript of _The Mantle of Command_ and pulled out of the project completely, claiming there was insufficient interest in Franklin Delano Roosevelt in Britain or in the British publishing territories (Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, India, the West Indies, etc.) for a multivolume work on FDR as commander in chief in World War II, Bruce's encouragement meant the world to me\u2014and something, I think, to the many readers who have enjoyed _The Mantle of Command._ I hope this sequel will again repay Bruce's faith in my project.\n\nSecond, I'd like to thank Dr. Hans Renders, Professor of Biography at Groningen University in the Netherlands, who has not only been a stalwart supporter and colleague of my work in biographical studies, but who encouraged me to include _Commander in Chief_ as part of my submission for a doctorate at the Biografie Instituut, Research Faculty of Arts, Groningen University. For his and Professor Dr. Doeko Bosscher's suggestions, corrections, and support I am deeply grateful.\n\nWriting history and historical biography is a process of research and constant iteration\u2014factual, interpretive, selective, and architectural\u2014before a book is finished and goes to press. Many fellow historians have assisted me; in particular I'd like to thank Carlo D'Este, Roger Cirillo, James Scott, Mark Schneider, David Kaiser, Douglas Brinkley, David Reynolds, and Ron Spector. I'd like to acknowledge my debt as a historian also to Gerhard Weinberg, Rick Atkinson, Mark Stoler, Warren Kimball, Michael Schaller, H. W. Brands, Andrew Roberts, David Woolner, Evan Thomas, Douglas Porch, Michael Howard, and the late Martin Gilbert, Stephen Ambrose, and Forrest Pogue, for their many works on World War II and FDR's role. Over the years as a military and presidential historian I have learned not only from them but from many hundreds of veterans, from generals to GIs, as well as other students of World War II, ranging from professors to archivists in the United States, Britain, and Germany. Without those years of grounding, going back to the decade I spent as official biographer of Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery, I could not have undertaken such an ambitious project, and I will always be grateful to them.\n\nAt the FDR Presidential Library I'd like to thank the Deputy Director, Bob Clark, as well as the staff of the Research Room and Photographic Records. At the Warm Springs Presidential Museum I'd like to thank the Manager, Robin Glass, and his staff. At the Eisenhower Presidential Library in Abilene I'd also like to thank the Deputy Director, Timothy Reeves, and the Research Library staff. In New Orleans, where I winter, I'd like to thank Nick Mueller, the President and CEO of the National World War II Museum, as well as his Director of Research, Keith Huxen, and Conference Director, Jeremy Collins. At the Churchill Society of New Orleans I wish to thank the President, Gregg Collins, and his colleagues. In Washington, D.C., I'd like to thank especially Jeff Flannery, Head of Reference in the Manuscript Division at the Library of Congress, and his staff, as well as the staff of the National Archives in College Park, Maryland. Also John Greco and his colleagues at the Operational Archives of the U.S. Naval History and Command, Washington Navy Yard.\n\nAt the Imperial War Museum in London I'd like to thank particularly the Keeper of Documents, Anthony Richards. At the Churchill Centre in Chicago I'd like to thank Lee Pollock and David Freeman. At the Churchill Archives Centre in Cambridge, England, the Director, Allen Packwood.\n\nCloser to home, at the University of Massachusetts Boston I'd like to thank Ira Jackson, the former Dean of the McCormack Graduate School of Policy and Global Studies, where I am Senior Fellow; the new Dean, David Cash; and my many colleagues at the university, especially Provost Winston Langley. My thanks also to the staffs of the Widener Library, Harvard University, and its Microfilm Department, and the staff of Boston College Library.\n\nIn Boston I'm indebted, also, to my fellow members of the Boston Biographers Group, whose monthly meetings have offered the kind of support that only fellow biographers can, in the end, offer: collegial understanding, sympathy, advice, and reassurance in our necessarily often lonely biographical profession. I'd like also to acknowledge the friendship and intellectual fraternity of my fellow members of the Tavern Club\u2014as well as my fellow members of Biographers International Organization (BIO), whose annual conference is both an inspiration to biographers and a chance to share a common passion for the study of real lives.\n\nMy literary agent, Ike Williams, has been once again my stalwart champion, together with his colleagues Katherine Flynn and Hope Denekamp. To my brother Michael and to my children, my thanks; and to my wife, Raynel, much more than thanks can ever repay.\n\nAs in the writing of _The Mantle of Command,_ I have kept a portrait of my father, Lieutenant Colonel Sir Denis Hamilton, DSO, above my desk during the writing of _Commander in Chief_ \u2014for it is the memory of his service as a fighting infantryman, first at Dunkirk and then at D-day and the grim Battle of Normandy, that cautions me never to forget the men who had to carry out, in combat, the strategies laid down by the \"brass hats\" in World War II\u2014and pay the price of their decisions, for good or ill.\n\nFinally, to those readers of _The Mantle of Command_ who wrote me with corrections as well as expressions of gratitude, my great appreciation.\n\nNIGEL HAMILTON\n\n_John W. McCormack Graduate School of Policy_  \n_and Global Studies, UMass Boston_\n\n# Photo Credits\n\n_Total War._ FDR addresses Congress, Jan. 7, 1943: FDR Library; boarding the _Dixie Clipper_ at U.S. naval base, Trinidad, Jan. 12, 1943: National Archives\n\n_En Route to Casablanca._ Stopover at Bathhurst, Gambia: National Archives; aboard the USS _Memphis_ with Captain John McCrea: National Archives; FDR aboard C-54 with pilot, Captain Otis F. Bryan, Jan. 11, 1943: FDR Library; President's C-54 and ramp, North Africa, Jan. 1943: FDR Library\n\n_Casablanca._ The President's villa, Dar es Saada: FDR Library; FDR dines with sons Elliott and Franklin Jr., and Harry Hopkins, Jan. 16, 1943: FDR Library; with Joint Chiefs of Staff, Jan. 20, 1943: FDR Library\n\n_Directing World Strategy._ At the President's villa, hosting Winston Churchill and the Combined Chiefs of Staff, Jan. 1943: FDR Library; FDR with Admiral Ernest King: National Archives; with Generals Henri Giraud and Charles de Gaulle: National Archives\n\n_Visiting Troops on the Battlefield._ FDR with General Dwight Eisenhower (seen flying together in December 1943): National Archives; with Generals Mark Clark and George Patton, Jan. 21, 1943: FDR Library; reviewing a U.S. armored division, Jan. 21, 1943: FDR Library; reviewing U.S. troops, Jan. 21, 1943: FDR Library\n\n_Unconditional Surrender._ FDR and Churchill with Combined Chiefs, Jan. 1943: FDR Library; with Churchill at press conference, Jan. 24, 1943: FDR Library; press conference, Jan. 24, 1943: FDR Library\n\n_End of Empires._ FDR with son Elliott, Jan. 1943: FDR Library; dining with the Sultan of Morocco, Jan. 22, 1943: National Archives; with Churchill at top of tower of Villa Taylor, U.S. vice consulate, Marrakesh, Jan. 24, 1943: FDR Library; with President Edwin Barclay of Liberia, Jan. 27, 1943: FDR Library\n\n_Totaler Krieg._ Goebbels at the _Sportpalast:_ Bundesarchiv, Federal Archives of Germany; FDR reviews military training camp: National Archives; Admiral Yamamoto saluting Japanese plane, ca. 1942: Corbis; group of U.S. Army Air Forces P-38 Lightning fighter planes, June 1, 1943: Associated Press\n\n_Churchill on the Wrong Warpath._ The RMS _Queen Mary_ in New York harbor, June 20, 1945: Interim Archives \/ Getty Images; Churchill addresses Congress, May 19, 1943: Corbis\n\n_Axis Surrender in North Africa._ Roundup of German and Italian soldiers in Tunisia, June 11, 1943: Associated Press; soldiers in a prison camp: The Print Collector \/ Getty Images\n\n_Reading Churchill the Riot Act._ FDR fetching Churchill from train, Washington, May 11, 1943: Bettmann \/ Corbis; fishing with Churchill at Shangri-la: FDR Library; U.S. Chiefs of Staff (Generals Arnold and Marshall, Captain Royal [deputy secretary], Admirals Leahy and King) at a Combined Chiefs Conference, facing British counterparts, 1943: Three Lions \/ Hulton Archive \/ Getty Images\n\n_Sicily\u2014and Kursk._ Allied landing in Sicily, July 10, 1943: IWM \u00a9 Sgt. Frederick Wackett \/ Getty Images; retreat from Kursk: Bundesarchiv, Federal Archives of Germany\n\n_The Fall of Mussolini._ Mussolini greets Hitler upon arrival in Italy, July 19, 1943: ullstein bild \/ Getty Images; on their way to Feltre, Italy: ullstein bild \/ Getty Images; before the meeting at Feltre: ullstein bild \/ Getty Images\n\n_Churchill Returns\u2014Yet Again._ Churchill with daughter Mary, Aug. 16, 1943: Toronto Star Archives \/ Getty Images; FDR with Churchill, Canadian Prime Minister McKenzie King, and Combined Chiefs in Quebec, Aug. 18, 1943: FDR Library\n\n_The First Crack in the Axis._ FDR addresses crowd outside Canadian parliament, Ottawa, Aug. 25, 1943: FDR Library; Stalin with Foreign Minister Molotov (seen later, Feb. 1, 1945): Keystone \/ Getty Images\n\n_The Reckoning._ FDR drives Churchill at Hyde Park, Sept. 12, 1943: Associated Press; Allied invasion of Italy, Salerno, Sept. 9, 1943: SeM \/ UIG \/ Getty Images\n\n# Notes\n\nPROLOGUE\n\n1. Lieutenant Commander George Elsey, interview with author, September 12, 2011.\n\n2. See this volume, chapter 32, .\n\n3. Entry of Tuesday, November 10, 1943, in Alan Lascelles, _King's Counsellor: Abdication and War: The Diaries of Sir Alan Lascelles,_ ed. Duff Hart-Davis (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2006), 75.\n\n4. Ibid., entry of Thursday, May 13, 1943, 129.\n\n5. David Reynolds, _In Command of History: Churchill Fighting and Writing the Second World War_ (New York: Random House, 2005).\n\n1. A CRAZY IDEA\n\n1. \"Exclusive of the President's own car, the train comprised one compartment car, one Pullman sleeper, one combination club-baggage car, and the special Army radio car\": \"Log of the Trip of the President to the Casablanca Conference, 9\u201331 January, 1943,\" Papers of George M. Elsey, Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, Hyde Park, NY.\n\n2. Entry of January 9, 1943, Leahy Diary, William D. Leahy Papers, Library of Congress.\n\n3. \"Because of his infirmity he [the President] could walk only briefly on two canes. It was much easier for him to use one cane and the right arm of an escort\" for balance and support while swinging the fourteen-pound steel irons encasing his legs, from his thighs to his shoes, McCrea explained: John McCrea, \"Handwritten Memoirs\/Recollections,\" McCrea Papers, FDR Library.\n\n4. Ibid.\n\n2. ABOARD THE MAGIC CARPET\n\n1. \"Marriage of Hopkins to Louise Macy,\" miscellaneous files for \"Roosevelt & Hopkins,\" Robert E. Sherwood Papers, Houghton Library, Harvard University.\n\n2. Robert Sherwood, _Roosevelt and Hopkins: An Intimate History_ (New York: Harper, 1948), 669.\n\n3. Entry of January 8, 1943, in Geoffrey C. Ward, ed., _Closest Companion: The Unknown Story of the Intimate Friendship Between Franklin Roosevelt and Margaret Suckley_ (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995), 194.\n\n4. Ibid.\n\n5. Entry of January 9, 1943, in Ward, _Closest Companion,_ 194.\n\n6. Ibid., entry of January 10, 1943, 196.\n\n7. Sherwood, _Roosevelt and Hopkins,_ 669.\n\n8. Ibid.\n\n9. McCrea, \"Handwritten Memoirs\/Recollections.\"\n\n10. Letter of January 11, 1943, in Ward, _Closest Companion,_ 196.\n\n11. Ibid.\n\n12. Ibid.\n\n13. Ibid., letter of January 12, 1943, 197.\n\n14. Ibid., letter of January 13, 1943.\n\n15. Related to John McCrea by the President: McCrea, \"Handwritten Memoirs\/Recollections.\"\n\n16. Letter of January 13, 1943, in Ward, _Closest Companion,_ 197.\n\n17. Ibid.\n\n18. Letter to Eleanor Roosevelt, January 13, 1943, in Elliott Roosevelt, ed., _F.D_. _R.: His Personal Letters, 1928\u20131945_ (New York: Duell, Sloane, and Pearce, 1950), vol. 2, 1393.\n\n3. THE UNITED NATIONS\n\n1. Nigel Hamilton, _The Mantle of Command: FDR at War, 1941\u20131942_ (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2014), 138 et seq.\n\n2. Ibid.\n\n3. Christopher D. O'Sullivan, _Sumner Welles, Postwar Planning, and the Quest for a New World Order, 1937\u20131943_ (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008) _,_ 65 and 72.\n\n4. Sumner Welles, _Seven Decisions That Shaped History_ (New York: Harper, 1951), 182\u201383.\n\n5. Christopher Thorne, _Allies of a Kind: The United States, Britain, and the War Against Japan, 1941\u20131945_ (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1978), 221. Christopher O'Sullivan argued that such foot-dragging was deliberate. \"The imperial powers faced growing demands for independence\" among colonial and mandated countries\u2014exposing \"a paradox at the heart of empires: progress in the political and economic sphere would encourage self-rule, whereas a lack of progress justified continued European rule\": _FDR and the End of Empire_ (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 4.\n\n6. O'Sullivan, _Sumner Welles,_ 67.\n\n7. Ibid., 74, quoting Gladwyn Jebb.\n\n8. It was not only the British Empire that was having to face the prospect of dismantlement; Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands gave a broadcast on the first anniversary of Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1942, promising that the Dutch colonies in Southeast Asia would be given home rule\u2014see Thorne, _Allies of a Kind,_ 218.\n\n9. David Reynolds, _In Command of History:_ _Churchill Fighting and Writing the Second World War_ (New York: Random House, 2005), 334.\n\n10. Letter of November 24, 1942, in Elliott Roosevelt, ed., _F.D_. _R.: His Personal Letters,_ _1928\u20131945_ (New York: Duell, Sloane, and Pearce, 1950), vol. 2, 1371\u201372.\n\n11. Ibid.\n\n12. Entry of December 4, 1942, Diaries of William Lyon Mackenzie King, Library and Archives Canada, Ottawa, ON (hereinafter Mackenzie King Diary). The Democrats lost the election in the House of Representatives by over a million ballots in the popular vote. To Roosevelt's relief they nevertheless retained a majority of 222 seats to 209. In the Senate, Democrats lost 8 seats and 1 independent\u2014as well as the popular vote, in ballot numbers cast. Again, however, they held on to their majority, 58 seats to 37.\n\n13. Ibid.\n\n14. Ibid.\n\n15. Susan Butler, ed., _My Dear Mr. Stalin: The Complete Correspondence Between Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph V. Stalin_ (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005) _,_ 98.\n\n16. Ibid., 99.\n\n17. Ibid., 99\u2013100.\n\n18. Ibid., 101.\n\n19. Entry of December 5, 1942, Mackenzie King Diary.\n\n20. Ibid.\n\n21. Ibid.\n\n22. Ibid.\n\n23. Ibid.\n\n24. Ibid.\n\n25. Roosevelt's speechwriter and later editor of his presidential papers, Sam Rosenman, later pointed out that \"it was not at Appomattox but at Fort Donelson that Grant demanded unconditional surrender; it was not of Robert E. Lee but of S. B. Buckner\u2014in 1862\": Samuel I. Rosenman, _Working with Roosevelt_ (New York: Harper, 1952), 372.\n\n26. Entry of December 5, 1942, Mackenzie King Diary.\n\n27. In June 1941, prior to the war, Roosevelt had set up an Office of Scientific Research and Development to direct science for military purposes. The OSRD was soon tasked with atomic research. The notion that an atomic weapon would have to be launched by ship, given the necessary volume, quickly gave way to the idea of a small, bomb-size weapon that could be flown and dropped on a target. A so-called S-1 Committee was therefore set up to report directly to the President at the White House, chaired by the president of Harvard University, James Conant. Robert Oppenheimer was made director of fast-neutron research, and by the summer of 1942 the need for substantially more fissionable material was reported to FDR. To accelerate development, General Brehon Somervell, the U.S. Army's senior officer for logistics, appointed Lieutenant Colonel Leslie Groves to take charge of the Manhattan Project\u2014which was moved to Los Alamos, in New Mexico. The 60 tons of Canadian uranium ore, already ordered in March 1942, was judged insufficient. After consultation with the U.S. government, Mackenzie King's Canadian government nationalized the Eldorado Mining and Refining company in June 1942, and another 350 tons of uranium was immediately ordered by the U.S. government\u2014followed by another 500 tons later that year, and 1,200 tons of stored Congolese ore to be refined by the Canadians.\n\n28. Entry of December 5, 1942, Mackenzie King Diary.\n\n29. Ibid.\n\n30. Ibid.\n\n31. Ibid.\n\n32. Churchill referred to the plan as \"airy visions of Utopia and El Dorado\" (Martin Gilbert, _Winston S. Churchill,_ vol. 7, _Road to Victory: 1941\u20131945_ [London: Heinemann, 1986], 292), while Harold Laski, professor of political science at the London School of Economics, wrote to President Roosevelt, hoping he would \"teach our Prime Minister that it is the hope of the future and not the achievement of the past from which he must draw his inspiration\" (Thorne, _Allies of a Kind,_ 144).\n\n33. Entry of Saturday, January 9, 1943, \"Secret Diary\" of Lord Halifax, Papers of Lord Halifax, Hickleton Papers, Borthwick Institute of Historical Research, University of York, Yorkshire, England.\n\n34. Entry of December 5, 1942, Mackenzie King Diary.\n\n35. Ibid.\n\n36. Ibid.\n\n37. Ibid.\n\n4. WHAT NEXT?\n\n1. Ibid., entry of December 6, 1942.\n\n2. Ibid., entry of December 4, 1942.\n\n3. Ibid., entry of December 5, 1942.\n\n4. Ibid.\n\n5. Ibid.\n\n6. David Kaiser, _No End Save Victory:_ _How FDR Led the Nation into War_ (New York: Basic Books, 2014).\n\n7. Entry of December 5, 1942, Mackenzie King Diary.\n\n8. Ibid., entry of December 4, 1942.\n\n9. Ibid., entry of December 6, 1942.\n\n10. Ibid.\n\n11. Ibid.\n\n5. STALIN'S _NYET_\n\n1. Cable of December 6, 1942, in Butler, _My Dear Mr. Stalin,_ 102.\n\n2. Ibid., cable of December 8, 1942, 103.\n\n3. Ibid., cable of December 14, 1942, 103.\n\n4. Ibid.\n\n5. Ibid., 103\u20134.\n\n6. ADDRESSING CONGRESS\n\n1. Rosenman, _Working with Roosevelt,_ 366\u201368.\n\n2. Entry of November 29, 1942, in William D. Hassett, _Off the Record with F.D_. _R., 1942\u20131945_ (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1958), 145.\n\n3. \"The Spirit of This Nation Is Strong\"\u2014Address to the Congress on the State of the Union, January 7, 1943, in Franklin D. Roosevelt, _The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt,_ comp. Samuel I. Rosenman, 1943 vol., _The Tide Turns_ (New York: Russell and Russell, 1969), 21\u201334.\n\n7. A FOOL'S PARADISE\n\n1. Entry of January 7, 1943, Halifax Diary.\n\n2. Entry of November 20, 1942, Stimson Diary, Henry L. Stimson Papers, Yale University Library, New Haven, CT.\n\n3. Ibid, entry of December 11, 1942.\n\n4. Ibid., entry of December 12, 1942.\n\n5. Ibid.\n\n6. Ibid.\n\n7. Henry Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, _On Active Service In Peace and War_ (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947).\n\n8. Entry of December 14, 1942, Stimson Diary.\n\n9. Ibid.\n\n10. Nigel Hamilton, _The Full Monty,_ vol. 1, _Montgomery of Alamein, 1887\u20131942_ (London: Allen Lane, 2001) _,_ 467\u201368.\n\n11. Because of its five fortress-like side walls, President Roosevelt referred to the Pentagon as the \"Pentateuchal Building,\" after the first five books of the Bible: Steve Vogel, _The Pentagon: A History_ (New York: Random House, 2007), 297. The U.S. Navy was offered space to ensure a combined-services headquarters; \"He was very much pleased,\" Stimson had noted the President's satisfaction with the offer in his diary, \"and told us to go ahead\": Ibid., 281. The Navy bureaus declined to integrate their activities, however\u2014as they did racial integration in the seagoing Navy, other than small numbers of black sailors as messmen or glorified bellhops. Even onshore, the Navy insisted their installations be strictly segregated, with no black officers\u2014causing the National Urban League's journal _Opportunity_ to declare Japan was not wrong in claiming \"the so-called Four Freedoms in the great 'Atlantic Charter' were for white men only\": Morris J. MacGregor, _Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940\u20131965_ (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1985). The Pentagon saga would epitomize the President's difficulties as commander in chief in a democracy\u2014the U.S. Navy refusing, in fact, to move in with the Army and U.S. Air Force until 1948, under protest, while the Marine Corps held out another four decades, until 1996.\n\n12. Entry of January 7, 1943, Stimson Diary.\n\n13. Entry of December 28, 1942, Leahy Diary, William D. Leahy Papers, Library of Congress.\n\n8. FACING THE JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF\n\n1. \"Joint Chiefs of Staff Minutes of a Meeting at the White House,\" Washington, January 7, 1943, _Foreign Relations of the United States: The Conferences at Washington, 1941\u20131942, and Casablanca, 1943_ (hereinafter _FRUS I_ ) (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1968), 511.\n\n2. Ibid., 509.\n\n3. Ibid.\n\n4. Ibid.\n\n5. Ibid., 509\u201310.\n\n6. Ibid., 510.\n\n7. Ibid.\n\n8. Ibid.\n\n9. Ibid.\n\n10. Ibid.\n\n11. Ibid.\n\n12. Ibid.\n\n13. Ibid.\n\n14. E.g., Albert Wedemeyer, _Wedemeyer Reports!_ (New York: Henry Holt, 1958), 95, and John McLaughlin, _General Albert C. Wedemeyer: America's Unsung Strategist in World War II_ (Philadelphia: Casemate, 2012), 31, referring to \"the utter failure of 'Unconditional Surrender.'\" For the view that it was a sop to the Soviets, see Frank Costigliola, _Roosevelt's Lost Alliances: How Personal Politics Helped Start the Cold War_ (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012), 179\u201381. The classic condemnatory statement on unconditional surrender was, however, by Hanson Baldwin: \"Unconditional surrender was an open invitation to unconditional resistance: it discouraged opposition to Hitler, probably lengthened the war, cost us lives, and helped to lead to the present abortive peace\": Hanson Baldwin, _Great Mistakes of the War_ (New York: Harper, 1950), 13.\n\n15. Wedemeyer, _Wedemeyer Reports!,_ 186\u201387.\n\n16. In the House of Commons on July 21, 1949, Labor Minister Ernest Bevin claimed the British War Cabinet had not been consulted over \"unconditional surrender,\" prompting Churchill to claim he \"had never heard the phrase until the President suddenly uttered it at the Casablanca press conference\": David Reynolds, _In Command of History: Churchill Fighting and Writing the Second World War_ (New York: Random House, 2005), 323.\n\n17. Ibid., 506.\n\n9. THE HOUSE OF HAPPINESS\n\n1. John McCrea, \"Handwritten Memoirs\/Recollections,\" McCrea Papers, FDR Library.\n\n2. Letter of January 14, 1943, in Geoffrey C. Ward, ed., _Closest Companion: The Unknown Story of the Intimate Friendship Between Franklin Roosevelt and Margaret Suckley_ (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995), 198.\n\n3. McCrea, \"Handwritten Memoirs\/Recollections.\"\n\n4. Letter of January 14, 1943, in Ward, _Closest Companion,_ 198.\n\n5. Letter of December 17, 1942, Elsey Papers, FDR Library.\n\n6. S. E. Morison, \"Memorandum For the President,\" December 18, 1942, Elsey Papers, FDR Library.\n\n7. David Stafford, _Roosevelt and Churchill: Men of Secrets_ (Woodstock, NY: Overlook, 1999), 197\u201398.\n\n8. Letter of January 14, 1943, in Ward, _Closest Companion,_ 198.\n\n9. Elliott Roosevelt, _As He Saw It_ (New York: Duell, Sloan, and Pearce, 1946), 65.\n\n10. Letter of January 14, 1943, in Ward, _Closest Companion,_ 198.\n\n11. Ian Jacob, unpublished Casablanca account, Churchill College Archives, Cambridge, UK.\n\n12. Elliott Roosevelt, _As He Saw It,_ 62.\n\n13. Ibid., 67.\n\n14. Ibid., 66.\n\n15. Ibid., 66.\n\n16. McCrea, \"Handwritten Memoirs\/Recollections,\" McCrea Papers, FDR Library.\n\n17. Robert Sherwood, _Roosevelt and Hopkins: An Intimate History_ (New York: Harper, 1948), 673.\n\n18. \"A Gleam of Victory: A Speech at the Lord Mayor's Luncheon at the Mansion House, November 10, 1942,\" in _The War Speeches of the Rt. Hon. Winston S. Churchill,_ ed. Charles Eade (London: Cassell, 1952), vol. 2, 342\u201345.\n\n19. Entry of 10.11.1942, Joseph Goebbels, _Die Tageb\u00fccher von Joseph Goebbels_ [The diaries of Joseph Goebbels], ed. Elke Froehlich (Munich: K. G. Saur, 1995), Teil II, Band 6, 273 (hereinafter _Die Tageb\u00fccher 6_ ). Quotes from this source have been translated by the author.\n\n20. Ibid., entry of 10.11.1942, 265.\n\n21. Ibid., entry of 11.11.1942, 273.\n\n22. Ibid., entry of 15.11.1942, 294.\n\n23. Quoted in Winston S. Churchill, _The Second World War,_ vol. 4, _The Hinge of Fate_ (London: Cassell & Company, 1951), 583.\n\n10. HOT WATER\n\n1. Martin Gilbert, _Winston S. Churchill,_ vol. 7, _Road to Victory: 1941\u20131945_ (London: Heinemann, 1986), 269.\n\n2. Ian Jacob, unpublished Casablanca account, Churchill College Archives, Cambridge, UK.\n\n3. Ibid. The ship, which had been the headquarters ship for the landing at Algiers, had \"a complete set of wireless instruments.\" It could be \"placed in Casablanca harbor, & our cipher staff could live aboard and all our telegram traffic with London could thus be handled without the necessity for any elaborate machinery ashore. All that was necessary was a constant carrier service between ship & hotel, and a Defense Registry organization in the latter\"\u2014\"exactly as\" if they were operating out of the War Rooms in London. The _Bulolo_ sailed for Casablanca on January 5, arriving on January 10, 1943. Jacob, unpublished Casablanca account.\n\n4. Ibid. See also Brian Lavery, _Churchill Goes to War: Winston's Wartime Journeys_ (London: Conway, 2007), 160\u201364.\n\n5. Jacob, unpublished Casablanca account.\n\n6. Gilbert, _Road to Victory: 1941\u20131945,_ 294.\n\n7. Jacob, unpublished Casablanca account.\n\n8. Ibid.\n\n9. Ibid.\n\n10. Ibid.\n\n11. A WONDERFUL PICTURE\n\n1. McCrea, \"Handwritten Memoirs\/Recollections,\" McCrea Papers, FDR Library.\n\n2. Jacob, unpublished Casablanca account.\n\n3. McCrea, \"Handwritten Memoirs\/Recollections.\"\n\n4. Sherwood, _Roosevelt and Hopkins,_ 673.\n\n5. Elliott Roosevelt, _As He Saw It,_ 66.\n\n6. Entry of January 14, 1943, John W. Huston, _American Airpower Comes of Age: General Henry H. 'Hap' Arnold's World War II Diaries_ (Maxwell AFB, AL: Air University Press, 2002), vol. 1, 464.\n\n7. Entry of January 14, 1943, Arthur Bryant, _The Turn of the Tide: A History of the War Years, Based on the Diaries of Field Marshal Lord Alanbrooke, Chief of the Imperial General Staff_ (New York: Doubleday, 1957), 446.\n\n8. Elliott Roosevelt, _As He Saw It,_ 67.\n\n9. Entry of January 14, 1943, Huston, ed., _American Airpower Comes of Age,_ 464.\n\n10. Ibid.\n\n11. Entry of January 14, 1943, Bryant, _The Turn of the Tide,_ 446.\n\n12. Elliott Roosevelt, _As He Saw It,_ 71.\n\n13. Ibid., 73.\n\n14. Ibid., 74.\n\n15. Ibid., 76.\n\n16. Ibid..\n\n17. Ibid., 77.\n\n12. IN THE PRESIDENT'S BOUDOIR\n\n1. Albert Wedemeyer, _Wedemeyer Reports!_ (New York: Henry Holt, 1958), 192.\n\n2. Andrew Roberts, _Masters and Commanders: How Four Titans Won the War in the West, 1941\u20131945_ (New York: Harper, 2009), 337.\n\n3. Wedemeyer, _Wedemeyer Reports!,_ 337, quoting Brigadier General J. E. Hull of the War Department's Operations Division.\n\n4. Wedemeyer, _Wedemeyer Reports!,_ 191\u201392.\n\n5. Joint Strategic Survey Committee, January 8, 1943, Map Room Files, FDR Library.\n\n6. \"Meeting of Roosevelt with the Joint Chiefs of Staff, January 15, 1943, 10 a.m., President's Villa,\" _Foreign Relations of the United States: The Conferences at Washington, 1941\u20131942, and Casablanca, 1943_ (hereinafter _FRUS I_ ) (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1968), 559.\n\n7. Ibid.\n\n8. Ibid.\n\n9. Ibid.\n\n10. McCrea, \"Handwritten Memoirs\/Recollections.\"\n\n11. Harry C. Butcher, _My Three Years with Eisenhower: The Personal Diary of Captain Harry C. Butcher, USNR, Naval Aide to General Eisenhower, 1942 to 1945_ (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1946), 237.\n\n12. Entry of January 15, 1943, Brooke, _War Diaries,_ 351. Also \"Meeting of the Combined Chiefs of Staff, January 15, 1943, 2:30 pm., Anfa Camp,\" _FRUS I,_ 567.\n\n13. Entry of December 28, 1942, Brooke, _War Diaries,_ 351.\n\n14. Jacob, Casablanca Diary, Churchill Archives.\n\n15. Butcher, _My Three Years with Eisenhower,_ 243.\n\n16. Entry of January 14, 1943, Martin Blumenson, ed, _The Patton Papers, 1940\u20131945_ (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974), 154.\n\n17. \"Meeting of the Combined Chiefs of Staff, January 15, 1943, 2:30 pm., Anfa Camp,\" _FRUS I,_ 568\u201369.\n\n18. Elliott Roosevelt, _As He Saw It,_ 79.\n\n19. Ibid.\n\n20. Ibid.\n\n21. \"Meeting of the Combined Chiefs of Staff with Roosevelt and Churchill, January 15, 1943, 5:30 p.m., President's Villa,\" _FRUS I,_ 573.\n\n22. Entry of January 15, 1943, Brooke, _War Diaries,_ 359.\n\n23. Elliott Roosevelt, _As He Saw It,_ 83.\n\n24. Ibid.\n\n25. Ibid., 84.\n\n13. STIMSON IS AGHAST\n\n1. Entry of January 19, 1943, Stimson Diary, Henry L. Stimson Papers, Yale University Library, New Haven, CT.\n\n2. Ibid., entry of January 21, 1943.\n\n3. \"Meeting of Roosevelt with the Joint Chiefs of Staff, January 16, 1943,\" _Foreign Relations of the United States: The Conferences at Washington, 1941\u20131942, and Casablanca, 1943_ (hereinafter _FRUS I_ ) (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1968), 594.\n\n4. Entry of 16 January 1943 and annotation, _War Diaries, 1939\u20131945: Field Marshal Lord Alanbrooke,_ _War Diaries, 1939\u20131945,_ ed. Alex Danchev and Daniel Todman (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 360.\n\n5. \"Meeting of the Combined Chiefs of Staff, January 16, 1943,\" _FRUS I,_ 591.\n\n6. Brooke: \"We should definitely count on reentering the Continent on a large scale\"\u2014\"Meeting of the Combined Chiefs of Staff, January 16, 1943,\" _FRUS I,_ 591.\n\n7. \"Meeting of Roosevelt with the Joint Chiefs of Staff, January 16, 1943,\" _FRUS I,_ 597.\n\n8. Ibid.\n\n9. Martin Gilbert, _Road to Victory: Winston S. Churchill, 1941\u20131945_ (London: Heinemann, 1986), 299\u2013300.\n\n10. See, for example, Mark Stoler and Melanie Gustafson, \"Creating a Global Allied Strategy,\" in their _Major Problems in the History of World War II: Documents and Essays_ (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003), 74\u2013108.\n\n11. John McCrea, \"Handwritten Memoirs\/Recollections,\" McCrea Papers, FDR Library.\n\n12. Mark Clark, _Calculated Risk_ (London: Harrap, 1951), 148\u201349.\n\n13. Letter of Thursday, January 21, 1943, to Daisy Suckley, in Ward, ed., _Closest Companion: The Unknown Story of the Intimate Friendship Between Franklin Roosevelt and Margaret Suckley_ (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995), 199.\n\n14. Unpublished autobiography, chapters 12 through 22, Private Papers of Brigadier G.M.O. Davy, PP\/MCR\/143, courtesy of Documents Department, Imperial War Museum, London.\n\n15. Elliott Roosevelt, _As He Saw It_ (New York: Duell, Sloan, and Pearce, 1946), 106.\n\n16. Ibid., 106\u20137. General Mark Clark, later recalling the episode, confessed that by the time the President had asked for the mess kit, it had already been washed and mixed with others. Clark had demanded \"any mess kit\" from the kitchen staff, \"And make it fast.\" The President had been delighted, and had said, \"I'll have them put it in the Smithsonian Institution\": Mark Clark, _Calculated Risk,_ 149.\n\n17. Harold Macmillan, _War Diaries: Politics and War in the Mediterranean, January 1943\u2013May 1945_ (London: Macmillan, 1984), 8.\n\n14. DE GAULLE\n\n1. McCrea, \"Handwritten Memoirs\/Recollections,\" McCrea Papers, FDR Library.\n\n2. Ibid.\n\n3. Letter to Daisy Suckley, January 20, 1943, in Ward, _Closest Companion,_ 199.\n\n4. Ibid., January 21, 1943.\n\n5. Kenneth Pendar, _Adventure in Diplomacy_ (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co, 1945), 161.\n\n6. Robert Murphy, _Diplomat Among Warriors_ (New York: Doubleday, 1964), 168.\n\n7. Ibid.\n\n8. McCrea, \"Handwritten Memoirs\/Recollections.\"\n\n9. Friday, January 22, 1943, \"The President's Log, January 14\u201325, 1943,\" _FRUS I,_ 531.\n\n10. Elliott Roosevelt, _As He Saw It,_ 111.\n\n11. Murphy, _Diplomat Among Warriors,_ 173.\n\n12. Elliott Roosevelt, _As He Saw It,_ 112.\n\n13. Pendar, _Adventure in Diplomacy,_ 145.\n\n14. McCrea, \"Handwritten Memoirs\/Recollections.\"\n\n15. Elliott Roosevelt, _As He Saw It,_ 112.\n\n16. Entry of January 14, 1943, _The Patton Diaries II,_ ed. Martin Blumenson (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974), 154.\n\n17. Ibid., entry of January 17, 155.\n\n18. Ibid., entry of January 19, 157.\n\n19. Ibid., entry of January 21, 158\u201359.\n\n20. Ibid., 158.\n\n21. Ibid.\n\n22. Ibid., entry of January 22, 158.\n\n23. Elliott Roosevelt, _As He Saw It,_ 112.\n\n15. AN ACERBIC INTERVIEW\n\n1. Robert Sherwood, _Roosevelt and Hopkins: An Intimate History_ (New York: Harper, 1948), 678\u201379.\n\n2. McCrea, \"Handwritten Memoirs\/Recollections.\"\n\n3. McCrea Notes: \"Roosevelt\u2013De Gaulle Conversation, January 22, 1943,\" _FRUS I,_ 694.\n\n4. Ibid., 695.\n\n5. Immediately following the Allied Torch invasion, Hitler had ordered Operation Anton, the German and Italian occupation of all Vichy-administered France and Corsica.\n\n6. \"Roosevelt De-Gaulle Conversation, January 22, 1943,\" _FRUS I,_ 696.\n\n7. Charles de Gaulle, _The Complete War Memoirs of Charles de Gaulle,_ vol. 2, _Unity_ (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1964), 388\u201389.\n\n8. Henri Giraud, _Un seul but, la victoire:_ _Alger, 1942\u20131944_ (Paris: R. Julliard, 1949).\n\n9. De Gaulle, _The Complete War Memoirs,_ vol. 2, 392\u201393.\n\n10. Ibid., 384.\n\n11. Elliott Roosevelt, _As He Saw It,_ 113.\n\n12. Ibid., 113\u201314.\n\n13. De Gaulle, _The Complete War Memoirs,_ vol. 2, 384.\n\n14. Elliott Roosevelt, _As He Saw It,_ 114.\n\n15. Ibid., 114\u201315.\n\n16. Ibid., 115.\n\n17. Ibid.\n\n18. Ibid., 115\u201316.\n\n19. Ibid., 121.\n\n20. Ibid., 122.\n\n21. Fran\u00e7ois Kersaudy, _Churchill and De Gaulle_ (London: Collins, 1981), 252.\n\n22. Ibid., 253.\n\n23. Ibid., 254.\n\n24. Ibid., 255.\n\n25. Sherwood, _Roosevelt & Hopkins,_ 693.\n\n26. Kersaudy, _Churchill and De Gaulle,_ 255.\n\n16. THE UNCONDITIONAL SURRENDER MEETING\n\n1. \"Historic Meeting Informal in Tone: Reporters Sit on Garden Grass at Leaders' Feet to Hear of Momentous Talks,\" _New York Times,_ January 27, 1943.\n\n2. Ibid.\n\n3. De Gaulle, _The Complete War Memoirs,_ vol. 2, 399.\n\n4. Giraud, _Un seul but,_ 96.\n\n5. \"Historic Meeting Informal in Tone,\" _New York Times._\n\n6. Ibid.\n\n7. \"875th Press Conference. Joint Conference by the President and Prime Minister Churchill at Casablanca, January 24, 1943,\" in Franklin D. Roosevelt, _The Public Papers of Franklin D. Roosevelt,_ comp. Samuel Rosenman, 1943 vol., _The Tide Turns_ (New York: Russell and Russell, 1969), 37\u201344.\n\n8. McCrea, \"Handwritten Memoirs\/Recollections.\"\n\n9. Ibid.\n\n10. _Roosevelt Presidential Press Conferences,_ No. 875, 90\u201391.\n\n11. Entry of Wednesday, January 27, 1943, in Alan Lascelles, _King's Counsellor:Abdication and War: The Diaries of Sir Alan Lascelles,_ ed. Duff Hart-Davis (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2006), 93.\n\n12. Entry of 27.1.1943, Joseph Goebbels, _Die Tageb\u00fccher von Joseph Goebbels_ [The diaries of Joseph Goebbels], ed. Elke Froehlich (Munich: K. G. Saur, 1993), Teil II, Band 7 (hereinafter _Die Tageb\u00fccher 7_ ), 203. Quotes from this source have been translated by the author.\n\n13. Ibid., entry of 26.1.1943, 197.\n\n14. Ibid., entry of 27.2.1943, 203.\n\n15. Ibid., entry of 28.1.1943, 208.\n\n16. Ibid., entry of 26.11943, 197.\n\n17. Ibid., entry of 28.1.1943, 209.\n\n18. Max Domarus, ed., _Hitler, Speeches and Proclamations 1932\u20131945: The Chronicle of a Dictatorship,_ vol. 4, _The Years 1941 to 1945_ (Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci, 1997), 2671\u201385.\n\n19. Entry of 28.1.1943, Goebbels, _Die Tageb\u00fccher_ 7, 209.\n\n20. Albert Speer, _Inside the Third Reich_ (New York: Macmillan, 1970), 258.\n\n21. Ian Kershaw, _Hitler, 1936\u20131945: Nemesis_ (London: Allen Lane, 2000), 552.\n\n22. Entry of 29.1.1943, Goebbels, _Die Tageb\u00fccher 7,_ 216.\n\n23. Domarus, ed., _Hitler, Speeches and Proclamations 1932\u20131945,_ 2749.\n\n24. David Irving, _Goebbels: Mastermind of the Third Reich_ (London: Focal Point, 1996), 421.\n\n25. \" _Nun, Volk steh auf, und Sturm brich los! Rede im Berliner Sportpalast,_ \" _Der steile Aufstieg_ (Munich: Zentralverlag der NSDAP, 1944), 167\u2013204. Translated by the author.\n\n26. Irving, _Goebbels,_ 422\u201323.\n\n27. Ralf Georg Reuth, _Goebbels_ (Munich: Piper Verlag, 1990), 563.\n\n17. KASSERINE\n\n1. Ian Kershaw, _Hitler, 1936\u20131945: Nemesis_ (London: Allen Lane, 2000), 550.\n\n2. Ibid., 548.\n\n3. Entry of January 19, 1943, Robert Ferrell, ed., _The Eisenhower Diaries_ (New York: Norton, 1981), 86.\n\n4. Ibid.\n\n5. Rick Atkinson, _An Army at Dawn_ (New York: Henry Holt, 2002), 308.\n\n6. Ibid., 317.\n\n7. Ibid., 322.\n\n8. Entry of 18.2.1943, Joseph Goebbels, _Die Tageb\u00fccher von Joseph Goebbels_ [The diaries of Joseph Goebbels], ed. Elke Froehlich (Munich: K. G. Saur, 1993), Teil II, Band 7 (hereinafter _Die Tageb\u00fccher 7_ ), 366.\n\n9. Ibid., entry of 19.2.1943, 370.\n\n10. Ibid., entry of 21.2.1943, 389.\n\n18. ARCH-ADMIRALS AND ARCH-GENERALS\n\n1. Atkinson, _An Army at Dawn,_ 390\u201391.\n\n2. Nigel Hamilton, _Master of the Battlefield: Monty's War Years, 1942\u20131944_ (New York: McGraw Hill, 1984), 142.\n\n3. Letter of February 23, 1943, in Martin Blumenson, ed, _The Patton Papers II, 1940\u20131945_ (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974), 175.\n\n4. Entry of February 15, 1943, Stimson Diary, Henry L. Stimson Papers, Yale University Library, New Haven, CT.\n\n5. Ibid., entry of February 17, 1943.\n\n6. Entry of 20.2.1943, _Die Tageb\u00fccher 7,_ 377.\n\n7. Entry of February 18, 1943, Stimson Diary.\n\n8. Ibid.\n\n9. Entry of 20.2.1943, _Die Tageb\u00fccher 7,_ 377.\n\n10. Ibid., entry of 23.2.1943, 398\u201399.\n\n11. Ibid., 398.\n\n12. Blumenson, _The Patton Papers,_ vol. 2, 183.\n\n13. \"'Memorandum' to Admiral Leahy and General Marshall, Copy to the Secretary of the Navy,\" November 17, 1942, King Papers, Naval Historical Archives.\n\n14. Letter of November 19, 1943, in Alfred Chandler, ed., _The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower,_ vol. 2, _The War Years_ (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1970), 964\u201365.\n\n15. Ibid., 965.\n\n19. BETWEEN TWO FORCES OF EVIL\n\n1. Report to the President, January 10, 1943, Bullitt File, Safe and Confidential Files, FDR Library.\n\n2. Ibid.\n\n3. Henri Giraud, _Un seul but la Victoire: Alger 1942\u20131944_ (Paris: R. Julliard, 1949) _,_ 93\u201394.\n\n4. Report to the President, January 10, 1943, Bullitt File, Safe and Confidential Files, FDR Library. See also Michael Cassella-Blackburn, _The Donkey, The Carrot, and the Club: William C. Bullitt and Soviet-American Relations, 1917\u20131948_ (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2004), 213\u201314.\n\n5. Report to the President, January 10, 1943, Bullitt File, Safe and Confidential Files, FDR Library.\n\n6. Ibid.\n\n7. C-259-A\/1, From the Prime Minister to the President, February 2, 1943, in Warren Kimball, ed., _Churchill & Roosevelt: The Complete Correspondence, _vol. 2, _Alliance Forged_ (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984), 129\u201330.\n\n8. S. E. Morison, _The Two-Ocean War_ (Boston: Little Brown, 1963), 272.\n\n9. Entry of January 8, 1943, in \"Secret Diary\" of Lord Halifax, Papers of Lord Halifax, Hickleton Papers, Borthwick Institute of Historical Research, University of York, Yorkshire, England.\n\n10. Ibid., entry of January 11, 1943.\n\n11. Ibid.\n\n12. Ibid., entry of January 18, 1943.\n\n13. Ibid., entry of January 26, 1943.\n\n14. Ibid., entry of January 28, 1943.\n\n15. Ibid., entry of February 2, 1943.\n\n16. Ibid., entry of February 15, 1943.\n\n20. HEALTH ISSUES\n\n1. Elie Abel and Averell Harriman, _Special Envoy to Churchill and Stalin, 1941\u20131946_ (New York: Random House, 1975), 183.\n\n2. R. H. Ferrell, _The Dying President_ (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1998), 10.\n\n3. Entry of December 4, 1943, Diaries of William Lyon Mackenzie King, Library and Archives Canada, Ottawa, ON (hereinafter Mackenzie King Diary).\n\n4. Entry of February 3, 1943, Stimson Diary.\n\n5. Entry of February 1, 1943, Stimson Diary.\n\n6. Diary entry of February 7, 1943, in Geoffrey Ward, ed., _Closest Companion: The Unknown Story of the Intimate Friendship Between Franklin Roosevelt and Margaret Suckley_ (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995), 201.\n\n7. James A. Farley, _Jim Farley's Story_ (New York: Whittlesey House, 1948), 108\u20139.\n\n8. Jean Edward Smith, _FDR_ (New York: Random House, 2007), 442, quoting Orville Bullitt, ed., _For the President, Personal and Secret: The Correspondence Between Franklin D. Roosevelt and William C. Bullitt_ (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1988), 398. Also Will Brownell and Richard Billings, _So Close to Greatness: A Biography of William C. Bullitt_ (New York: Macmillan, 1987).\n\n9. Diary entry of February 7, 1943, in Ward, _Closest Companion,_ 201.\n\n10. Ibid.\n\n11. Ross McIntire, _White House Physician_ (New York: Putnam's Sons, 1946), 159.\n\n12. Ferrell, _The Dying President,_ 29.\n\n13. Diary entry of February 14, 1943. Ward, _Closest Companion,_ 201.\n\n14. Ibid.\n\n15. R-262\/1, letter of March 17, 1943, in Kimball, ed., _Churchill &_ _Roosevelt,_ vol. 2, 156.\n\n16. Diary entry of February 27, 1943. Ward, _Closest Companion,_ 203.\n\n17. Entry of April 8, 1943 (relating March 26, 1943, visit to White House), Butcher Diary, A-292\u20133, Eisenhower Library; also Harry Butcher, _My Three Years with Eisenhower,_ 278\u201379.\n\n18. Ibid., A-293.\n\n19. Ibid., A-294.\n\n20. Michael Burleigh, _The Third Reich: A New History_ (New York: Hill & Wang, 2000), 740.\n\n21. INSPECTION TOUR TWO\n\n1. Entry of April 16, 1943 (regarding Fort Benning), in Ward, _Closest Companion,_ 210.\n\n2. Ibid., entry of April 24, 1943, 219.\n\n3. Ibid., entry of April 16, 1943, 211.\n\n4. Ibid., entry of April 17, 1943, 211.\n\n5. Ibid., entry of April 18, 1943, 214.\n\n6. Ibid., entry of April 24, 1943, 219.\n\n7. Ibid., entry of April 25, 1943, 220\u201321.\n\n8. Ibid., entry of April 19, 1943, 214.\n\n9. Entry of February 24, 1943, Stimson Diary.\n\n10. Ibid., entry of March 30, 1943.\n\n22. GET YAMAMOTO!\n\n1. George Kenney, _George C. Kenney Reports_ (New York: Duell, Sloan, and Pearce, 1949), 52\u201353.\n\n2. Entry of April 8, 1943 (relating March 26 visit to War office), Butcher Diary, A-287, Eisenhower Library.\n\n3. Samuel Morison, _The Two Ocean War: A Short History of the United States Navy in the Second World War_ (Boston: Little, Brown, 1963), 272\u201373.\n\n4. Kenney, _George C. Kenney Reports,_ 215.\n\n5. See Christopher Andrew, _For the President's Eyes Only: Secret Intelligence and the American Presidency from Washington to Bush_ (New York: HarperCollins, 1995), 123\u201324.\n\n6. William Rigdon, _White House Sailor_ (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1962), 19. For an account of how Ultra\/Magic messages were relayed to the President, see David Stafford, _Roosevelt and Churchill_ (Woodstock, NY: Overlook, 1999), 118\u201319; Andrew, _For the President's Eyes Only_ , 103\u201311; and David Kahn, \"Roosevelt, Magic, and Ultra,\" _Cryptologia_ 16, no. 4 (October 1992).\n\n7. Signal NTF131755, in Japanese Naval Cipher JN-25D, decoded by the U.S. Fleet Radio Unit Pacific in Hawaii: Ronald Lewin, _The American Magic: Codes, Ciphers and the Defeat of Japan_ (New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1982), 182\u201383.\n\n8. John Prados, _Combined Fleet Decoded: The Secret History of American Intelligence and the Japanese Navy in World War II_ (New York: Random House, 1995), 453\u201358; Edward J. Drea, _MacArthur's ULTRA: Codebreaking and the War Against Japan, 1942\u20131945_ (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1992), 73.\n\n9. Donald A. Davis, _Lightning Strike_ (New York: St. Martin's, 2005), 220.\n\n10. Ibid., 222.\n\n11. Ibid., 227.\n\n12. Rear Admiral Matome Ugaki, chief of staff to Admiral Yamamoto, in Burke Davis, _Get Yamamoto_ (New York: Random House, 1969), 207.\n\n13. Lewin, _The American Magic,_ 185.\n\n14. Burke Davis, _Get Yamamoto,_ 128; Carroll V. Glines, _Attack on Yamamoto_ (London: Orion Books, 1990), 9; Thomas Lanphier, \"I Shot Down Yamamoto,\" _Reader's Digest,_ December 1966, 48.\n\n15. According to subsequent Japanese accounts, U.S. code breakers may have misinterpreted Admiral Yamamoto's flight schedule, which had the airfield of Buin, not Ballale, as its destination. \"In the end it didn't matter,\" given the proximity of the two: Prados, _Combined Fleet Decoded_ , 462.\n\n16. Donald Davis, _Lightning Strike,_ 273. Admiral Yamamoto was widely thought to have said, before Pearl Harbor, that he would take the surrender of America riding down Pennsylvania Avenue on a white charger; in truth he had pointed out that the United States would never surrender to Japan unless Japanese forces reached Washington, D.C., and the White House\u2014which, having earlier studied at Harvard and having twice served as naval attach\u00e9 in Washington, Yamamoto thought unlikely to eventuate.\n\n23. \"HE'S DEAD?\"\n\n1. Donald Davis, _Lightning Strike,_ 304\u20138.\n\n2. The airfield at Ballale was constructed in November 1942 by the Japanese, using forced labor of British artillery officers and men who had surrendered at Singapore. All 517 men were murdered by the Japanese on completion of the air base, in March 1943. See Don Wall, _Kill the Prisoners!_ (Cambridge, UK: Peter Moore, 1996). Also Australian War Memorial Archives.\n\n3. Burke Davis, _Get Yamamoto,_ 196.\n\n4. Ibid.\n\n5. Donald Davis, _Lightning Strike,_ 306\u20138.\n\n6. Ibid., 309.\n\n7. Ibid., 289\u201390. See also Andrew, _For the President's Eyes Only,_ 138, and Walter Borneman, _The Admirals: Nimitz, Halsey, Leahy, and King\u2014the Five-Star Admirals Who Won the War at Sea_ (New York: Little, Brown, 2012), 315.\n\n8. Burke Davis, _Get Yamamoto,_ 210.\n\n9. Presidential Press Conference No. 891, April 19, 1943, FDR Library.\n\n10. In the first three weeks of March, 1943, more than three-quarters of a million tons of Allied shipping were still being sunk in the North Atlantic gap \"not yet covered by air search,\" War Secretary Stimson complained to the President: Henry Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, _On Active Service in Peace and War_ (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1948). For the best summary of the interservice controversy see Samuel Eliot Morison, _The Battle of the Atlantic: September 1939\u2013May 1943_ (Boston: Little, Brown, 1947), 237\u201347.\n\n11. Presidential Press Conference No. 898, May 21, 1943, FDR Library.\n\n12. Grace Tully Archive, Franklin D. Roosevelt Papers, Box 11, Yamamoto (joke letter to), May 23, 1943, FDR Library.\n\n13. Donald Davis, _Lightning Strike,_ 315.\n\n14. John C. Fredriksen, _The United States Air Force: A Chronology_ (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2011), 104.\n\n24. SAGA OF THE NIBELUNGS\n\n1. Rick Atkinson, _An Army at Dawn_ (New York: Henry Holt, 2002), 489\u201390.\n\n2. Ibid., 484.\n\n25. A SCENE FROM _THE ARABIAN NIGHTS_\n\n1. Kenneth Pendar, _Adventure in Diplomacy_ (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co, 1945), 43.\n\n2. Ibid., 147.\n\n3. Ibid., 148.\n\n4. Ibid., 149.\n\n5. Ibid., 152.\n\n6. Ibid., 150.\n\n26. THE GOD NEPTUNE\n\n1. Entry of May 2, 1943, Leahy Diary, William D. Leahy Papers, Library of Congress.\n\n2. Entry of May 7, 1943, Stimson Diary, Henry L. Stimson Papers, Yale University Library, New Haven, CT.\n\n3. Ibid., entry of May 10, 1943.\n\n27. A BATTLE ROYAL\n\n1. Entry of May 11, 1943, Diaries of William Lyon Mackenzie King, Library and Archives Canada, Ottawa, ON.\n\n2. Entry of May 9, 1943, Leahy Diary, William D. Leahy Papers, Library of Congress.\n\n3. Ibid., entry of May 9, 1943.\n\n4. Ibid., entry of May 11, 1943.\n\n5. Entry of May 11, 1943 in Alan Brooke, _Field Marshal Lord Alanbrooke,_ _War Diaries, 1939\u20131945,_ ed. Alex Danchev and Daniel Todman (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 402.\n\n6. Ibid.\n\n7. Entry of May 12, 1943, Stimson Diary.\n\n8. The figure of 150,000 Axis troops who had already surrendered by May 12 was announced to the press the next morning, May 13, 1943, by the secretary of war: see entry for May 13, 1943, Stimson Diary.\n\n9. \"Meeting of the Combined Chiefs of Staff, May 13, 1943, 10:30 A.M.,\" in _Foreign Relations of the United States: The Conferences at Washington and Quebec, 1943_ (hereinafter _FRUS II_ ) (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1970), 24\u201325.\n\n10. Entry of May 12, 1943, Brooke, _War Diaries,_ 402.\n\n11. Entry of May 13, 1943, Leahy Diary.\n\n12. Ibid.\n\n13. Ibid.\n\n14. Lord Ismay, _The Memoirs of General Lord Ismay_ (London: Heinemann, 1960), 296.\n\n28. NO MAJOR OPERATIONS UNTIL 1945 OR 1946\n\n1. Letter of May 13, 1943, in Mary Soames, _Speaking For Themselves: The Personal Letters of Winston and Clementine Churchill, Edited by Their Daughter_ (New York: Doubleday, 1998), 479\u201380.\n\n2. \"A Global Strategy: Memorandum by the United States Chiefs of Staff,\" in _FRUS II,_ 222\u201323.\n\n3. \"Conduct of the War in 1943\u201344, Memorandum by the British Chiefs of Staff,\" in _FRUS II,_ 223\u201327.\n\n4. \"Meeting of the Combined Chiefs of Staff, May 13, 1943, 10:30 A.M.\", _FRUS II,_ 39\u201340.\n\n5. Ibid., 41.\n\n6. Ibid., 43.\n\n7. Ibid., 44.\n\n8. Ibid.\n\n9. Ibid.\n\n10. Ibid.\n\n11. C-294, Churchill cable to Roosevelt, May 10, 1943, in Warren Kimball, ed., _Churchill & Roosevelt: The Complete Correspondence, _vol. 2, _Alliance Forged_ (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press), 212.\n\n12. Richard Breitman and Allan J. Lichtman, _FDR and the Jews_ (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013), 206\u201310.\n\n13. Robert E. Sherwood, _Roosevelt and Hopkins: An Intimate History_ (New York: Harper, 1948), 728.\n\n14. Winston S. Churchill, _The Second World War,_ vol. 4, _The Hinge of Fate_ (London: Cassel & Company, 1951), 713.\n\n15. Ibid.\n\n16. Ibid.\n\n17. Lord Moran, _Winston Churchill: The Struggle for Survival, 1940\u20131965_ (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1966) _,_ 95.\n\n18. Ibid., 95\u201396.\n\n19. Ibid., 96.\n\n20. Ibid.\n\n21. Ibid.\n\n22. Entry of May 17, 1943, Stimson Diary.\n\n23. Ibid.\n\n24. Ibid.\n\n25. Letter of May 12 (on \"Office of the Secretary, Department of the Navy\" notepaper), Bullitt Files, FDR Library.\n\n29. THE DAVIES MISSION\n\n1. \"This is a situation full of ugly possibilities, and engendering it is a triumph for Goebbels\": entry of Monday, April 26, 1943, in Alan Lascelles, _King's Counsellor: Abdication and War: The Diaries of Sir Alan Lascelles,_ ed. Duff Hart-Davis (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2006), 126.\n\n2. Walter Reich, former director of the Holocaust Museum in Washington, \"Remember the Women,\" _New York Times Book Review,_ April 12, 2015, 23.\n\n3. Roosevelt to Stalin, Document 88, March 16, 1943, in Susan Butler, ed., _My Dear Mr. Stalin: The Complete Correspondence of Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph V. Stalin_ (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005), 121.\n\n4. Elizabeth MacLean, _Joseph E. Davies: Envoy to the Soviets_ (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1992), 100.\n\n5. \"Meeting of the Combined Chiefs of Staff, May 18, 1943, 10:30 A.M.,\" _Foreign Relations of the United States: The Conferences at Washington and Quebec, 1943_ (hereinafter _FRUS II_ ) (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1970), 101.\n\n6. Sir Alan Brooke, Proceedings of the Conference, \"Defeat of the Axis Powers in Europe: discussion, Combined Chiefs of Staff,\" _FRUS II,_ 101.\n\n7. Entry of May 19, 1943, Stimson Diary.\n\n8. Ibid.\n\n9. Ibid.\n\n30. A DOZEN DIEPPES IN A DAY\n\n1. Entry of May 18, 1943, Diaries of William Lyon Mackenzie King, Library and Archives Canada, Ottawa, ON (hereinafter Mackenzie King Diary).\n\n2. Ibid.\n\n3. Ibid.\n\n4. Ibid., \"Conversation with Hon. L. McCarthy, at Canadian Legation after luncheon, Washington.\"\n\n5. Ibid., \"Conversation Mr. Mackenzie King had with Mr. Winston Churchill, Tuesday, May 18, 1943\u2014White House, Washington, 6.00 p.m.\"\n\n6. Ibid., \"Meeting of the Joint Chiefs of Staffs, May 20, 1943.\"\n\n7. Ibid., \"Conversation Mr. Mackenzie King had with Mr. Winston Churchill, Tuesday, May 18, 1943\u2014White House, Washington, 6.00 p.m.\"\n\n8. Ibid.\n\n9. Ibid., \"Memorandum re questions asked Mr. Churchill by members of the Senate of the U.S. and representatives of the Foreign Committee and answers given by Mr Churchill, Washington, May 19, 1943.\"\n\n10. Ibid., entry of May 19, 1943, \"Quotations and answers, members of Senate of the U.S.\u201419.v.43.\"\n\n11. Ibid.\n\n12. Meeting of the Combined Chiefs of Staff, May 19, 1943, 10:30 A.M., in _FRUS II,_ 113.\n\n13. Ibid., 114.\n\n14. Entry of May 19, 1943, in Arthur Bryant, _The Turn of the Tide: A History of the War Years, Based on the Diaries of Field Marshal Lord Alanbrooke, Chief of the Imperial General Staff_ (New York: Doubleday, 1957), 509.\n\n15. Meeting of the Combined Chiefs of Staff with Roosevelt and Churchill, May 19, 1943, 6 P.M.,\" in _FRUS II,_ 122\u201323.\n\n31. THE FUTURE OF THE WORLD AT STAKE\n\n1. Entry of May 19, 1943, Mackenzie King Diary.\n\n2. Ibid.\n\n3. Ibid., \"Meeting of the Joint Staffs\u2014May 20, 1943.\"\n\n4. Prime Minister's Personal Telegram, 21 February 1943, in Martin Gilbert, _Road to Victory: Winston S. Churchill, 1941\u20131945_ (London: Heinemann, 1986), 343.\n\n5. E.g., entry of Wednesday, May 26, 1943, Mackenzie King Diary.\n\n6. Entry of May 20, 1943, in \"Secret Diary\" of Lord Halifax, Papers of Lord Halifax, Hickleton Papers, Borthwick Institute of Historical Research, University of York, Yorkshire, England.\n\n7. \"Meeting of the Joint Staffs, May 20, 1943,\" Mackenzie King Diary, Library and Archives Canada.\n\n8. Under the Canadian constitution, command of Canada's all-volunteer forces to serve overseas (conscription was confined to service in Canada only) was vested in the British monarch, and exercised by the Canadian federal Cabinet, who deferred largely to the authority of Winston Churchill in his role as minister of defense and prime minister of Great Britain.\n\n9. \"Meeting of the Joint Staffs, May 20, 1943,\" Mackenzie King Diary.\n\n10. Ibid.\n\n11. Ibid., entry of Friday, May 21, 1943.\n\n12. Ibid., \"Conversation with Mr. Churchill, White House\u2014May 21, 1943.\"\n\n13. Ibid.\n\n14. Ibid.\n\n15. Ibid.\n\n32. THE PRESIDENT LOSES PATIENCE\n\n1. Entry of May 24, 1943, in __ Bryant, _The Turn of the Tide,_ 513.\n\n2. Ibid.\n\n3. Entry of May 24, 1943, Leahy Diary, William D. Leahy Papers, Library of Congress.\n\n4. Ibid.\n\n5. Entry of May 25, 1943 in Lord Moran, _Winston Churchill: The Struggle for Survival, 1940\u20131965_ (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1966), 97.\n\n6. Entry of May 24, 1943 Moran, _Winston Churchill,_ 97\u201398.\n\n7. Entry of May 25, 1943 (400c), Mackenzie King Diary.\n\n8. Entry of May 28, 1943 Moran, _Winston Churchill,_ 99.\n\n9. Entry of 25 May, 1943, Bryant, _The Turn of the Tide,_ 514.\n\n10. Entry of May 27, 1943, Stimson Diary.\n\n11. Ibid., entry of May 25, 1943.\n\n12. Ibid.\n\n13. \"He thought the time might be in August . . . He then said: if, by any chance, something should prevent Stalin making the trip, what I would like to do is to come to Ottawa just the same though perhaps this might be in July\"\u2014\"Conversation with Pres. Roosevelt, White House\u2014May 21, 1943,\" Mackenzie King Diary.\n\n14. Entry of May 25, 1943, Leahy Diary.\n\n15. Entry of May 24, 1943, Bryant, _The Turn of the Tide,_ 512\u201313.\n\n16. Entry of Tuesday, January 26, 1943, in Lascelles, _King's Counsellor,_ 93.\n\n17. Entry of May 31, 1943, Diary of Harry C. Butcher, Eisenhower Presidential Library, Abilene.\n\n18. Ibid.\n\n19. Entry of 26 May, 1943, Bryant, _The Turn of the Tide,_ 517.\n\n20. Kershaw, _Hitler 1936\u20131945,_ 606.\n\n33. SICILY\u2014AND KURSK\n\n1. Entry of July 9, 1943, in Geoffrey C. Ward, ed., _Closest Companion, The Unknown Story of the Intimate Friendship Between Franklin Roosevelt and Margaret Suckley_ (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995), 225.\n\n2. Entry of July 9, 1943, Leahy Diary, William D. Leahy Papers, Library of Congress.\n\n3. Entry of July 9, in Ward, _Closest Companion,_ 226.\n\n4. Ben Macintyre, _Operation Mincemeat: The True Story That Changed the Course of World War II_ (New York: Random House, 2010), 294.\n\n34. THE F\u00dcHRER FLIES TO ITALY\n\n1. Erich von Manstein, _Lost Victories_ (London: Methuen, 1958), 448.\n\n2. Ibid., 449. Manstein's view has been much contested, especially by Russian military historians anxious to honor the Soviet defense of Kursk and the start of a major counteroffensive by Russian forces at Orel: see, inter alia, Chris Bellamy, _Absolute War: Soviet Russia in the Second World War_ (New York: Palgrave, 2007), 586\u201387. However, it is clear from Joseph Goebbels's private conversations with Hitler at Berchtesgaden before the battle that Hitler was far more worried by the next moves of the Western Allies in the Mediterranean than by what would happen at Kursk\u2014essentially a \"show\" offensive to write down Soviet armies using the latest German firepower. \"The F\u00fchrer has decided to stay where we are,\" on the Eastern Front, Goebbels recorded. \"We have to keep our reserves up our sleeves. His old plan of seizing the Caucasus and fighting in the Middle East is redundant, thanks to last winter's crisis . . . Under no circumstances is he prepared to give up the Italian mainland\u2014he has no intention of pulling back to the Po, even if the Italians abandon the front. We will simply take over the running of the war in Italy. That is the overriding principle of German strategy: to keep the war as far from the German homeland as possible\": entry of 25.6.43, in Goebbels, _Die Tageb\u00fccher von Joseph Goebbels,_ ed. Elke Froehlich (Munich:K. G. Saur, 1993), Teil II, Band 8, 531\u201334.\n\n3. Entry of July 14, 1943, Ward, _Closest Companion,_ 226.\n\n4. Ibid., entry of July 13, 1943, 226.\n\n5. Ibid., entry of July 19, 1943, 227.\n\n6. Entry of 17.7.43, in Joseph Goebbels, _Die Tageb\u00fccher von Joseph Goebbels_ [The diaries of Joseph Goebbels], ed. Elke Froehlich (Munich: K. G. Saur, 1993), Teil II, Band 9 (hereinafter _Die Tageb\u00fccher 9_ ), 116.\n\n7. Ibid., 114.\n\n8. Ibid., 116.\n\n9. Ibid., 114.\n\n10. Despite being made aware of Soviet rather than Nazi responsibility for the massacre back in April 1943, both Roosevelt and Churchill had been unwilling to raise the issue in public\u2014or even encourage others to do so, when continued Soviet resistance on the Eastern Front was crucial. General Sikorski, the commander in chief of all Polish forces in the West, on April 15, 1943, was thus begged not to make Katyn, however awful, a matter of contention, just before Hitler opened his expected summer offensive: Martin Gilbert, _Road to Victory: Winston Churchill, 1941\u20131945_ (London: Heinemann, 1986), 385.\n\n11. Entry of 19.7.43, Goebbels, _Die Tageb\u00fccher 9,_ 126.\n\n12. Ibid.\n\n13. Ibid., entry of 20.7.43, 132.\n\n14. Ian Kershaw, _Hitler 1936\u20131945: Nemesis_ (New York: Norton, 2000), 594.\n\n15. Ibid., 597.\n\n35. COUNTERCRISIS\n\n1. See inter alia Trumbull Higgins, _Soft Underbelly: The Anglo-American Controversy over the Italian Campaign, 1939\u20131945_ (New York: Macmillan, 1968), 91\u2013124; Douglas Porch, _The Path to Victory in World War II: The Mediterranean Theater in World War II_ (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2004), 459\u201376; Mark Stoler, _The Politics of the Second Front: American Military Planning and Diplomacy in Coalition Warfare, 1941\u20131943_ (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1977), 97\u2013129; and Mark Stoler, _Allies in War: Britain and America Against the Axis Powers, 1940\u20131945_ (New York: Hodder Arnold, 2005), 123\u201328.\n\n2. Davies Papers, mss for May 20, 1943, 9, Library of Congress.\n\n3. Entry of June 3, 1943, \"Arrival in Washington and Report to the President,\" Davies Papers, Library of Congress.\n\n4. Davies Papers, mss for May 20, 1943, 9.\n\n5. Entry of July 22, 1943, Stimson Diary, Henry L. Stimson Papers, Yale University Library, New Haven, CT.\n\n6. Ibid.\n\n7. Ibid.\n\n8. Maurice Matloff, _Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare_ (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1959), 165.\n\n9. Ibid.\n\n10. Ibid., 167.\n\n11. Ibid., Letter to Handy, July 4, 1943, 164.\n\n36. A FISHING EXPEDITION IN ONTARIO\n\n1. George M. Elsey, Introduction to \"The Log of the President's Visit to Canada, 16 August 1943 to 26 August 1943,\" p. 3, FDR Library.\n\n2. Ibid.\n\n3. Ibid.\n\n4. \"Will Punish Duce; President in His War Report Demands Total Surrender,\" _New York Times,_ July 29, 1943.\n\n5. FDR finally told Daisy Suckley \"the whole story, which is unsavory,\" later that summer, including Bullitt's part. \"The P. never wants to speak to Bullitt again\": entry of September 22 and 29, 1943, in Ward, ed., _Closest Companion,_ 244.\n\n6. \"Warning by Stalin to Allies Is Seen; U.S. Observers in Moscow Said to View German Manifesto as Russian Declaration,\" _New York Times,_ July 29, 1943.\n\n7. Entry of July 29, 1943, Leahy Diary.\n\n8. Entry of July 28, 1943, Ward, _Closest Companion,_ 227.\n\n9. Ibid.\n\n10. Entry of August 9, 1943, Leahy Diary.\n\n11. Ibid.\n\n12. Ibid.\n\n37. THE PRESIDENT'S JUDGMENT\n\n1. Davies Papers, mss for May 20, 1943, 9, Library of Congress.\n\n2. Ibid.\n\n3. David Reynolds, _In Command of History: Churchill Fighting and Writing the Second World War_ (New York: Random House, 2005), 322\u201323.\n\n4. Davies Papers, mss for May 20, 1943, 10, Library of Congress.\n\n5. OSS Numbered Intelligence Bulletins, No. 39, 10 July 43, Roosevelt Map Room, Military Subject Files, Box 72, Section 2, MR 203 (12), FDR Library.\n\n38. STALIN LIES\n\n1. From Premier J. V. Stalin to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, August 8, 1943, in Susan Butler, ed., _My Dear Mr. Stalin: The Complete Correspondence of Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph V. Stalin_ (New Haven, CT: Yale, 2005), 151.\n\n2. Albert Weeks, _Russia's Life-Saver: Lend Lease Aid to the United States_ (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 204), 1.\n\n3. Ibid, 146\u201347. By the end of the war, over 30 percent of Russian wheeled vehicles had come from the United States, as also aircraft; almost 60 percent of aviation fuel, and more than 50 percent of Russian ordnance (ammunition): Ibid., 8\u20139.\n\n4. Entry of August 9, 1943, in Geoffrey C. Ward, ed., _Closest Companion, The Unknown Story of the Intimate Friendship Between Franklin Roosevelt and Margaret Suckley_ (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995), 228.\n\n39. WAR ON TWO WESTERN FRONTS\n\n1. Entry of September 29, 1943, in Ward, _Closest Companion,_ 244.\n\n2. Entry of August 10, 1943, Leahy Diary, William D. Leahy Papers, Library of Congress.\n\n3. \"Memorandum: Subject: Conduct of the War in Europe, 8 August, 1943,\" in _Foreign Relations of the United States: The Conferences at Washington and Quebec, 1943_ (hereinafter _FRUS II_ ) (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1970), 467\u201372; also Maurice Matloff, _Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare_ (Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, 1959), 176.\n\n4. Even in the President's meeting with the Joint Chiefs of Staff at the White House, General Marshall was more concerned with logistical waste than vital combat experience, chiding the President that it was \"impossible to calculate the wastage that has accrued to the United Nations war effort from changes made to basic decisions\"\u2014i.e., the cross-Channel invasion, planned in 1942. \"The first instance was carrying out TORCH which involved moving troops set up from the United States to England and thence to Africa\"\u2014\"Minutes of Meeting Held at the White House Between the President and the Chiefs of Staff on 10 August at 1415,\" in _FRUS II,_ 503.\n\n5. \"Memorandum by the Joint Chiefs of Staff: Strategic Concept for the Defeat of the Axis in Europe, 9 August, 1943,\" _FRUS II,_ 472\u201381.\n\n6. Ibid., 473.\n\n7. Ibid.\n\n8. \"Memorandum for General Handy,\" August 9, 1943, in _The Papers of General George Catlett Marshall,_ vol. 4 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 85\u201386.\n\n9. Ibid.\n\n10. \"Minutes of Meeting Held at the White House Between the President and the Chiefs of Staff on 10 August 1943 at 1415,\" _FRUS II,_ 499.\n\n11. Ibid.\n\n12. Ibid., 500.\n\n13. Ibid., 500\u2013501.\n\n14. Ibid., 501.\n\n15. Entry of August 10, 1943, Stimson Diary, Henry L. Stimson Papers, Yale University Library, New Haven, CT.\n\n16. \"Minutes of Meeting Held at the White House Between the President and the Chiefs of Staff on 10 August 1943 at 1415,\" _FRUS II,_ 501.\n\n17. Ibid., 502\n\n18. \"Minutes of meeting held at the White House at 1415 between the President and the JCS, 10 Aug 43, with JCS Memo 97 in ABC 337 (25 May 43),\" in Matloff, _Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare,_ 215.\n\n19. Entry of August 10, 1943, Stimson Diary.\n\n20. \"Dear Mr. President\" letter, August 10, 1943, attached to Stimson Diary.\n\n40. THE F\u00dcHRER IS VERY OPTIMISTIC\n\n1. \"The Polish Ministry for Foreign Affairs to the American Embassy Near the Polish Government in Exile,\" in _FRUS II,_ 410.\n\n2. \"Prime Minister's Personal Minute,\" July 19, 1943, in Gilbert, _Road to Victory,_ 445.\n\n3. Entry of 10.8.1943 in Joseph Goebbels, _Die Tageb\u00fccher von Joseph Goebbels_ [The diaries of Joseph Goebbels], ed. Elke Froehlich (Munich: K. G. Saur, 1993), Teil II, Band 9 (hereinafter _Die Tageb\u00fccher 9_ ), 250.\n\n4. Ibid.\n\n5. Ibid., 254.\n\n6. \"Er denkt nicht daran, bis zum Po zur\u00fcckzuziehen\" [\"He has no intention of retreating to the Po\"], entry of June 25, 1943, Goebbels, _Die Tageb\u00fccher von Joseph Goebbels_ [The diaries of Joseph Goebbels], ed. Elke Froehlich (Munich: K. G. Saur, 1993), Teil II, Band 8, 532.\n\n7. Entry of 10.8.1943, Goebbels, _Die Tageb\u00fccher 9,_ 255.\n\n8. Ibid.\n\n9. Ibid., 260.\n\n10. Ibid.\n\n11. Ibid.\n\n12. Ibid., 261.\n\n13. See Karl-Heinz Friezer et al., _Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg_ (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 2007) Band 8, 1192\u20131209.\n\n14. \"die schon erw\u00e4hnte Spekulation auf wachsende und letztlich b\u00fcndnisprengde Divergenzen innerhalb der Feindkoalition\": Ibid., 1194.\n\n41. A CARDINAL MOMENT\n\n1. Cable of June 25, 1943, in _Foreign Relations of the United States: The Conferences at Cairo and Tehran_ 1943 (hereinafter _FRUS III_ ), 10.\n\n2. Entry of August 14, 1943, in Ward, _Closest Companion,_ 229.\n\n3. Ibid.\n\n4. \"Dear Mr. President\" letter, August 10, 1943, attachment to entry of August 10, 1943, Stimson Diary.\n\n5. Ibid.\n\n6. Personal Minute of July 13, 1943, in Martin Gilbert, _Road to Victory: Winston S. Churchill, 1941\u20131945_ (London: Heinemann, 1986), 442.\n\n7. Ibid., Cable T.1043\/3, July 16, 1943, 443.\n\n42. CHURCHILL IS STUNNED\n\n1. In London, Secretary Stimson had told Churchill that with regard to the sharing of atom bomb development (code-named S-1), \"I could only promise to report the matter to the President for the final decision\": \"Brief Report on Certain Features of Overseas Trip,\" August 4, 1943, Stimson Diary.\n\n2. Entry of August 10, 1943, Mackenzie King Diary, Library and Archives Canada, Ottawa, ON.\n\n3. Winston Churchill, _The Second World War,_ vol. 5, _Closing the Ring_ (London: Cassell, 1952), 73.\n\n4. Entry of August 14, 1943, in Ward, _Closest Companion,_ 228.\n\n43. THE GERMAN WILL TO FIGHT\n\n1. Vice Admiral Mountbatten used his pistol to demonstrate the toughness of ice floes\u2014his latest brainwave for floating harbors in the invasion of Normandy: Andrew Roberts, _Masters and Commanders: How Four Titans Won the War in the West, 1941\u20131945_ (New York: Harper, 2009), 405.\n\n2. David Reynolds, _In Command of History: Churchill Fighting and Writing The Second World War_ (New York: Random House, 2005), 363.\n\n3. Philip A. Smith, _Bombing to Surrender: The Contribution of Air Power to the Collapse of Italy, 1943_ (Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: School of Advanced Airpower Studies, 1997), 63.\n\n4. Sven Oliver Mueller, \"Nationalism in German War Society 1939\u20131945\" in _Germany and the Second World War,_ ed. J\u00f6rg Echternkamp (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2014), vol. 9, no. 2, p. 32.\n\n5. Ibid., 34.\n\n6. Ibid., 30.\n\n44. NEAR-HOMICIDAL NEGOTIATIONS\n\n1. Entry of August 15, 1943, _Field Marshal Lord Alanbrooke: War Diaries, 1939\u20131945,_ ed. Alex Danchev and Daniel Todman (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 441.\n\n2. Reynolds, _In Command of History,_ 374\u201382.\n\n3. \"The Log of the President's Trip to Canada, August 16\u2013August 26, 1943,\" 2, FDR Library.\n\n4. Entry of August 15, 1943, Arthur Bryant, _The Turn of the Tide: A History of the War Years, Based on the Diaries of Field Marshal Lord Alanbrooke, Chief of the Imperial General Staff_ (New York: Doubleday, 1957), 578.\n\n5. Carlo D'Este, _World War II in the Mediterranean, 1942\u20131945_ (Chapel Hill, NC: Algonquin, 1990), 196. Since over 200,000 Germans were reported \"missing,\" these may include many who surrendered at the war's end.\n\n6. Carlo D'Este, _Warlord: A Life of Winston Churchill at War, 1874\u20131945_ (New York: Harper, 2008), 626.\n\n7. Entry of August 16, 1943, Brooke, _War Diaries,_ 443.\n\n8. Entry of August 15, 1943, Leahy Diary, William D. Leahy Papers, Library of Congress.\n\n9. Entry of August 15, 1943, Brooke, _War Diaries,_ 442.\n\n10. _Foreign Relations of the United States: The Conferences at Washington and Quebec, 1943_ (hereinafter _FRUS II_ ) (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1970), 865.\n\n11. Ibid., 866.\n\n12. Entry of August 16, 1943, Brooke, _War Diaries,_ 443.\n\n13. Annotation to entry of August 15, 1943, in Brooke, _War Diaries,_ 442.\n\n14. Commander George Elsey, interview with the author, September 11, 2011.\n\n45. A LONGING IN THE AIR\n\n1. \"The Log of the President's Trip to Canada, August 16\u2013August 26, 1943,\" compiled by Chief Ship's Clerk William Rigdon, 4, FDR Library.\n\n2. Cable of August 22, 1942, in Susan Butler, ed., _My Dear Mr. Stalin: The Complete Correspondence of Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph V. Stalin_ (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005), 155.\n\n3. Averell Harriman and Elie Abel, _Special Envoy to Churchill and Stalin, 1941\u20131946_ (New York: Random House, 1975), 225; and entry of August 31, 1943, Mackenzie King Diary, Library and Archives Canada, Ottawa, ON.\n\n4. Entry of August 23, 1943, Brooke, _War Diaries,_ 447. Lieutenant General Henry Pownall, who became one of Churchill's many assistants in writing his memoirs, claimed in his 1943\u20131944 diary that the Sumatra idea, code-named Operation Culverin, was \"a typically Winstonian project, advanced with his usual fatuous obstinacy\": David Reynolds, _In Command of History,_ 404.\n\n5. Harriman and Abel, _Special Envoy,_ 224.\n\n6. Ibid.\n\n7. _FRUS II,_ 691ff.\n\n8. \"The Log of the President's Trip to Canada, August 16\u2013August 26, 1943,\" compiled by Chief Ship's Clerk William Rigdon, 15, FDR Library.\n\n9. P. J. Philips, \"President Is Grim: Only Long Peace Could Justify Sacrifices,\" _New York Times,_ August 26, 1943.\n\n10. Entry of August 25, 1943, Mackenzie King Diary.\n\n11. Samuel I. Rosenman, _Working with Roosevelt_ (New York: Harper, 1952), 387.\n\n12. Ibid.\n\n13. Ibid.\n\n14. Text in \"The Log of the President's Trip to Canada.\" (President's own copy. The alternative wording gave the President a choice, for extra emphasis, as he spoke.) Also as \"Address at Ottawa, Canada, August 25, 1943,\" in _The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt,_ vol. 12, _The Tide Turns,_ comp. Samuel Rosenman (New York: Russell & Russell, 1950; reissued 1969), 365\u201369.\n\n15. Philips, \"President Is Grim,\" _New York Times._\n\n16. \"Address at Ottawa, Canada, August 25, 1943,\" in _The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt._\n\n17. Entry of August 25, 1943, Mackenzie King Diary.\n\n46. THE PRESIDENT IS UPSET\u2014WITH THE RUSSIANS\n\n1. \"Memorandum of conversation Mr. Mackenzie King had with President Franklin D. Roosevelt\u2014Ottawa, Wednesday\u2014August 25, 1943,\" Mackenzie King Diary.\n\n2. Ibid.\n\n3. Ibid.\n\n4. Ibid., \"Conversation with Mr. Roosevelt, Ottawa\u2014August 25, 1943.\"\n\n5. Martin Gilbert, _Road to Victory: Winston S. Churchill, 1941\u20131945_ (London: Heinemann, 1986), 482.\n\n6. Dmitri Volkogonov, _Stalin: Triumph and Tragedy_ (Rocklin, CA: Prima, 1991), 486.\n\n7. \"Conversation with Mr. Roosevelt, Ottawa, August 25, 1943,\" Mackenzie King Diary.\n\n8. Ibid., entry of August 22, 1943.\n\n9. Gilbert, _Road to Victory_ , 482.\n\n10. E.g. Susan Butler, _Roosevelt and Stalin: Portrait of a Partnership_ (New York: Knopf, 2015).\n\n11. Gilbert, _Road to Victory_ , 484\u201385.\n\n12. Harriman and Abel, _Special Envoy_ , 536.\n\n13. Entry of Wednesday, August 25, 1942, Mackenzie King Diary.\n\n14. Ibid., \"Conversation with Mr. Roosevelt. Ottawa\u2014August 25, 1943.\"\n\n15. Ibid., entry of August 31, 1943.\n\n16. Ibid., \"Conversation with Mr. Roosevelt. Ottawa\u2014August 25, 1943.\"\n\n17. Ibid.\n\n47. CLOSE TO DISASTER\n\n1. Entry of August 26, 1943, in Geoffrey C. Ward, ed., _Closest Companion: The Unknown Story of the Intimate Friendship Between Franklin Roosevelt and Margaret Suckley_ (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995), 231.\n\n2. Entry of August 29, 1943, Leahy Diary, William D. Leahy Papers, Library of Congress.\n\n3. Entry of August 28, 1943, Ward, _Closest Companion,_ 231\u201332.\n\n48. A DARWINIAN STRUGGLE\n\n1. Entry of 27.8.1943, Joseph Goebbels, _Die Tageb\u00fccher von Joseph Goebbels_ [The diaries of Joseph Goebbels], ed. Elke Fr\u00f6hlich (Munich: K. G. Saur, 1993), Teil II, Band 9 (hereinafter _Die Tageb\u00fccher 9_ ), 369. Quotes from this source have been translated by the author.\n\n2. Ibid., entry of 10.8.1943, 260.\n\n3. Ibid., entry of 10.9.1943, 464. Interestingly, addressing reporters' questions in Washington, \"Churchill said Britain wants no more territory: such as Sicily, Pantelleria, etc,\" but that \"islands of chiefly strategic value probably should be held by the Allies.\" However, he also made clear the \"British did not propose to give up any territory\" they considered theirs\u2014\"this in answer to a question about Hong Kong\": \"Churchill Luncheon with Correspondents, September 3, 1943,\" in Raymond Clapper Papers, Personal File, 1942\u201343, Box 23, Library of Congress.\n\n4. Ibid.\n\n49. A TALK WITH ARCHBISHOP SPELLMAN\n\n1. Winston Churchill, _The Second World War,_ vol. 5, _Closing the Ring_ (London: Cassell, 1952), 109.\n\n2. Entry of August 31, 1943, Mackenzie King Diary.\n\n3. Entry of September 6, 1943, Ward, _Closest Companion,_ 236\u201337.\n\n4. Ibid.\n\n5. Mary Soames, _A Daughter's Tale_ (New York: Random House, 2011), 275\u201376.\n\n6. Ibid, 276\u201377.\n\n7. Robert I. Gannon, _The Cardinal Spellman Story_ (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1962), 218.\n\n8. Ibid., 223.\n\n9. \"To many historians, especially but far from exclusively those writing in the first years of the Soviet-American Cold War that followed World War II, Roosevelt was exceptionally naive and foolish to believe he could collaborate with Stalin\": Mark Stoler and Melanie Gustafson, eds., _Major Problems in the History of World War II: Documents and Essays_ (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003), 378.\n\n10. John Morton Blum, _V Was for Victory: Politics and American Culture During World War II_ (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976), 271\u201373.\n\n11. Ibid. _,_ 255.\n\n12. Ibid.\n\n13. Gannon, _The Cardinal Spellman Story,_ 223.\n\n14. Ibid.\n\n15. Ibid.\n\n16. Ibid.\n\n17. Susan Butler, _Roosevelt and Stalin: Portrait of a Partnership_ (New York: Knopf, 2015), 153.\n\n18. Gannon, _The Cardinal Spellman Story,_ 223.\n\n19. Ibid.\n\n20. Ibid., 227.\n\n50. THE EMPIRES OF THE FUTURE\n\n1. Entry of September 2, 1943, Ward, _Closest Companion,_ 234.\n\n2. Simon Sebag-Montefiore, _Young Stalin_ (New York: Knopf, 2007), 193.\n\n3. Ibid., 193.\n\n4. Martin Gilbert, _Road to Victory: Winston S. Churchill, 1941\u20131945_ (London: Heinemann _,_ 1986), 492.\n\n5. Ibid.\n\n6. \"Anglo-American Unity: A Speech on Receiving an Honorary Degree at Harvard University, September 6, 1943,\" in _The War Speeches of Winston Churchill,_ ed. Charles Eade, vol. 2 (London: Cassell, 1952), 510\u201315.\n\n7. Ibid.\n\n8. Ibid.\n\n51. A TRAGICOMEDY OF ERRORS\n\n1. E.g., Douglas Porch, _The Path to Victory: The Mediterranean Theater in World War II_ (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2004), 459\u201361.\n\n2. \"Review of the Situation in the Light of Italian Collapse,\" in RG 218: Records of the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, Box 307, National Archives.\n\n3. Ibid.\n\n4. Carl D'Este, _Patton: A Genius for War_ (New York: HarperCollins, 1995), 533\u201355; Rick Atkinson, _The Day of Battle: The War in Sicily and Italy, 1943\u20131944_ (New York: Holt, 2007), 147\u201349.\n\n5. Nigel Hamilton, _Monty: Master of the Battlefield, 1942\u20131944_ (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1986), 390.\n\n6. Ibid., 398\u2013402.\n\n7. Ibid., 399.\n\n8. Ibid., 388.\n\n9. Atkinson, _The Day of Battle,_ 190.\n\n10. General Mark Clark to author, interview of October 26, 1981, in Hamilton, _Monty: Master of the Battlefield,_ 414.\n\n11. Atkinson, _The Day of Battle,_ 192.\n\n52. MEETING REALITY\n\n1. Atkinson, _The Day of Battle_ , 195.\n\n2. Ibid., 196.\n\n3. Hamilton, _Monty: Master of the Battlefield, 1942\u20131944,_ 393.\n\n4. Atkinson, _The Day of Battle,_ 197.\n\n5. On the island of Cephalonia, for example, more than five thousand Italian troops were massacred by invading German forces, who were told to take no prisoners: Alexander Mikaberidze, ed., _Atrocities, Massacres, and War Crimes: An Encyclopedia_ (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2013), 326 and 750.\n\n6. See Hamilton, _Monty: Master of the Battlefield,_ 404; and Atkinson, _The Day of Battle,_ 190.\n\n7. General Mark Clark to author, interview of October 26, 1981, in Hamilton, _Monty: Master of the Battlefield,_ 414.\n\n8. Ibid.\n\n9. Atkinson, _The Day of Battle,_ 199.\n\n10. Ibid., 203.\n\n11. Ibid., 205.\n\n12. \"Fireside Chat Opening Third War Loan Drive, September 8, 1943,\" _The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt,_ 377\u201380.\n\n13. See Hamilton, _Monty: Master of the Battlefield,_ 405\u20136 and footnote 403.\n\n14. Entry of Monday, September 13, 1943, Ward, _Closest Companion,_ 237.\n\n15. Soames, _A Daughter's Tale,_ 278.\n\n16. Entry of September 7, Moran, _Winston Churchill: The Struggle for Survival, 1940\u20131965_ (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1966), 118.\n\n17. Ibid., entry of September 12, 1943, 119.\n\n18. Ibid.\n\n19. Entry of September 16, 1943, Diary of Harry C. Butcher, Eisenhower Library.\n\n20. Entry of September 13, 1943, Moran, _Winston Churchill,_ 119\u201320.\n\n21. Ibid., 120.\n\n22. Entry of Friday, August 27, 1943, in Alan Lascelles, _King's Counsellor: Abdication and War: The Diaries of Sir Alan Lascelles,_ ed. Duff Hart-Davis (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2006), 156.\n\n23. Cable of September 11, 1943, in Susan Butler, ed., _My_ _Dear Mr. Stalin: The Complete Correspondence of Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin_ (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005), 164.\n\n24. Entry of 11.9.1943, Goebbels, _Die Tageb\u00fccher 9,_ 479.\n\n25. Rede des F\u00fchrers \u00fcber den Zusammenbruch Italiens am 10. September 1943, <http:\/\/de.metapedia.org\/wiki\/Quelle\/Rede_vom_10._September_1943_(Adolf_Hitler)>. Translated by the author.\n\n26. Ibid.\n\n27. Entry of 12.9.1943, Goebbels, _Die Tageb\u00fccher 9,_ 492.\n\n28. Ibid., entry of 10.9.1943, 463.\n\n29. Ibid., 464.\n\n30. Ibid., 460.\n\n31. Ibid., 464.\n\n32. Ibid., entry of 7.9.1943, 438.\n\n33. Ibid., entry of 12.9.1943, 486\u201387.\n\n34. Ibid.\n\n53. A MESSAGE TO CONGRESS\n\n1. Atkinson, _The Day of Battle,_ 212.\n\n2. Hamilton, _Monty: Master of the Battlefield, 1942\u20131944,_ 413.\n\n3. Mark Clark to author, interview of October 10, 1981, in Hamilton, _Monty: Master of the Battlefield,_ 405.\n\n4. Atkinson, _The Day of Battle,_ 207.\n\n5. \"Message to the Congress on the Progress of the War, September 17, 1943,\" in _The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt,_ comp. Samuel I. Rosenman, vol. 12, 388\u2013406.\n\n6. Ibid.\n\n7. Ibid.\n\n54. ACHIEVING WONDERS\n\n1. Entry of 19.9.43, in Goebbels, _Die Tageb\u00fccher 9,_ 533.\n\n2. \"Message to the Congress on the Progress of the War, September 17, 1943.\"\n\n3. Entry of August 31, 1943, Mackenzie King Diary.\n\n4. Ibid.\n\n5. George Elsey, interview with the author, September 12, 2011.\n\n6. Ibid.\n\n7. Andrew Roberts, _Masters and Commanders: How Four Titans Won the War in the West, 1941\u20131945_ (New York: Harper, 2009), 412\u201313.\n\n8. Brooke was equally to blame, plotting with Churchill to postpone Overlord yet again beyond its planned spring 1944 target date, and to demand \"another full-scale Combined Chiefs of Staff conference in early November,\" 1943, \"to try to sell\" the alternative Mediterranean-exploitation strategy to Roosevelt and Marshall: Roberts, _Masters and Commanders,_ 418. \"We should have been in a position to force the Dardanelles by the capture of Crete and Rhodes, we should have the whole Balkans ablaze by now, and the war might have been finished in 1943!!\" Brooke lamented in one of his wildest diary entries of the war: November 1, 1943, in _War Diaries, 1939\u20131945: Field Marshal Lord Alanbrooke,_ ed. Alex Danchev and Daniel Todman (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 465. Even Roberts, who admired Brooke, was moved to harsh judgment regarding Overlord. \"It had probably been the correct decision not to appoint him as its supreme commander after all,\" he considered\u2014Roberts, _Masters and Commanders,_ 419.\n\n# Index\n\nA | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z\n\n# A\n\nair power: in anti-U-boat campaign, 189\u201390, ,\n\nFDR on, 42\u201343\n\nagainst Germany, , , , , , , , 320\u201321, 324\u201325, ,\n\nagainst Italy, , , , , , ,\n\nagainst Japan, , ,\n\nKenney on, 179\u201380\n\nMarshall on,\n\nin Mediterranean strategy, 196\u201397, , 214\u201315\n\nPortal and,\n\nYamamoto's use of, 182\u201383\n\nAleutians: Allied landings in,\n\nJapan attacks,\n\nAlexander, Sir Harold (general),\n\nin Italian campaign, , , , , 384\u201385,\n\nAllied coalition: Badoglio promises assistance to, 376\u201377,\n\nbalance of power shifts in, 343\u201344\n\nbombs Romanian oil fields, 214\u201315, 227\u201328,\n\nbombs Rome, , , , ,\n\nChurchill threatens unity of, xiv, ,\n\ndistrusts new Italian government, ,\n\nFDR controls war planning and prosecution for, xi, xv, , , 28\u201329, , 43\u201344, 100\u2013102, , , , , , , , , , , , , 314\u201315, , , , 393\u201394,\n\nFDR promotes unity among, , 106\u20137, , 125\u201327, , , , , 292\u201393, , 334\u201335, , , , 358\u201359, , 385\u201386, 396\u201397\n\ngives Normandy invasion strategic priority, 326\u201327, , , ,\n\ngives Second Front strategic priority,\n\nHitler hopes to split, 356\u201357,\n\nlack of combat experience, 36\u201338, , , 51\u201352, 57\u201359, 82\u201383, , , , 98\u201399, , 139\u201341, , 145\u201346, ,\n\nlack of command experience among, 89\u201390, 143\u201344,\n\nlandings in Aleutians,\n\nlosses in Italian campaign, , 328\u201329, ,\n\nlosses in North Africa, 52\u201353, , 140\u201342, 144\u201345,\n\non offensive against Germany, 295\u201396\n\nand race against Soviet western advance, 154\u201356, , , , ,\n\nStalin threatens unity of, 343\u201344, 346\u201347, , , ,\n\ntactical errors in North Africa,\n\ntroop buildup in Great Britain,\n\nTurkey urged to join, , , , , , ,\n\nArnim, Hans-J\u00fcrgen von (general): in North Africa, 140\u201341,\n\nsurrenders, ,\n\nArnold, Henry (general), ,\n\nat Casablanca Conference, 78\u201379,\n\nheart attack, ,\n\nat Quebec Conference,\n\nat Washington strategic conference (1943),\n\nAtlantic Charter (1941), , , , , , , , ,\n\nAtlantic Wall. _See_ Germany: Atlantic Wall defenses in France\n\natomic bomb, development of, xiv, ,\n\nChurchill and, , ,\n\nas FDR's political trump card, ,\n\nand postwar security,\n\nSoviet Union and,\n\nStimson and,\n\nAxis powers. _See_ Germany; Italy; Japan; Romania\n\n# B\n\nBadoglio, Pietro (marshal): defeatist attitude, 377\u201378,\n\nflees Rome, 379\u201380\n\nheads new Italian government, , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\npromises assistance to Allies, 376\u201377,\n\nBalkans, proposed invasion of, , , , , , , 296\u201397,\n\nBullitt presses for, 155\u201356, , 222\u201323,\n\nChurchill and, , , , 208\u20139, , , , 239\u201340, , , , , , 272\u201373, , , , , , , , ,\n\nEden and, , , ,\n\nFDR opposes, , , , , , ,\n\nGiraud and, 155\u201356,\n\nHitler hopes for, 305\u20136,\n\nLeahy on,\n\nMarshall opposes, 295\u201396\n\nsupposed effect on Eastern Front, ,\n\nas unrealistic fantasy, 301\u20132, 311\u201312,\n\nBeaverbrook, Lord: and Second Front strategy, , 218\u201319\n\nat Washington strategic conference (1943), 206\u20137\n\nBenes, Edvard,\n\nBerbers: FDR's interest in,\n\nBeveridge Report (1943): Churchill dismisses, 26\u201327,\n\nU.S. reaction to, 31\u201332\n\nBig Three summit. _See_ Tehran Conference (1943)\n\nBismarck Sea, Battle of (1943), , 179\u201380\n\nBolshevization. _See_ Soviet Union: as threat to Europe\n\nbombing. _See_ air power; atomic bomb\n\nBradley, Omar (general): and invasion of Sicily, ,\n\nBritish Eighth Army, , , ,\n\nflees from Rommel, , ,\n\nBritish Empire. _See_ imperialism\n\nBrooke, Alan (field marshal),\n\naccepts necessity of Normandy invasion (1944), 232\u201333,\n\ncalls for Big Three summit,\n\nat Casablanca Conference, 78\u201379, ,\n\non Churchill, 250\u201351, ,\n\nconfesses weakness of British manpower,\n\nconsidered as Normandy invasion supreme commander, , , , , ,\n\ndissents from Churchill's war strategy, , 235\u201336, , 250\u201351, ,\n\non Eisenhower, 89\u201390\n\non FDR,\n\nand Italian campaign, 295\u201396, 328\u201330\n\nand limits of Mediterranean strategy, , ,\n\non Marshall, , , ,\n\nmilitary background, 212\u201313\n\nopposes Normandy invasion (1944), , 214\u201316, , ,\n\nopposes proposed cross-Channel landing (1943), ,\n\npredicts defeat of Normandy invasion (1944), 215\u201316, ,\n\nat Quebec Conference, , , 328\u201330\n\nrejects Casablanca strategic agreement,\n\nstrategic errors,\n\nview of Eisenhower,\n\nat Washington strategic conference (1943), , , , , 212\u201314, , 240\u201341, , 250\u201351, 253\u201354\n\nBrown, Wilson (admiral): as FDR's naval aide, , , ,\n\nBullitt, William C.,\n\nattacks Welles,\n\non communism, 151\u201352,\n\nmilitary naivet\u00e9, 155\u201357\n\npresses for invasion of Balkans, 155\u201356, , 222\u201323,\n\nreport on postwar Soviet Union, 150\u201359\n\non Stalin, 151\u201352, 222\u201323\n\nStimson and,\n\nas U.S. ambassador to Soviet Union, ,\n\nBurma: proposed reconquest of, , 100\u2013101, , , , ,\n\nButcher, Harry (commander),\n\nbriefs FDR, 169\u201371\n\nByrnes, James,\n\n# C\n\nCadogan, Sir Alexander,\n\nCanada: and Dieppe raid (1942), , 37\u201338, , , , 212\u201313, , , 246\u201347, , , ,\n\nin invasion of Sicily, ,\n\nand Normandy invasion (1944),\n\nresentment against Churchill,\n\nwar production, , ,\n\nCasablanca Conference (1943), xiii\u2013xiv, ,\n\nAllied strategic agreement at, 98\u2013101, 127\u201329, , , 211\u201312, , , 220\u201321, 229\u201331, 237\u201338, , , 250\u201353, , , ,\n\nArnold at, 78\u201379,\n\nBritish chiefs of staff at, 83\u201384\n\nBrooke at, 78\u201379, ,\n\nChurchill at, 5\u20136, , , 69\u201370, 71\u201372, , 100\u2013101, 117\u201318, , 124\u201326, 128\u201329, , , ,\n\nClark at, , , , ,\n\nCombined Chiefs of Staff at, , 77\u201378, , , ,\n\nDe Gaulle at, , 112\u201317, , ,\n\nDe Gaulle refuses to attend, 105\u20136\n\nElliott Roosevelt at, 66\u201368, , 78\u201381, , 91\u201393, 103\u20134, 108\u201310, , , 118\u201320,\n\nFDR at, , 11\u201312, , , 71\u201372, 77\u201381, 82\u201388, 90\u201393, 100\u2013104, 105\u201310, 112\u201323, 124\u201331, 139\u201340, , , , ,\n\nFDR's journey to, xiv, 4\u20139, 11\u201314, 63\u201368, ,\n\nFDR's quarters at, 67\u201369\n\nGerman ignorance of, 65\u201366, 130\u201331\n\nGiraud at, 121\u201323, 124\u201325, ,\n\nGoebbels reacts to, 130\u201334\n\nHopkins at, , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nJacob at, , , 73\u201375, ,\n\nJoint Chiefs of Staff at, , 53\u201354, 59\u201360, , , 82\u201385, 97\u201398\n\nlarge British contingent at, 73\u201374, 83\u201384,\n\nLeahy misses, 10\u201311, 13\u201314,\n\nMacmillan at, , ,\n\nMarshall at, , , , ,\n\nMcCrea at, 4\u20139, 68\u201369, , , , , 109\u201310, , 124\u201325, 128\u201329\n\nMurphy at, 109\u201310, ,\n\npress conference at, 122\u201323, 124\u201329,\n\nReilly at,\n\nsecurity concerns at, 6\u20137, 66\u201368\n\nStalin declines to attend, , , , , , ,\n\nStimson not invited to, ,\n\nas strategic turning point of war, 87\u201388, , , 211\u201312\n\nWatson excluded from, 7\u20139\n\nWedemeyer at, 83\u201384, ,\n\nCasablanca (film), 66\u201367\n\nChiang Kai-shek, , , , , , , ,\n\nChina: postwar weakness of,\n\nU.S. military aid to, , , , 333\u201334\n\nwar with Japan, 19\u201320, , , ,\n\nChurchill, Clementine, , , ,\n\non FDR's Pacific war strategy,\n\nChurchill, Mary, 308\u20139, , ,\n\non FDR, 359\u201360, ,\n\nChurchill, Winston: accepts Joint Four-Power Declaration (1943),\n\naddresses Congress, , , ,\n\nand atomic bomb development, , ,\n\nBritish chiefs of staff dissent from his proposed strategy, 231\u201335, 248\u201349, 250\u201351, ,\n\nBrooke on, 250\u201351, ,\n\nCanadian resentment against,\n\nand capture of Rome, , , , , ,\n\nat Casablanca Conference, 5\u20136, , , 69\u201370, 71\u201372, , 100\u2013101, 117\u201318, , 124\u201326, 128\u201329, , , ,\n\ncharacter and personality, xi\u2013xii, 70\u201371, , , , , , , 256\u201357, 277\u201378, , , 333\u201334, ,\n\nCharles Wilson as physician to, 219\u201321, 252\u201353, 383\u201385\n\nclaims undue credit, xiii, ,\n\nand communism,\n\nconfers with FDR at Hyde Park, xiv, , , , 308\u201312, 313\u201314, , , 381\u201383\n\nconfers with U.S. congressional leaders, 239\u201340, ,\n\nand Dardanelles campaign (1915), , , , , , ,\n\nand De Gaulle, , , , 122\u201323\n\ndismisses Beveridge Report, 26\u201327,\n\ndrinking problem, , , , , ,\n\nexcluded from proposed Alaska summit, , 247\u201348, ,\n\nexpects rapid German collapse, , , , 208\u20139, , , , , , 353\u201354,\n\nFDR demands his cooperation, , 253\u201354\n\nFDR distrusts,\n\nFDR on, xii, 79\u201380,\n\nand Greece,\n\nHarvard speech, , 370\u201372\n\nhealth problems, 219\u201320, ,\n\n\"Iron Curtain\" speech,\n\nand Italian campaign, 208\u20139, , , , , 251\u201352, 274\u201375, , 277\u201378, , , 319\u201320, , , , 373\u201374,\n\nLascelles on, xiii\n\nMackenzie King confers with, 235\u201339, 248\u201349, 396\u201397\n\nMackenzie King on, 245\u201346, ,\n\nMarshall keeps eye on, 254\u201355, 257\u201358\n\nmeets with British chiefs of staff, 246\u201347\n\nmeets with Combined Chiefs of Staff, ,\n\nmeets with Stalin, 247\u201348\n\nmilitary background, , ,\n\nand North Africa landings, xiii, 69\u201371\n\nNorth Africa mission, 254\u201355, 256\u201358\n\nobsessed with Sumatra, 333\u201334\n\nopposes Montgomery, xiii\n\nopposes Normandy invasion (1944), xii, , 201\u20133, , , , , 246\u201347, , 250\u201351, 253\u201354, , , 282\u201383, , , , 313\u201314, 326\u201327, , 398\u201399\n\nopposes proposed cross-Channel landing (1943), xi\u2013xii, , 74\u201375,\n\noverconfidence of, , ,\n\nand Pacific Theater, , , , , 333\u201334\n\nat Pacific War Council meeting (1943), 245\u201346\n\nPatton on, ,\n\npersonal relationship with FDR, xiv, , , , , 313\u201314, 334\u201335, , 367\u201368, , ,\n\nand planning for postwar security, 370\u201372\n\nand planning of United Nations, 21\u201322, 369\u201370\n\npolitical acumen, xii\u2013xiii, xiv, , , , , ,\n\npoor military judgment, xiv, , , , , 211\u201312, , , 272\u201373, , , 311\u201312, , 333\u201334, , , 383\u201384,\n\npostwar reinterpretation of Anglo-American alliance, xii\u2013xiii, , 256\u201357,\n\nand postwar struggle with Soviet Union, 347\u201348\n\nand postwar trusteeships,\n\npredicts defeat of Normandy invasion (1944), 237\u201338, , , ,\n\npromotes closer U.S.-British ties, 368\u201372\n\npromotes \"soft underbelly\" strategy, , , ,\n\nand proposed airborne assault on Rome,\n\nand proposed invasion of Balkans, , , , 208\u20139, , , , 239\u201340, , , , , , 272\u201373, , , , , , , , ,\n\nproposes Allied invasion of Norway, 273\u201374, 301\u20132\n\nproposes Versailles-type conference, ,\n\nand Quebec Conference, 277\u201378, , , , 314\u201315, , 326\u201328, , 333\u201334, , 396\u201397\n\nracist attitudes, , ,\n\nrealistic view of Soviet Union, xiv\u2013xv, , , 368\u201369\n\nreluctantly agrees to Normandy invasion (1944), 241\u201342, , , , , 313\u201314, , , , , ,\n\nreneges on Washington conference strategic agreement, 272\u201375, , 282\u201383, ,\n\nrepudiates Casablanca strategic agreement, , 211\u201312, , 220\u201321, 229\u201331, 237\u201338, , 250\u201353,\n\nand Salerno landing, 383\u201385\n\nand Second Front strategy, , , , , , , , 219\u201320, , 229\u201331, , , 246\u201347, 257\u201358, 271\u201373, 282\u201383,\n\n_The_ _Second World War,_ xiii, ,\n\nsense of entitlement toward India, , , ,\n\nat Shangri-la, 218\u201320, , ,\n\nand Stalin, , , ,\n\nStimson confronts, 274\u201375\n\nSuckley on, ,\n\nsupports imperialism, , , 71\u201372, 79\u201380, , , , , , , , 356\u201357, ,\n\ntakes large contingent to Casablanca Conference, 73\u201374, 83\u201384,\n\nthreatens Allied unity, xiv, ,\n\nand unconditional surrender, 128\u201329, , ,\n\nuncontrolled imaginative tendencies, , , , , , 241\u201342\n\nunderestimates German people, ,\n\nunderestimates Wehrmacht, xii, xiv, 284\u201385, , ,\n\nuninterested in postwar world, 26\u201327,\n\nVictorian worldview, 70\u201371, , ,\n\nvisits Marrakesh, 198\u2013200,\n\nvisits Turkey, 157\u201359\n\nwar strategy discussions with FDR, 74\u201375, 77\u201381\n\nat Washington strategic conference (Trident) (1943), , 201\u20133, , , , 208\u201310, 217\u201319, , , , 241\u201342, 243\u201347, 250\u201354, ,\n\nClark, Mark (general): at Casablanca Conference, , , , ,\n\ncommands Salerno landing, , , 375\u201376, , , 380\u201381, , , ,\n\non need for Allied combat experience, 86\u201387\n\nin North Africa,\n\nand North Africa landings, 85\u201386\n\nopposes proposed cross-Channel landing (1943), 85\u201387\n\nand projected airborne assault on Rome,\n\ncolonialism. _See_ imperialism\n\ncombat experience: Allied lack of, 36\u201338, , , 51\u201352, 57\u201359, 82\u201383, , , , 98\u201399, , 139\u201341, , 145\u201346, ,\n\nCombined Chiefs of Staff, , , ,\n\nagree on Normandy invasion (1944), ,\n\nat Casablanca Conference, , 77\u201378, , , ,\n\nconvene at Washington strategic conference (1943), 212\u201317, 231\u201333, , 240\u201341, , 250\u201351,\n\nEisenhower interrogated by, 88\u201390\n\nand Italian campaign,\n\nLeahy as chairman of, ,\n\nmeet with Churchill,\n\nmeet with FDR, 77\u201378, , 92\u201393, , 240\u201341,\n\nand Pacific Theater,\n\nat Quebec Conference, , , 328\u201331, 334\u201335, , , ,\n\nComintern: dissolution of, , , 343\u201344\n\ncommand experience: Allied lack of, 89\u201390, 143\u201344,\n\nEisenhower on,\n\ncommander in chief: president as, 35\u201337, , , , , , ,\n\ncommunism: Bullitt on, 151\u201352,\n\nChurchill and,\n\nFDR and, , 30\u201332, , , 362\u201363, 364\u201365\n\nGoebbels and, ,\n\nStalin's view of, 151\u201352, ,\n\nCooke, Charles M. (\"Savvy\") (admiral): rejects Washington conference strategy,\n\ncross-Channel landing, proposed (1943). _See also_ Normandy invasion (1944); Second Front strategy\n\nBritish chiefs of staff oppose, , , 74\u201375, , 201\u20132\n\nBrooke opposes, ,\n\nChurchill opposes, xi\u2013xii, , 74\u201375,\n\nClark opposes, 85\u201387\n\nexpected losses in, 56\u201357\n\nFDR opposes, xi\u2013xii, 35\u201338, , , 84\u201385\n\nHandy supports,\n\nHitler and,\n\nHopkins supports,\n\nJohn Hull supports, , ,\n\nJoint Chiefs of Staff support, 51\u201353, 55\u201357, , ,\n\nMackenzie King and, 35\u201336\n\nMarshall supports, , 55\u201357, ,\n\nPortal opposes, 98\u201399\n\nPound opposes, 98\u201399\n\nStimson supports, 49\u201352, , , , , 221\u201322,\n\nas unrealistic fantasy, 51\u201354, , 91\u201392,\n\nand U.S. public opinion,\n\nWar Department expects failure of, 53\u201354, 58\u201359\n\n# D\n\nD-day. _See_ Normandy invasion (1944)\n\nDakar (Senegal): strategic value of, 63\u201364\n\nDardanelles campaign (1915): Churchill and, , , , , , ,\n\nDarlan, Fran\u00e7ois (admiral), , , , ,\n\nassassinated,\n\nDavies, Joseph: mission to Stalin, 230\u201331, , 271\u201372, 282\u201383,\n\nDavy, G.M.O. (brigadier), 102\u20133\n\nDawley, Ernest (general),\n\nDe Gaulle, Charles (general). _See also_ Free French\n\nat Casablanca Conference, , 112\u201317, , ,\n\nChurchill and, , , , 122\u201323\n\nCordell Hull and, ,\n\negocentric and obstructionist character of, 112\u201317, 120\u201321\n\non FDR, 116\u201317,\n\nFDR on, , ,\n\nmeets with FDR, , 112\u201317,\n\nin North Africa, 63\u201364,\n\nrefuses to attend Casablanca Conference, 105\u20136\n\nrelationship with Giraud, 105\u20136, , , , , 117\u201318, 121\u201323, 124\u201325\n\nand restoration of French colonies,\n\nDeane, John (general), , ,\n\nDelano, Laura (\"Polly\"), , ,\n\nD'Este, Carlo,\n\nDevers, Jacob L. (general),\n\nDieppe, Canadian raid on (1942), , 37\u201338, , , , 212\u201313, , , 246\u201347, , , ,\n\nDill, Sir John (field marshal), , , , , ,\n\nat Washington strategic conference (1943), , ,\n\nD\u00f6nitz, Karl (admiral),\n\nDonovan, William J. (colonel),\n\non Stalin,\n\nDoolittle, James (general): bombs Rome,\n\nTokyo raid (1942), ,\n\nDykes, Vivian (brigadier): killed,\n\n# E\n\nEastern Front: effects of Sicily and Italian campaign on, , , ,\n\nFDR on, 42\u201343\n\nGoebbels on, , 267\u201368, 388\u201389,\n\nHitler gives priority to,\n\nSoviet losses on, , , , 346\u201347,\n\nsupposed effect of invasion of Balkans on, ,\n\nEden, Anthony: and proposed Allied invasion of Balkans, , , ,\n\nat Quebec Conference,\n\nEisenhower, Dwight (general), xiii, , , , ,\n\nas Allied commander in chief in Mediterranean, , , 88\u201390, , , , , 169\u201370, , , , , , 262\u201363, , ,\n\nBrooke on, 89\u201390\n\nBrooke's view of,\n\ncancels airborne assault on Rome, , ,\n\ncharacter and personality, 147\u201348,\n\ncommands Italian campaign, , , , , , , , , ,\n\nFDR on, 169\u201371\n\non Giraud,\n\ninterrogated by Combined Chiefs of Staff, 88\u201390\n\nand invasion of Sicily, 261\u201363\n\non lack of command experience among Allies,\n\nMarshall and, ,\n\nand media, ,\n\nmeets with FDR, , 90\u201393\n\nnegotiates for Italian surrender, , , ,\n\nPatton and, 89\u201390\n\non rank and status,\n\nstrategy in North Africa, , , , 88\u201390, , 114\u201315, , , , , 196\u201397,\n\nElsey, George (lieutenant), , 277\u201378,\n\nand Quebec Conference, ,\n\nEmbick, Stanley (general): fears German counterattack through Spain,\n\nopposes Italian campaign,\n\nopposes North Africa landings,\n\nsupports proposed cross-Channel landing (1943), 51\u201353\n\nEurope: FDR on postwar division of, 365\u201366\n\npostwar security of, 153\u201354,\n\nproposed demarcation line with Soviet Union, 154\u201355\n\nSoviet Union as threat to, , 149\u201350, 153\u201355, , 222\u201323, , , , , , , 345\u201346, 360\u201366, 367\u201369,\n\n# F\n\nFa\u00efd Pass, Battle of (1943),\n\nFala (FDR's dog), , , , ,\n\nFarley, James,\n\n_Ferdinand Magellan_ (presidential railroad car), , , 11\u201312, , 176\u201377, , 181\u201384, , , , , , ,\n\nflying: FDR and, 12\u201314, 64\u201367\n\nFour Freedoms, , 347\u201348, , ,\n\nFDR on, , 44\u201345,\n\n\"Four Policemen.\" _See_ United Nations: proposed Security Council\n\nFrance: British evacuate from, , , , , 212\u201313,\n\nGerman Atlantic Wall defenses in, , , 57\u201358, , 86\u201387, , , 237\u201338, , ,\n\nand imperialism, , , , , 118\u201320\n\nNorth Africa considered part of, 113\u201314\n\nand postwar trusteeships,\n\nU.S. wartime relationship with,\n\nVichy. _See_ Vichy French\n\nFrance, proposed Allied landings: in 1942, xiii, 34\u201335\n\nin 1943. _See_ cross-Channel landing, proposed (1943)\n\nFranco-British Expeditionary Force (1940): in Norway,\n\nFredendall, Lloyd (general): dismissed from command, , ,\n\nin North Africa, 140\u201341,\n\nFree French, , . _See also_ De Gaulle, Charles (general)\n\ntimidity and desertion among, 90\u201391\n\nU.S. political relationship with, 106\u20137,\n\n# G\n\nGandhi, Mahatma: hunger strike (1943),\n\nGerman-Soviet Nonaggression Pact (1939), , , , , 361\u201362,\n\nGermany: Allied air power against, , , , , , , 320\u201321, 324\u201325, ,\n\nAllies on offensive against, 295\u201396\n\nArmy. _See_ Wehrmacht\n\nAtlantic Wall defenses in France, , , 57\u201358, , 86\u201387, , , 237\u201338, , ,\n\nBritish chiefs of staff underestimate, ,\n\nChurchill expects rapid collapse of, , , , 208\u20139, , , , , , 353\u201354,\n\nChurchill underestimates people of, ,\n\ncommits atrocities, , , , , 300\u2013301, ,\n\non the defensive,\n\ndefensive war strategy, 303\u20137, 321\u201322, 355\u201357\n\ndevelops jet fighter planes, ,\n\nFDR's view of, 283\u201384, ,\n\nHitler's intuitive understanding of, , , 321\u201324\n\nignorance of Casablanca Conference, 65\u201366, 130\u201331,\n\nJapan reaffirms ties with,\n\nJoint Chiefs of Staff develop strategies for defeat of, 293\u201395\n\nnationalism and racism in, 323\u201324\n\npeople's loyalty to Hitler, , , 320\u201324,\n\npossible separate peace with Soviet Union, , 306\u20137, , , , 356\u201357\n\nprepares to occupy Vichy-controlled metropolitan France,\n\nproclaims \"total war,\" , 132\u201333, 134\u201335, , , ,\n\nproposed disarmament of, 28\u201331, , , 283\u201384, , 365\u201366,\n\nreaction to insistence on unconditional surrender, 129\u201330,\n\nsuppression of dissent in, , ,\n\ntreats Italy as enemy, , , , 387\u201388\n\nuse of slave labor, , ,\n\nwar production, ,\n\n\"Germany First\" strategy, ,\n\nFDR and, , , , ,\n\nGiraud, Henri (general): at Casablanca Conference, 121\u201323, 124\u201325, ,\n\nEisenhower on,\n\nin North Africa, , , , , , ,\n\nand proposed invasion of Balkans, 155\u201356,\n\nrelationship with De Gaulle, 105\u20136, , , , , 117\u201318, 121\u201323, 124\u201325\n\nvisits FDR,\n\nGoebbels, Joseph, xiii, 65\u201366, , , ,\n\non Battle of Kasserine Pass, 145\u201346\n\nand communism, ,\n\nconfers with Hitler, 302\u20137, 355\u201357, 389\u201390\n\ndelivers \"total war\" speech, 134\u201335, , ,\n\non Eastern Front, , 267\u201368, 388\u201389,\n\non effects of Italian campaign, , 388\u201390,\n\non FDR's Message to Congress,\n\non FDR's Ottawa speech,\n\nand Holocaust, 134\u201335, ,\n\non North Africa landings, 69\u201370\n\nreacts to Casablanca Conference, 130\u201334\n\nreacts to invasion of Sicily, 267\u201369\n\nand Second Front strategy, , ,\n\nG\u00f6ring, Hermann (field marshal),\n\nGrant, Ulysses: FDR on, 28\u201329,\n\nGreat Britain: Allied troop buildup in,\n\nanti-American resentment,\n\navoids offensive action against Japan,\n\nevacuates from France, , , , ,\n\nFDR unable to visit,\n\nand imperialism, xii, , , 71\u201372, 79\u201380, , , , , 217\u201318, , , ,\n\nloses world-power status, , ,\n\noccupies India, 217\u201318,\n\nrelationship with Soviet Union,\n\nGreat Britain, chiefs of staff\n\naccused of avoiding battle, , ,\n\nat Casablanca Conference, 83\u201384\n\nChurchill meets with, 246\u201347\n\ndissent from Churchill's proposed strategy, 231\u201335, 248\u201349, 250\u201351, ,\n\nand Italian campaign, , , , , 328\u201331,\n\nlack victory strategy, 97\u201398\n\nloss of confidence by, 212\u201318\n\noppose Normandy invasion (1944), 204\u20135, , , 213\u201314, , , , ,\n\noppose proposed cross-Channel landing (1943), , , , 201\u20132\n\noverconfidence among,\n\nat Quebec Conference,\n\nreject Casablanca strategic agreement, ,\n\nreluctantly support Normandy invasion (1944),\n\nsupport Mediterranean strategy, 55\u201356, , ,\n\nunderestimate Germany, ,\n\nundergo conversion on Allied strategy, 231\u201333, ,\n\nunwilling to risk major casualties, 215\u201316, ,\n\nat Washington strategic conference (1943), , , 207\u201310, 212\u201317, 231\u201333, , 240\u201341, 246\u201347, 250\u201354\n\nGreece: Churchill and,\n\nGuadalcanal, Battle of (1942\u201343), 25\u201326, 182\u201383\n\n# H\n\nHalifax, Lord, , , ,\n\nas ambassador to U.S., 160\u201363, , ,\n\non United Nations,\n\nHall, John L. (admiral),\n\nHalsey, William (admiral): and ambush of Yamamoto, 184\u201385,\n\nHamburg: Allied bombing of, 320\u201321\n\nHandy, Thomas T. (general), 83\u201384, ,\n\ncritical of FDR's war strategy, 293\u201394\n\nsupports proposed cross-Channel landing (1943),\n\nunderestimates Wehrmacht,\n\nHarmon, E. N. (general),\n\nHarriman, Averell, , , , , , ,\n\non Stalin, , 345\u201346,\n\nas U.S. ambassador to Soviet Union,\n\nHitler, Adolf: abandons Battle of Kursk, 265\u201366, , , 343\u201344,\n\nabandons Italian alliance, 302\u20133, , , ,\n\nand Allied Italian campaign, ,\n\ncharacter and personality, , ,\n\ndefensive war strategy, 303\u20137, 321\u201322, 355\u201357,\n\nfears Normandy invasion (1944),\n\nGerman people's loyalty to, , , 320\u201324,\n\ngives priority to Eastern Front,\n\nGoebbels confers with, 302\u20137, 355\u201357, 387\u201390\n\nhopes for Allied invasion of Balkans, 305\u20136,\n\nhopes to split Allied coalition, 356\u201357,\n\nindifferent to Wehrmacht losses, 195\u201396\n\nintuitive understanding of German people, , , 321\u201324\n\nMussolini refuses to meet with, ,\n\norders fight to the death in North Africa, 195\u201396\n\nphysical and psychological decline, , , ,\n\nand proposed cross-Channel landing,\n\nreacts to invasion of Sicily, 265\u201369, , ,\n\nreacts to Italian surrender,\n\nin seclusion, ,\n\nsecret meeting with Mussolini, 268\u201369, , ,\n\nstrategic errors,\n\ntenth anniversary of taking power, , 132\u201333,\n\nand V-bomb weapons, , , 305\u20136, ,\n\nHolocaust, ,\n\nFDR on, 300\u2013301\n\nGoebbels and, 134\u201335, ,\n\nSpellman ignores,\n\nHoover, Herbert, ,\n\nHopkins, Harry, 3\u20134, , , 64\u201365, , 219\u201321, , , , , ,\n\nat Casablanca Conference, , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nlack of military judgment, 34\u201335\n\nSuckley on,\n\nsupports proposed cross-Channel landing (1943),\n\nHopkins, Louise (Macy), , , ,\n\nHull, Cordell, , , ,\n\nand De Gaulle, ,\n\nat Moscow Conference of foreign ministers, 397\u201398\n\nat Quebec Conference, ,\n\nrift with Welles, 292\u201393\n\nHull, John E. (general),\n\ndefects from Washington conference strategic agreement, ,\n\nsupports proposed cross-Channel landing (1943), , ,\n\nHyde Park (New York): FDR confers with Churchill at, xiv, , , , 308\u201312, 313\u201315, , , 381\u201383\n\n# I\n\nimperialism: Churchill supports, , , 71\u201372, 79\u201380, , , , , , , , , 356\u201357, ,\n\nFDR opposes, , , , , 79\u201380, , 108\u20139, , , 117\u201320, ,\n\nFrance and, , , , , 118\u201320\n\nGreat Britain and, xii, , , 71\u201372, 79\u201380, , , , , 217\u201318, , ,\n\nU.S. and, 106\u20137,\n\nIndia: British occupation of, 217\u201318,\n\nChurchill's sense of entitlement toward, , , ,\n\nInonu, Ismet, , ,\n\nIsmay, Hastings (general), ,\n\nat Washington strategic conference (1943), ,\n\nisolationism,\n\nFDR attacks, 45\u201347, ,\n\nLuce on, 162\u201363\n\nMcCormick and,\n\nseen as defeatism,\n\nTaft and,\n\nU.S. and possible return to, , , ,\n\nand U.S. sovereignty,\n\nWillkie on, 162\u201363\n\nItaly: Allied air power against, , , , , , ,\n\nAllies distrust new government of,\n\nBadoglio heads new government of, , , , , ,\n\ncollapse and surrender of, , , , 282\u201383, , 303\u20134, , , , , , , , , , 332\u201333, , , , , , , , 379\u201381, , 388\u201389, 392\u201393\n\nGermany treats as enemy, , , , 387\u201388\n\nHitler abandons alliance with, 302\u20133, , , ,\n\nJoint Chiefs of Staff propose bombing of, ,\n\nRommel in, ,\n\nstrategic importance of,\n\nWehrmacht occupies and reinforces, , 269\u201370, , 284\u201385, , 303\u20134, , , 324\u201325, , , , , 388\u201390\n\nWehrmacht's resistance in, , 373\u201374, , 380\u201381, , , ,\n\nItaly, Allied campaign in (1943), xi, xii. _See also_ Salerno: Allied landing at; Sicily, invasion of (1943)\n\nAlexander in, , , , , 384\u201385,\n\nAllied losses in, , 328\u201329, , ,\n\nBritish chiefs of staff and, , , , , , 328\u201331,\n\nBrooke and, 295\u201396, 328\u201330\n\nChurchill and, 208\u20139, , , , , 251\u201352, 274\u201375, , 277\u201378, , , 319\u201320, , , , 373\u201374,\n\nClark in, , , 375\u201376, , ,\n\nCombined Chiefs of Staff and,\n\neffects on Eastern Front, , , ,\n\neffects on Normandy invasion (1944), 328\u201329\n\nEisenhower commands, , , , , , , , , ,\n\nEmbick opposes,\n\nFDR and, 295\u201396, 297\u201398, , , , , , , ,\n\nGoebbels on effects of, , 388\u201390,\n\nHitler and, ,\n\nJoint Chiefs of Staff and, 99\u2013100, , 297\u201398, , 329\u201330\n\nLeahy and, 329\u201330\n\nMarshall and, , 240\u201341, 295\u201396, , , 329\u201330,\n\nMontgomery in, , , , 375\u201376, , ,\n\nPatton in, 375\u201376\n\nRidgway in, , ,\n\nStalin on, 386\u201387\n\nStimson and,\n\nas strategic failure, , , , , 374\u201375, 377\u201378,\n\nTaylor in,\n\n# J\n\nJacob, Ian (brigadier): at Casablanca Conference, , , 73\u201375, ,\n\non lack of command experience among Allies,\n\nat Washington strategic conference (1943), 248\u201349\n\nJapan: Allied air power against, , ,\n\nattacks Aleutians,\n\nbombing campaign against,\n\ncommits atrocities, , , , 188\u201389\n\nexecutes Allied POWs, 177\u201378\n\nGreat Britain avoids offensive action against,\n\nproposed disarmament of, 29\u201331, , ,\n\nproposed Soviet war with, , , 222\u201323, , ,\n\nreaffirms ties with Germany,\n\nwar with China, 19\u201320, , , ,\n\njet fighter planes: Germany develops, ,\n\nJoint Four-Power Declaration (1943): Churchill accepts,\n\n# K\n\nKasserine Pass, Battle of (1943), 141\u201342, 143\u201344, , , 159\u201360, , , ,\n\nGoebbels on, 145\u201346\n\nStimson on, 144\u201345\n\nKatyn Forest (Poland): Soviet massacre of Polish officers in (1940), , ,\n\nKennan, George,\n\nKenney, George (general): on air power, 179\u201380\n\nbriefs FDR, 179\u201381\n\ndevises new air force tactics, 179\u201380\n\nKersaudy, Fran\u00e7ois,\n\nKesselring, Albert (field marshal), 140\u201341\n\nand German defense of Italy, , 380\u201381\n\nand invasion of Sicily, 262\u201363\n\nKing, Ernest (admiral), , , , 97\u201398, ,\n\nanti-U-boat campaign, 189\u201390\n\ncritical of Normandy invasion (1944),\n\nobsession with rank and status, 146\u201347\n\nand Pacific Theater, , , , 329\u201330\n\nat Quebec Conference, 329\u201330,\n\nat Washington strategic conference (1943), , , ,\n\nKing, Mackenzie (prime minister),\n\nattends Pacific War Council meeting (1943), ,\n\non Churchill, 245\u201346, ,\n\nconfers with Churchill, 235\u201339, 248\u201349, 396\u201397\n\nconfers with FDR, 243\u201344, 247\u201348\n\non FDR, , 27\u201332, , 341\u201342,\n\nand FDR's Ottawa speech, 335\u201336, ,\n\nfriendship with FDR, , 348\u201349\n\nand proposed cross-Channel landing (1943), 35\u201336\n\nat Quebec Conference, , 341\u201342,\n\nand Stalin, 341\u201342, ,\n\nvisits FDR, 23\u201332, 33\u201338, , , , , , , , ,\n\nKluge, G\u00fcnther von (field marshal),\n\nKnox, Frank, , , , 184\u201385\n\nKoga, Mineichi (admiral),\n\nKursk, Battle of, ,\n\nHitler abandons, 265\u201366, , , 343\u201344,\n\n# L\n\nLascelles, Sir Alan,\n\non Churchill, xiii\n\nLeague of Nations, , , , , , , , , ,\n\nLeahy, William (admiral), , , , , , , 190\u201391, , 280\u201381\n\nas chairman of Combined Chiefs of Staff, ,\n\non Churchill's repudiation of Allied strategy,\n\nas FDR's information conduit, ,\n\non invasion of Sicily, 261\u201362\n\nand Italian campaign, 329\u201330\n\nmisses Casablanca Conference, 10\u201311, 13\u201314,\n\non proposed invasion of Balkans,\n\nat Quebec Conference, 329\u201330,\n\nsuspicious of British intentions, ,\n\nat Washington strategic conference (1943), 204\u20135, , 212\u201314, , , ,\n\nLemnitzer, Lyman (general),\n\nLend-Lease Act (1941), , , , ,\n\nLincoln, Abraham,\n\nLippmann, Walter,\n\nLitvinov, Maxim, , ,\n\non United Nations,\n\non U.S.-Soviet relations,\n\nLuce, Henry: on isolationism, 162\u201363\n\n# M\n\nMacArthur, Douglas (general), , , 177\u201378, , , , ,\n\nMacmillan, Harold: at Casablanca Conference, , ,\n\nMaisky, Ivan,\n\nMarrakesh: FDR and Churchill visit, 198\u2013200,\n\nMarshall, George C. (general), , , , 275\u201376,\n\non air power,\n\nBrooke on, , , ,\n\nat Casablanca Conference, , , , ,\n\non Churchill's repudiation of Allied strategy,\n\nconsidered as Normandy invasion supreme commander, 257\u201358, , , ,\n\nand Eisenhower, ,\n\nfears German counterattack through Spain, , , 144\u201345\n\nand Italian campaign, , 240\u201341, 295\u201396, , , 329\u201330,\n\nkeeps eye on Churchill, 254\u201355, 257\u201358\n\non limits of Mediterranean strategy, 99\u2013100, , 240\u201341, , ,\n\nand Normandy invasion, 215\u201316, , ,\n\nopposes Mediterranean strategy, 49\u201350,\n\nopposes North Africa landings, ,\n\nopposes proposed invasion of Balkans, 295\u201396\n\non Pacific Theater,\n\nproposes airborne assault on Rome,\n\nat Quebec Conference, 326\u201329,\n\non rank and status,\n\nsupports proposed cross-Channel landing (1943), 52\u201353, 55\u201357, ,\n\nsupports Washington conference strategic agreement,\n\nsuspicious of British intentions, , 272\u201373\n\nundergoes conversion on Allied strategy, 85\u201388,\n\nat Washington strategic conference (1943), , , , 215\u201316, 231\u201332, ,\n\n\"master race.\" _See_ Germany: nationalism and racism in\n\nMcCormick, Robert: as FDR's enemy,\n\nas isolationist,\n\nMcCrea, John (captain), , 64\u201365,\n\nat Casablanca Conference, 4\u20139, 68\u201369, , , , , 109\u201310, , 124\u201325, 128\u201329\n\nMcIntire, Ross (admiral), 64\u201365\n\nas FDR's physician, , , , , , , ,\n\nMcNarney, Joseph (general),\n\nat Washington strategic conference (1943),\n\nMedenine, Battle of (1943),\n\nmedia: Eisenhower and, ,\n\nFDR's use of, , , 125\u201329, , 170\u201371\n\nMediterranean strategy. _See also_ North Africa\n\nair power in, 196\u201397, , 214\u201315\n\nBritish chiefs of staff support, 55\u201356, , ,\n\nBrooke and limits of, , ,\n\nFDR and, 25\u201326, , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nimpact on Pacific Theater,\n\nJoint Chiefs of Staff on limits of,\n\nJoint Chiefs dissent from, 48\u201354, , ,\n\nMarshall on limits of, 99\u2013100, , 240\u201341, , ,\n\nMarshall opposes, 49\u201350,\n\nas practice for Normandy invasion, 36\u201337, , , , , , 98\u201399, , , , , , , 207\u20138, , , , , ,\n\nStimson on limits of, 274\u201375\n\nStimson opposes, 49\u201350,\n\nMidway, Battle of (1942), ,\n\nmissiles and flying bombs. _See_ V-bomb weapons ( _Vergeltungswaffen_ )\n\nMitchell, John (major): and ambush of Yamamoto, 185\u201386,\n\nMitscher, Peter (admiral): and ambush of Yamamoto, ,\n\nMockler-Ferryman, Eric (brigadier),\n\nMolotov-Ribbentrop Pact (1939). _See_ German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact (1939)\n\nMontgomery, Bernard (general): Churchill opposes, xiii\n\nand invasion of Sicily, 262\u201363,\n\nin Italian campaign, , , , , , ,\n\nin North Africa, , , ,\n\nskeptical of Italian assistance against Wehrmacht,\n\nteaches battle technique, 143\u201344\n\nMorison, Samuel Eliot,\n\nbriefs FDR,\n\nMorocco: sovereignty of, 108\u20139, ,\n\nMorocco, Sultan of: dines with FDR, 108\u201311,\n\nMoscow Conference of foreign ministers,\n\nCordell Hull at, 397\u201398\n\nMountbatten, Louis (admiral), , , , , 212\u201313,\n\nMurphy, Robert: at Casablanca Conference, 109\u201310, ,\n\nin North Africa, ,\n\nMussolini, Benito: arrested and deposed, , , , , 302\u20133, , , 388\u201389\n\nand invasion of Sicily,\n\nrefuses to meet with Hitler, ,\n\nsecret meeting with Hitler, 268\u201369, , ,\n\n# N\n\nNibelungen myth ( _Nibelungentreue_ ) and German solidarity, , , ,\n\nNimitz, Chester (admiral), , ,\n\nand ambush of Yamamoto, 183\u201384, ,\n\nNogu\u00e8s, Charles (general), 108\u20139\n\nNormandy invasion (1944). _See also_ cross-Channel landing, proposed (1943); Second Front strategy\n\nBritish chiefs of staff oppose, 204\u20135, , , 213\u201314, , , , ,\n\nBritish chiefs of staff reluctantly support,\n\nBritish predictions of defeat in, 215\u201316, , , 237\u201338, , , ,\n\nBrooke accepts necessity of, 232\u201333,\n\nBrooke opposes, , 214\u201316, , ,\n\nCanada and,\n\nChurchill opposes, xii, , 201\u20133, , , , , 246\u201347, , 250\u201351, 253\u201354, , , 282\u201383, , , , 313\u201314, 326\u201327, , 398\u201399\n\nChurchill reluctantly agrees to, 241\u201342, , , , , 313\u201314, , , , , ,\n\nCombined Chiefs of Staff agree on, ,\n\neffects of Italian campaign on, 328\u201329\n\nErnest King critical of,\n\nFDR and, , , , , 243\u201344, , , , 311\u201312, , , , , ,\n\nFDR insists on American commander for, 297\u201399, 314\u201315, ,\n\ngiven Allied priority, 326\u201327, , , ,\n\nHitler fears,\n\nJoint Chiefs of Staff support, 98\u201399, , 213\u201314, 221\u201322, , 326\u201327\n\nMarshall and, 215\u201316, , ,\n\nMediterranean strategy as practice for, 36\u201337, , , , , , 98\u201399, , , , , , , 207\u20138, , , , , ,\n\nplanning and staging of, , , , 241\u201342, 243\u201344, , , , , , 294\u201398, , , , , , , , ,\n\nPortal opposes, ,\n\nselection of supreme commander for, 257\u201358, , ,\n\nStimson supports, , , 310\u201311\n\nU.S. Navy opposes,\n\nNorth Africa. _See also_ Mediterranean strategy\n\nAllied losses in, 52\u201353, , 140\u201342, 144\u201345,\n\nAllied tactical errors in,\n\nArnim in, 140\u201341,\n\nChurchill's mission to, 254\u201355, 256\u201358\n\nClark in,\n\nconsidered part of France, 113\u201314\n\nDe Gaulle in, 63\u201364,\n\nEisenhower's strategy in, , , , 88\u201390, , 114\u201315, , , , , 196\u201397,\n\nFDR reviews troops in, 102\u20134, ,\n\nfinal Allied offensive in (1943), , 202\u20133, 207\u20138\n\nFredendall in, 140\u201341,\n\nGiraud in, , , , , , ,\n\nHitler orders fight to the death in, 195\u201396\n\nItalian troops desert in, 195\u201396\n\nmilitary intelligence in, 169\u201370\n\nMontgomery in, , , ,\n\nMurphy in, , 108\u20139\n\nPatton in, , , , , , , , ,\n\nRommel in, , , 140\u201341, , 143\u201346, , , ,\n\nStimson on Wehrmacht in,\n\nVichy French in, , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nWehrmacht's losses in, 195\u201396\n\nWehrmacht's offensive operations in, 139\u201342, 143\u201344\n\nWehrmacht's resistance in, xiii, , 53\u201354, , , , ,\n\nWehrmacht's surrender in, , , , ,\n\nNorth Africa landings (1942), , , 23\u201324, , , ,\n\nChurchill and, xiii, 69\u201371\n\nClark and, 85\u201386\n\nEmbick opposes,\n\nFDR and, xi, 34\u201336, , , 125\u201326\n\nGoebbels on, 69\u201370\n\nMarshall opposes, ,\n\nStimson opposes, , ,\n\nU.S. public reaction to,\n\nNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): concept of, ,\n\nNorway: Churchill proposes Allied invasion of, 273\u201374, 301\u20132\n\nFranco-British Expeditionary Force in (1940),\n\n# O\n\nOntario: FDR's fishing trip to, 279\u201381, ,\n\nOperation Anakim. _See_ Burma: proposed reconquest of\n\nOperation Anton. _See_ Vichy French: Germany prepares to occupy Vichy-controlled metropolitan France\n\nOperation Avalanche. _See_ Italy, Allied campaign in (1943)\n\nOperation Axis. _See_ Wehrmacht: occupies and reinforces Italy\n\nOperation Barbarossa. _See_ Eastern Front\n\nOperation Bolero. _See_ cross-Channel landing, proposed (1943); France, proposed Allied landing in (1942)\n\nOperation Citadel. _See_ Eastern Front\n\nOperation Giant II. _See_ Rome: projected airborne assault on\n\nOperation Gomorrah. _See_ Hamburg: Allied bombing of\n\nOperation Husky. _See_ Sicily: invasion of (1943)\n\nOperation Overlord. See Normandy invasion (1944)\n\nOperation Priceless. _See_ Italy, Allied campaign in (1943)\n\nOperation Strike. _See_ North Africa: final Allied offensive in (1943)\n\nOperation Symbol. _See_ Casablanca Conference (1943)\n\nOperation Torch, xi. See North Africa landings (1942)\n\nOperation Vengeance. _See_ Yamamoto, Isoruku (admiral): ambushed and killed\n\nOttawa: FDR's speech at (1943), , 335\u201340, , , ,\n\n# P\n\nPacific Theater: Churchill and, , , , , 333\u201334\n\nCombined Chiefs of Staff and,\n\nEleanor Roosevelt tours, , ,\n\nErnest King and, , , , 329\u201330\n\nFDR and strategy in, 25\u201326, , , 41\u201342, , 100\u2013101, 179\u201381, , , 222\u201323, , , ,\n\nJoint Chiefs of Staff preference for action in,\n\nMarshall on,\n\nMediterranean strategy's impact on,\n\nNavy's preference for action in, ,\n\nskip-bombing technique in, 179\u201380\n\nSoviet Union and,\n\nU.S. public opinion on, , ,\n\nPacific War Council meeting (1943)\n\nChurchill at, 245\u201346\n\nMackenzie King attends, ,\n\nPanama Canal Zone,\n\nPan American Clipper (airplane), 12\u201314\n\nPatterson, Cissy: as FDR's enemy,\n\nPatton, George S. (general): on Churchill, ,\n\nand Eisenhower, 89\u201390\n\nerratic behavior,\n\non FDR, 110\u201311\n\nand invasion of Sicily, , ,\n\nin Italian campaign, 375\u201376\n\non need for Allied combat experience,\n\nin North Africa, , , , , , , , ,\n\nPaulus, Friedrich von (general),\n\npeace as war aim: FDR on, 44\u201345\n\nPearl Harbor, attack on (1941), xi, , , , , ,\n\nYamamoto and, , ,\n\nPendar, Kenneth: on FDR, 198\u2013200\n\nPentagon: completed,\n\nP\u00e9tain, Philippe (marshal), ,\n\nPoland: forces in exile and Katyn Forest massacre (1940), ,\n\nGerman atrocities in, 300\u2013301\n\npolio: FDR suffers from, , 176\u201377\n\nPortal, Charles (air marshal),\n\nand air power,\n\nopposes Normandy invasion, ,\n\nopposes proposed cross-Channel landing (1943), 98\u201399\n\npostwar security, planning for, 19\u201323, , 80\u201381, 108\u20139, , , , , . _See also_ United Nations\n\nChurchill and, 370\u201372\n\nFDR and, , , , 27\u201330, , 33\u201334, , 117\u201321, 152\u201353, 159\u201360, , , , 244\u201345, , , 282\u201383, , 338\u201340, 344\u201346, , 362\u201366\n\nPound, Dudley (admiral), ,\n\nopposes proposed cross-Channel landing (1943), 98\u201399\n\npresident: as commander in chief, 35\u201337, , , , , , ,\n\nPrettyman, Arthur (chief petty officer), ,\n\nprisoners of war, Allied: Japan executes, 177\u201378\n\n# Q\n\nQuebec Conference (1943),\n\nBritish chiefs of staff at,\n\nBrooke at, , , 328\u201330\n\nChurchill and, 277\u201378, , , , 314\u201315, , 326\u201328, , 333\u201334, , 396\u201397\n\nCombined Chiefs of Staff at, , , 328\u201331, 334\u201335, , , ,\n\nCordell Hull at, ,\n\nEden at,\n\nElsey and, ,\n\nFDR and, 277\u201378, , , , , , 327\u201328, , 332\u201335, 338\u201339, ,\n\nJoint Chiefs of Staff at, , , , , 326\u201330,\n\nlarge British contingent at, , , ,\n\nMackenzie King at, , 341\u201342,\n\nMarshall at, 326\u201329,\n\nStimson and,\n\n# R\n\nRayburn, Sam,\n\nReilly, Mike: and security at Casablanca Conference (1943), 66\u201368\n\nRepublican Party, , , , , 349\u201350,\n\nReynolds, David, xiii,\n\nReynolds, Maurice (colonel),\n\nRibbentrop, Joachim von,\n\n_Richelieu_ (French battleship), 63\u201364\n\nRidgway, Matthew (general): in Italian campaign, , ,\n\nRigdon, William, 181\u201382\n\nRitchie, Neil (general),\n\nRobinett, Paul (colonel): on lack of command experience among Allies,\n\nRomania: Allied bombing of oil refineries in, 214\u201315, 227\u201328,\n\nRome: Allies bomb, , , ,\n\nChurchill and capture of, , , , , ,\n\nlack of strategic value,\n\nas possible open city, ,\n\nprojected airborne assault on, xii, , 376\u201378, ,\n\nRommel, Erwin (field marshal), ,\n\nBritish Eighth Army flees from, , ,\n\nin Italy, ,\n\nin North Africa, , , 140\u201341, , 143\u201346, , , ,\n\nRommel, Manfred,\n\nRoosevelt, Eleanor, , , , , 205\u20136,\n\ntours Pacific Theater, , ,\n\nRoosevelt, Elliott (colonel): at Casablanca Conference, 66\u201368, , 78\u201381, , 91\u201393, 103\u20134, 108\u201310, , , 118\u201320,\n\nRoosevelt, Franklin, Jr. (lieutenant), 68\u201369,\n\nRoosevelt, Franklin D.: on air power, 42\u201343\n\nand ambush of Yamamoto, , , 188\u201389, 190\u201391\n\nangered by Stalin, , , , 341\u201342, , ,\n\natomic bomb development as his political trump card, ,\n\nattacks isolationism, 45\u201347, ,\n\nattitude toward British Empire, xii\n\nBrooke on,\n\nButcher briefs, 169\u201371\n\nat Casablanca Conference, , 11\u201312, , , 71\u201372, 77\u201381, 82\u201388, 90\u201393, 100\u2013104, 105\u201310, 112\u201323, 124\u201331, 139\u201340, , , ,\n\non Casablanca strategic agreement,\n\ncharacter and personality, , , , , , , 359\u201360,\n\non Churchill, xii, 79\u201380,\n\nand communism, , 30\u201332, , , 362\u201363, 364\u201366\n\nconfers with Churchill at Hyde Park, xiv, , , , 308\u201312, 313\u201315, , , 381\u201383\n\nconsiders fourth term, , , 349\u201350, 362\u201363, ,\n\ncontrols Allied war planning and prosecution, xi, xv, , , 28\u201329, , 43\u201344, 100\u2013102, , , , , , , , , , , , , 314\u201315, , , , 393\u201394,\n\non De Gaulle, , ,\n\nDe Gaulle on, 116\u201317,\n\ndemands Churchill's cooperation, , 253\u201354\n\ndistrusts Churchill,\n\ndomestic political opposition to, , , , , 349\u201350, ,\n\non Eastern Front, 42\u201343\n\non Eisenhower, 169\u201371\n\nand \"endgame\" war strategy, 396\u201397, 398\u201399\n\nexpects postwar struggle with Soviet Union, 347\u201348, , 361\u201365, ,\n\nfears Soviet-German armistice,\n\nFireside Chats, 278\u201379, , ,\n\nfirst sitting president to fly, , ,\n\nand flying, 12\u201314, 64\u201367\n\non Four Freedoms, , 44\u201345,\n\nfriendship with Mackenzie King, , 348\u201349\n\n\"Germany First\" strategy, , , , ,\n\nGiraud visits,\n\non Grant, 28\u201329,\n\nHandy critical of his war strategy, 293\u201394,\n\nhealth problems, , 64\u201365, 164\u201369, , , , , , 367\u201368,\n\non Holocaust, 300\u2013301\n\ninsists on American commander in Normandy invasion (1944), 297\u201399, 314\u201315,\n\ninspection tour of military facilities (1943), xiv, , 175\u201377, , 181\u201382, , ,\n\ninterest in Berbers,\n\nand Italian campaign, 294\u201395, 297\u201398, , , , , , , ,\n\nJoint Chiefs of Staff dissent from his strategy, 48\u201349\n\njourney to Casablanca Conference, xiv, 4\u20139, 11\u201314, 63\u201368, ,\n\nKenney briefs, 179\u201381\n\nknowledge of history and geography, , , 180\u201381,\n\nLeahy as information conduit for, ,\n\nMackenzie King confers with, 243\u201344, 247\u201348\n\nMackenzie King on, , 27\u201332, , 341\u201342,\n\nMackenzie King visits, 23\u201332, 33\u201338, , , , , , , , ,\n\nmakes tactical suggestions, ,\n\nMary Churchill on, 359\u201360, ,\n\nMcIntire as physician to, , , , , , , ,\n\nand Mediterranean strategy, 25\u201326, , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nmeets with Combined Chiefs of Staff, 77\u201378, , 92\u201393, 240\u201341,\n\nmeets with De Gaulle, , 112\u201317,\n\nmeets with Eisenhower, , 90\u201393\n\nMessage to Congress, 392\u201394, 395\u201396\n\non moral basis for war, 336\u201340, 392\u201394\n\nMorison briefs,\n\nand necessity of unconditional surrender, 28\u201331, 59\u201360, , , 120\u201321, 127\u201330, 152\u201353, , , 188\u201389, , , , , , , , , , , 392\u201393\n\nand need for Allied combat experience, 36\u201338, , , 51\u201352, , 82\u201383, , , , , ,\n\nand Normandy invasion (1944), , , , , 243\u201344, , , , 311\u201312, , , , , ,\n\nand North Africa landings (1942), xi, 34\u201336, , , 125\u201326\n\nOntario fishing trip, 279\u201381, ,\n\nopposes imperialism, , , , , 79\u201380, , 108\u20139, , , 117\u201320, ,\n\nopposes proposed cross-Channel landing (1943), xi\u2013xii, 35\u201338, , , 84\u201385\n\nopposes proposed invasion of Balkans, , , , , , ,\n\nOttawa speech (1943), , 335\u201340, , , ,\n\nPacific war strategy, 25\u201326, , , 41\u201342, , 100\u2013101, 179\u201381, , , 222\u201323, , , ,\n\nPatton on, 110\u201311\n\non peace as war aim, 44\u201345\n\nPendar on, 198\u2013200\n\npersonal invitation to Stalin, 230\u201331, , , ,\n\npersonal relationship with Churchill, xiv, , , , , 313\u201314, 334\u201335, , 367\u201368, , ,\n\nand planning for postwar security, , , , 27\u201330, , 33\u201334, , 117\u201321, 152\u201353, 159\u201360, , , , 244\u201345, , , 282\u201383, , 338\u201340, 344\u201346, , 362\u201366\n\nplans United Nations, 19\u201323, , , , 80\u201381, 153\u201354, 157\u201359, , , 309\u201310, , 362\u201363\n\npolio and, , 176\u201377\n\non postwar division of Europe, 365\u201366\n\npostwar political strategy, , 150\u201351,\n\non postwar trusteeships, , ,\n\nprojected Alaska summit with Stalin, , , 266\u201367, , , , , 289\u201390, , 341\u201342\n\npromotes unity among Allied coalition, , 106\u20137, , 125\u201327, , , , , 292\u201393, , 334\u201335, , , , 358\u201359, , 385\u201386, 396\u201397\n\nand Quebec Conference, 277\u201378, , , , , , 327\u201328, , 332\u201335, 338\u201339, ,\n\nreaction to invasion of Sicily, 265\u201366\n\nrealistic view of Soviet Union, 152\u201353, 344\u201345, 361\u201366\n\nreviews troops in North Africa, 102\u20134, ,\n\nand Salerno landing, 385\u201386, 391\u201392,\n\nand Second Front strategy, 35\u201336, , 42\u201343, , , , , , , 191\u201392, , , , , , , 230\u201331, , , , , 271\u201372\n\nsensitivity to feelings of others, 7\u20138, , , , 58\u201359, ,\n\nat Shangri-la camp, 218\u201319, ,\n\non social reform, 31\u201332\n\nSpellman confers with, 360\u201366, ,\n\non Stalin, 30\u201331\n\nas stamp collector, ,\n\nState of the Union address (1943), 41\u201347, , , , , ,\n\nStimson on, , 253\u201354, 298\u201399\n\nstrategic meeting with Joint Chiefs of Staff, 55\u201360\n\nSuckley as confidante of, , 13\u201314, , 64\u201367, , , , , 175\u201377, , 261\u201362, 266\u201367, , ,\n\nSultan of Morocco dines with, 108\u201311,\n\nand Tehran Conference,\n\nunable to visit Great Britain,\n\nurges summit with Churchill and Stalin, 25\u201326, , , 39\u201340,\n\nuse of the media, , , 125\u201329, , 170\u201371\n\nview of Germany, 283\u201384, ,\n\nvisits Marrakesh, 198\u2013200\n\non war criminals, 300\u2013301\n\nWar Department mutiny over his strategy, , 49\u201351, ,\n\nwar strategy discussions with Churchill, 74\u201375, 77\u201381\n\nand Washington strategic conference (Trident) (1943), , 217\u201319, 243\u201344, 250\u201354\n\nand Wehrmacht, 35\u201336, , 284\u201385,\n\nRoosevelt, Theodore, ,\n\nRosenman, Samuel: as FDR's speechwriter, , , , , ,\n\nRussia. _See_ Soviet Union\n\n# S\n\nSalerno, Allied landing at, xii, xiv, , , 379\u201380, . _See also_ Italy, Allied campaign in (1943)\n\nChurchill and, 383\u201385\n\nClark commands, , , 375\u201376, , , 380\u201381, , , ,\n\nFDR and, 385\u201386, 391\u201392,\n\nas tactical trap, , 383\u201385,\n\nWhitehead on,\n\nSauckel, Fritz,\n\nSecond Front strategy. _See also_ cross-Channel landing, proposed (1943); Normandy invasion (1944)\n\nBeaverbrook and, , 218\u201319\n\nChurchill and, , , , , , , , 219\u201320, , 229\u201331, , , 246\u201347, 257\u201358, 272\u201373, 282\u201383,\n\nFDR and, 35\u201336, , 42\u201343, , , , , , 191\u201392, , , , , , , 230\u201331, , , , , 271\u201372\n\ngiven Allied priority,\n\nGoebbels and, , ,\n\nSoviet Union depends on, , , , , , , , , , 229\u201330, , , , , , 271\u201372, 290\u201391, 294\u201395, , , , ,\n\n_Second World War, The_ (Churchill), xiii, ,\n\nsecret weapons, German. _See_ jet fighter planes; V-bomb weapons ( _Vergeltungswaffen_ )\n\nShangri-la (camp), xiv\n\nChurchill at, 218\u201319, , , ,\n\nFDR at, 218\u201319, ,\n\nSherwood, Robert: as FDR's speechwriter, , , ,\n\nSicily, invasion of (1943), , , , , , , , , , , , , 207\u20138, , , , , , , , , , , 261\u201364, 265\u201369, , , , , , , . _See also_ Italy, Allied campaign in (1943)\n\nBradley and, ,\n\nCanada in, ,\n\nEisenhower and, 261\u201363\n\nFDR's reaction to, 265\u201366\n\nGoebbels reacts to, 267\u201369\n\nHitler reacts to, 265\u201369, , ,\n\nKesselring and, 262\u201363\n\nLeahy on, 261\u201362\n\nMontgomery and, 262\u201363,\n\nMussolini and,\n\nPatton and, , ,\n\nStalin on,\n\nWehrmacht evacuates, ,\n\nWehrmacht reinforcement in, , ,\n\nSingapore, 333\u201334\n\nslave labor: German use of, , ,\n\nSmith, Walter Bedell (general): as Eisenhower's chief of staff, , , ,\n\nSmuts, Jan (field marshal), 22\u201323, , 309\u201310, 368\u201369\n\nsocial reform: FDR on, 31\u201332\n\n\"soft underbelly\" strategy: Churchill promotes, , , ,\n\nSoviet Union: Allied air bases prohibited in, 227\u201328,\n\nand atomic bomb development,\n\nBullitt as U.S. ambassador to, ,\n\nBullitt's report on postwar situation, 150\u201359\n\nChurchill's realistic view of, xiv\u2013xv, , , 368\u201369\n\ncommits atrocities, ,\n\ndepends on Second Front strategy, , , , , , , , , 229\u201330, , , , , , 271\u201372, 290\u201391, 294\u201395, , , , ,\n\nexpected Western postwar struggle with, , 347\u201348, , 361\u201365, ,\n\nFDR's realistic view of, 152\u201353, 344\u201345, 361\u201366\n\nHarriman as U.S. ambassador to,\n\nlosses on Eastern Front, , , , 346\u201347,\n\nmassacres Polish officers (1940), , ,\n\nofficial oppression in, 360\u201361\n\nand Pacific Theater,\n\npatriotic nationalism in, , , 364\u201365\n\npossible separate peace with Germany, , 306\u20137, , , , 356\u201357\n\nas postwar world power, 344\u201348, 368\u201369\n\nproposed demarcation line with Europe, 154\u201355\n\nand proposed UN Security Council, ,\n\nproposed war with Japan, , , 222\u201323, , ,\n\nand race against western advance by, 154\u201356, , , , ,\n\nrelationship with Great Britain,\n\nrelationship with U.S., 149\u201350, ,\n\nStalin proposes summit in, 289\u201390,\n\nas threat to Europe, , 149\u201350, 153\u201355, , 222\u201323, , , , , , , 345\u201346, 360\u201366, 367\u201369,\n\nand United Nations, ,\n\nU.S. military aid to, , , , , , , , , ,\n\nU.S. popular view of, 149\u201350\n\nSpain: fear of German counterattack through, 50\u201351, , , 144\u201345\n\nSpeer, Albert, ,\n\nSpellman, Francis (cardinal): and Allied bombing of Rome, ,\n\nconfers with FDR, 360\u201366, ,\n\nignores Holocaust,\n\nStalin, Joseph, , , , ,\n\nangers FDR, , , , 341\u201342, , ,\n\napprised of Casablanca strategic agreement, ,\n\nblames Nazis for Katyn Forest massacre (1940),\n\nBullitt on, 151\u201352, 222\u201323\n\ncharacter and personality, 227\u201328, , 347\u201348, ,\n\nChurchill and, , , ,\n\nChurchill meets with, 247\u201348\n\nclaims of personal military command, 39\u201340,\n\ncomplains of being ignored, ,\n\nDavies mission to, 230\u201331, , 271\u201372, 282\u201383,\n\ndeclines to attend Casablanca Conference, , , , , ,\n\ndeclines to attend proposed summit, , 39\u201340\n\ndemands inclusion in Italian surrender negotiations, , ,\n\nDonovan on,\n\nFDR on, 30\u201331\n\nFDR's personal invitation to, 230\u201331, , , ,\n\nHarriman on, , 345\u201346,\n\non invasion of Sicily,\n\non Italian campaign, 386\u201387\n\nlack of interest in proposed United Nations,\n\nMackenzie King and, 341\u201342, ,\n\nprojected Alaska summit with FDR, , , 266\u201367, , , , , 289\u201390, , 341\u201342\n\nproposes summit in Soviet Union, 289\u201390,\n\nrefuses to allow Allied air bases in Soviet Union, 227\u201328,\n\nsuspicious of British intentions, 271\u201372\n\nand Tehran Conference, ,\n\nthreatens Allied unity, 343\u201344, 346\u201347, , , ,\n\nand unconditional surrender,\n\nas unreliable and uncooperative, 227\u201329, , 334\u201335, 342\u201343, 345\u201346,\n\nview of communism, 151\u201352, ,\n\nStalingrad: defense of, , , , , , , 130\u201332, , , , 149\u201350, 195\u201396, , , , ,\n\nStarling, Edmund (colonel), 6\u20137\n\nStatute of Westminster (1942),\n\nStimson, Henry, , , ,\n\nand atomic bomb development,\n\non Battle of Kasserine Pass, 144\u201345\n\nand Bullitt,\n\nconfronts Churchill, 274\u201375\n\ncritical report on Allied strategy,\n\non FDR, , 253\u201354, 298\u201399\n\nfears German counterattack through Spain, 50\u201351, , , 144\u201345\n\nand Italian campaign,\n\non limits of Mediterranean strategy, 274\u201375\n\nnot invited to Casablanca Conference, ,\n\nopposes Mediterranean strategy, 49\u201350,\n\nopposes North Africa landings, , ,\n\nand Quebec Conference,\n\non rank and status,\n\nsupports Normandy invasion (1944), , , 310\u201311\n\nsupports proposed cross-Channel landing (1943), 49\u201353, , , , , 221\u201322,\n\nsuspicious of British intentions, 202\u20133, , , 272\u201373, ,\n\nand Washington strategic conference (Trident) (1943), , 233\u201334\n\non Wehrmacht in North Africa,\n\nStrong, Kenneth (brigadier),\n\nSuckley, Margaret (\"Daisy\"): on Churchill, ,\n\nas FDR's confidante, , 13\u201314, , 64\u201367, , , , , 175\u201377, , 261\u201362, 266\u201367, , ,\n\nand FDR's health, , 166\u201369, , 367\u201368\n\non Hopkins,\n\nas White House hostess,\n\nSumatra: Churchill obsessed with, 333\u201334\n\nsurrender, unconditional: Churchill and, 128\u201329, , ,\n\nFDR and necessity of, 28\u201331, 59\u201360, , , 120\u201321, 127\u201330, 152\u201353, , , 188\u201389, , , , , , , , , , , 392\u201393\n\nGerman reaction to insistence on, 129\u201330,\n\nStalin and,\n\n# T\n\nTaft, Robert A.,\n\nas isolationist,\n\nTaylor, Maxwell (general): and projected assault on Rome, 376\u201378\n\nTedder, Arthur (air marshal),\n\nTehran Conference (1943), xiv, 371\u201372\n\nFDR and,\n\nStalin and, ,\n\nThompson, Tommy (commander),\n\n\"total war\": Germany proclaims, , 132\u201333, 134\u201335, , ,\n\nU.S. wages, 43\u201344,\n\nTrident Conference. _See_ Washington strategic conference (Trident) (1943)\n\ntrusteeships, postwar: Churchill and,\n\nFDR on, , ,\n\nFrance and,\n\nTully, Grace, xiv, , , ,\n\nTunis: capture of, , , , , , , , , ,\n\nTurkey,\n\nChurchill visits, 157\u201359\n\nurged to join Allies, , , , , , ,\n\n# U\n\nU-boats: air campaign against, 189\u201390, ,\n\n\"Ultra\" (secret intelligence), , , , 179\u201380, , 182\u201384, , , 284\u201385\n\nUnited Nations _._ _See also_ postwar security, planning for\n\nChurchill and planning of, 21\u201322, 369\u201370\n\nCongress and planning of, 20\u201321\n\nFDR plans, 19\u201323, , , , 80\u201381, 153\u201354, 157\u201359, , , 309\u201310, , 362\u201363\n\nHalifax on,\n\nLitvinov on,\n\nproposed Security Council, , , , , 80\u201381, , 161\u201362, , 244\u201345, 364\u201365,\n\nSoviet Union and, ,\n\nStalin's lack of interest in,\n\nWelles plans, 19\u201321,\n\nUnited States: British resentment against,\n\nelection of 1944, , , , , 362\u201363\n\nHalifax as ambassador to, 160\u201363, , ,\n\nand imperialism, 106\u20137,\n\nmidterm elections (1942), ,\n\nmilitary aid to China, , , , 333\u201334\n\nmilitary aid to Soviet Union, , , , , , , , , ,\n\nmilitary mobilization of, , ,\n\npolitical relationship with Free French, 106\u20137,\n\npossible return to isolationism, , , ,\n\npublic opinion on Pacific Theater, , ,\n\npublic opinion on progress of war in Europe, , 294\u201395\n\npublic reaction to North Africa landings,\n\nreaction to Beveridge Report, 31\u201332\n\nrelationship with Soviet Union, 149\u201350, ,\n\nshift in public opinion, 160\u201363,\n\nsovereignty and isolationism in,\n\nwages \"total war,\" 43\u201344,\n\nwar production, , 70\u201371, , , , 393\u201394,\n\nwartime relationship with France,\n\nas world power, 46\u201347, , 106\u20137, , , , , , 362\u201363, , ,\n\nU.S. Army: 82nd Airborne Division, , , 377\u201378, 380\u201381, ,\n\nFifth Army, , ,\n\nSecond Armored Division,\n\nVI Corps,\n\nU.S. Congress: Churchill addresses, , , ,\n\nChurchill confers with leaders of, 239\u201340, ,\n\nplans for United Nations, 20\u201321\n\nU.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, , , ,\n\nat Casablanca Conference, , 53\u201354, 59\u201360, , , 82\u201385, 97\u201398\n\ndevelop strategies for defeat of Germany, 293\u201395\n\ndissent from Mediterranean strategy, 48\u201354, , ,\n\nFDR's strategic meeting with, 55\u201360\n\nand Italian campaign, 99\u2013100, , 297\u201398, , 329\u201330\n\nlack of experience in modern warfare,\n\non limits of Mediterranean strategy,\n\npreference for action in Pacific Theater,\n\npropose bombing of Italy, ,\n\nat Quebec Conference, , , , , 326\u201330\n\nsupport Normandy invasion (1944), 98\u201399, , 213\u201314, 221\u201322, , 326\u201327\n\nsupport proposed cross-Channel landing (1943), 51\u201353, 55\u201357, , ,\n\nsuspicious of British intentions, , 202\u20133, , , , 251\u201352, ,\n\nat Washington strategic conference (1943), 204\u20135, , , 213\u201317, 231\u201333, , 240\u201341, , 250\u201352\n\nU.S. Joint War Plans Committee: rejects Washington conference strategy,\n\nU.S. Navy Department: defects from Washington conference strategic agreement,\n\nopposes Normandy invasion (1944),\n\npreference for action in Pacific Theater, , 275\u201376\n\nU.S. War Department: expects failure of cross-Channel landing, 53\u201354, 58\u201359\n\nmutiny over FDR's strategy, , 49\u201351, ,\n\nundergoes conversion on Allied strategy,\n\n# V\n\nV-bomb weapons ( _Vergeltungswaffen_ ),\n\nHitler and, , 305\u20136, , ,\n\nValentine, Alan,\n\nVandenberg, Arthur H.,\n\nVersailles Peace Conference and Treaty (1919), , , , ,\n\nVichy French: Germany prepares to occupy Vichy-controlled metropolitan France,\n\nin North Africa, , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nVietinghoff, Heinrich von (general),\n\nVilla Dar es Saada (Casablanca), 67\u201369\n\n# W\n\nWallace, Henry,\n\nwar criminals: FDR on, 300\u2013301\n\nWarm Springs (Georgia),\n\nWashington Naval Treaty (1922),\n\nWashington strategic conference (Trident) (1943), , 201\u20133, 204\u201310,\n\nAllied strategic agreement at, 253\u201354, 271\u201376, , 282\u201383, , , , , ,\n\nBeaverbrook at, 206\u20137\n\nBritish chiefs of staff at, , , 207\u201310, 212\u201317, 231\u201333, , 240\u201341, 246\u201347, 250\u201354\n\nChurchill at, , 201\u20133, , , , 208\u201310, 217\u201319, , , , 241\u201342, 243\u201347, 250\u201354, ,\n\nCombined Chiefs of Staff convene at, 212\u201317, 231\u201333, , , 250\u201351,\n\nFDR and, , 217\u201319, 243\u201344, 250\u201354\n\nJacob at, 248\u201349\n\nJoint Chiefs of Staff at, 204\u20135, , , 213\u201317, 231\u201333, , 240\u201341, , 250\u201352\n\nlarge British contingent at, , , , , ,\n\nMcNarney at,\n\nStimson and, , 233\u201334\n\nWatson, Edwin (\"Pa\") (general), 7\u20139,\n\nWatson, James Eli (senator),\n\nWavell, Sir Archibald (general),\n\nWedemeyer, Albert (general), ,\n\nat Casablanca Conference, 83\u201384, ,\n\nsupports Washington conference strategic agreement, 275\u201376\n\nWehrmacht: Churchill underestimates, xii, xiv, 284\u201385, , ,\n\nevacuates Sicily, ,\n\nfanaticism among, ,\n\nFDR and, 35\u201336, , 284\u201385,\n\nHandy underestimates,\n\nHermann G\u00f6ring Panzer Division, 262\u201363\n\nHitler indifferent to losses in, 195\u201396\n\nlosses in North Africa, 195\u201396\n\noccupies and reinforces Italy, , 269\u201370, , 284\u201385, , 303\u20134, , , 324\u201325, , , , , 388\u201390\n\noffensive operations in North Africa, 139\u201342, 143\u201344\n\nordered to fight to the death in North Africa, 195\u201396\n\nreinforces Sicily, , ,\n\nresistance in Italy, , 373\u201374, , 380\u201381, , , ,\n\nresistance in North Africa, xiii, , 53\u201354, , , , ,\n\nsuperior professionalism of, 52\u201353, , , 87\u201388, , , , , 321\u201322, , 388\u201389\n\nsurrenders in North Africa, , , , ,\n\nTenth Army,\n\n3rd Panzer Grenadier Division,\n\n21st Panzer Division,\n\nWelles, Sumner, , , ,\n\nas homosexual,\n\nplans United Nations, 19\u201321,\n\nrift with Cordell Hull, 292\u201393\n\nWestern European Union: concept of,\n\nWhite House: Map Room, xiv, , , , , , 398\u201399\n\nWhitehead, Don: on Salerno landing,\n\nWillkie, Wendell, 349\u201350\n\non isolationism, 162\u201363\n\nWilson, Sir Charles (later Lord Moran): as Churchill's physician, 219\u201321, 252\u201353, 383\u201385\n\nWilson, Sir Henry,\n\nWilson, Maitland (general),\n\nWilson, Woodrow, , , ,\n\n# Y\n\nYamamoto, Isoroku (admiral),\n\nambushed and killed, xiv, , , 183\u201386, 187\u201391\n\neffects of his death, , ,\n\nand Pearl Harbor attack, , ,\n\nuse of air power, 182\u201383\n\n# Z\n\nZhukov, Georgy (marshal),\n\nVisit www.hmhco.com or your favorite retailer to order the book.\n\n# About the Author\n\nNIGEL HAMILTON is a best-selling and award-winning biographer of President John F. Kennedy, General Bernard \"Monty\" Montgomery, and President Bill Clinton, among other subjects. He is a senior fellow at the McCormack Graduate School, University of Massachusetts, Boston. He lives in Boston and New Orleans.\n\n# Contents\n\n  1. Title Page\n  2. Contents\n  3. Copyright\n  4. Dedication\n  5. Maps\n  6. Prologue\n  7. _A Secret Journey_\n    1. A Crazy Idea\n    2. Aboard the Magic Carpet\n  8. _Total War_\n    1. The United Nations\n    2. What Next?\n    3. Stalin's _Nyet_\n    4. Addressing Congress\n    5. A Fool's Paradise\n    6. Facing the Joint Chiefs of Staff\n  9. _Casablanca_\n    1. The House of Happiness\n    2. Hot Water\n    3. A Wonderful Picture\n    4. In the President's Boudoir\n  10. _Unconditional Surrender_\n    1. Stimson Is Aghast\n    2. De Gaulle\n    3. An Acerbic Interview\n    4. The Unconditional Surrender Meeting\n  11. _Kasserine_\n    1. Kasserine\n    2. Arch-Admirals and Arch-Generals\n  12. Photos I\n    1. Between Two Forces of Evil\n    2. Health Issues\n  13. _Get Yamamoto!_\n    1. Inspection Tour Two\n    2. Get Yamamoto!\n    3. \"He's Dead?\"\n  14. _Beware Greeks Bearing Gifts_\n    1. Saga of the Nibelungs\n    2. A Scene from _The Arabian Nights_\n    3. The God Neptune\n    4. A Battle Royal\n    5. No Major Operations Until 1945 or 1946\n  15. _The Riot Act_\n    1. The Davies Mission\n    2. A Dozen Dieppes in a Day\n    3. The Future of the World at Stake\n    4. The President Loses Patience\n  16. _The First Crack in the Axis_\n    1. Sicily\u2014and Kursk\n    2. The F\u00fchrer Flies to Italy\n    3. Countercrisis\n    4. A Fishing Expedition in Ontario\n    5. The President's Judgment\n  17. _Conundrum_\n    1. Stalin Lies\n    2. War on Two Western Fronts\n    3. The F\u00fchrer Is Very Optimistic\n  18. Photos II\n    1. A Cardinal Moment\n    2. Churchill Is Stunned\n  19. _Quebec 1943_\n    1. The German Will to Fight\n    2. Near-Homicidal Negotiations\n    3. A Longing in the Air\n    4. The President Is Upset\u2014with the Russians\n  20. _The Endgame_\n    1. Close to Disaster\n    2. A Darwinian Struggle\n    3. A Talk with Archbishop Spellman\n    4. The Empires of the Future\n    5. A Tragicomedy of Errors\n    6. Meeting Reality\n    7. A Message to Congress\n    8. Achieving Wonders\n  21. Acknowledgments\n  22. Photo Credits\n  23. Notes\n  24. Index\n  25. Read More from Nigel Hamilton\n  26. About the Author\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
+{"text":"\n\nDedication\n\n _or my father Anthony, who passed on well before his years and will always be in my thoughts and memories. Thank you for giving me your strength and confidence._\n\n_For my mother Muriel, the best mom in the world, who taught me everything I know about how to raise my two little girls._\n\n_For my two beautiful little girls, Samantha and Lara, who inspired me to write this book and continue to inspire me every day of my life._\n\n_For everyone else in our family, thank you for your love and support._\n\n_Finally, for my husband, Richard, thank you for believing in me and for always standing beside me. Thank you for sharing your life with me and helping me raise two happy little girls. And thank you for all your help with this book. I love you very much._\n\n# Acknowledgments\n\n ne thing that I've learned in the last year is that writing a book is a collaborative effort. It is an honor and a pleasure to thank the following people for all of their help.\n\nFirst, thank you Jill Stern, for just about everything. Your creative contributions, expressions, and ideas have helped to make this book more than I ever could have made it alone. I would also like to thank your husband Dave and your two children Maddy and Caleb.\n\nI am similarly indebted to Allison Dickens, the best editor a writer could wish for and one of the nicest people I know and to her editorial assistant, Ingrid Powell. Thank you both for all of your hard work.\n\nAnthony Ziccardi, my good friend, you had the foresight to believe in me. If one person could take the credit for making this project a reality, it would have to be you. With all of my heart and soul, I thank you for giving me the opportunity of a lifetime.\n\nNancy Miller, my editor in chief, the Captain of my Ship, thank you, too, for believing in me.\n\nShona McCarthy, Alexandra Krijgsman, Benjamin Dreyer, and Lisa Feuer, the behind-the-scenes people, thank you for your tireless work on this project.\n\nThe credit for the fantastic cover of this book is owed solely to Derek Walls and Gene Mydlowski. Thank you both for a job well done.\n\nTo Jesseca Salky (publicity and marketing), thank you for helping to make Dookie & Dottie household names.\n\nThank you, Nora Korn, my dear friend whom I've known forever.\n\nBesides these wonderful people who helped to make this book a reality, I am equally indebted to the people who exceeded all of my expectations in their work product. First on the list is Roger Carpenter. Thank you for designing my first video cover, which helped tremendously in getting the ball to roll.\n\nThank you, Tom Estey, the best publicist in the world, for all of your help.\n\nGreg Williams and Steve Sherman, thank you for bringing Dookie and Dottie to life.\n\nTony Mora, thanks for all of the great illustrations and your animation.\n\nThere could, of course, be no book without a publisher. Words cannot express my gratitude to Random House and Ballantine Books for offering me the unique opportunity to share my ideas and experiences with the world.\n\nGina Centrello, thank you so much for the honor and privilege of working with you and Random House to publish this amazing book.\n\nFinally, I would like to thank my husband Richard, who has been a tremendous help to me and a wonderful father to our two daughters, Samantha and Lara. I couldn't have written this book without you.\n\n# Contents\n\nIntroduction\n\nChapter One  \nHappier, Smarter Babies\n\nChapter Two  \n[Getting to Know You:  \nBirth through Four Weeks](Cand_9780307481832_epub_c02_r1.htm)\n\nChapter Three  \n[Meet the Real Me:  \nTwo through Three Months](Cand_9780307481832_epub_c03_r1.htm)\n\nChapter Four  \n[An Eager Participant:  \nFour through Six Months](Cand_9780307481832_epub_c04_r1.htm)\n\nChapter Five  \n[Get Up and Go:  \nSeven through Nine Months](Cand_9780307481832_epub_c05_r1.htm)\n\nChapter Six  \n[First Steps:  \nTen through Twelve Months](Cand_9780307481832_epub_c06_r1.htm)\n\nChapter Seven  \n[The Great Communicator:  \nThirteen through Eighteen Months](Cand_9780307481832_epub_c07_r1.htm)\n\nChapter Eight  \n[Me Do This:  \nNineteen through Twenty-four Months](Cand_9780307481832_epub_c08_r1.htm)\n\nChapter Nine  \n[The Preschool Years:  \nTwo Years and Beyond](Cand_9780307481832_epub_c09_r1.htm)\n\nAppendix  \nRecommended Reading and Resources\n\n# Introduction\n\n#\n\n ou may not know me, but we share the same thing: We are parents who want the best for our children. That's why I started my company, the Baby Prodigy Company, and why I am writing this book. I want the best for my children and I want to help other parents, grandparents, and caregivers give their children the best.\n\nBefore my daughter Samantha was born, my husband and I, like all new parents, went out of our way to try to make sure we were prepared for her arrival. We bought a new crib, had her room decorated, and purchased tons of newborn-baby clothes and a slew of toys. We thought we were totally ready, but nothing could have prepared us for what was to come.\n\nWhen the day finally arrived for us to go home from the hospital, I excitedly took out the brand-new outfit my mother-in-law had bought especially for Samantha to wear home. We tried it on her, and to our surprise, it was way too big. I remember my husband running to the hospital gift shop searching for something\u2014anything\u2014that would fit our new daughter. In the end, we had to take her home in her hospital undershirt and wrapped up in two blankets.\n\nI learned an important lesson that day, and I want to pass it on to you: Your baby doesn't need expensive outfits or fancy toys to be happy and stimulated. What she does need is something very ordinary: your love and attention. So save your energy and money and don't shop for what you _think_ your baby needs.\n\nIn the chapters ahead, I share with you the practical techniques that will allow you to provide your baby with exactly what she needs to be smarter and happier. And by the way, when I packed my bag to go to the hospital and have my second daughter, I brought a simple cotton one-sie, size newborn, purchased at a local superstore. It fit like a charm, and for the first few months of her life, our second daughter, Lara, wore mostly those wonderful, practical onesies.\n\nUpon arriving home with Samantha, my husband and I settled in to adjusting to being new parents. Unfortunately, both our families lived 3,000 miles away. In the first few weeks, before anyone came to visit us, we had no extra help, only each other. I have to admit: I was completely unprepared.\n\nI hadn't read that much about what to expect in the first few months of a baby's life. I didn't realize how tired I would be, hadn't thought about what waking up three or four times a night to feed and change Samantha would do to my sleep cycle. After the first week at home, my husband and I were so tired we could barely keep our eyes open during the day.\n\nSamantha was a fussy baby. She cried all the time, and all she wanted was to be held. Even if she fell asleep in my arms, the moment I tried to put her down in her bassinet, she opened her eyes and began to wail. She seemed to be so calm and relaxed when she was being held, so we cuddled her and passed her back and forth, taking turns holding her. But my efforts to keep Samantha from crying took their toll. I had no time for myself. My confidence was low, I was tired, and I was hardly enjoying being a parent. In fact, every time Samantha cried, I thought it was because I was doing something wrong.\n\nBy the time four weeks had passed, we all were starting to feel better. Samantha had settled in, and we were establishing a routine. I thought I was finally getting the hang of motherhood. And then Samantha developed colic. I didn't even know what colic was until we had endured numerous trips to our pediatrician, trying to find out what was wrong with our new daughter. All I knew was that my baby would cry and cry\u2014no matter what I did. I was right back to thinking it was all my fault.\n\nI did notice, however, that her crying now sounded different from when she was first born. The cries were high-pitched, like she was in pain. And there was a pattern to her crying: It lasted for hours, from six p.m. until ten p.m. nonstop, every night. When her pediatrician told me it was colic and would probably last until she was about three months old, I was even more devastated. I didn't know how I could take two more months of her frantic crying. It got so bad that my husband and I would set the timer on the microwave at fifteen-minute intervals and take turns trying to console her. I tried everything to calm her down. Fortunately I discovered that classical music, as well as one or two baby videos that were on the market, helped to soothe Samantha and gave me a much-needed break.\n\nAfter the colic stopped and I had time to get back into a routine, I decided I wanted to find a way to help other moms and dads cope with the tough times in their babies' lives. Before having Samantha I had worked in television production. Remembering what a relief it was when Samantha would settle down in front of a video or quiet herself when classical music was played, I decided to make a video for babies. I wanted it to be both entertaining and educational\u2014a tool to help parents learn fun, stimulating ways to interact with their children.\n\nAnd so I began to research the topic of how infants learn and what they are interested in. I was amazed by what I found. The Baby Prodigy CDs and DVDs are based on my research, and now I'm incorporating that research into this book. The CDs and DVDs were created using fascinating scientific findings about how babies' brains grow and develop\u2014a process that begins well before they even enter this world.\n\nOne of the most important things I came across in my research for my first Baby Prodigy video was how certain types of stimulation can influence your baby's happiness. I remember thinking, _Wow, how wonderful that by stimulating your baby's senses you can affect not only her intelligence but also her happiness._ What parents don't want to do everything they can to ensure their child's happiness? The most important thing to me is the happiness of my two daughters, Samantha and Lara. I know that I would do anything to help them become happy, well-rounded children. And so I decided I wanted to tell the world about this important information\u2014about how you can help your child be happier, and smarter, too!\n\nThis book is part of my quest to spread the word. It is more than just an extension of the Baby Prodigy CDs and DVDs. It is a tool for you to use as parents or caregivers\u2014 a guide to understanding how you can stimulate your baby to make him happier and enhance his natural learning patterns.\n\nWhen my second daughter, Lara, was born, I relived the stress of caring for a colicky baby, but this time I felt much more prepared. I was a much more confident, more educated mother and I found it easier to comfort Lara during those long, traumatic sessions of crying. And when she was happier, I found I was happier, too. As you read this book, remember how important it is for you as a parent, grandparent, or caregiver to be happy. During the first few months of Samantha's life, I had somehow forgotten to enjoy my baby and myself. But once I realized how important it was to take care of myself as well as my child, I became a happy mom. I firmly believe that a happy parent raises a happy child! I hope that you enjoy this book and that your kids grow up to be happy and healthy.\n\n## HOW TO USE THIS BOOK\n\nThe very first chapter discusses the scientific research that has gone into the development of my DVDs and this book. Though neurobiology research sounds as though it may be intimidating, I have tried to give you the most important information in a way that is easy to understand. I hope you will find it as fascinating as I do. If you are interested in reading more of the original scientific research, I have included a list of relevant articles and studies at the end of the book.\n\nAfter chapter 1, this book is divided into sections based on the months of your baby's life, from birth until the wonderful age of two years. Chapter 2 discusses the first four weeks of your baby's life. Every moment of the relationship you and your baby share is special, but this month is unique. I talk about how the most important things you can do for your baby in her early days are to hold her, touch her, and talk to her. I also give you some suggestions of games that are gentle enough for a newborn who is adjusting to the wide world of sensory stimulation.\n\nChapters 3 through 8 cover months two through twenty-four, and chapter 9 offers a peek into the wild world beyond the second birthday. In each chapter, I discuss the ways in which your baby is developing, milestones she may be reaching, and how you can play with your baby to stimulate growth in the important areas of verbal skills, fine and gross motor skills, and spatial development. You will find games using common household objects, suggestions for books that are best for each age group, and ideas for toys that will be stimulating for your baby.\n\nMy goal in this book is to help you to see that every moment you spend with your baby can be an enjoyable learning experience. Other baby books are more comprehensive, talking about your post-pregnancy body and your baby's development. There is a wide variety of child-care books that are useful resources for information about a baby's feeding, sleeping, and physical well-being. I even recommend several of my trusted favorites in chapter 1.I do provide some information about your child's expected development, but mostly as background to explain some of the games I suggest you incorporate into your daily routine with your child. For an infant or child, there is no substitute for loving stimulation. You and your baby's caregivers can ensure that your baby grows up in an atmosphere conducive to being smarter and happier.\n\nFinally, the appendix contains a list of resources, from books to websites to recommended videos and television shows.\n\n## A WORD TO CAREGIVERS\n\nThere have been many studies done that focus on the role of nonparental caregivers in infants' lives and development. These studies differentiate between the unique bonding attachment that parents and their children share and the attachment formed between a child and a nonpar-ental caregiver. While I have always been sure, and studies now confirm, that there is no bond like that between parents and their baby, a close attachment to a caregiver plays an important role in a child's learning and development. Warm and caring relationships with adults provide children with the basis for learning. A caregiver who is sensitive to a child's unique combination of individual developmental and cultural characteristics can help that child establish self-confidence and self-worth from the earliest moments of their time together.\n\nWhether you are reading this book as a parent who is at home full-time with your child, as a parent with a full-or part-time job, or as a caregiver who is entrusted with building a relationship with a child who is not your own, I hope you will use this book to discover new ways to view your everyday caring routines as fun-filled opportunities for learning.\n\n## A NOTE FOR PARENTS OF CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS\n\nNo matter where your baby is developmentally, she can still benefit from your attention and positive stimulation. I have not included a separate section with specific activities for babies with special needs because many of the games and activities I suggest are appropriate and enjoyable for _any_ child. Whether your baby was born prematurely and has developmental delays, has very specific needs, or has a particular diagnosis, she can still benefit from the games and activities in this book. If you find that an activity is too stimulating or challenging for your child, I recommend simply flipping back a chapter or two and trying another activity. An important part of making every moment with your child a positive learning experience is reading her cues to understand what she finds fun and interesting. And remember, all children develop differently and in many directions at once. At the same time, don't minimize something you think is important. If you have ongoing concerns about your baby's development, you should absolutely communicate them to your pediatrician.\n\n## A FINAL NOTE FOR EVERYONE\n\nIt is an awesome responsibility that is passed to you as a parent when you are handed your newborn baby. It can be overwhelming to think that you are entrusted with the physical, emotional, and mental development of the tiny creature that blinks up at you from the hospital swaddling. But there is no need to panic or feel intimidated. I want to remind you that the best way to enhance your baby's happiness and intelligence is through the attention and stimulation you provide in simple, common, day-to-day caretaking and rituals. Every day is full of experiences that stimulate and teach your baby, both directly and indirectly. I hope that this book helps you to recognize the many opportunities that await you and your baby and provides you with ideas for hours of enjoyable interactions.\n\n#\n\n s I began to research childhood brain development in order to develop the Baby Prodigy DVDs, CDs, and videos, I had to educate myself on how the brain worked. This chapter is by no means an effort to provide you with a full education in neuroanatomy; it is a simple overview of the biology and development of the brain, with an emphasis on the areas that are developing most rapidly during your child's first years of life. It's my goal to make this chapter on the science of the brain as basic and nonintimi-dating as possible. If, after reading this introductory material, you are as fascinated by the workings of the brain as I am, you may want to read more deeply on this subject. In the appendix, Recommended Reading and Resources, I suggest some works that explore in detail the subject of your child's developing brain.\n\nWhen reading this chapter you may be surprised\u2014as I was when I began my research in this area\u2014by the discovery that many of the stimulating activities that promote brain growth and development in your baby are activities that we, as parents and caregivers, practice _naturally and instinctively._ In 1996, the Families and Work Institute held a conference at the University of Chicago entitled \"Brain Developments in Young Children: New Frontiers for Research, Policy, and Practice.\" Experts from the fields of neuroscience, medicine, education, human services, media, business, and public policy discussed what was known about the developing brain and how that knowledge should inform efforts to improve results for children and their families. Their top recommendations have been distilled into a list of ten important guidelines for promoting healthy brain development in children:\n\n  1. Be warm, loving, and responsive.\n\n  2. Respond to your child's cues and clues.\n\n  3. Talk, read, and sing to your child.\n\n  4. Establish rituals and routines.\n\n  5. Encourage safe explorations and play.\n\n  6. Make television watching selective.\n\n  7. Teach through discipline. Be consistent and loving. Supervise and set limits.\n\n  8. Recognize that your child is unique and expect him to succeed.\n\n  9. Choose quality child care and stay involved.\n\n  10. Take care of yourself.\n\nLater in this chapter I talk briefly about how each of these guidelines affects how your child's brain becomes \"wired.\" I touch on how relationships with parents and caregivers\u2014as well as the sights, sounds, smells, tastes, textures, and feelings children experience\u2014help to develop the structure of the brain and shape the way your child thinks, learns, and behaves for the rest of his life. But first, a short introduction to the most important and complex structure in your body: your brain.\n\n## AN OVERVIEW OF THE BRAIN\n\nThe fully formed adult brain is a three-pound mass that allows us to think, move, feel, see, hear, taste, and smell. It controls our bodies, receives and analyzes information, and stores our memories.\n\nApproximately 100 hundred billion long, wiry nerve cells, or neurons, send and receive electrochemical signals to and from the brain and the nervous system. The glial (meaning \"glue\") cells are even more numerous and act as a support system for the neurons.\n\nThe brain itself is covered by a tough coating called the dura and floats in a cushion of cerebrospinal fluid, surrounded and protected by the hard bones of your skull. The brain and the spinal cord make up the central nervous system. The brain consists of roughly four parts:\n\n### THE CEREBRUM\n\nAlso known as the frontal lobe, this intricate, wrinkled part of the brain, along with its covering, the cortex, is responsible for complex processing and high-level functions, including the following:\n\n  *   behavior\n\n  *   abstract thinking\n\n  *   problem solving\n\n  *   attention\n\n  *   creative thought\n\n  *   emotion\n\n  *   intellect\n\n  *   reflection\n\n  *   judgment\n\n  *   initiative\n\n  *   inhibition\n\n  *   coordination of movements\n\n  *   eye movement\n\n  *   sense of smell\n\n  *   muscle movement\n\n  *   physical reactions\n\n  *   motor skills\n\nThe cerebrum itself has an extremely complicated structure, containing the right and left hemispheres of the brain; the occipital, parietal, and temporal lobes; and the corpus callosum.\n\n  *   **The right and left hemispheres**. Control many physical and mental functions. The right side of your brain controls the left side of your body, and the left side of your brain controls the right side of your body! The right hemisphere governs temporal and spatial relationships; analyzes nonverbal information such as pattern recognition, line orientation, and complex auditory tones; and communicates emotion. The left hemisphere works to produce and understand language and controls other cognitive functions. In most people, the left hemisphere of the brain is dominant over the right in deciding what response to make.\n\n  *   **The occipital lobe.** Controls vision and reading.\n\n  *   **The parietal lobe.** Has some visual, language, and reading functions, but primarily governs sensory combinations and comprehension of stimuli. Your sense of touch is dependent on your parietal lobe.\n\n  *   **The temporal lobe.** Also pitches in on visual and language duties, but is more strongly associated with hearing, auditory and visual memory, music, behavior, and emotion, including strong emotions such as fear. The temporal lobe plays an important role in an individual's sense of identity.\n\n  *   **The corpus callosum.** Keeps communication flowing between the left and right sides of the brain.\n\n### THE BRAIN STEM\n\nSometimes called the lower brain, this section controls motor and sensory pathways to the body and face, and governs vital centers of the body, including the cardiac, respiratory, and vasomotor centers.\n\n### THE CEREBELLUM\n\nLocated just above the brain stem, the cerebellum also governs the cardiac, respiratory, and vasomotor centers. It also coordinates your sense of balance and muscle movement.\n\n### THE LIMBIC SYSTEM\n\nFinally, the limbic system lies above the brain stem and under the cortex. It consists of a number of interconnected structures that researchers have linked to hormones, drives, aggressive behavior, strong emotions and the physiological changes that accompany them, temperature control, and memory formation.\n\n## HOW YOUR BABY'S BRAIN DEVELOPS\n\nYour baby's brain begins forming just three weeks after conception and continues its development over a lifetime. While genetics do predispose us to develop in certain ways, researchers have found that parents and caregivers have the ability to influence brain growth in awesome ways. Proper stimulation will make your baby's brain grow denser, quicken his thought processes, and enhance his perceptive capabilities. With the right brain stimulation, experts tell us, your child will be smarter, more competent\u2014 even happier.\n\nBabies are born with 100 billion neurons\u2014roughly the same number they'll always have. Although they come into the world with all the neurons they need, and then some, the architecture of a baby's brain is far from developed. Over the next three years, until a baby's brain reaches nearly 90 percent of its adult size, trillions of connections\u2014 called synapses\u2014are formed between neurons. Synapses act as bridges, establishing the brain's circuitry. The higher the quality of the synaptic connection, the quicker the brain can process information.\n\nBy the age of three, your child will have developed an estimated 1,000 trillion synaptic connections. The type and quality of these synaptic connections are determined by the kind of stimulation a baby receives from her world. The more a synapse is used in daily life, the more it is reinforced. A synapse that is not used often enough is eventually pruned away. Or, as neuroscientists like to say, \"cells that fire together wire together.\"\n\nMy favorite analogy to illustrate how synapses are strengthened or discarded over time compares them to the trails created by travelers who are making their way through a previously uncharted wilderness. Footpaths that are frequently traveled soon become easily accessed and eventually become roadways that allow travelers to move quickly and efficiently. Other paths, which started out as equally possible routes but which are not traveled frequently, soon become overgrown, unused, and finally impassable.\n\nIn the first three years of brain development, production of synaptic connections far outpaces elimination. By the age of three, your child's brain has nearly twice the number of synapses as yours. For the rest of her first decade, production and elimination of synapses are virtually equal. Beginning in early adolescence and continuing for the rest of her life, elimination of discarded synapses becomes the dominant process. Researchers use the term \"plasticity\" to describe this creating, strengthening, and discarding of synapses and neuronal pathways in response to the environment. Essentially, because the brain develops in an adaptive way, it will adapt to both positive and negative environments.\n\nSo what does this mean for _your_ baby? In a nutshell: For the first three years of her life, the stimulation she receives and the experiences she has will influence how her brain will be wired as an adult.\n\n## BABIES ARE LEARNING MACHINES\n\nFrom the moment your baby is born, he is interacting with his environment. And these interactions will shape the development of his brain as he grows. Babies who receive warm, responsive care from the beginning of their lives are more likely to thrive and to show more resilience later in life than those who receive lesser care. On the most basic level, we know that good care facilitates good brain development.\n\nYour baby is a learning machine. Everything is interesting to him. So how can you have the most enriching impact on your child's brain development?\n\nAt birth, the lower brain largely controls your newborn's behavior. All of her reflex motions, even her cycles of crying and sleeping, are functions of the brain stem and the spinal cord. The rest of her brain\u2014the cerebrum, cerebellum, and limbic system\u2014develops at a more leisurely pace, which gives you an opportunity to enhance your baby's environment and experience to shape her developing mind.\n\nYou'll be encouraged to know that you don't need fancy gizmos to help your baby reach her full potential. _You_ are your child's greatest tool for learning, enjoyment, and development. A smarter, happier baby is one who receives normal, loving, responsive care that provides her with many opportunities to experience the sights, sounds, smells, textures, and emotions of everyday life. The stimulation provided by this interaction with you and her environment will strengthen the structure of her brain. One form of stimulation that has been proven to be of significant benefit is language. Language is fundamental to cognitive development, and the simple act of talking\u2014and listening\u2014to your child is one of the best brain-building exercises I can recommend.\n\n## PUTTING SCIENCE INTO PRACTICE\n\nIn the chapters that follow, I offer you concrete ideas for practicing the kind of care and creating the kind of environment that will allow your child to thrive. I encourage you to take a conscious approach to promoting your child's happiness and confidence. In doing so, you'll raise a smarter child. Before you turn to the next chapter and start looking at specific suggestions, I want to briefly return to the ten guidelines for promoting brain development that I mentioned at the beginning of the chapter. Whether your child is one month old or two years old, there are ways to promote her growth by paying attention to each of these areas in your daily care routines.\n\n  1. **Be warm, loving, and responsive.** Cuddling, rocking, and letting your child focus on your loving expression helps her to create memories, which in turn will allow for a smooth flow of information as she learns to access them efficiently. Secure attachments are the basis of all of your child's future relationships.\n\n  2. **Respond to your child's cues and clues.** Learn to read your infant's nonverbal signals and understand his cries. Translate your toddler's early attempts at language. Become familiar with his facial expressions and body language. Responding quickly and appropriately builds trust and reduces stress. A secure child is more likely to be curious and open to new experiences and stimulation.\n\n  3. **Talk, read, and sing to your child.** Repetition is important in both building language skills and understanding speech. The more you talk to your child, the more the language-sensitive parts of his brain will grow. Reading and singing to your child foster anticipation and participation.\n\n  4. **Establish rituals and routines.** Repeated positive experiences help neurons form strong connections that help a child learn what to expect and how to react. Daily rituals and routines strengthen the creation of memories that will be accessed in increasingly complicated ways.\n\n  5. **Encourage safe explorations and play.** Encourage your baby or toddler to explore his world. Sensory input is valuable stimulation, and children learn through play.\n\n  6. **Make television watching selective.** Watch television with your child and talk about what you are seeing. Educational programming is enhanced when it is an interactive event.\n\n  7. **Teach through discipline. Be consistent and loving. Supervise and set limits.** Teaching your child self-control takes time, as this is governed by one of the more slowly developing parts of the brain. Never hit or shake a child. Brain research shows that such treatment can have long-term negative effects.\n\n  8. **Recognize that your child is unique and expect him to succeed.** Children have different growth rates, both mentally and physically. Work with your child's temperament to help him see the connections between his actions and your response. Encourage positive self-esteem.\n\n  9. **Choose quality child care and stay involved.** Be sure that any caregiver involved in your child's life responds quickly and warmly to your child's needs.\n\n  10. **Take care of yourself.** The responsibility of child rearing is daunting, and providing your child with quality stimulation can sometimes be challenging and occasionally overwhelming. Ask for help if you need it. Rest and recharge as needed, and never feel guilty. You are doing important work.\n\nIf you want to read more about current research and thinking in the field of neuroscience and children, I have listed a number of fascinating books and articles in the appendix.\n\nYou're ready to get to work\u2014and you have been all along. Raising a happier, smarter baby is no more difficult than enjoying each day you spend interacting with your own wonderful, amazing child. I hope you're inspired by the chapters that follow and that you'll engage with your child with the full understanding of how science and care-giving come together to allow your child to reach his full and rich potential.\n\n#\n\n _hen our second daughter, Lara, was born, I felt a lot more confident taking her home from the hospital than I did when we brought our first daughter, Samantha, home. Although I realized we now had twice the work ahead of us and new obstacles to face, I still felt confident\u2014after all, I'd already done this once! However, what I didn't do two years earlier was take care of myself and let our friends and family help while I recovered from a painful C-section and the shock of being a new mom. So when Lara came along, I vowed I would take care of myself, as well as the children. Now that our daughters are five and three, I look back and see how much easier it was for all of us the second time around. I learned that for me to be a happy person and a happy mom, I had to accept help and, more important, take care of myself!_\n\n_Barbara, Samantha and Lara's mom_\n\n## HOMECOMING\n\nThe day you have dreamed of is finally here: You're taking your new baby home from the hospital. In the final months of your pregnancy, you probably fantasized about this precious time\u2014the peaceful moments you would spend rocking your baby, sipping herbal tea in the spotless nursery. You may have convinced yourself that you'll quickly return to your normal schedule and life now that you and baby are finally home. I know one mother who was quite certain, after leaving the hospital on December 23, four days after a difficult Cesarean delivery, that she could still manage to finish the holiday decorating that had been interrupted by the baby's arrival, including wrapping presents for her five-year-old.\n\nThere is nothing more wonderful than coming home with the tiny baby you've been thinking about for the last nine months, but I feel compelled to warn you that if you're like most of us, over the next few hours, days, or weeks, you'll be shaken out of your beautiful daydream and you may have to alter your ambitious plans. I can definitely guarantee\u2014whether this is your first baby or your fourth\u2014 there will be times in these early weeks when the reality of your new responsibility overwhelms you. But you don't need to panic. Many others have been exactly where you are now and survived! There are time-tested techniques that will keep you and your baby happy and connected in these early days together.\n\n### SOME IMPORTANT ADVICE FOR NEW PARENTS\n\nTo set your newborn on course to being a smarter, happier baby, there is a single piece of advice that it is imperative you follow in the first weeks. And that is to _take care of yourself._ Accept all offers of help: extra hands, prepared meals, or any other conveniences friends and family may offer. You will need all your strength, both mentally and physically, to be the best parent you can be to your newborn. For the moment, forget all of the clothing and toys and gadgets you received at your baby shower or rushed out and bought in the weeks before the baby was due. Your baby comes out of the womb with an instinct for survival, and for the next few weeks, her needs are simple and repetitive: food, clean clothes, shelter, and, most important, you. So make sure that you're able to be there for her. Simply holding your baby and spending time with her promotes bonding and a sense of security that will comfort and satisfy her. And, as the days pass, you'll gradually be able to establish the patterns of feeding and sleeping that work best for your baby and your family.\n\n### TOP THREE TIPS FOR THE FIRST FOUR WEEKS\n\n**Make sure you get enough sleep:** Newborns sleep from twelve to twenty hours in a twenty-four-hour period, waking and sleeping in short intervals. Since a newborn may want to eat as often as every two hours, take advantage of your baby's sleepy periods and sneak in a nap whenever you are able.\n\n**Things You Need\/Things You Don't**\n\nDespite what all the baby catalogs would have you be-, lieve, the material needs of a newborn are surprisingly minimal. Here's a short list of what I couldn't have done without\u2014as well as those things I can't believe I thought I would need!\n\n**Most Useful Items for a Newborn** :\n\n  * **100 percent cotton onesies.** My babies lived in these for the first few weeks.\n\n  * **Cotton receiving blankets** have a multitude of uses including wiping up spit-up, keeping baby propped on his side, and swaddling.\n\n  * **A front pack or sling for carrying your baby** will be an investment you never regret, especially if you have a colicky baby.\n\n  * **An infant car seat** is required for you to leave the hospital with your baby.\n\n**Make sure you get enough nourishment:** It is recommended that women who are breast-feeding consume an extra 400 to 500 calories per day beyond the caloric intake necessary to maintain their normal (pre-pregnancy) weight. If you are bottle-feeding your baby, you still need to pay attention to your diet. Eat healthy meals and avoid excess caffeine or sugary treats. Good nutrition will help you maintain your energy level.\n\n**Trust your instincts:** There are many, many child-care and parenting books; I recommend several that I like later Getting to Know You.: Birth through Four Weeks\n\n  * **A diaper bag.** You won't believe how much stuff there is to carry around for such a tiny creature!\n\n  * **A good baby-care reference book.** Invaluable for answering those nagging middle-of-the-night questions and concerns.\n\n  * **Baby wipes.** Lots and lots of baby wipes.\n\n**Least Useful Items for a Newborn** :\n\n  * **A portable crib or playpen** is something you can wait to purchase. For the first month, your baby will probably be in her crib, worn in a front pack or sling, or in the arms of an adoring parent, relative, or caregiver.\n\n  * **Baby swing.** Babies under six weeks do not have strong muscle control of their heads and necks, and slumping in swings can be dangerous.\n\n  * **Fancy, frilly, scratchy outfits** may look adorable, but may not be the most comfortable against tender newborn skin.\n\n  * **Plush crib toys** can be a hazard for newborns.\n\nin this chapter. But when it comes down to knowing what will work best for the little person who has entered your life, you must learn to trust your instincts. What is right for your sisters son or your best friend's daughter may not be right for your baby. And what worked for your first baby may not work at all for your second. When you have questions\u2014and you will\u2014consult the library of books from child-care experts or check in with your family, friends, or pediatrician. And after weighing all their good advice, decide what works best for you and your baby.\n\n**Book shelf Title**\n\nWhile I'm sure you can't wait to start sharing your favorite childhood books with your new baby, I've chosen the books listed below especially for you! A newborn baby is often overwhelming, and even if it's not your first child, there's always a time when you can use a little impartial reassurance. It's vital that you feel confident and educated as you parent your new baby, and while information from family and friends can be invaluable, I know how important it is to have an instant resource available for those middle-of-the-night consultations.\n\nThe following books are time-tested resources and address many of the basic questions and concerns parents have. This book list is not meant to be exhaustive. It simply offers my opinion on some of the best resources for parents of babies and young children. I hope you will use the recommendations below for guidance and then combine the information you read with your own instincts and the advice of family and friends to arrive at the solutions that work best for you and your child.\n\nFeel free to read sections aloud to your baby as you comb through these books. While she may not be enthralled by the story line, at her age, it's the sound of your voice, not the content of your speech, that matters.\n\n  * **_Dr. Spock's Baby and Child Care_** by Benjamin Spock, M.D., and Stephen J. Parker, M.D. The acknowledged classic, offering practical advice to new parents for more than sixty years.\n\n  * **_Pregnancy, Childbirth, and the Newborn_** by Penny Simkin, Janet Whalley, and Ann Keppler. This complete and authoritative guide to all aspects of childbearing, from conception to the early days of infancy, is full of well-organized and clearly presented information. The three authors have more than 100 years of combined experience in the field of childbirth. Need I say more?\n\n  * **_Secrets of the Baby Whisperer_** by Tracy Hogg with Melinda Blau. With advice that is reassuring and down-to-earth, _Secrets of the Baby Whisperer_ suggests simple programs that can bring peace to your household and let you relax into parenting.\n\n  * **_The Baby Book_** by William Sears, M.D., and Martha Sears, R.N. In this encyclopedic guide, Dr. Bill Sears and Martha Sears, drawing from their experience both as medical professionals and as parents, provide authoritative, comprehensive information on virtually every aspect of infant care.\n\n  * **_Touchpoints: The Essential Reference_** by T Berry Brazel-ton, M.D. Brazelton offers the kindly, reassuring approach of your own family physician, providing a chronological account of the basic stages of early childhood.\n\n  * **_What to Expect the First Year_** by Arlene Eisenberg, Heidi Murkoff, and Sandee Hathaway. A classic, with a friendly question-and-answer format, that covers everything you might want to know about your baby's first year, as well as much you never knew you would need to know!\n\n  * **_Your Baby and Child: From Birth to Age Five_** by Penelope Leach. Written by a psychologist and expert in child development, who is also the mother of two, this book addresses what your child is doing, how she is feeling, what she is experiencing, and how she is developing, from birth through kindergarten.\n\n## BONDING WITH BABY\n\nYou have probably heard a lot of talk about \"bonding\" with your newborn. Bonding is sometimes used interchangeably with the word \"attachment,\" but from a scientific point of view the two terms have distinct meanings. According to scientists, the concept of bonding refers to the tie a parent feels toward an infant. It occurs most naturally during the first hours or days after birth, when the experience of meeting your baby cements your connection with her and you form a permanent bond with this enchanting little individual.\n\nFrom a scientific point of view, which is distinctly lacking in warm and fuzzy reciprocation, however, your baby does not bond with you! Rather, an infant becomes attached to her caregivers over time. This attachment, which is as much a lifelong commitment as bonding, is based upon the shared interactions that occur over the weeks and months of early childhood.\n\nScientific definition aside, what you really need to know is that these first four weeks are a critical time during which your baby depends on you to provide the kind of consistent, dependable, responsive care that will allow her to become secure and confident in herself and others. So how can you promote bonding and attachment?\n\nThe most important thing you can do during these first few weeks of life is to hold and touch your baby. Don't rely on plastic baby carriers or car seats that double as infant easy chairs. Front carriers and fabric slings make it simple to keep your baby close to you all day long. My daughter\n\n**Dookie Says**\n\n _\"I love it when my daddy lets me lie on his chest when he's taking care of me. It's so warm, and I can hear the sound of his heart beating. It makes me feel so relaxed. I think I'll take a nap!\"_\n\nA great activity to try with your baby to promote bonding and attachment is something called \"kangaroo care.\" This concept, developed in the 1980s in an intensive-care nursery in Bogot\u00e1, Colombia, is now used for many premature babies and in neonatal intensive-care units around the world. But your baby does not have to be premature to enjoy the benefits. Modeled on the needs of baby kangaroos, who are born only partially developed and then immediately hop into their mother's warm pouch, where they continue their development for months before emerging into the world, kangaroo care means nothing more than just holding your baby (often wearing only a diaper) against your own naked skin. Drape a blanket over your baby's back to keep him warm and just sit together. You can chat with your baby, be silent and allow him to listen to the comforting sound of your heartbeat, rock in a chair, or sit perfectly still. You can even peacefully drift off for a nap together.\n\nSamantha was the most content when she was being held and snuggled, so my husband and I would take turns wearing her in a front pack and carrying her around the house as we tended to our own daily routines. Don't worry about \"spoiling\" your newborn. Your baby will gradually begin to develop patterns of eating, sleeping, and quiet alertness that will allow you to establish a routine that teaches her how to spend time in an environment other than the crook of your arm.\n\n## SLEEPING AND WAKING\n\nBy the end of this first month you may begin to notice some patterns to your baby's daily needs and moods. Her feeding times may start to become more regular\u2014every three to four hours is average\u2014although during growth spurts she may want to eat more. She will be awake and alert for longer periods of time, but she will still sleep about sixteen out of twenty-four hours.\n\nSome babies at this age mix up night and day\u2014they sleep all day and wake up and expect company at night. By the age of one month, you can help your baby shift onto the schedule followed by the rest of your household by using the following techniques:\n\n  *   Prolong your baby's periods of alertness during the day. I suggest several fun ways of doing this later in this chapter.\n\n  *   Try limiting daytime sleeping to three- or four-hour intervals, gently waking your baby if she is intent on sleeping for more than four hours at a time during the day.\n\n  *   Have your baby sleep in different places during the day and night. During the day, have him nap somewhere other than his crib or bassinet\u2014for instance, in his stroller. Place him in his own bedroom or crib at night, so he will come to associate his crib with a long, quiet sleep.\n\n  *   Make nighttime more conducive to sleep. Darken the room, use quiet voices or whispers when your baby wakes in the night, don't turn bright lights on for changing, feeding, etc.\n\n  *   Make sure your baby isn't being _over_ stimulated during the day. All babies need adequate daytime rest. Babies who receive too much stimulation can easily become overtired and may be unable to settle down to sleep well at night.\n\n## THE SIX STATES OF SLEEP AND WAKEFULNESS\n\nYour newborn baby isn't just either asleep or awake. Believe it or not, most infants cycle in and out of six states of sleep and wakefulness. Because the way each baby transitions from each state to the next and the amount of time your baby spends in any one particular state will vary, it is helpful to be able to identify your child's state of wakefulness.\n\n**Deep sleep:** Your baby is very quiet and relaxed. Her breathing is rhythmic, and while she may make spontaneous movements, she rarely awakens.\n\n**Light sleep:** Your baby's eyes are closed, but he makes faces and sounds and seems generally restless. Babies may pass through this state on the way to a drowsy awake state or to a state of deep sleep.\n\n**Safety Watch: Back to Sleep**\n\n Always put your baby to sleep on a firm surface on her back. Babies who are not put to sleep on their backs are at higher risk for sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), the unexpected and sudden death of an apparently healthy infant, usually while the baby is asleep or in bed. If your baby seems uncomfortable sleeping on her back, try swaddling her snugly in a thin blanket.\n\nYour newborn's sleeping area should also be free of loose blankets, pillows, and plush toys. Sleeping facedown on a lambskin, soft mattress, or even a quilt has been linked to suffocation deaths. One-piece sleepers can keep your baby warm on cold nights, eliminating the need for blankets or quilts. Until your baby can roll over, you should never leave her unattended on her tummy on a soft surface (even a blanket or quilt).\n\nSince your baby will be spending all her sleeping time on her back, it is very important to remember to let her spend time on her tummy. Not only will this promote her developing muscle coordination and strength in her neck and shoulders, it will also keep her head from becoming flat as a pancake in the back! Just be sure to keep an eye on her during tummy time.\n\n**Drowsy:** Your baby is awake, but appears sleepy. Her activity level varies and her eyelids droop. She may appear cross-eyed. To wake her fully, you may stimulate her by talking to her, touching her, or picking her up.\n\n**Quiet alert:** Your baby will lie still, his eyes open and bright. His breathing will be regular and calm, and he will\n\n**Games Siblings Play**\n\n Unfortunately, a newborn baby may not be very interesting to an older sibling. As far as the older child is concerned, this new addition to the family is noisy and garners more than his fair share of the attention. Some older children initially want nothing to do with the new baby, and you should try to respect their feelings and not force any unwanted interactions. Don't worry, however. Even if they get off to a less than loving start, with a little time, your children will develop the special bonds that only siblings can share.\n\nExplain to the older child that new babies are not big enough or strong enough to play the kinds of games that an older kid enjoys playing. You may want to explain that new babies require a lot of care in doing things that bigger kids can do for themselves. If your older child wants to be involved, include her in baby-care routines that are appropriate to her age. Let her hold the baby and help with diapering, dressing, or bath time; let her burp the baby or help give him his bottle. And, of course, the entertainment value of a younger sibling cannot be underestimated. Let her talk and sing to her new sibling. Teach her to be respectful of the baby's need for space. Show her how to recognize the signs that mean the baby's had enough playtime and needs to rest.\n\nmake eye contact and focus attentively on sounds. This is the best time for you to try some of the stimulation techniques I suggest in the sections below.\n\n**Active alert:** Your baby is fussy and fidgety. She is affected easily by hunger, fatigue, or overstimulation. Her eyes are open, but her gaze is not as clear as while in quiet alert, and she does not focus attentively.\n\n**Your Baby's View: Swaddling**\n\n Have you ever been to a spa and enjoyed a body wrap? If so, you'll immediately understand why your j\u00ee|%Q baby finds swaddling so comforting. If not, I recommend that you try it! But in the meantime, imagine that you are lying in an unfamiliar environment, and you are trying to relax. It's brighter than you're used to, and maybe noisier, too. You're exhausted, but you've had so much stimulation, you're too wound up to sleep. Now imagine someone comes into the room and dims the lights, the outside sounds become muted, and warm blankets are pulled snugly around your body. You're gently wrapped, enveloped in soft fabric. Unable to twitch restlessly or wriggle around, you allow your muscles to relax. You are cocooned in comfort. Your eyes grow heavy and you fall asleep.\n\nVoil\u00e0! You have succumbed to the calming effects of being swaddled. This technique can be used to soothe an overstim-ulated or overtired baby. Swaddling provides a sense of security that most newborns enjoy. Once your baby is a month old, swaddling can interfere with her exploration of motor development, and it is best to stop wrapping your baby.\n\nTo swaddle your baby, place her diagonally on a receiving blanket with the top left corner folded down about six inches. Pull the lower left corner over her left arm and across her body. Tuck the corner of the blanket in under her right side. Take the lower right corner and bring it up over her body, tucking the tip under the piece you have just wrapped across her. Take the top right corner of the blanket, pull it across her right arm, and tuck the top in around her back. She should be wrapped snugly, but not too tightly. If your baby protests at having her hands confined, swaddle her using the same technique, but bring the fabric under, rather than over, her arms.\n\n**Crying:** A baby who has reached this state needs comforting. If she is not hungry, she may be overstimulated. For ideas on how to recognize and calm a baby who has had too much stimulation, see the section below on reading your baby's cues.\n\n## BABY STEPS\n\nWhenever you compare your newborn to a list of \"shoulds,\" it's crucial to remember that babies are individuals and follow very different timetables. I was positive my daughter began offering me full, happy smiles when she was just two weeks old. No matter what they say, I'm convinced it wasn't \"just gas.\" Another mother swears her son was completely impassive until he was almost six weeks old. \"He just didn't seem to have much of an opinion about anything at first,\" she says. Now, at six months old, he is charmingly expressive.\n\nBy the end of one month, your child should achieve some, or all, of the milestones listed below. If you are concerned about your child's rate of development, consult your pediatrician.\n\n**Did You Know?: Your Baby's Senses**\n\n **Sight**\n\n  * Your newborn baby can focus on objects at a distance of about seven to fifteen inches, roughly the distance of his mother's face when he's feeding.\n\n  * If an infant is interested in an object, she can track it along a 180-degree arc above her head.\n\n  * Newborns are attracted to objects that have a high contrast between light and dark colors, especially patterns in black and white. They also notice shiny objects.\n\n  * You may notice that your baby is sensitive to bright lights. If you dim the lights, he may open his eyes wider and focus on objects more intently.\n\n**Hearing**\n\n  * Babies can hear and react to sound, even in the womb.\n\n  * Sudden or loud noises may cause him to startle.\n\n  * Your baby may also respond to voices, especially those that are higher-pitched.\n\n  * If you played particular music or talked to your baby while he was in the womb, he will be able to recognize the sound of your voice, or even a specific tune.\n\nWithin the first four weeks, your baby should be able to:\n\n  *   lift his head briefly\n\n  *   focus on a face\n\n  * Babies also like sounds that remind them of familiar sounds they heard while in the womb. The sound of your heartbeat may be comforting.\n\n  * Does your baby suddenly grow less fussy when he hears the dishwasher or other appliances? External sounds such as those of a dishwasher, vacuum cleaner, or washing machine may remind your baby of similar sounds in the womb. Our daughter Samantha's favorite calming sound was the blender!\n\n**Smell**\n\n  * Your baby is born with a refined sense of smell. For instance, she is able to recognize the difference in smell between her mother's milk and another mother's milk.\n\n**Taste**\n\n  * Your baby may react to sweet, sour, salty, and bitter.\n\n  * Babies often prefer sweet-tasting items.\n\n**Touch**\n\n  * Infants enjoy being stroked, rocked, caressed, gently jiggled, or bounced.\n\n  * They are most comfortable when they are snug and warm. Most babies will not tolerate extremes of hot and cold.\n\nYour baby may be able to:\n\n  *   respond to a noise with a startle, by crying, or by becoming quiet\n\n  *   track an object held directly above her face and moved slowly to one side or the other\n\nIt is possible that, by the end of four weeks, your baby may:\n\n  *   smile\n\n  *   vocalize by cooing (as well as by crying)\n\n## BABY TALK\n\nDon't worry about not knowing what your baby wants\u2014 from the instant he emerges into this world, he has ways of communicating with you, but it might take you some time to understand him. By her third week at home, one couple had nicknamed their daughter \"The Little Dictator\" for her habit of loudly and clearly issuing her demands. The nickname, by the way, still applied by the time their daughter had turned two! Other parents, though, report that their child's miscellaneous noises and motions seem to have no pattern. Generally, however, by paying attention to what your newborn baby is saying, you can lay the groundwork for the early development of communication skills.\n\n### HOW BABIES COMMUNICATE\n\nCrying\n\nCrying is your preverbal baby's way of telling you something: He's tired, hungry, cold, bored, sick, or simply needs to be held. Cries are different, and you will learn to differentiate between your baby's vocal expressions.\n\n  *   **Hungry:** Your baby starts with short cries that build to a steady rhythm of wails.\n\n  *   **Tired:** Exhaustion is expressed through a distinctive pattern of short wails, followed by a longer, louder cry. If left alone, this type of crying will continue until he falls asleep.\n\n  *   **Bored:** Your baby may have a period of cranky fussing that starts with irritable noises and soon escalates to crying if he is left unattended.\n\n  *   **Overwhelmed:** This cry is similar to a tired cry, but your baby may also turn away from you when you try to comfort him.\n\n  *   **Uncomfortable:** To understand what may be bothering your baby, consider her environment. If she is too cold, she may be shivering or have goose bumps in addition to crying. If too hot, she may pant slightly and be flushed. If she has a gas pain, her cry will be piercing and sharp and come on quite suddenly with little or no preliminary fussing.\n\n  *   **Colic:** If your baby has regular periods of sustained crying that occur around the same time each day, she may be suffering from colic. (See the sidebar on Colic on page 34.)\n\n**Colic**\n\n The word \"colic\" can strike fear into even the most experienced parents' hearts. Colic is basically sustained crying by an otherwise healthy infant that occurs at generally regular times on a generally regular basis. Pediatricians sometimes use the \"rule of three\" to diagnose colic. A baby has colic when he cries for longer than three hours every day for more than three days a week, and when the crying goes away when the baby is about three months old.\n\nAbout 20 percent of all babies get colic, and it affects all infants equally\u2014boys get it as often as girls; firstborns as often as later children. Although there are many theories, ranging from food allergies to immature nervous systems to the particular temperament of each child, no one knows for sure what causes colic. What _is_ known is that colic is at the extreme end of normal crying behavior, and it is a harmless, though distressing (particularly for the parents), condition.\n\nYour baby may begin to have episodes of colic around the age of three weeks. Although colic is not thought to be due to pain, a baby with colic may look uncomfortable. She may lift her head, turn red in the face, or draw her legs up to her tummy. She may refuse to eat during her colicky time or have difficulty falling and staying asleep. The important thing to remember is that babies with colic are _healthy_ babies. However, if your baby seems at all ill and has sustained crying, call your pediatrician, and she can help you determine if it is illness or colic.\n\nAs the mother of not one but two colicky babies, I'm here to tell you that there is no single, simple treatment to \"cure\" colic. There are a number of ways to try to soothe your colicky baby, but before I tell you what they are I want you to understand the most important message for the parent of a baby who has colic: _Do not blame yourself._ You are not the cause of your baby's distress. You have done nothing wrong, and you are not a bad parent if you are unable to completely comfort your infant during these crying episodes. Having a baby with colic can be stressful for the whole household. Try to relax and remember that your baby will eventually outgrow this phase.\n\nIn addition to muttering the mantra \"This too shall pass,\" here are some suggestions for trying to make life easier for you and your colicky baby:\n\n  * Walk or rock your baby. Try holding her in various positions.\n\n  * Put her on your shoulder and massage her back, as if you are trying to burp her.\n\n  * Place your baby on her tummy on your knees and rub her back or gently bump her up and down\n\n  * Try an infant swing or vibrating baby chair. Babies under eight weeks should not be put in an infant swing, as they cannot hold themselves upright. Some bassinets have a vibrating feature, or you can try rocking her in a cradle.\n\n  * Go for a ride. Put your baby in the car seat and take a drive. Other parents swear by the vibration and sounds of a washing machine or clothes dryer. Do not place your infant on top of any surface unless you will be standing there _the entire time._\n\n  * Finally, if you feel like you are at the breaking point, try to get away from your baby's crying. Trade \"colic shifts\" with your spouse, or cash in a favor from a grandparent or friend (often a baby's cry is not as upsetting to people who are not her parents). If you must, put the baby in her crib where she is safe and secure, simply close the door to her room, and take five minutes for yourself.\n\nOne of my daughters would sometimes quiet down when I put on certain CDs or videos. At the very least, soothing music in the background can provide a nice contrast to the steady cries!\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _Let's Talk about It_\n\nOnce you can identify what your baby is \"talking\" about, you can begin to name the feelings she is expressing: \"Oh you're crying because you are hungry. Let me feed you.\" \"I bet that wet diaper is uncomfortable; let's change it.\" \"You're very tired, aren't you? How about a nap?\" Use your baby's name and a conversational tone as you help her to learn to associate a response with her particular request.\n\nCooing\n\nAs any enamored new parent will attest, sweet baby coos are the most adorable of the nonverbal communications. Your baby's mews, coos, and sighs are all precursors to verbal development. You can help lay the groundwork for future verbal skills by talking to him in the high-pitched tone he prefers, singing, playing music, and exposing him to soft sounds of many different varieties.\n\n**Did You Know?: Reading Your Baby's Cues**\n\n From the moment your baby looks up at you in the delivery room, you may have the feeling that he's trying to tell you something. And he may be. From birth, babies have the ability to communicate a wide range of needs. If you pay attention, you will soon know what your baby likes or dislikes and what he may want at any given time.\n\nWatch your baby and see if you can observe any of the following common means of infant communication:\n\n  * **Fussing, crying:** I'm hungry; I'm tired; I'm not comfortable; Where are you? I want you now!\n\n  * **Rooting, wakefulness, sucking on hand or lip:** I'm hungry, and if you feed me now, I won't cry.\n\n  * **Heavy eyelids:** I'm sleepy.\n\n  * **Eye contact with bright alert eyes and intent stare:** Pay attention to me.\n\n  * **Vocalizing with coos or noncrying sounds:** Let's talk.\n\n  * **Looking away or breaking eye contact:** I'm tired and need a break.\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _A Night at the Opera_\n\nMake dinnertime a dinner theater experience. Sing and talk to your baby while she nurses or takes her bottle. Make up silly songs about changing diapers, having a bath, and lying in her bed. You don't have to be Pavarotti for\n\n**Toy Chest**\n\n From birth through the first four to six weeks, your baby is not too interested in anything but eating, sleeping, and bonding with you. Still, what parent can't resist buying their baby a few toys? Here are some things that your baby will actually be able to enjoy in her first month:\n\n  * **A mobile:** A black-and-white or primary-colored mobile that can be safely mounted on a changing table or crib rail will provide baby with visual stimulation.\n\n  * **Black-and-white items:** Toys or pictures in high-contrast black-and-white patterns are easy for your baby to focus on. Simple faces or shapes are most interesting to very young infants.\n\n  * **CDs:** Most babies love music. Experiment to see what your child likes best. Good choices are classical music or simple, instrumental arrangements.\n\nyour baby to be enthralled. It's the tone and timbre of your voice that she will respond to\u2014not your ability to span five octaves.\n\n#### _Does This Ring a Bell?_\n\nUsing a plush toy with a small, soft bell inside, shake the toy on one side of your baby's head, then the other. He may turn his head or focus his eyes in the direction of the chiming sound.\n\n  * **A brightly colored ball, or a rubber or plush toy:** Move the ball slowly across your baby's range of vision to help her coordinate her eye muscles.\n\n  * **And, of course, your baby's favorite toy: You!** Move into her range of vision and let your baby study your face, Gently touch her hands to your nose, eyes, ears, and mouth as you name the body parts. (This is a game she'll love later and will eagerly participate in when she is developing language. Playing this game with such a young baby will begin to create a memory for her.) Let her clutch at your skin, hair, or clothing to experience different textures. Hold her in your arms as you sing to her or tell her a story, or simply let her snuggle close and hear your heartbeat. All the things a loving parent does naturally with her newborn are positive stimulating activities that are building blocks to the more advanced skills your child will begin to rapidly develop.\n\nSmling\n\nNo that's not just gas! Babies as young as four weeks old can offer you true smiles to show they are content. Smile at your baby often, and one day she will smile back!\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _Mirror, Mirror on the Wall_\n\nEncourage smiles and other facial expressions by holding your baby in front of a mirror. Although she will not recognize herself until she's around fifteen months, she will enjoy studying the very different faces of an infant and an adult.\n\n#### _Monkey See, Monkey Do_\n\nHold your baby close to your face. Make different faces and show emotion. Your baby should be able to mimic some of your facial expressions. Try shaping your mouth into an O or sticking out your tongue to see if she will copy you. Although responsive smiling usually begins around six weeks, try giving her some big smiles; you may be rewarded with an endearing toothless grin in return.\n\n## THE LITTLE THINGS: FINE MOTOR SKILLS\n\nAlthough your new baby won't begin working on her fine motor skills for a little while yet, one of the tests she will be given at birth gives you an idea of just how quickly she can progress. This test, called the Apgar score, after Dr. Virginia Apgar, who first developed it in the 1950s, uses a numbered scale to evaluate a newborn's physical condition. The test is given within a minute of birth, and then again five minutes after birth. A score between 7 and 10 is considered \"normal.\" A score of 6 or less indicates that the infant is in some distress. Don't immediately panic if your baby's first score is on the lower side of normal, or even slightly below normal. A traumatic birth may result in lowered scores, but your baby's second score should show marked improvement as the delivery room team stabilizes his condition.\n\nFive factors are evaluated and scored, with the totaled scores giving your baby's Apgar score.\n\n## HOW IT ALL FITS: SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT\n\nYour baby is curious about the world around her and from birth can see well enough to be interested in objects and people at a distance of up to fifteen inches away. If you think your new baby is looking at you expectantly, she may well be. Babies will seek eye contact when they want to be stimulated. They will turn away or pull back to break contact when they need a rest. Your baby's vision will show improvement by about two months of age, and will continue to sharpen and expand its range until it has developed to 20\/20 vision by about six months old. In these early weeks, your baby will like to look at human faces, round shapes, highly contrasting light and dark colors (particularly black and white), and slowly moving objects (particularly shiny ones).\n\n**Safety Watch: A Word about Monitors**\n\n  I can sympathize with every new parent who cannot resist the temptation to sneak into his baby's room and rest a hand on his infant's back\u2014just to make sure she's breathing. One mother confessed that she would check on her daughter once or twice a night up until she was one year old. The natural instinct of any parent to protect his or her child is so strong that it's hard to blame anyone for wanting to monitor the baby during every minute of every day.\n\nThere are a wide variety of baby monitors available to help ease any worries you may have about your baby while you're not right in the room with him. There are monitors with cameras that link to video screens elsewhere in the house, providing a video image that corresponds with the various grunts, squeaks, and snorts that a newborn infant makes day and night. There are simple monitors that allow you to hear sound only.\n\nThere are even monitors designed to attach to your infant with thin wires to let you know how she is breathing.\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _Follow the Bouncing Ball_\n\nUsing a brightly colored rubber or plush ball about two inches in diameter, hold the ball about twelve to fifteen inches above your baby's head and slowly move it up and down, side to side, in and out. Watch how her ability to track the ball improves each week. Make sure to play this game when your baby is in a state of quiet alertness\n\nThis type of monitor is often used on premature babies, allowing their parents to keep track of how their baby's immature lungs are functioning. These monitors may also be used with babies who have had episodes of apnea (periods where they stop breathing) or babies who have a family history of SIDS.\n\nThere are benefits and drawbacks to these more complex monitors. We used a sleep apnea monitor with our second baby. The alarm went off twice, and I felt like I lost ten years off my life each time! Of course, if your baby is at risk for any breathing-related distress and your pediatrician has recommended a respiratory monitor, the potential benefits far outweigh any potential drawbacks, such as dealing with wires, machinery, and false alarms.\n\nVideo and sound monitors might give anxious parents peace of mind, but they can have drawbacks, too. Stories abound of private conversations or moments that were overheard or unintentionally viewed by unsuspecting bystanders when parents forgot there was a monitor on in the nursery!\n\nand stop when she turns her head away or no longer follows the ball with her eyes.\n\n## GET UP AND GO: GROSS MOTOR SKILLS\n\nFrom the moment your baby is born, he begins working on his gross motor skills. It's important that you support your baby's head and neck during the first few weeks as he gains control of the muscles in his neck. As your baby grows, he develops muscle control from the top down. He begins by learning to balance his head, which is quite heavy relative to the rest of his body weight, and then to control his arm movements, and then to control his legs. Really, it's just a matter of strength, coordination, and practice before the floppy-headed infant in your arms develops into the creeping, crawling, walking, and running tornado that will whirl through your house over the next several years.\n\n**Dottie Says**\n\n  _\"Its never too early to start pampering yourself. A gentle massage feels wonderful and really relaxes me. I love to hear my mommy's voice and feel her gentle touch. I can really tell how much she loves me.\"_\n\nThe language of touch is the first language that your baby will understand. Massage can calm and soothe your baby as it communicates your love and care for her. Your hospital or birth center may offer postpartum baby massage classes, which are a wonderful way to meet other new mothers while gaining confidence in your newborn massage technique.\n\nYour baby should be naked to enjoy a massage. Since many new babies don't like the feeling of being naked, use a light blanket to cover the parts of her body you are not touching. If you like, you may use a light massage oil on your baby's body, or you may use just your hands. Make sure you warm your hands before touching your baby. Talk or sing to her during the massage, telling her what you are doing. In the first month, be sure to use a very gentle touch. When your baby is older, you can exert more pressure. Once you have touched your baby, keep at least one hand in contact with her until the massage is over. Don't massage your baby's tummy if she's just eaten, and be sensitive to her reactions. If she does not seem to be enjoying the massage, stop right away. You can always try again when she is a few weeks older.\n\nIf she is enjoying the massage, you can vary the strokes you use. Try rubbing in light circles or stroking from top to bottom. Here are some other motions you can try:\n\n  * stroking with an open palm\n\n  * stroking with just your fingers\n\n  * lightly \"raking\" with your fingertips\n\n  * gently tapping with your fingertips\n\n  * massaging arms and legs with a gentle \"wringing\" motion\n\nAs your baby begins to gain greater control over his body, you can help him figure out how it all comes together gether by doing such simple things as changing his position. He can't move himself from side to side, or from back to stomach, but he may enjoy the different perspective and feeling of these different positions. Always make sure you support your baby on his side by placing a rolled-up receiving blanket or cloth diaper on either side of him, so he does not unexpectedly roll backward or onto his face. Never leave your baby unattended during \"tummy time\" or allow him to lie facedown on any soft surface or blanket.\n\nAnother way you can help your baby become comfortable in her skin is through movement. Experiment with walking, dancing, rocking, or gentle bouncing while holding your baby to allow her to experience the sensation of moving through space. Be careful to support her head and keep her body close to yours so she feels secure. If she seems agitated, try slower or smoother movements. Short, abrupt movements may startle or confuse some babies.\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _Shall We Dance?_\n\nPut on a CD and waltz around the room with your tiny dance partner. Change the music and try a rocking cha-cha step. Experiment to see what pleases your baby, whether it's a rhythmic bounce to some rock and roll, or a gentle glide to a composition by Debussy. The Baby Prodigy _Musical Pacifier_ CD series is a perfect accompaniment for a pas de deux. One baby I know was comforted without fail by a free-spirited sixties-style whirl around the living room to John Lennon's \"Free as a Bird.\" Make sure that the music is not too loud and that your baby feels securely supported as you dance.\n\n#\n\n _y husband and I were wondering when our baby was going to do something exciting. After putting up with weeks and weeks of sleepless nights, I felt like a cute baby trick would be the least he could do for me. One day, when he was about ten weeks old, I was taking him out for a stroll and I stopped to admire a dog. I said, \"Look, honey, it's a doggie!\" He looked right at me and gave me the biggest smile. He did something for me, all right\u2014he completely melted my heart._\n\n_Beverly, Connors mom_\n\n## WELCOME TO YOUR NEW LIFE\n\nAs you slowly emerge from the sleepless daze of the past four weeks and begin to get into the groove of this whole parenting thing, you'll be delighted to discover that the adorable tiny bundle you brought home from the hospital is becoming a curious and interactive little person. These early months give you a taste of what is to come as your baby begins to express her desire to learn more about the world.\n\nAs your baby begins to study her environment in earnest, you may begin to feel pressured to be the best teacher you can be. You may suddenly start noticing all the products offered in various baby catalogs and become overwhelmed by the wide range of \"educational\" toys on the market today. But don't get too stressed out about how to ensure your budding genius graduates with honors from the college of her choice. In fact, you are probably doing\u2014 quite naturally\u2014many of the things that most effectively promote brain development. What's important to remember, especially with infants at this stage, is to avoid over-orchestration and overstimulation. At this age, and for the rest of your baby's early development, learning occurs just as much in informal activities as in structured ones.\n\n## SETTLING IN\n\nAs your baby matures, she will be able to maintain for longer periods of time the quiet alert stage I discussed in the last chapter. The number of interactive opportunities for stimulating your baby's senses and interests increases as her capacity for focus increases. Most of the activities suggested in the last chapter become more and more interesting for both you and your baby to play. As you stimulated your infant over the past four weeks, you were laying the groundwork in her memory for some of the games in this chapter.\n\nLast month you may have felt like you were simply playing with and talking to a very beautiful little doll. Over the next few months, try some of the same games and see what an interactive little partner you now have. A baby who tracks a black-and-white plush toy when he is three weeks old may be eagerly reaching for the same toy when he is nine weeks old. The slippery little fish who at three weeks would wriggle and fuss in the bath now begins to calm down as soon as you begin to sing his special bath-time song.\n\nThe shared enjoyment you and your baby are experiencing is laying the groundwork for your child's social development. Toward the end of three months, stuffed toys become a great tool for strengthening baby's early social skills. When you chat with teddy bears or converse with stuffed elephants, you are modeling communication skills and setting the stage for those long babbling conversations between older babies and their precious plush friends.\n\nYour baby's growing interest in objects and people will begin to expand to the world beyond his nursery. Start getting baby out and exposing him to the whole big world. Your baby will still love being in a carrier or sling, which gives him a feeling of security, while he is exploring a whole new sensory experience. One mother who raised her young daughter in New York City took the opportunity of running errands to introduce her daughter to the world.\n\nShe did all of her chores by bus or subway, so her daughter could enjoy a vast array of sights, sounds, and smells. When the baby had had enough, she would simply turn her face into her mother's chest and have a nap.\n\nYou don't have to live in a city to give your baby a wide range of experiences. If you live in a suburban area where you need to drive, then drive to a park or to the mall, put the baby in a front carrier, and take a stroll as he absorbs all the different sensations. If the weather permits, take your baby outside in the stroller. If the weather's lousy, choose an indoor location, such as the mall, or take a tour of your house. Even just standing and looking out the window with him will give your baby something new to focus on.\n\nVary the type and amount of stimulation your baby is getting. As a rough rule of thumb, you'll want to provide your baby with opportunities for stimulation during _at least half_ 'of his waking hours. Make sure that the activities range from low key and soothing to more stimulating and exciting.\n\nDifferent areas of your baby's skills develop more noticeably at different ages. From one to three months, the gross motor skill development is very easily apparent. Head control improves, as does posture\u2014your baby no longer scrunches up into a little ball at every opportunity. Kicking is an exciting new exercise. Your baby's hands are a constant source of wonder and interest, too, as your child now learns she can move them in and out of the range of her vision and, shortly thereafter, that she can reach for the things that interest her.\n\n**Dottie Says**\n\n _\"I love it when Mommy takes me with her on her morning runs. Sitting in the jogging stroller is a great way to watch the whole big world go by.\"_\n\nJogging with your baby is great exercise for you and an exciting outing for her. But make sure you always use the right equipment, and be sure her head and neck are well supported. At this age, your baby could suffer serious injuries if bounced or jostled vigorously. Avoid any bouncing activities that could shake or jar your baby's unsupported head or neck. Don't run with your baby in a front carrier or pack, and make sure to reject any roughhousing or physical games\u2014 like tossing baby up into the air\u2014in favor of nonjarring activities.\n\n## SLEEPING AND WAKING\n\nNo promises, but toward the end of the third month, your baby may start sleeping through the night. Now, don't get too excited yet. I define \"sleeping through the night\" for a baby at this age as staying asleep for at least six consecutive hours. That means you may have a baby who wakes for a midnight feeding and then sleeps right through until just before six\u2014or you may have a baby who wants to take his six hours between nine p.m. and three a.m. and then have company until he is ready for an early morning nap around six a.m. Unfortunately, \"sleeping through the night\" almost never means you can log the eight blissful hours of solid sleep you enjoyed pre-baby!\n\n**Did You Know?: Hiring a Caregiver**\n\n  Now that your baby is nearing three months old, I want to briefly talk about caregivers other than you or your partner. Whether you will be returning to work or are simply hoping to have an occasional babysitter, you will need to make the important decision of who will care for your baby when you are not able to be with him. I talk about this more in the next chapter, but to get you started thinking about what your baby needs from caregivers other than his parents, consider the following:\n\n  * All caregivers are an important part of your child's development and learning.\n\n  * Warm and caring relationships with adults provide children with the basis for all types of learning.\n\n  * Caregivers should see everyday caring routines as opportunities for expanding a child's brainpower.\n\n  * You should allow yourself about six to eight weeks to hire someone.\n\n  * Plan to spend time with a new caregiver before having her fly solo, so you can observe how she interacts with your baby and get used to the way she does things. (Which might not be the same way _you_ would do it, but you do have to be comfortable with her style.)\n\n  * Communicate an attitude of trust in the caregiver. Your baby will take his cues from you.\n\nIf you will be placing your child in home or institutional day care, or plan on hiring a caregiver before the end of the third month, skip ahead to the next chapter to read about what to look for in all kinds of child-care situations.\n\nAt this age, a baby who is following a textbook course of development (and congratulations if yours is\u2014I hope you know how lucky you are!) would wake about the same time each morning, eat, stay awake for a bit, nap, wake again, enjoy lunch, then have another nap followed by a longer period of afternoon wakefulness, eat \"dinner\" and take an evening nap before waking for the last feed of the night, and then go back to bed for six (or more) hours of sleep.\n\nEven if your baby hasn't read that particular book, the good news is that as his patterns of eating, sleeping, and waking become more apparent, you can encourage a more regular schedule by actively managing the different parts of your baby's day: wakings, feedings, naps, outings, and baths. Try to ensure that these activities occur at or near the same times every day. Start stretching the periods between feedings by getting the baby interested in other things. After a feeding, instead of letting your baby drop off to sleep, try to engage him in an activity you know he enjoys.\n\nMost parenting books have extensive sections on sleep that apply to babies at this age. There are many different approaches, and you can do some research and come up with the method that works best for your family and your baby.\n\n## STIMULATING YOUR BABY\n\nAs I've already mentioned, most parents naturally do the things that provide infants with stimulating environments\n\n**The Midnight Diaper: To Change or Not to Change**\n\n  It's possible that by now you have been able to master the unobtrusive diaper change: super speedy and done in dim light. If you have this skill, then your baby may not even twitch once she falls asleep after a feeding. You can always change her diaper before you begin the middle-of-the-night feeding, although you then risk a crying jag that can disturb the whole household.\n\nAnd so I'd like to propose a radical diapering strategy that lets everyone get back into bed in pursuit of those six straight hours of blissful shut-eye: Dare to skip that midnight diaper change! As long as there is no poop, simply scoop your baby out of bed, feed her, and slide her back into her crib. Disposable diapers are superduper absorbent, and will keep moisture away from baby's skin until she awakens you for her early morning feeding. Of course, if your baby has a dirty diaper, or a diaper rash or other skin condition, you'll have to continue with late-night diaper changes along with the late-night feedings. But in order to promote a trend toward sleeping through the night, don't stimulate your baby during these feedings by chatting, turning on lights or music, or playing games. Sit quietly, let baby eat in as sleepy a fashion as possible, and slip her back into bed.\n\nfor growth. You're probably not even aware of the daily things you do that all work together to help to stimulate your baby and reinforce the connections in her brain that are forming daily.\n\nJust for fun, here's a short list of some of the things you\n\n**Taking a Bottle**\n\n  If you are breast-feeding, now is a good time to get your baby started on accepting a bottle. It is undeniably useful to be able to leave an occasional feeding to someone else. If you are planning to go back to work, and even if you intend to pump breast milk, someone else will have to give your baby a bottle or two during the day. Some babies have no trouble switching between breast and bottle, but others are fussier about the switch.\n\nHere are a few tips to make acceptance of the bottle easier for both of you:\n\n  * Start to offer a bottle (either breast milk or formula) somewhere around six to eight weeks.\n\n  * Wait until your baby is hungry, but not frantically so.\n\n  * Have a substitute feeder\u2014someone other than baby's Mom\u2014offer the bottle. (In fact, Mom, it's probably best if you leave the room, if not the house. Remember, your baby's acute sense of smell will let her know if her preferred milk source is nearby!)\n\n  * When offering the baby a bottle, cuddle her and maintain eye contact, just as when she nurses.\n\n  * Don't let one successful bottle-feeding make you complacent. Even if you are primarily breast-feeding, offer a bottle once or twice a week. As your baby gets older, he will become more willful\u2014and possibly pickier. If he is not used to the bottle, he may reject it outright.\n\ndo that provide your baby with positive stimulation. See how much you do without even trying!\n\n  *   **Love:** _Of course I love my baby_ is what you are probably thinking, but treating your baby with loving care makes her feel secure. A secure baby is more willing to explore her environment and to initiate interactions. The tone of voice, the quality of touch, and the focused attention that a loving parent lavishes on his or her child is the cornerstone of your baby's happiness and confident development.\n\n  *   **Relate:** Be sure to relate to your baby on a level she can understand. Simple explanations of daily activities stimulate the connections between actions and words. Your baby is a learning machine. Understanding your baby's cues and being responsive to her needs foster security and, later, independence.\n\n  *   **Appreciate your baby's character:** Your baby is a unique individual\u2014one that you as a parent no doubt find endlessly delightful and entertaining. How you respond to his own particular quirks and charms shapes his experience of the world. Always be appreciative of your baby's abilities, and have positive expectations for his development.\n\n  *   **Have fun:** Every time you play with your baby, you create a new learning experience. So go ahead: indulge yourself and him with silly songs, games, or funny voices or by dancing around a room or rolling on the floor.\n\n  *   **Give space:** Quickly learn to read your baby's cues to understand when she has had enough stimulation. As you become attuned to your baby's thresholds for stimulation, you know when to politely tell Aunt Jane that her favorite niece has had enough \"kootchy-coo\" for one morning. You also give your baby \"space\" in another sense of the word by providing a secure environment for her ongoing explorations.\n\n  *   **Let baby be boss:** You pick up your son when he cries; you soothe your daughter when she is fussy. Let your baby tell you what he needs, then follow your instincts.\n\n  *   **Realize that timing is everything:** Whenever you respond promptly to your baby's request, you facilitate the connections in your baby's brain that govern cause and effect. You learn to judge your baby's states of alertness and drowsiness and can then play with her and soothe her at the right times.\n\n  *   **Use positive reinforcement:** More good cause-and-effect training here! Your enthusiastic support of everything from burps to tummy rolls sets the tone for a lifetime of encouraging your child to explore his developing skills.\n\nSimply by being an attentive and responsive parent you are doing exactly what your child needs to reinforce the neural connections and pathways that are rapidly forming\n\n**Games Siblings Play**\n\n It's almost impossible to predict how your older child may react to the realization that the newest member of the family is settled in for the long haul. Articulate toddlers may tell you that they'd like the baby to go back to the hospital. Older siblings may not exhibit any signs of jealousy and may, in fact, be overzealous in their attempts to care for \"their\" new baby. You can expect to walk the fine line of meeting all your children's needs for your time and attention for the rest of your life. But right now, there are a few things you can do to help everyone bond and adjust to their new relationships as brothers and sisters.\n\nThe most important thing you can do is stress to your older child that the love in your family isn't divided between each person in the family; rather it just keeps growing bigger to accommodate everyone.\n\nin her developing brain. Raising a smarter, happier baby is easy once you understand that simply caring for your child in a warm and responsive way provides positive benefits in these important early years.\n\n## BABY STEPS\n\nFrom the end of the first month to the end of the third month, your baby begins making the huge developmental leaps that you will continue to marvel at\u2014probably for the rest of her life!\n\nRemember that you have bonded with your baby through caregiving, so it's perfectly logical that allowing an older sibling to help with basic baby care will help to forge a stronger bond between them. Allow an older child to help with feeding, burping, diapering, and bathing as much as he is able. An older child can be a \"babysitter,\" watching or playing with the baby as she sits in her bouncy chair or lies in her crib.\n\nLet your older child \"help\" the baby by opening baby gifts and showing the baby any new toys. (It's perfectly fine for the older child to try out the toy for the baby!)\n\nTeach your older child how to show things to the baby slowly, allowing the baby time to study them carefully. Let the older child show the baby his books, games, and schoolwork. Make sure he understands the baby's way of showing appreciation: with smiles and long intent gazes. Monitor the interactions carefully to help your older child learn the signals for when the baby has had enough stimulation.\n\nBy the end of two months, your child should achieve the milestones listed below. If you are concerned about your child's rate of development, consult your pediatrician.\n\nDuring the second month, your baby should be able to:\n\n  *   smile back at you when you smile\n\n  *   respond to a noise with a startle, by crying, or by becoming quiet\n\n  *   vocalize by cooing (rather than crying)\n\n  *   track an object held directly above her face\n\n  *   lift her head while on her stomach\n\n  *   hold her head steady\n\n  *   pay attention to a very small object\n\n  *   grab hold of an object held to the tips of her fingers\n\n  *   reach for an object\n\nIt is possible that by the end of the second month, your baby may:\n\n  *   lift her head 90 degrees while on her stomach\n\n  *   laugh\n\n**Dookie Says**\n\n  _\"Why won't this big person leave me alone? He keeps leaning in close to me and talking loudly. I try looking away, but that just makes him pick me up and bounce me around. When I start to cry, he shows me toy after toy after toy. I can't even concentrate on them all. Oh, I don't want to play like this. I think I'm going to scream!\"_\n\nAn important thing for you to remember, as you try some of the suggestions in this chapter for stimulating your baby, is to pay close attention to your baby's signals. Make sure the stimulation you are offering is age-appropriate. It's easy to tell when you're on the right track: Your baby will be smiling and engaged. If he starts to look bored, bothered, or bewildered, gear down. Give him a couple of minutes to collect himself while you flip back a few chapters and find a simpler activity to try. Remember, stimulating or soothing your baby needs to be fun and satisfying for both of you.\n\n**Toy Chest**\n\n  Now that your baby is spending more time awake and interested in her surroundings, you can expand your repertoire of entertainment devices. You will want to have a number of options for your baby to explore during the day. When choosing toys for your baby at this age, consider the following:\n\n  * Is this a toy that soothes or stimulates?\n\n  * What senses does this toy stimulate?\n\n  * Is this toy something he can watch or something he can actively play with?\n\nAlthough your baby will now really appreciate a wider variety of toys, you don't have to clean out your local toy store. You can create toys that will fascinate your baby by using simple household items. When using household items, be sure they are safe. Your baby is approaching the age where her mouth is as important for exploring as her hands. From this point on, your baby will consider any object a plaything\u2014 an exciting new toy to be handled and explored. You'll need to ensure that there are no sharp edges, objects are not too tiny, and the things you don't want her to handle are out of range. Flip ahead to the next chapter for more specific tips on safe toys.\n\nHere are some of my favorite ways to turn household items into toys:\n\n  * Spoons (shiny), keys (jingly), and tassels (brightly colored) can be clipped securely to an elastic and strung above your baby's head in her crib. Your baby will happily stare at this homemade mobile\u2014and you can change objects as often as you like.\n\n  * Light and colorful things like aluminum pie plates, decorated paper plates, and ribbon streamers move easily in air currents. When your baby is able to swipe at objects, she will enjoy making these kinds of things swing and sway.\n\n  * A mirror gives your baby the opportunity to study an object she still finds fascinating: a face. (However, she won't recognize herself until around fifteen months.)\n\n  * Make a paper plate maraca (see p. 73.) and hold it where your baby can see it as she listens to the rhythmic shaking.\n\nIf you simply can't resist temptation as you pass a children's shop (and what parent can?), here are some suggestions for toys that your baby will enjoy both now and in the coming months:\n\n  * rattles or toys that make sounds\n\n  * toys that light up or flash or change color\n\n  * CDs of classical music or children's lullabies\n\n  * plush animals with different textures: shaggy, smooth, scaly\n\n  *   follow an object from one side to the other\n\n  *   smile without being prompted\n\nBy the end of the third month, your baby should be able to do all of the above and may also be able to:\n\n  *   lift her chest off the ground by using her arms while on her tummy\n\n  *   roll over (one way)\n\n**Safety Watch: Infant CPR**\n\n  One of the most important things you can do to ensure your child's safety is to take an infant CPR class. Check with your hospital to see if it offers one for new parents. The CPR technique for babies under one year differs from the one for babies one year and older, so plan to take a refresher course when your baby turns one.\n\n  *   turn toward your voice\n\n  *   blow a raspberry\n\n  *   keep head level as she is pulled into a sitting position\n\n## BABY TALK\n\nBy the end of the third month your baby is realizing that he lives in a world made up of sounds. He's also beginning to make the connection that all these sounds mean something. By now you have probably become adept at interpreting your child's cries. You can easily tell when he is hungry, uncomfortable, or tired, and you can respond promptly and correctly. As he becomes confident that his needs are being met, he will begin experimenting with other types of communication.\n\nThe way you communicate with your baby is shifting. You now need to talk _with_ instead of _at_ your child. Quite\n\n**Your Baby's View: When Enough Is Enough!**\n\n  Imagine this scenario: You're at a party and find yourself trapped behind the buffet table with the most dreaded of all party guests: the close-talking boor. She leans in and rapid-fires question after question at you\u2014\"How _are_ you? Where's your precious baby? Have you gotten him to sleep through the night yet? No? Do you want to know what I did? Where did you get those adorable shoes?\" Your head begins to ache. You answer in a monotone, with curt sentences.\n\nShe presses closer.\"Here, try some of this ham salad. Oh, you're a vegetarian? Well, have some bean dip. No? What's the matter\u2014you're not hungry? Try some finger sandwiches. Go on\u2014try one bite.\" You glance away and maybe take a step backward.\n\nShe's relentless. She moves closer still and grabs your arm. \"Here, look at pictures of our family vacation. See, there's Ralph doing the hula. And here's little Suzy's ballet rehearsal.\" This time you turn your whole body away and wave at a friend across the room. You don't want to be rude, but if she doesn't give you some space, you're going to have to say something\u2014or even simply walk away.\n\nNow imagine that you're trapped at this same party, with the same ill-mannered guest. But you can't talk, or wave to your friend to rescue you, or walk away. The next time your baby gives you a signal that your attentions have become overpowering, be a polite parent and excuse yourself from the party, before you force your baby to be rude.\n\nsimply, babies who are talked to a great deal become talkative. You can still continue a running commentary as you move through your day, as I suggested in the previous chapter, but now you need to pause occasionally, listen to the input from your tiny audience, and respond to his \"comments.\" At this age, babies are very interested in repetition, tone, and cadence. And by using your body\u2014gestures and facial expressions\u2014you make whatever you are saying even more compelling.\n\nThe interactions you have with your baby at this age lay the foundation for her social talking. Your baby will soon get the idea that conversation is a two-way street. And the more social talking a baby experiences, the more practice talking she will attempt on her own time. Over the next few months, her sound making may take on a conversational rhythm with pauses and repeated tones and sounds.\n\nWhen chatting with your baby, don't oversimplify what you are saying. Speak conversationally and be sure to pause to allow for a reply. If you really want a big response, use a higher-pitched voice or a singsong tone (called \"parentese\" in some parenting books). Babies are more responsive to a voice with this sound, and soon you should be rewarded with a wide range of coos, gurgles, and giggles, often accompanied by gestures and wriggles as your baby jumps into the conversation with you.\n\nOf course, reading to your baby is another way to stimulate the language centers of her brain. By three months, a baby can pay attention to pictures in books and will enjoy sitting on your lap as you name the objects on the page. In the bookshelf section of this chapter, I suggest several books with simple, colorful illustrations and rhythmic language that should capture your child's attention.\n\nMost important of all, _listen_ to your baby and respond verbally each time he makes noises at you. And remember, when your baby becomes quiet, closes his eyes or looks away, or begins to fuss, he's telling you he's had enough chatter for the moment. Be respectful and spend some time in a companionable silence.\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _The Name Game_\n\nPointing and naming games are of great interest to babies of this age. It's an especially good game to play with body parts. By doing this, you can incorporate two other important learning tools: questions and gestures. When your baby is in a quiet alert stage, begin by pointing to a part of your face\u2014the part of your body your baby is most interested in looking at at this age. Ask her \"What's this?\" as you point at your nose. Expect a look of intense concentration as she takes in your question. \"This is Mommy's nose,\" you tell her. And then touch her on the nose. \"And this is baby's nose.\" Watch as she begins to anticipate both the question and the touch.\n\n#### _And Today's Guest Is..._\n\nMake like a talk show host and interview your baby. Use a high-pitched voice to ask your questions, and then wait for him to reply before translating his answer for the studio audience. Add gestures: pretend you're holding a microphone up to him as you wait for a reply. If his \"answer\" is astonishing or hilarious, exaggerate your response.\n\n#### _A Classic Crowd-Pleaser_\n\nIncorporate touch and language by playing games like \"This Little Piggy\" Or sing \"Itsy-Bitsy Spider,\" using your fingers to walk up your baby's tummy as the spider crawls up the waterspout and trailing your fingertips down his body to illustrate \"down came the rain.\" Be creative and discover how many other nursery rhymes and songs lend themselves to a multisensory experience.\n\n#### _The Echo Game_\n\nWait for your baby to make a specific sound\u2014not a cry or a grunt, but a coo or a gurgle. Imitate the noise back to him. It's likely he will mimic the noise back to you again. Vary the tone of your voice as you imitate each noise he makes. Soon you'll begin to feel as if you're carrying on a conversation\u2014in a second language you didn't even know you spoke: baby-ese.\n\n## THE LITTLE THINGS: FINE MOTOR SKILLS\n\nAs your baby's motor control has developed, she has discovered to her delight that there are fascinating little things attached to the ends of her arms. These entertaining objects weave in and out of her field of vision and sometimes even find their way into her mouth. Yes\u2014your baby has discovered her hands. At first her hand movements are totally random, but as the weeks go by, she will\n\n**Bookshelf**\n\n  When you sneak out for that rare escape to a nearby bookstore or, better yet, bookstore\/caf\u00e9, you will find a slew of books that will be appropriate for your one- to three-month-old. Here I offer general guidelines and a few of my specific favorites. Be prepared to read some of these over and over again, as they might become well-loved favorites that your baby may demand for months and months before moving on.\n\nKeep in mind that by two months, babies can focus on and pay attention to pictures in a book. They don't know what the pictures actually mean, but this is a first step in emergent literacy.\n\n**Books for You**\n\n  * **_Baby Mind: Brain-Building Games Your Baby Will Love_** by Linda Acredolo, Ph. D., and Susan Goodwyn, Ph. D.\n\n**Books to Enjoy with Your Baby**\n\n  * Board books with photos of other babies that can be propped up on crib or blanket\n\n  * Small plastic photo albums of family and friends\n\n  * **_Color Zoo_** by Lois Ehlert\n\n  * **_Baby Shapes_** by Helen Dorman\n\n  * **_Freight Train_** by Donald Crews\n\n  * **_Big Red Barn_** by Margaret Wise Brown\n\n  * **_Tickle, Tickle_** by Helen Oxenbury\n\n  * **_Pretty Brown Face_** by Andrea and Brian Pinkney\n\n**Books for Your Older Child**\n\n  * **_Julius, the Baby of the World_** by Kevin Henkes\n\nbe able to move her hands more purposefully. Even if your baby enjoyed being swaddled as a newborn, it's important now that you leave her hands free so that her random hand movements can become controlled. From eight to ten or twelve weeks of age, toys that are light, easy to grasp, and make some sound can help your baby establish a connection between herself and her hands.\n\nAs your baby begins to explore his ability to control his hands in order to touch something he is looking at, you can help him make the connection by purchasing or making lightweight fabric rattles that can fasten around his wrists. As he waves his arms around, the noise will capture his attention and direct his eyes to what his hands are doing.\n\nAfter twelve weeks, your baby no longer needs the noise to direct his attention to his hands; he knows exactly where they are and is intent on watching them. As he practices bringing his hands together in front of his face, then spreading them apart, then moving them out of sight, you can offer him opportunities to enhance his fine motor skills by handing him objects and letting him explore different sounds and textures.\n\nYour baby will use his hands to explore things through tactile sensation. You'll notice that although he becomes more and more accurate at reaching out to touch objects, he still has trouble picking them up. It will be several months before he develops the ability to use his fingers and thumb in the pincer grip that lets him manipulate smaller objects. At about three months he will use a two-handed approach to trapping objects, dragging them toward himself, often between his wrists, then scooping them up with his palms.\n\nOffer him a variety of surfaces to explore: rugs, fabrics, smooth and rough surfaces. Attach an activity board to the side of his crib. He may only swipe at it for now, but it offers all kinds of tactile, visual, and tonal stimulation.\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _Mini Conductor_\n\nAllow your baby to grasp your forefingers in her fists. Slowly move your hands back and forth, up and down. She will follow the movement of her hands with great interest. Add some music (of course we like the Baby Prodigy _Musical Pacifier_ CD series!), and ta-da\u2014your baby's conducting her first symphony.\n\n#### _Silk and Satin, Leather and Lace_\n\nScraps of fabric give your baby a chance to explore different sensations. Offer him a washcloth or a blanket with a smooth satin edge. Let him lie on the leather couch in the living room (and stay right next to him, because if you glance away for even a minute, I guarantee that will be the moment your little darling learns to roll over!) or hand him a plush animal. At first he may grasp the objects in his fist, but in a few months he will be able to feel the different fabrics more sensitively, using his fingertips.\n\n## HOW IT ALL FITS: SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT\n\nLike a camera coming into focus, your baby's vision improves at two months, then again at four months, and finally reaches 20\/20 at or around six months. Before three months, infants see best with their peripheral vision. They notice movement and can appreciate high-contrast patterns. Many of the games from the previous chapter will continue to delight your two-month-old. As her vision continues to develop, your baby becomes increasingly aware of her environment and able to study things by staring right at them. She can now follow objects that move in a circle (like mobiles). Our oldest daughter was absolutely fascinated by the ceiling fan. We would turn it on at high speed, at low speed, with the light fixture on or off. I even added a brightly colored tassel to the pull string. It was good for at least five minutes of silence as she stared wide-eyed at the rotating fan, as if hypnotized. Later, she would wave her arms toward the ceiling, like she was carrying on a sign-language dialogue with the whirring blades.\n\nNow that your baby is aware of the visual world around her, you need to ensure that she has something interesting to look at. I'm not recommending that you rush out and buy mobiles or mirrors or picture books and cover every inch of your baby's waking environment. Remember, _all_ objects are new to your baby, so she will enjoy almost anything you show or hand to her. Color, shape, sound, and weight are what make things interesting to babies. Remember, too, that you do not want to overstimulate your child. Don't offer more than one or two objects at a time, and be alert for any signs that your little one has had enough stimulation.\n\nHere's a short list of common household sights and objects to get you thinking about what kind of everyday things can provide visual stimulation for your child.\n\n  *   shadows on painted walls\n\n  *   venetian blinds\n\n  *   ceiling fans\n\n  *   faces\n\n  *   white paper plates with simple black or red shapes or simple faces\n\nYour baby is still attracted to black-and-white images, but as he approaches the end of his third month, he is growing more attracted to some primary colors, especially red. A study headed by Dr. Melanie J. Spence at the University of Texas at Dallas School of Human Development showed that infants of three months are able to differentiate between black and white and primary colors and that they prefer red and yellow over blue and green.\n\nAlong with an improvement in their vision, babies also begin to experience an improvement in their ability to control the movements of their arms and hands. As I discussed above, your baby will find her hands endlessly interesting. This interest in looking at things and reaching for things is the beginning of hand-eye coordination.\n\nBy the end of the third month, your baby will be able to purposely swipe at things. Toys such as a woolly ball can be strung up above his crib, so the ball is about ten inches from his face. He probably will not yet reach for these toys with the intent of grabbing them. Right now he's still concentrating on making those unpredictable hands and arms move the way he wants them to! He will bat at the ball, sometimes connecting with it to make it swing. You can also hang a light rattle as well. The sound, combined with the movement when he makes contact, will be very satisfying to him indeed.\n\nIn addition to mastering hand-eye coordination, your baby is on the way to developing his understanding of cause and effect!\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _Playing Catch_\n\nHold a brightly colored ball about twelve inches away from your baby's face and just below eye level. (A ball that squeaks or has a bell is even better for capturing his attention.) Watch as your baby looks first at his hands and then at the ball, and then brings his hands together to clasp the ball. This exercise stimulates hand-eye coordination. Entertain your baby and yourself by adding your best sports announcer's play-by-play: \"Sam goes deep in center field. He sizes up the hit; he's looking at his glove, the ball, his glove... and... what a grab! He's got it, ladies and gentlemen! That's the third out and Team Baby wins the World Series.\"\n\n#### _Shake Your Booties_\n\nTreat your baby to a low-tech rhythm section by making maracas. Set two paper plates face-to-face, then staple around the edges of the plates, fastening them together but leaving an opening at the top. Fill with dried rice, beans, or seeds. Staple the opening securely shut and decorate the plates with bold colors and simple shapes. Keep the beat to your own singing, or shake along with a favorite CD selection. Don't let your baby get her hands on this instrument, however; she could open it, and the filling could be a choking hazard.\n\n## GET UP AND GO: GROSS MOTOR SKILLS\n\nAs your baby's control over her body moves downward, from head to feet, she begins to develop more strength in her torso. She enjoys being propped up in a sitting position, but you need to be careful. Until she is five or six months old, she will probably gradually slump or slide down in the place where you have propped her, and will be unable to wriggle back up into a comfortable position. Fabric \"bouncing chairs\" can provide her with exactly the kind of firm slope that allows her to sit up and see what's going on without collapsing over in a saggy heap! When she can lift her head and shoulders out of the chair, you can let her try supported sitting without the chair.\n\nIf you're using a bouncy chair you'll soon notice that your baby is also hard at work on mastering control of his legs. He'll quickly figure out that his legs, which used to jerk and twitch spastically, can now kick in a smooth and coordinated bicycle style.\n\nAs your child begins to develop his own personal physical-fitness program of kicking, arm waving, and rolling over, you need to be sure to provide him with plenty of opportunities to practice unrestricted movements. But be careful: Many parents have discovered their baby has mastered the new skill of rolling over only after they hear the distinctive thump and wail of a small body dropping off a bed as they stand nearby folding laundry! Allow for plenty of floor time (the safest place for practicing his rolling-over skills) and don't keep him cooped up in a stroller or baby seat. \"Tummy time\" is still important, as your baby works at strengthening his neck, shoulder, and forearm muscles.\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _Ready for Takeoff_\n\nLet your baby fly! Hold her securely with her belly resting on the inside of your forearm and your hand cupping her chest. Drape one of her legs on either side of your arm and use your free hand for additional support. Slowly and smoothly at first, and then at varying speeds, move her away from and then back toward your body. Add interesting noises like whooshes and engine sounds as she waves her arms and legs and \"flies\" from place to place.\n\n#### _Seesaw_\n\nWith your baby lying on his back, gently grasp his wrist and pull him upright to a sitting position. Make sure he is strong enough and has enough muscle control that he can hold his neck steady as you bring him up. Steady him in a sitting position for a few minutes, then slowly lower him back down. Add funny expressions to your face as you pull him toward you and sound effects as you lower him.\n\n**Safety Watch: Bathing Your Baby**\n\n  While you may have been able to get through the first month of your baby's life with simple towel baths, the day has come when both you and your baby are confident enough to graduate to bathing in a baby tub or sink.\n\nBy about two months, most infants enjoy being naked and will kick and splash gleefully. Instead of tensing themselves against the water, babies now delight in the sensation of floating and are thrilled to learn that with the water supporting some of their weight, they can do their best and hardest kicking. This kind of gross motor stimulation is important for your baby's physical development and has the added benefit of leaving your baby relaxed and thoroughly exercised. Scheduling a bath before your baby's evening feeding can be beneficial in promoting a good night's sleep.\n\nAlthough many parents may find bathing a squirming, slippery baby an intimidating prospect (I know I did!), a few simple tips can make bath time your baby's (and your) favorite time:\n\n  * A baby bathtub that can rest on the counter or fit in the sink will spare you backache. Or if you have a big enough sink in your kitchen or bathroom, you can pad the sink with towels to make a safe bathing place. Make sure that you turn the faucet away from your baby or wrap it with a washcloth to avoid scalding drips.\n\n  * Before beginning the bath, collect everything you need: towels, clean clothing, warm water.\n\n  * If you're still shaky about washing your baby's hair, undress him and swaddle him in a towel on your lap. Holding him on your lap or in a football hold (your hand supporting his head and neck, his body tucked under your arm), rinse his hair and wash his face.\n\n  * Support his head and neck with one hand, his bottom and thighs with the other, and lower him into the bath. Hold him while he gets used to it, then remove your hand from his bottom. Keep supporting his head and use your free hand to wash and play.\n\n  * Lift your baby from the tub by sliding your hand back under his bottom and gripping one of his thighs. Keep a good grip\u2014he'll be slippery. Gently lay him down on a large, soft towel and pat him dry.\n\n  * Baby lotions are not necessary but can smell nice. You should never use talcum powder on your baby; if you want to use a powder, look for one with a cornstarch base.\n\n#### _Take Your Mark, Get Set..._\n\nLet your baby lie on her tummy on the floor. Place your hands behind her feet and let her push off against your palms. At first she'll probably just be flexing and strengthening her legs, but before you know it, she'll have coordinated her efforts and be able to push off and scoot forward on her chest. Toward the end of the third month, this is a great exercise to stimulate creeping, the precursor to crawling.\n\n#\n\n  _was so happy the day that Debbie could sit on my lap and hold her head still to look at me. No more wobbling! Even more exciting was the day she could sit up and play. It doesn't seem that long ago that I would prop her up, and then have to run right over to stop her from tipping to one side. She seems so excited to explore her newfound abilities. I love watching her little hand reach out for her toys. And, at last, her big sister is able to play new kinds of games with her\u2014games that are interesting to both of them! Debbie has so much more to do now that she sits up\u2014and so do we._\n\n_Denise, Debbie and Daisys mom_\n\n## TIME FLIES\n\nIt's amazing to think that your baby is a quarter of the way to her first birthday already. All the adorable outfits you bought when she was first born no longer fit. She's wriggling out of the little plastic bathtub she used to be able to swim in. And after a full day of carrying her in the baby carrier, you need a few more yoga stretches to work the kinks out of your back before bedtime. It seems like every time you turn around, she's grown another inch or gained a few more pounds. But she's doing so much more than just adding upward spikes to the growth chart in her baby book. Even as you measure her physical progress, take the time to marvel at the amazing bounds she's made in emotional and intellectual development. The stimulation you provide in all your interactions with your child keep her entertained and engaged, even as important neuronal connections continue to be formed and enhanced.\n\nYour baby's interest in the world at large is exploding. She's exploring her environment at a phenomenal pace\u2014 there's so much to discover and learn!\n\n## AN INTREPID EXPLORER\n\nOver these next few months, you'll be able to add all kinds of milestones to the baby book as your child embarks on new adventures in eating, conversing, and playing. First foods, first \"words,\" and first teeth are all introduced into your relationship. You'll also notice that your baby is more actively _initiating_ interactions that stimulate all of his senses. He may be reaching out toward you, eagerly touching you, and exploring your mouth, nose, and ears with his finger. One father jokes that he was sure his son would grow up to be a dentist, given the baby's early and intense interest in exploring his father's molars for minutes at a time.\n\nYour baby's vision and memory are becoming more strongly linked. He will begin looking for dropped objects\u2014 and expecting you to notice he has dropped something as well. He may begin showing caution or fear by turning away, crying, or clinging at the sound of strange voices or when exposed to new situations. His verbal communications become clearer as he makes his moods known by fussing, or by calming himself, more deliberately. And of course, his mouth becomes another tool in his ongoing quest for knowledge as he explores the taste and texture of everything he comes in contact with.\n\nThe activities and stimulation you provide as you interact with your baby during these months will serve as early lessons in cause and effect. At first it will dawn on your baby that she can elicit your smiles and attention by smiling or verbalizing. Later, as you offer her a rattle to hold, she'll figure out that shaking the toy causes it to make a sound. Still later, she'll realize that holding her arms out toward you results in being scooped up for a cuddle. What all this means for you is that you now have an active participant in the games that you've been playing all along. You'll notice that some of the activities suggested in this chapter are similar to those in the previous chapter. Repetition is an important part of solidifying the connections your baby is making through the activities you do with her each day. For newborns, the games I suggested in the previous chapters laid the foundation for the creation of early\n\nGames Siblings Play\n\n  Much to your older child's interest and\u2014I hope\u2014delight, his baby sibling is turning into an interactive, admiring playmate. Your baby's smiles and laughs can charm her siblings as much as they charm you. Steer your older child toward rhyming or singing games where he can handle the actions and words and the baby can provide the appreciative audience. Some of the early favorites for toddler-led games in our household included:\n\n  * **Peekaboo.** The best of all the games in terms of eliciting a satisfying reaction from the baby.\n\n  * **Ring around the Rosie.** I would modify this game so that I held the baby in one arm and used my free hand to hold my older daughter's hand as we slowly spun in a circle. This works best when baby is in a front carrier. The \"all fall down\" part adds a greater thrill when you participate as well!\n\n  * **Old MacDonald.** You can provide the lyrics and leave the animal noises to the older child. It won't be long before the baby clamors to join in.\n\nmemories. Now you can build on those memories as you stimulate your older infant at a different level. Your relationship becomes more interactive each day, and it is important that you allow for your baby's participation. She will be eager to assert herself.\n\n## SLEEPING AND WAKING\n\nI know you're hoping that this is the point where I tell you that your baby will be sleeping straight through the night. And I hate to disappoint you, but with two children of my own, I know better than to make any promises. What I _can_ tell you is that by now, your baby may be sleeping up to eight consecutive hours each evening\u2014and of course, we've all heard of those lucky parents whose little angels are consistently logging a solid twelve-hour stretch of shut-eye each night.\n\nWhat is important at this stage of development is that you and your partner have a clear philosophy about sleep. You may decide that it's important to teach your baby how to fall asleep on her own and how to resettle herself if she wakes in the night. You may decide that you want to lull your child to sleep each night, singing lullabies and rubbing her back until she is soundly sleeping. You may decide that co-sleeping, which is also sometimes called a family bed, is the right approach for your family. There are many parenting books specifically devoted to the subject of children and sleep. I've listed a few in the appendix. Consult them for help in determining which method is best for you.\n\nAccording to most baby books, the \"average\" baby, between the ages of three and six months, will sleep between fourteen and sixteen hours a day. Now repeat after me: \"There is no such thing as an average baby!\" Some babies need more sleep, some less. Your baby will establish her own routine, but I can offer you a few basic tips for enhancing good sleep habits:\n\n  *   **Encourage longer, more regular naps with longer periods of wakefulness between them.** By the fifth month, your baby should be able to stay awake for about three and a half hours at a stretch. Help her expand her awake time by engaging her in activities she enjoys before offering her a feeding. Be careful not to overstimulate her when you _do_ want her to go to sleep.\n\n  *   **Keep to a schedule.** As much as possible, keep meals, outings, and baths at or around the same time each day. Routines will help your baby learn to anticipate what is expected of her.\n\n  *   **Whenever possible, put your baby to sleep in his crib.** He will soon associate his crib with sleep.\n\n  *   **Whenever possible, put your baby in his crib when he is drowsy, but still awake.** This will help him to learn to fall asleep on his own.\n\n## STIMULATING YOUR BABY\n\nIn every interaction with your child, you should be aware of how you can actively stimulate more than one of her senses and enhance all the connections that are forming. It may sound intimidating, but I want to reassure you that your natural instincts in caring for and playing with your child remain your best tools in enhancing and encouraging your baby's development.\n\nAt this important stage, when your baby is learning that he can have an effect on your behavior, it is important that you watch carefully and observe how your baby signals you. You may have a very outgoing baby who has great motor control and can use his body, such as by waving his hands or pointing, to express his desires. Or your baby may be a strong communicator who has developed a particular pattern of sounds to indicate what he wants. What's key here is observing the patterns of your baby's behavior and consistently and appropriately acknowledging what he is telling you through his nonverbal communications. Pay attention and learn what those grunts and hand waves mean to your baby, so you can react appropriately. Your reaction will reinforce the concept of cause and effect as well as increasing his ability to communicate\u2014both important milestones.\n\nPay attention to what your baby likes to look at. She will be showing clear preferences at this age. Make sure she has interesting objects to focus her attention on in her immediate environment, but don't overwhelm her. She is still only able to really concentrate on one thing at a time.\n\nFrom about six months on, your baby may be interested in observing moving objects, as long as the movement isn't too quick or jerky. Many parents introduce their children to DVDs or videos, like those in the Baby Prodigy series, at this time. The videos can focus their attention with classical music and show simple objects that they find interesting.\n\n**Your Baby's View**\n\n  What if you were set loose in the most fascinating store in the world, stocked with merchandise that you just couldn't wait to explore? You might be staring at a table full of unbelievably cute shoes, or a counter full of beauty products, or a display of gourmet cookware, or a wall full of flat-screen TVs, or a gym full of high-tech exercise equipment... You get the idea. Of course you'd stare at all the items and maybe tentatively touch one or two. But you might feel overwhelmed by all there was to look at, to smell, to sample.\n\nFinally, after agonizing deliberation, you decide. And from that moment you know what you want. You will not be deterred. You stride toward your prize, ready to claim it. You pick it up, admire it, and prepare to take it home.\n\nAnd then someone comes over and snatches it from your hand.\"No! No!\" she exclaims loudly, talking to you as if you're simpleminded.\"Don't touch that.\"\n\nYou're dumbfounded\u2014and perhaps more than a little upset. _Well, what the heck did they show me all that stuff for?_ you think as you head home, dejected and empty-handed.\n\nThis is how your baby may feel when set loose in your home. Before offering your baby a confounding array of choices, be sure that you are willing to hand over whatever he finally chooses as most interesting. Nobody likes to be tempted and then denied!\n\nSit with your baby while he watches a video or DVD and observe his reactions carefully. If he is smiling and engaged, he is ready for age-appropriate video entertainment. If he becomes fussy, turns away, or cries, he is overstimu-lated by the changing images, and you need to gear down and find his level of comfort with visual stimuli.\n\nOver the next few months, your baby's responses will grow more selective. She will turn her head in the directions of sounds she prefers. She will reserve her high-wattage grins for the people she loves best. Your baby's actions will also become more deliberate. This is a direct result of ongoing fine-tuning of the neuronal pathways that play a role in organized and purposeful communication. Although these changes may be the most remarkable that you observe in your baby during these few months, they are only a few of several areas undergoing important development.\n\n## BABY STEPS\n\nFrom the beginning of the fourth month to the end of the sixth month, your baby will make significant progress, especially in the area of gross motor control. The skills he develops over these three months are the skills that he needs to crawl, walk, run, and climb, so enjoy the little bundle in your arms while you can.\n\nBy the end of the sixth month, your child should have achieved the milestones listed below. If you are concerned about your child's rate of development, consult your pediatrician.\n\n**Feeding Your Baby: Starting Solids**\n\n  Depending on your pediatrician's recommendations, at some time between your baby's fourth and sixth months, you will get the go-ahead to begin introducing solid foods. In the first few months of solid feedings, the amount of food your baby consumes is secondary to the _experience_ of learning about different eating techniques (spoon versus fingers), flavors and textures, and the social aspects of mealtimes.\n\nBefore you can introduce the first bite of baby cereal, your baby must be able to sit upright unsupported and be able to swallow rather than suck. Don't worry if your baby isn't too interested in eating at first, and never force a baby who isn't interested to continue to eat.\n\nIt's easy to find advice on what to feed your baby. There are baby cookbooks for those people who want to prepare all of their baby's first meals by hand. There are prepared baby foods that are organic or all-natural. Your friends with babies of their own might offer advice as, no doubt, will family members. Your pediatrician can also set you on the right\n\nBetween the beginning of the fourth month and the end of the fifth month, your baby should be able to:\n\n  *   lift her head upright when lying on her stomach\n\n  *   laugh\n\n  *   follow an object as it is moved above her face from one side to the other\n\n  *   hold her head steady\n\ntrack. The next chapter will talk a bit about good early finger foods, but for now, here's a list of general tips that I found handy when first introducing solids to my children:\n\n  * **Gruel is great**. Yes, Oliver Twist may have grown weary of it, but a very thinned-out version of cereal is your best bet for pleasing early eaters. I used rice cereal thinned with breast milk until it wasn't much thicker than soup.\n\n  * **One for you, one for me.** Spoons, that is. Your baby will be as interested in grabbing the spoon as she is in the food that's on it. If you're really serious about getting the food into her, provide a second spoon for her entertainment between bites.\n\n  * **Bowls of cereal are easily confused with finger paints.** If you want to discourage your baby from splashing around in her dinner, keep the bowl close to you. She'll be just as happy drawing patterns on her tray with the drips that fall from the spoon!\n\n  * **The bigger the bib, the better.** Enough said. Except that you may also want to wear an apron to protect you from the inevitable swat that sends a spoonful of cereal flying.\n\n  *   roll over\n\n  *   grasp a rattle\n\n  *   reach for an object\n\n  *   make a razzing sound\n\n  *   bear some weight on her legs when supported\n\n  *   turn in the direction of a voice\n\n  *   verbalize a few vowel-consonant combinations\n\nBy the end of the sixth month, your baby should be able to:\n\n  *   sit without being supported\n\n  *   stand if holding on to something\n\n  *   pass an object from hand to hand\n\n  *   pick up a small object in a pincer grasp\n\n  *   babble steadily in vowel-consonant combinations\n\n  *   feed herself a cracker or piece of cereal\n\n  *   say \"ma-ma-ma\" and \"da-da-da\" (although not discriminately)\n\n**Dookie Says**\n\n  _\"I don't understand why Daddy gets so frustrated at dinnertime. This stuff they're giving me is so interesting. When I try to grab it, it just squishes through my fingers. I can draw on my tray with it, too. And the spoon! It's so much fun to wave it around and it makes a great noise when I bang it on the table. Daddy just keeps saying \"No!\" and pushing my hands away and taking the spoon. I guess this eating thing is not as fun for him as it is for me!\"_\n\nNo parent wants to raise a child without manners. But the early days of feeding solids are not the time to be a stickler for Emily Post's rules of etiquette. Remember that your baby is now capable of integrating multiple senses to learn about new experiences. Eating and playing with food or utensils is a part of that process. Be sure to make your child's early exposure to mealtimes a positive experience. Believe me, you'll have years and years during which you can remind him to take his elbows off the table during dinner!\n\n**Heigh-Ho, Heigh-Ho! It's Off to Work We Go**\n\n  For many working parents, the beginning of the fourth month signals a return to work and a need for high-quality child care for their baby. Deciding on another person to take care of your baby when you are not able to will be one of the most important decisions you make as a parent. One of the most common worries is that your baby will come to love her daily caregiver more than she loves you, her parents. I want to reassure you that no matter how much your baby loves her alternative caregiver, she will always love you in a completely unique way. The bond that you have created by interacting and stimulating your baby over the early months of her life is unbreakable.\n\nHowever, your child's attachment to his caregivers is vital to his development. Studies show that babies attach to the people who give them companionship and stimulation, not necessarily to people who attend only to their physical needs. You have spent the last few months consciously stimulating your baby in natural ways that will enhance his potential and development. You _know_ what your baby needs to be smarter and happier, and it is important that you find a child-care situation that continues to let him thrive. A child who experiences consistent, dependable care that is responsive to his signals and needs will develop a lasting confidence that his needs will be met, which in turn leads to a trust both in others and in his ability to communicate what he needs.\n\nWhen evaluating any type of child-care situation, whether one-on-one or group care, consider the following important guidelines.\n\n**One caregiver** :\n\n  * Make sure the caregiver is sensitive to each child's needs and unique individual developmental and cultural characteristics.\n\n  * Notice whether the caregiver's interactions with your infant are frequent and of high quality.\n\n  * Ensure that the caregiver responds to both verbal and physical signals from your baby.\n\n**A home, institutional, or other group day care situation** :\n\n  * Check to see if the caregivers have attended courses, workshops, or staff development programs.\n\n  * Be satisfied that the staff can bond strongly with your child.\n\n  * Look for small groups of children.\n\n  * Ensure that there is a primary caregiver assigned to infants and toddlers.\n\n  * Look for scheduling that keeps a child with an assigned caregiver for as long a period as possible. Children attach most securely to a person who gives them companionship and stimulation on a regular basis\u2014not simply to the person who meets only their physical needs. Make sure your baby gets a chance to really get to know the caregiver who is looking after her.\n\n  * Ask about staff turnover; it should be low.\n\n  * Be an active, participating parent.\n\nShould you be worried when your baby does attach to her caregiver? Absolutely not. In fact, a 1991 study from the University of Minnesota Center for Early Education and Development, which reported on attachment and bonding, showed that children with secure early attachments are more likely in later years to:\n\n  * be better problem solvers\n\n  * form friendships and be leaders\n\n  * be more empathetic and less aggressive\n\n  * engage the world with their confidence\n\n  * have higher self-esteem\n\n  * be better at resolving conflict\n\n  * be more self-reliant and adaptable\n\nIf you choose to or have to go back to work, base your child-care decisions on what you have learned about your baby in these early months. When you are able to make knowledgeable decisions about child-care situations, you can return to work\u2014confident that your child will continue to thrive. And, of course, there is plenty of time during the day\u2014before you go to work, and once you have returned home\u2014when you can focus exclusively on your baby, giving her the kind of stimulation she most enjoys and playing the games you have both come to anticipate and enjoy.\n\n## BABY TALK\n\nFrom the beginning of the fourth month to the end of the sixth month, you can expect to see a leap in your baby's language development. Action and response games take on new weight as your baby engages in meaningful two-way communication with you. At first her responses will simply be a gleeful smile or a wriggle of delight. Soon she will be mimicking sounds back to you. Pay attention to how your baby responds to your overtures. When you are talking to your baby, make sure you face her and look at her face for her response. She will learn that her expression will lead you to continue the conversation. My daughter loved a game called \" 'Round and 'Round the Garden\" (see below) when she was about five or six months old. When I got to the part that immediately preceded the tickle under her chin, she would tense with excitement, her eyes wide with anticipation. Sometimes she would even burst out laughing before the tickle. I loved seeing how she learned what was coming next, her expectant gaze on mine as she waited for her favorite part of the game.\n\nAs your baby goes into his sixth month, you will notice that his comprehension is beginning to sharpen. He may recognize names (Mommy, Daddy, those of siblings) and basic words such as \"no,\" \"bye-bye,\" or \"bottle.\" Your baby begins to attach meaning to words through repetition. So although you may not feel like saying \"bye-bye\" to the dog every time you leave the house, it's a good idea to do so. Adding a wave helps by connecting a gesture to the word.\n\nBy the same token, showing and telling become important ways to emphasize language. Use single words as you show baby common items. For instance, when changing your baby, hold up the diaper and tell him, \"Diaper. Let's change your diaper.\" At lunchtime, show him the spoon and say, \"Spoon. We eat lunch with a spoon.\" Allow your baby time to process each concept as you introduce it.\n\nWhile you may get tired of repeating yourself, rest assured that your baby can't get enough of the same words, stories, or songs. Have a few favorites that you can use consistently. Whether it's \"Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star\" or \"Itsy-Bitsy Spider\" or traditional nursery rhymes like \"Hey Diddle Diddle\" or \"Humpty Dumpty,\" rhyme and repetition help your baby develop an ear for the rhythm of speech and the flow of words. If you have any doubts about the power of this approach, I can tell you that one mother of a now nine-year-old girl recently told me that her daughter still recites _The Cat in the Hat_ from memory. Not surprisingly, it had been one of her favorite stories as a baby.\n\nYour baby is also discovering how to use his developing language skills to be sociable. Unfortunately, your little chatterbox does not possess the skill of volume control at this point! Be prepared for full-volume displays of his whole repertoire of laughs, squeals, and babbling\u2014even at inopportune times.\n\nBooks remain a great source of stimulation for your baby at this age. They can also provide you with opportunities to allow your baby to practice nonverbal response. When looking at a picture book, ask your baby questions like \"Where's the kitty?\" (or doggie, or baby, or Mommy, etc.). Pause and give her a chance to respond. At first she may glance expectantly at you, waiting for you to answer. Soon, she will begin to connect the word \"kitty\" with the picture on the page and will direct her gaze to the book. One day, no doubt to your surprise and pride, she will touch the book, placing her little finger right on the picture of the kitten.\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _Classic Rhythm and Rhyme_\n\nThere are many rhyming games you can play with your baby that combine hand movements or touch with short, rhythmic sentences. Here are a few of my favorites:\n\n**'Round and 'Round the Garden:** _'Round and 'round the garden, goes the teddy bear_ (rub your hand in a circular motion on your baby's tummy). _One step, two steps_ (slowly walk two fingers up from baby's tummy to chest, pause dramatically, and then swoop in for the last line). _Tickle me under there!_ (tickle your baby under her chin).\n\n**This Little Piggy:** _This little piggy went to market_ (wiggle baby's big toe). _This little piggy stayed home_ (wiggle second toe). _This little piggy had roast beef_ (wiggle third toe). _And this little piggy had none_ (wiggle fourth toe). _And this little piggy_ (hold pinky toe) _cried \"weee weee weee\" all the way home_ (run your fingers up baby's legs and end with a gentle tickle).\n\nTry varying the game by changing words or skipping a toe and see if your baby notices.\n\n**Pop Goes the Weasel:** Have your baby sit on your knees, facing you, to play this game. Hold her securely under the arms until she has mastered sitting unsupported\u2014then you can hold her by the hands or wrists for more excitement.\n\nGently bounce your knees as you sing: _All around the mulberry bush, the monkey chased the weasel. The monkey thought it was all in fun..._ (pause, and then give a big bump with your knees as you sing) _POP! goes the weasel._\n\nMake sure you pause before the big bounce and \"POP!\" so your baby can anticipate what is coming. Once she knows the song, she may try to pop herself up\u2014or even vocalize to \"POP!\" along with you.\n\n#### _Farmyard Fun_\n\nAnimal sounds are a big hit with babies in this age group. When you point out a particular animal to your baby\u2014in a book, on the street, in your home\u2014make the corresponding sound and encourage your baby when he makes similar sounds. _Moo, Baa, La La La_ by Sandra Boynton is a great book to use when introducing this concept.\n\n#### _Teddy Bear T\u00eate-\u00e0-t\u00eate_\n\nHelp your child develop language and social skills at the same time by using his favorite stuffed toys or plush puppets to carry on conversations. You can have the plush playmates talk to each other, to your baby, and to you. Change the pitch and intonation of your voice for each character. If you're fluent in a second language, perhaps \"Se\u00f1or Gato\" or \"Mademoiselle Chat\" can help you to begin to introduce words and phrases. (For more on bilingual babies, see the next chapter for ages seven through nine months.)\n\n## THE LITTLE THINGS: FINE MOTOR SKILLS\n\nDuring the early part of this time period, your baby is still working on gross motor skills. As she gradually begins to master the movement of her arms, torso, and legs, she'll\n\n**Bookshelf**\n\n  Your baby may be starting to become more interested in sharing a \"reading\" experience with you. Most babies of this age enjoy looking at realistic pictures, especially of family members. Remember that your baby still considers all books fair game for tasting and tugging, so no first editions just yet! Following are some of my favorite reading materials for four- through six-month-olds:\n\n  * plastic\/vinyl books for bath time\n\n  * a small photo album with family and pet pictures\n\n  * fabric books that are washable for cuddling and chewing\n\n  * _Clap Hands_ by Helen Oxenbury\n\n  * **_That's Not My Puppy..._** by Fiona Watt and Rachel Wells\n\n  * **_Pat the Bunny_** by Dorothy Kunhardt\n\n  * **_Moo, Baa, La La La_** by Sandra Boynton\n\nbegin to refine her ability to use her hands. By four months your baby will swipe at things that interest her. Swiping will quickly turn into grabbing. Your baby will enjoy grabbing on to any object you hand her. If her hands are clenched into fists, try offering her objects by touching them to the back of her hand. But it won't be long before she is reaching for things with an open palm and figuring out how to grab on to them. Babies at this age will enjoy handling most objects you offer to them\u2014and many you don't (like your earrings, hair, nose, etc.). Finally, she'll move on to picking items up with her forefinger and thumb in what is called a pincer grasp.\n\nMake sure your baby has a wide range of things to practice grabbing on to. Squishy throw pillows in different fabrics and textures are easy to grab; small plastic containers filled with objects like beans or marbles or paper clips make noises and shift balance as they are handled (see cautionary note below if using objects with small parts); small plush toys have different parts to grab and explore (look for ones that have bells or rattles inside); different types of paper are visually interesting and make sounds when crumpled.\n\n**An Important Note of Caution:** I see nothing wrong with letting your baby play with common household items but you must be _very careful_ to ensure his safety. Remember that, at this age, your baby explores with his mouth as much as his hands! Be sure that lids on containers are tightly sealed if small objects are inside, or use empty plastic medicine bottles with childproof caps. Make sure that containers are clean and free of paper labels that might be gummed off. Avoid using containers or items that held or contain toxic paints or other dangerous substances, and be sure nothing has sharp edges. Unless you are completely sure you're offering your baby a totally child-safe toy, do not let your baby out of your sight or reach! Instead, join your baby in his exploration of these fascinating household items.\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _Patty-cake and Clap Hands_\n\nAny games that draw your baby's attention to his hands are good at this stage. Demonstrate by clapping your own hands, then hold your baby's hands and guide them through the finger play as you sing along. You'll be surprised at how fast he catches on.\n\n#### _The Cup Clutch_\n\nYour baby may already be able to curl her hands around a bottle and help support it. Now let her explore how her fingers can work to clutch the rim of a small plastic cup or Tupperware container. Put the cup or container down on a flat surface in front of her and watch as she figures out how to pick it up by grabbing it along the edge.\n\n#### _Chomping Cheerios_\n\nBy six months your baby will probably enjoy munching on pieces of cereal. Let him practice his pincer skills by putting a few pieces of cereal on a tray in front of him. It's unimportant whether he actually eats the cereal. The task of picking up small items is what's important. But remember, since your baby also explores _everything_ by putting it in his mouth, you should be sure that you offer him something that is safe to eat and monitor him closely so that you know he is swallowing safely.\n\n**Toy Chest**\n\n  During these few months, common household objects can offer your baby plenty of opportunity for entertainment and exploration. Remember to offer only one or two choices at a time. Don't overwhelm your little one with too many options. Some good items to have on hand for improvisational toys are:\n\n  * wooden spoons\n\n  * plastic dishes\n\n  * plastic containers with tight lids (fill them with objects that make interesting sounds securely sealed into the container)\n\nYour baby will also enjoy playing with:\n\n  * balls\n\n  * simple rolling toys\n\n  * easy-to-grasp plush animals\n\nIf you just can't stay out of the toy stores and know that you're going to make at least one purchase for your baby at this age, I'd recommend getting one of the many kinds of activity tables that are available. These usually have a cloth seat that is surrounded by a plastic tray with different moving toys attached. Sometimes the seat spins around; on some models you can fold down legs to make the table stationary or fold them up under the rounded base to let the whole unit rock from side to side. Your baby can practice standing, spinning, and rocking and will enjoy making all the moving parts of the toys whirl, sway, and jingle. This toy will last well into the next few months and is a great way to keep busy little bodies occupied but safely in one place!\n\n**Safety Watch: Toys and Playthings**\n\n  Childproofing your baby's environment becomes more and more extensive as she grows. In the next chapter I talk about some of the things you need to do to help keep your baby safe once she begins crawling. Right now, as you begin to introduce a variety of toys and objects to your child for her to handle, you need to evaluate the safety of each item. For instance, you should never, ever allow your baby to play with plastic bags of any type. As you consider what household items might make an intriguing toy for your intrepid explorer, consider the following:\n\n  * Can this item break?\n\n  * Are there sharp edges?\n\n  * Is it too heavy?\n\n  * Will it be toxic if eaten, licked, or gnawed?\n\n  * Does this object contain items that are a choking hazard?\n\n**_One final note:_** Some toys or containers may hold items that could be a choking hazard for your child. If you choose to let your child play with such a toy (a paper plate maraca filled with dried beans, for example), make sure you stay with her while she is handling the object, so you can step in and redirect her attention if you need to take the toy from her for safety reasons.\n\n## HOW IT ALL FITS: SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT\n\nThis period is the beginning of real coordination and purposeful movement for your baby. He now realizes that he can reach toward an object that interests him and can touch it to cause a reaction. As his gross motor control progresses, he will become even more aware of how to move and affect his environment.\n\nHe is also becoming aware that there is a relation between visual, auditory, and sensory input. At this stage, he will love to play games that involve giving and taking, like the _Hot Potato_ game listed below.\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _Counting Cars_\n\nMost infants love to watch passing traffic. If you live on a well-traveled road, pull up a seat at a window with a good view of the road and settle in. If your street is quiet, a visit to a local caf\u00e9 or park might be a good way to watch traffic. As you hear a car approaching, call his attention to the sound of the motor: \"Here comes the car!\" Your baby will fix his attention on the vehicle and turn his head to watch it speed out of sight. Soon he will begin to anticipate the arrival of the car when he hears the approach of the engine. Discuss the cars with him as they pass by: \"Look, that car is red. There's a truck.\"\n\n#### _Hot Potato_\n\nPass a tennis ball or a squishy plush ball back and forth. Hand it to your baby and exclaim in delight as she clutches\n\n**Dottie Says**\n\n  _\"Mommy loves to take me out visiting. I know she wants to show off how cute and clever I am. In the beginning, I didn't mind meeting all these new people. The truth is, it was kind of a blur. But now! Well, it's sort of scary. Just the other day, some lady calling herself \"Auntie\" tried to pull me out of Mommy's arms. Who is this lady and why is she taking me away? She looked so different from Mommy that it made me cry.\"_\n\nAround six months, your baby may develop what is commonly referred to as \"stranger anxiety.\" Up until now, you may have had the kind of baby that you could hand off to anyone, anywhere without a peep. And suddenly, even Grandma's smiling face can cause an outburst. Your baby is simply trying to deal with too many new and unfamiliar stimuli.\n\nNow that his awareness of his environment is heightened, he needs time to process each of these stimuli\u2014from a distance. Help him find his comfort zone by asking people he doesn't see regularly to let him study them from a distance before they swoop in to touch or hold him. And though it takes the tact of an international diplomat, ask family to be respectful of his need for a little space at first, especially if it's been a while since he has seen them.\n\nMost important, don't worry about this perfectly normal developmental phase and remind your friends and relatives that it's nothing personal.\n\nit to her. Hold out your hands with an expectant look and see if she will pass the ball to you. In no time at all she'll catch on to the game and squeal with delight when you pass her the ball.\n\n## GET UP AND GO: GROSS MOTOR SKILLS\n\nYour baby is on the threshold of real independent movement. He can already roll over, prop himself up on his arms when lying on his belly, and sit up when propped. It's only a matter of time before he learns how to push himself up to sit, creep, or crawl and maybe even pull himself up to stand.\n\nAs he begins to challenge himself physically, his vestibular system (a nerve system centered in the brain stem and linked very closely with the cerebellum and inner-ear mechanism) is developing and allowing him to discover new things about balance and coordination. In your baby's early months, you have helped to stimulate the development of this system, although probably unconsciously. Every time you rocked, carried, or swayed your baby in your arms, you were stimulating this developing system.\n\nAccording to scientists, the vestibular system is one of the first parts of the brain to begin to function after conception. Dr. Richard M. Restak, author of _The Brain: The Last Frontier_ and _The Infant Mind_ , cites evidence accumulated in recent years that points to early vestibular stimulation as crucial in normal brain development. Rocking, jiggling, and moving rhythmically all stimulate the\n\n**Exercising with Your Baby**\n\n  Your baby is experiencing the exciting notion that his body is under his control. And now that you're a few months postpartum, you may be wishing your body would be back under your control! Exercises that you and your baby can do together are great for enhancing his gross motor development and easing yourself back into shape. Start these simple exercises early and gain strength as your baby gains weight.\n\n**Baby bench press.** Tones your biceps, upper chest, and shoulders. Lie on your back with your knees bent and feet flat. Place your baby facedown on your chest with your hands supporting him under his arms. Slowly raise your baby off your chest until your arms are fully extended. Slowly lower baby back down to your chest.\n\n**The butt bounce.** Tones your hips, waist, and buttocks. Sit on the floor with your legs extended. Sit your baby on your lap, with your hands supporting his back and shoulders. \"Walk\" forward on your buttocks, twisting your torso as you go.\n\nvestibular system. Infants who are stimulated by rocking have been shown to gain weight faster, develop vision and hearing earlier, and demonstrate distinct sleep cycles at an earlier age.\n\nAnother study, by Dr. Ruth Rice of Texas, has shown that fifteen minutes, four times a day, of rocking, rubbing, rolling, and stroking a premature baby will greatly enhance that baby's ability to coordinate movement. She makes a further link to cognitive development and the ability to learn.\n\n**Rock and roll.** Tones your abdominals and strengthens your back. Lie on your back with your knees bent and your lower legs held in the air parallel to the floor. Let your baby lie facedown on your shins with his armpits just over your knees. Support him under the arms. Tucking your chin, slowly raise your head and shoulders and rock forward, curling up as your toes touch the floor. Hold for a minute, and then gently roll back, lowering your head to the floor and bringing your lower legs back to parallel.\n\n**Peekaboo sit-ups.** Tones your abdominals. Sit on the floor with your knees bent and feet flat on the floor. Rest your baby on his back on your thighs. Hold his hands or wrists. Keeping your lower body still, gently roll back until your back is flat on the floor. Ask your baby, \"Where's Mommy?\" Roll back up and say \"Peekaboo!\" Don't forget to breathe during this exercise. To make it more challenging, roll halfway up and hold for 30 seconds, before coming all the way up. Bonus: Letting your baby coax you into a giggling fit during this exercise works your abdominals twice as much!\n\nYour baby will still enjoy being rocked. And if he enjoys it, you can add other movements, such as spinning or dipping or swooping from side to side.\n\nIt's important to let your baby learn about her developing motor skills and coordination by letting her try as much as she wants. Allow her space to try to creep. Of course, along with this desire for more movement comes a certain amount of frustration. But don't be too quick to jump in and move your baby if she isn't getting where she wants to be as quickly as she wants to. Babies learn by\n\n**Did You Know?: The Vestibular System**\n\n  The vestibular system refers to the receptors located in the inner ears. Semicircular canals on either side of the inner ear form arches in three different planes that are able to register movement of the head in any direction. It allows us to perceive weight and the effects of gravity.\n\nBut the vestibular system is also very closely related to the entire physiology of our bodies. Overstimulation, particularly of the visual system, can provoke motion sickness, which can be thought of as the vestibular system signaling to the digestive system that something is wrong.\n\nThe vestibular system also strongly influences muscle tone, communicating to the muscles how much they need to counteract the downward pull of gravity. This comes into play each time we perform an activity requiring balance or expend physical effort to climb stairs, adjust to changing levels (as when riding in an elevator), or recover our balance when we step in a hole.\n\nVestibular sensations contribute to the development of the nervous system before birth. The fetus's activity, which is sensed by this system, contributes to brain development during gestation.\n\nFor infants, turning over, being held upright, or being rocked or carried provides necessary vestibular stimulation. As your child grows, she provides herself with all the stimulation she needs: running, jumping, swinging, turning somersaults, or walking on a balance beam.\n\ndoing, and frustration can play an important role in motivating your child to develop the skills that allow her access to the things she wants.\n\nOne of the most frustrating steps in the development of movement is the fact that a baby who wants to creep forward often ends up moving backward instead. Your baby may become incredibly frustrated the first few times she tries to move toward an object and discovers herself scooting farther away from it instead. You can help her to discover forward movement by letting her push off with her feet against the palms of your hands when she is on her stomach.\n\nOf course it's a good idea to have a few diversionary tactics up your sleeve, since your baby's constant quest for independent motion can mean a lot of wriggling, rolling, and slithering\u2014often at inopportune times, like during a diaper change or in the bath! When you need your baby to stay still for a few minutes, make sure you give her something else to do by offering visual stimulation. Hang pictures or tape shiny, interesting paper to the wall near her changing table. Offer easy-to-grip bath toys in the tub. Make sure your baby doesn't come to consider the necessary pit stops as roadblocks on her path to locomotion.\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _Surfin' Safari_\n\nBy about five months, most babies love supported standing. Let your baby stand on your knees as you hold her wrists for balance. As she becomes more secure on her feet, slowly move your knees from side to side and let her follow the motion. As she finds her balance, you can vary the ride by lifting one knee higher than the other or by gently bouncing both knees in varying rhythms.\n\n#### _Stand Up, Sit Down_\n\nWhile he's in a seated position, let your baby grasp your fingers. Depending on how much support he needs, you can close your hands around his wrists or upper arms. Gently pull him up, letting him bear as much weight on his legs as he wants to. Continue to support him as he folds back into a sitting position.\n\n#### _Thrill Ride_\n\nHold your baby firmly under her arms as you slowly spin in a circle. Let her legs fly out behind her. Vary your spinning speed and raise and lower her as you turn. Don't get so dizzy that you lose your balance! Watch your baby's face carefully as you play this game. She should be smiling or laughing, not looking worried. If she doesn't enjoy this kind of thrill just yet, you can hold her in your arms as if to rock her and try some gentle spins or side-to-side swoops.\n\n#\n\n _s a second-time parent, you often think you've seen it all. You're confident that with your second child, you know exactly what's supposed to come next and when. Our first daughter didn't crawl until she was a little over nine months old. My husband and I waited patiently every day for weeks, wondering when she'd achieve that milestone. Once she did, we figured we knew the timetable for crawling. So of course we confidently predicted that our second daughter would learn to crawl on the same schedule._\n\n_One day, when our second daughter was six months old, I noticed she had scooched herself up onto her hands and knees. She was rocking back and forth, as if she was going to take off and go. As an experienced parent, I knew she couldn't be ready to crawl yet; she would crawl when she was nine months old\u2014like her sister did. Imagine my shock when suddenly she just took off Fromthat day on, my smug confidence was gone. This second baby was a whirlwind who loved getting into everything she could._\n\n_Amy, Katherine and Taylors mom_\n\n## A WHOLE NEW WORLD\n\nOver these next three months, you can expect to see your baby's mastery of her developing skills kick into a whole new gear. You will really be able to appreciate how the stimulation you have provided her with since she was a newborn pays off. For example, the hours you have spent rocking your baby and stimulating her gross motor control will allow her to sit unsupported, and then to act upon her increasing desire to crawl. Most parents find this a particularly fulfilling time in their baby's development. It is very rewarding to see the ways in which your stimulation and interaction help shape your child into a confident, happy, and curious baby who is able to quickly process the input from all her senses as she explores her world.\n\n## HERE, THERE, AND EVERYWHERE\n\nThe beginning of your baby's seventh month marks the beginning of a very physical half year. Your baby is learning to sit up on her own; to get around on her own by creeping, scooting, or crawling; and to balance herself on her feet. All of these skills require a great deal of physical effort on your baby's part, and you will see her practicing them endlessly. She is ready to control the body that she has previously worked so hard to command. If you have a very physically active baby, I can promise you that your days of attending to various grown-up chores as your baby sits propped up and watching are over. Get ready to ratchet up your own physical level of activity as you keep up with your newly mobile, endlessly curious little whirlwind.\n\nBut don't think these three months are only about action. Even as your baby works to advance his mobility, he is changing in an amazing number of other ways. He has now discovered that he can use his hands to explore things by means other than grabbing them and moving them to his mouth. He can now touch, pat, and stroke, allowing him to explore the surfaces of items too big to grasp. Texture becomes much more interesting to your baby as he begins to understand that he can learn about things through sensation. Dropping things becomes an endlessly fascinating game as he learns that he can clasp and unclasp his fingers.\n\nYour baby's speech and language capacity is also developing rapidly during this period. She begins to comprehend that the babbling sounds she makes can be social overtures. Babies at this age enjoy \"conversations\" immensely, and your response to their babbled conversation is a crucial part of early language stimulation. Your baby is also learning to connect words to objects. That's right. You didn't just imagine that she looked at her stroller when you said \"go for a walk.\" Or looked right at her father when someone said \"Daddy.\"\n\nYour baby is also working on communicating with you on a more sophisticated emotional level. His crying can signal unhappiness or frustration or rage or fear. Just as it was important to understand what your baby's earliest cries signaled, it is now important to be attuned to what he is telling you when he dissolves into tears. Other emotional developments manifest themselves in an increase of stranger anxiety or sleep disturbances. In this chapter I offer some hints for dealing with these new and often intense feelings.\n\nYour baby is at an exciting developmental stage as she gains control and mobility over these three months. How you respond to her ceaseless need to discover all she can about the larger world that has opened up to her is vitally important to her growth as a smarter, happier baby. Think back to the earlier chapters of this book and the logical way in which your baby has progressed. And how your earliest stimulation has led naturally to this point. Simply by interacting with your baby in a nurturing and responsive way, you've given her the tools she needs to acquire new skills. As she moves through this next developmental stage, remember that babies grow in patterns. From birth they are programmed to be explorers. And it's your job to provide a safe, encouraging environment for their explorations.\n\n## SLEEPING AND WAKING\n\nThe good news is that your baby may finally have settled into a fairly predictable sleep schedule. The bad news is that most babies consolidate their two naps into one longer nap during this time period. Of course, if your baby has always been a good sleeper, the twice-a-day napping\n\n**Games Siblings Play**\n\n  This is a great period for older children. Their baby sibling can now move around enough to play some interactive, physical games but is not so mobile that she can get into all her big brother's or sister's toys. Enjoy this brief moment of peace in your household! Here are some games that are perfect for a crawling baby and her bigger siblings.\n\n  * **Follow the Leader.** Let the older sibling take the lead as he or she encourages the baby to follow on a (safe) obstacle course around furniture, under tables, and over pillows that have been strewn on the floor.\n\n  * **Chase Me.** Reverse the situation and let the baby take the lead as his brother or sister follows him around. \"Gonna getcha\" is the heralding cry of this game as the bigger child manages to grab a tiny toe or ankle before allowing the baby to break free. Be sure to caution the older sibling not to tackle the younger too hard, and watch the first few games to be sure the older child understands that baby isn't indestructible.\n\n  * **Catch or Fetch.** Perfect for babies who can only sit, and easily modified for those who are crawling. Have your older child and baby sit facing each other and gently roll a ball back and forth.\n\nmay persist into his second year. As long as your baby's nighttime quality of sleep is good, don't worry about how much\u2014or how little\u2014sleep your baby requires during daylight hours.\n\nEnsuring a good night's sleep for your baby may require a little more effort right now, mainly because your baby has learned to keep himself awake. If you haven't experienced any sleep difficulties with your baby in the past, don't panic if they surface during these next few months. Whereas in the past he would simply doze off uncontrollably whenever he needed rest, these days excitement, tension, or simply an unwillingness to miss out on any of the action around him can keep him awake well past a reasonable bedtime.\n\nIf you are struggling with your baby's sleeping patterns, there are many child-care books that suggest various techniques for helping babies to fall\u2014and stay\u2014asleep. I don't have a particular program to ensure that your baby sleeps well, but I can offer these few simple steps that worked with my kids and may help prime your baby for a good night's sleep. It's been my experience that a baby who learns to welcome nighttime sleep now is well on the way to being a child who obediently trots off to bed when he is older.\n\nRelaxing bedtime routines:\n\n  *   **A warm bath.** Your crawling baby is probably dirty by the end of the day anyway. Use the sleep-inducing powers of a warm soothing bath to set a bedtime mood.\n\n  *   **A sleepy atmosphere.** Dim lights, quiet, and a minimum of outside distractions will encourage relaxation and sleep.\n\n  *   **A song or a story:** Spend some time cuddling your baby while singing or reading. Gently rock and listen to a favorite CD of soothing songs or classical music. (At our house, music always resulted in a relaxed and drowsy state\u2014often for me as well as my daughters\u2014so we gathered some of our favorites onto the Baby Prodigy _Musical Pacifier_ CDs. You can use ours or make your favorite mix.) It's important to let baby wind down after a busy day of learning.\n\n  *   **Tucking everybody in.** Make sure your baby has her favorite cuddly or comfort object. Put a favorite animal to bed first, tucking it in and kissing it good night.\n\n  *   **Banishing any fear of the dark.** If your baby doesn't like total darkness, make sure he has a night-light.\n\n  *   **See you tomorrow.** Kiss your baby good night and let him know you'll see him in the morning.\n\nYour baby may also be experiencing an increase in night waking. By nine months (or sooner) most babies have given up middle-of-the-night feedings. It is not likely that your baby is waking from hunger. Instead, he may be awakened by loud noises, becoming too cold, an internal disturbance (a dream, perhaps, or something physical like a gas pain or cramp), or teething pain. Believe it or not, babies who do not get enough sleep during the day are often unable to settle into a deep sleep at night and stay there.\n\nDid You Know?: Self-Comforting\n\n  As your baby learns to let herself drift off to sleep, she may employ a variety of behaviors to help her relax and unwind. While you may prefer a hot bath and a cup of chamomile tea to help you ease off to dreamland, don't be surprised if your baby chooses any of the following techniques:\n\n  * **Sucking**. The most basic of all comforting habits for babies. Your baby may choose to suck his fingers, a pacifier, a toy, or a corner of a blanket. Sucking is often combined with other activities, like pulling on his ears, or twisting his hair. Some babies twist their hair so much that they actually start to pluck it out.\n\n  * **Cuddlies.** A blanket, a favorite plush toy, a piece of fabric. Your baby will need this object for comfort and will refuse to relinquish it, even when it becomes worn to a shadow of its former self. If your baby is particularly attached to a particular toy or blanket, buy duplicates and keep them on hand for backups. I can't tell you how awful it is to arrive home after a long trip and unpack, only to find you've left Mr. Bunny back at the hotel.\n\n  * **Rhythmical movements.** Rocking, rolling from side to side, or rocking on hands and knees. This may be soothing to some babies. Others may gently bop their head against the mattress or the head of their crib.\n\nIf your baby wakes in the night, my advice is to go to her and comfort her by laying your hand on her back and gently rubbing or patting. You can offer her a soothing whisper or just tell her, \"Ssshhhhh.\" Do not turn on lights, pick your baby up, or introduce any stimulation (like music). Often your baby will fall back to sleep the moment she feels your hand on her back. If your baby persists in crying or shows other behavior that concerns you, then by all means make sure that she is not sick or otherwise in pain.\n\nThis light sleep, and subsequent restless waking, is common in babies when they are mastering new activities like sitting or crawling, or pulling themselves to a standing position. With an older baby, you may be summoned to his room by a cry, only to find him standing at the rail of his crib. So intent is he on mastering this new skill that he cannot help himself from trying at any opportunity. Unfortunately, until he becomes skilled at letting himself back down, he will stand there stuck, tired, and probably screaming in frustration until you come in and give him a hand.\n\nThese brief night wakings will go on for much of your baby's first year. Don't panic, however, at the thought of never having a solid night's sleep of your own. As your baby internalizes some of the self-comforting techniques above, he will learn to put himself back to sleep from these episodes of waking.\n\n## STIMULATING YOUR BABY\n\nAs your baby spends more and more time wakeful and engaged with the world around him, your opportunities for providing positive stimulation increase. From the seventh through ninth months, you can help your baby become\n\n**Alarm Clock Trick**\n\n  If your baby has gotten herself into a pattern of waking at a certain time every night, you can try this easy trick to see if you can break the pattern. Say your baby is waking at 4:00 each morning, bright, cheerful, and ready to begin her day. And say that you, perhaps, would prefer a more civilized 6:00 a.m. wake-up call. Try setting an alarm clock to wake your baby at 3:00 or 3:30. When she wakes up, go in, comfort her, and soothe her back to sleep. Do this for a week, and then don't set any alarms. After a week of resetting your baby's built-in body clock, you may find that she sleeps through her 4:00 a.m. internal alarm and wakes a bit later. If this doesn't correct your problem, then you may have a bona fide early bird\u2014and my deepest sympathies.\n\nsmarter and happier by using the time you spend with him to focus on enhancing motor, cognitive, and language development. Simple old-fashioned games and activities are often the best way to do this.\n\nContinue to talk to your baby about what you are doing as you move through the day. Using language in relation to ongoing events is one of the strongest ways to enhance brain development in that area. Be aware that the language exposure your child benefits most from is \"live\" language. At this age, language as heard on television is perceived as nothing more than noise. Furthermore, experts believe that information embedded in an emotional context affects neural circuitry more powerfully than information alone. This seems to be particularly true when your baby is learning concepts such as \"more,\" as in \"Here are _more_ Cheerios\" as you hand her another bowl, or \"later,\" as in \"We'll play with the doll _later;_ now we are getting dressed.\"\n\nYour baby will also be testing and improving his cognitive skills, developing a sense of object permanence (the idea that objects, people, and things are present even when he can't see them) and a sense of herself as an independent individual. Mirrors are appealing to babies at this age, as are games like peekaboo and hiding toys under blankets. Stranger awareness, often accompanied by anxiety, is a natural by-product of these developments.\n\nMotor skills are steadily developing as well. Surmounting repeated frustrations, your baby will practice sitting, standing, and crawling. Each skill he masters allows him more opportunities for exploring and sensory stimulation.\n\nChildproofing takes on a whole new importance once your baby reaches this stage. It is vitally important that you provide your baby with a safe environment so he can have the freedom to explore without danger. For parents, these next few months should be a time of extreme vigilance. Let your baby's growing vocabulary be helpful here. Teach your baby words and phrases like \"Don't touch,\" \"Ouch,\" \"Dangerous,\" \"Hot,\" and \"Boo-boo.\"\n\n## BABY STEPS\n\nFrom the beginning of the seventh month to the end of the ninth month, your baby will begin to discover the ever-expanding range of his coordination. From sitting to\n\n**Safety Watch: Babyproofing Your Home**\n\n  There are many babyproofing kits on the market that can help you to make your home safer for your little explorer. But there are also simple, common-sense steps you can take to make your home safer. Here's a long, but by no means comprehensive, list of baby-proofing techniques for your home.\n\n**Kitchen**\n\n  * Install latches on drawers and cabinets that contain items that might harm baby.\n\n  * Remove all poisons or toxic materials from under the sink and place them in locations high enough that even a standing baby won't be able to reach them.\n\n  * Remove magnets from the refrigerator; if they fall and break, your baby can swallow the magnet. Flat, business card-type magnets are okay, although your baby may gnaw on them once he removes them from the fridge.\n\n  * Wash out all bottles of cleaning fluid and other toxic chemicals before throwing them in the trash or recycling bin. Just one drop can be harmful to babies.\n\n**Bathroom**\n\n  * Remove all soaps, razors, and shampoos from the edge of the tub.\n\n  * You may want to cover the bathtub spout to protect your baby from bumping her head on it during bath times.\n\n  * Put a lock on the toilet lid.\n\n  * _Never_ leave an infant alone in a tub. Babies can drown in just an inch or two of water.\n\n**Baby's Room**\n\n  * Any types of mirrors, busy boxes, or crib attachments should be installed on the wall side of the crib so your baby can't use them as a stepladder on her way to climbing out of her crib.\n\n  * Remove mobiles from the crib.\n\n  * Always use the straps on your changing table, and never leave your baby unattended on a surface higher than the floor.\n\n**In General**\n\n  * Cover all electrical outlets, even those behind furniture. It's amazing where those tiny hands can reach.\n\n  * Turn your hot water down to 120 degrees to lessen chances of accidental scalding.\n\n  * Keep houseplants away from your baby. Some are toxic.\n\n  * Move hanging cords from phones, answering machines, and other electronics out of your baby's reach.\n\n  * Do not use tacks or staples to secure electrical cords to walls or molding. Duct tape may be unattractive, but your baby is less likely to pull it off the wall and swallow it.\n\n  * If you have a brick or stone fireplace, consider installing a bumper pad. Think about putting bumpers around glass coffee tables as well. It's probably best to remove glass coffee tables altogether, as the panes may not support the weight of a baby who manages to climb atop the table.\n\n  * Keep your baby away from home exercise equipment. It's easy for small fingers to get pinched or stuck.\n\n  * Cords from window blinds or shades should be lifted out of reach or shortened.\n\n  * Separate dog or cat food from baby. Your baby could choke on a piece of kibble, or your dog could perceive your baby as stealing its food and snap at him.\n\n  * Block off dog or cat doors so your baby does not take to using them as well.\n\n  * Put gates up at the top and bottom of stairs.\n\n  * Get the number of your local poison control center and tape it up in a visible location as well as by each phone. Program it into your cell phone if appropriate. Keep a bottle of syrup of ipecac in your medicine cabinet, but don't use it unless instructed by your pediatrician or poison control center.\n\nstanding, from using bottles to eating finger foods, from crawling to cruising, every activity is an opportunity to explore new frontiers.\n\nBy the end of the ninth month, your child should have achieved the milestones listed below. If you are concerned about your child's rate of development, consult your pediatrician.\n\nSometime between the beginning of the seventh month and the end of the eighth month, your baby should be able to:\n\n  *   feed herself a cracker\n\n  *   babble using a combination of vowels and consonants\n\n  *   say \"Mama\" or \"Dada\" (indiscriminately)\n\n  *   sit without support\n\n  *   work to get a toy that is out of reach\n\n  *   pass an object from one hand to the other\n\n  *   pick up a tiny object in a pincer grip\n\n  *   push to her hands and knees and rock back and forth\n\n  *   bear some weight on her legs when supported\n\n  *   stand, holding on to objects\n\n  *   pull to a stand from sitting\n\n  *   \"cruise\" walk by holding on to furniture\n\n  *   play patty-cake or wave bye-bye\n\n  *   play peekaboo\n\nBy the end of the ninth month, your baby should be able to:\n\n  *   understand the meaning of certain words (like \"no\")\n\n  *   say \"Mama\" and \"Dada\" (with appropriate meaning)\n\n  *   say other simple words (like \"bye\")\n\n  *   drink from a cup\n\n  *   crawl quickly and with intent\n\n  *   stand alone, without support\n\n  *   take a few steps without support (Yikes!)\n\n  *   respond to a simple command when combined with hand gestures (your saying \"Give a hug\" with your arms held out)\n\n**Your Baby's View**\n\n  Imagine that you've finally gotten away on your dream vacation\u2014maybe to France or to Greece. You've been on a lovely tour through the streets of the city but are tired and thirsty. You'd love to have a cold drink. There's no caf\u00e9 handy, but you see someone not far ahead and hurry to catch up to her. \"Where could I get something to drink?\" you ask. You are met with a blank stare. The dreaded language barrier looms between the two of you. Thinking quickly, you mime sipping from a cup and are rewarded with a huge smile and hand gestures that direct you just down the street and around the corner, where you find a charming caf\u00e9. _That wasn't so hard_ , you think, as you sit down and repeat the sipping gesture while pointing at the coffee cup on the table across from you. _We understood each other perfectly._\n\nSimple sign language can help your baby as she turns her babbled \"foreign\" speech into recognizable English. By about eight months, babies usually have sufficient motor coordination to begin to make simple signs and gestures to communicate basic needs. Recent research in neuroscience has shown that there is significant overlap between the areas of the brain that control the mouth and speech and the areas that control the hands and gestures. These areas are thought to develop in tandem, with progress in one area enhancing ability in the other. If you are interested in trying sign language with your baby, see the Bookshelf section in this chapter for a few titles that will help you to learn more.\n\n## BABY TALK\n\nYour baby is at an important developmental stage regarding language. But what's important is not that he learns to say particular words or even mimic speech by parroting words back, but that he begin to understand what words mean and how they relate to things. At this age, your baby needs to have plenty of opportunities to listen to conversation, the chance to grasp the meanings of the words he recognizes, and a positive social response when he attempts to join the conversation.\n\nIf you think about it, you've become quite accomplished at understanding what your baby needs or wants over the last few months. In fact, she's been able to communicate her needs very clearly. And she's beginning to understand you as well. Before a baby can speak, she understands dozens of words. When you say, \"Let's put your shoes on,\" and your baby crawls over to her shoes, it's not just a coincidence. Be sure to label items, taking care not to refer simply to \"them\" or \"it.\" Asking your baby \"Where is the ball?\" as you search the room will make a stronger connection than saying \"Where is it?\"\n\nWhat you'll notice over these next few months is the pleasure your baby takes in using sounds, and then syllables that sound like words, to express herself. You will hear lots of babbling as your baby tries out sounds, tones, volume, and conversational rhythms that please her.\n\nIf you speak a second language and would like your baby to be bilingual as well, this is a good time to begin. If one parent speaks a second language, that parent should primarily use that language when speaking to the baby. The other parent should use the language he or she is most comfortable speaking in.\n\nContinue to make reading a daily part of your baby's routine and set an example by letting your baby see you read. Show them \"Mommy's (or Daddy's) books.\" Reading to your baby should be an interactive experience. Take time to point out items of interest on the page and be prepared to revisit favorite books and pages over and over again.\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _Everything Has a Name_\n\nTake your baby for a walk around the house or the neighborhood, pointing out objects as you go. Repeat words often and make sure that your baby is looking at the objects as you name them. Pay attention to what interests your baby. If you are walking outside, and she hears a dog barking and looks around, help her to find the dog. Once she has located it visually you can tell her: \"There's Mr. Smith's _dog._ The _dog's_ name is Blackie. The _dog_ says 'woof, woof'\" Remember to positively acknowledge any comments your baby offers.\n\n#### _Sing-along_\n\nSongs like \"Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star,\" or \"The Wheels on the Bus\" help your baby learn the patterns and intonations of language. Lots of repetitive words allow plenty of chances for your baby to chime in with similar sounds.\n\n**Bookshelf**\n\n  Your baby is able to recognize certain pictures and to indicate which pictures she would like to look at. Board books remain the best choice, as the interest in exploring the paper pages of an illustrated book may result in rips. Exploration of books shouldn't be discouraged, however. Keep a supply of back issues of glossy magazines full of colorful pages on hand. Your baby will enjoy turning pages, crumpling sheets, and generally using the magazine for her own purposes.\n\n**Books for You**\n\nAs I mentioned above, there are several books that tell you how to teach your baby to use infant sign language. Here are a sampling of the many that are available:\n\n  * **_Baby Fingers: Teaching Your Baby to Sign_** by Lora Heller\n\n  * **_Baby Sign Language Basics_** by Monta Z. Briant\n\n  * **_The Baby Signs_** series by Linda Acredolo, Ph. D., and Susan Goodwyn, Ph. D.\n\n  * **_Baby's First Signs_** by Kim Votry and Curt Waller\n\n**Books to Enjoy with Your Baby**\n\nBooks you read to your baby now will likely continue to be favorites well into their second year. Make sure you choose books you enjoy, as you will be reading them over and over again in the coming months! Some of my favorites include:\n\n  * _Read-Aloud Rhymes for the Very Young_ by Jack Prelutsky, illustrated by Marc Brown\n\n  * **_Let's Try_** by Amy MacDonald and Maureen Roffey\n\n  * **_Babies Start Here_** by Bill Gillham and Liz Pichon\n\n  * **_I See_** by Helen Oxenbury\n\n**Dookie Says**\n\n  _\"Eating has become so much more interesting now that I can put the food in my mouth all by myself. Everything feels so different. In fact, a lot of the time, I never even get around to eating what Daddy gives me because it's just so much more fun to squish, smear, smash, and poke at whatever he's offering.\"_\n\nThe development of the pincer grasp opens new frontiers in the dining experience for you and your baby. At this age, your baby is able to effectively gum a wide variety of foods, and you can incorporate lots of new tastes and textures into his diet. Start with foods that are mushy, with a texture just slightly more coarse than pur\u00e9ed baby foods, and move on to manageable sizes of foods that are easily gummed to a consistency that is easy to swallow or that melt in the mouth. Firmer items should be small enough that they don't pose a choking hazard, and softer foods can be slightly larger. If your baby has food allergies or is sensitive to some foods, follow your pediatrician's advice for introducing new foods. And remember, these foods are not meant to meet your baby's full nutritional needs. Your baby will still be getting breast milk or formula and baby cereal. At this age, these food choices are strictly to introduce your baby to the _concept_ of other foods and self-feeding. Most babies will enjoy some or all of the following:\n\n  * whole wheat bagels, bread, or crackers\n\n  * unsalted rice cakes\n\n  * easy to grab O-shaped cereal (without added salt or sugar)\n\n  * puffed rice, corn, or wheat cereal\n\n  * cheese such as Edam, Gouda, baby Swiss, or Havarti\n\n  * chunks of fruit such as banana (very ripe and soft), pear, mango, peach, or melon\n\n  * vegetables (cooked until very tender) such as carrots, broccoli (florets only), mashed peas, or sweet potatoes\n\n  * pasta of various sizes and shapes\n\n  * scrambled egg yolk\n\nDo not offer your baby foods that are a choking hazard or can be sucked into the windpipe, including:\n\n  * whole grapes\n\n  * raisins\n\n  * popcorn\n\n  * nuts\n\n  * whole peas\n\n  * raw vegetables\n\n  * hard fruits (apples, unripe pears)\n\n  * chunks of chicken or meat, including hot dogs\n\nOnce your baby's molars come in toward the end of the first year or the beginning of the second, you may introduce some of these foods, but carefully.\n\nSongs with rhymes will help your baby hear the small differences in sounds. If you don't have an extensive repertoire of baby-friendly tunes, check out the music section at any department store. There are many CDs with songs specifically for children. Be sure that you sing along; it's your interaction with your child that is most beneficial.\n\n#### _Command Performance_\n\nTeach your baby any of the adorably classic baby \"tricks\" and help them link the actions to the words. The positive feedback that your baby will get from both you and equally charmed adults will encourage a positive link between words, actions, and reactions. Some of the simple actions with the highest _\"AWWWWW\"_ factors include waving bye-bye, giving a hug, and blowing a kiss.\n\n## THE LITTLE THINGS: FINE MOTOR SKILLS\n\nAs your baby begins to gain command of his gross motor skills by learning to sit without support, you will notice a parallel development of his fine motor abilities. Once he has more control over his body, his hands become more and more exciting to him. Over the next few months, he will practice picking up objects with his fingers, passing objects from hand to hand, and releasing his grip on objects, allowing them to drop to the floor. It's likely that your baby will still try to further explore all the exciting objects he finds, from carpet fuzz to dog food, by putting them in his mouth. What this means for you is that the time you will gain in your day as your baby learns to amuse himself for brief periods will need to be spent attending to housekeeping! For the next few months it is important to keep your baby's environment cleaner than usual.\n\nThe development of the pincer grasp\u2014using the forefinger and thumb to delicately pick up even the smallest of items\u2014means that your baby can practice feeding himself. There are many appropriate foods to let baby experiment with. I suggest some in the box in this section (see pp. 130\u2013131).\n\nDuring this time, your baby may also begin to show a reliable preference for using one hand or the other. You can help your baby become more competent with her hands by offering a wide variety of items to allow her to experiment with her new skills. Hand her a spoon to hold at supper-time or hand her the washcloth while she's in her bath. You can encourage your baby's growing interest in texture by letting her explore and stroke different surfaces like carpeting, grass, wood or tile, or even family pets.\n\nBe conscious of gesturing when you speak to your baby. Let him watch as you use your hands. Show him how to operate pull toys, using his hands to move the string to bring the toy closer. From now on, your baby is learning how to use objects not only by experimentation, but also by observation.\n\n**An Important Note of Caution:** As I indicated earlier, I see nothing wrong with letting your baby play with common household items, but you must be _very careful_ to ensure his safety. Be sure that lids on containers are tightly sealed if small objects are inside, or use empty plastic medicine bottles with childproof caps. Make sure that containers are clean and free of paper labels that might be gummed off. Avoid using containers or items that held or contain toxic paints or other substances and be sure nothing has sharp edges. Unless you are completely sure you're offering your baby a totally child-safe toy, do not let your baby out of your sight or reach! Instead, join your baby in his exploration of these fascinating household items.\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _Fishing for Toys_\n\nTie pieces of wool yarn to your baby's favorite toy and help her to learn how she can drop or throw the toy and retrieve it by pulling on the yarn. Don't leave your baby alone with any type of toy that has a pull string attached.\n\n#### _Big and Little_\n\nOffer your baby similar items of differing size\u2014your sock and his sock, a big ball and a little ball, a tiny plush animal and a larger one of the same type. He will explore how best to grip and hold objects of varying size. Don't forget to explain to him as you do this that some objects are \"big\" and some are \"little.\" A toy that is ideal for this type of game is the plastic or wooden rings that stack on a spindle. As your baby grows older, he will begin trying to replace the rings on the spindle after he handles them.\n\n#### _Fill 'Em Up_\n\nYour baby will become very interested in putting things into containers and taking them out again. Begin with simple, easy-to-grasp items, like small wooden blocks or\n\n**Toy Chest**\n\n  Household items still make the best and most interesting toys for your baby. During these few months, your baby is focused on mastering crawling; finding, grasping, and examining items of varying sizes and textures; developing expectations about what will happen next; and exploring concepts of permanence and cause and effect. All the toys from the previous chapters can be put to use in more sophisticated ways. Here's a list of other age-appropriate toys to jump-start your imagination. I hope it will get you thinking about what other kinds of common items make wonderful toys that allow you to stimulate your baby in all sorts of ways:\n\n  * pots and pans with lids\n\n  * stacking toys like rings on a spindle or boxes that fit inside one another\n\n  * a jack-in-the-box or other pop-up toys\n\n  * couch cushions for makeshift obstacle courses\n\n  * scarves and pieces of fabric for peekaboo games\n\n  * plush toys for comforting and modeling conversations\n\n  * toys on strings\n\n  * mirrors\n\n  * a flashlight (to play spotlight games and create shadows and patterns)\n\n  * soap bubbles for catching and chasing\n\n  * beanbags\n\n  * activity boards or books with a variety of textures, sounds, and parts that move\n\n**Teething**\n\n  Around six months\u2014sometimes earlier\u2014you should discover your baby's first little pearl of a tooth, usually one of the lower incisors. Once you've made this milestone discovery, teeth will begin erupting fast and furiously for the remainder of the year. By about eight months, most babies have their four front teeth on the top as well as two bottom incisors. By the end of the ninth month, you'll probably see four top and four bottom teeth. Molars generally make their appearance sometime around your baby's first birthday.\n\nHow can you tell your baby is teething? Well, everyone's experience is different, but in general you can be on the lookout for some or all of the following signs:\n\n  * drooling\n\n  * a rash on the face or chin (from all the drooling!)\n\n  * biting (to produce pressure on the gums)\n\n  * pain or discomfort\n\nsquishy balls, and a container that has a wide opening (even a simple box without a lid will do). Show your baby how she can pick objects up and put them in the box. Over the next few months, as her dexterity increases, vary the complexity of the shapes and the size of the opening of the container. This game is also fun in the bath. Provide your baby with plastic cups of varying size and demonstrate how to fill them with bathwater, and then pour it out. Be aware that your baby will probably try to bring the cup filled with water to her mouth\u2014most likely with startling results!\n\n  * general irritability\n\n  * a temporary loss of interest in feeding or nursing\n\n  * ear pulling or the rubbing of cheeks or mouth\n\n  * chewing, chewing, chewing (on anything and everything)\n\nFor some babies, cutting teeth seems to be a breeze. Others have a harder time of it. If your baby seems very uncomfortable, there are a few different remedies you can try to ease teething pain and pressure. Experiment and see what brings your baby the most comfort as you wait for those new teeth to break through.\n\n  * Over-the-counter pain-relief medications may help soothe your baby through the worst of her teething pains.\n\n  * Try offering her cold, hard things to bite on. Most baby stores sell special teething toys that can be stored in the freezer and used for icy relief.\n\n  * Rub her gums with your finger or a cold washcloth. The counterpressure on her swollen gums may bring relief.\n\n#### _The Mystery Box_\n\nTeach your baby about causality and textures at the same time by creating a \"mystery box.\" Cover the open end of a large cardboard box with a piece of fabric with a large hole in the center. Fill the box with a few items of varying textures that are easy to grasp, like scraps of velvet fabric, cotton balls, a plastic spoon, a piece of bark from a tree, a leaf\u2014be imaginative! Show your baby how he can put his hand through the fabric to feel the items, then pull his hand out to more closely examine his prize. (You must not your baby alone with this toy, as he might decide to \"try\" one of the objects in his mouth. If you are going to leave him alone, be sure items in the box are large enough and nontoxic so as not to prove dangerous if baby should decide to taste them.)\n\n## HOW IT ALL FITS: SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT\n\nYour baby is beginning to learn how she and other objects take up space in the world. She will be very interested in games that involve hiding and discovering objects and will probably have a renewed fascination with mirrors and the objects (aside from her own image) that appear in them. Once your baby is crawling, she will explore spatial relations by crawling over, under, or through objects. And when your baby is pulling to a stand or even cruising by the end of the ninth month, she will have added an entirely new dimension to her perception of the world. She is no longer limited to the flat world of crawling along the floor.\n\nThe concepts of both object permanence\u2014the knowledge that an object is still present even when he can't see it\u2014and causality\u2014the exploration of how things work or relate\u2014will come to the forefront of your baby's knowledge over the next few months. You may see your baby rolling his ball or pushing his truck across the floor, only to go after it and push it away again. He is not trying to get the truck or ball as much as he is testing his mastery over his space.\n\nGames that allow your baby to explore all of these new relationships between himself and his surroundings will not only be entertaining but will also enhance his confidence and promote his ability to access references, make judgments, and develop expectations of success at various tasks.\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _Bubbles, Tiny Bubbles_\n\nAnother of our favorite bath time or outdoor games was blowing soap bubbles. Both of my daughters were captivated by the floating bubbles and would reach out, trying to catch them. When they succeeded in touching one, they would laugh in delight as it popped in their hands. This game is particularly fun outdoors, where you can blow bubbles close to the ground and encourage your baby to crawl after them.\n\n#### _Soooo Big_\n\nAsk \"How big is baby?\"\u2014or Kitty or Daddy, or Brother, or Sister\u2014and help your child to spread his arms as wide as he can while you exclaim \"Soooo big!\"\n\n#### _Hide-and-Seek_\n\nThis less-sophisticated version of the classic game involves covering your face, or a toy, or your baby with a cloth or blanket. Ask your baby, \"Where's [fill in the blank]?\" Pull the cloth or blanket away and exclaim, \"There's [fill in the blank]!\" or \"I see [fill in the blank]!\" Before long, your baby will be eagerly reaching out to pull the covering off the hidden object and crowing in delight at his discovery. This version of peekaboo helps to develop your baby's understanding of object permanence, and I guarantee it will be a favorite game.\n\n#### _Is the Glass Half-full or Half-empty?_\n\nUse four baby bottles or sippy cups to explore the difference between full and empty. Fill one bottle with water. Pour half into another, add some food coloring to one of the bottles, and then pour the colored water into a third bottle. Mix the colored water with the plain and watch as they turn the same color.\n\n## GET UP AND GO: GROSS MOTOR SKILLS\n\nMovement is vitally important for an infant during this time period. The more your baby is allowed to move freely and practice his budding motor skills, the more fine-tuned his motor pathways become and the more adept his developing brain will be at controlling and coordinating the movements necessary for sitting, standing, crawling, and walking.\n\nIt's amazing to watch how fast your baby learns to propel herself from one point to another. Much of her movement is motivated by her increasing desire to reach objects of interest. Your baby may follow the common developmental pattern of creeping (wriggling along on her belly), to crawling (moving on hands and knees, on hands and feet, or some combination of those four limbs, including the odd-looking but common \"tripod\" approach, where one knee is on the floor and one leg sticks straight out to the side for more speed), to cruising (standing and pulling, lurching, or shuffling from one piece of furniture to the next). Or your baby may be a \"scooter,\" one who scoots along on her behind, propelled by her hands. I should warn you that most scooters tend to skip crawling altogether in favor of going straight to walking.\n\nThis active stage of babyhood calls for increased vigilance on your part. It's important to remember that your baby needs to learn to sit back down once he's pulled himself to a stand. This can be a trial-and-error process, resulting in more than a few bonks to the head.\n\nThe good news is that babies' skulls are specifically designed for this period of rough use. The soft spot (fontanel) on the top of their head is not fully closed, and the flexible nature of their skulls means that a bop to the head may be painful but not always serious. (Of course, if your baby hits his head hard enough to get knocked out or fails to cry right away after a fall, it could be a sign of a concussion. Standing is best practiced barefoot on wood floors or carpeted surfaces.) If your child is a real daredevil and is inclined to hurl himself around with little regard for his noggin, you can buy colorful foam pieces that fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. Use them as moveable floor pads until your child is steady on his feet.\n\nThe bad news is that your baby will seem to have his most spectacular bumps and bruises right before a doctor's checkup or a visit from his grandparents! I can remember more than one occasion when I had to bring my younger daughter to family gatherings sporting a spectacular bruise and egg combination on her forehead. So do all you can to keep your baby safe until she is confident in her balance. Remove her socks on slippery wooden or tile floors, do not let her practice standing at the edge of the bathtub\u2014or anywhere in the bathroom (trust me on this one!)\u2014and avoid baby shoes indoors so she can use her toes to grip the ground as she learns to balance.\n\nIn these few months, your baby is working toward mastering an incredibly complex set of skills, and you can expect this undertaking to occupy her day and night. Sitting and creeping render anything higher than the floor a new danger zone. Crawling lets your baby explore all corners of your home, and forces you to consider your housekeeping standards and furniture placement. Crib bars make excellent supports for standing, and it's likely your baby will decide that bedtime is as good a time as any to work on her new skill. Unfortunately, once she's standing in her crib, she may realize that the padded crib bumper also makes an excellent stepping-stone. If you don't want her figuring out how to get up and out of the crib just yet, better remove the bumpers now.\n\nDon't let these new challenges frustrate you or cause you to limit your baby's freedom to move and explore on his own. Gates, baby-proofing kits, and constant vigilance are your best investments in maintaining your own peace of mind as your baby makes his way through this key developmental period.\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _She'll Be Coming 'Round the Mountain_\n\nPile up cushions or pillows to make a climbing mountain. Make sure there is adequate padding on all sides of the base of your mountain. Create a tunnel out of a blanket draped over two chairs. Tip large, clean cardboard boxes on their sides. Encourage your baby to crawl up, over, into, through, and around.\n\n#### _In the Spotlight_\n\nUse a flashlight to illuminate toys or different spots in a room. Your baby should crawl toward the lit objects. Once he has the hang of the game, point the flashlight at the floor and let him chase the circle of light from its beam.\n\n#### _Stand Up, Sit Down_\n\nKneel facing your baby, holding his hands in yours. Sit down on the back of your legs while your baby sits on the floor. Say, \"Stand up\" as you pop up to your knees. Help your baby as he stiffens his legs and rises to standing. Say, \"Sit down,\" and lower yourself down again. Keep your baby supported as he figures out how to plop down on his diaper-cushioned behind. Repeat until your knees can't take it anymore.\n\n#### _Dance Party_\n\nPlay up-tempo music for a rockin' dance party as you help your baby learn to \"dance\" on her own. Begin by holding her by the waist and gently bouncing her up and down as she kicks her legs to the music. As she becomes steadier on her feet, hold her under the arms and let her bounce on her legs. When she is standing with confidence, you can hold her hands and let her bounce herself. Throw in special effects via a glittering disco ball and have a blast!\n\n**Dottie Says**\n\n  _\"I can't believe all the things I can do now. I can move to wherever I want. No one needs to carry me for me to be able to look at things. And there are so many interesting things down here. And I get all sorts of new things on my lunch tray. Some are tasty, but others make very excellent pastes and creams. I love to smoosh things between my hands. Can I help it if I get an itchy head right in the middle of squashing up some cottage cheese or eating applesauce, and I have to scratch the itch? But Mommy's driving me crazy\u2014she's always swiping at my face with a cloth or grabbing my hands and washing them off. When I'm wearing the pretty outfits from Grandma, all I hear is 'Don't crawl in that dirt!' How am I supposed to get anything done when I have to get wiped down all the time?\"_\n\nSad, but true: That little doll you were able to dress in sweet outfits is now a grime-accumulating, dust-and-dirt magnet that may rival Pigpen from the Charlie Brown gang. But too much focus on keeping your baby spotless can inhibit her from the necessary explorations that will help her to refine and expand her new skills. So when you see your baby heading toward that slightly muddy patch in the garden, take a deep breath and remind yourself that she's entirely washable\u2014and so are her clothes!\n\n#\n\n _ne of the most exciting days in my life was watching our daughter take her first steps. Even though she'd been showing signs she was ready to walk, it still caught me completely off guard. I was in the kitchen, starting dinner one night, and turned around to get a pot out of the cabinet, and there was Megan, taking her first steps toward me! I'll never forget her little hands waving in the air back and forth to balance herself as she tottered over to where I stood. Although my daughter is now five, I can still recall those wonderful images ofthat day and how proud and excited I felt. I can still see her expression of excitement and great big smile as she stomped her feet._\n\n_Allison, Megan's mom_\n\n## STEP BY STEP\n\nThe drive toward independence that started with your baby learning to sit up by himself, then creep, and then crawl is now pushing him toward the finish line of true toddlerhood. The amazing rate of development that you noticed over the past three months will continue as your baby moves toward his first birthday. More than ever, you need to find creative ways to stimulate the neural pathways that are becoming increasingly defined.\n\nIt's not hard to become engrossed in play with babies of this age\u2014they are real charmers! But they are also approaching an age (and attention span) where it can be tempting to offer them a video or television show in order to get a little time for yourself. Be alert for any tendencies to do this and try to focus instead on spending time interacting with your baby. (By the way, I'm obviously not opposed to babies of this age viewing appropriate videos! But be sure that you are watching the Baby Prodigy\u2014or other\u2014 videos _with_ your baby. Take advantage of this rare time when your baby is sitting still to talk about the interesting things that are happening on the screen.) And remember, everything in moderation.\n\nThe stimulation you can provide for your baby during these months will enrich him mentally, physically, and emotionally. It is your thoughtful interactions with your baby over the course of any particular day that give him both the tools and the confidence he needs to progress to the next level of growth.\n\n## NO STOPPING ME NOW\n\nIt's likely that during these months and somewhere around his first birthday, your baby will learn to walk independently. One minute he will be cruising around the room, hanging on to the couch or piano bench, and the next he will be experimenting with letting go and balancing unsteadily on swaying legs. Expect a whole lot of hollering as he looks for his balance and ends up on his behind. And then, probably when you least expect it, you will be privileged to see his excited reaction as he masters his first steps on his own. Once he realizes he can walk, he will want to attempt it again and again. Remember that your cheers and applause will motivate him whenever he accomplishes a few wobbly steps. But if he seems reluctant to repeat this amazing feat, don't push. He will be walking and running before you know it. Too soon. Trust me.\n\nYour baby will also begin to add single recognizable words to her vocabulary during this time, and will hold forth at length\u2014and often at considerable volume\u2014in her own language of vowels and consonants that imitate the tones and rhythms of adult speech. It's likely, too, that one of the first words your baby will utter will be the all-powerful \"NO.\" Even if your baby doesn't master verbal naysaying, you can expect that she will at least learn to shake her head in an emphatic no. Experts refer to this pattern of behavior as \"negativism,\" and you can expect to see it increase in intensity over the next year or so. It's your baby's way of asserting some independence and expressing an opinion. Does she really mean it each time she shakes her head or says no? Probably not, but new words and new head movements are acquired skills\u2014and she needs to practice them, whether it's appropriate or not. You'll quickly learn to discern when a no really means yes.\n\nYour baby will discover new ways to play with his existing toys\u2014whether it's building a stack from the blocks that he used to pass from hand to hand or gnaw on, or initiating a game of \"catch\" by purposely rolling his ball across the floor to you. On more than one occasion, I peeked around a corner, concerned because my daughter was being so quiet, only to find her immersed in some game of her own invention. As his fine motor dexterity increases, your baby will become more interested in toys and other objects with moving parts. By the end of the twelfth month, he will be trying to understand _how_ things work as his concept of causality is strengthening. It's important to spend time explaining things to your baby, even if he doesn't seem to take it all in immediately, as he is truly becoming interested in figuring out what makes things tick.\n\nYour baby will also blossom as a social butterfly during these months\u2014as long as she is secure in the knowledge that you are nearby. If you try to leave her, however, you will quickly be made aware of her growing separation anxiety, which peaks around one year.\n\nBy the end of the twelfth month, most babies have mastered the ability to pick up even the tiniest of objects in a precise grip and usually enjoy feeding themselves a wide variety of foods. Your baby may even be experimenting with drinking from a sippy cup or even a regular, baby-sized mug.\n\n**Did You Know?: Let Your Baby Be the Boss**\n\n  Now, before you panic and think I'm encouraging you to raise a pint-sized monarch who insists you bow to her every whim, I want to be clear that I am talking about letting the child take the lead _during designated playtimes only._ In fact, during these next few months, when negativism is first rearing its stubborn little head, you need to be conscious of beginning to set limits and impose discipline in the context of everyday behavior.\n\nHowever, when you are down on the floor, engrossed with your baby in an interactive game, let her call the shots. You will be helping her to become assertive and to learn to behave in a way motivated by her own desires or emotions. According to experts, connecting emotions to behavior and thought is key in developing creative, critical thinking.\n\nThis is a wonderful time for you and your baby to truly enjoy each other's company. The games you have been playing in previous months will become more interactive as the connections in your baby's brain that have been stimulated over and over again grow ever more sophisticated and interconnected.\n\n## SLEEPING AND WAKING\n\nDuring these months your baby's sleeping patterns probably won't differ much from those displayed in the past three months. If your baby still takes a morning and an afternoon\n\nYour Baby's View: Separation Anxiety\n\n  Understanding why your baby becomes anxious when you leave is as simple as putting yourself in her shoes.\n\nThink of all the times during the day (and maybe even at night) when you check in on your baby. Perhaps you are in the kitchen, making a quick list of groceries needed so you can run out and shop. You realize that your baby, who has been crawling around the kitchen, has moved into the dining room. When you stick your head out of the kitchen, your baby catches your eye, gives you a big smile, and returns to her task of putting blocks into a bag. You smile back and return to what you were doing. When you finish, you come out of the kitchen and join her in the dining room. During the day, you and your baby check in with each other dozens of times. Sometimes she crawls after you to see where you're going; sometimes you follow her. You just expect to be able to keep an eye on each other.\n\nNow suppose that your baby is sitting in her favorite spot, filling her bag with blocks. When you check in with her, she smiles but begins dragging her bag across the room. You wonder where she's heading, but seeing your concerned expression, she sits back down and smiles, just like always. Reassured, you return to what you were doing. When you\n\nnap, he may drop the morning nap around this time. Some babies, however, just love their naps and will happily continue to take two a day. If you find that your baby is having difficulty sleeping at night or is staying up too late at bedtime, you may want to help him to power\n\ncheck for her again, she's gone. Disappeared without a word. You look through the house. No sign of her. You don't know where she is, or if she's coming back. Depending on your personality, your reaction might range from irritation that she didn't check in before she went to another room or sheer panic that she's lost forever. From that moment on, a pattern is established. If she's packing up her blocks, you worry she's planning to leave.\n\nIt's not that much of a leap to understand, then, how your baby feels when you leave without letting her know. Your baby will quickly detect the pattern that precedes your leaving her. Usually it's pretty obvious: a babysitter shows up. But even if she's home with your partner, she may notice you picking up your keys or putting on your coat. Even though your leaving may be met with heartbroken sobs and a pitiful clutching at your clothing, it's important that you do not sneak out on your baby. You need to let her know you are going out. Reassure her that she is with someone who cares for her and that you will return. Use the same phrase each time you leave. I always told my daughter, \"Mommy is going out now but will come back soon, because Mommy _always_ comes back.\"\n\nAfter a while, the pattern of your leaving and returning will become acceptable to your baby, and a quick trip to the store will no longer be preceded by a storm of tears and protest.\n\nthrough his morning without a nap and consolidate his sleep into a bigger block during the night.\n\nYour baby may also have trouble falling asleep on his own, wake during the night, or refuse to settle after awakening in the night. This type of interruption in your baby's\n\n**Bye-Bye, Bedtime Bottle**\n\n  If the end of the twelfth month is approaching, and your baby still depends on sucking on his bottle to fall asleep, it's time to help him to break the habit. Now that he has teeth, it's important to get him in the habit of falling asleep with a clean mouth. Going to sleep with a mouth slick with milk or juice can lead to tooth decay and may even damage your baby's permanent teeth, which are still beneath his gums. Begin to create a new bedtime ritual of tooth washing with a baby toothbrush or washcloth (no toothpaste is necessary, but if you feel compelled, use just the tiniest amount of baby toothpaste) and of mouth rinsing (from a cup! a big-boy cup!). Steel yourself for a few days of pathetic whimpers or crib-shaking rages, depending on your baby's personality, as he gets used to the new routine.\n\nsleep pattern is not unusual and is most likely the result of the growing intensity of any separation anxiety your baby may have. During the day, your baby can crawl around after you, keeping you in view whenever he becomes anxious. However, at night, he is completely alone and confined in his crib, and this may feel more traumatic than daytime separations.\n\nIf this is happening with your baby, and leaving him to \"cry it out\" isn't an option for you, you can go into your baby's room at his first cry and stand by his crib. Rub his back soothingly, but don't engage in conversation. Leave while he is drowsy, but before he falls asleep, so he doesn't become dependent on your presence to drift off.\n\nA bonus by-product of your baby's newfound abilities in sitting, standing, and being able to move toward objects she desires is the increased possibility that she will be able to occupy herself if she wakes with the dawning light and decides she is up for the morning. Leave a few favorite toys or books in her crib at night, and you may just be rewarded with thirty extra minutes of precious shut-eye in the mornings.\n\n## STIMULATING YOUR BABY\n\nYour baby's curiosity and appetite for knowledge is amazing to watch. She will become curious about how things work\u2014studying the wheels on a favorite pull-toy or inserting various items into the VCR. She will also watch you closely, mimicking your everyday activities, from talking on the telephone to sweeping the kitchen floor. She will eagerly reach for tidbits of food from your plate, and attempt to insert herself into her older sibling's activities.\n\nAs your baby discovers his inner scientist, conducting field studies in every subject from physics (dropping bits of food from his high chair), to anthropology (becoming fascinated with the idea of coloring or writing), to zoology (the relentless pursuit of the family cat), your role becomes that of his ever-helpful research assistant. Provide him with plenty of opportunities to explore things that interest him. Be sure to tell him the names of objects when talking to him, and offer simple explanations for how things work. Try to relate new concepts to ones he is familiar with: \"I see you are playing with your red car. The car rolls on the wheels.\" Show him the wheels as you spin them. \"Wheels turn 'round and 'round to make things go. Just like in 'The Wheels on the Bus.' \" Then launch into the song.\n\nOf course, the role of a scientific explorer is not without its dangers and pitfalls. Turn back to the previous chapter and review the baby proofing tips (see pp. 122\u2013124). Remember that once your child is standing and walking, a whole new, three-dimensional world of accidents awaits. In the box that follows, I've added a few other tips to make your house safer for a baby who is spending more and more time standing and cruising.\n\n## BABY STEPS\n\nFrom the beginning of the tenth month to the end of your baby's first year, she will attempt to first master and then refine a wide range of activities that expand her areas of independence. From cruising to walking, from eating baby cereal to dinner with the family, from calling the guy at the video store \"Dada\" to learning to call for \"Dada\" at five-thirty in the morning when she wants to get out of her crib (and if your baby doesn't know to call for Daddy in those predawn hours, I suggest you teach her how!), your baby is becoming more capable of expressing her opinions and her desires.\n\nBy the end of the tenth month, your child should have achieved the milestones listed below. If you are concerned about your child's rate of development, consult your pediatrician. Your baby should be able to:\n\n**Safety Watch: Childproofing for Walking Babies**\n\n  Once your child is up and on her feet, there is so much to discover: shelves full of knickknacks, the tablecloth (and everything on top of it) that covers the dining room table, the kitchen stove... Every room in the house has many new surfaces to explore. To help keep your baby safe from common hazards, here are some safety tips:\n\n  * When cooking, turn all pot handles inward; use back burners only, whenever possible.\n\n  * Stove knobs that are within the baby's reach should be babyproofed. This is particularly important on a gas range, where turning the knob slightly may release gas without igniting the burners.\n\n  * Never take pills in front of your baby; children mimic what they see. Also, never refer to medicine, vitamins, or over-the-counter medications as \"candy.\"\n\n  * Keep dangerous or sharp items away from the edges of tables and countertops, where baby might reach up and grab them.\n\n  * Keep trash containers out of baby's reach.\n\n  * Move coatracks or tall floor lamps behind large pieces of furniture or otherwise out of the way; your baby can easily tip these over onto herself.\n\n  * Remove plastic dry cleaner bags before bringing dry cleaning into the house. This plastic is easy to tear apart and choke on.\n\n**Safety Watch: CPR**\n\n  Don't forget to take a refresher CPR class before the end of your baby's first year. The techniques used for children one year and older can differ slightly from those used for infants.\n\n  *   pull to a stand from sitting\n\n  *   stand while holding on to something\n\n  *   play peekaboo\n\n  *   move from lying on her stomach to a sitting position\n\n  *   use a pincer grasp effectively\n\n  *   cruise (using furniture to balance when walking)\n\n  *   understand (but not always obey) a simple command, like \"No!\"\n\n  *   stand alone without holding on for balance\n\n  *   balance in a squat while playing\n\n  *   organize a one-step motor sequence, such as pushing, throwing, or \"catching\" a ball\n\n  *   say \"Mama\" or \"Dada\" discriminately\n\n  *   drink from a cup\n\nSometime between the beginning of the eleventh month and the end of the twelfth month, your baby should be able to perform all of the skills listed above, as well as:\n\n  *   walk well\n\n  *   play patty-cake or clap hands\n\n**Dookie Says**\n\n  _\" 'No, no, no!' That's all I hear. I want to pull the kitty to me; that's why she's got that long tail, right? But as soon as I grab on, Daddy says, 'No, no!' So I crawl over to the window. It should be easy to stand up if I balance using these long curtains. I'm nearly standing when Mommy runs over, saying 'No, no!' I wonder if those crayons in my sister's bedroom taste good? I guess I'll never know. I almost had one in my mouth when... you guessed it: 'No, no!' How come there's so much to do and they won't let me do any of it?\"_\n\nIt's difficult at this age\u2014and it's only going to get more difficult over the next year or so\u2014to prevent yourself from blurting out an urgent \"No!\" when you see your baby heading for trouble or mischief. But too much nay-saying can frustrate your adventuresome baby (not to mention it teaches the little mimic a word you'll soon wish he'd never learned). Instead of issuing an immediate \"No,\" try to redirect your baby with gentle instruction: \"Kitty doesn't like it when you tug her tail. Let's pet her instead.\" Or \"It's dangerous to pull on the curtains. Try to stand up near the couch.\" Even if baby can't yet understand the whole meaning of what you're saying, he'll get the idea with your expression and movements as you gently direct him in another direction. The more positive you can be when defining and enforcing these early limits, the more likely it is your baby will be agreeable to following your rules.\n\n  *   wave bye-bye\n\n  *   say single words other than \"Mama\" and \"Dada\" with discrimination\n\n## BABY TALK\n\nAs your baby approaches her first birthday, many of you eager parents are awaiting the utterance of her first \"real word.\" Sure, \"Mama\" and \"Dada\" made your heart melt, but when there's clearly so much your baby wants to make known, you can't help but think that once she's able to talk, she'll ease up on the frustrated crying and behaviors that she so often directs right at you. Like the time you finally figured out\u2014after much pointing at the refrigerator and its contents\u2014that she wanted milk. And then realized\u2014 when your irritated customer hurled her sippy cup across the room in a rage\u2014that she really wanted the yogurt on the shelf _next to_ the milk.\n\nI'm afraid I'm going to have to disappoint you here and tell you that it's highly unlikely your baby will have mastered the niceties of verbal communication by the end of her first year. However, all of your interactions and games during the past few months have stimulated the parts of her brain that govern both receptive and productive speech, and you can continue to improve communications and help your baby become confident that she can make herself understood.\n\nOver these few months, your baby's _receptive_ speech capabilities will evolve. You can make a simple request such as \"Please bring me the shoes,\" and your baby can let you know that she has heard you and understands. She will either crawl over and get the shoes or glance at the shoes, acknowledging she has heard the request, and then return to what she was doing\u2014essentially refusing to do the task (see negativism, above).\n\nThe more you use gestures and show emotion when you are speaking to your baby, the more receptive she will be to what you are saying. This works equally well whether you are expressing encouragement or enthusiasm or trying to discourage a behavior that is dangerous or unwanted. So, remember, when you are praising your baby\u2014 \"What a good job of standing up!\"\u2014you should also offer her a bright smile and perhaps even a round of applause. By the same token, a frown or a stern expression should accompany a warning: \"Don't touch! The radiator is _hot_!\" Pay close attention to your baby's reaction. Depending on how attuned she is to your nonverbal communications, you must be prepared to modulate your behavior accordingly.\n\nYour baby's _productive speech_ \u2014using her communication skills to make herself understood\u2014is improving as well. She will use facial expressions and gestures, along with babbled sounds, to express herself. Her babbling\u2014or \"jargoning,\" as it is called by some experts\u2014has the inflections and rhythms of speech. Sometimes a few words are even recognizable: \"baybeee\" or \"mama\" or \"no.\"\n\nYour baby _wants_ to learn speech, and you can help him by repeating the correct word when you hear him make an effort. If he points to his bottle and says \"baba,\" you can respond, \"That's right. It's a bottle.\" Make sure you give positive, not negative reinforcement. You don't want to dampen his enthusiasm by saying \"Not baba; say 'bottle.' \"\n\nAt this stage of language development, remember, it's the thought that counts.\n\nHelp your baby develop language skills by remembering these few key concepts:\n\n  *   **Be an attentive listener.** Pay attention to what your baby is trying to tell you. Respond positively when he makes an effort to get your attention.\n\n  *   **Label everything**. Tell your baby the name of things, places, colors, and people.\n\n  *   **Welcome discussion**. Give your baby a chance to respond, either verbally or nonverbally.\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _Opposites Attract_\n\nIt has probably become obvious to you by this point that babies learn in patterned ways. Introducing _concepts_ through play is an excellent way to help your baby begin to make distinctions. Use your imagination and see how many more ways you can illustrate some of the following concepts:\n\n  *   **In and out.** Put toys in a box, take them out again.\n\n  *   **Up and down.** Using a Mylar balloon on a string, let it float \"up,\" pull it back \"down.\"\n\n  *   **Empty and full.** Fill up a cup with water, and then pour it out (particularly good in the tub).\n\n  *   **Happy and sad.** Stand in front of a mirror with your baby. Exaggerate your facial expression. Your baby may begin to mimic you.\n\n  *   **Opposites**. Be creative and make up your own games for this concept.\n\n#### _Easy as One, Two, Three_\n\nIt's not too early to begin introducing numerical concepts. Count the steps up to the second floor of your house. Count the Cheerios on your baby's high-chair tray. Count the steps down the hall. While he probably won't start doing algebra until grade school, you are laying the groundwork that will help your baby begin to understand the concept of one versus many.\n\n#### _Repeat after Me_\n\nWalk around the house with your baby, taking an inventory. Point to a book on the bookshelf and say, \"Book.\" Take a cookbook off the kitchen counter and repeat, \"Book.\" Go into your baby's room and pick up a favorite story and say, \"Book.\" Now go into your room and take the paperback from your nightstand. Hold it up and look puzzled. \"What is this?\" Give your baby a chance to answer. He might say anything from \"bhphftth\" to \"buh\" to \"boo\" to \"gah.\" No matter the answer, smile, nod, and exclaim with delight _\"Yes! Book!\"_ Celebrate your mutual brilliance and repeat. You can play this game endlessly with all the objects in your house.\n\n**Bookshelf**\n\n  Reading to your baby continues to be important, and over the next few months you may be rewarded with the adorable sight of your baby, sitting quietly in his room, \"reading\" to himself. Of course he's not actually reading the words, but he's learning valuable lessons like how to turn a page and to recognize the juxtaposition of words and pictures on a page. Because your baby is more mobile and is very intent on exploration, it's good to have your baby's favorite books within easy reach. If you have special editions or particular picture books you want to save, keep them out of reach and bring them out at times when you sit and read together. Your baby will be very interested in books with flaps or pop-up elements, but be warned: These types of books rarely stay intact.\n\nHere are some of my choices for the bookshelf during these months:\n\n  * **_\"More More More,\"Said the Baby: Three Love Stories_** by Vera B. Williams\n\n  * **_Ten, Nine, Eight_** by Molly Bang\n\n  * **_Where Is Maisy?_** by Lucy Cousins\n\n  * **_Find the Teddy_** (and others in this series) by Stephen Cartwright\n\n  * **_Old Mother Hubbard_** by Colin Hawkins and Jacqui Hawkins\n\n  * **_Peek-a-Boo, You_** by Roberta Grobel Intrater\n\n## THE LITTLE THINGS: FINE MOTOR SKILLS\n\nWith sitting up mastered and her hands free to pick up and explore objects at will, your baby will constantly be looking for new opportunities to examine different items. You will notice that your baby is becoming more precise in her movements. She may attempt to stack one block on top of another, or look for ways to hold a third toy, when she already has one in each hand. Continue to offer her chances to explore textures and shapes, but allow her independence in choosing playthings. Filling a plastic laundry basket with an assortment of favorite toys and household items like plastic spatulas or wooden cooking spoons or plastic containers of various sizes allows your now-mobile baby to access playthings on her own. The idea of taking things out and putting them in is very attractive to babies at this age, and she will enjoy emptying the basket and then returning all the items to the basket over and over again.\n\nYour daily domestic routines will also be of great interest to your baby. Try to involve him by allowing him to mimic your actions. If you are doing laundry, give him an empty basket and a few items of clothing to \"sort.\" When you are cooking, offer him a few pots and pans and a wooden spoon and let him \"stir\" and bang out rhythms to his heart's content. Grocery shopping can be the highlight of your baby's day, especially if you let him help drop the items into the cart.\n\nMost babies are very interested in watching you write or draw, and your baby may enjoy scribbling with large, easy-to-hold crayons. If your baby is one who is not too fastidious, he may also enjoy finger painting.\n\nOutdoors, you can let her help with yard work, keeping a careful eye on her as she pulls up blades of grass or crumbles dirt from the garden between her fingers. Show her how to pick up tree leaves and release them into the breeze.\n\nSimple musical instruments, like small xylophones, tambourines, or drums, give your baby the opportunity to coordinate movement to create pleasing sounds. Toys that require the pushing of buttons or the twisting of knobs will let your baby practice her fine motor skills. You may have to spend some time demonstrating how a particular activity works, but before long, your baby will develop the hand-eye coordination and concentration necessary to master these types of toys.\n\nIf your baby has been learning sign language (see chapter 5), you may be amazed at the sudden surge in his vocabulary as he begins to master more complicated hand movements.\n\n**An Important Note of Caution** : I see nothing wrong with letting your baby play with common household items, but you must be _very careful_ to ensure his safety. Be sure that lids on containers are tightly sealed if small objects are inside, or use empty plastic medicine bottles with childproof caps. Make sure that containers are clean and free of paper labels that might be gummed off. Avoid using containers or items that held or contain toxic paints or other substances, and be sure nothing has sharp edges. Unless you are completely sure you're offering your baby a totally child-safe toy, do not let your baby out of your sight or reach! Instead, join your baby in his exploration of these fascinating household items.\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _Jam Session_\n\nHand over a couple of pots or some larger plastic containers and a wooden spoon and cover your ears! During these months, your baby's learning is still based in repetition and the discovery of patterns, so don't expect any Charlie Watts-style flourishes yet.\n\n#### _\"Handy\" Little Entertainments_\n\nHand motion games, like \"Itsy-Bitsy Spider\" and \"Wheels on the Bus,\" that you have been playing all along with your baby will become even more popular during these few months. Your baby will be likely to join in when you begin a game of patty-cake, clapping along and patting her hands together.\n\nAnother favorite to introduce now is \"Where is Thumb-kin?\" Show your baby at first, and then help her to manipulate her fingers through the motions. It will be a while before she can raise each finger independently.\n\nHold your hands up in two fists and sing (to the tune of \"Fr\u00e8re Jacques\") _Where is Thumbkin?_ (wiggle one thumb). _Where is Thumbkin?_ (wiggle the other thumb). _Here I am. Here I am_ (make your thumbs \"bow\" to each other). _How are you today, sir? Very well I say, sir. Run away_ (hide one hand behind your back). _Run away_ (hide the other hand behind your back). Bring both hands out and\n\n**Toy Chest**\n\n  As your baby heads toward her first birthday, she is learning mostly by mimicking. As she watches you go about your daily routines, she may demand to try to hold the broom or crawl off with the dustpan, or insist on unfolding the clothes that are neatly stacked in the laundry basket. For the next few months, she will happily play with whatever she sees you \"playing\" with. With her interested in mobility and intent on standing, cruising, and walking, your whole house has potential as a play structure, and the most common items become objects of desire. Whether you let your baby \"help out\" by giving her full-sized objects or you hit the toy stores in search of mini items, most babies will enjoy playing with the following:\n\n  * vacuum cleaners they can push around (be aware, however, that your baby may be sensitive to, or even afraid of, the sound of the vacuum)\n\nstart again with \"Where is Pointer?\" Repeat for all five fingers.\n\n#### _The Life of the Party_\n\nYou're never too young\u2014or old\u2014for a rousing game of pin the tail on the donkey. Make sure to hang the picture of the donkey low enough that your crawling baby can reach it. Use double-sided tape to make it easy for her to stick the tail on. Be creative and invent new games: pin the\n\n  * unbreakable plates, cups, and other containers\n\n  * wooden spoons for stirring\n\n  * pots and pans\n\n  * toy telephones\n\n  * rag dolls\n\n  * miniature plastic foods\n\n  * household items with buttons, like TV remotes or calculators (if you give your baby a remote or any battery-operated object, remember to remove the batteries, as they can become dangerous if chewed or broken by baby's inquisitive fingers)\n\n  * key rings with old keys\n\n  * a wallet filled with expired membership cards or even pieces of colored cardboard (No coins, ever!)\n\nblanket on the donkey's back, or pin the flower on the donkey's ear. Besides encouraging manual dexterity, this is a great hand-eye coordination exercise, as your child tries to stick the tails (ears, blankets, flowers, etc.) on the correct part of the picture.\n\n#### _Feeding the Birds_\n\nMake some feathered friends when you head out to the park, duck pond, or backyard. Show your child how to crumble up crackers or stale bread. Let your child take the crackers out of the box or the bread out of the bag and work at throwing small pieces.\n\n#### _Just Another Day at the Office_\n\nGive your child an old computer keyboard and let her bang out a few memos. Keep a close eye on her so she doesn't pull any caps off the keys or otherwise work any small parts loose. While she's typing, talk about some of the letters she is pressing.\n\n## HOW IT ALL FITS: SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT\n\nDue to all the motor development and movement that he is mastering over these next few months, your baby is now working on spatial development in new dimensions. He has to learn that to crawl under a table, he will need to duck his head. He will spend time figuring out just how far he has to go to lower himself from a stand to the floor. And once he begins to walk... well, then there's those tricky questions of just how close he is to a sharp edge or solid object as he starts to lose his balance. No question about it: This is a stressful time, full of bumps, bruises, and, quite likely, unexpected trips to the pediatrician or emergency room. One mother I know joked that her son would have benefited from an emergency room frequent-flier-type program during the months when he was learning to walk. The best advice I can offer is to stay calm and encouraging as your intrepid athlete attempts seemingly impossible feats of balance and speed. And don't forget to have a ready supply of ice, antibacterial ointment, and Band-Aids!\n\nWhen your baby isn't scooting, crawling, standing, or walking (or falling), she is likely to be exploring hand-eye coordination. She will be interested in putting things in and taking them out. She will put lids on pots, books in the VCR slot, and toys in the toilet (unless you're careful!). Although she may not be able to sort different shapes, she will clearly grasp the purpose of shape-sorter toys and, with your guidance, may enjoy fitting the shapes into their various holes.\n\nKeep playing music and musical games with your baby. Researchers believe that music can help prime the neural pathways that play a role in spatial reasoning. Classical music in particular seems to enhance certain kinds of thinking. Studies have shown that after listening to classical music, adults are able to perform certain spatial tasks\u2014like putting together a jigsaw puzzle\u2014more quickly. Researchers think the complexity of the structure of classical music is what stimulates the brain to solve spatial problems more easily. So be certain to keep music a big part of your baby's life. The benefits can be both immediate and long-lasting.\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _Soccer Star_\n\nSupport your baby under his arms and let him kick a lightweight ball or Mylar balloon. Switch around to let him be goalie and gently roll the ball or balloon toward him as he sits on the floor. He will reach toward it to catch or stop it before it rolls past him.\n\n#### _Puzzle Solver_\n\nYour baby may be ready to try placing large wood puzzle pieces in their correct spots. Picture puzzles that have the same picture on the board (so when you lift the puzzle piece you can see the same picture) give your baby a visual cue as to where each piece belongs. At first you will have to help him replace each piece of the puzzle, but before long, your baby will be able to try a few variations in order to get the piece to fit.\n\n#### _Kitchen Chemistry_\n\nSet your baby up with pots with lids, plastic containers with lids, measuring spoons that are attached on a ring, and plastic mixing bowls that nest one inside the other. Bring out the towels and dare to fill a few of the pots with a small amount of water. Offer measuring cups that can be used to scoop and dump. Your baby and your kitchen floor may get a little wet, but I can guarantee that your budding chef will have a great time.\n\n## GET UP AND GO: GROSS MOTOR SKILLS\n\nAt some point over the last few months, you probably paused midway up a flight of stairs or jumped on a bus, having run half a block to catch it, gazed down at the chunky baby in your arms, waited to catch your breath, and then sighed, \"I can't wait until you can walk.\"\n\nAll I can say is \"Be careful what you wish for!\"\n\nWhether your baby walks well before a year or several months after his first birthday, his first steps herald an important stage of development. Much like the evolution of man to an upright posture, your baby's ability to get up off the floor where he has spent most of the past year opens new horizons that are unbelievably exciting.\n\nAnd although it seems like those first steps happen overnight, walking does not happen all of a sudden. For the past few months your baby has been practicing and trying out the components of walking. But it's a process of trial and error. Continuing to offer your baby positive stimulation during this time will allow him to develop confidence in the sequence of walking and allow him to happily master this ultimate achievement of sensory and motor abilities.\n\nIf your child isn't walking around the one-year mark, don't worry. Not all babies are in such a hurry to be upright and mobile. If your baby has always been laid-back in temperament and is crawling or scooting to get where he wants to go, try to be patient and think of this as a grace period before you are hurled into the constant motion that is toddlerhood.\n\nSome babies may also begin to show an interest in climbing. Once your baby can pull to a stand, it's a good idea to remove all extra blankets, crib bumpers, and large stuffed toys from the crib. Some particularly adept little gymnasts may even figure out how to get out of the crib by their first birthday. Don't make it any easier for them!\n\n**Dottie Says**\n\n  _\"Now that I'm walking I can't help but notice all of Mommy's beautiful shoes. Whenever I can, I get into her closet and play with them. I can't wait to wear my own shoes. I think I'd like some cowboy boots and some ballet slippers and some high-heeled sparkly pumps and maybe some little strappy sandals and most certainly a pair of tall boots. Yes, now that I can walk, I definitely need a shoe for every occasion.\"_\n\nNow it's just possible that you can't bring yourself to walk past a shoe sale. But if you've been thinking that just because your baby is walking, you can justify your craving for a pair of adorable suede loafers by buying them for her, or if you expect your new walker to share your shoe fetish, well, it's only fair to warn you that you're likely to be disappointed. In fact, the best kind of shoe for a new walker to wear is no shoe at all. Your baby will, in fact, start out using her toes to grip the floor as she practices standing. The more flexibility her feet have, the more she can count on them to help her find her balance. As long as her feet are warm and she is on a safe, clean surface, your baby is best off barefoot. If she will be outdoors, or needs shoes for a special occasion (I admit it, I couldn't resist those tiny patent leather Mary Janes with bows), then try to find shoes that have the following features:\n\n  * flexible soles that bend when your baby takes a step\n\n  * leather, canvas, or cloth uppers that can breathe and have give\n\n  * nonskid bottoms\n\n  * padded back and side edges\n\n  * plenty of room\n\n  * a cut that doesn't inhibit ankle movement\n\n**Games Siblings Play**\n\n  Until your baby is steady on his feet and walking proficiently, this can be a tricky time to keep sibling play civilized. You'll need to stay close by to ensure that your older child doesn't interfere with your baby's attempts to balance. Watch out for roughhousing or any way of \"helping\" the baby to walk that is really only a thinly veiled excuse for dragging him across the room. For the next few months, encourage floor games that let your baby interact with his big brother or sister in a more equal way. Here are a couple of suggestions for games that are fun for both the large and small participants:\n\n  * **Robo-baby.** Purchase a remote-controlled toy, like a race car. Allow your older child to operate the remote and encourage your baby to crawl after the toy. This game does require your supervision, especially as you teach your baby that the point is to chase the toy, not catch it and claim it. And teach your older child that the point is not to run over his younger sibling with the toy!\n\n  * **Upstairs, downstairs.** You can play this game only if you have baby gates at the top and bottom of your staircase (which you should!) and are willing to supervise the entire time, but it does teach your baby a valuable skill she eventually needs to master. Have your older child crawl up the stairs on his hands and knees to demonstrate to your baby how to climb up. Once she has the hang of going up, challenge your older child to demonstrate safe ways to come back down the stairs, like bumping down on his bottom, or turning around and crawling back down feetfirst. It won't be long before your baby is proficient at going up and down the staircase in a \"safe\" manner.\n\n  * **Bath-time brouhaha.** It's likely that your baby already loves bath time. Make it twice as fun by letting your older child join the baby in the tub. Give them plastic cups for pouring, toys for floating, or blowing bubbles. Be prepared for a wet bathroom floor, as splashing is inevitable!\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _A Stroll(er) around the Park_\n\nInstead of keeping your baby buckled into her stroller the entire time you are out, look for a grassy spot and let her experiment with standing and walking, using her stroller for support. Remember that if she is pushing her stroller out in front of her, she can't see where she's going. Nor does she know how to control her forward momentum. So keep your hand on the handle of the stroller to keep it all under control.\n\n#### _For Budding Gymnasts_\n\nYou may be able to find a parents' group or other playgroup that has climbing and crawling equipment suitable for your baby. When our daughter was this age, I purchased a plastic baby climber with a short slide. Although this was an outdoor toy, I moved it right into the playroom, and it kept us busy all winter long. My daughter loved crawling through the holes, hiding underneath, and wriggling her way onto the platform and down the slide. Don't let bad weather put a damper on your baby's physical activity.\n\n#### _Ride 'Em, Cowboy_\n\nToward the end of your baby's first year, he may become interested in sitting on sturdy riding toys that can scoot, roll, or rock. He will need your help at first, both for balance in getting on and off the toys and in making them move. Make sure the toys have rounded edges and are quite low to the ground (easy for him to swing a little leg over and not so tall that a little tumble becomes a big deal), and never let your baby use them near stairs or other inclines. Don't be surprised if your baby isn't ready to coordinate all the steps needed to properly operate a ride-on toy. For the next few months he may just enjoy crawling on and over it or even just sitting on that cute stuffed rocking horse you got him.\n\n#### _Bubble-Wrap Hoedown_\n\nTape a piece of bubble wrap (with the big bubbles) to the floor and have a rootin', tootin', stompin' good time.\n\n#### _Beanbag Basketball_\n\nPractice tossing an easy-to-grab beanbag into a trash can. Start out with a trash can that's low to the ground, or even a laundry basket, and work your way up to a taller, narrower \"hoop.\" Show your child how he can throw underhand, toss overhand, or slam dunk!\n\n#\n\n _ometimes the first word doesn't come quickly enough for us parents. We are always coaxing and waiting, and then, when we least expect it, it comes out of the blue. My daughter Lara was always very quiet. We were always waiting for that one word we could understand besides Mama and Dada. One Saturday afternoon we were in the car. I was driving, Barbara was in the passenger seat, and Lara was sitting quietly in her car seat in back. All of a sudden someone screamed, \"CARRRRRRRRRRRR!!!!\" The word was perfectly clear and shouted with urgency. My car swerved wildly as I frantically looked from side to side, shouting, \"WHERE? WHERE'S THE CAR?\" Once I had calmed down, I shot Barbara a dirty look; she knows it makes me crazy when she comments on my driving. But she didn't seem to be taking me too seriously; in fact, she was laughing pretty hard._\n\n_\"It wasn't me, it was Lara!\" she said. And I started to laugh, too. In the midst of our laughter, Lara began to holler, \"CAR, CAR, CAR!\" From that day forward, it was her favorite word. It certainly got everyone's attention._\n\n_Richard, Samantha and Lara's dad_\n\n## BYE-BYE, BABY\n\nI'll admit it: I wanted to be able to think of my active, vocal one-year-old as a sweet, compliant baby\u2014unfortunately, she seemed to have other ideas! From voicing strong opinions about what she ate, to what she wore, to where she went, my precious little baby had turned into a strong-willed individual who\u2014if I wasn't willing to get her what she wanted\u2014would simply stroll across the room, climb the bookshelf, and get it herself! If you're reading this and nodding your head knowingly\u2014well, welcome to toddler-hood!\n\nThis is an amazing period of development in your child's life. Every minute of every day is an opportunity for learning and exploring, and your child is eager to experience it all for himself. Sometimes all this stimulation can be overwhelming, though, and at those times your \"baby\" returns, needing cuddles, reassurance, and support.\n\nAs your baby moves into being a toddler, the most important advice I can offer to you is \"Don't rush it!\" It is just as important now that you be attuned to your child's moods and needs as it was when he was a helpless infant. Obviously, the way you relate to your child has evolved into a more interactive relationship. Now you'll talk together, walk together, and play together\u2014learning to understand and respect each other's opinions and ideas. The thing that hasn't changed is the importance of your role in stimulating your toddler as his brain continues to develop in increasingly sophisticated ways.\n\n## IN LEAPS AND BOUNDS\n\nThis period, from the beginning of the thirteenth month through the end of the eighteenth month, represents a particularly intense learning period for a toddler. He has a greater command over his motor skills as he learns to walk, run, or climb to get what he wants. Your toddler is driven to practice these skills, often to the point of exhaustion and teary breakdown. Bumps and bruises continue to be commonplace over these months, and you may have grown more relaxed about the spectacular tumbles practiced by your early walker.\n\nYour child can operate her arms and hands with ease, reaching out and grasping whatever interests her and exploring it in detail. Games that involve taking out and putting back in are still of great interest to the one- to one-and-a-half-year-old child.\n\nYour toddler may be sleeping somewhat less, leaving more time for exploring. And explore he will. Not because he has a particular purpose in mind, but simply because there are so many things to look at, touch, smell, taste, and listen to. His senses are in a constant state of stimulation. Everything is new to your little explorer, and it's important that you provide a variety of stimulation for all his senses as he plays and learns.\n\nOver these few months, you may also notice a shift from exploring to experimenting. Your toddler is relying on her memory (short as it is at this point) as a point of reference. She may begin to recognize similarities and differences in objects and start to organize her world by comparing, contrasting, and sorting.\n\nBy about fifteen months, toddlers can recognize themselves in a mirror. Along with this increased self-awareness comes an awareness of others. They begin to have an interest in other children and will be willing to play with them. At first this play takes the form of playing alongside a companion, each child involved in separate activities, called \"parallel play,\" and later it evolves into true social interaction.\n\nYour child's increasing language skills, both in understanding and using speech, will also be developing in a sophisticated way as she begins to link words to objects, emotions, and overall context.\n\n## SLEEPING AND WAKING\n\nAt the start of toddlerhood, your child will begin extending her awake time and cutting back her sleep time. For instance, if she is napping twice a day at one year, by the end of the eighteenth month, she may be ready to give up her morning nap or consolidate her morning and late afternoon nap into one longer, midday snooze.\n\n**Did You Know?: Your Toddler's Senses**\n\n  Interacting with your child in ways that stimulate her senses to promote maximum mental development is just as important now as it was when she was an infant, first learning about the world. Before you read on and see how intensely and instinctively your toddler uses her senses, I want you to take a moment and look back to chapter 2. From birth, your baby has relied on her senses to navigate an unknown world, and throughout this book, I've offered you age-appropriate ways to stimulate your child's senses. Now, after a year, it's amazing to consider the developments that have taken place since those early weeks.\n\n**Sight**\n\n  * Your toddler has 20\/20 vision, but his visual attention is still untrained. Anything in his field of vision is equally attention-worthy. He spends all day being bombarded with images. While his eyesight is keen, he still needs help with focus.\n\n  * The concept of perspective is forming in your toddler's mind. She can recognize herself (or you) when looking in a mirror.\n\n  * Familiar objects are easily recognizable, even when viewed from peculiar angles. Your toddler is very interested in objects that are revealed in ways that change their everyday appearance, such as toys viewed through a sheer curtain, or his own elongated shadow.\n\n**Hearing**\n\n  * Your toddler's ears are assaulted with sounds, and it can be difficult for him to focus on a single auditory stimulus. It's amazing to think that the baby who would startle when you turned on the vacuum cleaner now barely acknowledges you when you call his name from two feet away!\n\n  * Most toddlers like listening to, and making, music. The music you used to stimulate or soothe your child when she was an infant will be just as effective now that she is a toddler.\n\n  * Your child can probably identify some common sounds and react appropriately. For instance, pointing at the door when the doorbell rings. Or saying \"Dada?\" expectantly when she hears a car in the driveway.\n\n**Smell**\n\n  * Unlike the sensitive baby nose that could recognize her mother's breast milk, your toddler's sense of smell is somewhat less discerning. You need to take care, since your young scientist is just as interested in smelling cleaning fluid or nail polish remover as he is in stopping to smell the roses.\n\n**Taste**\n\n  * The baby that was so adventurous in tasting new bits of finger foods may have morphed into a toddler with a limited palate. Offer but don't force new foods and continue to entice your toddler with foods of varying textures, colors, and shapes. Just as infants may show a preference for sweets, your toddler may have discovered the joys of sugar. No matter how much he'd prefer candy to veggies, hold firm and limit sweet treats.\n\n**Touch**\n\n  * While your infant may have loved being touched, your toddler loves to do the touching. Exploring through tactile sensation is incredibly important. Unfortunately, this type of exploration frequently includes tearing pages out of magazines, pulling hairs out of the cat, or reprogramming the VCR. Try to create a childproofed environment in your home where touching is never off limits and there is an assortment of safe objects that will let your child explore concepts such as soft, smooth, scratchy, or nubby.\n\nAlthough your active toddler needs between ten and twelve hours of sleep each night, his newfound physical talents may allow him to discover how to climb in and out of his crib, making middle-of-the-night or super-early-in-the-morning waking a bit harder to deal with. (Because even though they know how to climb _in_ as well as _out_ , my girls only ever seemed to want to practice the _out_ part!) Unfortunately, if your child is an accomplished crib es-caper, there's little you can do about it. Some children's specialty stores sell tents that you can put over the top of a crib. These lightweight fabric screens may help to discourage untimely escapes.\n\nThere are a few other challenges that center around sleep that you may encounter over these months: difficulty with transitions from napping to awake, and the common toddler problem of becoming overtired.\n\nTransitioning from being asleep to awake and vice versa can be hard even for adults, so it's reasonable to expect it to be a challenge for your little one. The key is to gently ease them in and out, just as you would want to be gradually awakened and allowed to fall asleep. If you need to wake your toddler from a long nap (either because of your schedule or because if she keeps sleeping she'll be up all night!), be sure to allow for at least a half hour of cuddling and quiet attention to help her transition from being snug in her cozy bed to loose and on the move.\n\nIt's difficult to prevent these little busybodies from becoming overtired, which can lead to trouble sleeping. Your toddler is so busy practicing his new skills that he will often push himself to the point of physical exhaustion. Be alert for a drop in coordination, especially when combined with exciting or tense situations. Your toddler cannot recognize that he is tired and will not stop and rest. You need to rescue him\u2014or risk a total meltdown. Over these next few months, you can try introducing the concept of quiet time\u2014moments when your toddler can rest and recharge without actually taking a nap. Go into your child's room with him and spend quiet time just sitting. You can read, or talk, or listen to a music or story tape. If you're lucky, your toddler may adapt to this idea, and you'll be able to convince him to spend this quiet time in his room alone.\n\n## STIMULATING YOUR TODDLER\n\nThe key word for stimulating your toddler over the next few months and into the second year is \"encouragement.\" Toddlers learn through exploration and opportunity, so provide her with a safe space in which she can move and\n\n**Toddler R &R**\n\n  What's the key to being a well-rested and refreshed parent? Having a well-rested and refreshed toddler! The following tips are as useful for stressed-out adults as they are for overtired tots:\n\n  * Wake up at the same time each day. Yes, even on weekends.\n\n  * Go to bed at the same time each night. Okay, grown-ups, you can have a little more leeway on this one\u2014but only by an hour or so.\n\n  * Don't keep going until you're frantic. If a task is getting too frustrating, take a break.\n\n  * Recharge when your batteries are lowest. If you\u2014or your toddler\u2014have a midafternoon lull and just can't keep your eyes open, don't reach for caffeine or plop your child down in front of a stimulating video. Instead give in to the call of your biorhythms and take a brief but refreshing nap.\n\nexplore. She will delight in crawling under, climbing over, and bouncing around.\n\nEncourage your child's newly discovered independence by providing him with accessible baskets of toys, books, and other playthings. Let him enjoy his new ability to choose what he would like to examine and practice his freedom to pick something out of the basket and drop it to the floor with a satisfying _thump._ Your toddler's attention span is improving, and he can concentrate on a single toy for a brief period of time. But while he will take the time\n\n**A Few Words about Discipline**\n\n  There are entire books devoted to techniques for instilling a sense of discipline in toddlers. And having survived two toddlers of my own, I can see why it's needed. If you are looking for a game plan for taming a particularly difficult toddler, check the appendix at the back of this book for some ideas on where to start. In the meantime, here are a few words to bear in mind when your toddler's natural curiosity is about to get the best of both of you:\n\n  * Restrain. Yourself, that is. Don't immediately resort to yelling, \"No, no!\" or \"Don't!\" or \"Stop!\" expecting your child to stop in the middle of what he is doing. A toddler loves a challenge and won't necessarily back off from further confrontation. Always be prepared to back up your words with action. Don't allow yourself to become angry, categorize your child as \"bad,\" or jump on every little infraction. Choose your battles when setting limits and be consistent.\n\n  * **Refrain.** As in the chorus of a song. Toddlers have limited memories, so you can't expect them to remember all the rules all the time. Be prepared to repeat the same message over and over again. Again, consistency is the key to helping toddlers understand what is and isn't appropriate.\n\n  * **Retrain.** What I really mean here is \"redirect,\" but I couldn't resist the rhyme! When your toddler's headed for trouble, you need to head him off first with another, equally intriguing option. Eventually your child will understand that while it's not okay to bang on the TV screen or windowpanes with his toy hammer, he is allowed to hammer away at pots and pans, or blocks of wood, or even the kitchen floor.\n\nto examine an object or a toy before moving on to the next, he still does not have a long memory, and so you may notice that he will keep coming back to the same toy with equal enthusiasm over and over again. This means there's no need to include every toy in the toy box. A better idea is to rotate a succession of favorite toys, so he always has something \"new\" to explore.\n\nEncourage and stimulate your toddler's language boom by responding to her questions, babbles, and commands using a grown-up voice and grown-up words. Listen carefully when she talks to you, make eye contact, and respond, even if you're not one hundred percent sure what she's said. When you think you do know what she's saying, repeat her request back to her in other words. For instance you might respond to a request for \"mo meee\" by saying, \"Would you like more milk?\" Read to her and label common objects seen in your home, on your walks, and in the grocery store. Sing songs or chant rhymes; the repetition and rhythmic tones will capture your child's attention as it helps her vocabulary grow. Greet your toddler's verbal efforts with enthusiasm and encouragement, and you'll soon have a confident communicator.\n\n## TODDLER STEPS\n\nFrom the beginning of the thirteenth month to the end of the eighteenth, your child will be rapidly developing her mobility, her fine motor skills, and her speech. And it's probably not happening in the same kind of steady linear progression that was so satisfying to chart in her baby book\n\n**Toy Chest**\n\n  The best toys for your toddler are simple things that let him explore his world, begin to understand how things work, establish context, and mimic grown-up routines. Here are some easy-to-find items and toys that I've used with my girls for hours of fun and stimulating learning:\n\n  * **Water.** It can be plain, bubbly, iced, colored, cool, warm. Let your child splash, pour, measure, spill, float things, or immerse herself (all under supervision, of course!).\n\n  * **Mud, clay, or dough.** Roll, squish, mold, and shape it. You can make your own safe Play-Doh or buy commercial brands, or just go outside and get filthy playing in some good squishy mud.\n\n  * **Sand.** Pile it, pour it, make it wet. If you can't get to the beach, fill a box with sand and have a sandbox in your backyard or, on rainy days, your own mini-island in the middle of the kitchen. Keep a toy broom handy for the inevitable sandstorm on the kitchen floor.\n\nduring the early months. That's because she's not really a baby anymore\u2014she's a toddler! And toddlers develop in uneven leaps and bounds, perhaps taking a few unsteady steps one day and, a few weeks later, running across the lawn as they chase their favorite ball. Children in this age range can vary widely in their development, so the lists below purposely cover a variety of skills.\n\nYour baby who was walking by her first birthday may\n\n  * **Blocks.** Stack them up, knock them down, pound them, line them up. Choose small, easy-to-hold wooden blocks with animal pictures or letters of the alphabet on them and they can be used in whole new ways as your child grows.\n\n  * **Sorting toys.** Provide simple wooden shapes that fit easily into large holes. You will still have to help with maneuvering the shapes to fit into the holes, but your child may begin to recognize and match the shapes. You can use foam board and cut out the outlines of simple shapes such as squares, circles, and triangles. Help your child replace the shapes, like you're solving a simple jigsaw puzzle.\n\n  * **Cups and other containers.** Fill, empty, or pour from one to another. Your toddler will begin to grasp concepts like full and empty.\n\n  * **Light balls, beanbags, or Mylar balloons.** Catch, throw, and kick.\n\n  * **Crayons, finger paints, and paper.** Scribbling is an exciting exercise in cause and effect for your toddler.\n\nbe running by the time she is fifteen months old. Another child may not run with confidence until he is a year and a half or older. But he may have an extensive vocabulary and be using simple two-word sentences by the time he is sixteen months. Because there is such a wide range of developmental ability at this age, don't make yourself crazy by comparing your child solely against this list, or even against one or two or her friends.\n\nYou have spent a year with this little person, and you, better than anyone else, know if she is developing appropriately, based upon her personality and physical strengths and weaknesses.\n\nOf course, as you know by now from reading the earlier chapters, if you ever have any questions or concerns about your child's rate of development, you should consult your pediatrician.\n\nSomewhere between the beginning of the thirteenth month and the end of the fifteenth month, your child should have achieved many of the milestones listed below. Your toddler should be able to:\n\n  *   easily pull up to standing\n\n  *   cruise with confidence\n\n  *   play patty-cake\n\n  *   scribble with a crayon\n\n  *   sort objects into containers\n\n  *   build a stack of two or more blocks\n\n  *   walk well\n\n  *   walk up steps with help\n\n  *   climb\n\n  *   run\n\n  *   use simple sentences (\"What that?\" or \"Give me.\")\n\n  *   understand and (sometimes) follow simple commands\n\nSometime between the beginning of the sixteenth month and the end of the eighteenth month, your child should be able to perform all of the skills listed above as well as be able to:\n\n**Did You Know?: Development of Premature Babies**\n\n  If your baby was born prematurely, you may find that he is not reaching the milestones listed in each chap-ral\u00ebo ter in this book within the expected age range. Although you and your pediatrician are no doubt carefully monitoring your baby's development, there are certain delays that are common among premature infants that may especially stand out as they move into toddlerhood. Conditions that are often present in premature children and that gradually resolve over the first two years of life may include:\n\n  * abnormal muscle tone\n\n  * mild delays in growth\n\n  * mild delays in achievements of skill\n\n  * behavioral problems that may inhibit attaining milestones\n\nMany parents and pediatricians evaluate a preemie's development according to a scale of \"adjusted age.\" That is, a baby who was born two months premature and who is now fourteen months old would be an adjusted age of twelve months and would be reaching milestones accordingly. By the time a child is two or older, she has generally caught up from any mild or temporary developmental delays.\n\nIf your toddler is frustrated by any of the games or activities suggested in this chapter, review earlier chapters for ideas on how to tailor the stimulation you provide to suit his attention and abilities. Remember, helping your child reach his potential is not just about having a smarter baby; it's about having a happier baby as well.\n\n**Dottie Says**\n\n  _\"Ooh, look what I've found in Daddy's pocket. It's his phone. Wow, I love pushing all these buttons. Oh, cool, it's ringing. Someone's talking! 'Bah, Ma-ma-ma-ma, ah-gook, no! No! Bye.' Gee, that was fun. Now which button did I push again?\"_\n\nOnce your highly imitative toddler becomes enamored of your phone, or PDA, or remote control, you need to be sure that the versions she is allowed to play with are completely disabled. Or take your chance with the consequences.\n\nHere's an unbelievable-but-true baby and phone story: Our one-year-old daughter snagged her dad's cell phone. My husband was in the other room talking to a client on the house phone, and I overheard the whole exchange. First my husband said to his client, \"Sure, I'll hold.\" Then I heard our daughter babbling away, obviously in intent conversation. How cute it was that she was imitating her dad! A few minutes later I heard my husband laughing and exclaiming,\"What do you mean, it was a baby on the line?\" By now our daughter had abandoned the cell phone and moved on to another activity. And then it dawned on me. I picked up the cell phone and checked the call log, and sure enough, my husband had been put on hold so his client could take a speed-dialed call from our one-year-old daughter!\n\n  *   drink from a cup\n\n  *   remove a piece of her clothing\n\n  *   throw a ball overhand\n\n  *   use a spoon\n\n  *   kick a ball forward\n\n  *   name body parts\n\n  *   name an object in a picture\n\n  *   have a vocabulary of up to fifty recognizable words\n\n## TODDLER TALK\n\nBeginning to use language appropriately\u2014like excitedly yelling out \"CAR!\" when she sees one on the highway (okay, so maybe it's not always _appropriate)_ \u2014is a hallmark of your toddler's verbal development. From babbling with a conversational tone but few recognizable words, to issuing commands like a mini-Mussolini\u2014\"Me go!\" \"Cookie!\" \"Juice!\"\u2014your toddler is learning how words, concepts, emotions, and actions interact. Like most developing skills over these months, toddlers'verbal talents may vary widely. One mother claims her son never said a word until his eighteenth month, when one morning he calmly told her, \"I don't like cereal. I want toast and butter.\"\n\nAnother mother recalls how she wished for earplugs just for a few hours of relief from the nonstop chatter of her fifteen-month-old daughter, whose earliest words included, \"What's that?\" Worn down by her daughter's relentless quest to have everything in her field of vision labeled\u2014\"That's a couch.\" \"That's a crack in the sidewalk.\" \"That's salmon steak.\"\u2014the beleaguered mom would beg her little darling to \"Please, please, let's just be quiet for one minute,\" as other parents commented on how nice it was to have such a talkative toddler.\n\nWhether you're coaxing your strong, silent type to say a few words or rapidly feeding the voracious vocabulary of an early talker, you can still provide important stimulation that will help your toddler learn how to truly communicate and understand the importance of language.\n\nIn the beginning of this second year and up until the end of the eighteenth month, it is likely that new words will come slowly. But each new word that is learned is practiced with a variety of intonations, as your child learns to communicate emotions and meanings. Consider the following variations of a simple word:\n\n\"Dog!\" exclaimed in excitement might mean: \"I see a dog.\"\n\n\"Dog?\" could be asking: \"Is the dog coming over to me?\"\n\n\"Dog!\" accompanied by a disappointed shake of the head and exasperated tone might mean: \"The dog went the other way.\"\n\nIt is your job to help your budding linguist communicate clearly by mirroring back to her the intent of her comments. For example, when she says \"Dog!\" while out walking, you can repeat back, \"Yes, that's a dog,\" or \"Yes, I see the dog, too.\"\n\nBy around eighteen months, your child will likely experience a huge jump in the number of words she knows, from around 30 to around 200 (or, in some cases, 400 or more). The numbers continue to increase exponentially. By the time your child starts kindergarten, she will have a vocabulary of more than 2,000 words. If your child isn't saying any words by fifteen months (including \"Mama\" or \"Dada\"), didn't babble before his first birthday, or makes only unintelligible sounds (even to you), you may want to discuss his speech development with your pediatrician. Among other possibilities, your child's hearing may be impaired, making imitative speech difficult or impossible.\n\nBooks continue to be important learning tools, and reading becomes much more interactive. Your toddler can now identify pictures in the books that interest her, pointing to various objects, and you can use these opportunities to encourage your child to answer simple questions. For instance, when your thirteen-month-old points to a cat, ask her, \"What does the cat say?\" Your eighteen-month-old might be able to answer a question as complex as \"What color is the cat?\" Use your imagination when reading and be creative with how you use your toddler's favorite books.\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _Hello, Who's Calling, Please?_\n\nOne of the most interesting items to toddlers is a phone. The allure of talking on the phone, whether it's your home telephone or a cell phone, is irresistible. Toy stores offer many versions of pretend phones, but I found that my kids were most satisfied by the real thing. An old phone without a cord or a cell phone with the battery removed will quickly become a favorite toy. Hold your own phone as you pretend to call your child and engage her in conversations. This is a great opportunity to model basic good manners, such as saying \"Hello, How are you?,\" and \"Good-bye\" appropriately.\n\n#### _What Comes Next?_\n\nUse your imagination and find lots of times to play this game. I used it most often when getting my children dressed in the morning. Ask your child, \"What does [child's name] wear next?\" as you look at her clothes. Your child may point to an item of clothing, and you can tell her, \"Yes, the diaper comes next,\" as you put on her diaper. Continue asking the question and naming all her pieces of clothing as you get her dressed for her day. Try this game in reverse at night: \"What comes off next?\"\n\n#### _Show and Tell_\n\nHelp your child connect words and actions by offering a play-by-play of your daily activities. \"Mommy is making a sandwich for lunch\"\u2014go into the kitchen. \"We need bread\"\u2014show slices of bread. \"I cut some tomato with a knife\"\u2014show tomato and knife\u2014and so on. You may feel silly carrying on a monologue at first, but as your child's vocabulary increases, start offering places where he can fill in the blanks. For example, if you are going outside, begin by saying, \"Mommy is putting on her...\" and then hold up your shoe and pause, seeing if your child can fill in the blank.\n\n#### _Where Is It? What Is It?_\n\nAnother naming game that is a particularly good distraction at bath time is to ask your child, \"Where is [child's name]'s nose?\" At first you will touch your child's nose, or elbow, or fingers, or toes each time after you ask the question.\n\n**Bookshelf**\n\n  Over the past year, it has probably become apparent what your toddler is most interested in. For some children it's trucks, cars, or emergency vehicles; one of my daughters was crazy about kittens; the other couldn't get enough of farm animals; and I know several toddlers who were fascinated with dinosaurs before they could talk. This is a great time to indulge your child's interests through books. Toddlers are generally so active that reading time may take a backseat to playtime. But if you follow your child's lead and choose books that interest him, you will be able to maintain a ritual of reading together, even with the most active of toddlers. Here are a few of my favorite books for this age:\n\n  * **_Dig Dig Digging_** by Margaret Mayo and Alex Ayliffe\n\n  * **_Who Said Moo?_** by Harriet Ziefert and Simms Taback\n\n  * **_Sleepy Me_** by Marni McGee\n\n  * **_My First Word Touch and Feel_** from Dorling Kindersley\n\n  * **_Hello, Lulu_** by Caroline Uff\n\n  * **_The Baby's Word Book_** by Sam Williams\n\nBefore you know it, your child will be touching the correct body part at your prompting. And soon after that, he may begin to be able to answer verbally if you point to his nose and ask, \"What is this?\"\n\n## THE LITTLE THINGS: FINE MOTOR SKILLS\n\nWith her hands now completely under her control and with complete confidence in her ability to reach, grasp, hold, and drop items, your toddler is actively engaging in a wide range of activities that help hone her developing fine motor skills. Over these few months, your child will particularly enjoy putting things in and taking them out of containers, imitating the act of drawing or writing by attempting her own scribbling, stacking, sorting, and stringing. It's easy to provide her with opportunities to practice all these skills without investing in expensive toys or activity boards. I found this stage particularly helpful, as it was the perfect opportunity to begin to teach my toddlers how to help with cleanup. No matter how many toys were scattered throughout the house, my daughter was more than willing to follow me around and help me collect toys in the big plastic laundry basket we used as her toy box.\n\nUse the following list of activities to inspire your own creativity in stimulating your busy toddler.\n\n  *   Putting in and taking out. Have an assortment of boxes, containers, and paper bags available to your child, and offer a variety of objects of different weights and sizes.\n\n  *   **Scribbling.** Tape paper securely to a table or the floor and let your child use extra-thick crayons to experiment with cause and effect as she moves the crayon across the page.\n\n  *   **Stacking.** Let your child play with wooden or cardboard blocks, toys that stack one inside the other, and plastic containers of varying size.\n\n  *   **Sorting.** Give your toddler different-colored socks, different shapes of pasta, different kinds of cereal, or other objects of varying size.\n\nAll these activities will reinforce the brain wiring that is taking place as your toddler's fine motor coordination develops, so don't think you have to direct your child to any one particular activity. Remember, repetition is key for your toddler in mastering any task. The games below offer some simple activities your toddler will enjoy and that promote manual dexterity.\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _Architect at Work_\n\nUse wooden blocks to create simple patterns, such as rows, towers, or pyramids. Encourage your child to imitate your structures and then let him build his own design for you to copy.\n\n#### _Speed Racers_\n\nEmpty paper towel tubes are just the right size to use as tunnels for small toy cars or balls. (If your child is still putting things in her mouth, supervise her carefully, as items that can fit through a cardboard tube of this size can pose a choking hazard.) Hold the tube steady and let your child drop items into it, then watch as they shoot out the other end.\n\n#### _Grocery Bagger_\n\nThe next time you grocery shop, put cans and lightweight paper products in the same bag. Put the bag on the floor and let your child help you unpack. You'll be able to get all the other groceries put away without interference, and your child will love \"helping.\"\n\n#### _Treasure Hunt_\n\nThis game is particularly fun to play outside, although it can work as an indoor event as well. Take a small plastic bucket\u2014one that your child can comfortably carry\u2014and head outside to explore. Let her choose objects to put in the bucket, encouraging her to pick up leaves, pluck blades of grass, and pick up stones, twigs, or handfuls of sand. Your child will love to carry (as well as dump) the bucket full of treasures, and plucking, twisting, picking, and scooping are all great ways to practice hand movements and dexterity.\n\n## HOW IT ALL FITS: SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT\n\nAll the aspects of your toddler's development are coming together in a remarkable combination of skills that result in some amazing advances in his development of spatial relations. Both his visual-spatial (determining distance, sorting shapes, recognizing patterns, and sequencing and ordering) and his motor-spatial (navigating around objects, balancing, and moving at varying speeds) skills will continue to sharpen through this year and the next. It's interesting to note that the right hemisphere of the brain, which controls self-awareness, art, music, and creativity, also controls spatial relations.\n\nSo, while your toddler's left brain is hard at work mastering language, recognizing patterns, and organizing spatial information, his right brain is helping him figure out how to negotiate the living room by walking rather than crawling. It's amazing to see how each element of your child's development is suddenly interrelating with many other elements and allowing your toddler to perceive his world in a complex way.\n\nHelping your toddler to process all this new sensory input is as simple as making sure that the activities you do stimulate multiple senses and allow him to continue his burgeoning work in integrating all his new skills.\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _Bang on a Drum All Day_\n\nYou know how much your toddler loves to bang on things: pots, coffee tables, high-chair trays\u2014whatever is available. Pounding toys, such as those on which he can use a hammer to bop pegs through round holes, are great for developing spatial relations skills. At first you will have to help him fit the colorful round pegs in their holes and perhaps lend a hand when hammering the pegs down, but before too long, your child will be happily banging away. This simple\n\n**Your Baby's View: Making Friends**\n\n  Imagine that you're assigned to a huge, complex, multitask project at your office. For months, you've been logging an incredible number of days at the office, just gathering the necessary information and organizing it into usable forms. Everything is just now starting to make sense, and you're ready to really buckle down and master the subject matter. Once you do, you'll be ready for the big presentation.\n\nOne day, your boss comes into the office with another person. You're introduced, and your boss tells you that you'll be spending some time with this person. You say hello and maybe even register that this new coworker looks very nice. You even feel like you could like her. But you're busy. So very, very busy. And so, without making any chitchat, you return to your project.\n\nBut your coworker's busy, too. As busy as you, it seems. And so the two of you settle down to work in companionable silence. Perhaps you glance up once in a while and exchange brief smiles. Or you borrow the tape dispenser from your coworker's desk. Or lend her a pen. Maybe one day your boss takes the two of you to lunch, where you each vie\n\ngame combines sorting, fitting shapes into holes, developing the hand-eye coordination necessary for using a hammer to pound the peg in, learning cause and effect, and experiencing some fine sonic stimulation as well. Whew! Now that you know what he's working on, wouldn't you just rather take an aspirin for that headache instead of hiding the hammer after a morning of endless pounding?\n\na little for attention as you discuss your projects. Even though you don't speak much or share the workload, you feel a real camaraderie with this person; you perceive that you're like-minded individuals.\n\nWhen it comes right down to it, you're glad to share space with this person. It's companionable, and you both seem to be doing the same sort of thing. Maybe one day, when you've mastered your project, the two of you can hang out together. You really do believe you've become quite fond of her.\n\nEarly social interactions between toddlers are not much different from the scenario described above. For the next year or two, your child will be perfectly happy playing _alongside_ his peers. Experts call this way of playing \"parallel play,\" and it simply means that while an older child or an adult is often able to tailor an activity to draw a toddler out of his own single-minded exploration, another toddler is happy to simply share space and engage in her own pursuits.\n\nAs your toddler becomes a master of his basic language, cognitive, emotional, and motor skills, he will become more able to participate in cooperative play. In the meantime, let your child enjoy the companionship of others his age, but don't attempt to force them to play together.\n\n#### _Motion and Music_\n\nTurn on whatever music inspires you and your child. Dance, jump, or run in circles. Crouch down and walk like a duck, prance like a horse, tiptoe like a mouse. Let your child stretch her imagination as you work on rhythm and balance. The bonus? A nice aerobic workout for you.\n\n**Dookie Says**\n\n  _\"I love to watch my videos. I can pick them up by myself and I can almost work the VCR. Well, I would be able to, if I could ever get to it, but Mom and Dad have moved it behind the cabinet doors. Oh, well. I can always ask them to put on the TV for me. And I do. Over and over again\u2014all day long. See how quiet I am? I'm not bothering the grown-ups and they can take care of all their grown-up chores. Why don't they let me watch as much as I want?\"_\n\nThere are any number of studies these days regarding toddlers and television watching, and as the creator of a video and DVD series, I'll be the first to say that I don't agree with the inflexible rule of absolutely no watching TV shows, DVDs, or videos, ever. In fact, there are many experts who agree with my philosophy that TV shows, DVDs, and videos can have educational value and can introduce your child to a rich fantasy world that might include talking animals, crazy puppets, or spellbinding scenery.\n\nWhat is important to remember is that TV, DVD, or video viewing, like any treat, is best in moderation. And it's not bad to have a few general rules:\n\n  * Always be sure that what your child is watching is age-appropriate.\n\n  * Limit the amount of time your toddler spends watching the television.\n\n  * Set a positive example: Don't leave the television on all day in the background; don't watch your favorite show when you are playing a game with your toddler.\n\n  * Make watching a favorite DVD or video a special event. Sit together, cuddle, and talk about what you see.\n\n#### _Hide-and-Seek_\n\nThis game is a popular way to build spatial awareness, and it's easy to play either indoors or out. It's also a great way to incorporate number concepts as you teach your child how to count to ten while someone hides.\n\nStart by \"hiding\" underneath a blanket and letting your toddler \"find\" you. Then hide her under the blanket. Add variety and work on naming body parts by grabbing a leg or an arm. Ask \"Is this a _leg_ I feel under here? Is it an _arm?\"_ Whip the cover off to announce in a satisfied voice, _\"Nope!_ 'It's [child's name].\" Simple? Sure. But a guaranteed crowd-pleaser\u2014trust me.\n\nAs your child gets more mobile, begin by hiding in plain sight. Crouch behind a chair so part of you sticks out. Or hide behind the curtains. Or a skinny tree. Call out \"Where's Mommy [or Daddy, or whomever]?\" and let your toddler locate you by your voice. This will also teach her to play by calling out her own version of \"Where am I?\" which will (hopefully) prevent those heart-stopping moments when she manages to hide so well you really can't find her!\n\n## GET UP AND GO: GROSS MOTOR SKILLS\n\nFrom being cradled in your arms, to kicking on her back in a stroller, to sitting in a bouncy seat, to sitting in a high chair, to crawling, to cruising, and now to walking, your toddler has slowly and steadily been working to get her growing body under her control. From this point on, your toddler will likely make a steady progression in mobility\n\nSafety Watch: Childproofing for Climbing Toddlers\n\n  There's something very enticing about things that are out of your toddler's reach. And there are more ways than you can think of to get to those things. Now that he has the ability to move around upright, combined with stacking skills\u2014well, there's nowhere he can't go! It's your job not to stop him from working on this new climbing skill but to keep him safe while providing some places where it's safe to practice under your supervision.\n\nPlastic climbing gyms are small and can fit even in a cramped playroom. They often have cutouts on the bottom for crawling through and a slide for a quick trip down. Outdoor play structures also provide good opportunities for climbing practice, and many parks have structures that are scaled to toddler-size.\n\nIt's important to make your home as climb-proof as possible. Favorite furniture for climbing includes: cribs, book-\n\nand speed. And unfortunately this desire for speed is coupled with a complete disregard for her personal safety. You'll need to perfect the art of sticking close without hovering, of calmly wiping away tears and assessing damage, and, most likely, of speed-dialing your pediatrician and rattling off the status of the injury like an extra on _ER._\n\nMany toddlers love to participate in specially designed gym classes that include bouncing on trampolines, playing with huge swaths of parachute cloth, and swinging from\n\nshelves, chairs, coffee tables (or, for the ambitious, kitchen and dining room tables), countertops, step stools, and dressers (ever notice how the knobs are like the handholds on the rock-climbing wall at the gym?). Take a look around your house and see what needs to be done to limit dangerous climbing.\n\n  * Make sure bookcases are anchored to the wall.\n\n  * Move furniture away from windows and install window guards.\n\n  * Fold up step stools and put them away.\n\n  * Store the most rickety of chairs, for the time being.\n\n  * Leave a pile of pillows on the floor next to the crib to cushion late-night missteps.\n\nIf your toddler is an inveterate climber, you'll need to keep a close eye on him. It's not just the heights he might reach that could be dangerous, it's also the dangerous things that you may store up high, thinking they are safe, that are now within his curious reach.\n\nbars. Look for a facility with well-padded surfaces (including the poles and beams supporting the equipment) and a staff that specializes in tiny tumblers.\n\nThis year can be a nerve-racking time as your toddler becomes proficient on her feet at all speeds. Try not to worry too much. Toddlers are incredibly resilient and fearless (they have to be!), and with your encouragement and protection will come through this developmental phase unscathed!\n\n**Games Siblings Play**\n\n  Play between older siblings and toddlers must still be carefully supervised. Early walkers are still getting their balance and may be intimidated by older, faster-moving kids. Younger siblings who are now able to get into all of the \"big kid\" stuff may also frustrate older children. On the other hand, older children are often more than happy to take the lead, and toddlers love to imitate, so there are still many opportunities for harmonious family fun. Here are a few ideas for games that should entertain children both large and small:\n\n  * **Zookeeper.** Let your older child pretend to be a variety of zoo animals. Designate your toddler as zookeeper and give him a plastic bucket filled with toy foods. Put the older child in the crib (cage), and have the toddler make the rounds to feed the roaring lion, chattering chimp, barking\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _Olympic Gymnast_\n\nUse a long two-inch-by-four-inch board. For younger toddlers, start with encouraging them to walk on it while it lies flat on the ground. As they become older, lift the board a few inches off the floor with a stack of bricks (outside) or books (inside) to make a more challenging balance beam. Start with it turned so your toddler is walking on the wider side of the board. Hold her hands for balance and help her cross from one side to the other.\n\nseal, and trumpeting elephant. Offer them a chance to reverse roles and let your toddler make the animal noises.\n\n  * A Grand Parade. Break out the musical instruments and noisemakers and let your older child be parade marshal and lead you and your toddler on a noisy march throughout the house or neighborhood. Wearing costumes or silly hats adds to the fun.\n\n  * **Going on a Bear Hunt.** A variation of the parade. Memorize the book _We're Going on a Bear Hunt_ by Michael Rosen and Helen Oxenbury and march around the house or yard chanting and acting out the story.\n\n  * **An Evening of Theater.** Pick a favorite book that your older child knows well. Read aloud as your older child acts out the story and favorite characters. Make sure that you and your toddler offer enthusiastic applause and even a standing ovation at the end of the performance.\n\n#### _Magic Carpet Ride_\n\nHave your child sit on an extra-large bath or beach towel. Grab the end of the towel and _slowly_ pull her across a bare floor. You can swirl her in circles, swish her from side to side, or build up to some speed on the straightaways. Just make sure that your child is ready for takeoff, or instead of happy squeals, you'll hear the _thunk_ of her head bumping the floor as she tips backward off her \"magic carpet.\"\n\n#\n\n _t seems like yesterday that I was helping Richard feed himself. I remember him opening his mouth, frantic for me to get that spoon in there. Sometimes I would juggle two spoons, just to make sure I had a second spoonful ready to go as soon as he gulped down the first spoonful But now it's a whole different story. It seems like every day he grows more and more independent. I love watching him as he succeeds in accomplishing even the smallest tasks. Sometimes when he's eating and I see that it takes him a few minutes to get even one tiny pea with his fork, I try to step in and help. But every time I try to help, he says. \"No, Mommy! Me do. Me do!\" I appreciate this new independence in so many ways as I watch him each day. He wants to do everything himself, no help from Mommy\u2014 no matter how long it takes. And, honestly? It makes me proud._\n\n_Linda, Taylor and Richard's mom_\n\n## I DID IT MY WAY\n\nOl' Blue Eyes may have thought he had the market cornered on independence, but over these six months you'll discover that Sinatra's got nothing on your toddler when it comes to sheer force of will. The toddler's rallying cry is \"Me do!\" And yet, sweetly, your toddler still needs your reassurance that it's okay to persevere at these tasks.\n\nAnd your job is to stand back and let him do it. To allow your child to forge ahead in trying and mastering the skills he is acquiring, you will need the cheerful encouragement of a cheerleader, the patience of a saint, the negotiating skills of an international diplomat, and the ability to move at the speed of a three-toed sloth. In fact, the next time you are marveling at how time is passing in slow motion as you endure the endless wait required while a determined twenty-month-old dresses himself each morning, remember that allowing your child to practice simple skills will provide the stimulation that those areas of his brain need to make such tasks easy and routine.\n\nAs for what you can do about the potential embarrassment of venturing out in public with a twenty-month-old who has successfully dressed herself in an outfit of her own choosing\u2014you're on your own. One woman I met told me her child's favorite outfit to wear outside was pajamas. I can't tell you how many times I was accompanied to the grocery store by a tutu-clad, feather-boa-flaunting, wand-waving, sparkly-red-shoe-wearing \"Princess\"!\n\nAs your child barrels toward her second birthday, you may often find yourself marveling at the relatively verbal, relatively coordinated, endlessly energetic little person you have raised. During these months that go so fast, be sure to take some time to acknowledge how all the early stimulation and attention you have lavished on your child has paid off. If you really want a sense of how much your child has developed and where her early potential has taken her, turn back to the earliest chapters in this book and play with your toddler some of the games I recommended for infants. You may be surprised to see that certain games will evoke a memory and even an enthusiastic response.\n\nCompare her reactions to the stimulation as an infant with her reaction to the games as a toddler. I'll bet you will be amazed at how sophisticated her skill levels have become. And it should be clear how the relatively simple activities that stimulated her as an infant have laid the groundwork for the more complex stimulation she now thrives on.\n\n## A STEADIER PROGRESSION\n\nNo matter how quickly your child zoomed ahead in certain areas as an infant or early toddler, as he approaches two, you may feel like he and his peers are all sort of leveling out, developmentally speaking. From the beginning of the nineteenth month to your child's second birthday, toddlers progress steadily, showing a more moderate but constant rate of development. You can expect to see a steady improvement in all areas: language, motor, cognitive, social, and emotional skills. Abstract concepts such as passage of time and emotions like empathy are beginning to develop along with social awareness and longer memory span.\n\nPerhaps the word that best sums up your toddler over these next few months is \"intense.\" Think of your toddler as an anthropologist studying a newly discovered tribe. You might catch her staring at you intently as you take out the dishes and set the table. Perhaps later that week you might find her setting plates down in front of her teddy bears. In fact, toddlers spend up to 20 percent of their time just watching and studying behavior. They internalize what they have observed by imitation and repetition.\n\nYour toddler is also intent on using his developing language skills to gather more information. \"Why?\" or \"What?\" may become the most frequent word you hear. You need to acknowledge the importance of this information gathering by answering these questions each time they are asked. Even if it _is_ the one-hundredth time you've explained why he shouldn't eat from the dog's dish.\n\nFine motor skills have improved immensely to the point where your toddler can manipulate levers, switches, and keys. This manual dexterity, combined with his unlimited interest in how things work, makes toys that \"do something,\" like pop-ups or games where he can press buttons, very popular.\n\nImproved physical strength and coordination let your toddler actively pursue some of the activities she sees that look so interesting. It will help if you can begin to find stimulating activities that will channel some of her physical energy.\n\n## SLEEPING AND WAKING\n\nYour toddler's sleep needs are the same as they were in the previous six months: ten to twelve hours at night and possibly a one- to two-hour nap in the afternoon. Their growing brains and bodies need time to rest and recharge. If you have already helped your toddler learn how to drift off on his own at night, it's likely you'll have fairly smooth sailing from this point on. If your toddler has bad sleep habits or requires your attention whenever he wakes, you may be in for a stormy ride.\n\nFrom about nineteen to twenty-four months, toddlers may experience interrupted sleep for several reasons: teething (second molars come in at around twenty months), night terrors, simple but significant stresses (like new babysitters, a move, a new school, or a temporarily absent parent), and trouble processing the day's events. If you've taught your child how to settle herself after waking, this brief window of disturbed sleep patterns shouldn't cause any problems down the road. If you're starting to panic as you read this and are thinking that you had better break some bad habits now, there are several parenting experts who are known for their expertise in sleep issues. Look for books by someone whose philosophy on getting toddlers to sleep most closely matches your own:\n\n  *   **Jody Mindell** stresses calming, consistent routines and teaching the child how to fall asleep independently.\n\n  *   **Richard Ferber** prefers consistent routines, a transitional object, and a firm emphasis on teaching children to fall asleep on their own.\n\n  *   **T. Berry Brazelton** explains relaxing routines and self-comforting techniques\u2014methods for reinforcing your toddler's growing sense of autonomy.\n\n  *   **William Sears, M. D.** , teaches establishing nighttime rituals, including \"parenting\" by rocking her or lying down with her rather than \"putting\" your child to sleep.\n\n  *   **Marc Weissbluth, M. D.** , offers a step-by-step program for instilling good sleep habits.\n\nWhat you may have noticed in the quick summary above is that no matter what approach they take to resolving sleep issues, the experts all agree on one thing regarding toddlers and sleep: routine. A routine of any kind is important for toddlers. As your toddler struggles with her desire for independence, it is reassuring, even relaxing, to her to know what is coming next. So, particularly at bedtime, a consistent routine may mean a smoother transition from awake to asleep.\n\nFollowing is the bedtime routine in our household, which has existed, in more or less the same order, for the better part of five years. Although there are a lot of steps, it's not as complicated as it seems\u2014especially after doing it every night for five years! Once you find the right bedtime groove, you can speed through some sections while lingering over others. Don't worry: Your child will let you know if you've left anything important out! It's also a good idea (if a little controlling) to write down the bedtime routine for any babysitter or occasional caregiver.\n\n### BEST BEDTIME ROUTINE\n\n  *   **Go wild:** Get those giggles and wiggles out. Let your toddler run naked through the house, jump on a mattress (set on the floor, please), and generally go crazy. Join in as much as you want! Let the revelry continue for all of ten minutes, then swoop her off to the tub.\n\n  *   **Soak your troubles away:** Slip your child into a relaxing warm bath. Don't encourage wild splashing play or general rowdiness (it's not safe in the tub anyway!). Use a washcloth to give a massage and cuddle her dry, rather than briskly rubbing.\n\n  *   **Attend to details:** Brush teeth, put on diapers and pjs, all in a low-key manner.\n\n  *   **Unwind:** Sit together and talk or play quietly. Many toddlers like to review their day before going to sleep. You can talk about what she did from the time she woke up right until going to bed. Processing the information from the day in this way will help your toddler to relax.\n\n  *   **Good night, good night, good night:** Get her ready to go to bed by wishing everyone a good night: siblings, parents, pets, favorite toys, the moon. Use your judgment in how long you want to spend on this\u2014as your child gets older, she'll quickly figure out this is a great way to stall.\n\n  *   **Story time:** Snuggle together in a big chair or on the bed and read a few books. Or, make up a story that features your child. My husband does this, and it makes him a favorite at bedtime.\n\n  *   **A little night music:** Turn on some soft classical music. Of course, both my daughters loved the Baby Prodigy _Musical Pacifier_ CDs!\n\n  *   **Mood lighting:** The total darkness that helped your baby sleep through the night may petrify your toddler if he awakens. Use a small night-light to cast a reassuring glow.\n\n  *   **Kiss and go:** Tell your child one last good night, tuck her in with a kiss, and leave without hesitating. Don't let yourself get suckered back for another kiss, or for a drink of water, or to find a missing toy.\n\nIf you linger outside your toddler's door after you've put her to sleep, you will hear her chatting away in what some parenting experts call \"crib narratives.\" Just as you relived\n\n**Your Baby's View: Leaving the Party**\n\n  Imagine you've just spent a lovely day with dear friends. It's been loads of fun, but it's getting late. You're tired and, quite frankly, ready for bed. Your friends see you to your room and wish you a good night. As you get into bed, your curiosity starts to nag at you. There's a sliver of light showing under your door, and if you listen carefully, you can hear the murmur of your friends' voices and maybe the clink of silverware. What are they doing out there? Is it a party? Why didn't they encourage you to stay? You begin to toss and turn. What, exactly, might you be missing? You think about getting out of bed, maybe you even swing your feet over the edge. But you're tired, and now maybe a little paranoid. They brought you to your room, didn't they? Left you lying here in the dark. Why don't they want you? And so you lie awake in the dark, wondering what you might be missing out on.\n\nEvery day is one big party to your toddler, and separation at nighttime can make him acutely aware that the party continues even after he's left. It will help your child to feel like he's not missing out if you can make his sleeping environment as welcoming as possible. Special sheets may make his bed more inviting, a favorite plush toy can become a bedtime companion, and a white noise machine or relaxing music can mask the distractions of other household sounds. The goal is to have your child _prefer_ to stay in his bed.\n\n**Did You Know?: Nightmares and Night Terrors**\n\n  As your toddler's imagination and memory grow and improve, she may begin waking at night from nightmares. Stress, illness, change, or certain medications can all provoke bad dreams. Unlike an adult, however, a toddler cannot dismiss the fearful scenes that wake her in the middle of the night as \"only dreams.\" If your child is having nightmares that are disturbing her sleep, she will need your help to feel secure enough to go back to sleep. Make sure she feels safe, even if it means turning on the light or leaving a night-light on. Reassure her that she isn't in any danger from whatever scary creatures are haunting her sleep. Let her talk about her bad dream, especially if the memory of it is still with her in the morning.\n\nIf your child wakes you in the night with his screaming and thrashing but doesn't appear to acknowledge you when you arrive at his bedside, he may be experiencing night terrors. Don't try to wake him or restrain his flailing limbs. A\n\nlived the day with your child as part of the bedtime routine, she will now review for herself. This reliving and interpreting of her day gives her a feeling of mastery and allows her to work out any frustrations she may have experienced.\n\nOne mother remembers how her toddler daughter would demand each night to \"talk about my day.\" The two would sit together at bedtime, and the mother would patiently retrace each step of her daughter's day, from waking\n\nnight terror should abate within ten to fifteen minutes, and your child will have no recollection of the event the next morning. Most children who experience night terrors stop having them by the time they are starting grade school\u2014 around age six.\n\nHow can you tell if your child is having a nightmare or a night terror?\n\n  * **Bad dreams** occur more frequently and during the later, lighter stage of REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. Your child will likely wake from a nightmare and may be able to describe his dream. Bad dreams are relatively brief, but your child may remain upset for a while after waking.\n\n  * **Night terrors** occur less frequently and during very deep, non-REM sleep. Your child will likely be unable to recall an episode of night terror. Your child will not be fully awake, although his eyes may be slightly open or staring. Night terrors last longer than a bad dream, and your child will likely continue to sleep once they end.\n\nto pulling on pajamas, highlighting any particularly interesting moments. No detail was too small for her daughter to review. Once Mom had left the room, the little girl could be heard saying firmly, \"Talk about my day _again.\"_ She would then run through the same dialogue, sometimes twice. After about half an hour or forty-five minutes of chatter, thered be complete silence and a blissfully sleeping child.\n\n## STIMULATING YOUR TODDLER\n\nAs you watch your busy toddler move through her day, it is clear what child-care experts mean when they say, \"Play is a child's work.\" Over these next six months, your child will begin to enjoy _symbolic_ play\u2014feeding her dolls, making a \"house\" out of blocks, causing two stuffed animals to carry on a conversation. This symbolic play grows out of your child's study of you and her desire to imitate behaviors.\n\nImitative play is still important. Your toddler learns by helping, and you can enhance his experience by making such learning fun. Let your toddler practice fine motor skills by turning on the faucets and \"washing\" plastic dishes and cups while you make dinner. Give him a child-sized broom or vacuum cleaner and have him help you clean house. Show him how he can water plants by pouring from a small pitcher, or teach him how to hang up his clothes on easy-to-reach pegs. Give him a doll and let him take care of his \"baby\" throughout the day.\n\nAs she approaches age two, your child will become more and more confident in her large motor skills. Give her plenty of opportunities to challenge her growing sense of balance on her feet. She is probably already proficient at crawling up stairs; now is the time to teach her how to creep down backward. Your child will still love music and the opportunity to dance. Use music as a background for any kind of movement games. Help your child tune in to the different rhythms around her: knocking on doors, clapping in patterns, hammering on pegboards.\n\nYour toddler is also ready, willing, and able to begin to play with others. While much of her play in her second year will be parallel play, which I discussed in the previous chapter, she will definitely benefit from regular social interactions with her peers.\n\nConversation becomes a two-way street during these months, and your child will usually understand simple commands. You can help her link these commands to concepts through repetition and visual clues. Urgently saying, \"Don't touch! The stove is hot. It will hurt your hand,\" while shaking your head and making sure your facial expressions register great concern will have much more of an impact than saying, \"No. Stop that this instant.\"\n\nThe clearer you can be in your communication, the easier it will become to instill discipline and a willingness to listen. Although, as your child gains more and more of a sense of independence, she may decide that obeying what she hears is not a priority. By around eighteen months, your child is developing an independent basic sense of right and wrong.\n\nYou may even see glimmers of self-discipline. I would often hear my daughter Lara saying, \"No. No. No,\" to herself. I soon learned to check on her whenever I heard her saying \"No,\" as it usually meant she was in the process of doing\u2014or about to do\u2014something she knew she shouldn't.\n\n## TODDLER STEPS\n\nFrom the beginning of the nineteenth month to his second birthday, your toddler will be steadily linking multiple skills in increasingly sophisticated ways. An activity as simple\n\n**Dookie Says**\n\n  _\"My friend is coming over today. Mommy says we're going to play. But when he gets here, he just takes all my toys. Look! He's got my favorite car. When I grab it from him, he gets mad and pushes me. When he tries to play with my car\u2014it's my favorite\u2014he puts his hand too close to my mouth. So I bite it! Now everyone is telling me 'Bad.' And he's the one who took my car. I'm not sure this 'playing' is such a great idea.\"_\n\nAs he approaches his second birthday, your toddler is certainly ready to begin to spend time with other children his age. But it is important not to lose sight of the fact that for your nineteen- to twenty-four-month-old, there is only one person who counts: him. In fact, most toddlers are not really ready for cooperative group play until they are three or older. Here are a few things you can do to begin to help your child learn how to behave when he's having a playdate, and it won't be long until he learns how to be happily engaged in sharing and playing with a friend or two.\n\nas building a tower of blocks involves not just the gross motor skills to go and get the blocks off the shelf, or the verbal skills to ask you for his blocks, but also the manual dexterity to pick up the blocks, the visual-spatial relation to decide which to stack, and the hand-eye coordination to place one on top of the other.\n\nAs he did from his twelfth to eighteenth months, your toddler will continue to develop at his own rate, surging ahead in some areas and progressing more slowly in others.\n\nPlaydate Strategies:\n\n  * **Set a good example.** Make sure you are on your best behavior. Model good manners (say please and thank you), smile, and use a pleasant voice. Take turns.\n\n  * **Don't force togetherness.** Two toddlers enjoying different but similar activities in the same room defines a successful playdate at this age.\n\n  * **Don't interfere.** If the two friends are \"working something out,\" I generally try to stay out of the picture unless physical harm seems imminent.\n\n  * **Do have duplicate toys.** If your child has a favorite toy, keep a duplicate on hand that can come out during play-dates. At this age, similar but different isn't better and sharing isn't an option. If you're going to play with balls, it's better to have two red balls than one red and one blue.\n\n  * **Have a snack at the ready.** A little treat can go a long way in promoting togetherness and preventing hunger-induced crankiness.\n\nAs you look at the list below, consider whether your child is making consistent progress in any given area.\n\nOf course, if you have any questions or concerns at all about your child's rate of development, you should consult your pediatrician.\n\nSomewhere between the end of the nineteenth month and his second birthday, your child should have achieved the milestones listed in the previous chapter, as well as those listed below. He should be able to:\n\n  *   \"feed\" a doll or stuffed animal\n\n  *   wash his hands\n\n  *   speak clearly and be understood by others\n\n  *   brush his teeth (with help)\n\n  *   put on a piece of clothing\n\n  *   put on shoes\n\n  *   jump up off the ground\n\n  *   stand on one foot if holding onto something\n\n  *   carry on an understandable conversation\n\n  *   identify friends by name\n\n## TODDLER TALK\n\nMany toddlers just shy of two years old use simple sentences with verbs and may be beginning to add adverbs or adjectives. But even if your toddler isn't a chatterbox, she may already be communicating at levels above those of her more verbose peers. The use of gestural speech is considered by some experts to be the most reliable indicator of your toddler's understanding of the rules of communication. If your child is able to use her body and gestures to clearly communicate language, she is likely on the verge of bursting forth with a torrent of words.\n\nYour toddler is constantly working on his speech development. One of the most important ways you can help your child improve his communication skills is by continuing to support a running dialogue throughout your day. Always make sure you allow him plenty of chances to initiate a conversation, even if his first attempts are nonverbal.\n\nThe conversations your toddler has on her own are also important in helping her to understand the role of language in interpreting actions and events. In the book _Narratives from the Crib_ , Dr. Katherine Nelson analyzed the monologues of a typical toddler when left alone in her crib. She theorized that these monologues are not simply practice of word mastery but an attempt to make sense of daily experiences.\n\nAs your child's speech becomes more fluid, he launches into the next stage of language development, which is not simply using words as labels but beginning to address concepts and express his thought processes. As your child starts to use language in a more sophisticated way, you will encounter some examples of what I call \"toddler grammar\"\u2014 a use of grammar that makes perfect logical sense, while not exactly following recognized grammatical rules. For instance:\n\n  *   **Subject-verb relationship.** If your toddler wants to go with Daddy to the store, he may say \"Go Daddy?\" If he knows that Daddy is going to the store, he may state, \"Daddy go.\"\n\n  *   **Plurals**. What could be easier? Just add an \"s\" at the end of a word to indicate more. Like \"mouses\" or \"foots\" or \"tooths.\"\n\n  *   **Past tenses**. Past tense is created by adding a \"d.\" Your toddler may say things like \"I goed\" or \"Kitty eated.\"\n\nIt's important that you do not discourage these early attempts at complex language. As your toddler struggles to make sense of the English language's admittedly complex grammar structure, you can help him by offering quick and understanding responses that keep him interested in continuing to communicate his thoughts. Make sure you answer him using proper grammar. Eventually, he will begin to pick up on the grammatical nuances.\n\nSinging, reading, and reciting nursery rhymes are all still important ways of stimulating your toddler's developing language skills. Create stories about things you see every day, encourage your child to repeat simple rhymes along with you, and let her hold the book and turn the pages as you finish reading each one.\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _I Wonder, I Wonder_\n\nMake up stories about everyday objects and people. For instance, if you are going for a stroll to the park and see a dog walking on a leash, start a story with \"I wonder where the dog is going?\" Your younger child may simply turn and look at the dog expectantly; your older toddler may answer something like \"Park.\" Pick up the story from your child's cue. \"Yes, the dog is on his way to the park. When he gets there, he will chase a ball and run and play. What will we do at the park?\" This kind of dialogue stimulates both conversational and imaginative skills.\n\n#### _The Name Game (Reprise)_\n\nIn chapter 3, I talked about how your very tiny baby was interested in labeling things. That interest enjoys a resurgence, and this time your toddler loves to do the naming herself. Add another element by using a descriptive word for things you are naming. For instance, when setting the table, show your child a plate and say, \"Here is a blue...\" Pause and let her shout out \"Plate!\" Then hold up another and say \"And here is a red...\" Before you know it, your child will be jumping in to add the adjective as well as the noun.\n\n#### _Life as a Musical_\n\nMake even the most mundane tasks enjoyable, by encouraging your toddler to sing along with you as you set basic sentences to song. Getting dressed in the morning becomes a whole new enterprise when you sing (to the tune of \"Farmer in the Dell\"): \"We're putting on your shirt. We're putting on your shirt. Hi, ho, here we go! We're putting on your shirt [and pants, and socks, and shoes].\" Other great tunes to use include: \"Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star,\" \"She'll Be Coming 'Round the Mountain,\" or \"I've Been Working on the Railroad.\" Use your imagination and transform a trip to the grocery store into a Broadway show.\n\n## THE LITTLE THINGS: FINE MOTOR SKILLS\n\nBy now your child has increasingly skilled manual dexterity and wants to try to perform tasks using her fingers and hands. She may insist on getting herself dressed, making food, or trying to pour her juice. While she can't always do everything she wants to do easily, it is important that you remain encouraging. Be creative and find ways that let her\n\n**Monkey Hear, Monkey Say**\n\n  Here's a small but important reminder: Watch what you say within earshot of your toddler! He is constantly on the lookout for new words to add to his vocabulary. If you slip up and let something out that you wish you hadn't, don't make a big fuss, even if he tries repeating it one or two times. Remember, _any_ kind of attention is good attention as far as your toddler is concerned. I myself have managed to prune my strong language down to a fierce _\"Darn it!\"_\n\nEven if it feels strange at first, I think you'll find that it's not so difficult to adapt to G-rated speech. But I will admit it raises an eyebrow\u2014and has been known to induce a smirk or two\u2014when, in attempting to get my point across in the midst of a heated discussion with adults, I feel compelled to use one of my kid-friendly \"expletives.\"\n\nbe successful at the tasks she attempts: choose outfits with large, loopy buttonholes, give her a measuring cup full of cereal and let her pour it into the bowl. Then use a tiny pitcher and teach her how to pour liquids into a cup (two-handed works best!).\n\nBetween the ages of eighteen and twenty-four months, your toddler is also likely to become very interested in drawing or scribbling or other forms of artistic expression. Your budding artist is exercising both his fine motor skills and his visual acumen with these early works of squiggles, lines, and dots as he learns that he is able to control his hand to create particular visual patterns. Experts categorize the early phases of working with crayon and paper as \"disordered scribbling\" and \"controlled scribbling.\" Both of these stages of exploration are more about the control of motion than anything else, so your toddler will like working with a dark crayon on large sheets of paper that are taped securely to the floor or table. That way he can concentrate on the connection between movement of his hand and what appears on the paper. Different colors of crayon can add additional stimulation.\n\nYour toddler will enjoy many kinds of manipulative art over these next few months. Clay, finger painting, painting with a brush, using stamps, drawing, and cutting and sticking all encourage exploration in different mediums.\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _Costume Box_\n\nToddlers love dress-up, and easy-to-slip-on clothing lets them practice dressing themselves while engaging in imaginative play Capes, smocks, long scarves (supervise carefully if she is wrapping it around her neck), tutus, aprons, large pieces of fabric with slits (like ponchos), vests, and hats, hats, hats are all easy for your toddler to put on herself. Both boys and girls will enjoy creating costumes and dressing up. Be sure not to discourage creativity. If your son wants to wear a tutu, let him go for it!\n\n#### _Mixed-media Artists_\n\nLet your toddler explore his love of drawing and painting in a variety of ways. Use food coloring to tint shaving\n\n**Bookshelf**\n\n  Books should continue to be a big part of your toddler's life. Sturdy board books will let an independent child easily turn the pages by herself. Old magazines, especially toy catalogs, can provide hours of \"reading\" fun and are great for launching discussions. It's likely that your child will attach herself to a favorite story. After raising two toddlers, I have lost count of how many times I've read _Goodnight Moon_ over the years. Trips to the library or bookstore, where a variety of books can be reviewed to see what might capture your toddler's interest, can be both fun and helpful in breaking her out of the \"read it again\" rut.\n\nThere are so many wonderful, exciting books for toddlers that it's hard to recommend specific titles. Choosing books to share with your toddler becomes a personal experience. But if you're stuck for ideas, ask your friends for suggestions or visit a website like Amazon.com and take a look\n\ncream or even whipped cream and let him spread it around. (It looks like marbled paper when it dries.) Color grains of rice with food coloring, then spread a thin layer of glue on a piece of paper and let him sprinkle on a design. Buy finger paints for the tub. Or let him paint with his feet. Make sure you use washable, water-based paints. Some parenting books suggest you allow your child to finger paint with different foods or juices. Personally, I never wanted to encourage either of my daughters to play with her food, but I can see the appeal of creating an edible work of art!\n\nat some of the lists of books enjoyed by other parents. There are also books that recommend other books, such as Kathleen Odean's _Great Books for Babies and Toddlers_ and _How to Get Your Child to Love Reading_ by Esm\u00e9 Raji Codell. The list below includes some tried-and-true books that my girls have loved.\n\n  * **_Good Night, Gorilla_** by Peggy Rathmann\n\n  * Any Dr. Suess book, especially **_The Cat in the Hat, Green Eggs and Ham_ ,** and **_Fox in Socks_**\n\n  * **_Owl Babies_** by Martin Waddell and Patrick Benson\n\n  * **_Jesse Bear, What Will You Wear?_** by Nancy White Carl-strom\n\n  * **_Go Dog, Go!_** by Philip D. Eastman\n\n  * **_Chicka Chicka Boom Boom_** by Bill Martin, Jr.\n\n  * **_What Mommies Do Best\/What Daddies Do Best_** by Laura Numeroff Joffe\n\n#### _A Penny Saved..._\n\nThis is a game that needs to be played under close supervision to ensure no coins are swallowed. Find a plastic jar or container with a fairly wide mouth and neck. Give your toddler a pile of pennies and let her drop them into the jar. Add water and a lid and slosh the pennies around. Talk about how heavy the jar becomes. Empty the jar, refill it with water, and drop in the pennies one by one until the water overflows. Simple experiments like these allow your child to practice motor skills while learning simple lessons in cause and effect.\n\n**Left- or Right-Handedness**\n\n  Only 5 to 10 percent of the general population favors their left hand, and scientists theorize that the trait of left- or right-handedness is genetically determined. When both parents are lefties, their child is more than 50 percent likely to also be a lefty. When one parent is left-handed, the likelihood drops to about 17 percent, and when both parents favor their right hands, their child has only a 2 percent chance of being left-handed. In any case, toddlers don't usually decide on a dominant hand until after age three, and in fact many children at this age are equally proficient with their left and right hands.\n\n#### _No Greater Gift_\n\nYour toddler will love to unwrap things. Start out by wrapping favorite toys or books. Don't use too much tape or complicated ribbons and knots. You can wrap with newspaper, tissue, or recycled wrapping paper. In fact, the presentation of the \"gift\" is beside the point. Your child will love the discovery that comes with uncovering the object itself.\n\n## HOW IT ALL FITS: SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT\n\nAs your toddler's spatial development continues to grow more sophisticated over these next six months, the activities you do together can become increasingly complex. As you watch your child attempt to master a new skill, you\n\n**Dottie Says**\n\n  _\"I love to draw so much. I'm quite a good artist. I scribble and scribble. And I have the nicest crayons. Everyone says I'm very talented. But the other day, I was just finishing an extensive mural on my bedroom wall when Mom walked in. And I have to say, she didn't seem pleased at all. In fact, she scrubbed my work right off the wall. I don't know what's wrong. I thought she loved my coloring.\"_\n\nIt's bound to happen at least once: Your aspiring artist will suddenly turn graffiti artist. If you discover that your walls have been redecorated, first take a deep breath and count to ten. Your toddler doesn't know she's done anything wrong, and you don't want to squelch her creativity by yelling at her or punishing her. You need to help her understand that there are appropriate places to draw. If you catch her in the middle of the act, pull out a piece of paper and redirect her to it. Let her finish her project and then explain that walls are not for drawing on. Give her a towel and let her help you clean the wall. Then show her how you can hang art that's been done on paper on the wall for the same effect. If she persists in decorating your walls, you may want to invest in a standing easel. It may be that she prefers to work standing up.\n\ncan know that he is working hard at bringing to bear on a particular task all the separate pieces of his development.\n\nGiven the \"Me do!\" nature of your toddler as she approaches her second birthday, you may not be so surprised when I tell you that one of the best kinds of stimulation you can offer is letting her figure things out on her own. For instance, if she's working on one of those wooden puzzles where pictures of animals or other objects are taken out and replaced in spaces with a matching picture, she may immediately know _where_ a particular piece belongs (good visual skills) but may have trouble fitting the piece into the space in exactly the right way (developing fine motor skills). Let her try to fit the piece in the correct spot. But be sure to lend a hand before frustration ruins the fun of the new challenge. At this age, a bit of a challenge can be good\u2014as long as your child can feel she has succeeded.\n\nSo whether your child is exploring sequencing by lining up a row of different-sized blocks or fitting together a nesting toy, or is working on hand-eye coordination by attempting to make a straight line on paper or put a puzzle piece in place, or accurately using his spoon to get a mouthful of oatmeal, you need to let him try on his own. Be encouraging, and learn to know when to step in and offer the support that will let him be successful at his efforts.\n\nMany of the games I've suggested to enhance fine and gross motor skills are also naturally conducive to developing your toddler's spatial skills. As you may have surmised, by around age two, your child will benefit most from stimulation that does not simply concentrate on one discrete area but requires him to use multiple skills in concert.\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _Tennis, Anyone?_\n\nUsing your hands (for younger toddlers) and plastic spatulas (for older), bat a Mylar balloon back and forth. To make it more challenging, put an obstacle between you and your child and try to get the balloon from one side to the other. If this game occasionally starts to resemble golf more than tennis as your toddler swats the balloon once it lands on the ground, don't worry. It's the same idea. Besides, two words: Tiger Woods.\n\n#### _Discovery Table_\n\nYou can buy fancy tables just like they use in preschools, or you can simply get a long, shallow plastic container (with a lid is best) and place it on a low table. Fill the container with cotton balls, or rice, or kernels of corn, or sand, or water and let your child decide how to use it. He may make roads for his cars in the sand, or experiment with what will float or sink in water. Toddlers love to poke and twist and mash, so fill the box with a dough (real or a Play-Doh\u2122 mixture that has been tinted with food coloring) and let him pretend to make bread or pizza. Use your imagination and find new ways for your toddler to explore dimension and texture. Let him squeeze and twist, and build things up and knock them down. And when he's done, just pop the lid on the container and store it until the next time.\n\n#### _Button, Button, Who's Got the Button?_\n\nLet your toddler develop her visual memory and problem-solving skills by playing this game with three large plastic\n\n**Toy Chest**\n\n  Since your toddler is continuing to develop both intellectually and physically over these months, you need to offer toys that will stimulate your child's expanding range of talents and interests. Toys like baby dolls or miniature kitchen sets that allow toddlers to imitate grown-up life can promote imaginative play and motor skills. Toys of varying shapes or sizes stimulate developing spatial skills. Toys with buttons or levers that, when manipulated, cause motion or reveal something provide both an opportunity to work on manual dexterity and early lessons in cause and effect. Art supplies promote creativity and experimentation. Riding and pushing toys challenge increasingly sophisticated gross motor skills.\n\nMake sure that the toys you choose are age-appropriate. Toys that are too difficult for your toddler to operate will be frustrating at best and dangerous at worst. Pick toys that are in line with your child's interests. If he's passionate about dinosaurs, look for puzzles with a dino theme or for plastic dinosaurs that he can manipulate. If you have a daughter who loves dolls, get a doll stroller, a bottle, and some simple items of clothing so she can fully \"take care\" of her baby.\n\ncups and an object small enough to fit under them. (Don't actually use a button, though. The object should not be so small that it poses a choking hazard.) Turn the three cups over, with one covering the object. Encourage your child to point to one of the cups, and then lift it up to reveal whether or not the object is there. As she becomes more\n\nIf you get a toy that seemed great in the store but is too challenging for your toddler, wait until he has lost interest and simply store the toy for future exploration. He'll be ready for it before you know it.\n\nAt this age, toy stores can be a treat for both children and adults. Here's a list of a few things that will make great playthings for the next few months and probably over the next few years:\n\n  * play kitchen set with real or plastic food\n\n  * toddler tape player and tapes\n\n  * puppets (finger puppets are easier for younger toddlers; older children may be able to manipulate hand puppets). Old socks, when decorated, can make great puppets!\n\n  * alphabet or number blocks\n\n  * large building block systems\n\n  * shape sorters\n\n  * sand boxes and sand toys\n\n  * dolls and accessories\n\n  * noise-making instruments like tambourines, maracas, drums, or xylophones\n\nskilled at remembering which cup hides the object, slowly shuffle the cups around. Letting her lift the cup to reveal the object adds another dimension to this game. We do this exact same demo in the first Baby Prodigy video.\n\n## GET UP AND GO: GROSS MOTOR SKILLS\n\nAs your adventurous, physical toddler continues to push the limits of physical space, you may notice a period where he slows down or suddenly refuses to participate in a rough-and-tumble game he once enjoyed. One mom remembers how her son, who used to be a terror on the playground slide, suddenly refused to both climb up and slide down. It wasn't until she learned that while out with a babysitter, he'd gone zooming down the slide, only to land firmly and probably painfully on his butt, that she understood his reluctance to return to his daredevil tactics on the playground.\n\nYour toddler's increasing capability to remember events and to link cause and effect may now cause him to become intimidated or even fearful. As much as you want to safeguard your toddler, you should not become overprotective or try to discourage his adventurousness. It's a fine line you'll need to walk for the next few months, or even year.\n\nYour toddler is on a path of increasing coordination and confidence. Over the past six months you encouraged and challenged your child to safely test his skills against new obstacles. You should continue to look for ways to stimulate his gross motor coordination in combination with other developing skills. Use the games below as suggestions for how to incorporate other skills along with climbing, running, and balancing.\n\n**Safety Watch: Covering the Basics**\n\n  Now that your toddler is a better communicator, you can begin the incredibly important project of teaching him some basic safety lessons. Start now and repeat them often, and eventually your warnings will take hold. As the parent of any toddler knows, the most innocent places or activities can be fraught with danger for your mobile disaster magnet. I could fill a whole chapter with items or situations that are potentially dangerous to your toddler, but instead I offer the list below simply as a starting point for you to develop your own safety program for your toddler to follow.\n\nTeach the dangers of\n\n  * sharp or pointy\n\n  * hot\n\n  * stairs\n\n  * electrical outlets or cords\n\n  * tubs, pools, or other bodies of water\n\n  * small items that don't belong in the mouth\n\n  * poisonous substances (houseplants, medicines,\"grown-up\" drinks like coffee or alcohol)\n\n  * traffic\n\n  * pets (your own and strange animals)\n\n**Games Siblings Play**\n\n  As you approach the two-year mark with your toddler, I hope that your children have settled into a routine of enjoying each other's company. Of course, I can pretty much promise you that your older child will sometimes feel claustrophobic or irritated by the attentions of her younger sibling. And that your toddler will generally consider himself his sister's biggest fan\u2014or stalker.\n\nWhile appreciating that some private time for each child will be both appreciated and necessary, you can continue to create opportunities for mutually satisfying play.\n\n  * Lion Tamer. Hugely popular in our household. One person (usually me) got to be the lion tamer. Everyone else was a lion. I would command my beasts up onto couches and footstools. Have them sit up, beg, roll over, and roar. Both my children would completely get into the spirit of\n\n### GAMES\n\n#### _Catch It on a Bounce, Catch It on the Fly_\n\nUse a large rubber ball and let your child practice catching it after one bounce. Call out \"Bounce\" before sending it her way. The next time, gently lob the ball underhand, calling out \"Fly\" Encourage your child to call out \"Bounce\" or \"Fly\" before sending the ball back to you. Begin the game by standing just a step or two apart. As you get better, take steps backward and increase the distance between you. This game combines language, anticipation, and hand-eye\n\nthings\u2014so much so that, even when I was done, two little \"lions\" would continue to roam around the house.\n\n  * **Follow the Leader.** Have a slightly bossy older child in the house? Here's the perfect chance for her to tell her little brother or sister just what to do\u2014and have the satisfaction of watching the younger child do it. With younger toddlers, supervise to make sure that the older child doesn't do anything that is unsafe for either child.\n\n  * **Pop Bottle Bowling.** Use empty two-liter bottles and a large rubber ball. A narrow hallway makes an excellent bowling alley. Teach your toddler how to roll the ball by swinging it from between his legs (a \"diaper roll\") as opposed to a sidearm roll. Numbering the bottles from one to ten can be a good way to let the older child keep score by either adding up the numbers on the bottles standing (lowest score wins) or the numbers on the fallen bottles (highest score wins). It's also a great way to introduce numbers to your toddler.\n\ncoordination. You may wonder how it works the larger motor skills. Those skills come into play as you both chase after all of the bounces or flys that you miss!\n\n#### _Red Light, Green Light, Yellow Light_\n\nA classic game with an added twist. As you know, red light means \"stop,\" green means \"go,\" and yellow means \"hop!\" For a younger child, you'll play the game while keeping an eye on him as he learns to make his body match your commands. As he gets older, you can turn your back after you say green, and spin around as you say red. Make sure you pause after saying \"Red\" and use your body language to give him a clue as to when you are going to turn around.\n\n#### _Walk Like a Duck_\n\nOr hop like a frog, or trot like a horse, or skitter like a mouse, or sway like an elephant. Adding animal noises makes this game even more fun. Remember to let your child have a chance to take the lead and decide what kind of creatures you will be.\n\n#\n\n _ow exciting it has been to watch our daughter develop over the last two years. We have loved watching her reach all of her developmental milestones. My husband and I have also reached our own parental milestones. We've taught our daughter, and she's taught us, too. Now, as she enters into the preschool years, we are excited to continue to learn and grow with her. I am also proud to say that I have learned so much about myself through my daughter and have become not only a better parent, but also a better person. I have cherished every moment and will always remember the first time she smiled, the first word she said, and the first steps she took. I look forward to her next steps in growing and learning as well as our next steps as parents._\n\n_Lindsay, Casey's mom_\n\n## MOVIN' ON\n\nI spent my daughter's second birthday in sort of a daze. Not because I couldn't figure out where two years had flown, although that was surely part of it, but because the little baby I had struggled with in our hospital room as I tried to dress her in her little homecoming outfit was now a walking, talking marvel of a child.\n\nI was proud as I watched her \"host\" her first party, greeting the friends who had arrived at the teddy bear tea, pouring cups of juice from a tiny pitcher, playing a rousing game of pin the tail on the donkey, and gleefully unwrapping her presents. And I was amazed, too. In simple ways that were nonetheless remarkable to me, she was able to nearly seamlessly integrate all the skills that I had watched her develop over the past years.\n\nShe had grown so much. And I had enjoyed helping her to reach this point. In fact, as I let her help me slice her birthday cake, I was already starting to look forward to the amazing growth and development to come.\n\n## THE NEXT LEVEL\n\nYour child has passed through infancy and through tod-dlerhood and is now on the threshold of his preschool years. His brain is still growing and increasing in density. In some ways, his ability to learn and your ability to influence his happiness and intelligence is no different from how it was when he was born. Each experience he has still plays a role in strengthening existing neuronal connections or continuing to pave new ones. But as he moves into his third year of life, your child has gone beyond practicing simple fine and gross motor skills and mastering basic language functions. He is now working on developing increasingly more sophisticated types of cognitive, social, and emotional responses.\n\nAs intimidating as this may sound, I want to reassure you that you do not have to do anything different from what you've been doing all along: providing your child with stimulation that is appropriate to his temperament and ability. The good foundations for learning and developing, which you have helped your child to form from infancy until now, can help to make this next step in his growth lots of fun for both of you.\n\nStimulating your preschool child is as intensive an undertaking as introducing your newborn to her world. It would take another book to fully discuss the developmental stages from preschool to kindergarten. But I wanted to give you a peek at what sort of developments lie ahead and offer you a perspective from which to observe, and participate in, this next stage in your child's life.\n\n## HOW AND WHAT PRESCHOOLERS ARE LEARNING\n\nYour child has been learning from you since the day she was born and will continue to learn from you whether or not you are always conscious of teaching her. At the early preschool stage, there is still not much distinction between playing and learning. In fact, think of play as an activity your child engages in as a way of learning.\n\nFrom learning her cues in infancy to picking up on clues in toddlerhood, you have learned what your child needs and wants. In these early preschool years, the best way to provide ongoing stimulation is to let your child continue to lead you. If you follow her interests and continue to expose her to new experiences, you will be teaching her on a daily basis. In the preceding chapters, the stimulation you provided your baby and toddler was aimed at enhancing basic, developing skills. With your preschooler, that attention has paid off. The interactions, stimulation, and experiences you provide in the following areas can be more sophisticated and still fun!\n\n### LANGUAGE\n\nThe thrill you experienced when your baby uttered her first word may turn to frustration as she can now use language in ways that may exasperate you. Stammering or stuttering, using baby talk, chattering nonstop, picking up \"naughty\" words or experiencing the power of \"bathroom talk,\" using angry words (the first \"I hate you\" is an arrow to any parent's heart but an inevitable wound)\u2014all these variations of the power of language will be explored by your preschooler.\n\nWhat is truly exciting about your preschooler's increasing mastery of language is she can now begin to use language not just to talk about what is going on around her, but to express things that are in her head. Language continues to develop at a phenomenal pace during the preschool years, especially in the following ways:\n\n  *   use of pronouns\n\n  *   ability to question: What? Why?\n\n  *   using words to control personal behavior\n\n  *   using words to control other's behavior\n\n  *   using words to boost self-esteem or ask for approval\n\n  *   using words to express abstract ideas\n\n### FINE MOTOR SKILLS\n\nYour child's mastery of fine motor skills opens the door to all kinds of experiences during her preschool years. She will be able to dress herself, to help you cook by stirring and mixing\u2014or even cracking the eggs\u2014and to draw or use art materials with increasing creativity. Observe your child carefully and always be ready to offer her a chance to try her skills at a new activity. Even if she is not successful at first, with practice and encouragement she will quickly master new tasks. Your child's increased manual dexterity means that she is also ready for simple instruction on musical instruments _if she remains enthusiastic about the lessons_.\n\nYou may notice that as your child moves into her preschool years, she will abandon some of the toys you purchased to promote her fine motor skills. Puzzles or games with knobs and buttons may lose their appeal when stacked up against something as interesting as sorting the silverware into the right compartments in the drawer or helping you roll the socks in the laundry.\n\nMany preschoolers do become interested in playing card games. This is an activity that is good for their fine motor skills, as well as their newly forming interest in numbers.\n\n### GROSS MOTOR SKILLS\n\nJust as your toddler pushed the physical limits of his body in all his activities, your preschooler will continue to learn how to use his body in ways that are both fun and practical. During the preschool years, your child may begin to acquire the physical skills that will distinguish him as an athletic adult. Playing ball, swimming, taking dance classes, mastering the balance and strength needed to ride a tricycle, learning to ski, even playing basic games like tag and hopscotch\u2014all these activities will enhance his endurance, balance, and confidence.\n\n### SPATIAL RELATIONS\n\nYour child will begin to express more sophisticated concepts of spatial relations through language, using abstract ideas like in front of, behind, or beside. Her understanding of spatial relations in combination with her visual skills will gradually become apparent as her artwork becomes more representational and sophisticated.\n\n## NEW CHALLENGES AND NEW OPPORTUNITIES\n\nAlthough your preschooler has mastered an impressive number of skills, his learning process is still racing ahead as his brain continues to grow at a phenomenal rate throughout his third year. And while he may be confidently using language and boldly displaying his physical skills, there are new areas where proper stimulation can help promote learning, satisfaction, and confidence. Here's a quick preview of areas where providing the right kind of stimulation can make your preschooler happier and smarter.\n\n### EARLY EDUCATION\n\nWhile no child who is being nurtured and stimulated at home _needs_ to attend preschool, a quality preschool program can offer your child a wide range of experiences. By the age of three, some children are ready for the more formal structure of a preschool. Look for a preschool with quality, highly trained instructors and a philosophical approach to learning that mirrors your own.\n\nPreschools can be based on any one or a combination of philosophies. The list below is a sampling of what philosophies you might find as you begin to research preschool options in your area. This list was drawn from www.parentspress.com\/edupreschooltypes.html, which also offers a brief definition of each philosophy:\n\n  *   Montessori\n\n  *   Waldorf\n\n  *   Reggio Emilia\n\n  *   developmental\n\n  *   Bank Street\n\n  *   parent co-operative\n\n  *   play-based\n\n  *   High\/Scope\n\n  *   academic\n\n  *   religious\n\nExperts generally agree on the advantages of preschool\u2014for instance, the opportunity to play with a group of other children of the same age, formal and age-appropriate lessons, and the chance to use lots of toys and equipment you may not have at home. You may benefit from having a form of child care outside your home that is more reliable than a caregiver who does not have a substitute in case of illness or unexpected absence.\n\nAre there disadvantages to sending your child to preschool? Well, your child will risk a greater exposure to germs, and may spend part of his first year coming down with more illnesses than you can imagine (particularly if he is an only child and has not had a lot of exposure to common colds and child ailments). He may have to be toilet trained (a whole other book, believe me!). A program that is too academically rigorous for your child can lead to stress and burnout. You will have less flexibility in scheduling the time you spend with your child. And the cost may be prohibitive for some families.\n\nIf you decide that you or your child is not ready for the preschool experience, you can provide much of the same benefits at home. Here are some basic guidelines that offer the same kinds of stimulation and enrichment as preschool classes:\n\n  *   Spend at least thirty minutes a day in conversation with your child. Give him your undivided attention and listen carefully to what he says. (Mind you, this is not thirty _consecutive_ minutes\u2014what preschooler would ever hold still for that?)\n\n  *   Read to your child every day.\n\n  *   Turn playtime into learning time, incorporating counting and the naming of colors, letters, and shapes into your play Always be on the lookout for teaching moments.\n\n  *   Create a routine for your child to follow. Help him to be orderly and on time.\n\n  *   Help your child learn to express herself appropriately. Stress using words instead of physical acts such as hitting; stress listening instead of screaming.\n\n  *   Limit TV viewing. When you do watch something (together), pick an educational program geared toward preschoolers.\n\n  *   Explore your community. Take field trips to the library, the fire station, museums, or zoos.\n\n  *   Allow for plenty of outside time.\n\n  *   Make sure your child has chances to spend time with other children his age.\n\n  *   Purchase preschool level workbooks, available at major retail chain stores.\n\n### EMERGENT LITERACY\n\nThe term \"emergent literacy\" refers to behaviors that precede reading and writing and that develop into conventional literacy. \"Reading\" the pictures in a book and memorizing the meaning of certain shapes slowly become the recognition and retention of the meaning of symbols. Your preschooler doesn't need to be able to know what the letters S-T-O-P mean if he understands that a red octagon with those letters printed in white means \"Stop.\" Once that association is made, it's simply a matter of time before he doesn't need the symbol to trigger the memory of what that particular arrangement of letters means. And suddenly he's on the way to reading. Think of your preschooler who is learning early reading skills as a code breaker. Encourage him to decode symbols, labels, book covers. Label familiar objects with easy-to-read flash cards. Respond positively and encouragingly, as you help him to notice that letters are a part of each of the symbols he recognizes.\n\nOne mother shamefacedly admits that her two-and-a-half-year-old son could recognize a Dunkin' Donuts sign from miles down the road. She swears that it was from going through the drive-through for coffee, but I have my suspicions! In any case, it wasn't long before he was pointing to the letter \"D\" and saying, \"Donut!\" From there it was a short step to recognizing that \"D\" was a part of lots of other words. Because of his good visual\/memory skills, her little boy got an early start on literacy and was reading chapter books just after his third birthday.\n\nReading to your child promotes the \"behavior\" of reading. You may notice that your preschooler is sitting and \"reading\" to himself. It doesn't matter that the book he's holding is _Goodnight Moon_ and the story that he's telling is _Peter Rabbit._ He is making an important connection between the act of reading and the story.\n\nScribbling is also an important part of emergent literacy. Encourage your preschooler to \"write\" as much as he wants (on the appropriate surfaces, of course). Between ages three and four, preschoolers may become very interested in learning how to form letters. Use refrigerator magnets of the letters of the alphabet to hold a sheet of paper to a metal baking tray and let your toddler trace the outlines of the letter. With as little pressure as possible, help guide his hand so that his scribbles begin to resemble the letters he is trying to make. (Often the letters of his name.)\n\nThis is an exciting phase of development for both you and your child. Take care not to push your child too hard in this area, or you may risk spoiling her enthusiasm for this new undertaking. She will have years ahead of her in school during which to perfect her reading and writing skills. For now, her sense of achievement is closely linked to her enjoyment of the process.\n\n### MATH AND NUMBER UNDERSTANDING\n\nYour preschooler may already know how to count to ten, rattling off the numbers through rote memory learning. What he will begin to do over time is connect the words from one to ten to the fact that they represent numbers of _things._ You can help him make this connection by making counting a part of your day. Count stairs, count crackers, or count the birds sitting on the telephone wires. Look for age-appropriate puzzles or games, like dominoes (often you can find a child's version with animals or other objects in place of the traditional dots).\n\n### MAKING FRIENDS\n\nVital lessons in taking turns, sharing, and cooperation are learned throughout the preschool years. And as anyone who has watched a group of three-year-olds on a playground knows, these lessons are not always easily absorbed. Your child may need to understand that biting, kicking, or other aggressive behavior is wrong. She may need help in respecting other children's feelings. Your child still needs to be closely supervised in social settings. Getting along with other children is as much a learning experience as any of the other skills she has mastered over the past two years.\n\n### TEACHING GOOD BEHAVIOR\n\nThe behavior your child exhibited while a toddler, as acceptable as it might have been within your own family, will need to conform to the expectations of the wider world she is venturing into. There are many, many books on effective parental techniques for disciplining children, and I mention a few of them in the appendix.\n\nI don't really like the term \"discipline.\" When it's not put in its proper context, it can seem overly harsh. Instead of punishing my children to teach a lesson or expecting unquestioning obedience in the first place, what I tried to do was to instill in them a sense of self-discipline. And really, although it's a long process to teach a toddler or preschooler about self-discipline, in the end it really made my job as a parent much easier. Here are a few suggestions for modeling good behavior for your child:\n\n  *   Reward good behavior, not bad.\n\n  *   Take the positive approach.\n\n  *   Be clear in your instruction\u2014really, overly clear.\n\n  *   Always take the time to explain why.\n\n  *   \"Do not\" is for hard and fast rules only.\n\n  *   Trust that your child's intentions are good.\n\n  *   Admit it when you are wrong.\n\n  *   Be consistent.\n\n### ROUTINE\n\nFor your toddler and now preschooler, routines offer a sense of security and control. When your child can anticipate what is coming next, she can often make transitions more smoothly. And for you, routines can be time-saving. Different families have different ways of structuring schedules. Settle on routines and rituals that are easy for you to maintain. Remember, the point of a particular routine is to make life less stressful for both you and your child. When analyzing the shape of your preschooler's day, consider if having a set way of doing things might be helpful. To get you thinking, here's a short list of activities that are easy to build routines around:\n\n  *   morning wake-up and dressing\n\n  *   leaving for school or work\n\n  *   mealtimes\n\n  *   bath and other hygiene\n\n  *   cleanup\n\n  *   bedtime\n\n## A LIFETIME OF ENJOYING YOUR CHILD\n\nI hope that over the course of this book and your child's first years, you have discovered the joy of a child who has been nurtured by responsive parenting and who has been stimulated in ways that have made her happier and smarter. Your child's brain is far from fully developed. In fact, researchers and MRI studies now tell us that teenagers' brains are not yet fully developed and that this may account for some of the behaviors that are peculiar to teens and incomprehensible to adults. And though I've got a while before I'm parenting teenagers, I plan to continue to find ways to positively affect and enhance my children's potential.\n\nNew discoveries in neuroscience are always being made. The study of the human brain is a fascinating topic, and what we'll learn next isn't clear. What we do know is that your brain continues to change over your lifetime. Providing the right kind of stimulation from the start of your baby's life can make her happier and smarter and will affect her in the most positive ways for the rest of her life.\n\n#\n\n n this chapter, I've listed books, magazine articles, studies, and websites that I have found helpful and may be of interest to you. Please note that while website addresses are up-to-date as of publication of this book, they are subject to change.\n\nResearch in the area of brain development is ongoing, new theories are constantly being tested and reviewed, and new studies may appear. The same is true in the field of early childhood development.\n\nWhen seeking answers to any of your questions about infants and development, you can find experts and advice on any subject. If you want to have a smarter, happier baby, my advice to you is the same, no matter what resources you utilize: know your baby, trust your instincts, and give your baby the right kind of stimulation.\n\n_Books_\n\n## FROM BIRTH TO TODDLER, GENERAL INFORMATION\n\n_Your Baby and Child from Birth to Age Five_ by Penelope, Leach (Alfred A. Knopf, N. Y.)\n\n_What to Expect When You're Expecting_ by Arlene Eisenberg, Heidi E. Murkoff, and Sandee E. Hathaway, B. S. N. (Workman Publishing, N. Y.)\n\n_What to Expect: The Toddler Years_ by Arlene Eisenberg, Heidi E. Murkoff, and Sandee E. Hathaway, B. S. N. (Workman Publishing, N. Y.)\n\n_Pregnancy, Childbirth and the Newborn: The Complete Guide_ by Penny Simkin, P. T.; Janet Whalley R. N., B. S. N.; and Ann Keppler, R. N., M. N. (Meadowbrook Press, N. Y.)\n\n_Dr. Spock's Baby and Child Care_ by Benjamin Spock, M. D. and Michael B. Rothenberg, M. D. (Pocket Books, N. Y.)\n\n_Secrets of the Baby Whisperer_ by Tracy Hogg with Melinda Blau (Ballantine Books, N. Y.)\n\n_The Baby Book: Everything You Need to Know about Your Baby from Birth to Age Two_ by William Sears, M. D.; Martha Sears, R. N.; with James Sears, M. D. and Robert Sears, M. D. (Little Brown, N. Y.)\n\n## READING\n\n_Great Books for Babies and Toddlers_ by Kathleen Odean (Ballantine Books, N. Y.)\n\n_How to Get Your Child to Love Reading_ by Esm\u00e9 Raji Codell (Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, N. C.)\n\n## SIGN LANGUAGE\n\n_Baby Signs: How to Talk with Your Baby Before Your Baby Can Talk_ by Linda Acredolo, Ph. D. and Susan Good-wyn, Ph. D. with Doug Abrams (McGraw-Hill, N. Y.)\n\n_Baby Signs Series_ by Linda Acredolo, Ph. D. and Susan Good-wyn, Ph. D. (Board Book series that includes First Signs, Mealtimes, Bedtimes, Animals) (Harper Festival, N. Y.)\n\n_Baby Fingers: Teaching Your Baby to Sign_ by Lora Heller (Sterling Publishing, N. Y.)\n\n_Baby Sign Language Basics_ by Monta Z. Briant (Hay House, Inc., Carlsbad, Calif.)\n\n_Baby's First Signs_ by Kim Votry and Curt Waller (Gal-laudet University Press, Washington, D. C.)\n\n## SLEEP\n\n_Healthy Sleep Habits, Happy Child_ by Marc Weissbluth, M. D. (Ballantine Books, N. Y.)\n\n_The No-Cry Sleep Solution_ by Elizabeth Pantley (McGraw-Hill, N. Y.)\n\n_Solve Your Child's Sleep Problems_ by Richard Ferber, M. D. (Simon & Schuster, N. Y.)\n\n## SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL, AND MENTAL DEVELOPMENT\n\n_Building Healthy Minds: The Six Experiences that Create Intelligence and Emotional Growth in Babies and Young Children_ by Stanley Greenspan, M. D. with Nancy Breslau Lewis (Perseus Publishing, N. Y.)\n\n_Touchpoints: Your Child's Emotional and Behavioral Development: The Essential Reference_ by T. Berry Brazelton (HarperCollins, N. Y.)\n\n_What's Going on in There? How the Brain and Mind Develop in the First Five Years of Life_ by Lise Eliot (Bantam Books, N. Y.)\n\n_Baby Mind: Brain-Building Games Your Baby Will Love_ by Linda Acredolo, Ph. D. and Susan Goodwyn, Ph. D. (Bantam Books, N. Y.)\n\n_Magic Trees of the Mind: How to Nurture Your Child's Intelligence, Creativity and Healthy Emotions fom Birth Through Adolescence_ by Marian Diamond and Janet L. Hopson (Penguin USA, N. Y.)\n\n_Websites_\n\nThere is a seemingly endless number of websites devoted to infant and child development. Following is a list of sites that I have found helpful as a parent. This list is not meant to be extensive but to provide you with some of the best-known parenting resources on the Web. Once you've started searching for information on these sites, it's easy to keep linking to new sites and discovering fresh information.\n\n_American Academy of Pediatrics_ : www.aap.org\n\n_BabyCenter_ : www.babycenter.com\n\n_Baby Prodigy_ : www.babyprodigy.com\n\n_How Kids Develop_ : www.howkidsdevelop.com\n\n_National Association for the Education of Young Children_ : www.naeyc.org\n\n_National Institute of Mental Health_ : www.nimh.nih.gov\n\n_New Horizons for Learning_ : www.newhorizons.org\n\n_Parents' Place at i Village_ : www.parenting.ivillage.com\n\n_PBS Parents_ : www.pbs.org\/parents\/\n\n_Scholastic_ : www.scholastic.com\/earlylearner\/\n\n_The Children's Center_ : www.thechildrenscenter.org\n\n_The Parents' Press_ : www.parentspress.com\n\n_Zero to Three_ : www.zerotothree.org\n\n_Articles and Studies_\n\nMost of these articles and studies are easily accessed online. Websites are listed when available.\n\n\"Brain Development in Children.\" Dakota County, MN Social Services Department. Newsletter, July 2004. online at: www.co.dakota.mn.us\/child_care\/news_july. htm\n\n\"Building Your Child's Brain\" from Tips To Grow By, Akron Children's Hospital, Akron, O. H. online at: www.akronchildrens.org\/tips\/pdfs\/IN235.pdf\n\n\"Building Your Child's Brain.\" _Inside Children's_ , a Publication of Akron Children's Hospital, Akron, OH. Summer 2002.\n\nonline at: www.akronchildrens.org\/elements\/PDF\/ InsideC-SprSum02.pdf\n\n\"Development in the First Years of Life.\" Ross A. Thompson. _The Future of Children_ , Volume 11, Number 1. From _The Future of Children_ , a publication of the David and Lucile Packard Foundation. online at: www.futureofchildren.org\n\n\"Fertile Minds.\" J. Madeleine Nash. _Time_ magazine, February 3,1997, Vol. 149, No. 5.\n\nonline at: www.thesmartbaby.com\/timemagazinereport. htm\n\n\"In Focus: Understanding the Effects of Maltreatment on Early Brain Development.\" National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse and Neglect Information, Washington, D. C., October 2001.\n\nonline at: <http:\/\/nccanch.acf.hhs.gov\/pubs\/focus\/ earlybrain.cfm>\n\n\"What Research on the Brain Tells Us about Our Youngest Children.\" The White House Conference on Early Childhood Development and Learning, Washington, D. C. April 17,1997. online at: www.childrenslearning.com\/linksandfiles\n\n\"Your Child's Brain.\" Sharon Begeley. _Newsweek_ , February 19,1996, pp. 55\u201361.\n\n\"Your Child's Brain: The Crucial First Years.\" Kathy Oliver. HGY 5318-98, Ohio State University Extension Factsheet, Family and Consumer Sciences, Columbus, O. H.\n\nonline at: <http:\/\/ohioline.osu.edu\/hyg-fact\/5000\/ 5318.html>\n\n# About the Author\n\n efore having her first child in 1999, Barbara worked in the entertainment business, helping to produce comedy, drama, variety shows, and children's television. She is a graduate of the State University of New York at Albany and holds a degree in sociology. In 2001, while raising her first child as a \"stay-at-home mom, \" with the help of her husband, Richard, she founded the Baby Prodigy Company. Barbara and Richard reside in Southern California with their two daughters, Samantha and Lara.\n\n# About the Type\n\n his book was set in Caslon, a typeface first designed in 1722 by William Caslon. Its widespread use by most English printers in the early eighteenth century soon supplanted the Dutch typefaces that had formerly prevailed. The roman is considered a \"workhorse\" typeface due to its pleasant, open appearance, while the italic is exceedingly decorative.\n\nThe anecdotes in this book are not necessarily based upon the experiences of individuals. A few of the portraits are composites, and in most cases, names and identifying characteristics have been changed to protect the privacy of individuals.\n\nNo book can replace the diagnostic expertise and medical advice of a trusted physician. Please be certain to consult with your doctor before making any decisions that affect your, or your baby's, health, particularly if you suffer from any medical condition or have any symptom that may require treatment.\n\nCopyright \u00a9 2005 by Barbara Candiano-Marcus\n\nAll rights reserved.\n\nPublished in the United States by Ballantine Books, an imprint of The Random House Publishing Group, a divison of Random House, Inc., New York.\n\nBallantine and colophon are registered trademarks of Random House, Inc.\n\nLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Candiano-Marcus, Barbara.  \nBaby prodigy : a guide to raising a smarter, happier baby \/  \nBarbara Candiano-Marcus  \np. cm.\n\nIncludes bibliographical references.  \neISBN: 978-0-307-48183-2\n\n1. Infants\u2014Development. 2. Infants\u2014Intelligence levels.  \n3. Cognition in infants. 4. Parent and infant. I. Title.  \nHQ774.C34 2005  \n155.42'2\u2014dc22  \n2004062798\n\nBallantine Books website address: www.ballantinebooks.com\n\nv3.0\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
+{"text":" \n** **\n\n**EMILY DICKINSON**\n\n(1830\u20131886)\n\n**Contents**\n\n_The Poetry Collections_\n\nPOEMS : SERIES ONE\n\nPOEMS : SERIES TWO\n\nPOEMS : SERIES THREE\n\n_The Poems_\n\nLIST OF POEMS IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER\n\nLIST OF POEMS IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER\n\n_The Letters_\n\nTHE LETTERS OF EMILY DICKINSON\n\n_\u00a9_ _Delphi Classics 2012_\n\nVersion 1\n\n****\n\n** **\n\n**EMILY DICKINSON**\n\n_By Delphi Classics, 2012_\n**NOTE**\n\nWhen reading poetry on an eReader, it is advisable to use a small font size, which will allow the lines of poetry to display correctly.\n**The Poetry Collections**\n\n_Dickinson Homestead, Amherst, Massachusetts \u2014 Dickinson's birthplace and now a museum dedicated to the poet_\n\n_The Dickinson children, with Emily on the left, 1840_\n\n_Edward Dickinson, the poet's father \u2014 a successful lawyer_\n\n_The poet's mother, Emily_\n**_POEMS : SERIES ONE_**\n\nEmily Dickinson lived a mostly introverted and reclusive life with her prosperous family in Amherst, Massachusetts. After she studied at the Amherst Academy for seven years, she spent a short time at Mount Holyoke Female Seminary, before returning to her family's house, known as Homestead. Thought of as an eccentric by the locals, she became known for her keen liking for white clothing and her reluctance to greet guests. In later years, she was often unwilling to leave her room; therefore, many of her friendships were conducted by correspondence.\n\nDespite Dickinson's prolific output, only a small number of her poems were published during her lifetime. They were usually altered significantly by the publishers to fit the conventional poetic rules of the time. After her death, Dickinson's younger sister Lavinia discovered a collection of nearly eighteen hundred poems. Recognising their worth, Lavinia became obsessed with seeing them published. She turned first to her brother's wife and then to Mabel Loomis Todd, her brother's mistress, for assistance. A feud ensued, with the manuscripts divided between the Todd and Dickinson houses, delaying the complete publication of Dickinson's poetry for more than half a century.\n\nThe first series of poems was published in 1890, four years after Dickinson's death. The collection was edited jointly by Mabel Loomis Todd and T. W. Higginson, and appeared in November 1890. Although Todd claimed that only essential changes were made, the poems were extensively edited to match punctuation and capitalisation to late 19th-century standards, with occasional rewordings to simplify Dickinson's abstruse meanings. The first 115 poem volume was a critical and financial success, going through eleven printings in two years. The _Second Series_ followed in 1891, running to five editions by 1893; and the _Third Series_ appeared in 1896.\n\n_For the Contents table, click here._\n\n_\"Safe in their Alabaster Chambers\" was one of the few poems published during Dickinson's lifetime; the poem was printed in the Springfield Republican in 1862._\n\n_Lavinia Dickinson_\n**PREFACE.**\n\nTHE verses of Emily Dickinson belong emphatically to what Emerson long since called \"the Poetry of the Portfolio,\" \u2014 something produced absolutely without the thought of publication, and solely by way of expression of the writer's own mind. Such verse must inevitably forfeit whatever advantage lies in the discipline of public criticism and the enforced conformity to accepted ways. On the other hand, it may often gain something through the habit of freedom and the unconventional utterance of daring thoughts. In the case of the present author, there was absolutely no choice in the matter; she must write thus, or not at all. A recluse by temperament and habit, literally spending years without setting her foot beyond the doorstep, and many more years during which her walks were strictly limited to her father's grounds, she habitually concealed her mind, like her person, from all but a very few friends; and it was with great difficulty that she was persuaded to print, during her lifetime, three or four poems. Yet she wrote verses in great abundance; and though brought curiously indifferent to all conventional rules, had yet a rigorous literary standard of her own, and often altered a word many times to suit an ear which had its own tenacious fastidiousness.\n\nMiss Dickinson was born in Amherst, Mass., Dec. 10, 1830, and died there May 15, 1886. Her father, Hon. Edward Dickinson, was the leading lawyer of Amherst, and was treasurer of the well-known college there situated. It was his custom once a year to hold a large reception at his house, attended by all the families connected with the institution and by the leading people of the town. On these occasions his daughter Emily emerged from her wonted retirement and did her part as gracious hostess; nor would any one have known from her manner, I have been told, that this was not a daily occurrence. The annual occasion once past, she withdrew again into her seclusion, and except for a very few friends was as invisible to the world as if she had dwelt in a nunnery. For myself, although I had corresponded with her for many years, I saw her but twice face to face, and brought away the impression of something as unique and remote as Undine or Mignon or Thekla.\n\nThis selection from her poems is published to meet the desire of her personal friends, and especially of her surviving sister. It is believed that the thoughtful reader will find in these pages a quality more suggestive of the poetry of William Blake than of anything to be elsewhere found, \u2014 flashes of wholly original and profound insight into nature and life; words and phrases exhibiting an extraordinary vividness of descriptive and imaginative power, yet often set in a seemingly whimsical or even rugged frame. They are here published as they were written, with very few and superficial changes; although it is fair to say that the titles have been assigned, almost invariably, by the editors. In many cases these verses will seem to the reader like poetry torn up by the roots, with rain and dew and earth still clinging to them, giving a freshness and a fragrance not otherwise to be conveyed. In other cases, as in the few poems of shipwreck or of mental conflict, we can only wonder at the gift of vivid imagination by which this recluse woman can delineate, by a few touches, the very crises of physical or mental struggle. And sometimes again we catch glimpses of a lyric strain, sustained perhaps but for a line or two at a time, and making the reader regret its sudden cessation. But the main quality of these poems is that of extraordinary grasp and insight, uttered with an uneven vigor sometimes exasperating, seemingly wayward, but really unsought and inevitable. After all, when a thought takes one's breath away, a lesson on grammar seems an impertinence. As Ruskin wrote in his earlier and better days, \"No weight nor mass nor beauty of execution can outweigh one grain or fragment of thought.\"\n\n_Thomas Wentworth Higginson_\n\n_The first edition of the First Series_\n\n_Dickinson, aged 9_\n**TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE**\n\nAs is well documented, Emily Dickinson's poems were edited in these early editions by her friends, better to fit the conventions of the times. In particular, her dashes, often small enough to appear as dots, became commas and semi-colons.\n\nIn the second series of poems published, a facsimile of her handwritten poem which her editors titled \"Renunciation\" is given, and I here transcribe that manuscript as faithfully as I can, showing _underlined_ words thus.\n\nThere came a day - at Summer's full -  \nEntirely for me -  \nI thought that such were for the Saints -  \nWhere Resurrections - be -\n\nThe sun - as common - went abroad -  \nThe flowers - accustomed - blew,  \nAs if no soul - that solstice passed -  \nWhich maketh all things - new -\n\nThe time was scarce profaned - by speech -  \nThe falling of a word  \nWas needless - as at Sacrament -  \nThe _Wardrobe_ \\- of our Lord!\n\nEach was to each - the sealed church -  \nPermitted to commune - _this_ time -  \nLest we too awkward show  \nAt Supper of \"the Lamb.\"\n\nThe hours slid fast - as hours will -  \nClutched tight - by greedy hands -  \nSo - faces on two Decks look back -  \nBound to _opposing_ lands.\n\nAnd so, when all the time had leaked,  \nWithout external sound,  \nEach bound the other's Crucifix -  \nWe gave no other bond -\n\nSufficient troth - that we shall _rise_ ,  \nDeposed - at length the Grave -  \nTo that new marriage -  \n _Justified_ \\- through Calvaries - of Love!\n\nFrom the handwriting, it is not always clear which are dashes, which are commas and which are periods, nor it is entirely clear which initial letters are capitalized.\n\nHowever, this transcription may be compared with the edited version in the main text to get a flavor of the changes made in these early editions.\n\n\u2014 **JT**\n\nThis is my letter to the world,  \nThat never wrote to me, \u2014   \nThe simple news that Nature told,  \nWith tender majesty.\n\nHer message is committed  \nTo hands I cannot see;  \nFor love of her, sweet countrymen,  \nJudge tenderly of me!\n\n**I.**\n\n**LIFE.**\n\n**I.**\n\n**SUCCESS.**\n\n[Published in \"A Masque of Poets\" at the request of \"H.H.,\" the author's fellow-townswoman and friend.]\n\nSuccess is counted sweetest  \nBy those who ne'er succeed.  \nTo comprehend a nectar  \nRequires sorest need.\n\nNot one of all the purple host  \nWho took the flag to-day  \nCan tell the definition,  \nSo clear, of victory,\n\nAs he, defeated, dying,  \nOn whose forbidden ear  \nThe distant strains of triumph  \nBreak, agonized and clear!\n\n**II.**\n\nOur share of night to bear,  \nOur share of morning,  \nOur blank in bliss to fill,  \nOur blank in scorning.\n\nHere a star, and there a star,  \nSome lose their way.  \nHere a mist, and there a mist,  \nAfterwards \u2014 day!\n\n**III.**\n\n**ROUGE ET NOIR.**\n\nSoul, wilt thou toss again?  \nBy just such a hazard  \nHundreds have lost, indeed,  \nBut tens have won an all.\n\nAngels' breathless ballot  \nLingers to record thee;  \nImps in eager caucus  \nRaffle for my soul.\n\n**IV.**\n\n**ROUGE GAGNE.**\n\n'T is so much joy! 'T is so much joy!  \nIf I should fail, what poverty!  \nAnd yet, as poor as I  \nHave ventured all upon a throw;  \nHave gained! Yes! Hesitated so  \nThis side the victory!\n\nLife is but life, and death but death!  \nBliss is but bliss, and breath but breath!  \nAnd if, indeed, I fail,  \nAt least to know the worst is sweet.  \nDefeat means nothing but defeat,  \nNo drearier can prevail!\n\nAnd if I gain, \u2014 oh, gun at sea,  \nOh, bells that in the steeples be,  \nAt first repeat it slow!  \nFor heaven is a different thing  \nConjectured, and waked sudden in,  \nAnd might o'erwhelm me so!\n\n**V.**\n\nGlee! The great storm is over!  \nFour have recovered the land;  \nForty gone down together  \nInto the boiling sand.\n\nRing, for the scant salvation!  \nToll, for the bonnie souls, \u2014   \nNeighbor and friend and bridegroom,  \nSpinning upon the shoals!\n\nHow they will tell the shipwreck  \nWhen winter shakes the door,  \nTill the children ask, \"But the forty?  \nDid they come back no more?\"\n\nThen a silence suffuses the story,  \nAnd a softness the teller's eye;  \nAnd the children no further question,  \nAnd only the waves reply.\n\n**VI.**\n\nIf I can stop one heart from breaking,  \nI shall not live in vain;  \nIf I can ease one life the aching,  \nOr cool one pain,  \nOr help one fainting robin  \nUnto his nest again,  \nI shall not live in vain.\n\n**VII.**\n\n**ALMOST!**\n\nWithin my reach!  \nI could have touched!  \nI might have chanced that way!  \nSoft sauntered through the village,  \nSauntered as soft away!  \nSo unsuspected violets  \nWithin the fields lie low,  \nToo late for striving fingers  \nThat passed, an hour ago.\n\n**VIII.**\n\nA wounded deer leaps highest,  \nI've heard the hunter tell;  \n'T is but the ecstasy of death,  \nAnd then the brake is still.\n\nThe smitten rock that gushes,  \nThe trampled steel that springs;  \nA cheek is always redder  \nJust where the hectic stings!\n\nMirth is the mail of anguish,  \nIn which it cautions arm,  \nLest anybody spy the blood  \nAnd \"You're hurt\" exclaim!\n\n**IX.**\n\nThe heart asks pleasure first,  \nAnd then, excuse from pain;  \nAnd then, those little anodynes  \nThat deaden suffering;\n\nAnd then, to go to sleep;  \nAnd then, if it should be  \nThe will of its Inquisitor,  \nThe liberty to die.\n\n**X.**\n\n**IN A LIBRARY.**\n\nA precious, mouldering pleasure 't is  \nTo meet an antique book,  \nIn just the dress his century wore;  \nA privilege, I think,\n\nHis venerable hand to take,  \nAnd warming in our own,  \nA passage back, or two, to make  \nTo times when he was young.\n\nHis quaint opinions to inspect,  \nHis knowledge to unfold  \nOn what concerns our mutual mind,  \nThe literature of old;\n\nWhat interested scholars most,  \nWhat competitions ran  \nWhen Plato was a certainty.  \nAnd Sophocles a man;\n\nWhen Sappho was a living girl,  \nAnd Beatrice wore  \nThe gown that Dante deified.  \nFacts, centuries before,\n\nHe traverses familiar,  \nAs one should come to town  \nAnd tell you all your dreams were true;  \nHe lived where dreams were sown.\n\nHis presence is enchantment,  \nYou beg him not to go;  \nOld volumes shake their vellum heads  \nAnd tantalize, just so.\n\n**XI.**\n\nMuch madness is divinest sense  \nTo a discerning eye;  \nMuch sense the starkest madness.  \n'T is the majority  \nIn this, as all, prevails.  \nAssent, and you are sane;  \nDemur, \u2014 you're straightway dangerous,  \nAnd handled with a chain.\n\n**XII.**\n\nI asked no other thing,  \nNo other was denied.  \nI offered Being for it;  \nThe mighty merchant smiled.\n\nBrazil? He twirled a button,  \nWithout a glance my way:  \n\"But, madam, is there nothing else  \nThat we can show to-day?\"\n\n**XIII.**\n\n**EXCLUSION.**\n\nThe soul selects her own society,  \nThen shuts the door;  \nOn her divine majority  \nObtrude no more.\n\nUnmoved, she notes the chariot's pausing  \nAt her low gate;  \nUnmoved, an emperor is kneeling  \nUpon her mat.\n\nI've known her from an ample nation  \nChoose one;  \nThen close the valves of her attention  \nLike stone.\n\n**XIV.**\n\n**THE SECRET.**\n\nSome things that fly there be, \u2014   \nBirds, hours, the bumble-bee:  \nOf these no elegy.\n\nSome things that stay there be, \u2014   \nGrief, hills, eternity:  \nNor this behooveth me.\n\nThere are, that resting, rise.  \nCan I expound the skies?  \nHow still the riddle lies!\n\n**XV.**\n\n**THE LONELY HOUSE.**\n\nI know some lonely houses off the road  \nA robber 'd like the look of, \u2014   \nWooden barred,  \nAnd windows hanging low,  \nInviting to  \nA portico,  \nWhere two could creep:  \nOne hand the tools,  \nThe other peep  \nTo make sure all's asleep.  \nOld-fashioned eyes,  \nNot easy to surprise!\n\nHow orderly the kitchen 'd look by night,  \nWith just a clock, \u2014   \nBut they could gag the tick,  \nAnd mice won't bark;  \nAnd so the walls don't tell,  \nNone will.\n\nA pair of spectacles ajar just stir \u2014   \nAn almanac's aware.  \nWas it the mat winked,  \nOr a nervous star?  \nThe moon slides down the stair  \nTo see who's there.\n\nThere's plunder, \u2014 where?  \nTankard, or spoon,  \nEarring, or stone,  \nA watch, some ancient brooch  \nTo match the grandmamma,  \nStaid sleeping there.\n\nDay rattles, too,  \nStealth's slow;  \nThe sun has got as far  \nAs the third sycamore.  \nScreams chanticleer,  \n\"Who's there?\"  \nAnd echoes, trains away,  \nSneer \u2014 \"Where?\"  \nWhile the old couple, just astir,  \nFancy the sunrise left the door ajar!\n\n**XVI.**\n\nTo fight aloud is very brave,  \nBut gallanter, I know,  \nWho charge within the bosom,  \nThe cavalry of woe.\n\nWho win, and nations do not see,  \nWho fall, and none observe,  \nWhose dying eyes no country  \nRegards with patriot love.\n\nWe trust, in plumed procession,  \nFor such the angels go,  \nRank after rank, with even feet  \nAnd uniforms of snow.\n\n**XVII.**\n\n**DAWN.**\n\nWhen night is almost done,  \nAnd sunrise grows so near  \nThat we can touch the spaces,  \nIt 's time to smooth the hair\n\nAnd get the dimples ready,  \nAnd wonder we could care  \nFor that old faded midnight  \nThat frightened but an hour.\n\n**XVIII.**\n\n**THE BOOK OF MARTYRS.**\n\nRead, sweet, how others strove,  \nTill we are stouter;  \nWhat they renounced,  \nTill we are less afraid;  \nHow many times they bore  \nThe faithful witness,  \nTill we are helped,  \nAs if a kingdom cared!\n\nRead then of faith  \nThat shone above the fagot;  \nClear strains of hymn  \nThe river could not drown;  \nBrave names of men  \nAnd celestial women,  \nPassed out of record  \nInto renown!\n\n**XIX.**\n\n**THE MYSTERY OF PAIN.**\n\nPain has an element of blank;  \nIt cannot recollect  \nWhen it began, or if there were  \nA day when it was not.\n\nIt has no future but itself,  \nIts infinite realms contain  \nIts past, enlightened to perceive  \nNew periods of pain.\n\n**XX.**\n\nI taste a liquor never brewed,  \nFrom tankards scooped in pearl;  \nNot all the vats upon the Rhine  \nYield such an alcohol!\n\nInebriate of air am I,  \nAnd debauchee of dew,  \nReeling, through endless summer days,  \nFrom inns of molten blue.\n\nWhen landlords turn the drunken bee  \nOut of the foxglove's door,  \nWhen butterflies renounce their drams,  \nI shall but drink the more!\n\nTill seraphs swing their snowy hats,  \nAnd saints to windows run,  \nTo see the little tippler  \nLeaning against the sun!\n\n**XXI.**\n\n**A BOOK.**\n\nHe ate and drank the precious words,  \nHis spirit grew robust;  \nHe knew no more that he was poor,  \nNor that his frame was dust.  \nHe danced along the dingy days,  \nAnd this bequest of wings  \nWas but a book. What liberty  \nA loosened spirit brings!\n\n**XXII.**\n\nI had no time to hate, because  \nThe grave would hinder me,  \nAnd life was not so ample I  \nCould finish enmity.\n\nNor had I time to love; but since  \nSome industry must be,  \nThe little toil of love, I thought,  \nWas large enough for me.\n\n**XXIII.**\n\n**UNRETURNING.**\n\n'T was such a little, little boat  \nThat toddled down the bay!  \n'T was such a gallant, gallant sea  \nThat beckoned it away!\n\n'T was such a greedy, greedy wave  \nThat licked it from the coast;  \nNor ever guessed the stately sails  \nMy little craft was lost!\n\n**XXIV.**\n\nWhether my bark went down at sea,  \nWhether she met with gales,  \nWhether to isles enchanted  \nShe bent her docile sails;\n\nBy what mystic mooring  \nShe is held to-day, \u2014   \nThis is the errand of the eye  \nOut upon the bay.\n\n**XXV.**\n\nBelshazzar had a letter, \u2014   \nHe never had but one;  \nBelshazzar's correspondent  \nConcluded and begun  \nIn that immortal copy  \nThe conscience of us all  \nCan read without its glasses  \nOn revelation's wall.\n\n**XXVI.**\n\nThe brain within its groove  \nRuns evenly and true;  \nBut let a splinter swerve,  \n'T were easier for you  \nTo put the water back  \nWhen floods have slit the hills,  \nAnd scooped a turnpike for themselves,  \nAnd blotted out the mills!\n\n**II.**\n\n**LOVE.**\n\n**I.**\n\n**MINE.**\n\nMine by the right of the white election!  \nMine by the royal seal!  \nMine by the sign in the scarlet prison  \nBars cannot conceal!\n\nMine, here in vision and in veto!  \nMine, by the grave's repeal  \nTitled, confirmed, \u2014 delirious charter!  \nMine, while the ages steal!\n\n**II.**\n\n**BEQUEST.**\n\nYou left me, sweet, two legacies, \u2014   \nA legacy of love  \nA Heavenly Father would content,  \nHad He the offer of;\n\nYou left me boundaries of pain  \nCapacious as the sea,  \nBetween eternity and time,  \nYour consciousness and me.\n\n**III.**\n\nAlter? When the hills do.  \nFalter? When the sun  \nQuestion if his glory  \nBe the perfect one.\n\nSurfeit? When the daffodil  \nDoth of the dew:  \nEven as herself, O friend!  \nI will of you!\n\n**IV.**\n\n**SUSPENSE.**\n\nElysium is as far as to  \nThe very nearest room,  \nIf in that room a friend await  \nFelicity or doom.\n\nWhat fortitude the soul contains,  \nThat it can so endure  \nThe accent of a coming foot,  \nThe opening of a door!\n\n**V.**\n\n**SURRENDER.**\n\nDoubt me, my dim companion!  \nWhy, God would be content  \nWith but a fraction of the love  \nPoured thee without a stint.  \nThe whole of me, forever,  \nWhat more the woman can, \u2014   \nSay quick, that I may dower thee  \nWith last delight I own!\n\nIt cannot be my spirit,  \nFor that was thine before;  \nI ceded all of dust I knew, \u2014   \nWhat opulence the more  \nHad I, a humble maiden,  \nWhose farthest of degree  \nWas that she might,  \nSome distant heaven,  \nDwell timidly with thee!\n\n**VI.**\n\nIF you were coming in the fall,  \nI'd brush the summer by  \nWith half a smile and half a spurn,  \nAs housewives do a fly.\n\nIf I could see you in a year,  \nI'd wind the months in balls,  \nAnd put them each in separate drawers,  \nUntil their time befalls.\n\nIf only centuries delayed,  \nI'd count them on my hand,  \nSubtracting till my fingers dropped  \nInto Van Diemen's land.\n\nIf certain, when this life was out,  \nThat yours and mine should be,  \nI'd toss it yonder like a rind,  \nAnd taste eternity.\n\nBut now, all ignorant of the length  \nOf time's uncertain wing,  \nIt goads me, like the goblin bee,  \nThat will not state its sting.\n\n**VII.**\n\n**WITH A FLOWER.**\n\nI hide myself within my flower,  \nThat wearing on your breast,  \nYou, unsuspecting, wear me too \u2014   \nAnd angels know the rest.\n\nI hide myself within my flower,  \nThat, fading from your vase,  \nYou, unsuspecting, feel for me  \nAlmost a loneliness.\n\n**VIII.**\n\n**PROOF.**\n\nThat I did always love,  \nI bring thee proof:  \nThat till I loved  \nI did not love enough.\n\nThat I shall love alway,  \nI offer thee  \nThat love is life,  \nAnd life hath immortality.\n\nThis, dost thou doubt, sweet?  \nThen have I  \nNothing to show  \nBut Calvary.\n\n**IX.**\n\nHave you got a brook in your little heart,  \nWhere bashful flowers blow,  \nAnd blushing birds go down to drink,  \nAnd shadows tremble so?\n\nAnd nobody knows, so still it flows,  \nThat any brook is there;  \nAnd yet your little draught of life  \nIs daily drunken there.\n\nThen look out for the little brook in March,  \nWhen the rivers overflow,  \nAnd the snows come hurrying from the hills,  \nAnd the bridges often go.\n\nAnd later, in August it may be,  \nWhen the meadows parching lie,  \nBeware, lest this little brook of life  \nSome burning noon go dry!\n\n**X.**\n\n**TRANSPLANTED.**\n\nAs if some little Arctic flower,  \nUpon the polar hem,  \nWent wandering down the latitudes,  \nUntil it puzzled came  \nTo continents of summer,  \nTo firmaments of sun,  \nTo strange, bright crowds of flowers,  \nAnd birds of foreign tongue!  \nI say, as if this little flower  \nTo Eden wandered in \u2014   \nWhat then? Why, nothing, only,  \nYour inference therefrom!\n\n**XI.**\n\n**THE OUTLET.**\n\nMy river runs to thee:  \nBlue sea, wilt welcome me?\n\nMy river waits reply.  \nOh sea, look graciously!\n\nI'll fetch thee brooks  \nFrom spotted nooks, \u2014\n\nSay, sea,  \nTake me!\n\n**XII.**\n\n**IN VAIN.**\n\nI CANNOT live with you,  \nIt would be life,  \nAnd life is over there  \nBehind the shelf\n\nThe sexton keeps the key to,  \nPutting up  \nOur life, his porcelain,  \nLike a cup\n\nDiscarded of the housewife,  \nQuaint or broken;  \nA newer Sevres pleases,  \nOld ones crack.\n\nI could not die with you,  \nFor one must wait  \nTo shut the other's gaze down, \u2014   \nYou could not.\n\nAnd I, could I stand by  \nAnd see you freeze,  \nWithout my right of frost,  \nDeath's privilege?\n\nNor could I rise with you,  \nBecause your face  \nWould put out Jesus',  \nThat new grace\n\nGlow plain and foreign  \nOn my homesick eye,  \nExcept that you, than he  \nShone closer by.\n\nThey'd judge us \u2014 how?  \nFor you served Heaven, you know,  \nOr sought to;  \nI could not,\n\nBecause you saturated sight,  \nAnd I had no more eyes  \nFor sordid excellence  \nAs Paradise.\n\nAnd were you lost, I would be,  \nThough my name  \nRang loudest  \nOn the heavenly fame.\n\nAnd were you saved,  \nAnd I condemned to be  \nWhere you were not,  \nThat self were hell to me.\n\nSo we must keep apart,  \nYou there, I here,  \nWith just the door ajar  \nThat oceans are,  \nAnd prayer,  \nAnd that pale sustenance,  \nDespair!\n\n**XIII.**\n\n**RENUNCIATION.**\n\nThere came a day at summer's full  \nEntirely for me;  \nI thought that such were for the saints,  \nWhere revelations be.\n\nThe sun, as common, went abroad,  \nThe flowers, accustomed, blew,  \nAs if no soul the solstice passed  \nThat maketh all things new.\n\nThe time was scarce profaned by speech;  \nThe symbol of a word  \nWas needless, as at sacrament  \nThe wardrobe of our Lord.\n\nEach was to each the sealed church,  \nPermitted to commune this time,  \nLest we too awkward show  \nAt supper of the Lamb.\n\nThe hours slid fast, as hours will,  \nClutched tight by greedy hands;  \nSo faces on two decks look back,  \nBound to opposing lands.\n\nAnd so, when all the time had failed,  \nWithout external sound,  \nEach bound the other's crucifix,  \nWe gave no other bond.\n\nSufficient troth that we shall rise \u2014   \nDeposed, at length, the grave \u2014   \nTo that new marriage, justified  \nThrough Calvaries of Love!\n\n**XIV.**\n\n**LOVE'S BAPTISM.**\n\nI'm ceded, I've stopped being theirs;  \nThe name they dropped upon my face  \nWith water, in the country church,  \nIs finished using now,  \nAnd they can put it with my dolls,  \nMy childhood, and the string of spools  \nI've finished threading too.\n\nBaptized before without the choice,  \nBut this time consciously, of grace  \nUnto supremest name,  \nCalled to my full, the crescent dropped,  \nExistence's whole arc filled up  \nWith one small diadem.\n\nMy second rank, too small the first,  \nCrowned, crowing on my father's breast,  \nA half unconscious queen;  \nBut this time, adequate, erect,  \nWith will to choose or to reject.  \nAnd I choose \u2014 just a throne.\n\n**XV.**\n\n**RESURRECTION.**\n\n'T was a long parting, but the time  \nFor interview had come;  \nBefore the judgment-seat of God,  \nThe last and second time\n\nThese fleshless lovers met,  \nA heaven in a gaze,  \nA heaven of heavens, the privilege  \nOf one another's eyes.\n\nNo lifetime set on them,  \nApparelled as the new  \nUnborn, except they had beheld,  \nBorn everlasting now.\n\nWas bridal e'er like this?  \nA paradise, the host,  \nAnd cherubim and seraphim  \nThe most familiar guest.\n\n**XVI.**\n\n**APOCALYPSE.**\n\nI'm wife; I've finished that,  \nThat other state;  \nI'm Czar, I'm woman now:  \nIt's safer so.\n\nHow odd the girl's life looks  \nBehind this soft eclipse!  \nI think that earth seems so  \nTo those in heaven now.\n\nThis being comfort, then  \nThat other kind was pain;  \nBut why compare?  \nI'm wife! stop there!\n\n**XVII.**\n\n**THE WIFE.**\n\nShe rose to his requirement, dropped  \nThe playthings of her life  \nTo take the honorable work  \nOf woman and of wife.\n\nIf aught she missed in her new day  \nOf amplitude, or awe,  \nOr first prospective, or the gold  \nIn using wore away,\n\nIt lay unmentioned, as the sea  \nDevelops pearl and weed,  \nBut only to himself is known  \nThe fathoms they abide.\n\n**XVIII.**\n\n**APOTHEOSIS.**\n\nCome slowly, Eden!  \nLips unused to thee,  \nBashful, sip thy jasmines,  \nAs the fainting bee,\n\nReaching late his flower,  \nRound her chamber hums,  \nCounts his nectars \u2014 enters,  \nAnd is lost in balms!\n\n**III.**\n\n**NATURE.**\n\n**I.**\n\nNew feet within my garden go,  \nNew fingers stir the sod;  \nA troubadour upon the elm  \nBetrays the solitude.\n\nNew children play upon the green,  \nNew weary sleep below;  \nAnd still the pensive spring returns,  \nAnd still the punctual snow!\n\n**II.**\n\n**MAY-FLOWER.**\n\nPink, small, and punctual,  \nAromatic, low,  \nCovert in April,  \nCandid in May,\n\nDear to the moss,  \nKnown by the knoll,  \nNext to the robin  \nIn every human soul.\n\nBold little beauty,  \nBedecked with thee,  \nNature forswears  \nAntiquity.\n\n**III.**\n\n**WHY?**\n\nTHE murmur of a bee  \nA witchcraft yieldeth me.  \nIf any ask me why,  \n'T were easier to die  \nThan tell.\n\nThe red upon the hill  \nTaketh away my will;  \nIf anybody sneer,  \nTake care, for God is here,  \nThat's all.\n\nThe breaking of the day  \nAddeth to my degree;  \nIf any ask me how,  \nArtist, who drew me so,  \nMust tell!\n\n**IV.**\n\nPerhaps you'd like to buy a flower?  \nBut I could never sell.  \nIf you would like to borrow  \nUntil the daffodil\n\nUnties her yellow bonnet  \nBeneath the village door,  \nUntil the bees, from clover rows  \nTheir hock and sherry draw,\n\nWhy, I will lend until just then,  \nBut not an hour more!\n\n**V.**\n\nThe pedigree of honey  \nDoes not concern the bee;  \nA clover, any time, to him  \nIs aristocracy.\n\n**VI.**\n\n**A SERVICE OF SONG.**\n\nSome keep the Sabbath going to church;  \nI keep it staying at home,  \nWith a bobolink for a chorister,  \nAnd an orchard for a dome.\n\nSome keep the Sabbath in surplice;  \nI just wear my wings,  \nAnd instead of tolling the bell for church,  \nOur little sexton sings.\n\nGod preaches, \u2014 a noted clergyman, \u2014   \nAnd the sermon is never long;  \nSo instead of getting to heaven at last,  \nI'm going all along!\n\n**VII.**\n\nThe bee is not afraid of me,  \nI know the butterfly;  \nThe pretty people in the woods  \nReceive me cordially.\n\nThe brooks laugh louder when I come,  \nThe breezes madder play.  \nWherefore, mine eyes, thy silver mists?  \nWherefore, O summer's day?\n\n**VIII.**\n\n**SUMMER'S ARMIES.**\n\nSome rainbow coming from the fair!  \nSome vision of the world Cashmere  \nI confidently see!  \nOr else a peacock's purple train,  \nFeather by feather, on the plain  \nFritters itself away!\n\nThe dreamy butterflies bestir,  \nLethargic pools resume the whir  \nOf last year's sundered tune.  \nFrom some old fortress on the sun  \nBaronial bees march, one by one,  \nIn murmuring platoon!\n\nThe robins stand as thick to-day  \nAs flakes of snow stood yesterday,  \nOn fence and roof and twig.  \nThe orchis binds her feather on  \nFor her old lover, Don the Sun,  \nRevisiting the bog!\n\nWithout commander, countless, still,  \nThe regiment of wood and hill  \nIn bright detachment stand.  \nBehold! Whose multitudes are these?  \nThe children of whose turbaned seas,  \nOr what Circassian land?\n\n**IX.**\n\n**THE GRASS.**\n\nThe grass so little has to do, \u2014   \nA sphere of simple green,  \nWith only butterflies to brood,  \nAnd bees to entertain,\n\nAnd stir all day to pretty tunes  \nThe breezes fetch along,  \nAnd hold the sunshine in its lap  \nAnd bow to everything;\n\nAnd thread the dews all night, like pearls,  \nAnd make itself so fine, \u2014   \nA duchess were too common  \nFor such a noticing.\n\nAnd even when it dies, to pass  \nIn odors so divine,  \nAs lowly spices gone to sleep,  \nOr amulets of pine.\n\nAnd then to dwell in sovereign barns,  \nAnd dream the days away, \u2014   \nThe grass so little has to do,  \nI wish I were the hay!\n\n**X.**\n\nA little road not made of man,  \nEnabled of the eye,  \nAccessible to thill of bee,  \nOr cart of butterfly.\n\nIf town it have, beyond itself,  \n'T is that I cannot say;  \nI only sigh, \u2014 no vehicle  \nBears me along that way.\n\n**XI.**\n\n**SUMMER SHOWER.**\n\nA drop fell on the apple tree,  \nAnother on the roof;  \nA half a dozen kissed the eaves,  \nAnd made the gables laugh.\n\nA few went out to help the brook,  \nThat went to help the sea.  \nMyself conjectured, Were they pearls,  \nWhat necklaces could be!\n\nThe dust replaced in hoisted roads,  \nThe birds jocoser sung;  \nThe sunshine threw his hat away,  \nThe orchards spangles hung.\n\nThe breezes brought dejected lutes,  \nAnd bathed them in the glee;  \nThe East put out a single flag,  \nAnd signed the fete away.\n\n**XII.**\n\n**PSALM OF THE DAY.**\n\nA something in a summer's day,  \nAs sIow her flambeaux burn away,  \nWhich solemnizes me.\n\nA something in a summer's noon, \u2014   \nAn azure depth, a wordless tune,  \nTranscending ecstasy.\n\nAnd still within a summer's night  \nA something so transporting bright,  \nI clap my hands to see;\n\nThen veil my too inspecting face,  \nLest such a subtle, shimmering grace  \nFlutter too far for me.\n\nThe wizard-fingers never rest,  \nThe purple brook within the breast  \nStill chafes its narrow bed;\n\nStill rears the East her amber flag,  \nGuides still the sun along the crag  \nHis caravan of red,\n\nLike flowers that heard the tale of dews,  \nBut never deemed the dripping prize  \nAwaited their low brows;\n\nOr bees, that thought the summer's name  \nSome rumor of delirium  \nNo summer could for them;\n\nOr Arctic creature, dimly stirred  \nBy tropic hint, \u2014 some travelled bird  \nImported to the wood;\n\nOr wind's bright signal to the ear,  \nMaking that homely and severe,  \nContented, known, before\n\nThe heaven unexpected came,  \nTo lives that thought their worshipping  \nA too presumptuous psalm.\n\n**XIII.**\n\n**THE SEA OF SUNSET.**\n\nThis is the land the sunset washes,  \nThese are the banks of the Yellow Sea;  \nWhere it rose, or whither it rushes,  \nThese are the western mystery!\n\nNight after night her purple traffic  \nStrews the landing with opal bales;  \nMerchantmen poise upon horizons,  \nDip, and vanish with fairy sails.\n\n**XIV.**\n\n**PURPLE CLOVER.**\n\nThere is a flower that bees prefer,  \nAnd butterflies desire;  \nTo gain the purple democrat  \nThe humming-birds aspire.\n\nAnd whatsoever insect pass,  \nA honey bears away  \nProportioned to his several dearth  \nAnd her capacity.\n\nHer face is rounder than the moon,  \nAnd ruddier than the gown  \nOf orchis in the pasture,  \nOr rhododendron worn.\n\nShe doth not wait for June;  \nBefore the world is green  \nHer sturdy little countenance  \nAgainst the wind is seen,\n\nContending with the grass,  \nNear kinsman to herself,  \nFor privilege of sod and sun,  \nSweet litigants for life.\n\nAnd when the hills are full,  \nAnd newer fashions blow,  \nDoth not retract a single spice  \nFor pang of jealousy.\n\nHer public is the noon,  \nHer providence the sun,  \nHer progress by the bee proclaimed  \nIn sovereign, swerveless tune.\n\nThe bravest of the host,  \nSurrendering the last,  \nNor even of defeat aware  \nWhen cancelled by the frost.\n\n**XV.**\n\n**THE BEE.**\n\nLike trains of cars on tracks of plush  \nI hear the level bee:  \nA jar across the flowers goes,  \nTheir velvet masonry\n\nWithstands until the sweet assault  \nTheir chivalry consumes,  \nWhile he, victorious, tilts away  \nTo vanquish other blooms.\n\nHis feet are shod with gauze,  \nHis helmet is of gold;  \nHis breast, a single onyx  \nWith chrysoprase, inlaid.\n\nHis labor is a chant,  \nHis idleness a tune;  \nOh, for a bee's experience  \nOf clovers and of noon!\n\n**XVI.**\n\nPresentiment is that long shadow on the lawn  \nIndicative that suns go down;  \nThe notice to the startled grass  \nThat darkness is about to pass.\n\n**XVII.**\n\nAs children bid the guest good-night,  \nAnd then reluctant turn,  \nMy flowers raise their pretty lips,  \nThen put their nightgowns on.\n\nAs children caper when they wake,  \nMerry that it is morn,  \nMy flowers from a hundred cribs  \nWill peep, and prance again.\n\n**XVIII.**\n\nAngels in the early morning  \nMay be seen the dews among,  \nStooping, plucking, smiling, flying:  \nDo the buds to them belong?\n\nAngels when the sun is hottest  \nMay be seen the sands among,  \nStooping, plucking, sighing, flying;  \nParched the flowers they bear along.\n\n**XIX.**\n\nSo bashful when I spied her,  \nSo pretty, so ashamed!  \nSo hidden in her leaflets,  \nLest anybody find;\n\nSo breathless till I passed her,  \nSo helpless when I turned  \nAnd bore her, struggling, blushing,  \nHer simple haunts beyond!\n\nFor whom I robbed the dingle,  \nFor whom betrayed the dell,  \nMany will doubtless ask me,  \nBut I shall never tell!\n\n**XX.**\n\n**TWO WORLDS.**\n\nIt makes no difference abroad,  \nThe seasons fit the same,  \nThe mornings blossom into noons,  \nAnd split their pods of flame.\n\nWild-flowers kindle in the woods,  \nThe brooks brag all the day;  \nNo blackbird bates his jargoning  \nFor passing Calvary.\n\nAuto-da-fe and judgment  \nAre nothing to the bee;  \nHis separation from his rose  \nTo him seems misery.\n\n**XXI.**\n\n**THE MOUNTAIN.**\n\nThe mountain sat upon the plain  \nIn his eternal chair,  \nHis observation omnifold,  \nHis inquest everywhere.\n\nThe seasons prayed around his knees,  \nLike children round a sire:  \nGrandfather of the days is he,  \nOf dawn the ancestor.\n\n**XXII.**\n\n**A DAY.**\n\nI'll tell you how the sun rose, \u2014   \nA ribbon at a time.  \nThe steeples swam in amethyst,  \nThe news like squirrels ran.\n\nThe hills untied their bonnets,  \nThe bobolinks begun.  \nThen I said softly to myself,  \n\"That must have been the sun!\"\n\n* * *\n\nBut how he set, I know not.  \nThere seemed a purple stile  \nWhich little yellow boys and girls  \nWere climbing all the while\n\nTill when they reached the other side,  \nA dominie in gray  \nPut gently up the evening bars,  \nAnd led the flock away.\n\n**XXIII.**\n\nThe butterfiy's assumption-gown,  \nIn chrysoprase apartments hung,  \nThis afternoon put on.\n\nHow condescending to descend,  \nAnd be of buttercups the friend  \nIn a New England town!\n\n**XXIV.**\n\n**THE WIND.**\n\nOf all the sounds despatched abroad,  \nThere's not a charge to me  \nLike that old measure in the boughs,  \nThat phraseless melody\n\nThe wind does, working like a hand  \nWhose fingers brush the sky,  \nThen quiver down, with tufts of tune  \nPermitted gods and me.\n\nWhen winds go round and round in bands,  \nAnd thrum upon the door,  \nAnd birds take places overhead,  \nTo bear them orchestra,\n\nI crave him grace, of summer boughs,  \nIf such an outcast be,  \nHe never heard that fleshless chant  \nRise solemn in the tree,\n\nAs if some caravan of sound  \nOn deserts, in the sky,  \nHad broken rank,  \nThen knit, and passed  \nIn seamless company.\n\n**XXV.**\n\n**DEATH AND LIFE.**\n\nApparently with no surprise  \nTo any happy flower,  \nThe frost beheads it at its play  \nIn accidental power.  \nThe blond assassin passes on,  \nThe sun proceeds unmoved  \nTo measure off another day  \nFor an approving God.\n\n**XXVI.**\n\n'T WAS later when the summer went  \nThan when the cricket came,  \nAnd yet we knew that gentle clock  \nMeant nought but going home.\n\n'T was sooner when the cricket went  \nThan when the winter came,  \nYet that pathetic pendulum  \nKeeps esoteric time.\n\n**XXVII.**\n\n**INDIAN SUMMER.**\n\nThese are the days when birds come back,  \nA very few, a bird or two,  \nTo take a backward look.\n\nThese are the days when skies put on  \nThe old, old sophistries of June, \u2014   \nA blue and gold mistake.\n\nOh, fraud that cannot cheat the bee,  \nAlmost thy plausibility  \nInduces my belief,\n\nTill ranks of seeds their witness bear,  \nAnd softly through the altered air  \nHurries a timid leaf!\n\nOh, sacrament of summer days,  \nOh, last communion in the haze,  \nPermit a child to join,\n\nThy sacred emblems to partake,  \nThy consecrated bread to break,  \nTaste thine immortal wine!\n\n**XXVIII.**\n\n**AUTUMN.**\n\nThe morns are meeker than they were,  \nThe nuts are getting brown;  \nThe berry's cheek is plumper,  \nThe rose is out of town.\n\nThe maple wears a gayer scarf,  \nThe field a scarlet gown.  \nLest I should be old-fashioned,  \nI'll put a trinket on.\n\n**XXIX.**\n\n**BECLOUDED.**\n\nThe sky is low, the clouds are mean,  \nA travelling flake of snow  \nAcross a barn or through a rut  \nDebates if it will go.\n\nA narrow wind complains all day  \nHow some one treated him;  \nNature, like us, is sometimes caught  \nWithout her diadem.\n\n**XXX.**\n\n**THE HEMLOCK.**\n\nI think the hemlock likes to stand  \nUpon a marge of snow;  \nIt suits his own austerity,  \nAnd satisfies an awe\n\nThat men must slake in wilderness,  \nOr in the desert cloy, \u2014   \nAn instinct for the hoar, the bald,  \nLapland's necessity.\n\nThe hemlock's nature thrives on cold;  \nThe gnash of northern winds  \nIs sweetest nutriment to him,  \nHis best Norwegian wines.\n\nTo satin races he is nought;  \nBut children on the Don  \nBeneath his tabernacles play,  \nAnd Dnieper wrestlers run.\n\n**XXXI.**\n\nThere's a certain slant of light,  \nOn winter afternoons,  \nThat oppresses, like the weight  \nOf cathedral tunes.\n\nHeavenly hurt it gives us;  \nWe can find no scar,  \nBut internal difference  \nWhere the meanings are.\n\nNone may teach it anything,  \n' T is the seal, despair, \u2014   \nAn imperial affliction  \nSent us of the air.\n\nWhen it comes, the landscape listens,  \nShadows hold their breath;  \nWhen it goes, 't is like the distance  \nOn the look of death.\n\n**IV.**\n\n**TIME AND ETERNITY.**\n\n**I.**\n\nOne dignity delays for all,  \nOne mitred afternoon.  \nNone can avoid this purple,  \nNone evade this crown.\n\nCoach it insures, and footmen,  \nChamber and state and throng;  \nBells, also, in the village,  \nAs we ride grand along.\n\nWhat dignified attendants,  \nWhat service when we pause!  \nHow loyally at parting  \nTheir hundred hats they raise!\n\nHow pomp surpassing ermine,  \nWhen simple you and I  \nPresent our meek escutcheon,  \nAnd claim the rank to die!\n\n**II.**\n\n**TOO LATE.**\n\nDelayed till she had ceased to know,  \nDelayed till in its vest of snow  \nHer loving bosom lay.  \nAn hour behind the fleeting breath,  \nLater by just an hour than death, \u2014   \nOh, lagging yesterday!\n\nCould she have guessed that it would be;  \nCould but a crier of the glee  \nHave climbed the distant hill;  \nHad not the bliss so slow a pace, \u2014   \nWho knows but this surrendered face  \nWere undefeated still?\n\nOh, if there may departing be  \nAny forgot by victory  \nIn her imperial round,  \nShow them this meek apparelled thing,  \nThat could not stop to be a king,  \nDoubtful if it be crowned!\n\n**III.**\n\n**ASTRA CASTRA.**\n\nDeparted to the judgment,  \nA mighty afternoon;  \nGreat clouds like ushers leaning,  \nCreation looking on.\n\nThe flesh surrendered, cancelled,  \nThe bodiless begun;  \nTwo worlds, like audiences, disperse  \nAnd leave the soul alone.\n\n**IV.**\n\nSafe in their alabaster chambers,  \nUntouched by morning and untouched by noon,  \nSleep the meek members of the resurrection,  \nRafter of satin, and roof of stone.\n\nLight laughs the breeze in her castle of sunshine;  \nBabbles the bee in a stolid ear;  \nPipe the sweet birds in ignorant cadence, \u2014   \nAh, what sagacity perished here!\n\nGrand go the years in the crescent above them;  \nWorlds scoop their arcs, and firmaments row,  \nDiadems drop and Doges surrender,  \nSoundless as dots on a disk of snow.\n\n**V.**\n\nOn this long storm the rainbow rose,  \nOn this late morn the sun;  \nThe clouds, like listless elephants,  \nHorizons straggled down.\n\nThe birds rose smiling in their nests,  \nThe gales indeed were done;  \nAlas! how heedless were the eyes  \nOn whom the summer shone!\n\nThe quiet nonchalance of death  \nNo daybreak can bestir;  \nThe slow archangel's syllables  \nMust awaken her.\n\n**VI.**\n\n**FROM THE CHRYSALIS.**\n\nMy cocoon tightens, colors tease,  \nI'm feeling for the air;  \nA dim capacity for wings  \nDegrades the dress I wear.\n\nA power of butterfly must be  \nThe aptitude to fly,  \nMeadows of majesty concedes  \nAnd easy sweeps of sky.\n\nSo I must baffle at the hint  \nAnd cipher at the sign,  \nAnd make much blunder, if at last  \nI take the clew divine.\n\n**VII.**\n\n**SETTING SAIL.**\n\nExultation is the going  \nOf an inland soul to sea, \u2014   \nPast the houses, past the headlands,  \nInto deep eternity!\n\nBred as we, among the mountains,  \nCan the sailor understand  \nThe divine intoxication  \nOf the first league out from land?\n\n**VIII.**\n\nLook back on time with kindly eyes,  \nHe doubtless did his best;  \nHow softly sinks his trembling sun  \nIn human nature's west!\n\n**IX.**\n\nA train went through a burial gate,  \nA bird broke forth and sang,  \nAnd trilled, and quivered, and shook his throat  \nTill all the churchyard rang;\n\nAnd then adjusted his little notes,  \nAnd bowed and sang again.  \nDoubtless, he thought it meet of him  \nTo say good-by to men.\n\n**X.**\n\nI died for beauty, but was scarce  \nAdjusted in the tomb,  \nWhen one who died for truth was lain  \nIn an adjoining room.\n\nHe questioned softly why I failed?  \n\"For beauty,\" I replied.  \n\"And I for truth, \u2014 the two are one;  \nWe brethren are,\" he said.\n\nAnd so, as kinsmen met a night,  \nWe talked between the rooms,  \nUntil the moss had reached our lips,  \nAnd covered up our names.\n\n**XI.**\n\n\" **TROUBLED ABOUT MANY THINGS.\"**\n\nHow many times these low feet staggered,  \nOnly the soldered mouth can tell;  \nTry! can you stir the awful rivet?  \nTry! can you lift the hasps of steel?\n\nStroke the cool forehead, hot so often,  \nLift, if you can, the listless hair;  \nHandle the adamantine fingers  \nNever a thimble more shall wear.\n\nBuzz the dull flies on the chamber window;  \nBrave shines the sun through the freckled pane;  \nFearless the cobweb swings from the ceiling \u2014   \nIndolent housewife, in daisies lain!\n\n**XII.**\n\n**REAL.**\n\nI like a look of agony,  \nBecause I know it 's true;  \nMen do not sham convulsion,  \nNor simulate a throe.\n\nThe eyes glaze once, and that is death.  \nImpossible to feign  \nThe beads upon the forehead  \nBy homely anguish strung.\n\n**XIII.**\n\n**THE FUNERAL.**\n\nThat short, potential stir  \nThat each can make but once,  \nThat bustle so illustrious  \n'T is almost consequence,\n\nIs the eclat of death.  \nOh, thou unknown renown  \nThat not a beggar would accept,  \nHad he the power to spurn!\n\n**XIV.**\n\nI went to thank her,  \nBut she slept;  \nHer bed a funnelled stone,  \nWith nosegays at the head and foot,  \nThat travellers had thrown,\n\nWho went to thank her;  \nBut she slept.  \n'T was short to cross the sea  \nTo look upon her like, alive,  \nBut turning back 't was slow.\n\n**XV.**\n\nI've seen a dying eye  \nRun round and round a room  \nIn search of something, as it seemed,  \nThen cloudier become;  \nAnd then, obscure with fog,  \nAnd then be soldered down,  \nWithout disclosing what it be,  \n'T were blessed to have seen.\n\n**XVI.**\n\n**REFUGE.**\n\nThe clouds their backs together laid,  \nThe north begun to push,  \nThe forests galloped till they fell,  \nThe lightning skipped like mice;  \nThe thunder crumbled like a stuff \u2014   \nHow good to be safe in tombs,  \nWhere nature's temper cannot reach,  \nNor vengeance ever comes!\n\n**XVII.**\n\nI never saw a moor,  \nI never saw the sea;  \nYet know I how the heather looks,  \nAnd what a wave must be.\n\nI never spoke with God,  \nNor visited in heaven;  \nYet certain am I of the spot  \nAs if the chart were given.\n\n**XVIII.**\n\n**PLAYMATES.**\n\nGod permits industrious angels  \nAfternoons to play.  \nI met one, \u2014 forgot my school-mates,  \nAll, for him, straightway.\n\nGod calls home the angels promptly  \nAt the setting sun;  \nI missed mine. How dreary marbles,  \nAfter playing Crown!\n\n**XIX.**\n\nTo know just how he suffered would be dear;  \nTo know if any human eyes were near  \nTo whom he could intrust his wavering gaze,  \nUntil it settled firm on Paradise.\n\nTo know if he was patient, part content,  \nWas dying as he thought, or different;  \nWas it a pleasant day to die,  \nAnd did the sunshine face his way?\n\nWhat was his furthest mind, of home, or God,  \nOr what the distant say  \nAt news that he ceased human nature  \nOn such a day?\n\nAnd wishes, had he any?  \nJust his sigh, accented,  \nHad been legible to me.  \nAnd was he confident until  \nIll fluttered out in everlasting well?\n\nAnd if he spoke, what name was best,  \nWhat first,  \nWhat one broke off with  \nAt the drowsiest?\n\nWas he afraid, or tranquil?  \nMight he know  \nHow conscious consciousness could grow,  \nTill love that was, and love too blest to be,  \nMeet \u2014 and the junction be Eternity?\n\n**XX.**\n\nThe last night that she lived,  \nIt was a common night,  \nExcept the dying; this to us  \nMade nature different.\n\nWe noticed smallest things, \u2014   \nThings overlooked before,  \nBy this great light upon our minds  \nItalicized, as 't were.\n\nThat others could exist  \nWhile she must finish quite,  \nA jealousy for her arose  \nSo nearly infinite.\n\nWe waited while she passed;  \nIt was a narrow time,  \nToo jostled were our souls to speak,  \nAt length the notice came.\n\nShe mentioned, and forgot;  \nThen lightly as a reed  \nBent to the water, shivered scarce,  \nConsented, and was dead.\n\nAnd we, we placed the hair,  \nAnd drew the head erect;  \nAnd then an awful leisure was,  \nOur faith to regulate.\n\n**XXI.**\n\n**THE FIRST LESSON.**\n\nNot in this world to see his face  \nSounds long, until I read the place  \nWhere this is said to be  \nBut just the primer to a life  \nUnopened, rare, upon the shelf,  \nClasped yet to him and me.\n\nAnd yet, my primer suits me so  \nI would not choose a book to know  \nThan that, be sweeter wise;  \nMight some one else so learned be,  \nAnd leave me just my A B C,  \nHimself could have the skies.\n\n**XXII.**\n\nThe bustle in a house  \nThe morning after death  \nIs solemnest of industries  \nEnacted upon earth, \u2014\n\nThe sweeping up the heart,  \nAnd putting love away  \nWe shall not want to use again  \nUntil eternity.\n\n**XXIII.**\n\nI reason, earth is short,  \nAnd anguish absolute,  \nAnd many hurt;  \nBut what of that?\n\nI reason, we could die:  \nThe best vitality  \nCannot excel decay;  \nBut what of that?\n\nI reason that in heaven  \nSomehow, it will be even,  \nSome new equation given;  \nBut what of that?\n\n**XXIV.**\n\nAfraid? Of whom am I afraid?  \nNot death; for who is he?  \nThe porter of my father's lodge  \nAs much abasheth me.\n\nOf life? 'T were odd I fear a thing  \nThat comprehendeth me  \nIn one or more existences  \nAt Deity's decree.\n\nOf resurrection? Is the east  \nAfraid to trust the morn  \nWith her fastidious forehead?  \nAs soon impeach my crown!\n\n**XXV.**\n\n**DYING.**\n\nThe sun kept setting, setting still;  \nNo hue of afternoon  \nUpon the village I perceived, \u2014   \nFrom house to house 't was noon.\n\nThe dusk kept dropping, dropping still;  \nNo dew upon the grass,  \nBut only on my forehead stopped,  \nAnd wandered in my face.\n\nMy feet kept drowsing, drowsing still,  \nMy fingers were awake;  \nYet why so little sound myself  \nUnto my seeming make?\n\nHow well I knew the light before!  \nI could not see it now.  \n'T is dying, I am doing; but  \nI'm not afraid to know.\n\n**XXVI.**\n\nTwo swimmers wrestled on the spar  \nUntil the morning sun,  \nWhen one turned smiling to the land.  \nO God, the other one!\n\nThe stray ships passing spied a face  \nUpon the waters borne,  \nWith eyes in death still begging raised,  \nAnd hands beseeching thrown.\n\n**XXVII.**\n\n**THE CHARIOT.**\n\nBecause I could not stop for Death,  \nHe kindly stopped for me;  \nThe carriage held but just ourselves  \nAnd Immortality.\n\nWe slowly drove, he knew no haste,  \nAnd I had put away  \nMy labor, and my leisure too,  \nFor his civility.\n\nWe passed the school where children played,  \nTheir lessons scarcely done;  \nWe passed the fields of gazing grain,  \nWe passed the setting sun.\n\nWe paused before a house that seemed  \nA swelling of the ground;  \nThe roof was scarcely visible,  \nThe cornice but a mound.\n\nSince then 't is centuries; but each  \nFeels shorter than the day  \nI first surmised the horses' heads  \nWere toward eternity.\n\n**XXVIII.**\n\nShe went as quiet as the dew  \nFrom a familiar flower.  \nNot like the dew did she return  \nAt the accustomed hour!\n\nShe dropt as softly as a star  \nFrom out my summer's eve;  \nLess skilful than Leverrier  \nIt's sorer to believe!\n\n**XXIX.**\n\n**RESURGAM.**\n\nAt last to be identified!  \nAt last, the lamps upon thy side,  \nThe rest of life to see!  \nPast midnight, past the morning star!  \nPast sunrise! Ah! what leagues there are  \nBetween our feet and day!\n\n**XXX.**\n\nExcept to heaven, she is nought;  \nExcept for angels, lone;  \nExcept to some wide-wandering bee,  \nA flower superfluous blown;\n\nExcept for winds, provincial;  \nExcept by butterflies,  \nUnnoticed as a single dew  \nThat on the acre lies.\n\nThe smallest housewife in the grass,  \nYet take her from the lawn,  \nAnd somebody has lost the face  \nThat made existence home!\n\n**XXXI.**\n\nDeath is a dialogue between  \nThe spirit and the dust.  \n\"Dissolve,\" says Death. The Spirit, \"Sir,  \nI have another trust.\"\n\nDeath doubts it, argues from the ground.  \nThe Spirit turns away,  \nJust laying off, for evidence,  \nAn overcoat of clay.\n\n**XXXII.**\n\nIt was too late for man,  \nBut early yet for God;  \nCreation impotent to help,  \nBut prayer remained our side.\n\nHow excellent the heaven,  \nWhen earth cannot be had;  \nHow hospitable, then, the face  \nOf our old neighbor, God!\n\n**XXXIII.**\n\n**ALONG THE POTOMAC.**\n\nWhen I was small, a woman died.  \nTo-day her only boy  \nWent up from the Potomac,  \nHis face all victory,\n\nTo look at her; how slowly  \nThe seasons must have turned  \nTill bullets clipt an angle,  \nAnd he passed quickly round!\n\nIf pride shall be in Paradise  \nI never can decide;  \nOf their imperial conduct,  \nNo person testified.\n\nBut proud in apparition,  \nThat woman and her boy  \nPass back and forth before my brain,  \nAs ever in the sky.\n\n**XXXIV.**\n\nThe daisy follows soft the sun,  \nAnd when his golden walk is done,  \nSits shyly at his feet.  \nHe, waking, finds the flower near.  \n\"Wherefore, marauder, art thou here?\"  \n\"Because, sir, love is sweet!\"\n\nWe are the flower, Thou the sun!  \nForgive us, if as days decline,  \nWe nearer steal to Thee, \u2014   \nEnamoured of the parting west,  \nThe peace, the flight, the amethyst,  \nNight's possibility!\n\n**XXXV.**\n\n**EMANCIPATION.**\n\nNo rack can torture me,  \nMy soul's at liberty  \nBehind this mortal bone  \nThere knits a bolder one\n\nYou cannot prick with saw,  \nNor rend with scymitar.  \nTwo bodies therefore be;  \nBind one, and one will flee.\n\nThe eagle of his nest  \nNo easier divest  \nAnd gain the sky,  \nThan mayest thou,\n\nExcept thyself may be  \nThine enemy;  \nCaptivity is consciousness,  \nSo's liberty.\n\n**XXXVI.**\n\n**LOST.**\n\nI lost a world the other day.  \nHas anybody found?  \nYou'll know it by the row of stars  \nAround its forehead bound.\n\nA rich man might not notice it;  \nYet to my frugal eye  \nOf more esteem than ducats.  \nOh, find it, sir, for me!\n\n**XXXVII.**\n\nIf I should n't be alive  \nWhen the robins come,  \nGive the one in red cravat  \nA memorial crumb.\n\nIf I could n't thank you,  \nBeing just asleep,  \nYou will know I'm trying  \nWith my granite lip!\n\n**XXXVIII.**\n\nSleep is supposed to be,  \nBy souls of sanity,  \nThe shutting of the eye.\n\nSleep is the station grand  \nDown which on either hand  \nThe hosts of witness stand!\n\nMorn is supposed to be,  \nBy people of degree,  \nThe breaking of the day.\n\nMorning has not occurred!  \nThat shall aurora be  \nEast of eternity;\n\nOne with the banner gay,  \nOne in the red array, \u2014   \nThat is the break of day.\n\n**XXXIX.**\n\nI shall know why, when time is over,  \nAnd I have ceased to wonder why;  \nChrist will explain each separate anguish  \nIn the fair schoolroom of the sky.\n\nHe will tell me what Peter promised,  \nAnd I, for wonder at his woe,  \nI shall forget the drop of anguish  \nThat scalds me now, that scalds me now.\n\n**XL.**\n\nI never lost as much but twice,  \nAnd that was in the sod;  \nTwice have I stood a beggar  \nBefore the door of God!\n\nAngels, twice descending,  \nReimbursed my store.  \nBurglar, banker, father,  \nI am poor once more!\n**POEMS: SERIES ONE**\n\n**CONTENTS**\n\nI.\n\nLIFE.\n\nI.\n\nSUCCESS.\n\nII.\n\nIII.\n\nROUGE ET NOIR.\n\nIV.\n\nROUGE GAGNE.\n\nV.\n\nVI.\n\nVII.\n\nALMOST!\n\nVIII.\n\nIX.\n\nX.\n\nIN A LIBRARY.\n\nXI.\n\nXII.\n\nXIII.\n\nEXCLUSION.\n\nXIV.\n\nTHE SECRET.\n\nXV.\n\nTHE LONELY HOUSE.\n\nXVI.\n\nXVII.\n\nDAWN.\n\nXVIII.\n\nTHE BOOK OF MARTYRS.\n\nXIX.\n\nTHE MYSTERY OF PAIN.\n\nXX.\n\nXXI.\n\nA BOOK.\n\nXXII.\n\nXXIII.\n\nUNRETURNING.\n\nXXIV.\n\nXXV.\n\nXXVI.\n\nII.\n\nLOVE.\n\nI.\n\nMINE.\n\nII.\n\nBEQUEST.\n\nIII.\n\nIV.\n\nSUSPENSE.\n\nV.\n\nSURRENDER.\n\nVI.\n\nVII.\n\nWITH A FLOWER.\n\nVIII.\n\nPROOF.\n\nIX.\n\nX.\n\nTRANSPLANTED.\n\nXI.\n\nTHE OUTLET.\n\nXII.\n\nIN VAIN.\n\nXIII.\n\nRENUNCIATION.\n\nXIV.\n\nLOVE'S BAPTISM.\n\nXV.\n\nRESURRECTION.\n\nXVI.\n\nAPOCALYPSE.\n\nXVII.\n\nTHE WIFE.\n\nXVIII.\n\nAPOTHEOSIS.\n\nIII.\n\nNATURE.\n\nI.\n\nII.\n\nMAY-FLOWER.\n\nIII.\n\nWHY?\n\nIV.\n\nV.\n\nVI.\n\nA SERVICE OF SONG.\n\nVII.\n\nVIII.\n\nSUMMER'S ARMIES.\n\nIX.\n\nTHE GRASS.\n\nX.\n\nXI.\n\nSUMMER SHOWER.\n\nXII.\n\nPSALM OF THE DAY.\n\nXIII.\n\nTHE SEA OF SUNSET.\n\nXIV.\n\nPURPLE CLOVER.\n\nXV.\n\nTHE BEE.\n\nXVI.\n\nXVII.\n\nXVIII.\n\nXIX.\n\nXX.\n\nTWO WORLDS.\n\nXXI.\n\nTHE MOUNTAIN.\n\nXXII.\n\nA DAY.\n\nXXIII.\n\nXXIV.\n\nTHE WIND.\n\nXXV.\n\nDEATH AND LIFE.\n\nXXVI.\n\nXXVII.\n\nINDIAN SUMMER.\n\nXXVIII.\n\nAUTUMN.\n\nXXIX.\n\nBECLOUDED.\n\nXXX.\n\nTHE HEMLOCK.\n\nXXXI.\n\nIV.\n\nTIME AND ETERNITY.\n\nI.\n\nII.\n\nTOO LATE.\n\nIII.\n\nASTRA CASTRA.\n\nIV.\n\nV.\n\nVI.\n\nFROM THE CHRYSALIS.\n\nVII.\n\nSETTING SAIL.\n\nVIII.\n\nIX.\n\nX.\n\nXI.\n\n\"TROUBLED ABOUT MANY THINGS.\"\n\nXII.\n\nREAL.\n\nXIII.\n\nTHE FUNERAL.\n\nXIV.\n\nXV.\n\nXVI.\n\nREFUGE.\n\nXVII.\n\nXVIII.\n\nPLAYMATES.\n\nXIX.\n\nXX.\n\nXXI.\n\nTHE FIRST LESSON.\n\nXXII.\n\nXXIII.\n\nXXIV.\n\nXXV.\n\nDYING.\n\nXXVI.\n\nXXVII.\n\nTHE CHARIOT.\n\nXXVIII.\n\nXXIX.\n\nRESURGAM.\n\nXXX.\n\nXXXI.\n\nXXXII.\n\nXXXIII.\n\nALONG THE POTOMAC.\n\nXXXIV.\n\nXXXV.\n\nEMANCIPATION.\n\nXXXVI.\n\nLOST.\n\nXXXVII.\n\nXXXVIII.\n\nXXXIX.\n\nXL.\n**_POEMS : SERIES TWO_**\n\n_The first edition_\n\n_For the Contents table, click here._\n**PREFACE**\n\nThe eagerness with which the first volume of Emily Dickinson's poems has been read shows very clearly that all our alleged modern artificiality does not prevent a prompt appreciation of the qualities of directness and simplicity in approaching the greatest themes, \u2014 life and love and death. That \"irresistible needle-touch,\" as one of her best critics has called it, piercing at once the very core of a thought, has found a response as wide and sympathetic as it has been unexpected even to those who knew best her compelling power. This second volume, while open to the same criticism as to form with its predecessor, shows also the same shining beauties.\n\nAlthough Emily Dickinson had been in the habit of sending occasional poems to friends and correspondents, the full extent of her writing was by no means imagined by them. Her friend \"H.H.\" must at least have suspected it, for in a letter dated 5th September, 1884, she wrote: \u2014\n\nMY DEAR FRIEND, \u2014 What portfolios full of verses you must have! It is a cruel wrong to your \"day and generation\" that you will not give them light.\n\nIf such a thing should happen as that I should outlive you, I wish you would make me your literary legatee and executor. Surely after you are what is called \"dead\" you will be willing that the poor ghosts you have left behind should be cheered and pleased by your verses, will you not? You ought to be. I do not think we have a right to withhold from the world a word or a thought any more than a deed which might help a single soul. . . .\n\nTruly yours,\n\nHELEN JACKSON.\n\nThe \"portfolios\" were found, shortly after Emily Dickinson's death, by her sister and only surviving housemate. Most of the poems had been carefully copied on sheets of note-paper, and tied in little fascicules, each of six or eight sheets. While many of them bear evidence of having been thrown off at white heat, still more had received thoughtful revision. There is the frequent addition of rather perplexing foot-notes, affording large choice of words and phrases. And in the copies which she sent to friends, sometimes one form, sometimes another, is found to have been used. Without important exception, her friends have generously placed at the disposal of the Editors any poems they had received from her; and these have given the obvious advantage of comparison among several renderings of the same verse.\n\nTo what further rigorous pruning her verses would have been subjected had she published them herself, we cannot know. They should be regarded in many cases as merely the first strong and suggestive sketches of an artist, intended to be embodied at some time in the finished picture.\n\nEmily Dickinson appears to have written her first poems in the winter of 1862. In a letter to one of the present Editors the April following, she says, \"I made no verse, but one or two, until this winter.\"\n\nThe handwriting was at first somewhat like the delicate, running Italian hand of our elder gentlewomen; but as she advanced in breadth of thought, it grew bolder and more abrupt, until in her latest years each letter stood distinct and separate from its fellows. In most of her poems, particularly the later ones, everything by way of punctuation was discarded, except numerous dashes; and all important words began with capitals. The effect of a page of her more recent manuscript is exceedingly quaint and strong. The fac-simile given in the present volume is from one of the earlier transition periods. Although there is nowhere a date, the handwriting makes it possible to arrange the poems with general chronologic accuracy.\n\nAs a rule, the verses were without titles; but \"A Country Burial,\" \"A Thunder-Storm,\" \"The Humming-Bird,\" and a few others were named by their author, frequently at the end, \u2014 sometimes only in the accompanying note, if sent to a friend.\n\nThe variation of readings, with the fact that she often wrote in pencil and not always clearly, have at times thrown a good deal of responsibility upon her Editors. But all interference not absolutely inevitable has been avoided. The very roughness of her rendering is part of herself, and not lightly to be touched; for it seems in many cases that she intentionally avoided the smoother and more usual rhymes.\n\nLike impressionist pictures, or Wagner's rugged music, the very absence of conventional form challenges attention. In Emily Dickinson's exacting hands, the especial, intrinsic fitness of a particular order of words might not be sacrificed to anything virtually extrinsic; and her verses all show a strange cadence of inner rhythmical music. Lines are always daringly constructed, and the \"thought-rhyme\" appears frequently, \u2014 appealing, indeed, to an unrecognized sense more elusive than hearing.\n\nEmily Dickinson scrutinized everything with clear-eyed frankness. Every subject was proper ground for legitimate study, even the sombre facts of death and burial, and the unknown life beyond. She touches these themes sometimes lightly, sometimes almost humorously, more often with weird and peculiar power; but she is never by any chance frivolous or trivial. And while, as one critic has said, she may exhibit toward God \"an Emersonian self-possession,\" it was because she looked upon all life with a candor as unprejudiced as it is rare.\n\nShe had tried society and the world, and found them lacking. She was not an invalid, and she lived in seclusion from no love-disappointment. Her life was the normal blossoming of a nature introspective to a high degree, whose best thought could not exist in pretence.\n\nStorm, wind, the wild March sky, sunsets and dawns; the birds and bees, butterflies and flowers of her garden, with a few trusted human friends, were sufficient companionship. The coming of the first robin was a jubilee beyond crowning of monarch or birthday of pope; the first red leaf hurrying through \"the altered air,\" an epoch. Immortality was close about her; and while never morbid or melancholy, she lived in its presence.\n\nMABEL LOOMIS TODD.\n\nAMHERST, MASSACHUSETTS,  \nAugust, 1891.\n\nMy nosegays are for captives;  \nDim, long-expectant eyes,  \nFingers denied the plucking,  \nPatient till paradise,\n\nTo such, if they should whisper  \nOf morning and the moor,  \nThey bear no other errand,  \nAnd I, no other prayer.\n**I.**\n\n**LIFE.**\n\n**I.**\n\nI'm nobody! Who are you?  \nAre you nobody, too?  \nThen there 's a pair of us \u2014 don't tell!  \nThey 'd banish us, you know.\n\nHow dreary to be somebody!  \nHow public, like a frog  \nTo tell your name the livelong day  \nTo an admiring bog!\n\n**II.**\n\nI bring an unaccustomed wine  \nTo lips long parching, next to mine,  \nAnd summon them to drink.\n\nCrackling with fever, they essay;  \nI turn my brimming eyes away,  \nAnd come next hour to look.\n\nThe hands still hug the tardy glass;  \nThe lips I would have cooled, alas!  \nAre so superfluous cold,\n\nI would as soon attempt to warm  \nThe bosoms where the frost has lain  \nAges beneath the mould.\n\nSome other thirsty there may be  \nTo whom this would have pointed me  \nHad it remained to speak.\n\nAnd so I always bear the cup  \nIf, haply, mine may be the drop  \nSome pilgrim thirst to slake, \u2014\n\nIf, haply, any say to me,  \n\"Unto the little, unto me,\"  \nWhen I at last awake.\n\n**III.**\n\nThe nearest dream recedes, unrealized.  \nThe heaven we chase  \nLike the June bee  \nBefore the school-boy  \nInvites the race;  \nStoops to an easy clover \u2014   \nDips \u2014 evades \u2014 teases \u2014 deploys;  \nThen to the royal clouds  \nLifts his light pinnace  \nHeedless of the boy  \nStaring, bewildered, at the mocking sky.\n\nHomesick for steadfast honey,  \nAh! the bee flies not  \nThat brews that rare variety.\n\n**IV.**\n\nWe play at paste,  \nTill qualified for pearl,  \nThen drop the paste,  \nAnd deem ourself a fool.  \nThe shapes, though, were similar,  \nAnd our new hands  \nLearned gem-tactics  \nPractising sands.\n\n**V.**\n\nI found the phrase to every thought  \nI ever had, but one;  \nAnd that defies me, \u2014 as a hand  \nDid try to chalk the sun\n\nTo races nurtured in the dark; \u2014   \nHow would your own begin?  \nCan blaze be done in cochineal,  \nOr noon in mazarin?\n\n**VI.**\n\n**HOPE.**\n\nHope is the thing with feathers  \nThat perches in the soul,  \nAnd sings the tune without the words,  \nAnd never stops at all,\n\nAnd sweetest in the gale is heard;  \nAnd sore must be the storm  \nThat could abash the little bird  \nThat kept so many warm.\n\nI 've heard it in the chillest land,  \nAnd on the strangest sea;  \nYet, never, in extremity,  \nIt asked a crumb of me.\n\n**VII.**\n\n**THE WHITE HEAT.**\n\nDare you see a soul at the white heat?  \nThen crouch within the door.  \nRed is the fire's common tint;  \nBut when the vivid ore\n\nHas sated flame's conditions,  \nIts quivering substance plays  \nWithout a color but the light  \nOf unanointed blaze.\n\nLeast village boasts its blacksmith,  \nWhose anvil's even din  \nStands symbol for the finer forge  \nThat soundless tugs within,\n\nRefining these impatient ores  \nWith hammer and with blaze,  \nUntil the designated light  \nRepudiate the forge.\n\n**VIII.**\n\n**TRIUMPHANT.**\n\nWho never lost, are unprepared  \nA coronet to find;  \nWho never thirsted, flagons  \nAnd cooling tamarind.\n\nWho never climbed the weary league \u2014   \nCan such a foot explore  \nThe purple territories  \nOn Pizarro's shore?\n\nHow many legions overcome?  \nThe emperor will say.  \nHow many colors taken  \nOn Revolution Day?\n\nHow many bullets bearest?  \nThe royal scar hast thou?  \nAngels, write \"Promoted\"  \nOn this soldier's brow!\n\n**IX.**\n\n**THE TEST.**\n\nI can wade grief,  \nWhole pools of it, \u2014   \nI 'm used to that.  \nBut the least push of joy  \nBreaks up my feet,  \nAnd I tip \u2014 drunken.  \nLet no pebble smile,  \n'T was the new liquor, \u2014   \nThat was all!\n\nPower is only pain,  \nStranded, through discipline,  \nTill weights will hang.  \nGive balm to giants,  \nAnd they 'll wilt, like men.  \nGive Himmaleh, \u2014   \nThey 'll carry him!\n\n**X.**\n\n**ESCAPE.**\n\nI never hear the word \"escape\"  \nWithout a quicker blood,  \nA sudden expectation,  \nA flying attitude.\n\nI never hear of prisons broad  \nBy soldiers battered down,  \nBut I tug childish at my bars, \u2014   \nOnly to fail again!\n\n**XI.**\n\n**COMPENSATION.**\n\nFor each ecstatic instant  \nWe must an anguish pay  \nIn keen and quivering ratio  \nTo the ecstasy.\n\nFor each beloved hour  \nSharp pittances of years,  \nBitter contested farthings  \nAnd coffers heaped with tears.\n\n**XII.**\n\n**THE MARTYRS.**\n\nThrough the straight pass of suffering  \nThe martyrs even trod,  \nTheir feet upon temptation,  \nTheir faces upon God.\n\nA stately, shriven company;  \nConvulsion playing round,  \nHarmless as streaks of meteor  \nUpon a planet's bound.\n\nTheir faith the everlasting troth;  \nTheir expectation fair;  \nThe needle to the north degree  \nWades so, through polar air.\n\n**XIII.**\n\n**A PRAYER.**\n\nI meant to have but modest needs,  \nSuch as content, and heaven;  \nWithin my income these could lie,  \nAnd life and I keep even.\n\nBut since the last included both,  \nIt would suffice my prayer  \nBut just for one to stipulate,  \nAnd grace would grant the pair.\n\nAnd so, upon this wise I prayed, \u2014   \nGreat Spirit, give to me  \nA heaven not so large as yours,  \nBut large enough for me.\n\nA smile suffused Jehovah's face;  \nThe cherubim withdrew;  \nGrave saints stole out to look at me,  \nAnd showed their dimples, too.\n\nI left the place with all my might, \u2014   \nMy prayer away I threw;  \nThe quiet ages picked it up,  \nAnd Judgment twinkled, too,\n\nThat one so honest be extant  \nAs take the tale for true  \nThat \"Whatsoever you shall ask,  \nItself be given you.\"\n\nBut I, grown shrewder, scan the skies  \nWith a suspicious air, \u2014   \nAs children, swindled for the first,  \nAll swindlers be, infer.\n\n**XIV.**\n\nThe thought beneath so slight a film  \nIs more distinctly seen, \u2014   \nAs laces just reveal the surge,  \nOr mists the Apennine.\n\n**XV.**\n\nThe soul unto itself  \nIs an imperial friend, \u2014   \nOr the most agonizing spy  \nAn enemy could send.\n\nSecure against its own,  \nNo treason it can fear;  \nItself its sovereign, of itself  \nThe soul should stand in awe.\n\n**XVI.**\n\nSurgeons must be very careful  \nWhen they take the knife!  \nUnderneath their fine incisions  \nStirs the culprit, \u2014 Life!\n\n**XVII.**\n\n**THE RAILWAY TRAIN.**\n\nI like to see it lap the miles,  \nAnd lick the valleys up,  \nAnd stop to feed itself at tanks;  \nAnd then, prodigious, step\n\nAround a pile of mountains,  \nAnd, supercilious, peer  \nIn shanties by the sides of roads;  \nAnd then a quarry pare\n\nTo fit its sides, and crawl between,  \nComplaining all the while  \nIn horrid, hooting stanza;  \nThen chase itself down hill\n\nAnd neigh like Boanerges;  \nThen, punctual as a star,  \nStop \u2014 docile and omnipotent \u2014   \nAt its own stable door.\n\n**XVIII.**\n\n**THE SHOW.**\n\nThe show is not the show,  \nBut they that go.  \nMenagerie to me  \nMy neighbor be.  \nFair play \u2014   \nBoth went to see.\n\n**XIX.**\n\nDelight becomes pictorial  \nWhen viewed through pain, \u2014   \nMore fair, because impossible  \nThat any gain.\n\nThe mountain at a given distance  \nIn amber lies;  \nApproached, the amber flits a little, \u2014   \nAnd that 's the skies!\n\n**XX.**\n\nA thought went up my mind to-day  \nThat I have had before,  \nBut did not finish, \u2014 some way back,  \nI could not fix the year,\n\nNor where it went, nor why it came  \nThe second time to me,  \nNor definitely what it was,  \nHave I the art to say.\n\nBut somewhere in my soul, I know  \nI 've met the thing before;  \nIt just reminded me \u2014 't was all \u2014   \nAnd came my way no more.\n\n**XXI.**\n\nIs Heaven a physician?  \nThey say that He can heal;  \nBut medicine posthumous  \nIs unavailable.\n\nIs Heaven an exchequer?  \nThey speak of what we owe;  \nBut that negotiation  \nI 'm not a party to.\n\n**XXII.**\n\n**THE RETURN.**\n\nThough I get home how late, how late!  \nSo I get home, 't will compensate.  \nBetter will be the ecstasy  \nThat they have done expecting me,  \nWhen, night descending, dumb and dark,  \nThey hear my unexpected knock.  \nTransporting must the moment be,  \nBrewed from decades of agony!\n\nTo think just how the fire will burn,  \nJust how long-cheated eyes will turn  \nTo wonder what myself will say,  \nAnd what itself will say to me,  \nBeguiles the centuries of way!\n\n**XXIII.**\n\nA poor torn heart, a tattered heart,  \nThat sat it down to rest,  \nNor noticed that the ebbing day  \nFlowed silver to the west,  \nNor noticed night did soft descend  \nNor constellation burn,  \nIntent upon the vision  \nOf latitudes unknown.\n\nThe angels, happening that way,  \nThis dusty heart espied;  \nTenderly took it up from toil  \nAnd carried it to God.  \nThere, \u2014 sandals for the barefoot;  \nThere, \u2014 gathered from the gales,  \nDo the blue havens by the hand  \nLead the wandering sails.\n\n**XXIV.**\n\n**TOO MUCH.**\n\nI should have been too glad, I see,  \nToo lifted for the scant degree  \nOf life's penurious round;  \nMy little circuit would have shamed  \nThis new circumference, have blamed  \nThe homelier time behind.\n\nI should have been too saved, I see,  \nToo rescued; fear too dim to me  \nThat I could spell the prayer  \nI knew so perfect yesterday, \u2014   \nThat scalding one, \"Sabachthani,\"  \nRecited fluent here.\n\nEarth would have been too much, I see,  \nAnd heaven not enough for me;  \nI should have had the joy  \nWithout the fear to justify, \u2014   \nThe palm without the Calvary;  \nSo, Saviour, crucify.\n\nDefeat whets victory, they say;  \nThe reefs in old Gethsemane  \nEndear the shore beyond.  \n'T is beggars banquets best define;  \n'T is thirsting vitalizes wine, \u2014   \nFaith faints to understand.\n\n**XXV.**\n\n**SHIPWRECK.**\n\nIt tossed and tossed, \u2014   \nA little brig I knew, \u2014   \nO'ertook by blast,  \nIt spun and spun,  \nAnd groped delirious, for morn.\n\nIt slipped and slipped,  \nAs one that drunken stepped;  \nIts white foot tripped,  \nThen dropped from sight.\n\nAh, brig, good-night  \nTo crew and you;  \nThe ocean's heart too smooth, too blue,  \nTo break for you.\n\n**XXVI.**\n\nVictory comes late,  \nAnd is held low to freezing lips  \nToo rapt with frost  \nTo take it.  \nHow sweet it would have tasted,  \nJust a drop!  \nWas God so economical?  \nHis table 's spread too high for us  \nUnless we dine on tip-toe.  \nCrumbs fit such little mouths,  \nCherries suit robins;  \nThe eagle's golden breakfast  \nStrangles them.  \nGod keeps his oath to sparrows,  \nWho of little love  \nKnow how to starve!\n\n**XXVII.**\n\n**ENOUGH.**\n\nGod gave a loaf to every bird,  \nBut just a crumb to me;  \nI dare not eat it, though I starve, \u2014   \nMy poignant luxury  \nTo own it, touch it, prove the feat  \nThat made the pellet mine, \u2014   \nToo happy in my sparrow chance  \nFor ampler coveting.\n\nIt might be famine all around,  \nI could not miss an ear,  \nSuch plenty smiles upon my board,  \nMy garner shows so fair.  \nI wonder how the rich may feel, \u2014   \nAn Indiaman \u2014 an Earl?  \nI deem that I with but a crumb  \nAm sovereign of them all.\n\n**XXVIII.**\n\nExperiment to me  \nIs every one I meet.  \nIf it contain a kernel?  \nThe figure of a nut\n\nPresents upon a tree,  \nEqually plausibly;  \nBut meat within is requisite,  \nTo squirrels and to me.\n\n**XXIX.**\n\n**MY COUNTRY'S WARDROBE.**\n\nMy country need not change her gown,  \nHer triple suit as sweet  \nAs when 't was cut at Lexington,  \nAnd first pronounced \"a fit.\"\n\nGreat Britain disapproves \"the stars;\"  \nDisparagement discreet, \u2014   \nThere 's something in their attitude  \nThat taunts her bayonet.\n\n**XXX.**\n\nFaith is a fine invention  \nFor gentlemen who see;  \nBut microscopes are prudent  \nIn an emergency!\n\n**XXXI.**\n\nExcept the heaven had come so near,  \nSo seemed to choose my door,  \nThe distance would not haunt me so;  \nI had not hoped before.\n\nBut just to hear the grace depart  \nI never thought to see,  \nAfflicts me with a double loss;  \n'T is lost, and lost to me.\n\n**XXXII.**\n\nPortraits are to daily faces  \nAs an evening west  \nTo a fine, pedantic sunshine  \nIn a satin vest.\n\n**XXXIII.**\n\n**THE DUEL.**\n\nI took my power in my hand.  \nAnd went against the world;  \n'T was not so much as David had,  \nBut I was twice as bold.\n\nI aimed my pebble, but myself  \nWas all the one that fell.  \nWas it Goliath was too large,  \nOr only I too small?\n\n**XXXIV.**\n\nA shady friend for torrid days  \nIs easier to find  \nThan one of higher temperature  \nFor frigid hour of mind.\n\nThe vane a little to the east  \nScares muslin souls away;  \nIf broadcloth breasts are firmer  \nThan those of organdy,\n\nWho is to blame? The weaver?  \nAh! the bewildering thread!  \nThe tapestries of paradise  \nSo notelessly are made!\n\n**XXXV.**\n\n**THE GOAL.**\n\nEach life converges to some centre  \nExpressed or still;  \nExists in every human nature  \nA goal,\n\nAdmitted scarcely to itself, it may be,  \nToo fair  \nFor credibility's temerity  \nTo dare.\n\nAdored with caution, as a brittle heaven,  \nTo reach  \nWere hopeless as the rainbow's raiment  \nTo touch,\n\nYet persevered toward, surer for the distance;  \nHow high  \nUnto the saints' slow diligence  \nThe sky!\n\nUngained, it may be, by a life's low venture,  \nBut then,  \nEternity enables the endeavoring  \nAgain.\n\n**XXXVI.**\n\n**SIGHT.**\n\nBefore I got my eye put out,  \nI liked as well to see  \nAs other creatures that have eyes,  \nAnd know no other way.\n\nBut were it told to me, to-day,  \nThat I might have the sky  \nFor mine, I tell you that my heart  \nWould split, for size of me.\n\nThe meadows mine, the mountains mine, \u2014   \nAll forests, stintless stars,  \nAs much of noon as I could take  \nBetween my finite eyes.\n\nThe motions of the dipping birds,  \nThe lightning's jointed road,  \nFor mine to look at when I liked, \u2014   \nThe news would strike me dead!\n\nSo safer, guess, with just my soul  \nUpon the window-pane  \nWhere other creatures put their eyes,  \nIncautious of the sun.\n\n**XXXVII.**\n\nTalk with prudence to a beggar  \nOf 'Potosi' and the mines!  \nReverently to the hungry  \nOf your viands and your wines!\n\nCautious, hint to any captive  \nYou have passed enfranchised feet!  \nAnecdotes of air in dungeons  \nHave sometimes proved deadly sweet!\n\n**XXXVIII.**\n\n**THE PREACHER.**\n\nHe preached upon \"breadth\" till it argued him narrow, \u2014   \nThe broad are too broad to define;  \nAnd of \"truth\" until it proclaimed him a liar, \u2014   \nThe truth never flaunted a sign.\n\nSimplicity fled from his counterfeit presence  \nAs gold the pyrites would shun.  \nWhat confusion would cover the innocent Jesus  \nTo meet so enabled a man!\n\n**XXXIX.**\n\nGood night! which put the candle out?  \nA jealous zephyr, not a doubt.  \nAh! friend, you little knew  \nHow long at that celestial wick  \nThe angels labored diligent;  \nExtinguished, now, for you!\n\nIt might have been the lighthouse spark  \nSome sailor, rowing in the dark,  \nHad importuned to see!  \nIt might have been the waning lamp  \nThat lit the drummer from the camp  \nTo purer reveille!\n\n**XL.**\n\nWhen I hoped I feared,  \nSince I hoped I dared;  \nEverywhere alone  \nAs a church remain;  \nSpectre cannot harm,  \nSerpent cannot charm;  \nHe deposes doom,  \nWho hath suffered him.\n\n**XLI.**\n\n**DEED.**\n\nA deed knocks first at thought,  \nAnd then it knocks at will.  \nThat is the manufacturing spot,  \nAnd will at home and well.\n\nIt then goes out an act,  \nOr is entombed so still  \nThat only to the ear of God  \nIts doom is audible.\n\n**XLII.**\n\n**TIME'S LESSON.**\n\nMine enemy is growing old, \u2014   \nI have at last revenge.  \nThe palate of the hate departs;  \nIf any would avenge, \u2014\n\nLet him be quick, the viand flits,  \nIt is a faded meat.  \nAnger as soon as fed is dead;  \n'T is starving makes it fat.\n\n**XLIII.**\n\n**REMORSE.**\n\nRemorse is memory awake,  \nHer companies astir, \u2014   \nA presence of departed acts  \nAt window and at door.\n\nIt's past set down before the soul,  \nAnd lighted with a match,  \nPerusal to facilitate  \nOf its condensed despatch.\n\nRemorse is cureless, \u2014 the disease  \nNot even God can heal;  \nFor 't is his institution, \u2014   \nThe complement of hell.\n\n**XLIV.**\n\n**THE SHELTER.**\n\nThe body grows outside, \u2014   \nThe more convenient way, \u2014   \nThat if the spirit like to hide,  \nIts temple stands alway\n\nAjar, secure, inviting;  \nIt never did betray  \nThe soul that asked its shelter  \nIn timid honesty.\n\n**XLV.**\n\nUndue significance a starving man attaches  \nTo food  \nFar off; he sighs, and therefore hopeless,  \nAnd therefore good.\n\nPartaken, it relieves indeed, but proves us  \nThat spices fly  \nIn the receipt. It was the distance  \nWas savory.\n\n**XLVI.**\n\nHeart not so heavy as mine,  \nWending late home,  \nAs it passed my window  \nWhistled itself a tune, \u2014\n\nA careless snatch, a ballad,  \nA ditty of the street;  \nYet to my irritated ear  \nAn anodyne so sweet,\n\nIt was as if a bobolink,  \nSauntering this way,  \nCarolled and mused and carolled,  \nThen bubbled slow away.\n\nIt was as if a chirping brook  \nUpon a toilsome way  \nSet bleeding feet to minuets  \nWithout the knowing why.\n\nTo-morrow, night will come again,  \nWeary, perhaps, and sore.  \nAh, bugle, by my window,  \nI pray you stroll once more!\n\n**XLVII.**\n\nI many times thought peace had come,  \nWhen peace was far away;  \nAs wrecked men deem they sight the land  \nAt centre of the sea,\n\nAnd struggle slacker, but to prove,  \nAs hopelessly as I,  \nHow many the fictitious shores  \nBefore the harbor lie.\n\n**XLVIII.**\n\nUnto my books so good to turn  \nFar ends of tired days;  \nIt half endears the abstinence,  \nAnd pain is missed in praise.\n\nAs flavors cheer retarded guests  \nWith banquetings to be,  \nSo spices stimulate the time  \nTill my small library.\n\nIt may be wilderness without,  \nFar feet of failing men,  \nBut holiday excludes the night,  \nAnd it is bells within.\n\nI thank these kinsmen of the shelf;  \nTheir countenances bland  \nEnamour in prospective,  \nAnd satisfy, obtained.\n\n**XLIX.**\n\nThis merit hath the worst, \u2014   \nIt cannot be again.  \nWhen Fate hath taunted last  \nAnd thrown her furthest stone,\n\nThe maimed may pause and breathe,  \nAnd glance securely round.  \nThe deer invites no longer  \nThan it eludes the hound.\n\n**L.**\n\n**HUNGER.**\n\nI had been hungry all the years;  \nMy noon had come, to dine;  \nI, trembling, drew the table near,  \nAnd touched the curious wine.\n\n'T was this on tables I had seen,  \nWhen turning, hungry, lone,  \nI looked in windows, for the wealth  \nI could not hope to own.\n\nI did not know the ample bread,  \n'T was so unlike the crumb  \nThe birds and I had often shared  \nIn Nature's dining-room.\n\nThe plenty hurt me, 't was so new, \u2014   \nMyself felt ill and odd,  \nAs berry of a mountain bush  \nTransplanted to the road.\n\nNor was I hungry; so I found  \nThat hunger was a way  \nOf persons outside windows,  \nThe entering takes away.\n\n**LI.**\n\nI gained it so,  \nBy climbing slow,  \nBy catching at the twigs that grow  \nBetween the bliss and me.  \nIt hung so high,  \nAs well the sky  \nAttempt by strategy.\n\nI said I gained it, \u2014   \nThis was all.  \nLook, how I clutch it,  \nLest it fall,  \nAnd I a pauper go;  \nUnfitted by an instant's grace  \nFor the contented beggar's face  \nI wore an hour ago.\n\n**LII.**\n\nTo learn the transport by the pain,  \nAs blind men learn the sun;  \nTo die of thirst, suspecting  \nThat brooks in meadows run;\n\nTo stay the homesick, homesick feet  \nUpon a foreign shore  \nHaunted by native lands, the while,  \nAnd blue, beloved air \u2014\n\nThis is the sovereign anguish,  \nThis, the signal woe!  \nThese are the patient laureates  \nWhose voices, trained below,\n\nAscend in ceaseless carol,  \nInaudible, indeed,  \nTo us, the duller scholars  \nOf the mysterious bard!\n\n**LIII.**\n\n**RETURNING.**\n\nI years had been from home,  \nAnd now, before the door,  \nI dared not open, lest a face  \nI never saw before\n\nStare vacant into mine  \nAnd ask my business there.  \nMy business, \u2014 just a life I left,  \nWas such still dwelling there?\n\nI fumbled at my nerve,  \nI scanned the windows near;  \nThe silence like an ocean rolled,  \nAnd broke against my ear.\n\nI laughed a wooden laugh  \nThat I could fear a door,  \nWho danger and the dead had faced,  \nBut never quaked before.\n\nI fitted to the latch  \nMy hand, with trembling care,  \nLest back the awful door should spring,  \nAnd leave me standing there.\n\nI moved my fingers off  \nAs cautiously as glass,  \nAnd held my ears, and like a thief  \nFled gasping from the house.\n\n**LIV.**\n\n**PRAYER.**\n\nPrayer is the little implement  \nThrough which men reach  \nWhere presence is denied them.  \nThey fling their speech\n\nBy means of it in God's ear;  \nIf then He hear,  \nThis sums the apparatus  \nComprised in prayer.\n\n**LV.**\n\nI know that he exists  \nSomewhere, in silence.  \nHe has hid his rare life  \nFrom our gross eyes.\n\n'T is an instant's play,  \n'T is a fond ambush,  \nJust to make bliss  \nEarn her own surprise!\n\nBut should the play  \nProve piercing earnest,  \nShould the glee glaze  \nIn death's stiff stare,\n\nWould not the fun  \nLook too expensive?  \nWould not the jest  \nHave crawled too far?\n\n**LVI.**\n\n**MELODIES UNHEARD.**\n\nMusicians wrestle everywhere:  \nAll day, among the crowded air,  \nI hear the silver strife;  \nAnd \u2014 waking long before the dawn \u2014   \nSuch transport breaks upon the town  \nI think it that \"new life!\"\n\nIt is not bird, it has no nest;  \nNor band, in brass and scarlet dressed,  \nNor tambourine, nor man;  \nIt is not hymn from pulpit read, \u2014   \nThe morning stars the treble led  \nOn time's first afternoon!\n\nSome say it is the spheres at play!  \nSome say that bright majority  \nOf vanished dames and men!  \nSome think it service in the place  \nWhere we, with late, celestial face,  \nPlease God, shall ascertain!\n\n**LVII.**\n\n**CALLED BACK.**\n\nJust lost when I was saved!  \nJust felt the world go by!  \nJust girt me for the onset with eternity,  \nWhen breath blew back,  \nAnd on the other side  \nI heard recede the disappointed tide!\n\nTherefore, as one returned, I feel,  \nOdd secrets of the line to tell!  \nSome sailor, skirting foreign shores,  \nSome pale reporter from the awful doors  \nBefore the seal!\n\nNext time, to stay!  \nNext time, the things to see  \nBy ear unheard,  \nUnscrutinized by eye.\n\nNext time, to tarry,  \nWhile the ages steal, \u2014   \nSlow tramp the centuries,  \nAnd the cycles wheel.\n\n**II.**\n\n**LOVE.**\n\n**I.**\n\n**CHOICE.**\n\nOf all the souls that stand create  \nI have elected one.  \nWhen sense from spirit files away,  \nAnd subterfuge is done;\n\nWhen that which is and that which was  \nApart, intrinsic, stand,  \nAnd this brief tragedy of flesh  \nIs shifted like a sand;\n\nWhen figures show their royal front  \nAnd mists are carved away, \u2014   \nBehold the atom I preferred  \nTo all the lists of clay!\n\n**II.**\n\nI have no life but this,  \nTo lead it here;  \nNor any death, but lest  \nDispelled from there;\n\nNor tie to earths to come,  \nNor action new,  \nExcept through this extent,  \nThe realm of you.\n\n**III.**\n\nYour riches taught me poverty.  \nMyself a millionnaire  \nIn little wealths, \u2014 as girls could boast, \u2014   \nTill broad as Buenos Ayre,\n\nYou drifted your dominions  \nA different Peru;  \nAnd I esteemed all poverty,  \nFor life's estate with you.\n\nOf mines I little know, myself,  \nBut just the names of gems, \u2014   \nThe colors of the commonest;  \nAnd scarce of diadems\n\nSo much that, did I meet the queen,  \nHer glory I should know:  \nBut this must be a different wealth,  \nTo miss it beggars so.\n\nI 'm sure 't is India all day  \nTo those who look on you  \nWithout a stint, without a blame, \u2014   \nMight I but be the Jew!\n\nI 'm sure it is Golconda,  \nBeyond my power to deem, \u2014   \nTo have a smile for mine each day,  \nHow better than a gem!\n\nAt least, it solaces to know  \nThat there exists a gold,  \nAlthough I prove it just in time  \nIts distance to behold!\n\nIt 's far, far treasure to surmise,  \nAnd estimate the pearl  \nThat slipped my simple fingers through  \nWhile just a girl at school!\n\n**IV.**\n\n**THE CONTRACT.**\n\nI gave myself to him,  \nAnd took himself for pay.  \nThe solemn contract of a life  \nWas ratified this way.\n\nThe wealth might disappoint,  \nMyself a poorer prove  \nThan this great purchaser suspect,  \nThe daily own of Love\n\nDepreciate the vision;  \nBut, till the merchant buy,  \nStill fable, in the isles of spice,  \nThe subtle cargoes lie.\n\nAt least, 't is mutual risk, \u2014   \nSome found it mutual gain;  \nSweet debt of Life, \u2014 each night to owe,  \nInsolvent, every noon.\n\n**V.**\n\n**THE LETTER.**\n\n\"GOING to him! Happy letter! Tell him \u2014   \nTell him the page I did n't write;  \nTell him I only said the syntax,  \nAnd left the verb and the pronoun out.  \nTell him just how the fingers hurried,  \nThen how they waded, slow, slow, slow;  \nAnd then you wished you had eyes in your pages,  \nSo you could see what moved them so.\n\n\"Tell him it was n't a practised writer,  \nYou guessed, from the way the sentence toiled;  \nYou could hear the bodice tug, behind you,  \nAs if it held but the might of a child;  \nYou almost pitied it, you, it worked so.  \nTell him \u2014 No, you may quibble there,  \nFor it would split his heart to know it,  \nAnd then you and I were silenter.\n\n\"Tell him night finished before we finished,  \nAnd the old clock kept neighing 'day!'  \nAnd you got sleepy and begged to be ended \u2014   \nWhat could it hinder so, to say?  \nTell him just how she sealed you, cautious,  \nBut if he ask where you are hid  \nUntil to-morrow, \u2014 happy letter!  \nGesture, coquette, and shake your head!\"\n\n**VI.**\n\nThe way I read a letter 's this:  \n'T is first I lock the door,  \nAnd push it with my fingers next,  \nFor transport it be sure.\n\nAnd then I go the furthest off  \nTo counteract a knock;  \nThen draw my little letter forth  \nAnd softly pick its lock.\n\nThen, glancing narrow at the wall,  \nAnd narrow at the floor,  \nFor firm conviction of a mouse  \nNot exorcised before,\n\nPeruse how infinite I am  \nTo \u2014 no one that you know!  \nAnd sigh for lack of heaven, \u2014 but not  \nThe heaven the creeds bestow.\n\n**VII.**\n\nWild nights! Wild nights!  \nWere I with thee,  \nWild nights should be  \nOur luxury!\n\nFutile the winds  \nTo a heart in port, \u2014   \nDone with the compass,  \nDone with the chart.\n\nRowing in Eden!  \nAh! the sea!  \nMight I but moor  \nTo-night in thee!\n\n**VIII.**\n\n**AT HOME.**\n\nThe night was wide, and furnished scant  \nWith but a single star,  \nThat often as a cloud it met  \nBlew out itself for fear.\n\nThe wind pursued the little bush,  \nAnd drove away the leaves  \nNovember left; then clambered up  \nAnd fretted in the eaves.\n\nNo squirrel went abroad;  \nA dog's belated feet  \nLike intermittent plush were heard  \nAdown the empty street.\n\nTo feel if blinds be fast,  \nAnd closer to the fire  \nHer little rocking-chair to draw,  \nAnd shiver for the poor,\n\nThe housewife's gentle task.  \n\"How pleasanter,\" said she  \nUnto the sofa opposite,  \n\"The sleet than May \u2014 no thee!\"\n\n**IX.**\n\n**POSSESSION.**\n\nDid the harebell loose her girdle  \nTo the lover bee,  \nWould the bee the harebell hallow  \nMuch as formerly?\n\nDid the paradise, persuaded,  \nYield her moat of pearl,  \nWould the Eden be an Eden,  \nOr the earl an earl?\n\n**X.**\n\nA charm invests a face  \nImperfectly beheld, \u2014   \nThe lady dare not lift her veil  \nFor fear it be dispelled.\n\nBut peers beyond her mesh,  \nAnd wishes, and denies, \u2014   \nLest interview annul a want  \nThat image satisfies.\n\n**XI.**\n\n**THE LOVERS.**\n\nThe rose did caper on her cheek,  \nHer bodice rose and fell,  \nHer pretty speech, like drunken men,  \nDid stagger pitiful.\n\nHer fingers fumbled at her work, \u2014   \nHer needle would not go;  \nWhat ailed so smart a little maid  \nIt puzzled me to know,\n\nTill opposite I spied a cheek  \nThat bore another rose;  \nJust opposite, another speech  \nThat like the drunkard goes;\n\nA vest that, like the bodice, danced  \nTo the immortal tune, \u2014   \nTill those two troubled little clocks  \nTicked softly into one.\n\n**XII.**\n\nIn lands I never saw, they say,  \nImmortal Alps look down,  \nWhose bonnets touch the firmament,  \nWhose sandals touch the town, \u2014\n\nMeek at whose everlasting feet  \nA myriad daisies play.  \nWhich, sir, are you, and which am I,  \nUpon an August day?\n\n**XIII.**\n\nThe moon is distant from the sea,  \nAnd yet with amber hands  \nShe leads him, docile as a boy,  \nAlong appointed sands.\n\nHe never misses a degree;  \nObedient to her eye,  \nHe comes just so far toward the town,  \nJust so far goes away.\n\nOh, Signor, thine the amber hand,  \nAnd mine the distant sea, \u2014   \nObedient to the least command  \nThine eyes impose on me.\n\n**XIV.**\n\nHe put the belt around my life, \u2014   \nI heard the buckle snap,  \nAnd turned away, imperial,  \nMy lifetime folding up  \nDeliberate, as a duke would do  \nA kingdom's title-deed, \u2014   \nHenceforth a dedicated sort,  \nA member of the cloud.\n\nYet not too far to come at call,  \nAnd do the little toils  \nThat make the circuit of the rest,  \nAnd deal occasional smiles  \nTo lives that stoop to notice mine  \nAnd kindly ask it in, \u2014   \nWhose invitation, knew you not  \nFor whom I must decline?\n\n**XV.**\n\n**THE LOST JEWEL.**\n\nI held a jewel in my fingers  \nAnd went to sleep.  \nThe day was warm, and winds were prosy;  \nI said: \"'T will keep.\"\n\nI woke and chid my honest fingers, \u2014   \nThe gem was gone;  \nAnd now an amethyst remembrance  \nIs all I own.\n\n**XVI.**\n\nWhat if I say I shall not wait?  \nWhat if I burst the fleshly gate  \nAnd pass, escaped, to thee?  \nWhat if I file this mortal off,  \nSee where it hurt me, \u2014 that 's enough, \u2014   \nAnd wade in liberty?\n\nThey cannot take us any more, \u2014   \nDungeons may call, and guns implore;  \nUnmeaning now, to me,  \nAs laughter was an hour ago,  \nOr laces, or a travelling show,  \nOr who died yesterday!\n\n**III.**\n\n**NATURE.**\n\n**I.**\n\n**MOTHER NATURE.**\n\nNature, the gentlest mother,  \nImpatient of no child,  \nThe feeblest or the waywardest, \u2014   \nHer admonition mild\n\nIn forest and the hill  \nBy traveller is heard,  \nRestraining rampant squirrel  \nOr too impetuous bird.\n\nHow fair her conversation,  \nA summer afternoon, \u2014   \nHer household, her assembly;  \nAnd when the sun goes down\n\nHer voice among the aisles  \nIncites the timid prayer  \nOf the minutest cricket,  \nThe most unworthy flower.\n\nWhen all the children sleep  \nShe turns as long away  \nAs will suffice to light her lamps;  \nThen, bending from the sky\n\nWith infinite affection  \nAnd infiniter care,  \nHer golden finger on her lip,  \nWills silence everywhere.\n\n**II.**\n\n**OUT OF THE MORNING.**\n\nWill there really be a morning?  \nIs there such a thing as day?  \nCould I see it from the mountains  \nIf I were as tall as they?\n\nHas it feet like water-lilies?  \nHas it feathers like a bird?  \nIs it brought from famous countries  \nOf which I have never heard?\n\nOh, some scholar! Oh, some sailor!  \nOh, some wise man from the skies!  \nPlease to tell a little pilgrim  \nWhere the place called morning lies!\n\n**III.**\n\nAt half-past three a single bird  \nUnto a silent sky  \nPropounded but a single term  \nOf cautious melody.\n\nAt half-past four, experiment  \nHad subjugated test,  \nAnd lo! her silver principle  \nSupplanted all the rest.\n\nAt half-past seven, element  \nNor implement was seen,  \nAnd place was where the presence was,  \nCircumference between.\n\n**IV.**\n\n**DAY'S PARLOR.**\n\nThe day came slow, till five o'clock,  \nThen sprang before the hills  \nLike hindered rubies, or the light  \nA sudden musket spills.\n\nThe purple could not keep the east,  \nThe sunrise shook from fold,  \nLike breadths of topaz, packed a night,  \nThe lady just unrolled.\n\nThe happy winds their timbrels took;  \nThe birds, in docile rows,  \nArranged themselves around their prince  \n(The wind is prince of those).\n\nThe orchard sparkled like a Jew, \u2014   \nHow mighty 't was, to stay  \nA guest in this stupendous place,  \nThe parlor of the day!\n\n**V.**\n\n**THE SUN'S WOOING.**\n\nThe sun just touched the morning;  \nThe morning, happy thing,  \nSupposed that he had come to dwell,  \nAnd life would be all spring.\n\nShe felt herself supremer, \u2014   \nA raised, ethereal thing;  \nHenceforth for her what holiday!  \nMeanwhile, her wheeling king\n\nTrailed slow along the orchards  \nHis haughty, spangled hems,  \nLeaving a new necessity, \u2014   \nThe want of diadems!\n\nThe morning fluttered, staggered,  \nFelt feebly for her crown, \u2014   \nHer unanointed forehead  \nHenceforth her only one.\n\n**VI.**\n\n**THE ROBIN.**\n\nThe robin is the one  \nThat interrupts the morn  \nWith hurried, few, express reports  \nWhen March is scarcely on.\n\nThe robin is the one  \nThat overflows the noon  \nWith her cherubic quantity,  \nAn April but begun.\n\nThe robin is the one  \nThat speechless from her nest  \nSubmits that home and certainty  \nAnd sanctity are best.\n\n**VII.**\n\n**THE BUTTERFLY'S DAY.**\n\nFrom cocoon forth a butterfly  \nAs lady from her door  \nEmerged \u2014 a summer afternoon \u2014   \nRepairing everywhere,\n\nWithout design, that I could trace,  \nExcept to stray abroad  \nOn miscellaneous enterprise  \nThe clovers understood.\n\nHer pretty parasol was seen  \nContracting in a field  \nWhere men made hay, then struggling hard  \nWith an opposing cloud,\n\nWhere parties, phantom as herself,  \nTo Nowhere seemed to go  \nIn purposeless circumference,  \nAs 't were a tropic show.\n\nAnd notwithstanding bee that worked,  \nAnd flower that zealous blew,  \nThis audience of idleness  \nDisdained them, from the sky,\n\nTill sundown crept, a steady tide,  \nAnd men that made the hay,  \nAnd afternoon, and butterfly,  \nExtinguished in its sea.\n\n**VIII.**\n\n**THE BLUEBIRD.**\n\nBefore you thought of spring,  \nExcept as a surmise,  \nYou see, God bless his suddenness,  \nA fellow in the skies  \nOf independent hues,  \nA little weather-worn,  \nInspiriting habiliments  \nOf indigo and brown.\n\nWith specimens of song,  \nAs if for you to choose,  \nDiscretion in the interval,  \nWith gay delays he goes  \nTo some superior tree  \nWithout a single leaf,  \nAnd shouts for joy to nobody  \nBut his seraphic self!\n\n**IX.**\n\n**APRIL.**\n\nAn altered look about the hills;  \nA Tyrian light the village fills;  \nA wider sunrise in the dawn;  \nA deeper twilight on the lawn;  \nA print of a vermilion foot;  \nA purple finger on the slope;  \nA flippant fly upon the pane;  \nA spider at his trade again;  \nAn added strut in chanticleer;  \nA flower expected everywhere;  \nAn axe shrill singing in the woods;  \nFern-odors on untravelled roads, \u2014   \nAll this, and more I cannot tell,  \nA furtive look you know as well,  \nAnd Nicodemus' mystery  \nReceives its annual reply.\n\n**X.**\n\n**THE SLEEPING FLOWERS.**\n\n\"Whose are the little beds,\" I asked,  \n\"Which in the valleys lie?\"  \nSome shook their heads, and others smiled,  \nAnd no one made reply.\n\n\"Perhaps they did not hear,\" I said;  \n\"I will inquire again.  \nWhose are the beds, the tiny beds  \nSo thick upon the plain?\"\n\n\"'T is daisy in the shortest;  \nA little farther on,  \nNearest the door to wake the first,  \nLittle leontodon.\n\n\"'T is iris, sir, and aster,  \nAnemone and bell,  \nBatschia in the blanket red,  \nAnd chubby daffodil.\"\n\nMeanwhile at many cradles  \nHer busy foot she plied,  \nHumming the quaintest lullaby  \nThat ever rocked a child.\n\n\"Hush! Epigea wakens! \u2014   \nThe crocus stirs her lids,  \nRhodora's cheek is crimson, \u2014   \nShe's dreaming of the woods.\"\n\nThen, turning from them, reverent,  \n\"Their bed-time 't is,\" she said;  \n\"The bumble-bees will wake them  \nWhen April woods are red.\"\n\n**XI.**\n\n**MY ROSE.**\n\nPigmy seraphs gone astray,  \nVelvet people from Vevay,  \nBelles from some lost summer day,  \nBees' exclusive coterie.  \nParis could not lay the fold  \nBelted down with emerald;  \nVenice could not show a cheek  \nOf a tint so lustrous meek.  \nNever such an ambuscade  \nAs of brier and leaf displayed  \nFor my little damask maid.  \nI had rather wear her grace  \nThan an earl's distinguished face;  \nI had rather dwell like her  \nThan be Duke of Exeter  \nRoyalty enough for me  \nTo subdue the bumble-bee!\n\n**XII.**\n\n**THE ORIOLE'S SECRET.**\n\nTo hear an oriole sing  \nMay be a common thing,  \nOr only a divine.\n\nIt is not of the bird  \nWho sings the same, unheard,  \nAs unto crowd.\n\nThe fashion of the ear  \nAttireth that it hear  \nIn dun or fair.\n\nSo whether it be rune,  \nOr whether it be none,  \nIs of within;\n\nThe \"tune is in the tree,\"  \nThe sceptic showeth me;  \n\"No, sir! In thee!\"\n\n**XIII.**\n\n**THE ORIOLE.**\n\nOne of the ones that Midas touched,  \nWho failed to touch us all,  \nWas that confiding prodigal,  \nThe blissful oriole.\n\nSo drunk, he disavows it  \nWith badinage divine;  \nSo dazzling, we mistake him  \nFor an alighting mine.\n\nA pleader, a dissembler,  \nAn epicure, a thief, \u2014   \nBetimes an oratorio,  \nAn ecstasy in chief;\n\nThe Jesuit of orchards,  \nHe cheats as he enchants  \nOf an entire attar  \nFor his decamping wants.\n\nThe splendor of a Burmah,  \nThe meteor of birds,  \nDeparting like a pageant  \nOf ballads and of bards.\n\nI never thought that Jason sought  \nFor any golden fleece;  \nBut then I am a rural man,  \nWith thoughts that make for peace.\n\nBut if there were a Jason,  \nTradition suffer me  \nBehold his lost emolument  \nUpon the apple-tree.\n\n**XIV.**\n\n**IN SHADOW.**\n\nI dreaded that first robin so,  \nBut he is mastered now,  \nAnd I 'm accustomed to him grown, \u2014   \nHe hurts a little, though.\n\nI thought if I could only live  \nTill that first shout got by,  \nNot all pianos in the woods  \nHad power to mangle me.\n\nI dared not meet the daffodils,  \nFor fear their yellow gown  \nWould pierce me with a fashion  \nSo foreign to my own.\n\nI wished the grass would hurry,  \nSo when 't was time to see,  \nHe 'd be too tall, the tallest one  \nCould stretch to look at me.\n\nI could not bear the bees should come,  \nI wished they 'd stay away  \nIn those dim countries where they go:  \nWhat word had they for me?\n\nThey 're here, though; not a creature failed,  \nNo blossom stayed away  \nIn gentle deference to me,  \nThe Queen of Calvary.\n\nEach one salutes me as he goes,  \nAnd I my childish plumes  \nLift, in bereaved acknowledgment  \nOf their unthinking drums.\n\n**XV.**\n\n**THE HUMMING-BIRD.**\n\nA route of evanescence  \nWith a revolving wheel;  \nA resonance of emerald,  \nA rush of cochineal;  \nAnd every blossom on the bush  \nAdjusts its tumbled head, \u2014   \nThe mail from Tunis, probably,  \nAn easy morning's ride.\n\n**XVI.**\n\n**SECRETS.**\n\nThe skies can't keep their secret!  \nThey tell it to the hills \u2014   \nThe hills just tell the orchards \u2014   \nAnd they the daffodils!\n\nA bird, by chance, that goes that way  \nSoft overheard the whole.  \nIf I should bribe the little bird,  \nWho knows but she would tell?\n\nI think I won't, however,  \nIt's finer not to know;  \nIf summer were an axiom,  \nWhat sorcery had snow?\n\nSo keep your secret, Father!  \nI would not, if I could,  \nKnow what the sapphire fellows do,  \nIn your new-fashioned world!\n\n**XVII.**\n\nWho robbed the woods,  \nThe trusting woods?  \nThe unsuspecting trees  \nBrought out their burrs and mosses  \nHis fantasy to please.  \nHe scanned their trinkets, curious,  \nHe grasped, he bore away.  \nWhat will the solemn hemlock,  \nWhat will the fir-tree say?\n\n**XVIII.**\n\n**TWO VOYAGERS.**\n\nTwo butterflies went out at noon  \nAnd waltzed above a stream,  \nThen stepped straight through the firmament  \nAnd rested on a beam;\n\nAnd then together bore away  \nUpon a shining sea, \u2014   \nThough never yet, in any port,  \nTheir coming mentioned be.\n\nIf spoken by the distant bird,  \nIf met in ether sea  \nBy frigate or by merchantman,  \nReport was not to me.\n\n**XIX.**\n\n**BY THE SEA.**\n\nI started early, took my dog,  \nAnd visited the sea;  \nThe mermaids in the basement  \nCame out to look at me,\n\nAnd frigates in the upper floor  \nExtended hempen hands,  \nPresuming me to be a mouse  \nAground, upon the sands.\n\nBut no man moved me till the tide  \nWent past my simple shoe,  \nAnd past my apron and my belt,  \nAnd past my bodice too,\n\nAnd made as he would eat me up  \nAs wholly as a dew  \nUpon a dandelion's sleeve \u2014   \nAnd then I started too.\n\nAnd he \u2014 he followed close behind;  \nI felt his silver heel  \nUpon my ankle, \u2014 then my shoes  \nWould overflow with pearl.\n\nUntil we met the solid town,  \nNo man he seemed to know;  \nAnd bowing with a mighty look  \nAt me, the sea withdrew.\n\n**XX.**\n\n**OLD-FASHIONED.**\n\nArcturus is his other name, \u2014   \nI'd rather call him star!  \nIt's so unkind of science  \nTo go and interfere!\n\nI pull a flower from the woods, \u2014   \nA monster with a glass  \nComputes the stamens in a breath,  \nAnd has her in a class.\n\nWhereas I took the butterfly  \nAforetime in my hat,  \nHe sits erect in cabinets,  \nThe clover-bells forgot.\n\nWhat once was heaven, is zenith now.  \nWhere I proposed to go  \nWhen time's brief masquerade was done,  \nIs mapped, and charted too!\n\nWhat if the poles should frisk about  \nAnd stand upon their heads!  \nI hope I 'm ready for the worst,  \nWhatever prank betides!\n\nPerhaps the kingdom of Heaven 's changed!  \nI hope the children there  \nWon't be new-fashioned when I come,  \nAnd laugh at me, and stare!\n\nI hope the father in the skies  \nWill lift his little girl, \u2014   \nOld-fashioned, naughty, everything, \u2014   \nOver the stile of pearl!\n\n**XXI.**\n\n**A TEMPEST.**\n\nAn awful tempest mashed the air,  \nThe clouds were gaunt and few;  \nA black, as of a spectre's cloak,  \nHid heaven and earth from view.\n\nThe creatures chuckled on the roofs  \nAnd whistled in the air,  \nAnd shook their fists and gnashed their teeth.  \nAnd swung their frenzied hair.\n\nThe morning lit, the birds arose;  \nThe monster's faded eyes  \nTurned slowly to his native coast,  \nAnd peace was Paradise!\n\n**XXII.**\n\n**THE SEA.**\n\nAn everywhere of silver,  \nWith ropes of sand  \nTo keep it from effacing  \nThe track called land.\n\n**XXIII.**\n\n**IN THE GARDEN.**\n\nA bird came down the walk:  \nHe did not know I saw;  \nHe bit an angle-worm in halves  \nAnd ate the fellow, raw.\n\nAnd then he drank a dew  \nFrom a convenient grass,  \nAnd then hopped sidewise to the wall  \nTo let a beetle pass.\n\nHe glanced with rapid eyes  \nThat hurried all abroad, \u2014   \nThey looked like frightened beads, I thought;  \nHe stirred his velvet head\n\nLike one in danger; cautious,  \nI offered him a crumb,  \nAnd he unrolled his feathers  \nAnd rowed him softer home\n\nThan oars divide the ocean,  \nToo silver for a seam,  \nOr butterflies, off banks of noon,  \nLeap, plashless, as they swim.\n\n**XXIV.**\n\n**THE SNAKE.**\n\nA narrow fellow in the grass  \nOccasionally rides;  \nYou may have met him, \u2014 did you not,  \nHis notice sudden is.\n\nThe grass divides as with a comb,  \nA spotted shaft is seen;  \nAnd then it closes at your feet  \nAnd opens further on.\n\nHe likes a boggy acre,  \nA floor too cool for corn.  \nYet when a child, and barefoot,  \nI more than once, at morn,\n\nHave passed, I thought, a whip-lash  \nUnbraiding in the sun, \u2014   \nWhen, stooping to secure it,  \nIt wrinkled, and was gone.\n\nSeveral of nature's people  \nI know, and they know me;  \nI feel for them a transport  \nOf cordiality;\n\nBut never met this fellow,  \nAttended or alone,  \nWithout a tighter breathing,  \nAnd zero at the bone.\n\n**XXV.**\n\n**THE MUSHROOM.**\n\nThe mushroom is the elf of plants,  \nAt evening it is not;  \nAt morning in a truffled hut  \nIt stops upon a spot\n\nAs if it tarried always;  \nAnd yet its whole career  \nIs shorter than a snake's delay,  \nAnd fleeter than a tare.\n\n'T is vegetation's juggler,  \nThe germ of alibi;  \nDoth like a bubble antedate,  \nAnd like a bubble hie.\n\nI feel as if the grass were pleased  \nTo have it intermit;  \nThe surreptitious scion  \nOf summer's circumspect.\n\nHad nature any outcast face,  \nCould she a son contemn,  \nHad nature an Iscariot,  \nThat mushroom, \u2014 it is him.\n\n**XXVI.**\n\n**THE STORM.**\n\nThere came a wind like a bugle;  \nIt quivered through the grass,  \nAnd a green chill upon the heat  \nSo ominous did pass  \nWe barred the windows and the doors  \nAs from an emerald ghost;  \nThe doom's electric moccason  \nThat very instant passed.  \nOn a strange mob of panting trees,  \nAnd fences fled away,  \nAnd rivers where the houses ran  \nThe living looked that day.  \nThe bell within the steeple wild  \nThe flying tidings whirled.  \nHow much can come  \nAnd much can go,  \nAnd yet abide the world!\n\n**XXVII.**\n\n**THE SPIDER.**\n\nA spider sewed at night  \nWithout a light  \nUpon an arc of white.  \nIf ruff it was of dame  \nOr shroud of gnome,  \nHimself, himself inform.  \nOf immortality  \nHis strategy  \nWas physiognomy.\n\n**XXVIII.**\n\nI know a place where summer strives  \nWith such a practised frost,  \nShe each year leads her daisies back,  \nRecording briefly, \"Lost.\"\n\nBut when the south wind stirs the pools  \nAnd struggles in the lanes,  \nHer heart misgives her for her vow,  \nAnd she pours soft refrains\n\nInto the lap of adamant,  \nAnd spices, and the dew,  \nThat stiffens quietly to quartz,  \nUpon her amber shoe.\n\n**XXIX.**\n\nThe one that could repeat the summer day  \nWere greater than itself, though he  \nMinutest of mankind might be.  \nAnd who could reproduce the sun,  \nAt period of going down \u2014   \nThe lingering and the stain, I mean \u2014   \nWhen Orient has been outgrown,  \nAnd Occident becomes unknown,  \nHis name remain.\n\n**XXX.**\n\nTHE WlND'S VISIT.\n\nThe wind tapped like a tired man,  \nAnd like a host, \"Come in,\"  \nI boldly answered; entered then  \nMy residence within\n\nA rapid, footless guest,  \nTo offer whom a chair  \nWere as impossible as hand  \nA sofa to the air.\n\nNo bone had he to bind him,  \nHis speech was like the push  \nOf numerous humming-birds at once  \nFrom a superior bush.\n\nHis countenance a billow,  \nHis fingers, if he pass,  \nLet go a music, as of tunes  \nBlown tremulous in glass.\n\nHe visited, still flitting;  \nThen, like a timid man,  \nAgain he tapped \u2014 't was flurriedly \u2014   \nAnd I became alone.\n\n**XXXI.**\n\nNature rarer uses yellow  \nThan another hue;  \nSaves she all of that for sunsets, \u2014   \nProdigal of blue,\n\nSpending scarlet like a woman,  \nYellow she affords  \nOnly scantly and selectly,  \nLike a lover's words.\n\n**XXXII.**\n\n**GOSSIP.**\n\nThe leaves, like women, interchange  \nSagacious confidence;  \nSomewhat of nods, and somewhat of  \nPortentous inference,\n\nThe parties in both cases  \nEnjoining secrecy, \u2014   \nInviolable compact  \nTo notoriety.\n\n**XXXIII.**\n\n**SIMPLICITY.**\n\nHow happy is the little stone  \nThat rambles in the road alone,  \nAnd does n't care about careers,  \nAnd exigencies never fears;  \nWhose coat of elemental brown  \nA passing universe put on;  \nAnd independent as the sun,  \nAssociates or glows alone,  \nFulfilling absolute decree  \nIn casual simplicity.\n\n**XXXIV.**\n\n**STORM.**\n\nIt sounded as if the streets were running,  \nAnd then the streets stood still.  \nEclipse was all we could see at the window,  \nAnd awe was all we could feel.\n\nBy and by the boldest stole out of his covert,  \nTo see if time was there.  \nNature was in her beryl apron,  \nMixing fresher air.\n\n**XXXV.**\n\n**THE RAT.**\n\nThe rat is the concisest tenant.  \nHe pays no rent, \u2014   \nRepudiates the obligation,  \nOn schemes intent.\n\nBalking our wit  \nTo sound or circumvent,  \nHate cannot harm  \nA foe so reticent.\n\nNeither decree  \nProhibits him,  \nLawful as  \nEquilibrium.\n\n**XXXVI.**\n\nFrequently the woods are pink,  \nFrequently are brown;  \nFrequently the hills undress  \nBehind my native town.\n\nOft a head is crested  \nI was wont to see,  \nAnd as oft a cranny  \nWhere it used to be.\n\nAnd the earth, they tell me,  \nOn its axis turned, \u2014   \nWonderful rotation  \nBy but twelve performed!\n\n**XXXVII.**\n\n**A THUNDER-STORM.**\n\nThe wind begun to rock the grass  \nWith threatening tunes and low, \u2014   \nHe flung a menace at the earth,  \nA menace at the sky.\n\nThe leaves unhooked themselves from trees  \nAnd started all abroad;  \nThe dust did scoop itself like hands  \nAnd throw away the road.\n\nThe wagons quickened on the streets,  \nThe thunder hurried slow;  \nThe lightning showed a yellow beak,  \nAnd then a livid claw.\n\nThe birds put up the bars to nests,  \nThe cattle fled to barns;  \nThere came one drop of giant rain,  \nAnd then, as if the hands\n\nThat held the dams had parted hold,  \nThe waters wrecked the sky,  \nBut overlooked my father's house,  \nJust quartering a tree.\n\n**XXXVIII.**\n\n**WITH FLOWERS.**\n\nSouth winds jostle them,  \nBumblebees come,  \nHover, hesitate,  \nDrink, and are gone.\n\nButterflies pause  \nOn their passage Cashmere;  \nI, softly plucking,  \nPresent them here!\n\n**XXXIX.**\n\n**SUNSET.**\n\nWhere ships of purple gently toss  \nOn seas of daffodil,  \nFantastic sailors mingle,  \nAnd then \u2014 the wharf is still.\n\n**XL.**\n\nShe sweeps with many-colored brooms,  \nAnd leaves the shreds behind;  \nOh, housewife in the evening west,  \nCome back, and dust the pond!\n\nYou dropped a purple ravelling in,  \nYou dropped an amber thread;  \nAnd now you 've littered all the East  \nWith duds of emerald!\n\nAnd still she plies her spotted brooms,  \nAnd still the aprons fly,  \nTill brooms fade softly into stars \u2014   \nAnd then I come away.\n\n**XLI.**\n\nLike mighty footlights burned the red  \nAt bases of the trees, \u2014   \nThe far theatricals of day  \nExhibiting to these.\n\n'T was universe that did applaud  \nWhile, chiefest of the crowd,  \nEnabled by his royal dress,  \nMyself distinguished God.\n\n**XLII.**\n\n**PROBLEMS.**\n\nBring me the sunset in a cup,  \nReckon the morning's flagons up,  \nAnd say how many dew;  \nTell me how far the morning leaps,  \nTell me what time the weaver sleeps  \nWho spun the breadths of blue!\n\nWrite me how many notes there be  \nIn the new robin's ecstasy  \nAmong astonished boughs;  \nHow many trips the tortoise makes,  \nHow many cups the bee partakes, \u2014   \nThe debauchee of dews!\n\nAlso, who laid the rainbow's piers,  \nAlso, who leads the docile spheres  \nBy withes of supple blue?  \nWhose fingers string the stalactite,  \nWho counts the wampum of the night,  \nTo see that none is due?\n\nWho built this little Alban house  \nAnd shut the windows down so close  \nMy spirit cannot see?  \nWho 'll let me out some gala day,  \nWith implements to fly away,  \nPassing pomposity?\n\n**XLIII.**\n\n**THE JUGGLER OF DAY.**\n\nBlazing in gold and quenching in purple,  \nLeaping like leopards to the sky,  \nThen at the feet of the old horizon  \nLaying her spotted face, to die;\n\nStooping as low as the otter's window,  \nTouching the roof and tinting the barn,  \nKissing her bonnet to the meadow, \u2014   \nAnd the juggler of day is gone!\n\n**XLIV.**\n\n**MY CRICKET.**\n\nFarther in summer than the birds,  \nPathetic from the grass,  \nA minor nation celebrates  \nIts unobtrusive mass.\n\nNo ordinance is seen,  \nSo gradual the grace,  \nA pensive custom it becomes,  \nEnlarging loneliness.\n\nAntiquest felt at noon  \nWhen August, burning low,  \nCalls forth this spectral canticle,  \nRepose to typify.\n\nRemit as yet no grace,  \nNo furrow on the glow,  \nYet a druidic difference  \nEnhances nature now.\n\n**XLV.**\n\nAs imperceptibly as grief  \nThe summer lapsed away, \u2014   \nToo imperceptible, at last,  \nTo seem like perfidy.\n\nA quietness distilled,  \nAs twilight long begun,  \nOr Nature, spending with herself  \nSequestered afternoon.\n\nThe dusk drew earlier in,  \nThe morning foreign shone, \u2014   \nA courteous, yet harrowing grace,  \nAs guest who would be gone.\n\nAnd thus, without a wing,  \nOr service of a keel,  \nOur summer made her light escape  \nInto the beautiful.\n\n**XLVI.**\n\nIt can't be summer, \u2014 that got through;  \nIt 's early yet for spring;  \nThere 's that long town of white to cross  \nBefore the blackbirds sing.\n\nIt can't be dying, \u2014 it's too rouge, \u2014   \nThe dead shall go in white.  \nSo sunset shuts my question down  \nWith clasps of chrysolite.\n\n**XLVII.**\n\n**SUMMER'S OBSEQUIES.**\n\nThe gentian weaves her fringes,  \nThe maple's loom is red.  \nMy departing blossoms  \nObviate parade.\n\nA brief, but patient illness,  \nAn hour to prepare;  \nAnd one, below this morning,  \nIs where the angels are.\n\nIt was a short procession, \u2014   \nThe bobolink was there,  \nAn aged bee addressed us,  \nAnd then we knelt in prayer.\n\nWe trust that she was willing, \u2014   \nWe ask that we may be.  \nSummer, sister, seraph,  \nLet us go with thee!\n\nIn the name of the bee  \nAnd of the butterfly  \nAnd of the breeze, amen!\n\n**XLVIII.**\n\n**FRINGED GENTIAN.**\n\nGod made a little gentian;  \nIt tried to be a rose  \nAnd failed, and all the summer laughed.  \nBut just before the snows  \nThere came a purple creature  \nThat ravished all the hill;  \nAnd summer hid her forehead,  \nAnd mockery was still.  \nThe frosts were her condition;  \nThe Tyrian would not come  \nUntil the North evoked it.  \n\"Creator! shall I bloom?\"\n\n**XLIX.**\n\n**NOVEMBER.**\n\nBesides the autumn poets sing,  \nA few prosaic days  \nA little this side of the snow  \nAnd that side of the haze.\n\nA few incisive mornings,  \nA few ascetic eyes, \u2014   \nGone Mr. Bryant's golden-rod,  \nAnd Mr. Thomson's sheaves.\n\nStill is the bustle in the brook,  \nSealed are the spicy valves;  \nMesmeric fingers softly touch  \nThe eyes of many elves.\n\nPerhaps a squirrel may remain,  \nMy sentiments to share.  \nGrant me, O Lord, a sunny mind,  \nThy windy will to bear!\n\n**L.**\n\n**THE SNOW.**\n\nIt sifts from leaden sieves,  \nIt powders all the wood,  \nIt fills with alabaster wool  \nThe wrinkles of the road.\n\nIt makes an even face  \nOf mountain and of plain, \u2014   \nUnbroken forehead from the east  \nUnto the east again.\n\nIt reaches to the fence,  \nIt wraps it, rail by rail,  \nTill it is lost in fleeces;  \nIt flings a crystal veil\n\nOn stump and stack and stem, \u2014   \nThe summer's empty room,  \nAcres of seams where harvests were,  \nRecordless, but for them.\n\nIt ruffles wrists of posts,  \nAs ankles of a queen, \u2014   \nThen stills its artisans like ghosts,  \nDenying they have been.\n\n**LI.**\n\n**THE BLUE JAY.**\n\nNo brigadier throughout the year  \nSo civic as the jay.  \nA neighbor and a warrior too,  \nWith shrill felicity\n\nPursuing winds that censure us  \nA February day,  \nThe brother of the universe  \nWas never blown away.\n\nThe snow and he are intimate;  \nI 've often seen them play  \nWhen heaven looked upon us all  \nWith such severity,\n\nI felt apology were due  \nTo an insulted sky,  \nWhose pompous frown was nutriment  \nTo their temerity.\n\nThe pillow of this daring head  \nIs pungent evergreens;  \nHis larder \u2014 terse and militant \u2014   \nUnknown, refreshing things;\n\nHis character a tonic,  \nHis future a dispute;  \nUnfair an immortality  \nThat leaves this neighbor out.\n\n**IV.**\n\n**TIME AND ETERNITY.**\n\n**I.**\n\nLet down the bars, O Death!  \nThe tired flocks come in  \nWhose bleating ceases to repeat,  \nWhose wandering is done.\n\nThine is the stillest night,  \nThine the securest fold;  \nToo near thou art for seeking thee,  \nToo tender to be told.\n\n**II.**\n\nGoing to heaven!  \nI don't know when,  \nPray do not ask me how, \u2014   \nIndeed, I 'm too astonished  \nTo think of answering you!  \nGoing to heaven! \u2014   \nHow dim it sounds!  \nAnd yet it will be done  \nAs sure as flocks go home at night  \nUnto the shepherd's arm!\n\nPerhaps you 're going too!  \nWho knows?  \nIf you should get there first,  \nSave just a little place for me  \nClose to the two I lost!\n\nThe smallest \"robe\" will fit me,  \nAnd just a bit of \"crown;\"  \nFor you know we do not mind our dress  \nWhen we are going home.\n\nI 'm glad I don't believe it,  \nFor it would stop my breath,  \nAnd I 'd like to look a little more  \nAt such a curious earth!  \nI am glad they did believe it  \nWhom I have never found  \nSince the mighty autumn afternoon  \nI left them in the ground.\n\n**III.**\n\nAt least to pray is left, is left.  \nO Jesus! in the air  \nI know not which thy chamber is, \u2014   \nI 'm knocking everywhere.\n\nThou stirrest earthquake in the South,  \nAnd maelstrom in the sea;  \nSay, Jesus Christ of Nazareth,  \nHast thou no arm for me?\n\n**IV.**\n\n**EPITAPH.**\n\nStep lightly on this narrow spot!  \nThe broadest land that grows  \nIs not so ample as the breast  \nThese emerald seams enclose.\n\nStep lofty; for this name is told  \nAs far as cannon dwell,  \nOr flag subsist, or fame export  \nHer deathless syllable.\n\n**V.**\n\nMorns like these we parted;  \nNoons like these she rose,  \nFluttering first, then firmer,  \nTo her fair repose.\n\nNever did she lisp it,  \nAnd 't was not for me;  \nShe was mute from transport,  \nI, from agony!\n\nTill the evening, nearing,  \nOne the shutters drew \u2014   \nQuick! a sharper rustling!  \nAnd this linnet flew!\n\n**VI.**\n\nA death-blow is a life-blow to some  \nWho, till they died, did not alive become;  \nWho, had they lived, had died, but when  \nThey died, vitality begun.\n\n**VII.**\n\nI read my sentence steadily,  \nReviewed it with my eyes,  \nTo see that I made no mistake  \nIn its extremest clause, \u2014\n\nThe date, and manner of the shame;  \nAnd then the pious form  \nThat \"God have mercy\" on the soul  \nThe jury voted him.\n\nI made my soul familiar  \nWith her extremity,  \nThat at the last it should not be  \nA novel agony,\n\nBut she and Death, acquainted,  \nMeet tranquilly as friends,  \nSalute and pass without a hint \u2014   \nAnd there the matter ends.\n\n**VIII.**\n\nI have not told my garden yet,  \nLest that should conquer me;  \nI have not quite the strength now  \nTo break it to the bee.\n\nI will not name it in the street,  \nFor shops would stare, that I,  \nSo shy, so very ignorant,  \nShould have the face to die.\n\nThe hillsides must not know it,  \nWhere I have rambled so,  \nNor tell the loving forests  \nThe day that I shall go,\n\nNor lisp it at the table,  \nNor heedless by the way  \nHint that within the riddle  \nOne will walk to-day!\n\n**IX.**\n\n**THE BATTLE-FIELD.**\n\nThey dropped like flakes, they dropped like stars,  \nLike petals from a rose,  \nWhen suddenly across the June  \nA wind with fingers goes.\n\nThey perished in the seamless grass, \u2014   \nNo eye could find the place;  \nBut God on his repealless list  \nCan summon every face.\n\n**X.**\n\nThe only ghost I ever saw  \nWas dressed in mechlin, \u2014 so;  \nHe wore no sandal on his foot,  \nAnd stepped like flakes of snow.  \nHis gait was soundless, like the bird,  \nBut rapid, like the roe;  \nHis fashions quaint, mosaic,  \nOr, haply, mistletoe.\n\nHis conversation seldom,  \nHis laughter like the breeze  \nThat dies away in dimples  \nAmong the pensive trees.  \nOur interview was transient, \u2014   \nOf me, himself was shy;  \nAnd God forbid I look behind  \nSince that appalling day!\n\n**XI.**\n\nSome, too fragile for winter winds,  \nThe thoughtful grave encloses, \u2014   \nTenderly tucking them in from frost  \nBefore their feet are cold.\n\nNever the treasures in her nest  \nThe cautious grave exposes,  \nBuilding where schoolboy dare not look  \nAnd sportsman is not bold.\n\nThis covert have all the children  \nEarly aged, and often cold, \u2014   \nSparrows unnoticed by the Father;  \nLambs for whom time had not a fold.\n\n**XII.**\n\nAs by the dead we love to sit,  \nBecome so wondrous dear,  \nAs for the lost we grapple,  \nThough all the rest are here, \u2014\n\nIn broken mathematics  \nWe estimate our prize,  \nVast, in its fading ratio,  \nTo our penurious eyes!\n\n**XIII.**\n\n**MEMORIALS.**\n\nDeath sets a thing significant  \nThe eye had hurried by,  \nExcept a perished creature  \nEntreat us tenderly\n\nTo ponder little workmanships  \nIn crayon or in wool,  \nWith \"This was last her fingers did,\"  \nIndustrious until\n\nThe thimble weighed too heavy,  \nThe stitches stopped themselves,  \nAnd then 't was put among the dust  \nUpon the closet shelves.\n\nA book I have, a friend gave,  \nWhose pencil, here and there,  \nHad notched the place that pleased him, \u2014   \nAt rest his fingers are.\n\nNow, when I read, I read not,  \nFor interrupting tears  \nObliterate the etchings  \nToo costly for repairs.\n\n**XIV.**\n\nI went to heaven, \u2014   \n'T was a small town,  \nLit with a ruby,  \nLathed with down.  \nStiller than the fields  \nAt the full dew,  \nBeautiful as pictures  \nNo man drew.  \nPeople like the moth,  \nOf mechlin, frames,  \nDuties of gossamer,  \nAnd eider names.  \nAlmost contented  \nI could be  \n'Mong such unique  \nSociety.\n\n**XV.**\n\nTheir height in heaven comforts not,  \nTheir glory nought to me;  \n'T was best imperfect, as it was;  \nI 'm finite, I can't see.\n\nThe house of supposition,  \nThe glimmering frontier  \nThat skirts the acres of perhaps,  \nTo me shows insecure.\n\nThe wealth I had contented me;  \nIf 't was a meaner size,  \nThen I had counted it until  \nIt pleased my narrow eyes\n\nBetter than larger values,  \nHowever true their show;  \nThis timid life of evidence  \nKeeps pleading, \"I don't know.\"\n\n**XVI.**\n\nThere is a shame of nobleness  \nConfronting sudden pelf, \u2014   \nA finer shame of ecstasy  \nConvicted of itself.\n\nA best disgrace a brave man feels,  \nAcknowledged of the brave, \u2014   \nOne more \"Ye Blessed\" to be told;  \nBut this involves the grave.\n\n**XVII.**\n\n**TRIUMPH.**\n\nTriumph may be of several kinds.  \nThere 's triumph in the room  \nWhen that old imperator, Death,  \nBy faith is overcome.\n\nThere 's triumph of the finer mind  \nWhen truth, affronted long,  \nAdvances calm to her supreme,  \nHer God her only throng.\n\nA triumph when temptation's bribe  \nIs slowly handed back,  \nOne eye upon the heaven renounced  \nAnd one upon the rack.\n\nSeverer triumph, by himself  \nExperienced, who can pass  \nAcquitted from that naked bar,  \nJehovah's countenance!\n\n**XVIII.**\n\nPompless no life can pass away;  \nThe lowliest career  \nTo the same pageant wends its way  \nAs that exalted here.  \nHow cordial is the mystery!  \nThe hospitable pall  \nA \"this way\" beckons spaciously, \u2014   \nA miracle for all!\n\n**XIX.**\n\nI noticed people disappeared,  \nWhen but a little child, \u2014   \nSupposed they visited remote,  \nOr settled regions wild.\n\nNow know I they both visited  \nAnd settled regions wild,  \nBut did because they died, \u2014 a fact  \nWithheld the little child!\n\n**XX.**\n\n**FOLLOWING.**\n\nI had no cause to be awake,  \nMy best was gone to sleep,  \nAnd morn a new politeness took,  \nAnd failed to wake them up,\n\nBut called the others clear,  \nAnd passed their curtains by.  \nSweet morning, when I over-sleep,  \nKnock, recollect, for me!\n\nI looked at sunrise once,  \nAnd then I looked at them,  \nAnd wishfulness in me arose  \nFor circumstance the same.\n\n'T was such an ample peace,  \nIt could not hold a sigh, \u2014   \n'T was Sabbath with the bells divorced,  \n'T was sunset all the day.\n\nSo choosing but a gown  \nAnd taking but a prayer,  \nThe only raiment I should need,  \nI struggled, and was there.\n\n**XXI.**\n\nIf anybody's friend be dead,  \nIt 's sharpest of the theme  \nThe thinking how they walked alive,  \nAt such and such a time.\n\nTheir costume, of a Sunday,  \nSome manner of the hair, \u2014   \nA prank nobody knew but them,  \nLost, in the sepulchre.\n\nHow warm they were on such a day:  \nYou almost feel the date,  \nSo short way off it seems; and now,  \nThey 're centuries from that.\n\nHow pleased they were at what you said;  \nYou try to touch the smile,  \nAnd dip your fingers in the frost:  \nWhen was it, can you tell,\n\nYou asked the company to tea,  \nAcquaintance, just a few,  \nAnd chatted close with this grand thing  \nThat don't remember you?\n\nPast bows and invitations,  \nPast interview, and vow,  \nPast what ourselves can estimate, \u2014   \nThat makes the quick of woe!\n\n**XXII.**\n\n**THE JOURNEY.**\n\nOur journey had advanced;  \nOur feet were almost come  \nTo that odd fork in Being's road,  \nEternity by term.\n\nOur pace took sudden awe,  \nOur feet reluctant led.  \nBefore were cities, but between,  \nThe forest of the dead.\n\nRetreat was out of hope, \u2014   \nBehind, a sealed route,  \nEternity's white flag before,  \nAnd God at every gate.\n\n**XXIII.**\n\n**A COUNTRY BURIAL.**\n\nAmple make this bed.  \nMake this bed with awe;  \nIn it wait till judgment break  \nExcellent and fair.\n\nBe its mattress straight,  \nBe its pillow round;  \nLet no sunrise' yellow noise  \nInterrupt this ground.\n\n**XXIV.**\n\n**GOING.**\n\nOn such a night, or such a night,  \nWould anybody care  \nIf such a little figure  \nSlipped quiet from its chair,\n\nSo quiet, oh, how quiet!  \nThat nobody might know  \nBut that the little figure  \nRocked softer, to and fro?\n\nOn such a dawn, or such a dawn,  \nWould anybody sigh  \nThat such a little figure  \nToo sound asleep did lie\n\nFor chanticleer to wake it, \u2014   \nOr stirring house below,  \nOr giddy bird in orchard,  \nOr early task to do?\n\nThere was a little figure plump  \nFor every little knoll,  \nBusy needles, and spools of thread,  \nAnd trudging feet from school.\n\nPlaymates, and holidays, and nuts,  \nAnd visions vast and small.  \nStrange that the feet so precious charged  \nShould reach so small a goal!\n\n**XXV.**\n\nEssential oils are wrung:  \nThe attar from the rose  \nIs not expressed by suns alone,  \nIt is the gift of screws.\n\nThe general rose decays;  \nBut this, in lady's drawer,  \nMakes summer when the lady lies  \nIn ceaseless rosemary.\n\n**XXVI.**\n\nI lived on dread; to those who know  \nThe stimulus there is  \nIn danger, other impetus  \nIs numb and vital-less.\n\nAs 't were a spur upon the soul,  \nA fear will urge it where  \nTo go without the spectre's aid  \nWere challenging despair.\n\n**XXVII.**\n\nIf I should die,  \nAnd you should live,  \nAnd time should gurgle on,  \nAnd morn should beam,  \nAnd noon should burn,  \nAs it has usual done;  \nIf birds should build as early,  \nAnd bees as bustling go, \u2014   \nOne might depart at option  \nFrom enterprise below!  \n'T is sweet to know that stocks will stand  \nWhen we with daisies lie,  \nThat commerce will continue,  \nAnd trades as briskly fly.  \nIt makes the parting tranquil  \nAnd keeps the soul serene,  \nThat gentlemen so sprightly  \nConduct the pleasing scene!\n\n**XXVIII.**\n\n**AT LENGTH.**\n\nHer final summer was it,  \nAnd yet we guessed it not;  \nIf tenderer industriousness  \nPervaded her, we thought\n\nA further force of life  \nDeveloped from within, \u2014   \nWhen Death lit all the shortness up,  \nAnd made the hurry plain.\n\nWe wondered at our blindness, \u2014   \nWhen nothing was to see  \nBut her Carrara guide-post, \u2014   \nAt our stupidity,\n\nWhen, duller than our dulness,  \nThe busy darling lay,  \nSo busy was she, finishing,  \nSo leisurely were we!\n\n**XXIX.**\n\n**GHOSTS.**\n\nOne need not be a chamber to be haunted,  \nOne need not be a house;  \nThe brain has corridors surpassing  \nMaterial place.\n\nFar safer, of a midnight meeting  \nExternal ghost,  \nThan an interior confronting  \nThat whiter host.\n\nFar safer through an Abbey gallop,  \nThe stones achase,  \nThan, moonless, one's own self encounter  \nIn lonesome place.\n\nOurself, behind ourself concealed,  \nShould startle most;  \nAssassin, hid in our apartment,  \nBe horror's least.\n\nThe prudent carries a revolver,  \nHe bolts the door,  \nO'erlooking a superior spectre  \nMore near.\n\n**XXX.**\n\n**VANISHED.**\n\nShe died, \u2014 this was the way she died;  \nAnd when her breath was done,  \nTook up her simple wardrobe  \nAnd started for the sun.\n\nHer little figure at the gate  \nThe angels must have spied,  \nSince I could never find her  \nUpon the mortal side.\n\n**XXXI.**\n\n**PRECEDENCE.**\n\nWait till the majesty of Death  \nInvests so mean a brow!  \nAlmost a powdered footman  \nMight dare to touch it now!\n\nWait till in everlasting robes  \nThis democrat is dressed,  \nThen prate about \"preferment\"  \nAnd \"station\" and the rest!\n\nAround this quiet courtier  \nObsequious angels wait!  \nFull royal is his retinue,  \nFull purple is his state!\n\nA lord might dare to lift the hat  \nTo such a modest clay,  \nSince that my Lord, \"the Lord of lords\"  \nReceives unblushingly!\n\n**XXXII.**\n\n**GONE.**\n\nWent up a year this evening!  \nI recollect it well!  \nAmid no bells nor bravos  \nThe bystanders will tell!  \nCheerful, as to the village,  \nTranquil, as to repose,  \nChastened, as to the chapel,  \nThis humble tourist rose.  \nDid not talk of returning,  \nAlluded to no time  \nWhen, were the gales propitious,  \nWe might look for him;  \nWas grateful for the roses  \nIn life's diverse bouquet,  \nTalked softly of new species  \nTo pick another day.\n\nBeguiling thus the wonder,  \nThe wondrous nearer drew;  \nHands bustled at the moorings \u2014   \nThe crowd respectful grew.  \nAscended from our vision  \nTo countenances new!  \nA difference, a daisy,  \nIs all the rest I knew!\n\n**XXXIII.**\n\n**REQUIEM.**\n\nTaken from men this morning,  \nCarried by men to-day,  \nMet by the gods with banners  \nWho marshalled her away.\n\nOne little maid from playmates,  \nOne little mind from school, \u2014   \nThere must be guests in Eden;  \nAll the rooms are full.\n\nFar as the east from even,  \nDim as the border star, \u2014   \nCourtiers quaint, in kingdoms,  \nOur departed are.\n\n**XXXIV.**\n\nWhat inn is this  \nWhere for the night  \nPeculiar traveller comes?  \nWho is the landlord?  \nWhere the maids?  \nBehold, what curious rooms!  \nNo ruddy fires on the hearth,  \nNo brimming tankards flow.  \nNecromancer, landlord,  \nWho are these below?\n\n**XXXV.**\n\nIt was not death, for I stood up,  \nAnd all the dead lie down;  \nIt was not night, for all the bells  \nPut out their tongues, for noon.\n\nIt was not frost, for on my flesh  \nI felt siroccos crawl, \u2014   \nNor fire, for just my marble feet  \nCould keep a chancel cool.\n\nAnd yet it tasted like them all;  \nThe figures I have seen  \nSet orderly, for burial,  \nReminded me of mine,\n\nAs if my life were shaven  \nAnd fitted to a frame,  \nAnd could not breathe without a key;  \nAnd 't was like midnight, some,\n\nWhen everything that ticked has stopped,  \nAnd space stares, all around,  \nOr grisly frosts, first autumn morns,  \nRepeal the beating ground.\n\nBut most like chaos, \u2014 stopless, cool, \u2014   \nWithout a chance or spar,  \nOr even a report of land  \nTo justify despair.\n\n**XXXVI.**\n\n**TILL THE END.**\n\nI should not dare to leave my friend,  \nBecause \u2014 because if he should die  \nWhile I was gone, and I \u2014 too late \u2014   \nShould reach the heart that wanted me;\n\nIf I should disappoint the eyes  \nThat hunted, hunted so, to see,  \nAnd could not bear to shut until  \nThey \"noticed\" me \u2014 they noticed me;\n\nIf I should stab the patient faith  \nSo sure I 'd come \u2014 so sure I 'd come,  \nIt listening, listening, went to sleep  \nTelling my tardy name, \u2014\n\nMy heart would wish it broke before,  \nSince breaking then, since breaking then,  \nWere useless as next morning's sun,  \nWhere midnight frosts had lain!\n\n**XXXVII.**\n\n**VOID.**\n\nGreat streets of silence led away  \nTo neighborhoods of pause;  \nHere was no notice, no dissent,  \nNo universe, no laws.\n\nBy clocks 't was morning, and for night  \nThe bells at distance called;  \nBut epoch had no basis here,  \nFor period exhaled.\n\n**XXXVIII.**\n\nA throe upon the features  \nA hurry in the breath,  \nAn ecstasy of parting  \nDenominated \"Death,\" \u2014\n\nAn anguish at the mention,  \nWhich, when to patience grown,  \nI 've known permission given  \nTo rejoin its own.\n\n**XXXIX.**\n\n**SAVED!**\n\nOf tribulation these are they  \nDenoted by the white;  \nThe spangled gowns, a lesser rank  \nOf victors designate.\n\nAll these did conquer; but the ones  \nWho overcame most times  \nWear nothing commoner than snow,  \nNo ornament but palms.\n\nSurrender is a sort unknown  \nOn this superior soil;  \nDefeat, an outgrown anguish,  \nRemembered as the mile\n\nOur panting ankle barely gained  \nWhen night devoured the road;  \nBut we stood whispering in the house,  \nAnd all we said was \"Saved\"!\n\n**XL.**\n\nI think just how my shape will rise  \nWhen I shall be forgiven,  \nTill hair and eyes and timid head  \nAre out of sight, in heaven.\n\nI think just how my lips will weigh  \nWith shapeless, quivering prayer  \nThat you, so late, consider me,  \nThe sparrow of your care.\n\nI mind me that of anguish sent,  \nSome drifts were moved away  \nBefore my simple bosom broke, \u2014   \nAnd why not this, if they?\n\nAnd so, until delirious borne  \nI con that thing, \u2014 \"forgiven,\" \u2014   \nTill with long fright and longer trust  \nI drop my heart, unshriven!\n\n**XLI.**\n\n**THE FORGOTTEN GRAVE.**\n\nAfter a hundred years  \nNobody knows the place, \u2014   \nAgony, that enacted there,  \nMotionless as peace.\n\nWeeds triumphant ranged,  \nStrangers strolled and spelled  \nAt the lone orthography  \nOf the elder dead.\n\nWinds of summer fields  \nRecollect the way, \u2014   \nInstinct picking up the key  \nDropped by memory.\n\n**XLII.**\n\nLay this laurel on the one  \nToo intrinsic for renown.  \nLaurel! veil your deathless tree, \u2014   \nHim you chasten, that is he!\n**POEMS: SERIES TWO**\n\n**CONTENTS**\n\nI.\n\nLIFE.\n\nI.\n\nII.\n\nIII.\n\nIV.\n\nV.\n\nVI.\n\nHOPE.\n\nVII.\n\nTHE WHITE HEAT.\n\nVIII.\n\nTRIUMPHANT.\n\nIX.\n\nTHE TEST.\n\nX.\n\nESCAPE.\n\nXI.\n\nCOMPENSATION.\n\nXII.\n\nTHE MARTYRS.\n\nXIII.\n\nA PRAYER.\n\nXIV.\n\nXV.\n\nXVI.\n\nXVII.\n\nTHE RAILWAY TRAIN.\n\nXVIII.\n\nTHE SHOW.\n\nXIX.\n\nXX.\n\nXXI.\n\nXXII.\n\nTHE RETURN.\n\nXXIII.\n\nXXIV.\n\nTOO MUCH.\n\nXXV.\n\nSHIPWRECK.\n\nXXVI.\n\nXXVII.\n\nENOUGH.\n\nXXVIII.\n\nXXIX.\n\nMY COUNTRY'S WARDROBE.\n\nXXX.\n\nXXXI.\n\nXXXII.\n\nXXXIII.\n\nTHE DUEL.\n\nXXXIV.\n\nXXXV.\n\nTHE GOAL.\n\nXXXVI.\n\nSIGHT.\n\nXXXVII.\n\nXXXVIII.\n\nTHE PREACHER.\n\nXXXIX.\n\nXL.\n\nXLI.\n\nDEED.\n\nXLII.\n\nTIME'S LESSON.\n\nXLIII.\n\nREMORSE.\n\nXLIV.\n\nTHE SHELTER.\n\nXLV.\n\nXLVI.\n\nXLVII.\n\nXLVIII.\n\nXLIX.\n\nL.\n\nHUNGER.\n\nLI.\n\nLII.\n\nLIII.\n\nRETURNING.\n\nLIV.\n\nPRAYER.\n\nLV.\n\nLVI.\n\nMELODIES UNHEARD.\n\nLVII.\n\nCALLED BACK.\n\nII.\n\nLOVE.\n\nI.\n\nCHOICE.\n\nII.\n\nIII.\n\nIV.\n\nTHE CONTRACT.\n\nV.\n\nTHE LETTER.\n\nVI.\n\nVII.\n\nVIII.\n\nAT HOME.\n\nIX.\n\nPOSSESSION.\n\nX.\n\nXI.\n\nTHE LOVERS.\n\nXII.\n\nXIII.\n\nXIV.\n\nXV.\n\nTHE LOST JEWEL.\n\nXVI.\n\nIII.\n\nNATURE.\n\nI.\n\nMOTHER NATURE.\n\nII.\n\nOUT OF THE MORNING.\n\nIII.\n\nIV.\n\nDAY'S PARLOR.\n\nV.\n\nTHE SUN'S WOOING.\n\nVI.\n\nTHE ROBIN.\n\nVII.\n\nTHE BUTTERFLY'S DAY.\n\nVIII.\n\nTHE BLUEBIRD.\n\nIX.\n\nAPRIL.\n\nX.\n\nTHE SLEEPING FLOWERS.\n\nXI.\n\nMY ROSE.\n\nXII.\n\nTHE ORIOLE'S SECRET.\n\nXIII.\n\nTHE ORIOLE.\n\nXIV.\n\nIN SHADOW.\n\nXV.\n\nTHE HUMMING-BIRD.\n\nXVI.\n\nSECRETS.\n\nXVII.\n\nXVIII.\n\nTWO VOYAGERS.\n\nXIX.\n\nBY THE SEA.\n\nXX.\n\nOLD-FASHIONED.\n\nXXI.\n\nA TEMPEST.\n\nXXII.\n\nTHE SEA.\n\nXXIII.\n\nIN THE GARDEN.\n\nXXIV.\n\nTHE SNAKE.\n\nXXV.\n\nTHE MUSHROOM.\n\nXXVI.\n\nTHE STORM.\n\nXXVII.\n\nTHE SPIDER.\n\nXXVIII.\n\nXXIX.\n\nXXX.\n\nXXXI.\n\nXXXII.\n\nGOSSIP.\n\nXXXIII.\n\nSIMPLICITY.\n\nXXXIV.\n\nSTORM.\n\nXXXV.\n\nTHE RAT.\n\nXXXVI.\n\nXXXVII.\n\nA THUNDER-STORM.\n\nXXXVIII.\n\nWITH FLOWERS.\n\nXXXIX.\n\nSUNSET.\n\nXL.\n\nXLI.\n\nXLII.\n\nPROBLEMS.\n\nXLIII.\n\nTHE JUGGLER OF DAY.\n\nXLIV.\n\nMY CRICKET.\n\nXLV.\n\nXLVI.\n\nXLVII.\n\nSUMMER'S OBSEQUIES.\n\nXLVIII.\n\nFRINGED GENTIAN.\n\nXLIX.\n\nNOVEMBER.\n\nL.\n\nTHE SNOW.\n\nLI.\n\nTHE BLUE JAY.\n\nIV.\n\nTIME AND ETERNITY.\n\nI.\n\nII.\n\nIII.\n\nIV.\n\nEPITAPH.\n\nV.\n\nVI.\n\nVII.\n\nVIII.\n\nIX.\n\nTHE BATTLE-FIELD.\n\nX.\n\nXI.\n\nXII.\n\nXIII.\n\nMEMORIALS.\n\nXIV.\n\nXV.\n\nXVI.\n\nXVII.\n\nTRIUMPH.\n\nXVIII.\n\nXIX.\n\nXX.\n\nFOLLOWING.\n\nXXI.\n\nXXII.\n\nTHE JOURNEY.\n\nXXIII.\n\nA COUNTRY BURIAL.\n\nXXIV.\n\nGOING.\n\nXXV.\n\nXXVI.\n\nXXVII.\n\nXXVIII.\n\nAT LENGTH.\n\nXXIX.\n\nGHOSTS.\n\nXXX.\n\nVANISHED.\n\nXXXI.\n\nPRECEDENCE.\n\nXXXII.\n\nGONE.\n\nXXXIII.\n\nREQUIEM.\n\nXXXIV.\n\nXXXV.\n\nXXXVI.\n\nTILL THE END.\n\nXXXVII.\n\nVOID.\n\nXXXVIII.\n\nXXXIX.\n\nSAVED!\n\nXL.\n\nXLI.\n\nTHE FORGOTTEN GRAVE.\n**_POEMS : SERIES THREE_**\n\n_The first edition_\n\n_For the Contents table, click here._\n**POEMS**\n\nThird Series\n\nEdited by\n\n**MABEL LOOMIS TODD**\n\nIt's all I have to bring to-day,  \nThis, and my heart beside,  \nThis, and my heart, and all the fields,  \nAnd all the meadows wide.  \nBe sure you count, should I forget, \u2014   \nSome one the sum could tell, \u2014   \nThis, and my heart, and all the bees  \nWhich in the clover dwell.\n**PREFACE.**\n\nThe intellectual activity of Emily Dickinson was so great that a large and characteristic choice is still possible among her literary material, and this third volume of her verses is put forth in response to the repeated wish of the admirers of her peculiar genius. Much of Emily Dickinson's prose was rhythmic, \u2014 even rhymed, though frequently not set apart in lines.\n\nAlso many verses, written as such, were sent to friends in letters; these were published in 1894, in the volumes of her _Letters_. It has not been necessary, however, to include them in this Series, and all have been omitted, except three or four exceptionally strong ones, as \"A Book,\" and \"With Flowers.\"\n\nThere is internal evidence that many of the poems were simply spontaneous flashes of insight, apparently unrelated to outward circumstance. Others, however, had an obvious personal origin; for example, the verses \"I had a Guinea golden,\" which seem to have been sent to some friend travelling in Europe, as a dainty reminder of letter-writing delinquencies. The surroundings in which any of Emily Dickinson's verses are known to have been written usually serve to explain them clearly; but in general the present volume is full of thoughts needing no interpretation to those who apprehend this scintillating spirit.\n\n**M. L. T.**\n\nAMHERST, _October_ , 1896.\n**I. LIFE.**\n\n**I.**\n\n**REAL RICHES.**\n\n'T is little I could care for pearls  \nWho own the ample sea;  \nOr brooches, when the Emperor  \nWith rubies pelteth me;\n\nOr gold, who am the Prince of Mines;  \nOr diamonds, when I see  \nA diadem to fit a dome  \nContinual crowning me.\n\n**II.**\n\n**SUPERIORITY TO FATE.**\n\nSuperiority to fate  \nIs difficult to learn.  \n'T is not conferred by any,  \nBut possible to earn\n\nA pittance at a time,  \nUntil, to her surprise,  \nThe soul with strict economy  \nSubsists till Paradise.\n\n**III.**\n\n**HOPE.**\n\nHope is a subtle glutton;  \nHe feeds upon the fair;  \nAnd yet, inspected closely,  \nWhat abstinence is there!\n\nHis is the halcyon table  \nThat never seats but one,  \nAnd whatsoever is consumed  \nThe same amounts remain.\n\n**IV.**\n\n**FORBIDDEN FRUIT.**\n\n**I.**\n\nForbidden fruit a flavor has  \nThat lawful orchards mocks;  \nHow luscious lies the pea within  \nThe pod that Duty locks!\n\n**V.**\n\n**FORBIDDEN FRUIT.**\n\n**II.**\n\nHeaven is what I cannot reach!  \nThe apple on the tree,  \nProvided it do hopeless hang,  \nThat 'heaven' is, to me.\n\nThe color on the cruising cloud,  \nThe interdicted ground  \nBehind the hill, the house behind, \u2014   \nThere Paradise is found!\n\n**VI.**\n\n**A WORD.**\n\nA word is dead  \nWhen it is said,  \nSome say.  \nI say it just  \nBegins to live  \nThat day.\n\n**VII.**\n\nTo venerate the simple days  \nWhich lead the seasons by,  \nNeeds but to remember  \nThat from you or me  \nThey may take the trifle  \nTermed mortality!\n\nTo invest existence with a stately air,  \nNeeds but to remember  \nThat the acorn there  \nIs the egg of forests  \nFor the upper air!\n\n**VIII.**\n\n**LIFE'S TRADES.**\n\nIt's such a little thing to weep,  \nSo short a thing to sigh;  \nAnd yet by trades the size of these  \nWe men and women die!\n\n**IX.**\n\nDrowning is not so pitiful  \nAs the attempt to rise.  \nThree times, 't is said, a sinking man  \nComes up to face the skies,  \nAnd then declines forever  \nTo that abhorred abode  \nWhere hope and he part company, \u2014   \nFor he is grasped of God.  \nThe Maker's cordial visage,  \nHowever good to see,  \nIs shunned, we must admit it,  \nLike an adversity.\n\n**X.**\n\nHow still the bells in steeples stand,  \nTill, swollen with the sky,  \nThey leap upon their silver feet  \nIn frantic melody!\n\n**XI.**\n\nIf the foolish call them 'flowers,'  \nNeed the wiser tell?  \nIf the savans 'classify' them,  \nIt is just as well!\n\nThose who read the Revelations  \nMust not criticise  \nThose who read the same edition  \nWith beclouded eyes!\n\nCould we stand with that old Moses  \nCanaan denied, \u2014   \nScan, like him, the stately landscape  \nOn the other side, \u2014\n\nDoubtless we should deem superfluous  \nMany sciences  \nNot pursued by learn\u00e8d angels  \nIn scholastic skies!\n\nLow amid that glad _Belles lettres_  \nGrant that we may stand,  \nStars, amid profound Galaxies,  \nAt that grand 'Right hand'!\n\n**XII.**\n\n**A SYLLABLE.**\n\nCould mortal lip divine  \nThe undeveloped freight  \nOf a delivered syllable,  \n'T would crumble with the weight.\n\n**XIII.**\n\n**PARTING.**\n\nMy life closed twice before its close;  \nIt yet remains to see  \nIf Immortality unveil  \nA third event to me,\n\nSo huge, so hopeless to conceive,  \nAs these that twice befell.  \nParting is all we know of heaven,  \nAnd all we need of hell.\n\n**XIV.**\n\n**ASPIRATION.**\n\nWe never know how high we are  \nTill we are called to rise;  \nAnd then, if we are true to plan,  \nOur statures touch the skies.\n\nThe heroism we recite  \nWould be a daily thing,  \nDid not ourselves the cubits warp  \nFor fear to be a king.\n\n**XV.**\n\n**THE INEVITABLE.**\n\nWhile I was fearing it, it came,  \nBut came with less of fear,  \nBecause that fearing it so long  \nHad almost made it dear.  \nThere is a fitting a dismay,  \nA fitting a despair.  \n'Tis harder knowing it is due,  \nThan knowing it is here.  \nThe trying on the utmost,  \nThe morning it is new,  \nIs terribler than wearing it  \nA whole existence through.\n\n**XVI.**\n\n**A BOOK.**\n\nThere is no frigate like a book  \nTo take us lands away,  \nNor any coursers like a page  \nOf prancing poetry.  \nThis traverse may the poorest take  \nWithout oppress of toll;  \nHow frugal is the chariot  \nThat bears a human soul!\n\n**XVII.**\n\nWho has not found the heaven below  \nWill fail of it above.  \nGod's residence is next to mine,  \nHis furniture is love.\n\n**XVIII.**\n\n**A PORTRAIT.**\n\nA face devoid of love or grace,  \nA hateful, hard, successful face,  \nA face with which a stone  \nWould feel as thoroughly at ease  \nAs were they old acquaintances, \u2014   \nFirst time together thrown.\n\n**XIX.**\n\n**I HAD A GUINEA GOLDEN.**\n\nI had a guinea golden;  \nI lost it in the sand,  \nAnd though the sum was simple,  \nAnd pounds were in the land,  \nStill had it such a value  \nUnto my frugal eye,  \nThat when I could not find it  \nI sat me down to sigh.\n\nI had a crimson robin  \nWho sang full many a day,  \nBut when the woods were painted  \nHe, too, did fly away.  \nTime brought me other robins, \u2014   \nTheir ballads were the same, \u2014   \nStill for my missing troubadour  \nI kept the 'house at hame.'\n\nI had a star in heaven;  \nOne Pleiad was its name,  \nAnd when I was not heeding  \nIt wandered from the same.  \nAnd though the skies are crowded,  \nAnd all the night ashine,  \nI do not care about it,  \nSince none of them are mine.\n\nMy story has a moral:  \nI have a missing friend, \u2014   \nPleiad its name, and robin,  \nAnd guinea in the sand, \u2014   \nAnd when this mournful ditty,  \nAccompanied with tear,  \nShall meet the eye of traitor  \nIn country far from here,  \nGrant that repentance solemn  \nMay seize upon his mind,  \nAnd he no consolation  \nBeneath the sun may find.\n\nNOTE. \u2014 This poem may have had, like many others, a personal origin. It is more than probable that it was sent to some friend travelling in Europe, a dainty reminder of letter-writing delinquencies.\n\n**XX.**\n\n**SATURDAY AFTERNOON.**\n\nFrom all the jails the boys and girls  \nEcstatically leap, \u2014   \nBeloved, only afternoon  \nThat prison doesn't keep.\n\nThey storm the earth and stun the air,  \nA mob of solid bliss.  \nAlas! that frowns could lie in wait  \nFor such a foe as this!\n\n**XXI.**\n\nFew get enough, \u2014 enough is one;  \nTo that ethereal throng  \nHave not each one of us the right  \nTo stealthily belong?\n\n**XXII.**\n\nUpon the gallows hung a wretch,  \nToo sullied for the hell  \nTo which the law entitled him.  \nAs nature's curtain fell  \nThe one who bore him tottered in,  \nFor this was woman's son.  \n''T was all I had,' she stricken gasped;  \nOh, what a livid boon!\n\n**XXIII.**\n\n**THE LOST THOUGHT.**\n\nI felt a clearing in my mind  \nAs if my brain had split;  \nI tried to match it, seam by seam,  \nBut could not make them fit.\n\nThe thought behind I strove to join  \nUnto the thought before,  \nBut sequence ravelled out of reach  \nLike balls upon a floor.\n\n**XXIV.**\n\n**RETICENCE.**\n\nThe reticent volcano keeps  \nHis never slumbering plan;  \nConfided are his projects pink  \nTo no precarious man.\n\nIf nature will not tell the tale  \nJehovah told to her,  \nCan human nature not survive  \nWithout a listener?\n\nAdmonished by her buckled lips  \nLet every babbler be.  \nThe only secret people keep  \nIs Immortality.\n\n**XXV.**\n\n**WITH FLOWERS.**\n\nIf recollecting were forgetting,  \nThen I remember not;  \nAnd if forgetting, recollecting,  \nHow near I had forgot!  \nAnd if to miss were merry,  \nAnd if to mourn were gay,  \nHow very blithe the fingers  \nThat gathered these to-day!\n\n**XXVI.**\n\nThe farthest thunder that I heard  \nWas nearer than the sky,  \nAnd rumbles still, though torrid noons  \nHave lain their missiles by.  \nThe lightning that preceded it  \nStruck no one but myself,  \nBut I would not exchange the bolt  \nFor all the rest of life.  \nIndebtedness to oxygen  \nThe chemist may repay,  \nBut not the obligation  \nTo electricity.  \nIt founds the homes and decks the days,  \nAnd every clamor bright  \nIs but the gleam concomitant  \nOf that waylaying light.  \nThe thought is quiet as a flake, \u2014   \nA crash without a sound;  \nHow life's reverberation  \nIts explanation found!\n\n**XXVII.**\n\nOn the bleakness of my lot  \nBloom I strove to raise.  \nLate, my acre of a rock  \nYielded grape and maize.\n\nSoil of flint if steadfast tilled  \nWill reward the hand;  \nSeed of palm by Lybian sun  \nFructified in sand.\n\n**XXVIII.**\n\n**CONTRAST.**\n\nA door just opened on a street \u2014   \nI, lost, was passing by \u2014   \nAn instant's width of warmth disclosed,  \nAnd wealth, and company.\n\nThe door as sudden shut, and I,  \nI, lost, was passing by, \u2014   \nLost doubly, but by contrast most,  \nEnlightening misery.\n\n**XXIX.**\n\n**FRIENDS.**\n\nAre friends delight or pain?  \nCould bounty but remain  \nRiches were good.\n\nBut if they only stay  \nBolder to fly away,  \nRiches are sad.\n\n**XXX.**\n\n**FIRE.**\n\nAshes denote that fire was;  \nRespect the grayest pile  \nFor the departed creature's sake  \nThat hovered there awhile.\n\nFire exists the first in light,  \nAnd then consolidates, \u2014   \nOnly the chemist can disclose  \nInto what carbonates.\n\n**XXXI.**\n\n**A MAN.**\n\nFate slew him, but he did not drop;  \nShe felled \u2014 he did not fall \u2014   \nImpaled him on her fiercest stakes \u2014   \nHe neutralized them all.\n\nShe stung him, sapped his firm advance,  \nBut, when her worst was done,  \nAnd he, unmoved, regarded her,  \nAcknowledged him a man.\n\n**XXXII.**\n\n**VENTURES.**\n\nFinite to fail, but infinite to venture.  \nFor the one ship that struts the shore  \nMany's the gallant, overwhelmed creature  \nNodding in navies nevermore.\n\n**XXXIII.**\n\n**GRIEFS.**\n\nI measure every grief I meet  \nWith analytic eyes;  \nI wonder if it weighs like mine,  \nOr has an easier size.\n\nI wonder if they bore it long,  \nOr did it just begin?  \nI could not tell the date of mine,  \nIt feels so old a pain.\n\nI wonder if it hurts to live,  \nAnd if they have to try,  \nAnd whether, could they choose between,  \nThey would not rather die.\n\nI wonder if when years have piled \u2014   \nSome thousands \u2014 on the cause  \nOf early hurt, if such a lapse  \nCould give them any pause;\n\nOr would they go on aching still  \nThrough centuries above,  \nEnlightened to a larger pain  \nBy contrast with the love.\n\nThe grieved are many, I am told;  \nThe reason deeper lies, \u2014   \nDeath is but one and comes but once,  \nAnd only nails the eyes.\n\nThere's grief of want, and grief of cold, \u2014   \nA sort they call 'despair;'  \nThere's banishment from native eyes,  \nIn sight of native air.\n\nAnd though I may not guess the kind  \nCorrectly, yet to me  \nA piercing comfort it affords  \nIn passing Calvary,\n\nTo note the fashions of the cross,  \nOf those that stand alone,  \nStill fascinated to presume  \nThat some are like my own.\n\n**XXXIV.**\n\nI have a king who does not speak;  \nSo, wondering, thro' the hours meek  \nI trudge the day away, \u2014   \nHalf glad when it is night and sleep,  \nIf, haply, thro' a dream to peep  \nIn parlors shut by day.\n\nAnd if I do, when morning comes,  \nIt is as if a hundred drums  \nDid round my pillow roll,  \nAnd shouts fill all my childish sky,  \nAnd bells keep saying 'victory'  \nFrom steeples in my soul!\n\nAnd if I don't, the little Bird  \nWithin the Orchard is not heard,  \nAnd I omit to pray,  \n'Father, thy will be done' to-day,  \nFor my will goes the other way,  \nAnd it were perjury!\n\n**XXXV.**\n\n**DISENCHANTMENT.**\n\nIt dropped so low in my regard  \nI heard it hit the ground,  \nAnd go to pieces on the stones  \nAt bottom of my mind;\n\nYet blamed the fate that fractured, less  \nThan I reviled myself  \nFor entertaining plated wares  \nUpon my silver shelf.\n\n**XXXVI.**\n\n**LOST FAITH.**\n\nTo lose one's faith surpasses  \nThe loss of an estate,  \nBecause estates can be  \nReplenished, \u2014 faith cannot.\n\nInherited with life,  \nBelief but once can be;  \nAnnihilate a single clause,  \nAnd Being's beggary.\n\n**XXXVII.**\n\n**LOST JOY.**\n\nI had a daily bliss  \nI half indifferent viewed,  \nTill sudden I perceived it stir, \u2014   \nIt grew as I pursued,\n\nTill when, around a crag,  \nIt wasted from my sight,  \nEnlarged beyond my utmost scope,  \nI learned its sweetness right.\n\n**XXXVIII.**\n\nI worked for chaff, and earning wheat  \nWas haughty and betrayed.  \nWhat right had fields to arbitrate  \nIn matters ratified?\n\nI tasted wheat, \u2014 and hated chaff,  \nAnd thanked the ample friend;  \nWisdom is more becoming viewed  \nAt distance than at hand.\n\n**XXXIX.**\n\nLife, and Death, and Giants  \nSuch as these, are still.  \nMinor apparatus, hopper of the mill,  \nBeetle at the candle,  \nOr a fife's small fame,  \nMaintain by accident  \nThat they proclaim.\n\n**XL.**\n\n**ALPINE GLOW.**\n\nOur lives are Swiss, \u2014   \nSo still, so cool,  \nTill, some odd afternoon,  \nThe Alps neglect their curtains,  \nAnd we look farther on.\n\nItaly stands the other side,  \nWhile, like a guard between,  \nThe solemn Alps,  \nThe siren Alps,  \nForever intervene!\n\n**XLI.**\n\n**REMEMBRANCE.**\n\nRemembrance has a rear and front, \u2014   \n'T is something like a house;  \nIt has a garret also  \nFor refuse and the mouse,\n\nBesides, the deepest cellar  \nThat ever mason hewed;  \nLook to it, by its fathoms  \nOurselves be not pursued.\n\n**XLII.**\n\nTo hang our head ostensibly,  \nAnd subsequent to find  \nThat such was not the posture  \nOf our immortal mind,\n\nAffords the sly presumption  \nThat, in so dense a fuzz,  \nYou, too, take cobweb attitudes  \nUpon a plane of gauze!\n\n**XLIII.**\n\n**THE BRAIN.**\n\nThe brain is wider than the sky,  \nFor, put them side by side,  \nThe one the other will include  \nWith ease, and you beside.\n\nThe brain is deeper than the sea,  \nFor, hold them, blue to blue,  \nThe one the other will absorb,  \nAs sponges, buckets do.\n\nThe brain is just the weight of God,  \nFor, lift them, pound for pound,  \nAnd they will differ, if they do,  \nAs syllable from sound.\n\n**XLIV.**\n\nThe bone that has no marrow;  \nWhat ultimate for that?  \nIt is not fit for table,  \nFor beggar, or for cat.\n\nA bone has obligations,  \nA being has the same;  \nA marrowless assembly  \nIs culpabler than shame.\n\nBut how shall finished creatures  \nA function fresh obtain? \u2014   \nOld Nicodemus' phantom  \nConfronting us again!\n\n**XLV.**\n\n**THE PAST.**\n\nThe past is such a curious creature,  \nTo look her in the face  \nA transport may reward us,  \nOr a disgrace.\n\nUnarmed if any meet her,  \nI charge him, fly!  \nHer rusty ammunition  \nMight yet reply!\n\n**XLVI.**\n\nTo help our bleaker parts  \nSalubrious hours are given,  \nWhich if they do not fit for earth  \nDrill silently for heaven.\n\n**XLVII.**\n\nWhat soft, cherubic creatures  \nThese gentlewomen are!  \nOne would as soon assault a plush  \nOr violate a star.\n\nSuch dimity convictions,  \nA horror so refined  \nOf freckled human nature,  \nOf Deity ashamed, \u2014\n\nIt's such a common glory,  \nA fisherman's degree!  \nRedemption, brittle lady,  \nBe so, ashamed of thee.\n\n**XLVIII.**\n\n**DESIRE.**\n\nWho never wanted, \u2014 maddest joy  \nRemains to him unknown:  \nThe banquet of abstemiousness  \nSurpasses that of wine.\n\nWithin its hope, though yet ungrasped  \nDesire's perfect goal,  \nNo nearer, lest reality  \nShould disenthrall thy soul.\n\n**XLIX.**\n\n**PHILOSOPHY.**\n\nIt might be easier  \nTo fail with land in sight,  \nThan gain my blue peninsula  \nTo perish of delight.\n\n**L.**\n\n**POWER.**\n\nYou cannot put a fire out;  \nA thing that can ignite  \nCan go, itself, without a fan  \nUpon the slowest night.\n\nYou cannot fold a flood  \nAnd put it in a drawer, \u2014   \nBecause the winds would find it out,  \nAnd tell your cedar floor.\n\n**LI.**\n\nA modest lot, a fame petite,  \nA brief campaign of sting and sweet  \nIs plenty! Is enough!  \nA sailor's business is the shore,  \nA soldier's \u2014 balls. Who asketh more  \nMust seek the neighboring life!\n\n**LII.**\n\nIs bliss, then, such abyss  \nI must not put my foot amiss  \nFor fear I spoil my shoe?\n\nI'd rather suit my foot  \nThan save my boot,  \nFor yet to buy another pair  \nIs possible  \nAt any fair.\n\nBut bliss is sold just once;  \nThe patent lost  \nNone buy it any more.\n\n**LIII.**\n\n**EXPERIENCE.**\n\nI stepped from plank to plank  \nSo slow and cautiously;  \nThe stars about my head I felt,  \nAbout my feet the sea.\n\nI knew not but the next  \nWould be my final inch, \u2014   \nThis gave me that precarious gait  \nSome call experience.\n\n**LIV.**\n\n**THANKSGIVING DAY.**\n\nOne day is there of the series  \nTermed Thanksgiving day,  \nCelebrated part at table,  \nPart in memory.\n\nNeither patriarch nor pussy,  \nI dissect the play;  \nSeems it, to my hooded thinking,  \nReflex holiday.\n\nHad there been no sharp subtraction  \nFrom the early sum,  \nNot an acre or a caption  \nWhere was once a room,\n\nNot a mention, whose small pebble  \nWrinkled any bay, \u2014   \nUnto such, were such assembly,  \n'T were Thanksgiving day.\n\n**LV.**\n\n**CHILDISH GRIEFS.**\n\nSoftened by Time's consummate plush,  \nHow sleek the woe appears  \nThat threatened childhood's citadel  \nAnd undermined the years!\n\nBisected now by bleaker griefs,  \nWe envy the despair  \nThat devastated childhood's realm,  \nSo easy to repair.\n\n**II. LOVE.**\n\n**I.**\n\n**CONSECRATION.**\n\nProud of my broken heart since thou didst break it,  \nProud of the pain I did not feel till thee,  \nProud of my night since thou with moons dost slake it,  \nNot to partake thy passion, my humility.\n\n**II.**\n\n**LOVE'S HUMILITY.**\n\nMy worthiness is all my doubt,  \nHis merit all my fear,  \nContrasting which, my qualities  \nDo lowlier appear;\n\nLest I should insufficient prove  \nFor his beloved need,  \nThe chiefest apprehension  \nWithin my loving creed.\n\nSo I, the undivine abode  \nOf his elect content,  \nConform my soul as 't were a church  \nUnto her sacrament.\n\n**III.**\n\n**LOVE.**\n\nLove is anterior to life,  \nPosterior to death,  \nInitial of creation, and  \nThe exponent of breath.\n\n**IV.**\n\n**SATISFIED.**\n\nOne blessing had I, than the rest  \nSo larger to my eyes  \nThat I stopped gauging, satisfied,  \nFor this enchanted size.\n\nIt was the limit of my dream,  \nThe focus of my prayer, \u2014   \nA perfect, paralyzing bliss  \nContented as despair.\n\nI knew no more of want or cold,  \nPhantasms both become,  \nFor this new value in the soul,  \nSupremest earthly sum.\n\nThe heaven below the heaven above  \nObscured with ruddier hue.  \nLife's latitude leant over-full;  \nThe judgment perished, too.\n\nWhy joys so scantily disburse,  \nWhy Paradise defer,  \nWhy floods are served to us in bowls, \u2014   \nI speculate no more.\n\n**V.**\n\n**WITH A FLOWER.**\n\nWhen roses cease to bloom, dear,  \nAnd violets are done,  \nWhen bumble-bees in solemn flight  \nHave passed beyond the sun,\n\nThe hand that paused to gather  \nUpon this summer's day  \nWill idle lie, in Auburn, \u2014   \nThen take my flower, pray!\n\n**VI.**\n\n**SONG.**\n\nSummer for thee grant I may be  \nWhen summer days are flown!  \nThy music still when whippoorwill  \nAnd oriole are done!\n\nFor thee to bloom, I'll skip the tomb  \nAnd sow my blossoms o'er!  \nPray gather me, Anemone,  \nThy flower forevermore!\n\n**VII.**\n\n**LOYALTY.**\n\nSplit the lark and you'll find the music,  \nBulb after bulb, in silver rolled,  \nScantily dealt to the summer morning,  \nSaved for your ear when lutes be old.\n\nLoose the flood, you shall find it patent,  \nGush after gush, reserved for you;  \nScarlet experiment! sceptic Thomas,  \nNow, do you doubt that your bird was true?\n\n**VIII.**\n\nTo lose thee, sweeter than to gain  \nAll other hearts I knew.  \n'T is true the drought is destitute,  \nBut then I had the dew!\n\nThe Caspian has its realms of sand,  \nIts other realm of sea;  \nWithout the sterile perquisite  \nNo Caspian could be.\n\n**IX.**\n\nPoor little heart!  \nDid they forget thee?  \nThen dinna care! Then dinna care!\n\nProud little heart!  \nDid they forsake thee?  \nBe debonair! Be debonair!\n\nFrail little heart!  \nI would not break thee:  \nCould'st credit me? Could'st credit me?\n\nGay little heart!  \nLike morning glory  \nThou'll wilted be; thou'll wilted be!\n\n**X.**\n\n**FORGOTTEN.**\n\nThere is a word  \nWhich bears a sword  \nCan pierce an armed man.  \nIt hurls its barbed syllables, \u2014   \nAt once is mute again.  \nBut where it fell  \nThe saved will tell  \nOn patriotic day,  \nSome epauletted brother  \nGave his breath away.\n\nWherever runs the breathless sun,  \nWherever roams the day,  \nThere is its noiseless onset,  \nThere is its victory!\n\nBehold the keenest marksman!  \nThe most accomplished shot!  \nTime's sublimest target  \nIs a soul 'forgot'!\n\n**XI.**\n\nI've got an arrow here;  \nLoving the hand that sent it,  \nI the dart revere.\n\nFell, they will say, in 'skirmish'!  \nVanquished, my soul will know,  \nBy but a simple arrow  \nSped by an archer's bow.\n\n**XII.**\n\n**THE MASTER.**\n\nHe fumbles at your spirit  \nAs players at the keys  \nBefore they drop full music on;  \nHe stuns you by degrees,\n\nPrepares your brittle substance  \nFor the ethereal blow,  \nBy fainter hammers, further heard,  \nThen nearer, then so slow\n\nYour breath has time to straighten,  \nYour brain to bubble cool, \u2014   \nDeals one imperial thunderbolt  \nThat scalps your naked soul.\n\n**XIII.**\n\nHeart, we will forget him!  \nYou and I, to-night!  \nYou may forget the warmth he gave,  \nI will forget the light.\n\nWhen you have done, pray tell me,  \nThat I my thoughts may dim;  \nHaste! lest while you're lagging,  \nI may remember him!\n\n**XIV.**\n\nFather, I bring thee not myself, \u2014   \nThat were the little load;  \nI bring thee the imperial heart  \nI had not strength to hold.\n\nThe heart I cherished in my own  \nTill mine too heavy grew,  \nYet strangest, heavier since it went,  \nIs it too large for you?\n\n**XV.**\n\nWe outgrow love like other things  \nAnd put it in the drawer,  \nTill it an antique fashion shows  \nLike costumes grandsires wore.\n\n**XVI.**\n\nNot with a club the heart is broken,  \nNor with a stone;  \nA whip, so small you could not see it.  \nI've known\n\nTo lash the magic creature  \nTill it fell,  \nYet that whip's name too noble  \nThen to tell.\n\nMagnanimous of bird  \nBy boy descried,  \nTo sing unto the stone  \nOf which it died.\n\n**XVII.**\n\n**WHO?**\n\nMy friend must be a bird,  \nBecause it flies!  \nMortal my friend must be,  \nBecause it dies!  \nBarbs has it, like a bee.  \nAh, curious friend,  \nThou puzzlest me!\n\n**XVIII.**\n\nHe touched me, so I live to know  \nThat such a day, permitted so,  \nI groped upon his breast.  \nIt was a boundless place to me,  \nAnd silenced, as the awful sea  \nPuts minor streams to rest.\n\nAnd now, I'm different from before,  \nAs if I breathed superior air,  \nOr brushed a royal gown;  \nMy feet, too, that had wandered so,  \nMy gypsy face transfigured now  \nTo tenderer renown.\n\n**XIX.**\n\n**DREAMS.**\n\nLet me not mar that perfect dream  \nBy an auroral stain,  \nBut so adjust my daily night  \nThat it will come again.\n\n**XX.**\n\n**NUMEN LUMEN.**\n\nI live with him, I see his face;  \nI go no more away  \nFor visitor, or sundown;  \nDeath's single privacy,\n\nThe only one forestalling mine,  \nAnd that by right that he  \nPresents a claim invisible,  \nNo wedlock granted me.\n\nI live with him, I hear his voice,  \nI stand alive to-day  \nTo witness to the certainty  \nOf immortality\n\nTaught me by Time, \u2014 the lower way,  \nConviction every day, \u2014   \nThat life like this is endless,  \nBe judgment what it may.\n\n**XXI.**\n\n**LONGING.**\n\nI envy seas whereon he rides,  \nI envy spokes of wheels  \nOf chariots that him convey,  \nI envy speechless hills\n\nThat gaze upon his journey;  \nHow easy all can see  \nWhat is forbidden utterly  \nAs heaven, unto me!\n\nI envy nests of sparrows  \nThat dot his distant eaves,  \nThe wealthy fly upon his pane,  \nThe happy, happy leaves\n\nThat just abroad his window  \nHave summer's leave to be,  \nThe earrings of Pizarro  \nCould not obtain for me.\n\nI envy light that wakes him,  \nAnd bells that boldly ring  \nTo tell him it is noon abroad, \u2014   \nMyself his noon could bring,\n\nYet interdict my blossom  \nAnd abrogate my bee,  \nLest noon in everlasting night  \nDrop Gabriel and me.\n\n**XXII.**\n\n**WEDDED.**\n\nA solemn thing it was, I said,  \nA woman white to be,  \nAnd wear, if God should count me fit,  \nHer hallowed mystery.\n\nA timid thing to drop a life  \nInto the purple well,  \nToo plummetless that it come back  \nEternity until.\n\n**III. NATURE.**\n\n**I.**\n\n**NATURE'S CHANGES.**\n\nThe springtime's pallid landscape  \nWill glow like bright bouquet,  \nThough drifted deep in parian  \nThe village lies to-day.\n\nThe lilacs, bending many a year,  \nWith purple load will hang;  \nThe bees will not forget the tune  \nTheir old forefathers sang.\n\nThe rose will redden in the bog,  \nThe aster on the hill  \nHer everlasting fashion set,  \nAnd covenant gentians frill,\n\nTill summer folds her miracle  \nAs women do their gown,  \nOr priests adjust the symbols  \nWhen sacrament is done.\n\n**II.**\n\n**THE TULIP.**\n\nShe slept beneath a tree  \nRemembered but by me.  \nI touched her cradle mute;  \nShe recognized the foot,  \nPut on her carmine suit, \u2014   \nAnd see!\n\n**III.**\n\nA light exists in spring  \nNot present on the year  \nAt any other period.  \nWhen March is scarcely here\n\nA color stands abroad  \nOn solitary hills  \nThat science cannot overtake,  \nBut human nature feels.\n\nIt waits upon the lawn;  \nIt shows the furthest tree  \nUpon the furthest slope we know;  \nIt almost speaks to me.\n\nThen, as horizons step,  \nOr noons report away,  \nWithout the formula of sound,  \nIt passes, and we stay:\n\nA quality of loss  \nAffecting our content,  \nAs trade had suddenly encroached  \nUpon a sacrament.\n\n**IV.**\n\n**THE WAKING YEAR.**\n\nA lady red upon the hill  \nHer annual secret keeps;  \nA lady white within the field  \nIn placid lily sleeps!\n\nThe tidy breezes with their brooms  \nSweep vale, and hill, and tree!  \nPrithee, my pretty housewives!  \nWho may expected be?\n\nThe neighbors do not yet suspect!  \nThe woods exchange a smile \u2014   \nOrchard, and buttercup, and bird \u2014   \nIn such a little while!\n\nAnd yet how still the landscape stands,  \nHow nonchalant the wood,  \nAs if the resurrection  \nWere nothing very odd!\n\n**V.**\n\n**TO MARCH.**\n\nDear March, come in!  \nHow glad I am!  \nI looked for you before.  \nPut down your hat \u2014   \nYou must have walked \u2014   \nHow out of breath you are!  \nDear March, how are you?  \nAnd the rest?  \nDid you leave Nature well?  \nOh, March, come right upstairs with me,  \nI have so much to tell!\n\nI got your letter, and the birds';  \nThe maples never knew  \nThat you were coming, \u2014 I declare,  \nHow red their faces grew!  \nBut, March, forgive me \u2014   \nAnd all those hills  \nYou left for me to hue;  \nThere was no purple suitable,  \nYou took it all with you.\n\nWho knocks? That April!  \nLock the door!  \nI will not be pursued!  \nHe stayed away a year, to call  \nWhen I am occupied.  \nBut trifles look so trivial  \nAs soon as you have come,  \nThat blame is just as dear as praise  \nAnd praise as mere as blame.\n\n**VI.**\n\n**MARCH.**\n\nWe like March, his shoes are purple,  \nHe is new and high;  \nMakes he mud for dog and peddler,  \nMakes he forest dry;  \nKnows the adder's tongue his coming,  \nAnd begets her spot.  \nStands the sun so close and mighty  \nThat our minds are hot.  \nNews is he of all the others;  \nBold it were to die  \nWith the blue-birds buccaneering  \nOn his British sky.\n\n**VII.**\n\n**DAWN.**\n\nNot knowing when the dawn will come  \nI open every door;  \nOr has it feathers like a bird,  \nOr billows like a shore?\n\n**VIII.**\n\nA murmur in the trees to note,  \nNot loud enough for wind;  \nA star not far enough to seek,  \nNor near enough to find;\n\nA long, long yellow on the lawn,  \nA hubbub as of feet;  \nNot audible, as ours to us,  \nBut dapperer, more sweet;\n\nA hurrying home of little men  \nTo houses unperceived, \u2014   \nAll this, and more, if I should tell,  \nWould never be believed.\n\nOf robins in the trundle bed  \nHow many I espy  \nWhose nightgowns could not hide the wings,  \nAlthough I heard them try!\n\nBut then I promised ne'er to tell;  \nHow could I break my word?  \nSo go your way and I'll go mine, \u2014   \nNo fear you'll miss the road.\n\n**IX.**\n\nMorning is the place for dew,  \nCorn is made at noon,  \nAfter dinner light for flowers,  \nDukes for setting sun!\n\n**X.**\n\nTo my quick ear the leaves conferred;  \nThe bushes they were bells;  \nI could not find a privacy  \nFrom Nature's sentinels.\n\nIn cave if I presumed to hide,  \nThe walls began to tell;  \nCreation seemed a mighty crack  \nTo make me visible.\n\n**XI.**\n\n**A ROSE.**\n\nA sepal, petal, and a thorn  \nUpon a common summer's morn,  \nA flash of dew, a bee or two,  \nA breeze  \nA caper in the trees, \u2014   \nAnd I'm a rose!\n\n**XII.**\n\nHigh from the earth I heard a bird;  \nHe trod upon the trees  \nAs he esteemed them trifles,  \nAnd then he spied a breeze,  \nAnd situated softly  \nUpon a pile of wind  \nWhich in a perturbation  \nNature had left behind.  \nA joyous-going fellow  \nI gathered from his talk,  \nWhich both of benediction  \nAnd badinage partook,  \nWithout apparent burden,  \nI learned, in leafy wood  \nHe was the faithful father  \nOf a dependent brood;  \nAnd this untoward transport  \nHis remedy for care, \u2014   \nA contrast to our respites.  \nHow different we are!\n\n**XIII.**\n\n**COBWEBS.**\n\nThe spider as an artist  \nHas never been employed  \nThough his surpassing merit  \nIs freely certified\n\nBy every broom and Bridget  \nThroughout a Christian land.  \nNeglected son of genius,  \nI take thee by the hand.\n\n**XIV.**\n\n**A WELL.**\n\nWhat mystery pervades a well!  \nThe water lives so far,  \nLike neighbor from another world  \nResiding in a jar.\n\nThe grass does not appear afraid;  \nI often wonder he  \nCan stand so close and look so bold  \nAt what is dread to me.\n\nRelated somehow they may be, \u2014   \nThe sedge stands next the sea,  \nWhere he is floorless, yet of fear  \nNo evidence gives he.\n\nBut nature is a stranger yet;  \nThe ones that cite her most  \nHave never passed her haunted house,  \nNor simplified her ghost.\n\nTo pity those that know her not  \nIs helped by the regret  \nThat those who know her, know her less  \nThe nearer her they get.\n\n**XV.**\n\nTo make a prairie it takes a clover and one bee, \u2014   \nOne clover, and a bee,  \nAnd revery.  \nThe revery alone will do  \nIf bees are few.\n\n**XVI.**\n\n**THE WIND.**\n\nIt's like the light, \u2014   \nA fashionless delight  \nIt's like the bee, \u2014   \nA dateless melody.\n\nIt's like the woods,  \nPrivate like breeze,  \nPhraseless, yet it stirs  \nThe proudest trees.\n\nIt's like the morning, \u2014   \nBest when it's done, \u2014   \nThe everlasting clocks  \nChime noon.\n\n**XVII.**\n\nA dew sufficed itself  \nAnd satisfied a leaf,  \nAnd felt, 'how vast a destiny!  \nHow trivial is life!'\n\nThe sun went out to work,  \nThe day went out to play,  \nBut not again that dew was seen  \nBy physiognomy.\n\nWhether by day abducted,  \nOr emptied by the sun  \nInto the sea, in passing,  \nEternally unknown.\n\n**XVIII.**\n\n**THE WOODPECKER.**\n\nHis bill an auger is,  \nHis head, a cap and frill.  \nHe laboreth at every tree, \u2014   \nA worm his utmost goal.\n\n**XIX.**\n\n**A SNAKE.**\n\nSweet is the swamp with its secrets,  \nUntil we meet a snake;  \n'T is then we sigh for houses,  \nAnd our departure take  \nAt that enthralling gallop  \nThat only childhood knows.  \nA snake is summer's treason,  \nAnd guile is where it goes.\n\n**XX.**\n\nCould I but ride indefinite,  \nAs doth the meadow-bee,  \nAnd visit only where I liked,  \nAnd no man visit me,\n\nAnd flirt all day with buttercups,  \nAnd marry whom I may,  \nAnd dwell a little everywhere,  \nOr better, run away\n\nWith no police to follow,  \nOr chase me if I do,  \nTill I should jump peninsulas  \nTo get away from you, \u2014\n\nI said, but just to be a bee  \nUpon a raft of air,  \nAnd row in nowhere all day long,  \nAnd anchor off the bar, \u2014   \nWhat liberty! So captives deem  \nWho tight in dungeons are.\n\n**XXI.**\n\n**THE MOON.**\n\nThe moon was but a chin of gold  \nA night or two ago,  \nAnd now she turns her perfect face  \nUpon the world below.\n\nHer forehead is of amplest blond;  \nHer cheek like beryl stone;  \nHer eye unto the summer dew  \nThe likest I have known.\n\nHer lips of amber never part;  \nBut what must be the smile  \nUpon her friend she could bestow  \nWere such her silver will!\n\nAnd what a privilege to be  \nBut the remotest star!  \nFor certainly her way might pass  \nBeside your twinkling door.\n\nHer bonnet is the firmament,  \nThe universe her shoe,  \nThe stars the trinkets at her belt,  \nHer dimities of blue.\n\n**XXII.**\n\n**THE BAT.**\n\nThe bat is dun with wrinkled wings  \nLike fallow article,  \nAnd not a song pervades his lips,  \nOr none perceptible.\n\nHis small umbrella, quaintly halved,  \nDescribing in the air  \nAn arc alike inscrutable, \u2014   \nElate philosopher!\n\nDeputed from what firmament  \nOf what astute abode,  \nEmpowered with what malevolence  \nAuspiciously withheld.\n\nTo his adroit Creator  \nAscribe no less the praise;  \nBeneficent, believe me,  \nHis eccentricities.\n\n**XXIII.**\n\n**THE BALLOON.**\n\nYou've seen balloons set, haven't you?  \nSo stately they ascend  \nIt is as swans discarded you  \nFor duties diamond.\n\nTheir liquid feet go softly out  \nUpon a sea of blond;  \nThey spurn the air as 't were too mean  \nFor creatures so renowned.\n\nTheir ribbons just beyond the eye,  \nThey struggle some for breath,  \nAnd yet the crowd applauds below;  \nThey would not encore death.\n\nThe gilded creature strains and spins,  \nTrips frantic in a tree,  \nTears open her imperial veins  \nAnd tumbles in the sea.\n\nThe crowd retire with an oath  \nThe dust in streets goes down,  \nAnd clerks in counting-rooms observe,  \n''T was only a balloon.'\n\n**XXIV.**\n\n**EVENING.**\n\nThe cricket sang,  \nAnd set the sun,  \nAnd workmen finished, one by one,  \nTheir seam the day upon.\n\nThe low grass loaded with the dew,  \nThe twilight stood as strangers do  \nWith hat in hand, polite and new,  \nTo stay as if, or go.\n\nA vastness, as a neighbor, came, \u2014   \nA wisdom without face or name,  \nA peace, as hemispheres at home, \u2014   \nAnd so the night became.\n\n**XXV.**\n\n**COCOON.**\n\nDrab habitation of whom?  \nTabernacle or tomb,  \nOr dome of worm,  \nOr porch of gnome,  \nOr some elf's catacomb?\n\n**XXVI.**\n\n**SUNSET.**\n\nA sloop of amber slips away  \nUpon an ether sea,  \nAnd wrecks in peace a purple tar,  \nThe son of ecstasy.\n\n**XXVII.**\n\n**AURORA.**\n\nOf bronze and blaze  \nThe north, to-night!  \nSo adequate its forms,  \nSo preconcerted with itself,  \nSo distant to alarms, \u2014   \nAn unconcern so sovereign  \nTo universe, or me,  \nIt paints my simple spirit  \nWith tints of majesty,  \nTill I take vaster attitudes,  \nAnd strut upon my stem,  \nDisdaining men and oxygen,  \nFor arrogance of them.\n\nMy splendors are menagerie;  \nBut their competeless show  \nWill entertain the centuries  \nWhen I am, long ago,  \nAn island in dishonored grass,  \nWhom none but daisies know.\n\n**XXVIII.**\n\n**THE COMING OF NIGHT.**\n\nHow the old mountains drip with sunset,  \nAnd the brake of dun!  \nHow the hemlocks are tipped in tinsel  \nBy the wizard sun!\n\nHow the old steeples hand the scarlet,  \nTill the ball is full, \u2014   \nHave I the lip of the flamingo  \nThat I dare to tell?\n\nThen, how the fire ebbs like billows,  \nTouching all the grass  \nWith a departing, sapphire feature,  \nAs if a duchess pass!\n\nHow a small dusk crawls on the village  \nTill the houses blot;  \nAnd the odd flambeaux no men carry  \nGlimmer on the spot!\n\nNow it is night in nest and kennel,  \nAnd where was the wood,  \nJust a dome of abyss is nodding  \nInto solitude! \u2014\n\nThese are the visions baffled Guido;  \nTitian never told;  \nDomenichino dropped the pencil,  \nPowerless to unfold.\n\n**XXIX.**\n\n**AFTERMATH.**\n\nThe murmuring of bees has ceased;  \nBut murmuring of some  \nPosterior, prophetic,  \nHas simultaneous come, \u2014\n\nThe lower metres of the year,  \nWhen nature's laugh is done, \u2014   \nThe Revelations of the book  \nWhose Genesis is June.\n\n**IV. TIME AND ETERNITY.**\n\n**I.**\n\nThis world is not conclusion;  \nA sequel stands beyond,  \nInvisible, as music,  \nBut positive, as sound.  \nIt beckons and it baffles;  \nPhilosophies don't know,  \nAnd through a riddle, at the last,  \nSagacity must go.  \nTo guess it puzzles scholars;  \nTo gain it, men have shown  \nContempt of generations,  \nAnd crucifixion known.\n\n**II.**\n\nWe learn in the retreating  \nHow vast an one  \nWas recently among us.  \nA perished sun\n\nEndears in the departure  \nHow doubly more  \nThan all the golden presence  \nIt was before!\n\n**III.**\n\nThey say that 'time assuages,' \u2014   \nTime never did assuage;  \nAn actual suffering strengthens,  \nAs sinews do, with age.\n\nTime is a test of trouble,  \nBut not a remedy.  \nIf such it prove, it prove too  \nThere was no malady.\n\n**IV.**\n\nWe cover thee, sweet face.  \nNot that we tire of thee,  \nBut that thyself fatigue of us;  \nRemember, as thou flee,  \nWe follow thee until  \nThou notice us no more,  \nAnd then, reluctant, turn away  \nTo con thee o'er and o'er,  \nAnd blame the scanty love  \nWe were content to show,  \nAugmented, sweet, a hundred fold  \nIf thou would'st take it now.\n\n**V.**\n\n**ENDING.**\n\nThat is solemn we have ended, \u2014   \nBe it but a play,  \nOr a glee among the garrets,  \nOr a holiday,\n\nOr a leaving home; or later,  \nParting with a world  \nWe have understood, for better  \nStill it be unfurled.\n\n**VI.**\n\nThe stimulus, beyond the grave  \nHis countenance to see,  \nSupports me like imperial drams  \nAfforded royally.\n\n**VII.**\n\nGiven in marriage unto thee,  \nOh, thou celestial host!  \nBride of the Father and the Son,  \nBride of the Holy Ghost!\n\nOther betrothal shall dissolve,  \nWedlock of will decay;  \nOnly the keeper of this seal  \nConquers mortality.\n\n**VIII.**\n\nThat such have died enables us  \nThe tranquiller to die;  \nThat such have lived, certificate  \nFor immortality.\n\n**IX.**\n\nThey won't frown always, \u2014 some sweet day  \nWhen I forget to tease,  \nThey'll recollect how cold I looked,  \nAnd how I just said 'please.'\n\nThen they will hasten to the door  \nTo call the little child,  \nWho cannot thank them, for the ice  \nThat on her lisping piled.\n\n**X.**\n\n**IMMORTALITY.**\n\nIt is an honorable thought,  \nAnd makes one lift one's hat,  \nAs one encountered gentlefolk  \nUpon a daily street,\n\nThat we've immortal place,  \nThough pyramids decay,  \nAnd kingdoms, like the orchard,  \nFlit russetly away.\n\n**XI.**\n\nThe distance that the dead have gone  \nDoes not at first appear;  \nTheir coming back seems possible  \nFor many an ardent year.\n\nAnd then, that we have followed them  \nWe more than half suspect,  \nSo intimate have we become  \nWith their dear retrospect.\n\n**XII.**\n\nHow dare the robins sing,  \nWhen men and women hear  \nWho since they went to their account  \nHave settled with the year! \u2014   \nPaid all that life had earned  \nIn one consummate bill,  \nAnd now, what life or death can do  \nIs immaterial.  \nInsulting is the sun  \nTo him whose mortal light,  \nBeguiled of immortality,  \nBequeaths him to the night.  \nIn deference to him  \nExtinct be every hum,  \nWhose garden wrestles with the dew,  \nAt daybreak overcome!\n\n**XIII.**\n\n**DEATH.**\n\nDeath is like the insect  \nMenacing the tree,  \nCompetent to kill it,  \nBut decoyed may be.\n\nBait it with the balsam,  \nSeek it with the knife,  \nBaffle, if it cost you  \nEverything in life.\n\nThen, if it have burrowed  \nOut of reach of skill,  \nRing the tree and leave it, \u2014   \n'T is the vermin's will.\n\n**XIV.**\n\n**UNWARNED.**\n\n'T is sunrise, little maid, hast thou  \nNo station in the day?  \n'T was not thy wont to hinder so, \u2014   \nRetrieve thine industry.\n\n'T is noon, my little maid, alas!  \nAnd art thou sleeping yet?  \nThe lily waiting to be wed,  \nThe bee, dost thou forget?\n\nMy little maid, 't is night; alas,  \nThat night should be to thee  \nInstead of morning! Hadst thou broached  \nThy little plan to me,  \nDissuade thee if I could not, sweet,  \nI might have aided thee.\n\n**XV.**\n\nEach that we lose takes part of us;  \nA crescent still abides,  \nWhich like the moon, some turbid night,  \nIs summoned by the tides.\n\n**XVI.**\n\nNot any higher stands the grave  \nFor heroes than for men;  \nNot any nearer for the child  \nThan numb three-score and ten.\n\nThis latest leisure equal lulls  \nThe beggar and his queen;  \nPropitiate this democrat  \nBy summer's gracious mien.\n\n**XVII.**\n\n**ASLEEP.**\n\nAs far from pity as complaint,  \nAs cool to speech as stone,  \nAs numb to revelation  \nAs if my trade were bone.\n\nAs far from time as history,  \nAs near yourself to-day  \nAs children to the rainbow's scarf,  \nOr sunset's yellow play\n\nTo eyelids in the sepulchre.  \nHow still the dancer lies,  \nWhile color's revelations break,  \nAnd blaze the butterflies!\n\n**XVIII.**\n\n**THE SPIRIT.**\n\n'T is whiter than an Indian pipe,  \n'T is dimmer than a lace;  \nNo stature has it, like a fog,  \nWhen you approach the place.\n\nNot any voice denotes it here,  \nOr intimates it there;  \nA spirit, how doth it accost?  \nWhat customs hath the air?\n\nThis limitless hyperbole  \nEach one of us shall be;  \n'T is drama, if (hypothesis)  \nIt be not tragedy!\n\n**XIX.**\n\n**THE MONUMENT.**\n\nShe laid her docile crescent down,  \nAnd this mechanic stone  \nStill states, to dates that have forgot,  \nThe news that she is gone.\n\nSo constant to its stolid trust,  \nThe shaft that never knew,  \nIt shames the constancy that fled  \nBefore its emblem flew.\n\n**XX.**\n\nBless God, he went as soldiers,  \nHis musket on his breast;  \nGrant, God, he charge the bravest  \nOf all the martial blest.\n\nPlease God, might I behold him  \nIn epauletted white,  \nI should not fear the foe then,  \nI should not fear the fight.\n\n**XXI.**\n\nImmortal is an ample word  \nWhen what we need is by,  \nBut when it leaves us for a time,  \n'T is a necessity.\n\nOf heaven above the firmest proof  \nWe fundamental know,  \nExcept for its marauding hand,  \nIt had been heaven below.\n\n**XXII.**\n\nWhere every bird is bold to go,  \nAnd bees abashless play,  \nThe foreigner before he knocks  \nMust thrust the tears away.\n\n**XXIII.**\n\nThe grave my little cottage is,  \nWhere, keeping house for thee,  \nI make my parlor orderly,  \nAnd lay the marble tea,\n\nFor two divided, briefly,  \nA cycle, it may be,  \nTill everlasting life unite  \nIn strong society.\n\n**XXIV.**\n\nThis was in the white of the year,  \nThat was in the green,  \nDrifts were as difficult then to think  \nAs daisies now to be seen.\n\nLooking back is best that is left,  \nOr if it be before,  \nRetrospection is prospect's half,  \nSometimes almost more.\n\n**XXV.**\n\nSweet hours have perished here;  \nThis is a mighty room;  \nWithin its precincts hopes have played, \u2014   \nNow shadows in the tomb.\n\n**XXVI.**\n\nMe! Come! My dazzled face  \nIn such a shining place!\n\nMe! Hear! My foreign ear  \nThe sounds of welcome near!\n\nThe saints shall meet  \nOur bashful feet.\n\nMy holiday shall be  \nThat they remember me;\n\nMy paradise, the fame  \nThat they pronounce my name.\n\n**XXVII.**\n\n**INVISIBLE.**\n\nFrom us she wandered now a year,  \nHer tarrying unknown;  \nIf wilderness prevent her feet,  \nOr that ethereal zone\n\nNo eye hath seen and lived,  \nWe ignorant must be.  \nWe only know what time of year  \nWe took the mystery.\n\n**XXVIII.**\n\nI wish I knew that woman's name,  \nSo, when she comes this way,  \nTo hold my life, and hold my ears,  \nFor fear I hear her say\n\nShe's 'sorry I am dead,' again,  \nJust when the grave and I  \nHave sobbed ourselves almost to sleep, \u2014   \nOur only lullaby.\n\n**XXIX.**\n\n**TRYING TO FORGET.**\n\nBereaved of all, I went abroad,  \nNo less bereaved to be  \nUpon a new peninsula, \u2014   \nThe grave preceded me,\n\nObtained my lodgings ere myself,  \nAnd when I sought my bed,  \nThe grave it was, reposed upon  \nThe pillow for my head.\n\nI waked, to find it first awake,  \nI rose, \u2014 it followed me;  \nI tried to drop it in the crowd,  \nTo lose it in the sea,\n\nIn cups of artificial drowse  \nTo sleep its shape away, \u2014   \nThe grave was finished, but the spade  \nRemained in memory.\n\n**XXX.**\n\nI felt a funeral in my brain,  \nAnd mourners, to and fro,  \nKept treading, treading, till it seemed  \nThat sense was breaking through.\n\nAnd when they all were seated,  \nA service like a drum  \nKept beating, beating, till I thought  \nMy mind was going numb.\n\nAnd then I heard them lift a box,  \nAnd creak across my soul  \nWith those same boots of lead, again.  \nThen space began to toll\n\nAs all the heavens were a bell,  \nAnd Being but an ear,  \nAnd I and silence some strange race,  \nWrecked, solitary, here.\n\n**XXXI.**\n\nI meant to find her when I came;  \nDeath had the same design;  \nBut the success was his, it seems,  \nAnd the discomfit mine.\n\nI meant to tell her how I longed  \nFor just this single time;  \nBut Death had told her so the first,  \nAnd she had hearkened him.\n\nTo wander now is my abode;  \nTo rest, \u2014 to rest would be  \nA privilege of hurricane  \nTo memory and me.\n\n**XXXII.**\n\n**WAITING.**\n\nI sing to use the waiting,  \nMy bonnet but to tie,  \nAnd shut the door unto my house;  \nNo more to do have I,\n\nTill, his best step approaching,  \nWe journey to the day,  \nAnd tell each other how we sang  \nTo keep the dark away.\n\n**XXXIII.**\n\nA sickness of this world it most occasions  \nWhen best men die;  \nA wishfulness their far condition  \nTo occupy.\n\nA chief indifference, as foreign  \nA world must be  \nThemselves forsake contented,  \nFor Deity.\n\n**XXXIV.**\n\nSuperfluous were the sun  \nWhen excellence is dead;  \nHe were superfluous every day,  \nFor every day is said\n\nThat syllable whose faith  \nJust saves it from despair,  \nAnd whose 'I'll meet you' hesitates  \nIf love inquire, 'Where?'\n\nUpon his dateless fame  \nOur periods may lie,  \nAs stars that drop anonymous  \nFrom an abundant sky.\n\n**XXXV.**\n\nSo proud she was to die  \nIt made us all ashamed  \nThat what we cherished, so unknown  \nTo her desire seemed.\n\nSo satisfied to go  \nWhere none of us should be,  \nImmediately, that anguish stooped  \nAlmost to jealousy.\n\n**XXXVI.**\n\n**FAREWELL.**\n\nTie the strings to my life, my Lord,  \nThen I am ready to go!  \nJust a look at the horses \u2014   \nRapid! That will do!\n\nPut me in on the firmest side,  \nSo I shall never fall;  \nFor we must ride to the Judgment,  \nAnd it's partly down hill.\n\nBut never I mind the bridges,  \nAnd never I mind the sea;  \nHeld fast in everlasting race  \nBy my own choice and thee.\n\nGood-by to the life I used to live,  \nAnd the world I used to know;  \nAnd kiss the hills for me, just once;  \nNow I am ready to go!\n\n**XXXVII.**\n\nThe dying need but little, dear, \u2014   \nA glass of water's all,  \nA flower's unobtrusive face  \nTo punctuate the wall,\n\nA fan, perhaps, a friend's regret,  \nAnd certainly that one  \nNo color in the rainbow  \nPerceives when you are gone.\n\n**XXXVIII.**\n\n**DEAD.**\n\nThere's something quieter than sleep  \nWithin this inner room!  \nIt wears a sprig upon its breast,  \nAnd will not tell its name.\n\nSome touch it and some kiss it,  \nSome chafe its idle hand;  \nIt has a simple gravity  \nI do not understand!\n\nWhile simple-hearted neighbors  \nChat of the 'early dead,'  \nWe, prone to periphrasis,  \nRemark that birds have fled!\n\n**XXXIX.**\n\nThe soul should always stand ajar,  \nThat if the heaven inquire,  \nHe will not be obliged to wait,  \nOr shy of troubling her.\n\nDepart, before the host has slid  \nThe bolt upon the door,  \nTo seek for the accomplished guest, \u2014   \nHer visitor no more.\n\n**XL.**\n\nThree weeks passed since I had seen her, \u2014   \nSome disease had vexed;  \n'T was with text and village singing  \nI beheld her next,\n\nAnd a company \u2014 our pleasure  \nTo discourse alone;  \nGracious now to me as any,  \nGracious unto none.\n\nBorne, without dissent of either,  \nTo the parish night;  \nOf the separated people  \nWhich are out of sight?\n\n**XLI.**\n\nI breathed enough to learn the trick,  \nAnd now, removed from air,  \nI simulate the breath so well,  \nThat one, to be quite sure\n\nThe lungs are stirless, must descend  \nAmong the cunning cells,  \nAnd touch the pantomime himself.  \nHow cool the bellows feels!\n\n**XLII.**\n\nI wonder if the sepulchre  \nIs not a lonesome way,  \nWhen men and boys, and larks and June  \nGo down the fields to hay!\n\n**XLIII.**\n\n**JOY IN DEATH.**\n\nIf tolling bell I ask the cause.  \n'A soul has gone to God,'  \nI'm answered in a lonesome tone;  \nIs heaven then so sad?\n\nThat bells should joyful ring to tell  \nA soul had gone to heaven,  \nWould seem to me the proper way  \nA good news should be given.\n\n**XLIV.**\n\nIf I may have it when it's dead  \nI will contented be;  \nIf just as soon as breath is out  \nIt shall belong to me,\n\nUntil they lock it in the grave,  \n'T is bliss I cannot weigh,  \nFor though they lock thee in the grave,  \nMyself can hold the key.\n\nThink of it, lover! I and thee  \nPermitted face to face to be;  \nAfter a life, a death we'll say, \u2014   \nFor death was that, and this is thee.\n\n**XLV.**\n\nBefore the ice is in the pools,  \nBefore the skaters go,  \nOr any cheek at nightfall  \nIs tarnished by the snow,\n\nBefore the fields have finished,  \nBefore the Christmas tree,  \nWonder upon wonder  \nWill arrive to me!\n\nWhat we touch the hems of  \nOn a summer's day;  \nWhat is only walking  \nJust a bridge away;\n\nThat which sings so, speaks so,  \nWhen there's no one here, \u2014   \nWill the frock I wept in  \nAnswer me to wear?\n\n**XLVI.**\n\n**DYING.**\n\nI heard a fly buzz when I died;  \nThe stillness round my form  \nWas like the stillness in the air  \nBetween the heaves of storm.\n\nThe eyes beside had wrung them dry,  \nAnd breaths were gathering sure  \nFor that last onset, when the king  \nBe witnessed in his power.\n\nI willed my keepsakes, signed away  \nWhat portion of me I  \nCould make assignable, \u2014 and then  \nThere interposed a fly,\n\nWith blue, uncertain, stumbling buzz,  \nBetween the light and me;  \nAnd then the windows failed, and then  \nI could not see to see.\n\n**XLVII.**\n\nAdrift! A little boat adrift!  \nAnd night is coming down!  \nWill no one guide a little boat  \nUnto the nearest town?\n\nSo sailors say, on yesterday,  \nJust as the dusk was brown,  \nOne little boat gave up its strife,  \nAnd gurgled down and down.\n\nBut angels say, on yesterday,  \nJust as the dawn was red,  \nOne little boat o'erspent with gales  \nRetrimmed its masts, redecked its sails  \nExultant, onward sped!\n\n**XLVIII.**\n\nThere's been a death in the opposite house  \nAs lately as to-day.  \nI know it by the numb look  \nSuch houses have alway.\n\nThe neighbors rustle in and out,  \nThe doctor drives away.  \nA window opens like a pod,  \nAbrupt, mechanically;\n\nSomebody flings a mattress out, \u2014   \nThe children hurry by;  \nThey wonder if It died on that, \u2014   \nI used to when a boy.\n\nThe minister goes stiffly in  \nAs if the house were his,  \nAnd he owned all the mourners now,  \nAnd little boys besides;\n\nAnd then the milliner, and the man  \nOf the appalling trade,  \nTo take the measure of the house.  \nThere'll be that dark parade\n\nOf tassels and of coaches soon;  \nIt's easy as a sign, \u2014   \nThe intuition of the news  \nIn just a country town.\n\n**XLIX.**\n\nWe never know we go, \u2014 when we are going  \nWe jest and shut the door;  \nFate following behind us bolts it,  \nAnd we accost no more.\n\n**L.**\n\n**THE SOUL'S STORM.**\n\nIt struck me every day  \nThe lightning was as new  \nAs if the cloud that instant slit  \nAnd let the fire through.\n\nIt burned me in the night,  \nIt blistered in my dream;  \nIt sickened fresh upon my sight  \nWith every morning's beam.\n\nI thought that storm was brief, \u2014   \nThe maddest, quickest by;  \nBut Nature lost the date of this,  \nAnd left it in the sky.\n\n**LI.**\n\nWater is taught by thirst;  \nLand, by the oceans passed;  \nTransport, by throe;  \nPeace, by its battles told;  \nLove, by memorial mould;  \nBirds, by the snow.\n\n**LII.**\n\n**THIRST.**\n\nWe thirst at first, \u2014 't is Nature's act;  \nAnd later, when we die,  \nA little water supplicate  \nOf fingers going by.\n\nIt intimates the finer want,  \nWhose adequate supply  \nIs that great water in the west  \nTermed immortality.\n\n**LIII.**\n\nA clock stopped \u2014 not the mantel's;  \nGeneva's farthest skill  \nCan't put the puppet bowing  \nThat just now dangled still.\n\nAn awe came on the trinket!  \nThe figures hunched with pain,  \nThen quivered out of decimals  \nInto degreeless noon.\n\nIt will not stir for doctors,  \nThis pendulum of snow;  \nThe shopman importunes it,  \nWhile cool, concernless No\n\nNods from the gilded pointers,  \nNods from the seconds slim,  \nDecades of arrogance between  \nThe dial life and him.\n\n**LIV.**\n\n**CHARLOTTE BRONT\u00cb'S GRAVE.**\n\nAll overgrown by cunning moss,  \nAll interspersed with weed,  \nThe little cage of 'Currer Bell,'  \nIn quiet Haworth laid.\n\nThis bird, observing others,  \nWhen frosts too sharp became,  \nRetire to other latitudes,  \nQuietly did the same,\n\nBut differed in returning;  \nSince Yorkshire hills are green,  \nYet not in all the nests I meet  \nCan nightingale be seen.\n\nGathered from many wanderings,  \nGethsemane can tell  \nThrough what transporting anguish  \nShe reached the asphodel!\n\nSoft fall the sounds of Eden  \nUpon her puzzled ear;  \nOh, what an afternoon for heaven,  \nWhen 'Bront\u00eb' entered there!\n\n**LV.**\n\nA toad can die of light!  \nDeath is the common right  \nOf toads and men, \u2014   \nOf earl and midge  \nThe privilege.  \nWhy swagger then?  \nThe gnat's supremacy  \nIs large as thine.\n\n**LVI.**\n\nFar from love the Heavenly Father  \nLeads the chosen child;  \nOftener through realm of briar  \nThan the meadow mild,\n\nOftener by the claw of dragon  \nThan the hand of friend,  \nGuides the little one predestined  \nTo the native land.\n\n**LVII.**\n\n**SLEEPING.**\n\nA long, long sleep, a famous sleep  \nThat makes no show for dawn  \nBy stretch of limb or stir of lid, \u2014   \nAn independent one.\n\nWas ever idleness like this?  \nWithin a hut of stone  \nTo bask the centuries away  \nNor once look up for noon?\n\n**LVIII.**\n\n**RETROSPECT.**\n\n'T was just this time last year I died.  \nI know I heard the corn,  \nWhen I was carried by the farms, \u2014   \nIt had the tassels on.\n\nI thought how yellow it would look  \nWhen Richard went to mill;  \nAnd then I wanted to get out,  \nBut something held my will.\n\nI thought just how red apples wedged  \nThe stubble's joints between;  \nAnd carts went stooping round the fields  \nTo take the pumpkins in.\n\nI wondered which would miss me least,  \nAnd when Thanksgiving came,  \nIf father'd multiply the plates  \nTo make an even sum.\n\nAnd if my stocking hung too high,  \nWould it blur the Christmas glee,  \nThat not a Santa Claus could reach  \nThe altitude of me?\n\nBut this sort grieved myself, and so  \nI thought how it would be  \nWhen just this time, some perfect year,  \nThemselves should come to me.\n\n**LIX.**\n\n**ETERNITY.**\n\nOn this wondrous sea,  \nSailing silently,  \nHo! pilot, ho!  \nKnowest thou the shore  \nWhere no breakers roar,  \nWhere the storm is o'er?\n\nIn the silent west  \nMany sails at rest,  \nTheir anchors fast;  \nThither I pilot thee, \u2014   \nLand, ho! Eternity!  \nAshore at last!\n**POEMS: SERIES THREE**\n\n**CONTENTS**\n\nI. LIFE.\n\nI.\n\nREAL RICHES.\n\nII.\n\nSUPERIORITY TO FATE.\n\nIII.\n\nHOPE.\n\nIV.\n\nFORBIDDEN FRUIT.\n\nI.\n\nV.\n\nFORBIDDEN FRUIT.\n\nII.\n\nVI.\n\nA WORD.\n\nVII.\n\nVIII.\n\nLIFE'S TRADES.\n\nIX.\n\nX.\n\nXI.\n\nXII.\n\nA SYLLABLE.\n\nXIII.\n\nPARTING.\n\nXIV.\n\nASPIRATION.\n\nXV.\n\nTHE INEVITABLE.\n\nXVI.\n\nA BOOK.\n\nXVII.\n\nXVIII.\n\nA PORTRAIT.\n\nXIX.\n\nI HAD A GUINEA GOLDEN.\n\nXX.\n\nSATURDAY AFTERNOON.\n\nXXI.\n\nXXII.\n\nXXIII.\n\nTHE LOST THOUGHT.\n\nXXIV.\n\nRETICENCE.\n\nXXV.\n\nWITH FLOWERS.\n\nXXVI.\n\nXXVII.\n\nXXVIII.\n\nCONTRAST.\n\nXXIX.\n\nFRIENDS.\n\nXXX.\n\nFIRE.\n\nXXXI.\n\nA MAN.\n\nXXXII.\n\nVENTURES.\n\nXXXIII.\n\nGRIEFS.\n\nXXXIV.\n\nXXXV.\n\nDISENCHANTMENT.\n\nXXXVI.\n\nLOST FAITH.\n\nXXXVII.\n\nLOST JOY.\n\nXXXVIII.\n\nXXXIX.\n\nXL.\n\nALPINE GLOW.\n\nXLI.\n\nREMEMBRANCE.\n\nXLII.\n\nXLIII.\n\nTHE BRAIN.\n\nXLIV.\n\nXLV.\n\nTHE PAST.\n\nXLVI.\n\nXLVII.\n\nXLVIII.\n\nDESIRE.\n\nXLIX.\n\nPHILOSOPHY.\n\nL.\n\nPOWER.\n\nLI.\n\nLII.\n\nLIII.\n\nEXPERIENCE.\n\nLIV.\n\nTHANKSGIVING DAY.\n\nLV.\n\nCHILDISH GRIEFS.\n\nII. LOVE.\n\nI.\n\nCONSECRATION.\n\nII.\n\nLOVE'S HUMILITY.\n\nIII.\n\nLOVE.\n\nIV.\n\nSATISFIED.\n\nV.\n\nWITH A FLOWER.\n\nVI.\n\nSONG.\n\nVII.\n\nLOYALTY.\n\nVIII.\n\nIX.\n\nX.\n\nFORGOTTEN.\n\nXI.\n\nXII.\n\nTHE MASTER.\n\nXIII.\n\nXIV.\n\nXV.\n\nXVI.\n\nXVII.\n\nWHO?\n\nXVIII.\n\nXIX.\n\nDREAMS.\n\nXX.\n\nNUMEN LUMEN.\n\nXXI.\n\nLONGING.\n\nXXII.\n\nWEDDED.\n\nIII. NATURE.\n\nI.\n\nNATURE'S CHANGES.\n\nII.\n\nTHE TULIP.\n\nIII.\n\nIV.\n\nTHE WAKING YEAR.\n\nV.\n\nTO MARCH.\n\nVI.\n\nMARCH.\n\nVII.\n\nDAWN.\n\nVIII.\n\nIX.\n\nX.\n\nXI.\n\nA ROSE.\n\nXII.\n\nXIII.\n\nCOBWEBS.\n\nXIV.\n\nA WELL.\n\nXV.\n\nXVI.\n\nTHE WIND.\n\nXVII.\n\nXVIII.\n\nTHE WOODPECKER.\n\nXIX.\n\nA SNAKE.\n\nXX.\n\nXXI.\n\nTHE MOON.\n\nXXII.\n\nTHE BAT.\n\nXXIII.\n\nTHE BALLOON.\n\nXXIV.\n\nEVENING.\n\nXXV.\n\nCOCOON.\n\nXXVI.\n\nSUNSET.\n\nXXVII.\n\nAURORA.\n\nXXVIII.\n\nTHE COMING OF NIGHT.\n\nXXIX.\n\nAFTERMATH.\n\nIV. TIME AND ETERNITY.\n\nI.\n\nII.\n\nIII.\n\nIV.\n\nV.\n\nENDING.\n\nVI.\n\nVII.\n\nVIII.\n\nIX.\n\nX.\n\nIMMORTALITY.\n\nXI.\n\nXII.\n\nXIII.\n\nDEATH.\n\nXIV.\n\nUNWARNED.\n\nXV.\n\nXVI.\n\nXVII.\n\nASLEEP.\n\nXVIII.\n\nTHE SPIRIT.\n\nXIX.\n\nTHE MONUMENT.\n\nXX.\n\nXXI.\n\nXXII.\n\nXXIII.\n\nXXIV.\n\nXXV.\n\nXXVI.\n\nXXVII.\n\nINVISIBLE.\n\nXXVIII.\n\nXXIX.\n\nTRYING TO FORGET.\n\nXXX.\n\nXXXI.\n\nXXXII.\n\nWAITING.\n\nXXXIII.\n\nXXXIV.\n\nXXXV.\n\nXXXVI.\n\nFAREWELL.\n\nXXXVII.\n\nXXXVIII.\n\nDEAD.\n\nXXXIX.\n\nXL.\n\nXLI.\n\nXLII.\n\nXLIII.\n\nJOY IN DEATH.\n\nXLIV.\n\nXLV.\n\nXLVI.\n\nDYING.\n\nXLVII.\n\nXLVIII.\n\nXLIX.\n\nL.\n\nTHE SOUL'S STORM.\n\nLI.\n\nLII.\n\nTHIRST.\n\nLIII.\n\nLIV.\n\nCHARLOTTE BRONT\u00cb'S GRAVE.\n\nLV.\n\nLVI.\n\nLVII.\n\nSLEEPING.\n\nLVIII.\n\nRETROSPECT.\n\nLIX.\n\nETERNITY.\n**The Poems**\n\n_Amherst Academy, which Dickinson attended under the tutelage of scientist and theologian, Edward Hitchcock_\n**Awake ye muses nine, sing me a strain divine,**\n\nAwake ye muses nine, sing me a strain divine,  \nUnwind the solemn twine, and tie my Valentine!\n\nOh the Earth was made for lovers, for damsel, and hopeless swain,  \nFor sighing, and gentle whispering, and unity made of twain.  \nAll things do go a courting, in earth, or sea, or air,  \nGod hath made nothing single but thee in His world so fair!  \nThe bride, and then the bridegroom, the two, and then the one,  \nAdam, and Eve, his consort, the moon, and then the sun;  \nThe life doth prove the precept, who obey shall happy be,  \nWho will not serve the sovereign, be hanged on fatal tree.  \nThe high do seek the lowly, the great do seek the small,  \nNone cannot find who seeketh, on this terrestrial ball;  \nThe bee doth court the flower, the flower his suit receives,  \nAnd they make merry wedding, whose guests are hundred leaves;  \nThe wind doth woo the branches, the branches they are won,  \nAnd the father fond demandeth the maiden for his son.  \nThe storm doth walk the seashore humming a mournful tune,  \nThe wave with eye so pensive, looketh to see the moon,  \nTheir spirits meet together, they make their solemn vows,  \nNo more he singeth mournful, her sadness she doth lose.  \nThe worm doth woo the mortal, death claims a living bride,  \nNight unto day is married, morn unto eventide;  \nEarth is a merry damsel, and heaven a knight so true,  \nAnd Earth is quite coquettish, and beseemeth in vain to sue.  \nNow to the application, to the reading of the roll,  \nTo bringing thee to justice, and marshalling thy soul:  \nThou art a human solo, a being cold, and lone,  \nWilt have no kind companion, thou reap'st what thou hast sown.  \nHast never silent hours, and minutes all too long,  \nAnd a deal of sad reflection, and wailing instead of song?  \nThere's Sarah, and Eliza, and Emeline so fair,  \nAnd Harriet, and Susan, and she with curling hair!  \nThine eyes are sadly blinded, but yet thou mayest see  \nSix true, and comely maidens sitting upon the tree;  \nApproach that tree with caution, then up it boldly climb,  \nAnd seize the one thou lovest, nor care for space, or time!  \nThen bear her to the greenwood, and build for her a bower,  \nAnd give her what she asketh, jewel, or bird, or flower \u2014   \nAnd bring the fife, and trumpet, and beat upon the drum \u2014   \nAnd bid the world Goodmorrow, and go to glory home!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There is another sky**\n\nThe cows are going to pasture and little boys with their hands in their pockets are whistling to keep them warm. Don't think that the sky will frown so the day when you come home! She will smile and look happy, and be full of sunshine _then_ \\- and even _should_ she frown upon her child returning,\n\nthere is _another_ sky  \never serene and fair,  \nand there is _another_ sunshine,  \ntho' it be darkness there -  \nnever mind faded forets, Austin,  \nnever mind silent fields -  \n _here_ is a little forest  \nwhose leaf is ever green -  \nhere is a _brighter_ garden -  \nwhere not a frost has been,  \nin its unfading flowers  \nI hear the bright bee hum,  \nprithee, my Brother,  \ninto _my_ garden come!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Sic transit gloria mundi**\n\n**Version 1**\n\nSic transit gloria mundi  \n\"How doth the busy bee\"  \nDum vivamus vivamus  \nI stay mine enemy! \u2014\n\nOh veni vidi vici!  \nOh caput cap-a-pie!  \nAnd oh \"memento mori\"  \nWhen I am far from thee\n\nHurrah for Peter Parley  \nHurrrah for Daniel Boone  \nThree cheers sir, for the gentleman  \nWho first observed the moon \u2014\n\nPeter put up the sunshine!  \nPattie arrange the stars  \nTell Luna, tea is waiting  \nAnd call your brother Mars \u2014\n\nPut down the apple Adam  \nAnd come away with me  \nSo shal't thou have a pippin  \nFrom off my Father's tree!\n\nI climb the \"Hill of Science\"  \nI \"view the Landscape o'er\"  \nSuch transcendental prospect  \nI ne'er beheld before! \u2014\n\nUnto the Legislature  \nMy country bids me go,  \nI'll take my india rubbers  \nIn case the wind should blow.\n\nDuring my education  \nIt was announced to me  \nThat gravitation stumbling  \nFell from an apple tree \u2014\n\nThe Earth opon it's axis  \nWas once supposed to turn  \nBy way of a gymnastic  \nIn honor to the sun \u2014\n\nIt was the brave Columbus  \nA sailing o'er the tide  \nWho notified the nations  \nOf where I would reside\n\nMortality is fatal  \nGentility is fine  \nRascality, heroic  \nInsolvency, sublime\n\nOur Fathers being weary  \nLaid down on Bunker Hill  \nAnd though full many a morn'g  \nYet they are sleeping still\n\nThe trumpet sir, shall wake them  \nIn streams I see them rise  \nEach with a solemn musket  \nA marching to the skies!\n\nA coward will remain, Sir,  \nUntil the fight is done;  \nBut an immortal hero  \nWill take his hat and run.\n\nGood bye Sir, I am going  \nMy country calleth me  \nAllow me Sir, at parting  \nTo wipe my weeping e'e\n\nIn token of our friendship  \nAccept this \"Bonnie Doon\"  \nAnd when the hand that pluck'd it  \nHath passed beyond the moon\n\nThe memory of my ashes  \nWill consolation be  \nThen farewell Tuscarora  \nAnd farewell Sir, to thee.\n\n**Version 2**\n\n\"Sic transit gloria mundi,\"  \n\"How doth the busy bee,\"  \n\"Dum vivimus vivamus,\"  \nI stay mine enemy! \u2014\n\nOh \"veni, vidi, vici!\"  \nOh caput cap-a-pie!  \nAnd oh \"memento mori\"  \nWhen I am far from thee!\n\nHurrah for Peter Parley!  \nHurrrah for Daniel Boone!  \nThree cheers, sir, for the gentleman  \nWho first observed the moon!\n\nPeter, put up the sunshine;  \nPattie, arrange the stars;  \nTell Luna, _tea_ is waiting,  \nAnd call your brother Mars!\n\nPut down the apple, Adam,  \nAnd come away with me,  \nSo shalt thou have a _pippin  \n_ _From off my father's tree!_\n\nI climb the \"Hill of Science,\"  \nI \"view the landscape o'er;\"  \nSuch transcendental prospect,  \nI ne'er beheld before! \u2014\n\nUnto the Legislature  \nMy country bids me go;  \nI'll take my _india rubbers_ ,  \nIn case the _wind_ should blow!\n\nDuring my education,  \nIt was announced to me  \nThat _gravitation_ , _stumbling  \n_ _Fell from an_ apple _tree!_\n\nThe earth opon an axis  \nWas once supposed to turn,  \nBy way of a _gymnastic_  \n_In honor of the sun!_\n\nIt _was_ the brave Columbus,  \nA sailing o'er the tide,  \nWho notified the nations  \nOf where I would reside!\n\nMortality is fatal \u2014   \nGentility is fine  \nRascality, heroic,  \n _Insolvency, sublime_\n\n_Our Fathers being weary,_  \nLaid down on Bunker Hill;  \nAnd tho' full many a morning,  \nYet they are sleeping still, \u2014\n\nThe trumpet, sir, shall wake them,  \nIn dreams I see them rise,  \nEach with a solem musket  \nA marching to the skies!\n\nA coward will remain, Sir,  \nUntil the fight is done;  \nBut an _immortal hero  \n_ Will take his hat, and run!\n\nGood bye Sir, I am going;  \nMy country calleth me;  \nAllow me, Sir, at parting,  \nTo wipe my weeping e'e.\n\nIn token of our friendship  \nAccept this \"Bonnie Doon,\"  \nAnd when the hand that plucked it  \nHath passed beyond the moon,\n\nThe memory of my ashes  \nWill consolation be;  \nThen farewell Tuscarora,  \nAnd farewell, Sir, to thee!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**On this wondrous sea**\n\n**Version 1**\n\nWrite! Comrade, write!\n\nOn this wondrous sea  \nSailing silently,  \nHo! Pilot, ho!  \nKnowest thou the shore  \nWhere no breakers roar -  \nWhere the storm is o'er?\n\nIn the peaceful west  \nMany the sails at rest -  \nThe anchors fast -  \nThither I pilot _thee_ -  \nLand Ho! Eternity!  \nAshore at last!\n\n**Version 2**\n\nOn this woundrous sea - sailing silently -  \nHo! Pilot! Ho!  \nKnowest thou the shore  \nWhere no breakers roar -  \nWhere the storm is o'er?\n\nIn the silent West  \nMany - the sails at rest -  \nThen anchors fast.  \nThither I pilot thee -  \nLand! Ho! Eternity!  \nAshore at last!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I have a Bird in spring**\n\nWe have walked very pleasantly - Perhaps this is the point at which our paths diverge - then pass on singing Sue, and up the distant hill I journey on.\n\nI have a Bird in spring  \nWhich for myself doth sing -  \nThe spring decoys.  \nAnd as the summer nears -  \nAnd as the Rose appears,  \nRobin is gone.\n\nYet do I not repine  \nKnowhing that Bird of mine  \nThough flown -  \nLearneth beyond the sea  \nMelody new for me  \nAnd will return.\n\nFast in safer hand  \nHeld in a truer Land  \nAre min -  \nAnd though they now depart,  \nTell I my doubting heart  \nThey're thine.\n\nIn a serener Bright,  \nIn a more golden light  \nI see  \nEach little doubt and fear,  \nEach little discord here  \nRemoved.\n\nThen will I not repine,  \nKnowing that Bird of mine  \nThough flown  \nShall in distant tree  \nBright melody for me  \nReturn.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Frequently the woods are pink -**\n\n**Version 1**\n\nFrequently the woods are pink \u2014   \nFrequently are brown.  \nFrequently the hills undress  \nBehind my native town.  \nOft a head is crested  \nI was wont to see \u2014   \nAnd as oft a cranny  \nWhere it used to be \u2014   \nAnd the Earth \u2014 they tell me \u2014   \nOn it's axis turned!  \nWonderful Rotation!  \nBy but _twelve_ performed!\n\n**Version 2**\n\nFrequently the woods are pink \u2014   \nFrequently, are brown.  \nFrequently the hills undress  \nBehind my native town \u2014   \nOft a head is crested  \nI was wont to see \u2014   \nAnd as oft a cranny  \nWhere it used to be \u2014   \nAnd the Earth \u2014 they tell me  \nOn it's axis turned!  \nWonderful rotation \u2014   \nBy but _twelve_ performed!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The feet of people walking home**\n\n**Version 1**\n\nThe feet of people walking home  \nWith gayer sandals go -  \nThe crocus - till she rises -  \nThe vassal of the snow -  \nThe lips at Hallelujah  \nLong years of practise bore -  \nTill bye and bye, these Bargemen  \nWalked - singing - on the shore\n\nPearls are the Diver's farthings  \nExtorted form the sea -  \nPinions - the Seraph's wagon -  \nPedestrian once - as we -  \nNight is the morning's canvas -  \nLarceny - legacy -  \nDeath - but our rapt attention  \nTo immortality.\n\nMy figures fail to tell me  \nHow far the village lies -  \nWhose peasants are the angels -  \nWhose cantons dot the skies -  \nMy Classics vail their faces -  \nMy faith that Dark adores -  \nWhich from it's solemn abbeys -  \nSuch resurrection pours!\n\n**Version 2**\n\nThe feet of people walking home  \nWith gayer sandals go -  \nThe Crocus - till she rises  \nThe Vassal of the snow -  \nThe lips at Hallelujah  \nLong years of practise bore  \nTill bye and bye these Bargemen  \nWalked singing on the shore\n\nPearls are the Diver's farthings  \nExtorted form the Sea -  \nPinions - the Seraph's wagon  \nPedestrian once - as we -\n\nNight is the morning's Canvas  \nLarceny - legacy -  \nDeath, but our rapt attention  \nTo Immortality.\n\nMy figures fail to tell me  \nHow far the Village lies -  \nWhose peasants are the angels -  \nWhose Cantons dot the skies -  \nMy Classics vail their faces -  \nMy faith that Dark adores -  \nWhich from it's solemn abbeys  \nSuch resurrection pours.\n\n**Version 3**\n\nThe feet of people walking home  \nWith gayer Sandals go -  \nThe Crocus - till she rises  \nThe Vassal of the snow -  \nThe lips at Hallelujah  \nLong years of practise bore  \nTill bye and bye these Bargemen  \nWalked singing, on the shore\n\nPearls are the Diver's farthings -  \nExtorted form the sea -  \nPinions - the Seraph's wagon -  \nPedestrian once, as we -  \nNight is the morning's Canvas  \nLarceny - _legacy_ -  \nDeath, but our rapt attention  \nTo immortality.\n\nMy figures fail to tell me  \nHow far the village lies -  \nWhose peasants are the angels -  \nWhose Cantons dot the skies -  \nMy Classics vail their faces -  \nMy faith that dark adores -  \nWhich from it's solemn abbeys  \nSuch resurrection pours!\n\n**Version 4**\n\nThe feet of people walking home -  \nWith gayer sandals go -  \nThe Crocus, till she rises  \nThe Vassal of the snow -\n\nThe lips at Hallelujah  \nLong years of practise bore -  \nTill bye and bye these Bargemen  \nWalked singing, on the shore.\n\nPearls are the Diver's farthings -  \nExtorted form the sea -  \nPinions - the Seraph's wagon -  \nPedestrian once - as we -\n\nNight is the morning's Canvas  \nLarceny - _Legacy_.  \nDeath, but our rapt attention  \nTo immortality.\n\nMy figures fail to tell me  \nHow far the village lies  \nWhose peasants are the angels -  \nWhose Cantons dot the skies -\n\nMy Classics vail their faces -  \nMy faith that dark adores -  \nWhich from it's solemn abbeys  \nSuch resurrection pours -\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There is a word**\n\n**Version 1**\n\nThere is a word  \nWhich bears a sword  \nCan pierce an armed man -  \nIt hurls it's barbed syllables  \nAnd is mute again -  \nBut where it fell  \nThe Saved will tell  \nOn patriotic day,  \nSome epauletted Brother  \nGave his breath away!\n\nWherever runs the breathless sun -  \nWherever roams the day -  \nThere is it's noiseless onset -  \nThere is it's victory!  \nBehold the keenest marksman-  \nThe most accomplished host!  \nTime's sublimest target  \nIs a soul \"forgot\"!\n\n**Version 2**\n\nThere is a word  \nWhich bears a sword  \nCan pierce an armed man -  \nIt hurls it's barbed syllables  \nAnd is mute again -  \nBut where it fell  \nThe saved will tell  \nOn patriotic day,  \nSome epauletted Brother  \nGave his breath away.\n\nWherever runs the breathless sun -  \nWherever roams the day -  \nThere is it's noiseless onset -  \nThere is it's victory!  \nBehold the keenest marsman!  \nThe most accomplished host!  \nTime's sublimest target  \nIs a soul \"forgot\"!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Through lane it lay \u2014 through bramble \u2014**\n\n**Version 1**\n\nThro' lane it lay - thro' bramble -  \nThro' clearing, and thro' wood -  \nBanditti often passed us  \nOpon the lonely road -  \nThe wolf came peering curious -  \nThe Owl looked puzzled down -  \nThe Serpent's satin figure  \nGlid stealthily along -  \nThe tempests touched our garments -  \nThe lightning's poinards gleamed -  \nFierce from the crag above us  \nThe hungry vulture screamed -  \nThe satyr's fingers beckoned -  \nThe Valley murmured \"Come\" -  \nThese were the mates -  \nThis was the road  \nThese Children fluttered home.\n\n**Version 2**\n\nThrough lane it lay - thro' bramble -  \nThrough clearing, and thro' wood -  \nBanditti often passed us  \nOpon the lonely road.\n\nThe wolf came peering curious -  \nThe Owl looked puzzled down -  \nThe Serpent's satin figure  \nGlid stealthily along.\n\nThe tempests touched our garments -  \nThe lightning's poinards gleamed -  \nFierce from the Crag above us  \nThe hungry vulture screamed -\n\nThe Satyr's fingers beckoned -  \nThe Valley murmured \"Come\" -  \n _These_ were the mates -  \n _This_ was the road  \nThese Children fluttered home.\n\n**Version 3**\n\nThrough lane it lay \u2014 through bramble \u2014   \nThrough clearing and through wood \u2014   \nBanditti often passed us  \nUpon the lonely road.\n\nThe wolf came peering curious \u2014   \nThe owl looked puzzled down \u2014   \nThe serpent's satin figure  \nGlid stealthily along \u2014\n\nThe tempests touched our garments \u2014   \nThe lightning's poinards gleamed \u2014   \nFierce from the Crag above us  \nThe hungry Vulture screamed \u2014\n\nThe satyr's fingers beckoned \u2014   \nThe valley murmured \"Come\" \u2014   \nThese were the mates \u2014   \nThis was the road  \nThose children fluttered home.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My wheel is in the dark!**\n\n**Version 1**\n\nMy Wheel is in the dark.  \nI cannot see a spoke -  \nYet know it's dripping feet  \nGo round and round.\n\nMy foot is on the tide -  \nAn unfrequented road  \nYet have all roads  \nA \"Clearing\" at the end.\n\nSome have resigned the Loom -  \nSome - in the busy tomb  \nFind quaint employ.  \nSome with new - stately feet  \nPass royal thro' the gate  \nFlinging the problem back, at you and I.\n\n**Version 2**\n\nMy Wheel is in the dark!  \nI cannot see a spoke  \nYet know it's dripping feet  \nGo round and round.\n\nMy foot is on the Tide!  \nAn unfrequented road -  \nYet have all roads  \nA \"Clearing\" at the end -\n\nSome have resigned the Loom -  \nSome in the busy tomb  \nFind quaint employ -\n\nSome with new - stately feet -  \nPass royal thro' the gate -  \nFlinging the problem back  \nAt you and I!\n\n**Version 3**\n\nMy wheel is in the dark!  \nI cannot see a spoke  \nYet know its dripping feet  \nGo round and round.\n\nMy foot is on the Tide!  \nAn unfrequented road \u2014   \nYet have all roads  \nA clearing at the end \u2014\n\nSome have resigned the Loom \u2014   \nSome in the busy tomb  \nFind quaint employ \u2014\n\nSome with new \u2014 stately feet \u2014   \nPass royal through the gate \u2014   \nFlinging the problem back  \nAt you and I!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I never told the buried gold**\n\n**Version 1**\n\nI never told the buried gold  \nOpon the hill that lies -  \nI saw the sun, his plunder done -  \nCrouch low to guard his prize -\n\nHe stood as near  \nAs stood you hear -  \nA pace had been between -  \nDid but a snake bisect the brake  \nMy life had forfeit been.\n\nThat was a wondrous booty.  \nI hope 'twas honest gained -  \nThose were the fairest ingots  \nThat ever kissed the spade.\n\nWhether to keep the secret -  \nWhether to reveal -  \nWhether while I ponder  \nKidd may sudden sail -\n\nCould a shrewd advise me  \nWe might e'en divide -  \nShould a shrewd _betray_ me -  \n\"Atropos\" decide -\n\n**Version 2**\n\nI never told the buried gold  \nOpon the hill - that lies -  \nI saw the sun - his plunder done  \nCrouch low to guard his prize.\n\nHe stood as near  \nAs stood you hear -  \nA pace had been between -  \nDid but a snake bisect the brake  \nMy life had forfeit been.\n\nThat was a wondrous booty -  \nI hope 'twas honest gained.  \nThose were the fairest ingots  \nThat ever kissed the spade!\n\nWhether to keep the secret -  \nWhether to reveal -  \nWhether as I ponder  \n\"Kidd\" will sudden sail -\n\nCould a shrewd advise me  \nWe might e'en divide -  \nShould a shrewd betray me -  \nAtropos decide!\n\n**Version 3**\n\nI never told the buried gold  \nUpon the hill \u2014 that lies \u2014   \nI saw the sun \u2014 his plunder done  \nCrouch low to guard his prize.\n\nHe stood as near  \nAs stood you here \u2014   \nA pace had been between \u2014   \nDid but a snake bisect the brake  \nMy life had forfeit been.\n\nThat was a wondrous booty \u2014   \nI hope 'twas honest gained.  \nThose were the fairest ingots  \nThat ever kissed the spade!\n\nWhether to keep the secret \u2014   \nWhether to reveal \u2014   \nWhether as I ponder  \nKidd will sudden sail \u2014\n\nCould a shrewd advise me  \nWe might e'en divide \u2014   \nShould a shrewd betray me \u2014   \nAtropos decide!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The morns are meeker than they were \u2014**\n\n**Version 1**\n\nThe morns are meeker than they were -  \nThe nuts are getting brown -  \nThe berry's cheek is plumper -  \nThe Rose is out of town -\n\nThe maple wears a gayer scarf -  \nThe field - a scarlet gown -  \nLest I sh'd seem old fashioned  \nI'll put a trinket on!\n\n**Version 2**\n\nThe morns are meeker than they were -  \nThe nuts are getting brown -  \nThe berry's cheek is plumper -  \nThe Rose is out of town.\n\nThe maple wears a gayer scarf -  \nThe field - a scarlet gown -  \nLest I sh'd be old fashioned  \nI'll put a trinket on.  \n\\- valign=\"top\"\n\n**Version 3**\n\nThe morns are meeker than they were \u2014   \nThe nuts are getting brown \u2014   \nThe berry's cheek is plumper \u2014   \nThe Rose is out of town.\n\nThe Maple wears a gayer scarf \u2014   \nThe field a scarlet gown \u2014   \nLest I should be old fashioned  \nI'll put a trinket on.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Sleep is supposed to be**\n\nSLEEP is supposed to be,  \nBy souls of sanity,  \nThe shutting of the eye.\n\nSleep is the station grand  \nDown which on either hand  \nThe hosts of witness stand !\n\nMorn is supposed to be,  \nBy people of degree,  \nThe breaking of the day.\n\nMorning has not occurred !  \nThat shall aurora be  \nEast of eternity ;\n\nOne with the banner gay,  \nOne in the red array, \u2014   \nThat is the break of day.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**One Sister have I in our house,**\n\n**Version 1**\n\nOne Sister have I in our house -  \nAnd one, a hedge away.  \nThere's only one recorded,  \nBut both belong to me.\n\nOne came the road that I came -  \nAnd wore my last year's gown -  \nThe other, as a bird her nest,  \nBuilded our hearts among.\n\nShe did not sing as we did -  \nIt was a different tune -  \nHerself to her a music  \nAs Bumble bee of June.\n\nToday is far from Childhood -  \nBut up and down the hills  \nI held her hand the tighter -  \nWhich shortened all the miles -\n\nAnd still her hum  \nThe year among,  \nDeceives the Butterfly;  \nStill in her Eye  \nThe Violets lie  \nMouldered this many May.\n\nI spilt the dew -  \nBut took the morn;  \nI chose this single star  \nFrom out the wide night's numbers -  \nSue - forevermore!\n\n**Version 2**\n\nOne Sister have I in the house -  \nAnd one, a hedge away.  \nThere's only one recorded -  \nBut both belong to me.\n\nOne came the road that I came -  \nAnd wore my last year's gown -  \nThe other, as a bird her nest  \nBuilded our hearts among.\n\nShe did not sing as we did -  \nIt was a different tune -  \nHerself to her a music  \nAs Bumble bee of June.\n\nToday is far from hildhood,  \nBut up and down the hills,  \nI held her hand the tighter -  \nWhich shortened all the miles -\n\nAnd still her hum  \nThe year among,  \nDeceives the Butterfly;  \nAnd in her Eye  \nThe Violets lie,  \nMouldered this many May.\n\nI spilt the dew,  \nBut took the morn -  \nI chose this single star  \nFrom out the wide night's numbers -  \nSue - forevermore!\n\n**Version 3**\n\nOne Sister have I in our house,  \nAnd one, a hedge away.  \nThere's only one recorded,  \nBut both belong to me.\n\nOne came the road that I came \u2014   \nAnd wore my last year's gown \u2014   \nThe other, as a bird her nest,  \nBuilded our hearts among.\n\nShe did not sing as we did \u2014   \nIt was a different tune \u2014   \nHerself to her a music  \nAs Bumble bee of June.\n\nToday is far from Childhood \u2014   \nBut up and down the hills  \nI held her hand the tighter \u2014   \nWhich shortened all the miles \u2014\n\nAnd still her hum  \nThe years among,  \nDeceives the Butterfly;  \nStill in her Eye  \nThe Violets lie  \nMouldered this many May.\n\nI spilt the dew \u2014   \nBut took the morn \u2014   \nI chose this single star  \nFrom out the wide night's numbers \u2014   \nSue - forevermore!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Guest is gold and crimson \u2014**\n\nThe Guest is gold and crimson \u2014   \nAn Opal guest and gray \u2014   \nOf Ermine is his doublet \u2014   \nHis Capuchin gay \u2014\n\nHe reaches town at nightfall \u2014   \nHe stops at every door \u2014   \nWho looks for him at morning  \nI pray him too \u2014 explore  \nThe Lark's pure territory \u2014   \nOr the Lapwing's shore!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I would distil a cup,**\n\nI would distil a cup,  \nAnd bear to all my friends,  \nDrinking to her no more astir,  \nBy beck, or burn, or moor!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Baffled for just a day or two \u2014**\n\nBaffled for just a day or two \u2014   \nEmbarrassed \u2014 not afraid \u2014   \nEncounter in my garden  \nAn unexpected Maid.  \nShe beckons, and the woods start \u2014   \nShe nods, and all begin \u2014   \nSurely, such a country  \nI was never in!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Gentian weaves her fringes \u2014**\n\nThe Gentian weaves her fringes \u2014   \nThe Maple's loom is red \u2014   \nMy departing blossoms  \nObviate parade.\n\nA brief, but patient illness \u2014   \nAn hour to prepare,  \nAnd one below this morning  \nIs where the angels are \u2014   \nIt was a short procession,  \nThe Bobolink was there \u2014   \nAn aged Bee addressed us \u2014   \nAnd then we knelt in prayer \u2014   \nWe trust that she was willing \u2014   \nWe ask that we may be.  \nSummer \u2014 Sister \u2014 Seraph!  \nLet us go with thee!\n\nIn the name of the Bee \u2014   \nAnd of the Butterfly \u2014   \nAnd of the Breeze \u2014 Amen!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A sepal, petal, and a thorn**\n\nA sepal, petal, and a thorn  \nUpon a common summer's morn \u2014   \nA flask of Dew \u2014 A Bee or two \u2014   \nA Breeze \u2014 a caper in the trees \u2014   \nAnd I'm a Rose!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Distrustful of the Gentian \u2014**\n\nDistrustful of the Gentian \u2014   \nAnd just to turn away,  \nThe fluttering of her fringes  \nChild my perfidy \u2014   \nWeary for my \u2014 \u2014 \u2014 \u2014 \u2014   \nI will singing go \u2014   \nI shall not feel the sleet \u2014 then \u2014   \nI shall not fear the snow.\n\nFlees so the phantom meadow  \nBefore the breathless Bee \u2014   \nSo bubble brooks in deserts  \nOn Ears that dying lie \u2014   \nBurn so the Evening Spires  \nTo Eyes that Closing go \u2014   \nHangs so distant Heaven \u2014   \nTo a hand below.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We lose \u2014 because we win \u2014**\n\nWe lose \u2014 because we win \u2014   \nGamblers \u2014 recollecting which  \nToss their dice again!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**All these my banners be.**\n\nAll these my banners be.  \nI sow my pageantry  \nIn May \u2014   \nIt rises train by train \u2014   \nThen sleeps in state again \u2014   \nMy chancel \u2014 all the plain  \nToday.\n\nTo lose \u2014 if one can find again \u2014   \nTo miss \u2014 if one shall meet \u2014   \nThe Burglar cannot rob \u2014 then \u2014   \nThe Broker cannot cheat.  \nSo build the hillocks gaily  \nThou little spade of mine  \nLeaving nooks for Daisy  \nAnd for Columbine \u2014   \nYou and I the secret  \nOf the Crocus know \u2014   \nLet us chant it softly \u2014   \n\"There is no more snow!\"\n\nTo him who keeps an Orchis' heart \u2014   \nThe swamps are pink with June.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I had a guinea golden \u2014**\n\n**Version 1**\n\nI had a guinea golden -  \nI lost it in the sand -  \nAnd tho' the sum was simple  \nAnd pounds were in the land -  \nStill, had it such a value  \nUnto my frugal eye -  \nThat when I could not find it-  \nI sat me down to sigh.\n\nI had a crimson Robin -  \nWho sang full many a day  \nBut when the woods were painted -  \nHe - too - did fly away -  \nTime brought me other Robins -  \nTheir ballads were the same -  \nStill, for my missing Troubadour  \nI kept the \"house at hame\".\n\nI had a star in heaven -  \nOne \"Pleiad\" was it's name -  \nAnd when I was not heeding,  \nIt wandered from the same -  \nAnd tho' the skies are crowded -  \nAnd all the night ashine -  \nI do not care about it -  \nSince none of them are mine -\n\nMy story has a moral -  \nI have a missing friend -  \n\"Pleiad\" it's name - and Robin -  \nAnd guinea in the sand -  \nAnd when this mournful ditty  \nAccompanied with tear -  \nShall meet the eye of traitor  \nIn country far from here -  \nGrant that repentance solemn  \nMay seize opon his mind -  \nAnd he no consolation  \nBeneath the sun may find.\n\n**Version 2**\n\nI had a guinea golden \u2014   \nI lost it in the sand \u2014   \nAnd tho' the sum was simple  \nAnd pounds were in the land \u2014   \nStill, had it such a value  \nUnto my frugal eye \u2014   \nThat when I could not find it \u2014   \nI sat me down to sigh.\n\nI had a crimson Robin \u2014   \nWho sang full many a day  \nBut when the woods were painted,  \nHe, too, did fly away \u2014\n\nTime brought me other Robins \u2014   \nTheir ballads were the same \u2014   \nStill, for my missing Troubador  \nI kept the \"house at hame.\"\n\nI had a star in heaven \u2014   \nOne \"Pleiad\" was its name \u2014   \nAnd when I was not heeding,  \nIt wandered from the same.  \nAnd tho' the skies are crowded \u2014   \nAnd all the night ashine \u2014   \nI do not care about it \u2014   \nSince none of them are mine.\n\nMy story has a moral \u2014   \nI have a missing friend \u2014   \n\"Pleiad\" its name, and Robin,  \nAnd guinea in the sand.  \nAnd when this mournful ditty  \nAccompanied with tear \u2014   \nShall meet the eye of traitor  \nIn country far from here \u2014   \nGrant that repentance solemn  \nMay seize upon his mind \u2014   \nAnd he no consolation  \nBeneath the sun may find.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There is a morn by men unseen \u2014**\n\n**Version 1**\n\nThere is a morn by men unseen -  \nWhose maids opon remoter green  \nKeep their seraphic May -  \nAnd all day long, with dance and game,  \nAnd gambo! I may never name -  \nEmploy their holiday.\n\nHere to light measure, move the feet  \nWhich walk no more the village street -  \nNor by the wood are found -  \nHere are the birds that sought the sun  \nWhen last year's distaff idle hung  \nAnd summer's brows were bound.\n\nNe'er saw I such a wondrous scene -  \nNe'er such a ring on such a green -  \nNor so serene array -  \nAs if the stars some summer night  \nShould swing their cups of Chrysolite -  \nAnd revel till the day -\n\nLike thee to dance - like thee to sing -  \nPeople opon that mystic green -  \nI ask, each new May morn.  \nI wait thy far - fantastic bells -  \nAnnouncing me in other dells -  \nUnto the different dawn!\n\n**Version 2**\n\nThere is a morn by men unseen \u2014   \nWhose maids upon remoter green  \nKeep their Seraphic May \u2014   \nAnd all day long, with dance and game,  \nAnd gambol I may never name \u2014   \nEmploy their holiday.\n\nHere to light measure, move the feet  \nWhich walk no more the village street \u2014   \nNor by the wood are found \u2014   \nHere are the birds that sought the sun  \nWhen last year's distaff idle hung  \nAnd summer's brows were bound.\n\nNe'er saw I such a wondrous scene \u2014   \nNe'er such a ring on such a green \u2014   \nNor so serene array \u2014   \nAs if the stars some summer night  \nShould swing their cups of Chrysolite \u2014   \nAnd revel till the day \u2014\n\nLike thee to dance \u2014 like thee to sing \u2014   \nPeople upon the mystic green \u2014   \nI ask, each new May Morn.  \nI wait thy far, fantastic bells \u2014   \nUnto the different dawn!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**She slept beneath a tree \u2014**\n\nShe slept beneath a tree \u2014   \nRemembered but by me.  \nI touched her Cradle mute \u2014   \nShe recognized the foot \u2014   \nPut on her carmine suit  \nAnd see!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It's all I have to bring today \u2014**\n\nIt's all I have to bring today \u2014   \nThis, and my heart beside \u2014   \nThis, and my heart, and all the fields \u2014   \nAnd all the meadows wide \u2014   \nBe sure you count \u2014 should I forget  \nSome one the sum could tell \u2014   \nThis, and my heart, and all the Bees  \nWhich in the Clover dwell.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Morns like these \u2014 we parted \u2014**\n\n**Version 1**\n\nMorns like these - we parted  \nNoons like these - she rose!  \nFluttering first - then firmer  \nTo her fair repose -  \nNever did she lisp it  \nAnd 'twas not for _me_ -  \nShe was mute for transport  \nI, for agony!  \nTill the evening nearing  \nOne the shutters drew -  \nQuick! a sharper rustling!  \nAnd this linnet flew!\n\n**Version 2**\n\nMorns like these - we parted.  \nNoons like these - she rose  \nFluttering first - then firmer -  \nTo her fair repose.  \nNever did she lisp it -  \nAnd 'twas not for _me_ -  \nShe was mute from transport -  \nI - from agony -  \nTill - the evening nearing -  \nOne the Curtains drew -  \nQuick! A sharper rustling!  \nAnd this Linnet flew!\n\n**Version 3**\n\nMorns like these - we parted -  \nNoons like these - she rose -  \nFluttering first - then firmer  \nTo her fair repose.\n\nNever did she lisp it -  \nIt was not for _me_ -  \nShe - was mute from transport -  \nI - from agony -\n\nTill - the evening nearing  \nOne the curtains drew -  \nQuick! A sharper rustling!  \nAnd this linnet flew!\n\n**Version 4**\n\nMorns like these \u2014 we parted \u2014   \nNoons like these \u2014 she rose \u2014   \nFluttering first \u2014 then firmer  \nTo her fair repose.  \nNever did she lisp it \u2014   \nIt was not for me \u2014   \nShe \u2014 was mute from transport \u2014   \nI \u2014 from agony \u2014   \nTill \u2014 the evening nearing  \nOne the curtains drew \u2014   \nQuick! A Sharper rustling!  \nAnd this linnet flew!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**So has a Daisy vanished**\n\n**Version 1**\n\nSo has a Daisy vanished  \nFrom the fields today -  \nSo tiptoed many a slipper  \nTo Paradise away -  \nOozed so, in crimson bubbles  \nDay's departing tide -  \nBlooming - tripping - flowing -  \nAre ye then with God?\n\n**Version 2**\n\nSo has a Daisy vanished  \nFrom the fields today \u2014   \nSo tiptoed many a slipper  \nTo Paradise away \u2014\n\nOozed so in crimson bubbles  \nDay's departing tide \u2014   \nBlooming \u2014 tripping \u2014 flowing  \nAre ye then with God?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If those I loved were lost**\n\n**Version 1**\n\nIf those I loved were lost,  \nthe crier's voice would tell me -  \nIf those I loved were found,  \nthe bells of Ghent would ring,\n\nDid those I loved repose,  \nthe Daisy would impel me -  \nPhilip when bewildered -  \nbore his riddle in -\n\n**Version 2**\n\nIf those I loved were lost  \nThe Crier's voice w'd tell me -  \nIf those I loved were found  \nThe bells of Ghent w'd ring -  \nDid those I loved repose  \nThe Daisy would impel me.  \nPhilip - when bewildered  \nBore his riddle in!\n\n**Version 3**\n\nIf those I loved were lost  \nThe Crier's voice would tell me \u2014   \nIf those I loved were found  \nThe bells of Ghent would ring \u2014\n\nDid those I loved repose  \nThe Daisy would impel me.  \nPhilip \u2014 when bewildered  \nBore his riddle in!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Adrift! A little boat adrift!**\n\nAdrift! A little boat adrift!  \nAnd night is coming down!  \nWill _no_ one guide a little boat  \nUnto the nearest town?\n\nSo Sailors say \u2014 on yesterday \u2014   \nJust as the dusk was brown  \nOne little boat gave up its strife  \nAnd gurgled down and down.\n\nSo angels say \u2014 on yesterday \u2014   \nJust as the dawn was red  \nOne little boat \u2014 o'erspent with gales \u2014   \nRetrimmed its masts \u2014 redecked its sails \u2014   \nAnd shot \u2014 exultant on!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Summer for thee, grant I may be**\n\n**Version 1**\n\nSummer for thee, grant I may be  \nWhen Summer days are flown!  \nThy music still, when Whippowil  \nAnd Oriole - are done!\n\nFor thee to bloom, I'll skip the tomb  \nAnd row my blossoms o'er!  \nPray gather me -  \nAnemone -  \nThy flower - forevermore!\n\n**Version 2**\n\nSummer for thee, grant I may be  \nWhen Summer days are flown!  \nThy music still, when Whipporwill  \nAnd Oriole \u2014 are done!\n\nFor thee to bloom, I'll skip the tomb  \nAnd row my blossoms o'er!  \nPray gather me \u2014   \nAnemone \u2014   \nThy flower \u2014 forevermore!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**When Roses cease to bloom, Sir,**\n\nWhen Roses cease to bloom, Sir,  \nAnd Violets are done \u2014   \nWhen Bumblebees in solemn flight  \nHave passed beyond the Sun \u2014   \nThe hand that paused to gather  \nUpon this Summer's day  \nWill idle lie \u2014 in Auburn \u2014   \nThen take my flowers \u2014 pray!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If recollecting were forgetting,**\n\n**Version 1**\n\n_Oh_ if remembering were forgetting -  \nThen I remember not!  \nAnd if forgetting - recollecting -  \nHow near I had forgot!  \nAnd if to miss - were merry -  \nAnd to mourn were gay,  \nHow very blithe the maiden  \nWho gathered these today!\n\n**Version 2**\n\nIf recollecting were forgetting,  \nThen I remember not,  \nAnd if forgetting, recollecting,  \nHow near I had forgot,  \nAnd if to miss, were merry,  \nAnd to mourn, were gay,  \nHow very blithe the fingers  \nThat gathered this, today!\n\n**Version 3**\n\nIf recollecting is forgetting,  \nthen I remember yet.  \nAnd if forgetting, recollecting,  \nhow near I shall forget.  \nAnd if to miss, were merry,  \nand to mourn, were gay,  \nhow very blithe the fingers  \nthat gather this today\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Garland for Queens, may be \u2014**\n\n**Version 1**\n\nGarlands for Queens, may be -  \nLaurels - for rare degree  \nOf soul or sword -  \nAh - but remembering me -  \nAh - but remembering thee -  \nNature in chivalry -  \nNature in charity -  \nNature in equity -  \nThe Rose ordained!\n\n**Version 2**\n\nGarland for Queens, may be \u2014   \nLaurels \u2014 for rare degree  \nOf soul or sword.  \nAh \u2014 but remembering me \u2014   \nAh \u2014 but remembering thee \u2014   \nNature in chivalry \u2014   \nNature in charity \u2014   \nNature in equity \u2014   \nThis Rose ordained!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Nobody knows this little Rose \u2014**\n\n**Version 1**\n\nNobody knows this little rose;  \nIt might a pilgrim be,  \nDid I not take it from the ways,  \nAnd lift it up to thee!\n\nOnly a bee will miss it;  \nOnly a butterfly,  \nHastening from far journey,  \nOn it's breast to lie.\n\nOnly a bird will wonder;  \nOnly a breeze will sigh;  \nAh! little rose, how easy  \nFor such as thee to die!\n\n**Version 2**\n\nNobody knows this little Rose \u2014   \nIt might a pilgrim be  \nDid I not take it from the ways  \nAnd lift it up to thee.  \nOnly a Bee will miss it \u2014   \nOnly a Butterfly,  \nHastening from far journey \u2014   \nOn its breast to lie \u2014   \nOnly a Bird will wonder \u2014   \nOnly a Breeze will sigh \u2014   \nAh Little Rose \u2014 how easy  \nFor such as thee to die!\n\n**Version 3**\n\nNobody knows this little Rose.  \nIt might a pilgrim be  \nDid I not take it from the ways  \nAnd lift it up to Thee. -  \nOnly a Bee will miss it -  \nOnly a Butterfly,  \nHastening from far journey  \nOn it's breast - to lie -  \nOnly a Bird - will wonder -  \nOnly a Breeze will sigh,  \nAh, little Rose!  \nHow Easy, for such as thee, to die!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Snow flakes.**\n\nSnow flakes.\n\nI counted till they danced so  \nTheir slippers leaped the town,  \nAnd then I took a pencil  \nTo note the rebels down.  \nAnd then they grew so jolly  \nI did resign the prig,  \nAnd ten of my once stately toes  \nAre marshalled for a jig!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Before the ice is in the pools \u2014**\n\nBefore the ice is in the pools \u2014   \nBefore the skaters go,  \nOr any check at nightfall  \nIs tarnished by the snow \u2014\n\nBefore the fields have finished,  \nBefore the Christmas tree,  \nWonder upon wonder  \nWill arrive to me!\n\nWhat we touch the hems of  \nOn a summer's day \u2014   \nWhat is only walking  \nJust a bridge away \u2014\n\nThat which sings so \u2014 speaks so \u2014   \nWhen there's no one here \u2014   \nWill the frock I wept in  \nAnswer me to wear?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**By such and such an offering**\n\nBy such and such an offering  \nTo Mr. So and So,  \nThe web of live woven \u2014   \nSo martyrs albums show!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It did not surprise me \u2014**\n\nIt did not surprise me \u2014   \nSo I said \u2014 or thought \u2014   \nShe will stir her pinions  \nAnd the nest forgot,\n\nTraverse broader forests \u2014   \nBuild in gayer boughs,  \nBreathe in Ear more modern  \nGod's old fashioned vows \u2014\n\nThis was but a Birdling \u2014   \nWhat and if it be  \nOne within my bosom  \nHad departed me?\n\nThis was but a story \u2014   \nWhat and if indeed  \nThere were just such coffin  \nIn the heart instead?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**When I count the seeds**\n\nWhen I count the seeds  \nThat are sown beneath,  \nTo bloom so, bye and bye \u2014   \nWhen I con the people  \nLain so low,  \nTo be received as high \u2014   \nWhen I believe the garden  \nMortal shall not see \u2014   \nPick by faith its blossom  \nAnd avoid its Bee,  \nI can spare this summer, unreluctantly.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I robbed the Woods \u2014**\n\nI robbed the Woods \u2014   \nThe trusting Woods.  \nThe unsuspecting Trees  \nBrought out their Burs and mosses  \nMy fantasy to please.  \nI scanned their trinkets curious \u2014 I grasped \u2014 I bore away \u2014   \nWhat will the solemn Hemlock \u2014   \nWhat will the Oak tree say?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Day! Help! Help! Another Day!**\n\nA Day! Help! Help! Another Day!  \nYour prayers, oh Passer by!  \nFrom such a common ball as this  \nMight date a Victory!  \nFrom marshallings as simple  \nThe flags of nations swang.  \nSteady \u2014 my soul: What issues  \nUpon thine arrow hang!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Could live \u2014 did live \u2014**\n\nCould live \u2014 did live \u2014   \nCould die \u2014 did die \u2014   \nCould smile upon the whole  \nThrough faith in one he met not,  \nTo introduce his soul.\n\nCould go from scene familiar  \nTo an untraversed spot \u2014   \nCould contemplate the journey  \nWith unpuzzled heart \u2014\n\nSuch trust had one among us,  \nAmong us not today \u2014   \nWe who saw the launching  \nNever sailed the Bay!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If she had been the Mistletoe**\n\nIf she had been the Mistletoe  \nAnd I had been the Rose \u2014   \nHow gay upon your table  \nMy velvet life to close \u2014   \nSince I am of the Druid,  \nAnd she is of the dew \u2014   \nI'll deck Tradition's buttonhole \u2014   \nAnd send the Rose to you.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There's something quieter than sleep**\n\nThere's something quieter than sleep  \nWithin this inner room!  \nIt wears a sprig upon its breast \u2014   \nAnd will not tell its name.\n\nSome touch it, and some kiss it \u2014   \nSome chafe its idle hand \u2014   \nIt has a simple gravity  \nI do not understand!\n\nI would not weep if I were they \u2014   \nHow rude in one to sob!  \nMight scare the quiet fairy  \nBack to her native wood!\n\nWhile simple-hearted neighbors  \nChat of the \"Early dead\" \u2014   \nWe \u2014 prone to periphrasis  \nRemark that Birds have fled!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I keep my pledge.**\n\nI keep my pledge.  \nI was not called \u2014   \nDeath did not notice me.  \nI bring my Rose.  \nI plight again,  \nBy every sainted Bee \u2014   \nBy Daisy called from hillside \u2014   \nby Bobolink from lane.  \nBlossom and I \u2014   \nHer oath, and mine \u2014   \nWill surely come again.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Heart! We will forget him!**\n\nHeart! We will forget him!  \nYou and I \u2014 tonight!  \nYou may forget the warmth he gave \u2014   \nI will forget the light!\n\nWhen you have done, pray tell me  \nThat I may straight begin!  \nHaste! lest while you're lagging  \nI remember him!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Once more, my now bewildered Dove**\n\nOnce more, my now bewildered Dove  \nBestirs her puzzled wings  \nOnce more her mistress, on the deep  \nHer troubled question flings \u2014\n\nThrice to the floating casement  \nThe Patriarch's bird returned,  \nCourage! My brave Columba!  \nThere may yet be land\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I never lost as much but twice,**\n\n**Version 1**\n\nI NEVER lost as much but twice,  \nAnd that was in the sod ;  \nTwice have I stood a beggar  \nBefore the door of God !\n\nAngels, twice descending,  \nReimbursed my store.  \nBurglar, banker, father,  \nI am poor once more !\n\n**Version 2**\n\nI never lost as much but twice,  \nAnd that was in the sod.  \nTwice have I stood a beggar  \nBefore the door of God!\n\nAngels \u2014 twice descending  \nReimbursed my store \u2014   \nBurglar! Banker \u2014 Father!  \nI am poor once more!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I haven't told my garden yet \u2014**\n\nI haven't told my garden yet \u2014   \nLest that should conquer me.  \nI haven't quite the strength now  \nTo break it to the Bee \u2014\n\nI will not name it in the street  \nFor shops would stare at me \u2014   \nThat one so shy \u2014 so ignorant  \nShould have the face to die.\n\nThe hillsides must not know it \u2014   \nWhere I have rambled so \u2014   \nNor tell the loving forests  \nThe day that I shall go \u2014\n\nNor lisp it at the table \u2014   \nNor heedless by the way  \nHint that within the Riddle  \nOne will walk today \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I often passed the village**\n\nI often passed the village  \nWhen going home from school \u2014   \nAnd wondered what they did there \u2014   \nAnd why it was so still \u2014\n\nI did not know the year then \u2014   \nIn which my call would come \u2014   \nEarlier, by the Dial,  \nThan the rest have gone.\n\nIt's stiller than the sundown.  \nIt's cooler than the dawn \u2014   \nThe Daisies dare to come here \u2014   \nAnd birds can flutter down \u2014\n\nSo when you are tired \u2014   \nOr perplexed \u2014 or cold \u2014   \nTrust the loving promise  \nUnderneath the mould,  \nCry \"it's I,\" \"take Dollie,\"  \nAnd I will enfold!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Whether my bark went down at sea \u2014**\n\nWHETHER my bark went down at sea,  \nWhether she met with gales,  \nWhether to isles enchanted  \nShe bent her docile sails ;\n\nBy what mystic mooring  \nShe is held to-day, \u2014   \nThis is the errand of the eye  \nOut upon the bay.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Taken from men \u2014 this morning \u2014**\n\nTaken from men \u2014 this morning \u2014   \nCarried by men today \u2014   \nMet by the Gods with banners \u2014   \nWho marshalled her away \u2014\n\nOne little maid \u2014 from playmates \u2014   \nOne little mind from school \u2014   \nThere must be guests in Eden \u2014   \nAll the rooms are full \u2014\n\nFar \u2014 as the East from Even \u2014   \nDim \u2014 as the border star \u2014   \nCourtiers quaint, in Kingdoms  \nOur departed are.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If I should die,**\n\nIf I should die,  \nAnd you should live \u2014   \nAnd time should gurgle on \u2014   \nAnd morn should beam \u2014   \nAnd noon should burn \u2014   \nAs it has usual done \u2014   \nIf Birds should build as early  \nAnd Bees as bustling go \u2014   \nOne might depart at option  \nFrom enterprise below!  \n'Tis sweet to know that stocks will stand  \nWhen we with Daisies lie \u2014   \nThat Commerce will continue \u2014   \nAnd Trades as briskly fly \u2014   \nIt makes the parting tranquil  \nAnd keeps the soul serene \u2014   \nThat gentlemen so sprightly  \nConduct the pleasing scene!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**By Chivalries as tiny,**\n\nBy Chivalries as tiny,  \nA Blossom, or a Book,  \nThe seeds of smiles are planted \u2014   \nWhich blossom in the dark.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If I should cease to bring a Rose**\n\nIf I should cease to bring a Rose  \nUpon a festal day,  \n'Twill be because beyond the Rose  \nI have been called away \u2014   \nIf I should cease to take the names  \nMy buds commemorate \u2014   \n'Twill be because Death's finger  \nClaps my murmuring lip!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To venerate the simple days**\n\nTo venerate the simple days  \nWhich lead the seasons by,  \nNeeds but to remember  \nThat from you or I,  \nThey may take the trifle  \nTermed mortality!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Delayed till she had ceased to know \u2014**\n\nDelayed till she had ceased to know \u2014   \nDelayed till in its vest of snow  \nHer loving bosom lay \u2014   \nAn hour behind the fleeting breath \u2014   \nLater by just an hour than Death \u2014   \nOh lagging Yesterday!\n\nCould she have guessed that it would be \u2014   \nCould but a crier of the joy  \nHave climbed the distant hill \u2014   \nHad not the bliss so slow a pace  \nWho knows but this surrendered face  \nWere undefeated still?\n\nOh if there may departing be  \nAny forgot by Victory  \nIn her imperial round \u2014   \nShow them this meek appareled thing  \nThat could not stop to be a king \u2014   \nDoubtful if it be crowned!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A little East of Jordan,**\n\nA little East of Jordan,  \nEvangelists record,  \nA Gymnast and an Angel  \nDid wrestle long and hard \u2014\n\nTill morning touching mountain \u2014   \nAnd Jacob, waxing strong,  \nThe Angel begged permission  \nTo Breakfast \u2014 to return \u2014\n\nNot so, said cunning Jacob!  \n\"I will not let thee go  \nExcept thou bless me\" \u2014 Stranger!  \nThe which acceded to \u2014\n\nLight swung the silver fleeces  \n\"Peniel\" Hills beyond,  \nAnd the bewildered Gymnast  \nFound he had worsted God!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Like her the Saints retire,**\n\nLike her the Saints retire,  \nIn their Chapeaux of fire,  \nMartial as she!\n\nLike her the Evenings steal  \nPurple and Cochineal  \nAfter the Day!\n\n\"Departed\" \u2014 both \u2014 they say!  \ni.e. gathered away,  \nNot found,\n\nArgues the Aster still \u2014   \nReasons the Daffodil  \nProfound!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Papa above!**\n\nPapa above!  \nRegard a Mouse  \nO'erpowered by the Cat!  \nReserve within thy kingdom  \nA \"Mansion\" for the Rat!\n\nSnug in seraphic Cupboards  \nTo nibble all the day  \nWhile unsuspecting Cycles  \nWheel solemnly away!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Sown in dishonor!**\n\n\"Sown in dishonor\"!  \nAh! Indeed!  \nMay _this_ \"dishonor\" be?  \nIf I were half so fine myself  \nI'd notice nobody!\n\n\"Sown in corruption\"!  \nNot so fast!  \nApostle is askew!  \nCorinthians 1. 15. narrates  \nA Circumstance or two!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If pain for peace prepares**\n\nIf pain for peace prepares  \nLo, what \"Augustan\" years  \nOur feet await!\n\nIf springs from winter rise,  \nCan the Anemones  \nBe reckoned up?\n\nIf night stands fast \u2014 then noon  \nTo gird us for the sun,  \nWhat gaze!\n\nWhen from a thousand skies  \nOn our developed eyes  \nNoons blaze!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Some Rainbow \u2014 coming from the Fair!**\n\nSome Rainbow \u2014 coming from the Fair!  \nSome Vision of the World Cashmere \u2014   \nI confidently see!  \nOr else a Peacock's purple Train  \nFeather by feather \u2014 on the plain  \nFritters itself away!\n\nThe dreamy Butterflies bestir!  \nLethargic pools resume the whir  \nOf last year's sundered tune!  \nFrom some old Fortress on the sun  \nBaronial Bees \u2014 march \u2014 one by one \u2014   \nIn murmuring platoon!\n\nThe Robins stand as thick today  \nAs flakes of snow stood yesterday \u2014   \nOn fence \u2014 and Roof \u2014 and Twig!  \nThe Orchis binds her feather on  \nFor her old lover - Don the Sun!  \nRevisiting the Bog!\n\nWithout Commander! Countless! Still!  \nThe Regiments of Wood and Hill  \nIn bright detachment stand!  \nBehold! Whose Multitudes are these?  \nThe children of whose turbaned seas \u2014   \nOr what Circassian Land?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I can't tell you \u2014 but you feel it \u2014**\n\nI can't tell you \u2014 but you feel it \u2014   \nNor can you tell me \u2014   \nSaints, with ravished slate and pencil  \nSolve our April Day!\n\nSweeter than a vanished frolic  \nFrom a vanished green!  \nSwifter than the hoofs of Horsemen  \nRound a Ledge of dream!\n\nModest, let us walk among it  \nWith our faces veiled \u2014   \nAs they say polite Archangels  \nDo in meeting God!\n\nNot for me \u2014 to prate about it!  \nNot for you \u2014 to say  \nTo some fashionable Lady  \n\"Charming April Day\"!\n\nRather \u2014 Heaven's \"Peter Parley\"!  \nBy which Children slow  \nTo sublimer Recitation  \nAre prepared to go!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**So from the mould**\n\nSo from the mould  \nScarlet and Gold  \nMany a Bulb will rise \u2014   \nHidden away, cunningly, From sagacious eyes.\n\nSo from Cocoon  \nMany a Worm  \nLeap so Highland gay,  \nPeasants like me,  \nPeasants like Thee  \nGaze perplexedly!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Success is counted sweetest**\n\nPOEMS.\n\nI.\n\nSUCCESS.\n\n[Published in \"A Masque of Poets\" at the request of  \n\"H. H.,\" the author's fellow-townswoman and friend]\n\nSUCCESS is counted sweetest  \nBy those who ne'er succeed.  \nTo comprehend a nectar  \nRequires sorest need.\n\nNot one of all the purple host  \nWho took the flag to-day  \nCan tell the definition,  \nSo clear, of victory,\n\nAs he, defeated, dying,  \nOn whose forbidden ear  \nThe distant strains of triumph  \nBreak, agonized and clear.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Ambition cannot find him.**\n\nAmbition cannot find him.  \nAffection doesn't know  \nHow many leagues of nowhere  \nLie between them now.\n\nYesterday, undistinguished!  \nEminent Today  \nFor our mutual hone, Immortality!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Low at my problem bending,**\n\nLow at my problem bending,  \nAnother problem comes \u2014   \nLarger than mine \u2014 Serener \u2014   \nInvolving statelier sums.\n\nI check my busy pencil,  \nMy figures file away.  \nWherefore, my baffled fingers  \nThey perplexity?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Arcturus is his other name \u2014**\n\n\"Arcturus\" is his other name \u2014   \nI'd rather call him \"Star.\"  \nIt's very mean of Science  \nTo go and interfere!\n\nI slew a worm the other day \u2014   \nA \"Savant\" passing by  \nMurmured \"Resurgam\" \u2014 \"Centipede\"!  \n\"Oh Lord \u2014 how frail are we\"!\n\nI pull a flower from the woods \u2014   \nA monster with a glass  \nComputes the stamens in a breath \u2014   \nAnd has her in a \"class\"!\n\nWhereas I took the Butterfly  \nAforetime in my hat \u2014   \nHe sits erect in \"Cabinets\" \u2014   \nThe Clover bells forgot.\n\nWhat once was \"Heaven\" Is \"Zenith\" now \u2014   \nWhere I proposed to go  \nWhen Time's brief masquerade was done  \nIs mapped and charted too.\n\nWhat if the poles should frisk about  \nAnd stand upon their heads!  \nI hope I'm ready for \"the worst\" \u2014   \nWhatever prank betides!\n\nPerhaps the \"Kingdom of Heaven's\" changed \u2014   \nI hope the \"Children\" there  \nWon't be \"new fashioned\" when I come \u2014   \nAnd laugh at me \u2014 and stare \u2014\n\nI hope the Father in the skies  \nWill lift his little girl \u2014   \nOld fashioned \u2014 naught \u2014 everything \u2014   \nOver the stile of \"Pearl.\"\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A throe upon the features \u2014**\n\nA throe upon the features \u2014   \nA hurry in the breath \u2014   \nAn ecstasy of parting  \nDenominated \"Death\" \u2014\n\nAn anguish at the mention  \nWhich when to patience grown,  \nI've known permission given  \nTo rejoin its own.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Glowing is her Bonnet,**\n\nGlowing is her Bonnet,  \nGlowing is her Cheek,  \nGlowing is her Kirtle,  \nYet she cannot speak.\n\nBetter as the Daisy  \nFrom the Summer hill  \nVanish unrecorded  \nSave by tearful rill \u2014\n\nSave by loving sunrise  \nLooking for her face.  \nSave by feet unnumbered  \nPausing at the place.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Who never lost, are unprepared**\n\nWho never lost, are unprepared  \nA Coronet to find!  \nWho never thirsted  \nFlagons, and Cooling Tamarind!\n\nWho never climbed the weary league \u2014   \nCan such a foot explore  \nThe purple territories  \nOn Pizarro's shore?\n\nHow many Legions overcome \u2014   \nThe Emperor will say?  \nHow many Colors taken  \nOn Revolution Day?\n\nHow many Bullets bearest?  \nHast Thou the Royal scar?  \nAngels! Write \"Promoted\"  \nOn this Soldier's brow!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Lady red \u2014 amid the Hill**\n\nA Lady red \u2014 amid the Hill  \nHer annual secret keeps!  \nA Lady white, within the Field  \nIn placid Lily sleeps!\n\nThe tidy Breezes, with their Brooms \u2014   \nSweep vale \u2014 and hill \u2014 and tree!  \nPrithee, My pretty Housewives!  \nWho may expected be?\n\nThe Neighbors do not yet suspect!  \nThe Woods exchange a smile!  \nOrchard, and Buttercup, and Bird \u2014   \nIn such a little while!\n\nAnd yet, how still the Landscape stands!  \nHow nonchalant the Hedge!  \nAs if the \"Resurrection\"  \nWere nothing very strange!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**She died at play,**\n\nShe died at play,  \nGambolled away  \nHer lease of spotted hours,  \nThen sank as gaily as a Turk  \nUpon a Couch of flowers.\n\nHer ghost strolled softly o'er the hill  \nYesterday, and Today,  \nHer vestments as the silver fleece \u2014   \nHer countenance as spray.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Exultation is the going**\n\nExultation is the going  \nOf an inland soul to sea,  \nPast the houses \u2014 past the headlands \u2014   \nInto deep Eternity \u2014\n\nBred as we, among the mountains,  \nCan the sailor understand  \nThe divine intoxication  \nOf the first league out from land?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I never hear the word escape**\n\nI never hear the word \"escape\"  \nWithout a quicker blood,  \nA sudden expectation  \nA flying attitude!\n\nI never hear of prisons broad  \nBy soldiers battered down,  \nBut I tug childish at my bars  \nOnly to fail again!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A poor \u2014 torn heart \u2014 a tattered heart \u2014**\n\nA poor \u2014 torn heart \u2014 a tattered heart \u2014   \nThat sat it down to rest \u2014   \nNor noticed that the Ebbing Day  \nFlowed silver to the West \u2014   \nNor noticed Night did soft descend \u2014   \nNor Constellation burn \u2014   \nIntent upon the vision  \nOf latitudes unknown.\n\nThe angels \u2014 happening that way  \nThis dusty heart espied \u2014   \nTenderly took it up from toil  \nAnd carried it to God \u2014   \nThere \u2014 sandals for the Barefoot \u2014   \nThere \u2014 gathered from the gales \u2014   \nDo the blue havens by the hand  \nLead the wandering Sails.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Going to Heaven!**\n\nGoing to Heaven!  \nI don't know when \u2014   \nPray do not ask me how!  \nIndeed I'm too astonished  \nTo think of answering you!  \nGoing to Heaven!  \nHow dim it sounds!  \nAnd yet it will be done  \nAs sure as flocks go home at night  \nUnto the Shepherd's arm!\n\nPerhaps you're going too!  \nWho knows?  \nIf you should get there first  \nSave just a little space for me  \nClose to the two I lost \u2014   \nThe smallest \"Robe\" will fit me  \nAnd just a bit of \"Crown\" \u2014   \nFor you know we do not mind our dress  \nWhen we are going home \u2014\n\nI'm glad I don't believe it  \nFor it would stop my breath \u2014   \nAnd I'd like to look a little more  \nAt such a curious Earth!  \nI'm glad they did believe it  \nWhom I have never found  \nSince the might Autumn afternoon  \nI left them in the ground.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Our lives are Swiss \u2014**\n\nOur lives are Swiss \u2014   \nSo still \u2014 so Cool \u2014   \nTill some odd afternoon  \nThe Alps neglect their Curtains  \nAnd we look farther on!\n\nItaly stands the other side!  \nWhile like a guard between \u2014   \nThe solemn Alps \u2014   \nThe siren Alps  \nForever intervene!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We should not mind so small a flower \u2014**\n\nWe should not mind so small a flower \u2014   \nExcept it quiet bring  \nOur little garden that we lost  \nBack to the Lawn again.\n\nSo spicy her Carnations nod \u2014   \nSo drunken, reel her Bees \u2014   \nSo silver steal a hundred flutes  \nFrom out a hundred trees \u2014\n\nThat whoso sees this little flower  \nBy faith may clear behold  \nThe Bobolinks around the throne  \nAnd Dandelions gold.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Whose cheek is this?**\n\nWhose cheek is this?  \nWhat rosy face  \nHas lost a blush today?  \nI found her \u2014 \"pleiad\" \u2014 in the woods  \nAnd bore her safe away.\n\nRobins, in the tradition  \nDid cover such with leaves,  \nBut which the cheek \u2014   \nAnd which the pall  \nMy scrutiny deceives.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Heart, not so heavy as mine**\n\nHeart, not so heavy as mine  \nWending late home \u2014   \nAs it passed my window  \nWhistled itself a tune \u2014   \nA careless snatch \u2014 a ballad \u2014 A ditty of the street \u2014   \nYet to my irritated Ear  \nAn Anodyne so sweet \u2014   \nIt was as if a Bobolink  \nSauntering this way  \nCarolled, and paused, and carolled \u2014   \nThen bubbled slow away!  \nIt was as if a chirping brook  \nUpon a dusty way \u2014   \nSet bleeding feet to minuets  \nWithout the knowing why!  \nTomorrow, night will come again \u2014   \nPerhaps, weary and sore \u2014   \nAh Bugle! By my window  \nI pray you pass once more.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Her breast is fit for pearls,**\n\nHer breast is fit for pearls,  \nBut I was not a \"Diver\" \u2014   \nHer brow is fit for thrones  \nBut I have not a crest.  \nHer heart is fit for home \u2014   \nI \u2014 a Sparrow \u2014 build there  \nSweet of twigs and twine  \nMy perennial nest.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**They have not chosen me, he said,**\n\n\"They have not chosen me,\" he said,  \n\"But I have chosen them!\"  \nBrave \u2014 Broken hearted statement \u2014   \nUttered in Bethlehem!\n\nI could not have told it,  \nBut since Jesus dared \u2014   \nSovereign! Know a Daisy  \nThey dishonor shared!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**South Winds jostle them \u2014**\n\nSouth Winds jostle them \u2014   \nBumblebees come \u2014   \nHover \u2014 hesitate \u2014   \nDrink, and are gone \u2014\n\nButterflies pause  \nOn their passage Cashmere \u2014   \nI \u2014 softly plucking,  \nPresent them here!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A darting fear \u2014 a pomp \u2014 a tear \u2014**\n\nA darting fear \u2014 a pomp \u2014 a tear \u2014   \nA waking on a morn  \nTo find that what one waked for,  \nInhales the different dawn.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**As by the dead we love to sit,**\n\nAs by the dead we love to sit,  \nBecome so wondrous dear \u2014   \nAs for the lost we grapple  \nTho' all the rest are here \u2014\n\nIn broken mathematics  \nWe estimate our prize  \nVast \u2014 in its fading ration  \nTo our penurious eyes!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Some things that fly there be \u2014**\n\nSome things that fly there be \u2014   \nBirds \u2014 Hours \u2014 the Bumblebee \u2014   \nOf these no Elegy.\n\nSome things that stay there be \u2014   \nGrief \u2014 Hills \u2014 Eternity \u2014   \nNor this behooveth me.\n\nThere are that resting, rise.  \nCan I expound the skies?  \nHow still the Riddle lies!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Within my reach!**\n\nWITHIN my reach !  \nI could have touched !  \nI might have chanced that way !  \nSoft sauntered through the village,  \nSauntered as soft away !  \nSo unsuspected violets  \nWithin the fields lie low ;  \nToo late for striving fingers  \nThat passed, an hour ago.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**So bashful when I spied her!**\n\nSO bashful when I spied her,  \nSo pretty, so ashamed !  \nSo hidden in her leaflets,  \nLest anybody find ;\n\nSo breathless till I passed her,  \nSo helpless when I turned  \nAnd bore her, struggling, blushing,  \nHer simple haunts beyond !\n\nFor whom I robbed the dingle,  \nFor whom betrayed the dell,  \nMany will doubtless ask me,  \nBut I shall never tell !\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My friend must be a Bird \u2014**\n\nMy friend must be a Bird \u2014   \nBecause it flies!  \nMortal, my friend must be,  \nBecause it dies!  \nBarbs has it, like a Bee!  \nAh, curious friend!  \nThou puzzlest me!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Went up a year this evening!**\n\nWent up a year this evening!  \nI recollect it well!  \nAmid no bells nor bravoes  \nThe bystanders will tell!  \nCheerful \u2014 as to the village \u2014   \nTranquil \u2014 as to repose \u2014   \nChastened \u2014 as to the Chapel  \nThis humble Tourist rose!  \nDid not talk of returning!  \nAlluded to no time  \nWhen, were the gales propitious \u2014   \nWe might look for him!  \nWas grateful for the Roses  \nIn life's diverse bouquet \u2014   \nTalked softly of new species  \nTo pick another day;  \nBeguiling thus the wonder  \nThe wondrous nearer drew \u2014   \nHands bustled at the moorings \u2014   \nThe crown respectful grew \u2014   \nAscended from our vision  \nTo Countenances new!  \nA Difference \u2014 A Daisy \u2014   \nIs all the rest I knew!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Angels, in the early morning**\n\nANGELS in the early morning  \nMay be seen the dews among,  \nStooping, plucking, smiling, flying :  \nDo the buds to them belong ?\n\nAngels when the sun is hottest  \nMay be seen the sands among,  \nStooping, plucking, sighing, flying ;  \nParched the flowers they bear along.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My nosegays are for Captives \u2014**\n\nMy nosegays are for Captives \u2014   \nDim \u2014 expectant eyes,  \nFingers denied the plucking,  \nPatient till Paradise.\n\nTo such, if they should whisper  \nOf morning and the moor,  \nThey bear no other errand,  \nAnd I, no other prayer.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Sexton! My Master's sleeping here.**\n\nSexton! My Master's sleeping here.  \nPray lead me to his bed!  \nI came to build the Bird's nest,  \nAnd sow the Early seed \u2014\n\nThat when the snow creeps slowly  \nFrom off his chamber door \u2014   \nDaisies point the way there \u2014   \nAnd the Troubadour.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The rainbow never tells me**\n\nThe rainbow never tells me  \nThat gust and storm are by,  \nYet is she more convincing  \nThan Philosophy.\n\nMy flowers turn from Forums \u2014   \nYet eloquent declare  \nWhat Cato couldn't prove me  \nExcept the birds were here!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**One dignity delays for all \u2014**\n\nONE dignity delays for all,  \nOne mitred afternoon.  \nNone can avoid this purple,  \nNone evade this crown.\n\nCoach it insures, and footmen,  \nChamber and state and throng ;  \nBells, also, in the village,  \nAs we ride grand along.\n\nWhat dignified attendants,  \nWhat service when we pause !  \nHow loyally at parting  \nTheir hundred hats they raise !\n\nHow pomp surpassing ermine,  \nWhen simple you and I  \nPresent our meek escutcheon,  \nAnd claim the rank to die !\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**New feet within my garden go \u2014**\n\nNEW feet within my garden go,  \nNew fingers stir the sod ;  \nA troubadour upon the elm  \nBetrays the solitude.\n\nNew children play upon the green,  \nNew weary sleep below ;  \nAnd still the pensive spring returns,  \nAnd still the punctual snow !\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A science \u2014 so the Savants say,**\n\nA science \u2014 so the Savants say,  \n\"Comparative Anatomy\" \u2014   \nBy which a single bone \u2014   \nIs made a secret to unfold  \nOf some rare tenant of the mold,  \nElse perished in the stone \u2014\n\nSo to the eye prospective led,  \nThis meekest flower of the mead  \nUpon a winter's day,  \nStands representative in gold  \nOf Rose and Lily, manifold,  \nAnd countless Butterfly!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Will there really be a Morning?**\n\nWill there really be a \"Morning\"?  \nIs there such a thing as \"Day\"?  \nCould I see it from the mountains  \nIf I were as tall as they?\n\nHas it feet like Water lilies?  \nHas it feathers like a Bird?  \nIs it brought from famous countries  \nOf which I have never heard?\n\nOh some Scholar! Oh some Sailor!  \nOh some Wise Men from the skies!  \nPlease to tell a little Pilgrim  \nWhere the place called \"Morning\" lies!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Great Caesar! Condescend**\n\nGreat Caesar! Condescend  \nThe Daisy, to receive,  \nGathered by Cato's Daughter,  \nWith your majestic leave!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I have a King, who does not speak \u2014**\n\nI have a King, who does not speak \u2014   \nSo \u2014 wondering \u2014 thro' the hours meek  \nI trudge the day away \u2014   \nHalf glad when it is night, and sleep,  \nIf, haply, thro' a dream, to peep  \nIn parlors, shut by day.\n\nAnd if I do \u2014 when morning comes \u2014   \nIt is as if a hundred drums  \nDid round my pillow roll,  \nAnd shouts fill all my Childish sky,  \nAnd Bells keep saying \"Victory\"  \nFrom steeples in my soul!\n\nAnd if I don't \u2014 the little Bird  \nWithin the Orchard, is not heard,  \nAnd I omit to pray  \n\"Father, thy will be done\" today  \nFor my will goes the other way,  \nAnd it were perjury!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Where I have lost, I softer tread \u2014**\n\nWhere I have lost, I softer tread \u2014   \nI sow sweet flower from garden bed \u2014   \nI pause above that vanished head  \nAnd mourn.\n\nWhom I have lost, I pious guard  \nFrom accent harsh, or ruthless word \u2014   \nFeeling as if their pillow heard,  \nThough stone!\n\nWhen I have lost, you'll know by this \u2014   \nA Bonnet black \u2014 A dusk surplice \u2014   \nA little tremor in my voice Like this!\n\nWhy, I have lost, the people know  \nWho dressed in flocks of purest snow  \nWent home a century ago  \nNext Bliss!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To hang our head \u2014 ostensibly \u2014**\n\nTo hang our head \u2014 ostensibly \u2014   \nAnd subsequent, to find  \nThat such was not the posture  \nOf our immortal mind \u2014\n\nAffords the sly presumption  \nThat in so dense a fuzz \u2014   \nYou \u2014 too \u2014 take Cobweb attitudes  \nUpon a plane of Gauze!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Daisy follows soft the Sun \u2014**\n\nTHE daisy follows soft the sun,  \nAnd when his golden walk is done,  \nSits shyly at his feet.  \nHe, walking, finds the flower near.  \n\"Wherefore, marauder, art thou here ?  \n\"Because, sir, love is sweet !\"\n\nWe are the flower, Thou the sun !  \nForgive us, if as days decline,  \nWe nearer steal to Thee, \u2014   \nEnamoured of the parting west,  \nThe peace, the flight, the amethyst,  \nNight's possibility !\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Twas such a little \u2014 little boat**\n\n'Twas such a little \u2014 little boat  \nThat toddled down the bay!  \n'Twas such a gallant \u2014 gallant sea  \nThat beckoned it away!\n\n'Twas such a greedy, greedy wave  \nThat licked it from the Coast \u2014   \nNor ever guessed the stately sails  \nMy little craft was lost!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Surgeons must be very careful**\n\nSurgeons must be very careful  \nWhen they take the knife!  \nUnderneath their fine incisions  \nStirs the Culprit \u2014 Life!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**By a flower \u2014 By a letter \u2014**\n\nBy a flower \u2014 By a letter \u2014   \nBy a nimble love \u2014   \nIf I weld the Rivet faster \u2014   \nFinal fast \u2014 above \u2014\n\nNever mind my breathless Anvil!  \nNever mind Repose!  \nNever mind the sooty faces  \nTugging at the Forge!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Artists wrestled here!**\n\nArtists wrestled here!  \nLo, a tint Cashmere!  \nLo, a Rose!  \nStudent of the Year!  \nFor the easel here  \nSay Repose!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Bee is not afraid of me.**\n\nTHE bee is not afraid of me,  \nI know the butterfly ;  \nThe pretty people in the woods  \nReceive me cordially.\n\nThe brooks laugh louder when I come,  \nThe breezes madder play.  \nWherefore, mine eyes, thy silver mists ?  \nWherefore, O summer's day ?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Where bells no more affright the morn \u2014**\n\nWhere bells no more affright the morn \u2014   \nWhere scrabble never comes \u2014   \nWhere very nimble Gentlemen  \nAre forced to keep their rooms \u2014\n\nWhere tired Children placid sleep  \nThro' Centuries of noon  \nThis place is Bliss \u2014 this town is Heaven \u2014   \nPlease, Pater, pretty soon!\n\n\"Oh could we climb where Moses stood,  \nAnd view the Landscape o'er\"  \nNot Father's bells \u2014 nor Factories,  \nCould scare us any more!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Our share of night to bear \u2014**\n\nII.\n\nOUR share of night to bear,  \nOur share of morning,  \nOur blank in bliss to fill,  \nOur blank in scorning.\n\nHere a star, and there a star,  \nSome lose their way.  \nHere a mist, and there a mist,  \nAfterwards \u2014 day!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Good night, because we must,**\n\nGood night, because we must,  \nHow intricate the dust!  \nI would go, to know!  \nOh incognito!  \nSaucy, Saucy Seraph  \nTo elude me so!  \nFather! they won't tell me,  \nWon't you tell them to?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**What Inn is this**\n\nWhat Inn is this  \nWhere for the night  \nPeculiar Traveller comes?  \nWho is the Landlord?  \nWhere the maids?  \nBehold, what curious rooms!  \nNo ruddy fires on the hearth \u2014   \nNo brimming Tankards flow \u2014   \nNecromancer! Landlord!  \nWho are these below?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I had some things that I called mine \u2014**\n\nI had some things that I called mine \u2014   \nAnd God, that he called his,  \nTill, recently a rival Claim  \nDisturbed these amities.\n\nThe property, my garden,  \nWhich having sown with care,  \nHe claims the pretty acre,  \nAnd sends a Bailiff there.\n\nThe station of the parties  \nForbids publicity,  \nBut Justice is sublimer  \nThan arms, or pedigree.\n\nI'll institute an \"Action\" \u2014   \nI'll vindicate the law \u2014   \nJove! Choose your counsel \u2014   \nI retain \"Shaw\"!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**In rags mysterious as these**\n\nIn rags mysterious as these  \nThe shining Courtiers go \u2014   \nVeiling the purple, and the plumes \u2014   \nVeiling the ermine so.\n\nSmiling, as they request an alms \u2014   \nAt some imposing door!  \nSmiling when we walk barefoot  \nUpon their golden floor!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My friend attacks my friend!**\n\nMy friend attacks my friend!  \nOh Battle picturesque!  \nThen I turn Soldier too,  \nAnd he turns Satirist!  \nHow martial is this place!  \nHad I a mighty gun  \nI think I'd shoot the human race  \nAnd then to glory run!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Talk with prudence to a Beggar**\n\nTalk with prudence to a Beggar  \nOf \"Potose,\" and the mines!  \nReverently, to the Hungry  \nOf your viands, and your wines!\n\nCautious, hint to any Captive  \nYou have passed enfranchised feet!  \nAnecdotes of air in Dungeons  \nHave sometimes proved deadly sweet!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If this is fading**\n\nIf this is \"fading\"  \nOh let me immediately \"fade\"!  \nIf this is \"dying\"  \nBury me, in such a shroud of red!  \nIf this is \"sleep,\"  \nOn such a night  \nHow proud to shut the eye!  \nGood Evening, gentle Fellow men!  \nPeacock presumes to die!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**As Watchers hang upon the East,**\n\nAs Watchers hang upon the East,  \nAs Beggars revel at a feast  \nBy savory Fancy spread \u2014   \nAs brooks in deserts babble sweet  \nOn ear too far for the delight,  \nHeaven beguiles the tired.\n\nAs that same watcher, when the East  \nOpens the lid of Amethyst  \nAnd lets the morning go \u2014   \nThat Beggar, when an honored Guest,  \nThose thirsty lips to flagons pressed,  \nHeaven to us, if true.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A something in a summer's Day**\n\nA something in a summer's Day  \nAs slow her flambeaux burn away  \nWhich solemnizes me.\n\nA something in a summer's noon \u2014   \nA depth \u2014 an Azure \u2014 a perfume \u2014   \nTranscending ecstasy.\n\nAnd still within a summer's night  \nA something so transporting bright  \nI clap my hands to see \u2014\n\nThen veil my too inspecting face  \nLets such a subtle \u2014 shimmering grace  \nFlutter too far for me \u2014\n\nThe wizard fingers never rest \u2014   \nThe purple brook within the breast  \nStill chafes its narrow bed \u2014\n\nStill rears the East her amber Flag \u2014   \nGuides still the sun along the Crag  \nHis Caravan of Red \u2014\n\nSo looking on \u2014 the night \u2014 the morn  \nConclude the wonder gay \u2014   \nAnd I meet, coming thro' the dews  \nAnother summer's Day!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Many cross the Rhine**\n\nMany cross the Rhine  \nIn this cup of mine.  \nSip old Frankfort air  \nFrom my brown Cigar.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**In lands I never saw \u2014 they say**\n\nIn lands I never saw \u2014 they say  \nImmortal Alps look down \u2014   \nWhose Bonnets touch the firmament \u2014   \nWhose Sandals touch the town \u2014\n\nMeek at whose everlasting feet  \nA Myriad Daisy play \u2014   \nWhich, Sir, are you and which am I  \nUpon an August day?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**For each ecstatic instant**\n\nFor each ecstatic instant  \nWe must an anguish pay  \nIn keen and quivering ratio  \nTo the ecstasy.\n\nFor each beloved hour  \nSharp pittances of years \u2014   \nBitter contested farthings \u2014   \nAnd Coffers heaped with Tears!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To fight aloud, is very brave \u2014**\n\nTO fight aloud is very brave,  \nBut gallanter, I know,  \nWho charge within the bosom,  \nThe cavalry of woe.\n\nWho win, and nations do not see,  \nWho fall, and none observe,  \nWhose dying eyes no country  \nRegards with patriot love.\n\nWe trust, in plumed procession,  \nFor such the angels go,  \nRank after rank, with even feet  \nAnd uniforms of snow.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Houses \u2014 so the Wise Men tell me \u2014**\n\n\"Houses\" \u2014 so the Wise Men tell me \u2014   \n\"Mansions\"! Mansions must be warm!  \nMansions cannot let the tears in,  \nMansions must exclude the storm!\n\n\"Many Mansions,\" by \"his Father,\"  \nI don't know him; snugly built!  \nCould the Children find the way there \u2014   \nSome, would even trudge tonight!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Bring me the sunset in a cup,**\n\nBring me the sunset in a cup,  \nReckon the morning's flagons up  \nAnd say how many Dew,  \nTell me how far the morning leaps \u2014   \nTell me what time the weaver sleeps  \nWho spun the breadth of blue!\n\nWrite me how many notes there be  \nIn the new Robin's ecstasy  \nAmong astonished boughs \u2014   \nHow many trips the Tortoise makes \u2014   \nHow many cups the Bee partakes,  \nThe Debauchee of Dews!\n\nAlso, who laid the Rainbow's piers,  \nAlso, who leads the docile spheres  \nBy withes of supple blue?  \nWhose fingers string the stalactite \u2014   \nWho counts the wampum of the night  \nTo see that none is due?\n\nWho built this little Alban House  \nAnd shut the windows down so close  \nMy spirit cannot see?  \nWho'll let me out some gala day  \nWith implements to fly away,  \nPassing Pomposity?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Cocoon above! Cocoon below!**\n\nCocoon above! Cocoon below!  \nStealthy Cocoon, why hide you so  \nWhat all the world suspect?  \nAn hour, and gay on every tree  \nYour secret, perched in ecstasy  \nDefies imprisonment!\n\nAn hour in Chrysalis to pass,  \nThen gay above receding grass  \nA Butterfly to go!  \nA moment to interrogate,  \nThen wiser than a \"Surrogate,\"  \nThe Universe to know!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**These are the days when Birds come back \u2014**\n\nThese are the days when Birds come back \u2014   \nA very few \u2014 a Bird or two \u2014   \nTo take a backward look.\n\nThese are the days when skies resume  \nThe old \u2014 old sophistries of June \u2014   \nA blue and gold mistake.\n\nOh fraud that cannot cheat the Bee \u2014   \nAlmost thy plausibility  \nInduces my belief.\n\nTill ranks of seeds their witness bear \u2014   \nAnd softly thro' the altered air  \nHurries a timid leaf.\n\nOh Sacrament of summer days,  \nOh Last Communion in the Haze \u2014   \nPermit a child to join.\n\nThy sacred emblems to partake \u2014   \nThey consecrated bread to take  \nAnd thine immortal wine!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Besides the Autumn poets sing**\n\nBesides the Autumn poets sing  \nA few prosaic days  \nA little this side of the snow  \nAnd that side of the Haze \u2014\n\nA few incisive Mornings \u2014   \nA few Ascetic Eves \u2014   \nGone \u2014 Mr. Bryant's \"Golden Rod\" \u2014   \nAnd Mr. Thomson's \"sheaves.\"\n\nStill, is the bustle in the Brook \u2014   \nSealed are the spicy valves \u2014   \nMesmeric fingers softly touch  \nThe Eyes of many Elves \u2014\n\nPerhaps a squirrel may remain \u2014   \nMy sentiments to share \u2014   \nGrant me, Oh Lord, a sunny mind \u2014   \nThy windy will to bear!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I bring an unaccustomed wine**\n\nI bring an unaccustomed wine  \nTo lips long parching  \nNext to mine,  \nAnd summon them to drink;\n\nCrackling with fever, they Essay,  \nI turn my brimming eyes away,  \nAnd come next hour to look.\n\nThe hands still hug the tardy glass \u2014   \nThe lips I would have cooled, alas \u2014   \nAre so superfluous Cold \u2014\n\nI would as soon attempt to warm  \nThe bosoms where the frost has lain  \nAges beneath the mould \u2014\n\nSome other thirsty there may be  \nTo whom this would have pointed me  \nHad it remained to speak \u2014\n\nAnd so I always bear the cup  \nIf, haply, mine may be the drop  \nSome pilgrim thirst to slake \u2014\n\nIf, haply, any say to me  \n\"Unto the little, unto me,\"  \nWhen I at last awake.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**As Children bid the Guest Good Night**\n\nAS children bid the guest good-night,  \nAnd then reluctant turn,  \nMy flowers raise their pretty lips,  \nThen put their nightgowns on.\n\nAs children caper when they wake,  \nMerry that it is morn,  \nMy flowers from a hundred cribs  \nWill peep, and prance again.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Perhaps you'd like to buy a flower,**\n\nPERHAPS you'd like to buy a flower ?  \nBut I could never sell.  \nIf you would like to borrow  \nUntil the daffodil\n\nUnties her yellow bonnet  \nBeneath the village door,  \nUntil the bees, from clover rows  \nTheir hock and sherry draw,\n\nWhy, I will lend until just then,  \nBut not an hour more !\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Water, is taught by thirst.**\n\nWater, is taught by thirst.  \nLand \u2014 by the Oceans passed.  \nTransport \u2014 by throe \u2014   \nPeace \u2014 by its battles told \u2014   \nLove, by Memorial Mold \u2014   \nBirds, by the Snow.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Have you got a Brook in your little heart,**\n\nHAVE you got a brook in your little heart,  \nWhere bashful flowers blow,  \nAnd blushing birds go down to drink,  \nAnd shadows tremble so ?\n\nAnd nobody knows, so still it flows,  \nThat any brook is there ;  \nAnd yet your little draught of life  \nIs daily drunken there.\n\nThen look out for the little brook in March,  \nWhen the rivers overflow,  \nAnd the snows come hurrying from the hills,  \nAnd the bridges often go.\n\nAnd later, in August it may be,  \nWhen the meadows parching lie,  \nBeware, lest this little brook of life  \nSome burning noon go dry !\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Flowers \u2014 Well \u2014 if anybody**\n\nFlowers \u2014 Well \u2014 if anybody  \nCan the ecstasy define \u2014   \nHalf a transport \u2014 half a trouble \u2014   \nWith which flowers humble men:  \nAnybody find the fountain  \nFrom which floods so contra flow \u2014   \nI will give him all the Daisies  \nWhich upon the hillside blow.\n\nToo much pathos in their faces  \nFor a simple breast like mine \u2014   \nButterflies from St. Domingo  \nCruising round the purple line \u2014   \nHave a system of aesthetics \u2014   \nFar superior to mine.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Pigmy seraphs \u2014 gone astray \u2014**\n\nPigmy seraphs \u2014 gone astray \u2014   \nVelvet people from Vevay \u2014   \nBalles from some lost summer day \u2014   \nBees exclusive Coterie \u2014   \nParis could not lay the fold  \nBelted down with Emerald \u2014   \nVenice could not show a check  \nOf a tint so lustrous meek \u2014   \nNever such an Ambuscade  \nAs of briar and leaf displayed  \nFor my little damask maid \u2014\n\nI had rather wear her grace  \nThan an Earl's distinguished face \u2014   \nI had rather dwell like her  \nThan be \"Duke of Exeter\" \u2014   \nRoyalty enough for me  \nTo subdue the Bumblebee.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Soul, Wilt thou toss again?**\n\nSoul, Wilt thou toss again?  \nBy just such a hazard  \nHundreds have lost indeed \u2014   \nBut tens have won an all \u2014\n\nAngel's breathless ballot  \nLingers to record thee \u2014   \nImps in eager Caucus  \nRaffle for my Soul!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**An altered look about the hills \u2014**\n\nAn altered look about the hills \u2014   \nA Tyrian light the village fills \u2014   \nA wider sunrise in the morn \u2014   \nA deeper twilight on the lawn \u2014   \nA print of a vermillion foot \u2014   \nA purple finger on the slope \u2014   \nA flippant fly upon the pane \u2014   \nA spider at his trade again \u2014   \nAn added strut in Chanticleer \u2014   \nA flower expected everywhere \u2014   \nAn axe shrill singing in the woods \u2014   \nFern odors on untravelled roads \u2014   \nAll this and more I cannot tell \u2014   \nA furtive look you know as well \u2014   \nAnd Nicodemus' Mystery  \nReceives its annual reply!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Some, too fragile for winter winds**\n\nSome, too fragile for winter winds  \nThe thoughtful grave encloses \u2014   \nTenderly tucking them in from frost  \nBefore their feet are cold.\n\nNever the treasures in her nest  \nThe cautious grave exposes,  \nBuilding where schoolboy dare not look,  \nAnd sportsman is not bold.\n\nThis covert have all the children  \nEarly aged, and often cold,  \nSparrow, unnoticed by the Father \u2014   \nLambs for whom time had not a fold.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Whose are the little beds, I asked**\n\nWhose are the little beds, I asked  \nWhich in the valleys lie?  \nSome shook their heads, and others smiled \u2014   \nAnd no one made reply.\n\nPerhaps they did not hear, I said,  \nI will inquire again \u2014   \nWhose are the beds \u2014 the tiny beds  \nSo thick upon the plain?\n\n'Tis Daisy, in the shortest \u2014   \nA little further on \u2014   \nNearest the door \u2014 to wake the Ist \u2014   \nLittle Leontoden.\n\n'Tis Iris, Sir, and Aster \u2014   \nAnemone, and Bell \u2014   \nBartsia, in the blanket red \u2014   \nAnd chubby Daffodil.\n\nMeanwhile, at many cradles  \nHer busy foot she plied \u2014   \nHumming the quaintest lullaby  \nThat ever rocked a child.\n\nHush! Epigea wakens!  \nThe Crocus stirs her lids \u2014   \nRhodora's cheek is crimson,  \nShe's dreaming of the woods!\n\nThen turning from them reverent \u2014   \nTheir bedtime 'tis, she said \u2014   \nThe Bumble bees will wake them  \nWhen April woods are red.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**For every Bird a Nest \u2014**\n\nFor every Bird a Nest \u2014   \nWherefore in timid quest  \nSome little Wren goes seeking round \u2014\n\nWherefore when boughs are free \u2014   \nHouseholds in every tree \u2014   \nPilgrim be found?\n\nPerhaps a home too high \u2014   \nAh Aristocracy!  \nThe little Wren desires \u2014\n\nPerhaps of twig so fine \u2014   \nOf twine e'en superfine,  \nHer pride aspires \u2014\n\nThe Lark is not ashamed  \nTo build upon the ground  \nHer modest house \u2014\n\nYet who of all the throng  \nDancing around the sun  \nDoes so rejoice?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**She bore it till the simple veins**\n\nShe bore it till the simple veins  \nTraced azure on her hand \u2014   \nTil pleading, round her quiet eyes  \nThe purple Crayons stand.\n\nTill Daffodils had come and gone  \nI cannot tell the sum,  \nAnd then she ceased to bear it \u2014   \nAnd with the Saints sat down.\n\nNo more her patient figure  \nAt twilight soft to meet \u2014   \nNo more her timid bonnet  \nUpon the village street \u2014\n\nBut Crowns instead, and Courtiers \u2014   \nAnd in the midst so fair,  \nWhose but her shy \u2014 immortal face  \nOf whom we're whispering here?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**This heart that broke so long \u2014**\n\nThis heart that broke so long \u2014   \nThese feet that never flagged \u2014   \nThis faith that watched for star in vain,  \nGive gently to the dead \u2014\n\nHound cannot overtake the Hare  \nThat fluttered panting, here \u2014   \nNor any schoolboy rob the nest  \nTenderness builded there.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**On such a night, or such a night,**\n\nOn such a night, or such a night,  \nWould anybody care  \nIf such a little figure  \nSlipped quiet from its chair \u2014\n\nSo quiet \u2014 Oh how quiet,  \nThat nobody might know  \nBut that the little figure  \nRocked softer \u2014 to and fro \u2014\n\nOn such a dawn, or such a dawn \u2014   \nWould anybody sigh  \nThat such a little figure  \nToo sound asleep did lie\n\nFor Chanticleer to wake it \u2014   \nOr stirring house below \u2014   \nOr giddy bird in orchard \u2014   \nOr early task to do?\n\nThere was a little figure plump  \nFor every little knoll \u2014   \nBusy needles, and spools of thread \u2014   \nAnd trudging feet from school \u2014\n\nPlaymates, and holidays, and nuts \u2014   \nAnd visions vast and small \u2014   \nStrange that the feet so precious charged  \nShould reach so small a goal!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Bless God, he went as soldiers,**\n\nBless God, he went as soldiers,  \nHis musket on his breast \u2014   \nGrant God, he charge the bravest  \nOf all the martial blest!\n\nPlease God, might I behold him  \nIn epauletted white \u2014   \nI should not fear the foe then \u2014   \nI should not fear the fight!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**All overgrown by cunning moss,**\n\nAll overgrown by cunning moss,  \nAll interspersed with weed,  \nThe little cage of \"Currer Bell\"  \nIn quiet \"Haworth\" laid.\n\nGathered from many wanderings \u2014   \nGethsemane can tell  \nThro' what transporting anguish  \nShe reached the Asphodel!\n\nSoft fall the sounds of Eden  \nUpon her puzzled ear \u2014   \nOh what an afternoon for Heaven,  \nWhen \"Bronte\" entered there!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**She went as quiet as the Dew**\n\nSHE went as quiet as the dew  \nFrom a familiar flower.  \nNot like the dew did she return  \nAt the accustomed hour !\n\nShe dropt as softly as a star  \nFrom out my summer's eve ;  \nLess skilful than Leverrier  \nIt's sorer to believe !\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**She died \u2014 this was the way she died.**\n\nShe died \u2014 this was the way she died.  \nAnd when her breath was done  \nTook up her simple wardrobe  \nAnd started for the sun.  \nHer little figure at the gate  \nThe Angels must have spied,  \nSince I could never find her  \nUpon the mortal side.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Mute thy Coronation \u2014**\n\nMute thy Coronation \u2014   \nMeek my Vive le roi,  \nFold a tiny courtier  \nIn thine Ermine, Sir,  \nThere to rest revering  \nTill the pageant by,  \nI can murmur broken,  \nMaster, It was I \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Sun kept stooping \u2014 stooping \u2014 low!**\n\nThe Sun kept stooping \u2014 stooping \u2014 low!  \nThe Hills to meet him rose!  \nOn his side, what Transaction!  \nOn their side, what Repose!\n\nDeeper and deeper grew the stain  \nUpon the window pane \u2014   \nThicker and thicker stood the feet  \nUntil the Tyrian\n\nWas crowded dense with Armies \u2014   \nSo gay, so Brigadier \u2014   \nThat I felt martial stirrings  \nWho once the Cockade wore \u2014\n\nCharged from my chimney corner \u2014   \nBut Nobody was there!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Dust is the only Secret \u2014**\n\nDust is the only Secret \u2014   \nDeath, the only One  \nYou cannot find out all about  \nIn his \"native town.\"\n\nNobody know \"his Father\" \u2014   \nNever was a Boy \u2014   \nHadn't any playmates,  \nOr \"Early history\" \u2014\n\nIndustrious! Laconic!  \nPunctual! Sedate!  \nBold as a Brigand!  \nStiller than a Fleet!\n\nBuilds, like a Bird, too!  \nChrist robs the Nest \u2014   \nRobin after Robin  \nSmuggled to Rest!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Except to Heaven, she is nought.**\n\nExcept to Heaven, she is nought.  \nExcept for Angels \u2014 lone.  \nExcept to some wide-wandering Bee  \nA flower superfluous blown.\n\nExcept for winds \u2014 provincial.  \nExcept by Butterflies  \nUnnoticed as a single dew  \nThat on the Acre lies.\n\nThe smallest Housewife in the grass,  \nYet take her from the Lawn  \nAnd somebody has lost the face  \nThat made Existence \u2014 Home!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Murmur of a Bee**\n\nThe Murmur of a Bee  \nA Witchcraft \u2014 yieldeth me \u2014   \nIf any ask me why \u2014   \n'Twere easier to die \u2014   \nThan tell \u2014\n\nThe Red upon the Hill  \nTaketh away my will \u2014   \nIf anybody sneer \u2014   \nTake care \u2014 for God is here \u2014   \nThat's all.\n\nThe Breaking of the Day  \nAddeth to my Degree \u2014   \nIf any ask me how \u2014   \nArtist \u2014 who drew me so \u2014   \nMust tell!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**You love me \u2014 you are sure \u2014**\n\nYou love me \u2014 you are sure \u2014   \nI shall not fear mistake \u2014   \nI shall not cheated wake \u2014   \nSome grinning morn \u2014   \nTo find the Sunrise left \u2014   \nAnd Orchards \u2014 unbereft \u2014   \nAnd Dollie \u2014 gone!\n\nI need not start \u2014 you're sure \u2014   \nThat night will never be \u2014   \nWhen frightened \u2014 home to Thee I run \u2014   \nTo find the windows dark \u2014   \nAnd no more Dollie \u2014 mark \u2014   \nQuite none?\n\nBe sure you're sure \u2014 you know \u2014   \nI'll bear it better now \u2014   \nIf you'll just tell me so \u2014   \nThan when \u2014 a little dull Balm grown \u2014   \nOver this pain of mine \u2014   \nYou sting \u2014 again!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Musicians wrestle everywhere \u2014**\n\nMusicians wrestle everywhere \u2014   \nAll day \u2014 among the crowded air  \nI hear the silver strife \u2014   \nAnd \u2014 waking \u2014 long before the morn \u2014   \nSuch transport breaks upon the town  \nI think it that \"New Life\"!\n\nIf is not Bird \u2014 it has no nest \u2014   \nNor \"Band\" \u2014 in brass and scarlet \u2014 drest \u2014   \nNor Tamborin \u2014 nor Man \u2014   \nIt is not Hymn from pulpit read \u2014   \nThe \"Morning Stars\" the Treble led  \nOn Time's first Afternoon!\n\nSome \u2014 say \u2014 it is \"the Spheres\" \u2014 at play!  \nSome say that bright Majority  \nOf vanished Dames \u2014 and Men!  \nSome \u2014 think it service in the place  \nWhere we \u2014 with late \u2014 celestial face \u2014   \nPlease God \u2014 shall Ascertain!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Dying! Dying in the night!**\n\nDying! Dying in the night!  \nWon't somebody bring the light  \nSo I can see which way to go  \nInto the everlasting snow?\n\nAnd \"Jesus\"! Where is Jesus gone?  \nThey said that Jesus \u2014 always came \u2014   \nPerhaps he doesn't know the House \u2014   \nThis way, Jesus, Let him pass!\n\nSomebody run to the great gate  \nAnd see if Dollie's coming! Wait!  \nI hear her feet upon the stair!  \nDeath won't hurt \u2014 now Dollie's here!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A little bread \u2014 a crust \u2014 a crumb \u2014**\n\nA little bread \u2014 a crust \u2014 a crumb \u2014   \nA little trust \u2014 a demijohn \u2014   \nCan keep the soul alive \u2014   \nNot portly, mind! but breathing \u2014 warm \u2014   \nConscious \u2014 as old Napoleon,  \nThe night before the Crown!\n\nA modest lot \u2014 A fame petite \u2014   \nA brief Campaign of sting and sweet  \nIs plenty! Is enough!  \nA Sailor's business is the shore!  \nA Soldier's \u2014 balls! Who asketh more,  \nMust seek the neighboring life!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Just lost, when I was saved!**\n\nJust lost, when I was saved!  \nJust felt the world go by!  \nJust girt me for the onset with Eternity,  \nWhen breath blew back,  \nAnd on the other side  \nI heard recede the disappointed tide!\n\nTherefore, as One returned, I feel  \nOdd secrets of the line to tell!  \nSome Sailor, skirting foreign shores \u2014   \nSome pale Reporter, from the awful doors  \nBefore the Seal!\n\nNext time, to stay!  \nNext time, the things to see  \nBy Ear unheard,  \nUnscrutinized by Eye \u2014\n\nNext time, to tarry,  \nWhile the Ages steal \u2014   \nSlow tramp the Centuries,  \nAnd the Cycles wheel!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A feather from the Whippoorwill**\n\nA feather from the Whippoorwill  \nThat everlasting \u2014 sings!  \nWhose galleries \u2014 are Sunrise \u2014   \nWhose Opera \u2014 the Springs \u2014   \nWhose Emerald Nest the Ages spin  \nOf mellow \u2014 murmuring thread \u2014   \nWhose Beryl Egg, what Schoolboys hunt  \nIn \"Recess\" \u2014 Overhead!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My River runs to thee \u2014**\n\nMy River runs to thee \u2014   \nBlue Sea! Wilt welcome me?  \nMy River wait reply \u2014   \nOh Sea \u2014 look graciously \u2014   \nI'll fetch thee Brooks  \nFrom spotted nooks \u2014   \nSay \u2014 Sea \u2014 Take Me!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Tho' my destiny be Fustian \u2014**\n\nTho' my destiny be Fustian \u2014   \nHers be damask fine \u2014   \nTho' she wear a silver apron \u2014   \nI, a less divine \u2014\n\nStill, my little Gypsy being  \nI would far prefer,  \nStill, my little sunburnt bosom  \nTo her Rosier,\n\nFor, when Frosts, their punctual fingers  \nOn her forehead lay,  \nYou and I, and Dr. Holland,  \nBloom Eternally!\n\nRoses of a steadfast summer  \nIn a steadfast land,  \nWhere no Autumn lifts her pencil \u2014   \nAnd no Reapers stand!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Mama never forgets her birds,**\n\nMama never forgets her birds,  \nThough in another tree \u2014   \nShe looks down just as often  \nAnd just as tenderly  \nAs when her little mortal nest  \nWith cunning care she wove \u2014   \nIf either of her \"sparrows fall,\"  \nShe \"notices,\" above.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A wounded Deer - leaps highest -**\n\nA WOUNDED deer leaps highest,  \nI've heard the hunter tell ;  \n'T is but the ecstasy of death,  \nAnd then the brake is still.\n\nThe smitten rock that gushes,  \nThe trampled steel that springs :  \nA cheek is always redder  \nJust where the hectic stings !\n\nMirth is the mail of anguish,  \nIn which it cautions arm,  \nLest anybody spy the blood  \nAnd \"You're hurt\" exclaim !\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I met a King this afternoon!**\n\nI met a King this afternoon!  \nHe had not on a Crown indeed,  \nA little Palmleaf Hat was all,  \nAnd he was barefoot, I'm afraid!\n\nBut sure I am he Ermine wore  \nBeneath his faded Jacket's blue \u2014   \nAnd sure I am, the crest he bore  \nWithin that Jacket's pocket too!\n\nFor 'twas too stately for an Earl \u2014   \nA Marquis would not go so grand!  \n'Twas possibly a Czar petite \u2014   \nA Pope, or something of that kind!\n\nIf I must tell you, of a Horse  \nMy freckled Monarch held the rein \u2014   \nDoubtless an estimable Beast,  \nBut not at all disposed to run!\n\nAnd such a wagon! While I live  \nDare I presume to see  \nAnother such a vehicle  \nAs then transported me!\n\nTwo other ragged Princes  \nHis royal state partook!  \nDoubtless the first excursion  \nThese sovereigns ever took!\n\nI question if the Royal Coach  \nRound which the Footmen wait  \nHas the significance, on high,  \nOf this Barefoot Estate!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To learn the Transport by the Pain**\n\nTo learn the Transport by the Pain  \nAs Blind Men learn the sun!  \nTo die of thirst \u2014 suspecting  \nThat Brooks in Meadows run!\n\nTo stay the homesick \u2014 homesick feet  \nUpon a foreign shore \u2014   \nHaunted by native lands, the while \u2014   \nAnd blue \u2014 beloved air!\n\nThis is the Sovereign Anguish!  \nThis \u2014 the signal woe!  \nThese are the patient \"Laureates\"  \nWhose voices \u2014 trained \u2014 below \u2014\n\nAscend in ceaseless Carol \u2014   \nInaudible, indeed,  \nTo us \u2014 the duller scholars  \nOf the Mysterious Bard!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If the foolish, call them flowers \u2014**\n\nIf the foolish, call them \"flowers\" \u2014   \nNeed the wiser, tell?  \nIf the Savants \"Classify\" them  \nIt is just as well!\n\nThose who read the \"Revelations\"  \nMust not criticize  \nThose who read the same Edition \u2014   \nWith beclouded Eyes!\n\nCould we stand with that Old \"Moses\" \u2014   \n\"Canaan\" denied \u2014   \nScan like him, the stately landscape  \nOn the other side \u2014\n\nDoubtless, we should deem superfluous  \nMany Sciences,  \nNot pursued by learned Angels  \nIn scholastic skies!\n\nLow amid that glad Belles lettres  \nGrant that we may stand,  \nStars, amid profound Galaxies \u2014   \nAt that grand \"Right hand\"!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**In Ebon Box, when years have flown**\n\nIn Ebon Box, when years have flown  \nTo reverently peer,  \nWiping away the velvet dust  \nSummers have sprinkled there!\n\nTo hold a letter to the light \u2014   \nGrown Tawny now, with time \u2014   \nTo con the faded syllables  \nThat quickened us like Wine!\n\nPerhaps a Flower's shrivelled check  \nAmong its stores to find \u2014   \nPlucked far away, some morning \u2014   \nBy gallant \u2014 mouldering hand!\n\nA curl, perhaps, from foreheads  \nOur Constancy forgot \u2014   \nPerhaps, an Antique trinket \u2014   \nIn vanished fashions set!\n\nAnd then to lay them quiet back \u2014   \nAnd go about its care \u2014   \nAs if the little Ebon Box  \nWere none of our affair!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Portraits are to daily faces**\n\nPortraits are to daily faces  \nAs an Evening West,  \nTo a fine, pedantic sunshine \u2014   \nIn a satin Vest!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Wait till the Majesty of Death**\n\nWait till the Majesty of Death  \nInvests so mean a brow!  \nAlmost a powdered Footman  \nMight dare to touch it now!\n\nWait till in Everlasting Robes  \nThat Democrat is dressed,  \nThen prate about \"Preferment\" \u2014   \nAnd \"Station,\" and the rest!\n\nAround this quiet Courtier  \nObsequious Angels wait!  \nFull royal is his Retinue!  \nFull purple is his state!\n\nA Lord, might dare to lift the Hat  \nTo such a Modest Clay  \nSince that My Lord, \"the Lord of Lords\"  \nReceives unblushingly!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Tis so much joy! 'Tis so much joy!**\n\n'T IS so much joy ! 'T is so much joy !  \nIf I should fail, what poverty !  \nAnd yet, as poor as I  \nHave ventured upon a throw ;  \nHave gained! Yes ! Hesitated so  \nThis side the victory !\n\nLife is but life, and death but death !  \nBliss is but bliss and breath but breath !  \nAnd if, indeed, I fail,  \nAt least to know the worst is sweet.  \nDefeat means nothing but defeat,  \nNo drearier can prevail !\n\nAnd if I gain, \u2014 oh, gun at sea,  \nOh, bells that in the steeples be,  \nAt first repeat it slow !  \nFor heaven is a different thing  \nConjectured, and waked sudden in,  \nAnd might o'erwhelm me so !\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A fuzzy fellow, without feet,**\n\nA fuzzy fellow, without feet,  \nYet doth exceeding run!  \nOf velvet, is his Countenance,  \nAnd his Complexion, dun!\n\nSometime, he dwelleth in the grass!  \nSometime, upon a bough,  \nFrom which he doth descend in plush  \nUpon the Passer-by!\n\nAll this in summer.  \nBut when winds alarm the Forest Folk,  \nHe taketh Damask Residence \u2014   \nAnd struts in sewing silk!\n\nThen, finer than a Lady,  \nEmerges in the spring!  \nA Feather on each shoulder!  \nYou'd scarce recognize him!\n\nBy Men, yclept Caterpillar!  \nBy me! But who am I,  \nTo tell the pretty secret  \nOf the Butterfly!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**At last, to be identified!**\n\nAt last, to be identified!  \nAt last, the lamps upon thy side  \nThe rest of Life to see!\n\nPast Midnight! Past the Morning Star!  \nPast Sunrise!  \nAh, What leagues there were  \nBetween our feet, and Day!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I have never seen Volcanoes \u2014**\n\nI have never seen \"Volcanoes\" \u2014   \nBut, when Travellers tell  \nHow those old \u2014 phlegmatic mountains  \nUsually so still \u2014\n\nBear within \u2014 appalling Ordnance,  \nFire, and smoke, and gun,  \nTaking Villages for breakfast,  \nAnd appalling Men \u2014\n\nIf the stillness is Volcanic  \nIn the human face  \nWhen upon a pain Titanic  \nFeatures keep their place \u2014\n\nIf at length the smouldering anguish  \nWill not overcome \u2014   \nAnd the palpitating Vineyard  \nIn the dust, be thrown?\n\nIf some loving Antiquary,  \nOn Resumption Morn,  \nWill not cry with joy \"Pompeii\"!  \nTo the Hills return!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I'm the little Heart's Ease!**\n\nI'm the little \"Heart's Ease\"!  \nI don't care for pouting skies!  \nIf the Butterfly delay  \nCan I, therefore, stay away?\n\nIf the Coward Bumble Bee  \nIn his chimney corner stay,  \nI, must resoluter be!  \nWho'll apologize for me?\n\nDear, Old fashioned, little flower!  \nEden is old fashioned, too!  \nBirds are antiquated fellows!  \nHeaven does not change her blue.  \nNor will I, the little Heart's Ease \u2014   \nEver be induced to do!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Ah, Necromancy Sweet!**\n\nAh, Necromancy Sweet!  \nAh, Wizard erudite!  \nTeach me the skill,\n\nThat I instil the pain  \nSurgeons assuage in vain,  \nNor Herb of all the plain  \nCan Heal!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I cautious, scanned my little life \u2014**\n\nI cautious, scanned my little life \u2014   \nI winnowed what would fade  \nFrom what would last till Heads like mine  \nShould be a-dreaming laid.\n\nI put the latter in a Barn \u2014   \nThe former, blew away.  \nI went one winter morning  \nAnd lo - my priceless Hay\n\nWas not upon the \"Scaffold\" \u2014   \nWas not upon the \"Beam\" \u2014   \nAnd from a thriving Farmer \u2014   \nA Cynic, I became.\n\nWhether a Thief did it \u2014   \nWhether it was the wind \u2014   \nWhether Deity's guiltless \u2014   \nMy business is, to find!\n\nSo I begin to ransack!  \nHow is it Hearts, with Thee?  \nArt thou within the little Barn  \nLove provided Thee?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If I could bribe them by a Rose**\n\nIf I could bribe them by a Rose  \nI'd bring them every flower that grows  \nFrom Amherst to Cashmere!  \nI would not stop for night, or storm \u2014   \nOr frost, or death, or anyone \u2014   \nMy business were so dear!\n\nIf they would linger for a Bird  \nMy Tambourin were soonest heard  \nAmong the April Woods!  \nUnwearied, all the summer long,  \nOnly to break in wilder song  \nWhen Winter shook the boughs!\n\nWhat if they hear me!  \nWho shall say  \nThat such an importunity  \nMay not at last avail?\n\nThat, weary of this Beggar's face \u2014   \nThey may not finally say, Yes \u2014   \nTo drive her from the Hall?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**As if some little Arctic flower**\n\nAs if some little Arctic flower  \nUpon the polar hem \u2014   \nWent wandering down the Latitudes  \nUntil it puzzled came  \nTo continents of summer \u2014   \nTo firmaments of sun \u2014   \nTo strange, bright crowds of flowers \u2014   \nAnd birds, of foreign tongue!  \nI say, As if this little flower  \nTo Eden, wandered in \u2014   \nWhat then? Why nothing,  \nOnly, your inference therefrom!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I lost a World - the other day!**\n\nI lost a World - the other day!  \nHas Anybody found?  \nYou'll know it by the Row of Stars  \nAround its forehead bound.\n\nA Rich man \u2014 might not notice it \u2014   \nYet \u2014 to my frugal Eye,  \nOf more Esteem than Ducats \u2014   \nOh find it \u2014 Sir \u2014 for me!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If I shouldn't be alive**\n\nIF I should n't be alive  \nWhen the robins come,  \nGive the one in red cravat  \nA memorial crumb.\n\nIf I could n't thank you,  \nBeing just asleep,  \nYou will know I'm trying  \nWith my granite lip !\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I've heard an Organ talk, sometimes**\n\nI've heard an Organ talk, sometimes  \nIn a Cathedral Aisle,  \nAnd understood no word it said \u2014   \nYet held my breath, the while \u2014\n\nAnd risen up \u2014 and gone away,  \nA more Berdardine Girl \u2014   \nYet \u2014 know not what was done to me  \nIn that old Chapel Aisle.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A transport one cannot contain**\n\nA transport one cannot contain  \nMay yet a transport be \u2014   \nThough God forbid it lift the lid \u2014   \nUnto its Ecstasy!\n\nA Diagram \u2014 of Rapture!  \nA sixpence at a Show \u2014   \nWith Holy Ghosts in Cages!  \nThe Universe would go!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Faith is a fine invention**\n\n\"Faith\" is a fine invention  \nFor Gentlemen who _see!_  \nBut _Microscopes_ are prudent  \nIn an Emergency!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**What shall I do \u2014 it whimpers so \u2014**\n\nWhat shall I do \u2014 it whimpers so \u2014   \nThis little Hound within the Heart  \nAll day and night with bark and start \u2014   \nAnd yet, it will not go \u2014   \nWould you untie it, were you me \u2014   \nWould it stop whining \u2014 if to Thee \u2014   \nI sent it \u2014 even now?\n\nIt should not tease you \u2014   \nBy your chair \u2014 or, on the mat \u2014   \nOr if it dare \u2014 to climb your dizzy knee \u2014   \nOr \u2014 sometimes at your side to run \u2014   \nWhen you were willing \u2014   \nShall it come?  \nTell Carlo \u2014   \nHe'll tell me!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How many times these low feet staggered \u2014**\n\nHow many times these low feet staggered \u2014   \nOnly the soldered mouth can tell \u2014   \nTry \u2014 can you stir the awful rivet \u2014   \nTry \u2014 can you lift the hasps of steel!\n\nStroke the cool forehead \u2014 hot so often \u2014   \nLift \u2014 if you care \u2014 the listless hair \u2014   \nHandle the adamantine fingers  \nNever a thimble \u2014 more \u2014 shall wear \u2014\n\nBuzz the dull flies \u2014 on the chamber window \u2014   \nBrave \u2014 shines the sun through the freckled pane \u2014   \nFearless \u2014 the cobweb swings from the ceiling \u2014   \nIndolent Housewife \u2014 in Daisies \u2014 lain!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Make me a picture of the sun \u2014**\n\nMake me a picture of the sun \u2014   \nSo I can hang it in my room \u2014   \nAnd make believe I'm getting warm  \nWhen others call it \"Day\"!\n\nDraw me a Robin \u2014 on a stem \u2014   \nSo I am hearing him, I'll dream,  \nAnd when the Orchards stop their tune \u2014   \nPut my pretense \u2014 away \u2014\n\nSay if it's really \u2014 warm at noon \u2014   \nWhether it's Buttercups \u2014 that \"skim\" \u2014   \nOr Butterflies \u2014 that \"bloom\"?  \nThen \u2014 skip \u2014 the frost \u2014 upon the lea \u2014   \nAnd skip the Russet \u2014 on the tree \u2014   \nLet's play those \u2014 never come!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It's such a little thing to weep \u2014**\n\nIt's such a little thing to weep \u2014   \nSo short a thing to sigh \u2014   \nAnd yet \u2014 by Trades \u2014 the size of these  \nWe men and women die!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**He was weak, and I was strong \u2014 then \u2014**\n\nHe was weak, and I was strong \u2014 then \u2014   \nSo He let me lead him in \u2014   \nI was weak, and He was strong then \u2014   \nSo I let him lead me \u2014 Home.\n\n'Twasn't far \u2014 the door was near \u2014   \n'Twasn't dark \u2014 for He went \u2014 too \u2014   \n'Twasn't loud, for He said nought \u2014   \nThat was all I cared to know.\n\nDay knocked \u2014 and we must part \u2014   \nNeither \u2014 was strongest \u2014 now \u2014   \nHe strove \u2014 and I strove \u2014 too \u2014   \nWe didn't do it \u2014 tho'!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Skies can't keep their secret!**\n\nThe Skies can't keep their secret!  \nThey tell it to the Hills \u2014   \nThe Hills just tell the Orchards \u2014   \nAnd they \u2014 the Daffodils!\n\nA Bird \u2014 by chance \u2014 that goes that way \u2014   \nSoft overhears the whole \u2014   \nIf I should bribe the little Bird \u2014   \nWho knows but she would tell?\n\nI think I won't \u2014 however \u2014   \nIt's finer \u2014 not to know \u2014   \nIf Summer were an Axiom \u2014   \nWhat sorcery had Snow?\n\nSo keep your secret \u2014 Father!  \nI would not \u2014 if I could,  \nKnow what the Sapphire Fellows, do,  \nIn your new-fashioned world!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Poor little Heart!**\n\nPoor little Heart!  \nDid they forget thee?  \nThen dinna care! Then dinna care!\n\nProud little Heart!  \nDid they forsake thee?  \nBe debonnaire! Be debonnaire!\n\nFrail little Heart!  \nI would not break thee \u2014   \nCould'st credit me? Could'st credit me?\n\nGay little Heart \u2014   \nLike Morning Glory!  \nWind and Sun \u2014 wilt thee array!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I shall know why \u2014 when Time is over \u2014**\n\nI SHALL know why, when time is over,  \nAnd I have ceased to wonder why ;  \nChrist will explain each separate anguish  \nIn the fair schoolroom of the sky.\n\nHe will tell me what Peter promised,  \nAnd I, for wonder at his woe,  \nI shall forget the drop of anguish  \nThat scalds me now, that scalds me now.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**On this long storm the Rainbow rose \u2014**\n\nON this long storm the rainbow rose,  \nOn this late morn the sun ;  \nThe clouds, like listless elephants,  \nHorizons straggled down.\n\nThe birds rose smiling in their nests,  \nThe gales indeed were done ;  \nAlas ! how heedless were the eyes  \nOn whom the summer shone !\n\nThe quiet nonchalance of death  \nNo daybreak can bestir ;  \nThe slow archangel's syllables  \nMust awaken her.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**For this \u2014 accepted Breath \u2014**\n\nFor this \u2014 accepted Breath \u2014   \nThrough it \u2014 compete with Death \u2014   \nThe fellow cannot touch this Crown \u2014   \nBy it \u2014 my title take \u2014   \nAh, what a royal sake  \nTo my necessity \u2014 stooped down!\n\nNo Wilderness \u2014 can be  \nWhere this attendeth me \u2014   \nNo Desert Noon \u2014   \nNo fear of frost to come  \nHaunt the perennial bloom \u2014   \nBut Certain June!\n\nGet Gabriel \u2014 to tell \u2014 the royal syllable \u2014   \nGet Saints \u2014 with new \u2014 unsteady tongue \u2014   \nTo say what trance below  \nMost like their glory show \u2014   \nFittest the Crown!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We don't cry \u2014 Tim and I,**\n\nWe don't cry \u2014 Tim and I,  \nWe are far too grand \u2014   \nBut we bolt the door tight  \nTo prevent a friend \u2014\n\nThen we hide our brave face  \nDeep in our hand \u2014   \nNot to cry \u2014 Tim and I \u2014   \nWe are far too grand \u2014\n\nNor to dream \u2014 he and me \u2014   \nDo we condescend \u2014   \nWe just shut our brown eye  \nTo see to the end \u2014\n\nTim \u2014 see Cottages \u2014   \nBut, Oh, so high!  \nThen \u2014 we shake \u2014 Tim and I \u2014   \nAnd lest I \u2014 cry \u2014\n\nTim \u2014 reads a little Hymn \u2014   \nAnd we both pray \u2014   \nPlease, Sir, I and Tim \u2014   \nAlways lost the way!\n\nWe must die \u2014 by and by \u2014   \nClergymen say \u2014   \nTim \u2014 shall \u2014 if I \u2014 do \u2014   \nI \u2014 too \u2014 if he \u2014\n\nHow shall we arrange it \u2014   \nTim \u2014 was \u2014 so \u2014 shy?  \nTake us simultaneous \u2014 Lord \u2014   \nI \u2014 \"Tim\" \u2014 and Me!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Morning \u2014 is the place for Dew \u2014**\n\nMorning \u2014 is the place for Dew \u2014   \nCorn \u2014 is made at Noon \u2014   \nAfter dinner light \u2014 for flowers \u2014   \nDukes \u2014 for Setting Sun!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**An awful Tempest mashed the air \u2014**\n\nAn awful Tempest mashed the air \u2014   \nThe clouds were gaunt, and few \u2014   \nA Black \u2014 as of a Spectre's Cloak  \nHid Heaven and Earth from view.\n\nThe creatures chuckled on the Roofs \u2014   \nAnd whistled in the air \u2014   \nAnd shook their fists \u2014   \nAnd gnashed their teeth \u2014   \nAnd swung their frenzied hair.\n\nThe morning lit \u2014 the Birds arose \u2014   \nThe Monster's faded eyes  \nTurned slowly to his native coast \u2014   \nAnd peace \u2014 was Paradise!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I'm wife \u2014 I've finished that \u2014**\n\nI'm \"wife\" \u2014 I've finished that \u2014   \nThat other state \u2014   \nI'm Czar \u2014 I'm \"Woman\" now \u2014   \nIt's safer so \u2014\n\nHow odd the Girl's life looks  \nBehind this soft Eclipse \u2014   \nI think that Earth feels so  \nTo folks in Heaven \u2014 now \u2014\n\nThis being comfort \u2014 then  \nThat other kind \u2014 was pain \u2014   \nBut why compare?  \nI'm \"Wife\"! Stop there!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I stole them from a Bee \u2014**\n\nI stole them from a Bee \u2014   \nBecause \u2014 Thee \u2014   \nSweet plea \u2014   \nHe pardoned me!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Two swimmers wrestled on the spar \u2014**\n\nTWO swimmers wrestled on the spar  \nUntil the morning sun,  \nWhen one turned smiling to the land.  \nO God, the other one !\n\nThe stray ships passing spied a face  \nUpon the waters borne,  \nWith eyes in death still begging raised,  \nAnd hands beseeching thrown.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My Eye is fuller than my vase \u2014**\n\nMy Eye is fuller than my vase \u2014   \nHer Cargo \u2014 is of Dew \u2014   \nAnd still \u2014 my Heart \u2014 my Eye outweighs \u2014   \nEast India \u2014 for you!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**He forgot \u2014 and I \u2014 remembered \u2014**\n\nHe forgot \u2014 and I \u2014 remembered \u2014   \n'Twas an everyday affair \u2014   \nLong ago as Christ and Peter \u2014   \n\"Warmed them\" at the \"Temple fire.\"\n\n\"Thou wert with him\" \u2014 quoth \"the Damsel\"?  \n\"No\" \u2014 said Peter, 'twasn't me \u2014   \nJesus merely \"looked\" at Peter \u2014   \nCould I do aught else \u2014 to Thee?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A slash of Blue \u2014**\n\nA slash of Blue \u2014   \nA sweep of Gray \u2014   \nSome scarlet patches on the way,  \nCompose an Evening Sky \u2014   \nA little purple \u2014 slipped between \u2014   \nSome Ruby Trousers hurried on \u2014   \nA Wave of Gold \u2014   \nA Bank of Day \u2014   \nThis just makes out the Morning Sky.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I should not dare to leave my friend,**\n\nI should not dare to leave my friend,  \nBecause \u2014 because if he should die  \nWhile I was gone \u2014 and I \u2014 too late \u2014   \nShould reach the Heart that wanted me \u2014\n\nIf I should disappoint the eyes  \nThat hunted \u2014 hunted so \u2014 to see \u2014   \nAnd could not bear to shut until  \nThey \"noticed\" me \u2014 they noticed me \u2014\n\nIf I should stab the patient faith  \nSo sure I'd come \u2014 so sure I'd come \u2014   \nIt listening \u2014 listening \u2014 went to sleep \u2014   \nTelling my tardy name \u2014\n\nMy Heart would wish it broke before \u2014   \nSince breaking then \u2014 since breaking then \u2014   \nWere useless as next morning's sun \u2014   \nWhere midnight frosts \u2014 had lain!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Flower must not blame the Bee \u2014**\n\nThe Flower must not blame the Bee \u2014   \nThat seeketh his felicity  \nToo often at her door \u2014\n\nBut teach the Footman from Vevay \u2014   \nMistress is \"not at home\" \u2014 to say \u2014   \nTo people \u2014 any more!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Tho' I get home how late \u2014 how late \u2014**\n\nTho' I get home how late \u2014 how late \u2014   \nSo I get home - 'twill compensate \u2014   \nBetter will be the Ecstasy  \nThat they have done expecting me \u2014   \nWhen Night \u2014 descending \u2014 dumb \u2014 and dark \u2014   \nThey hear my unexpected knock \u2014   \nTransporting must the moment be \u2014   \nBrewed from decades of Agony!\n\nTo think just how the fire will burn \u2014   \nJust how long-cheated eyes will turn \u2014   \nTo wonder what myself will say,  \nAnd what itself, will say to me \u2014   \nBeguiles the Centuries of way!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Rose did caper on her cheek \u2014**\n\nThe Rose did caper on her cheek \u2014   \nHer Bodice rose and fell \u2014   \nHer pretty speech \u2014 like drunken men \u2014   \nDid stagger pitiful \u2014\n\nHer fingers fumbled at her work \u2014   \nHer needle would not go \u2014   \nWhat ailed so smart a little Maid \u2014   \nIt puzzled me to know \u2014\n\nTill opposite \u2014 I spied a cheek  \nThat bore another Rose \u2014   \nJust opposite \u2014 Another speech  \nThat like the Drunkard goes \u2014\n\nA Vest that like her Bodice, danced \u2014   \nTo the immortal tune \u2014   \nTill those two troubled \u2014 little Clocks  \nTicked softly into one.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**With thee, in the Desert \u2014**\n\nWith thee, in the Desert \u2014   \nWith thee in the thirst \u2014   \nWith thee in the Tamarind wood \u2014   \nLeopard breathes \u2014 at last!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The thought beneath so slight a film \u2014**\n\nThe thought beneath so slight a film \u2014   \nIs more distinctly seen \u2014   \nAs laces just reveal the surge \u2014   \nOr mists \u2014 the Apennine\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Come slowly - Eden!**\n\nCome slowly - Eden!  \nLips unused to Thee -  \nBashful - sip they Jessamines -  \nas the fainting Bee -  \nReaching late his flower,  \nRound her chamber hums -  \nCounts his nectars -  \nEnters - and is lost in Balms.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Least Rivers \u2014 docile to some sea.**\n\nLeast Rivers \u2014 docile to some sea.  \nMy Caspian \u2014 thee.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Did the Harebell loose her girdle**\n\nDid the Harebell loose her girdle  \nTo the lover Bee  \nWould the Bee the Harebell hallow  \nMuch as formerly?\n\nDid the \"Paradise\" \u2014 persuaded \u2014   \nYield her moat of pearl \u2014   \nWould the Eden be an Eden,  \nOr the Earl \u2014 an Earl?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I taste a liquor never brewed**\n\nI TASTE a liquor never brewed,  \nFrom tankards scooped in pearl;  \nNot all the vats upon the Rhine  \nYield such an alcohol!\n\nInebriate of air am I,  \nAnd debauchee of dew,  \nReeling, through endless summer days,  \nFrom inns of molten blue.\n\nWhen landlords turn the drunken bee  \nOut of the foxglove's door,  \nWhen butterflies renounce their drams,  \nI shall but drink the more!\n\nTill seraphs swing their snowy hats,  \nAnd saints to windows run,  \nTo see the little tippler  \nLeaning against the sun!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**What is \u2014 Paradise \u2014**\n\nWhat is \u2014 \"Paradise\" \u2014   \nWho live there \u2014   \nAre they \"Farmers\" \u2014   \nDo they \"hoe\" \u2014   \nDo they know that this is \"Amherst\" \u2014   \nAnd that I \u2014 am coming \u2014 too \u2014\n\nDo they wear \"new shoes\" \u2014 in \"Eden\" \u2014   \nIs it always pleasant \u2014 there \u2014   \nWon't they scold us \u2014 when we're homesick \u2014   \nOr tell God \u2014 how cross we are \u2014\n\nYou are sure there's such a person  \nAs \"a Father\" \u2014 in the sky \u2014   \nSo if I get lost \u2014 there \u2014 ever \u2014   \nOr do what the Nurse calls \"die\" \u2014   \nI shan't walk the \"Jasper\" \u2014 barefoot \u2014   \nRansomed folks \u2014 won't laugh at me \u2014   \nMaybe \u2014 \"Eden\" a'n't so lonesome  \nAs New England used to be!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Safe in their alabaster chambers**\n\nSafe in their Alabaster Chambers \u2014   \nUntouched by Morning  \nAnd untouched by Noon \u2014   \nSleep the meek members of the Resurrection \u2014   \nRafter of satin,  \nAnd Roof of stone.\n\nLight laughs the breeze  \nIn her Castle above them \u2014   \nBabbles the Bee in a stolid Ear,  \nPipe the Sweet Birds in ignorant cadence \u2014   \nAh, what sagacity perished here!\n\nGrand go the years in the crescent above them;  \nWorlds scoop their arcs, and firmaments row,  \nDiadems drop and Doges surrender,  \nSoundless as dots on a disk of snow.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Savior! I've no one else to tell \u2014**\n\nSavior! I've no one else to tell \u2014   \nAnd so I trouble thee.  \nI am the one forgot thee so \u2014   \nDost thou remember me?  \nNor, for myself, I came so far \u2014   \nThat were the little load \u2014   \nI brought thee the imperial Heart  \nI had not strength to hold \u2014   \nThe Heart I carried in my own \u2014   \nTill mine too heavy grew \u2014   \nYet \u2014 strangest \u2014 heavier since it went \u2014   \nIs it too large for you?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Is it true, dear Sue?**\n\nIs it true, dear Sue?  \nAre there two?  \nI shouldn't like to come  \nFor fear of joggling Him!  \nIf I could shut him up  \nIn a Coffee Cup,  \nOr tie him to a pin  \nTill I got in \u2014   \nOr make him fast  \nTo \"Toby's\" fist \u2014   \nHist! Whist! I'd come!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**She sweeps with many-colored Brooms \u2014**\n\nShe sweeps with many-colored Brooms \u2014   \nAnd leaves the Shreds behind \u2014   \nOh Housewife in the Evening West \u2014   \nCome back, and dust the Pond!\n\nYou dropped a Purple Ravelling in \u2014   \nYou dropped an Amber thread \u2014   \nAnd how you've littered all the East  \nWith duds of Emerald!\n\nAnd still, she plies her spotted Brooms,  \nAnd still the Aprons fly,  \nTill Brooms fade softly into stars \u2014   \nAnd then I come away \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Could I \u2014 then \u2014 shut the door \u2014**\n\nCould I \u2014 then \u2014 shut the door \u2014   \nLest my beseeching face \u2014 at last \u2014   \nRejected \u2014 be \u2014 of Her?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It can't be Summer!**\n\nIt can't be \"Summer\"!  \nThat \u2014 got through!  \nIt's early \u2014 yet \u2014 for \"Spring\"!  \nThere's that long town of White \u2014 to cross \u2014   \nBefore the Blackbirds sing!  \nIt can't be \"Dying\"!  \nIt's too Rouge \u2014   \nThe Dead shall go in White \u2014   \nSo Sunset shuts my question down  \nWith Cuffs of Chrysolite!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**When Katie walks, this simple pair accompany her side,**\n\nWhen Katie walks, this simple pair accompany her side,  \nWhen Katie runs unwearied they follow on the road,  \nWhen Katie kneels, their loving hands still clasp her pious knee \u2014   \nAh! Katie! Smile at Fortune, with two so knit to thee!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I Came to buy a smile \u2014 today \u2014**\n\nI Came to buy a smile \u2014 today \u2014   \nBut just a single smile \u2014   \nThe smallest one upon your face  \nWill suit me just as well \u2014   \nThe one that no one else would miss  \nIt shone so very small \u2014   \nI'm pleading at the \"counter\" \u2014 sir \u2014   \nCould you afford to sell \u2014   \nI've Diamonds \u2014 on my fingers \u2014   \nYou know what Diamonds are?  \nI've Rubies \u2014 live the Evening Blood \u2014   \nAnd Topaz \u2014 like the star!  \n'Twould be \"a Bargain\" for a Jew!  \nSay \u2014 may I have it \u2014 Sir?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I've nothing else \u2014 to bring, You know \u2014**\n\nI've nothing else \u2014 to bring, You know \u2014   \nSo I keep bringing These \u2014   \nJust as the Night keeps fetching Stars  \nTo our familiar eyes \u2014\n\nMaybe, we shouldn't mind them \u2014   \nUnless they didn't come \u2014   \nThen \u2014 maybe, it would puzzle us  \nTo find our way Home \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Jesus! thy Crucifix**\n\nJesus! thy Crucifix  \nEnable thee to guess  \nThe smaller size!\n\nJesus! thy second face  \nMind thee in Paradise  \nOf ours!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Should you but fail at \u2014 Sea \u2014**\n\nShould you but fail at \u2014 Sea \u2014   \nIn sight of me \u2014   \nOr doomed lie \u2014   \nNext Sun \u2014 to die \u2014   \nOr rap \u2014 at Paradise \u2014 unheard  \nI'd harass God  \nUntil he let you in!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Teach Him \u2014 When He makes the names \u2014**\n\nTeach Him \u2014 When He makes the names \u2014   \nSuch an one \u2014 to say \u2014   \nOn his babbling \u2014 Berry \u2014 lips \u2014   \nAs should sound \u2014 to me \u2014   \nWere my Ear \u2014 as near his nest \u2014   \nAs my thought \u2014 today \u2014   \nAs should sound \u2014   \n\"Forbid us not\" \u2014   \nSome like \"Emily.\"\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Blazing in Gold and quenching in Purple**\n\nBlazing in Gold and quenching in Purple  \nLeaping like Leopards to the Sky  \nThen at the feet of the old Horizon  \nLaying her spotted Face to die  \nStooping as low as the Otter's Window  \nTouching the Roof and tinting the Barn  \nKissing her Bonnet to the Meadow  \nAnd the Juggler of Day is gone\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Burdock \u2014 clawed my Gown \u2014**\n\nA Burdock \u2014 clawed my Gown \u2014   \nNot Burdock's \u2014 blame \u2014   \nBut mine \u2014   \nWho went too near  \nThe Burdock's Den \u2014\n\nA Bog \u2014 affronts my shoe \u2014   \nWhat else have Bogs \u2014 to do \u2014   \nThe only Trade they know \u2014   \nThe splashing Men!  \nAh, pity \u2014 then!\n\n'Tis Minnows can despise!  \nThe Elephant's \u2014 calm eyes  \nLook further on!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We \u2014 Bee and I \u2014 live by the quaffing \u2014**\n\nWe \u2014 Bee and I \u2014 live by the quaffing \u2014   \n'Tisn't all Hock \u2014 with us \u2014   \nLife has its Ale \u2014   \nBut it's many a lay of the Dim Burgundy \u2014   \nWe chant \u2014 for cheer \u2014 when the Wines \u2014 fail \u2014\n\nDo we \"get drunk\"?  \nAsk the jolly Clovers!  \nDo we \"beat\" our \"Wife\"?  \nI \u2014 never wed \u2014   \nBee \u2014 pledges his \u2014 in minute flagons \u2014   \nDainty \u2014 as the trees \u2014 on our deft Head \u2014\n\nWhile runs the Rhine \u2014   \nHe and I \u2014 revel \u2014   \nFirst \u2014 at the vat \u2014 and latest at the Vine \u2014   \nNoon \u2014 our last Cup \u2014   \n\"Found dead\" \u2014 \"of Nectar\" \u2014   \nBy a humming Coroner \u2014   \nIn a By-Thyme!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**God permits industrious Angels \u2014**\n\nGod permits industrious Angels \u2014   \nAfternoons \u2014 to play \u2014   \nI met one \u2014 forgot my Schoolmates \u2014   \nAll \u2014 for Him \u2014 straightway \u2014   \nGod calls home \u2014 the Angels \u2014 promptly \u2014   \nAt the Setting Sun \u2014   \nI missed mine \u2014 how dreary \u2014 Marbles \u2014   \nAfter playing Crown!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Sun \u2014 just touched the Morning \u2014**\n\nThe Sun \u2014 just touched the Morning \u2014   \nThe Morning \u2014 Happy thing \u2014   \nSupposed that He had come to dwell \u2014   \nAnd Life would all be Spring!\n\nShe felt herself supremer \u2014   \nA Raised \u2014 Ethereal Thing!  \nHenceforth \u2014 for Her \u2014 What Holiday!  \nMeanwhile \u2014 Her wheeling King \u2014   \nTrailed \u2014 slow \u2014 along the Orchards \u2014   \nHis haughty \u2014 spangled Hems \u2014   \nLeaving a new necessity!  \nThe want of Diadems!\n\nThe Morning \u2014 fluttered \u2014 staggered \u2014   \nFelt feebly \u2014 for Her Crown \u2014   \nHer unanointed forehead \u2014   \nHenceforth \u2014 Her only One!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Lamp burns sure \u2014 within \u2014**\n\nThe Lamp burns sure \u2014 within \u2014   \nTho' Serfs \u2014 supply the Oil \u2014   \nIt matters not the busy Wick \u2014   \nAt her phosphoric toil!\n\nThe Slave \u2014 forgets \u2014 to fill \u2014   \nThe Lamp \u2014 burns golden \u2014 on \u2014   \nUnconscious that the oil is out \u2014   \nAs that the Slave \u2014 is gone.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**You're right \u2014 the way is narrow \u2014**\n\nYou're right \u2014 \"the way is narrow\" \u2014   \nAnd \"difficult the Gate\" \u2014   \nAnd \"few there be\" \u2014 Correct again \u2014   \nThat \"enter in \u2014 thereat\" \u2014\n\n'Tis Costly \u2014 So are purples!  \n'Tis just the price of Breath \u2014   \nWith but the \"Discount\" of the Grave \u2014   \nTermed by the Brokers \u2014 \"Death\"!\n\nAnd after that \u2014 there's Heaven \u2014   \nThe Good Man's \u2014 \"Dividend\" \u2014   \nAnd Bad Men \u2014 \"go to Jail\" \u2014   \nI guess \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Court is far away \u2014**\n\nThe Court is far away \u2014   \nNo Umpire \u2014 have I \u2014   \nMy Sovereign is offended \u2014   \nTo gain his grace \u2014 I'd die!\n\nI'll seek his royal feet \u2014   \nI'll say \u2014 Remember \u2014 King \u2014   \nThou shalt \u2014 thyself \u2014 one day \u2014 a Child \u2014   \nImplore a larger \u2014 thing \u2014\n\nThat Empire \u2014 is of Czars \u2014   \nAs small \u2014 they say \u2014 as I \u2014   \nGrant me \u2014 that day \u2014 the royalty \u2014   \nTo intercede \u2014 for Thee \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If He dissolve \u2014 then \u2014 there is nothing \u2014 more \u2014**\n\nIf He dissolve \u2014 then \u2014 there is nothing \u2014 more \u2014   \nEclipse \u2014 at Midnight \u2014   \nIt was dark \u2014 before \u2014   \nSunset \u2014 at Easter \u2014   \nBlindness \u2014 on the Dawn \u2014   \nFaint Star of Bethlehem \u2014   \nGone down!\n\nWould but some God \u2014 inform Him \u2014   \nOr it be too late!  \nSay \u2014 that the pulse just lisps \u2014   \nThe Chariots wait \u2014\n\nSay \u2014 that a little life \u2014 for His \u2014   \nIs leaking \u2014 red \u2014   \nHis little Spaniel \u2014 tell Him!  \nWill He heed?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I think just how my shape will rise \u2014**\n\nI think just how my shape will rise \u2014   \nWhen I shall be \"forgiven\" \u2014   \nTill Hair \u2014 and Eyes \u2014 and timid Head \u2014   \nAre out of sight \u2014 in Heaven \u2014\n\nI think just how my lips will weigh \u2014   \nWith shapeless \u2014 quivering \u2014 prayer \u2014   \nThat you \u2014 so late \u2014 \"Consider\" me \u2014   \nThe \"Sparrow\" of your Care \u2014\n\nI mind me that of Anguish \u2014 sent \u2014   \nSome drifts were moved away \u2014   \nBefore my simple bosom \u2014 broke \u2014   \nAnd why not this \u2014 if they?\n\nAnd so I con that thing \u2014 \"forgiven\" \u2014   \nUntil \u2014 delirious \u2014 borne \u2014   \nBy my long bright \u2014 and longer \u2014 trust \u2014   \nI drop my Heart \u2014 unshriven!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Kill your Balm \u2014 and its Odors bless you \u2014**\n\nKill your Balm \u2014 and its Odors bless you \u2014   \nBare your Jessamine \u2014 to the storm \u2014   \nAnd she will fling her maddest perfume \u2014   \nHaply \u2014 your Summer night to Charm \u2014\n\nStab the Bird \u2014 that built in your bosom \u2014   \nOh, could you catch her last Refrain \u2014   \nBubble! \"forgive\" \u2014 \"Some better\" \u2014 Bubble!  \n\"Carol for Him \u2014 when I am gone\"!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Heaven \u2014 is what I cannot reach!**\n\n\"Heaven\" \u2014 is what I cannot reach!  \nThe Apple on the Tree \u2014   \nProvided it do hopeless \u2014 hang \u2014   \nThat \u2014 \"Heaven\" is \u2014 to Me!\n\nThe Color, on the Cruising Cloud \u2014   \nThe interdicted Land \u2014   \nBehind the Hill \u2014 the House behind \u2014   \nThere \u2014 Paradise \u2014 is found!\n\nHer teasing Purples \u2014 Afternoons \u2014   \nThe credulous \u2014 decoy \u2014   \nEnamored \u2014 of the Conjurer \u2014   \nThat spurned us \u2014 Yesterday!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Ah, Moon \u2014 and Star!**\n\nAh, Moon \u2014 and Star!  \nYou are very far \u2014   \nBut were no one  \nFarther than you \u2014   \nDo you think I'd stop  \nFor a Firmament \u2014   \nOr a Cubit \u2014 or so?\n\nI could borrow a Bonnet  \nOf the Lark \u2014   \nAnd a Chamois' Silver Boot \u2014   \nAnd a stirrup of an Antelope \u2014   \nAnd be with you \u2014 Tonight!\n\nBut, Moon, and Star,  \nThough you're very far \u2014   \nThere is one \u2014 farther than you \u2014   \nHe \u2014 is more than a firmament \u2014 from Me \u2014   \nSo I can never go!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I like a look of Agony,**\n\nI like a look of Agony,  \nBecause I know it's true \u2014   \nMen do not sham Convulsion,  \nNor simulate, a Throe \u2014\n\nThe Eyes glaze once \u2014 and that is Death \u2014   \nImpossible to feign  \nThe Beads upon the Forehead  \nBy homely Anguish strung.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**When we stand on the tops of Things \u2014**\n\nWhen we stand on the tops of Things \u2014   \nAnd like the Trees, look down \u2014   \nThe smoke all cleared away from it \u2014   \nAnd Mirrors on the scene \u2014\n\nJust laying light \u2014 no soul will wink  \nExcept it have the flaw \u2014   \nThe Sound ones, like the Hills \u2014 shall stand \u2014   \nNo Lighting, scares away \u2014\n\nThe Perfect, nowhere be afraid \u2014   \nThey bear their dauntless Heads,  \nWhere others, dare not go at Noon,  \nProtected by their deeds \u2014\n\nThe Stars dare shine occasionally  \nUpon a spotted World \u2014   \nAnd Suns, go surer, for their Proof,  \nAs if an Axle, held \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I've known a Heaven, like a Tent \u2014**\n\nI've known a Heaven, like a Tent \u2014   \nTo wrap its shining Yards \u2014   \nPluck up its stakes, and disappear \u2014   \nWithout the sound of Boards  \nOr Rip of Nail \u2014 Or Carpenter \u2014   \nBut just the miles of Stare \u2014   \nThat signalize a Show's Retreat \u2014   \nIn North America \u2014\n\nNo Trace \u2014 no Figment of the Thing  \nThat dazzled, Yesterday,  \nNo Ring \u2014 no Marvel \u2014   \nMen, and Feats \u2014   \nDissolved as utterly \u2014   \nAs Bird's far Navigation  \nDiscloses just a Hue \u2014   \nA plash of Oars, a Gaiety \u2014   \nThen swallowed up, of View.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It is easy to work when the soul is at play \u2014**\n\nIt is easy to work when the soul is at play \u2014   \nBut when the soul is in pain \u2014   \nThe hearing him put his playthings up  \nMakes work difficult \u2014 then \u2014\n\nIt is simple, to ache in the Bone, or the Rind \u2014   \nBut Gimlets \u2014 among the nerve \u2014   \nMangle daintier \u2014 terribler \u2014   \nLike a Panter in the Glove \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I held a Jewel in my fingers \u2014**\n\nI held a Jewel in my fingers \u2014   \nAnd went to sleep \u2014   \nThe day was warm, and winds were prosy \u2014   \nI said \"'Twill keep\" \u2014\n\nI woke \u2014 and chid my honest fingers,  \nThe Gem was gone \u2014   \nAnd now, an Amethyst remembrance  \nIs all I own \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Forever at His side to walk \u2014**\n\nForever at His side to walk \u2014   \nThe smaller of the two!  \nBrain of His Brain \u2014   \nBlood of His Blood \u2014   \nTwo lives \u2014 One Being \u2014 now \u2014\n\nForever of His fate to taste \u2014   \nIf grief \u2014 the largest part \u2014   \nIf joy \u2014 to put my piece away  \nFor that beloved Heart \u2014\n\nAll life \u2014 to know each other \u2014   \nWhom we can never learn \u2014   \nAnd bye and bye \u2014 a Change \u2014   \nCalled Heaven \u2014   \nRapt Neighborhoods of Men \u2014   \nJust finding out \u2014 what puzzled us \u2014   \nWithout the lexicon!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**What would I give to see his face?**\n\nWhat would I give to see his face?  \nI'd give \u2014 I'd give my life \u2014 of course \u2014   \nBut that is not enough!  \nStop just a minute \u2014 let me think!  \nI'd give my biggest Bobolink!  \nThat makes two \u2014 Him \u2014 and Life!  \nYou know who \"June\" is \u2014   \nI'd give her \u2014   \nRoses a day from Zanzibar \u2014   \nAnd Lily tubes \u2014 like Wells \u2014   \nBees \u2014 by the furlong \u2014   \nStraits of Blue  \nNavies of Butterflies \u2014 sailed thro' \u2014   \nAnd dappled Cowslip Dells \u2014\n\nThen I have \"shares\" in Primrose \"Banks\" \u2014   \nDaffodil Dowries \u2014 spicy \"Stocks\" \u2014   \nDominions \u2014 broad as Dew \u2014   \nBags of Doublons \u2014 adventurous Bees  \nBrought me \u2014 from firmamental seas \u2014   \nAnd Purple \u2014 from Peru \u2014\n\nNow \u2014 have I bought it \u2014   \n\"Shylock\"? Say!  \nSign me the Bond!  \n\"I vow to pay  \nTo Her \u2014 who pledges this \u2014   \nOne hour \u2014 of her Sovereign's face\"!  \nEcstatic Contract!  \nNiggard Grace!  \nMy Kingdom's worth of Bliss!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Why \u2014 do they shut Me out of Heaven?**\n\nWhy \u2014 do they shut Me out of Heaven?  \nDid I sing \u2014 too loud?  \nBut \u2014 I can say a little \"Minor\"  \nTimid as a Bird!\n\nWouldn't the Angels try me \u2014   \nJust \u2014 once \u2014 more \u2014   \nJust \u2014 see \u2014 if I troubled them \u2014   \nBut don't \u2014 shut the door!\n\nOh, if I \u2014 were the Gentleman  \nIn the \"White Robe\" \u2014   \nAnd they \u2014 were the little Hand \u2014 that knocked \u2014   \nCould \u2014 I \u2014 forbid?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Wild Nights \u2014 Wild Nights!**\n\nWild Nights \u2014 Wild Nights!  \nWere I with thee  \nWild Nights should be  \nOur luxury!\n\nFutile \u2014 the Winds \u2014   \nTo a Heart in port \u2014   \nDone with the Compass \u2014   \nDone with the Chart!\n\nRowing in Eden \u2014   \nAh, the Sea!  \nMight I but moor \u2014 Tonight \u2014   \nIn Thee!\n\n_ _\n\n_The original manuscript of the poem_\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I shall keep singing!**\n\nI shall keep singing!  \nBirds will pass me  \nOn their way to Yellower Climes \u2014   \nEach \u2014 with a Robin's expectation \u2014   \nI \u2014 with my Redbreast \u2014   \nAnd my Rhymes \u2014\n\nLate \u2014 when I take my place in summer \u2014   \nBut \u2014 I shall bring a fuller tune \u2014   \nVespers \u2014 are sweeter than Matins \u2014 Signor \u2014   \nMorning \u2014 only the seed of Noon \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Over the fence \u2014**\n\nOver the fence \u2014   \nStrawberries \u2014 grow \u2014   \nOver the fence \u2014   \nI could climb \u2014 if I tried, I know \u2014   \nBerries are nice!\n\nBut \u2014 if I stained my Apron \u2014   \nGod would certainly scold!  \nOh, dear, \u2014 I guess if He were a Boy \u2014   \nHe'd \u2014 climb \u2014 if He could!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I can wade Grief \u2014**\n\nI can wade Grief \u2014   \nWhole Pools of it \u2014   \nI'm used to that \u2014   \nBut the least push of Joy  \nBreaks up my feet \u2014   \nAnd I tip \u2014 drunken \u2014   \nLet no Pebble \u2014 smile \u2014   \n'Twas the New Liquor \u2014   \nThat was all!\n\nPower is only Pain \u2014   \nStranded, thro' Discipline,  \nTill Weights \u2014 will hang \u2014   \nGive Balm \u2014 to Giants \u2014   \nAnd they'll wilt, like Men \u2014   \nGive Himmaleh \u2014   \nThey'll Carry \u2014 Him!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**You see I cannot see \u2014 your lifetime \u2014**\n\nYou see I cannot see \u2014 your lifetime \u2014   \nI must guess \u2014   \nHow many times it ache for me \u2014 today \u2014 Confess \u2014   \nHow many times for my far sake  \nThe brave eyes film \u2014   \nBut I guess guessing hurts \u2014   \nMine \u2014 got so dim!\n\nToo vague \u2014 the face \u2014   \nMy own \u2014 so patient \u2014 covers \u2014   \nToo far \u2014 the strength \u2014   \nMy timidness enfolds \u2014   \nHaunting the Heart \u2014   \nLike her translated faces \u2014   \nTeasing the want \u2014   \nIt \u2014 only \u2014 can suffice!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Hope is the thing with feathers \u2014**\n\n\"Hope\" is the thing with feathers \u2014   \nThat perches in the soul \u2014   \nAnd sings the tune without the words \u2014   \nAnd never stops \u2014 at all \u2014\n\nAnd sweetest \u2014 in the Gale \u2014 is heard \u2014   \nAnd sore must be the storm \u2014   \nThat could abash the little Bird  \nThat kept so many warm \u2014\n\nI've heard it in the chillest land \u2014   \nAnd on the strangest Sea \u2014   \nYet, never, in Extremity,  \nIt asked a crumb \u2014 of Me.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To die \u2014 takes just a little while \u2014**\n\nTo die \u2014 takes just a little while \u2014   \nThey say it doesn't hurt \u2014   \nIt's only fainter \u2014 by degrees \u2014   \nAnd then \u2014 it's out of sight \u2014\n\nA darker Ribbon \u2014 for a Day \u2014   \nA Crape upon the Hat \u2014   \nAnd then the pretty sunshine comes \u2014   \nAnd helps us to forget \u2014\n\nThe absent \u2014 mystic \u2014 creature \u2014   \nThat but for love of us \u2014   \nHad gone to sleep \u2014 that soundest time \u2014   \nWithout the weariness \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If I'm lost \u2014 now**\n\nIf I'm lost \u2014 now  \nThat I was found \u2014   \nShall still my transport be \u2014   \nThat once \u2014 on me \u2014 those Jasper Gates  \nBlazed open \u2014 suddenly \u2014\n\nThat in my awkward \u2014 gazing \u2014 face \u2014   \nThe Angels \u2014 softly peered \u2014   \nAnd touched me with their fleeces,  \nAlmost as if they cared \u2014   \nI'm banished \u2014 now \u2014 you know it \u2014   \nHow foreign that can be \u2014   \nYou'll know \u2014 Sir \u2014 when the Savior's face  \nTurns so \u2014 away from you \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Delight is as the flight \u2014**\n\nDelight is as the flight \u2014   \nOr in the Ratio of it,  \nAs the Schools would say \u2014   \nThe Rainbow's way \u2014   \nA Skein  \nFlung colored, after Rain,  \nWould suit as bright,  \nExcept that flight  \nWere Aliment \u2014\n\n\"If it would last\"  \nI asked the East,  \nWhen that Bent Stripe  \nStruck up my childish  \nFirmament \u2014   \nAnd I, for glee,  \nTook Rainbows, as the common way,  \nAnd empty Skies  \nThe Eccentricity \u2014\n\nAnd so with Lives \u2014   \nAnd so with Butterflies \u2014   \nSeen magic \u2014 through the fright  \nThat they will cheat the sight \u2014   \nAnd Dower latitudes far on \u2014   \nSome sudden morn \u2014   \nOur portion \u2014 in the fashion \u2014   \nDone \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There's a certain Slant of light**\n\nXXXI.\n\nThere's a certain slant of light,  \nOn winter afternoons,  \nThat oppresses, like the weight  \nOf cathedral tunes.\n\nHeavenly hurt it gives us ;  \nWe can find no scar,  \nBut internal difference  \nWhere the meanings are.\n\nNone may teach it anything,  \n'T is the seal, despair, \u2014   \nAn imperial affliction  \nSent us of the air.\n\nWhen it comes, the landscape listens,  \nShadows hold their breath ;  \nWhen it goes, 't is like the distance  \nOn the look of death.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Good Night! Which put the Candle out?**\n\nGood Night! Which put the Candle out?  \nA jealous Zephyr \u2014 not a doubt \u2014   \nAh, friend, you little knew  \nHow long at that celestial wick  \nThe Angels \u2014 labored diligent \u2014   \nExtinguished \u2014 now \u2014 for you!\n\nIt might \u2014 have been the Light House spark \u2014   \nSome Sailor \u2014 rowing in the Dark \u2014   \nHad importuned to see!  \nIt might \u2014 have been the waning lamp  \nThat lit the Drummer from the Camp  \nTo purer Reveille!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Read \u2014 Sweet \u2014 how others \u2014 strove \u2014**\n\nRead \u2014 Sweet \u2014 how others \u2014 strove \u2014   \nTill we \u2014 are stouter \u2014   \nWhat they \u2014 renounced \u2014   \nTill we \u2014 are less afraid \u2014   \nHow many times they \u2014 bore the faithful witness \u2014   \nTill we \u2014 are helped \u2014   \nAs if a Kingdom \u2014 cared!\n\nRead then \u2014 of faith \u2014   \nThat shone above the fagot \u2014   \nClear strains of Hymn  \nThe River could not drown \u2014   \nBrave names of Men \u2014   \nAnd Celestial Women \u2014   \nPassed out \u2014 of Record  \nInto \u2014 Renown!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Put up my lute!**\n\nPut up my lute!  \nWhat of \u2014 my Music!  \nSince the sole ear I cared to charm \u2014   \nPassive \u2014 as Granite \u2014 laps My Music \u2014   \nSobbing \u2014 will suit \u2014 as well as psalm!\n\nWould but the \"Memnon\" of the Desert \u2014   \nTeach me the strain  \nThat vanquished Him \u2014   \nWhen He \u2014 surrendered to the Sunrise \u2014   \nMaybe \u2014 that \u2014 would awaken \u2014 them!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The lonesome for they know not What \u2014**\n\nThe lonesome for they know not What \u2014   \nThe Eastern Exiles \u2014 be \u2014   \nWho strayed beyond the Amber line  \nSome madder Holiday \u2014\n\nAnd ever since \u2014 the purple Moat  \nThey strive to climb \u2014 in vain \u2014   \nAs Birds \u2014 that tumble from the clouds  \nDo fumble at the strain \u2014\n\nThe Blessed Ether \u2014 taught them \u2014   \nSome Transatlantic Morn \u2014   \nWhen Heaven \u2014 was too common \u2014 to miss \u2014   \nToo sure \u2014 to dote upon!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A single Screw of Flesh**\n\nA single Screw of Flesh  \nIs all that pins the Soul  \nThat stands for Deity, to Mine,  \nUpon my side the Veil \u2014\n\nOnce witnessed of the Gauze \u2014   \nIts name is put away  \nAs far from mine, as if no plight  \nHad printed yesterday,\n\nIn tender \u2014 solemn Alphabet,  \nMy eyes just turned to see,  \nWhen it was smuggled by my sight  \nInto Eternity \u2014\n\nMore Hands \u2014 to hold \u2014 These are but Two \u2014   \nOne more new-mailed Nerve  \nJust granted, for the Peril's sake \u2014   \nSome striding \u2014 Giant \u2014 Love \u2014\n\nSo greater than the Gods can show,  \nThey slink before the Clay,  \nThat not for all their Heaven can boast  \nWill let its Keepsake \u2014 go\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Weight with Needles on the pounds \u2014**\n\nA Weight with Needles on the pounds \u2014   \nTo push, and pierce, besides \u2014   \nThat if the Flesh resist the Heft \u2014   \nThe puncture \u2014 coolly tries \u2014\n\nThat not a pore be overlooked  \nOf all this Compound Frame \u2014   \nAs manifold for Anguish \u2014   \nAs Species \u2014 be \u2014 for name \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Where Ships of Purple \u2014 gently toss \u2014**\n\nWhere Ships of Purple \u2014 gently toss \u2014   \nOn Seas of Daffodil \u2014   \nFantastic Sailors \u2014 mingle \u2014   \nAnd then \u2014 the Wharf is still!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**This \u2014 is the land \u2014 the Sunset washes \u2014**\n\nThis \u2014 is the land \u2014 the Sunset washes \u2014   \nThese \u2014 are the Banks of the Yellow Sea \u2014   \nWhere it rose \u2014 or whither it rushes \u2014   \nThese \u2014 are the Western Mystery!\n\nNight after Night  \nHer purple traffic  \nStrews the landing with Opal Bales \u2014   \nMerchantmen \u2014 poise upon Horizons \u2014   \nDip \u2014 and vanish like Orioles!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Did we disobey Him?**\n\nDid we disobey Him?  \nJust one time!  \nCharged us to forget Him \u2014   \nBut we couldn't learn!\n\nWere Himself \u2014 such a Dunce \u2014   \nWhat would we \u2014 do?  \nLove the dull lad \u2014 best \u2014   \nOh, wouldn't you?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Me, change! Me, alter!**\n\nMe, change! Me, alter!  \nThen I will, when on the Everlasting Hill  \nA Smaller Purple grows \u2014   \nAt sunset, or a lesser glow  \nFlickers upon Cordillera \u2014   \nAt Day's superior close!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Bound \u2014 a trouble \u2014**\n\nBound \u2014 a trouble \u2014   \nAnd lives can bear it!  \nLimit \u2014 how deep a bleeding go!  \nSo \u2014 many \u2014 drops \u2014 of vital scarlet \u2014   \nDeal with the soul  \nAs with Algebra!\n\nTell it the Ages \u2014 to a cypher \u2014   \nAnd it will ache \u2014 contented \u2014 on \u2014   \nSing \u2014 at its pain \u2014 as any Workman \u2014   \nNotching the fall of the Even Sun!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**One Life of so much Consequence!**\n\nOne Life of so much Consequence!  \nYet I \u2014 for it \u2014 would pay \u2014   \nMy Soul's entire income \u2014   \nIn ceaseless \u2014 salary \u2014\n\nOne Pearl \u2014 to me \u2014 so signal \u2014   \nThat I would instant dive \u2014   \nAlthough \u2014 I knew \u2014 to take it \u2014   \nWould cost me \u2014 just a life!\n\nThe Sea is full \u2014 I know it!  \nThat \u2014 does not blur my Gem!  \nIt burns \u2014 distinct from all the row \u2014   \nIntact \u2014 in Diadem!\n\nThe life is thick \u2014 I know it!  \nYet \u2014 not so dense a crowd \u2014   \nBut Monarchs \u2014 are perceptible \u2014   \nFar down the dustiest Road!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A solemn thing \u2014 it was \u2014 I said \u2014**\n\nA solemn thing \u2014 it was \u2014 I said \u2014   \nA woman \u2014 white \u2014 to be \u2014   \nAnd wear \u2014 if God should count me fit \u2014   \nHer blameless mystery \u2014\n\nA hallowed thing \u2014 to drop a life  \nInto the purple well \u2014   \nToo plummetless \u2014 that it return \u2014   \nEternity \u2014 until \u2014\n\nI pondered how the bliss would look \u2014   \nAnd would it feel as big \u2014   \nWhen I could take it in my hand \u2014   \nAs hovering \u2014 seen \u2014 through fog \u2014\n\nAnd then \u2014 the size of this \"small\" life \u2014   \nThe Sages \u2014 call it small \u2014   \nSwelled \u2014 like Horizons \u2014 in my vest \u2014   \nAnd I sneered \u2014 softly \u2014 \"small\"!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I breathed enough to take the Trick \u2014**\n\nI breathed enough to take the Trick \u2014   \nAnd now, removed from Air \u2014   \nI simulate the Breath, so well \u2014   \nThat One, to be quite sure \u2014\n\nThe Lungs are stirless \u2014 must descend  \nAmong the Cunning Cells \u2014   \nAnd touch the Pantomine \u2014 Himself,  \nHow numb, the Bellows feels!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**He put the Belt around my life**\n\nHe put the Belt around my life  \nI heard the Buckle snap \u2014   \nAnd turned away, imperial,  \nMy Lifetime folding up \u2014   \nDeliberate, as a Duke would do  \nA Kingdom's Title Deed \u2014   \nHenceforth, a Dedicated sort \u2014   \nA Member of the Cloud.\n\nYet not too far to come at call \u2014   \nAnd do the little Toils  \nThat make the Circuit of the Rest \u2014   \nAnd deal occasional smiles  \nTo lives that stoop to notice mine \u2014   \nAnd kindly ask it in \u2014   \nWhose invitation, know you not  \nFor Whom I must decline?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The only Ghost I ever saw**\n\nThe only Ghost I ever saw  \nWas dressed in Mechlin \u2014 so \u2014   \nHe wore no sandal on his foot \u2014   \nAnd stepped like flakes of snow \u2014\n\nHis Gait \u2014 was soundless, like the Bird \u2014   \nBut rapid \u2014 like the Roe \u2014   \nHis fashions, quaint, Mosaic \u2014   \nOr haply, Mistletoe \u2014\n\nHis conversation \u2014 seldom \u2014   \nHis laughter, like the Breeze \u2014   \nThat dies away in Dimples  \nAmong the pensive Trees \u2014\n\nOur interview \u2014 was transient \u2014   \nOf me, himself was shy \u2014   \nAnd God forbid I look behind \u2014   \nSince that appalling Day!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Doubt Me! My Dim Companion!**\n\nDoubt Me! My Dim Companion!  \nWhy, God, would be content  \nWith but a fraction of the Life \u2014   \nPoured thee, without a stint \u2014   \nThe whole of me \u2014 forever \u2014   \nWhat more the Woman can,  \nSay quick, that I may dower thee  \nWith last Delight I own!\n\nIt cannot be my Spirit \u2014   \nFor that was thine, before \u2014   \nI ceded all of Dust I knew \u2014   \nWhat Opulence the more  \nHad I \u2014 a freckled Maiden,  \nWhose farthest of Degree,  \nWas \u2014 that she might \u2014   \nSome distant Heaven,  \nDwell timidly, with thee!\n\nSift her, from Brow to Barefoot!  \nStrain till your last Surmise \u2014   \nDrop, like a Tapestry, away,  \nBefore the Fire's Eyes \u2014   \nWinnow her finest fondness \u2014   \nBut hallow just the snow  \nIntact, in Everlasting flake \u2014   \nOh, Caviler, for you!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Many a phrase has the English language \u2014**\n\nMany a phrase has the English language \u2014   \nI have heard but one \u2014   \nLow as the laughter of the Cricket,  \nLoud, as the Thunder's Tongue \u2014\n\nMurmuring, like old Caspian Choirs,  \nWhen the Tide's a' lull \u2014   \nSaying itself in new infection \u2014   \nLike a Whippoorwill \u2014\n\nBreaking in bright Orthography  \nOn my simple sleep \u2014   \nThundering its Prospective \u2014   \nTill I stir, and weep \u2014\n\nNot for the Sorrow, done me \u2014   \nBut the push of Joy \u2014   \nSay it again, Saxon!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**What if I say I shall not wait!**\n\nWhat if I say I shall not wait!  \nWhat if I burst the fleshly Gate \u2014   \nAnd pass escaped \u2014 to thee!\n\nWhat if I file this Mortal \u2014 off \u2014   \nSee where it hurt me \u2014 That's enough \u2014   \nAnd wade in Liberty!\n\nThey cannot take me \u2014 any more!  \nDungeons can call \u2014 and Guns implore  \nUnmeaning \u2014 now \u2014 to me \u2014\n\nAs laughter \u2014 was \u2014 an hour ago \u2014   \nOr Laces \u2014 or a Travelling Show \u2014   \nOr who died \u2014 yesterday!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A shady friend \u2014 for Torrid days \u2014**\n\nA shady friend \u2014 for Torrid days \u2014   \nIs easier to find \u2014   \nThan one of higher temperature  \nFor Frigid \u2014 hour of Mind \u2014\n\nThe Vane a little to the East \u2014   \nScares Muslin souls \u2014 away \u2014   \nIf Broadcloth Hearts are firmer \u2014   \nThan those of Organdy \u2014\n\nWho is to blame? The Weaver?  \nAh, the bewildering thread!  \nThe Tapestries of Paradise  \nSo notelessly \u2014 are made!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Tie the Strings to my Life, My Lord,**\n\nTie the Strings to my Life, My Lord,  \nThen, I am ready to go!  \nJust a look at the Horses \u2014   \nRapid! That will do!\n\nPut me in on the firmest side \u2014   \nSo I shall never fall \u2014   \nFor we must ride to the Judgment \u2014   \nAnd it's partly, down Hill \u2014\n\nBut never I mind the steeper \u2014   \nAnd never I mind the Sea \u2014   \nHeld fast in Everlasting Race \u2014   \nBy my own Choice, and Thee \u2014\n\nGoodbye to the Life I used to live \u2014   \nAnd the World I used to know \u2014   \nAnd kiss the Hills, for me, just once \u2014   \nThen \u2014 I am ready to go!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I felt a Funeral, in my Brain,**\n\nI felt a Funeral, in my Brain,  \nAnd Mourners to and fro  \nKept treading \u2014 treading \u2014 till it seemed  \nThat Sense was breaking through \u2014\n\nAnd when they all were seated,  \nA Service, like a Drum \u2014   \nKept beating \u2014 beating \u2014 till I thought  \nMy Mind was going numb \u2014\n\nAnd then I heard them lift a Box  \nAnd creak across my Soul  \nWith those same Boots of Lead, again,  \nThen Space \u2014 began to toll,\n\nAs all the Heavens were a Bell,  \nAnd Being, but an Ear,  \nAnd I, and Silence, some strange Race  \nWrecked, solitary, here \u2014\n\nAnd then a Plank in Reason, broke,  \nAnd I dropped down, and down \u2014   \nAnd hit a World, at every plunge,  \nAnd Finished knowing \u2014 then \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Tis so appalling \u2014 it exhilarates \u2014**\n\n'Tis so appalling \u2014 it exhilarates \u2014   \nSo over Horror, it half Captivates \u2014   \nThe Soul stares after it, secure \u2014   \nA Sepulchre, fears frost, no more \u2014\n\nTo scan a Ghost, is faint \u2014   \nBut grappling, conquers it \u2014   \nHow easy, Torment, now \u2014   \nSuspense kept sawing so \u2014\n\nThe Truth, is Bald, and Cold \u2014   \nBut that will hold \u2014   \nIf any are not sure \u2014   \nWe show them \u2014 prayer \u2014   \nBut we, who know,  \nStop hoping, now \u2014\n\nLooking at Death, is Dying \u2014   \nJust let go the Breath \u2014   \nAnd not the pillow at your Cheek  \nSo Slumbereth \u2014\n\nOthers, Can wrestle \u2014   \nYours, is done \u2014   \nAnd so of Woe, bleak dreaded \u2014 come,  \nIt sets the Fright at liberty \u2014   \nAnd Terror's free \u2014   \nGay, Ghastly, Holiday!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How noteless Men, and Pleiads, stand,**\n\nHow noteless Men, and Pleiads, stand,  \nUntil a sudden sky  \nReveals the fact that One is rapt  \nForever from the Eye \u2014\n\nMembers of the Invisible,  \nExisting, while we stare,  \nIn Leagueless Opportunity,  \nO'ertakenless, as the Air \u2014\n\nWhy didn't we detain Them?  \nThe Heavens with a smile,  \nSweep by our disappointed Heads  \nWithout a syllable \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Mien to move a Queen \u2014**\n\nA Mien to move a Queen \u2014   \nHalf Child \u2014 Half Heroine \u2014   \nAn Orleans in the Eye  \nThat puts its manner by  \nFor humbler Company  \nWhen none are near  \nEven a Tear \u2014   \nIts frequent Visitor \u2014\n\nA Bonnet like a Duke \u2014   \nAnd yet a Wren's Peruke  \nWere not so shy  \nOf Goer by \u2014   \nAnd Hands \u2014 so slight \u2014   \nThey would elate a Sprite  \nWith Merriment \u2014\n\nA Voice that Alters \u2014 Low  \nAnd on the Ear can go  \nLike Let of Snow \u2014   \nOr shift supreme \u2014   \nAs tone of Realm  \nOn Subjects Diadem \u2014\n\nToo small \u2014 to fear \u2014   \nToo distant \u2014 to endear \u2014   \nAnd so Men Compromise  \nAnd just \u2014 revere \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Drop, that wrestles in the Sea \u2014**\n\nThe Drop, that wrestles in the Sea \u2014   \nForgets her own locality \u2014   \nAs I \u2014 toward Thee \u2014\n\nShe knows herself an incense small \u2014   \nYet small \u2014 she sighs \u2014 if All \u2014 is All \u2014   \nHow larger \u2014 be?\n\nThe Ocean \u2014 smiles \u2014 at her Conceit \u2014   \nBut she, forgetting Amphitrite \u2014   \nPleads \u2014 \"Me\"?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Robin's my Criterion for Tune \u2014**\n\nThe Robin's my Criterion for Tune \u2014   \nBecause I grow \u2014 where Robins do \u2014   \nBut, were I Cuckoo born \u2014   \nI'd swear by him \u2014   \nThe ode familiar \u2014 rules the Noon \u2014   \nThe Buttercup's, my Whim for Bloom \u2014   \nBecause, we're Orchard sprung \u2014   \nBut, were I Britain born,  \nI'd Daisies spurn \u2014   \nNone but the Nut \u2014 October fit \u2014   \nBecause, through dropping it,  \nThe Seasons flit \u2014 I'm taught \u2014   \nWithout the Snow's Tableau  \nWinter, were lie \u2014 to me \u2014   \nBecause I see \u2014 New Englandly \u2014   \nThe Queen, discerns like me \u2014   \nProvincially \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**That after Horror \u2014 that 'twas us \u2014**\n\nThat after Horror \u2014 that 'twas us \u2014   \nThat passed the mouldering Pier \u2014   \nJust as the Granite Crumb let go \u2014   \nOur Savior, by a Hair \u2014\n\nA second more, had dropped too deep  \nFor Fisherman to plumb \u2014   \nThe very profile of the Thought  \nPuts Recollection numb \u2014\n\nThe possibility \u2014 to pass  \nWithout a Moment's Bell \u2014   \nInto Conjecture's presence \u2014   \nIs like a Face of Steel \u2014   \nThat suddenly looks into ours  \nWith a metallic grin \u2014   \nThe Cordiality of Death \u2014   \nWho drills his Welcome in \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Clock stopped \u2014**\n\nA Clock stopped \u2014   \nNot the Mantel's \u2014   \nGeneva's farthest skill  \nCan't put the puppet bowing \u2014   \nThat just now dangled still \u2014\n\nAn awe came on the Trinket!  \nThe Figures hunched, with pain \u2014   \nThen quivered out of Decimals \u2014   \nInto Degreeless Noon \u2014\n\nIt will not stir for Doctors \u2014   \nThis Pendulum of snow \u2014   \nThis Shopman importunes it \u2014   \nWhile cool \u2014 concernless No \u2014\n\nNods from the Gilded pointers \u2014   \nNods from the Seconds slim \u2014   \nDecades of Arrogance between  \nThe Dial life \u2014   \nAnd Him \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I'm Nobody! Who are you?**\n\nI'm nobody! Who are you?  \nAre you nobody, too?  \nThen there's a pair of us--don't tell!  \nThey'd banish us, you know.\n\nHow dreary to be somebody!  \nHow public, like a frog  \nTo tell your name the livelong day  \nTo an admiring bog!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I know some lonely Houses off the Road**\n\nI know some lonely Houses off the Road  \nA Robber'd like the look of \u2014   \nWooden barred,  \nAnd Windows hanging low,  \nInviting to \u2014   \nA Portico,  \nWhere two could creep \u2014   \nOne \u2014 hand the Tools \u2014   \nThe other peep \u2014   \nTo make sure All's Asleep \u2014   \nOld fashioned eyes \u2014   \nNot easy to surprise!\n\nHow orderly the Kitchen'd look, by night,  \nWith just a Clock \u2014   \nBut they could gag the Tick \u2014   \nAnd Mice won't bark \u2014   \nAnd so the Walls \u2014 don't tell \u2014   \nNone \u2014 will \u2014\n\nA pair of Spectacles ajar just stir \u2014   \nAn Almanac's aware \u2014   \nWas it the Mat \u2014 winked,  \nOr a Nervous Star?  \nThe Moon \u2014 slides down the stair,  \nTo see who's there!\n\nThere's plunder \u2014 where \u2014   \nTankard, or Spoon \u2014   \nEarring \u2014 or Stone \u2014   \nA Watch \u2014 Some Ancient Brooch  \nTo match the Grandmama \u2014   \nStaid sleeping \u2014 there \u2014\n\nDay \u2014 rattles \u2014 too  \nStealth's \u2014 slow \u2014   \nThe Sun has got as far  \nAs the third Sycamore \u2014   \nScreams Chanticleer  \n\"Who's there\"?\n\nAnd Echoes \u2014 Trains away,  \nSneer \u2014 \"Where\"!  \nWhile the old Couple, just astir,  \nFancy the Sunrise \u2014 left the door ajar!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Of Bronze \u2014 and Blaze \u2014**\n\nOf Bronze \u2014 and Blaze \u2014   \nThe North \u2014 Tonight \u2014   \nSo adequate \u2014 it forms \u2014   \nSo preconcerted with itself \u2014   \nSo distant \u2014 to alarms \u2014   \nAn Unconcern so sovereign  \nTo Universe, or me \u2014   \nInfects my simple spirit  \nWith Taints of Majesty \u2014   \nTill I take vaster attitudes \u2014   \nAnd strut upon my stem \u2014   \nDisdaining Men, and Oxygen,  \nFor Arrogance of them \u2014\n\nMy Splendors, are Menagerie \u2014   \nBut their Competeless Show  \nWill entertain the Centuries  \nWhen I, am long ago,  \nAn Island in dishonored Grass \u2014   \nWhom none but Beetles \u2014 know.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How the old Mountains drip with Sunset**\n\nHow the old Mountains drip with Sunset  \nHow the Hemlocks burn \u2014   \nHow the Dun Brake is draped in Cinder  \nBy the Wizard Sun \u2014\n\nHow the old Steeples hand the Scarlet  \nTill the Ball is full \u2014   \nHave I the lip of the Flamingo  \nThat I dare to tell?\n\nThen, how the Fire ebbs like Billows \u2014   \nTouching all the Grass  \nWith a departing \u2014 Sapphire \u2014 feature \u2014   \nAs a Duchess passed \u2014\n\nHow a small Dusk crawls on the Village  \nTill the Houses blot  \nAnd the odd Flambeau, no men carry  \nGlimmer on the Street \u2014\n\nHow it is Night \u2014 in Nest and Kennel \u2014   \nAnd where was the Wood \u2014   \nJust a Dome of Abyss is Bowing  \nInto Solitude \u2014\n\nThese are the Visions flitted Guido \u2014   \nTitian \u2014 never told \u2014   \nDomenichino dropped his pencil \u2014   \nParalyzed, with Gold \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If your Nerve, deny you \u2014**\n\nIf your Nerve, deny you \u2014   \nGo above your Nerve \u2014   \nHe can lean against the Grave,  \nIf he fear to swerve \u2014\n\nThat's a steady posture \u2014   \nNever any bend  \nHeld of those Brass arms \u2014   \nBest Giant made \u2014\n\nIf your Soul seesaw \u2014   \nLift the Flesh door \u2014   \nThe Poltroon wants Oxygen \u2014   \nNothing more \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I got so I could take his name \u2014**\n\nI got so I could take his name \u2014   \nWithout \u2014 Tremendous gain \u2014   \nThat Stop-sensation \u2014 on my Soul \u2014   \nAnd Thunder \u2014 in the Room \u2014\n\nI got so I could walk across  \nThat Angle in the floor,  \nWhere he turned so, and I turned \u2014 how \u2014   \nAnd all our Sinew tore \u2014\n\nI got so I could stir the Box \u2014   \nIn which his letters grew  \nWithout that forcing, in my breath \u2014   \nAs Staples \u2014 driven through \u2014\n\nCould dimly recollect a Grace \u2014   \nI think, they call it \"God\" \u2014   \nRenowned to ease Extremity \u2014   \nWhen Formula, had failed \u2014\n\nAnd shape my Hands \u2014   \nPetition's way,  \nTho' ignorant of a word  \nThat Ordination \u2014 utters \u2014\n\nMy Business, with the Cloud,  \nIf any Power behind it, be,  \nNot subject to Despair \u2014   \nIt care, in some remoter way,  \nFor so minute affair  \nAs Misery \u2014   \nItself, too vast, for interrupting \u2014 more \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Doomed \u2014 regard the Sunrise**\n\nThe Doomed \u2014 regard the Sunrise  \nWith different Delight \u2014   \nBecause \u2014 when next it burns abroad  \nThey doubt to witness it \u2014\n\nThe Man \u2014 to die \u2014 tomorrow \u2014   \nHarks for the Meadow Bird \u2014   \nBecause its Music stirs the Axe  \nThat clamors for his head \u2014\n\nJoyful \u2014 to whom the Sunrise  \nPrecedes Enamored \u2014 Day \u2014   \nJoyful \u2014 for whom the Meadow Bird  \nHas ought but Elegy!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Unto like Story \u2014 Trouble has enticed me \u2014**\n\nUnto like Story \u2014 Trouble has enticed me \u2014   \nHow Kinsmen fell \u2014   \nBrothers and Sister \u2014 who preferred the Glory \u2014   \nAnd their young will  \nBent to the Scaffold, or in Dungeons \u2014 chanted \u2014   \nTill God's full time \u2014   \nWhen they let go the ignominy \u2014 smiling \u2014   \nAnd Shame went still \u2014\n\nUnto guessed Crests, my moaning fancy, leads me,  \nWorn fair  \nBy Heads rejected \u2014 in the lower country \u2014   \nOf honors there \u2014   \nSuch spirit makes her perpetual mention,  \nThat I \u2014 grown bold \u2014   \nStep martial \u2014 at my Crucifixion \u2014   \nAs Trumpets \u2014 rolled \u2014\n\nFeet, small as mine \u2014 have marched in Revolution  \nFirm to the Drum \u2014   \nHands \u2014 not so stout \u2014 hoisted them \u2014 in witness \u2014   \nWhen Speech went numb \u2014   \nLet me not shame their sublime deportments \u2014   \nDrilled bright \u2014   \nBeckoning \u2014 Etruscan invitation \u2014   \nToward Light \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**One Year ago \u2014 jots what?**\n\nOne Year ago \u2014 jots what?  \nGod \u2014 spell the word! I \u2014 can't \u2014   \nWas't Grace? Not that \u2014   \nWas't Glory? That \u2014 will do \u2014   \nSpell slower \u2014 Glory \u2014\n\nSuch Anniversary shall be \u2014   \nSometimes \u2014 not often \u2014 in Eternity \u2014   \nWhen farther Parted, than the Common Woe \u2014   \nLook \u2014 feed upon each other's faces \u2014 so \u2014   \nIn doubtful meal, if it be possible  \nTheir Banquet's true \u2014\n\nI tasted \u2014 careless \u2014 then \u2014   \nI did not know the Wine  \nCame once a World \u2014 Did you?  \nOh, had you told me so \u2014   \nThis Thirst would blister \u2014 easier \u2014 now \u2014   \nYou said it hurt you \u2014 most \u2014   \nMine \u2014 was an Acorn's Breast \u2014   \nAnd could not know how fondness grew  \nIn Shaggier Vest \u2014   \nPerhaps \u2014 I couldn't \u2014   \nBut, had you looked in \u2014   \nA Giant \u2014 eye to eye with you, had been \u2014   \nNo Acorn \u2014 then \u2014\n\nSo \u2014 Twelve months ago \u2014   \nWe breathed \u2014   \nThen dropped the Air \u2014   \nWhich bore it best?  \nWas this \u2014 the patientest \u2014   \nBecause it was a Child, you know \u2014   \nAnd could not value \u2014 Air?\n\nIf to be \"Elder\" \u2014 mean most pain \u2014   \nI'm old enough, today, I'm certain \u2014 then \u2014   \nAs old as thee \u2014 how soon?  \nOne \u2014 Birthday more \u2014 or Ten?  \nLet me \u2014 choose!  \nAh, Sir, None!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It's like the Light \u2014**\n\nIt's like the Light \u2014   \nA fashionless Delight \u2014   \nIt's like the Bee \u2014   \nA dateless \u2014 Melody \u2014\n\nIt's like the Woods \u2014   \nPrivate \u2014 Like the Breeze \u2014   \nPhraseless \u2014 yet it stirs  \nThe proudest Trees \u2014\n\nIt's like the Morning \u2014   \nBest \u2014 when it's done \u2014   \nAnd the Everlasting Clocks \u2014   \nChime \u2014 Noon!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Alone, I cannot be \u2014**\n\nAlone, I cannot be \u2014   \nFor Hosts \u2014 do visit me \u2014   \nRecordless Company \u2014   \nWho baffle Key \u2014\n\nThey have no Robes, nor Names \u2014   \nNo Almanacs \u2014 nor Climes \u2014   \nBut general Homes  \nLike Gnomes \u2014\n\nTheir Coming, may be known  \nBy Couriers within \u2014   \nTheir going \u2014 is not \u2014   \nFor they've never gone \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Your Riches \u2014 taught me \u2014 Poverty**\n\nYour Riches \u2014 taught me \u2014 Poverty.  \nMyself \u2014 a Millionaire  \nIn little Wealths, as Girls could boast  \nTill broad as Buenos Ayre \u2014\n\nYou drifted your Dominions \u2014   \nA Different Peru \u2014   \nAnd I esteemed All Poverty  \nFor Life's Estate with you \u2014\n\nOf Mines, I little know \u2014 myself \u2014   \nBut just the names, of Gems \u2014   \nThe Colors of the Commonest \u2014   \nAnd scarce of Diadems \u2014\n\nSo much, that did I meet the Queen \u2014   \nHer Glory I should know \u2014   \nBut this, must be a different Wealth \u2014   \nTo miss it \u2014 beggars so \u2014\n\nI'm sure 'tis India \u2014 all Day \u2014   \nTo those who look on You \u2014   \nWithout a stint \u2014 without a blame,  \nMight I \u2014 but be the Jew \u2014\n\nI'm sure it is Golconda \u2014   \nBeyond my power to deem \u2014   \nTo have a smile for Mine \u2014 each Day,  \nHow better, than a Gem!\n\nAt least, it solaces to know  \nThat there exists \u2014 a Gold \u2014   \nAltho' I prove it, just in time  \nIts distance \u2014 to behold \u2014\n\nIts far \u2014 far Treasure to surmise \u2014   \nAnd estimate the Pearl \u2014   \nThat slipped my simple fingers through \u2014   \nWhile just a Girl at School.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Morning \u2014 means Milking \u2014 to the Farmer \u2014**\n\n\"Morning\" \u2014 means \"Milking\" \u2014 to the Farmer \u2014   \nDawn \u2014 to the Teneriffe \u2014   \nDice \u2014 to the Maid \u2014   \nMorning means just Risk \u2014 to the Lover \u2014   \nJust revelation \u2014 to the Beloved \u2014\n\nEpicures \u2014 date a Breakfast \u2014 by it \u2014   \nBrides \u2014 an Apocalypse \u2014   \nWorlds \u2014 a Flood \u2014   \nFaint-going Lives \u2014 Their Lapse from Sighing \u2014   \nFaith \u2014 The Experiment of Our Lord\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I reason, Earth is short \u2014**\n\nI REASON, earth is short,  \nAnd anguish absolute,  \nAnd many hurt ;  \nBut what of that ?\n\nI reason, we could die :  \nThe best vitality  \nCannot excel decay ;  \nBut what of that ?\n\nI reason that in heaven  \nSomehow, it will be even,  \nSome new equation given ;  \nBut what of that ?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Like Some Old fashioned Miracle**\n\nLike Some Old fashioned Miracle  \nWhen Summertime is done \u2014   \nSeems Summer's Recollection  \nAnd the Affairs of June\n\nAs infinite Tradition  \nAs Cinderella's Bays \u2014   \nOr Little John \u2014 of Lincoln Green \u2014   \nOr Blue Beard's Galleries \u2014\n\nHer Bees have a fictitious Hum \u2014   \nHer Blossoms, like a Dream \u2014   \nElate us \u2014 till we almost weep \u2014   \nSo plausible \u2014 they seem \u2014\n\nHer Memories like Strains \u2014 Review \u2014   \nWhen Orchestra is dumb \u2014   \nThe Violin in Baize replaced \u2014   \nAnd Ear \u2014 and Heaven \u2014 numb \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Soul selects her own Society \u2014**\n\nThe Soul selects her own Society \u2014   \nThen \u2014 shuts the Door \u2014   \nTo her divine Majority \u2014   \nPresent no more \u2014\n\nUnmoved \u2014 she notes the Chariots \u2014 pausing \u2014   \nAt her low Gate \u2014   \nUnmoved \u2014 an Emperor be kneeling  \nUpon her Mat \u2014\n\nI've known her \u2014 from an ample nation \u2014   \nChoose One \u2014   \nThen \u2014 close the Valves of her attention \u2014   \nLike Stone \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Day came slow \u2014 till Five o'clock \u2014**\n\nThe Day came slow \u2014 till Five o'clock \u2014   \nThen sprang before the Hills  \nLike Hindered Rubies \u2014 or the Light  \nA Sudden Musket \u2014 spills \u2014\n\nThe Purple could not keep the East \u2014   \nThe Sunrise shook abroad  \nLike Breadths of Topaz \u2014 packed a Night \u2014   \nThe Lady just unrolled \u2014\n\nThe Happy Winds \u2014 their Timbrels took \u2014   \nThe Birds \u2014 in docile Rows  \nArranged themselves around their Prince  \nThe Wind \u2014 is Prince of Those \u2014\n\nThe Orchard sparkled like a Jew \u2014   \nHow mighty 'twas \u2014 to be  \nA Guest in this stupendous place \u2014   \nThe Parlor \u2014 of the Day \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The difference between Despair**\n\nThe difference between Despair  \nAnd Fear \u2014 is like the One  \nBetween the instant of a Wreck  \nAnd when the Wreck has been \u2014\n\nThe Mind is smooth \u2014 no Motion \u2014   \nContented as the Eye  \nUpon the Forehead of a Bust \u2014   \nThat knows \u2014 it cannot see \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Soul's Superior instants**\n\nThe Soul's Superior instants  \nOccur to Her \u2014 alone \u2014   \nWhen friend \u2014 and Earth's occasion  \nHave infinite withdrawn \u2014\n\nOr She \u2014 Herself \u2014 ascended  \nTo too remote a Height  \nFor lower Recognition  \nThan Her Omnipotent \u2014\n\nThis Mortal Abolition  \nIs seldom \u2014 but as fair  \nAs Apparition \u2014 subject  \nTo Autocratic Air \u2014\n\nEternity's disclosure  \nTo favorites \u2014 a few \u2014   \nOf the Colossal substance  \nOf Immortality\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The One who could repeat the Summer day \u2014**\n\nThe One who could repeat the Summer day \u2014   \nWere greater than itself \u2014 though He  \nMinutest of Mankind should be \u2014\n\nAnd He \u2014 could reproduce the Sun \u2014   \nAt period of going down \u2014   \nThe Lingering \u2014 and the Stain \u2014 I mean \u2014\n\nWhen Orient have been outgrown \u2014   \nAnd Occident \u2014 become Unknown \u2014   \nHis Name \u2014 remain \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I send Two Sunsets \u2014**\n\nI send Two Sunsets \u2014   \nDay and I \u2014 in competition ran \u2014   \nI finished Two \u2014 and several Stars \u2014   \nWhile He \u2014 was making One \u2014\n\nHis own was ampler \u2014 but as I  \nWas saying to a friend \u2014   \nMine \u2014 is the more convenient  \nTo Carry in the Hand \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**For largest Woman's Hearth I knew \u2014**\n\nFor largest Woman's Hearth I knew \u2014   \n'Tis little I can do \u2014   \nAnd yet the largest Woman's Heart  \nCould hold an Arrow \u2014 too \u2014   \nAnd so, instructed by my own,  \nI tenderer, turn Me to.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Give little Anguish \u2014**\n\nGive little Anguish \u2014   \nLives will fret \u2014   \nGive Avalanches \u2014   \nAnd they'll slant \u2014   \nStraighten \u2014 look cautious for their Breath \u2014   \nBut make no syllable \u2014 like Death \u2014   \nWho only shows the Marble Disc \u2014   \nSublimer sort \u2014 than Speech \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It sifts from Leaden Sieves \u2014**\n\nIt sifts from Leaden Sieves \u2014   \nIt powders all the Wood.  \nIt fills with Alabaster Wool  \nThe Wrinkles of the Road \u2014\n\nIt makes an Even Face  \nOf Mountain, and of Plain \u2014   \nUnbroken Forehead from the East  \nUnto the East again \u2014\n\nIt reaches to the Fence \u2014   \nIt wraps it Rail by Rail  \nTill it is lost in Fleeces \u2014   \nIt deals Celestial Vail\n\nTo Stump, and Stack \u2014 and Stem \u2014   \nA Summer's empty Room \u2014   \nAcres of Joints, where Harvests were,  \nRecordless, but for them \u2014\n\nIt Ruffles Wrists of Posts  \nAs Ankles of a Queen \u2014   \nThen stills its Artisans \u2014 like Ghosts \u2014   \nDenying they have been \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Her \u2014 last Poems \u2014**\n\nHer \u2014 \"last Poems\" \u2014   \nPoets \u2014 ended \u2014   \nSilver \u2014 perished \u2014 with her Tongue \u2014   \nNot on Record \u2014 bubbled other,  \nFlute \u2014 or Woman \u2014   \nSo divine \u2014   \nNot unto its Summer \u2014 Morning  \nRobin \u2014 uttered Half the Tune \u2014   \nGushed too free for the Adoring \u2014   \nFrom the Anglo-Florentine \u2014   \nLate \u2014 the Praise \u2014   \n'Tis dull \u2014 conferring  \nOn the Head too High to Crown \u2014   \nDiadem \u2014 or Ducal Showing \u2014   \nBe its Grave \u2014 sufficient sign \u2014   \nNought \u2014 that We \u2014 No Poet's Kinsman \u2014   \nSuffocate \u2014 with easy woe \u2014   \nWhat, and if, Ourself a Bridegroom \u2014   \nPut Her down \u2014 in Italy?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I should have been too glad, I see \u2014**\n\nI should have been too glad, I see \u2014   \nToo lifted \u2014 for the scant degree  \nOf Life's penurious Round \u2014   \nMy little Circuit would have shamed  \nThis new Circumference \u2014 have blamed \u2014   \nThe homelier time behind.\n\nI should have been too saved \u2014 I see \u2014   \nToo rescued \u2014 Fear too dim to me  \nThat I could spell the Prayer  \nI knew so perfect \u2014 yesterday \u2014   \nThat Scalding One \u2014 Sabachthani \u2014   \nRecited fluent \u2014 here \u2014\n\nEarth would have been too much \u2014 I see \u2014   \nAnd Heaven \u2014 not enough for me \u2014   \nI should have had the Joy  \nWithout the Fear \u2014 to justify \u2014   \nThe Palm \u2014 without the Calvary \u2014   \nSo Savior \u2014 Crucify \u2014   \nDefeat \u2014 whets Victory \u2014 they say \u2014   \nThe Reefs \u2014 in old Gethsemane \u2014   \nEndear the Coast \u2014 beyond!  \n'Tis Beggars \u2014 Banquets \u2014 can define \u2014   \n'Tis Parching \u2014 vitalizes Wine \u2014   \n\"Faith\" bleats \u2014 to understand!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Nature \u2014 sometimes sears a Sapling \u2014**\n\nNature \u2014 sometimes sears a Sapling \u2014   \nSometimes \u2014 scalps a Tree \u2014   \nHer Green People recollect it  \nWhen they do not die \u2014\n\nFainter Leaves \u2014 to Further Seasons \u2014   \nDumbly testify \u2014   \nWe \u2014 who have the Souls \u2014   \nDie oftener \u2014 Not so vitally \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**He fumbles at your Soul**\n\nHe fumbles at your Soul  \nAs Players at the Keys  \nBefore they drop full Music on \u2014   \nHe stuns you by degrees \u2014   \nPrepares your brittle Nature  \nFor the Ethereal Blow  \nBy fainter Hammers \u2014 further heard \u2014   \nThen nearer \u2014 Then so slow  \nYour Breath has time to straighten \u2014   \nYour Brain \u2014 to bubble Cool \u2014   \nDeals \u2014 One \u2014 imperial \u2014 Thunderbolt \u2014   \nThat scalps your naked Soul \u2014\n\nWhen Winds take Forests in the Paws \u2014   \nThe Universe \u2014 is still \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Wind didn't come from the Orchard \u2014 today \u2014**\n\nThe Wind didn't come from the Orchard \u2014 today \u2014   \nFurther than that \u2014   \nNor stop to play with the Hay \u2014   \nNor joggle a Hat \u2014   \nHe's a transitive fellow \u2014 very \u2014   \nRely on that \u2014\n\nIf He leave a Bur at the door  \nWe know He has climbed a Fir \u2014   \nBut the Fir is Where \u2014 Declare \u2014   \nWere you ever there?\n\nIf He brings Odors of Clovers \u2014   \nAnd that is His business \u2014 not Ours \u2014   \nThen He has been with the Mowers \u2014   \nWhetting away the Hours  \nTo sweet pauses of Hay \u2014   \nHis Way \u2014 of a June Day \u2014\n\nIf He fling Sand, and Pebble \u2014   \nLittle Boys Hats \u2014 and Stubble \u2014   \nWith an occasional Steeple \u2014   \nAnd a hoarse \"Get out of the way, I say,\"  \nWho'd be the fool to stay?  \nWould you \u2014 Say \u2014   \nWould you be the fool to stay?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Just so \u2014 Jesus \u2014 raps \u2014**\n\nJust so \u2014 Jesus \u2014 raps \u2014   \nHe \u2014 doesn't weary \u2014   \nLast \u2014 at the Knocker \u2014   \nAnd first \u2014 at the Bell.  \nThen \u2014 on divinest tiptoe \u2014 standing \u2014   \nMight He but spy the lady's soul \u2014   \nWhen He \u2014 retires \u2014   \nChilled \u2014 or weary \u2014   \nIt will be ample time for \u2014 me \u2014   \nPatient \u2014 upon the steps \u2014 until then \u2014   \nHears! I am knocking \u2014 low at thee.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I'll tell you how the Sun rose \u2014**\n\nI'll tell you how the Sun rose \u2014   \nA Ribbon at a time \u2014   \nThe Steeples swam in Amethyst \u2014   \nThe news, like Squirrels, ran \u2014   \nThe Hills untied their Bonnets \u2014   \nThe Bobolinks \u2014 begun \u2014   \nThen I said softly to myself \u2014   \n\"That must have been the Sun\"!  \nBut how he set \u2014 I know not \u2014   \nThere seemed a purple stile  \nThat little Yellow boys and girls  \nWere climbing all the while \u2014   \nTill when they reached the other side,  \nA Dominie in Gray \u2014   \nPut gently up the evening Bars \u2014   \nAnd led the flock away \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The nearest Dream recedes \u2014 unrealized \u2014**\n\nThe nearest Dream recedes \u2014 unrealized \u2014   \nThe Heaven we chase,  \nLike the June Bee \u2014 before the School Boy,  \nInvites the Race \u2014   \nStoops \u2014 to an easy Clover \u2014   \nDips \u2014 evades \u2014 teases \u2014 deploys \u2014   \nThen \u2014 to the Royal Clouds  \nLifts his light Pinnace \u2014   \nHeedless of the Boy \u2014   \nStaring \u2014 bewildered \u2014 at the mocking sky \u2014   \nHomesick for steadfast Honey \u2014   \nAh, the Bee flies not  \nThat brews that rare variety!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We play at Paste \u2014**\n\nWe play at Paste \u2014   \nTill qualified, for Pearl \u2014   \nThen, drop the Paste \u2014   \nAnd deem ourself a fool \u2014\n\nThe Shapes \u2014 though \u2014 were similar \u2014   \nAnd our new Hands  \nLearned Gem-Tactics \u2014   \nPracticing Sands \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Of all the Sounds despatched abroad,**\n\nOf all the Sounds despatched abroad,  \nThere's not a Charge to me  \nLike that old measure in the Boughs \u2014   \nThat phraseless Melody \u2014   \nThe Wind does \u2014 working like a Hand,  \nWhose fingers Comb the Sky \u2014   \nThen quiver down \u2014 with tufts of Tune \u2014   \nPermitted Gods, and me \u2014\n\nInheritance, it is, to us \u2014   \nBeyond the Art to Earn \u2014   \nBeyond the trait to take away  \nBy Robber, since the Gain  \nIs gotten not of fingers \u2014   \nAnd inner than the Bone \u2014   \nHid golden, for the whole of Days,  \nAnd even in the Urn,  \nI cannot vouch the merry Dust  \nDo not arise and play  \nIn some odd fashion of its own,  \nSome quainter Holiday,  \nWhen Winds go round and round in Bands \u2014   \nAnd thrum upon the door,  \nAnd Birds take places, overhead,  \nTo bear them Orchestra.\n\nI crave Him grace of Summer Boughs,  \nIf such an Outcast be \u2014   \nWho never heard that fleshless Chant \u2014   \nRise \u2014 solemn \u2014 on the Tree,  \nAs if some Caravan of Sound  \nOff Deserts, in the Sky,  \nHad parted Rank,  \nThen knit, and swept \u2014   \nIn Seamless Company \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There came a Day at Summer's full,**\n\nThere came a Day at Summer's full,  \nEntirely for me \u2014   \nI thought that such were for the Saints,  \nWhere Resurrections \u2014 be \u2014\n\nThe Sun, as common, went abroad,  \nThe flowers, accustomed, blew,  \nAs if no soul the solstice passed  \nThat maketh all things new \u2014\n\nThe time was scarce profaned, by speech \u2014   \nThe symbol of a word  \nWas needless, as at Sacrament,  \nThe Wardrobe \u2014 of our Lord \u2014\n\nEach was to each The Sealed Church,  \nPermitted to commune this \u2014 time \u2014   \nLest we too awkward show  \nAt Supper of the Lamb.\n\nThe Hours slid fast \u2014 as Hours will,  \nClutched tight, by greedy hands \u2014   \nSo faces on two Decks, look back,  \nBound to opposing lands \u2014\n\nAnd so when all the time had leaked,  \nWithout external sound  \nEach bound the Other's Crucifix \u2014   \nWe gave no other Bond \u2014\n\nSufficient troth, that we shall rise \u2014   \nDeposed \u2014 at length, the Grave \u2014   \nTo that new Marriage,  \nJustified \u2014 through Calvaries of Love \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**As if I asked a common Alms,**\n\n**Version 1**\n\nAs if I asked a common alms -\n\nAnd in my wondering hand,\n\nA stranger pressed a kingdom -\n\nAnd I - bewildered stand -\n\nAs if I asked the Orient\n\nHad it for me a morn?\n\nAnd it sh'd lift it's purple dikes\n\nAnd flood me with the Dawn!\n\n**Version 2**\n\nThe \"hand you stretch me in the Dark\", I put mine in, and turn away - I have no Saxon, now -\n\nAs if I asked a common Alms,\n\nAnd in my wondering hand\n\nA Stranger pressed a Kingdom,\n\nAnd I, bewildered, stand -\n\nAs if I asked the Orient\n\nHad it for me a Morn -\n\nAnd it should lift its purple Dikes,\n\nAnd shatter Me with Dawn!\n\n**Version 3**\n\nThank you for the Grave - empty and full - too -\n\nAs if I asked a common Alms and in my wondering Hand\n\nA stranger pressed a Kingdom, and I bewildered stand,\n\nAs if I asked the Orient had it for me a Morn,\n\nAnd it should lift it's purple Dikes, and shatter me with Dawn -\n\nVersion appearing in Thomas Johnson, Collected Poems\n\nAs if I asked a common Alms -\n\nAnd in my wondering hand\n\nA Stranger pressed a Kingdom,\n\nAnd I, bewildered, stand -\n\nAs if I asked the Orient\n\nHad it for me a Morn -\n\nAnd it should lift its purple Dikes,\n\nAnd shatter Me with Dawn!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Some keep the Sabbath going to Church \u2014**\n\nSome keep the Sabbath going to Church \u2014   \nI keep it, staying at Home \u2014   \nWith a Bobolink for a Chorister \u2014   \nAnd an Orchard, for a Dome \u2014\n\nSome keep the Sabbath in Surplice \u2014   \nI just wear my Wings \u2014   \nAnd instead of tolling the Bell, for Church,  \nOur little Sexton \u2014 sings.\n\nGod preaches, a noted Clergyman \u2014   \nAnd the sermon is never long,  \nSo instead of getting to Heaven, at last \u2014   \nI'm going, all along.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Of Tribulation, these are They,**\n\nOf Tribulation, these are They,  \nDenoted by the White \u2014   \nThe Spangled Gowns, a lesser Rank  \nOf Victors \u2014 designate \u2014\n\nAll these \u2014 did conquer \u2014   \nBut the ones who overcame most times \u2014   \nWear nothing commoner than Snow \u2014   \nNo Ornament, but Palms \u2014\n\nSurrender \u2014 is a sort unknown \u2014   \nOn this superior soil \u2014   \nDefeat \u2014 an outgrown Anguish \u2014   \nRemembered, as the Mile\n\nOur panting Ankle barely passed \u2014   \nWhen Night devoured the Road \u2014   \nBut we \u2014 stood whispering in the House \u2014   \nAnd all we said \u2014 was \"Saved\"!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I cannot dance upon my Toes \u2014**\n\nI cannot dance upon my Toes \u2014   \nNo Man instructed me \u2014   \nBut oftentimes, among my mind,  \nA Glee possesseth me,\n\nThat had I Ballet knowledge \u2014   \nWould put itself abroad  \nIn Pirouette to blanch a Troupe \u2014   \nOr lay a Prima, mad,\n\nAnd though I had no Gown of Gauze \u2014   \nNo Ringlet, to my Hair,  \nNor hopped to Audiences \u2014 like Birds,  \nOne Claw upon the Air,\n\nNor tossed my shape in Eider Balls,  \nNor rolled on wheels of snow  \nTill I was out of sight, in sound,  \nThe House encore me so \u2014\n\nNor any know I know the Art  \nI mention \u2014 easy \u2014 Here \u2014   \nNor any Placard boast me \u2014   \nIt's full as Opera \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Before I got my eye put out**\n\nBefore I got my eye put out  \nI liked as well to see \u2014   \nAs other Creatures, that have Eyes  \nAnd know no other way \u2014\n\nBut were it told to me \u2014 Today \u2014   \nThat I might have the sky  \nFor mine \u2014 I tell you that my Heart  \nWould split, for size of me \u2014\n\nThe Meadows \u2014 mine \u2014   \nThe Mountains \u2014 mine \u2014   \nAll Forests \u2014 Stintless Stars \u2014   \nAs much of Noon as I could take  \nBetween my finite eyes \u2014\n\nThe Motions of the Dipping Birds \u2014   \nThe Morning's Amber Road \u2014   \nFor mine \u2014 to look at when I liked \u2014   \nThe News would strike me dead \u2014\n\nSo safer \u2014 guess \u2014 with just my soul  \nUpon the Window pane \u2014   \nWhere other Creatures put their eyes \u2014   \nIncautious \u2014 of the Sun \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Bird came down the Walk \u2014**\n\nA Bird came down the Walk \u2014   \nHe did not know I saw \u2014   \nHe bit an Angleworm in halves  \nAnd ate the fellow, raw,\n\nAnd then he drank a Dew  \nFrom a convenient Grass \u2014   \nAnd then hopped sidewise to the Wall  \nTo let a Beetle pass \u2014\n\nHe glanced with rapid eyes  \nThat hurried all around \u2014   \nThey looked like frightened Beads, I thought \u2014   \nHe stirred his Velvet Head\n\nLike one in danger, Cautious,  \nI offered him a Crumb  \nAnd he unrolled his feathers  \nAnd rowed him softer home \u2014\n\nThan Oars divide the Ocean,  \nToo silver for a seam \u2014   \nOr Butterflies, off Banks of Noon  \nLeap, plashless as they swim.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**So glad we are \u2014 a Stranger'd deem**\n\nSo glad we are \u2014 a Stranger'd deem  \n'Twas sorry, that we were \u2014   \nFor where the Holiday should be  \nThere publishes a Tear \u2014   \nNor how Ourselves be justified \u2014   \nSince Grief and Joy are done  \nSo similar \u2014 An Optizan  \nCould not decide between \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Juggler's Hat her Country is \u2014**\n\nThe Juggler's Hat her Country is \u2014   \nThe Mountain Gorse \u2014 the Bee's!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**While Asters \u2014**\n\nWhile Asters \u2014   \nOn the Hill \u2014   \nTheir Everlasting fashions \u2014 set \u2014   \nAnd Covenant Gentians \u2014 Frill!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There are two Ripenings \u2014 one \u2014 of sight \u2014**\n\nThere are two Ripenings \u2014 one \u2014 of sight \u2014   \nWhose forces Spheric wind  \nUntil the Velvet product  \nDrop spicy to the ground \u2014   \nA homelier maturing \u2014   \nA process in the Bur \u2014   \nThat teeth of Frosts alone disclose  \nIn far October Air.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Grass so little has to do \u2014**\n\n**Version 1**\n\nTHE grass so little has to do, \u2014   \nA sphere of simple green,  \nWith only butterflies to brood,  \nAnd bees to entertain,\n\nAnd stir all day to pretty tunes  \nThe breezes fetch along,  \nAnd hold the sunshine in its lap  \nAnd bow to everything ;\n\nAnd thread the dews all night, like pearls,  \nAnd make myself so fine, \u2014   \nA duchess were too common  \nFor such a noticing.\n\nAnd even when it dies, to pass  \nIn odors so divine,  \nAs lowly spices gone to sleep,  \nOr amulets of pine\n\nAnd then to dwell in sovereign barns,  \nAnd dream the days away, \u2014   \nThe grass so little has to do,  \nI wish I were the hay !\n\n**Version 2**\n\nThe Grass so little has to do \u2014   \nA Sphere of simple Green \u2014   \nWith only Butterflies to brood  \nAnd Bees to entertain \u2014\n\nAnd stir all day to pretty Tunes  \nThe Breezes fetch along \u2014   \nAnd hold the Sunshine in its lap  \nAnd bow to everything \u2014\n\nAnd thread the Dews, all night, like Pearls \u2014   \nAnd make itself so fine  \nA Duchess were too common  \nFor such a noticing \u2014\n\nAnd even when it dies \u2014 to pass  \nIn Odors so divine \u2014   \nLike Lowly spices, lain to sleep \u2014   \nOr Spikenards, perishing \u2014\n\nAnd then, in Sovereign Barns to dwell \u2014   \nAnd dream the Days away,  \nThe Grass so little has to do  \nI wish I were a Hay \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**All the letters I can write**\n\nAll the letters I can write  \nAre not fair as this \u2014   \nSyllables of Velvet \u2014   \nSentences of Plush,  \nDepths of Ruby, undrained,  \nHid, Lip, for Thee \u2014   \nPlay it were a Humming Bird \u2014   \nAnd just sipped \u2014 me \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Tis not that Dying hurts us so \u2014**\n\n'Tis not that Dying hurts us so \u2014   \n'Tis Living \u2014 hurts us more \u2014   \nBut Dying \u2014 is a different way \u2014   \nA Kind behind the Door \u2014\n\nThe Southern Custom \u2014 of the Bird \u2014   \nThat ere the Frosts are due \u2014   \nAccepts a better Latitude \u2014   \nWe \u2014 are the Birds \u2014 that stay.\n\nThe Shrivers round Farmers' doors \u2014   \nFor whose reluctant Crumb \u2014   \nWe stipulate \u2014 till pitying Snows  \nPersuade our Feathers Home.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The face I carry with me \u2014 last \u2014**\n\nThe face I carry with me \u2014 last \u2014   \nWhen I go out of Time \u2014   \nTo take my Rank \u2014 by \u2014 in the West \u2014   \nThat face \u2014 will just be thine \u2014\n\nI'll hand it to the Angel \u2014   \nThat \u2014 Sir \u2014 was my Degree \u2014   \nIn Kingdoms \u2014 you have heard the Raised \u2014   \nRefer to \u2014 possibly.\n\nHe'll take it \u2014 scan it \u2014 step aside \u2014   \nReturn \u2014 with such a crown  \nAs Gabriel \u2014 never capered at \u2014   \nAnd beg me put it on \u2014\n\nAnd then \u2014 he'll turn me round and round \u2014   \nTo an admiring sky \u2014   \nAs one that bore her Master's name \u2014   \nSufficient Royalty!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I know a place where Summer strives**\n\nI know a place where Summer strives  \nWith such a practised Frost \u2014   \nShe \u2014 each year \u2014 leads her Daisies back \u2014   \nRecording briefly \u2014 \"Lost\" \u2014\n\nBut when the South Wind stirs the Pools  \nAnd struggles in the lanes \u2014   \nHer Heart misgives Her, for Her Vow \u2014   \nAnd she pours soft Refrains\n\nInto the lap of Adamant \u2014   \nAnd spices \u2014 and the Dew \u2014   \nThat stiffens quietly to Quartz \u2014   \nUpon her Amber Shoe \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I know that He exists.**\n\nI know that He exists.  \nSomewhere \u2014 in Silence \u2014   \nHe has hid his rare life  \nFrom our gross eyes.\n\n'Tis an instant's play.  \n'Tis a fond Ambush \u2014   \nJust to make Bliss  \nEarn her own surprise!\n\nBut \u2014 should the play  \nProve piercing earnest \u2014   \nShould the glee \u2014 glaze \u2014   \nIn Death's \u2014 stiff \u2014 stare \u2014\n\nWould not the fun  \nLook too expensive!  \nWould not the jest \u2014   \nHave crawled too far!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I tend my flowers for thee \u2014**\n\nI tend my flowers for thee \u2014   \nBright Absentee!  \nMy Fuchsia's Coral Seams  \nRip \u2014 while the Sower \u2014 dreams\n\nGeraniums \u2014 tint \u2014 and spot \u2014   \nLow Daisies \u2014 dot \u2014   \nMy Cactus \u2014 splits her Beard  \nTo show her throat \u2014\n\nCarnations \u2014 tip their spice \u2014   \nAnd Bees \u2014 pick up \u2014   \nA Hyacinth \u2014 I hid \u2014   \nPuts out a Ruffled Head \u2014   \nAnd odors fall  \nFrom flasks \u2014 so small \u2014   \nYou marvel how they held \u2014\n\nGlobe Roses \u2014 break their satin flake \u2014   \nUpon my Garden floor  \nYet \u2014 thou \u2014 not there \u2014   \nI had as lief they bore  \nNo Crimson \u2014 more \u2014\n\nThy flower \u2014 be gay \u2014   \nHer Lord \u2014 away!  \nIt ill becometh me \u2014   \nI'll dwell in Calyx \u2014 Gray \u2014   \nHow modestly \u2014 alway \u2014   \nThy Daisy \u2014   \nDraped for thee!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Is Bliss then, such Abyss,**\n\nIs Bliss then, such Abyss,  \nI must not put my foot amiss  \nFor fear I spoil my shoe?\n\nI'd rather suit my foot  \nThan save my Boot \u2014   \nFor yet to buy another Pair  \nIs possible,  \nAt any store \u2014\n\nBut Bliss, is sold just once.  \nThe Patent lost  \nNone buy it any more \u2014   \nSay, Foot, decide the point \u2014   \nThe Lady cross, or not?  \nVerdict for Boot!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**After great pain, a formal feeling comes \u2014**\n\nAfter great pain, a formal feeling comes \u2014   \nThe Nerves sit ceremonious, like Tombs \u2014   \nThe stiff Heart questions was it He, that bore,  \nAnd Yesterday, or Centuries before?\n\nThe Feet, mechanical, go round \u2014   \nOf Ground, or Air, or Ought \u2014   \nA Wooden way  \nRegardless grown,  \nA Quartz contentment, like a stone \u2014\n\nThis is the Hour of Lead \u2014   \nRemembered, if outlived,  \nAs Freezing persons, recollect the Snow \u2014   \nFirst \u2014 Chill \u2014 then Stupor \u2014 then the letting go \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It will be Summer \u2014 eventually.**\n\nIt will be Summer \u2014 eventually.  \nLadies \u2014 with parasols \u2014   \nSauntering Gentlemen \u2014 with Canes \u2014   \nAnd little Girls \u2014 with Dolls \u2014\n\nWill tint the pallid landscape \u2014   \nAs 'twere a bright Bouquet \u2014   \nThro' drifted deep, in Parian \u2014   \nThe Village lies \u2014 today \u2014\n\nThe Lilacs \u2014 bending many a year \u2014   \nWill sway with purple load \u2014   \nThe Bees \u2014 will not despise the tune \u2014   \nTheir Forefathers \u2014 have hummed \u2014\n\nThe Wild Rose \u2014 redden in the Bog \u2014   \nThe Aster \u2014 on the Hill  \nHer everlasting fashion \u2014 set \u2014   \nAnd Covenant Gentians \u2014 frill \u2014\n\nTill Summer folds her miracle \u2014   \nAs Women \u2014 do \u2014 their Gown \u2014   \nOf Priests \u2014 adjust the Symbols \u2014   \nWhen Sacrament \u2014 is done \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My Reward for Being, was This.**\n\nMy Reward for Being, was This.  \nMy premium \u2014 My Bliss \u2014   \nAn Admiralty, less \u2014   \nA Sceptre \u2014 penniless \u2014   \nAnd Realms \u2014 just Dross \u2014\n\nWhen Thrones accost my Hands \u2014   \nWith \"Me, Miss, Me\" \u2014   \nI'll unroll Thee \u2014   \nDominions dowerless \u2014 beside this Grace \u2014   \nElection \u2014 Vote \u2014   \nThe Ballots of Eternity, will show just that.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Twas the old \u2014 road \u2014 through pain \u2014**\n\n'Twas the old \u2014 road \u2014 through pain \u2014   \nThat unfrequented \u2014 one \u2014   \nWith many a turn \u2014 and thorn \u2014   \nThat stops \u2014 at Heaven \u2014\n\nThis \u2014 was the Town \u2014 she passed \u2014   \nThere \u2014 where she \u2014 rested \u2014 last \u2014   \nThen \u2014 stepped more fast \u2014   \nThe little tracks \u2014 close prest \u2014   \nThen \u2014 not so swift \u2014   \nSlow \u2014 slow \u2014 as feet did weary \u2014 grow \u2014   \nThen \u2014 stopped \u2014 no other track!\n\nWait! Look! Her little Book \u2014   \nThe leaf \u2014 at love \u2014 turned back \u2014   \nHer very Hat \u2014   \nAnd this worn shoe just fits the track \u2014   \nHerself \u2014 though \u2014 fled!\n\nAnother bed \u2014 a short one \u2014   \nWomen make \u2014 tonight \u2014   \nIn Chambers bright \u2014   \nToo out of sight \u2014 though \u2014   \nFor our hoarse Good Night \u2014   \nTo touch her Head!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Funny \u2014 to be a Century \u2014**\n\nFunny \u2014 to be a Century \u2014   \nAnd see the People \u2014 going by \u2014   \nI \u2014 should die of the Oddity \u2014   \nBut then \u2014 I'm not so staid \u2014 as He \u2014\n\nHe keeps His Secrets safely \u2014 very \u2014   \nWere He to tell \u2014 extremely sorry  \nThis Bashful Globe of Ours would be \u2014   \nSo dainty of Publicity \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Not probable \u2014 The barest Chance \u2014**\n\nNot probable \u2014 The barest Chance \u2014   \nA smile too few \u2014 a word too much  \nAnd far from Heaven as the Rest \u2014   \nThe Soul so close on Paradise \u2014\n\nWhat if the Bird from journey far \u2014   \nConfused by Sweets \u2014 as Mortals \u2014 are \u2014   \nForget the secret of His wing  \nAnd perish \u2014 but a Bough between \u2014   \nOh, Groping feet \u2014   \nOh Phantom Queen!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**When Night is almost done \u2014**\n\nWhen Night is almost done \u2014   \nAnd Sunrise grows so near  \nThat we can touch the Spaces \u2014   \nIt's time to smooth the Hair \u2014\n\nAnd get the Dimples ready \u2014   \nAnd wonder we could care  \nFor that old \u2014 faded Midnight \u2014   \nThat frightened \u2014 but an Hour \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I dreaded that first Robin, so,**\n\nI dreaded that first Robin, so,  \nBut He is mastered, now,  \nI'm accustomed to Him grown,  \nHe hurts a little, though \u2014\n\nI thought If I could only live  \nTill that first Shout got by \u2014   \nNot all Pianos in the Woods  \nHad power to mangle me \u2014\n\nI dared not meet the Daffodils \u2014   \nFor fear their Yellow Gown  \nWould pierce me with a fashion  \nSo foreign to my own \u2014\n\nI wished the Grass would hurry \u2014   \nSo \u2014 when 'twas time to see \u2014   \nHe'd be too tall, the tallest one  \nCould stretch \u2014 to look at me \u2014\n\nI could not bear the Bees should come,  \nI wished they'd stay away  \nIn those dim countries where they go,  \nWhat word had they, for me?\n\nThey're here, though; not a creature failed \u2014   \nNo Blossom stayed away  \nIn gentle deference to me \u2014   \nThe Queen of Calvary \u2014\n\nEach one salutes me, as he goes,  \nAnd I, my childish Plumes,  \nLift, in bereaved acknowledgment  \nOf their unthinking Drums \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I had the Glory \u2014 that will do \u2014**\n\nI had the Glory \u2014 that will do \u2014   \nAn Honor, Thought can turn her to  \nWhen lesser Fames invite \u2014   \nWith one long \"Nay\" \u2014   \nBliss' early shape  \nDeforming \u2014 Dwindling \u2014 Gulfing up \u2014   \nTime's possibility.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**They leave us with the Infinite.**\n\nThey leave us with the Infinite.  \nBut He \u2014 is not a man \u2014   \nHis fingers are the size of fists \u2014   \nHis fists, the size of men \u2014\n\nAnd whom he foundeth, with his Arm  \nAs Himmaleh, shall stand \u2014   \nGibraltar's Everlasting Shoe  \nPoised lightly on his Hand,\n\nSo trust him, Comrade \u2014   \nYou for you, and I, for you and me  \nEternity is ample,  \nAnd quick enough, if true.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I felt my life with both my hands**\n\nI felt my life with both my hands  \nTo see if it was there \u2014   \nI held my spirit to the Glass,  \nTo prove it possibler \u2014\n\nI turned my Being round and round  \nAnd paused at every pound  \nTo ask the Owner's name \u2014   \nFor doubt, that I should know the Sound \u2014\n\nI judged my features \u2014 jarred my hair \u2014   \nI pushed my dimples by, and waited \u2014   \nIf they \u2014 twinkled back \u2014   \nConviction might, of me \u2014\n\nI told myself, \"Take Courage, Friend \u2014   \nThat \u2014 was a former time \u2014   \nBut we might learn to like the Heaven,  \nAs well as our Old Home!\"\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Perhaps I asked too large \u2014**\n\nPerhaps I asked too large \u2014   \nI take \u2014 no less than skies \u2014   \nFor Earths, grow thick as  \nBerries, in my native town \u2014\n\nMy Basket holds \u2014 just \u2014 Firmaments \u2014   \nThose \u2014 dangle easy \u2014 on my arm,  \nBut smaller bundles \u2014 Cram.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A happy lip \u2014 breaks sudden \u2014**\n\nA happy lip \u2014 breaks sudden \u2014   \nIt doesn't state you how  \nIt contemplated \u2014 smiling \u2014   \nJust consummated \u2014 now \u2014   \nBut this one, wears its merriment  \nSo patient \u2014 like a pain \u2014   \nFresh gilded \u2014 to elude the eyes  \nUnqualified, to scan \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**From Cocoon forth a Butterfly**\n\nFrom Cocoon forth a Butterfly  \nAs Lady from her Door  \nEmerged \u2014 a Summer Afternoon \u2014   \nRepairing Everywhere \u2014\n\nWithout Design \u2014 that I could trace  \nExcept to stray abroad  \nOn Miscellaneous Enterprise  \nThe Clovers \u2014 understood \u2014\n\nHer pretty Parasol be seen  \nContracting in a Field  \nWhere Men made Hay \u2014   \nThen struggling hard  \nWith an opposing Cloud \u2014\n\nWhere Parties \u2014 Phantom as Herself \u2014   \nTo Nowhere \u2014 seemed to go  \nIn purposeless Circumference \u2014   \nAs 'twere a Tropic Show \u2014\n\nAnd notwithstanding Bee \u2014 that worked \u2014   \nAnd Flower \u2014 that zealous blew \u2014   \nThis Audience of Idleness  \nDisdained them, from the Sky \u2014\n\nTill Sundown crept \u2014 a steady Tide \u2014   \nAnd Men that made the Hay \u2014   \nAnd Afternoon \u2014 and Butterfly \u2014   \nExtinguished \u2014 in the Sea \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Tis Opposites \u2014 entice \u2014**\n\n'Tis Opposites \u2014 entice \u2014   \nDeformed Men \u2014 ponder Grace \u2014   \nBright fires \u2014 the Blanketless \u2014   \nThe Lost \u2014 Day's face \u2014\n\nThe Blind \u2014 esteem it be  \nEnough Estate \u2014 to see \u2014   \nThe Captive \u2014 strangles new \u2014   \nFor deeming \u2014 Beggars \u2014 play \u2014\n\nTo lack \u2014 enamor Thee \u2014   \nTho' the Divinity \u2014   \nBe only  \nMe \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Day that I was crowned**\n\nThe Day that I was crowned  \nWas like the other Days \u2014   \nUntil the Coronation came \u2014   \nAnd then \u2014 'twas Otherwise \u2014\n\nAs Carbon in the Coal  \nAnd Carbon in the Gem  \nAre One \u2014 and yet the former  \nWere dull for Diadem \u2014\n\nI rose, and all was plain \u2014   \nBut when the Day declined  \nMyself and It, in Majesty  \nWere equally \u2014 adorned \u2014\n\nThe Grace that I \u2014 was chose \u2014   \nTo Me \u2014 surpassed the Crown  \nThat was the Witness for the Grace \u2014   \n'Twas even that 'twas Mine \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**God is a distant \u2014 stately Lover \u2014**\n\nGod is a distant \u2014 stately Lover \u2014   \nWoos, as He states us \u2014 by His Son \u2014   \nVerily, a Vicarious Courtship \u2014   \n\"Miles\", and \"Priscilla\", were such an One \u2014\n\nBut, lest the Soul \u2014 like fair \"Priscilla\"  \nChoose the Envoy \u2014 and spurn the Groom \u2014   \nVouches, with hyperbolic archness \u2014   \n\"Miles\", and \"John Alden\" were Synonym \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If any sink, assure that this, now standing \u2014**\n\nIf any sink, assure that this, now standing \u2014   \nFailed like Themselves \u2014 and conscious that it rose \u2014   \nGrew by the Fact, and not the Understanding  \nHow Weakness passed \u2014 or Force \u2014 arose \u2014\n\nTell that the Worst, is easy in a Moment \u2014   \nDread, but the Whizzing, before the Ball \u2014   \nWhen the Ball enters, enters Silence \u2014   \nDying \u2014 annuls the power to kill.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I gained it so \u2014**\n\nI gained it so \u2014   \nBy Climbing slow \u2014   \nBy Catching at the Twigs that grow  \nBetween the Bliss \u2014 and me \u2014   \nIt hung so high  \nAs well the Sky  \nAttempt by Strategy \u2014\n\nI said I gained it \u2014   \nThis \u2014 was all \u2014   \nLook, how I clutch it  \nLest it fall \u2014   \nAnd I a Pauper go \u2014   \nUnfitted by an instant's Grace  \nFor the Contented \u2014 Beggar's face  \nI wore \u2014 an hour ago \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Death sets a Thing significant**\n\nDeath sets a Thing significant  \nThe Eye had hurried by  \nExcept a perished Creature  \nEntreat us tenderly\n\nTo ponder little Workmanships  \nIn Crayon, or in Wool,  \nWith \"This was last Her fingers did\" \u2014   \nIndustrious until \u2014\n\nThe Thimble weighed too heavy \u2014   \nThe stitches stopped \u2014 by themselves \u2014   \nAnd then 'twas put among the Dust  \nUpon the Closet shelves \u2014\n\nA Book I have \u2014 a friend gave \u2014   \nWhose Pencil \u2014 here and there \u2014   \nHad notched the place that pleased Him \u2014   \nAt Rest \u2014 His fingers are \u2014\n\nNow \u2014 when I read \u2014 I read not \u2014   \nFor interrupting Tears \u2014   \nObliterate the Etchings  \nToo Costly for Repairs.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**What I can do \u2014 I will \u2014**\n\nWhat I can do \u2014 I will \u2014   \nThough it be little as a Daffodil \u2014   \nThat I cannot \u2014 must be  \nUnknown to possibility \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It struck me \u2014 every Day \u2014**\n\nIt struck me \u2014 every Day \u2014   \nThe Lightning was as new  \nAs if the Cloud that instant slit  \nAnd let the Fire through \u2014\n\nIt burned Me \u2014 in the Night \u2014   \nIt Blistered to My Dream \u2014   \nIt sickened fresh upon my sight \u2014   \nWith every Morn that came \u2014\n\nI though that Storm \u2014 was brief \u2014   \nThe Maddest \u2014 quickest by \u2014   \nBut Nature lost the Date of This \u2014   \nAnd left it in the Sky \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I went to thank Her \u2014**\n\nI WENT to thank her,  \nBut she slept ;  \nHer bed a funnelled stone,  \nWith nosegays at the head and foot,  \nThat travellers had thrown,\n\nWho went to thank her ;  \nBut she slept.  \n'T was short to cross the sea  \nTo look upon her like, alive,  \nBut turning back 't was slow.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Morning after Woe \u2014**\n\nThe Morning after Woe \u2014   \n'Tis frequently the Way \u2014   \nSurpasses all that rose before \u2014   \nFor utter Jubilee \u2014\n\nAs Nature did not care \u2014   \nAnd piled her Blossoms on \u2014   \nAnd further to parade a Joy  \nHer Victim stared upon \u2014\n\nThe Birds declaim their Tunes \u2014   \nPronouncing every word  \nLike Hammers \u2014 Did they know they fell  \nLike Litanies of Lead \u2014\n\nOn here and there \u2014 a creature \u2014   \nThey'd modify the Glee  \nTo fit some Crucifixal Clef \u2014   \nSome Key of Calvary \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Dare you see a Soul at the White Heat?**\n\nDare you see a Soul at the White Heat? \u2014   \nThen crouch within the door \u2014   \nRed \u2014 is the Fire's common tint \u2014   \nBut when the vivid Ore  \nHas vanquished Flame's conditions,  \nIt quivers from the Forge  \nWithout a color, but the light  \nOf unanointed Blaze.  \nLeast Village has its Blacksmith  \nWhose Anvil's even ring  \nStands symbol for the finer Forge  \nThat soundless tugs \u2014 within \u2014   \nRefining these impatient Ores  \nWith Hammer, and with Blaze  \nUntil the Designated Light  \nRepudiate the Forge \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Although I put away his life \u2014**\n\nAlthough I put away his life \u2014   \nAn Ornament too grand  \nFor Forehead low as mine, to wear,  \nThis might have been the Hand\n\nThat sowed the flower, he preferred \u2014   \nOr smoothed a homely pain,  \nOr pushed the pebble from his path \u2014   \nOr played his chosen tune \u2014\n\nOn Lute the least \u2014 the latest \u2014   \nBut just his Ear could know  \nThat whatsoe'er delighted it,  \nI never would let go \u2014\n\nThe foot to bear his errand \u2014   \nA little Boot I know \u2014   \nWould leap abroad like Antelope \u2014   \nWith just the grant to do \u2014\n\nHis weariest Commandment \u2014   \nA sweeter to obey,  \nThan \"Hide and Seek\" \u2014   \nOr skip to Flutes \u2014   \nOr all Day, chase the Bee \u2014\n\nYour Servant, Sir, will weary \u2014   \nThe Surgeon, will not come \u2014   \nThe World, will have its own \u2014 to do \u2014   \nThe Dust, will vex your Fame \u2014\n\nThe Cold will force your tightest door  \nSome February Day,  \nBut say my apron bring the sticks  \nTo make your Cottage gay \u2014\n\nThat I may take that promise  \nTo Paradise, with me \u2014   \nTo teach the Angels, avarice,  \nYou, Sir, taught first \u2014 to me.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Over and over, like a Tune \u2014**\n\nOver and over, like a Tune \u2014   \nThe Recollection plays \u2014   \nDrums off the Phantom Battlements  \nCornets of Paradise \u2014\n\nSnatches, from Baptized Generations \u2014   \nCadences too grand  \nBut for the Justified Processions  \nAt the Lord's Right hand.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How sick \u2014 to wait \u2014 in any place \u2014 but thine \u2014**\n\nHow sick \u2014 to wait \u2014 in any place \u2014 but thine \u2014   \nI knew last night \u2014 when someone tried to twine \u2014   \nThinking \u2014 perhaps \u2014 that I looked tired \u2014 or alone \u2014   \nOr breaking \u2014 almost \u2014 with unspoken pain \u2014\n\nAnd I turned \u2014 ducal \u2014   \nThat right \u2014 was thine \u2014   \nOne port \u2014 suffices \u2014 for a Brig \u2014 like mine \u2014\n\nOurs be the tossing \u2014 wild though the sea \u2014   \nRather than a Mooring \u2014 unshared by thee.  \nOurs be the Cargo \u2014 unladed \u2014 here \u2014   \nRather than the \"spicy isles \u2014 \"  \nAnd thou \u2014 not there \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**She lay as if at play**\n\nShe lay as if at play  \nHer life had leaped away \u2014   \nIntending to return \u2014   \nBut not so soon \u2014\n\nHer merry Arms, half dropt \u2014   \nAs if for lull of sport \u2014   \nAn instant had forgot \u2014   \nThe Trick to start \u2014\n\nHer dancing Eyes \u2014 ajar \u2014   \nAs if their Owner were  \nStill sparkling through  \nFor fun \u2014 at you \u2014\n\nHer Morning at the door \u2014   \nDevising, I am sure \u2014   \nTo force her sleep \u2014   \nSo light \u2014 so deep \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Heaven is so far of the Mind**\n\nHeaven is so far of the Mind  \nThat were the Mind dissolved \u2014   \nThe Site \u2014 of it \u2014 by Architect  \nCould not again be proved \u2014\n\n'Tis vast \u2014 as our Capacity \u2014   \nAs fair \u2014 as our idea \u2014   \nTo Him of adequate desire  \nNo further 'tis, than Here \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A precious \u2014 mouldering pleasure \u2014 'tis \u2014**\n\nA precious \u2014 mouldering pleasure \u2014 'tis \u2014   \nTo meet an Antique Book \u2014   \nIn just the Dress his Century wore \u2014   \nA privilege \u2014 I think \u2014\n\nHis venerable Hand to take \u2014   \nAnd warming in our own \u2014   \nA passage back \u2014 or two \u2014 to make \u2014   \nTo Times when he \u2014 was young \u2014\n\nHis quaint opinions \u2014 to inspect \u2014   \nHis thought to ascertain  \nOn Themes concern our mutual mind \u2014   \nThe Literature of Man \u2014\n\nWhat interested Scholars \u2014 most \u2014   \nWhat Competitions ran \u2014   \nWhen Plato \u2014 was a Certainty \u2014   \nAnd Sophocles \u2014 a Man \u2014\n\nWhen Sappho \u2014 was a living Girl \u2014   \nAnd Beatrice wore  \nThe Gown that Dante \u2014 deified \u2014   \nFacts Centuries before\n\nHe traverses \u2014 familiar \u2014   \nAs One should come to Town \u2014   \nAnd tell you all your Dreams \u2014 were true \u2014   \nHe lived \u2014 where Dreams were born \u2014\n\nHis presence is Enchantment \u2014   \nYou beg him not to go \u2014   \nOld Volume shake their Vellum Heads  \nAnd tantalize \u2014 just so \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I know lives, I could miss**\n\nI know lives, I could miss  \nWithout a Misery \u2014   \nOthers \u2014 whose instant's wanting \u2014   \nWould be Eternity \u2014\n\nThe last \u2014 a scanty Number \u2014   \n'Twould scarcely fill a Two \u2014   \nThe first \u2014 a Gnat's Horizon  \nCould easily outgrow \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I'm saying every day**\n\nI'm saying every day  \n\"If I should be a Queen, tomorrow\" \u2014   \nI'd do this way \u2014   \nAnd so I deck, a little,\n\nIf it be, I wake a Bourbon,  \nNone on me, bend supercilious \u2014   \nWith \"This was she \u2014   \nBegged in the Market place \u2014   \nYesterday.\"\n\nCourt is a stately place \u2014   \nI've heard men say \u2014   \nSo I loop my apron, against the Majesty  \nWith bright Pins of Buttercup \u2014   \nThat not too plain \u2014   \nRank \u2014 overtake me \u2014\n\nAnd perch my Tongue  \nOn Twigs of singing \u2014 rather high \u2014   \nBut this, might be my brief Term  \nTo qualify \u2014\n\nPut from my simple speech all plain word \u2014   \nTake other accents, as such I heard  \nThough but for the Cricket \u2014 just,  \nAnd but for the Bee \u2014   \nNot in all the Meadow \u2014   \nOne accost me \u2014\n\nBetter to be ready \u2014   \nThan did next morn  \nMeet me in Aragon \u2014   \nMy old Gown \u2014 on \u2014\n\nAnd the surprised Air  \nRustics \u2014 wear \u2014   \nSummoned \u2014 unexpectedly \u2014   \nTo Exeter \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I went to Heaven \u2014**\n\nI went to Heaven \u2014   \n'Twas a small Town \u2014   \nLit \u2014 with a Ruby \u2014   \nLathed \u2014 with Down \u2014\n\nStiller \u2014 than the fields  \nAt the full Dew \u2014   \nBeautiful \u2014 as Pictures \u2014   \nNo Man drew.  \nPeople \u2014 like the Moth \u2014   \nOf Mechlin \u2014 frames \u2014   \nDuties \u2014 of Gossamer \u2014   \nAnd Eider \u2014 names \u2014   \nAlmost \u2014 contented \u2014   \nI \u2014 could be \u2014   \n'Mong such unique  \nSociety \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Angle of a Landscape \u2014**\n\nThe Angle of a Landscape \u2014   \nThat every time I wake \u2014   \nBetween my Curtain and the Wall  \nUpon an ample Crack \u2014\n\nLike a Venetian \u2014 waiting \u2014   \nAccosts my open eye \u2014   \nIs just a Bough of Apples \u2014   \nHeld slanting, in the Sky \u2014\n\nThe Pattern of a Chimney \u2014   \nThe Forehead of a Hill \u2014   \nSometimes \u2014 a Vane's Forefinger \u2014   \nBut that's \u2014 Occasional \u2014\n\nThe Seasons \u2014 shift \u2014 my Picture \u2014   \nUpon my Emerald Bough,  \nI wake \u2014 to find no \u2014 Emeralds \u2014   \nThen \u2014 Diamonds \u2014 which the Snow\n\nFrom Polar Caskets \u2014 fetched me \u2014   \nThe Chimney \u2014 and the Hill \u2014   \nAnd just the Steeple's finger \u2014   \nThese \u2014 never stir at all \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Of Course \u2014 I prayed \u2014**\n\nOf Course \u2014 I prayed \u2014   \nAnd did God Care?  \nHe cared as much as on the Air  \nA Bird \u2014 had stamped her foot \u2014   \nAnd cried \"Give Me\" \u2014   \nMy Reason \u2014 Life \u2014   \nI had not had \u2014 but for Yourself \u2014   \n'Twere better Charity  \nTo leave me in the Atom's Tomb \u2014   \nMerry, and Nought, and gay, and numb \u2014   \nThan this smart Misery.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To lose one's faith \u2014 surpass**\n\nTo lose one's faith \u2014 surpass  \nThe loss of an Estate \u2014   \nBecause Estates can be  \nReplenished \u2014 faith cannot \u2014\n\nInherited with Life \u2014   \nBelief \u2014 but once \u2014 can be \u2014   \nAnnihilate a single clause \u2014   \nAnd Being's \u2014 Beggary \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I saw no Way \u2014 The Heavens were stitched \u2014**\n\nI saw no Way \u2014 The Heavens were stitched \u2014   \nI felt the Columns close \u2014   \nThe Earth reversed her Hemispheres \u2014   \nI touched the Universe \u2014\n\nAnd back it slid \u2014 and I alone \u2014   \nA Speck upon a Ball \u2014   \nWent out upon Circumference \u2014   \nBeyond the Dip of Bell \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Rehearsal to Ourselves**\n\nRehearsal to Ourselves  \nOf a Withdrawn Delight \u2014   \nAffords a Bliss like Murder \u2014   \nOmnipotent \u2014 Acute \u2014\n\nWe will not drop the Dirk \u2014   \nBecause We love the Wound  \nThe Dirk Commemorate \u2014 Itself  \nRemind Us that we died.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There is a flower that Bees prefer \u2014**\n\nThere is a flower that Bees prefer \u2014   \nAnd Butterflies \u2014 desire \u2014   \nTo gain the Purple Democrat  \nThe Humming Bird \u2014 aspire \u2014\n\nAnd Whatsoever Insect pass \u2014   \nA Honey bear away  \nProportioned to his several dearth  \nAnd her \u2014 capacity \u2014\n\nHer face be rounder than the Moon  \nAnd ruddier than the Gown  \nOr Orchis in the Pasture \u2014   \nOr Rhododendron \u2014 worn \u2014\n\nShe doth not wait for June \u2014   \nBefore the World be Green \u2014   \nHer sturdy little Countenance  \nAgainst the Wind \u2014 be seen \u2014\n\nContending with the Grass \u2014   \nNear Kinsman to Herself \u2014   \nFor Privilege of Sod and Sun \u2014   \nSweet Litigants for Life \u2014\n\nAnd when the Hills be full \u2014   \nAnd newer fashions blow \u2014   \nDoth not retract a single spice  \nFor pang of jealousy \u2014\n\nHer Public \u2014 be the Noon \u2014   \nHer Providence \u2014 the Sun \u2014   \nHer Progress \u2014 by the Bee \u2014 proclaimed \u2014   \nIn sovereign \u2014 Swerveless Tune \u2014\n\nThe Bravest \u2014 of the Host \u2014   \nSurrendering \u2014 the last \u2014   \nNor even of Defeat \u2014 aware \u2014   \nWhat cancelled by the Frost \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Secret told \u2014**\n\nA Secret told \u2014   \nCeases to be a Secret \u2014 then \u2014   \nA Secret \u2014 kept \u2014   \nThat \u2014 can appal but One \u2014\n\nBetter of it \u2014 continual be afraid \u2014   \nThan it \u2014   \nAnd Whom you told it to \u2014 beside \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**For Death \u2014 or rather**\n\nFor Death \u2014 or rather  \nFor the Things 'twould buy \u2014   \nThis \u2014 put away  \nLife's Opportunity \u2014\n\nThe Things that Death will buy  \nAre Room \u2014   \nEscape from Circumstances \u2014   \nAnd a Name \u2014\n\nWith Gifts of Life  \nHow Death's Gifts may compare \u2014   \nWe know not \u2014   \nFor the Rates \u2014 lie Here \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Exhilaration \u2014 is within \u2014**\n\nExhilaration \u2014 is within \u2014   \nThere can no Outer Wine  \nSo royally intoxicate  \nAs that diviner Brand\n\nThe Soul achieves \u2014 Herself \u2014   \nTo drink \u2014 or set away  \nFor Visitor \u2014 Or Sacrament \u2014   \n'Tis not of Holiday\n\nTo stimulate a Man  \nWho hath the Ample Rhine  \nWithin his Closet \u2014 Best you can  \nExhale in offering.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**No Rack can torture me \u2014**\n\nNo Rack can torture me \u2014   \nMy Soul \u2014 at Liberty \u2014   \nBehind this mortal Bone  \nThere knits a bolder One \u2014\n\nYou cannot prick with saw \u2014   \nNor pierce with Scimitar \u2014   \nTwo Bodies \u2014 therefore be \u2014   \nBind One \u2014 The Other fly \u2014\n\nThe Eagle of his Nest  \nNo easier divest \u2014   \nAnd gain the Sky  \nThan mayest Thou \u2014\n\nExcept Thyself may be  \nThine Enemy \u2014   \nCaptivity is Consciousness \u2014   \nSo's Liberty.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Smiling back from Coronation**\n\nSmiling back from Coronation  \nMay be Luxury \u2014   \nOn the Heads that started with us \u2014   \nBeing's Peasantry \u2014\n\nRecognizing in Procession  \nOnes We former knew \u2014   \nWhen Ourselves were also dusty \u2014   \nCenturies ago \u2014\n\nHad the Triumph no Conviction  \nOf how many be \u2014   \nStimulated \u2014 by the Contrast \u2014   \nUnto Misery \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Answer July \u2014**\n\nAnswer July \u2014   \nWhere is the Bee \u2014   \nWhere is the Blush \u2014   \nWhere is the Hay?\n\nAh, said July \u2014   \nWhere is the Seed \u2014   \nWhere is the Bud \u2014   \nWhere is the May \u2014   \nAnswer Thee \u2014 Me \u2014\n\nNay \u2014 said the May \u2014   \nShow me the Snow \u2014   \nShow me the Bells \u2014   \nShow me the Jay!\n\nQuibbled the Jay \u2014   \nWhere be the Maize \u2014   \nWhere be the Haze \u2014   \nWhere be the Bur?  \nHere \u2014 said the Year \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The sweetest Heresy received**\n\nThe sweetest Heresy received  \nThat Man and Woman know \u2014   \nEach Other's Convert \u2014   \nThough the Faith accommodate but Two \u2014\n\nThe Churches are so frequent \u2014   \nThe Ritual \u2014 so small \u2014   \nThe Grace so unavoidable \u2014   \nTo fail \u2014 is Infidel \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Take your Heaven further on \u2014**\n\nTake your Heaven further on \u2014   \nThis \u2014 to Heaven divine Has gone \u2014   \nHad You earlier blundered in  \nPossibly, e'en You had seen  \nAn Eternity \u2014 put on \u2014   \nNow \u2014 to ring a Door beyond  \nIs the utmost of Your Hand \u2014   \nTo the Skies \u2014 apologize \u2014   \nNearer to Your Courtesies  \nThan this Sufferer polite \u2014   \nDressed to meet You \u2014   \nSee \u2014 in White!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There's been a Death, in the Opposite House,**\n\nThere's been a Death, in the Opposite House,  \nAs lately as Today \u2014   \nI know it, by the numb look  \nSuch Houses have \u2014 alway \u2014\n\nThe Neighbors rustle in and out \u2014   \nThe Doctor \u2014 drives away \u2014   \nA Window opens like a Pod \u2014   \nAbrupt \u2014 mechanically \u2014\n\nSomebody flings a Mattress out \u2014   \nThe Children hurry by \u2014   \nThey wonder if it died \u2014 on that \u2014   \nI used to \u2014 when a Boy \u2014\n\nThe Minister \u2014 goes stiffly in \u2014   \nAs if the House were His \u2014   \nAnd He owned all the Mourners \u2014 now \u2014   \nAnd little Boys \u2014 besides \u2014\n\nAnd then the Milliner \u2014 and the Man  \nOf the Appalling Trade \u2014   \nTo take the measure of the House \u2014\n\nThere'll be that Dark Parade \u2014\n\nOf Tassels \u2014 and of Coaches \u2014 soon \u2014   \nIt's easy as a Sign \u2014   \nThe Intuition of the News \u2014   \nIn just a Country Town \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It's coming \u2014 the postponeless Creature \u2014**\n\nIt's coming \u2014 the postponeless Creature \u2014   \nIt gains the Block \u2014 and now \u2014 it gains the Door \u2014   \nChooses its latch, from all the other fastenings \u2014   \nEnters \u2014 with a \"You know Me \u2014 Sir\"?\n\nSimple Salute \u2014 and certain Recognition \u2014   \nBold \u2014 were it Enemy \u2014 Brief \u2014 were it friend \u2014   \nDresses each House in Crape, and Icicle \u2014   \nAnd carries one \u2014 out of it \u2014 to God \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Visitor in Marl \u2014**\n\nA Visitor in Marl \u2014   \nWho influences Flowers \u2014   \nTill they are orderly as Busts \u2014   \nAnd Elegant \u2014 as Glass \u2014\n\nWho visits in the Night \u2014   \nAnd just before the Sun \u2014   \nConcludes his glistening interview \u2014   \nCaresses \u2014 and is gone \u2014\n\nBut whom his fingers touched \u2014   \nAnd where his feet have run \u2014   \nAnd whatsoever Mouth be kissed \u2014   \nIs as it had not been \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Through the Dark Sod \u2014 as Education \u2014**\n\nThrough the Dark Sod \u2014 as Education \u2014   \nThe Lily passes sure \u2014   \nFeels her white foot \u2014 no trepidation \u2014   \nHer faith \u2014 no fear \u2014\n\nAfterward \u2014 in the Meadow \u2014   \nSwinging her Beryl Bell \u2014   \nThe Mold-life \u2014 all forgotten \u2014 now \u2014   \nIn Ecstasy \u2014 and Dell \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Did Our Best Moment last \u2014**\n\nDid Our Best Moment last \u2014   \n'Twould supersede the Heaven \u2014   \nA few \u2014 and they by Risk \u2014 procure \u2014   \nSo this Sort \u2014 are not given \u2014\n\nExcept as stimulants \u2014 in  \nCases of Despair \u2014   \nOr Stupor \u2014 The Reserve \u2014   \nThese Heavenly Moments are \u2014\n\nA Grant of the Divine \u2014   \nThat Certain as it Comes \u2014   \nWithdraws \u2014 and leaves the dazzled Soul  \nIn her unfurnished Rooms\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Twas Love \u2014 not me \u2014**\n\n'Twas Love \u2014 not me \u2014   \nOh punish \u2014 pray \u2014   \nThe Real one died for Thee \u2014   \nJust Him \u2014 not me \u2014\n\nSuch Guilt \u2014 to love Thee \u2014 most!  \nDoom it beyond the Rest \u2014   \nForgive it \u2014 last \u2014   \n'Twas base as Jesus \u2014 most!\n\nLet Justice not mistake \u2014   \nWe Two \u2014 looked so alike \u2014   \nWhich was the Guilty Sake \u2014   \n'Twas Love's \u2014 Now Strike!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Reverse cannot befall**\n\nReverse cannot befall  \nThat fine Prosperity  \nWhose Sources are interior \u2014   \nAs soon \u2014 Adversity\n\nA Diamond \u2014 overtake  \nIn far \u2014 Bolivian Ground \u2014   \nMisfortune hath no implement  \nCould mar it \u2014 if it found \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There is a Languor of the Life**\n\nThere is a Languor of the Life  \nMore imminent than Pain \u2014   \n'Tis Pain's Successor \u2014 When the Soul  \nHas suffered all it can \u2014\n\nA Drowsiness \u2014 diffuses \u2014   \nA Dimness like a Fog  \nEnvelops Consciousness \u2014   \nAs Mists \u2014 obliterate a Crag.\n\nThe Surgeon \u2014 does not blanch \u2014 at pain  \nHis Habit \u2014 is severe \u2014   \nBut tell him that it ceased to feel \u2014   \nThe Creature lying there \u2014\n\nAnd he will tell you \u2014 skill is late \u2014   \nA Mightier than He \u2014   \nHas ministered before Him \u2014   \nThere's no Vitality.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**When Diamonds are a Legend,**\n\nWhen Diamonds are a Legend,  \nAnd Diadems \u2014 a Tale \u2014   \nI Brooch and Earrings for Myself,  \nDo sow, and Raise for sale \u2014\n\nAnd tho' I'm scarce accounted,  \nMy Art, a Summer Day \u2014 had Patrons \u2014   \nOnce \u2014 it was a Queen \u2014   \nAnd once \u2014 a Butterfly \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I had not minded \u2014 Walls \u2014**\n\nI had not minded \u2014 Walls \u2014   \nWere Universe \u2014 one Rock \u2014   \nAnd far I heard his silver Call  \nThe other side the Block \u2014\n\nI'd tunnel \u2014 till my Groove  \nPushed sudden thro' to his \u2014   \nThen my face take her Recompense \u2014   \nThe looking in his Eyes \u2014\n\nBut 'tis a single Hair \u2014   \nA filament \u2014 a law \u2014   \nA Cobweb \u2014 wove in Adamant \u2014   \nA Battlement \u2014 of Straw \u2014\n\nA limit like the Veil  \nUnto the Lady's face \u2014   \nBut every Mesh \u2014 a Citadel \u2014   \nAnd Dragons \u2014 in the Crease \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A House upon the Height \u2014**\n\nA House upon the Height \u2014   \nThat Wagon never reached \u2014   \nNo Dead, were ever carried down \u2014   \nNo Peddler's Cart \u2014 approached \u2014\n\nWhose Chimney never smoked \u2014   \nWhose Windows \u2014 Night and Morn \u2014   \nCaught Sunrise first \u2014 and Sunset \u2014 last \u2014   \nThen \u2014 held an Empty Pane \u2014\n\nWhose fate \u2014 Conjecture knew \u2014   \nNo other neighbor \u2014 did \u2014   \nAnd what it was \u2014 we never lisped \u2014   \nBecause He \u2014 never told \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Tongue \u2014 to tell Him I am true!**\n\nA Tongue \u2014 to tell Him I am true!  \nIts fee \u2014 to be of Gold \u2014   \nHad Nature \u2014 in Her monstrous House  \nA single Ragged Child \u2014\n\nTo earn a Mine \u2014 would run  \nThat Interdicted Way,  \nAnd tell Him \u2014 Charge thee speak it plain \u2014   \nThat so far \u2014 Truth is True?\n\nAnd answer What I do \u2014   \nBeginning with the Day  \nThat Night \u2014 begun \u2014   \nNay \u2014 Midnight \u2014 'twas \u2014   \nSince Midnight \u2014 happened \u2014 say \u2014\n\nIf once more \u2014 Pardon \u2014 Boy \u2014   \nThe Magnitude thou may  \nEnlarge my Message \u2014 If too vast  \nAnother Lad \u2014 help thee \u2014\n\nThy Pay \u2014 in Diamonds \u2014 be \u2014   \nAnd His \u2014 in solid Gold \u2014   \nSay Rubies \u2014 if He hesitate \u2014   \nMy Message \u2014 must be told \u2014\n\nSay \u2014 last I said \u2014 was This \u2014   \nThat when the Hills \u2014 come down \u2014   \nAnd hold no higher than the Plain \u2014   \nMy Bond \u2014 have just begun \u2014\n\nAnd when the Heavens \u2014 disband \u2014   \nAnd Deity conclude \u2014   \nThen \u2014 look for me. Be sure you say \u2014   \nLeast Figure \u2014 on the Road \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**What Soft \u2014 Cherubic Creatures \u2014**\n\nWhat Soft \u2014 Cherubic Creatures \u2014   \nThese Gentlewomen are \u2014   \nOne would as soon assault a Plush \u2014   \nOr violate a Star \u2014\n\nSuch Dimity Convictions \u2014   \nA Horror so refined  \nOf freckled Human Nature \u2014   \nOf Deity \u2014 ashamed \u2014\n\nIt's such a common \u2014 Glory \u2014   \nA Fisherman's \u2014 Degree \u2014   \nRedemption \u2014 Brittle Lady \u2014   \nBe so \u2014 ashamed of Thee \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I pay \u2014 in Satin Cash \u2014**\n\nI pay \u2014 in Satin Cash \u2014   \nYou did not state \u2014 your price \u2014   \nA Petal, for a Paragraph  \nIt near as I can guess \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Winters are so short \u2014**\n\nThe Winters are so short \u2014   \nI'm hardly justified  \nIn sending all the Birds away \u2014   \nAnd moving into Pod \u2014\n\nMyself \u2014 for scarcely settled \u2014   \nThe Phoebes have begun \u2014   \nAnd then \u2014 it's time to strike my Tent \u2014   \nAnd open House \u2014 again \u2014\n\nIt's mostly, interruptions \u2014   \nMy Summer \u2014 is despoiled \u2014   \nBecause there was a Winter \u2014 once \u2014   \nAnd al the Cattle \u2014 starved \u2014\n\nAnd so there was a Deluge \u2014   \nAnd swept the World away \u2014   \nBut Ararat's a Legend \u2014 now \u2014   \nAnd no one credits Noah \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How many Flowers fail in Wood \u2014**\n\nHow many Flowers fail in Wood \u2014   \nOr perish from the Hill \u2014   \nWithout the privilege to know  \nThat they are Beautiful \u2014\n\nHow many cast a nameless Pod  \nUpon the nearest Breeze \u2014   \nUnconscious of the Scarlet Freight \u2014   \nIt bear to Other Eyes \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It might be lonelier**\n\nIt might be lonelier  \nWithout the Loneliness \u2014   \nI'm so accustomed to my Fate \u2014   \nPerhaps the Other \u2014 Peace \u2014\n\nWould interrupt the Dark \u2014   \nAnd crowd the little Room \u2014   \nToo scant \u2014 by Cubits \u2014 to contain  \nThe Sacrament \u2014 of Him \u2014\n\nI am not used to Hope \u2014   \nIt might intrude upon \u2014   \nIts sweet parade \u2014 blaspheme the place \u2014   \nOrdained to Suffering \u2014\n\nIt might be easier  \nTo fail \u2014 with Land in Sight \u2014   \nThan gain \u2014 My Blue Peninsula \u2014   \nTo perish \u2014 of Delight \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Some \u2014 Work for Immortality \u2014**\n\nSome \u2014 Work for Immortality \u2014   \nThe Chiefer part, for Time \u2014   \nHe \u2014 Compensates \u2014 immediately \u2014   \nThe former \u2014 Checks \u2014 on Fame \u2014\n\nSlow Gold \u2014 but Everlasting \u2014   \nThe Bullion of Today \u2014   \nContrasted with the Currency  \nOf Immortality \u2014\n\nA Beggar \u2014 Here and There \u2014   \nIs gifted to discern  \nBeyond the Broker's insight \u2014   \nOne's \u2014 Money \u2014 One's \u2014 the Mine -\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If What we could \u2014 were what we would \u2014**\n\nIf What we could \u2014 were what we would \u2014   \nCriterion \u2014 be small \u2014   \nIt is the Ultimate of Talk \u2014   \nThe Impotence to Tell \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Unit, like Death, for Whom?**\n\nUnit, like Death, for Whom?  \nTrue, like the Tomb,  \nWho tells no secret  \nTold to Him \u2014   \nThe Grave is strict \u2014   \nTickets admit  \nJust two \u2014 the Bearer \u2014   \nAnd the Borne \u2014   \nAnd seat \u2014 just One \u2014   \nThe Living \u2014 tell \u2014   \nThe Dying \u2014 but a Syllable \u2014   \nThe Coy Dead \u2014 None \u2014   \nNo Chatter \u2014 here \u2014 no tea \u2014   \nSo Babbler, and Bohea \u2014 stay there \u2014   \nBut Gravity \u2014 and Expectation \u2014 and Fear \u2014   \nA tremor just, that All's not sure.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**They dropped like Flakes \u2014**\n\nThey dropped like Flakes \u2014   \nThey dropped like Stars \u2014   \nLike Petals from a Rose \u2014   \nWhen suddenly across the June  \nA wind with fingers \u2014 goes \u2014\n\nThey perished in the Seamless Grass \u2014   \nNo eye could find the place \u2014   \nBut God can summon every face  \nOf his Repealless \u2014 List.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The first Day's Night had come \u2014**\n\nThe first Day's Night had come \u2014   \nAnd grateful that a thing  \nSo terrible \u2014 had been endured \u2014   \nI told my Soul to sing \u2014\n\nShe said her Strings were snapt \u2014   \nHer Bow \u2014 to Atoms blown \u2014   \nAnd so to mend her \u2014 gave me work  \nUntil another Morn \u2014\n\nAnd then \u2014 a Day as huge  \nAs Yesterdays in pairs,  \nUnrolled its horror in my face \u2014   \nUntil it blocked my eyes \u2014\n\nMy Brain \u2014 begun to laugh \u2014   \nI mumbled \u2014 like a fool \u2014   \nAnd tho' 'tis Years ago \u2014 that Day \u2014   \nMy Brain keeps giggling \u2014 still.\n\nAnd Something's odd \u2014 within \u2014   \nThat person that I was \u2014   \nAnd this One \u2014 do not feel the same \u2014   \nCould it be Madness \u2014 this?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Color of the Grave is Green \u2014**\n\nThe Color of the Grave is Green \u2014   \nThe Outer Grave \u2014 I mean \u2014   \nYou would not know it from the Field \u2014   \nExcept it own a Stone \u2014\n\nTo help the fond \u2014 to find it \u2014   \nToo infinite asleep  \nTo stop and tell them where it is \u2014   \nBut just a Daisy \u2014 deep \u2014\n\nThe Color of the Grave is white \u2014   \nThe outer Grave \u2014 I mean \u2014   \nYou would not know it from the Drifts \u2014   \nIn Winter \u2014 till the Sun \u2014\n\nHas furrowed out the Aisles \u2014   \nThen \u2014 higher than the Land  \nThe little Dwelling Houses rise  \nWhere each \u2014 has left a friend \u2014\n\nThe Color of the Grave within \u2014   \nThe Duplicate \u2014 I mean \u2014   \nNot all the Snows could make it white \u2014   \nNot all the Summers \u2014 Green \u2014\n\nYou've seen the Color \u2014 maybe \u2014   \nUpon a Bonnet bound \u2014   \nWhen that you met it with before \u2014   \nThe Ferret \u2014 cannot find \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I read my sentence \u2014 steadily \u2014**\n\nI read my sentence \u2014 steadily \u2014   \nReviewed it with my eyes,  \nTo see that I made no mistake  \nIn its extremest clause \u2014   \nThe Date, and manner, of the shame \u2014   \nAnd then the Pious Form  \nThat \"God have mercy\" on the Soul  \nThe Jury voted Him \u2014   \nI made my soul familiar \u2014 with her extremity \u2014   \nThat at the last, it should not be a novel Agony \u2014   \nBut she, and Death, acquainted \u2014   \nMeet tranquilly, as friends \u2014   \nSalute, and pass, without a Hint \u2014   \nAnd there, the Matter ends \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I never felt at Home \u2014 Below \u2014 -**\n\nI never felt at Home \u2014 Below \u2014 -  \nAnd in the Handsome Skies  \nI shall not feel at Home \u2014 I know \u2014   \nI don't like Paradise \u2014\n\nBecause it's Sunday \u2014 all the time \u2014   \nAnd Recess \u2014 never comes \u2014   \nAnd Eden'll be so lonesome  \nBright Wednesday Afternoons \u2014\n\nIf God could make a visit \u2014   \nOr ever took a Nap \u2014   \nSo not to see us \u2014 but they say  \nHimself \u2014 a Telescope\n\nPerennial beholds us \u2014   \nMyself would run away  \nFrom Him \u2014 and Holy Ghost \u2014 and All \u2014   \nBut there's the \"Judgement Day\"!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Twas like a Maelstrom, with a notch,**\n\n'Twas like a Maelstrom, with a notch,  \nThat nearer, every Day,  \nKept narrowing its boiling Wheel  \nUntil the Agony\n\nToyed coolly with the final inch  \nOf your delirious Hem \u2014   \nAnd you dropt, lost,  \nWhen something broke \u2014   \nAnd let you from a Dream \u2014\n\nAs if a Goblin with a Gauge \u2014   \nKept measuring the Hours \u2014   \nUntil you felt your Second  \nWeigh, helpless, in his Paws \u2014\n\nAnd not a Sinew \u2014 stirred \u2014 could help,  \nAnd sense was setting numb \u2014   \nWhen God \u2014 remembered \u2014 and the Fiend  \nLet go, then, Overcome \u2014\n\nAs if your Sentence stood \u2014 pronounced \u2014   \nAnd you were frozen led  \nFrom Dungeon's luxury of Doubt  \nTo Gibbets, and the Dead \u2014\n\nAnd when the Film had stitched your eyes  \nA Creature gasped \"Reprieve\"!  \nWhich Anguish was the utterest \u2014 then \u2014   \nTo perish, or to live?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Sunset at Night \u2014 is natural \u2014**\n\nSunset at Night \u2014 is natural \u2014   \nBut Sunset on the Dawn  \nReverses Nature \u2014 Master \u2014   \nSo Midnight's \u2014 due \u2014 at Noon.\n\nEclipses be \u2014 predicted \u2014   \nAnd Science bows them in \u2014   \nBut do one face us suddenly \u2014   \nJehovah's Watch \u2014 is wrong.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Murmur in the Trees \u2014 to note \u2014**\n\nA Murmur in the Trees \u2014 to note \u2014   \nNot loud enough \u2014 for Wind \u2014   \nA Star \u2014 not far enough to seek \u2014   \nNor near enough \u2014 to find \u2014\n\nA long \u2014 long Yellow \u2014 on the Lawn \u2014   \nA Hubbub \u2014 as of feet \u2014   \nNot audible \u2014 as Ours \u2014 to Us \u2014   \nBut dapperer \u2014 More Sweet \u2014\n\nA Hurrying Home of little Men  \nTo Houses unperceived \u2014   \nAll this \u2014 and more \u2014 if I should tell \u2014   \nWould never be believed \u2014\n\nOf Robins in the Trundle bed  \nHow many I espy  \nWhose Nightgowns could not hide the Wings \u2014   \nAlthough I heard them try \u2014\n\nBut then I promised ne'er to tell \u2014   \nHow could I break My Word?  \nSo go your Way \u2014 and I'll go Mine \u2014   \nNo fear you'll miss the Road.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Is it dead \u2014 Find it \u2014**\n\nIs it dead \u2014 Find it \u2014   \nOut of sound \u2014 Out of sight \u2014   \n\"Happy\"? Which is wiser \u2014   \nYou, or the Wind?  \n\"Conscious\"? Won't you ask that \u2014   \nOf the low Ground?\n\n\"Homesick\"? Many met it \u2014   \nEven through them \u2014 This  \nCannot testify \u2014   \nThemself \u2014 as dumb \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Not in this World to see his face \u2014**\n\nNot in this World to see his face \u2014   \nSounds long \u2014 until I read the place  \nWhere this \u2014 is said to be  \nBut just the Primer \u2014 to a life \u2014   \nUnopened \u2014 rare \u2014 Upon the Shelf \u2014   \nClasped yet \u2014 to Him \u2014 and Me \u2014\n\nAnd yet \u2014 My Primer suits me so  \nI would not choose \u2014 a Book to know  \nThan that \u2014 be sweeter wise \u2014   \nMight some one else \u2014 so learned \u2014 be \u2014   \nAnd leave me \u2014 just my A \u2014 B \u2014 C \u2014   \nHimself \u2014 could have the Skies \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We grow accustomed to the Dark \u2014**\n\nWe grow accustomed to the Dark \u2014   \nWhen light is put away \u2014   \nAs when the Neighbor holds the Lamp  \nTo witness her Goodbye \u2014\n\nA Moment \u2014 We uncertain step  \nFor newness of the night \u2014   \nThen \u2014 fit our Vision to the Dark \u2014   \nAnd meet the Road \u2014 erect \u2014\n\nAnd so of larger \u2014 Darkness \u2014   \nThose Evenings of the Brain \u2014   \nWhen not a Moon disclose a sign \u2014   \nOr Star \u2014 come out \u2014 within \u2014\n\nThe Bravest \u2014 grope a little \u2014   \nAnd sometimes hit a Tree  \nDirectly in the Forehead \u2014   \nBut as they learn to see \u2014\n\nEither the Darkness alters \u2014   \nOr something in the sight  \nAdjusts itself to Midnight \u2014   \nAnd Life steps almost straight.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**You'll know it \u2014 as you know 'tis Noon \u2014**\n\nYou'll know it \u2014 as you know 'tis Noon \u2014   \nBy Glory \u2014   \nAs you do the Sun \u2014   \nBy Glory \u2014   \nAs you will in Heaven \u2014   \nKnow God the Father \u2014 and the Son.\n\nBy intuition, Mightiest Things  \nAssert themselves \u2014 and not by terms \u2014   \n\"I'm Midnight\" \u2014 need the Midnight say \u2014   \n\"I'm Sunrise\" \u2014 Need the Majesty?\n\nOmnipotence \u2014 had not a Tongue \u2014   \nHis lisp \u2014 is Lightning \u2014 and the Sun \u2014   \nHis Conversation \u2014 with the Sea \u2014   \n\"How shall you know\"?  \nConsult your Eye!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Charm invests a face**\n\nA Charm invests a face  \nImperfectly beheld \u2014   \nThe Lady dare not lift her Veil  \nFor fear it be dispelled \u2014\n\nBut peers beyond her mesh \u2014   \nAnd wishes \u2014 and denies \u2014   \nLest Interview \u2014 annul a want  \nThat Image \u2014 satisfies \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**More Life \u2014 went out \u2014 when He went**\n\nMore Life \u2014 went out \u2014 when He went  \nThan Ordinary Breath \u2014   \nLit with a finer Phosphor \u2014   \nRequiring in the Quench \u2014\n\nA Power of Renowned Cold,  \nThe Climate of the Grave  \nA Temperature just adequate  \nSo Anthracite, to live \u2014\n\nFor some \u2014 an Ampler Zero \u2014   \nA Frost more needle keen  \nIs necessary, to reduce  \nThe Ethiop within.\n\nOthers \u2014 extinguish easier \u2014   \nA Gnat's minutest Fan  \nSufficient to obliterate  \nA Tract of Citizen \u2014\n\nWhose Peat lift \u2014 amply vivid \u2014   \nIgnores the solemn News  \nThat Popocatapel exists \u2014   \nOr Etna's Scarlets, Choose \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Months have ends \u2014 the Years \u2014 a knot \u2014**\n\nThe Months have ends \u2014 the Years \u2014 a knot \u2014   \nNo Power can untie  \nTo stretch a little further  \nA Skein of Misery \u2014\n\nThe Earth lays back these tired lives  \nIn her mysterious Drawers \u2014   \nToo tenderly, that any doubt  \nAn ultimate Repose \u2014\n\nThe manner of the Children \u2014   \nWho weary of the Day \u2014   \nThemself \u2014 the noisy Plaything  \nThey cannot put away \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Removed from Accident of Loss**\n\nRemoved from Accident of Loss  \nBy Accident of Gain  \nBefalling not my simple Days \u2014   \nMyself had just to earn \u2014\n\nOf Riches \u2014 as unconscious  \nAs is the Brown Malay  \nOf Pearls in Eastern Waters,  \nMarked His \u2014 What Holiday  \nWould stir his slow conception \u2014   \nHad he the power to dream  \nThat put the Dower's fraction \u2014   \nAwaited even \u2014 Him \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Good Morning \u2014 Midnight \u2014**\n\nGood Morning \u2014 Midnight \u2014   \nI'm coming Home \u2014   \nDay \u2014 got tired of Me \u2014   \nHow could I \u2014 of Him?\n\nSunshine was a sweet place \u2014   \nI liked to stay \u2014   \nBut Morn \u2014 didn't want me \u2014 now \u2014   \nSo \u2014 Goodnight \u2014 Day!\n\nI can look \u2014 can't I \u2014   \nWhen the East is Red?  \nThe Hills \u2014 have a way \u2014 then \u2014   \nThat puts the Heart \u2014 abroad \u2014\n\nYou \u2014 are not so fair \u2014 Midnight \u2014   \nI chose \u2014 Day \u2014   \nBut \u2014 please take a little Girl \u2014   \nHe turned away!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It don't sound so terrible \u2014 quite \u2014 as it did \u2014**\n\nIt don't sound so terrible \u2014 quite \u2014 as it did \u2014   \nI run it over \u2014 \"Dead\", Brain, \"Dead.\"  \nPut it in Latin \u2014 left of my school \u2014   \nSeems it don't shriek so \u2014 under rule.\n\nTurn it, a little \u2014 full in the face  \nA Trouble looks bitterest \u2014   \nShift it \u2014 just \u2014   \nSay \"When Tomorrow comes this way \u2014   \nI shall have waded down one Day.\"\n\nI suppose it will interrupt me some  \nTill I get accustomed \u2014 but then the Tomb  \nLike other new Things \u2014 shows largest \u2014 then \u2014   \nAnd smaller, by Habit \u2014\n\nIt's shrewder then  \nPut the Thought in advance \u2014 a Year \u2014   \nHow like \"a fit\" \u2014 then \u2014   \nMurder \u2014 wear!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I'll clutch \u2014 and clutch \u2014**\n\nI'll clutch \u2014 and clutch \u2014   \nNext \u2014 One \u2014 Might be the golden touch \u2014   \nCould take it \u2014   \nDiamonds \u2014 Wait \u2014   \nI'm diving \u2014 just a little late \u2014   \nBut stars \u2014 go slow \u2014 for night \u2014\n\nI'll string you \u2014 in fine Necklace \u2014   \nTiaras \u2014 make \u2014 of some \u2014   \nWear you on Hem \u2014   \nLoop up a Countess \u2014 with you \u2014   \nMake \u2014 a Diadem \u2014 and mend my old One \u2014   \nCount \u2014 Hoard \u2014 then lose \u2014   \nAnd doubt that you are mine \u2014   \nTo have the joy of feeling it \u2014 again \u2014\n\nI'll show you at the Court \u2014   \nBear you \u2014 for Ornament  \nWhere Women breathe \u2014   \nThat every sigh \u2014 may lift you  \nJust as high \u2014 as I \u2014\n\nAnd \u2014 when I die \u2014   \nIn meek array \u2014 display you \u2014   \nStill to show \u2014 how rich I go \u2014   \nLest Skies impeach a wealth so wonderful \u2014   \nAnd banish me \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Taking up the fair Ideal,**\n\nTaking up the fair Ideal,  \nJust to cast her down  \nWhen a fracture \u2014 we discover \u2014   \nOr a splintered Crown \u2014   \nMakes the Heavens portable \u2014   \nAnd the Gods \u2014 a lie \u2014   \nDoubtless \u2014 \"Adam\" \u2014 scowled at Eden \u2014   \nFor his perjury!\n\nCherishing \u2014 our pool Ideal \u2014   \nTill in purer dress \u2014   \nWe behold her \u2014 glorified \u2014   \nComforts \u2014 search \u2014 like this \u2014   \nTill the broken creatures \u2014   \nWe adored \u2014 for whole \u2014   \nStains \u2014 all washed \u2014   \nTransfigured \u2014 mended \u2014   \nMeet us \u2014 with a smile \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Moon is distant from the Sea \u2014**\n\nThe Moon is distant from the Sea \u2014   \nAnd yet, with Amber Hands \u2014   \nShe leads Him \u2014 docile as a Boy \u2014   \nAlong appointed Sands \u2014\n\nHe never misses a Degree \u2014   \nObedient to Her Eye  \nHe comes just so far \u2014 toward the Town \u2014   \nJust so far \u2014 goes away \u2014\n\nOh, Signor, Thine, the Amber Hand \u2014   \nAnd mine \u2014 the distant Sea \u2014   \nObedient to the least command  \nThine eye impose on me \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It would never be Common \u2014 more \u2014 I said \u2014**\n\nIt would never be Common \u2014 more \u2014 I said \u2014   \nDifference \u2014 had begun \u2014   \nMany a bitterness \u2014 had been \u2014   \nBut that old sort \u2014 was done \u2014\n\nOr \u2014 if it sometime \u2014 showed \u2014 as 'twill \u2014   \nUpon the Downiest \u2014 Morn \u2014   \nSuch bliss \u2014 had I \u2014 for all the years \u2014   \n'Twould give an Easier \u2014 pain \u2014\n\nI'd so much joy \u2014 I told it \u2014 Red \u2014   \nUpon my simple Cheek \u2014   \nI felt it publish \u2014 in my Eye \u2014   \n'Twas needless \u2014 any speak \u2014\n\nI walked \u2014 as wings \u2014 my body bore \u2014   \nThe feet \u2014 I former used \u2014   \nUnnecessary \u2014 now to me \u2014   \nAs boots \u2014 would be \u2014 to Birds \u2014\n\nI put my pleasure all abroad \u2014   \nI dealth a word of Gold  \nTo every Creature \u2014 that I met \u2014   \nAnd Dowered \u2014 all the World \u2014\n\nWhen \u2014 suddenly \u2014 my Riches shrank \u2014   \nA Goblin \u2014 drank my Dew \u2014   \nMy Palaces \u2014 dropped tenantless \u2014   \nMyself \u2014 was beggared \u2014 too \u2014\n\nI clutched at sounds \u2014   \nI groped at shapes \u2014   \nI touched the tops of Films \u2014   \nI felt the Wilderness roll back  \nAlong my Golden lines \u2014\n\nThe Sackcloth \u2014 hangs upon the nail \u2014   \nThe Frock I used to wear \u2014   \nBut where my moment of Brocade \u2014   \nMy \u2014 drop \u2014 of India?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Me \u2014 come! My dazzled face**\n\nMe \u2014 come! My dazzled face  \nIn such a shining place!  \nMe \u2014 hear! My foreign Ear  \nThe sounds of Welcome \u2014 there!\n\nThe Saints forget  \nOur bashful feet \u2014\n\nMy Holiday, shall be  \nThat They \u2014 remember me \u2014   \nMy Paradise \u2014 the fame  \nThat They \u2014 pronounce my name \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Do People moulder equally,**\n\nDo People moulder equally,  \nThey bury, in the Grave?  \nI do believe a Species  \nAs positively live\n\nAs I, who testify it  \nDeny that I \u2014 am dead \u2014   \nAnd fill my Lungs, for Witness \u2014   \nFrom Tanks \u2014 above my Head \u2014\n\nI say to you, said Jesus \u2014   \nThat there be standing here \u2014   \nA Sort, that shall not taste of Death \u2014   \nIf Jesus was sincere \u2014\n\nI need no further Argue \u2014   \nThat statement of the Lord  \nIs not a controvertible \u2014   \nHe told me, Death was dead \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Knows how to forget!**\n\nKnows how to forget!  \nBut could It teach it?  \nEasiest of Arts, they say  \nWhen one learn how\n\nDull Hearts have died  \nIn the Acquisition  \nSacrificed for Science  \nIs common, though, now \u2014\n\nI went to School  \nBut was not wiser  \nGlobe did not teach it  \nNor Logarithm Show\n\n\"How to forget\"!  \nSay \u2014 some \u2014 Philosopher!  \nAh, to be erudite  \nEnough to know!\n\nIs it in a Book?  \nSo, I could buy it \u2014   \nIs it like a Planet?  \nTelescopes would know \u2014\n\nIf it be invention  \nIt must have a Patent.  \nRabbi of the Wise Book  \nDon't you know?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To love thee Year by Year \u2014**\n\nTo love thee Year by Year \u2014   \nMay less appear  \nThan sacrifice, and cease \u2014   \nHowever, dear,  \nForever might be short, I thought to show \u2014   \nAnd so I pieced it, with a flower, now.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Much Madness is divinest Sense \u2014**\n\nMUCH madness is divinest sense  \nTo a discerning eye ;  \nMuch sense the starkest madness.  \n'T is the majority  \nIn this, as all, prevails.  \nAssent, and you are sane ;  \nDemur, \u2014 you're straightway dangerous,  \nAnd handled with a chain.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Wind \u2014 tapped like a tired Man \u2014**\n\nThe Wind \u2014 tapped like a tired Man \u2014   \nAnd like a Host \u2014 \"Come in\"  \nI boldly answered \u2014 entered then  \nMy Residence within\n\nA Rapid \u2014 footless Guest \u2014   \nTo offer whom a Chair  \nWere as impossible as hand  \nA Sofa to the Air \u2014\n\nNo Bone had He to bind Him \u2014   \nHis Speech was like the Push  \nOf numerous Humming Birds at once  \nFrom a superior Bush \u2014\n\nHis Countenance \u2014 a Billow \u2014   \nHis Fingers, as He passed  \nLet go a music \u2014 as of tunes  \nBlown tremulous in Glass \u2014\n\nHe visited \u2014 still flitting \u2014   \nThen like a timid Man  \nAgain, He tapped \u2014 'twas flurriedly \u2014   \nAnd I became alone \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Prayer is the little implement**\n\nPrayer is the little implement  \nThrough which Men reach  \nWhere Presence \u2014 is denied them.  \nThey fling their Speech\n\nBy means of it \u2014 in God's Ear \u2014   \nIf then He hear \u2014   \nThis sums the Apparatus  \nComprised in Prayer \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Forget! The lady with the Amulet**\n\nForget! The lady with the Amulet  \nForget she wore it at her Heart  \nBecause she breathed against  \nWas Treason twixt?\n\nDeny! Did Rose her Bee \u2014   \nFor Privilege of Play  \nOr Wile of Butterfly  \nOr Opportunity \u2014 Her Lord away?\n\nThe lady with the Amulet \u2014 will face \u2014   \nThe Bee \u2014 in Mausoleum laid \u2014   \nDiscard his Bride \u2014   \nBut longer than the little Rill \u2014   \nThat cooled the Forehead of the Hill \u2014   \nWhile Other \u2014 went the Sea to fill \u2014   \nAnd Other \u2014 went to turn the Mill \u2014   \nI'll do thy Will \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Undue Significance a starving man attaches**\n\nUndue Significance a starving man attaches  \nTo Food \u2014   \nFar off \u2014 He sighs \u2014 and therefore \u2014 Hopeless \u2014   \nAnd therefore \u2014 Good \u2014\n\nPartaken \u2014 it relieves \u2014 indeed \u2014   \nBut proves us  \nThat Spices fly  \nIn the Receipt \u2014 It was the Distance \u2014   \nWas Savory \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Tis customary as we part**\n\n'Tis customary as we part  \nA trinket \u2014 to confer \u2014   \nIt helps to stimulate the faith  \nWhen Lovers be afar \u2014\n\n'Tis various \u2014 as the various taste \u2014   \nClematis \u2014 journeying far \u2014   \nPresents me with a single Curl  \nOf her Electric Hair \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**This is my letter to the World**\n\nThis is my letter to the World  \nThat never wrote to Me \u2014   \nThe simple News that Nature told \u2014   \nWith tender Majesty\n\nHer Message is committed  \nTo Hands I cannot see \u2014   \nFor love of Her \u2014 Sweet \u2014 countrymen \u2014   \nJudge tenderly \u2014 of Me\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**God made a little Gentian \u2014**\n\nGod made a little Gentian \u2014   \nIt tried \u2014 to be a Rose \u2014   \nAnd failed \u2014 and all the Summer laughed \u2014   \nBut just before the Snows\n\nThere rose a Purple Creature \u2014   \nThat ravished all the Hill \u2014   \nAnd Summer hid her Forehead \u2014   \nAnd Mockery \u2014 was still \u2014\n\nThe Frosts were her condition \u2014   \nThe Tyrian would not come  \nUntil the North \u2014 invoke it \u2014   \nCreator \u2014 Shall I \u2014 bloom?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I tie my Hat \u2014 I crease my Shawl \u2014**\n\nI tie my Hat \u2014 I crease my Shawl \u2014   \nLife's little duties do \u2014 precisely \u2014   \nAs the very least  \nWere infinite \u2014 to me \u2014\n\nI put new Blossoms in the Glass \u2014   \nAnd throw the old \u2014 away \u2014   \nI push a petal from my Gown  \nThat anchored there \u2014 I weigh  \nThe time 'twill be till six o'clock  \nI have so much to do \u2014   \nAnd yet \u2014 Existence \u2014 some way back \u2014   \nStopped \u2014 struck \u2014 my ticking \u2014 through \u2014   \nWe cannot put Ourself away  \nAs a completed Man  \nOr Woman \u2014 When the Errand's done  \nWe came to Flesh \u2014 upon \u2014   \nThere may be \u2014 Miles on Miles of Nought \u2014   \nOf Action \u2014 sicker far \u2014   \nTo simulate \u2014 is stinging work \u2014   \nTo cover what we are  \nFrom Science \u2014 and from Surgery \u2014   \nToo Telescopic Eyes  \nTo bear on us unshaded \u2014   \nFor their \u2014 sake \u2014 not for Ours \u2014   \n'Twould start them \u2014   \nWe \u2014 could tremble \u2014   \nBut since we got a Bomb \u2014   \nAnd held it in our Bosom \u2014   \nNay \u2014 Hold it \u2014 it is calm \u2014\n\nTherefore \u2014 we do life's labor \u2014   \nThough life's Reward \u2014 be done \u2014   \nWith scrupulous exactness \u2014   \nTo hold our Senses \u2014 on \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It feels a shame to be Alive \u2014**\n\nIt feels a shame to be Alive \u2014   \nWhen Men so brave \u2014 are dead \u2014   \nOne envies the Distinguished Dust \u2014   \nPermitted \u2014 such a Head \u2014\n\nThe Stone \u2014 that tells defending Whom  \nThis Spartan put away  \nWhat little of Him we \u2014 possessed  \nIn Pawn for Liberty \u2014\n\nThe price is great \u2014 Sublimely paid \u2014   \nDo we deserve \u2014 a Thing \u2014   \nThat lives \u2014 like Dollars \u2014 must be piled  \nBefore we may obtain?\n\nAre we that wait \u2014 sufficient worth \u2014   \nThat such Enormous Pearl  \nAs life \u2014 dissolved be \u2014 for Us \u2014   \nIn Battle's \u2014 horrid Bowl?\n\nIt may be \u2014 a Renown to live \u2014   \nI think the Man who die \u2014   \nThose unsustained \u2014 Saviors \u2014   \nPresent Divinity \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Twas just this time, last year, I died.**\n\n'Twas just this time, last year, I died.  \nI know I heard the Corn,  \nWhen I was carried by the Farms \u2014   \nIt had the Tassels on \u2014\n\nI thought how yellow it would look \u2014   \nWhen Richard went to mill \u2014   \nAnd then, I wanted to get out,  \nBut something held my will.\n\nI thought just how Red \u2014 Apples wedged  \nThe Stubble's joints between \u2014   \nAnd the Carts stooping round the fields  \nTo take the Pumpkins in \u2014\n\nI wondered which would miss me, least,  \nAnd when Thanksgiving, came,  \nIf Father'd multiply the plates \u2014   \nTo make an even Sum \u2014\n\nAnd would it blur the Christmas glee  \nMy Stocking hang too high  \nFor any Santa Claus to reach  \nThe Altitude of me \u2014\n\nBut this sort, grieved myself,  \nAnd so, I thought the other way,  \nHow just this time, some perfect year \u2014   \nThemself, should come to me \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I showed her Heights she never saw \u2014**\n\nI showed her Heights she never saw \u2014   \n\"Would'st Climb,\" I said?  \nShe said \u2014 \"Not so\" \u2014   \n\"With me \u2014 \" I said \u2014 With me?  \nI showed her Secrets \u2014 Morning's Nest \u2014   \nThe Rope the Nights were put across \u2014   \nAnd now \u2014 \"Would'st have me for a Guest?\"  \nShe could not find her Yes \u2014   \nAnd then, I brake my life \u2014 And Lo,  \nA Light, for her, did solemn glow,  \nThe larger, as her face withdrew \u2014   \nAnd could she, further, \"No\"?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Could \u2014 I do more \u2014 for Thee \u2014**\n\nCould \u2014 I do more \u2014 for Thee \u2014   \nWert Thou a Bumble Bee \u2014   \nSince for the Queen, have I \u2014   \nNought but Bouquet?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**This was a Poet \u2014 It is That**\n\nThis was a Poet \u2014 It is That  \nDistills amazing sense  \nFrom ordinary Meanings \u2014   \nAnd Attar so immense\n\nFrom the familiar species  \nThat perished by the Door \u2014   \nWe wonder it was not Ourselves  \nArrested it \u2014 before \u2014\n\nOf Pictures, the Discloser \u2014   \nThe Poet \u2014 it is He \u2014   \nEntitles Us \u2014 by Contrast \u2014   \nTo ceaseless Poverty \u2014\n\nOf portion \u2014 so unconscious \u2014   \nThe Robbing \u2014 could not harm \u2014   \nHimself \u2014 to Him \u2014 a Fortune \u2014   \nExterior \u2014 to Time \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I died for Beauty \u2014 but was scarce**\n\nI DIED for beauty, but was scarce  \nAdjusted in the tomb,  \nWhen one who died for truth was lain  \nIn an adjoining room.\n\nHe questioned softly why I failed ?  \n\"For beauty,\" I replied.  \n\"And I for truth, \u2014 the two are one ;  \nWe brethren are,\" he said.\n\nAnd so, as kinsmen met a night,  \nWe talked between the rooms,  \nUntil the moss had reached our lips,  \nAnd covered up our names.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Dreams \u2014 are well \u2014 but Waking's better,**\n\nDreams \u2014 are well \u2014 but Waking's better,  \nIf One wake at morn \u2014   \nIf One wake at Midnight \u2014 better \u2014   \nDreaming \u2014 of the Dawn \u2014\n\nSweeter \u2014 the Surmising Robins \u2014   \nNever gladdened Tree \u2014   \nThan a Solid Dawn \u2014 confronting \u2014   \nLeading to no Day \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Outer \u2014 from the Inner**\n\nThe Outer \u2014 from the Inner  \nDerives its Magnitude \u2014   \n'Tis Duke, or Dwarf, according  \nAs is the Central Mood \u2014\n\nThe fine \u2014 unvarying Axis  \nThat regulates the Wheel \u2014   \nThough Spokes \u2014 spin \u2014 more conspicuous  \nAnd fling a dust \u2014 the while.\n\nThe Inner \u2014 paints the Outer \u2014   \nThe Brush without the Hand \u2014   \nIts Picture publishes \u2014 precise \u2014   \nAs is the inner Brand \u2014\n\nOn fine \u2014 Arterial Canvas \u2014   \nA Cheek \u2014 perchance a Brow \u2014   \nThe Star's whole Secret \u2014 in the Lake \u2014   \nEyes were not meant to know.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Malay \u2014 took the Pearl \u2014**\n\nThe Malay \u2014 took the Pearl \u2014   \nNot \u2014 I \u2014 the Earl \u2014   \nI \u2014 feared the Sea \u2014 too much  \nUnsanctified \u2014 to touch \u2014\n\nPraying that I might be  \nWorthy \u2014 the Destiny \u2014   \nThe Swarthy fellow swam \u2014   \nAnd bore my Jewel \u2014 Home \u2014\n\nHome to the Hut! What lot  \nHad I \u2014 the Jewel \u2014 got \u2014   \nBorne on a Dusky Breasty \u2014   \nI had not deemed a Vest  \nOf Amber \u2014 fit \u2014\n\nThe Negro never knew  \nI \u2014 wooed it \u2014 too \u2014   \nTo gain, or be undone \u2014   \nAlike to Him \u2014 One \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Love \u2014 thou art high \u2014**\n\nLove \u2014 thou art high \u2014   \nI cannot climb thee \u2014   \nBut, were it Two \u2014   \nWho knows but we \u2014   \nTaking turns \u2014 at the Chimborazo \u2014   \nDucal \u2014 at last \u2014 stand up by thee \u2014\n\nLove \u2014 thou are deep \u2014   \nI cannot cross thee \u2014   \nBut, were there Two  \nInstead of One \u2014   \nRower, and Yacht \u2014 some sovereign Summer \u2014   \nWho knows \u2014 but we'd reach the Sun?\n\nLove \u2014 thou are Veiled \u2014   \nA few \u2014 behold thee \u2014   \nSmile \u2014 and alter \u2014 and prattle \u2014 and die \u2014   \nBliss \u2014 were an Oddity \u2014 without thee \u2014   \nNicknamed by God \u2014   \nEternity \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It was given to me by the Gods \u2014**\n\nIt was given to me by the Gods \u2014   \nWhen I was a little Girl \u2014   \nThey given us Presents most \u2014 you know \u2014   \nWhen we are new \u2014 and small.  \nI kept it in my Hand \u2014   \nI never put it down \u2014   \nI did not dare to eat \u2014 or sleep \u2014   \nFor fear it would be gone \u2014   \nI heard such words as \"Rich\" \u2014   \nWhen hurrying to school \u2014   \nFrom lips at Corners of the Streets \u2014   \nAnd wrestled with a smile.  \nRich! 'Twas Myself \u2014 was rich \u2014   \nTo take the name of Gold \u2014   \nAnd Gold to own \u2014 in solid Bars \u2014   \nThe Difference \u2014 made me bold \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Triumph \u2014 may be of several kinds \u2014**\n\nTriumph \u2014 may be of several kinds \u2014   \nThere's Triumph in the Room  \nWhen that Old Imperator \u2014 Death \u2014   \nBy Faith\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**So well that I can live without \u2014**\n\nSo well that I can live without \u2014   \nI love thee \u2014 then How well is that?  \nAs well as Jesus?  \nProve it me  \nThat He \u2014 loved Men \u2014   \nAs I \u2014 love thee \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Sweet \u2014 safe \u2014 Houses \u2014**\n\nSweet \u2014 safe \u2014 Houses \u2014   \nGlad \u2014 gay \u2014 Houses \u2014   \nSealed so stately tight \u2014   \nLids of Steel \u2014 on Lids of Marble \u2014   \nLocking Bare feet out \u2014\n\nBrooks of Plush \u2014 in Banks of Satin  \nNot so softly fall  \nAs the laughter \u2014 and the whisper \u2014   \nFrom their People Pearl \u2014\n\nNo Bald Death \u2014 affront their Parlors \u2014   \nNo Bold Sickness come  \nTo deface their Stately Treasures \u2014   \nAnguish \u2014 and the Tomb \u2014\n\nHum by \u2014 in Muffled Coaches \u2014   \nLest they \u2014 wonder Why \u2014   \nAny \u2014 for the Press of Smiling \u2014   \nInterrupt \u2014 to die \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Like eyes that looked on Wastes \u2014**\n\nLike eyes that looked on Wastes \u2014   \nIncredulous of Ought  \nBut Blank \u2014 and steady Wilderness \u2014   \nDiversified by Night \u2014\n\nJust Infinites of Nought \u2014   \nAs far as it could see \u2014   \nSo looked the face I looked upon \u2014   \nSo looked itself \u2014 on Me \u2014\n\nI offered it no Help \u2014   \nBecause the Cause was Mine \u2014   \nThe Misery a Compact  \nAs hopeless \u2014 as divine \u2014\n\nNeither \u2014 would be absolved \u2014   \nNeither would be a Queen  \nWithout the Other \u2014 Therefore \u2014   \nWe perish \u2014 tho' We reign \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Tooth upon Our Peace**\n\nA Tooth upon Our Peace  \nThe Peace cannot deface \u2014   \nThen Wherefore be the Tooth?  \nTo vitalize the Grace \u2014\n\nThe Heaven hath a Hell \u2014   \nItself to signalize \u2014   \nAnd every sign before the Place  \nIs Gilt with Sacrifice \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I know where Wells grow \u2014 Droughtless Wells \u2014**\n\nI know where Wells grow \u2014 Droughtless Wells \u2014   \nDeep dug \u2014 for Summer days \u2014   \nWhere Mosses go no more away \u2014   \nAnd Pebble \u2014 safely plays \u2014\n\nIt's made of Fathoms \u2014 and a Belt \u2014   \nA Belt of jagged Stone \u2014   \nInlaid with Emerald \u2014 half way down \u2014   \nAnd Diamonds \u2014 jumbled on \u2014\n\nIt has no Bucket \u2014 Were I rich  \nA Bucket I would buy \u2014   \nI'm often thirsty \u2014 but my lips  \nAre so high up \u2014 You see \u2014\n\nI read in an Old fashioned Book  \nThat People \"thirst no more\" \u2014   \nThe Wells have Buckets to them there \u2014   \nIt must mean that \u2014 I'm sure \u2014\n\nShall We remember Parching \u2014 then?  \nThose Waters sound so grand \u2014   \nI think a little Well \u2014 like Mine \u2014   \nDearer to understand \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Wife \u2014 at daybreak I shall be \u2014**\n\nA Wife \u2014 at daybreak I shall be \u2014   \nSunrise \u2014 Hast thou a Flag for me?  \nAt Midnight, I am but a Maid,  \nHow short it takes to make a Bride \u2014   \nThen \u2014 Midnight, I have passed from thee  \nUnto the East, and Victory \u2014\n\nMidnight \u2014 Good Night! I hear them call,  \nThe Angels bustle in the Hall \u2014   \nSoftly my Future climbs the Stair,  \nI fumble at my Childhood's prayer  \nSo soon to be a Child no more \u2014   \nEternity, I'm coming \u2014 Sire,  \nSavior \u2014 I've seen the face \u2014 before!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Why make it doubt \u2014 it hurts it so \u2014**\n\nWhy make it doubt \u2014 it hurts it so \u2014   \nSo sick \u2014 to guess \u2014   \nSo strong \u2014 to know \u2014   \nSo brave \u2014 upon its little Bed  \nTo tell the very last They said  \nUnto Itself \u2014 and smile \u2014 And shake \u2014   \nFor that dear \u2014 distant \u2014 dangerous \u2014 Sake \u2014   \nBut \u2014 the Instead \u2014 the Pinching fear  \nThat Something \u2014 it did do \u2014 or dare \u2014   \nOffend the Vision \u2014 and it flee \u2014   \nAnd They no more remember me \u2014   \nNor ever turn to tell me why \u2014   \nOh, Master, This is Misery \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I live with Him \u2014 I see His face \u2014**\n\nI live with Him \u2014 I see His face \u2014   \nI go no more away  \nFor Visitor \u2014 or Sundown \u2014   \nDeath's single privacy\n\nThe Only One \u2014 forestalling Mine \u2014   \nAnd that \u2014 by Right that He  \nPresents a Claim invisible \u2014   \nNo wedlock \u2014 granted Me \u2014\n\nI live with Him \u2014 I hear His Voice \u2014   \nI stand alive \u2014 Today \u2014   \nTo witness to the Certainty  \nOf Immortality \u2014\n\nTaught Me \u2014 by Time \u2014 the lower Way \u2014   \nConviction \u2014 Every day \u2014   \nThat Life like This \u2014 is stopless \u2014   \nBe Judgment \u2014 what it may \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The power to be true to You,**\n\nThe power to be true to You,  \nUntil upon my face  \nThe Judgment push his Picture \u2014   \nPresumptuous of Your Place \u2014\n\nOf This \u2014 Could Man deprive Me \u2014   \nHimself \u2014 the Heaven excel \u2014   \nWhose invitation \u2014 Yours reduced  \nUntil it showed too small \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I heard a Fly buzz \u2014 when I died \u2014**\n\nI heard a Fly buzz \u2014 when I died \u2014   \nThe Stillness in the Room  \nWas like the Stillness in the Air \u2014   \nBetween the Heaves of Storm \u2014\n\nThe Eyes around \u2014 had wrung them dry \u2014   \nAnd Breaths were gathering firm  \nFor that last Onset \u2014 when the King  \nBe witnessed \u2014 in the Room \u2014\n\nI willed my Keepsakes \u2014 Signed away  \nWhat portion of me be  \nAssignable \u2014 and then it was  \nThere interposed a Fly \u2014\n\nWith Blue \u2014 uncertain stumbling Buzz \u2014   \nBetween the light \u2014 and me \u2014   \nAnd then the Windows failed \u2014 and then  \nI could not see to see \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Tis little I \u2014 could care for Pearls \u2014**\n\n'Tis little I \u2014 could care for Pearls \u2014   \nWho own the ample sea \u2014   \nOr Brooches \u2014 when the Emperor \u2014   \nWith Rubies \u2014 pelteth me \u2014\n\nOr Gold \u2014 who am the Prince of Mines \u2014   \nOr Diamonds \u2014 when have I  \nA Diadem to fit a Dome \u2014   \nContinual upon me \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We do not play on Graves \u2014**\n\nWe do not play on Graves \u2014   \nBecause there isn't Room \u2014   \nBesides \u2014 it isn't even \u2014 it slants  \nAnd People come \u2014\n\nAnd put a Flower on it \u2014   \nAnd hang their faces so \u2014   \nWe're fearing that their Hearts will drop \u2014   \nAnd crush our pretty play \u2014\n\nAnd so we move as far  \nAs Enemies \u2014 away \u2014   \nJust looking round to see how far  \nIt is \u2014 Occasionally \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Manner of its Death**\n\nThe Manner of its Death  \nWhen Certain it must die \u2014   \n'Tis deemed a privilege to choose \u2014   \n'Twas Major Andre's Way \u2014\n\nWhen Choice of Life \u2014 is past \u2014   \nThere yet remains a Love  \nIts little Fate to stipulate \u2014\n\nHow small in those who live \u2014\n\nThe Miracle to tease  \nWith Bable of the styles \u2014   \nHow \"they are Dying mostly \u2014 now\" \u2014   \nAnd Customs at \"St. James\"!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Red \u2014 Blaze \u2014 is the Morning \u2014**\n\nThe Red \u2014 Blaze \u2014 is the Morning \u2014   \nThe Violet \u2014 is Noon \u2014   \nThe Yellow \u2014 Day \u2014 is falling \u2014   \nAnd after that \u2014 is none \u2014\n\nBut Miles of Sparks \u2014 at Evening \u2014   \nReveal the Width that burned \u2014   \nThe Territory Argent \u2014 that  \nNever yet \u2014 consumed \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I am alive \u2014 I guess \u2014**\n\nI am alive \u2014 I guess \u2014   \nThe Branches on my Hand  \nAre full of Morning Glory \u2014   \nAnd at my finger's end \u2014\n\nThe Carmine \u2014 tingles warm \u2014   \nAnd if I hold a Glass  \nAcross my Mouth \u2014 it blurs it \u2014   \nPhysician's \u2014 proof of Breath \u2014\n\nI am alive \u2014 because  \nI am not in a Room \u2014   \nThe Parlor \u2014 Commonly \u2014 it is \u2014   \nSo Visitors may come \u2014\n\nAnd lean \u2014 and view it sidewise \u2014   \nAnd add \"How cold \u2014 it grew\" \u2014   \nAnd \"Was it conscious \u2014 when it stepped  \nIn Immortality?\"\n\nI am alive \u2014 because  \nI do not own a House \u2014   \nEntitled to myself \u2014 precise \u2014   \nAnd fitting no one else \u2014\n\nAnd marked my Girlhood's name \u2014   \nSo Visitors may know  \nWhich Door is mine \u2014 and not mistake \u2014   \nAnd try another Key \u2014\n\nHow good \u2014 to be alive!  \nHow infinite \u2014 to be  \nAlive \u2014 two-fold \u2014 The Birth I had \u2014   \nAnd this \u2014 besides, in \u2014 Thee!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Night \u2014 there lay the Days between \u2014**\n\nA Night \u2014 there lay the Days between \u2014   \nThe Day that was Before \u2014   \nAnd Day that was Behind \u2014 were one \u2014   \nAnd now \u2014 'twas Night \u2014 was here \u2014\n\nSlow \u2014 Night \u2014 that must be watched away \u2014   \nAs Grains upon a shore \u2014   \nToo imperceptible to note \u2014   \nTill it be night \u2014 no more \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Except the Heaven had come so near \u2014**\n\nExcept the Heaven had come so near \u2014   \nSo seemed to choose My Door \u2014   \nThe Distance would not haunt me so \u2014   \nI had not hoped \u2014 before \u2014\n\nBut just to hear the Grace depart \u2014   \nI never thought to see \u2014   \nAfflicts me with a Double loss \u2014   \n'Tis lost \u2014 and lost to me \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I am ashamed \u2014 I hide \u2014**\n\nI am ashamed \u2014 I hide \u2014   \nWhat right have I \u2014 to be a Bride \u2014   \nSo late a Dowerless Girl \u2014   \nNowhere to hide my dazzled Face \u2014   \nNo one to teach me that new Grace \u2014   \nNor introduce \u2014 my Soul \u2014\n\nMe to adorn \u2014 How \u2014 tell \u2014   \nTrinket \u2014 to make Me beautiful \u2014   \nFabrics of Cashmere \u2014   \nNever a Gown of Dun \u2014 more \u2014   \nRaiment instead \u2014 of Pompadour \u2014   \nFor Me \u2014 My soul \u2014 to wear \u2014\n\nFingers \u2014 to frame my Round Hair  \nOval \u2014 as Feudal Ladies wore \u2014   \nFar Fashions \u2014 Fair \u2014   \nSkill to hold my Brow like an Earl \u2014   \nPlead \u2014 like a Whippoorwill \u2014   \nProve \u2014 like a Pearl \u2014   \nThen, for Character \u2014   \nFashion My Spirit quaint \u2014 white \u2014   \nQuick \u2014 like a Liquor \u2014   \nGay \u2014 like Light \u2014   \nBring Me my best Pride \u2014   \nNo more ashamed \u2014   \nNo more to hide \u2014   \nMeek \u2014 let it be \u2014 too proud \u2014 for Pride \u2014   \nBaptized \u2014 this Day \u2014 a Bride \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**They put Us far apart \u2014**\n\nThey put Us far apart \u2014   \nAs separate as Sea  \nAnd Her unsown Peninsula \u2014   \nWe signified \"These see\" \u2014\n\nThey took away our Eyes \u2014   \nThey thwarted Us with Guns \u2014   \n\"I see Thee\" each responded straight  \nThrough Telegraphic Signs \u2014\n\nWith Dungeons \u2014 They devised \u2014   \nBut through their thickest skill \u2014   \nAnd their opaquest Adamant \u2014   \nOur Souls saw \u2014 just as well \u2014\n\nThey summoned Us to die \u2014   \nWith sweet alacrity  \nWe stood upon our stapled feet \u2014   \nCondemned \u2014 but just \u2014 to see \u2014\n\nPermission to recant \u2014   \nPermission to forget \u2014   \nWe turned our backs upon the Sun  \nFor perjury of that \u2014\n\nNot Either \u2014 noticed Death \u2014   \nOf Paradise \u2014 aware \u2014   \nEach other's Face \u2014 was all the Disc  \nEach other's setting \u2014 saw \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Doom is the House without the Door \u2014**\n\nDoom is the House without the Door \u2014   \n'Tis entered from the Sun \u2014   \nAnd then the Ladder's thrown away,  \nBecause Escape \u2014 is done \u2014\n\n'Tis varied by the Dream  \nOf what they do outside \u2014   \nWhere Squirrels play \u2014 and Berries die \u2014   \nAnd Hemlocks \u2014 bow \u2014 to God \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I meant to have but modest needs \u2014**\n\nI meant to have but modest needs \u2014   \nSuch as Content \u2014 and Heaven \u2014   \nWithin my income \u2014 these could lie  \nAnd Life and I \u2014 keep even \u2014\n\nBut since the last \u2014 included both \u2014   \nIt would suffice my Prayer  \nBut just for One \u2014 to stipulate \u2014   \nAnd Grace would grant the Pair \u2014\n\nAnd so \u2014 upon this wise \u2014 I prayed \u2014   \nGreat Spirit \u2014 Give to me  \nA Heaven not so large as Yours,  \nBut large enough \u2014 for me \u2014\n\nA Smile suffused Jehovah's face \u2014   \nThe Cherubim \u2014 withdrew \u2014   \nGrave Saints stole out to look at me \u2014   \nAnd showed their dimples \u2014 too \u2014\n\nI left the Place, with all my might \u2014   \nI threw my Prayer away \u2014   \nThe Quiet Ages picked it up \u2014   \nAnd Judgment \u2014 twinkled \u2014 too \u2014   \nTat one so honest \u2014 be extant \u2014   \nIt take the Tale for true \u2014   \nThat \"Whatsoever Ye shall ask \u2014   \nItself be given You\" \u2014\n\nBut I, grown shrewder \u2014 scan the Skies  \nWith a suspicious Air \u2014   \nAs Children \u2014 swindled for the first  \nAll Swindlers \u2014 be \u2014 infer \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**No Man can compass a Despair \u2014**\n\nNo Man can compass a Despair \u2014   \nAs round a Goalless Road  \nNo faster than a Mile at once  \nThe Traveller proceed \u2014\n\nUnconscious of the Width \u2014   \nUnconscious that the Sun  \nBe setting on His progress \u2014   \nSo accurate the One\n\nAt estimating Pain \u2014   \nWhose own \u2014 has just begun \u2014   \nHis ignorance \u2014 the Angel  \nThat pilot Him along \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I had no time to Hate \u2014**\n\nI had no time to Hate \u2014   \nBecause  \nThe Grave would hinder Me \u2014   \nAnd Life was not so  \nAmple I  \nCould finish \u2014 Enmity \u2014\n\nNor had I time to Love \u2014   \nBut since  \nSome Industry must be \u2014   \nThe little Toil of Love \u2014   \nI thought  \nBe large enough for Me \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**She dealt her pretty words like Blades \u2014**\n\nShe dealt her pretty words like Blades \u2014   \nHow glittering they shone \u2014   \nAnd every One unbared a Nerve  \nOr wantoned with a Bone \u2014\n\nShe never deemed \u2014 she hurt \u2014   \nThat \u2014 is not Steel's Affair \u2014   \nA vulgar grimace in the Flesh \u2014   \nHow ill the Creatures bear \u2014\n\nTo Ache is human \u2014 not polite \u2014   \nThe Film upon the eye  \nMortality's old Custom \u2014   \nJust locking up \u2014 to Die.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Why do I love You, Sir?**\n\n\"Why do I love\" You, Sir?  \nBecause \u2014   \nThe Wind does not require the Grass  \nTo answer \u2014 Wherefore when He pass  \nShe cannot keep Her place.\n\nBecause He knows \u2014 and  \nDo not You \u2014   \nAnd We know not \u2014   \nEnough for Us  \nThe Wisdom it be so \u2014\n\nThe Lightning \u2014 never asked an Eye  \nWherefore it shut \u2014 when He was by \u2014   \nBecause He knows it cannot speak \u2014   \nAnd reasons not contained \u2014   \n\u2014 Of Talk \u2014   \nThere be \u2014 preferred by Daintier Folk \u2014\n\nThe Sunrise \u2014 Sire \u2014 compelleth Me \u2014   \nBecause He's Sunrise \u2014 and I see \u2014   \nTherefore \u2014 Then \u2014   \nI love Thee \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Himmaleh was known to stoop**\n\nThe Himmaleh was known to stoop  \nUnto the Daisy low \u2014   \nTransported with Compassion  \nThat such a Doll should grow  \nWhere Tent by Tent \u2014 Her Universe  \nHung out its Flags of Snow \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We Cover Thee \u2014 Sweet Face \u2014**\n\nWe Cover Thee \u2014 Sweet Face \u2014   \nNot that We tire of Thee \u2014   \nBut that Thyself fatigue of Us \u2014   \nRemember \u2014 as Thou go \u2014   \nWe follow Thee until  \nThou notice Us \u2014 no more \u2014   \nAnd then \u2014 reluctant \u2014 turn away  \nTo Con Thee o'er and o'er \u2014\n\nAnd blame the scanty love  \nWe were Content to show \u2014   \nAugmented \u2014 Sweet \u2014 a Hundred fold \u2014   \nIf Thou would'st take it \u2014 now \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Solemn thing within the Soul**\n\nA Solemn thing within the Soul  \nTo feel itself get ripe \u2014   \nAnd golden hang \u2014 while farther up \u2014   \nThe Maker's Ladders stop \u2014   \nAnd in the Orchard far below \u2014   \nYou hear a Being \u2014 drop \u2014\n\nA Wonderful \u2014 to feel the Sun  \nStill toiling at the Cheek  \nYou thought was finished \u2014   \nCool of eye, and critical of Work \u2014   \nHe shifts the stem \u2014 a little \u2014   \nTo give your Core \u2014 a look \u2014\n\nBut solemnest \u2014 to know  \nYour chance in Harvest moves  \nA little nearer \u2014 Every Sun  \nThe Single \u2014 to some lives.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My Garden \u2014 like the Beach \u2014**\n\nMy Garden \u2014 like the Beach \u2014   \nDenotes there be \u2014 a Sea \u2014   \nThat's Summer \u2014   \nSuch as These \u2014 the Pearls  \nShe fetches \u2014 such as Me\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To make One's Toilette \u2014 after Death**\n\nTo make One's Toilette \u2014 after Death  \nHas made the Toilette cool  \nOf only Taste we cared to please  \nIs difficult, and still \u2014\n\nThat's easier \u2014 than Braid the Hair \u2014   \nAnd make the Bodice gay \u2014   \nWhen eyes that fondled it are wrenched  \nBy Decalogues \u2014 away \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I was the slightest in the House \u2014**\n\nI was the slightest in the House \u2014   \nI took the smallest Room \u2014   \nAt night, my little Lamp, and Book \u2014   \nAnd one Geranium \u2014\n\nSo stationed I could catch the Mint  \nThat never ceased to fall \u2014   \nAnd just my Basket \u2014   \nLet me think \u2014 I'm sure \u2014   \nThat this was all \u2014\n\nI never spoke \u2014 unless addressed \u2014   \nAnd then, 'twas brief and low \u2014   \nI could not bear to live \u2014 aloud \u2014   \nThe Racket shamed me so \u2014\n\nAnd if it had not been so far \u2014   \nAnd any one I knew  \nWere going \u2014 I had often thought  \nHow noteless \u2014 I could die \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**You love the Lord \u2014 you cannot see \u2014**\n\nYou love the Lord \u2014 you cannot see \u2014   \nYou write Him \u2014 every day \u2014   \nA little note \u2014 when you awake \u2014   \nAnd further in the Day.\n\nAn Ample Letter \u2014 How you miss \u2014   \nAnd would delight to see \u2014   \nBut then His House \u2014 is but a Step \u2014   \nAnd Mine's \u2014 in Heaven \u2014 You see.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Myself was formed \u2014 a Carpenter \u2014**\n\nMyself was formed \u2014 a Carpenter \u2014   \nAn unpretending time  \nMy Plane \u2014 and I, together wrought  \nBefore a Builder came \u2014\n\nTo measure our attainments \u2014   \nHad we the Art of Boards  \nSufficiently developed \u2014 He'd hire us  \nAt Halves \u2014\n\nMy Tools took Human \u2014 Faces \u2014   \nThe Bench, where we had toiled \u2014   \nAgainst the Man \u2014 persuaded \u2014   \nWe \u2014 Temples build \u2014 I said \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We pray \u2014 to Heaven \u2014**\n\nWe pray \u2014 to Heaven \u2014   \nWe prate \u2014 of Heaven \u2014   \nRelate \u2014 when Neighbors die \u2014   \nAt what o'clock to heaven \u2014 they fled \u2014   \nWho saw them \u2014 Wherefore fly?\n\nIs Heaven a Place \u2014 a Sky \u2014 a Tree?  \nLocation's narrow way is for Ourselves \u2014   \nUnto the Dead  \nThere's no Geography \u2014\n\nBut State \u2014 Endowal \u2014 Focus \u2014   \nWhere \u2014 Omnipresence \u2014 fly?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To One denied the drink**\n\nTo One denied the drink  \nTo tell what Water is  \nWould be acuter, would it not  \nThan letting Him surmise?\n\nTo lead Him to the Well  \nAnd let Him hear it drip  \nRemind Him, would it not, somewhat  \nOf His condemned lip?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**While it is alive**\n\nWhile it is alive  \nUntil Death touches it  \nWhile it and I lap one Air  \nDwell in one Blood  \nUnder one Sacrament  \nShow me Division can split or pare \u2014\n\nLove is like Life \u2014 merely longer  \nLove is like Death, during the Grave  \nLove is the Fellow of the Resurrection  \nScooping up the Dust and chanting \"Live\"!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Civilization \u2014 spurns \u2014 the Leopard!**\n\nCivilization \u2014 spurns \u2014 the Leopard!  \nWas the Leopard \u2014 bold?  \nDeserts \u2014 never rebuked her Satin \u2014   \nEthiop \u2014 her Gold \u2014   \nTawny \u2014 her Customs \u2014   \nShe was Conscious \u2014   \nSpotted \u2014 her Dun Gown \u2014   \nThis was the Leopard's nature \u2014 Signor \u2014   \nNeed \u2014 a keeper \u2014 frown?\n\nPity \u2014 the Pard \u2014 that left her Asia \u2014   \nMemories \u2014 of Palm \u2014   \nCannot be stifled \u2014 with Narcotic \u2014   \nNor suppressed \u2014 with Balm \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The World \u2014 stands \u2014 solemner \u2014 to me \u2014**\n\nThe World \u2014 stands \u2014 solemner \u2014 to me \u2014   \nSince I was wed \u2014 to Him \u2014   \nA modesty befits the soul  \nThat bears another's \u2014 name \u2014   \nA doubt \u2014 if it be fair \u2014 indeed \u2014   \nTo wear that perfect \u2014 pearl \u2014   \nThe Man \u2014 upon the Woman \u2014 binds \u2014   \nTo clasp her soul \u2014 for all \u2014   \nA prayer, that it more angel \u2014 prove \u2014   \nA whiter Gift \u2014 within \u2014   \nTo that munificence, that chose \u2014   \nSo unadorned \u2014 a Queen \u2014   \nA Gratitude \u2014 that such be true \u2014   \nIt had esteemed the Dream \u2014   \nToo beautiful \u2014 for Shape to prove \u2014   \nOr posture \u2014 to redeem!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Going to Him! Happy letter!**\n\nGoing to Him! Happy letter!  \nTell Him \u2014   \nTell Him the page I didn't write \u2014   \nTell Him \u2014 I only said the Syntax \u2014   \nAnd left the Verb and the pronoun out \u2014   \nTell Him just how the fingers hurried \u2014   \nThen \u2014 how they waded \u2014 slow \u2014 slow \u2014   \nAnd then you wished you had eyes in your pages \u2014   \nSo you could see what moved them so \u2014\n\nTell Him \u2014 it wasn't a Practised Writer \u2014   \nYou guessed \u2014 from the way the sentence toiled \u2014   \nYou could hear the Bodice tug, behind you \u2014   \nAs if it held but the might of a child \u2014   \nYou almost pitied it \u2014 you \u2014 it worked so \u2014   \nTell Him \u2014 no \u2014 you may quibble there \u2014   \nFor it would split His Heart, to know it \u2014   \nAnd then you and I, were silenter.\n\nTell Him \u2014 Night finished \u2014 before we finished \u2014   \nAnd the Old Clock kept neighing \"Day\"!  \nAnd you \u2014 got sleepy \u2014 and begged to be ended \u2014   \nWhat could it hinder so \u2014 to say?  \nTell Him \u2014 just how she sealed you \u2014 Cautious!  \nBut \u2014 if He ask where you are hid  \nUntil tomorrow \u2014 Happy letter!  \nGesture Coquette \u2014 and shake your Head!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It's thoughts \u2014 and just One Heart \u2014**\n\nIt's thoughts \u2014 and just One Heart \u2014   \nAnd Old Sunshine \u2014 about \u2014   \nMake frugal \u2014 Ones \u2014 Content \u2014   \nAnd two or three \u2014 for Company \u2014   \nUpon a Holiday \u2014   \nCrowded \u2014 as Sacrament \u2014\n\nBooks \u2014 when the Unit \u2014   \nSpare the Tenant \u2014 long eno' \u2014   \nA Picture \u2014 if it Care \u2014   \nItself \u2014 a Gallery too rare \u2014   \nFor needing more \u2014\n\nFlowers \u2014 to keep the Eyes \u2014 from going awkward \u2014   \nWhen it snows \u2014   \nA Bird \u2014 if they \u2014 prefer \u2014   \nThough Winter fire \u2014 sing clear as Plover \u2014   \nTo our \u2014 ear \u2014\n\nA Landscape \u2014 not so great  \nTo suffocate the Eye \u2014   \nA Hill \u2014 perhaps \u2014   \nPerhaps \u2014 the profile of a Mill  \nTurned by the Wind \u2014   \nTho' such \u2014 are luxuries \u2014\n\nIt's thoughts \u2014 and just two Heart \u2014   \nAnd Heaven \u2014 about \u2014   \nAt least \u2014 a Counterfeit \u2014   \nWe would not have Correct \u2014   \nAnd Immortality \u2014 can be almost \u2014   \nNot quite \u2014 Content \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**As far from pity, as complaint \u2014**\n\nAs far from pity, as complaint \u2014   \nAs cool to speech \u2014 as stone \u2014   \nAs numb to Revelation  \nAs if my Trade were Bone \u2014\n\nAs far from time \u2014 as History \u2014   \nAs near yourself \u2014 Today \u2014   \nAs Children, to the Rainbow's scarf \u2014   \nOr Sunset's Yellow play\n\nTo eyelids in the Sepulchre \u2014   \nHow dumb the Dancer lies \u2014   \nWhile Color's Revelations break \u2014   \nAnd blaze \u2014 the Butterflies!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**He strained my faith \u2014**\n\nHe strained my faith \u2014   \nDid he find it supple?  \nShook my strong trust \u2014   \nDid it then \u2014 yield?\n\nHurled my belief \u2014   \nBut \u2014 did he shatter \u2014 it?  \nRacked \u2014 with suspense \u2014   \nNot a nerve failed!\n\nWrung me \u2014 with Anguish \u2014   \nBut I never doubted him \u2014   \n'Tho' for what wrong  \nHe did never say \u2014\n\nStabbed \u2014 while I sued  \nHis sweet forgiveness \u2014   \nJesus \u2014 it's your little \"John\"!  \nDon't you know \u2014 me?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I envy Seas, whereon He rides \u2014**\n\nI envy Seas, whereon He rides \u2014   \nI envy Spokes of Wheels  \nOf Chariots, that Him convey \u2014   \nI envy Crooked Hills\n\nThat gaze upon His journey \u2014   \nHow easy All can see  \nWhat is forbidden utterly  \nAs Heaven \u2014 unto me!\n\nI envy Nests of Sparrows \u2014   \nThat dot His distant Eaves \u2014   \nThe wealthy Fly, upon His Pane \u2014   \nThe happy \u2014 happy Leaves \u2014\n\nThat just abroad His Window  \nHave Summer's leave to play \u2014   \nThe Ear Rings of Pizarro  \nCould not obtain for me \u2014\n\nI envy Light \u2014 that wakes Him \u2014   \nAnd Bells \u2014 that boldly ring  \nTo tell Him it is Noon, abroad \u2014   \nMyself \u2014 be Noon to Him \u2014\n\nYet interdict \u2014 my Blossom \u2014   \nAnd abrogate \u2014 my Bee \u2014   \nLest Noon in Everlasting Night \u2014   \nDrop Gabriel \u2014 and Me \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Those fair \u2014 fictitious People \u2014**\n\nThose fair \u2014 fictitious People \u2014   \nThe Women \u2014 plucked away  \nFrom our familiar Lifetime \u2014   \nThe Men of Ivory \u2014\n\nThose Boys and Girls, in Canvas \u2014   \nWho stay upon the Wall  \nIn Everlasting Keepsake \u2014   \nCan Anybody tell?\n\nWe trust \u2014 in places perfecter \u2014   \nInheriting Delight  \nBeyond our faint Conjecture \u2014   \nOur dizzy Estimate \u2014\n\nRemembering ourselves, we trust \u2014   \nYet Blesseder \u2014 than We \u2014   \nThrough Knowing \u2014 where We only hope \u2014   \nReceiving \u2014 where we \u2014 pray \u2014\n\nOf Expectation \u2014 also \u2014   \nAnticipating us  \nWith transport, that would be a pain  \nExcept for Holiness \u2014\n\nEsteeming us \u2014 as Exile \u2014   \nThemself \u2014 admitted Home \u2014   \nThrough easy Miracle of Death \u2014   \nThe Way ourself, must come \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Within my Garden, rides a Bird**\n\nWithin my Garden, rides a Bird  \nUpon a single Wheel \u2014   \nWhose spokes a dizzy Music make  \nAs 'twere a travelling Mill \u2014\n\nHe never stops, but slackens  \nAbove the Ripest Rose \u2014   \nPartakes without alighting  \nAnd praises as he goes,\n\nTill every spice is tasted \u2014   \nAnd then his Fairy Gig  \nReels in remoter atmospheres \u2014   \nAnd I rejoin my Dog,\n\nAnd He and I, perplex us  \nIf positive, 'twere we \u2014   \nOr bore the Garden in the Brain  \nThis Curiosity \u2014\n\nBut He, the best Logician,  \nRefers my clumsy eye \u2014   \nTo just vibrating Blossoms!  \nAn Exquisite Reply!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**This World is not Conclusion.**\n\nThis World is not Conclusion.  \nA Species stands beyond \u2014   \nInvisible, as Music \u2014   \nBut positive, as Sound \u2014   \nIt beckons, and it baffles \u2014   \nPhilosophy \u2014 don't know \u2014   \nAnd through a Riddle, at the last \u2014   \nSagacity, must go \u2014   \nTo guess it, puzzles scholars \u2014   \nTo gain it, Men have borne  \nContempt of Generations  \nAnd Crucifixion, shown \u2014   \nFaith slips \u2014 and laughs, and rallies \u2014   \nBlushes, if any see \u2014   \nPlucks at a twig of Evidence \u2014   \nAnd asks a Vane, the way \u2014   \nMuch Gesture, from the Pulpit \u2014   \nStrong Hallelujahs roll \u2014   \nNarcotics cannot still the Tooth  \nThat nibbles at the soul \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**At least \u2014 to pray \u2014 is left \u2014 is left \u2014**\n\nAt least \u2014 to pray \u2014 is left \u2014 is left \u2014   \nOh Jesus \u2014 in the Air \u2014   \nI know not which thy chamber is \u2014   \nI'm knocking \u2014 everywhere \u2014\n\nThou settest Earthquake in the South \u2014   \nAnd Maelstrom, in the Sea \u2014   \nSay, Jesus Christ of Nazareth \u2014   \nHast thou no Arm for Me?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Better \u2014 than Music! For I \u2014 who heard it \u2014**\n\nBetter \u2014 than Music! For I \u2014 who heard it \u2014   \nI was used \u2014 to the Birds \u2014 before \u2014   \nThis \u2014 was different \u2014 'Twas Translation \u2014   \nOf all tunes I knew \u2014 and more \u2014\n\n'Twasn't contained \u2014 like other stanza \u2014   \nNo one could play it \u2014 the second time \u2014   \nBut the Composer \u2014 perfect Mozart \u2014   \nPerish with him \u2014 that Keyless Rhyme!\n\nSo \u2014 Children \u2014 told how Brooks in Eden \u2014   \nBubbled a better \u2014 Melody \u2014   \nQuaintly infer \u2014 Eve's great surrender \u2014   \nUrging the feet \u2014 that would \u2014 not \u2014 fly \u2014\n\nChildren \u2014 matured \u2014 are wiser \u2014 mostly \u2014   \nEden \u2014 a legend \u2014 dimly told \u2014   \nEve \u2014 and the Anguish \u2014 Grandame's story \u2014   \nBut \u2014 I was telling a tune \u2014 I heard \u2014\n\nNot such a strain \u2014 the Church \u2014 baptizes \u2014   \nWhen the last Saint \u2014 goes up the Aisles \u2014   \nNot such a stanza splits the silence \u2014   \nWhen the Redemption strikes her Bells \u2014\n\nLet me not spill \u2014 its smallest cadence \u2014   \nHumming \u2014 for promise \u2014 when alone \u2014   \nHumming \u2014 until my faint Rehearsal \u2014   \nDrop into tune \u2014 around the Throne \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**You know that Portrait in the Moon \u2014**\n\nYou know that Portrait in the Moon \u2014   \nSo tell me who 'tis like \u2014   \nThe very Brow \u2014 the stooping eyes \u2014   \nA fog for \u2014 Say \u2014 Whose Sake?\n\nThe very Pattern of the Cheek \u2014   \nIt varies \u2014 in the Chin \u2014   \nBut \u2014 Ishmael \u2014 since we met \u2014 'tis long \u2014   \nAnd fashions \u2014 intervene \u2014\n\nWhen Moon's at full \u2014 'Tis Thou \u2014 I say \u2014   \nMy lips just hold the name \u2014   \nWhen crescent \u2014 Thou art worn \u2014 I note \u2014   \nBut \u2014 there \u2014 the Golden Same \u2014\n\nAnd when \u2014 Some Night \u2014 Bold \u2014 slashing Clouds  \nCut Thee away from Me \u2014   \nThat's easier \u2014 than the other film  \nThat glazes Holiday \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I would not paint \u2014 a picture \u2014**\n\nI would not paint \u2014 a picture \u2014   \nI'd rather be the One  \nIts bright impossibility  \nTo dwell \u2014 delicious \u2014 on \u2014   \nAnd wonder how the fingers feel  \nWhose rare \u2014 celestial \u2014 stir \u2014   \nEvokes so sweet a Torment \u2014   \nSuch sumptuous \u2014 Despair \u2014\n\nI would not talk, like Cornets \u2014   \nI'd rather be the One  \nRaised softly to the Ceilings \u2014   \nAnd out, and easy on \u2014   \nThrough Villages of Ether \u2014   \nMyself endued Balloon  \nBy but a lip of Metal \u2014   \nThe pier to my Pontoon \u2014\n\nNor would I be a Poet \u2014   \nIt's finer \u2014 own the Ear \u2014   \nEnamored \u2014 impotent \u2014 content \u2014   \nThe License to revere,  \nA privilege so awful  \nWhat would the Dower be,  \nHad I the Art to stun myself  \nWith Bolts of Melody!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**He touched me, so I live to know**\n\nHe touched me, so I live to know  \nThat such a day, permitted so,  \nI groped upon his breast \u2014   \nIt was a boundless place to me  \nAnd silenced, as the awful sea  \nPuts minor streams to rest.\n\nAnd now, I'm different from before,  \nAs if I breathed superior air \u2014   \nOr brushed a Royal Gown \u2014   \nMy feet, too, that had wandered so \u2014   \nMy Gypsy face \u2014 transfigured now \u2014   \nTo tenderer Renown \u2014\n\nInto this Port, if I might come,  \nRebecca, to Jerusalem,  \nWould not so ravished turn \u2014   \nNor Persian, baffled at her shrine  \nLift such a Crucifixial sign  \nTo her imperial Sun.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**She sights a Bird \u2014 she chuckles \u2014**\n\nShe sights a Bird \u2014 she chuckles \u2014   \nShe flattens \u2014 then she crawls \u2014   \nShe runs without the look of feet \u2014   \nHer eyes increase to Balls \u2014\n\nHer Jaws stir \u2014 twitching \u2014 hungry \u2014   \nHer Teeth can hardly stand \u2014   \nShe leaps, but Robin leaped the first \u2014   \nAh, Pussy, of the Sand,\n\nThe Hopes so juicy ripening \u2014   \nYou almost bather your Tongue \u2014   \nWhen Bliss disclosed a hundred Toes \u2014   \nAnd fled with every one \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I'm ceded \u2014 I've stopped being Theirs \u2014**\n\nI'm ceded \u2014 I've stopped being Theirs \u2014   \nThe name They dropped upon my face  \nWith water, in the country church  \nIs finished using, now,  \nAnd They can put it with my Dolls,  \nMy childhood, and the string of spools,  \nI've finished threading \u2014 too \u2014\n\nBaptized, before, without the choice,  \nBut this time, consciously, of Grace \u2014   \nUnto supremest name \u2014   \nCalled to my Full \u2014 The Crescent dropped \u2014   \nExistence's whole Arc, filled up,  \nWith one small Diadem.\n\nMy second Rank \u2014 too small the first \u2014   \nCrowned \u2014 Crowing \u2014 on my Father's breast \u2014   \nA half unconscious Queen \u2014   \nBut this time \u2014 Adequate \u2014 Erect,  \nWith Will to choose, or to reject,  \nAnd I choose, just a Crown \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If anybody's friend be dead**\n\nIf anybody's friend be dead  \nIt's sharpest of the theme  \nThe thinking how they walked alive \u2014   \nAt such and such a time \u2014\n\nTheir costume, of a Sunday,  \nSome manner of the Hair \u2014   \nA prank nobody knew but them  \nLost, in the Sepulchre \u2014\n\nHow warm, they were, on such a day,  \nYou almost feel the date \u2014   \nSo short way off it seems \u2014   \nAnd now \u2014 they're Centuries from that \u2014\n\nHow pleased they were, at what you said \u2014   \nYou try to touch the smile  \nAnd dip your fingers in the frost \u2014   \nWhen was it \u2014 Can you tell \u2014\n\nYou asked the Company to tea \u2014   \nAcquaintance \u2014 just a few \u2014   \nAnd chatted close with this Grand Thing  \nThat don't remember you \u2014\n\nPast Bows, and Invitations \u2014   \nPast Interview, and Vow \u2014   \nPast what Ourself can estimate \u2014   \nThat \u2014 makes the Quick of Woe!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It was not Death, for I stood up,**\n\nIt was not Death, for I stood up,  \nAnd all the Dead, lie down \u2014   \nIt was not Night, for all the Bells  \nPut out their Tongues, for Noon.\n\nIt was not Frost, for on my Flesh  \nI felt Siroccos \u2014 crawl \u2014   \nNor Fire \u2014 for just my Marble feet  \nCould keep a Chancel, cool \u2014\n\nAnd yet, it tasted, like them all,  \nThe Figures I have seen  \nSet orderly, for Burial,  \nReminded me, of mine \u2014\n\nAs if my life were shaven,  \nAnd fitted to a frame,  \nAnd could not breathe without a key,  \nAnd 'twas like Midnight, some -\n\nWhen everything that ticked \u2014 has stopped \u2014   \nAnd Space stares all around \u2014   \nOr Grisly frosts \u2014 first Autumn morns,  \nRepeal the Beating Ground \u2014\n\nBut, most, like Chaos - Stopless \u2014 cool \u2014   \nWithout a Chance, or Spar \u2014   \nOr even a Report of Land \u2014   \nTo justify \u2014 Despair.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If you were coming in the Fall,**\n\nIF you were coming in the fall,  \nI'd brush the summer by  \nWith half a smile and half a spurn,  \nAs housewives do a fly.\n\nIf I could see you in a year,  \nI'd wind the months in balls,  \nAnd put them each in separate drawers,  \nUntil their time befalls.\n\nIf only centuries delayed,  \nI'd count them on my hand,  \nSubtracting till my fingers dropped  \nInto Van Diemen's land.\n\nIf certain, when this life was out  \nThat yours and mine should be,  \nI'd toss it yonder like a rind,  \nAnd taste eternity.\n\nBut now, all ignorant of the length\n\nOf time's uncertain wing,\n\nIt goads me, like the goblin bee,\n\nThat will not state its sting.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Soul has Bandaged moments \u2014**\n\nThe Soul has Bandaged moments \u2014   \nWhen too appalled to stir \u2014   \nShe feels some ghastly Fright come up  \nAnd stop to look at her \u2014\n\nSalute her \u2014 with long fingers \u2014   \nCaress her freezing hair \u2014   \nSip, Goblin, from the very lips  \nThe Lover \u2014 hovered \u2014 o'er \u2014   \nUnworthy, that a thought so mean  \nAccost a Theme \u2014 so \u2014 fair \u2014\n\nThe soul has moments of Escape \u2014   \nWhen bursting all the doors \u2014   \nShe dances like a Bomb, abroad,  \nAnd swings upon the Hours,\n\nAs do the Bee \u2014 delirious borne \u2014   \nLong Dungeoned from his Rose \u2014   \nTouch Liberty \u2014 then know no more,  \nBut Noon, and Paradise \u2014\n\nThe Soul's retaken moments \u2014   \nWhen, Felon led along,  \nWith shackles on the plumed feet,  \nAnd staples, in the Song,\n\nThe Horror welcomes her, again,  \nThese, are not brayed of Tongue \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Like Flowers, that heard the news of Dews,**\n\nLike Flowers, that heard the news of Dews,  \nBut never deemed the dripping prize  \nAwaited their \u2014 low Brows \u2014   \nOr Bees \u2014 that thought the Summer's name  \nSome rumor of Delirium,  \nNo Summer \u2014 could \u2014 for Them \u2014\n\nOr Arctic Creatures, dimly stirred \u2014   \nBy Tropic Hint \u2014 some Travelled Bird  \nImported to the Wood \u2014\n\nOr Wind's bright signal to the Ear \u2014   \nMaking that homely, and severe,  \nContented, known, before \u2014\n\nThe Heaven \u2014 unexpected come,  \nTo Lives that thought the Worshipping  \nA too presumptuous Psalm \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Her smile was shaped like other smiles \u2014**\n\nHer smile was shaped like other smiles \u2014   \nThe Dimples ran along \u2014   \nAnd still it hurt you, as some Bird  \nDid hoist herself, to sing,  \nThen recollect a Ball, she got \u2014   \nAnd hold upon the Twig,  \nConvulsive, while the Music broke \u2014   \nLike Beads \u2014 among the Bog \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**No Crowd that has occurred**\n\nNo Crowd that has occurred  \nExhibit \u2014 I suppose  \nThat General Attendance  \nThat Resurrection \u2014 does \u2014\n\nCircumference be full \u2014   \nThe long restricted Grave  \nAssert her Vital Privilege \u2014   \nThe Dust \u2014 connect \u2014 and live \u2014\n\nOn Atoms \u2014 features place \u2014   \nAll Multitudes that were  \nEfface in the Comparison \u2014   \nAs Suns \u2014 dissolve a star \u2014\n\nSolemnity \u2014 prevail \u2014   \nIts Individual Doom  \nPossess each separate Consciousness \u2014   \nAugust \u2014 Absorbed \u2014 Numb \u2014\n\nWhat Duplicate \u2014 exist \u2014   \nWhat Parallel can be \u2014   \nOf the Significance of This \u2014   \nTo Universe \u2014 and Me?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Beauty \u2014 be not caused \u2014 It Is \u2014**\n\nBeauty \u2014 be not caused \u2014 It Is \u2014   \nChase it, and it ceases \u2014   \nChase it not, and it abides \u2014\n\nOvertake the Creases\n\nIn the Meadow \u2014 when the Wind  \nRuns his fingers thro' it \u2014   \nDeity will see to it  \nThat You never do it \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**He parts Himself \u2014 like Leaves \u2014**\n\nHe parts Himself \u2014 like Leaves \u2014   \nAnd then \u2014 He closes up \u2014   \nThen stands upon the Bonnet  \nOf Any Buttercup \u2014\n\nAnd then He runs against  \nAnd oversets a Rose \u2014   \nAnd then does Nothing \u2014   \nThen away upon a Jib \u2014 He goes \u2014\n\nAnd dangles like a Mote  \nSuspended in the Noon \u2014   \nUncertain \u2014 to return Below \u2014   \nOr settle in the Moon \u2014\n\nWhat come of Him \u2014 at Night \u2014   \nThe privilege to say  \nBe limited by Ignorance \u2014   \nWhat come of Him \u2014 That Day \u2014\n\nThe Frost \u2014 possess the World \u2014   \nIn Cabinets \u2014 be shown \u2014   \nA Sepulchre of quaintest Floss \u2014   \nAn Abbey \u2014 a Cocoon \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Her sweet Weight on my Heart a Night**\n\nHer sweet Weight on my Heart a Night  \nHad scarcely deigned to lie \u2014   \nWhen, stirring, for Belief's delight,  \nMy Bride had slipped away \u2014\n\nIf 'twas a Dream \u2014 made solid \u2014 just  \nThe Heaven to confirm \u2014   \nOr if Myself were dreamed of Her \u2014   \nThe power to presume \u2014\n\nWith Him remain \u2014 who unto Me \u2014   \nGave \u2014 even as to All \u2014   \nA Fiction superseding Faith \u2014   \nBy so much \u2014 as 'twas real \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Twas warm \u2014 at first \u2014 like Us \u2014**\n\n'Twas warm \u2014 at first \u2014 like Us \u2014   \nUntil there crept upon  \nA Chill \u2014 like frost upon a Glass \u2014   \nTill all the scene \u2014 be gone.\n\nThe Forehead copied Stone \u2014   \nThe Fingers grew too cold  \nTo ache \u2014 and like a Skater's Brook \u2014   \nThe busy eyes \u2014 congealed \u2014\n\nIt straightened \u2014 that was all \u2014   \nIt crowded Cold to Cold \u2014   \nIt multiplied indifference \u2014   \nAs Pride were all it could \u2014\n\nAnd even when with Cords \u2014   \n'Twas lowered, like a Weight \u2014   \nIt made no Signal, nor demurred,  \nBut dropped like Adamant.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I started Early \u2014 Took my Dog \u2014**\n\nI started Early \u2014 Took my Dog \u2014   \nAnd visited the Sea \u2014   \nThe Mermaids in the Basement  \nCame out to look at me \u2014\n\nAnd Frigates \u2014 in the Upper Floor  \nExtended Hempen Hands \u2014   \nPresuming Me to be a Mouse \u2014   \nAground \u2014 upon the Sands \u2014\n\nBut no Man moved Me \u2014 till the Tide  \nWent past my simple Shoe \u2014   \nAnd past my Apron \u2014 and my Belt \u2014   \nAnd past my Bodice \u2014 too \u2014\n\nAnd made as He would eat me up \u2014   \nAs wholly as a Dew  \nUpon a Dandelion's Sleeve \u2014   \nAnd then \u2014 I started \u2014 too \u2014\n\nAnd He \u2014 He followed \u2014 close behind \u2014   \nI felt his Silver Heel  \nUpon my Ankle \u2014 Then my Shoes  \nWould overflow with Pearl \u2014\n\nUntil We met the Solid Town \u2014   \nNo One He seemed to know \u2014   \nAnd bowing \u2014 with a Mighty look \u2014   \nAt me \u2014 The Sea withdrew \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Endow the Living \u2014 with the Tears \u2014**\n\nEndow the Living \u2014 with the Tears \u2014   \nYou squander on the Dead,  \nAnd They were Men and Women \u2014 now,  \nAround Your Fireside \u2014\n\nInstead of Passive Creatures,  \nDenied the Cherishing  \nTill They \u2014 the Cherishing deny \u2014   \nWith Death's Ethereal Scorn \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Had I presumed to hope \u2014**\n\nHad I presumed to hope \u2014   \nThe loss had been to Me  \nA Value \u2014 for the Greatness' Sake \u2014   \nAs Giants \u2014 gone away \u2014\n\nHad I presumed to gain  \nA Favor so remote \u2014   \nThe failure but confirm the Grace  \nIn further Infinite \u2014\n\n'Tis failure \u2014 not of Hope \u2014   \nBut Confident Despair \u2014   \nAdvancing on Celestial Lists \u2014   \nWith faint \u2014 Terrestial power \u2014\n\n'Tis Honor \u2014 though I die \u2014   \nFor That no Man obtain  \nTill He be justified by Death \u2014   \nThis \u2014 is the Second Gain \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Sweet \u2014 You forgot \u2014 but I remembered**\n\nSweet \u2014 You forgot \u2014 but I remembered  \nEvery time \u2014 for Two \u2014   \nSo that the Sum be never hindered  \nThrough Decay of You \u2014\n\nSay if I erred? Accuse my Farthings \u2014   \nBlame the little Hand  \nHappy it be for You \u2014 a Beggar's \u2014   \nSeeking More \u2014 to spend \u2014\n\nJust to be Rich \u2014 to waste my Guineas  \nOn so Best a Heart \u2014   \nJust to be Poor \u2014 for Barefoot Vision  \nYou \u2014 Sweet \u2014 Shut me out \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Departed \u2014 to the Judgment \u2014**\n\nDEPARTED to the judgment,  \nA mighty afternoon ;  \nGreat clouds like ushers leaning,  \nCreation looking on.\n\nThe flesh surrendered, cancelled,  \nThe bodiless begun ;  \nTwo worlds, like audiences, disperse  \nAnd leave the soul alone.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I think the Hemlock likes to stand**\n\nI think the Hemlock likes to stand  \nUpon a Marge of Snow \u2014   \nIt suits his own Austerity \u2014   \nAnd satisfies an awe\n\nThat men, must slake in Wilderness \u2014   \nAnd in the Desert \u2014 cloy \u2014   \nAn instinct for the Hoar, the Bald \u2014   \nLapland's \u2014 necessity \u2014\n\nThe Hemlock's nature thrives \u2014 on cold \u2014   \nThe Gnash of Northern winds  \nIs sweetest nutriment \u2014 to him \u2014   \nHis best Norwegian Wines \u2014\n\nTo satin Races \u2014 he is nought \u2014   \nBut Children on the Don,  \nBeneath his Tabernacles, play,  \nAnd Dnieper Wrestlers, run.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To hear an Oriole sing**\n\nTo hear an Oriole sing  \nMay be a common thing \u2014   \nOr only a divine.\n\nIt is not of the Bird  \nWho sings the same, unheard,  \nAs unto Crowd \u2014\n\nThe Fashion of the Ear  \nAttireth that it hear  \nIn Dun, or fair \u2014\n\nSo whether it be Rune,  \nOr whether it be none  \nIs of within.\n\nThe \"Tune is in the Tree \u2014 \"  \nThe Skeptic \u2014 showeth me \u2014   \n\"No Sir! In Thee!\"\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To put this World down, like a Bundle \u2014**\n\nTo put this World down, like a Bundle \u2014   \nAnd walk steady, away,  \nRequires Energy \u2014 possibly Agony \u2014   \n'Tis the Scarlet way\n\nTrodden with straight renunciation  \nBy the Son of God \u2014   \nLater, his faint Confederates  \nJustify the Road \u2014\n\nFlavors of that old Crucifixion \u2014   \nFilaments of Bloom, Pontius Pilate sowed \u2014   \nStrong Clusters, from Barabbas' Tomb \u2014\n\nSacrament, Saints partook before us \u2014   \nPatent, every drop,  \nWith the Brand of the Gentile Drinker  \nWho indorsed the Cup \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Mine \u2014 by the Right of the White Election!**\n\nMine \u2014 by the Right of the White Election!  \nMine \u2014 by the Royal Seal!  \nMine \u2014 by the Sign in the Scarlet prison \u2014   \nBars \u2014 cannot conceal!\n\nMine \u2014 here \u2014 in Vision \u2014 and in Veto!  \nMine \u2014 by the Grave's Repeal \u2014   \nTilted \u2014 Confirmed \u2014   \nDelirious Charter!  \nMine \u2014 long as Ages steal!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I'm sorry for the Dead \u2014 Today \u2014**\n\nI'm sorry for the Dead \u2014 Today \u2014   \nIt's such congenial times  \nOld Neighbors have at fences \u2014   \nIt's time o' year for Hay.\n\nAnd Broad \u2014 Sunburned Acquaintance  \nDiscourse between the Toil \u2014   \nAnd laugh, a homely species  \nThat makes the Fences smile \u2014\n\nIt seems so straight to lie away  \nFrom all of the noise of Fields \u2014   \nThe Busy Carts \u2014 the fragrant Cocks \u2014   \nThe Mower's Metre \u2014 Steals \u2014\n\nA Trouble lest they're homesick \u2014   \nThose Farmers \u2014 and their Wives \u2014   \nSet separate from the Farming \u2014   \nAnd all the Neighbors' lives \u2014\n\nA Wonder if the Sepulchre  \nDon't feel a lonesome way \u2014   \nWhen Men \u2014 and Boys \u2014 and Carts \u2014 and June,  \nGo down the Fields to \"Hay\" \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**You cannot put a Fire out \u2014**\n\nYou cannot put a Fire out \u2014   \nA Thing that can ignite  \nCan go, itself, without a Fan \u2014   \nUpon the slowest Night \u2014\n\nYou cannot fold a Flood \u2014   \nAnd put it in a Drawer \u2014   \nBecause the Winds would find it out \u2014   \nAnd tell your Cedar Floor \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We dream \u2014 it is good we are dreaming \u2014**\n\nWe dream \u2014 it is good we are dreaming \u2014   \nIt would hurt us \u2014 were we awake \u2014   \nBut since it is playing \u2014 kill us,  \nAnd we are playing \u2014 shriek \u2014\n\nWhat harm? Men die \u2014 externally \u2014   \nIt is a truth \u2014 of Blood \u2014   \nBut we \u2014 are dying in Drama \u2014   \nAnd Drama \u2014 is never dead \u2014\n\nCautious \u2014 We jar each other \u2014   \nAnd either \u2014 open the eyes \u2014   \nLest the Phantasm \u2014 prove the Mistake \u2014   \nAnd the livid Surprise\n\nCool us to Shafts of Granite \u2014   \nWith just an Age \u2014 and Name \u2014   \nAnd perhaps a phrase in Egyptian \u2014   \nIt's prudenter \u2014 to dream \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I tried to think a lonelier Thing**\n\nI tried to think a lonelier Thing  \nThan any I had seen \u2014   \nSome Polar Expiation \u2014 An Omen in the Bone  \nOf Death's tremendous nearness \u2014\n\nI probed Retrieveless things  \nMy Duplicate \u2014 to borrow \u2014   \nA Haggard Comfort springs\n\nFrom the belief that Somewhere \u2014   \nWithin the Clutch of Thought \u2014   \nThere dwells one other Creature  \nOf Heavenly Love \u2014 forgot \u2014\n\nI plucked at our Partition  \nAs One should pry the Walls \u2014   \nBetween Himself \u2014 and Horror's Twin \u2014   \nWithin Opposing Cells \u2014\n\nI almost strove to clasp his Hand,  \nSuch Luxury \u2014 it grew \u2014   \nThat as Myself \u2014 could pity Him \u2014   \nPerhaps he \u2014 pitied me \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Two butterflies went out at Noon \u2014**\n\nTwo butterflies went out at Noon \u2014   \nAnd waltzed upon a Farm \u2014   \nThen stepped straight through the Firmament  \nAnd rested, on a Beam \u2014\n\nAnd then \u2014 together bore away  \nUpon a shining Sea \u2014   \nThough never yet, in any Port \u2014   \nTheir coming, mentioned \u2014 be \u2014\n\nIf spoken by the distant Bird \u2014   \nIf met in Ether Sea  \nBy Frigate, or by Merchantman \u2014   \nNo notice \u2014 was \u2014 to me \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We see \u2014 Comparatively \u2014**\n\nWe see \u2014 Comparatively \u2014   \nThe Thing so towering high  \nWe could not grasp its segment  \nUnaided \u2014 Yesterday \u2014\n\nThis Morning's finer Verdict \u2014   \nMakes scarcely worth the toil \u2014   \nA furrow \u2014 Our Cordillera \u2014   \nOur Apennine \u2014 a Knoll \u2014\n\nPerhaps 'tis kindly \u2014 done us \u2014   \nThe Anguish \u2014 and the loss \u2014   \nThe wrenching \u2014 for His Firmament  \nThe Thing belonged to us \u2014\n\nTo spare these Striding Spirits  \nSome Morning of Chagrin \u2014   \nThe waking in a Gnat's \u2014 embrace \u2014   \nOur Giants \u2014 further on \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**She's happy, with a new Content \u2014**\n\nShe's happy, with a new Content \u2014   \nThat feels to her \u2014 like Sacrament \u2014   \nShe's busy \u2014 with an altered Care \u2014   \nAs just apprenticed to the Air \u2014\n\nShe's tearful \u2014 if she weep at all \u2014   \nFor blissful Causes \u2014 Most of all  \nThat Heaven permit so meek as her \u2014   \nTo such a Fate \u2014 to Minister.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Heart asks Pleasure \u2014 first \u2014**\n\nTHE heart asks pleasure first,  \nAnd then, excuse from pain ;  \nAnd then, those little anodynes  \nThat deaden suffering ;\n\nAnd then, to go to sleep ;  \nAnd then, if it should be  \nThe will of its Inquisitor,  \nThe liberty to die.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Me prove it now \u2014 Whoever doubt**\n\nMe prove it now \u2014 Whoever doubt  \nMe stop to prove it \u2014 now \u2014   \nMake haste \u2014 the Scruple! Death be scant  \nFor Opportunity \u2014\n\nThe River reaches to my feet \u2014   \nAs yet \u2014 My Heart be dry \u2014   \nOh Lover \u2014 Life could not convince \u2014   \nMight Death \u2014 enable Thee \u2014\n\nThe River reaches to My Breast \u2014   \nStill \u2014 still \u2014 My Hands above  \nProclaim with their remaining Might \u2014   \nDost recognize the Love?\n\nThe River reaches to my Mouth \u2014   \nRemember \u2014 when the Sea  \nSwept by my searching eyes \u2014 the last \u2014   \nThemselves were quick \u2014 with Thee!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Tis true \u2014 They shut me in the Cold \u2014**\n\n'Tis true \u2014 They shut me in the Cold \u2014   \nBut then \u2014 Themselves were warm  \nAnd could not know the feeling 'twas \u2014   \nForget it \u2014 Lord \u2014 of Them \u2014\n\nLet not my Witness hinder Them  \nIn Heavenly esteem \u2014   \nNo Paradise could be \u2014 Conferred  \nThrough Their beloved Blame \u2014\n\nThe Harm They did \u2014 was short \u2014 And since  \nMyself \u2014 who bore it \u2014 do \u2014   \nForgive Them \u2014 Even as Myself \u2014   \nOr else \u2014 forgive not me \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Province of the Saved**\n\nThe Province of the Saved  \nShould be the Art \u2014 To save \u2014   \nThrough Skill obtained in Themselves \u2014   \nThe Science of the Grave\n\nNo Man can understand  \nBut He that hath endured  \nThe Dissolution \u2014 in Himself \u2014   \nThat Man \u2014 be qualified\n\nTo qualify Despair  \nTo Those who failing new \u2014   \nMistake Defeat for Death \u2014 Each time \u2014   \nTill acclimated \u2014 to \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I took my Power in my Hand \u2014**\n\nI took my Power in my Hand \u2014   \nAnd went against the World \u2014   \n'Twas not so much as David \u2014 had \u2014   \nBut I \u2014 was twice as bold \u2014\n\nI aimed by Pebble \u2014 but Myself  \nWas all the one that fell \u2014   \nWas it Goliath \u2014 was too large \u2014   \nOr was myself \u2014 too small?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Some such Butterfly be seen**\n\nSome such Butterfly be seen  \nOn Brazilian Pampas \u2014   \nJust at noon \u2014 no later \u2014 Sweet \u2014   \nThen \u2014 the License closes \u2014\n\nSome such Spice \u2014 express and pass \u2014   \nSubject to Your Plucking \u2014   \nAs the Stars \u2014 You knew last Night \u2014   \nForeigners \u2014 This Morning \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I had no Cause to be awake \u2014**\n\nI had no Cause to be awake \u2014   \nMy Best \u2014 was gone to sleep \u2014   \nAnd Morn a new politeness took \u2014   \nAnd failed to wake them up \u2014\n\nBut called the others \u2014 clear \u2014   \nAnd passed their Curtains by \u2014   \nSweet Morning \u2014 when I oversleep \u2014   \nKnock \u2014 Recollect \u2014 to Me \u2014\n\nI looked at Sunrise \u2014 Once \u2014   \nAnd then I looked at Them \u2014   \nAnd wishfulness in me arose \u2014   \nFor Circumstance the same \u2014\n\n'Twas such an Ample Peace \u2014   \nIt could not hold a Sigh \u2014   \n'Twas Sabbath \u2014 with the Bells divorced \u2014   \n'Twas Sunset \u2014 all the Day \u2014\n\nSo choosing but a Gown \u2014   \nAnd taking but a Prayer \u2014   \nThe only Raiment I should need \u2014   \nI struggled \u2014 and was There \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I fear a Man of frugal Speech \u2014**\n\nI fear a Man of frugal Speech \u2014   \nI fear a Silent Man \u2014   \nHaranguer \u2014 I can overtake \u2014   \nOr Babbler \u2014 entertain \u2014\n\nBut He who weigheth \u2014 While the Rest \u2014   \nExpend their furthest pound \u2014   \nOf this Man \u2014 I am wary \u2014   \nI fear that He is Grand \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Martyr Poets \u2014 did not tell \u2014**\n\nThe Martyr Poets \u2014 did not tell \u2014   \nBut wrought their Pang in syllable \u2014   \nThat when their mortal name be numb \u2014   \nTheir mortal fate \u2014 encourage Some \u2014\n\nThe Martyr Painters \u2014 never spoke \u2014   \nBequeathing \u2014 rather \u2014 to their Work \u2014   \nThat when their conscious fingers cease \u2014   \nSome seek in Art \u2014 the Art of Peace \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Tis One by One \u2014 the Father counts \u2014**\n\n'Tis One by One \u2014 the Father counts \u2014   \nAnd then a Tract between  \nSet Cypherless \u2014 to teach the Eye  \nThe Value of its Ten \u2014\n\nUntil the peevish Student  \nAcquire the Quick of Skill \u2014   \nThen Numerals are dowered back \u2014   \nAdorning all the Rule \u2014\n\n'Tis mostly Slate and Pencil \u2014   \nAnd Darkness on the School  \nDistracts the Children's fingers \u2014   \nStill the Eternal Rule\n\nRegards least Cypherer alike  \nWith Leader of the Band \u2014   \nAnd every separate Urchin's Sum \u2014   \nIs fashioned for his hand \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To fill a Gap**\n\nTo fill a Gap  \nInsert the Thing that caused it \u2014   \nBlock it up  \nWith Other \u2014 and 'twill yawn the more \u2014   \nYou cannot solder an Abyss  \nWith Air.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I've seen a Dying Eye**\n\nI'VE seen a dying eye  \nRun round and round a room  \nIn search of something, as it seemed,  \nThen cloudier become ;  \nAnd then, obscure with fog,  \nAnd then be soldered down,  \nWithout disclosing what it be,  \n'T were blessed to have seen.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Death is potential to that Man**\n\nDeath is potential to that Man  \nWho dies \u2014 and to his friend \u2014   \nBeyond that \u2014 unconspicuous  \nTo Anyone but God \u2014\n\nOf these Two \u2014 God remembers  \nThe longest \u2014 for the friend \u2014   \nIs integral \u2014 and therefore  \nItself dissolved \u2014 of God \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**That I did always love**\n\nThat I did always love  \nI bring thee Proof  \nThat till I loved  \nI never lived \u2014 Enough \u2014\n\nThat I shall love alway \u2014   \nI argue thee  \nThat love is life \u2014   \nAnd life hath Immortality \u2014\n\nThis \u2014 dost thou doubt \u2014 Sweet \u2014   \nThen have I  \nNothing to show  \nBut Calvary \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I cross till I am weary**\n\nI cross till I am weary  \nA Mountain \u2014 in my mind \u2014   \nMore Mountains \u2014 then a Sea \u2014   \nMore Seas \u2014 And then  \nA Desert \u2014 find \u2014\n\nAnd My Horizon blocks  \nWith steady \u2014 drifting \u2014 Grains  \nOf unconjectured quantity \u2014   \nAs Asiatic Rains \u2014\n\nNor this \u2014 defeat my Pace \u2014   \nIt hinder from the West  \nBut as an Enemy's Salute  \nOne hurrying to Rest \u2014\n\nWhat merit had the Goal \u2014   \nExcept there intervene  \nFaint Doubt \u2014 and far Competitor \u2014   \nTo jeopardize the Gain?\n\nAt last \u2014 the Grace in sight \u2014   \nI shout unto my feet \u2014   \nI offer them the Whole of Heaven  \nThe instant that we meet \u2014\n\nThey strive \u2014 and yet delay \u2014   \nThey perish \u2014 Do we die \u2014   \nOr is this Death's Experiment \u2014   \nReversed \u2014 in Victory?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There is a Shame of Nobleness \u2014**\n\nThere is a Shame of Nobleness \u2014   \nConfronting Sudden Pelf \u2014   \nA finer Shame of Ecstasy \u2014   \nConvicted of Itself \u2014\n\nA best Disgrace \u2014 a Brave Man feels \u2014   \nAcknowledged \u2014 of the Brave \u2014   \nOne More \u2014 \"Ye Blessed\" \u2014 to be told \u2014   \nBut that's \u2014 Behind the Grave \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**An ignorance a Sunset**\n\nAn ignorance a Sunset  \nConfer upon the Eye \u2014   \nOf Territory \u2014 Color \u2014   \nCircumference \u2014 Decay \u2014\n\nIts Amber Revelation  \nExhilirate \u2014 Debase \u2014   \nOmnipotence' inspection  \nOf Our inferior face \u2014\n\nAnd when the solemn features  \nConfirm \u2014 in Victory \u2014   \nWe start \u2014 as if detected  \nIn Immortality \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**One Crucifixion is recorded \u2014 only \u2014**\n\nOne Crucifixion is recorded \u2014 only \u2014   \nHow many be  \nIs not affirmed of Mathematics \u2014   \nOr History \u2014\n\nOne Calvary \u2014 exhibited to Stranger \u2014   \nAs many be  \nAs persons \u2014 or Peninsulas \u2014   \nGethsemane \u2014\n\nIs but a Province \u2014 in the Being's Centre \u2014   \nJudea \u2014   \nFor Journey \u2014 or Crusade's Achieving \u2014   \nToo near \u2014\n\nOur Lord \u2014 indeed \u2014 made Compound Witness \u2014   \nAnd yet \u2014   \nThere's newer \u2014 nearer Crucifixion  \nThan That \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Black Berry \u2014 wears a Thorn in his side \u2014**\n\nThe Black Berry \u2014 wears a Thorn in his side \u2014   \nBut no Man heard Him cry \u2014   \nHe offers His Berry, just the same  \nTo Partridge \u2014 and to Boy \u2014\n\nHe sometimes holds upon the Fence \u2014   \nOr struggles to a Tree \u2014   \nOr clasps a Rock, with both His Hands \u2014   \nBut not for Sympathy \u2014\n\nWe \u2014 tell a Hurt \u2014 to cool it \u2014   \nThis Mourner \u2014 to the Sky  \nA little further reaches \u2014 instead \u2014   \nBrave Black Berry \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Trust in the Unexpected \u2014**\n\nTrust in the Unexpected \u2014   \nBy this \u2014 was William Kidd  \nPersuaded of the Buried Gold \u2014   \nAs One had testified \u2014\n\nThrough this \u2014 the old Philosopher \u2014   \nHis Talismanic Stone  \nDiscerned \u2014 still withholden  \nTo effort undivine \u2014\n\n'Twas this \u2014 allured Columbus \u2014   \nWhen Genoa \u2014 withdrew  \nBefore an Apparition  \nBaptized America \u2014\n\nThe Same \u2014 afflicted Thomas \u2014   \nWhen Deity assured  \n'Twas better \u2014 the perceiving not \u2014   \nProvided it believed \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Brain, within its Groove**\n\n_two slightly different versions;_\n\nTHE brain within its groove  \nRuns evenly and true ;  \nBut let a splinter swerve,  \n'T were easier for you  \nTo put the water back  \nWhen floods have slit the hills,  \nAnd scooped a turnpike for themselves,  \nAnd blotted out the mills !\n\nThe Brain, within its Groove  \nRuns evenly \u2014 and true \u2014   \nBut let a Splinter swerve \u2014   \n'Twere easier for You \u2014\n\nTo put a Current back \u2014   \nWhen Floods have slit the Hills \u2014   \nAnd scooped a Turnpike for Themselves \u2014   \nAnd trodden out the Mills \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**She hideth Her the last \u2014**\n\nShe hideth Her the last \u2014   \nAnd is the first, to rise \u2014   \nHer Night doth hardly recompense  \nThe Closing of Her eyes \u2014\n\nShe doth Her Purple Work \u2014   \nAnd putteth Her away  \nIn low Apartments in the Sod -  \nAs worthily as We.\n\nTo imitate her life  \nAs impotent would be  \nAs make of Our imperfect Mints,  \nThe Julep \u2014 of the Bee \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**But little Carmine hath her face \u2014**\n\nBut little Carmine hath her face \u2014   \nOf Emerald scant \u2014 her Gown \u2014   \nHer Beauty \u2014 is the love she doth \u2014   \nItself \u2014 exhibit \u2014 Mine \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It knew no Medicine \u2014**\n\nIt knew no Medicine \u2014   \nIt was not Sickness \u2014 then \u2014   \nNor any need of Surgery \u2014   \nAnd therefore \u2014 'twas not Pain \u2014\n\nIt moved away the Cheeks \u2014   \nA Dimple at a time \u2014   \nAnd left the Profile \u2014 plainer \u2014   \nAnd in the place of Bloom\n\nIt left the little Tint  \nThat never had a Name \u2014   \nYou've seen it on a Cast's face \u2014   \nWas Paradise \u2014 to blame \u2014\n\nIf momently ajar \u2014   \nTemerity \u2014 drew near \u2014   \nAnd sickened \u2014 ever afterward  \nFor Somewhat that it saw?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It knew no lapse, nor Diminuation \u2014**\n\nIt knew no lapse, nor Diminuation \u2014   \nBut large \u2014 serene \u2014   \nBurned on \u2014 until through Dissolution \u2014   \nIt failed from Men \u2014\n\nI could not deem these Planetary forces  \nAnnulled \u2014   \nBut suffered an Exchange of Territory \u2014   \nOr World \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I measure every Grief I meet**\n\nI measure every Grief I meet  \nWith narrow, probing, Eyes \u2014   \nI wonder if It weighs like Mine \u2014   \nOr has an Easier size.\n\nI wonder if They bore it long \u2014   \nOr did it just begin \u2014   \nI could not tell the Date of Mine \u2014   \nIt feels so old a pain \u2014\n\nI wonder if it hurts to live \u2014   \nAnd if They have to try \u2014   \nAnd whether \u2014 could They choose between \u2014   \nIt would not be \u2014 to die \u2014\n\nI note that Some \u2014 gone patient long \u2014   \nAt length, renew their smile \u2014   \nAn imitation of a Light  \nThat has so little Oil \u2014\n\nI wonder if when Years have piled \u2014   \nSome Thousands \u2014 on the Harm \u2014   \nThat hurt them early \u2014 such a lapse  \nCould give them any Balm \u2014\n\nOr would they go on aching still  \nThrough Centuries of Nerve \u2014   \nEnlightened to a larger Pain -  \nIn Contrast with the Love \u2014\n\nThe Grieved \u2014 are many \u2014 I am told \u2014   \nThere is the various Cause \u2014   \nDeath \u2014 is but one \u2014 and comes but once \u2014   \nAnd only nails the eyes \u2014\n\nThere's Grief of Want \u2014 and Grief of Cold \u2014   \nA sort they call \"Despair\" \u2014   \nThere's Banishment from native Eyes \u2014   \nIn sight of Native Air \u2014\n\nAnd though I may not guess the kind \u2014   \nCorrectly \u2014 yet to me  \nA piercing Comfort it affords  \nIn passing Calvary \u2014\n\nTo note the fashions \u2014 of the Cross \u2014   \nAnd how they're mostly worn \u2014   \nStill fascinated to presume  \nThat Some \u2014 are like My Own \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Conjecturing a Climate**\n\nConjecturing a Climate  \nOf unsuspended Suns \u2014   \nAdds poignancy to Winter \u2014   \nThe Shivering Fancy turns\n\nTo a fictitious Country  \nTo palliate a Cold \u2014   \nNot obviated of Degree \u2014   \nNor erased \u2014 of Latitude \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I could not prove the Years had feet \u2014**\n\nI could not prove the Years had feet \u2014   \nYet confident they run  \nAm I, from symptoms that are past  \nAnd Series that are done \u2014\n\nI find my feet have further Goals \u2014   \nI smile upon the Aims  \nThat felt so ample \u2014 Yesterday \u2014   \nToday's \u2014 have vaster claims \u2014\n\nI do not doubt the self I was  \nWas competent to me \u2014   \nBut something awkward in the fit \u2014   \nProves that \u2014 outgrown \u2014 I see \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My period had come for Prayer \u2014**\n\nMy period had come for Prayer \u2014   \nNo other Art \u2014 would do \u2014   \nMy Tactics missed a rudiment \u2014   \nCreator \u2014 Was it you?\n\nGod grows above \u2014 so those who pray  \nHorizons \u2014 must ascend \u2014   \nAnd so I stepped upon the North  \nTo see this Curious Friend \u2014\n\nHis House was not \u2014 no sign had He \u2014   \nBy Chimney \u2014 nor by Door  \nCould I infer his Residence \u2014   \nVast Prairies of Air\n\nUnbroken by a Settler \u2014   \nWere all that I could see \u2014   \nInfinitude \u2014 Had'st Thou no Face  \nThat I might look on Thee?\n\nThe Silence condescended \u2014   \nCreation stopped \u2014 for Me \u2014   \nBut awed beyond my errand \u2014   \nI worshipped \u2014 did not \"pray\" \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**One Anguish \u2014 in a Crowd \u2014**\n\nOne Anguish \u2014 in a Crowd \u2014   \nA Minor thing \u2014 it sounds \u2014   \nAnd yet, unto the single Doe  \nAttempted of the Hounds\n\n'Tis Terror as consummate  \nAs Legions of Alarm  \nDid leap, full flanked, upon the Host \u2014   \n'Tis Units \u2014 make the Swarm \u2014\n\nA Small Leech \u2014 on the Vitals \u2014   \nThe sliver, in the Lung \u2014   \nThe Bung out \u2014 of an Artery \u2014   \nAre scarce accounted \u2014 Harms \u2014\n\nYet might \u2014 by relation  \nTo that Repealless thing \u2014   \nA Being \u2014 impotent to end \u2014   \nWhen once it has begun \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Dying Tiger \u2014 moaned for Drink \u2014**\n\nA Dying Tiger \u2014 moaned for Drink \u2014   \nI hunted all the Sand \u2014   \nI caught the Dripping of a Rock  \nAnd bore it in my Hand \u2014\n\nHis Mighty Balls \u2014 in death were thick \u2014   \nBut searching \u2014 I could see  \nA Vision on the Retina  \nOf Water \u2014 and of me \u2014\n\n'Twas not my blame \u2014 who sped too slow \u2014   \n'Twas not his blame \u2014 who died  \nWhile I was reaching him \u2014   \nBut 'twas \u2014 the fact that He was dead \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**He gave away his Life \u2014**\n\nHe gave away his Life \u2014   \nTo Us \u2014 Gigantic Sum \u2014   \nA trifle \u2014 in his own esteem \u2014   \nBut magnified \u2014 by Fame \u2014\n\nUntil it burst the Hearts  \nThat fancied they could hold \u2014   \nWhen swift it slipped its limit \u2014   \nAnd on the Heavens \u2014 unrolled \u2014\n\n'Tis Ours \u2014 to wince \u2014 and weep \u2014   \nAnd wonder \u2014 and decay  \nBy Blossoms gradual process \u2014   \nHe chose \u2014 Maturity \u2014\n\nAnd quickening \u2014 as we sowed \u2014   \nJust obviated Bud \u2014   \nAnd when We turned to note the Growth \u2014   \nBroke \u2014 perfect \u2014 from the Pod \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We learned the Whole of Love \u2014**\n\nWe learned the Whole of Love \u2014   \nThe Alphabet \u2014 the Words \u2014   \nA Chapter \u2014 then the mighty Book \u2014   \nThen \u2014 Revelation closed \u2014\n\nBut in Each Other's eyes  \nAn Ignorance beheld \u2014   \nDiviner than the Childhood's \u2014   \nAnd each to each, a Child \u2014\n\nAttempted to expound  \nWhat Neither \u2014 understood \u2014   \nAlas, that Wisdom is so large \u2014   \nAnd Truth \u2014 so manifold!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I reckon \u2014 when I count it all \u2014**\n\nI reckon \u2014 when I count at all \u2014   \nFirst \u2014 Poets \u2014 Then the Sun \u2014   \nThen Summer \u2014 Then the Heaven of God \u2014   \nAnd then \u2014 the List is done \u2014\n\nBut, looking back \u2014 the First so seems  \nTo Comprehend the Whole \u2014   \nThe Others look a needless Show \u2014   \nSo I write \u2014 Poets \u2014 All \u2014\n\nTheir Summer \u2014 lasts a Solid Year \u2014   \nThey can afford a Sun  \nThe East \u2014 would deem extravagant \u2014   \nAnd if the Further Heaven \u2014\n\nBe Beautiful as they prepare  \nFor Those who worship Them \u2014   \nIt is too difficult a Grace \u2014   \nTo justify the Dream \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I could die \u2014 to know \u2014**\n\nI could die \u2014 to know \u2014   \n'Tis a trifling knowledge \u2014   \nNews-Boys salute the Door \u2014   \nCarts \u2014 joggle by \u2014   \nMorning's bold face \u2014 stares in the window \u2014   \nWere but mine \u2014 the Charter of the least Fly \u2014\n\nHouses hunch the House  \nWith their Brick Shoulders \u2014   \nCoals \u2014 from a Rolling Load \u2014 rattle \u2014 how \u2014 near \u2014   \nTo the very Square \u2014 His foot is passing \u2014   \nPossibly, this moment \u2014   \nWhile I \u2014 dream \u2014 Here \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Must be a Woe \u2014**\n\nMust be a Woe \u2014   \nA loss or so \u2014   \nTo bend the eye  \nBest Beauty's way \u2014\n\nBut \u2014 once aslant  \nIt notes Delight  \nAs difficult  \nAs Stalactite\n\nA Common Bliss  \nWere had for less \u2014   \nThe price \u2014 is  \nEven as the Grace \u2014\n\nOur lord \u2014 thought no  \nExtravagance  \nTo pay \u2014 a Cross \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Delight \u2014 becomes pictorial \u2014**\n\nDelight \u2014 becomes pictorial \u2014   \nWhen viewed through Pain \u2014   \nMore fair \u2014 because impossible  \nThan any gain \u2014\n\nThe Mountain \u2014 at a given distance \u2014   \nIn Amber \u2014 lies \u2014   \nApproached \u2014 the Amber flits \u2014 a little \u2014   \nAnd That's \u2014 the Skies \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Test of Love \u2014 is Death \u2014**\n\nThe Test of Love \u2014 is Death \u2014   \nOur Lord \u2014 \"so loved\" \u2014 it saith \u2014   \nWhat Largest Lover \u2014 hath  \nAnother \u2014 doth \u2014\n\nIf smaller Patience \u2014 be \u2014   \nThrough less Infinity \u2014   \nIf Bravo, sometimes swerve \u2014   \nThrough fainter Nerve \u2014\n\nAccept its Most \u2014   \nAnd overlook \u2014 the Dust \u2014   \nLast \u2014 Least \u2014   \nThe Cross' \u2014 Request \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My first well Day \u2014 since many ill \u2014**\n\nMy first well Day \u2014 since many ill \u2014   \nI asked to go abroad,  \nAnd take the Sunshine in my hands,  \nAnd see the things in Pod \u2014\n\nA 'blossom just when I went in  \nTo take my Chance with pain \u2014   \nUncertain if myself, or He,  \nShould prove the strongest One.\n\nThe Summer deepened, while we strove \u2014   \nShe put some flowers away \u2014   \nAnd Redder cheeked Ones \u2014 in their stead \u2014   \nA fond \u2014 illusive way \u2014\n\nTo cheat Herself, it seemed she tried \u2014   \nAs if before a child  \nTo fade \u2014 Tomorrow \u2014 Rainbows held  \nThe Sepulchre, could hide.\n\nShe dealt a fashion to the Nut \u2014   \nShe tied the Hoods to Seeds \u2014   \nShe dropped bright scraps of Tint, about \u2014   \nAnd left Brazilian Threads\n\nOn every shoulder that she met \u2014   \nThen both her Hands of Haze  \nPut up \u2014 to hide her parting Grace  \nFrom our unfitted eyes.\n\nMy loss, by sickness \u2014 Was it Loss?  \nOr that Ethereal Gain  \nOne earns by measuring the Grave \u2014   \nThen \u2014 measuring the Sun \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Heaven has different Signs \u2014 to me \u2014**\n\n\"Heaven\" has different Signs \u2014 to me \u2014   \nSometimes, I think that Noon  \nIs but a symbol of the Place \u2014   \nAnd when again, at Dawn,\n\nA mighty look runs round the World  \nAnd settles in the Hills \u2014   \nAn Awe if it should be like that  \nUpon the Ignorance steals \u2014\n\nThe Orchard, when the Sun is on \u2014   \nThe Triumph of the Birds  \nWhen they together Victory make \u2014   \nSome Carnivals of Clouds \u2014\n\nThe Rapture of a finished Day \u2014   \nReturning to the West \u2014   \nAll these \u2014 remind us of the place  \nThat Men call \"paradise\" \u2014\n\nItself be fairer \u2014 we suppose \u2014   \nBut how Ourself, shall be  \nAdorned, for a Superior Grace \u2014   \nNot yet, our eyes can see \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I prayed, at first, a little Girl,**\n\nI prayed, at first, a little Girl,  \nBecause they told me to \u2014   \nBut stopped, when qualified to guess  \nHow prayer would feel \u2014 to me \u2014\n\nIf I believed God looked around,  \nEach time my Childish eye  \nFixed full, and steady, on his own  \nIn Childish honesty \u2014\n\nAnd told him what I'd like, today,  \nAnd parts of his far plan  \nThat baffled me \u2014   \nThe mingled side  \nOf his Divinity \u2014\n\nAnd often since, in Danger,  \nI count the force 'twould be  \nTo have a God so strong as that  \nTo hold my life for me\n\nTill I could take the Balance  \nThat tips so frequent, now,  \nIt takes me all the while to poise \u2014   \nAnd then \u2014 it doesn't stay \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If I may have it, when it's dead,**\n\nIf I may have it, when it's dead,  \nI'll be contented \u2014 so \u2014   \nIf just as soon as Breath is out  \nIt shall belong to me \u2014\n\nUntil they lock it in the Grave,  \n'Tis Bliss I cannot weigh \u2014   \nFor tho' they lock Thee in the Grave,  \nMyself \u2014 can own the key \u2014\n\nThink of it Lover! I and Thee  \nPermitted \u2014 face to face to be \u2014   \nAfter a Life \u2014 a Death \u2014 We'll say \u2014   \nFor Death was That \u2014   \nAnd this \u2014 is Thee \u2014\n\nI'll tell Thee All \u2014 how Bald it grew \u2014   \nHow Midnight felt, at first \u2014 to me \u2014   \nHow all the Clocks stopped in the World \u2014   \nAnd Sunshine pinched me \u2014 'Twas so cold \u2014\n\nThen how the Grief got sleepy \u2014 some \u2014   \nAs if my Soul were deaf and dumb \u2014   \nJust making signs \u2014 across \u2014 to Thee \u2014   \nThat this way \u2014 thou could'st notice me \u2014\n\nI'll tell you how I tried to keep  \nA smile, to show you, when this Deep  \nAll Waded \u2014 We look back for Play,  \nAt those Old Times \u2014 in Calvary,\n\nForgive me, if the Grave come slow \u2014   \nFor Coveting to look at Thee \u2014   \nForgive me, if to stroke thy frost  \nOutvisions Paradise!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Body grows without \u2014**\n\nThe Body grows without \u2014   \nThe more convenient way \u2014   \nThat if the Spirit \u2014 like to hide  \nIts Temple stands, alway,\n\nAjar \u2014 secure \u2014 inviting \u2014   \nIt never did betray  \nThe Soul that asked its shelter  \nIn solemn honesty\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I had been hungry, all the Years \u2014**\n\nI had been hungry, all the Years \u2014   \nMy Noon had Come \u2014 to dine \u2014   \nI trembling drew the Table near \u2014   \nAnd touched the Curious Wine \u2014\n\n'Twas this on Tables I had seen \u2014   \nWhen turning, hungry, Lone  \nI looked in Windows, for the Wealth  \nI could not hope \u2014 to Own \u2014\n\nI did not know the ample Bread \u2014   \n'Twas so unlike the Crumb  \nThe Birds and I, had often shared  \nIn Nature's \u2014 Dining Room \u2014\n\nThe Plenty hurt me \u2014 'twas so new \u2014   \nMyself felt ill \u2014 and odd \u2014   \nAs Berry \u2014 of a Mountain Bush \u2014   \nTransplanted \u2014 to a Road \u2014\n\nNor was I hungry \u2014 so I found  \nThat Hunger \u2014 was a way  \nOf Persons outside Windows \u2014   \nThe Entering \u2014 takes away \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I gave myself to Him \u2014**\n\nI gave myself to Him \u2014   \nAnd took Himself, for Pay,  \nThe solemn contract of a Life  \nWas ratified, this way \u2014\n\nThe Wealth might disappoint \u2014   \nMyself a poorer prove  \nThan this great Purchaser suspect,  \nThe Daily Own \u2014 of Love\n\nDepreciate the Vision \u2014   \nBut till the Merchant buy \u2014   \nStill Fable \u2014 in the Isles of Spice \u2014   \nThe subtle Cargoes \u2014 lie \u2014\n\nAt least \u2014 'tis Mutual \u2014 Risk \u2014   \nSome \u2014 found it \u2014 Mutual Gain \u2014   \nSweet Debt of Life \u2014 Each Night to owe \u2014   \nInsolvent \u2014 every Noon \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I found the words to every thought**\n\nI found the words to every thought  \nI ever had \u2014 but One \u2014   \nAnd that \u2014 defies me \u2014   \nAs a Hand did try to chalk the Sun\n\nTo Races \u2014 nurtured in the Dark \u2014   \nHow would your own \u2014 begin?  \nCan Blaze be shown in Cochineal \u2014   \nOr Noon \u2014 in Mazarin?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Inconceivably solemn!**\n\nInconceivably solemn!  \nThings go gay  \nPierce \u2014 by the very Press  \nOf Imagery \u2014\n\nTheir far Parades \u2014 order on the eye  \nWith a mute Pomp \u2014   \nA pleading Pageantry \u2014\n\nFlags, are a brave sight \u2014   \nBut no true Eye  \nEver went by One \u2014   \nSteadily \u2014\n\nMusic's triumphant \u2014   \nBut the fine Ear  \nWinces with delight  \nAre Drums too near \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Toad, can die of Light \u2014**\n\nA Toad, can die of Light \u2014   \nDeath is the Common Right  \nOf Toads and Men \u2014   \nOf Earl and Midge  \nThe privilege \u2014   \nWhy swagger, then?  \nThe Gnat's supremacy is large as Thine \u2014\n\nLife \u2014 is a different Thing \u2014   \nSo measure Wine \u2014   \nNaked of Flask \u2014 Naked of Cask \u2014   \nBare Rhine \u2014   \nWhich Ruby's mine?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It ceased to hurt me, though so slow**\n\nIt ceased to hurt me, though so slow  \nI could not feel the Anguish go \u2014   \nBut only knew by looking back \u2014   \nThat something \u2014 had benumbed the Track \u2014\n\nNor when it altered, I could say,  \nFor I had worn it, every day,  \nAs constant as the Childish frock \u2014   \nI hung upon the Peg, at night.\n\nBut not the Grief \u2014 that nestled close  \nAs needles \u2014 ladies softly press  \nTo Cushions Cheeks \u2014   \nTo keep their place \u2014\n\nNor what consoled it, I could trace \u2014   \nExcept, whereas 'twas Wilderness \u2014   \nIt's better \u2014 almost Peace \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I like to see it lap the Miles \u2014**\n\nI like to see it lap the Miles \u2014   \nAnd lick the Valleys up \u2014   \nAnd stop to feed itself at Tanks \u2014   \nAnd then \u2014 prodigious step\n\nAround a Pile of Mountains \u2014   \nAnd supercilious peer  \nIn Shanties \u2014 by the sides of Roads \u2014   \nAnd then a Quarry pare\n\nTo fit its Ribs  \nAnd crawl between  \nComplaining all the while  \nIn horrid \u2014 hooting stanza \u2014   \nThen chase itself down Hill \u2014\n\nAnd neigh like Boanerges \u2014   \nThen \u2014 punctual as a Star  \nStop \u2014 docile and omnipotent  \nAt its own stable door \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We talked as Girls do \u2014**\n\nWe talked as Girls do \u2014   \nFond, and late \u2014   \nWe speculated fair, on every subject, but the Grave \u2014   \nOf ours, none affair \u2014\n\nWe handled Destinies, as cool \u2014   \nAs we \u2014 Disposers \u2014 be \u2014   \nAnd God, a Quiet Party  \nTo our Authority \u2014\n\nBut fondest, dwelt upon Ourself  \nAs we eventual \u2014 be \u2014   \nWhen Girls to Women, softly raised  \nWe \u2014 occupy \u2014 Degree \u2014\n\nWe parted with a contract  \nTo cherish, and to write  \nBut Heaven made both, impossible  \nBefore another night.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Empty my Heart, of Thee \u2014**\n\nEmpty my Heart, of Thee \u2014   \nIts single Artery \u2014   \nBegin, and leave Thee out \u2014   \nSimply Extinction's Date \u2014\n\nMuch Billow hath the Sea \u2014   \nOne Baltic \u2014 They \u2014   \nSubtract Thyself, in play,  \nAnd not enough of me  \nIs left \u2014 to put away \u2014   \n\"Myself\" meanth Thee \u2014\n\nErase the Root \u2014 no Tree \u2014   \nThee \u2014 then \u2014 no me \u2014   \nThe Heavens stripped \u2014   \nEternity's vast pocket, picked \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I cried at Pity \u2014 not at Pain \u2014**\n\nI cried at Pity \u2014 not at Pain \u2014   \nI heard a Woman say  \n\"Poor Child\" \u2014 and something in her voice  \nConvicted me \u2014 of me \u2014\n\nSo long I fainted, to myself  \nIt seemed the common way,  \nAnd Health, and Laughter, Curious things \u2014   \nTo look at, like a Toy \u2014\n\nTo sometimes hear \"Rich people\" buy  \nAnd see the Parcel rolled \u2014   \nAnd carried, I supposed \u2014 to Heaven,  \nFor children, made of Gold \u2014\n\nBut not to touch, or wish for,  \nOr think of, with a sigh \u2014   \nAnd so and so \u2014 had been to me,  \nHad God willed differently.\n\nI wish I knew that Woman's name \u2014   \nSo when she comes this way,  \nTo hold my life, and hold my ears  \nFor fear I hear her say\n\nShe's \"sorry I am dead\" \u2014 again \u2014   \nJust when the Grave and I \u2014   \nHave sobbed ourselves almost to sleep,  \nOur only Lullaby \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Night was wide, and furnished scant**\n\nThe Night was wide, and furnished scant  \nWith but a single Star \u2014   \nThat often as a Cloud it met \u2014   \nBlew out itself \u2014 for fear \u2014\n\nThe Wind pursued the little Bush \u2014   \nAnd drove away the Leaves  \nNovember left \u2014 then clambered up  \nAnd fretted in the Eaves \u2014\n\nNo Squirrel went abroad \u2014   \nA Dog's belated feet  \nLike intermittent Plush, he heard  \nAdown the empty Street \u2014\n\nTo feel if Blinds be fast \u2014   \nAnd closer to the fire \u2014   \nHer little Rocking Chair to draw \u2014   \nAnd shiver for the Poor \u2014\n\nThe Housewife's gentle Task \u2014   \nHow pleasanter \u2014 said she  \nUnto the Sofa opposite \u2014   \nThe Sleet \u2014 than May, no Thee \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Did you ever stand in a Cavern's Mouth \u2014**\n\nDid you ever stand in a Cavern's Mouth \u2014   \nWidths out of the Sun \u2014   \nAnd look \u2014 and shudder, and block your breath \u2014   \nAnd deem to be alone\n\nIn such a place, what horror,  \nHow Goblin it would be \u2014   \nAnd fly, as 'twere pursuing you?  \nThen Loneliness \u2014 looks so \u2014\n\nDid you ever look in a Cannon's face \u2014   \nBetween whose Yellow eye \u2014   \nAnd yours \u2014 the Judgment intervened \u2014   \nThe Question of \"To die\" \u2014\n\nExtemporizing in your ear  \nAs cool as Satyr's Drums \u2014   \nIf you remember, and were saved \u2014   \nIt's liker so \u2014 it seems \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To interrupt His Yellow Plan**\n\nTo interrupt His Yellow Plan  \nThe Sun does not allow  \nCaprices of the Atmosphere \u2014   \nAnd even when the Snow\n\nHeaves Balls of Specks, like Vicious Boy  \nDirectly in His Eye \u2014   \nDoes not so much as turn His Head  \nBusy with Majesty \u2014\n\n'Tis His to stimulate the Earth \u2014   \nAnd magnetize the Sea \u2014   \nAnd bind Astronomy, in place,  \nYet Any passing by\n\nWould deem Ourselves \u2014 the busier  \nAs the Minutest Bee  \nThat rides \u2014 emits a Thunder \u2014   \nA Bomb \u2014 to justify \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**What care the Dead, for Chanticleer \u2014**\n\nWhat care the Dead, for Chanticleer \u2014   \nWhat care the Dead for Day?  \n'Tis late your Sunrise vex their face \u2014   \nAnd Purple Ribaldry \u2014 of Morning\n\nPour as blank on them  \nAs on the Tier of Wall  \nThe Mason builded, yesterday,  \nAnd equally as cool \u2014\n\nWhat care the Dead for Summer?  \nThe Solstice had no Sun  \nCould waste the Snow before their Gate \u2014   \nAnd knew One Bird a Tune \u2014\n\nCould thrill their Mortised Ear  \nOf all the Birds that be \u2014   \nThis One \u2014 beloved of Mankind  \nHenceforward cherished be \u2014\n\nWhat care the Dead for Winter?  \nThemselves as easy freeze \u2014   \nJune Noon \u2014 as January Night \u2014   \nAs soon the South \u2014 her Breeze\n\nOf Sycamore \u2014 or Cinnamon \u2014   \nDeposit in a Stone  \nAnd put a Stone to keep it Warm \u2014   \nGive Spices \u2014 unto Men \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I think I was enchanted**\n\nI think I was enchanted  \nWhen first a sombre Girl \u2014   \nI read that Foreign Lady \u2014   \nThe Dark \u2014 felt beautiful \u2014\n\nAnd whether it was noon at night \u2014   \nOr only Heaven \u2014 at Noon \u2014   \nFor very Lunacy of Light  \nI had not power to tell \u2014\n\nThe Bees \u2014 became as Butterflies \u2014   \nThe Butterflies \u2014 as Swans \u2014   \nApproached \u2014 and spurned the narrow Grass \u2014   \nAnd just the meanest Tunes\n\nThat Nature murmured to herself  \nTo keep herself in Cheer \u2014   \nI took for Giants \u2014 practising  \nTitanic Opera \u2014\n\nThe Days \u2014 to Mighty Metres stept \u2014   \nThe Homeliest \u2014 adorned  \nAs if unto a Jubilee  \n'Twere suddenly Confirmed \u2014\n\nI could not have defined the change \u2014   \nConversion of the Mind  \nLike Sanctifying in the Soul \u2014   \nIs Witnessed \u2014 not Explained \u2014\n\n'Twas a Divine Insanity \u2014   \nThe Danger to be sane  \nShould I again experience \u2014   \n'Tis Antidote to turn \u2014\n\nTo Tomes of solid Witchcraft \u2014   \nMagicians be asleep \u2014   \nBut Magic \u2014 hath an Element \u2014   \nLike Deity \u2014 to keep \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Battle fought between the Soul**\n\nThe Battle fought between the Soul  \nAnd No Man \u2014 is the One  \nOf all the Battles prevalent \u2014   \nBy far the Greater One \u2014\n\nNo News of it is had abroad \u2014   \nIts Bodiless Campaign  \nEstablishes, and terminates \u2014   \nInvisible \u2014 Unknown \u2014\n\nNor History \u2014 record it \u2014   \nAs Legions of a Night  \nThe Sunrise scatters \u2014 These endure \u2014   \nEnact \u2014 and terminate \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Like Mighty Foot Lights \u2014 burned the Red**\n\nLike Mighty Foot Lights \u2014 burned the Red  \nAt Bases of the Trees \u2014   \nThe far Theatricals of Day  \nExhibiting \u2014 to These \u2014\n\n'Twas Universe \u2014 that did applaud \u2014   \nWhile Chiefest \u2014 of the Crowd \u2014   \nEnabled by his Royal Dress \u2014   \nMyself distinguished God \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**When I was small, a Woman died \u2014**\n\nWhen I was small, a Woman died \u2014   \nToday \u2014 her Only Boy  \nWent up from the Potomac \u2014   \nHis face all Victory\n\nTo look at her \u2014 How slowly  \nThe Seasons must have turned  \nTill Bullets clipt an Angle  \nAnd He passed quickly round \u2014\n\nIf pride shall be in Paradise \u2014   \nOurself cannot decide \u2014   \nOf their imperial Conduct \u2014   \nNo person testified \u2014\n\nBut, proud in Apparition \u2014   \nThat Woman and her Boy  \nPass back and forth, before my Brain  \nAs even in the sky \u2014\n\nI'm confident that Bravoes \u2014   \nPerpetual break abroad  \nFor Braveries, remote as this  \nIn Scarlet Maryland \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It always felt to me \u2014 a wrong**\n\nIt always felt to me \u2014 a wrong  \nTo that Old Moses \u2014 done \u2014   \nTo let him see \u2014 the Canaan \u2014   \nWithout the entering \u2014\n\nAnd tho' in soberer moments \u2014   \nNo Moses there can be  \nI'm satisfied \u2014 the Romance  \nIn point of injury \u2014\n\nSurpasses sharper stated \u2014   \nOf Stephen \u2014 or of Paul \u2014   \nFor these \u2014 were only put to death \u2014   \nWhile God's adroiter will\n\nOn Moses \u2014 seemed to fasten  \nWith tantalizing Play  \nAs Boy \u2014 should deal with lesser Boy \u2014   \nTo prove ability.\n\nThe fault \u2014 was doubtless Israel's \u2014   \nMyself \u2014 had banned the Tribes \u2014   \nAnd ushered Grand Old Moses  \nIn Pentateuchal Robes\n\nUpon the Broad Possession  \n'Twas little \u2014 But titled Him \u2014 to see \u2014   \nOld Man on Nebo! Late as this \u2014   \nMy justice bleeds \u2014 for Thee!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Three times \u2014 we parted \u2014 Breath \u2014 and I \u2014**\n\nThree times \u2014 we parted \u2014 Breath \u2014 and I \u2014   \nThree times \u2014 He would not go \u2014   \nBut strove to stir the lifeless Fan  \nThe Waters \u2014 strove to stay.\n\nThree Times \u2014 the Billows tossed me up \u2014   \nThen caught me \u2014 like a Ball \u2014   \nThen made Blue faces in my face \u2014   \nAnd pushed away a sail\n\nThat crawled Leagues off \u2014 I liked to see \u2014   \nFor thinking \u2014 while I die \u2014   \nHow pleasant to behold a Thing  \nWhere Human faces \u2014 be \u2014\n\nThe Waves grew sleepy \u2014 Breath \u2014 did not \u2014   \nThe Winds \u2014 like Children \u2014 lulled \u2014   \nThen Sunrise kissed my Chrysalis \u2014   \nAnd I stood up \u2014 and lived \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There is a pain \u2014 so utter \u2014**\n\nThere is a pain \u2014 so utter \u2014   \nIt swallows substance up \u2014   \nThen covers the Abyss with Trance \u2014   \nSo Memory can step  \nAround \u2014 across \u2014 upon it \u2014   \nAs one within a Swoon \u2014   \nGoes safely \u2014 where an open eye \u2014   \nWould drop Him \u2014 Bone by Bone.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It troubled me as once I was \u2014**\n\nIt troubled me as once I was \u2014   \nFor I was once a Child \u2014   \nConcluding how an Atom \u2014 fell \u2014   \nAnd yet the Heavens \u2014 held \u2014\n\nThe Heavens weighed the most \u2014 by far \u2014   \nYet Blue \u2014 and solid \u2014 stood \u2014   \nWithout a Bolt \u2014 that I could prove \u2014   \nWould Giants \u2014 understand?\n\nLife set me larger \u2014 problems \u2014   \nSome I shall keep \u2014 to solve  \nTill Algebra is easier \u2014   \nOr simpler proved \u2014 above \u2014\n\nThen \u2014 too \u2014 be comprehended \u2014   \nWhat sorer \u2014 puzzled me \u2014   \nWhy Heaven did not break away \u2014   \nAnd tumble \u2014 Blue \u2014 on me \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A still \u2014 Volcano \u2014 Life \u2014**\n\nA still \u2014 Volcano \u2014 Life \u2014   \nThat flickered in the night \u2014   \nWhen it was dark enough to do  \nWithout erasing sight \u2014\n\nA quiet \u2014 Earthquake Style \u2014   \nToo subtle to suspect  \nBy natures this side Naples \u2014   \nThe North cannot detect\n\nThe Solemn \u2014 Torrid \u2014 Symbol \u2014   \nThe lips that never lie \u2014   \nWhose hissing Corals part \u2014 and shut \u2014   \nAnd Cities \u2014 ooze away \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Of Brussels \u2014 it was not \u2014**\n\nOf Brussels \u2014 it was not \u2014   \nOf Kidderminster? Nay \u2014   \nThe Winds did buy it of the Woods \u2014   \nThey \u2014 sold it unto me\n\nIt was a gentle price \u2014   \nThe poorest \u2014 could afford \u2014   \nIt was within the frugal purse  \nOf Beggar \u2014 or of Bird \u2014\n\nOf small and spicy Yards \u2014   \nIn hue \u2014 a mellow Dun \u2014   \nOf Sunshine \u2014 and of Sere \u2014 Composed \u2014   \nBut, principally \u2014 of Sun \u2014\n\nThe Wind \u2014 unrolled it fast \u2014   \nAnd spread it on the Ground \u2014   \nUpholsterer of the Pines \u2014 is He \u2014   \nUpholsterer \u2014 of the Pond \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**He found my Being \u2014 set it up \u2014**\n\nHe found my Being \u2014 set it up \u2014   \nAdjusted it to place \u2014   \nThen carved his name \u2014 upon it \u2014   \nAnd bade it to the East\n\nBe faithful \u2014 in his absence \u2014   \nAnd he would come again \u2014   \nWith Equipage of Amber \u2014   \nThat time \u2014 to take it Home \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Unto my Books \u2014 so good to turn \u2014**\n\nUnto my Books \u2014 so good to turn \u2014   \nFar ends of tired Days \u2014   \nIt half endears the Abstinence \u2014   \nAnd Pain \u2014 is missed \u2014 in Praise \u2014\n\nAs Flavors \u2014 cheer Retarded Guests  \nWith Banquettings to be \u2014   \nSo Spices \u2014 stimulate the time  \nTill my small Library \u2014\n\nIt may be Wilderness \u2014 without \u2014   \nFar feet of failing Men \u2014   \nBut Holiday \u2014 excludes the night \u2014   \nAnd it is Bells \u2014 within \u2014\n\nI thank these Kinsmen of the Shelf \u2014   \nTheir Countenances Kid  \nEnamor \u2014 in Prospective \u2014   \nAnd satisfy \u2014 obtained \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Spider holds a Silver Ball**\n\nThe Spider holds a Silver Ball  \nIn unperceived Hands \u2014   \nAnd dancing softly to Himself  \nHis Yarn of Pearl \u2014 unwinds \u2014\n\nHe plies from Nought to Nought \u2014   \nIn unsubstantial Trade \u2014   \nSupplants our Tapestries with His \u2014   \nIn half the period \u2014\n\nAn Hour to rear supreme  \nHis Continents of Light \u2014   \nThen dangle from the Housewife's Broom \u2014   \nHis Boundaries \u2014 forgot \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Trees like Tassels \u2014 hit \u2014 and swung \u2014**\n\nThe Trees like Tassels \u2014 hit \u2014 and swung \u2014   \nThere seemed to rise a Tune  \nFrom Miniature Creatures  \nAccompanying the Sun \u2014\n\nFar Psalteries of Summer \u2014   \nEnamoring the Ear  \nThey never yet did satisfy \u2014   \nRemotest \u2014 when most fair\n\nThe Sun shone whole at intervals \u2014   \nThen Half \u2014 then utter hid \u2014   \nAs if Himself were optional  \nAnd had Estates of Cloud\n\nSufficient to enfold Him  \nEternally from view \u2014   \nExcept it were a whim of His  \nTo let the Orchards grow \u2014\n\nA Bird sat careless on the fence \u2014   \nOne gossipped in the Lane  \nOn silver matters charmed a Snake  \nJust winding round a Stone \u2014\n\nBright Flowers slit a Calyx  \nAnd soared upon a Stem  \nLike Hindered Flags \u2014 Sweet hoisted \u2014   \nWith Spices \u2014 in the Hem \u2014\n\n'Twas more \u2014 I cannot mention \u2014   \nHow mean \u2014 to those that see \u2014   \nVandyke's Delineation  \nOf Nature's \u2014 Summer Day!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Of nearness to her sundered Things**\n\nOf nearness to her sundered Things  \nThe Soul has special times \u2014   \nWhen Dimness \u2014 looks the Oddity \u2014   \nDistinctness \u2014 easy \u2014 seems \u2014\n\nThe Shapes we buried, dwell about,  \nFamiliar, in the Rooms \u2014   \nUntarnished by the Sepulchre,  \nThe Mouldering Playmate comes \u2014\n\nIn just the Jacket that he wore \u2014   \nLong buttoned in the Mold  \nSince we \u2014 old mornings, Children \u2014 played \u2014   \nDivided \u2014 by a world \u2014\n\nThe Grave yields back her Robberies \u2014   \nThe Years, our pilfered Things \u2014   \nBright Knots of Apparitions  \nSalute us, with their wings \u2014\n\nAs we \u2014 it were \u2014 that perished \u2014   \nThemself \u2014 had just remained till we rejoin them \u2014   \nAnd 'twas they, and not ourself  \nThat mourned.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Afraid! Of whom am I afraid?**\n\nAfraid! Of whom am I afraid?  \nNot Death \u2014 for who is He?  \nThe Porter of my Father's Lodge  \nAs much abasheth me!\n\nOf Life? 'Twere odd I fear [a] thing  \nThat comprehendeth me  \nIn one or two existences \u2014   \nAs Deity decree \u2014\n\nOf Resurrection? Is the East  \nAfraid to trust the Morn  \nWith her fastidious forehead?  \nAs soon impeach my Crown!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I Years had been from Home**\n\nI Years had been from Home  \nAnd now before the Door  \nI dared not enter, lest a Face  \nI never saw before\n\nStare solid into mine  \nAnd ask my Business there \u2014   \n\"My Business but a Life I left  \nWas such remaining there?\"\n\nI leaned upon the Awe \u2014   \nI lingered with Before \u2014   \nThe Second like an Ocean rolled  \nAnd broke against my ear \u2014\n\nI laughed a crumbling Laugh  \nThat I could fear a Door  \nWho Consternation compassed  \nAnd never winced before.\n\nI fitted to the Latch  \nMy Hand, with trembling care  \nLest back the awful Door should spring  \nAnd leave me in the Floor \u2014\n\nThen moved my Fingers off  \nAs cautiously as Glass  \nAnd held my ears, and like a Thief  \nFled gasping from the House \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**You'll find \u2014 it when you try to die \u2014**\n\nYou'll find \u2014 it when you try to die \u2014   \nThe Easier to let go \u2014   \nFor recollecting such as went \u2014   \nYou could not spare \u2014 you know.\n\nAnd though their places somewhat filled \u2014   \nAs did their Marble names  \nWith Moss \u2014 they never grew so full \u2014   \nYou chose the newer names \u2014\n\nAnd when this World \u2014 sets further back \u2014   \nAs Dying \u2014 say it does \u2014   \nThe former love \u2014 distincter grows \u2014   \nAnd supersedes the fresh \u2014\n\nAnd Thought of them \u2014 so fair invites \u2014   \nIt looks too tawdry Grace  \nTo stay behind \u2014 with just the Toys  \nWe bought \u2014 to ease their place \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I see thee better \u2014 in the Dark \u2014**\n\nI see thee better \u2014 in the Dark \u2014   \nI do not need a Light \u2014   \nThe Love of Thee \u2014 a Prism be \u2014   \nExcelling Violet \u2014\n\nI see thee better for the Years  \nThat hunch themselves between \u2014   \nThe Miner's Lamp \u2014 sufficient be \u2014   \nTo nullify the Mine \u2014\n\nAnd in the Grave \u2014 I see Thee best \u2014   \nIts little Panels be  \nAglow \u2014 All ruddy \u2014 with the Light  \nI held so high, for Thee \u2014\n\nWhat need of Day \u2014   \nTo Those whose Dark \u2014 hath so \u2014 surpassing Sun \u2014   \nIt deem it be \u2014 Continually \u2014   \nAt the Meridian?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It would have starved a Gnat \u2014**\n\nIt would have starved a Gnat \u2014   \nTo live so small as I \u2014   \nAnd yet I was a living Child \u2014   \nWith Food's necessity\n\nUpon me \u2014 like a Claw \u2014   \nI could no more remove  \nThan I could coax a Leech away \u2014   \nOr make a Dragon \u2014 move \u2014\n\nNot like the Gnat \u2014 had I \u2014   \nThe privilege to fly  \nAnd seek a Dinner for myself \u2014   \nHow mightier He \u2014 than I \u2014\n\nNor like Himself \u2014 the Art  \nUpon the Window Pane  \nTo gad my little Being out \u2014   \nAnd not begin \u2014 again \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**They shut me up in Prose \u2014**\n\nThey shut me up in Prose \u2014   \nAs when a little Girl  \nThey put me in the Closet \u2014   \nBecause they liked me \"still\" \u2014\n\nStill! Could themself have peeped \u2014   \nAnd seen my Brain \u2014 go round \u2014   \nThey might as wise have lodged a Bird  \nFor Treason \u2014 in the Pound \u2014\n\nHimself has but to will  \nAnd easy as a Star  \nAbolish his Captivity \u2014   \nAnd laugh \u2014 No more have I \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**In falling Timbers buried \u2014**\n\nIn falling Timbers buried \u2014   \nThere breathed a Man \u2014   \nOutside \u2014 the spades \u2014 were plying \u2014   \nThe Lungs \u2014 within \u2014\n\nCould He \u2014 know \u2014 they sought Him \u2014   \nCould They \u2014 know \u2014 He breathed \u2014   \nHorrid Sand Partition \u2014   \nNeither \u2014 could be heard \u2014\n\nNever slacked the Diggers \u2014   \nBut when Spades had done \u2014   \nOh, Reward of Anguish,  \nIt was dying \u2014 Then \u2014\n\nMany Things \u2014 are fruitless \u2014   \n'Tis a Baffling Earth \u2014   \nBut there is no Gratitude  \nLike the Grace \u2014 of Death \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Our journey had advanced \u2014**\n\nOur journey had advanced \u2014   \nOur feet were almost come  \nTo that odd Fork in Being's Road \u2014   \nEternity \u2014 by Term \u2014\n\nOur pace took sudden awe \u2014   \nOur feet \u2014 reluctant \u2014 led \u2014   \nBefore \u2014 were Cities \u2014 but Between \u2014   \nThe Forest of the Dead \u2014\n\nRetreat \u2014 was out of Hope \u2014   \nBehind \u2014 a Sealed Route \u2014   \nEternity's White Flag \u2014 Before \u2014   \nAnd God \u2014 at every Gate \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I rose \u2014 because He sank \u2014**\n\nI rose \u2014 because He sank \u2014   \nI thought it would be opposite \u2014   \nBut when his power dropped \u2014   \nMy Soul grew straight.\n\nI cheered my fainting Prince \u2014   \nI sang firm \u2014 even \u2014 Chants \u2014   \nI helped his Film \u2014 with Hymn \u2014\n\nAnd when the Dews drew off  \nThat held his Forehead stiff \u2014   \nI met him \u2014   \nBalm to Balm \u2014\n\nI told him Best \u2014 must pass  \nThrough this low Arch of Flesh \u2014   \nNo Casque so brave  \nIt spurn the Grave \u2014\n\nI told him Worlds I knew  \nWhere Emperors grew \u2014   \nWho recollected us  \nIf we were true \u2014\n\nAnd so with Thews of Hymn \u2014   \nAnd Sinew from within \u2014   \nAnd ways I knew not that I knew \u2014 till then \u2014   \nI lifted Him \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Don't put up my Thread and Needle \u2014**\n\nDon't put up my Thread and Needle \u2014   \nI'll begin to Sew  \nWhen the Birds begin to whistle \u2014   \nBetter Stitches \u2014 so \u2014\n\nThese were bent \u2014 my sight got crooked \u2014   \nWhen my mind \u2014 is plain  \nI'll do seams \u2014 a Queen's endeavor  \nWould not blush to own \u2014\n\nHems \u2014 too fine for Lady's tracing  \nTo the sightless Knot \u2014   \nTucks \u2014 of dainty interspersion \u2014   \nLike a dotted Dot \u2014\n\nLeave my Needle in the furrow \u2014   \nWhere I put it down \u2014   \nI can make the zigzag stitches  \nStraight \u2014 when I am strong \u2014\n\nTill then \u2014 dreaming I am sewing  \nFetch the seam I missed \u2014   \nCloser \u2014 so I \u2014 at my sleeping \u2014   \nStill surmise I stitch \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**At leisure is the Soul**\n\nAt leisure is the Soul  \nThat gets a Staggering Blow \u2014   \nThe Width of Life \u2014 before it spreads  \nWithout a thing to do \u2014\n\nIt begs you give it Work \u2014   \nBut just the placing Pins \u2014   \nOr humblest Patchwork \u2014 Children do \u2014   \nTo Help its Vacant Hands \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Glee \u2014 The great storm is over \u2014**\n\nGLEE ! the great storm in over !  \nFour have recovered the land ;  \nForty gone down together  \nInto the boiling sand.\n\nRing, for the scant salvation !  \nToll, for the bonnie souls, \u2014   \nNeighbor and friend and bridegroom,  \nSpinning upon the shoals !\n\nHow they will tell the shipwreck  \nWhen winter shakes the door,  \nTill the children ask, \"But the forty ?  \nDid they come back no more ?\"\n\nThen a silence suffuses the story,  \nAnd a softness the teller's eye ;  \nAnd the children no further question,  \nAnd only the waves reply.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It makes no difference abroad \u2014**\n\nIt makes no difference abroad \u2014   \nThe Seasons \u2014 fit \u2014 the same \u2014   \nThe Mornings blossom into Noons \u2014   \nAnd split their Pods of Flame \u2014\n\nWild flowers \u2014 kindle in the Woods \u2014   \nThe Brooks slam \u2014 all the Day \u2014   \nNo Black bird bates his Banjo \u2014   \nFor passing Calvary \u2014\n\nAuto da Fe \u2014 and Judgment \u2014   \nAre nothing to the Bee \u2014   \nHis separation from His Rose \u2014   \nTo Him \u2014 sums Misery \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I asked no other thing \u2014**\n\nI ASKED no other thing.  \nNo other was denied.  \nI offered Being for it ;  \nThe mighty merchant smiled.\n\nBrazil ? He twirled a button,  \nWithout a glance my way :  \n\"But, madam, is there nothing else  \nThat we can show to-day ?\"\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To know just how He suffered \u2014 would be dear \u2014**\n\nTO know just how he suffered would be dear;  \nTo know if any human eyes were near  \nTo whom he could intrust his wavering gaze,  \nUntil it settled firm on Paradise.\n\nTo know if he was patient, part content,  \nWas dying as he thought, or different;  \nWas it a pleasant day to die,  \nAnd did the sunshine face his way?\n\nWhat was his furthest mind, of home, of God,  \nOr what the distant say  \nAt news that he ceased human nature  \nOn such a day?\n\nAnd wishes, had he any?  \nJust his sigh, accented,  \nHad been legible to me.  \nAnd was he confident until  \nIll fluttered out in everlasting well?\n\nAnd if he spoke, what name was best,  \nWhat first,  \nWhat one broke off with  \nAt the drowsiest?\n\nWas he afraid, or tranquil?  \nMight he know  \nHow conscious consciousness could grow,  \nTill love that was, and love too blest to be,  \nMeet \u2014 and the junction be Eternity?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It was too late for Man \u2014**\n\nIT was too late for man,  \nBut early yet for God ;  \nCreation impotent to help,  \nBut prayer remained our side.\n\nHow excellent the heaven,  \nWhen earth cannot be had ;  \nHow hospitable, then, the face  \nOf our old neighbor, God !\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Forever \u2014 is composed of Nows \u2014**\n\nForever \u2014 is composed of Nows \u2014   \n'Tis not a different time \u2014   \nExcept for Infiniteness \u2014   \nAnd Latitude of Home \u2014\n\nFrom this \u2014 experienced Here \u2014   \nRemove the Dates \u2014 to These \u2014   \nLet Months dissolve in further Months \u2014   \nAnd Years \u2014 exhale in Years \u2014\n\nWithout Debate \u2014 or Pause \u2014   \nOr Celebrated Days \u2014   \nNo different Our Years would be  \nFrom Anno Domini's \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Twas a long Parting \u2014 but the time**\n\n'Twas a long Parting \u2014 but the time  \nFor Interview \u2014 had Come \u2014   \nBefore the Judgment Seat of God \u2014   \nThe last \u2014 and second time\n\nThese Fleshless Lovers met \u2014   \nA Heaven in a Gaze \u2014   \nA Heaven of Heavens \u2014 the Privilege  \nOf one another's Eyes \u2014\n\nNo Lifetime \u2014 on Them \u2014   \nAppareled as the new  \nUnborn \u2014 except They had beheld \u2014   \nBorn infiniter \u2014 now \u2014\n\nWas Bridal \u2014 e'er like This?  \nA Paradise \u2014 the Host \u2014   \nAnd Cherubim \u2014 and Seraphim \u2014   \nThe unobtrusive Guest \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Only God \u2014 detect the Sorrow \u2014**\n\nOnly God \u2014 detect the Sorrow \u2014   \nOnly God \u2014   \nThe Jehovahs \u2014 are no Babblers \u2014   \nUnto God \u2014   \nGod the Son \u2014 Confide it \u2014   \nStill secure \u2014   \nGod the Spirit's Honor \u2014   \nJust as sure \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Tint I cannot take \u2014 is best \u2014**\n\nThe Tint I cannot take \u2014 is best \u2014   \nThe Color too remote  \nThat I could show it in Bazaar \u2014   \nA Guinea at a sight \u2014\n\nThe fine \u2014 impalpable Array \u2014   \nThat swaggers on the eye  \nLike Cleopatra's Company \u2014   \nRepeated \u2014 in the sky \u2014\n\nThe Moments of Dominion  \nThat happen on the Soul  \nAnd leave it with a Discontent  \nToo exquisite \u2014 to tell \u2014\n\nThe eager look \u2014 on Landscapes \u2014   \nAs if they just repressed  \nSome Secret \u2014 that was pushing  \nLike Chariots \u2014 in the Vest \u2014\n\nThe Pleading of the Summer \u2014   \nThat other Prank \u2014 of Snow \u2014   \nThat Cushions Mystery with Tulle,  \nFor fear the Squirrels \u2014 know.\n\nTheir Graspless manners \u2014 mock us \u2014   \nUntil the Cheated Eye  \nShuts arrogantly \u2014 in the Grave \u2014   \nAnother way \u2014 to see \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**They called me to the Window, for**\n\nThey called me to the Window, for  \n\" 'Twas Sunset\" \u2014 Some one said \u2014   \nI only saw a Sapphire Farm \u2014   \nAnd just a Single Herd \u2014\n\nOf Opal Cattle \u2014 feeding far  \nUpon so vain a Hill \u2014   \nAs even while I looked \u2014 dissolved \u2014   \nNor Cattle were \u2014 nor Soil \u2014\n\nBut in their stead \u2014 a Sea \u2014 displayed \u2014   \nAnd Ships \u2014 of such a size  \nAs Crew of Mountains \u2014 could afford \u2014   \nAnd Decks \u2014 to seat the skies \u2014\n\nThis \u2014 too \u2014 the Showman rubbed away \u2014   \nAnd when I looked again \u2014   \nNor Farm \u2014 nor Opal Herd \u2014 was there \u2014   \nNor Mediterranean \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I watched the Moon around the House**\n\nI watched the Moon around the House  \nUntil upon a Pane \u2014   \nShe stopped \u2014 a Traveller's privilege \u2014 for Rest \u2014   \nAnd there upon\n\nI gazed \u2014 as at a stranger \u2014   \nThe Lady in the Town  \nDoth think no incivility  \nTo lift her Glass \u2014 upon \u2014\n\nBut never Stranger justified  \nThe Curiosity  \nLike Mine \u2014 for not a Foot \u2014 nor Hand \u2014   \nNor Formula \u2014 had she \u2014\n\nBut like a Head \u2014 a Guillotine  \nSlid carelessly away \u2014   \nDid independent, Amber \u2014   \nSustain her in the sky \u2014\n\nOr like a Stemless Flower \u2014   \nUpheld in rolling Air  \nBy finer Gravitations \u2014   \nThan bind Philosopher \u2014\n\nNo Hunger \u2014 had she \u2014 nor an Inn \u2014   \nHer Toilette \u2014 to suffice \u2014   \nNor Avocation \u2014 nor Concern  \nFor little Mysteries\n\nAs harass us \u2014 like Life \u2014 and Death \u2014   \nAnd Afterwards \u2014 or Nay \u2014   \nBut seemed engrossed to Absolute \u2014   \nWith shining \u2014 and the Sky \u2014\n\nThe privilege to scrutinize  \nWas scarce upon my Eyes  \nWhen, with a Silver practise \u2014   \nShe vaulted out of Gaze \u2014\n\nAnd next \u2014 I met her on a Cloud \u2014   \nMyself too far below  \nTo follow her superior Road \u2014   \nOr its advantage \u2014 Blue \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Lightning playeth \u2014 all the while \u2014**\n\nThe Lightning playeth \u2014 all the while \u2014   \nBut when He singeth \u2014 then \u2014   \nOurselves are conscious He exist \u2014   \nAnd we approach Him \u2014 stern \u2014\n\nWith Insulators \u2014 and a Glove \u2014   \nWhose short \u2014 sepulchral Bass  \nAlarms us \u2014 tho' His Yellow feet  \nMay pass \u2014 and counterpass \u2014\n\nUpon the Ropes \u2014 above our Head \u2014   \nContinual \u2014 with the News \u2014   \nNor We so much as check our speech \u2014   \nNor stop to cross Ourselves \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Ourselves were wed one summer \u2014 dear \u2014**\n\nOurselves were wed one summer \u2014 dear \u2014   \nYour Vision \u2014 was in June \u2014   \nAnd when Your little Lifetime failed,  \nI wearied \u2014 too \u2014 of mine \u2014\n\nAnd overtaken in the Dark \u2014   \nWhere You had put me down \u2014   \nBy Some one carrying a Light \u2014   \nI \u2014 too \u2014 received the Sign.\n\n'Tis true \u2014 Our Futures different lay \u2014   \nYour Cottage \u2014 faced the sun \u2014   \nWhile Oceans \u2014 and the North must be \u2014   \nOn every side of mine\n\n'Tis true, Your Garden led the Bloom,  \nFor mine \u2014 in Frosts \u2014 was sown \u2014   \nAnd yet, one Summer, we were Queens \u2014   \nBut You \u2014 were crowned in June \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Brain \u2014 is wider than the Sky \u2014**\n\nThe Brain \u2014 is wider than the Sky \u2014   \nFor \u2014 put them side by side \u2014   \nThe one the other will contain  \nWith ease \u2014 and You \u2014 beside \u2014\n\nThe Brain is deeper than the sea \u2014   \nFor \u2014 hold them \u2014 Blue to Blue \u2014   \nThe one the other will absorb \u2014   \nAs Sponges \u2014 Buckets \u2014 do \u2014\n\nThe Brain is just the weight of God \u2014   \nFor \u2014 Heft them \u2014 Pound for Pound \u2014   \nAnd they will differ \u2014 if they do \u2014   \nAs Syllable from Sound \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**When Bells stop ringing \u2014 Church \u2014 begins**\n\nWhen Bells stop ringing \u2014 Church \u2014 begins  \nThe Positive \u2014 of Bells \u2014   \nWhen Cogs \u2014 stop \u2014 that's Circumference \u2014   \nThe Ultimate \u2014 of Wheels.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**You'll know Her \u2014 by Her Foot \u2014**\n\nYou'll know Her \u2014 by Her Foot \u2014   \nThe smallest Gamboge Hand  \nWith Fingers \u2014 where the Toes should be \u2014   \nWould more affront the Sand \u2014\n\nThan this Quaint Creature's Boot \u2014   \nAdjusted by a Stern \u2014   \nWithout a Button \u2014 I could vouch \u2014   \nUnto a Velvet Limb \u2014\n\nYou'll know Her \u2014 by Her Vest \u2014   \nTight fitting \u2014 Orange \u2014 Brown \u2014   \nInside a Jacket duller \u2014   \nShe wore when she was born \u2014\n\nHer Cap is small \u2014 and snug \u2014   \nConstructed for the Winds \u2014   \nShe'd pass for Barehead \u2014 short way off \u2014   \nBut as She Closer stands \u2014\n\nSo finer 'tis than Wool \u2014   \nYou cannot feel the Seam \u2014   \nNor is it Clasped unto of Band \u2014   \nNor held upon \u2014 of Brim \u2014\n\nYou'll know Her \u2014 by Her Voice \u2014   \nAt first \u2014 a doubtful Tone \u2014   \nA sweet endeavor \u2014 but as March  \nTo April \u2014 hurries on \u2014\n\nShe squanders on your Ear  \nSuch Arguments of Pearl \u2014   \nYou beg the Robin in your Brain  \nTo keep the other \u2014 still \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I think the longest Hour of all**\n\nI think the longest Hour of all  \nIs when the Cars have come \u2014   \nAnd we are waiting for the Coach \u2014   \nIt seems as though the Time\n\nIndignant \u2014 that the Joy was come \u2014   \nDid block the Gilded Hands \u2014   \nAnd would not let the Seconds by \u2014   \nBut slowest instant \u2014 ends \u2014\n\nThe Pendulum begins to count \u2014   \nLike little Scholars \u2014 loud \u2014   \nThe steps grow thicker \u2014 in the Hall \u2014   \nThe Heart begins to crowd \u2014\n\nThen I \u2014 my timid service done \u2014   \nTho' service 'twas, of Love \u2014   \nTake up my little Violin \u2014   \nAnd further North \u2014 remove.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Way I read a Letter's \u2014 this \u2014**\n\nThe Way I read a Letter's \u2014 this \u2014   \n'Tis first \u2014 I lock the Door \u2014   \nAnd push it with my fingers \u2014 next \u2014   \nFor transport it be sure \u2014\n\nAnd then I go the furthest off  \nTo counteract a knock \u2014   \nThen draw my little Letter forth  \nAnd slowly pick the lock \u2014\n\nThen \u2014 glancing narrow, at the Wall \u2014   \nAnd narrow at the floor  \nFor firm Conviction of a Mouse  \nNot exorcised before \u2014\n\nPeruse how infinite I am  \nTo no one that You \u2014 know \u2014   \nAnd sigh for lack of Heaven \u2014 but not  \nThe Heaven God bestow \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Child's faith is new \u2014**\n\nThe Child's faith is new \u2014   \nWhole \u2014 like His Principle \u2014   \nWide \u2014 like the Sunrise  \nOn fresh Eyes \u2014   \nNever had a Doubt \u2014   \nLaughs \u2014 at a Scruple \u2014   \nBelieves all sham  \nBut Paradise \u2014\n\nCredits the World \u2014   \nDeems His Dominion  \nBroadest of Sovereignties \u2014   \nAnd Caesar \u2014 mean \u2014   \nIn the Comparison \u2014   \nBaseless Emperor \u2014   \nRuler of Nought \u2014   \nYet swaying all \u2014\n\nGrown bye and bye  \nTo hold mistaken  \nHis pretty estimates  \nOf Prickly Things  \nHe gains the skill  \nSorrowful \u2014 as certain \u2014   \nMen \u2014 to anticipate  \nInstead of Kings \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To my small Hearth His fire came \u2014**\n\nTo my small Hearth His fire came \u2014   \nAnd all my House aglow  \nDid fan and rock, with sudden light \u2014   \n'Twas Sunrise \u2014 'twas the Sky \u2014\n\nImpanelled from no Summer brief \u2014   \nWith limit of Decay \u2014   \n'Twas Noon \u2014 without the News of Night \u2014   \nNay, Nature, it was Day \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My Portion is Defeat \u2014 today \u2014**\n\nMy Portion is Defeat \u2014 today \u2014   \nA paler luck than Victory \u2014   \nLess Paeans \u2014 fewer Bells \u2014   \nThe Drums don't follow Me \u2014 with tunes \u2014   \nDefeat \u2014 a somewhat slower \u2014 means \u2014   \nMore Arduous than Balls \u2014\n\n'Tis populous with Bone and stain \u2014   \nAnd Men too straight to stoop again \u2014 ,  \nAnd Piles of solid Moan \u2014   \nAnd Chips of Blank \u2014 in Boyish Eyes \u2014   \nAnd scraps of Prayer \u2014   \nAnd Death's surprise,  \nStamped visible \u2014 in Stone \u2014\n\nThere's somewhat prouder, over there \u2014   \nThe Trumpets tell it to the Air \u2014   \nHow different Victory  \nTo Him who has it \u2014 and the One  \nWho to have had it, would have been  \nContender \u2014 to die \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I cannot live with You \u2014**\n\nI cannot live with You \u2014   \nIt would be Life \u2014   \nAnd Life is over there \u2014   \nBehind the Shelf\n\nThe Sexton keeps the Key to \u2014   \nPutting up  \nOur Life \u2014 His Porcelain \u2014   \nLike a Cup \u2014\n\nDiscarded of the Housewife \u2014   \nQuaint \u2014 or Broke \u2014   \nA newer Sevres pleases \u2014   \nOld Ones crack \u2014\n\nI could not die \u2014 with You \u2014   \nFor One must wait  \nTo shut the Other's Gaze down \u2014   \nYou \u2014 could not \u2014\n\nAnd I \u2014 Could I stand by  \nAnd see You \u2014 freeze \u2014   \nWithout my Right of Frost \u2014   \nDeath's privilege?\n\nNor could I rise \u2014 with You \u2014   \nBecause Your Face  \nWould put out Jesus' \u2014   \nThat New Grace\n\nGlow plain \u2014 and foreign  \nOn my homesick Eye \u2014   \nExcept that You than He  \nShone closer by \u2014\n\nThey'd judge Us \u2014 How \u2014   \nFor You \u2014 served Heaven \u2014 You know,  \nOr sought to \u2014   \nI could not \u2014\n\nBecause You saturated Sight \u2014   \nAnd I had no more Eyes  \nFor sordid excellence  \nAs Paradise\n\nAnd were You lost, I would be \u2014   \nThough My Name  \nRang loudest  \nOn the Heavenly fame \u2014\n\nAnd were You \u2014 saved \u2014   \nAnd I \u2014 condemned to be  \nWhere You were not \u2014   \nThat self \u2014 were Hell to Me \u2014\n\nSo We must meet apart \u2014   \nYou there \u2014 I \u2014 here \u2014   \nWith just the Door ajar  \nThat Oceans are \u2014 and Prayer \u2014   \nAnd that White Sustenance \u2014   \nDespair \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Size circumscribes \u2014 it has no room**\n\nSize circumscribes \u2014 it has no room  \nFor petty furniture \u2014   \nThe Giant tolerates no Gnat  \nFor Ease of Gianture \u2014\n\nRepudiates it, all the more \u2014   \nBecause intrinsic size  \nIgnores the possibility  \nOf Calumnies \u2014 or Flies.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Me from Myself \u2014 to banish \u2014**\n\nMe from Myself \u2014 to banish \u2014   \nHad I Art \u2014   \nImpregnable my Fortress  \nUnto All Heart \u2014\n\nBut since Myself \u2014 assault Me \u2014   \nHow have I peace  \nExcept by subjugating  \nConsciousness?\n\nAnd since We're mutual Monarch  \nHow this be  \nExcept by Abdication \u2014   \nMe \u2014 of Me?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I could suffice for Him, I knew \u2014**\n\nI could suffice for Him, I knew \u2014   \nHe \u2014 could suffice for Me \u2014   \nYet Hesitating Fractions \u2014 Both  \nSurveyed Infinity \u2014\n\n\"Would I be Whole\" He sudden broached \u2014   \nMy syllable rebelled \u2014   \n'Twas face to face with Nature \u2014 forced \u2014   \n'Twas face to face with God \u2014\n\nWithdrew the Sun \u2014 to Other Wests \u2014   \nWithdrew the furthest Star  \nBefore Decision \u2014 stooped to speech \u2014   \nAnd then \u2014 be audibler\n\nThe Answer of the Sea unto  \nThe Motion of the Moon \u2014   \nHerself adjust Her Tides \u2014 unto \u2014   \nCould I \u2014 do else \u2014 with Mine?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**You left me \u2014 Sire \u2014 two Legacies \u2014**\n\nYou left me \u2014 Sire \u2014 two Legacies \u2014   \nA Legacy of Love  \nA Heavenly Father would suffice  \nHad He the offer of \u2014\n\nYou left me Boundaries of Pain \u2014   \nCapacious as the Sea \u2014   \nBetween Eternity and Time \u2014   \nYour Consciousness \u2014 and Me \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Bereavement in their death to feel**\n\nBereavement in their death to feel  \nWhom We have never seen \u2014   \nA Vital Kinsmanship import  \nOur Soul and theirs \u2014 between \u2014\n\nFor Stranger \u2014 Strangers do not mourn \u2014   \nThere be Immortal friends  \nWhom Death see first \u2014 'tis news of this  \nThat paralyze Ourselves \u2014\n\nWho, vital only to Our Thought \u2014   \nSuch Presence bear away  \nIn dying \u2014 'tis as if Our Souls  \nAbsconded \u2014 suddenly \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I think to Live \u2014 may be a Bliss**\n\nI think to Live \u2014 may be a Bliss  \nTo those who dare to try \u2014   \nBeyond my limit to conceive \u2014   \nMy lip \u2014 to testify \u2014\n\nI think the Heart I former wore  \nCould widen \u2014 till to me  \nThe Other, like the little Bank  \nAppear \u2014 unto the Sea \u2014\n\nI think the Days \u2014 could every one  \nIn Ordination stand \u2014   \nAnd Majesty \u2014 be easier \u2014   \nThan an inferior kind \u2014\n\nNo numb alarm \u2014 lest Difference come \u2014   \nNo Goblin \u2014 on the Bloom \u2014   \nNo start in Apprehension's Ear,  \nNo Bankruptcy \u2014 no Doom \u2014\n\nBut Certainties of Sun \u2014   \nMidsummer \u2014 in the Mind \u2014   \nA steadfast South \u2014 upon the Soul \u2014   \nHer Polar time \u2014 behind \u2014\n\nThe Vision \u2014 pondered long \u2014   \nSo plausible becomes  \nThat I esteem the fiction \u2014 real \u2014   \nThe Real \u2014 fictitious seems \u2014\n\nHow bountiful the Dream \u2014   \nWhat Plenty \u2014 it would be \u2014   \nHad all my Life but been Mistake  \nJust rectified \u2014 in Thee\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A little Road \u2014 not made of Man \u2014**\n\nA LITTLE road not made of man,  \nEnabled of the eye,  \nAccessible to thill of bee,  \nOr cart of butterfly.\n\nIf town it have, beyond itself,  \n'T is that I cannot say ;  \nI only sigh, \u2014 no vehicle  \nBears me along that way.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Promise This** **\u2014** **When You be Dying** **\u2014**\n\nPromise This \u2014 When You be Dying \u2014   \nSome shall summon Me \u2014   \nMine belong Your latest Sighing \u2014   \nMine \u2014 to Belt Your Eye \u2014\n\nNot with Coins \u2014 though they be Minted  \nFrom an Emperor's Hand \u2014   \nBe my lips \u2014 the only Buckle  \nYour low Eyes \u2014 demand \u2014\n\nMine to stay \u2014 when all have wandered \u2014   \nTo devise once more  \nIf the Life be too surrendered \u2014   \nLife of Mine \u2014 restore \u2014\n\nPoured like this \u2014 My Whole Libation \u2014   \nJust that You should see  \nBliss of Death \u2014 Life's Bliss extol thro'  \nImitating You \u2014\n\nMine \u2014 to guard Your Narrow Precinct \u2014   \nTo seduce the Sun  \nLongest on Your South, to linger,  \nLargest Dews of Morn\n\nTo demand, in Your low favor  \nLest the Jealous Grass  \nGreener lean \u2014 Or fonder cluster  \nRound some other face \u2014\n\nMine to supplicate Madonna \u2014   \nIf Madonna be  \nCould behold so far a Creature \u2014   \nChrist \u2014 omitted \u2014 Me \u2014\n\nJust to follow Your dear future \u2014   \nNe'er so far behind \u2014   \nFor My Heaven \u2014   \nHad I not been  \nMost enough \u2014 denied?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Her Sweet turn to leave the Homestead**\n\nHer Sweet turn to leave the Homestead  \nCame the Darker Way \u2014   \nCarriages \u2014 Be Sure \u2014 and Guests \u2014 too \u2014   \nBut for Holiday\n\n'Tis more pitiful Endeavor  \nThan did Loaded Sea  \nO'er the Curls attempt to caper  \nIt had cast away \u2014\n\nNever Bride had such Assembling \u2014   \nNever kinsmen kneeled  \nTo salute so fair a Forehead \u2014   \nGarland be indeed \u2014\n\nFitter Feet \u2014 of Her before us \u2014   \nThan whatever Brow  \nArt of Snow \u2014 or Trick of Lily  \nPossibly bestow\n\nOf Her Father \u2014 Whoso ask Her \u2014   \nHe shall seek as high  \nAs the Palm \u2014 that serve the Desert \u2014   \nTo obtain the Sky \u2014\n\nDistance \u2014 be Her only Motion \u2014   \nIf 'tis Nay \u2014 or Yes \u2014   \nAcquiescence \u2014 or Demurral \u2014   \nWhosoever guess \u2014\n\nHe \u2014 must pass the Crystal Angle  \nThat obscure Her face \u2014   \nHe \u2014 must have achieved in person  \nEqual Paradise \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Pain \u2014 has an Element of Blank \u2014**\n\nPain \u2014 has an Element of Blank \u2014   \nIt cannot recollect  \nWhen it begun \u2014 or if there were  \nA time when it was not \u2014\n\nIt has no Future \u2014 but itself \u2014   \nIts Infinite realms contain  \nIts Past \u2014 enlightened to perceive  \nNew Periods \u2014 of Pain.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**So much Summer**\n\nSo much Summer  \nMe for showing  \nIllegitimate \u2014   \nWould a Smile's minute bestowing  \nToo exorbitant\n\nTo the Lady  \nWith the Guinea  \nLook \u2014 if She should know  \nCrumb of Mine  \nA Robin's Larder  \nWould suffice to stow \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Prison gets to be a friend \u2014**\n\nA Prison gets to be a friend \u2014   \nBetween its Ponderous face  \nAnd Ours \u2014 a Kinsmanship express \u2014   \nAnd in its narrow Eyes \u2014\n\nWe come to look with gratitude  \nFor the appointed Beam  \nIt deal us \u2014 stated as our food \u2014   \nAnd hungered for \u2014 the same \u2014\n\nWe learn to know the Planks \u2014   \nThat answer to Our feet \u2014   \nSo miserable a sound \u2014 at first \u2014   \nNor ever now \u2014 so sweet \u2014\n\nAs plashing in the Pools \u2014   \nWhen Memory was a Boy \u2014   \nBut a Demurer Circuit \u2014   \nA Geometric Joy \u2014\n\nThe Posture of the Key  \nThat interrupt the Day  \nTo Our Endeavor \u2014 Not so real  \nThe Check of Liberty \u2014\n\nAs this Phantasm Steel \u2014   \nWhose features \u2014 Day and Night \u2014   \nAre present to us \u2014 as Our Own \u2014   \nAnd as escapeless \u2014 quite \u2014\n\nThe narrow Round \u2014 the Stint \u2014   \nThe slow exchange of Hope \u2014   \nFor something passiver \u2014 Content  \nToo steep for looking up \u2014\n\nThe Liberty we knew  \nAvoided \u2014 like a Dream \u2014   \nToo wide for any Night but Heaven \u2014   \nIf That \u2014 indeed \u2014 redeem \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Of Being is a Bird**\n\nOf Being is a Bird  \nThe likest to the Down  \nAn Easy Breeze do put afloat  \nThe General Heavens \u2014 upon \u2014\n\nIt soars \u2014 and shifts \u2014 and whirls \u2014   \nAnd measures with the Clouds  \nIn easy \u2014 even \u2014 dazzling pace \u2014   \nNo different the Birds \u2014\n\nExcept a Wake of Music  \nAccompany their feet \u2014   \nAs did the Down emit a Tune \u2014   \nFor Ecstasy \u2014 of it\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A long \u2014 long Sleep \u2014 A famous \u2014 Sleep \u2014**\n\nA long \u2014 long Sleep \u2014 A famous \u2014 Sleep \u2014   \nThat makes no show for Morn \u2014   \nBy Stretch of Limb \u2014 or stir of Lid \u2014   \nAn independent One \u2014\n\nWas ever idleness like This?  \nUpon a Bank of Stone  \nTo bask the Centuries away \u2014   \nNor once look up \u2014 for Noon?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Without this \u2014 there is nought \u2014**\n\nWithout this \u2014 there is nought \u2014   \nAll other Riches be  \nAs is the Twitter of a Bird \u2014   \nHeard opposite the Sea \u2014\n\nI could not care \u2014 to gain  \nA lesser than the Whole \u2014   \nFor did not this include themself \u2014   \nAs Seams \u2014 include the Ball?\n\nI wished a way might be  \nMy Heart to subdivide \u2014   \n'Twould magnify \u2014 the Gratitude \u2014   \nAnd not reduce \u2014 the Gold \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The name \u2014 of it \u2014 is Autumn \u2014**\n\nThe name \u2014 of it \u2014 is \"Autumn\" \u2014   \nThe hue \u2014 of it \u2014 is Blood \u2014   \nAn Artery \u2014 upon the Hill \u2014   \nA Vein \u2014 along the Road \u2014\n\nGreat Globules \u2014 in the Alleys \u2014   \nAnd Oh, the Shower of Stain \u2014   \nWhen Winds \u2014 upset the Basin \u2014   \nAnd spill the Scarlet Rain \u2014\n\nIt sprinkles Bonnets \u2014 far below \u2014   \nIt gathers ruddy Pools \u2014   \nThen \u2014 eddies like a Rose \u2014 away \u2014   \nUpon Vermilion Wheels \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I dwell in Possibility \u2014**\n\nI dwell in Possibility \u2014   \nA fairer House than Prose \u2014   \nMore numerous of Windows \u2014   \nSuperior \u2014 for Doors \u2014\n\nOf Chambers as the Cedars \u2014   \nImpregnable of Eye \u2014   \nAnd for an Everlasting Roof  \nThe Gambrels of the Sky \u2014\n\nOf Visitors \u2014 the fairest \u2014   \nFor Occupation \u2014 This \u2014   \nThe spreading wide my narrow Hands  \nTo gather Paradise \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Whole Gulfs \u2014 of Red, and Fleets \u2014 of Red \u2014**\n\nWhole Gulfs \u2014 of Red, and Fleets \u2014 of Red \u2014   \nAnd Crews \u2014 of solid Blood \u2014   \nDid place upon the West \u2014 Tonight \u2014   \nAs 'twere specific Ground \u2014\n\nAnd They \u2014 appointed Creatures \u2014   \nIn Authorized Arrays \u2014   \nDue \u2014 promptly \u2014 as a Drama \u2014   \nThat bows \u2014 and disappears \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**That first Day, when you praised Me, Sweet,**\n\nThat first Day, when you praised Me, Sweet,  \nAnd said that I was strong \u2014   \nAnd could be mighty, if I liked \u2014   \nThat Day \u2014 the Days among \u2014\n\nGlows Central \u2014 like a Jewel  \nBetween Diverging Golds \u2014   \nThe Minor One \u2014 that gleamed behind \u2014   \nAnd Vaster \u2014 of the World's.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Tis good \u2014 the looking back on Grief \u2014**\n\n'Tis good \u2014 the looking back on Grief \u2014   \nTo re-endure a Day \u2014   \nWe thought the Mighty Funeral \u2014   \nOf All Conceived Joy \u2014\n\nTo recollect how Busy Grass  \nDid meddle \u2014 one by one \u2014   \nTill all the Grief with Summer \u2014 waved  \nAnd none could see the stone.\n\nAnd though the Woe you have Today  \nBe larger \u2014 As the Sea  \nExceeds its Unremembered Drop \u2014   \nThey're Water \u2014 equally \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Could I but ride indefinite**\n\nCould I but ride indefinite  \nAs doth the Meadow Bee  \nAnd visit only where I liked  \nAnd No one visit me\n\nAnd flirt all Day with Buttercups  \nAnd marry whom I may  \nAnd dwell a little everywhere  \nOr better, run away\n\nWith no Police to follow  \nOr chase Him if He do  \nTill He should jump Peninsulas  \nTo get away from me \u2014\n\nI said \"But just to be a Bee\"  \nUpon a Raft of Air  \nAnd row in Nowhere all Day long  \nAnd anchor \"off the Bar\"\n\nWhat Liberty! So Captives deem  \nWho tight in Dungeons are.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Embarrassment of one another**\n\nEmbarrassment of one another  \nAnd God  \nIs Revelation's limit,  \nAloud  \nIs nothing that is chief,  \nBut still,  \nDivinity dwells under a seal.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Again \u2014 his voice is at the door \u2014**\n\nAgain \u2014 his voice is at the door \u2014   \nI feel the old Degree \u2014   \nI hear him ask the servant  \nFor such an one \u2014 as me \u2014\n\nI take a flower \u2014 as I go \u2014   \nMy face to justify \u2014   \nHe never saw me \u2014 in this life \u2014   \nI might surprise his eye!\n\nI cross the Hall with mingled steps \u2014   \nI \u2014 silent \u2014 pass the door \u2014   \nI look on all this world contains \u2014   \nJust his face \u2014 nothing more!\n\nWe talk in careless \u2014 and it toss \u2014   \nA kind of plummet strain \u2014   \nEach \u2014 sounding \u2014 shyly \u2014   \nJust \u2014 how \u2014 deep \u2014   \nThe other's one \u2014 had been \u2014\n\nWe walk \u2014 I leave my Dog \u2014 at home \u2014   \nA tender \u2014 thoughtful Moon \u2014   \nGoes with us \u2014 just a little way \u2014   \nAnd \u2014 then \u2014 we are alone \u2014\n\nAlone \u2014 if Angels are \"alone\" \u2014   \nFirst time they try the sky!  \nAlone \u2014 if those \"veiled faces\" \u2014 be \u2014   \nWe cannot count \u2014 on High!\n\nI'd give \u2014 to live that hour \u2014 again \u2014   \nThe purple \u2014 in my Vein \u2014   \nBut He must count the drops \u2014 himself \u2014   \nMy price for every stain!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Of all the Souls that stand create \u2014**\n\nOf all the Souls that stand create \u2014   \nI have elected \u2014 One \u2014   \nWhen Sense from Spirit \u2014 files away \u2014   \nAnd Subterfuge \u2014 is done \u2014   \nWhen that which is \u2014 and that which was \u2014   \nApart \u2014 intrinsic \u2014 stand \u2014   \nAnd this brief Drama in the flesh \u2014   \nIs shifted \u2014 like a Sand \u2014   \nWhen Figures show their royal Front \u2014   \nAnd Mists \u2014 are carved away,  \nBehold the Atom \u2014 I preferred \u2014   \nTo all the lists of Clay!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Dropped into the Ether Acre \u2014**\n\nDropped into the Ether Acre \u2014   \nWearing the Sod Gown \u2014   \nBonnet of Everlasting Laces \u2014   \nBrooch \u2014 frozen on \u2014\n\nHorses of Blonde \u2014 and Coach of Silver \u2014   \nBaggage a strapped Pearl \u2014   \nJourney of Down \u2014 and Whip of Diamond \u2014   \nRiding to meet the Earl \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Ah, Teneriffe!**\n\nAh, Teneriffe!  \nRetreating Mountain!  \nPurples of Ages \u2014 pause for you \u2014   \nSunset \u2014 reviews her Sapphire Regiment \u2014   \nDay \u2014 drops you her Red Adieu!\n\nStill \u2014 Clad in your Mail of ices \u2014   \nThigh of Granite \u2014 and thew \u2014 of Steel \u2014   \nHeedless \u2014 alike \u2014 of pomp \u2014 or parting\n\nAh, Teneriffe!  \nI'm kneeling \u2014 still \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Bloom upon the Mountain \u2014 stated \u2014**\n\nBloom upon the Mountain \u2014 stated \u2014   \nBlameless of a Name \u2014   \nEfflorescence of a Sunset \u2014   \nReproduced \u2014 the same \u2014\n\nSeed, had I, my Purple Sowing  \nShould endow the Day \u2014   \nNot a Topic of a Twilight \u2014   \nShow itself away \u2014\n\nWho for tilling \u2014 to the Mountain  \nCome, and disappear \u2014   \nWhose be Her Renown, or fading,  \nWitness, is not here \u2014\n\nWhile I state \u2014 the Solemn Petals,  \nFar as North \u2014 and East,  \nFar as South and West \u2014 expanding \u2014   \nCulminate \u2014 in Rest \u2014\n\nAnd the Mountain to the Evening  \nFit His Countenance \u2014   \nIndicating, by no Muscle \u2014   \nThe Experience \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Nature is what we see \u2014**\n\n\"Nature\" is what we see \u2014   \nThe Hill \u2014 the Afternoon \u2014   \nSquirrel \u2014 Eclipse \u2014 the Bumble bee \u2014   \nNay \u2014 Nature is Heaven \u2014   \nNature is what we hear \u2014   \nThe Bobolink \u2014 the Sea \u2014   \nThunder \u2014 the Cricket \u2014   \nNay \u2014 Nature is Harmony \u2014   \nNature is what we know \u2014   \nYet have no art to say \u2014   \nSo impotent Our Wisdom is  \nTo her Simplicity.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**No Romance sold unto**\n\nNo Romance sold unto  \nCould so enthrall a Man  \nAs the perusal of  \nHis Individual One \u2014   \n'Tis Fiction's \u2014 When 'tis small enough  \nTo Credit \u2014 'Tisn't true!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**One need not be a Chamber \u2014 to be Haunted \u2014**\n\nOne need not be a Chamber \u2014 to be Haunted \u2014   \nOne need not be a House \u2014   \nThe Brain has Corridors \u2014 surpassing  \nMaterial Place \u2014\n\nFar safer, of a Midnight Meeting  \nExternal Ghost  \nThan its interior Confronting \u2014   \nThat Cooler Host.\n\nFar safer, through an Abbey gallop,  \nThe Stones a'chase \u2014   \nThan Unarmed, one's a'self encounter \u2014   \nIn lonesome Place \u2014\n\nOurself behind ourself, concealed \u2014   \nShould startle most \u2014   \nAssassin hid in our Apartment  \nBe Horror's least.\n\nThe Body \u2014 borrows a Revolver \u2014   \nHe bolts the Door \u2014   \nO'erlooking a superior spectre \u2014   \nOr More \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**She dwelleth in the Ground \u2014**\n\nShe dwelleth in the Ground \u2014   \nWhere Daffodils \u2014 abide \u2014   \nHer Maker \u2014 Her Metropolis \u2014   \nThe Universe \u2014 Her Maid \u2014\n\nTo fetch Her Grace \u2014 and Hue \u2014   \nAnd Fairness \u2014 and Renown \u2014   \nThe Firmament's \u2014 To Pluck Her \u2014   \nAnd fetch Her Thee \u2014 be mine \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Future \u2014 never spoke \u2014**\n\nThe Future \u2014 never spoke \u2014   \nNor will He \u2014 like the Dumb \u2014   \nReveal by sign \u2014 a syllable  \nOf His Profound To Come \u2014\n\nBut when the News be ripe \u2014   \nPresents it \u2014 in the Act \u2014   \nForestalling Preparation \u2014   \nEscape \u2014 or Substitute \u2014\n\nIndifference to Him \u2014   \nThe Dower \u2014 as the Doom \u2014   \nHis Office \u2014 but to execute  \nFate's \u2014 Telegram \u2014 to Him \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Love a Life can show Below**\n\nThe Love a Life can show Below  \nIs but a filament, I know,  \nOf that diviner thing  \nThat faints upon the face of Noon \u2014   \nAnd smites the Tinder in the Sun \u2014   \nAnd hinders Gabriel's Wing \u2014\n\n'Tis this \u2014 in Music \u2014 hints and sways \u2014   \nAnd far abroad on Summer days \u2014   \nDistils uncertain pain \u2014   \n'Tis this enamors in the East \u2014   \nAnd tints the Transit in the West  \nWith harrowing Iodine \u2014\n\n'Tis this \u2014 invites \u2014 appalls \u2014 endows \u2014   \nFlits \u2014 glimmers \u2014 proves \u2014 dissolves \u2014   \nReturns \u2014 suggests \u2014 convicts \u2014 enchants \u2014   \nThen \u2014 flings in Paradise \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Soul that hath a Guest**\n\nThe Soul that hath a Guest  \nDoth seldom go abroad \u2014   \nDiviner Crowd at Home \u2014   \nObliterate the need \u2014\n\nAnd Courtesy forbid  \nA Host's departure when  \nUpon Himself be visiting  \nThe Emperor of Men \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Essential Oils \u2014 are wrung \u2014**\n\nEssential Oils \u2014 are wrung \u2014   \nThe Attar from the Rose  \nBe not expressed by Suns \u2014 alone \u2014   \nIt is the gift of Screws \u2014\n\nThe General Rose \u2014 decay \u2014   \nBut this \u2014 in Lady's Drawer  \nMake Summer \u2014 When the Lady lie  \nIn Ceaseless Rosemary \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Least Bee that brew \u2014**\n\nLeast Bee that brew \u2014   \nA Honey's Weight  \nContent Her smallest fraction help  \nThe Amber Quantity \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To be alive \u2014 is Power \u2014**\n\nTo be alive \u2014 is Power \u2014   \nExistence \u2014 in itself \u2014   \nWithout a further function \u2014   \nOmnipotence \u2014 Enough \u2014\n\nTo be alive \u2014 and Will!  \n'Tis able as a God \u2014   \nThe Maker \u2014 of Ourselves \u2014 be what \u2014   \nSuch being Finitude!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Wolfe demanded during dying**\n\nWolfe demanded during dying  \n\"Which obtain the Day\"?  \n\"General, the British\" \u2014 \"Easy\"  \nAnswered Wolfe \"to die\"\n\nMontcalm, his opposing Spirit  \nRendered with a smile  \n\"Sweet\" said he \"my own Surrender  \nLiberty's beguile\"\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Conscious am I in my Chamber,**\n\nConscious am I in my Chamber,  \nOf a shapeless friend \u2014   \nHe doth not attest by Posture \u2014   \nNor Confirm \u2014 by Word \u2014\n\nNeither Place \u2014 need I present Him \u2014   \nFitter Courtesy  \nHospitable intuition  \nOf His Company \u2014\n\nPresence \u2014 is His furthest license \u2014   \nNeither He to Me  \nNor Myself to Him \u2014 by Accent \u2014   \nForfeit Probity \u2014\n\nWeariness of Him, were quainter  \nThan Monotony  \nKnew a Particle \u2014 of Space's  \nVast Society\n\nNeither if He visit Other \u2014   \nDo He dwell \u2014 or Nay \u2014 know I \u2014   \nBut Instinct esteem Him  \nImmortality \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Each Life Converges to some Centre \u2014**\n\nEach Life Converges to some Centre \u2014   \nExpressed \u2014 or still \u2014   \nExists in every Human Nature  \nA Goal \u2014\n\nEmbodied scarcely to itself \u2014 it may be \u2014   \nToo fair  \nFor Credibility's presumption  \nTo mar \u2014\n\nAdored with caution \u2014 as a Brittle Heaven \u2014   \nTo reach  \nWere hopeless, as the Rainbow's Raiment  \nTo touch \u2014\n\nYet persevered toward \u2014 sure \u2014 for the Distance \u2014   \nHow high \u2014   \nUnto the Saint's slow diligence \u2014   \nThe Sky \u2014\n\nUngained \u2014 it may be \u2014 by a Life's low Venture \u2014   \nBut then \u2014   \nEternity enable the endeavoring  \nAgain.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Soil of Flint, if steady tilled \u2014**\n\nSoil of Flint, if steady tilled \u2014   \nWill refund by Hand \u2014   \nSeed of Palm, by Libyan Sun  \nFructified in Sand \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Twould ease \u2014 a Butterfly \u2014**\n\n'Twould ease \u2014 a Butterfly \u2014   \nElate \u2014 a Bee \u2014   \nThou'rt neither \u2014   \nNeither \u2014 thy capacity \u2014\n\nBut, Blossom, were I,  \nI would rather be  \nThy moment  \nThan a Bee's Eternity \u2014\n\nContent of fading  \nIs enough for me \u2014   \nFade I unto Divinity \u2014\n\nAnd Dying \u2014 Lifetime \u2014   \nAmple as the Eye \u2014   \nHer least attention raise on me \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Soul unto itself**\n\nThe Soul unto itself  \nIs an imperial friend \u2014   \nOr the most agonizing Spy \u2014   \nAn Enemy \u2014 could send \u2014\n\nSecure against its own \u2014   \nNo treason it can fear \u2014   \nItself \u2014 its Sovereign \u2014 of itself  \nThe Soul should stand in Awe \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Best Gains \u2014 must have the Losses' Test \u2014**\n\nBest Gains \u2014 must have the Losses' Test \u2014   \nTo constitute them \u2014 Gains \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Not Revelation \u2014 'tis \u2014 that waits,**\n\nNot \"Revelation\" \u2014 'tis \u2014 that waits,  \nBut our unfurnished eyes \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**They say that Time assuages \u2014**\n\nThey say that \"Time assuages\" \u2014   \nTime never did assuage \u2014   \nAn actual suffering strengthens  \nAs Sinews do, with age \u2014\n\nTime is a Test of Trouble \u2014   \nBut not a Remedy \u2014   \nIf such it prove, it prove too  \nThere was no Malady \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I'll send the feather from my Hat!**\n\nI'll send the feather from my Hat!  \nWho knows \u2014 but at the sight of that  \nMy Sovereign will relent?  \nAs trinket \u2014 worn by faded Child \u2014   \nConfronting eyes long \u2014 comforted \u2014   \nBlisters the Adamant!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Speech \u2014 is a prank of Parliament \u2014**\n\n\"Speech\" \u2014 is a prank of Parliament \u2014   \n\"Tears\" \u2014 is a trick of the nerve \u2014   \nBut the Heart with the heaviest freight on \u2014   \nDoesn't \u2014 always \u2014 move \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Zeroes \u2014 taught us \u2014 Phosphorous \u2014**\n\nThe Zeroes \u2014 taught us \u2014 Phosphorous \u2014   \nWe learned to like the Fire  \nBy playing Glaciers \u2014 when a Boy \u2014   \nAnd Tinder \u2014 guessed \u2014 by power  \nOf Opposite \u2014 to balance Odd \u2014   \nIf White \u2014 a Red \u2014 must be!  \nParalysis \u2014 our Primer \u2014 dumb \u2014   \nUnto Vitality!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Victory comes late \u2014**\n\nVictory comes late \u2014   \nAnd is held low to freezing lips \u2014   \nToo rapt with frost  \nTo take it \u2014   \nHow sweet it would have tasted \u2014   \nJust a Drop \u2014   \nWas God so economical?  \nHis Table's spread too high for Us \u2014   \nUnless We dine on tiptoe \u2014   \nCrumbs \u2014 fit such little mouths \u2014   \nCherries \u2014 suit Robbins \u2014   \nThe Eagle's Golden Breakfast strangles \u2014 Them \u2014   \nGod keep His Oath to Sparrows \u2014   \nWho of little Love \u2014 know how to starve \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Would you like summer? Taste of ours.**\n\nWould you like summer? Taste of ours.  \nSpices? Buy here!  \nIll! We have berries, for the parching!  \nWeary! Furloughs of down!  \nPerplexed! Estates of violet trouble ne'er looked on!  \nCaptive! We bring reprieve of roses!  \nFainting! Flasks of air!  \nEven for Death, a fairy medicine.  \nBut, which is it, sir?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Sun kept setting \u2014 setting \u2014 still**\n\nThe Sun kept setting \u2014 setting \u2014 still  \nNo Hue of Afternoon \u2014   \nUpon the Village I perceived  \nFrom House to House 'twas Noon \u2014\n\nThe Dusk kept dropping \u2014 dropping \u2014 still  \nNo Dew upon the Grass \u2014   \nBut only on my Forehead stopped \u2014   \nAnd wandered in my Face \u2014\n\nMy Feet kept drowsing \u2014 drowsing \u2014 still  \nMy fingers were awake \u2014   \nYet why so little sound \u2014 Myself  \nUnto my Seeming \u2014 make?\n\nHow well I knew the Light before \u2014   \nI could see it now \u2014   \n'Tis Dying \u2014 I am doing \u2014 but  \nI'm not afraid to know \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Shells from the Coast mistaking \u2014**\n\nShells from the Coast mistaking \u2014   \nI cherished them for All \u2014   \nHappening in After Ages  \nTo entertain a Pearl \u2014\n\nWherefore so late \u2014 I murmured \u2014   \nMy need of Thee \u2014 be done \u2014   \nTherefore \u2014 the Pearl responded \u2014   \nMy Period begin\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Heaven vests for Each**\n\nThe Heaven vests for Each  \nIn that small Deity  \nIt craved the grace to worship  \nSome bashful Summer's Day \u2014\n\nHalf shrinking from the Glory  \nIt importuned to see  \nTill these faint Tabernacles drop  \nIn full Eternity \u2014\n\nHow imminent the Venture \u2014   \nAs one should sue a Star \u2014   \nFor His mean sake to leave the Row  \nAnd entertain Despair \u2014\n\nA Clemency so common \u2014   \nWe almost cease to fear \u2014   \nEnabling the minutest \u2014   \nAnd furthest \u2014 to adore \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**As if the Sea should part**\n\nAs if the Sea should part  \nAnd show a further Sea \u2014   \nAnd that \u2014 a further \u2014 and the Three  \nBut a presumption be \u2014\n\nOf Periods of Seas \u2014   \nUnvisited of Shores \u2014   \nThemselves the Verge of Seas to be \u2014   \nEternity \u2014 is Those \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Their Height in Heaven comforts not \u2014**\n\nTheir Height in Heaven comforts not \u2014   \nTheir Glory \u2014 nought to me \u2014   \n'Twas best imperfect \u2014 as it was \u2014   \nI'm finite \u2014 I can't see \u2014\n\nThe House of Supposition \u2014   \nThe Glimmering Frontier that  \nSkirts the Acres of Perhaps \u2014   \nTo Me \u2014 shows insecure \u2014\n\nThe Wealth I had \u2014 contented me \u2014   \nIf 'twas a meaner size \u2014   \nThen I had counted it until  \nIt pleased my narrow Eyes \u2014\n\nBetter than larger values \u2014   \nThat show however true \u2014   \nThis timid life of Evidence  \nKeeps pleading \u2014 \"I don't know.\"\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I could bring You Jewels \u2014 had I a mind to \u2014**\n\nI could bring You Jewels \u2014 had I a mind to \u2014   \nBut You have enough \u2014 of those \u2014   \nI could bring You Odors from St. Domingo \u2014   \nColors \u2014 from Vera Cruz \u2014\n\nBerries of the Bahamas \u2014 have I \u2014   \nBut this little Blaze  \nFlickering to itself \u2014 in the Meadow \u2014   \nSuits Me \u2014 more than those \u2014\n\nNever a Fellow matched this Topaz \u2014   \nAnd his Emerald Swing \u2014   \nDower itself \u2014 for Bobadilo \u2014   \nBetter \u2014 Could I bring?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Life \u2014 is what we make of it \u2014**\n\nLife \u2014 is what we make of it \u2014   \nDeath \u2014 we do not know \u2014   \nChrist's acquaintance with Him  \nJustify Him \u2014 though \u2014\n\nHe \u2014 would trust no stranger \u2014   \nOther \u2014 could betray \u2014   \nJust His own endorsement \u2014   \nThat \u2014 sufficeth Me \u2014\n\nAll the other Distance  \nHe hath traversed first \u2014   \nNo New Mile remaineth \u2014   \nFar as Paradise \u2014\n\nHis sure foot preceding \u2014   \nTender Pioneer \u2014   \nBase must be the Coward  \nDare not venture \u2014 now \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Judge is like the Owl \u2014**\n\nThe Judge is like the Owl \u2014   \nI've heard my Father tell \u2014   \nAnd Owls do build in Oaks \u2014   \nSo here's an Amber Sill \u2014\n\nThat slanted in my Path \u2014   \nWhen going to the Barn \u2014   \nAnd if it serve You for a House \u2014   \nItself is not in vain \u2014\n\nAbout the price \u2014 'tis small \u2014   \nI only ask a Tune  \nAt Midnight \u2014 Let the Owl select  \nHis favorite Refrain.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**You've seen Balloons set \u2014 Haven't You?**\n\nYou've seen Balloons set \u2014 Haven't You?  \nSo stately they ascend \u2014   \nIt is as Swans \u2014 discarded You,  \nFor Duties Diamond \u2014\n\nTheir Liquid Feet go softly out  \nUpon a Sea of Blonde \u2014   \nThey spurn the Air, as t'were too mean  \nFor Creatures so renowned \u2014\n\nTheir Ribbons just beyond the eye \u2014   \nThey struggle \u2014 some \u2014 for Breath \u2014   \nAnd yet the Crowd applaud, below \u2014   \nThey would not encore \u2014 Death \u2014\n\nThe Gilded Creature strains \u2014 and spins \u2014   \nTrips frantic in a Tree \u2014   \nTears open her imperial Veins \u2014   \nAnd tumbles in the Sea \u2014\n\nThe Crowd \u2014 retire with an Oath \u2014   \nThe Dust in Streets \u2014 go down \u2014   \nAnd Clerks in Counting Rooms  \nObserve \u2014 \"'Twas only a Balloon\" \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Thought went up my mind today \u2014**\n\nA Thought went up my mind today \u2014   \nThat I have had before \u2014   \nBut did not finish \u2014 some way back \u2014   \nI could not fix the Year \u2014\n\nNor where it went \u2014 nor why it came  \nThe second time to me \u2014   \nNor definitely, what it was \u2014   \nHave I the Art to say \u2014\n\nBut somewhere \u2014 in my Soul \u2014 I know \u2014   \nI've met the Thing before \u2014   \nIt just reminded me \u2014 'twas all \u2014   \nAnd came my way no more \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A first Mute Coming \u2014**\n\nA first Mute Coming \u2014   \nIn the Stranger's House \u2014   \nA first fair Going \u2014   \nWhen the Bells rejoice \u2014\n\nA first Exchange \u2014 of  \nWhat hath mingled \u2014 been \u2014   \nFor Lot \u2014 exhibited to  \nFaith \u2014 alone \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Out of sight? What of that?**\n\nOut of sight? What of that?  \nSee the Bird \u2014 reach it!  \nCurve by Curve \u2014 Sweep by Sweep \u2014   \nRound the Steep Air \u2014   \nDanger! What is that to Her?  \nBetter 'tis to fail \u2014 there \u2014   \nThan debate \u2014 here \u2014\n\nBlue is Blue \u2014 the World through \u2014   \nAmber \u2014 Amber \u2014 Dew \u2014 Dew \u2014   \nSeek \u2014 Friend \u2014 and see \u2014   \nHeaven is shy of Earth \u2014 that's all \u2014   \nBashful Heaven \u2014 thy Lovers small \u2014   \nHide \u2014 too \u2014 from thee \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**No matter \u2014 now \u2014 Sweet \u2014**\n\nNo matter \u2014 now \u2014 Sweet \u2014   \nBut when I'm Earl \u2014   \nWon't you wish you'd spoken  \nTo that dull Girl?\n\nTrivial a Word \u2014 just \u2014   \nTrivial \u2014 a Smile \u2014   \nBut won't you wish you'd spared one  \nWhen I'm Earl?\n\nI shan't need it \u2014 then \u2014   \nCrests \u2014 will do \u2014   \nEagles on my Buckles \u2014   \nOn my Belt \u2014 too \u2014\n\nErmine \u2014 my familiar Gown \u2014   \nSay \u2014 Sweet \u2014 then  \nWon't you wish you'd smiled \u2014 just \u2014   \nMe upon?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Suspense \u2014 is Hostiler than Death \u2014**\n\nSuspense \u2014 is Hostiler than Death \u2014   \nDeath \u2014 tho'soever Broad,  \nIs Just Death, and cannot increase \u2014   \nSuspense \u2014 does not conclude \u2014\n\nBut perishes \u2014 to live anew \u2014   \nBut just anew to die \u2014   \nAnnihilation \u2014 plated fresh  \nWith Immortality \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Life, and Death, and Giants \u2014**\n\nLife, and Death, and Giants \u2014   \nSuch as These \u2014 are still \u2014   \nMinor \u2014 Apparatus \u2014 Hopper of the Mill \u2014   \nBeetle at the Candle \u2014   \nOr a Fife's Fame \u2014   \nMaintain \u2014 by Accident that they proclaim \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Grace \u2014 Myself \u2014 might not obtain \u2014**\n\nThe Grace \u2014 Myself \u2014 might not obtain \u2014   \nConfer upon My flower \u2014   \nRefracted but a Countenance \u2014   \nFor I \u2014 inhabit Her \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I sometimes drop it, for a Quick \u2014**\n\nI sometimes drop it, for a Quick \u2014   \nThe Thought to be alive \u2014   \nAnonymous Delight to know \u2014   \nAnd Madder \u2014 to conceive \u2014\n\nConsoles a Woe so monstrous  \nThat did it tear all Day,  \nWithout an instant's Respite \u2014   \n'Twould look too far \u2014 to Die \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Publication \u2014 is the Auction**\n\nPublication \u2014 is the Auction  \nOf the Mind of Man \u2014   \nPoverty \u2014 be justifying  \nFor so foul a thing\n\nPossibly \u2014 but We \u2014 would rather  \nFrom Our Garret go  \nWhite \u2014 Unto the White Creator \u2014   \nThan invest \u2014 Our Snow \u2014\n\nThought belong to Him who gave it \u2014   \nThen \u2014 to Him Who bear  \nIts Corporeal illustration \u2014 Sell  \nThe Royal Air \u2014\n\nIn the Parcel \u2014 Be the Merchant  \nOf the Heavenly Grace \u2014   \nBut reduce no Human Spirit  \nTo Disgrace of Price \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Sunrise runs for Both \u2014**\n\nThe Sunrise runs for Both \u2014   \nThe East \u2014 Her Purple Troth  \nKeeps with the Hill \u2014   \nThe Noon unwinds Her Blue  \nTill One Breadth cover Two \u2014   \nRemotest \u2014 still \u2014\n\nNor does the Night forget  \nA Lamp for Each \u2014 to set \u2014   \nWicks wide away \u2014   \nThe North \u2014 Her blazing Sign  \nErects in Iodine \u2014   \nTill Both \u2014 can see \u2014\n\nThe Midnight's Dusky Arms  \nClasp Hemispheres, and Homes  \nAnd so  \nUpon Her Bosom \u2014 One \u2014   \nAnd One upon Her Hem \u2014   \nBoth lie \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Strong Draughts of Their Refreshing Minds**\n\nStrong Draughts of Their Refreshing Minds  \nTo drink \u2014 enables Mine  \nThrough Desert or the Wilderness  \nAs bore it Sealed Wine \u2014\n\nTo go elastic \u2014 Or as One  \nThe Camel's trait \u2014 attained \u2014   \nHow powerful the Stimulus  \nOf an Hermetic Mind \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Because I could not stop for Death \u2014**\n\nBecause I could not stop for Death \u2014   \nHe kindly stopped for me \u2014   \nThe Carriage held but just Ourselves \u2014   \nAnd Immortality.\n\nWe slowly drove \u2014 He knew no haste,  \nAnd I had put away  \nMy labor and my leisure too,  \nFor His Civility \u2014\n\nWe passed the School, where Children strove  \nAt recess \u2014 in the ring \u2014   \nWe passed the Fields of Gazing Grain \u2014   \nWe passed the Setting Sun \u2014\n\nOr rather \u2014 He passed Us \u2014   \nThe Dews drew quivering and chill \u2014   \nFor only Gossamer, my Gown \u2014   \nMy Tippet \u2014 only Tulle \u2014\n\nWe paused before a House that seemed  \nA Swelling of the Ground \u2014   \nThe Roof was scarcely visible \u2014   \nThe Cornice \u2014 in the Ground \u2014\n\nSince then \u2014 'tis centuries \u2014 and yet  \nFeels shorter than the Day  \nI first surmised the Horses' Heads  \nWere toward Eternity \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Fame of Myself, to justify,**\n\nFame of Myself, to justify,  \nAll other Plaudit be  \nSuperfluous \u2014 An Incense  \nBeyond Necessity \u2014\n\nFame of Myself to lack \u2014 Although  \nMy Name be else Supreme \u2014   \nThis were an Honor honorless \u2014   \nA futile Diadem \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Rest at Night**\n\nRest at Night  \nThe Sun from shining,  \nNature \u2014 and some Men \u2014   \nRest at Noon \u2014 some Men \u2014   \nWhile Nature  \nAnd the Sun \u2014 go on \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The World \u2014 feels Dusty**\n\nThe World \u2014 feels Dusty  \nWhen We stop to Die \u2014   \nWe want the Dew \u2014 then \u2014   \nHonors \u2014 taste dry \u2014\n\nFlags \u2014 vex a Dying face \u2014   \nBut the least Fan  \nStirred by a friend's Hand \u2014   \nCools \u2014 like the Rain \u2014\n\nMine be the Ministry  \nWhen they Thirst comes \u2014   \nAnd Hybla Balms \u2014   \nDews of Thessaly, to fetch \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Day undressed \u2014 Herself \u2014**\n\nThe Day undressed \u2014 Herself \u2014   \nHer Garter \u2014 was of Gold \u2014   \nHer Petticoat \u2014 of Purple plain \u2014   \nHer Dimities \u2014 as old\n\nExactly \u2014 as the World \u2014   \nAnd yet the newest Star \u2014   \nEnrolled upon the Hemisphere  \nBe wrinkled \u2014 much as Her \u2014\n\nToo near to God \u2014 to pray \u2014   \nToo near to Heaven \u2014 to fear \u2014   \nThe Lady of the Occident  \nRetired without a care \u2014\n\nHer Candle so expire  \nThe flickering be seen  \nOn Ball of Mast in Bosporus \u2014   \nAnd Dome \u2014 and Window Pane \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Beggar Lad \u2014 dies early \u2014**\n\nThe Beggar Lad \u2014 dies early \u2014   \nIt's Somewhat in the Cold \u2014   \nAnd Somewhat in the Trudging feet \u2014   \nAnd haply, in the World \u2014\n\nThe Cruel \u2014 smiling \u2014 bowing World \u2014   \nThat took its Cambric Way \u2014   \nNor heard the timid cry for \"Bread\" \u2014   \n\"Sweet Lady \u2014 Charity\" \u2014\n\nAmong Redeemed Children  \nIf Trudging feet may stand  \nThe Barefoot time forgotten \u2014 so \u2014   \nThe Sleet \u2014 the bitter Wind \u2014\n\nThe Childish Hands that teased for Pence  \nLifted adoring \u2014 them \u2014   \nTo Him whom never Ragged \u2014 Coat  \nDid supplicate in vain \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I meant to find Her when I came \u2014**\n\nI meant to find Her when I came \u2014   \nDeath \u2014 had the same design \u2014   \nBut the Success \u2014 was His \u2014 it seems \u2014   \nAnd the Surrender \u2014 Mine \u2014\n\nI meant to tell Her how I longed  \nFor just this single time \u2014   \nBut Death had told Her so the first \u2014   \nAnd she had past, with Him \u2014\n\nTo wander \u2014 now \u2014 is my Repose \u2014   \nTo rest \u2014 To rest would be  \nA privilege of Hurricane  \nTo Memory \u2014 and Me.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A South Wind \u2014 has a pathos**\n\nA South Wind \u2014 has a pathos  \nOf individual Voice \u2014   \nAs One detect on Landings  \nAn Emigrant's address.\n\nA Hint of Ports and Peoples \u2014   \nAnd much not understood \u2014   \nThe fairer \u2014 for the farness \u2014   \nAnd for the foreignhood.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**No Prisoner be \u2014**\n\nNo Prisoner be \u2014   \nWhere Liberty \u2014   \nHimself \u2014 abide with Thee \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Behind Me \u2014 dips Eternity \u2014**\n\nBehind Me \u2014 dips Eternity \u2014   \nBefore Me \u2014 Immortality \u2014   \nMyself \u2014 the Term between \u2014   \nDeath but the Drift of Eastern Gray,  \nDissolving into Dawn away,  \nBefore the West begin \u2014\n\n'Tis Kingdoms \u2014 afterward \u2014 they say \u2014   \nIn perfect \u2014 pauseless Monarchy \u2014   \nWhose Prince \u2014 is Son of None \u2014   \nHimself \u2014 His Dateless Dynasty \u2014   \nHimself \u2014 Himself diversify \u2014   \nIn Duplicate divine \u2014\n\n'Tis Miracle before Me \u2014 then \u2014   \n'Tis Miracle behind \u2014 between \u2014   \nA Crescent in the Sea \u2014   \nWith Midnight to the North of Her \u2014   \nAnd Midnight to the South of Her \u2014   \nAnd Maelstrom \u2014 in the Sky \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Sweet Mountains \u2014 Ye tell Me no lie \u2014**\n\nSweet Mountains \u2014 Ye tell Me no lie \u2014   \nNever deny Me \u2014 Never fly \u2014   \nThose same unvarying Eyes  \nTurn on Me \u2014 when I fail \u2014 or feign,  \nOr take the Royal names in vain \u2014   \nTheir far \u2014 slow \u2014 Violet Gaze \u2014\n\nMy Strong Madonnas \u2014 Cherish still \u2014   \nThe Wayward Nun \u2014 beneath the Hill \u2014   \nWhose service \u2014 is to You \u2014   \nHer latest Worship \u2014 When the Day  \nFades from the Firmament away \u2014   \nTo lift Her Brows on You \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It tossed \u2014 and tossed \u2014**\n\nIt tossed \u2014 and tossed \u2014   \nA little Brig I knew \u2014 o'ertook by Blast \u2014   \nIt spun \u2014 and spun \u2014   \nAnd groped delirious, for Morn \u2014\n\nIt slipped \u2014 and slipped \u2014   \nAs One that drunken \u2014 stept \u2014   \nIts white foot tripped \u2014   \nThen dropped from sight \u2014\n\nAh, Brig \u2014 Good Night  \nTo Crew and You \u2014   \nThe Ocean's Heart too smooth \u2014 too Blue \u2014   \nTo break for You \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It's easy to invent a Life \u2014**\n\nIt's easy to invent a Life \u2014   \nGod does it \u2014 every Day \u2014   \nCreation \u2014 but the Gambol  \nOf His Authority \u2014\n\nIt's easy to efface it \u2014   \nThe thrifty Deity  \nCould scarce afford Eternity  \nTo Spontaneity \u2014\n\nThe Perished Patterns murmur \u2014   \nBut His Perturbless Plan  \nProceed \u2014 inserting Here \u2014 a Sun \u2014   \nThere \u2014 leaving out a Man \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Where Thou art \u2014 that \u2014 is Home \u2014**\n\nWhere Thou art \u2014 that \u2014 is Home \u2014   \nCashmere \u2014 or Calvary \u2014 the same \u2014   \nDegree \u2014 or Shame \u2014   \nI scarce esteem Location's Name \u2014   \nSo I may Come \u2014\n\nWhat Thou dost \u2014 is Delight \u2014   \nBondage as Play \u2014 be sweet \u2014   \nImprisonment \u2014 Content \u2014   \nAnd Sentence \u2014 Sacrament \u2014   \nJust We two \u2014 meet \u2014\n\nWhere Thou art not \u2014 is Woe \u2014   \nTho' Bands of Spices \u2014 row \u2014   \nWhat Thou dost not \u2014 Despair \u2014   \nTho' Gabriel \u2014 praise me \u2014 Sire \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We thirst at first \u2014 'tis Nature's Act \u2014**\n\nWe thirst at first \u2014 'tis Nature's Act \u2014   \nAnd later \u2014 when we die \u2014   \nA little Water supplicate \u2014   \nOf fingers going by \u2014\n\nIt intimates the finer want \u2014   \nWhose adequate supply  \nIs that Great Water in the West \u2014   \nTermed Immortality \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Precious to Me \u2014 She still shall be \u2014**\n\nPrecious to Me \u2014 She still shall be \u2014   \nThough She forget the name I bear \u2014   \nThe fashion of the Gown I wear \u2014   \nThe very Color of My Hair \u2014\n\nSo like the Meadows \u2014 now \u2014   \nI dared to show a Tress of Theirs  \nIf haply \u2014 She might not despise  \nA Buttercup's Array \u2014\n\nI know the Whole \u2014 obscures the Part \u2014   \nThe fraction \u2014 that appeased the Heart  \nTill Number's Empery \u2014   \nRemembered \u2014 as the Millner's flower\n\nWhen Summer's Everlasting Dower \u2014   \nConfronts the dazzled Bee.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Let Us play Yesterday \u2014**\n\nLet Us play Yesterday \u2014   \nI \u2014 the Girl at school \u2014   \nYou \u2014 and Eternity \u2014 the  \nUntold Tale \u2014\n\nEasing my famine  \nAt my Lexicon \u2014   \nLogarithm \u2014 had I \u2014 for Drink \u2014   \n'Twas a dry Wine \u2014\n\nSomewhat different \u2014 must be \u2014   \nDreams tint the Sleep \u2014   \nCunning Reds of Morning  \nMake the Blind \u2014 leap \u2014\n\nStill at the Egg-life \u2014   \nChafing the Shell \u2014   \nWhen you troubled the Ellipse \u2014   \nAnd the Bird fell \u2014\n\nManacles be dim \u2014 they say \u2014   \nTo the new Free \u2014   \nLiberty \u2014 Commoner \u2014   \nNever could \u2014 to me \u2014\n\n'Twas my last gratitude  \nWhen I slept \u2014 at night \u2014   \n'Twas the first Miracle  \nLet in \u2014 with Light \u2014\n\nCan the Lark resume the Shell \u2014   \nEasier \u2014 for the Sky \u2014   \nWouldn't Bonds hurt more  \nThan Yesterday?\n\nWouldn't Dungeons sorer frate  \nOn the Man \u2014 free \u2014   \nJust long enough to taste \u2014   \nThen \u2014 doomed new \u2014\n\nGod of the Manacle  \nAs of the Free \u2014   \nTake not my Liberty  \nAway from Me \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Alter? When the Hills do**\n\nIII.\n\nALTER? When the hills do.  \nFalter? When the sun  \nQuestion if his glory  \nBe the perfect one.\n\nSurfeit? When the daffodil  \nDoth of the dew:  \nEven as herself, O friend!  \nI will of you!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Defrauded I a Butterfly \u2014**\n\nDefrauded I a Butterfly \u2014   \nThe lawful Heir \u2014 for Thee \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I want \u2014 it pleaded \u2014 All its life \u2014**\n\n\"I want\" \u2014 it pleaded \u2014 All its life \u2014   \nI want \u2014 was chief it said  \nWhen Skill entreated it \u2014 the last \u2014   \nAnd when so newly dead \u2014\n\nI could not deem it late \u2014 to hear  \nThat single \u2014 steadfast sigh \u2014   \nThe lips had placed as with a \"Please\"  \nToward Eternity \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**She rose to His Requirement \u2014 dropt**\n\nShe rose to His Requirement \u2014 dropt  \nThe Playthings of Her Life  \nTo take the honorable Work  \nOf Woman, and of Wife \u2014\n\nIf ought She missed in Her new Day,  \nOf Amplitude, or Awe \u2014   \nOr first Prospective \u2014 Or the Gold  \nIn using, wear away,\n\nIt lay unmentioned \u2014 as the Sea  \nDevelop Pearl, and Weed,  \nBut only to Himself \u2014 be known  \nThe Fathoms they abide \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Spirit is the Conscious Ear.**\n\nThe Spirit is the Conscious Ear.  \nWe actually Hear  \nWhen We inspect \u2014 that's audible \u2014   \nThat is admitted \u2014 Here \u2014\n\nFor other Services \u2014 as Sound \u2014   \nThere hangs a smaller Ear  \nOutside the Castle \u2014 that Contain \u2014   \nThe other \u2014 only \u2014 Hear \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If He were living \u2014 dare I ask \u2014**\n\nIf He were living \u2014 dare I ask \u2014   \nAnd how if He be dead \u2014   \nAnd so around the Words I went \u2014   \nOf meeting them \u2014 afraid \u2014\n\nI hinted Changes \u2014 Lapse of Time \u2014   \nThe Surfaces of Years \u2014   \nI touched with Caution \u2014 lest they crack \u2014   \nAnd show me to my fears \u2014\n\nReverted to adjoining Lives \u2014   \nAdroitly turning out  \nWherever I suspected Graves \u2014   \n'Twas prudenter \u2014 I thought \u2014\n\nAnd He \u2014 I pushed \u2014 with sudden force \u2014   \nIn face of the Suspense \u2014   \n\"Was buried\" \u2014 \"Buried\"! \"He!\"  \nMy Life just holds the Trench \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Upon Concluded Lives**\n\nUpon Concluded Lives  \nThere's nothing cooler falls \u2014   \nThan Life's sweet Calculations \u2014   \nThe mixing Bells and Palls \u2014\n\nMake Lacerating Tune \u2014   \nTo Ears the Dying Side \u2014   \n'Tis Coronal \u2014 and Funeral \u2014   \nSaluting \u2014 in the Road \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Have any like Myself**\n\nHave any like Myself  \nInvestigating March,  \nNew Houses on the Hill descried \u2014   \nAnd possibly a Church \u2014\n\nThat were not, We are sure \u2014   \nAs lately as the Snow \u2014   \nAnd are Today \u2014 if We exist \u2014   \nThough how may this be so?\n\nHave any like Myself  \nConjectured Who may be  \nThe Occupants of the Adobes \u2014   \nSo easy to the Sky \u2014\n\n'Twould seem that God should be  \nThe nearest Neighbor to \u2014   \nAnd Heaven \u2014 a convenient Grace  \nFor Show, or Company \u2014\n\nHave any like Myself  \nPreserved the Charm secure  \nBy shunning carefully the Place  \nAll Seasons of the Year,\n\nExcepting March \u2014 'Tis then  \nMy Villages be seen \u2014   \nAnd possibly a Steeple \u2014   \nNot afterward \u2014 by Men \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Moon was but a Chin of Gold**\n\nThe Moon was but a Chin of Gold  \nA Night or two ago \u2014   \nAnd now she turns Her perfect Face  \nUpon the World below \u2014\n\nHer Forehead is of Amplest Blonde \u2014   \nHer Cheek \u2014 a Beryl hewn \u2014   \nHer Eye unto the Summer Dew  \nThe likest I have known \u2014\n\nHer Lips of Amber never part \u2014   \nBut what must be the smile  \nUpon Her Friend she could confer  \nWere such Her Silver Will \u2014\n\nAnd what a privilege to be  \nBut the remotest Star \u2014   \nFor Certainty She take Her Way  \nBeside Your Palace Door \u2014\n\nHer Bonnet is the Firmament \u2014   \nThe Universe \u2014 Her Shoe \u2014   \nThe Stars \u2014 the Trinkets at Her Belt \u2014   \nHer Dimities \u2014 of Blue \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**You said that I was Great \u2014 one Day \u2014**\n\nYou said that I \"was Great\" \u2014 one Day \u2014   \nThen \"Great\" it be \u2014 if that please Thee \u2014   \nOr Small \u2014 or any size at all \u2014   \nNay \u2014 I'm the size suit Thee \u2014\n\nTall \u2014 like the Stag \u2014 would that?  \nOr lower \u2014 like the Wren \u2014   \nOr other heights of Other Ones  \nI've seen?\n\nTell which \u2014 it's dull to guess \u2014   \nAnd I must be Rhinoceros  \nOr Mouse \u2014   \nAt once \u2014 for Thee \u2014\n\nSo say \u2014 if Queen it be \u2014   \nOr Page \u2014 please Thee \u2014   \nI'm that \u2014 or nought \u2014   \nOr other thing \u2014 if other thing there be \u2014   \nWith just this Stipulus \u2014   \nI suit Thee \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I many times thought Peace had come**\n\nI many times thought Peace had come  \nWhen Peace was far away \u2014   \nAs Wrecked Men \u2014 deem they sight the Land \u2014   \nAt Centre of the Sea \u2014\n\nAnd struggle slacker \u2014 but to prove  \nAs hopelessly as I \u2014   \nHow many the fictitious Shores \u2014   \nBefore the Harbor be \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**You taught me Waiting with Myself \u2014**\n\nYou taught me Waiting with Myself \u2014   \nAppointment strictly kept \u2014   \nYou taught me fortitude of Fate \u2014   \nThis \u2014 also \u2014 I have learnt \u2014\n\nAn Altitude of Death, that could  \nNo bitterer debar  \nThan Life \u2014 had done \u2014 before it \u2014   \nYet \u2014 there is a Science more \u2014\n\nThe Heaven you know \u2014 to understand  \nThat you be not ashamed  \nOf Me \u2014 in Christ's bright Audience  \nUpon the further Hand \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Drama's Vitallest Expression is the Common Day**\n\nDrama's Vitallest Expression is the Common Day  \nThat arise and set about Us \u2014   \nOther Tragedy\n\nPerish in the Recitation \u2014   \nThis \u2014 the best enact  \nWhen the Audience is scattered  \nAnd the Boxes shut \u2014\n\n\"Hamlet\" to Himself were Hamlet \u2014   \nHad not Shakespeare wrote \u2014   \nThough the \"Romeo\" left no Record  \nOf his Juliet,\n\nIt were infinite enacted  \nIn the Human Heart \u2014   \nOnly Theatre recorded  \nOwner cannot shut \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Four Trees \u2014 upon a solitary Acre \u2014**\n\nFour Trees \u2014 upon a solitary Acre \u2014   \nWithout Design  \nOr Order, or Apparent Action \u2014   \nMaintain \u2014\n\nThe Sun \u2014 upon a Morning meets them \u2014   \nThe Wind \u2014   \nNo nearer Neighbor \u2014 have they \u2014   \nBut God \u2014\n\nThe Acre gives them \u2014 Place \u2014   \nThey \u2014 Him \u2014 Attention of Passer by \u2014   \nOf Shadow, or of Squirrel, haply \u2014   \nOr Boy \u2014\n\nWhat Deed is Theirs unto the General Nature \u2014   \nWhat Plan  \nThey severally \u2014 retard \u2014 or further \u2014   \nUnknown \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Birds reported from the South \u2014**\n\nThe Birds reported from the South \u2014   \nA News express to Me \u2014   \nA spicy Charge, My little Posts \u2014   \nBut I am deaf \u2014 Today \u2014\n\nThe Flowers \u2014 appealed \u2014 a timid Throng \u2014   \nI reinforced the Door \u2014   \nGo blossom for the Bees \u2014 I said \u2014   \nAnd trouble Me \u2014 no More \u2014\n\nThe Summer Grace, for Notice strove \u2014   \nRemote \u2014 Her best Array \u2014   \nThe Heart \u2014 to stimulate the Eye  \nRefused too utterly \u2014\n\nAt length, a Mourner, like Myself,  \nShe drew away austere \u2014   \nHer frosts to ponder \u2014 then it was  \nI recollected Her \u2014\n\nShe suffered Me, for I had mourned \u2014   \nI offered Her no word \u2014   \nMy Witness \u2014 was the Crape I bore \u2014   \nHer \u2014 Witness \u2014 was Her Dead \u2014\n\nThenceforward \u2014 We \u2014 together dwelt \u2014   \nI never questioned Her \u2014   \nOur Contract  \nA Wiser Sympathy\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Remorse \u2014 is Memory \u2014 awake \u2014**\n\nRemorse is memory awake,  \nHer companies astir,---  \nA presence of departed acts  \nAt window and at door.\n\nIt's past set down before the soul,  \nAnd lighted with a match,  \nPerusal to facilitate  \nOf its condensed despatch.\n\nRemorse is cureless,---the disease  \nNot even God can heal;  \nFor 't is his institution,---  \nThe complement of hell.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Renunciation \u2014 is a piercing Virtue \u2014**\n\nRenunciation \u2014 is a piercing Virtue \u2014   \nThe letting go  \nA Presence \u2014 for an Expectation \u2014   \nNot now \u2014   \nThe putting out of Eyes \u2014   \nJust Sunrise \u2014   \nLest Day \u2014   \nDay's Great Progenitor \u2014   \nOutvie  \nRenunciation \u2014 is the Choosing  \nAgainst itself \u2014   \nItself to justify  \nUnto itself \u2014   \nWhen larger function \u2014   \nMake that appear \u2014   \nSmaller \u2014 that Covered Vision \u2014 Here \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Never for Society**\n\nNever for Society  \nHe shall seek in vain \u2014   \nWho His own acquaintance  \nCultivate \u2014 Of Men  \nWiser Men may weary \u2014   \nBut the Man within\n\nNever knew Satiety \u2014   \nBetter entertain  \nThan could Border Ballad \u2014   \nOr Biscayan Hymn \u2014   \nNeither introduction  \nNeed You \u2014 unto Him \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It dropped so low \u2014 in my Regard \u2014**\n\nIt dropped so low \u2014 in my Regard \u2014   \nI heard it hit the Ground \u2014   \nAnd go to pieces on the Stones  \nAt bottom of my Mind \u2014\n\nYet blamed the Fate that flung it \u2014 less  \nThan I denounced Myself,  \nFor entertaining Plated Wares  \nUpon my Silver Shelf \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Autumn \u2014 overlooked my Knitting \u2014**\n\nAutumn \u2014 overlooked my Knitting \u2014   \nDyes \u2014 said He \u2014 have I \u2014   \nCould disparage a Flamingo \u2014   \nShow Me them \u2014 said I \u2014\n\nCochineal \u2014 I chose \u2014 for deeming  \nIt resemble Thee \u2014   \nAnd the little Border \u2014 Dusker \u2014   \nFor resembling Me \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**All but Death, can be Adjusted \u2014**\n\nAll but Death, can be Adjusted \u2014   \nDynasties repaired \u2014   \nSystems \u2014 settled in their Sockets \u2014   \nCitadels \u2014 dissolved \u2014\n\nWastes of Lives \u2014 resown with Colors  \nBy Succeeding Springs \u2014   \nDeath \u2014 unto itself \u2014 Exception \u2014   \nIs exempt from Change \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Growth of Man \u2014 like Growth of Nature \u2014**\n\nGrowth of Man \u2014 like Growth of Nature \u2014   \nGravitates within \u2014   \nAtmosphere, and Sun endorse it \u2014   \nBit it stir \u2014 alone \u2014\n\nEach \u2014 its difficult Ideal  \nMust achieve \u2014 Itself \u2014   \nThrough the solitary prowess  \nOf a Silent Life \u2014\n\nEffort \u2014 is the sole condition \u2014   \nPatience of Itself \u2014   \nPatience of opposing forces \u2014   \nAnd intact Belief \u2014\n\nLooking on \u2014 is the Department  \nOf its Audience \u2014   \nBut Transaction \u2014 is assisted  \nBy no Countenance \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My Worthiness is all my Doubt \u2014**\n\nMy Worthiness is all my Doubt \u2014   \nHis Merit \u2014 all my fear \u2014   \nContrasting which, my quality  \nDo lowlier \u2014 appear \u2014\n\nLest I should insufficient prove  \nFor His beloved Need \u2014   \nThe Chiefest Apprehension  \nUpon my thronging Mind \u2014\n\n'Tis true \u2014 that Deity to stoop  \nInherently incline \u2014   \nFor nothing higher than Itself  \nItself can rest upon \u2014\n\nSo I \u2014 the undivine abode  \nOf His Elect Content \u2014   \nConform my Soul \u2014 as 'twere a Church,  \nUnto Her Sacrament \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**So the Eyes accost \u2014 and sunder**\n\nSo the Eyes accost \u2014 and sunder  \nIn an Audience \u2014   \nStamped \u2014 occasionally \u2014 forever \u2014   \nSo may Countenance\n\nEntertain \u2014 without addressing  \nCountenance of One  \nIn a Neighboring Horizon \u2014   \nGone \u2014 as soon as known \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My Soul \u2014 accused me \u2014 And I quailed \u2014**\n\nMy Soul \u2014 accused me \u2014 And I quailed \u2014   \nAs Tongue of Diamond had reviled  \nAll else accused me \u2014 and I smiled \u2014   \nMy Soul \u2014 that Morning \u2014 was My friend \u2014\n\nHer favor \u2014 is the best Disdain  \nToward Artifice of Time \u2014 or Men \u2014   \nBut Her Disdain \u2014 'twere lighter bear  \nA finger of Enamelled Fire \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My Life had stood \u2014 a Loaded Gun \u2014**\n\nMy Life had stood \u2014 a Loaded Gun \u2014   \nIn Corners \u2014 till a Day  \nThe Owner passed \u2014 identified \u2014   \nAnd carried Me away \u2014\n\nAnd now We roam in Sovereign Woods \u2014   \nAnd now We hunt the Doe \u2014   \nAnd every time I speak for Him \u2014   \nThe Mountains straight reply \u2014\n\nAnd do I smile, such cordial light  \nUpon the Valley glow \u2014   \nIt is as a Vesuvian face  \nHad let its pleasure through \u2014\n\nAnd when at Night \u2014 Our good Day done \u2014   \nI guard My Master's Head \u2014   \n'Tis better than the Eider-Duck's  \nDeep Pillow \u2014 to have shared \u2014\n\nTo foe of His \u2014 I'm deadly foe \u2014   \nNone stir the second time \u2014   \nOn whom I lay a Yellow Eye \u2014   \nOr an emphatic Thumb \u2014\n\nThough I than He \u2014 may longer live  \nHe longer must \u2014 than I \u2014   \nFor I have but the power to kill,  \nWithout \u2014 the power to die \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**No Bobolink \u2014 reverse His Singing**\n\nNo Bobolink \u2014 reverse His Singing  \nWhen the only Tree  \nEver He minded occupying  \nBy the Farmer be \u2014\n\nClove to the Root \u2014   \nHis Spacious Future \u2014   \nBest Horizon \u2014 gone \u2014   \nWhose Music be His  \nOnly Anodyne \u2014   \nBrave Bobolink \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**One Blessing had I than the rest**\n\nOne Blessing had I than the rest  \nSo larger to my Eyes  \nThat I stopped gauging \u2014 satisfied \u2014   \nFor this enchanted size \u2014\n\nIt was the limit of my Dream \u2014   \nThe focus of my Prayer \u2014   \nA perfect \u2014 paralyzing Bliss \u2014   \nContented as Despair \u2014\n\nI knew no more of Want \u2014 or Cold \u2014   \nPhantasms both become  \nFor this new Value in the Soul \u2014   \nSupremest Earthly Sum \u2014\n\nThe Heaven below the Heaven above \u2014   \nObscured with ruddier Blue \u2014   \nLife's Latitudes leant over \u2014 full \u2014   \nThe Judgment perished \u2014 too \u2014\n\nWhy Bliss so scantily disburse \u2014   \nWhy Paradise defer \u2014   \nWhy Floods be served to Us \u2014 in Bowls \u2014   \nI speculate no more \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Mountains \u2014 grow unnoticed \u2014**\n\nThe Mountains \u2014 grow unnoticed \u2014   \nTheir Purple figures rise  \nWithout attempt \u2014 Exhaustion \u2014   \nAssistance \u2014 or Applause \u2014\n\nIn Their Eternal Faces  \nThe Sun \u2014 with just delight  \nLooks long \u2014 and last \u2014 and golden \u2014   \nFor fellowship \u2014 at night \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**These \u2014 saw Visions \u2014**\n\nThese \u2014 saw Visions \u2014   \nLatch them softly \u2014   \nThese \u2014 held Dimples \u2014   \nSmooth them slow \u2014   \nThis \u2014 addressed departing accents \u2014   \nQuick \u2014 Sweet Mouth \u2014 to miss thee so \u2014\n\nThis \u2014 We stroked \u2014   \nUnnumbered Satin \u2014   \nThese \u2014 we held among our own \u2014   \nFingers of the Slim Aurora \u2014   \nNot so arrogant \u2014 this Noon \u2014\n\nThese \u2014 adjust \u2014 that ran to meet us \u2014   \nPearl \u2014 for Stocking \u2014 Pearl for Shoe \u2014   \nParadise \u2014 the only Palace  \nFit for Her reception \u2014 now \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**He fought like those Who've nought to lose \u2014**\n\nHe fought like those Who've nought to lose \u2014   \nBestowed Himself to Balls  \nAs One who for a further Life  \nHad not a further Use \u2014\n\nInvited Death \u2014 with bold attempt \u2014   \nBut Death was Coy of Him  \nAs Other Men, were Coy of Death \u2014   \nTo Him \u2014 to live \u2014 was Doom \u2014\n\nHis Comrades, shifted like the Flakes  \nWhen Gusts reverse the Snow \u2014   \nBut He \u2014 was left alive Because  \nOf Greediness to die \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Most she touched me by her muteness \u2014**\n\nMost she touched me by her muteness \u2014   \nMost she won me by the way  \nShe presented her small figure \u2014   \nPlea itself \u2014 for Charity \u2014\n\nWere a Crumb my whole possession \u2014   \nWere there famine in the land \u2014   \nWere it my resource from starving \u2014   \nCould I such a plea withstand \u2014\n\nNot upon her knee to thank me  \nSank this Beggar from the Sky \u2014   \nBut the Crumb partook \u2014 departed \u2014   \nAnd returned On High \u2014\n\nI supposed \u2014 when sudden  \nSuch a Praise began  \n'Twas as Space sat singing  \nTo herself \u2014 and men \u2014\n\n'Twas the Winged Beggar \u2014   \nAfterward I learned  \nTo her Benefactor  \nMaking Gratitude\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**From Blank to Blank \u2014**\n\nFrom Blank to Blank \u2014   \nA Threadless Way  \nI pushed Mechanic feet \u2014   \nTo stop \u2014 or perish \u2014 or advance \u2014   \nAlike indifferent \u2014\n\nIf end I gained  \nIt ends beyond  \nIndefinite disclosed \u2014   \nI shut my eyes \u2014 and groped as well  \n'Twas lighter \u2014 to be Blind \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Whole of it came not at once \u2014**\n\nThe Whole of it came not at once \u2014   \n'Twas Murder by degrees \u2014   \nA Thrust \u2014 and then for Life a chance \u2014   \nThe Bliss to cauterize \u2014\n\nThe Cat reprieves the Mouse  \nShe eases from her teeth  \nJust long enough for Hope to tease \u2014   \nThen mashes it to death \u2014\n\n'Tis Life's award \u2014 to die \u2014   \nContenteder if once \u2014   \nThan dying half \u2014 then rallying  \nFor consciouser Eclipse \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**He told a homely tale**\n\nHe told a homely tale  \nAnd spotted it with tears \u2014   \nUpon his infant face was set  \nThe Cicatrice of years \u2014\n\nAll crumpled was the cheek  \nNo other kiss had known  \nThan flake of snow, divided with  \nThe Redbreast of the Barn \u2014\n\nIf Mother \u2014 in the Grave \u2014   \nOr Father \u2014 on the Sea \u2014   \nOr Father in the Firmament \u2014   \nOr Brethren, had he \u2014\n\nIf Commonwealth below,  \nOr Commonwealth above  \nHave missed a Barefoot Citizen \u2014   \nI've ransomed it \u2014 alive \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Presentiment \u2014 is that long Shadow \u2014 on the Lawn \u2014**\n\nPresentiment \u2014 is that long Shadow \u2014 on the Lawn \u2014   \nIndicatives that Suns go down \u2014\n\nThe Notice to the startled Grass  \nThat Darkness \u2014 is about to pass \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**You constituted Time \u2014**\n\nYou constituted Time \u2014   \nI deemed Eternity  \nA Revelation of Yourself \u2014   \n'Twas therefore Deity\n\nThe Absolute \u2014 removed  \nThe Relative away \u2014   \nThat I unto Himself adjust  \nMy slow idolatry \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My Faith is larger than the Hills \u2014**\n\nMy Faith is larger than the Hills \u2014   \nSo when the Hills decay \u2014   \nMy Faith must take the Purple Wheel  \nTo show the Sun the way \u2014\n\n'Tis first He steps upon the Vane \u2014   \nAnd then \u2014 upon the Hill \u2014   \nAnd then abroad the World He go  \nTo do His Golden Will \u2014\n\nAnd if His Yellow feet should miss \u2014   \nThe Bird would not arise \u2014   \nThe Flowers would slumber on their Stems \u2014   \nNo Bells have Paradise \u2014\n\nHow dare I, therefore, stint a faith  \nOn which so vast depends \u2014   \nLest Firmament should fail for me \u2014   \nThe Rivet in the Bands\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To offer brave assistance**\n\nTo offer brave assistance  \nTo Lives that stand alone \u2014   \nWhen One has failed to stop them \u2014   \nIs Human \u2014 but Divine\n\nTo lend an Ample Sinew  \nUnto a Nameless Man \u2014   \nWhose Homely Benediction  \nNo other \u2014 stopped to earn \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**When I hoped, I recollect**\n\nWhen I hoped, I recollect  \nJust the place I stood \u2014   \nAt a Window facing West \u2014   \nRoughest Air \u2014 was good \u2014\n\nNot a Sleet could bite me \u2014   \nNot a frost could cool \u2014   \nHope it was that kept me warm \u2014   \nNot Merino shawl \u2014\n\nWhen I feared \u2014 I recollect  \nJust the Day it was \u2014   \nWorlds were lying out to Sun \u2014   \nYet how Nature froze \u2014\n\nIcicles upon my soul  \nPrickled Blue and Cool \u2014   \nBird went praising everywhere \u2014   \nOnly Me \u2014 was still \u2014\n\nAnd the Day that I despaired \u2014   \nThis \u2014 if I forget  \nNature will \u2014 that it be Night  \nAfter Sun has set \u2014   \nDarkness intersect her face \u2014   \nAnd put out her eye \u2014   \nNature hesitate \u2014 before  \nMemory and I \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**One and One \u2014 are One \u2014**\n\nOne and One \u2014 are One \u2014   \nTwo \u2014 be finished using \u2014   \nWell enough for Schools \u2014   \nBut for Minor Choosing \u2014\n\nLife \u2014 just \u2014 or Death \u2014   \nOr the Everlasting \u2014   \nMore \u2014 would be too vast  \nFor the Soul's Comprising \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I lived on Dread \u2014**\n\nI lived on Dread \u2014   \nTo Those who know  \nThe Stimulus there is  \nIn Danger \u2014 Other impetus  \nIs numb \u2014 and Vitalless \u2014\n\nAs 'twere a Spur \u2014 upon the Soul \u2014   \nA Fear will urge it where  \nTo go without the Sceptre's aid  \nWere Challenging Despair.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**None can experience sting**\n\nNone can experience stint  \nWho Bounty \u2014 have not known \u2014   \nThe fact of Famine \u2014 could not be  \nExcept for Fact of Corn \u2014\n\nWant \u2014 is a meagre Art  \nAcquired by Reverse \u2014   \nThe Poverty that was not Wealth \u2014   \nCannot be Indigence.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The hallowing of Pain**\n\nThe hallowing of Pain  \nLike hallowing of Heaven,  \nObtains at a corporeal cost \u2014   \nThe Summit is not given\n\nTo Him who strives severe  \nAt middle of the Hill \u2014   \nBut He who has achieved the Top \u2014   \nAll \u2014 is the price of All \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Deprived of other Banquet,**\n\nDeprived of other Banquet,  \nI entertained Myself \u2014   \nAt first \u2014 a scant nutrition \u2014   \nAn insufficient Loaf \u2014\n\nBut grown by slender addings  \nTo so esteemed a size  \n'Tis sumptuous enough for me \u2014   \nAnd almost to suffice\n\nA Robin's famine able \u2014   \nRed Pilgrim, He and I \u2014   \nA Berry from our table  \nReserve \u2014 for charity \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It is a lonesome Glee \u2014**\n\nIt is a lonesome Glee \u2014   \nYet sanctifies the Mind \u2014   \nWith fair association \u2014   \nAfar upon the Wind\n\nA Bird to overhear  \nDelight without a Cause \u2014   \nArrestless as invisible \u2014   \nA matter of the Skies.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If Blame be my side \u2014 forfeit Me \u2014**\n\nIf Blame be my side \u2014 forfeit Me \u2014   \nBut doom me not to forfeit Thee \u2014   \nTo forfeit Thee? The very name  \nIs sentence from Belief \u2014 and House \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Color of a Queen, is this \u2014**\n\nThe Color of a Queen, is this \u2014   \nThe Color of a Sun  \nAt setting \u2014 this and Amber \u2014   \nBeryl \u2014 and this, at Noon \u2014\n\nAnd when at night \u2014 Auroran widths  \nFling suddenly on men \u2014   \n'Tis this \u2014 and Witchcraft \u2014 nature keeps  \nA Rank \u2014 for Iodine \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Loneliness One dare not sound \u2014**\n\nThe Loneliness One dare not sound \u2014   \nAnd would as soon surmise  \nAs in its Grave go plumbing  \nTo ascertain the size \u2014\n\nThe Loneliness whose worst alarm  \nIs lest itself should see \u2014   \nAnd perish from before itself  \nFor just a scrutiny \u2014\n\nThe Horror not to be surveyed \u2014   \nBut skirted in the Dark \u2014   \nWith Consciousness suspended \u2014   \nAnd Being under Lock \u2014\n\nI fear me this \u2014 is Loneliness \u2014   \nThe Maker of the soul  \nIts Caverns and its Corridors  \nIlluminate \u2014 or seal \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**This that would greet \u2014 an hour ago \u2014**\n\nThis that would greet \u2014 an hour ago \u2014   \nIs quaintest Distance \u2014 now \u2014   \nHad it a Guest from Paradise \u2014   \nNor glow, would it, nor bow \u2014\n\nHad it a notice from the Noon  \nNor beam would it nor warm \u2014   \nMatch me the Silver Reticence \u2014   \nMatch me the Solid Calm \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Service without Hope \u2014**\n\nThe Service without Hope \u2014   \nIs tenderest, I think \u2014   \nBecause 'tis unsustained  \nBy stint \u2014 Rewarded Work \u2014\n\nHas impetus of Gain \u2014   \nAnd impetus of Goal \u2014   \nThere is no Diligence like that  \nThat knows not an Until \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Truth \u2014 is stirless \u2014**\n\nThe Truth \u2014 is stirless \u2014   \nOther force \u2014 may be presumed to move \u2014   \nThis \u2014 then \u2014 is best for confidence \u2014   \nWhen oldest Cedars swerve \u2014\n\nAnd Oaks untwist their fists \u2014   \nAnd Mountains \u2014 feeble \u2014 lean \u2014   \nHow excellent a Body, that  \nStands without a Bone \u2014\n\nHow vigorous a Force  \nThat holds without a Prop \u2014   \nTruth stays Herself \u2014 and every man  \nThat trusts Her \u2014 boldly up \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To wait an Hour \u2014 is long \u2014**\n\nTo wait an Hour \u2014 is long \u2014   \nIf Love be just beyond \u2014   \nTo wait Eternity \u2014 is short \u2014   \nIf Love reward the end \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There is an arid Pleasure \u2014**\n\nThere is an arid Pleasure \u2014   \nAs different from Joy \u2014   \nAs Frost is different from Dew \u2014   \nLike element \u2014 are they \u2014\n\nYet one \u2014 rejoices Flowers \u2014   \nAnd one \u2014 the Flowers abhor \u2014   \nThe finest Honey \u2014 curdled \u2014   \nIs worthless \u2014 to the Bee \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Birds begun at Four o'clock \u2014**\n\nThe Birds begun at Four o'clock \u2014   \nTheir period for Dawn \u2014   \nA Music numerous as space \u2014   \nBut neighboring as Noon \u2014\n\nI could not count their Force \u2014   \nTheir Voices did expend  \nAs Brook by Brook bestows itself  \nTo multiply the Pond.\n\nTheir Witnesses were not \u2014   \nExcept occasional man \u2014   \nIn homely industry arrayed \u2014   \nTo overtake the Morn \u2014\n\nNor was it for applause \u2014   \nThat I could ascertain \u2014   \nBut independent Ecstasy  \nOf Deity and Men \u2014\n\nBy Six, the Flood had done \u2014   \nNo Tumult there had been  \nOf Dressing, or Departure \u2014   \nAnd yet the Band was gone \u2014\n\nThe Sun engrossed the East \u2014   \nThe Day controlled the World \u2014   \nThe Miracle that introduced  \nForgotten, as fulfilled.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Bereaved of all, I went abroad \u2014**\n\nBereaved of all, I went abroad \u2014   \nNo less bereaved was I  \nUpon a New Peninsula \u2014   \nThe Grave preceded me \u2014\n\nObtained my Lodgings, ere myself \u2014   \nAnd when I sought my Bed \u2014   \nThe Grave it was reposed upon  \nThe Pillow for my Head \u2014\n\nI waked to find it first awake \u2014   \nI rose \u2014 It followed me \u2014   \nI tried to drop it in the Crowd \u2014   \nTo lose it in the Sea \u2014\n\nIn Cups of artificial Drowse  \nTo steep its shape away \u2014   \nThe Grave \u2014 was finished \u2014 but the Spade  \nRemained in Memory \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**They have a little Odor \u2014 that to me**\n\nThey have a little Odor \u2014 that to me  \nIs metre \u2014 nay \u2014 'tis melody \u2014   \nAnd spiciest at fading \u2014 indicate \u2014   \nA Habit \u2014 of a Laureate \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Severer Service of myself**\n\nSeverer Service of myself  \nI \u2014 hastened to demand  \nTo fill the awful Vacuum  \nYour life had left behind \u2014\n\nI worried Nature with my Wheels  \nWhen Hers had ceased to run \u2014   \nWhen she had put away Her Work  \nMy own had just begun.\n\nI strove to weary Brain and Bone \u2014   \nTo harass to fatigue  \nThe glittering Retinue of nerves \u2014   \nVitality to clog\n\nTo some dull comfort Those obtain  \nWho put a Head away  \nThey knew the Hair to \u2014   \nAnd forget the color of the Day \u2014\n\nAffliction would not be appeased \u2014   \nThe Darkness braced as firm  \nAs all my stratagem had been  \nThe Midnight to confirm \u2014\n\nNo Drug for Consciousness \u2014 can be \u2014   \nAlternative to die  \nIs Nature's only Pharmacy  \nFor Being's Malady \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Such is the Force of Happiness \u2014**\n\nSuch is the Force of Happiness \u2014   \nThe Least \u2014 can lift a Ton  \nAssisted by its stimulus \u2014\n\nWho Misery \u2014 sustain \u2014   \nNo Sinew can afford \u2014   \nThe Cargo of Themselves \u2014   \nToo infinite for Consciousness'  \nSlow capabilities.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Joy to have merited the Pain \u2014**\n\nJoy to have merited the Pain \u2014   \nTo merit the Release \u2014   \nJoy to have perished every step \u2014   \nTo Compass Paradise \u2014\n\nPardon \u2014 to look upon thy face \u2014   \nWith these old fashioned Eyes \u2014   \nBetter than new \u2014 could be \u2014 for that \u2014   \nThough bought in Paradise \u2014\n\nBecause they looked on thee before \u2014   \nAnd thou hast looked on them \u2014   \nProve Me \u2014 My Hazel Witnesses  \nThe features are the same \u2014\n\nSo fleet thou wert, when present \u2014   \nSo infinite \u2014 when gone \u2014   \nAn Orient's Apparition \u2014   \nRemanded of the Morn \u2014\n\nThe Height I recollect \u2014   \n'Twas even with the Hills \u2014   \nThe Depth upon my Soul was notched \u2014   \nAs Floods \u2014 on Whites of Wheels \u2014\n\nTo Haunt \u2014 till Time have dropped  \nHis last Decade away,  \nAnd Haunting actualize \u2014 to last  \nAt least \u2014 Eternity \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**On a Columnar Self \u2014**\n\nOn a Columnar Self \u2014   \nHow ample to rely  \nIn Tumult \u2014 or Extremity \u2014   \nHow good the Certainty\n\nThat Lever cannot pry \u2014   \nAnd Wedge cannot divide  \nConviction \u2014 That Granitic Base \u2014   \nThough None be on our Side \u2014\n\nSuffice Us \u2014 for a Crowd \u2014   \nOurself \u2014 and Rectitude \u2014   \nAnd that Assembly \u2014 not far off  \nFrom furthest Spirit \u2014 God \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Nature \u2014 the Gentlest Mother is,**\n\nNature \u2014 the Gentlest Mother is,  \nImpatient of no Child \u2014   \nThe feeblest \u2014 or the waywardest \u2014   \nHer Admonition mild \u2014\n\nIn Forest \u2014 and the Hill \u2014   \nBy Traveller \u2014 be heard \u2014   \nRestraining Rampant Squirrel \u2014   \nOr too impetuous Bird \u2014\n\nHow fair Her Conversation \u2014   \nA Summer Afternoon \u2014   \nHer Household \u2014 Her Assembly \u2014   \nAnd when the Sun go down \u2014\n\nHer Voice among the Aisles  \nIncite the timid prayer  \nOf the minutest Cricket \u2014   \nThe most unworthy Flower \u2014\n\nWhen all the Children sleep \u2014   \nShe turns as long away  \nAs will suffice to light Her lamps \u2014   \nThen bending from the Sky \u2014\n\nWith infinite Affection \u2014   \nAnd infiniter Care \u2014   \nHer Golden finger on Her lip \u2014   \nWills Silence \u2014 Everywhere \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**God gave a Loaf to every Bird \u2014**\n\nGod gave a Loaf to every Bird \u2014   \nBut just a Crumb \u2014 to Me \u2014   \nI dare not eat it \u2014 tho' I starve \u2014   \nMy poignant luxury \u2014\n\nTo own it \u2014 touch it \u2014   \nProve the feat \u2014 that made the Pellet mine \u2014   \nToo happy \u2014 for my Sparrow's chance \u2014   \nFor Ampler Coveting \u2014\n\nIt might be Famine \u2014 all around \u2014   \nI could not miss an Ear \u2014   \nSuch Plenty smiles upon my Board \u2014   \nMy Garner shows so fair \u2014\n\nI wonder how the Rich \u2014 may feel \u2014   \nAn Indiaman \u2014 An Earl \u2014   \nI deem that I \u2014 with but a Crumb \u2014   \nAm Sovereign of them all \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Through the strait pass of suffering \u2014**\n\nThrough the strait pass of suffering \u2014   \nThe Martyrs \u2014 even \u2014 trod.  \nTheir feet \u2014 upon Temptations \u2014   \nTheir faces \u2014 upon God \u2014\n\nA stately \u2014 shriven \u2014 Company \u2014   \nConvulsion \u2014 playing round \u2014   \nHarmless \u2014 as streaks of Meteor \u2014   \nUpon a Planet's Bond \u2014\n\nTheir faith \u2014 the everlasting troth \u2014   \nTheir Expectation \u2014 fair \u2014   \nThe Needle \u2014 to the North Degree \u2014   \nWades \u2014 so \u2014 thro' polar Air!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Grief is a Mouse \u2014**\n\nGrief is a Mouse \u2014   \nAnd chooses Wainscot in the Breast  \nFor His Shy House \u2014   \nAnd baffles quest \u2014\n\nGrief is a Thief \u2014 quick startled \u2014   \nPricks His Ear \u2014 report to hear  \nOf that Vast Dark \u2014   \nThat swept His Being \u2014 back \u2014\n\nGrief is a Juggler \u2014 boldest at the Play \u2014   \nLest if He flinch \u2014 the eye that way  \nPounce on His Bruises \u2014 One \u2014 say \u2014 or Three \u2014   \nGrief is a Gourmand \u2014 spare His luxury \u2014\n\nBest Grief is Tongueless \u2014 before He'll tell \u2014   \nBurn Him in the Public Square \u2014   \nHis Ashes \u2014 will  \nPossibly \u2014 if they refuse \u2014 How then know \u2014   \nSince a Rack couldn't coax a syllable \u2014 now.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Drop Fell on the Apple Tree \u2014**\n\nA Drop Fell on the Apple Tree \u2014   \nAnother \u2014 on the Roof \u2014   \nA Half a Dozen kissed the Eaves \u2014   \nAnd made the Gables laugh \u2014\n\nA few went out to help the Brook  \nThat went to help the Sea \u2014   \nMyself Conjectured were they Pearls \u2014   \nWhat Necklace could be \u2014\n\nThe Dust replaced, in Hoisted Roads \u2014   \nThe Birds jocoser sung \u2014   \nThe Sunshine threw his Hat away \u2014   \nThe Bushes \u2014 spangles flung \u2014\n\nThe Breezes brought dejected Lutes \u2014   \nAnd bathed them in the Glee \u2014   \nThen Orient showed a single Flag,  \nAnd signed the Fete away \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Her final Summer was it \u2014**\n\nHer final Summer was it \u2014   \nAnd yet We guessed it not \u2014   \nIf tenderer industriousness  \nPervaded Her, We thought\n\nA further force of life  \nDeveloped from within \u2014   \nWhen Death lit all the shortness up  \nIt made the hurry plain \u2014\n\nWe wondered at our blindness  \nWhen nothing was to see  \nBut Her Carrara Guide post \u2014   \nAt Our Stupidity \u2014\n\nWhen duller than our dullness  \nThe Busy Darling lay \u2014   \nSo busy was she \u2014 finishing \u2014   \nSo leisurely \u2014 were We \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Who Giants know, with lesser Men**\n\nWho Giants know, with lesser Men  \nAre incomplete, and shy \u2014   \nFor Greatness, that is ill at ease  \nIn minor Company \u2014\n\nA Smaller, could not be perturbed \u2014   \nThe Summer Gnat displays \u2014   \nUnconscious that his single Fleet  \nDo not comprise the skies \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**By my Window have I for Scenery**\n\nBy my Window have I for Scenery  \nJust a Sea \u2014 with a Stem \u2014   \nIf the Bird and the Farmer \u2014 deem it a \"Pine\" \u2014   \nThe Opinion will serve \u2014 for them \u2014\n\nIt has no Port, nor a \"Line\" \u2014 but the Jays \u2014   \nThat split their route to the Sky \u2014   \nOr a Squirrel, whose giddy Peninsula  \nMay be easier reached \u2014 this way \u2014\n\nFor Inlands \u2014 the Earth is the under side \u2014   \nAnd the upper side \u2014 is the Sun \u2014   \nAnd its Commerce \u2014 if Commerce it have \u2014   \nOf Spice \u2014 I infer from the Odors borne \u2014\n\nOf its Voice \u2014 to affirm \u2014 when the Wind is within \u2014   \nCan the Dumb \u2014 define the Divine?  \nThe Definition of Melody \u2014 is \u2014   \nThat Definition is none \u2014\n\nIt \u2014 suggests to our Faith \u2014   \nThey \u2014 suggest to our Sight \u2014   \nWhen the latter \u2014 is put away  \nI shall meet with Conviction I somewhere met  \nThat Immortality \u2014\n\nWas the Pine at my Window a \"Fellow  \nOf the Royal\" Infinity?  \nApprehensions \u2014 are God's introductions \u2014   \nTo be hallowed \u2014 accordingly \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**She staked her Feathers \u2014 Gained an Arc \u2014**\n\nShe staked her Feathers \u2014 Gained an Arc \u2014   \nDebated \u2014 Rose again \u2014   \nThis time \u2014 beyond the estimate  \nOf Envy, or of Men \u2014\n\nAnd now, among Circumference \u2014   \nHer steady Boat be seen \u2014   \nAt home \u2014 among the Billows \u2014 As  \nThe Bough where she was born \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Despair's advantage is achieved**\n\nDespair's advantage is achieved  \nBy suffering \u2014 Despair \u2014   \nTo be assisted of Reverse  \nOne must Reverse have bore \u2014\n\nThe Worthiness of Suffering like  \nThe Worthiness of Death  \nIs ascertained by tasting \u2014\n\nAs can no other Mouth\n\nOf Savors \u2014 make us conscious \u2014   \nAs did ourselves partake \u2014   \nAffliction feels impalpable  \nUntil Ourselves are struck \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Two \u2014 were immortal twice \u2014**\n\nTwo \u2014 were immortal twice \u2014   \nThe privilege of few \u2014   \nEternity \u2014 obtained \u2014 in Time \u2014   \nReversed Divinity \u2014\n\nThat our ignoble Eyes  \nThe quality conceive  \nOf Paradise superlative \u2014   \nThrough their Comparative.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I play at Riches \u2014 to appease**\n\nI play at Riches \u2014 to appease  \nThe Clamoring for Gold \u2014   \nIt kept me from a Thief, I think,  \nFor often, overbold\n\nWith Want, and Opportunity \u2014   \nI could have done a Sin  \nAnd been Myself that easy Thing  \nAn independent Man \u2014\n\nBut often as my lot displays  \nToo hungry to be borne  \nI deem Myself what I would be \u2014   \nAnd novel Comforting\n\nMy Poverty and I derive \u2014   \nWe question if the Man \u2014   \nWho own \u2014 Esteem the Opulence \u2014   \nAs We \u2014 Who never Can \u2014\n\nShould ever these exploring Hands  \nChance Sovereign on a Mine \u2014   \nOr in the long \u2014 uneven term  \nTo win, become their turn \u2014\n\nHow fitter they will be \u2014 for Want \u2014   \nEnlightening so well \u2014   \nI know not which, Desire, or Grant \u2014   \nBe wholly beautiful \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Time feels so vast that were it not**\n\nTime feels so vast that were it not  \nFor an Eternity \u2014   \nI fear me this Circumference  \nEngross my Finity \u2014\n\nTo His exclusion, who prepare  \nBy Processes of Size  \nFor the Stupendous Vision  \nOf his diameters \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Who Court obtain within Himself**\n\nWho Court obtain within Himself  \nSees every Man a King \u2014   \nAnd Poverty of Monarchy  \nIs an interior thing \u2014\n\nNo Man depose  \nWhom Fate Ordain \u2014   \nAnd Who can add a Crown  \nTo Him who doth continual  \nConspire against His Own\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**No Notice gave She, but a Change \u2014**\n\nNo Notice gave She, but a Change \u2014   \nNo Message, but a Sigh \u2014   \nFor Whom, the Time did not suffice  \nThat She should specify.\n\nShe was not warm, though Summer shone  \nNor scrupulous of cold  \nThough Rime by Rime, the steady Frost  \nUpon Her Bosom piled \u2014\n\nOf shrinking ways \u2014 she did not fright  \nThough all the Village looked \u2014   \nBut held Her gravity aloft \u2014   \nAnd met the gaze \u2014 direct \u2014\n\nAnd when adjusted like a Seed  \nIn careful fitted Ground  \nUnto the Everlasting Spring  \nAnd hindered but a Mound\n\nHer Warm return, if so she chose \u2014   \nAnd We \u2014 imploring drew \u2014   \nRemoved our invitation by  \nAs Some She never knew \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**This Bauble was preferred of Bees \u2014**\n\nThis Bauble was preferred of Bees \u2014   \nBy Butterflies admired  \nAt Heavenly \u2014 Hopeless Distances \u2014   \nWas justified of Bird \u2014\n\nDid Noon \u2014 enamel \u2014 in Herself  \nWas Summer to a Score  \nWho only knew of Universe \u2014   \nIt had created Her.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Planted Life \u2014 diversified**\n\nA Planted Life \u2014 diversified  \nWith Gold and Silver Pain  \nTo prove the presence of the Ore  \nIn Particles \u2014 'tis when\n\nA Value struggle \u2014 it exist \u2014   \nA Power \u2014 will proclaim  \nAlthough Annihilation pile  \nWhole Chaoses on Him \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Expectation \u2014 is Contentment \u2014**\n\nExpectation \u2014 is Contentment \u2014   \nGain \u2014 Satiety \u2014   \nBut Satiety \u2014 Conviction  \nOf Necessity\n\nOf an Austere trait in Pleasure \u2014   \nGood, without alarm  \nIs a too established Fortune \u2014   \nDanger \u2014 deepens Sum \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**So set its Sun in Thee**\n\nSo set its Sun in Thee  \nWhat Day be dark to me \u2014   \nWhat Distance \u2014 far \u2014   \nSo I the Ships may see  \nThat touch \u2014 how seldomly \u2014   \nThy Shore?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Unable are the Loved to die**\n\nUnable are the Loved to die  \nFor Love is Immortality,  \nNay, it is Deity \u2014\n\nUnable they that love \u2014 to die  \nFor Love reforms Vitality  \nInto Divinity.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Her Grace is all she has \u2014**\n\nHer Grace is all she has \u2014   \nAnd that, so least displays \u2014   \nOne Art to recognize, must be,  \nAnother Art, to praise.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Veins of other Flowers**\n\nThe Veins of other Flowers  \nThe Scarlet Flowers are  \nTill Nature leisure has for Terms  \nAs \"Branch,\" and \"Jugular.\"\n\nWe pass, and she abides.  \nWe conjugate Her Skill  \nWhile She creates and federates  \nWithout a syllable.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Light exists in Spring**\n\nA Light exists in Spring  \nNot present on the Year  \nAt any other period \u2014   \nWhen March is scarcely here\n\nA Color stands abroad  \nOn Solitary Fields  \nThat Science cannot overtake  \nBut Human Nature feels.\n\nIt waits upon the Lawn,  \nIt shows the furthest Tree  \nUpon the furthest Slope you know  \nIt almost speaks to you.\n\nThen as Horizons step  \nOr Noons report away  \nWithout the Formula of sound  \nIt passes and we stay \u2014\n\nA quality of loss  \nAffecting our Content  \nAs Trade had suddenly encroached  \nUpon a Sacrament.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**This quiet Dust was Gentleman and Ladies**\n\nThis quiet Dust was Gentleman and Ladies  \nAnd Lads and Girls \u2014   \nWas laughter and ability and Sighing  \nAnd Frocks and Curls.\n\nThis Passive Place a Summer's nimble mansion  \nWhere Bloom and Bees  \nExists an Oriental Circuit  \nThen cease, like these \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**One Day is there of the Series**\n\nOne Day is there of the Series  \nTermed Thanksgiving Day.  \nCelebrated part at Table  \nPart in Memory.\n\nNeither Patriarch nor Pussy  \nI dissect the Play  \nSeems it to my Hooded thinking  \nReflex Holiday.\n\nHad there been no sharp Subtraction  \nFrom the early Sum \u2014   \nNot an Acre or a Caption  \nWhere was once a Room \u2014\n\nNot a Mention, whose small Pebble  \nWrinkled any Sea,  \nUnto Such, were such Assembly  \n'Twere Thanksgiving Day.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Luxury to apprehend**\n\nThe Luxury to apprehend  \nThe Luxury 'twould be  \nTo look at Thee a single time  \nAn Epicure of Me\n\nIn whatsoever Presence makes  \nTill for a further Food  \nI scarcely recollect to starve  \nSo first am I supplied \u2014\n\nThe Luxury to meditate  \nThe Luxury it was  \nTo banguet on thy Countenance  \nA Sumptuousness bestows\n\nOn plainer Days, whose Table far  \nAs Certainty can see  \nIs laden with a single Crumb  \nThe Consciousness of Thee.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Death blow is a Life blow to Some**\n\nA Death blow is a Life blow to Some  \nWho till they died, did not alive become \u2014   \nWho had they lived, had died but when  \nThey died, Vitality begun.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Given in Marriage unto Thee**\n\nGiven in Marriage unto Thee  \nOh thou Celestial Host \u2014   \nBride of the Father and the Son  \nBride of the Holy Ghost.\n\nOther Betrothal shall dissolve \u2014   \nWedlock of Will, decay \u2014   \nOnly the Keeper of this Ring  \nConquer Mortality \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I could not drink it, Sweet,**\n\nI could not drink it, Sweet,  \nTill You had tasted first,  \nThough cooler than the Water was  \nThe Thoughtfullness of Thirst.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**All I may, if small,**\n\nAll I may, if small,  \nDo it not display  \nLarger for the Totalness \u2014   \n'Tis Economy\n\nTo bestow a World  \nAnd withhold a Star \u2014   \nUtmost, is Munificence \u2014   \nLess, tho' larger, poor.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**All Circumstances are the Frame**\n\nAll Circumstances are the Frame  \nIn which His Face is set \u2014   \nAll Latitudes exist for His  \nSufficient Continent \u2014\n\nThe Light His Action, and the Dark  \nThe Leisure of His Will \u2014   \nIn Him Existence serve or set  \nA Force illegible.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Away from Home are some and I \u2014**\n\nAway from Home are some and I \u2014   \nAn Emigrant to be  \nIn a Metropolis of Homes  \nIs easy, possibly \u2014\n\nThe Habit of a Foreign Sky  \nWe \u2014 difficult \u2014 acquire  \nAs Children, who remain in Face  \nThe more their Feet retire.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**This Consciousness that is aware**\n\nThis Consciousness that is aware  \nOf Neighbors and the Sun  \nWill be the one aware of Death  \nAnd that itself alone\n\nIs traversing the interval  \nExperience between  \nAnd most profound experiment  \nAppointed unto Men \u2014\n\nHow adequate unto itself  \nIts properties shall be  \nItself unto itself and none  \nShall make discovery \u2014\n\nAdventure most unto itself  \nThe Soul condemned to be \u2014   \nAttended by a single Hound  \nIts own identity.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Not that We did, shall be the test**\n\nNot that We did, shall be the test  \nWhen Act and Will are done  \nBut what Our Lord infers We would  \nHad We diviner been \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Wind begun to knead the Grass \u2014**\n\n**Version 1** :  \nThe Wind begun to knead the Grass \u2014   \nAs Women do a Dough \u2014   \nHe flung a Hand full at the Plain \u2014   \nA Hand full at the Sky \u2014   \nThe Leaves unhooked themselves from Trees \u2014   \nAnd started all abroad \u2014   \nThe Dust did scoop itself like Hands \u2014   \nAnd throw away the Road \u2014   \nThe Wagons \u2014 quickened on the Street \u2014   \nThe Thunders gossiped low \u2014   \nThe Lightning showed a Yellow Head \u2014   \nAnd then a livid Toe \u2014   \nThe Birds put up the Bars to Nests \u2014   \nThe Cattle flung to Barns \u2014   \nThen came one drop of Giant Rain \u2014   \nAnd then, as if the Hands  \nThat held the Dams \u2014 had parted hold \u2014   \nThe Waters Wrecked the Sky \u2014   \nBut overlooked my Father's House \u2014   \nJust Quartering a Tree \u2014\n\n**Version 2** :  \nThe Wind begun to rock the Grass  \nWith threatening Tunes and low \u2014   \nHe threw a Menace at the Earth \u2014   \nA Menace at the Sky.\n\nThe Leaves unhooked themselves from Trees \u2014   \nAnd started all abroad  \nThe Dust did scoop itself like Hands  \nAnd threw away the Road.\n\nThe Wagons quickened on the Streets  \nThe Thunder hurried slow \u2014   \nThe Lightning showed a Yellow Beak  \nAnd then a livid Claw.\n\nThe Birds put up the Bars to Nests \u2014   \nThe Cattle fled to Barns \u2014   \nThere came one drop of Giant Rain  \nAnd then as if the Hands\n\nThat held the Dams had parted hold  \nThe Waters Wrecked the Sky,  \nBut overlooked my Father's House \u2014   \nJust quartering a Tree \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**An Hour is a Sea**\n\nAn Hour is a Sea  \nBetween a few, and me \u2014   \nWith them would Harbor be \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Love reckons by itself \u2014 alone \u2014**\n\nLove reckons by itself \u2014 alone \u2014   \n\"As large as I\" \u2014 relate the Sun  \nTo One who never felt it blaze \u2014   \nItself is all the like it has \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Only News I know**\n\nThe Only News I know  \nIs Bulletins all Day  \nFrom Immortality.\n\nThe Only Shows I see \u2014   \nTomorrow and Today \u2014   \nPerchance Eternity \u2014\n\nThe Only One I meet  \nIs God \u2014 The Only Street \u2014   \nExistence \u2014 This traversed\n\nIf Other News there be \u2014   \nOr Admirable Show \u2014   \nI'll tell it You \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Robin is the One**\n\nThe Robin is the One  \nThat interrupt the Morn  \nWith hurried \u2014 few \u2014 express Reports  \nWhen March is scarcely on \u2014\n\nThe Robin is the One  \nThat overflow the Noon  \nWith her cherubic quantity \u2014   \nAn April but begun \u2014\n\nThe Robin is the One  \nThat speechless from her Nest  \nSubmit that Home \u2014 and Certainty  \nAnd Sanctity, are best\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Ample make this Bed \u2014**\n\nAmple make this Bed \u2014   \nMake this Bed with Awe \u2014   \nIn it wait till Judgment break  \nExcellent and Fair.\n\nBe its Mattress straight \u2014   \nBe its Pillow round \u2014   \nLet no Sunrise' yellow noise  \nInterrupt this Ground \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To this World she returned.**\n\nTo this World she returned.  \nBut with a tinge of that \u2014   \nA Compound manner,  \nAs a Sod  \nEspoused a Violet,  \nThat chiefer to the Skies  \nThan to himself, allied,  \nDwelt hesitating, half of Dust,  \nAnd half of Day, the Bride.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Dying! To be afraid of thee**\n\nDying! To be afraid of thee  \nOne must to thine Artillery  \nHave left exposed a Friend \u2014   \nThan thine old Arrow is a Shot  \nDelivered straighter to the Heart  \nThe leaving Love behind.\n\nNot for itself, the Dust is shy,  \nBut, enemy, Beloved be  \nThy Batteries divorce.  \nFight sternly in a Dying eye  \nTwo Armies, Love and Certainty  \nAnd Love and the Reverse.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Soto! Explore thyself!**\n\nSoto! Explore thyself!  \nTherein thyself shalt find  \nThe \"Undiscovered Continent\" \u2014   \nNo Settler had the Mind.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Perhaps you think me stooping**\n\nPerhaps you think me stooping  \nI'm not ashamed of that  \nChrist \u2014 stooped until He touched the Grave \u2014   \nDo those at Sacrament\n\nCommemorative Dishonor  \nOr love annealed of love  \nUntil it bend as low as Death  \nRedignified, above?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Before He comes we weigh the Time!**\n\nBefore He comes we weigh the Time!  \n'Tis Heavy and 'tis Light.  \nWhen He depart, an Emptiness  \nIs the prevailing Freight.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Nature and God \u2014 I neither knew**\n\nNature and God \u2014 I neither knew  \nYet Both so well knew me  \nThey startled, like Executors  \nOf My identity.\n\nYet Neither told \u2014 that I could learn \u2014   \nMy Secret as secure  \nAs Herschel's private interest  \nOr Mercury's affair \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Truth \u2014 is as old as God \u2014**\n\nTruth \u2014 is as old as God \u2014   \nHis Twin identity  \nAnd will endure as long as He  \nA Co-Eternity \u2014\n\nAnd perish on the Day  \nHimself is borne away  \nFrom Mansion of the Universe  \nA lifeless Deity.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How well I knew Her not**\n\nHow well I knew Her not  \nWhom not to know has been  \nA Bounty in prospective, now  \nNext Door to mine the Pain.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Impossibility, like Wine**\n\nImpossibility, like Wine  \nExhilarates the Man  \nWho tastes it; Possibility  \nIs flavorless \u2014 Combine\n\nA Chance's faintest Tincture  \nAnd in the former Dram  \nEnchantment makes ingredient  \nAs certainly as Doom \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Always Mine!**\n\nAlways Mine!  \nNo more Vacation!  \nTerm of Light this Day begun!  \nFailless as the fair rotation  \nOf the Seasons and the Sun.\n\nOld the Grace, but new the Subjects \u2014   \nOld, indeed, the East,  \nYet upon His Purple Programme  \nEvery Dawn, is first.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I cannot buy it \u2014 'tis not sold \u2014**\n\nI cannot buy it \u2014 'tis not sold \u2014   \nThere is no other in the World \u2014   \nMine was the only one\n\nI was so happy I forgot  \nTo shut the Door And it went out  \nAnd I am all alone \u2014\n\nIf I could find it Anywhere  \nI would not mind the journey there  \nThough it took all my store\n\nBut just to look it in the Eye \u2014   \n\"Did'st thou?\" \"Thou did'st not mean,\" to say,  \nThen, turn my Face away.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Moth the hue of this**\n\nA Moth the hue of this  \nHaunts Candles in Brazil.  \nNature's Experience would make  \nOur Reddest Second pale.\n\nNature is fond, I sometimes think,  \nOf Trinkets, as a Girl.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Good to hide, and hear 'em hunt!**\n\nGood to hide, and hear 'em hunt!  \nBetter, to be found,  \nIf one care to, that is,  \nThe Fox fits the Hound \u2014\n\nGood to know, and not tell,  \nBest, to know and tell,  \nCan one find the rare Ear  \nNot too dull \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I made slow Riches but my Gain**\n\nI made slow Riches but my Gain  \nWas steady as the Sun  \nAnd every Night, it numbered more  \nThan the preceding One\n\nAll Days, I did not earn the same  \nBut my perceiveless Gain  \nInferred the less by Growing than  \nThe Sum that it had grown.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Spring is the Period**\n\nSpring is the Period  \nExpress from God.  \nAmong the other seasons  \nHimself abide,\n\nBut during March and April  \nNone stir abroad  \nWithout a cordial interview  \nWith God.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Be Mine the Doom \u2014**\n\nBe Mine the Doom \u2014   \nSufficient Fame \u2014   \nTo perish in Her Hand!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Twice had Summer her fair Verdure**\n\nTwice had Summer her fair Verdure  \nProffered to the Plain \u2014   \nTwice a Winter's silver Fracture  \nOn the Rivers been \u2014\n\nTwo full Autumns for the Squirrel  \nBounteous prepared \u2014   \nNature, Had'st thou not a Berry  \nFor thy wandering Bird?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Finite \u2014 to fail, but infinite to Venture \u2014**\n\nFinite \u2014 to fail, but infinite to Venture \u2014   \nFor the one ship that struts the shore  \nMany's the gallant \u2014 overwhelmed Creature  \nNodding in Navies nevermore \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Just as He spoke it from his Hands**\n\nJust as He spoke it from his Hands  \nThis Edifice remain \u2014   \nA Turret more, a Turret less  \nDishonor his Design \u2014\n\nAccording as his skill prefer  \nIt perish, or endure \u2014   \nContent, soe'er, it ornament  \nHis absent character.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The good Will of a Flower**\n\nThe good Will of a Flower  \nThe Man who would possess  \nMust first present  \nCertificate  \nOf minted Holiness.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I sing to use the Waiting**\n\nI sing to use the Waiting  \nMy Bonnet but to tie  \nAnd shut the Door unto my House  \nNo more to do have I\n\nTill His best step approaching  \nWe journey to the Day  \nAnd tell each other how We sung  \nTo Keep the Dark away.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**When the Astronomer stops seeking**\n\nWhen the Astronomer stops seeking  \nFor his Pleiad's Face \u2014   \nWhen the lone British Lady  \nForsakes the Arctic Race\n\nWhen to his Covenant Needle  \nThe Sailor doubting turns \u2014   \nIt will be amply early  \nTo ask what treason means.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Apology for Her**\n\nApology for Her  \nBe rendered by the Bee \u2014   \nHerself, without a Parliament  \nApology for Me.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**When One has given up One's life**\n\nWhen One has given up One's life  \nThe parting with the rest  \nFeels easy, as when Day lets go  \nEntirely the West\n\nThe Peaks, that lingered last  \nRemain in Her regret  \nAs scarcely as the Iodine  \nUpon the Cataract.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Banish Air from Air \u2014**\n\nBanish Air from Air \u2014   \nDivide Light if you dare \u2014   \nThey'll meet  \nWhile Cubes in a Drop  \nOr Pellets of Shape  \nFit  \nFilms cannot annul  \nOdors return whole  \nForce Flame  \nAnd with a Blonde push  \nOver your impotence  \nFlits Steam.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To own the Art within the Soul**\n\nTo own the Art within the Soul  \nThe Soul to entertain  \nWith Silence as a Company  \nAnd Festival maintain\n\nIs an unfurnished Circumstance  \nPossession is to One  \nAs an Estate perpetual  \nOr a reduceless Mine.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There is a finished feeling**\n\nThere is a finished feeling  \nExperienced at Graves \u2014   \nA leisure of the Future \u2014   \nA Wilderness of Size.\n\nBy Death's bold Exhibition  \nPreciser what we are  \nAnd the Eternal function  \nEnabled to infer.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Uncertain lease \u2014 develops lustre**\n\nUncertain lease \u2014 develops lustre  \nOn Time  \nUncertain Grasp, appreciation  \nOf Sum \u2014\n\nThe shorter Fate \u2014 is oftener the chiefest  \nBecause  \nInheritors upon a tenure  \nPrize \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**This Chasm, Sweet, upon my life**\n\nThis Chasm, Sweet, opon my life  \nI mention it to you,  \nWhen Sunrise through a fissure drop  \nThe Day must follow too.\n\nIf we demur, its gaping sides  \nDisclose as 'twere a Tomb  \nOurself am lying straight wherein  \nThe Favorite of Doom.\n\nWhen it has just contained a Life  \nThen, Darling, it will close  \nAnd yet so bolder every Day  \nSo turbulent it grows\n\nI'm tempted half to stitch it up  \nWith a remaining Breath  \nI should not miss in yielding, though  \nTo Him, it would be Death \u2014\n\nAnd so I bear it big about  \nMy Burial \u2014 before  \nA Life quite ready to depart  \nCan harass me no more \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A doubt if it be Us**\n\nA doubt if it be Us  \nAssists the staggering Mind  \nIn an extremer Anguish  \nUntil it footing find.\n\nAn Unreality is lent,  \nA merciful Mirage  \nThat makes the living possible  \nWhile it suspends the lives.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Absence disembodies \u2014 so does Death**\n\nAbsence disembodies \u2014 so does Death  \nHiding individuals from the Earth  \nSuperposition helps, as well as love \u2014   \nTenderness decreases as we prove \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Split the Lark \u2014 and you'll find the Music \u2014**\n\nSplit the Lark \u2014 and you'll find the Music \u2014   \nBulb after Bulb, in Silver rolled \u2014   \nScantilly dealt to the Summer Morning  \nSaved for your Ear when Lutes be old.\n\nLoose the Flood \u2014 you shall find it patent \u2014   \nGush after Gush, reserved for you \u2014   \nScarlet Experiment! Sceptic Thomas!  \nNow, do you doubt that your Bird was true?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Light is sufficient to itself \u2014**\n\nLight is sufficient to itself \u2014   \nIf Others want to see  \nIt can be had on Window Panes  \nSome Hours in the Day.\n\nBut not for Compensation \u2014   \nIt holds as large a Glow  \nTo Squirrel in the Himmaleh  \nPrecisely, as to you.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**That Distance was between Us**\n\nThat Distance was between Us  \nThat is not of Mile or Main \u2014   \nThe Will it is that situates \u2014   \nEquator \u2014 never can \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Robin for the Crumb**\n\nThe Robin for the Crumb  \nReturns no syllable  \nBut long records the Lady's name  \nIn Silver Chronicle.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**He outstripped Time with but a Bout,**\n\nHe outstripped Time with but a Bout,  \nHe outstripped Stars and Sun  \nAnd then, unjaded, challenged God  \nIn presence of the Throne.\n\nAnd He and He in mighty List  \nUnto this present, run,  \nThe larger Glory for the less  \nA just sufficient Ring.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Fame is the tint that Scholars leave**\n\nFame is the tint that Scholars leave  \nUpon their Setting Names \u2014   \nThe Iris not of Occident  \nThat disappears as comes \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Escaping backward to perceive**\n\nEscaping backward to perceive  \nThe Sea upon our place \u2014   \nEscaping forward, to confront  \nHis glittering Embrace \u2014\n\nRetreating up, a Billow's height  \nRetreating blinded down  \nOur undermining feet to meet  \nInstructs to the Divine.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**They ask but our Delight \u2014**\n\nThey ask but our Delight \u2014   \nThe Darlings of the Soil  \nAnd grant us all their Countenance  \nFor a penurious smile.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Because the Bee may blameless hum**\n\nBecause the Bee may blameless hum  \nFor Thee a Bee do I become  \nList even unto Me.\n\nBecause the Flowers unafraid  \nMay lift a look on thine, a Maid  \nAlway a Flower would be.\n\nNor Robins, Robins need not hide  \nWhen Thou upon their Crypts intrude  \nSo Wings bestow on Me  \nOr Petals, or a Dower of Buzz  \nThat Bee to ride, or Flower of Furze  \nI that way worship Thee.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Finding is the first Act**\n\nFinding is the first Act  \nThe second, loss,  \nThird, Expedition for  \nThe \"Golden Fleece\"\n\nFourth, no Discovery \u2014   \nFifth, no Crew \u2014   \nFinally, no Golden Fleece \u2014   \nJason \u2014 sham \u2014 too.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Sun and Moon must make their haste \u2014**\n\nThe Sun and Moon must make their haste \u2014   \nThe Stars express around  \nFor in the Zones of Paradise  \nThe Lord alone is burned \u2014\n\nHis Eye, it is the East and West \u2014   \nThe North and South when He  \nDo concentrate His Countenance  \nLike Glow Worms, flee away \u2014\n\nOh Poor and Far \u2014   \nOh Hindred Eye  \nThat hunted for the Day \u2014   \nThe Lord a Candle entertains  \nEntirely for Thee \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**As the Starved Maelstrom laps the Navies**\n\nAs the Starved Maelstrom laps the Navies  \nAs the Vulture teased  \nForces the Broods in lonely Valleys  \nAs the Tiger eased\n\nBy but a Crumb of Blood, fasts Scarlet  \nTill he meet a Man  \nDainty adorned with Veins and Tissues  \nAnd partakes \u2014 his Tongue\n\nCooled by the Morsel for a moment  \nGrows a fiercer thing  \nTill he esteem his Dates and Cocoa  \nA Nutrition mean\n\nI, of a finer Famine  \nDeem my Supper dry  \nFor but a Berry of Domingo  \nAnd a Torrid Eye \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Ribbons of the Year \u2014**\n\nRibbons of the Year \u2014   \nMultitude Brocade \u2014   \nWorn to Nature's Party once\n\nThen, as flung aside  \nAs a faded Bead  \nOr a Wrinkled Pearl  \nWho shall charge the Vanity  \nOf the Maker's Girl?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**They won't frown always \u2014 some sweet Day**\n\nThey won't frown always \u2014 some sweet Day  \nWhen I forget to tease \u2014   \nThey'll recollect how cold I looked  \nAnd how I just said \"Please.\"\n\nThen They will hasten to the Door  \nTo call the little Girl  \nWho cannot thank Them for the Ice  \nThat filled the lisping full.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I stepped from Plank to Plank**\n\nI stepped from Plank to Plank  \nA slow and cautious way  \nThe Stars about my Head I felt  \nAbout my Feet the Sea.\n\nI knew not but the next  \nWould be my final inch \u2014   \nThis gave me that precarious Gait  \nSome call Experience.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It was a Grave, yet bore no Stone**\n\nIt was a Grave, yet bore no Stone  \nEnclosed 'twas not of Rail  \nA Consciousness its Acre, and  \nIt held a Human Soul.\n\nEntombed by whom, for what offence  \nIf Home or Foreign born \u2014   \nHad I the curiosity  \n'Twere not appeased of men\n\nTill Resurrection, I must guess  \nDenied the small desire  \nA Rose upon its Ridge to sow  \nOr take away a Briar.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Each Scar I'll keep for Him**\n\nEach Scar I'll keep for Him  \nInstead I'll say of Gem  \nIn His long Absence worn  \nA Costlier one\n\nBut every Tear I bore  \nWere He to count them o'er  \nHis own would fall so more  \nI'll mis sum them.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Sun is gay or stark**\n\nThe Sun is gay or stark  \nAccording to our Deed.  \nIf Merry, He is merrier \u2014   \nIf eager for the Dead\n\nOr an expended Day  \nHe helped to make too bright  \nHis mighty pleasure suits Us not  \nIt magnifies Our Freight\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Each Second is the last**\n\nEach Second is the last  \nPerhaps, recalls the Man  \nJust measuring unconsciousness  \nThe Sea and Spar between.\n\nTo fail within a Chance \u2014   \nHow terribler a thing  \nThan perish from the Chance's list  \nBefore the Perishing!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Bird must sing to earn the Crumb**\n\nThe Bird must sing to earn the Crumb  \nWhat merit have the Tune  \nNo Breakfast if it guaranty\n\nThe Rose content may bloom  \nTo gain renown of Lady's Drawer  \nBut if the Lady come  \nBut once a Century, the Rose  \nSuperfluous become \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I've none to tell me to but Thee**\n\nI've none to tell me to but Thee  \nSo when Thou failest, nobody.  \nIt was a little tie \u2014   \nIt just held Two, nor those it held  \nSince Somewhere thy sweet Face has spilled  \nBeyond my Boundary \u2014\n\nIf things were opposite \u2014 and Me  \nAnd Me it were \u2014 that ebbed from Thee  \nOn some unanswering Shore \u2014   \nWould'st Thou seek so \u2014 just say  \nThat I the Answer may pursue  \nUnto the lips it eddied through \u2014   \nSo \u2014 overtaking Thee \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Shade upon the mind there passes**\n\nA Shade upon the mind there passes  \nAs when on Noon  \nA Cloud the mighty Sun encloses  \nRemembering\n\nThat some there be too numb to notice  \nOh God  \nWhy give if Thou must take away  \nThe Loved?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Poets light but Lamps \u2014**\n\nThe Poets light but Lamps \u2014   \nThemselves \u2014 go out \u2014   \nThe Wicks they stimulate \u2014   \nIf vital Light\n\nInhere as do the Suns \u2014   \nEach Age a Lens  \nDisseminating their  \nCircumference \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**An Everywhere of Silver**\n\nAn Everywhere of Silver  \nWith Ropes of Sand  \nTo keep it from effacing  \nThe Track called Land.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Our little Kinsmen \u2014 after Rain**\n\nOur little Kinsmen \u2014 after Rain  \nIn plenty may be seen,  \nA Pink and Pulpy multitude  \nThe tepid Ground upon.\n\nA needless life, it seemed to me  \nUntil a little Bird  \nAs to a Hospitality  \nAdvanced and breakfasted.\n\nAs I of He, so God of Me  \nI pondered, may have judged,  \nAnd left the little Angle Worm  \nWith Modesties enlarged.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**These tested Our Horizon \u2014**\n\nThese tested Our Horizon \u2014   \nThen disappeared  \nAs Birds before achieving  \nA Latitude.\n\nOur Retrospection of Them  \nA fixed Delight,  \nBut our Anticipation  \nA Dice \u2014 a Doubt \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We outgrow love, like other things**\n\nWe outgrow love, like other things  \nAnd put it in the Drawer \u2014   \nTill it an Antique fashion shows \u2014   \nLike Costumes Grandsires wore.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**When I have seen the Sun emerge**\n\nWhen I have seen the Sun emerge  \nFrom His amazing House \u2014   \nAnd leave a Day at every Door  \nA Deed, in every place \u2014\n\nWithout the incident of Fame  \nOr accident of Noise \u2014   \nThe Earth has seemed to me a Drum,  \nPursued of little Boys\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Crisis is a Hair**\n\nCrisis is a Hair  \nToward which the forces creep  \nPast which forces retrograde  \nIf it come in sleep\n\nTo suspend the Breath  \nIs the most we can  \nIgnorant is it Life or Death  \nNicely balancing.\n\nLet an instant push  \nOr an Atom press  \nOr a Circle hesitate  \nIn Circumference\n\nIt \u2014 may jolt the Hand  \nThat adjusts the Hair  \nThat secures Eternity  \nFrom presenting \u2014 Here \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**From Us She wandered now a Year,**\n\nFrom Us She wandered now a Year,  \nHer tarrying, unknown,  \nIf Wilderness prevent her feet  \nOr that Ethereal Zone\n\nNo eye hath seen and lived  \nWe ignorant must be \u2014   \nWe only know what time of Year  \nWe took the Mystery.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To my quick ear the Leaves \u2014 conferred \u2014**\n\nTo my quick ear the Leaves \u2014 conferred \u2014   \nThe Bushes \u2014 they were Bells \u2014   \nI could not find a Privacy  \nFrom Nature's sentinels \u2014\n\nIn Cave if I presumed to hide  \nThe Walls \u2014 begun to tell \u2014   \nCreation seemed a mighty Crack \u2014   \nTo make me visible \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Who occupies this House?**\n\nWho occupies this House?  \nA Stranger I must judge  \nSince No one know His Circumstance \u2014   \n'Tis well the name and age\n\nAre writ upon the Door  \nOr I should fear to pause  \nWhere not so much as Honest Dog  \nApproach encourages.\n\nIt seems a curious Town \u2014   \nSome Houses very old,  \nSome \u2014 newly raised this Afternoon,  \nWere I compelled to build\n\nIt should not be among  \nInhabitants so still  \nBut where the Birds assemble  \nAnd Boys were possible.\n\nBefore Myself was born  \n'Twas settled, so they say,  \nA Territory for the Ghosts \u2014   \nAnd Squirrels, formerly.\n\nUntil a Pioneer, as  \nSettlers often do  \nLiking the quiet of the Place  \nAttracted more unto \u2014\n\nAnd from a Settlement  \nA Capital has grown  \nDistinguished for the gravity  \nOf every Citizen.\n\nThe Owner of this House  \nA Stranger He must be \u2014   \nEternity's Acquaintances  \nAre mostly so \u2014 to me.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Drab Habitation of Whom?**\n\nDrab Habitation of Whom?  \nTabernacle or Tomb \u2014   \nOr Dome of Worm \u2014   \nOr Porch of Gnome \u2014   \nOr some Elf's Catacomb?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Of Consciousness, her awful Mate**\n\nOf Consciousness, her awful Mate  \nThe Soul cannot be rid \u2014   \nAs easy the secreting her  \nBehind the Eyes of God.\n\nThe deepest hid is sighted first  \nAnd scant to Him the Crowd \u2014   \nWhat triple Lenses burn upon  \nThe Escapade from God \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Cloud withdrew from the Sky**\n\nA Cloud withdrew from the Sky  \nSuperior Glory be  \nBut that Cloud and its Auxiliaries  \nAre forever lost to me\n\nHad I but further scanned  \nHad I secured the Glow  \nIn an Hermetic Memory  \nIt had availed me now.\n\nNever to pass the Angel  \nWith a glance and a Bow  \nTill I am firm in Heaven  \nIs my intention now.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Of Silken Speech and Specious Shoe**\n\nOf Silken Speech and Specious Shoe  \nA Traitor is the Bee  \nHis service to the newest Grace  \nPresent continually\n\nHis Suit a chance  \nHis Troth a Term  \nProtracted as the Breeze  \nContinual Ban propoundeth He  \nContinual Divorce.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How fortunate the Grave \u2014**\n\nHow fortunate the Grave \u2014   \nAll Prizes to obtain \u2014   \nSuccessful certain, if at last,  \nFirst Suitor not in vain.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How happy I was if I could forget**\n\nHow happy I was if I could forget  \nTo remember how sad I am  \nWould be an easy adversity  \nBut the recollecting of Bloom\n\nKeeps making November difficult  \nTill I who was almost bold  \nLose my way like a little Child  \nAnd perish of the cold.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Herein a Blossom lies \u2014**\n\nHerein a Blossom lies \u2014   \nA Sepulchre, between \u2014   \nCross it, and overcome the Bee \u2014   \nRemain \u2014 'tis but a Rind.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**What did They do since I saw Them?**\n\nWhat did They do since I saw Them?  \nWere They industrious?  \nSo many questions to put Them  \nHave I the eagerness\n\nThat could I snatch Their Faces  \nThat could Their lips reply  \nNot till the last was answered  \nShould They start for the Sky.\n\nNot if Their Party were waiting,  \nNot if to talk with Me  \nWere to Them now, Homesickness  \nAfter Eternity.\n\nNot if the Just suspect me  \nAnd offer a Reward  \nWould I restore my Booty  \nTo that Bold Person, God \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Sweet, to have had them lost**\n\nSweet, to have had them lost  \nFor news that they be saved \u2014   \nThe nearer they departed Us  \nThe nearer they, restored,\n\nShall stand to Our Right Hand \u2014   \nMost precious and the Dead \u2014   \nNext precious  \nThose that rose to go \u2014   \nThen thought of Us, and stayed.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The first Day that I was a Life**\n\nThe first Day that I was a Life  \nI recollect it \u2014 How still \u2014   \nThat last Day that I was a Life  \nI recollect it \u2014 as well \u2014\n\n'Twas stiller \u2014 though the first  \nWas still \u2014   \n\"Twas empty \u2014 but the first  \nWas full \u2014\n\nThis \u2014 was my finallest Occasion \u2014   \nBut then  \nMy tenderer Experiment  \nToward Men \u2014\n\n\"Which choose I\"?  \nThat \u2014 I cannot say \u2014   \n\"Which choose They\"?  \nQuestion Memory!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I hide myself within my flower,**\n\nI hide myself within my flower,  \nThat fading from your Vase,  \nYou, unsuspecting, feel for me \u2014   \nAlmost a loneliness.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Had I not This, or This, I said,**\n\nHad I not This, or This, I said,  \nAppealing to Myself,  \nIn moment of prosperity \u2014   \nInadequate \u2014 were Life \u2014\n\n\"Thou hast not Me, nor Me\" \u2014 it said,  \nIn Moment of Reverse \u2014   \n\"And yet Thou art industrious \u2014   \nNo need \u2014 hadst Thou \u2014 of us\"?\n\nMy need \u2014 was all I had \u2014 I said \u2014   \nThe need did not reduce \u2014   \nBecause the food \u2014 exterminate \u2014   \nThe hunger \u2014 does not cease \u2014\n\nBut diligence \u2014 is sharper \u2014   \nProportioned to the Chance \u2014   \nTo feed upon the Retrograde \u2014   \nEnfeebles \u2014 the Advance \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Between My Country \u2014 and the Others \u2014**\n\nBetween My Country \u2014 and the Others \u2014   \nThere is a Sea \u2014   \nBut Flowers \u2014 negotiate between us \u2014   \nAs Ministry.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Admirations \u2014 and Contempts \u2014 of time \u2014**\n\nThe Admirations \u2014 and Contempts \u2014 of time \u2014   \nShow justest \u2014 through an Open Tomb \u2014   \nThe Dying \u2014 as it were a Height  \nReorganizes Estimate  \nAnd what We saw not  \nWe distinguish clear \u2014   \nAnd mostly \u2014 see not  \nWhat We saw before \u2014\n\n'Tis Compound Vision \u2014   \nLight \u2014 enabling Light \u2014   \nThe Finite \u2014 furnished  \nWith the Infinite \u2014   \nConvex \u2014 and Concave Witness \u2014   \nBack \u2014 toward Time \u2014   \nAnd forward \u2014   \nToward the God of Him \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Till Death \u2014 is narrow Loving \u2014**\n\nTill Death \u2014 is narrow Loving \u2014   \nThe scantest Heart extant  \nWill hold you till your privilege  \nOf Finiteness \u2014 be spent \u2014\n\nBut He whose loss procures you  \nSuch Destitution that  \nYour Life too abject for itself  \nThenceforward imitate \u2014\n\nUntil \u2014 Resemblance perfect \u2014   \nYourself, for His pursuit  \nDelight of Nature \u2014 abdicate \u2014   \nExhibit Love \u2014 somewhat \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Tis Sunrise \u2014 Little Maid \u2014 Hast Thou**\n\n'Tis Sunrise \u2014 Little Maid \u2014 Hast Thou  \nNo Station in the Day?  \n'Twas not thy wont, to hinder so \u2014   \nRetrieve thine industry \u2014\n\n'Tis Noon \u2014 My little Maid \u2014   \nAlas \u2014 and art thou sleeping yet?  \nThe Lily \u2014 waiting to be Wed \u2014   \nThe Bee \u2014 Hast thou forgot?\n\nMy little Maid \u2014 'Tis Night \u2014 Alas  \nThat Night should be to thee  \nInstead of Morning \u2014 Had'st thou broached  \nThy little Plan to Die \u2014   \nDissuade thee, if I could not, Sweet,  \nI might have aided \u2014 thee \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I make His Crescent fill or lack \u2014**\n\nI make His Crescent fill or lack \u2014   \nHis Nature is at Full  \nOr Quarter \u2014 as I signify \u2014   \nHis Tides \u2014 do I control \u2014\n\nHe holds superior in the Sky  \nOr gropes, at my Command  \nBehind inferior Clouds \u2014 or round  \nA Mist's slow Colonnade \u2014\n\nBut since We hold a Mutual Disc \u2014   \nAnd front a Mutual Day \u2014   \nWhich is the Despot, neither knows \u2014   \nNor Whose \u2014 the Tyranny \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Experience is the Angled Road**\n\nExperience is the Angled Road  \nPreferred against the Mind  \nBy \u2014 Paradox \u2014 the Mind itself \u2014   \nPresuming it to lead\n\nQuite Opposite \u2014 How Complicate  \nThe Discipline of Man \u2014   \nCompelling Him to Choose Himself  \nHis Preappointed Pain \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Too little way the House must lie**\n\nToo little way the House must lie  \nFrom every Human Heart  \nThat holds in undisputed Lease  \nA white inhabitant \u2014\n\nToo narrow is the Right between \u2014   \nToo imminent the chance \u2014   \nEach Consciousness must emigrate  \nAnd lose its neighbor once \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Peace is a fiction of our Faith \u2014**\n\nPeace is a fiction of our Faith \u2014   \nThe Bells a Winter Night  \nBearing the Neighbor out of Sound  \nThat never did alight.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**And this of all my Hopes**\n\nAnd this of all my Hopes  \nThis, is the silent end  \nBountiful colored, my Morning rose  \nEarly and sere, its end\n\nNever Bud from a Stem  \nStepped with so gay a Foot  \nNever a Worm so confident  \nBored at so brave a Root\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I cannot be ashamed**\n\nI cannot be ashamed  \nBecause I cannot see  \nThe love you offer \u2014   \nMagnitude  \nReverses Modesty\n\nAnd I cannot be proud  \nBecause a Height so high  \nInvolves Alpine  \nRequirements  \nAnd Services of Snow.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Faith \u2014 is the Pierless Bridge**\n\nFaith \u2014 is the Pierless Bridge  \nSupporting what We see  \nUnto the Scene that We do not \u2014   \nToo slender for the eye\n\nIt bears the Soul as bold  \nAs it were rocked in Steel  \nWith Arms of Steel at either side \u2014   \nIt joins \u2014 behind the Veil\n\nTo what, could We presume  \nThe Bridge would cease to be  \nTo Our far, vacillating Feet  \nA first Necessity.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**His Feet are shod with Gauze \u2014**\n\nHis Feet are shod with Gauze \u2014   \nHis Helmet, is of Gold,  \nHis Breast, a Single Onyx  \nWith Chrysophrase, inlaid.\n\nHis Labor is a Chant \u2014   \nHis Idleness \u2014 a Tune \u2014   \nOh, for a Bee's experience  \nOf Clovers, and of Noon!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Love \u2014 is anterior to Life \u2014**\n\nLove \u2014 is anterior to Life \u2014   \nPosterior \u2014 to Death \u2014   \nInitial of Creation, and  \nThe Exponent of Breath \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Only a Shrine, but Mine \u2014**\n\nOnly a Shrine, but Mine \u2014   \nI made the Taper shine \u2014   \nMadonna dim, to whom all Feet may come,  \nRegard a Nun \u2014\n\nThou knowest every Woe \u2014   \nNeedless to tell thee \u2014 so \u2014   \nBut can'st thou do  \nThe Grace next to it \u2014 heal?  \nThat looks a harder skill to us \u2014   \nStill \u2014 just as easy, if it be thy Will  \nTo thee \u2014 Grant me \u2014   \nThou knowest, though, so Why tell thee?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If I can stop one Heart from breaking**\n\nIF I can stop one heart from breaking,  \nI shall not live in vain ;  \nIf I can ease one life the aching,  \nOr cool one pain,  \nOr help one fainting robin  \nUnto his nest again,  \nI shall not live in vain.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We can but follow to the Sun \u2014**\n\nWe can but follow to the Sun \u2014   \nAs oft as He go down  \nHe leave Ourselves a Sphere behind \u2014   \n'Tis mostly \u2014 following \u2014\n\nWe go no further with the Dust  \nThan to the Earthen Door \u2014   \nAnd then the Panels are reversed \u2014   \nAnd we behold \u2014 no more.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If it had no pencil**\n\nIf it had no pencil  \nWould it try mine \u2014   \nWorn \u2014 now \u2014 and dull \u2014 sweet,  \nWriting much to thee.  \nIf it had no word,  \nWould it make the Daisy,  \nMost as big as I was,  \nWhen it plucked me?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Those who have been in the Grave the longest \u2014**\n\nThose who have been in the Grave the longest \u2014   \nThose who begin Today \u2014   \nEqually perish from our Practise \u2014   \nDeath is the other way \u2014\n\nFoot of the Bold did least attempt it \u2014   \nIt \u2014 is the White Exploit \u2014   \nOnce to achieve, annuls the power  \nOnce to communicate \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How the Waters closed above Him**\n\nHow the Waters closed above Him  \nWe shall never know \u2014   \nHow He stretched His Anguish to us  \nThat \u2014 is covered too \u2014\n\nSpreads the Pond Her Base of Lilies  \nBold above the Boy  \nWhose unclaimed Hat and Jacket  \nSum the History \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Love \u2014 is that later Thing than Death \u2014**\n\nLove \u2014 is that later Thing than Death \u2014   \nMore previous \u2014 than Life \u2014   \nConfirms it at its entrance \u2014 And  \nUsurps it \u2014 of itself \u2014\n\nTastes Death \u2014 the first \u2014 to hand the sting  \nThe Second \u2014 to its friend \u2014   \nDisarms the little interval \u2014   \nDeposits Him with God \u2014\n\nThen hovers \u2014 an inferior Guard \u2014   \nLest this Beloved Charge  \nNeed \u2014 once in an Eternity \u2014   \nA smaller than the Large \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Struck, was I, not yet by Lightning \u2014**\n\nStruck, was I, not yet by Lightning \u2014   \nLightning \u2014 lets away  \nPower to perceive His Process  \nWith Vitality.\n\nMaimed \u2014 was I \u2014 yet not by Venture \u2014   \nStone of stolid Boy \u2014   \nNor a Sportsman's Peradventure \u2014   \nWho mine Enemy?\n\nRobbed \u2014 was I \u2014 intact to Bandit \u2014   \nAll my Mansion torn \u2014   \nSun \u2014 withdrawn to Recognition \u2014   \nFurthest shining \u2014 done \u2014\n\nYet was not the foe \u2014 of any \u2014   \nNot the smallest Bird  \nIn the nearest Orchard dwelling  \nBe of Me \u2014 afraid.\n\nMost \u2014 I love the Cause that slew Me.  \nOften as I die  \nIts beloved Recognition  \nHolds a Sun on Me \u2014\n\nBest \u2014 at Setting \u2014 as is Nature's \u2014   \nNeither witnessed Rise  \nTill the infinite Aurora  \nIn the other's eyes.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Patience \u2014 has a quiet Outer \u2014**\n\nPatience \u2014 has a quiet Outer \u2014   \nPatience \u2014 Look within \u2014   \nIs an Insect's futile forces  \nInfinites \u2014 between \u2014\n\n'Scaping one \u2014 against the other  \nFruitlesser to fling \u2014   \nPatience \u2014 is the Smile's exertion  \nThrough the quivering \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Absent Place \u2014 an April Day \u2014**\n\nAbsent Place \u2014 an April Day \u2014   \nDaffodils a-blow  \nHomesick curiosity  \nTo the Souls that snow \u2014\n\nDrift may block within it  \nDeeper than without \u2014   \nDaffodil delight but  \nHim it duplicate \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Heart has narrow Banks**\n\nThe Heart has narrow Banks  \nIt measures like the Sea  \nIn mighty \u2014 unremitting Bass  \nAnd Blue Monotony\n\nTill Hurricane bisect  \nAnd as itself discerns  \nIts insufficient Area  \nThe Heart convulsive learns\n\nThat Calm is but a Wall  \nOf unattempted Gauze  \nAn instant's Push demolishes  \nA Questioning \u2014 dissolves.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How far is it to Heaven?**\n\nHow far is it to Heaven?  \nAs far as Death this way \u2014   \nOf River or of Ridge beyond  \nWas no discovery.\n\nHow far is it to Hell?  \nAs far as Death this way \u2014   \nHow far left hand the Sepulchre  \nDefies Topography.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There is a June when Corn is cut**\n\nThere is a June when Corn is cut  \nAnd Roses in the Seed \u2014   \nA Summer briefer than the first  \nBut tenderer indeed\n\nAs should a Face supposed the Grave's  \nEmerge a single Noon  \nIn the Vermilion that it wore  \nAffect us, and return \u2014\n\nTwo Seasons, it is said, exist \u2014   \nThe Summer of the Just,  \nAnd this of Ours, diversified  \nWith Prospect, and with Frost \u2014\n\nMay not our Second with its First  \nSo infinite compare  \nThat We but recollect the one  \nThe other to prefer?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Noon \u2014 is the Hinge of Day \u2014**\n\nNoon \u2014 is the Hinge of Day \u2014   \nEvening \u2014 the Tissue Door \u2014   \nMorning \u2014 the East compelling the sill  \nTill all the World is ajar \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My best Acquaintances are those**\n\nMy best Acquaintances are those  \nWith Whom I spoke no Word \u2014   \nThe Stars that stated come to Town  \nEsteemed Me never rude  \nAlthough to their Celestial Call  \nI failed to make reply \u2014   \nMy constant \u2014 reverential Face  \nSufficient Courtesy.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Two Travellers perishing in Snow**\n\nTwo Travellers perishing in Snow  \nThe Forests as they froze  \nTogether heard them strengthening  \nEach other with the words\n\nThat Heaven if Heaven \u2014 must contain  \nWhat Either left behind  \nAnd then the cheer too solemn grew  \nFor language, and the wind\n\nLong steps across the features took  \nThat Love had touched the Morn  \nWith reverential Hyacinth \u2014   \nThe taleless Days went on\n\nTill Mystery impatient drew  \nAnd those They left behind  \nLed absent, were procured of Heaven  \nAs Those first furnished, said \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**That is solemn we have ended**\n\nThat is solemn we have ended  \nBe it but a Play  \nOr a Glee among the Garret  \nOr a Holiday\n\nOr a leaving Home, or later,  \nParting with a World  \nWe have understood for better  \nStill to be explained.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Death leaves Us homesick, who behind,**\n\nDeath leaves Us homesick, who behind,  \nExcept that it is gone  \nAre ignorant of its Concern  \nAs if it were not born.\n\nThrough all their former Places, we  \nLike Individuals go  \nWho something lost, the seeking for  \nIs all that's left them, now \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**This Dust, and its Feature \u2014**\n\nThis Dust, and its Feature \u2014   \nAccredited \u2014 Today \u2014   \nWill in a second Future \u2014   \nCease to identify \u2014\n\nThis Mind, and its measure \u2014   \nA too minute Area  \nFor its enlarged inspection's  \nComparison \u2014 appear \u2014\n\nThis World, and its species  \nA too concluded show  \nFor its absorbed Attention's  \nRemotest scrutiny \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I felt a Cleaving in my Mind \u2014**\n\nI felt a Cleaving in my Mind \u2014   \nAs if my Brain had split \u2014   \nI tried to match it \u2014 Seam by Seam \u2014   \nBut could not make it fit.\n\nThe thought behind, I strove to join  \nUnto the thought before \u2014   \nBut Sequence ravelled out of Sound  \nLike Balls \u2014 upon a Floor.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Fairer through Fading \u2014 as the Day**\n\nFairer through Fading \u2014 as the Day  \nInto the Darkness dips away \u2014   \nHalf Her Complexion of the Sun \u2014   \nHindering \u2014 Haunting \u2014 Perishing \u2014\n\nRallies Her Glow, like a dying Friend \u2014   \nTeasing with glittering Amend \u2014   \nOnly to aggravate the Dark  \nThrough an expiring \u2014 perfect \u2014 look \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**What I see not, I better see \u2014**\n\nWhat I see not, I better see \u2014   \nThrough Faith \u2014 my Hazel Eye  \nHas periods of shutting \u2014   \nBut, No lid has Memory \u2014\n\nFor frequent, all my sense obscured  \nI equally behold  \nAs someone held a light unto  \nThe Features so beloved \u2014 -\n\nAnd I arise \u2014 and in my Dream \u2014   \nDo Thee distinguished Grace \u2014   \nTill jealous Daylight interrupt \u2014   \nAnd mar thy perfectness \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**On that dear Frame the Years had worn**\n\nOn that dear Frame the Years had worn  \nYet precious as the House  \nIn which We first experienced Light  \nThe Witnessing, to Us \u2014\n\nPrecious! It was conceiveless fair  \nAs Hands the Grave had grimed  \nShould softly place within our own  \nDenying that they died.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Lady feeds Her little Bird**\n\nThe Lady feeds Her little Bird  \nAt rarer intervals \u2014   \nThe little Bird would not dissent  \nBut meekly recognize\n\nThe Gulf between the Hand and Her  \nAnd crumbless and afar  \nAnd fainting, on Her yellow Knee  \nFall softly, and adore \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Snow beneath whose chilly softness**\n\nSnow beneath whose chilly softness  \nSome that never lay  \nMake their first Repose this Winter  \nI admonish Thee\n\nBlanket Wealthier the Neighbor  \nWe so new bestow  \nThan thine acclimated Creature  \nWilt Thou, Austere Snow?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Coffin \u2014 is a small Domain,**\n\nA Coffin \u2014 is a small Domain,  \nYet able to contain  \nA Citizen of Paradise  \nIn it diminished Plane.\n\nA Grave \u2014 is a restricted Breadth \u2014   \nYet ampler than the Sun \u2014   \nAnd all the Seas He populates  \nAnd Lands He looks upon\n\nTo Him who on its small Repose  \nBestows a single Friend \u2014   \nCircumference without Relief \u2014   \nOr Estimate \u2014 or End \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I learned \u2014 at least \u2014 what Home could be \u2014**\n\nI learned \u2014 at least \u2014 what Home could be \u2014   \nHow ignorant I had been  \nOf pretty ways of Covenant \u2014   \nHow awkward at the Hymn\n\nRound our new Fireside \u2014 but for this \u2014   \nThis pattern \u2014 of the Way \u2014   \nWhose Memory drowns me, like the Dip  \nOf a Celestial Sea \u2014\n\nWhat Mornings in our Garden \u2014 guessed \u2014   \nWhat Bees \u2014 for us \u2014 to hum \u2014   \nWith only Birds to interrupt  \nThe Ripple of our Theme \u2014\n\nAnd Task for Both \u2014   \nWhen Play be done \u2014   \nYour Problem \u2014 of the Brain \u2014   \nAnd mine \u2014 some foolisher effect \u2014   \nA Ruffle \u2014 or a Tune \u2014\n\nThe Afternoons \u2014 Together spent \u2014   \nAnd Twilight \u2014 in the Lanes \u2014   \nSome ministry to poorer lives \u2014   \nSeen poorest \u2014 thro' our gains \u2014\n\nAnd then Return \u2014 and Night \u2014 and Home \u2014\n\nAnd then away to You to pass \u2014   \nA new \u2014 diviner \u2014 care \u2014   \nTill Sunrise take us back to Scene \u2014   \nTransmuted \u2014 Vivider \u2014\n\nThis seems a Home \u2014   \nAnd Home is not \u2014   \nBut what that Place could be \u2014   \nAfflicts me \u2014 as a Setting Sun \u2014   \nWhere Dawn \u2014 knows how to be \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**This is a Blossom of the Brain \u2014**\n\nThis is a Blossom of the Brain \u2014   \nA small \u2014 italic Seed  \nLodged by Design or Happening  \nThe Spirit fructified \u2014\n\nShy as the Wind of his Chambers  \nSwift as a Freshet's Tongue  \nSo of the Flower of the Soul  \nIts process is unknown.\n\nWhen it is found, a few rejoice  \nThe Wise convey it Home  \nCarefully cherishing the spot  \nIf other Flower become.\n\nWhen it is lost, that Day shall be  \nThe Funeral of God,  \nUpon his Breast, a closing Soul  \nThe Flower of our Lord.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It is an honorable Thought**\n\nIt is an honorable Thought  \nAnd make One lift One's Hat  \nAs One met sudden Gentlefolk  \nUpon a daily Street\n\nThat We've immortal Place  \nThough Pyramids decay  \nAnd Kingdoms, like the Orchard  \nFlit Russetly away\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Of Tolling Bell I ask the cause?**\n\nOf Tolling Bell I ask the cause?  \n\"A Soul has gone to Heaven\"  \nI'm answered in a lonesome tone \u2014   \nIs Heaven then a Prison?\n\nThat Bells should ring till all should know  \nA Soul had gone to Heaven  \nWould seem to me the more the way  \nA Good News should be given.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Twas Crisis \u2014 All the length had passed \u2014**\n\n'Twas Crisis \u2014 All the length had passed \u2014   \nThat dull \u2014 benumbing time  \nThere is in Fever or Event \u2014   \nAnd now the Chance had come \u2014\n\nThe instant holding in its claw  \nThe privilege to live  \nOr warrant to report the Soul  \nThe other side the Grave.\n\nThe Muscles grappled as with leads  \nThat would not let the Will \u2014   \nThe Spirit shook the Adamant \u2014   \nBut could not make it feel.\n\nThe Second poised \u2014 debated \u2014 shot \u2014   \nAnother had begun \u2014   \nAnd simultaneously, a Soul  \nEscaped the House unseen \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Under the Light, yet under,**\n\nUnder the Light, yet under,  \nUnder the Grass and the Dirt,  \nUnder the Beetle's Cellar  \nUnder the Clover's Root,\n\nFurther than Arm could stretch  \nWere it Giant long,  \nFurther than Sunshine could  \nWere the Day Year long,\n\nOver the Light, yet over,  \nOver the Arc of the Bird \u2014   \nOver the Comet's chimney \u2014   \nOver the Cubit's Head,\n\nFurther than Guess can gallop  \nFurther than Riddle ride \u2014   \nOh for a Disc to the Distance  \nBetween Ourselves and the Dead!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Sunset stopped on Cottages**\n\nThe Sunset stopped on Cottages  \nWhere Sunset hence must be  \nFor treason not of His, but Life's,  \nGone Westerly, Today \u2014\n\nThe Sunset stopped on Cottages  \nWhere Morning just begun \u2014   \nWhat difference, after all, Thou mak'st  \nThou supercilious Sun?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**As Frost is best conceived**\n\nAs Frost is best conceived  \nBy force of its Result \u2014   \nAffliction is inferred  \nBy subsequent effect \u2014\n\nIf when the sun reveal,  \nThe Garden keep the Gash \u2014   \nIf as the Days resume  \nThe wilted countenance\n\nCannot correct the crease  \nOr counteract the stain \u2014   \nPresumption is Vitality  \nWas somewhere put in twain.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Man may make a Remark \u2014**\n\nA Man may make a Remark \u2014   \nIn itself \u2014 a quiet thing  \nThat may furnish the Fuse unto a Spark  \nIn dormant nature \u2014 lain \u2014\n\nLet us deport \u2014 with skill \u2014   \nLet us discourse \u2014 with care \u2014   \nPowder exists in Charcoal \u2014   \nBefore it exists in Fire.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Door just opened on a street \u2014**\n\nA Door just opened on a street \u2014   \nI \u2014 lost \u2014 was passing by \u2014   \nAn instant's Width of Warmth disclosed \u2014   \nAnd Wealth \u2014 and Company.\n\nThe Door as instant shut \u2014 And I \u2014   \nI \u2014 lost \u2014 was passing by \u2014   \nLost doubly \u2014 but by contrast \u2014 most \u2014   \nInforming \u2014 misery \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Chemical conviction**\n\nThe Chemical conviction  \nThat Nought be lost  \nEnable in Disaster  \nMy fractured Trust \u2014\n\nThe Faces of the Atoms  \nIf I shall see  \nHow more the Finished Creatures  \nDeparted me!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Hollows round His eager Eyes**\n\nThe Hollows round His eager Eyes  \nWere Pages where to read  \nPathetic Histories \u2014 although  \nHimself had not complained.  \nBiography to All who passed  \nOf Unobtrusive Pain  \nExcept for the italic Face  \nEndured, unhelped \u2014 unknown.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**What shall I do when the Summer troubles \u2014**\n\nWhat shall I do when the Summer troubles \u2014   \nWhat, when the Rose is ripe \u2014   \nWhat when the Eggs fly off in Music  \nFrom the Maple Keep?\n\nWhat shall I do when the Skies a'chirrup  \nDrop a Tune on me \u2014   \nWhen the Bee hangs all Noon in the Buttercup  \nWhat will become of me?\n\nOh, when the Squirrel fills His Pockets  \nAnd the Berries stare  \nHow can I bear their jocund Faces  \nThou from Here, so far?\n\n'Twouldn't afflict a Robin \u2014   \nAll His Goods have Wings \u2014   \nI \u2014 do not fly, so wherefore  \nMy Perennial Things?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**As One does Sickness over**\n\nAs One does Sickness over  \nIn convalescent Mind,  \nHis scrutiny of Chances  \nBy blessed Health obscured \u2014\n\nAs One rewalks a Precipice  \nAnd whittles at the Twig  \nThat held Him from Perdition  \nSown sidewise in the Crag\n\nA Custom of the Soul  \nFar after suffering  \nIdentity to question  \nFor evidence't has been \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We met as Sparks \u2014 Diverging Flints**\n\nWe met as Sparks \u2014 Diverging Flints  \nSent various \u2014 scattered ways \u2014   \nWe parted as the Central Flint  \nWere cloven with an Adze \u2014   \nSubsisting on the Light We bore  \nBefore We felt the Dark \u2014   \nA Flint unto this Day \u2014 perhaps \u2014   \nBut for that single Spark.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A loss of something ever felt I \u2014**\n\nA loss of something ever felt I \u2014   \nThe first that I could recollect  \nBereft I was \u2014 of what I knew not  \nToo young that any should suspect\n\nA Mourner walked among the children  \nI notwithstanding went about  \nAs one bemoaning a Dominion  \nItself the only Prince cast out \u2014\n\nElder, Today, a session wiser  \nAnd fainter, too, as Wiseness is \u2014   \nI find myself still softly searching  \nFor my Delinquent Palaces \u2014\n\nAnd a Suspicion, like a Finger  \nTouches my Forehead now and then  \nThat I am looking oppositely  \nFor the site of the Kingdom of Heaven \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**As plan for Noon and plan for Night**\n\nAs plan for Noon and plan for Night  \nSo differ Life and Death  \nIn positive Prospective \u2014   \nThe Foot upon the Earth\n\nAt Distance, and Achievement, strains,  \nThe Foot upon the Grave  \nMakes effort at conclusion  \nAssisted faint of Love.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Wert Thou but ill \u2014 that I might show thee**\n\nWert Thou but ill \u2014 that I might show thee  \nHow long a Day I could endure  \nThough thine attention stop not on me  \nNor the least signal, Me assure \u2014\n\nWert Thou but Stranger in ungracious country \u2014   \nAnd Mine \u2014 the Door  \nThou paused at, for a passing bounty \u2014   \nNo More \u2014\n\nAccused \u2014 wert Thou \u2014 and Myself \u2014 Tribunal \u2014   \nConvicted \u2014 Sentenced \u2014 Ermine \u2014 not to Me  \nHalf the Condition, thy Reverse \u2014 to follow \u2014   \nJust to partake \u2014 the infamy \u2014\n\nThe Tenant of the Narrow Cottage, wert Thou \u2014   \nPermit to be  \nThe Housewife in thy low attendance  \nContenteth Me \u2014\n\nNo Service hast Thou, I would not achieve it \u2014   \nTo die \u2014 or live \u2014   \nThe first \u2014 Sweet, proved I, ere I saw thee \u2014   \nFor Life \u2014 be Love \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Midsummer, was it, when They died \u2014**\n\nMidsummer, was it, when They died \u2014   \nA full, and perfect time \u2014   \nThe Summer closed upon itself  \nIn Consummated Bloom \u2014\n\nThe Corn, her furthest kernel filled  \nBefore the coming Flail \u2014   \nWhen These \u2014 leaned unto Perfectness \u2014   \nThrough Haze of Burial \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A nearness to Tremendousness \u2014**\n\nA nearness to Tremendousness \u2014   \nAn Agony procures \u2014   \nAffliction ranges Boundlessness \u2014   \nVicinity to Laws\n\nContentment's quiet Suburb \u2014   \nAffliction cannot stay  \nIn Acres \u2014 Its Location  \nIs Illocality \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Unto Me? I do not know you \u2014**\n\n\"Unto Me?\" I do not know you \u2014   \nWhere may be your House?\n\n\"I am Jesus \u2014 Late of Judea \u2014   \nNow \u2014 of Paradise\" \u2014\n\nWagons \u2014 have you \u2014 to convey me?  \nThis is far from Thence \u2014\n\n\"Arms of Mine \u2014 sufficient Phaeton \u2014   \nTrust Omnipotence\" \u2014\n\nI am spotted \u2014 \"I am Pardon\" \u2014   \nI am small \u2014 \"The Least  \nIs esteemed in Heaven the Chiefest \u2014   \nOccupy my House\" \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Denial \u2014 is the only fact**\n\nDenial \u2014 is the only fact  \nPerceived by the Denied \u2014   \nWhose Will \u2014 a numb significance \u2014   \nThe Day the Heaven died \u2014\n\nAnd all the Earth strove common round \u2014   \nWithout Delight, or Beam \u2014   \nWhat Comfort was it Wisdom \u2014 was \u2014   \nThe spoiler of Our Home?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**All forgot for recollecting**\n\nAll forgot for recollecting  \nJust a paltry One \u2014   \nAll forsook, for just a Stranger's  \nNew Accompanying \u2014\n\nGrace of Wealth, and Grace of Station  \nLess accounted than  \nAn unknown Esteem possessing \u2014   \nEstimate \u2014 Who can \u2014\n\nHome effaced \u2014 Her faces dwindled \u2014   \nNature \u2014 altered small \u2014   \nSun \u2014 if shone \u2014 or Storm \u2014 if shattered \u2014   \nOverlooked I all \u2014\n\nDropped \u2014 my fate \u2014 a timid Pebble \u2014   \nIn thy bolder Sea \u2014   \nProve \u2014 me \u2014 Sweet \u2014 if I regret it \u2014   \nProve Myself \u2014 of Thee \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Pain \u2014 expands the Time \u2014**\n\nPain \u2014 expands the Time \u2014   \nAges coil within  \nThe minute Circumference  \nOf a single Brain \u2014\n\nPain contracts \u2014 the Time \u2014   \nOccupied with Shot  \nGamuts of Eternities  \nAre as they were not \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Fitter to see Him, I may be**\n\nFitter to see Him, I may be  \nFor the long Hindrance \u2014 Grace \u2014 to Me \u2014   \nWith Summers, and with Winters, grow,  \nSome passing Year \u2014 A trait bestow\n\nTo make Me fairest of the Earth \u2014   \nThe Waiting \u2014 then \u2014 will seem so worth  \nI shall impute with half a pain  \nThe blame that I was chosen \u2014 then \u2014\n\nTime to anticipate His Gaze \u2014   \nIt's first \u2014 Delight \u2014 and then \u2014 Surprise \u2014   \nThe turning o'er and o'er my face  \nFor Evidence it be the Grace \u2014\n\nHe left behind One Day \u2014 So less  \nHe seek Conviction, That \u2014 be This \u2014\n\nI only must not grow so new  \nThat He'll mistake \u2014 and ask for me  \nOf me \u2014 when first unto the Door  \nI go \u2014 to Elsewhere go no more \u2014\n\nI only must not change so fair  \nHe'll sigh \u2014 \"The Other \u2014 She \u2014 is Where?\"  \nThe Love, tho', will array me right  \nI shall be perfect \u2014 in His sight \u2014\n\nIf He perceive the other Truth \u2014   \nUpon an Excellenter Youth \u2014\n\nHow sweet I shall not lack in Vain \u2014   \nBut gain \u2014 thro' loss \u2014 Through Grief \u2014 obtain \u2014   \nThe Beauty that reward Him best \u2014   \nThe Beauty of Demand \u2014 at Rest \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**He who in Himself believes \u2014**\n\nHe who in Himself believes \u2014   \nFraud cannot presume \u2014   \nFaith is Constancy's Result \u2014   \nAnd assumes \u2014 from Home \u2014\n\nCannot perish, though it fail  \nEvery second time \u2014   \nBut defaced Vicariously \u2014   \nFor Some Other Shame \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Color \u2014 Caste \u2014 Denomination \u2014**\n\nColor \u2014 Caste \u2014 Denomination \u2014   \nThese \u2014 are Time's Affair \u2014   \nDeath's diviner Classifying  \nDoes not know they are \u2014\n\nAs in sleep \u2014 All Hue forgotten \u2014   \nTenets \u2014 put behind \u2014   \nDeath's large \u2014 Democratic fingers  \nRub away the Brand \u2014\n\nIf Circassian \u2014 He is careless \u2014   \nIf He put away  \nChrysalis of Blonde \u2014 or Umber \u2014   \nEqual Butterfly \u2014\n\nThey emerge from His Obscuring \u2014   \nWhat Death \u2014 knows so well \u2014   \nOur minuter intuitions \u2014   \nDeem unplausible \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Robbed by Death \u2014 but that was easy \u2014**\n\nRobbed by Death \u2014 but that was easy \u2014   \nTo the failing Eye  \nI could hold the latest Glowing \u2014   \nRobbed by Liberty\n\nFor Her Jugular Defences \u2014   \nThis, too, I endured \u2014   \nHint of Glory \u2014 it afforded \u2014   \nFor the Brave Beloved \u2014\n\nFraud of Distance \u2014 Fraud of Danger,  \nFraud of Death \u2014 to bear \u2014   \nIt is Bounty \u2014 to Suspense's  \nVague Calamity \u2014\n\nStalking our entire Possession  \nOn a Hair's result \u2014   \nThen \u2014 seesawing \u2014 coolly \u2014 on it \u2014   \nTrying if it split \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Unfulfilled to Observation \u2014**\n\nUnfulfilled to Observation \u2014   \nIncomplete \u2014 to Eye \u2014   \nBut to Faith \u2014 a Revolution  \nIn Locality \u2014\n\nUnto Us \u2014 the Suns extinguish \u2014   \nTo our Opposite \u2014   \nNew Horizons \u2014 they embellish \u2014   \nFronting Us \u2014 with Night.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Twas awkward, but it fitted me \u2014**\n\n'Twas awkward, but it fitted me \u2014   \nAn Ancient fashioned Heart \u2014   \nIts only lore \u2014 its Steadfastness \u2014   \nIn Change \u2014 unerudite \u2014\n\nIt only moved as do the Suns \u2014   \nFor merit of Return \u2014   \nOr Birds \u2014 confirmed perpetual  \nBy Alternating Zone \u2014\n\nI only have it not Tonight  \nIn its established place \u2014   \nFor technicality of Death \u2014   \nOmitted in the Lease \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Soul's distinct connection**\n\nThe Soul's distinct connection  \nWith immortality  \nIs best disclosed by Danger  \nOr quick Calamity \u2014\n\nAs Lightning on a Landscape  \nExhibits Sheets of Place \u2014   \nNot yet suspected \u2014 but for Flash \u2014   \nAnd Click \u2014 and Suddenness.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Mountain sat upon the Plain**\n\nThe Mountain sat upon the Plain  \nIn his tremendous Chair \u2014   \nHis observation omnifold,  \nHis inquest, everywhere \u2014\n\nThe Seasons played around his knees  \nLike Children round a sire \u2014   \nGrandfather of the Days is He  \nOf Dawn, the Ancestor \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Death is a Dialogue between**\n\nDEATH is a dialogue between  \nThe spirit and the dust.  \n\"Dissolve,\" says Death. The Spirit, \"Sir,  \nI have another trust.\"\n\nDeath doubts it, argues from the ground.  \nThe Spirit turns away,  \nJust laying off, for evidence,  \nAn overcoat of clay.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Besides this May**\n\nBesides this May  \nWe know  \nThere is Another \u2014   \nHow fair  \nOur Speculations of the Foreigner!\n\nSome know Him whom We knew \u2014   \nSweet Wonder \u2014   \nA Nature be  \nWhere Saints, and our plain going Neighbor  \nKeep May!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It bloomed and dropt, a Single Noon \u2014**\n\nIt bloomed and dropt, a Single Noon \u2014   \nThe Flower \u2014 distinct and Red \u2014   \nI, passing, thought another Noon  \nAnother in its stead\n\nWill equal glow, and thought no More  \nBut came another Day  \nTo find the Species disappeared \u2014   \nThe Same Locality \u2014\n\nThe Sun in place \u2014 no other fraud  \nOn Nature's perfect Sum \u2014   \nHad I but lingered Yesterday \u2014   \nWas my retrieveless blame \u2014\n\nMuch Flowers of this and further Zones  \nHave perished in my Hands  \nFor seeking its Resemblance \u2014   \nBut unapproached it stands \u2014\n\nThe single Flower of the Earth  \nThat I, in passing by  \nUnconscious was \u2014 Great Nature's Face  \nPassed infinite by Me \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**This Merit hath the worst \u2014**\n\nThis Merit hath the worst \u2014   \nIt cannot be again \u2014   \nWhen Fate hath taunted last  \nAnd thrown Her furthest Stone \u2014\n\nThe Maimed may pause, and breathe,  \nAnd glance securely round \u2014   \nThe Deer attracts no further  \nThan it resists \u2014 the Hound \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Purple \u2014 is fashionable twice \u2014**\n\nPurple \u2014 is fashionable twice \u2014   \nThis season of the year,  \nAnd when a soul perceives itself  \nTo be an Emperor.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**As Sleigh Bells seem in summer**\n\nAs Sleigh Bells seem in summer  \nOr Bees, at Christmas show \u2014   \nSo fairy \u2014 so fictitious  \nThe individuals do  \nRepealed from observation \u2014   \nA Party that we knew \u2014   \nMore distant in an instant  \nThan Dawn in Timbuctoo.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**No Other can reduce**\n\nNo Other can reduce  \nOur mortal Consequence  \nLike the remembering it be nought  \nA Period from hence  \nBut Contemplation for  \nContemporaneous Nought  \nOur Single Competition  \nJehovah's Estimate.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Ideals are the Fairly Oil**\n\nIdeals are the Fairly Oil  \nWith which we help the Wheel  \nBut when the Vital Axle turns  \nThe Eye rejects the Oil.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Tis Anguish grander than Delight**\n\n'Tis Anguish grander than Delight  \n'Tis Resurrection Pain \u2014   \nThe meeting Bands of smitten Face  \nWe questioned to, again.\n\n'Tis Transport wild as thrills the Graves  \nWhen Cerements let go  \nAnd Creatures clad in Miracle  \nGo up by Two and Two.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Missing All \u2014 prevented Me**\n\nThe Missing All \u2014 prevented Me  \nFrom missing minor Things.  \nIf nothing larger than a World's  \nDeparture from a Hinge \u2014   \nOr Sun's extinction, be observed \u2014   \n'Twas not so large that I  \nCould lift my Forehead from my work  \nFor Curiosity.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A narrow fellow in the grass**\n\n**Version 1** :  \nA narrow fellow in the grass  \nOccasionally rides;  \nYou may have met him \u2014 did you not  \nHis notice instant is,  \nThe grass divides as with a comb,  \nA spotted shaft is seen,  \nAnd then it closes at your feet,  \nAnd opens further on.\n\nHe likes a boggy acre  \nA floor too cool for corn,  \nYet when a boy and barefoot,  \nI more than once at noon  \nHave passed, I thought, a whip lash,  \nUnbraiding in the sun,  \nWhen stooping to secure it,  \nIt wrinkled and was gone.\n\nSeveral of nature's people  \nI know, and they know me;  \nI feel for them a transport  \nOf cordiality.  \nYet never met this fellow,  \nAttended or alone,  \nWithout a tighter breathing,  \nAnd zero at the bone.\n\n**Version 2** :  \nA narrow Fellow in the Grass  \nOccasionally rides \u2014   \nYou may have met Him \u2014 did you not  \nHis notice sudden is \u2014\n\nThe Grass divides as with a Comb \u2014   \nA spotted shaft is seen \u2014   \nAnd then it closes at your feet  \nAnd opens further on \u2014\n\nHe likes a Boggy Acre  \nA Floor too cool for Corn \u2014   \nYet when a Boy, and Barefoot \u2014   \nI more than once at Noon\n\nHave passed, I thought, a Whip lash  \nUnbraiding in the Sun  \nWhen stooping to secure it  \nIt wrinkled and was gone \u2014\n\nSeveral of Nature's People  \nI know, and they know me \u2014   \nI feel for them a transport  \nOf cordiality \u2014\n\nBut never met this Fellow,  \nAttended, or alone  \nWithout a tighter breathing  \nAnd Zero at the Bone \u2014\n\n**Version 3** :  \nA narrow Fellow in the Grass  \nOccasionally rides -  \nYou may have met Him? Did you not  \nHis notice instant is-\n\nThe Grass divides as with a Comb -  \nA spotted shaft is seen,  \nAnd then it closes at your Feet  \nAnd opens further on -\n\nHe likes a Boggy Acre -  \nA Floor too cool for Corn -  \nBut when a Boy and Barefoot  \nI more than once at Noon\n\nHave passed I thought a Whip Lash  \nUnbraiding in the Sun  \nWhen stooping to secure it  \nIt wrinkled And was gone -\n\nSeveral of Nature's People  \nI know, and they know me  \nI feel for them a transport  \nOf cordiality\n\nBut never met this Fellow,  \nAttended or alone  \nWithout a tighter Breathing  \nAnd Zero at the Bone.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Leaves like Women interchange**\n\nThe Leaves like Women interchange  \nExclusive Confidence \u2014   \nSomewhat of nods and somewhat  \nPortentous inference.\n\nThe Parties in both cases  \nEnjoining secrecy \u2014   \nInviolable compact  \nTo notoriety.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Definition of Beauty is**\n\nThe Definition of Beauty is  \nThat Definition is none \u2014   \nOf Heaven, easing Analysis,  \nSince Heaven and He are one.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Gratitude \u2014 is not the mention**\n\nGratitude \u2014 is not the mention  \nOf a Tenderness,  \nBut its still appreciation  \nOut of Plumb of Speech.\n\nWhen the Sea return no Answer  \nBy the Line and Lead  \nProves it there's no Sea, or rather  \nA remoter Bed?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Not all die early, dying young \u2014**\n\nNot all die early, dying young \u2014   \nMaturity of Fate  \nIs consummated equally  \nIn Ages, or a Night \u2014\n\nA Hoary Boy, I've known to drop  \nWhole statured \u2014 by the side  \nOf Junior of Fourscore \u2014 'twas Act  \nNot Period \u2014 that died.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**She sped as Petals of a Rose**\n\nShe sped as Petals of a Rose  \nOffended by the Wind \u2014   \nA frail Aristocrat of Time  \nIndemnity to find \u2014   \nLeaving on nature \u2014 a Default  \nAs Cricket or as Bee \u2014   \nBut Andes in the Bosoms where  \nShe had begun to lie \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Dust behind I strove to join**\n\nThe Dust behind I strove to join  \nUnto the Disk before \u2014   \nBut Sequence ravelled out of Sound  \nLike Balls upon a Floor \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We miss Her, not because We see \u2014**\n\nWe miss Her, not because We see \u2014   \nThe Absence of an Eye \u2014   \nExcept its Mind accompany  \nAbridge Society\n\nAs slightly as the Routes of Stars \u2014   \nOurselves \u2014 asleep below \u2014   \nWe know that their superior Eyes  \nInclude Us \u2014 as they go \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Partake as doth the Bee,**\n\nPartake as doth the Bee,  \nAbstemiously.  \nThe Rose is an Estate \u2014   \nIn Sicily.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**This was in the White of the Year \u2014**\n\nThis was in the White of the Year \u2014   \nThat \u2014 was in the Green \u2014   \nDrifts were as difficult then to think  \nAs Daisies now to be seen \u2014\n\nLooking back is best that is left  \nOr if it be \u2014 before \u2014   \nRetrospection is Prospect's half,  \nSometimes, almost more.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We'll pass without the parting**\n\nWe'll pass without the parting  \nSo to spare  \nCertificate of Absence \u2014   \nDeeming where\n\nI left Her I could find Her  \nIf I tried \u2014   \nThis way, I keep from missing  \nThose that died.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Crumbling is not an instant's Act**\n\nCrumbling is not an instant's Act  \nA fundamental pause  \nDilapidation's processes  \nAre organized Decays.\n\n'Tis first a Cobweb on the Soul  \nA Cuticle of Dust  \nA Borer in the Axis  \nAn Elemental Rust \u2014\n\nRuin is formal \u2014 Devil's work  \nConsecutive and slow \u2014   \nFail in an instant, no man did  \nSlipping \u2014 is Crash's law.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Best Things dwell out of Sight**\n\nBest Things dwell out of Sight  \nThe Pearl \u2014 the Just \u2014 Our Thought.\n\nMost shun the Public Air  \nLegitimate, and Rare \u2014\n\nThe Capsule of the Wind  \nThe Capsule of the Mind\n\nExhibit here, as doth a Burr \u2014   \nGerm's Germ be where?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Superfluous were the Sun**\n\nSuperfluous were the Sun  \nWhen Excellence be dead  \nHe were superfluous every Day  \nFor every Day be said\n\nThat syllable whose Faith  \nJust saves it from Despair  \nAnd whose \"I'll meet You\" hesitates  \nIf Love inquire \"Where\"?\n\nUpon His dateless Fame  \nOur Periods may lie  \nAs Stars that drop anonymous  \nFrom an abundant sky.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Fingers of the Light**\n\nThe Fingers of the Light  \nTapped soft upon the Town  \nWith \"I am great and cannot wait  \nSo therefore let me in.\"\n\n\"You're soon,\" the Town replied,  \n\"My Faces are asleep \u2014   \nBut swear, and I will let you by,  \nYou will not wake them up.\"\n\nThe easy Guest complied  \nBut once within the Town  \nThe transport of His Countenance  \nAwakened Maid and Man\n\nThe Neighbor in the Pool  \nUpon His Hip elate  \nMade loud obeisance and the Gnat  \nHeld up His Cup for Light.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Stimulus, beyond the Grave**\n\nThe Stimulus, beyond the Grave  \nHis Countenance to see  \nSupports me like imperial Drams  \nAfforded Day by Day.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Aurora is the effort**\n\nAurora is the effort  \nOf the Celestial Face  \nUnconsciousness of Perfectness  \nTo simulate, to Us.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Dying at my music!**\n\nDying at my music!  \nBubble! Bubble!  \nHold me till the Octave's run!  \nQuick! Burst the Windows!  \nRitardando!  \nPhials left, and the Sun!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There is no Silence in the Earth \u2014 so silent**\n\nThere is no Silence in the Earth \u2014 so silent  \nAs that endured  \nWhich uttered, would discourage Nature  \nAnd haunt the World.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Bind me \u2014 I still can sing \u2014**\n\nBind me \u2014 I still can sing \u2014   \nBanish \u2014 my mandolin  \nStrikes true within \u2014\n\nSlay \u2014 and my Soul shall rise  \nChanting to Paradise \u2014   \nStill thine.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The first We knew of Him was Death \u2014**\n\nThe first We knew of Him was Death \u2014   \nThe second \u2014 was \u2014 Renown \u2014   \nExcept the first had justified  \nThe second had not been.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Falsehood of Thee could I suppose**\n\nFalsehood of Thee could I suppose  \n'Twould undermine the Sill  \nTo which my Faith pinned Block by Block  \nHer Cedar Citadel.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How still the Bells in Steeples stand**\n\nHow still the Bells in Steeples stand  \nTill swollen with the Sky  \nThey leap upon their silver Feet  \nIn frantic Melody!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I was a Phoebe \u2014 nothing more \u2014**\n\nI was a Phoebe \u2014 nothing more \u2014   \nA Phoebe \u2014 nothing less \u2014   \nThe little note that others dropt  \nI fitted into place \u2014\n\nI dwelt too low that any seek \u2014   \nToo shy, that any blame \u2014   \nA Phoebe makes a little print  \nUpon the Floors of Fame \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Up Life's Hill with my my little Bundle**\n\nUp Life's Hill with my my little Bundle  \nIf I prove it steep \u2014   \nIf a Discouragement withhold me \u2014   \nIf my newest step\n\nOlder feel than the Hope that prompted \u2014   \nSpotless be from blame  \nHeart that proposed as Heart that accepted  \nHomelessness, for Home \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**She rose as high as His Occasion**\n\nShe rose as high as His Occasion  \nThen sought the Dust \u2014   \nAnd lower lay in low Westminster  \nFor Her brief Crest \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Which is best? Heaven \u2014**\n\nWhich is best? Heaven \u2014   \nOr only Heaven to come  \nWith that old Codicil of Doubt?  \nI cannot help esteem\n\nThe \"Bird within the Hand\"  \nSuperior to the one  \nThe \"Bush\" may yield me  \nOr may not  \nToo late to choose again.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Too scanty 'twas to die for you,**\n\nToo scanty 'twas to die for you,  \nThe merest Greek could that.  \nThe living, Sweet, is costlier \u2014   \nI offer even that \u2014\n\nThe Dying, is a trifle, past,  \nBut living, this include  \nThe dying multifold \u2014 without  \nThe Respite to be dead.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Did We abolish Frost**\n\nDid We abolish Frost  \nThe Summer would not cease \u2014   \nIf Seasons perish or prevail  \nIs optional with Us \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Were it but Me that gained the Height \u2014**\n\nWere it but Me that gained the Height \u2014   \nWere it but They, that failed!  \nHow many things the Dying play  \nMight they but live, they would!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Hills in Purple syllables**\n\nThe Hills in Purple syllables  \nThe Day's Adventures tell  \nTo little Groups of Continents  \nJust going Home from School.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To die \u2014 without the Dying**\n\nTo die \u2014 without the Dying  \nAnd live \u2014 without the Life  \nThis is the hardest Miracle  \nPropounded to Belief.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Who saw no Sunrise cannot say**\n\nWho saw no Sunrise cannot say  \nThe Countenance 'twould be.  \nWho guess at seeing, guess at loss  \nOf the Ability.\n\nThe Emigrant of Light, it is  \nAfflicted for the Day.  \nThe Blindness that beheld and blest \u2014   \nAnd could not find its Eye.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My Season's furthest Flower \u2014**\n\nMy Season's furthest Flower \u2014   \nI tenderer commend  \nBecause I found Her Kinsmanless,  \nA Grace without a Friend.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Trudging to Eden, looking backward,**\n\nTrudging to Eden, looking backward,  \nI met Somebody's little Boy  \nAsked him his name \u2014 He lisped me \"Trotwood\" \u2014   \nLady, did He belong to thee?\n\nWould it comfort \u2014 to know I met him \u2014   \nAnd that He didn't look afraid?  \nI couldn't weep \u2014 for so many smiling  \nNew Acquaintance \u2014 this Baby made \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Far from Love the Heavenly Father**\n\nFar from Love the Heavenly Father  \nLeads the Chosen Child,  \nOftener through Realm of Briar  \nThan the Meadow mild.\n\nOftener by the Claw of Dragon  \nThan the Hand of Friend  \nGuides the Little One predestined  \nTo the Native Land.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I knew that I had gained**\n\nI knew that I had gained  \nAnd yet I knew not how  \nBy Diminution it was not  \nBut Discipline unto\n\nA Rigor unrelieved  \nExcept by the Content  \nAnother bear its Duplicate  \nIn other Continent.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It rises \u2014 passes \u2014 on our South**\n\nIt rises \u2014 passes \u2014 on our South  \nInscribes a simple Noon \u2014   \nCajoles a Moment with the Spires  \nAnd infinite is gone \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**So large my Will**\n\nSo large my Will  \nThe little that I may  \nEmbarrasses  \nLike gentle infamy \u2014\n\nAffront to Him  \nFor whom the Whole were small  \nAffront to me  \nWho know His Meed of all.\n\nEarth at the best  \nIs but a scanty Toy \u2014   \nBought, carried Home  \nTo Immortality.\n\nIt looks so small  \nWe chiefly wonder then  \nAt our Conceit  \nIn purchasing.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Products of my Farm are these**\n\nThe Products of my Farm are these  \nSufficient for my Own  \nAnd here and there a Benefit  \nUnto a Neighbor's Bin.\n\nWith Us, 'tis Harvest all the Year  \nFor when the Frosts begin  \nWe just reverse the Zodiac  \nAnd fetch the Acres in.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Dying need but little, Dear,**\n\nThe Dying need but little, Dear,  \nA Glass of Water's all,  \nA Flower's unobtrusive Face  \nTo punctuate the Wall,\n\nA Fan, perhaps, a Friend's Regret  \nAnd Certainty that one  \nNo color in the Rainbow  \nPerceive, when you are gone.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My Heart upon a little Plate**\n\nMy Heart upon a little Plate  \nHer Palate to delight  \nA Berry or a Bun, would be,  \nMight it an Apricot!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Twas my one Glory \u2014**\n\n'Twas my one Glory \u2014   \nLet it be  \nRemembered  \nI was owned of Thee \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Nor Mountain hinder Me**\n\nNor Mountain hinder Me  \nNor Sea \u2014   \nWho's Baltic \u2014   \nWho's Cordillera?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**That Such have died enable Us**\n\nThat Such have died enable Us  \nThe tranquiller to die \u2014   \nThat Such have lived,  \nCertificate for Immortality.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Fate slew Him, but He did not drop \u2014**\n\nFate slew Him, but He did not drop \u2014   \nShe felled \u2014 He did not fall \u2014   \nImpaled Him on Her fiercest stakes \u2014   \nHe neutralized them all \u2014\n\nShe stung Him \u2014 sapped His firm Advance \u2014   \nBut when Her Worst was done  \nAnd He \u2014 unmoved regarded Her \u2014   \nAcknowledged Him a Man.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Who is the East?**\n\nWho is the East?  \nThe Yellow Man  \nWho may be Purple if He can  \nThat carries in the Sun.\n\nWho is the West?  \nThe Purple Man  \nWho may be Yellow if He can  \nThat lets Him out again.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Said Death to Passion**\n\nSaid Death to Passion  \n\"Give of thine an Acre unto me.\"  \nSaid Passion, through contracting Breaths  \n\"A Thousand Times Thee Nay.\"\n\nBore Death from Passion  \nAll His East  \nHe \u2014 sovereign as the Sun  \nResituated in the West  \nAnd the Debate was done.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**His Bill an Auger is**\n\nHis Bill an Auger is  \nHis Head, a Cap and Frill  \nHe laboreth at every Tree  \nA Worm, His utmost Goal.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Bee! I'm expecting you!**\n\nBee! I'm expecting you!  \nWas saying Yesterday  \nTo Somebody you know  \nThat you were due \u2014\n\nThe Frogs got Home last Week \u2014   \nAre settled, and at work \u2014   \nBirds, mostly back \u2014   \nThe Clover warm and thick \u2014\n\nYou'll get my Letter by  \nThe seventeenth; Reply  \nOr better, be with me \u2014   \nYours, Fly.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Satisfaction \u2014 is the Agent**\n\nSatisfaction \u2014 is the Agent  \nOf Satiety \u2014   \nWant \u2014 a quiet Commissary  \nFor Infinity.\n\nTo possess, is past the instant  \nWe achieve the Joy \u2014   \nImmortality contented  \nWere Anomaly.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Here, where the Daisies fit my Head**\n\nHere, where the Daisies fit my Head  \n'Tis easiest to lie  \nAnd every Grass that plays outside  \nIs sorry, some, for me.\n\nWhere I am not afraid to go  \nI may confide my Flower \u2014   \nWho was not Enemy of Me  \nWill gentle be, to Her.\n\nNor separate, Herself and Me  \nBy Distances become \u2014   \nA single Bloom we constitute  \nDeparted, or at Home \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Her little Parasol to lift**\n\nHer little Parasol to lift  \nAnd once to let it down  \nHer whole Responsibility \u2014   \nTo imitate be Mine.\n\nA Summer further I must wear,  \nContent if Nature's Drawer  \nPresent me from sepulchral Crease  \nAs blemishless, as Her.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I heard, as if I had no Ear**\n\nI heard, as if I had no Ear  \nUntil a Vital Word  \nCame all the way from Life to me  \nAnd then I knew I heard.\n\nI saw, as if my Eye were on  \nAnother, till a Thing  \nAnd now I know 'twas Light, because  \nIt fitted them, came in.\n\nI dwelt, as if Myself, were out,  \nMy Body but within  \nUntil a Might detected me  \nAnd set my kernel in.\n\nAnd Spirit turned unto the Dust  \n\"Old Friend, thou knowest me,\"  \nAnd Time went out to tell the News  \nAnd met Eternity.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Not so the infinite Relations \u2014 Below**\n\nNot so the infinite Relations \u2014 Below  \nDivision is Adhesion's forfeit \u2014 On High  \nAffliction but a Speculation \u2014 And Woe  \nA Fallacy, a Figment, We knew \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Somewhat, to hope for,**\n\nSomewhat, to hope for,  \nBe it ne'er so far  \nIs Capital against Despair \u2014\n\nSomewhat, to suffer,  \nBe it ne'er so keen \u2014   \nIf terminable, may be borne.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Spring comes on the World \u2014**\n\nSpring comes on the World \u2014   \nI sight the Aprils \u2014   \nHueless to me until thou come  \nAs, till the Bee  \nBlossoms stand negative,  \nTouched to Conditions  \nBy a Hum.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Lest this be Heaven indeed**\n\nLest this be Heaven indeed  \nAn Obstacle is given  \nThat always gauges a Degree  \nBetween Ourself and Heaven.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Sickness of this World it most occasions**\n\nA Sickness of this World it most occasions  \nWhen Best Men die.  \nA Wishfulness their far Condition  \nTo occupy.\n\nA Chief indifference, as Foreign  \nA World must be  \nThemselves forsake \u2014 contented,  \nFor Deity.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Nature rarer uses Yellow**\n\nNature rarer uses Yellow  \nThan another Hue.  \nSaves she all of that for Sunsets  \nProdigal of Blue\n\nSpending Scarlet, like a Woman  \nYellow she affords  \nOnly scantly and selectly  \nLike a Lover's Words.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I've dropped my Brain \u2014 My Soul is numb \u2014**\n\nI've dropped my Brain \u2014 My Soul is numb \u2014   \nThe Veins that used to run  \nStop palsied \u2014 'tis Paralysis  \nDone perfecter on stone\n\nVitality is Carved and cool.  \nMy nerve in Marble lies \u2014   \nA Breathing Woman  \nYesterday \u2014 Endowed with Paradise.\n\nNot dumb \u2014 I had a sort that moved \u2014   \nA Sense that smote and stirred \u2014   \nInstincts for Dance \u2014 a caper part \u2014   \nAn Aptitude for Bird \u2014\n\nWho wrought Carrara in me  \nAnd chiselled all my tune  \nWere it a Witchcraft \u2014 were it Death \u2014   \nI've still a chance to strain\n\nTo Being, somewhere \u2014 Motion \u2014 Breath \u2014   \nThough Centuries beyond,  \nAnd every limit a Decade \u2014   \nI'll shiver, satisfied.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Opening and the Close**\n\nThe Opening and the Close  \nOf Being, are alike  \nOr differ, if they do,  \nAs Bloom upon a Stalk.\n\nThat from an equal Seed  \nUnto an equal Bud  \nGo parallel, perfected  \nIn that they have decayed.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Reportless Subjects, to the Quick**\n\nReportless Subjects, to the Quick  \nContinual addressed \u2014   \nBut foreign as the Dialect  \nOf Danes, unto the rest.\n\nReportless Measures, to the Ear  \nSusceptive \u2014 stimulus \u2014   \nBut like an Oriental Tale  \nTo others, fabulous \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Pain has but one Acquaintance**\n\nPain has but one Acquaintance  \nAnd that is Death \u2014   \nEach one unto the other  \nSociety enough.\n\nPain is the Junior Party  \nBy just a Second's right \u2014   \nDeath tenderly assists Him  \nAnd then absconds from Sight.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**As willing lid o'er weary eye**\n\nAs willing lid o'er weary eye  \nThe Evening on the Day leans  \nTill of all our nature's House  \nRemains but Balcony\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I cannot meet the Spring unmoved \u2014**\n\nI cannot meet the Spring unmoved \u2014   \nI feel the old desire \u2014   \nA Hurry with a lingering, mixed,  \nA Warrant to be fair \u2014\n\nA Competition in my sense  \nWith something hid in Her \u2014   \nAnd as she vanishes, Remorse  \nI saw no more of Her.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I never saw a Moor \u2014**\n\nI NEVER saw a moor,  \nI never saw the sea ;  \nYet know I how the heather looks,  \nAnd what a wave must be.\n\nI never spoke with God,  \nNor visited in heaven ;  \nYet certain am I of the spot  \nAs if the chart were given.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It was a quiet way \u2014**\n\nIt was a quiet way \u2014   \nHe asked if I was his \u2014   \nI made no answer of the Tongue  \nBut answer of the Eyes \u2014   \nAnd then He bore me on  \nBefore this mortal noise  \nWith swiftness, as of Chariots  \nAnd distance, as of Wheels.  \nThis World did drop away  \nAs Acres from the feet  \nOf one that leaneth from Balloon  \nUpon an Ether street.  \nThe Gulf behind was not,  \nThe Continents were new \u2014   \nEternity it was before  \nEternity was due.  \nNo Seasons were to us \u2014   \nIt was not Night nor Morn \u2014   \nBut Sunrise stopped upon the place  \nAnd fastened it in Dawn.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Not to discover weakness is**\n\nNot to discover weakness is  \nThe Artifice of strength \u2014   \nImpregnability inheres  \nAs much through Consciousness\n\nOf faith of others in itself  \nAs Pyramidal Nerve  \nBehind the most unconscious clock  \nWhat skilful Pointers move \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Soul should always stand ajar**\n\nThe Soul should always stand ajar  \nThat if the Heaven inquire  \nHe will not be obliged to wait  \nOr shy of troubling Her\n\nDepart, before the Host have slid  \nThe Bolt unto the Door \u2014   \nTo search for the accomplished Guest,  \nHer Visitor, no more \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There is a Zone whose even Years**\n\nThere is a Zone whose even Years  \nNo Solstice interrupt \u2014   \nWhose Sun constructs perpetual Noon  \nWhose perfect Seasons wait \u2014\n\nWhose Summer set in Summer, till  \nThe Centuries of June  \nAnd Centuries of August cease  \nAnd Consciousness \u2014 is Noon.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I had a daily Bliss**\n\nI had a daily Bliss  \nI half indifferent viewed  \nTill sudden I perceived it stir \u2014   \nIt grew as I pursued\n\nTill when around a Height  \nIt wasted from my sight  \nIncreased beyond my utmost scope  \nI learned to estimate.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Bloom \u2014 is Result \u2014 to meet a Flower**\n\nBloom \u2014 is Result \u2014 to meet a Flower  \nAnd casually glance  \nWould scarcely cause one to suspect  \nThe minor Circumstance\n\nAssisting in the Bright Affair  \nSo intricately done  \nThen offered as a Butterfly  \nTo the Meridian \u2014\n\nTo pack the Bud \u2014 oppose the Worm \u2014   \nObtain its right of Dew \u2014   \nAdjust the Heat \u2014 elude the Wind \u2014   \nEscape the prowling Bee\n\nGreat Nature not to disappoint  \nAwaiting Her that Day \u2014   \nTo be a Flower, is profound  \nResponsibility \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Sang from the Heart, Sire,**\n\nSang from the Heart, Sire,  \nDipped my Beak in it,  \nIf the Tune drip too much  \nHave a tint too Red\n\nPardon the Cochineal \u2014   \nSuffer the Vermillion \u2014   \nDeath is the Wealth  \nOf the Poorest Bird.\n\nBear with the Ballad \u2014   \nAwkward \u2014 faltering \u2014   \nDeath twists the strings \u2014   \n'Twasn't my blame \u2014\n\nPause in your Liturgies \u2014   \nWait your Chorals \u2014   \nWhile I repeat your  \nHallowed name \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Air has no Residence, no Neighbor,**\n\nAir has no Residence, no Neighbor,  \nNo Ear, no Door,  \nNo Apprehension of Another  \nOh, Happy Air!\n\nEthereal Guest at e'en an Outcast's Pillow \u2014   \nEssential Host, in Life's faint, wailing Inn,  \nLater than Light thy Consciousness accost me  \nTill it depart, persuading Mine \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Three Weeks passed since I had seen Her \u2014**\n\nThree Weeks passed since I had seen Her \u2014   \nSome Disease had vext  \n'Twas with Text and Village Singing  \nI beheld Her next\n\nAnd a Company \u2014 our pleasure  \nTo discourse alone \u2014   \nGracious now to me as any \u2014   \nGracious unto none \u2014\n\nBorne without dissent of Either  \nTo the Parish night \u2014   \nOf the Separated Parties  \nWhich be out of sight?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**He scanned it \u2014 staggered \u2014**\n\nHe scanned it \u2014 staggered \u2014   \nDropped the Loop  \nTo Past or Period \u2014   \nCaught helpless at a sense as if  \nHis Mind were going blind \u2014\n\nGroped up, to see if God was there \u2014   \nGroped backward at Himself  \nCaressed a Trigger absently  \nAnd wandered out of Life.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Ashes denote that Fire was \u2014**\n\nAshes denote that Fire was \u2014   \nRevere the Grayest Pile  \nFor the Departed Creature's sake  \nThat hovered there awhile \u2014\n\nFire exists the first in light  \nAnd then consolidates  \nOnly the Chemist can disclose  \nInto what Carbonates.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To help our Bleaker Parts**\n\nTo help our Bleaker Parts  \nSalubrious Hours are given  \nWhich if they do not fit for Earth  \nDrill silently for Heaven \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Let down the Bars, Oh Death \u2014**\n\nLet down the Bars, Oh Death \u2014   \nThe tired Flocks come in  \nWhose bleating ceases to repeat  \nWhose wandering is done \u2014\n\nThine is the stillest night  \nThine the securest Fold  \nToo near Thou art for seeking Thee  \nToo tender, to be told.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Fame's Boys and Girls, who never die**\n\nFame's Boys and Girls, who never die  \nAnd are too seldom born \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Except the smaller size**\n\nExcept the smaller size  \nNo lives are round \u2014   \nThese \u2014 hurry to a sphere  \nAnd show and end \u2014   \nThe larger \u2014 slower grow  \nAnd later hang \u2014   \nThe Summers of Hesperides  \nAre long.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Further in Summer than the Birds**\n\n**Version 1**\n\nFurther in Summer than the Birds -  \nPathetic from the Grass -  \nA Minor Nation celebrates  \nIt's unobtrusive Mass -\n\nNo Ordinance be seen -  \nSo gradual the Grace  \nA pensive Custom it becomes  \nEnlarging Loneliness -\n\n'Tis Audiblest, at Dusk -  \nWhen Day's attempt is done -  \nAnd Nature nothing waits to do  \nBut terminate in Tune -\n\nNor difference it knows  \nOf Cadence, or of Pause -  \nBut simultaneous as Same -  \nThe Service emphacize -\n\nNor know I when it cease -  \nAt Candles, it is here -  \nWhen Sunrise is - that it is not -  \nThan this, I know no more -\n\nThe Earth has many keys -  \nWhere Melody is not  \nIs the Unknown Peninsula -  \nBeauty - is Nature's Fact -\n\nBut Witness for Her Land -  \nAnd Witness for Her Sea -  \nThe Cricket is Her utmost  \nOf Elegy, to Me -\n\n**Version 2**\n\nFurther in Summer than the Birds  \nPathetic from the Grass  \nA minor Nation celebrates  \nIt's unobtrusive Mass\n\nNo Ordinance be seen  \nSo gradual the Grace  \nA pensive Custom it becomes  \nEnlarging Loneliness.\n\nAntiquer felt at Noon  \nWhen August is burning low  \nArise this spectral Canticle  \nRepose to typify\n\nRemit as yet no Grace  \nNo Furrow on the Glow  \nYet a Druidic - Difference  \nEnhances Nature now\n\n**Version 3**\n\nFurther in Summer than the Birds  \nPathetic from the Grass  \nA minor Nation celebrates  \nIt's unobtrusive Mass.\n\nNo Ordinance be seen  \nSo gradual the Grace  \nA pensive Custom it becomes  \nEnlarging Loneliness.\n\nAntiquest felt at Noon  \nWhen August is burning low  \nArise this spectral Canticle  \nRepose to typify\n\nRemit as yet no Grace  \nNo Furrow on the Glow  \nYet a Druidic Difference  \nEnhances Nature now\n\n**Version 4**\n\nFurther in Summer than the Birds -  \nPathetic from the Grass  \nA minor Nation celebrates  \nIt's unobtrusive Mass -  \nNo Ordinance be seen -  \nSo gradual the Grace  \nA gentle Custom it becomes -  \nEnlarging Loneliness -\n\nAntiquest felt at Noon  \nWhen August is burning low  \nArise this spectral Canticle  \nRepose to typify -  \nRemit as yet no Grace -  \nNo furrow on the Glow -  \nBut a Druidic Difference  \nEnhances Nature now -\n\n**Version 5**\n\nFurther in Summer than the Birds -  \nPathetic from the Grass -  \nA minor Nation celebrates  \nIt's unobtrusive Mass.\n\nNo Ordinance be seen -  \nSo gradual the Grace  \nA gentle Custom it becomes -  \nEnlarging Loneliness -\n\nAntiquest felt at Noon -  \nWhen August is burning low  \nArise this spectral Canticle  \nRepose to typify -\n\nRemit as yet no Grace -  \nNo furrow on the Glow  \nBut a Druidic Difference  \nEnhances Nature now -\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Paradise is of the option.**\n\nParadise is of the option.  \nWhosoever will  \nOwn in Eden notwithstanding  \nAdam and Repeal.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To undertake is to achieve**\n\nTo undertake is to achieve  \nBe Undertaking blent  \nWith fortitude of obstacle  \nAnd toward encouragement\n\nThat fine Suspicion, Natures must  \nPermitted to revere  \nDeparted Standards and the few  \nCriterion Sources here\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Perception of an object costs**\n\nPerception of an object costs  \nPrecise the Object's loss \u2014   \nPerception in itself a Gain  \nReplying to its Price \u2014\n\nThe Object Absolute \u2014 is nought \u2014   \nPerception sets it fair  \nAnd then upbraids a Perfectness  \nThat situates so far \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Title divine \u2014 is mine!**\n\nTitle divine \u2014 is mine!  \nThe Wife \u2014 without the Sign!  \nAcute Degree \u2014 conferred on me \u2014   \nEmpress of Calvary!  \nRoyal \u2014 all but the Crown!  \nBetrothed \u2014 without the swoon  \nGod sends us Women \u2014   \nWhen you \u2014 hold \u2014 Garnet to Garnet \u2014   \nGold \u2014 to Gold \u2014   \nBorn \u2014 Bridalled \u2014 Shrouded \u2014   \nIn a Day \u2014   \nTri Victory  \n\"My Husband\" \u2014 women say \u2014   \nStroking the Melody \u2014   \nIs this \u2014 the way?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Experiment to me**\n\nExperiment to me  \nIs every one I meet  \nIf it contain a Kernel?  \nThe Figure of a Nut\n\nPresents upon a Tree  \nEqually plausibly,  \nBut Meat within, is requisite  \nTo Squirrels, and to Me.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Count not that far that can be had,**\n\nCount not that far that can be had,  \nThough sunset lie between \u2014   \nNor that adjacent, that beside,  \nIs further than the sun.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Sky is low \u2014 the Clouds are mean.**\n\nThe Sky is low \u2014 the Clouds are mean.  \nA Travelling Flake of Snow  \nAcross a Barn or through a Rut  \nDebates if it will go \u2014\n\nA Narrow Wind complains all Day  \nHow some one treated him  \nNature, like Us is sometimes caught  \nWithout her Diadem.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Just Once! Oh least Request!**\n\nJust Once! Oh least Request!  \nCould Adamant refuse  \nSo small a Grace  \nSo scanty put,  \nSuch agonizing terms?  \nWould not a God of Flint  \nBe conscious of a sigh  \nAs down His Heaven dropt remote  \n\"Just Once\" Sweet Deity?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**These are the Signs to Nature's Inns \u2014**\n\nThese are the Signs to Nature's Inns \u2014   \nHer invitation broad  \nTo Whosoever famishing  \nTo taste her mystic Bread \u2014\n\nThese are the rites of Nature's House \u2014   \nThe Hospitality  \nThat opens with an equal width  \nTo Beggar and to Bee\n\nFor Sureties of her staunch Estate  \nHer undecaying Cheer  \nThe Purple in the East is set  \nAnd in the North, the Star \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Bustle in a House**\n\nTHE bustle in a house  \nThe morning after death  \nIs solemnest of industries  \nEnacted upon earth, \u2014\n\nThe sweeping up the heart,  \nAnd putting love away  \nWe shall not want to use again  \nUntil eternity.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Sun went down \u2014 no Man looked on \u2014**\n\nThe Sun went down \u2014 no Man looked on \u2014   \nThe Earth and I, alone,  \nWere present at the Majesty \u2014   \nHe triumphed, and went on \u2014\n\nThe Sun went up \u2014 no Man looked on \u2014   \nThe Earth and I and One  \nA nameless Bird \u2014 a Stranger  \nWere Witness for the Crown \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**When they come back \u2014 if Blossoms do \u2014**\n\nWhen they come back \u2014 if Blossoms do \u2014   \nI always feel a doubt  \nIf Blossoms can be born again  \nWhen once the Art is out \u2014\n\nWhen they begin, if Robins may,  \nI always had a fear  \nI did not tell, it was their last Experiment  \nLast Year,\n\nWhen it is May, if May return,  \nHad nobody a pang  \nLest in a Face so beautiful  \nHe might not look again?\n\nIf I am there \u2014 One does not know  \nWhat Party \u2014 One may be  \nTomorrow, but if I am there  \nI take back all I say \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Superiority to Fate**\n\nSuperiority to Fate  \nIs difficult to gain  \n'Tis not conferred of Any  \nBut possible to earn\n\nA pittance at a time  \nUntil to Her surprise  \nThe Soul with strict economy  \nSubsist till Paradise.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Revolution is the Pod**\n\nRevolution is the Pod  \nSystems rattle from  \nWhen the Winds of Will are stirred  \nExcellent is Bloom\n\nBut except its Russet Base  \nEvery Summer be  \nThe Entomber of itself,  \nSo of Liberty \u2014\n\nLeft inactive on the Stalk  \nAll its Purple fled  \nRevolution shakes it for  \nTest if it be dead.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We learn it in Retreating**\n\nWe learn it in Retreating  \nHow vast an one  \nWas recently among us \u2014   \nA Perished Sun\n\nEndear in the departure  \nHow doubly more  \nThan all the Golden presence  \nIt was \u2014 before \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**At Half past Three, a single Bird**\n\nAt Half past Three, a single Bird  \nUnto a silent Sky  \nPropounded but a single term  \nOf cautious melody.\n\nAt Half past Four, Experiment  \nHad subjugated test  \nAnd lo, Her silver Principle  \nSupplanted all the rest.\n\nAt Half past Seven, Element  \nNor Implement, be seen \u2014   \nAnd Place was where the Presence was  \nCircumference between.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If Nature smiles \u2014 the Mother must**\n\nIf Nature smiles \u2014 the Mother must  \nI'm sure, at many a whim  \nOf Her eccentric Family \u2014   \nIs She so much to blame?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**What Twigs We held by \u2014**\n\nWhat Twigs We held by \u2014   \nOh the View  \nWhen Life's swift River striven through  \nWe pause before a further plunge  \nTo take Momentum \u2014   \nAs the Fringe\n\nUpon a former Garment shows  \nThe Garment cast,  \nOur Props disclose  \nSo scant, so eminently small  \nOf Might to help, so pitiful  \nTo sink, if We had labored, fond  \nThe diligence were not more blind\n\nHow scant, by everlasting Light  \nThe Discs that satisfied Our Sight \u2014   \nHow dimmer than a Saturn's Bar  \nThe Things esteemed, for Things that are!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We miss a Kinsman more**\n\nWe miss a Kinsman more  \nWhen warranted to see  \nThan when withheld of Oceans  \nFrom possibility\n\nA Furlong than a League  \nInflicts a pricklier pain,  \nTill We, who smiled at Pyrenees \u2014   \nOf Parishes, complain.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Ended, ere it begun \u2014**\n\nEnded, ere it begun \u2014   \nThe Title was scarcely told  \nWhen the Preface perished from Consciousness  \nThe Story, unrevealed \u2014\n\nHad it been mine, to print!  \nHad it been yours, to read!  \nThat it was not Our privilege  \nThe interdict of God \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Myself can read the Telegrams**\n\nMyself can read the Telegrams  \nA Letter chief to me  \nThe Stock's advance and Retrograde  \nAnd what the Markets say\n\nThe Weather \u2014 how the Rains  \nIn Counties have begun.  \n'Tis News as null as nothing,  \nBut sweeter so \u2014 than none.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I am afraid to own a Body \u2014**\n\nI am afraid to own a Body \u2014   \nI am afraid to own a Soul \u2014   \nProfound \u2014 precarious Property \u2014   \nPossession, not optional \u2014\n\nDouble Estate \u2014 entailed at pleasure  \nUpon an unsuspecting Heir \u2014   \nDuke in a moment of Deathlessness  \nAnd God, for a Frontier.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Well upon the Brook**\n\nThe Well upon the Brook  \nWere foolish to depend \u2014   \nLet Brooks \u2014 renew of Brooks \u2014   \nBut Wells \u2014 of failless Ground!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It was not Saint \u2014 it was too large \u2014**\n\nIt was not Saint \u2014 it was too large \u2014   \nNor Snow \u2014 it was too small \u2014   \nIt only held itself aloof  \nLike something spiritual \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Because 'twas Riches I could own,**\n\nBecause 'twas Riches I could own,  \nMyself had earned it \u2014 Me,  \nI knew the Dollars by their names \u2014   \nIt feels like Poverty\n\nAn Earldom out of sight to hold,  \nAn Income in the Air,  \nPossession \u2014 has a sweeter chink  \nUnto a Miser's Ear \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Themself are all I have \u2014**\n\nThemself are all I have \u2014   \nMyself a freckled \u2014 be \u2014   \nI thought you'd choose a Velvet Cheek  \nOr one of Ivory \u2014   \nWould you \u2014 instead of Me?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To Whom the Mornings stand for Nights,**\n\nTo Whom the Mornings stand for Nights,  \nWhat must the Midnights \u2014 be!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**These Strangers, in a foreign World,**\n\nThese Strangers, in a foreign World,  \nProtection asked of me \u2014   \nBefriend them, lest Yourself in Heaven  \nBe found a Refugee \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Dew \u2014 is the Freshet in the Grass \u2014**\n\nDew \u2014 is the Freshet in the Grass \u2014   \n'Tis many a tiny Mill  \nTurns unperceived beneath our feet  \nAnd Artisan lies still \u2014\n\nWe spy the Forests and the Hills  \nThe Tents to Nature's Show  \nMistake the Outside for the in  \nAnd mention what we saw.\n\nCould Commentators on the Sign  \nOf Nature's Caravan  \nObtain \"Admission\" as a Child  \nSome Wednesday Afternoon.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Of the Heart that goes in, and closes the Door**\n\nOf the Heart that goes in, and closes the Door  \nShall the Playfellow Heart complain  \nThough the Ring is unwhole, and the Company broke  \nCan never be fitted again?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My Cocoon tightens \u2014 Colors tease \u2014**\n\n_See also From the Chrysalis_\n\nMy Cocoon tightens \u2014 Colors tease \u2014   \nI'm feeling for the Air \u2014   \nA dim capacity for Wings  \nDemeans the Dress I wear \u2014\n\nA power of Butterfly must be \u2014   \nThe Aptitude to fly  \nMeadows of Majesty implies  \nAnd easy Sweeps of Sky \u2014\n\nSo I must baffle at the Hint  \nAnd cipher at the Sign  \nAnd make much blunder, if at last  \nI take the clue divine \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The last Night that She lived**\n\nTHE last night that she lived,  \nIt was a common night,  \nExcept the dying; this to us  \nMade nature different.\n\nWe noticed smallest things, \u2014   \nThings overlooked before,  \nBy this great light upon our minds  \nItalicized, as 't were.\n\nThat others could exist  \nWhile she must finish quite,  \nA jealousy for her arose  \nSo nearly infinite.\n\nWe waited while she passed;  \nIt was a narrow time,  \nToo jostled were our souls to speak,  \nAt length the notice came.\n\nShe mentioned, and forgot;  \nThen lightly as a reed  \nBent to the water, shivered scarce,  \nConsented, and was dead.\n\nAnd we, we placed the hair,  \nAnd drew the head erect;  \nAnd then an awful leisure was,  \nOur faith to regulate.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Between the form of Life and Life**\n\nBetween the form of Life and Life  \nThe difference is as big  \nAs Liquor at the Lip between  \nAnd Liquor in the Jug  \nThe latter \u2014 excellent to keep \u2014   \nBut for ecstatic need  \nThe corkless is superior \u2014   \nI know for I have tried\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**His Bill is clasped \u2014 his Eye forsook \u2014**\n\nHis Bill is clasped \u2014 his Eye forsook \u2014   \nHis Feathers wilted low \u2014   \nThe Claws that clung, like lifeless Gloves  \nIndifferent hanging now \u2014   \nThe Joy that in his happy Throat  \nWas waiting to be poured  \nGored through and through with Death, to be  \nAssassin of a Bird  \nResembles to my outraged mind  \nThe firing in Heaven,  \nOn Angels \u2014 squandering for you  \nTheir Miracles of Tune \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The spry Arms of the Wind**\n\nThe spry Arms of the Wind  \nIf I could crawl between  \nI have an errand imminent  \nTo an adjoining Zone \u2014\n\nI should not care to stop  \nMy Process is not long  \nThe Wind could wait without the Gate  \nOr stroll the Town among.\n\nTo ascertain the House  \nAnd is the soul at Home  \nAnd hold the Wick of mine to it  \nTo light, and then return \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Crickets sang**\n\nThe Crickets sang  \nAnd set the Sun  \nAnd Workmen finished one by one  \nTheir Seam the Day upon.\n\nThe low Grass loaded with the Dew  \nThe Twilight stood, as Strangers do  \nWith Hat in Hand, polite and new  \nTo stay as if, or go.\n\nA Vastness, as a Neighbor, came,  \nA Wisdom, without Face, or Name,  \nA Peace, as Hemispheres at Home  \nAnd so the Night became.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Like Men and Women Shadows walk**\n\nLike Men and Women Shadows walk  \nUpon the Hills Today \u2014   \nWith here and there a mighty Bow  \nOr trailing Courtesy  \nTo Neighbors doubtless of their own  \nNot quickened to perceive  \nMinuter landscape as Ourselves  \nAnd Boroughs where we live \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We do not know the time we lose \u2014**\n\nWe do not know the time we lose \u2014   \nThe awful moment is  \nAnd takes its fundamental place  \nAmong the certainties \u2014\n\nA firm appearance still inflates  \nThe card \u2014 the chance \u2014 the friend \u2014   \nThe spectre of solidities  \nWhose substances are sand \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Bird did prance \u2014 the Bee did play \u2014**\n\nThe Bird did prance \u2014 the Bee did play \u2014   \nThe Sun ran miles away  \nSo blind with joy he could not choose  \nBetween his Holiday\n\nThe morn was up \u2014 the meadows out  \nThe Fences all but ran,  \nRepublic of Delight, I thought  \nWhere each is Citizen \u2014\n\nFrom Heavy laden Lands to thee  \nWere seas to cross to come  \nA Caspian were crowded \u2014   \nToo near thou art for Fame \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Diamond on the Hand**\n\nA Diamond on the Hand  \nTo Custom Common grown  \nSubsides from its significance  \nThe Gem were best unknown \u2014   \nWithin a Seller's Shrine  \nHow many sight and sigh  \nAnd cannot, but are mad for fear  \nThat any other buy.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I fit for them \u2014**\n\nI fit for them \u2014   \nI seek the Dark  \nTill I am thorough fit.  \nThe labor is a sober one  \nWith this sufficient sweet  \nThat abstinence of mine produce  \nA purer food for them, if I succeed,  \nIf not I had  \nThe transport of the Aim \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**None who saw it ever told it**\n\nNone who saw it ever told it  \n'Tis as hid as Death  \nHad for that specific treasure  \nA departing breath \u2014   \nSurfaces may be invested  \nDid the Diamond grow  \nGeneral as the Dandelion  \nWould you serve it so?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Some Wretched creature, savior take**\n\nSome Wretched creature, savior take  \nWho would exult to die  \nAnd leave for thy sweet mercy's sake  \nAnother Hour to me\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**That this should feel the need of Death**\n\nThat this should feel the need of Death  \nThe same as those that lived  \nIs such a Feat of Irony  \nAs never was \u2014 achieved \u2014\n\nNot satisfied to ape the Great  \nIn his simplicity  \nThe small must die, as well as He \u2014   \nOh the Audacity \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There is strength in proving that it can be borne**\n\nThere is strength in proving that it can be borne  \nAlthough it tear \u2014   \nWhat are the sinews of such cordage for  \nExcept to bear  \nThe ship might be of satin had it not to fight \u2014   \nTo walk on seas requires cedar Feet\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The largest Fire ever known**\n\nThe largest Fire ever known  \nOccurs each Afternoon \u2014   \nDiscovered is without surprise  \nProceeds without concern \u2014   \nConsumes and no report to men  \nAn Occidental Town,  \nRebuilt another morning  \nTo be again burned down.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The murmuring of Bees, has ceased**\n\nThe murmuring of Bees, has ceased  \nBut murmuring of some  \nPosterior, prophetic,  \nHas simultaneous come.  \nThe lower metres of the Year  \nWhen Nature's laugh is done  \nThe Revelations of the Book  \nWhose Genesis was June.  \nAppropriate Creatures to her change  \nThe Typic Mother sends  \nAs Accent fades to interval  \nWith separating Friends  \nTill what we speculate, has been  \nAnd thoughts we will not show  \nMore intimate with us become  \nThan Persons, that we know.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There is another Loneliness**\n\nThere is another Loneliness  \nThat many die without \u2014   \nNot want of friend occasions it  \nOr circumstances of Lot\n\nBut nature, sometimes, sometimes thought  \nAnd whoso it befall  \nIs richer than could be revealed  \nBy mortal numeral \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Mine there is no Man would own**\n\nA Mine there is no Man would own  \nBut must it be conferred,  \nDemeaning by exclusive wealth  \nA Universe beside \u2014\n\nPotosi never to be spent  \nBut hoarded in the mind  \nWhat Misers wring their hands tonight  \nFor Indies in the Ground!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Exhilaration is the Breeze**\n\nExhilaration is the Breeze  \nThat lifts us from the Ground  \nAnd leaves us in another place  \nWhose statement is not found \u2014\n\nReturns us not, but after time  \nWe soberly descend  \nA little newer for the term  \nUpon Enchanted Ground \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Paradise is that old mansion**\n\nParadise is that old mansion  \nMany owned before \u2014   \nOccupied by each an instant  \nThen reversed the Door \u2014   \nBliss is frugal of her Leases  \nAdam taught her Thrift  \nBankrupt once through his excesses \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**This slow Day moved along \u2014**\n\nThis slow Day moved along \u2014   \nI heard its axles go  \nAs if they could not hoist themselves  \nThey hated motion so \u2014\n\nI told my soul to come \u2014   \nIt was no use to wait \u2014   \nWe went and played and came again  \nAnd it was out of sight \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Time does go on \u2014**\n\nTime does go on \u2014   \nI tell it gay to those who suffer now \u2014   \nThey shall survive \u2014   \nThere is a sun \u2014   \nThey don't believe it now \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Tis my first night beneath the Sun**\n\n'Tis my first night beneath the Sun  \nIf I should spend it here \u2014   \nAbove him is too low a height  \nFor his Barometer  \nWho Airs of expectation breathes  \nAnd takes the Wind at prime \u2014   \nBut Distance his Delights confides  \nTo those who visit him \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A great Hope fell**\n\nA great Hope fell  \nYou heard no noise  \nThe Ruin was within  \nOh cunning wreck that told no tale  \nAnd let no Witness in\n\nThe mind was built for mighty Freight  \nFor dread occasion planned  \nHow often foundering at Sea  \nOstensibly, on Land\n\nA not admitting of the wound  \nUntil it grew so wide  \nThat all my Life had entered it  \nAnd there were troughs beside\n\nA closing of the simple lid  \nThat opened to the sun  \nUntil the tender Carpenter  \nPerpetual nail it down \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Had we known the Ton she bore**\n\nHad we known the Ton she bore  \nWe had helped the terror  \nBut she straighter walked for Freight  \nSo be hers the error \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Oh Sumptuous moment**\n\nOh Sumptuous moment  \nSlower go  \nThat I may gloat on thee \u2014   \n'Twill never be the same to starve  \nNow I abundance see \u2014\n\nWhich was to famish, then or now \u2014   \nThe difference of Day  \nAsk him unto the Gallows led \u2014   \nWith morning in the sky \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Shall I take thee, the Poet said**\n\nShall I take thee, the Poet said  \nTo the propounded word?  \nBe stationed with the Candidates  \nTill I have finer tried \u2014\n\nThe Poet searched Philology  \nAnd when about to ring  \nFor the suspended Candidate  \nThere came unsummoned in \u2014\n\nThat portion of the Vision  \nThe Word applied to fill  \nNot unto nomination  \nThe Cherubim reveal \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Soft as the massacre of Suns**\n\nSoft as the massacre of Suns  \nBy Evening's Sabres slain\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**These are the Nights that Beetles love \u2014**\n\nThese are the Nights that Beetles love \u2014   \nFrom Eminence remote  \nDrives ponderous perpendicular  \nHis figure intimate  \nThe terror of the Children  \nThe merriment of men  \nDepositing his Thunder  \nHe hoists abroad again \u2014   \nA Bomb upon the Ceiling  \nIs an improving thing \u2014   \nIt keeps the nerves progressive  \nConjecture flourishing \u2014   \nToo dear the Summer evening  \nWithout discreet alarm \u2014   \nSupplied by Entomology  \nWith its remaining charm \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Tell all the Truth but tell it slant \u2014**\n\nTell all the Truth but tell it slant \u2014   \nSuccess in Circuit lies  \nToo bright for our infirm Delight  \nThe Truth's superb surprise\n\nAs Lightning to the Children eased  \nWith explanation kind  \nThe Truth must dazzle gradually  \nOr every man be blind \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**That odd old man is dead a year \u2014**\n\nThat odd old man is dead a year \u2014   \nWe miss his stated Hat.  \n'Twas such an evening bright and stiff  \nHis faded lamp went out.\n\nWho miss his antiquated Wick \u2014   \nAre any hoar for him?  \nWaits any indurated mate  \nHis wrinkled coming Home?\n\nOh Life, begun in fluent Blood  \nAnd consummated dull!  \nAchievement contemplating thee \u2014   \nFeels transitive and cool.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Merchant of the Picturesque**\n\nThe Merchant of the Picturesque  \nA Counter has and sales  \nBut is within or negative  \nPrecisely as the calls \u2014   \nTo Children he is small in price  \nAnd large in courtesy \u2014   \nIt suits him better than a check  \nTheir artless currency \u2014   \nOf Counterfeits he is so shy  \nDo one advance so near  \nAs to behold his ample flight \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The smouldering embers blush \u2014**\n\nThe smouldering embers blush \u2014   \nOh Hearts within the Coal  \nHast thou survived so many years?  \nThe smouldering embers smile \u2014   \nSoft stirs the news of Light  \nThe stolid seconds glow  \nOne requisite has Fire that lasts  \nPrometheus never knew \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Snow that never drifts \u2014**\n\nThe Snow that never drifts \u2014   \nThe transient, fragrant snow  \nThat comes a single time a Year  \nIs softly driving now \u2014\n\nSo thorough in the Tree  \nAt night beneath the star  \nThat it was February's Foot  \nExperience would swear \u2014\n\nLike Winter as a Face  \nWe stern and former knew  \nRepaired of all but Loneliness  \nBy Nature's Alibi \u2014\n\nWere every storm so spice  \nThe Value could not be \u2014   \nWe buy with contrast \u2014 Pang is good  \nAs near as memory \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Wind took up the Northern Things**\n\nThe Wind took up the Northern Things  \nAnd piled them in the south \u2014   \nThen gave the East unto the West  \nAnd opening his mouth\n\nThe four Divisions of the Earth  \nDid make as to devour  \nWhile everything to corners slunk  \nBehind the awful power \u2014\n\nThe Wind \u2014 unto his Chambers went  \nAnd nature ventured out \u2014   \nHer subjects scattered into place  \nHer systems ranged about\n\nAgain the smoke from Dwellings rose  \nThe Day abroad was heard \u2014   \nHow intimate, a Tempest past  \nThe Transport of the Bird \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Too cold is this**\n\nToo cold is this  \nTo warm with Sun \u2014   \nToo stiff to bended be,  \nTo joint this Agate were a work \u2014   \nOutstaring Masonry \u2014\n\nHow went the Agile Kernel out  \nContusion of the Husk  \nNor Rip, nor wrinkle indicate  \nBut just an Asterisk.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Frost of Death was on the Pane \u2014**\n\nThe Frost of Death was on the Pane \u2014   \n\"Secure your Flower\" said he.  \nLike Sailors fighting with a Leak  \nWe fought Mortality.\n\nOur passive Flower we held to Sea \u2014   \nTo Mountain \u2014 To the Sun \u2014   \nYet even on his Scarlet shelf  \nTo crawl the Frost begun \u2014\n\nWe pried him back  \nOurselves we wedged  \nHimself and her between,  \nYet easy as the narrow Snake  \nHe forked his way along\n\nTill all her helpless beauty bent  \nAnd then our wrath begun \u2014   \nWe hunted him to his Ravine  \nWe chased him to his Den \u2014\n\nWe hated Death and hated Life  \nAnd nowhere was to go \u2014   \nThan Sea and continent there is  \nA larger \u2014 it is Woe \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The duties of the Wind are few,**\n\nThe duties of the Wind are few,  \nTo cast the ships, at Sea,  \nEstablish March, the Floods escort,  \nAnd usher Liberty.\n\nThe pleasures of the Wind are broad,  \nTo dwell Extent among,  \nRemain, or wander,  \nSpeculate, or Forests entertain.\n\nThe kinsmen of the Wind are Peaks  \nAzof \u2014 the Equinox,  \nAlso with Bird and Asteroid  \nA bowing intercourse.\n\nThe limitations of the Wind  \nDo he exist, or die,  \nToo wise he seems for Wakelessness,  \nHowever, know not i.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Spider sewed at Night**\n\nA Spider sewed at Night  \nWithout a Light  \nUpon an Arc of White.\n\nIf Ruff it was of Dame  \nOr Shroud of Gnome  \nHimself himself inform.\n\nOf Immortality  \nHis Strategy  \nWas Physiognomy.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Her sovereign People**\n\nHer sovereign People  \nNature knows as well  \nAnd is as fond of signifying  \nAs if fallible \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Day grew small, surrounded tight**\n\nThe Day grew small, surrounded tight  \nBy early, stooping Night \u2014   \nThe Afternoon in Evening deep  \nIts Yellow shortness dropt \u2014   \nThe Winds went out their martial ways  \nThe Leaves obtained excuse \u2014   \nNovember hung his Granite Hat  \nUpon a nail of Plush \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Face we choose to miss \u2014**\n\nThe Face we choose to miss \u2014   \nBe it but for a Day  \nAs absent as a Hundred Years,  \nWhen it has rode away.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Props assist the House**\n\nThe Props assist the House  \nUntil the House is built  \nAnd then the Props withdraw  \nAnd adequate, erect,  \nThe House support itself  \nAnd cease to recollect  \nThe Auger and the Carpenter \u2014   \nJust such a retrospect  \nHath the perfected Life \u2014   \nA past of Plank and Nail  \nAnd slowness \u2014 then the Scaffolds drop  \nAffirming it a Soul.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Work of Her that went,**\n\nThe Work of Her that went,  \nThe Toil of Fellows done \u2014   \nIn Ovens green our Mother bakes,  \nBy Fires of the Sun.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Ourselves we do inter with sweet derision.**\n\nOurselves we do inter with sweet derision.  \nThe channel of the dust who once achieves  \nInvalidates the balm of that religion  \nThat doubts as fervently as it believes.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**In thy long Paradise of Light**\n\nIn thy long Paradise of Light  \nNo moment will there be  \nWhen I shall long for Earthly Play  \nAnd mortal Company \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**When Etna basks and purrs**\n\nWhen Etna basks and purrs  \nNaples is more afraid  \nThan when she show her Garnet Tooth \u2014   \nSecurity is loud \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**After a hundred years**\n\nAfter a hundred years  \nNobody knows the Place  \nAgony that enacted there  \nMotionless as Peace\n\nWeeds triumphant ranged  \nStrangers strolled and spelled  \nAt the lone Orthography  \nOf the Elder Dead\n\nWinds of Summer Fields  \nRecollect the way \u2014   \nInstinct picking up the Key  \nDropped by memory \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**After the Sun comes out**\n\nAfter the Sun comes out  \nHow it alters the World \u2014   \nWaggons like messengers hurry about  \nYesterday is old \u2014\n\nAll men meet as if  \nEach foreclosed a news \u2014   \nFresh as a Cargo from Batize  \nNature's qualities \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I noticed People disappeared**\n\nI noticed People disappeared  \nWhen but a little child \u2014   \nSupposed they visited remote  \nOr settled Regions wild \u2014   \nBut did because they died  \nA Fact withheld the little child \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How many schemes may die**\n\nHow many schemes may die  \nIn one short Afternoon  \nEntirely unknown  \nTo those they most concern \u2014   \nThe man that was not lost  \nBecause by accident  \nHe varied by a Ribbon's width  \nFrom his accustomed route \u2014   \nThe Love that would not try  \nBecause beside the Door  \nIt must be competitions  \nSome unsuspecting Horse was tied  \nSurveying his Despair\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Soul, take thy risk.**\n\nSoul, take thy risk.  \nWith Death to be  \nWere better than be not  \nWith thee\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Tell as a Marksman \u2014 were forgotten**\n\nTell as a Marksman \u2014 were forgotten  \nTell \u2014 this Day endures  \nRuddy as that coeval Apple  \nThe Tradition bears \u2014\n\nFresh as Mankind that humble story  \nThough a statelier Tale  \nGrown in the Repetition hoary  \nScarcely would prevail \u2014\n\nTell had a son \u2014 The ones that knew it  \nNeed not linger here \u2014   \nThose who did not to Human Nature  \nWill subscribe a Tear \u2014\n\nTell would not bare his Head  \nIn Presence  \nOf the Ducal Hat \u2014   \nThreatened for that with Death \u2014 by Gessler \u2014   \nTyranny bethought\n\nMake of his only Boy a Target  \nThat surpasses Death \u2014   \nStolid to Love's supreme entreaty  \nNot forsook of Faith \u2014\n\nMercy of the Almighty begging \u2014   \nTell his Arrow sent \u2014   \nGod it is said replies in Person  \nWhen the cry is meant \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Through what transports of Patience**\n\nThrough what transports of Patience  \nI reached the stolid Bliss  \nTo breathe my Blank without thee  \nAttest me this and this \u2014   \nBy that bleak exultation  \nI won as near as this  \nThy privilege of dying  \nAbbreviate me this \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A full fed Rose on meals of Tint**\n\nA full fed Rose on meals of Tint  \nA Dinner for a Bee  \nIn process of the Noon became -  \nEach bright Mortality  \nThe Forfeit is of Creature fair  \nItself, adored before  \nSubmitting for our unknown sake  \nTo be esteemed no more \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Distance \u2014 is not the Realm of Fox**\n\nDistance \u2014 is not the Realm of Fox  \nNor by Relay of Bird  \nAbated \u2014 Distance is  \nUntil thyself, Beloved.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Lest any doubt that we are glad that they were born Today**\n\nLest any doubt that we are glad that they were born Today  \nWhose having lived is held by us in noble Holiday  \nWithout the date, like Consciousness or Immortality \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Some Days retired from the rest**\n\nSome Days retired from the rest  \nIn soft distinction lie  \nThe Day that a Companion came  \nOr was obliged to die\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Best Witchcraft is Geometry**\n\nBest Witchcraft is Geometry  \nTo the magician's mind \u2014   \nHis ordinary acts are feats  \nTo thinking of mankind.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Great Streets of silence led away**\n\nGreat Streets of silence led away  \nTo Neighborhoods of Pause \u2014   \nHere was no Notice \u2014 no Dissent  \nNo Universe \u2014 no laws \u2014\n\nBy Clocks, 'twas Morning, and for Night  \nThe Bells at Distance called \u2014   \nBut Epoch had no basis here  \nFor Period exhaled.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**He is alive, this morning \u2014**\n\nHe is alive, this morning \u2014   \nHe is alive \u2014 and awake \u2014   \nBirds are resuming for Him \u2014   \nBlossoms \u2014 dress for His Sake.  \nBees \u2014 to their Loaves of Honey  \nAdd an Amber Crumb  \nHim \u2014 to regale \u2014 Me \u2014 Only \u2014   \nMotion, and am dumb.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Trust adjust her Peradventure \u2014**\n\nTrust adjust her \"Peradventure\" \u2014   \nPhantoms entered \"and not you.\"\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Life we have is very great.**\n\nThe Life we have is very great.  \nThe Life that we shall see  \nSurpasses it, we know, because  \nIt is Infinity.  \nBut when all Space has been beheld  \nAnd all Dominion shown  \nThe smallest Human Heart's extent  \nReduces it to none.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**God made no act without a cause,**\n\nGod made no act without a cause,  \nNor heart without an aim,  \nOur inference is premature,  \nOur premises to blame.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Were it to be the last**\n\nWere it to be the last  \nHow infinite would be  \nWhat we did not suspect was marked \u2014   \nOur final interview.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Contained in this short Life**\n\nContained in this short Life  \nAre magical extents  \nThe soul returning soft at night  \nTo steal securer thence\n\nAs Children strictest kept  \nTurn soonest to the sea  \nWhose nameless Fathoms slink away  \nBeside infinity\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Of Paul and Silas it is said**\n\nOf Paul and Silas it is said  \nThere were in Prison laid  \nBut when they went to take them out  \nThey were not there instead.\n\nSecurity the same insures  \nTo our assaulted Minds \u2014   \nThe staple must be optional  \nThat an Immortal binds.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Alone and in a Circumstance**\n\nAlone and in a Circumstance  \nReluctant to be told  \nA spider on my reticence  \nAssiduously crawled\n\nAnd so much more at Home than I  \nImmediately grew  \nI felt myself a visitor  \nAnd hurriedly withdrew\n\nRevisiting my late abode  \nWith articles of claim  \nI found it quietly assumed  \nAs a Gymnasium  \nWhere Tax asleep and Title off  \nThe inmates of the Air  \nPerpetual presumption took  \nAs each were special Heir \u2014   \nIf any strike me on the street  \nI can return the Blow \u2014   \nIf any take my property  \nAccording to the Law  \nThe Statute is my Learned friend  \nBut what redress can be  \nFor an offense nor here nor there  \nSo not in Equity \u2014   \nThat Larceny of time and mind  \nThat marrow of the Day  \nBy spider, or forbid it Lord  \nThat I should specify.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**As old as Woe \u2014**\n\nAs old as Woe \u2014   \nHow old is that?  \nSome eighteen thousand years \u2014   \nAs old as Bliss  \nHow old is that  \nThey are of equal years\n\nTogether chiefest they ard found  \nBut seldom side by side  \nFrom neither of them tho' he try  \nCan Human nature hide\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Lest they should come \u2014 is all my fear**\n\nLest they should come \u2014 is all my fear  \nWhen sweet incarcerated here\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Nature affects to be sedate**\n\nNature affects to be sedate  \nUpon occasion, grand  \nBut let our observation shut  \nHer practices extend\n\nTo Necromancy and the Trades  \nRemote to understand  \nBehold our spacious Citizen  \nUnto a Juggler turned \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**On the World you colored**\n\nOn the World you colored  \nMorning painted rose \u2014   \nIdle his Vermillion  \nAimlessly crept the Glows  \nOver Realms of Orchards  \nI the Day before  \nConquered with the Robin \u2014   \nMisery, how fair  \nTill your wrinkled Finger  \nShored the sun away  \nMidnight's awful Pattern  \nIn the Goods of Day \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Clouds their Backs together laid**\n\nThe Clouds their Backs together laid  \nThe North begun to push  \nThe Forests galloped till they fell  \nThe Lightning played like mice\n\nThe Thunder crumbled like a stuff  \nHow good to be in Tombs  \nWhere Nature's Temper cannot reach  \nNor vengance ever comes\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Lightning is a yellow Fork**\n\nThe Lightning is a yellow Fork  \nFrom Tables in the sky  \nBy inadvertent fingers dropt  \nThe awful Cutlery\n\nOf mansions never quite disclosed  \nAnd never quite concealed  \nThe Apparatus of the Dark  \nTo ignorance revealed.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There's the Battle of Burgoyne \u2014**\n\nThere's the Battle of Burgoyne \u2014   \nOver, every Day,  \nBy the Time that Man and Beast  \nPut their work away  \n\"Sunset\" sounds majestic \u2014   \nBut that solemn War  \nCould you comprehend it  \nYou would chastened stare \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We like a Hairbreadth 'scape**\n\nWe like a Hairbreadth 'scape  \nIt tingles in the Mind  \nFar after Act or Accident  \nLike paragraphs of Wind\n\nIf we had ventured less  \nThe Breeze were not so fine  \nThat reaches to our utmost Hair  \nIts Tentacles divine.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We never know how high we are**\n\nWe never know how high we are  \nTill we are asked to rise  \nAnd then if we are true to plan  \nOur statures touch the skies \u2014\n\nThe Heroism we recite  \nWould be a normal thing  \nDid not ourselves the Cubits warp  \nFor fear to be a King \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A prompt \u2014 executive Bird is the Jay \u2014**\n\nA prompt \u2014 executive Bird is the Jay \u2014   \nBold as a Bailiff's Hymn \u2014   \nBrittle and Brief in quality \u2014   \nWarrant in every line \u2014\n\nSitting a Bough like a Brigadier  \nConfident and straight \u2014   \nMuch is the mien of him in March  \nAs a Magistrate \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My God \u2014 He sees thee \u2014**\n\nMy God \u2014 He sees thee \u2014   \nShine thy best \u2014   \nFling up thy Balls of Gold  \nTill every Cubit play with thee  \nAnd every Crescent hold \u2014   \nElate the Acre at his feet \u2014   \nUpon his Atom swim \u2014   \nOh Sun \u2014 but just a Second's right  \nIn thy long Race with him!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Of so divine a Loss**\n\nOf so divine a Loss  \nWe enter but the Gain,  \nIndemnity for Loneliness  \nThat such a Bliss has been.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Remember me implored the Thief!**\n\n\"Remember me\" implored the Thief!  \nOh Hospitality!  \nMy Guest \"Today in Paradise\"  \nI give thee guaranty.\n\nThat Courtesy will fair remain  \nWhen the Delight is Dust  \nWith which we cite this mightiest case  \nOf compensated Trust.\n\nOf all we are allowed to hope  \nBut Affidavit stands  \nThat this was due where most we fear  \nBe unexpected Friends.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**When I hoped I feared \u2014**\n\nWhen I hoped I feared \u2014   \nSince I hoped I dared  \nEverywhere alone  \nAs a Church remain \u2014   \nSpectre cannot harm \u2014   \nSerpent cannot charm \u2014   \nHe deposes Doom  \nWho hath suffered him \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Remembrance has a Rear and Front \u2014**\n\nRemembrance has a Rear and Front \u2014   \n'Tis something like a House \u2014   \nIt has a Garret also  \nFor Refuse and the Mouse.\n\nBesides the deepest Cellar  \nThat ever Mason laid \u2014   \nLook to it by its Fathoms  \nOurselves be not pursued \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Step lightly on this narrow spot \u2014**\n\nStep lightly on this narrow spot \u2014   \nThe broadest Land that grows  \nIs not so ample as the Breast  \nThese Emerald Seams enclose.\n\nStep lofty, for this name be told  \nAs far as Cannon dwell  \nOr Flag subsist or Fame export  \nHer deathless Syllable.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Days that we can spare**\n\nThe Days that we can spare  \nAre those a Function die  \nOr Friend or Nature \u2014 stranded then  \nIn our Economy\n\nOur Estimates a Scheme \u2014   \nOur Ultimates a Sham \u2014   \nWe let go all of Time without  \nArithmetic of him \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A little Dog that wags his tail**\n\nA little Dog that wags his tail  \nAnd knows no other joy  \nOf such a little Dog am I  \nReminded by a Boy\n\nWho gambols all the living Day  \nWithout an earthly cause  \nBecause he is a little Boy  \nI honestly suppose \u2014\n\nThe Cat that in the Corner dwells  \nHer martial Day forgot  \nThe Mouse but a Tradition now  \nOf her desireless Lot\n\nAnother class remind me  \nWho neither please nor play  \nBut not to make a \"bit of noise\"  \nBeseech each little Boy \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Too few the mornings be,**\n\nToo few the mornings be,  \nToo scant the nights.  \nNo lodging can be had  \nFor the delights  \nThat come to earth to stay,  \nBut no apartment find  \nAnd ride away.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Oh Shadow on the Grass,**\n\nOh Shadow on the Grass,  \nArt thou a Step or not?  \nGo make thee fair my Candidate  \nMy nominated Heart \u2014   \nOh Shadow on the Grass  \nWhile I delay to guess  \nSome other thou wilt consecrate \u2014   \nOh Unelected Face \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Twas fighting for his Life he was \u2014**\n\n'Twas fighting for his Life he was \u2014   \nThat sort accomplish well \u2014   \nThe Ordnance of Vitality  \nIs frugal of its Ball.\n\nIt aims once \u2014 kills once \u2014 conquers once \u2014   \nThere is no second War  \nIn that Campaign inscrutable  \nOf the Interior.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Voice that stands for Floods to me**\n\nThe Voice that stands for Floods to me  \nIs sterile borne to some \u2014   \nThe Face that makes the Morning mean  \nGlows impotent on them \u2014\n\nWhat difference in Substance lies  \nThat what is Sum to me  \nBy other Financiers be deemed  \nExclusive Property!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Sun and Fog contested**\n\nThe Sun and Fog contested  \nThe Government of Day \u2014   \nThe Sun took down his Yellow Whip  \nAnd drove the Fog away \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The pungent atom in the Air**\n\nThe pungent atom in the Air  \nAdmits of no debate \u2014   \nAll that is named of Summer Days  \nRelinquished our Estate \u2014\n\nFor what Department of Delight  \nAs positive are we  \nAs Limit of Dominion  \nOr Dams \u2014 of Ecstasy \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**An honest Tear**\n\nAn honest Tear  \nIs durabler than Bronze \u2014   \nThis Cenotaph  \nMay each that dies \u2014\n\nReared by itself \u2014   \nNo Deputy suffice \u2014   \nGratitude bears  \nWhen Obelisk decays\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**All men for Honor hardest work**\n\nAll men for Honor hardest work  \nBut are not known to earn \u2014   \nPaid after they have ceased to work  \nIn Infamy or Urn \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Somehow myself survived the Night**\n\nSomehow myself survived the Night  \nAnd entered with the Day \u2014   \nThat it be saved the Saved suffice  \nWithout the Formula.\n\nHenceforth I take my living place  \nAs one commuted led \u2014   \nA Candidate for Morning Chance  \nBut dated with the Dead.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**What we see we know somewhat**\n\nWhat we see we know somewhat  \nBe it but a little \u2014   \nWhat we don't surmise we do  \nThough it shows so fickle\n\nI shall vote for Lands with Locks  \nGranted I can pick 'em \u2014   \nTransport's doubtful Dividend  \nPatented by Adam.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To make Routine a Stimulus**\n\nTo make Routine a Stimulus  \nRemember it can cease \u2014   \nCapacity to Terminate  \nIs a Specific Grace \u2014   \nOf Retrospect the Arrow  \nThat power to repair  \nDeparted with the Torment  \nBecome, alas, more fair \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I should not dare to be so sad**\n\nI should not dare to be so sad  \nSo many Years again \u2014   \nA Load is first impossible  \nWhen we have put it down \u2014\n\nThe Superhuman then withdraws  \nAnd we who never saw  \nThe Giant at the other side  \nBegin to perish now.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A soft Sea washed around the House**\n\nA soft Sea washed around the House  \nA Sea of Summer Air  \nAnd rose and fell the magic Planks  \nThat sailed without a care \u2014   \nFor Captain was the Butterfly  \nFor Helmsman was the Bee  \nAnd an entire universe  \nFor the delighted crew.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Are Friends Delight or Pain?**\n\nAre Friends Delight or Pain?  \nCould Bounty but remain  \nRiches were good \u2014\n\nBut if they only stay  \nAmpler to fly away  \nRiches are sad.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Because my Brook is fluent**\n\nBecause my Brook is fluent  \nI know 'tis dry \u2014   \nBecause my Brook is silent  \nIt is the Sea \u2014\n\nAnd startled at its rising  \nI try to flee  \nTo where the Strong assure me  \nIs \"no more Sea\" \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**So I pull my Stockings off**\n\nSo I pull my Stockings off  \nWading in the Water  \nFor the Disobedience' Sake  \nBoy that lived for \"or'ter\"\n\nWent to Heaven perhaps at Death  \nAnd perhaps he didn't  \nMoses wasn't fairly used \u2014   \nAnanias wasn't \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Frost was never seen \u2014**\n\nThe Frost was never seen \u2014   \nIf met, too rapid passed,  \nOr in too unsubstantial Team \u2014   \nThe Flowers notice first\n\nA Stranger hovering round  \nA Symptom of alarm  \nIn Villages remotely set  \nBut search effaces him\n\nTill some retrieveless Night  \nOur Vigilance at waste  \nThe Garden gets the only shot  \nThat never could be traced.\n\nUnproved is much we know \u2014   \nUnknown the worst we fear \u2014   \nOf Strangers is the Earth the Inn  \nOf Secrets is the Air \u2014\n\nTo analyze perhaps  \nA Philip would prefer  \nBut Labor vaster than myself  \nI find it to infer.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Past is such a curious Creature**\n\nThe Past is such a curious Creature  \nTo look her in the Face  \nA Transport may receipt us  \nOr a Disgrace \u2014\n\nUnarmed if any meet her  \nI charge him fly  \nHer faded Ammunition  \nMight yet reply.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Whatever it is \u2014 she has tried it \u2014**\n\nWhatever it is \u2014 she has tried it \u2014   \nAwful Father of Love \u2014   \nIs not Ours the chastising \u2014   \nDo not chastise the Dove \u2014\n\nNot for Ourselves, petition \u2014   \nNothing is left to pray \u2014   \nWhen a subject is finished \u2014   \nWords are handed away \u2014\n\nOnly lest she be lonely  \nIn thy beautiful House  \nGive her for her Transgression  \nLicense to think of us \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Immortal is an ample word**\n\nImmortal is an ample word  \nWhen what we need is by  \nBut when it leaves us for a time  \n'Tis a necessity.\n\nOf Heaven above the firmest proof  \nWe fundamental know  \nExcept for its marauding Hand  \nIt had been Heaven below.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Show is not the Show**\n\nThe Show is not the Show  \nBut they that go \u2014   \nMenagerie to me  \nMy Neighbor be \u2014   \nFair Play \u2014   \nBoth went to see \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**He preached upon Breadth till it argued him narrow \u2014**\n\nHe preached upon \"Breadth\" till it argued him narrow \u2014   \nThe Broad are too broad to define  \nAnd of \"Truth\" until it proclaimed him a Liar \u2014   \nThe Truth never flaunted a Sign \u2014\n\nSimplicity fled from his counterfeit presence  \nAs Gold the Pyrites would shun \u2014   \nWhat confusion would cover the innocent Jesus  \nTo meet so enabled a Man!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Our own possessions \u2014 though our own \u2014**\n\nOur own possessions \u2014 though our own \u2014   \n'Tis well to hoard anew \u2014   \nRemembering the Dimensions  \nOf Possibility.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To disappear enhances \u2014**\n\nTo disappear enhances \u2014   \nThe Man that runs away  \nIs tinctured for an instant  \nWith Immortality\n\nBut yesterday a Vagrant \u2014   \nToday in Memory lain  \nWith superstitious value  \nWe tamper with \"Again\"\n\nBut \"Never\" far as Honor  \nWithdraws the Worthless thing  \nAnd impotent to cherish  \nWe hasten to adorn \u2014\n\nOf Death the sternest function  \nThat just as we discern  \nThe Excellence defies us \u2014   \nSecurest gathered then\n\nThe Fruit perverse to plucking,  \nBut leaning to the Sight  \nWith the ecstatic limit  \nOf unobtained Delight \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Sea said Come to the Brook \u2014**\n\nThe Sea said \"Come\" to the Brook \u2014   \nThe Brook said \"Let me grow\" \u2014   \nThe Sea said \"Then you will be a Sea \u2014   \nI want a Brook \u2014 Come now\"!\n\nThe Sea said \"Go\" to the Sea.  \nThe Sea said \"I am he  \nYou cherished\" \u2014 \"Learned Waters \u2014   \nWisdom is stale to Me\" \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Sparrow took a Slice of Twig**\n\nA Sparrow took a Slice of Twig  \nAnd thought it very nice  \nI think, because his empty Plate  \nWas handed Nature twice \u2014\n\nInvigorated, waded  \nIn all the deepest Sky  \nUntil his little Figure  \nWas forfeited away \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A word is dead**\n\nA word is dead  \nWhen it is said,  \nSome say.\n\nI say it just  \nBegins to live  \nThat day.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We like March.**\n\nWe like March.  \nHis Shoes are Purple \u2014   \nHe is new and high \u2014   \nMakes he Mud for Dog and Peddler.  \nMakes he Forests dry.  \nKnows the Adder Tongue his coming  \nAnd presents her Spot \u2014   \nStands the Sun so close and mighty  \nThat our Minds are hot.\n\nNews is he of all the others \u2014   \nBold it were to die  \nWith the Blue Birds exercising  \nOn his British Sky.\n\n\u2014 -\n\nWe like March \u2014 his shoes are Purple.  \nHe is new and high \u2014   \nMakes he Mud for Dog and Peddler \u2014   \nMakes he Forests Dry \u2014   \nKnows the Adder's Tongue his coming  \nAnd begets her spot \u2014   \nStands the Sun so close and mighty \u2014   \nThat our Minds are hot.  \nNews is he of all the others \u2014   \nBold it were to die  \nWith the Blue Birds buccaneering  \nOn his British sky \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We introduce ourselves**\n\nWe introduce ourselves  \nTo Planets and to Flowers  \nBut with ourselves  \nHave etiquettes  \nEmbarrassments  \nAnd awes\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I bet with every Wind that blew**\n\nI bet with every Wind that blew  \nTill Nature in chagrin  \nEmployed a Fact to visit me  \nAnd scuttle my Balloon \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Deed knocks first at Thought**\n\nA Deed knocks first at Thought  \nAnd then \u2014 it knocks at Will \u2014   \nThat is the manufacturing spot  \nAnd Will at Home and well\n\nIt then goes out an Act  \nOr is entombed so still  \nThat only to the ear of God  \nIts Doom is audible \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Fortitude incarnate**\n\nFortitude incarnate  \nHere is laid away  \nIn the swift Partitions  \nOf the awful Sea \u2014\n\nBabble of the Happy  \nCavil of the Bold  \nHoary the Fruition  \nBut the Sea is old\n\nEdifice of Ocean  \nThy tumultuous Rooms  \nSuit me at a venture  \nBetter than the Tombs\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Let my first Knowing be of thee**\n\nLet my first Knowing be of thee  \nWith morning's warming Light \u2014   \nAnd my first Fearing, lest Unknowns  \nEngulf thee in the night \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Now I knew I lost her \u2014**\n\nNow I knew I lost her \u2014   \nNot that she was gone \u2014   \nBut Remoteness travelled  \nOn her Face and Tongue.\n\nAlien, though adjoining  \nAs a Foreign Race \u2014   \nTraversed she though pausing  \nLatitudeless Place.\n\nElements Unaltered \u2014   \nUniverse the same  \nBut Love's transmigration \u2014   \nSomehow this had come \u2014\n\nHenceforth to remember  \nNature took the Day  \nI had paid so much for \u2014   \nHis is Penury  \nNot who toils for Freedom  \nOr for Family  \nBut the Restitution  \nOf Idolatry.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Of Nature I shall have enough**\n\nOf Nature I shall have enough  \nWhen I have entered these  \nEntitled to a Bumble bee's  \nFamiliarities.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Some we see no more, Tenements of Wonder**\n\nSome we see no more, Tenements of Wonder  \nOccupy to us though perhaps to them  \nSimpler are the Days than the Supposition  \nLeave us to presume\n\nThat oblique Belief which we call Conjecture  \nGrapples with a Theme stubborn as Sublime  \nAble as the Dust to equip its feature  \nAdequate as Drums  \nTo enlist the Tomb.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Riddle we can guess**\n\nThe Riddle we can guess  \nWe speedily despise \u2014   \nNot anything is stale so long  \nAs Yesterday's surprise \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Who goes to dine must take his Feast**\n\nWho goes to dine must take his Feast  \nOr find the Banquet mean \u2014   \nThe Table is not laid without  \nTill it is laid within.\n\nFor Pattern is the Mind bestowed  \nThat imitating her  \nOur most ignoble Services  \nExhibit worthier.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Like Trains of Cars on Tracks of Plush**\n\nLike Trains of Cars on Tracks of Plush  \nI hear the level Bee \u2014   \nA Jar across the Flowers goes  \nTheir Velvet Masonry \u2014\n\nWithstands until the sweet Assault  \nTheir Chivalry consumes \u2014   \nWhile He, victorious tilts away  \nTo vanquish other Blooms.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Its Hour with itself**\n\nIts Hour with itself  \nThe Spirit never shows.  \nWhat Terror would enthrall the Street  \nCould Countenance disclose\n\nThe Subterranean Freight  \nThe Cellars of the Soul \u2014   \nThank God the loudest Place he made  \nIs license to be still.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Popular Heart is a Cannon first \u2014**\n\nThe Popular Heart is a Cannon first \u2014   \nSubsequent a Drum \u2014   \nBells for an Auxiliary  \nAnd an Afterward of Rum \u2014\n\nNot a Tomorrow to know its name  \nNor a Past to stare \u2014   \nDitches for Realms and a Trip to Jail  \nFor a Souvenir \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My Triumph lasted till the Drums**\n\nMy Triumph lasted till the Drums  \nHad left the Dead alone  \nAnd then I dropped my Victory  \nAnd chastened stole along  \nTo where the finished Faces  \nConclusion turned on me  \nAnd then I hated Glory  \nAnd wished myself were They.\n\nWhat is to be is best descried  \nWhen it has also been \u2014   \nCould Prospect taste of Retrospect  \nThe tyrannies of Men  \nWere Tenderer \u2014 diviner  \nThe Transitive toward.  \nA Bayonet's contrition  \nIs nothing to the Dead.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**So much of Heaven has gone from Earth**\n\nSo much of Heaven has gone from Earth  \nThat there must be a Heaven  \nIf only to enclose the Saints  \nTo Affidavit given.\n\nThe Missionary to the Mole  \nMust prove there is a Sky  \nLocation doubtless he would plead  \nBut what excuse have I?\n\nToo much of Proof affronts Belief  \nThe Turtle will not try  \nUnless you leave him \u2014 then return  \nAnd he has hauled away.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Because He loves Her**\n\nBecause He loves Her  \nWe will pry and see if she is fair  \nWhat difference is on her Face  \nFrom Features others wear.\n\nIt will not harm her magic pace  \nThat we so far behind \u2014   \nHer Distances propitiate  \nAs Forests touch the Wind\n\nNot hoping for his notice vast  \nBut nearer to adore  \n'Tis Glory's far sufficiency  \nThat makes our trying poor.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It came at last but prompter Death**\n\nIt came at last but prompter Death  \nHad occupied the House \u2014   \nHis pallid Furniture arranged  \nAnd his metallic Peace \u2014\n\nOh faithful Frost that kept the Date  \nHad Love as punctual been  \nDelight had aggrandized the Gate  \nAnd blocked the coming in.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Somewhere upon the general Earth**\n\nSomewhere upon the general Earth  \nItself exist Today \u2014   \nThe Magic passive but extant  \nThat consecrated me \u2014\n\nIndifferent Seasons doubtless play  \nWhere I for right to be \u2014   \nWould pay each Atom that I am  \nBut Immortality \u2014\n\nReserving that but just to prove  \nAnother Date of Thee \u2014   \nOh God of Width, do not for us  \nCurtail Eternity!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Clover's simple Fame**\n\nThe Clover's simple Fame  \nRemembered of the Cow \u2014   \nIs better than enameled Realms  \nOf notability.  \nRenown perceives itself  \nAnd that degrades the Flower \u2014   \nThe Daisy that has looked behind  \nHas compromised its power \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Had I not seen the Sun**\n\nHad I not seen the Sun  \nI could have borne the shade  \nBut Light a newer Wilderness  \nMy Wilderness has made \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If my Bark sink**\n\nIf my Bark sink  \n'Tis to another sea \u2014   \nMortality's Ground Floor  \nIs Immortality \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Like Rain it sounded till it curved**\n\nLike Rain it sounded till it curved  \nAnd then I new 'twas Wind \u2014   \nIt walked as wet as any Wave  \nBut swept as dry as sand \u2014   \nWhen it had pushed itself away  \nTo some remotest Plain  \nA coming as of Hosts was heard  \nIt filled the Wells, it pleased the Pools  \nIt warbled in the Road \u2014   \nIt pulled the spigot from the Hills  \nAnd let the Floods abroad \u2014   \nIt loosened acres, lifted seas  \nThe sites of Centres stirred  \nThen like Elijah rode away  \nUpon a Wheel of Cloud.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Like Time's insidious wrinkle**\n\nLike Time's insidious wrinkle  \nOn a beloved Face  \nWe clutch the Grace the tighter  \nThough we resent the crease\n\nThe Frost himself so comely  \nDishevels every prime  \nAsserting from his Prism  \nThat none can punish him\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My Heart ran so to thee**\n\nMy Heart ran so to thee  \nIt would not wait for me  \nAnd I affronted grew  \nAnd drew away\n\nFor whatsoe'er my pace  \nHe first achieve they Face  \nHow general a Grace  \nAllotted two \u2014\n\nNot in malignity  \nMentioned I this to thee \u2014   \nHad he obliquity  \nSoonest to share  \nBut for the Greed of him \u2014   \nBoasting my Premium \u2014   \nBasking in Bethleem  \nEre I be there \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Power is a familiar growth \u2014**\n\nPower is a familiar growth \u2014   \nNot foreign \u2014 not to be \u2014   \nBeside us like a bland Abyss  \nIn every company \u2014   \nEscape it \u2014 there is but a chance \u2014   \nWhen consciousness and clay  \nLean forward for a final glance \u2014   \nDisprove that and you may \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Risk is the Hair that holds the Tun**\n\nRisk is the Hair that holds the Tun  \nSeductive in the Air \u2014   \nThat Tun is hollow \u2014 but the Tun \u2014   \nWith Hundred Weights \u2014 to spare \u2014\n\nToo ponderous to suspect the snare  \nEspies that fickle chair  \nAnd seats itself to be let go  \nBy that perfidious Hair \u2014\n\nThe \"foolish Tun\" the Critics say \u2014   \nWhile that delusive Hair  \nPersuasive as Perdition,  \nDecoys its Traveller.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Beggar at the Door for Fame**\n\nThe Beggar at the Door for Fame  \nWere easily supplied  \nBut Bread is that Diviner thing  \nDisclosed to be denied\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Lilac is an ancient shrub**\n\nThe Lilac is an ancient shrub  \nBut ancienter than that  \nThe Firmamental Lilac  \nUpon the Hill tonight \u2014   \nThe Sun subsiding on his Course  \nBequeaths this final Plant  \nTo Contemplation \u2014 not to Touch \u2014   \nThe Flower of Occident.  \nOf one Corolla is the West \u2014   \nThe Calyx is the Earth \u2014   \nThe Capsules burnished Seeds the Stars  \nThe Scientist of Faith  \nHis research has but just begun \u2014   \nAbove his synthesis  \nThe Flora unimpeachable  \nTo Time's Analysis \u2014   \n\"Eye hath not seen\" may possibly  \nBe current with the Blind  \nBut let not Revelation  \nBy theses be detained \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To flee from memory**\n\nTo flee from memory  \nHad we the Wings  \nMany would fly  \nInured to slower things  \nBirds with surprise  \nWould scan the cowering Van  \nOf men escaping  \nFrom the mind of man\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Safe Despair it is that raves \u2014**\n\nSafe Despair it is that raves \u2014   \nAgony is frugal.  \nPuts itself severe away  \nFor its own perusal.\n\nGarrisoned no Soul can be  \nIn the Front of Trouble \u2014   \nLove is one, not aggregate \u2014   \nNor is Dying double \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Butterfly's Assumption Gown**\n\nTHE butterfly's assumption-gown,  \nIn chrysoprase apartments hung,  \nThis afternoon put on.\n\nHow condescending to descend,  \nAnd be of buttercups the friend  \nIn a New England town !\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Suburbs of a Secret**\n\nThe Suburbs of a Secret  \nA Strategist should keep,  \nBetter than on a Dream intrude  \nTo scrutinize the Sleep.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Butterfly in honored Dust**\n\nThe Butterfly in honored Dust  \nAssuredly will lie  \nBut none will pass the Catacomb  \nSo chastened as the Fly \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To pile like Thunder to its close**\n\nTo pile like Thunder to its close  \nThen crumble grand away  \nWhile Everything created hid  \nThis \u2014 would be Poetry \u2014\n\nOr Love \u2014 the two coeval come \u2014   \nWe both and neither prove \u2014   \nExperience either and consume \u2014   \nFor None see God and live \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The incidents of love**\n\nThe incidents of love  \nAre more than its Events \u2014   \nInvestment's best Expositor  \nIs the minute Per Cents \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Stars are old, that stood for me \u2014**\n\nThe Stars are old, that stood for me \u2014   \nThe West a little worn \u2014   \nYet newer glows the only Gold  \nI ever cared to earn \u2014\n\nPresuming on that lone result  \nHer infinite disdain  \nBut vanquished her with my defeat  \n'Twas Victory was slain.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**White as an Indian Pipe**\n\nWhite as an Indian Pipe  \nRed as a Cardinal Flower  \nFabulous as a Moon at Noon  \nFebruary Hour \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Silence is all we dread.**\n\nSilence is all we dread.  \nThere's Ransom in a Voice \u2014   \nBut Silence is Infinity.  \nHimself have not a face.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Like Brooms of Steel**\n\nLike Brooms of Steel  \nThe Snow and Wind  \nHad swept the Winter Street \u2014   \nThe House was hooked  \nThe Sun sent out  \nFaint Deputies of Heat \u2014   \nWhere rode the Bird  \nThe Silence tied  \nHis ample \u2014 plodding Steed  \nThe Apple in the Cellar snug  \nWas all the one that played.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Had this one Day not been.**\n\nHad this one Day not been.  \nOr could it cease to be  \nHow smitten, how superfluous,  \nWere every other Day!\n\nLest Love should value less  \nWhat Loss would value more  \nHad it the stricken privilege,  \nIt cherishes before.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Elijah's Wagon knew no thill**\n\nElijah's Wagon knew no thill  \nWas innocent of Wheel  \nElijah's horses as unique  \nAs was his vehicle \u2014\n\nElijah's journey to portray  \nExpire with him the skill  \nWho justified Elijah  \nIn feats inscrutable \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Longing is like the Seed**\n\nLonging is like the Seed  \nThat wrestles in the Ground,  \nBelieving if it intercede  \nIt shall at length be found.\n\nThe Hour, and the Clime \u2014   \nEach Circumstance unknown,  \nWhat Constancy must be achieved  \nBefore it see the Sun!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Not any higher stands the Grave**\n\nNot any higher stands the Grave  \nFor Heroes than for Men \u2014   \nNot any nearer for the Child  \nThan numb Three Score and Ten \u2014\n\nThis latest Leisure equal lulls  \nThe Beggar and his Queen  \nPropitiate this Democrat  \nA Summer's Afternoon \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Dominion lasts until obtained \u2014**\n\nDominion lasts until obtained \u2014   \nPossession just as long \u2014   \nBut these \u2014 endowing as they flit  \nEternally belong.\n\nHow everlasting are the Lips  \nKnown only to the Dew \u2014   \nThese are the Brides of permanence  \nSupplanting me and you.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Who were the Father and the Son**\n\nWho were \"the Father and the Son\"  \nWe pondered when a child,  \nAnd what had they to do with us  \nAnd when portentous told\n\nWith inference appalling  \nBy Childhood fortified  \nWe thought, at least they are no worse  \nThan they have been described.\n\nWho are \"the Father and the Son\"  \nDid we demand Today  \n\"The Father and the Son\" himself  \nWould doubtless specify \u2014\n\nBut had they the felicity  \nWhen we desired to know.  \nWe better Friends had been, perhaps,  \nThan time ensue to be \u2014\n\nWe start \u2014 to learn that we believe  \nBut once \u2014 entirely \u2014   \nBelief, it does not fit so well  \nWhen altered frequently \u2014\n\nWe blush, that Heaven if we achieve \u2014   \nEvent ineffable \u2014   \nWe shall have shunned until ashamed  \nTo own the Miracle \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Wind that rose**\n\nA Wind that rose  \nThough not a Leaf  \nIn any Forest stirred  \nBut with itself did cold engage  \nBeyond the Realm of Bird \u2014   \nA Wind that woke a lone Delight  \nLike Separation's Swell  \nRestored in Arctic Confidence  \nTo the Invisible \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Because that you are going**\n\nBecause that you are going  \nAnd never coming back  \nAnd I, however absolute,  \nMay overlook your Track \u2014\n\nBecause that Death is final,  \nHowever first it be,  \nThis instant be suspended  \nAbove Mortality \u2014\n\nSignificance that each has lived  \nThe other to detect  \nDiscovery not God himself  \nCould now annihilate\n\nEternity, Presumption  \nThe instant I perceive  \nThat you, who were Existence  \nYourself forgot to live \u2014\n\nThe \"Life that is\" will then have been  \nA thing I never knew \u2014   \nAs Paradise fictitious  \nUntil the Realm of you \u2014\n\nThe \"Life that is to be,\" to me,  \nA Residence too plain  \nUnless in my Redeemer's Face  \nI recognize your own \u2014\n\nOf Immortality who doubts  \nHe may exchange with me  \nCurtailed by your obscuring Face  \nOf everything but He \u2014\n\nOf Heaven and Hell I also yield  \nThe Right to reprehend  \nTo whoso would commute this Face  \nFor his less priceless Friend.\n\nIf \"God is Love\" as he admits  \nWe think that me must be  \nBecause he is a \"jealous God\"  \nHe tells us certainly\n\nIf \"All is possible with\" him  \nAs he besides concedes  \nHe will refund us finally  \nOur confiscated Gods \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Word dropped careless on a Page**\n\nA Word dropped careless on a Page  \nMay stimulate an eye  \nWhen folded in perpetual seam  \nThe Wrinkled Maker lie\n\nInfection in the sentence breeds  \nWe may inhale Despair  \nAt distances of Centuries  \nFrom the Malaria \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I cannot see my soul but know 'tis there**\n\nI cannot see my soul but know 'tis there  \nNor ever saw his house nor furniture,  \nWho has invited me with him to dwell;  \nBut a confiding guest consult as well,  \nWhat raiment honor him the most,  \nThat I be adequately dressed,  \nFor he insures to none  \nLest men specified adorn  \nProcuring him perpetual drest  \nBy dating it a sudden feast.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There is no Frigate like a Book**\n\nThere is no Frigate like a Book  \nTo take us Lands away  \nNor any Coursers like a Page  \nOf prancing Poetry \u2014   \nThis Traverse may the poorest take  \nWithout opress of Toll \u2014   \nHow frugal is the Chariot  \nThat bears the Human soul\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**This is the place they hoped before,**\n\nThis is the place they hoped before,  \nWhere I am hoping now.  \nThe seed of disappointment grew  \nWithin a capsule gay,  \nToo distant to arrest the feet  \nThat walk this plank of balm \u2014   \nBefore them lies escapeless sea \u2014   \nThe way is closed they came.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The most triumphant Bird I ever knew or met**\n\nThe most triumphant Bird I ever knew or met  \nEmbarked upon a twig today  \nAnd till Dominion set  \nI famish to behold so eminent a sight  \nAnd sang for nothing scrutable  \nBut intimate Delight.  \nRetired, and resumed his transitive Estate \u2014   \nTo what delicious Accident  \nDoes finest Glory fit!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**When Memory is full**\n\nWhen Memory is full  \nPut on the perfect Lid \u2014   \nThis Morning's finest syllable  \nPresumptuous Evening said \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I saw that the Flake was on it**\n\nI saw that the Flake was on it  \nBut plotted with Time to dispute \u2014   \n\"Unchanged\" I urged with a candor  \nThat cost me my honest Heart \u2014\n\nBut \"you\" \u2014 she returned with valor  \nSagacious of my mistake  \n\"Have altered \u2014 Accept the pillage  \nFor the progress' sake\" \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Confirming All who analyze**\n\nConfirming All who analyze  \nIn the Opinion fair  \nThat Eloquence is when the Heart  \nHas not a Voice to spare \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I worked for chaff and earning Wheat**\n\nI worked for chaff and earning Wheat  \nWas haughty and betrayed.  \nWhat right had Fields to arbitrate  \nIn matters ratified?\n\nI tasted Wheat and hated Chaff  \nAnd thanked the ample friend \u2014   \nWisdom is more becoming viewed  \nAt distance than at hand.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Is Heaven a Physician?**\n\nIs Heaven a Physician?  \nThey say that He can heal \u2014   \nBut Medicine Posthumous  \nIs unavailable \u2014   \nIs Heaven an Exchequer?  \nThey speak of what we owe \u2014   \nBut that negotiation  \nI'm not a Party to \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**September's Baccalaureate**\n\nSeptember's Baccalaureate  \nA combination is  \nOf Crickets \u2014 Crows \u2014 and Retrospects  \nAnd a dissembling Breeze\n\nThat hints without assuming \u2014   \nAn Innuendo sear  \nThat makes the Heart put up its Fun  \nAnd turn Philosopher.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**So proud she was to die**\n\nSo proud she was to die  \nIt made us all ashamed  \nThat what we cherished, so unknown  \nTo her desire seemed \u2014   \nSo satisfied to go  \nWhere none of us should be  \nImmediately \u2014 that Anguish stooped  \nAlmost to Jealousy \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**That sacred Closet when you sweep \u2014**\n\nThat sacred Closet when you sweep \u2014   \nEntitled \"Memory\" \u2014   \nSelect a reverential Broom \u2014   \nAnd do it silently.\n\n'Twill be a Labor of surprise \u2014   \nBesides Identity  \nOf other Interlocutors  \nA probability \u2014\n\nAugust the Dust of that Domain \u2014   \nUnchallenged \u2014 let it lie \u2014   \nYou cannot supersede itself  \nBut it can silence you \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Bone that has no Marrow,**\n\nThe Bone that has no Marrow,  \nWhat Ultimate for that?  \nIt is not fit for Table  \nFor Beggar or for Cat.\n\nA Bone has obligations \u2014   \nA Being has the same \u2014   \nA Marrowless Assembly  \nIs culpabler than shame.\n\nBut how shall finished Creatures  \nA function fresh obtain?  \nOld Nicodemus' Phantom  \nConfronting us again!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Spider as an Artist**\n\nThe Spider as an Artist  \nHas never been employed \u2014   \nThough his surpassing Merit  \nIs freely certified\n\nBy every Broom and Bridget  \nThroughout a Christian Land \u2014   \nNeglected Son of Genius  \nI take thee by the Hand \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Twas later when the summer went**\n\n'T WAS later when the summer went  \nThan when the cricket came,  \nAnd yet we knew that gentle clock  \nMeant nought but going home.\n\n'T was sooner when the cricket went  \nThan when the winter came,  \nYet that pathetic pendulum  \nKeeps esoteric time.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**While we were fearing it, it came \u2014**\n\nWhile we were fearing it, it came \u2014   \nBut came with less of fear  \nBecause that fearing it so long  \nHad almost made it fair \u2014\n\nThere is a Fitting \u2014 a Dismay \u2014   \nA Fitting \u2014 a Despair  \n'Tis harder knowing it is Due  \nThan knowing it is Here.\n\nThey Trying on the Utmost  \nThe Morning it is new  \nIs Terribler than wearing it  \nA whole existence through.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Mountains stood in Haze \u2014**\n\nThe Mountains stood in Haze \u2014   \nThe Valleys stopped below  \nAnd went or waited as they liked  \nThe River and the Sky.\n\nAt leisure was the Sun \u2014   \nHis interests of Fire  \nA little from remark withdrawn \u2014   \nThe Twilight spoke the Spire,\n\nSo soft upon the Scene  \nThe Act of evening fell  \nWe felt how neighborly a Thing  \nWas the Invisible.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Way to know the Bobolink**\n\nThe Way to know the Bobolink  \nFrom every other Bird  \nPrecisely as the Joy of him \u2014   \nObliged to be inferred.\n\nOf impudent Habiliment  \nAttired to defy,  \nImpertinence subordinate  \nAt times to Majesty.\n\nOf Sentiments seditious  \nAmenable to Law \u2014   \nAs Heresies of Transport  \nOr Puck's Apostacy.\n\nExtrinsic to Attention  \nToo intimate with Joy \u2014   \nHe compliments existence  \nUntil allured away\n\nBy Seasons or his Children \u2014   \nAdult and urgent grown \u2014   \nOr unforeseen aggrandizement  \nOr, happily, Renown \u2014\n\nBy Contrast certifying  \nThe Bird of Birds is gone \u2014   \nHow nullified the Meadow \u2014   \nHer Sorcerer withdrawn!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The harm of Years is on him \u2014**\n\nThe harm of Years is on him \u2014   \nThe infamy of Time \u2014   \nDepose him like a Fashion  \nAnd give Dominion room.\n\nForget his Morning Forces \u2014   \nThe Glory of Decay  \nIs a minuter Pageant  \nThan least Vitality.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A stagnant pleasure like a Pool**\n\nA stagnant pleasure like a Pool  \nThat lets its Rushes grow  \nUntil they heedless tumble in  \nAnd make the Water slow\n\nImpeding navigation bright  \nOf Shadows going down  \nYet even this shall rouse itself  \nWhen freshets come along.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Art thou the thing I wanted?**\n\nArt thou the thing I wanted?  \nBegone \u2014 my Tooth has grown \u2014   \nSupply the minor Palate  \nThat has not starved so long \u2014   \nI tell thee while I waited  \nThe mystery of Food  \nIncreased till I abjured it  \nAnd dine without Like God \u2014\n\n\u2014\n\nArt thou the thing I wanted?  \nBegone \u2014 my Tooth has grown \u2014   \nAffront a minor palate  \nThou could'st not goad so long \u2014\n\nI tell thee while I waited \u2014   \nThe mystery of Food  \nIncreased till I abjured it  \nSubsisting now like God \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Could Hope inspect her Basis**\n\nCould Hope inspect her Basis  \nHer Craft were done \u2014   \nHas a fictitious Charter  \nOr it has none \u2014\n\nBalked in the vastest instance  \nBut to renew \u2014   \nFelled by but one assassin \u2014   \nProsperity \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Had we our senses**\n\nHad we our senses  \nBut perhaps 'tis well they're not at Home  \nSo intimate with Madness  \nHe's liable with them\n\nHad we the eyes without our Head \u2014   \nHow well that we are Blind \u2014   \nWe could not look upon the Earth \u2014   \nSo utterly unmoved \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I know Suspense \u2014 it steps so terse**\n\nI know Suspense \u2014 it steps so terse  \nAnd turns so weak away \u2014   \nBesides \u2014 Suspense is neighborly  \nWhen I am riding by \u2014\n\nIs always at the Window  \nThough lately I descry  \nAnd mention to my Horses  \nThe need is not of me \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I thought that nature was enough**\n\nI thought that nature was enough  \nTill Human nature came  \nBut that the other did absorb  \nAs Parallax a Flame \u2014\n\nOf Human nature just aware  \nThere added the Divine  \nBrief struggle for capacity  \nThe power to contain\n\nIs always as the contents  \nBut give a Giant room  \nAnd you will lodge a Giant  \nAnd not a smaller man\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**In this short Life**\n\nIn this short Life  \nThat only lasts an hour  \nHow much \u2014 how little \u2014 is  \nWithin our power\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Lain in Nature \u2014 so suffice us**\n\nLain in Nature \u2014 so suffice us  \nThe enchantless Pod  \nWhen we advertise existence  \nFor the missing Seed \u2014\n\nMaddest Heart that God created  \nCannot move a sod  \nPasted by the simple summer  \nOn the Longed for Dead\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Left in immortal Youth**\n\nLeft in immortal Youth  \nOn that low Plain  \nThat hath nor Retrospection  \nNor Again \u2014   \nRansomed from years \u2014   \nSequestered from Decay  \nCanceled like Dawn  \nIn comprehensive Day \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The most pathetic thing I do**\n\nThe most pathetic thing I do  \nIs play I hear from you \u2014   \nI make believe until my Heart  \nAlmost believes it too  \nBut when I break it with the news  \nYou knew it was not true  \nI wish I had not broken it \u2014   \nGoliah \u2014 so would you \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Until the Desert knows**\n\nUntil the Desert knows  \nThat Water grows  \nHis Sands suffice  \nBut let him once suspect  \nThat Caspian Fact  \nSahara dies\n\nUtmost is relative \u2014   \nHave not or Have  \nAdjacent sums  \nEnough \u2014 the first Abode  \nOn the familiar Road  \nGalloped in Dreams \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Yesterday is History**\n\nYesterday is History,  \n'Tis so far away \u2014   \nYesterday is Poetry \u2014   \n'Tis Philosophy \u2014\n\nYesterday is mystery \u2014   \nWhere it is Today  \nWhile we shrewdly speculate  \nFlutter both away\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The things we thought that we should do**\n\nThe things we thought that we should do  \nWe other things have done  \nBut those peculiar industries  \nHave never been begun \u2014\n\nThe Lands we thought that we should seek  \nWhen large enough to run  \nBy Speculation ceded  \nTo Speculation's Son \u2014\n\nThe Heaven, in which we hoped to pause  \nWhen Discipline was done  \nUntenable to Logic  \nBut possibly the one \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Of Life to own \u2014**\n\nOf Life to own \u2014   \nFrom Life to draw \u2014   \nBut never tough the reservoir \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Two Lengths has every Day \u2014**\n\nTwo Lengths has every Day \u2014   \nIts absolute extent  \nAnd Area superior  \nBy Hope or Horror lent \u2014\n\nEternity will be  \nVelocity or Pause  \nAt Fundamental Signals  \nFrom Fundamental Laws.\n\nTo die is not to go \u2014   \nOn Doom's consummate Chart  \nNo Territory new is staked \u2014   \nRemain thou as thou art.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Death's Waylaying not the sharpest**\n\nDeath's Waylaying not the sharpest  \nOf the thefts of Time \u2014   \nThere Marauds a sorer Robber,  \nSilence \u2014 is his name \u2014   \nNo Assault, nor any Menace  \nDoth betoken him.  \nBut from Life's consummate Cluster \u2014   \nHe supplants the Balm.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Go slow, my soul, to feed thyself**\n\nGo slow, my soul, to feed thyself  \nUpon his rare approach \u2014   \nGo rapid, lest Competing Death  \nPrevail upon the Coach \u2014   \nGo timid, should his final eye  \nDetermine thee amiss \u2014   \nGo boldly \u2014 for thou paid'st his price  \nRedemption \u2014 for a Kiss \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Mushroom is the Elf of Plants \u2014**\n\nThe Mushroom is the Elf of Plants \u2014   \nAt Evening, it is not \u2014   \nAt Morning, in a Truffled Hut  \nIt stop upon a Spot\n\nAs if it tarried always  \nAnd yet its whole Career  \nIs shorter than a Snake's Delay  \nAnd fleeter than a Tare \u2014\n\n'Tis Vegetation's Juggler \u2014   \nThe Germ of Alibi \u2014   \nDoth like a Bubble antedate  \nAnd like a Bubble, hie \u2014\n\nI feel as if the Grass was pleased  \nTo have it intermit \u2014   \nThis surreptitious scion  \nOf Summer's circumspect.\n\nHad Nature any supple Face  \nOr could she one contemn \u2014   \nHad Nature an Apostate \u2014   \nThat Mushroom \u2014 it is Him!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Delight's Despair at setting**\n\nDelight's Despair at setting  \nIs that Delight is less  \nThan the sufficing Longing  \nThat so impoverish.\n\nEnchantment's Perihelion  \nMistaken oft has been  \nFor the Authentic orbit  \nOf its Anterior Sun.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**From his slim Palace in the Dust**\n\nFrom his slim Palace in the Dust  \nHe relegates the Realm,  \nMore loyal for the exody  \nThat has befallen him.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I cannot want it more \u2014**\n\nI cannot want it more \u2014   \nI cannot want it less \u2014   \nMy Human Nature's fullest force  \nExpends itself on this.\n\nAnd yet it nothing is  \nTo him who easy owns \u2014   \nIs Worth itself or Distance  \nHe fathoms who obtains.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I think that the Root of the Wind is Water \u2014**\n\nI think that the Root of the Wind is Water \u2014   \nIt would not sound so deep  \nWere it a Firmamental Product \u2014   \nAirs no Oceans keep \u2014   \nMediterranean intonations \u2014   \nTo a Current's Ear \u2014   \nThere is a maritime conviction  \nIn the Atmosphere \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Not One by Heaven defrauded stay \u2014**\n\nNot One by Heaven defrauded stay \u2014   \nAlthough he seem to steal  \nHe restitutes in some sweet way  \nSecreted in his will \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Not with a Club, the Heart is broken**\n\nNot with a Club, the Heart is broken  \nNor with a Stone \u2014   \nA Whip so small you could not see it  \nI've known\n\nTo lash the Magic Creature  \nTill it fell,  \nYet that Whip's Name  \nToo noble then to tell.\n\nMagnanimous as Bird  \nBy Boy descried \u2014   \nSinging unto the Stone  \nOf which it died \u2014\n\nShame need not crouch  \nIn such an Earth as Ours \u2014   \nShame \u2014 stand erect \u2014   \nThe Universe is yours.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Recollect the Face of me**\n\nRecollect the Face of me  \nWhen in thy Felicity,  \nDue in Paradise today  \nGuest of mine assuredly \u2014\n\nOther Courtesies have been \u2014   \nOther Courtesy may be \u2014   \nWe commend ourselves to thee  \nParagon of Chivalry.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Surprise is like a thrilling \u2014 pungent \u2014**\n\nSurprise is like a thrilling \u2014 pungent \u2014   \nUpon a tasteless meat  \nAlone \u2014 too acrid \u2014 but combined  \nAn edible Delight.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**That short \u2014 potential stir**\n\nThat short \u2014 potential stir  \nThat each can make but once \u2014   \nThat Bustle so illustrious  \n'Tis almost Consequence \u2014\n\nIs the eclat of Death \u2014   \nOh, thou unknown Renown  \nThat not a Beggar would accept  \nHad he the power to spurn \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Day she goes**\n\nThe Day she goes  \nOr Day she stays  \nAre equally supreme \u2014   \nExistence has a stated width  \nDeparted, or at Home \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Infinite a sudden Guest**\n\nThe Infinite a sudden Guest  \nHas been assumed to be \u2014   \nBut how can that stupendous come  \nWhich never went away?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Notice that is called the Spring**\n\nThe Notice that is called the Spring  \nIs but a month from here \u2014   \nPut up my Heart thy Hoary work  \nAnd take a Rosy Chair.\n\nNot any House the Flowers keep \u2014   \nThe Birds enamor Care \u2014   \nOur salary the longest Day  \nIs nothing but a Bier.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**This dirty \u2014 little \u2014 Heart**\n\nThis dirty \u2014 little \u2014 Heart  \nIs freely mine.  \nI won it with a Bun \u2014   \nA Freckled shrine \u2014\n\nBut eligibly fair  \nTo him who sees  \nThe Visage of the Soul  \nAnd not the knees.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To break so vast a Heart**\n\nTo break so vast a Heart  \nRequired a Blow as vast \u2014   \nNo Zephyr felled this Cedar straight \u2014   \n'Twas undeserved Blast \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Warm in her Hand these accents lie**\n\nWarm in her Hand these accents lie  \nWhile faithful and afar  \nThe Grace so awkward for her sake  \nIts fond subjection wear \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**When a Lover is a Beggar**\n\nWhen a Lover is a Beggar  \nAbject is his Knee \u2014   \nWhen a Lover is an Owner  \nDifferent is he \u2014\n\nWhat he begged is then the Beggar \u2014   \nOh disparity \u2014   \nBread of Heaven resents bestowal  \nLike an obloquy \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Which is the best \u2014 the Moon or the Crescent?**\n\nWhich is the best \u2014 the Moon or the Crescent?  \nNeither \u2014 said the Moon \u2014   \nThat is best which is not \u2014 Achieve it \u2014   \nYou efface the Sheen.\n\nNot of detention is Fruition \u2014   \nShudder to attain.  \nTransport's decomposition follows \u2014   \nHe is Prism born.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Winter is good \u2014 his Hoar Delights**\n\nWinter is good \u2014 his Hoar Delights  \nItalic flavor yield  \nTo Intellects inebriate  \nWith Summer, or the World \u2014\n\nGeneric as a Quarry  \nAnd hearty \u2014 as a Rose \u2014   \nInvited with Asperity  \nBut welcome when he goes.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Abraham to kill him \u2014**\n\nAbraham to kill him \u2014   \nWas distinctly told \u2014   \nIsaac was an Urchin \u2014   \nAbraham was old \u2014\n\nNot a hesitation \u2014   \nAbraham complied \u2014   \nFlattered by Obeisance  \nTyranny demurred \u2014\n\nIsaac \u2014 to his children  \nLived to tell the tale \u2014   \nMoral \u2014 with a Mastiff  \nManners may prevail.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Frigid and sweet Her parting Face \u2014**\n\nFrigid and sweet Her parting Face \u2014   \nFrigid and fleet my Feet \u2014   \nAlien and vain whatever Clime  \nAcrid whatever Fate.\n\nGiven to me without the Suit  \nRiches and Name and Realm \u2014   \nWho was She to withhold from me  \nPenury and Home?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How News must feel when travelling**\n\nHow News must feel when travelling  \nIf News have any Heart  \nAlighting at the Dwelling  \n'Twill enter like a Dart!\n\nWhat News must think when pondering  \nIf News have any Thought  \nConcerning the stupendousness  \nOf its perceiveless freight!\n\nWhat News will do when every Man  \nShall comprehend as one  \nAnd not in all the Universe  \nA thing to tell remain?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Dear March \u2014 Come in \u2014**\n\nDear March \u2014 Come in \u2014   \nHow glad I am \u2014   \nI hoped for you before \u2014\n\nPut down your Hat \u2014   \nYou must have walked \u2014   \nHow out of Breath you are \u2014   \nDear March, Come right up the stairs with me \u2014   \nI have so much to tell \u2014\n\nI got your Letter, and the Birds \u2014   \nThe Maples never knew that you were coming \u2014 till I called  \nI declare \u2014 how Red their Faces grew \u2014   \nBut March, forgive me \u2014 and  \nAll those Hills you left for me to Hue \u2014   \nThere was no Purple suitable \u2014   \nYou took it all with you \u2014\n\nWho knocks? That April.  \nLock the Door \u2014   \nI will not be pursued \u2014   \nHe stayed away a Year to call  \nWhen I am occupied \u2014   \nBut trifles look so trivial  \nAs soon as you have come\n\nThat Blame is just as dear as Praise  \nAnd Praise as mere as Blame \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Elizabeth told Essex**\n\nElizabeth told Essex  \nThat she could not forgive  \nThe clemency of Deity  \nHowever \u2014 might survive \u2014   \nThat secondary succor  \nWe trust that she partook  \nWhen suing \u2014 like her Essex  \nFor a reprieving Look \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Floss won't save you from an Abyss**\n\nFloss won't save you from an Abyss  \nBut a Rope will \u2014   \nNotwithstanding a Rope for a Souvenir  \nIs not beautiful \u2014\n\nBut I tell you every step is a Trough \u2014   \nAnd every stop a Well \u2014   \nNow will you have the Rope or the Floss?  \nPrices reasonable \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I never hear that one is dead**\n\nI never hear that one is dead  \nWithout the chance of Life  \nAfresh annihilating me  \nThat mightiest Belief,\n\nToo mighty for the Daily mind  \nThat tilling its abyss,  \nHad Madness, had it once or twice  \nThe yawning Consciousness,\n\nBeliefs are Bandaged, like the Tongue  \nWhen Terror were it told  \nIn any Tone commensurate  \nWould strike us instant Dead\n\nI do not know the man so bold  \nHe dare in lonely Place  \nThat awful stranger Consciousness  \nDeliberately face \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I send you a decrepit flower**\n\nI send you a decrepit flower  \nThat nature sent to me  \nAt parting \u2014 she was going south  \nAnd I designed to stay \u2014\n\nHer motive for the souvenir  \nIf sentiment for me  \nOr circumstances prudential  \nWithheld invincibly \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Knock with tremor \u2014**\n\nKnock with tremor \u2014   \nThese are Caesars \u2014   \nShould they be at Home  \nFlee as if you trod unthinking  \nOn the Foot of Doom \u2014\n\nThese receded to accostal  \nCenturies ago \u2014   \nShould they rend you with \"How are you\"  \nWhat have you to show?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Our little secrets slink away \u2014**\n\nOur little secrets slink away \u2014   \nBeside God's shall not tell \u2014   \nHe kept his word a Trillion years  \nAnd might we not as well \u2014   \nBut for the niggardly delight  \nTo make each other stare  \nIs there no sweet beneath the sun  \nWith this that may compare \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Symptom of the Gale \u2014**\n\nThe Symptom of the Gale \u2014   \nThe Second of Dismay \u2014   \nBetween its Rumor and its Face \u2014   \nIs almost Revelry \u2014\n\nThe Houses firmer root \u2014   \nThe Heavens cannot be found \u2014   \nThe Upper Surfaces of things  \nTake covert in the Ground \u2014\n\nThe Mem'ry of the Sun  \nNot Any can recall \u2014   \nAlthough by Nature's sterling Watch  \nSo scant an interval \u2014\n\nAnd when the Noise is caught  \nAnd Nature looks around \u2014   \n\"We dreamed it\"? She interrogates \u2014   \n\"Good Morning\" \u2014 We propound?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The vastest earthly Day**\n\nThe vastest earthly Day  \nIs shrunken small  \nBy one Defaulting Face  \nBehind a Pall \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Whether they have forgotten**\n\nWhether they have forgotten  \nOr are forgetting now  \nOr never remembered \u2014   \nSafer not to know \u2014\n\nMiseries of conjecture  \nAre a softer woe  \nThan a Fact of Iron  \nHardened with I know \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Without a smile \u2014 Without a Throe**\n\nWithout a smile \u2014 Without a Throe  \nA Summer's soft Assemblies go  \nTo their entrancing end  \nUnknown \u2014 for all the times we met \u2014   \nEstranged, however intimate \u2014   \nWhat a dissembling Friend \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Wonder \u2014 is not precisely Knowing**\n\nWonder \u2014 is not precisely Knowing  \nAnd not precisely Knowing not \u2014   \nA beautiful but bleak condition  \nHe has not lived who has not felt \u2014\n\nSuspense \u2014 is his maturer Sister \u2014   \nWhether Adult Delight is Pain  \nOr of itself a new misgiving \u2014   \nThis is the Gnat that mangles men \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Pink \u2014 small \u2014 and punctual \u2014**\n\nPink \u2014 small \u2014 and punctual \u2014   \nAromatic \u2014 low \u2014   \nCovert \u2014 in April \u2014   \nCandid \u2014 in May \u2014   \nDear to the Moss \u2014   \nKnown to the Knoll \u2014   \nNext to the Robin  \nIn every human Soul \u2014   \nBold little Beauty  \nBedecked with thee  \nNature forswears  \nAntiquity \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A little Madness in the Spring**\n\nA little Madness in the Spring  \nIs wholesome even for the King,  \nBut God be with the Clown \u2014   \nWho ponders this tremendous scene \u2014   \nThis whole Experiment of Green \u2014   \nAs if it were his own!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How soft this Prison is**\n\nHow soft this Prison is  \nHow sweet these sullen bars  \nNo Despot but the King of Down  \nInvented this repose\n\nOf Fate if this is All  \nHas he no added Realm  \nA Dungeon but a Kinsman is  \nIncarceration \u2014 Home.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Let me not mar that perfect Dream**\n\nLet me not mar that perfect Dream  \nBy an Auroral stain  \nBut so adjust my daily Night  \nThat it will come again.\n\nNot when we know, the Power accosts \u2014   \nThe Garment of Surprise  \nWas all our timid Mother wore  \nAt Home \u2014 in Paradise.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Nature assigns the Sun \u2014**\n\nNature assigns the Sun \u2014   \nThat \u2014 is Astronomy \u2014   \nNature cannot enact a Friend \u2014   \nThat \u2014 is Astrology.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Upon a Lilac Sea**\n\nUpon a Lilac Sea  \nTo toss incessantly  \nHis Plush Alarm  \nWho fleeing from the Spring  \nThe Spring avenging fling  \nTo Dooms of Balm\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**What tenements of clover**\n\nWhat tenements of clover  \nAre fitting for the bee,  \nWhat edifices azure  \nFor butterflies and me \u2014   \nWhat residences nimble  \nArise and evanesce  \nWithout a rhythmic rumor  \nOr an assaulting guess.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Bee his burnished Carriage**\n\nA Bee his burnished Carriage  \nDrove boldly to a Rose \u2014   \nCombinedly alighting \u2014   \nHimself \u2014 his Carriage was \u2014   \nThe Rose received his visit  \nWith frank tranquillity  \nWithholding not a Crescent  \nTo his Cupidity \u2014   \nTheir Moment consummated \u2014   \nRemained for him \u2014 to flee \u2014   \nRemained for her \u2014 of rapture  \nBut the humility.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Rat surrendered here**\n\nA Rat surrendered here  \nA brief career of Cheer  \nAnd Fraud and Fear.\n\nOf Ignominy's due  \nLet all addicted to  \nBeware.\n\nThe most obliging Trap  \nIts tendency to snap  \nCannot resist \u2014\n\nTemptation is the Friend  \nRepugnantly resigned  \nAt last.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Unto the Whole \u2014 how add?**\n\nUnto the Whole \u2014 how add?  \nHas \"All\" a further realm \u2014   \nOr Utmost an Ulterior?  \nOh, Subsidy of Balm!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Was not was all the Statement.**\n\n\"Was not\" was all the Statement.  \nThe Unpretension stuns \u2014   \nPerhaps \u2014 the Comprehension \u2014   \nThey wore no Lexicons \u2014\n\nBut lest our Speculation  \nIn inanition die  \nBecause \"God took him\" mention \u2014   \nThat was Philology \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A single Clover Plank**\n\nA single Clover Plank  \nWas all that saved a Bee  \nA Bee I personally knew  \nFrom sinking in the sky \u2014\n\n'Twixt Firmament above  \nAnd Firmament below  \nThe Billows of Circumference  \nWere sweeping him away \u2014\n\nThe idly swaying Plank  \nResponsible to nought  \nA sudden Freight of Wind assumed  \nAnd Bumble Bee was not \u2014\n\nThis harrowing event  \nTranspiring in the Grass  \nDid not so much as wring from him  \nA wandering \"Alas\" \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Not any more to be lacked \u2014**\n\nNot any more to be lacked \u2014   \nNot any more to be known \u2014   \nDenizen of Significance  \nFor a span so worn \u2014\n\nEven Nature herself  \nHas forgot it is there \u2014   \nSedulous of her Multitudes  \nNotwithstanding Despair \u2014\n\nOf the Ones that pursued it  \nSuing it not to go  \nSome have solaced the longing  \nTo accompany \u2014\n\nSome \u2014 rescinded the Wrench \u2014   \nOthers \u2014 Shall I say  \nPlated the residue of Adz  \nWith Monotony.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**An antiquated Grace**\n\nAn antiquated Grace  \nBecomes that cherished Face  \nAs well as prime  \nEnjoining us to part  \nWe and our pouting Heart  \nGood friends with time\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**As Summer into Autumn slips**\n\nAs Summer into Autumn slips  \nAnd yet we sooner say  \n\"The Summer\" than \"the Autumn,\" lest  \nWe turn the sun away,\n\nAnd almost count it an Affront  \nThe presence to concede  \nOf one however lovely, not  \nThe one that we have loved \u2014\n\nSo we evade the charge of Years  \nOn one attempting shy  \nThe Circumvention of the Shaft  \nOf Life's Declivity.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Escape is such a thankful Word**\n\nEscape is such a thankful Word  \nI often in the Night  \nConsider it unto myself  \nNo spectacle in sight\n\nEscape \u2014 it is the Basket  \nIn which the Heart is caught  \nWhen down some awful Battlement  \nThe rest of Life is dropt \u2014\n\n'Tis not to sight the savior \u2014   \nIt is to be the saved \u2014   \nAnd that is why I lay my Head  \nUpon this trusty word \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Lift it \u2014 with the Feathers**\n\nLift it \u2014 with the Feathers  \nNot alone we fly \u2014   \nLaunch it \u2014 the aquatic  \nNot the only sea \u2014   \nAdvocate the Azure  \nTo the lower Eyes \u2014   \nHe has obligation  \nWho has Paradise \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I'd rather recollect a setting**\n\nI'd rather recollect a setting  \nThan own a rising sun  \nThough one is beautiful forgetting \u2014   \nAnd true the other one.\n\nBecause in going is a Drama  \nStaying cannot confer  \nTo die divinely once a Twilight \u2014   \nThan wane is easier \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Luck is not chance \u2014**\n\nLuck is not chance \u2014   \nIt's Toil \u2014   \nFortune's expensive smile  \nIs earned \u2014   \nThe Father of the Mine  \nIs that old-fashioned Coin  \nWe spurned \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**You cannot take itself**\n\nYou cannot take itself  \nFrom any Human soul \u2014   \nThat indestructible estate  \nEnable him to dwell \u2014   \nImpregnable as Light  \nThat every man behold  \nBut take away as difficult  \nAs undiscovered Gold \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To his simplicity**\n\nTo his simplicity  \nTo die \u2014 was little Fate \u2014   \nIf Duty live \u2014 contented  \nBut her Confederate.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The last of Summer is Delight \u2014**\n\nThe last of Summer is Delight \u2014   \nDeterred by Retrospect.  \n'Tis Ecstasy's revealed Review \u2014   \nEnchantment's Syndicate.\n\nTo meet it \u2014 nameless as it is \u2014   \nWithout celestial Mail \u2014   \nAudacious as without a Knock  \nTo walk within the Veil.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Heart is the Capital of the Mind \u2014**\n\nThe Heart is the Capital of the Mind \u2014   \nThe Mind is a single State \u2014   \nThe Heart and the Mind together make  \nA single Continent \u2014\n\nOne \u2014 is the Population \u2014   \nNumerous enough \u2014   \nThis ecstatic Nation  \nSeek \u2014 it is Yourself.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Mind lives on the Heart**\n\nThe Mind lives on the Heart  \nLike any Parasite \u2014   \nIf that is full of Meat  \nThe Mind is fat.\n\nBut if the Heart omit  \nEmaciate the Wit \u2014   \nThe Aliment of it  \nSo absolute.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Rat is the concisest Tenant.**\n\nThe Rat is the concisest Tenant.  \nHe pays no Rent.  \nRepudiates the Obligation \u2014   \nOn Schemes intent\n\nBalking our Wit  \nTo sound or circumvent \u2014   \nHate cannot harm  \nA Foe so reticent \u2014   \nNeither Decree prohibit him \u2014   \nLawful as Equilibrium.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Faithful to the end Amended**\n\n\"Faithful to the end\" Amended  \nFrom the Heavenly Clause \u2014   \nConstancy with a Proviso  \nConstancy abhors \u2014\n\n\"Crowns of Life\" are servile Prizes  \nTo the stately Heart,  \nGiven for the Giving, solely,  \nNo Emolument.\n\n\u2014\n\n\"Faithful to the end\" Amended  \nFrom the Heavenly clause \u2014   \nLucrative indeed the offer  \nBut the Heart withdraws \u2014\n\n\"I will give\" the base Proviso \u2014   \nSpare Your \"Crown of Life\" \u2014   \nThose it fits, too fair to wear it \u2014   \nTry it on Yourself \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Treason of an accent**\n\nThe Treason of an accent  \nMight Ecstasy transfer \u2014   \nOf her effacing Fathom  \nIs no Recoverer \u2014\n\n\u2014\n\nThe Treason of an Accent  \nMight vilify the Joy \u2014   \nTo breathe \u2014 corrode the rapture  \nOf Sanctity to be \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The long sigh of the Frog**\n\nThe long sigh of the Frog  \nUpon a Summer's Day  \nEnacts intoxication  \nUpon the Revery \u2014   \nBut his receding Swell  \nSubstantiates a Peace  \nThat makes the Ear inordinate  \nFor corporal release \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I sued the News \u2014 yet feared \u2014 the News**\n\nI sued the News \u2014 yet feared \u2014 the News  \nThat such a Realm could be \u2014   \n\"The House not made with Hands\" it was \u2014   \nThrown open wide to me \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Flake the Wind exasperate**\n\nThe Flake the Wind exasperate  \nMore eloquently lie  \nThan if escorted to its Down  \nBy Arm of Chivalry.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Of their peculiar light**\n\nOf their peculiar light  \nI keep one ray  \nTo clarify the Sight  \nTo seek them by \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Summer laid her simple Hat**\n\nSummer laid her simple Hat  \nOn its boundless Shelf \u2014   \nUnobserved \u2014 a Ribbon slipt,  \nSnatch it for yourself.\n\nSummer laid her supple Glove  \nIn its sylvan Drawer \u2014   \nWheresoe'er, or was she \u2014   \nThe demand of Awe?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How know it from a Summer's Day?**\n\nHow know it from a Summer's Day?  \nIts Fervors are as firm \u2014   \nAnd nothing in the Countenance  \nBut scintillates the same \u2014   \nYet Birds examine it and flee \u2014   \nAnd Vans without a name  \nInspect the Admonition  \nAnd sunder as they came \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Take all away \u2014**\n\nTake all away \u2014   \nThe only thing worth larceny  \nIs left \u2014 the Immortality \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Brother of Ingots \u2014 Ah Peru \u2014**\n\nBrother of Ingots \u2014 Ah Peru \u2014   \nEmpty the Hearts that purchased you \u2014\n\n\u2014\n\nSister of Ophir \u2014   \nAh, Peru \u2014   \nSubtle the Sum  \nThat purchase you \u2014\n\n\u2014\n\nBrother of Ophir  \nBright Adieu,  \nHonor, the shortest route  \nTo you.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Tomorrow \u2014 whose location**\n\n\"Tomorrow\" \u2014 whose location  \nThe Wise deceives  \nThough its hallucination  \nIs last that leaves \u2014   \nTomorrow \u2014 thou Retriever  \nOf every tare \u2014   \nOf Alibi art thou  \nOr ownest where?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Love's stricken why**\n\nLove's stricken \"why\"  \nIs all that love can speak \u2014   \nBuilt of but just a syllable  \nThe hugest hearts that break.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Trusty as the stars**\n\nTrusty as the stars  \nWho quit their shining working  \nPrompt as when I lit them  \nIn Genesis' new house,  \nDurable as dawn  \nWhose antiquated blossom  \nMakes a world's suspense  \nPerish and rejoice.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Gathered into the Earth,**\n\nGathered into the Earth,  \nAnd out of story \u2014   \nGathered so that strange Fame \u2014   \nThat lonesome Glory  \nThat hath no omen here \u2014 but Awe \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How fits his Umber Coat**\n\nHow fits his Umber Coat  \nThe Tailor of the Nut?  \nCombined without a seam  \nLike Raiment of a Dream \u2014\n\nWho spun the Auburn Cloth?  \nComputed how the girth?  \nThe Chestnut aged grows  \nIn those primeval Clothes \u2014\n\nWe know that we are wise \u2014   \nAccomplished in Surprise \u2014   \nYet by this Countryman \u2014   \nThis nature \u2014 how undone!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Sun is one \u2014 and on the Tare**\n\nThe Sun is one \u2014 and on the Tare  \nHe doth as punctual call  \nAs on the conscientious Flower  \nAnd estimates them all \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The worthlessness of Earthly things**\n\nThe worthlessness of Earthly things  \nThe Ditty is that Nature Sings \u2014   \nAnd then \u2014 enforces their delight  \nTill Synods are inordinate \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Saucer holds a Cup**\n\nA Saucer holds a Cup  \nIn sordid human Life  \nBut in a Squirrel's estimate  \nA Saucer hold a Loaf.\n\nA Table of a Tree  \nDemands the little King  \nAnd every Breeze that run along  \nHis Dining Room do swing.\n\nHis Cutlery \u2014 he keeps  \nWithin his Russer Lips \u2014   \nTo see it flashing when he dines  \nDo Birmingham eclipse \u2014\n\nConvicted \u2014 could we be  \nOf our Minutiae  \nThe smallest Citizen that flies  \nIs heartier than we \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Death warrants are supposed to be**\n\nDeath warrants are supposed to be  \nAn enginery of equity  \nA merciful mistake  \nA pencil in an Idol's Hand  \nA Devotee has oft consigned  \nTo Crucifix or Block\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Dreams are the subtle Dower**\n\nDreams are the subtle Dower  \nThat make us rich an Hour \u2014   \nThen fling us poor  \nOut of the purple Door  \nInto the Precinct raw  \nPossessed before \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Forbidden Fruit a flavor has**\n\nForbidden Fruit a flavor has  \nThat lawful Orchards mocks \u2014   \nHow luscious lies within the Pod  \nThe Pea that Duty locks \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**His Heart was darker than the starless night**\n\nHis Heart was darker than the starless night  \nFor that there is a morn  \nBut in this black Receptacle  \nCan be no Bode of Dawn\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**His Mansion in the Pool**\n\nHis Mansion in the Pool  \nThe Frog forsakes \u2014   \nHe rises on a Log  \nAnd statements makes \u2014   \nHis Auditors two Worlds  \nDeducting me \u2014   \nThe Orator of April  \nIs hoarse Today \u2014   \nHis Mittens at his Feet  \nNo Hand hath he \u2014   \nHis eloquence a Bubble  \nAs Fame should be \u2014   \nApplaud him to discover  \nTo your chagrin  \nDemosthenes has vanished  \nIn Waters Green \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How much the present moment means**\n\nHow much the present moment means  \nTo those who've nothing more \u2014   \nThe Fop \u2014 the Carp \u2014 the Atheist \u2014   \nStake an entire store  \nUpon a Moment's shallow Rim  \nWhile their commuted Feet  \nThe Torrents of Eternity  \nDo all but inundate \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I suppose the time will come**\n\nI suppose the time will come  \nAid it in the coming  \nWhen the Bird will crowd the Tree  \nAnd the Bee be booming.\n\nI suppose the time will come  \nHinder it a little  \nWhen the Corn in Silk will dress  \nAnd in Chintz the Apple\n\nI believe the Day will be  \nWhen the Jay will giggle  \nAt his new white House the Earth  \nThat, too, halt a little \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**In many and reportless places**\n\nIn many and reportless places  \nWe feel a Joy \u2014   \nReportless, also, but sincere as Nature  \nOr Deity \u2014\n\nIt comes, without a consternation \u2014   \nDissolves \u2014 the same \u2014   \nBut leaves a sumptuous Destitution \u2014   \nWithout a Name \u2014\n\nProfane it by a search \u2014 we cannot  \nIt has no home \u2014   \nNor we who having once inhaled it \u2014   \nThereafter roam.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Long Years apart \u2014 can make no**\n\nLong Years apart \u2014 can make no  \nBreach a second cannot fill \u2014   \nThe absence of the Witch does not  \nInvalidate the spell \u2014\n\nThe embers of a Thousand Years  \nUncovered by the Hand  \nThat fondled them when they were Fire  \nWill stir and understand \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Praise it \u2014 'tis dead \u2014**\n\nPraise it \u2014 'tis dead \u2014   \nIt cannot glow \u2014   \nWarm this inclement Ear  \nWith the encomium it earned  \nSince it was gathered here \u2014   \nInvest this alabaster Zest  \nIn the Delights of Dust \u2014   \nRemitted \u2014 since it flitted it  \nIn recusance august.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Secrets is a daily word**\n\n\"Secrets\" is a daily word  \nYet does not exist \u2014   \nMuffled \u2014 it remits surmise \u2014   \nMurmured \u2014 it has ceased \u2014   \nDungeoned in the Human Breast  \nDoubtless secrets lie \u2014   \nBut that Grate inviolate \u2014   \nGoes nor comes away  \nNothing with a Tongue or Ear \u2014   \nSecrets stapled there  \nWill emerge but once \u2014 and dumb \u2014   \nTo the Sepulchre \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Summer \u2014 we all have seen \u2014**\n\nSummer \u2014 we all have seen \u2014   \nA few of us \u2014 believed \u2014   \nA few \u2014 the more aspiring  \nUnquestionably loved \u2014\n\nBut Summer does not care \u2014   \nShe goes her spacious way  \nAs eligible as the moon  \nTo our Temerity \u2014\n\nThe Doom to be adored \u2014   \nThe Affluence conferred \u2014   \nUnknown as to an Ecstasy  \nThe Embryo endowed \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Butterfly's Numidian Gown**\n\nThe Butterfly's Numidian Gown  \nWith spots of Burnish roasted on  \nIs proof against the Sun  \nYet prone to shut its spotted Fan  \nAnd panting on a Clover lean  \nAs if it were undone \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Those cattle smaller than a Bee**\n\nThose cattle smaller than a Bee  \nThat herd upon the eye \u2014   \nWhose tillage is the passing Crumb \u2014   \nThose Cattle are the Fly \u2014   \nOf Barns for Winter \u2014 blameless \u2014   \nExtemporaneous stalls  \nThey found to our objection \u2014   \nOn eligible walls \u2014   \nReserving the presumption  \nTo suddenly descend  \nAnd gallop on the Furniture \u2014   \nOr odiouser offend \u2014   \nOf their peculiar calling  \nUnqualified to judge  \nTo Nature we remand them  \nTo justify or scourge \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Touch lightly Nature's sweet Guitar**\n\nTouch lightly Nature's sweet Guitar  \nUnless thou know'st the Tune  \nOr every Bird will point at thee  \nBecause a Bard too soon \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**These held their Wick above the West \u2014**\n\nThese held their Wick above the West \u2014   \nTill when the Red declined \u2014   \nOr how the Amber aided it \u2014   \nDefied to be defined \u2014\n\nThen waned without disparagement  \nIn a dissembling Hue  \nThat would not let the Eye decide  \nDid it abide or no \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**They might not need me \u2014 yet they might \u2014**\n\nThey might not need me but; they might.  \nI'll let my Head be just in sight;  \nA smile as small as mine might be  \nPrecisely their necessity.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Hope is a strange invention \u2014**\n\nHope is a strange invention \u2014   \nA Patent of the Heart \u2014   \nIn unremitting action  \nYet never wearing out \u2014\n\nOf this electric Adjunct  \nNot anything is known  \nBut its unique momentum  \nEmbellish all we own \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Lay this Laurel on the One**\n\nLay this Laurel on the One  \nToo intrinsic for Renown \u2014   \nLaurel \u2014 veil your deathless tree \u2014   \nHim you chasten, that is He!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Whose Pink career may have a close**\n\nWhose Pink career may have a close  \nPortentous as our own, who knows?  \nTo imitate these Neighbors fleet  \nIn awe and innocence, were meet.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**After all Birds have been investigated and laid aside \u2014**\n\nAfter all Birds have been investigated and laid aside \u2014   \nNature imparts the little Blue-Bird \u2014 assured  \nHer conscientious Voice will soar unmoved  \nAbove ostensible Vicissitude.\n\nFirst at the March \u2014 competing with the Wind \u2014   \nHer panting note exalts us \u2014 like a friend \u2014   \nLast to adhere when Summer cleaves away \u2014   \nElegy of Integrity.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**She laid her docile Crescent down**\n\nShe laid her docile Crescent down  \nAnd this confiding Stone  \nStill states to Dates that have forgot  \nThe News that she is gone \u2014\n\nSo constant to its stolid trust,  \nThe Shaft that never knew \u2014   \nIt shames the Constancy that fled  \nBefore its emblem flew \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It sounded as if the Streets were running**\n\nIt sounded as if the Streets were running  \nAnd then \u2014 the Streets stood still \u2014   \nEclipse \u2014 was all we could see at the Window  \nAnd Awe \u2014 was all we could feel.\n\nBy and by \u2014 the boldest stole out of his Covert  \nTo see if Time was there \u2014   \nNature was in an Opal Apron,  \nMixing fresher Air.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I have no Life but this \u2014**\n\nI have no Life but this \u2014   \nTo lead it here \u2014   \nNor any Death \u2014 but lest  \nDispelled from there \u2014\n\nNor tie to Earths to come \u2014   \nNor Action new \u2014   \nExcept through this extent \u2014   \nThe Realm of you \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Perhaps they do not go so far**\n\nPerhaps they do not go so far  \nAs we who stay, suppose \u2014   \nPerhaps come closer, for the lapse  \nOf their corporeal clothes \u2014\n\nIt may be know so certainly  \nHow short we have to fear  \nThat comprehension antedates  \nAnd estimates us there \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**What mystery pervades a well!**\n\nWhat mystery pervades a well!  \nThat water lives so far \u2014   \nA neighbor from another world  \nResiding in a jar\n\nWhose limit none have ever seen,  \nBut just his lid of glass \u2014   \nLike looking every time you please  \nIn an abyss's face!\n\nThe grass does not appear afraid,  \nI often wonder he  \nCan stand so close and look so bold  \nAt what is awe to me.\n\nRelated somehow they may be,  \nThe sedge stands next the sea \u2014   \nWhere he is floorless  \nAnd does no timidity betray\n\nBut nature is a stranger yet;  \nThe ones that cite her most  \nHave never passed her haunted house,  \nNor simplified her ghost.\n\nTo pity those that know her not  \nIs helped by the regret  \nThat those who know her, know her less  \nThe nearer her they get.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To own a Susan of my own**\n\nTo own a Susan of my own  \nIs of itself a Bliss \u2014   \nWhatever Realm I forfeit, Lord,  \nContinue me in this!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To the stanch Dust**\n\nTo the stanch Dust  \nWe safe commit thee \u2014   \nTongue if it hath,  \nInviolate to thee \u2014   \nSilence \u2014 denote \u2014   \nAnd Sanctity \u2014 enforce thee \u2014   \nPassenger \u2014 of Infinity \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My Maker \u2014 let me be**\n\nMy Maker \u2014 let me be  \nEnamored most of thee \u2014   \nBut nearer this  \nI more should miss \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**March is the Month of Expectation.**\n\nMarch is the Month of Expectation.  \nThe things we do not know \u2014   \nThe Persons of prognostication  \nAre coming now \u2014   \nWe try to show becoming firmness \u2014   \nBut pompous Joy  \nBetrays us, as his first Betrothal  \nBetrays a Boy.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Bees are Black, with Gilt Surcingles \u2014**\n\nBees are Black, with Gilt Surcingles \u2014   \nBuccaneers of Buzz.  \nRide abroad in ostentation  \nAnd subsist on Fuzz.\n\nFuzz ordained \u2014 not Fuzz contingent \u2014   \nMarrows of the Hill.  \nJugs \u2014 a Universe's fracture  \nCould not jar or spill.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**No Passenger was known to flee \u2014**\n\nNo Passenger was known to flee \u2014   \nThat lodged a night in memory \u2014   \nThat wily \u2014 subterranean Inn  \nContrives that none go out again \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Field of Stubble, lying sere**\n\nA Field of Stubble, lying sere  \nBeneath the second Sun \u2014   \nIts Toils to Brindled People thrust \u2014   \nIts Triumphs \u2014 to the Bin \u2014   \nAccosted by a timid Bird  \nIrresolute of Alms \u2014   \nIs often seen \u2014 but seldom felt,  \nOn our New England Farms \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Fact that Earth is Heaven \u2014**\n\nThe Fact that Earth is Heaven \u2014   \nWhether Heaven is Heaven or not  \nIf not an Affidavit  \nOf that specific Spot  \nNot only must confirm us  \nThat it is not for us  \nBut that it would affront us  \nTo dwell in such a place \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Could mortal lip divine**\n\nCould mortal lip divine  \nThe undeveloped Freight  \nOf a delivered syllable  \n'Twould crumble with the weight.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I shall not murmur if at last**\n\nI shall not murmur if at last  \nThe ones I loved below  \nPermission have to understand  \nFor what I shunned them so \u2014   \nDivulging it would rest my Heart  \nBut it would ravage theirs \u2014   \nWhy, Katie, Treason has a Voice \u2014   \nBut mine \u2014 dispels \u2014 in Tears.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Of Paradise' existence**\n\nOf Paradise' existence  \nAll we know  \nIs the uncertain certainty \u2014   \nBut its vicinity infer,  \nBy its Bisecting  \nMessenger \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Shame is the shawl of Pink**\n\nShame is the shawl of Pink  \nIn which we wrap the Soul  \nTo keep it from infesting Eyes \u2014   \nThe elemental Veil  \nWhich helpless Nature drops  \nWhen pushed upon a scene  \nRepugnant to her probity \u2014   \nShame is the tint divine.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Sweet Skepticism of the Heart \u2014**\n\nSweet Skepticism of the Heart \u2014   \nThat knows \u2014 and does not know \u2014   \nAnd tosses like a Fleet of Balm \u2014   \nAffronted by the snow \u2014   \nInvites and then retards the Truth  \nLest Certainty be sere  \nCompared with the delicious throe  \nOf transport thrilled with Fear \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Unworthy of her Breast**\n\nUnworthy of her Breast  \nThough by that scathing test  \nWhat Soul survive?  \nBy her exacting light  \nHow counterfeit the white  \nWe chiefly have!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A wild Blue sky abreast of Winds**\n\nA wild Blue sky abreast of Winds  \nThat threatened it \u2014 did run  \nAnd crouched behind his Yellow Door  \nWas the defiant sun \u2014   \nSome conflict with those upper friends  \nSo genial in the main  \nThat we deplore peculiarly  \nTheir arrogant campaign \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Crisis is sweet and yet the Heart**\n\nCrisis is sweet and yet the Heart  \nUpon the hither side  \nHas Dowers of Prospective  \nTo Denizens denied\n\nInquire of the closing Rose  \nWhich rapture she preferred  \nAnd she will point you sighing  \nTo her rescinded Bud.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How Human Nature dotes**\n\nHow Human Nature dotes  \nOn what it can't detect.  \nThe moment that a Plot is plumbed  \nProspective is extinct \u2014\n\nProspective is the friend  \nReserved for us to know  \nWhen Constancy is clarified  \nOf Curiosity \u2014\n\nOf subjects that resist  \nRedoubtablest is this  \nWhere go we \u2014   \nGo we anywhere  \nCreation after this?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How lonesome the Wind must feel Nights \u2014**\n\nHow lonesome the Wind must feel Nights \u2014   \nWhen people have put out the Lights  \nAnd everything that has an Inn  \nCloses the shutter and goes in \u2014\n\nHow pompous the Wind must feel Noons  \nStepping to incorporeal Tunes  \nCorrecting errors of the sky  \nAnd clarifying scenery\n\nHow mighty the Wind must feel Morns  \nEncamping on a thousand dawns  \nEspousing each and spurning all  \nThen soaring to his Temple Tall \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It was a quiet seeming Day \u2014**\n\nIt was a quiet seeming Day \u2014   \nThere was no harm in earth or sky \u2014   \nTill with the closing sun  \nThere strayed an accidental Red  \nA Strolling Hue, one would have said  \nTo westward of the Town \u2014\n\nBut when the Earth began to jar  \nAnd Houses vanished with a roar  \nAnd Human Nature hid  \nWe comprehended by the Awe  \nAs those that Dissolution saw  \nThe Poppy in the Cloud\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**One Joy of so much anguish**\n\nOne Joy of so much anguish  \nSweet nature has for me  \nI shun it as I do Despair  \nOr dear iniquity \u2014   \nWhy Birds, a Summer morning  \nBefore the Quick of Day  \nShould stab my ravished spirit  \nWith Dirks of Melody  \nIs part of an inquiry  \nThat will receive reply  \nWhen Flesh and Spirit sunder  \nIn Death's Immediately \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Such are the inlets of the mind \u2014**\n\nSuch are the inlets of the mind \u2014   \nHis outlets \u2014 would you see  \nAscend with me the eminence  \nOf immortality \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Summer has two Beginnings \u2014**\n\nSummer has two Beginnings \u2014   \nBeginning once in June \u2014   \nBeginning in October  \nAffectingly again \u2014\n\nWithout, perhaps, the Riot  \nBut graphicker for Grace \u2014   \nAs finer is a going  \nThan a remaining Face \u2014\n\nDeparting then \u2014 forever \u2014   \nForever \u2014 until May \u2014   \nForever is deciduous  \nExcept to those who die \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The fairest Home I ever knew**\n\nThe fairest Home I ever knew  \nWas founded in an Hour  \nBy Parties also that I knew  \nA spider and a Flower \u2014   \nA manse of mechlin and of Floes \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Gentian has a parched Corolla \u2014**\n\nThe Gentian has a parched Corolla \u2014   \nLike azure dried  \n'Tis Nature's buoyant juices  \nBeatified \u2014   \nWithout a vaunt or sheen  \nAs casual as Rain  \nAnd as benign \u2014\n\nWhen most is part \u2014 it comes \u2014   \nNor isolate it seems  \nIts Bond its Friend \u2014   \nTo fill its Fringed career  \nAnd aid an aged Year  \nAbundant end \u2014\n\nIts lot \u2014 were it forgot \u2014   \nThis Truth endear \u2014   \nFidelity is gain  \nCreation is o'er \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The inundation of the Spring**\n\nThe inundation of the Spring  \nEnlarges every soul \u2014   \nIt sweeps the tenement away  \nBut leaves the Water whole \u2014\n\nIn which the soul at first estranged \u2014   \nSeeks faintly for its shore  \nBut acclimated \u2014 pines no more  \nFor that Peninsula \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The pretty Rain from those sweet Eaves**\n\nThe pretty Rain from those sweet Eaves  \nHer unintending Eyes \u2014   \nTook her own Heart, including ours,  \nBy innocent Surprise \u2014\n\nThe wrestle in her simple Throat  \nTo hold the feeling down  \nThat vanquished her \u2014 defeated Feat \u2014   \nWas Fervor's sudden Crown \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To earn it by disdaining it**\n\nTo earn it by disdaining it  \nIs Fame's consummate Fee \u2014   \nHe loves what spurns him \u2014   \nLook behind \u2014 He is pursuing thee.\n\nSo let us gather \u2014 every Day \u2014   \nThe Aggregate of  \nLife's Bouquet  \nBe Honor and not shame \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Water makes many Beds**\n\nWater makes many Beds  \nFor those averse to sleep \u2014   \nIts awful chamber open stands \u2014   \nIts Curtains blandly sweep \u2014   \nAbhorrent is the Rest  \nIn undulating Rooms  \nWhose Amplitude no end invades \u2014   \nWhose Axis never comes.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We shun because we prize her Face**\n\nWe shun because we prize her Face  \nLest sight's ineffable disgrace  \nOur Adoration stain\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Who never wanted \u2014 maddest Joy**\n\nWho never wanted \u2014 maddest Joy  \nRemains to him unknown \u2014   \nThe Banquet of Abstemiousness  \nDefaces that of Wine \u2014\n\nWithin its reach, though yet ungrasped  \nDesire's perfect Goal \u2014   \nNo nearer \u2014 lest the Actual \u2014   \nShould disentrall thy soul \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**With Pinions of Disdain**\n\nWith Pinions of Disdain  \nThe soul can farther fly  \nThan any feather specified  \nin Ornithology \u2014   \nIt wafts this sordid Flesh  \nBeyond its dull \u2014 control  \nAnd during its electric gale \u2014   \nThe body is a soul \u2014   \ninstructing by the same \u2014   \nHow little work it be \u2014   \nTo put off filaments like this  \nfor immortality\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Spurn the temerity \u2014**\n\nSpurn the temerity \u2014   \nRashness of Calvary \u2014   \nGay were Gethsemane  \nKnew we of Thee \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How brittle are the Piers**\n\nHow brittle are the Piers  \nOn which our Faith doth tread \u2014   \nNo Bridge below doth totter so \u2014   \nYet none hath such a Crowd.\n\nIt is as old as God \u2014   \nIndeed \u2014 'twas built by him \u2014   \nHe sent his Son to test the Plank,  \nAnd he pronounced it firm.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Go not too near a House of Rose \u2014**\n\nGo not too near a House of Rose \u2014   \nThe depredation of a Breeze \u2014   \nOr inundation of a Dew  \nAlarms its walls away \u2014\n\nNor try to tie the Butterfly,  \nNor climb the Bars of Ecstasy,  \nIn insecurity to lie  \nIs Joy's insuring quality.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Not that he goes \u2014 we love him more**\n\nNot that he goes \u2014 we love him more  \nWho led us while he stayed.  \nBeyond earth's trafficking frontier,  \nFor what he moved, he made.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Than Heaven more remote,**\n\nThan Heaven more remote,  \nFor Heaven is the root,  \nBut these the flitted seed.  \nMore flown indeed  \nThan ones that never were,  \nOr those that hide, and are.\n\nWhat madness, by their side,  \nA vision to provide  \nOf future days  \nThey cannot praise.\n\nMy soul, to find them, come,  \nThey cannot call, they're dumb,  \nNor prove, nor woo,  \nBut that they have abode  \nIs absolute as God,  \nAnd instant, too.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Dew sufficed itself \u2014**\n\nA Dew sufficed itself \u2014   \nAnd satisfied a Leaf  \nAnd felt \"how vast a destiny\" \u2014   \n\"How trivial is Life!\"\n\nThe Sun went out to work \u2014   \nThe Day went out to play  \nAnd not again that Dew be seen  \nBy Physiognomy\n\nWhether by Day Abducted  \nOr emptied by the Sun  \nInto the Sea in passing  \nEternally unknown\n\nAttested to this Day  \nThat awful Tragedy  \nBy Transport's instability  \nAnd Doom's celerity.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Behold this little Bane \u2014**\n\nBehold this little Bane \u2014   \nThe Boon of all alive \u2014   \nAs common as it is unknown  \nThe name of it is Love \u2014\n\nTo lack of it is Woe \u2014   \nTo own of it is Wound \u2014   \nNot elsewhere \u2014 if in Paradise  \nIts Tantamount be found \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How ruthless are the gentle \u2014**\n\nHow ruthless are the gentle \u2014   \nHow cruel are the kind \u2014   \nGod broke his contract to his Lamb  \nTo qualify the Wind \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The healed Heart shows its shallow scar**\n\nThe healed Heart shows its shallow scar  \nWith confidential moan \u2014   \nNot mended by Mortality  \nAre Fabrics truly torn \u2014   \nTo go its convalescent way  \nSo shameless is to see  \nMore genuine were Perfidy  \nThan such Fidelity.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**These Fevered Days \u2014 to take them to the Forest**\n\nThese Fevered Days \u2014 to take them to the Forest  \nWhere Waters cool around the mosses crawl \u2014   \nAnd shade is all that devastates the stillness  \nSeems it sometimes this would be all \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To mend each tattered Faith**\n\nTo mend each tattered Faith  \nThere is a needle fair  \nThough no appearance indicate \u2014   \n'Tis threaded in the Air \u2014\n\nAnd though it do not wear  \nAs if it never Tore  \n'Tis very comfortable indeed  \nAnd spacious as before \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A chilly Peace infests the Grass**\n\nA chilly Peace infests the Grass  \nThe Sun respectful lies \u2014   \nNot any Trance of industry  \nThese shadows scrutinize \u2014\n\nWhose Allies go no more astray  \nFor service or for Glee \u2014   \nBut all mankind deliver here  \nFrom whatsoever sea \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A little Snow was here and there**\n\nA little Snow was here and there  \nDisseminated in her Hair \u2014   \nSince she and I had met and played  \nDecade had gathered to Decade \u2014\n\nBut Time had added not obtained  \nImpregnable the Rose  \nFor summer too indelible  \nToo obdurate for Snows \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Death is the supple Suitor**\n\nDeath is the supple Suitor  \nThat wins at last \u2014   \nIt is a stealthy Wooing  \nConducted first  \nBy pallid innuendoes  \nAnd dim approach  \nBut brave at last with Bugles  \nAnd a bisected Coach  \nIt bears away in triumph  \nTo Troth unknown  \nAnd Kindred as responsive  \nAs Porcelain.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**His Mind like Fabrics of the East**\n\nHis Mind like Fabrics of the East  \nDisplayed to the despair  \nOf everyone but here and there  \nAn humble Purchaser \u2014   \nFor though his price was not of Gold \u2014   \nMore arduous there is \u2014   \nThat one should comprehend the worth  \nWas all the price there was \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How good his Lava Bed,**\n\nHow good his Lava Bed,  \nTo this laborious Boy \u2014   \nWho must be up to call the World  \nAnd dress the sleepy Day \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How soft a Caterpillar steps \u2014**\n\nHow soft a Caterpillar steps \u2014   \nI find one on my Hand  \nFrom such a velvet world it comes  \nSuch plushes at command  \nIts soundless travels just arrest  \nMy slow \u2014 terrestrial eye  \nIntent upon its own career  \nWhat use has it for me \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I thought the Train would never come \u2014**\n\nI thought the Train would never come \u2014   \nHow slow the whistle sang \u2014   \nI don't believe a peevish Bird  \nSo whimpered for the Spring \u2014   \nI taught my Heart a hundred times  \nPrecisely what to say \u2014   \nProvoking Lover, when you came  \nIts Treatise flew away  \nTo hide my strategy too late  \nTo wiser be too soon \u2014   \nFor miseries so halcyon  \nThe happiness atone \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Road was lit with Moon and star \u2014**\n\nThe Road was lit with Moon and star \u2014   \nThe Trees were bright and still \u2014   \nDescried I \u2014 by the distant Light  \nA Traveller on a Hill \u2014   \nTo magic Perpendiculars  \nAscending, though Terrene \u2014   \nUnknown his shimmering ultimate \u2014   \nBut he indorsed the sheen \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Whoever disenchants**\n\nWhoever disenchants  \nA single Human soul  \nBy failure of irreverence  \nIs guilty of the whole.\n\nAs guileless as a Bird  \nAs graphic as a star  \nTill the suggestion sinister  \nThings are not what they are \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Your thoughts don't have words every day**\n\nYour thoughts don't have words every day  \nThey come a single time  \nLike signal esoteric sips  \nOf the communion Wine  \nWhich while you taste so native seems  \nSo easy so to be  \nYou cannot comprehend its price  \nNor its infrequency\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Counterfeit \u2014 a Plated Person \u2014**\n\nA Counterfeit \u2014 a Plated Person \u2014   \nI would not be \u2014   \nWhatever strata of Iniquity  \nMy Nature underlie \u2014   \nTruth is good Health \u2014 and Safety, and the Sky.  \nHow meagre, what an Exile \u2014 is a Lie,  \nAnd Vocal \u2014 when we die \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Those not live yet**\n\nThose not live yet  \nWho doubt to live again \u2014   \n\"Again\" is of a twice  \nBut this \u2014 is one \u2014   \nThe Ship beneath the Draw  \nAground \u2014 is he?  \nDeath \u2014 so \u2014 the Hyphen of the Sea \u2014   \nDeep is the Schedule  \nOf the Disk to be \u2014   \nCostumeless Consciousness \u2014   \nThat is he \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Opinion is a flitting thing,**\n\nOpinion is a flitting thing,  \nBut Truth, outlasts the Sun \u2014   \nIf then we cannot own them both \u2014   \nPossess the oldest one \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**So gay a Flower**\n\nSo gay a Flower  \nBereaves the Mind  \nAs if it were a Woe \u2014   \nIs Beauty an Affliction \u2014 then?  \nTradition ought to know \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It stole along so stealthy**\n\nIt stole along so stealthy  \nSuspicion it was done  \nWas dim as to the wealthy  \nBeginning not to own \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Time's wily Chargers will not wait**\n\nTime's wily Chargers will not wait  \nAt any Gate but Woe's \u2014   \nBut there \u2014 so gloat to hesitate  \nThey will not stir for blows \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Belshazzar had a Letter \u2014**\n\nBELSHAZZAR had a letter, \u2014   \nHe never had but one ;  \nBelshazzar's correspondent  \nConcluded and begun  \nIn that immortal copy  \nThe conscience of us all  \nCan read without its glasses  \nOn revelation's wall.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**His Cheek is his Biographer \u2014**\n\nHis Cheek is his Biographer \u2014   \nAs long as he can blush  \nPerdition is Opprobrium \u2014   \nPast that, he sins in peace \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Heavenly Father \u2014 take to thee**\n\n\"Heavenly Father\" \u2014 take to thee  \nThe supreme iniquity  \nFashioned by thy candid Hand  \nIn a moment contraband \u2014   \nThough to trust us \u2014 seems to us  \nMore respectful \u2014 \"We are Dust\" \u2014   \nWe apologize to thee  \nFor thine own Duplicity \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We knew not that we were to live \u2014**\n\nWe knew not that we were to live \u2014   \nNor when \u2014 we are to die \u2014   \nOur ignorance \u2014 our cuirass is \u2014   \nWe wear Mortality  \nAs lightly as an Option Gown  \nTill asked to take it off \u2014   \nBy his intrusion, God is known \u2014   \nIt is the same with Life \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Route of Evanescence**\n\nA Route of Evanescence  \nWith a revolving Wheel \u2014   \nA Resonance of Emerald \u2014   \nA Rush of Cochineal \u2014   \nAnd every Blossom on the Bush  \nAdjusts its tumbled Head \u2014   \nThe mail from Tunis, probably,  \nAn easy Morning's Ride \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**One thing of it we borrow**\n\nOne thing of it we borrow  \nAnd promise to return \u2014   \nThe Booty and the Sorrow  \nIts Sweetness to have known \u2014   \nOne thing of it we covet \u2014   \nThe power to forget \u2014   \nThe Anguish of the Avarice  \nDefrays the Dross of it \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Before you thought of Spring**\n\nBefore you thought of Spring  \nExcept as a Surmise  \nYou see \u2014 God bless his suddenness \u2014   \nA Fellow in the Skies  \nOf independent Hues  \nA little weather worn  \nInspiriting habiliments  \nOf Indigo and Brown \u2014   \nWith specimens of Song  \nAs if for you to choose \u2014   \nDiscretion in the interval  \nWith gay delays he goes  \nTo some superior Tree  \nWithout a single Leaf  \nAnd shouts for joy to Nobody  \nBut his seraphic self \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**One of the ones that Midas touched**\n\nOne of the ones that Midas touched  \nWho failed to touch us all  \nWas that confiding Prodigal  \nThe reeling Oriole \u2014\n\nSo drunk he disavows it  \nWith badinage divine \u2014   \nSo dazzling we mistake him  \nFor an alighting Mine \u2014\n\nA Pleader \u2014 a Dissembler \u2014   \nAn Epicure \u2014 a Thief \u2014   \nBetimes an Oratorio \u2014   \nAn Ecstasy in chief \u2014\n\nThe Jesuit of Orchards  \nHe cheats as he enchants  \nOf an entire Attar  \nFor his decamping wants \u2014\n\nThe splendor of a Burmah  \nThe Meteor of Birds,  \nDeparting like a Pageant  \nOf Ballads and of Bards \u2014\n\nI never thought that Jason sought  \nFor any Golden Fleece  \nBut then I am a rural man  \nWith thoughts that make for Peace \u2014\n\nBut if there were a Jason,  \nTradition bear with me  \nBehold his lost Aggrandizement  \nUpon the Apple Tree \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A little overflowing word**\n\nA little overflowing word  \nThat any, hearing, had inferred  \nFor Ardor or for Tears,  \nThough Generations pass away,  \nTraditions ripen and decay,  \nAs eloquent appears \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A winged spark doth soar about \u2014**\n\nA winged spark doth soar about \u2014   \nI never met it near  \nFor Lightning it is oft mistook  \nWhen nights are hot and sere \u2014\n\nIts twinkling Travels it pursues  \nAbove the Haunts of men \u2014   \nA speck of Rapture \u2014 first perceived  \nBy feeling it is gone \u2014   \nRekindled by some action quaint\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If wrecked upon the Shoal of Thought**\n\nIf wrecked upon the Shoal of Thought  \nHow is it with the Sea?  \nThe only Vessel that is shunned  \nIs safe \u2014 Simplicity \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Sweets of Pillage, can be known**\n\nThe Sweets of Pillage, can be known  \nTo no one but the Thief \u2014   \nCompassion for Integrity  \nIs his divinest Grief \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Their Barricade against the Sky**\n\nTheir Barricade against the Sky  \nThe martial Trees withdraw  \nAnd with a Flag at every turn  \nTheir Armies are no more.\n\nWhat Russet Halts in Nature's March  \nThey indicate or cause  \nAn inference of Mexico  \nEffaces the Surmise \u2014\n\nRecurrent to the After Mind  \nThat Massacre of Air \u2014   \nThe Wound that was not Wound nor Scar  \nBut Holidays of War\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To see the Summer Sky**\n\nTo see the Summer Sky  \nIs Poetry, though never in a Book it lie \u2014   \nTrue Poems flee \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We talked with each other about each other**\n\nWe talked with each other about each other  \nThough neither of us spoke \u2014   \nWe were listening to the seconds' Races  \nAnd the Hoofs of the Clock \u2014   \nPausing in Front of our Palsied Faces  \nTime compassion took \u2014   \nArks of Reprieve he offered to us \u2014   \nArarats \u2014 we took \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Estranged from Beauty \u2014 none can be \u2014**\n\nEstranged from Beauty \u2014 none can be \u2014   \nFor Beauty is Infinity \u2014   \nAnd power to be finite ceased  \nBefore Identity was leased.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Fame is the one that does not stay \u2014**\n\nFame is the one that does not stay \u2014   \nIts occupant must die  \nOr out of sight of estimate  \nAscend incessantly \u2014   \nOr be that most insolvent thing  \nA Lightning in the Germ \u2014   \nElectrical the embryo  \nBut we demand the Flame\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**His voice decrepit was with Joy \u2014**\n\nHis voice decrepit was with Joy \u2014   \nHer words did totter so  \nHow old the News of Love must be  \nTo make Lips elderly  \nThat purled a moment since with Glee \u2014   \nIs it Delight or Woe \u2014   \nOr Terror \u2014 that do decorate  \nThis livid interview \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How destitute is he**\n\nHow destitute is he  \nWhose Gold is firm  \nWho finds it every time  \nThe small stale Sum \u2014   \nWhen Love with but a Pence  \nWill so display  \nAs is a disrespect  \nTo India.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Look back on Time, with kindly eyes \u2014**\n\nLOOK back on time with kindly eyes,  \nHe doubtless did his best ;  \nHow softly sinks his trembling sun  \nIn human nature's west !\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Devil \u2014 had he fidelity**\n\nThe Devil \u2014 had he fidelity  \nWould be the best friend \u2014   \nBecause he has ability \u2014   \nBut Devils cannot mend \u2014   \nPerfidy is the virtue  \nThat would but he resign  \nThe Devil \u2014 without question  \nWere thoroughly divine\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The fascinating chill that music leaves**\n\nThe fascinating chill that music leaves  \nIs Earth's corroboration  \nOf Ecstasy's impediment \u2014   \n'Tis Rapture's germination  \nIn timid and tumultuous soil  \nA fine \u2014 estranging creature \u2014   \nTo something upper wooing us  \nBut not to our Creator \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The way Hope builds his House**\n\nThe way Hope builds his House  \nIt is not with a sill \u2014   \nNor Rafter \u2014 has that Edifice  \nBut only Pinnacle \u2014\n\nAbode in as supreme  \nThis superficies  \nAs if it were of Ledges smit  \nOr mortised with the Laws \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Tis whiter than an Indian Pipe \u2014**\n\n'Tis whiter than an Indian Pipe \u2014   \n'Tis dimmer than a Lace \u2014   \nNo stature has it, like a Fog  \nWhen you approach the place \u2014   \nNor any voice imply it here  \nOr intimate it there  \nA spirit \u2014 how doth it accost \u2014   \nWhat function hath the Air?  \nThis limitless Hyperbole  \nEach one of us shall be \u2014   \n'Tis Drama \u2014 if Hypothesis  \nIt be not Tragedy \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Robin is a Gabriel**\n\nThe Robin is a Gabriel  \nIn humble circumstances \u2014   \nHis Dress denotes him socially,  \nOf Transport's Working Classes \u2014   \nHe has the punctuality  \nOf the New England Farmer \u2014   \nThe same oblique integrity,  \nA Vista vastly warmer \u2014\n\nA small but sturdy Residence  \nA self denying Household,  \nThe Guests of Perspicacity  \nAre all that cross his Threshold \u2014   \nAs covert as a Fugitive,  \nCajoling Consternation  \nBy Ditties to the Enemy  \nAnd Sylvan Punctuation \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We shall find the Cube of the Rainbow.**\n\nWe shall find the Cube of the Rainbow.  \nOf that, there is no doubt.  \nBut the Arc of a Lover's conjecture  \nEludes the finding out.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Love is done when Love's begun,**\n\nLove is done when Love's begun,  \nSages say,  \nBut have Sages known?  \nTruth adjourn your Boon  \nWithout Day.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Her spirit rose to such a height**\n\nHer spirit rose to such a height  \nHer countenance it did inflate  \nLike one that fed on awe.  \nMore prudent to assault the dawn  \nThan merit the ethereal scorn  \nThat effervesced from her.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Savior must have been**\n\nThe Savior must have been  \nA docile Gentleman \u2014   \nTo come so far so cold a Day  \nFor little Fellowmen \u2014\n\nThe Road to Bethlehem  \nSince He and I were Boys  \nWas leveled, but for that 'twould be  \nA rugged billion Miles \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Birthday of but a single pang**\n\nBirthday of but a single pang  \nThat there are less to come \u2014   \nAfflictive is the Adjective  \nBut affluent the doom \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Dimple in the Tomb**\n\nA Dimple in the Tomb  \nMakes that ferocious Room  \nA Home \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Face in evanescence lain**\n\nThe Face in evanescence lain  \nIs more distinct than ours \u2014   \nAnd ours surrendered for its sake  \nAs Capsules are for Flower's \u2014   \nOr is it the confiding sheen  \nDissenting to enamor us  \nOf Detriment divine?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Road to Paradise is plain,**\n\nThe Road to Paradise is plain,  \nAnd holds scarce one.  \nNot that it is not firm  \nBut we presume  \nA Dimpled Road  \nIs more preferred.  \nThe Belles of Paradise are few \u2014   \nNot me \u2014 nor you \u2014   \nBut unsuspected things \u2014   \nMines have no Wings.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**And with what body do they come? \u2014**\n\n\"And with what body do they come?\" \u2014   \nThen they do come \u2014 Rejoice!  \nWhat Door \u2014 What Hour \u2014 Run \u2014 run \u2014 My Soul!  \nIlluminate the House!\n\n\"Body!\" Then real \u2014 a Face and Eyes \u2014   \nTo know that it is them!  \nPaul knew the Man that knew the News \u2014   \nHe passed through Bethlehem \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Could that sweet Darkness where they dwell**\n\nCould that sweet Darkness where they dwell  \nBe once disclosed to us  \nThe clamor for their loveliness  \nWould burst the Loneliness \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The competitions of the sky**\n\nThe competitions of the sky  \nCorrodeless ply.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Thrill came slowly like a Boom for**\n\nThe Thrill came slowly like a Boom for  \nCenturies delayed  \nIts fitness growing like the Flood  \nIn sumptuous solitude \u2014   \nThe desolations only missed  \nWhile Rapture changed its Dress  \nAnd stood amazed before the Change  \nIn ravished Holiness \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**All that I do**\n\nAll that I do  \nIs in review  \nTo his enamored mind  \nI know his eye  \nWhere e'er I ply  \nIs pushing close behind  \nNot any Port  \nNor any flight  \nBut he doth there preside  \nWhat omnipresence lies in wait  \nFor her to be a Bride\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Facts by our side are never sudden**\n\nFacts by our side are never sudden  \nUntil they look around  \nAnd then they scare us like a spectre  \nProtruding from the Ground \u2014\n\nThe height of our portentous Neighbor  \nWe never know \u2014   \nTill summoned to his recognition  \nBy an Adieu \u2014\n\nAdieu for whence  \nThe sage cannot conjecture  \nThe bravest die  \nAs ignorant of their resumption  \nAs you or I \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Glass was the Street \u2014 in tinsel Peril**\n\nGlass was the Street \u2014 in tinsel Peril  \nTree and Traveller stood \u2014   \nFilled was the Air with merry venture  \nHearty with Boys the Road \u2014\n\nShot the lithe Sleds like shod vibrations  \nEmphasized and gone  \nIt is the Past's supreme italic  \nMakes this Present mean \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How firm Eternity must look**\n\nHow firm Eternity must look  \nTo crumbling men like me  \nThe only Adamant Estate  \nIn all Identity \u2014\n\nHow mighty to the insecure  \nThy Physiognomy  \nTo whom not any Face cohere \u2014   \nUnless concealed in thee\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It came his turn to beg \u2014**\n\nIt came his turn to beg \u2014   \nThe begging for the life  \nIs different from another Alms  \n'Tis Penury in Chief \u2014\n\nI scanned his narrow realm  \nI gave him leave to live  \nLest Gratitude revive the snake  \nThough smuggled his reprieve\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Its little Ether Hood**\n\nIts little Ether Hood  \nDoth sit upon its Head \u2014   \nThe millinery supple  \nOf the sagacious God \u2014\n\nTill when it slip away  \nA nothing at a time \u2014   \nAnd Dandelion's Drama  \nExpires in a stem.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I saw the wind within her**\n\nI saw the wind within her  \nI knew it blew for me \u2014   \nBut she must buy my shelter  \nI asked Humility\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**More than the Grave is closed to me \u2014**\n\nMore than the Grave is closed to me \u2014   \nThe Grave and that Eternity  \nTo which the Grave adheres \u2014   \nI cling to nowhere till I fall \u2014   \nThe Crash of nothing, yet of all \u2014   \nHow similar appears \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Of whom so dear**\n\nOf whom so dear  \nThe name to hear  \nIllumines with a Glow  \nAs intimate \u2014 as fugitive  \nAs Sunset on the snow \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**She could not live upon the Past**\n\nShe could not live upon the Past  \nThe Present did not know her  \nAnd so she sought this sweet at last  \nAnd nature gently owned her  \nThe mother that has not a knell  \nfor either Duke or Robin\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Summer is shorter than any one \u2014**\n\nSummer is shorter than any one \u2014   \nLife is shorter than Summer \u2014   \nSeventy Years is spent as quick  \nAs an only Dollar \u2014\n\nSorrow \u2014 now \u2014 is polite \u2014 and stays \u2014   \nSee how well we spurn him \u2014   \nEqually to abhor Delight \u2014   \nEqually retain him \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Pile of Years is not so high**\n\nThe Pile of Years is not so high  \nAs when you came before  \nBut it is rising every Day  \nFrom recollection's Floor  \nAnd while by standing on my Heart  \nI still can reach the top  \nEfface the mountain with your face  \nAnd catch me ere I drop\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**You cannot make Remembrance grow**\n\nYou cannot make Remembrance grow  \nWhen it has lost its Root \u2014   \nThe tightening the Soil around  \nAnd setting it upright  \nDeceives perhaps the Universe  \nBut not retrieves the Plant \u2014   \nReal Memory, like Cedar Feet  \nIs shod with Adamant \u2014   \nNor can you cut Remembrance down  \nWhen it shall once have grown \u2014   \nIts Iron Buds will sprout anew  \nHowever overthrown \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Mine Enemy is growing old \u2014**\n\nMine Enemy is growing old \u2014   \nI have at last Revenge \u2014   \nThe Palate of the Hate departs \u2014   \nIf any would avenge\n\nLet him be quick \u2014 the Viand flits \u2014   \nIt is a faded Meat \u2014   \nAnger as soon as fed is dead \u2014   \n'Tis starving makes it fat \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How happy is the little Stone**\n\nHow happy is the little Stone  \nThat rambles in the Road alone,  \nAnd doesn't care about Careers  \nAnd Exigencies never fears \u2014   \nWhose Coat of elemental Brown  \nA passing Universe put on,  \nAnd independent as the Sun  \nAssociates or glows alone,  \nFulfilling absolute Decree  \nIn casual simplicity \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My country need not change her gown,**\n\nMy country need not change her gown,  \nHer triple suit as sweet  \nAs when 'twas cut at Lexington,  \nAnd first pronounced \"a fit.\"\n\nGreat Britain disapproves, \"the stars\";  \nDisparagement discreet, \u2014   \nThere's something in their attitude  \nThat taunts her bayonet.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**All things swept sole away**\n\nAll things swept sole away  \nThis \u2014 is immensity \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Go travelling with us!**\n\n\"Go travelling with us!\"  \nHer travels daily be  \nBy routes of ecstasy  \nTo Evening's Sea \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**An Antiquated Tree**\n\nAn Antiquated Tree  \nIs cherished of the Crow  \nBecause that Junior Foliage is disrespectful now  \nTo venerable Birds  \nWhose Corporation Coat  \nWould decorate Oblivion's  \nRemotest Consulate.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Things that never can come back, are several \u2014**\n\nThe Things that never can come back, are several \u2014   \nChildhood \u2014 some forms of Hope \u2014 the Dead \u2014   \nThough Joys \u2014 like Men \u2014 may sometimes make a Journey \u2014   \nAnd still abide \u2014   \nWe do not mourn for Traveler, or Sailor,  \nTheir Routes are fair \u2014   \nBut think enlarged of all that they will tell us  \nReturning here \u2014   \n\"Here!\" There are typic \"Heres\" \u2014   \nForetold Locations \u2014   \nThe Spirit does not stand \u2014   \nHimself \u2014 at whatsoever Fathom  \nHis Native Land \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**No Autumn's intercepting Chill**\n\nNo Autumn's intercepting Chill  \nAppalls this Tropic Breast \u2014   \nBut African Exuberance  \nAnd Asiatic rest.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How much of Source escapes with thee \u2014**\n\nHow much of Source escapes with thee \u2014   \nHow chief thy sessions be \u2014   \nFor thou hast borne a universe  \nEntirely away.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Not seeing, still we know \u2014**\n\nNot seeing, still we know \u2014   \nNot knowing, guess \u2014   \nNot guessing, smile and hide  \nAnd half caress \u2014\n\nAnd quake \u2014 and turn away,  \nSeraphic fear \u2014   \nIs Eden's innuendo  \n\"If you dare\"?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Dandelion's pallid tube**\n\nThe Dandelion's pallid tube  \nAstonishes the Grass,  \nAnd Winter instantly becomes  \nAn infinite Alas \u2014\n\nThe tube uplifts a signal Bud  \nAnd then a shouting Flower, \u2014   \nThe Proclamation of the Suns  \nThat sepulture is o'er.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The stem of a departed Flower**\n\nThe stem of a departed Flower  \nHas still a silent rank.  \nThe Bearer from an Emerald Court  \nOf a Despatch of Pink.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Butterfly upon the Sky,**\n\nThe Butterfly upon the Sky,  \nThat doesn't know its Name  \nAnd hasn't any tax to pay  \nAnd hasn't any Home  \nIs just as high as you and I,  \nAnd higher, I believe,  \nSo soar away and never sigh  \nAnd that's the way to grieve \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**His little Hearse like Figure**\n\nHis little Hearse like Figure  \nUnto itself a Dirge  \nTo a delusive Lilac  \nThe vanity divulge  \nOf Industry and Morals  \nAnd every righteous thing  \nFor the divine Perdition  \nOf Idleness and Spring \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We never know we go when we are going \u2014**\n\nWe never know we go when we are going \u2014   \nWe jest and shut the Door \u2014   \nFate \u2014 following \u2014 behind us bolts it \u2014   \nAnd we accost no more \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A faded Boy \u2014 in sallow Clothes**\n\nA faded Boy \u2014 in sallow Clothes  \nWho drove a lonesome Cow  \nTo pastures of Oblivion \u2014   \nA statesman's Embryo \u2014\n\nThe Boys that whistled are extinct \u2014   \nThe Cows that fed and thanked  \nRemanded to a Ballad's Barn  \nOr Clover's Retrospect \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**He lived the Life of Ambush**\n\nHe lived the Life of Ambush  \nAnd went the way of Dusk  \nAnd now against his subtle name  \nThere stands an Asterisk  \nAs confident of him as we \u2014   \nImpregnable we are \u2014   \nThe whole of Immortality intrenched  \nWithin a star \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**His oriental heresies**\n\nHis oriental heresies  \nExhilarate the Bee,  \nAnd filling all the Earth and Air  \nWith gay apostasy\n\nFatigued at last, a Clover plain  \nAllures his jaded eye  \nThat lowly Breast where Butterflies  \nHave felt it meet to die \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Oh give it Motion \u2014 deck it sweet**\n\nOh give it Motion \u2014 deck it sweet  \nWith Artery and Vein \u2014   \nUpon its fastened Lips lay words \u2014   \nAffiance it again  \nTo that Pink stranger we call Dust \u2014   \nAcquainted more with that  \nThan with this horizontal one  \nThat will not lift its Hat \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Moon upon her fluent Route**\n\nThe Moon upon her fluent Route  \nDefiant of a Road \u2014   \nThe Star's Etruscan Argument  \nSubstantiate a God \u2014\n\nIf Aims impel these Astral Ones  \nThe ones allowed to know  \nKnow that which makes them as forgot  \nAs Dawn forgets them \u2014 now \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Tis Seasons since the Dimpled War**\n\n'Tis Seasons since the Dimpled War  \nIn which we each were Conqueror  \nAnd each of us were slain  \nAnd Centuries 'twill be and more  \nAnother Massacre before  \nSo modest and so vain \u2014   \nWithout a Formula we fought  \nEach was to each the Pink Redoubt \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Pang is more conspicuous in Spring**\n\nA Pang is more conspicuous in Spring  \nIn contrast with the things that sing  \nNot Birds entirely \u2014 but Minds \u2014   \nMinute Effulgencies and Winds \u2014   \nWhen what they sung for is undone  \nWho cares about a Blue Bird's Tune \u2014   \nWhy, Resurrection had to wait  \nTill they had moved a Stone \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Above Oblivion's Tide there is a Pier**\n\nAbove Oblivion's Tide there is a Pier  \nAnd an effaceless \"Few\" are lifted there \u2014   \nNay \u2014 lift themselves \u2014 Fame has no Arms \u2014   \nAnd but one smile \u2014 that meagres Balms \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**From all the Jails the Boys and Girls**\n\nFrom all the Jails the Boys and Girls  \nEcstatically leap \u2014   \nBeloved only Afternoon  \nThat Prison doesn't keep\n\nThey storm the Earth and stun the Air,  \nA Mob of solid Bliss \u2014   \nAlas \u2014 that Frowns should lie in wait  \nFor such a Foe as this \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**On that specific Pillow**\n\nOn that specific Pillow  \nOur projects flit away \u2014   \nThe Night's tremendous Morrow  \nAnd whether sleep will stay  \nOr usher us \u2014 a stranger \u2014   \nTo situations new  \nThe effort to comprise it  \nIs all the soul can do.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Society for me my misery**\n\nSociety for me my misery  \nSince Gift of Thee \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Life that tied too tight escapes**\n\nThe Life that tied too tight escapes  \nWill ever after run  \nWith a prudential look behind  \nAnd spectres of the Rein \u2014   \nThe Horse that scents the living Grass  \nAnd sees the Pastures smile  \nWill be retaken with a shot  \nIf he is caught at all \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There comes a warning like a spy**\n\nThere comes a warning like a spy  \nA shorter breath of Day  \nA stealing that is not a stealth  \nAnd Summers are away \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Candor \u2014 my tepid friend \u2014**\n\nCandor \u2014 my tepid friend \u2014   \nCome not to play with me \u2014   \nThe Myrrhs, and Mochas, of the Mind  \nAre its iniquity \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Follow wise Orion**\n\nFollow wise Orion  \nTill you waste your Eye \u2014   \nDazzlingly decamping  \nHe is just as high \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Now I lay thee down to Sleep \u2014**\n\nNow I lay thee down to Sleep \u2014   \nI pray the Lord thy Dust to keep \u2014   \nAnd if thou live before thou wake \u2014   \nI pray the Lord thy Soul to make \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**As imperceptibly as Grief**\n\nAs imperceptibly as Grief  \nThe Summer lapsed away \u2014   \nToo imperceptible at last  \nTo seem like Perfidy \u2014   \nA Quietness distilled  \nAs Twilight long begun,  \nOr Nature spending with herself  \nSequestered Afternoon \u2014   \nThe Dusk drew earlier in \u2014   \nThe Morning foreign shone \u2014   \nA courteous, yet harrowing Grace,  \nAs Guest, that would be gone \u2014   \nAnd thus, without a Wing  \nOr service of a Keel  \nOur Summer made her light escape  \nInto the Beautiful.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**No matter where the Saints abide,**\n\nNo matter where the Saints abide,  \nThey make their Circuit fair  \nBehold how great a Firmament  \nAccompanies a Star.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Come show thy Durham Breast**\n\nCome show thy Durham Breast  \nTo her who loves thee best,  \nDelicious Robin \u2014   \nAnd if it be not me  \nAt least within my Tree  \nDo the avowing \u2014   \nThy Nuptial so minute  \nPerhaps is more astute  \nThan vaster suing \u2014   \nFor so to soar away  \nIs our propensity  \nThe Day ensuing \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Obtaining but our own Extent**\n\nObtaining but our own Extent  \nIn whatsoever Realm \u2014   \n'Twas Christ's own personal Expanse  \nThat bore him from the Tomb \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Who has not found the Heaven \u2014 below \u2014**\n\nWho has not found the Heaven \u2014 below \u2014   \nWill fail of it above \u2014   \nFor Angels rent the House next ours,  \nWherever we remove \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Bible is an antique Volume \u2014**\n\nThe Bible is an antique Volume \u2014   \nWritten by faded men  \nAt the suggestion of Holy Spectres \u2014   \nSubjects \u2014 Bethlehem \u2014   \nEden \u2014 the ancient Homestead \u2014   \nSatan \u2014 the Brigadier \u2014   \nJudas \u2014 the Great Defaulter \u2014   \nDavid \u2014 the Troubador \u2014   \nSin \u2014 a distinguished Precipice  \nOthers must resist \u2014   \nBoys that \"believe\" are very lonesome \u2014   \nOther Boys are \"lost\" \u2014   \nHad but the Tale a warbling Teller \u2014   \nAll the Boys would come \u2014   \nOrpheus' Sermon captivated \u2014   \nIt did not condemn \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Sweet Pirate of the heart,**\n\nSweet Pirate of the heart,  \nNot Pirate of the Sea,  \nWhat wrecketh thee?  \nSome spice's Mutiny \u2014   \nSome Attar's perfidy?  \nConfide in me.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Hope is a subtle Glutton \u2014**\n\nHope is a subtle Glutton \u2014   \nHe feeds upon the Fair \u2014   \nAnd yet \u2014 inspected closely  \nWhat Abstinence is there \u2014\n\nHis is the Halcyon Table \u2014   \nThat never seats but One \u2014   \nAnd whatsoever is consumed  \nThe same amount remain \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Meeting by Accident,**\n\nMeeting by Accident,  \nWe hovered by design \u2014   \nAs often as a Century  \nAn error so divine  \nIs ratified by Destiny,  \nBut Destiny is old  \nAnd economical of Bliss  \nAs Midas is of Gold \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My Wars are laid away in Books \u2014**\n\nMy Wars are laid away in Books \u2014   \nI have one Battle more \u2014   \nA Foe whom I have never seen  \nBut oft has scanned me o'er \u2014   \nAnd hesitated me between  \nAnd others at my side,  \nBut chose the best \u2014 Neglecting me \u2014 till  \nAll the rest, have died \u2014   \nHow sweet if I am not forgot  \nBy Chums that passed away \u2014   \nSince Playmates at threescore and ten  \nAre such a scarcity \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The pattern of the sun**\n\nThe pattern of the sun  \nCan fit but him alone  \nFor sheen must have a Disk  \nTo be a sun \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Those \u2014 dying then,**\n\nThose \u2014 dying then,  \nKnew where they went \u2014   \nThey went to God's Right Hand \u2014   \nThat Hand is amputated now  \nAnd God cannot be found \u2014\n\nThe abdication of Belief  \nMakes the Behavior small \u2014   \nBetter an ignis fatuus  \nThan no illume at all \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Within thy Grave!**\n\nWithin thy Grave!  \nOh no, but on some other flight \u2014   \nThou only camest to mankind  \nTo rend it with Good night \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Bliss is the plaything of the child \u2014**\n\nBliss is the plaything of the child \u2014   \nThe secret of the man  \nThe sacred stealth of Boy and Girl  \nRebuke it if we can\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Go tell it \u2014 What a Message \u2014**\n\n\"Go tell it\" \u2014 What a Message \u2014   \nTo whom \u2014 is specified \u2014   \nNot murmur \u2014 not endearment \u2014   \nBut simply \u2014 we \u2014 obeyed \u2014   \nObeyed \u2014 a Lure \u2014 a Longing?  \nOh Nature \u2014 none of this \u2014   \nTo Law \u2014 said sweet Thermopylae  \nI give my dying Kiss \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I groped for him before I knew**\n\nI groped for him before I knew  \nWith solemn nameless need  \nAll other bounty sudden chaff  \nFor this foreshadowed Food  \nWhich others taste and spurn and sneer \u2014   \nThough I within suppose  \nThat consecrated it could be  \nThe only Food that grows\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Image of Light, Adieu \u2014**\n\nImage of Light, Adieu \u2014   \nThanks for the interview \u2014   \nSo long \u2014 so short \u2014   \nPreceptor of the whole \u2014   \nCoeval Cardinal \u2014   \nImpart \u2014 Depart \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Lives he in any other world**\n\nLives he in any other world  \nMy faith cannot reply  \nBefore it was imperative  \n'Twas all distinct to me \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Of Death I try to think like this \u2014**\n\nOf Death I try to think like this \u2014   \nThe Well in which they lay us  \nIs but the Likeness of the Brook  \nThat menaced not to slay us,  \nBut to invite by that Dismay  \nWhich is the Zest of sweetness  \nTo the same Flower Hesperian,  \nDecoying but to greet us \u2014\n\nI do remember when a Child  \nWith bolder Playmates straying  \nTo where a Brook that seemed a Sea  \nWithheld us by its roaring  \nFrom just the Purple Flower beyond  \nUntil constrained to clutch it  \nIf Doom itself were the result,  \nThe boldest leaped, and clutched it \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Tried always and Condemned by thee**\n\nTried always and Condemned by thee  \nPermit me this reprieve  \nThat dying I may earn the look  \nFor which I cease to live \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To be forgot by thee**\n\nTo be forgot by thee  \nSurpasses Memory  \nOf other minds  \nThe Heart cannot forget  \nUnless it contemplate  \nWhat it declines  \nI was regarded then  \nRaised from oblivion  \nA single time  \nTo be remembered what \u2014   \nWorthy to be forgot  \nIs my renown\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**No Brigadier throughout the Year**\n\nNo Brigadier throughout the Year  \nSo civic as the Jay \u2014   \nA Neighbor and a Warrior too  \nWith shrill felicity  \nPursuing Winds that censure us  \nA February Day,  \nThe Brother of the Universe  \nWas never blown away \u2014   \nThe Snow and he are intimate \u2014   \nI've often seem them play  \nWhen Heaven looked upon us all  \nWith such severity  \nI felt apology were due  \nTo an insulted sky  \nWhose pompous frown was Nutriment  \nTo their Temerity \u2014   \nThe Pillow of this daring Head  \nIs pungent Evergreens \u2014   \nHis Larder \u2014 terse and Militant \u2014   \nUnknown \u2014 refreshing things \u2014   \nHis Character \u2014 a Tonic \u2014   \nHis future \u2014 a Dispute \u2014   \nUnfair an Immortality  \nThat leaves this Neighbor out \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Her Losses make our Gains ashamed \u2014**\n\nHer Losses make our Gains ashamed \u2014   \nShe bore Life's empty Pack  \nAs gallantly as if the East  \nWere swinging at her Back.  \nLife's empty Pack is heaviest,  \nAs every Porter knows \u2014   \nIn vain to punish Honey \u2014   \nIt only sweeter grows.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**By homely gift and hindered Words**\n\nBy homely gift and hindered Words  \nThe human heart is told  \nOf Nothing \u2014   \n\"Nothing\" is the force  \nThat renovates the World \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Pass to they Rendezvous of Light,**\n\nPass to thy Rendezvous of Light,  \nPangless except for us \u2014   \nWho slowly for the Mystery  \nWhich thou hast leaped across!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Some Arrows slay but whom they strike \u2014**\n\nSome Arrows slay but whom they strike \u2014   \nBut this slew all but him \u2014   \nWho so appareled his Escape \u2014   \nToo trackless for a Tomb \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Climbing to reach the costly Hearts**\n\nClimbing to reach the costly Hearts  \nTo which he gave the worth,  \nHe broke them, fearing punishment  \nHe ran away from Earth \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Heart has many Doors \u2014**\n\nThe Heart has many Doors \u2014   \nI can but knock \u2014   \nFor any sweet \"Come in\"  \nImpelled to hark \u2014   \nNot saddened by repulse,  \nRepast to me  \nThat somewhere, there exists,  \nSupremacy \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To see her is a Picture \u2014**\n\nTo see her is a Picture \u2014   \nTo hear her is a Tune \u2014   \nTo know her an Intemperance  \nAs innocent as June \u2014   \nTo know her not \u2014 Affliction \u2014   \nTo own her for a Friend  \nA warmth as near as if the Sun  \nWere shining in your Hand.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Clock strikes one that just struck two \u2014**\n\nThe Clock strikes one that just struck two \u2014   \nSome schism in the Sum \u2014   \nA Vagabond for Genesis  \nHas wrecked the Pendulum \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Forever honored by the Tree**\n\nForever honored by the Tree  \nWhose Apple Winterworn  \nEnticed to Breakfast from the Sky  \nTwo Gabriels Yestermorn.\n\nThey registered in Nature's Book  \nAs Robins \u2014 Sire and Son \u2014   \nBut Angels have that modest way  \nTo screen them from Renown.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How slow the Wind \u2014**\n\nHow slow the Wind \u2014   \nhow slow the sea \u2014   \nhow late their Feathers be!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We wear our sober Dresses when we die,**\n\nWe wear our sober Dresses when we die,  \nBut Summer, frilled as for a Holiday  \nAdjourns her sigh \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To the bright east she flies,**\n\nTo the bright east she flies,  \nBrothers of Paradise  \nRemit her home,  \nWithout a change of wings,  \nOr Love's convenient things,  \nEnticed to come.\n\nFashioning what she is,  \nFathoming what she was,  \nWe deem we dream \u2014   \nAnd that dissolves the days  \nThrough which existence strays  \nHomeless at home.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**No ladder needs the bird but skies**\n\nNo ladder needs the bird but skies  \nTo situate its wings,  \nNor any leader's grim baton  \nArraigns it as it sings.  \nThe implements of bliss are few \u2014   \nAs Jesus says of Him,  \n\"Come unto me\" the moiety  \nThat wafts the cherubim.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Bat is dun, with wrinkled Wings \u2014**\n\nThe Bat is dun, with wrinkled Wings \u2014   \nLike fallow Article \u2014   \nAnd not a song pervade his Lips \u2014   \nOr none perceptible.\n\nHis small Umbrella quaintly halved  \nDescribing in the Air  \nAn Arc alike inscrutable  \nElate Philosopher.\n\nDeputed from what Firmament \u2014   \nOf what Astute Abode \u2014   \nEmpowered with what Malignity  \nAuspiciously withheld \u2014\n\nTo his adroit Creator  \nAcribe no less the praise \u2014   \nBeneficent, believe me,  \nHis Eccentricities \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Spirit lasts \u2014 but in what mode \u2014**\n\nThe Spirit lasts \u2014 but in what mode \u2014   \nBelow, the Body speaks,  \nBut as the Spirit furnishes \u2014   \nApart, it never talks \u2014   \nThe Music in the Violin  \nDoes not emerge alone  \nBut Arm in Arm with Touch, yet Touch  \nAlone \u2014 is not a Tune \u2014   \nThe Spirit lurks within the Flesh  \nLike Tides within the Sea  \nThat make the Water live, estranged  \nWhat would the Either be?  \nDoes that know \u2014 now \u2014 or does it cease \u2014   \nThat which to this is done,  \nResuming at a mutual date  \nWith every future one?  \nInstinct pursues the Adamant,  \nExacting this Reply \u2014   \nAdversity if it may be, or  \nWild Prosperity,  \nThe Rumor's Gate was shut so tight  \nBefore my Mind was sown,  \nNot even a Prognostic's Push  \nCould make a Dent thereon \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Morning is due to all \u2014**\n\nMorning is due to all \u2014   \nTo some \u2014 the Night \u2014   \nTo an imperial few \u2014   \nThe Auroral light.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Blossoms will run away,**\n\nBlossoms will run away,  \nCakes reign but a Day,  \nBut Memory like Melody  \nIs pink Eternally.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**It would not know if it were spurned,**\n\nIt would not know if it were spurned,  \nThis gallant little flower \u2014   \nHow therefore safe to be a flower  \nIf one would tamper there.\n\nTo enter, it would not aspire \u2014   \nBut may it not despair  \nThat it is not a Cavalier,  \nTo dare and perish there?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We shun it ere it comes,**\n\nWe shun it ere it comes,  \nAfraid of Joy,  \nThen sue it to delay  \nAnd lest it fly,  \nBeguile it more and more \u2014   \nMay not this be  \nOld Suitor Heaven,  \nLike our dismay at thee?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The farthest Thunder that I heard**\n\nThe farthest Thunder that I heard  \nWas nearer than the Sky  \nAnd rumbles still, though torrid Noons  \nHave lain their missiles by \u2014   \nThe Lightning that preceded it  \nStruck no one but myself \u2014   \nBut I would not exchange the Bolt  \nFor all the rest of Life \u2014   \nIndebtedness to Oxygen  \nThe Happy may repay,  \nBut not the obligation  \nTo Electricity \u2014   \nIt founds the Homes and decks the Days  \nAnd every clamor bright  \nIs but the gleam concomitant  \nOf that waylaying Light \u2014   \nThe Thought is quiet as a Flake \u2014   \nA Crash without a Sound,  \nHow Life's reverberation  \nIts Explanation found \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Where Roses would not dare to go,**\n\nWhere Roses would not dare to go,  \nWhat Heart would risk the way \u2014   \nAnd so I send my Crimson Scouts  \nTo sound the Enemy \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Witchcraft was hung, in History,**\n\nWitchcraft was hung, in History,  \nBut History and I  \nFind all the Witchcraft that we need  \nAround us, every Day \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Expanse cannot be lost \u2014**\n\nExpanse cannot be lost \u2014   \nNot Joy, but a Decree  \nIs Deity \u2014   \nHis Scene, Infinity \u2014   \nWhose rumor's Gate was shut so tight  \nBefore my Beam was sown,  \nNot even a Prognostic's push  \nCould make a Dent thereon \u2014\n\nThe World that thou hast opened  \nShuts for thee,  \nBut not alone,  \nWe all have followed thee \u2014   \nEscape more slowly  \nTo thy Tracts of Sheen \u2014   \nThe Tent is listening,  \nBut the Troops are gone!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Bird her punctual music brings**\n\nThe Bird her punctual music brings  \nAnd lays it in its place \u2014   \nIts place is in the Human Heart  \nAnd in the Heavenly Grace \u2014   \nWhat respite from her thrilling toil  \nDid Beauty ever take \u2014   \nBut Work might be electric Rest  \nTo those that Magic make \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To her derided Home**\n\nTo her derided Home  \nA Weed of Summer came \u2014   \nShe did not know her station low  \nNor Ignominy's Name \u2014   \nBestowed a summer long  \nUpon a frameless flower \u2014   \nThen swept as lightly from disdain  \nAs Lady from her Bower \u2014\n\nOf Bliss the Codes are few \u2014   \nAs Jesus cites of Him \u2014   \n\"Come unto me\" the moiety  \nThat wafts the Seraphim \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**He ate and drank the precious Words \u2014**\n\nHe ate and drank the precious Words \u2014   \nHis Spirit grew robust \u2014   \nHe knew no more that he was poor,  \nNor that his frame was Dust \u2014\n\nHe danced along the dingy Days  \nAnd this Bequest of Wings  \nWas but a Book \u2014 What Liberty  \nA loosened spirit brings \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**This Me \u2014 that walks and works \u2014 must die,**\n\nThis Me \u2014 that walks and works \u2014 must die,  \nSome fair or stormy Day,  \nAdversity if it may be  \nOr wild prosperity  \nThe Rumor's Gate was shut so tight  \nBefore my mind was born  \nNot even a Prognostic's push  \nCan make a Dent thereon \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Cosmopolities without a plea**\n\nCosmopolities without a plea  \nAlight in every Land  \nThe compliments of Paradise  \nFrom those within my Hand\n\nTheir dappled Journey to themselves  \nA compensation fair  \nKnock and it shall be opened  \nIs their Theology\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Not at Home to Callers**\n\nNot at Home to Callers  \nSays the Naked Tree \u2014   \nBonnet due in April \u2014   \nWishing you Good Day \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Bobolink is gone \u2014**\n\nThe Bobolink is gone \u2014   \nThe Rowdy of the Meadow \u2014   \nAnd no one swaggers now but me \u2014   \nThe Presbyterian Birds  \nCan now resume the Meeting  \nHe boldly interrupted that overflowing Day  \nWhen supplicating mercy  \nIn a portentous way  \nHe swung upon the Decalogue  \nAnd shouted let us pray \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Lassitudes of Contemplation**\n\nThe Lassitudes of Contemplation  \nBeget a force  \nThey are the spirit's still vacation  \nThat him refresh \u2014   \nThe Dreams consolidate in action \u2014   \nWhat mettle fair\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There came a Wind like a Bugle \u2014**\n\nThere came a Wind like a Bugle \u2014   \nIt quivered through the Grass  \nAnd a Green Chill upon the Heat  \nSo ominous did pass  \nWe barred the Windows and the Doors  \nAs from an Emerald Ghost \u2014   \nThe Doom's electric Moccasin  \nThat very instant passed \u2014   \nOn a strange Mob of panting Trees  \nAnd Fences fled away  \nAnd Rivers where the Houses ran  \nThose looked that lived \u2014 that Day \u2014   \nThe Bell within the steeple wild  \nThe flying tidings told \u2014   \nHow much can come  \nAnd much can go,  \nAnd yet abide the World!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Immured in Heaven!**\n\nImmured in Heaven!  \nWhat a Cell!  \nLet every Bondage be,  \nThou sweetest of the Universe,  \nLike that which ravished thee!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Declaiming Waters none may dread \u2014**\n\nDeclaiming Waters none may dread \u2014   \nBut Waters that are still  \nAre so for that most fatal cause  \nIn Nature \u2014 they are full \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Few, yet enough,**\n\nFew, yet enough,  \nEnough is One \u2014   \nTo that ethereal throng  \nHave not each one of us the right  \nTo stealthily belong?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Tis not the swaying frame we miss,**\n\n'Tis not the swaying frame we miss,  \nIt is the steadfast Heart,  \nThat had it beat a thousand years,  \nWith Love alone had bent,  \nIts fervor the electric Oar,  \nThat bore it through the Tomb,  \nOurselves, denied the privilege,  \nConsolelessly presume \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Who is it seeks my Pillow Nights \u2014**\n\nWho is it seeks my Pillow Nights \u2014   \nWith plain inspecting face \u2014   \n\"Did you\" or \"Did you not,\" to ask \u2014   \n'Tis \"Conscience\" \u2014 Childhood's Nurse \u2014\n\nWith Martial Hand she strokes the Hair  \nUpon my wincing Head \u2014   \n\"All\" Rogues \"shall have their part in\" what \u2014   \nThe Phosphorous of God \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Though the great Waters sleep,**\n\nThough the great Waters sleep,  \nThat they are still the Deep,  \nWe cannot doubt \u2014   \nNo vacillating God  \nIgnited this Abode  \nTo put it out \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Upon his Saddle sprung a Bird**\n\nUpon his Saddle sprung a Bird  \nAnd crossed a thousand Trees  \nBefore a Fence without a Fare  \nHis Fantasy did please  \nAnd then he lifted up his Throat  \nAnd squandered such a Note  \nA Universe that overheard  \nIs stricken by it yet \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Of God we ask one favor,**\n\nOf God we ask one favor,  \nThat we may be forgiven \u2014   \nFor what, he is presumed to know \u2014   \nThe Crime, from us, is hidden \u2014   \nImmured the whole of Life  \nWithin a magic Prison  \nWe reprimand the Happiness  \nThat too competes with Heaven.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Pursuing you in your transitions,**\n\nPursuing you in your transitions,  \nIn other Motes \u2014   \nOf other Myths  \nYour requisition be.  \nThe Prism never held the Hues,  \nIt only heard them play \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The going from a world we know**\n\nThe going from a world we know  \nTo one a wonder still  \nIs like the child's adversity  \nWhose vista is a hill,  \nBehind the hill is sorcery  \nAnd everything unknown,  \nBut will the secret compensate  \nFor climbing it alone?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**We send the Wave to find the Wave \u2014**\n\nWe send the Wave to find the Wave \u2014   \nAn Errand so divine,  \nThe Messenger enamored too,  \nForgetting to return,  \nWe make the wise distinction still,  \nSoever made in vain,  \nThe sagest time to dam the sea is when the sea is gone \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Each that we lose takes part of us;**\n\nEach that we lose takes part of us;  \nA crescent still abides,  \nWhich like the moon, some turbid night,  \nIs summoned by the tides.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Quite empty, quite at rest,**\n\nQuite empty, quite at rest,  \nThe Robin locks her Nest, and tries her Wings.  \nShe does not know a Route  \nBut puts her Craft about  \nFor rumored Springs \u2014   \nShe does not ask for Noon \u2014   \nShe does not ask for Boon,  \nCrumbless and homeless, of but one request \u2014   \nThe Birds she lost \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Within that little Hive**\n\nWithin that little Hive  \nSuch Hints of Honey lay  \nAs made Reality a Dream  \nAnd Dreams, Reality \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The ecstasy to guess**\n\nThe ecstasy to guess  \nWere a receipted bliss  \nIf grace could talk.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Sunset that screens, reveals \u2014**\n\nSunset that screens, reveals \u2014   \nEnhancing what we see  \nBy menaces of Amethyst  \nAnd Moats of Mystery.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Morning that comes but once,**\n\nMorning that comes but once,  \nConsiders coming twice \u2014   \nTwo Dawns upon a single Morn,  \nMake Life a sudden price.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Their dappled importunity**\n\nTheir dappled importunity  \nDisparage or dismiss \u2014   \nThe Obloquies of Etiquette  \nAre obsolete to Bliss \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Auctioneer of Parting**\n\nThe Auctioneer of Parting  \nHis \"Going, going, gone\"  \nShouts even from the Crucifix,  \nAnd brings his Hammer down \u2014   \nHe only sells the Wilderness,  \nThe prices of Despair  \nRange from a single human Heart  \nTo Two \u2014 not any more \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Not Sickness stains the Brave,**\n\nNot Sickness stains the Brave,  \nNor any Dart,  \nNor Doubt of Scene to come,  \nBut an adjourning Heart \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Parting with Thee reluctantly,**\n\nParting with Thee reluctantly,  \nThat we have never met,  \nA Heart sometimes a Foreigner,  \nRemembers it forgot \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Oh what a Grace is this,**\n\nOh what a Grace is this,  \nWhat Majesties of Peace,  \nThat having breathed  \nThe fine \u2014 ensuing Right  \nWithout Diminuet Proceed!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Who abdicated Ambush**\n\nWho abdicated Ambush  \nAnd went the way of Dusk,  \nAnd now against his subtle Name  \nThere stands an Asterisk  \nAs confident of him as we \u2014   \nImpregnable we are \u2014   \nThe whole of Immortality  \nSecreted in a Star.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To try to speak, and miss the way**\n\nTo try to speak, and miss the way  \nAnd ask it of the Tears,  \nIs Gratitude's sweet poverty,  \nThe Tatters that he wears \u2014\n\nA better Coat if he possessed  \nWould help him to conceal,  \nNot subjugate, the Mutineer  \nWhose title is \"the Soul.\"\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There are two Mays**\n\nThere are two Mays  \nAnd then a Must  \nAnd after that a Shall.  \nHow infinite the compromise  \nThat indicates I will!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Not knowing when the Dawn will come,**\n\nNot knowing when the Dawn will come,  \nI open every Door,  \nOr has it Feathers, like a Bird,  \nOr Billows, like a Shore \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Circumference thou Bride of Awe**\n\nCircumference thou Bride of Awe  \nPossessing thou shalt be  \nPossessed by every hallowed Knight  \nThat dares to covet thee\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Flower will not trouble her, it has so small a Foot,**\n\nA Flower will not trouble her, it has so small a Foot,  \nAnd yet if you compare the Lasts,  \nHers is the smallest Boot \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Sloop of Amber slips away**\n\nA Sloop of Amber slips away  \nUpon an Ether Sea,  \nAnd wrecks in Peace a Purple Tar,  \nThe Son of Ecstasy \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A World made penniless by that departure**\n\nA World made penniless by that departure  \nOf minor fabrics begs  \nBut sustenance is of the spirit  \nThe Gods but Dregs\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Apparently with no surprise**\n\nApparently with no surprise  \nTo any happy Flower  \nThe Frost beheads it at its play \u2014   \nIn accidental power \u2014   \nThe blonde Assassin passes on \u2014   \nThe Sun proceeds unmoved  \nTo measure off another Day  \nFor an Approving God.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Back from the cordial Grave I drag thee**\n\nBack from the cordial Grave I drag thee  \nHe shall not take thy Hand  \nNor put his spacious arm around thee  \nThat none can understand\n\nA Universe that overheard  \nIs stricken by it yet \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**No Life can pompless pass away \u2014**\n\nNo Life can pompless pass away \u2014   \nThe lowliest career  \nTo the same Pageant wends its way  \nAs that exalted here \u2014\n\nHow cordial is the mystery!  \nThe hospitable Pall  \nA \"this way\" beckons spaciously \u2014   \nA Miracle for all!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The pedigree of Honey**\n\nTHE pedigree of honey  \nDoes not concern the bee ;  \nA clover, any time, to him  \nIs aristocracy.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Drunkard cannot meet a Cork**\n\nA Drunkard cannot meet a Cork  \nWithout a Revery \u2014   \nAnd so encountering a Fly  \nThis January Day  \nJamaicas of Remembrance stir  \nThat send me reeling in \u2014   \nThe moderate drinker of Delight  \nDoes not deserve the spring \u2014   \nOf juleps, part are the Jug  \nAnd more are in the joy \u2014   \nYour connoisseur in Liquours  \nConsults the Bumble Bee \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Arrows enamored of his Heart \u2014**\n\nArrows enamored of his Heart \u2014   \nForgot to rankle there  \nAnd Venoms he mistook for Balms  \ndisdained to rankle there \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**As from the earth the light Balloon**\n\nAs from the earth the light Balloon  \nAsks nothing but release \u2014   \nAscension that for which it was,  \nIts soaring Residence.  \nThe spirit looks upon the Dust  \nThat fastened it so long  \nWith indignation,  \nAs a Bird  \nDefrauded of its song.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Oh Future! thou secreted peace**\n\nOh Future! thou secreted peace  \nOr subterranean woe \u2014   \nIs there no wandering route of grace  \nThat leads away from thee \u2014   \nNo circuit sage of all the course  \nDescried by cunning Men  \nTo balk thee of thy sacred Prey \u2014   \nAdvancing to thy Den \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**So give me back to Death \u2014**\n\nSo give me back to Death \u2014   \nThe Death I never feared  \nExcept that it deprived of thee \u2014   \nAnd now, by Life deprived,  \nIn my own Grave I breathe  \nAnd estimate its size \u2014   \nIts size is all that Hell can guess \u2014   \nAnd all that Heaven was \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Still own thee \u2014 still thou art**\n\nStill own thee \u2014 still thou art  \nWhat surgeons call alive \u2014   \nThough slipping \u2014 slipping I perceive  \nTo thy reportless Grave \u2014\n\nWhich question shall I clutch \u2014   \nWhat answer wrest from thee  \nBefore thou dost exude away  \nIn the recallless sea?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Talk not to me of Summer Trees**\n\nTalk not to me of Summer Trees  \nThe foliage of the mind  \nA Tabernacle is for Birds  \nOf no corporeal kind  \nAnd winds do go that way at noon  \nTo their Ethereal Homes  \nWhose Bugles call the least of us  \nTo undepicted Realms\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Jay his Castanet has struck**\n\nThe Jay his Castanet has struck  \nPut on your muff for Winter  \nThe Tippet that ignores his voice  \nIs impudent to nature\n\nOf Swarthy Days he is the close  \nHis Lotus is a chestnut  \nThe Cricket drops a sable line  \nNo more from yours at present\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Sun in reigning to the West**\n\nThe Sun in reigning to the West  \nMakes not as much of sound  \nAs Cart of man in road below  \nAdroitly turning round  \nThat Whiffletree of Amethyst\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Is it too late to touch you, Dear?**\n\nIs it too late to touch you, Dear?  \nWe this moment knew \u2014   \nLove Marine and Love terrene \u2014   \nLove celestial too \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Go thy great way!**\n\nGo thy great way!  \nThe Stars thou meetst  \nAre even as Thyself \u2014   \nFor what are Stars but Asterisks  \nTo point a human Life?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Letter is a joy of Earth \u2014**\n\nA Letter is a joy of Earth \u2014   \nIt is denied the Gods \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Take all away from me, but leave me Ecstasy,**\n\nTake all away from me, but leave me Ecstasy,  \nAnd I am richer then than all my Fellow Men \u2014   \nIll it becometh me to dwell so wealthily  \nWhen at my very Door are those possessing more,  \nIn abject poverty \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Betrothed to Righteousness might be**\n\nBetrothed to Righteousness might be  \nAn Ecstasy discreet  \nBut Nature relishes the Pinks  \nWhich she was taught to eat \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Red Sea, indeed! Talk not to me**\n\n\"Red Sea,\" indeed! Talk not to me  \nOf purple Pharaoh \u2014   \nI have a Navy in the West  \nWould pierce his Columns thro' \u2014   \nGuileless, yet of such Glory fine  \nThat all along the Line  \nIs it, or is it not, divine \u2014   \nThe Eye inquires with a sigh  \nThat Earth sh'd be so big \u2014   \nWhat Exultation in the Woe \u2014   \nWhat Wine in the fatigue!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Extol thee \u2014 could I? Then I will**\n\nExtol thee \u2014 could I? Then I will  \nBy saying nothing new \u2014   \nBut just the truest truth  \nThat thou art heavenly.\n\nPerceiving thee is evidence  \nThat we are of the sky  \nPartaking thee a guaranty  \nOf immortality\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Some one prepared this mighty show**\n\nSome one prepared this mighty show  \nTo which without a Ticket go  \nThe nations and the Days \u2014\n\nDisplayed before the simplest Door  \nThat all may witness it and more,  \nThe pomp of summer Days.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Ditch is dear to the Drunken man**\n\nThe Ditch is dear to the Drunken man  \nFor is it not his Bed \u2014   \nHis Advocate \u2014 his Edifice?  \nHow safe his fallen Head  \nIn her disheveled Sanctity \u2014   \nAbove him is the sky \u2014   \nOblivion bending over him  \nAnd Honor leagues away.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Why should we hurry \u2014 why indeed?**\n\nWhy should we hurry \u2014 why indeed?  \nWhen every way we fly  \nWe are molested equally  \nBy immortality.  \nNo respite from the inference  \nThat this which is begun,  \nThough where its labors lie  \nA bland uncertainty  \nBesets the sight  \nThis mighty night \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Of Glory not a Beam is left**\n\nOf Glory not a Beam is left  \nBut her Eternal House \u2014   \nThe Asterisk is for the Dead,  \nThe Living, for the Stars \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The immortality she gave**\n\nThe immortality she gave  \nWe borrowed at her Grave \u2014   \nFor just one Plaudit famishing,  \nThe Might of Human love \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Cap of Lead across the sky**\n\nA Cap of Lead across the sky  \nWas tight and surly drawn  \nWe could not find the mighty Face  \nThe Figure was withdrawn \u2014\n\nA Chill came up as from a shaft  \nOur noon became a well  \nA Thunder storm combines the charms  \nOf Winter and of Hell.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A lane of Yellow led the eye**\n\nA lane of Yellow led the eye  \nUnto a Purple Wood  \nWhose soft inhabitants to be  \nSurpasses solitude  \nIf Bird the silence contradict  \nOr flower presume to show  \nIn that low summer of the West  \nImpossible to know \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Word made Flesh is seldom**\n\nA Word made Flesh is seldom  \nAnd tremblingly partook  \nNor then perhaps reported  \nBut have I not mistook  \nEach one of us has tasted  \nWith ecstasies of stealth  \nThe very food debated  \nTo our specific strength \u2014\n\nA Word that breathes distinctly  \nHas not the power to die  \nCohesive as the Spirit  \nIt may expire if He \u2014   \n\"Made Flesh and dwelt among us\"  \nCould condescension be  \nLike this consent of Language  \nThis loved Philology.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Advance is Life's condition**\n\nAdvance is Life's condition  \nThe Grave but a Relay  \nSupposed to be a terminus  \nThat makes it hated so \u2014\n\nThe Tunnel is not lighted  \nExistence with a wall  \nIs better we consider  \nThan not exist at all \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**As we pass Houses musing slow**\n\nAs we pass Houses musing slow  \nIf they be occupied  \nSo minds pass minds  \nIf they be occupied\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Beauty crowds me till I die**\n\nBeauty crowds me till I die  \nBeauty mercy have on me  \nBut if I expire today  \nLet it be in sight of thee \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Conferring with myself**\n\nConferring with myself  \nMy stranger disappeared  \nThough first upon a berry fat  \nMiraculously fared  \nHow paltry looked my cares  \nMy practise how absurd  \nSuperfluous my whole career  \nBeside this travelling Bird\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Down Time's quaint stream**\n\nDown Time's quaint stream  \nWithout an oar  \nWe are enforced to sail  \nOur Port a secret  \nOur Perchance a Gale  \nWhat Skipper would  \nIncur the Risk  \nWhat Buccaneer would ride  \nWithout a surety from the Wind  \nOr schedule of the Tide \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Eden is that old-fashioned House**\n\nEden is that old-fashioned House  \nWe dwell in every day  \nWithout suspecting our abode  \nUntil we drive away.\n\nHow fair on looking back, the Day  \nWe sauntered from the Door \u2014   \nUnconscious our returning,  \nBut discover it no more.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Endanger it, and the Demand**\n\nEndanger it, and the Demand  \nOf tickets for a sigh  \nAmazes the Humility  \nOf Credibility \u2014\n\nRecover it to Nature  \nAnd that dejected Fleet  \nFind Consternation's Carnival  \nDivested of its Meat.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Fame is a fickle food**\n\nFame is a fickle food  \nUpon a shifting plate  \nWhose table once a  \nGuest but not  \nThe second time is set.\n\nWhose crumbs the crows inspect  \nAnd with ironic caw  \nFlap past it to the  \nFarmer's Corn \u2014   \nMen eat of it and die.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Glory is that bright tragic thing**\n\nGlory is that bright tragic thing  \nThat for an instant  \nMeans Dominion \u2014   \nWarms some poor name  \nThat never felt the Sun,  \nGently replacing  \nIn oblivion \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Guest am I to have**\n\nGuest am I to have  \nLight my northern room  \nWhy to cordiality so averse to come  \nOther friends adjourn  \nOther bonds decay  \nWhy avoid so narrowly  \nMy fidelity \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**He went by sleep that drowsy route**\n\nHe went by sleep that drowsy route  \nTo the surmising Inn \u2014   \nAt day break to begin his race  \nOr ever to remain \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**His mind of man, a secret makes**\n\nHis mind of man, a secret makes  \nI meet him with a start  \nHe carries a circumference  \nIn which I have no part \u2014\n\nOr even if I deem I do  \nHe otherwise may know  \nImpregnable to inquest  \nHowever neighborly \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I did not reach Thee**\n\nI did not reach Thee  \nBut my feet slip nearer every day  \nThree Rivers and a Hill to cross  \nOne Desert and a Sea  \nI shall not count the journey one  \nWhen I am telling thee.\n\nTwo deserts, but the Year is cold  \nSo that will help the sand  \nOne desert crossed \u2014   \nThe second one  \nWill feel as cool as land  \nSahara is too little price  \nTo pay for thy Right hand.\n\nThe Sea comes last \u2014 Step merry, feet,  \nSo short we have to go \u2014   \nTo play together we are prone,  \nBut we must labor now,  \nThe last shall be the lightest load  \nThat we have had to draw.\n\nThe Sun goes crooked \u2014   \nThat is Night  \nBefore he makes the bend.  \nWe must have passed the Middle Sea \u2014   \nAlmost we wish the End  \nWere further off \u2014   \nToo great it seems  \nSo near the Whole to stand.\n\nWe step like Plush,  \nWe stand like snow,  \nThe waters murmur new.  \nThree rivers and the Hill are passed \u2014   \nTwo deserts and the sea!  \nNow Death usurps my Premium  \nAnd gets the look at Thee.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I know of people in the Grave**\n\nI know of people in the Grave  \nWho would be very glad  \nTo know the news I know tonight  \nIf they the chance had had.\n\n'Tis this expands the least event  \nAnd swells the scantest deed \u2014   \nMy right to walk upon the Earth  \nIf they this moment had.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I see thee clearer for the Grave**\n\nI see thee clearer for the Grave  \nThat took thy face between  \nNo Mirror could illumine thee  \nLike that impassive stone \u2014\n\nI know thee better for the Act  \nThat made thee first unknown  \nThe stature of the empty nest  \nAttests the Bird that's gone.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I watcher her face to see which way**\n\nI watched her face to see which way  \nShe took the awful news \u2014   \nWhether she died before she heard  \nOr in protracted bruise  \nRemained a few slow years with us \u2014   \nEach heavier than the last \u2014   \nA further afternoon to fail,  \nAs Flower at fall of Frost.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If I could tell how glad I was**\n\nIf I could tell how glad I was  \nI should not be so glad \u2014   \nBut when I cannot make the Force,  \nNor mould it into Word,  \nI know it is a sign  \nThat new Dilemna be  \nFrom mathematics further off  \nThan for Eternity.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**In snow thou comest \u2014**\n\nIn snow thou comest \u2014   \nThou shalt go with the resuming ground,  \nThe sweet derision of the crow,  \nAnd Glee's advancing sound.\n\nIn fear thou comest \u2014   \nThou shalt go at such a gait of joy  \nThat man anew embark to live  \nUpon the depth of thee.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**In Winter in my Room**\n\nIn Winter in my Room  \nI came upon a Worm \u2014   \nPink, lank and warm \u2014   \nBut as he was a worm  \nAnd worms presume  \nNot quite with him at home \u2014   \nSecured him by a string  \nTo something neighboring  \nAnd went along.\n\nA Trifle afterward  \nA thing occurred  \nI'd not believe it if I heard  \nBut state with creeping blood \u2014   \nA snake with mottles rare  \nSurveyed my chamber floor  \nIn feature as the worm before  \nBut ringed with power \u2014\n\nThe very string with which  \nI tied him \u2014 too  \nWhen he was mean and new  \nThat string was there \u2014\n\nI shrank \u2014 \"How fair you are\"!  \nPropitiation's claw \u2014   \n\"Afraid,\" he hissed  \n\"Of me\"?  \n\"No cordiality\" \u2014   \nHe fathomed me \u2014   \nThen to a Rhythm Slim  \nSecreted in his Form  \nAs Patterns swim  \nProjected him.\n\nThat time I flew  \nBoth eyes his way  \nLest he pursue  \nNor ever ceased to run  \nTill in a distant Town  \nTowns on from mine  \nI set me down  \nThis was a dream.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Judgment is justest**\n\nJudgment is justest  \nWhen the Judged,  \nHis action laid away,  \nDivested is of every Disk  \nBut his sincerity.\n\nHonor is then the safest hue  \nIn a posthumous Sun \u2014   \nNot any color will endure  \nThat scrutiny can burn.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Lightly stepped a yellow star**\n\nLightly stepped a yellow star  \nTo its lofty place \u2014   \nLoosed the Moon her silver hat  \nFrom her lustral Face \u2014   \nAll of Evening softly lit  \nAs an Astral Hall \u2014   \nFather, I observed to Heaven,  \nYou are punctual.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Nature can do no more**\n\nNature can do no more  \nShe has fulfilled her Dyes  \nWhatever Flower fail to come  \nOf other Summer days  \nHer crescent reimburse  \nIf other Summers be  \nNature's imposing negative  \nNulls opportunity \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Not any sunny tone**\n\nNot any sunny tone  \nFrom any fervent zone  \nFind entrance there \u2014   \nBetter a grave of Balm  \nToward human nature's home \u2014   \nAnd Robins near \u2014   \nThan a stupendous Tomb  \nProclaiming to the Gloom  \nHow dead we are \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Of this is Day composed**\n\nOf this is Day composed  \nA morning and a noon  \nA Revelry unspeakable  \nAnd then a gay unknown  \nWhose Pomps allure and spurn  \nAnd dower and deprive  \nAnd penury for Glory  \nRemedilessly leave.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Of Yellow was the outer Sky**\n\nOf Yellow was the outer Sky  \nIn Yellower Yellow hewn  \nTill Saffron in Vermilion slid  \nWhose seam could not be shewn.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**On my volcano grows the Grass**\n\nOn my volcano grows the Grass  \nA meditative spot \u2014   \nAn acre for a Bird to choose  \nWould be the General thought \u2014\n\nHow red the Fire rocks below  \nHow insecure the sod  \nDid I disclose  \nWould populate with awe my solitude.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Peril as a Possesssion**\n\nPeril as a Possesssion  \n'Tis Good to hear  \nDanger disintegrates Satiety  \nThere's Basis there \u2014   \nBegets an awe  \nThat searches Human Nature's creases  \nAs clean as Fire.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Rather arid delight**\n\nRather arid delight  \nIf Contentment accrue  \nMake an abstemious Ecstasy  \nNot so good as joy \u2014\n\nBut Rapture's Expense  \nMust not be incurred  \nWith a tomorrow knocking  \nAnd the Rent unpaid \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Sometimes with the Heart**\n\nSometimes with the Heart  \nSeldom with the Soul  \nScarcer once with the Might  \nFew \u2014 love at all.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Speech is one symptom of Affection**\n\nSpeech is one symptom of Affection  \nAnd Silence one \u2014   \nThe perfectest communication  \nIs heard of none \u2014\n\nExists and its indorsement  \nIs had within \u2014   \nBehold, said the Apostle,  \nYet had not seen!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Summer begins to have the look**\n\nSummer begins to have the look  \nPeruser of enchanting Book  \nReluctantly but sure perceives  \nA gain upon the backward leaves \u2014\n\nAutumn begins to be inferred  \nBy millinery of the cloud  \nOr deeper color in the shawl  \nThat wraps the everlasting hill.\n\nThe eye begins its avarice  \nA meditation chastens speech  \nSome Dyer of a distant tree  \nResumes his gaudy industry.\n\nConclusion is the course of All  \nAt most to be perennial  \nAnd then elude stability  \nRecalls to immortality.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**That she forgot me was the least**\n\nThat she forgot me was the least  \nI felt it second pain  \nThat I was worthy to forget  \nWas most I thought upon.\n\nFaithful was all that I could boast  \nBut Constancy became  \nTo her, by her innominate,  \nA something like a shame.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Blunder is in estimate.**\n\nThe Blunder is in estimate.  \nEternity is there  \nWe say, as of a Station \u2014   \nMeanwhile he is so near\n\nHe joins me in my Ramble \u2014   \nDivides abode with me \u2014   \nNo Friend have I that so persists  \nAs this Eternity.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The butterfly obtains**\n\nThe butterfly obtains  \nBut little sympathy  \nThough favorably mentioned  \nIn Entomology \u2014\n\nBecause he travels freely  \nAnd wears a proper coat  \nThe circumspect are certain  \nThat he is dissolute \u2014\n\nHad he the homely scutcheon  \nOf modest Industry  \n'Twere fitter certifying  \nFor Immortality \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The event was directly behind Him**\n\nThe event was directly behind Him  \nYet He did not guess  \nFitted itself to Himself like a Robe  \nRelished His ignorance.  \nMotioned itself to drill  \nLoaded and Levelled  \nAnd let His Flesh  \nCenturies from His soul.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The gleam of an heroic Act**\n\nThe gleam of an heroic Act  \nSuch strange illumination  \nThe Possible's slow fuse is lit  \nBy the Imagination.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Hills erect their Purple Heads**\n\nThe Hills erect their Purple Heads  \nThe Rivers lean to see  \nYet Man has not of all the Throng  \nA Curiosity.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The look of thee, what is it like**\n\nThe look of thee, what is it like  \nHast thou a hand or Foot  \nOr Mansion of Identity  \nAnd what is thy Pursuit?\n\nThy fellows are they realms or Themes  \nHast thou Delight or Fear  \nOr Longing \u2014 and is that for us  \nOr values more severe?\n\nLet change transfuse all other Traits  \nEnact all other Blame  \nBut deign this least certificate \u2014   \nThat thou shalt be the same.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The ones that disappeared are back**\n\nThe ones that disappeared are back  \nThe Phoebe and the Crow  \nPrecisely as in March is heard  \nThe curtness of the Jay \u2014   \nBe this an Autumn or a Spring  \nMy wisdom loses way  \nOne side of me the nuts are ripe  \nThe other side is May.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The overtakelessness of those**\n\nThe overtakelessness of those  \nWho have accomplished Death  \nMajestic is to me beyond  \nThe majesties of Earth.\n\nThe soul her \"Not at Home\"  \nInscribes upon the flesh \u2014   \nAnd takes her fair aerial gait  \nBeyond the hope of touch.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The right to perish might be thought**\n\nThe right to perish might be thought  \nAn undisputed right \u2014   \nAttempt it, and the Universe  \nUpon the opposite  \nWill concentrate its officers \u2014   \nYou cannot even die  \nBut nature and mankind must pause  \nTo pay you scrutiny.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Sun retired to a cloud**\n\nThe Sun retired to a cloud  \nA Woman's shawl as big \u2014   \nAnd then he sulked in mercury  \nUpon a scarlet log \u2014   \nThe drops on Nature's forehead stood  \nHome flew the loaded bees \u2014   \nThe South unrolled a purple fan  \nAnd handed to the trees.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The wind drew off**\n\nThe wind drew off  \nLike hungry dogs  \nDefeated of a bone \u2014   \nThrough fissures in  \nVolcanic cloud  \nThe yellow lightning shone \u2014   \nThe trees held up  \nTheir mangled limbs  \nLike animals in pain \u2014   \nWhen Nature falls upon herself  \nBeware an Austrian.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There is a solitude of space**\n\nThere is a solitude of space  \nA solitude of sea  \nA solitude of death, but these  \nSociety shall be  \nCompared with that profounder site  \nThat polar privacy  \nA soul admitted to itself \u2014   \nFinite infinity.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**These are the days that Reindeer love**\n\nThese are the days that Reindeer love  \nAnd pranks the Northern star \u2014   \nThis is the Sun's objective,  \nAnd Finland of the Year.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**They talk as slow as Legends grow**\n\nThey talk as slow as Legends grow  \nNo mushroom is their mind  \nBut foliage of sterility  \nToo stolid for the wind \u2014\n\nThey laugh as wise as Plots of Wit  \nPredestined to unfold  \nThe point with bland prevision  \nPortentously untold.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Tis easier to pity those when dead**\n\n'Tis easier to pity those when dead  \nThat which pity previous  \nWould have saved \u2014   \nA Tragedy enacted  \nSecures Applause  \nThat Tragedy enacting  \nToo seldom does.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To do a magnanimous thing**\n\nTo do a magnanimous thing  \nAnd take oneself by surprise  \nIf oneself is not in the habit of him  \nIs precisely the finest of Joys \u2014\n\nNot to do a magnanimous thing  \nNotwithstanding it never be known  \nNotwithstanding it cost us existence once  \nIs Rapture herself spurn \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To tell the Beauty would decrease**\n\nTo tell the Beauty would decrease  \nTo state the Spell demean \u2014   \nThere is a syllable-less Sea  \nOf which it is the sign \u2014   \nMy will endeavors for its word  \nAnd fails, but entertains  \nA Rapture as of Legacies \u2014   \nOf introspective Mines \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To their apartment deep**\n\nTo their apartment deep  \nNo ribaldry may creep  \nUntumbled this abode  \nBy any man but God \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Today or this noon**\n\nToday or this noon  \nShe dwelt so close  \nI almost touched her \u2014   \nTonight she lies  \nPast neighborhood  \nAnd bough and steeple,  \nNow past surmise.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Twas comfort in her Dying Room**\n\n'Twas comfort in her Dying Room  \nTo hear the living Clock \u2014   \nA short relief to have the wind  \nWalk boldly up and knock \u2014   \nDiversion from the Dying Theme  \nTo hear the children play \u2014   \nBut wrong the more  \nThat these could live  \nAnd this of ours must die.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Unto a broken heart**\n\nUnto a broken heart  \nNo other one may go  \nWithout the high prerogative  \nItself hath suffered too.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Volcanoes be in Sicily**\n\nVolcanoes be in Sicily  \nAnd South America  \nI judge from my Geography \u2014   \nVolcanos nearer here  \nA Lava step at any time  \nAm I inclined to climb \u2014   \nA Crater I may contemplate  \nVesuvius at Home.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**When we have ceased to care**\n\nWhen we have ceased to care  \nThe Gift is given  \nFor which we gave the Earth  \nAnd mortgaged Heaven  \nBut so declined in worth  \n'Tis ignominy now  \nTo look upon \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Winter under cultivation**\n\nWinter under cultivation  \nIs as arable as Spring.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Witchcraft has not a Pedigree**\n\nWitchcraft has not a Pedigree  \n'Tis early as our Breath  \nAnd mourners meet it going out  \nThe moment of our death \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**With sweetness unabated**\n\nWith sweetness unabated  \nInformed the hour had come  \nWith no remiss of triumph  \nThe autumn started home\n\nHer home to be with Nature  \nAs competition done  \nBy influential kinsmen  \nInvited to return \u2014\n\nIn supplements of Purple  \nAn adequate repast  \nIn heavenly reviewing  \nHer residue be past \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A curious Cloud surprised the Sky,**\n\nA curious Cloud surprised the Sky,  \n'Twas like a sheet with Horns;  \nThe sheet was Blue \u2014   \nThe Antlers Gray \u2014   \nIt almost touched the lawns.\n\nSo low it leaned \u2014 then statelier drew \u2014   \nAnd trailed like robes away,  \nA Queen adown a satin aisle  \nHad not the majesty.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A face devoid of love or grace,**\n\nA face devoid of love or grace,  \nA hateful, hard, successful face,  \nA face with which a stone  \nWould feel as thoroughly at ease  \nAs were they old acquaintances \u2014   \nFirst time together thrown.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A Pit \u2014 but Heaven over it \u2014**\n\nA Pit \u2014 but Heaven over it \u2014   \nAnd Heaven beside, and Heaven abroad,  \nAnd yet a Pit \u2014   \nWith Heaven over it.\n\nTo stir would be to slip \u2014   \nTo look would be to drop \u2014   \nTo dream \u2014 to sap the Prop  \nThat holds my chances up.  \nAh! Pit! With Heaven over it!\n\nThe depth is all my thought \u2014   \nI dare not ask my feet \u2014   \n'Twould start us where we sit  \nSo straight you'd scarce suspect  \nIt was a Pit \u2014 with fathoms under it \u2014   \nIts Circuit just the same.  \nSeed \u2014 summer \u2014 tomb \u2014   \nWhose Doom to whom?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**As subtle as tomorrow**\n\nAs subtle as tomorrow  \nThat never came,  \nA warrant, a conviction,  \nYet but a name.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**By a departing light**\n\nBy a departing light  \nWe see acuter, quite,  \nThan by a wick that stays.  \nThere's something in the flight  \nThat clarifies the sight  \nAnd decks the rays.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Consulting summer's clock,**\n\nConsulting summer's clock,  \nBut half the hours remain.  \nI ascertain it with a shock \u2014   \nI shall not look again.  \nThe second half of joy  \nIs shorter than the first.  \nThe truth I do not dare to know  \nI muffle with a jest.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Death is like the insect**\n\nDeath is like the insect  \nMenacing the tree,  \nCompetent to kill it,  \nBut decoyed may be.\n\nBait it with the balsam,  \nSeek it with the saw,  \nBaffle, if it cost you  \nEverything you are.\n\nThen, if it have burrowed  \nOut of reach of skill \u2014   \nWring the tree and leave it,  \n'Tis the vermin's will.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Did life's penurious length**\n\nDid life's penurious length  \nItalicize its sweetness,  \nThe men that daily live  \nWould stand so deep in joy  \nThat it would clog the cogs  \nOf that revolving reason  \nWhose esoteric belt  \nProtects our sanity.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Drowning is not so pitiful**\n\nDrowning is not so pitiful  \nAs the attempt to rise  \nThree times, 'tis said, a sinking man  \nComes up to face the skies,  \nAnd then declines forever  \nTo that abhorred abode,  \nWhere hope and he part company \u2014   \nFor he is grasped of God.  \nThe Maker's cordial visage,  \nHowever good to see,  \nIs shunned, we must admit it,  \nLike an adversity.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**God is indeed a jealous God \u2014**\n\nGod is indeed a jealous God \u2014   \nHe cannot bear to see  \nThat we had rather not with Him  \nBut with each other play.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Had I known that the first was the last**\n\nHad I known that the first was the last  \nI should have kept it longer.  \nHad I known that the last was the first  \nI should have drunk it stronger.  \nCup, it was your fault,  \nLip was not the liar.  \nNo, lip, it was yours,  \nBliss was most to blame.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**He was my host \u2014 he was my guest,**\n\nHe was my host \u2014 he was my guest,  \nI never to this day  \nIf I invited him could tell,  \nOr he invited me.\n\nSo infinite our intercourse  \nSo intimate, indeed,  \nAnalysis as capsule seemed  \nTo keeper of the seed.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Her face was in a bed of hair,**\n\nHer face was in a bed of hair,  \nLike flowers in a plot \u2014   \nHer hand was whiter than the sperm  \nThat feeds the sacred light.  \nHer tongue more tender than the tune  \nThat totters in the leaves \u2014   \nWho hears may be incredulous,  \nWho witnesses, believes.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**High from the earth I heard a bird,**\n\nHigh from the earth I heard a bird,  \nHe trod upon the trees  \nAs he esteemed them trifles,  \nAnd then he spied a breeze,  \nAnd situated softly  \nUpon a pile of wind  \nWhich in a perturbation  \nNature had left behind.  \nA joyous going fellow  \nI gathered from his talk  \nWhich both of benediction  \nAnd badinage partook.  \nWithout apparent burden  \nI subsequently learned  \nHe was the faithful father  \nOf a dependent brood.  \nAnd this untoward transport  \nHis remedy for care.  \nA contrast to our respites.  \nHow different we are!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How dare the robins sing,**\n\nHow dare the robins sing,  \nWhen men and women hear  \nWho since they went to their account  \nHave settled with the year! \u2014   \nPaid all that life had earned  \nIn one consummate bill,  \nAnd now, what life or death can do  \nIs immaterial.  \nInsulting is the sun  \nTo him whose mortal light  \nBeguiled of immortality  \nBequeaths him to the night.  \nExtinct be every hum  \nIn deference to him  \nWhose garden wrestles with the dew,  \nAt daybreak overcome!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I took one Draught of Life \u2014**\n\nI took one Draught of Life \u2014   \nI'll tell you what I paid \u2014   \nPrecisely an existence \u2014   \nThe market price, they said.\n\nThey weighed me, Dust by Dust \u2014   \nThey balanced Film with Film,  \nThen handed me my Being's worth \u2014   \nA single Dram of Heaven!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If all the griefs I am to have**\n\nIf all the griefs I am to have  \nWould only come today,  \nI am so happy I believe  \nThey'd laugh and run away.\n\nIf all the joys I am to have  \nWould only come today,  \nThey could not be so big as this  \nThat happens to me now.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**If ever the lid gets off my head**\n\nIf ever the lid gets off my head  \nAnd lets the brain away  \nThe fellow will go where he belonged \u2014   \nWithout a hint from me,\n\nAnd the world \u2014 if the world be looking on \u2014   \nWill see how far from home  \nIt is possible for sense to live  \nThe soul there \u2014 all the time.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Is Immortality a bane**\n\nIs Immortality a bane  \nThat men are so oppressed?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**I've got an arrow here.**\n\nI've got an arrow here.  \nLoving the hand that sent it  \nI the dart revere.\n\nFell, they will say, in \"skirmish\"!  \nVanquished, my soul will know  \nBy but a simple arrow  \nSped by an archer's bow.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Lethe in my flower,**\n\n\"Lethe\" in my flower,  \nOf which they who drink  \nIn the fadeless orchards  \nHear the bobolink!\n\nMerely flake or petal  \nAs the Eye beholds  \nJupiter! my father!  \nI perceive the rose!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Love can do all but raise the Dead**\n\nLove can do all but raise the Dead  \nI doubt if even that  \nFrom such a giant were withheld  \nWere flesh equivalent\n\nBut love is tired and must sleep,  \nAnd hungry and must graze  \nAnd so abets the shining Fleet  \nTill it is out of gaze.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**My life closed twice before its close \u2014**\n\nMy life closed twice before its close \u2014   \nIt yet remains to see  \nIf Immortality unveil  \nA third event to me\n\nSo huge, so hopeless to conceive  \nAs these that twice befell.  \nParting is all we know of heaven,  \nAnd all we need of hell.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**No man saw awe, nor to his house**\n\nNo man saw awe, nor to his house  \nAdmitted he a man  \nThough by his awful residence  \nHas human nature been.\n\nNot deeming of his dread abode  \nTill laboring to flee  \nA grasp on comprehension laid  \nDetained vitality.\n\nReturning is a different route  \nThe Spirit could not show  \nFor breathing is the only work  \nTo be enacted now.\n\n\"Am not consumed,\" old Moses wrote,  \n\"Yet saw him face to face\" \u2014   \nThat very physiognomy  \nI am convinced was this.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Oh, honey of an hour,**\n\nOh, honey of an hour,  \nI never knew thy power,  \nProhibit me  \nTill my minutest dower,  \nMy unfrequented flower,  \nDeserving be.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**One crown that no one seeks**\n\nOne crown that no one seeks  \nAnd yet the highest head  \nIts isolation coveted  \nIts stigma deified\n\nWhile Pontius Pilate lives  \nIn whatsoever hell  \nThat coronation pierces him  \nHe recollects it well.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Proud of my broken heart, since thou didst break it,**\n\nProud of my broken heart, since thou didst break it,  \nProud of the pain I did not feel till thee,\n\nProud of my night, since thou with moons dost slake it,  \nNot to partake thy passion, my humility.\n\nThou can'st not boast, like Jesus, drunken without companion  \nWas the strong cup of anguish brewed for the Nazarene\n\nThou can'st not pierce tradition with the peerless puncture,  \nSee! I usurped thy crucifix to honor mine!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Rearrange a Wife's affection!**\n\nRearrange a \"Wife's\" affection!  \nWhen they dislocate my Brain!  \nAmputate my freckled Bosom!  \nMake me bearded like a man!\n\nBlush, my spirit, in thy Fastness \u2014   \nBlush, my unacknowledged clay \u2014   \nSeven years of troth have taught thee  \nMore than Wifehood every may!\n\nLove that never leaped its socket \u2014   \nTrust entrenched in narrow pain \u2014   \nConstancy thro' fire \u2014 awarded \u2014   \nAnguish \u2014 bare of anodyne!\n\nBurden \u2014 borne so far triumphant \u2014   \nNone suspect me of the crown,  \nFor I wear the \"Thorns\" till Sunset \u2014   \nThen \u2014 my Diadem put on.\n\nBig my Secret but it's bandaged \u2014   \nIt will never get away  \nTill the Day its Weary Keeper  \nLeads it through the Grave to thee.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Softened by Time's consummate plush,**\n\nSoftened by Time's consummate plush,  \nHow sleek the woe appears  \nThat threatened childhood's citadel  \nAnd undermined the years.\n\nBisected now, by bleaker griefs,  \nWe envy the despair  \nThat devastated childhood's realm,  \nSo easy to repair.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Some say goodnight \u2014 at night \u2014**\n\nSome say goodnight \u2014 at night \u2014   \nI say goodnight by day \u2014   \nGood-bye \u2014 the Going utter me \u2014   \nGoodnight, I still reply \u2014\n\nFor parting, that is night,  \nAnd presence, simply dawn \u2014   \nItself, the purple on the height  \nDenominated morn.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Sweet is the swamp with its secrets,**\n\nSweet is the swamp with its secrets,  \nUntil we meet a snake;  \n'Tis then we sigh for houses,  \nAnd our departure take\n\nAt that enthralling gallop  \nThat only childhood knows.  \nA snake is summer's treason,  \nAnd guile is where it goes.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**That it will never come again**\n\nThat it will never come again  \nIs what makes life so sweet.  \nBelieving what we don't believe  \nDoes not exhilarate.\n\nThat if it be, it be at best  \nAn ablative estate \u2014   \nThis instigates an appetite  \nPrecisely opposite.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The distance that the dead have gone**\n\nThe distance that the dead have gone  \nDoes not at first appear \u2014   \nTheir coming back seems possible  \nFor many an ardent year.\n\nAnd then, that we have followed them,  \nWe more than half suspect,  \nSo intimate have we become  \nWith their dear retrospect.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The grave my little cottage is,**\n\nThe grave my little cottage is,  \nWhere \"Keeping house\" for thee  \nI make my parlor orderly  \nAnd lay the marble tea.\n\nFor two divided, briefly,  \nA cycle, it may be,  \nTill everlasting life unite  \nIn strong society.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The joy that has no stem no core,**\n\nThe joy that has no stem no core,  \nNor seed that we can sow,  \nIs edible to longing.  \nBut ablative to show.\n\nBy fundamental palates  \nThose products are preferred  \nImpregnable to transit  \nAnd patented by pod.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The mob within the heart**\n\nThe mob within the heart  \nPolice cannot suppress  \nThe riot given at the first  \nIs authorized as peace\n\nUncertified of scene  \nOr signified of sound  \nBut growing like a hurricane  \nIn a congenial ground.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The most important population**\n\nThe most important population  \nUnnoticed dwell,  \nThey have a heaven each instant  \nNot any hell.\n\nTheir names, unless you know them,  \n'Twere useless tell.  \nOf bumble-bees and other nations  \nThe grass is full.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The parasol is the umbrella's daughter,**\n\nThe parasol is the umbrella's daughter,  \nAnd associates with a fan  \nWhile her father abuts the tempest  \nAnd abridges the rain.\n\nThe former assists a siren  \nIn her serene display;  \nBut her father is borne and honored,  \nAnd borrowed to this day.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The reticent volcano keeps**\n\nThe reticent volcano keeps  \nHis never slumbering plan \u2014   \nConfided are his projects pink  \nTo no precarious man.\n\nIf nature will not tell the tale  \nJehovah told to her  \nCan human nature not survive  \nWithout a listener?\n\nAdmonished by her buckled lips  \nLet every babbler be  \nThe only secret people keep  \nIs Immortality.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The waters chased him as he fled,**\n\nThe waters chased him as he fled,  \nNot daring look behind \u2014   \nA billow whispered in his Ear,  \n\"Come home with me, my friend \u2014   \nMy parlor is of shriven glass,  \nMy pantry has a fish  \nFor every palate in the Year\" \u2014   \nTo this revolting bliss  \nThe object floating at his side  \nMade no distinct reply.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The words the happy say**\n\nThe words the happy say  \nAre paltry melody  \nBut those the silent feel  \nAre beautiful \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**There comes an hour when begging stops,**\n\nThere comes an hour when begging stops,  \nWhen the long interceding lips  \nPerceive their prayer is vain.  \n\"Thou shalt not\" is a kinder sword  \nThan from a disappointing God  \n\"Disciple, call again.\"\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**This docile one inter**\n\nThis docile one inter  \nWhile we who dare to live  \nArraign the sunny brevity  \nThat sparkled to the Grave.\n\nOn her departing span  \nNo wilderness remain  \nAs dauntless in the House of Death  \nAs if it were her own \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Through those old Grounds of memory,**\n\nThrough those old Grounds of memory,  \nThe sauntering alone  \nIs a divine intemperance  \nA prudent man would shun.  \nOf liquors that are vended  \n'Tis easy to beware  \nBut statutes do not meddle  \nWith the internal bar.  \nPernicious as the sunset  \nPermitting to pursue  \nBut impotent to gather,  \nThe tranquil perfidy  \nAlloys our firmer moments  \nWith that severest gold  \nConvenient to the longing  \nBut otherwise withheld.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To lose thee \u2014 sweeter than to gain**\n\nTo lose thee \u2014 sweeter than to gain  \nAll other hearts I knew.  \n'Tis true the drought is destitute,  \nBut then, I had the dew!\n\nThe Caspian has its realms of sand,  \nIts other realm of sea.  \nWithout the sterile perquisite,  \nNo Caspian could be.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**To make a prairie it takes a clover and one bee,**\n\nTo make a prairie it takes a clover and one bee,  \nOne clover, and a bee,  \nAnd revery.  \nThe revery alone will do,  \nIf bees are few.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Twas here my summer paused**\n\n'Twas here my summer paused  \nWhat ripeness after then  \nTo other scene or other soul  \nMy sentence had begun.\n\nTo winter to remove  \nWith winter to abide  \nGo manacle your icicle  \nAgainst your Tropic Bride.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Upon the gallows hung a wretch,**\n\nUpon the gallows hung a wretch,  \nToo sullied for the hell  \nTo which the law entitled him.  \nAs nature's curtain fell  \nThe one who bore him tottered in , \u2014   \nFor this was woman's son.  \n\"'Twere all I had,\" she stricken gasped \u2014   \nOh, what a livid boon!\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Where every bird is bold to go**\n\nWhere every bird is bold to go  \nAnd bees abashless play,  \nThe foreigner before he knocks  \nMust thrust the tears away.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Which misses most,**\n\nWhich misses most,  \nThe hand that tends,  \nOr heart so gently borne,  \n'Tis twice as heavy as it was  \nBecause the hand is gone?\n\nWhich blesses most,  \nThe lip that can,  \nOr that that went to sleep\n\nWith \"if I could\" endeavoring  \nWithout the strength to shape?\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Elysium is as far as to**\n\nElysium is as far as to  \nThe very nearest Room  \nIf in that Room a Friend await  \nFelicity or Doom \u2014\n\nWhat fortitude the Soul contains,  \nThat it can so endure  \nThe accent of a coming Foot \u2014   \nThe opening of a Door \u2014\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**A train went through a burial gate,**\n\nA TRAIN went through a burial gate,  \nA bird broke forth and sang,  \nAnd trilled, and quivered, and shook his throat  \nTill all the churchyard rang ;\n\nAnd then adjusted his little notes,  \nAnd bowed and sang again.  \nDoubtless, he thought it meet of him  \nTo say good-by to men.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Were natural mortal lady**\n\nWere natural mortal lady  \nWho had so little time  \nTo pack her trunk and order  \nThe great exchange of clime \u2014\n\nHow rapid, how momentous \u2014   \nWhat exigencies were \u2014   \nBut nature will be ready  \nAnd have an hour to spare.\n\nTo make some trifle fairer  \nThat was too fair before \u2014   \nEnchanting by remaining,  \nAnd by departure more.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Fame is a bee.**\n\nFame is a bee.  \nIt has a song \u2014   \nIt has a sting \u2014   \nAh, too, it has a wing.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The saddest noise, the sweetest noise,**\n\nThe saddest noise, the sweetest noise,  \nThe maddest noise that grows, \u2014   \nThe birds, they make it in the spring,  \nAt night's delicious close.\n\nBetween the March and April line \u2014   \nThat magical frontier  \nBeyond which summer hesitates,  \nAlmost too heavenly near.\n\nIt makes us think of all the dead  \nThat sauntered with us here,  \nBy separation's sorcery  \nMade cruelly more dear.\n\nIt makes us think of what we had,  \nAnd what we now deplore.  \nWe almost wish those siren throats  \nWould go and sing no more.\n\nAn ear can break a human heart  \nAs quickly as a spear,  \nWe wish the ear had not a heart  \nSo dangerously near.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**That Love is all there is,**\n\nThat Love is all there is,  \nIs all we know of Love;  \nIt is enough, the freight should be  \nProportioned to the groove.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Those final Creatures, \u2014 who they are \u2014**\n\nThose final Creatures, - who they are -  \nThat faithful to the close  \nAdminister her ecstasy,  \nBut just the Summer knows.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Sweet hours have perished here;**\n\n**Version 1**\n\nSweet hours have perished here,  \nThis is a timid room -  \nWithin it's precincts hopes have played  \nNow fallow in the tomb.\n\n**Version 2**\n\nSweet hours have perished here,  \nThis is a timid room -  \nWithin it's precints hopes have played  \nNow shadows in the tomb.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Lad of Athens, faithful be**\n\n**Version 1**\n\nLad of Athens faithful be to thyself and mystery -  \nAll the rest is perjury -\n\n**Version 2**\n\nLad of Athens, faithful be  \nTo thyself,  \nAnd Mystery -  \nAll the rest is Perjury -\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The longest day that God appoints**\n\nThe little notes shall go as fast as steam can take them.  \nOur hearts already went. Would we could mail our faces for your dear encouragement.  \nRemember The longest day that God appoints  \nWill finish with the sun.  \nAnguish can travel to it's stake,  \nAnd then it must return.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Experiment escorts us last \u2014**\n\nExperiment escorts us last -  \nHis pungent company  \nWill not allow an Axiom  \nAn Opportunity -\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**How fleet \u2014 how indiscreet an one \u2014**\n\nMy little devices to live till Monday would woo your sad attention - Full of work and plots and little happinesses the Thought of you protracts them all and makes them sham and cold -  \nHow fleet - how indiscreet an one -  \nhow always wrong is Love -  \nThe joyful little Deity  \nWe are not scourged to serve -\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Let me not thirst with this Hock at my Lip,**\n\nLet me not thirst with this Hock at my Lip,  \nNor beg, with Domains in my Pocket -\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The Summer that we did not prize,**\n\nThe Summer that we did not prize,  \nHer treasures were so easy  \nInstructs us by departing now  \nAnd recognition lazy \u2014\n\nBestirs itself \u2014 puts on its Coat,  \nAnd scans with fatal promptness  \nFor Trains that moment out of sight,  \nUnconscious of his smartness.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**Too happy Time dissolves itself**\n\nToo happy Time dissolves itself  \nAnd leaves no remnant by -  \n'Tis Anguish not a Feather hath  \nOr too much weight to fly -\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**The earth has many keys,**\n\nThe earth has many keys,  \nWhere melody is not  \nIs the unknown peninsula.  \nBeauty is nature's fact.\n\nBut witness for her land,  \nAnd witness for her sea,  \nThe cricket is her utmost  \nOf elegy to me.\n\n_For the Index of the Complete Poems, click here_\n**_LIST OF POEMS IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER_**\n\nAwake ye muses nine, sing me a strain divine,\n\nThere is another sky\n\nSic transit gloria mundi\n\nOn this wondrous sea\n\nI have a Bird in spring\n\nFrequently the woods are pink -\n\nThe feet of people walking home\n\nThere is a word\n\nThrough lane it lay \u2014 through bramble \u2014\n\nMy wheel is in the dark!\n\nI never told the buried gold\n\nThe morns are meeker than they were \u2014\n\nSleep is supposed to be\n\nOne Sister have I in our house,\n\nThe Guest is gold and crimson \u2014\n\nI would distil a cup,\n\nBaffled for just a day or two \u2014\n\nThe Gentian weaves her fringes \u2014\n\nA sepal, petal, and a thorn\n\nDistrustful of the Gentian \u2014\n\nWe lose \u2014 because we win \u2014\n\nAll these my banners be.\n\nI had a guinea golden \u2014\n\nThere is a morn by men unseen \u2014\n\nShe slept beneath a tree \u2014\n\nIt's all I have to bring today \u2014\n\nMorns like these \u2014 we parted \u2014\n\nSo has a Daisy vanished\n\nIf those I loved were lost\n\nAdrift! A little boat adrift!\n\nSummer for thee, grant I may be\n\nWhen Roses cease to bloom, Sir,\n\nIf recollecting were forgetting,\n\nGarland for Queens, may be \u2014\n\nNobody knows this little Rose \u2014\n\nSnow flakes.\n\nBefore the ice is in the pools \u2014\n\nBy such and such an offering\n\nIt did not surprise me \u2014\n\nWhen I count the seeds\n\nI robbed the Woods \u2014\n\nA Day! Help! Help! Another Day!\n\nCould live \u2014 did live \u2014\n\nIf she had been the Mistletoe\n\nThere's something quieter than sleep\n\nI keep my pledge.\n\nHeart! We will forget him!\n\nOnce more, my now bewildered Dove\n\nI never lost as much but twice,\n\nI haven't told my garden yet \u2014\n\nI often passed the village\n\nWhether my bark went down at sea \u2014\n\nTaken from men \u2014 this morning \u2014\n\nIf I should die,\n\nBy Chivalries as tiny,\n\nIf I should cease to bring a Rose\n\nTo venerate the simple days\n\nDelayed till she had ceased to know \u2014\n\nA little East of Jordan,\n\nLike her the Saints retire,\n\nPapa above!\n\nSown in dishonor!\n\nIf pain for peace prepares\n\nSome Rainbow \u2014 coming from the Fair!\n\nI can't tell you \u2014 but you feel it \u2014\n\nSo from the mould\n\nSuccess is counted sweetest\n\nAmbition cannot find him.\n\nLow at my problem bending,\n\nArcturus is his other name \u2014\n\nA throe upon the features \u2014\n\nGlowing is her Bonnet,\n\nWho never lost, are unprepared\n\nA Lady red \u2014 amid the Hill\n\nShe died at play,\n\nExultation is the going\n\nI never hear the word escape\n\nA poor \u2014 torn heart \u2014 a tattered heart \u2014\n\nGoing to Heaven!\n\nOur lives are Swiss \u2014\n\nWe should not mind so small a flower \u2014\n\nWhose cheek is this?\n\nHeart, not so heavy as mine\n\nHer breast is fit for pearls,\n\nThey have not chosen me, he said,\n\nSouth Winds jostle them \u2014\n\nA darting fear \u2014 a pomp \u2014 a tear \u2014\n\nAs by the dead we love to sit,\n\nSome things that fly there be \u2014\n\nWithin my reach!\n\nSo bashful when I spied her!\n\nMy friend must be a Bird \u2014\n\nWent up a year this evening!\n\nAngels, in the early morning\n\nMy nosegays are for Captives \u2014\n\nSexton! My Master's sleeping here.\n\nThe rainbow never tells me\n\nOne dignity delays for all \u2014\n\nNew feet within my garden go \u2014\n\nA science \u2014 so the Savants say,\n\nWill there really be a Morning?\n\nGreat Caesar! Condescend\n\nI have a King, who does not speak \u2014\n\nWhere I have lost, I softer tread \u2014\n\nTo hang our head \u2014 ostensibly \u2014\n\nThe Daisy follows soft the Sun \u2014\n\nTwas such a little \u2014 little boat\n\nSurgeons must be very careful\n\nBy a flower \u2014 By a letter \u2014\n\nArtists wrestled here!\n\nThe Bee is not afraid of me.\n\nWhere bells no more affright the morn \u2014\n\nOur share of night to bear \u2014\n\nGood night, because we must,\n\nWhat Inn is this\n\nI had some things that I called mine \u2014\n\nIn rags mysterious as these\n\nMy friend attacks my friend!\n\nTalk with prudence to a Beggar\n\nIf this is fading\n\nAs Watchers hang upon the East,\n\nA something in a summer's Day\n\nMany cross the Rhine\n\nIn lands I never saw \u2014 they say\n\nFor each ecstatic instant\n\nTo fight aloud, is very brave \u2014\n\nHouses \u2014 so the Wise Men tell me \u2014\n\nBring me the sunset in a cup,\n\nCocoon above! Cocoon below!\n\nThese are the days when Birds come back \u2014\n\nBesides the Autumn poets sing\n\nI bring an unaccustomed wine\n\nAs Children bid the Guest Good Night\n\nPerhaps you'd like to buy a flower,\n\nWater, is taught by thirst.\n\nHave you got a Brook in your little heart,\n\nFlowers \u2014 Well \u2014 if anybody\n\nPigmy seraphs \u2014 gone astray \u2014\n\nSoul, Wilt thou toss again?\n\nAn altered look about the hills \u2014\n\nSome, too fragile for winter winds\n\nWhose are the little beds, I asked\n\nFor every Bird a Nest \u2014\n\nShe bore it till the simple veins\n\nThis heart that broke so long \u2014\n\nOn such a night, or such a night,\n\nBless God, he went as soldiers,\n\nAll overgrown by cunning moss,\n\nShe went as quiet as the Dew\n\nShe died \u2014 this was the way she died.\n\nMute thy Coronation \u2014\n\nThe Sun kept stooping \u2014 stooping \u2014 low!\n\nDust is the only Secret \u2014\n\nExcept to Heaven, she is nought.\n\nThe Murmur of a Bee\n\nYou love me \u2014 you are sure \u2014\n\nMusicians wrestle everywhere \u2014\n\nDying! Dying in the night!\n\nA little bread \u2014 a crust \u2014 a crumb \u2014\n\nJust lost, when I was saved!\n\nA feather from the Whippoorwill\n\nMy River runs to thee \u2014\n\nTho' my destiny be Fustian \u2014\n\nMama never forgets her birds,\n\nA wounded Deer - leaps highest -\n\nI met a King this afternoon!\n\nTo learn the Transport by the Pain\n\nIf the foolish, call them flowers \u2014\n\nIn Ebon Box, when years have flown\n\nPortraits are to daily faces\n\nWait till the Majesty of Death\n\nTis so much joy! 'Tis so much joy!\n\nA fuzzy fellow, without feet,\n\nAt last, to be identified!\n\nI have never seen Volcanoes \u2014\n\nI'm the little Heart's Ease!\n\nAh, Necromancy Sweet!\n\nI cautious, scanned my little life \u2014\n\nIf I could bribe them by a Rose\n\nAs if some little Arctic flower\n\nI lost a World - the other day!\n\nIf I shouldn't be alive\n\nI've heard an Organ talk, sometimes\n\nA transport one cannot contain\n\nFaith is a fine invention\n\nWhat shall I do \u2014 it whimpers so \u2014\n\nHow many times these low feet staggered \u2014\n\nMake me a picture of the sun \u2014\n\nIt's such a little thing to weep \u2014\n\nHe was weak, and I was strong \u2014 then \u2014\n\nThe Skies can't keep their secret!\n\nPoor little Heart!\n\nI shall know why \u2014 when Time is over \u2014\n\nOn this long storm the Rainbow rose \u2014\n\nFor this \u2014 accepted Breath \u2014\n\nWe don't cry \u2014 Tim and I,\n\nMorning \u2014 is the place for Dew \u2014\n\nAn awful Tempest mashed the air \u2014\n\nI'm wife \u2014 I've finished that \u2014\n\nI stole them from a Bee \u2014\n\nTwo swimmers wrestled on the spar \u2014\n\nMy Eye is fuller than my vase \u2014\n\nHe forgot \u2014 and I \u2014 remembered \u2014\n\nA slash of Blue \u2014\n\nI should not dare to leave my friend,\n\nThe Flower must not blame the Bee \u2014\n\nTho' I get home how late \u2014 how late \u2014\n\nThe Rose did caper on her cheek \u2014\n\nWith thee, in the Desert \u2014\n\nThe thought beneath so slight a film \u2014\n\nCome slowly - Eden!\n\nLeast Rivers \u2014 docile to some sea.\n\nDid the Harebell loose her girdle\n\nI taste a liquor never brewed\n\nWhat is \u2014 Paradise \u2014\n\nSafe in their alabaster chambers\n\nSavior! I've no one else to tell \u2014\n\nIs it true, dear Sue?\n\nShe sweeps with many-colored Brooms \u2014\n\nCould I \u2014 then \u2014 shut the door \u2014\n\nIt can't be Summer!\n\nWhen Katie walks, this simple pair accompany her side,\n\nI Came to buy a smile \u2014 today \u2014\n\nI've nothing else \u2014 to bring, You know \u2014\n\nJesus! thy Crucifix\n\nShould you but fail at \u2014 Sea \u2014\n\nTeach Him \u2014 When He makes the names \u2014\n\nBlazing in Gold and quenching in Purple\n\nA Burdock \u2014 clawed my Gown \u2014\n\nWe \u2014 Bee and I \u2014 live by the quaffing \u2014\n\nGod permits industrious Angels \u2014\n\nThe Sun \u2014 just touched the Morning \u2014\n\nThe Lamp burns sure \u2014 within \u2014\n\nYou're right \u2014 the way is narrow \u2014\n\nThe Court is far away \u2014\n\nIf He dissolve \u2014 then \u2014 there is nothing \u2014 more \u2014\n\nI think just how my shape will rise \u2014\n\nKill your Balm \u2014 and its Odors bless you \u2014\n\nHeaven \u2014 is what I cannot reach!\n\nAh, Moon \u2014 and Star!\n\nI like a look of Agony,\n\nWhen we stand on the tops of Things \u2014\n\nI've known a Heaven, like a Tent \u2014\n\nIt is easy to work when the soul is at play \u2014\n\nI held a Jewel in my fingers \u2014\n\nForever at His side to walk \u2014\n\nWhat would I give to see his face?\n\nWhy \u2014 do they shut Me out of Heaven?\n\nWild Nights \u2014 Wild Nights!\n\nI shall keep singing!\n\nOver the fence \u2014\n\nI can wade Grief \u2014\n\nYou see I cannot see \u2014 your lifetime \u2014\n\nHope is the thing with feathers \u2014\n\nTo die \u2014 takes just a little while \u2014\n\nIf I'm lost \u2014 now\n\nDelight is as the flight \u2014\n\nThere's a certain Slant of light\n\nGood Night! Which put the Candle out?\n\nRead \u2014 Sweet \u2014 how others \u2014 strove \u2014\n\nPut up my lute!\n\nThe lonesome for they know not What \u2014\n\nA single Screw of Flesh\n\nA Weight with Needles on the pounds \u2014\n\nWhere Ships of Purple \u2014 gently toss \u2014\n\nThis \u2014 is the land \u2014 the Sunset washes \u2014\n\nDid we disobey Him?\n\nMe, change! Me, alter!\n\nBound \u2014 a trouble \u2014\n\nOne Life of so much Consequence!\n\nA solemn thing \u2014 it was \u2014 I said \u2014\n\nI breathed enough to take the Trick \u2014\n\nHe put the Belt around my life\n\nThe only Ghost I ever saw\n\nDoubt Me! My Dim Companion!\n\nMany a phrase has the English language \u2014\n\nWhat if I say I shall not wait!\n\nA shady friend \u2014 for Torrid days \u2014\n\nTie the Strings to my Life, My Lord,\n\nI felt a Funeral, in my Brain,\n\nTis so appalling \u2014 it exhilarates \u2014\n\nHow noteless Men, and Pleiads, stand,\n\nA Mien to move a Queen \u2014\n\nThe Drop, that wrestles in the Sea \u2014\n\nThe Robin's my Criterion for Tune \u2014\n\nThat after Horror \u2014 that 'twas us \u2014\n\nA Clock stopped \u2014\n\nI'm Nobody! Who are you?\n\nI know some lonely Houses off the Road\n\nOf Bronze \u2014 and Blaze \u2014\n\nHow the old Mountains drip with Sunset\n\nIf your Nerve, deny you \u2014\n\nI got so I could take his name \u2014\n\nThe Doomed \u2014 regard the Sunrise\n\nUnto like Story \u2014 Trouble has enticed me \u2014\n\nOne Year ago \u2014 jots what?\n\nIt's like the Light \u2014\n\nAlone, I cannot be \u2014\n\nYour Riches \u2014 taught me \u2014 Poverty\n\nMorning \u2014 means Milking \u2014 to the Farmer \u2014\n\nI reason, Earth is short \u2014\n\nLike Some Old fashioned Miracle\n\nThe Soul selects her own Society \u2014\n\nThe Day came slow \u2014 till Five o'clock \u2014\n\nThe difference between Despair\n\nThe Soul's Superior instants\n\nThe One who could repeat the Summer day \u2014\n\nI send Two Sunsets \u2014\n\nFor largest Woman's Hearth I knew \u2014\n\nGive little Anguish \u2014\n\nIt sifts from Leaden Sieves \u2014\n\nHer \u2014 last Poems \u2014\n\nI should have been too glad, I see \u2014\n\nNature \u2014 sometimes sears a Sapling \u2014\n\nHe fumbles at your Soul\n\nThe Wind didn't come from the Orchard \u2014 today \u2014\n\nJust so \u2014 Jesus \u2014 raps \u2014\n\nI'll tell you how the Sun rose \u2014\n\nThe nearest Dream recedes \u2014 unrealized \u2014\n\nWe play at Paste \u2014\n\nOf all the Sounds despatched abroad,\n\nThere came a Day at Summer's full,\n\nAs if I asked a common Alms,\n\nSome keep the Sabbath going to Church \u2014\n\nOf Tribulation, these are They,\n\nI cannot dance upon my Toes \u2014\n\nBefore I got my eye put out\n\nA Bird came down the Walk \u2014\n\nSo glad we are \u2014 a Stranger'd deem\n\nThe Juggler's Hat her Country is \u2014\n\nWhile Asters \u2014\n\nThere are two Ripenings \u2014 one \u2014 of sight \u2014\n\nThe Grass so little has to do \u2014\n\nAll the letters I can write\n\nTis not that Dying hurts us so \u2014\n\nThe face I carry with me \u2014 last \u2014\n\nI know a place where Summer strives\n\nI know that He exists.\n\nI tend my flowers for thee \u2014\n\nIs Bliss then, such Abyss,\n\nAfter great pain, a formal feeling comes \u2014\n\nIt will be Summer \u2014 eventually.\n\nMy Reward for Being, was This.\n\nTwas the old \u2014 road \u2014 through pain \u2014\n\nFunny \u2014 to be a Century \u2014\n\nNot probable \u2014 The barest Chance \u2014\n\nWhen Night is almost done \u2014\n\nI dreaded that first Robin, so,\n\nI had the Glory \u2014 that will do \u2014\n\nThey leave us with the Infinite.\n\nI felt my life with both my hands\n\nPerhaps I asked too large \u2014\n\nA happy lip \u2014 breaks sudden \u2014\n\nFrom Cocoon forth a Butterfly\n\nTis Opposites \u2014 entice \u2014\n\nThe Day that I was crowned\n\nGod is a distant \u2014 stately Lover \u2014\n\nIf any sink, assure that this, now standing \u2014\n\nI gained it so \u2014\n\nDeath sets a Thing significant\n\nWhat I can do \u2014 I will \u2014\n\nIt struck me \u2014 every Day \u2014\n\nI went to thank Her \u2014\n\nThe Morning after Woe \u2014\n\nDare you see a Soul at the White Heat?\n\nAlthough I put away his life \u2014\n\nOver and over, like a Tune \u2014\n\nHow sick \u2014 to wait \u2014 in any place \u2014 but thine \u2014\n\nShe lay as if at play\n\nHeaven is so far of the Mind\n\nA precious \u2014 mouldering pleasure \u2014 'tis \u2014\n\nI know lives, I could miss\n\nI'm saying every day\n\nI went to Heaven \u2014\n\nThe Angle of a Landscape \u2014\n\nOf Course \u2014 I prayed \u2014\n\nTo lose one's faith \u2014 surpass\n\nI saw no Way \u2014 The Heavens were stitched \u2014\n\nRehearsal to Ourselves\n\nThere is a flower that Bees prefer \u2014\n\nA Secret told \u2014\n\nFor Death \u2014 or rather\n\nExhilaration \u2014 is within \u2014\n\nNo Rack can torture me \u2014\n\nSmiling back from Coronation\n\nAnswer July \u2014\n\nThe sweetest Heresy received\n\nTake your Heaven further on \u2014\n\nThere's been a Death, in the Opposite House,\n\nIt's coming \u2014 the postponeless Creature \u2014\n\nA Visitor in Marl \u2014\n\nThrough the Dark Sod \u2014 as Education \u2014\n\nDid Our Best Moment last \u2014\n\nTwas Love \u2014 not me \u2014\n\nReverse cannot befall\n\nThere is a Languor of the Life\n\nWhen Diamonds are a Legend,\n\nI had not minded \u2014 Walls \u2014\n\nA House upon the Height \u2014\n\nA Tongue \u2014 to tell Him I am true!\n\nWhat Soft \u2014 Cherubic Creatures \u2014\n\nI pay \u2014 in Satin Cash \u2014\n\nThe Winters are so short \u2014\n\nHow many Flowers fail in Wood \u2014\n\nIt might be lonelier\n\nSome \u2014 Work for Immortality \u2014\n\nIf What we could \u2014 were what we would \u2014\n\nUnit, like Death, for Whom?\n\nThey dropped like Flakes \u2014\n\nThe first Day's Night had come \u2014\n\nThe Color of the Grave is Green \u2014\n\nI read my sentence \u2014 steadily \u2014\n\nI never felt at Home \u2014 Below \u2014 -\n\nTwas like a Maelstrom, with a notch,\n\nSunset at Night \u2014 is natural \u2014\n\nA Murmur in the Trees \u2014 to note \u2014\n\nIs it dead \u2014 Find it \u2014\n\nNot in this World to see his face \u2014\n\nWe grow accustomed to the Dark \u2014\n\nYou'll know it \u2014 as you know 'tis Noon \u2014\n\nA Charm invests a face\n\nMore Life \u2014 went out \u2014 when He went\n\nThe Months have ends \u2014 the Years \u2014 a knot \u2014\n\nRemoved from Accident of Loss\n\nGood Morning \u2014 Midnight \u2014\n\nIt don't sound so terrible \u2014 quite \u2014 as it did \u2014\n\nI'll clutch \u2014 and clutch \u2014\n\nTaking up the fair Ideal,\n\nThe Moon is distant from the Sea \u2014\n\nIt would never be Common \u2014 more \u2014 I said \u2014\n\nMe \u2014 come! My dazzled face\n\nDo People moulder equally,\n\nKnows how to forget!\n\nTo love thee Year by Year \u2014\n\nMuch Madness is divinest Sense \u2014\n\nThe Wind \u2014 tapped like a tired Man \u2014\n\nPrayer is the little implement\n\nForget! The lady with the Amulet\n\nUndue Significance a starving man attaches\n\nTis customary as we part\n\nThis is my letter to the World\n\nGod made a little Gentian \u2014\n\nI tie my Hat \u2014 I crease my Shawl \u2014\n\nIt feels a shame to be Alive \u2014\n\nTwas just this time, last year, I died.\n\nI showed her Heights she never saw \u2014\n\nCould \u2014 I do more \u2014 for Thee \u2014\n\nThis was a Poet \u2014 It is That\n\nI died for Beauty \u2014 but was scarce\n\nDreams \u2014 are well \u2014 but Waking's better,\n\nThe Outer \u2014 from the Inner\n\nThe Malay \u2014 took the Pearl \u2014\n\nLove \u2014 thou art high \u2014\n\nIt was given to me by the Gods \u2014\n\nTriumph \u2014 may be of several kinds \u2014\n\nSo well that I can live without \u2014\n\nSweet \u2014 safe \u2014 Houses \u2014\n\nLike eyes that looked on Wastes \u2014\n\nA Tooth upon Our Peace\n\nI know where Wells grow \u2014 Droughtless Wells \u2014\n\nA Wife \u2014 at daybreak I shall be \u2014\n\nWhy make it doubt \u2014 it hurts it so \u2014\n\nI live with Him \u2014 I see His face \u2014\n\nThe power to be true to You,\n\nI heard a Fly buzz \u2014 when I died \u2014\n\nTis little I \u2014 could care for Pearls \u2014\n\nWe do not play on Graves \u2014\n\nThe Manner of its Death\n\nThe Red \u2014 Blaze \u2014 is the Morning \u2014\n\nI am alive \u2014 I guess \u2014\n\nA Night \u2014 there lay the Days between \u2014\n\nExcept the Heaven had come so near \u2014\n\nI am ashamed \u2014 I hide \u2014\n\nThey put Us far apart \u2014\n\nDoom is the House without the Door \u2014\n\nI meant to have but modest needs \u2014\n\nNo Man can compass a Despair \u2014\n\nI had no time to Hate \u2014\n\nShe dealt her pretty words like Blades \u2014\n\nWhy do I love You, Sir?\n\nThe Himmaleh was known to stoop\n\nWe Cover Thee \u2014 Sweet Face \u2014\n\nA Solemn thing within the Soul\n\nMy Garden \u2014 like the Beach \u2014\n\nTo make One's Toilette \u2014 after Death\n\nI was the slightest in the House \u2014\n\nYou love the Lord \u2014 you cannot see \u2014\n\nMyself was formed \u2014 a Carpenter \u2014\n\nWe pray \u2014 to Heaven \u2014\n\nTo One denied the drink\n\nWhile it is alive\n\nCivilization \u2014 spurns \u2014 the Leopard!\n\nThe World \u2014 stands \u2014 solemner \u2014 to me \u2014\n\nGoing to Him! Happy letter!\n\nIt's thoughts \u2014 and just One Heart \u2014\n\nAs far from pity, as complaint \u2014\n\nHe strained my faith \u2014\n\nI envy Seas, whereon He rides \u2014\n\nThose fair \u2014 fictitious People \u2014\n\nWithin my Garden, rides a Bird\n\nThis World is not Conclusion.\n\nAt least \u2014 to pray \u2014 is left \u2014 is left \u2014\n\nBetter \u2014 than Music! For I \u2014 who heard it \u2014\n\nYou know that Portrait in the Moon \u2014\n\nI would not paint \u2014 a picture \u2014\n\nHe touched me, so I live to know\n\nShe sights a Bird \u2014 she chuckles \u2014\n\nI'm ceded \u2014 I've stopped being Theirs \u2014\n\nIf anybody's friend be dead\n\nIt was not Death, for I stood up,\n\nIf you were coming in the Fall,\n\nThe Soul has Bandaged moments \u2014\n\nLike Flowers, that heard the news of Dews,\n\nHer smile was shaped like other smiles \u2014\n\nNo Crowd that has occurred\n\nBeauty \u2014 be not caused \u2014 It Is \u2014\n\nHe parts Himself \u2014 like Leaves \u2014\n\nHer sweet Weight on my Heart a Night\n\nTwas warm \u2014 at first \u2014 like Us \u2014\n\nI started Early \u2014 Took my Dog \u2014\n\nEndow the Living \u2014 with the Tears \u2014\n\nHad I presumed to hope \u2014\n\nSweet \u2014 You forgot \u2014 but I remembered\n\nDeparted \u2014 to the Judgment \u2014\n\nI think the Hemlock likes to stand\n\nTo hear an Oriole sing\n\nTo put this World down, like a Bundle \u2014\n\nMine \u2014 by the Right of the White Election!\n\nI'm sorry for the Dead \u2014 Today \u2014\n\nYou cannot put a Fire out \u2014\n\nWe dream \u2014 it is good we are dreaming \u2014\n\nI tried to think a lonelier Thing\n\nTwo butterflies went out at Noon \u2014\n\nWe see \u2014 Comparatively \u2014\n\nShe's happy, with a new Content \u2014\n\nThe Heart asks Pleasure \u2014 first \u2014\n\nMe prove it now \u2014 Whoever doubt\n\nTis true \u2014 They shut me in the Cold \u2014\n\nThe Province of the Saved\n\nI took my Power in my Hand \u2014\n\nSome such Butterfly be seen\n\nI had no Cause to be awake \u2014\n\nI fear a Man of frugal Speech \u2014\n\nThe Martyr Poets \u2014 did not tell \u2014\n\nTis One by One \u2014 the Father counts \u2014\n\nTo fill a Gap\n\nI've seen a Dying Eye\n\nDeath is potential to that Man\n\nThat I did always love\n\nI cross till I am weary\n\nThere is a Shame of Nobleness \u2014\n\nAn ignorance a Sunset\n\nOne Crucifixion is recorded \u2014 only \u2014\n\nThe Black Berry \u2014 wears a Thorn in his side \u2014\n\nTrust in the Unexpected \u2014\n\nThe Brain, within its Groove\n\nShe hideth Her the last \u2014\n\nBut little Carmine hath her face \u2014\n\nIt knew no Medicine \u2014\n\nIt knew no lapse, nor Diminuation \u2014\n\nI measure every Grief I meet\n\nConjecturing a Climate\n\nI could not prove the Years had feet \u2014\n\nMy period had come for Prayer \u2014\n\nOne Anguish \u2014 in a Crowd \u2014\n\nA Dying Tiger \u2014 moaned for Drink \u2014\n\nHe gave away his Life \u2014\n\nWe learned the Whole of Love \u2014\n\nI reckon \u2014 when I count it all \u2014\n\nI could die \u2014 to know \u2014\n\nMust be a Woe \u2014\n\nDelight \u2014 becomes pictorial \u2014\n\nThe Test of Love \u2014 is Death \u2014\n\nMy first well Day \u2014 since many ill \u2014\n\nHeaven has different Signs \u2014 to me \u2014\n\nI prayed, at first, a little Girl,\n\nIf I may have it, when it's dead,\n\nThe Body grows without \u2014\n\nI had been hungry, all the Years \u2014\n\nI gave myself to Him \u2014\n\nI found the words to every thought\n\nInconceivably solemn!\n\nA Toad, can die of Light \u2014\n\nIt ceased to hurt me, though so slow\n\nI like to see it lap the Miles \u2014\n\nWe talked as Girls do \u2014\n\nEmpty my Heart, of Thee \u2014\n\nI cried at Pity \u2014 not at Pain \u2014\n\nThe Night was wide, and furnished scant\n\nDid you ever stand in a Cavern's Mouth \u2014\n\nTo interrupt His Yellow Plan\n\nWhat care the Dead, for Chanticleer \u2014\n\nI think I was enchanted\n\nThe Battle fought between the Soul\n\nLike Mighty Foot Lights \u2014 burned the Red\n\nWhen I was small, a Woman died \u2014\n\nIt always felt to me \u2014 a wrong\n\nThree times \u2014 we parted \u2014 Breath \u2014 and I \u2014\n\nThere is a pain \u2014 so utter \u2014\n\nIt troubled me as once I was \u2014\n\nA still \u2014 Volcano \u2014 Life \u2014\n\nOf Brussels \u2014 it was not \u2014\n\nHe found my Being \u2014 set it up \u2014\n\nUnto my Books \u2014 so good to turn \u2014\n\nThe Spider holds a Silver Ball\n\nThe Trees like Tassels \u2014 hit \u2014 and swung \u2014\n\nOf nearness to her sundered Things\n\nAfraid! Of whom am I afraid?\n\nI Years had been from Home\n\nYou'll find \u2014 it when you try to die \u2014\n\nI see thee better \u2014 in the Dark \u2014\n\nIt would have starved a Gnat \u2014\n\nThey shut me up in Prose \u2014\n\nIn falling Timbers buried \u2014\n\nOur journey had advanced \u2014\n\nI rose \u2014 because He sank \u2014\n\nDon't put up my Thread and Needle \u2014\n\nAt leisure is the Soul\n\nGlee \u2014 The great storm is over \u2014\n\nIt makes no difference abroad \u2014\n\nI asked no other thing \u2014\n\nTo know just how He suffered \u2014 would be dear \u2014\n\nIt was too late for Man \u2014\n\nForever \u2014 is composed of Nows \u2014\n\nTwas a long Parting \u2014 but the time\n\nOnly God \u2014 detect the Sorrow \u2014\n\nThe Tint I cannot take \u2014 is best \u2014\n\nThey called me to the Window, for\n\nI watched the Moon around the House\n\nThe Lightning playeth \u2014 all the while \u2014\n\nOurselves were wed one summer \u2014 dear \u2014\n\nThe Brain \u2014 is wider than the Sky \u2014\n\nWhen Bells stop ringing \u2014 Church \u2014 begins\n\nYou'll know Her \u2014 by Her Foot \u2014\n\nI think the longest Hour of all\n\nThe Way I read a Letter's \u2014 this \u2014\n\nThe Child's faith is new \u2014\n\nTo my small Hearth His fire came \u2014\n\nMy Portion is Defeat \u2014 today \u2014\n\nI cannot live with You \u2014\n\nSize circumscribes \u2014 it has no room\n\nMe from Myself \u2014 to banish \u2014\n\nI could suffice for Him, I knew \u2014\n\nYou left me \u2014 Sire \u2014 two Legacies \u2014\n\nBereavement in their death to feel\n\nI think to Live \u2014 may be a Bliss\n\nA little Road \u2014 not made of Man \u2014\n\nPromise This \u2014 When You be Dying \u2014\n\nHer Sweet turn to leave the Homestead\n\nPain \u2014 has an Element of Blank \u2014\n\nSo much Summer\n\nA Prison gets to be a friend \u2014\n\nOf Being is a Bird\n\nA long \u2014 long Sleep \u2014 A famous \u2014 Sleep \u2014\n\nWithout this \u2014 there is nought \u2014\n\nThe name \u2014 of it \u2014 is Autumn \u2014\n\nI dwell in Possibility \u2014\n\nWhole Gulfs \u2014 of Red, and Fleets \u2014 of Red \u2014\n\nThat first Day, when you praised Me, Sweet,\n\nTis good \u2014 the looking back on Grief \u2014\n\nCould I but ride indefinite\n\nEmbarrassment of one another\n\nAgain \u2014 his voice is at the door \u2014\n\nOf all the Souls that stand create \u2014\n\nDropped into the Ether Acre \u2014\n\nAh, Teneriffe!\n\nBloom upon the Mountain \u2014 stated \u2014\n\nNature is what we see \u2014\n\nNo Romance sold unto\n\nOne need not be a Chamber \u2014 to be Haunted \u2014\n\nShe dwelleth in the Ground \u2014\n\nThe Future \u2014 never spoke \u2014\n\nThe Love a Life can show Below\n\nThe Soul that hath a Guest\n\nEssential Oils \u2014 are wrung \u2014\n\nLeast Bee that brew \u2014\n\nTo be alive \u2014 is Power \u2014\n\nWolfe demanded during dying\n\nConscious am I in my Chamber,\n\nEach Life Converges to some Centre \u2014\n\nSoil of Flint, if steady tilled \u2014\n\nTwould ease \u2014 a Butterfly \u2014\n\nThe Soul unto itself\n\nBest Gains \u2014 must have the Losses' Test \u2014\n\nNot Revelation \u2014 'tis \u2014 that waits,\n\nThey say that Time assuages \u2014\n\nI'll send the feather from my Hat!\n\nSpeech \u2014 is a prank of Parliament \u2014\n\nThe Zeroes \u2014 taught us \u2014 Phosphorous \u2014\n\nVictory comes late \u2014\n\nWould you like summer? Taste of ours.\n\nThe Sun kept setting \u2014 setting \u2014 still\n\nShells from the Coast mistaking \u2014\n\nThe Heaven vests for Each\n\nAs if the Sea should part\n\nTheir Height in Heaven comforts not \u2014\n\nI could bring You Jewels \u2014 had I a mind to \u2014\n\nLife \u2014 is what we make of it \u2014\n\nThe Judge is like the Owl \u2014\n\nYou've seen Balloons set \u2014 Haven't You?\n\nA Thought went up my mind today \u2014\n\nA first Mute Coming \u2014\n\nOut of sight? What of that?\n\nNo matter \u2014 now \u2014 Sweet \u2014\n\nSuspense \u2014 is Hostiler than Death \u2014\n\nLife, and Death, and Giants \u2014\n\nThe Grace \u2014 Myself \u2014 might not obtain \u2014\n\nI sometimes drop it, for a Quick \u2014\n\nPublication \u2014 is the Auction\n\nThe Sunrise runs for Both \u2014\n\nStrong Draughts of Their Refreshing Minds\n\nBecause I could not stop for Death \u2014\n\nFame of Myself, to justify,\n\nRest at Night\n\nThe World \u2014 feels Dusty\n\nThe Day undressed \u2014 Herself \u2014\n\nThe Beggar Lad \u2014 dies early \u2014\n\nI meant to find Her when I came \u2014\n\nA South Wind \u2014 has a pathos\n\nNo Prisoner be \u2014\n\nBehind Me \u2014 dips Eternity \u2014\n\nSweet Mountains \u2014 Ye tell Me no lie \u2014\n\nIt tossed \u2014 and tossed \u2014\n\nIt's easy to invent a Life \u2014\n\nWhere Thou art \u2014 that \u2014 is Home \u2014\n\nWe thirst at first \u2014 'tis Nature's Act \u2014\n\nPrecious to Me \u2014 She still shall be \u2014\n\nLet Us play Yesterday \u2014\n\nAlter? When the Hills do\n\nDefrauded I a Butterfly \u2014\n\nI want \u2014 it pleaded \u2014 All its life \u2014\n\nShe rose to His Requirement \u2014 dropt\n\nThe Spirit is the Conscious Ear.\n\nIf He were living \u2014 dare I ask \u2014\n\nUpon Concluded Lives\n\nHave any like Myself\n\nThe Moon was but a Chin of Gold\n\nYou said that I was Great \u2014 one Day \u2014\n\nI many times thought Peace had come\n\nYou taught me Waiting with Myself \u2014\n\nDrama's Vitallest Expression is the Common Day\n\nFour Trees \u2014 upon a solitary Acre \u2014\n\nThe Birds reported from the South \u2014\n\nRemorse \u2014 is Memory \u2014 awake \u2014\n\nRenunciation \u2014 is a piercing Virtue \u2014\n\nNever for Society\n\nIt dropped so low \u2014 in my Regard \u2014\n\nAutumn \u2014 overlooked my Knitting \u2014\n\nAll but Death, can be Adjusted \u2014\n\nGrowth of Man \u2014 like Growth of Nature \u2014\n\nMy Worthiness is all my Doubt \u2014\n\nSo the Eyes accost \u2014 and sunder\n\nMy Soul \u2014 accused me \u2014 And I quailed \u2014\n\nMy Life had stood \u2014 a Loaded Gun \u2014\n\nNo Bobolink \u2014 reverse His Singing\n\nOne Blessing had I than the rest\n\nThe Mountains \u2014 grow unnoticed \u2014\n\nThese \u2014 saw Visions \u2014\n\nHe fought like those Who've nought to lose \u2014\n\nMost she touched me by her muteness \u2014\n\nFrom Blank to Blank \u2014\n\nThe Whole of it came not at once \u2014\n\nHe told a homely tale\n\nPresentiment \u2014 is that long Shadow \u2014 on the Lawn \u2014\n\nYou constituted Time \u2014\n\nMy Faith is larger than the Hills \u2014\n\nTo offer brave assistance\n\nWhen I hoped, I recollect\n\nOne and One \u2014 are One \u2014\n\nI lived on Dread \u2014\n\nNone can experience sting\n\nThe hallowing of Pain\n\nDeprived of other Banquet,\n\nIt is a lonesome Glee \u2014\n\nIf Blame be my side \u2014 forfeit Me \u2014\n\nThe Color of a Queen, is this \u2014\n\nThe Loneliness One dare not sound \u2014\n\nThis that would greet \u2014 an hour ago \u2014\n\nThe Service without Hope \u2014\n\nThe Truth \u2014 is stirless \u2014\n\nTo wait an Hour \u2014 is long \u2014\n\nThere is an arid Pleasure \u2014\n\nThe Birds begun at Four o'clock \u2014\n\nBereaved of all, I went abroad \u2014\n\nThey have a little Odor \u2014 that to me\n\nSeverer Service of myself\n\nSuch is the Force of Happiness \u2014\n\nJoy to have merited the Pain \u2014\n\nOn a Columnar Self \u2014\n\nNature \u2014 the Gentlest Mother is,\n\nGod gave a Loaf to every Bird \u2014\n\nThrough the strait pass of suffering \u2014\n\nGrief is a Mouse \u2014\n\nA Drop Fell on the Apple Tree \u2014\n\nHer final Summer was it \u2014\n\nWho Giants know, with lesser Men\n\nBy my Window have I for Scenery\n\nShe staked her Feathers \u2014 Gained an Arc \u2014\n\nDespair's advantage is achieved\n\nTwo \u2014 were immortal twice \u2014\n\nI play at Riches \u2014 to appease\n\nTime feels so vast that were it not\n\nWho Court obtain within Himself\n\nNo Notice gave She, but a Change \u2014\n\nThis Bauble was preferred of Bees \u2014\n\nA Planted Life \u2014 diversified\n\nExpectation \u2014 is Contentment \u2014\n\nSo set its Sun in Thee\n\nUnable are the Loved to die\n\nHer Grace is all she has \u2014\n\nThe Veins of other Flowers\n\nA Light exists in Spring\n\nThis quiet Dust was Gentleman and Ladies\n\nOne Day is there of the Series\n\nThe Luxury to apprehend\n\nA Death blow is a Life blow to Some\n\nGiven in Marriage unto Thee\n\nI could not drink it, Sweet,\n\nAll I may, if small,\n\nAll Circumstances are the Frame\n\nAway from Home are some and I \u2014\n\nThis Consciousness that is aware\n\nNot that We did, shall be the test\n\nThe Wind begun to knead the Grass \u2014\n\nAn Hour is a Sea\n\nLove reckons by itself \u2014 alone \u2014\n\nThe Only News I know\n\nThe Robin is the One\n\nAmple make this Bed \u2014\n\nTo this World she returned.\n\nDying! To be afraid of thee\n\nSoto! Explore thyself!\n\nPerhaps you think me stooping\n\nBefore He comes we weigh the Time!\n\nNature and God \u2014 I neither knew\n\nTruth \u2014 is as old as God \u2014\n\nHow well I knew Her not\n\nImpossibility, like Wine\n\nAlways Mine!\n\nI cannot buy it \u2014 'tis not sold \u2014\n\nA Moth the hue of this\n\nGood to hide, and hear 'em hunt!\n\nI made slow Riches but my Gain\n\nSpring is the Period\n\nBe Mine the Doom \u2014\n\nTwice had Summer her fair Verdure\n\nFinite \u2014 to fail, but infinite to Venture \u2014\n\nJust as He spoke it from his Hands\n\nThe good Will of a Flower\n\nI sing to use the Waiting\n\nWhen the Astronomer stops seeking\n\nApology for Her\n\nWhen One has given up One's life\n\nBanish Air from Air \u2014\n\nTo own the Art within the Soul\n\nThere is a finished feeling\n\nUncertain lease \u2014 develops lustre\n\nThis Chasm, Sweet, upon my life\n\nA doubt if it be Us\n\nAbsence disembodies \u2014 so does Death\n\nSplit the Lark \u2014 and you'll find the Music \u2014\n\nLight is sufficient to itself \u2014\n\nThat Distance was between Us\n\nThe Robin for the Crumb\n\nHe outstripped Time with but a Bout,\n\nFame is the tint that Scholars leave\n\nEscaping backward to perceive\n\nThey ask but our Delight \u2014\n\nBecause the Bee may blameless hum\n\nFinding is the first Act\n\nThe Sun and Moon must make their haste \u2014\n\nAs the Starved Maelstrom laps the Navies\n\nRibbons of the Year \u2014\n\nThey won't frown always \u2014 some sweet Day\n\nI stepped from Plank to Plank\n\nIt was a Grave, yet bore no Stone\n\nEach Scar I'll keep for Him\n\nThe Sun is gay or stark\n\nEach Second is the last\n\nThe Bird must sing to earn the Crumb\n\nI've none to tell me to but Thee\n\nA Shade upon the mind there passes\n\nThe Poets light but Lamps \u2014\n\nAn Everywhere of Silver\n\nOur little Kinsmen \u2014 after Rain\n\nThese tested Our Horizon \u2014\n\nWe outgrow love, like other things\n\nWhen I have seen the Sun emerge\n\nCrisis is a Hair\n\nFrom Us She wandered now a Year,\n\nTo my quick ear the Leaves \u2014 conferred \u2014\n\nWho occupies this House?\n\nDrab Habitation of Whom?\n\nOf Consciousness, her awful Mate\n\nA Cloud withdrew from the Sky\n\nOf Silken Speech and Specious Shoe\n\nHow fortunate the Grave \u2014\n\nHow happy I was if I could forget\n\nHerein a Blossom lies \u2014\n\nWhat did They do since I saw Them?\n\nSweet, to have had them lost\n\nThe first Day that I was a Life\n\nI hide myself within my flower,\n\nHad I not This, or This, I said,\n\nBetween My Country \u2014 and the Others \u2014\n\nThe Admirations \u2014 and Contempts \u2014 of time \u2014\n\nTill Death \u2014 is narrow Loving \u2014\n\nTis Sunrise \u2014 Little Maid \u2014 Hast Thou\n\nI make His Crescent fill or lack \u2014\n\nExperience is the Angled Road\n\nToo little way the House must lie\n\nPeace is a fiction of our Faith \u2014\n\nAnd this of all my Hopes\n\nI cannot be ashamed\n\nFaith \u2014 is the Pierless Bridge\n\nHis Feet are shod with Gauze \u2014\n\nLove \u2014 is anterior to Life \u2014\n\nOnly a Shrine, but Mine \u2014\n\nIf I can stop one Heart from breaking\n\nWe can but follow to the Sun \u2014\n\nIf it had no pencil\n\nThose who have been in the Grave the longest \u2014\n\nHow the Waters closed above Him\n\nLove \u2014 is that later Thing than Death \u2014\n\nStruck, was I, not yet by Lightning \u2014\n\nPatience \u2014 has a quiet Outer \u2014\n\nAbsent Place \u2014 an April Day \u2014\n\nThe Heart has narrow Banks\n\nHow far is it to Heaven?\n\nThere is a June when Corn is cut\n\nNoon \u2014 is the Hinge of Day \u2014\n\nMy best Acquaintances are those\n\nTwo Travellers perishing in Snow\n\nThat is solemn we have ended\n\nDeath leaves Us homesick, who behind,\n\nThis Dust, and its Feature \u2014\n\nI felt a Cleaving in my Mind \u2014\n\nFairer through Fading \u2014 as the Day\n\nWhat I see not, I better see \u2014\n\nOn that dear Frame the Years had worn\n\nThe Lady feeds Her little Bird\n\nSnow beneath whose chilly softness\n\nA Coffin \u2014 is a small Domain,\n\nI learned \u2014 at least \u2014 what Home could be \u2014\n\nThis is a Blossom of the Brain \u2014\n\nIt is an honorable Thought\n\nOf Tolling Bell I ask the cause?\n\nTwas Crisis \u2014 All the length had passed \u2014\n\nUnder the Light, yet under,\n\nThe Sunset stopped on Cottages\n\nAs Frost is best conceived\n\nA Man may make a Remark \u2014\n\nA Door just opened on a street \u2014\n\nThe Chemical conviction\n\nThe Hollows round His eager Eyes\n\nWhat shall I do when the Summer troubles \u2014\n\nAs One does Sickness over\n\nWe met as Sparks \u2014 Diverging Flints\n\nA loss of something ever felt I \u2014\n\nAs plan for Noon and plan for Night\n\nWert Thou but ill \u2014 that I might show thee\n\nMidsummer, was it, when They died \u2014\n\nA nearness to Tremendousness \u2014\n\nUnto Me? I do not know you \u2014\n\nDenial \u2014 is the only fact\n\nAll forgot for recollecting\n\nPain \u2014 expands the Time \u2014\n\nFitter to see Him, I may be\n\nHe who in Himself believes \u2014\n\nColor \u2014 Caste \u2014 Denomination \u2014\n\nRobbed by Death \u2014 but that was easy \u2014\n\nUnfulfilled to Observation \u2014\n\nTwas awkward, but it fitted me \u2014\n\nThe Soul's distinct connection\n\nThe Mountain sat upon the Plain\n\nDeath is a Dialogue between\n\nBesides this May\n\nIt bloomed and dropt, a Single Noon \u2014\n\nThis Merit hath the worst \u2014\n\nPurple \u2014 is fashionable twice \u2014\n\nAs Sleigh Bells seem in summer\n\nNo Other can reduce\n\nIdeals are the Fairly Oil\n\nTis Anguish grander than Delight\n\nThe Missing All \u2014 prevented Me\n\nA narrow fellow in the grass\n\nThe Leaves like Women interchange\n\nThe Definition of Beauty is\n\nGratitude \u2014 is not the mention\n\nNot all die early, dying young \u2014\n\nShe sped as Petals of a Rose\n\nThe Dust behind I strove to join\n\nWe miss Her, not because We see \u2014\n\nPartake as doth the Bee,\n\nThis was in the White of the Year \u2014\n\nWe'll pass without the parting\n\nCrumbling is not an instant's Act\n\nBest Things dwell out of Sight\n\nSuperfluous were the Sun\n\nThe Fingers of the Light\n\nThe Stimulus, beyond the Grave\n\nAurora is the effort\n\nDying at my music!\n\nThere is no Silence in the Earth \u2014 so silent\n\nBind me \u2014 I still can sing \u2014\n\nThe first We knew of Him was Death \u2014\n\nFalsehood of Thee could I suppose\n\nHow still the Bells in Steeples stand\n\nI was a Phoebe \u2014 nothing more \u2014\n\nUp Life's Hill with my my little Bundle\n\nShe rose as high as His Occasion\n\nWhich is best? Heaven \u2014\n\nToo scanty 'twas to die for you,\n\nDid We abolish Frost\n\nWere it but Me that gained the Height \u2014\n\nThe Hills in Purple syllables\n\nTo die \u2014 without the Dying\n\nWho saw no Sunrise cannot say\n\nMy Season's furthest Flower \u2014\n\nTrudging to Eden, looking backward,\n\nFar from Love the Heavenly Father\n\nI knew that I had gained\n\nIt rises \u2014 passes \u2014 on our South\n\nSo large my Will\n\nThe Products of my Farm are these\n\nThe Dying need but little, Dear,\n\nMy Heart upon a little Plate\n\nTwas my one Glory \u2014\n\nNor Mountain hinder Me\n\nThat Such have died enable Us\n\nFate slew Him, but He did not drop \u2014\n\nWho is the East?\n\nSaid Death to Passion\n\nHis Bill an Auger is\n\nBee! I'm expecting you!\n\nSatisfaction \u2014 is the Agent\n\nHere, where the Daisies fit my Head\n\nHer little Parasol to lift\n\nI heard, as if I had no Ear\n\nNot so the infinite Relations \u2014 Below\n\nSomewhat, to hope for,\n\nSpring comes on the World \u2014\n\nLest this be Heaven indeed\n\nA Sickness of this World it most occasions\n\nNature rarer uses Yellow\n\nI've dropped my Brain \u2014 My Soul is numb \u2014\n\nThe Opening and the Close\n\nReportless Subjects, to the Quick\n\nPain has but one Acquaintance\n\nAs willing lid o'er weary eye\n\nI cannot meet the Spring unmoved \u2014\n\nI never saw a Moor \u2014\n\nIt was a quiet way \u2014\n\nNot to discover weakness is\n\nThe Soul should always stand ajar\n\nThere is a Zone whose even Years\n\nI had a daily Bliss\n\nBloom \u2014 is Result \u2014 to meet a Flower\n\nSang from the Heart, Sire,\n\nAir has no Residence, no Neighbor,\n\nThree Weeks passed since I had seen Her \u2014\n\nHe scanned it \u2014 staggered \u2014\n\nAshes denote that Fire was \u2014\n\nTo help our Bleaker Parts\n\nLet down the Bars, Oh Death \u2014\n\nFame's Boys and Girls, who never die\n\nExcept the smaller size\n\nFurther in Summer than the Birds\n\nParadise is of the option.\n\nTo undertake is to achieve\n\nPerception of an object costs\n\nTitle divine \u2014 is mine!\n\nExperiment to me\n\nCount not that far that can be had,\n\nThe Sky is low \u2014 the Clouds are mean.\n\nJust Once! Oh least Request!\n\nThese are the Signs to Nature's Inns \u2014\n\nThe Bustle in a House\n\nThe Sun went down \u2014 no Man looked on \u2014\n\nWhen they come back \u2014 if Blossoms do \u2014\n\nSuperiority to Fate\n\nRevolution is the Pod\n\nWe learn it in Retreating\n\nAt Half past Three, a single Bird\n\nIf Nature smiles \u2014 the Mother must\n\nWhat Twigs We held by \u2014\n\nWe miss a Kinsman more\n\nEnded, ere it begun \u2014\n\nMyself can read the Telegrams\n\nI am afraid to own a Body \u2014\n\nThe Well upon the Brook\n\nIt was not Saint \u2014 it was too large \u2014\n\nBecause 'twas Riches I could own,\n\nThemself are all I have \u2014\n\nTo Whom the Mornings stand for Nights,\n\nThese Strangers, in a foreign World,\n\nDew \u2014 is the Freshet in the Grass \u2014\n\nOf the Heart that goes in, and closes the Door\n\nMy Cocoon tightens \u2014 Colors tease \u2014\n\nThe last Night that She lived\n\nBetween the form of Life and Life\n\nHis Bill is clasped \u2014 his Eye forsook \u2014\n\nThe spry Arms of the Wind\n\nThe Crickets sang\n\nLike Men and Women Shadows walk\n\nWe do not know the time we lose \u2014\n\nThe Bird did prance \u2014 the Bee did play \u2014\n\nA Diamond on the Hand\n\nI fit for them \u2014\n\nNone who saw it ever told it\n\nSome Wretched creature, savior take\n\nThat this should feel the need of Death\n\nThere is strength in proving that it can be borne\n\nThe largest Fire ever known\n\nThe murmuring of Bees, has ceased\n\nThere is another Loneliness\n\nA Mine there is no Man would own\n\nExhilaration is the Breeze\n\nParadise is that old mansion\n\nThis slow Day moved along \u2014\n\nTime does go on \u2014\n\nTis my first night beneath the Sun\n\nA great Hope fell\n\nHad we known the Ton she bore\n\nOh Sumptuous moment\n\nShall I take thee, the Poet said\n\nSoft as the massacre of Suns\n\nThese are the Nights that Beetles love \u2014\n\nTell all the Truth but tell it slant \u2014\n\nThat odd old man is dead a year \u2014\n\nThe Merchant of the Picturesque\n\nThe smouldering embers blush \u2014\n\nThe Snow that never drifts \u2014\n\nThe Wind took up the Northern Things\n\nToo cold is this\n\nThe Frost of Death was on the Pane \u2014\n\nThe duties of the Wind are few,\n\nA Spider sewed at Night\n\nHer sovereign People\n\nThe Day grew small, surrounded tight\n\nThe Face we choose to miss \u2014\n\nThe Props assist the House\n\nThe Work of Her that went,\n\nOurselves we do inter with sweet derision.\n\nIn thy long Paradise of Light\n\nWhen Etna basks and purrs\n\nAfter a hundred years\n\nAfter the Sun comes out\n\nI noticed People disappeared\n\nHow many schemes may die\n\nSoul, take thy risk.\n\nTell as a Marksman \u2014 were forgotten\n\nThrough what transports of Patience\n\nA full fed Rose on meals of Tint\n\nDistance \u2014 is not the Realm of Fox\n\nLest any doubt that we are glad that they were born Today\n\nSome Days retired from the rest\n\nBest Witchcraft is Geometry\n\nGreat Streets of silence led away\n\nHe is alive, this morning \u2014\n\nTrust adjust her Peradventure \u2014\n\nThe Life we have is very great.\n\nGod made no act without a cause,\n\nWere it to be the last\n\nContained in this short Life\n\nOf Paul and Silas it is said\n\nAlone and in a Circumstance\n\nAs old as Woe \u2014\n\nLest they should come \u2014 is all my fear\n\nNature affects to be sedate\n\nOn the World you colored\n\nThe Clouds their Backs together laid\n\nThe Lightning is a yellow Fork\n\nThere's the Battle of Burgoyne \u2014\n\nWe like a Hairbreadth 'scape\n\nWe never know how high we are\n\nA prompt \u2014 executive Bird is the Jay \u2014\n\nMy God \u2014 He sees thee \u2014\n\nOf so divine a Loss\n\nRemember me implored the Thief!\n\nWhen I hoped I feared \u2014\n\nRemembrance has a Rear and Front \u2014\n\nStep lightly on this narrow spot \u2014\n\nThe Days that we can spare\n\nA little Dog that wags his tail\n\nToo few the mornings be,\n\nOh Shadow on the Grass,\n\nTwas fighting for his Life he was \u2014\n\nThe Voice that stands for Floods to me\n\nThe Sun and Fog contested\n\nThe pungent atom in the Air\n\nAn honest Tear\n\nAll men for Honor hardest work\n\nSomehow myself survived the Night\n\nWhat we see we know somewhat\n\nTo make Routine a Stimulus\n\nI should not dare to be so sad\n\nA soft Sea washed around the House\n\nAre Friends Delight or Pain?\n\nBecause my Brook is fluent\n\nSo I pull my Stockings off\n\nThe Frost was never seen \u2014\n\nThe Past is such a curious Creature\n\nWhatever it is \u2014 she has tried it \u2014\n\nImmortal is an ample word\n\nThe Show is not the Show\n\nHe preached upon Breadth till it argued him narrow \u2014\n\nOur own possessions \u2014 though our own \u2014\n\nTo disappear enhances \u2014\n\nThe Sea said Come to the Brook \u2014\n\nA Sparrow took a Slice of Twig\n\nA word is dead\n\nWe like March.\n\nWe introduce ourselves\n\nI bet with every Wind that blew\n\nA Deed knocks first at Thought\n\nFortitude incarnate\n\nLet my first Knowing be of thee\n\nNow I knew I lost her \u2014\n\nOf Nature I shall have enough\n\nSome we see no more, Tenements of Wonder\n\nThe Riddle we can guess\n\nWho goes to dine must take his Feast\n\nLike Trains of Cars on Tracks of Plush\n\nIts Hour with itself\n\nThe Popular Heart is a Cannon first \u2014\n\nMy Triumph lasted till the Drums\n\nSo much of Heaven has gone from Earth\n\nBecause He loves Her\n\nIt came at last but prompter Death\n\nSomewhere upon the general Earth\n\nThe Clover's simple Fame\n\nHad I not seen the Sun\n\nIf my Bark sink\n\nLike Rain it sounded till it curved\n\nLike Time's insidious wrinkle\n\nMy Heart ran so to thee\n\nPower is a familiar growth \u2014\n\nRisk is the Hair that holds the Tun\n\nThe Beggar at the Door for Fame\n\nThe Lilac is an ancient shrub\n\nTo flee from memory\n\nSafe Despair it is that raves \u2014\n\nThe Butterfly's Assumption Gown\n\nThe Suburbs of a Secret\n\nThe Butterfly in honored Dust\n\nTo pile like Thunder to its close\n\nThe incidents of love\n\nThe Stars are old, that stood for me \u2014\n\nWhite as an Indian Pipe\n\nSilence is all we dread.\n\nLike Brooms of Steel\n\nHad this one Day not been.\n\nElijah's Wagon knew no thill\n\nLonging is like the Seed\n\nNot any higher stands the Grave\n\nDominion lasts until obtained \u2014\n\nWho were the Father and the Son\n\nA Wind that rose\n\nBecause that you are going\n\nA Word dropped careless on a Page\n\nI cannot see my soul but know 'tis there\n\nThere is no Frigate like a Book\n\nThis is the place they hoped before,\n\nThe most triumphant Bird I ever knew or met\n\nWhen Memory is full\n\nI saw that the Flake was on it\n\nConfirming All who analyze\n\nI worked for chaff and earning Wheat\n\nIs Heaven a Physician?\n\nSeptember's Baccalaureate\n\nSo proud she was to die\n\nThat sacred Closet when you sweep \u2014\n\nThe Bone that has no Marrow,\n\nThe Spider as an Artist\n\nTwas later when the summer went\n\nWhile we were fearing it, it came \u2014\n\nThe Mountains stood in Haze \u2014\n\nThe Way to know the Bobolink\n\nThe harm of Years is on him \u2014\n\nA stagnant pleasure like a Pool\n\nArt thou the thing I wanted?\n\nCould Hope inspect her Basis\n\nHad we our senses\n\nI know Suspense \u2014 it steps so terse\n\nI thought that nature was enough\n\nIn this short Life\n\nLain in Nature \u2014 so suffice us\n\nLeft in immortal Youth\n\nThe most pathetic thing I do\n\nUntil the Desert knows\n\nYesterday is History\n\nThe things we thought that we should do\n\nOf Life to own \u2014\n\nTwo Lengths has every Day \u2014\n\nDeath's Waylaying not the sharpest\n\nGo slow, my soul, to feed thyself\n\nThe Mushroom is the Elf of Plants \u2014\n\nDelight's Despair at setting\n\nFrom his slim Palace in the Dust\n\nI cannot want it more \u2014\n\nI think that the Root of the Wind is Water \u2014\n\nNot One by Heaven defrauded stay \u2014\n\nNot with a Club, the Heart is broken\n\nRecollect the Face of me\n\nSurprise is like a thrilling \u2014 pungent \u2014\n\nThat short \u2014 potential stir\n\nThe Day she goes\n\nThe Infinite a sudden Guest\n\nThe Notice that is called the Spring\n\nThis dirty \u2014 little \u2014 Heart\n\nTo break so vast a Heart\n\nWarm in her Hand these accents lie\n\nWhen a Lover is a Beggar\n\nWhich is the best \u2014 the Moon or the Crescent?\n\nWinter is good \u2014 his Hoar Delights\n\nAbraham to kill him \u2014\n\nFrigid and sweet Her parting Face \u2014\n\nHow News must feel when travelling\n\nDear March \u2014 Come in \u2014\n\nElizabeth told Essex\n\nFloss won't save you from an Abyss\n\nI never hear that one is dead\n\nI send you a decrepit flower\n\nKnock with tremor \u2014\n\nOur little secrets slink away \u2014\n\nThe Symptom of the Gale \u2014\n\nThe vastest earthly Day\n\nWhether they have forgotten\n\nWithout a smile \u2014 Without a Throe\n\nWonder \u2014 is not precisely Knowing\n\nPink \u2014 small \u2014 and punctual \u2014\n\nA little Madness in the Spring\n\nHow soft this Prison is\n\nLet me not mar that perfect Dream\n\nNature assigns the Sun \u2014\n\nUpon a Lilac Sea\n\nWhat tenements of clover\n\nA Bee his burnished Carriage\n\nA Rat surrendered here\n\nUnto the Whole \u2014 how add?\n\nWas not was all the Statement.\n\nA single Clover Plank\n\nNot any more to be lacked \u2014\n\nAn antiquated Grace\n\nAs Summer into Autumn slips\n\nEscape is such a thankful Word\n\nLift it \u2014 with the Feathers\n\nI'd rather recollect a setting\n\nLuck is not chance \u2014\n\nYou cannot take itself\n\nTo his simplicity\n\nThe last of Summer is Delight \u2014\n\nThe Heart is the Capital of the Mind \u2014\n\nThe Mind lives on the Heart\n\nThe Rat is the concisest Tenant.\n\nFaithful to the end Amended\n\nThe Treason of an accent\n\nThe long sigh of the Frog\n\nI sued the News \u2014 yet feared \u2014 the News\n\nThe Flake the Wind exasperate\n\nOf their peculiar light\n\nSummer laid her simple Hat\n\nHow know it from a Summer's Day?\n\nTake all away \u2014\n\nBrother of Ingots \u2014 Ah Peru \u2014\n\nTomorrow \u2014 whose location\n\nLove's stricken why\n\nTrusty as the stars\n\nGathered into the Earth,\n\nHow fits his Umber Coat\n\nThe Sun is one \u2014 and on the Tare\n\nThe worthlessness of Earthly things\n\nA Saucer holds a Cup\n\nDeath warrants are supposed to be\n\nDreams are the subtle Dower\n\nForbidden Fruit a flavor has\n\nHis Heart was darker than the starless night\n\nHis Mansion in the Pool\n\nHow much the present moment means\n\nI suppose the time will come\n\nIn many and reportless places\n\nLong Years apart \u2014 can make no\n\nPraise it \u2014 'tis dead \u2014\n\nSecrets is a daily word\n\nSummer \u2014 we all have seen \u2014\n\nThe Butterfly's Numidian Gown\n\nThose cattle smaller than a Bee\n\nTouch lightly Nature's sweet Guitar\n\nThese held their Wick above the West \u2014\n\nThey might not need me \u2014 yet they might \u2014\n\nHope is a strange invention \u2014\n\nLay this Laurel on the One\n\nWhose Pink career may have a close\n\nAfter all Birds have been investigated and laid aside \u2014\n\nShe laid her docile Crescent down\n\nIt sounded as if the Streets were running\n\nI have no Life but this \u2014\n\nPerhaps they do not go so far\n\nWhat mystery pervades a well!\n\nTo own a Susan of my own\n\nTo the stanch Dust\n\nMy Maker \u2014 let me be\n\nMarch is the Month of Expectation.\n\nBees are Black, with Gilt Surcingles \u2014\n\nNo Passenger was known to flee \u2014\n\nA Field of Stubble, lying sere\n\nThe Fact that Earth is Heaven \u2014\n\nCould mortal lip divine\n\nI shall not murmur if at last\n\nOf Paradise' existence\n\nShame is the shawl of Pink\n\nSweet Skepticism of the Heart \u2014\n\nUnworthy of her Breast\n\nA wild Blue sky abreast of Winds\n\nCrisis is sweet and yet the Heart\n\nHow Human Nature dotes\n\nHow lonesome the Wind must feel Nights \u2014\n\nIt was a quiet seeming Day \u2014\n\nOne Joy of so much anguish\n\nSuch are the inlets of the mind \u2014\n\nSummer has two Beginnings \u2014\n\nThe fairest Home I ever knew\n\nThe Gentian has a parched Corolla \u2014\n\nThe inundation of the Spring\n\nThe pretty Rain from those sweet Eaves\n\nTo earn it by disdaining it\n\nWater makes many Beds\n\nWe shun because we prize her Face\n\nWho never wanted \u2014 maddest Joy\n\nWith Pinions of Disdain\n\nSpurn the temerity \u2014\n\nHow brittle are the Piers\n\nGo not too near a House of Rose \u2014\n\nNot that he goes \u2014 we love him more\n\nThan Heaven more remote,\n\nA Dew sufficed itself \u2014\n\nBehold this little Bane \u2014\n\nHow ruthless are the gentle \u2014\n\nThe healed Heart shows its shallow scar\n\nThese Fevered Days \u2014 to take them to the Forest\n\nTo mend each tattered Faith\n\nA chilly Peace infests the Grass\n\nA little Snow was here and there\n\nDeath is the supple Suitor\n\nHis Mind like Fabrics of the East\n\nHow good his Lava Bed,\n\nHow soft a Caterpillar steps \u2014\n\nI thought the Train would never come \u2014\n\nThe Road was lit with Moon and star \u2014\n\nWhoever disenchants\n\nYour thoughts don't have words every day\n\nA Counterfeit \u2014 a Plated Person \u2014\n\nThose not live yet\n\nOpinion is a flitting thing,\n\nSo gay a Flower\n\nIt stole along so stealthy\n\nTime's wily Chargers will not wait\n\nBelshazzar had a Letter \u2014\n\nHis Cheek is his Biographer \u2014\n\nHeavenly Father \u2014 take to thee\n\nWe knew not that we were to live \u2014\n\nA Route of Evanescence\n\nOne thing of it we borrow\n\nBefore you thought of Spring\n\nOne of the ones that Midas touched\n\nA little overflowing word\n\nA winged spark doth soar about \u2014\n\nIf wrecked upon the Shoal of Thought\n\nThe Sweets of Pillage, can be known\n\nTheir Barricade against the Sky\n\nTo see the Summer Sky\n\nWe talked with each other about each other\n\nEstranged from Beauty \u2014 none can be \u2014\n\nFame is the one that does not stay \u2014\n\nHis voice decrepit was with Joy \u2014\n\nHow destitute is he\n\nLook back on Time, with kindly eyes \u2014\n\nThe Devil \u2014 had he fidelity\n\nThe fascinating chill that music leaves\n\nThe way Hope builds his House\n\nTis whiter than an Indian Pipe \u2014\n\nThe Robin is a Gabriel\n\nWe shall find the Cube of the Rainbow.\n\nLove is done when Love's begun,\n\nHer spirit rose to such a height\n\nThe Savior must have been\n\nBirthday of but a single pang\n\nA Dimple in the Tomb\n\nThe Face in evanescence lain\n\nThe Road to Paradise is plain,\n\nAnd with what body do they come? \u2014\n\nCould that sweet Darkness where they dwell\n\nThe competitions of the sky\n\nThe Thrill came slowly like a Boom for\n\nAll that I do\n\nFacts by our side are never sudden\n\nGlass was the Street \u2014 in tinsel Peril\n\nHow firm Eternity must look\n\nIt came his turn to beg \u2014\n\nIts little Ether Hood\n\nI saw the wind within her\n\nMore than the Grave is closed to me \u2014\n\nOf whom so dear\n\nShe could not live upon the Past\n\nSummer is shorter than any one \u2014\n\nThe Pile of Years is not so high\n\nYou cannot make Remembrance grow\n\nMine Enemy is growing old \u2014\n\nHow happy is the little Stone\n\nMy country need not change her gown,\n\nAll things swept sole away\n\nGo travelling with us!\n\nAn Antiquated Tree\n\nThe Things that never can come back, are several \u2014\n\nNo Autumn's intercepting Chill\n\nHow much of Source escapes with thee \u2014\n\nNot seeing, still we know \u2014\n\nThe Dandelion's pallid tube\n\nThe stem of a departed Flower\n\nThe Butterfly upon the Sky,\n\nHis little Hearse like Figure\n\nWe never know we go when we are going \u2014\n\nA faded Boy \u2014 in sallow Clothes\n\nHe lived the Life of Ambush\n\nHis oriental heresies\n\nOh give it Motion \u2014 deck it sweet\n\nThe Moon upon her fluent Route\n\nTis Seasons since the Dimpled War\n\nA Pang is more conspicuous in Spring\n\nAbove Oblivion's Tide there is a Pier\n\nFrom all the Jails the Boys and Girls\n\nOn that specific Pillow\n\nSociety for me my misery\n\nThe Life that tied too tight escapes\n\nThere comes a warning like a spy\n\nCandor \u2014 my tepid friend \u2014\n\nFollow wise Orion\n\nNow I lay thee down to Sleep \u2014\n\nAs imperceptibly as Grief\n\nNo matter where the Saints abide,\n\nCome show thy Durham Breast\n\nObtaining but our own Extent\n\nWho has not found the Heaven \u2014 below \u2014\n\nThe Bible is an antique Volume \u2014\n\nSweet Pirate of the heart,\n\nHope is a subtle Glutton \u2014\n\nMeeting by Accident,\n\nMy Wars are laid away in Books \u2014\n\nThe pattern of the sun\n\nThose \u2014 dying then,\n\nWithin thy Grave!\n\nBliss is the plaything of the child \u2014\n\nGo tell it \u2014 What a Message \u2014\n\nI groped for him before I knew\n\nImage of Light, Adieu \u2014\n\nLives he in any other world\n\nOf Death I try to think like this \u2014\n\nTried always and Condemned by thee\n\nTo be forgot by thee\n\nNo Brigadier throughout the Year\n\nHer Losses make our Gains ashamed \u2014\n\nBy homely gift and hindered Words\n\nPass to they Rendezvous of Light,\n\nSome Arrows slay but whom they strike \u2014\n\nClimbing to reach the costly Hearts\n\nThe Heart has many Doors \u2014\n\nTo see her is a Picture \u2014\n\nThe Clock strikes one that just struck two \u2014\n\nForever honored by the Tree\n\nHow slow the Wind \u2014\n\nWe wear our sober Dresses when we die,\n\nTo the bright east she flies,\n\nNo ladder needs the bird but skies\n\nThe Bat is dun, with wrinkled Wings \u2014\n\nThe Spirit lasts \u2014 but in what mode \u2014\n\nMorning is due to all \u2014\n\nBlossoms will run away,\n\nIt would not know if it were spurned,\n\nWe shun it ere it comes,\n\nThe farthest Thunder that I heard\n\nWhere Roses would not dare to go,\n\nWitchcraft was hung, in History,\n\nExpanse cannot be lost \u2014\n\nThe Bird her punctual music brings\n\nTo her derided Home\n\nHe ate and drank the precious Words \u2014\n\nThis Me \u2014 that walks and works \u2014 must die,\n\nCosmopolities without a plea\n\nNot at Home to Callers\n\nThe Bobolink is gone \u2014\n\nThe Lassitudes of Contemplation\n\nThere came a Wind like a Bugle \u2014\n\nImmured in Heaven!\n\nDeclaiming Waters none may dread \u2014\n\nFew, yet enough,\n\nTis not the swaying frame we miss,\n\nWho is it seeks my Pillow Nights \u2014\n\nThough the great Waters sleep,\n\nUpon his Saddle sprung a Bird\n\nOf God we ask one favor,\n\nPursuing you in your transitions,\n\nThe going from a world we know\n\nWe send the Wave to find the Wave \u2014\n\nEach that we lose takes part of us;\n\nQuite empty, quite at rest,\n\nWithin that little Hive\n\nThe ecstasy to guess\n\nSunset that screens, reveals \u2014\n\nMorning that comes but once,\n\nTheir dappled importunity\n\nThe Auctioneer of Parting\n\nNot Sickness stains the Brave,\n\nParting with Thee reluctantly,\n\nOh what a Grace is this,\n\nWho abdicated Ambush\n\nTo try to speak, and miss the way\n\nThere are two Mays\n\nNot knowing when the Dawn will come,\n\nCircumference thou Bride of Awe\n\nA Flower will not trouble her, it has so small a Foot,\n\nA Sloop of Amber slips away\n\nA World made penniless by that departure\n\nApparently with no surprise\n\nBack from the cordial Grave I drag thee\n\nNo Life can pompless pass away \u2014\n\nThe pedigree of Honey\n\nA Drunkard cannot meet a Cork\n\nArrows enamored of his Heart \u2014\n\nAs from the earth the light Balloon\n\nOh Future! thou secreted peace\n\nSo give me back to Death \u2014\n\nStill own thee \u2014 still thou art\n\nTalk not to me of Summer Trees\n\nThe Jay his Castanet has struck\n\nThe Sun in reigning to the West\n\nIs it too late to touch you, Dear?\n\nGo thy great way!\n\nA Letter is a joy of Earth \u2014\n\nTake all away from me, but leave me Ecstasy,\n\nBetrothed to Righteousness might be\n\nRed Sea, indeed! Talk not to me\n\nExtol thee \u2014 could I? Then I will\n\nSome one prepared this mighty show\n\nThe Ditch is dear to the Drunken man\n\nWhy should we hurry \u2014 why indeed?\n\nOf Glory not a Beam is left\n\nThe immortality she gave\n\nA Cap of Lead across the sky\n\nA lane of Yellow led the eye\n\nA Word made Flesh is seldom\n\nAdvance is Life's condition\n\nAs we pass Houses musing slow\n\nBeauty crowds me till I die\n\nConferring with myself\n\nDown Time's quaint stream\n\nEden is that old-fashioned House\n\nEndanger it, and the Demand\n\nFame is a fickle food\n\nGlory is that bright tragic thing\n\nGuest am I to have\n\nHe went by sleep that drowsy route\n\nHis mind of man, a secret makes\n\nI did not reach Thee\n\nI know of people in the Grave\n\nI see thee clearer for the Grave\n\nI watcher her face to see which way\n\nIf I could tell how glad I was\n\nIn snow thou comest \u2014\n\nIn Winter in my Room\n\nJudgment is justest\n\nLightly stepped a yellow star\n\nNature can do no more\n\nNot any sunny tone\n\nOf this is Day composed\n\nOf Yellow was the outer Sky\n\nOn my volcano grows the Grass\n\nPeril as a Possesssion\n\nRather arid delight\n\nSometimes with the Heart\n\nSpeech is one symptom of Affection\n\nSummer begins to have the look\n\nThat she forgot me was the least\n\nThe Blunder is in estimate.\n\nThe butterfly obtains\n\nThe event was directly behind Him\n\nThe gleam of an heroic Act\n\nThe Hills erect their Purple Heads\n\nThe look of thee, what is it like\n\nThe ones that disappeared are back\n\nThe overtakelessness of those\n\nThe right to perish might be thought\n\nThe Sun retired to a cloud\n\nThe wind drew off\n\nThere is a solitude of space\n\nThese are the days that Reindeer love\n\nThey talk as slow as Legends grow\n\nTis easier to pity those when dead\n\nTo do a magnanimous thing\n\nTo tell the Beauty would decrease\n\nTo their apartment deep\n\nToday or this noon\n\nTwas comfort in her Dying Room\n\nUnto a broken heart\n\nVolcanoes be in Sicily\n\nWhen we have ceased to care\n\nWinter under cultivation\n\nWitchcraft has not a Pedigree\n\nWith sweetness unabated\n\nA curious Cloud surprised the Sky,\n\nA face devoid of love or grace,\n\nA Pit \u2014 but Heaven over it \u2014\n\nAs subtle as tomorrow\n\nBy a departing light\n\nConsulting summer's clock,\n\nDeath is like the insect\n\nDid life's penurious length\n\nDrowning is not so pitiful\n\nGod is indeed a jealous God \u2014\n\nHad I known that the first was the last\n\nHe was my host \u2014 he was my guest,\n\nHer face was in a bed of hair,\n\nHigh from the earth I heard a bird,\n\nHow dare the robins sing,\n\nI took one Draught of Life \u2014\n\nIf all the griefs I am to have\n\nIf ever the lid gets off my head\n\nIs Immortality a bane\n\nI've got an arrow here.\n\nLethe in my flower,\n\nLove can do all but raise the Dead\n\nMy life closed twice before its close \u2014\n\nNo man saw awe, nor to his house\n\nOh, honey of an hour,\n\nOne crown that no one seeks\n\nProud of my broken heart, since thou didst break it,\n\nRearrange a Wife's affection!\n\nSoftened by Time's consummate plush,\n\nSome say goodnight \u2014 at night \u2014\n\nSweet is the swamp with its secrets,\n\nThat it will never come again\n\nThe distance that the dead have gone\n\nThe grave my little cottage is,\n\nThe joy that has no stem no core,\n\nThe mob within the heart\n\nThe most important population\n\nThe parasol is the umbrella's daughter,\n\nThe reticent volcano keeps\n\nThe waters chased him as he fled,\n\nThe words the happy say\n\nThere comes an hour when begging stops,\n\nThis docile one inter\n\nThrough those old Grounds of memory,\n\nTo lose thee \u2014 sweeter than to gain\n\nTo make a prairie it takes a clover and one bee,\n\nTwas here my summer paused\n\nUpon the gallows hung a wretch,\n\nWhere every bird is bold to go\n\nWhich misses most,\n\nElysium is as far as to\n\nA train went through a burial gate,\n\nWere natural mortal lady\n\nFame is a bee.\n\nThe saddest noise, the sweetest noise,\n\nThat Love is all there is,\n\nThose final Creatures, \u2014 who they are \u2014\n\nSweet hours have perished here;\n\nLad of Athens, faithful be\n\nThe longest day that God appoints\n\nExperiment escorts us last \u2014\n\nHow fleet \u2014 how indiscreet an one \u2014\n\nLet me not thirst with this Hock at my Lip,\n\nThe Summer that we did not prize,\n\nToo happy Time dissolves itself\n\nThe earth has many keys,\n**_LIST OF POEMS IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER_**\n\nA-D E-H I-L M-O P-S T-V W-Z\n\nA Bee his burnished Carriage\n\nA Bird came down the Walk \u2014\n\nA Burdock \u2014 clawed my Gown \u2014\n\nA Cap of Lead across the sky\n\nA Charm invests a face\n\nA chilly Peace infests the Grass\n\nA Clock stopped \u2014\n\nA Cloud withdrew from the Sky\n\nA Coffin \u2014 is a small Domain,\n\nA Counterfeit \u2014 a Plated Person \u2014\n\nA curious Cloud surprised the Sky,\n\nA darting fear \u2014 a pomp \u2014 a tear \u2014\n\nA Day! Help! Help! Another Day!\n\nA Death blow is a Life blow to Some\n\nA Deed knocks first at Thought\n\nA Dew sufficed itself \u2014\n\nA Diamond on the Hand\n\nA Dimple in the Tomb\n\nA Door just opened on a street \u2014\n\nA doubt if it be Us\n\nA Drop Fell on the Apple Tree \u2014\n\nA Drunkard cannot meet a Cork\n\nA Dying Tiger \u2014 moaned for Drink \u2014\n\nA face devoid of love or grace,\n\nA faded Boy \u2014 in sallow Clothes\n\nA feather from the Whippoorwill\n\nA Field of Stubble, lying sere\n\nA first Mute Coming \u2014\n\nA Flower will not trouble her, it has so small a Foot,\n\nA full fed Rose on meals of Tint\n\nA fuzzy fellow, without feet,\n\nA great Hope fell\n\nA happy lip \u2014 breaks sudden \u2014\n\nA House upon the Height \u2014\n\nA Lady red \u2014 amid the Hill\n\nA lane of Yellow led the eye\n\nA Letter is a joy of Earth \u2014\n\nA Light exists in Spring\n\nA little bread \u2014 a crust \u2014 a crumb \u2014\n\nA little Dog that wags his tail\n\nA little East of Jordan,\n\nA little Madness in the Spring\n\nA little overflowing word\n\nA little Road \u2014 not made of Man \u2014\n\nA little Snow was here and there\n\nA long \u2014 long Sleep \u2014 A famous \u2014 Sleep \u2014\n\nA loss of something ever felt I \u2014\n\nA Man may make a Remark \u2014\n\nA Mien to move a Queen \u2014\n\nA Mine there is no Man would own\n\nA Moth the hue of this\n\nA Murmur in the Trees \u2014 to note \u2014\n\nA narrow fellow in the grass\n\nA nearness to Tremendousness \u2014\n\nA Night \u2014 there lay the Days between \u2014\n\nA Pang is more conspicuous in Spring\n\nA Pit \u2014 but Heaven over it \u2014\n\nA Planted Life \u2014 diversified\n\nA poor \u2014 torn heart \u2014 a tattered heart \u2014\n\nA precious \u2014 mouldering pleasure \u2014 'tis \u2014\n\nA Prison gets to be a friend \u2014\n\nA prompt \u2014 executive Bird is the Jay \u2014\n\nA Rat surrendered here\n\nA Route of Evanescence\n\nA Saucer holds a Cup\n\nA science \u2014 so the Savants say,\n\nA Secret told \u2014\n\nA sepal, petal, and a thorn\n\nA Shade upon the mind there passes\n\nA shady friend \u2014 for Torrid days \u2014\n\nA Sickness of this World it most occasions\n\nA single Clover Plank\n\nA single Screw of Flesh\n\nA slash of Blue \u2014\n\nA Sloop of Amber slips away\n\nA soft Sea washed around the House\n\nA solemn thing \u2014 it was \u2014 I said \u2014\n\nA Solemn thing within the Soul\n\nA something in a summer's Day\n\nA South Wind \u2014 has a pathos\n\nA Sparrow took a Slice of Twig\n\nA Spider sewed at Night\n\nA stagnant pleasure like a Pool\n\nA still \u2014 Volcano \u2014 Life \u2014\n\nA Thought went up my mind today \u2014\n\nA throe upon the features \u2014\n\nA Toad, can die of Light \u2014\n\nA Tongue \u2014 to tell Him I am true!\n\nA Tooth upon Our Peace\n\nA train went through a burial gate,\n\nA transport one cannot contain\n\nA Visitor in Marl \u2014\n\nAwake ye muses nine, sing me a strain divine,\n\nA Weight with Needles on the pounds \u2014\n\nA Wife \u2014 at daybreak I shall be \u2014\n\nA wild Blue sky abreast of Winds\n\nA Wind that rose\n\nA winged spark doth soar about \u2014\n\nA Word dropped careless on a Page\n\nA word is dead\n\nA Word made Flesh is seldom\n\nA World made penniless by that departure\n\nA wounded Deer - leaps highest -\n\nAbove Oblivion's Tide there is a Pier\n\nAbraham to kill him \u2014\n\nAbsence disembodies \u2014 so does Death\n\nAbsent Place \u2014 an April Day \u2014\n\nAdrift! A little boat adrift!\n\nAdvance is Life's condition\n\nAfraid! Of whom am I afraid?\n\nAfter a hundred years\n\nAfter all Birds have been investigated and laid aside \u2014\n\nAfter great pain, a formal feeling comes \u2014\n\nAfter the Sun comes out\n\nAgain \u2014 his voice is at the door \u2014\n\nAh, Moon \u2014 and Star!\n\nAh, Necromancy Sweet!\n\nAh, Teneriffe!\n\nAir has no Residence, no Neighbor,\n\nAll but Death, can be Adjusted \u2014\n\nAll Circumstances are the Frame\n\nAll forgot for recollecting\n\nAll I may, if small,\n\nAll men for Honor hardest work\n\nAll overgrown by cunning moss,\n\nAll that I do\n\nAll the letters I can write\n\nAll these my banners be.\n\nAll things swept sole away\n\nAlone and in a Circumstance\n\nAlone, I cannot be \u2014\n\nAlter? When the Hills do\n\nAlthough I put away his life \u2014\n\nAlways Mine!\n\nAmbition cannot find him.\n\nAmple make this Bed \u2014\n\nAn altered look about the hills \u2014\n\nAn antiquated Grace\n\nAn Antiquated Tree\n\nAn awful Tempest mashed the air \u2014\n\nAn Everywhere of Silver\n\nAn honest Tear\n\nAn Hour is a Sea\n\nAn ignorance a Sunset\n\nAnd this of all my Hopes\n\nAnd with what body do they come? \u2014\n\nAngels, in the early morning\n\nAnswer July \u2014\n\nApology for Her\n\nApparently with no surprise\n\nArcturus is his other name \u2014\n\nAre Friends Delight or Pain?\n\nArrows enamored of his Heart \u2014\n\nArt thou the thing I wanted?\n\nArtists wrestled here!\n\nAs by the dead we love to sit,\n\nAs Children bid the Guest Good Night\n\nAs far from pity, as complaint \u2014\n\nAs from the earth the light Balloon\n\nAs Frost is best conceived\n\nAs if I asked a common Alms,\n\nAs if some little Arctic flower\n\nAs if the Sea should part\n\nAs imperceptibly as Grief\n\nAs old as Woe \u2014\n\nAs One does Sickness over\n\nAs plan for Noon and plan for Night\n\nAs Sleigh Bells seem in summer\n\nAs subtle as tomorrow\n\nAs Summer into Autumn slips\n\nAs the Starved Maelstrom laps the Navies\n\nAs Watchers hang upon the East,\n\nAs we pass Houses musing slow\n\nAs willing lid o'er weary eye\n\nAshes denote that Fire was \u2014\n\nAt Half past Three, a single Bird\n\nAt last, to be identified!\n\nAt least \u2014 to pray \u2014 is left \u2014 is left \u2014\n\nAt leisure is the Soul\n\nAurora is the effort\n\nAutumn \u2014 overlooked my Knitting \u2014\n\nAway from Home are some and I \u2014\n\nBack from the cordial Grave I drag thee\n\nBaffled for just a day or two \u2014\n\nBanish Air from Air \u2014\n\nBe Mine the Doom \u2014\n\nBeauty \u2014 be not caused \u2014 It Is \u2014\n\nBeauty crowds me till I die\n\nBecause He loves Her\n\nBecause I could not stop for Death \u2014\n\nBecause my Brook is fluent\n\nBecause that you are going\n\nBecause the Bee may blameless hum\n\nBecause 'twas Riches I could own,\n\nBee! I'm expecting you!\n\nBees are Black, with Gilt Surcingles \u2014\n\nBefore He comes we weigh the Time!\n\nBefore I got my eye put out\n\nBefore the ice is in the pools \u2014\n\nBefore you thought of Spring\n\nBehind Me \u2014 dips Eternity \u2014\n\nBehold this little Bane \u2014\n\nBelshazzar had a Letter \u2014\n\nBereaved of all, I went abroad \u2014\n\nBereavement in their death to feel\n\nBesides the Autumn poets sing\n\nBesides this May\n\nBest Gains \u2014 must have the Losses' Test \u2014\n\nBest Things dwell out of Sight\n\nBest Witchcraft is Geometry\n\nBetrothed to Righteousness might be\n\nBetter \u2014 than Music! For I \u2014 who heard it \u2014\n\nBetween My Country \u2014 and the Others \u2014\n\nBetween the form of Life and Life\n\nBind me \u2014 I still can sing \u2014\n\nBirthday of but a single pang\n\nBlazing in Gold and quenching in Purple\n\nBless God, he went as soldiers,\n\nBliss is the plaything of the child \u2014\n\nBloom \u2014 is Result \u2014 to meet a Flower\n\nBloom upon the Mountain \u2014 stated \u2014\n\nBlossoms will run away,\n\nBound \u2014 a trouble \u2014\n\nBring me the sunset in a cup,\n\nBrother of Ingots \u2014 Ah Peru \u2014\n\nBut little Carmine hath her face \u2014\n\nBy a departing light\n\nBy a flower \u2014 By a letter \u2014\n\nBy Chivalries as tiny,\n\nBy homely gift and hindered Words\n\nBy my Window have I for Scenery\n\nBy such and such an offering\n\nCandor \u2014 my tepid friend \u2014\n\nCircumference thou Bride of Awe\n\nCivilization \u2014 spurns \u2014 the Leopard!\n\nClimbing to reach the costly Hearts\n\nCocoon above! Cocoon below!\n\nColor \u2014 Caste \u2014 Denomination \u2014\n\nCome show thy Durham Breast\n\nCome slowly - Eden!\n\nConferring with myself\n\nConfirming All who analyze\n\nConjecturing a Climate\n\nConscious am I in my Chamber,\n\nConsulting summer's clock,\n\nContained in this short Life\n\nCosmopolities without a plea\n\nCould \u2014 I do more \u2014 for Thee \u2014\n\nCould Hope inspect her Basis\n\nCould I \u2014 then \u2014 shut the door \u2014\n\nCould I but ride indefinite\n\nCould live \u2014 did live \u2014\n\nCould mortal lip divine\n\nCould that sweet Darkness where they dwell\n\nCount not that far that can be had,\n\nCrisis is a Hair\n\nCrisis is sweet and yet the Heart\n\nCrumbling is not an instant's Act\n\nDare you see a Soul at the White Heat?\n\nDear March \u2014 Come in \u2014\n\nDeath is a Dialogue between\n\nDeath is like the insect\n\nDeath is potential to that Man\n\nDeath is the supple Suitor\n\nDeath leaves Us homesick, who behind,\n\nDeath sets a Thing significant\n\nDeath warrants are supposed to be\n\nDeath's Waylaying not the sharpest\n\nDeclaiming Waters none may dread \u2014\n\nDefrauded I a Butterfly \u2014\n\nDelayed till she had ceased to know \u2014\n\nDelight \u2014 becomes pictorial \u2014\n\nDelight is as the flight \u2014\n\nDelight's Despair at setting\n\nDenial \u2014 is the only fact\n\nDeparted \u2014 to the Judgment \u2014\n\nDeprived of other Banquet,\n\nDespair's advantage is achieved\n\nDew \u2014 is the Freshet in the Grass \u2014\n\nDid life's penurious length\n\nDid Our Best Moment last \u2014\n\nDid the Harebell loose her girdle\n\nDid We abolish Frost\n\nDid we disobey Him?\n\nDid you ever stand in a Cavern's Mouth \u2014\n\nDistance \u2014 is not the Realm of Fox\n\nDistrustful of the Gentian \u2014\n\nDo People moulder equally,\n\nDominion lasts until obtained \u2014\n\nDon't put up my Thread and Needle \u2014\n\nDoom is the House without the Door \u2014\n\nDoubt Me! My Dim Companion!\n\nDown Time's quaint stream\n\nDrab Habitation of Whom?\n\nDrama's Vitallest Expression is the Common Day\n\nDreams \u2014 are well \u2014 but Waking's better,\n\nDreams are the subtle Dower\n\nDropped into the Ether Acre \u2014\n\nDrowning is not so pitiful\n\nDust is the only Secret \u2014\n\nDying at my music!\n\nDying! Dying in the night!\n\nDying! To be afraid of thee\n\nEach Life Converges to some Centre \u2014\n\nEach Scar I'll keep for Him\n\nEach Second is the last\n\nEach that we lose takes part of us;\n\nEden is that old-fashioned House\n\nElijah's Wagon knew no thill\n\nElizabeth told Essex\n\nElysium is as far as to\n\nEmbarrassment of one another\n\nEmpty my Heart, of Thee \u2014\n\nEndanger it, and the Demand\n\nEnded, ere it begun \u2014\n\nEndow the Living \u2014 with the Tears \u2014\n\nEscape is such a thankful Word\n\nEscaping backward to perceive\n\nEssential Oils \u2014 are wrung \u2014\n\nEstranged from Beauty \u2014 none can be \u2014\n\nExcept the Heaven had come so near \u2014\n\nExcept the smaller size\n\nExcept to Heaven, she is nought.\n\nExhilaration \u2014 is within \u2014\n\nExhilaration is the Breeze\n\nExpanse cannot be lost \u2014\n\nExpectation \u2014 is Contentment \u2014\n\nExperience is the Angled Road\n\nExperiment escorts us last \u2014\n\nExperiment to me\n\nExtol thee \u2014 could I? Then I will\n\nExultation is the going\n\nFacts by our side are never sudden\n\nFairer through Fading \u2014 as the Day\n\nFaith \u2014 is the Pierless Bridge\n\nFaith is a fine invention\n\nFaithful to the end Amended\n\nFalsehood of Thee could I suppose\n\nFame is a bee.\n\nFame is a fickle food\n\nFame is the one that does not stay \u2014\n\nFame is the tint that Scholars leave\n\nFame of Myself, to justify,\n\nFame's Boys and Girls, who never die\n\nFar from Love the Heavenly Father\n\nFate slew Him, but He did not drop \u2014\n\nFew, yet enough,\n\nFinding is the first Act\n\nFinite \u2014 to fail, but infinite to Venture \u2014\n\nFitter to see Him, I may be\n\nFloss won't save you from an Abyss\n\nFlowers \u2014 Well \u2014 if anybody\n\nFollow wise Orion\n\nFor Death \u2014 or rather\n\nFor each ecstatic instant\n\nFor every Bird a Nest \u2014\n\nFor largest Woman's Hearth I knew \u2014\n\nFor this \u2014 accepted Breath \u2014\n\nForbidden Fruit a flavor has\n\nForever \u2014 is composed of Nows \u2014\n\nForever at His side to walk \u2014\n\nForever honored by the Tree\n\nForget! The lady with the Amulet\n\nFortitude incarnate\n\nFour Trees \u2014 upon a solitary Acre \u2014\n\nFrequently the woods are pink -\n\nFrigid and sweet Her parting Face \u2014\n\nFrom all the Jails the Boys and Girls\n\nFrom Blank to Blank \u2014\n\nFrom Cocoon forth a Butterfly\n\nFrom his slim Palace in the Dust\n\nFrom Us She wandered now a Year,\n\nFunny \u2014 to be a Century \u2014\n\nFurther in Summer than the Birds\n\nGarland for Queens, may be \u2014\n\nGathered into the Earth,\n\nGive little Anguish \u2014\n\nGiven in Marriage unto Thee\n\nGlass was the Street \u2014 in tinsel Peril\n\nGlee \u2014 The great storm is over \u2014\n\nGlory is that bright tragic thing\n\nGlowing is her Bonnet,\n\nGo not too near a House of Rose \u2014\n\nGo slow, my soul, to feed thyself\n\nGo tell it \u2014 What a Message \u2014\n\nGo thy great way!\n\nGo travelling with us!\n\nGod gave a Loaf to every Bird \u2014\n\nGod is a distant \u2014 stately Lover \u2014\n\nGod is indeed a jealous God \u2014\n\nGod made a little Gentian \u2014\n\nGod made no act without a cause,\n\nGod permits industrious Angels \u2014\n\nGoing to Heaven!\n\nGoing to Him! Happy letter!\n\nGood Morning \u2014 Midnight \u2014\n\nGood Night! Which put the Candle out?\n\nGood night, because we must,\n\nGood to hide, and hear 'em hunt!\n\nGratitude \u2014 is not the mention\n\nGreat Caesar! Condescend\n\nGreat Streets of silence led away\n\nGrief is a Mouse \u2014\n\nGrowth of Man \u2014 like Growth of Nature \u2014\n\nGuest am I to have\n\nHad I known that the first was the last\n\nHad I not seen the Sun\n\nHad I not This, or This, I said,\n\nHad I presumed to hope \u2014\n\nHad this one Day not been.\n\nHad we known the Ton she bore\n\nHad we our senses\n\nHave any like Myself\n\nHave you got a Brook in your little heart,\n\nHe ate and drank the precious Words \u2014\n\nHe forgot \u2014 and I \u2014 remembered \u2014\n\nHe fought like those Who've nought to lose \u2014\n\nHe found my Being \u2014 set it up \u2014\n\nHe fumbles at your Soul\n\nHe gave away his Life \u2014\n\nHe is alive, this morning \u2014\n\nHe lived the Life of Ambush\n\nHe outstripped Time with but a Bout,\n\nHe parts Himself \u2014 like Leaves \u2014\n\nHe preached upon Breadth till it argued him narrow \u2014\n\nHe put the Belt around my life\n\nHe scanned it \u2014 staggered \u2014\n\nHe strained my faith \u2014\n\nHe told a homely tale\n\nHe touched me, so I live to know\n\nHe was my host \u2014 he was my guest,\n\nHe was weak, and I was strong \u2014 then \u2014\n\nHe went by sleep that drowsy route\n\nHe who in Himself believes \u2014\n\nHeart! We will forget him!\n\nHeart, not so heavy as mine\n\nHeaven \u2014 is what I cannot reach!\n\nHeaven has different Signs \u2014 to me \u2014\n\nHeaven is so far of the Mind\n\nHeavenly Father \u2014 take to thee\n\nHer \u2014 last Poems \u2014\n\nHer breast is fit for pearls,\n\nHer face was in a bed of hair,\n\nHer final Summer was it \u2014\n\nHer Grace is all she has \u2014\n\nHer little Parasol to lift\n\nHer Losses make our Gains ashamed \u2014\n\nHer smile was shaped like other smiles \u2014\n\nHer sovereign People\n\nHer spirit rose to such a height\n\nHer Sweet turn to leave the Homestead\n\nHer sweet Weight on my Heart a Night\n\nHere, where the Daisies fit my Head\n\nHerein a Blossom lies \u2014\n\nHigh from the earth I heard a bird,\n\nHis Bill an Auger is\n\nHis Bill is clasped \u2014 his Eye forsook \u2014\n\nHis Cheek is his Biographer \u2014\n\nHis Feet are shod with Gauze \u2014\n\nHis Heart was darker than the starless night\n\nHis little Hearse like Figure\n\nHis Mansion in the Pool\n\nHis Mind like Fabrics of the East\n\nHis mind of man, a secret makes\n\nHis oriental heresies\n\nHis voice decrepit was with Joy \u2014\n\nHope is a strange invention \u2014\n\nHope is a subtle Glutton \u2014\n\nHope is the thing with feathers \u2014\n\nHouses \u2014 so the Wise Men tell me \u2014\n\nHow brittle are the Piers\n\nHow dare the robins sing,\n\nHow destitute is he\n\nHow far is it to Heaven?\n\nHow firm Eternity must look\n\nHow fits his Umber Coat\n\nHow fleet \u2014 how indiscreet an one \u2014\n\nHow fortunate the Grave \u2014\n\nHow good his Lava Bed,\n\nHow happy I was if I could forget\n\nHow happy is the little Stone\n\nHow Human Nature dotes\n\nHow know it from a Summer's Day?\n\nHow lonesome the Wind must feel Nights \u2014\n\nHow many Flowers fail in Wood \u2014\n\nHow many schemes may die\n\nHow many times these low feet staggered \u2014\n\nHow much of Source escapes with thee \u2014\n\nHow much the present moment means\n\nHow News must feel when travelling\n\nHow noteless Men, and Pleiads, stand,\n\nHow ruthless are the gentle \u2014\n\nHow sick \u2014 to wait \u2014 in any place \u2014 but thine \u2014\n\nHow slow the Wind \u2014\n\nHow soft a Caterpillar steps \u2014\n\nHow soft this Prison is\n\nHow still the Bells in Steeples stand\n\nHow the old Mountains drip with Sunset\n\nHow the Waters closed above Him\n\nHow well I knew Her not\n\nI am afraid to own a Body \u2014\n\nI am alive \u2014 I guess \u2014\n\nI am ashamed \u2014 I hide \u2014\n\nI asked no other thing \u2014\n\nI bet with every Wind that blew\n\nI breathed enough to take the Trick \u2014\n\nI bring an unaccustomed wine\n\nI Came to buy a smile \u2014 today \u2014\n\nI can wade Grief \u2014\n\nI cannot be ashamed\n\nI cannot buy it \u2014 'tis not sold \u2014\n\nI cannot dance upon my Toes \u2014\n\nI cannot live with You \u2014\n\nI cannot meet the Spring unmoved \u2014\n\nI cannot see my soul but know 'tis there\n\nI cannot want it more \u2014\n\nI can't tell you \u2014 but you feel it \u2014\n\nI cautious, scanned my little life \u2014\n\nI could bring You Jewels \u2014 had I a mind to \u2014\n\nI could die \u2014 to know \u2014\n\nI could not drink it, Sweet,\n\nI could not prove the Years had feet \u2014\n\nI could suffice for Him, I knew \u2014\n\nI cried at Pity \u2014 not at Pain \u2014\n\nI cross till I am weary\n\nI did not reach Thee\n\nI died for Beauty \u2014 but was scarce\n\nI dreaded that first Robin, so,\n\nI dwell in Possibility \u2014\n\nI envy Seas, whereon He rides \u2014\n\nI fear a Man of frugal Speech \u2014\n\nI felt a Cleaving in my Mind \u2014\n\nI felt a Funeral, in my Brain,\n\nI felt my life with both my hands\n\nI fit for them \u2014\n\nI found the words to every thought\n\nI gained it so \u2014\n\nI gave myself to Him \u2014\n\nI got so I could take his name \u2014\n\nI groped for him before I knew\n\nI had a daily Bliss\n\nI had a guinea golden \u2014\n\nI had been hungry, all the Years \u2014\n\nI had no Cause to be awake \u2014\n\nI had no time to Hate \u2014\n\nI had not minded \u2014 Walls \u2014\n\nI had some things that I called mine \u2014\n\nI had the Glory \u2014 that will do \u2014\n\nI have a Bird in spring\n\nI have a King, who does not speak \u2014\n\nI have never seen Volcanoes \u2014\n\nI have no Life but this \u2014\n\nI haven't told my garden yet \u2014\n\nI heard a Fly buzz \u2014 when I died \u2014\n\nI heard, as if I had no Ear\n\nI held a Jewel in my fingers \u2014\n\nI hide myself within my flower,\n\nI keep my pledge.\n\nI knew that I had gained\n\nI know a place where Summer strives\n\nI know lives, I could miss\n\nI know of people in the Grave\n\nI know some lonely Houses off the Road\n\nI know Suspense \u2014 it steps so terse\n\nI know that He exists.\n\nI know where Wells grow \u2014 Droughtless Wells \u2014\n\nI learned \u2014 at least \u2014 what Home could be \u2014\n\nI like a look of Agony,\n\nI like to see it lap the Miles \u2014\n\nI live with Him \u2014 I see His face \u2014\n\nI lived on Dread \u2014\n\nI lost a World - the other day!\n\nI made slow Riches but my Gain\n\nI make His Crescent fill or lack \u2014\n\nI many times thought Peace had come\n\nI meant to find Her when I came \u2014\n\nI meant to have but modest needs \u2014\n\nI measure every Grief I meet\n\nI met a King this afternoon!\n\nI never felt at Home \u2014 Below \u2014 -\n\nI never hear that one is dead\n\nI never hear the word escape\n\nI never lost as much but twice,\n\nI never saw a Moor \u2014\n\nI never told the buried gold\n\nI noticed People disappeared\n\nI often passed the village\n\nI pay \u2014 in Satin Cash \u2014\n\nI play at Riches \u2014 to appease\n\nI prayed, at first, a little Girl,\n\nI read my sentence \u2014 steadily \u2014\n\nI reason, Earth is short \u2014\n\nI reckon \u2014 when I count it all \u2014\n\nI robbed the Woods \u2014\n\nI rose \u2014 because He sank \u2014\n\nI saw no Way \u2014 The Heavens were stitched \u2014\n\nI saw that the Flake was on it\n\nI saw the wind within her\n\nI see thee better \u2014 in the Dark \u2014\n\nI see thee clearer for the Grave\n\nI send Two Sunsets \u2014\n\nI send you a decrepit flower\n\nI shall keep singing!\n\nI shall know why \u2014 when Time is over \u2014\n\nI shall not murmur if at last\n\nI should have been too glad, I see \u2014\n\nI should not dare to be so sad\n\nI should not dare to leave my friend,\n\nI showed her Heights she never saw \u2014\n\nI sing to use the Waiting\n\nI sometimes drop it, for a Quick \u2014\n\nI started Early \u2014 Took my Dog \u2014\n\nI stepped from Plank to Plank\n\nI stole them from a Bee \u2014\n\nI sued the News \u2014 yet feared \u2014 the News\n\nI suppose the time will come\n\nI taste a liquor never brewed\n\nI tend my flowers for thee \u2014\n\nI think I was enchanted\n\nI think just how my shape will rise \u2014\n\nI think that the Root of the Wind is Water \u2014\n\nI think the Hemlock likes to stand\n\nI think the longest Hour of all\n\nI think to Live \u2014 may be a Bliss\n\nI thought that nature was enough\n\nI thought the Train would never come \u2014\n\nI tie my Hat \u2014 I crease my Shawl \u2014\n\nI took my Power in my Hand \u2014\n\nI took one Draught of Life \u2014\n\nI tried to think a lonelier Thing\n\nI want \u2014 it pleaded \u2014 All its life \u2014\n\nI was a Phoebe \u2014 nothing more \u2014\n\nI was the slightest in the House \u2014\n\nI watched the Moon around the House\n\nI watcher her face to see which way\n\nI went to Heaven \u2014\n\nI went to thank Her \u2014\n\nI worked for chaff and earning Wheat\n\nI would distil a cup,\n\nI would not paint \u2014 a picture \u2014\n\nI Years had been from Home\n\nI'd rather recollect a setting\n\nIdeals are the Fairly Oil\n\nIf all the griefs I am to have\n\nIf any sink, assure that this, now standing \u2014\n\nIf anybody's friend be dead\n\nIf Blame be my side \u2014 forfeit Me \u2014\n\nIf ever the lid gets off my head\n\nIf He dissolve \u2014 then \u2014 there is nothing \u2014 more \u2014\n\nIf He were living \u2014 dare I ask \u2014\n\nIf I can stop one Heart from breaking\n\nIf I could bribe them by a Rose\n\nIf I could tell how glad I was\n\nIf I may have it, when it's dead,\n\nIf I should cease to bring a Rose\n\nIf I should die,\n\nIf I shouldn't be alive\n\nIf I'm lost \u2014 now\n\nIf it had no pencil\n\nIf my Bark sink\n\nIf Nature smiles \u2014 the Mother must\n\nIf pain for peace prepares\n\nIf recollecting were forgetting,\n\nIf she had been the Mistletoe\n\nIf the foolish, call them flowers \u2014\n\nIf this is fading\n\nIf those I loved were lost\n\nIf What we could \u2014 were what we would \u2014\n\nIf wrecked upon the Shoal of Thought\n\nIf you were coming in the Fall,\n\nIf your Nerve, deny you \u2014\n\nI'll clutch \u2014 and clutch \u2014\n\nI'll send the feather from my Hat!\n\nI'll tell you how the Sun rose \u2014\n\nI'm ceded \u2014 I've stopped being Theirs \u2014\n\nI'm Nobody! Who are you?\n\nI'm saying every day\n\nI'm sorry for the Dead \u2014 Today \u2014\n\nI'm the little Heart's Ease!\n\nI'm wife \u2014 I've finished that \u2014\n\nImage of Light, Adieu \u2014\n\nImmortal is an ample word\n\nImmured in Heaven!\n\nImpossibility, like Wine\n\nIn Ebon Box, when years have flown\n\nIn falling Timbers buried \u2014\n\nIn lands I never saw \u2014 they say\n\nIn many and reportless places\n\nIn rags mysterious as these\n\nIn snow thou comest \u2014\n\nIn this short Life\n\nIn thy long Paradise of Light\n\nIn Winter in my Room\n\nInconceivably solemn!\n\nIs Bliss then, such Abyss,\n\nIs Heaven a Physician?\n\nIs Immortality a bane\n\nIs it dead \u2014 Find it \u2014\n\nIs it too late to touch you, Dear?\n\nIs it true, dear Sue?\n\nIt always felt to me \u2014 a wrong\n\nIt bloomed and dropt, a Single Noon \u2014\n\nIt came at last but prompter Death\n\nIt came his turn to beg \u2014\n\nIt can't be Summer!\n\nIt ceased to hurt me, though so slow\n\nIt did not surprise me \u2014\n\nIt don't sound so terrible \u2014 quite \u2014 as it did \u2014\n\nIt dropped so low \u2014 in my Regard \u2014\n\nIt feels a shame to be Alive \u2014\n\nIt is a lonesome Glee \u2014\n\nIt is an honorable Thought\n\nIt is easy to work when the soul is at play \u2014\n\nIt knew no lapse, nor Diminuation \u2014\n\nIt knew no Medicine \u2014\n\nIt makes no difference abroad \u2014\n\nIt might be lonelier\n\nIt rises \u2014 passes \u2014 on our South\n\nIt sifts from Leaden Sieves \u2014\n\nIt sounded as if the Streets were running\n\nIt stole along so stealthy\n\nIt struck me \u2014 every Day \u2014\n\nIt tossed \u2014 and tossed \u2014\n\nIt troubled me as once I was \u2014\n\nIt was a Grave, yet bore no Stone\n\nIt was a quiet seeming Day \u2014\n\nIt was a quiet way \u2014\n\nIt was given to me by the Gods \u2014\n\nIt was not Death, for I stood up,\n\nIt was not Saint \u2014 it was too large \u2014\n\nIt was too late for Man \u2014\n\nIt will be Summer \u2014 eventually.\n\nIt would have starved a Gnat \u2014\n\nIt would never be Common \u2014 more \u2014 I said \u2014\n\nIt would not know if it were spurned,\n\nIt's all I have to bring today \u2014\n\nIt's coming \u2014 the postponeless Creature \u2014\n\nIt's easy to invent a Life \u2014\n\nIts Hour with itself\n\nIt's like the Light \u2014\n\nIts little Ether Hood\n\nIt's such a little thing to weep \u2014\n\nIt's thoughts \u2014 and just One Heart \u2014\n\nI've dropped my Brain \u2014 My Soul is numb \u2014\n\nI've got an arrow here.\n\nI've heard an Organ talk, sometimes\n\nI've known a Heaven, like a Tent \u2014\n\nI've none to tell me to but Thee\n\nI've nothing else \u2014 to bring, You know \u2014\n\nI've seen a Dying Eye\n\nJesus! thy Crucifix\n\nJoy to have merited the Pain \u2014\n\nJudgment is justest\n\nJust as He spoke it from his Hands\n\nJust lost, when I was saved!\n\nJust Once! Oh least Request!\n\nJust so \u2014 Jesus \u2014 raps \u2014\n\nKill your Balm \u2014 and its Odors bless you \u2014\n\nKnock with tremor \u2014\n\nKnows how to forget!\n\nLad of Athens, faithful be\n\nLain in Nature \u2014 so suffice us\n\nLay this Laurel on the One\n\nLeast Bee that brew \u2014\n\nLeast Rivers \u2014 docile to some sea.\n\nLeft in immortal Youth\n\nLest any doubt that we are glad that they were born Today\n\nLest they should come \u2014 is all my fear\n\nLest this be Heaven indeed\n\nLet down the Bars, Oh Death \u2014\n\nLet me not mar that perfect Dream\n\nLet me not thirst with this Hock at my Lip,\n\nLet my first Knowing be of thee\n\nLet Us play Yesterday \u2014\n\nLethe in my flower,\n\nLife \u2014 is what we make of it \u2014\n\nLife, and Death, and Giants \u2014\n\nLift it \u2014 with the Feathers\n\nLight is sufficient to itself \u2014\n\nLightly stepped a yellow star\n\nLike Brooms of Steel\n\nLike eyes that looked on Wastes \u2014\n\nLike Flowers, that heard the news of Dews,\n\nLike her the Saints retire,\n\nLike Men and Women Shadows walk\n\nLike Mighty Foot Lights \u2014 burned the Red\n\nLike Rain it sounded till it curved\n\nLike Some Old fashioned Miracle\n\nLike Time's insidious wrinkle\n\nLike Trains of Cars on Tracks of Plush\n\nLives he in any other world\n\nLong Years apart \u2014 can make no\n\nLonging is like the Seed\n\nLook back on Time, with kindly eyes \u2014\n\nLove \u2014 is anterior to Life \u2014\n\nLove \u2014 is that later Thing than Death \u2014\n\nLove \u2014 thou art high \u2014\n\nLove can do all but raise the Dead\n\nLove is done when Love's begun,\n\nLove reckons by itself \u2014 alone \u2014\n\nLove's stricken why\n\nLow at my problem bending,\n\nLuck is not chance \u2014\n\nMake me a picture of the sun \u2014\n\nMama never forgets her birds,\n\nMany a phrase has the English language \u2014\n\nMany cross the Rhine\n\nMarch is the Month of Expectation.\n\nMe \u2014 come! My dazzled face\n\nMe from Myself \u2014 to banish \u2014\n\nMe prove it now \u2014 Whoever doubt\n\nMe, change! Me, alter!\n\nMeeting by Accident,\n\nMidsummer, was it, when They died \u2014\n\nMine \u2014 by the Right of the White Election!\n\nMine Enemy is growing old \u2014\n\nMore Life \u2014 went out \u2014 when He went\n\nMore than the Grave is closed to me \u2014\n\nMorning \u2014 is the place for Dew \u2014\n\nMorning \u2014 means Milking \u2014 to the Farmer \u2014\n\nMorning is due to all \u2014\n\nMorning that comes but once,\n\nMorns like these \u2014 we parted \u2014\n\nMost she touched me by her muteness \u2014\n\nMuch Madness is divinest Sense \u2014\n\nMusicians wrestle everywhere \u2014\n\nMust be a Woe \u2014\n\nMute thy Coronation \u2014\n\nMy best Acquaintances are those\n\nMy Cocoon tightens \u2014 Colors tease \u2014\n\nMy country need not change her gown,\n\nMy Eye is fuller than my vase \u2014\n\nMy Faith is larger than the Hills \u2014\n\nMy first well Day \u2014 since many ill \u2014\n\nMy friend attacks my friend!\n\nMy friend must be a Bird \u2014\n\nMy Garden \u2014 like the Beach \u2014\n\nMy God \u2014 He sees thee \u2014\n\nMy Heart ran so to thee\n\nMy Heart upon a little Plate\n\nMy life closed twice before its close \u2014\n\nMy Life had stood \u2014 a Loaded Gun \u2014\n\nMy Maker \u2014 let me be\n\nMy nosegays are for Captives \u2014\n\nMy period had come for Prayer \u2014\n\nMy Portion is Defeat \u2014 today \u2014\n\nMy Reward for Being, was This.\n\nMy River runs to thee \u2014\n\nMy Season's furthest Flower \u2014\n\nMy Soul \u2014 accused me \u2014 And I quailed \u2014\n\nMy Triumph lasted till the Drums\n\nMy Wars are laid away in Books \u2014\n\nMy wheel is in the dark!\n\nMy Worthiness is all my Doubt \u2014\n\nMyself can read the Telegrams\n\nMyself was formed \u2014 a Carpenter \u2014\n\nNature \u2014 sometimes sears a Sapling \u2014\n\nNature \u2014 the Gentlest Mother is,\n\nNature affects to be sedate\n\nNature and God \u2014 I neither knew\n\nNature assigns the Sun \u2014\n\nNature can do no more\n\nNature is what we see \u2014\n\nNature rarer uses Yellow\n\nNever for Society\n\nNew feet within my garden go \u2014\n\nNo Autumn's intercepting Chill\n\nNo Bobolink \u2014 reverse His Singing\n\nNo Brigadier throughout the Year\n\nNo Crowd that has occurred\n\nNo ladder needs the bird but skies\n\nNo Life can pompless pass away \u2014\n\nNo Man can compass a Despair \u2014\n\nNo man saw awe, nor to his house\n\nNo matter \u2014 now \u2014 Sweet \u2014\n\nNo matter where the Saints abide,\n\nNo Notice gave She, but a Change \u2014\n\nNo Other can reduce\n\nNo Passenger was known to flee \u2014\n\nNo Prisoner be \u2014\n\nNo Rack can torture me \u2014\n\nNo Romance sold unto\n\nNobody knows this little Rose \u2014\n\nNone can experience sting\n\nNone who saw it ever told it\n\nNoon \u2014 is the Hinge of Day \u2014\n\nNor Mountain hinder Me\n\nNot all die early, dying young \u2014\n\nNot any higher stands the Grave\n\nNot any more to be lacked \u2014\n\nNot any sunny tone\n\nNot at Home to Callers\n\nNot in this World to see his face \u2014\n\nNot knowing when the Dawn will come,\n\nNot One by Heaven defrauded stay \u2014\n\nNot probable \u2014 The barest Chance \u2014\n\nNot Revelation \u2014 'tis \u2014 that waits,\n\nNot seeing, still we know \u2014\n\nNot Sickness stains the Brave,\n\nNot so the infinite Relations \u2014 Below\n\nNot that he goes \u2014 we love him more\n\nNot that We did, shall be the test\n\nNot to discover weakness is\n\nNot with a Club, the Heart is broken\n\nNow I knew I lost her \u2014\n\nNow I lay thee down to Sleep \u2014\n\nObtaining but our own Extent\n\nOf all the Souls that stand create \u2014\n\nOf all the Sounds despatched abroad,\n\nOf Being is a Bird\n\nOf Bronze \u2014 and Blaze \u2014\n\nOf Brussels \u2014 it was not \u2014\n\nOf Consciousness, her awful Mate\n\nOf Course \u2014 I prayed \u2014\n\nOf Death I try to think like this \u2014\n\nOf Glory not a Beam is left\n\nOf God we ask one favor,\n\nOf Life to own \u2014\n\nOf Nature I shall have enough\n\nOf nearness to her sundered Things\n\nOf Paradise' existence\n\nOf Paul and Silas it is said\n\nOf Silken Speech and Specious Shoe\n\nOf so divine a Loss\n\nOf the Heart that goes in, and closes the Door\n\nOf their peculiar light\n\nOf this is Day composed\n\nOf Tolling Bell I ask the cause?\n\nOf Tribulation, these are They,\n\nOf whom so dear\n\nOf Yellow was the outer Sky\n\nOh Future! thou secreted peace\n\nOh give it Motion \u2014 deck it sweet\n\nOh Shadow on the Grass,\n\nOh Sumptuous moment\n\nOh what a Grace is this,\n\nOh, honey of an hour,\n\nOn a Columnar Self \u2014\n\nOn my volcano grows the Grass\n\nOn such a night, or such a night,\n\nOn that dear Frame the Years had worn\n\nOn that specific Pillow\n\nOn the World you colored\n\nOn this long storm the Rainbow rose \u2014\n\nOn this wondrous sea\n\nOnce more, my now bewildered Dove\n\nOne and One \u2014 are One \u2014\n\nOne Anguish \u2014 in a Crowd \u2014\n\nOne Blessing had I than the rest\n\nOne crown that no one seeks\n\nOne Crucifixion is recorded \u2014 only \u2014\n\nOne Day is there of the Series\n\nOne dignity delays for all \u2014\n\nOne Joy of so much anguish\n\nOne Life of so much Consequence!\n\nOne need not be a Chamber \u2014 to be Haunted \u2014\n\nOne of the ones that Midas touched\n\nOne Sister have I in our house,\n\nOne thing of it we borrow\n\nOne Year ago \u2014 jots what?\n\nOnly a Shrine, but Mine \u2014\n\nOnly God \u2014 detect the Sorrow \u2014\n\nOpinion is a flitting thing,\n\nOur journey had advanced \u2014\n\nOur little Kinsmen \u2014 after Rain\n\nOur little secrets slink away \u2014\n\nOur lives are Swiss \u2014\n\nOur own possessions \u2014 though our own \u2014\n\nOur share of night to bear \u2014\n\nOurselves we do inter with sweet derision.\n\nOurselves were wed one summer \u2014 dear \u2014\n\nOut of sight? What of that?\n\nOver and over, like a Tune \u2014\n\nOver the fence \u2014\n\nPain \u2014 expands the Time \u2014\n\nPain \u2014 has an Element of Blank \u2014\n\nPain has but one Acquaintance\n\nPapa above!\n\nParadise is of the option.\n\nParadise is that old mansion\n\nPartake as doth the Bee,\n\nParting with Thee reluctantly,\n\nPass to they Rendezvous of Light,\n\nPatience \u2014 has a quiet Outer \u2014\n\nPeace is a fiction of our Faith \u2014\n\nPerception of an object costs\n\nPerhaps I asked too large \u2014\n\nPerhaps they do not go so far\n\nPerhaps you think me stooping\n\nPerhaps you'd like to buy a flower,\n\nPeril as a Possesssion\n\nPigmy seraphs \u2014 gone astray \u2014\n\nPink \u2014 small \u2014 and punctual \u2014\n\nPoor little Heart!\n\nPortraits are to daily faces\n\nPower is a familiar growth \u2014\n\nPraise it \u2014 'tis dead \u2014\n\nPrayer is the little implement\n\nPrecious to Me \u2014 She still shall be \u2014\n\nPresentiment \u2014 is that long Shadow \u2014 on the Lawn \u2014\n\nPromise This \u2014 When You be Dying \u2014\n\nProud of my broken heart, since thou didst break it,\n\nPublication \u2014 is the Auction\n\nPurple \u2014 is fashionable twice \u2014\n\nPursuing you in your transitions,\n\nPut up my lute!\n\nQuite empty, quite at rest,\n\nRather arid delight\n\nRead \u2014 Sweet \u2014 how others \u2014 strove \u2014\n\nRearrange a Wife's affection!\n\nRecollect the Face of me\n\nRed Sea, indeed! Talk not to me\n\nRehearsal to Ourselves\n\nRemember me implored the Thief!\n\nRemembrance has a Rear and Front \u2014\n\nRemorse \u2014 is Memory \u2014 awake \u2014\n\nRemoved from Accident of Loss\n\nRenunciation \u2014 is a piercing Virtue \u2014\n\nReportless Subjects, to the Quick\n\nRest at Night\n\nReverse cannot befall\n\nRevolution is the Pod\n\nRibbons of the Year \u2014\n\nRisk is the Hair that holds the Tun\n\nRobbed by Death \u2014 but that was easy \u2014\n\nSafe Despair it is that raves \u2014\n\nSafe in their alabaster chambers\n\nSaid Death to Passion\n\nSang from the Heart, Sire,\n\nSatisfaction \u2014 is the Agent\n\nSavior! I've no one else to tell \u2014\n\nSecrets is a daily word\n\nSeptember's Baccalaureate\n\nSeverer Service of myself\n\nSexton! My Master's sleeping here.\n\nShall I take thee, the Poet said\n\nShame is the shawl of Pink\n\nShe bore it till the simple veins\n\nShe could not live upon the Past\n\nShe dealt her pretty words like Blades \u2014\n\nShe died \u2014 this was the way she died.\n\nShe died at play,\n\nShe dwelleth in the Ground \u2014\n\nShe hideth Her the last \u2014\n\nShe laid her docile Crescent down\n\nShe lay as if at play\n\nShe rose as high as His Occasion\n\nShe rose to His Requirement \u2014 dropt\n\nShe sights a Bird \u2014 she chuckles \u2014\n\nShe slept beneath a tree \u2014\n\nShe sped as Petals of a Rose\n\nShe staked her Feathers \u2014 Gained an Arc \u2014\n\nShe sweeps with many-colored Brooms \u2014\n\nShe went as quiet as the Dew\n\nShells from the Coast mistaking \u2014\n\nShe's happy, with a new Content \u2014\n\nShould you but fail at \u2014 Sea \u2014\n\nSic transit gloria mundi\n\nSilence is all we dread.\n\nSize circumscribes \u2014 it has no room\n\nSleep is supposed to be\n\nSmiling back from Coronation\n\nSnow beneath whose chilly softness\n\nSnow flakes.\n\nSo bashful when I spied her!\n\nSo from the mould\n\nSo gay a Flower\n\nSo give me back to Death \u2014\n\nSo glad we are \u2014 a Stranger'd deem\n\nSo has a Daisy vanished\n\nSo I pull my Stockings off\n\nSo large my Will\n\nSo much of Heaven has gone from Earth\n\nSo much Summer\n\nSo proud she was to die\n\nSo set its Sun in Thee\n\nSo the Eyes accost \u2014 and sunder\n\nSo well that I can live without \u2014\n\nSociety for me my misery\n\nSoft as the massacre of Suns\n\nSoftened by Time's consummate plush,\n\nSoil of Flint, if steady tilled \u2014\n\nSome \u2014 Work for Immortality \u2014\n\nSome Arrows slay but whom they strike \u2014\n\nSome Days retired from the rest\n\nSome keep the Sabbath going to Church \u2014\n\nSome one prepared this mighty show\n\nSome Rainbow \u2014 coming from the Fair!\n\nSome say goodnight \u2014 at night \u2014\n\nSome such Butterfly be seen\n\nSome things that fly there be \u2014\n\nSome we see no more, Tenements of Wonder\n\nSome Wretched creature, savior take\n\nSome, too fragile for winter winds\n\nSomehow myself survived the Night\n\nSometimes with the Heart\n\nSomewhat, to hope for,\n\nSomewhere upon the general Earth\n\nSoto! Explore thyself!\n\nSoul, take thy risk.\n\nSoul, Wilt thou toss again?\n\nSouth Winds jostle them \u2014\n\nSown in dishonor!\n\nSpeech \u2014 is a prank of Parliament \u2014\n\nSpeech is one symptom of Affection\n\nSplit the Lark \u2014 and you'll find the Music \u2014\n\nSpring comes on the World \u2014\n\nSpring is the Period\n\nSpurn the temerity \u2014\n\nStep lightly on this narrow spot \u2014\n\nStill own thee \u2014 still thou art\n\nStrong Draughts of Their Refreshing Minds\n\nStruck, was I, not yet by Lightning \u2014\n\nSuccess is counted sweetest\n\nSuch are the inlets of the mind \u2014\n\nSuch is the Force of Happiness \u2014\n\nSummer \u2014 we all have seen \u2014\n\nSummer begins to have the look\n\nSummer for thee, grant I may be\n\nSummer has two Beginnings \u2014\n\nSummer is shorter than any one \u2014\n\nSummer laid her simple Hat\n\nSunset at Night \u2014 is natural \u2014\n\nSunset that screens, reveals \u2014\n\nSuperfluous were the Sun\n\nSuperiority to Fate\n\nSurgeons must be very careful\n\nSurprise is like a thrilling \u2014 pungent \u2014\n\nSuspense \u2014 is Hostiler than Death \u2014\n\nSweet \u2014 safe \u2014 Houses \u2014\n\nSweet \u2014 You forgot \u2014 but I remembered\n\nSweet hours have perished here;\n\nSweet is the swamp with its secrets,\n\nSweet Mountains \u2014 Ye tell Me no lie \u2014\n\nSweet Pirate of the heart,\n\nSweet Skepticism of the Heart \u2014\n\nSweet, to have had them lost\n\nTake all away \u2014\n\nTake all away from me, but leave me Ecstasy,\n\nTake your Heaven further on \u2014\n\nTaken from men \u2014 this morning \u2014\n\nTaking up the fair Ideal,\n\nTalk not to me of Summer Trees\n\nTalk with prudence to a Beggar\n\nTeach Him \u2014 When He makes the names \u2014\n\nTell all the Truth but tell it slant \u2014\n\nTell as a Marksman \u2014 were forgotten\n\nThan Heaven more remote,\n\nThat after Horror \u2014 that 'twas us \u2014\n\nThat Distance was between Us\n\nThat first Day, when you praised Me, Sweet,\n\nThat I did always love\n\nThat is solemn we have ended\n\nThat it will never come again\n\nThat Love is all there is,\n\nThat odd old man is dead a year \u2014\n\nThat sacred Closet when you sweep \u2014\n\nThat she forgot me was the least\n\nThat short \u2014 potential stir\n\nThat Such have died enable Us\n\nThat this should feel the need of Death\n\nThe Admirations \u2014 and Contempts \u2014 of time \u2014\n\nThe Angle of a Landscape \u2014\n\nThe Auctioneer of Parting\n\nThe Bat is dun, with wrinkled Wings \u2014\n\nThe Battle fought between the Soul\n\nThe Bee is not afraid of me.\n\nThe Beggar at the Door for Fame\n\nThe Beggar Lad \u2014 dies early \u2014\n\nThe Bible is an antique Volume \u2014\n\nThe Bird did prance \u2014 the Bee did play \u2014\n\nThe Bird her punctual music brings\n\nThe Bird must sing to earn the Crumb\n\nThe Birds begun at Four o'clock \u2014\n\nThe Birds reported from the South \u2014\n\nThe Black Berry \u2014 wears a Thorn in his side \u2014\n\nThe Blunder is in estimate.\n\nThe Bobolink is gone \u2014\n\nThe Body grows without \u2014\n\nThe Bone that has no Marrow,\n\nThe Brain \u2014 is wider than the Sky \u2014\n\nThe Brain, within its Groove\n\nThe Bustle in a House\n\nThe Butterfly in honored Dust\n\nThe butterfly obtains\n\nThe Butterfly upon the Sky,\n\nThe Butterfly's Assumption Gown\n\nThe Butterfly's Numidian Gown\n\nThe Chemical conviction\n\nThe Child's faith is new \u2014\n\nThe Clock strikes one that just struck two \u2014\n\nThe Clouds their Backs together laid\n\nThe Clover's simple Fame\n\nThe Color of a Queen, is this \u2014\n\nThe Color of the Grave is Green \u2014\n\nThe competitions of the sky\n\nThe Court is far away \u2014\n\nThe Crickets sang\n\nThe Daisy follows soft the Sun \u2014\n\nThe Dandelion's pallid tube\n\nThe Day came slow \u2014 till Five o'clock \u2014\n\nThe Day grew small, surrounded tight\n\nThe Day she goes\n\nThe Day that I was crowned\n\nThe Day undressed \u2014 Herself \u2014\n\nThe Days that we can spare\n\nThe Definition of Beauty is\n\nThe Devil \u2014 had he fidelity\n\nThe difference between Despair\n\nThe distance that the dead have gone\n\nThe Ditch is dear to the Drunken man\n\nThe Doomed \u2014 regard the Sunrise\n\nThe Drop, that wrestles in the Sea \u2014\n\nThe Dust behind I strove to join\n\nThe duties of the Wind are few,\n\nThe Dying need but little, Dear,\n\nThe earth has many keys,\n\nThe ecstasy to guess\n\nThe event was directly behind Him\n\nThe face I carry with me \u2014 last \u2014\n\nThe Face in evanescence lain\n\nThe Face we choose to miss \u2014\n\nThe Fact that Earth is Heaven \u2014\n\nThe fairest Home I ever knew\n\nThe farthest Thunder that I heard\n\nThe fascinating chill that music leaves\n\nThe feet of people walking home\n\nThe Fingers of the Light\n\nThe first Day that I was a Life\n\nThe first Day's Night had come \u2014\n\nThe first We knew of Him was Death \u2014\n\nThe Flake the Wind exasperate\n\nThe Flower must not blame the Bee \u2014\n\nThe Frost of Death was on the Pane \u2014\n\nThe Frost was never seen \u2014\n\nThe Future \u2014 never spoke \u2014\n\nThe Gentian has a parched Corolla \u2014\n\nThe Gentian weaves her fringes \u2014\n\nThe gleam of an heroic Act\n\nThe going from a world we know\n\nThe good Will of a Flower\n\nThe Grace \u2014 Myself \u2014 might not obtain \u2014\n\nThe Grass so little has to do \u2014\n\nThe grave my little cottage is,\n\nThe Guest is gold and crimson \u2014\n\nThe hallowing of Pain\n\nThe harm of Years is on him \u2014\n\nThe healed Heart shows its shallow scar\n\nThe Heart asks Pleasure \u2014 first \u2014\n\nThe Heart has many Doors \u2014\n\nThe Heart has narrow Banks\n\nThe Heart is the Capital of the Mind \u2014\n\nThe Heaven vests for Each\n\nThe Hills erect their Purple Heads\n\nThe Hills in Purple syllables\n\nThe Himmaleh was known to stoop\n\nThe Hollows round His eager Eyes\n\nThe immortality she gave\n\nThe incidents of love\n\nThe Infinite a sudden Guest\n\nThe inundation of the Spring\n\nThe Jay his Castanet has struck\n\nThe joy that has no stem no core,\n\nThe Judge is like the Owl \u2014\n\nThe Juggler's Hat her Country is \u2014\n\nThe Lady feeds Her little Bird\n\nThe Lamp burns sure \u2014 within \u2014\n\nThe largest Fire ever known\n\nThe Lassitudes of Contemplation\n\nThe last Night that She lived\n\nThe last of Summer is Delight \u2014\n\nThe Leaves like Women interchange\n\nThe Life that tied too tight escapes\n\nThe Life we have is very great.\n\nThe Lightning is a yellow Fork\n\nThe Lightning playeth \u2014 all the while \u2014\n\nThe Lilac is an ancient shrub\n\nThe Loneliness One dare not sound \u2014\n\nThe lonesome for they know not What \u2014\n\nThe long sigh of the Frog\n\nThe longest day that God appoints\n\nThe look of thee, what is it like\n\nThe Love a Life can show Below\n\nThe Luxury to apprehend\n\nThe Malay \u2014 took the Pearl \u2014\n\nThe Manner of its Death\n\nThe Martyr Poets \u2014 did not tell \u2014\n\nThe Merchant of the Picturesque\n\nThe Mind lives on the Heart\n\nThe Missing All \u2014 prevented Me\n\nThe mob within the heart\n\nThe Months have ends \u2014 the Years \u2014 a knot \u2014\n\nThe Moon is distant from the Sea \u2014\n\nThe Moon upon her fluent Route\n\nThe Moon was but a Chin of Gold\n\nThe Morning after Woe \u2014\n\nThe morns are meeker than they were \u2014\n\nThe most important population\n\nThe most pathetic thing I do\n\nThe most triumphant Bird I ever knew or met\n\nThe Mountain sat upon the Plain\n\nThe Mountains \u2014 grow unnoticed \u2014\n\nThe Mountains stood in Haze \u2014\n\nThe Murmur of a Bee\n\nThe murmuring of Bees, has ceased\n\nThe Mushroom is the Elf of Plants \u2014\n\nThe name \u2014 of it \u2014 is Autumn \u2014\n\nThe nearest Dream recedes \u2014 unrealized \u2014\n\nThe Night was wide, and furnished scant\n\nThe Notice that is called the Spring\n\nThe One who could repeat the Summer day \u2014\n\nThe ones that disappeared are back\n\nThe only Ghost I ever saw\n\nThe Only News I know\n\nThe Opening and the Close\n\nThe Outer \u2014 from the Inner\n\nThe overtakelessness of those\n\nThe parasol is the umbrella's daughter,\n\nThe Past is such a curious Creature\n\nThe pattern of the sun\n\nThe pedigree of Honey\n\nThe Pile of Years is not so high\n\nThe Poets light but Lamps \u2014\n\nThe Popular Heart is a Cannon first \u2014\n\nThe power to be true to You,\n\nThe pretty Rain from those sweet Eaves\n\nThe Products of my Farm are these\n\nThe Props assist the House\n\nThe Province of the Saved\n\nThe pungent atom in the Air\n\nThe rainbow never tells me\n\nThe Rat is the concisest Tenant.\n\nThe Red \u2014 Blaze \u2014 is the Morning \u2014\n\nThe reticent volcano keeps\n\nThe Riddle we can guess\n\nThe right to perish might be thought\n\nThe Road to Paradise is plain,\n\nThe Road was lit with Moon and star \u2014\n\nThe Robin for the Crumb\n\nThe Robin is a Gabriel\n\nThe Robin is the One\n\nThe Robin's my Criterion for Tune \u2014\n\nThe Rose did caper on her cheek \u2014\n\nThe saddest noise, the sweetest noise,\n\nThe Savior must have been\n\nThe Sea said Come to the Brook \u2014\n\nThe Service without Hope \u2014\n\nThe Show is not the Show\n\nThe Skies can't keep their secret!\n\nThe Sky is low \u2014 the Clouds are mean.\n\nThe smouldering embers blush \u2014\n\nThe Snow that never drifts \u2014\n\nThe Soul has Bandaged moments \u2014\n\nThe Soul selects her own Society \u2014\n\nThe Soul should always stand ajar\n\nThe Soul that hath a Guest\n\nThe Soul unto itself\n\nThe Soul's distinct connection\n\nThe Soul's Superior instants\n\nThe Spider as an Artist\n\nThe Spider holds a Silver Ball\n\nThe Spirit is the Conscious Ear.\n\nThe Spirit lasts \u2014 but in what mode \u2014\n\nThe spry Arms of the Wind\n\nThe Stars are old, that stood for me \u2014\n\nThe stem of a departed Flower\n\nThe Stimulus, beyond the Grave\n\nThe Suburbs of a Secret\n\nThe Summer that we did not prize,\n\nThe Sun \u2014 just touched the Morning \u2014\n\nThe Sun and Fog contested\n\nThe Sun and Moon must make their haste \u2014\n\nThe Sun in reigning to the West\n\nThe Sun is gay or stark\n\nThe Sun is one \u2014 and on the Tare\n\nThe Sun kept setting \u2014 setting \u2014 still\n\nThe Sun kept stooping \u2014 stooping \u2014 low!\n\nThe Sun retired to a cloud\n\nThe Sun went down \u2014 no Man looked on \u2014\n\nThe Sunrise runs for Both \u2014\n\nThe Sunset stopped on Cottages\n\nThe sweetest Heresy received\n\nThe Sweets of Pillage, can be known\n\nThe Symptom of the Gale \u2014\n\nThe Test of Love \u2014 is Death \u2014\n\nThe Things that never can come back, are several \u2014\n\nThe things we thought that we should do\n\nThe thought beneath so slight a film \u2014\n\nThe Thrill came slowly like a Boom for\n\nThe Tint I cannot take \u2014 is best \u2014\n\nThe Treason of an accent\n\nThe Trees like Tassels \u2014 hit \u2014 and swung \u2014\n\nThe Truth \u2014 is stirless \u2014\n\nThe vastest earthly Day\n\nThe Veins of other Flowers\n\nThe Voice that stands for Floods to me\n\nThe waters chased him as he fled,\n\nThe way Hope builds his House\n\nThe Way I read a Letter's \u2014 this \u2014\n\nThe Way to know the Bobolink\n\nThe Well upon the Brook\n\nThe Whole of it came not at once \u2014\n\nThe Wind \u2014 tapped like a tired Man \u2014\n\nThe Wind begun to knead the Grass \u2014\n\nThe Wind didn't come from the Orchard \u2014 today \u2014\n\nThe wind drew off\n\nThe Wind took up the Northern Things\n\nThe Winters are so short \u2014\n\nThe words the happy say\n\nThe Work of Her that went,\n\nThe World \u2014 feels Dusty\n\nThe World \u2014 stands \u2014 solemner \u2014 to me \u2014\n\nThe worthlessness of Earthly things\n\nThe Zeroes \u2014 taught us \u2014 Phosphorous \u2014\n\nTheir Barricade against the Sky\n\nTheir dappled importunity\n\nTheir Height in Heaven comforts not \u2014\n\nThemself are all I have \u2014\n\nThere are two Mays\n\nThere are two Ripenings \u2014 one \u2014 of sight \u2014\n\nThere came a Day at Summer's full,\n\nThere came a Wind like a Bugle \u2014\n\nThere comes a warning like a spy\n\nThere comes an hour when begging stops,\n\nThere is a finished feeling\n\nThere is a flower that Bees prefer \u2014\n\nThere is a June when Corn is cut\n\nThere is a Languor of the Life\n\nThere is a morn by men unseen \u2014\n\nThere is a pain \u2014 so utter \u2014\n\nThere is a Shame of Nobleness \u2014\n\nThere is a solitude of space\n\nThere is a word\n\nThere is a Zone whose even Years\n\nThere is an arid Pleasure \u2014\n\nThere is another Loneliness\n\nThere is another sky\n\nThere is no Frigate like a Book\n\nThere is no Silence in the Earth \u2014 so silent\n\nThere is strength in proving that it can be borne\n\nThere's a certain Slant of light\n\nThere's been a Death, in the Opposite House,\n\nThere's something quieter than sleep\n\nThere's the Battle of Burgoyne \u2014\n\nThese \u2014 saw Visions \u2014\n\nThese are the days that Reindeer love\n\nThese are the days when Birds come back \u2014\n\nThese are the Nights that Beetles love \u2014\n\nThese are the Signs to Nature's Inns \u2014\n\nThese Fevered Days \u2014 to take them to the Forest\n\nThese held their Wick above the West \u2014\n\nThese Strangers, in a foreign World,\n\nThese tested Our Horizon \u2014\n\nThey ask but our Delight \u2014\n\nThey called me to the Window, for\n\nThey dropped like Flakes \u2014\n\nThey have a little Odor \u2014 that to me\n\nThey have not chosen me, he said,\n\nThey leave us with the Infinite.\n\nThey might not need me \u2014 yet they might \u2014\n\nThey put Us far apart \u2014\n\nThey say that Time assuages \u2014\n\nThey shut me up in Prose \u2014\n\nThey talk as slow as Legends grow\n\nThey won't frown always \u2014 some sweet Day\n\nThis \u2014 is the land \u2014 the Sunset washes \u2014\n\nThis Bauble was preferred of Bees \u2014\n\nThis Chasm, Sweet, upon my life\n\nThis Consciousness that is aware\n\nThis dirty \u2014 little \u2014 Heart\n\nThis docile one inter\n\nThis Dust, and its Feature \u2014\n\nThis heart that broke so long \u2014\n\nThis is a Blossom of the Brain \u2014\n\nThis is my letter to the World\n\nThis is the place they hoped before,\n\nThis Me \u2014 that walks and works \u2014 must die,\n\nThis Merit hath the worst \u2014\n\nThis quiet Dust was Gentleman and Ladies\n\nThis slow Day moved along \u2014\n\nThis that would greet \u2014 an hour ago \u2014\n\nThis was a Poet \u2014 It is That\n\nThis was in the White of the Year \u2014\n\nThis World is not Conclusion.\n\nTho' I get home how late \u2014 how late \u2014\n\nTho' my destiny be Fustian \u2014\n\nThose \u2014 dying then,\n\nThose cattle smaller than a Bee\n\nThose fair \u2014 fictitious People \u2014\n\nThose final Creatures, \u2014 who they are \u2014\n\nThose not live yet\n\nThose who have been in the Grave the longest \u2014\n\nThough the great Waters sleep,\n\nThree times \u2014 we parted \u2014 Breath \u2014 and I \u2014\n\nThree Weeks passed since I had seen Her \u2014\n\nThrough lane it lay \u2014 through bramble \u2014\n\nThrough the Dark Sod \u2014 as Education \u2014\n\nThrough the strait pass of suffering \u2014\n\nThrough those old Grounds of memory,\n\nThrough what transports of Patience\n\nTie the Strings to my Life, My Lord,\n\nTill Death \u2014 is narrow Loving \u2014\n\nTime does go on \u2014\n\nTime feels so vast that were it not\n\nTime's wily Chargers will not wait\n\nTis Anguish grander than Delight\n\nTis customary as we part\n\nTis easier to pity those when dead\n\nTis good \u2014 the looking back on Grief \u2014\n\nTis little I \u2014 could care for Pearls \u2014\n\nTis my first night beneath the Sun\n\nTis not that Dying hurts us so \u2014\n\nTis not the swaying frame we miss,\n\nTis One by One \u2014 the Father counts \u2014\n\nTis Opposites \u2014 entice \u2014\n\nTis Seasons since the Dimpled War\n\nTis so appalling \u2014 it exhilarates \u2014\n\nTis so much joy! 'Tis so much joy!\n\nTis Sunrise \u2014 Little Maid \u2014 Hast Thou\n\nTis true \u2014 They shut me in the Cold \u2014\n\nTis whiter than an Indian Pipe \u2014\n\nTitle divine \u2014 is mine!\n\nTo be alive \u2014 is Power \u2014\n\nTo be forgot by thee\n\nTo break so vast a Heart\n\nTo die \u2014 takes just a little while \u2014\n\nTo die \u2014 without the Dying\n\nTo disappear enhances \u2014\n\nTo do a magnanimous thing\n\nTo earn it by disdaining it\n\nTo fight aloud, is very brave \u2014\n\nTo fill a Gap\n\nTo flee from memory\n\nTo hang our head \u2014 ostensibly \u2014\n\nTo hear an Oriole sing\n\nTo help our Bleaker Parts\n\nTo her derided Home\n\nTo his simplicity\n\nTo interrupt His Yellow Plan\n\nTo know just how He suffered \u2014 would be dear \u2014\n\nTo learn the Transport by the Pain\n\nTo lose one's faith \u2014 surpass\n\nTo lose thee \u2014 sweeter than to gain\n\nTo love thee Year by Year \u2014\n\nTo make a prairie it takes a clover and one bee,\n\nTo make One's Toilette \u2014 after Death\n\nTo make Routine a Stimulus\n\nTo mend each tattered Faith\n\nTo my quick ear the Leaves \u2014 conferred \u2014\n\nTo my small Hearth His fire came \u2014\n\nTo offer brave assistance\n\nTo One denied the drink\n\nTo own a Susan of my own\n\nTo own the Art within the Soul\n\nTo pile like Thunder to its close\n\nTo put this World down, like a Bundle \u2014\n\nTo see her is a Picture \u2014\n\nTo see the Summer Sky\n\nTo tell the Beauty would decrease\n\nTo the bright east she flies,\n\nTo the stanch Dust\n\nTo their apartment deep\n\nTo this World she returned.\n\nTo try to speak, and miss the way\n\nTo undertake is to achieve\n\nTo venerate the simple days\n\nTo wait an Hour \u2014 is long \u2014\n\nTo Whom the Mornings stand for Nights,\n\nToday or this noon\n\nTomorrow \u2014 whose location\n\nToo cold is this\n\nToo few the mornings be,\n\nToo happy Time dissolves itself\n\nToo little way the House must lie\n\nToo scanty 'twas to die for you,\n\nTouch lightly Nature's sweet Guitar\n\nTried always and Condemned by thee\n\nTriumph \u2014 may be of several kinds \u2014\n\nTrudging to Eden, looking backward,\n\nTrust adjust her Peradventure \u2014\n\nTrust in the Unexpected \u2014\n\nTrusty as the stars\n\nTruth \u2014 is as old as God \u2014\n\nTwas a long Parting \u2014 but the time\n\nTwas awkward, but it fitted me \u2014\n\nTwas comfort in her Dying Room\n\nTwas Crisis \u2014 All the length had passed \u2014\n\nTwas fighting for his Life he was \u2014\n\nTwas here my summer paused\n\nTwas just this time, last year, I died.\n\nTwas later when the summer went\n\nTwas like a Maelstrom, with a notch,\n\nTwas Love \u2014 not me \u2014\n\nTwas my one Glory \u2014\n\nTwas such a little \u2014 little boat\n\nTwas the old \u2014 road \u2014 through pain \u2014\n\nTwas warm \u2014 at first \u2014 like Us \u2014\n\nTwice had Summer her fair Verdure\n\nTwo \u2014 were immortal twice \u2014\n\nTwo butterflies went out at Noon \u2014\n\nTwo Lengths has every Day \u2014\n\nTwo swimmers wrestled on the spar \u2014\n\nTwo Travellers perishing in Snow\n\nTwould ease \u2014 a Butterfly \u2014\n\nUnable are the Loved to die\n\nUncertain lease \u2014 develops lustre\n\nUnder the Light, yet under,\n\nUndue Significance a starving man attaches\n\nUnfulfilled to Observation \u2014\n\nUnit, like Death, for Whom?\n\nUntil the Desert knows\n\nUnto a broken heart\n\nUnto like Story \u2014 Trouble has enticed me \u2014\n\nUnto Me? I do not know you \u2014\n\nUnto my Books \u2014 so good to turn \u2014\n\nUnto the Whole \u2014 how add?\n\nUnworthy of her Breast\n\nUp Life's Hill with my my little Bundle\n\nUpon a Lilac Sea\n\nUpon Concluded Lives\n\nUpon his Saddle sprung a Bird\n\nUpon the gallows hung a wretch,\n\nVictory comes late \u2014\n\nVolcanoes be in Sicily\n\nWait till the Majesty of Death\n\nWarm in her Hand these accents lie\n\nWas not was all the Statement.\n\nWater makes many Beds\n\nWater, is taught by thirst.\n\nWe \u2014 Bee and I \u2014 live by the quaffing \u2014\n\nWe can but follow to the Sun \u2014\n\nWe Cover Thee \u2014 Sweet Face \u2014\n\nWe do not know the time we lose \u2014\n\nWe do not play on Graves \u2014\n\nWe don't cry \u2014 Tim and I,\n\nWe dream \u2014 it is good we are dreaming \u2014\n\nWe grow accustomed to the Dark \u2014\n\nWe introduce ourselves\n\nWe knew not that we were to live \u2014\n\nWe learn it in Retreating\n\nWe learned the Whole of Love \u2014\n\nWe like a Hairbreadth 'scape\n\nWe like March.\n\nWe lose \u2014 because we win \u2014\n\nWe met as Sparks \u2014 Diverging Flints\n\nWe miss a Kinsman more\n\nWe miss Her, not because We see \u2014\n\nWe never know how high we are\n\nWe never know we go when we are going \u2014\n\nWe outgrow love, like other things\n\nWe play at Paste \u2014\n\nWe pray \u2014 to Heaven \u2014\n\nWe see \u2014 Comparatively \u2014\n\nWe send the Wave to find the Wave \u2014\n\nWe shall find the Cube of the Rainbow.\n\nWe should not mind so small a flower \u2014\n\nWe shun because we prize her Face\n\nWe shun it ere it comes,\n\nWe talked as Girls do \u2014\n\nWe talked with each other about each other\n\nWe thirst at first \u2014 'tis Nature's Act \u2014\n\nWe wear our sober Dresses when we die,\n\nWe'll pass without the parting\n\nWent up a year this evening!\n\nWere it but Me that gained the Height \u2014\n\nWere it to be the last\n\nWere natural mortal lady\n\nWert Thou but ill \u2014 that I might show thee\n\nWhat care the Dead, for Chanticleer \u2014\n\nWhat did They do since I saw Them?\n\nWhat I can do \u2014 I will \u2014\n\nWhat I see not, I better see \u2014\n\nWhat if I say I shall not wait!\n\nWhat Inn is this\n\nWhat is \u2014 Paradise \u2014\n\nWhat mystery pervades a well!\n\nWhat shall I do \u2014 it whimpers so \u2014\n\nWhat shall I do when the Summer troubles \u2014\n\nWhat Soft \u2014 Cherubic Creatures \u2014\n\nWhat tenements of clover\n\nWhat Twigs We held by \u2014\n\nWhat we see we know somewhat\n\nWhat would I give to see his face?\n\nWhatever it is \u2014 she has tried it \u2014\n\nWhen a Lover is a Beggar\n\nWhen Bells stop ringing \u2014 Church \u2014 begins\n\nWhen Diamonds are a Legend,\n\nWhen Etna basks and purrs\n\nWhen I count the seeds\n\nWhen I have seen the Sun emerge\n\nWhen I hoped I feared \u2014\n\nWhen I hoped, I recollect\n\nWhen I was small, a Woman died \u2014\n\nWhen Katie walks, this simple pair accompany her side,\n\nWhen Memory is full\n\nWhen Night is almost done \u2014\n\nWhen One has given up One's life\n\nWhen Roses cease to bloom, Sir,\n\nWhen the Astronomer stops seeking\n\nWhen they come back \u2014 if Blossoms do \u2014\n\nWhen we have ceased to care\n\nWhen we stand on the tops of Things \u2014\n\nWhere bells no more affright the morn \u2014\n\nWhere every bird is bold to go\n\nWhere I have lost, I softer tread \u2014\n\nWhere Roses would not dare to go,\n\nWhere Ships of Purple \u2014 gently toss \u2014\n\nWhere Thou art \u2014 that \u2014 is Home \u2014\n\nWhether my bark went down at sea \u2014\n\nWhether they have forgotten\n\nWhich is best? Heaven \u2014\n\nWhich is the best \u2014 the Moon or the Crescent?\n\nWhich misses most,\n\nWhile Asters \u2014\n\nWhile it is alive\n\nWhile we were fearing it, it came \u2014\n\nWhite as an Indian Pipe\n\nWho abdicated Ambush\n\nWho Court obtain within Himself\n\nWho Giants know, with lesser Men\n\nWho goes to dine must take his Feast\n\nWho has not found the Heaven \u2014 below \u2014\n\nWho is it seeks my Pillow Nights \u2014\n\nWho is the East?\n\nWho never lost, are unprepared\n\nWho never wanted \u2014 maddest Joy\n\nWho occupies this House?\n\nWho saw no Sunrise cannot say\n\nWho were the Father and the Son\n\nWhoever disenchants\n\nWhole Gulfs \u2014 of Red, and Fleets \u2014 of Red \u2014\n\nWhose are the little beds, I asked\n\nWhose cheek is this?\n\nWhose Pink career may have a close\n\nWhy \u2014 do they shut Me out of Heaven?\n\nWhy do I love You, Sir?\n\nWhy make it doubt \u2014 it hurts it so \u2014\n\nWhy should we hurry \u2014 why indeed?\n\nWild Nights \u2014 Wild Nights!\n\nWill there really be a Morning?\n\nWinter is good \u2014 his Hoar Delights\n\nWinter under cultivation\n\nWitchcraft has not a Pedigree\n\nWitchcraft was hung, in History,\n\nWith Pinions of Disdain\n\nWith sweetness unabated\n\nWith thee, in the Desert \u2014\n\nWithin my Garden, rides a Bird\n\nWithin my reach!\n\nWithin that little Hive\n\nWithin thy Grave!\n\nWithout a smile \u2014 Without a Throe\n\nWithout this \u2014 there is nought \u2014\n\nWolfe demanded during dying\n\nWonder \u2014 is not precisely Knowing\n\nWould you like summer? Taste of ours.\n\nYesterday is History\n\nYou cannot make Remembrance grow\n\nYou cannot put a Fire out \u2014\n\nYou cannot take itself\n\nYou constituted Time \u2014\n\nYou know that Portrait in the Moon \u2014\n\nYou left me \u2014 Sire \u2014 two Legacies \u2014\n\nYou love me \u2014 you are sure \u2014\n\nYou love the Lord \u2014 you cannot see \u2014\n\nYou said that I was Great \u2014 one Day \u2014\n\nYou see I cannot see \u2014 your lifetime \u2014\n\nYou taught me Waiting with Myself \u2014\n\nYou'll find \u2014 it when you try to die \u2014\n\nYou'll know Her \u2014 by Her Foot \u2014\n\nYou'll know it \u2014 as you know 'tis Noon \u2014\n\nYour Riches \u2014 taught me \u2014 Poverty\n\nYour thoughts don't have words every day\n\nYou're right \u2014 the way is narrow \u2014\n\nYou've seen Balloons set \u2014 Haven't You?\n**The Letters**\n\n_The Amherst church attended by Dickinson and her family_\n**_THE LETTERS OF EMILY DICKINSON_**\n\nDue to Dickinson's reclusive nature and sheltered life, her correspondence was one of her only means of communicating with friends and family. Emily's strongest and most affectionate relationship was with her fellow student, Susan Gilbert, whom she sent over three hundred letters over the course of her life. Gilbert was supportive of Dickinson, playing the role of 'most beloved friend, influence, muse, and adviser' and her editorial suggestions played a primary role in Dickinson's creative development. As their intimacy grew, Gilbert became closer to the Dickinson family, and she married Austin Dickinson, Emily's brother, in 1856.\n\nEight years after the poet's death, Mabel Loomis Todd, ironically Austin's mistress, edited and published this collection of Dickinson's correspondence. Mabel Todd never actually met Emily Dickinson in person. Instead, they exchanged letters and it is likely that without Todd's later actions, as well as Lavinia's aid, Dickinson's poetry would never have reached a world-wide audience.\n\n_Susan Gilbert Dickinson_\n**CONTENTS**\n\n_INTRODUCTORY_\n\n_VOLUME I_\n\n_CHAPTER I_\n\n_CHAPTER I_\n\nTo Mrs. A. P. Strong\n\n_CHAPTER II_\n\nTo Mr. William Austin Dickinson\n\n_CHAPTER III_\n\nTo Mrs. Gordon L. Ford, Mr. Bowdoin, Mrs. Anthon, and Miss Lavinia Dickinson\n\n_CHAPTER IV_\n\nTo Dr J. G. Holland and Mrs. Holland\n\n_CHAPTER V_\n\nTo Mr. Samuel Bowles and Mrs. Bowles\n\n_VOLUME II_\n\n_CHAPTER VI_\n\nTo the Misses \u2014\n\n_CHAPTER VII_\n\nTo Mr. Thomas Wentworth Higginson\n\n_CHAPTER VIII_\n\nTo Mr. Perez D. Cowan, Miss Maria Whitney, Mr. Bowles, Mr. J. D. Clark, and Mr. C. H. Clark\n\n_CHAPTER IX_\n\nTo Mr. and Mrs. J. L. Jenkins, Mrs. Hanson Read, Mrs. W. A. Stearns, Mrs. Edward Tuckerman, Mrs. J. S. Cooper, Mrs. A. B. H. Davis, Mrs. H. F. Hills, Mrs. Jameson, Mr. F. F. Emerson, Maggie Maher, Mr. and Mrs. George Montague, Mrs. W. F. Stearns, Mr. J. K. Chickering, Mrs. Joseph Sweetser, Mr. Thomas Niles, Mrs. Carmickael, Dr and Mrs. Thomas P. Field, Mr. Theodore Holland, 1 H. H.,' Miss Eugenia Hall, Mrs. E. P. Crowell, and Mrs. J. C. Greenough\n\n_CHAPTER X_\n\nTo Mrs. Todd, Mrs. Tuckerman, the Misses, Mr. Clark, and Mrs. Currier\n\n_Mabel Loomis Todd_\n\n_Daguerreotype of Dickinson at Mount Holyoke Seminary, c. 1848_\n**INTRODUCTORY**\n\nTHE lovers of Emily Dickinson's poems have been so eager for some of her prose that her sister has asked me to prepare these volumes of her letters.\n\nEmily Dickinson's verses, often but the reflection of a passing mood, do not always completely represent herself, \u2014 rarely, indeed, showing the dainty humor, the frolicsome gayety, which continually bubbled over in her daily life. The somber and even weird outlook upon this world and the next, characteristic of many of the poems, was by no means a prevailing condition of the mind; for, while fully apprehending all the tragic elements in life, enthusiasm and bright joyousness were yet her normal qualities, and stimulating moral heights her native dwelling-place. All this may be glimpsed in her letters, no less full of charm, it is believed, to the general reader, than to Emily Dickinson's personal friends. As she kept no journal, the letters are the more interesting because they contain all the prose which she is known to have written.\n\nIt was with something almost like dread that I approached the task of arranging these letters, lest the deep revelations of a peculiarly shy inner life might so pervade them that in true loyalty to their writer none could be publicly used. But with few exceptions they have been read and prepared with entire relief from that feeling, and with unshrinking pleasure; the sanctities were not invaded. Emily kept her little reserves, and bared her soul but seldom, even in intimate correspondence. It was not so much that she was always on spiritual guard, as that she sported with her varying moods, and tested them upon her friends with apparent delight in the effect, as airy and playful as it was half unconscious.\n\nSo large is the number of letters to each of several correspondents, that it has seemed best to place these sets in separate chapters. The continuity is perhaps more perfectly preserved in this way than by the usual method of mere chronological succession; especially as, in a life singularly uneventful, no marked periods of travel or achievement serve otherwise to classify them. On this plan a certain order has been possible, too; the opening letters in each chapter are always later than the first of the preceding, although the last letters of one reach a date beyond the beginning of the next. The less remarkable writing, of course, fills the first chapters; but even this shows her love of study, of Nature and a devotion to home almost as intense as in strange Emily Bront\u00eb.\n\nNothing is perhaps more marked than the change of style between the diffuseness of girlhood and the brilliant sententiousness of late middle life, often startlingly unexpected. And yet suggestions of future picturesque and epigrammatic power occasionally flash through the long, youthful correspondence. Lowell once wrote of the first letters of Carlyle, 'The man... is all there in the earliest of his writing that we have (potentially there, in character wholly there).' It is chiefly for these 'potential' promises that Emily Dickinson's girlish letters are included, all the variations in the evolution of a style having hardly less interest for the student of human nature than of literature. Village life, even in a college town, was very democratic in the early days when the first of these letters were written, and they suggest a refreshing atmosphere of homely simplicity.\n\nUnusual difficulties have been encountered in arranging the letters with definite reference to years, as none but the very earliest were dated. The change in handwriting, of which specimens are given in facsimile, was no less noticeable than Emily Dickinson's development in literary style; and this alone has been a general guide. The thoughtfulness of a few correspondents in recording the time of the letters' reception has been a farther and most welcome assistance; while occasionally the kind of postage-stamp and the postmark helped to indicate when they were written, although generally the envelopes had not been preserved. But the larger part have been placed by searching out the dates of contemporaneous incidents mentioned, \u2014 for instance, numerous births, marriages, and deaths; any epoch in the life of a friend was an event to Emily Dickinson, always noticed by a bit of flashing verse, or a graceful, if mystically expressed, note of comfort or congratulation. If errors are found in assignment to the proper time, it will not be from lack of having interrogated all available sources of information.\n\nIn more recent years, dashes instead of punctuation, and capitals for all important words, together with the quaint handwriting, give to the actual manuscript an individual fascination quite irresistible. But the coldness of print destroys that elusive charm, so that dashes and capitals have been restored to their conventional use.\n\nIn her later years, Emily Dickinson rarely addressed the envelopes: it seemed as if her sensitive nature shrank from the publicity which even her handwriting would undergo, in the observation of indifferent eyes. Various expedients were resorted to, \u2014 obliging friends frequently performed this office for her; sometimes a printed newspaper label was pasted upon the envelope; but the actual strokes of her own pencil were, so far as possible, reserved exclusively for friendly eyes.\n\nEmily Dickinson's great disinclination for an exposition of the theology current during her girlhood is matter for small wonder. While her fathers were men of recognized originality and force, they did not question the religious teaching of the time; they were leaders in town and church, even strict and uncompromising in their piety. Reverence for accepted ways and forms, merely as such, seems entirely to have been left out of Emily's constitution. To her, God was not a far-away and dreary Power to be daily addressed, \u2014 the great 'Eclipse'\n\nof which she wrote, \u2014 but He was near and familiar and pervasive. Her garden was full of His brightness and glory; the birds sang and the sky glowed because of Him. To shut herself out of the sunshine in a church, dark, chilly, restricted, was rather to shut herself away from Him; almost pathetically she wrote, 'I believe the love of God may be taught not to seem like bears.'\n\nIn essence, no real irreverence mars her poems or her letters. Of malice aforethought, \u2014 an intentional irreverence, \u2014 she is never once guilty. The old interpretation of the biblical estimate of life was cause to her for gentle, wide-eyed astonishment.\n\nNo one knew better the phrases which had become cant, and which seemed always to misrepresent the Father Whom she knew with personal directness and without necessity for human intervention.\n\nIt was a theologically misconceived idea of a 'jealous God,' for which she had a profound contempt; and the fact that those ideas were still held by the stricter New England people of her day made not the slightest difference in her expression of disapproval. Fearless and daring, she had biblical quotation at her finger-tips; and even if she sometimes used it in a way which might shock a conventionalist, she had in her heart too profound an adoration for the great, ever-living, and present Father to hold a shadow of real irreverence toward Him, so peculiarly near. No soul in which dwelt not a very noble and actual love and respect for the essentials could have written as she did of real triumph, of truth, of aspiration.\n\n'We never know how high we are,\n\nTill we are called to rise;\n\nAnd then, if we are true to plan,\n\nOur statures touch the skies.\n\n'The heroism we recite\n\nWould be a daily thing\n\nDid not ourselves the cubits warp,\n\nFor fear to be a king.'\n\nMust not one who wrote that have had her ever-open shrine, her reverenced tribunal?\n\nThe whims and pretences of society; its forms and unrealities, seemed, to her thin and unworthy. Conventionalities, while they amused, exasperated her also; and the little poem beginning,\n\n'The show is not the show,\n\nBut they that go,'\n\nexpresses in large measure her attitude toward society, when she lived in the midst of it. Real life, on the other hand, seemed vast and inexpressibly solemn. Petty trivialities had no part in her constitution, and she came to despise them more and more, \u2014 so much, indeed, that with her increasing shyness, she gradually gave up all journeys, and finally retired completely from even the simple life of a New England college town.\n\nAs has been said of Emily Bronte, 'To this natural isolation of spirit we are in a great measure indebted for that passionate love of Nature which gives such a vivid reality and exquisite simplicity to her descriptions.' Emily Dickinson's letters, almost as much as the poems, exhibit her elf-like intimacy with Nature. She sees and apprehends the great mother's processes, and shares the rapture of all created things under the wide sky. The letters speak of flowers, of pines and autumnal colors; but no natural sight or sound or incident seems to have escaped her delicate apprehension.\n\nBird songs, crickets, frost, and winter winds, even the toad and snake, mushrooms and bats, have an indescribable charm for her, which she in turn brings to us. March, 'that month of proclamation,' was especially dear; and among her still unpublished verses is a characteristic greeting to the windy month. In all its aspects 'Nature became the unique charm and consolation of her life, and as such she has written of it.' Warm thanks are due the friends who have generously lent letters for reproduction. That they were friends of Emily Dickinson, and willing to share her words with the larger outside circle, waiting and appreciative, entitles them to the gratitude, not merely of the Editor, but of all who make up the world that Emily 'never saw,' but to which, nevertheless, she sent a 'message.'\n\nMABEL LOOMIS TODD\n\nAMHERST, MASSACHUSETTS _October_ 1894\n**VOLUME I**\n\n****\n**CHAPTER I**\n\n_To Mrs. A. P. Strong_\n\nTHE letters in this chapter were written to a schoolmate and early friend. The first is one of the oldest yet found, dated when Emily Dickinson had but recently passed her fourteenth birthday.\n\nBefore the era of outer envelopes, it is quaintly written on a large square sheet, and so folded that the fourth page forms a cover bearing the address. Most of the remaining letters to Mrs. Strong are thus folded, and sealed either with wax or wafers, \u2014 occasionally with little rectangular or diamond papers bearing mottoes stamped in gold. The handwriting is almost microscopic, the pages entirely filled. Merely personal items have been generally omitted.\n\nIt will be seen that the name 'Emilie E. Dickinson' is sometimes used. The _ie_ was a youthful vagary, and the second initial, E., stood for Elizabeth, a 'middle name' entirely discarded in later years.\n\nAMHERST, Feb. 23, 1845.\n\nDEAR A., \u2014 After receiving the smitings of conscience for a long time, I have at length succeeded in stifling the voice of that faithful monitor by a promise of a long letter to you; so leave everything and sit down prepared for a long siege in the shape of a bundle of nonsense from friend E.\n\n... I keep your lock of hair as precious as gold and a great deal more so. I often look at it when I go to my little lot of treasures, and wish the owner of that glossy lock were here. Old Time wags on pretty much as usual at Amherst, and I know of nothing that has occurred to break the silence; however, the reduction of the postage has excited my risibles somewhat. Only think! We can send a letter before long for five little coppers only, filled with the thoughts and advice of dear friends. But I will not get into a philosophizing strain just yet. There is time enough for that upon another page of this mammoth sheet.... Your _beau id\u00e9al_ D. I have not seen lately. I presume he was changed into a star some night while gazing at them, and placed in the constellation Orion between Bellatrix and Betelgeux. I doubt not if he was here he would wish to be kindly remembered to you. What delightful weather we have had for a week!\n\nIt seems more like smiling May crowned with flowers than cold, arctic February wading through snowdrifts. I have heard some sweet little birds sing, but I fear we shall have more cold weather and their little bills will be frozen up before their songs are finished. My plants look beautifully. Old King Frost has not had the pleasure of snatching any of them in his cold embrace as yet, and I hope will not. Our little pussy has made out to live. I believe you know what a fatality attends our little kitties, all of them, having had six die one right after the other. Do you love your little niece J. as well as ever? Your soliloquy on the year that is past and gone was not unheeded by me. Would that we might spend the year which is now fleeting so swiftly by to better advantage than the one which we have not the power to recall! Now I know you will laugh, and say I wonder what makes Emily so sentimental. But I don't care if you do, for I sha'n't hear you. What are you doing this winter? I am about everything. I am now working a pair of slippers to adorn my father's feet. I wish you would come and help me finish them.... Although it is late in the day, I am going to wish you a happy New Year, \u2014 not but what I think your New Year will pass just as happily without it, but to make a little return for your kind wish, which so far in a good many respects has been granted, probably because you wished that it might be so.... I go to singing-school Sabbath evenings to \"improve my voice. Don't you envy me?...\n\nI wish you would come and make me a long visit. If you will, I will entertain you to the best of my abilities, which you know are neither few nor small. Why can't you persuade your father and mother to let you come here to school next term, and keep me company, as I am going? Miss \u2014 , I presume you can guess who I mean, is going to finish her education next summer. The finishing stroke is to be put on at Newton. She will then have learned all that we poor foot-travellers are toiling up the hill of knowledge to acquire. Wonderful thought! Her horse has carried her along so swiftly that she has nearly gained the summit, and we are plodding along on foot after her. Well said and sufficient this. We'll finish an education sometime, won't we? You may then be Plato, and I will be Socrates, provided you won't be wiser than I am. Lavinia just now interrupted my flow of thought by saying give my love to A. I presume you will be glad to have some one break off this epistle. All the girls send much love to you. And please accept a large share for yourself. \u2014\n\nFrom your beloved\n\nEMILY E. DICKINSON.\n\nPlease send me a copy of that Romance you were writing at Amherst. I am in a fever to read it. I expect it will be against my Whig feelings.\n\nAfter this postscript many others follow, across the top, down the edges, tucked in wherever space will allow. There are also a few lines from each of three girl friends to 'dear A.'\n\nAMHERST, May 7, 1845.\n\nDEAR A., \u2014 It seems almost an age since I have seen you, and it is indeed an age for friends to be separated. I was delighted to receive a paper from you, and I also was much pleased with the news it contained, especially that you are taking lessons on the 'piny,' as you always call it. But remember not to get on ahead of me. Father intends to have a piano very soon. How happy I shall be when I have one of my own! Old Father Time has wrought many changes here since your last short visit. Miss S. T. and Miss N. M. have both taken the marriage vows upon themselves. Dr Hitchcock has moved into his new house, and Mr. Tyler across the way from our house has moved into President Hitchcock's old house. Mr. C. is going to move into Mr. T.'s former house, but the worst thing old Time has done here is he has walked so fast as to overtake H. M. and carry her to Hartford on last week Saturday. I was so vexed with him for it that I ran after him and made out to get near enough to him to put some salt on his tail, when he fled and left me to run home alone.... Viny went to Boston this morning with father, to be gone a fortnight, and I am left alone in all my glory. I suppose she has got there before this time, and is probably staring with mouth and eyes wide open at the wonders of the city. I have been to walk to-night, and got some very choice wild flowers. I wish you had some of them. Viny and I both go to school this term. We have a very fine school. There are 63 scholars. I have four studies. They are Mental Philosophy, Geology, Latin, and Botany. How large they sound, don't they? I don't believe you have such big studies.... My plants look finely now. I am going to send you a little geranium leaf in this letter, which you must press for me. Have you made you an herbarium yet? I hope you will if you have not, it would be such a treasure to you; 'most all the girls are making one. If you do, perhaps I can make some additions to it from flowers growing around here. How do you enjoy your school this term? Are the teachers as pleasant as our old school-teachers? I expect you have a great many prim, starched up young ladies there, who, I doubt not, are perfect models of propriety and good behavior. If they are, don't let your free spirit be chained by them. I don't know as there [are] any in school of this stamp. But there 'most always are a few, whom the teachers look up to and regard as their satellites. I am growing handsome very fast indeed! I expect I shall be the belle of Amherst when I reach my 17th year. I don't doubt that I shall have perfect crowds of admirers at that age. Then how I shall delight to make them await my bidding, and with what delight shall I witness their suspense while I make my final decision. But away with my nonsense. I have written one composition this term, and I need not assure you it was exceedingly edifying to myself as well as everybody else. Don't you want to see it? I really wish you could have a chance. We are obliged to write compositions once in a fortnight, and select a piece to read from some interesting book the week that we don't write compositions.\n\nWe really have some most charming young women in school this term. I sha'n't call them anything but women, for women they are in every sense of the word. I must, however, describe one, and while I describe her I wish Imagination, who is ever present with you, to make a little picture of this self-same young lady in your mind, and by her aid see if you cannot conceive how she looks. Well, to begin.... Then just imagine her as she is, and a huge string of gold beads encircling her neck, and don't she present a lively picture; and then she is so bustling, she is always whizzing about, and whenever I come in contact with her I really think I am in a hornet's nest. I can't help thinking every time I see this singular piece of humanity of Shakespeare's description of a tempest in a teapot. But I must not laugh about her, for I verily believe she has a good heart, and that is the principal thing now-a-days. Don't you hope I shall become wiser in the company of such virtuosos? It would certainly be desirable. Have you noticed how beautifully the trees look now? They seem to be completely covered with fragrant blossoms.... I had so many things to do for Viny, as she was going away, that very much against my wishes I deferred writing you until now, but forgive and forget, dear A., and I will promise to do better in future. Do write me soon, and let it be a long, long letter; and when you can't get time to write, send a paper, so as to let me know you think of me still, though we are separated by hill and stream. All the girls send much love to you. Don't forget to let me receive a letter from you soon. I can say no more now as my paper is all filled up.\n\nYour affectionate friend,\n\nEMILY E. DICKINSON.\n\n_[Written in 1845; postmarked Amherst, August 4.]_\n\n_Sabbath Eve._\n\nDEAR A., \u2014 I have now sat down to write you a long, long letter. My writing apparatus is upon a stand before me, and all things are ready. I have no flowers before me as you had to inspire you. But then you know I can imagine myself inspired by them, and perhaps that will do as well. You cannot imagine how delighted I was to receive your letter. It was so full, and everything in it was interesting to me because it came from you. I presume you did not doubt my gratitude for it, on account of my delaying so long to answer it, for you know I have had no leisure for anything. When I tell you that our term has been eleven weeks long, and that I have had four studies and taken music lessons, you can imagine a little how my time has been taken up lately. I will try to be more punctual in such matters for the future. How are you now? I am very sorry to hear that you are unable to remain in your school on account of your health, it must be such a disappointment to you. But I presume you are enjoying yourself much to be at home again. You asked me in your last letter if old Father Time wagged on in Amherst pretty much as ever. For my part, I see no particular change in his movements unless it be that he goes on a swifter pace than formerly, and that he wields his sickle more sternly than ever. How do you like taking music lessons? I presume you are delighted with it. I am taking lessons this term of Aunt S \u2014 , who is spending the summer with us. I never enjoyed myself more than I have this summer; for we have had such a delightful school and such pleasant teachers, and besides I have had a piano of my own. Our examination is to come off next week on Monday. I wish you could be here at that time. Why can't you come? If you will, you can come and practise on my piano as much as you wish to. I am already gasping in view of our examination; and although I am determined not to dread it I know it is so foolish, yet in spite of my heroic resolutions, I cannot avoid a few misgivings when I think of those tall, stern trustees, and when I know that I shall lose my character if I don't recite as precisely as the laws of the Medes and Persians.\n\nBut what matter will that be a hundred years hence? I will distress you no longer with my fears, for you know well enough what they are without my entering into any explanations. Are you practising now you are at home? I hope you are, for if you are not you would be likely to forget what you have learnt. I want very much to hear you play. I have the same instruction book that you have, Bertini, and I am getting along in it very well. Aunt S \u2014 says she sha'n't let me have many tunes now, for she wants I should get over in the book a good ways first.\n\nOh, A., if Sarah G \u2014 , H \u2014 , and yourself were only here this summer, what times we should have! I wish if we can't be together all the time that we could meet once in a while at least. I wish you would all come to our house, and such times as we would have would be a caution. I want to see you all so much that it seems as if I could not wait. Have you heard anything from Miss Adams, our dear teacher? How much I would give to see her once more, but I am afraid I never shall. She is so far away. You asked me in your letter to tell you all the news worth telling, and although there is not much, yet I will endeavor to think of everything that will be new to you. In the first place, Mrs. J. and Mrs. S. M. have both of them a little daughter. Very promising children, I understand. I don't doubt if they live they will be ornaments to society. I think they are both to be considered as embryos of future usefulness. Mrs. \\V. M. has now two grand-daughters. Isn't she to be envied?... I am sorry that you are laying up H.'s sins against her. I think you had better heap coals of fire upon her head by writing to her constantly until you get an answer. I have some patience with these 'school marms.' They have so many trials. I hope you will decide to blot out her iniquities against her. I don't know about this Mr. E. giving you concert tickets. I think for my part it looks rather suspicious. He is a young man, I suppose. These music teachers are always such high-souled beings that I think they would exactly suit your fancy. My garden looks beautifully now. I wish you could see it. I would send you a bouquet if I could get a good opportunity. My house plants look very finely, too. You wished me to give you some account of S. P. She is attending school this term and studying Latin and Algebra. She is very well and happy and sends much love to you. All the girls send much love to you, and wish you to write to them. I have been working a beautiful book-mark to give to one of our school-girls. Perhaps you have seen it. It is an arrow with a beautiful wreath around it. Have you altered any since I have seen you? Isn't it a funny question for one friend to ask another? I haven't altered any, I think, except that I have my hair done up, and that makes me look different. I can imagine just how you look now. I wonder what you are doing this moment. I have got an idea that you are knitting edging. Are you? Won't you tell me when you answer my letter whether I guessed right or not?... You gave me a compliment in your letter in regard to my being a faithful correspondent. I must say I think I deserve it. I have been learning several beautiful pieces lately. The 'Grave of Bonaparte 'is one, 'Lancers Quickstep,' and 'Maiden, 1 weep no more,' which is a sweet little song. I wish much to see you and hear you play. I hope you will come to A. before long. Why can't you pass commencement here? I do wish you would.... I have looked my letter over, and find I have written nothing worth reading.... Accept much love from your affectionate friend, EMILY E. D.\n\n_Thursday,_ Sept. 26, 1845.\n\nDEAREST A., \u2014 As I just glanced at the clock and saw how smoothly the little hands glide over the surface, I could scarcely believe that those selfsame little hands had eloped with so many of my precious moments since I received your affectionate letter, and it was still harder for me to believe that I, who am always boasting of being so faithful a correspondent, should have been guilty of negligence in so long delaying to answer it.... I am very glad to hear that you are better than you have been, and I hope in future disease will not be as neighborly as he has been heretofore to either of us. I long to see you, dear A., and speak with you face to face; but so long as a bodily interview is denied us, we must make letters answer, though it is hard for friends to be separated. I really believe you would have been frightened to have heard me scold when Sabra informed me that you had decided not to visit Amherst this fall. But as I could find no one upon whom to vent my spleen for your decision, I thought it best to be calm, and therefore have at length resigned myself to my cruel fate, though with not a very good grace. I think you do well to inquire whether anything has been heard from H. I really don't know what has become of her, unless procrastination has carried her off. I think that must be the case. I think you have given quite a novel description of the wedding. Are you quite sure Mr. F., the minister, told them to stand up and he would tie them in a great bow-knot? But I beg pardon for speaking so lightly of so solemn a ceremony. You asked me in your letter if I did not think you partial in your admiration of Miss Helen H., ditto Mrs. P. I answer, Not in the least. She was universally beloved in Amherst. She made us quite a visit in June, and we regretted more than ever that she was going where we could not see her as often as we had been accustomed. She seemed very happy in her prospects, and seemed to think distance nothing in comparison to a home with the one of her choice. I hope she will be happy, and of course she will. I wished much to see her once more, but was denied the privilege.... You asked me if I was attending school now. I am not. Mother thinks me not able to confine myself to school this term. She had rather I would exercise, and I can assure you I get plenty of that article by staying at home. I am going to learn to make bread to-morrow. So you may imagine me with my sleeves rolled up, mixing flour, milk, saleratus, etc., with a deal of grace. I advise you if you don't know how to make the staff of life to learn with dispatch. I think I could keep house very comfortably if I knew how to cook. But as long as I don't, my knowledge of housekeeping is about of as much use as faith without works, which you know we are told is dead. Excuse my quoting from Scripture, dear A., for it was so handy in this case I couldn't get along very well without it. Since I wrote you last, the summer is past and gone, and autumn with the sere and yellow leaf is already upon us. I never knew the time to pass so swiftly, it seems to me, as the past summer. I really think some one must have oiled his chariot wheels, for I don't recollect of hearing him pass, and I am sure I should if something had not prevented his chariot wheels from creaking as usual. But I will not expatiate upon him any longer, for I know it is wicked to trifle with so revered a personage, and I fear he will make me a call in person to inquire as to the remarks which I have made concerning him. Therefore I will let him alone for the present.... How are you getting on with your music? Well, I hope and trust. I am taking lessons and am getting along very well, and now I have a piano, I am very happy. I feel much honored at having even a doll named for me. I believe I shall have to give it a silver cup, as that is the custom among old ladies when a child is named for them.... Have you any flowers now? I have had a beautiful flower-garden this summer; but they are nearly gone now. It is very cold to-night, and I mean to pick the prettiest ones before I go to bed, and cheat Jack Frost of so many of _the treasures_ he calculates to rob to-night. Won't it be a capital idea to put him at defiance, for once at least, if no more? I would love to send you a bouquet if I had an opportunity, and you could press it and write under it, The last flowers of summer. Wouldn't it be poetical, and you know that is what young ladies aim to be now-a-days.... I expect I have altered a good deal since I have seen you, dear A. I have grown tall a good deal, and wear my golden tresses done up in a net-cap. Modesty, you know, forbids me to mention whether my personal appearance has altered. I leave that for others to judge. But my [word omitted] has not changed, nor will it in time to come. I shall always remain the same old sixpence.... I can say no more now, as it is after ten, and everybody has gone to bed but me. Don't forget your affectionate friend, EMILY E. D.\n\nAMHERST, Jan. 12, 1846.\n\nA., MY DEAR, \u2014 Since I received your precious letter another year has commenced its course, and the old year has gone never to return. How sad it makes one feel to sit down quietly and think of the flight of the old year, and the unceremonious obtrusion of the new year upon our notice! How many things we have omitted to do which might have cheered a human heart, or whispered hope in the ear of the sorrowful, and how many things have we done over which the dark mantle of regret will ever fall! How many good resolutions did I make at the commencement of the year now flown, merely to break them and to feel more than ever convinced of the weakness of my own resolutions! The New Year's day was unusually gloomy to me, I know not why, and perhaps for that reason a host of unpleasant reflections forced themselves upon me which I found not easy to throw off. But I will no longer sentimentalize upon the past, for I cannot recall it. I will, after inquiring for the health of my dear A., relapse into a more lively strain. I can hardly have patience to write, for I have not seen you for so long that I have worlds of things to tell you, and my pen is not swift enough to answer my purpose at all. However, I will try to make it communicate as much information as possible and wait to see your own dear self once more before I relate all my thoughts which have come and gone since I last saw you. I suppose from your letter that you are enjoying yourself finely this winter at Miss C.'s school. I would give a great deal if I was there with you. I don't go to school this winter except to a recitation in German. Mr. C. has a very large class, and father thought I might never have another opportunity to study it. It takes about an hour and a half to recite. Then I take music lessons and practise two hours in a day, and besides these two I have a large stand of plants to cultivate. This is the principal round of my occupation this winter.... I have just seen a funeral procession go by of a negro baby, so if my ideas are rather dark you need not marvel.... Old Santa Claus was very polite to me the last Christmas. I hung up my stocking on the bedpost as usual. I had a perfume bag and a bottle of otto of rose to go with it, a sheet of music, a china mug with _Forget me not_ upon it, from S. S., \u2014 who, by the way, is as handsome, entertaining, and as fine a piano player as in former times, \u2014 a toilet cushion, a watch case, a fortuneteller, and an amaranthine stock of pin-cushions and needlebooks, which in ingenuity and art would rival the works of Scripture Dorcas. I found abundance of candy in my stocking, which I do not think has had the anticipated effect upon my disposition, in case it was to sweeten it, also two hearts at the bottom of all, which I thought looked rather ominous; but I will not enter into any more details, for they take up more room than I can spare.\n\nHaven't we had delightful weather for a week or two? It seems as if Old Winter had forgotten himself. Don't you believe he is absent-minded? It has been bad weather for colds, however. I have had a severe cold for a few days, and can sympathize with you, though I have been delivered from a stiff neck. I think you must belong to the tribe of Israel, for you know in the Bible the prophet calls them a stiff-necked generation. I have lately come to the conclusion that I am Eve, alias Mrs. Adam. You know there is no account of her death in the Bible, and why am not I Eve? If you find any statements which you think likely to prove the truth of the case, I wish you would send them to me without delay.\n\nHave you heard a word from H. M. or S. T.? I consider them lost sheep. I send them a paper every week on Monday, but I never get one in return. I am almost a mind to take a hand-car and go around to hunt them up. I can't think that they have forgotten us, and I know of no reason unless they are sick why they should delay so long to show any signs of remembrance. Do write me soon a very long letter, and tell me all about your school and yourself too.\n\nYour affectionate friend, EMILY E. DICKINSON.\n\n_Friday Eve_ [summer], 1846.\n\nMY DEAR A., \u2014 Though it is a long time since I received your affectionate epistle, yet when I give you my reasons for my long delay, I know you will freely forgive and forget all past offences.\n\nIt seems to me that time has never flown so swiftly with me as it has the last spring. I have been busy every minute, and not only so, but hurried all the time. So you may imagine that I have not had a spare moment, much though my heart has longed for it, to commune with an absent friend.... I presume you will be wondering by this time what I am doing to be in so much haste as I have declared myself to be. Well, I will tell you. I am fitting to go to South Hadley Seminary, and expect if my health is good to enter that institution a year from next fall. Are you not astonished to hear such news? You cannot imagine how much I am anticipating in entering there. It has been in my thought by day, and my dreams by night, ever since I heard of South Hadley Seminary. I fear I am anticipating too much, and that some freak of fortune may overturn all my airy schemes for future happiness. But it is my nature always to anticipate more than I realize.... Have you not heard that Miss Adams \u2014 dear Miss Adams \u2014 is here this term? Oh, you cannot imagine how natural it seems to see her happy face in school once more. But it needs Harriet, Sarah, and your own dear self to complete the ancient picture. I hope we shall get you all back before Miss Adams goes away again. Have you yet heard a word from that prodigal, \u2014 H.?...\n\nYour affectionate friend, EMILY E. D.\n\nI send you a memento in the form of a pressed flower, which you must keep.\n\nA converted Jew has been lecturing here for the last week. His lectures were free, and they were on the present condition of the Jews. Dr Scudder, a returned missionary, is here now, and he is lecturing also. Have you seen a beautiful piece of poetry which has been going through the papers lately? _Are we almost there?_ is the title of it.... I have two hours to practise daily now I am in school. I have been learning a beautiful thing, which I long to have you hear....\n\nBOSTON, Sept. 8, 1846.\n\nMY DEAR FRIEND A., \u2014 It is a long, long time since I received your welcome letter, and it becomes me to sue for forgiveness, which I am sure your affectionate heart will not refuse to grant. But many and unforeseen circumstances have caused my long delay.... Father and mother thought a journey would be of service to me, and accordingly I left home for Boston week before last. I had a delightful ride in the cars, and am now getting settled down, if there can be such a state in the city. I am visiting in my aunt's family, and am happy. Happy! did I say? No; not happy, but contented. I have been here a fortnight to-day, and in that time I have both seen and heard a great many wonderful things. Perhaps you might like to know how I have spent the time here. I have been to Mount Auburn, to the Chinese Museum, to Bunker Hill; I have attended two concerts and one Horticultural Exhibition. I have been upon the top of the State House, and almost everywhere that you can imagine. Have you ever been to Mount Auburn? If not, you can form but slight conception of this 'City of the Dead.' It seems as if nature had formed this spot with a distinct idea in view of its being a resting-place for her children, where, wearied and disappointed, they might stretch themselves beneath the spreading cypress, and close their eyes 'calmly as to a night's repose, or flowers at set of sun.'\n\nThe Chinese Museum is a great curiosity. There are an endless variety of wax figures made to resemble the Chinese, and dressed in their costume. Also articles of Chinese manufacture of an innumerable variety deck the rooms. Two of the Chinese go with this exhibition. One of them is a professor of music in China, and the other is teacher of a writing-school at home. They were both wealthy, and not obliged to labor, but they were also opium-eaters; and fearing to continue the practice lest it destroyed their lives, yet unable to break the 'rigid chain of habit 'in their own land, they left their families, and came to this country. They have now entirely overcome the practice. There is something peculiarly interesting to me in their self-denial. The musician played upon two of his instruments, and accompanied them with his voice. It needed great command over my risible faculties to enable me to keep sober as this amateur was performing; yet he was so very polite to give us some of his native music that we could not do otherwise than to express ourselves highly edified with his performances. The writing-master is constantly occupied in writing the names of visitors who request it, upon cards in the Chinese language, for which he charges 12 and a half cents apiece. He never fails to give his card besides to the persons who wish it. I obtained one of his cards for Viny and myself, and I consider them very precious. Are you still in Norwich, and attending to music? I am not now taking lessons, but I expect to when I return home.\n\nDoes it seem as though September had come? How swiftly summer has fled, and what report has it borne to heaven of misspent time and wasted hours? Eternity only will answer. The ceaseless flight of the seasons is to me a very solemn thought; and yet why do we not strive to make a better improvement of them? With how much emphasis the poet has said, 'We take no note of time but from its loss. 'Twere wise in man to give it then a tongue. Pay no moment but in just purchase of its worth, and what its worth ask death-beds. They can tell. Part with it as with life reluctantly.' Then we have higher authority than that of man for the improvement of our time. For God has said, 'Work while the day lasts, for the night is coming in the which no man can work.' Let us strive together to part with time more reluctantly, to watch the pinions of the fleeting moment until they are dim in the distance, and the new-coming moment claims our attention. I have perfect confidence in God and His promises, and yet I know not why I feel that the world holds a predominant place in my affections.... Your affectionate friend,\n\nEMILY E. D.\n\nNumerous postscripts are appended, as usually: \u2014\n\nI have really suffered from the heat the last week. I think it remarkable that we should have such weather in September. There were over one hundred deaths in Boston last week, a great many of them owing to the heat. Mr. Taylor, our old teacher, was in Amherst at Commencement time. Oh, I do love Mr. Taylor. It seems so like old times to meet Miss Adams and Mr. Taylor together again. I could hardly refrain from singing, 'Auld Lang Syne.' It seemed so very _\u00e0 propos._ Have you forgotten the memorable ride we all took with Mr. Taylor, 'Long, long ago '?... Austin entered college last Commencement. Only think! I have a brother who has the honor to be a Freshman! Will you not promise me that you will come to Commencement when he graduates? Do! Please! I have altered very much since you were here. I am now very tall, and wear long dresses nearly. Do you believe we shall know each other when we meet? Don't forget to write soon. \u2014 E.\n\n_Sabbath Eve,_ 1846.\n\nMY DEAR A., \u2014 When I last wrote you I was in Boston, where I spent a delightful visit of four weeks. I returned home about the middle of September in very good health and spirits, for which it seems to me I cannot be sufficiently grateful to the Giver of all mercies. I expected to go into the Academy upon my return home, but as I stayed longer than I expected to, and as the school had already commenced, I made up my mind to remain at home during the fall term and pursue my studies the winter term, which commences a week after Thanksgiving. I kept my good resolution for once in my life, and have been sewing, practising upon the piano, and assisting mother in household affairs. I am anticipating the commencement of the next term with a great deal of pleasure, for I have been an exile from school two terms on account of my health, and you know what it is to 'love school.' Miss Adams is with us now, and will remain through the winter, and we have an excellent Principal in the person of Mr. Leonard Humphrey, who was the last valedictorian. We now have a fine school. I thank you a thousand times for your long and affectionate letter.... I found a quantity of sewing waiting with open arms to embrace me, or rather for me to embrace it, and I could hardly give myself up to 'Nature's sweet restorer,' for the ghosts of out-of-order garments crying for vengeance upon my defenceless head. However, I am happy to inform you, my dear friend, that I have nearly finished my sewing for winter, and will answer all the letters which you shall deem worthy to send so naughty a girl as myself, at short notice....\n\nWrite soon. Your affectionate\n\nEMILY E. D.\n\n_[March 15, 1847.]_\n\n_Sabbath Eve,_ 1847.\n\nEVER DEAR A., \u2014 ... We have spent our vacation of a fortnight, and school has commenced again since you wrote me. I go this term, and am studying Algebra, Euclid, Ecclesiastical History, and reviewing Arithmetic again to be upon the safe side of things next autumn. We have a delightful school this term under the instruction of our former principals, and Miss R. Woodbridge, daughter of Rev. Dr W. of Hadley, for preceptress. We all love her very much. Perhaps a slight description of her might be interesting to my dear A. She is tall and rather slender, but finely proportioned, has a most witching pair of blue eyes, rich brown hair, delicate complexion, cheeks which vie with the opening rose-bud, teeth like pearls, dimples which come and go like the ripples in yonder little merry brook, and then she is so affectionate and lovely. Forgive my glowing description, for you know I am always in love with my teachers. Yet, much as we love her, it seems lonely and strange without 'our dear Miss Adams.' I suppose you know that she has left Amherst, not again to return as a teacher. It is indeed true that she is to be married. Are you not astonished? Nothing was known but that she was to return to the school, until a few days before she left for Syracuse, where she has gone to make her 'wedding gear.' She is to be married the first of next April, to a very respectable lawyer in Conway, Massachusetts. She seemed to be very happy in anticipation of her future prospects, and I hope she will realize all her fond hopes. I cannot bear to think that she will never more wield the sceptre and sit upon the throne in our venerable schoolhouse, and yet I am glad she is going to have a home of her own, and a kind companion to take life's journey with her. I am delighted that she is to live so near us, for we can ride up and see her often. You cannot imagine how much I enjoyed your description of your Christmas fete at Miss Campbell's. How magnificent the 'Christmas tree' must have been, and what a grand time you must have had, so many of you! Oh!!\n\nI had a great many presents, Christmas and New Year's holidays, both, but we had no such celebration of the former which you describe.... Do write me soon \u2014 a long letter \u2014 and tell me how soon you are coming, and how long we can keep you when you come. Your affectionate EMILY E. DICKINSON.\n\nMT. HOLYOKE SEMINARY, NOV. 6, 1847.\n\nMY DEAR A., \u2014 I am really at Mount Holyoke Seminary, and this is to be my home for a long year. Your affectionate letter was joyfully received, and I wish that this might make you as happy as yours did me. It has been nearly six weeks since I left home, and that is a longer time than I was ever away from home before now. I was very homesick for a few days, and it seemed to me I could not live here. But I am now contented and quite happy, if I can be happy when absent from my dear home and friends. You may laugh at the idea that I cannot be happy when away from home, but you must remember that I have a very dear home and that this is my first trial in the way of absence for any length of time in my life. As you desire it, I will give you a full account of myself since I first left the paternal roof. I came to South Hadley six weeks ago next Thursday. I was much fatigued with the ride, and had a severe cold besides, which prevented me from commencing my examinations until the next day, when I began. I finished them in three days, and found them about what I had anticipated, though the old scholars say they are more strict than they ever have been before. As you can easily imagine, I was much delighted to finish without failures, and I came to the conclusion then, that I should not be at all homesick, but the reaction left me as homesick a girl as it is not usual to see. I am now quite contented and am very much occupied in reviewing the Junior studies, as I wish to enter the middle class. The school is very large, and though quite a number have left, on account of finding the examinations more difficult than they anticipated, yet there are nearly 300 now. Perhaps you know that Miss Lyon is raising her standard of scholarship a good deal, on account of the number of applicants this year, and she makes the examinations more severe than usual.\n\nYou cannot imagine how trying they are, because if we cannot go through them all in a specified time, we are sent home. I cannot be too thankful that I got through as soon as I did, and I am sure that I never would endure the suspense which I endured during those three days again for all the treasures of the world.\n\nI room with my cousin Emily, who is a Senior. She is an excellent room-mate, and does all in her power to make me happy. You can imagine how pleasant a good room-mate is, for you have been away to school so much. Everything is pleasant and happy here, and I think I could be no happier at any other school away from home. Things seem much more like home than I anticipated, and the teachers are all very kind and affectionate to us. They call on us frequently and urge us to return their calls, and when we do, we always receive a cordial welcome from them. I will tell you my order of time for the day, as you were so kind as to give me yours. At 6 o'clock we all rise. We breakfast at 7. Our study hours begin at 8. At 9 we all meet in Seminary Hall for devotions. At 10\u00bc I recite a review of Ancient History, in connection with which we read Goldsmith and Grimshaw. At 11, I recite a lesson in Pope's _Essay on Man,_ which is merely transposition. At 12 I practise calisthenics, and at 12\u00bc read until dinner, which is at 12\u00bd, and after dinner, from 1\u00bd until 2, I sing in Seminary Hall. From 2\u00be until 3\u00be I practise upon the piano. At 3\u00be I go to Sections, where we give in all our accounts for the day, including absence, tardiness, communications, breaking silent study hours, receiving company in our rooms, and ten thousand other things which I will not take time or place to mention. At 4\u00bdwe go into Seminary Hall and receive advice from Miss Lyon in the form of a lecture. We have supper at 6, and silent study hours from then until the retiring bell, which rings at 8\u00be, but the tardy bell does not ring until 9\u00be, so that we don't often obey the first warning to retire. Unless we have a good and reasonable excuse for failure upon any of the items that I mentioned above, they are recorded and a _black mark_ stands against our names. As you can easily imagine, we do not like very well to get 'exceptions,' as they are called scientifically here.\n\nMy domestic work is not difficult and consists in carrying the knives from the first tier of tables at morning and noon, and at night washing and wiping the same quantity of knives. I am quite well and hope to be able to spend the year here, free from sickness. You have probably heard many reports of the food here; and if so, I can tell you that I have yet seen nothing corresponding to my ideas on that point from what I have heard. Everything is wholesome and abundant and much nicer than I should imagine could be provided for almost 300 girls. We have also a great variety upon our tables and frequent changes. One thing is certain, and that is, that Miss Lyon and all the teachers seem to consult our comfort and happiness in everything they do, and you know that is pleasant. When I left home I did not think I should find a companion or a dear friend in all the multitude. I expected to find rough and uncultivated manners, and, to be sure, I have found some of that stamp, but on the whole, there is an ease and grace, a desire to make one another happy, which delights and at the same time surprises me very much. I find no Abby nor Abiah nor Mary, but I love many of the girls. Austin came to see me when I had been here about two weeks, and brought Viny and A. I need not tell you how delighted I was to see them all, nor how happy it made me to hear them say that 'they were _so lonely_.' It is a sweet feeling to know that you are missed and that your memory is precious at home. This week, on Wednesday, I was at my window, when I happened to look towards the hotel and saw father and mother, walking over here as dignified as you please. I need not tell you that I danced and clapped my hands, and flew to meet them, for you can imagine how I felt. I will only ask you, do you love your parents? They wanted to surprise me, and for that reason did not let me know they were coming. I could not bear to have them go, but go they must, and so I submitted in sadness. Only to think that in weeks I shall be at my _own dear home_ again. You will probably go home at Thanksgiving time, and we can rejoice with each other.\n\nYou don't [know] how I laughed at your description of your introduction to Daniel Webster, and I read that part of your letter to cousin Emily. You must feel quite proud of the acquaintance, and will not, I hope, be vain in consequence. However, you don't know Governor Briggs, and I do, so you are no better off than I.... A., you must write me often, and I shall write you as often as I have time....\n\nFrom your affectionate\n\nEMILY E. D.\n\nMr. HOLYOKE FEMALE SEMINARY, Jan. 17, 1848.\n\nMY DEAR A., \u2014 Your welcome epistle found me upon the eve of going home, and it is needless to say very happy. We all went home on Wednesday before Thanksgiving, and a stormy day it was, but the storm must not be in our way, so we tried to make the best of it and look as cheerful as we could. Many of the girls went very early in the morning in order to reach home the same day, and when we all sat down to the breakfast table, it seemed lonely enough to see so many places vacant. After breakfast, as we were not required to keep all the family rules, a number of us met together at one of the windows in the Hall to watch for our friends, whom we were constantly expecting. No morning of my life ever passed so slowly to me, and it really seemed to me they never were coming, so impatiently did I wait their arrival. At last, almost tired out, I spied a carriage in the distance, and surely Austin was in it. You, who have been away so much, can easily imagine my delight and will not laugh, when I tell you how I dashed downstairs and almost frightened my dignified brother out of his senses. All was ready in a moment or less than a moment, and cousin Emily and myself, not forgetting the driver, were far on our way towards home. The rain fell in torrents and the wind howled around the sides of the mountain over our heads, and the brooks below, filled by the rain, rushed along their pebbly beds almost frightfully, yet nothing daunted, we rode swiftly along, and soon the colleges and the spire of our venerable meeting-house rose to my delighted vision.\n\nNever did Amherst look more lovely to me, and gratitude rose in my heart to God, for granting me such a safe return to my _own dear home._ Soon the carriage stopped in front of our own house, and all were at the door to welcome the returned one, from mother, with tears in her eyes, down to pussy, who tried to look as gracious as was becoming her dignity. Oh, A., it was the first meeting, as it had been the first separation, and it was a joyful one to all of us. The storm did not at all subside that night, but in the morning I was waked by the glorious sunshine [it] self, staring full in my face. We went to church in the morning and listened to an excellent sermon from our own minister, Mr. Colton. At noon we returned and had a nice dinner, which, you well know, cannot be dispensed with on Thanksgiving day. We had several calls in the afternoon, and had four invitations out for the evening. Of course we could not accept them all, much to my sorrow, but decided to make two visits. At about 7 o'clock father, mother, Austin, Viny, cousin Emily, and myself to bring up the rear, went down to Professor Warner's, where we spent an hour delightfully with a few friends, and then bidding them good eve, we young folks went down to Mrs. S. M.'s, accompanied by _sister Mary._ There was quite a company of young people assembled when we arrived, and after we had played many games we had, in familiar terms, a 'candy scrape.' We enjoyed the evening much, and returned not until the clock pealed out, 'Remember ten o'clock, my dear, remember ten o'clock.' After our return, father wishing to hear the piano, I, like an obedient daughter, played and sang a few tun\u00e9s, much to his apparent gratification. We then retired, and the next day and the next were as happily spent as the eventful Thanksgiving day itself.\n\nYou will probably think me foolish thus to give you an inventory of my time while at home, but I did enjoy so much in those short four days that I wanted you to know and enjoy it too. Monday came so soon, and with it came a carriage to our door, and amidst tears falling thick and fast away I went again. Slowly and sadly dragged a few of the days after my return to the Seminary, and I was very homesick, but 'after a storm there comes a calm,' and so it was in my case. My sorrows were soon lost in study, and I again felt happy, if happiness there can be away from 'home, sweet home.'\n\nOur term closes this week on Thursday, and Friday I hope to see home and friends once more. I have studied hard this term, and aside from my delight at going home, there is a sweetness in approaching rest to me. This term is the longest in the year, and I would not wish to live it over again, I can assure you. I love this Seminary, and all the teachers are bound strongly to my heart by ties of affection. There are many sweet girls here, and dearly do I love some new faces, but I have not yet found the place of a _few_ dear ones filled, nor would I wish it to be here. I am now studying Silliman's Chemistry and Cutter's Physiology, in both of which I am much interested. We finish Physiology before this term closes, and are to be examined in it at the spring examinations, about five weeks after the commencement of the next term. I already begin to dread that time, for an examination in Mount Holyoke Seminary is rather more public than in our old academy, and a failure would be more disgraceful then, I opine; but I hope, to use my father's own words, 'that I shall not disgrace myself.' What are you studying now? You did not mention that item in your last letters to me, and consequently I am quite in the dark as regards your progress in those affairs. All I can say is, that I hope you will not leave poor me far behind....\n\nYour affectionate _sister,_\n\nEMILY E. DICKINSON.\n\nP. S. Our Section have commenced reading compositions, and we read once in a month, during which time we write two.\n\nIntellectual brilliancy of an individual type was already at seventeen her distinguishing characteristic, and nothing of the recluse was yet apparent. Traditions of extraordinary compositions still remain; and it is certain that each was an epoch for those who heard, whether teachers or pupils. An old friend and schoolmate of Emily tells me that she was always surrounded by a group of girls at recess, to hear her strange and intensely funny stories, invented upon the spot.\n\nMT HOLYOKE FEMALE SEMINARY, May 16,1848.\n\nMY DEAR A., \u2014 You must forgive me, indeed you must, that I have so long delayed to write you, and I doubt not you will when I give you all my reasons for so doing. You know it is customary for the first page to be occupied with apologies, and I must not depart from the beaten track for one of my own imagining.... I had not been very well all winter, but had not written home about it, lest the folks should take me home. During the week following examinations, a friend from Amherst came over and spent a week with me, and when that friend returned home, father and mother were duly notified of the state of my health. Have you so treacherous a friend?\n\nNot knowing that I was to be reported at home, you can imagine my amazement and consternation when Saturday of the same week Austin arrived in full sail, with orders from head-quarters to bring me home at all events. At first I had recourse to words, and a desperate battle with those weapons was waged for a few moments, between my _Sophomore_ brother and myself. Finding words of no avail, I next resorted to tears. But woman's tears are of little avail, and I am sure mine flowed in vain. As you can imagine, Austin was victorious, and poor, defeated I was led off in triumph. You must not imbibe the idea from what I have said that I do not love home \u2014 far from it. But I could not bear to leave teachers and companions before the close of the term and go home to be dosed and receive the physician daily, and take warm drinks and be condoled with on the state of health in general by all the old ladies in town.\n\nHaven't I given a ludicrous account of going home sick from a boarding-school? Father is quite a hand to give medicine, especially if it is not desirable to the patient, and I was dosed for about a month after my return home, without any mercy, till at last out of mere pity my cough went away, and I had quite a season of peace. Thus I remained at home until the close of the term, comforting my parents by my presence, and instilling many a lesson of wisdom into the budding intellect of my only sister. I had almost forgotten to tell you that I went on with my studies at home, and kept up with my class. Last Thursday our vacation closed* and on Friday morn, midst the weeping of friends, crowing of roosters, and singing of birds, I again took my departure from home. Five days have now passed since we returned to Holyoke, and they have passed very slowly. Thoughts of home and friends 'come crowding thick and fast, like lightnings from the mountain cloud,' and it seems very desolate.\n\nFather has decided not to send me to Holyoke another year, so this is my _last term._ Can it be possible that I have been here almost a year? It startles me when I really think of the advantages I have had, and I fear I have not improved them as I ought. But many an hour has fled with its report to heaven, and what has been the tale of me?... How glad I am that spring has come, and how it calms my mind when wearied with study to walk out in the green fields and beside the pleasant streams in which South Hadley is rich! There are not many wild flowers near, for the girls have driven them to a distance, and we are obliged to walk quite a distance to find them, but they repay us by their sweet smiles and fragrance.\n\nThe older I grow, the more do I love spring and spring flowers. Is it so with you? While at home there were several pleasure parties of which I was a member, and in our rambles we found many and beautiful children of spring, which I will mention and see if you have found them, \u2014 the trailing arbutus, adder's tongue, yellow violets, liver-leaf, blood-root, and many other smaller flowers.\n\nWhat are you reading now? I have little time to read when I am here, but while at home I had a feast in the reading line, I can assure you. Two or three of them I will mention: _Evangeline, The Princess, The Maiden Aunt, The Epicurean,_ and _The Twins and Heart_ by Tupper, complete the list. Am not I a pedant for telling you what I have been reading? Have you forgotten your visit at Amherst last summer, and what delightful times we had? I have not, and I hope you will come and make another and a longer, when I get home from Holyoke.\n\nFather wishes to have me at home a year, and then he will probably send me away again, where I know not....\n\nEver your own affectionate\n\nEMILIE E. DICKINSON.\n\nP. S. My studies for this series are Astronomy and Rhetoric, which take me through to the Senior studies. What are you studying now, if you are in school, and do you attend to music? I practise only one hour a day this term.\n\nAlthough nearly two years elapse between the last letter and the following, the handwriting is quite unaltered, being still exceedingly small and clear, and averaging twenty words to a line.\n\nAMHERST, Jan. 29, 1850.\n\nVERY DEAR A., \u2014 The folks have all gone away; they thought that they left me alone, and contrived things to amuse me should they stay long, and _I_ be lonely. Lonely, indeed, \u2014 they didn't look, and they couldn't have seen if they had, who should bear me company. _Three_ here, instead of _one,_ wouldn't it scare them? A curious trio, part earthly and part spiritual two of us, the other, all heaven, and no earth. _God_ is sitting here, looking into my very soul to see if I think right thoughts. Yet I am not afraid, for I try to be right and good; and He knows every one of my struggles. He looks very gloriously, and everything bright seems dull beside Him; and I don't dare to look directly at Him for fear I shall die. Then _you_ are here, dressed in that quiet black gown and cap, \u2014 that funny little cap I used to laugh at you about, \u2014 and you don't appear to be thinking about anything in particular, \u2014 not in one of your _breaking-dish_ moods, I take it. You seem aware that I'm writing you, and are amused, I should think, at any such friendly manifestation when you are already present. _Success,_ however, even in making a fool of myself, isn't to be despised; so I shall persist in writing, and you may in laughing at me, \u2014 if you are fully aware of the value of time as regards your immortal spirit. I can't say that I advise you to laugh; but if you are punished, and I warned you, that can be no business of mine. So I fold up my arms, and leave you to fate \u2014 may it deal very kindly with you! The trinity winds up with me, as you may have surmised, and I certainly wouldn't be at the fag-end but for civility to you. This self-sacrificing spirit will be the ruin of me!\n\nI am occupied principally with a cold just now, and the dear creature _will_ have so much attention that my time slips away amazingly. It has heard _so_ much of New Englanders, of their kind attentions to strangers, that it's come all the way from the Alps to determine the truth of the tale. It says the half wasn't told it, and I begin to be afraid it wasn't. Only think \u2014 came all the way from that distant Switzerland to find what was the truth! Neither husband, protector, nor friend accompanied it, and so utter a state of loneliness gives friends if nothing else. You are dying of curiosity; let me arrange that pillow to make your exit easier. I stayed at home all Saturday afternoon, and treated some disagreeable people who insisted upon calling here as tolerably as I could; when evening shades began to fall, I turned upon my heel, and walked. Attracted by the gayety visible in the street, I still kept walking till a little creature pounced upon a thin shawl I wore, and commenced riding. I stopped, and begged the creature to alight, as I was fatigued already, and quite unable to assist others. It wouldn't get down, and commenced talking to itself: 'Can't be New England \u2014 must have made some mistake \u2014 disappointed in my reception \u2014 don't agree with accounts. Oh, what a world of deception and fraud! Marm, will you tell me the name of this country \u2014 it's Asia Minor, isn't it? I intended to stop in New England.' By this time I was so completely exhausted that I made no further effort to rid me of my load, and travelled home at a moderate jog, paying no attention whatever to it, got into the house, threw off both bonnet and shawl, and out flew my tormentor, and putting both arms around my neck, began to kiss me immoderately, and express so much love it completely bewildered me. Since then it has slept in my bed, eaten from my plate, lived with me everywhere, and will tag me through life for all I know. I think I'll wake first, and get out of bed, and leave it; but early or late, it is dressed before me, and sits on the side of the bed looking right into my face with such a comical expression it almost makes me laugh in spite of myself. I can't call it interesting, but it certainly _is_ curious, has two peculiarities which would quite win your heart, \u2014 a huge pocket-handkerchief and a very red nose. The first seems so very _abundant,_ it gives you the idea of independence and prosperity in business. The last brings up the 'jovial bowl, my boys,' and such an association is worth the having. If it _ever_ gets tired of _me,_ I will forward it to _you_ \u2014 you would love it for _my_ sake, if not for its own; it will tell you some queer stories about me, \u2014 how I sneezed so loud one night that the family thought the last trump was sounding, and climbed into the currant-bushes to get out of the way; how the rest of the people, arrayed in long night-gowns, folded their arms, and were waiting; but this is a wicked story, \u2014 it can tell some better ones. Now, my dear friend, let me tell you that these last thoughts are fictions, \u2014 vain imaginations to lead astray foolish young women. They are flowers of speech; they both make and tell deliberate falsehoods; avoid them as the snake, and turn aside as from the rattle-snake, and I don't _think_ you will be harmed. Honestly, though, a snake-bite is a serious matter, and there can't be too much said or done about it. The big serpent bites the deepest; and we get so accustomed to its bites that we don't mind about them. 'Verily I say unto you, fear _him.'_ Won't you read some work upon snakes? \u2014 I have a real anxiety for you. I love those little green ones that slide around by your shoes in the grass, and make it rustle with their elbows; they are rather my favorites on the whole; but I wouldn't influence _you_ for the world. There is an air of misanthropy about the striped snake that will commend itself at once to your taste, \u2014 there is no monotony about it \u2014 but we will more of this again. Something besides severe colds and serpents, and we will try to find _that_ something. It can't be a garden, can it? or a strawberry-bed, which rather belongs to a garden; nor it can't be a school-house, nor an attorney-at-law. Oh, dear! I don't know what it is. Love for the absent don't _sound_ like it; but try it, and see how it goes.\n\nI miss you very much indeed; think of you at night when the world's nodding, nid, nid, nodding \u2014 think of you in the daytime when the cares of the world, and its toils, and its continual vexations choke up the love for friends in some of our hearts; remember your warnings sometimes \u2014 try to do as you told me sometimes \u2014 and sometimes conclude it's no use to try; then my heart says it _is,_ and new trial is followed by disappointment again. I wondered, when you had gone, why we didn't talk more, \u2014 it wasn't for want of a subject; it never _could Se_ for _that._ Too many, perhaps, \u2014 such a crowd of people that nobody heard the speaker, and all went away discontented. You astonished me in the outset, perplexed me in the continuance, and wound up in a grand snarl I shall be all my pilgrimage unravelling. Rather a dismal prospect certainly; but 'it's always the darkest the hour before day,' and this earlier sunset promises an earlier rise \u2014 a sun in splendor \u2014 and glory, flying out of its purple nest. Wouldn't you love to see God's bird, when it first tries its wings? If you were here I would tell you something \u2014 several somethings \u2014 which have happened since you went away; but time and space, as usual, oppose themselves, and I put my treasures away till 'we two meet again.' The hope that I shall continue in love towards you, and _vice versa,_ will sustain me till then. If you are thinking soon to go away, and to show your face no more, just inform me, will you? I would have the 'long, lingering look,' which you cast behind, \u2014 it would be an invaluable addition to my treasures, and 'keep your memory green.' 'Lord, keep all our memories green,' and help on our affection, and tie the 'link that doth us bind' in a tight bow-knot that will keep it from separation, and stop us from growing old; if that is impossible, make old age pleasant to us, put its arms around us kindly, and when we go home, let that home be called heaven.\n\nYour very sincere and _wicked_ friend,\n\nEMILY E. DICKINSON.\n\nI haven't thanked you for your letter yet, but not for want of gratitude. I will do so _now_ most sincerely, most heartily \u2014 gladly and gratefully. You will write me another soon, that I may have _four right_ feelings again! They don't come for the asking. I have been introducing you to me in this letter so far; we will traffic in 'joys 'and 'sorrows 'some other day. Colds make one very carnal, and the spirit is always afraid of them. You will excuse all mistakes in view of ignorance; all sin, in view of 'the fall; 'all want of friendly affection, in the sight of the verse, 'The deepest stream the stillest runs; 'and other general deficiencies, on the ground of universal incapacity! Here is surely room for charity, and the heavenly visitor wouldn't have come but for these faults. 'No loss without a gain.' I called to see your cousins an evening since; they were well, and evidently delighted to see one another \u2014 and us.\n\nWhen your letter came, I had two Western cousins \u2014 now at South Hadley Seminary \u2014 staying their vacation with me. They took an unbounded delight in a sentence I read them; and to pay for it, send you their love.\n\nIn the following letter appear farther traces of the later and almost invariable custom of using dashes, instead of conventional punctuation. These, however, will not be given generally. In printing her poems it was found necessary to employ usual punctuation, in order that the meaning should be more easily apprehended; and in the letters the same system, often for the same reason, has been adopted.\n\nAMHERST, May 7, 1850.\n\nDEAR REMEMBERED, \u2014 The circumstances under which I write you this morning are at once glorious, afflicting, and beneficial, \u2014 glorious in _ends,_ afflicting in _means,_ and beneficial, I trust, in _both._ Twin loaves of bread have just been born into the world under my auspices, \u2014 fine children, the image of their mother; and here, my dear friend, is the _glory._\n\nOn the lounge, asleep, lies my sick mother, suffering intensely from acute neuralgia, except at a moment like this, when kind sleep draws near, and beguiles her, \u2014 here is the _affliction._\n\nI need not draw the beneficial inference, \u2014 the good I myself derive, the winning the spirit of patience, the genial housekeeping influence stealing over my mind and soul, \u2014 you know all these things I would say, and will seem to suppose they are written, when indeed they are only thought.\n\nOn Sunday my mother was taken, had been perfectly well before, and could remember no possible imprudence which should have induced the disease. Everything has been done, and though we think her gradually throwing it off, she still has much suffering. I have always neglected the culinary arts, but attend to them now from necessity, and from a desire to make everything pleasant for father and Austin. Sickness makes desolation, and the day is dark and dreary; but health will come back, I hope, and light hearts and smiling faces. We are sick hardly ever at home, and don't know what to do when it comes, \u2014 wrinkle our little brows, and stamp with our little feet, and our tiny souls get angry, and command it to go away. Mrs. Brown will be glad to see it, \u2014 old ladies expect to die; 'as for _us,_ the young and active, with all longings \"for the strife,\" _we_ to perish by the roadside, weary with the \"march of life \" \u2014 no, no, my dear \"Father Mortality,\" get out of the way if you please; we will call if we ever want you. Good-morning, sir! ah, good-morning!'\n\nWhen I am not at work, I sit by the side of mother, provide for her little wants, and try to cheer and encourage her. I ought to be glad and grateful that I _can_ do anything now, but I do feel so very lonely, and so anxious to have her cured. I haven't repined but once, and you shall know all the why. At noon... I heard a well-known rap, and a friend I love _so_ dearly came and asked me to ride in the woods, the sweet, still woods, \u2014 and I wanted to exceedingly. I told him I could not go, and he said he was disappointed, he wanted me very much. Then the tears came into my eyes, though I tried to choke them back, and he said I _could_ and _should_ go, and it seemed, to me unjust. Oh, I struggled with great temptation, and it cost me much of denial; but I think in the end I conquered, \u2014 not a glorious victory, where you hear the rolling drum, but a kind of a helpless victory, where triumph would come of itself, faintest music, weary soldiers, nor a waving flag, nor a long, loud shout. I had read of Christ's temptations, and how they were like our own, only he didn't sin; I wondered if _one_ was like mine, and whether it made him angry. I couldn't make up my mind; do you think he ever did?\n\nI went cheerfully round my work, humming a little air till mother had gone to sleep, then cried with all my might \u2014 seemed to think I was much abused \u2014 that this wicked world was unworthy such devoted and terrible suffering \u2014 and came to my various senses in great dudgeon at life, and time, and love for affliction and anguish.\n\nWhat shall we do, my darling, when trial grows more and more, when the dim, lone light expires, and it's dark, so very dark, and we wander, and know not where, and cannot get out of the forest \u2014 whose is the hand to help us, and to lead, and forever guide us; they talk of a 'Jesus of Nazareth ' \u2014 will you tell me if it be he?...\n\nIt's Friday, my dear A., and that in another week, yet my mission is unfulfilled \u2014 and you so sadly neglected, and don't know the reason why. Where do you think I've strayed, and from what new errand returned? I have come from 'to and fro, and walking up and down 'the same place that Satan hailed from, when God asked him where he'd been;.but not to illustrate further, I tell you I have been dreaming, dreaming a _golden_ dream, with eyes all the while wide open, and I guess it's almost morning; and besides, I have been at work, providing the 'food that perisheth,' scaring the timorous dust, and being obedient and kind. I am yet the Queen of the Court, if regalia be dust and dirt, have three loyal subjects, whom I'd rather relieve from service. Mother is still an invalid, though a partially restored one; father and Austin still clamor for food; and I, like a martyr, am feeding them. Wouldn't you love to see me in these bonds of great despair, looking around my kitchen, and praying for kind deliverance, and declaring by 'Omai's beard 'I never was in such plight? _My_ kitchen, I think I called it \u2014 God forbid that it was, or shall be, my own \u2014 God keep me from what they call _households,_ except that bright one of 'faith '!\n\nDon't be afraid of my imprecations \u2014 they never did any one harm, and they make me feel so cool, and so very much more comfortable!... I presume you are loving your mother, and loving the stranger and wanderer \u2014 visiting the poor and afflicted, and reaping whole fields of blessings \u2014 save me a little sheaf, only a very little one! Remember and care for me sometimes, and scatter a fragrant flower in this wilderness life of mine by writing me, and by not forgetting, and by lingering longer in prayer, that the Father may bless one more!\n\nYour affectionate friend,\n\nEMILY.\n\nMr. Humphrey, spoken of in the following letter, is the same friend of whom Emily had already written (page 24); he graduated from Amherst as valedictorian in 1846, being subsequently Principal of the well-known Amherst Academy, and still later a theological student at Andover, and tutor in Amherst College. His sudden death, November 30, 1850, caused much grief to his many friends, who admired his polished scholarship and lovable personality.\n\n_[Amherst, January 2, 1851.]_\n\n_Tuesday Evening._\n\nI write A. to-night, because it is cool and quiet, and I can forget the toil and care of the feverish day, and then I am _selfish_ too, because I am feeling lonely; some of my friends are gone, and some of my friends are sleeping \u2014 sleeping the churchyard sleep \u2014 the hour of evening is sad \u2014 it was once my study hour \u2014 my master has gone to rest, and the open leaf of the book, and the scholar at school _alone,_ make the tears come, and I cannot brush them away; I would not if I could, for they are the only tribute I can pay the departed Humphrey.\n\n_You_ have stood by the grave before; I have walked there sweet summer evenings and read the names on the stones, and wondered who would come and give me the same memorial; but I never have laid my friends there, and forgot that they too must die; this is my first affliction, and indeed 'tis hard to bear it. To those bereaved so often that home is no more here, and whose communion with friends is had only in prayers, there must be much to hope for, but when the unreconciled spirit has nothing left but God, that spirit is lone indeed. I don't think there will be any sunshine, or any singing-birds in the spring that's coming.... I will try not to say any more \u2014 my rebellious thoughts are many, and the friend I love and trust in has much _now_ to forgive. I wish I were somebody else \u2014 I would pray the prayer of the 'Pharisee,' but I am -a poor little 'Publican.' 'Son of David,' look down on me!\n\n'Twas a great while ago when you wrote me, I remember the leaves were falling \u2014 and _now_ there are falling snows; who maketh the two to differ \u2014 are not leaves the brethren of snows?\n\nThen it _can't_ be a great while since then, though I verily thought it _was;_ we are not so young as we once were, and time seems to be growing long. I dream of being a grandame, and banding my silver hairs, and I seem to be quite submissive to the thought of growing old; no doubt you ride rocking-horses in your present as in young sleeps \u2014 quite a pretty contrast indeed, of me braiding my own gray hairs, and my friend at play with her childhood, a pair of decayed old ladies! Where _are_ you, my _antique_ friend, or my very dear and young one \u2014 just as you please to please \u2014 it _may_ seem quite a presumption that I address you at all, knowing not if you habit here, or if my 'bird has flown 'in which world her wing is folded. When I think of the friends I love, and the little while we may dwell here, and then 'we go away,' I have a yearning feeling, a desire eager and anxious lest any be stolen away, so that I cannot behold them. I would have you here, all here, where I can _see_ you, and _hear_ you, and where I can say 'Oh, no,' if the 'Son of Man 'ever 'cometh '!\n\nIt is not enough, now and then, at long and uncertain intervals to hear you 're alive and well. I do not care for the body, I love the timid soul, the blushing, shrinking soul; it hides, for it is afraid, and the bold, obtrusive body \u2014 Pray, marm, did you call _me?_ We are very small, A. \u2014 I think we grow still smaller \u2014 this tiny, insect life the portal to another; it seems strange \u2014 strange indeed. I'm afraid we are all unworthy, yet we shall 'enter in.'\n\nI can think of no other way than for you, my dear girl, to come here \u2014 we are growing away from each other, and talk even now like strangers. To forget the 'meum and teum,' _dearest_ friends must meet sometimes, and then comes the 'bond of the spirit 'which, if I am correct, is 'unity.'\n\n... You are growing wiser than I am, and nipping in the bud fancies which I let blossom \u2014 perchance to bear no fruit, or if plucked, I may find it bitter. The shore is safer, A., but I love to buffet the sea \u2014 I can count the bitter wrecks here in these pleasant waters, and hear the murmuring winds, but oh, I love the danger! You are learning control and firmness. Christ Jesus will love you more. I'm afraid he don't love me _any!_... Write when you _will,_ my friend, and forget all amiss herein, for as these few imperfect words to the full communion of spirits, so this small giddy life to the _better,_ the life eternal, and that _we_ may live this life, and be filled with this true communion, I shall not cease to pray.\n\nE.\n\n_[August, 1851.]_\n\n_Tuesday Evening._\n\n'Yet a little while I am with you, and again a little while and I am _not_ with you,' because you go to your mother!... But the virtue of the text consists in this, my dear, that 'if I _go,_ I come again, and ye shall be with me where I am; 'that is to say, that if you come in November, you shall be mine, and I shall be thine, and so on, _vice versa,_ until _ad infinitum,_ which isn't a great way off. While I think of it, my dear friend, and we are upon these subjects, allow me to remark that you have the funniest manner of popping into town, and the most lamentable manner of popping out again, of any one I know. It really becomes to me a matter of serious moment, this propensity of yours concerning your female friends \u2014 the 'morning cloud and the early dew 'are not more evanescent.\n\nI think it was Tuesday evening that we were so amused by the oratorical feats of three or four young gentlemen. I remember I sat by you and took great satisfaction in such seat and society \u2014 I remember further our mutual good-nights, our promises to meet again, to tell each other tales of our own heart and life, to seek and find each other after so long a time of distant separation. I can hardly realize that these are recollections, that our happy to-day joins the great band of yesterdays and marches on to the dead too. quickly flown, my bird, for me to satisfy me that you _did_ sit and sing beneath my chamber window! I only went out once after the time I saw you \u2014 the morning of Mr. Beecher I looked for you in vain. I discovered your Palmer cousins, but if you indeed were there, it must have been in a form to my gross sense impalpable. I was disappointed. I had been hoping much a little visit from you; when will the hour be that we shall sit together and talk of what we were and what we are and may be \u2014 with the shutters closed, dear A., and the balmiest little breeze stealing in at the window? I love those little fancies, yet I would love them more were they not quite so fanciful as they have seemed to be. I have fancied so many times, and so many times gone home to find it was _only_ fancy, that I am half afraid to hope for what I long for. It would seem, my dear A., that out of all the moments crowding this little world, a _few_ might be vouchsafed to spend with those we love \u2014 a separated hour, an hour more pure and true than ordinary hours, when we could pause a moment, before we journey on. We had a pleasant time talking the other morning \u2014 had I known it was all my portion, mayhap I'd improved it more, but it never'll come back again to try, whether or no. Don't you think sometimes these brief, imperfect meetings have a tale to tell \u2014 perhaps but for the sorrow which accompanies them we should not be reminded of brevity and change, and should build the dwelling earthward whose site is in the skies \u2014 perhaps the treasure here would be too dear a treasure couldn't 'the moth corrupt, and the thief break through and steal; 'and this makes me think how I found a little moth in my stores the other day, a very subtle moth that had, in ways and manners to me and mine unknown, contrived to hide itself in a favorite worsted basket \u2014 how long my little treasure-house had furnished an arena for its destroying labors it is not mine to tell; it had an errand there \u2014 I trust it fulfilled its mission; it taught me, dear A., to have no treasure here, or rather it tried to tell me in its little mothy way of another enduring treasure the robber cannot steal, nor time waste away. How many a lesson learned from lips of such tiny teachers \u2014 don't it make you think of the Bible, 'not many mighty, nor wise '?\n\nYou met our dear Sarah T. after I saw you here.: Her sweet face is the same as in those happy school-days \u2014 and in vain I search for wrinkles brought on by many cares; we all love Sarah dearly, and shall try to do all in our power to make her visit happy. Isn't it very remarkable that in so many years Sarah has changed so little \u2014 not that she has stood still, but has made such _peaceful_ progress \u2014 her thoughts, though they are older, have all the charm of youth \u2014 have not yet lost their freshness, their innocence and peace; she seems so pure in heart, so sunny and serene, like some sweet lark or robin, ever soaring and singing. I have not seen her much \u2014 I want to see her more \u2014 she speaks often of _you,_ and with a warm affection. I hope no change or time shall blight those loves of ours, I would bear them all in my arms to my home in the glorious heaven and say, 'Here am I, my Father, and those whom thou hast given me.' If the life which is to come is better than dwelling _here,_ and angels are there and our friends are glorified and are singing there and praising there, need we fear to go when spirits beyond wait for us? I was meaning to see you more and talk about such things with you \u2014 I want to know your views and your eternal feelings \u2014 how things beyond are to you \u2014 oh, there is much to speak of in meeting one you love, and it always seems to me that I might have spoken more, and I almost always think that what we found to say might have been left unspoken.\n\nShall it _always_ be so, A.? Is there no longer day given for our communion with the spirits of our love? Writing is brief and fleeting \u2014 conversation will come again, yet if it _will,_ it hastes and must be on its way. Earth is short, but Paradise is long \u2014 \u2014 there must be many moments in an eternal day; then sometime we shall tarry while time and tide roll on, and till then _vale._\n\nYour own dear\n\nEMILIE.\n\n_[Written from Amherst between January 1, and the middle of June, 1852.]_\n\n_Sunday Evening._\n\nMY VERY DEAR A., \u2014 I love to sit here alone, writing a letter to you, and whether your joy in reading will amount to as much or more, or even less than mine in penning it to you, becomes to me just now a very important problem \u2014 and I will tax each power to solve the same for me; if as happy, indeed, I have every occasion for gratitude \u2014 \u2014 more so, my absent friend, I may not hope to make you, but I do hope most earnestly it may not give you _less._ Oh, I do know it will not, if school-day hearts are warm and school-day memories precious! As I told you, it is Sunday to-day, so I find myself quite curtailed in the selection of subjects, being myself quite vain, and naturally adverting to many worldly things which would doubtless grieve and distress you: much more will I be restrained by the fact that such stormy Sundays I always remain at home, and have not those opportunities for hoarding up great truths which I would have otherwise. In view of these things, A., your kind heart will be lenient, forgiving all empty words and unsatisfying feelings on the Sabbath-day ground which we have just alluded to. I rejoice in one theme appropriate to every place and time \u2014 indeed it cannot intrude in the hour most unseemly for every other thought and every other feeling; and sure I am to-day, howe'er it may be holy, I shall not break or reproach by speaking of the links which bind us to each other, and make the very thought of you, and time when I last saw you, a sacred thing to me. And I have many memories, and many thoughts beside, which by some strange entwining, circle you round and round; if you please, a vine of fancies, towards which dear A. sustains the part of oak, and as up each sturdy branch there climbs a little tendril so full of faith and confidence and the most holy trust, so let the hearts do also, of the dear 'estray; 'then the farther we may be from home and from each other, the nearer by that faith which 'overcometh all things 'and bringeth us to itself.\n\nAmherst and Philadelphia, separate indeed, and yet how near, bridged by a thousand trusts and a 'thousand times ten thousand 'the travellers who cross, whom you and I may not see, nor hear the trip of their feet, yet faith tells us they are there, ever crossing and re-crossing. Very likely, A., you fancy me at home in my own little chamber, writing you a letter, but you are greatly mistaken. I am on the blue Susquehanna paddling down to you; I am not much of a sailor, so I get along rather slowly, and I am not much of a mermaid, though I verily think I shall be, if the tide overtakes me at my present jog. Hard-hearted girl! I don't believe you care, if you did you would come quickly and help me out of this sea; but if I drown, A., and go down to dwell in the seaweed forever and forever, I will not forget your name, nor all the wrong you did me!\n\nWhy did you go away and not come to see me? I felt so sure you would come, because you promised me, that I watched and waited for you, and bestowed a tear or two upon my absentee. How very sad it is to have a confiding nature, one's hopes and feelings are quite at the mercy of all who come along; and how very desirable to be a stolid individual, whose hopes and aspirations are safe in one's waistcoat pocket, and _that_ a pocket indeed, and one not to be picked!\n\nNotwithstanding your faithlessness I should have come to see you, but for that furious snow-storm; I did attempt in spite of it, but it conquered in spite of me, and I doffed my hood and shawl, and felt very crestfallen the remainder of the day. I did want one more kiss, one sweet and sad good-by, before you had flown away; perhaps, my dear A., it is well that I go without it; it might have added anguish to our long separation, or made the miles still longer which keep a friend away. I always try to think in any disappointment that had I been gratified, it had been sadder still, and I weave from such supposition, _at times,_ considerable consolation; consolation upside down as I am pleased to call it.\n\n... Shall I have a letter soon \u2014 oh, may I very soon, for 'some days are dark and dreary, and the wind is never weary.'\n\nEMILY E.\n\n_[Also written before the middle of June, 1852.]_\n\n_Sabbath Day._\n\nI love to link you, A. and E., I love to put you together and look at you side by side \u2014 the picture pleases me, and I should love to watch it until the sun goes down, did I not call to mind a very precious letter for which I have not as yet rendered a single farthing, so let me thank you that midst your many friends and cares and influenzas, you yet found time for me, and loved me. You remarked that I had written you more affectionately than wont \u2014 I have thought that word over and over, and it puzzles me now; whether our few last years have been cooler than our first ones, or whether I write indifferently when I truly know it not, the query troubles me. I do believe sincerely, that the friendship formed at school was no warmer than now, nay more, that _this_ is warmest \u2014 they differ indeed to me as morning differs from noon \u2014 one may be fresher, cheerier, but the other fails not.\n\nYou and I have grown older since school-days, and our years have made us soberer \u2014 I mean have made _me_ so, for you were always dignified, e'en when a little girl, and used, now and then, to cut a timid caper. That makes me think of you the very first time I saw you, and I can't repress a smile, not to say a hearty laugh, at your little girl expense. I have roused your curiosity, so I will e'en tell you that one Wednesday afternoon, in the days of that dear old Academy, I went in to be entertained by the rhetoric of the gentlemen and the milder form of the girls \u2014 I had hardly recovered myself from the dismay attendant upon entering august assemblies, when with the utmost equanimity you ascended the stairs, bedecked with dandelions, arranged, it seemed, for curls. I shall never forget that scene, if I live to have gray hairs, nor the very remarkable fancies it gave me then of you, and it comes over me now with the strangest bygone funniness, and I laugh merrily. Oh, A., you and the early flower are forever linked to me; as soon as the first green grass comes, up from a chink in the stones peeps the little flower, precious 'leontodon,' and my heart fills toward you with a warm and childlike fulness! Nor do I laugh now; far from it, I rather bless the flower which sweetly, slyly too, makes me come nearer you.\n\nBut, my dear, I can't give the dandelion the privilege due to you, so good-by, little one!\n\nI would love to see you, A., I would rather than write to you, might I with equal ease, for the weather is very warm, and my head aches a little, and my heart a little more, so taking me _collectively,_ I seem quite miserable, but I'll give you the sunny corners, and you mustn't look at the shade. You were happy when you wrote me; I hope so now, though I would you were in the country, and could reach the hills and fields. I can reach them, carry them home, which I do in my arms daily, and when they drop and fade, I have only to gather fresh ones. Your joy would indeed be full, could you sit as I, at my window, and hear the boundless birds, and every little while feel the breath of some new flower! Oh, do you love the spring, and isn't it brothers and sisters, and blessed, ministering spirits unto you and me, and us all?\n\nI often see A. \u2014 oftener than at sometimes when friendship drooped a little. Did you ever know that a flower, once withered and freshened again, became an immortal flower, \u2014 that is, that it rises again? I think resurrections here are sweeter, it may be, than the longer and lasting one \u2014 for you expect the one, and only hope for the other.... I will show you the _sunset_ if you will sit by me, but I cannot bring it there, for so much gold is heavy. Can you see it in Philadelphia?\n\nA rather long interval seems to have elapsed between the preceding letter and the next, which was written about July 26, probably of 1853. The hand-writing is quite different from the earlier letters, more resembling that middle period of which an illustration is given, yet still somewhat smaller.\n\nThe delicate and sunshiny sarcasm in this note may be the more fully appreciated by recalling that Emily Dickinson was not yet twenty-two years old.\n\n_Tuesday Evening._\n\nMY DEAR CHILD, \u2014 Thank you for that sweet note which came so long ago, and thank you for asking me to come and visit you, and thank you for loving me, long ago, and to-day, and too for all the sweetness, and all the gentleness, and all the tenderness with which you remember me, \u2014 your quaint, old-fashioned friend.\n\nI wanted very much to write you sooner, and I tried frequently, but till now in vain, and as I write to-night, it is with haste, and fear lest something still detain me. You know, my dear A., that the summer has been warm, that at this pleasant season we have much company, that this irresolute body refuses to serve sometimes, and the indignant tenant can only hold its peace, \u2014 all this you know, for I have often told you, and yet I say it again, if mayhap it persuades you that I do love you indeed, and have not done neglectfully.... I think it was in June that your note reached here, and I did snatch a moment to call upon your friend. Yet I went in the dusk, and it was Saturday evening, so even then, A., you see how cares pursued me. I found her very lovely in what she said to me, and I fancied in her face so, although the gentle dusk would draw her curtain close, and I didn't see her clearly. We talked the most of you, \u2014 a theme we surely loved, or we had not discussed it in preference to all. I would love to meet her again, and give my love to her, for your sake. You asked me to come and see you \u2014 I must speak of that. I thank you, A., but I don't go from home, unless emergency leads me by the hand, and then I do it obstinately, and draw back if I can. Should I ever leave home, which is improbable, I will, with much delight, accept your invitation; till then, my dear A., my warmest thanks are yours, but don't expect me. I'm so old-fashioned, darling, that all your friends would stare. I should have to bring my work-bag, and my big spectacles, and I half forgot my grandchildren, and my pincushion, and puss \u2014 why, think of it seriously, A., \u2014 do you think it my _duty_ to leave? Will you write me again? Mother and Vinnie send their love, and here's a kiss from me.\n\nGood-night, from\n\nEMILY.\n**CHAPTER II**\n\n_To Mr. William Austin Dickinson_\n\nTHE following letters were written to Emily Dickinson's brother between the years 1847 and 1854, the earlier ones being sent from South Hadley, while he was a student in Amherst College. Later ones were written at Amherst, and sent to Boston, where he had charge of a school after graduation, 1851 and 1852; while the latest were addressed to Cambridge during her brother's studies at the Harvard Law School, 1853 and 1854. During these last two years their father, the Hon. Edward Dickinson, was in Congress at Washington.\n\n_[South Hadley, Autumn, 1847.]_\n\n_Thursday Noon._\n\nMY DEAR BROTHER AUSTIN, \u2014 I have not really a moment of time in which to write you, and am taking time from 'silent study hours; 'but I am determined not to break my promise again, and I generally carry my resolutions into effect. I watched you until you were out of sight Saturday evening, and then went to my room and looked over my treasures; and surely no miser ever counted his heaps of gold with more satisfaction than I gazed upon the presents from home....\n\nI can't tell you now how much good your visit did me. My spirits have wonderfully lightened since then. I had a great mind to be homesick after you went home, but I concluded not to, and therefore gave up all homesick feelings. Was not that a wise determination?...\n\nThere has been a menagerie here this week. Miss Lyon provided 'Daddy Hawks 'as a beau for all the Seminary girls who wished to see the bears and monkeys, and your sister, not caring to go, was obliged to decline the gallantry of said gentleman, \u2014 which I fear I may never have another opportunity to avail myself of. The whole company stopped in front of the Seminary and played for about a quarter of an hour, for the purpose of getting custom in the afternoon, I opine. Almost all the girls went; and I enjoyed the solitude finely.\n\nI want to know when you are coming to see me again, for I want to see you as much as I did before. I went to see Miss F. in her room yesterday.... I love her very much, and think I shall love all the teachers when I become better acquainted with them and find out their ways, which, I can assure you, are almost 'past finding out.'\n\nI had almost forgotten to tell you of a dream which I dreamed last night, and I would like to have you turn Daniel and interpret it to me; or if you don't care about going through all the perils which he did, I will allow you to interpret it without, provided you will try to tell no lies about it. Well, I dreamed a dream, and lo! father had failed, and mother said that 'our rye-field, which she and I planted, was mortgaged to Seth Nims.' I hope it is not true; but do write soon and tell me, for you know I should expire of mortification to have our rye-field mortgaged, to say nothing of its falling into the merciless hands of a loco!\n\nWon't you please to tell me when you answer my letter who the candidate for President is? I have been trying to find out ever since I came here, and have not yet succeeded. I don't know anything more about affairs in the world than if I were in a trance, and you must imagine with all your 'Sophomoric discernment 'that it is but little and very faint. Has the Mexican War terminated yet, and how? Are we beaten? Do you know of any nation about to besiege South Hadley? If so, do inform me of it, for I would be glad of a chance to escape, if we are to be stormed. I suppose Miss Lyon would furnish us all with daggers and order us to fight for our lives in case such perils should befall us.... Miss F. told me if I was writing to Amherst to send her love. Not specifying to whom, you may deal it out as your good sense and discretion prompt. Be a good boy and mind me!\n\n_[South Hadley, November 2, 1847.]_\n\n_Tuesday Noon._\n\nMY DEAR BROTHER AUSTIN, \u2014 I have this moment finished my recitation in history, and have a few minutes which I shall occupy in answering your short but welcome letter. You probably heard that I was alive and well yesterday, unless Mr. E. Dickinson was robbed of a note whose contents were to that effect. But as robbers are not very plenty now-a-days, I will have no forebodings on that score, for the present. How do you get along without me now, and does 'it seem any more like a funeral 'than it did before your visit to your humble servant in this place? Answer me! I want much to see you all at home, and expect to three weeks from to-morrow if nothing unusual, like a famine or a pestilence, occurs to prevent my going home. I am anticipating much in seeing you on this week Saturday, and you had better not disappoint me! for if you do, I will harness the 'furies,' and pursue you with 'a whip of scorpions,' which is even worse, you will find, than the 'long oat' which you may remember.... Tell father I am obliged to him much for his offers of pecuniary assistance, but do not need any. We are furnished with an account-book here, and obliged to put down every mill which we spend, and what we spend it for, and show it to Miss Whitman every Saturday; so you perceive your sister is learning accounts in addition to the other branches of her education. I am getting along nicely in my studies, and am happy, quite, for me. Do write a long letter to Your affectionate sister,\n\nEMILY.\n\nEnclosed with this was a delicately written 'bill of fare 'for one of the Seminary dinners.\n\nSOUTH HADLEY SEMINARY\n\nNov. 2d, 1847\n\nBILL OF FARE\n\nROAST VEAL POTATOES SQUASH GRAVV\n\nWHEAT AND BROWN BREAD BUTTER PEPPER AND SALT\n\n_Dessert_ APPLE DUMPLING SAUCE\n\nWATER\n\nIsn't that a dinner fit to set before a king?\n\n_[South Hadley, December 11, 1847.]_\n\n_Saturday, P. M._\n\nMY DEAR BROTHER AUSTIN, \u2014 ... I finished my examination in Euclid last evening, and without a failure at any time. You can easily imagine how glad I am to get through with four books, for you have finished the whole forever.... How are you all at home, and what are you doing this vacation? You are reading _Arabian Nights,_ according to Viny's statement. I hope you have derived much benefit from their perusal, and presume your powers of imagining will vastly increase thereby. But I must give you a word of advice too. Cultivate your other powers in proportion as you allow imagination to captivate you. Am not I a very wise young lady?\n\nI had almost forgotten to tell you what my studies are now \u2014 'better late than never.' They are Chemistry, Physiology, and quarter course in Algebra. I have completed four studies already, and am getting along well. Did you think that it was my birthday yesterday? I don't believe I am _seventeen!..._\n\nFrom your affectionate sister, EMILY.\n\n_[South Hadley, about February 14, 1848.]_\n\n_Thursday Morn._\n\nMY DEAR AUSTIN, \u2014 You will perhaps imagine from my date that I am quite at leisure, and can do what I please even in the forenoon, but one of our teachers, who is engaged, received a visit from her intended quite unexpectedly yesterday afternoon, and she has gone to her home to show him, I opine, and will be absent until Saturday. As I happen to recite to her in one of my studies, her absence gives me a little time in which to write.\n\nYour welcome letter found me all engrossed in the study of sulphuric acid! I deliberated for a few moments after its reception on the propriety of carrying it to Miss Whitman, your friend. The result of my deliberation was a conclusion to open it with moderation, peruse its contents with sobriety becoming my station, and if after a close investigation of its contents I found nothing which savored of rebellion or an unsubdued will, I would lay it away in my folio, and forget I had received it. Are you not gratified that I am so rapidly gaining correct ideas of female propriety and sedate deportment? After the proposed examination, finding it concealed no dangerous sentiments, I with great gravity deposited it with my other letters, and the impression that I once had such a letter is entirely obliterated by the waves of time.\n\nI have been quite lonely since I came back, but cheered by the thought that I am not to return another year, I take comfort, and still hope on. My visit at home was happy, very happy to me; and had the idea of in so short a time returning been constantly in my dreams by night and day, I could not have been happier. 'There is no rose without a thorn' to me. Home was always dear to me, and dearer still the friends around it; but never did it seem so dear as now. All, all are kind to me, but their tones fall strangely on my ear, and their countenances meet mine not like home-faces, I can assure you most sincerely. Then when tempted to feel sad, I think of the blazing fire and the cheerful meal and the chair empty now I am gone. I can hear the cheerful voices and the merry laugh, and a desolate feeling comes home to my heart, to think I am alone. But my good angel only waits to see the tears coming and then whispers, 'Only this year! only twenty-two weeks more, and then home again you will be to stay.' To you, all busy and excited, I suppose the time flies faster; but to me slowly, very slowly, so that I can see his chariot wheels when they roll along, and himself is often visible. But I will no longer imagine, for your brain is full of _Arabian Nights'_ fancies, and it will not do to pour fuel on your already kindled imagination....\n\nI suppose you have written a few and received a quantity of valentines this week. Every night have I looked, and yet in vain, for one of Cupid's messengers. Many of the girls have received very beautiful ones; and I have not quite done hoping for one. Surely my friend _Thomas_ has not lost all his former affection for me! I entreat you to tell him I am pining for a valentine. I am sure I shall not very soon forget last Valentine week, nor any the sooner the fun I had at that time.... Monday afternoon Mistress Lyon arose in the hall, and forbade our sending 'any of those foolish notes called valentines.' But those who were here last year, knowing her opinions, were sufficiently cunning to write and give them into the care of D. during the vacation; so that about 150 were despatched on Valentine morn, before orders should be put down to the contrary effect. Hearing of this act, Miss Whitman, by and with the advice and consent of the other teachers, with frowning brow, sallied over to the Post Office to ascertain, if possible, the number of the valentines, and worse still, the names of the offenders. Nothing has yet been heard as to the amount of her information, but as D. is a good hand to help the girls, and no one has yet received sentence, we begin to think her mission unsuccessful. I have not written one, nor do I intend to.\n\nYour injunction to pile on the wood has not been unheeded, for we have been obliged to obey it to keep from freezing up.... We cannot have much more cold weather, I am sure, for spring is near.... Professor Smith preached here last Sabbath, and such sermons I never heard in my life. We were all charmed with him, and dreaded to have him close....\n\nYour affectionate sister,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[South Hadley, late May, 1848.]_\n\n_Monday Morn._\n\nMY DEAR AUSTIN, \u2014 I received a letter from home on Saturday by Mr. G \u2014 S \u2014 , and father wrote in it that he intended to send for cousin Emily and myself on Saturday of this week to spend the Sabbath at home. I went to Miss Whitman, after receiving the letter, and asked her if we could go if you decided to come for us. She seemed stunned by my request, and could not find utterance to an answer for some time. At length she said, 'Did you not know it was contrary to the rules of the Seminary to ask to be absent on the Sabbath? 'I told her I did not. She then took a Catalogue from her table, and showed me the law in full at the last part of it. She closed by saying that we could not go, and I returned to my room without farther ado. So you see I shall be deprived of the pleasure of a visit home, and you that of seeing me, if I may have the presumption to call it a pleasure! The teachers are not willing to let the girls go home this term as it is the last one, and as I have only nine weeks more to spend here, we had better be contented to obey the commands. We shall only be the more glad to see one another after a longer absence, that will be all. I was highly edified with your imaginative note to me, and think your flights of fancy indeed wonderful at your age! When are you coming to see me \u2014 it would be very pleasant to us to receive a visit from your highness if you can be absent from home long enough for such a purpose.... I can't write longer.\n\nYour affectionate sister,\n\nEMILIE.\n\nThe next letter was written three years later, and sent to Boston.\n\n_[Amherst, early in 1851.]_\n\n_Sunday Evening._\n\nIt might not come amiss, dear Austin, to have a tiding or two concerning our state and feelings, particularly when we remember that 'Jamie has gone awa'.'\n\nOur state is pretty comfortable, and our feelings are somewhat solemn, which we account for satisfactorily by calling to mind the fact that it is the Sabbath day. Whether a certain passenger in a certain yesterday's stage has any sombre effect on our once merry household or the reverse, 'I dinna choose to tell,' but be the case as it may, we are rather a crestfallen company, to make the best of us, and what with the sighing wind, the sobbing rain, and the whining of Nature generally, we can hardly contain ourselves, and I only hope and trust that your this-evening's-lot is cast in far more cheery places than the ones you leave behind.\n\nWe are enjoying this evening what is called a 'northeast storm ' \u2014 a little north of east in case you are pretty definite. Father thinks it's 'amazin' raw,' and I'm half disposed to think that he's in the right about it, though I keep pretty dark and don't say much about it! Vinnie is at the instrument, humming a pensive air concerning a young lady who thought she was 'almost there.' Vinnie seems much grieved, and I really suppose I ought to betake myself to weeping; I'm pretty sure that I _shall_ if she don't abate her singing.\n\nFather's just got home from meeting and Mr. Boltwood's, found the last quite comfortable and the first not quite so well.... There has been not much stirring since when you went away \u2014 I should venture to say prudently that matters had come to a stand \u2014 unless something new 'turns up,' I cannot see anything to prevent a quiet season. Father takes care of the doors and mother of the windows, and Vinnie and I are secure against all outward attacks. If we can get our hearts 'under,' I don't have much to fear \u2014 I've got all but three feelings down, if I can only keep them!...\n\nI shall think of you to-morrow with four and twenty Irish boys all in a row. I miss you very much \u2014 I put on my bonnet to-night, opened the gate very desperately, and for a little while the suspense was terrible \u2014 I think I was held in check by some invisible agent, for I returned to the house without having done any harm!\n\nIf I hadn't been afraid that you would 'poke fun' at my feelings, I had written a sincere letter, but since 'the world is hollow, and dollie's stuffed with sawdust,' I really do not think we had better expose our feelings....\n\nYour dear sister, \u2014\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[Amherst, 1851.]_\n\n_Sunday Evening._\n\nI received your letter, Austin, permit me to thank you for it and to request some more as soon as it's convenient \u2014 permit me to accord with your discreet opinion concerning Swedish Jennie, and to commend the heart brave enough to express it \u2014 combating the opinion of two civilized worlds and New York into the bargain must need considerable daring \u2014 indeed, it had never occurred to me that amidst the hallelujahs one tongue would dare be dumb, and much less, I assure you, that this dissenting one should be my romantic brother! For I had looked for delight and a very high style of rapture in such a youth as you....\n\nWe have all been rather piqued at Jennie's singing so well, and this first calumnious whisper pleases us so well, we rejoice that we didn't come \u2014 our visit is yet before us.... You haven't told us yet as you promised about your home \u2014 what kind of people they are \u2014 whether you find them pleasant \u2014 whether those timid gentlemen have yet 'found tongues to say.' Do you find the life and living any more annoying than you at first expected \u2014 do you light upon any friends to help the time away \u2014 have you whipped any more bad boys \u2014 all these are solemn questions, pray give them proper heed!\n\nTwo weeks of your time are gone; I can't help wondering sometimes if you would love to see us, and come to this still home.... A Senior levee was held at Professor and Mrs. Haven's on Tuesday of last week \u2014 Vinnie played pretty well. There's another at the President's this next Friday evening. _Clarum et venerabile_ Seniors!\n\n_[Amherst, March, 1851.]_\n\n_Sunday Afternoon._\n\n... It's a glorious afternoon \u2014 the sky is blue and warm \u2014 the wind blows just enough to keep the clouds sailing, and the sunshine \u2014 oh _such_ sunshine! It isn't like gold, for gold is dim beside it; it isn't like anything which you or I have seen! It seems to me 'Ik Marvel' was born on such a day; I only wish you were here. Such days were made on purpose for you and me; then what in the world are you gone for? Oh, dear, I do not know, but this I do know, that if wishing would bring you home, you were here to-day. Is it pleasant in Boston? _Of course_ it isn't, though. I might have known more than to make such an inquiry. No doubt the streets are muddy, and the sky some dingy hue, and I can think just how everything bangs and rattles, and goes rumbling along through stones and plank and clay! I don't feel as if I could have you there, possibly, another day. I'm afraid you'll turn into a bank, or a Pearl Street counting-room, if you have not already assumed some monstrous shape, living in such a place.\n\nLet me see \u2014 April; three weeks until April \u2014 the very first of April \u2014 well, perhaps that will do, only be sure of the week, the _whole_ week, and nothing but the week. If they make new arrangements, give my respects to them, and tell them old arrangements are good enough for you, and you will have them; then if they raise the wind, why, let it blow \u2014 there's nothing more excellent than a breeze now and then!\n\nWhat a time we shall have Fast day, after we get home from meeting \u2014 why, it makes me dance to think of it; and Austin, if I dance so many days beforehand, what will become of me when the hour really arrives? I don't know, I'm sure; and I don't care, much, for that or for anything else but get you home.... Much love from mother and Vinnie; we are now pretty well, and our hearts are set on April, the _very first_ of April!\n\nEMILIE.\n\n_[Amherst, late March, 1851.]_\n\n_Thursday Night._\n\nDEAR AUSTIN, \u2014 ... I have read _Ellen Middleton._ I needn't tell you I like it, nor need I tell you more, for you know already.\n\nI thank you more and more for all the pleasures you give me \u2014 I can give you nothing, Austin, but a warm and grateful heart that is yours now and always. Love from all.\n\nEMILIE.\n\nOnly think, you are coming Saturday! I don't know why it is that it's always _Sunday_ immediately you get home. I will arrange it differently. If it wasn't twelve o'clock I would stay longer.\n\n_[Amherst, June 16,1851.]_\n\n_Sunday Evening._\n\n... I'm glad you are so well pleased, I'm glad you are _not_ delighted. I would not that foreign places should wear the smile of home. We are quite alarmed for the _boys_ \u2014 hope you won't kill or pack away any of 'em \u2014 so near Dr Webster's bones 't is not strange you have had temptations!... The country's still just now, and the severities alluded to will have a salutary influence in waking the people up. Speaking of _getting up,_ how early are metropolitans expected to wake up, especially young men \u2014 more especially school-masters? I miss my 'department 'mornings. I lay it quite to heart that I've no one to wake up. _Your_ room looks lonely enough, I do not love to go in there; whenever I pass through I find I 'gin to whistle, as we read that little boys are wont to do in the graveyard. I am going to set out crickets as soon as I find time, that they by their shrill singing shall help disperse the gloom; will they grow if I transplant them?\n\nYou importune me for news; I am very sorry to say 'Vanity of vanities 'there's no such thing as news \u2014 it is almost time for the cholera, and then things will take a start!... All of the folks send love.\n\nYour affectionate\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[July 5, 1851.]_\n\n_Sunday Afternoon._\n\nI have just come in from church very hot and faded.... Our church grows interesting \u2014 Zion lifts her head \u2014 I overhear remarks signifying Jerusalem, \u2014 I do not feel at liberty to say any more to-day!\n\n... I wanted to write you Friday, the night of Jennie Lind, but reaching home past midnight, and my room sometime after, encountering several perils starting and on the way, among which a kicking horse, an inexperienced driver, a number of Jove's thunderbolts, and a very terrible rain, are worthy to have record. All of us went \u2014 just four \u2014 add an absent individual and that will make full five. The concert commenced at eight, but knowing the world was _hollow_ we thought we'd start at six, and come up with everybody that meant to come up with us; we had proceeded some steps when one of the beasts showed symptoms; and just by the blacksmith's shop exercises commenced, consisting of kicking and plunging on the part of the horse, and whips and moral suasion from the gentleman who drove \u2014 the horse refused to proceed, and your respected family with much chagrin dismounted, advanced to the hotel, and for a season halted; another horse procured, we were politely invited to take our seats, and proceed, which we refused to do till the animal was warranted. About half through our journey thunder was said to be heard, and a suspicious cloud came travelling up the sky. What words express our horror when rain began to fall, in drops, sheets, cataracts \u2014 what fancy conceive of drippings and of drenchings which we met on the way; how the stage and its mourning captives drew up at Warner's Hotel; how all of us alighted, and were conducted in, \u2014 how the rain did not abate, \u2014 how we walked in silence to the old Edwards church ( Evidently a slip of the pen, as Jenny Lind sang in the old First Church at Northampton on that occasion.) and took our seats in the same \u2014 how Jennie came out like a child and sang and sang again \u2014 how bouquets fell in showers, and the roof was rent with applause \u2014 how it thundered outside, and inside with the thunder of God and of men \u2014 judge ye which was the loudest; how we all loved Jennie Lind, but not accustomed oft to her manner of singing didn't fancy _that_ so well as we did _her._ No doubt it was very fine, but take some notes from her _Echo,_ the bird sounds from the _Bird Song,_ and some of her curious trills, and I'd rather have a Yankee.\n\n_Herself_ and not her music was what we seemed to love \u2014 she has an air of exile in her mild blue eyes, and a something sweet and touching in her native accent which charms her many friends. _Give me my thatched cottage_ as she sang she grew so earnest she seemed half lost in song, and for a transient time I fancied she _had_ found it and would be seen 'na mair; 'and then her foreign accent made her again a wanderer \u2014 we will talk about her sometime when you come. Father sat all the evening looking _mad,_ and yet so much amused you would have _died_ a-laughing.... It wasn't sarcasm exactly, nor it wasn't disdain, it was infinitely funnier than either of those virtues, as if old Abraham had come to see the show, and thought it was all very well, but a little excess of _monkey!_ She took $4,000 for tickets at Northampton aside from all expenses....\n\nAbout our coming to Boston \u2014 we think we shall probably come \u2014 we want to see our friends, yourself and Aunt L.'s family. We don't care a fig for the Museum, the stillness, or Jennie Lind.... Love from us all.\n\nYour affectionate sister,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[Late July, 1851.]_\n\n_Sunday Evening._\n\n... Oh how I wish I could see your world and its little kingdoms, and I wish I could see the king \u2014 \u2014 Stranger! he was my brother! I fancy little boys of several little sizes, some of them clothed in blue cloth, some of them clad in gray \u2014 I seat them round on benches in the school-room of my mind \u2014 \u2014 then I set them all to shaking \u2014 on peril of their lives that they move their lips or whisper; then I clothe you with authority and empower you to punish, and to enforce the law, I call you 'Rabbi, Master,' and the picture is complete! It would seem very funny, say for Vinnie and me to come round as Committee \u2014 we should enjoy the terrors of fifty little boys, and any specimens of discipline in your way would be a rare treat for us. I should love to know how you managed \u2014 whether government as a science is laid down and executed, or whether you _cuff_ and _thrash_ as the occasion dictates; whether you use _pure_ law as in the case of commanding, or whether you enforce it by means of sticks and stones as in the case of agents. I suppose you have authority bounded but by their lives.... I should think you'd be tired of school and teaching and such hot weather. I really wish you were here, and the Endicott school where you found it. Whenever we go to ride in our beautiful family carriage we think if 'wishes were horses 'we four 'beggars would ride.' We shall enjoy brimful everything now but half full, and to have you home once more will be like living again.\n\nWe are having a pleasant summer \u2014 without one of the five it is yet a lonely one. Vinnie says sometimes \u2014 Didn't we have a brother \u2014 it seems to me we did, his name was Austin \u2014 we call but he answers not again \u2014 echo, Where is Austin? laughing, 'Where _is_ Austin? '... I wish they need not exhibit just for once in the year, and give you up on Saturday instead of the next week Wednesday; but keep your courage up and show forth those Emerald Isles till school committees and mayors are blinded with the dazzling! Wouldn't I love to be there!...\n\nOur apples are ripening fast. I am fully convinced that with your approbation they will not only pick themselves, but arrange one another in baskets and present themselves to be eaten.\n\nLove from all.\n\nEMILIE.\n\n_[August, 1851.]_\n\n_Sunday Afternoon._\n\nAt my old stand again, dear Austin, and happy as a queen to know that while I speak those whom I love are listening, and I am happier still if I shall make them happy.\n\nI have just finished reading your letter which was brought in since church. I like it grandly \u2014 very \u2014 because it is so long, and also it's _so_ funny \u2014 we have all been laughing till the old house rung again at your delineation of men, women, and things. I feel quite like retiring in presence of one so grand, and casting my small lot among small birds and fishes; you say you don't comprehend me, you want a simpler style \u2014 gratitude indeed for all my fine philosophy! I strove to be exalted, thinking I might reach _you,_ and while I pant and struggle and climb the nearest cloud, you walk out very leisurely in your slippers from Empyrean, and without the slightest notice, request me to get down! As simple as you please, the simplest sort of simple \u2014 I'll be a little ninny, a little pussy catty, a little Red Riding Hood; I'll wear a bee in my bonnet, and a rose-bud in my hair, and what remains to do you shall be told hereafter.\n\nYour letters are richest treats, send them always just such warm days \u2014 they are worth a score of fans and many refrigerators \u2014 the only difficulty they are so _queer,_ and laughing such hot weather is anything but amusing. A little more of earnest, and a little less of jest until we are out of August, and then you may joke as freely as the father of rogues himself, and we will banish care, and daily die a-laughing!\n\nIt is very hot here now; I don't believe it's any hotter in Boston than it is here.... Vinnie suggests that she may sometimes occur to mind when you would like more collars made. I told her I wouldn't tell you \u2014 I haven't, however, decided whether I will or not.\n\nI often put on five knives and forks, and another tumbler, forgetting for the moment that 'we are not all here.' It occurs to me, however, and I remove the extra, and brush a tear away in memory of my brother.\n\nWe miss you now and always. When God bestows but three, and one of those is withdrawn, the others are left alone.... Father is as uneasy when you are gone away as if you catch a trout and put him in Sahara. When you first went away he came home very frequently \u2014 walked gravely towards the barn, and returned looking very stately \u2014 then strode away down street as if the foe was coming; _now_ he is more resigned \u2014 contents himself by fancying that 'we shall hear to-day,' and then when we do not hear, he wags his head profound, and thinks without a doubt there will be news 'to-morrow.\" Once one is two,' once one will be two \u2014 ah, I have it here!\n\nI wish you could have some cherries \u2014 if there was any way we would send you a basket of them \u2014 they are very large and delicious, and are just ripening now. Little Austin Grout comes every day to pick them, and mother takes great comfort in calling him by name, from vague association with her departed boy. Austin, to tell the truth, it is very still and lonely \u2014 I do wish you were here.... The railroad is 'a-workin'.' My love to all my friends. I am on my way downstairs to put the tea-kettle boiling \u2014 writing and taking tea cannot sympathize. If you forget me now, your right hand _shall_ its cunning.\n\nEMILIE.\n\n_[Written after a visit of the sisters in Boston. Amherst, September 24,1851.]_\n\n_Tuesday Evening._\n\nWe have got home, dear Austin. It is very lonely here \u2014 I have tried to make up my mind which was better, home and parents and country, or city and smoke and dust shared with the only being whom I __ can call my brother. The scales _don't_ poise very evenly, but so far as I can judge, the balance is in your favor. The folks are much more lonely than while we were away \u2014 they say they seemed to feel that we were straying together and together would return, and the unattended sisters seemed very sad to them.... They have had a number of friends to call and visit with them. Mother never was busier than while we were away \u2014 what with fruit and plants and chickens and sympathizing friends she really was so hurried she hardly knew what to do.\n\nVinnie and I came safely, and met with no mishap \u2014 the bouquet was not withered nor was the bottle cracked. It was fortunate for the freight car that Vinnie and I were there, ours being the only baggage passing along the line. The folks looked very funny who travelled with us that day \u2014 they were dim and faded, like folks passed away \u2014 the conductor seemed so grand with about half a dozen tickets which he dispersed and demanded in a very small space of time \u2014 I judged that the minority were travelling that day, and couldn't hardly help smiling at our ticket friend, however sorry I was at the small amount of people passing along his way. He looked as if he wanted to make an apology for not having more travellers to keep him company.\n\nThe route and the cars seemed strangely \u2014 there were no boys with fruit, there were no boys with pamphlets; one fearful little fellow ventured into the car with what appeared to be publications and tracts; he offered them to no one, and no one inquired for them, and he seemed greatly relieved that no one wanted to buy them.... Mother sends much love, and Vinnie.\n\nYour lonely sister,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[Amherst, Autumn, 1851.]_\n\n_Saturday Morn._\n\nDEAR AUSTIN, \u2014 I've been trying to think this morning how many weeks it was since you went away \u2014 I fail in calculations; it seems so long to me since you went back to school that I set down days for years, and weeks for a score of years \u2014 not reckoning time by minutes, I don't know what to think of such great discrepancies between the actual hours and those which 'seem to be.' It may seem long to you since you returned to Boston \u2014 how I wish you would stay and never go back again. Everything is so still here, and the clouds are cold and gray \u2014 I think it will rain soon. Oh, I am so lonely!... You had a windy evening going back to Boston, and we thought of you many times and hoped you would not be cold. Our fire burned so cheerfully I couldn't help thinking of how many were here, and how many were away, and I wished so many times during that long evening that the door would open and you come walking in. Home is a holy thing, \u2014 nothing of doubt or distrust can __ enter its blessed portals. I feel it more and more as the great world goes on, and one and another forsake in whom you place your trust, here seems indeed to be a bit of Eden which not the sin of any can utterly destroy, \u2014 smaller it is indeed, and it may be less fair, but fairer it is and brighter than all the world beside.\n\nI hope this year in Boston will not impair your health, and I hope you will be as happy as you used to be before. I don't wonder it makes you sober to leave this blessed air \u2014 if it were in my power I would on every morning transmit its purest breaths fragrant and cool to you. How I wish you could have it \u2014 a thousand little winds waft it to me this morning, fragrant with forest leaves and bright autumnal berries. I would be willing to give you my portion for to-day, and take the salt sea's breath in its bright, bounding stead....\n\nYour affectionate\n\nEMILY.\n\n... Mother sends her love and your waistcoat, thinking you'll like the one, and quite likely need the other.\n\n_[Amherst, October 2, 1851.]_\n\n_Wednesday Noon._\n\nWe are just through dinner, Austin, I want to write so much that I omit digestion, and a dyspepsia will probably be the result.... I received your letter yesterday.... You say we mustn't trouble to send you any fruit, also your clothes must give us no uneasiness. I don't ever want to have you say any more such things. They make me feel like crying. If you'd only teased us for it, and declared that you would have it, I shouldn't have cared so much that we could find no way to send you any, but you resign so cheerfully your birthright of purple grapes, and do not so much as murmur at the departing peaches, that I hardly can taste the one or drink the juice of the other. They are so beautiful, Austin, \u2014 we have such an abundance 'while you perish with hunger.'\n\nI do hope some one will make up a mind to go before our peaches are quite gone. The world is full of people travelling everywhere, until it occurs to you that you will send an errand, and then by 'hook or crook 'you can't find any traveller who, for money or love, can be induced to go and carry the opprobrious package. It's a very selfish age, that is all I can say about it. Mr. Storekeeper S \u2014 has been 'almost persuaded' to go, but I believe he has put it off 'till a more convenient season,' so to show my disapprobation I sha'n't buy any more gloves at Mr. S \u2014 's store! Don't you think it will seem very cutting to see me pass by his goods and purchase at Mr. K \u2014 's? I don't think I shall retract should he regret his course and decide to go tomorrow, because it is the principle of disappointing people which I disapprove!...\n\nThe peaches are very large \u2014 one side a rosy cheek, and the other a golden, and that peculiar coat of velvet and of down which makes a peach so beautiful. The grapes, too, are fine, juicy, and _such_ a purple \u2014 I fancy the robes of kings are not a tint more royal. The vine looks like a kingdom, with ripe round grapes for kings, and hungry mouths for subjects \u2014 the first instance on record of subjects devouring kings! You _shall_ have some grapes, dear Austin, if I have to come on foot in order to bring them to you.\n\nThe apples are very fine \u2014 it isn't quite time to pick them \u2014 the cider is almost done \u2014 we shall have some I guess by Saturday, at any rate Sunday noon. The vegetables are not gathered, but will be before very long. The horse is doing nicely; he travels 'like a bird 'to use a favorite phrase of your delighted mother's. You ask about the leaves \u2014 shall I say they are falling? They had begun to fall before Vinnie and I came home, and we walked up the steps through little brown ones rustling....\n\nVinnie tells me she has detailed the news \u2014 she reserved the deaths for me, thinking I might fall short of my usual letter somewhere. In accordance with her wishes I acquaint you with the decease of your aged friend Deacon \u2014 . He had no disease that we know of, but gradually went out.... Monday evening we were all startled by a violent church-bell ringing, and thinking of nothing but fire, rushed out in the street to see. The sky was a beautiful red, bordering on a crimson, and rays of a gold pink color were constantly shooting off from a kind of sun in the centre. People were alarmed at this beautiful phenomenon, supposing that fires somewhere were coloring the sky. The exhibition lasted for nearly fifteen minutes, and the streets were full of people wondering and admiring. Father happened to see it among the very first, and rang the bell himself to call attention to it. You will have a full account from the pen of Mr. Trumbull, who, I have not a doubt, was seen with a long lead pencil a-noting down the sky at the time of its highest glory.... You will be here now so soon \u2014 we are impatient for it \u2014 we want to see you, Austin, how much I cannot say here.\n\nYour affectionate\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[Amherst, early October, 1851.]_\n\n_Friday Morning._\n\nDEAR AUSTIN, \u2014 ... I would not spend much strength upon those little school-boys \u2014 you will need it all for something better and braver after you get away. It would rejoice my heart if on some pleasant morning you'd turn the school-room key on Irish boys, nurse and all, and walk away to freedom and the sunshine here at home. Father says all Boston wouldn't be a temptation to you another year \u2014 I wish it would not tempt you to stay another day. Oh, Austin, it is wrong to tantalize you so while you are braving all things in trying to fulfil duty. Duty is black and brown \u2014 home is bright and shining, 'and the spirit and the bride say come, and let him that' wandereth come, for 'behold all things are ready.' We are having such lovely weather \u2014 the air is as sweet and still \u2014 now and then a gay leaf falling \u2014 the crickets sing all day long \u2014 high in a crimson tree a belated bird is singing \u2014 a thousand little painters are tingeing hill and dale. I admit now, Austin, that autumn is _most_ beautiful, and spring is but the least, yet they 'differ as stars 'in their distinctive glories. How happy if you were here to share these pleasures with us \u2014 the fruit should be more sweet, and the dying day more golden \u2014 merrier the falling nut if with you we gathered it and hid it down deep in the abyss of basket; but you complain not, wherefore do we?\n\nTuesday evening we had a beautiful time reading and talking of the good times of last summer, and we anticipated \u2014 boasted ourselves of to-morrow \u2014 of the future we created, and all of us went to ride in an air-bubble for a carriage. We cherish all the past, we glide a-down the present, awake yet dreaming; but the future of ours together \u2014 there the bird sings loudest, and the sun shines always there....\n\nI had a dissertation from E. C. a day or two ago \u2014 don't know which was the author, Plato or Socrates \u2014 rather think Jove had a finger in it.... They all send their love. Vinnie sends hers. How soon you will be here! Days, flee away \u2014 'lest with a whip of scorpions I overtake your lingering.' I am in a hurry \u2014 this pen is too slow for me \u2014 'it hath done what it could.'\n\nYour affectionate\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[Amherst, before 'Cattle Show,' 1851.]_\n\n_Friday Morning._\n\n... The breakfast is so warm, and pussy is here a-singing, and the tea-kettle sings too, as if to see which was loudest, and I am so afraid lest kitty should be beaten \u2014 yet a shadow falls upon my morning picture \u2014 where is the youth so bold, the bravest of our fold \u2014 a seat is empty here \u2014 spectres sit in your chair, and now and then nudge father with their long, bony elbows. I wish you were here, dear Austin; the dust falls on the bureau in your deserted room, and gay, frivolous spiders spin away in the corners. I don't go there after dark whenever I can help it, for the twilight seems to pause there, and I am half afraid; and if ever I have to go, I hurry with all my might, and never look behind me, for I know who I should see.\n\nBefore next Tuesday \u2014 oh, before the coming stage, will I not brighten and brush it, and open the long-closed blinds, and with a sweeping broom will I not bring each spider down from its home so high, and tell it it may come back again when master has gone \u2014 and oh, I will bid it to be a tardy spider, to tarry on the way; and I will think my eye is fuller than sometimes, though _why_ I cannot tell, when it shall rap on the window and come to live again. I am so happy when I know how soon you are coming that I put away my sewing and go out in the yard to think. I have tried to delay the frosts, I have coaxed the fading flowers, I thought I _could_ detain a few of the crimson leaves until you had smiled upon them; but their companions call them, and they cannot stay away.\n\nYou will find the blue hills, Austin, with the autumnal shadows silently sleeping on them, and there will be a glory lingering round the day, so you'll know autumn has been here; and the setting sun will tell you, if you don't get home till evening.... I thank you for such a long letter, and yet if I might choose, the next should be a longer. I think a letter just about three days long would make me happier than any other kind of one, if you please, \u2014 \u2014 dated at Boston, but thanks be to our Father you may conclude it here. Everything has changed since my other letter, \u2014 the doors are shut this morning, and all the kitchen wall is covered with chilly flies who are trying to warm themselves, \u2014 poor things, they do not understand that there are no summer mornings remaining to them and me, and they have a bewildered air which is really very droll, didn't one feel sorry for them. You would say't was a gloomy morning if you were sitting here, \u2014 \u2014 the frost has been severe, and the few lingering leaves seem anxious to be going, and wrap their faded cloaks more closely about them as if to shield them from the chilly northeast wind. The earth looks like some poor old lady who by dint of pains has bloomed e'en till now, yet in a forgetful moment a few silver hairs from out her cap come stealing, and she tucks them back so hastily and thinks nobody sees. The cows are going to pasture, and little boys with their hands in their pockets are whistling to try to keep warm. Don't think that the sky will frown so the day when you come home! She will smile and look happy, and be full of sunshine then, and even should she frown upon her child returning, there is another sky, ever serene and fair, and there is another sunshine, though it be darkness there; never mind faded forests, Austin, never mind silent fields \u2014 _here_ is a little forest, whose leaf is ever green; here is a brighter garden, where not a frost has been; in its unfading flowers I hear the bright bee hum; prithee, my brother, into _my_ garden come!\n\nYour very affectionate sister.\n\n_[November, 1851.]_\n\n_Thursday Evening._\n\nDEAR AUSTIN, \u2014 Something seems to whisper 'He is thinking of home this evening,' perhaps because it rains, perhaps because it's evening and the orchestra of winds perform their strange, sad music. I wouldn't wonder if home were thinking of him; and it seems so natural for one to think of the other, perhaps it is no superstition or omen of this evening, \u2014 no omen 'at all, at all,' as Mrs. Mack would say.\n\nFather is staying at home this evening it is so inclement \u2014 Vinnie diverts his mind with little snatches of music; and mother mends a garment to make it snugger for you \u2014 and what do you think I do among this family circle? I am thinking of you with all my might, and it just occurs to me to note a few of my thoughts for your own inspection. 'Keeping a diary 'is not familiar to me as to your sister Vinnie, but her own bright example is quite a comfort to me, so I'll try.\n\nI waked up this morning thinking for all the world I had had a letter from you \u2014 just as the seal was breaking, father rapped at my door. I was sadly disappointed not to go on and read; but when the four black horses came trotting into town, and their load was none the heavier by a tiding for me \u2014 I was not disappointed then, it was harder to me than had I been disappointed.... I found I had made no provision for any such time as that.... The weather has been unpleasant ever since you went away \u2014 Monday morning we waked up in the midst of a furious snow-storm \u2014 the snow was the depth of an inch; oh, it looked so wintry! By-and-by the sun came out, but the wind blew violently and it grew so cold that we gathered all the quinces, put up the stove in the sitting-room, and bade the world good-by. Kind clouds came over at evening; still the sinking thermometer gave terrible signs of what would be on the morning. At last the morning came, laden with mild south winds, and the winds have brought the rain, so here we are.... Your very hasty letter just at your return rejoiced us \u2014 that you were 'better \u2014 happier \u2014 heartier.' What made you think of such beautiful words to tell us how you were, and how cheerful you were feeling? It did us a world of good. How little the scribe thinks of the value of his line \u2014 how many eager eyes will search its every meaning, how much swifter the strokes of 'the little mystic clock, no human eye hath seen, which ticketh on and ticketh on, from morning until e'en.' If it were not that I could write you, you could not go away; therefore pen and ink are very excellent things.\n\nWe had new brown bread for tea \u2014 when it came smoking on and we sat around the table, how I did wish a slice could be reserved for you! You shall have as many loaves as we have eaten slices if you will but come home. This suggests Thanksgiving, you will soon be here; then I can't help thinking of how, when we rejoice, so many hearts are breaking next Thanksgiving day. What will you say, Austin, if I tell you that Jennie Grout and merry Martha Kingman will spend the day above? They are not here \u2014 'While we delayed to let them forth, angels beyond stayed for them.'...\n\nYour affectionate\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[Amherst, November 17, 1851.]_\n\n_Sunday Afternoon._\n\nDEAR AUSTIN, \u2014 We have just got home from meeting \u2014 it is very windy and cold \u2014 the hills from our kitchen window are just crusted with snow, which with their blue mantillas makes them seem so beautiful. You sat just here last Sunday, where I am sitting now; and our voices were nimbler than our pens can be, if they try never so hardly. I should be quite sad to-day, thinking about last Sunday, didn't another Sabbath smile at me so pleasantly, promising me on its word to present you here again when 'six days' work is done.'\n\nFather and mother sit in state in the sitting-room perusing such papers, only, as they are well assured, have nothing carnal in them; Vinnie is eating an apple which makes me think of gold, and accompanying it with her favorite _Observer,_ which, if you recollect, deprives us many a time of her sisterly society. Pussy hasn't returned from the afternoon assembly, so you have us all just as we are at present. We were very glad indeed to hear from you so soon, glad that a cheerful fire met you at the door. I _do_ well remember how chilly the west wind blew, and how everything shook and rattled before I went to sleep, and I often thought of you in the midnight car, and hoped you were not lonely.... We are thinking most of Thanksgiving than anything else just now \u2014 how full will be the circle, less then by none \u2014 how the things will smoke \u2014 how the board will groan with the thousand savory viands \u2014 how when the day is done, lo, the evening cometh, laden with merrie laugh and happy conversation, and then the sleep and the dream each of a knight or 'Ladie ' \u2014 how I love to see them, a beautiful company coming down the hill which men call the Future, with their hearts full of joy and their hands of gladness. Thanksgiving indeed to a family united once more together before they go away.... Don't mind the days \u2014 some of them are long ones, but who cares for length when breadth is in store for him? Or who minds the cross who knows he'll have a crown? I wish I could imbue you with all the strength and courage which can be given men \u2014 I wish I could assure you of the constant remembrance of those you leave at home \u2014 I wish \u2014 but oh! how vainly \u2014 that I could bring you back again and never more to stray. You are tired now, dear Austin, with my incessant din, but I can't help saying any of these things.\n\nThe very warmest love from Vinnie and every one of us. I am never ready to go.\n\nReluctant EMILY.\n\n_[December, 1851]._\n\n_Monday Morning._\n\nDEAR AUSTIN, \u2014 ... I was so glad to get your letter. I had been making calls all Saturday afternoon, and came home very tired, and a little disconsolate, so your letter was more than welcome.... Oh Austin, you don't know how we all wished for you yesterday. We had such a splendid sermon from Professor Park \u2014 I never heard anything like it, and don't expect to again, till we stand at the great white throne, and 'he reads from the Book, the Lamb's Book.' The students and chapel people all came to our church, and it was very full, and still, so still the buzzing of a fly would have boomed like a cannon. And when it was all over, and that wonderful man sat down, people stared at each other, and looked as wan and wild as if they had seen a spirit, and wondered they had not died. How I wish you had heard him \u2014 I thought of it all the time....\n\nAffectionately,\n\nEMILIE.\n\n_[Amherst, January, 1852.]_\n\n_Monday Morning.''_\n\nDid you think I was tardy, Austin? For two Sunday afternoons it has been so cold and cloudy that I didn't feel in my very happiest mood, and so I did not write until next Monday morning, determining in my heart never to write to you in any but cheerful spirits.\n\nEven this morning, Austin, I am not in merry case, for it snows slowly and solemnly, and hardly an outdoor thing can be seen a-stirring \u2014 now and then a man goes by with a large cloak wrapped around him, and shivering at that; and now and then a stray kitten out on some urgent errand creeps through the flakes and crawls so fast as _may_ crawl half frozen away. I am glad for the sake of your body that you are not here this morning, for it is a trying time for fingers and toes \u2014 for the heart's sake I would verily have you here. You know there are winter mornings when the cold without only adds to the warm within, and the more it snows and the harder it blows brighter the fires blaze, and chirps more merrily the 'cricket on the hearth.' It is hardly cheery enough for such a scene this morning, and yet methinks it would be if you were only here. The future full of sleigh-rides would chase the gloom from our minds which only deepens and darkens with every flake that falls.\n\nBlack Fanny would 'toe the mark 'if you should be here to-morrow; but as the prospects are, I presume Black Fanny's hoofs will not attempt to fly. Do you have any snow in Boston? Enough for a ride, I hope, for the sake of 'Auld Lang Syne.' Perhaps the 'ladie' of curls would not object to a drive.... We miss you more and more, we do not become accustomed to separation from you.\n\nI almost wish sometimes we needn't miss you so much, since duty claims a year of you entirely to herself; and then again I think that it is pleasant to miss you if you must go away, and I would not have it otherwise, even if I could. In every pleasure and pain you come up to our minds so wishfully \u2014 we know you'd enjoy our joy, and if you were with us, Austin, we could bear little trials more cheerfully.... When I know of anything funny I am just as apt to cry, far more so than to laugh, for I know who loves jokes best, and who is not here to enjoy them. We don't have many jokes, though, now, it is pretty much all sobriety; and we do not have much poetry, father having made up his mind that it's pretty much all real life. Father's real life and mine sometimes come into collision but as yet escape unhurt.... I am so glad you are well and in such happy spirits \u2014 both happy and well is a great comfort to us when you are far away.\n\nEMILIE.\n\n_[February 6, 1852.]_\n\n_Friday Morning._\n\n... Since we have written you the grand railroad decision is made, and there is great rejoicing throughout this town and the neighboring; that is, Sunderland, Montague, and Belchertown. Everybody is wide awake, everything is stirring, the streets are full of people walking cheeringly, and you should really be here to partake of the jubilee. The event was celebrated by D. Warner and cannon; and the silent satisfaction in the hearts of all is its crowning attestation.\n\nFather is really sober from excessive satisfaction, and bears his honors with a most becoming air. Nobody believes it yet, it seems like a fairy tale, a most miraculous event in the lives of us all. The men begin working next week; only think of it, Austin; why, I verily believe we shall fall down and worship the first 'son of Erin 'that comes, and the first sod he turns will be preserved as an emblem of the struggle and victory of our heroic fathers. Such old fellows as Col. S. and his wife fold their arms complacently and say, 'Well, I declare, we have got it after all.' Got it, _you_ good-for-nothings! and so we have, in spite of sneers and pities and insults from all around; and we will keep it too, in spite of earth and heaven! How I wish you were here \u2014 it is really too bad, Austin, at such a time as now. I miss your big hurrahs, and the famous stir you make upon all such occasions; but it is a comfort to know that you are here \u2014 that your whole soul is here, and though apparently absent, yet present in the highest and the truest sense.... Take good care of yourself, Austin, and think much of us all, for we do so of you.\n\nEMILIE.\n\nSeveral subsequent letters, all piquant and breezy, but dealing quite entirely with family matters, experiences with callers, and other personal subjects, have been omitted.\n\n_[March 24, 1852.]_\n\n_Wednesday Morn._\n\nYou wouldn't think it was spring, Austin, if you were at home this morning, for we had a great snowstorm yesterday, and things are all white this morning. It sounds funny enough to hear birds singing and sleigh-bells at a time. But it won't last long, so you needn't think 'twill be winter at the time when you come home.\n\nI waited a day or two, thinking I might hear from you, but you will be looking for me, and wondering where I am, so I sha'n't wait any longer. We 're rejoiced that you 're coming home \u2014 the first thing we said to father when he got out of the stage was to ask if you were coming. I was sure you would all the while, for father said 'of course you would,' he should 'consent to no other arrangement,' and as you say, Austin, 'what father says he means.' How very soon it will be now \u2014 why, when I really think of it, how near and how happy it is! My heart grows light so fast that I could mount a grasshopper and gallop around the world, and not fatigue him any! The sugar weather holds on, and I do believe it will stay until you come.... 'Mrs. S.' is very feeble; 'can't bear allopathic treatment, can't have homoeopathic, don't want hydropathic,' oh, what a pickle she is in. Shouldn't think she would deign to live, it is so decidedly vulgar! They have not yet concluded where to move \u2014 Mrs. W. will perhaps obtain board in the celestial city, but I'm sure I can't imagine what will become of the rest.... Much love from us all.\n\nEMILIE.\n\n_[May 10, 1852.]_\n\n_Monday Morning,_ 5 o'c.\n\nDEAR AUSTIN, \u2014 ... Vinnie will tell you all the news, so I will take a little place to describe a thunder-shower which occurred yesterday afternoon, \u2014 the very first of the season. Father and Vinnie were at meeting, mother asleep in her room, and I at work by my window on a 'Lyceum lecture.' The air was really scorching, the sun red and hot, and you know just how the birds sing before a thunder-storm, a sort of hurried and agitated song \u2014 pretty soon it began to thunder, and the great 'cream-colored heads' peeped out of their windows. Then came the wind and rain, and I hurried around the house to shut all the doors and windows. I wish you had seen it come, so cool and so refreshing \u2014 and everything glistening from it as with a golden dew \u2014 I thought of you all the time. This morning is fair and delightful. You will awake in dust, and with it the ceaseless din of the untiring city. Wouldn't you change your dwelling for my palace in the dew? Good-by for now. I shall see you so soon.\n\nMr. Edward Dickinson was in Baltimore when the following letter was written, in attendance upon the Whig Convention which sought, unsuccessfully, the nomination of Daniel Webster for the presidency.\n\n_[Amherst, June 21, 1852.]_\n\n_Sunday Morning._\n\n... Father has not got home, and we don't know when to expect him. We had a letter from him yesterday, but he didn't say when he should come. He writes that he 'should think the whole world was there, and some from other worlds.' He says he meets a great many old friends and acquaintances, and forms a great many new ones \u2014 he writes in very fine spirits, and says he enjoys himself very much.... I wish you could have gone with him, you would have enjoyed it so, but I did not much suppose that selfish old school would let you.... Last week the Senior levee came off at the President's. I believe Professor Haven is to give one soon \u2014 and there is to be a reception at Professor Tyler's next Tuesday evening which I shall attend. You see Amherst is growing lively, and by the time you come everything will be in a buzz.... We all send you our love.\n\nEMILIE.\n\n_[Amherst, July 23, 1852.]_\n\n_Sunday Night._\n\n... You'd better not come home; I say the law will have you, a pupil of the law o'ertaken by the law, and brought to condign punishment, \u2014 scene for angels and men, or rather for archangels, who being a little higher would seem to have a 'vantage so far as view's concerned. _'Are_ you pretty comfortable, though,' \u2014 and are you deaf and dumb and gone to the asylum where such afflicted persons learn to hold their tongues?\n\nThe next time you aren't going to write me, I'd thank you to let me know \u2014 this kind of _protracted_ insult is what no man can bear. Fight with me like a man \u2014 let me have fair shot, and you are _caput mortuum et cap-a-pie,_ and that ends the business! If you really think I so deserve this silence, tell me why \u2014 how \u2014 I'll be a thorough scamp or else I won't be any, just which you prefer.\n\nT \u2014 of S \u2014 's class went to Boston yesterday; it was in my heart to send an apple by him for your private use, but father overheard some of my intentions, and said they were 'rather small ' \u2014 whether this remark was intended for the apple, or for my noble self I did not think to ask him; I rather think he intended to give us both a cut \u2014 however, he may not!\n\nYou are coming home on Wednesday, as perhaps you know, and I am very happy in prospect of your coming, and hope you want to see us as much as we do you. Mother makes nicer pies with reference to your coming, I arrange my thoughts in a convenient shape, Vinnie grows only perter and more pert day by day.\n\nThe horse is looking finely \u2014 better than in his life \u2014 by which you may think him dead unless I add _before._ The carriage stands in state all covered in the chaise-house \u2014 we have one foundling hen into whose young mind I seek to instill the fact that 'Massa is a-comin!'\n\nThe garden is amazing \u2014 we have beets and beans, have had splendid potatoes for three weeks now. Old Amos weeds and hoes and has an oversight of all thoughtless vegetables. The apples are fine and large in spite of my impression that father called them 'small.'\n\nYesterday there was a fire. At about three in the afternoon Mr. Kimberly's barn was discovered to be on fire; the wind was blowing a gale directly from the west, and having had no rain, the roofs [were] as dry as stubble. Mr. Palmer's house was charred \u2014 the little house of father's \u2014 and Mr. Kimberly's also. The engine was broken, and it seemed for a little while as if the whole street must go; the Kimberlys' barn was burnt down, and the house much charred and injured, though not at all destroyed \u2014 Mr. Palmer's barn took fire, and Deacon Leland's also, but were extinguished with only part burned roofs. We all feel very thankful at such a narrow escape.\n\nFather says there was never such imminent danger, and such miraculous escape. Father and Mr. Frink took charge of the fire \u2014 or rather of the _water,_ since fire usually takes care of itself. The men all worked like heroes, and after the fire was out father gave commands to have them march to Howe's where an entertainment was provided for them. After the whole was over they gave 'three cheers for Edward Dickinson,' and three more for the insurance company. On the whole, it is very wonderful that we didn't all bum up, and we ought to hold our tongues and be very thankful. If there _must_ be a fire, I'm sorry it couldn't wait until you had got home, because you seem to enjoy such things so very much.\n\nThere is nothing of moment now which I can find to tell you, except a case of measles in Hartford.... Good-by, Sir. Fare you well. My benison to your school.\n\n_[Amherst, Spring, 1853.]_\n\n_Tuesday Noon,_\n\nDEAR AUSTIN, \u2014 ... How soon now you are coming, and how happy we are in the thought of seeing you! I can't realize that you will come, it is so still and lonely it doesn't seem possible it can be otherwise; but we shall see, when the nails hang full of coats again, and the chairs hang full of hats, and I can count the slippers under the chair. Oh, Austin, how we miss them all, and more than them, somebody who used to hang them there, and get many a hint ungentle to carry them away. Those times seem far off now, a great way, as things we did when children. I wish we were children now \u2014 I wish we were always children, how to grow up I don't know.... Cousin J. has made us an Aeolian harp which plays beautifully whenever there is a breeze.\n\nAustin, you mustn't care if your letters do not get here just when you think they will \u2014 they are always new to us, and delightful always, and the more you send us the happier we shall be. We all send our love to you, and think much and say much of seeing you again \u2014 keep well till you come, and if knowing that we all love you makes you happier, then, Austin, you may sing the whole day long!\n\nAffectionately,\n\nEMILIE.\n\n_[Amherst, March 18, 1853.]_\n\n_Friday Morning._\n\nDEAR AUSTIN, \u2014 I presume you remember a story that \"Vinnie tells of a breach of promise case where the correspondence between the parties consisted of a reply from the girl to one she had never received but was daily expecting. Well, I am writing an answer to the letter I haven't had, so you will see the force of the accompanying anecdote. I have been looking for you ever since dispatching my last, but this is a fickle world, and it's a great source of complacency that 't will all be burned up by and by. I should be pleased with a line when you've published your work to father, if it's perfectly convenient!\n\nYour letters are very funny indeed \u2014 about the only jokes we have, now you are gone, and I hope you will send us one as often as you can. Father takes great delight in your remarks to him \u2014 puts on his spectacles and reads them o'er and o'er as if it was a blessing to have an only son. He reads all the letters you write, as soon as he gets them, at the post-office, no matter to whom addressed; then he makes me read them aloud at the supper table again, and when he gets home in the evening, he cracks a few walnuts, puts his spectacles on, and with your last in his hand, sits down to enjoy the evening.... I believe at this moment, Austin, that there's nobody living for whom father has such respect as for you. But my paper is getting low, and I must hasten to tell you that we are very happy to hear good news from you, that we hope you'll have pleasant times and learn a great deal while you 're gone, and come back to us greater and happier for the life lived at Cambridge. We miss you more and more. I wish that we could see you, but letters come the next \u2014 write them often, and tell us everything.\n\nAffectionately,\n\nEMILIE.\n\n_[June 14,1853.]_\n\n... We have been free from company by the 'Amherst and Belchertown Railroad' since J. went home, though we live in constant fear of some other visitation. 'Oh, would some power the giftie gie' folks to see themselves as we see them. \u2014 _Burns._\n\nI have read the poems, Austin, and am going to read them again. They please me very much, but I must read them again before I know just what I think of 'Alexander Smith.' They are not very coherent, but there's a good deal of exquisite frenzy, and some wonderful figures as ever I met in my life. We will talk about it again. The grove looks nicely, Austin, and we think -must certainly grow. We love to go there \u2014 it is a charming place. Everything is singing now, and everything is beautiful that _can_ be in its life.... The time for the New London trip has not been fixed upon. I sincerely wish it may wait until you get home from Cambridge if you would like to go.\n\nThe cars continue thriving \u2014 a good many passengers seem to arrive from somewhere, though nobody knows from where. Father expects his new buggy to arrive by the cars every day now, and that will help a little. I expect all our grandfathers and all their country cousins will come here to spend Commencement, and don't doubt the stock will rise several per cent that week. If we children could obtain board for the week in some 'vast wilderness,'\n\nI think we should have good times. Our house is crowded daily with the members of this world, the high and the low, the bond and the free, the 'poor in this world's goods,' and the 'almighty dollar; 'and what in the world they are after continues to be unknown. But I hope they will pass away as insects or vegetation, and let us reap together in golden harvest time. You and I and our sister Vinnie must have a pleasant time to be unmolested together when your school-days end. You must come home from school, not stopping to play by the way.... We all send our love to you, and miss you very much, and think of seeing you again very much. Write me again soon. I have said a good deal to-day.\n\nEMILIE.\n\nThe new railroad was opened for the first regular trip from Palmer to Amherst, May 9, 1853. Mr. Edward Dickinson wrote on that day, 'We have no railroad jubilee till we see whether all moves right, then we shall glorify becomingly.' Everything was apparently satisfactory, for the celebration occurred early in June, when more than three hundred New London people visited Amherst. In the following letter from Emily are indications of her growing distaste to mingle in a social _m\u00eal\u00e9e,_ despite genuine interest in itself and its cause.\n\n_[June 20, 1853.]_\n\n_Monday Morning._\n\nMY DEAR AUSTIN, \u2014 ... The New London day passed off grandly, so all the people said. It was pretty hot and dusty, but nobody cared for that. Father was, as usual, chief marshal of the day, and went marching around with New London at his heels like some old Roman general upon a triumph day. Mrs. H. got a capital dinner, and was very much praised. Carriages flew like sparks, hither and thither and yon, and they all said 'twas fine. I 'spose 'it was. I sat in Professor Tyler's woods and saw the train move off, and then came home again for fear somebody would see me, or ask me how I did. Dr Holland was here, and called to see us \u2014 was very pleasant indeed, inquired for you, and asked mother if Vinnie and I might come and see them in Springfield.... We all send you our love.\n\nEMILIE.\n\n_[Postmarked, July 2,1853.]_\n\n_Friday Afternoon._\n\nDEAR AUSTIN, \u2014 ... Some of the letters you've sent us we have received, and thank you for affectionately. Some we have not received, but thank you for the memory, of which the emblem perished. Where all those letters go, yours and ours, somebody surely knows, but we do not. There 's a new postmaster to-day, but we don't know who's to blame.\n\nYou never wrote me a letter, Austin, which I liked half so well as the one father brought me. We think of your coming home with a great deal of happiness, and are glad you want to come.\n\nFather said he never saw you looking in better health or seeming in finer spirits. He didn't say a word about the Hippodrome or the Museum, and he came home so stern that none of us dared to ask him, and besides grandmother was here, and you certainly don't think I'd allude to a Hippodrome in the presence of that lady! I'd as soon think of popping fire-crackers in the presence of Peter the Great. But you'll tell us when you get home \u2014 how soon \u2014 how soon!... I admire the 'Poems 'very much. We all send our love to you \u2014 shall write you again Sunday.\n\nEMILIE.\n\n_[Summer, 1853.]_\n\n_Sunday Afternoon._\n\n... It is cold here to-day, Austin, and the west wind blows \u2014 the windows are shut at home, and the fire burns in the kitchen. How we should love to see you \u2014 how pleasant it would be to walk to the grove together. We will walk there when you get home. We all went down this morning, and the trees look beautifully \u2014 every one is growing, and when the west wind blows, the pines lift their light leaves and make sweet music. Pussy goes down there too, and seems to enjoy much in her own observations.\n\nMr. Dwight has not answered yet; he probably will this week. I do think he will come, Austin, and shall be so glad if he will.... We all wish you here always, but I hope't will seem only dearer for missing it so long. Father says you will come in three weeks \u2014 that won't be long now \u2014 keep well and happy, Austin, and remember us all you can, and much love from home and\n\nEMILIE.\n\n_Thursday Evening._\n\n... G. H. has just retired from an evening's visit here, and I gather my spent energies to write a word to you.\n\n'Blessed are they that are persecuted for righteousness' sake, for they shall have their reward! 'Dear Austin, I don't _feel_ funny, and I hope you won't laugh at anything I say. I am thinking of you and Vinnie \u2014 what nice times you are having, sitting and talking together, while I am lonely here, and I _wanted_ to sit and think of you, and fancy what you were saying, all the evening long, but \u2014 ordained otherwise. I hope you will have grand times, and don't forget the unit without you, at home.\n\nI have had some things from you to which I perceive no meaning. They either were very vast, or they didn't mean anything, I don't know certainly which. What did you mean by a note you sent me day before yesterday? Father asked me what you wrote, and I gave it to him to read. He looked very much confused, and finally put on his spectacles, which didn't seem to help him much \u2014 I don't think a telescope would have assisted him. I hope you will write to me \u2014 I love to hear from you, and now Vinnie is gone I shall feel very lonely.... Love for them all if there are those to love and think of me, and more and most for you, from\n\nEMILY.\n\n_Tuesday Evening._\n\nWell, Austin, dear Austin, you have got back again, codfish and pork and all \u2014 all but the slippers, so nicely wrapped to take, yet found when you were gone under the kitchen chair. I hope you, won't want them. Perhaps you have some more there \u2014 I will send them by opportunity, should there be such a thing. Vinnie proposed franking them, but I fear they are rather large! What should you think of it? It isn't every day that we have a chance to sponge Congress,... but Caesar is such 'an honorable man' that we may all go to the poor-house for all the American Congress will lift a finger to help us....\n\nThe usual rush of callers, and this beleaguered family as yet in want of time. I do hope immortality will last a little while, but if the A \u2014 s should happen to get there first, we shall be driven _there...._\n\nEMILIE.\n\n_[March 17, 1854.]_\n\n... Since you went back to Cambridge the weather has been wonderful, \u2014 the thermometer every noon between 60 and 70 above zero, and the air full of birds.\n\nTo-day has not seemed like a day. It has been most unearthly, \u2014 so mild, so bright, so still, the windows open, and fires uncomfortable.\n\nSince supper it lightens frequently. In the south you can see the lightning \u2014 in the north the northern lights. Now a furious wind blows just from the north and west, and winter comes back again....\n\nThere is to be a party at Professor Haven's tomorrow night, for married people merely. Celibacy excludes me and my sister. Father and mother are invited. Mother will go.... Mother and Vinnie send love. They are both getting ready for Washington. Take care of yourself.\n\nEMILIE.\n\nAlready Emily seems to have exhibited disinclination for journeys, as, in a letter to his son in Cambridge, dated at Washington, March 13, 1854, Mr. Edward Dickinson said, 'I have written home to have Lavinia come with your mother and you, and Emily, too, if she will, but that I will not insist upon her coming.' Emily, however, did go to Washington with her family, later in the spring, as a subsequent letter to Mrs. Holland will show.\n\n_[Amherst, March 27, 1854.]_\n\n_Sunday Evening._\n\nWell, Austin, \u2014 it's Sunday evening. Vinnie is sick with the ague \u2014 mother taking a tour of the second story as she is wont, Sabbath evening \u2014 the wind is blowing high, the weather very cold, and I am rather cast down in view of all these circumstances.... I went to meeting alone all day. I assure you I felt very solemn. I went to meeting five minutes before the bell rang, morning and afternoon, so not to have to go in after all the people had got there. I wish you had heard Mr. Dwight's sermons to-day. He has preached wonderfully, and I thought all the afternoon how I wished you were there.... I will tell you something funny. You know Vinnie sent father [at Washington] a box of maple sugar \u2014 she got the box at the store, and it said on the outside of it, '1 doz. genuine Quaker Soap.' We didn't hear from the box, and so many days passed we began to feel anxious lest it had never reached him; and mother, writing soon, alluded in her letter to the 'sugar sent by the girls,' and the funniest letter from father came in answer to hers. It-seems the box went straightway, but father not knowing the hand, merely took off the papers in which the box was wrapped, and the label 'Quaker Soap' so far imposed upon him that he put the box in a drawer with his shaving materials, and supposed himself well stocked with an excellent Quaker Soap.\n\n... We all send our love to you, and want you should write us often. Good-night, from\n\nEMILIE.\n\n... The Germanians gave a concert here the evening of exhibition day. Vinnie and I went with J. I never heard sounds before. They seemed like brazen robins, all wearing broadcloth wings, and I think they were, for they all flew away as soon as the concert was over.\n\n_[Late Spring, 1854.]_\n\n_Saturday Noon._\n\nDEAR AUSTIN, \u2014 I rather thought from your letter to me that my essays, together with the lectures at Cambridge, were too much for you, so I thought I would let you have a little vacation; but you must have got rested now, so I shall renew the series. Father was very severe to me; he thought I'd been trifling with you, so he gave me quite a trimming about 'Uncle Tom' and 'Charles Dickens 'and these 'modern literati' who, he says, are nothing, compared to past generations who flourished when he was a boy. Then he said there were 'somebody's rev-e-ries,' he didn't know whose they were, that he thought were very ridiculous \u2014 so I'm quite in disgrace at present, but I think of that 'pinnacle 'on which you always mount when anybody insults you, and that's quite a comfort to me....\n\nAfter a page or two of information about friends in the village, the letter continues:\n\nThis is all the news I can think of, but there is one old story, Austin, which you may like to hear \u2014 it is that we think about you the whole of the livelong day, and talk of you when we 're together. And you can recollect when you are busy studying that those of us at home not so hard at work as you are, get much time to be with you. We all send our love to you.\n\nEMILIE.\n\n_[Amherst, May, 1854.]_\n\n_Saturday Morn._\n\nDEAR AUSTIN, \u2014 A week ago we were all here \u2014 to-day we are not all here \u2014 yet the bee hums just as merrily, and all the busy things work on as if the same. They do not miss you, child, but there is a humming-bee whose song is not so merry, and there are busy ones who pause to drop a tear. Let us thank God, to-day, Austin, that we can love our friends, our brothers and our sisters, and weep when they are gone, and smile at their return. It is indeed a joy which we are blest to know.\n\nTo-day is very beautiful \u2014 just as bright, just as blue, just as green and as white and as crimson as the cherry-trees full in bloom, and the half-opening peach-blossoms, and the grass just waving, and sky and hill and cloud can make it, if they try. How I wish you were here, Austin; you thought last Saturday beautiful, yet to this golden day 't was but one single gem to whole handfuls of jewels. You will ride to-day, I hope, or take a long walk somewhere, and recollect us all, \u2014 Vinnie and me and father and mother and home. Yes, Austin, every one of us, for we all think of you, and bring you to recollection many times each day \u2014 not bring you to recollection, for we never put you away, but keep recollecting on....\n\nYou must think of us to-night while Mr. Dwight takes tea here, and we will think of you far away down in Cambridge.\n\nDon't mind the can, Austin, if it is rather dry, don't mind the daily road though it is rather dusty, but remember the brooks and the hills, and remember while you 're but one, we are but four at home!\n\nEMILIE.\n**CHAPTER III**\n\n_To Mrs. Gordon L. Ford, Mr. Bowdoin, Mrs. Anthon, and Miss Lavinia Dickinson_\n\nWITH a number of early letters to herself, Mrs. Ford of Brooklyn sent me also a short sketch of her remembrance of Emily Dickinson's girlhood, which seems to show her in a somewhat different aspect from anything which other friends have given.\n\nMrs. Ford was a daughter of the late Professor Fowler of Amherst College, and her recollections, making a pleasant picture of life in Amherst nearly fifty years ago, have all the charm of early friendship and intercourse in the days when plain living and high thinking were not an exceptional combination.\n\nIn speaking of several letters which she could not find, Mrs. Ford wrote, 'The other things which I wish I could put my hand on were funny \u2014 sparkling with fun, and that is a new phase to the public; but she certainly began as a humorist' Although sent to me for publication in this volume of _Letters,_ Mrs. Ford had hoped to revise and perhaps shorten the sketch in the proof; and her sudden death, within a few days after writing it, lends a saddened interest to these memories of a vanished friendship.\n\n'My remembrances of my friend Emily Dickinson are many and vivid, and delightful to me personally, yet they are all of trifles in themselves, and only interesting to the general public as they cast light on the growth and changes in her soul.\n\n'Our parents were friends, and we knew each other from childhood, but she was several years younger, and how and when we drew together I cannot recall, but I think the friendship was based on certain sympathies and mutual admirations of beauty in nature and ideas. She loved the great aspects of nature, and yet was full of interest and affection for its smaller details. We often walked together over the lovely hills of Amherst, and I remember especially two excursions to Mount Norwottock, five miles away, where we found the climbing fern, and came home laden with pink and white trilliums, and later, yellow lady's-slippers. She knew the wood-lore of the region round about, and could name the haunts and the habits of every wild or garden growth within her reach. Her eyes were wide open to nature's sights, and her ears to nature's voices.\n\n'My chief recollections of her are connected with these woodland walks, or out-door excursions with a merry party, perhaps to Sunderland for the \"sugaring off\" of the maple sap, or to some wild brook in the deeper forest, where the successful fishermen would afterward cook the chowder. She was a free talker about what interested her, yet I cannot remember one personal opinion expressed of her mates, her home, or her habits.\n\n'Later we met to discuss books. _The Atlantic Monthly_ was a youngster then, and our joy over a new poem by Lowell, Longfellow, and Whittier, our puzzles over Emerson's \"If the red slayer think he slays,\" our laughter at Oliver Wendell Holmes, were full and satisfying. Lowell was especially dear to us, and once I saw a passionate fit of crying brought on, when a tutor of the College, who died while contesting the senatorship for Louisiana, told us from his eight years of seniority, that \"Byron had a much better style,\" and advised us \"to leave Lowell, Motherwell and Emerson alone.\" Like other young creatures, we were ardent partisans.\n\n'There was a fine circle of young people in Amherst, and we influenced each other strongly. We were in the adoring mood, and I am glad to say that many of those idols of our girlhood have proved themselves golden. The eight girls who composed this group had talent enough for twice their number, and in their respective spheres of mothers, authors or women, have been noteworthy and admirable. Three of them have passed from earth, but the others live in activity and usefulness.\n\n'This group started a little paper in the Academy, now the village High School, which was kept up for two years. Emily Dickinson was one of the wits of the school, and a humorist of the \"comic column.\" Fanny Montague often made the head title of the paper \u2014 _Forest Leaves_ \u2014 in leaves copied from nature, and fantasies of her own pen-work. She is now a wise member of art circles in Baltimore, a manager of the Museum of Art, and the appointed and intelligent critic of the Japanese exhibit at the Exposition in Chicago. Helen Fiske (the \"H. H.\" of later days) did no special work on the paper for various reasons.\n\n'This paper was all in script, and was passed around the school, where the contributions were easily recognized from the handwriting, which in Emily's case was very beautiful \u2014 small, clear, and finished. Later, though her writing retained its elegance, it became difficult to read. I wish very much I could find a copy of _Forest Leaves,_ but we recklessly gave the numbers away, and the last one I ever saw turned up at the Maplewood Institute in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, where they started a similar paper. Emily's contributions were irresistible, but I cannot recall them. One bit was stolen by a roguish editor for the College paper, where her touch was instantly recognized; and there were two paragraphs in _The Springfield Republican._\n\n'We had a Shakespeare Club \u2014 a rare thing in those days, \u2014 and one of the tutors proposed to take all the copies of all the members and mark out the questionable passages. This plan was negatived at the first meeting, as far as \"the girls \"spoke, who said they did not want the strange things emphasized, nor their books spoiled with marks. Finally we told the men to do as they liked \u2014 \"we shall read everything.\" I remember the lofty air with which Emily took her departure, saying, \"There's nothing wicked in Shakespeare, and if there is I don't want to know it.\" The men read for perhaps three meetings from their expurgated editions, and then gave up their plan, and the whole text was read out boldly.\n\n'There were many little dances, with cake and lemonade at the end, and one year there was a valentine party, where the lines of various authors were arranged to make apparent sense, but absolute nonsense, the play being to guess the names and places of the misappropriated lines.\n\n'Emily was part and parcel of all these gatherings, and there were no signs, in her life and character, of the future recluse. As a prophetic hint, she once asked me if it did not make me shiver to hear a great many people talk \u2014 they took \"all the clothes off their souls \" \u2014 and we discussed this matter. She mingled freely in all the companies and excursions of the moment, and the evening frolics.\n\n'Several of this group had beauty, all had intelligence and character, and others had charm. Emily was not beautiful, yet she had great beauties. Her eyes were lovely auburn, soft and warm, her hair lay in rings of the same color all over her head, and her skin and teeth were fine. At this time she had a demure manner which brightened easily into fun where she felt at home, but among strangers she was rather shy, silent, and even deprecating. She was exquisitely neat and careful in her dress, and always had flowers about her, another pleasant habit of modernity.\n\n'I have so many times seen her in the morning at work in her garden where everything throve under her hand, and wandering there at eventide, that she is perpetually associated in my mind with flowers \u2014 a flower herself, \u2014 especially as for years it was her habit to send me the first buds of the arbutus which we had often hung over together in the woods, joying in its fresh fragrance as the very breath of coming spring.\n\n'My busy married life separated me from these friends of my youth, and intercourse with them has not been frequent; but I rejoice that my early years were passed in scenes of beautiful nature, and with these mates of simple life, high cultivation and noble ideals. In Emily as in others, there was a rare combination of fervor and simplicity, with good practical living, great conscience and directness of purpose. She loved with all her might, there was never a touch of the worldling about her, and we all knew and trusted her love.\n\n'Dr Holland once said to me, \"Her poems are too ethereal for publication.\" I replied, \"They are beautiful \u2014 so concentrated \u2014 but they remind me of air-plants that have no roots in earth.\"\n\n\"That is true,\" he said, \"a perfect description; \"and I think these lyrical ejaculations, these breathed-out projectiles, sharp as lances, would at that time have fallen into idle ears. But gathered in a volume where many could be read at once as her philosophy of life, they explain each other, and so become intelligible and delightful to the public.\n\n'The first poem I ever read was the robin chorister (published in the first volume) which she gave my husband years ago. I think in spite of her seclusion, she was longing for poetic sympathy, and that some of her later habits of life originated in this suppressed and ungratified desire.\n\n'I only wish the interest and delight her poems have aroused could have come early enough in her career to have kept her social and communicative, and at one with her friends. Still, these late tributes to her memory are most welcome to the circle that loved her, even though they are but laurels to lay on her grave.\n\n'E. E. F. F.'\n\nThe first letter was written in 1848; the others at intervals until 1853. Though placed in order, they were not dated by Mrs. Ford.\n\nDEAR EMILY, \u2014 I said when the barber came I would save you a little lock, and fulfilling my promise, I send you one to-day. I shall never give you anything again that will be half so full of sunshine as this wee lock of hair, but I wish no hue more sombre might ever fall to you.\n\nAll your gifts Should be rainbows if I owned half the shine, and but a bit of sea to furnish raindrops for one. Dear Emily, this is all \u2014 it will serve to make you remember me when locks are crisp and gray, and the quiet cap, and the spectacles, and 'John Anderson my Jo 'are all that is left of you.\n\nI must have one of yours. Please spare me a little lock sometime when you have your scissors and there is one to spare.\n\nYour very affectionate\n\nEMILIE.\n\nThe buds are small, dear Emily, but will you please accept one for your cousin and yourself? I quite forgot the rosebugs when I spoke of the buds, last evening, and I found a family of them taking an early breakfast on my most precious bud, with a smart little worm for landlady, so the sweetest are gone, but accept my love with the smallest, and I'm\n\nYour affectionate\n\nEMILIE.\n\n_Tuesday Morn._\n\nDEAR EMILY, \u2014 I come and see you a great many times every day, though I don't bring my body with me, so perhaps you don't know I'm there. But I love to come just as dearly, for nobody sees me then, and I sit and chat away, and look up in your face, and no matter who calls if 'my Lord the King,' he doesn't interrupt me. Let me say, dear Emily, both mean to come at a time, so you shall be very sure I am sitting by your side, and not have to trust the fancy....\n\nAffectionately,\n\nE.\n\n_Thursday Morning._\n\nDEAR EMILY, \u2014 I fear you will be lonely this dark and stormy day, and I send this little messenger to say you must not be.\n\nThe day is long to me. I have wanted to come and see you. I have tried earnestly to come, but always have been detained by some ungenerous care, and now this falling snow sternly and silently lifts up its hand between.\n\nHow glad I am affection can always leave and go. How glad that the drifts of snow pause at the outer door and go no farther, and it is as warm within as if no winter came.... Let us think of the pleasant summer whose gardens are far away, and whose robins are singing always. If it were not for blossoms... and for that brighter sunshine above, beyond, away, these days were dark indeed; but I try to keep recollecting that we are away from home, and have many brothers and sisters who are expecting us. Dear Emilie, don't weep, for you will both be so happy where 'sorrow cannot come.'\n\nVinnie left her Testament on a little stand in our room, and it made me think of her, so I thought I would open it, and the first words I read were in those sweetest verses, 'Blessed are the poor \u2014 Blessed are they that mourn \u2014 Blessed are they that weep, for they shall be comforted.' Dear Emily, I thought of you, and I hastened away to send this message to you.\n\nEMILIE.\n\n_Thursday Morn._\n\nDEAR EMILY, \u2014 I can't come in this morning, because I am so cold, but you will know I am here ringing the big front door-bell, and leaving a note for you.\n\nOh, I want to come in, I have a great mind now to follow little Jane into your warm sitting-room; are you there, dear Emily?\n\nNo, I resist temptation and run away from the door just as fast as my feet will carry me, lest if I once come in I shall grow so happy that I shall stay there always and never go home at all. You will have read this note by the time I reach the office, and you can't think how fast I run.\n\nAffectionately, EMILY.\n\nP. S. I have just shot past the corner, and now all the wayside houses, and the little gate flies open to see me coming home.\n\n_Saturday Morn._\n\nIt has been a long week, dear Emily, for I have not seen your face, but I have contrived to think of you very much instead, which has half reconciled me to not seeing you for so long. I was coming several times, but the snow would start the first, and then the paths were damp, and then a friend would drop in to chat, and the short afternoon was gone before I was aware.\n\nDid Mr. D \u2014 give you a message from me? He promised to be faithful, but I don't suppose divines think earthly loves of much consequence. My flowers come in my stead to-day, dear Emily. I hope you will love to see them, and whatever word of love or welcome kindly you would extend to me, 'do even so to them.' They are small, but so full of meaning if they only mean the half of what I bid them.\n\nVery affectionately,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_Thursday Morning._\n\n... When I am as old as you, and have had so many friends, perhaps they won't seem so precious, and then I sha'n't write any more little _billets-doux_ like these, but you will forgive me now, because I can't find many so dear to me as you. Then I know I can't have you always; some day a 'brave dragoon 'will be stealing you away, and I will have farther to go to discover you at all, so I shall recollect all these sweet opportunities, and feel so sorry if I didn't improve them....\n\nAbout this time (December, 1849), the following little note was sent to Mr. Bowdoin, a law student in Mr. Dickinson's office, 'on returning _Jane Eyre._ The leaves mentioned were box leaves.'\n\n_[December, 1849.]_\n\nMR BOWDOIN, \u2014 If all these leaves were altars, and on every one a prayer that Currer Bell might be saved, and you were God \u2014 would you answer it?\n\nMr. Bowdoin, who was considered by the young girls at that time 'a confirmed bachelor,' also received the accompanying valentine from Emily.\n\nVALENTINE WEEK .\n\nAwake, ye muses nine, sing me a strain divine,\n\nUnwind the solemn twine, and tie my Valentine.\n\nOh the earth was _made_ for lovers, for damsel, and hopeless swain,\n\nFor sighing, and gentle whispering, and _unity_ made of _twain._\n\nAll things do go a courting, in earth or sea, or air,\n\nGod hath made nothing single but _thee_ in His world so fair!\n\nThe _bride_ and then the _bridegroom,_ the _two,_ and then the _one,_\n\nAdam, and Eve, his consort, the moon and then the sun;\n\nThe life doth prove the precept, who obey shall happy be,\n\nWho will not serve the sovereign, be hanged on fatal tree.\n\nThe high do seek the lowly, the great do seek the small,\n\nNone cannot find who seeketh, on this terrestrial ball;\n\nThe bee doth court the flower, the flower his suit receives,\n\nAnd they make a merry wedding, whose guests are hundred leaves;\n\nThe wind doth woo the branches, the branches they are won,\n\nAnd the father fond demandeth the maiden for his son.\n\nThe storm doth walk the seashore humming a mournful tune,\n\nThe wave with eye so pensive, looketh to see the moon,\n\nTheir spirits meet together, they make them solemn vows,\n\nNo more he singeth mournful, her sadness she doth lose.\n\nThe worm doth woo the mortal, death claims a living bride,\n\nNight unto day is married, morn unto eventide;\n\nEarth is a merry damsel, and heaven a knight so true,\n\nAnd Earth is quite coquettish, and beseemeth in vain to sue.\n\nNow to the application, to the reading of the roll,\n\nTo bringing thee to justice, and marshalling thy soul:\n\nThou art a _human_ solo, a being cold, and lone,\n\nWilt have no kind companion, thou reapest what thou hast sown.\n\nHast never silent hours, and minutes all too long,\n\nAnd a deal of sad reflection, and wailing instead of song?\n\nThere's _Sarah,_ and _Eliza,_ and _Emeline_ so fair,\n\nAnd _Harriet_ and _Sabra,_ and she with curling hair.\n\nThine eyes are sadly blinded, but yet thou mayest see\n\n_Six_ true and comely maidens sitting upon the tree;\n\nApproach that tree with caution, then up it boldly climb,\n\nAnd seize the one thou lovest, nor care for space, or time.\n\nThen bear her to the greenwood, and build for her a bower,\n\nAnd give her what she asketh, jewel, or bird, or flower \u2014\n\nAnd bring the fife, and trumpet, and beat upon the drum \u2014\n\nAnd bid the world Goodtnorrow, and go to glory home!\n\nValentines seemed ever near the thoughts of the young people of this generation, and another clever one, written by Emily in 1852, somehow found its way into _The Republican,_ probably through some friend. It was originally sent to Mr. William Howland.\n\n_Sic transit gloria mundi,_\n\nHow doth the busy bee \u2014\n\n_Dum vivimus vivamus,_ I stay mine enemy.\n\nOh, _veni, vidi, vici,_\n\nOh, _caput, cap-a-pie,_\n\nAnd oh, _memento mori_\n\nWhen I am far from thee.\n\nHurrah for Peter Parley,\n\nHurrah for Daniel Boone,\n\nThree cheers, sir, for the gentlemen\n\nWho first observed the moon.\n\nPeter put up the sunshine,\n\nPattie arrange the stars,\n\nTell Luna tea is waiting,\n\nAnd call your brother Mars.\n\nPut down the apple, Adam,\n\nAnd come away with me;\n\nSo shall thou have a pippin\n\nFrom off my father's tree.\n\nI climb the hill of science\n\nI 'view the landscape o'er,'\n\nSuch transcendental prospect\n\nI ne'er beheld before.\n\nUnto the Legislature\n\nMy country bids me go.\n\nI'll take my india-rubbers,\n\nIn case the wind should blow.\n\nDuring my education,\n\nIt was announced to me\n\nThat gravitation, stumbling,\n\nFell from an apple-tree.\n\nThe earth upon its axis\n\nWas once supposed to turn,\n\nBy way of a gymnastic\n\nIn honor to the sun.\n\nIt was the brave Columbus,\n\nA-sailing on the tide,\n\nWho notified the nations\n\nOf where I would reside.\n\nMortality is fatal,\n\nGentility is fine,\n\nRascality heroic,\n\nInsolvency sublime.\n\nOur fathers being weary\n\nLay down on Bunker Hill,\n\nAnd though full many a morning,\n\nYet they are sleeping still.\n\nThe trumpet, sir, shall wake them,\n\nIn dream I see them rise,\n\nEach with a solemn musket\n\nA-marching to the skies.\n\nA coward will remain, sir,\n\nUntil the fight is done,\n\nBut an immortal hero\n\nWill take his hat and run.\n\nGood-by, sir, I am going \u2014\n\nMy country calleth me.\n\nAllow me, sir, at parting\n\nTo wipe my weeping e'e.\n\nIn token of our friendship\n\nAccept this _Bonnie Doon,_\n\nAnd when the hand that plucked it\n\nHas passed beyond the moon,\n\nThe memory of my ashes\n\nWill consolation be.\n\nThen farewell, Tuscarora,\n\nAnd farewell, sir, to thee.\n\n_To Mrs. Ford Sunday Afternoon_ .\n\nI have just come home from meeting, where I have been all day, and it makes me so happy to think of writing you that I forget the sermon and minister and all, and think of none but you.... I miss you always, dear Emily, and I think now and then that I can't stay without you, and half make up my mind to make a little bundle of all my earthly things, bid my blossoms and home good-by, and set out on foot to find you. But we have so much matter of fact here that I don't dare to go, so I keep on sighing, and wishing you were here.\n\nI know you would be happier amid this darling spring than in ever so kind a city, and you would get well much faster drinking our morning dew \u2014 and the world here is so beautiful, and things so sweet and fair, that your heart would be soothed and comforted.\n\nI would tell you about the spring if I thought it might persuade you even now to return, but every bud and bird would only afflict you and make you sad where you are, so not one word of the robins, and not one word of the bloom, lest it make the city darker, and your own home more dear.\n\nBut nothing forgets you, Emily, not a blossom, not a bee; for in the merriest flower there is a pensive air, and in the bonniest bee a sorrow \u2014 they know that you are gone, they know how well you loved them, and in their little faces is sadness, and in their mild eyes, tears. But another spring, dear friend, you must and shall be here, and nobody can take you away, for I will hide you and keep you \u2014 and who would think of taking you if I hold you tight in my arms?\n\nYour home looks very silent \u2014 I try to think of things funny, and turn the other way when I am passing near, for sure I am that looking would make my heart too heavy, and make my eyes so dim. How I do long once more to hear the household voices, and see you there at twilight sitting in the door \u2014 and I shall when the leaves fall, sha'n't I, and the crickets begin to sing?\n\nYou must not think sad thoughts, dear Emily. I fear you are doing so, from your sweet note to me, and it almost breaks my heart to have you so far away, where I cannot comfort you.\n\nAll will be well, I know, and I know all will be happy, and I so wish I was near to convince my dear friend so. I want very much to hear how Mr. Ford is now. I hope you will tell me, for it's a good many weeks since I have known anything of him. You and he may come this way any summer; and how I hope he may \u2014 and I shall pray for him, and for you, and for your home on earth, which will be next the one in heaven.\n\nYour very affectionate,\n\nEMILIE.\n\nI thank you for writing me, one precious little 'forget-me-not' to bloom along my way. But one little one is lonely \u2014 pray send it a blue-eyed mate, that it be not alone. Here is love from mother and father and Vinnie and me....\n\n_Wednesday Eve._\n\nDEAR EMILY, \u2014 Are you there, and shall you always stay there, and is it not dear Emily any more, but Mrs. Ford of Connecticut, and must we stay alone, and will you not come back with the birds and the butterflies, when the days grow long and warm?\n\nDear Emily, we are lonely here. I know Col.\n\nS \u2014 is left, and Mr. and Mrs. K \u2014 , but pussy has run away, and you do not come back again, and the world has grown so long! I knew you would go away, for I know the roses are gathered, but I guessed not yet, not till by expectation we had become resigned. Dear Emily, when it came, and hidden by your veil you stood before us all and made those promises, and when we kissed you, all, and went back to our homes, it seemed to me translation, not any earthly thing, and if a little after you'd ridden on the wind, it would not have surprised me.\n\nAnd now five days have gone, Emily, and long and silent, and I begin to know that you will not come back again. There's a verse in the Bible, Emily, I don't know where it is, nor just how it goes can I remember, but it's a little like this \u2014 ' I can go to her, but she cannot come back to me.' I guess that isn't right, but my eyes are full of tears, and I'm sure I do not care if I make mistakes or not. Is it happy there, dear Emily, and is the fireside warm, and have you a little cricket to chirp upon the hearth?\n\nHow much we think of you \u2014 how dearly love you \u2014 how often hope for you that it may all be happy.\n\nSunday evening your father came in \u2014 he stayed a little while. I thought he looked solitary. I thought he had grown old. How lonely he must be \u2014 I'm sorry for him.\n\nMother and Vinnie send their love, and hope you are so happy. Austin has gone away. Father comes home to-morrow. I know father will miss you. He loved to meet you here.\n\n'So fades a summer cloud away,\n\nSo smiles the gale when storms are o'er,\n\nSo gently shuts the eye of day,\n\nSo dies a wave along the shore.'\n\nKiss me, dear Emily, and remember me if you will, with much respect, to your husband. Will you write me sometime?\n\nAffectionately,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To Mrs. Anthon_\n\nAMHERST .\n\n... Sweet at my door this March night another candidate. Go home! We don't like Katies here! Stay! My heart votes for you, and what am I, indeed, to dispute her ballot!\n\nWhat are your qualifications? Dare you dwell in the East where we dwell? Are you afraid of the sun? When you hear the new violet sucking her way among the sods, shall you be resolute? All we are strangers, dear, the world is not acquainted with \"s, because we are not acquainted with her; and pilgrims. Do you hesitate? And soldiers, oft \u2014 some of us victors, but those I do not see to-night, owing to the smoke. We are hungry, and thirsty, sometimes, we are barefoot and cold \u2014 will you still come?\n\nThen, bright I record you \u2014 Kate, gathered in March! It is a small bouquet, dear, but what it lacks in size it gains in fadelessness. Many can boast a hollyhock, but few can bear a rose! And should new flower smile at limited associates, pray her remember were there many, they were not worn upon the breast, but tilled in the pasture. So I rise wearing her \u2014 so I sleep holding, \u2014 sleep at last with her fast in my hand, and wake bearing my flower. Emilie.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nThere are two ripenings, one of sight,\n\nWhose forces spheric wind,\n\nUntil the velvet product\n\nDrops spicy to the ground.\n\nA homelier maturing,\n\nA process in the burr\n\nThat teeth of frosts alone disclose\n\nOn far October air.\n\nEMILIE.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nThe prettiest of pleas, dear, but with a lynx like me quite unavailable. Finding is slow, facilities for losing so frequent, in a world like this, I hold with extreme caution. A prudence so astute may seem unnecessary, but plenty moves those most, dear, who have been in want, and Saviour tells us, Kate, the poor are always with us. Were you ever poor? I have been a beggar, and rich to-night, as by God's leave I believe I am, the 'lazzaroni's 'faces haunt, pursue me still!\n\nYou do not yet 'dishmn,' Kate. Distinctly sweet your face stands in its phantom niche \u2014 I touch your hand \u2014 my cheek your cheek \u2014 I stroke your vanished hair. Why did you enter, sister, since you must depart? Had not its heart been torn enough but you must send your shred?\n\nOh, our condor Kate! Come from your crags again! Oh, dew upon the bloom fall yet again a summer's night! Of such have been the frauds which have vanquished faces, sown plant of flesh the church-yard plats, and occasioned angels.\n\nThere is a subject, dear, on which we never touch.\n\nIgnorance of its pageantries does not deter me. I too went out to meet the dust early in the morning.\n\nI too in daisy mounds possess hid treasure, therefore I guard you more. You did not tell me you had once been a 'millionaire.' Did my sister think that opulence could be mistaken? Some trinket will remain, some babbhng plate or jewel.\n\nI write you from the summer. The murmuring leaves fill up the chinks through which the winter red\n\nshone when Kate was here, and F was here, and\n\nfrogs sincerer than our own splash in their Maker's pools. It 's but a little past, dear, and yet how far from here it seems, fled with the snow! So through the snow go many loving feet parted by 'Alps.' How brief, from vineyards and the sun!\n\nParents and Vinnie request love to be given girl.\n\nEmilie.\n\nTo the Same.\n\nKatie, \u2014 Last year at this time I did not miss you, but positions shifted, until I hold your black in strong hallowed remembrance, and trust my colors are to you tints slightly beloved.\n\nYou cease, indeed, to talk, which is a custom prevalent among things parted and torn, but shall I class this, dear, among elect exceptions, and bear you just as usual unto the kind Lord?\n\nWe dignify our faith when we can cross the ocean with it, though most prefer ships.\n\nHow do you do this year?... How many years, I wonder, will sow the moss upon them, before we bind again, a little altered, it may be, elder a little it _will_ be, and yet the same, as suns which shine between our lives and loss, and violets \u2014 not last year's, but having the mother's eyes.\n\nDo you find plenty of food at home? Famine is unpleasant.\n\nIt is too late for frogs \u2014 or what pleases me better, dear, not quite early enough! The pools were full of you for a brief period, but that brief period blew away, leaving me with many stems, and but a few foliage! Gentlemen here have a way of plucking the tops of the trees, and putting the fields in their cellars annually, which in point of taste is execrable, and would they please omit, I should have fine vegetation and foliage all the year round, and never a winter month. Insanity to the sane seems so unnecessary \u2014 but I am only one, and they are 'four and forty,' which little affair of numbers leaves me impotent. Aside from this, dear Katie, inducements to visit Amherst are as they were \u2014 I am pleasantly located in the deep sea, but love will row you out, if her hands are strong, and don't wait till I land, for I'm going ashore on the other side.\n\nEMILIE.\n\nFollowing are letters written to her sister, Miss Lavinia Dickinson, while Emily was receiving treatment for her eyes in Boston. She was there for this purpose twice, \u2014 during the summer of 1864, and again in 1865, usually writing of these years as 'when I was sick so long,' which has given many persons the idea of an invalidism she never had.\n\nDEAR VINNIE, \u2014 Many write that they do not write because that they have too much to say, I that I have enough. Do you remember the Whippowil will that sang one night on the orchard fence, and then drove to the south, and we never heard of him afterward?\n\nHe will go home, and I shall go home, perhaps in the same train. It is a very sober thing to keep my summer in strange towns \u2014 what, I have not told, but I have found friends in the wilderness. You know Elijah did, and to see the 'ravens 'mending my stockings would break a heart long hard.\n\nFanny and Lou are solid gold, and Mrs. B \u2014 and her daughter very kind, and the doctor enthusiastic about my getting well. I feel no gayness yet \u2014 I suppose I had been discouraged so long.\n\nYou remember the prisoner of Chillon did not know liberty when it came, and asked to go back to jail.\n\nC \u2014 and A \u2014 came to see me and brought beautiful flowers. Do you know what made them remember me? Give them my love and gratitude.\n\nThey told me about the day at Pelham, you, dressed in daisies, and Mr. Mc D \u2014 . I couldn't see you, Vinnie. I am glad of all the roses you find, while your primrose is gone. How kind Mr. C \u2014 grew. Was Mr. D \u2014 dear?\n\nEmily wants to be well \u2014 if any one alive wants to get well more, I would let him, first.\n\nGive my love to father and mother and Austin. Tell Margaret I remember her, and hope Richard is well.... How I wish I could rest all those who are tired for me.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR VINNIE, \u2014 The hood is far under way, and the girls think it a beauty.... I hope the chimneys are done, and the hemlocks set, and the two teeth filled in the front yard. How astonishing it will be to me!...\n\nThe pink lily you gave Lou has had five flowers since I came, and has more buds. The girls think it my influence. Lou wishes she knew father's view of Jeff Davis' capture \u2014 thinks no one but him can do it justice. She wishes to send a photograph of the arrest to Austin, including the skirt and spurs, but fears he will think her trifling with him. I advised her not to be rash.\n\nHow glad I should be to see you all, but it won't be long, Vinnie. You will be willing, won't you, for a little while? It has rained and been very hot, and mosquitoes, as in August. I hope the flowers are well. The tea-rose I gave Aunt L \u2014 has a flower now. Is the lettuce ripe? Persons wear no bonnets here. Fanny has a blade of straw with handle of ribbon.\n\nAffectionately,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\n... Father told me you were going. I wept for the little plants, but rejoiced for you. Had I loved them as well as I did, I could have begged you to stay with them, but they are foreigners now, and all, a foreigner. I have been sick so long I do not know the sun. I hope they may be alive, for home would be strange except them, now the world is dead.\n\nA \u2014 N \u2014 lives here since Saturday, and two new people more, a person and his wife, so I do little but fly, yet always find a nest. I shall go home in two weeks. You will get me at Palmer?\n\nLove for E \u2014 and Mr. D \u2014 .\n\nSISTER.\n\n_To the Same._.. The Doctor will let me go Monday of Thanksgiving week. He wants to see me Sunday, so I cannot before.... Love for the Middletown pearls.\n\nShall write E \u2014 after Tuesday, when I go to the Doctor. Thank her for sweet note.\n\nThe drums keep on for the still man \u2014 but Emily must stop.\n\nLove of Fanny and Lou.\n\nSISTER.\n\nSoon after the close of the war, a friend, Mrs. Vanderbilt of Long Island, met with a very serious bodily accident. Upon her recovery she received the following welcome to the realm of health: \u2014\n\nTo this world she returned,\n\nBut with a tingle of that;\n\nA compound manner,\n\nAs a sod\n\nEspoused a violet\n\nThat chiefer to the skies\n\nThan to himself allied,\n\nDwelt, hesitating,\n\nHalf of dust,\n\nAnd half of day, the bride.\n\nEMILY.\n\nOn the occasion of another friend's departure from Amherst after a visit, Emily's good-by was embodied in the following lines, accompanied by an oleander blossom tied with black ribbon:\n\nWe'll pass without a parting,\n\nSo to spare Certificate of absence,\n\nDeeming where\n\nI left her I could find her\n\nIf I tried.\n\nThis way I keep from missing Those who died.\n\nEMILY.\n**CHAPTER IV**\n\n_To Dr J. G. Holland and Mrs. Holland_\n\nTHE dates of these letters can be approximated only by the hand-writing \u2014 which varies from the early style, about 1853, to the latest \u2014 and by events mentioned, the time of whose occurrence is known. Mrs. Holland writes that there were many other letters, even more quaint and original, but unhappily not preserved.\n\n_[About 1853.]_\n\n_Friday Evening._\n\nThank you, dear Mrs. Holland \u2014 Vinnie and I will come, if you would like to have us. We should have written before, but mother has not been well, and we hardly knew whether we could leave her, but she is better now, and I write quite late this evening, that if you still desire it, Vinnie and I will come. Then, dear Mrs. Holland, if agreeable to you, we will take the Amherst train on Tuesday morning, for Springfield, and be with you at noon.\n\nThe cars leave here at nine o'clock, and I think reach Springfield at twelve. I can think just how we dined with you a year ago from now, and it makes my heart beat faster to think perhaps we'll see you so little while from now.\n\nTo live a thousand years would not make me forget the day and night we spent there, and while I write the words, I don't believe I'm coming, so sweet it seems to me. I hope we shall not tire you; with all your other cares, we fear we should not come, but you _will_ not let us trouble you, will you, dear Mrs. Holland?\n\nFather and mother ask a very warm remembrance to yourself and Dr Holland.\n\nWe were happy the grapes and figs seemed acceptable to you, and wished there were many more. I am very sorry to hear that 'Kate 'has such excellent lungs. With all your other cares, it must be quite a trial to you.\n\nIt is also a source of pleasure to me that Annie goes to sleep, on account of the 'interregnum 'it must afford to you.\n\nThree days and we are there \u2014 happy \u2014 very happy! To-morrow I will sew, but I shall think of you, and Sunday sing and pray \u2014 yet I shall not forget you, and Monday's very near, and here's to me on Tuesday! Good-night, dear Mrs. Holland \u2014 I see I'm getting wild \u2014 you will forgive me all, and not _forget_ me all, though? Vinnie is fast asleep, or her love would be here \u2014 though she is, it is. Once more, if it is fair, we will come on Tuesday, and you love to have us, but if not convenient, please surely tell us so.\n\nAffectionately,\n\nEMILIE.\n\n_Tuesday Evening._\n\nDEAR DR AND MRS HOLLAND, \u2014 dear Minnie \u2014 it is cold to-night, but the thought of you so warm, that I sit by it as a fireside, and am never cold any more. I love to write to you \u2014 it gives my heart a holiday and sets the bells to ringing. If prayers had any answers to them, you were all here to-night, but I seek and I don't find, and knock and it is not opened. Wonder if God is just \u2014 presume He is, however, and it was only a blunder of Matthew's.\n\nI think mine is the case, where when they ask an egg, they get a scorpion, for I keep wishing for you, keep shutting up my eyes and looking toward the sky, asking with all my might for you, and yet you do not come. I wrote to you last week, but thought you would laugh at me, and call me sentimental, so I kept my lofty letter for 'Adolphus Hawkins, Esq.'\n\nIf it wasn't for broad daylight, and cooking-stoves, and roosters, I'm afraid you would have occasion to smile at my letters often, but so sure as 'this mortal' essays immortality, a crow from a neighboring farm-yard dissipates the illusion, and I am here again.\n\nAnd what I mean is this \u2014 that I thought of you all last week, until the world grew rounder than it sometimes is, and I broke several dishes.\n\nMonday, I solemnly resolved I would be _sensible,_ so I wore thick shoes, and thought of Dr Humphrey, and the Moral Law. One glimpse of _The Republican_ makes me break things again \u2014 I read in it every night.\n\nWho writes those funny accidents, where railroads meet each other unexpectedly, and gentlemen in factories get their heads cut off quite informally? The author, too, relates them in such a sprightly way, that they are quite attractive. Vinnie was disappointed to-night, that there were not more accidents \u2014 I read the news aloud, while Vinnie was sewing. _The Republican_ seems to us like a letter from you, and we break the seal and read it eagerly....\n\nVinnie and I talked of you as we sewed, this afternoon. I said \u2014 'how far they seem from us,' but Vinnie answered me 'only a little way.'... I'd love to be a bird or bee, that whether hum or sing, still might be near you.\n\nHeaven is large \u2014 is it not? Life is short too, isn't it? Then when one is done, is there not another, and \u2014 and \u2014 then if God is willing, we are neighbors then. Vinnie and mother send their love. Mine too is here. My letter as a bee, goes laden. Please love us and remember us. Please write us very soon, and tell us how you are....\n\nAffectionately,\n\nEMILIE.\n\n_[Late Autumn, 1853.]_\n\n_Sabbath Afternoon._\n\nDEAR FRIENDS, \u2014 I thought I would write again. I write you many letters with pens which are not seen. Do you receive them?\n\nI think of you all to-day, and dreamed of you last night.\n\nWhen father rapped on my door to wake me this morning, I was walking with you in the most wonderful garden, and helping you pick \u2014 roses, and though we gathered with all our might, the basket was never full. And so all day I pray that I may walk with you, and gather roses again, and as night draws on, it pleases me, and I count impatiently the hours 'tween me and the darkness, and the dream of you and the roses, and the basket never full.\n\nGod grant the basket fill not, till, with hands purer and whiter, we gather flowers of gold in baskets made of pearl; higher \u2014 higher! It seems long since we heard from you \u2014 long, since how little Annie was, or any one of you \u2014 so long since Cattle Show, when Dr Holland was with us. Oh, it always seems a long while from our seeing you, and even when at your house, the nights seemed much more long than they're wont to do, because separated from you. I want so much to know if the friends are all well in that dear cot in Springfield \u2014 and if well whether happy, and happy \u2014 _how_ happy, and why, and what bestows the joy? And then those other questions, asked again and again, whose answers are so sweet, do they love \u2014 remember us \u2014 wish sometimes we were there? Ah, friends \u2014 dear friends \u2014 perhaps my queries tire you, but I so long to know.\n\nThe minister to-day, not our own minister, preached about death and judgment, and what would become of those, meaning Austin and me, who behaved improperly \u2014 and somehow the sermon scared me, and father and Vinnie looked very solemn as if the whole was true, and I would not for worlds have them know that it troubled me, but I longed to come to you, and tell you all about it, and learn how to be better. He preached such an awful sermon though, that I didn't much think I should ever see you again until the Judgment Day, and then you would not speak to, me, according to his story. The subject of perdition seemed to please him, somehow. It seems very solemn to me. I'll tell you all about it, when I see you again.\n\nI wonder what you are doing to-day \u2014 if you have been to meeting? To-day has been a fair day, very still and blue. To-night the crimson children are playing in the west, and to-morrow will be colder. How sweet if I could see you, and talk of all these things! Please write us very soon. The days with you last September seem a great way off, and to meet you again, delightful. I'm sure it won't be long before we sit together.\n\nThen will I not repine, knowing that bird of mine, though flown \u2014 learneth beyond the sea, melody new for me, and will return.\n\nAffectionately,\n\nEMILY.\n\nThis little poem was enclosed in the foregoing letter: \u2014\n\nTruth is as old as God,\n\nHis twin identity \u2014\n\nAnd will endure as long as He,\n\nA co-eternity,\n\nAnd perish on the day\n\nThat He is borne away\n\nFrom mansion of the universe,\n\nA lifeless Deity.\n\n_[Enclosing some leaves, 1854.]_\n\n_January 2d._\n\n_May_ it come _to-day?_\n\nThen New Year the sweetest, and long life the merriest, and the Heaven highest \u2014 by and by!\n\nEMILIE.\n\n_[Spring, 1854.]_\n\nPHILADELPHIA.\n\nDEAR MRS HOLLAND AND MINNIE, and Dr Holland too \u2014 I have stolen away from company to write a note to you; and to say that I love you still.\n\nI am not at home \u2014 I have been away just five weeks to-day, and shall not go quite yet back to Massachusetts. Vinnie is with me here, and we have wandered together into many new ways.\n\nWe were three weeks in Washington, while father was there, and have been two in Philadelphia. We have had many pleasant times, and seen much that is fair, and heard much that is wonderful \u2014 many sweet ladies and noble gentlemen have taken us by the hand and smiled upon us pleasantly \u2014 and the sun shines brighter for our way thus far.\n\nI will not tell you what I saw \u2014 the elegance, the grandeur; you will not care to know the value of the diamonds my Lord and Lady wore, but if you haven't been to the sweet Mount Vernon, then I _will_ tell you how on one soft spring day we glided down the Potomac in a painted boat, and jumped upon the shore \u2014 how hand in hand we stole along up a tangled pathway till we reached the tomb of General George Washington, how we paused beside it, and no one spoke a word, then hand in hand, walked on again, not less wise or sad for that marble story; how we went within the door \u2014 raised the latch he lifted when he last went home \u2014 thank the Ones in Light that he's since passed in through a brighter wicket! Oh, I could spend a long day, if it did not weary you, telling of Mount Vernon \u2014 and I will sometime if we live and meet again, and God grant we shall!\n\nI wonder if you have all forgotten us, we have stayed away so long. I hope you haven't \u2014 I tried to write so hard before I went from home, but the moments were so busy, and then they _flew_ so. I was sure when days _did_ come in which I was less busy, I should seek your forgiveness, and it did not occur to me that you might not forgive me. Am I too late to-day? Even if you are angry, I shall keep praying you, till from very weariness, you will take me in. It seems to me many a day since we were in Springfield, and Minnie and the _dumb-bells_ seem as vague \u2014 as vague; and sometimes I wonder if I ever dreamed \u2014 then if I'm dreaming now, then if I _always_ dreamed, and there is not a world, and not these darling friends, for whom I would not count my life too great a sacrifice. Thank God there is a world, and that the friends we love dwell forever and ever in a house above. I fear I grow incongruous, but to meet my friends does delight me so that I quite forget time and sense and so forth.\n\nNow, my precious friends, if you won't forget me until I get home, and become more sensible, I will write again, and more properly. Why didn't I ask before, if you were well and happy?\n\n_Forgetful_ EMILIE.\n\n_[November, 1854.]_\n\n_Saturday Eve._\n\nI come in flakes, dear Dr Holland, for verily it snows, and as descending swans, here a pinion and there a pinion, and anon a plume, come the bright inhabitants of the white home.'\n\nI know they fall in Springfield; perhaps you see them now \u2014 and therefore I look out again, to see if you are looking.\n\nHow pleasant it seemed to hear your voice \u2014 so said Vinnie and I, as we as individuals, and then collectively, read your brief note. Why didn't you speak to us before? We thought you had forgotten us \u2014 we concluded that one of the bright things had gone forever more. That is a sober feeling, and it mustn't come too often in such a world as this. A violet came up next day, and blossomed in our garden, and were it not for these same flakes, I would go in the dark and get it, so to send to you. Thank Him who is in Heaven, Katie Holland lives! Kiss her on every cheek for me \u2014 I really can't remember how many the bairn has \u2014 and give my warmest recollection to Mrs. Holland and Minnie, whom to love, this Saturday night, is no trifling thing. I'm very happy that you are happy \u2014 and that you cheat the angels of another one.\n\nI would the many households clad in dark attire had succeeded so. You must all be happy and strong and well. I love to have the lamps shine on your evening table. I love to have the sun shine on your daily walks.\n\nThe 'new house '! God bless it! You will leave the 'maiden and married life of Mary Powell 'behind.\n\nLove and remember\n\nEMILIE.\n\nWhile the family lived for many years in the old mansion built by Emily Dickinson's grandfather, the Hon. Samuel Fowler Dickinson, they had moved away from it about 1840; and the following letter describes their return after fifteen years to their early home, where Emily was born, and where she died: \u2014\n\n_Sabbath Day._\n\nYour voice is sweet, dear Mrs. Holland \u2014 I wish I heard it oftener.\n\nOne of the mortal musics Jupiter denies, and when indeed its gentle measures fall upon my ear, I stop the birds to listen. Perhaps you think I _have_ no bird, and this is rhetoric \u2014 pray, Mr. Whately, what is _that_ upon the cherry-tree? Church is done, and the winds blow, and Vinnie is in that pallid land the simple call 'sleep.' They will be wiser by and by, we shall all be wiser! While I sit in the snows, the summer day on which you came and the bees and the south wind, seem fabulous as _Heaven_ seems to a sinful world \u2014 and I keep remembering it till it assumes a _spectral_ air, and nods and winks at me, and then all of you turn to phantoms and vanish slow away. We cannot talk and laugh more, in the parlor where we met, but we learned to love for aye, there, so it is just as well.\n\nWe shall sit in a parlor 'not made with hands 'unless we are very careful!\n\nI cannot tell you how we moved. I had rather not remember. I believe my 'effects 'were brought in a bandbox, and the 'deathless me,' on foot, not many moments after. I took at the time a memorandum of my several senses, and also of my hat and coat, and my best shoes \u2014 but it was lost in the _m\u00eal\u00e9e,_ and I am out with lanterns, looking for myself.\n\nSuch wits as I reserved, are so badly shattered that repair is useless \u2014 and still I can't help laughing at my own catastrophe. I supposed we were going to make a 'transit,' as heavenly bodies did \u2014 but we came budget by budget, as our fellows do, till we fulfilled the pantomime contained in the word 'moved.' It is a kind of _gone to Kansas_ feeling, and if I sat in a long wagon, with my family tied behind, I should suppose without doubt I was a party of emigrants!\n\nThey say that 'home is where the heart is.' I think it is where the _house_ is, and the adjacent buildings.\n\nBut, my dear Mrs. Holland, I have another story, and lay my laughter all away, so that I can sigh. Mother has been an invalid since we came _home,_ and Vinnie and I 'regulated,' and Vinnie and I 'got settled,' and still we keep our father's house, and mother lies upon the lounge, or sits in her easy-chair. I don't know what her sickness is, for I am but a simple child, and frightened at myself. I often wish I was a grass, or a toddling daisy, whom all these problems of the dust might not terrify \u2014 and should my own machinery get slightly out of gear, _please,_ kind ladies and gentlemen, some one stop the wheel, \u2014 for I know that with belts and bands of gold, I shall whizz triumphant on the new stream! Love for you \u2014 love for Dr Holland \u2014 thanks for his exquisite hymn \u2014 tears for your sister in sable, and kisses for Minnie and the bairns.\n\nFrom your mad\n\nEMILIE.\n\n_[Spring, 1856?]_\n\n... February passed like a skate and I know March. Here is the 'light 'the stranger said 'was not on sea or land.' Myself could arrest it, but will not chagrin him.\n\n... Cousin Peter told me the Doctor would address Commencement \u2014 trusting it insure you both for papa's _f\u00eate_ I endowed Peter. We do not always know the source of the smile that flows to us....\n\nMy flowers are near and foreign, and I have but to cross the floor to stand in the Spice Isles.\n\nThe wind blows gay to-day and the jays bark like blue terriers.\n\nI tell you what I see \u2014 the landscape of the spirit requires a lung, but no tongue. I hold you few I love, till my heart is red as February and purple as March.\n\nHand for the Doctor.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[Late Summer, 1856.]_\n\n_Sabbath Night._\n\nDon't tell, dear Mrs. Holland, but wicked as I am, I read my Bible sometimes, and in it as I read to-day, I found a verse like this, where friends should 'go no more out; 'and there were 'no tears,' and I wished as I sat down to-night that we were _there \u2014_ not _here_ \u2014 and that wonderful world had commenced, which makes such promises, and rather than to write you, I were by your side, and the 'hundred and forty and four thousand were chatting pleasantly, yet not disturbing us. And I'm half tempted to take my seat in that Paradise of which the good man writes, and begin forever and ever _now,_ so wondrous does it seem. My only sketch, profile, of Heaven is a large, blue sky, bluer and larger than the _biggest_ I have seen in June, and in it are my friends \u2014 all of them \u2014 every one of them \u2014 those who are with me now, and those who were 'parted 'as we walked, and 'snatched up to Heaven.'\n\nIf roses had not faded, and frosts had never come, and one had not fallen here and there whom I could not waken, there were no need of other Heaven than the one below \u2014 and if God had been here this summer, and seen the things that I have seen \u2014 I guess that He would think His Paradise superfluous. Don't tell Him, for the world, though, for after all He's said about it, I should like to see what He _was_ building for us, with no hammer, and no stone, and no journeyman either. Dear Mrs. Holland, I love, to-night \u2014 love you and Dr Holland, and 'time and sense ' \u2014 and fading things, and things that do _not_ fade.\n\nI'm so glad you are not a blossom, for those in my garden fade, and then a 'reaper whose name is Death 'has come to get a few to help him make a bouquet for himself, so I'm glad you are not a rose \u2014 and I'm glad you are not a bee, for where they go when summer's done, only the thyme knows, and even were you a robin, when the west winds came, you would coolly wink at me, and away, some morning!\n\nAs 'little Mrs. Holland,' then, I think I love you most, and trust that tiny lady will dwell below while we dwell, and when with many a wonder we seek the new Land, _her_ wistful face, _with_ ours, shall look the last upon the hills, and first upon \u2014 well, _Home!_\n\nPardon my sanity, Mrs. Holland, in a world insane, and love me if you will, for I had rather _be_ loved than to be called a king in earth, or a lord in Heaven.\n\nThank you for your sweet note \u2014 the clergy are very well. Will bring such fragments from them as shall seem me good. I kiss my paper here for you and Dr Holland \u2014 would it were cheeks instead.\n\nDearly, \u2014\n\nEMILIE.\n\nP.S. The bobolinks have gone.\n\nDEAR SISTER, \u2014 After you went, a low wind warbled through the house like a spacious bird, making it high but lonely. When you had gone the love came. I supposed it would. The supper of the heart is when the guest has gone.\n\nShame is so intrinsic in a strong affection we must all experience Adam's reticence. I suppose the street that the lover travels is thenceforth divine, incapable of turnpike aims.\n\nThat you be with me annuls fear and I await Commencement with merry resignation. Smaller than David you clothe me with extreme Goliath.\n\nFriday I tasted life. It was a vast morsel. A circus passed the house \u2014 still I feel the red in my mind though the drums are out.\n\nThe book you mention, I have not met. Thank you for tenderness.\n\nThe lawn is full of south and the odors tangle, and I hear to-day for the first the river in the tree.\n\nYou mentioned spring's delaying \u2014 I blamed her for the opposite. I would eat evanescence slowly.\n\nVinnie is deeply afflicted in the death of her dappled cat, though I convince her it is immortal which assists her some. Mother resumes lettuce, involving my transgression \u2014 suggestive of yourself, however, which endears disgrace.\n\n'House' is being 'cleaned.' I prefer pestilence. That is more classic and less fell.\n\nYours was my first arbutus. It was a rosy boast.\n\nI will send you the first witch hazel.\n\nA woman died last week, young and in hope but a little while \u2014 at the end of our garden. I thought since of the power of Death, not upon affection, but its mortal signal. It is to us the Nile.\n\nYou refer to the unpermitted delight to be with those we love. I suppose that to be the license not granted of God.\n\nCount not that far that can be had,\n\nThough sunset lie between \u2014\n\nNor that adjacent, that beside,\n\nIs further than the sun.\n\nLove for your embodiment of it. \u2014\n\nEMILY\n\nGod bless you, dear Mrs. Holland! I read it in the paper.\n\nI'm so glad it's a little boy, since now the little sisters have some one to draw them on the sled \u2014 and if a grand old lady you should live to be, there's something sweet, they say, in a son's arm.\n\nI pray for the tenants of that holy chamber, the wrestler, and the wrestled for. I pray for distant father's heart, swollen, happy heart!\n\nSaviour keep them all!\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[Autumn, 1859.]_\n\nDEAR HOLLANDS, \u2014 Belong to me! We have no fires yet, and the evenings grow cold. To-morrow, stoves are set. How many barefoot shiver I trust their Father knows who saw not fit to give them shoes.\n\nVinnie is sick to-night, which gives the world a russet tinge, usually so red. It is only a headache, but when the head aches next to you, it becomes important. When she is well, time leaps. When she is ill, he lags, or stops entirely.\n\nSisters are brittle things. God was penurious with me, which makes me shrewd with Him.\n\n_One_ is a dainty sum! One bird, one cage, one flight; one song in those far woods, as yet suspected by faith only!\n\nThis is September, and you were coming in September. Come! Our parting is too long. There has been frost enough. We must have summer now, and 'whole legions 'of daisies.\n\nThe gentian is a greedy flower, and overtakes us all. Indeed, this world is short, and I wish, until I tremble, to touch the ones I love before the hills are red \u2014 are gray \u2014 are white \u2014 are 'born again '! If we knew how deep the crocus lay, we never should let her go. Still, crocuses stud many mounds whose gardeners till in anguish some tiny, vanished bulb.\n\nWe saw you that Saturday afternoon, but heedlessly forgot to ask where you were going, so did not know, and could not write. Vinnie saw Minnie flying by, one afternoon at Palmer. She supposed you were all there on your way from the sea, and untied her fancy! To say that her fancy wheedled her is superfluous.\n\nWe talk of you together, then diverge on life, then hide in you again, as a safe fold. Don't leave us long, dear friends! You know we 're children still, and children fear the dark.\n\nAre you well at home? Do you work now? Has it altered much since I was there? Are the children women, and the women thinking it will soon be afternoon? We will help each other bear our unique burdens.\n\nIs Minnie with you now? Take her our love, if she is. Do her eyes grieve her now? Tell her she may have half ours.\n\nMother's favorite sister is sick, and mother will have to bid her good-night. It brings mists to us all; \u2014 the aunt whom Vinnie visits, with whom she spent, I fear, her last inland Christmas. Does God take care of those at sea? My aunt is such a timid woman!\n\nWill you write to us? I bring you all their loves \u2014 \u2014 _many._\n\nThey tire me.\n\nEMILIE.\n\nHow is your little Byron? Hope he gains his foot without losing his genius. Have heard it ably argued that the poet's genius lay in his foot \u2014 as the bee's prong and his song are concomitant. Are you stronger than these? To assault so minute a creature seems to me malign, unworthy of Nature \u2014 \u2014 but the frost is no respecter of persons.\n\nI should be glad to be with you, or to open your letter. Blossoms belong to the bee, if needs be by _habeas corpus._\n\nEMILY.\n\nProbably about 1861 came this brilliant, yet half pathetic, arraignment of the friends who had not written when Emily expected to hear. Who could resist such a plea?\n\n_Friday,_ DEAR FRIENDS, \u2014 I write to you. I receive no letter.\n\nI say 'they dignify my trust.' I do not disbelieve. I go again. _Cardinals_ wouldn't do it. Cockneys wouldn't do it, but I can't _stop_ to strut, in a world where bells toll. I hear through visitor in town, that 'Mrs. Holland is not strong.' The little peacock in me, tells me not to inquire again. Then I remember my tiny friend \u2014 how brief she is \u2014 how dear she is, and the peacock quite dies away. Now, you need not speak, for perhaps you are weary, and 'Herod 'requires all your thought, but if you are _well_ \u2014 let Annie draw me a little picture of an erect flower; if you are _ill,_ she can hang the flower a little on one side!\n\nThen, I shall understand, and you need not stop to write me a letter. Perhaps you laugh at me! Perhaps the whole United States are laughing at me too! _I_ can't stop for that! _My_ business is to love. I found a bird, this morning, down \u2014 down \u2014 on a little bush at the foot of the garden, and wherefore sing, I said, since nobody _hears?_\n\nOne sob in the throat, one flutter of bosom \u2014 _'My_ business is to _sing '_ \u2014 and away she rose! How do I know but cherubim, once, themselves, as patient, listened, and applauded her unnoticed hymn?\n\nEMILY.\n\nDEAR SISTER, \u2014 Father called to say that our steelyard was fraudulent, exceeding by an ounce the rates of honest men. He had been selling oats. I cannot stop smiling, though it is hours since, that even our steelyard will not tell the truth.\n\nBesides wiping the dishes for Margaret, I wash them now, while she becomes Mrs. Lawler, vicarious papa to four previous babes. Must she not be an adequate bride?\n\nI winced at her loss, because I was in the habit of her, and even a new rolling-pin has an embarrassing element, but to all except anguish, the mind soon adjusts.\n\nIt is also November. The noons are more laconic and the sundowns sterner, and Gibraltar lights make the village foreign. November always seemed to me the Norway of the year. \u2014 is still with the sister who put her child in an ice nest last Monday forenoon. The redoubtable God! I notice where Death has been introduced, he frequently calls, making it desirable to forestall his advances.\n\nIt is hard to be told by the papers that a friend is failing, not even know where the water lies. Incidentally, only, that he comes to land. Is there no voice for these? Where is Love to-day?\n\nTell the dear Doctor we mention him with a foreign accent, party already to transactions spacious and untold. Nor have we omitted to breathe shorter for our little sister. Sharper than dying is the death for the dying's sake.\n\nNews of these would comfort, when convenient or possible.\n\nEMILY.\n\nDEAR SISTER, \u2014\n\nIt was incredibly sweet that Austin had seen you, and had stood in the dear house which had lost its friend. To see one who had seen you was a strange assurance. It helped dispel the fear that you departed too, for notwithstanding the loved notes and the lovely gift, there lurked a dread that you had gone or would seek to go. 'Where the treasure is,' there is the prospective.\n\nAustin spoke very warmly and strongly of you, and we all felt firmer, and drew a vocal portrait of Kate at Vinnie's request, so vivid that we saw her....\n\nNot all die early, dying young, Maturity of fate Is consummated equally In ages or a night. A hoary boy I've known to drop Whole-statured, by the side Of junior of fourscore \u2014 't was act, Not period, that died.\n\nEMILY.\n\nWill some one lay this little flower on Mrs. Holland's pillow?\n\nEMILIE.\n\nIn handwriting similar to the letters about 1862-68, are several poems, enclosed to the Hollands, among them, \u2014\n\nAway from home are some and I,\n\nAn emigrant to be\n\nIn a metropolis of homes\n\nIs common possibility.\n\nThe habit of a foreign sky We, difficult, acquire, As children who remain in face, The more their feet retire.\n\nAnd \u2014\n\nThough my destiny be fustian\n\nHers be damask fine \u2014\n\nThough she wear a silver apron,\n\nI, a less divine,\n\nStill, my little gypsy being,\n\nI would far prefer,\n\nStill my little sunburnt bosom,\n\nTo her rosier.\n\nFor when frosts their punctual fingers\n\nOn her forehead lay,\n\nYou and I and Doctor Holland\n\nBloom eternally,\n\nRoses of a steadfast summer\n\nIn a steadfast land,\n\nWhere no autumn lifts her pencil,\n\nAnd no reapers stand.\n\nIn addition to these, many other poems were sent to the Hollands which have already been published; all of them, however, showing slight changes from copies which she retained.\n\n_[Autumn, 1876.]_\n\n_Saturday Eve._\n\nDEAR HOLLANDS, \u2014 Good-night! I can't stay any longer in a world of death. Austin is ill of fever. I buried my garden last week \u2014 our man, Dick, lost a little girl through the scarlet fever. I thought perhaps that _you_ were dead, and not knowing the sexton's address, interrogate the daisies. Ah! dainty \u2014 dainty Death! Ah! democratic Death! Grasping the proudest zinnia from my purple garden, \u2014 then deep to his bosom calling the serf's child!\n\nSay, is he everywhere? Where shall I hide my things? Who is alive? The woods are dead. Is Mrs. H. alive? Annie and Katie \u2014 are they below, or received to nowhere?\n\nI shall not tell how short time is, for I was told by lips which sealed as soon as it was said, and the open revere the shut. You were not here in summer. _Summer?_ My memory flutters \u2014 had I \u2014 was there a summer? You should have seen the fields go \u2014 gay little entomology! Swift little ornithology! Dancer, and floor, and cadence quite gathered away, and I, a phantom, to you a phantom, rehearse the story! An orator of feather unto an audience of fuzz, \u2014 and pantomimic plaudits. 'Quite as good as a play,' indeed! Tell Mrs. Holland she is mine.\n\nAsk her if _vice versa f_ Mine is but just the thief s request \u2014 'Remember me to-day.' Such are the bright chirographics of the 'Lamb's Book.' Goodnight! My ships are in! \u2014 My window overlooks the wharf! One yacht, and a man-of-war; two brigs and a schooner! 'Down with the topmast! Lay her a' hold, a' hold!'\n\nEMILIE.\n\nA letter from Mrs. Holland to Emily and her sister jointly, in 1877, called forth this unique protest.\n\nSISTER, \u2014 A mutual plum is not a plum. I was too respectful to take the pulp and do not like a stone.\n\nSend no union letters. The soul must go by Death alone, so, it must by life, if it is a soul.\n\nIf a committee \u2014 no matter.\n\nI saw the sunrise on the Alps since I saw you. Travel why to Nature, when she dwells with us? Those who lift their hats shall see her, as devout do God.\n\nI trust you are merry and sound. The chances are all against the dear, when we are not with them, though paws of principalities cannot affront if we are by.\n\nDr Vaill called here Monday on his way to your house to get the Doctor to preach for him. Shall search _The Republican_ for a brief of the sermon. To-day is very homely and awkward as the homely are who have not mental beauty.\n\nThen follows, \u2014\n\n'The sky is low, the clouds are mean,' printed at page 103 of the _Poems,_ First Series.\n\n_[Spring, 1878.]_\n\nI thought that 'Birnam Wood' had 'come to Dunsinane.' Where did you pick arbutus? In Broadway, I suppose. They say that God is everywhere, and yet we always think of Him as somewhat of a recluse.... It is hard not to hear again that vital 'Sam is coming ' \u2014 though if grief is a test of a priceless life, he is compensated. He was not ambitious for redemption \u2014 that was why it is his. 'To him that hath, shall be given.' Were it not for the eyes, we would know of you oftener. Have they no remorse for their selfishness? 'This tabernacle 'is a blissful trial, but the bliss predominates.\n\nI suppose you will play in the water at Alexandria Bay, as the baby does at the tub in the drive.... Speak to us when your eyes can spare you, and 'keep us, at home, or by the way,' as the clergyman says, when he folds the church till another Sabbath.\n\nLovingly,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[August, 1879.]_\n\nLOVED AND LITTLE SISTER, \u2014 Vinnie brought in a sweet pea to-day, which had a pod on the 'off' side. Startled by the omen, I hasten to you.\n\nAn unexpected impediment to my reply to your dear last, was a call from my Aunt Elizabeth \u2014 ' the only male relative on the female side,' and though many days since, its flavor of court-martial still sets my spirit tingling.\n\nWith what dismay I read of those columns of kindred in the Bible \u2014 the Jacobites and the Jebusites and the Hittites and the Jacqueminots!\n\nI am sure you are better, for no rheumatism in its senses would stay after the thermometer struck ninety!\n\nWe are revelling in a gorgeous drought.\n\nThe grass is painted brown, and how nature would look in other than the standard colors, we can all infer.... I bade \u2014 call on you, but Vinnie said you were 'the other side the globe,' yet Vinnie thinks Vermont is in Asia, so I don't intend to be disheartened by trifles.\n\nVinnie has a new pussy that catches a mouse an hour. We call her the 'minute hand.'...\n\nDr Holland's death, in October of 1881, brought grief to many loving hearts, but to the quiet Amherst household peculiar pain, voiced in the notes to follow.\n\nWe read the words but know them not. We are too frightened with sorrow. If that dear, tired one must sleep, could we not see him first?\n\nHeaven is but a little way to one who gave it, here. 'Inasmuch,' to him, how tenderly fulfilled!\n\nOur hearts have flown to you before \u2014 our breaking voices follow. How can we wait to take you all in our sheltering arms?\n\nCould there be new tenderness, it would be for you, but the heart is full \u2014 another throb would split it \u2014 nor would we dare to speak to those whom such a grief removes, but we have somewhere heard 'A little child shall lead them.'\n\nEMILY.\n\n_Thursday._\n\nAfter a while, dear, you will remember that there is a heaven \u2014 but you can't now. Jesus will excuse it. He will remember his shorn lamb.\n\nThe lost one was on such childlike terms with the Father in Heaven. He has passed from confiding to comprehending \u2014 perhaps but a step.\n\nThe _safety_ of a beloved lost is the first anguish. With you, that is peace.\n\nI shall never forget the Doctor's prayer, my first morning with you \u2014 so simple, so believing. _That_ God must be a friend \u2014 _that_ was a different God \u2014 and I almost felt warmer myself, in the midst of a tie so sunshiny.\n\nI am yearning to know if he knew he was fleeing \u2014 if he spoke to you. Dare I ask if he suffered? Some one will tell me a very little, when they have the strength.... Cling tight to the hearts that will not let you fall.\n\nEMILY.\n\nPanting to help the dear ones and yet not knowing how, lest any voice bereave them but that loved voice that will not come, if I can rest them, here is down \u2014 or rescue, here is power.\n\nOne who only said 'I am sorry 'helped me the most when father ceased \u2014 it was too soon for language.\n\nFearing to tell mother, some one disclosed it unknown to us. Weeping bitterly, we tried to console her. She only replied 'I loved him so.'\n\nHad he a tenderer eulogy?\n\nEMILY.\n\n... I know you will live for our sake, dear, you would not be willing to for your own. That is the duty which saves. While we are trying for others, power of life comes back, very faint at first, like the new bird, but by and by it has wings.\n\nHow sweetly you have comforted me \u2014 the toil to comfort you, I hoped never would come. A sorrow on your sunny face is too dark a miracle \u2014 but how sweet that he rose in the morning \u2014 accompanied by dawn. How lovely that he spoke with you, that memorial time! How gentle that he left the pang he had not time to feel! Bequest of darkness, yet of light, since unborne by him. 'Where thou goest, _we_ will go ' \u2014 how mutual, how intimate! No solitude receives him, but neighborhood and friend.\n\nRelieved forever of the loss of those that must have fled, but for his sweet haste. Knowing he could not spare _them,_ he hurried like a boy from that unhappened sorrow. Death has mislaid his sting \u2014 the grave forgot his victory. Because the flake fell not on him, we will accept the drift, and wade where he is lain.\n\nDo you remember the clover leaf? The little hand that plucked it will keep tight hold of mine.\n\nPlease give her love to Annie, and Kate, who also gave a father.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[To Mrs. Holland, on the marriage of her daughter Annie, December 7, 1881 ]_\n\nSWEET SISTER, \u2014 We were much relieved to know that the dear event had occurred without overwhelming any loved one, and perhaps it is sweeter and safer so. I feared much for the parting, to you, to whom parting has come so thickly in the last few days. I knew all would be beautiful, and rejoice it was. Few daughters have the immortality of a father for a bridal gift. Could there be one more costly?\n\nAs we never have ceased to think of you, we will more tenderly, now. Confide our happiness to Annie, in her happiness. We hope the unknown balm may ease the balm withdrawn.\n\nYou and Katie, the little sisters, lose her, yet obtain her, for each new width of love largens all the rest. Mother and Vinnie think and speak. Vinnie hopes to write. Would that mother could, but her poor hand is idle. Shall I return to you your last and sweetest words \u2014 'But I love you all '?\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[Christmas, 1881.]_\n\nDare we wish the brave sister a sweet Christmas, who remembered us punctually in sorrow as in peace?\n\nThe broken heart is broadest. Had it come all the way in your little hand, it could not have reached us perfecter, though had it, we should have clutched the hand and forgot the rest.\n\nFearing the day had associations of anguish to you, I was just writing when your token came. Then, humbled with wonder at your self-forgetting, I delayed till now. Reminded again of gigantic Emily Bront\u00eb, of whom her Charlotte said 'Full of ruth for others, on herself she had no mercy.' The hearts that never lean, must fall. To moan is justified.\n\nTo thank you for remembering under the piercing circumstances were a profanation.\n\nGod bless the hearts that suppose they are beating and are not, and enfold in His infinite tenderness those that do not know they are beating and are.\n\nShall we wish a triumphant Christmas to the brother withdrawn? Certainly he possesses it.\n\nHow much of Source escapes with thee \u2014 How chief thy sessions be \u2014 For thou hast borne a universe Entirely away.\n\nWith wondering love,\n\nEMILY.\n\n'Whom seeing not, we 'clasp.\n\nEMILY.\n\nConcerning the little sister, not to assault, not to adjure, but to obtain those constancies which exalt friends, we followed her to St Augustine, since which the trail was lost, or says George Stearns of his alligator, 'there was no such aspect.'\n\nThe beautiful blossoms waned at last, the charm of all who knew them, resisting the effort of earth or air to persuade them to root, as the great florist says 'The flower that never will in other climate grow,'\n\nTo thank you for its fragrance would be impossible, but then its other blissful traits are more than can be numbered. And the beloved Christmas, too, for which I never thanked you. I hope the little heart is well, \u2014 _big_ would have been the width, \u2014 and the health solaced; any news of her as sweet as the first arbutus.\n\nEmily and Vinnie give the love greater every hour.\n**CHAPTER V**\n\n_To Mr. Samuel Bowles and Mrs. Bowles_\n\nAS Emily Dickinson approached middle life, and even before her thirtieth year, it seemed to become more and more impossible for her to mingle in general society; and a growing feeling of shyness, as early as 1862 or 1863, caused her to abstain, sometimes, from seeing the dearest friends who came to the house. In spite of her sympathy with sadness, and her deep apprehension of the tragic element in life, she was not only keenly humorous and witty, as already said, but, while made serious by the insistence of life's pathos, she was yet at heart as ecstatic as a bird. This combination of qualities made her companionship, when she vouchsafed it, peculiarly breezy and stimulating. Such a nature must inevitably know more pain than pleasure.\n\nPassionately devoted to her friends, her happiness in their love and trust was at times almost too intense to bear; and it will already have been seen how disproportionately great pain was caused by even comparatively slight separations. With her, pathos lay very near raillery and badinage, \u2014 sadness very near delight.\n\nWhether, in writing her poems, the joy of creating was sufficient, or whether a thought of future and wider recognition ever came, it is certain that during life her friends made her audience. She cared more for appreciation and approval from the few who were dear than for any applause from an impersonal public. She herself writes, 'My friends are my estate.'\n\nAll her letters show this rare loyalty of soul, those in the preceding chapter particularly, but none perhaps more strongly than those to Mr. and Mrs. Bowles. Beginning about 1858, the letters cover a period of twenty-six or twenty-seven years. Often a single short poem comprises the entire letter, \u2014 sometimes only four lines, and without title, date, or signature, but unmistakably pertinent to a special occasion or subject.\n\n_[Late August, 1858?]_\n\nAMHERST.\n\nDEAR MR BOWLES, \u2014 I got the little pamphlet. I think you sent it to me, though unfamiliar with your hand \u2014 I may mistake.\n\nThank you, if I am right. Thank you, if not, since here I find bright pretext to ask you how you are to-night, and for the health of four more, elder and minor Mary, Sallie and Sam, tenderly to inquire.\n\nI hope your cups are full.\n\nI hope your vintage is untouched. In such a porcelain life one likes to be _sure_ that all is well lest one stumble upon one's hopes in a pile of broken crockery.\n\nMy friends are my estate. Forgive me then the avarice to hoard them! They tell me those were poor early have different views of gold. I don't know how that is.\n\nGod is not so wary as we, else He would give us no friends, lest we forget Him! The charms of the heaven in the bush are superseded, I fear, by the heaven in the hand, occasionally.\n\nSummer stopped since you were here. Nobody noticed her \u2014 that is, no men and women. Doubtless, the fields are rent by petite anguish, and 'mourners go about 'the woods. But this is not for us. Business enough indeed, our stately resurrection! A special courtesy, I judge, from what the clergy say! To the 'natural man 'bumblebees would seem an improvement, and a spicing of birds, but far be it from me to impugn such majestic tastes!\n\nOur pastor says we are a 'worm.' How is that reconciled? 'Vain, sinful worm 'is possibly of another species.\n\nDo you think we shall 'see God '? Think of Abraham strolling with Him in genial promenade!\n\nThe men are mowing the second hay. The cocks are smaller than the first, and spicier. I would distil a cup, and bear to all my friends, drinking to her no more astir, by beck, or burn, or moor!\n\nGood-night, Mr. Bowles. This is what they say who come back in the morning; also the closing paragraph on repealed lips. Confidence in daybreak modifies dusk.\n\nBlessings for Mrs. Bowles, and kisses for the bairns' lips. We want to see you, Mr. Bowles, but spare you the rehearsal of 'familiar truths.'\n\nGood-night, EMILY.\n\n_[Winter, 1858?]_\n\n_Monday Eve._\n\nDEAR MRS BOWLES, \u2014 You send sweet messages. Remembrance is more sweet than robins in May orchards.\n\nI love to trust that round bright fires, some, braver than I, take my pilgrim name. How are papa, mamma, and the little people?...\n\nIt storms in Amherst five days \u2014 it snows, and then it rains, and then soft fogs like veils hang on all the houses, and then the days turn topaz, like a lady's pin.\n\nThank you for bright bouquet, and afterwards verbena. I made a plant of a little bough of yellow heliotrope which the bouquet bore me, and call it Mary Bowles. It is many days since the summer day when you came with Mr. Bowles, and before another summer day it will be many days. My garden is a little knoll with faces under it, and only the pines sing tunes, now the birds are absent. I cannot walk to the distant friends on nights piercing as these, so I put both hands on the window-pane, and try to think how birds fly, and imitate, and fail, like Mr. 'Rasselas.' I could make a balloon of a dandelion, but the fields are gone, and only 'Professor Lowe 'remains to weep with me. If I built my house I should like to call you. I talk of all these things with Carlo, and his eyes grow meaning, and his shaggy feet keep a slower pace. Are you safe to-night? I hope you may be glad. I ask God on my knee to send you much prosperity, few winter days, and long suns. I have a childish hope to gather all I love together and sit down beside and smile....\n\nWill you come to Amherst? The streets are very cold now, but we will make you warm. But if you never came, perhaps you could write a letter, saying how much you would like to, if it were 'God's will.' I give good-night, and daily love to you and Mr. Bowles. \u2014\n\nEMILIE.\n\nAMHERST.\n\nI should like to thank dear Mrs. Bowles for the little book, except my cheek is red with shame because I write so often. Even the 'lilies of the field 'have their dignities.\n\nWhy did you bind it in green and gold? The _immortal_ colors. I take it for an emblem. I never read before what Mr. Parker wrote.\n\nI heard that he was 'poison.' Then I like poison very well. Austin stayed from service yesterday afternoon, and I... found him reading my Christmas gift.... I wish the 'faith of the fathers 'didn't wear brogans, and carry blue umbrellas. I give you all 'New Year! 'I think you kept gay Christmas, from the friend's account, and can only sigh with one not present at 'John Gilpin,\" and when he next doth ride a race,' etc. You picked your berries from my holly. Grasping Mrs. Bowles!\n\nTo-day is very cold, yet have I much bouquet upon the window-pane of moss and fern. I call them saints' flowers, because they do not romp as other flowers do, but stand so still and white.\n\nThe snow is very tall,... which makes the trees so low that they tumble my hair, when I cross the bridge.\n\nI think there will be no spring this year, the flowers are gone so far. Let us have spring in our heart, and never mind the orchises!... Please have my love, mother's, and Vinnie's. Carlo sends a brown kiss, and pussy a gray and white one, to each of the children.\n\nPlease, now I write so often, make lamplighter of me, then I shall not have lived in vain.\n\nDear Mrs. Bowles, dear Mr. Bowles, dear Sally \u2014 Sam and Mamie, now all shut your eyes, while I do benediction!\n\nLovingly, EMILY.\n\n_[Written in 1861, on the birth of a son.]_\n\nDEAR MARY, \u2014 Can you leave your flower long enough just to look at mine?\n\nWhich is the prettiest? I shall tell you myself, some day. I used to come to comfort you, but now to tell you how glad I am, and how glad we all are.... You must not stay in New York any more \u2014 you must come back now, and bring the blanket to Massachusetts where we can all look. What a responsible shepherd! Four lambs in one flock! Shall you be glad to see us, or shall we seem old-fashioned, by the face in the crib?\n\nTell him I've got a pussy for him, with a spotted gown; and a dog with ringlets.\n\nWe have very cold days since you went away, and I think you hear the wind blow far as the Brevoort House, it comes from so far, and crawls so. Don't let it blow baby away. Will you call him Robert for me? He is the bravest man alive, but _his_ boy has no mamma. That makes us all weep, don't it?\n\nGood-night, Mary.\n\nEMILY.\n\nOne of the very few of Emily Dickinson's verses named by herself was sent Mrs. Bowles soon after the preceding letter.\n\nBABY.\n\nTeach him, when he makes the names,\n\nSuch an one to say\n\nOn his babbling, berry lips\n\nAs should sound to me \u2014\n\nWere my ear as near his nest\n\nAs my thought, to-day \u2014\n\nAs should sound \u2014 'forbid us not ' \u2014\n\nSome like 'Emily.'\n\n_[August, 1861.]_\n\nMARY, \u2014 I do not know of you, a long while. I remember you \u2014 several times. I wish I knew if you kept me? The doubt, like the mosquito, buzzes round my faith. We are all human, Mary, until we are divine, and to some of us, that is far off, and to some as near as the lady ringing at the door; perhaps _that's_ what alarms. I say I will go myself \u2014 I cross the river, and climb the fence \u2014 now I am at the gate, Mary \u2014 now I am in the hall \u2014 now I am looking your heart in the eye!\n\nDid it wait for me \u2014 did it go with the company? Cruel company, who have the stocks, and farms, and creeds \u2014 and _it_ has just its heart! I hope you are glad, Mary; no pebble in the brook to-day \u2014 no film on noon.\n\nI can think how you look; you can't think how I look; I've got more freckles, since you saw me, playing with the school-boys; then I pare the 'Juneating 'to make the pie, and get my fingers 'tanned.'\n\nSummer went very fast \u2014 she got as far as the woman from the hill, who brings the blueberry, and that is a long way. I shall have no winter this year, on account of the soldiers. Since I cannot weave blankets or boots, I thought it best to omit the season. Shall present a 'memorial 'to God when the maples turn. Can I rely on your 'name'?\n\nHow is your garden, Mary? Are the pinks true, and the sweet williams faithful? I've got a geranium like a sultana, and when the hummingbirds come down, geranium and I shut our eyes, and go far away.\n\nAsk 'Mamie 'if I shall catch her a butterfly with a vest like a Turk? I will, if she will build him a house in her 'morning-glory.'\n\nVinnie would send her love, but she put on a white frock, and went to meet to-morrow \u2014 a few minutes ago; mother would send her love, but she is in the 'eave spout,' sweeping up a leaf that blew in last November; I brought my own, myself, to you and Mr. Bowles.\n\nPlease remember me, because I remember you \u2014 always.\n\nThen follows the poem beginning 'My river runs to thee,' published in the First Series of the _Poems_ , page 54.\n\nDon't cry, dear Mary. Let us do that for you, because you are too tired now. We don't know how dark it is, but if you are at sea, perhaps when we say that we are there, you won't be as afraid.\n\nThe waves are very big, but every one that covers you, covers us, too.\n\nDear Mary, you can't see us, but we are close at your side. May we comfort you?\n\nLovingly,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[Autumn, 1861.]_\n\nFRIEND, SIR, \u2014 I did not see you. I am very sorry. Shall I keep the wine till you come again, or send it in by Dick? It is now behind the door in the library, also an unclaimed flower. I did not know you were going so soon. Oh! my tardy feet.\n\nWill you not come again?\n\nFriends are gems, infrequent. Potosi is a care, sir. I guard it reverently, for I could not afford to be poor now, after affluence. I hope the hearts in Springfield are not so heavy as they were. God bless the hearts in Springfield.\n\nI am happy you have a horse. I hope you will get stalwart, and come and see us many years.\n\nI have but two acquaintance, the 'quick and the dead ' \u2014 and would like more.\n\nI write you frequently, and am much ashamed. My voice is not quite loud enough to cross so many fields, which will, if you please, apologize for my pencil.\n\nWill you take my love to Mrs. Bowles, whom I remember every day?\n\nEMILIE.\n\nVinnie hallos from the world of night-caps, 'don't forget her love.'\n\n_[January, 1862.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Are you willing? I am so far from land. To offer you the cup, it might some Sabbath come _my_ turn. Of wine how solemnfull!\n\nDid you get the doubloons \u2014 did you vote upon 'Robert '? You said you would come in February. Only three weeks more to wait at the gate!\n\nWhile you are sick, we \u2014 are homesick. Do you look out to-night? The moon rides like a girl through a topaz town. I don't think we shall ever be merry again \u2014 you are ill so long. When did the dark happen?\n\nI skipped a page to-night, because I come so often, now, I might have tired you.\n\n_That_ page is fullest, though.\n\nVinnie sends her love. I think father and mother care a great deal for you, and hope you may be well. When you tire with pain, to know that eyes would cloud, in Amherst \u2014 might that comfort, _some?_\n\nEMILY.\n\nWe never forget Mary.\n\nDEAR MR BOWLES, \u2014 Thank you.\n\nFaith is a fine invention\n\nWhen gentlemen can see?\n\nBut microscopes are prudent In an emergency! (see Second Series, page 53)\n\nYou spoke of the 'East.' I have thought about it this winter.\n\nDon't you think you and I should be shrewder to take the mountain road?\n\nThat bareheaded life, under the grass, worries one like a wasp. The rose is for Mary.\n\nEMILY.\n\nThe zeros taught us phosphorus \u2014\n\nWe learned to like the fire\n\nBy playing glaciers when a boy, And tinder guessed by power\n\nOf opposite to balance odd,\n\nIf white, a red must be!\n\nParalysis, our primer dumb\n\nUnto vitality.\n\nI couldn't let Austin's note go, without a word.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_Sunday Night._\n\nDEAR MARY, \u2014 Could you leave 'Charlie' long enough? Have you time for _met_ I sent Mr. Bowles a little note, last Saturday morning, asking him to do an errand for me.\n\nI forgot he was going to Washington, or I shouldn't have troubled him, so late. Now, Mary, I fear he did not get it, and _you_ tried to do the errand for me \u2014 and it troubled you. Did it? Will you tell me? Just say with your pencil 'It didn't tire me, Emily,' and then I shall be sure, for with all your care, I would not have taxed you for the world.\n\nYou never refused me, Mary, you cherished me many times, but I thought it must seem so selfish to ask the favor of Mr. Bowles just as he went from home, only I forgot that. Tell me to-night just a word, Mary, with your own hand, so I shall know I harassed none \u2014 and I will be _so_ glad.\n\nAustin told us of Charlie \u2014 I send a rose for his small hands.\n\nPut it in, when he goes to sleep, and then he will dream of Emily, and when you bring him to Amherst we shall be 'old friends.' Don't love him so well, you know, as to forget us. We shall wish he wasn't _there,_ if you do, I'm afraid, sha'n't we?\n\nI'll remember you, if you like me to, while Mr. Bowles is gone, and that will stop the lonely, some, but I cannot agree to stop when he gets home from Washington.\n\nGood-night, Mary. You won't forget my little note, to-morrow, in the mail. It will be the first one you ever wrote me in your life, and yet, was I the little friend a long time? _Was_ I, Mary?\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[March, 1862.]_\n\nPerhaps you thought I didn't care \u2014 because I stayed out, yesterday. I _did_ care, Mr. Bowles. I pray for your sweet health to Allah every morning, but something troubled me, and I knew you needed light and air, so I didn't come. Nor have I the conceit that you _noticed_ me \u2014 but I couldn't bear that you, or Mary, so gentle to me, should think me forgetful.\n\nIt's little at the most, we can do for ours, and we must do _that_ flying, or our things are flown!\n\nDear friend, I wish you were well.\n\nIt grieves me till I cannot speak, that you are suffering. Won't you come back? Can't I bring you something? My little balm might be o'erlooked by wiser eyes, you know. Have you tried the breeze that swings the sign, or the hoof of the dandelion? _J_ own 'em \u2014 wait for mine! This is all I have to say. Kinsmen need say nothing, but 'Swiveller 'may be sure of the 'MARCHIONESS.'\n\nLove for Mary.\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 ... Austin is disappointed \u2014 he expected to see you to-day. He is sure you won't go to sea without first speaking to him. I presume if Emily and Vinnie knew of his writing, they would entreat him to ask you not.\n\nAustin is chilled by Frazer's murder. (A son of President Stearns of Amherst College, who was killed during the war, 13th March, 1862.) He says his brain keeps saying over 4 Frazer is killed ' \u2014 'Frazer is killed,' just as father told it to him. Two or three words of lead, that dropped so deep they keep weighing. Tell Austin how to get over them!\n\nHe is very sorry you are not better. He cares for you when at the office, and afterwards, too, at home; and sometimes wakes at night, with a worry for you he didn't finish quite by day. He would not like it that I betrayed him, so you'll never tell....\n\nMary sent beautiful flowers. Did she tell you?\n\n_[Spring, 1862.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 The hearts in Amherst ache tonight \u2014 you could not know how hard. They thought they could not wait, last night, until the engine sang a pleasant tune that time, because that you were coming. The flowers waited, in the vase, and love got peevish, watching. A railroad person rang, to bring an evening paper \u2014 Vinnie tipped pussy over, in haste to let you in, and I, for joy and dignity, held tight in my chair. My hope put out a petal.\n\nYou would come, to-day, \u2014 but... we don't believe it, now; 'Mr. Bowles not coming! 'Wouldn't you, to-morrow, and this but be a bad dream, gone by next morning?\n\n_Please_ do not take our _spring_ away, since you blot summer out! We cannot count our tears for this, because they drop so fast....\n\nDear friend, we meant to make _you_ brave, but moaned before we thought.... If you'll be sure and get well, we'll try to bear it. If we could only care the less, it would be so much easier. Your letter troubled my throat. It gave that little scalding we could not know the reason for till we grew far up.\n\nI must do my good-night in crayon I meant to in red.\n\nLove for Mary.\n\nEMILY.\n\nAfter Mr. Bowles had sailed for Europe, Emily sent this quaintly consoling note to Springfield.\n\n_[Early Summer, 1862.]_\n\nDEAR MARY, \u2014 When the best is gone, I know that other things are not of consequence. The heart wants what it wants, or else it does not care.\n\nYou wonder why I write so. Because I cannot help. I like to have you know some care \u2014 so when your life gets faint for its other life, you can lean on us. We won't break, Mary. We look very small, but the reed can carry weight.\n\nNot to see what we love is very terrible, and talking doesn't ease it, and nothing does but just itself. The eyes and hair we chose are all there are \u2014 to us. Isn't it so, Mary?\n\nI often wonder how the love of Christ is done when that below holds so.\n\nI hope the little 'Robert 'coos away the pain. Perhaps your flowers help, some....\n\nThe frogs sing sweet to-day \u2014 they have such pretty, lazy times \u2014 how nice to be a frog!...\n\nMother sends her love to you \u2014 she has a sprained foot, and can go but little in the house, and not abroad at all.\n\nDon't dishearten, Mary, we 'll keep thinking of you. Kisses for all.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[To Mr. Bowles, June, 1862.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 You go away \u2014 and where you go we cannot come \u2014 but then the months have names \u2014 and each one comes but once a year \u2014 and though it seems they never could, they sometimes do, go by.\n\nWe hope you are more well than when you lived in America, and that those foreign people are kind, and true, to you. We hope you recollect each life you left behind, even ours, the least.\n\nWe wish we knew how Amherst looked, in your memory. Smaller than it did, maybe, and yet things swell, by leaving, if big in themselves.\n\nWe hope you will not alter, but be the same we grieved for when the _China_ sailed.\n\nIf you should like to hear the news, we did not die here \u2014 we did not change. We have the guests we did, except yourself \u2014 and the roses hang on the same stems as before you went. Vinnie trains the honeysuckle, and the robins steal the string for nests \u2014 quite, quite as they used to.\n\nI have the errand from my heart \u2014 I might forget to tell it. Would you please to come home? The long life's years are scant, and fly away, the Bible says, like a told story \u2014 and sparing is a solemn thing, somehow, it seems to me \u2014 and I grope fast, with my fingers, for all out of my sight I own, to get it nearer.\n\nI had one letter from Mary. I think she tries to be patient \u2014 but you wouldn't want her to succeed, would you, Mr. Bowles?\n\nIt's fragrant news, to know they pine, when we are out of sight.\n\nIt is 'most Commencement. The little cousin from Boston has come, and the hearts in Pelham have an added thrill. We shall miss you, most, dear friend, who annually smiled with us, at the gravities. I question if even Dr Vaill have his wonted applause.\n\nShould anybody, where you go, talk of Mrs. Browning, you must hear for us, and if you touch her grave, put one hand on the head, for me \u2014 her unmentioned mourner.\n\nFather and mother, and Vinnie and Carlo, send their love to you, and warm wish for your health \u2014 and I am taking lessons in prayer, so to coax God to keep you safe. Good-night, dear friend. You sleep so far, how can I know you hear?\n\nEMILY.\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I cannot see you. You will not less believe me. That you return to us alive is better than a summer, and more to hear your voice below than news of any bird.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[August, 1862.]_\n\nDEAR MR BOWLES, \u2014 Vinnie is trading with a tin peddler \u2014 buying water-pots for me to sprinkle geraniums with when you get home next winter, and she has gone to the war.\n\nSummer isn't so long as it was, when we stood looking at it before you went away; and when I finish August, we'll hop the autumn very soon, and then it will be yourself.\n\nI don't know how many will be glad to see you, \u2014 because I never saw your whole friends, but I have heard that in large cities noted persons chose you \u2014 though how glad those I know will be, is easier told.\n\nI tell you, Mr. Bowles, it is a suffering to have a sea \u2014 no care how blue \u2014 between your soul and you.\n\nThe hills you used to love when you were in Northampton, miss their old lover, could they speak; and the puzzled look deepens in Carlo's forehead as the days go by and you never come.\n\nI've learned to read the steamer place in newspapers now. It's 'most like shaking hands with you, or more like your ringing at the door.\n\nWe reckon your coming by the fruit. When the grape gets by, and the pippin and the chestnut \u2014 when the days are a little short by the clock, and a little long by the want \u2014 when the sky has new red gowns, and a purple bonnet \u2014 then we say you will come. I am glad that kind of time goes by.\n\nIt is easier to look behind at a pain, than to see it coming.\n\nA soldier called, a morning ago, and asked for a nosegay to take to battle. I suppose he thought we kept an aquarium.\n\nHow sweet it must be to one to come home, whose home is in so many houses, and every heart a 'best room.' I mean you, Mr. Bowles.... Have not the clovers names to the bees?\n\nEMILY.\n\nBefore he comes\n\nWe weigh the time,\n\n'T is heavy, and 't is light\n\nWhen he departs\n\nAn emptiness\n\nIs the superior freight.\n\nEMILY.\n\nWhile asters On the hill Their everlasting fashions set, And covenant gentians frill!\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[Late Autumn, 1862.]_\n\nSo glad we are, a stranger'd deem\n\n'T was sorry that we were;\n\nFor where the holiday should be\n\nThere publishes a tear;\n\nNor how ourselves be justified,\n\nSince grief and joy are done\n\nSo similar, an optizan\n\nCould not decide between.\n\n_[Early Winter, 1862.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Had we the art like you, to endow so many, by just recovering our health, 'twould give us tender pride, nor could we keep the news, but carry it to you, who seem to us to own it most.\n\nSo few that live have life, it seems of quick importance not one of those escape by death. And since you gave us fear, congratulate us for ourselves \u2014 you give us safer peace.\n\nHow extraordinary that life's large population contain so few of power to us \u2014 and those a vivid species who leave no mode, like Tyrian dye.\n\nRemembering these minorities, permit our gratitude for you. We ask that you be cautious, for many sakes, excelling ours. To recapitulate the stars were useless as supreme. Yourself is yours, dear friend, but ceded, is it not, to here and there a minor life? Do not defraud these, for gold may be bought, and purple may be bought, but the sale of the spirit never did occur.\n\nDo not yet work. No public so exorbitant of any as its friend, and we can wait your health. Besides, there is an idleness more tonic than toil.\n\nThe loss of sickness \u2014 was it loss?\n\nOr that ethereal gain\n\nYou earned by measuring the grave,\n\nThen measuring the sun.\n\nBe sure, dear friend, for want you have estates of lives.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[With Flowers.]_\n\nIf she had been the mistletoe, And I had been the rose, How gay upon your table My velvet life to close! Since I am of the Druid, And she is of the dew, I'll deck tradition's buttonhole, And send the rose to you.\n\nE.\n\nDEAR MR BOWLES, \u2014 I can't thank you any more. You are thoughtful so many times you grieve me always j _now_ the old words are numb, and there aren't any new ones.\n\nBrooks are useless in freshet time. When you come to Amherst \u2014 please God it were to-day \u2014 I will tell you about the picture \u2014 if I _can,_ I will.\n\n_Speech_ is a prank of Parliament,\n\n_Tears_ a trick of the nerve, \u2014\n\nBut the heart with the heaviest freight on\n\nDoesn't always swerve.\n\nEMILY.\n\nPerhaps you think me stooping!\n\nI'm not ashamed of that!\n\nChrist stooped until he touched the grave!\n\nDo those at sacraftient\n\nCommemorate dishonor \u2014\n\nOr love, annealed of love,\n\nUntil it bend as low as death\n\nRe-royalized above?\n\nThe juggler's hat her country is,\n\nThe mountain gorse the bee's.\n\nI stole them from a bee,\n\nBecause \u2014 thee! Sweet plea \u2014 He pardoned me!\n\nEMILY.\n\nBesides the verses given here, many others were sent to Mr. and Mrs. Bowles, as to the Hollands, which, having already been published in one or the other volume of the _Poems,_ will not be reprinted.\n\n_[Summer, 1863.]_\n\nDEAR FRIENDS, \u2014 I am sorry you came, because you went away.\n\nHereafter, I will pick no rose, lest it fade or prick me.\n\nI would like to have you dwell here.\n\nThough it is almost nine o'clock, the skies are gay and yellow, and there's a purple craft or so, in which a friend could sail. To-night looks like 'Jerusalem'!... I hope we may all behave so as to reach Jerusalem.\n\nHow are your hearts to-day? Ours are pretty well. I hope your tour was bright, and gladdened Mrs. Bowles. Perhaps the retrospect will call you back some morning.\n\nYou shall find us all at the gate if you come in a hundred years, just as we stood that day. If it become of 'jasper' previously, you will not object, so that we lean there still, looking after you.\n\nI rode with Austin this morning. He showed me mountains that touched the sky, and brooks that sang like bobolinks. Was he not very kind? I will give them to you, for they are mine, and 'all things are mine,' excepting 'Cephas and Apollos,' for whom I have no taste. Vinnie's love brims mine.\n\nTake\n\nEMILIE.\n\nDEAR MRS BOWLES, \u2014 Since I have no sweet flower to send you, I enclose my heart. A little one, sunburnt, half broken sometimes, yet close as the spaniel to its friends. Your flowers come from heaven, to which, if I should ever go, I will pluck you palms.\n\nMy words are far away when I attempt to thank you, so take the silver tear instead, from my full eye.\n\nYou have often remembered me.\n\nI have little dominion. Are there not wiser than I, who, with curious treasure, could requite your gift?\n\nAngels fill the hand that loaded EMILY'S.\n\nNature and God, I neither knew, Yet both, so well knew me They startled, like executors Of an identity.\n\nYet neither told, that I could learn; My secret as secure As Herschel's private interest, Or Mercury's affair.\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 You remember the little 'meeting 'we held for you last spring? We met again, Saturday.\n\n'Twas May when we 'adjourned,' but then adjourns are all. The meetings were alike, Mr. Bowles.\n\nThe topic did not tire us, so we chose no new. We voted to remember you so long as both should live, including immortality; to count you as ourselves, except sometimes more tenderly, as now, when you are ill, and we, the haler of the two \u2014 and so I bring the bond we sign so many times, for you to read when chaos comes, or treason, or decay, still witnessing for morning.... We hope our joy to see you gave of its own degree to you. We pray for your new health, the prayer that goes not down when they shut the church. We offer you our cups \u2014 stintless, as to the bee, \u2014 the lily, her new liquors.\n\nWould you like summer? Taste of ours.\n\nSpices? Buy here!\n\nIll! We have berries, for the parching!\n\nWeary! Furloughs of down!\n\nPerplexed! Estates of violet trouble ne'er looked on!\n\nCaptive! We bring reprieve of roses t Fainting! Flasks of air!\n\nEven for Death, a fairy medicine.\n\nBut, which is it, sir? \u2014 EMILY.\n\nI'll send the feather from my hat!\n\n. Who knows but at the sight of _that_ My sovereign will relent? As trinket, worn by faded child, Confronting eyes long comforted Blisters the adamant!\n\nEMILY.\n\nHer breast is fit for pearls,\n\nBut I was not a diver.\n\nHer brow is fit for thrones,\n\nBut I had not a crest.\n\nHer heart is fit for rest \u2014\n\nI, a sparrow, build there\n\nSweet of twigs and twine,\n\nMy perennial nest.\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 How hard to thank you \u2014 but the large heart requites itself. Please to need me. I wanted to ask you to receive Mr. Browning from me, but you denied my Bront\u00eb \u2014 so I did not dare.\n\nIs it too late now? I should like so much to remind you how kind you had been to me.\n\nYou could choose \u2014 as you did before \u2014 if it would not be obnoxious \u2014 except where you 'measured by your heart,' you should measure this time by mine. I wonder which would be biggest!\n\nAustin told, Saturday morning, that you were not so well. 'T was sundown, all day, Saturday \u2014 and Sunday such a long bridge no news of you could cross!\n\nTeach us to miss you less because the fear to miss you more haunts us all the time. We didn't care so much, once. I wish it was then, now, but you kept tightening, so it can't be stirred to-day. You didn't mean to be worse, did you? Wasn't it a mistake?\n\nWon't you decide soon to be the strong man we first knew? 'T would lighten things so much \u2014 and yet that man was not so dear \u2014 I guess you'd better not.\n\nWe pray for you, every night. A homely shrine our knee, but Madonna looks at the heart first Dear friend \u2014 don't discourage!\n\nAffectionately,\n\nEMILY.\n\nNo wilderness can be\n\nWhere _this_ attendeth thee \u2014\n\nNo desert noon,\n\nNo fear of frost to come\n\nHaunt the perennial bloom, But certain June!\n\nEMILY.\n\nThe following lines, sent with flowers, have almost as quaint and 'seventeenth century' a flavor as the now famous quatrain beginning, \u2014\n\n'A death-blow is a life-blow to some.'\n\nIf recollecting were forgetting\n\nThen I remember not.\n\nAnd if forgetting, recollecting,\n\nHow near I had forgot!\n\nAnd if to miss were merry,\n\nAnd if to mourn were gay,\n\nHow very blithe the fingers\n\nThat gathered this, to-day!\n\nEMILIE.\n\nOther verses, sent at different times, were written in the same general hand, \u2014 that of the early middle period, from about 1863 to 1870; among them: \u2014\n\n'They have not chosen me,' he said,\n\n'But I have chosen them.'\n\nBrave, broken-hearted statement\n\nUttered in Bethlehem!\n\nI could not have told it,\n\nBut since Jesus dared,\n\nSovereign! know a daisy\n\nThy dishonor shared.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_Saturday._\n\nMother never asked a favor of Mr. Bowles before \u2014 that he accept from her the little barrel of apples.\n\n'Sweet apples,' she exhorts me, with an occasional Baldwin for Mary and the squirrels.\n\nEMILY.\n\nJust once \u2014 oh! least request!\n\nCould adamant refuse\n\nSo small a grace,\n\nSo scanty put,\n\nSuch agonizing terms?\n\nWould not a God of flint\n\nBe conscious of a sigh,\n\nAs down his heaven dropt remote,\n\n'Just once, sweet Deity?'\n\nA spray of white pine was enclosed with this note: \u2014\n\nA feather from the whippoorwill\n\nThat everlasting sings!\n\nWhose galleries are sunrise,\n\nWhose opera the springs,\n\nWhose emerald nest the ages spin\n\nOf mellow, murmuring thread,\n\nWhose beryl egg, what school boys-hunt\n\nIn 'recess 'overhead!\n\nEMILY.\n\nWe part with the river at the flood through a timid custom, though with the same waters we have often played.\n\nEMILY.\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Vinnie accidentally mentions that you hesitated between the _Theophilus_ and the _Junius._\n\nWould you confer so sweet a favor as to accept that too, when you come again?\n\nI went to the room as soon as you left, to confirm your presence, recalling the Psalmist's sonnet to God beginning\n\nI have no life but this \u2014\n\nTo lead it here,\n\nNor any death but lest\n\nDispelled from there.\n\nNor tie to earths to come,\n\nNor action new,\n\nExcept through this extent \u2014\n\nThe love of you.\n\nIt is strange that the most intangible thing is the most adhesive.\n\nYour 'rascal.'\n\nI washed the adjective.\n\nI should think you would have few letters, for your own are so noble that they make men afraid. And sweet as your approbation is, it is had in fear, lest your depth convict us.\n\nYou compel us each to remember that when water ceases to rise, it has commenced falling. That is the law of flood.\n\nThe last day that I saw you was the newest and oldest of my life.\n\nResurrection can come but once, first, to the same house. Thank you for leading us by it.\n\nCome always, dear friend, but refrain from going. You spoke of not liking to be forgotten. Could you, though you would?\n\nTreason never knew you.\n\nEMILY.\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 You have the most triumphant face out of Paradise, probably because you are there constantly, instead of ultimately.\n\nOurselves we do inter with sweet derision the channel of the dust; who once achieves, invalidates the balm of that religion, that doubts as fervently as it believes.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_Wednesday._\n\nDear Mr. Bowles's note, of itself a blossom, came only to-night.\n\nI am glad it lingered, for each was all the heart could hold.\n\nEMILY.\n\nOf your exquisite act there can be no acknowledgment but the ignominy that grace gives.\n\nEMILY.\n\nCould mortal lip divine The undeveloped freight Of a delivered syllable, 'T would crumble with the weight!\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 It was so delicious to see you \u2014 a peach before the time \u2014 it makes all seasons possible, and zones a caprice.\n\nWe, who arraign the _Arabian Nights_ for their understatement, escape the stale sagacity of supposing them sham.\n\nWe miss your vivid face, and the besetting accents you bring from your Numidian haunts.\n\nYour coming welds anew that strange trinket of life which each of us wear and none of us own; and the phosphorescence of yours startles us for its permanence.\n\nPlease rest the life so many own \u2014 for gems abscond.\n\nIn your own beautiful words \u2014 for the voice is the palace of all of us, \u2014\n\n'Near, but remote.'\n\nEMILY.\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 The paper wanders so I cannot write my name on it, so I give you father's portrait instead.\n\nAs summer into autumn slips\n\nAnd yet we sooner say\n\n'The summer 'than 'the autumn,' lest\n\nWe turn the sun away,\n\nAnd almost count it an affront\n\nThe presence to concede\n\nOf one however lovely, not\n\nThe one that we have loved, \u2014\n\nSo we evade the charge of years,\n\nOne, one attempting shy\n\nThe circumvention of the shaft\n\nOf life's declivity.\n\nEMILY.\n\nIf we die, will you come for us, as you do for father?\n\n'Not born,' yourself 'to die,' you must reverse us all.\n\nLast to adhere\n\nWhen summers swerve away \u2014\n\nElegy of\n\nIntegrity.\n\nTo remember our own Mr. Bowles is all we can do.\n\nWith grief it is done, so warmly and long, it can never be new.\n\nEMILY.\n\nIn January of 1878, Mr. Bowles died, leaving a sense of irreparable loss, not only to his friends, but to his great constituency through _The Republican_ , into whose success he had woven the very tissue of his own magnetic personality.\n\n_[January, 1878.]_\n\nI hasten to you, Mary, because no moment must be lost when a heart is breaking, for though it broke 50 long, each time is newer than the last, if it broke truly. To be willing that I should speak to you was so generous, dear.\n\nSorrow almost resents love, it is so inflamed.\n\nI am glad if the broken words helped you. I bad not hoped so much, I felt so faint in uttering them, thinking of your great pain. Love makes us 'heavenly 'without our trying in the least. 'T is easier than a Saviour \u2014 it does not stay on high and call us to its distance; its low 'Come unto me 'begins in every place. It makes but one mistake, it tells us it is 'rest ' \u2014 perhaps its toil is rest, but what we have not known we shall know again, that divine 'again 'for which we are all breathless.\n\nI am glad you 'work.' Work is a bleak redeemer, but it does redeem; it tires the flesh so that can't tease the spirit.\n\nDear 'Mr. Sam' is very near, these midwinter days. When purples come on Pelham, in the afternoon, we say 'Mr. Bowles's colors.' I spoke to him once of his Gem chapter, and the beautiful eyes rose till they were out of reach of mine, in some hallowed fathom.\n\nNot that he goes \u2014 we love him more who led us while he stayed. Beyond earth's trafficking frontier, for what he moved, he made.\n\nMother is timid and feeble, but we keep her with us. She thanks you for remembering her, and never forgets you.... Your sweet 'and left me all alone,' consecrates your lips.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[Spring, 1878.]_\n\nHad you never spoken to any, dear, they would not upbraid you, but think of you more softly, as one who had suffered too much to speak. To forget you would be impossible, had we never seen you; for you were his for whom we moan while consciousness remains. As he was himself Eden, he is with Eden, for we cannot become what we were not.\n\nI felt it sweet that you needed me \u2014 though but a simple shelter I will always last. I hope your boys and girls assist his dreadful absence, for sorrow does not stand so still on their flying hearts.\n\nHow fondly we hope they look like him \u2014 that his beautiful face may be abroad.\n\nWas not his countenance on earth graphic as a spirit's? The time will be long till you see him, dear, but it will be short, for have we not each our heart to dress \u2014 heavenly as his?\n\nHe is without doubt with my father. Thank you for thinking of him, and the sweet, last respect you so faithfully paid him.\n\nMother is growing better, though she cannot stand, and has not power to raise her head for a glass of water. She thanks you for being sorry, and speaks of you with love.... Your timid 'for his sake,' recalls that sheltering passage, 'for his sake who loved us, and gave himself to die for us.'\n\nEMILY.\n\nHow lovely to remember! How tenderly they told of you! Sweet toil for smitten hands to console the smitten!\n\nLabors as endeared may engross our lost. Buds of other days quivered in remembrance. Hearts of other days lent their solemn charm.\n\nLife of flowers Iain in flowers \u2014 what a home of dew! And the bough of ivy; was it as you said? Shall I plant it softly?\n\nThere were little feet, white as alabaster.\n\nDare I chill them with the soil?\n\nNature is our eldest mother, she will do no harm.\n\nLet the phantom love that enrolls the sparrow shield you softer than a child.\n\n_[April, 1880.]_\n\nDEAR MARY, \u2014 The last April that father lived, lived I mean below, there were several snow-storms, and the birds were so frightened and cold, they sat by the kitchen door. Father went to the barn in his slippers and came back with a breakfast of grain for each, and hid himself while he scattered it, lest it embarrass them. Ignorant of the name or fate of their benefactor, their descendants are singing this afternoon.\n\nAs I glanced at your lovely gift, his April returned. I am powerless toward your tenderness.\n\nThanks of other days seem abject and dim, yet antiquest altars are the fragrantest. The past has been very near this week, but not so near as the future \u2014 both of them pleading, the latter priceless.\n\nDavid's grieved decision haunted me when a little girl. I hope he has found Absalom.\n\nImmortality as a guest is sacred, but when it becomes as with you and with us, a member of the family, the tie is more vivid....\n\nIf affection can reinforce, you, dear, shall not fall.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[Probably the famous 'Yellow Day,' September 6, 1881.]_\n\n_Tuesday._\n\nDEAR MARY, \u2014 I give you only a word this mysterious morning in which we must light the lamps to see each other's faces, thanking you for the trust too confiding for speech.\n\nYou spoke of enclosing the face of your child. As it was not there, forgive me if I tell you, lest even the copy of sweetness abscond; and may I trust you received the flower the mail promised to take you, my foot being incompetent?\n\nThe timid mistake about being 'forgotten,' shall I caress or reprove? Mr. Samuel's 'sparrow 'does not 'fall 'without the fervent 'notice.'\n\n'Would you see us, would Vinnie? 'Oh, my doubting Mary! Were you and your brave son in my father's house, it would require more prowess than mine to resist seeing you.\n\nShall I still hope for the picture? And please address to my full name, as the little note was detained and opened, the name being so frequent in town, though not an Emily but myself.\n\nVinnie says 'give her my love, and tell her I would delight to see her; 'and mother combines.\n\nThere should be no tear on your cheek, dear, had my hand the access to brush it away.\n\nEMILY.\n\nDEAR MARY, \u2014 To have been the mother of the beautiful face, is of itself fame, and the look of Arabia in the eyes is like Mr. Samuel. 'Mr. Samuel' is his memorial name. 'Speak, that we may see thee,' and Gabriel no more ideal than his swift eclipse. Thank you for the beauty, which I reluctantly return, and feel like committing a 'startling fraud' in that sweet direction. If her heart is as magical as her face, she will wreck many a spirit, but the sea is ordained.\n\nAustin looked at her long and earnestly.\n\n'Yes, it is Sam's child.' His Cashmere confederate. It is best, dear, you have so much to do. Action is redemption.\n\n'And again a little while and ye shall not see me,' Jesus confesses is temporary.\n\nThank you indeed.\n\nEMILY.\n**VOLUME II**\n\n**CHAPTER VI**\n\n_To the Misses \u2014_\n\nAMONG the most natural and spontaneous of Emily Dickinson's letters are these to her cousins. They are, perhaps, more than usually full of her real self, or one unmistakable phase of that elusive individuality. Many, indeed, are so completely personal that they are of necessity omitted, and the final letter has been reserved for the closing chapter.\n\n_[January, 1859.]_\n\nSince it snows this morning, dear L \u2014 , too fast for interruption, put your brown curls in a basket, and come and sit with me.\n\nI am sewing for Vinnie, and Vinnie is flying through the flakes to buy herself a little hood. It's quite a fairy morning, and I often lay down my needle, and 'build a castle in the air' which seriously impedes the sewing project. What if I pause a little longer, and write a note to you! Who will be the wiser? I have known little of you, since the October morning when our families went out driving, and you and I in the dining-room decided to be distinguished. It's a great thing to be 'great,'\n\nL \u2014 , and you and I might tug for a life, and never accomplish it, but no one can stop our looking on, and you know some cannot sing, but the orchard is full of birds, and we all can listen. What if we learn, ourselves, some day! Who indeed knows?\n\n\u2014 said you had many little cares; I hope they do not fatigue you. I would not like to think of L \u2014 as weary, now and then. Sometimes I get tired, and I would rather none I love would understand the word....\n\nDo you still attend Fanny Kemble? 'Aaron Burr' and father think her an 'animal,' but I fear zoology has few such instances. I have heard many notedly _bad_ readers, and a fine one would be almost a fairy surprise. When will you come again, L \u2014 ? For you remember, dear, you are one of the ones from whom I do not run away! I keep an ottoman in my heart exclusively for you. My love for your father and F \u2014 .\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[March, 1859.]_\n\nThe little 'apple of my eye,' is not dearer than L \u2014 ; she knows I remember her, \u2014 why waste an instant in defence of an absurdity? My birds fly far off, nobody knows where they go to, but you see I know they are coming back, and other people don't, that makes the difference.\n\nI've had a curious winter, very swift, sometimes sober, for I haven't felt well, much, and March amazes me! I didn't think of it, that's all! Your 'hay' don't look so dim as it did at one time. I hayed a little for the horse two Sundays ago, and mother thought it was summer, and set one plant outdoors which she brought from the deluge, but it snowed since, and we have fine sleighing, now, on _one_ side of the road, and wheeling on the other, a kind of variegated turnpike quite picturesque to see!\n\nYou are to have Vinnie, it seems, and I to tear my hair, or engage in any other vocation that seems fitted to me. Well, the earth is round, so if Vinnie rolls your side sometimes, 't isn't strange; I wish I were there, too, but the geraniums felt so I couldn't think of leaving them, and one minute carnation pink cried, till I shut her up \u2014 see box!\n\nNow, my love, robins, for both of you, and when you and Vinnie sing at sunrise on the apple boughs, just cast your eye to my twig.\n\nPOOR PLOVER.\n\n_[Early Summer, 1859.]_\n\nDEAR L \u2014 , \u2014 You did not acknowledge my vegetable; perhaps you are not familiar with it. I was reared in the garden, you know. It was to be eaten with mustard! Bush eighty feet high, just under chamber window \u2014 much used at this season when other vegetables are gone. You should snuff the hay if you were here to-day, infantile as yet, homely, as cubs are prone to be, but giving brawny promise of hay-cocks by and by. 'Methinks I see you,' as school-girls say, perched upon a cock with the 'latest work,' and confused visions of bumblebees tugging at your hat. Not so far off, cousin, as it used to be, that vision and the hat. It makes me feel so hurried, I run and brush my hair so to be all ready.\n\nI enjoy much with a precious fly, during sister's absence, not one of your blue monsters, but a timid creature, that hops from pane to pane of her white house, so very cheerfully, and hums and thrums, a sort of speck piano. Tell Vinnie I'll kill him the day she comes, for I sha'n't need him any more, and she don't mind flies!\n\nTell F \u2014 and papa to come with the sweetwilliams.\n\nTell Vinnie I counted three peony noses, red as Sammie Matthews's, just out of the ground, and get her to make the accompanying face. 'By-Bye.'\n\nEMILY.\n\nMiss Lavinia Dickinson was visiting her cousins when their mother died, and Emily's letter to her sister at that time seems more appropriate here than in any other connection: \u2014\n\n_[April, 1860.]_\n\nVINNIE, \u2014 I can't believe it, when your letters come, saying what Aunt L \u2014 said 'just before she died.' Blessed Aunt L \u2014 now; all the world goes out, and I see nothing but her room, and angels bearing her into those great countries in the blue sky of which we don't know anything.\n\nThen I sob and cry till I can hardly see my way 'round the house again; and then sit still and wonder if she sees us now, if she sees' _me,_ who said that she 'loved Emily.' Oh! Vinnie, it is dark and strange to think of summer afterward! How she loved the summer! The birds keep singing just the same. Oh! The thoughtless birds!\n\nPoor little L \u2014 ! Poor F \u2014 ! You must comfort them!\n\nIf you were with me, Vinnie, we could talk about her together.\n\nAnd I thought she would live! I wanted her to live so, I thought she could not die! To think how still she lay while I was making the little loaf, and fastening her flowers! Did you get my letter in time to tell her how happy I would be to do what she requested? Mr. Brady is coming to-morrow to bring arbutus for her. Dear little aunt! Will she look down?\n\nYou must tell me all you can think about her. Did she carry my little bouquet? So many brokenhearted people have got to hear the birds sing, and see all the little flowers grow, just the same as if the sun hadn't stopped shining forever!... How I wish I could comfort you! How I wish you could comfort me, who weep at what I did not see and never can believe. I will try and share you a little longer, but it is so long, Vinnie.\n\nWe didn't think, that morning when I wept that you left me, and you, for other things, that we should weep more bitterly before we saw each other.\n\nWell, she is safer now than 'we know or even think.' Tired little aunt, sleeping ne'er so peaceful! Tuneful little aunt, singing, as we trust, hymns than which the robins have no sweeter ones.\n\nGood-night, broken hearts, L \u2014 , and F \u2014 , and Uncle L \u2014 . Vinnie, remember SISTER.\n\n_[Autumn, 1860.]_\n\nBravo, L \u2014 , the cape is a beauty, and what shall I render unto F \u2014 , for all her benefits? I will take my books and go into a corner and give thanks! Do you think I am going 'upon the boards 'that I wish so smart attire? Such are my designs, though. I beg you not to disclose them! May I not secure L \u2014 for drama, and F \u2014 for comedy?\n\nYou are a brace of darlings, and it would give me joy to see you both, in any capacity.... Will treasure all till I see you. Never fear that I shall forget! In event of my decease, I will still exclaim 'Dr Thompson,' and he will reply 'Miss Montague.'\n\nMy little L \u2014 pined for the hay in her last communication. Not to be saucy, dear, we sha'n't have any more before the first of March, Dick having hid it all in the barn in a most malicious manner; but he has not brought the sunset in, so there is still an inducement to my little girls. We have a sky or two, well worth consideration, and trees so fashionable they make us all _pass\u00e9e._\n\nI often remember you both, last week. I thought that flown mamma could not, as was her wont, shield from crowd, and strangers, and was glad Eliza was there. I knew she would guard my children, as she has often guarded me, from publicity, and help to fill the deep place never to be full. Dear cousins, I know you both better than I did, and love you both better, and always I have a chair for you in the smallest parlor in the world, to wit, my heart.\n\nThis world is just a little place, just the red in the sky, before the sun rises, so let us keep fast hold of hands, that when the birds begin, none of us be missing.\n\n'Burnham 'must think F \u2014 a scholastic female.\n\nI wouldn't be in her place! If she feels delicate about it, she can tell him the books are for a friend in the East Indies.\n\nWon't F \u2014 give my respects to the 'Bell and Everett party 'if she passes that organization on her way to school? I hear they wish to make me Lieutenant-Governor's daughter. Were they cats I would pull their tails, but as they are only patriots, I must forego the bliss....\n\nLove to papa.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[Winter, 1860-61.]_\n\nDEAR FRIENDS, \u2014 L \u2014 's note to Miss W \u2014 only stopped to dine. It went out with a beautiful name on its face in the evening mail. 'Is there nothing else,' as the clerk says? So pleased to enact a trifle for my little sister. It is little sisters you are, as dear F \u2014 says in the hallowed note. Could mamma read it, it would blur her light even in Paradise.\n\nIt was pretty to lend us the letters from the new friends. It gets us acquainted. We will preserve them carefully.... I regret I am not a scholar in the Friday class. I believe the love of God may be taught not to seem like bears. Happy the reprobates under that loving influence.\n\nI have one new bird and several trees of old ones. A snow slide from the roof, dispelled mother's 'sweetbrier.' You will of course feel for her, as you were named for him! There are as yet no streets, though the sun is riper, and these small bells have rung so long I think it 'tea-time' always.\n\n_[Spring, 1861.]_\n\n... Send a sundown for L \u2014 , please, and a crocus for F \u2014 . Shadow had no stem, so they could not pick him.\n\n... \u2014 fed greedily upon _Harper's Magazines_ while here. Suppose he is restricted to Martin Luther's works at home. It is a criminal thing to be a boy in a godly village, but maybe he will be forgiven.\n\n... The seeing pain one can't relieve makes a demon of one. If angels have the heart beneath their silver jackets, I think such things could make them weep, but Heaven is so cold! It will never look kind to me that God, who causes all, denies such little wishes. It could not hurt His glory, unless it were a lonesome kind. I 'most conclude it is.\n\n... Thank you for the daisy. With nature in my ruche I shall not miss the spring. What would become of us, dear, but for love to reprieve our blunders?\n\n... I'm afraid that home is 'most done, but do not say I fear so. Perhaps God will be better. They 're happy, you know. That makes it doubtful. Heaven hunts round for those that find itself below, and then it snatches.\n\n... Think Emily lost her wits \u2014 but she found 'em, likely. Don't part with wits long in this neighborhood.\n\n... Your letters are all real, just the tangled road children walked before you, some of them to the end, and others but a little way, even as far as the fork in the road. That Mrs. Browning fainted, we need not read _Aurora Leigh_ to know, when she lived with her English aunt; and George Sand 'must make no noise in her grandmother's bedroom.' Poor children! Women, now, queens, now! And one in the Eden of God. I guess they both forget that now, so who knows but we, little stars from the same night, stop twinkling at last? Take heart, little sister, twilight is but the short bridge, and the moon stands at the end. If we can only get to her! Yet, if she sees us fainting, she will put out her yellow hands....\n\n_[December, 1861.]_\n\nDEAR PEACOCK, \u2014 I received your feather with profound emotion. It has already surmounted a work, and crossed the Delaware. Doubtless you are moulting _\u00e0 la_ canary bird \u2014 hope you will not suffer from the reduction of plumage these December days. The latitude is quite stiff for a few nights, and gentlemen and ladies who go barefoot in our large cities must find the climate uncomfortable. A land of frosts and zeros is not precisely the land for me; hope you find it congenial. I believe it is several hundred years since I met you and F \u2014 , yet I am pleased to say, you do not become dim; I think you rather brighten as the hours fly. I should love to see you dearly, girls; perhaps I may, before south winds, but I feel rather confused to-day, and the future looks 'higglety-pigglety.'\n\nYou seem to take a smiling view of my finery. If you knew how solemn it was to me, you might be induced to curtail your jests. My sphere is doubtless calicoes, nevertheless I thought it meet to sport a little wool. The mirth it has occasioned will deter me from further exhibitions! Won't you tell 'the public' that at present I wear a brown dress with a cape if possible browner, and carry a parasol of the same! We have at present one cat, and twenty-four hens, who do nothing so vulgar as lay an egg, which checks the ice-cream tendency.\n\nI miss the grasshoppers much, but suppose it is all for the best. I should become too much attached to a trotting world.\n\nMy garden is all covered up by snow; picked gilliflower Tuesday, now gilliflowers are asleep. The hills take off their purple frocks, and dress in long white nightgowns.\n\nThere is something fine and something sad in the year's toilet....\n\nWe often talk of you and your father these new winter days. Write, dear, when you feel like it.\n\nLovingly, EMILY.\n\n_[December 29, 1861.]_\n\n... Your letter didn't surprise me, L \u2014 ; I brushed away the sleet from eyes familiar with it \u2014 looked again to be sure I read it right \u2014 and then took up my work hemming strings for mother's gown. I think I hemmed them faster for knowing you weren't coming, my fingers had nothing else to do.... Odd, that I, who say 'no 'so much, cannot bear it from others. Odd, that I, who run from so many, cannot brook that one turn from me. Come when you will, L \u2014 , the hearts are never shut here.\n\nI don't remember 'May.' Is that the one that stands next April? And is that the month for the river-pink?\n\nMrs. Adams had news of the death of her boy to-day, from a wound at Annapolis. Telegram signed by Frazer Stearns. You remember him. Another one died in October \u2014 from fever caught in the camp. Mrs. Adams herself has not risen from bed since then. 'Happy new year' step softly over such doors as these! 'Dead! Both her boys! One of them shot by the sea in the East, and one of them shot in the West by the sea.'... Christ be merciful! Frazer Stearns is just leaving Annapolis. His father has gone to see him to-day. I hope that ruddy face won't be brought home frozen. Poor little widow's boy, riding to-night in the mad wind, back to the village burying-ground where he never dreamed of sleeping! Ah! the dreamless sleep!\n\nDid you get the letter I sent a week from Monday? You did not say, and it makes me anxious, and I sent a scrap for Saturday last, that too? L \u2014 , I wanted you very much, and I put you by with sharper tears than I give to many. Won't you tell me about the chills \u2014 what the doctor says? I must not lose you, sweet. Tell me if I could send a tuft to keep the cousin warm, a blanket of a thistle, say, or something!\n\nMuch love and Christmas, and sweet year, for you and F \u2014 and papa.\n\nEMILIE.\n\nDear little F \u2014 's note received, and shall write her soon.\n\nMeanwhile, we wrap her in our heart to keep her tight and warm.\n\n... Uncle told us you were too busy. Fold your little hands \u2014 the heart is the only workman we cannot excuse.\n\n... Gratitude is not the mention of a tenderness, but its mute appreciation, deeper than we reach \u2014 all our LORD demands, who sizes better knows than we. Willing unto death, if only we perceive He die.\n\n_[February, 1862.]_\n\nDEAR F \u2014 , \u2014 I fear you are getting as driven as Vinnie. We consider her standard for superhuman effort erroneously applied. Dear L \u2014 remembers the basket Vinnie 'never got to.' But we must blame with lenience. Poor Vinnie has been very sick, and so have we all, and I feared one day our little brothers would see us no more, but God was not so hard. Now health looks so beautiful, the tritest 'How do you do 'is living with meaning. No doubt you 'heard a bird,' but which route did he take? Hasn't reached here yet. Are you sure it wasn't a 'down brakes '? Best of ears will blunder! Unless he come by the first of April, I sha'n't countenance him. We have had fatal weather \u2014 thermometer two below zero all day, without a word of apology. Summer was always dear, but such a kiss as she'll get from me if I ever see her again, will make her cry, I know....\n\n_[April, 1862.]_\n\nDEAR CHILDREN, \u2014 You have done more for me \u2014 \u2014 't is least that I can do, to tell you of brave Frazer \u2014 \u2014 ' killed at Newbern,' darlings. His big heart shot away by a 'Minie ball.'\n\nI had read of those \u2014 I didn't think that Frazer would carry one to Eden with him. Just as he fell, in his soldier's cap, with his sword at his side, Frazer rode through Amherst. Classmates to the right of him, and classmates to the left of him, to guard his narrow face! He fell by the side of Professor Clark, his superior officer \u2014 lived ten minutes in a soldier's arms, asked twice for water \u2014 murmured just, 'My God!' and passed! Sanderson, his classmate, made a box of boards in the night, put the brave boy in, covered with a blanket, rowed six miles to reach the boat, \u2014 so poor Frazer came. They tell that Colonel Clark cried like a little child when he missed his pet, and could hardly resume his post. They loved each other very much. Nobody here could look on Frazer \u2014 not even his father. The doctors would not allow it.\n\nThe bed on which he came was enclosed in a large casket shut entirely, and covered from head to foot with the sweetest flowers. He went to sleep from the village church. Crowds came to tell him goodnight, choirs sang to him, pastors told how brave he was \u2014 early-soldier heart. And the family bowed their heads, as the reeds the wind shakes.\n\nSo our part in Frazer is done, but you must come next summer, and we will mind ourselves of this young crusader \u2014 too brave that he could fear to die. We will play his tunes \u2014 maybe he can hear them; we will try to comfort his broken-hearted Ella, who, as the clergyman said, 'gave him peculiar confidence.'... Austin is stunned completely. Let us love better, children, it's most that's left to do.\n\nLove from\n\nEMILY.\n\n... Sorrow seems more general than it did, and not the estate of a few persons, since the war began; and if the anguish of others helped one with one's own, now would be many medicines.\n\n'T is dangerous to value, for only the precious can alarm. I noticed that Robert Browning had made another poem, and was astonished \u2014 till I remembered that I, myself, in my smaller way, sang off charnel steps. Every day life feels mightier, and what we have the power to be, more stupendous.\n\n_[May, 1862.]_\n\nWhen you can leave your little children, L \u2014 , you must tell us all you know about dear Myra's going, so sudden, and shocking to us all, we are only bewildered and cannot believe the telegrams. I want so much to see you, and ask you what it means, and why this young life's sacrifice should come so soon, and not far off. I wake in the morning saying 'Myra, no more Myra in this world,' and the thought of that young face in the dark, makes the whole so sorrowful, I cover my face with the blanket, so the robins' singing cannot get through \u2014 I had rather not hear it. Was Myra willing to leave us all? I want so much to know if it was very hard, husband and babies and big life and sweet home by the sea. I should think she would rather have stayed.... She came to see us first in May. I remember her frock, and how prettily she fixed her hair, and she and Vinnie took long walks, and got home to tea at sundown; and now remembering is all there is, and no more Myra. I wish't was plainer, L \u2014 , the anguish in this world.\n\nI wish one could be sure the suffering had a loving side. The thought to look down some day, and see the crooked steps we came, from a safer place, must be a precious thing....\n\nL \u2014 , you are a dear child to go to Uncle J \u2014 , and all will thank you, who love him. We will remember you every day, and the little children, and make a picture to ourself, of the small mamma.... Father and Vinnie would have gone immediately to Lynn, but got the telegram too late. Tell Uncle they wanted to. But what can Emily say? Their Father in Heaven remember them and her.\n\nMy little girls have alarmed me so that notwithstanding the comfort of Austin's assurance that 'they will come,' I am still hopeless and scared, and regard Commencement as some vast anthropic bear, ordained to eat me up. What made 'em scare 'em so? Didn't they know Cousin Aspen couldn't stand alone? I remember a tree in McLean Street, when you and we were a little girl, whose leaves went topsy-turvy as often as a wind, and showed an ashen side \u2014 that's fright, that's Emily. L \u2014 and F \u2014 were that wind, and the poor leaf, who?\n\nWon't they stop a' blowing?... Commencement would be a dreary spot without my double flower, that sows itself, and just comes up, when Emily seeks it most. Austin gives excellent account, I trust not overdrawn. 'Health and aspect admirable, and lodgings very fine.' Says the rooms were marble, even to the flies. Do they dwell in Carrara? Did they find the garden in the gown? Should have sent a farm, but feared for our button-hole. Hope to hear favorable news on receipt of this. Please give date of coming, so we might prepare our heart.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[July, 1862?]_\n\n... Just a word for my children, before the mails shut. L \u2014 left a tumbler of sweet-peas on the green room bureau. I am going to leave them there till they make pods and sow themselves in the upper drawer, and then I guess they'll blossom about Thanksgiving time. There was a thunder-shower here Saturday at car-time, and Emily was glad her little ones had gone before the hail and rain, lest it frighten them.... We wish the visit had just begun instead of ending now; next time we'll leave 'the mountains 'out, and tell good Dr Gregg to recommend the orchards. I defrauded L \u2014 of I spool of thread; we will 'settle,' however \u2014 and F \u2014 's ruff is set high in my book of remembrance.\n\nThey must be good children and recollect, as they agreed, and grow so strong in health that Emily won't know them when they show again.... Such a purple morning \u2014 even to the morning-glory that climbs the cherry-tree. The cats desire love to F \u2014 .\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[About May 30, 1863.]_\n\nI said I should come 'in a day.' Emily never fails except for a cause; that you know, dear L \u2014 .\n\nThe nights turned hot, when Vinnie had gone, and I must keep no window raised for fear of prowling 'booger,' and I must shut my door for fear front door slide open on me at the 'dead of night,' and I must keep 'gas' burning to light the danger up, so I could distinguish it \u2014 these gave me a snarl in the brain which don't unravel yet, and that old nail in my breast pricked me; these, dear, were my cause. Truth is so best of all I wanted you to know. Vinnie will tell of her visit....\n\nAbout Commencement, children, I can have no doubt, if you should fail me then, my little life would fail of itself. Could you only lie in your little bed and smile at me, that would be support. Tell the doctor I am inexorable, besides I shall heal you quicker than he. You need the balsam word. And who is to cut the cake, ask F \u2014 , and chirp to those trustees? Tell me, dears, by the coming mail, that you will not fail me....\n\nJennie Hitchcock's mother was buried yesterday, so there is one orphan more, and her father is very sick besides. My father and mother went to the service, and mother said while the minister prayed, a hen with her chickens came up, and tried to fly into the window. I suppose the dead lady used to feed them, and they wanted to bid her good-by.\n\nLife is death we 're lengthy at, Death the hinge to life.\n\nLove from all, [Autumn, 1863.]\n\n_Wednesday._\n\nDEAR CHILDREN, \u2014 Nothing has happened but loneliness, perhaps too daily to relate. Carlo is consistent, has asked for nothing to eat or drink, since you went away. Mother thinks him a model dog, and conjectures what he might have been, had not Vinnie 'demoralized 'him. Margaret objects to furnace heat on account of bone decrepitudes, so I dwell in my bonnet and suffer comfortably....\n\nMiss Kingman called last evening to inspect your garden; I gave her a lanthorn, and she went out, and thanks you very much. No one has called so far, but one old lady to look at a house. I directed her to the cemetery to spare\u00bb expense of moving..\n\nI got down before father this morning, and spent a few moments profitably with the South Sea rose. Father detecting me, advised wiser employment, and read at devotions the chapter of the gentleman with one talent. I think he thought my conscience would adjust the gender.\n\nMargaret washed to-day, and accused Vinnie of calicoes. I put her shoe and bonnet in to have them nice when she got home. I found a milliner's case in Miss N \u2014 's wardrobe, and have opened business. I have removed a geranium leaf, and supplied a lily in Vinnie's parlor vase. The sweet-peas are unchanged. Cattle-show is to-morrow. The coops and committees are passing now.... They are picking the Baldwin apples. Be good children, and mind the vicar. Tell me precisely how Wakefield looks, since I go not myself.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[Autumn, 1863.]_\n\n... I should be wild with joy to see my little lovers. The writing them is not so sweet as their two faces that seem so small way off, and yet have been two weeks from me \u2014 two wishful, wandering weeks. Now, I begin to doubt if they ever came.\n\nI bid the stiff 'good-night 'and the square 'good-morning' to the lingering guest, I finish mamma's sack, all but the overcasting \u2014 that fatal sack, you recollect. I pick up tufts of mignonette, and sweet alyssum for winter, dim as winter seems these red, and gold, and ribbon days.\n\nI am sure I feel as Noah did, docile, but somewhat sceptic, under the satinet.\n\nNo frost at our house yet. Thermometer frost, I mean. Mother had a new tooth Saturday. You know Dr S \u2014 had promised her one for a long time. 'Teething 'didn't agree with her, and she kept her bed, Sunday, with a face that would take a premium at any cattle-show in the land. Came to town next morning with slightly reduced features, but no eye on the left side. Doubtless we are 'fearfully and wonderfully made,' and occasionally grotesquely.\n\nL \u2014 goes to Sunderland, Wednesday, for a minute or two; leaves here at half-past six \u2014 what a fitting hour \u2014 and will breakfast the night before; such a smart atmosphere! The trees stand right up straight when they hear her boots, and will bear crockery wares instead of fruit, I fear. She hasn't starched the geraniums yet, but will have ample time, unless she leaves before April. Emily is very mean, and her children in dark mustn't remember what she says about damsel.\n\nGrateful for little notes, and shall ask for longer when my birds locate. Would it were here. Three sisters are prettier than one.... Tabby is a continual shrine, and her jaunty ribbons put me in mind of fingers far out at sea. F \u2014 's admonition made me laugh and cry too. In the hugest haste, and the engine waiting.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[After the death of the Misses \u2014 's father, Jan. 1864.]_\n\nWhat shall I tell these darlings except that my father and mother are half their father and mother, and my home half theirs, whenever, and for as long as, they will. And sometimes a dearer thought than that creeps into my mind, but it is not for to-night. Wasn't dear papa so tired always after mamma went, and wasn't it almost sweet to think of the two together these new winter nights? The grief is our side, darlings, and the glad is theirs. Vinnie and I sit down to-night, while mother tells what makes us cry, though we know it is well and easy with uncle and papa, and only our part hurts. Mother tells how gently he looked on all who looked at him \u2014 how he held his bouquet sweet, as he were a guest in a friend's parlor and must still do honor. The meek, mild gentleman who thought no harm, but peace toward all.\n\nVinnie intended to go, but the day was cold, and she wanted to keep Uncle L \u2014 as she talked with him, always, instead of this new way. She thought too, for the crowd, she could not see you, children, and she would be another one to give others care.\n\nMother said Mr. V \u2014 , yes, dears, even Mr. V \u2014 , at whom we sometimes smile, talked about 'Lorin' and Laviny 'and his friendship towards them, to your father's guests. We won't smile at him any more now, will we? Perhaps he'll live to tell some gentleness of us, who made merry of him.\n\nBut never mind that now. When you have strength, tell us how it is, and what we may do for you, of comfort, or of service. Be sure you crowd all others out, precious little cousins. Good-night. Let Emily sing for you because she cannot pray: \u2014\n\nIt is not dying hurts us so, \u2014\n\n'T is living hurts us more;\n\nBut dying is a different way,\n\nA kind, behind the door, \u2014\n\nThe southern custom of the bird\n\nThat soon as frosts are due\n\nAdopts a better latitude.\n\nWe are the birds that stay,\n\nThe shiverers round farmers' doors,\n\nFor whose reluctant crumb\n\nWe stipulate, till pitying snows\n\nPersuade our feathers home.\n\nSo many ask for the children that I must make a separate letter to tell them what they say, and leave my kisses till next time.\n\nEliza wrote last week, faint note in pencil \u2014 dressed in blankets, and propped up, having been so sick \u2014 and yet too weak to talk much, even with her slate. She said this of you, I give it in her own word, 'Make them know I love them,' and added, should have written immediately herself, except for weakness.\n\nMr. Dwight asks for you in the phrase 'Of your sweet cousins.' He does not yet know papa is asleep \u2014 only very weary.\n\nThe milliner at the head of the street wipes her eye for F \u2014 and L \u2014 , and a tear rumples her ribbons. Mr. and Mrs. Sweetser care \u2014 Mrs. Sweetser most tenderly.\n\n... Even Dick's wife, simple dame, with a kitchen full, and the grave besides, of little ragged ones, wants to know 'more about 'you, and follows mother to the door, who has called with bundle.\n\nDick says, in his wise way, he 'shall always be interested in them young ladies.' One little young lady of his own, you know, is in Paradise. That makes him tenderer-minded.\n\nBe sure you don't doubt about the sparrow.\n\nPoor \u2014 and \u2014 , in their genteel, antique way, express their sympathy, mixing admiring anecdotes of your father and mother's youth, when they, God help them, were not so sere. Besides these others, children, shall we tell them who else cherishes, every day the same, the bright one and the black one too? Could it be Emily?\n\nWould it interest the children to know that crocuses come up, in the garden off the dining-room, and a fuchsia, that pussy partook, mistaking it for strawberries? And that we have primroses, like the little pattern sent in last winter's note, and heliotrope by the aprons full \u2014 the mountain colored one \u2014 and a jasmine bud, you know the little odor like Lubin \u2014 and gilliflowers, magenta, and few mignonette, and sweet alyssum bountiful, and carnation buds?\n\nWill it please them to know that the ice-house is filled, to make their tumblers cool next summer, and once in a while a cream?\n\nAnd that father has built a new road round the pile of trees between our house and Mr. S \u2014 's, where they can take the soldier's shirt to make, or a sweet poem, and no man find them but the fly, and he such a little man?\n\nLove, dears, from us all, and won't you tell us how you are?\n\nWe seem to hear so little.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[January, 1865.]_\n\n... I am glad my little girl is at peace. Peace is a deep place. Some, too faint to push, are assisted by angels.\n\nI have more to say to you all than March has to the maples, but then I cannot write in bed. I read a few words since I came home \u2014 John Talbot's parting with his son, and Margaret's with Suffolk. I read them in the garret, and the rafters wept.\n\nRemember me to your company, their Bedouin guest.\n\nEvery day in the desert, Ishmael counts his tents. New heart makes new health, dear.\n\nHappiness is haleness. I dreamed last night I heard bees fight for pond-lily stamens, and waked with a fly in my room.\n\nShall you be strong enough to lift me by the first of April? I won't be half as heavy as I was before. I will be good and chase my spools.\n\nI shall think of my little Eve going away from Eden. Bring me a jacinth for every finger, and an onyx shoe. \u2014 EMILY.\n\n_[I865.]_\n\nDEAR SISTER, \u2014 Brother has visited, and the night is falling, so I must close with a little hymn.\n\nI had hoped to express more. Love more I never can, sweet D \u2014 or yourself.\n\nThis was in the white of the year,\n\nThat was in the green.\n\nDrifts were as difficult then to think,\n\nAs daisies now to be seen.\n\nLooking back is best that is left,\n\nOr if it be before,\n\nRetrospection is prospect's half,\n\nSometimes almost more.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[February, 1865.]_\n\nAll that my eyes will let me shall be said for L \u2014 , dear little solid gold girl. I am glad to the foot of my heart that you will go to M \u2014 . It will make you warm. Touches 'from home,' tell Gungl, are better than 'sounds.' (Referring to an old piece of piano-forte music.)\n\nYou persuade me to speak of my eyes, which I shunned doing, because I wanted you to rest. I could not bear a single sigh should tarnish your vacation, but, lest through me one bird delay a change of latitude, I will tell you, dear.\n\nThe eyes are as with you, sometimes easy, sometimes sad. I think they are not worse, nor do I think them better than when I came home.\n\nThe snow-light offends them, and the house is bright; notwithstanding, they hope some. For the first few weeks I did nothing but comfort my plants, till now their small green cheeks are covered with smiles. I chop the chicken centres when we have roast fowl, frequent now, for the hens contend and the Cain is slain.... Then I make the yellow to the pies, and bang the spice for cake, and knit the soles to the stockings I knit the bodies to last June. They say I am a 'help.' Partly because it is true, I suppose, and the rest applause. Mother and Margaret are so kind, father as gentle as he knows how, and Vinnie good to me, but 'cannot see why I don't get well.' This makes me think I am long sick, and this takes the ache to my eyes. I shall try to stay with them a few weeks more before going to Boston, though what it would be to see you and have the doctor's care \u2014 that cannot be told. You will not wait for me. Go to M \u2014 now.\n\nI wish I were there, myself, to start your little feet 'lest they seem to come short of it.' I have so much to tell I can tell nothing, except a sand of love. When I dare I shall ask if I may go, but that will not be now.\n\nGive my love to my lamp and spoon, and the small lantana. Kindest remembrance for all the house, and write next from M \u2014 . Go, little girl, to M \u2014 . Life is so fast it will run away, notwithstanding our sweetest _whoa._\n\nAlready they love you. Be but the maid you are to me, and they will love you more.\n\nCarry your heart and your curls, and nothing more but your fingers. Mr. D \u2014 will ask for these every candle-light. How I miss ten robins that never flew from the rosewood nest!\n\nDEAR L \u2014 , \u2014 This is my letter \u2014 an ill and peevish thing, but when my eyes get well I'll send you thoughts like daisies, and sentences could hold the bees....\n\n... Oh, L \u2014 , why were the children sent too faint to stand alone?... Every hour is anxious now, and heaven protect the lamb who shared her fleece with a timider, even Emily.\n\nDEAR CHILDREN, \u2014 The little notes shall go as fast as steam can take them.\n\nOur hearts already went. Would we could mail our faces for your dear encouragement.\n\nRemember\n\nThe longest day that God appoints\n\nWill finish with the sun.\n\nAnguish can travel to its stake,\n\nAnd then it must return.\n\nI am in bed to-day \u2014 a curious place for me, and cannot write as well as if I was firmer, but love as well, and long more. Tell us all the load. Amherst's little basket is never so full but it holds more. That's a basket's cause. Not a flake assaults my birds but it freezes me. Comfort, little creatures \u2014 whatever befall us, this world is but this world. Think of that great courageous place we have never seen!\n\nWrite at once, please, I am so full of grief and surprise and physical weakness. I cannot speak until I know.\n\nLovingly,\n\nEMILY.\n\nOf this letter her cousin writes, 'All this trouble has become only a myth now; it must have been some illness, or other forgotten calamity.'\n\n_[Autumn, 1869.]_\n\nVinnie was 'gone 'indeed and is due to-day, and before the tumult that even the best bring we will take hold of hands. It was sweet and antique as birds to hear L \u2014 's voice, worth the lying awake from five o'clock summer mornings to hear. I rejoice that my wren can rise and touch the sky again. We all have moments with the dust, but the dew is given. Do you wish you heard 'A \u2014 talk '? Then I would you did, for then you would be here always, a sweet premium. Would you like to 'step in the kitchen '? Then you shall by faith, which is the first sight. Mr. C \u2014 is not in the tree, because the rooks won't let him, but I ate a pear as pink as a plum that he made last spring, when he was ogling you. Mother has on the petticoat you so gallantly gathered while he sighed and grafted.\n\nTabby is eating a stone dinner from a stone plate,... Tim is washing Dick's feet, and talking to him now and then in an intimate way. Poor fellow, how he warmed when I gave him your message! The red reached clear to his beard, he was so gratified; and Maggie stood as still for hers as a puss for patting. The hearts of these poor people lie so unconcealed you bare them with a smile.\n\nThank you for recollecting my weakness. I am not so well as to forget I was ever ill, but better and working. I suppose we must all 'ail till evening.'\n\nRead Mr. Lowell's _Winter._ One does not often meet anything so perfect.\n\nIn many little corners how much of L \u2014 I have.\n\nMaggie 'dragged 'the garden for this bud for you. You have heard of the 'last rose of summer.' This is that rose's son.\n\nInto the little port you cannot sail unwelcome at any hour of day or night. Love for F \u2014 , and stay close to\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[Spring, 1870.]_\n\nDEAR CHILDREN, \u2014 I think the bluebirds do their work exactly like me. They dart around just so, with little dodging feet, and look so agitated. I really feel for them, they seem to be so tried.\n\nThe mud is very deep \u2014 up to the wagons' stomachs \u2014 arbutus making pink clothes, and everything alive.\n\nEven the hens are touched with the things of Bourbon, and make republicans like me feel strangely out of scene.\n\nMother went rambling, and came in with a burdock on her shawl, so we know that the snow has perished from the earth. Noah would have liked mother.\n\nI am glad you are with Eliza. It is next to shade to know that those we love are cool on a parched day.\n\nBring my love to \u2014 and Mr. \u2014 . You will not need a hod. C \u2014 writes often, full of joy and liberty. I guess it is a case of peace....\n\nPussy has a daughter in the shavings barrel.\n\nFather steps like Cromwell when he gets the kindlings.\n\nMrs. \u2014 gets bigger, and rolls down the lane to church like a reverend marble. Did you know little Mrs. Holland was in Berlin for her eyes?...\n\nDid you know about Mrs. J \u2014 ? She fledged her antique wings. 'T is said that 'nothing in her life became her like the leaving it.'\n\n'Great streets of silence led away,' etc.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[May.]_\n\nThis little sheet of paper has lain for several years in my Shakespeare, and though it is blotted and antiquated is endeared by its resting-place.\n\nI always think of you peculiarly in May, as it is the peculiar anniversary of your loving kindness to me, though you have always been dear cousins, and blessed me all you could.\n\nI cooked the peaches as you told me, and they swelled to beautiful fleshy halves and tasted quite magic. The beans we fricasseed and they made a savory cream in cooking that 'Aunt Emily 'liked to sip. She was always fonder of julep food than of more substantial. Your remembrance of her is very sweetly touching.\n\nMaggie is ironing, and a cotton and linen and ruffle heat makes the pussy's cheeks red. It is lonely without the birds to-day, for it rains badly, and the little poets have no umbrellas....\n\n... Fly from Emily's window for L \u2014 . Botanical name unknown.\n\n_[Enclosing a pressed insect.]_\n\n_[September, 1870.]_\n\nLITTLE SISTERS, \u2014 I wish you were with me, not precisely here, but in those sweet mansions the mind likes to suppose. Do they exist or nay? We believe they may, but do they, how know we? 'The light that never was on sea or land 'might just as soon be had for the knocking.\n\nF \u2014 's rustic note was as sweet as fern; L \u2014 's token also tenderly estimated. Maggie and I are fighting which shall give L \u2014 the 'plant,' though it is quite a pleasant war.... A \u2014 : \u2014 went this morning, after a happy egg and toast provided by Maggie, whom he promised to leave his sole heir.\n\nThe 'pussum' is found. 'Two dollars reward 'would return John Franklin....\n\nLove for Aunt O \u2014 . Tell her I think to instruct flowers will be her labor in heaven....\n\nNearly October, sisters! No one can keep a sumach and keep a secret too. That was my 'pipe' F \u2014 found in the woods.\n\nAffectionately,\n\nUNTIRING LITTLE SISTERS, \u2014 What will I ever do for you, yet have done the most, for love is that one perfect labor nought can supersede. I suppose the pain is still there, for pain that is worthy does not go so soon. The small can crush the great, however, only temporarily. In a few days we examine, muster our forces, and cast it away. Put it out of your hearts, children. Faith is too fair to taint it so. There are those in the morgue that bewitch us with sweetness, but that which is dead must go with the ground. There is a verse in the Bible that says there are those who shall not see death. I suppose them to be the faithful. Love will not expire. There was never the instant when it was lifeless in the world, though the quicker deceit dies, the better for the truth, who is indeed our dear friend.\n\nI am sure you will gain, even from this wormwood. The martyrs may not choose their food.\n\nGod made no act without a cause,\n\nNor heart without an aim,\n\nOur inference is premature,\n\nOur premises to blame.\n\n... Sweetest of Christmas to you both, and a better year.\n\nEMILY.\n\nDEAR CHILDREN, \u2014 When I think of your little faces I feel as the band does before it makes its first shout....\n\nEMILY.\n\n... Mother drives with Tim to carry pears to settlers. Sugar pears with hips like hams, and the flesh of bonbons. Vinnie fastens flowers from the frosts....\n\nLifetime is for two, never for committee.\n\nI saw your Mrs. H \u2014 . She looks a little tart, but Vinnie says makes excellent pies after one gets acquainted.\n\n_[Spring, 1871.]_\n\nThe will is always near, dear, though the feet vary. The terror of the winter has made a little creature of me, who thought myself so bold.\n\nFather was very sick. I presumed he would die, and the sight of his lonesome face all day was harder than personal trouble. He is growing better, though physically reluctantly. I hope I am mistaken, but I think his physical life don't want to live any longer. You know he never played, and the straightest engine has its leaning hour. Vinnie was not here. Now we will turn the corner. All this while I was with you all, much of every hour, wishing we were near enough to assist each other. Would you have felt more at home, to know we were both in extremity? That would be my only regret that I had not told you.\n\nAs regards the 'pine' and the 'jay,' it is a long tryst, but I think they are able. I have spoken with them.\n\nOf the 'thorn,' dear, give it to me, for I am strongest. Never carry what I can carry, for though I think I bend, something straightens me. Go to the 'wine-press,' dear, and come back and say has the number altered. I descry but one. What I would, I cannot say in so small a place.\n\nInterview is acres, while the broadest letter feels a bandaged place....\n\nTell F \u2014 we hold her tight. Tell L \u2014 love is oldest and takes care of us, though just now in a piercing place.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[Written to Milwaukee, just after the Chicago fire, 1871]_\n\nWe have the little note and are in part relieved, but have been too alarmed and grieved to hush immediately. The heart keeps sobbing in its sleep. It is the speck that makes the cloud that wrecks the vessel, children, yet no one fears a speck. I hope what is not lost is saved. Were any angel present, I feel it could not be allowed. So grateful that our little girls are not on fire too. Amherst would have quenched them. Thank you for comforting innocent blamed creatures. We are trying, too. The mayor of Milwaukee cuts and you and L \u2014 sew, don't you?\n\nThe _New York Times_ said so. Sorrow is the 'funds 'never quite spent, always a little left to be loaned kindly. We have a new cow. I wish I could give Wisconsin a little pail of milk. Dick's Maggie is wilting. Awkward little flower, but transplanting makes it fair. How are the long days that made the fresh afraid?\n\nBROTHER EMILY.\n\n_[March, 1872.]_\n\nThank you, own little girls, for the sweet remembrance \u2014 sweet specifically. Be sure it was pondered with loving thoughts not unmixed with palates.\n\nBut love, like literature, is 'its exceeding great reward.'... I am glad you heard 'Little Em'ly.' I would go far to hear her, except I have lost the run of the roads.... Infinite March is here, and I 'hered 'a bluebird. Of course I am standing on my head!\n\nGo slow, my soul, to feed thyself Upon his rare approach. Go rapid, lest competing death Prevail upon the coach. Go timid, should his testing eye Determine thee amiss, Go boldly, for thou paidst the price, Redemption for a kiss.\n\nTabby is singing _Old Hundred,_ which, by the way, is her maiden name. Would they address and mail the note to their friend J \u2014 W \u2014 ?\n\nTidings of a book.\n\nEMILY.\n\nI like to thank you, dear, for the annual candy. Though you make no answer, I have no letter from the dead, yet daily love them more. No part of mind is permanent. This startles the happy, but it assists the sad.\n\nThis is a mighty morning. I trust that L \u2014 is with it, on hill or pond or wheel. Too few the mornings be, too scant the nights. No lodging can be had for the delights that come to earth to stay, but no. apartment find and ride away. F \u2014 was brave and dear, and helped as much by counsel as by actual team. Whether we missed L \u2014 we will let her guess; riddles are healthful food.\n\nEliza was not with us, but it was owing to the trains. We know she meant to come.\n\nOh! Cruel Paradise! We have a chime of bells given for brave Frazer. You'll stop and hear them, won't you?\n\n'We conquered, but Bozzaris fell.' That sentence always chokes me.\n\nEMILY.\n\nThe new College church was given in 1870 by Mr. William French Stearns, brother of the Frazer so mourned; and its chime of bells was a memorial to the Amherst students who were killed in the war.\n\n(Following is the inscription on the fundamental bell: \u2014\n\nTHESE BELLS ARE PLACED HERE BY GEORGE HOWE OF BOSTON AND ARE TO BE MADE TO CHIME ON ALL SUITABLE OCCASIONS IN COMMEMORATION OF THE BRAVE PATRIOTS CONNECTED WITH AMHERST COLLEGE WHO LOST THEIR LIVES IN THE WAR AGAINST THE GREAT REBELLION OF 1861)\n\nA cannon, now in Williston Hall, Amherst College, was given by General Burnside at the request of Colonel Clark, in loving memory of Frazer Stearns, the first of all the Amherst students who enlisted, nearly two hundred and fifty in number.\n\nAn ill heart, like a body, has its more comfortable days, and then its days of pain, its long relapse, when rallying, requires more effort than to dissolve life, and death looks choiceless.\n\nOf Miss P \u2014 I know but this, dear. She wrote me in October, requesting me to aid the world by my chirrup more. Perhaps she stated it as my duty, I don't distinctly remember, and always burn such letters, so I cannot obtain it now. I replied declining. She did not write to me again \u2014 she might have been offended, or perhaps is extricating humanity from some hopeless ditch....\n\nEmily was often besieged by different persons, literary and otherwise, to benefit the world by her 'chirrup,' but she steadily refused to publish during her lifetime. In all these years she was constantly writing verses; and while, as already apparent, she frequently enclosed poems in letters to friends, the fact that scores in addition were being written every year was her own secret. Her literary methods were also her own, \u2014 she must frequently have tossed off, many times daily, the stray thoughts which came to her. The box of 'scraps' found by her sister after her death proves this conclusively, as some of Emily's rarest flashes were caught upon the margins of newspapers, backs of envelopes, or whatever bit of paper was nearest at hand, in the midst of other occupations. In the more carefully copied poems are many alterations, but it is a curious fact that not one change has reference to improvement in rhyme or rhythm. Every suggestion for a different word or phrase was in the evident hope that by some one of them the thought might be made clearer, and not in a single instance merely to smooth the form.\n\nWhether Emily Dickinson had any idea that her work would ever be published cannot be known. Except when a friend occasionally 'turned love to larceny 'as some one has aptly said, nothing was printed before her death. One of the poems, indeed, begins, \u2014\n\nPublication is the auction\n\nOf the mind of man.\n\nBut the _Prelude_ to the _Poems,_ First Series, almost seems to indicate the thought of a possible future public, when she herself should be beyond the reach of the praise or criticism which her writing might call forth.\n\n_[Early Summer, 1872.]_\n\nDEAR CHILDREN, \u2014 We received the news of your loving kindness through Uncle J \u2014 last evening, and Vinnie is negotiating with neighbor Gray, who goes to a wedding in Boston next week, for the procuring of the nest. Vinnie's views of expressage do not abate with time. The crocuses are with \"s and several other colored friends. Cousin H \u2014 broke her hip, and is in a polite bed, surrounded by mint juleps. I think she will hate to leave it as badly as _Marian Erie_ did. Vinnie says there is a tree in Mr. Sweetser's woods that shivers. I am afraid it is cold. I am going to make it a little coat. I must make several, because it is tall as the barn, and put them on as the circus men stand on each other's shoulders.... There is to be a 'show' next week, and little Maggie's bed is to be moved to the door so she can see the tents. Folding her own like the Arabs gives her no apprehension. While I write, dear children, the colors Eliza loved quiver on the pastures, and day goes gay to the northwest, innocent as she.\n\nEMILY.\n\n... Thank you for the passage. How long to live the truth is! A word is dead when it is said, some say. I say it just begins to live that day.\n\n_[July 27,1872.]_\n\nLittle Irish Maggie went to sleep this morning at six o'clock, just the time grandpa rises, and will rest in the grass at Northampton to-morrow. She has had a hard sickness, but her awkward little life is saved and gallant now. Our Maggie is helping her mother put her in the cradle....\n\nMonth after this \u2014 after that is October, isn't it? That isn't much long. Joy to enfold our little girls in so close a future. That was a lovely letter of F \u2014 's. It put the cat to playing and the kettle to purring, and two or three birds in plush teams reined nearer to the window.... You will miss the nasturtiums, but you will meet the chestnuts. You also will miss the south wind, but I will save the west....\n\nOf course we shall have a telegram that you have left for Nebraska....\n\nEMILY.\n\n... J \u2014 is coming to put away her black hair on the children's pillow. I hoped she'd come while you were here, to help me with the starch, but Satan's ways are not as our ways. I'm straightening all the property, and making things erect and smart, and to-morrow, at twilight, her little heel boots will thump into Amherst. It being summer season she will omit the sleigh-bell gown, and that's a palliative. Vinnie is all disgust, and I shall have to smirk for two to make the manners even.\n\n_[1872, or 1873.]_\n\nThank you, dear, for the love. I am progressing timidly.\n\nExperiment has a stimulus which withers its fear.\n\nThis is the place they hoped before,\n\nWhere I am hoping now.\n\nThe seed of disappointment grew\n\nWithin a capsule gay,\n\nToo distant to arrest the feet\n\nThat walk this plank of balm \u2014\n\nBefore them lies escapeless sea \u2014\n\nThe way is closed they came.\n\nSince you so gently ask, I have had but one serious adventure \u2014 getting a nail in my foot, but Maggie pulled it out. It only kept me awake one night, and the birds insisted on sitting up, so it became an occasion instead of a misfortune. There was a circus, too, and I watched it away at half-past three that morning. They said 'hoy, hoy' to their horses.\n\nGlad you heard Rubinstein. Grieved L \u2014 could not hear him. He makes me think of polar nights Captain Hall could tell! Going from ice to ice! What an exchange of awe!\n\nI am troubled for L \u2014 's eye. Poor little girl!\n\nCan I help her? She has so many times saved me. Do take her to Arlington Street. (To the physician who had already done so much for Emily's eyes.) Xerxes must go now and see to her worlds. You shall 'taste,' dear. \u2014 Lovingly.\n\n_[Winter, 1873.]_\n\n... I know I love my friends \u2014 I feel it far in here where neither blue nor black eye goes, and fingers cannot reach. I know 'tis love for them that sets the blister in my throat, many a time a day, when winds go sweeter than their wont, or a different cloud puts my brain from home.\n\nI cannot see my soul, but know't is there,\n\nNor ever saw his house nor furniture,\n\nWho has invited me with him to dwell;\n\nBut a confiding guest consult as well.\n\nWhat raiment honor him the most,\n\nThat I be adequately dressed,\n\nFor he insures to none\n\nLest men specifical adorn\n\nProcuring him perpetual drest\n\nBy dating it a sudden feast.\n\nLove for the glad if you know them, for the sad if they know you.\n\n_[March, 1873.]_\n\n... I open my window, and it fills the chamber with white dirt. I think God must be dusting; and the wind blows so I expect to read in _The Republican_ 'Cautionary signals for Amherst,' or, 'No ships ventured out from Phoenix Row.'... Life is so rotatory that the wilderness falls to each, sometime. It is safe to remember that....\n\n_[Autumn, 1873.]_\n\n... I think of your little parlor as the poets once thought of Windermere, \u2014 peace, sunshine, and books.\n\nThere is no frigate like a book\n\nTo take us lands away.\n\nNor any coursers like a page\n\nOf prancing poetry.\n\nThis traverse may the poorest take,\n\nWithout oppress of toll;\n\nHow frugal is the chariot\n\nThat bears the human soul!\n\nWhat words could more vividly express the uplift, the expansion, the wider horizon which books bring! To Emily Dickinson, they were always solace and delight, \u2014 'frigates 'and 'coursers' indeed, to her quiet life, taking her over the world and into the infinite spaces, bringing Cathay and Brazil, Cashmere and Teneriffe, into an intimacy as near and familiar as the summer bees and butterflies of her own home noon. Without the help of books even, her nimble fancy leaped intervening leagues as if it commanded the magic carpet of Prince Houssain; but her love for books and indebtedness to them are many times expressed in the poems, both published and unpublished.\n\n_[Autumn, 1873.]_\n\nDEAR BERKELEYS, \u2014 I should feel it my duty to lay my 'net 'on the national altar, would it appease finance, but as Jay Cooke can't wear it, I suppose it won't. I believe he opened the scare. M--says D \u2014 pulled her hair, and D \u2014 says M \u2014 pulled her hair, but the issue at court will be, which pulled the preliminary hair. I am not yet 'thrown out of employment,' nor ever receiving 'wages' find them materially reduced,' though when bread may be a 'tradition 'Mr. C \u2014 alone knows. I am deeply indebted to F \u2014 , also to her sweet sister _Mrs._ _Ladislaw;_ add the funds to the funds, please. Keep the cap till I send \u2014 I could not insult my country by incurring expressage now.... Buff sings like a nankeen bumble-bee, and a bird's nest on the syringa is just in a line with the conservatory fence, so I have fitted a geranium to it and the effect is deceitful.\n\nI see by the paper that father spends the winter with you. Will you be glad to see him?... Tell L \u2014 when I was a baby father used to take me to mill for my health. I was then in consumption! While he obtained the 'grist,' the horse looked round at me, as if to say '\"eye hath not seen nor ear heard the things that \"I would do to you if I weren't tied! 'That is the way I feel toward her....\n\nMaggie will write soon, says it was Mount Holyoke, and not sweet-brier she gave you! Thanks for the little 'news.' Did get F \u2014 's note and thank it.\n\nHave thousands of things to say as also ten thousands, but must abate now.\n\nLovingly,\n\nEMILY.\n\nDEAR CHILDREN, \u2014 Father is ill at home. I think it is the 'Legislature 'reacting on an otherwise obliging constitution. Maggie is ill at Tom's \u2014 a combination of cold and superstition of fever \u2014 of which her enemy is ill \u2014 and longing for the promised land, of which there is no surplus. 'Apollyon 'and the 'Devil 'fade in martial lustre beside Lavinia and myself. 'As thy day is so shall thy 'stem 'be.' We can all of us sympathize with the man who wanted the roan horse to ride to execution, because he said 'twas a nimble hue, and 'twould be over sooner....\n\nDear L \u2014 , shall I enclose the slips, or delay till father? Vinnie advises the latter. I usually prefer formers, latters seeming to me like Dickens's hero's dead mamma, 'too some weeks off' to risk. Do you remember the 'sometimes 'of childhood, which invariably never occurred?...\n\nBe pleased you have no cat to detain from justice. Ours have taken meats, and the wife of the 'general court 'is trying to lay them out, but as she has but two wheels and they have four, I would accept their chances. Kitties eat kindlings now. Vinnie thinks they are 'cribbers.' I wish I could make you as long a call as De Quincey made North, but that morning cannot be advanced.\n\nEMILY.\n\n... I was sick, little sister, and write you the first that I am able.\n\nThe loveliest sermon I ever heard was the disappointment of Jesus in Judas. It was told like a mortal story of intimate young men. I suppose no surprise we can ever have will be so sick as that. The last 'I never knew you 'may resemble it. I would your hearts could have rested from the first severity before you received this other one, but 'not as I will.' I suppose the wild flowers encourage themselves in the dim woods, and the bird that is bruised limps to his house in silence, but we have human natures, and these are different. It is lovely that Mrs. W \u2014 did not disappoint you; not that I thought it possible, but you were so much grieved.... A finite life, little sister, is that peculiar garment that were it optional with us we might decline to wear. Tender words to L \u2014 , not most, I trust, in need of them.\n\nLovingly,\n\nEMILY.\n\n... How short it takes to go, dear, but afterward to come so many weary years \u2014 and yet 't is done as cool as a general trifle. Affection is like bread, unnoticed till we starve, and then we dream of it, and sing of it, and paint it, when every urchin in the street has more than he can eat. We turn not older with years, but newer every day.\n\nOf all these things we tried to talk, but the time refused us. Longing, it may be, is the gift no other gift supplies. Do you remember what you said the night you came to me? I secure that sentence. If I should see your face no more it will be your portrait, and if I should, more vivid than your mortal face. We must be careful what we say. No bird resumes its egg.\n\nA word left careless on a page\n\nMay consecrate an eye,\n\nWhen folded in perpetual seam\n\nThe wrinkled author lie.\n\nEMILY.\n\n... A tone from the old bells, perhaps, might wake the children.\n\nWe send the wave to find the wave,\n\nAn errand so divine\n\nThe messenger enamored too,\n\nForgetting to return,\n\nWe make the sage decision still\n\nSoever made in vain,\n\nThe only time to dam the sea\n\nIs when the sea is gone.\n\nEMILY, with love.\n\n_[Spring, 1874.]_\n\nSISTERS, \u2014 I hear robins a great way off, and wagons a great way off, and rivers a great way off, and all appear to be hurrying somewhere undisclosed to me. Remoteness is the founder of sweetness; could we see all we hope, or hear the whole we fear told tranquil, like another tale, there would be madness near. Each of us gives or takes heaven in corporeal person, for each of us has the skill of life. I am pleased by your sweet acquaintance. It is not recorded of any rose that it failed of its bee, though obtained in specific instances through scarlet experience. The career of flowers differs from ours only in inaudibleness. I feel more reverence as I grow for these mute creatures whose suspense or transport may surpass my own. Pussy remembered the judgment, and remained with Vinnie. Maggie preferred her home to 'Miggles' and 'Oakhurst,' so with a few spring touches, nature remains unchanged.\n\nThe most triumphant bird\n\nI ever knew or met,\n\nEmbarked upon a twig to-day, \u2014\n\nAnd till dominion set I perish to behold\n\nSo competent a sight \u2014\n\nAnd sang for nothing scrutable\n\nBut impudent delight.\n\nRetired and resumed\n\nHis transitive estate;\n\nTo what delicious accident\n\nDoes finest glory fit!\n\nEMILY.\n\n... There is that which is called an 'awakening 'in the church, and I know of no choicer ecstasy than to see Mrs. \u2014 roll out in crape every morning, I suppose to intimidate antichrist; at least it would have that effect on me. It reminds me of Don Quixote demanding the surrender of the wind-mill, and of Sir Stephen Toplift, and of Sir Alexander Cockburn.\n\nSpring is a happiness so beautiful, so unique, so unexpected, that I don't know what to do with my heart. I dare not take it, I dare not leave it \u2014 what do you advise?\n\nLife is a spell so exquisite that everything conspires to break it.\n\n'What do I think of _Middlemarch? '_ What do I think of glory \u2014 except that in a few instances this 'mortal has already put on immortality.'\n\nGeorge Eliot is one. The mysteries of human nature surpass the 'mysteries of redemption,' for the infinite we only suppose, while we see the finite.... I launch Vinnie on Wednesday; it will require the combined efforts of Maggie, Providence and myself, for whatever advances Vinnie makes in nature and art, she has not reduced departure to a science....\n\nYour loving EMILY.\n\nWhen, in June of 1874, Emily's father died suddenly in Boston, \u2014 taken ill, indeed, while making a speech in the Legislature, and dying within a few hours, \u2014 the effect upon her was as if the foundations of her world had given way. She gathered herself together in a measure, and after a few days wrote to her cousins: \u2014\n\nYou might not remember me, dears. I cannot recall myself. I thought I was strongly built, but this stronger has undermined me.\n\nWe were eating our supper the fifteenth of June, and Austin came in. He had a despatch in his hand, and I saw by his face we were all lost, though I didn't know how. He said that father was very sick, and he and Vinnie must go. The train had already gone. While horses were dressing, news came he was dead.\n\nFather does not live with us now \u2014 he lives in a new house. Though it was built in an hour it is better than this. He hasn't any garden because he moved after gardens were made, so we take him the best flowers, and if we only knew he knew, perhaps we could stop crying.... The grass begins after Pat has stopped it.\n\nI cannot write any more, dears. Though it is many nights, my mind never comes home. Thank you each for the love, though I could not notice it. Almost the last tune that he heard was, 'Rest from thy loved employ.'\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[April, 1875.]_\n\nI have only a buttercup to offer for the centennial, as an 'embattled farmer 'has but little time.\n\nBegging you not to smile at my limited meadows, I am modestly Yours.\n\n_[Summer, 1875.]_\n\nDEAR CHILDREN, \u2014 I decide to give you one more package of lemon drops, as they only come once a year. It is fair that the bonbons should change hands, you have so often fed me. This is the very weather that I lived with you those amazing years that I had a father. W. D \u2014 's wife came in last week for a day and a night, saying her heart drove her. I am glad that you loved Miss W \u2014 on knowing her nearer. Charlotte Bront\u00eb said 'Life is so constructed that the event does not, cannot, match the expectation.'\n\nThe birds that father rescued are trifling in his trees. How flippant are the saved! They were even frolicking at his grave, when Vinnie went there yesterday. Nature must be too young to feel, or many years too old.\n\nNow children, when you are cutting the loaf, a crumb, peradventure a crust, of love for the sparrows' table....\n\n_[August, 1876.]_\n\nDEAR COUSINS, \u2014 Mr. S \u2014 had spoken with pleasure of you, before you spoke of him. Good times are always mutual; that is what makes good times. I am glad it cheered you.\n\nWe have had no rain for six weeks except one thunder shower, and that so terrible that we locked the doors, and the clock stopped \u2014 which made it like Judgment day. The heat is very great, and the grass so still that the flies speck it. I fear L \u2014 will despair. The notices of the 'fall trade 'in the hurrying dailies, have a whiff of coolness.\n\nVinnie has a new pussy the color of Branwell Bronte's hair. She thinks it a little 'lower than the angels,' and I concur with her. You remember my ideal cat has always a huge rat in its mouth, just going out of sight \u2014 though going out of sight in itself has a peculiar charm. It is true that the unknown is the largest need of the intellect, though for it, no one thinks to thank God.... Mother is worn with the heat, but otherwise not altering. I dream about father every night, always a different dream, and forget what I am doing daytimes, wondering where he is. Without anybody, I keep thinking. What kind can that be?\n\nDr Stearns died homelike, asked Eliza for a saucer of strawberries, which she brought him, but he had no hands. 'In such an hour as ye think not 'means something when you try it.\n\nLovingly,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[November.]_\n\n... Oh that beloved witch-hazel which would not reach me till part of the stems were a gentle brown, though one loved stalk as hearty as if just placed in the mail by the woods. It looked like tinsel fringe combined with staider fringes, witch and witching too, to my joyful mind.\n\nI never had seen it but once before, and it haunted me like childhood's Indian pipe, or ecstatic puff-balls, or that mysterious apple that sometimes comes on river-pinks; and is there not a dim suggestion of a dandelion, if her hair were ravelled and she grew on a twig instead of a tube, \u2014 though this is timidly submitted. For taking Nature's hand to lead her to me, I am softly grateful \u2014 was she willing to come? Though her reluctances are sweeter than other ones' avowals.\n\nTrusty as the stars\n\nWho quit their shining working\n\nPrompt as when I lit them\n\nIn Genesis' new house,\n\nDurable as dawn\n\nWhose antiquated blossom\n\nMakes a world's suspense\n\nPerish and rejoice.\n\nLove for the cousin sisters, and the lovely alien....\n\nLovingly,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[About July 4, 1879.]_\n\nDEAR COUSINS, \u2014 Did you know there had been a fire here, and that but for a whim of the wind Austin and Vinnie and Emily would have all been homeless? But perhaps you saw _The Republican._\n\nWe were waked by the ticking of the bells, \u2014 the bells tick in Amherst for a fire, to tell the firemen.\n\nI sprang to the window, and each side of the curtain saw that awful sun. The moon was shining high at the time, and the birds singing like trumpets.\n\nVinnie came soft as a moccasin, 'Don't be afraid, Emily, it is only the fourth of July.'\n\nI did not tell that I saw it, for I thought if she felt it best to deceive, it must be that it was.\n\nShe took hold of my hand and led me into mother's room. Mother had not waked, and Maggie was sitting by her. Vinnie left us a moment, and I whispered to Maggie, and asked her what it was.\n\n'Only Stebbins's barn, Emily; 'but I knew that the right and left of the village was on the arm of Stebbins's barn. I could hear buildings falling, and oil exploding, and people walking and talking gayly, and cannon soft as velvet from parishes that did not know that we were burning up.\n\nAnd so much lighter than day was it, that I saw a caterpillar measure a leaf far down in the orchard; and Vinnie kept saying bravely, 'It's only the fourth of July.'\n\nIt seemed like a theatre, or a night in London, or perhaps like chaos. The innocent dew falling 'as if it thought no evil,'... and sweet frogs prattling in the pools as if there were no earth.\n\nAt seven people came to tell us that the fire was stopped, stopped by throwing sound houses in as one fills a well.\n\nMother never waked, and we were all grateful; we knew she would never buy needle and thread at Mr. Cutler's store, and if it were Pompeii nobody could tell her.\n\nThe post-office is in the old meeting-house where L \u2014 and I went early to avoid the crowd, and \u2014 fell asleep with the bumble-bees and the Lord God of Elijah.\n\nVinnie's 'only the fourth of July 'I shall always remember. I think she will tell us so when we die, to keep us from being afraid.\n\nFootlights cannot improve the grave, only immortality.\n\nForgive me the personality; but I knew, I thought, our peril was yours.\n\nLove for you each.\n\nEMILY.\n\n... Did the 'stars differ 'from each other in anything but 'glory,' there would be often envy. The competitions of the sky corrodeless ply.\n\n... We asked Vinnie to say in the rear of one of her mental products that we had neuralgia, but evidently her theme or her time did not admit of trifles.... I forget no part of that sweet, smarting visit, not even the nettle that stung my rose.\n\nWhen Macbeth asked the physician what could be done for his wife, he made the mighty answer, 'That sort must heal itself; 'but, sister, that was guilt, and 'love, you know, is God, who certainly 'gave the love to reward the love,' even were there no Browning.\n\n... The slips of the last rose of summer repose in kindred soil with waning bees for mates. How softly summer shuts, without the creaking of a door, abroad for evermore.\n\n... Vinnie has also added a pilgrim kitten to her flock, which besides being jet black, is, I think, a lineal descendant of the 'beautiful hearse horse 'recommended to Austin.\n\n_[December, 1880.]_\n\n... The look of the words [stating the death of George Eliot] as they lay in the print I shall never forget. Not their face in the casket could have had the eternity to me. Now, _my_ George Eliot. The gift of belief which her greatness denied her, I trust she receives in the childhood of the kingdom of heaven. As childhood is earth's confiding time, perhaps having no childhood, she lost her way to the early trust, and no later came. Amazing human heart, a syllable can make to quake like jostled tree, what infinite for thee?...\n\n_[February, 1881.]_\n\n... God is rather stern with his 'little ones.\" A cup of cold water in my name 'is a shivering legacy February mornings.\n\n... Maggie's brother is killed in the mine, and Maggie wants to die, but Death goes far around to those that want to see him. If the little cousins would give her a note \u2014 she does not know I ask it \u2014 I think it would help her begin, that bleeding beginning that every mourner knows.\n\n_[Spring, 1881.]_\n\nThe divine deposit came safely in the little bank. We have heard of the 'deeds of the spirit,' but are his acts gamboge and pink? A morning call from Gabriel is always a surprise. Were we more fresh from Eden we were expecting him \u2014 but Genesis is a 'far journey.' Thank you for the loveliness.\n\nWe have had two hurricanes within as many hours, one of which came near enough to untie my apron \u2014 but this moment the sun shines, Maggie's hens are warbling, and a man of anonymous wits is making a garden in the lane to set out slips of bluebird. The moon grows from the seed.... Vinnie's pussy slept in grass Wednesday \u2014 a Sicilian symptom \u2014 the sails are set for summer, East India wharf. Sage and saucy ones talk of an equinoctial, and are trying the chimneys, but I am 'short of hearing,' as the deaf say. Blessed are they that play, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. Love like a rose from each one, and Maggie's a Burgundy one she ardently asks.\n\nEMILY.\n\nMY DEAR LITTLE COUSINS, \u2014 I bring you a robin who is eating a remnant oat on the sill of the barn. The horse was not as hungry as usual, leaving an ample meal for his dulcet friend....\n\nMaggie was charmed with her donkeys, and has long been talking of writing, but has not quite culminated. They stand on the dining-room side-board, by the side of an orange, and a _Springfield Republican._ It will please you to know that the clover in the bill of the brown one is fresh as at first, notwithstanding the time, though the only 'pastures 'I know gifted with that duration, are far off as the psalms.\n\nMr. C \u2014 called with a twilight of you. It reminded me of a supper I took, with the pictures on Dresden china. Vinnie asked him 'what he had for supper,' and he said he 'could easier describe the nectar of the gods.'... We read in a tremendous Book about 'an enemy,' and armed a confidential fort to scatter him away. The time has passed, and years have come, and yet not any 'Satan.' I think he must be making war upon some other nation.\n\nEMILY.\n\nThe dear ones will excuse \u2014 they knew there was a cause. Emily was sick, and Vinnie's middle name restrained her loving pen.\n\nThese are my first words since I left my pillow \u2014 that will make them faithful, although so long withheld. We had another fire \u2014 it was in Phoenix Row, Monday a week ago, at two in the night. The horses were harnessed to move the office \u2014 Austin's office, I mean. After a night of terror, we went to sleep for a few moments, and I could not rise. The others bore it better. The brook from Pelham saved the town. The wind was blowing so, it carried the burning shingles as far as Tom's piazza. We are weak and grateful. The fire-bells are oftener now, almost, than the church-bells. Thoreau would wonder which did the most harm.\n\nThe little gifts came sweetly. The bulbs are in the sod \u2014 the seeds in homes of paper till the sun calls them. It is snowing now.... 'Fine sleighing we have this summer,' says Austin with a scoff. The box of dainty ones \u2014 I don't know what they were, buttons of spice for coats of honey \u2014 pleased the weary mother. Thank you each for all.\n\nThe beautiful words for which L \u2014 asked were that genius is the ignition of affection \u2014 not intellect, as is supposed, \u2014 the exaltation of devotion, and in proportion to our capacity for that, is our experience of genius. Precisely as they were uttered I cannot give them, they were in a letter that I do not find, but the suggestion was this.\n\nIt is startling to think that the lips, which are keepers of thoughts so magical, yet at any moment are subject to the seclusion of death.\n\n... I must leave you, dear, to come perhaps again, \u2014\n\nWe never know we go \u2014 when we are going\n\nWe jest and shut the door \u2014\n\nFate following behind us bolts it\n\nAnd we accost no more.\n\nI give you my parting love.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[Autumn, 1881.]_\n\n_Saturday._\n\nDEAR ONES, \u2014 If I linger, this will not reach you before Sunday; if I do not, I must write you much less than I would love. 'Do unto others as ye would that they should do unto you.' I would rather they would do unto me _so._\n\nAfter infinite wanderings the little note has reached us. It was mailed the twelfth \u2014 we received it the twenty-third. The address 'Misses Dickinson' misled the rustic eyes \u2014 the postmaster knows Vinnie, also by faith who Emily is, because his little girl was hurt, and Emily sent her juleps \u2014 but he failed of the intellectual grasp to combine the names. So after sending it to all the _Mrs._ Dickinsons he could discover, he consigned it to us, with the request that we would speedily return it if not ours, that he might renew his research. Almost any one under the circumstances would have doubted if it were theirs, or indeed if they were themself \u2014 but to us it was clear. Next time, dears, direct Vinnie, or Emily, and perhaps Mr. \u2014 's astuteness may be adequate. I enclose the battered remains for your Sabbath perusal, and tell you we think of you tenderly, which I trust you often believe.\n\nMaggie is making a flying visit to cattle-show, on her very robust wings \u2014 for Maggie is getting corpulent. Vinnie is picking a few seeds \u2014 for if a pod 'die, shall he not live again '; and with the shutting mail I go to read to mother about the President. When we think of the lone effort to live, and its bleak reward, the mind turns to the myth 'for His mercy endureth forever,' with confiding revulsion. Still, when Professor Fisk died on Mount Zion, Dr Humphrey prayed 'to whom shall we turn but thee? \"I have finished,' said Paul, 'the faith.' We rejoice that he did not say discarded it.\n\nThe little postman has come \u2014 Thomas's 'second oldest,' and I close with reluctant and hurrying love.\n\nEMILY.\n\nWhat is it that instructs a hand lightly created, to impel shapes to eyes at a distance, which for them have the whole area of life or of death? Yet not a pencil in the street but has this awful power, though nobody arrests it. An earnest letter is or should be life-warrant or death-warrant, for what is each instant but a gun, harmless because 'unloaded,' but that touched 'goes off'?\n\nMen are picking up the apples to-day, and the pretty boarders are leaving the trees, birds and ants and bees. I have heard a chipper say 'dee 'six times in disapprobation. How should we like to have our privileges wheeled away in a barrel?...\n\nThe Essex visit was lovely. Mr. L \u2014 remained a week. Mrs. \u2014 re-decided to come with her son Elizabeth. Aunt L \u2014 shouldered arms. I think they lie in my memory, a muffin and a bomb. Now they are all gone, and the crickets are pleased. Their bombazine reproof still falls upon the twilight, and checks the softer uproars of the departing day.\n\nEarnest love to F \u2014 . This is but a fragment, but wholes are not below.\n\nEMILY.\n\nDEAR L \u2014 , \u2014 Thank you, with love, for the kindness; it would be very sweet to claim if we needed it, but we are quite strong, and mother well as usual, and Vinnie spectacular as Disraeli and sincere as Gladstone, \u2014 was only sighing in fun. When she sighs in earnest, Emily's throne will tremble, and she will need both L \u2014 and F \u2014 ; but Vinnie 'still prevails.' When one or all of us are lain on _'Marian Erie's_ dim pallet,' so cool that she deplored to live because that she must leave it, L \u2014 and the ferns, and F \u2014 and her fan shall supplement the angels, if they have not already joined them.\n\nLovingly,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[October, 1881.]_\n\nDid the little sisters know that Dr Holland had died \u2014 the dark man with the doll-wife, whom they used to see at 'Uncle Edward's 'before 'Uncle Edward 'went too?\n\nDo they know any of the circumstances?\n\nDid they know that the weary life in the second story had mourned to hear from them, and whether they were 'comfortable '? 'Comfortable 'seems to comprise the whole to those whose days are weak. 'Happiness 'is for birds and other foreign nations, in their faint esteem.\n\nMother heard F \u2014 telling Vinnie about her graham bread. She would like to taste it. Will F \u2014 please write Emily how, and not too inconvenient? Every particular, for Emily is dull, and she will pay in gratitude, which, though not canned like quinces, is fragrantest of all we know.\n\nTell us just how and where they are, and if October sunshine is thoughtful of their heads.\n\nEMILY.\n\n... Thank you, dear, for the quickness which is the blossom of request, and for the definiteness \u2014 for a new rule is a chance. The bread resulted charmingly, and such pretty little proportions, quaint as a druggist's formula \u2014 'I do remember an apothecary.' Mother and Vinnie think it the nicest they have ever known, and Maggie so extols it.\n\nMr. Lathrop's poem was piteously sweet. (This reference is to the pathetic verses to his little boy, by Mr. George Parsons Lathrop, beginning, \u2014\n\n'Do you remember, my sweet absent son.')\n\nTo know of your homes is comforting. I trust they are both peace. Home is the riddle of the wise \u2014 the booty of the dove. God bless the sunshine in L \u2014 's room, and could he find a sweeter task than to 'temper the wind 'to her curls?...\n\nTell us when you are happy, but be sure and tell us when you are sad, for Emily's heart is the edifice where the 'wicked cease from troubling.'\n\n_[January, 1882.]_\n\nI have only a moment, exiles, but you shall have the largest half. Mother's dear little wants so engross the time, \u2014 to read to her, to fan her, to tell her health will come to-morrow, to explain to her _why_ the grasshopper is a burden, because he is not so new a grasshopper as he was, \u2014 this is so ensuing, I hardly have said 'Good-morning, mother,' when I hear myself saying 'Mother, good-night.'\n\n_[November, 1882.]_\n\nDEAR COUSINS, \u2014 I hoped to write you before, but mother's dying almost stunned my spirit.\n\nI have answered a few inquiries of love, but written little intuitively. She was scarcely the aunt you knew. The great mission of pain had been ratified \u2014 cultivated to tenderness by persistent sorrow, so that a larger mother died than had she died before. There was no earthly parting. She slipped from our fingers like a flake gathered by the wind, and is now part of the drift called 'the infinite.'\n\nWe don't know where she is, though so many tell us.\n\nI believe we shall in some manner be cherished by our Maker \u2014 that the One who gave us this remarkable earth has the power still farther to surprise that which He has caused. Beyond that all is silence....\n\nMother was very beautiful when she had died. Seraphs are solemn artists. The illumination that comes but once paused upon her features, and it seemed like hiding a picture to lay her in the grave; but the grass that received my father will suffice his guest, the one he asked at the altar to visit him all his life.\n\nI cannot tell how Eternity seems. It sweeps around me like a sea.... Thank you for remembering me. Remembrance \u2014 mighty word.\n\n'Thou gavest it to me from the foundation of the world.'\n\nLovingly, EMILY.\n\n_[Spring, 1883.]_\n\nThank you, dears, for the sympathy. I hardly dare to know that I have lost another friend, but anguish finds it out.\n\nEach that we lose takes part of us;\n\nA crescent still abides,\n\nWhich like the moon, some turbid night,\n\nIs summoned by the tides.\n\n... I work to drive the awe away, yet awe impels the work.\n\nI almost picked the crocuses, you told them so sincerely. Spring's first conviction is a wealth beyond its whole experience.\n\nThe sweetest way I think of you is when the day is done, and L \u2014 sets the 'sunset tree 'for the little sisters. Dear F \u2014 has had many stormy mornings;... I hope they have not chilled her feet, nor dampened her heart. I am glad the little visit rested you. Rest and water are most we want.\n\nI know each moment of Miss W \u2014 is a gleam of boundlessness. 'Miles and miles away,' said Browning, 'there's a girl; 'but 'the colored end of evening smiles 'on but few so rare.\n\nThank you once more for being sorry. Till the first friend dies, we think ecstasy impersonal, but then discover that he was the cup from which we drank it, itself as yet unknown. Sweetest love for each, and a kiss besides for Miss W \u2014 's cheek, should you again meet her.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[July, 1884.]_\n\nDEAR COUSINS, \u2014 I hope you heard Mr. Sanborn's lecture. My _Republican_ was borrowed before I waked, to read till my own dawn, which is rather tardy, for I have been quite sick, and could claim the immortal reprimand, 'Mr. Lamb, you come down very late in the morning.' Eight Saturday noons ago, I was making a loaf of cake with Maggie, when I saw a great darkness coming and knew no more until late at night. I woke to find Austin and Vinnie and a strange physician bending over me, and supposed I was dying, or had died, all was so kind and hallowed. I had fainted and lain unconscious for the first time in my life. Then I grew very sick and gave the others much alarm, but am now staying. The doctor calls it 'revenge of the nerves; 'but who but Death had wronged them?\n\nF \u2014 's dear note has lain unanswered for this long season, though its 'Good-night, my dear,' warmed me to the core. I have all to say, but little strength to say it; so we must talk by degrees. I do want to know about L \u2014 , what pleases her most, book or tune or friend.\n\nI am glad the housekeeping is kinder; it is a prickly art. Maggie is with us still, warm and wild and mighty, and we have a gracious boy at the barn. We remember you always, and one or the other often comes down with a 'we dreamed of F \u2014 and L, \u2014 last night; 'then that day we think we shall hear from you, for dreams are couriers.\n\nThe little boy we laid away never fluctuates, and his dim society is companion still. But it is growing damp and I must go in. Memory's fog is rising.\n\nThe going from a world we know\n\nTo one a wonder still\n\nIs like the child's adversity\n\nWhose vista is a hill,\n\nBehind the hill is sorcery\n\nAnd everything unknown,\n\nBut will the secret compensate\n\nFor climbing it alone?\n\nVinnie's love and Maggie's, and mine is presupposed. \u2014\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[January 14, 1885.]_\n\nHad we less to say to those we love, perhaps we should say it oftener, but the attempt comes, then the inundation, then it is all over, as is said of the dead.\n\nVinnie dreamed about F \u2014 last night, and designing for days to write dear L \u2014 , \u2014 dear, both of you, \u2014 indeed, with the astounding nearness which a dream brings, I must speak this morning.\n\nI do hope you are well, and that the last enchanting days have refreshed your spirits, and I hope the poor little girl is better, and the sorrow at least adjourned.\n\nL \u2014 asked 'what books 'we were wooing now \u2014 watching like a vulture for Walter Cross's life of his wife. A friend sent me _Called Back._ It is a haunting story, and as loved Mr. Bowles used to say, 'greatly impressive to me.' Do you remember the little picture with his deep face in the centre, and Governor Bross on one side, and Colfax on the other? The third of the group died yesterday, so somewhere they are again together.\n\nMoving to Cambridge seems to me like moving to Westminster Abbey, as hallowed and as unbelieved, or moving to Ephesus with Paul for a next-door neighbor.\n\nHolmes's _Life of Emerson_ is sweetly commended, but you, I know, have tasted that.... But the whistle calls me \u2014 I have not begun \u2014 so with a moan, and a kiss, and a promise of more, and love from Vinnie and Maggie, and the half-blown carnation, and the western sky, I stop.\n\nThat we are permanent temporarily, it is warm to know, though we know no more.\n\nEMILY.\n**CHAPTER VII**\n\n_To Mr. Thomas Wentworth Higginson_\n\nIN his article upon Emily Dickinson in _The Atlantic Monthly_ for October, 1891, Colonel Higginson has already given many of her letters to himself. The rest are here added.\n\nThe first one, enclosing four of her now widely known poems for his criticism, was without signature, but accompanied by a card bearing her name. Her wish for an impartial and extrinsic judgment from a stranger may, perhaps, illustrate Mrs. Ford's suggestion that 'she was longing for poetic sympathy.' At a time when she was but newly trying her own wings, she must have felt something warmly and essentially human in Colonel Higginson's writing to be thus led to ask his help rather than another's, \u2014 an intuition most happily justified.\n\nHe received the first of her unique letters at the beginning of 'war time.' Unfortunately his answers cannot now be found:\n\n_[April 16,1862.]_\n\nMR HIGGINSON, \u2014 Are you too deeply occupied to say if my verse is alive?\n\nThe mind is so near itself it cannot see distinctly, and I have none to ask.\n\nShould you think it breathed, and had you the leisure to tell me, I should feel quick gratitude.\n\nIf I make the mistake, that you dared to tell me would give me sincerer honor toward you.\n\nI enclose my name, asking you, if you please, sir, to tell me what is true?\n\nThat you will not betray me it is needless to ask, since honor is its own pawn.\n\n_[April 26,1862.]_\n\nMR HIGGINSON, \u2014 Your kindness claimed earlier gratitude, but I was ill, and write to-day from my pillow.\n\nThank you for the surgery; it was not so painful as I supposed. I bring you others, as you ask, though they might not differ. While my thought is undressed, I can make the distinction; but when I put them in the gown, they look alike and numb.\n\nYou asked how old I was? I made no verse, but one or two, until this winter, sir.\n\nI had a terror since September, I could tell to none; and so I sing, as the boy does of the burying ground, because I am afraid.\n\nYou inquire my books. For poets, I have Keats, and Mr. and Mrs. Browning. For prose, Mr. Ruskin, Sir Thomas Browne, and the _Revelations._ I went to school, but in your manner of the phrase had no education. When a little girl, I had a friend who taught me Immortality; but venturing too near, himself, he never returned. Soon after my tutor died, and for several years my lexicon was my only companion. Then I found one more, but he was not contented I be his scholar, so he left the land.\n\nYou ask of my companions. Hills, sir, and the sundown, and a dog large as myself, that my father bought me. They are better than beings because they know, but do not tell; and the noise in the pool at noon excels my piano.\n\nI have a brother and sister; my mother does not care for thought, and father, too busy with his briefs to notice what we do. He buys me many books, but begs me not to read them, because he fears they joggle the mind. They are religious, except me, and address an eclipse, every morning, whom they call their \u00ab Father.'\n\nBut I fear my story fatigues you. I would like to learn. Could you tell me how to grow, or is it unconveyed, like melody or witchcraft?\n\nYou speak of Mr. Whitman. I never read his book, but was told that it was disgraceful.\n\nI read Miss Prescott's _Circumstance,_ but it followed me in the dark, so I avoided her.\n\nTwo editors of journals came to my father's house this winter, and asked me for my mind, and when I asked them 'why 'they said I was penurious, and they would use it for the world.\n\nI could not weigh myself, myself. My size felt small to me. I read your chapters in _The Atlantic,_ and experienced honor for you. I was sure you would not reject a confiding question.\n\nIs this, sir, what you asked me to tell you?\n\nYour friend,\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_[June 8, 1862.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Your letter gave no drunkenness, because I tasted rum before. Domingo comes but once; yet I have had few pleasures so deep as your opinion, and if I tried to thank you, my tears would block my tongue.\n\nMy dying tutor told me that he would like to live till I had been a poet, but Death was much of mob as I could master, then. And when, far afterward, a sudden light on orchards, or a new fashion in the wind troubled my attention, I felt a palsy, here, the verses just relieve.\n\nYour second letter surprised me, and for a moment, swung. I had not supposed it. Your first gave no dishonor, because the true are not ashamed. I thanked you for your justice, but could not drop the bells whose jingling cooled my tramp. Perhaps the balm seemed better, because you bled me first. I smile when you suggest that I delay 'to publish,' that being foreign to my thought as firmament to fin.\n\nIf fame belonged to me, I could not escape her; if she did not, the longest day would pass me on the chase, and the approbation of my dog would forsake me then. My barefoot rank is better.\n\nYou think my gait 'spasmodic.' I am in danger, sir. You think me 'uncontrolled.' I have no tribunal.\n\nWould you have time to be the 'friend 'you should think I need? I have a little shape: it would not crowd your desk, nor make much racket as the mouse that dents your galleries.\n\nIf I might bring you what I do \u2014 not so frequent to trouble you \u2014 and ask you if I told it clear, 't would be control to me. The sailor cannot see the north, but knows the needle can. The 'hand you stretch me in the dark 'I put mine in, and turn away. I have no Saxon now: \u2014\n\nAs if I asked a common alms,\n\nAnd in my wondering hand\n\nA stranger pressed a kingdom,\n\nAnd I, bewildered, stand;\n\nAs if I asked the Orient Had it for me a morn,\n\nAnd it should lift its purple dikes\n\nAnd shatter me with dawn!\n\nBut, will you be my preceptor, Mr. Higginson?\n\nAfter these startling letters it was but natural that Mr. Higginson should have asked to see a photograph of his 'enigmatical correspondent.' But there was none. She had an unconquerable aversion to seeing herself reproduced in any sort of 'mould.' The frontispiece to the first volume of these _Letters_ is taken from an oil painting of Emily, when she was but eight years old, in a group with her brother and sister. The only other known representation of her face is a daguerreotype made a few years later; but it is entirely unsatisfactory, both in expression and individuality. Instead of her photograph, she sent this verbal portrait. Her coy avoidance of Mr. Higginson's request was as characteristically piquant as her answer to his question of her age: \u2014\n\n_[July, 1862.]_\n\nCould you believe me without? I had no portrait, now, but am small, like the wren; and my hair is bold, like the chestnut burr; and my eyes, like the sherry in the glass that the guest leaves. Would this do just as well?\n\nIt often alarms father. He says death might occur, and he has moulds of all the rest, but has no mould of me; but I noticed the quick wore off those things in a few days, and forestall the dishonor. You will think no caprice of me.\n\nYou said 'dark.' I know the butterfly, and the lizard, and the orchis. Are not those _your_ countrymen?\n\nI am happy to be your scholar, and will deserve the kindness I cannot repay.\n\nIf you truly consent, I recite now. Will you tell me my fault, frankly, as to yourself, for I had rather wince than die. Men do not call the surgeon to commend the bone, but to set it, sir, and fracture within is more critical. And for this, preceptor, I shall bring you obedience, the blossom from my garden, and every gratitude I know.\n\nPerhaps you smile at me. I could not stop for that. My business is circumference. An ignorance, not of customs, but if caught with the dawn, or the sunset see me, myself the only kangaroo among the beauty, sir, if you please, it afflicts me, and I thought that instruction would take it away.\n\nBecause you have much business, beside the growth of me, you will appoint, yourself, how often I shall come without your inconvenience.\n\nAnd if at any time you regret you received me, or I prove a different fabric to that you supposed, you must banish me.\n\nWhen I state myself, as the representative of the verse, it does not mean me, but a supposed person.\n\nYou are true about the 'perfection.' To-day makes yesterday mean.\n\nYou spoke of _Pippa Passes._ I never heard anybody speak of _Pippa Passes_ before. You see my posture is benighted.\n\nTo thank you baffles me. Are you perfectly powerful? Had I a pleasure you had not, I could delight to bring it.\n\nYOUR SCHOLAR.\n\nColonel Higginson wrote, 'It would seem that at first I tried a little \u2014 a very little \u2014 to lead her in the direction of rules and traditions; but I fear it was only perfunctory, and that she interested me more in her \u2014 so to speak \u2014 unregenerate condition. Still, she recognizes the endeavor. In this case, as will be seen, I called her attention to the fact that while she took pains to correct the spelling of a word, she was utterly careless of greater irregularities. It will be seen by her answer that with her usual na\u00efve adroitness she turns my point ': \u2014\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Are these more orderly? I thank you for the truth.\n\nI had no monarch in my life, and cannot rule myself; and when I try to organize, my little force explodes and leaves me bare and charred.\n\nI think you called me 'wayward.' Will you help me improve?\n\nI suppose the pride that stops the breath, in the core of woods, is not of ourself.\n\nYou say I confess the little mistake, and omit the large. Because I can see orthography; but the ignorance out of sight is my preceptor's charge.\n\nOf 'shunning men and women,' \u2014 they talk of hallowed things, aloud, and embarrass my dog. He and I don't object to them, if they'll exist their side. I think Carl would please you. He is dumb, and brave. I think you would like the chestnut-tree I met in my walk. It hit my notice suddenly, and I thought the skies were in blossom.\n\nThen there 's a noiseless noise in the orchard that I let persons hear.\n\nYou told me in one letter you could not come to see me 'now,' and I made no answer; not because I had none, but did not think myself the price that you should come so far.\n\nI do not ask so large a pleasure, lest you might deny me.\n\nYou say, 'Beyond your knowledge.' You would not jest with me, because I believe you; but, preceptor, you cannot mean it?\n\nAll men say 'What 'to me, but I thought it a fashion.\n\nWhen much in the woods, as a little girl, I was told that the snake would bite me, that I might pick a poisonous flower, or goblins kidnap me; but I went along and met no one but angels, who were far shyer of me than I could be of them, so I haven't that confidence in fraud which many exercise.\n\nI shall observe your precept, though I don't understand it, always.\n\nI marked a line in one verse, because I met it after I made it, and never consciously touch a paint mixed by another person. I do not let go it, because it is mine.\n\nHave you the portrait of Mrs. Browning? Persons sent me three. If you had none, will you have mine?\n\nYOUR SCHOLAR.\n\nAfter entering the volunteer army of the Civil War, Colonel Higginson received the following letter while in camp in South Carolina, early in 1863: \u2014\n\nAMHERST.\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I did not deem that planetary forces annulled, but suffered an exchange of territory, or world.\n\nI should have liked to see you before you became improbable. War feels to me an oblique place. Should there be other summers, would you perhaps come?\n\nI found you were gone, by accident, as I find systems are, or seasons of the year, and obtain no cause, but suppose it a treason of progress that dissolves as it goes. Carlo still remained, and I told him Best gains must have the losses' test, To constitute them gains.\n\nMy shaggy ally assented.\n\nPerhaps death gave me awe for friends, striking sharp and early, for I held them since in a brittle love, of more alarm than peace. I trust you may pass the limit of war; and though not reared to prayer, when service is had in church for our arms, [ include yourself.... I was thinking to-day, as I noticed, that the 'supernatural' was only the natural disclosed.\n\nNot 'Revelation' 'tis that waits,\n\nBut our unfurnished eyes.\n\nBut I fear I detain you. Should you, before this reaches you, experience Immortality, who will inform me of the exchange? Could you, with honor, avoid death, I entreat you, sir. It would bereave YOUR GNOME.\n\nI trust the _Procession of Flowers_ was not a premonition.\n\nOf this curious letter Colonel Higginson wrote: 'Mr. Howells reminds me that Swedenborg somewhere has an image akin to her \"oblique place,\" where he symbolizes evil as simply an oblique angle.'\n\nIn the summer of 1863 Colonel Higginson was wounded; in September of the same year began Emily's trouble with her eyes, frequently referred to. In the April following she went to Boston, \u2014 her mention of Hawthorne's death (May, 1864) of itself placing the date: \u2014\n\n_[Summer, 1864.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Are you in danger? I did not know that you were hurt. Will you tell me more? Mr. Hawthorne died.\n\nI was ill since September, and since April in Boston for a physician s care. He does not let me go, yet I work in my prison, and make guests for myself.\n\nCarlo did not come, because that he would die in jail; and the mountains I could not hold now, so I brought but the Gods.\n\nI wish to see you more than before I failed. Will you tell me your health? I am surprised and anxious since receiving your note.\n\nThe only news I know Is bulletins all day From Immortality.\n\nCan you render my pencil? The physician has taken away my pen.\n\nI inclose the address from a letter, lest my figures fail.\n\nKnowledge of your recovery would excel my own.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\nAMHERST.\n\nDear friend\n\nYou were so generous to me, that if possible I offended you, I could not too deeply apologize.\n\nTo doubt my High Behavior, is a new pain - I could be honorable no more - till I asked you about it. I know not what to deem myself - Yesterday \"Your Scholar\" - but might I be the one you tonight, forgave, 'tis a Better Honor - Mine is but just the Thief's Request - Please, Sir, Hear.\n\n'BARABBAS.'\n\nThe possibility to pass\n\nWithout a moment's bell\n\nInto conjecture's presence,\n\nIs like a face of steel\n\nThat suddenly looks into ours\n\nWith a metallic grin;\n\nThe cordiality of Death\n\nWho drills his welcome in.\n\nAMHERST.\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Whom my dog understood could not elude others.\n\nI should be so glad to see you, but think it an apparitional pleasure, not to be fulfilled. I am uncertain of Boston.\n\nI had promised to visit my physician for a few days in May, but father objects because he is in the habit of me.\n\nIs it more far to Amherst?\n\nYou will find a minute host, but a spacious welcome....\n\nIf I still entreat you to teach me, are you much displeased? I will be patient, constant, never reject your knife, and should my slowness goad you, you knew before myself that\n\nExcept the smaller size\n\nNo lives are round.\n\nThese hurry to a sphere\n\nAnd show and end.\n\nThe larger slower grow\n\nAnd later hang;\n\nThe summers of Hesperides\n\nAre long.\n\nAMHERST.\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 A letter always feels to me like Immortality because it is the mind alone without corporeal friend. Indebted in our talk to attitude and accent, there seems a spectral power in thought that walks alone. I would like to thank you for four great kindness, but never try to lift the words which I cannot hold.\n\nShould you come to Amherst, I might then succeed, though gratitude is the timid wealth of those who have nothing. I am sure that you speak the truth, because the noble do, but your letters always surprise me.\n\nMy life has been too simple and stern to embarrass any. 'Seen of angels,' scarcely my responsibility.\n\nIt is difficult not to be fictitious in so fair a place, but tests' severe repairs are permitted all.\n\nWhen a little girl I remember hearing that remarkable passage and preferring the 'power,' not knowing at the time that 'kingdom' and 'glory' were included.\n\nYou noticed my dwelling alone. To an emigrant, country is idle except it be his own. You speak kindly of seeing me; could it please your convenanence to come so far as Amherst, I should be very glad, but I do not cross my father's ground to any house or town.\n\nOf our greatest acts we are ignorant. You were not aware that you saved my life. To thank you in person has been since then one of my few requests]... You will excuse each that I say, because no one taught me.\n\n_[August, 1870.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I will be at home and glad.\n\nI think you said the 15th. The incredible never surprises us, because it is the incredible.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\nOf his meeting Emily Dickinson in her own home, and of his first impressions of her, Colonel Higginson has told in the pages of _The Atlantic._\n\nWithdrawing more and more constantly from accumulated humanity, no thought of the possibility of a lack of congenial occupation ever crossed her mind. During their first interview, indeed, Colonel Higginson asked her 'if she never felt any want of employment, not going off the grounds, and rarely seeing a visitor; 'to which she replied, 'I never thought of conceiving that I could ever have the slightest approach to such a want in all future time.'\n\nAmong the strong and remarkable things she said to him are several sentences which it seems not irrelevant to insert here: \u2014\n\n'Is it oblivion or absorption when things pass from our minds?'\n\n'Truth is such a rare thing, it is delightful to tell it.'\n\n'I find ecstasy in living; the mere sense of living is joy enough.'\n\nOne or two others Colonel Higginson has called 'the very wantonness of over-statement,' as, \u2014\n\n'How do most people live without any thoughts? There are many people in the world, \u2014 you must have noticed them in the street, \u2014 how do they live? How do they get strength to put on their clothes in the morning?'\n\nAnd this, 'a crowning extravaganza,' \u2014\n\n'If I read a book and it makes my whole body so cold no fire can ever warm me, I know that is poetry. If I feel physically as if the top of my head were taken off, I know that is poetry. These are the only ways I know it. Is there any other way?'\n\nAfter the visit she wrote: \u2014\n\n_[August, 1870.]_\n\nEnough is so vast a sweetness, I suppose it never occurs, only pathetic counterfeits.\n\nFabulous to me as the men of the _Revelations_ who 'shall not hunger any more.' Even the possible has its insoluble particle.\n\nAfter you went, I took Macbeth and turned to 'Birnam Wood.' Came _twice '_ to Dunsinane.' I thought and went about my work....\n\nThe vein cannot thank the artery, but her solemn indebtedness to him, even the stolidest admit, and so of me who try, whose effort leaves no sound.\n\nYou ask great questions accidentally. To answer them would be events. I trust that you are safe.\n\nI ask you to forgive me for all the ignorance I had. I find no nomination sweet as your low opinion.\n\nSpeak, if but to blame your obedient child.\n\nYou told me of Mrs. Lowell's poems. Would you tell me where I could find them, or are they not for sight? An article of yours, too, perhaps the only one you wrote that I never knew. It was about a 'Latch.' Are you willing to tell me? (Perhaps _A Shadow.)_\n\nIf I ask too much, you could please refuse. Shortness to live has made me bold.\n\nAbroad is close to-night and I have but to lift my hands to touch the 'Heights of Abraham.'\n\nDICKINSON.\n\n_[Winter, 1871.]_\n\nTo live is so startling, it leaves but little room for other occupations, though friends are, if possible, an event more fair.\n\nI am happy you have the travel you so long desire, and chastened that my master met neither accident nor Death.\n\nOur own possessions, though our own, 'tis well to hoard anew, remembering the dimensions of possibility. I often saw your name in illustrious mention, and envied an occasion so abstinent to me. Thank you for having been to Amherst. Could you come again that would be far better, though the finest wish is the futile one.\n\nWhen I saw you last, it was mighty summer \u2014 now the grass is glass, and the meadow stucco, and 'still waters 'in the pool where the frog drinks.\n\nThese behaviors of the year hurt almost like music, shifting when it ease us most. Thank you for the 'lesson.'\n\nI will study it, though hitherto, \u2014\n\nMenagerie to me My neighbor be.\n\nYOUR SCHOLAR.\n\nHer father's death (June 16) swept away all her landmarks. To this friend she wrote: \u2014\n\n_[July, 1874]_\n\nThe last afternoon that my father lived, though with no premonition, I preferred to be with him, and invented an absence for mother, Vinnie being asleep. He seemed peculiarly pleased, as I oftenest stayed with myself; and remarked, as the afternoon withdrew, he 'would like it to not end.'\n\nHis pleasure almost embarrassed me, and my brother coming, I suggested they walk. Next morning I woke him for the train, and saw him no more.\n\nHis heart was pure and terrible, and I think no other like it exists.\n\nI am glad there is Immortality, but would have tested it myself, before intrusting him. Mr. Bowles was with us. With that exception, I saw none. I have wished for you, since my father died, and had you an hour unengrossed, it would be almost priceless. Thank you for each kindness.... Your beautiful hymn, was it not prophetic? It has assisted that pause of space which I call 'father.'\n\n_[August, 1874]_\n\nWhen I think of my father's lonely life and lonelier death, there is this redress, \u2014\n\nTake all away;\n\nThe only thing worth larceny\n\nIs left \u2014 the Immortality.\n\nMy earliest friend wrote me the week before he died, 'If I live, I will go to Amherst; if I die, I certainly will.'\n\nIs your house deeper off?\n\nYOUR SCHOLAR.\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I find you with dusk, for day is tired, and lays her antediluvian cheek to the hill like a child.\n\nNature confides now.\n\nI hope you are joyful frequently, these beloved days, and the health of your friend bolder.\n\nI remember her with my blossoms and wish they were hers\n\nWhose pink career may have a close\n\nPortentous as our own, who knows?\n\nTo imitate these neighbors fleet,\n\nIn awe and innocence, were meet.\n\nSummer is so kind I had hoped you might come. Since my father's dying, everything sacred enlarged so it was dim to own. When a few years old, I was taken to a funeral which I now know was of peculiar distress, and the clergyman asked, 'Is the arm of the Lord shortened, that it cannot save?'\n\nHe italicised the 'cannot.' I mistook the accent for a doubt of Immortality, and not daring to ask, it besets me still, though we know that the mind of the heart must live if its clerical part do not. Would you explain it to me?... It comforts an instinct if another have felt it too. I was re-reading your _Decoration._ You may have forgotten it.\n\n_[June, 1875.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Mother was paralyzed Tuesday, a year from the evening father died. I thought perhaps you would care.\n\nYOUR SCHOLAR.\n\nA death-blow is a life-blow to some\n\nWho, till they died, did not alive become;\n\nWho, had they lived, had died, but when\n\nThey died, vitality begun.\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 The flower was jasmine. I am glad if it pleased your friend. It is next dearest to daphne, except wild-flowers \u2014 those are dearer.\n\nI have a friend in Dresden, who thinks the love of the field a misplaced affection \u2014 and says he will send me a meadow that is better than summer's. If he does, I will send it to you.\n\nI have read nothing of Tourgu\u00e9neff's, but thank you for telling me \u2014 and will seek him immediately. I did not read Mr. Miller because I could not care about him.\n\nMrs. Hunt's poems are stronger than any written by women since Mrs. Browning, with the exception of Mrs. Lewes's; but truth like ancestors' brocades can stand alone. You speak of _Men and Women._ That is a broad book.\n\n_Bells and Pomegranates_ I never saw, but have Mrs. Browning's endorsement. While Shakespeare remains, literature is firm.\n\nAn insect cannot run away with Achilles's head. Thank you for having written the _Atlantic Essays._ They are a fine joy, though to possess the ingredient for congratulation renders congratulation superfluous.\n\nDear friend, I trust you as you ask. If I exceed permission, excuse the bleak simplicity that knew no tutor but the north. Would you but guide\n\nDICKINSON?\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I am sorry your brother is dead. I fear he was dear to you. I should be glad to know you were painlessly grieved.\n\nOf Heaven above the firmest proof We fundamental know \u2014 Except for its marauding hand It had been heaven below.\n\nDICKINSON.\n\nAs already shown, Emily had effectively resisted all importunity to publish. Even the eloquent pleading of her long-time friend 'H. H.' was of no avail; but apparently reinforcement in her decision was sometimes sought: \u2014\n\n_[Early in 1876 ]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Are you willing to tell me what is right? Mrs. Jackson, of Colorado, was with me a few moments this week, and wished me to write for this. (A circular of the _No Name Series_ was enclosed.) I told her I was unwilling, and she asked me why? I said I was incapable, and she seemed not to believe me and asked me not to decide for a few days. Meantime, she would write to me. She was so sweetly noble, I would regret to estrange her, and if you would be willing to give me a note saying you disapproved it and thought me unfit, she would believe you. I am sorry to flee so often to my safest friend, but hope he permits me.\n\n_[Acknowledging a photograph, 1876.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Except your coming I know no gift so great, and in one extent it exceeds that, \u2014 it is permanent.\n\nYour face is more joyful when you speak, and I miss an almost arrogant look that at times haunts you, but with that exception, it is so real I could think it you.\n\nThank you with delight, and please to thank your friend for the lovely suggestion.\n\nI hope she has no suffering now.\n\nWas it Browning's flower that 'ailed till evening'? I shall think of your 'keeping house 'at night when I close the shutter \u2014 but to be Mrs. Higginson's guest is the boon of birds.\n\nJudge Lord was with us a few days since, and told me that the joy we most revere we profane in taking. I wish that was wrong.\n\nMrs. Jackson has written. It was not stories she asked of me. But may I tell her just the same that you don't prefer it? Thank you if I may, for it almost seems sordid to refuse from myself again.\n\nMy brother and sister speak of you, and covet your remembrance, and perhaps you will not reject my own to Mrs. Higginson?\n\nSummer laid her supple glove\n\nIn its sylvan drawer \u2014\n\nWheresoe'er, or was she\n\nThe demand of awe?\n\nYOUR SCHOLAR.\n\n_[March, 1876.]_\n\n... But two had mentioned the 'spring 'to me \u2014 yourself and the _Revelations._ 'I, Jesus, have sent mine angel.'\n\nI inferred your touch in the papers on Lowell and Emerson. It is delicate that each mind is itself, like a distinct bird.\n\nI was lonely there was an 'or 'in that beautiful 'I would go to Amherst,' though grieved for its cause. I wish your friend had my strength, for I don't care for roving \u2014 she perhaps might, though to remain with you is journey.\n\nTo abstain from _Daniel Deronda_ is hard \u2014 you are very kind to be willing.... I am glad _Immortality_ pleased you. I believed it would. I suppose even God Himself could not withhold that now.\n\nTo disappear enhances,\n\nThe man that runs away\n\nIs tinctured for an instant\n\nWith Immortality.\n\nBut yesterday a vagrant,\n\nTo-day in memory lain\n\nWith superstitious value \u2014\n\nWe tamper with again.\n\nBut 'never 'far as honor\n\nWithdraws the worthless thing,\n\nAnd impotent to cherish\n\nWe hasten to adorn.\n\nOf Death the sternest function\n\nThat just as we discern\n\nThe excellence defies us \u2014\n\nSecurest gathered then\n\nThe fruit perverse to plucking,\n\nBut leaning to the sight\n\nWith the ecstatic limit\n\nOf unobtained delight.\n\nIn sending a volume of George Eliot to Mrs. Higginson, Emily wrote, 'I am bringing you a little granite book to lean on.'\n\n_[Autumn, 1876.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Thank you for permission to write Mrs. Higginson. I hope I have not fatigued her \u2014 also for thinking of my brother, who is slowly better, and rides for an hour, kind days.\n\nI am glad if I did as you would like. The degradation to displease you, I hope I may never incur.\n\nOften, when troubled by entreaty, that paragraph of yours has saved me \u2014 'Such being the majesty of the art you presume to practise, you can at least take time before dishonoring it,' and Enobarbus said, 'Leave that which leaves itself.'\n\nI shall look with joy for the 'little book 'because it is yours, though I seek you in vain in the magazines where you once wrote. I recently found two papers of yours that were unknown to me, and wondered anew at your withdrawing thought so sought by others.\n\nWhen flowers annually died and I was a child, I used to read Dr Hitchcock's book on the _Flowers of North America._ This comforted their absence, assuring me they lived.\n\nYOUR SCHOLAR.\n\nThank you, dear friend, for my 'New Year,' but did you not confer it? Had your scholar permission to fashion yours, it were perhaps too fair. I always ran home to awe when a child, if anything befell me. He was an awful mother, but I liked him better than none.\n\nThere remained this shelter after you left me the other day.\n\nOf your flitting coming it is fair to think, like the bee's coup\u00e9, vanishing in music.\n\nWould you with the bee return,\n\nWhat a firm of noon!\n\nDeath obtains the rose,\n\nBut the news of dying goes\n\nNo further than the breeze.\n\nThe ear is the last face. We hear after we see, which to tell you first is still my destiny.\n\nMeeting a bird this morning, I began to flee. He saw it and sung.\n\nPresuming on that lone result,\n\nHis infinite disdain,\n\nBut vanquished him with my defeat \u2014\n\n'T was victory was slain.\n\nI shall read the book.\n\nThank you for telling me.\n\n_[After Colonel Higginson had met with a bereavement, in 1877.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 We must be less than Death to be lessened by it, for nothing is irrevocable but ourselves.\n\nI am glad you are better. I had feared to follow you, lest you would rather be lonely, which is the will of sorrow; but the papers had spoken of you with affectionate deference, and to know you were deeply remembered might not too intrude.\n\nTo be human is more than to be divine, for when Christ was divine he was uncontented till he had been human.\n\nI remember nothing so strong as to see you....\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I think of you so wholly that I cannot resist to write again, to ask if you are safe? Danger is not at first, for then we are unconscious, but in the after, slower days.\n\nDo not try to be saved, but let redemption find you, as it certainly will. Love is its own rescue, for we, at our supremest, are but its trembling emblems.\n\nYOUR SCHOLAR.\n\nAfter an interval of silence came this letter, in the same year: \u2014\n\nMust I lose the friend that saved my life without inquiring why? Affection gropes through drifts of awe for his tropic door.\n\nThat every bliss we know or guess hourly befall him, is his scholar's prayer.\n\n_[January, 1878.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I felt it shelter to speak to you.\n\nMy brother and sister are with Mr. Bowles, who is buried this afternoon.\n\nThe last song that I heard \u2014 that was, since the birds \u2014 was, 'He leadeth me, he leadeth me; yea, though I walk ' \u2014 then the voices stooped, the arch was so low.\n\n_[Summer, 1878.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 When you wrote you would come in November, it would please me it were November then \u2014 but the time has moved. You went with the coming of the birds \u2014 they will go with your coming, but to see you is so much sweeter than birds, I could excuse the spring.\n\nWith the bloom of the flower your friend loved, I have wished for her, but God cannot discontinue Himself.\n\nMr. Bowles was not willing to die.\n\nWhen you have lost a friend, Master, you remember you could not begin again, because there was no world. I have thought of you often since the darkness, though we cannot assist another's night.\n\nI have hoped you were saved.\n\nThat those have immortality with whom we talked about it, makes it no more mighty but perhaps more sudden....\n\nHow brittle are the piers\n\nOn which our faith doth tread \u2014\n\nNo bridge below doth totter so,\n\nYet none hath such a crowd.\n\nIt is as old as God \u2014\n\nIndeed, 't was built by Him \u2014\n\nHe sent His son to test the plank,\n\nAnd he pronounced it firm.\n\nI hope you have been well. I hope your rambles have been sweet, and your reveries spacious.\n\nTo have seen Stratford on Avon, and the Dresden Madonna, must be almost peace.\n\nAnd perhaps you have spoken with George Eliot. Will you 'tell me about it'? Will you come in November, and will November come, or is this the hope that opens and shuts, like the eye of the wax doll?\n\nYOUR SCHOLAR.\n\n_[In acknowledgment of his Short Studies of American Authors, 1879.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Brabantio's gift was not more fair than yours, though I trust without his pathetic inscription, 'Which but thou hast already, with all my heart I would keep from thee.'\n\nOf Poe, I know too little to think \u2014 Hawthorne appalls \u2014 entices.\n\nMrs. Jackson soars to your estimate lawfully as a bird, but of Howells and James, one hesitates. Your relentless music dooms as it redeems.\n\nRemorse for the brevity of a book is a rare emotion, though fair as Lowell's 'sweet despair 'in the 'slipper hymn.'\n\nOne thing of it we borrow\n\nAnd promise to return,\n\nThe booty and the sorrow\n\nIts sweetness to have known.\n\nOne thing of it we covet \u2014\n\nThe power to forget,\n\nThe anguish of the avarice\n\nDefrays the dross of it\n\nHad I tried before reading your gift to thank you, it had perhaps been possible, but I waited, and now it disables my lips.\n\nMagic, as it electrifies, also makes decrepit. Thank you for thinking of me.\n\nYOUR SCHOLAR.\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 You were once so kind as to say you would advise me. Could I ask it now?\n\nI have promised three hymns to a charity, but without your approval could not give them.\n\nThey are short, and I could write them quite plainly, and if you felt it convenient to tell me if they were faithful, I should be very grateful, though if public cares too far fatigue you, please deny YOUR SCHOLAR.\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Thank you for the advice. I shall implicitly follow it.\n\nThe one who asked me for the lines I had never seen.\n\nHe spoke of 'a charity.' I refused, but did not inquire. He again earnestly urged, on the ground that in that way I might 'aid unfortunate children.' The name of 'child 'was a snare to me, and I hesitated, choosing my most rudimentary, and without criterion.\n\nI inquired of you. You can scarcely estimate the opinion to one utterly guideless. Again thank you.\n\nYOUR SCHOLAR.\n\n_[Early Summer, 1880.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I was touchingly reminded of [a child who had died] this morning by an Indian woman with gay baskets and a dazzling baby, at the kitchen door. Her little boy 'once died,' she said, death to her dispelling him. I asked her what the baby liked, and she said 'to step.' The prairie before the door was gay with flowers of hay, and I led her in. She argued with the birds, she leaned on clover walls and they fell, and dropped her. With jargon sweeter than a bell, she grappled buttercups, and they sank together, the buttercups the heaviest. What sweetest use of days! 'T was noting some such scene made Vaughan humbly say, \u2014\n\n'My days that are at best but dim and hoary.' I think it was Vaughan....\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 May I ask the delight in advance, of sending you the _Life of Mrs. Cross_ by her husband, which the papers promise for publication?\n\nI feared some other pupil might usurp my privilege.\n\nEmblem is immeasurable \u2014 that is why it is better than fulfilment, which can be drained.\n**CHAPTER VIII**\n\n_To Mr. Perez D. Cowan, Miss Maria Whitney, Mr. Bowles, Mr. J. D. Clark, and Mr. C. H. Clark_\n\nMR COWAN graduated at Amherst College in 1866, and 'Peter' was Emily Dickinson's especial appellation for this favorite cousin. The first letter was written upon the occasion of his marriage to Miss Margaret Elizabeth Rhea.\n\n_To the Rev. Perez D. Cowan_\n\n_[October 26, 1870.]_\n\nDEAR PETER, \u2014 It is indeed sweet news. I am proud of your happiness. To Peter, and Peter's, let me give both hands. Delight has no competitor, so it is always most. 'Maggie 'is a warm name. I shall like to take it. Home is the definition of God.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nIt is long since I knew of you, Peter, and much may have happened to both; but that is the rarest book, which, opened at whatever page, equally enchants us.\n\nI hope that you have power, and as much of peace as in our deep existence may be possible.\n\nTo multiply the harbors does not reduce the sea.\n\nWe learn, through cousin Montague, that you have lost your sister through that sweeter loss which we call gain.\n\nI am glad she is glad.\n\nHer early pain had seemed to me peculiarly cruel.\n\nTell her how tenderly we are pleased.\n\nRecall me too to your other sisters, who though they may have mislaid me, I can always find; and include me to your sweet wife. We are daily reminded of you by the clergyman, Mr. Jenkins, whom you strongly resemble.\n\nThank you for the paper. It is homelike to know where you are.\n\nWe can almost hear you announce the text, when the air is clear; and how social if you should preach us a note some Sunday in recess!\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\n_[After the death of Mr. Cowan's little daughter Margie.]_\n\n[November 8, 1879.]\n\nWill it comfort my grieved cousin to know that Emily and Vinnie are among the ones this moment thinking of him with peculiar tenderness, and is his sweet wife too faint to remember to Whom her loved one is consigned?\n\n'Come unto me 'could not alarm those minute feet \u2014 how sweet to remember.\n\nIf you feel able, write a few words; if you do not \u2014 remember forgetting is a guile unknown to your faithful cousin EMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\n_[Upon receiving an account of little Margie's life and death.] [October, 1880.]_\n\nDEAR COUSIN, \u2014 The sweet book found me on my pillow, where I was detained, or I should have thanked you immediately.\n\nThe little creature must have been priceless \u2014 yours and not yours \u2014 how hallowed!\n\nIt may have been she came to show you Immortality. Her startling little flight would imply she did.\n\nMay I remind you what Paul said, or do you think of nothing else, these October nights, without her crib to visit?\n\nThe little furniture of loss has lips of dirks to stab us. I hope Heaven is warm, there are so many barefoot ones. I hope it is near \u2014 the little tourist was so small. I hope it is not so unlike earth that we shall miss the peculiar form \u2014 the mould of the bird. 'And with what body do they come? 'Then they _do_ come! Rejoice! What door? What hour? Run, run, my soul! Illuminate the house!\n\n'Body! 'then real, \u2014 a face and eyes, \u2014 to know that it is them 1 Paul knew the Man that knew the news, He passed through Bethlehem.\n\nWith love for you, and your sweet wife, 'whom seeing not, we 'trust.\n\nCOUSIN EMILY.\n\n_To Miss Maria Whitney_\n\nHow well I know her not\n\nWhom not to know has been\n\nA bounty in prospective, now\n\nNext door to mine the pain.\n\nEMILY.\n\nThe handwriting of this first little stanza sent to Miss Whitney is that of the early middle period, and is too indefinite to be safely dated; but before the next letter, a long interval seems to have elapsed.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nVinnie and her sister thank Miss Whitney for the delicate kindness, and remember her with peculiar love these acuter days....\n\nI fear we think too lightly of the gift of mortality, which, too gigantic to comprehend, certainly cannot be estimated.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I have thought of you often since the darkness, \u2014 though we cannot assist another's night. I have hoped you were saved. That he has received Immortality who so often conferred it, invests it with a more sudden charm....\n\nI hope you have the power of hope, and that every bliss we know or guess hourly befalls you.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_\n\n... To relieve the irreparable degrades it.\n\nBrabantio's resignation is the only one \u2014 'I here do give thee that with all my heart, which but thou hast already, with all my heart I would keep from thee.'\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I am constantly more astonished that the body contains the spirit \u2014 except for overmastering work it could not be borne.\n\nI shall miss saying to Vinnie when we hear the Northampton bell \u2014 as in subtle states of the west we do \u2014 'Miss Whitney is going to church,' though must not everywhere be church to hearts that have, or have had, a friend?\n\nCould that sweet darkness where they dwell\n\nBe once disclosed to us,\n\nThe clamor for their loveliness\n\nWould burst the loneliness.\n\nI trust you may have the dearest summer possible to loss. One sweet, sweet more, one liquid more, of that Arabian presence!\n\nYou spoke very sweetly to both of us, and your sewing and recollecting is a haunting picture, a sweet, spectral protection. Your name is taken as tenderly as the names of our birds, or the flower, for some mysterious cause, sundered from its dew.-...\n\nIn a brief memoir of Parepa, in which she was likened to a rose, \u2014 'thornless until she died,' some bereaved one added. To miss him is his only stab, but that he never gave!\n\nA word from you would be sacred. \u2014\n\nEMILY.\n\n... The crucifix requires no glove.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nIntrusiveness of flowers is brooked by even troubled hearts.\n\nThey enter and then knock \u2014 then chide their ruthless sweetness, and then remain forgiven. May these molest as fondly!\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nThan Heaven more remote,\n\nFor Heaven is the root,\n\nBut these the flitted seed,\n\nMore flown indeed\n\nThan ones that never were,\n\nOr those that hide, and are.\n\nWhat madness, by their side,\n\nA vision to provide\n\nOf future days\n\nThey cannot praise.\n\nMy soul, to find them, come,\n\nThey cannot call, they're dumb,\n\nNor prove, nor woo,\n\nBut that they have abode\n\nIs absolute as God,\n\nAnd instant, too.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nThe face in evanescence lain\n\nIs more distinct than ours,\n\nAnd ours, considered for its sake,\n\nAs capsules are for flowers.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Your touching suggestion... is a tender permission....\n\nWe cannot believe for each other \u2014 thought is too sacred a despot, but I hope that God, in whatever form, is true to our friend.... Consciousness is the only home of which we _now_ know. That sunny adverb had been enough, were it not foreclosed.\n\nWhen not inconvenient to your heart, please remember us, and let us help you carry it, if you grow tired. Though we are each unknown to ourself and each other, 't is not what well conferred it, the dying soldier asks, it is only the water.\n\nWe knew not that we were to live,\n\nNor when we are to die\n\nOur ignorance our cuirass is;\n\nWe wear mortality\n\nAs lightly as an option gown\n\nTill asked to take it off.\n\nBy His intrusion God is known \u2014\n\nIt is the same with life.\n\n_To the Same_\n\n_[November, 1882.]_\n\n_Tuesday._\n\nSWEET FRIEND, \u2014 Our mother ceased. While we bear her dear form through the wilderness, I am sure you are with us.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 The guilt of having sent the note had so much oppressed me that I hardly dared to read the reply, and delayed my heart almost to its stifling, sure you would never receive us again. To come unto our own and our own fail to receive us, is a sere response.\n\nI hope you may forgive us.\n\nAll is faint indeed without our vanished mother, who achieved in sweetness what she lost in strength, though grief of wonder at her fate made the winter short, and each night I reach finds my lungs more breathless, seeking what it means.\n\nTo the bright east she flies,\n\nBrothers of Paradise Remit her home,\n\nWithout a change of wings,\n\nOr Love's convenient things,\n\nEnticed to come.\n\nFashioning what she is,\n\nFathoming what she was,\n\nWe deem we dream \u2014\n\nAnd that dissolves the days\n\nThrough which existence strays\n\nHomeless at home.\n\nThe sunshine almost speaks, this morning, redoubling the division, and Paul's remark grows graphic, 'the _weight_ of glory.'\n\nI am glad you have an hour for books, those enthralling friends, the immortalities, perhaps, each may pre-receive. 'And I saw the Heavens opened.'\n\nI hope that nothing pains you except the pang of life, sweeter to bear than to omit.\n\nWith love and wonder, EMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Is not an absent friend as mysterious as a bulb in the ground, and is not a bulb the most captivating floral form? Must it not have enthralled the Bible, if we may infer from its selection? 'The lily of the field!'\n\nI never pass one without being chagrined for Solomon, and so in love with 'the lily' anew, that were I sure no one saw me, I might make those advances of which in after life I should repent.\n\nThe apple-blossoms were slightly disheartened, yesterday, by a snow-storm, but the birds encouraged them all that they could \u2014 and how fortunate that the little ones had come to cheer their damask brethren!\n\nYou spoke of coming 'with the apple-blossoms ' \u2014 which occasioned our solicitude.\n\nThe ravenousness of fondness is best disclosed by children....\n\nIs there not a sweet wolf within us that demands its food?\n\nI can easily imagine your fondness for the little life so mysteriously committed to your care. The bird that asks our crumb has a plaintive distinction. I rejoice that it was possible for you to be with it, for I think the early spiritual influences about a child are more hallowing than we know. The angel begins in the morning in every human life. How small the furniture of bliss! How scant the heavenly fabric!\n\nNo ladder needs the bird but skies\n\nTo situate its wings,\n\nNor any leader's grim baton\n\nArraigns it as it sings.\n\nThe implements of bliss are few \u2014\n\nAs Jesus says of _Him,_\n\n'Come unto me' the moiety\n\nThat wafts the cherubim.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 You are like God. We pray to Him, and he answers 'No.' Then we pray to Him to rescind the 'no,' and He don't answer at all, yet 'Seek and ye shall find 'is the boon of faith.\n\nYou failed to keep your appointment with the apple-blossoms \u2014 the japonica, even, bore an apple to elicit you, but that must be a silver bell which calls the human heart.\n\nI still hope that you live, and in lands of consciousness.\n\nIt is Commencement now. Pathos is very busy.\n\nThe past is not a package one can lay away. I see my father's eyes, and those of Mr. Bowles \u2014 those isolated comets. If the future is mighty as the past, what may vista be?\n\nWith my foot in a sling from a vicious sprain, and reminded of you almost to tears by the week and its witness, I send this sombre word.\n\nThe vane defines the wind.\n\nWhere we thought you were, Austin says you are not. How strange to change one's sky, unless one's star go with it, but yours has left an astral wake.\n\nVinnie gives her hand.\n\nAlways with love,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Your sweet self-reprehension makes us look within, which is so wild a place we are soon dismayed, but the seed sown in the lake bears the liquid flower, and so of all your words.\n\nI am glad you accept rest.\n\nToo many disdain it. I am glad you go to the Adirondacks.\n\nTo me the name is homelike, for one of my lost went every year with an Indian guide, before the woods were broken. Had you been here it would be sweet, but that, like the peach, is later. With a to-morrow in its cupboard, who would be 'an hungered '?\n\nThank you for thinking of Dick. He is now the horse of association.\n\nMen are picking the grass from father's meadow to lay it away for winter, and it takes them a long time. They bring three horses of their own, but Dick, ever gallant, offers to help, and bears a little machine like a top, which spins the grass away.\n\nIt seems very much like a gentleman getting his own supper \u2014 for what is his supper winter nights but tumblers of clover?\n\nYou speak of 'disillusion.' That is one of the few subjects on which I am an infidel. Life is so strong a vision, not one of it shall fail.\n\nNot what the stars have done, but what they are to do, is what detains the sky.\n\nWe shall watch for the promised words from the Adirondacks, and hope the recess will all be joy. To have been made alive is so chief a thing, all else inevitably adds. Were it not riddled by partings, it were too divine.\n\nI was never certain that mother had died, except while the students were singing. The voices came from another life....\n\nGood-night, dear. Excuse me for staying so long. I love to come to you. To one who creates, or consoles, thought, what an obligation!\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Has the journey ceased, or is it still progressing, and has Nature won you away from us, as we feared she would?\n\nOthello is uneasy, but then Othellos always are, they hold such mighty stakes.\n\nAustin brought me the picture of Salvini when he was last in Boston.\n\nThe brow is that of Deity \u2014 the eyes, those of the lost, but the power lies in the _throat_ \u2014 pleading, sovereign, savage \u2014 the panther and the dove!\n\nEach, how innocent!\n\nI hope you found the mountains cordial \u2014 followed your meeting with the lakes with affecting sympathy.\n\nChangelessness is Nature's change.\n\nThe plants went into camp last night, their tender armor insufficient for the crafty nights.\n\nThat is one of the parting acts of the year, and has an emerald pathos \u2014 and Austin hangs bouquets of corn in the piazza's ceiling, also an omen, for Austin believes.\n\nThe 'golden bowl 'breaks soundlessly, but it will not be whole again till another year.\n\nDid you read Emily Bront\u00eb's marvellous verse?\n\n'Though earth and man were gone,\n\nAnd suns and universes ceased to be,\n\nAnd Thou wert left alone,\n\nEvery existence would exist in Thee.'\n\nWe are pining to know of you, and Vinnie thinks to see you would be the opening of the burr..., EMILY, with love.\n\n_To the Same [Probably 1884.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 The little package of Ceylon arrived in fragrant safety, and Caliban's 'clust'ring filberds 'were not so luscious nor so brown.\n\nHoney in March is blissful as inopportune, and to caress the bee a severe temptation, but was not temptation the first zest?\n\nWe shall seek to be frugal with our sweet possessions, though their enticingness quite leads us astray, and shall endow Austin, as we often do, after a parched day.\n\nFor how much we thank you.\n\nDear arrears of tenderness we can never repay till the will's great ores are finally sifted; but bullion is better than minted things, for it has no alloy.\n\nThinking of you with fresher love, as the Bible boyishly says, 'New every morning and fresh every evening,'\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same [Probably 1884.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I cannot depict a friend to my mind till I know what he is doing, and three of us want to depict you. I inquire your avocation of Austin, and he says you are 'engaged in a great work '! That is momentous but not defining. The thought of you in the great city has a halo of wilderness.\n\nConsole us by dispelling it....\n\nVinnie is happy with her duties, her pussies, and her posies, for the little garden within, though tiny, is triumphant.\n\nThere are scarlet carnations, with a witching suggestion, and hyacinths covered with promises which I know they will keep.\n\nHow precious to hear you ring at the door, and Vinnie ushering you to those melodious moments of which friends are composed.\n\nThis also is fiction.\n\nI fear we shall care very little for the technical resurrection, when to behold the one face that to us comprised it is too much for us, and I dare not think of the voraciousness of that only gaze and its only return.\n\nRemembrance is the great tempter.\n\nEMILY.\n\nEmily Dickinson's first letter to the son of her old friend, Mr. Bowles, was written four years after his father's death, and contained a spray of pressed jasmine.\n\n_To Mr. Samuel Bowles_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 A tree your father gave me bore this priceless flower.\n\nWould you accept it because of him \u2014\n\nWho abdicated ambush\n\nAnd went the way of dusk,\n\nAnd now, against his subtle name,\n\nThere stands an asterisk\n\nAs confident of him as we;\n\nImpregnable we are \u2014\n\nThe whole of Immortality\n\nSecreted in a star.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 My mother and sister hoped to see you, and I, to have heard the voice in the house that recalls the strange music of your father's. A little bin of blossoms I designed for your breakfast also went astray.\n\nI hope you are in strength, and that the passengers of peace exalt, not rend, your memory. Heaven may give them rank, it could not give them grandeur, for that they carried with themselves.\n\nWith fresh remembrance,\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_ _[August 2, 1882.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Our friend your father was so beautifully and intimately recalled to-day that it seemed impossible he had experienced the secret of death.\n\nA servant who had been with us a long time, and had often opened the door for him, asked me how to spell 'genius' yesterday. I told her and she said no more. To-day she asked me what 'genius' meant. I told her none had known.\n\nShe said she read in a Catholic paper that Mr. Bowles was 'the genius of Hampshire,' and thought it might be that past gentleman. His look could not be extinguished to any who had seen him, for 'because I live, ye shall live also,' was his physiognomy.\n\nI congratulate you upon his immortality, which is a constant stimulus to my household, and upon your noble perpetuation of his cherished _Republican._\n\nPlease remember me tenderly to your mother.\n\nWith honor,\n\nEMILY DICKINSON.\n\nThis is the only letter I have found, written since early girlhood, in which Emily Dickinson signed her name in this way.\n\nAbout 1882 she wrote of the elder Mr. Bowles to another friend, 'I dreamed Saturday night of precious Mr. Bowles. One glance of his would light a world.' Upon learning of his son's engagement, Emily sent her unique congratulation: \u2014\n\n_[October, 1883.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014\n\nThe clock strikes one that just struck two \u2014 Some schism in the sum; A sorcerer from Genesis Has wrecked the pendulum.\n\nWith warmest congratulation, E. DICKINSON.\n\nAfter the birth of Samuel Bowles the Fifth:\n\n_To the Same_\n\n_[August, 1885.] DEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I did not know. God bless you indeed!_\n\nExtend to that small hand my own 'right hand of fellowship,' and guide the woman of your heart softly to my own.\n\nI give 'his angels charge ' \u2014 well-remembered angels, whose absence only dims our eyes. The magnanimity I asked, you how freely gave!\n\nIf ever of any act of mine you should be in need, let me reply with the laureate, 'Speak that I live to hear.'\n\nVitally,\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_\n\n_[August 19, 1885.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 May I ask a service so sacred as that you will address and mail a note to the friend of my friend Mrs. Jackson? I do not know Mr. Jackson's address, and desire to write him.\n\nThat your loved confederate and yourself are in ceaseless peace is my happy faith.\n\nThe sweet-peas you hallowed stand in carmine sheaves. Would that you could plunder them.\n\nGratefully,\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_ _[On receiving some flowers.]_\n\nDEAR FRIENDS, \u2014 Had I not known I was not asleep, I should have feared I dreamed, so blissful was their beauty, but day and they demurred....\n\nWith joyous thanks,\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\nIn the dim and early dawn of a fragrant summer morning soon after, Emily caused a large cluster of sweet-peas to be gathered from her dewy, old-fashioned garden, that they might be put on the very first train to Springfield, taking the freshness of summer itself to her friends. This note accompanied them: \u2014\n\nDawn and dew my bearers be.\n\nEver,\n\nBUTTERFLY.\n\nAnd the old garden still overflows with annual fragrance and color. Its armies of many-hued hyacinths run riot in the spring sunshine, while crocuses and daffodils peer above the fresh grass under the apple-trees; a large magnolia holds its pink cups toward the blue sky, and scarlet hawthorn lights a greenly dusky corner.\n\nAnd then the roses, and the hedges of sweet-peas; the masses of nasturtiums, and the stately procession of hollyhocks, in happy association with huge bushes of lemon verbena! Still later comes the autumn glory, with salvia and brilliant zinnias and marigolds and clustering chrysanthemums, until 'ranks of seeds their witness bear,' and November folds her brown mantle over sleeping flowers.\n\nThis sweet garden, with its whiffs of long ago, needs only borders of box and a sun-dial to be the ideally imagined pleasure-spot of vanished generations. 'And Emily seems its presiding genius; it is instinct with her presence still, though even before her death years had passed since her footsteps pressed its paths, or her fingers gathered its riches.\n\nIn different mood from the cheerful letters to Mr. Bowles are these more sombre ones to Mr. Clark. Begun by association through the death of a mutual friend, they continued to be tinged with the sadness of other and following deaths, until his own, when letters to his brother took their place until almost her own flitting.\n\n_To Mr. J. D. Clark_\n\n... He never spoke of himself, and encroachment I know would have slain him.... He was a dusk gem, born of troubled waters, astray in any crest below. Heaven might give him peace, it could not give him grandeur, for that he carried with himself to whatever scene....\n\nObtaining but his own extent\n\nIn whatsoever realm,\n\n'T was Christ's own personal expanse\n\nThat bore him from the tomb.\n\n_To the Same_\n\n_[Late Autumn, 1882.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 It pains us very much that you have been more ill. We hope you may not be suffering now. Thank you for speaking so earnestly when our mother died. We have spoken daily of writing you, but have felt unable. The great attempt to save her life had it been successful would have been fatigueless, but failing, strength forsook us.\n\nNo verse in the Bible has frightened me so much from a child as 'from him that hath not, shall be taken even that he hath.1 Was it because its dark menace deepened our own door? You speak as if you still missed your mother. I wish we might speak with you. As we bore her dear form through the wilderness, light seemed to have stopped.\n\nHer dying feels to me like many kinds of cold \u2014 at times electric, at times benumbing, \u2014 then a trackless waste love has never trod....\n\nThe letter from the skies, which accompanied yours, was indeed a boon. A letter always seemed to me like Immortality, for is it not the mind alone, without corporeal friend?\n\nI hope you may tell us that you are better.\n\nThank you for much kindness. The friend anguish reveals is the slowest forgot.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_ _[March, 1883.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 In these few weeks of ignorance of you, we trust that you are growing stronger, and drawing near that sweet physician, an approaching spring, for the ear of the heart hears bluebirds already, those enthralling signals.... The great confidences of life are first disclosed by their departure, and I feel that I ceaselessly ought to thank you.... Our household is scarcely larger than yours \u2014 Vinnie and I and two servants composing our simple realm, though my brother is with us often each day. I wish I could show you the hyacinths that embarrass us by their loveliness, though to cower before a flower is perhaps unwise, but beauty is often timidity \u2014 perhaps oftener pain.\n\nA soft 'Where is she? 'is all that is left of our loved mother, and thank you for all you told us of yours....\n\nFaithfully,\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 To thank you is impossible, because your gifts are from the sky, more precious than the birds, because more disembodied. I can only express my rejoiced surprise by the phrase in the Scripture, 'And I saw the Heavens opened.'...\n\nFathoms are sudden neighbors.\n\nIgnorant till your note that our President's dying had defrauded you, we are grieved anew, and hasten to offer you our sorrow.\n\nWe shall make Mrs. Chadbourne's acquaintance in flowers after a few days. 'Displeasure 'would be a morose word toward a friend so earnest, and we only fear when you delay, that you feel more ill. Allow us to hear the birds for you, should they indeed come.\n\nE. D.\n\nThis is the last letter to Mr. Clark, and upon hearing of his farther illness, she wrote his brother: \u2014\n\n_To Mr. C. H. Clark_\n\n_[April 18, 1883.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Would it be possible you would excuse me if I once more inquire for the health of the brother whom association has made sacred?\n\nWith the trust that your own is impairless, and that fear for your brother has not too much depressed you, please accept the solicitude of myself and my sister.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_ _[April 22, 1883.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 The sorrowful tidings of your note almost dissuade reply, lest I for one moment take you from your brother's bedside. I have delayed to tell my sister till I hear again, fearing to newly grieve her, and hoping an encouraging word by another mail.\n\nPlease be sure we are with you in sorrowing thought, and take your brother's hand for me, if it is still with you. Perhaps the one has called him of whom we have so often talked during this grieved year.\n\nWith sympathy,\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_ _[May 1, 1883.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 The temptation to inquire every morning for your sufferer is almost irresistible, but our own invalid taught us that a sick room is at times too sacred a place for a friend's knock, timid as that is.\n\nI trust this sweet May morning is not without its peace to your brother and you, though the richest peace is of sorrow.\n\nWith constant and fervent anxiousness, and the hope of an early word, please be sure we share your suspense.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_ _[May 21,1883.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 We have much fear, both for your own strength and the health of your brother, having heard nothing since we last asked, many days ago. Will you not, when possible, give us but a syllable, even a cheering accent, if no more be true? We think of you and your sufferer with intense anxiety, wishing some act or word of ours might be hope or help. The humming-birds and orioles fly by me as I write, and I long to guide their enchanted feet to your brother's chamber.\n\nExcuse me for knocking. Please also excuse me for staying so long. Spring is a strange land when our friends are ill.\n\nWith my sister's tenderest alarm, as also my own, E. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_ _[June 7,1883.]_\n\nI had, dear friend, the deep hope that I might see your brother before he passed from life, or rather life we know, and can scarcely express the pang I feel at its last denial.\n\nHis rare and hallowed kindness had strangely endeared him, and I cannot be comforted not to thank him before he went so far.\n\nI never had met your brother but once. An unforgotten once \u2014 to have seen him but once more would have been almost like an interview with my 'Heavenly Father 'whom he loved and knew. I hope he was able to speak with you in his closing moment. One accent of courage as he took his flight would assist your heart. I am eager to know all you may tell me of those final days. We asked for him every morning, in heart, but feared to disturb you by inquiry aloud. I hope you are not too far exhausted from your 'loved employ.'\n\nTo know of you when possible would console us much, and every circumstance of him we had hoped to see....\n\nE. D.\n\n_To the Same_ _[June 16, 1883.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Thank you for the paper. I felt it almost a bliss of sorrow that the name so long in Heaven on earth, should be on earth in Heaven.\n\nDo you know if either of his sons have his mysterious face or his momentous nature?\n\nThe stars are not hereditary. I hope your brother and himself resumed the tie above, so dear to each below. Your bond to your brother reminds me of mine to my sister \u2014 early, earnest, indissoluble. Without her life were fear, and Paradise a cowardice, except for her inciting voice.\n\nShould you have any picture of your brother, I should rejoice to see it at some convenient hour \u2014 and though we cannot know the last, would you sometime tell me as near the last as your grieved voice is able?...\n\nAre you certain there is another life? When overwhelmed to know, I fear that few are sure.\n\nMy sister gives her grief with mine. Had we known in time, your brother would have borne our flowers in his mute hand. With tears,\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_ _[July 9,1883.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 While I thank you immediately for the invaluable gift, I cannot express the bereavement that I am no more to behold it. Believing that we are to have no face in a farther life, makes the look of a friend a boon almost too precious.\n\nThe resemblance is faithful \u2014 the scholarly gentleness \u2014 the noble modesty \u2014 the absence of every dross, quite there. What a consoling prize to you, his mate through years of anguish so much sharper to see because endured so willingly.\n\nChastening would seem unneeded by so supreme a spirit.\n\nI feel great grief for you \u2014 I hope his memory may help you, so recently a life. I wish I might say one liquid word to make your sorrow less. Is not the devotion that you gave him an acute balm? Had you not been with him how solitary the will of God!\n\nThank you for every word of his pure career. I hope it is nearer us than we are aware. Will you not still tell us of yourself and your home \u2014 from which this patient guest has flown? I am glad he lies near us \u2014 and thank you for the tidings of our other fugitive, whom to know was life. I can scarcely tell you how deeply I cherish your thoughtfulness. To still know of the dead is a great permission, and you have almost enabled that. With the ceaseless sympathy of myself and my sister, and the trust that our sufferer rests,\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_ _[January 4, 1884.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I have been very ill since early October, and unable to thank you for the sacred kindness, but treasured it each day, and hasten with my first steps, and my fullest gratitude.... I never can thank you as I feel. That would be impossible. The effort ends in tears. You seem, by some deep accident, to be the only tie between the Heaven that evanesced, and the Heaven that stays. I hope the winged days that bear you to your brother are not too destitute of song, and wish that we might speak with you of him and of yourself, and of the third member of that sundered trio. Perhaps another spring would call you to Northampton, and memory might invite you here....\n\nWith a deep New Year,\n\nYour friend,\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_[Enclosing pressed flowers, February 22, 1884.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I hoped it might gratify you to meet the little flower which was my final ministry to your brother, and which even in that faint hour, I trust he recognized, though the thronged spirit had not access to words.\n\nThese are my first out, and their golden trifles are too full of association to remain unshared.\n\nWith faithful thought of yourself and your brother, brothers in bereavement even as myself, E. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_ _[April 21, 1884.]_\n\nNever unmindful of your anxiety for your father, dear friend, I refrained from asking, lest even the moment engrossed by reply, might take you from him.\n\nThe peril of a parent is a peculiar pang, and one which my sister and myself so long experienced, \u2014 oh, would it were longer, for even fear for them were dearer than their absence, \u2014 that we cannot resist to offer you our earnest sympathy. I most sincerely trust that the sight is redeemed, so precious to you both, more than vicariously to you \u2014 even filially \u2014 and that the added fear has not exhausted you beyond the art of spring to cheer.\n\nI have lost, since writing you, another cherished friend, a word of whom I enclose \u2014 and how to repair my shattered ranks is a besetting pain. Be sure that my sister and myself never forget your brother, nor his bereaved comrade.\n\nTo be certain we were to meet our lost would be a vista of reunion who of us could bear?...\n\nFaithfully,\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_ _[April 22, 1884.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 These thoughts disquiet me, and the great friend is gone who could solace them. Do they disturb you?\n\nThe spirit lasts, but in what mode \u2014 Below, the body speaks, But as the spirit furnishes \u2014 Apart it never talks.\n\nThe music in the violin\n\nDoes not emerge alone\n\nBut arm in arm with touch, yet touch\n\nAlone is not a tune.\n\nThe spirit lurks within the flesh\n\nLike tides within the sea\n\nThat make the water live; estranged\n\nWhat would the either be?\n\nDoes that know now, or does it cease,\n\nThat which to this is done,\n\nResuming at a mutual date\n\nWith every future one?\n\nInstinct pursues the adamant\n\nExacting this reply \u2014\n\nAdversity, if it may be,\n\nOr wild prosperity,\n\nThe rumor's gate was shut so tight\n\nBefore my mind was sown.\n\nNot even a prognostic's push\n\nCould make a dent thereon.\n\nWith the trust you live,\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same [January 18, 1885.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Though no New Year be old, to wish yourself and your honored father a new and happy one is involuntary, and I am sure we are both reminded of that sacred past which has forever hallowed us.\n\nI trust the years which they behold are also new and happy, or is it a joyous expanse of year, without bisecting months \u2014 untiring Anno Domini? Had we but one assuring word, but a letter is a joy of earth \u2014 it is denied the gods. Vivid in our immortal group we still behold your brother, and never hear Northampton bells without saluting him....\n\nHave you blossoms and books, those solaces of sorrow? That, I would also love to know, and receive for yourself and your father the forgetless sympathy of\n\nYour friend,\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_ _[April 21, 1885.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 The flower for which your brother cared resumes its siren circuit, and choosing a few for his name's sake, I enclose them to you. Perhaps from some far site he overlooks their transit, and smiles at the beatitudes so recently his own. Ephemeral, eternal heart!\n\nI hope you are in health, and that the fragile father has every peace that years possess....\n\nWe think of your small mansion with unabated warmth, though is not any mansion vast that contains a father?\n\nThat this beloved spring inspirit both yourself and him, is our exceeding wish.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\nThe final letter to Mr. Clark was written a year later, and will be found in the last chapter.\n**CHAPTER IX**\n\n_To Mr. and Mrs. J. L. Jenkins, Mrs. Hanson Read, Mrs. W. A. Stearns, Mrs. Edward Tuckerman, Mrs. J. S. Cooper, Mrs. A. B. H. Davis, Mrs. H. F. Hills, Mrs. Jameson, Mr. F. F. Emerson, Maggie Maher, Mr. and Mrs. George Montague, Mrs. W. F. Stearns, Mr. J. K. Chickering, Mrs. Joseph Sweetser, Mr. Thomas Niles, Mrs. Carmickael, Dr and Mrs. Thomas P. Field, Mr. Theodore Holland, 1 H. H.,' Miss Eugenia Hall, Mrs. E. P. Crowell, and Mrs. J. C. Greenough_\n\nTHE characteristic notes in this chapter were, with few exceptions, written to friends in Amherst, accompanying flowers or other dainties, or acknowledging those sent to herself, \u2014 not infrequently a sentence of consolation for some pain, or a few words of cheering appreciation for a new happiness.\n\nThe first may be dated as early as 1872; but the largest number are, undoubtedly, to be assigned to the last six or seven years of Emily Dickinson's life.\n\nAfter her father's death, her retirement from ordinary forms of human intercourse became almost complete; and these notes were the sole link still binding her to the world, \u2014 and to only such part of the world as might be represented by those for whom she cared.\n\nEmily's prose style had developed its incisiveness, \u2014 like her own thought, it went straight to the essence of things; and while still dressed in language sufficiently to pass in conventional places, it had gradually become divested of everything superfluous.\n\nWhile the meaning of certain phrases has sometimes puzzled those who received the notes, there is invariably an original, sparkling interpretation for every sentence, clear to any soul possessing even slight accord with hers. Because frequently couched in the form of apparently mysterious oracles, the meaning is sometimes looked for too deeply, \u2014 often it is singularly obvious. The remarkable character of these notes seems to have increased as she lived farther and farther away from the years when she had seen and conversed with her friends; and her life was full of thought and occupation during these introspective days. It is impossible to conceive that any sense of personal isolation, or real loneliness of spirit, because of the absence of humanity from her daily life, could have oppressed a nature so richly endowed.\n\nMost of us would require some sudden blow, some fierce crisis, to produce such a result, \u2014 a hidden and unusual life like hers. And we love to believe striking and theatrical things of our neighbors; it panders to that romantic element latent in the plainest. But Emily Dickinson's method of living was so simple and natural an outcome of her increasingly shy nature, a development so perfectly in the line of her whole constitution that no far-away and dramatic explanation of her quiet life is necessary to those who are capable of apprehending her.\n\nThat sentence alone would reveal the key wherein she wrote with regret for her longtime maid Margaret: 'I winced at her loss, for I am in the habit of her, and even a new rolling-pin has an embarrassing element.'\n\nEmerson somewhere says, 'Now and then a man exquisitely made can live alone; 'and Lord Bacon puts the thought with even greater force and directness, \u2014 'Whosoever is delighted in Solitude is either a Wilde Beast or a God.'\n\nTo some natures, introspection is a necessity for expression. 'Why should I feel lonely? 'exclaimed Thoreau, in his temporary isolation at Walden, 'Is not our planet in the Milky Way?' He was, indeed, 'no more lonely than the North Star,' nor, I believe, was Emily Dickinson, although congenial companionship had, in a sense, been very dear to her.\n\nShe has herself written: \u2014\n\nNever for society\n\nHe shall seek in vain\n\nWho his own acquaintance\n\nCultivates; of men\n\nWiser men may weary,\n\nBut the man within\n\nNever knew satiety, \u2014\n\nBetter entertain\n\nThan could Border Ballad,\n\nOr Biscayan Hymn;\n\nNeither introduction\n\nNeed you \u2014 unto him.\n\nGeorg Ebers once wrote: 'Sheep and geese become restless when separated from the flock; the eagle and lion seek isolation,' \u2014 a picturesque and perhaps not less strong presentation of a nearly identical thought.\n\nBut although invisible for years, even to life-long friends, Emily never denied herself to children. To them she was always accessible, always delightful, and in their eyes a sort of fairy guardian. Stories are yet told of her roguishly lowering baskets of 'goodies 'out of her window by a string to little ones waiting below. Mr. MacGregor Jenkins, in a sketch of his recollections of Emily Dickinson, ( _The Christian Union,_ October 24, 1891.) has shown this gracious and womanly side of her nature in a very charming way, quoting a number of her notes to himself and his sister, two members of a quartette of children admitted to her intimacy. Many of Emily Dickinson's daintiest verses are for children, \u2014 among them _The Sleeping Flowers_ and _Out of the Morning._\n\nThe notes written during their childhood to Mr. Jenkins and his sister follow, with others to their father and mother: \u2014\n\nHAPPY _'_ DID' AND MAC, \u2014 We can offer you nothing so charming as your own hearts, which we would seek to possess, had we the requisite wiles.\n\nDEAR BOYS, \u2014 Please never grow up, which is 'far better.' Please never 'improve ' \u2014 you are perfect now.\n\nEMILY.\n\nLITTLE WOMEN, \u2014 Which shall it be, geraniums or tulips?\n\nThe butterfly upon the sky, who doesn't know its name, And hasn't any tax to pay, and hasn't any home, Is just as high as you and I, and higher, I believe \u2014 So soar away and never sigh, for that's the way to grieve.\n\nKATIE 'DID 'FROM KATIE 'DIDN'T.'\n\nWill the sweet child who sent me the butterflies, herself a member of the same ethereal nation, accept a rustic kiss, flavored, we trust, with clover?\n\nAMHERST.\n\n_[Christmas, 1874.]_\n\n... Atmospherically it was the most beautiful Christmas on record. The hens came to the door with Santa Claus, the pussies washed themselves in the open air without chilling their tongues, and Santa Claus \u2014 sweet old gentleman \u2014 was even gallanter than usual. Visitors from the chimney were a new dismay, but all of them brought their hands so full and behaved so sweetly, only a churl could have turned them away. And then the ones at the barn were so happy! Maggie gave the hens a check for potatoes, each of the cats had a gilt-edged bone, and the horse had new blankets from Boston.\n\nDo you remember dark-eyed Mr. Dickinson who used to shake your hand when it was so little it had hardly a stem? He, too, had a beautiful gift of roses from a friend away. It was a lovely Christmas. But what made you remember me? Tell me with a kiss \u2014 or is it a secret?\n\nEMILY.\n\nTo a niece of her father's, who had sent for his grave the roses alluded to, she wrote: \u2014\n\n_[December, 1874.]_\n\nI am sure you must have remembered that father had 'become as little children,' or you would never have dared send him a Christmas gift, for you know how he frowned upon Santa Claus, and all such prowling gentlemen.\n\n_To the Rev. J. L. Jenkins and Mrs. Jenkins, enclosing some sprays of rowen tied with white ribbon_\n\n_[Autumn, 187-.]_\n\nDEAR MR AND MRS PASTOR, \u2014 Mrs. Holland pleased us and grieved us, by telling us your triumphs.\n\nWe want you to conquer, but we want you to conquer here.\n\n'Marathon 'is me. Is there nothing but glow in the new horizon?\n\nYou see we keep a jealous heart. That is Love's alloy.\n\nVinnie is full of wrath, and vicious as Saul toward the Holy Ghost, in whatever form. I heard her declaiming the other night, to a foe that called \u2014 and sent Maggie to part them.\n\nVinnie lives on the hope that you will return. Is it quite fictitious? You are gone too long.\n\nThe red leaves take the green leaves' place, and the landscape yields. We go to sleep with the peach in our hands and wake with the stone, but the stone is the pledge of summers to come.\n\nLove for each of you, always, and if there are lands longer than 'always,' love also for those.\n\nThese are sticks of rowen for your stove. It was chopped by bees, and butterflies piled it, Saturday afternoons.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\n... There would have been no smile on Amherst's face, had she believed her clergyman's sweet wife to be suffering, but the paper spoke so obligingly, we thought it an accident that endeared, rather than endangered. That sorrow dare to touch the loved is a mournful insult \u2014 we are all avenging it all the time, though as Lowell quotes from the stranger 'Live \u2014 live even to be unkind.'\n\nIt is hard to think of our 'little friend 'as a sufferer \u2014 we, peculiarly, know how hard, through our suffering mother \u2014 but the tiniest ones are the mightiest \u2014 the wren will prevail...\n\n'Bruised for our iniquities 'I had almost feared. Amherst, tell her, suggests her \u2014 each of you, my shepherd, and will, while will remains.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nWould you feel more at home with a flower from home in your hand, dear?\n\n_To the Same_\n\nMay the love that occasioned the first Easter shelter a few, this bereaved day.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 It was pathetic to see your voice, instead of hearing it, for it had grown sweetly familiar in the house, as a bird's.\n\nFather left us in June \u2014 you leave us in May. I am glad there will be no April till another year....\n\nSorrow is unsafe, when it is real sorrow \u2014 I am glad so many are counterfeits \u2014 guileless because they believe themselves.\n\nKiss 'Diddie' and Mac for us \u2014 precious refugees, with love for our brother, whom with yourself, we follow the peculiar distance, 'even unto the end.'\n\nPerhaps it is 'the end' now \u2014 I think the _bell_ thought so, because it bade us all good-by when you stood in the door.\n\nYou concealed that you heard it. Thank you.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[June, 1878.]_\n\nYou deserved a tiding before, dear.\n\nYour little punctualities are generous and precious....\n\nThere is a circus here, and farmers' Commencement, and boys and girls from Tripoli, and Governors and swords parade the summer streets. They lean upon the fence that guards the quiet church ground, and jar the grass, now warm and soft as a tropic nest.\n\nMany people call, and wish for you with tears, and Vinnie beats her wings like a maddened bird, whose home has been invaded.\n\nSo much has been sorrow, that to fall asleep in Tennyson's verse, seems almost a pillow. 'To where beyond these voices there is Peace.'\n\nI hope you are each safe. It is homeless without you, and we think of others possessing you with the throe of Othello.\n\nMother gives her love \u2014 Maggie pleads her own. Austin smiles when you mention him....\n\nDaisies and ferns are with us, and he whose meadow they magnify, is always linked with you.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To Mrs. Hanson Read, accompanying flowers for the funeral of her two little boys [December 27, 1873.]_\n\nVinnie says your martyrs were fond of flowers.\n\nWould these profane their vase?\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_ _[Upon a subsequent anniversary.]_\n\nMy DEAR MRS READ, \u2014 We have often thought of you to-day, and almost spoken with you, but thought you might like to be alone \u2014 if one can be alone with so thronged a Heaven.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To Mrs. W. A. Stearns [Autumn, 1874.]_\n\nWill the dear ones who eased the grieved days spurn the fading orchard?\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_ _[Upon receiving an Easter card, probably 1875.]_\n\nIt is possible, dear friend, that the rising of the one we lost would have engrossed me to the exclusion of Christ's \u2014 but for your lovely admonition.\n\nSabbath morning was peculiarly dear to my father, and his unsuspecting last earthly day with his family was that heavenly one.\n\nVinnie and I were talking of you as we went to sleep Saturday night, which makes your beautiful gift of to-day almost apparitional.\n\nPlease believe how sweetly I thank you.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nWhat tenements of clover\n\nAre fitting for the bee,\n\nWhat edifices azure\n\nFor butterflies and me \u2014\n\nWhat residences nimble\n\nArise and evanesce\n\nWithout a rhythmic rumor\n\nOr an assaulting guess.\n\nWith love,\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 That a pansy is transitive, is its only pang.\n\nThis, precluding that, is indeed divine.\n\nBringing you handfuls in prospective, thank you for the love. Many an angel, with its needle, toils beneath the snow.\n\nWith tenderness for your mate,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_[Spring, 1876.]_\n\nDEAR FRIENDS, \u2014 Might these be among the fabrics which the Bible designates as beyond rubies?\n\nCertainly they are more accessible to the fingers of your thief EMILY.\n\nWhen President Stearns died, this stanza came to Mrs. Stearns: \u2014\n\n_[June 8, 1876.]_\n\nLove's stricken 'why'\n\nIs all that love can speak \u2014\n\nBuilt of but just a syllable\n\nThe hugest hearts that break.\n\nAt the death of Professor Snell, September 18, 1876, Emily sent to his family a beautiful mass of flowers, purple and white; and with them, this single line: \u2014\n\nI had a father once.\n\n_To Mrs. Stearns, in response to a box of strawberries received early in March_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 The little package of nectar mother opened herself, though her hands are frail as a child's.\n\nShe could not believe them real till I had hidden one in her mouth, which somewhat convinced her. She asks me to thank you tenderly. The love of her friends is the only remnant of her grieved life, and she clings to it timidly.\n\nI hope you are quite well, and am sure we sometimes think of each other, endeared by that most hallowed thorn, a mutual loss.\n\nWith sweet remembrance for your niece, of whom my sister speaks,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIENDS, \u2014 The seraphic shame generosity causes is perhaps its most heavenly result.\n\nTo make even Heaven more heavenly, is within the aim of us all.\n\nI was much touched by the little fence dividing the devotions, though devotion should always wear a fence, to pre-empt its claim.\n\nWhy the full heart is speechless, is one of the great wherefores.\n\nEMILY, with love.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIENDS, \u2014 I hope no bolder lover brought you the first pond lilies. The water is deeper than the land. The swimmer never stagnates.\n\nI shall bring you a handful of lotus next, but do not tell the Nile.\n\nHe is a jealous brook.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_ 'A little flower, a faded flower, the gift of one who cared for me.'\n\nPlease usurp the pronoun.\n\nEMILY.\n\nThe first of the following notes, accompanied with a box of flowers, was an apology for tardy congratulations upon Mrs. Tuckerman's safe return from a long visit in Europe:\n\n_To Mrs. Edward Tuckerman_\n\n_[January, 1874.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I fear my congratulation, like repentance according to Calvin, is too late to be plausible, but might there not be an exception, were the delight or the penitence found to be durable?\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same [March, 1875.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 It was so long my custom to seek you with the birds, they would scarcely feel at home should I do otherwise, though as home itself is far from home since my father died, why should custom tire?\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same, sent with yellow flowers when the country was drenched in rain [May. 1875.]_\n\nI send you inland buttercups as out-door flowers are still at sea.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same [Accompanying a box of the delicious chocolate caramels she sent her friends at New Year's, with the recipe.]_\n\nVinnie says the dear friend would like the rule. We have no statutes here, but each does as it will, which is the sweetest jurisprudence.\n\nWith it, I enclose Love's 'remainder biscuit,' somewhat scorched perhaps in baking, but 'Love's oven is warm.' Forgive the base proportions.\n\nThe fairer ones were borne away. The canna was a privilege, the little box a bliss, and the blossoms so real that a fly waylaid them, but I lured him away.\n\nAgain receive the love which comes without aspect, and without herald goes.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same [About 1877.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Accept my timid happiness.\n\nNo joy can be in vain, but adds to some bright total, whose dwelling is unknown.\n\nThe immortality of flowers must enrich our own, and we certainly should resent a redemption that excluded them.\n\nWas not the 1 breath of fragrance 'designed for your cheek solely?\n\nThe fear that it was crimsons my own, though to divide its Heaven is Heaven's highest half.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_ _[June, 1878.]_\n\nIs it that words are suddenly small, or that we are suddenly large, that they cease to suffice us to thank a friend?\n\nPerhaps it is chiefly both.\n\n_To the Same_ _[July, 1878.]_\n\nWould it be prudent to subject an apparitional interview to a grosser test?\n\nThe Bible portentously says 'that which is spirit is spirit.'\n\nGo not too near a house of rose,\n\nThe depredation of a breeze\n\nOr inundation of a dew\n\nAlarm its walls away;\n\nNor try to tie the butterfly,\n\nNor climb the bars of ecstasy.\n\nIn insecurity to lie\n\nIs joy's insuring quality.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_ _[August, 1878.]_\n\nTo see is perhaps never quite the sorcery that it is to surmise, though the obligation to enchantment is always binding.\n\nIt is sweet to recall that we need not retrench, as magic is our most frugal meal.\n\nI fear you have much happiness, because you spend so much.\n\nWould adding to it take it away, or is that a penurious question?\n\nTo cherish you is intuitive.\n\nAs we take Nature, without permission, let us covet you.\n\n_To the Same [January, 1879]_\n\nYour coming is a symptom of summer. The symptom excels the malady.\n\n_To the Same [September, 1879.]_\n\nShould dear Mrs. Tuckerman have no pears like mine, I should never cease to be harrowed. Should she, that also would be dismay. I incur the peril.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same [January 5, 1880.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Your sweetness intimidates. Had it been a mastiff that guarded Eden, we should have feared him less than we do the angel.\n\nI read your little letter. It had, like bliss, the minute length.\n\nIt were dearer had you protracted it; but the sparrow must not propound his crumb.\n\nWe shall find the cube of the rainbow.\n\nOf that there is no doubt;\n\nBut the arc of a lover's conjecture\n\nEludes the finding out.\n\nConfidingly,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\n_[March, 1880.]_\n\nThe robin is a Gabriel\n\nIn humble circumstances,\n\nHis dress denotes him socially\n\nOf transport's working classes.\n\nHe has the punctuality\n\nOf the New England farmer \u2014\n\nThe same oblique integrity,\n\nA vista vastly wanner.\n\nA small but sturdy residence,\n\nA self-denying household,\n\nThe guests of perspicacity\n\nAre all that cross his threshold.\n\nAs covert as a fugitive,\n\nCajoling consternation\n\nBy ditties to the enemy,\n\nAnd sylvan punctuation.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nWill the little hands that have brought me so much tenderness, the sweet hands in which a bird would love to lie, the fingers that knew no estrangement except the gulf of down, \u2014 will such enfold a daphne?\n\nAlmost I trust they will, yet trust is such a shelving word; part of our treasures are denied us, part of them provisoed, like bequests available far hence, part of them we partake. Which, dear, are divinest?\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same [November, 1880.]_\n\nThank you, sweet friend, I am quite better. Were I not, your dainty redemption would save me.\n\nWith love and a happy flower,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nLove is done when love's begun,\n\nSages say.\n\nBut have sages known?\n\nTruth adjourn your boon\n\nWithout day.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_ _[After Professor Root's death, December, 1880.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I thought of you, although I never saw your friend.\n\nBrother of Ophir,\n\nBright adieu,\n\nHonor the shortest\n\nRoute to you.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_ _[New Year's Day, 1881.]_\n\n_Saturday._\n\nMy bird, who is 'to-day'? 'Yesterday' was a year ago, and yet\n\nThe stem of a departed flower\n\nHas still a silent rank,\n\nThe bearer from an emerald court\n\nOf a despatch of pink.\n\nThank you for the lovely love.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nTo find my sweet friend is more difficult than to bless her, though I trust both are slightly possible this dearest afternoon.\n\nEMILY.\n\nThe following little poem-note contained a pressed dandelion tied with scarlet ribbon.\n\n_To the Same_ _[November 8, 1881.]_\n\nThe dandelion's pallid tube\n\nAstonishes the grass,\n\nAnd winter instantly becomes\n\nAn infinite _Alas._\n\nThe tube uplifts a signal bud,\n\nAnd then a shouting flower;\n\nThe proclamation of the suns\n\nThat sepulture is o'er.\n\nVinnie told me, dear friend, you were speaking of Mr. Root.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same [December, 1881.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Vinnie asked me if I had any message for you, and while I was picking it, you ran away.\n\nNot seeing, still we know, Not knowing, guess; Not guessing, smile and hide And half caress, And quake and turn away; Seraphic fear 1 Is Eden's innuendo 1 If you dare '?\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same [January, 1882.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 The gray afternoon \u2014 the sweet knock, and the ebbing voice of the boys are a pictorial memory; and then the little bins and the purple kernels \u2014 't was like the larder of a doll. To the inditing heart we wish no sigh had come.\n\nSweet pirate of the heart, Not pirate of the sea, What wrecketh thee? Some spice's mutiny \u2014 Some attar's perfidy? Confide in me.\n\n_To the Same_ _[January, 1883 ]_\n\nThe presence in life of so sweet an one is of itself fortune \u2014 a covert wealth of spirit I shall not disclose.\n\nI have taken all the naughty boys, and Vinnie the navy.\n\nWhat lovely conceits!\n\nThen the little Smyrna in the dish \u2014 how tiny, how affecting \u2014 though the heart in the rear _not_ tiny. Oh, no, vast as the sea.\n\nTo caress its billows is our liquid aim.\n\nEMILY, with love.\n\n_To the Same_ _[June, 1883.]_\n\nSweet foot, that comes when we call it! I can go but a step a century, now.\n\nHow slow the wind, how slow the sea,\n\nHow late their feathers be!\n\nLovingly,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same [August, 1883]_\n\nWe wear our sober dresses when we die, But summer, frilled as for a holiday, Adjourns her sigh.\n\n_To the Same_ _[January, 1884.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND: \u2014\n\nTo try to speak, and miss the way,\n\nAnd ask it of the tears,\n\nIs gratitude's sweet poverty,\n\nThe tatters that he wears.\n\nA better coat, if he possessed,\n\nWould help him to conceal,\n\nNot subjugate, the mutineer\n\nWhose title is 'the soul.'\n\nEMILY, with love.\n\n_To the Same_ _[February, 1884.]_\n\nDo 'men gather grapes of thorns'? No, but they do of _roses,_ and even the classic fox hushed his innuendo, as we unclasped the little box.\n\nSherbets untold, and recollection more sparkling than sherbets!\n\nHow wondrous is a friend, the gift of neither Heaven nor earth, yet coveted of both!\n\nIf the 'archangels veil their faces,' is not the sacred diffidence on this sweet behalf?\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_ _[April, 1884.]_\n\nBe encouraged, sweet friend! How cruel we did not know! But the battles of those we love are often unseen.\n\n'If Thou hadst been here,' Mary said, 'our brother had not died.' Hanging my head and my heart with it, that you sorrowed alone, Late, but lovingly,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same [April, 1885.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 We want you to wake \u2014 Easter has come and gone.\n\nMorning without you is a dwindled dawn.\n\nQuickened toward all celestial things by crows I heard this morning, accept a loving caw from a Nameless friend.\n\n'SELAH.'\n\n_To the Same_ _[May, 1885.]_\n\nWe trust the repairs of the little friend are progressing swiftly, though shall we love her as well, revamped?\n\nAnatomical dishabille is sweet to those who prize us.\n\nA chastened grace is twice a grace. Nay, 't is a holiness.\n\nWith a sweet May day,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same [October, 1885.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I thought of you on your lonely journey, certain the hallowed heroine was gratified, though mute. I trust you return in safety and with closer clutch for that which remains, for dying whets the grasp.\n\nOctober is a mighty month, for in it little Gilbert died. 'Open the door,' was his last cry, 'the boys are waiting for me.' Quite used to his commandment, his little aunt obeyed, and still two years and many days, and he does not return.\n\nWhere makes my lark his nest?\n\nBut Corinthians' bugle obliterates the birds', so covering your loved heart to keep it from another shot,\n\nTenderly,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To Mrs. J. S. Cooper [June, 1874.]_\n\nThough a stranger, I am unwilling not to thank you personally for the delicate attention to my family.\n\nFor the comprehension of suffering, one must one's self have suffered.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_ _[Later Summer, 1874.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 It was my first impulse to take them to my father, whom I cannot resist the grief to expect.\n\nThank you.\n\nVINNIE'S SISTER.\n\nAnd to another friend, about the same time, she wrote: \u2014\n\nShould it be possible for me to speak of my father before I behold him, I shall try to do so to you, whom he always remembered.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To Mrs. J. S. Cooper [January, 1875.]_\n\nIs it too late to express my sorrow for my grieved friend?\n\nThough the first moment of loss is eternity, other eternities remain.\n\nThough the great waters sleep\n\nThat they are still the deep\n\nWe cannot doubt.\n\nNo vacillating\n\nGod Ignited this abode\n\nTo put it out.\n\n_To the Same [On the anniversary of her father's death, June 16, 1875.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 You thought of it. How dear, how delicate!\n\nWith peculiar love, YOUR STRANGER.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nHow can one be fatherless who has a father's friend within confiding reach?\n\n_To the Same_\n\n'My country, 't is of thee,'\n\nhas always meant the woods to me.\n\n'Sweet land of liberty,' I trust is your own.\n\n_To the Same_ _[After a fire, in 1876.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I congratulate you.\n\nDisaster endears beyond fortune.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_ The keeper of golden flowers need have no fear of the 'Silver Bill.'\n\nAn Indies in the hand, at all times fortifying, is peculiarly so, perhaps, to-day.\n\nMidas was a rogue.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Mother thanks you through me, as she does not use her hand for writing. I hope the vicariousness may not impair the fervor.\n\nMother is very fond of flowers and of recollection, that sweetest flower.\n\nPlease accept her happiness, and ours for causing hers.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nTrusting an April flower may not curtail your February, that month of fleetest sweetness.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Maggie was taking you a flower as you were going out.\n\nPlease accept the design, and bewail the flower, that sank of chagrin last evening.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_ The founders of honey have no names.\n\n_To the Same_ My family of apparitions is select, though dim.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nVinnie suggests these little friends. Would they be too grovelling? And I add a face from my garden.\n\nThough you met it before, it might not be charmless.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nIs sickness pathos or infamy? While you forget to decide, please confirm this trifle.\n\n_To the Same_ DEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I shall deem the little tumblers forever consecrated by the 'unseemliness.'\n\nWith affection,\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_ Please accept the progeny of the pinks you so kindly brought mother in winter, with the hope that 'wisdom is justified of her children.'\n\n_To the Same_ How strange that Nature does not knock, and yet does not intrude!\n\n_To the Same_ 'Give me thine heart' is too peremptory a courtship for earth, however irresistible in Heaven.\n\n_To the Same_ DEAR FRIEND, \u2014 So valiant is the intimacy between Nature and her children, she addresses them as 'comrades in arms.'\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_ DEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Nothing inclusive of a human heart could be 'trivial.' That appalling boon makes all things paltry but itself.\n\nTo thank you would profane you \u2014 there are moments when even gratitude is a desecration.\n\nGo thy great way!\n\nThe stars thou meetest\n\nAre even as thyself.\n\nFor what are stars but asterisks\n\nTo point a human life?\n\nE. DICKINSON, with love.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 In a world too fall of beauty for peace, I have met nothing more beautiful.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 The thoughtfulness was picturesque and the glimpse delightful. The residence of Vinnie's friends could but be fair to me.\n\nAnd will you, in exchange, accept a view of _my_ house, which Nature painted white without consulting me? But Nature is 'old-fashioned,' perhaps a Puritan.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 It distressed us that you were pained.\n\nAre you easier now?\n\nYou have sheltered our tears too often that yours should fall unsolaced.\n\nGive us half the thorn \u2014 then it will tear you less. To divulge itself is sorrow's right, never its presumption.\n\nFaithfully,\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Is not the sweet resentment of friends that we are not strong, more inspiriting even than the strength itself?\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_[On sending flowers and apples to Mrs. A. B. H. Davis and her daughter.]_\n\nDEAR FRIENDS, \u2014 We are snatching our jewels from the frost, and ask you to help us wear them, as also the trinkets more rotund, which serve a baser need.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To Mrs. Henry Bills_ _[Christmas, 1878?]_\n\nWith sweet Christmas for the 'little brethren and sisters of the mystic tie.'\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_ _[January, 1879?]_\n\nOur gentle neighbor must have known that we did not know she was ill, or we should immediately have inquired for her.\n\n_To the Same_ _[February, 1879.]_\n\nWe are much grieved for the sufferings of the little one, which are so artlessly undeserved, and beg her mama to assure her of our tender sympathy.\n\nThe odor of the flower might please her, as these little beings are only 'on a furlough 'from Paradise.\n\nWith love for the mama, and sorrow for her weariness,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_ _[February 23, 1879.]_\n\n'Come unto me.'\n\nBeloved commandment! The darling obeyed it.\n\n_To the Same_ _[February, 1879.]_\n\nThe power to console is not within corporeal reach \u2014 though its attempt is precious.\n\nTo die before it feared to die, may have been a boon.\n\n_To the Same [March, 1879.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 The only balmless wound is the departed human life we had learned to need.\n\nFor that, even Immortality is a slow solace. All other peace has many roots and will spring again.\n\nWith cheer from one who knows.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 The gift was sadly exquisite \u2014 were the actual 'cross' so divinely adorned, we should covet it.\n\nThank you for the sacred 'flowers ' \u2014 typical, both of them.\n\nGethsemane and Cana are still a travelled route.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\n_[Christmas, 1879.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I think Heaven will not be as good as earth, unless it bring with it that sweet power to remember, which is the staple of Heaven here.\n\nHow can we thank each other when omnipotent?\n\nYou, who endear our mortal Christmas, will perhaps assure us. \u2014\n\nE.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nWe are ignorant of the dear friends, and eager to know how they are, and assure them that we are near them in these grieved hours.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 The heavenly flowers were brought to my room.\n\nI had lain awake with the gale and overslept this morning.\n\nThat you may wake in Eden, as you enabled me to do, is my happy wish.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nWithout the hope of requiting the Sabbath morning blossoms, still sweetly remembered, please allow me to try.\n\nE.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nWith untold thanks, and the little dish, founded while she was here, too late to overtake her, too small for her to sip, but her large heart will excuse.\n\nEMILY, with love.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nVocal is but one form of remembrance, dear friend \u2014 the cherishing that is speechless is equally warm.\n\n_To the Same_ _[With Christmas delicacies, 1880]_\n\nThe little annual creatures solicit your regard.\n\nMrs. Hills often sent dainties from New York, per\n\nhaps Florida oranges, confectionery, or hothouse flowers. Upon one of these occasions the reply came: \u2014\n\nTropics, and dairies, and fairies! Thank the _Arabian Nights._\n\n_EMILY._\n\n_To the Same_\n\nWith a kiss and a flower, one of which will endure, I am whom you infer.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nOnly a pond lily that I tilled myself.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIENDS, \u2014 Even the simplest solace, with a loved aim, has a heavenly quality.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_ _[January, 1883.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 We often say 'how beautiful!' But when we mean it, we can mean no more.\n\nA dream personified.\n\nE.\n\n_To the Same_ _[With red lilies, Spring, 1883 ]_\n\nPersian hues for my dark-eyed neighbor.\n\n_To Mrs. Jameson_ Many and sweet birthdays to our thoughtful neighbor, whom we have learned to cherish, though ourself unknown.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nHow dare a tear intrude on so sweet a cheek? Gentlest of neighbors, recall the 'sparrows 'and the great Logician.\n\nTenderly,\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nArthur forgot to set a trap for Santa Claus, but that industrious mouse will excuse him, if he will steal the cakes instead. And Annie.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To \u2014_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 No 'sonnet 'had George Eliot. The sweet acclamation of Death is forever bounded.\n\nThere is no trumpet like the tomb \u2014 The Immortality she gave We borrowed at her grave. For just one plaudit famishing, The might of human love.\n\nBeautiful as it is, its criminal shortness maims it.\n\n_To Maggie Maker, ill with Typhoid Fever at her own Home_\n\n_[Autumn, 1880.]_\n\nThe missing Maggie is much mourned, and I am going out for 'black 'to the nearest store.\n\nAll are very naughty, and I am naughtiest of all.\n\nThe pussies dine on sherry now, and hummingbird cutlets.\n\nThe invalid hen took dinner with me, but a hen like Dr T \u2014 's horse soon drove her away. I am very busy picking up stems and stamens as the hollyhocks leave their clothes around.\n\nWhat shall I send my weary Maggie? Pillows or fresh brooks?\n\nHER GRIEVED MISTRESS.\n\n_To the Rev. F. F. Emerson_\n\nA blossom, perhaps, is an introduction, to whom, none can infer.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nThough tendered by a stranger, the fruit will be forgiven.\n\nValor in the dark is my Maker's code.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nMother congratulates Mr. Emerson on the discovery of the 'philosopher's stone.' She will never divulge it. It lay just where she thought it did \u2014 in making others happy.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nAny gift but spring seems a counterfeit, but the birds are such sweet neighbors they rebuke us all.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nMother was much touched by dear Mrs. Emerson's thoughtfulness, and thanks her exceedingly sweetly. She also asks a remembrance to Mr. Emerson, whom she trusts is well.\n\nEarnestly, E. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nShould Mr. Emerson ever become ill and idle, mother hopes his clergyman will be as delicately thoughtful of him as he has been of her.\n\nGratefully, E. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I step from my pillow to your hand to thank its sacred contents, to hoard, not to partake, for I am still weak.\n\nThe little package has lain by my side, not daring to venture, or Vinnie daring to have me \u2014 a hallowed denial I shall not forget.\n\nI fear you may need the papers, and ask you to claim them immediately, would you desire them.\n\nI trust you are sharing this most sweet climate with Mrs. Emerson and yourself, than which remembrance only is more Arabian.\n\nVinnie brings her love, and her sister what gratitude.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To-_ DEAR FRIEND, \u2014 The little book will be subtly cherished. All we secure of beauty is its evanescence. Thank you for recalling us.\n\nEarnestly,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To Mr. and Mrs. George Montague_\n\nDEAR COUSIN, \u2014 Thank you for the delightful cake, and the heart adjacent.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_ Delicate as bread of flowers. How sweetly we thank you!\n\n_To the Same_\n\nWe trust the dear friend is convalescing.\n\nThese loveliest of days are certainly with that design.\n\nDEAR COUSIN, \u2014 The 'Golden Rule 'is so lovely, it needs no police to enforce it.\n\nCOUSIN.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nTo have 'been faithful in a few things 'was the delicate compliment paid one by God. Could I not commend a rarer candidate for his approval in my loyal Cousin?\n\n_To the Same_\n\nWhich will I thank \u2014 the perpetrator, the propagator, or the almoner of the delightful bread \u2014 or may I compromise and thank them all?\n\nI for the first time appreciate the exultation of the robin toward a crumb, though he must be a seductive robin, with whom I would share my own.\n\nWith the hope to requite the loveliness in a future way, Gratefully,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To Mrs. W. F. Stearns [May, 1881.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I hope you may know with what unspeakable tenderness we think of you and of your dear child.\n\nWere it any kingdom but the 'Kingdom of Heaven,' how distant!\n\nBut my heart breaks \u2014 I can say no more.\n\nE. D.\n\n_To the Same_ _[October, 1882.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Affection wants you to know it is here. Demand it to the utmost.\n\nTenderly, E. DICKINSON.\n\nOne friend writes from New York of her regret that many of Emily's notes to herself have been destroyed. But she adds: 'One little welcome of Emily's to me became a household word; and I can quote it for you, though it should have the setting of her wide, pure margins, and her most dainty penmanship. Here it is: \u2014\n\n'Sweet Mrs. Nellie comes with the robins. Robins have wings. Mrs. Nellie has wings. A society for the prevention of wings would be a benefit to us all.\n\n'It tells its own story, you see, of a flitting visit to the Grove in the spring, and of her interest in her neighbors and her information as to their interests, though so invisible herself.'\n\n_To Mrs. Joseph Sweetser [Autumn, 1879?]_\n\nAunt Katie and the sultans have left the garden now, and parting with my own recalls their sweet companionship.\n\nMine were not, I think, as exuberant as in other years, \u2014 perhaps the Pelham water shocked their stately tastes, \u2014 but cherished avariciously because less numerous. I trust your garden was willing to die. I do not think that mine was \u2014 it perished with beautiful reluctance, like an evening star.\n\nI hope you were well since we knew of you, and as happy as sorrow would allow.\n\nThere are sweets of pathos, when sweets of mirth have passed away.\n\nMother has had a weary cold, and suffers much from neuralgia since the changing airs, though I trust is no feebler than when you were here. She has her little pleasures as the patient have \u2014 the voices of friends, and devotion of home.\n\nThe ravens must 'cry,' to be ministered to; she need only sigh.... Perhaps it is quite the home it was when you last beheld it. I hope your few are safe, and your flowers encouraging.\n\nNews of your sultans and yourself would be equally lovely, when you feel inclined. Blossoms have their leisures.\n\nLovingly,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_ _[December, 1881.]_\n\nIt was the unanimous opinion of the household that Aunt Katie never wrote so lovely a letter, and that it should be immediately replied to by each member of the family, from the geraniums down to the pussies, but unforeseen malignities prevented. Vinnie lost her sultans too \u2014 it was 'Guiteau' year \u2014 \u2014 Presidents and Sultans were alike doomed.\n\nOne might possibly come up, having sown itself \u2014 \u2014 if it should, you shall share \u2014 it is an Eastern creature, and does not like this soil. I think its first exuberance was purely accidental. Last was a fatal season. An 'envious worm' attacked them; then in early autumn we had midwinter frost. 'When God is with us, who shall be against us,' but when He is against us, other allies are useless.\n\nWe were much amused at your 'gardener.' You portrayed his treason so wittily it was more effective than loyalty. He knew that flowers had no tongues.\n\nWe trust you are safe this Norwegian weather, and 'desire your prayers 'for another snow-storm, just over our heads, the snows already repealing the fences.\n\nWith love for your health, and the promise of sultans, and viziers too, if the monarchs come,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR AUNT, \u2014 Thank you for 'considering the lilies.'\n\nThe Bible must have had us in mind, when it gave that liquid commandment. Were all its advice so enchanting as that, we should probably heed it.\n\nThank you for promptness, explicitness, sweetness. Your account of the lilies was so fresh I could almost pick them, and the hope to meet them in person, in autumn, through your loving hand, is a fragrant future.\n\nI hope you are well as you deserve, which is a blest circumference, and give my love to each.\n\nAunt L \u2014 just looked in on us, and I go to make her dish of homestead Charlotte Russe.\n\nAlways,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_ _[November, 1884.]_\n\nSWEET AND GRACIOUS AUNT KATIE, \u2014 The beloved lilies have come, and my heart is so high it overflows, as this was mother's week, Easter in November.\n\nFather rose in June, and a little more than a year since, those fair words were fulfilled, 'and a little child shall lead them ' \u2014 but boundlessness forbids me....\n\nIt is very wrong that you were ill, and whom shall I accuse? The enemy, 'eternal, invisible, and full of glory ' \u2014 but He declares himself a friend! It is sweet you are better.\n\nMore beating that brave heart has to do before the emerald recess.\n\nWith sorrow for Emma's accident, and love for all who cherish you, including the roses, your velvet allies, Tenderly, \u2014\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nCousin T \u2014 and Cousin O \u2014 little thought when they were paying their antiquated respects to Aunt Katie that they were defrauding Emily of that last moment \u2014 but they needed it most \u2014 new moments will grow.\n\nWhen I found it beyond my power to see you, I designed to write you, immediately, but the Lords came as you went, and Judge Lord was my father's closest friend, so I shared my moments with them till they left us last Monday; then seeing directly after, the death of your loved Dr A \u2014 , I felt you might like to be alone \u2014 though Death is perhaps an intimate friend, not an enemy. Beloved Shakespeare says, 'He that is robbed and smiles, steals something from the thief.'...\n\nMaggie said you asked should you 'eat the flower.' Please consult the bees \u2014 they are the only authority on Etruscan matters. Vinnie said the sherry I sent you was brandy \u2014 a vital misapprehension. Please also forgive it. I did not intend to be so base to the aunt who showed me the first mignonette, and listened with me to the great wheel, from Uncle Underwood's 'study,' and won me in 'divers other ways 'too lovely to mention. Of all this we will talk when you come again.\n\nMeanwhile accept your\n\nTRIFLING NIECE.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nAunt Katie's rose had many thorns, but it is still a rose, and has borne the extremities of a flower with ethereal patience \u2014 and every deference to her is so sweetly deserved, we do not call it courtesy, but only recognition. It is sweeter that noon should be fair, than that morning should, because noon is the latest, and yet your morning had its dew you would not exchange. Thank you for telling us of your triumphs.\n\n'Peace hath her victories, no less than War.'\n\nThank you for speaking so tenderly of our latest lost. We had hoped the persuasions of the spring, added to our own, might delay his going, but they came too late. 'I met,' said he in his last note, 'a crocus and a snowdrop in my yesterday's walk,' but the sweet beings outlived him. I thought the churchyard Tarrytown, when I was a child, but now I trust 't is Trans \u2014\n\nIn this place of shafts, I hope you may remain unharmed.\n\nI congratulate you upon your children, and themselves upon you.\n\nTo have had such daughters is sanctity \u2014 to have had such a mother, divine. To still have her \u2014 but tears forbid me. My own is in the grave. 'So loved her that he died for her,' says the explaining Jesus.\n\nWith love, \u2014\n\nYOUR EMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nAunt Katie never forgets to be lovely, and the sweet clusters of yesterday only perpetuate a heart warm so many years.\n\nTropic, indeed, a memory that adheres so long. They were still vivid and fragrant when they reached my fingers, and were the wrist that bears them bolder, it would give reply. As it is, only a kiss and a gratitude, and every grace of being, from your loving niece. 'I give his angels charge!'\n\nShould I say his \"flowers, for qualified as saints they are.\n\nVinnie's and my transport.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR AUNT, \u2014 I have found and give it in love, but reluctant to entrust anything so sacred to my father as my grandfather's Bible to a public messenger, will wait till Mr. Howard comes, whom Mrs. Nellie tells us is due this week. Thank you for loving my father and mother. I hope they are with the Source of love. You did not tell me of your health \u2014 I trust because confirmed. Thank you too for sorrow, the one you truly knew.\n\nWith Vinnie's affection, in haste and fondness,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To Professor J. K. Chickering [Autumn, 1882.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I do not know the depth of my indebtedness. Sorrow, benighted with fathoms, cannot find its mind.\n\nThank you for assisting us.\n\nWe were timidly grateful.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_ DEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Thank you. for being willing to see me, but may I defer so rare a pleasure till you come again? Grief is a sable introduction, but a vital one, and I deem that I knew you long since through your shielding thought.\n\nI hope you may have an electrical absence, as life never loses its startlingness, however assailed. 'Seen of angels 'only, an enthralling aim.\n\nThank you for the kindness, the fervor of a stranger the latest forgot.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_ DEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I had hoped to see you, but have no grace to talk, and my own words so chill and burn me that the temperature of other minds is too new an awe.\n\nWe shun it ere it comes, Afraid of joy, Then sue it to delay, And lest it fly\n\nBeguile it more and more.\n\nMay not this be,\n\nOld suitor Heaven,\n\nLike our dismay at thee?\n\nEarnestly,\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 The Amherst heart is plain and whole and permanent and warm.\n\nIn childhood I never sowed a seed unless it was perennial \u2014 and that is why my garden lasts.\n\nWe dare not trust ourselves to know that you indeed have left us.\n\nThe fiction is sufficient pain. To know you better as you flee, may be our recompense.\n\nI hope that you are well, and nothing mars your peace but its divinity \u2014 for ecstasy is peril.\n\nWith earnest recollection,\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nHow charming the magnanimity which conferring a favor on others, by some mirage of valor considers itself receiving one!\n\nOf such is the kingdom of knights!\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\nIt is hard for many persons to believe, even now, that Emily Dickinson had nothing to do with the Saxe Holm stories, and certainly some of their incidental poetry bears strong evidence of her unique touch. The little mystery of those remarkable tales was so carefully guarded that after a time people lost interest in surmising, and are now content to accept them as they are. The _No Name_ series of Roberts Brothers was not so long a secret, and in the volume of its verse, _A Masque of Poets,_ appeared, probably through the efforts of her old friend 'H. H.,' Emily Dickinson's _Success,_ afterward the opening poem in the first of her published volumes. However obtained, it formed the beginning of an occasional and pleasant correspondence between herself and Mr. Niles, always the genial, helpful, and generous friend of writers. She often sent him poems, which, contrary to her usual custom, she had named herself.\n\n_To Mr. Thomas Niles_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I bring you a chill gift \u2014 _My Cricket_ and _The Snow_ A base return, indeed, for the delightful book which I infer from you, but an earnest one.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nThank you, Mr. Niles.\n\nI am very grateful for the mistake. I should think it irreparable deprivation to know no farther of her here, with the impregnable chances.\n\nThe kind but incredible opinion of 'H. H.' and yourself I would like to deserve.\n\nWould you accept a pebble I think I gave to her, though I am not sure.\n\nWith thanks,\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\nThe 'pebble' was that wonderful stanza,\n\nHow happy is the little stone\n\nThat rambles in the road alone,\n\nAnd doesn't care about careers,\n\nAnd exigencies never fears;\n\nWhose coat of elemental brown\n\nA passing universe put on;\n\nAnd independent as the sun,\n\nAssociates, or glows alone,\n\nFulfilling absolute decree\n\nIn casual simplicity.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Thank you for the kindness. I am glad if the bird seemed true to you.\n\nPlease efface the others, and receive these three, which are more like him \u2014 _A Thunder Storm A Humming Bird,_ and _A Country Burial._\n\nThe life of Marian Evans had much I never knew \u2014 \u2014 a doom of fruit without the bloom, like the Niger fig:\n\nHer losses make our gains ashamed \u2014\n\nShe bore life's empty pack\n\nAs gallantly as if the East\n\nWere swinging at her back.\n\nLife's empty pack is heaviest,\n\nAs every porter knows \u2014\n\nIn vain to punish honey, It only sweeter grows.\n\n_To Mrs. Carmichael_\n\n... I fear Vinnie gave my message as John Alden did the one from Miles Standish', which resulted delightfully for John, but not as well for his friend.\n\nHad you seen the delighted crowd that gathered round the box \u2014 did you ever see a crowd of three?\n\n\u2014 \u2014 you would have felt requited. Your presenting smile was alone wanting.\n\n'Dear Mrs. Carmichael,' said one; 'The one that never forgets,' said another; and a tear or two in the eyes of the third, and the reception was over. Can you guess which the third was?\n\nThe candy was enchanting, and is closeted in a deep pail, pending Vinnie's division, and the little box, like Heaven and mice, far too high to find.\n\nFailure be my witness that I have sought them faithfully.\n\nWe often think of your evening circle \u2014 Mr. Skeel presiding at the piano, and Mrs. Skeel and yourself taking mutual lessons.\n\nI am studying music now with the jays, and find them charming artists.\n\nVinnie and Gilbert have pretty battles on the pussy question, and you are needed for umpire, oftener than you think.\n\n'Weren't you chasing pussy?' said Vinnie to Gilbert. 'No, she was chasing herself.'\n\n'But wasn't she running pretty fast? 'said pussy's Nemesis. 'Well, some slow and some fast,' said the beguiling villain.\n\nWith the little kiss he gave me last, and a pair of my own, and love for Mr. and Mrs. Skeel,\n\nWarmly,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nLOVED MRS CARMICHAEL AND MRS SKEEL, \u2014 I heard long since at school that Diogenes went to sea in a tub. Though I did not believe it, it is credible now.\n\nAgainst the peril of ocean steamers I am sweetly provided, and am sure you had my safety in mind, in your lovely gifts.\n\nI have taken the passengers from the hold \u2014 passengers of honey \u2014 and the deck of silk is just promenaded by a bold fly, greedy for its sweets. The little tub with the surcingle I shall keep till the birds, filling it then with nectars, in Mrs. Skeel's sweet honor.\n\nWill each of the lovely friends present my thanks to the other, as Vinnie's correspondence with them is too impressive for what dear Dickens calls 'the likes of me' to invade.\n\nTheir sweet intercession with Santa Claus in my behalf, I shall long remember.\n\nAlways,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nMy consoleless Vinnie convinces me of the misfortune of having known dear Mrs. Carmichael, whom 'to name is to praise,' for indeed, were we both intelligent mourners, I fear delight would close; but the 'fair uncertainty 'aids me, which is denied Vinnie.\n\nOf her noble loss it is needless to speak \u2014 that is incalculable.\n\nOf her sweet power to us when we were overwhelmed, that, too, shall be mute. She has 'borne our grief and carried our sorrow,' that is the criterion....\n\nLet me hope she is well to-day, and sheltered by every love she deserves, which were indeed countless.\n\nWe congratulate sweet Mrs. Skeel on her beloved booty, and ask a remembrance in her prayer for those of us bereaved.\n\nLovingly,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To Dr and Mrs. Field, who had sent flowers_\n\nExpulsion from Eden grows indistinct in the presence of flowers so blissful, and with no disrespect to Genesis, Paradise remains.\n\nBeaconsfield says 'the time has now come when it must be decided forever, who possesses the great gates to India.'\n\nI think it must be my neighbor.\n\nWith delicate gratitude,\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nI was much chagrined by the delayed flower \u2014 please accept its apology.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To the Same_\n\nShould you not have this flower, the first of spring with me, I should regret not sending it. Your azaleas are still vivid, though the frailer flowers are flitted away.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To \u2014_\n\nI send a violet, for L \u2014 . I should have sent a stem, but was overtaken by snow-drifts. I regret deeply not to add a butterfly, but have lost my hat, which precludes my catching one.\n\n_To \u2014 , with flowers_\n\nWith the leave of the bluebirds, without whose approval we do nothing.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To Mr. Theodore Holland_\n\nDEAR SIR, \u2014 Your request to 'remain sincerely' mine demands investigation, and if after synopsis of your career all should seem correct, I am tersely yours. I shall try to wear the unmerited honor with becoming volume.\n\nCommend me to your kindred, for whom, although a stranger, I entertain esteem.\n\nI approve the paint \u2014 a study of the Soudan, I take it, but the Scripture assures us our hearts are all Dongola.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To \u2014_\n\n... If you saw a bullet hit a bird, and he told you he wasn't shot, you might weep at his courtesy, but you would certainly doubt his word. Thomas's faith in anatomy was stronger than his faith in faith.... Vesuvius don't talk \u2014 Aetna don't. One of them said a syllable, a thousand years ago, and Pompeii heard it and hid forever. She couldn't look the world in the face afterward, I suppose. Bashful Pompeii!...\n\n_To \u2014_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I thank you with wonder. Should you ask me my comprehension of a starlight night, awe were my only reply, and so of the mighty book. It stills, incites, infatuates, blesses and blames in one. Like human affection, we dare not touch it, yet flee, what else remains?\n\nBut excuse me \u2014 I know but little. Please tell me how it might seem to you.\n\nHow vast is the chastisement of beauty, given us by our Maker! A word is inundation, when it comes from the sea.\n\nPeter took the marine walk at the great risk.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\nWhat book may be thus described is, unhappily, not known, as I have been unable to discover even to whom the note was written.\n\nA severe disappointment in the preparation of these volumes is the fact that Emily's letters to 'H. H.' cannot be found.\n\nEntertained delightfully during the summer of 1893 at Mr. Jackson's lovely home in Colorado Springs, I was very happy to learn that these letters had certainly not been destroyed. During the months before her death Mrs. Jackson had herself arranged her mass of papers, letters, and manuscripts, each marked for its fate; and Emily's letters were especially reserved in a package apart, as unique and too valuable to share the fate of much other correspondence. But though careful search has been most kindly made by her family, the letters still remain in hiding, and the inference is that they must have been accidentally destroyed in flames intended for other things.\n\nAmong Emily's own papers I have found this draft of a letter to Mrs. Jackson, discarded on account of a number of substituted words; and I give it just as it is, with both erasures and substitutes, as an interesting study of her afterthoughts: \u2014\n\n_To 'H.H.'_\n\n_[March, 1885]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 To reproach my own foot in behalf of yours is involuntary, and finding meagre solace in 'whom He loveth He chasteneth,' your valor' astounds me. It was only a small wasp, said the French physician, repairing the sting, but the strength to perish is sometimes withheld \u2014 though who but you can tell a foot.\n\nTake all away from me\n\nBut leave me ecstasy,\n\nAnd I am richer then\n\nThan all my fellow-men.\n\nIs it becoming me\n\nTo dwell so wealthily,\n\nWhen at my very door\n\nAre those possessing more,\n\nIn abject poverty?\n\nThat you glance at Japan as you breakfast, not in the least surprises me, thronged only with music, like the decks of birds.\n\nThank you for hoping I am well. Who could be ill in March, that month of proclamation? Sleigh-bells and jays contend in my matin\u00e9e, and the north surrenders instead of the south, a reverse of bugles.\n\nPity me, however, I have finished _Ramona._ Would that like Shakespeare it were just published!\n\nKnew I how to pray, to intercede for your foot were intuitive, but I am but a pagan.\n\nOf God we ask one favor, that we may be forgiven. For what, He is presumed to know. The crime, from us, is hidden.\n\nImmured the whole of life\n\nWithin a magic prison,\n\nWe reprimand the happiness\n\nThat too competes with Heaven.\n\nMay I once more know, and that you are saved?\n\nYours,\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\nAfter Mrs. Jackson's death, August 12, 1885, Emily wrote of her: \u2014\n\nHelen of Troy will die, but Helen of Colorado, never. Dear friend, can you walk, were the last words that I wrote her.\n\nDear friend,\n\nI can fly \u2014 Her immortal reply.\n\n_To \u2014_\n\nSWEET FRIENDS, \u2014 I send a message by a mouth that cannot speak.\n\nThe ecstasy to guess Were a receipted bliss If grace could talk.\n\nWith love.\n\n_To \u2014_\n\n... What a hazard an accent is! When I think of the hearts it has scuttled or sunk, I almost fear to lift my hand to so much as a punctuation.\n\n_To Mrs. E. P. Crowell, when about to sail for Europe [March 2, 1885.]_\n\nIs it too late to touch you, dear?\n\nWe this moment knew.\n\nLove marine and love terrene, Love celestial too.\n\nI give his angels charge.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To Miss Eugenia Hall_\n\nLet me thank the little cousin in flowers, which, without lips, have language.\n\nSomewhat cousin, EMILY.\n\n_To the Same_ DEAR 'GENIE,' \u2014 The lovely flower you sent me is like a little vase of spice, and fills the hall with cinnamon.\n\nYou must have skilful hands to make such sweet carnations. Perhaps your doll taught you. I know that dolls are sometimes wise. Robins are my dolls. I am glad you love the blossoms so well. I hope you love birds, too. It is economical. It saves going to Heaven.\n\nLovingly,\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To the Same, with a Wedding Gift, October 20,_ 1885\n\nWill the sweet cousin who is about to make the Etruscan experiment, accept a smile which will last a life, if ripened in the sun?\n\nCOUSIN EMILY.\n\nThree notes were sent at different times, with flowers, to Mrs. J. C. Greenough: \u2014\n\nLest any bee should boast.\n\nTrusting the happy flower will meet you at the door where spring will soon be knocking, we challenge your 'come in.'\n\nEMILY.\n\nThe flower keeps its appointment \u2014 should the heart be tardy?\n\nWhen Memory rings her bell, let all the thoughts run in.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To Mrs. Greenough, after her Mother's Death, October,_ 1885\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I had the luxury of a mother a month longer than you, for my own mother died in November, but the anguish also was granted me to see the first snow upon her grave the following day, which, dear friend, you were spared.\n\nBut Remembrance engulfs pie, and I must cease.\n\nI wish I could speak a word of courage, though that love has already done. Who could be motherless who has a mother's grave within confiding reach?\n\nLet me enclose the tenderness born of bereavement.\n\nTo have had a mother \u2014 how mighty!\n\nEMILY.\n**CHAPTER X**\n\n_To Mrs. Todd, Mrs. Tuckerman, the Misses, Mr. Clark, and Mrs. Currier_\n\nFROM the many notes sent me by Emily Dickinson during the last four years of her life, it was a difficult matter to select those best fitted for publication. But the first one available was probably this response to a small panel which I had painted for her, \u2014 a group of Indian pipes, those weird white flowers of shade and silence: \u2014\n\n_To Mrs. Todd_ _[Winter, 1882.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 That without suspecting it you should send me the preferred flower of life, seems almost supernatural, and the sweet glee that I felt at meeting it I could confide to none. I still cherish the clutch with which I bore it from the ground when a wondering child, an unearthly booty, and maturity only enhances mystery, never decreases it. To duplicate the vision is even more amazing, for God's unique capacity is too surprising to surprise. I know not how to thank you. We do not thank the rainbow, although its trophy is a snare.\n\nTo give delight is hallowed \u2014 perhaps the toil of angels, whose avocations are concealed.\n\nI trust that you are well, and the quaint little girl with the deep eyes, every day more fathomless.\n\nWith joy,\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\nA few days later came another, enclosing that brilliant, meteoric flash in words, her 'humming-bird,' printed at page 130 in the second volume of the _Poems: \u2014_\n\n_To the Same_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 I cannot make an Indian pipe, but please accept a humming-bird, \u2014\n\nA route of evanescence\n\nWith a revolving wheel;\n\nA resonance of emerald,\n\nA rush of cochineal;\n\nAnd every blossom on the bush\n\nAdjusts its tumbled head, \u2014\n\nThe mail from Tunis, probably,\n\nAn easy morning's ride.\n\nWhen, after her death, the great mass of Emily Dickinson's verses had been collated and an appropriate drawing for the cover was desired, there seemed a peculiar fitness in this ethereal flower; and the design was cut from the little panel which stood so long in her room.\n\nMany of her most beautiful verses came to me, in the following years; and one autumn day this: \u2014\n\nHow martial the apology of nature! We 3ie, said the deathless of Thermopylae, in obedience to law.\n\nNot sickness stains the brave,\n\nNor any dart,\n\nNor doubt of scenes to come,\n\nBut an adjourning heart.\n\nAfter I had sent her a painting of the gorgeous blossoms of the trumpet vine, which, on first seeing, she had called 'the Soudan,' she wrote: \u2014\n\n_[March 21, 1885.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Nature forgot. The circus reminded her.\n\nThanks for the Ethiopian face.\n\nThe Orient is in the west.\n\n'You knew, oh Egypt,' said the entangled Antony.\n\nAnd later, \u2014\n\n_[September, 1885.]_\n\nWhy should we censure Othello, when the criterion Lover says, 'Thou shalt have no other gods before me '?\n\nMusic had always charm for Emily Dickinson. Frequently, when I had been singing, or playing upon the piano at her request, a dainty note would come in to me, with a glass of wine, or a rare rose; in one instance a cream whip, with the single line, 'Whom He loveth He chasteneth,' \u2014 of which the application might have been taken in various ways.\n\nI can never forget the twilight seclusion of the old drawing-room, the square piano in its corner, the ancient mahogany furniture, and Emily just outside the door, her dress a spot of white in the dim hall. With the waning afternoon, I would play one thing and another, or sing melodies which often sounded too light and modern and sunshiny for surroundings so like a dreamy corner of the past At first it seemed to me as if a visitor from another world had alighted for a time, wishing, for some inscrutable reason, to be entertained on a foreign planet Later, it became not only entirely natural, but so much a habit that I should have missed my solitary recitals quite as much as my often invisible auditor.\n\nOther notes to me, having especial reference to particular persons or occasions, are not of sufficient general interest to be given here.\n\nAs her unique life drew toward its close, she became, for the last two years, a semi-invalid, \u2014 she who had always rejoiced in strength and bravery enough for her own need, and that of all her friends.\n\nOnly a handful of notes remains, written during the final weeks while Emily brightened the old house with her airy, yet forceful and brilliant personality, for, even ill, she was a pervasive presence.\n\nUpon the death of Professor Tuckerman, March 15, 1886, she wrote: \u2014\n\n_To Mrs. Tuckerman_\n\nDEAR ONE, \u2014 _'_ Eye hath not seen nor ear heard.' What a recompense! The enthusiasm of God at the reception of His sons! How ecstatic! How infinite! Says the blissful voice, not yet a voice, but a vision, 'I will not let thee go, except I bless thee.'\n\nEMILY.\n\nSometime during this month, also, she wrote her cousins: \u2014\n\n_To the Misses \u2014_\n\n_[March, 1886.]_\n\nI scarcely know where to begin, but love is always a safe place. I have twice been very sick, dears, with a little recess of convalescence, then to be more sick, and have lain in my bed since November, many years, for me, stirring as the arbutus does, a pink and russet hope; but that we will leave with our pillow. When your dear hearts are quite convenient, tell us of their contents, the fabric cared for most, not a fondness wanting.\n\nDo you keep musk, as you used to, like Mrs. Morene of Mexico? Or cassia carnations so big they split their fringes of berry? Was your winter a tender shelter \u2014 perhaps like Keats's bird, 'and hops and hops in little journeys'?\n\nAre you reading and well, and the W \u2014 s near and warm? When you see Mrs. French and Dan give them a tear from us.\n\nVinnie would have written, but could not leave my side. Maggie gives her love. Mine more sweetly still.\n\nEMILY.\n\n_To Mr. C. H. Clark [April 5, 1886.]_\n\nDEAR FRIEND, \u2014 Are you living and well, and your father in peace, and the home in \u2014 Street without effacing change? I received your very kind message, I think in November, since which I have been very ill, and begin to roam in my room a little, an hour at a time.\n\nDo you, as time steals on, know anything of the W \u2014 whom Mr. \u2014 so loved, and of whom he said with a smile, 'Should he find a gold watch in the street he would not pick it up, so unsullied was he'?...\n\nMy sister gives her faithful remembrance to yourself and your father, the brother so cherished never once forgot.\n\nYou will recall the flower sacred to your brother.\n\nNo sloth has memory.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\n_To Mrs. Currier_ _[April 10, 1886.]_\n\n... Mr. Hunt was tinning a post this morning, and told us L \u2014 didn't feel quite as well as usual, and I haven't felt quite as well as usual since the chestnuts were ripe, though it wasn't the chestnuts' fault, but the crocuses are so martial and the daffodils to the second joint, let us join hands and recover.\n\n'I do remember an apothecary,' said that sweeter robin than Shakespeare, was a loved paragraph which has lain on my pillow all winter, but perhaps Shakespeare has been 'up street' oftener than I have, this winter.\n\nWould father's youngest sister believe that in the 'Shire town' where he and Blackstone went to school, a man was hung yesterday, for the murder of a man by the name of Dickinson, and that Miss M \u2014 was poisoned by a strolling juggler to be tried in the Supreme Court next week?\n\nDon't you think fumigation ceased when father died?\n\nPoor, romantic Miss M \u2014 ! But perhaps a _Police Gazette_ was better for you than an essay.\n\nI hope you are both stronger, and ask a word of gain with these ecstatic days. I give my anxious love, and Vinnie's faithfulness with mine.\n\nYour EMILY.\n\n_To Mr. C. H. Clark [April 15, 1886.]_\n\nThank you, dear friend, I am better. The velocity of the ill, however, is like that of the snail. I am glad of your father's tranquillity, and of your own courage. Fear makes us all martial.\n\nI could hardly have thought it possible that the scholarly stranger to whom my father introduced me, could have mentioned my friend, almost itself a vision, or have still left a legend to relate his name. With the exception of \u2014 ... your name alone remains.\n\n'Going home,' was he not an aborigine of the sky?\n\nThe last time he came in life I was with my lilies and heliotropes. Said my sister to me, 'The gentleman with the deep voice wants to see you, Emily' \u2014 hearing him ask of the servant.\n\n'Where did you come from? 'I said, for he spoke like an apparition. 'I stepped from my pulpit to the train,' was his simple reply; and, when I asked, 'how long? ' \u2014 'twenty years,' said he, with inscrutable roguery.\n\nBut the loved voice has ceased; and to some one who heard him 'going home 'it was sweet to speak.... Thank you for each circumstance, and tell me all you love to say....\n\nExcuse me for the voice, this moment immortal.\n\nE. DICKINSON.\n\nThis letter, in her bold, clear, detached hand (to an accustomed eye slightly less firm than usual), is the last one, so far as known, which Emily Dickinson wrote. Afterward, she continued to be delicate, though hardly alarmingly so; but just before the fifteenth of May, 1886, she sent two words to her cousins, freighted with startling import, \u2014\n\nLITTLE COUSINS, \u2014 Called back.\n\nEMILY.\n\nAlmost immediately she fell asleep, and never woke again to earthly sunshine.\n\nIn the quiet of leafy Amherst, in the old brick mansion behind its hedges and pines, she lived and wrote, and there she\n\n'Ascended, from our vision\n\nTo countenances new.'\n\nWe can be only grateful that she was moved to crystallize in words her thronging visions of blossom, and bird, and 'blue, beloved air,' \u2014 of 'life, death, and that vast forever' which was her nearest companion.\n\nThis is hardly the place to speak in detail of Emily Dickinson's verses, their electrical quality, or their impressive effect upon the public, four years after her death. They are pervaded by a singular cadence of hidden rhythmical music, which becomes sympathetically familiar upon intimate acquaintance.\n\nDr Holmes somewhere says that rhymes 'are iron fetters: it is dragging a chain and a ball to march under their encumbrance;' and if in Emily Dickinson's work there is frequently no rhyme where rhyme should be, a subtle something, welcome and satisfying, takes its place. An orchid among every-day, sweet-smelling flowers, strangeness and irregularity seem but to enhance her fascination.\n\nA striking characteristic of her verse is its epigrammatic quality; terseness and vigor predominate, rather than feminine grace and smoothness. Homely experiences which all recognize, but few record, were to her texts for profound generalization. When the unmeaning mass of much modern poetry is compared with Emily Dickinson's swift revelations, the operation suggests comparing distilled water with richest Burgundy. And as such water is no less insipid if served in cut-glass flagons, so we cannot care in what kind of bottle has been stored for years the condensed sweetness of tropic suns.\n\nThe eighteenth of May, 1886, Emily Dickinson was carried lovingly over the threshold she had not passed beyond in years.\n\n'She went as softly as the dew\n\nFrom a familiar flower.\n\nNot like the dew did she return\n\nAt the accustomed hour.'\n\nTo the few who gathered, that sunny afternoon, her friend, fellow-poet, and 'master' read Emily Bronte's noble _Last Lines,_ with their lofty voicing of an unchangeable belief in the soul's immortality, \u2014 'a favorite,' as Colonel Higginson so fitly said, 'with our friend, who has now put on that Immortality which she seemed never to have laid off.'\n\nShe had lived in voluntary retirement from outside eyes; and now, in the sweet May sunshine, tender hands bore her through meadows starry with daisies into a silence and seclusion but little deeper.\n\n(The Hon. Henry M. Spofford, Justice of the Supreme Court of Louisiana, a graduate of Amherst College in the Class of 1840, and brother of Mr. Ainsworth R. Spofford, the Librarian of Congress.)\n\n(The poems enclosed in letters to friends are often slightly different from her own copies preserved in the manuscript volumes. This line, for instance, in another place reads 'Eclipses suns imply.')\n\n_West Amherst Cemetery, Massachusetts \u2014 Dickinson's final resting place_\n\n_Dickinson's grave (centre) with her family_\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
+{"text":"\n\nCopyright \u00a9 2006 by the CSL.  \nAll rights reserved.\n\nFirst Edition 2006.\n\nThe Clay Sanskrit Library is co-published by  \nNew York University Press  \nand the JJC Foundation.\n\nFurther information about this volume  \nand the rest of the Clay Sanskrit Library  \nis available on the following websites:  \nwww.claysanskritlibrary.com  \nwww.nyupress.org.\n\nISBN-13: 978-0-8147-6723-8 (cloth : alk. paper)  \nISBN-10: 0-8147-6723-0 (cloth : alk. paper)\n\nArtwork by Robert Beer.  \nTypeset in Adobe Garamond at 10.25 : 12.3+pt.  \nXML-development by Stuart Brown.  \nEditorial input by Daniel Balogh, Tomoyuki Kono,  \nEszter Somogyi & Peter Szanto.  \nPrinted in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press Ltd,  \nBury St Edmunds, Suffolk, on acid-free paper.  \nBound by Hunter & Foulis, Edinburgh, Scotland.\n\nLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data\n\nMahabharata. Dronaparvan. English & Sanskrit.\n\nMahabharata. Book seven, Drona \/\n\ntranslated by Vaughan Pilikian. \u2013 1st ed.\n\np. cm. \u2013 (The Clay Sanskrit library)\n\nIncludes bibliographical references and index.\n\nEpic poetry.\n\nIn English and Sanskrit (romanized) on facing pages;\n\nincludes translation from Sanskrit.\n\nISBN-13: 978-0-8147-6723-8 (cloth : alk. paper)\n\nISBN-10: 0-8147-6723-0 (cloth : alk. paper)\n\nI. Title. II. Title: Drona.\n\nBL1138.242.D76E5 2006\n\n294.5'92304521\u2013dc22 2006022412\nContents\n\nSanskrit alphabetical order\n\nCSL conventions\n\nMAHA\u00b7BHARATA VII \u2013 DRONA I\n\nIntroduction\n\n1\u201315\n\nThe Anointing of Drona\n\n16\u201332\n\nThe Death of the Beholden\n\n33\u201354\n\nThe Death of Abhimanyu\n\nNotes\n\nProper Names and Epithets\n\nIndex\n\nA sandhi grid is printed on the inside of the back cover\n\ncsl conventions\n\n7\n\nsanskrit alphabetical order\n\nVowels:\n\nGutturals:\n\nPalatals:\n\nRetroflex:\n\nDentals:\n\nLabials:\n\nSemivowels:\n\nSpirants:\n\nguide to sanskrit pronunciation\n\nbut\n\nfather\n\nsit\n\nfee\n\nput\n\nboo\n\nvocalic r, American purdy or English pretty\n\nlengthened r\n\nvocalic l, able\n\nmade, esp. in Welsh pronunciation\n\nbite\n\nrope, esp. Welsh pronun- ciation; Italian solo\n\nsound\n\nanusvara nasalizes the preceding vowel\n\nvisarga, a voiceless aspiration (resembling English h), or like Scottish loch, or an aspiration with a faint echoing of the preceding ________\n\nvowel so that taih is pronounced taihi\n\nluck\n\nblockhead\n\ngo\n\nbighead\n\nanger\n\nchill\n\nmatchhead\n\njog\n\naspirated j, hedgehog\n\ncanyon\n\nretroflex t ,try (with the tip of tongue turned up to touch the hard palate)\n\nsame as the preceding but aspirated\n\nretroflex d of tongue turned up to touch the hard palate)\n\nsame as the preceding but aspirated\n\nretroflex n (with the tip\nMAHA\u00b7BHARATA VII \u2013 DRONA I\n\nof tongue turned up to touch the hard palate)\n\nFrench tout\n\ntent hook\n\ndinner\n\nguildhall\n\nnow\n\npill\n\nupheaval\n\nbefore\n\nabhorrent\n\nmind\n\nyes\n\ntrilled, resembling the Italian pronunciation of r\n\nlinger\n\nword\n\nshore\n\nretroflex sh (with the tip of the tongue turned up to touch the hard palate)\n\nhiss\n\nhood\n\ncsl punctuation of english\n\nThe acute accent on Sanskrit words when they occur outside of the Sanskrit text itself, marks stress, e.g. Ramayana. It is not part of traditional Sanskrit orthography, transliteration or transcription, but we supply it here to guide readers in the pronunciation of these unfamiliar words. Since no Sanskrit word is accented on the last syllable it is not necessary to accent disyllables, e.g. Rama.\n\nThe second CSL innovation designed to assist the reader in the pronunciation of lengthy unfamiliar words is to insert an unobtrusive middle dot between semantic word breaks in compound names (provided the word break does not fall on a vowel resulting from the fusion of two vowels), e.g. Maha\u00b7bharata, but Ramayana (not Rama\u00b7ayana). Our dot echoes the punctuating middle dot (\u00b7) found in the oldest surviving forms of written Indic, the Ashokan inscriptions of the third century bce.\n\nThe deep layering of Sanskrit narrative has also dictated that we use quotation marks only to announce the beginning and end of every direct speech, and not at the beginning of every paragraph.\n\ncsl punctuation of sanskrit\n\nThe Sanskrit text is also punctuated, in accordance with the punctuation of the English translation. In mid-verse, the punctuation will _________\n\n8\ncsl conventions\n\nnot alter the sandhi or the scansion. Proper names are capitalized. Most Sanskrit metres have four \"feet\" (pada): where possible we print the common sloka metre on two lines. In the Sanskrit text, we use French Guillemets (e.g. \u00abkva samcicirsuh?\u00bb) instead of English quotation marks (e.g. \"Where are you off to?\") to avoid confusion with the apostrophes used for vowel elision in sandhi.\n\nSanskrit presents the learner with a challenge: sandhi (\"euphonic combination\"). Sandhi means that when two words are joined in connected speech or writing (which in Sanskrit reflects speech), the last letter (or even letters) of the first word often changes; compare the way we pronounce \"the\" in \"the beginning\" and \"the end.\"\n\nIn Sanskrit the first letter of the second word may also change; and if both the last letter of the first word and the first letter of the second are vowels, they may fuse. This has a parallel in English: a nasal consonant is inserted between two vowels that would otherwise coalesce: \"a pear\" and \"an apple.\" Sanskrit vowel fusion may produce ambiguity. The chart at the back of each book gives the full sandhi system.\n\nFortunately it is not necessary to know these changes in order to start reading Sanskrit. For that, what is important is to know the form of the second word without sandhi (pre-sandhi), so that it can be recognized or looked up in a dictionary. Therefore we are printing Sanskrit with a system of punctuation that will indicate, unambiguously, the original form of the second word, i.e., the form without sandhi. Such sandhi mostly concerns the fusion of two vowels.\n\nIn Sanskrit, vowels may be short or long and are written differently accordingly. We follow the general convention that a vowel with no mark above it is short. Other books mark a long vowel either with a bar called a macron (a) or with a circumflex (a). Our system uses the macron, except that for initial vowels in sandhi we use a circumflex to indicate that originally the vowel was short, or the shorter of two possibilities (e rather than ai, o rather than au).\n\nWhen we print initial a, before sandhi that vowel was a\n\n9\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\n', before sandhi there was a vowel a\n\nfurther help with vowel sandhi\n\nWhen a final short vowel (a, i or u) has merged into a following vowel, we print ' at the end of the word, and when a final long vowel (a, i or u) has merged into a following vowel we print \" at the end of the word. The vast majority of these cases will concern a final a or a.\n\nExamples:\n\nWhat before sandhi was atra asti is represented as atr' asti\n\nFinally, three other points concerning the initial letter of the second word:\n\n(1) A word that before sandhi begins with r (vowel), after sandhi begins with r followed by a consonant: yatha\" rtu represents pre-sandhi yatha rtu.\n\n(2) When before sandhi the previous word ends in t and the following word begins with s, after sandhi the last letter of the previous word is c and the following word begins with ch :syac chastravit represents pre-sandhi syat sastravit.\n\n( 3) Where a word begins with h and the previous word ends with a double consonant, this is our simplified spelling to show the pre-sandhi _________\n\n10\ncsl conventions\n\nform: tad hasati is commonly written as tad dhasati, but we write tadd hasati so that the original initial letter is obvious.\n\ncompounds\n\nWe also punctuate the division of compounds (samasa), simply by inserting a thin vertical line between words. There are words where the decision whether to regard them as compounds is arbitrary. Our principle has been to try to guide readers to the correct dictionary entries.\n\nexample\n\nWhere the Deva\u00b7nagari script reads:\n\nOthers would print:\n\nWe print:\n\nAnd in English:\n\n\"May Ganesha's domed forehead protect you! Streaked with vermilion\n\ndust, it seems to be emitting the spreading rays of the rising sun to\n\npacify the teeming darkness of obstructions.\"\n\n\"Nava\u00b7sahasanka and the Serpent Princess\" I.3 by Padma\u00b7gupta\n\n11\n\nIntroduction\n\nNight is falling.\n\nM. Heidegger, 'Wozu Dichter?'\n\nT\n\nhe 'Maha\u00b7bharata' tells the story of the decline of  \nthe descendants of King Bharata into anarchy and bloodshed. The future calamity is set in motion when the great monarch's last unsullied heir, King Shantanu, falls for Satyavati, the daughter of the chieftain of a lowly tribe of fishermen. Only after Shantanu has persuaded his son Bhishma to abdicate all claim to the throne does the chieftain allow the king to marry his daughter. Shantanu and his new wife have two sons together, but though the younger prince marries twice, both of them die before having children of their own. However, their bereaved mother was no virgin bride: she decides to summon from the wilderness her own illegitimate child, and instructs him to father with the youthful widows an inheritor for the throne. Though they agree to the idea, the women are less than enamored of their husbands' half-brother. In fact, they are both so frightened by the strange eremite that one screws her eyes shut while they have sex, and the other turns white with fear. Both become pregnant; the first gives birth to a blind boy named Dhrita\u00b7rashtra and the second to a pale and sickly child called Pandu. Neither seems naturally suited to the role of king. In time, Pandu becomes monarch, but after a series of wars he decides to move to the forest and leaves Dhrita\u00b7rashtra to take charge of the imperial city. One day, while out hunting, Pandu shoots a deer as it mates with a _________________________________\n\n15\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\ndoe. Little does he realize, the deer is in fact an ascetic in animal form, and as revenge the recluse curses Pandu to die the moment he tries to make love to a woman. Once again the dynasty is threatened. Taking drastic measures, Pandu's two wives decide to use mantras to invoke the gods as lovers, and Kunti gives birth to children fathered by Dharma, Vayu and Indra, and Madri to twins by the Ashvins. Despite their parentage, these children become misleadingly known as \"the Pandavas\" or \"sons of Pandu,\" which biologically, at least, they are not. Pandu himself dies when at long last he finds it impossible to resist the charms of his younger wife.\n\nBy now, Dhrita\u00b7rashtra has also married and his own extraordinary spouse has borne him a hundred sons and one daughter who become known as the Kauravas, \"the descendants of Kuru,\" Shantanu's grandfather. Dhrita\u00b7rashtra's eldest child, Duryodhana, has designs on the throne, while Yudhi\u00b7shthira, the son of Dharma, firstborn to Pandu's first wife, believes himself to be the rightful heir, and there follows a series of murder plots, broken promises and awkward compromises that culminate in the final absurdity of a dice match that will decide which of them takes the kingdom for himself. Yudhi\u00b7shthira proves to be an enthusiastic if unlucky gambler and loses everything, including the Pandavas' shared wife Draupadi. He and his brothers are forced into a lengthy exile. Thirteen years later, the Pandavas return from the forest, determined to wrest their kingdom back from their cousins by force. Alliances are forged across the land and war is at last declared.\n\nAt the beginning of the present volume, we join the action during an uneasy hiatus after ten days of fighting. The war-__________\n\n16\nintroduction\n\nring cousins stand face to face on the battlefield, awestruck by the fall of Bhishma, symbolic patriarch to Kauravas and Pandavas alike. He will spend the rest of the battle a mere spectator, his life ebbing slowly as each day passes. Now it is Drona's turn to take his place as the leader of Duryodhana's armies. Though a brahmin by birth, Drona was once an instructor in the arts of war to both the Pandavas and the Kauravas, and like Bhishma he accepts his post only with a certain reluctance. The fighting begins once more. However, Duryodhana is so desperate to gain ground against the Pandavas that it is not long before he angrily accuses Drona of fighting halfheartedly against his former students. Drona replies that only if the great Pandava warrior Arjuna is removed from the battlefield can he stand any chance of defeating his opponents. The kings of Tri\u00b7garta step forward and challenge Arjuna to a duel he cannot refuse, and Drona sets about destroying the army that Arjuna leaves behind him. In response, Yudhi\u00b7shthira decides to send his nephew Abhimanyu, Arjuna's son, to counter Drona's advance. Eager to please his uncle, Abhimanyu sets off for the Kaurava line and, breaking through it, causes havoc among Duryodhana's troops. But Abhimanyu's achievements take him too far. After a sequence of battles, he finds himself cut off from the rest of the Pandavas, and despite his ferocious determination he is finally overwhelmed by a group of his enemies and killed. Yudhi\u00b7shthira realizes too late that he has sent his nephew to an inevitable doom. He is plunged into despair, and the sun sets on a scene of mourning in the Pandava camp.\n\n17\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\nThe children of a blind pretender fighting the sons of a man too frail to risk the act of coition: we seem closer to picaresque than to the hallowed territory of epic. My very compressed account of the narrative from the beginning of the 'Maha\u00b7bharata' up to the end of the present volume might vitiate its subtleties, but it certainly brings out its very modern sense of the absurd. Indeed, the epic is a highly ironic text, a fact rarely remarked upon by its exegetes. Traditionally, the battle scenes that rage without relief through the five books at the heart of the poem have been interpreted as a moral lesson in the incandescently destructive power of worldly greed and desire. This is, in fact, more or less how the dying Bhishma will explain the events of the war in the enormous discourses of Book Twelve. Yet Bhishma will declaim his verdict from a bed of arrows: his words are literally couched in an image whose simple power they cannot, in the end, overcome. Similarly, the 'Bhagavad Gita,' the epic's most famous teaching on action without desire, is recounted moments before the unleashing of a wild and delirious violence inspired by distinctly human passions, an irony further underscored by the fact that it is a figure on one side of this highly partisan conflict who delivers the sacred message of the 'Gita.'\n\nLike all great art, the 'Maha\u00b7bharata' fascinates for reasons we cannot explain. It does not offer simple moral lessons or comforting fables about the world. What it depicts, on a canvas broader than any before or since, is the fecundity and chaos of human life. These may be men and women of legend, but they are figments in a vision that we, as residents of a century millennia after it was first conjured, can still ______\n\n18\nintroduction\n\nrecognize with surprising and perhaps alarming ease. The men and women of the epic are human beings who lie and cheat, deceive one another and themselves, weep, fulminate, scorn and manipulate, and even those supposed exemplars of virtue, Yudhi\u00b7shthira and Krishna, are no less part of this human comedy than any of the characters who surround them. What obsess the protagonists in the epic above all else are their immediate worldly concerns. Once the conflict has begun in earnest, these concerns can be reduced to a singular objective: how to win the war, and Kaurava and Pandava alike twist all of the resources of action and rhetoric to do so. The price each side pays is enormous. Were we to approach the epic as Aristotelians, we would identify the battle books as the tragic center of its narrative, as in their dense passages the flawed splendor of the epic's cast is displayed in all of its light and darkness. And as the war draws on, it is darkness that predominates.\n\nEverything is fading in the world of the 'Maha\u00b7bharata.' With the onset of war, the very structure of the cosmos, its dharma, is giving way. A term such as dharma is difficult to translate into English, for the simple reason that we do not have an equivalent everyday notion that infuses our experience of life, the inkling of a force that conserves or upholds the universe as it is and ought to be. Perhaps modernity abolished the idea from our lexicon: the ancient Egyptian maat has a meaning far closer to dharma than anything in today's English. But what we see in the 'Maha\u00b7bharata' is the dramatization of a\/dharma, what happens when dharma collapses, perhaps what always happens when so vague and ideational a concept comes into contact with human reality. _______\n\n19\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\nIn the verbal and physical conflicts of the 'Maha\u00b7bharata,' dharma is demolished and rebuilt again and again. Yudhi\u00b7shthira's name Dharma\u00b7raja even shares its etymology with Dhrita\u00b7rashtra's, a typical example of the game the epic plays with similarity and difference. In this contest of royal inheritance, the very identities of the rivals seem to blur the distinctions between them, just as their birthlines fade or break in the narrative that has brought them to this point of no return, and just as the fratricide that their rivalry has triggered will now build towards the bizarre closing passages of 'Drona,' when the fighting explodes into a nocturnal massacre where it no longer seems to matter who kills whom.\n\nIt is the relentlessness of these scenes that may alienate the reader who comes to them for the first time. The great deluge of blood in the 'Maha\u00b7bharata' is the most prodigious, sustained and devastating vision into the charnel house of human conflict in the history of world literature. The only things remotely like it are the 'Iliad,' the 'Aeneid' and the 'Inferno,' and even their horrors seem almost twee alongside the infinite ferocity of the 'Maha\u00b7bharata'. 'Drona' is in itself a huge text. At first glance, we find scene after scene that seem to blend into one. But there is a definite sequence of events in the book, extending from Drona's accession to the post of commander of the Kaurava forces, through Abhimanyu's tragic death and the demise of Jayad\u00b7ratha and Ghatotkacha, to the cruel deception and beheading of Drona. Concision is not the point; the epic is as much a cultural force as a literary work, and is unencumbered by the niceties of compositional convention that we might expect of it. Yet wound about its events is the undulating texture of the epic's _______________________\n\n20\nintroduction\n\npoetry. The reader will find that a certain synesthesia is the inevitable consequence of close association with it\u2014the text can fruitfully be approached like a piece of music, but one in form much closer to the gathering swell of a raga than to the frozen arc of a symphony. The deeper we delve into the detail of what happens, the more is revealed to our eyes and ears. Verses are never repeated precisely but are inflected, recast or transformed, and all the time, line by line, the tale moves on, riverine and enveloping, occasionally meandering gently, at other times twisting suddenly, like the haunted streams of blood that crisscross the plain of Kuru\u00b7kshetra.\n\nThere is no question in my mind that the battle books yield the finest poetry of the epic. At its best, the language of the 'Maha\u00b7bharata' has a sort of flinty lyricism: notches on a stick rather than the pearls on a necklace of later kavya. One might even go so far as to say that the Indological tradition has suffered a measure of Freudian repression in its need to \"solve\" the problem of the epic's delight in such scenes by pushing its emphasis towards otherworldly concerns and away from the events within which it is steeped. Cultures across the world, particularly the more civilized, have always enjoyed the spectacle of violence, and in the materialist cosmos of the 'Maha\u00b7bharata' it is the moment at which life is turned into death that is fetishized and that fascinates. There is nothing in the epic that demands redemption. Its action all takes place in a cosmos far from the divided world in which we readers of modern English find ourselves, a molten universe where art and science are still interfused, where gods and men mingle, and comic and cosmic destinies are played out as one. For the battle be-\n\n21\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\ntween the Kauravas and Pandavas is also a celestial war\u2014we are told elsewhere in the epic that the gods have been incarnated in human form to save the earth from the ravages of the demons that hold it captive. Thus the cosmological imagery of the battlefield: warriors rise and set like the sun and arrows fall like monsoon rain. But to call such descriptions mere \"similes\" is to underplay their significance. The path traced by the warrior from youth through glory to decline is as elemental here as the track of the sun from dawn through noon to dusk. The sun rises every day until the end of time, just as the violence of the warrior's life continues until violent death brings its conclusion. And so the world as an objective realm, as something beyond the self, is driven back. There are no descriptions of the weather: we don't see the landscape, the rain or the moon, only shields, jewels and swords, mirrors for the sun. What we witness in the battle scenes is as natural as the turning of the earth. Yet at the same time, man's nature condemns itself, and the curse for the epic's actors is that to realize this is not to overcome it. _____\n\nThis is the epic's final irony, and through it we are returned to the familiar pain of being alive and being human. Never very distant is the elegiac regret that no other way seems possible, that the relentless passage of time carries all before it, that the alternatives to this inescapable cycle can be only dimly sensed, like memories from a fading dream. Karna puts it well.\n\nI see it now: this world is swiftly passing.\n\n'Drona' 2.4\n\n22\nintroduction\n\nNote on the Text and Translation\n\nThe recension translated by the Clay Sanskrit Library is Nila\u00b7kantha's, and I have drawn on four sources to construct the text presented herein. These are the 1834\u201339 Calcutta Edition, Kinjawadekar's twentieth-century version of the Bombay Editon, and the two Deva\u00b7nagari Dn manuscripts of the Critical Edition. Some line counts are my own, but adhyaya divisions are all from original sources. A concordance given below should make comparision with the Critical Edition relatively straightforward.\n\nA word on the formal structure of the epic for those who are coming to it for the first time. The narration can best be understood through theatrical conventions; the 'Maha\u00b7bharata' is recounted as a dialogue between characters, and stories are nested within stories in an increasingly intricate fashion as the epic progresses. The prime speaker is the seer Ugra\u00b7shravas, who is retelling to a group of hermits the story he heard being narrated to the king Janam\u00b7ejaya, a descendent of the Pandavas, by Vaishampayana, a pupil of Vyasa. The divine seer Vyasa is credited by the epic, rather fancifully, as its composer. In the battle books, it is Dhrita\u00b7rashtra's charioteer Sanjaya who takes over most of the narration, visiting the blind king at his palace back in the royal city of Hastina\u00b7pura to report on what has happened. Much is made of Vyasa granting Sanjaya some sort of magical sight that enables him to describe the battle in such vivid and telescopic detail, but it seems likely that this is principally an attempt, perhaps late in the epic's composition, to ___________________________________\n\n23\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\nexplain a structural device very much in keeping with the mode of the rest of the 'Maha\u00b7bharata.'\n\nThough the topic is a fascinating one, it is unfortunately not possible here to enter into a detailed discussion about how I have set about transposing the structures and shapes of Epic Sanskrit into the very different ones of modern English. If a translation needs a preamble to justify it then it is anyway unlikely to succeed. All the same, a few comments may help to explain why the English text has taken the form that it has. Despite its immensity, and its shifts in colour and tone, the epic's voice maintains a certain register throughout, one born of the strange encounter between an oral, folkloric tradition and a hieratic, literary language. I have tried to preserve the singularity of this register, and rather than naturalism I have sought an idiom in English reflective of the stark and glittering intensity of the original. ________________________________\n\nParticularly in the battle scenes, verses can build into circular and almost incantatory sequences that perhaps are better suited to poetry than to prose. There is no punctuation to speak of in the Sanskrit manuscripts, and any but the sparest intervention into the text with commas and colons does a violence to its subtlety and music. Resisting unnecessary syntax also in my translation I have tried to follow these unbroken sequences as closely as possible, which can create some labyrinthine passages that twist and turn but, one hopes, never lose the reader completely. Any confusion bred in reading the Sanskrit is almost always clarified in recitation; above all I have attempted to write an English text that can be read aloud, and that matches the patterns, quirks and ________________________________\n\n24\nintroduction\n\nexcitements of oral narration so uniquely captured by the Sanskrit scribes of the 'Maha\u00b7bharata.'\n\nConcordance of Canto Numbers  \nwith the Critical Edition\n\nCSL\n\nCE\n\n1.1\n\n1.1\n\n6.1\n\n5.21\n\n7.1\n\n5.34\n\n7.10\n\n6.1\n\n8.1\n\n7.1\n\n49.1\n\n48.38\n\n50.1\n\n48.39\n\n51.1\n\n49.1\n\n52.1\n\n\u2014\n\nNote that Nila\u00b7kantha's text is longer than the Critical Edition. The latter omits verses that are present in the former, and moves several substantial sections to its appendices. The concordance above only notes points where this fact disrupts equivalence between cantos. Greater care has to be taken at the level of the verse. For example, CSL.23.1 has its equivalent at CE.22.1, while CSL.23.74 has its equivalent at CE.23.60, and CSL.23.97 has no equivalent at all in the main body of CE.\n\n25\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\nBibliography\n\nthe 'maha\u00b7bharata' in sanskrit\n\nThe Mahabharata. Edited by Siromani, N. and Gopala, N. Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1834\u20139.\n\nThe Mahabharatam. Edited by Kinjawadekar, R. Poona: Chitrasala Prakasana, 1929\u201337.\n\nThe Mahabharata. Critically edited by Sukthankar, V.K., Belvalkar, S.K., Vaidya, P.L. et al. Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1933\u201366.\n\nthe 'maha\u00b7bharata' in translation\n\nThe Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa. Ganguli, K.M. (trans.) early editions ascribed to the publisher, P.C. Roy]. Calcutta: [Bharata Press, 1884\u201399.\n\nfurther reading and references\n\nHalliwell, S. (trans.), Aristotle's Poetics. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995.\n\nBrodbeck, S., introduction to The Bhagavad Gita (trans. Mascaro, J.). Harmondsworth: Penguin, 2003.\n\nHeidegger, M., Holzwege. Frankfurt am Main: Klostermann, 1950. [\"Wozu Dichter\" from Holzwege is translated as \"What Are Poets For?\" in Poetry, Language, Thought. trans. Albert Hofstadter, New York: Harper & Row, 1971.]\n\nHopkins, E. W., The Great Epic of India: Its Character and Origin. New York: C. Scribner's Sons, 1901.\n\n26\nintroduction\n\nJamison, S., The Ravenous Hyenas and the Wounded Sun. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991.\n\nOberlies, T., A Grammar of Epic Sanskrit. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2003.\n\nPilikian, V., \"Like Suns Risen at the End of Time: Metaphor and Meaning in the Mahabharata,\" in the Journal of Vaishnava Studies, vol. 14 no. 2. Poquoson: Deepak, 2006.\n\nSorensen, S., An Index to the Names in the Mahabharata. London: Williams and Norgate, 1904\u201325.\n\n27\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\nDRAMATIS PERSONAE\n\nMost of the individuals in the 'Maha\u00b7bharata' are known by their given names and perhaps another indicative of parentage. The glossary at the end of the book will assist in making sense of the huge cast. However, some of its central figures enjoy the prestige of multiple names, patronymics and epithets. This can be confusing, but their use is crucial to the flow and rhythm of the Sanskrit. My decisions regarding which to translate and which to leave in as they are have been motivated by the aim of trying to retain their colorful effect in the text. The list below features all the main characters with more than two names, and is intended as a quick reference for the bewildered reader.\n\nArjuna: the middle Pandava, son of Indra and Kunti also known as Dhanan\u00b7jaya, the Victor \/ Jishnu, the Conquering Sun \/ Kiritin, the Diademed Warrior \/ Kaunteya, son of Kunti \/ Savya\u00b7sachin, the Left Handed Archer \/ Pandava, son of Pandu \/ Partha, son of Pritha \/ Phalguna, the Red Star Fighter \/ Vijaya, the Champion\n\nAbhimanyu: son of Arjuna and Subhadra also known as Arjuni, son of Arjuna \/ Karshni, the Dark One's son \/ Phalguni, son of the Red Star Fighter \/ Saubhadra, son of Subhadra\n\nBhishma: son of Shantanu and great uncle of the Pandavas and Kauravas also known as Apageya, son of Apaga\/Deva\u00b7vrata, the Paragon \/ Shantanava, son of Shantanu\n\n28\nintroduction\n\nBhima\u00b7sena: the second Pandava, son of Vayu and Kunti also known as Bhima \/ Kaunteya, son of Kunti \/ Pandava, son of Pandu \/ Partha, son of Pritha \/ Vrikodara, Dogbelly\n\nDrona: teacher of the Pandavas and Kauravas, and newly-\n\nappointed commander of the Kaurava armies also known as Acharya, the Teacher \/ Bharadvaja, son of Bharad\u00b7vaja \/ Rukma\u00b7ratha, Warrior of the Golden Chariot\n\nDuryodhana: Dhrita\u00b7rashtra's eldest son and Yudhi\u00b7shthira's rival also known as Dhartarashta son of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra \/ Suyodhana\n\nIndra: warrior god of the Vedas also known as Maghavan \/ Shakra \/ Vasava\n\nKarna: son of Surya, the sun god, and unacknowledged half-brother to the other Pandavas also known as \/ Radheya, son of Radha \/ Suta\u00b7putra, the Horseman's Son \/ Vaikartana, born of the sun\n\nKrishna: the Vrishni chieftain, Arjuna's driver, and incarnation of Vishnu also known as Achyuta, the-Unfallen \/ Dasharha, lord of the Dasharhas \/ Go\u00b7vinda, the Herdsman \/ Hrishi\u00b7kesha, the Wild Maned \/ Janardana, Stirrer of Hearts \/ Keshava, Longhair \/ Madhava, slayer of Madhu \/ Pundarikaksha, the Lotus Eyed God \/ Shauri, grandson of Shuri \/ Vasudeva, son of Vasu\u00b7deva \/ Vishvak\u00b7sena, the Almighty.\n\nRudra: fierce deity who comes to be known as Shiva also known as Maha\u00b7deva, the Great God \/ Sharva, the God Who Kills With Arrows \/ Sthanu, the Still One \/ __________\n\n29\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\nTry\u00b7ambaka, the Three Eyed God \/ Kapalin, the skull-bearer\n\nYudhi\u00b7shthira: the eldest of the Pandavas, son of Dharma and Kunti also known as Ajata\u00b7shatru, the matchless king \/ Dharma\u00b7raja, the righteous king \/ Kaunteya, son of Kunti \/ Partha, son of Pritha \/ Pandava, son of Pandu\n\nnotes\n\nThe term dharma has resurfaced in \"countercultural\" forms in the West, although these bear little if any relation to the idea and its significance in the world of the 'Maha\u00b7bharata.'\n\nThe name \"Krishna,\" literally \"Dark,\" multiples through the epic, and it can be confusing to keep the different characters separate. The principal Krishna is the son of Vasu\u00b7deva and incarnation of Vishnu, and the speaker of the 'Bhagavad Gita.' His sister Draupadi is also known as Krishna, with the feminine ending -a. The third important Krishna is Krishna Dvaipayana, mythical composer of the 'Maha\u00b7bharata' and biological father of Pandu and Dhrita\u00b7rashtra. To make things yet more complicated, Arjuna is sometimes called Krishna, but this mostly happens when they are being referred to in the dual, as \"the Krishnas,\" and so I have not indicated this in the Dramatis Personae. Arjuna as Krishna features most prominently in Abhimanyu's patronymic Karshni, \"son of the Dark One,\" i.e., son of Arjuna. Cf. note to 7.29.\n\n30\n1\u201315  \nThe Anointing of Drona\n\njanam\u00b7ejaya spoke.\n\nS\n\no Bhishma the Paragon* lay dying. His courage and heroism, his power and splendor and soul were without equal on earth, yet somehow the Panchala Shikhandin had overcome him.* I can imagine the sorrow that engulfed Dhrita\u00b7rashtra when he heard of his uncle's fall. What did the mighty king do? His son still yearned to wrest the kingdom from the great Pandava archers and it was Drona and Bhishma whom he thought would lead his chariots to victory. But now the most brilliant of all bowmen was no more. Tell me, o sage, o great ascetic: what did the scion of Kuru* do?\n\n1.1\n\nvaishampayana spoke.\n\nWhen he heard that his father was dying, Dhrita\u00b7rashtra son of Kuru and lord of men was possessed with anxiety and grief and could find no peace. He brooded long over his sorrows. Then puresouled* Sanjaya son of Gavalgana came to see the king. Returning from the royal camp, he arrived in the night at Hastina\u00b7pura, and the son of Ambika asked him what he knew. O great king, Dhrita\u00b7rashtra listened without cheer to Sanjaya's account of Bhishma's violent demise. Though sick at heart with grief, still he dreamt that his sons might win the war.\n\n1.5\n\ndhrita\u00b7rashtra spoke.\n\nTell me my boy. What did the Kurus do as they stood beside the body of the great and fearsome Bhishma? Time has ravaged my children, plunged them into an ocean of sorrow. Their hale and hardy champion has been brought down. What did they do? O Sanjaya. Even the massed ranks ___________________\n\n1.10\n\n33\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nof the army of the three worlds would cower when the Pandavas raise their swords. Tell me what the Kuru chieftains* decided now that the Paragon, the bull of their herd, lay dying on the earth.\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nO majesty. Listen closely to my words and I will tell you what your children did when the man sworn to the gods was struck down. O lord, brave Bhishma's fall drove all other thoughts from the minds of your sons and of the sons of Pandu. Stunned and solemn and true to the code of their kind, they set aside their own loyalties and bowed their heads before the great man. They first arranged a resting place cushioned by arrows of knotless wood and on it o king they gently laid the body of magnificent Bhishma, muttering to one another as they did. Then they stood reverentially to the left side of Ganges' son and paid him their respects. They glanced at one another and anger burned red in their eyes. Their minds turned once more to war for they are warriors, and time drives warriors on. The armies of both sides rippled to the blare of horns and the thunder of drums.\n\n1.15\n\n35\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nO king of kings, as the day of Bhishma's fall grew long the Kauravas grew wanton. Their minds had been buckled by time. Heedless of the salutary words of the great son of Ganges,* one by one the best of the Bharatas drew their swords and stepped forth. It was first your folly and the folly of your children but now the death of Shantanu's son that delivered the Kauravas and all their allies over to death.\n\n1.20\n\nThe Paragon had been their shepherd and without him they were convulsed with panic like sheep in a forest thronged with beasts. Deprived of the very greatest of their number, the Kuru soldiers were like a starless sky, like a void without air, like a cropless field, like broken speech, like the demon* horde when Bali was in chains. They were pitiful as a widow in her prime, a once deep river run dry, a spotted doe with a dead mate in a wood beset by wolves. They lay open to plunder like a mountain cave when its guardian beast lies slain. O lord of the Bharatas when the son of Jahnavi fell, the army of your Bharata kin were like a splintered and battered ship adrift on the broad and windy ocean. The mighty Pandavas saw that their prize was within reach. Their warriors had devastated the Kaurava force and its lines of elephants, horses and chariots were in disarray. Without the Paragon to lead the Kaurava army even the very mightiest of its wretched number felt his heart sink, and each chieftain and soldier regardless of rank trembled as if hell itself was opening beneath his feet.\n\n1.25\n\n37\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nIt was at that very moment that like the sudden return of a stranger the Kurus recalled the only man who bore compare to Bhishma: Karna, best of all the swordsmen that have lived. Their thoughts turned to him alone as one crushed by calamity reaches out for a friend. Karna, Karna, the chieftains cried. Yet although the humble son of Radha born to a horseman* had set aside his life for our cause, fabled Karna had by then not set foot on the battlefield for ten full days. It was Bhishma himself who then fetched mighty Karna and all of his ministers before us.\n\n1.30\n\nIn the words of warriors of main and courage and even temper, Karna is reckoned a bull in the herd of men,* a man worth twice any of his peers. Heroes celebrate him as the greatest warrior and champion they can name, one who could meet in war the rulers of stars and and sea and sky.* Passion had driven his words to Bhishma: \"While you live o son of Kuru I will not fight. Either you wipe out the Pandavas in this great war and I take my leave of Duryodhana and depart for the forest or the Pandavas will kill you Bhishma and you will ascend to heaven. Then I will mount my chariot and by my own hand destroy every and any warrior whom you can name.\" So it was O majesty that for ten days Karna refused to fight. Your son deferred to the decision that the fabled warrior had made.*\n\n1.35\n\n39\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nMy king. Bhishma's mastery of the art of war had been matched by a courage beyond reckoning. He had killed many of the men who fought for Pandu's son. But now this mighty pillar of truth had been toppled, and as marooned sailors hope for a raft your sons hoped for Karna. Karna, they cried, and the cry was echoed by their fellow kings. The time has come, they said. As lost men seek a friend, all our hearts went out to Parashu\u00b7rama's favorite, to the one whose skill with the bow no man can compass: to Karna. My king we felt that he alone could save us from our terror, as Go\u00b7vinda ever saves the thirty gods from the yet greater terrors that afflict them.\n\n1.40\n\nvaishampayana spoke.\n\nAs he listened to Sanjaya's talk of Karna and of his greatness in war, the old snake Dhrita\u00b7rashtra let out a sigh like a hiss and spoke.\n\n1.45\n\n\"And then? Was the hope in your heart fulfilled? Did you see him come forth, the child of Radha and the horseman, the warrior to whom life is nothing, Karna born of the sun? As you fought on ruined and wild and afraid and desperate for help surely brave and valiant Karna did not come to your aid in vain? Did this greatest of all bearers of the bow close the wound that opened in the Kauravas when Bhishma was brought down? And what of the fear he cast into the enemy's hearts as he did? And of the fruit of my children's victory that through him began to ripen?\"\n\n41\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nNews reached Adhirathi that Bhishma had sunk like a broken boat into the churning deep of the Kurus. Out of brotherhood the horseman's son resolved to rescue Duryodhana's army from its plight. O majesty, when he heard that the godlike and invincible warrior the son of Shantanu had been hewn down, Karna best of bowmen and crusher of foes made straight for his side. Duryodhana's supreme protector had been beaten and as a father to his sons Karna hastened to yours to rescue the breeched vessel of the Kurus before the sea swallowed it whole.\n\n2.1\n\nkarna spoke.\n\nThis is a man of his word. A man of blazing and courageous soul. A man of truth. Every quality of a hero of legend is found within him. He wields weapons from heaven, yet he is blessed with humility, perfect modesty, gentle grace and kindness. Bhishma always knew what had to be done. Scourge of those who would raise arms against the priests, he was as constant as the mark in the moon. If it is so that this great avenger has been tamed, then I can only think that every warrior on earth lies dead.\n\n2.5\n\n43\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nO but there is nothing that man does in this world that lasts for everything fades. A grand ascetic is no more: who then can be sure that the sun will rise again? A soul of power and luster has departed for the bright lands, a regent of the earth now rests with the gods of heaven. Mourn then your children and mourn your wealth in this world, mourn the rich earth, mourn the Kurus. Mourn these multitudes that stand before you.\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nKarna gazed at the broken form of our great savior, our matchless master and teacher, whose splendor had known no end in life. Stricken for a moment at the sufferings of the Bharatas he let out a sharp gasp and tears welled up in his eyes. O lord, both riders and soldiers had listened quietly to his words and now they cried out at one another and wept for a time as the pain wrung tears from their eyes. But war was still upon them and the kings stirred their ranks once again. Then the great warrior Karna addressed his peers. These were the bitter words he spoke.\n\n2.10\n\n\"I look upon the whirling blur of this passing world and I see nothing in it that remains. How can the bull of the Kurus be torn from his mountainous height down into this cluttered and changing world? The mighty son of Shantanu lies like a sun fallen to earth. You kings who remain can no more survive the blast of Dhanan\u00b7jaya than trees can survive a hurricane. This army has had its core plucked out, its frame buckled, its might broken by its enemy. The orphan Kurus have lost their father and now it falls to me to protect them as the great Bhishma once did. It is upon my shoulders that this burden has been placed.\n\n45\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nI see it now: this world is swiftly passing. Drunk on destruction, it meets its end in the flames. But what is there to fear in that? Driving with arrows the bulls of our kin down to Death's kingdom I will fight for revenge and I will either shine on earth bathed in glory or be slain by my adversaries and find my final peace upon the ground.\n\n2.15\n\nYudhi\u00b7shthira is the world's pillar to truth, Vrikodara has the strength of a hundred elephants, and young Arjuna is the heir of the thirty gods. Even for the deathless ones victory over our enemy would be hard won. With them fight the twins, mighty as Death, and Satyaki son of Devaki. Against them the weak of heart stand no chance. But nothing that draws breath has ever escaped eternity's repose. The wise say that a fire when kindled can be met only with fire, might only with might. My will is firm as a mountain peak. I will fight off my enemies and protect my own. Driver hear me. _________\n\nI go to meet the Pandavas and repel their onslaught and overcome them. He who fights by your side in the heat of battle is your friend, and I will not forget the violence that has been done to mine. I will do what a good man must. I turn my back on life and walk in Bhishma's footsteps. Every wave of my enemies I will slay, or if they are to slay me I will fly up to the place where dead heroes dwell. Lest Duryodhana is scorned and must watch his wife and children weep while another man is astride all he holds dear I know what I must do. I will destroy the enemies of my king. O Driver. To bloody war I surrender myself, and guarding the Kurus I will cut to pieces the sons of Pandu and wave by wave my adversaries will fall as I return the kingdom to Dhrita\u00b7rashtra's son.\n\n2.20\n\n47\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nSo let me buckle on my spangled armor, shining with gold and lustered in crystals and gems, my helmet, brilliant as the sun, and my bow and my arrows, deadly as fiery-venomed cobras. Muster sixteen quivers, and bring forth my heavenly bows, my swords and spears and stout maces, my conch that glitters patterned in rivergold and my belt like a goldspangled serpent, and bring forth my bright and heavenly standard, the blossom of the blue lotus. Polish them all with fine cloth and bring them to me, with wreaths of many shades delicately woven with sweetsmelling grass. _________\n\nBring out my fine horses, strong and swift and glimmering like pale thunderclouds, groomed and washed in water purified by mantras and decked in forged harnesses of gold. Be quick, my son: roll out my great chariot draped with golden garlands, bright with jewels like pieces of the sun and moon and hung with the trappings of war and yoke it at once to its steeds. The bows are bright and strong, the finest bowstrings ready to be strung. Strap on plate armor and the great arrowfilled quivers. Go, get all the provisions we need, bring gourds of gold and copper full to the neck with milk. Waste no time but raise up garlands and festoon yourselves, beat the drums of victory. Let us ride out to the Diademed Warrior, to Dogbelly,* to Yudhi\u00b7shthira and the twins. We will meet them and fight, and either I will kill them or be killed myself and go forth from their hands to where Bhishma is bound.\n\n2.25\n\n2.30\n\n49\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nMere earthly kings cannot beat an army for whom fight King Yudhi\u00b7shthira the bastion of all that is, Bhima\u00b7sena and Arjuna, Vasudeva, Satyaki and Srinjaya. This I know well. But even if Death himself in his eternal vigilance and with his all-reaching arms protects the Diademed Warrior from harm, I will slay him all the same in the midst of battle or else walk the path to Yama that Bhishma now treads.* Make no mistake. I say to all you champions gathered here: I go with no man who cannot muster his loyalty to a friend. The wretched in spirit are no companions of mine.\"\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nThe finest horses fleet as the wind were yoked to that great and lustrous and wellwrought chariot with its axle banded in gold and its flags raised high. Karna climbed aboard to set forth and claim his triumph. Brandishing his fearsome bow, the great and taurine Bharata chieftain venerated as if he were Indra by Kurus and by heaven's hosts alike headed for the battlefield. Death awaited him there. As his pennant _________\n\n2.35\n\n51\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nflew above him Karna stood ringed in the wooden ribs of his mighty car encrusted with gold pearls gems and crystals and harnessed to steeds of the noblest breed, and in his measureless splendor he was like a sun bound in lightning. Blazing like fire, he was surrounded by fire; in his gleaming chariot he gleamed, wielding his bow. Warrior of warriors, the son of Adhiratha stood there and blazed, a king of heaven in a car of the sky.\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nOn his bed of arrows Bhishma lay still. He had been a man of fathomless soul and power. It was as if a hurricane had emptied the ocean. He had been our refuge and bulwark, and the sight of their patriarch and teacher, nemesis of kings and great archer of heaven's arrows laid out by Arjuna to die, shattered your children's hopes. The island to which sailors far out to sea yearning for a glimpse of land had once looked now lay drowned in a cataract of arrows that had poured down upon him like the waters of the Yamuna. For the troops Bhishma's fall in battle was inconceivable. It was easier to believe that the insuperable peak of Mainaka had collapsed or that the sun loosened from the sky had plummeted to earth, or that Vritra had overthrown Indra whose myriad powers surpass thought itself. There he was, the guiding star to all who had studied the bow, the pinnacle above every soldier, your devout uncle stuck full of the arrows of Dhanan\u00b7jaya. Karna son of Adhiratha and glory of the Bharata race looked once more upon the taurine hero prone on a hero's bed and stricken by the sight stepped down from his chariot as tears welled in his eyes. He __________________\n\n3.1\n\n3.5\n\n53\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\ncupped his hands before Bhishma in salute, and addressed him with reverence.\n\n\"O Bharata. It is I, Karna. I beg that you speak to me gentle words and look upon me with kind eyes. You are the proof that in this world no man reaps the reward his deeds deserve. Despite your age and devotion to what is right you lie here on the ground before me. How will we be able to organize ourselves, form mantras, plan our arrays and our attacks? I see no other Kuru to whom we can turn, for you were the best of them. You go now to the land of the forefathers. Your crew is lost to the swells for you alone had the insight and purity to deliver the Kurus from their terrors.\n\n3.10\n\nO best of the Bharatas. Throw deer to tigers and see what will befall the Kurus now. Now they will be given a lesson in power. Now they will shudder at the whisper of Gandiva* in the Left Handed Archer's hands as demons quail before him who wields the thunderbolt. Now the sound of arrows released like forks of lightning from its bowstring will send fear among them and their vassals. My lord as a kindled fire consumes trees in its bright flame the arrows of the Diademed Warrior will tear through the army of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra. When wind drives a fire through a forest, it burns up palms and thickets for league upon league upon league. Mark it well, o tiger: Partha is this fire, and Krishna this wind. Every soldier who hears Panchajanya's blare or Gandiva's hum, every soldier, o Bharata, will feel the touch of fear. Without their champion no chieftain will be able to bear the tremor as the car flying the banner of the monkey and holding the crusher of foes rides closer. Who of these __________________\n\n3.15\n\n3.20\n\n55\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nkings other than you can fight Arjuna? His divine acts are already parables told by seers. The immortal host turned to him and the great Three Eyed God to realize their purpose. How could his soul be less than perfect? Who could defeat someone whom you o master could not? You, who in your might defeated Rama, the bloody annihilator of the warrior caste and tamer of the arrogance of gods and demons both? Yet if o sire you give the command, then I will not hesitate but somehow find the strength in my bow to cut apart this dreadful apparition, this cobra drunk on the venom of war. I will slay the great son of Pandu.\"\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nThe venerable grandfather of the Kurus was touched by Karna's lament. He began to speak, choosing his words with care.\n\n4.1\n\n\"Like the ocean to the river, like the sun to all lights, like good men to the truth, the soil to seeds and the rainclouds to living things is your constancy to your friends. May those close to you live by you as the deathless gods live by thousandeyed Indra. Humble your enemies and bring joy to those close to your heart: lead the way for the Kurus as Vishnu leads the denizens of heaven. Karna, it was for Duryodhana's cause that you traveled to Raja\u00b7pura and struck down the Kambojas with just your valor and the might of your own two arms. Then there were the kings of Giri\u00b7vraja and their overlord Nagnajit, the Ambashthas, the Videhas and the Gandharas: you overcame them all. It was you, Karna, who long ago brought the hardy Kiratas out of their snowclad lair and under Duryodhana's sway. The __________________\n\n4.5\n\n57\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nUtkalas, Mekalas, Paundras, Kalingas and Andhras, the Nishadas, the Tri\u00b7gartas and the Bahlikas: all fell to your sword. Splendored Karna wherever you fought you defeated heroes beyond number and it was all in the service of Duryodhana's cause.\n\nMy son. Duryodhana has been a friend to your family and your kin. In return you must lead the way for all of the Kauravas.* I implore you, go and fight against your enemies. Guide the Kurus in battle and bring victory to Duryodhana. I look upon you as I look upon Duryodhana\u2014as a grandson. I have taken care to treat you in everything as I treat him. O best of men the wise and the good teach that we prove our worth in this world through our ties of blood and friendship. So be resolute in truth and know to whom you belong. Protect the Kaurava army as Duryodhana protects it.\"\n\n4.10\n\nListening closely to his words, Karna born of the sun bent down to touch Bhishma's feet, then went towards the assembled archers. Looking upon the vast array gathered about him, still standing proud with their weapons in their hands, Karna stepped in among their number. As the great warrior of might and majesty took his position alongside them ready for war, Duryodhana and all the Kurus were thrilled at his return and like lions they all roared out their praise, applauding and whooping to the thronging chords plucked on the strings of their bows.\n\n4.15\n\n59\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nMajesty, when Duryodhana saw the tiger Karna standing in his chariot ready to attack, he was delighted and he spoke to him.\n\n5.1\n\n\"My lord, with you as its guardian it seems that our army has found its savior. What, then, do you propose we do? We shall take whatever course you advise.\"\n\nkarna spoke.\n\nO wisest of kings and tiger in the forest of men, it is you who must now speak. Only a man of worldly power can see what must be done. My king, all who stand before you are eager to hear your command. So come, my liege. Speak to the purpose.\n\nduryodhana spoke.\n\nBhishma was our leader, a man equally rich in might, courage, holy lore and every virtue that a warrior could have. Over these ten days he has cut with wild force through the ranks of my enemies and we have been safe beneath his aegis. Great warrior though he was it was an arduous task and now he is bound for heaven. Tell me, Karna. Who do you think should be commander in his stead? An army is like a ship on the ocean. Lacking a leader it cannot survive the bloody fighting in which you o Karna so excel, just as a ship cannot sail without a man at its helm. An army without a commander careers out of control like a rudderless ship,* like a chariot without a driver. Like a caravan lost to fate in a foreign land, a leaderless army is lost to calamity. My lord cast your eyes across my brave soldiers. Choose one fit to follow in the wake of Shantanu's son and take us into battle. _________\n\n5.5\n\n5.10\n\n61\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nBe assured that the man you name for this supreme office we will all join to anoint leader.\n\nkarna spoke.\n\nThere can be no doubt that every one of these brave men is worthy of the post. All of them match warcraft, cunning, bravery and strength with humility and loyalty. None would flee the fray. Of course not all of them can be elevated to this highest of honors. Yet there is one alone whom you should choose, for his virtues are unique. These men are rivals, o son of Bharata. If you were to favor one then those you slight in doing so would never agree to fight. The man I suggest is none other than their wise and steadfast teacher: Drona, the master swordsman. He should be appointed commander. What candidate is there besides the unbreakable and peerless seer, in aspect brilliant as one of the ancient priests? Who would make a better leader than he? O Bharata there is no warrior among all your vassals who would not follow Drona into battle. Come now. Make Duryodhana's own instructor commander of this army as when the gods wanted to defeat the demons it was Skanda to whom they turned.\n\n5.15\n\n5.20\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nKing Duryodhana heard Karna's advice. These were the words he said to Drona while the whole of the army looked on.\n\n6.1\n\n63\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nduryodhana spoke.\n\nYou were born into the highest caste and to a family of noble stock. Your wisdom and power and brilliance of mind are matched in your courage, ingenuity, persistence and prudence. You are a leader and you have known success. You are one of our elders who through discipline has learned the nature of what happens in this world. In you is present all that is good and no man is more fit for the role of guardian of kings than yourself. O protect us now as Indra does the gods. With our eyes on the highest of the twiceborn we will rise to destroy our opponents. As the skullbearer leads the Rudras* and Agni leads the Vasus, as Kubera leads the yakshas and Indra the Maruts, as Vasishtha leads the brahmins and the sun leads all that is bright, as Dharma* leads our forefathers, as the Lord of Waters leads the children of Aditi, the moon the stars and Ushanas the sons of Diti o leader without equal be our commander now.\n\n6.5\n\nO sinless Drona. The eleven battalions all await your command. Draw them up and massacre our enemies as Indra massacred the demons. Lead the charge like Skanda before the gods and let us follow you into battle like a herd behind its bull. Great archer. When in the heart of the fray you loose the enchanted string of your mighty bow, Arjuna will see you and his courage will drain away. With you as my general o tiger in the forest of men I will throw down in battle the steadfast Yudhi\u00b7shthira, and all of his brothers and friends.\n\n6.10\n\n65\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nWhen Duryodhana finished his address, the chieftains sent up a roar. Your son swelled in his breast at their cries. Their hearts set now on a glorious triumph, the troops cheered on the great twiceborn in excited voices and sang out their praises to the king. Then, o majesty, it was the turn of Drona to speak.\n\ndrona spoke.\n\nTrue, Duryodhana: I am well versed in the sixlimbed Veda, I understand the laws of the human world and the lore of Rudra. I know well the bow, and every kind of blade.* All that your majesty ascribes to me in his enthusiasm for winning this struggle I would hope to prove I possess in battle with the Pandavas. My king there is one bull in their army that I will never be able to kill, for the grandson of Prishata has been born to end my life. But I will fight their teeming horde and wipe out all the rest of Drupada's clan.* As for the Pandavas, their courage will fail them when they cross my path.\n\n7.1\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nYour son had made his decision O majesty and with due ceremony he appointed Drona commander. With his brothers the king anointed Drona just as Indra and the gods of old had once anointed Skanda. Elation welled up around their new general to a chorus of drums and flutes and the bellows of men. To the strains of the songs and hymns of the panegyrists and bards and the incantations of the high priests the crowd rippled with expectation. Murmuring benedictions\n\n7.5\n\n67\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nand celebrating the luck of the day his soldiers bowed low to Drona. They thought the Pandavas beaten already.\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nKeen to start the attack now that he was commander the mighty descendant of Bharad\u00b7vaja arrayed his troops and prepared to set out with your children. Saindhava, Kalinga and your son Vikarna formed at the right flank a wall of chainmail. At the tip of their wing and with a group of elite horsemen, Shakuni advanced before the Gandharas, warriors of the sacred arrows. Cautiously guarding the left flank were Kripa, Krita\u00b7varman, Chitra\u00b7sena and Vivinshati, all led by Duhshasana, and at their edge King Sudakshina led the Kambojas, mounted on swift steeds alongside the Shakas and the Yavanas. The Madras, the Tri\u00b7gartas, the Ambashthas, the Malavas and the peoples of the North and the West, the Shibis, the Shura\u00b7senas, Shudras and Maladas, the Sauviras and Kitavas and the peoples of the East and the South all took up position behind your son and Suta\u00b7putra. Compounding force with force their greatest warrior and inspiration stood with Duryodhana at the front of the archers: sunborn Karna, a blaze before their wide eyes tipped with the great flag of the tiger flashing like the sky's orb.\n\n7.10\n\n7.15\n\nAll who saw Karna then forgot about the defeat of Bhishma. Kings and Kurus cast aside their despair. Anxious with excitement the soldiers began to whisper to one another. \"The Pandavas will turn and run when they see who has returned to the battlefield. Karna could defeat the gods and the Vasus themselves. How much more easily the sons of Pandu will fail when their courage and strength have deserted _________\n\n7.20\n\n69\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nthem! Bhishma had kept the Parthas from harm with his mighty reach,* but now the biting arrows of Karna will cut them down.\"\n\nO king and lord of the Bharatas, these were the things they said as they went forth, thrilled to the marrow. All the while they praised Radha's son and urged him on. Drona set us out in the array of the spearhead while the mildtempered and righteous king drew up our great enemy in the formation of the curlew. Leading their force were the twin bulls Vishvak\u00b7sena and Dhanan\u00b7jaya. Above them flew the army's pinnacle and the star over every bowman: the banner of the monkey. In the path of the sun the standard of vastsplendored Partha mighty son of Pandu lit up his followers as that same sun had once set alight the earth at the end of the last age. A chariot drawn by white horses bore in dazzling quartet Arjuna the master archer, with Gandiva greatest of bows in his grip and Vasudeva lord of all creatures at his side, the discus Sudarshana* a perfect circle in the god's hands. It hung between us and our enemies like the turning wheel of time.\n\n7.25\n\n7.30\n\n71\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nFace to face in the van were the two greatest warriors: Karna at the head of your troops, Dhanan\u00b7jaya at the head of theirs. For a moment Karna and Pandu's son regarded one another across the battlefield. Each was fired for victory, each bore the other's doom in his eyes. Then all of a sudden as the mighty Drona gave the command the earth lurched with a terrifying and tortured groan and the tumultuous sky and the sun within it were obscured as a hot storm of dust blew upward like a great curtain of silk, and from the cloudless heavens there poured a rain of gore, bones and blood, and flocks of vultures, hawks, cranes, herons and crows wheeled dizzily above the heads of your soldiers, my king, and with eerie, pitiless howls jackals drew deadly circles around us, hungry and thirsty for flesh and blood. Tearing open the air a meteor streaked across the sky and hurtled all the way towards the rearguard before it slammed into the shuddering earth. O majesty, when Drona gave the command the great corona of the sun itself crackled darkly with lightning. Many and dire were the portents we witnessed. All heralded the massacre of heroes in the battle to come.\n\n7.35\n\n7.40\n\nAnd so the welter of violence began again. The whole world filled with the sounds of the armies of the Pandavas and the Kauravas. They crashed together in fury beneath arrows loosed to satisfy the hunger of each to destroy the other. The great brightshining archer of the brave Pandavas plunged towards his foes, cascading a hundred shardlike shafts across them as he went. Then, my king, Drona reared up for the attack and seeing him the Pandavas and the Srinjayas together sent out a tempest of arrows. But __________________\n\n7.45\n\n73\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\non Drona came, harrowing and cleaving and scattering like thunderclouds before the wind a great division of the Pandavas and the Panchalas. Now Drona unleashed his divine arsenal and the Pandavas and the Srinjayas were eclipsed beneath his attacks as he went reaving through them like Indra among the demons. While the Panchalas were quaking behind their leader Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna, the brave warrior Shikhandin who also knew the heavenly weapons burst showers of arrows from every quarter down onto Drona's battalion. Mighty Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna also countered Drona's storms with storms of his own, pouring down ruin upon the heads of the Kurus. Pausing in the thick of combat to gather his wits, the great archer Drona ferocious as Maghavan before the danavas drove his legion on towards Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna's, took aim, and sent forth a dense torrent of shafts.\n\n7.50\n\nThe Pandavas and the Srinjayas were shaken by Drona's attack, shredded again and again in his grip like deer in the jaws of a lion. My king as the mighty Drona sent his great chariot in circles through the Pandavas it became a kind of wonder to behold, a firebrand, decked according to scripture like a dwelling of the spirits of the air, its horses rearing, exultant, its banner dancing like the wind itself and its crest flawless as crystal striking fear into all who beheld it. Standing tall upon his car he closed his enemies in a ring of death.\n\n75\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nDrona tore on through elephants, horses, chariots and their drivers and the Pandavas reeled at the spectacle, unable to check his advance. King Yudhi\u00b7shthira turned to Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna and Dhanan\u00b7jaya and ordered that the brahmin born of clay* be stopped. They were to engage him on every front. Arjuna, Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna and their companions all nodded their assent and the great warriors rushed out towards Drona as one: the Kaikeyas, Bhima\u00b7sena, Saubhadra and Ghatotkacha, Yudhi\u00b7shthira and the twins, the Matsyas, Drupada's eldest and the five ferocious sons of Draupadi, Dhrishta\u00b7ketu, Satyaki and wild Chekitana, mighty Yuyutsu and the numberless other kings O majesty who allied to Pandu had proven their heroism and station with their deeds.\n\n8.1\n\n8.5\n\nDrona watched from his chariot as the Pandavas bore down upon his army and his eyes misted with anger. Berserk with battle frenzy he drove the Pandavas back before him as if they were clouds upon an everblowing wind. O king their cars horses men and elephants flew from him in all directions. Old Drona quick as a man a fraction his age moved now as if possessed. His crimson bloodspattered thoroughbreds swift as the wind charged on and did not seem to tire. The iron holy man fell upon them like merciless Death himself, and when they saw him Yudhi\u00b7shthira's warriors ran for their lives. As they fled or turned on their heels or gawped or froze where they stood, an appalling and deafening clamor to thrill the bold and terrify the weak rose up and filled the vast space between heaven and earth.\n\n8.10\n\n77\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nBecome something monstrous, Drona spread a thick rain of arrows upon his foes and spread his renown abroad once again. My lord, with the vigor of a youth the venerable and mighty Drona wheeled like Time among the reams of Pandu's sons and roaring in wrath plucked off heads and tore away arms still banded in gold and left the chariots in his wake mere empty shells. O highness, cowering before his delighted howls and the volleys from his bow his adversaries in that battle were little more than cattle crushed in the track of a plow. The churning of Drona's chariot, the clash of iron and the thrum of his bowstring built to a crescendo that rang through the air as a thousand arrows flitted in a blur from his bow up to clog the sky and tumbled down upon the throng of infantry, chariots, horses and elephants below.\n\n8.15\n\nThe Pandavas and the Panchalas all streamed towards the great wave of his bow and the bright fire of his arrows and Drona dispatched them and their elephants, soldiers and steeds down to Death's kingdom. Soon he had steeped the earth in gore. As he sent arrows soaring endlessly overhead, a lattice of shafts that he had woven appeared across the sky and his banner flashed among soldiers, horses, chariots and elephants like lightning flashing through clouds.\n\n8.20\n\n79\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nFive paladins of the Kekayas and the Panchala king fell under the hail of shafts, and still Drona came on towards Yudhi\u00b7shthira's army unchecked. They saw him coming, bow and arrow in hand. Bhima\u00b7sena and Dhanan\u00b7jaya, the scion of Shini and son of Drupada, King Shibi of Kashi and his prince together sent up a storm of arrows to a chorus of battle cries, but back on fletchings speckled with gold came the winged shafts from Drona's bow to lodge fast in the bodies of elephantriders and horsemen, sending their bloodweltered steeds crashing to the ground beneath them. There were piles of corpses and cars, horses and elephants riddled in arrows. The dead hid the earth as dark skies engloom the day.\n\n8.25\n\nShaineya, Bhima, Arjuna and Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna, Abhimanyu, the Panchala princes, the king of Kashi and others of their allies all suffered in that battle as Drona defended your sons' cause. O high king of the Kauravas, in his acts that day great Drona was like the sun setting the lands alight when the world is at an end. Now, he is in heaven.\n\nHis victims on the Pandava side were legion but the heroic Rukma\u00b7ratha finally fell, and at Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna's hand. He brought devastation almost without end to that mighty army of valiant warriors but o my king at long last he set foot on the final road. O majesty, after all of Rukma\u00b7ratha's impossible deeds the Pandavas and Panchalas could slay him only through vicious deceit. And when the preceptor did fall dead upon the plain, a mournful cry rose up into _____________________________\n\n8.30\n\n81\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nthe air. And o king it did not come from the armies alone. Echoing in unison through the sky, the earth, the stratosphere, through every quarter of space, was the immense threnody of all living things. Even the gods and the ancestors and the forebears of Bharad\u00b7vaja's son looked down upon the great warrior where he lay. Only the Pandavas roared with glee. And the earth shook once again at this mighty sound.\n\n8.35\n\ndhrita\u00b7rashtra spoke.\n\nIt cannot be. The Pandavas and the Srinjayas slew Drona? The greatest warrior to have lived? And in the thick of battle? His chariot must have failed, or his bow split as he drew it. Or did mere carelessness offer him Death's hand? O my son. How did Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna strike him down? His enemies could barely touch him. There was no weapon he had not mastered. He was a twiceborn without peer who without effort cast from his dancing hands glinting clouds of farflying arrows, a vengeful fighter who wielded the weapons of heaven, whose composure even at the heart of the fray was unshakable. And yet a son of the Panchalas slew him.\n\n9.1\n\n9.5\n\nThe power of fate* in the affairs of men is now clear to my eyes. The hero Drona's death at the hand of Prishata's mighty grandson attests to it. You tell me that Rukma\u00b7ratha, a man deeply versed in the fourfold art of combat, teacher to all bearers of arrows and swords, clad as much in the finery of perfection as in the tigerskin wrapped about his shoulders\u2014that this man is dead? No. My grief is too great. O Sanjaya it is true that no one dies from feeling pain for __________________\n\n83\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nanother. But now that I know Drona is no more I feel the pulse of life die in me. One thing is certain. It is that fate alone is supreme, human effort fruitless.\n\nO the man's death blights my own. It is as if I too am no more. My heart must be made of solid stone that it does not shatter into a hundred pieces at such tidings. They all went to him: brahmins and princes, all who wanted to learn the art of war or the nature of the gods. How can death have snatched him from us? Has the ocean dried up? Has Meru slid away? The sun fallen from the sky? I cannot accept that he is dead. He brought the proud low and raised up the just. Though the scourge of his foes, he bore the cruelties of life lightly. In his courage lived my own wretched children's of victory. He was brilliant as Brihas\u00b7pati Ushadreams or nas. How can he be dead? The tall bays yoked to his chariot and mantled in golden mail galloped swift as the wind past every blade. They were stallions from Sindhu, powerful, whinnying, quickdrawing steeds, indomitable but ever gentle for their master, and stoic even when the fighting was fiercest. The heralds' sounds of conch and drum could not disturb them, they were untroubled before swords and before the arrows flowing from the strings of bows, They were horses fleet and nimble, and breathing mild and easy in limb they stopped the breath of any that rode against them. How can it be, my son, that yoked to Drona's golden car and surrounded by the mightiest of men they did not cross through to the far side of the Pandavas?\n\n9.10\n\n9.15\n\n85\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nO tell me my son. With truth as his weapon how fared mighty Drona before his death, mounted in his supernal chariot girt in gold? Tell me of his acts in battle. All in this world who bear the bow live by their knowledge of the truth that dwelled within him. What warrior would dare to go into battle to meet this greatest of archers, this man terrifying and supreme as the heavenly Indra? Did the Pandavas see the great Rukma\u00b7ratha ranging his divine arsenal before them and ride out against him all the same? Did the righteous king enclose him within a circle of his brothers and Panchala friends?\n\n9.20\n\nWas it Partha who with his darts hemmed in the other warriors while the cruel grandson of Prishata advanced towards Drona? I can think of none with the mettle for this murderous act except cruel Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna, the ward of the Diademed Warrior. None but the Panchala bastard. I see him flanked on every side by fighters, by Kekayas and Chedis, Karushas, Matsyas and the other chieftains, all overwhelming Drona like ants crawling on a great snake, trapping him beneath a remorseless onslaught such that Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna could move in to slay his teacher. Drona was revered among brahmins as a master of every limb of the five Vedas,* and they came to study with him as the rivers flow to the sea. He would not suffer any to cross him, warrior or priest. How can a learned man of the book have met his fate at the tip of the sword?\n\n9.25\n\n9.30\n\n87\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nIt was my rash purpose that led to the sufferings of Kunti's children. Drona had sympathy for them throughout\u2014the fate he suffered was undeserved. His wise and truthful example was followed by every man who called himself a warrior. How can men who value majesty have slain him? How can one mighty in soul and arm and great as Indra in heaven be slain by the sons of Pandu, a leviathan devoured by minnows? Perhaps it was because he had a quick hand and strong arms and because before his unbreakable bow his foes knew no quarter. None who came to take Drona's life survived. There are two sounds which a man never lives to forget: the voice of one who knows the Veda and the sigh of a bow in a master's hands. Drona had the bravery of a wild beast, he was a tiger in the forest of men. His force and glory were untrammeled. Dead? It is unthinkable, Sanjaya. __________________\n\n9.35\n\nSo it was Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna who killed Drona while all the other kings watched. But how did he get close enough when no other could approach Drona's splendor and might? Which of Drona's friends at that moment failed to protect him? And after he set foot on that hardest of journeys who took his place? Tell me, who was guarding the right flank of the great man's chariot, who the left? Who was near to him as he fought? And who threw off his own life and met Death early? Which of the heroes around Drona showed the greatest resolve?\n\n9.40\n\n89\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nHow did the measly swordsmen who were his enemies sever him from the bosom of his army? How, indeed, could they fail to finish him when he had none to protect him? His courage was such that whatever disasters befell him or fears beset him he would never have turned his back on his foes. How then did they strike him down? Drona knew well that even in darkest calamity the noble fight on as they can. O my mind is in a whirl. My son, let us cease for a time your tale. I must gather my senses Sanjaya. Then we will talk again.\n\nvaishampayana spoke.\n\nDhrita\u00b7rashtra finished speaking and suddenly heartstricken at the hopelessness of his sons' cause he collapsed in a faint to the floor. His attendants sprinkled cold droplets of perfumed water on his face to revive him. The ladies with him were shocked at the sight and rushed to him and laid their hands upon the great king. Necklaced in tears, they gently lifted his body in their beautiful arms and placed him upon the throne. As they fanned him on all sides he sat there unmoving, still deep in his swoon. At last, the lord of the realm slowly opened his eyes. But when he spoke again to his driver Gavalgani his questions were little changed.\n\n10.1\n\n10.5\n\n91\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\ndhrita\u00b7rashtra spoke.\n\nThe matchless king at his zenith is like the rising sun that drives away darkness with its light. Who kept him from Drona? He has the fury, the potency, the fire of an elephant in must that with singular intent would kill any rival that came near the females of the herd. None of the other bulls could beat him. He is a man bound to truth, strong in arm and steadfast in will. His power so much exceeds any of the warriors he might face that with just a terrible glance from his murderous eyes he could reduce the whole of Duryodhana's army to cinders. And somehow he keeps his humility despite the world's veneration. Who looked into his deadly gaze? Who stood in his path as he came cleaving to victory, ringed in the finest archers? And what of Bhima\u00b7sena? He must have been one of the first to rush upon Drona. Who were the warriors who stood in his path? And what happened as that most awesome chariot of them all came into view like a thunderhead or baleful stormcloud forking and crackling with lightningand pouring down wood as Indra pours down hail? How was it for those who watched as Partha approached beneath the banner of the monkey, the air about him thick with arrows? ______________________________________x\n\nAs the wheels of his chariot squealed across the sky, his bow a flashing arc and grim omen above the dense thickets of cars below, his car a tempest driven by wrath and faster than thought or wish and heavy with needles biting to men's marrow? As it came churning with a blood rain and strewing the earth with the dead that now fill it while the wrenching and ghastly noise ever grew and brilliant and victorious and screwed to the purpose Arjuna scattered from the string of __________________\n\n10.10\n\n10.15\n\n93\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nGandiva stonewhetted shafts tied with vulture feathers all across the plain: o how was your heart then?\n\nWho did not flee when the mere sound of Gandiva's string brought terror among you? And who were they whom Dhanan\u00b7jaya's arrows severed from Drona's company as Arjuna rolled like a gust through trembling cloud, a wind through a brake of reeds? What man could stand his ground before the carrier of Gandiva? Whole armies tremble and heroes are filled with dread at his coming. Who stood firm beside Drona? And who were the cowards who fled? Who cast aside his body and went out to meet Death in the shape of Dhanan\u00b7jaya, conqueror of warriors not of this earth? Before the charge of his pale horse and the monsoon thunder of Gandiva my mortal soldiers are finished. A chariot holding Dhanan\u00b7jaya and manned by Krishna is, I fear, a chariot that neither god nor demon could stop.\n\n10.20\n\nThen there is Pandu's youthful fourth son, the handsome Nakula. He is a man in his prime, a man brilliant, wise and brave whose war cry fills the Kauravas with fear. Who fought him back when he rode at Drona? Or when fierce Saha\u00b7deva came angry as a cobra to take his prey? He is a conquerer that few could overcome, a man of grace and noble covenants, unerring and unstoppable. Who parried Saha\u00b7deva's attack? It was Saha\u00b7deva who broke King Sauvira's royal guard and carried off his voluptuous and lovelylimbed queen.\n\n10.25\n\n95\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nAnd the taurine Yuyudhana? All that is eternal rests in him: purity and piety, courage and constancy, harmony itself. He is strong in arm and hale in spirit. None have penetrated his armor of truth. He is Vasudeva's comrade and equal and a devoted peer of Dhanan\u00b7jaya, a true master of the art of sword and bow. Who drove him from Drona's midst?\n\n10.30\n\nWho fought back the great Vrishni Satvata? A hero and paladin, as a warrior he is Rama's equal in valor and fame. In him as the triple world is in Keshava are truth and steadfastness, wisdom, heroism and holiness and a deep knowledge of the sword and the book. His mettle would be too stern even for the gods. Who faced him down? And the baleful Panchala hero Uttamaujas? He is a man beloved of the highborn, whose preternatural might has never failed in war or deed. As loyal and firm in Dhanan\u00b7jaya's cause as he is in my downfall, he strives in his whole being against Drona. Reckoned a mere champion, I know him as the equal of the gods of war and death, a warrior who has surrendered his life to the chaos of battle. And the prodigy Dhrishta\u00b7ketu, the hero who deserted the Chedis and sought refuge with the Pandavas after killing the prince of the western reaches in a mountain pass? Who drove off his attack?\n\n10.35\n\n10.40\n\nWhat of the cause of the great fall of the Paragon, tigerlike Shikhandin? His mind even in the heat of combat is clear as crystal. Born a woman yet become a man, Yajnya\u00b7sena's child knows the troubled nature of both. And great Abhimanyu? Subhadra's son has inherited all his father's high virtues of war and truth and shining purity. Who drove him from Drona's reach? In courage he is like Vasudeva, in might __________________\n\n10.45\n\n97\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nlike Dhanan\u00b7jaya, like Brihas\u00b7pati in intellect, in splendor like the sun, wide-mawed as the Destroyer himself. How did you bear his attack? And Draupadi's tigers? Who could fight them back when they rushed across the battlefield at Drona like rivers to the ocean? Laying aside the toys of childhood they dwelt for twelve years with Bhishma to study the art of combat and follow the strictest vows. And what about the sons of Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna\u2014 Kshatran\u00b7jaya, Kshatra\u00b7deva and noble Kshatra\u00b7dharman? Who kept them at bay? Or the great bowman Chekitana, whom the other Vrishnis decree to be a hundred times greater than themselves? Who stopped him?\n\n10.50\n\nWho protected Drona from the jubilant Kalinga Anadhrishti heir of Vriddha\u00b7kshema? I hear he has claimed a wife from the war. And the five righteous brothers born of Kekaya and the sons of their mother's sister? They are bold and heroic and fervent for a Pandava victory. When they came in cloaks the hue of fireflies and beneath the standard of the redarmored warrior, who stood in their path? And what of the warrior lord and strongarmed hero whom the kings of Varanavata desperate for blood fought for six fruitless months: the best of bowmen and pillar of truth and tiger in the forest of men Yuyutsu? Who forced his mighty arms from Drona? And the great archer charged with the Parthas' mantras who in Varanasi toppled with a barbed arrow the lustful prince of Kashi? As he drove on, scattering soldiers in all directions and fixed on Drona's slaughter and Duryodhana's downfall, who forced Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna back? And the stripling grandson of Drupada? Who fought off the adept in the art of the bow Kshatra\u00b7deva son of Shikhandin?\n\n10.55\n\n99\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nThere was once a great warrior, and the roar of his chariot wheels gathered like a cloak about the earth as he went abroad to destroy his legendary foes. I speak of the bold son of Ushi\u00b7nara, who cared for his subjects as if they were his children. Ten horse sacrifices he offered the gods, and he rewarded his priests with generous gifts of food and drink. He spared nothing. He immolated as many cows as there are grains of sand in the Ganges in a rite so awesome that the gods themselves found it hard to believe. \"This is an act beyond any man who has come before, and any yet to be,\" they said. \"We look upon the three worlds, on all that is and all that fades: there is none born nor to be born nor reborn who wields powers such as Shaibya son of Ushi\u00b7nara.\" None who live on this earth tread his path. Who then could keep his son, the last in Shibi's line, as he rode at Drona, wide-mawed as Death himself? And when Matsya's protector Virata brought his troops to spill Drona's blood who drove them back? And I shudder at the thought of Vrikodara's lastborn and his enormous strength and sorcerous powers. He yearns for the Parthas' triumph. The fiend Ghatotkacha is the wound in my son's side. But someone kept him at bay. Who was it?\n\n10.60\n\n10.65\n\nWhat brief triumph was there for those for whose sake so many others abandoned their lives in battle? How was it that the sons of Pritha suffered any kind of defeat when the tiger that bears the horn bow fights to protect them? And what of the divine lord of battle and the highest teacher and eternal master of all worlds and beings, Narayana? Wise men recount things that he has done that are not of this world. __\n\n10.70\n\n101\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nI will tell you of his deeds now, and of the steadfastness of his heart.*\n\ndhrita\u00b7rashtra spoke.\n\nHear me now Sanjaya. I will tell you of Vasudeva's wondrous acts. Go\u00b7vinda has done thing which no normal man could dream of doing.\n\n11.1\n\nHe was born with a lofty soul into a family of herdsmen. While still only a child the strength of his two arms brought him fame across the three worlds. On the wooded banks of the Yamuna he killed the horse king, who had been mighty as Ucchaih\u00b7shravas and swift as the racing wind, and though matched in might he slew the beast. Another time the cruel son of Danu came in the form of a bull and brought death among the cattle, and though a mere child the Lotus Eyed God killed him too, with his bare hands.\n\nHis next victims were Pralamba, Naraka, Jambha, the great demon Pitha and Muru, more god than devil. Then it was powerful Kansa who despite Jara\u00b7sandha's protection fell with his entire army before Krishna's onslaught. The Bhoja chieftain's brother was the legendary Sunaman, a stern and fiery taxiarch and bold king of serried heroes who met his nemesis when the younger brother of Bala\u00b7deva cut him down. Krishna bowed with his first wife before the ferocious seer Durvasas and was rewarded for his humility with gifts.\n\n11.5\n\nWith many of the earth's regents bent to his will, the hero with lotus eyes took the hand of the Gandhara princess, and yoking to the bridal car the kings he had beaten cracked his whip across their backs as if they were so many steeds. With fiendish trickery mighty Krishna brought down the __________\n\n11.10\n\n103\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\ngreat general Jara\u00b7sandha and in return for a slight against his hospitality slaughtered like a goat the fierce king of the Chedis, who had been lord of a legion of chieftains. When the sheerwalled city of the demons named Saubha was prospering under Shalva's dominion, Madhava attacked it and sent it crashing down into the depths of the ocean.\n\nSanjaya I speak of the conquerer of the Angas, the Vangas, the Kalingas and the Magadhas famed for the city of lights, the Karushas, Gargyas and Vatsyas, the Paundras, the Avantyas, the people of the South and the people of the mountains, the Dasherakas, Kashmirakas and Aurasakas, the Pishachas and the peak of Mandara, the Kambojas, Vata\u00b7dhanas, the Cholas and Pandyas, the Tri\u00b7gartas and Malavas, the hardy Daradas, the Khashas and the Shakas and Yavana and all her allies.\n\n11.15\n\nLong ago Hrishi\u00b7kesha entered the sea that teems with monsters and in its surging depths beat down Varuna. He killed Pancha\u00b7jana who dwelt in the plains of hell and took from him the sacred conch that bears the demon's name. With Arjuna the mighty Krishna calmed the great Eater of Cerements* in the forest of Khandava, and in return received his murderous disk, weapon of the fire. Mounted on Garuda the great god terrorized Amaravati, the house of Indra, and tore up from its roots the coral tree that stood in its garden. Shakra knew of his attack and chose not to fight back. How could any king on this earth withstand him? And who could have caused the great miracle* in my throne room? None, o Sanjaya, but the Lotus Eyed God.\n\n11.20\n\n105\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nWhen I went before him and humbled myself and showed him due devotion, the whole universe seemed to hang before my eyes in perfect clarity. Nothing that Hrishi\u00b7kesha does has an end for his every act is born of certainty, of absolute resolve. Gada, Samba, Pradyumna and Vidu\u00b7ratha, Aniruddha, Charu\u00b7deshna and Sarana, Ulmuka, Nishatha, Jhallin, Babhru, Prithu and Viprithu, Samika and Arim\u00b7ejaya and all of the other Vrishni fighters have fallen in among the Pandava legions. They are there because they have been summoned to battle by their ram: the great Keshava himself.*\n\n11.25\n\n11.30\n\nEverything else seems thrown into doubt. The mighty hero strong as a hundred elephants and tall as Kailasa's peak, Rama the dark harvester necklaced in wildflowers, goes where his brother goes. And o Sanjaya it is his brother Janardana the son of Vasu\u00b7deva who fights for the Pandava cause. He is known to the twiceborn as the father of all things. When Keshava girds himself for their victory no champion will rise against him. Even if the Kurus could somehow overcome the Pandavas the tiger Varshneya would wield in their name the ultimate weapon and destroying all the Kaurava regents seize with his might the whole of the world for Kunti's son. Who or what could ride against the chariot driven by Hrishi\u00b7kesha and defended by Dhanan\u00b7jaya? By no means will the Kurus see their day of triumph. I ask only that you tell me all that happened during their struggle.\n\n11.35\n\n107\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nArjuna is Keshava's very soul, Krishna the Diademed Warrior's heart. Infinite glory rests in Krishna, and Arjuna carries with him triumph and eternity. It is simple: Keshava's virtues are transcendent, measureless, his majesty without equal. But delusion stops Duryodhana from knowing that Krishna is Madhava incarnate. Dazed by the power of fate and recognizing neither Krishna of Dasharha Arjuna of nor Pandu he puts his neck in Death's noose. Though before their glory minds fail, men know them as the mighty gods of old, Nara and Narayana. They are one soul split between two bodies. On a whim they could obliterate our troops and it is only their humanity that restrains them.\n\n11.40\n\nO my son. Bhishma's murder, and great Drona's. It seems the age is turning and the worlds are soon to be upended. No one can cheat death: not by a pious life nor by studying the Veda, neither by hand nor by sword. O Sanjaya you tell me that Bhishma and Drona, two master swordsmen hallowed across the earth and full of the frenzy of war, are dead. My days then are numbered. With the deaths of Bhishma and Drona all the wealth I have created will now pass to Yudhi\u00b7shthira and you and I will have to bring him our begging bowls. Disaster overtakes the Kurus because of what I did long ago. O horseman. For dry twigs and old men, a blade of grass can be as deadly as a lightning bolt.* Yudhi\u00b7shthira has attained a magnificence on earth beyond compare and those great archers Bhishma and Drona were victims of his wrath. The world is shaped through its own ordinance and cares not for the efforts of men. Cruel Time destroys everything and then slips away, and it seems that even the wise cannot grasp its secret purpose, that its assignments ___________________\n\n11.45\n\n11.50\n\n109\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nviolate even the will of the gods. Yet if these late days are wretched and remorseless and difficult to comprehend, tell me at least what it was that you saw.\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nThen as I saw it with my own eyes I will tell you the whole story of how Drona was broken by the Pandus and the Srinjayas, and fell. When the mighty son of Bharad\u00b7vaja had been appointed commander, he turned to address Duryodhana. The whole army stood and listened.\n\n12.1\n\n\"My king and lord of the earth. You have today done me a great honor in offering me the leadership of your army and making me the successor to the bull of the Kauravas born to Apaga. May you reap a fitting reward for your choice. Say now what it is you would have me do, and I will do it.\"\n\nBefore Karna, Duhshasana and the other heroes, King Duryodhana then told the hardy teacher of conquerors his wish.\n\n12.5\n\n\"Grant me this supreme gift: capture alive their titan Yudhi\u00b7shthira and so prove yourself the rightful leader of my legions.\"\n\nThe teacher of the Kurus heard your son. His reply sent a ripple through the ranks.\n\n\"The king born of Kunti is a lucky man. You want him captured, you say, but not put to death. My intractable sire, tiger in this forest of men, why do you not want him dead? If you do not then Duryodhana you have taken leave of your senses. The righteous king must have no enemies on earth if even you want him alive, want to harbor his dynasty at your bosom. O best of the Bharatas, perhaps once you have ___________________\n\n12.10\n\n111\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\ndefeated the Pandavas you intend to do your brotherly duty and offer them the realm that is rightly theirs? The wise son of Kunti is a fortunate soul. Truly no one wishes him ill.* Even your highness feels such warmth for him.\"\n\nO Bharata, at Drona's words the hope that Duryodhana had long kept hidden in his heart suddenly rushed to his lips. My king, even a great sage could not have hidden the excitement that your son felt then. These were the hot words he spoke.\n\n\"If Kunti's son were to fall to the sword, master, then victory would never be mine. With Yudhi\u00b7shthira gone Arjuna would stop at nothing until every one of us were dead. Even the deathless gods are powerless before him. Even if he were the Pandavas' lone survivor he would spare no man among us. But Yudhi\u00b7shthira is true to his word. If we can bring him here and play dice with him again, his luck will desert him, and he and his brothers will return once more to the forest. Then I will surely have my victory, and it will last long. So no. I do not want the good king to die.\"\n\n12.15\n\nIn his wisdom Drona could penetrate to the heart of things, and he understood the depths of Duryodhana's trickery. He thought for a moment and then offered the king what he wanted. But there was one condition.\n\ndrona spoke.\n\nHero. Consider the eldest of the Pandavas your subject, but only if Arjuna does not fight to protect him. As you say, even the gods and demons with Indra at their head could not rise against him and, my son, I for one will not deign to try. He was my student but without question my __________\n\n12.20\n\n113\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nsuperior in the discipline of combat. Though but a young man he is renowned because he walks a path that none of us can tread and carries an arsenal the like of which neither Indra nor Rudra has known. My king, his wrath for you is such that I will not be able to stop him. But if Partha can somehow be driven off from the battle or subdued then you will overwhelm the righteous king. O bull in the field of men if you think that victory depends on his capture then this is how to ensure that he is caught. Have no doubt my king: if he comes within my reach for just a moment without the tiger Dhanan\u00b7jaya son of Kunti to protect him, I will capture the king who lives for truth and the law, and he will be yours to command. But with the Fighter of the Red Stars* by his side, Yudhi\u00b7shthira the son of Partha would be beyond the reach even of a legion of gods and demons under Indra's command.\n\n12.25\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nWhen they heard Drona's promise to the king, your foolish sons ignored its provision and thought Yudhi\u00b7shthira already their prisoner. Of course Duryodhana knew that Drona's loyalties were conflicted, and to shore up the brahmin's promise he made much of what Drona had said. O tamer of foes, Duryodhana proclaimed the plan to capture the Pandava to all the troops that stood about them.\n\n12.30\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nSo Drona's barbed promise to capture the king was made. And when the soldiers heard of his intention to trap Yudhi\u00b7shthira, horns sounded and arrowshafts clacked and men roared. Before long, spies told the righteous king of the ___________________\n\n13.1\n\n115\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nexchange, and soon he learned all about Drona's design. He summoned his other brothers and turned to Dhanan\u00b7jaya to speak. \"Tiger in the forest of men. You have now heard what Drona intends. We must decide what to do to ensure that his plan does not bear fruit. For Drona's boast has a flaw, and that flaw, o great archer and burner of foes, is you. With your strong arms fight this day close at my side and we can deny Duryodhana the prize Drona has promised him.\" _________________\n\n13.5\n\narjuna spoke.\n\nMy king. It is true. Our old teacher cannot defeat me and for that reason I will never desert you. O son of Pandu, I would lay aside my life first. I will neither oblige our sometime mentor nor leave your side, not for anything. Be assured, my king, that however much he might wish it Duryodhana will never on this living earth achieve his desire of capturing you in battle. As long as I breathe, the heavens and their stars would fall and the ground would break asunder before Drona takes you as his prisoner. Be sure of it. Even if Vishnu flanked by the gods or the wielder of the thunderbolt himself lent a hand Duryodhana would not have you in his grasp. Though he is a great warrior, perhaps the greatest fighter of them all, while I live you need fear nothing from Drona. And o king of kings I tell you this: I always keep a promise. I do not remember a time that I lied. I do not remember a time I have failed. I do not remember making a promise that I did not keep to the letter.\n\n13.10\n\n117\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nO great king. Now it was the Pandavas who sounded their horns. The throb of wardrums began. Wild roars from the men mingled with the spinechilling thrum of bowstrings cutting the air. The echo of trumpets rolled from the mighty Pandava's host and your own forces o Bharata struck up in response a battle dirge. The two armies wheeled heavily towards one another, and so began once more the mad and bloody struggle between the Pandavas and the Kurus, between Drona and the Panchalas.\n\n13.15\n\nAt first the Srinjayas struggled in vain to find a way to approach Drona's defenses and your son's champions could not drive their lofty chariots at the soldiers shielded by the Diademed Warrior. Each swayed back from the other and the two armies settled gently into themselves like two tracts of forest blanketed in flowers whose petals had closed for the night. Then o king like a rising sun the Warrior of the Golden Chariot suddenly went forth and collided with the enemy's defenses and hurtled into their midst. Though but a lone man flying in his tall chariot through the fray, he seemed to the Pandavas and the Srinjayas a manyheaded beast. His fearsome arrows flew in every direction from his bow, my king, forcing the Pandava warriors back. Drona blazed then like the sun at the meridian circled in a hundred rays, and o Bharata like demons before the wrath of mighty Indra all the Pandavas had to avert their gaze. Blinding the troops with his brilliance Bharad\u00b7vaja's son blasted Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna's force with his whetted shafts. He filled the air with trueflying arrows and obscured the whole horizon and ________\n\n13.20\n\n13.25\n\n119\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nflattened the Pandava line where the grandson of Prishata rode.\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nPanic spread through the Pandava ranks as Drona tore in among them like brushfire through a forest of dry trees. When they saw Rukma\u00b7ratha scorching a path of rage towards them like a kindled blaze, and heard everywhere like a peal of thunder before lightning the endless whisper against his hand of the string of his quick bow, the Srinjayas began to tremble with fear. Biting arrows flew from his dexterous fingers and ripped into charioteers, riders, elephants, horses, soldiers. He brought terror down upon his enemies like hail pouring from a black cloud churned by howling wind as the hot season turns to rain.\n\n14.1\n\n14.5\n\nMajesty, as he traversed your troops mighty Drona spread chaos in his wake. He instilled within us a kind of inhuman dread. Like lightning in the heavens again and again his gilded bow appeared among the swirling banks of chariots on the plain. Wise and truthful and formidable as he was, that unfailing servant of justice now maddened by the closing of the age poured forth an evil river sprung from the aquifers of wrath and thronged with flesheating ghouls and flowing with blood, deep and teeming with men and swirling with chariots, its banks made of elephants and horses, breastplates bobbing upon its surface like lotuses. It was thick with mud and gore and broken bones, it had lymph and marrow for sand, its waters foamed with ribbons of fine cloth, its course swollen by a deluge of warriors, javelin shoals and the bodies of elephants and horses, ___________________\n\n14.10\n\n121\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nclusters of arrows in its currents and trunks of dead soldiers, cars floating like turtles, human heads washed up like rocks along its shore, its depths fathomed with chariots and elephants and knives like fish, its waves encrusted with detritus of every kind, swordsmen in their hundreds sucked into its whirlpools, its whole length wreathed in earth and dust, its waters fordless to the faint of heart and risked only by the very brave. It flowed with countless corpses, herons and vultures swooping above its lost cargo of warriors in their thousands rolling down to Yama's abode, draw to beasts of prey of feather and fur, lost spears like its predators, broken parasols like swans and crowns like floating birds, wheels for tortoise shells, maces for pearls, flurries of arrowheads for minnows, its banks host to ferocious packs of jackals and flocks of vultures and cranes. Off it bore the legion dead away to their ancestors' shores once Drona had snatched in that bloody reckoning the breath from their throats.\n\n14.15\n\nHow the weak in spirit trembled before that river, my king, its verdant banks of hair and the cadavers that crammed its course. But even as he rose above them those same battalions led by Yudhi\u00b7shthira fought back against Drona's might on every front. And in a burst of excitement your stoutbowed archers rushed from all around forward towards their enemies.\n\n14.20\n\nShakuni of a hundred illusions bore down upon Saha\u00b7deva and fired sharp arrows into his car, banner and driver. Calm in the fray the son of Madri studded with sixty arrows Shakuni's pennant bow charioteer and team and then finally found behind them the body of his uncle. Then Saubala grabbed his mace o king and leapt down from his high car ___________________\n\n123\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nand with it knocked Shakuni's driver from his post. Bereft of their vehicles those strongarmed heroes raised their cudgels and began to sport like horned fish in the game we call battle.\n\nMeanwhile with ten swift shafts Drona pierced the king of the Panchalas and under a hail of reeds the king fired back a hundred and one more. Vivinshati was struck by Bhima\u00b7sena's whetted arrows, and Bhima struck back with his own as miraculously he somehow stood his ground. With awesome speed, o king, Vivinshati felled Bhima's foals and knocked away his standard and bow as he did. But in this contest of wills the great Bhima did not submit and crushed with his mace all of Vivinshati's faithful steeds. His horses dead, the great warrior grabbed a shield and leapt down from his car in a frenzy, and onto mad animal Bhima\u00b7sena standing before him.\n\n14.25\n\n14.30\n\nElsewhere bold Shalya hit with his arrows his own nephew Nakula. He grinned as he did so as if in jest. Nakula blazed up in fury and sounded a note from his conch and brought Shalya's parasol oriflamme driver and bow down into the dirt. And o lord deflecting the volley of arrows from Kripa's bow Dhrishta\u00b7ketu pinned him with seventy of his own and then another three, but enveloping Dhrishta\u00b7ketu in a great storm of arrows the brahmin at once fought back. Satyaki pierced Krita\u00b7varman in the center of his chest with an iron arrow then struck him with seventy more, and all the while wore a mocking smile. When Bhoja struck Shaineya with seventy-seven wellwhetted arrows his target remained calm as a mountain in a swift wind. The commander struck Susharman a savage blow between the joints of his armor, ___________________\n\n14.35\n\n125\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nhitting him with a javelin in the collarbone. Virata and his Matsyas crashed against the child of the cloudsplitting sun and at first somehow drove him back, but with awesome might Karna soon hid them all beneath the mass of his wellwrought shafts.\n\nOn another part of the plain King Drupada met Bhaga\u00b7datta and majesty their struggle was a dazzling show. Knotless arrows flew from taurine Bhaga\u00b7datta's bow towards the chariot bannered in the horsetamer and found Drupada where they stopped. Fired with anger the king struck the great Bhaga\u00b7datta a glancing blow in the chest with a single wellfashioned shaft. The confrontation between the two masters of the bow and best of warriors Soma\u00b7datta's son and Shikhandin set fear in the hearts of any who watched. O royal heir of Bharata and leader of men, heroic Bhuri\u00b7shravas hid the great warrior and son of Yajnya\u00b7sena behind a bulky cloud of missiles, and then with ninety shafts wrathful Shikhandin shook Saumadatti back. Then I saw the two dreadful rakshasas Haidimba and Alambusa fight a battle beyond belief. Each intent on the other's defeat these wild creatures hurled illusion upon illusion and moved about invisible. O king, like mighty Bala and Shakra Chekitana and Anuvinda fought ferocious as god and demon while Lakshmana crashed against Kshatra\u00b7deva like Vishnu grappling with Hiranyaksha.\n\n14.40\n\n14.45\n\n127\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nPaurava snarled and spurred on his horses and drove his ritually adorned chariot straight at Saubhadra. Mighty Abhimanyu the tamer of foes was eager to fight and he rode to meet him and another great battle began. Flocked in arrows from Paurava's bow Arjuna's son sent his foe's banner pole parasol and some of steeds all tumbling down to earth. Then Saubhadra loosed seven more arrows at Paurava and five of the shafts pierced his other horses and driver. Roaring like a lion Abhimanyu notched an arrow that would kill Paurava and strike a great blow for his army's morale. But Hridika's son saw the fatal dart terrible to behold and with two of his own splintered from Abhimanyu's hands the bow and the arrow too. Throwing aside his shattered weapon Saubhadra the slayer of foes drew his pale sword and snatched up his shield and nimble with that starsprent disk and with his blade whirling he cut out his path so all could see how fine a warrior he was. His shield and blade were lost in a blur o king as they rose and flashed and trembled and rose again, and leaping onto the axle of Paurava's car he bellowed and grabbed a fistful of his foe's hair at the side of his head and kicking away his charioteer with his foot he hewed down Paurava's standard with his sword. He had snatched his quarry like Garuda plucking a snake from the churning waves of the sea.\n\n14.50\n\n14.55\n\n14.60\n\nAll the chieftains watched as Paurava stood with his hair hanging down, like a cowed child. He was crushed in Abhimanyu's grip like an ox pinned and insensible in the jaws of a lion. Jayad\u00b7ratha could not bear the sight. Taking a shield decorated in peacocks' plumes and strung with a circlet of a hundred small bells he grabbed his sword and ___________________\n\n129\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nwith a cry leapt down from his car. The Dark One 's son* spied the king of Sindhu and let go of Paurava then stepped lightly from the chariot he stood upon and flew at him like a hawk. Sweeping his sword and blocking with his shield every knife, spear and javelin swung by his foes, his brilliance clear to all who beheld him, the mighty child of Arjuna and hero of heroes raised up his heavy blade and his shield and descended upon the son of Vriddha\u00b7kshatra and sworn enemy of his father like a panther upon an elephant.\n\n14.65\n\nWith blade, tooth and nail they came together and each fiercely struck the other like tiger and lion, and as sword and shield collided and swung and fell those feral creatures seemed to blur into one. Their curses, the sough of their blades and the spaces between their swords with their swings and their feints all became indistinguishable. Back and forth they went as they soared, like mountains borne on wings. Then Jayad\u00b7ratha brought down his sword upon the very edge of the shield of glorious Saubhadra as he whipped it high, and as it caught its golden rim glinting like the sun's with all the force of the Sindhu king behind it the great blade shattered. He barely glanced at the broken weapon and tossed it six paces distant and then in the blink of an eye was back in his car.\n\n14.70\n\nSafe now after his tussle with Abhimanyu, all his fellow kings pressed in about his chariot to protect him. Raising his sword and shield above his head Arjuna's heir glared at Jayad\u00b7ratha and roared with anger. Then the son of Subhadra and killer of heroes abandoned the Sindhu king to rise hot and scorching above other soldiers like the sun above the earth. Shalya flung at him a wroughtiron spear ___________________\n\n14.75\n\n131\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\ninlaid with bdellium that flew balefully over the battlefield like a flaring plume of fire. Like Garuda catching a falling snake Abhimanyu jumped down and caught it and slid his own sword back into its scabbard as he did. The feat was so wondrous and quick that all the chieftains who saw it yelled their delight. Then with a powerful swing Saubhadra the smasher of foes hurled Shalya's spear, and its shaft set with cat's eyes* flew back towards its owner's chariot like a brightskinned serpent, thudding into Shalya's driver and bringing him slumping down to the base of his car. Virata and Drupada, Dhrishta\u00b7ketu and Yudhi\u00b7shthira, Satyaki, the Kaikeyas, Bhima, Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna and Shikhandin, the twins and the Draupadeyas all hollered with excitement at the scene. As the sound of arrows multiplied and the lions' roars surged about him Saubhadra stood tall and drank in their applause. O majesty your children could not bear their enemy's pride and all of them sent their sharp arrows at him like rain bursting on a mountain. Artayani still clove to our cause. Smarting from the death of his horseman he made once more for Abhimanyu to seal the death of his foe. Rage drove him on.\n\n14.80\n\n14.85\n\ndhrita\u00b7rashtra spoke.\n\nListening to you describe these myriad duels, I envy those who can see, Sanjaya. One day men will traverse the world telling the wondrous story of the war between the Kurus and the Pandavas as if it were a battle in heaven. But I have yet to hear the end of this great tale. So continue. Tell me of the fight between the sons of Subhadra and Artayani. _________\n\n15.1\n\n133\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nHis driver laid out on the ground, Shalya yelled in anger, raised up his mace of solid iron and leapt down from his high chariot. Bhima saw him flaring up like the fire at the end of time, the weapon in his hand like Death's scepter, and picking up his own heavy mace he was upon him in a moment. Saubhadra too swept up his mace. It was like a lightning bolt in his hand. He taunted Shalya to come to meet him. Bhima struggled to restrain Abhimanyu but when at last he had him under control he turned to do battle with Shalya himself. Bhima towered above his adversary's head majestic as a mountain peak but as soon as he saw him the king of the Madras darted forth as a panther darts at an elephant. Then the blaring trumpets and conches in their hundreds and the lionlike roars and deep throb of drums gathered from the clashing hordes of Kurus and Pandavas into a single sound that seemed to rise in praise as everyone looked on. O Bharata, the lord of the Madras was alone among kings the man who might survive Bhima\u00b7sena's ferocious attack. And who in the world but Dogbelly could withstand a blow from the great Madra king?\n\n15.5\n\n15.10\n\nBhima's huge and beauteous mace was bound with fillets embroidered with Jambu rivergold and it glinted as it swung. Shalya's mace flashed like lightning as he stepped and circled. Bristling with clubs for horns Shalya and Vrikodara bellowed like bulls and traced arcs each around the other. As they paced turned and circled and brandished their weapons there was little to choose between the two lions from the race of men. Then Bhima landed a blow that smashed fragments of iron from the fiery and fearsome orb in Shalya's hands. ___________________\n\n15.15\n\n135\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nRepelled by the shock of his enemy's parry, Bhima\u00b7sena's own weapon glowed like a tree hidden by fireflies in a monsoon dusk. Sparks struck from it spewed forth and scorched the surrounding air. O Bharata as Bhima brought that blow down his mace flashed across the plain like a falling meteor. Their fine weapons found one another and sighed like serpent nymphs and light glanced from them as they locked together. As their clubs crossed the two warriors clawed with their nails like tigers and snapped like elephants with their teeth. With their maces intertwined the bloodflecked shape they made looked for a moment like a flame-of-the-forest in flower, and the crack of their weapons in the hands of those beasts echoed across the whole of the sky as if Indra were knocking together his thunderbolts.\n\n15.20\n\nLeft and right swung Shalya's mace and beneath its blows Bhima was unshaken as stone. The strong Madra king too stood firm as a mountain in a storm. They raised their weapons high and fell upon one another and stood hand to hand, then went in circles, then leapt into the air and came down again. Brutal as elephants they bloodied their clubs on one another until at last, exhausted and crushed beneath each other's pounding blows, they both fell to their knees and hung like flags of Indra. Shalya staggered and slipped and tried to catch his breath, his mace dangling in his hand. _________\n\n15.25\n\n15.30\n\n137\n\nthe anointing of drona\n\nO majesty, mighty Krita\u00b7varman saw the Madra king beaten down and dizzy with weariness and writhing like a snake, and he made quickly for him and pulled him aboard his chariot and accelerated away from the mess of battle. In the winking of an eye Bhima was up again and hefted his weapon in his mighty grip. His eyes rolled as if he were drunk. O father your children all stood among elephants and infantry and horses and cars and watched in fear as Shalya was carried from the fray. Then they too broke up and gave way, driven like shreds of cloud by the rising Pandava wind.\n\n15.35\n\nThe great Pandava warriors had bettered the sons of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra and o king they shone bright in their blazing splendor. Roars and blaring trumpets were the sound of their celebration, and the rumble of countless drums.\n\n139\n\n16\u201332\n\nThe Death of the Beholden\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nG\n\nreat Vrisha\u00b7sena watched the broad army of your sons rent open and began all alone to check the Pandavas with his enchanted bow. Arrows flew over the Pandava horde in ten directions and tore through men, chariots, horses and elephants. Like the sun's rays in the hot season thousands of those burning and heavy shafts from the great man's hand cut through riders and drivers. And pierced through O great king they fell to their knees, trees buckled in the wind. O majesty there were throngs of chariots and horses and elephants in numbers too large to count which he crushed beneath his might.\n\n16.1\n\n16.5\n\nWhen the other kings saw Vrisha\u00b7sena careering fearlessly through the fray they came in around him in a circle. Nakula's boy Shatanika moved in first and struck him with ten razorsharp wroughtiron shafts. But Karna's son splintered his bow and severed the pole of his standard as the children of Draupadi closed keenly in around their brother. Soon Vrisha\u00b7sena disappeared beneath a thick screen of arrows but then came the warriors under Ashvatthaman's command roaring and wheeling and darkening the skies above the mighty Draupadeyas with darts beyond number. They engulfed them as clouds engulf a mountain ridge. Thirsty for Ashvatthaman's blood the Pandavas were upon him in a moment and behind them with weapons held high rode Panchalas, Kekayas, Matsyas, Srinjayas. Loud and bloody and full of horror was the fighting that came next as Pandu's sons met your own like gods meeting demons. Their wrath was now at its height. Eye to eye the Kurus and Pandavas stood, and sin for sin they fought. Such was their passion __________________\n\n16.10\n\n143\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nand so unbound their splendor that it seemed like the warriors' wounded bodies were themselves hungrily plucking the feathered arrows from the sky. Bhima, Karna, Kripa, Drona, Drauni, Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna and Satyaki: the battlefield shone with them as with suns risen at the end of time. In the crash of battle the killing went on between the great demonic legions and a host divine, before roaring like a stormy sea Yudhi\u00b7shthira's army battered the front line of Duryodhana's force. Its champions turned to run.\n\n16.15\n\nDrona saw his army gashed by its foe and breaking apart and he called out to his soldiers.\n\n\"Heroes! Halt your flight!\"\n\nOn a horse drenched in blood Drona rode like the four-tusked Airavata into the army of the Pandavas until he reached Yudhi\u00b7shthira. As the king's sharp arrows fletched in vulture feathers slammed into him Drona drove on, then broke Yudhi\u00b7shthira's bow in two and put him to flight. And then as the coast holds back the tide it was Yudhi\u00b7shthira's wheelguard* Kumara who to the glory of the Panchalas managed briefly to block Drona's progress. A great roar of excitement swelled around him as Kumara braved the brahmin bull and crying out like an enraged beast sent an arrow across the fray and into Drona's chest. But mighty Drona breathed deep, and with a dense flurry of arrows from his dextrous hand the great twiceborn forced Kumara back. Then despite the wheelguard's heroism and high vows and brilliance with the bow, the mighty priest crushed him beneath his attack.\n\n16.20\n\n16.25\n\n145\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nBharad\u00b7vaja's taurine son was proving your army's savior. Reaching the center of foe's troops, he aimed by turns in every direction. Shikhandin he struck with twelve of his arrows then Uttamaujas with twenty then Nakula with five and Saha\u00b7deva with seven. Twelve more pierced Yudhi\u00b7shthira as three hit each of the Draupadeyas and five reached Satyaki and he struck Matsya with ten. He threw the warriors about him into turmoil, all the while making urgently for their leader the son of Kunti. Great Drona was like a tempest-driven sea, and next it was Yugan\u00b7dhara who stepped into his furious path. Sending his trueworked arrows straight at Yudhi\u00b7shthira, Drona knocked Yugan\u00b7dhara from the seat of his car with a single spearheaded shaft.\n\n16.30\n\nYudhi\u00b7shthira was in danger. Together with their comrades Virata, Drupada and the Kaikeyas, Satyaki, Shibi, the Panchala Vyaghra\u00b7datta and hero Sinha\u00b7sena scattered Drona's course with their many missiles and arrows to protect their king from harm. O majesty the Panchala went at Drona with fifty of his biting shafts while his friends spirited Yudhi\u00b7shthira away. Sinha\u00b7sena found his mark with a speedy shot and burst into excited laughter to have grazed the great ascetic. But mighty Drona plucked the string of his own bow and as it sang in the air his spearlike shafts sheared the bejewelled heads of Vyaghra\u00b7datta and Sinha\u00b7sena away from their necks. Unceasing he ravaged the paladins of the Pandavas with his volleys and now he stood near Yudhi\u00b7shthira's chariot like Death come to bear him off. O majesty, cries of alarm went up from Yudhi\u00b7shthira's troops. With sternvowed Drona so close to him the warriors all thought their king dead. As he reared up to Yudhi\u00b7shthira they said ______________________________________\n\n16.35\n\n16.40\n\n147\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nto themselves, \"Now Duryodhana's wish will come to pass and then, as Drona promised Dhrita\u00b7rashtra's son, he will come for us.\"\n\nBut even as such words were on their lips, with the wheels of his chariot grinding, the mighty warrior and son of Kunti was quickly among your own, rising suddenly out of the river rife with shoals of arrows foaming to its surface and all crowded with ghosts and thick with the trunks and bones of dead heroes, the river that fountained from the havoc Drona had brought. The Diademed Warrior scattered Kurus before him and made straight for Drona's guard and cast across them a wide and bewildering net of arrows as he went. Quick and unrelenting flew his missiles as over and over he notched another onto his string. Soon the very shape of the fabled son of Kunti vanished before our eyes. O king the horizon itself could no more been seen, nor could the space near or far above our heads, nor the earth beneath our feet. The last moments of sunset were invisible through the dust and under that wooden darkness spread upon us by the bow Gandiva the battlefield too had disappeared. There were only arrows.\n\n16.45\n\nWe could make out neither friend nor enemy. Drona, Duryodhana and the other Kuru generals signaled the retreat. When he realized that the terror he had whipped up among them had forced them to cease battle, slowly and contemptuously Arjuna drew back his own men. The Pandus, the Srinjayas and the Panchalas were overjoyed. They poured their praise on Partha in beautiful words like sages in thrall to the sun. With his foes defeated and Keshava at his side, Dhanan\u00b7jaya son of Pandu made his way back in high __________________\n\n16.50\n\n149\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nspirits to his tent at the rear of the camp. Atop his chariot spangled in the finest quartz and coral and diamonds interwrought with gold, crystals and sapphires, he shone like the moon among a million stars.\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nThe two armies went back to their tents and everyone retired to the different quarters of the camp. But having forced this stalemate with the enemy Drona was plunged into deep despair. He raised his eyes to Duryodhana and his words were tinged with shame.\n\n17.1\n\n\"What I said before has been proven true. As long as Dhanan\u00b7jaya is by his side Yudhi\u00b7shthira can be taken only by the gods. And so all your struggles Partha rendered in vain. Be sure of what I say: Krishna and Arjuna are invincible. But if their white horses can be drawn off somehow, then in a moment, my king, Yudhi\u00b7shthira will be yours. Someone must challenge Arjuna and lure him to somewhere far from the midst of the fray, since the heir born to Kunti will not weaken as long as Arjuna remains unbowed. If the good king were alone for just a brief time then my lord I could break his line and snatch him from Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna's vigilant gaze. As long as he keeps to the field even when bereft of Arjuna, you can be assured that when you see me next I will have Yudhi\u00b7shthira in chains. Believe me great king. I will bring the child of righteousness and all his cohorts under your command, and I will do so soon. If the son of Pandu stays on the plain for just a passing moment then he will leave the war and any hope of victory behind him.\"\n\n17.5\n\n17.10\n\n151\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nO king, the lord of the Tri\u00b7gartas and his brothers heard what Drona said. Susarman turned to address Duryodhana.*\n\n\"O king and bull of the Bharatas. Although we commit no sin, every day we suffer the abuse of that evildoer who bears the bow Gandiva. When we meditate on his many insults in the dead of night we burn in flames of anger that consume our hours of rest. If he raises his bow once more at us then we will surely be the authors of that deed for which we have hoped in the innermost chambers of our hearts. May our promise please you and may it bring us fame. We will kill him and drag his corpse off the plain. This will not be undone: the world will no longer hold both Arjuna and the brothers Tri\u00b7garta.\"\n\n17.15\n\nAnd so it was o Bharata that with these words a sacred vow was sworn between his five brothers Satya\u00b7ratha, Satya\u00b7dharman, Satya\u00b7vrata, Satyeshu and Satya\u00b7karman. They came forth with their thousand chariots. At the head of the Malavas and Tundikeras and his own massive armies the Tri\u00b7garta tiger Susharman lord of Prasthala went in step with brothers. Then came the panoplies of the Mavellakas, the Lalitthas and the Madrakas, and a final great legion made up of folk tatterdemalion. The sealing of the vow in that mighty assembly began. A pyre was built high, and with bunches of sacred grass and bright chips of bark each performed his rite. Their armor was bound with ribbons and anointed with oil. They took bunches of grass in their hands and tied girdles of hemp around their waists. Those heroes of unreckonable gifts were sacrificers with heirs and __________________\n\n17.20\n\n153\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\ndomains, men of duty, warriors who had abandoned life and turned their hearts to glory and triumph. Through pious and solemn rites rich with largesse they prepared for the realms where battle would bring them, and now were eager to fight on. They rewarded their priests with gifts of coins, cows and cloth, and speaking once more among themselves agreed on their oath and set alight the fire that brings all to black.\n\n17.25\n\nWith iron wills they forged their promise in those flames. To make even firmer their resolve to kill Dhanan\u00b7jaya they declaimed these words to all who could hear them.\n\n\"There are men who break the law. Who kill and cast out priests and plunder kings. Drunks who toy with their teachers' wives. Men who turn away the needy, who kill beggars, who slaughter cows and burn down homes, who scorn the gods or lie with their wives when it is forbidden or fornicate at the funerals of their fathers. Men who skirmish with the weak, who hang on the words of idiots, infidels who walk away from their hearths and their elders. There are men who destroy themselves and the rules by which we live. May we share their fate if in fear we turn our backs to our task. But we say this: if in battle we achieve our arduous goal then we will ascend to the places where the blessed dwell.\"\n\n17.30\n\n17.35\n\n155\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nO majesty, with these words the mighty brothers went forth and called out Arjuna's name south across the land. When he heard their tiger's roars Partha the conqueror of cities spoke to the good king these urgent words.\n\n\"My king I have vowed never to refuse a challenge. Beholden* are summoning me. Susharman and his brothers are calling me out to fight. You must grant me leave to crush them and their troops. Bull in the herd of men I cannot resist this challenge, but I can promise that a handful of your foes are as good as dead.\"\n\n17.40\n\nyudhi\u00b7shthira spoke.\n\nBrother. You have heard exactly what it is that Drona intends: make sure that his aim remains a hollow one. You are a great warrior, but Drona is a mighty hero too, a master of the bow who suffers hardship unbending, and he it is who has vowed to capture me.\n\narjuna spoke.\n\nYou have a protector here before you, majesty, in Satyajit. While this son of Panchali lives our teacher's desire will remain unfulfilled. O king, the tiger Satyajit will fall only when no warrior on earth still stands.\n\n17.45\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nThe king granted the Red Star Fighter his leave and then embraced him with deep affection. Equipped with his blessing alone, brave Partha left the king and rode out for the Tri\u00b7gartas like a lion at a herd of deer ravening to quell its hunger. And Duryodhana's army swelled in frenzy, inflamed with the prospect of capturing the good king once Arjuna had been dispatched. The two armies crashed together like __________\n\n157\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nthe Ganges and Sarayu plunging their rainswollen waters into the immensity of the ocean.\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nO majesty. The Beholden were drawn up together, their chariots arranged in the figure of the moon. They bristled with anticipation. When those tigers laid their eyes on the Diademed Warrior as he rode near they let out a delirious cry so loud that it filled every quarter of the sky and smothered its own echo. Dhanan\u00b7jaya observed their excitement. He smiled slightly, turned to Krishna and spoke.\n\n18.1\n\n\"Look at them o son of Devaki: the brothers Tri\u00b7garta, so soon to meet their end. Giddy with joy when they should be weeping. Or perhaps it is time for the Tri\u00b7gartas to rejoice, since they are bound for realms beyond the reach of fools.\"\n\n18.5\n\nWith these words to Hrishi\u00b7kesha, strongarmed Arjuna rode into battle against the serried ranks of the Tri\u00b7gartas. Raising the conch Deva\u00b7datta to his lips he blew deep and filled the air with its sound. Its note blared out above the army of the Beholden and fear stole across every one of them. For a moment they froze still on the battlefield as if cast in iron. Their horses rolled their eyes, necks and ears stiffening, motionless but for the bloodcolored piss running down their shanks.\n\n18.10\n\nThen the brothers Tri\u00b7garta gathered their wits. They rallied their troops and as one loosed their heronfeathered arrows at Pandu's son. But before they even reached him Arjuna nimbly split the hundredfold volley with swift shafts of his own. Ten whetted darts then ten again they let fly at Arjuna, and Partha knocked them all away. Back he shot __________\n\n159\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nthree and three again. O majesty, each Tri\u00b7garta struck Partha with five of his arrows but with twin shafts he struck back at each. In a tumult of anger they poured their missiles unrelentingly on Arjuna and on Keshava, rain upon a pool, and hundreds of them plummeted down as when swarms of bees in a forest descend on swaths of openpetalled flowers. Subahu sent thirty arrows of solid iron into the crown Arjuna wore, and with his head studded in those goldfeathered and trueflying shafts Kiritin stood tall like a sacrificial stake capped in ingots of river gold.\n\n18.15\n\nThe son of Pandu fought back. With a barbed missile he cracked apart the very guard protecting Subahu's hand and then let fly a downpour of darts upon his head. Ten arrows flew back at the Diademed Warrior from the five bows of Susharman, Suratha, Sudharman, Subahu and Sudhanus. Yet while the flag of the monkey fluttered over his head one by one with his barbed arrows Arjuna pierced and tattered each of their golden oriflammes, and then he split Sudhanus' bow in two, transfixed his horse and at last tore the warrior's still-helmeted head from his neck.\n\n18.20\n\n161\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nTerror struck his companions as Sudhanus' trunk fell to earth. They turned to fly back beneath Duryodhana's wing. But with his blood aflame the son of Indra sent arrows in unbroken lines through those mighty battalions like rays of the sun cutting through darkness. With their force scattered and broken, horror at the Left Handed Archer's wrath possessed the Tri\u00b7gartas. Harrowed by the wellwhittled arrows from Partha's bow they stumbled about in confusion like a herd of frightened deer. But Satya\u00b7ratha was furious and he called out to his warriors.\n\n18.25\n\n\"Stand your ground! You are heroes. Fear does not become you. We have taken solemn oaths and every member of this army bore witness to them. What words will you find when you face Duryodhana's men? When report of our deeds in this war travels abroad, what will we become but a laughing stock? We must be strong together. We must fight as one.\"\n\nAt their king's words a cry went up, then another. They blew into their shells and rallied a second time. Once more the Beholden attacked. Once more the Narayanas and the Go\u00b7palas chose to make death their final retreat.\n\n18.30\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\n19.1\n\nSeeing the mass of the Beholden wheeling to face him Arjuna addressed great Vasudeva.\n\n\"Spur on the horses, Hrishi\u00b7kesha. It seems the Beholden will not cease from this battle alive. See now the fearsome might of my arm and my bow. It is time that I immolate them as Rudra immolates his flock.\"\n\n163\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nAt this, proud Krishna smiled and assented, loyal as ever to Arjuna. Borne through the fray by its white steeds their chariot glittered like a vessel of the skies and it traced circles that vanished and reappeared, and O majesty it was like the chariot Indra rode in the celestial battle of old. With weapons bristling in their hands the cruel Narayanas pressed in around Dhanan\u00b7jaya, covering him with a canopy of arrows, and for a moment o bull of the Bharatas the fierce son of Kunti and Warrior of the Red Stars Dhanan\u00b7jaya disappeared beneath their attack. In the chaos Pandu's son brandished Gandiva. His brow darkened as a cloud of anger passed across his face. He blew hard into the great conch Deva\u00b7datta, and then he unleashed the smasher of the enemy horde that is men know as the Tvashtri weapon.\n\n19.5\n\n19.10\n\nOut of nowhere stepped a thousand figures, one by one, each a double of Arjuna. Bewildered by these apparations the Narayanas mistook one another for their foe and set upon their own kind, crying out in confusion, It is Arjuna! And there is Go\u00b7vinda! Over there\u2014Pandava and Yadava! With each cry another was slaughtered. Deranged by his spectacular attack warriors perished together in the dance of war, and as they fell they were as beautiful as lilies in flower. The Tvashtri weapon reduced to ash thousands of arrows and sent the archers who fired them away to Yama's abode. Arjuna laughed in disgust as his shafts scattered the Lalitthas and Malavas, the Mavellakas and the Tri\u00b7gartas and the Yaudheyas.\n\n19.15\n\n165\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nBut time drove them on. Despite his crushing blows they brewed another rising storm of arrows and once more Arjuna, Keshava and their chariot disappeared into its squalls. Their enemies felt the thrill of victory within reach, some throwing off their cloaks and crying out to one another that the Krishnas were dead,* others sounding and pounding and hammering a hundred trumpets and drums. They bellowed in triumph, my king. Krishna labored on wearily, sweat pouring from his brow, and called out to his friend.\n\n19.20\n\n\"O son of Pandu where are you? I cannot see you. O deathbringer are you still among the living?\"\n\nArjuna was quickened by his cry, and invoking now the Vayavya weapon he began to blow back the arrow rain that was falling. The holy wind picked up swords, cars, horses, elephants and piles of the Beholden and carried them away like dry leaves. They glittered in the air, my king, like flights of birds leaving the trees when the season has turned. As he gathered speed Arjuna brought disaster down upon them. His iron barbs took off heads and hands still clenching swords and brought the long trunks of the tallest elephants tumbling upon the broad earth. Mashing brokenbacked or legless figures into arms, thighs and eyes he tore his enemies limb from limb. He broke with his arrows each chariot decked to look like a city of spirits and sundered man from elephant and from steed and from car.\n\n19.25\n\nIt was like looking upon a vast forest of palms with their fronds cut away. Everywhere were piles of shattered chariots and ruined standards. Among flags hooks and spears elephants lay resplendent in their armor like wooded mountains blasted by Indra's thunderbolt. Horses lay with their ____________________\n\n19.30\n\n167\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nriders still clad in breastplates, chaplets and chowries, dashed to earth under Partha's shafts, their entrails unwound, their eyes out, their breath departed. Men's daggers were bent, their swords, lances and mail all snapped and crushed. Footsoldiers lay dead in broken armor. A pitiful sight. Dead and dying and falling and fallen they stumbled and moaned. How dark a place that plain was. Clouds of dust rose and fell with the bloody rain and the earth was so thick with the trunks of men that there was nowhere left to stand. Picking one's way across that horror was a feat too gruesome even for men who dwelt in gore. It was like the pleasure grove of Rudra, killer of the flock at the hour of time's passing. Any whom Partha reached were no more. Their chariots, horses and elephants were lost, and they themselves waned away, bound for Indra's halls. All across that land, o best of the Bharatas, across every foot of it, were strewn dead heroes emptied of their souls. But even as the Left Handed Archer's madness was at its height, Drona drove his legions at Yudhi\u00b7shthira, and gathered as one their attack was swift, for they were desperate to have the king in their grasp. Another great battle began.\n\n19.35\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nO king of kings. Now that Arjuna had set forth to destroy the Beholden, the strategy that Drona had hatched with them and Suyodhana during their long discussion the previous night was underway. At the head of his array the son of Bharad\u00b7vaja rode for the great Pandava host. His aim o best of the Bharatas was the capture of the righteous king. _________________\n\n20.1\n\n169\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nYudhi\u00b7shthira had drawn his own troops up in a halfcircle when he had seen Drona's choice of the Garuda configuration. Bharad\u00b7vaja's mighty son formed the bird's beak and in its head rode King Duryodhana with his kith and kin. Krita\u00b7varman and Gautama the sun were its eyes and along its neck marched row upon row of soldiers, cars, horses and elephants, all clad in the finest mail, from Bhuta\u00b7sharman and Kshema\u00b7sharman and valiant Kara\u00b7karsha through the Kalingas and Sinhalas and the people of the East, the brave Abhiras, the Dasherakas and Shakas, the Yavanas and Kambojas and the people from the lands of the swan, and then the Shura\u00b7senas, Daradas, Madras and the Kekayas. ________________\n\nSpanning the one wing with their legions were the heroes Bhuri\u00b7shravas, Shalya, Soma\u00b7datta and Bahlika, and spanning the other with Drona's son at their head were Vinda and Anuvinda of Avanti and the Kamboja king Sudakshina. The bird's back was made of the Kalingas and the Ambashthas, the Magadhas and Paundras and Madrakas, the Gandharas and Shakunas and the peoples of the mountains in the East and those who dwell beyond them. In its tail were Karna born of the sun with his folk and friends, all men of grand and venerable stock from many and distant lands. And in the bird's belly my king stood lords of war clad for paradise and ringed in mighty troops. They were Jayad\u00b7ratha and Bhima\u00b7ratha whose halls rise towards the dawn, and Bhumin\u00b7jaya and Vrisha and Kratha the great Nishadha chieftain.\n\n20.5\n\n20.10\n\n171\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nDrona's rows of men and horses and cars and beasts unfurled like the face of the ocean ruffled by the wind. From shoulder to tip the array of eager warriors rolled on like clouds in hot weather gathering with lightning and thunder across the sky. And o king as if touched by the dawn of a rising sun Prag\u00b7jyotisha sat resplendent at their very center atop his perfectly laden steed. The vast elephant was the color of black antimony and it streamed from its temples like a mountain drenched by a great rain.* It was lit up by its rider, who with his garlands and snowy parasol hung above the creature like the moon cradled in the Pleiades. Meanwhile like Shakra before the Himalayan gods Yudhi\u00b7shthira stood before the great flashing swords and jewels that picked out his own broad army of mighty kings. He gazed upon the unearthly and invincible horde that approached him, and then he turned to Prishata's grandson and spoke. ________\n\n20.15\n\n20.20\n\n\"O rider of the turtledovecolored horses. Whatever course you choose my liege make sure that the priest does not have me in chains by the day's end.\"\n\ndhrishta\u00b7dyumna spoke.\n\nDrona may try but he will not have his way, good king. I will drive Drona back and all his kind with him. As long as I live, o son of Kuru, you have nothing to fear. Drona cannot better me in battle.\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nAt this promise Drupada's mighty son drove his turtle-dovecolored steeds at Drona, scattering arrows as he went. The unwelcome sight of Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna swam before the priest's eyes and for just a moment a flicker of dismay fell __________\n\n20.25\n\n173\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nacross them. Your son Durmukha bane of foes also saw Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna's sally and he rode out to meet him in defense of his commander. O Bharata a loud and bloody struggle began between Durmukha and the grandson of Prishata. In moments Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna had cast a net of arrows across him and a great mass of shafts upon Bharad\u00b7vaja's son. Laboring beneath his attack your Durmukha looked across at Drona and saw him vanishing in arrows and sent at Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna a dizzying volley of his own myriad darts. The Kuru and Panchala warriors fought close while Drona pulled away and reaved Yudhi\u00b7shthira's host, and as he opened fissures everywhere in Partha's ranks like banks of cloud split by a gale for a moment my king the battle took on a wild beauty of its own, before madness and chaos engulfed it once again.\n\n20.30\n\nNeither friend nor foe could be told apart O majesty and we could but cry out and guess at who stood before us. Light brighter than rays of the sun flashed from head jewels and medallions and armor and chains. Pennants fluttered among beasts and cars and horses like cranes scattered across a dark sky. Men slew men and horses kicked high and killed horses and cars crushed cars and elephants slew elephants. Bearing their tattered flags the huge beasts filled the fray with blood and noise as they tangled legs and dragged one another behind them and struck tusks that sparked with fire and smoke. Between torn banners and the sparks thrown from their jaws they loomed like crackling thunderheads, and like a dark autumn sky the earth was thick with them roaring and rolling and streaming in musth.\n\n20.35\n\n20.40\n\n175\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nThe cries of those magnificent beasts as spear and javelin and shaft went into them were like the roars of clouds in a storm. I saw elephants tremble as they were pierced through by lances and arrows, others running in pursuit of the death wails of their kind. I saw hides torn open by tusks. The sounds of pain were as chilling as omens in the heavens. Galloping together they crashed against one another and then carried on beneath the sharp bite of the goad as riders struck riders with spear and arrow and toppled to earth with their steeds, weapons and hooks flying from their lifeless hands. Riderless elephants blared and galloped among one another like shredded clouds and the great things dragged the dead and fallen and fallen swords with them as they coursed together across the plain and fell in howls of pain from wounds old or fresh from clubs and spears and lances.\n\n20.45\n\n20.50\n\nThe slaughter was immense. The earth shook and resounded beneath an endless avalanche of bodies, and like a jagged mountain range elephants and riders and flags were heaped up upon it. Elephantriders were struck in the heart by archers' arrows and dropping their hooks or pikes fell from their seats, the elephants beneath them transfixed by irons and screeching like birds and trampling their own and their foes as they galloped away any way they could. O majesty. The earth was a mire of blood and gore full of the corpses of soldiers and bowmen and elephants and horses mangled by foot or tusk, a mire across which the survivors ground their wheels or if their wheels were gone merely dragged the shells of their cars. Everywhere there were chariots without drivers, horses without horsemen, panicked __________\n\n20.55\n\n177\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nelephants with their riders hanging dead in their stirrups. Son felled father and father felled son as the roar of battle drowned out all else. Men black as burnt trees with mud and gore sank ankledeep in the swamp, their armor and silk beblooded and their parasols and flags all the same scarlet. Piles of horses and piles of chariots and the fallen dead were turned over and torn again by the endless rolling of wheels. The battlefield became an ocean that bore in its great tides clumps of beasts and unbreathing men like weeds. Knots of chariots swirled in its currents. Warriors took to its waters in vessels that drew deep and somehow stayed afloat, but instead of the wealth and fame they had sought they found only the madness of war. Noble faces were no more, cut to pieces under the hail of arrows. No one could even recognise himself any more.\n\n20.60\n\nIt was Drona who had caused this pandemonium among his foes. And as the appalling welter of violence went on, he made his way towards Yudhi\u00b7shthira.\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nYudhi\u00b7shthira saw Drona approach. He was not afraid and sent at him a torrent of arrows, but a ululation rose above his army like the sound made by an elephant herd when a lion eyes its bull.* Mighty Satyajit set his eyes upon Drona and keen to save his king rode out bravely for his teacher. Two warriors great as Indra and Virochana's son, the Panchala met his master in a contest that we watched with awe.\n\n21.1\n\n179\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nBold beyond bounds the great bowman Satyajit found his target first, with an arrow whetted to a point and loosed with wondrous skill. He followed it with five deadly shafts like snakes' tongues and they found Drona's driver and knocked his senses from him. Without pause with ten swift shafts he pierced Drona's horses and with ten and ten again he vented his fury on Drona's flankriders,* before wheeling furiously in a broad arc through the fray Satyajit punisher of foes cut straight through the pole upon which Drona's oriflamme flew. Drona watched his handiwork and deciding that the moment had come to tame his adversary the Teacher split the bow and arrows he held in his hands and with ten sharp shafts biting to the marrow pierced Satyajit himself. But fiery Satyajit lightly raised another bow my king and sent at Drona thirty vulturefeathered shafts. And Vrika saw Drona in Satyajit's jaws and with his own sharp arrows in myriad the Panchala added to Drona's pain. As the priest disappeared beneath their joint attack the Pandavas watched and whooped and pulled off their armor. Majesty it was difficult to believe one's eyes as Vrika now in an ecstasy of violent rage sent sixty arrows thudding into Drona's chest.\n\n21.5\n\n21.10\n\nShadowed beneath an arrow storm Drona rolled his eyes in fury and with all his power unleashed his attack. He broke Satyajit's bow in two and then did the same to Vrika's and then sent six shafts straight at him and his driver and his horses. With a wild gesture Satyajit swept up another bow and struck back at Drona and his arrows found the brahmin's horses and horseman and the pole of his flag. As Drona felt the force of the Panchala prince, his patience with the battle was gone and he loosed a great volley to finish off __________\n\n21.15\n\n181\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nhis foe. A huge shower of arrows fell onto Satyajit's steeds and standard, bow, quiver and both his flankriders but as bow upon bow broke in his grasp such was the Panchala's skill that again and again he fought back at the red horses of Drona. Yet at last his hubris did prove his undoing. With an arrowtip curved like a halfmoon Drona finally severed the great man's head.\n\n21.20\n\nTerror took Yudhi\u00b7shthira when he saw Drona slay one of the best warriors and greatest leaders that the Panchalas could boast, and he drove his swift steeds into retreat as the Panchalas and Kekayas and Matsyas, the Chedis, Karushas and Kosalas all saw what was happening and rode in to protect him. Making for Yudhi\u00b7shthira the Teacher rode on through his foes and flattened the lines arrayed before him like wind through a meadow's grass. As he plowed through line upon line it was Shatanika, the younger brother of Matsya, who set out to stop him. With six arrows still warm from the blacksmith's forge and bright as rays of the sun he found Drona and his horses and his driver. Eager to try his hand at the highest prize he clove to the deed and seeking Drona's blood sent a shower of arrows down upon the head of Bharad\u00b7vaja's son. But with a single sharp and deadly blow Drona struck from his body the man's head still framed by rings and still roaring. Next came the Matsyas and the Matsyas fell and then came the Chedis and the Chedis fell and the Karushas and the Kekayas, the Panchalas, Srinjayas and the Pandus. On Drona went, burning through the thickets of men like a fire raging through a forest.\n\n21.25\n\n183\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nThe surviving Srinjayas saw what the mighty Warrior of the Golden Chariot was doing, and they were afraid. All about us was the sigh of the string of the fine bow he brandished as his light fingers sent death among his foes. His hands worked quickly and out flew his cruel arrows through elephants and their riders, through horses, horsemen, men. Drona rushed on like a cloud wrapped in wind and roaring at the cold season's end, and fear fell upon us like hailstones. Churning through the men before him the great and merciful and mighty bowman wheeled across the plain. We looked to the horizon and there we saw Drona's goldfiligreed bow like lightning between clouds, and as he flew enveloped in splendor on through the fray we saw the fire altar blazing atop his standard, like snow gleaming on a mountain peak.\n\n21.30\n\n21.35\n\nThe destruction Drona wrought upon the Pandavas was like the ruin that Vishnu reverend to god and demon once brought upon the children of Diti. True in courage and true in word and mighty in his wisdom, he was a warrior of the highest eminence and now as the end of things approached Drona poured forth a river of death. Only the brave could look upon it. In its waves were pieces of armor and in its currents flagpoles bumped against the bodies of men. Not fish but swords swam in its fordless waters, and elephants and horses were where sharks might have been. In its ghastly flow were pebbles of human bone, drums and tambourines like tortoises, and breastplates and greaves were its boats and its evil verdure skeins of hair like weeds. Thick with arrows, sluggish with bows and budding limbs, its hot waves bore Kurus and Srinjayas across the bed of the battlefield __________\n\n21.40\n\n185\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nbetween banks lined with human skulls, while on its surface clubs bobbed like rafts and in its depths spears were its fish. It foamed with the ribbons of turbans and unraveled entrails were its watersnakes and blood and gore formed its gruesome clay. Away went the bodies of dead heroes and beneath the floating staves like felled trees went elephants like gharials and other warriors and riders whose corpses the river's bloody waters had swallowed like so many creepers and crocodiles, while along its distant shores loped eaters of carrion and packs of dogs and jackals and throngs of things awful and strange that hungered for human meat.\n\n21.45\n\nDrona tore his deadly course through their army as the great sons of Kunti tried to stop him. Your own kings and princes all raised their bows and kept close to our valiant and mighty champion as the Pandavas pressed together to meet him. It was like trying to compass the sun that scorches the earth beneath its rays.\n\nThey struck Drona in turn, Shikhandin with five true-worked arrows and Kshatra\u00b7dharman with twenty and Vasu\u00b7dana with five, then Uttamaujas with three of his own and Kshatra\u00b7deva with seven. Satyaki sent a whole volley down upon him and Yudha\u00b7manyu found Drona with seven arrows, while twelve missiles from Yudhi\u00b7shthira's bow struck home, and Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna loosed ten and Chekitana three. But Drona rode on and broke through and fell wild as an elephant upon the densely packed chariot line before him. King Kshema rode forth but Drona pinned him with nine of his arrows and he collapsed dead from his car. Wheeling across the plain Drona was now right at the enemy's center, riding through them as our savior, and he __________\n\n21.50\n\n187\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nneeded no refuge where he stood. Twelve arrows he sent at Shikhandin and twenty at Uttamaujas and with a barbed tip he ushered Vasu\u00b7dana into Death's realm. Eighty found Kshatra\u00b7dharman and six and twenty Sudakshina and with another hooked shaft he knocked Kshatra\u00b7deva from the seat of his car. Four and sixty Rukma\u00b7ratha loosed at Yudha\u00b7manyu and thirty at Satyaki and then he charged straight at his quarry. As he did, the great Panchala chieftain Kitava drove his swift steeds at Drona to protect Yudhi\u00b7shthira. But his bow and horse and driver all fell before the priest's attack and then Kitava himself fell dead from his car like a star falling from the sky.\n\n21.55\n\nThe howl for Drona's blood went up as the glorious prince of the Panchalas crashed down dead. But despite their rage Drona rippled through them, through Matsya and Kekaya and Srinjaya and Pandava. Satyaki and Chekitana and Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna and Shikhandin, Varddhakshemi and Chaitraseni and Sena\u00b7bindu and Suvarchas and all the other countless kings from lands beyond mention all lost to Drona and his Kurus that hour. Grasping at their great triumph your army struck down the stock of Pandu as they ran for their lives. O majesty and scion of Bharata. That hour it was the Panchalas, the Kekayas and the Matsyas who shook like demons beneath mighty Indra's blows.\n\n21.60\n\n21.65\n\ndhrita\u00b7rashtra spoke.\n\nA great battle. Did any of the Pandavas or Panchalas broken beneath Bharad\u00b7vaja's attack rise again? The noble glory of war brings warriors their renown. It is hallowed by the mighty and looms above the mean. And great Dro-___________________\n\n22.1\n\n189\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nna was a fighter clad in all the finery of battle. He was a supreme archer feared by his enemies. He was a man of action and a lover of truth and his devotion to Duryodhana was complete, for he had delivered up his life to war. There must have been fighters who saw dauntless Drona before them like a yawning tiger or an elephant in musth and yet still contended against him for fame. Tell me, Sanjaya. Tell me too of those who when the great son of Bharad\u00b7vaja was among them ran for their lives.\n\n22.5\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nThey all quailed and quivered beneath Drona's volleys: the Panchalas and the Pandavas and Matsyas and Srinjayas and the Chedis and Kekayas. On the torrent of lifestealing arrows that poured from Drona's bow they were carried off like driftwood on the high waves of the Sindhu. The Kauravas roared at the sight and with cries and shouts pressed in closer around the Pandava chariots, beasts and men. Surrounded by his guard at the very heart of his host, King Duryodhana looked on and called across to Karna, excitement and delight in his eyes.\n\nduryodhana spoke.\n\nLook at them o son of Radha. The Panchalas crouched in fear beneath the arrows of Drona's bow like forest deer before a lion. I doubt that they will trouble me again soon. They have been broken by our commander like tall trees broken by the wind. They are being crushed beneath the great archer's golden shafts. Look at them, at their disarray, how they twist and turn. We Kauravas and highsouled Drona have raked them up for burning. Look at how they back ______________________\n\n22.10\n\n191\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\ninto a circle like elephants ringed in fire. Drona's sharp arrows swarm among them like bees and each man scrabbles about desperate to save his skin. Look at Bhima quaking with anger. All alone in the thick of my army, no Pandava or Srinjaya in sight. How this in particular amuses me, Karna. Today Bhima must look with sad eyes upon a world remade in Drona's image. And he will have to abandon all hope he might have still for dominion, or for his life.\n\n22.15\n\nkarna spoke.\n\nO tiger in the forest of men. As long as he breathes, strongarmed Bhima will not surrender. Nor will he tolerate these roars he hears about him. None of the Pandavas will simply give way in this battle for they are mighty warriors and there is no weapon they cannot wield. Their minds are warped by bloodlust. They fight in the memory both of their time in the wilderness and of their many sufferings from poison and from fire and from the dice. I tell you this: the Pandavas will never abandon the battlefield. Bhima's valor has never been checked. The strongarmed son of Kunti will not lie down until he has slain hero upon hero. The very greatest fighters that now live will fall. By sword by bow and by spear he will crush them, beneath horse and elephant hooves and chariot wheels and the feet of men and beneath arrows and beneath staves horde upon horde will die. Satyaki's guard is at his side, and so too are the Panchalas, Kekayas and Matsyas. Then there are the other four Pandavas, supreme warriors of bravery and might. They will go forth to kill with Bhima's furious cries in their ears. Vrikodara's will is what they seek to make good and they __________\n\n22.20\n\n193\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nwill gather about Drona like banks of cloud about the sun. They are men bound by a single goal. Like moths that live but a moment in this world they will descend upon the flame that is our noble commander and he will have no one to protect him. Remember this. Their mastery of the arts of war is matched only by their resilience. Something great and terrible hangs over Bharad\u00b7vaja's son. We must stay close to the course that Drona takes, lest like wolves hunting an elephant the Pandavas reach him and tear him apart.\n\n22.25\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nO majesty, King Duryodhana listened to Radha's son and with his brothers rolled up alongside Drona's chariot. Then a great clamor arose and the Pandavas rode out as one behind fine steeds of many shades. And their hearts burned for the death of Drona.\n\ndhrita\u00b7rashtra spoke.\n\nTell me, Sanjaya, of all the banners and the chariots that Bhima's wild host brought at Drona.\n\n23.1\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nGlimpsing Vrikodara behind his brindled horses, the mighty son of Shini swung about his silver steeds. Hardy Yudha\u00b7manyu angrily spurred on his dappled horses and wheeled towards Drona's chariot, while behind dovecolored horses fleet of foot and harnessed in gold there appeared Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna, prince of the Panchalas. Kshatra\u00b7dharman turned his bay team and made straight for his old teacher, for he was sworn to the warrior code and clung to his noble calling. On came Shikhandin's son Kshatra\u00b7deva, __________\n\n23.5\n\n195\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\ndriving on wellbedecked horses the colour of lotus petals and with spots white as jasmine flowers around their eyes. The quick Kamboja breeds that bore Nakula down upon us wore harnesses of parrot feathers beautiful to behold. Wrathful Uttamaujas was carried straight into the dense fray o Bharata as if on driven clouds, and into the crash of battle with his sword upraised horses speckled like partridges and quick as squalls bore Saha\u00b7deva. The steeds of the tiger Yudhi\u00b7shthira had black tails and coats white as ivory and they raced on swift as the wind, and swift as the wind were the horses draped in the finest gold that carried the troops around him.\n\n23.10\n\nNext to the king stood another, the mighty bowman Drupada, king of the Panchalas, swathed in gold and ringed by his sentinel troop, borne magisterially into that royal array on gentle steeds, starred palominos mild and nimble however loud the din of battle became. Virata arrived swiftly in their wake, and other champions, the Kaikeyas, Shikhandin, Dhrishta\u00b7ketu, each surrounded by his guard and each drawing up alongside the Matsya lord. The fine steeds that drew the vengeful king blazed like the trumpet flower. His son's fleetfooted team were banded in gold, their coats yellow as sandalwood, and under ruby pennants and behind beasts the color of cochineal those valiant masters of war the brothers Kaikeya glinted in their mail, golden chains festooning their necks. They were stormclouds dense with rain.\n\n23.15\n\n197\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nYoked before his chariot, mild horses coppery red like the dawn or unkilned clay drew the Panchala prince Shikhandin, his splendors untrammeled, and behind him came six of the twelve hundred Panchala champions. The horses belonging to the son of the lion Shishu\u00b7pala were patterned like antelope and they danced, my lord, as they drew his car.\n\n23.20\n\nThe bull of the Chedis fabled for his might, invincible Dhrishta\u00b7ketu, drove dapples from Kamboja, and fine breeds from Sindhu the shade of strawsmoke galloped before Brihat\u00b7kshatra, the young Kekaya prince. Shikhandin's other son brave Riksha\u00b7deva drove roans the color of lotuses born in Balkh with spots of white around their eyes and rich livery about their hides, as brightharnessed gentletempered horses with coats like silk bore through the fray Sena\u00b7bindu, burner of foes, and steeds dotted like curlews took the young and tender son of the king of Kashi, a warrior now but barely a man, deep into the field of battle. Prativindhya's horses were white with black necks, and my king those gorgeous creatures carried their prince along with the swiftness of thought itself.\n\n23.25\n\nStallions white as gram blossom took Suta\u00b7soma into war, the son with the light of a thousand moons whom Bhima\u00b7sena owed to Soma. The boy was born while the soma* roared, in the city of the Kurus known as Udayendu, and thus he got his name. Like rosemallow and the flower of calotropis were the horses so beloved to their master Shatanika son of Nakula. Draupadi's second son the tiger Shruta\u00b7karman answered the call to battle with turquoise roans and charioteers hidden in gold, and her third, Shruta\u00b7kirti, a well of wisdom and __________\n\n23.30\n\n199\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nPartha's likeness, was borne by the finest horses touched by the color of the bluejay's wing. Across the field galloped the bays of Prince Abhimanyu, Krishna and Partha twinned in one man, and tall and powerful were the stallions that drew Yuyutsu, who had left behind his ninety-nine brothers and chosen fight for the Pandava cause.\n\n23.35\n\nInto that welter came brilliant Varddhakshemi, before whom cantered caparisoned steeds strawstalk pale, and the whitefooted warmbloods of Prince Sauchitti went mild into battle in armor pinioned in gold, gold too the armor that plated the silken backs of Shrenimat's tranquil chargers, and gold the chains about their necks. Chestnut horses galloped before Satya\u00b7dhriti, maven of heaven bow and spear, alongside the grays the shade of the turtledove that drew Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna lord of the Panchala army, who had chosen Drona as his share. He it was whom they followed, Satya\u00b7dhriti and wardrunk Sauchitti, Shrenimat, Vasu\u00b7dana and Kashi's son Abhibhu, and with their teams of Kamboja thoroughbreds fleet and ribboned in gold, terrible as the spirits of death and darkness, six thousand noble Kambojas, with swords upraised and their banners and chariots glinting in gold. On they drove their fine steeds of many shades as they rolled behind Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna, and bows bent they were ready to cast arrows upon their foes. They were men for whom death was but a trifle.\n\n23.40\n\n201\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nEncircled in pure gold and with coats like liverbrown silk the great steeds of Chekitana galloped unwearied, and Purujit, chief of the Kuntis and uncle of Arjuna, drove beasts faithful and fine with striae like rainbows, while horses starbright like pieces of the firmament carried King Rochamana into the fray against us. Roans soaring like eagles and with the luster of the blue lotus pulled Sudaman, skewbalds red as hares with streaks white as dhaora blooms bore Sinha\u00b7sena, the son of a Panchala cowherd, and the horses that drew glorious Janam\u00b7ejaya tiger of the Panchalas were the color of mustardseed flowers. The bud of the black gram bloomed in the milkwhite backs and moonpale faces of the strong and swift steeds garlanded in gold that Druta the Panchala drove. Handsome and vigorous were the horses bearing Danda\u00b7dhara, their coats the color of reed stalks touched with the hue of lotus anthers. As if dancing into war, duns brown as donkeys and striped like the trunks of raintrees along their backs drew Vyaghra\u00b7datta, and speckled bright and black were the bays of Sudhanvan, tiger of the Panchalas, and bright the wreaths that decorated them.\n\n23.45\n\n23.50\n\nAglow as with lightning and sparkling like fireflies, the bright shapes of Chitrayudha's steeds dazzled the eye, and the stallions that bore up Sukshatra son of the Kosala king wore glittering chains about hides spotted like sheldrakes, and tall and resplendent beasts, mild dapples with manes and tails braided in rivergold drew the pious Kshemi. In one tone, all white were Shukla's mares, banner, breastplate and bow, white he was as he rode. And horses of the coast aglow like the moon bore up ferocious Chandra\u00b7sena son of Samudra\u00b7sena.\n\n23.55\n\n203\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nBright garlands and wellburnished gold bound the roans the color of the blue lotus that took Chitra\u00b7ratha son of Shibi into the melee, and noble breeds of dark blossom* fretted in white and brown bore battlecrazed Ratha\u00b7sena. Patacchara\u00b7hantri whom men call hero of heroes rode behind steeds versicolored as birds of paradise, and with armor, sword and standard all rainbowbright as the weapons in his hands Chitra\u00b7malya came on behind fine horses vivid as flame-of-the-forest. In one tone, all dark were Nila's team, banner, breastplate and bow, dark he was as he rode. Gemlike burst Chitra's bow, banner and mail with scintillae, bright his horse's livery and drapes, bright he was as he rode. Fine steeds blue as waterlily petals drew Hema\u00b7varna son of Rochamana and whiteballed purebred warhorses the color of hens' eggs and striped like reed stems along their spines bore Danda\u00b7ketu.\n\n23.60\n\n23.65\n\nWhen his father and king of his folk was slain by Keshava and his door hung broken and his friends had all fled, Pandya had gone to study the art of combat with Bhishma, Drona, Rama and Kripa. And when his skill matched the skill of Rukmin, Karna, Arjuna and even Krishna, he yearned to smash the City of Doors and wage a war across the whole of the broad earth. But his elders discouraged him, and out of compassion for his friends he set aside his old animosity and settled down to rule his kingdom. Wealth and power had come to him. Now, carrying the sign of the antelope, he bore down on Drona with his celestial bow drawn in his hands. Horses clad in mail from Vidura glowed before his car with the light of moonbeams, and horses the hue of waterwillow drew fourteen legions in his train.\n\n23.70\n\n205\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nUnder the banner of the chariot wheel there came the legendary Ghatotkacha behind horses of mysterious aspect, their origin arcane. Then there was the man who alone ignored the censure of all the assembled council of Bharatas and who turned his back on his own dreams and came to Yudhi\u00b7shthira on bended knee. That man was Brihanta of the bloodred eyes and mighty arms and now he stood on a golden car yoked to powerful muscled breeds from Aratta. Golden horses massed behind wise Yudhi\u00b7shthira where he stood at the head of his host, rare king among rare creatures. His men rode out for war together, noble and godlike and rippling with the different colors of their fabulous steeds.\n\n23.75\n\nWith their glittering banners Bhima\u00b7sena with his fierce devotees looked my king like Indra and the denizens of heaven. Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna outshone all who rode near him but brighter than even he was Bharad\u00b7vaja's son. The staff of his standard was all dark luster, majesty, wrapped in the skin of a black antelope, and his ascetic's gourd was inlaid intricately with gold. On Bhima\u00b7sena's standard I saw a great lion made of silver* whose eyes were jewels from Vidura. I saw on the chariot pole of the mighty Pandava and overlord of Kurus a brilliant image of the moon ringed in planets and alongside it I saw the two broad drums called Joy and Rejoicing from whose skins terror beat forth. On Nakula's car I saw raised high a great carven goldbacked sharabha, fierce and fell to behold. A silver flamingo trailing pennants and bells crowned Saha\u00b7deva's stout pole and atop the staves of the sons of Draupadi were images of Dharma, Vayu, Indra and the Ashvins. A golden hornbill forged in enchanted __________\n\n23.80\n\n23.85\n\n207\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nflame adorned Abhimanyu's standerd, and atop Ghatotkacha's there roosted a vulture, sign of the car drawn by horses wild as Ravana's were of old.\n\nThen there were the weapons. The righteous King Yudhi\u00b7shthira held the celestial bow of Indra and the celestial bow in Bhima's hands came from the god of the wind. The bow crafted of heaven's stuff that Phalguna held had been fashioned by Brahma for the protection of the three worlds, while Nakula and Saha\u00b7deva received theirs from Vishnu and the Ashvins. The fearsome magic bow that Ghatotkacha held came from Pulastya, and the jewels of archery borne by the Draupadeyas were named Raudra, Agneya, Kaubera, Yamya and Giri\u00b7sha. Subhadra's son had earned the respect of Rama son of Rohini and o king he had given the boy the fine and fearsome weapon that he now held in his hands.\n\n23.90\n\nThese and many like them were the standards and statues whose patterns were bright above the heads of our foes and signed the coming of our sorrows. We too stood beneath our banners and no coward stood among us. Drona's force was as full of color as painted canvas. You could hear the names of the heroes echoing across the plain as they rode at Drona, and my king to hear them you may have thought you were at a wedding rather than a war.\n\n23.95\n\ndhrita\u00b7rashtra spoke.\n\nO Sanjaya. Even the army of heaven would grow weak with fear at the sight of Vrikodara and his fellow kings steeled for war. Be certain that this man is well acquainted with destiny. In him are all the myriad enigmas of this life __________\n\n24.1\n\n209\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nforeclosed. His residence in exile was long. His brother Yudhi\u00b7shthira wore a beard and animal skin and dwelt in the wilderness, and there he languished, forgotten by all the world. Now he rides at the head of the great army he has summoned to war. What else could be born of my son's encounter with fate?\n\nIt is true that a man is formed only after he has come up against his destiny. What befalls him is never what he would wish for himself. The dice brought misery and ruin upon Yudhi\u00b7shthira but chance gave him friends again. \"The Kekayas, the men of Kashi, the Kosalas, the Chedis and the kings of Vanga have all taken up my cause. My allies are countless, father. Partha cannot say the same.\" This was what my unhappy son once told me, Sanjaya. If Prishata's grandson reached past the strong defenses before him and into the midst of our massive army and struck Drona dead, then what can we call it but fate? Drona was a great master of every weapon in the world who fought exultant beside kings. How could Death even step close to him? O blackest calamity. My head swims. If Bhishma and Drona are dead then I want no more of life. Sanjaya you are my eyes and my hands. I fear for my sons. O Sanjaya. Vidura* warned me about the dreams I had for my sons. His prophecies have all come true for Duryodhana, and for myself. I have lost Duryodhana to the cruelties of his foes. But if I can still have a father's hope then I pray that a wretched death is not the fate that befalls all of my children.\n\n24.5\n\n24.10\n\n211\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nA man who turns his back on what is right is but a fool grasping at pennies, lost to the world. He makes his bed among the worms. O Sanjaya. What is left of this wide realm now that its lifeblood has been stopped and its great example crushed into the earth? I see nothing. There can be nothing when the two that made it great with their grace and to whose example the rest of us always aspired have departed from it.\n\n24.15\n\nTell me how the battle went. Who fought on? Who was too weak to fight and turned and fled? Tell me how the bull Dhanan\u00b7jaya fared in battle and of the terrors that deadly Vrikodara brought against us. Tell me how my men dwindled in their ranks and collapsed dead upon the dead of the Pandavas. What went through your mind when you stood among the dead? Who of my warriors felled whom?\n\n24.20\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nDisaster loomed before us as the Pandavas gathered themselves together once again. We watched Drona disappearing behind them as if they were clouds rushing to engulf the sun. A hot wind rose up and filled our eyes with dust. Gone from our gaze for a time we thought Drona gone from the earth as well.\n\n25.1\n\nDuryodhana saw the dark intentions of the mighty archers as they rolled towards us and he spoke sharply to his warriors.\n\n\"Rulers of men. I call on all your power and all the will that is in you and which gives you life for as has been ordained the Pandavas are now upon us. Stand your ground.\" ________\n\n213\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nSpying Bhima in the distance Durmarshana raised his bow and fired and rode off to meet him in combat and thus make safe Drona's life. Mad as Death come to this rite of blood, he heaped arrows upon Bhima's head, and as he rushed towards him Bhima stung him back with arrows of his own. So it was that the pandemonium began once again.\n\n25.5\n\nOn each side were heroes mighty and wise and loyal to the wishes of their kings. They stood face to face with their foes and none of them any longer feared for his own fate or feared for the fate of the kingdom.\n\nO majesty. First it was Shini's son who rode bold and ablaze across the plain and while it was Drona whom he sought none but Krita\u00b7varman stood in his path. They met in fury as volley struck volley and the two of them came at one another mad as elephants in must. Kshatra\u00b7dharman bore down upon the prince of Sindhu, but he was ready for him and he raised his mighty bow and drove his great foe back and away from Drona beneath a flock of whetted shafts. Fury blazed up in Kshatra\u00b7dharman. He split the bow held in the prince's hands and tore holes in his banner and sent ten heavy shafts through all the joints in the crafting of his armor. But in the dance of battle Saindhava was still light on his feet and he swept up another bow and the arrows cast in iron that he loosed found their target. On came bold and strong Yuyutsu loyal to the Pandava cause and brother to the warrior Subahu, who stood ready to meet him. Beneath a hail of his kin's shafts Yuyutsu raised high his own fine bow and struck Subahu in both of his arms with twin arrows strong as a gate's bolts and tipped in gleaming burrs. Elsewhere like a barque weathering the stormy sea __________\n\n25.10\n\n25.15\n\n215\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nthe Madra monarch fought with the best of the Pandavas Yudhi\u00b7shthira, whose essence is the order of things. The righteous king buried the lord of the Madras in a flurry of biting shafts, but then with a cry the Madra lord struck him back hard a full four and sixty times. Nonetheless Pandu's will would not be bettered and drawing two barbed darts he let them fly and cut Madra's flag away from its pole and knocked the bow from his hands. His victim's cries redoubled. Those who watched roared their acclaim.\n\nAt the head of his troops came King Drupada and it was Bahlika and his guard whose hail of arrows held him back. These two great men and their soldiers fought a bloody battle. The two kings were like elephants wild and inflamed as they strove to defend their herds. Vinda and Anuvinda born in the land of Avanti brought their legions towards the Matsyas led by King Virata as Bali once led his army against Agni and Indra. And when Kekaya met Matsya the violence was as great as when god ever met demon, for fear rode in that battle with no one, not in saddle nor palanquin nor car.\n\n25.20\n\nDown came Shatanika son of Nakula, weaving nets of arrows across the sky, and it was Bhuta\u00b7karman lord of the halls who stood firm to meet him. But Nakula's heir aimed three of his ironclad arrows with a perfect eye and when he loosed his bowstring they flew and took Bhuta\u00b7karman's head and two arms from his body. Suta\u00b7soma also fought his way towards Drona, dashing forward in a cloud of his arrows. It was his father's brother Vivinshati this time who slowed his valiant assault. His blood fired by the heat of battle, Suta\u00b7soma was poised to strike a death blow, yet when __________\n\n25.25\n\n217\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nhe had found his uncle with his trueflying shafts he chose not to ride in and finish him off. Six of Bhima\u00b7ratha's swift and iron shafts sent Shalva down to lodge at Yama's abode, and his horse and driver followed close behind. Tending steeds bright as peacocks Shruta\u00b7karman rode towards us too and his opponent o my king was none other than your other grandson Chaitraseni. Each of these two of your formidable heirs strove hard, as each sought the other's death and each had the hopes of a father for which to fight.\n\nWhile the battle raged about him Drona's son saw Prativindhya standing near and minded of his own father's will he loosed his arrows. Flaring up in anger Prativindhya sent his own sharp darts against Ashvatthaman where he stood firm in his father's cause beneath the banner of the lion's tail. At the same time o great lord the Draupadeyas scattered their arrows outpouring from their bows like seeds strewn in the spring. As Shruta\u00b7kirti the mighty son of Draupadi and Arjuna made his way towards Drona it was Duhshasana's son who was there to meet him. The Dark One's equal born of the god's sister sent three wellaimed arrows cleaving through Dauhshasani's bow and standard and then rode on ever closer to where Drona would be found. The hero of heroes Patacchara\u00b7hantri whose honor is known by the men of both the armies bore down, o king, upon Lakshmana.\n\n25.30\n\nLakshmana managed to hold him back for a moment. But o Bharata the bow that Lakshmana held was cracked in two as his standard fell and his foe sent a dazzling tide of arrows down upon him. Then youth met youth as Shikhandin son of Yajnya\u00b7sena bore down upon quickwitted Vikarna. The priest's son cast a veil of darts upon your own _______________________\n\n25.35\n\n219\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nbut Vikarna shook it off in a fiery display of might. Angada too made for Drona and Uttamaujas drove him back with the force of his volleys. Two lions they were and they and all their soldiery fought a harsh struggle that was a sight awesome to behold.\n\nValiant Purujit rode at Drona, and it was the might and the hooked darts of the great archer Durmukha that slowed his attack. Purujit fired a single arrow and it landed dead between Durmukha's brows. There his face hung like a lotus atop its stem. Beneath the red flashes of their pennants the five brothers Kaikeya rode for Drona and it was Karna who sent his showers of wood down upon their heads. Blasted by the force of his attack, they sent back showers of their own before Karna hid them all once again behind the torrents flowing from his bow. Those reeds closed over them all, and soon Karna and the brothers disappeared as their arrows heaped up above drivers, flags and chariots. Two trios struck one another as your own sons Durjaya, Jaya and Vijaya came against Nila, the prince of Kashi and Yatsena. Their encounter was a fierce one and we watched in wonder, for it was as if a lion, a tiger and a hyena had met a buffalo, a bull and a bear. Satvata too made for Drona but the brothers Kshema\u00b7dhurti and Brihanta whittled him with their keen darts. It was like two elephants wild with the season finding a lion in the woods and it too was a wondrous sight to see.\n\n25.40\n\n25.45\n\n221\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nThe king of the Chedis fought fiercely and fired high to keep back from Drona Ambashtha, devotee of war. But Ambashtha struck the king with a single marrowpiercing bolt carved from bone and he dropped his bow and quiver and fell from his chariot to the earth. And Kripa of the high stock of Sharadvat firing reeds thin as splinters drove back from Drona's circle the wrathful Vrishni Varddhakshemi. _________\n\nDazzling fighters both, the sight of them locked in combat was a vision to eclipse all others and any who watched were unable to look away. Glory it was that Bhuri\u00b7shravas son of Soma\u00b7datta earnt for Drona as he made his stand against the tireless King Manimat. But Manimat cracked his whip across the backs of his steeds and knocking away his enemy's flashing bow sent his banner, driver and parasol flying clear from his car. With a blow from his tempered sword vengeful Bhuri\u00b7shravas sent Manimat tumbling from his chariot and then hastily despatched his steed and standard and the very planks on which he had stood. Planting his feet firmly he took up another bow, gathered the reins and drove his horses straight, my king, for the Pandava line. Hardy Pandya flew at Vrisha\u00b7sena like Indra flying against the demon horde, but Vrisha\u00b7sena stilled his passage with a cluster of his shafts.\n\n25.50\n\n25.55\n\n223\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nWith blocks and bars and knives and spears and stones and iron and wood, and with daggers and hammers and wheels and sticks and clubs, with sand and wind, fire, water, with piles of ash and clods of earth and palm trees pulled from the soil, Ghatotkacha smashed and blasted and crushed and scattered the terrified army before him.* On he went in search of Drona. But fiend against fiend Alambusa came to meet him and as he came he hurled at him his own vast arsenal of weapons and missiles. These two were the greatest of their strange stock and they fought a battle akin to the contest of old between Shambara and the king of the deathless gods.\n\n25.60\n\nIn tumult and beauty the war raged between the Pandavas and your own. In their hundreds soldiers and riders and elephants and chariots fought duels in a gathering the like of which had been neither known nor seen before. At stake was the survival or death of Drona and it was on his fate that we all hung. O great king. Such were the many battles spread out across the plain. And they were awful and manycolored and cruel.\n\n25.65\n\ndhrita\u00b7rashtra spoke.\n\nAs duel after duel played out that day, how did my own bold children fare against the sons of Pritha? O Sanjaya. What befell the Beholden at Arjuna's hands? And him at theirs?\n\n26.1\n\n225\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nSo indeed did hero meet hero. For his part your son Duryodhana led the elephants at his command against Bhima. As when wild beasts spar whether elephants or bulls Bhima heard the king's challenge and rode out to meet his force. O father. The might of Bhima's two arms and the wisdom of his warcraft were too much for those creatures. Almost no time passed before Pritha's son broke through the wall of elephants. In musth they streamed from their mountainous heights as Bhima's iron arrows brought them low and stilled their frenzy. Like a wind whirling through rainclouds Bhima son of fire and air simply blew their ranks apart. Radiating arrows through those beasts he shone like the risen sun that casts its beams upon the living world, _________\n\nand like so many dark clouds hanging veined in light those gray beasts were picked out by his deadly shafts. As the warrior sprung from the wind wrought destruction upon his herd, Duryodhana came in close and fired at him his sharp arrows. But Bhima's eyes twinkled like drops of blood and he barely paused before sending back his own sharpened and feathered darts to drive Duryodhana into Death's arms. Duryodhana was pierced in every limb. But still he burned with anger, and with a grim smile on his face struck Bhima\u00b7sena once again with arrows aglow like rays of the sun. With one shaft Pandu's son tore through the jeweled serpent glittering with gems that adorned Duryodhana's flag, and then with another sliced through the curve of his bow.\n\n26.10\n\n26.5\n\n227\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nO sire, all this time Anga had been watching Duryodhana's travails against Bhima from his perch atop his steed and at that moment rode out to attack. Anga's elephant came towards Bhima\u00b7sena like a thunderous cloud. But as it came the Pandava sank an arrow deep into its skull and on it tore right through its body and sank into the ground behind it. Like a rock knocked from a ridge by a lightning bolt the creature sagged and buckled beneath its rider and before the man's body could strike the earth Dogbelly deftly severed the head of that barbarian king with a single lethal shaft. As soon as the mighty Anga fell, the whole rest of his division of horses and elephants and chariots scattered and fled, and more soldiers lost their lives in the crush of foot wheel and hoof.\n\n26.15\n\nWhile all around him line upon line broke and fell away, one man stood his ground. Prag\u00b7jyotisha spurred his bull at Bhima and it pounded towards him like the creature upon whose back Indra had ridden to victory over the spawn of Diti and Danu. Coiling its truck and rolling its eyes the wild beast leapt at the Pandava and brought its two forelegs down hard upon his car, crushing it to splinters and killing all his horses. Bhima was now on foot and he slipped and disappeared beneath the forequarters of the creature. The Pandava knew full well that another's arrow had wounded the beast and he did not run but darted alongside it and struck it sharply with his hand, riling the vast bloodcrazed beast still further. At his blow the creature suddenly spun its huge and mighty bulk about like a potter's wheel and made straight for Vrikodara. Now unsheltered Bhima stood within inches of its great head and it swung its trunk and _________\n\n26.20\n\n26.25\n\n229\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nstruck him on his knees then wrapped it around his neck and began to strangle him to death. But Bhima\u00b7sena twisted about and slithered from its noose and leapt down once more beneath its body. He waited and watched until his own army's elephant line was near enough, and then he slipped from his hiding place and made quickly for its protection.\n\nIt was at that moment my lord that the cry went up for all to hear. Bhima had died, they said, beneath the feet of an elephant. Panic at the words flew through the Pandava ranks my king, and they all rushed to the place where Dogbelly had stood. King Yudhi\u00b7shthira heard that his brother was dead and brought the Panchalas in a great circle about Bhaga\u00b7datta. Around Bhaga\u00b7datta's chariot there now stood the deadliest and greatest of his enemy. They sent a hundred then a thousand arrows up into the sky.\n\n26.30\n\nSwinging his hooked goad the mountain king gathered up the fleet darts as they fell and then spurred on his bull at the Pandus and Panchalas who stood before him. O lord of these fields, the bravery with which old Bhaga\u00b7datta fought from his steed was awesome to watch. First to meet him was the king of the Land of the Ten Lakes, who cut galloping across the plain towards him on the back of his own wild beast. The two monstrous animals clashed like the mountains mantled in trees and borne on wings in battles of old. King Prag\u00b7jyotisha turned his creature about and it stepped aside as the other came past and it drove its tusk to make a mortal wound through the flank of Dasharnava's steed. The palanquin slipped from the animal's back, and with seven spears like the rays of the sun Bhaga\u00b7datta transfixed the foe that it held.\n\n26.35\n\n231\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nBut as he did so Yudhi\u00b7shthira brought his great division of chariots closer to King Bhaga\u00b7datta, cutting him off entirely from the Kurus. Surrounded by warriors in their chariots Bhaga\u00b7datta blazed atop his steed like a fire dancing in a mountain wood. The beast prowled at the center of that dense and terrible circle of warriors as they raised their bows and sent up showers of arrows. King Prag\u00b7jyotisha gathered in the reins and drove the great elephant straight at the chariot of Yuyudhana. The beast grabbed the car still holding Shini's son and hurled it violently back, sending Yuyudhana spinning into retreat. But his horseman mastered the strong Sindhu steeds and made for Satyaki and there drew to a halt at his side. As he did, Bhaga\u00b7datta's elephant found an opening and rushed through and past the ring of chariots and crashed among the soldiers behind.\n\n26.40\n\n26.45\n\nThey scattered in all directions. Even the mightiest of men felt the pulse of terror and though a single beast thundered at their heels they thought it a hundredhead of soldiers in pursuit. In olden times the king of the gods had mounted his elephant Airavata and beaten back the demons, and now Bhaga\u00b7datta beat back the Pandavas from atop his own steed as a vast and horrible noise gathered from the hooves and feet of the Panchalas' horses and elephants fleeing wherever they could. With the Pandus racing past him Bhima commandeered another chariot and charged once more in a mad attack at Prag\u00b7jyotisha, but when he was close enough the creature doused his steeds in a trumpet of water from its trunk and they pulled him off course in panic. Then it was Ruchi\u00b7parvan son of Kritin who attacked, tall as Death in his car. He let down a shower of arrows. But with a single __________\n\n26.50\n\n233\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nwellfashioned shaft the splendored mountain king sent Ruchi\u00b7parvan away to the broken harbor of the sun.* Another hero dead, and then it was the turn of Saubhadra to attack. He came against the beast with the other sons of Draupadi and with Chekitana, Dhrishta\u00b7ketu and Yuyutsu. Like clouds streaming rain they poured sheets of arrows down upon their quarry and bellowed and bayed for his blood. With his thumbs and his heels and his hook Prag\u00b7jyotisha held his steed fast and drove it on and it went quickly with its ears rigid and its eyes fixed and its trunk winding in the air, and then my king it brought down its foot on Yuyutsu's horses and crushed the life from his driver as Yuyutsu leapt in terror from his car, and still my lord came the baying and the bellowing as once more the Pandava warriors poured arrows flowing down upon that king of beasts.\n\n26.55\n\nI saw your son fly past Saubhadra's car as from his high seat King Bhaga\u00b7datta cast down arrows upon his foes and shone there bright as the sun with its beams fanned through the living world. They struck back at him, Arjuna's son with twelve arrows and Yuyutsu with ten, and with three and three again the Draupadeyas and Dhrishta\u00b7ketu found their target. Thick with the spines driven into him by his foes the elephant shone like a great raincloud woven with the rays of the sun. But with mettle and skill Prag\u00b7jyotisha drove the creature on, and though suffering from their blows still the beast sent its foes flying left and right as it went. For a time Bhaga\u00b7datta drove their army as a cowherd drives with his staff his animals through the woods, and the noise of the progeny of Pandu in desperate flight rang like the cries of a bird snatched in an eagle's talons.\n\n26.60\n\n26.65\n\n235\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nO king. Goaded on by that curved hook the lord of the elephant kingdom like a winged mountain of legend sent fear among his foes. They were like seafarers on a wild ocean. O majesty a great thunder born of the terror and the horses and chariots and elephants and kings that churned the plain in flight spread across the earth and filled all the zones of the sky. A mighty beast had carried one king deep into the fold of his despisers as once long ago Virochana had been enrobed in the protections of his priests and traveled deep in battle into the army of the gods. All across the plain, dust and fire billowed and blew and engulfed the men as they fought, and somewhere among them but a single beast seemed to multiply into a hundred of its kind.\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nO illustrious king you asked of Partha's acts in the war. Listen now and I will tell you what he did that day.\n\n27.1\n\nAs Bhaga\u00b7datta flew through the Pandavas' midst the risen dust filled Arjuna's eyes and the cries of men his ears. He turned and spoke to Krishna.\n\n\"O slayer of Madhu. King Bhaga\u00b7datta flies abroad on his steed: this sound presages his work. An elephantrider of the caliber of the gods, he has few if any peers on this earth whom I could name. The tusked beast he rides is one of the strongest of its kind, an animal of war unbowed by fatigue and untamed by any blade raised against it. It heeds neither the bite of swords nor the lick of flame for to be sure o Pure One it could destroy by itself this wide army of Pandu's sons. There are only two who can withstand it and they are you and I. So let us make haste for the King of Lights. He is an arrant believer in his strength and his _________________\n\n27.5\n\n237\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nsteed. Wild though he is I will send him as a welcome guest to the home of Bala's killer.\"\n\nKrishna heard the Left Handed Archer and brought the chariot around to where the Pandavas were being forced asunder beneath Bhaga\u00b7datta's attack. As he did so, from behind they heard the mocking cries of the Beholden riding after in pursuit. Fourteen thousand they were, ten thousand Tri\u00b7gartas and four thousand others who had once followed Vasudeva. Watching his army buckling beneath Bhaga\u00b7datta's onslaught while his challengers jeered at his back Arjuna's heart was pulled in two, my king. He asked himself whether he ought to go to or from his brother's side and his mind raced between the two courses before him, until o sire of the Kurus it was his will to fight the Beholden that proved the sterner. The banner of the monkey fluttered above his head as Indra's son turned briskly about to make for the myriad chariots ranged behind him. This was exactly what Duryodhana had hoped for. Arjuna's confusion had been part of their plan. He had resolved his dilemma and chosen to seek the blood of his great foes, but in doing so he sprung their trap.\n\n27.10\n\n27.15\n\nThe mighty Beholden loosed at Arjuna a seething mass of wellwrought arrows and beneath it the son of Kunti and Krishna the reaver of men and their horses and their chariot all disappeared from view. Then, as panic gripped Janardana and sweat broke out on his brow, Pritha's son invoked the weapon of Brahma and blasted the sky all but clear. His foes began to fall in their hundreds. Severed hands still holding bows, bowstrings and arrows, and poles and horses and drivers fell to the earth. Elephants collapsed beneath dead _________\n\n27.20\n\n239\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nriders and lay upon the ground in their finery in piles of tree green and mountain gray and raincloud blue. Out they breathed their lives and out trailed their harnesses flailing and their reins and caparisons all torn to ribbons as the horses and horsemen cut into pieces by those keen arrows fell down dead to the earth. O my king then upon them came down the broken bodies of soldiers fallen beneath the iron shafts of the Diademed Warrior, and in their death grips were swords and spears, daggers, hammers and battleaxes. Heads the color of the morning sun and of the water lotus and the watery moon were cut away by Arjuna's arrows and tumbled down to the ground. And those fine arrows flashed across the host in a million hues like flames from his rage as they flew on their feathers to sup the breath of his foes. The whole army of the Beholden shook like a lotus pond turned over beneath the hooves of an elephant.\n\n27.25\n\nAll the denizens of heaven and earth sang Dhanan\u00b7jaya's praises that day. Madhava watched Partha son of Indra do his work. He raised his hands in reverence and when he spoke his voice was full of wonder.\n\n\"These are things that would even test the might of Kubera or Yama or Indra. In their hundreds and thousands I have seen the very best of the Beholden fall as one.\"\n\n27.30\n\nIndeed he had killed more of the Beholden than the number that still stood when Partha spoke to Krishna his next command.\n\n\"Make for Bhaga\u00b7datta,\" he said.\n\n241\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nPartha was keen to ride out and Krishna spurred forth the pale steeds swift as thought and mantled in gold and they flew towards Drona's line. As the best of the Kurus sallied forth to save his brothers from the flames of Drona so with his own brothers Susharman followed in his wake. The paladin of the white horses turned then and spoke to his indomitable friend.\n\n28.1\n\n\"Achyuta. Susharman and his brothers have challenged me to fight but our army is crumbling on its northern front. O slayer of Madhu my resolve is divided for the Beholden have riven it in two. Should I go to destroy them once and for all? Or should I help my suffering kin? Such is my dilemma. But you know which course we must take.\"\n\n28.5\n\nWithout a word the chieftain of the Dasharhas brought the chariot about to the place to where the Tri\u00b7garta lord called out his challenge to Pandu's son. Seven swift arrows from Arjuna's hands slammed into Susharman and then two barbed shafts rent apart the warrior's standard and bow and another six tipped in iron hastened the king's brother down to Death's withered kingdom. But Susharman took aim and he flung a spear at Vasudeva and a javelin of iron deadly as a snake straight at Arjuna. Three arrows from Arjuna's bow cut apart the javelin and three more the spear and then he canopied Susharman in a dizzying storm of reeds and my king as he raced on like the Thunderer beneath that gathering roiling mass there were none in your son's ranks who could halt his terrible advance. Like a fire through brushwood Dhanan\u00b7jaya rolled back across the plain and any warrior however great whom his arrows struck fell dead. No __________\n\n28.10\n\n243\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\ncreature can withstand the touch of fire and so it was that none could survive the high son of Kunti as he rushed along, and bearing down on Prag\u00b7jyotisha O majesty he rained arrows in a deluge upon the throngs that he found, flying through the air like broadwinged Garuda.\n\n28.15\n\nArjuna rose above them all. His bow was bent in a curve that brought sanctuary to those tribes of Bharata still without sin and tears to the eyes of his foes. For its aim in that war my king was the ruin of the house of your crooked son. O majesty, as Partha shook the host before him it shattered like a ship smashed against a rock. Ten thousand archers cruel and brave despaired of victory and defeat alike while opposite them without a trace of fear in his heart and now far beyond the bounds of reason Partha shouldered the great burden that was his as he had shouldered all those which had come before in that war, and like a young elephant in must trampling a brake of reeds into the ground he broke the men in his path like twigs.\n\n28.20\n\nYet from out of that ruined horde King Bhaga\u00b7datta came rearing towards Dhanan\u00b7jaya atop his great steed. Dhanan\u00b7jaya stood his ground and elephantrider crashed against chariotwarrior, each bedecked car and beast as scripture dictates. From high upon his elephant, like the supreme king of the gods atop a cloud, Bhaga\u00b7datta poured a sheet of arrows down onto Dhanan\u00b7jaya but arrow for arrow Indra's son matched him and broke up his attack. O Bharata, Prag\u00b7jyotisha blocked Arjuna's wooden rain and struck Partha and Krishna with arrows of his own. He bound them both in a warp of his darts then he drove his heels into the flanks of his steed and rode on to trample them dead. _____________\n\n28.25\n\n245\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nBut the reaver of men saw the elephant bearing down upon them mad as Death and he quickly swung the chariot about and away to its right. As the elephant flew past them Arjuna had it before him. Yet at the last moment he stayed true to what was right and chose not to deliver over the beast and its burden to their end. As it rode on, o father, horses and chariots and others of its kind fell one after another beneath its hooves and down into Death's kingdom. And as Dhanan\u00b7jaya watched, his anger rose.\n\n28.30\n\ndhrita\u00b7rashtra spoke.\n\nWhat violence did the wrathful Pandava do next to Bhaga\u00b7datta? Or Prag\u00b7jyotisha to Partha? Tell me all that happened.\n\n29.1\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nAt that moment both Dasharha and Pandu's son were in Prag\u00b7jyotisha's grasp and they seemed to us held fast in death's jaws. My lord and king, from his perch between his steed's shoulders Bhaga\u00b7datta rained down arrows onto the Krishnas' chariot in an endless downpour. He drew back his bow, and arrows of dark iron fletched in gold flew through the air and sank their stonewhetted points into Devaki's son. So sharp were those arrows which Bhaga\u00b7datta loosed that they went right through him like flames and then fell finefeathered to the earth. Then Partha struck back and began almost to toy with Bhaga\u00b7datta as he fought. He destroyed his bow and the quiver that held his arrows. Now fourteen spears like the rays of the sun came flying from the king's hand, but the Left Handed Archer shot back and cut each of them in three. With a torrent of arrows the son of the _______________\n\n29.5\n\n247\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nPunisher of Fools broke up the armor plating Bhaga\u00b7datta's elephant and it clattered down to the ground. Though his own raiment hung tattered and he and his elephant were furrowed deep in wounds Bhaga\u00b7datta stayed solid as the stone sovereign Himalaya, cloudless though drenched in rain. Prag\u00b7jyotisha hurled at Vasudeva an iron javelin inlaid with gold and again Arjuna split it in two. Then as a smile played across his lips Arjuna struck at the mountain king with ten arrows of his own that lodged in his parasol and standard. Bhaga\u00b7datta's anger flared my king. Badly injured by Arjuna's arrows finely fletched in vulture feathers he cried out and cast yet more spears at the head of the warrior of the white horses and they struck and skewed the diadem he wore on his head.\n\n29.10\n\nThe Red Star Fighter steadied his dislodged crown and called across to the king.\n\n\"Take a last look at this world.\"\n\nSo high was Bhaga\u00b7datta's choler raised at this remark that sweeping up a bright bow he poured a deluge of shafts down onto Go\u00b7vinda and Pandava. But once more Partha cracked his bow in two and burst apart his quivers and in only a moment with two and seventy darts Arjuna struck every hole in his mail. Then somehow despite his injuries the king raised up an iron hook and whispering the Vaishnava enchantment across it launched it straight at Pandava's breast. Nothing can survive the Vaishnava's blow. As it made its way through the air Keshava stepped before Partha and took it full in his own chest. And there it bloomed into a garland of triumph. Twined with bright lotus sepals and thick with flowers of every season it glowed like the sun _________\n\n29.15\n\n249\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nmoon or fire and blossomed with tongues of flame. Blue as flax in the field, Shauri shone wrapped in lotuses, their petals trembling in the wind.\n\n29.20\n\nBut Arjuna was troubled, and spoke then to Keshava.\n\n\"O sinless one. Your promise was to drive the horses and not to fight. But Pundarikaksha you broke that promise. If I fall or if I cannot defend myself then perhaps you could help me. But I still stand. And you know well that with my arrows and my bow there is no god demon or man whom I cannot overcome.\"\n\nKeshava replied to Arjuna and his words were full of meaning.\n\n29.25\n\n\"Hear me now o blameless son of Pritha, and I will tell you of a mystery that came to pass long ago. My everlasting task is the protection of the world and for this purpose I split my being apart into four figures and bestowed my graces on its different realms. One of my incarnations arose on this earth and lives a life of burning austerity. Another looks upon the good and evil of men. The third performs the work of men and moves among them. The fourth slumbers through a night that lasts a thousand summers. And when the end of those thousand summers comes near, it is this incarnation which grants wondrous things to those of the time that are worthy of them. Long ago the Earth herself knew that one such time was at hand and she asked me to do something for her future child. She was to be mother of Naraka. Hear now what she said.\n\n29.30\n\n251\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\n'May I be given a son whom neither demon nor divinity can slay. The arrow of Vishnu is yours and you are the one who can grant me this wish.'\n\nI heard Earth's request and so it was that all that time ago I laid upon Earth's son the supreme and unerring arrow of Vishnu.\n\n'I place the arrow of Vishnu before Earth for the sake of Naraka's protection. None will be able to defeat him now. With this arrow as his talisman Earth's son will strike down any blow that is raised against him. He will be invincible in all places and among all things.'\n\nAfter I had spoken wise Earth was pleased and she departed. Naraka her son was indeed invincible and the scourge of all his foes. O Partha, it was from Naraka that Prag\u00b7jyotisha took my weapon. And my son there are none that dwell with Indra or Rudra whom he could not have destroyed with it. It was for you that I broke my promise and drew it from him. The weapon of weapons is no longer his. Strike him dead Partha. He is an archdemon. Enmity is his passion. As I in the end slew Naraka himself for the sake of the good of things so strike dead the cruel warrior and despiser of gods King Bhaga\u00b7datta.\"\n\n29.35\n\nPartha listened to what the great Keshava said. Quickly he began to sow sharp shafts above Bhaga\u00b7datta's head. With his mighty arms and steady heart and hand, Partha sent an arrow to pierce the forehead of Bhaga\u00b7datta's steed and it drove deep as lightning upon a clifftop and disappeared right up to its nock like a serpent into a mound of earth. For a few steps more Bhaga\u00b7datta drove the creature on, but like the words of a poor man in his wife's ears, the ____________\n\n29.40\n\n253\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nking's commands were not heard. The great beast tried for a moment to steady its limbs, then down it came to the ground and it howled as it fell on its tusks and heaved out its final breath.\n\nKeshava spoke to the bearer of Gandiva.\n\n\"Look at this one, Partha. Venerable warrior behind long locks of gray. Awesome champion with lines etched about his eyes. See how he has bound back his hair beneath his turban to keep his eyes clear.\"\n\n29.45\n\nArjuna did not hesitate but at the god's word sent forth an arrow that tore through the king's headdress. Bhaga\u00b7datta could no longer see, his world woven with darkness.\n\nWith a flatjointed shaft shaped like a halfmoon Pandava pierced the king's heart and Bhaga\u00b7datta let fall from his hands his bow and his arrow and, from his heart skewered by Kiritin's arrow, his life. Down fluttered the fine scarf as it came away from his neck, like a petal plucked roughly from the stalk of a lotus, and still garlanded in gold he tumbled from the great height of his elephant's back and its firebeaten harness like a bayur tree in full bloom plucked from a mountain peak by a gust of wind. And so it was that a son of Indra slew in battle one who had been a friend to the lord of the gods, a king of men brave as Indra. And when he had done so he rose through your zealous son's sorry troop as a strong wind rises through the trees.\n\n29.50\n\n255\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nHis might had been measureless and he was Indra's longtreasured friend, but Prag\u00b7jyotisha had been slain. As Arjuna circled his corpse out of respect, the two sons of the Gandhara king, the sackers of cities named Vrishaka and Achala, made across the fray toward him. One of those heroes came from the front and one from behind and as they rode on and raised their bows they struck Arjuna with a sudden gust of arrows sharp and swift. But Partha answered Vrishaka son of Subala with a blast of his own whetted shafts and away went his horses driver bow parasol chariot and banner like seed scattered on the wind. Then with arrows like a thousand hailstones Arjuna rippled the column of Gandharas behind Vrishaka and a full five hundred he hammered into hell, swords still raised high above their heads.\n\n30.1\n\n30.5\n\nBroad Vrishaka leapt quickly from his chariot and its dead steeds and he climbed aboard his brother's and took up another bow. From their single car Vrishaka and Achala poured down upon their sworn foe a heavy arrow rain. With all their might those great kings and brothers of your wife struck at Partha as Vritra and Bala once struck Indra. The Gandharas pinned the Pandava beneath their deadly aim. He was like the earth needled by sunbeams during the months of heat and rain. Yet even as Vrishaka and Achala stood there atop their chariot in a cluster of limbs, a single arrow from Arjuna's bow passed clean through the two mighty kings. Redeyed lions who had shared the same hopes as they had shared the same womb, those heroes tumbled down from their chariot to join those who are no ____________\n\n30.10\n\n257\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nmore. Two bodies so dear to their kin and four strong arms that had hewn glorious fame from the four corners of the earth fell from their car to the soil and rolled and came to rest. Tears flowed from your sons' eyes my lord when they saw their brave uncles struck down thus.\n\nShakuni also watched as they were felled. From his bounty of a hundred tricks he began to bewitch the two Krishnas with his magic. From a hundred directions on Arjuna fell sticks, iron balls, stones and fireballs and spears, clubs, bludgeons, knives, pikes, hammers, tridents, bonebreakers, swords, scimitars, maces and axes, daggers, arrows with barbed heads and jointed in calves' teeth, discuses, javelins and darts and weapons of yet stranger kinds. Camels, donkeys and buffalo, lions, tigers, yaks and insects, jackals, wolves, vultures, monkeys and serpents, all kinds of fiends and flocks of winged things hungry and cruel all rushed upon him then. But Dhanan\u00b7jaya son of Kunti was a hero wise in the weapons of heaven and without waiting he cast his net of arrows and snared them all within it. Pierced by the hero's fine adamantine shafts, everywhere the creatures' screams rose up and they fell down dead.\n\n30.15\n\n30.20\n\nDarkness came next across Arjuna's chariot and from out of that darkness a deathly susurrus. Grim and terrible that darkness was and it struck fear into us all, but with the vast and brilliant weapon named Jyotishka* Arjuna drove it off. Then a terrifying swell of water massed overhead, and Arjuna loosed the arrow of the sun to destroy it. As it cut across it the great cloud turned to vapor, and so the myriad sorcery of Subala's son was dispelled. A smile played across his lips as Arjuna began with the might of his arms to press _________\n\n30.25\n\n259\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nswift and hard upon his foe. His enchantments destroyed, Shakuni suffered beneath Arjuna's arrows and wheeled his galloping horses about and fled away in fear like a fool. Arjuna's mastery was dazzling and quick. He tipped a mass of arrows across the Kaurava line and O great king like the Ganges forking at the foot of a mountain the torrent of your son's army was split in two by the Diademed Partha's attack, some heading after Drona and others after Duryodhana as his blows rained down upon them. O lord we could not even see him through the battlefield's cloak of dust. But I heard the sigh of Gandiva's string somewhere to my right and I could hear the sound of horns and drums and the blare of trumpets and then again on my right I heard the clatter of arms. Arjuna's onslaught went on as I followed Drona. From all around, Yudhi\u00b7shthira's troops pushed towards us while one after another Arjuna cast as under your son's arrays as on a dark day the wind parts the clouds. More tiger than man the great bowman came like Indra aflight, a vast storm pouring out arrows, and no one was able to make him pause.\n\n30.30\n\n30.35\n\nTwisting beneath Partha's onslaught many of your men trampled their own as they escaped any way they could. Those razorsharp shafts fletched in vulture feathers flew from Arjuna's fingers and they billowed like locusts through every inch of the sky. Through horse, rider elephant and soldier they went and then plunged into the earth like snakes into a colony of ants. None did he strike twice, whether elephant, horse or man, but each gasped his last breath and fell transfixed by a single shaft.\n\n261\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nCorpses and dead elephants lay all around and horses with broken forms all quilted in arrows. Our heads filled then with the howls of jackals and dogs intermingling with the caws of the crows, as sick with wounds father abandoned son, son abandoned father, friend deserted friend and riders left their horses to die. Each strove to save himself when Partha struck that day.\n\n30.40\n\ndhrita\u00b7rashtra spoke.\n\nSo they fled in disarray, lines broken by Pandu's son. What went through their minds then? And how did they regroup when all about them were the signs of their shattered former shape? Tell me Sanjaya.\n\n31.1\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nO lord of men. Despite what had happened the Kuru paladins came back once more at Drona, for they were loyal to your son and more than that it was their fame on earth that was at stake. With their swords raised high overhead they rode at Yudhi\u00b7shthira, and despite the horror around them they remained noble and fearless. Majesty they attacked the measureless splendor of Bhima and went against valiant Satyaki and Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna. While the savage Panchalas bayed for Drona's blood your sons cried out at the Kuru soldiers to defend their commander. The Pandavas strove for his end and the Kurus for his protection. And so the contest for Drona went on. Wherever Drona rattled the Panchala ranks their prince Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna was there to meet him. Reverse followed reverse as that grim struggle wore on, and grim were the battle cries as hero clashed with hero. But the Pandavas were unshaken. ______\n\n31.5\n\n31.10\n\n263\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nIt was their turn to send ripples through the mass of their foe as the memory of what they had suffered rose up anew, and overcome by the force of their own rage and wild with shame at what had befallen them it was the deepest part of their souls that drove them on to greater violence. They cast down their own lives and staked them on Drona's death. They played at survival with a throw of the dice.\n\nO majesty, in the crash of battle warriors whose splendor knew no end fell to the earth like lumps of iron or stone in a struggle the like of which none old or young had known before. Beneath its teeming freight of the dead the earth itself seemed to tremble in sympathy with the hearts of those heroes. The rumble of the great roiling mass of men filled the sky above and then fell to earth and shook through the columns of the matchless king's army.\n\n31.15\n\nDrona careered across the plain between the serried lines of Pandavas and broke holes in their thousand links with his whetted shafts. As he wrought another miraculous feat of war and ground his victims beneath him the commander of the Pandus himself labored through the fray to meet him. The struggle that followed between Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna and Drona was astonishing and ferocious. Words fail me as I try to tell it.\n\n265\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nElsewhere Nila tore like a fire through the Kuru horde, his bow the flame and arrows the flying sparks, like a fire tearing through dry wood. And as he rolled through the army's avenues Drona's hot son spoke to him with words whose blandishments soon gave way to a crooked smile.\n\n31.20\n\n\"Nila. Enough with all these tindersticks blackened by your burning reeds. I am he whom you must fight now, alone. Bring down all your speed and fury upon me o little one.\"\n\nLike a bunch of lotuses was Ashvatthaman's fair form and his eyes were the shape of lotus leaves and his face a lotus in bloom, and Nila pierced him through each with his arrows. Though marred by those shafts Drauni with three sharp and tearing iron darts of his own cut through his foe's bow and his parasol and tore the flag above his head. Then down fluttered Nila like a bird from his car and sword and shield in hand he strove to sever his opponent's head. But o sinless one there was then a smile on Drauni's lips, and with a single arrow he parted from the knotted shoulders upon which it rested Nila's beringed and nobly formed head. And fine as a lotus calyx, its eyes the shape of lotus leaves and its face bright as the flushed moon, down it fell to the ground.\n\n31.25\n\nDespair rushed through the Pandava army when the dancing flame that was Nila was snuffed out between the fingers of the teacher's son. And there was no Pandava that did not then wonder how even the scion of Indra would protect them from a foe such as this. Indeed Arjuna was not there. He was off to the south, still crushing beneath his main all that was left of the Beholden, and the Narayana phalanxes at their side.\n\n267\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nOur brief ascendance was too much for Bhima to bear. With sixty arrows he struck at his teacher and then fired ten more at Karna. But Drona sent arrows swift and sharp dead through the air at the joints in Bhima's armor, striving to put an end to his disciple's life. Their fiery points bit deep. Then a dozen came from Karna and seven from Ashvatthaman and six more arced and dropped from King Duryodhana's bow. Yet Bhima\u00b7sena struck back at them all. With his cry tearing the air above he loosed a brace of fifty shafts at Drona and ten at Karna, then twelve at Duryodhana and eight more at Drona's son. Even so, Bhima bled out his life and stood then at death's edge. The matchless king ordered his fighters to Bhima's side, and with Yuyudhana and the Pandavas born of Madri at the head of their mighty group they made their way towards him. Bulls in the herd of men driven by their hatred for Drona's army and the archers so great and strong who ringed it, those mighty heroes led by Bhima with their blood up bore down upon their quarries. As their warriors fierce and wild came towards us our very best awaited them: Drona. Peace was in his eyes. Yet any fear of death they may have harbored themselves the Pandavas had driven from their hearts, and thus they were upon us.\n\n32.1\n\n32.5\n\n32.10\n\nWarrior crashed against warrior and car against car and spear fell upon sword and axe locked with axe. The time of battle stretched as long and cruel as the blades drawn from their scabbards. The clash between the elephants was perhaps the most fierce. I saw one man tumbling from an elephant's back and another from his horse and another I saw torn by arrows as he stood in his car. An elephant _________\n\n269\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\ncrossing the slaughter trampled the chest of the crumpled and stripped corpse of a man and then crushed his head beneath its foot. Others trampled other of the dead, and numberless were the fallen that those beasts impaled as they were dragged low to the ground by the ravened entrails that snagged their tusks. Yet more of the beasts wandered aimlessly across the plain toiling among the hundredhigh heaps of the slaughtered, of men and horses and cars and other elephants all fallen and plated in dark iron and all flattened and broken beneath their feet as if nothing more than a field of snapped reeds.\n\n32.15\n\nI saw lords of men humbled by their encounter with time who had taken their final rest upon sorrowing beds decked in the feathers of vultures. Father murdered son and then rode on and son murdered father for in this nightmare nothing of order remained. There a shattered wheel, here a tattered flag or a lone parasol on the broad earth. A horse runs past dragging a buckled halfwheel behind it. A severed hand clutching a sword, a head with gold rings still in its ears, a chariot that had felt the kick of a beast's heavy foot lying mangled in the mud. An elephant transfixed by an iron arrow from some archer's bow crumples lifeless to earth, and another kicks out at a horse and it folds with its rider before the shock.\n\n32.20\n\n271\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nThat day the war became something vast and awful beyond compass. Garbled cries burst out and resounded. Screams for a father, a son, a friend: Where are you? Wait! Where are you going? Stand and fight! Stop! Finish him! Blood of man and horse and beast flowed together and a foul cloud of dust stirred from the earth settled on their wretched forms. On the black path of the dead a warrior slammed his chariot into another's and knocked off his head with a club. They clutched at one another's hair and hammered with fists and used nails and teeth as each sought for solid ground in the sinking morass. A man's arm that held a sword high was cut clean away and then one that held a bow, an arrow, a hook. Someone screamed at someone else and someone fled in terror and someone found another just like himself and tore his head from his shoulders. A man _________\n\nthundered past and another ran from the awful noise and beneath a hail of sharp arrows a man killed his own while another killed his foe. Like a rock in a mountainslide down came an elephant pierced by an iron arrow, and it settled to earth as it might at leisure into the cool waters of a river in the summer heat. Like a falling stone another was pulled over and its foot came down upon a warrior and his car and driver. The sight of all these brilliant warriors drenched in blood with arms flailing filled many who were weak and sick at heart with utter despair. The whole scene was upended and it was impossible in the chaos to make anything out through the dust that rolled before everything.\n\n32.25\n\n32.30\n\n273\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nBut somehow from within it all their commander's voice cried out: \"Now is the time!\"\n\n32.35\n\nAnd so Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna rallied the ever vigorous Pandavas and following his order they raised their mighty arms and like swans on the wind flew without fear upon Drona's chariot to destroy it. The clamor grew about the mighty teacher's car: Grab him! Be quick! Be brave! Cut him to pieces! Drona and Kripa and Karna and Ashvatthaman and King Jayad\u00b7ratha and the two Avantis Vinda and Anuvinda and Shalya all stood their ground, but unstoppable and unreachable and proud in their noble calling the Pandavas and the Panchalas shrugged off their suffering and kept their eyes on their teacher.\n\n32.40\n\nFury blazed in Drona. And he wrought a terrible violence upon the Chedis and the Panchalas and the Pandus as arrows flew from his bow in their hundreds. All across the sky its string crackled like lightning and the sound o father filled frail hearts with fear. Having felled the Beholden in droves high Jishnu made his way to where Drona ravaged the Pandus to stop him. The Warrior of the Red Stars appeared suddenly for he had made his way through the arrowdeep gulfs of bloodred roaring surge that was all that was left of the Beholden and we saw like the searing flame of the sun the glint of his crown and the dazzling colors of the banner of the monkey. The whole ocean of the Beholden the thirsty rays of his arrows had drunk up, and now Arjuna son of Pandu and sun risen at the end of time set the Kurus alight as he sent the flame of his sword's blade blistering through the entire army, and we were like the living world on fire beneath the smokebannered orb when the age turns. Hair wild and _______________\n\n32.45\n\n275\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nbodies torn by arrows, soldiers and chariots and horses and elephants crashed beneath the rolling volleys of his arrows and fell down dead to the earth. Some fell cursing and some just vanished and some arrowed in Partha's shafts were dead before they struck the ground. Others staggered upright or stumbled away from him and Arjuna held to his code and did not strike them down without mercy. Spared for now they wandered bereft of their chariots while yet others scattered from his path and called out in moans formless or shaped in Karna's name.\n\n32.50\n\nAdhiratha's son heard the plaintive wails of these desperate souls and we heard him call out to them: \"Fear not!\" He turned towards Arjuna and rode at him.\n\nAll in the land of Bharata urged on the best warrior the Bharatas had known. Sage of war that he was, he invoked then the Weapon of Fire. But with sorcery of his own Dhanan\u00b7jaya cut through the bind of arrows from the brightburning bowman wreathed in bright shafts. Then attack smothered attack as roaring and arrows flying Adhirathi struck down the shafts that came flamed in splendor from his foes. Three arrows came from Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna and three from Bhima and three from the mighty Satyaki and each of them flew true and found him. He buried Arjuna's arrows in a welter of his own and then with only three slim reeds he split each of the others' three bows in two. Their weapons knocked from their hands for a moment, they were like snakes without tongues, yet in a moment more they raised up spears and as one they rode and roared like animals before sending those great staves long as serpents hurtling through the air with all the power of their arms. __________\n\n32.55\n\n277\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nThey flashed towards Karna. Three shafts and then three again whittled the wind and cut the spars from the arc of their flight as strong Karna bellowed and from his bow sent another volley at Partha.\n\nBut with seven swift shafts Arjuna stuck Radha's son and three slammed hard and deadly sharp into one of Karna's brothers. And down fell Shatrun\u00b7jaya dead beneath six more arrows flying true. In the same second Partha took the head from Vipata's shoulders with an ironclad dart and left his body still standing in its car. Three brothers were slain by the lone hand of the Diademed Warrior, and all before the very eyes of the horseman's son, as the sons of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra looked dumbly on.\n\n32.60\n\nThen Bhima leapt from his chariot up into the air, swept like Garuda upon Karna and struck down fifteen of his guard with his great sword. He climbed onto another car and sweeping up a new bow sent ten arrows at Karna and with five studded his horseman and steeds. king of the Panchalas Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna took up a fine sword and gleaming shield and rained down blow upon blow on Chandra\u00b7varman and Brihat\u00b7kshatra the Nishadha, before he too leapt back onto his car and hefting another bow and roaring exultant sent three and seventy shafts at Karna. Lustered Shini's son raised his bow and bellowing like a wild beast struck the son of the horseman with sixty-four of his arrows and with two more heavy shafts deftly loosed split Karna's bow in his hands, then pierced his arms and chest with three more. As Satyaki's flood threatened to engulf him, Duryodhana and Drona and King Jayad\u00b7ratha all rushed to __________________________\n\n32.65\n\n279\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\ndefend him. A great and fearsome phalanx of your soldiers, chariots and elephants heaved towards Karna while piling forward to save Satyaki came Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna and Bhima and Abhimanyu, and Arjuna, Nakula and Saha\u00b7deva.\n\n32.70\n\nHow the battle was then. A gruesome contest for the theft of the breath and the being of every warrior on your side and on theirs. What stood revealed upon the plain was a vast interlocking of elephants and horses and soldiers and chariots, with more soldiers and more chariots, and warriors with horses and footmen and elephants and footmen and chariots with elephants and cars, and horses with horses and elephants with elephants and warriors with warriors and soldiers with soldiers. Crammed with the dead the conflict between those bold and mighty men had yielded its bounty to carrioneaters and swelled Death's kingdom. The dead were numberless. Horses and soldiers and cars and elephants tangled with elephants and horses and chariots and men in numbers that defied reckoning. There were elephants fallen on elephants and chariots upon warriors with arms still holding weapons to the sky, and horses on horses and soldiers on mounds of soldiers. Raising your eyes you saw more elephants entwined with the debris of chariots, the huge bodies of horses beneath the massive bulk of yet more, and men beneath those horses and horses embracing heroes with eyes and teeth out and tongues in ribbons on the ground and armor and finery all broken up, then more and more countless weapons and wellmade swords shattered and sad to behold, all lying on the earth crushed and buckled beneath foot and hoof and beast and covered with wheels and the shattered ribs of the cars.\n\n32.75\n\n281\n\nthe death of the beholden\n\nAs this terrible vanishment of men brought joy to fiends, birds and wild beasts, still the great warriors who survived were fighting on in rage and violence and the need to destroy one another. They stood face to face deep in the vaults of the surging ocean of blood, until at long last o Bharata the sun set, and night sent the two armies back to their camps.\n\n32.80\n\n283\n\n33\u201354  \nThe Death of Abhimanyu\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nW\n\ne had been crushed beneath the Red Star Fighter's measureless might. Drona's plan had failed and Yudhi\u00b7shthira was safe. We had been defeated. The men stood in tattered armor, caked in grime, eyes glancing wildly about them. With Drona's leave they laid their weapons upon the ground. We had been terribly humiliated by our adversaries. It had been their day. People described with admiration Arjuna's infinite gifts and spoke with wonder of the concern that Keshava had shown towards his friend. Then like condemned men everyone fell into the oblivion of sleep.\n\n33.1\n\n33.5\n\nAt daybreak Duryodhana spoke to Drona. Although almost out of his wits with fury at his enemy's triumphs he spoke with eloquence, tempering his anger with a haughty affection. We listened to what he said.\n\n\"It would seem o greatest of seers that our side is fated to lose. You come close enough to touch Yudhi\u00b7shthira yet you do not. If any foe of yours made the mistake of showing himself to you then I know that even with the help of the deathless gods the Pandavas would not be able to save him from your grasp. If, that is, you truly wanted to capture him. In the past you have done as I have asked, and you are dear to me for that. But a man of honor takes care not to wreck the hopes of one who has entrusted himself to his charge.\"\n\nBharad\u00b7vaja's son listened to the king. There was shame in his voice when he spoke.\n\n33.10\n\n287\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\n\"You might hold me in higher regard for I am struggling to bring your wishes to pass. Even with an army of gods and devils flanked by genies, spirits and demons no man could make something his when Kiritin is its guardian. Where Go\u00b7vinda the creator goes so too does great Arjuna. Tell me my king: who except the Three Eyed God could defeat their combined might? But my son I say this to you, for it will be so nor be denied. I will today hew their high king from their number. I will draw up the army into an array that even the gods could not breach. All the same, o lord, Arjuna must somehow be drawn away from the battlefield because in the reckoning to come nothing is outside the reach of his heart or arm. Piece by piece he has gathered his wisdom in war and now there is nothing that he cannot do.\"\n\n33.15\n\nWhen Drona had spoken the Beholden again hurled out their challenge off to the south where Arjuna was to be found. There took place a battle between Arjuna and his foes the like of which had never been seen nor heard of before. Drona's chosen formation shone blinding as the sun burning along its meridian. But that day o Bharata at his uncle's behest Abhimanyu broke apart the unbreakable strength of the Kaurava wheel. Thousands fell before him as he went about his impossible task. In the end, six of his adversaries surrounded him and he was brought to his knees before Duhshasana's son. O lord of this earth, the son of Subhadra and firebrand to his foes breathed out his last that day. How grave was the sorrow that fell upon the Pandavas then, and how we rejoiced. Yet we too lay down our swords when Abhimanyu died, o king.\n\n33.20\n\n289\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\ndhrita\u00b7rashtra spoke.\n\nSanjaya. Your words rend my heart. That the son of so great a man could be cut down in the prime of life, in war. The laws of a warrior's life are harsh. And how grotesque it is to any who strive for the good of things that men who lust for power could bring down a sword upon a child's head. A child rambles through a world free from horror and full of the purest bliss. How could these six swordsmen kill him? Tell me o son of Gavalgana. And tell me too how the brilliant son of Subhadra played with our chariots as if they were toys when he fought his way through our ranks. Come Sanjaya. Speak.\n\n33.25\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nGreat king, you ask me to describe to you Saubhadra's fall. I will tell you the whole story and O majesty I ask that you hear me. Indeed the youth made playthings with the cars through which he battled and on that black day he crushed the most hale of heroes. That day fear came among your men and it seized them as it might villagers in a forest far from anywhere when a great fire comes tearing through the dense palm thickets about them.\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nAs they came forth invincible as gods, the five Pandavas and Krishna all bore the signs of the violence that they had done and that had been done to them. First among them was he to whom in wondrousness and greatness and splendor and wisdom and all that suffuses the noble in deed no man who has lived or ever will live can be compared. Virtue and truth are his passion, and his humility hides __________\n\n34.1\n\n291\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nthe nobility of a man who reveres the twiceborn before all others. I speak of King Yudhi\u00b7shthira, who even now has touched the highest realms of heaven. O majesty it is he and the great scion of Jamad\u00b7agni who brings death at the age's end and Bhima\u00b7sena high in his car whom they call the Perfect Three. And never will I meet a man on this earth the measure of the one who carries Gandiva through the fray: Partha, brilliant in mind and hand. His brother Nakula is beholden only to himself. Mildness and modesty, honesty, peace and power, and a total devotion to his elders make six the strictures that bind him. In courage, might, truth and grace, depth of soul and wisdom, the warrior Saha\u00b7deva can stand without shame alongside the twin Horse Gods of heaven. And all the virtues in Krishna and the blessings of the sons of Pandu appear united in the figure of Abhimanyu. In steadfastness he is like Yudhi\u00b7shthira, in speed like Krishna, in deed wild as Bhima\u00b7sena, his discipline he shares with the twins and in form and gait and voice he is the very image of his father.\n\n34.5\n\n34.10\n\ndhrita\u00b7rashtra spoke.\n\nO horseman, it is the tale of Abhimanyu the triumphant son of Subhadra that now I wish to hear. How was he slain in battle?\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nSteel yourself great king and dam the flood of your grief. Hear me, for I tell of the death of your brother's grandson.\n\n293\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nO majesty, the Teacher drew the troops into the shape of the wheel and the godlike kings stood arrayed within it. Each Kaurava prince resplendent as the sun had his place as a spoke in that wheel. Their numbers were vast. Their standards all interlocked were picked out in gold, their apparel was bright and bright their finery and fluttering flags, and bright their chains of gold. Their arms and legs were sprinkled with aloe and sandal, and they wore garlands around their necks and cloaks of the finest fabric and all of them rushed as one to do battle with Karshni. Your handsome and fortunate son had the loyalty of ten thousand warriors who raised their stout bows to him and all of them shared the same grievances and the same determination and jostled with one another to show their commitment to the common cause. Flanked by his great fighters Karna, Duhshasana and Kripa, Duryodhana stood among his troops my king like the very equal of the lord of the gods, immaculate in ______________________________\n\nthe circle of shade his white parasol cast. The plumes on his horses' heads quivered as they rode. On he came like the rising sun. Meanwhile at the very head of the host rode its trusted commander Drona, and behind him the Sindhu king noble as Mount Meru. At the king's side were Ashvatthaman and thirty of your sons, great as the everlasting gods. Then came three mighty warriors, blazing at Sindhu's side: Shalya and Bhuri\u00b7shravas and Shakuni, gambler king of the Gandharas.\n\n34.15\n\n34.20\n\nAnd so friend met foe once more in the ghastly crash of battle. Only with death would they rest.\n\n295\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nFour of the sons of Pritha rode out towards the unassailable line of men protected by Bharad\u00b7vaja's son. Bhima\u00b7sena came first, then Satyaki and Chekitana and Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna grandson of Prishata, then the bold chieftain of the Kuntis, the champion Drupada, and Abhimanyu and Kshatra\u00b7dharman and valiant Brihat\u00b7kshatra, then Dhrishta\u00b7ketu prince of the Chedis and the twin sons of Madri and Ghatotkacha and bold Yudha\u00b7manyu and triumphant Shikhandin, and dauntless Uttamaujas and the great Virata. After them rode the five fiery children of Draupadi and Shishu\u00b7pala's fearless son, and then the mighty Kekayas and Srinjayas in their thousands. Still others guarded each by his own plunged forward in the delirium of war to slake his thirst for blood. But mighty Drona stood calm before them, and with a great burst of arrows he drove them back. Like a vast mass of water dammed by solid rock or like the ocean rolling against the coast those warriors broke against Drona. My king, the Pandavas could not even get close to him as their blood was let by the arrows he scattered from his bow. It was a wonder to behold. With but the might of his two arms Drona kept at bay Panchala and Srinjaya alike.\n\n35.1\n\n35.5\n\n35.10\n\nYudhi\u00b7shthira looked upon Drona's furious work and thought desperately about how he might be overcome. Deciding that there was no one who could defeat him, the king nonetheless chose to place this impossible burden upon the shoulders of Abhimanyu son of Subhadra, bane of foes and Vasudeva's equal and a warrior as hymned for his brilliance as his father. These were the words the king spoke.\n\n297\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\n\"My son. You must do as I say or on his return we will face Arjuna's reproach. I can see no way at all to breach the Kaurava wheel. Only you or Arjuna or Krishna or mighty Pradyumna but no fifth beside you could stand a chance in this task. My dear child Abhimanyu. You have to do what I say since it is not just I who ask it of you but all of us, every one of your fathers and uncles and every warrior who fights in this army. If you do not then my son when Dhanan\u00b7jaya makes his way back I will be the one with whom he finds fault. Do not hesitate. Draw a sharp arrow from your quiver and slice apart what Drona has put together.\"\n\n35.15\n\nabhimanyu spoke.\n\nVictory for my fathers is all I desire. It may be sheer and forbidding yet without waiting I will break through the wall of Drona's troops and plunge beyond it. My father has taught me the secret art for destroying the array of the wheel. But I fear that if something should go wrong then I will be unable to escape.\n\nyudhi\u00b7shthira spoke.\n\nBreak through this wall and force open a door for us and we will follow in your wake, my son. You are a warrior beyond compare, Dhanan\u00b7jaya's equal. We will be close behind you, my child, and in your train we will protect you from any and every quarter.\n\n35.20\n\n299\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nbhima spoke.\n\nI will be at your heels, and Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna, Satyaki and all the Panchalas, and the Kekayas, Matsyas and the Prabhadrakas. As soon as you have broken their column it will be our turn\u2014it will be for us to smash and destroy their champions as we choose.\n\nspoke.\n\nThen I will hurl myself at Drona's impenetrable array like a moth on a mad flight into the flickering depths of the fire. I will do what is right for both courses of my blood and in so doing bring happiness to my father and my uncle alike. Today everyone will watch as the horde of our enemies is driven back before a lone young man: before me. I am no child of Partha, no child of Subhadra unless any that breathe who cross my path are today cut free from this world. Alone upon my chariot I will carve this dense circle of warriors into eight pieces or I declare that I am not the son of Arjuna.\n\n35.25\n\nyudhi\u00b7shthira spoke.\n\nO son of Subhadra may these words make you ever stronger as you go to your trying task. The enemy array shaped by Drona is defended by great tigers, mighty bowmen who are like the gods of the tempest and the gods of the wind and the sky, and whose courage is akin to the courage of the Adityas or of the Vasus or of Agni.\n\n35.30\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nAbhimanyu heard these words from the king. Then he called out to his charioteer.\n\n301\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\n\"Drive the horses into battle, Sumitra. We are bound for Drona's army.\"\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nO Bharata. Saubhadra heard the command he had been given by the wise and righteous king. He ordered his driver to make for the vanguard of Drona's host. But when he heard Abhimanyu's order Sumitra spoke to his master. O majesty, this is what he said.\n\n36.1\n\n\"The Pandavas have placed a heavy burden on your shoulders. Think carefully upon it before you see fit to ride into battle. Drona is your teacher. He is a wise man and he has labored long and hard to learn the highest arts of combat. But your upbringing knew no affliction. You lack his experience in war.\"\n\nAbhimanyu smiled then. This was his reply to Sumitra.\n\n36.5\n\n\"Tell me, half-caste. Who is this Drona of whom you speak? Does his power know no bounds? Were Indra to climb upon Airavata and lead the whole throng of the deathless powers against me I would stand to face him and fight my ground. Let there be no cause for surprise at what I can do. This troop of fiends before us is not worthy of the tips of my thumbs.\n\nHorseman's son.* Know this. Were I to meet in war Vishnu my uncle whom none can overcome or come face to face with Arjuna my father, still I would not be afraid.\"\n\nSo Abhimanyu spurned his driver's admonition and ordered him again to make all haste for Drona and his men. With little joy in his heart Sumitra urged on the steeds. Beneath harnesses tooled in gold their strong legs churned as\n\n36.10\n\n303\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nhe set those three-year-old horses to a gallop towards Drona's line. On at Drona they flew. Drona looked up from the midst of the Kauravas as one by one they all turned to face Abhimanyu riding out with the rest of the Pandavas at his heels.\n\nClad in golden armor and with his pennant trailing from Arjuna's a flagpole tall and resplendent as a flowering tree, son was the image and equal of his father. He fell in full frenzy upon the mighty fighters of Drona like a lion cub falling on a herd of elephants. And as he plunged towards them excitement inflamed them and they lurched forward to meet his approach. At the moment they came together it was like the Ganges pouring into the ocean, and with horror and noise the struggle between the two armies of warring clans began o king yet again. Indeed the dread confrontation Arjuni was barely underway when before Drona's very gaze crashed through his front line and split it in two. He drove his way into the heart of the horde while all about him were knotted elephants and horses and chariots and soldiers with swords held high. And all of them rushed at Arjuna's son.\n\n36.15\n\nAs they rolled and galloped towards him, the earth resounded beneath wheel and hoof with the rising peal of bells and laughter, and voices calling across space as one told another where he was, to come closer, to stay and fight, voices that merged with rude ululations and the cacophony of challenge and counter-challenge and a great animal groan and hum swelling with the wail of a thousand clarions and screams and cries and bellows. They piled in upon him, but it was that swiftbowed hero who struck his brothers first, and he did so quickly and hard. He knew their weaknesses __________\n\n36.20\n\n305\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nand there he drove his brutal attack, pinning them beneath his sharp and numberless arrows. They fell powerless upon him in that violence like moths to a flame. Their bodies and the limbs of which those bodies were built Abhimanyu scattered over the soil like so many blades of grass strewn across an altar for olden rites. First it was the arms that he cut cruelly away, arms strapped in armguards with plectrums on the thumbs of their hands, hands that held arrows and the bows from which they flew, hands that held bridles and hooks and shields and swords, that held javelins and maces and spears, morningstars and bludgeons and blades and pikes and tridents, slings and studded clubs, hammers and darts, hands that held whips and great conches and staves and claws and mallets and shot and chains and rods and stones, hands at the ends of arms bound in bracelets and torcs and perfumed in jasmine. They were cut down trembling around him like the fiveheaded serpents that Garuda slew. And the earth shone with their vermilion blood.\n\n36.25\n\nThen came their heads. The Red Star Fighter's son strewed the earth with the oilscented heads of his foes, from whose mouths delicate words once fell, whose countenances were bright as the sun and moon or lotuses plucked from their stalks, so many all wrapped in turbans or framed in crowns or fine garlands or lustered in gemstones or jewels but now pulsing with blood, some with their eyelids and lips dashed by his angry hand but some with their noses still proud and their features and locks of hair still pristine and with the finest of earrings still in their ears.\n\n36.30\n\n307\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nAll across the field you could see him as he went carving into splinters with his arrows every chariot that he found. Bedizened from scripture like the cities of heaven, the planks of those cars were pulled from their brightbannered prows, handles and curlicues wrenched from their stocks and shanks and housings tugged away, spokes punched out of wheels if the wheels still remained, and shafts and ornaments gone and paraphernalia crushed and the warriors they once carried all dead.\n\nWith arrows sharpened at tip and edge he threw down elephants and the men that rode them and pennants and poles, hooks and quivers and armor, girdles and chains and blankets and bells. He lopped off their trunks and tusks and the dried garlands they wore and killed the men that came after them on foot. And he killed their horses, your horses, those fleet and welltrained steeds strong in tail ear and eye and bred in Bahlika and Kamboja and in the mountains and in Vanayu, horses that had carried skilled warriors who had fought with spear and javelin and bow, horses streaming now with shit piss and blood, plate armor and harnesses ripped from dead carcasses become no more than bounty for carrioneaters, their riders dead and the bells that once hung from them dashed in, piles of organs and entrails unraveled from guts, and tongues and eyes pulled from sockets, silk torn in ribbons and the plumes of their headgear like molted feathers across the ground.\n\n36.35\n\n36.40\n\n309\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nAll this wrought by one boy. It would have seemed near impossible but like Vishnu who surpasses our mortal thoughts he had ruined chariots, riders, soldiers, every stratum of your great army. The whole mass of your infantry had been blasted before him. With his sharp shafts the son of Subhadra had singlehandedly crushed an army as if he were Skanda taming the demon horde. Your sons looked about them and wherever they turned their heads it was devastation that they beheld. Their mouths were dry, their eyes danced, sweat broke out on their brows and they felt their hair stand on end. All of their remaining strength they saved for their flight and then they had no more. The day belonged to their enemy. Names were on their sorrowing tongues for it was life that they sought but dead sons, fathers and brothers, friends and kin by blood and law to whom they bade farewell, before they spurred on their horses and elephants and made good their escape.\n\n36.45\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nDuryodhana watched his army collapsing beneath Saubhadra's measureless might and his temper could not bear the sight. He rode out towards him.\n\n37.1\n\nDrona saw the king making for Saubhadra and addressed the lords who were fighting at his side.\n\n\"Keep Duryodhana safe lest Abhimanyu snatches his prize from before our very eyes. Be quick, and be brave.\"\n\nThey knew their duty, and despite their fear drew in around your bold son to show their mettle. There were Drona and Ashvatthaman, Kripa, Karna, Krita\u00b7varman, Saubala, Brihad\u00b7bala and the Madra king, Bhuri, Bhuri\u00b7shravas, __________\n\n37.5\n\n311\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nShala, Paurava and Vrisha\u00b7sena, and loosing whetted shafts they showered Saubhadra in a great deluge of arrows that halted his advance and forced him to let Duryodhana go. For Arjuna's son, it was as if a morsel of food had been struck from his mouth and he could not endure it. With a vast mass of arrows he took off the heads of warriors and drivers and horses and roared a lion's roar as he did. It was the roar of a lion in sight of its prey and, filling the ears of Drona and his warriors it drove them wild once again.\n\nO father they surrounded him with a thicket of cars and together they wove a haze of arrows above his head. Using his own sharp shafts your grandson cut their arrows from the sky and with miraculous skill struck back at them. Now mad with anger and baying for his blood Drona's men covered Subhadra's defenseless child in arrows deadly as vipers. O bull of the Bharatas, as your warriors surged in a tide towards him, Arjuni was the shore that kept them back with only his reeds. They did not hesitate but jostling with one another fought forward to reach him and the battle around him grew bloodier and more fierce.\n\n37.10\n\nDuhsaha struck Abhimanyu with nine of his arrows, Duhshasana found him with a dozen and Kripa son of Sharadvat struck him with three. Seventeen shafts deadly as snakes flew at him from Drona, seventy from Vivinshati and seven from Krita\u00b7varman, and three arrows came from Bhuri\u00b7shravas and six rushed from the Madra king, while Shakuni struck him twice and King Duryodhana thrice. But O majesty he seemed to dance as with three shafts flying true from his bow then three again fiery Abhimanyu __________\n\n37.15\n\n313\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nstruck back. He flared hot with anger from your sons' attacks and revealed then his extraordinary strength so honed by discipline and skill.\n\n37.20\n\nDriving horses that were mild, faithful to the hand that guided them and swift as the wind from Garuda's wings, he rode to meet the heir of Ashmaka as he raced towards him. Striking Abhimanyu with ten of his arrows the prince called at him to stand and fight. Abhimanyu smiled. Ten arrows flew from his bow and first his foe's steeds, driver and standard and then bow, hands and head went tumbling down to the ground. He had been a great lord of his land but when Saubhadra slew him his fellow soldiers shook in doubt and fear. And the rain of arrows poured down again from Karna, Kripa, Drona, Drauni, the Gandhara king and Shala, from Shalya, Bhuri\u00b7shravas, Kratha, Soma\u00b7datta, Vivinshati, Vrisha\u00b7sena, Sushena, Kunda\u00b7bhedin and Pratardana, Vrindaraka, Lalittha, Prabahu, Dirgha\u00b7lochana and Duryodhana, now berserk with rage. Abhimanyu suffered terribly beneath the arrows flying from their mighty bows but notching a single shaft of his own crafted to cut through armor and bone he aimed at Karna and sent it tearing through the warrior's mail and body, and from the force of its flight it flew on and bored into the ground like a snake into a burrow. Struck by that shuddering blow, Karna staggered in his car like a mountain shaken by an earthquake. Sighting Sushena, Dirgha\u00b7lochana and Kunda\u00b7bhedin, Abhimanyu sent with crazed force three sharp arrows at the three of them before Karna struck him once more with twenty-five iron shafts, Ashvatthaman hit him with twenty, and Krita\u00b7varman with seven.\n\n37.25\n\n37.30\n\n315\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nHis limbs were now all needled with arrows and the son of the son of Indra rode madly through the army's lines like Death, noose in hand.* He came past Shalya and raising his great arms sprayed him in arrows, screaming out his hatred for the army around him, and his marrowpiercing shafts flew true from his masterly hands and struck Shalya, who sank in a daze o king to the seat of his car. Drona's battalion saw Shalya overcome by the energy of Saubhadra and they began to crumble. Their commander was powerless to halt them. The sight of one of their champions pinned in bright shafts drove them away in terror like deer before a lion. Abhimanyu's splendor blazed in that battle. The heavenly host of forefathers and gods, of seers saints and spirits, all sang out his praises. The ghosts that walk the earth joined their chorus. And Abhimanyu flared ever higher, like a thirsty fire given a drink of oil.\n\n37.35\n\ndhrita\u00b7rashtra spoke.\n\nDid any of my soldiers stand firm before Arjuna's son as he tore through the rows of warriors with his trueflying shafts?\n\n38.1\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nListen o king to how as he strove to breach it the youth sported as if at play with the array that Bharadvaja had shaped. When the younger brother of Shalya saw the king of the Madras stilled by the quick shafts of Saubhadra he went at him in a rage, scattering darts before him as he rode. But arrows from Arjuni's light fingers cut away his foe's head from his neck, cut to pieces his hands and his feet, his horses and bow and parasol, oriflamme, driver, chariot, and then ___________\n\n317\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nthe seat from the car's housing, its wheels, yoke, quivers and axle, its banner pole and wheelguards and every bolt and shaft that remained. And he did it all in a blur that no eye could follow. Trailing chains and tattered rags the broken form of Shalya's brother fell to earth like a tall sacred tree cracked by the immense force of the wind god himself, and his terrified train scattered in every direction. From every soul on his side a roar went at Arjuni's feat. O Bharata they cried out in praise to see Shalya's brother brought down, and they chanted at Abhimanyu in glee the names of his fathers and forefathers.\n\n38.5\n\nBut others were filled with anger. Weapons glittering in their hands, some came on chariot, horse and elephant, some on foot. Bloodlust crazed them all. Above the deafening clatter of arrows and the thunder of hooves and wheels, and bellows rolling through the gathering din and lions' roars and the trumpeting of elephants, and above the snap of bowstring against armguard, still others screamed out their warning to the youth who was Arjuna's joy: \"You will not escape us with your life!\"\n\n38.10\n\nSaubhadra looked back at them when he heard their threat. A smile played across his lips. Any who came upon him he instantly struck aside with his quarrels. His skill so dazzling and swift was clear to us all that day as the son of Arjuna battled with a strength tempered by a curious kind of mildness. Karshni unveiled tricks learned from Vasudeva and from Dhanan\u00b7jaya and each time it was as if both of the Dark Ones fought by his side. Once more he made light of his grave burden and its dangers and as he sent his arrows high they blended into a single mass before which hung ____\n\n38.15\n\n319\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nthe circle of his bow, shimmering in the skies above like the brightburning disk of the autumnal sun. The thrum of his bowstring and the eerie whisper of his hands were like the tremors of a dusk raincloud alive with lightning. Modest and mild and generous as he was, the handsome Saubhadra strove at first to honor his enemies with the arrows and blows he sent at them. But as he fought on, from calm to fearsomeness he turned, my king, as the holy sun at the turning of the year burgeons through the rain. Like rays of the sun, arrows bright and golden and whetted to a gleam flew from his bow in their hundreds. Wrath rose within him. Biting and barbed were the spearlike shafts and splinters curved like halfmoons and iron bolts and darts that Abhimanyu scattered upon the facing line, while Bharad\u00b7vaja's son looked helplessly on. And beneath this torture of arrows the faces of his enemies fell.\n\n38.20\n\ndhrita\u00b7rashtra spoke.\n\nO Sanjaya. You tell me of Saubhadra's eclipse of the army of my son and shame and pleasure vie in my heart. Describe everything to me. Spare nothing, Gavalgani. I want to hear how the boy played with us as once Skanda played with the demons.\n\n39.1\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nThen I shall describe to you a bloody contest of one against many and spare no detail of the violent struggle that ensued. Supreme was Abhimanyu's courage and supreme the courage of those who sought to tame him. From his bow came a rain that fell on all the chariots manned by all the warriors in your son's army. Down upon Drona, _______________\n\n39.5\n\n321\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nupon Karna, Kripa and Shalya, upon Ashvatthaman and Lord Brihad\u00b7bala, upon Duryodhana and Saumadatti and mighty Shakuni, upon all the many kings and sons of kings and soldiers of every rank he came wheeling like a ring of burning coals. With weapons not of this world in his hands Saubhadra slew any who came against him and we saw his splendor as he blazed across the skies. O Bharata. How your soldiers shook and trembled at the sight of Saubhadra's awesome course. Bharad\u00b7vaja's wise and brilliant son called out to nimble Kripa, his eyes wide with wonder at the sight of the mastery Abhimanyu was displaying, and he spoke words that seemed, o Bharata, to crush the very bones in Duryodhana's body.\n\n39.10\n\n\"Look at this tender child born to Subhadra who fights in the van of the Parthas, and see what joy he brings to his family, to King Yudhi\u00b7shthira and Nakula, Saha\u00b7deva and Bhima\u00b7sena son of Pandu, and all his kin and allies and friends. None who bear the bow could be said to be his equal. If he wished it he could annihilate this force. And we might ask why he seems minded otherwise.\"\n\nDrona's words betrayed him. Your son heard the affection for Abhimanyu in his voice and anger rose up within him. He looked at Drona with a mocking smile then spoke to them all, to Karna, King Bahlika, Duhshasana, the king of the Madras and the other heroes who were there.\n\n39.15\n\n323\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\n\"Behold the teacher of the whole warrior caste, this wise and holy sage. He has gone into a swoon over Arjuna's child and does not seek his death. If the Destroyer himself stepped out here today and drew his bow upon him, even he could not bear Drona back to his kingdom. And what of a mere mortal? The truth is that Drona is protecting the son of Arjuna because he was his pupil, because disciples and their children and those beloved to them are all as good as kin as far as the virtuous are concerned. It is Drona who protects him yet Abhimanyu dreams that it is his own prowess that he has to thank for his survival. He is just a fool in thrall to his delusion. There is no time to waste. He must be crushed.\"\n\nInspired by what Duryodhana had said, his warriors rode out once more for Abhimanyu, the boy's death in their hearts. All the while Bharad\u00b7vaja merely looked on. Then the tiger of the Kurus Duhshasana spoke these words to his brother.\n\n39.20\n\n\"I say to you my king that I will kill Abhimanyu, and the Pandavas and Panchalas will stand about blinking as I do. I will swallow up Saubhadra like Rahu swallowed the sun.\" This he baldly stated, then after a pause he began to speak once more to the Kuru sovereign. \"Have no doubt. When the proud Dark Ones hear that I have devoured Saubhadra they will both leave the world of the living, bound for the world of the dead. Mark my words. When they hear that the Krishnas are dead the sons sprung from Pandu's soil* will in but a single day give up their craven lives, as will all their kin and kind. With the death of but one of their number __________\n\n39.25\n\n325\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nall of your enemies will fall. So wish me well o majesty. I go to slay your foe.\"\n\nMy king, when he had said these words your son Duhshasana rushed at Saubhadra roaring with anger and unleashed a torrent of arrows as he went. But at his frenzied approach the burner of foes Abhimanyu struck back with six and twenty of his own keen shafts. Like a furious and wounded elephant Duhshasana came at Saubhadra and Abhimanyu at him. They both had great skill in riding and they wheeled right and left, leaving spiraling tracks in their wake. On they fought, while from the men around them there arose a mighty cacophony of drums of war, of tamp and crash and clatter and rumble, the noise mingling with roars such as are heard of beasts and of the briny sea.\n\n39.30\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nArrows in his arms and legs, Abhimanyu stood and faced his foe and smiled. The words he spoke were well chosen.\n\n40.1\n\n\"Behold. A hero upon the field at last. A proud one, too. With rude speech and derelict morals and insults on his tongue. Hail to him. For those vile boasts you made and the twisted insults that in your drunken triumph and before the ears of your lord Dhrita\u00b7rashtra you spoke that day in the hall, and so insulted the good King Yudhi\u00b7shthira and his brother Bhima, and for the theft of what belongs to another, and for your lawless passions and your dizzy greed and treachery and violence and because you stole the kingdom from the dark archers who are my fathers, come o fool from behind the trick of the light that Saubala calls his __________\n\n40.5\n\n327\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\narmy and reap now the terrible reward for your crime, as it is one you have earned by the fury you have kindled in mighty souls. With my arrows I will punish you this day before the eyes of all your comrades and in exacting vengeance for your crime I will lift the polluting fury that dwells in Krishna's pained heart and make good my father's wish.* This day o son of Kuru I will do my duty to Bhima with the swing of my sword. You may surrender. For otherwise you will not escape the coming battle alive.\"\n\nThus spoke the mighty scourge of foes and he let fly a single arrow destined for Duhshasana's heart deadly as the wind from the fire of time. It sank deep into Duhshasana's chest all the way to the nock like a snake into the earth, and lodged beneath his collarbone. Back went Abhimanyu's bowstring to his ear and then five and twenty more sharp as swords took to the air and each one hit its mark. Pierced to the quick, Duhshasana reeled and fell to the floor of his car. A great shadow fell upon your son, my king, but as he slipped into darkness under the bite of Saubhadra's arrows his helmsman quickly bore him from the fray.\n\n40.10\n\nThen up came a wild cry from the Pandavas and Draupadi's sons and from Virata and the Panchalas and Kekayas, for they saw what Abhimanyu had done. They were elated at Saubhadra's feat and the Pandava horde blew into their horns in concert all across the battlefield. Joyously they watched as Saubhadra cast down the vaunting malice and pride of their enemy. Bearing above them the faces of Dharma and Vayu, of Indra and the Ashvins, the mighty Draupadeyas came on with their morale renewed, and with them __________\n\n40.15\n\n329\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\ncame Satyaki and Chekitana and Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna and Shikhandin, the Kekayas and Dhrishta\u00b7ketu, the Matsyas, Panchalas and Srinjayas and Pandavas, all as one behind Yudhi\u00b7shthira, all desperate to destroy Drona's array. But your son too wanted victory. And his warriors fought without turning.\n\n40.20\n\nO majesty. As the battle between the two sides grew more gruesome about him, Duryodhana turned to speak to Karna.\n\n\"Duhshasana was like a blazing sun cutting through our enemies but see how Abhimanyu has brought him low. And the Pandavas are wild as lions in their frenzy. They follow on to protect the boy from harm.\"\n\nFury was in Karna, and ever devoted to your son's weal he sent forth a shower of sharp arrows at the inviolable Abhimanyu. With shafts wellhoned and finely wrought the hero struck with contempt at Saubhadra's guard, but proud Abhimanyu was undeterred and sent back at Radha's son three and seventy stonetipped darts as he made swiftly for Drona, and from Drona O majesty there were none who could keep him as son of the son of the wielder of the thunderbolt he tore on through the knots of men. But Karna whom all knowers of the bow revere wanted blood, and with spectacular skill pinned Saubhadra beneath a hundred of his shafts.\n\n40.25\n\nThe best of bowmen who had been Rama's disciple had fire in him then. Abhimanyu's other enemies could not reach him, but Karna pressed hard upon him in that battle. Yet Saubhadra did not fade from the fight despite the pain of the rain of arrows sent by Radha's son and like a deathless _______________\n\n40.30\n\n331\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\ngod he stood his ground. The smooth shafts of his iron darts bit with their stonesharp tips through the bows of those around him as he made to fight back against Karna. Karna simply smiled. Plummeting down from the curve of his bow, arrows deadly as cobras fell on Abhimanyu's driver, parasol, standard and horses, but the son of the Warrior of the Red Stars fought on unbending and deflected them all. In but a moment and with a single shaft the great fighter split Karna's bow and standard and brought them spinning down to earth. Karna began to struggle. Bow in hand his younger brother saw his plight and wheeled to face indomitable Abhimanyu, while around him the cry went up above a thunder of drums as the Parthas and the men at their side all cheered on Subhadra's child.\n\n40.35\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nKarna's brother raised his bow and called out to Abhimanyu and drew back his bowstring and rode right in between the chariots of the two great warriors with a smile on his face. Ten shafts came quickly upon peerless Abhimanyu and fell across his horses, driver, standard and parasol. After the prodigies he had wrought in his father's name, the sight of Karshni harrowed beneath that attack lifted for a moment your sons' spirits. But his countenance still light, Abhimanyu raised his bow and with a single arrow clove away his foe's head from his body and sent it tumbling down to the ground.\n\n41.1\n\n333\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nO majesty. When Karna saw his brother cut down like a bayur tree plucked by the wind and cast from a mountain peak, how his heart welled with pain. Karna faltered and Saubhadra did not wait and loosing shafts fletched in vulture feathers he rushed at the next row of warriors. Gloried in fire, Abhimanyu began to break apart the warp of elephants and horses and men with the force of his wrath and splendor. Even Karna slid away with his swift steeds beneath the crush of arrows he sent at them, and the vanguard then was broken.\n\n41.5\n\nMajesty, as Abhimanyu's arrows flew it was like the air had been filled with locusts or rain and nothing could be made out. Cut down by those sharp shafts not a single of your fighters o king stood his ground except for the son of Sindhu. O bull of the Bharatas as he blew into his conch Arjuni bull in the world of men flew in a blur at the army of your kin and whirled on deep into the heart of the Bharata horde. Through chariots and through elephants and through horses and through men he plunged, and he studded all he found in biting darts and piled up the limbless dead upon the earth. Transfixed by the fine shafts born of Saubhadra's bow his victims blundered over their own companions as they ran in desperation to save their lives. Awful and honed and deadly were the spearlike shafts that tore through chariots and elephants and horses and then thudded to rest in the bounteous earth. Among the swords, the thumbrings, platemail and torcs that lay strewn across the plain there glittered apparel and ornaments of gold. Arrows and bows and swords and the trunks and heads of the dead came to rest in their hundreds upon the earth, still ___________________\n\n41.10\n\n41.15\n\n335\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nbedecked in earrings and woven wreaths. The ribs of the chariots, their seats and curved handles and crushed axles and buckled wheels and a thousand yokes, and bows and arrows and spears and fallen standards and armor, and more bows and more arrows were scattered as far as the eye could see and o lord of men the earth lost beneath this maze of dead warriors and horses and all their paraphernalia was a passing vision awful to behold.\n\nO best of the Bharatas, as the sons of kings died and cried out to one another a grim chorus gathered to fill the whole world in a rumble that struck terror into our trembling hearts. And on Saubhadra rode on his spree through horse and car and man and on and on he raged through his foes like a fire billowing through a forest of dead trees, on to the very center of this gathering of the Bharatas. For a moment we saw him, but in seconds as he wheeled through every point in the compass and then each in between, the fog of the battle closed around him and we could see him no more. For a moment I glimpsed him once again risen like the midday sun as he stole away the breath from the throats of the creatures that moved about him. Son of the son of Indra, Indra he became. That day in the heat of the fray Abhimanyu blazed, and hot were the fires in which his haters burned.\n\n41.20\n\n41.25\n\n337\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\ndhrita\u00b7rashtra spoke.\n\nThough but a boy he was of noble stock and already an adept in the arts of war. I can imagine him exultant and dizzy with the strength of his own two arms, casting aside all fear for his life and plunging on through the lines of men, behind fine horses who young like he had passed but three summers on this earth. Which of Yudhi\u00b7shthira's men followed after the brave child?\n\n42.1\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nTheir champions were close behind him. Yudhi\u00b7shthira, Bhima\u00b7sena, Shikhandin, Satyaki and the twins, Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna and Virata, Drupada and the Kaikeyas and fierce Dhrishta\u00b7ketu, his fathers and his uncles and their drivers all racing together at his heels to defend him. Your children watched them approach and their hearts sank. But one man saw Duryodhana's great army losing its spirit and he rushed forward to restore it. That man O majesty was your son-in-law Jayad\u00b7ratha, the fiery prince of Sindhu. As the Parthas and their men rode to protect their scion it was the great and deadly archer Jayad\u00b7ratha who raised his celestial bow and drove them off as he might elephants from a fragile grove.\n\n42.5\n\n339\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\ndhrita\u00b7rashtra spoke.\n\nO Sanjaya. Jayad\u00b7ratha took a great burden upon himself when he went alone against the Pandavas' love and wrath. Such an act of might and daring defies belief. Tell me of this strong fighter and of the valor of his great act. What was the gift or sacrifice or rite or fierce austerity that meant the son of Sindhu could stand alone against the rage of the Parthas?\n\n42.10\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nHumiliated by Bhima\u00b7sena during Draupadi's abduction, it was out of wounded pride and in search of a blessing that the king had burned in meditation. He closed his senses to all the sweet things of the world until, as he wasted away in the flames of hunger and thirst, the veins of his body became like cords beneath his skin. Intoning praises he came before the God Who Kills With Arrows. The great deity was pleased with the king's devotion and took pity on him. At the very end of his dream the Sindhu king heard the Destroyer's voice.\n\n42.15\n\n\"O Jayad\u00b7ratha. Name what it is you seek and I will grant it to you.\"\n\nJayad\u00b7ratha prince of Sindhu heard the God Who Kills With Arrows and raising his hands in reverence he bowed low and spoke with due humility to the fearsome being. And this o Bharata is what he said.\n\n\"When the Pandus mass against me, may it be that I can stand alone on my chariot and withstand their awful bravery and might.\"\n\n341\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nThe lord of the gods addressed Jayad\u00b7ratha in reply. \"My worthy son, I will give you what you ask. And so I say that you will withstand in battle four of Pandu's children. Only Dhanan\u00b7jaya son of Pritha will pass you by.\"\n\nThe lord of the gods finished speaking and the king woke up. And so it was that armed with a gift from the gods and with the force of the weapons of heaven he stood all alone before the Pandava horde. The sigh of his bowstring brought fear among our foe's troops and excitement among our own. The warriors watched Jayad\u00b7ratha shoulder his great burden and whooping as they went they rushed O majesty at Yudhi\u00b7shthira's front line.\n\n42.20\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nDivine king. You asked to hear of the courage of the Sindhu lord. Listen now and I will tell you one by one of his exploits against the Pandus.\n\n43.1\n\nFleet and surefooted and mild of temper were the strong Sindhu steeds that with the force of the rushing wind whirled him on. His chariot was decked by design like a city of the skies and the great banner of the silver boar danced bright above his head. White was the column of his standard and white his parasol, and with his fan in one hand he shone in his majestic trappings like the moon shining in the firmament. Studded in pearls and crystal and in gemstones and gold, his iron shield sparkled like a sky covered in stars. Jayad\u00b7ratha drew back his great bow and with a dense flight of arrows closed the wound in the host that Arjuni had opened.\n\n43.5\n\n343\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nThree shafts struck Satyaki and eight struck Vrikodara, then sixty found Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna and ten Virata. Five sharp points bit into Drupada, seven into Shikhandin, five and twenty pierced the Kaikeyas, the sons of Draupadi he struck with three then three again, and at Yudhi\u00b7shthira he sent a full seventy. Their other companions he drove back with the broad stream flowing from his bow, and what we saw before our eyes was no less than a prodigy. Then, my lord, the brilliant son of Dharma struck back and with a mocking smile aimed a pale yellow shaft at his enemy's bow and letting fly split it in two. In the winking of an eye Jayad\u00b7ratha swept up another and struck Pritha's son ten times before sending three then three again at his brother. Bhima saw how quick he was and with three arrows of his own, my king, he knocked Jayad\u00b7ratha's new bow to the earth and sliced through his pole and parasol. But the hardy fighter took up yet another and strung it and with it felled the steeds of Bhima, struck the bow from his hands and his pennant from its housing. Abandoning his broken bow, Bhima leapt up from his dead horses and his toppled car and like a lion bounding for a rock landed full in the chariot that held Satyaki. All the same, the glory was the Sindhu's.\n\n43.10\n\nYour soldiers watched and cheered in praise for we were all in awe of what he had done. With nothing more than the brilliance of his bow one man had for a moment stemmed the wrath of the Pandava horde. Saubhadra had quickly brought down elephants and their high riders and carved a path through their carcasses, but the Sindhu king had forced it shut. They all struggled, Pandavas and Kekayas and Panchalas and Matsyas, but none of them could withstand __________\n\n43.15\n\n345\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nhim. One by one the enemy strove to widen the breach in Drona's line and blessed by the gods Jayad\u00b7ratha drove them off, one by one.\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nDesperate to triumph though they were, the Pandus were held back by the Sindhu king. The battle between the two sides raged fiercely. Arjuna's son had been true to his word and he plunged splendored and unassailable into the Kuru swell and it pitched about him as if it hid a beast of the deep. But as the arrows of their fierce tormentor rained down and churned through their ranks footsoldier to king the mighty Kurus came back against him. Where they clashed the chaos became ever more awful. Archers let loose arrows in floods and a ring of hostile chariots hemmed him about, but with level yet measureless brilliance Arjuni felled the driver of Vrisha\u00b7sena's car then cut in two the warrior's bow and sent arrows straight into his horses' hides. The two steeds that went like the wind bore him from the battlefield, and Abhimanyu's driver let them go for they saw how they were weakened. The more was Abhimanyu's glory and the warriors who watched his mercy cried out their praise, but arrows flying he tore on through his enemies baleful as a lion with barely a pause. As Abhimanyu arced through their ranks Vasatiya was next to swing into his track and charge.\n\nSixty brightfletched arrows he scattered upon Abhimanyu and he called out to him the while.\n\n\"Only one of us will escape this battle alive!\"\n\n44.1\n\n44.5\n\n347\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nAnd so it was that with a farflying shaft Abhimanyu breached the iron about Vasatiya's chest, and pierced to his heart his victim fell lifeless upon the earth. At the sight of his death, anger coursed through his taurine companions and all about they drew their myriad bows as they descended upon your grandson, my king, baying for his life. Now the battle between Saubhadra and his foes took on an aspect yet darker. Abhimanyu's blood was up. He shattered bows and arrows and bodies and severed heads still dangling rings and flowers. Arms clasped in golden circlets we saw lopped from shoulders, and hands whose beringed fingers were still wrapped tight around sword and spear and axe. All about were garlands and bracelets and raiment and fallen poles, armor and shields, pendants and ________________________\n\ndiadems, parasols and chowries and pieces of chariot, and slats and rails and shafts and crowns and staves. The earth was thick with them, with twisted bars and broken wheels, yokes in their hundreds and pennants and axletrees, all lying alongside drivers and steeds, the ribs of chariots, the bodies of elephants. How savage the land looked burdened in the dead. There they lay, warriors and heroes of legend, lords and footsoldiers from every tribe of the world all of whom had once hungered for dominion. And whirling at their heart and across every quarter of the sky went the violent form of Abhimanyu. All that we could see was his armor of gold and his chains and his bow and his arrows. Him we could not glimpse as he went snatching warriors from our midst. Our eyes were blind before the sun that burned among us.\n\n44.10\n\n44.15\n\n44.20\n\n349\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nArjuna's son snatched away the lives of those warriors as Death stills the breath of all creatures when the end of days is at hand. His prowess matched Indra for he was the child of Indra's son. O how he shone as he roiled the army that surrounded him and roamed through those ranks of mighty champions as if come to bear off their souls. He leapt that day upon his everlasting fame and caught it like a lone tiger catching a deer. And with such glory about him, other warrior bulls swept up tempered swords and rushed to be the first to meet him in battle. They thronged around the son of Arjuna and each strove with the other to be the one to claim victory against him. But as they poured towards him in droves, as if he were a whale in the foaming sea he caught them streaming into his jaws and devoured them like minnows. None who came close were safe and as rivers melt into the ocean forever none of them returned. The army trembled in his leviathan's bite and before the dismal threat of his tempests, a ship lost on the spume.\n\n45.1\n\n45.5\n\nBut there was one who tried to rally the Kurus then. Rukma\u00b7ratha* by name, he was the son of the lord of the Madras, and he spoke to his army valiant and unafraid.\n\n\"Heroes! Enough with this weakness. This one is no match for me. Banish your doubt for I will take Abhimanyu and I will take him alive.\"\n\n45.10\n\n351\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nSpeaking thus he came bravely at his foe, borne in a chariot all decked and aglitter. He roared as with three arrows he speared Abhimanyu's chest, with three his right arm and with three sharp shafts his left. But Phalguni was quick and he broke Rukma\u00b7ratha's bow in two and then sliced off both his arms and cut clean away his finebrowed head. Down it fell to the earth. Rukma\u00b7ratha son of Shalya had been slain at Saubhadra's celebrated hand and his boast that he would capture his enemy alive had proved hubris. O majesty, with their brilliant banners seething in the wind above their heads, the warcrazed fighters who were sons of kings and friends of Shalya's heir looked down upon his body as it lay on the ground.\n\n45.15\n\nBack went those warriors' bows tall as palms and they buried Arjuni beneath a welter of arrows. The sight of bold Saubhadra lone and unconquered at the heart of the fray enwoven now in the mesh of darts cast with skill and strength by those young and hotheaded princes filled Duryodhana with excitement. He dreamt indeed that Abhimanyu was bound at last for the solar lodge. For as the princes loosed their bows in but the winking of an eye Arjuni was lost behind a screen of reeds filigreed in gold. Banner, driver and car all disappeared along with the boy himself as a porcupine disappears behind its quills. But those spines were like goads driven into an elephant's hide, and pierced to the quick his fury flared. Then it was o Bharata that he drew forth the weapon that came from the spirits of heaven: magic he wove about his chariot. Arjuna had burned in the flames of meditation and been gifted this weapon by Tumburu and his kind, and now Abhimanyu unleashed its turmoil upon his ________________________\n\n45.20\n\n353\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\ntormentors. Light were his fingers and out fanned his attack and like a circle of embers it seemed that one became a hundred and a hundred became a thousand. Burner of foes he bewildered them with attacks of sorcery along his wheeling path, before in their hundreds he cut down dead the lords of this earth.\n\nO my king. In that reckoning he forced with whetted shafts the very breath from the lungs of the living. Their spirits passed to the world yonder and their bodies went to the soil. Before Phalguni's biting iron fell bows and horses beyond number, drivers and banners in a cascade speckled in gold. A hundred sons of kings fell dead at Saubhadra's hand. It was as though a mango grove bowed by the fruit of five summers had suddenly been razed to the ground. Once they had lived in palaces but now these youths vehement as vipers lay dead at the feet of a solitary fighter. And now it was terror that came upon Duryodhana, as his gaze fell upon warriors, elephants, horses, soldiers, all laid open to the marrow.\n\nUnable to bear what he saw he drew up quickly before the boy, but their battle seemed to last only a moment. Your son's spirit ebbed away beneath the force of a hundred blows.\n\n45.30\n\ndhrita\u00b7rashtra spoke.\n\nHorseman. As you tell me your tale of this fierce and terrible struggle between lonely Saubhadra and his many foes, it is this solitary child whose unbeaten courage seems to me most a thing of wonder. Yet such bravery is perhaps less of a prodigy when found in those who cleave to their __________\n\n46.1\n\n355\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nduty in the world. Duryodhana was downcast and princes lay dead in their hundreds. How did my men find the spirit to rally against Subhadra's son?\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nIt was the enemy's day. Disheveled and drenched in sweat, with faces drawn and eyes reeling, your men's only remaining strength was born of the will to run. From their hands had slipped brothers, fathers and sons, friends, family and loved ones, and now they spurred on their steeds to wherever it was they were bound themselves. O majesty, as the ranks caved in about them the group of Drona and Ashvatthaman, Brihad\u00b7bala, Kripa, Duryodhana, Karna, Krita\u00b7varman and Saubala made a last crazed dash for the unbowed son of Subhadra. But the youth drove them back one by one. There was one fearless soul who from inexperience or arrogance bred in the plush palace of his youth came close to Arjuni, and that was the splendored acolyte of the arrow Lakshmana. His father turned back as he passed, anxious for his son, ____________\n\nand then other warriors followed Duryodhana and fell in behind him. They all sprinkled arrows upon Abhimanyu like drops from rainclouds on a mountain peak, but as if he were a whirling wind he tore on alone through their darkening sky. Your grandson Lakshmana was a fighter fierce at arms and fair of visage and he stood beside his father a true warrior, his bow raised to the sky. The wealth in which he had been born would have been no vaster had he been the child of Kubera, yet on the battlefield he ran wild as an elephant. In a madness the Dark One's son descended upon him and they clashed. Lakshmana's sharp and biting shafts _________________\n\n46.5\n\n46.10\n\n357\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\ncut into the arms and chest of Subhadra's vengeful son. Like a snake struck by a stick the mighty warrior reared up in anger, and one child of your wide clan addressed the other.\n\n\"Feast your eyes upon this world, for you are bound for one beyond it. Your fathers and brothers will watch now as I lead you away to where Yama dwells.\"\n\n46.15\n\nSuch were Abhimanyu's words, and from his quiver came an iron arrow like a snake shedding its skin which he notched and then loosed from his hand and which flew and hewed off the head of Lakshmana so fine of feature in nose and brow, its earrings and locks of hair so fair. Lakshmana's death brought a shocked cry from the mass of men. When he saw his dear son felled, wrath filled Duryodhana. \"Kill him!\" screamed the bull to his herd. About Abhimanyu came the six chariots of Drona and Kripa, Karna and Drona's son, and Brihad\u00b7bala and Krita\u00b7varman born to Hridika. But __________\n\nwith sharp shafts Arjuna's son struck them once again and forced them back before he fell with hotheaded violence upon Saindhava's broad host. The valiant son of King Kratha drew up a wall of elephants ridden by mailed Kalingas and Nishadas and cut off his path with their bulk. The battle grew yet more monstrous my lord. Like a tireless wind in a sky of a hundred clouds the son of Arjuna blew through that bold column of beasts and although Kratha's son covered Arjuni in sheets of arrows and the other warriors headed by Drona came rushing in about him and spread above him their high darts, he beat them all back with his own and then struck hard at the child of Kratha. The taste for blood quickened in him and with an edgeless swarm of arrows he sheared off the boy's head from his shoulders still wearing _______________\n\n46.20\n\n46.25\n\n359\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nits crown and his bangled arms from his trunk and then down came quiver and bow, parasol and pole, and finally steeds and driver.\n\nNeither might nor study nor virtue nor nobility nor glory nor the force of a bow could save the prince from his death. And what sorrow came among the warriors at his fall.\n\ndhrita\u00b7rashtra spoke.\n\nSo young Saubhadra stood deep in the throng, unslain and unretreating. The very image of his father. Riding behind his powerful three-year-old nobleblood steeds it must have seemed as if he soared through the sky. Could any of those heroes bring him down?\n\n47.1\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nDeep into the multitudes of your army Abhimanyu joy of the Pandus drove his sharp arrows and all the lords he encountered he sent into retreat. But six chariots pressed in about him, atop them Drona, Kripa, Karna, Drauni, Brihad\u00b7bala and Krita\u00b7varman son of Hridika. My king, most of your men had seen Saindhava shoulder his burdensome task and had ridden out for Yudhi\u00b7shthira. But these six champions had stayed with him, and now they drew back their bows tall as palms and rained arrowed waters down upon the head of brave and brazen Saubhadra. All of them were masters of all their art and yet the arrows that came back from Abhimanyu's deadly fingers pinned each of them where he stood. Fifty stone tips struck Drona and twenty Brihad\u00b7bala, eighty stuck Krita\u00b7varman and sixty found Kripa. Back flew Arjuni's hand to his ear and up surged those golden arrows. Ten more of them bit into Ashvatthaman. All _______________\n\n47.5\n\n47.10\n\n361\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nabout Abhimanyu stood his foes. Yet right through Karna's ear he sent a single perfect sharp and yellowhued arrow and then he brought down Kripa's horse and both his flankriders and struck the brahmin himself right in the chest with ten more of his darts. The mighty champion of the Kurus Vrindaraka, who had brought us such fame, strong Abhimanyu crushed next before the very eyes of his brothers.\n\nAs Arjuni harrowed his enemies with a careless caprice it was Ashvatthaman who sent at him a volley of five and twenty slender darts, but my king the boy's whetted shafts struck him back without a moment passing. Drauni took arrows beveled both sides to fine and deadly points and shot sixty straight at his foe. Yet when they struck Abhimanyu he did not falter, and remained still as Mount Mainaka. With two and seventy trueflying shafts borne on fletchings flecked in gold, strong and splendored Drauni struck at his adversary, then on Abhimanyu's head rained a hundred more arrows from Drona's bow as he strove to protect his progeny, and son answering father, Ashvatthaman fired another eighty presaging two and twenty broad shafts from Karna and from Krita\u00b7varman fourteen, fifty from Brihad\u00b7bala and ten more from Kripa son of Sharadvat. Yet each of their arrows Arjuni matched with ten.\n\n47.15\n\n47.20\n\nThe chief of the Kosalas was next to strike him in the chest but Abhimanyu knocked to the earth his whole panoply of horses, pennant, parasol and driver. Out of the wreckage climbed the prince holding sword and shield, desperate to strike his enemy's goldberinged head from his neck, but it was Prince Brihad\u00b7bala the ward of the Kosalas whom Phalguni turned to and struck in the heart. Pierced to the quick _______________\n\n363\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nhe fell. A full ten thousand of those great kings with curses on their tongues and bows and swords in their hands Abhimanyu had now killed. With Brihad\u00b7bala dead, Saubhadra circled the field and halted your warriors and archers where they stood. Down fell his arrows like drops of rain.\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nAnger flashed again in the son of the Red Star Fighter and he sent another single arrow like a ring straight through Karna's ear and then a full volley of fifty more. O Bharata, back came Karna's counterattack shaft for shaft and Abhimanyu's limbs bristled thick with stalks. In wrath still he dug from Karna channels of gore. Cut by his arrowheads mighty Karna glistened and fought on bathed in blood. The bodies of those two fabled warriors were livid with wounds and spotted in scarlet and together they looked like twin flames-of-the-forest in bloom. Six brave and dazzling fighters allied to Karna were the next victims of Subhadra's son and he crushed them away along with their horses, drivers, pennants and cars, and then with arrows in braces of ten he struck down yet more. All the while his aim was immaculate. With six trueflying shafts he finished Ashva\u00b7ketu prince of Magadha, bringing down the youth along with his driver and all his steeds, and then a razorsharp shaft from his bow tore beneath the oriflamme of the elephant into the lord of the people called the Marttikavatakas. And Abhimanyu roared as his arrows flew.\n\n48.1\n\n48.5\n\n365\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nDuhshasana's son fired back at Arjuna's heir, four arrows for four horses, one for his driver and ten for the boy himself. Karshni's eyes flashed red with anger and firing seven shafts he cast out these words. \"Your father ran like a coward from the battlefield. You have my praise, for you at least can fight. But today you will not escape with your life.\" As he spoke, he loosed at his enemy an arrow of iron polished by the blacksmith's cloth, but with three of his own Drona's son cut it out of the air. Three more arrows Abhimanyu shot at Shalya and they cut his banner from its pole. Shalya let fly nine of his vulturefeathered arrows in return. But what came next my king was a true wonder to behold. It was as if Arjuna's son came loose in his own heart.\n\n48.10\n\nWith Shalya's banner down Abhimanyu killed both his flankriders, and pierced by six metal shafts Shalya himself finally leapt away for another car. Abhimanyu's next victims were five. He struck Shatrun\u00b7jaya, Chandra\u00b7ketu, Megha\u00b7vega, Suvarchas and Surya\u00b7bhasa. And then he found Subala's son with his arrows, who in answer fired back a volley of three and then turned to Duryodhana to speak.\n\n48.15\n\n\"Let us move in for the kill together my lord before he slays us one by one. Drona and Kripa and the others must think of some way to stop him.\"\n\nAt the heart of the fray, Karna progeny of the sun shouted across to Drona.\n\n\"For too long now Abhimanyu has been grinding us away to nothing. Speak, Drona! How can we beat him?\"\n\n367\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nAnd the great archer Drona addressed his reply to them all.\n\n\"Do any here see a flaw in this young prince? Do you even see a chink in the sky that he has not darkened as he races about us? Behold the force of life in this lion cub born to the Pandavas. From the courses of our chariots we can see only the shape of his bow for as soon as the groove of one of his arrows touches its string it is gone. As he sets his missiles in flight he snatches the very breath from my throat. I wish that the slayer of foes the son of Subhadra would terrorize us no more just as I wish that his heart would fade as he flies through the fray. But his great vehemence overwhelms all of us, all of these warriors, none of whom for the work of his nimble fingers can see through to the horizon any more. His onslaught I can compare only to the work of one other: he who bears the bow named Gandiva.\"\n\n48.20\n\nAiling beneath Abhimanyu's attack, Karna spoke again. \"I stand my ground only because my will tells me I must, but this youth's fierce arrows are whittling away my resolve. In them burns a fire born of his bright fury.\"\n\n48.25\n\nA slight smile appeared on the teacher's lips and his words came slowly. \"Abhimanyu is young. His hand is quick, his armor inviolable. I am the one who taught the father of this destroyer of cities how to protect himself, and he has passed on every nuance of those lessons to his son. Yet if your aim is true you can destroy his bow, sever its string, strike his horses and their harnesses and riders. O son of Radha your talents as an archer are supreme. Do this if you can and he is distracted by your onslaught strike the fatal blow. With a bow in his hand he can be beaten neither by god nor by __________\n\n48.30\n\n369\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\ndemon. If it is your will to win, deny him his bow and deny him his chariot.\"\n\nHearing his teacher's words Karna born of the sun sent without pause a flock of arrows at the bow that Abhimanyu plucked in his quickfingered hands while the Bhoja Gautama cut down his steeds and their flankriders. Abhimanyu's bow broke in his grasp, and the other warriors poured upon him arrows in sheets. Those archers were fast and merciless and in an instant he was without his chariot, a lone child in a storm of scattered shafts, bow broken and car lost but still true to who he was for then he rose again, brandishing his sword and shield, flying up and cutting across the sky and every grace and all might and speed were his, the son of Arjuna there in the vast air like the king of the birds. _____________________\n\nLooking up from the battle each of the six saw him and each thought that it would be upon him that Abhimanyu's sword would fall. They glimpsed their only chance and struck. Bane of his enemies the mighty Drona broke with a forged arrow the boy's sword, leaving its gemstudded hilt still in his hand, and then with sharp shafts Radha's son shattered his fine shield. Without sword and without shield down came Abhimanyu once more to earth. His body was full of arrows. Getting to his feet he swept up a chariot wheel and ran at Drona in a fury, his body all alight in its spirals of dust, and with the wheel in his hands raised above his head for just a moment Abhimanyu was a fierce image for Vasudeva himself, his mouth a pure stream flowing red, agog with lion's howls, his brows and eyes all twisted up. In the midst of that gathering of kings his might was in that instant without parallel. And there he shone, magnificent.\n\n48.35\n\n48.40\n\n371\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nStarred in the weapons of Vishnu the joy of Vishnu's sister stood resplendent on the plain. Like the stirrer of men's hearts he had no peer. His hair fluttered in the wind and in his upraised hand was the weapon he had won from his foe. The kings beheld that apparition beyond even the ken of the gods and starting in fear they smashed the wheel clean from his fingers. Now Abhimanyu had lost his bow, his sword, and the wheelrim that had been knocked from his hands. Yet the Dark One's child was a great warrior and he lifted in his strong arms a huge mace and lunged with it at Ashvatthaman. Mighty Ashvatthaman saw Abhimanyu's club high above him like a fork of lightning and with three skips leapt from the seat of his chariot, and as he did, the son of Subhadra quilled in arrows like a porcupine crushed Ashvatthaman's horses and both his drivers beneath his club. He thrust aside Kalikeya the son of Subala and wiped out seventy of his Gandhara followers. Ten of the Brahma\u00b7vashatiyas were the next to fall and then seven Kekaya cars and ten of their elephants and swinging his club he hammered apart the steeds and chariot of Duhshasana's son.\n\n49.1\n\n49.5\n\nHot with anger Dauhshasani picked up a club of his own and flew at Saubhadra, my lord, screaming for him to stand and fight. The two fierce warriors each baying for the other's blood swung their maces high and crashed together like Try\u00b7ambaka and Andhaka of old, and trading blow for blow they knocked one another to the ground, two murderous foes like banners of Indra cast down in the midst of the fray. But to the glory of the Kurus it was Dauhshasani who was first to rise, and he brought down his mace on Saubhadra's head _______________\n\n49.10\n\n373\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nas the boy tottered to his feet. He reeled beneath the force of the blow, and then at last the deadly son of Subhadra toppled to the ground. He breathed no more.\n\nO my king. So it was that one died at the hands of many. One warrior who had trampled our whole army as if it were just a lotus beneath his feet but now lay in the splendor of death, a wild elephant killed by his hunters. Your soldiers stood in a circle around him where he fell. He was like a mild blaze set at the end of the cold months that had now burned and burned until it was out, a wind that had bent low the branches at the tops of the trees and now was still, a sun that in the passing day had scorched the river of the Bharatas and had now descended. He was like soma lost from the cup, like an ocean dried to dust. His face glowed like the full moon, his eyes hidden behind dark locks of hair. Your warriors looked upon him, and as they looked they roared with joy, thrilled and delirious at the scene.\n\n49.15\n\nMy lord, we celebrated as tears fell from the eyes of our foes. In the sky above creatures cried out at the sight of that warrior lying on the earth like the moon fallen from the firmament. Six of the fighters from Dhrita\u00b7rashtra's horde, and Drona and Karna chief among them, had cut this lone body to the ground in what I would name a sin. Yet how beautiful the rich earth was as it cradled that dead hero. It was like a night sky at full moon etched in constellations. Heaps of arrowshafts inlaid with gold, the perfect limbs of the dead still clasped by glittering bracelets, the rainbow colors of cloths and flags, the tattered shreds of chowries and livery and all the raiment of battle festooned every inch of the earth. It was awash with blood. Strewn with the dazzling _______________\n\n49.20\n\n49.25\n\n375\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nembroideries that once covered horse, man and elephant, and by swords whose lethal edges had drunk deep as if by snakes that had sloughed their skins, by bows and broken arrows and daggers, spears, javelins, maces and weapons too numerous to count, the surface of the earth shone. Steeds lay drenched red as they sighed their last and fell silent and the earth itself was a jumble of riders, of Saubhadra's victims, of iron hooks and drivers, vestments, blades, poles and elephants like broken crags pierced all over with arrows. Wellmade chariots had been scattered all across the earth, empty now of warriors and drivers, bereft of steeds, upturned in rippling lakes that held dead elephants and the corpses of soldiers in piles with all their daggers and adornments. It was a vision of horror and it struck fear into timid hearts.\n\n49.30\n\nThe Pandus looked upon the broken figure of Abhimanyu who had once been bright as the sun and moon and they were struck down with sorrow. Still only a boy and dead before his prime. But to your side, my king, how sweet a sight was his corpse.\n\nThe whole army of the Pandavas rushed to the feet of the righteous king. The matchless Yudhi\u00b7shthira looked upon them and saw how his men suffered at the youth's death and said to them the following words.\n\n\"Here is a hero bound for heaven. He was one that would die rather than run. Take heart, do not be downcast. We will win this war and overcome our traitors.\"\n\n49.35\n\n377\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nSpeaking thus the mighty and splendored king and best of warriors shone a light into their dark despair, and his words drove away their anguish.\n\nSo it was that in the ecstasy of battle and the tumult of men Abhimanyu fought and killed the serpent princes who were his foes and then passed on. The great lord of Kosala and ten thousand of his men fell before the dark child and equal of the Krishnas before he took the hard road to Indra's home. Thousands of cars and horses and elephants and men all fell before him, and while he departed this earthly confusion insatiate he is not to be mourned. What he did was holy and when he departed he left for the shining lands, lands found only by the pure in deed and soul.\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nWe had killed their champion but still we felt the wounds where his arrows had struck us and we returned to camp at the end of the day soaked in blood. My king, as we made our way back weak with exhaustion, we all gazed out across the battlefield insensate and wordless into a dusk alive with strangeness, an uneasy time disjointed from night and day, all full of the cries of jackals. The sun sank down slowly behind the mountains of the west like a lotus crushed in a hand. Its rays struck against the wondrous swords, lances, spears and shields, against the suits of armor and the finery of the dead, and heaven melted into earth where the delicate and gorgeous flame in the sky blazed at the horizon.\n\n50.1\n\n379\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nAmong flags, hooks and the corpses of drivers fallen from their backs a hundred elephants lay dead like cloudcapped peaks of mountains struck down by lightning. They were heaped so high that the paths of the earth were lost beneath them. My lord, the bodies of kings, the crushed limbs of their soldiers and the tattered garments they had worn, the dead drivers and horses and their lost banners and pennants and the trunks of mutilated heroes lay resplendent across the ground. So immense was the slaughter it was as if city upon city had been slain by raiders. Thick with clusters of cars and dead horses and riders, jeweled with dazzling fabrics and ornaments and the torn-out tongues and teeth and bowels and eyes of the dead, the earth bore an appalling bounty of men whose swords, armor, bracelets and clothes had been ripped from them, their followers and chariots and horses and elephants scattered in every direction. Once they had lain on the plush cushions and couches of kings but now they slept on the ground like the kinless dead.\n\n50.5\n\nThen came dogs and jackals, crows, herons, vultures, wolves, hyenas and other beasts of prey all bristling with pleasure. Drinkers of blood and hosts of goblins and a throng of ghosts filled the place with horrors. Peeling back the skins from corpses, they drank up the blood and fat and sank their teeth into flesh and marrow. They twisted out intestines and cackled and sang, dragging body after body behind them. A river flowed from the mighty dead that night and it was as treacherous and as terrifying as the Vaitarani itself. Its weeds were the glinting banks of swords growing in the flesh that was its mud and its pebbles were the heads of the dead. On its surface chariots bobbed like rafts along _______________\n\n50.10\n\n381\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nrocky straits formed by dead elephants, and in its waters of blood sank bodies like vessels of clay. Its rough currents plunged through the whole of the battlefield, swirling with the living and the dead. Its freight was fear itself. The place where we had fought was now awful to behold, packed with ghosts foul and fell that howled and gulped and chewed as all around them flocked hounds, jackals and winged things consuming all that they could in a frenzy that chilled the hearts of those who still drew breath. In the early night it was as if Death's kingdom had risen before our eyes. The living stole away as quietly as they could as around them headless bodies rose up and danced.\n\nAnd still men looked upon that supreme warrior, all his great and worthy decorations now stripped and ruined, Abhimanyu, Indra's equal, lying dead, like a pyre without offerings at the edge of sacrificial ground.\n\n50.15\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nThe great ward of warriors Saubhadra was dead. His companions all descended from their chariots and took off their armor and cast down their fashioned bows. Then they came around their king Yudhi\u00b7shthira and sat before him. Each of them was deep in sorrow, his thoughts fixed on Subhadra's son. King Yudhi\u00b7shthira spoke to them, and his words were choked with sadness.\n\n51.1\n\n\"Abhimanyu is dead. Brave and strong son of my brother. So fervently did he want to help me, and he did: Drona's array has been broken. He plunged into its depths and destroyed it from within like a lion let loose among cattle. He shattered its ranks and drove back its archers nimble __________\n\n51.5\n\n383\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nand wild though they are. His quick arrows left our sworn enemy Duhshasana lost and confused at the head of his column. He boldly crossed the fathomless sea that was Drona's seething array to reach Duhshasana's own child before at last he departed for the broken harbor of the sun.\n\nAbhimanyu is dead. How will I look Arjuna son of Kunti in the eye? Or the flawless Subhadra when she comes looking for her dear son? Will I lie to Hrishi\u00b7kesha and Dhanan\u00b7jaya? Will I speak evasively? With crooked words? I wanted to bring Subhadra joy, I so dearly hoped to seal victory for Keshava and for Arjuna. Yet it is I who have caused this calamity. A desperate fool does not wake from his delusions, for his desire is born of his folly. I yearned, I wanted what was sweet, and I did not foresee how things would end.\n\n51.10\n\nWhat were his due? Love and sleep, the pleasures of the road, jewelers' work. Yet I placed a mere boy at the head of my army. How could I have done such a thing? A young child with no experience of fighting, a foal in a pack of rude stallions. He should have been protected. O but I too should lie down upon the earth at his side before the flames leap from his father's burning eyes and consume me. How my brother will hate me for this. He is no fool. A man of peace and wisdom, of intent and strength and goodness, a hero, someone who is beloved of and cares for others, a man whose highest goal is truth. Sages tell of his deeds for he does things that are beyond the reach of normal men. He it was who crushed beneath his might the Nivata\u00b7kavachas and Kalakeyas, he who came in the winking of an eye to smash the golden city and the foes of great Indra led by __________\n\n51.15\n\n385\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nPuloman who dwelt therein. Such is his generosity that he is merciful even to his foes if it is for mercy that they ask. Yet today I could not even save his son.\n\nThe destruction that Dhrita\u00b7rashtra's great army has brought upon itself will be terrible. The Kauravas will be burnt away to nothing by the fury that the death of his boy will light inside Partha. Petty tyrant in his petty court, Duryodhana will witness the annihilation of his friends and he will give up his life I am sure in a bonfire of sickness and of sorrow. But be it victory or the throne, immortality or the realms of the gods, nothing could bring me joy again. For I have seen life bursting and without limits suddenly stoppered up. I have seen none other than the son of the son of the greatest of gods struck down before me, dead.\"\n\n51.20\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nAnd so Yudhi\u00b7shthira son of Kunti mourned. Then the great sage Krishna Dvaipayana came before him.* When he arrived Yudhi\u00b7shthira paid him due reverence and spoke to him, still burning with grief at the death of his brother's son.\n\n52.1\n\n\"Abhimanyu is dead. His killers were a circle of strong and wicked warriors from among the mighty Kuru bowmen against whom he fought. He may have been a boy but he had a man's heart. He fought alone and without concern for his own safety, burning his foes from his path. 'Open a way through the vanguard for us,' I told him. And on he went, deep among them, but alas our own pursuit of him was hindered by the Sindhu king. His killers fought a crooked battle against him, one that none who live by war could call _______________\n\n52.5\n\n387\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nevenhanded. It burns me without end to think of it. I am full of grief, full of tears. Again and again I return to it and I can find no peace.\"\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nHoly Vyasa addressed Yudhi\u00b7shthira as he sorrowed, his heart aching in grief. These were the words that he said.\n\nvyasa spoke.\n\nO Yudhi\u00b7shthira. Deep is your wisdom and you have studied hard the sacred books. O bull of the Bharatas, men like you do not fade in the face of calamity. A hero slays foe upon foe in war and then goes to dwell in the wards of heaven. Saubhadra achieved things beyond his years. He was a man indeed and one of the best there have been. But Yudhi\u00b7shthira, Death is ordained and it will not be transgressed. Hear me Bharata. Death visits even demon and spirit and god.\n\n52.10\n\nyudhi\u00b7shthira spoke.\n\nIn life kings rule the earth and at life's end when war is done they make their bed upon it. So are these mighty ones acquainted with death. Some have the strength of a hundred elephants and some the power of the winds yet when they die in battle they are men and nothing but men. Nowhere do I see any still standing if he once took the breath of another: these are fighters of main and splendor and written in the heart of each for all time is the will to overcome his other. When their lives have left them and they sleep in death then at last they come to know this thing. Death is a word that gets its meaning from this, from the demise of the bold lords of the earth. Heroes though _________________________\n\n52.15\n\n389\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nthey are in the end these fiery sons of kings die powerless and without pride, and broken by the will of an opponent each sets out for the place of Vaishvanara and his kin. But I wonder to myself. From where does our sense of death arise? From what or from where does Death herself come? Why does she* steal away the living? For steal she does. Tell me o great and godlike father.\n\nsanjaya spoke.\n\nThus did Yudhi\u00b7shthira son of Kunti put his question to the holy sage, and gentle were the words with which Vyasa replied.\n\nvyasa spoke.\n\nThere is an ancient tale told about this question, my king, one that Narada told to Akampana in olden times. It is said that this king too suffered that most terrible loss that any can suffer\u2014the death of his child. I will tell you now of the very origin of Death. When you have heard me you will be free of the pain that comes the love that binds you to it. Listen closely my son to this old story for it is rich in wisdom and it will banish your misery and return you to life. I say that it will not only cleanse your soul, it will drive down those who want to harm you. It is the highest bliss for in profundity this tale matches any to be found in the Vedas. O majesty a king who cares for the longevity of his sons and for his kingdom and wealth would do well to hear this story when he wakes for every day that he lives.\n\n52.20\n\n52.25\n\n391\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nMany years ago, during the era before our own, there was a king by the name of Akampana. He was fighting a war and he had suffered defeat at his enemy's hands. He had a handsome son named Hari who was strong as Narayana. A skilled fighter with a strategist's mind, his bravery bore compare to Indra's. During the king's defeat his son was hemmed in by his foe at the very center of the fray. He sent up from among the warriors and elephants around him a last, huge volley of arrows. O Yudhi\u00b7shthira despite this daring deed and fearsome though the prince was, that day was to be one when his opponents would slay him.\n\nHis griefstricken father performed his son's last rites. By day and by night he mourned the boy's loss and clung ceaselessly to his despair. And the divine seer Narada heard of the misery that his son's death had bred in him and he went to visit the king. When the vaunted king received his guest he bowed down to him as was right and then told him all that had happened. No detail did he leave out, but he recounted to the sage both his enemy's victory and the story of the death of his child.\n\n52.30\n\n\"O mighty one. My son was as glorious as Indra and Vishnu. And as he fought with courage and strength against his adversaries he was struck down in battle by a horde of them. Tell me o holiness: who is this Death? Does he* have the courage or the strength or the mettle of a man? You are the wisest seer who lives. I want to hear the truth.\"\n\n52.35\n\n393\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nNarada was generous and learned. He heard the king's plea and he told this great story to release him from the longing he felt for his departed son.\n\nnarada spoke.\n\nMighty lord listen now to this recondite tale. You will hear it as I once heard it told to me o king of this bounteous earth. At the beginning of things, when the great father Brahma had made the creatures, he looked in his splendor upon the world over which he ruled. O majesty, anxiety took root in him about its burgeoning because he could not see how it would end. A fire born of anger rose up from the spaces of his body and my king every quarter of the world was engulfed in its blaze. Sky and earth and air were all garlanded in dancing flame. The high and holy Lord ignited all in the world that moved and all that was still and destroying every object in this changing universe with the great force of his fury the mighty Brahma sent terror quaking through the quick and the dead.\n\n52.40\n\nThen the Still One* with twisted hair, the lord of the nightwalkers, the ghastly destroyer, came to the abode of Brahma Parameshthin. He feared for the survival of living things. He cast himself down at Brahma's feet. From out of his fires the supreme god and great ascetic addressed his child.\n\n\"Son born of desire what would you have me do? All that you wish will be yours. I will do whatever you want, so tell me now o Still One what it is you came here for.\"\n\n52.45\n\n395\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nthe still one spoke.\n\nO exalted one. The work of the creation of living things was yours and by you the diverse creatures of the spheres are born and grow old. But now all across the world these same beings burn in the pyre of your rage. To watch them suffer brings pity to my heart. O great and venerable sire, I implore you that you overcome your fury.\n\n53.1\n\nbrahma spoke.\n\nNo lust to destroy brought this to pass. Rage possesses me because I fear for the survival of the earth. The goddess is pained by her burden and it is she who drives me to seek the destruction of my creatures. She is too kind o Maha\u00b7deva and she suffers terribly for it. But I can find no way of destroying this manifold and measureless cosmos, and this is why such fury burns within me.\n\n53.5\n\nrudra spoke.\n\nBe at peace for the sake of the flowery sphere that calls you master. Put an end to your fury, lest you destroy all that you have created, all that moves and all that is still, as only by your grace my lord can this triple world survive for in you is what is yet to come, what is past, and what is now upon us. Your rage burns and fire sparks forth from its heat and this fire consumes rocks, hills, trees, rivers. All the sweet pools and all the shrublands and all the meadows and every plant and creature perish from it. Everything is turning to ash. Find peace, my lord. My wish is simply that your fury could be at an end. Your entire creation o celestial one is almost destroyed and before it is too late your splendor must be eclipsed and you must somehow cool your temper for __________\n\n53.10\n\n397\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nyou alone can do so. O heavenly one, behold what you have done and for the survival of your children waste no time. Act before all life is erased. If you do not then all future generations will pass from this world into oblivion hand in hand with their ancestors.\n\nO god of the beginning. In these worlds I am yours to command, for it is you who made them. Avert the catastrophe of this still and swaying world, this world over which you rule.\n\nnarada spoke.\n\nThe god heard Maha\u00b7deva's plea and for the sake of living things stowed his splendor once more within himself. As he buried that fire, the revered and holy lord of the world made clear for the first time what it is to act and what it is to withdraw. Majesty, once he had stilled the flames born of his wrath, from his eyes and ears there stepped a woman deep of soul who was dark and red and whose eyes and face and tongue were of a tawny hue and who was decked in burnt things and wore upon her wrists two blackened bracelets. Emerging from the gaps in his body the woman moved around to his right and with a smile looked across at the two gods of all that is. Then he who marked out the world arraigned her thus.\n\n\"O Death. You are the earth's guardian. Destroy these creatures. You were born of my rage to bring about the end of things. Gather in all these beings from idiot to sage and know that only good can come to you for it will be my command that you obey.\"\n\n53.15\n\n53.20\n\n399\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nShe of the rose eyes heard the god's words. But as she reflected in her heart upon them she began to weep, and her weeping was gentle and plangent. In turn the great father who cares for all the beings of the world comforted her, and in his hands caught her falling tears.\n\nnarada spoke.\n\nSomehow the gentle lady forced her sorrow down into her heart and then, with her hands raised reverentially like slender branches above her head, she spoke to the lord of beings.\n\n54.1\n\ndeath spoke.\n\nO lord. I would know how a woman such as myself who is born of you could perform so dire a task as this in full knowledge of what it is she does. Take pity on me great lord of heaven: I fear that it is wrong. I fear the teardrops falling from the eyes of those who weep in sorrow for the memories of their beloved sons and babies and brothers and mothers and fathers and husbands. I fear what they will say about me among mortals. My lord I ask for your asylum. O greatest of the celestial gods I do not want to set foot in the house of Yama. As my very form is made of your kindness then by the tips of these fingers that I reach out to you now I beg you o generous father of the world, grant me but one wish. O mighty and illustrious ruler of all things, by your grace and your covenant I ask you for a gift most reverend: that I may do penance. If you give me leave I will take myself to Dhenuka's high retreat and there I will burn in the keen heat of meditation and devote myself to your adoration. O __________\n\n54.5\n\n401\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nlord of the gods. I cannot steal the dear breath from the throats of these wretched creatures. Save me from this evil.\n\nbrahma spoke.\n\nAs Death you were born to end the lives of things. Go and gather in all that breathes. Do not hesitate, for this is ordained and it cannot be revoked. No censure will fall on you among men. But you must do as I have told you.\n\n54.10\n\nnarada spoke.\n\nDeath bowed at holy Brahma's command and raised her hands in honor before her. Her compassion for the living meant that she could not resolve the conflict within her. All the same, the heavenly and supernal god and father of beings felt well pleased and was content now in his very soul. He looked gladly upon the realms of his dominion and they lay beneath his untroubled eyes restored to their state before the fire came. Now that the supreme one's wrath had abated, the girl slipped away from his wise audience without any promise to follow through her destroyer's course.\n\n54.15\n\nO majesty, Death hastened to reach Dhenuka. There she undertook the most exalted and most severe of oaths. To begin she stood upon but a single foot for the course of sixteen aeons. Such was her compassion and concern for the creatures that for five aeons more she closed herself away from the delights and pleasures of the senses. Balanced on a single foot she spent the passage of seven and then six more aeons. And then another aeon passed with her standing so. O regent of the earth she then went among the wild beasts as the epochs turned and turned until at last she reached the cold and spirituous waters of holy Nanda. Seven hundred _______________\n\n54.20\n\n403\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nyears she passed in those pools, then a century more. At Nanda she followed her vows in purity and did not falter even once. Bent upon her observances she went next to the ancient precincts of the river Kaushiki and she pursued her strictures further, living only on wind and rain. At the five rivers in the country of the Vetasakas the young girl continued her devotions and dragged her body through transports of pain untold and unreckoned. Then from the Ganges she sought the high and lonely peak of Meru, and there she stood still as stone, closed into the discipline of the breath. So high and pure she was. On snowy Himavat where the gods perform their rites she propped herself for years beyond number upon only the tip of her thumb. Among the flowers of Go\u00b7karna and in Naimisha and Malaya she wore down her body with the vows to which she had bound her soul.\n\n54.25\n\nHer devotion to the great father and to him alone was adamantine and eternal, and the great father was justly pleased to see her so. The beloved and boundless source of all things spoke to her then with a mild temper and gentle countenance for O majesty he was truly moved.\n\n\"Tell me o Death. Why do you scorch yourself like this in penance without end?\"\n\nAnd Death replied to the holy father.\n\n\"O heavenly one. I will not kill creatures who live in peace with one another and for that you have condemned me. High lord of all that is, I ask you to grant me this single wish. I am so afraid of the sin that you demand and that is why I drive myself through this penance. O illustrious and infinite majesty, set me free from my terror. I am a sinless _______________\n\n54.30\n\n405\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nwoman and in despair I beg that you allow me to remain so.\"\n\nHe who knows time past and present and time to come then spoke thus to Death.\n\n\"Your destruction of these beings could in no way be a sin. Fair one, I have commanded you and may it not be in vain. Destroy every member of the four species of created thing and rightness will be at your side everywhere and for all time. The world's guardian Yama will be with you and the plagues* will be with you. And I and the wise will make you a gift. As you perform this task without smear or sin so will you make your fame among us.\"\n\n54.35\n\nDeath heard his words o majesty. She raised her hands in reverence and replied to the king with her eyes downcast.\n\n\"O lord. If it is I who must do this then may it never be done without me. Because you have bestowed upon my head this task I have something to ask you to hear. May it be that greed and rage, malice and envy, falseness and folly and hubris and recrimination in all their forms come from within man and be the things that destroy him.\"\n\nbrahma spoke.\n\nIt will be so. Now o Death go and destroy the creatures, as is fit. There will be no sin in it and I will not revile you, fair one. The teardrops that I have caught in my hands will become the plagues of things that live and will be born from within them. They will be the ones who take life from the dying and do not be afraid for the violence will not be yours to perform nor will any living things do you harm. You will become order incarnate, order's queen. For through your __________\n\n54.40\n\n407\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\njustice order will dwell within you and you will uphold it. Go now and through the whole world still the breath of the living. Set aside any love or passion you feel towards living things and go abroad to gather in their lives for in doing so you will yourself become concord unending. Wrongdoing will bring death upon those whose acts twist from what is right. So immerse yourself in their evil and falsehood and in doing so render yourself pure. Any love or fury that has taken root in you tear out, then go into the world and gather in the lives you find.\n\nnarada spoke.\n\nAfraid of Brahma's curse and afraid that in her very name was stamped the nature of her calling, at last the young woman succumbed. Love and anger were in her but she set them aside. Now when the time comes she takes the breath from the lungs of the living and she does so without passion. Death comes as the plagues that are born within us, and the suffering brought on by affliction is by nature dispelled when the time for the living thing to breathe comes to an end. So release your grief, for it is fruitless. Death is an event even in the lives of gods who pass away as men do when their time is done. Thus it is for all living things. O lion in the world of men, gods are in this no different from mortals. Death is a strong wind that howls in mighty gusts across everything and she smashes apart what things she finds. Her violence is without end and her terrible course is plotted through how we choose to live and what it is we do.\n\n54.45\n\n409\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nLion among kings. Every god is acquainted with Death. Do not feel sorrow for your son. His are the pleasures of heaven and the everlasting delights of the realms of heroes. He has cast off sorrow and rests now in the company of the saints. For Death among mortals is ordained by the highest god. And while she gathers us in each by our turn when our time comes, as must the one whose charge is the breath of things, yet do all things in the end bring ruin upon themselves. It is not Death with his staff* who slays us. Thus the wise do not mourn the dead, as they have understood the nature of Brahma's creation. Understand that the universe was shaped by a power above you and for not one more moment feel the pain of departed children.\n\n54.50\n\nvyasa spoke.\n\nNarada had finished his profound tale and it was the turn of King Akampana to speak to his friend.\n\n\"O high and holy sage, my grief has left me. I have heard your tale and I understand its meaning. I thank you for it.\"\n\nWhen the great sage heard the king's words he was pleased deep in his divine and limitless soul.\n\nThe words of this holy tale are celebrated as the stuff of heaven and of wealth and of life. Hear them. King Akampana grasped their meaning o Yudhi\u00b7shthira and with it he came to understand the tasks of a warrior and the lofty path of the hero. In the midst of the archer horde the mighty and valiant Abhimanyu cast down his enemies and rose up to heaven. Wielder of arrow and sword in the thick of combat, he fought as he died: by sword and by club and by spear and by bow. Soma's son has shed this mortal dust and returned _______________\n\n54.55\n\n411\n\nthe death of abhimanyu\n\nto whence he came. So make firm your resolve, o son of Pandu, cast away your delirium, buckle on your armor and go forth with your four brothers to fight.\n\n413\n\nNotes\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona\n\nBold references are to the English text; bold italic references are to the Sanskrit text. An asterisk (*) in the body of the text marks the word or passage being annotated.\n\n1.1Bhishma began his life as heir to Kuru\u00b7kshetra, but in order that his father could marry Satyavati he revoked his right to accession and became a celibate ascetic, thereby ensuring that he would have no future children of his own who might later have designs on the throne. He becomes the epic's great renunciate, and hence his appellation, an exoteric compound meaning \"he whose vows are of the gods.\"\n\n1.1Shikhandin is born Amba, princess of Kashi, and is abducted by Bhishma along with her two sisters as brides for Vichitra\u00b7virya, Satyavati's second son. Discovering that Amba is betrothed to another king, Bhishma decides to release her, but the king refuses to take her back. Amba becomes a renunciate. She later appeals to Rudra that she may be reborn as a man to take her revenge on Bhishma. He grants her wish, and it is as the male Shikhandin that she joins the Pandava army and so becomes instrumental in the brahmin's fall. Cf. note to 7.22.\n\n1.4Kauravya here is ambiguous, but probably refers to Duryodhana.\n\n1.6Translating \u0101tman is not a simple matter, as the literal meaning, \"self\" or \"soul,\" is often redundant in Sanskrit. The reader will notice that its presence in the English translation is selective.\n\n1.12There is a whole array of words in the epic connoting different kinds of rulership. I use the terms \"king\" and \"chieftain\" more or less interchangeably.\n\n1.21When Bhishma is brought down at the end of Book Six, he makes a final and unsuccessful attempt to persuade Duryodhana to make peace with the Pandavas.\n\n1.25Although I have followed one convention in calling an asura a demon, the Christian connotations of the English term can be misleading. A folk etymology proposes a-sura, \"un-god,\" as _______________\n\n416\nnotes\n\nthe origin of the word: gods and demons in the Vedic tradition are defined principally through their mutual antagonism.\n\n1.32Before Kunti marries Pandu she spends some time in the service of the seer Durvasas, who in return for her devotion gives to her a spell by means of which she can have a son by any god she chooses. With her first attempt she invokes the sun god Surya, and the product of their union is Karna. But she is shocked and disturbed by what she has done, and casts the boy into a river. The charioteer Adhiratha and his wife Radha rescue and adopt the abandoned child. Karna's identity as the elder brother of the five Pandavas remains hidden from almost all the characters in the epic, including Karna himself, until Bhishma reveals the secret to him at the end of Book Six. When he hears that he is Kunti's son, Karna feels that he has already cast in his lot with Duryodhana, and decides not to reveal his true identity.\n\n1.34Literally \"man-bull\" and thus \"bull in the herd of men,\" unfolding with a certain liberty the metaphorical \"herd\" from the more succinct form of the Sanskrit compound. Other compounds with related meanings I treat similarly.\n\n1.35Literally \"the lords of the gods, of the depths, of wealth and of the dead:\" in Vedic cosmology Indra, Varuna, Kubera and Yama.\n\n1.39Discussing tactics just before battle commences, Bhishma belittles Karna's abilities in public, infuriating the great ally of the Kauravas to such an extent that he vows not to fight as long as Bhishma is alive. He criticizes what he perceives with some justification as Bhishma's partiality towards the Pandava cause and urges Duryodhana to cast the commander out as a negative influence on the army's morale. But when Bhishma is finally defeated in Book Six, Karna is moved by his plight, and during a conversation between them Bhishma reveals that his insult was intended to discourage Karna from fighting, as he was well aware of the warrior's capabilities and sought to protect _______________\n\n417\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona\n\nthe Pandavas from their full force. Bhishma then urges Karna to return to the battle, and the two of them are reconciled in the closing chapters of the book.\n\n2.30Bhima\u00b7sena is known for his enormous appetite, and hence his moniker. Although not as derogatory as it might sound, this particular designation is used to refer to Bhima\u00b7sena more often by the Kauravas than by the Pandavas.\n\n2.32Yama is a loka\/pala, a \"guardian of the world,\" and while closely associated with the deity Dharma, his principal identity is as the god of death. Precisely where Yama's abode is to be found is difficult to say. Originally Yama is the guardian of the forefathers dwelling in heaven, but later he descends to rule a kind of underworld similar to the Hades of ancient Greece. Dead heroes have several destinations, and are at other times said to be bound for svarga, \"heaven,\" the wider residence of the celestials; indeed, Karna has earlier spoken of Bhishma's journey post-mortem to svarga (1.38).\n\n3.14Gandiva is the name of Arjuna's bow. Its etymology is obscure, perhaps suggesting the horn of the rhinoceros, or \"diamond-joints.\" I choose to leave it untranslated.\n\n4.10As a youth, Karna arrives one day in the royal city of Hastina\u00b7pura while the Pandavas and Kauravas are showing off their newly acquired martial skills in what begins as a friendly competition. Karna puts himself forward and matches Drona's best student Arjuna trick for trick. Arjuna berates Karna for intruding on the occasion, and the brahmin Kripa questions whether Karna's lineage permits him to compete with the highborn Pandava. At this point in the narrative Karna is unaware of his royal parentage, and in response to Kripa's inquiry he can only hang his head in shame. Duryodhana spots his chance and defends Karna against the abuse coming from Kripa and Arjuna. He and Karna become friends, and in the end Duryodhana gives him the kingdom of Anga. In the light of Bhishma's revelation to Karna at the end of the previous book (cf. note to 1.39), Bhishma's words here have a particular resonance, of which only he and Karna are aware.\n\n418\nnotes\n\n5.9Apart from being the hero's name, a karna is an \"ear,\" but also, perhaps by resemblance, a \"rudder.\" It is upon this meaning that Duryodhana puns here in his appeal to Karna.\n\n6.5The deity known as Rudra in the Vedas and Shiva in later systems is at a transitional phase in the 'Maha\u00b7bharata,' where he goes by several different names, K\u0101p\u0101lin being one of them. The Rudras are a class of storm deities under his command.\n\n6.6Although in the main I translate the term dharma, here it occurs in a list with other deities and seems to refer to the god rather than the abstract noun, although the distinction within Sanskrit is always elided.\n\n7.1The central brahmin characters of the 'Maha\u00b7bharata'\u2014Bhishma, Drona and Kripa\u2014are not just priests, nor do they remain bookishly aloof from the political universe. They are in fact instructors and deadly practitioners within the sphere of activity that properly belongs to the kshatriya, the member of the royal or warrior caste. Indeed, their involvement in the cut and thrust of the power struggle becomes a source of unease and resentment for many of the epic's kshatriya characters.\n\n7.4Drona's emphasis here sheds some light on his motives for fighting with the Kauravas: his archenemy Drupada is an ally of the Pandavas. Friends in childhood, the kshatriya Drupada rejects Drona in later life when the brahmin comes to visit him. After Drona is engaged by Bhishma as instructor to the Pandavas, he sends them on a raid to storm Drupada's palace and imprison him. Drona taunts him a little when he is in his cage, and then releases him and offers him back a piece of his kingdom. The animosity between the two men is perpetuated in their children: Drupada's son Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna is born out a sacrificial fire when the king prays for an avenger, and Drona accurately prophesies his own death at Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna's hand. Later it will be Drona's son Ashvatthaman who kills Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna during the nocturnal massacre of Book Ten.\n\n419\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona\n\n7.11It is common in the 'Maha\u00b7bharata' for the name of a people and the name of its chieftain to be identical. So \"the Kalingas\" designates a particular group, while \"Kalinga\" means one of their number, most likely their king (as here).\n\n7.22Though he agrees to Duryodhana's request that he take up the generalship of the Kaurava forces, Bhishma has been mentor to both the Kauravas and the Pandavas, and he retains an affection towards the latter. In fact he goes so far as to explain to the Pandavas how they will be able to kill him despite his seeming invincibility. The contradictions of Bhishma's position are also present for Drona, and they provide a rich vein of narrative tension during his term as commander.\n\n7.29Sudarshana is the name both of Krishna's discus and of one of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra's sons.\n\n8.2Drona is conceived in vitro when his father, the seer Bharad\u00b7vaja, catches a glimpse of the nymph Ghritachi nude, and ejaculates into a trough.\n\n9.6Although I translate daivam as \"fate,\" it designates something quite nebulous which emanates \"from the gods,\" and which acts upon human life without predetermining it. Indeed, the adverb daivavat can mean simply \"by chance.\"\n\n9.29What Dhrita\u00b7rashtra literally says is \"the four Vedas and their limbs, and the fifth Veda of legends.\" The four principal Vedas are the 'Rig Veda,' the 'Yajur Veda,' the 'Sama Veda' and the 'Atharva Veda.' These are the oldest Sanskrit texts and they contain detailed descriptions of myths, rituals, prayers and spells; their \"limbs\" are associated texts of exegesis, grammar and astronomy. It is not clear what Dhrita\u00b7rashtra exactly means by \"legends,\" but the epic poems and Puranas were later accorded the collective status of \"fifth Veda.\"\n\n10.73In a cast of characters with protean identities, Krishna is particularly elusive, and the vexed question of his nature as god and man has been a subject of debate for the better part of three millennia. Born the son of a cowherd, as Dhrita\u00b7rashtra _______________\n\n420\nnotes\n\nhas already told us, he is something of an arriviste among the company of the Pandavas. He is a chieftain of the Vrishni people, whose territory borders on the tract of land over which the Pandavas are briefly granted dominion in an earlier part of the epic, and his first appearance in the narrative is as their ally. But he plays a delicate diplomatic game, and after stating his initial intention to remain neutral in the war, he subsequently becomes Arjuna's charioteer, promising that he will not himself raise arms during the conflict. The main players in the epic's drama are all incarnations of gods or demons, but only Krishna, as Vishnu's avatar on earth, delivers so grand a sermon as the 'Bhagavad Gita.' Although the words of the 'Gita' have attracted the most attention, his behaviour in the rest of the war is equally interesting for the light it sheds on his role within the epic as a whole.\n\n11.21The word hut'\/asana is one of the many terms in Sanskrit for \"fire,\" into which sacrificial offerings are cast during many of the religious rituals of ancient India. The event to which Dhrita\u00b7rashtra here refers occurs at the end of the first book of the epic.\n\n11.24During the gambling match when Yudhi\u00b7shthira stakes Draupadi and loses her to the Kauravas, Duhshasana drags her into the assembly hall by her hair and then sets about stripping her in front of her husbands. But her undergarments keep magically restoring themselves as he tries to tear them away. It is this miracle to which Dhrita\u00b7rashtra refers.\n\n11.30The compound vrsni\/virena could simply mean \"by the Vrishni hero [Krishna],\" but vrsni also means simply \"strong\" or \"powerful,\" and, by extension, \"ram.\" I try here to capture these multiple meanings in my choice of translation.\n\n11.47In the middle of a densely-worded speech Dhrita\u00b7rashtra introduces this very obscure homily. It might be that he is referring to some kind of ritual correspondence between grass and lightning derived from the magical significations of Vedic religion. He is playing somehow on the double meaning of pakva as _______________\n\n421\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona\n\nboth \"cooked\" and \"ripe for death.\" I take him to mean that grass seems harmless, but fire transforms it into a destructive force, and that the weak can easily be finished off. Whatever its precise meaning, and to introduce another metaphor, Dhrita\u00b7rashtra is referring to the \"butterfly effect\" that his loyalties have had: the disastrous repercussions of a critical choice made in the past.\n\n12.12Drona says that Yudhi\u00b7shthira has reached \"enemylessness,\" a\/jata\/satruta, playing on the king's other name Ajata\u00b7shatru, literally \"he whose conqueror has not yet been born.\"\n\n12.28The adjective phalguna means \"red,\" while Phalguna is a derivative from the noun Phalguni, which is the name of a twin-star constellation in ancient Indian astronomy. Both Phalguna and Phalguna are names for Arjuna. In calling him the Red Star Fighter I have tried to combine the resonances of both these words. Abhimanyu is quite frequently identified as Phalguni, \"son of the Red Star Fighter.\"\n\n14.64Literally \"the son of Krishna,\" Krishna in this case being Arjuna. Cf. Introduction, note 1.\n\n14.82The stone rather than the organ: cat's eye is a kind of chalcedony or quartz, occurring naturally in various compositions and colors.\n\n16.21A wheelguard is a sort of attendant charged with the task of protecting the wheels of a royal chariot from attack.\n\n17.11The Tri\u00b7gartas have so far played only a minor role in the 'Maha\u00b7bharata.' Earlier in the epic, their principalities are attacked on separate occasions by Nakula and by his brother Arjuna, which may explain their virulent animosity towards the Pandavas.\n\n17.39From this point on, the Tri\u00b7gartas and those who have taken their vow with them become known as sa\u1e43\u015baptakas, warriors who have \"sworn together\" to conquer their enemies or die.\n\n19.19Cf. Introduction, note 1.\n\n20.19The periodic condition of \"musth\" to which elephant bulls are subject is still not fully understood, although it is linked _______________\n\n422\nnotes\n\nto reproduction. For months at a time, the elephant produces up to sixty times its usual levels of testosterone and becomes wildly aggressive and impossible to control; a symptom of an elephant being in musth is the production of an oily fluid from the temporal glands, in Sanskrit mada, a term with no single-word English equivalent.\n\n21.4 Here and elsewhere I try to make up for the poverty of words in English in comparison with the embarrassment of riches that Sanskrit enjoys when describing pachyderms.\n\n21.7 The front axle of a chariot has a parsni at each end, and the outer horses of the team are yoked to them. A parsni\/sarathi is responsible for controlling one of these horses.\n\n23.34 One of the many lost secrets of Vedic religion, soma was some kind of plant of critical importance in the performance of its rituals. The plant was pressed and its juice extracted to be used as an offering to the gods and as a beverage of the priests, probably hallucinogenic in effect.\n\n23.61 The word kalaya can refer to a species of panic grass, but it seems to have a range of references. I return to its etymology, which is suggestive of some genus of dark bloom.\n\n23.84 Sanjaya now moves from their horses to the adornments of the Pandava cars. The Sanskrit word dhvaja refers primarily to the wooden pole at the back of a chariot, but can also refer what one of these carries: carvings, statues, flags and whatever goodluck charms or trinkets a warrior wanted to take into battle with him. (My thanks to Daniel Balogh for his suggestions to me about a chariot's dashboard furniture.)\n\n24.13 Vidura is the younger half-brother of Pandu and Dhrita\u00b7rashtra, the son by Krishna Dvaipayana of a servant girl. When Duryodhana is born, Vidura immediately sees the danger that he will pose to the dynasty, and he advises Dhrita\u00b7rashtra to abandon the child. Dhrita\u00b7rashta refuses to do so. At the dicing match Vidura again predicts that the outcome of the conflict ___________________\n\n423\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona\n\nwill be a devastating war, and accuses Dhrita\u00b7rashtra of doing nothing to avert the crisis.\n\n25.62Ghatotkacha is Bhima\u00b7sena's half-man half-rakshasa son. A rakshasa is a demonic creature, a kind of imp or goblin associated with the night and capable of various supernatural tricks.\n\n26.53An astonishingly rich term in Sanskrit, it is hard to capture the subtlety of the compound Vaivasvata\/ksayam in translation. Vaivasvata means \"of the Bright One,\" i.e., the sun, and is largely used as a patronymic for Yama, king of the dead, yet here as elsewhere the rest of the verse is illuminated in the word's glimmer. The Sanskrit ksaya means, from separate roots, both \"abode\" and \"decay.\"\n\n30.24This Jyotishka appears only in the Calcutta edition of the text, and I have retained it mainly for its eccentricity. It is clearly related somehow to the word jyotis, \"light, sky, heaven.\"\n\n36.8In the chariot warfare of the 'Maha\u00b7bharata' a horseman is a driver: the term suta describes a caste in the same way as do \"kshatriya\" and \"brahmin\" and one inferior in status to both. In referring baldly to Sumitra's birth, Abhimanyu puts him in his place for the insubordination of suggesting that he reconsider Yudhi\u00b7shthira's demands. As it turns out, Sumitra's hesitancy will be revealed as having been quite justified.\n\n37.34The noose is an accoutrement of Yama, much like the grim reaper's scythe. His noose is not a symbol for hanging, but is rather used by the god to \"bind\" the soul after its extraction from the physical body of the deceased.\n\n39.24Sanskrit ksetra means \"land\" or \"domain,\" but also \"wife\" or even \"womb.\" A few lines earlier Duhshasana referred to the Pandavas as \"sons of Pandu,\" but now he draws sardonic attention to their unorthodox parenthood and hints at their illegitimacy by describing them as born of the \"soil\" rather than the \"seed\" of Pandu.\n\n40.9Abhimanyu is here referring to what could be Duhshasana's most scandalous crime against the Pandavas (cf. note to 11.24). _______________\n\n424\nnotes\n\nDuring the incident, Bhima\u00b7sena vows to kill Duhshasana and drink his blood, and this is why Abhimanyu mentions Bhima\u00b7sena in particular.\n\n45.9This Rukma\u00b7ratha is Shalya' son, not Drona.\n\n52.2One of the epic's many Krishnas, Krishna Dvaipayana, also called Vyasa, is the premarital son of Satyavati by the seer Parashara. Initially his mother abandons her baby on the island (dvipa) of his birth, but later she calls upon him to impregnate her second son's widows and provide the land of the Kurus with heirs. The widows give birth to Pandu and Dhrita\u00b7rashtra. Vyasa is also named as the mythical composer of the epic itself, and it is his student Vaishampayana who recites it for the first time. Otherwise Vyasa takes a relatively low-key, omniscient position in the narrative, appearing at its reflective moments to offer guidance to the main characters and leaving his stepbrother Bhishma to perform a more grandfatherly role towards them.\n\n52.19Yudhi\u00b7shthira's personification of Death leads Vyasa to describe a figure set apart from Yama, who strictly speaking is the ruler of the kingdom of the dead rather than \"death\" itself. The word for \"death\" in Sanskrit can be either masculine or feminine in gender, and it is this duality on which Vyasa plays in the story he is about to tell. In English, grammar forces us to decide when to treat mrtyu as an abstract noun and when as a personification, a distinction which Sanskrit can leave obscure.\n\n52.35Akampana uses the masculine form of the pronoun to refer to Death, unlike Yudhi\u00b7shthira, whose choice of words is not so committed.\n\n52.43One of Rudra-Siva's names. The god is said to remain motionless as a tree trunk during his austerities.\n\n54.36Brahma at last makes explicit the distinction between the female Death and the male deity Yama, here mentioned as a loka\/pala, a guardian of the world and its ordering principles.\n\n425\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona\n\n54.50 Although the predicate danda\/panir could be masculine or feminine, Vyasa has not mentioned a \"staff\" in relation to the female Death until he speaks these lines, while the danda is part of the classical iconography of Yama. I take it that Vyasa here slips back to the conventional figuration of Yama as Death to round off his tale. Either way, what is preserved in the Sanskrit and lost in the English is the subtlety and proximity of the distinctions that his myth has drawn.\n\n426\nProper Names and Epithets\n\nproper names and epithets\n\nAbhibhu Ruler of Kashi.\n\nAbhimanyu Son of Arjuna and Subhadra. Also known as Arjuni, Karshni, Phalguni, Saubhadra.\n\nAbhira A people.\n\nAchala Brother-in-law of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra and brother of Shakuni.\n\nAchyuta Name for many characters in the epic, including Bala\u00b7rama and Yudhi\u00b7shthira, but principally designating Krishna.\n\nAditi One of the daughters of Daksha and the mother of the adityas.\n\naditya Metronymic for a son of Aditi. The adityas are the seven gods of the firmament.\n\nAgavaha A Vrishni warrior.\n\nAgni God of fire.\n\nAiravata Elephant ridden by Indra into battle.\n\nAjata\u00b7shatru Yudhi\u00b7shthira.\n\nAkampana A legendary king in a story told by Vyasa.\n\nAlambusha A demon allied with the Kurus and slain by Ghatotkacha.\n\nAmbashtha A people and their king, allied to the Kauravas.\n\nAmbika Mother of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra.\n\nAnadhrishti A king allied to the Pandavas.\n\nAndhaka A demon killed by Rudra.\n\nAndhra A people conquered by Karna.\n\nAnga A people and their king, allied to the Kauravas.\n\nAngada A son of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra.\n\nAngiras Born from Brahma's mouth, a divine seer named as the composer of hymns, laws and a treatise on astronomy.\n\nAniruddha Son of Pradyumna and grandson of Krishna.\n\nAnuvinda A prince of Avanti, allied to the Kauravas. Brother of Vinda.\n\nArjuna Third of the five Pandava brothers, son of Pandu and Kunti.\n\n429\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\nAlso known as Dhanan\u00b7jaya, Pandava, Partha, Phalguna, Savya\u00b7sachin, Kiritin, Kaunteya, Jishnu.\n\nArjuni Patronymic for Abhimanyu.\n\nArim\u00b7ejaya A Vrishni fighter.\n\nArtayani Patronymic for Shalya.\n\nAshmaka Name of a people and their king, allied to the Kauravas.\n\nAshva\u00b7ketu Son of the Magadha king, allied to the Kauravas.\n\nAshvatthaman Son of Drona and Kripi.\n\nAshvins Twin gods, healers of the devas. Fathers of Saha\u00b7deva and Nakula by Madri.\n\nAurasaka A people conquered by Krishna.\n\nAvanti A people and a place.\n\nAvantya People or king of Avanti.\n\nBahlika A people.\n\nBali A demon, son of Virochana and father of Bana.\n\nBhaga\u00b7datta King of Prag\u00b7jyotisha, allied to the Kauravas.\n\nBharad\u00b7vaja An ancient seer, father of Drona and grandfather of Ashvatthaman.\n\nBharadvaja Patronymic for Drona.\n\nBharata Primordial ruler of North India and ancestor of most of the characters in the 'Maha\u00b7bharata.' Any of his descendents, and thus most of the characters of the epic, can be called a Bharata.\n\nBharata Descendant of Bharata, hence used as often as preceding.\n\nBhima Second of the five Pandava brothers, son of Pandu and Kunti. Also known as Bhima\u00b7sena, Kaunteya, Pandava, Partha, Vrikodara.\n\nBhima\u00b7sena Bhima.\n\nBhishma Son of Shantanu and Ganga, leader of the Kaurava forces until his demise at the end of the book preceding 'Drona.' Also known as Apageya, Deva\u00b7vrata and Shantanava.\n\nBhumin\u00b7jaya A Kaurava warrior.\n\n430\nproper names and epithets\n\nBhuri Son of Soma\u00b7datta, allied to the Kauravas.\n\nBhuta\u00b7karman A warrior allied to the Kauravas.\n\nBhuta\u00b7sharman A Kaurava warrior.\n\nBhuri\u00b7shravas A warrior allied to the Kauravas.\n\nBrahma Creator and supreme deity.\n\nBrahma Parameshthin Brahma.\n\nBrahma\u00b7vashatiya A people.\n\nBrihad\u00b7bala King of Kosala, allied to the Kauravas.\n\nBrihanta A Kuru warrior, brother of Kshema\u00b7dhurti.\n\nBrihat\u00b7kshatra One of the five Kaikeya brothers. Also the name of a Nishadha king.\n\nChaitraseni Patronymic for the son of Chitra\u00b7sena, Dhrita\u00b7rashtra's grandson. Also the name of a Pandava warrior slain by Drona.\n\nChandra\u00b7ketu A Kuru warrior.\n\nChandra\u00b7sena Son of Samudra\u00b7sena, allied to the Kauravas.\n\nChandra\u00b7varman A warrior allied to the Kauravas.\n\nCharu\u00b7deshna Son of Krishna and Rukmini.\n\nChedi A people.\n\nChekitana A Vrishni warrior allied to the Pandavas.\n\nChitra A warrior allied to the Pandavas.\n\nChitra\u00b7malya A warrior allied to the Pandavas.\n\nChitra\u00b7ratha Name of several kings; in 'Drona' the son of Shibi.\n\nChitra\u00b7sena A son of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra.\n\nChitrayudha Name of a hero on the Pandava side, but also of one of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra's sons.\n\ndanava A child of Danu, and so a member of a class of beings opposed to the devas.\n\nDanda\u00b7dhara A Pandava warrior.\n\nDanda\u00b7ketu A prince allied to the Pandavas, mentioned only in 'Drona.'\n\n431\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\nDarada A people.\n\nDasharha A people; used as a name for Krishna, a chief of the Dasharhas.\n\nDasheraka A people.\n\nDauhshasani Patronymic for Duhshasana's son, killer of Abhimanyu.\n\nDeva\u00b7datta Arjuna's conch.\n\nDevaki Daughter of Devaka, wife of Vasu\u00b7deva and mother of Krishna.\n\nDeva\u00b7vrata Bhishma.\n\nDhanan\u00b7jaya Arjuna.\n\nDharma A god, and Yudhi\u00b7shthira's father.\n\nDharma\u00b7raja Yudhi\u00b7shthira.\n\nDhenuka A devotional site.\n\nDhrishta\u00b7dyumna Son of the Panchala king Drupada, born from a sacrificial fire. Brother of Draupadi and general of the Pandava army.\n\nDhrishta\u00b7ketu A Chedi prince allied to the Pandavas.\n\nDhrita\u00b7rashtra Blind king of the Kurus. Son of Krishna Dvaipayanaand Ambika. Father of Duryodhana and a hundred other children.\n\nDirgha\u00b7lochana A Kaurava warrior.\n\nDrauni Patronymic for Ashvatthaman.\n\nDraupadi Daughter of Drupada and wife of the five Pandava brothers. Also known as Krishna. She has five sons: Prativindhya, Suta\u00b7soma, Shruta\u00b7kirti, Shatanika and Shruta\u00b7sena.\n\nDraupadeya Metronymic for one of the above.\n\nDrona Son of Bharad\u00b7vaja, husband of Kripi and father of Ashvatthaman. Also known as Bharadvaja, and Rukma\u00b7ratha. Drona is the teacher of the sons of Pandu and Dhrita\u00b7rashtra, and general of the Kaurava forces during the course of 'Drona.'\n\nDrupada King of the Panchalas and father of Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna. Sworn\n\n432\nproper names and epithets\n\nenemy of Drona.\n\nDuhsaha A son of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra.\n\nDuhshasana A son of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra.\n\nDurjaya A son of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra.\n\nDurmarshana A son of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra.\n\nDurmukha A son of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra.\n\nDuryodhana Eldest son of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra and Gandhari. Also known as Suyodhana and Dhartarashtra.\n\nGada A Vrishni warrior and Krishna's younger brother.\n\nGandhara A people ruled by Shakuni.\n\nGandhari Wife of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra and mother of Duryodhana and a hundred other children.\n\nGandiva Arjuna's bow.\n\nGanga The Ganges river, goddess and mother of Bhishma.\n\nGaruda Bird god.\n\nGautama Patronymic for Kripa, grandson of Gotama. Also the name of a Bhoja warrior.\n\nGavalgana Father of Sanjaya.\n\nGavalgani Patronymic for Sanjaya.\n\nGhatotkacha Semidemonic son of Bhima and Hidimba.\n\nGiri\u00b7vraja Capital of the Magadhas.\n\nGo\u00b7karna A holy site.\n\nGo\u00b7pala A people.\n\nGo\u00b7vinda Krishna.\n\nHaidimba Metronymic for Ghatotkacha.\n\nHari Son of Akampana.\n\nHastina\u00b7pura Capital of the Kurus on the river Ganges.\n\nHema\u00b7varna Son of Rochamana, allied to the Pandavas.\n\nHimalaya Mountain and god.\n\n433\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\nHiranyaksha A demon.\n\nHridika Father of Krita\u00b7varman.\n\nHrishi\u00b7kesha Krishna.\n\nIndra King of the gods. Also known as Maghavan, Shakra, Vasava.\n\nJahnavi Ganga, the daughter of Jahnu.\n\nJamad\u00b7agni A seer, father of Parashu\u00b7rama.\n\nJambha A demon slain by Indra.\n\nJambu A mythical river.\n\nJanam\u00b7ejaya Son of Parikshit. At his sacrifice Vaishampayana recites the 'Maha\u00b7bharata' for the first time.\n\nJanardana Krishna.\n\nJara\u00b7sandha King of the Magadhas, allied to the Kauravas.\n\nJayad\u00b7ratha King of the Sindhus, allied to the Kauravas.\n\nJhallin A Vrishni warrior.\n\nJishnu Arjuna.\n\nJyotishka The \"light weapon\" used by Arjuna against Prag\u00b7jyotisha.\n\nKaikeya One of the five brothers who rule the Kekaya people and are allied to the Pandavas. Sometimes Vinda or Anuvinda, Kekaya kings of Avanti allied to the Kauravas.\n\nKailasa A mountain and abode of Kubera.\n\nKalakeya A tribe of demons.\n\nKalikeya A Kuru warrior, son of Subala.\n\nKalinga A people and their king.\n\nKamboja A people and their king, who is also known as Sudakshina.\n\nKansa Son of Ugra\u00b7sena and King of Mathura.\n\nKapalin Rudra-Shiva.\n\nKara\u00b7karsha A warrior allied to the Kurus.\n\nKarna Son of Surya (the sun) and Kunti. Adopted by the charioteer\n\n434\nproper names and epithets\n\nAdhiratha and his wife Radha. Also known as Radheya and Suta\u00b7putra.\n\nKarshni Patronymic for Abhimanyu, \"son of Krishna,\" i.e., Arjuna.\n\nKarusha A people.\n\nKashi A people, a place and its king (cf. Varanasi).\n\nKashmiraka A people, obviously connected to present Kashmir.\n\nKaurava Descendant of Kuru. Often refers to Dhrita\u00b7rashtra's sons and their followers, although the Pandavas are also sometimes called Kauravas.\n\nKauravya As above.\n\nKaushiki A river.\n\nKekaya A people, some of whom (under the leadership of five brothers) are allied to the Pandavas, and some to the Kauravas.\n\nKeshava Krishna.\n\nKirata A people.\n\nKiritin Arjuna.\n\nKritin Father of Ruchi\u00b7parvan.\n\nKosala A people.\n\nKratha A Kuru king.\n\nKripa Son of Sharadvat, grandson of Gotama and brother of Kripi. Allied to the Kauravas.\n\nKrishna Son of Vasu\u00b7deva and Devaki, identified with Vishnu\/Narayana. Also known as Achyuta, Go\u00b7vinda, Hrishi\u00b7kesha, Janardana, Keshava, Vasudeva, Madhava, Shauri, Pundarikaksha. The \"two Krishnas\" are Krishna and Arjuna.\n\nKrishna Draupadi.\n\nKrishna Dvaipayana Son of Satyavati and the seer Parashara. Father of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra, Pandu and Vidura. Also known as Vyasa.\n\nKrita\u00b7varman A Vrishni prince and son of Hridika, allied to the Kauravas.\n\n435\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\nKshatran\u00b7jaya A son of Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna.\n\nKshatra\u00b7deva A son of Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna.\n\nKshatra\u00b7dharman A son of Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna, slain by Drona.\n\nKshema\u00b7dhurti Brother of Brihanta, allied to the Kauravas.\n\nKshema\u00b7sharman A Kaurava warrior.\n\nKubera Originally the chief of the spirits of darkness, and in later theology the god of riches.\n\nKumara Name of Yudhi\u00b7shthira's wheelguard.\n\nKunda\u00b7bhedin Son of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra.\n\nKunti A people, but more also and more importantly the wife of Pandu. Mother of the Pandavas and Karna. Also known as Pritha.\n\nKunti\u00b7bhoja Adoptive father of Kunti, allied to the Pandavas. Also called Purujit.\n\nKuru Ancestor of the Bharatas. The Kurus are the descendants of Kuru and include both the Kauravas and the Pandavas, although the name largely refers to Dhrita\u00b7rashtra's sons and their followers.\n\nLakshmana A son of Duryodhana.\n\nLalittha A people linked to the Tri\u00b7gartas.\n\nMadhava A people, and used to refer variously to Krishna, Satyaki and Krita\u00b7varman.\n\nMadra\/Madraka A people.\n\nMadri Second wife of Pandu. Princess of the Madras, sister of Shalya and mother of the twins Nakula and Saha\u00b7deva by the two Ashvin gods.\n\nMagadha A people.\n\nMaghavan Indra.\n\nMaha\u00b7deva Rudra-Shiva.\n\nMainaka A mountain.\n\nMalada A people.\n\nMalava A people and its king.\n\n436\nproper names and epithets\n\nMalaya A mountain.\n\nMandara A mountain used as a staff by the gods to churn the ocean.\n\nManimat A king allied to the Pandavas.\n\nMaruts Storm gods, followers of Indra.\n\nMarttikavataka A people and a country.\n\nMatsya A people, mostly allied to the Pandavas, and their king.\n\nMavellaka A people linked to the Tri\u00b7gartas.\n\nMegha\u00b7vega A Kuru warrior.\n\nMekala A people conquered by Karna.\n\nMeru Mountain at the center of the cosmos.\n\nMuru A demon slain by Krishna.\n\nNagnajit A king overthrown by Karna.\n\nNishatha A Vrishni ruler, son of Bala\u00b7rama.\n\nNaimisha A sacred forest.\n\nNakula One of the Pandava brothers (twin of Saha\u00b7deva).\n\nNakuli Patronymic for Shatanika, Nakula's son.\n\nNanda A river.\n\nNara Primordial Man, often considered a god and paired with Narayana. Identified with Arjuna.\n\nNarada A divine seer.\n\nNaraka A demon, son of the Earth.\n\nNarayana The god Vishnu, often linked with Nara. Identified with Krishna. At the same time the name of a people.\n\nNila King of Mahishmati slain by Ashvatthaman.\n\nNishada A people and their king.\n\nNishadha A people allied to the Kauravas.\n\nNivata\u00b7kavachas A tribe of demons destroyed by Arjuna.\n\nPanchajanya Conch carried by Krishna, obtained from the demon Pancha\u00b7jana.\n\n437\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\nPancha\u00b7jana Demon slain by Krishna.\n\nPanchala A people allied to the Pandavas. The king of the Panchalas is Drupada. Sworn enemies of Drona.\n\nPandava A son of Pandu, so Yudhi\u00b7shthira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula or Saha\u00b7deva. The \"Pandavas\" as a whole are the sons of Pandu, their relatives and their followers.\n\nPandu Son of Krishna Dvaipayana, half brother of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra and Vidura and \"father\" of the Pandavas. In the plural it refers to the Pandava army as a whole.\n\nPandya A people and their king.\n\nParashu\u00b7rama Son of Jamad\u00b7agni and Renuka, and a hero of legend who once wiped out the warrior caste.\n\nParshata Patronymic for Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna and Drupada.\n\nPartha Son of Pritha, so Yudhi\u00b7shthira, Bhima\u00b7sena or Arjuna. Also refers to the followers of the sons of Pritha.\n\nPatacchara\u00b7hantri A warrior allied to the Pandavas.\n\nPaundra A people.\n\nPaurava Descendant of Puru. Name of a people and king.\n\nPhalguna Arjuna.\n\nPhalguni Patronymic for Abhimanyu.\n\nPishacha Generally a class of demonic beings, but in the 'Maha\u00b7bharata' also the name of a people.\n\nPitha A demon slain by Krishna.\n\nPrabahu A Kuru warrior.\n\nPrabhadraka A warrior from a certain division of the Panchalas.\n\nPradyumna Son of Krishna and Rukmini.\n\nPralamba A demon slain by Krishna.\n\nPrasthala A principality ruled by Susharman, one of the Tri\u00b7gartas.\n\nPratardana A Kuru warrior.\n\nPrativindhya One of the Draupadeyas.\n\n438\nproper names and epithets\n\nPrishata Father of Drupada, grandfather of Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna.\n\nPritha Kunti.\n\nPrithu A Vrishni prince.\n\nPulastya One of the sons of Brahma, from whom Ghatotkacha received his bow.\n\nPuloman A demon.\n\nPundarikaksha The Lotus Eyed One, namely, Krishna.\n\nPurujit A Kunti chieftain.\n\nPushkara Name of a collocation of holy sites.\n\nRadha Adoptive mother of Karna.\n\nRaja\u00b7pura A city of the Kambojas.\n\nRama Parashu\u00b7rama.\n\nRatha\u00b7sena A warrior allied to the Pandavas, mentioned only once in the entire epic.\n\nRavana A king of the demons.\n\nRiksha\u00b7deva Son of Shikhandin.\n\nRochamana A Pandava warrior.\n\nRohini A goddess, daughter of Daksha and wife of the moon.\n\nRudra The fierce deity later known as Shiva. Also called Maha\u00b7deva, Sharva, Sthanu, Try\u00b7ambaka, Kapalin.\n\nRuchi\u00b7parvan A Pandava warrior.\n\nRukmini Wife of Krishna.\n\nSaha\u00b7deva One of the Pandava brothers, twin brother of Nakula.\n\nSaindhava Principally Jayad\u00b7ratha, King of the Sindhus, but also his father Vriddha\u00b7kshatra.\n\nSamba Son of Krishna and Jambavati.\n\nSamika A Vrishni warrior.\n\nSamudra\u00b7sena Father of Chandra\u00b7sena, allied to the Kauravas.\n\nSanjaya Son of Gavalgana and charioteer of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra, to whom\n\n439\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\nhe narrates the events of the great battle.\n\nSarana A Vrishni warrior, son of Vasu\u00b7deva.\n\nSarayu A river.\n\nSatya\u00b7dharman One of the Tri\u00b7garta princes.\n\nSatya\u00b7dhriti A Pandava warrior.\n\nSatvata Name of a tribe of the Yadavas, and used in the singular of Krita\u00b7varman and Satyaki.\n\nSatya\u00b7karman One of the Tri\u00b7garta princes.\n\nSatyaki Patronymic for Yuyudhana, a Vrishni king allied to the Pandavas. Satya\u00b7ratha one of the Tri\u00b7garta princes.\n\nSatya\u00b7vrata One of the Tri\u00b7garta princes.\n\nSatya\u00b7dharman One of the Tri\u00b7garta princes.\n\nSatyeshu One of the Tri\u00b7garta princes.\n\nSaubala Patronymic for Shakuni.\n\nSaubhadra Metronymic for Abhimanyu.\n\nSaumadatti Patronymic for Bhuri\u00b7shravas, son of Soma\u00b7datta.\n\nSauvira A people associated with the Sindhus.\n\nSavya\u00b7sachin Arjuna.\n\nSena\u00b7bindu A Panchala fighter killed by Drona, and also a man fighting on the Kaurava side.\n\nShaineya Patronymic for Satyaki, grandson of Shini.\n\nShaka A people.\n\nShakuna A people.\n\nShakuni Son of the Gandhara king Subala and father of Uluka.\n\nShala Son of Soma\u00b7datta, and brother of Bhuri and Bhuri\u00b7shravas. Allied to the Kauravas.\n\nShalva A people and their king.\n\nShalya King of the Madras, brother of Madri. Also known as Artayani.\n\n440\nproper names and epithets\n\nShambara A demon slain by Indra.\n\nShantanu Father of Bhishma.\n\nSharadvat Father of Kripa.\n\nSharadvata Patronymic for Kripa.\n\nSharva Rudra-Shiva.\n\nShatanika Son of Nakula and Draupadi.\n\nShatrun\u00b7jaya A son of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra.\n\nShauri Patronymic for Krishna.\n\nShikhandin Son (originally daughter) of Drupada. Allied to the Pandavas and pivotal in Arjuna's victory over Bhishma.\n\nShini Father of Satyaka and grandfather of Satyaki.\n\nShura\u00b7sena A people.\n\nShrenimat A Pandava warrior.\n\nShruta\u00b7karman Son of Saha\u00b7deva and Draupadi.\n\nShruta\u00b7kirti Son of Arjuna and Draupadi.\n\nSinhala A people.\n\nSinha\u00b7sena A warrior allied to the Pandavas.\n\nSkanda A protean deity, son of Shiva or Agni in the Veda and god of war.\n\nSoma\u00b7datta Father of Bhuri\u00b7shravas, allied to the Kauravas.\n\nSrinjaya A people often grouped with the Panchalas.\n\nSthanu Rudra-Shiva.\n\nSubahu One of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra's sons, and also a Tri\u00b7garta warrior.\n\nSubala Father of Shakuni.\n\nSubhadra Mother of Abhimanyu.\n\nSudakshina King of the Kambojas, allied to the Kauravas.\n\nSudaman A Pandava warrior.\n\nSudarshana A son of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra. Also the name of Krishna's discus.\n\n441\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\nSudhanus A Tri\u00b7garta warrior.\n\nSudhanvan A Panchala king.\n\nSudharman A Tri\u00b7garta warrior.\n\nSukshatra Son of the Kosala king.\n\nSumitra Abhimanyu's charioteer.\n\nSunaman Brother of Kansa.\n\nSuratha A Tri\u00b7garta warrior.\n\nSurya\u00b7bhasa A Kuru warrior.\n\nSusharman King of the Tri\u00b7gartas.\n\nSushena A warrior allied to the Kauravas.\n\nSuta\u00b7putra \"Driver's son,\" largely used to refer to Karna, but said of various charioteers in the epic.\n\nSuta\u00b7soma One of the Draupadeyas.\n\nSuvarchas Two warriors, one of whom fights for the Kauravas, the other for the Pandavas.\n\nSuyodhana Duryodhana.\n\nTri\u00b7garta A people and the five brothers who are their chieftains.\n\nTry\u00b7ambaka The Three Eyed God, namely Rudra-Shiva.\n\nTundikera A people and their king.\n\nTvashtri A magical attack named after the armorer of the gods.\n\nUcchaih\u00b7shravas Name of a celestial horse.\n\nUdayendu A city of the Kurus, where Suta\u00b7soma was born.\n\nUlmuka A Vrishni warrior.\n\nUshanas An ancient seer.\n\nUttamaujas A Panchala warrior allied to the Pandavas. Brother of Yudha\u00b7manyu.\n\nUtkala A people conquered by Karna.\n\nVanayu A people and a place.\n\nVaikartana Patronymic for Karna, son of the sun.\n\n442\nproper names and epithets\n\nVaishampayana Disciple of Krishna Dvaipayana. Recites the 'Maha\u00b7bharata' at Janam\u00b7ejaya's snake sacrifice.\n\nVaishnava A magical attack wielded by different characters in the epic.\n\nVaishvanara Agni.\n\nVaitarani The river running through the realm of the dead.\n\nVaranavata A city.\n\nVaranasi A city in the country of the Kashis, now known by the same name.\n\nVarddhakshemi Patronymic for Anadhrishti.\n\nVarshneya Principally Krishna, though designating any of Vrishni stock.\n\nVaruna One of the greatest of the Vedic gods.\n\nVasatiya A people and their king.\n\nVasava Indra.\n\nVasishtha A divine seer, son of the god Varuna.\n\nVasu One of a group of Vedic gods.\n\nVasu\u00b7dana A warrior on the Pandava side.\n\nVasu\u00b7deva Father of Krishna.\n\nVasudeva Patronymic for Krishna.\n\nVata\u00b7dhana A people conquered by Krishna and Arjuna.\n\nVayavya The \"weapon of Vayu\" wielded by Arjuna in 'Drona.'\n\nVetasaka A people in whose country Death performs her austerities.\n\nVideha A people.\n\nVidura A place known for its metals and gemstones.\n\nVidura Half brother of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra and Pandu.\n\nVidu\u00b7ratha A prince of the Vrishnis.\n\nVijaya Normally a name for Arjuna, but in 'Drona' also a son of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra.\n\n443\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\nVikarna A son of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra.\n\nVinda Brother of Anuvinda and prince of Avanti, allied to the Kauravas.\n\nVipata Karna's younger brother.\n\nViprithu A Vrishni ruler.\n\nVirata The king of the Matsyas.\n\nVirochana A demon.\n\nVishnu One of the major gods in the Hindu pantheon, incarnated in Krishna.\n\nVivasvat Father of Yama.\n\nVivinshati A son of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra.\n\nVrikodara Bhima.\n\nVriddha\u00b7kshatra King of the Sindhus and father of Jayad\u00b7ratha.\n\nVriddha\u00b7kshema Ancestor of Anadhrishti.\n\nVrika A Pandava warrior.\n\nVrindaraka A son of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra.\n\nVrishaka A Gandhara prince, brother-in-law of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra.\n\nVishvak\u00b7sena Krishna.\n\nVrisha\u00b7sena A son of Karna.\n\nVrishni A Yadava people connected with the Andhakas and the Bhojas. Krishna, Satyaki and Krita\u00b7varman are Vrishnis.\n\nVritra A demon slain by Indra.\n\nVyaghra\u00b7datta A warrior allied to the Pandavas.\n\nVyasa A seer, supposed to have compiled the 'Maha\u00b7bharata.'\n\nYadava A people descended from Yadu and linked with the Vrishnis.\n\nYajnya\u00b7sena Drupada.\n\nYajnyaseni Patronymic for Shikhandin and Dhrishta\u00b7dyumna.\n\nYama God of the dead, son of Vivasvat.\n\nYamuna A river, the present Jamna.\n\n444\nproper names and epithets\n\nYaudheya A people.\n\nYavana A people whom scholars have connected with the ancient Greeks.\n\nYudha\u00b7manyu A Panchala warrior allied to the Pandavas. Brother of Uttamaujas.\n\nYudhi\u00b7shthira Eldest of the Pandava brothers. Also known as Ajata\u00b7shatru, Dharma\u00b7raja, Partha, Pandava, Kaunteya.\n\nYugan\u00b7dhara A Pandava warrior slain by Drona.\n\nYuyudhana Pandava warrior also known as Satyaki.\n\nYuyutsu Son of Dhrita\u00b7rashtra and a woman of the merchant caste. Allied to the Pandavas.\n\n445\n\nIndex\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\nSanskrit words are given in the English alphabetical order, according to the accented CSL pronuncuation aid. They are followed by the conventional diacritics in brackets.\n\nAbhibhu (Abhibhu),\n\nAbhimanyu (Abhimanyu), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nAbhira (Abhira),   \nAchala (Acala),   \nAchyuta (Acyuta),   \nAdhiratha (Adhiratha), ,   \nAdhirathi (Adhirathi), ,   \nAditi (Aditi),   \nAditya (Aditya),   \nAgavaha (Agavaha),\n\nage, ,   \nend of an, , , ,   \nturning,\n\nAgneya (Agneya),   \nAgni (Agni), , ,   \nAiravata (Airavata), , ,\n\nAkampana (Akampana), , ,\n\nAlambusa (Alambusa), ,   \nally, , ,\n\naltar,   \nfire,\n\nAmaravati (Amaravati),\n\nAmbashtha (Ambastha), , , ,\n\nAmbika (Ambika),\n\nAnadhrishti (Anadhrsti),\n\nancestors, , ,\n\nAndhaka (Andhaka),\n\nAndhra (Andhra),\n\nAnga (Anga), ,\n\nAngada (Angada),\n\nanger, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nAniruddha (Aniruddha),\n\nannihilator\n\nbloody,\n\nAnuvinda (Anuvinda), , , ,\n\nanxiety, ,\n\nApaga (Apaga),\n\nAratta (Aratta),\n\narcher, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nLeft Handed, , , , ,\n\nmaster,\n\narchery,\n\nArim\u00b7ejaya (Arimejaya),\n\n448\nindex\n\nArjuna (Arjuna), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nArjuni (Arjuni), 305, , , , , , , , , , ,\n\narmor, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nbroken,\n\ngolden,\n\nof gold,\n\nof truth,\n\nplate,\n\ntattered,\n\narmy, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nleaderless,\n\nof gods and devils,\n\nof heaven,\n\nof the gods,\n\narray, , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nof the wheel,\n\nspearhead,\n\narrow, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nbarbed, ,\n\nbiting, ,\n\nbrightfletched,\n\nbroken,\n\ncruel,\n\nfarflying,\n\nfearsome,\n\nfeathered,\n\nforged,\n\ngolden,\n\nheronfeathered,\n\niron, , , , ,\n\nironclad,\n\nkeen,\n\nknotless,\n\n449\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\nlifestealing,\n\nnumberless,\n\nquick,\n\nsacred,\n\nsharp, , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nsixty, , ,\n\nswift,\n\nthousand, ,\n\ntrueworked, ,\n\ntwin,\n\nunerring,\n\nunrelenting,\n\nwellaimed,\n\nwellwhittled,\n\nwellwrought,\n\nwhetted,\n\nyellowhued,\n\nArtayani (Artatayani),\n\nascetic, , , , ,\n\ncelibate,\n\nAshmaka (Asmaka),\n\nAshva\u00b7ketu (Asvaketu),\n\nAshvatthaman (Asvatthaman), , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nAshvin (Asvin), , , ,\n\nassault,\n\nassembly,\n\nAurasaka (Aurasaka),\n\nausterity, , ,\n\nAvanti (Avanti), , ,\n\nAvantya (Avantya),\n\navatar,\n\naxe, , ,\n\nBabhru (Babhru),\n\nBahlika (Bahlika),\n\nBahlika (Bahlika), , , ,\n\nBala (Bala), , ,\n\nBala\u00b7deva (Baladeva),\n\nBali (Bali), ,\n\nbanner, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nglittering,\n\ngreat,\n\nlost,\n\nmonkey, , , , ,\n\ntorn,\n\nbattle, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nbloody,\n\ncelestial,\n\ncrooked,\n\ndance of,\n\necstasy of,\n\ngreat,\n\nbattle cries, ,\n\nbattle scenes, , ,\n\n450\nindex\n\nbattle-axe,\n\nbattlefield, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\ncosmological imagery of the,\n\nBeholden, , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nbell, , ,\n\nBhaga\u00b7datta (Bhagadatta), , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nBharadvaja (Bharadvaja),\n\nBharad\u00b7vaja (Bharadvaja), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nBharata (Bharata), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nBharata (Bharata), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nBhima (Bhima), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nBhima\u00b7ratha (Bhimaratha), ,\n\nBhima\u00b7sena (Bhimasena), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , _________\n\n, ,\n\nBhishma (Bhisma), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nBhoja (Bhoja), , ,\n\nBhumin\u00b7jaya (Bhumimjaya),\n\nBhuri (Bhuri),\n\nBhuri\u00b7shravas (Bhurisravas), , , , , , ,\n\nBhuta\u00b7karman (Bhutakarman),\n\nBhuta\u00b7sharman (Bhutasarman),\n\nbirth, , , ,\n\nbirthline,\n\nblood, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nblossom,\n\ndark,\n\ngram,\n\nbooks\n\nsacred,\n\nbow, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , _________\n\n451\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\n, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nart of the,\n\nbroken, ,\n\ncelestial, , ,\n\nenchanted,\n\nfearsome,\n\nfine, ,\n\ngilded,\n\ngoldfiligreed,\n\ngreat,\n\nheavenly,\n\nhorn,\n\nmagic,\n\nmighty, , ,\n\nnew, ,\n\nshattered,\n\nstout,\n\nunbreakable,\n\nbowmen, , , , , , , , , , ,\n\ngreat,\n\nmighty,\n\nBrahma (Brahma), , , , ,\n\nBrahman (Brahman),\n\nBrahma\u00b7vashatiyas (Brahmavasa-  \ntiya),\n\nbrahmin, , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nby birth,\n\nbravery, , , , , , ,\n\nbreath, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\ndear,\n\nlast, ,\n\nBrihad\u00b7bala (Brihadbala), , , , , , ,\n\nBrihanta (Brhanta), ,\n\nBrihas\u00b7pati (Brhaspati), ,\n\nBrihat\u00b7kshatra (Brhatsatra), , ,\n\nbrother, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nelder,\n\nfather's,\n\nhalf-,\n\nson of, ,\n\nstep-,\n\nyounger, , , ,\n\nbrotherhood,\n\nbuffalo, ,\n\nbull, , , , , , , ,\n\nelephant, ,\n\ncamp, ,\n\nroyal,\n\ncar, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , _________\n\n452\nindex\n\n, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nbridal,\n\ngolden,\n\ncaste,\n\nhalf-,\n\nhighest,\n\nwarrior, , ,\n\ncattle, , ,\n\nChaitraseni (Caitraseni) ,\n\nchallenge, , , , ,\n\nchallenger,\n\nchampion, , , , , , , , ,\n\nChandra\u00b7ketu (Candraketu),\n\nChandra\u00b7sena (Candrasena),\n\nChandra\u00b7varman (Candravar-  \nman),\n\ncharge, ,\n\nchariot, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , _________\n\n, , , , , , , ,\n\ncharioteer, , , , , , , ,\n\nCharu\u00b7deshna (Carudsna),\n\nChedi (Cedi), , , , , , , , , ,\n\nChekitana (Cekitana), , , , , , , , ,\n\nchest, , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nchieftain, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nchild, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nabandoned,\n\neldest,\n\nillegitimate,\n\nChitra (Citra),\n\nChitra\u00b7ratha (Citraratha),\n\nChitra\u00b7sena (Citrasena),\n\nChitrayudha (Citrayudha), ,\n\nChola (Cola),\n\ncity, ,\n\ngolden,\n\nimperial,\n\nCity\n\nof Doors,\n\n453\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\ncity\n\nof lights,\n\nof spirits,\n\nof the demons,\n\nof the skies,\n\nroyal, ,\n\nclub, , , , , , , , , ,\n\ncode, ,\n\nwarrior,\n\ncombat, , , , , , ,\n\nart of, , ,\n\ncommander, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 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vii \u2013 drona i\n\n, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nchariot without,\n\nDrona (Drona), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\ndrum, , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nDrupada (Drupada), , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nDruta (Druta),\n\nduel, ,\n\nDuhsaha (Duhsaha),\n\nDuhshasana (Duhsasana), , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nDurjaya (Durjaya),\n\nDurmarshana (Durmarsana),\n\nDurmukha (Durmukha), ,\n\nDurvasas (Durvasas),\n\nDuryodhana (Duryodhana), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\ndust, , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nduty, , , ,\n\nbrotherly,\n\ndynasty,\n\nearrings, , ,\n\nearth, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nfour corners of the,\n\nearthquake,\n\nelders, , ,\n\ndevotion to,\n\nelephant, , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\n456\nindex\n\n, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nenchantment, ,\n\nenemy, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\narch-,\n\nsworn, ,\n\nenvy, ,\n\nfalsehood,\n\nfame, , , , , , , , , ,\n\nfate, , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nfather, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nholy,\n\nof beings,\n\nof the world,\n\nfathers, , , , , ,\n\nfear, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nof death,\n\nfeather, , , ,\n\ngold,\n\nheron,\n\nparrot,\n\nvulture, , , , , , , ,\n\nfiends, , , ,\n\ntroop of,\n\nfighting\n\nbloody,\n\nfire, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nat the end of time,\n\nbrush-,\n\nsacrificial,\n\nflag, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nmonkey,\n\nflame-of-the-forest, , ,\n\nflowers, , , , , , ,\n\nmustardseed,\n\nof every season,\n\nwild,\n\n457\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\nfoal, ,\n\nfolly, , ,\n\nfool, , , , , ,\n\ndesperate,\n\nPunisher of,\n\nforefathers, , , ,\n\nland of the,\n\nforest, , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nformation,\n\ncurlew,\n\nfriend, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nfuneral,\n\nfury, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nGada (Gada),\n\nGandhara (Gandhara), , , , , , , ,\n\nGandiva (Gandiva), , , , , , , , , ,\n\nGanges, , , , ,\n\ngarden,\n\nGargya (Gargya),\n\ngarland, , , , , ,\n\ndried,\n\ngolden, , ,\n\nof triumph,\n\nGaruda (Garuda), , , , , , , ,\n\nGautama (Gautama), ,\n\nGavalgana (Gavalgana), ,\n\nGavalgani (Gavalgani), ,\n\ngems, , , , ,\n\ngeneral, , , ,\n\nGhatotkacha (Ghatotkaca), , , , , , ,\n\nghost, , , ,\n\ngift,\n\nGiri\u00b7sha (Girisa),\n\nGiri\u00b7vraja (Girivraja),\n\nglory, , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\ngoblin, ,\n\ngods, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\narrogance of,\n\ncelestial,\n\ndeathless, , , ,\n\neverlasting,\n\nHimalayan,\n\nHorse,\n\nlord of the, , , ,\n\nof heaven,\n\nof old, ,\n\nof the tempest,\n\nof the wind,\n\nof war,\n\nthirty, ,\n\nwill of the,\n\nGo\u00b7karna (Gokarna),\n\n458\nindex\n\ngold, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nriver-, , , ,\n\nGo\u00b7pala (Gopala),\n\ngourd\n\nascetic's,\n\ngolden,\n\nGo\u00b7vinda (Govinda), , , ,\n\ngrace, , , , , , , ,\n\ngrandfather, ,\n\ngrandson, , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\ngreed, , ,\n\ngrief, , , , , , , ,\n\ngrove,\n\nmango,\n\npleasure,\n\nguardian, , , ,\n\nbeast,\n\nof kings,\n\nof the earth,\n\nof the forefathers,\n\nguest,\n\nwelcome,\n\nHaidimba (Haidimba),\n\nhammer, , , ,\n\nHari (Hari),\n\nHastina\u00b7pura (Hastinapura), ,\n\nheart,\n\nheaven, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\npleasures of,\n\nheir, , , , , , , , , ,\n\nhell, , ,\n\nhelmet, ,\n\nHema\u00b7varna (Hemavarna),\n\nhermits,\n\nhero, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\ndead, , , , , ,\n\ndefeated,\n\nheroism, , , ,\n\nheron, , ,\n\nHimalaya,\n\nHimalaya (Himalaya),\n\nHimavat (Himavat),\n\nHiranyaksha (Hiranyaksa),\n\nhonor, , , ,\n\nhighest,\n\nhope, , , , , , , , ,\n\nhorn, , , , ,\n\nof the rhinoceros,\n\nhorse, , , , , , , ,\n\n459\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\n129, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nbrindled,\n\nchestnut,\n\ndappled,\n\ndovecolored, ,\n\nfine, , , , ,\n\ngolden,\n\nmild,\n\npale,\n\nred,\n\nspeckled,\n\nthree-year-old,\n\nwhite, , , ,\n\nhorseman, , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nHridika (Hrdika), , ,\n\nHrishi\u00b7kesha (Hrsikesa), , , , ,\n\nhumility, , , , , ,\n\nimmortality,\n\nincarnation, ,\n\nIndra (Indra), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\n169, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\ninfantry, , ,\n\ninfidel,\n\njackal, , , , , , , ,\n\nJahnavi (Jahnavi),\n\nJamad\u00b7agni (Jamadagni),\n\nJambha (Jambha),\n\nJambu (Jambu),\n\nJanam\u00b7ejaya (Janamejaya), ,\n\nJanardana (Janardana), ,\n\nJara\u00b7sandha (Jarasamdha), 103,\n\njavelin, , , , , , , , , ,\n\nJaya (Jaya),\n\nJayad\u00b7ratha (Jayadratha), , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nJhallin (Jhallin),\n\nJishnu (Jisnu),\n\njoy, , , , , , , , , , ,\n\njustice, ,\n\nJyot\n\nishka (Jyotiska),\n\nKaikeya (Kaikeya), , , , , , ,\n\nKailasa (Kailasa),\n\nKalakeya (Kalakeya),\n\nKalikeya (Kalikeya),\n\nKalinga (Kalinga), , , , ,\n\n460\nindex\n\n171,\n\nKamboja (Kamboja), , , , ,\n\nKamboja (Kamboja), , , ,\n\nKansa (Kamsa),\n\nKara\u00b7karsha (Karakasa),\n\nKarna (Karn a), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nKarshni (Kasni), , , ,\n\nKarusha (Karusa), , ,\n\nKashi (Kasi), , , , , ,\n\nKashmiraka (Kasmiraka),\n\nKaubera (Kaubera),\n\nKaurava (Kaurava), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nKaushiki (Kausiki),\n\nKekaya (Kekaya), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nKeshava (Kesava), , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nKhandava (Khandava),\n\nKhasha (Khasa),\n\nking, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nbarbarian,\n\nhigh,\n\nmountain, , ,\n\nof beasts,\n\nof heaven,\n\nof the birds,\n\nof the dead,\n\nof the gods, , ,\n\nrighteous, , , , ,\n\nKirata (Kirata),\n\nKiritin (Kiritin), , ,\n\nKitava (Kitava), ,\n\nKosala (Kosala), , , , ,\n\nKratha (Kratha), , ,\n\nKripa (Krpa), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nKrishna (Krsna), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nKrishna (Krsna),\n\nKrishna Dvaipayana (Krsnadvaipayana),\n\nKrita\u00b7varman (Krtavarman), , , , , , , ,\n\n461\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\n, , , ,\n\nKritin (Krtin),\n\nKshatra\u00b7deva (Ksatradeva), , , , ,\n\nKshatra\u00b7dharman (Ksatradharman), , , , , ,\n\nKshatran\u00b7jaya (Ksatramjaya),\n\nkshatriya, ,\n\nKshema (Ksema),\n\nKshema\u00b7dhurti (Ksemadhurti),\n\nKshema\u00b7sharman (Ksemasarman),\n\nKshemi (Ksemi),\n\nKubera (Kubera), , ,\n\nKumara (Kumara),\n\nKunda\u00b7bhedin (Kundabhedin),\n\nKunti (Kunti), , , , , , , , , ,\n\nKunti (Kunti), , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nKuru (Kuru), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nKuru\u00b7kshetra (Kuruksetra),\n\nLakshmana (Laksmana), , , ,\n\nLalittha (Lalittha), , ,\n\nlightning, , , , , , ,\n\n, , , , , , , , ,\n\nlineage,\n\nlion, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nlotus, , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nblue, , ,\n\nlove, , , ,\n\nloyalty, , ,\n\nmace, , , , , , , , ,\n\nMadhava (Madhava), , ,\n\nMadhu (Madhu), ,\n\nmadness\n\nof war,\n\nMadra (Madra), , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nMadraka (Madraka), ,\n\nMadri (Madri), , ,\n\nMagadha (Magadha),\n\nMagadha (Magadha), ,\n\nMaghavan (Maghavan),\n\nMaha\u00b7deva (Mahadeva), ,\n\nmail, , , , , , ,\n\nchain,\n\ngolden,\n\nplate,\n\nMainaka (Mainaka), ,\n\nMalada (Malada),\n\n462\nindex\n\nMalava (Malava), , ,\n\nMalaya (Malaya),\n\nMandara (Mandara),\n\nManimat (Manimat),\n\nmantra, , , ,\n\nMarttikavataka (Marttikavataka),\n\nMarut (Marut),\n\nmaster, , , , , , , , , ,\n\narcher,\n\nof all beings,\n\nof the bow, ,\n\nof the Vedas,\n\nof war,\n\nof weapons, ,\n\nswordsman, ,\n\nMatsya (Matsya), , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nMavellaka (Mavellaka), ,\n\nmeditation, , ,\n\nMegha\u00b7vega (Meghavega),\n\nMekala (Mekala),\n\nMeru (Meru), , ,\n\nmeteor, ,\n\nminister,\n\nmissile, , , , , , ,\n\nbarbed,\n\nmodesty, ,\n\nmonarch, ,\n\nmonkey,\n\nmoon, , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nfull,\n\nhalf-, , ,\n\nmark in the,\n\nmoonbeams,\n\nMuru (Muru),\n\nmusth, , , ,\n\nmystery,\n\nNaimisha (Naimisa),\n\nNakula (Nakula), , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nNanda (Nanda), ,\n\nNara (Nara),\n\nNarada (Narada), , , ,\n\nNaraka (Naraka), , ,\n\nNarayana (Narayana), , , , , ,\n\nnight, , , , , , , , ,\n\ndead of,\n\nearly,\n\nnightmare,\n\nnightwalker,\n\nNila (Nila), , ,\n\nNishada (Nisada), ,\n\nNishadha (Nisadha), ,\n\nNishatha (Nisatha),\n\nNivata\u00b7kavacha (Nivatakavaca),\n\noath,\n\nsevere,\n\nsolemn,\n\nocean, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\n463\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\nomen, ,\n\nordinance,\n\nornament, ,\n\ngolden,\n\npain, , , , , , , , , ,\n\npalace, , ,\n\npaladin, , , , ,\n\npalm, , , ,\n\nPancha\u00b7jana (Pancajana),\n\nPanchajanya (Pancajanya),\n\nPanchala (Pancala), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nPanchali (Pancali),\n\nPandava (Pandava), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nPandu (Pandu), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\n, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nPandya (Pandya), , ,\n\nParagon, , , ,\n\nParashu\u00b7rama (Parasurama),\n\nparasol, , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nbroken,\n\nwhite, , ,\n\nparentage\n\nroyal,\n\nPartha (Partha), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\npassion, , , , ,\n\nhuman,\n\nlawless,\n\nPatacchara\u00b7hantri (Pataccaraha-  \nntr), ,\n\nPaundra (Paundra), , ,\n\nPaurava (Paurava), , ,\n\npeace, , , , , , , , ,\n\npenance, ,\n\npennant,\n\nPhalguni (Phalguni), , ,\n\npiety,\n\nPishacha (Pisaca),\n\nPitha (Pitha),\n\n464\nindex\n\npity, , ,\n\npoison,\n\nportent,\n\nPrabahu (Prabahu),\n\nPrabhadraka (Prabhadraka),\n\nPradyumna (Pradyumna), ,\n\nPrag\u00b7jyotisha (Pragjyotisa), , , , , , , , , ,\n\nPrasthala (Prasthala),\n\nPratardana (Pratardana),\n\nPrativindhya (Prativindhya), ,\n\npride, , ,\n\nwounded,\n\npriest, , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nancient,\n\nhigh,\n\nprince, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nserpent,\n\nyoung,\n\nprincess, ,\n\nPrishata (Prsata), , , , , , ,\n\nof (Parsata),\n\nprisoner, ,\n\nPritha (Prtha), , , , , ,\n\nPrithu (Prthu), , ,\n\npromise, , , , , , ,\n\nbroken, , ,\n\nPulastya (Pulastya),\n\nPuloman (Puloman),\n\nPundarikaksha (Pundarikaksa),\n\npupil,\n\npurity, ,\n\nPurujit (Purujit), ,\n\npyre, , ,\n\nquiver, , , , , , , , , ,\n\nRadha (Radha), , , , , , , , ,\n\nrage, , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nRahu (Rahu),\n\nrain\n\nbloody,\n\nRaja\u00b7pura (Rajapura),\n\nRama (Rama), , , , , ,\n\nRatha\u00b7sena (Rathasena),\n\nRaudra (Raudra),\n\nRavana (Ravana),\n\nreckoning\n\nbloody,\n\nregent,\n\nof the earth, , ,\n\nRiksha\u00b7deva (Rksadeva),\n\nrite, , , , , , ,\n\nlast,\n\nriver, , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\ncool,\n\n465\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\ndried,\n\nof death,\n\nrivers\n\nfive,\n\nRochamana (Rochamana), ,\n\nRohini (Rohini),\n\nRuchi\u00b7parvan (Ruciparvan), ,\n\nRudra (Rudra), , , , , ,\n\nRukma\u00b7ratha (Rukmaratha), , , , , , ,\n\nRukmin (Rukmin),\n\nsacrifice,\n\nhorse,\n\nsacrificer,\n\nsage, , , , , , , , , ,\n\nof war,\n\nSaha\u00b7deva (Sahadeva), , , , , , , , ,\n\nSaindhava (Saindhava), , , ,\n\nSamba (Samba),\n\nSamika (Samika),\n\nSamudra\u00b7sena (Samudrasena), 203\n\nSanjaya (Samjaya), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nSarana (Sarana),\n\nSarayu (Sarayu),\n\nSatvata (Satvata), ,\n\nSatya\u00b7dharman (Satyadharman),\n\nSatya\u00b7dhriti (Satyadhrti),\n\nSatyajit (Satyajit), , , ,\n\nSatya\u00b7karman (Satyakarman),\n\nSatyaki (Satyaki), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nSatya\u00b7ratha (Satyaratha), ,\n\nSatyavati (Satyavati),\n\nSatya\u00b7vrata (Satyavrata),\n\nSatyeshu (Satyesu),\n\nSaubala (Saubala), , , ,\n\nSaubha (Saubha),\n\nSaubhadra (Saubhadra), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nSauchitti (Saucitti),\n\nSaumadatti (Saumadatti), ,\n\nSauvira (Sauvira), ,\n\nscripture, , ,\n\nsea, ,\n\nseason,\n\ncold,\n\nhot, ,\n\nmating,\n\nseer, , , , , , , , , ,\n\n466\nindex\n\ndivine,\n\nSena\u00b7bindu (Senabindu), ,\n\nserpent, , , , , , , ,\n\nfiveheaded,\n\nshaft, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nbarbed,\n\nbroad,\n\ngolden,\n\nhalfmoon,\n\nhooked,\n\niron, , , ,\n\nmetal,\n\nof a spear,\n\nspearheaded,\n\nspearlike, ,\n\nwinged,\n\nyellow,\n\nShaibya (Saibya),\n\nShaineya (Saineya), ,\n\nShaka (Saka), , ,\n\nShakra (Sakra), , ,\n\nShakuna (Sakuna),\n\nShakuni (Sakuni), , , , , , , ,\n\nShala (Sala), ,\n\nShalva (Salva), ,\n\nShalya (Salya), , , , ,\n\n, , , , , , , , , ,\n\nShambara (Sambara),\n\nShantanu (Samtanu), , , , , ,\n\nSharadvat (Saradvat), , ,\n\nShatanika (Satanika), , , ,\n\nShatrun\u00b7jaya (Satrunjaya), ,\n\nShauri (Sauri),\n\nShibi (Shibi), , , , ,\n\nshield, , , , , , , , , ,\n\ndecorated,\n\ngleaming,\n\niron,\n\nShikhandin (Sikhandin), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nShini (Sini), , , , ,\n\nship, , , ,\n\nrudderless,\n\nShishu\u00b7pala (Sisupala), ,\n\nShrenimat (Srenimat),\n\nShruta\u00b7karman (Srutakarman), ,\n\nShruta\u00b7kirti (Srutakirti), ,\n\nShudra (Sudra),\n\nShukla (Sukla),\n\nShura\u00b7sena (Surasena), ,\n\nSindhu (Sindhu), , , , , , , , , , ,\n\n467\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\n, , ,\n\nSinhala (Simhala),\n\nSinha\u00b7sena (Simhasena) , ,\n\nsister, , ,\n\nmother's,\n\nSkanda (Skanda), , , , ,\n\nsky, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nautumn,\n\ndark,\n\nnight,\n\norb of the,\n\nquarters of the, , ,\n\nstarless,\n\nstarry,\n\nsnake, , , , , , , , , ,\n\nwater-,\n\nsoldier, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nfoot-, , ,\n\nSoma (Soma), ,\n\nSoma\u00b7datta (Somadatta), , , ,\n\nson, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\n, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nof a cowherd,\n\nof Danu,\n\nson-in-law,\n\nsorrow, , , , , , , , ,\n\nocean of,\n\nsoul, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nspear, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nspell,\n\nspies,\n\nspirits, , ,\n\nof death and darkness,\n\nof heaven,\n\nof the air,\n\nof the dead,\n\nsplendor,\n\nSrinjaya (Srnjaya), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nstallion, , , , ,\n\nstandard, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\n468\nindex\n\nfallen,\n\nruined,\n\nstars,\n\nsteed, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nblue,\n\ndotted,\n\nfaithful,\n\nfine, ,\n\ngentle,\n\nnoble, ,\n\npale,\n\nsilver,\n\nSindhu, ,\n\nswift, , , , ,\n\nturtledovecolored,\n\nversicolored, ,\n\nwelltrained,\n\nwhite,\n\nstrategy,\n\nstruggle\n\nbloody, ,\n\nSubahu (Subahu), ,\n\nSubala (Subala), , , ,\n\nSubhadra (Subhadra), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nSudakshina (Sudaksina), , ,\n\nSudaman (Sudaman),\n\nSudarshana (Sudarsana),\n\nSudhanus (Sudhanus), ,\n\nSudhanvan (Sudhanvan),\n\nSudharman (Sudharman),\n\nSukshatra (Sussatra),\n\nSumitra (Sumitra),\n\nsun, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\narrow of the,\n\nautumnal,\n\nmidday,\n\npath of the,\n\nrays of the, , , , , , , ,\n\nrising, , ,\n\ntrack of the,\n\nSunaman (Sunaman),\n\nSuratha (Suratha),\n\nSurya\u00b7bhasa (Suryabhasa),\n\nSusharman (Susarman), , , , ,\n\nSushena (Susena),\n\nSuta\u00b7putra (Sutaputra),\n\nSuta\u00b7soma (Sutasoma), ,\n\nSuvarchas (Suvarcas), ,\n\nSuyodhana (Suyodhana),\n\nsword, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\n469\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\n, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nteacher, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nTeacher, , ,\n\ntears, , , , , , , ,\n\nthrone, , , ,\n\nclaim to the,\n\ninheritor to the,\n\ntiger, , , , , ,\n\ntime, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nof battle,\n\npast and present,\n\nthe end of, , , ,\n\nthe fire of,\n\nthe passage of,\n\nthe turning wheel of,\n\nto come,\n\nwasting, , ,\n\ntimes\n\nolden, ,\n\ntreachery,\n\ntree, , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nbayur,\n\ncoral,\n\ndead,\n\ndry,\n\nfelled,\n\npalm,\n\nrain,\n\nsacred,\n\ntrickery,\n\ntrident, ,\n\nTri\u00b7garta (Trigarta), , , , , , , , , ,\n\nTri\u00b7garta (Trigarta), , , ,\n\ntriumph, , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\ntrumpet, , , , ,\n\ntruth, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nlover of,\n\nTry\u00b7ambaka (Tryambaka),\n\nTumburu (Tumburu),\n\nTundikera (Tundikera),\n\nTvashtri (Tvastr),\n\nUcchaih\u00b7shravas (Uccaihsravas),\n\nUdayendu (Udayendu),\n\nUgra\u00b7shravas (Ugrasravas),\n\nUlmuka (Ulmuka),\n\nunderworld,\n\nUshanas (Usanas), ,\n\nUshi\u00b7nara (Usinara),\n\nUtkala (Utkala),\n\nUttamaujas (Uttamaujas),  , , , , ,\n\nVaishampayana (Vaisampayana),\n\nVaishnava (Vaisnava),\n\n470\nindex\n\nVaishvanara (Vaisvanara),\n\nVaitarani (Vaitarani),\n\nVaivasvata (Vaivasvata),\n\nvalor, , , ,\n\nVanayu (Vanayu),\n\nVanga (Vanga), ,\n\nVaranasi (Varanasi),\n\nVaranavata (Varanavata),\n\nVarddhakshemi (Varddhasemi), , ,\n\nVarshneya (Vasneya),\n\nVaruna (Varuna),\n\nVasatiya (Vasatiya), ,\n\nVasishtha (Vasistha),\n\nvassal, ,\n\nVasu (Vasu), , ,\n\nVasu\u00b7dana (Vasudana), , ,\n\nVasu\u00b7deva (Vasudeva), , , , , , ,\n\nVasudeva (Vasudeva), , , , ,\n\nVata\u00b7dhana (Vatadhana),\n\nVatsyas (Vatsya),\n\nVayavya (Vayavya),\n\nVayu (Vayu), , ,\n\nVeda (Veda), , , , , ,\n\nVetasaka (Vetasaka),\n\nvictory, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\ndreams of,\n\ndrums of,\n\nhope of,\n\nthrill of,\n\nVideha (Videha),\n\nVidura (Vidura),\n\nVidura (Vidura), ,\n\nVidu\u00b7ratha (Viduratha),\n\nVijaya (Vijaya),\n\nVikarna (Vikarna), , ,\n\nVipata (Vipata),\n\nViprithu (Viprthu),\n\nVirata (Virata), , , , , , , , , ,\n\nVirochana (Virocana), ,\n\nvirtue, , , , , , , ,\n\nVrisha\u00b7sena (Vrsasena), , , , ,\n\nVishnu (Visnu), , , , , , , , , ,\n\nVishvak\u00b7sena (Visvaksena),\n\nVivinshati (Vivimsati) , , , , ,\n\nvow, , , , ,\n\nsacred,\n\nstrict,\n\nVriddha\u00b7kshatra (Vrddhaksatra) ,\n\nVriddha\u00b7kshema (Vrddhaksemi),\n\nVrika (Vrka),\n\nVrikodara (Vrkodara), , , , , , , , ,\n\nVrindaraka (Vrndaraka), ,\n\nVrisha (Vrsa),\n\nVrishaka (Vrsaka),\n\nVrishni (Vrsni), , , ,\n\nVritra (Vrtra), ,\n\n471\nmaha\u00b7bharata vii \u2013 drona i\n\nvulture, , , ,\n\nVyaghra\u00b7datta (Vyaghradatta), ,\n\nVyasa (Vyasa), , ,\n\nwar, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nart of, , , , ,\n\nbloody,\n\ncelestial,\n\ndance of,\n\ndelirium of,\n\ndrums of,\n\nexperience in,\n\nfeat of,\n\nfrenzy of,\n\nglory of,\n\nwisdom in,\n\nwarrior, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\n, , , , , , , , , ,\n\nchariot-,\n\nDiademed, , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nof the Golden Chariot, ,\n\nof the Red Stars, , ,\n\nredarmored,\n\nwaters\n\nbloody,\n\nweapon, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nbroken,\n\nheavenly, , , , ,\n\nJyotishka,\n\nof Fire,\n\nof the fire,\n\nof Vishnu,\n\nshattered,\n\ntruth as,\n\nTvashtri,\n\nVayavya,\n\nwheelguard, , ,\n\nwisdom, , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nwolf, , , ,\n\nworld, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nbeings of the,\n\n472\nindex\n\nfather of the,\n\nguardian of the, ,\n\nhuman,\n\nliving, , ,\n\nlord of the,\n\nof the dead, ,\n\nof the living,\n\nof the Maha\u00b7bharata,\n\nprotection of the,\n\ntriple, ,\n\nworlds, ,\n\nmaster of all,\n\nthree, , , ,\n\nwrath, , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nwreath, , ,\n\nYadava (Yadava),\n\nYajnya\u00b7sena (Yajnasena), , ,\n\nYama (Yama), , , , , , , ,\n\nYamuna (Yamuna), ,\n\nYamya (Yamya),\n\nYatsena (Yatsena),\n\nYaudheya (Yaudheya),\n\nYavana (Yavana), , ,\n\nYudha\u00b7manyu (Yudhamanyu), , , ,\n\nYudhi\u00b7shthira (Yudhsthira), , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\n, , , , , , , , , , , , , ,\n\nYugan\u00b7dhara (Yugamdhara),\n\nYuyudhana (Yuyudhana), , ,\n\nYuyutsu (Yuyutsu), , , , ,\n\n473\n\n## Table of Contents\n\n  1. Cover\n  2. Title\n  3. Copyright\n  4. Contents\n  5. Sanskrit alphabetical order\n  6. CSL conventions\n  7. MAHA.BHARATA VII - DRONA I\n  8. Introduction\n  9. 1-15: The Anointing of Drona\n  10. 16-32: The Death of the Beholden\n  11. 33-54: The Death of Abhimanyu\n  12. Notes\n  13. Proper Names and Epithets\n  14. Index\n\n## Guide\n\n  1. Cover\n  2. Title\n  3. Copyright\n  4. Contents\n  5. MAHA.BHARATA VII - DRONA I\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
+{"text":"\n\nCONTENTS\n\nDedication\n\nAcknowledgments\n\nChapter 1 Shadows of the Batavia\n\nChapter 2 The Missing Man March\n\nChapter 3 The Stacks\n\nChapter 4 The Billboard Psychic\n\nChapter 5 Keepsakes and Memories\n\nChapter 6 On Disbelief\n\nChapter 7 Beatriz\n\nChapter 8 The Pretty Little Girl in the Purple Pajamas\n\nChapter 9 On Kutji\n\nChapter 10 Austin\n\nChapter 11 On Genius Loci\n\nChapter 12 Back to the Cursed and the Damned\n\nChapter 13 Business\n\nChapter 14 Orobas and Amy\n\nChapter 15 The Seventy-two\n\nChapter 16 A Field of Bad Choices\n\nChapter 17 City of the Damned\n\nChapter 18 Hair of the Dog\n\nChapter 19 Dreamtime and the Land of Dreams\n\nChapter 20 The Cleverest Man in Arnhem Land\n\nChapter 21 The Clever Men\n\nChapter 22 Rocks and Throwing Stars\n\nChapter 23 On Djang\n\nChapter 24 Fishing\n\nChapter 25 The Rum Thief\n\nChapter 26 Night of the Bunyip\n\nChapter 27 A Break in the Siege\n\nChapter 28 The Orphan Story\n\nChapter 29 Beside Herself\n\nChapter 30 Cut the Cord\n\nChapter 31 The Other Side of the Tree\n\nChapter 32 The Night the Demons Came\n\nChapter 33 Four Men Singing in a Truck\n\nChapter 34 Songlines\n\nChapter 35 The Swamps Just South of Arnhem\n\nChapter 36 Queen of the Dark Things\n\nChapter 37 The She-devils of Nanmamnrootmee\n\nChapter 38 The Hell Outside\n\nChapter 39 The Gwyllion Over the Hill\n\nChapter 40 The Duke at the Foot of a Rock\n\nChapter 41 The Five Dukes of the Batavia\n\nChapter 42 Solomon the Wanderer\n\nChapter 43 The Favor of Orobas\n\nChapter 44 The Angel on Horseback\n\nChapter 45 The Leopard\n\nChapter 46 Meatpuppet\n\nChapter 47 The Second Pressed into Service\n\nChapter 48 The Stale Room and the Grave at the Edge of the World\n\nChapter 49 The Fool's Gambit\n\nChapter 50 Dreamspeaker\n\nChapter 51 As Shadows Fade\n\nChapter 52 Winter of Discontent\n\nChapter 53 The Pageantry of Queens\n\nChapter 54 The Bearded Hunter\n\nChapter 55 The Master of the Parade\n\nChapter 56 The Weight of Things\n\nChapter 57 The Snakehandler\n\nChapter 58 High Moon\n\nChapter 59 With This Ring\n\nChapter 60 The Burden of Solomon\n\nEpilogue\n\nAbout the Author\n\nAlso by C. Robert Cargill\n\nCredits\n\nCopyright\n\nAbout the Publisher\nDEDICATION\n\nFOR JESSICA,\n\nBUT THEN, THEY'RE ALL FOR JESSICA\nACKNOWLEDGMENTS\n\nMy editor, Diana Gill, once told me that the second book is the hardest of them all to write. She wasn't lying. The book you hold in your hands now comes after the longest, hardest literary slog of my life. It isn't the book I set out to write, but it is the book I wanted to write all along. And it couldn't have fought its way to you without the efforts and support of a number of amazing people. Everyone should be so lucky as to be surrounded by the likes of these, each of whom I would like to thank now.\n\nFirst and foremost, I have to thank Diana, whose near psychic ability to steer me in the right direction without directly telling me where to go continues to mystify me. She is my Mandu. And I never would have found this book without her. She also knows how to find the very best food in the world, regardless of what city she finds herself in. So trust her on that if you ever get the opportunity. And, of course, I have to thank Simon Spanton, my Diana across the pond. His passion for the written word and his faith in me always give me something to aspire to when I find myself on the darkest, toughest nights. I've said that before, but it bears repeating.\n\nThanks to my tireless publicist, Jessie Edwards, who I learned, only hours before this writing, fought for the chance to work on my books. That requires a level of thanks that I do not yet quite have the words to express. Her patience and devotion to answering e-mails within minutes helped guide this first-time author through the terrifying trial of a first release and book tour. And to the Weirwolf Jon Weir, who did the same for me with gleeful abandon overseas. Thanks to the outstanding team at Voyager: Kelly O'Connor, Shawn Nicholls, Dana Trombley, et al. And with equal measure thanks to the team at Gollancz: Sinem Erkas, Charlie Panayiotou, Jenn McMenemy, and all the rest. All of you folks make this more fun than it has any right to be.\n\nThanks and much love to my agent, Peter McGuigan, who continues to be a rock star, doing things that you think only half-crazed, angry agents can do, but with swagger and a genuine smile that earns the trust he so richly deserves. He's the real deal. As are Kirsten Neuhaus and the amazing team at Foundry. Thanks to my manager, David McIlvain, whose voice guides me through the hardest decisions, but who always seems to call with good news. He was the first person in my career who believed in me before he really knew me, and I'll never, ever forget that. And, of course, his confidant, Mac Dewey, another early believer.\n\nThanks to my readers: Jason Murphy, Rod Paddock, Will Goss, Paul Gandersman, Peter S. Hall, Luke Mullen, and Brian Salisbury. The value of your brutal honesty is matched only by the warmth of your friendship. I love you guys. So drinks. Friday. Salisbury and Mullen's house. I'll bring the scotch.\n\nThanks to Lee Zachariah, my man from Oz, who helped with the lingo and the research on the little bits that were vital to get just right. Thanks to all my friends in the industry, too numerous to name, who have ever sat me down, gifted me with advice, shown me the ropes, and tweeted or talked about my work. You know who you are. Thanks to Tim and Karrie League and the staff of the Alamo Drafthouse who not only supported my book and movie but have also provided the venue for many of the greatest nights of my life. And thanks to my partner in crime, Scott Derrickson. He makes me a better writer every day. The world has yet to see the full extent of his talent. But it will. It will.\n\nThanks to my wife, my life, my breath\u2014Jessica. She believes even when I no longer have the strength to. Every love story I write is really all about her. And for good reason. She is everything.\n\nThanks to everyone who came out for my first tour, who bought the book sight unseen, or who followed me from my previous endeavors. Thanks to those amazing people who have approached me at signings with copies of the book they bought after having borrowed it first from a library or on loan from a friend. Thanks to everyone who reviewed, tweeted, or blogged about it, and especially to the booksellers who put it in the hands of their customers with an eager gleam in their eyes. All of you make my heart swell with joy with every kind word you share.\n\nAnd you. Yes, you. This is a second book. If you're reading this, then odds are good that you read the first one. Taking a chance on a first-time author is a grand thing, particularly to the author. But giving them a second chance is something else altogether. You are the people this book was written for. So thank you. I hope I don't (or didn't) let you down.\n\nAnd lastly, thanks to Deputy So-and-So of the local police department, whose research made this book possible.\nCHAPTER 1\n\nSHADOWS OF THE BATAVIA\n\nOCTOBER 2, 1629\n\nJeronimus Cornelisz didn't believe in the Devil, but the Devil sure as hell believed in him.\n\nHow he, an apothecary by trade, found himself working as an undermerchant aboard the Batavia in the first place was something he cared not to discuss. It was a tale of woe involving a dead child, bankruptcy, and the jailing of a close confidant whose radical ideas had taken root in a few too many prominent hearts. But Jeronimus did talk. A lot. He was of fair complexion, with dark hair and darker eyes that, coupled with his charisma, made it hard to break loose of his gaze. So when he talked, you listened, whether you cared for what he had to say or not.\n\n\"God does not mock us,\" he said, staring off into the crystal blue sheen of the sea. The sun was high, the sand warm across the top of his feet as he and six of his fellow sailors shuffled across the beach. The seabirds cawed in the air around him, the waves lapping the shore. It was as beautiful a day as ever there was. He nodded, squinting in the sun. \"He smiles upon us. Loves us. Wants us to be happy. He demands not servitude, but experience. Gifts us with urges. Rewards us with pleasure. Satisfaction. Wholeness. Why is it that a man feels no ecstasy when he prays? There, on his knees, in congress with his maker, he feels nothing but what he pretends to. But a man on his knees, in congress with a woman, feels more alive than ever. Every inch of his body sizzles with joy, and when he explodes, he becomes one with the whole. In that moment, and only that moment, a man knows absolute peace, free of want, free of fear.\n\n\"All the things that bring us ecstasy are banned, held captive by the new Pharisees. They put their pope on a throne of gold and silver and let him rework both history and the word that was passed down to us through their lips. And the lips of those before them. And of those before them. And the longer the word of God stays on earth, the longer it is corrupted to justify the illusion. Make no mistake. They hold hostage everything we hold dear to maintain their own control of it. Even the pope has his whores.\" He turned to look at his burly shipmate, shuffling close behind him in the sand. \"Have you ever fucked a whore proper, son?\" he asked him.\n\n\"What?\" asked the man, looking up from the ground.\n\n\"A whore, son. A whore. Have you ever dropped a few guilders in the cup of one after dropping a few in her box?\"\n\nThe man grunted, nodding, as if it was a stupid question. He was a sailor. Of course he'd been with his fair share of whores.\n\n\"When she shined your knob, who did it hurt? No one. That's the Lord's work. Pleasure for one, rent and food for another. Why would He condemn us to Hell for that? The Pharisees tell us that a roll with a lady is all it takes to burn forever in a lake of fire. But if the Lord has a plan for us, really has a plan for us all, why would He plan for us to go to Hell? To burn. To suffer. What God would do that? Not one who loves us. One who loves us has created an afterlife, a place where we are free from pain, free from suffering, and only know the orgiastic joy of blissful wholeness.\"\n\n\"So you're saying there ain't no Hell?\" asked another sailor, following a little farther back.\n\n\"I'm saying that not only is there no Hell, but no Devil. He's a ghost story meant to keep the finer things in life under lock and key in our captain's, our captor's, bedchamber. God wants only for us to do what makes us happy. He sorts out the rest.\"\n\nThe second sailor spoke up again, this time leaning closer. \"You're saying it's okay to kill?\"\n\n\"Why wouldn't it be? Killing someone only sends them to the great reward, right? And taking from someone only encourages them to take for themselves. Have you ever looked closely at the Ten Commandments?\"\n\nA third sailor spoke up. \"There are no Ten Commandments south of the equator. Every sailor knows that.\" He laughed, though no one laughed with him.\n\n\"But do you know them?\" asked Jeronimus of the third sailor, unfazed.\n\n\"I know them,\" said the sailor, soberly. \"By heart.\"\n\n\"We all do. But have you ever thought about them? The man in charge goes up a mountain and comes back down with ten rules that keep him and his rich friends rich and in charge. Do not steal, do not murder, obey your elders, do not covet their wives\u2014of which they had many\u2014do not speak ill of the Lord who passed down these laws nor dare to question or speak for Him, worship no other god who might make other laws. These aren't rules to keep us free, they are rules telling you to know your place and take only what the rich deign to give to you. These are not the laws of God, they are the laws of man designed only to rule over other men. God wants us to be happy. God wants us to take what we want. God wants us to rule for ourselves. The only way to truly be free is to free yourself of your own conscience.\"\n\n\"That's easy to say now,\" said the soldier farthest in back. \"But let's see what you say in a few moments' time.\"\n\nJeronimus smiled wide, his teeth speckled with bird guts, several chipped or missing from a few too many beatings. \"Aye,\" he said. \"More to the point, in a few moments' time, we'll see just how right I am after all.\"\n\nThe seven looked out together over the island\u2014a flat, mile-wide coral sand wasteland, no more than three feet above sea level, devoid of bush or tree, surrounded by the Indian Ocean, its only markers three shoddy wooden gallows, constructed from the skeleton of the Batavia, which itself was wrecked and battered to pieces by the tide a scant half mile away. Beside the closest gallows was a barrel, and beside that a box on which sat Wiebbe Hayes, captain of the guard, his chin held high, a sly, proud smile on his lips, hammer and chisel in his hands. Behind him stood Fleet Commander Francisco Palsaert\u2014a boorish, sweaty gnome of a Dutch East India Trading Company man who rubbed his fat little fingers together, grinning like a child molester.\n\n\"Cornelisz,\" he said. \"You're up.\"\n\nJeronimus knelt before the barrel, placing his left hand atop it, eyes cold and expressionless. \"I'll be back for these later,\" he said to Hayes.\n\nHayes nodded, placing the chisel squarely on Jeronimus's wrist. \"Jeronimus Cornelisz, you have been tried and convicted of mutiny, complicit in the deaths of one hundred and twenty souls. Your guilt is not in doubt. Have you anything to say before your sentence is carried out?\"\n\n\"Yes. Had fortune favored me just a little more, it would be your hand up on this barrel, Hayes. Not mine.\"\n\nHayes nodded knowingly. \"Though I doubt you would have granted me the courtesy of the barrel.\"\n\nJeronimus flashed the hint of a smile, concealing it as quickly as it came. \"You're probably right.\"\n\nHayes brought the hammer down.\n\nJeronimus neither winced nor cried out as the chisel severed his hand from his arm; he didn't even blink. He simply stared into the soldier's eyes as he removed his gushing stump from the barrel, placing his right hand directly atop the dismembered left.\n\n\"Remove the hand,\" ordered Palsaert.\n\n\"No,\" said Jeronimus flatly. \"They're a set. They stay together.\"\n\nThe hammer came down again, separating the second hand, Jeronimus once again making nary a sound.\n\nA soldier grabbed him by his armpits, hoisting him back to his feet, and then led him to the gallows where a crudely assembled ladder awaited him. Jeronimus climbed up, step by step, the ladder creaking beneath him, bowing his head for the executioner to slip the noose around his neck. Palsaert stepped forward, boisterously offering a morsel of civility. \"May God have mercy on your soul.\"\n\nJeronimus looked up, smiling, blood spurting from two dismembered stumps. \"He already has.\"\n\nThe executioner kicked the ladder out from under him. The mutineer dropped less than a yard; not quite far enough to kill him, just far enough to tighten the rope. There he spun, slowly choking, head swelling up like a cherry tomato, his toes stretching, scraping barely, cruelly, at the sand inches beneath his heel.\n\nThen, one by one, Hayes took the right hand of each of the remaining sailors before he was led to his own noose, to spin and choke slowly in the sun. Each spat a curse at Jeronimus before his own ladder was kicked out from under him, and while no one would ever speak or write of it in their accounts, many thought to themselves that day that they saw Jeronimus smile each time they did, even as the life was slowly choking out of him.\n\nAnd once the last man had been hung and the life finally drained from his body, Palsaert, Hayes, and the remaining soldiers each made their way to the boats one by one, leaving the conspirators behind to rot where they died.\n\nOn the shore, sitting in a boat of their own, Wouter Looes and Jan Pelgrom de Bye waited in chains, their hands cuffed to their feet. Looes was a grizzled sea dog covered in scars, a willing mutineer and right-hand man to Jeronimus; Pelgrom was a thin, blond, eighteen-year-old cabin boy who had only committed one murder\u2014and that under duress. While each of the other mutineers had lied about their involvement or intent in the mutiny, these two fell upon their knees before the seaside court and begged its mercy. Palsaert granted it, though the extent of his mercy was questionable.\n\n\"You see the fate you escaped?\" asked Palsaert of his captives.\n\nBoth men nodded silently.\n\n\"Let those images fester, gentlemen. For while your fate is in your hands, know that no manner of death could be as awful as that.\" He turned to Hayes. \"Unshackle them.\" As Hayes did, Palsaert raised a stiff arm to the horizon and continued to speak. \"Eighty-odd kilometers from here is a land filled with monsters and savages. No civilized man has settled it. Maybe you'll make it; maybe you won't. Your lives are your own now. The only thing I promise you is that if I ever see your faces again, I will have you hanged before the sun sets on that day. Good-bye, gentlemen. May God have mercy on your souls.\"\n\nHe motioned to Hayes who gave the boat a good, swift kick into the water. Looes and Pelgrom immediately set to rowing, knowing that what little food and water Palsaert's meager mercy had granted them would be gone before they saw anything resembling land. It would take only minutes for their small craft to vanish into the horizon and their names into legend.\n\nAnd once they were gone, Palsaert gave the order and the last remnants of the crew of the Batavia set back out for Java, never to set eyes on these islands again.\n\nTHE HANDLESS SHADOWS hung long in the noonday sun, lifeless as their bodies, slightly twitching, swaying in the breeze. Slowly, as the boats sailed away, the shadows' twitches became more pronounced. And then they became movements. And the movements became dancing. And finally the shadows wrestled away from their bodies, loosed from the moorings of their mortal shells, free to roam and stand up on their own, no longer bound to the flat of the ground. They stood up, square faced, boxy, and malformed, racing for the nearest pools of shadow before the sun could strike them down.\n\nThey hid in the dark of the barrel and of the rocks and of the shadows of the posts that held up the gallows. There they waited, watching as their old bodies swayed, shadowless, birds swarming to pick them apart, tearing out their innards, pecking out their eyes. And once the day had run its course and the sun had sunk slowly behind the sea, and the boats had all sailed far, far away, the shadows crept out into the night looking for their hands. But they were nowhere to be found, having been carried off hours before by the birds.\n\nDisappointed, with the moon rising on the water, the shadows turned into crows\u2014their feathers formed from darkness, their eyes a shiny black\u2014flapping off beneath the stars toward an island thousands of miles away. Java.\n\nARIAEN JACOBSZ WAS strong. He'd endured torture, threats, and all manner of inquiry. And as a captain and skipper of the Batavia, it would take more than the accusations of known mutineers, murderers, and thieves to have him executed. The company needed him to confess. It was the last privilege his station would afford him. Jacobsz would never give them the satisfaction. No matter how guilty he truly was.\n\nHis cell was small and windowless, stuffy with the sweat of tropical air and body odor. No torches were lit this low beneath the castle, the dungeon always as black as night could get, even when the sun was highest in the sky. It was a miserable hole deep in the earth, but it was a damn sight better than hanging handless in the sands of an island with no name.\n\n\"Jaaaaacobszzzz,\" said a whisper outside his cell, waking him from a shallow sleep.\n\n\"Keep it quiet out there,\" he called out to his fellow cell mates farther down the hall. \"I'm trying to sleep.\"\n\n\"Jaaaaacobszzzz.\"\n\n\"What is it?\"\n\n\"We had a deal,\" said a voice from behind him.\n\nJacobsz turned around, looking for its source. \"What?\" Then he heard shuffling from all sides. He wasn't alone, but as dark as it was, he couldn't make out anyone, or anything. \"Who is it?\"\n\n\"Yourrrrrrr crewwwwwwww.\"\n\nHands grabbed him from the darkness, clawing his flesh, dragging him backward, choking him. Then, in unison, they heaved him, and he felt the dry, chafing burn of a rope coiling tightly around his neck.\n\n\"No! Not like this!\" he cried. \"Not like this!\"\n\n\"Exactly like this,\" said Jeronimus, now a misshapen shadow of what he was. \"Take his hand, boys! And spare him the courtesy of a barrel.\"\n\nThe next morning his jailers would find him hanged from the ceiling, his right hand severed and missing. The cell was locked when they found it, and the guards swore that no one came or left in the night. No report was made and, since Jacobsz had no kin anyway, no one was ever notified about the mysterious death. And with so many of the conspirators spread out, already serving on new ships or condemned to different prisons in the region, no one took notice of just how many times this manner of death would repeat itself for an untold number of the mutineers of the Batavia.\nCHAPTER 2\n\nTHE MISSING MAN MARCH\n\nAN EXCERPT FROM THE AUSTIN CHRONICLE BY MARTIN MACK\n\nThe air was thick, muggy, and dank with downtown sweat. If you were paying attention, you could feel something in the air. But like a sudden summer storm, few saw it coming until it was pouring down around them. That night, in a cramped, seedy little bar on Sixth Street, a rock god came out and greeted the audience with the deafening strum of his guitar. And now, six months later, a hundred thousand hipsters all claim to have stood among a couple of hundred.\n\nIt was an odd crowd, a smorgasbord of the Austin music and critical elite mingling among friends, family, and fans of the other bands. Scenesters and tastemakers tripped over one another at the bar. I even saw Cassidy Crane nodding along in back.\n\nI'll admit, I wasn't expecting much. I'd seen Limestone Kingdom several times before and they were terrible. Thoroughly mediocre twaddle starving on the outskirts of a rock apocalypse. But they had an in with the manager, opening often for far better bands. So when Ewan Bradford stepped out onstage, I rolled my eyes and ordered another beer. It was going to be a long night.\n\nOr so I thought.\n\nThat first chord rattled my bones, resonating in my gut. And then Limestone Kingdom exploded, playing what would become the anthem for an entire city.\n\nYou've seen the videos online. You've listened to the hastily recorded tracks. You know what I'm talking about. Sort of. You know how good the music is, but even words fail to capture just how captivating Bradford was. You couldn't take your eyes off him. I must have seen that guy sling ice as a barback dozens of times, but that night was the first time I really saw him for what he was.\n\nA rock god.\n\nBut that was it, the last we'd ever hear from him.\n\nThere would be rumors of a fight. Blood on a brick wall that police found to be \"inconclusive.\" Talk of a girl\u2014whom no two people could even agree as to what she looked like\u2014walking him out of the club. But no clues. No real leads. Ewan Bradford walked off that stage never to be seen again. His band members haven't heard from him, and the label that later signed them (with Bradford in absentia) has a standing reward for information leading to his whereabouts. But at the end of the day, all we have are sightings of guys who look like Bradford, or sound like Bradford, but none of whom can actually sing like Bradford.\n\nHe's out there somewhere. And I think he's alive. I think this is the biggest viral campaign in the history of rock music, playing out in blogs and alt weeklies the world over. Ewan Bradford is out there, smiling, laughing, checking as the hit counts climb on every video his fans post.\n\nThe real question is: will he ever show his face again?\nCHAPTER 3\n\nTHE STACKS\n\nMartin Mack was the consummate rock writer. Though small in stature, he carried himself as if he were the tallest person in the room. He wore leather jackets over black, faded rock tour T-shirts from bands few had heard of, above jeans that were always five minutes ahead of the latest style. His head was shaved close and had been for as long as anyone could remember. No one knew exactly how old he was, but he was old enough to have been around and young enough that he still was. He knew all of the underground, backroom secret spots there were in Austin, which meant he also knew how to find Puckett's Stacks, which is exactly where he found Colby Stevens.\n\nColby looked up as he entered, at first unaware of who he was. \"Can I help you?\" he asked. Colby looked grizzled, tired, a world-weary twenty-two going on forty-five. His red hair grew out in long shaggy tufts, longer than he liked it, but not long enough to remind him to bother getting it cut. His gaunt face and sunken eyes oversaw a field of red-brown stubble, almost thick enough to distract from his pointy chin. But it was his expression that was the most damning thing about him. Sullen, beaten, like a tool worn all the way down. He had the look of a man who just didn't give a shit anymore.\n\nFortunately for him, most people took that as a sign that he'd simply worked in retail a little too long.\n\nMartin smiled, speaking with a soft, friendly tone. \"Yes, yes you can. I'm looking for someone. Colby Stevens.\"\n\nColby froze for a second. People didn't come looking for him. Things, yes; people, never. \"I'm Colby,\" he said, cautiously.\n\n\"Of course you are. I'm with the Austin Chronicle.\"\n\nColby nodded, now recognizing him. \"You're Martin Mack.\"\n\n\"You know my stuff.\"\n\n\"Only your recent work.\"\n\n\"Then you know why I'm here.\"\n\n\"I have an idea. I know what you're writing about, but not why you would want to talk to me.\"\n\n\"You were one of Ewan's friends.\"\n\nColby nodded. \"Yeah, so you'll understand if I'd rather not talk about him.\"\n\n\"People want to read about him.\"\n\n\"No. People want to listen to his music. The only reason they keep reading about him is because you've convinced them he's faked his own death.\"\n\n\"You don't think he did?\"\n\n\"Man, how would I know?\"\n\n\"Because,\" said Martin, \"you were the only person outside the band who appears to have spent any time with him.\"\n\n\"Aside from his girlfriend, you mean.\"\n\n\"Nora.\"\n\n\"That's the one.\"\n\n\"Did you know her?\"\n\n\"No. She was a well-kept secret.\" Colby slipped a book off the shelf, a tattered, dog-eared copy of Hunter S. Thompson's Hell's Angels with a crippled spine and no dustcover. He held it up as if it were what Mack had come looking for.\n\nMack grimaced. \"I've already got a copy of that,\" he said.\n\nColby's expression didn't change. He merely opened it to the title page without looking, turning it toward Mack as he did. Martin Mack's eyes grew wide, his jaw slowly going limp, his teeth almost whistling as the air rushed in past them. \"Is that a . . . signed Thompson?\"\n\n\"A signed first edition.\"\n\n\"How did you know?\"\n\n\"What? That the rock writer at the local alt weekly has a thing for Hunter S. Thompson? Call it a hunch.\"\n\n\"It's a bit beat up and a little the worse for wear, don't you think?\"\n\n\"You mean like Thompson himself? Yeah. It's kind of perfect, isn't it?\"\n\nMartin Mack grinned like an eight-year-old seeing boobs for the first time. \"Okay, how much?\"\n\n\"It's on the house.\"\n\n\"Bullshit.\"\n\n\"I'm paying for it. If, and only if, this is the last time we see each other.\"\n\n\"That's not cool.\"\n\n\"What's not cool is you coming in here and asking me questions about a friend I haven't seen in a long time. Someone I miss. Someone I'm afraid I'll never see again. And while I appreciate what you're doing\u2014for his music\u2014I gotta tell ya, it hurts like a son of a bitch to even think about. So please, for the love of God, cut me a little slack and leave me alone.\"\n\n\"You think he's dead, don't you?\"\n\nColby glared at Martin Mack, thinking long and hard about his choice of words. \"I think that with all the attention he's gotten, with all the stories you've written about him, with all the people clamoring to see him live, there isn't anything else in the universe that could keep him off a stage.\"\n\n\"Can I quote you on that?\"\n\n\"Only if you don't use my name.\"\n\n\"Why not?\"\n\n\"Some of us, and I'm just speaking for myself here, don't want to get famous off the dead.\"\n\nMartin grimaced. \"I think he's still around. He's just in hiding, waiting for the right moment to come back.\"\n\n\"Maybe you're right. But if he does, he better not show up here.\"\n\n\"You don't want to see your friend again?\"\n\n\"Of course I do. But I've shed a lot of tears over that man. And anyone who would do that to a friend isn't really very much of a friend at all.\"\n\nMartin nodded solemnly; it was a fair point. \"I'm sorry to have bothered you.\" He turned to leave.\n\n\"Wait.\"\n\nMartin perked up, imagining for a second that Colby had changed his mind, and turned back around. \"Yeah?\"\n\n\"You forgot your book.\"\n\n\"Oh. Yeah. Thank you.\"\n\nColby handed him the book and Martin slowly made his way out of the store.\n\nThe bell on the door tinkled, and the store fell silent once more. Colby slumped onto the ground in a heap, weeping. Tears erupted, warm and glistening, down his cheeks. He sobbed openly, sure that he was alone. It was the first time in months that he had cried, and it was only then that he realized just how much he had let the emotions build up.\n\nHe sat on the ground, his back to a bookshelf, rocking back and forth, running his hands through tufts of red hair, for a moment completely unguarded. Then the door tinkled again. Colby swallowed hard, quickly wiping his cheeks with his sleeve. \"I'll be right with you,\" he said, spitting out a mouthful of swears beneath his breath.\n\nHe stood up, haphazardly collecting himself, took a deep breath, and walked around a bookshelf to the front of the store.\n\nThere stood a woman in her early to midthirties, very beautiful, clearly someone who had once been unbearably gorgeous, but was concealing the ravages of fatigue and sleepless nights with an oversize pair of sunglasses and a little too much makeup. She was frayed around the edges, nervous even to be there. Her clothing was expensive, her purse even more so. Everything about her shouted trophy wife at the top of its lungs. She looked over at Colby, slipping her sunglasses off to better see in the basement bookshop, immediately noticing his swollen eyes and tear-stained cheeks.\n\n\"I'm sorry,\" she said, fumbling to return her sunglasses to her eyes. \"I can come back.\"\n\n\"No, no, no,\" he said, pointing to his eyes. \"Allergies. The molds are killing me this year. How can I help you?\"\n\nShe looked around to see if anyone else was in the shop, certain that this young man was not who she was looking for. \"I'm looking for someone named Colby . . .\"\n\nColby's gaze fell to the floor. Crap.\nCHAPTER 4\n\nTHE BILLBOARD PSYCHIC\n\nThe billboard was large, colorful, and could be read clearly from the highway. PSYCHIC READINGS AND SPIRITUAL GUIDANCE. WALK-INS WELCOME. In the window hung a neon OPEN sign, lit and buzzing. It was a quaint little house, a faded blue box with a porch much fancier than its plain design seemed to deserve\u2014large white columns reaching up to support an unimpressive overhang. There was something about it that felt like it belonged on the outskirts of a plywood-and-plank Wild West movie set instead of along a side street overlooking an interstate. But there it was. Cheap. Tawdry. Looming like a ten-dollar whore beckoning the curious to take a chance and see if it was worth the money after all.\n\nIt reeked of sadness and disappointment.\n\nBut Carol Voss was desperate. Her hands trembled as she pulled the keys from the ignition and fumbled them into her purse. This wasn't the sort of place she expected to find herself. It was the last place in the world she wanted to try. It was also the last place she had left to turn to.\n\nAs she stepped out of the car, she gave one last thought to turning back. Then she heard the wail again in the back of her mind, a chill running up her spine, shivering, gooseflesh prickling across her skin. There was no turning back now. What was waiting for her back home was far worse than any humiliation she might face inside. Here was only the chance to waste her money, which she had plenty of. She might as well give it a shot.\n\nThe inside of the house was a cramped cluster of beads and fabric, the air thick with incense, almost every square inch of real estate covered in iconography. It smelled of smoke and mirrors and cheap theatrics. Just beyond the door, just as you entered, stood a lit glass case stocked with candles, crosses, crystals, and stones, a cash register sitting on top with a credit card machine plugged into the side. This wasn't the home of a psychic, Carol thought. This was a gift shop for the gullible. She clenched her fist nervously, and was turning to leave, when a woman's voice called from behind a curtain.\n\n\"Be right with you,\" she said.\n\nCarol stopped. She'd come this far. So she waited a moment longer.\n\n\"How can we help you?\" asked a young woman before she'd even finished rounding the crushed red velvet curtain. She was pretty, and her dark, thick hair draped over the olive skin of her bare shoulder.\n\n\"I'm here to speak to . . .\" Carol trailed off, searching for the words. \"The psychic.\"\n\n\"Mother Ojeda. My grandmother,\" the girl said, nodding. \"About your future?\"\n\nCarol shook her head gravely. \"No. About a problem I'm having now.\"\n\nThe girl nodded, understanding. \"Of a worldly nature or . . . a spiritual one?\"\n\n\"The . . . the second.\"\n\nThe girl's eyes squinted a bit. \"One moment, please.\" She turned around, vanishing again into the back of the house.\n\nCarol waited, her hands tucked together in front of her, fidgeting nervously with the buckle of her belt. She tapped her foot and chewed the inside of her lip. For a moment she thought about slipping out the door as quietly as possible. Then the girl reappeared.\n\n\"Right this way, Mrs. . . .\"\n\n\"Voss. Mrs. Voss.\"\n\nThe girl walked back behind the curtain, this time towing Carol behind her. The back of the house was a little less cramped, a dining room converted into a gaudy s\u00e9ance chamber. There was a large oak table covered in heavy cloth topped with a much thinner silk overlay. Atop it were a number of candles, all burning. Several carefully placed spotlights cast grim shadows on the walls, highlighting an empty chair next to the room's entrance, a spot on the table where a tarot deck rested, and a chair immediately opposite the first. Sitting in that chair directly across the table was Mother Ojeda, an old Hispanic woman, her thick black hair braided, disappearing behind her into a woven shawl that rested on her shoulders.\n\nShe stared at the table, not looking up as Carol entered.\n\n\"Grandmother, this is Mrs. Voss,\" the young girl announced.\n\nMother Ojeda nodded with a smile. \"Thank you, Celesta,\" she said, her accent thick, dripping with old Mexico. \"Have a seat, Mrs. Voss.\"\n\nCarol sat down in the empty chair.\n\n\"My granddaughter tells me you have a problem.\"\n\n\"Yes. I do.\"\n\nMother Ojeda picked up the tarot deck, shuffling it in clumps. \"What kind of problem do you have?\" She laid down a card, shaking her head. \"Hmmm.\"\n\n\"Something is . . . haunting my . . . my home.\"\n\n\"A spirit? Hmmm . . .\" She laid down another card, then frowned, looking up strangely at Carol. \"Have you seen this spirit, or merely felt it?\"\n\nCarol hesitated, her eyes darting around nervously, her hands sweating. \"I've seen her,\" she said. \"And heard her.\"\n\n\"Heard her? Moving things you mean?\"\n\n\"No. Screaming. Wailing. Crying.\" She paused. \"Speaking.\"\n\nMother Ojeda laid down another card, looking mildly confused about the card facing up at her. \"What did she say?\"\n\n\"Nothing in English. I couldn't understand it.\"\n\nMother Ojeda was quite serious now. All of her theatricality and pretense had vanished, her accent fading with it. \"What does this woman look like?\"\n\n\"She's tall, very thin. Skeletal. Her arms look longer than they should be. Bony, with elongated fingers.\" She shivered a bit, the words getting harder to free, mired in the pits of terrifying memories. \"She has long black hair and her eyes, they're gouged out. Holes with something glowing behind them. Like coals.\"\n\nMother Ojeda clasped her hands together, wringing them tightly. \"The words she spoke. Can you remember them?\" She placed a final card, her eyes wide and unbelieving.\n\n\"I miss hee ohs.\"\n\n\"\u00bfAy, mis hijos?\"\n\n\"Yes! She just kept screaming it. Over and over. What are the cards telling you?\"\n\nMother Ojeda looked solemnly upon her. \"That you're not lying.\"\n\n\"Why would I be lying?\"\n\n\"Mrs. Voss, do you have children?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"Two boys?\"\n\n\" . . . Yes.\"\n\n\"Both still young enough that they need a sitter?\"\n\nCarol nodded.\n\n\"And you have a home by the water, don't you?\"\n\nCarol eyed her suspiciously. \"Now wait a second, how did you know that?\"\n\n\"By the river?\"\n\n\"The lake.\"\n\nMother Ojeda shook her head. \"The lake is just a river dammed up. You have found yourself at the mercy of a terrible spirit. La Llorona.\"\n\n\"Is it dangerous?\"\n\nMother Ojeda nodded. \"Once there was a beautiful young woman, every bit as stunning and radiant as yourself. But she was unmarried, widowed, her husband having died in a terrible accident, leaving her to take care of their two children\u2014both young boys\u2014on her own. She was in love with a wealthy merchant who, while having feelings for her, did not want to marry her. Instead he told her that he did not want children and thus couldn't marry her. This broke her heart and, desperately lonely, she went home, took both of her boys out of their beds, walked them down to the river, and drowned them both right then and there.\n\n\"She went back to the merchant, overjoyed at her new freedom, and told him that they could finally be together. Horrified by what she'd done, he immediately rejected her, saying that he never wanted to see her again. This destroyed her. She begged and pleaded for him to reconsider, but he wouldn't have it. He refused even to see her. Now even more heartbroken than before, she hanged herself.\n\n\"When her spirit arrived in Heaven, God met her at the gates and asked her where her children were. She shook her head. 'I have no idea,' she said. 'I thought they were with you.' God said, 'No, I haven't seen your children. Go back to earth and find them. You cannot come into Heaven without them.'\n\n\"The woman was distraught, confused. She had no idea where her children were. So she came back to earth and began scouring the river. But they were nowhere to be found. Eventually she realized the current was too strong and she would never find them, so she hatched a plot. She needed two boys who looked like hers that she could pretend were her own. She would take them, walk them down to the river, drown them like she had her own children, then march them up to Heaven to prove to God that she knew where her children were.\n\n\"That woman is La Llorona. She wanders the world still, up and down the length of the Colorado, looking for her little boys\u2014or ones who remind her of them that she can claim as her own\u2014crying out, '\u00a1Ay! \u00a1Mis hijos! Oh! My children!'\u2014so she might finally get into Heaven. And now she has her eyes on your little boys.\"\n\nCarol stared at her incredulously, both horrified by the story and unsure of what was coming next. For a moment her brain spun dry, unable to process what was happening. Then reason began to take hold. She narrowed her eyes. \"How much is this going to cost me?\" she asked.\n\nMother Ojeda shook her head. \"Nothing.\"\n\n\"What do you mean nothing?\"\n\n\"Nothing,\" she said again, waving her hand as if refusing money. \"I can do nothing at all for you.\"\n\n\"Wait. What do you mean you can't do anything?\"\n\n\"This is beyond my gifts.\"\n\n\"Then what do I do?\"\n\n\"Go home. Keep your children away from the water. Don't let them anywhere near it. Keep the doors and windows locked at night. If there is a knock at the door after sunset, don't answer it. Do you smoke?\"\n\n\"No. Of course not. I have children.\"\n\n\"Then consider starting. A lit cigarette in the hollows of her eye sockets will chase her away.\"\n\nCarol leaned back in her chair. \"This is ridiculous. You're pulling my leg.\"\n\nMother Ojeda shook her head, eyes cold and narrow, pointing sternly at her. \"Have you really seen her?\"\n\n\"Yes,\" she said, swallowing hard.\n\n\"And have you really heard her?\"\n\nCarol nodded. \"Yes. I have.\"\n\n\"And as I sit here and say that I believe you, you don't believe me?\"\n\n\"Isn't there something you can do? Don't you speak to spirits? I read that you speak to spirits.\"\n\n\"I do speak to spirits. But I will not speak to her. There is too much evil there. Too much danger in even looking her in the eyes.\"\n\n\"What can you do?\"\n\nMother Ojeda took a deep breath, considering her next words very carefully. Then she reached behind her to a nearby end table and pulled from it a pen and a scrap of paper. She began writing. \"The spirits, they speak of a boy. One said to be able to wipe a spirit clean off the earth for well and for good. One who scares them so much they won't speak his name loudly out of fear he might notice them. His name is Colby. He works in a bookshop. Here is where you'll find it.\"\n\nCarol took the slip of paper, tears forming in her eyes. \"I don't . . . I don't know how to thank you.\"\n\n\"Go home, kiss your boys. Love them and raise them to be good men. And whatever you do, do not let them anywhere near the water.\"\n\n\"HER NAME IS Beatriz,\" said Colby. \"She's been walking up and down the shores of the Colorado since the fifties.\"\n\n\"So the story? It's true?\" asked Carol.\n\n\"Parts of it. There are a lot of stories, few of them entirely true. But that's the point of stories, I guess. The part about her drowning her sons is true. That and the part about her walking the earth looking for children who remind her of her boys. But the part about God is superstitious bullshit. God doesn't make creatures of the night. We do. Beatriz made herself out of her own madness and guilt. That's all that's left of her now. She's a shadow of everything that was wrong with her, walking, feeding, wailing.\"\n\n\"So you know her?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"And you'll stop her?\"\n\n\"Well . . .\"\n\n\"Well, what? I can pay. My husband does very well\u2014\"\n\n\"It's not about money.\"\n\n\"You work in a bookshop. And it's always about money.\"\n\n\"Ma'am, I'm going to stop you right there.\"\n\n\"No. No,\" she said, waving an authoritative finger. \"I am not taking no for an answer. These are my boys we're talking about. They are the point of my whole life. They are everything. I will give you whatever you want\u2014anything\u2014if you protect them for me. So quit negotiating and name a price.\"\n\n\"Look, ma'am\u2014\"\n\n\"Carol,\" she said, bringing herself half a step closer, her eyes softening.\n\n\"Carol. I'm not an exterminator and this isn't a raccoon in your gutter. La Llorona are exceptionally dangerous creatures. They don't just go away when asked. I don't know what you think an exorcism is, but it's not about shouting loudly and sprinkling holy water. It's about doing battle with something made of hate, anger, and fear. You're asking me to risk my life.\"\n\nShe took another half step closer, putting a gentle hand on his upper arm, sliding it up into the short sleeve of his shirt. \"I'm asking you to save my sons.\"\n\nColby gulped. Women didn't get this close to him; women didn't touch him on his upper arm. \"Ma'am.\"\n\n\"Carol.\"\n\n\"Keep your sons away from the water. Buy some dried tobacco leaves and keep them burning outside your door after sunset. That's the best I can do.\"\n\nCarol's eyes hardened again, just for a moment, as she reached into her purse for a scrap of paper and a pen. \"Here's my number. You call me when you figure out what it will take to get you to do better than that.\" Then she turned quickly, making her way out of the shop before she found herself hiding her own tears.\n\nColby crumpled the scrap of paper in a tight fist, slid it into his pocket, cursing once more beneath his breath. He shook his head. Those boys had a week, at best, before they turned up in the river. But that wasn't his business. Not anymore.\nCHAPTER 5\n\nKEEPSAKES AND MEMORIES\n\nEwan Bradford, once Ewan Thatcher, had been dead six months now\u2014the pike that killed him resting on two pegs drilled into an otherwise empty wall. The blade was clean, polished, not a hint of the blood it spilled still anywhere on its haft. This was the pike that took the hand from a changeling, slew that changeling's mother in a lake, pierced the heart of a Leanan Sidhe, and, most important, robbed Colby Stevens of his longest, and best, friend. It pulsed with that power, having grown stronger with each strike, the legend surrounding its deeds still nowhere near doing justice to its potential.\n\nAnd Colby Stevens hated it. He sat across from it on his couch, staring, remembering the feel of it in his hands, its heft, the way it swung. He'd made it. Though he hadn't forged it himself, it only existed because of him. And now it stood monument to the worst night of his life. Colby rubbed his chin, thick, abrasive stubble like sandpaper in his hands, and he thought of his friend.\n\n\"Are you going to stare at that thing all night, boss, or are we going to go for a walk?\" asked Gossamer, the golden retriever resting his head on his front legs in front of the couch. The dog's thick, red coat was well groomed, his face developing only the hints of a white mask in the fur around his muzzle and brow. Colby looked down at him, roused at once from his daydream.\n\n\"What?\" he asked.\n\nThe dog spoke again. \"I said, 'Are you going to stare at that thing all night, boss, or are we going to go for a walk?' \"\n\n\"Oh. I don't feel like going out tonight.\"\n\nGossamer flipped his tail a bit, thumping it on the floor impatiently. \"I want a beer.\"\n\n\"We have beer here.\"\n\n\"I want a sausage.\"\n\n\"We don't have sausage.\"\n\n\"I guess that means we have to go for a walk then.\"\n\n\"Gossamer, we're not going for a walk.\"\n\n\"What? Are we going to sit here all night, staring at a thing on a wall?\"\n\n\"You used to do that all the time.\"\n\n\"I only stared at things that moved.\"\n\n\"I'm sure it makes all the difference.\"\n\nGossamer grimaced. \"Have you ever watched a possum shimmy along a telephone wire? Knowing that at any moment it could drop into your yard for you to play with?\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"No, you haven't. You don't know. Don't judge. I want to go for a walk.\"\n\n\"And I want to stay here. And stare at a thing on the wall. It's why people buy houses. So they can sit in them. With their things. And stare at them.\"\n\n\"I want a beer. And a sausage.\"\n\n\"I never should have helped awaken you.\"\n\n\"You didn't have a choice. I was waking up without you.\"\n\n\"I should have let you become a Black Dog.\"\n\n\"That's racist.\"\n\n\"That joke is still not funny.\"\n\n\"It is to dogs.\"\n\n\"WHY ARE YOU BEING SO ANNOYING TONIGHT?\"\n\n\"Because. I want you to stop thinking about him.\"\n\nColby looked sadly down on Gossamer, his gaze softening. \"Oh.\"\n\n\"Yeah. Oh. We've got to get out of this house.\"\n\n\"He was in the paper again.\"\n\n\"I know.\"\n\n\"And how would you know that?\"\n\n\"Because this is what you always do when he's in the paper. Or on TV. Or the radio. You mope, you pout, and you stare at the wall. Why don't you get rid of that thing?\"\n\nColby shook his head. \"It's too powerful. In the wrong hands it can kill even the longest-lived of creatures.\"\n\n\"But it's safe here?\"\n\n\"Of course it is. It's got you to protect it, doesn't it?\"\n\n\"That doesn't exactly instill confidence in me, you know.\"\n\n\"I know. But what do you want me to say? That I'm the great Colby Stevens? That I can evaporate a soul with a dirty look and no one in this town wants to fuck with me?\"\n\n\"I'd rather you not. That conversation usually ends in an entirely different style of self-loathing.\"\n\n\"You really are being a pain in the ass today.\"\n\nGossamer nodded, nuzzling against Colby's leg. \"I know.\"\n\n\"A walk?\"\n\n\"Yes, please.\"\n\n\"I'll get the leash.\"\n\n\"That's not funny.\"\n\n\"It is to people.\"\n\nCOLBY AND GOSSAMER sat on the edge of the building's roof\u2014one of the tallest in the city\u2014looking out over the slowly drifting lights of distant traffic on the highway. There were no angels out tonight, not on the rooftops. They kept their distance now, their eyes narrow and trained, watching from blocks away before slinking off to conspire about how best to take back their rooftops. Below, the city slowly swelled with the overeager sober of the early night. It would be hours before it vomited them back out in a stumbling stream of swerving, giggling mess.\n\nThis place was familiar, sacred. It held wisdom that Colby tried in vain to tap into, with answers, it seemed, that could only be loosened by the tongues of angels.\n\n\"I hate it up here,\" said Gossamer, warily peering over the edge.\n\n\"You don't hate it. Stop being dramatic.\"\n\n\"I don't like it.\"\n\n\"You're the one who wanted a walk.\"\n\n\"Walk. Not a climb.\"\n\n\"We took stairs.\"\n\n\"You climb stairs. I don't like stairs. Medieval contraptions built for things with far longer legs. Maybe if there were an elevator\u2014and a railing\u2014I might like it up here. But there isn't and I don't.\"\n\n\"Well, I like it. I had a really good talk up here once.\"\n\n\"The one with the drunk?\"\n\n\"The angel. Yeah.\"\n\nGossamer growled a little. \"That guy's a dick.\"\n\n\"He's not a dick. We just don't see eye to eye anymore.\"\n\n\"He's a dick. I don't like the way he and his friends treat you.\"\n\n\"Maybe they have good reason. You don't remember that night,\" said Colby.\n\n\"Don't be that guy. Not tonight, boss. I remember it well enough. You did what you did, what you had to do. We have to move on.\"\n\n\"I'm trying. But everyone else wants to remind me.\"\n\n\"Nobody makes you read the paper.\"\n\n\"I should be able to read whatever paper I want.\"\n\n\"Boss.\"\n\n\"He was on the cover. They're all over town. What was I supposed to do?\"\n\n\"Boss.\"\n\n\"Shut up, Gossamer. You haven't soaked up enough dreamstuff to be smarter than me yet.\"\n\n\"You don't have to be smart to know better than to read stuff that you know will piss you off.\"\n\n\"Lots of people do it. Every day.\"\n\n\"They're not smart either.\"\n\n\"Maybe they want to be mad. Maybe they want to read the events of the day and feel somehow involved with them. Maybe they think being mad keeps them involved.\"\n\n\"You think?\"\n\nColby looked over at Gossamer, the dog's eyes big and brown, peering back at him with a mix of love and pity. \"Shut up, dog.\"\n\n\"Don't dog me. It's patronizing.\"\n\n\"That's why I do it.\"\n\n\"That's not what a good friend does.\"\n\nColby grimaced, insulted. \"What would you know about being a good friend?\"\n\nGossamer straightened up proudly, showing off, his head high, his gaze regal, reddish fur blowing in the light breeze. \"Man's best friend.\"\n\n\"That joke is still not funny.\"\n\n\"It is to dogs.\"\n\n\"Sometimes I think you just say that. I don't think dogs tell jokes.\"\n\n\"Are you kidding? Dogs love jokes. We're just not very funny.\"\n\n\"That I believe.\"\n\nThen, at once, the rooftop darkened, dimming like someone had snuffed out a dozen candles. Colby sniffed the air. Something familiar. A hint of musk and despair drifting in.\n\n\"Bill?\" he asked.\n\nBill the Shadow\u2014his coat long and dark, his shadowy face hidden beneath the gloom of his wide-brimmed hat\u2014slunk in from out of the night. The rooftop darkened further still, the ever-present cold murk that followed him settling in, filling the nooks and crannies with puddles of night. \"Yup.\"\n\nColby didn't turn around. \"What are you doing up here?\"\n\nBill sat down next to Colby, dangling his misty, insubstantial legs over the side of the building. \"Not your rooftop,\" he said, striking a match, lighting a cigarette. He cast the charred remains of the match away with a flick of the wrist, watched as it sailed down out of sight.\n\n\"I never said it was. I just thought . . .\"\n\n\"What? That I hated you like everybody else?\"\n\n\"Well, yeah.\"\n\n\"Nah. Just wanted to give you your space. A night like that, well, it sticks with you. Wanted to make sure you had time to get your shit together.\" He paused, staring out into the city. \"Did you get your shit together?\"\n\n\"No,\" said Gossamer.\n\n\"My shit is together,\" said Colby.\n\nBill nodded, peering at Colby from behind his cigarette. \"I know you've got to have some hooch on you,\" he said. \"You always have good hooch on you.\"\n\n\"Do I look like a liquor cabinet to you?\"\n\n\"No. You look like a man who could use a drink with friends.\"\n\nColby reached behind him into his backpack and, without looking, fished out a bottle of bourbon. He unscrewed the cap, taking a pull off the bottle. \"Give me one of those smokes.\"\n\n\"Deal.\" Bill produced a cigarette from the back of his trench coat, swapping it for the bottle. He quickly looked it over, eyeing the label. \"Aw, hell. This ain't bad, but it ain't the good stuff.\"\n\nColby snapped his fingers, lighting a flame at the end of his thumb. He lit the cigarette then shook out the fire. \"The good stuff always came from Old Scraps.\"\n\nBill closed his eyes, nodding sadly, raising the bottle into the air. \"To Scraps.\" He took a drink and handed the bottle back to Colby.\n\nColby took another swig. \"He was a hell of a bartender.\"\n\n\"Hell of a bartender.\"\n\nGossamer looked longingly up at Colby, whimpering a little.\n\n\"What?\" asked Colby. \"You hate bourbon.\"\n\n\"I was promised beer.\"\n\nColby rolled his eyes, passing the bottle back to Bill. He reached behind himself again, this time fishing out a cold bottle of beer and a dog bowl from the pack. With a quick twist he popped the bottle cap off, sloppily filling the bowl.\n\n\"Careful,\" said Gossamer. \"Pour it along the sides.\"\n\n\"Maybe you should pour it,\" said Colby.\n\n\"I don't like it foamy.\"\n\nBill took another drink. \"I see you two have become close. Is he your familiar now?\"\n\nColby nodded. \"Yeah, kind of.\"\n\n\"Wait, you mean there's a name for this?\" asked Gossamer.\n\n\"Yeah,\" said Bill. \"There is. Colby, you didn't explain any of this?\"\n\nColby put the dog bowl in front of Gossamer, who immediately began lapping up the beer. \"Some of it,\" he said. \"But he's still learning. I didn't want him to get the wrong idea about our relationship.\"\n\nGossamer looked up from the bowl. \"What's not to understand? We're best friends.\"\n\n\"Exactly,\" said Colby. \"And that's how it's going to stay.\"\n\nBill took a drag off his cigarette, exhaled, took another drink. \"Okay.\"\n\nColby looked over at Bill and shook his head silently. Bill took the hint.\n\nThe three sat quietly for a moment, Colby and Bill smoking, passing the bottle back and forth, watching the lights on the highway, Gossamer's incessant lapping the only sound. The night was humid, but cool, a breeze floating in off the lake. The stars were out, the moon's thin crescent waning, absent a cloud in the sky. It was beautiful.\n\n\"So why don't you hate me like everyone else?\" asked Colby.\n\n\"I can't think of a good enough reason, I guess,\" said Bill. \"I mean, it's not like I think you're going to nuke me for hanging around like everyone else does. And, well, we've got a lot in common.\"\n\n\"What do we have in common?\"\n\nBill's gaze lingered for a second. \"We're both monsters.\" He took a long, deep drag off his cigarette, leaned his head back, and exhaled a slow, steady stream of smoke. \"You see,\" he said, still staring up at the stars, \"I don't scare little kids. I don't murder chaste virgins caught out alone at night. I just feed on monsters. The soiled. The unclean. The deeper and darker the hate or fear or self-loathing there is, the more delicious the meal. Now you might look at some of the people I feed on and say that they didn't have coming what I did to them, but you couldn't for a moment argue that they were without sin, without fault. That the world ain't just a tiny bit better without them.\"\n\n\"Yeah? And?\"\n\n\"And your friend over there didn't just awaken on his own. This city doesn't have enough dreamstuff for that. Not anymore. You used the energy of a redcap.\"\n\n\"You're gonna hold me to the death of a redcap?\"\n\n\"I might,\" said Bill.\n\n\"He crossed over the city limits. He knew the rules.\"\n\n\"The rules you laid down. You murdered that redcap and you used the energy for your own ends.\"\n\n\"I'm not a monster.\"\n\n\"Monsters with purpose. That's what you told Yashar. Monsters with purpose.\"\n\nColby took another drink. \"Shit. I said that, didn't I?\"\n\n\"You did. We're monsters, Colby. But you're one of the good ones. You mean well. You want to protect the innocent by devouring the unjust. You take that darkness on to yourself and you carry it with you day in and day out. I've been around a long time. I've seen my fair share of darkness. I've taken a lot of it on to myself.\" He paused, lost in thought for a moment. \"There's a reason you've never seen my face.\"\n\nColby nodded, stabbing out his cigarette beside him on the ledge. \"Well, if I'm gonna be a monster, I might as well surround myself with the best sort of them.\"\n\nBill nodded. \"You're goddamned right about that. Thanks to you, that's just about all that's left in this city.\"\n\n\"I try.\"\n\n\"It won't last. It never does.\"\n\n\"As long as I'm here, it will.\"\n\n\"No one lights a candle in the daytime, Colby. Men dream up their monsters for a reason.\"\n\n\"So they can have windmills they feel good about tilting at?\"\n\n\"Something like that,\" said Bill, lighting up another cigarette with the end of the old one. \"Why are you up here?\"\n\nGossamer stopped lapping at the beer. \"He was in the paper again.\"\n\n\"Ewan?\"\n\n\"Yeah,\" said Colby.\n\n\"He's gone. No coming back from that.\"\n\n\"You think I don't know that?\"\n\n\"No, I think you believe that if you keep him in your heart, some piece of him will still live on.\"\n\n\"Yeah. Maybe. What's wrong with that?\"\n\n\"It's horseshit. The only thing that lives on is the part that makes everyone they left behind who they are. And right now all that's making you is miserable. The kid got a whole lot more life than he was destined to. Touched a lot more people than he ever would have. All that was you, not him. All that's left of him is a lead weight dragging you down.\"\n\n\"I didn't come here for a lecture.\"\n\n\"Yeah you did. You were just hoping it'd be from him and not me.\" Bill pointed off into the night then formed a shadow puppet of a bird, flapping off, his hands actually vanishing into the dark as he did. \"If that fucking angel had any real answers, he wouldn't have fallen and he wouldn't be drinking himself into a stupor. He's not going to forgive you, Colby. No one will. You shouldn't expect them to. You shouldn't want them to. And you don't need them to.\"\n\nColby nodded, swallowing. \"It's just that\u2014\"\n\n\"It's just what?\"\n\n\"He's the closest I've ever come to talking to . . .\"\n\n\"Talking to . . . ?\"\n\n\"Talking to God.\"\n\nBill shook his head, the light ever shying away from the features of his face, no matter the angle. \"Shit. He's never talked to God. God doesn't talk to angels. Not for a long time. Why do you think so many of them jump?\"\n\n\"I thought there would be answers, you know? When I was a kid.\"\n\n\"There are answers. You just don't like them.\"\n\n\"But there are always more questions.\"\n\n\"Yeah. If there weren't, what the hell would be the point? You don't need more answers, Colby. You don't need approval. The only thing you need . . .\" He trailed off, taking another pull from the bottle. \" . . . is to figure out where the hell Scraps was getting the good stuff. Because, seriously, this ain't cutting it.\"\n\nColby reached into his pocket and pulled out the small, crumpled scrap of paper he'd been given by Carol Voss. Then he slowly unwound it, straightening the creases, staring at the number, letting his eyes glaze over as he drifted off in thought. \"No. No, it's really not.\"\nCHAPTER 6\n\nON DISBELIEF\n\nAN EXCERPT BY DR. THADDEUS RAY, PH.D., FROM HIS BOOK THE EVERYTHING YOU CANNOT SEE\n\nDisbelief is perhaps the single greatest weapon in the arsenal of anyone trafficking in the arcane. Versatile, powerful, and, most important, final, it is a last resort meant only for when there is no other recourse but the permanent destruction of a thing. Against truly frightening, nigh immortal creatures, sometimes it is the only option. But it is neither clean, nor easy, nor sometimes even possible against certain beings. And it certainly isn't recommended except under the strictest and direst of circumstances.\n\nDisbelief is, simply put, the art of reweaving the dreamstuff comprising one being into that of another, more harmless form\u2014literally believing it to be something else. You can, with the right focus and understanding, convert a redcap into sunlight or an angel into a breeze. At advanced levels of understanding, one can even convert that dreamstuff into more useful constructs, fueling spells or creating new life. As most beings that can achieve some semblance of physicality actually contain elements and particles other than dreamstuff, there are often physical components left behind\u2014manifesting as smells, feathers, or flower petals\u2014often drawn together as side effects of the disbeliever's own imagination.\n\nThe concepts behind disbelief are simple and build upon the nature of dreamstuff as has already been discussed. Dreamstuff collects together, forming the will or consciousness of a being that can then exert its own will upon other nearby dreamstuff, altering it into a form that it wishes or believes to exist. The stronger the will, the greater its exertion on nearby dreamstuff. Thus, the struggle in disbelief can quite literally be described as a battle of wills. The disbeliever is restructuring a being's essence while that being is trying to maintain its own form through its belief in its own existence.\n\nThe danger of disbelief\u2014besides the fact that you are disintegrating a living, conscious thing\u2014is that some beings are very good at resisting such attempts. Strangely enough, the beings best adapted to resist disbelief, almost counterintuitively, are the lesser forms. Disbelieving complex forms like fairies, genius loci, angels, or djinn is fairly simple unless they are adept in defending themselves from such attacks and are given ample time to prepare themselves in the moments before. They are, after all, beings of complex emotion and, though nearly, if not completely, immaterial, they are made up of as many working, moving parts as we are\u2014even if those parts are entirely made up of energy. No, the hardest beings to disbelieve are those made up almost entirely of a single emotion. Hate, anger, love, sorrow\u2014these are not the kinds of emotions easily diminished by reason. They are stronger than disbelief. Your urge to disbelieve them must be significantly more powerful than their belief in their own existence for it to work.\n\nBeings of hate, beings of love, beings of sorrow and loss; these are creatures that exist only to fuel and feed their emotions. They exist as a means to an end. And those creatures resist with a willpower that few can override. It is why most religions teach their holy men to exorcise rather than to destroy; the beings they are sent up against are creatures of such powerful emotions that they can only be sent away. This is not to say that they cannot be disbelieved, but simply that they cannot be disbelieved by you.\nCHAPTER 7\n\nBEATRIZ\n\nYou're going to what?\" asked Gossamer. \"No way. Not without me.\"\n\nColby shook his head as he grabbed small tokens and materials from around the house, stuffing them into his backpack. \"I can't take you. Not this time. It's too dangerous.\"\n\n\"If it's too dangerous for me then it is definitely too dangerous for you.\"\n\n\"I promised I'd help. Besides, Beatriz knows the rules. She shouldn't be here. Not in Austin. This is my city and no one takes children in my city.\"\n\n\"Are you at least taking Yashar with you?\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"Bill?\"\n\n\"Definitely not. There's no telling what he would do.\"\n\n\"At least take the pike.\"\n\nBoth looked over at the wall, the pike still resting on its pegs. \"No. No freakin' way. That thing stays here.\"\n\n\"You might need it.\"\n\n\"I don't need something that dangerous.\"\n\n\"What if you can't just disbelieve her? She's old. She's powerful. If she is more emotion than reason\u2014like he was\u2014you might not be able to just make her go poof!\"\n\n\"I can handle her.\"\n\n\"By talking to her?\"\n\n\"There are ways to handle spirits other than just disbelieving them. She has her weaknesses, her own fears. If she doesn't listen to reason, I'll find a way to get her gone. I've destroyed far more powerful spirits than her before.\"\n\n\"That's the kind of cockiness that gets people killed.\"\n\n\"Goddamnit, Gossamer! She didn't listen. I told them! I fucking told them! Stay. Out. Of Austin. She was there, Goss. She was there the night they tried to sacrifice him. She was there the night they killed him. That she still walks the earth is only because I didn't destroy her when I had the chance, and this is how she repays my kindness? By trying to drown children in my fucking town?\"\n\nGossamer cowered, his tail creeping in between his legs. \"Your . . . kindness? Are you serious?\" He shook his head. \"Are you listening to yourself?\"\n\n\"Are you fucking with me?\"\n\n\"No. Not even a little bit. I get where you're coming from and I know how angry you must be, but do you really think that sparing her life from your own rage means she owes you anything?\"\n\n\"Shut the fuck up. I didn't ask you.\"\n\n\"I don't know . . . I don't know what to say. Maybe you need this. Maybe you need to go out and kill something. It's been too long. Maybe Bill was right.\"\n\n\"About what?\" Colby stared at him, thinking back. \"That I'm a monster?\"\n\nGossamer shrugged, his fur bristling.\n\nColby glared for a moment, seething. Then he took a deep breath. And another. And another. Rage seeping away. \"No. You're right. I'm going about this all wrong. I'm not out to kill Beatriz, I'm out to ship her off, send her back up the river away from those little boys. I can't forget that.\"\n\n\"Take someone with you. Please.\"\n\n\"Not this time. This I have to do alone.\"\n\nCAROL VOSS'S HOUSE was much larger than Colby had expected. When she'd said money wasn't an issue, he assumed she was exaggerating. While he had spent time around all manner and sort of supernatural creature in his life, he'd spent very little time around the wealthy except when picking through estate sales\u2014and those were almost entirely run by separate brokers. She seemed normal, just an average everyday mom worried about her kids. As it turned out, Mr. Voss did in fact do very well for himself. Their house was on the expensive side of the river with a Brazilian hardwood boat dock and a view of Mount Bonnell that only a privileged few could afford.\n\nThe lawn stretched out long and wide from the back of the house, thick, lush, a shade of green brighter than most of the other lawns this time of year. The grass was firm, uniformly cut, springing back into place with each step, carefully manicured trees growing at perfectly measured intervals. The lawn looked less like someone's backyard and more like the set of a catalog photo shoot.\n\nColby stood in the expansive backyard, looking out over the river, the sun setting behind him, waiting for twilight. Shadows crept closer and closer to the water, the sky exploding in pinks and purples. From where he stood, Colby could see the crowds atop Mount Bonnell, watching the sky, waiting for the sun to wink out behind the hills.\n\nAnd as the hills swallowed up the sun, and the tourists returned to their cars, and the night began to set in over the river, darkness swelled beneath the waves. Colby sat pensively in the grass, waiting for the moment when twilight shifted to dusk. That was the moment that shadows came out, when Beatriz the La Llorona would show herself.\n\nAnd there she was. Standing, dripping, hollow eyes burning, knee-deep in the shallows of the river. She stared out, her mouth dangling in some silent howl that had yet to catch up with her, her gauzy linen dress soaked through, clinging to her every curve. Her body was still a sultry twenty-four, lusty, hippy, dangerously seductive. But her face was ghoulish, a wrinkled prune wrapped around yellowed, mossy teeth and embers peering through clawed-out sockets.\n\nShe took one sloshing step forward, cocking her head to the side at Colby, her howl finally catching up to her, a shrill, angry cry like bitter wind scraping through dead trees. Then she moved again, and again, her entire body lurching forward with each awkward, splashing step, her feet digging in and out of the river mud beneath. Her hands, soaked, freezing, and pale, were unmoving, clutched in a clawlike rigor, dead nubs at the end of stiff arms. Beatriz moved like the dead should move.\n\nShe tried to step around Colby, pretending he wasn't there. Colby carefully sidestepped. Beatriz grimaced angrily, surprisingly able to become uglier and more horrifying than before.\n\n\"\u00a1Ay! Mis hijos!\" she wailed.\n\n\"No, ellos no son tus hijos,\" he replied in slightly accented Spanish. No, they are not your children.\n\n\"They are my children, and I need them!\"\n\n\"No. You need to leave, to return to the water. You know my rules. I'm asking nicely. Please leave this family be.\"\n\n\"No! I will not leave without my children! I need them. I am so alone.\"\n\nColby stood at the edge of the water, the night getting darker around him. He reached into his pocket, pulling out a pack of cigarettes and a finely etched silver Zippo covered top to bottom with arcane symbols. \"I'm going to ask nicely one last time,\" he said.\n\n\"Colby, I need my children.\"\n\nColby flipped a cigarette into his mouth, flicking the lighter, and lighting his smoke in one fluid motion. \"Those aren't your kids, and you know it, witch.\"\n\nBeatriz tightened, her arms drawing close, her fingers becoming long and sharp. She hissed and the air around her chilled, frosting the water on her skin. Then she took another sloshing step forward. Colby took a long, slow drag on his cigarette, blowing the smoke in her face.\n\nShe recoiled, covering her eyes with the inside of her elbow.\n\n\"I have two rules, Beatriz. And you know them. One: Austin is off-limits. Two: you come for the children, I come for you.\"\n\nBeatriz lunged at Colby, hissing, slashing at his face. Colby fell backward to the ground, landing hard on his ass.\n\nShe clawed at him and he jabbed his cigarette at her eye sockets.\n\nBeatriz jumped back, again covering her face.\n\nColby focused upon her, trying to break her dreamstuff apart. He felt cold, lonely hate. Misery. Anger. \"Shit.\"\n\n\"I'm so hungry, Colby. It consumes me.\"\n\n\"I know.\"\n\n\"I need them. I need them.\"\n\n\"I know,\" he said again.\n\n\"Let me have them and I will leave. I promise.\"\n\n\"I can't do that. I can't let you drown those little boys.\"\n\n\"I won't, I promise. But I need them.\"\n\n\"You're not taking those boys.\"\n\nBeatriz cast her arms back and leaned in with a wild, uncontrolled hiss.\n\nColby stabbed at her with the lit end of his cigarette, causing her to recoil once more.\n\n\"That cigarette won't stay lit forever.\"\n\nIt wouldn't. He had to think quickly. \"You can't have those boys, Beatriz . . . because you have two of your own. Where are they?\"\n\nShe shook her head. \"I don't know.\"\n\n\"You do. You know where they are, Beatriz.\"\n\n\"No. I don't.\"\n\n\"You do. Think back. Think hard. Where are they?\"\n\n\"I don't know!\"\n\n\"You know where they are, Beatriz, because you drowned them. You drowned your little boys!\"\n\n\"I didn't! No! I don't know where they are!\"\n\n\"Think. Think. Think back as hard as you can. Where? Are? Your boys?\"\n\nBeatriz stopped her clawing and flailing for a moment, tilting her head, lost in thought. Colby could feel the confusion, the lack of conviction and certainty. Beatriz was bubbling to the surface of all that hate. She was beginning to reason, beginning to think back through frozen memories decades old and drowning.\n\nColby focused once more and the embers in Beatriz's eyes became flames. \"Noooo!\" she screamed, flaring up, a green flame swallowing her whole, boiling away her flesh.\n\nBeatriz vanished with a slight sizzle, the smell of cheap perfume and rotting fish the only lingering reminder that she'd ever been there.\n\nColby rose to his feet, dusting himself off, and flung the lit cigarette out into the water. It was done. He took a deep breath and staggered slowly toward the house.\n\nHe knocked on the back door and Carol answered almost instantly. Colby's eyes were cold, disappointed.\n\n\"You were watching?\" he asked.\n\nCarol bit her lip, playing coy.\n\n\"I told you not to watch.\"\n\n\"I know, but . . . I was worried.\" She paused for a second, then asked, \"Is it done? Is she\u2014\"\n\n\"Gone? For good. She won't be back.\"\n\n\"Oh my God, thank you!\" She burst into tears, throwing her arms around him. \"You saved my babies!\"\n\n\"You're welcome. Now for your end of the bargain.\"\n\nCarol pulled away and nodded, wiping tears away from her eyes. \"Are you sure I can't pay you?\"\n\n\"There's no comfort in the world I need that money can grant me for very long. Besides, like I said, I do all right. This is the one thing I can't really get. On my own. You know?\"\n\n\"It just seems so\u2014\"\n\n\"Yeah. But a deal is a deal.\"\n\n\"Come on in,\" she said, stepping back, welcoming him inside. \"My husband is with the boys upstairs. We won't be bothered.\"\n\nThe back door led immediately into the kitchen. Colby walked in and breathed deeply. He pointed at the simple wooden kitchen table. \"Right here?\"\n\n\"Is that okay?\"\n\nHe nodded. \"It is.\"\n\n\"Can I get you something to drink?\"\n\n\"Coffee would be great. Black.\"\n\n\"Is French press okay?\"\n\n\"Perfect.\"\n\nCarol began nervously making a cup of coffee. She turned around. \"This seems, I don't know . . .\"\n\nColby smiled awkwardly, nodding. \"Look, I don't meet a lot of people doing what I do. And I certainly can't talk to them without feeling like I have to hide who I really am. Words can't explain the loneliness I feel on any given day.\" He stabbed a single finger in the air. \"There's one thing, and only one thing, you can do for me that makes what I just did out there worthwhile. I want to sit down at that table, have a nice cup of coffee, and eat dinner with a very nice woman whom I don't have to pretend around. I don't get a lot of home-cooked meals and whatever that is, it smells delicious.\"\n\n\"It's lasagna.\"\n\n\"Perfect.\"\n\nCarol smiled. \"Black, you said? The coffee?\"\n\n\"Yes, black. Thank you.\"\n\nShe handed him a mug of dark, steaming coffee that read #1 MOM on the side. Colby looked at it, gripping the handle a little tighter as he read, then took a sip. He could never tell the difference between expensive coffee or the cheap stuff, but this was delicious. It was probably expensive.\n\n\"How big a slice do you want?\" she asked. \"The lasagna, I mean.\"\n\n\"As big as the plate.\" Colby sat down at the table with his coffee and took a deep breath, relaxing. \"So. Carol,\" he said, as chipper as he could muster. \"Tell me about your day.\"\nCHAPTER 8\n\nTHE PRETTY LITTLE GIRL IN THE PURPLE PAJAMAS\n\nOnce upon a time there was a pretty little girl in purple pajamas, all of eleven years old, who appeared not as she saw herself, but rather as she wished she could be. Her dark hair shone in the starlight, her smile shone in the moon. She had left her body at home once again, a silvery wisp trailing behind her as she moved, the thread connected at the base of the back of her skull, winding all the way back through the barren wilderness to her bed, hundreds of miles away.\n\nShe was faster without her body. Taller. Of slighter build. There were no imperfections, no unsightly scars, nothing at all to distinguish her from any other girl in the world. The pretty little girl in the purple pajamas was normal. Unburdened. Happy.\n\nAnd it was a beautiful night.\n\nShe was deep in the outback again, well past the black stump, hunting bunyip barefoot over sandblasted red stone fields. While the pretty little girl in the purple pajamas had seen a lot of strange things out here at night, she had never seen a bunyip. And that was something she was very much hoping to change. The stories said they were big, scary, hairy, and mean, able to drown a man by raising the lake water while he slept if he dared to camp too close. But she was clever. And she was fast. And there wasn't a spirit yet that dared try to catch her that had been able to.\n\nStars burned brightly in the black sky, splayed out from end to end unblemished by clouds or lights. Below, only campfires pockmarked the desert before her. She raced from water hole to water hole\u2014each sometimes dozens of miles apart\u2014looking for a bunyip lurking within its depths. But she found nothing but a glassy reflection of the sky staring back at itself. And as the night approached its darkest point, she knew it was time to give up the hunt and visit the one friend she'd made this far out in the desert.\n\nThe Clever Man.\n\nShe looked out over the vast, black expanse, glancing at each fire in the distance until she found one that felt familiar. Then she raced across the dark, her feet barely touching the ground. Rocks. Shrubs. Lone trees. All blurring together. Then fire, the one she was looking for.\n\nThe Clever Man sat before it, alone, smiling brightly, his eyes flickering with firelight. His hair was thick, curly, black\u2014the ends dusted with a light gray, his temples a silvery white\u2014his skin a rich, sunbaked brown, only a small, tanned cloth providing any modesty. He did not look up, and instead tended the fire with a small stick, speaking only to the night.\n\n\"Have you seen it yet?\" he asked.\n\nThe girl in the purple pajamas slumped down on the ground beside him, frustrated. \"Nooooooooo. Not yet.\"\n\n\"He is wily. Wilier even than you. You will have to be very patient; he will not so easily show himself. Just wait. The first time you see one, nothing will ever be the same.\"\n\n\"Okay,\" she sighed. Then she perked up. \"So, is he here yet?\"\n\n\"Is who here yet?\" asked the Clever Man.\n\n\"The Dream-hero. You said he was coming.\"\n\n\"He's coming. But he's not here yet.\"\n\n\"Why not? What's taking him so long?\"\n\n\"It's not his time.\"\n\n\"But it will be? Soon?\"\n\n\"Very soon.\"\n\n\"I can't wait.\"\n\n\"You can wait.\"\n\n\"You said it was my destiny. I can't wait for my destiny.\"\n\n\"He is not your destiny.\"\n\n\"But you said he was!\"\n\nThe Clever Man shook his head. \"No. I said he was destined to arrive and you were destined to meet him. What he brings with him is a choice. What happens to you will not be his doing, but yours.\"\n\n\"But he is coming?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"Soon?\"\n\n\"Very soon.\"\n\n\"I can't wait.\"\n\nThe Clever Man laughed. \"You two are very much alike. In so many ways. So many small details about you indistinguishable from the other. So many children in this world so eager to end their childhood. So ready for the future. Never ready for the now.\"\n\n\"I'm ready for the now.\"\n\n\"You hate the now. You spent the whole night looking for the bunyip, didn't you?\"\n\n\"Yeeeeeesssss. But you told me to.\"\n\n\"Never. Never did.\"\n\n\"Yes, you did.\"\n\n\"I said once you see the bunyip . . .\"\n\n\"Nothing will ever be the same.\"\n\n\"So why hurry?\"\n\nThe pretty little girl in the purple pajamas pouted. She knew the answer. The Clever Man was right. He was always right. \"I like the now. I just like the now out here better. I wish I could stay out here.\"\n\n\"Wishes are dangerous. Especially for a spirit as powerful as you. You are exactly where you need to be to become exactly who you are supposed to become. Too many people be saying I wish I was this or I wish I was there and not enough people saying I will be this here and make this place better. If you want to like better the now, you should think more like that. You are too beautiful a spirit to wish you were prettier, too powerful a spirit to wish you were stronger, too quick a spirit to wish you were faster.\"\n\n\"You don't know I'm pretty.\"\n\n\"You are very pretty,\" said the Clever Man.\n\n\"You've never even see me, not really.\"\n\nIt was true. He hadn't. He'd only seen her spirit. \"I am a Clever Man,\" he said. \"I do not need to look at you to see you.\"\n\n\"You don't, do you?\"\n\nThe Clever Man smiled wide, shaking his head. He took a deep breath, the kind he took only before launching into one of his stories, and then, with a stiff finger pointing into the night like an exclamation point, he began one. \"Long ago, when the earth was still being dreamed, only seven women possessed the secret of fire. They carried it with them at all times, burning at the top ends of their digging sticks. All the fellas were very jealous of their secret and wanted it for themselves. And no fella wanted it more than Crow.\n\n\"Crow was a clever trickster. He knew that the women loved to eat termites right out of the mound, but that they feared snakes more than anything else. So Crow flew all over creation and picked up every snake he could find. Red ones, black ones, yellow ones! Red, black, and yellow ones! Then he tied them all into a knot, burying them deep within a termite mound. They wriggled and wiggled and tried very hard to untangle themselves, but even those that managed to break free could not go far underground.\n\n\"Then Crow flew to the women, telling them of the large, virgin mound he'd found out in the desert. The hungry women rushed to the mound, but as they dug into it with their sticks, it erupted with snakes. The mass wriggled apart all at once and there were so many snakes that the ground itself seemed to move and wave like the sea. The women were so scared they dropped fire from the ends of their sticks and Crow, waiting for this, collected every single bit of it. He laughed as he flew away with all their fire.\n\n\"Crow spent a lot of time after that tending the coals he kept his fire alive in. Soon it became all he would do. All men of the earth wanted his fire, but he would not share it, for without it he would no longer be special. Then one day a Clever Man came to take his fire, calling Crow names, making fun of him. Crow became enraged and angrily hurled a coal at the man. But Crow did not notice that the man was standing on a patch of dry grass upon which Crow himself also stood. The Clever Man moved and the coal missed him, setting the grass on fire.\n\n\"Crow, afraid he would lose his fire to the man, stayed instead to protect it, but was burned up, consumed by the grass fire surrounding him. Everyone thought he was dead, but Crow could not be killed so easily. From the flames he emerged, smoky, singed and black with soot. He laughed, carrying with him a single flaming stick. He had protected his fire. But to this day, Crow remains black, everyone seeing him not as he was, but for what he had done.\n\n\"You are a very powerful and clever spirit. I do not see you as you are; I see you only for what you have chosen to do. And you have chosen to be very beautiful. Your spirit is a good one. A well-intentioned one. It will be tested. But when the tests are done, I think you might be more beautiful than ever.\"\n\n\"Is the bunyip the test?\" asked the girl.\n\n\"The bunyip? He is only the first of many.\" The Clever Man looked up, his smile fading, staring sadly off into the distance. \"Oh,\" he said. \"It looks like our time together is over.\"\n\nThe pretty little girl in the purple pajamas reeled back in horror, eyes wide, the silver cord connected behind her to the base of her skull pulling suddenly taut, flinging her backward into darkness. The night shot past, stars streaking, the fire a pinprick swiftly winking out. She screamed and the night disappeared.\n\nFor a second there was only black.\n\nHER ALARM CLOCK roared, its dingy yellowing plastic rattling, ancient gears grinding as the tinkle of it slowly wound down. Kaycee blearily rubbed her eyes, the glare of the campfire still etched in them. The gentle rays of a very early dawn peered, grayish blue, through rusting, bent blinds tangled in knotted cords. It was morning again and her walk was over. She hammered a balled-up fist down on top of the clock, sneering, just a little, her cleft palate splitting enough of her upper lip to show nothing but gum and teeth all the way up to her nose.\n\nHer eyes adjusted, the dull, pale hues of the physical world growing crisp and sharp, like a TV antenna being twiddled into place. Nothing twinkled or glowed or scintillated, rippling with unearthly colors. It was static, cold, dirty, and old. The waking world was just about the most awful thing Kaycee could imagine. In the dream she could be whatever she wanted; here she was what everyone else thought she was.\n\nSwinging her legs out from under the covers, she put her right foot down on the floor. Her gnarled club of a left foot followed soon after\u2014swollen, twisted, with tiny malformed nubs protruding like warts where her toes should be. She still wore her purple pajamas, though they were ratty, tired, frayed around the cuffs, two or three sizes smaller than they should be, meant for a girl far younger. The buttons clung on for dear life and the shoulder rode a bit higher up the arm than it should, but they held, their yellow stars now brown with stains and infrequent washing.\n\nLeaning onto her good foot, she pushed herself upright, lurching forward in a drowsy zombie shuffle out into the hallway. Kaycee ran her hands through her curly, matted black hair, tugging hard, trying further to shake the dream.\n\nAcross the house, the television rattled on about an accident\u2014a twelve-car pileup\u2014sunny voices struggling to sound strained. The words ran together through the thin, water-stained walls, Kaycee not caring enough yet about the day to bother trying to parse them out. She walked down the stairs, into the living room, past the television, straight on through the wall of stink where lingering stale smoke mingled with rum and a night's worth of sweat. There, in his battered, threadbare easy chair, snored her father, an open bottle and half-full glass on the end table next to him, a twitch and a half away from being knocked over.\n\nWade Looes looked like a washed-up boxer, a mountain of muscles sculpted from tossing boxes, hands calloused, chewed raw from years of canning fish. His face was chipped with scars, his brow thick, his jaw thicker, his skin a creamy coffee brown. At rest, he looked angry; when angry, he looked monstrous. He snored away in the chair, snorting occasionally like the sound of a bad transmission slipping gears.\n\nKaycee reached behind the lamp, pulling out the funnel she kept there, and slotted it into the bottle of rum, dumping what was left in the glass back into the bottle. They weren't rich enough to throw out good rum like that. She wished she could dump the whole bottle out, pour it down the sink and be done with it. She'd done that before. He was always so drunk when he fell asleep that he simply thought he'd polished off the whole bottle himself. Do this enough, she thought, and he'd stop drinking for sure. But Wade always went right back out, with whatever money he could scrape together, and bought more.\n\nSo she stoppered the bottle back up, slipping it between the end table and the chair, praying silently that this would be the last time she had to.\n\n\"Dad,\" she said, gently tugging at the sleeve of yesterday's work shirt. \"Dad. Wake up. Sun's comin' up.\" Her father shifted in his chair, groaning against the morning. \"Dad, come on. I gotta get to school. You gotta shower still. Sun's comin'.\"\n\nHis eyes shot open, confused, a smile creeping slowly across his lips as his daughter came into focus. \"Morning, darlin',\" he said, reaching up to stroke the deep brown of her face. \"You have good dreams again?\"\n\nShe nodded. \"Yes, sir.\"\n\n\"Good. I reckon you deserved 'em?\"\n\n\"Yes, sir.\"\n\n\"All right,\" he said, settling back into the chair. \"Well, Dad needs a few more minutes' sleep. So why don't you\u2014\"\n\n\"Nuh-uh. You gotta get ready for work. Go take a shower. I'll make breakfast.\"\n\nHer father smiled, face buried in the chair cushion, peering up at her with a single, squinting eye. \"You know Dad's still a little drunk, don't you?\"\n\nShe nodded sadly. \"The shower and coffee will help.\"\n\n\"Okay,\" he said, grunting as he stood to his feet, leaving behind a cushion soaked with rancid drunk sweat, its stink wafting up after him, chasing him down the hall. \"But only if you fry the eggs. Will you fry the eggs?\"\n\n\"I'll fry the eggs.\"\n\n\"Over easy?\"\n\n\"Over easy.\"\n\nHe staggered slowly into the bathroom, calling back over his shoulder. \"Kaycee Looes, you're the best thing to ever happen to me.\"\n\nKaycee smiled a little, wishing that were true and not just the rum talking. But she knew better.\n\nThen she limped into the kitchen to make breakfast, mindful they were still days away from the next paycheck, knowing that she should probably scramble the eggs instead of frying them, watering them down with a little more milk than she'd like. Fortunately for her, the bread was about to turn, so she had no choice but to make extra toast, plumping out breakfast enough to keep them both full until lunch.\n\nHer father slipped in, skin still steaming from the hot shower, curly black hair tousled and slick, eyes twinkling at the thought of sizzling eggs. \"What's with all the toast?\"\n\n\"About to go stale.\"\n\n\"Good. I like toast.\"\n\n\"You better. It's that and the eggs until lunch. Drink your coffee.\"\n\nHe sipped at the mug, face souring a little. It wasn't good. But that was hardly Kaycee's fault. So he hid his displeasure, muscling down as much as he could stand without burning himself. Kaycee held the scalding-hot skillet above his plate, oil popping, thick egg white bubbling up, sliding two eggs off with a warped old spatula. Her father looked up, eyes pleading. \"One more?\" he asked.\n\n\"You want eggs tomorrow?\"\n\nHe nodded.\n\n\"Then you only get two today.\"\n\n\"Okay,\" he said, looking down sadly.\n\n\"Eat 'em slow.\"\n\nWade took a small bite of dry toast, smiling, twitching an eyebrow playfully at his daughter. She smiled back, slid a single egg onto her own plate, and put the skillet back on the stove.\n\nThe two ate together in silence, Wade trying to sober up, wishing he didn't have to, Kaycee trying not to think about the fact that this was going to be the very best part of her day. They powered through the dry toast and the bad coffee, but the eggs were perfect. Piping hot, lightly salted, a dash of pepper. They slid warm and greasy into the belly, at once sobering Wade up.\n\nIt was morning again, and he was ready to go back to it. He kissed his daughter on the cheek, wrapping his massive arms around her, then headed out to catch his ride back into town.\n\nKaycee quickly cleaned the kitchen then readied herself for school\u2014a quick shower and a few strokes of a brush through her hair before tossing on a clean shirt and a pair of shorts. Then she slipped a sandal onto her one good foot, turned off the television, locked the front door, and walked out to the curb to wait for the van to school.\n\nShe stood there, staring at her shadow on the ground, the bland, dingy colors of the dry earth stinging in the harsh Australian morning sun. The van always picked her up last, already overflowing with kids. Kaycee dreaded seeing them, hated the moment when the van pulled up and the doors opened and not one of them looked out the window or up at her as she passed them. They weren't cruel. No one would utter a word about her foot or the split in her lip. There would be no name calling, no harassment. Instead it was as if she wasn't even there. The invisible kid meant for the seat no one else dared sit in lest they be forced into eye contact or to exchange a few uncomfortable words.\n\nSometimes she wished people would say something, make fun of her in some shape or form, if only so she could put them in their place; if only so she could feel like they saw her. She hated being awake. She hated the world outside sleep. In the dream, she could be whatever she wanted; here, she was what everyone thought she was.\n\nAnd that was nothing. Nothing at all.\nCHAPTER 9\n\nON KUTJI\n\nAN EXCERPT BY DR. THADDEUS RAY, PH.D., FROM HIS BOOK DREAMSPEAKING, DREAMWALKING, AND DREAMTIME: THE WORLD ON THE OTHER SIDE OF DOWN UNDER\n\nShadows are not necessarily spirits of the dead, though they are formed by the painful, agonizing, or tortured death of a human being. But these are not the persons themselves, merely reflections of the very worst or most powerful parts of them. While it is true that they are comprised of dreamstuff squeezed from a deceased soul, they are not beings of memory, intellect, or experience. They are beings of deep emotion and fear. They are monsters born of lingering hate, pain, or agony.\n\nShadows do not exist to achieve goals fostered in life\u2014at least not in the way they were initially intended\u2014but rather to carry out some new mission to assuage the painful scars that forged them. These are scars that never heal, wounds that never close. Shadows press on like Sisyphus, forever clawing at the night, continuing to do the same terrible things over and over again until they have no dreamstuff left to press on any farther.\n\nSome shadows, like boggarts, become mostly sentient. Most of the time they behave as they did in life, albeit with much more pronounced traits or quirks. The only point at which their shadowy nature becomes a hindrance on their personality is when they feed or fight. It is in those moments that their lack of humanity shows through and their truly terrible natures bubble to the surface. One can live in close proximity to a boggart for quite some time without ever feeling in danger or actually being in danger for that matter. But shadows are comprised of darkness, and eventually they must succumb to that.\n\nOther shadows, like La Llorona, are much more feral than their more humanlike cousins. These creatures are formed from women destroyed by their own grief and madness, and thus that is all that remains of them. They wander the earth, reliving their final moments, trying desperately to get it right this time around. Their memories are short, their personalities only approximations of humanity, their attempts to imitate behavior existing only as a self-defense mechanism. They seduce men to keep them from becoming a threat and they use whatever guile they can to gain access to children they can drag into the water.\n\nKutji, on the other hand, are somewhere between these two extremes.\n\nA kutji is a shadow native to the deserts of the outback. Often appearing warped and distorted, they are shaped as their shadow hung at the moment their body passed. This leaves them ranging in appearance from short, squat, and square to tall, lithe, and gangly, possessed of limbs the length of a grown man. Their bodies are made entirely of darkness and thus they are terrified of the sun, living in holes, cracks, or under rocks and abandoned vehicles. If caught away from their haunts near dawn, they will take shelter anywhere dark and hide until the sun sets once more. Exposure to sunlight boils them away almost immediately and, once destroyed, they will never return. While artificial light is painful to them, it poses no real threat and they will endure it if the reason is good enough.\n\nKutji are usually formed as the result of violent, unjust, or unwelcome death. It is very rare for a peaceful or accidental death to result in forming one. Most often they are formed by the fear and anger building up over a short period of time between learning of their death and experiencing it. In that moment, the dying think of all the things they left unfinished, all of the anger they have for the person killing them, and they cling to that rather than finding release. The moment their soulstuff is released, if an area is as particularly rich in dreamstuff as the outback is, a kutji can be formed.\n\nThey do not exist as they did in life. Their wit, their passionate desires, and their quirks remain, but their humanity is stripped from them, so much so that they don't even bother to imitate it. They are in thrall to their desires, trying again and again to achieve the unattainable satisfaction of completing whatever task eluded them in life. Oftentimes this can be the accumulation of wealth, satiating sadistic urges, or getting revenge for some slight done to them. On rare occasions the task can be specific, like getting hold of a certain item or killing an individual. But like many spirits, the kutji lose their way over time and those desires become blurred, muddled, sometimes confusing one object with another.\n\nThe kutji cannot be satisfied. It is their curse. They walk the earth, fearing the light, convinced that completing their task offers some great reward. Whether it be death, a respite, or a return to the land of the living, they each pine for something and think achieving it will grant it to them. But it never does.\n\nHowever short of memory they might be about their reason for being, they are both long of memory and extraordinarily patient. A kutji will work for years, even decades, on a single task. But unable to affect many things in the mortal world, they often must turn to dreamspeakers or anyone else able to peer past the veil. With these people, the kutji often strike bargains, offering to do dark deeds or help gather the dreamstuff to perform magic. Dreamspeakers, better known as Clever Men or shamans, have learned over time to cultivate relationships with local kutji and call upon them to do whatever they need done, often unaware of the kutji's true motivations. In truth, these motivations rarely affect the dreamspeaker, as it is customary for the first deal struck to be one of nonaggression.\n\nKutji, like many spirits, are bound to their own word. As certain memories fade, so too do the details surrounding such an agreement, leaving behind only the prohibition or promise and an understanding that this prohibition or promise is sacred law. Breaking such an oath is like deciding to put your hand into a fire, or to jump from a cliff, or to cut off your own foot. They believe doing so is the key to their undoing, no matter how small or insignificant the agreement might be.\n\nUnlike more terrifying menaces, kutji aren't particularly violent or directly malicious. More often than not, a kutji's requests will seem ridiculously simple, almost mundane. Sometimes they serve no other purpose than to fulfill a desire or habit they performed in life, like drinking or smoking. But it is wise not to take all of their requests lightly, for they are playing a long game. It is possible the small task you perform for them in the physical world is the puzzle piece they need to do something terrible far down the road or is meant to bring some harm to the person performing it. In fact, you can almost always be assured that it is. One should never agree to a kutji's terms before thinking through what they are asking for.\n\nWhile kutji often appear as spirits, they can show themselves in a number of different forms, ranging from animals like kangaroos, crows, owls, eagles, bandicoots, emus, and snakes; they can also manifest as dust storms, rain clouds, or even thunder. They can also possess these creatures in order to travel over great distances or appear to those who cannot perceive their spirit forms easily. Their powers over the souls of others allow them to possess human beings, at a great cost to their own energy, infect others with disease, or even cause death.\n\nBut kutji rarely bother those who cannot see or hear them, for they find them to be of little use. The only time one can expect to be bothered by one is if you somehow play into achieving their goals. As long lived as kutji are, these are not goals it is easy to simply blunder into. On the rare occasion that you find yourself the target of a kutji's intentions, all bets are off. It is cases like these when any reports of aggression or deliberate malfeasance arise. They are beings with hazy memories, and without remorse; expect little quarter.\nCHAPTER 10\n\nAUSTIN\n\nColby meandered into the bar with a belly full of lasagna and an ass still sore from his awkward, painful landing in the grass behind Carol Voss's house. He didn't want to go home yet, but he didn't want to be around the denizens of the Cursed and the Damned either. So he quietly slid into a small bar, hoping to blend in with the flimsy plywood and ironic neon.\n\nHe ordered a cheap Mexican import served with a lime in the neck of the bottle and made his way out through a metal door to the back patio. Limestone walls ranging from knee high to almost ten feet tall surrounded a courtyard littered with cheap metal tables, a chain-link fence boxing in the rest. It was a nice, quiet place to have a beer and ignore the rest of the world. There were no demons, no angels, no djinns.\n\nJust a blonde. A beautiful, heartbreaking blonde.\n\nAnd she was sitting alone.\n\nShe was slender, tan, freckled, blond hair spilling out from under a braided-cord straw cowboy hat, wearing a black \u200bT-shirt with the sleeves ripped off, faded blue jeans, and hand-painted sneakers. One arm was smooth and bare while the other was a complete sleeve of brightly colored tattoos. The corners of her mouth twitched into a slight smile when she saw Colby and it felt as if the whole patio had brightened at once. Her delicate fingers fondled a local craft brew and she bit her lip slightly.\n\nIt was a slow night and they were otherwise alone.\n\nThe blonde traced the rim of her bottle with a single finger and watched as Colby took a seat a few tables away. He tried not to look at her, clumsily trying to show that he wasn't creeping up on her.\n\n\"That's not really a Mexican beer, you know,\" she said.\n\nColby looked up, a little confused. He'd been thinking of a dozen different ways she might shoot him down and had no idea how to react to her speaking directly to him. He swallowed hard. \"Um, huh?\"\n\n\"The beer. It's not Mexican.\"\n\nColby looked down at the beer in his hand. \"Oh. I didn't know that.\"\n\n\"Yeah, they make them in San Antonio from a Mexican recipe and just put imported on the bottle. It's the same guys who make all the cheap stuff.\"\n\n\"What's that?\" he asked, pointing at her own beer.\n\n\"Local.\"\n\n\"You like it?\"\n\n\"It's pretty much the same shit you're drinking, only more expensive.\" She stood up and took a few graceful steps over to his table and pointed at the empty chair beside him. Not across. Beside. \"May I?\"\n\n\"Uh, yeah! Yeah!\"\n\nShe plopped down in the chair far less gracefully than she'd walked and took a swig of beer. \"It costs more, but the money stays here in town, puts guys I know to work, so it's worth it.\"\n\n\"Oh, local economy and all that.\"\n\n\"I'm Austin,\" she said, raising her beer.\n\n\"Colby,\" he said, raising his.\n\n\"You know, I gotta say, I imagined you much more well spoken than this.\"\n\n\"I'm . . . I'm sorry.\"\n\n\"It's okay. Do I have you flustered or are you just normally like this around people?\"\n\n\"I . . . well . . . yeah. It's you.\"\n\nShe smiled, reaching into the hip pocket of her jeans. \"I can dig that. Just as long as the conversation gets better as the night goes on.\" Austin pulled out a small bag of weed and a pack of papers and, without a thought, began rolling a joint.\n\n\"What are you doing?\"\n\nWith a quick lick and a twist of her wrists, she wrapped the paper up tight into a perfectly formed spliff. \"Rolling one up. You wanna share or would you like your own?\"\n\n\"Uh, no. Um, thanks though.\"\n\nAustin laughed. \"I never pegged you for a prude.\" She lit the joint and took a quick puff.\n\n\"I'm not a prude. It's just, we're out in public.\"\n\nShe held her breath for a second, then exhaled loudly. \"There's not a cop within three blocks of this place and not one who will walk by for another . . . fifty minutes, give or take.\"\n\n\"That's a little specific.\"\n\n\"They have schedules. Routines. Habits. Lots of things that keep them in other places and then bring them here. But nothing that will bring anyone here anytime soon.\"\n\n\"Well, what about the bartenders?\"\n\n\"The bartenders?\" she asked. \"Have you ever known any bartenders? Our biggest concern then is bogarting this. You worry too much.\"\n\n\"And you seem pretty relaxed.\"\n\n\"Trust me. It's still, like, forty-nine and a half minutes before anyone comes by. Maybe forty-nine even.\"\n\nColby pursed his lips. \"Who are you?\"\n\n\"You still don't recognize me, do you?\"\n\n\"Not even a little. Do we know each other?\"\n\nShe shook her head. \"No. We know of each other. I've read your books. I've seen you around. But know . . . ?\"\n\nColby's jaw dropped open. \"Wait, you're\u2014\"\n\n\"Austin.\"\n\n\"The Austin.\"\n\nShe smiled. \"No. Just Austin. There's no the.\"\n\nColby gawked at her for a moment, stunned speechless.\n\nShe took another drag off the joint, held her breath deeply for a moment, letting Colby wrap his head around what was going on, then exhaled. \"You sure you don't want a hit of this? It's amazing stuff.\"\n\n\"No, really.\"\n\n\"Aw, Colby. I thought you were cool.\"\n\n\"No you didn't. No one thinks I'm cool.\"\n\n\"Okay. I didn't. But I did hope you would get cool-er.\"\n\nColby sipped his beer, the wheels turning in his head. \"Wait a second. Why haven't we met until just now?\"\n\n\"Because we never had to before today.\" Her eyes turned cold and serious. She wasn't playing around anymore. \"You crossed the line tonight, Colby. It wasn't your place to do what you did.\"\n\n\"Is this about . . . is this about Beatriz?\"\n\n\"Of course it's about Beatriz. What else have you been up to tonight?\"\n\n\"That's between her and me.\"\n\nAustin shook her head. \"There isn't a her anymore. Now it's just you and me. You may want to be the sheriff of this town, but you ain't the sheriff of this town. There's only one sheriff. And she might have to ask you to leave if you can't get your shit together.\"\n\n\"I can't believe what I'm hearing. You knew about her?\"\n\n\"Yeah.\"\n\n\"What she was up to?\"\n\nAustin nodded, the joint six inches from her face. \"Yeah.\"\n\n\"And you were just going to let those kids die? You would have let that thing drown them?\"\n\n\"Of course not,\" she said, slightly offended. \"Vincent and Taylor are wonderful boys, both with bright futures. More important, their mother is a sweet, wonderful woman who would do anything for them. I wasn't going to let Beatriz harm a hair on their heads. I couldn't do that to Carol.\"\n\nColby took a sip of his beer and glared at Austin. \"And just how did you plan on stopping her?\"\n\n\"They're still here, aren't they?\"\n\n\"Yeah, but not because of you.\"\n\nAustin grinned. \"Really? How did Carol find you again?\"\n\nColby leaned forward pensively, his eyes narrowed. \"She said a psychic told her, but wouldn't say who.\"\n\n\"Mother Ojeda. Nice woman. Has the gift. But not quite like you. She hears things sometimes. Sometimes it's mild schizophrenia mutating shit she heard on TV. Sometimes it's me, telling people what they need to hear.\"\n\n\"So what you're saying is that you brought Carol to a psychic and the psychic told her where to find me because you knew I would show up and kill Beatriz.\"\n\nAustin did the mental arithmetic, tracing her work on the air with a single outstretched finger. Then she nodded. \"Yes. That's exactly how it happened.\"\n\n\"And you're pissed at me?\"\n\n\"I know it doesn't make sense, Colby. But I don't have to make sense.\"\n\n\"Why? Because you're a woman or something?\"\n\n\"No, idiot,\" she said. \"Because I'm a god.\" She paused for a moment, eyeing him up and down. \"Or what you call genius loci.\" Then she smiled. \"Like I said, I've read your books.\"\n\n\"But why did you just chew me out for stopping her after you set it up so I would?\"\n\n\"Because we needed to meet. We needed to have this conversation.\"\n\n\"I can't believe this shit.\"\n\nAustin killed the last few swigs of her beer and slammed it down on the table. Then she took another toke of her dwindling joint. A waiter appeared with a beer for both of them, setting them down on the table.\n\n\"Hey,\" he said to Austin. \"You mind if I hit that?\"\n\n\"Be my guest,\" she said. \"Don't bring none unless you want to share.\"\n\n\"My kind of lady.\" The waiter took a few quick tokes, holding them in, then gave a wave on his way back to the bar, exhaling just before walking inside.\n\nShe smiled. \"That's Brad. He was having a rough night earlier. Nice guy. There's a girl a few streets over named Felicia. Her ex called her fat in the middle of their breakup. She's not taking it well. I'm going to let her stagger over this way and she and Brad are going to have a very nice few hours together.\"\n\n\"A drunk hookup?\"\n\n\"He's gonna consider the night a good one, she'll wake up remembering some cute bartender couldn't keep his hands off her, and even though they'll most likely never see each other again, it will put them on the path they need to be on. But you wanna know the kicker, Colby?\"\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"I'm not making either of them do anything. I just know them. Intimately. I know the mistakes they'll make when they're presented with the options. And by manipulating a few traffic lights, breaking a high-heeled shoe or two, and distracting someone long enough to run a stop sign, I can put two people in each other's arms in order to change their lives for the better. But it's not always about hookups or good times. Sometimes it's about murderous spirits. Sometimes it's about wizards who think it's their job to patrol the streets to keep the night safe for children.\n\n\"What you did the night the fairies came for Ewan was your business. They made their bed. You did what was just and right for you to do in that situation. I've got no beef with that. And until now you've been all talk. I've certainly got no beef with that. But tonight you crossed the line from tough talking to instigating. I played my part, which is why we're talking over beers and a joint\u2014and really, you should try this, it's really good shit\u2014instead of having it out in the mud behind Carol's house.\"\n\nColby finished his beer and then grabbed the other. \"So why exactly did we need to talk?\"\n\n\"So I could tell you never to do that again. I don't care how you go about defending yourself. But the vigilante act ends tonight.\"\n\n\"I'm sure you're telling everyone that Austin is back on the market and the buffet is open, then?\"\n\n\"Are you kidding me? I'm not saying shit. I love that those prissy Limestone Kingdom pricks are staying where they belong out in the woods. I just can't have you gunning them down in the streets if and when they do come to town.\" Austin took one last hit from the roach, finally cashing in her joint. Then she looked at Colby with soft, gentle eyes. \"Like I said. I don't have to make sense.\"\n\nColby shook his head, a hand to his temple.\n\nAustin stood up and slammed down the remainder of her beer. \"Besides, it's rare that I get to share a beer with a man I don't have to pretend around. Know what I mean?\" She winked, then shook her head. \"Because I'm a woman? Jesus, dude. You are not single by accident, that's for damn sure.\" Then she vanished from where she stood, leaving Colby confused and alone on the patio, fumbling for the words to apologize.\n\n\"Damnit,\" he muttered, thinking about how hard his heart was pounding. \"That's inconvenient.\"\nCHAPTER 11\n\nON GENIUS LOCI\n\nAN EXCERPT BY DR. THADDEUS RAY, PH.D., FROM HIS BOOK THE EVERYTHING YOU CANNOT SEE\n\nAs discussed earlier, dreamstuff accumulates, giving birth to creatures born of whim or, in extreme cases, transmuting a creature's dreamstuff from one form into another, as in the case of a dying human turning into a spirit, a shadow, or a fairy. But not all things created as such are conjured directly out of the imagination of those nearby. In many cases, as with the genius loci, dreamstuff coalesces into a form representative of the area around it. These creatures become arbiters or wardens of the area they inhabit, embodying the very essence of the land itself and the people who live upon it.\n\nThe name genius loci comes from the Latin, which originally described local gods, specifically household gods, or those that governed over small towns or islands. Greeks and Romans often recognized these genii as godlike beings, telling and retelling the stories of their governance or misadventure as part of their oral history. As was the case with many cultures of the day, the stories would be absorbed into other communities and ascribed to their own genii. Thus rose the tales of the Greek and Roman pantheons, which in all likelihood were based on the accumulated tales of hundreds of different beings and creatures.\n\nA genius loci can take many forms, from the green men or living trees of the forests, to leviathans of the sea, to dust devils of the desert, to creatures that look and act every bit like the human beings they represent and protect. Each locale creates the protector it wants or needs, whether or not they know what they're asking for. But once born of dreamstuff, the genius loci possesses a mind and will of its own and thus can affect its surroundings just as much as its surroundings affect it.\n\nOften, as is the case with fairy communities, the genius loci will interfere directly with the events transpiring around it. This can involve acting in the place of a king or governor, as a knight or protector, or in some cases, simply overseeing a council of the beings it represents. Other genius loci, like those representing large cities or particularly powerful locations\u2014like castles or islands\u2014tend to act indirectly, skulking in shadows or amongst the populace, gently manipulating the area around it with small, imperceivable changes. This can be as subtle as gifting a person with sudden inspiration or causing a car to stall, delaying them or forcing them into an unplanned encounter, or as obvious as an earthquake or large-scale riot.\n\nMost large-scale cities tend to create people, albeit people with an extraordinary amount of control over their surroundings. The personality of this being tends to be entirely representative of the culture around it, looking, sounding, and acting in the purest, most common, easily recognizable fashion. The genius loci of Manhattan, for example, embodies the essence of the true New Yorker, while that of Seattle is much more subdued.\n\nUnlike most beings of dreamstuff, however, genius loci have incredibly short life spans, some living as long as a few decades while others live only a few short years. As the culture around it changes, the genius loci too begins to change, and as it shifts from one era to the next, it must re-create itself, becoming something entirely different from what it was before\u2014something more representative of the new era. For example, the genius loci that oversaw Manhattan was very different in the sleazy Times Square era of the late sixties and seventies from what it is in the family friendly, commerce-minded era of the time of this writing. While a genius loci might keep many of the same traits, enough of it changes through each incarnation that it re-forms as a different being. Look, style, demeanor, and even gender might change as a result of its ever evolving surroundings.\n\nGenii should always be treated with the utmost respect, as they are creatures to be feared. When encountering one you must always remember that you are on their turf, playing by their rules. When destroyed they will re-form, and when they do, they will remember exactly who wronged them.\nCHAPTER 12\n\nBACK TO THE CURSED AND THE DAMNED\n\nThe Cursed and the Damned was as lonely a place as there was at this time of night. For all its business, it might as well be out in the mists of the moors or well off the highway in the barren Arizona desert. It was in the dead center of downtown, in the middle of everything, but there were few beings inside Austin left across the veil to enjoy it.\n\nThe only reason Yashar even kept it running at all was as a silent eulogy to Old Scraps. He stood there all day, most days, staring over the cheap, depressing innards of the place\u2014its bulbs dangling uncovered on long cords from the ceiling, its gray concrete walls, mismatched tables, boxes and barrels in place of most chairs\u2014occasionally wiping the counter out of habit, thinking about what this place used to be. Every once in a while he'd be reminded that some things just needed to be put down or left alone long enough to die. And every time that thought crept in, he thought about the times he and Colby spent drinking themselves into a stupor, the smell of Bill's smoke from the back corner, the sound of drunken angels laughing and falling out of their chairs, having to be hoisted back upright before ordering another round.\n\nAnd in that moment he remembered why he was serving as life support for an ailing friend, keeping it alive long enough to see the last few good days it had left. This would prove to be just such a day.\n\nColby threw back the whiskey as if he was putting out a fire. In a sense, he was. He was still shaken, rattled, his heart pounding, gut lurching, fists clenched tight. All the color had drained from his face and he trembled\u2014just a little\u2014reeling from his encounter with Austin.\n\nYashar leaned over the bar from the other side, bottle at the ready, leather jacket and dangling baubles clanging on the countertop, eagerly hanging on Colby's next words. \"Well,\" he said, as Colby lowered his glass. \"What's got you so spooked?\" he asked, pouring Colby another few fingers of whiskey as he did.\n\n\"I met her,\" said Colby.\n\n\"Who?\" asked Bill the Shadow, looming darkly in the corner of the bar.\n\n\"The girl of your dreams?\" asked Yashar with an interested smile.\n\n\"Worse,\" said Colby. \"Austin.\"\n\nYashar leaned in a little closer. \"Austin who?\"\n\n\"Austin.\"\n\nYashar sighed, deflating. \"Oooooh. It's about time you met her.\"\n\n\"Yeah, Colby,\" said Bill. \"How the hell have you gone this long without running into her?\"\n\n\"She's cute\u2014,\" said Yashar.\n\nBill nodded, interrupting. \"Yeah, she is.\"\n\n\"But she's nothing to get in a twist over.\" Yashar recorked the whiskey. This wasn't a story warranting the good stuff.\n\nColby slammed back the whiskey once more, shook his head. \"She's pissed at me.\"\n\nYashar eyed him suspiciously. \"And how did you manage that?\"\n\n\"I killed Beatriz.\"\n\nYashar and Bill traded troubled, disbelieving glances. Then Yashar slowly uncorked the bottle and walked back over to Colby. \"Say that again?\"\n\n\"I killed Beatriz La Llorona. And Austin wasn't too happy about that.\"\n\nYashar poured Colby another glass of whiskey, filling it almost to the top, then looked at him darkly. \"Did she have it coming?\"\n\nColby nodded. \"Yeah. She had it coming.\"\n\nYashar nodded in return. \"Bill? You knew her, right?\"\n\nBill nursed a beer, nodding. \"Yeah, I knew her.\"\n\n\"And?\"\n\n\"And the kid's right. She had it coming. Crazy. Half starved. Damaged from the moment she showed up. She never gave the world a damn thing except drowned kids. The river is better without her.\"\n\nYashar shook his head. \"Then why the hell would Austin be pissed at you?\"\n\n\"Because I'm not the sheriff of this town,\" said Colby. \"She is.\"\n\n\"And she asked you to leave town?\"\n\n\"Nope.\"\n\n\"Then what's the problem?\"\n\nColby took a deep breath. \"Like you said. She's cute.\"\n\n\"Aw, hell.\" Bill groaned.\n\n\"Damnit, Colby,\" said Yashar.\n\n\"What?\"\n\nYashar put the cork back in the whiskey. \"I thought this was serious.\"\n\n\"This is serious. You've been telling me for years that I should find a girl. I finally find one and not only does she threaten to kick my ass out of town, but she's also powerful enough to do it. To make matters worse, she's the reason I ended up killing Beatriz to begin with.\"\n\n\"Wait. You're going to have to explain the last part,\" said Yashar.\n\n\"Yeah,\" said Bill. \"I'm a little lost as well.\"\n\nColby sipped from his glass. \"A woman came to me for help. Said she was being plagued by La Llorona. She got my name from a psychic.\"\n\n\"Mother Ojeda?\" asked Bill.\n\n\"Yeah,\" said Colby. \"How'd you know that?\"\n\n\"The billboard psychic. One of the only legit working spiritualists in town. She's exactly who Austin would use.\"\n\nYashar's eyes grew wide. \"Shit, Colby. You got played.\"\n\n\"Yeah, I did.\"\n\n\"And that . . .\"\n\nColby shot a longing glance across the bar. \"Intrigues the hell out of me. Never met anyone before who could play me, put me in my place, and make me feel like I deserved it.\"\n\nBill laughed and sipped his beer. \"Kid's in trouble all right, Yash. Let the whiskey flow.\"\n\n\"Colby,\" said Yashar. \"Did she threaten you?\"\n\n\"Directly?\"\n\n\"Yeah.\"\n\n\"No. It was more of a warning against future endeavors.\"\n\nYashar nodded. \"So she got what she needed out of you and that was that, right?\"\n\n\"Exactly.\"\n\n\"Then you're in good shape. Austin is good people. That's her thing.\"\n\n\"Her thing?\"\n\n\"Yeah. Every loci I've ever met has had a thing. An ethos. A sense of purpose driven in one direction or another. It's what they impart to their people. For some it's progress. For others it's war. Some want isolation, others celebration. For years Austin was a bit of a party girl. She likes her beer and she throws amazing parties. But she's mellowed. Her thing has become less about the fireworks and more about the company, if you know what I mean. She wants her legacy to be a town where everyone feels welcome and nobody messes much with anybody else.\"\n\nBill lit a cigarette. \"Yep. She once told me that she wanted this city to feel like the buzz before the drunk. Laid back and worry free.\"\n\nColby grimaced. \"That doesn't sound like the girl I met at all.\"\n\n\"Really?\" asked Yashar. \"And where did you meet your dream girl?\"\n\nColby hesistated a moment. \"At a bar.\"\n\n\"Was she pissed?\"\n\n\"No. She . . . she was actually kind of flirty.\"\n\n\"Uh-huh. Was this the easiest piece of ass chewing anyone's ever given you?\"\n\nColby stared down at the bartop, nodding.\n\n\"Then it sounds exactly like Austin.\"\n\n\"S-so, then . . . ,\" Colby stammered a little, swallowing hard. \"H-h-h-how do, how do I . . . how do I tell her . . . ?\"\n\n\"Oh, sweet merciful Christ,\" said Bill. \"This is happening.\"\n\nYashar pointed a stiff finger at Bill. \"Cut him some slack.\"\n\n\"Nope. Not this time.\" Bill took a drag off his cigarette then drenched it in the backwash at the bottom of his beer. He stood up and put a firm hand on Colby's shoulder. \"She's loci. She knows. Don't be such a bitch about it.\" Then Bill faded into the shadows, vanishing from the bar.\n\nColby and Yashar sat in silence for a moment, each taking turns sipping their whiskey.\n\n\"He's right, you know,\" said Yashar. \"She knows.\"\n\n\"Well, then, what the hell am I supposed to do about it?\"\n\n\"Nothing. You don't do anything. You've dealt with loci before.\"\n\n\"Yeah. I've fought with them. Argued. Made peace. Avoided them when I've had to.\" He paused, cocking an eyebrow. \"Blew one to pieces. But I've never asked one out on a date.\"\n\n\"It's kind of the same thing, actually.\"\n\n\"I'm being serious.\"\n\nYashar nodded apologetically, pouring more whiskey into Colby's glass. \"I know you are. And I'm trying, really. But, well, I've known you since you were eight.\"\n\n\"And?\"\n\n\"And in all that time, you still don't understand women any better than you did then.\"\n\n\"The hell I don't. I . . . get . . . women.\"\n\nYashar took a sip of whiskey, never breaking his stare, not once so much as blinking.\n\n\"I . . .\"\n\nYashar took another sip.\n\n\"Tell me everything you know.\"\n\n\"Are we really going to have the talk . . . ?\"\n\n\"Don't make this harder than it already is.\"\n\n\" . . . because this could take a while.\"\n\n\"Tell me. Everything.\"\n\nYashar pulled two ice-cold beers from under the bar, effortlessly popping off the bottle caps. \"In that case, we'd better slow down on the hard stuff.\"\nCHAPTER 13\n\nBUSINESS\n\nSwallowed whole and deep by night, the Clever Man stalked quietly through the bush, listening rather than looking. He knew the land, every nook, every cranny, every rock, every shrub. The stars were out, bright beacons guiding him along the songline. The only thing that could surprise him here would be on the move. So, sound; he listened for sound.\n\nHe heard them at a distance\u2014a mob of chittering spirits, rolling across the land like a storm, their scuttling bodies tearing through the night with purpose. High-pitched hoots, catcalls, guttural mumbling in incomprehensible languages, moans about half-forgotten agonies. They were headed right for him. He took a deep breath, bracing himself, closing his eyes.\n\nSlowly he drew the bullroarer from his pouch\u2014a carefully carved and painted piece of wood at the end of a frayed, time-worn cord. Then he whipped it around, one end of the cord wrapped tightly around his hand, slinging it through the air like a propeller. At first it hummed, then it sang, finally it screeched such terrible sounds, like a thousand souls loosed from their bodies all at once.\n\nThe mass of creatures swarmed in the blackness, surrounding the Clever Man on all sides, unseen, moving around him like a swirling school of fish, roiling just out of sight. A single shadow emerged, its thin, wispy arms nothing but nubs without hands, struggling to approach through the mind-shattering cacophony.\n\nAt first he could not see them, but they struggled against the dream, aching to speak. The shadow slunk into the starlight, creeping warily in case the Clever Man lashed out with a bit of unexpected magick. It was as if he was finally able to focus upon the things one sees out of the corner of one's eye only to realize that it still didn't look like anything at all.\n\n\"This soul is not for you, spirits,\" said the Clever Man over the howl of his bullroarer.\n\n\"We don't want your paltry soul,\" said the handless shadow, his mind reeling, manner unsteady, voice like air leaking out from a pinched balloon. \"We come for larger prizes. We come with business.\"\n\n\"You have nothing I want.\"\n\n\"Oh, but we do,\" it hissed. \"We doooooooooo. We can offer you a great many things. Riches. Power.\"\n\nThe Clever Man's expression remained blank, entirely loosed of emotion, as if he had no interest in anything at all. \"These things do not interest me. Who are you, kutji? Who are you really?\"\n\n\"No one. Just shadows.\"\n\n\"Your name, kutji. What were you called in life? Tell me or this conversation is over.\"\n\nMulling it over for a moment, its mind befuddled by the bullroarer, it said, \"Jeronimus. My name was Jeronimus. And these were my crew.\" The handless shadow waved his stump, presenting his drifting legion as they slowly melted in from out of the night, nearly formless, like nightmares crafted into dolls and blown awake by the last breath of dying gods, each half a dream of what they might have been.\n\n\"And who is your master?\"\n\n\"We have no master.\"\n\n\"Who created you?\"\n\n\"A spirit of great power.\"\n\n\"And who is this spirit?\"\n\n\"A spirit of great power.\"\n\n\"You said that.\"\n\n\"A spirit of such great power that we dare not speak its name.\"\n\n\"Now that,\" said the Clever Man, \"interests me.\" He sat down, cross-legged, a wry smile on his face, his arm still whirling the bullroarer. With its name he had power over the spirit now; it could not hurt him. For a time. He swatted at the air, commanding the spirit to sit. \"And what business could be important enough to involve me?\"\n\nJeronimus smiled, his black shadow grin carving deep cuts in the angular box of his face. \"There is a dreamwalker that visits you. We want her.\"\n\nShaking his head, the Clever Man waved the spirit off. \"Catching dreamwalkers. Tricky business.\"\n\n\"We don't need you to catch her. We have plans for the catching. We need you to keep her in the dream, keep her from running off to wake up.\"\n\n\"Oh,\" said the Clever Man, making scissors with his fingers, cutting invisible string. \"I know exactly what you mean. This can be done. But still, very dangerous. She's a powerful spirit. Very strong. Very clever. Why do you need her?\"\n\n\"Because she is ours.\"\n\n\"If she were yours, you wouldn't need my help.\"\n\n\"She belongs to us. She is the last of the blood promised us.\"\n\n\"And when you have this blood?\"\n\n\"We will be free.\"\n\n\"Why don't you just kill her and take the blood you're owed?\"\n\nJeronimus raised both his shadowy stumps. \"Because we haven't all our hands to kill with. She will help us find them. Then, when her body fails, she will join us.\"\n\n\"And you will be free.\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"This is dangerous. My price is steep.\"\n\n\"Name it,\" said Jeronimus.\n\n\"Yes, name it,\" hissed the crowd of shadows.\n\n\"From this day on, you may never harm anyone of my dreaming.\"\n\n\"Done. Agreed!\" Jeronimus's smile broadened. This was an easy bargain.\n\nThe Clever Man shook his head, holding up his free hand. \"I'm not finished.\" He spun the bullroarer faster.\n\nThe shadows writhed impatiently. \"What else?\" asked Jeronimus, his enthusiasm fading. \"Name your full price.\"\n\n\"You may never again enter Arnhem Land. It is forbidden to you. If you step one foot on it, you forfeit your spirit to me.\"\n\n\"Yes, yessss. Agreed.\"\n\n\"Agreed!\" promised the crowd.\n\n\"And,\" said the Clever Man, looking very sternly at Jeronimus. \"I demand the sacrifice of one of your own.\"\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"One of your shadows.\" He pointed at one standing toward the front of the throng. \"That one. Bring him to me and we have business.\"\n\nThe nominated shadow shrieked. \"What? No!\"\n\nJeronimus turned to look at the shadow of his crewmate then looked back at the Clever Man. He nodded coldly. \"We have business.\"\n\nThe pack of kutji descended upon their brother, each grasping him with their one good hand.\n\n\"No! Not me!\" shrieked the spirit. \"I've been faithful.\"\n\n\"Your sacrifice will not be forgotten,\" said Jeronimus.\n\nThe kutji dragged the shadow to the Clever Man who at once flicked his wrist, whipping the bullroarer to a full stop in his hand. He lowered his arm, pointing the tip of it at the shadow. He began to sing, the words deep, abrasive, cutting into the night with the howl of rising winds and the rippling of the dream around them.\n\nThe sacrifice screamed, its voice breaking, distorting, its essence siphoned directly into the Clever Man's artifact. The shadows scurried backward over the broken, rocky ground, terrified at the sight of their brother's demise.\n\nAnd then all went silent, the night returning to a soft and gentle peace. The shadows did not speak nor chitter nor sigh in any way. They were too frightened by what they had seen.\n\nThe Clever Man nodded respectfully. \"I agree to cut the cord of the dreamwalker and deliver her to you. Are we agreed?\"\n\n\"We are agreed,\" said Jeronimus.\n\n\"We are agreed,\" said the rest of his crew.\n\n\"Good,\" said the Clever Man. \"Do you know what she looks for at night when she walks?\"\n\n\"No,\" said Jeronimus.\n\n\"She seeks a bunyip. Find the one that wallows nearby and show it to her. I will do the rest.\"\nCHAPTER 14\n\nOROBAS AND AMY\n\nGoddamnit, Ewan,\" Colby muttered into the night, his words slurred into an unintelligible blur. He was mumbling incoherently, his head dizzy; his face fuzzy, numb; his lips slapping against each other just to see if they were still there. He was drunk. Completely trashed. Somewhere between beers with Austin, half a bottle of whiskey with Yashar, and a few more slow beers for good measure, Colby was lucky to be upright. Though upright was being a bit optimistic.\n\nHe was stumbling, stammering, cursing randomly. And somehow he'd found himself alone, out in a field, in the middle of the Limestone Kingdom.\n\nThere, off in the distance, Colby could make out his friend, smiling, waving, beckoning him to come back. But he couldn't go back. There was no going back.\n\n\"Fuck you, Ewan, you fucking fuck.\" He stumbled to his knees, his palms slapping the ground in time to prevent him from going face-first into the cold, dewy grass. \"I trusted you. You were pissed at me? Pissed at me? Because I didn't tell you shit? Well, you kept her from me, buddy. Your little girlfriend got us all in the shit, didn't she? That's what they do. It's how they get us.\"\n\nColby lowered himself to the ground, then rolled over on his back, staring at the stars, still yelling out to the spirit in the field.\n\n\"How fucked up is it that of all the monsters we dream up, the ones that are the most dangerous, the ones that we fall most easily for, are the women? The ones that want us to dance or to fuck or to kiss or to, or to, or to whatever, you know. You know what I'm talking about. Those. They're fucking dangerous. I told you. I mean. Not directly. But I told you. But you didn't listen. And here we are. You with your girlfriend and me all alone. Again.\"\n\nColby sat up and spun himself around on his ass to be able to see Ewan. But the spirit was gone.\n\n\"Where the fuck did you go? I know you're out there. There's more to you, isn't there? More than just what's playing on a loop like a broken fucking record replaying the best part. There's got to be more. You're not that. You're not that happy little boy. You were only that happy little boy for like five fucking seconds, but that's how you're going to spend the rest of my life? Waving like a fucking moron?\"\n\nHe stopped, burping slightly, his insides roiling, stomach muttering as loud as he. \"Hold on,\" he said, his throat tight, stifling his speech. Then he vomited, puking up a mess of booze and cheese. \"Oh. Lasagna was a mistake.\" The world began spinning more violently than before. \"Hold on, Ewan. I need to find more grass. Better grass.\"\n\nColby crawled on his hands and knees through his own mess, finally collapsing a few feet away. He stared at the tilt-a-whirl sky, calling out into the night again.\n\n\"That's the worst part, you know,\" he said, screaming at the stars. \"I know so many people who used to be dead, I mean, dead who used to be, well. You know what I'm saying. Spirits of people who are dead now. Some things can become other things. But not you. You're just an echo. A memory. You only say things that made sense a lifetime ago. And that's all you're ever going to say. You'll never make me laugh again. I can't even tell you about Austin. I mean, I can. But you aren't listening. You aren't there. You might as well be ashes in a jar.\"\n\nHis eyes glazed over with tears, his garbled rambling punctuated with weak sobs, occasional hiccups serving as misplaced commas.\n\n\"You just had to fall in love with that girl. A smile and a pair of tits dreamed up to wring the life out of you. Well, fuck you! Fuck you for being there for her and not me. She tried to kill you with the rest of them and you chose her. I was your friend. I was the one you were supposed to be there for. But you chose her. You. Chose. Her.\"\n\nThe night, already quiet, got quieter still. The buzzing insects dropped their songs and crawled deep into the earth. The wind stilled, the leaves holding tight, trying their best not to rustle. The air grew thick, heavy, damp, an unnatural chill setting in with it. Something was very, very wrong.\n\n\"Ewan?\" asked Colby, tilting his head up toward the forest.\n\n\"No,\" oozed a voice so deep and menacing that it sounded almost as if it came from everywhere at once. Then the whole world screamed\u2014damned voices begging for mercy, moaning, bellowing, crying out\u2014a tinny, AM radio broadcast from the bowels of Hell, wails like static, distorted, breaking up, shivering the land itself. Trees stiffened like hairs on the back of the neck. Everything alive quivered like it had something to fear.\n\nThe universe tore open and Hell spilled out, for a brief moment becoming one with the field.\n\nColby tried five times to sit up, aggressively rocking himself upright, before managing with the sixth to prop himself on wobbly arms. The night around him flickered as if by campfire, trees blinking on and off, a dancing murk writhing behind them. It took Colby the better part of a few beats to even take it all in.\n\nThen all, once more, went silent.\n\nBefore him, across the field, stood a man burning from head to toe, fire licking the ground around him, air bending, melting in the heat, a long blazing ribbon rippling off the back of his head like hair fluttering in the breeze, embers like dandruff spiraling away. His flesh was charred and smoking, the deep blue of well-fed flame, bits dripping to the ground in waxy globs before boiling away on the earth. He was like a candle melting in a house fire, its wick burning futilely above.\n\nBeside him stood a horse whose hair was the black of the deep, dark nothing, as if it were a shape torn out of space with all the stars plucked out, only seen because of the light reflecting off everything else around it. It whinnied and stamped, the void of its mane caught in the same strange wind guiding the embers.\n\nColby knew at once who and what these things were. \"No! Nononono. I didn't summon you. I want no part of you. Get out. Get away!\"\n\n\"Colby,\" said the Horse, its voice carved out from the sounds of a stampede. \"Do you know who I am?\"\n\n\"I don't know you. I don't want to know you. Leave me be.\" Colby tried to push himself to his feet, only to end up on all fours, his ass the high point of a failed arch.\n\n\"But you do know us,\" said the man on fire, his voice hissing, sizzling, popping. \"You know us well.\"\n\nColby crab-walked forward to a tree, climbing himself upright along the trunk. \"I've never met you,\" he said, his fingers still gripping handfuls of bark.\n\n\"But you know our stories. Our names.\"\n\n\"No! You are Mr. Johnson,\" he said of the blaze. \"And you are Mr. Miller,\" he said to the Horse. \"And I did not summon you. There are rules. Rules to all of this. And I didn't call for you.\"\n\n\"You didn't call for us,\" said the Horse. \"We're calling for you.\"\n\nColby turned his head, averting his eyes, squinting them shut. \"I'm asking you to leave me. Leave me be. I'm way too drunk for this.\"\n\n\"That's why we're here,\" said the man on fire. \"You wouldn't speak to us sober.\"\n\n\"I won't speak to you now.\"\n\n\"We're here to ask of you a favor.\"\n\nColby looked back, but not directly. \"I grant you no favors. You will not be in my debt nor will I ever be in yours. Go. Away.\"\n\n\"You can help us willingly, or not so willingly. We can make things very hard on you.\"\n\nThe Horse held his hand up to his companion, trying to wave off the threat, then took a few steps forward.\n\n\"That's far enough, Mr. Miller.\"\n\n\"My name is not Mr. Miller, it is\u2014\"\n\n\"Don't say your name.\"\n\n\"Don't you want to know for sure?\"\n\n\"The best that could happen is that you're not really who you appear to be. There's no need to confirm it. Hopefully I'll forget all this by morning.\"\n\n\"There's very little chance of that,\" said the man on fire. \"What we're about to tell you will be hard to forget.\"\n\n\"Impossible to forget,\" said the Horse.\n\n\"Yes, quite impossible.\"\n\nColby pushed himself to his feet, eyes still averted, turning his back on the interlopers. \"I don't want to hear this. This has nothing to do with me.\"\n\n\"This has everything to do with you. Now, do you know why they sent me?\" asked the Horse.\n\nColby walked away, speaking only over his shoulder, his feet unsure. \"Because you can't lie.\"\n\n\"I cannot.\"\n\n\"Then go back and tell the other seventy the truth. I won't talk to you.\"\n\n\"We are sixty-seven now. Five of us are missing.\"\n\n\"I don't see how that's my problem.\"\n\n\"The one who took them is someone you killed a long time ago.\"\n\n\"You're mistaken. The things I kill, they don't come back.\"\n\n\"Some deaths are slower than others,\" said the Horse.\n\nColby continued his stagger, the world spinning so hard and so fast now that it took everything he had to not fall over face-first. \"You're only supposed to speak the truth, Mr. Miller, not in riddles.\"\n\nThe man on fire spoke up. \"The five we're looking for were in Australia when they disappeared.\"\n\nColby stopped, but the world kept spinning. His stomach lurched forward as if it were still moving, and he threw up again before doubling over and, finally, passing out in the grass.\nCHAPTER 15\n\nTHE SEVENTY-TWO\n\nAN EXCERPT BY DR. THADDEUS RAY, PH.D., FROM HIS BOOK THE EVERYTHING YOU CANNOT SEE\n\nIf one wishes to live a long, prosperous life, then one should never dabble in the darker arts. In this book I have warned many times against treading into the unfamiliar waters of the arcane or the occult. No doubt few who read this will heed such warnings. But even if you do not, even if you see this as nothing but a road map to the unseen things you wish to experience firsthand, heed this: do not, under any circumstances whatsoever, attempt contact with the Seventy-two.\n\nI won't name them by name, nor will you find them cataloged as you do in the apocryphal texts, The Lesser Key of Solomon, or throughout Crowley's flawed manuscripts. Even their names have power. Just speaking them too loudly can damn you. They are a motley lot, demons and their unholy spawn, djinn and fallen angel alike. Nine kings of Hell, six princes, nearly two dozen dukes; the rest an assortment of counts, marquis, presidents, and knights. And while not all of them are evil, not one of them can be trusted. They were cast together for far too long and have gone to immeasurable lengths to keep their truths hidden. They do not want you to know the truth about them and they see to it that anyone who learns too much comes to a terrible and untimely end. What I share with you now, while true, is what you could simply have culled from millennia-old documents, the Koran, the Bible, the Torah, and myths and stories all surrounding the greatest king of the old world. Solomon.\n\nThirty centuries ago, long before the veil dropped and all things supernatural still walked in the sight of man, Solomon was named king at the death of his father, David. Undisputed is the fact that Solomon became quite the trafficker with demons. He could summon them, bind them, and force them to do his bidding. The oldest of the stories about him tells of the thirty-six demons he bound into service to build his great temple, using them to cut stone and assemble unearthly masonry, sentencing the most foul and disgusting of them to fetching water or digging ditches.\n\nWhile the specifics of what drove Solomon to gather together the Seventy-two differ from story to story, the result is always the same. Solomon used his powers to summon and command seventy-two different creatures\u2014not, curiously, all of the same creatures he had previously bound into service\u2014and sealed them in a large brass container, which he then had sunk into the deepest part of the sea. The container was marked from top to bottom with Solomon's own seal, a mark said to keep anything supernatural from opening or even finding it. There it rested at the bottom of the sea for hundreds of years, the Seventy-two creatures within bickering, fighting, and ultimately making peace with one another, promising that if they ever were released, they would ensure that such a thing could never happen again. It would not be until hundreds of years later, when the Babylonians would discover the location of the vessel and break it open, thinking it to contain a portion of Solomon's riches, that these creatures would find freedom. In a few short years, these starving beasts would set into motion the collapse of an entire empire, each honoring his pact to protect his fellows while they corrupted and fed on Babylonian souls.\n\nWhile contained, peace reigned for forty long years in Solomon's kingdom, no otherworldly creature daring to so much as raise a stern voice against Solomon and his rule. Upon his death, however, all bets were off. Several djinn snuck into his palace during the royal funeral and forged a number of dark works, each penned and signed with Solomon's name. Theory has long held that they did this to discredit him, to make a mockery of his rule and have him branded a sorcerer who had turned his eyes from God. These works would be stolen, copied, and disseminated by sorcerers for the next three thousand years, their wealth of information not only keeping the existence of these foul creatures known to mortals\u2014thus strengthening them\u2014but written in such a manner as to misrepresent the details of their weaknesses and the various ways in which they could be bound or pressed into service.\n\nThe truth is, there are few ways to truly bind them, all of them dangerous. The rituals contained in the many occult texts chronicling them teach the reader not how to summon them, but instead only how to get their attention. A member of the Seventy-two doesn't always come when he's called. Instead, he only chooses to visit those he feels he can use or corrupt, those who would pose no real threat to their existence. Aleister Crowley's great many deeds and accomplishments in his field come not from his own power or knowledge, but rather from his ignorance that his visitors found him to be an interesting tool through which they harvested the souls of thousands of knowledge-seeking neophytes.\n\nThese demons, and their spawn, feed directly on the misery of others. The mistake most often made about them is that they gain their power from sin. Sin is relative. It exists only in the mind of the sinner. In times past, consuming shellfish or tattooing your body was sinful; in others, uttering certain words or lighting fires on the wrong day. Demons don't measure a person by their sin. They measure them by their guilt. Thus demons rarely have any interest in the truly wicked. Instead they level their gaze at those who might later regret their actions, or whose stomachs turn at witnessing the results of their choices. That feeling you get after cheating on a spouse or stealing from a good friend\u2014that's what they feed on.\n\nRemorseless sorcerers are rarely afforded the courtesy of a visitation. The noble, or the good, or the well intentioned? Those are whom the Seventy-two seek to feed upon. Those are the ones whose calls they will answer. And they will not hesitate to pretend that they might actually in some way be bound or rendered harmless.\n\nDo not talk to them. Do not speak or write their names. Draw no attention to yourself and never ever be so arrogant as to think you can get the better of them in a deal. You will not. These deals are their profession and they have been making them since before the rise of the pyramids. Traffic with them only if you desire a swift death preceded by intense suffering, or a long-drawn-out existence pained by regret.\nCHAPTER 16\n\nA FIELD OF BAD CHOICES\n\nColby's eyes opened wide, the light of the sun already strong on his face, a chirping cacophony of birds bursting into his ears like a TV blaring suddenly in the middle of the night. He shot up straight, sitting at a perfect ninety-degree angle, feet straight out in front of him, completely unaware of where the hell he was. His head thundered; his throat dry, cracking; his eyes stinging.\n\nHis thoughts were muddled; he couldn't process what he was seeing very well at all. Trees. Trees everywhere. Grass. A limestone outcropping. The field.\n\nHoly shit. The field. He knew where he was.\n\n\"Morning,\" soothed a voice from behind him.\n\nColby whipped his head around quickly, immediately regretting his decision. He squinted, pain stabbing him between the eyes, headache murdering his thoughts. \"Fuck!\" A silhouette stood between him and the sun. Rigid, honed muscles. Copper skin. Deerskin tunic. Broad, friendly smile.\n\n\"Someone lost a battle with a bottle last night.\"\n\nAt once Colby recognized him. \"Oh shit. No. No, no, no, no, no, no.\"\n\nCoyote waved his hands. \"Relax. Truce. I'm here with good intentions.\"\n\n\"You don't have good intentions.\"\n\n\"I have the best of intentions. You just won't ever live long enough to see them realized.\"\n\n\"What do you want, Coyote?\"\n\n\"To wake you up, pat you on the ass, and send you on your way before things get ugly around here.\"\n\n\"Excuse me?\"\n\n\"Half the kingdom heard that little show you put on for us all last night. And there were a number of folks who thought taking advantage of your being passed out might be the best solution to their problems.\"\n\nColby snapped his head back and forth, glancing wildly around, once again regretting doing so. \"Ahhhhh!\" He cradled his head in his hands, the hangover pulping his brains with each pound inside his skull. \"Why didn't they?\" he moaned into his hands.\n\n\"They realized that you might wake up. And I reminded them that the only thing more dangerous than an angry Texan was a drunk one. They thought better of it.\"\n\n\"You think?\"\n\nCoyote crossed his arms, his tone slightly more serious. \"They are exactly where they are supposed to be. You're the bear spoiling the picnic.\"\n\nColby squinted, slightly embarrassed. \"I am, aren't I?\"\n\n\"Yes. You are.\"\n\nColby swallowed, his throat prickly and dry. \"Is there water?\"\n\n\"This way.\" Coyote reached down, and taking Colby by the hand, helped him to his feet. He motioned, and Colby followed, walking casually through the sagebrush, past live oaks, toward a nearby stream that babbled louder the closer they got. \"Look, Colby,\" Coyote continued, \"I feel that I owe you. And while I've never lied to you\u2014well, never lied to you about you\u2014\"\n\n\"Have you lied to me about you?\"\n\n\"I lie to everyone about me.\"\n\n\"But wouldn't that have to be a lie?\"\n\nCoyote smiled wider, squinting coyly, shaking his head. \"No. Because I don't always lie. I only lie enough to make sure no one knows the truth. The rest of the time I'm on the level.\" Then he cocked his head to the side, qualifying. \"Mostly.\"\n\n\"And what horseshit do you have for me to shovel today?\"\n\n\"Horseshit?\"\n\n\"You're not here as a friend. You want something.\"\n\n\"Of course I want something. This time around though, I want what you want.\"\n\n\"And what's that?\"\n\nCoyote stopped smiling, the effect of which seemed to dim the harsh bright light of morning. Colby had never seen him not smile, never so much as heard of him not smiling. The old man brooded for a moment, his eyes growing deathly serious, his copper skin creasing unpleasantly. \"I want you to survive this.\"\n\nColby panicked, his chest tightening, his heart pounding suddenly. Every muscle in his body tensed up. \"Survive what?\" He looked around for an ambush, something waiting behind the trees. But there was nothing. Only himself and Coyote. He stopped, but Coyote kept walking, waving for Colby to follow.\n\n\"Last night. Your visitors. The demons.\"\n\nColby searched his memories, unsure for a second what he meant. And then it all came flooding back. He rushed to catch back up to Coyote. \"What do you know of it? You saw them?\"\n\n\"Of course I saw them,\" said Coyote. \"We all saw them. And we felt them before that. Their very presence warps the space around them, changes the rules. Hard to miss. It was the only interesting thing to happen out here for weeks. It was practically theater.\" He paused for a beat. \"They need you for something.\"\n\n\"That much I remember.\"\n\n\"What a demon cannot do for itself, but wants done, most often shouldn't be done at all.\"\n\nColby cradled his head in his right hand, trying to discern how much of what he couldn't understand was being muddled by the hangover and how much of it was just Coyote fucking with him. \"I don't understand,\" he said at last, resigned.\n\n\"No. You don't. And you won't. Not for a while yet. But when you do, you're going to realize just how deep in this you are. Here we are.\"\n\nThe stream was narrow, hidden past a steep, rocking incline, cutting through the land like it had been dug out by hand. Colby fell to his knees and began cupping water into his mouth. It was spring fed. Pure. The only thing ruining it was the taste of the night before.\n\n\"When do I get to understand?\" asked Colby.\n\n\"That's up to you.\"\n\n\"So you're not going to tell me.\" Colby stood up, his belly sloshing with fresh water. \"All due respect to the great and powerful manitou, but I can't take this shit this morning. I'm not going to remember half the stuff I actually even understand coming out of your mouth. If you want to mess with my head, you're going to have to speak slower and be more specific.\"\n\nCoyote nodded, intrigued. \"I'll tell you this much: they mean to use you. If you do everything exactly as they ask, you'll live through it, but you won't be happy about it.\"\n\n\"And if I refuse?\"\n\n\"It'll be worse. Either way, something terrible is coming for you.\"\n\n\"Something terrible?\"\n\n\"The past.\"\n\n\"If you know something, just tell me. They said Australia. This is about her, isn't it? This is about what I did there.\"\n\nCoyote nodded. \"And a lot more. This goes back a long time. There are games within games going on, bargains within bargains that have yet to see their end. These things, they have intentions so vast and alien that you'll never be able to wrap your mind all the way around them, but even those get trumped by the bargain they made with themselves. Several of them are in trouble, which means they are all in trouble. And they will do whatever it takes to get themselves out. Right now that means using you.\"\n\nColby balled up his fists, knuckles white, jaw tight, teeth grinding together. \"Why can't anyone ever be straightforward with me? Why do you all have to use me?\"\n\n\"Because you try so hard to be good.\"\n\n\"Because I'm good?\"\n\n\"No. Because you try to be. The good just are. The ones who try are much more easily manipulated. It's a special kind of selfishness. You always know what someone who tries to be good will do when given a choice. It makes it very easy to set up a field of bad choices. If you can make one of the bad choices look like the good thing to do, you know that the man trying to do good will do it. Entire nations have been led to genocide and butchery that way.\"\n\n\"And I slew a number of fairies that way.\"\n\nCoyote beamed with pride. \"Yes. And you destroyed La Llorona that way. And you saved a child from the knife that way. And you've done countless other things in the name of goodness that other creatures wanted you to do for them.\"\n\n\"And now the demons want their turn.\"\n\n\"Another field of bad choices, none of them good.\"\n\n\"So what do you want out of all this?\"\n\n\"For you to make it through to the other side.\"\n\n\"Because I have some kind of destiny?\"\n\n\"Destiny is a crock, Colby. It's the fairy tale the successful tell themselves to make it seem like they have God or the universe or whatever on their side. Nothing is predetermined. And no one can see the future. Not really. Some of us are gifted enough to see past the lives and the fictions and just see the machine. We can tell you what the machine does, what happens when you turn it on. One gear turning another that turns another. That's the machine. But it doesn't mean we can see the future, can tell when one of those gears will give out and the whole thing will break down. But we can see the long game, one stretching out for decades, centuries, sometimes millennia. Some of us serve ourselves. Some of us serve a higher ideal. But some of us just serve the machine. We keep it running, doing what it is supposed to do, doing what we're supposed to do, because it's our job to keep it running, to make sure those gears fall into place, to replace them when they're about to fall apart.\"\n\n\"And I'm one of those gears.\"\n\n\"One of the most important gears. Or you will be. You can be. If you don't fall off the machine first.\"\n\n\"So you can't see the future?\"\n\n\"I can see futures. I can see the maybe that exists if everything stays the same. But there is no future. Not yet. The future is just a now waiting to happen that may or may not ever arrive.\"\n\n\"Why does this all sound so familiar?\"\n\n\"Because you've heard it all before. You just weren't listening the first time around because you didn't like the answer.\"\n\n\"You're the second person to say that to me.\"\n\n\"Oh? Then maybe there's something to it.\"\n\n\"So you're going to tell me what you want me to do? Or am I supposed to guess?\"\n\nCoyote shook his head, chuckling. \"Colby, if I told you what you would become one day, you would do all the wrong things just to spite me, no matter how important a role you play. You believe too much in freedom. In choice. What you don't realize is that you've already made your choices. Now you just have to live through them.\"\n\n\"You mean with them.\"\n\n\"No. No I don't. Your wishes are your wishes, whether you make peace with them or not is entirely your business. Whether you live to see them out is what concerns me.\"\n\nColby sighed long and deep. \"So what am I supposed to do?\"\n\n\"If I tell you, then it's not really a choice. And if it's not a choice, it means nothing.\"\n\n\"Fuck you and your riddles and this headache. I can't take your shit when I'm not hungover; I sure can't handle you right now. Please. Just leave.\"\n\nCoyote smiled wide, his teeth glistening in the morning light. \"You know what's really going to piss you off, Colby Stevens?\"\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"When the headache is gone and your mouth doesn't taste like that and you can finally think straight for the first time all day, you're going to think back on this conversation and you're going to wonder. You're going to wonder hard. And you're not going to know whether I've been messing with your head this whole time.\"\n\n\"Oh, I hate you.\"\n\n\"And if that weren't bad enough, when you remember that I didn't tell you to do anything at all, you won't have any idea what to do.\"\n\nColby buried his head in his hands and swore a string of unintelligible curses so long and unappealing that even Coyote blushed.\n\n\"Don't trust anyone to be who they appear to be, Colby. Not even me. I'm not your friend.\" He patted Colby on the back, squeezing his shoulder warmly. \"I got you a half hour to leave the border of the Limestone Kingdom. That was ten minutes ago. I suggest you start walking now. I'd use the trees.\" Coyote turned, walking away.\n\n\"Hey, Coyote.\"\n\n\"Yeah?\" asked Coyote over his shoulder.\n\n\"Thanks.\"\n\nCoyote smiled one last time, then nodded so sadly that even the smile was unable to hide it. And with that, he was gone.\n\nColby looked around, expecting for a moment to catch the hint of a pointed ear or the flash of a red cap behind a bush or in the trees. He didn't trust the things of the Limestone Kingdom and he supposed he never would. If they'd promised him twenty more minutes of peace, they'd be waiting to kill him in fifteen. There wasn't much time, so he took a shallow breath, reaching out with his thoughts, wading deep through the moist earth, looking for the oldest, gnarliest roots he could find. Then he turned and walked full speed into a fat, ancient oak, disappearing into its trunk, vanishing completely.\nCHAPTER 17\n\nCITY OF THE DAMNED\n\nThe most foolish mistake man often makes is believing that evil lurks only in the darkness. There is no safety in the sun. Only shadows fear the sun. And shadows are just the dark reflections of daylight. True evil is as at home in the bright light as it is in the darkness. And it has no qualms about snatching you right out in the open.\n\nColby's headache hadn't subsided. Though it hadn't gotten worse, it sure felt as if it had. His head continued on like an out-of-sync kettledrum, his mouth like he'd been eating a litter box. But it wasn't the worst hangover he'd ever had. Thus far, on the walk home, he'd only sworn off drinking four times. Some days he'd already managed that before breakfast.\n\nHe wandered in through the west side of town, up through the forests, past the suburban sprawl, and on into the oldest parts of the city. The trees were ancient here in comparison to outlying Austin; they were older than many of the buildings sprouting up as the city yawned and stretched its arms. The buildings were clustered together, tightly packed along the streets. It was greener here, homier here. And yet he was mere blocks from the newest buildings, towering slabs of condos swallowing up whole city blocks.\n\nThis was a place where he was used to seeing old spirits. Most of them were echoes, remnants of people long gone. Sometimes they were angels, demons, nightmarish things of all kind and sort, perched on ledges, stalking prey, sitting along the lake. For the most part, he'd stopped paying attention to them. They were like the faces of people on the bus. You see them, but you don't really see them. They're just background, so much static to be filtered out. But sometimes, just sometimes, he saw things that were just downright out of place.\n\nAnd that's what he saw as he closed in on downtown.\n\nAn old man, untamed beard yellowed with age, clothes ragged and worn, riding a crocodile.\n\nNow, this being Austin, Colby's first thought was how had someone managed to get a license for a crocodile? That had to be illegal. Then, as the haze of his pounding head cleared a bit, and his memory kicked into gear, it dawned on him that this was no man at all. And he realized just who, and more important, what this man was.\n\nHe was Agares, another of the Seventy-two, ruler of the eastern portion of Hell. Or so the story went.\n\nHe was decrepit, hair having fallen out in patches, drowning in wrinkles, hands speckled with liver spots, jowls drooping below his chin, beard holding on for dear life. His expression was cruel, hateful, like he was pissed at just being alive. And the crocodile beneath him seemed every bit as old, scales thick, scarred; teeth ocher with plaque, chipped, a number of them missing\u2014no doubt left long ago in prey. When Agares laid eyes on Colby, his scowl became harder, sinister, as if he was ready to charge and kill Colby for no other reason than he didn't like the look of him.\n\nThen the demon raised its hand, giving a slight little wave, and sat still, watching Colby walk past.\n\nColby's heart raced. He didn't know what to do. This was uncharted territory for him. Before last night he'd never seen a single one of the Seventy-two. Now one was strolling through Austin as if he was going to the corner store, and waving to Colby. A duke of Hell was a powerful thing; there was no fighting it were it to come to that. So Colby continued walking, trying to pretend he didn't see it.\n\nAgares never took his eyes off Colby, not for a second, not until Colby had walked out of sight around a building.\n\nColby felt relieved, terror subsiding. He didn't know why the demon just let him pass, or why he was even here at all. Frankly, he didn't care to know; he just kept walking, pretending it hadn't happened.\n\nUntil it happened again, a few blocks deeper into the city.\n\nThis one Colby could not mistake for anything other than what it was. A large, strong, black wolf, its muscles bulging, fur sleek and full, bearing a rider, an angel, sprawling feathery white wings, china white skin, and the large, bulbous, brown feathered head of an owl. Andras, great marquis of Hell, sower of discord and confusion. In its hand it wielded a massive sword that gleamed in the shadows; with its other hand it pointed at Colby, a single, extended finger tracking him as he walked in its direction.\n\nThe owl-headed beast stared at Colby with its beady black eyes, its beak unmoving, its feathers ruffling as if it was ready to pounce. But he didn't move. He just stood there, staring, his wolf growling softly, just loud enough for Colby to hear.\n\nAnd Colby kept walking, eyes down, the icy-cold glares of demons piercing any semblance of bravery. His insides quivered, turning to jelly, knees weak, breath short, chest caving in. If they wanted to kill him, they could and they would. But they didn't. And that's what scared him most. Whatever this was, whatever they had in mind, they wanted him to know that he was in their grasp whenever they wanted.\n\nPressing forward, deeper into the city, his pace quickened, trying to shorten the time between himself and the Cursed and the Damned. He thought about slipping into a tree, but there were too many people watching. That was the kind of attention he didn't need. So he hoofed it, uneasy with the knowledge that an owl-headed wolf-riding demon might be right behind him, steps away from cleaving him in two and dragging his soul straight down to Hell.\n\nEyes down, stride long, steps furious.\n\nHe stopped at a crosswalk, waiting for the light, looking around nervously.\n\nThe light changed and he sped across the street as fast as he could without running. Then, as his foot touched the curb, a voice called out, grating and malicious, its bass and tenor reverberating through his bones as if they'd been struck by a tuning fork. \"Collllllllbyyyyy.\"\n\nHe turned and saw the king of terrors, Asmodeus, a three-headed titan of a man, one head like a bull's, another like a ram's, the centermost that of a man, hideous, distorted. All six of its eyes cut bitterly into Colby from across the street. In front of Asmodeus stood an ordinary man, dressed for work, waiting, having just missed the light. Asmodeus approached from behind, walked right into him, melding until they were one, the demon no longer visible.\n\nThe man convulsed, shaking from a seizure, limbs twisting in odd directions, head nearly snapping atop his neck. Then the shakes calmed and he settled, the demon inside shifting uncomfortably as if trying to get a new suit to fall right. He put a single foot forward and stepped into traffic.\n\nThe light changed, a speeding truck slamming into him. The man was thrown like a rag doll, his bones powdered all at once, but the demon still stood in the place he had stepped out of. The truck screeched to a cockeyed stop, never having had the chance to brake before hitting the man, driving right through Asmodeus, all three of the demon's heads smiling. He stood there as the chaos of the accident unfolded around him\u2014people screaming, the driver rushing out yelling obscenities, traffic coming to a standstill before the body even stopped rolling\u2014but Asmodeus never took his eyes off Colby. He just wrung his hands, cracking his knuckles, savoring the look of horror on Colby's face.\n\nColby ran. He didn't have time to play it cool anymore, didn't have an ounce of bravado left. Though his head still pounded and his throat was still raw and his stomach toppled like a carnival ride, he didn't notice, not a bit. All he knew was fear. Hell was coming for him, they were sending him a message, and it was reading loud and clear.\n\nThey were not going to let him go; they were not going to let him say no. He was theirs, and if they didn't want him to get out of this alive, he wouldn't.\n\nHe rounded a corner to the final stretch to the bar\u2014a straight shot of only a couple of blocks\u2014legs pumping like a track star.\n\nAnd then he slowed, his muscles pulling him to a painful, sudden stop. He stood there on the sidewalk, eyes agape, mind reeling, entirely unsure how even to process what he was seeing.\n\nMadness. He saw pure madness.\n\nThe buildings, the streets, this whole section of sun-drenched city, was lined from top to bottom with dozens of the Seventy-two. Demons and angels with forms as mind bending as any you could imagine. Angels with animal heads, dragons, serpents, jungle cats with wings and serpent tails, three-headed dogs, hounds with the faces of men, men with the faces of hounds. And everything in between. They stood along the sidewalks, on the ledges of buildings, lined the rooftops above him. Dozens, perhaps all. Colby couldn't tell. All he knew was that he recognized them, each and every dangerous one. He knew their names; he knew their deeds; he knew that every last one of them was staring right at him, never for a moment taking their eyes off him.\n\nNot a one said a word. They stood silent, vigilant, faces cruel and emotionless, watching, waiting to see what he would do.\n\nWhatever this was, whatever they wanted him to do, it was big.\n\nHe knew it was important when they sent two greater demons. Now he was staring down what might be all of them.\n\nThere was no talking his way out of this now.\n\nHe took a deep breath, steadied himself, and started walking. Just a few more blocks, he thought. Just a few more blocks.\n\nThe demons, silent and unmoving, just watched.\nCHAPTER 18\n\nHAIR OF THE DOG\n\nOne of the only things more depressing than the current state of the Cursed and the Damned was seeing it cower in the alley from daylight. Though it had no windows, there was something about the harsh, stinging light of midday waiting just outside the door that made it all the more sad. Bars were places meant to be refuges from the dark, not suppliers of it. While it was easy to forget the time of day, and buy into the shadows of the piss-poor lighting and dim booths, all that goodwill went away the moment you stepped into the bustling afternoon of downtown.\n\nIt was enough to kill a buzz if you did it wrong.\n\nAnd the only thing worse than all this was seeing that bar, in daylight, through the angry throbbing buzz of a hangover, knowing what hell waited on the streets and rooftops outside.\n\nColby nursed his headache with a shot of whiskey and a tall sweating glass of ice water, his fingers trembling, struggling to find the words. Few things ever shook him up. He'd just met, for the first time, most of them.\n\nThe bar was empty, morbidly silent. Gossamer was curled up in the corner behind the bar, lying atop a rubber floor mat ringed with holes, keeping quiet, trying to keep up.\n\nYashar leaned forward on the counter, peering across the bar, eyes narrow, concerned. \"Which two actually spoke with you?\" he asked, his tone as nervous as it was curious.\n\nColby sipped his whiskey, staring dead-eyed back over the bar, his red hair still slicked to the side of his face with last night's sweat. \"The Holocaust Man and the Horse.\"\n\n\"Holy . . .\" Yashar picked up a glass and began to clean it with a fresh rag. He needed something to do with his hands. It made no difference that the glasses were already clean.\n\n\"Yeah.\"\n\n\"Tell me the Horse did all the talking.\"\n\n\"Some of it.\"\n\n\"Because you know he can't lie.\"\n\n\"I know.\"\n\n\"What did they say?\"\n\nColby took another sip, steadying himself. \"Something's happened to five of the Seventy-two.\"\n\n\"Happened?\"\n\n\"They've gone missing.\"\n\n\"And they've mistaken you for a private detective? What's that even mean?\"\n\n\"I guess they imagine I'm somehow involved.\"\n\nYashar shook his head. \"Bullshit. You're either involved or you aren't. These aren't the kind of folks who get that sort of thing wrong. So which is it?\"\n\n\"Which is what?\"\n\n\"Are you involved or are they trying to involve you?\"\n\n\"A little bit of both I suppose.\"\n\n\"Colby, what aren't you telling me?\"\n\n\"Australia. They said it had something to do with Australia.\"\n\nYashar backed away from the bar, dispirited, beginning to understand. \"That's not good. That means\u2014\"\n\n\"That could mean a lot of things.\"\n\n\"No. That can mean only one thing.\"\n\n\"I'm not going back to Australia,\" said Colby.\n\n\"Of course you're not going to Australia. No one goes to Australia.\"\n\n\"Now what is that even supposed to mean?\"\n\n\"It means no one goes to Australia anymore. The whole continent's gone dark.\"\n\n\"Gone dark? That's not possible. How does that even happen?\"\n\nYashar hesitated, pursing his lips. Colby's chilly glare wore him down without much effort. \"Anyone magical who goes in doesn't come back out. No one's heard anything for months.\"\n\n\"Why is this the first I'm hearing of it?\"\n\n\"Because no one wanted to tell you. I certainly didn't.\"\n\n\"And I didn't know,\" said Gossamer, peering up from behind the bar.\n\nColby snapped his fingers. \"Is that what happened to the five? Were they . . . ?\"\n\nYashar shook his head. \"I don't know. No one said anything about the Seventy-two. But then, no one ever says anything about the Seventy-two unless they have to. If Orobas and Amy came to visit you\u2014\"\n\n\"Don't say their fucking names!\"\n\n\"I know them, Colby. I've known them for a thousand years. I can call them by their names. You've got their attention. No use hiding from them now.\"\n\n\"That's not how it's supposed to work. I didn't\u2014\"\n\n\"You didn't what?\" asked Yashar. \"Summon them?\"\n\n\"Yeah.\"\n\n\"No. You just brought the Wild Hunt across and offered it souls.\"\n\n\"That . . . that's not . . .\"\n\n\"That's not how it's supposed to work? Colby, that's exactly how it works. That's how it's always worked. Damnation is a hook with bait. It looks like a meal, but there are no free lunches. Not in Hell.\"\n\n\"The Wild Hunt came to me. Threatened me. Demanded a favor of me.\"\n\n\"And now you're going to be pissed at the demon for knocking on the door so you don't have to deal with the fact that you're the one who let him in?\"\n\n\"Look outside. They're knocking again.\"\n\n\"You can't help them. And you can't look into this. You have to let them clean up their own little mess. Let them stand outside all day and night if they have to.\"\n\n\"That's the plan. But then\u2014\"\n\n\"Then what?\"\n\n\"There's something Coyote said.\"\n\nYashar's face went cold. He reached under the bar for a tall glass, unstoppered the best bottle of whiskey within reach, and filled it to the top. \"Coyote? You didn't mention Coyote.\"\n\n\"He was waiting for me when I woke up.\"\n\nYashar took a big swig. \"What did he say?\"\n\n\"You're not really going to guzzle the good stuff like that, are you?\"\n\n\"Colby\u2014\"\n\n\"Because that's really good stuff, and if you're just going to drink it like soda\u2014\"\n\n\"Colby\u2014\"\n\n\"You might as well be drinking the cheap stuff\u2014\"\n\n\"Damnit, Colby! Forget about the goddamned whiskey. What did he say?\"\n\nColby paused for a moment, sipping his own whiskey. \"He talked in riddles, mostly. Said he was looking out for me. Not to trust anyone. Then, by the end he told me that he hadn't really told me anything at all, and saying that would fuck with me later.\"\n\n\"That's fucking with you now, isn't it?\"\n\n\"It really is.\"\n\n\"Because whatever Coyote tells you to do\u2014\"\n\n\"You should do the opposite. Unless he knows you know that. Then you can't so much as get out of bed without doing what he wants.\"\n\nYashar finished the rest of his glass and began to pour another. \"What the hell are we going to do?\"\n\nColby looked up at Yashar, a hair confused. \"We?\"\n\nYashar nodded. \"This is no small affair, Colby. This is the Seventy-two. But what scares me most isn't their involvement.\"\n\n\"It isn't?\"\n\n\"No. What scares me is that this isn't a problem they can deal with themselves. Something like this should be self-correcting.\"\n\n\"Self-correcting?\"\n\n\"It means . . . take you, for example.\"\n\n\"ME?\"\n\n\"Yeah, you. Limestone Kingdom. You did a pretty good job of peeing in their Wheaties. Really shook things up out there. Those guys totally hate you.\"\n\n\"Thanks for the refresher course.\"\n\n\"What do they do now that they want you gone?\"\n\nColby shrugged, unsure where this was all going. \"Get together, maybe. Come for me in the middle of the night.\"\n\n\"Too risky. Good way to lose a lot of friends. No, someone like you, you just wait it out. One of three things is going to happen. One, maybe you get too big for your britches and run afoul of something you can't handle. Splat. Two, you mellow out, grow up a little, and work things out with the initially wronged parties. Peace reigns throughout the land. Or three, since the problem is mortal in nature\u2014\"\n\n\"They'll just wait for me to die,\" said Colby.\n\n\"They'll just wait for you to die,\" said Yashar, nodding. \"So riddle me this: what could possibly be so powerful that the scariest hombres in all the land want no part of it, have no hope for peace with it, and don't think they can outlive it?\"\n\n\"They said it was something that I killed. That some deaths take longer than others.\"\n\nYashar nodded again. \"You know who and what they're talking about, don't you?\"\n\n\"I think so.\"\n\n\"So who said what?\"\n\n\"What do you mean?\"\n\n\"You said the Horse didn't do all the talking. Which one of them said what?\"\n\nColby hesitated, the fog of the last night's drinking rolling in over the memories, enveloping them, the crisp horror of etched-in shock becoming blurry shadows in a drifting haze. He remembered a man on fire, the way the flames flickered and shifted in the night. The way the embers fluttered on the breeze, delightful dancing little fragments of the damned. And he remembered a horse so black that it stood apart from the darkness. But the words, the words eluded him. \"I don't . . . I can't quite remember. I remember the gist of what they said, but not who said it.\"\n\n\"These two didn't happen upon you by accident. They were chosen to speak to you. They no doubt discussed exactly what to say before they ever showed up. These aren't just schemers, Colby. They are the greatest schemers. Seventy-two of the most cunning, underhanded backstabbers the world has ever known. They'd already thought well past this conversation and on to tomorrow before they ever stepped foot in that field. Of the sixty-seven they had, they chose Orobas and Amy. Why?\"\n\n\"The Horse and the Holocaust Man. Please.\"\n\n\"Fine. The Horse and the Holocaust Man. One can't lie. The other is still bitter he was tricked into thinking he might one day return to Heaven. Why these two? Why send them to do the talking? There are more powerful spirits. More persuasive spirits.\"\n\n\"Because these are the two I might trust.\"\n\nYashar nodded. \"Which means?\"\n\n\"I can't trust them at all.\"\n\n\"Exactly.\"\n\nColby finished his whiskey, but it did nothing to soothe the knot in his stomach. He held his glass to the light, rolling it around in his fingers, watching as the glare warped and twisted as it moved. \"They're not going to let me out of this, are they? I'm already in it.\"\n\nYashar's expression held hopeful aspirations of confidence, only to fall short, the confidence draining with the hope. \"I suppose you are.\"\n\n\"This time I've really done it. I've damned myself.\"\n\nYashar shook his head. \"Don't kid yourself, Colby. You damned yourself a long time ago.\"\n\n\"Yashar, what the hell has she become that it's come to this?\"\n\nThe two exchanged pained looks, the silence between them pregnant and brooding.\n\n\"Guys?\" asked Gossamer. \"What the hell happened in Australia?\"\nCHAPTER 19\n\nDREAMTIME AND THE LAND OF DREAMS\n\nAN EXCERPT BY DR. THADDEUS RAY, PH.D., FROM HIS BOOK DREAMSPEAKING, DREAMWALKING, AND DREAMTIME: THE WORLD ON THE OTHER SIDE OF DOWN UNDER\n\nWestern arrogance puts the cradle of civilization squarely in Mesopotamia, the root of our writing, storytelling, and technological achievements stemming from thousands of years of culture emerging from that region. And yet while our core beliefs stem from the original tales passed down around the campfires of that region, our history covers only a surprisingly short amount of time.\n\nThe Aboriginal tribes of Australia, on the other hand, constructed no great monuments, contributed no technological achievements, and offered no contribution to our emergence into history. Instead, in place of that, they possess an oral tradition stretching back tens of thousands of years. While thousands of years of man rose and fell before telling their story in clay, the Aborigines share tales of 25,000-year-old volcanic eruptions and the flooding that took place after the melting of the Ice Age. In fact, they share entire tales that take place on land that now rests at the bottom of the sea.\n\nThis is a culture that did not push forward on the cutting edge of technology because it focused instead upon mastering the power of creation. No other culture in the history of man has so understood the nature of its own surroundings, a fact mostly due to their entire culture evolving around respecting, protecting, and mastering what they live upon.\n\nTo listen to the tales of the Aborigines is to hear histories older than any text, to hear of heroes who walked the earth before it last froze over. And their tales of creation seem closer to the truth that remains today than any other I've found. To the Aborigines, the world was not simply created, it was dreamed into being. Things became conscious and then consciously began altering their surroundings.\n\nThey call it Dreamtime.\n\nDreamtime is the idea that in the beginning there was a substance of raw creation that beings, or consciousness, evolved from. Every tribe tells a different tale of the creatures that emerged, but the mechanism that follows is always the same. Those beings then walked the earth, imagining, or in some cases singing, things into being. Plants, animals, monsters, places, rivers, people. All came from the Dreamtime. Then, after most of the raw creation was spent forging the world, the beings that made it passed on and left behind a world full of wonder. Thus ended Dreamtime.\n\nTo the Aborigines, all land is sacred, for it is a place not only dreamed into being by the ancients, but it is also where the heroes of old walked. They do not merely revere their heroes, they revere the places where those heroes performed their greatest deeds. They revere the places where those heroes were born. They believe the land itself is the most important part of creation, because the land is, itself, the record of all stories.\n\nThere are three principal ideas one must grasp in order to understand the basic tenets of Aboriginal mythology: their relationship with the land, their relationship with time, and their relationship with death. Once you have those down, the rest you can pick up fairly easily.\n\nThe land. Many Aboriginal men are given custody of a parcel of land, much in the same way boys in regions of Thailand are given baby elephants. They have one job: to watch over it. Now, these men do not own the land, as they believe no one can truly own land. They merely protect it. They memorize every contour, learn the location of every rock and tree. They know which trees and bushes bear fruit and which bear poison. They learn the way the rain falls, where the water collects, and what animals come to drink. They learn the holes where all the snakes live, the caves where animals take shelter. More important, they learn, in song, the history of every important thing to ever happen on that spot of land. These men learn which hero defeated which animal with what weapon on which spot. They learn where villages rose and fell. They learn where people fell in love. They learn all of this and they protect it because it will one day be their job to pass that knowledge on to someone else.\n\nDuring their time as custodian, these men will be asked to teach the songs of their land to others passing through. They lend them to others, and they borrow others' songs when traveling. But just as no one truly owns the land, no one truly owns the songs either. We do not live long enough to own anything. We merely borrow it.\n\nTime. There was once a psychological study that looked into the way people process information chronologically. Each was given a series of photographs of a person, ranging from their birth to their death, and asked to put them in order. Westerners from countries that read from left to right placed the photos in that order. Middle Easterners from countries reading right to left also ordered the pictures as such. Those from Asian countries reading from top to bottom placed their photos in order from top to bottom. But Aborigines all put theirs differently. Some were right to left, some left to right, top to bottom, bottom to top, diagonally. The researchers were baffled. So they began to ask the participants why they ordered their pictures the way they did.\n\nThe answer? The Aborigines were placing the photos east to west. To them, lives are lived with the rising and the setting of the sun. Their story is ordered by the land's relation to the sun and that is how all time is measured.\n\nDeath. Aborigines do not, as a culture, fear death. While every tribe tells different stories of what becomes of you after death, each one believes the same basic notion. We are gifted with this life and this body, we borrow our time and sustenance from the land itself, and then, when the time comes, we go back to it. The concepts are similar to those of Native American tribes but with a much more pronounced belief in the story and history of what that life borrowed and gave back to the land.\n\nIn short, to them, all life is land, and all land is life. Their duty is to carry the burden of that land's story and gift it to the next generation. In that way the story continues. And as quaint or cute as your Western mind may imagine that is, they have successfully carried stories that predate anything resembling the first Western civilizations. What we know of our history, we learn from archaeologists making educated guesses. What they know of theirs they learn from their fathers, with a trail that leads all the way back to the people who were there.\n\nAnd knowing what we do of dreamstuff, it is very hard to write off the more creative bits as being mere mythology. On the contrary, their tales of giant rainbow-colored dragons dreaming the world into being might be the closest approximation to the true dawn of man we have on record. The question is, did man evolve and dream those creatures into being, or did they dream us awake?\nCHAPTER 20\n\nTHE CLEVEREST MAN IN ARNHEM LAND\n\nELEVEN YEARS AND NINE THOUSAND MILES AWAY\n\nColby was all of eleven years old and the Australian sun beat squarely down upon him in a way that would sap dry and kill most children his age. But not Colby. Not only had this little boy weathered the blistering drought of central Texas summers most of his life, but he had also spent the last three years of it walking the earth with Yashar through all manner of extremes. After the first year he'd stopped bothering to complain; by the end of the second he learned to enjoy the variety.\n\nHe'd been through blizzards in the Alps, monsoons in southern Asia, the skin-peeling sandstorms of scorching Persian deserts. This was just a little sun. He wore a wispy linen head wrap, sunscreen on his face, and a light robe to keep the sweat from pooling. He'd be fine.\n\nYashar, on the other hand, didn't fare so well, shuffling more than he walked, his eyelids heavy, his expression one of fevered exhaustion. It looked as if he could pass out on his feet at any moment. But it wasn't the heat weighing him down.\n\n\"Come on, Yashar. Pick up the pace,\" said Colby.\n\nYashar bristled, his young companion dancing obnoxiously on his last, frayed nerve. \"It's not too late to sell you into white slavery. You've still got a few good years left in you.\"\n\nColby laughed, knowing enough to understand Yashar was joking, but not quite enough to know what exactly he meant. \"Are we almost there?\"\n\n\"We're almost there.\"\n\n\"We should have hired a car.\"\n\n\"Rented. You're not British.\"\n\n\"Australia. We're in Australia. They say hired here. Hired sounds cooler. Rented means borrowed. Hired means employed.\"\n\nYashar grumbled, his voice gravelly and dripping with irritation. \"I know what they mean, Colby. I'm not an idiot.\"\n\nColby looked up at Yashar, worried. \"Yashar, what's wrong?\"\n\n\"Nothing is wrong.\"\n\n\"You look tired. We should stop for a while and let you get some rest.\"\n\n\"If I stop I'm going to fall asleep. I can't fall asleep.\"\n\n\"Why not? You never sleep anyway. You could use some.\"\n\nYashar stopped, gritted his teeth, and took a deep breath. Then he looked down at Colby, swallowing his welling anger, letting it simmer in his gut rather than erupt. \"Colby, djinn need to sleep. We don't do it often, only every few years, but when we do, we sleep for ages. Weeks, months, sometimes years. The next time I close my eyes, I will fall deep asleep and I have no idea how long it will be before I wake back up. I need to make sure someone will take care of you before that happens.\"\n\n\"And djinn are cranky when they're sleepy?\"\n\n\"Yes. Yes we are.\"\n\n\"Wait, are you leaving me?\"\n\nYashar nodded. \"Yes, I am. But in good hands, I promise.\"\n\n\"Where are you leaving me?\"\n\n\"With a friend. Someone who has a lot to teach you. He's the cleverest man in Arnhem Land. And he is walking just a few miles ahead of us.\"\n\n\"How long will I have to stay with him?\"\n\nShaking his head, Yashar's expression fell from one of exhaustion to one of complete uncertainty. \"I have no idea. That all depends on what the sleep demands of me.\"\n\n\"Oh,\" said Colby, not entirely sure what Yashar meant. \"Will you dream? When you're asleep, I mean.\"\n\nYashar smiled big and broad, his eyes brightening for the first time in days. \"Oh yes. We djinn have the most vivid, wonderful dreams. Beautiful women and magical lands, a mixture of all the things we've ever experienced combined with all the things we've ever hoped for. Some think it's where we get our power; others say it is where we go to find ourselves after serving so long the dreams of our masters. All I know is that it feels so real that you are afraid to pull away, afraid to wake up, because you don't really believe you're dreaming. You think it's real, and you're afraid waking up means dying. That's why I think we sleep so long.\"\n\n\"So you'll forget I'm out here waiting for you?\"\n\n\"I might.\"\n\n\"But you'll come back, right?\"\n\n\"Of course. I can't sleep forever.\"\n\nColby nodded, his smile weak and unconvincing. He was afraid, but trying to be strong for his friend. \"Okay. I believe you.\"\n\nYashar laughed. \"Good thing too.\"\n\nThe two continued walking, the heat getting worse as the sun rose higher. \"Are you going to be able to make it much farther?\"\n\n\"I think so. I have to.\"\n\n\"We should have hired a car,\" said Colby.\n\nYashar nodded. \"We should have hired a car.\"\n\nMANDU MERIJEDI BASKED cross-legged in the sun atop an oblong seven-foot-high, red granite boulder, his eyes closed, hands extended palms up, elbows resting on his knees. The sun sat in the sky both perfectly above and behind him, as if placed there deliberately. This was not only Colby's first impression of the man, but also how he would remember Mandu forever. There was something infinitely wise about him waiting there silently for his destiny. So calm. So peaceful. Mandu waited, knowing full well that his life, at any moment, was about to change. And the fact that this did not scare him made quite an impression.\n\nYashar looked down at Colby, his eyes weary and bloodshot. \"Wait here,\" he said. \"No matter what happens, don't leave this spot.\"\n\nColby swallowed hard. He didn't like it when Yashar said that.\n\nYashar stepped forward, took a deep breath, and exploded.\n\nHis flesh burned yellow, then gold. He swelled in size and smoked. His head went bald, his muscles rippling, eyes glowing a hellish red. Then his voice boomed like a vocal earthquake, rumbling like thunder, drifting into the desert, scaring bandicoots into their holes.\n\n\"MANDU MERIJEDI!\" he shouted, the rock beneath Mandu shaking with the sound. \"I DEMAND AN AUDIENCE!\"\n\nBut while the earth trembled, Mandu did not. \"You have found him, spirit,\" said Mandu, quietly. \"I am he.\" He did not open his eyes; he merely breathed calmly, not moving a muscle.\n\n\"I HAVE A TASK FOR YOU!\"\n\n\"What spirit calls me?\" he asked as if he did not know.\n\n\"YASHAR, THE CURSED ONE, SPIRIT OF THE . . .\"\n\n\"So much smoke and noise for such a simple spirit. I know who you are. This\"\u2014he said, waving his hand around at Yashar as if he could see him\u2014\"is not who you are.\"\n\nYashar swore beneath his breath. \"I HAVE A\u2014\"\n\nMandu opened a single eye, peering mischievously, patting the spot on the boulder beside him. \"Yashar, come sit. Come sit.\"\n\nYashar sighed, his powerful form deflating. His muscles withered, the glint of his skin fading back into a dark olive, smoke dissipating weakly into a mist before vaporizing into nothing at all. He was once again Yashar the man. Slowly he crawled up the boulder and took a seat next to Mandu. \"That . . . that actually is my natural form,\" he said softly.\n\nMandu closed his eye, shaking his head, and continued to seemingly meditate. \"But that is not who you are. You prefer this form. You prefer this voice. The rest of that was all for show.\"\n\n\"It was.\"\n\n\"I don't need a show. I respect your power, spirit.\"\n\n\"I need a favor.\"\n\nMandu smiled. \"Of course you do. You wouldn't be here otherwise. What brings you so far from home?\"\n\n\"I bring you a young dreamwalker who needs to learn the old ways.\"\n\nMandu opened his eyes, eyeing Colby up and down. Colby's clothes were ratty, beaten and torn by the Australian bush, his face dirty, freckled, and tanned, his red hair wrapped in linen. \"But he's a white fella,\" said Mandu. \"And he's not dreaming. He's awake.\"\n\n\"I know,\" said Yashar.\n\n\"You can't teach the white fellas the old ways. They don't understand them.\"\n\n\"This one can.\"\n\n\"No, it can't be done.\"\n\n\"Mandu, I'm tired. I need to sleep. Colby here is in my charge. I need him looked after and I need him to learn the old ways.\"\n\n\"Why the old ways? Why not his own ways?\"\n\n\"It was his wish.\"\n\nMandu looked at Yashar, his eyes confused, incredulous. \"What's this?\"\n\n\"He wants to learn the old ways. He's a good pupil. Fascinated by it all. His wish was to learn about . . . the way things really are. This is where it all began. Wouldn't you agree?\"\n\nMandu nodded slowly, now more curious than indifferent. \"What are you offering?\"\n\n\"Mandu\u2014\"\n\n\"You know the rules. I do the spirit a favor and the spirit does a favor for me.\"\n\n\"What you ask is dangerous, my wishes, they\u2014\"\n\n\"I know your curse, so my demand is this: you must never, ever, no matter how long from now it is, grant the wish of a single fella of Arnhem Land. It will stay free of your curse and none shall know the sorrow of your broken gifts.\"\n\n\"And for that you will train the boy? Look after him until I get back?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"Then I promise,\" said Yashar.\n\n\"Say the words.\"\n\nYashar fought through his weariness, clearing his throat, adding a bit of proper, rehearsed seriousness to his tone. \"I promise never to grant the wish of a single person of Arnhem Land, no matter what the circumstances, in exchange for your tutelage of, and promise to care for, the boy Colby Stevens.\"\n\n\"Okay. I agree.\" Mandu popped to his feet and hopped off the rock, sliding down the side as if he'd done it a thousand times. \"'Ey, little fella. Get over here.\"\n\nColby rushed over, his eyes wide with excitement. \"Yes, sir.\"\n\n\"I'm Mandu.\"\n\n\"I'm Colby.\"\n\n\"So I hear.\" He motioned back to Yashar, who carefully made his way down from the top of the rock. \"It looks like you'll be spending some time here with us. Is that right?\"\n\nColby nodded.\n\n\"Okay. Well, we have a long walk ahead of us. Can you handle that?\"\n\n\"Yes, sir!\"\n\n\"Yashar, you can rest now.\"\n\nYashar sighed deeply, sat down on the ground, his back against the boulder, slowly, but surely, turning invisible.\n\n\"Wait!\" said Colby, running to his side. \"You can't go to sleep yet. I don't know anybody else.\" He took Yashar's massive hand in his own, gripping a finger with each hand.\n\n\"You will,\" said Yashar, smiling weakly. He peeled Colby's linen head wrap back from his head, ruffling his thick red hair playfully. \"You will.\"\n\n\"I'll miss you.\"\n\n\"I would miss you too, but I'll no doubt dream of our adventures.\" Yashar's eyes fluttered, exhaustion getting the better of him.\n\n\"Good night, Yashar.\"\n\n\"Good night, Colby,\" he rasped before winking out of sight. \"Be good for Mandu.\"\n\nAnd then he was gone.\n\n\"Come on,\" said Mandu. \"Let's walk.\"\nCHAPTER 21\n\nTHE CLEVER MEN\n\nAN EXCERPT BY DR. THADDEUS RAY, PH.D., FROM HIS BOOK DREAMSPEAKING, DREAMWALKING, AND DREAMTIME: THE WORLD ON THE OTHER SIDE OF DOWN UNDER\n\nThe true power of the songlines is a closely guarded secret, but far from the only one the medicine men of the Aborigine tribes keep from the outside world. These medicine men, known as Clever Men or Men of High Degree, spend a vast majority of their life training in the many secrets of their ancestors. The most important of these secrets is the ability to dreamspeak.\n\nDreamspeaking is what many in the West refer to as the sight, the ability to peer behind the veil and commune with the spirits who live there. Clever Men accomplish this through meditation and ritual. It is a rare Clever Man who natively possesses the ability to see and hear spirits. Those who have such skills are revered as possible dreamheroes, people who have lives that intertwine with powerful spirits and accomplish some great deed as a result. Those with gifts find their way into apprenticeship regardless of birth or tribal standing, whereas most Clever Men are chosen as children for such training as a result of relation to a current or past Clever Man.\n\nA second and much more heavily guarded secret is the capacity to dreamwalk. Dreamwalking is the ability to astrally project, to unmoor yourself from your body, leaving it behind while your spirit traverses beyond the veil. Traveling this way leaves behind a single, thin, often silvery thread that maintains the link between your body and soul. This allows the traveler to freely explore the world in spirit form, perceivable only by other spirits and beings of dreamstuff, unhindered by terrain, distance, or time. If that thread is severed, the spirit may not be able to return to its body and may end up wandering the earth, lost, until its body expires, extinguishing its spirit with it.\n\nClever Men use the ability to dreamwalk to commune with spirits, with whom they strike bargains or make deals that benefit and protect their tribe. A Clever Man's primary obligation, the whole reason for their being in certain tribes, is to keep the supernatural world at bay and to treat the maladies vexing his people who come into unfortunate contact with creatures beyond the veil.\n\nAnd this is where the values of the West differ from those of native Australia. A Clever Man's power, his standing as a man of high degree, is reflected not in the power of his spells or in his strength against the supernatural, but rather in his ability to outwit those he comes into contact with. A good Clever Man doesn't have to fight supernatural creatures; he merely needs to convince them to go elsewhere. Thus the very best of the Clever Men prove to be cunning tricksters who employ deceit and guile to turn a spirit's own powers and weaknesses upon itself.\n\nClever Men are also employed as doctors, but mostly as spiritual healers, exorcising the possessed, cleansing those taken ill by the powers of spirits, or simply granting some sort of spiritual resistance against such incursions. The outback of Australia, which is among the most dreamstuff-rich areas left in the world, provides quite a bit of fuel for aspiring medicine men intent on restructuring the reality around them. However, this is a double-edged sword for a superstitious people. Someone who believes strongly enough that breaking a taboo or invoking the wrath of the land can lead to illness or harm opens himself up to his reality being restructured to just that. These Clever Men are needed to provide healing from the things physical medicine cannot.\n\nThis, however, is where the Clever Men of many tribes part ways. For not all Clever Men have the same skills or possess the same talents. Different tribes across the continent ascribe very different powers to their Clever Men, who carefully guard them from others. These gifts range from being able to speak with animals, to manipulating the weather, on to telepathy, cursing others with maladies, or unleashing the fury of spirits upon them.\n\nBut none are so powerful or feared as the sorcerers of Arnhem Land, the one territory in all of Australia where sorcery is not only openly practiced but also acknowledged as such. There, in the deepest regions of the Northern Territory, medicine men practice dark arts and outright sorcery to protect their people, collect debts, or avenge vendettas. Theirs are the secrets of soul stealing, an ancient, terrible practice that involves subtle, devious murder by way of capturing and torturing the soul while leaving the still conscious husk of a body behind to slowly die. Here tribes do battle through silent warfare, sneaking into enemy camps at night, stealing the souls of their victims, and leaving them to grow sick and die long after they've returned home. This is when the healer must become the detective and hope to discern such assaults while there is still time to retrieve the soul, if not simply track down the assailant.\n\nSorcerers of Arnhem Land also possess the ability to step into trees, disappearing as if into mud, and exiting from other trees sometimes miles away. They create illusions that distract or confuse opponents. Some can implant ideas or thoughts as a form of subtle mind control. Others can run at least a meter off the ground, their feet never touching the soil, or summon cords from their own bodies that they can use to climb without the need of a vertical surface.\n\nThe most powerful among them even understands the fundamental nature of true sorcery, that being the direct alteration of dreamstuff to be shaped to their will. These men are unbound by convention and lack the restrictions of most Clever Men. Fortunately these men are few and far between and in my travels I have encountered only two men capable of doing such things.\nCHAPTER 22\n\nROCKS AND THROWING STARS\n\nELEVEN YEARS AND NINE THOUSAND MILES AWAY\n\nThe hot sun blazed down from the heavens, the land seared by its glare. Mandu stood comfortably, naked save for the pouch he carried his valuables in, regaling Colby with half a dozen different tales all tied to the three-foot-high boulder that rested precariously before them. Colby, on the other hand, slouched, his shoulders drooping, interest waning.\n\n\"I don't understand, Mandu,\" he said. \"What does this have to do with my walkabout?\"\n\n\"It's the story of the land. You have to know it to understand the song.\"\n\n\"What do a bunch of old stories about dead people have to do with the song?\"\n\nMandu frowned. \"I was told you were curious. That you were clever. That you wanted to learn. But all I see is another silly boy. You want to learn magic but don't want to study it.\"\n\n\"I already know magic,\" said Colby, his tone pinched and whiny. \"It doesn't have anything to do with old stories.\"\n\n\"It has everything to do with old stories.\"\n\n\"No it doesn't.\"\n\nMandu smiled, his face vanishing into sunbaked creases and crow's-feet. \"Fine then. You know magic so well, perhaps you should teach me. Show me something. Show me some magic.\"\n\nColby perked up, the lesson suddenly becoming interesting. \"Okay! Watch this!\" He reared back, intertwined his fingers, popping his knuckles, concentrating on the air around him. Dreamstuff flowed thick and slow through the land like molasses, unmolested and rich.\n\nColby focused the energy around him, then let loose.\n\nThe air ignited, first fire arcing like lightning, balling up into a small sun five feet in front of him, then darkening, siphoning all the light around it until the tiny sun became a ball of blackness, drinking in the warmth from the earth, no light, nor heat, escaping from its surface. The world began to grow cold around them, dimming the daylight into a twilight-tinged dusk.\n\nThen Colby swayed into a kata, a martial-arts-like dance, with the black sphere swaying before him as if at the end of a string. He clenched his fists and the sphere burst, reshaping into the form of a long, thin, Chinese dragon, blackest of black, seven feet long, soaring across the sand, its tail whipping, drinking the heat from the air.\n\nFinally, it burst one more time, Colby shredding its essence with a gesture, his arms held wide like a gymnast at the end of a routine, small scraps of black evaporating into the returning dry, blistering afternoon swelter.\n\nFor a moment he felt overwhelmed, dizzy, his head tingling. He was unaccustomed to weaving dreamstuff this raw, heavy, and abundant. It was as if he'd plugged in a portable radio to the direct current flowing out of an electric plant. Colby had no idea what to do with so much power.\n\nIt was all he could do to stem the flow away from what he was reweaving.\n\nMandu's smile had faded, his eyes wide with shock. As Colby presented himself, sweating, looking as if he was about to pass out, Mandu's eyes swelled with anger. \"When the spirit told me of your power, I had no idea you knew so much! And understood so little.\" Mandu walked toward Colby, putting a fatherly hand on his shoulder, guiding him to sit with his back against the rock.\n\n\"Wasn't that cool?\"\n\n\"No,\" said Mandu. \"You understand the ideas of magic, but have no discipline. You know that lighting oil makes fire, but instead of dipping in a wick for hours of light, you dump the oil out on the ground and light it for a few seconds of fire. That is not how we use the energy around us. It is not how it was meant to be used.\"\n\n\"But that's how you do it. You take it and make something else out of it.\"\n\nAt that moment, Mandu finally understood why Yashar had brought the boy to him. He shook his head, pointing at the boulder against which Colby propped himself up. \"Let me tell you about this rock.\"\n\n\"Oh man, the rock again?\"\n\n\"The rock.\" Mandu sat across from Colby, his eyes locked with his pupil's, Mandu's demeanor reverent. \"Once there was a great but cruel hunter. A man capable of bringing down any beast in the land with a single throw of a rock. He could wing a rock sideways, skipping a stone off the water seven times, and kill a thing across the river.\n\n\"One day this man was out chasing some wild thing across the land, all the way to a distant river, and he found himself farther away from his camp than he ever had been. And as he reached into his dilly bag for a stone to kill the thing dead while it drank, he saw the most beautiful woman he had ever seen, bathing in the river. He whooped loud, getting her attention\u2014and also the attention of the beast\u2014then flung his rock, hitting the thing right between the eyes. It dropped dead right there.\n\n\"Well, the hunter then slung the kill up over his back, crossed the river, took the girl by the hand, and asked her to lead him to her camp. There he approached the elders\u2014all well past their prime\u2014and asked to wed the girl from the river. Now, this camp had a problem. The past two generations had produced very few boys, and of those boys, few were worthwhile hunters. But here was a man who could kill such large beasts with a single stone. Though he was arrogant and brash and the girl did not love him, they consented to let him stay to court her in hopes that she would.\n\n\"But what none of them knew was that she loved another, a weaker hunter but a more gentle and noble man. When the hunter learned of this other suitor, he saw to it that he spent every waking moment around the girl, keeping the suitor at bay except for when he was away hunting. Even then, the hunter saw to it to kill quickly only game close to camp in order to limit her exposure to his competition.\n\n\"Finally, after he could bear it no longer, the hunter proposed to the girl, finally asking for her hand in marriage. She denied him, telling him for once and for all that she did not love him and never could. Well, the hunter, angered by this, picked her up and slung her over his shoulder to bring her back to his own people. He ran and the girl's tribe ran after them, the young suitor running fastest of all. But as she was slight and he was strong, and there was little but open ground between the two camps, the suitor and his tribesmen were unable to catch up to them.\n\n\"At last, the hunter reached sight of his old camp, just over there in the hills behind you.\" Mandu pointed at a rocky outcropping in the distance, at the edge of a dry billabong\u2014a small, rain-created lake. \"But he saw no fires, and the shelters had been taken down. It was then that he realized how much time had passed since he had last seen his people\u2014the months he had spent pining for this girl\u2014and he now knew that they had long ago moved on to some other watering hole. He was angry as ever, and threw the girl down on the ground, intent on whipping her with his spear for what she had made him do. He threw her there, right where you're sitting.\"\n\nColby looked down at the ground around him. \"Here?\"\n\nMandu nodded, walking toward Colby, casting a long shadow over him. \"Right there. And the hunter stood here, unslinging his spear.\"\n\n\"What happened next?\"\n\n\"The other suitor showed up.\"\n\nColby's eyes went wide, and he leaned forward, desperate to hear what happened next. \"And?\"\n\n\"He called out to the hunter, demanding he let her go. But the hunter sneered and cast his spear at the young man, killing him instantly. The girl leaped to her feet and climbed atop that rock, crying over her dead love. And as the hunter went to retrieve his spear, she realized she had nothing left keeping her here on this world and jumped\u2014right there from atop that rock\u2014into the sky!\"\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"She leaped so hard and so far that she crossed over from this world into the sky world where she became a constellation. And the hunter, madly in love and ever the angrier, climbed atop that rock and jumped into the sky after her. There, he grabbed stars from the night sky to throw at her, trying to stop her so he could catch her for once and for all, but the stars burned his hands and he missed. And he missed again. And again. And again. And now, on dark nights, once a year, you can look above you in the night sky and see the rocks he throws fall from the heavens, burning through the night, missing the woman he wants and loves so much.\"\n\nColby crossed his arms and peered up at Mandu, who still loomed over him from the vantage point of the hunter. \"But what does that have to do with magic?\" he asked.\n\n\"Close your eyes.\"\n\nColby closed his eyes.\n\n\"Concentrate on the rock. Can you feel it?\"\n\n\"Yes,\" said Colby, as if it was the most obvious thing in the world.\n\n\"No, can you feel it? Like you can the dream in the air?\"\n\nColby focused and his indignation fell away. He could feel the tickle of the rock, a slight pulsing vibration. It tasted like love and agony, loss and anger. \"Yeah! It's really just a little bit, but it's there.\"\n\n\"Concentrate harder now. Try to touch that energy with your mind.\"\n\nColby reached out again, his mind wandering through the essence of the stone. \"I feel it. It's cold. Permanent. Like ice to water.\"\n\n\"Yes. Yes,\" said Mandu. \"That's djang.\"\n\n\"Djang?\"\n\n\"How do you think the girl jumped so far?\"\n\n\"I don't think she really jumped that far. That's just a story.\"\n\n\"She jumped that far because she used the same dream you did to make your dragon. But when she did, she left a little of that energy behind, in the land\u2014in the rock\u2014and now, if someone wants, they can tap into that rock to leap across to the sky world.\"\n\n\"Really?\" asked Colby.\n\n\"Yes, really. That's how we use magic out here. We learn the land, we learn its stories, and we learn to use the spots where magic already exists. The dream, it is all around us, dreaming even as we are awake. Borrow the magic of the land and the land remains magical. Use it up and you end up, well, with the world of the white fella\u2014with a burned-out husk where wonder used to be. You see how powerful your magic is out here?\"\n\nColby nodded. \"Yeah. It's really strong.\"\n\n\"Let's keep it that way. From now on, I teach you the magic of the land. The songs. The history. You will learn how to make the land your ally. And then, it won't matter how little magic there is around you. I'll teach you to use djang. You won't need anything else.\"\nCHAPTER 23\n\nON DJANG\n\nAN EXCERPT BY DR. THADDEUS RAY, PH.D., FROM HIS BOOK DREAMSPEAKING, DREAMWALKING, AND DREAMTIME: THE WORLD ON THE OTHER SIDE OF DOWN UNDER\n\nOnce one has his mind wrapped around the concept of dreamstuff, understanding djang should be no great leap. It is, after all, something akin to the condensed residue of dreamstuff that has been exerted upon an object. If inanimate objects had a soul, it would be djang, which is really the easiest way to think about it, except that it should be stressed that it doesn't lead to sentience.\n\nThroughout history mankind has revered artifacts, places, and the heroes who utilized them in their great feats. Tales have been told of magic swords, holy grails, places of power, even lucky pieces of clothing. These items, the ones used by the heroes in their great deeds, or the places where they performed those deeds, possess djang.\n\nThe mechanics of djang aren't quite understood, leading to a number of theories of their creation, two of which seem the most likely. One theory argues that great deeds accomplished through the use of dreamstuff\u2014or that had a profound effect on the dreamstuff of an area\u2014leave an imprint on certain objects, a spiritual fingerprint, if you will.\n\nA dagger is used to sacrifice a virgin before a powerful god, the divinity of that \"deity\" flowing through the priest. That dagger retains some of the dreamstuff released when the virgin is killed, as it also captures a bit of the essence of the priest delivering a soul. While the portion might be very small, it fundamentally restructures the object and imparts properties that the actor, either consciously or unconsciously, wills it to have. When used by someone who understands how to unlock djang, the dagger above might possess the ability to offer any life snuffed out by it to that god. Or it might stay incredibly sharp, never dulling or rusting. It might also be attracted to the heart of a victim when used in a fight. Or it could serve as a way to communicate with the \"deity\" to which it was dedicated, no matter where on earth it might be.\n\nThe second theory holds that it is not the act that imprints the dreamstuff upon an object, but rather the belief by others in the power of the object or place. People believing a place to be holy, reweave the nature of that place and make it so. The more people who put their faith in the nature of such a place, the stronger that place's connection is to those properties. This theory mirrors the creation of supernatural creatures, which makes it more likely, but as the mechanism of accessing the abilities is different, there is still plenty of reason to believe the former might still be correct. Someone simply believing they can access the powers of a thing or a place does not necessarily allow them to do so, which runs counter to the way supernatural creatures function with belief.\n\nAccessing the djang of a thing takes practice. It usually requires a thorough knowledge of its history, its handlers, and its powers, though some practitioners have mastered the ability to sense and tap into the djang of an object on a purely primal level, able to feel their way through what an object is both capable of and \"wants\" to do.\n\nThe word djang comes from the Aboriginal people of Australia, who impart the term purely to places or naturally occurring objects, like trees, rocks, billabongs, or mountains. To the Aborigines, a holy place grants those knowledgeable of the location's history to tap into the energy of the past and use that energy to accomplish similar feats. A rock used as the spot to launch oneself into the sky might become the place Clever Men use to cross over into the land of the dead. A watering hole used to trick another tribe into drowning themselves might become a meditation spot for others to discern how to best outsmart their own enemies. A tree a Clever Man used to travel farther than any Clever Man before him might become a doorway to any other tree in the outback.\n\nAll of this can be accomplished by understanding and tapping into the djang.\nCHAPTER 24\n\nFISHING\n\nMind the trees,\" said Mandu, pointing to the canopy above them. \"Dangerous things in the dark up there.\"\n\n\"Snakes?\" asked Colby.\n\n\"Worse. Snakes'll just eat you. Yara-ma-yha-who will spit you back out. And you don't want that. They'll drop right out of the trees.\"\n\nThese were the wetlands just south of Arnhem Land; trees were everywhere. There was no avoiding them. Gray trunks like spires, fields of them, growing up and out of the thick morass of brown mud, reaching to the cloud-darkened sky. Mosquitoes as big as a quarter, flies working in mobs, leeches in every puddle.\n\nColby looked suspiciously toward the treetops. \"What are they? What am I looking for?\"\n\n\"Bright red, can't miss 'em. Just keep your eye out and don't stand too close to low branches.\"\n\nColby looked around, horrified. Mandu secretly smiled.\n\nThey came upon a large stone plateau, rising like a giant mushroom out of the sea of mangrove trees, its faces sheer, wider at the top than the middle, reds and browns dripping down the sides, jagged rocks climbing the western face like chiseled stone steps. It was like an abandoned Aztec temple, overgrown and swallowed by time, overlooking a wide billabong. Hammer Rock.\n\nAs they got closer, Colby spied ten-thousand-year-old rock art, ancient but bright, unmolested by time. Reds, ochers, blues, blacks. Smears and stains, depictions of stick men covering it from top to bottom, colors often inverted with negative space, detailing the magic aura of dreamtime with pigments, leaving the stick men colored by the rock, dotted with little dabs of paint.\n\nThe billabong was a dark, murky brown, reeds rising up and out of it, the ripples of fish sweeping bugs off the surface lapping gentle waves along the bank. It was a picturesque place woven wholly of magic, kept out of the hands of anyone who couldn't appreciate it.\n\n\"Good a place as any,\" said Mandu, pulling a hatchet from his dilly bag. \"Come here.\"\n\nColby rushed to his side. \"Yeah?\"\n\n\"Time you learned how to fish, proper.\"\n\n\"I know how to fish,\" he said with a sigh.\n\n\"With a hatchet?\" asked Mandu, holding up a battered, weathered, sharpened hunk of metal, slightly rusted around the edges.\n\nColby's eyes grew wide. \"No!\" he said excitedly.\n\n\"Today you will.\" He swung the hatchet, peeling a layer of bark off a nearby emu apple tree. Then he did it again. And again, repeating the process until he'd stripped the tree raw, oozing from a dozen wide gashes. \"Follow me.\"\n\nHe walked Colby to the billabong with an armload of sticky bark, then dropped it in a pile by the bank, sitting down, inviting Colby to do the same. Then he began to pound the bark mercilessly with the blunt end of the hatchet. \"That's an emu apple tree,\" he said. \"Its sap is found deep inside its bark. You have to pound it free.\"\n\n\"What do we need the sap for?\"\n\n\"Fishing.\"\n\n\"Is it bait?\"\n\nMandu shook his head. \"No, it's not bait.\"\n\n\"What does it do?\"\n\n\"You'll see.\"\n\n\"Why don't we just make a rod? Or a spear?\"\n\nMandu smiled as if Colby had walked into his trap. \"You white fellas always think about the land as if it is something to fight against. To struggle with. You would rather try to lure in a fish and fight with it. But here is a tree by the water that will do all the work for you. The land isn't your enemy, Colby. It is your ally. Learn from it. Use it. We have many friends out here in the bush. Start thinking of it that way, and the land will keep you alive. Even when all else is trying to kill you. Now,\" he said, filling Colby's hands with a molasses of chewed-up wood. \"Sprinkle this in the water. Enjoy the swim. We'll be cooking up fish soon enough.\"\n\n\"Mandu?\" asked Colby, hesitantly.\n\n\"Yeah?\"\n\n\"Why are we fishing?\"\n\n\"Because I'm hungry. And we're having company. It's always polite to feed company.\"\n\nColby felt silly, dog-paddling through the water, tossing clumps of gooey bark into the bottom of the billabong. But within moments the fish started floating to the top. The first were merely disoriented, gasping for air at the waterline, puckered mouths desperate, gills flapping furiously. They ducked and dodged as best they could, wriggling out of Colby's grip as he tried to catch them barehanded, but he made easy work of them, tossing them to Mandu like footballs.\n\nThe next batch, however, floated up on their sides, some even belly up. Colby scooped them up by the armful, throwing them to shore, each time giving Mandu an inquisitive look, as if to ask, \"Do we have enough yet?\" before Mandu responded with a stiff arm and stern finger pointing him back into the water.\n\n\"The sap of the emu apple tree absorbs lots of oxygen when it gets wet. Sucks it all up, eh? Soon after, the fish get light-headed and pass out. Either that or they swim to the surface looking for air. They float to the top, we take the fish. Very easy.\"\n\n\"Mandu,\" asked Colby, tossing two more fish onshore. \"You know a lot about spirits, right?\"\n\n\"I get by.\"\n\n\"Can I ask you something?\"\n\n\"Anything.\"\n\n\"Why do spirits always keep their promises, even if it means dying?\"\n\nMandu smiled, nodding knowingly. \"Ah, the spirits, they cannot tell you why, can they?\"\n\nColby shook his head, wading back deep into the billabong.\n\n\"Because they themselves do not understand. Look around you. What do you see?\"\n\n\"Trees, mostly. A big rock.\"\n\n\"Do you see any laws?\"\n\n\"What? No. You can't see laws.\"\n\n\"Nah. Because they don't really exist, eh? We make them up, convince ourselves they're real. They're only enforced when someone believes they should be. Whole world put together by rules other people believe should exist.\"\n\n\"What does that have to do with spirits though?\"\n\n\"The spirits only exist because we believe they do. We dream them and they become real.\"\n\n\"No,\" said Colby. \"That's not right. You don't have to believe in a spirit for it to exist.\"\n\n\"Not once it believes in itself. Once it believes in its own existence, it doesn't need anyone else. But that which is made up of belief is bound by it. Act against the nature that holds you together, violate the things that you believe make you exist, and you are unmade as that belief evaporates.\"\n\nColby scooped a few more fish off the surface. \"So if they believe they have to keep a promise, they have to, or they cease to exist?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"Oh!\"\n\n\"The power of man over spirits is that he is a physical thing. Only the self and the society around him exist entirely because he believes it does. But when he stops believing in those things, he can just remake them. He doesn't have to keep his word, doesn't have to find a loophole to cheat. He just can. Thus man can never be trusted. But if he's smart, he can always get more out of the spirits than the spirits get out of him.\"\n\n\"Is that what a Clever Man does?\"\n\n\"That's exactly what a Clever Man does.\"\n\n\"How many fish do we need, Mandu?\" he finally asked, exasperated.\n\n\"How many do we have?\"\n\nColby looked down at his feet. Seven trips he'd made, making a pile tall and deep of wriggling, dying fish. Mandu eyed the pile, shrugging. \"A lot,\" said Colby, pointing.\n\n\"And how many of those do you reckon you'd have caught with a rod or a spear?\"\n\nColby scuffed his feet, still staring at the ground, embarrassed by the lesson. \"Not that many.\"\n\n\"I reckon not. When you're up against great numbers, never fight them head on. Be clever. Know the land. Know the rules. And rather than struggle with them, get them to do exactly what you want.\" He eyed the pile, doing the math in his head. \"That oughta do.\" Then he reached into his dilly bag and pulled from it his bullroarer, which he whirled about, making a louder, shriller noise than Colby had yet heard from it.\n\nAnd then the forest came alive with motion.\n\nMimis poured out of every imaginable place. From under rocks, behind trees, out of bushes, beneath roots, out of the water, seemingly out of the sky, dropping from the canopy. They were long and thin, their bodies a series of lines, like dried branches\u2014painted red with white dots, or blue with yellow, black with red, or green with white\u2014stuck together to make the crude shape of a person. Though half as tall as a grown man, not a one could have weighed more than five pounds, each wispy enough that a stiff wind could have snapped it in half. Before long, a throng of painted stick men stood before them, bobbing, chanting, some fifty strong, the tallest no more than three feet high, looking exactly like they did in the rock paintings.\n\nMandu let the bullroarer wind down, raising his other hand. \"Friends,\" he said. \"This is Colby. He's going to be out here with us for a while.\"\n\nThe mimis let out shrill twitters and hoots, crying out in languages and dialects Colby couldn't even fathom. And though he had no idea what any one of them was saying, he got the general idea.\n\n\"Good. Good,\" said Mandu. \"I want you all to meet him. But first, we eat!\"\nCHAPTER 25\n\nTHE RUM THIEF\n\nTell me about your dreams,\" said Wade, his breath strong with coffee, his hands still red, nicked and sore from the cannery. \"Where are you going to go tonight?\"\n\n\"You don't believe my dreams,\" said Kaycee. She was tucked in bed, tattered covers up around her neck, her father hovering over her, perching on the edge of the bed.\n\n\"I believe that you believe them.\"\n\n\"That doesn't mean you believe anything.\"\n\n\"I believe in you. And I believe in your dreams. So where you going tonight? To see your friend?\"\n\nKaycee nodded.\n\n\"Are you looking for the bunyip again?\"\n\nAgain she nodded. \"He's out there somewhere.\"\n\n\"Yes he is. And if anyone can find him, you will.\"\n\n\"I wish you could come with me. Then I could show you. I could introduce you to my friend and show you the way the stars look and the way the air dances. There are so many colors, so many more than when we're awake.\"\n\n\"I wish I could go too. But you're with me, you know. In my dreams.\"\n\n\"You dream about me?\" she asked, her lips curling into a slight smile, her eyes twinkling a bit.\n\nWade leaned in, spoke softly, as if sharing a secret. \"All the time. I dream about the cannery too. But I try not to think about those. Your dreams sound much better than those.\"\n\n\"Do you dream about Mom?\"\n\nWade looked down at his daughter, his eyes welling with sadness. He gritted his teeth and fought back the tingles of tears. \"Every night.\"\n\n\"Tell me about her.\"\n\n\"Kaycee, I\u2014\"\n\n\"I tell you about my dreams. But I never get to see her in those. I only know her from the pictures. Please?\"\n\nHe paused, weighing the ache of his heart against the thought of disappointing his daughter. Then he nodded, trying to smile. \"She was the most beautiful girl in all the world, your mother. Everything you said about the colors and the air and the stars. That's what she was like. Being with her did that to everything. She was my dreamtime. She was\u2014\" He broke off, held back the stutter of a sudden sob. \"Hold on, Dad needs a drink.\"\n\nWade tried to stand up, but Kaycee grabbed him by the cuff of his sleeve, shaking her head. \"No. Stay here. Tell me about her.\"\n\n\"I'll be right back. I'm really thirsty.\"\n\n\"Dad, no. Stay here.\"\n\nHe relaxed, put his meaty hand, abraded with scars, on Kaycee's thick black hair, stroking it gently. \"She had hair like yours. Exactly like yours. Curly. Never wanted to do what she wanted it to in the morning. On days when it was hot and the rains were coming, it would frizz out\u2014and because she was tall and thin, she looked like a woolly tree fern.\" Wade boomed out a laugh, trying to mask how hard the words were to get out. \"But she was beautiful, even then.\"\n\n\"Did you tell her?\"\n\n\"Every day. Even on the hot wet ones when she banged on and on about how her hair was a tangle.\"\n\n\"If you had to choose, would you pick\u2014\"\n\nWade's eyes went wide and his face went red. The monstrous Wade Looes now hovered, terrifying, over his daughter. \"Don't you dare! Don't you ask me that!\" His sudden anger caught her off guard. She'd never seen him this angry, not when he was stone-cold sober.\n\n\"But if you could\u2014\"\n\n\"No! Don't you ever think about that.\"\n\n\"But why did she have to . . . I mean, I never even got to see her.\"\n\nWade calmed, trying hard not to scare his little girl. \"Because sometimes things are like that. Some people are only allowed to have one truly amazing person in their life at a time. If I had both of you, I would have been too blessed for words. That much joy, it makes a man soft. We're Looeses. Looeses are hard. Tough. Nothing can stop us. So I had many years with her and now I get many years with you. If I didn't have you, well . . . I'm not sure even a Looes is tough enough for that.\"\n\n\"I love you, Dad.\"\n\nWade stroked his daughter's cheek, a tear forming defiantly in his eye. \"I love you, darlin'. Now get to sleep. Dreamtime's waitin'.\"\n\nTHE PRETTY LITTLE girl in the purple pajamas was racing beneath the stars once again, the moon bright, the land effulgent. She ran past the black stump and knew that she was free. Time bent and the universe bowed and all the world became a dream; there was nothing that was going to stop her from finding bunyip tonight. Not a thing in the world. Not even the murder of crows trailing behind her.\n\nThey'd been following her since just outside her house, a mass of chirping, onyx-black beasts slightly larger than the average crow, their eyes glistening a sickly yellow, their beaks shiny, polished, sharp. Their wings beat loudly behind her, their squawks screaming for her to wait up.\n\nThen they changed, their feathers molting, their bodies shifting. Black became pure darkness, and their sleek avian features gave way to oblong shadows. They were at once like squashed men, their heads bent in odd directions, and their arms cocked every which way.\n\nThey ran, scurrying, galloping across the land on all fours, barking shrill chirrups into the night. One of them, the fastest among them, trailed very close, so close she could feel its hot breath on her neck.\n\n\"Why are you running so fast?\" it asked, galloping up alongside her.\n\n\"I'm hunting bunyip,\" said the girl.\n\n\"Why would you be looking for a bunyip?\"\n\n\"Because I was told that I would find one.\"\n\n\"But they're very dangerous. You could be eaten.\"\n\n\"I won't be eaten,\" she said.\n\n\"But how do you know you won't be eaten?\"\n\n\"Because finding the bunyip is my destiny. And being eaten by a bunyip would be a terrible destiny that no one would bother telling me about.\"\n\nThe shadow thought about this for a moment\u2014his feet wheeling furiously to keep up with her\u2014then nodded. \"That's an excellent point. But you won't find a bunyip going this way.\"\n\n\"And how do you know that?\"\n\n\"Because we see them all the time. And they're never out in this direction.\"\n\nThe pretty little girl stopped in her tracks. The shadows swarmed, forming a circle around her, each ten feet out, not a one of them standing too close. \"You know where the bunyip are?\" she asked.\n\nThe shadow nodded, waving his stubby, handless arms in the air. \"Of course we do.\"\n\nShe looked around at all the other shadows, every last one nodding as she glanced their way. Each was about three feet tall, boxy, malformed, their proportions all out of whack, with one hand at the end of one arm and a blurry stump at the end of the other. \"Would you show me?\"\n\nThe shadows silently exchanged curious looks before turning to look at the fastest of them\u2014the handless one. Jeronimus. He nodded. \"Of course we can show you where the bunyip are. But only if you do something for us first.\"\n\n\"Why do I have to do something for you?\"\n\n\"Because those are the rules.\"\n\nShe put her hands on her hips, cocking her head. \"And just what would I have to do?\"\n\n\"You have to appease us.\"\n\n\"How do I do that?\"\n\n\"Through a test.\"\n\n\"I don't want to take any tests.\"\n\nThe shadow crept ever closer, nodding and waving a stump as if it still possessed a hand and finger to gesture with. \"But I thought you said finding a bunyip was your destiny.\"\n\n\"It is.\"\n\n\"But you haven't found one yet, have you?\"\n\nShe shook her head. \"No.\"\n\n\"But you found someone who knows where they are.\"\n\nShe hesitated. \"I guess.\"\n\n\"So what makes you think this test isn't your destiny\u2014that it isn't part of the big thing that will happen?\"\n\nThe girl let that rattle around in her head for a moment. The strange little shadow man had a point. The Clever Man never said just how she would go about finding a bunyip, just that finding one would change her life. He could very well have been talking about this encounter.\n\n\"Okay,\" she said with a determined smile. \"What's the test?\"\n\nThe shadow grinned. \"Tonight you must go home, crawl up into your father's liquor cabinet, and pull down every bottle of rum you find.\"\n\n\"I can't take Daddy's liquor! He'll be so mad that, well, I can't do it.\"\n\n\"Oh,\" said the shadow. \"I understand. I thought you were serious about finding bunyip.\"\n\n\"I am serious.\"\n\n\"No, you're not.\"\n\n\"I am, I swear. What do I have to do next? With the bottles. Tell me. I'll prove I'm serious.\"\n\n\"Well, next you must fetch a wooden bucket\u2014you'll find it waiting out back by the shed\u2014then pour all of the rum into it, leaving it in your backyard.\"\n\n\"Then what?\"\n\n\"Then you wait. You go back inside, crawl back into bed, and when you fall asleep, we'll be waiting. And we will show you where the bunyip wallow.\"\n\nThe pretty little girl in the purple pajamas looked around nervously. \"Do you want me to go and do that . . . now?\"\n\nThe shadows nodded excitedly. \"Yes! Oh yes, please,\" they each muttered, their heads bobbing, torsos bouncing. \"Bring us a bucket of rum! A bucket of rum!\"\n\nShe smiled, turned, and ran, leaving the shadows behind, her heart racing, her feet carrying her faster than they ever had. She was finally going to see the bunyip. Things were finally going to change. All she had to do now was get home.\n\nKAYCEE AWOKE, HER head swimming with visions of shadows still dancing around her. She looked, but they were gone. She'd left them behind, hundreds of miles away. It was dark out and the stars still wheeled slowly above, hours from being chased away by morning's light, but close enough that her father would have already passed out in his chair. It was the perfect time for her crime.\n\nBut the TV wasn't on. Most nights her father passed out before shutting it off and slept through the night to the infomercials and, eventually, the static. Other nights, however, he took pity on her and shut it off. In truth, he believed he did this most nights, thinking Kaycee had simply turned the set on to help him wake up. She never did, but never contradicted him about it.\n\nWere the TV on, she could stroll out singing a song and dancing on the creaky old floors without waking him. But the TV wasn't on. The house was silent save for the raucous din of his snoring.\n\nQuietly she swung her legs out over the side of the bed, sliding her backside down the edge of the mattress, slowly easing her weight onto the wooden floorboards beneath until her hands were the last parts of her touching. First with her good foot, then with the club. She took a deep breath and let go, her body now standing up straight without having squeezed out the slightest groan from the boards. Then she stepped each limping step one at a time, her gate wide, pace slow, like a cat burglar in a cartoon show. Kaycee dared not make a sound. Drunk though he was and hard to wake as he might be, if her father caught her skulking through the house after bedtime, especially on a quest for his liquor, he would put a stop to it right away.\n\nAnd that couldn't happen. Not tonight.\n\nHer toes came down on a loose floorboard and it squeaked, just a little, causing her eyes to clench and her stomach to tighten. CREeeeeeeak. As her clubfoot came to a rest, she sighed, convinced that this was the sound that would disturb her father, drag him out of his chair swearing, and lead him right to her malfeasance. She held her breath, listened close. Snoring. So she took another exaggerated step, making not a peep. More snoring. This was going well. Very well.\n\nAt this pace, it took her nearly five minutes to cross the meager house, three of which she spent on the stairs alone, afraid that every tiny groan would be the end of her. But time and again, these squeaks went unnoticed and she pressed on, trudging through the dark toward the pantry. It was only near the end of her slog that she thought about how quickly she could cross an entire continent in her dreams, but how slowly she had to go in waking life. The thought wasn't comforting.\n\nKaycee reached the kitchen with its slick linoleum floor and its wide open space. She skated on stockinged feet, crossing the room in seconds, a giddy little smile on her face. Then a turn of the knob and the pantry opened, its dark innards beckoning, the thick smell of mixing foods belching out into the night. Beans. Crackers. Peanut butter. Honey. Smells so sweet, blending; a frothy, hearty stew, tickling her nose.\n\nShe looked up at the deep black in the corner of the topmost shelf. Though she couldn't see it, she knew it was there. Booze. Liquor of all sorts. Vodka. Whiskey. And most important, rum. She could picture them. The distinct shape of the bottle, square with a narrowing bottom like the jaw of a thick yobbo; the proud white polar bear peeking out from the yellow label ringed with red and brown racing stripes.\n\nKaycee knew the bottle well. Not only was it her father's favorite drink, but it also tempted and teased her. Polar bear juice. For years she had pined for it before sneaking a sip that she spat out on the couch. The stain was still there. Daddy had laughed. Learn to keep it down or don't drink it. You don't waste good booze.\n\nTonight she wouldn't waste it.\n\nTonight she would feed it to the spirits in her backyard, spirits that would lead the way to the bunyip. Her insides tickled, dancing a little at the thought. She was so close now. All she had to do was climb this pantry shelf. In the dark. Silently. Piece of cake.\n\nShe grabbed the shoulder-level shelf with both hands, gripping it between her chin and neck, raising her one good stockinged foot into the air, carefully feeling her way around. There it was; the shelf beneath her. Her foot came down gracefully, her weight shifting onto it. The shelf cried out a little at the added weight, the brackets holding it up straining to keep steady.\n\nKaycee held her breath once more. Snoring.\n\nShe raised her second foot, all of her weight bearing down on the two shelves. So far, so good. Then she pushed up, ascending a level, her hands grasping the next shelf, her weight for a moment on her bad foot. Almost there. Her hands trembled, equal parts nervousness and effort. The shelves rattled a bit, the food shifting as the boards began to bow. Once more she brought up a single foot. Then the other. And she pushed up again, rising to halfway up the pantry.\n\nShe stretched, her fingers tickling the top shelf, batting a blunted square bottle, spinning it blindly in the dark.\n\nKaycee had to climb one more shelf.\n\nHer stomach tightened. She was too high up now. If she fell, she was going to get hurt. No time to think about that. Think of the bunyip. Think about anything but how high up you are. Think about anything but the ground down there. Think of the bunyip. Think of the bunyip.\n\nHer muscles were aching now, her hands shaking more violently than before, tightly grasped around a wobbly shelf. She raised a foot. Then the other. And she pushed up once more.\n\nVictory.\n\nThe shelves groaned again beneath her weight. Bottles clanked as she grabbed them, shuffling them down a level. Her hands were cramping; her legs were giving out. Just a few. More. Bottles.\n\nThat's when she heard them. Like gremlins. Scampering. Scraping. Clawing. Giggling, chuckling to themselves, hushing one another like teenage girls sneaking out of a house at a slumber party. She couldn't see them, couldn't make them out in the dark, but she knew they were there, climbing over one another just feet beneath her.\n\nShe looked down, her grip loosening, arms unsteady as ever.\n\nThen a single clawed hand reached up, grabbing her ankle.\n\n\"Stop it!\" she whispered loudly. \"Let go!\"\n\nShe acted quickly, shaking off the grip of the hand, leaping up to the next highest shelf. And with that, the shelf snapped beneath her.\n\nShe tumbled, her fall so brief that she never even knew what was happening.\n\nKaycee's head smacked hard onto the floor, the dull concussive shock blunting the sound of the back of her skull shattering.\n\nTHE PRETTY LITTLE girl in the purple pajamas stood above her own broken, tiny body, watching as a large puddle of blood pooled beneath her head. Her hair had already soaked up all the blood it could and the rest spilled across the floor, racing to reach the walls. The shadows stood around her, watching the life drain onto the linoleum.\n\n\"Does this mean we're not getting any rum?\" asked one of the shadows.\n\n\"Quiet,\" said another.\n\n\"I wanted rum.\"\n\n\"Me too.\"\n\n\"We all wanted rum,\" said Jeronimus. \"But she doesn't have a body to get it with anymore. She broke it.\"\n\n\"I didn't!\" said the girl.\n\n\"You did,\" said Jeronimus. \"You broke it.\"\n\n\"Fix it!\" shouted a shadow. \"Fix it and bring us the rum!\"\n\n\"I can't!\"\n\n\"Fix it!\"\n\nThe pretty little girl in the purple pajamas ran from the pantry, her incorporeal body leaping over the kutji, through the kitchen, and into the living room in the span of a breath. There, in his chair, her father slumbered loudly. She couldn't smell him, couldn't feel him. She shouted, \"Dad! Dad, wake up! Dad, please!\" But still he slept. \"Dad, wake up! I need you!\"\n\nWade muttered quietly, shifting in his sleep as if he could hear her like distant whispers in a dream. Louder and louder she screamed but couldn't rouse him. He was out, thick with the sleep of the drink, and she wasn't real. She was in the dream. The colors of the house were brighter, the shadows were all alive, and her father would never see or hear her, no matter how hard she tried.\n\n\"Dad, I'm dying,\" she whispered, her voice choking with tears. She reached out with her dreamlike hand and stroked a face and chin she could not feel. \"I love you.\"\n\n\"I love you, darlin',\" muttered Wade, unaware that he was saying good-bye to his daughter.\n\n\"You're not dying,\" said Jeronimus as he crept softly behind her. \"You're just beginning. The dream is out there waiting. The bunyip is out there waiting. Your destiny\u2014\"\n\n\"My destiny is waiting.\"\n\n\"It is.\"\n\nShe leaned in and gave her father a final kiss, trying to stroke his hair as he did hers, even if only for show. \"Good-bye, Dad.\"\nCHAPTER 26\n\nNIGHT OF THE BUNYIP\n\nMandu sat before the fire, the crisp, crystal-clear night sky wheeling above him, his didgeridoo\u2014thin, wavy, painted the colors of a poisonous snake\u2014pressed firmly between his lips. He blew, the long, droning hum, electrifying the air with the mystic buzz of its note, twittering deep like a three-foot-long locust.\n\nColby watched, entranced. He'd read about didgeridoos in school, but he'd never seen what one actually did to dreamstuff. The night grew colorful, ancient stories becoming songs, songlines taking shape in hallucinatory plays. The fire crackled and popped, long-dead spirits seemingly coming alive again to tell their side of it.\n\n\"What are you doing?\" asked Colby, his knuckles white, fists clenched tight, eyes wide and excited.\n\nMandu finished his note, his breaths long and evenly paced, not having winded himself in the slightest despite the lengthy performance. \"I'm calling out the things of the night. Telling them we're coming.\"\n\n\"Telling what we're coming?\"\n\nMandu paused, searching for the right words. \"Tonight is an important night. I've had dreams about it for years, seen fragments that have slowly pieced together like a puzzle. Tonight is the night you and I go to the lake, drink of its waters, and see a bunyip.\"\n\n\"A bunyip? What's a bunyip?\"\n\n\"The most dangerous creature in all of the outback. Capable of drowning those who camp too close to the water while they sleep. Able to grasp a fella in its mouth and chomp him in half. It's large and furry, massive, really, like a horse, but broad and thick like a wombat. It's got teeth like tusks, but dozens of them. It can change shape, looking like whatever will scare you most. And it wants nothing more than to drag your corpse back into the water to feed on your innards for days.\"\n\nColby gaped at Mandu, both baffled and terrified. Then nodded, coolly. \"Oh,\" he said. \"You're sure?\"\n\n\"You have no idea how sure I am.\"\n\nColby mulled this over for a moment. \"How does it work?\" he asked.\n\n\"How does what work?\"\n\n\"Your dreams. Seeing the future. How does that work?\"\n\nMandu smiled, nodding, admiring Colby's curiosity. \"The dreams come to me in pieces. We all see the future in dreams. We just have so many dreams that it's hard to tell them apart. In mine though, I have a dingo. A big one.\" Mandu held his arms out wide, stretching them as far as he could. \"Huge. Eyes black as black can be. He shows up, slips out of the night, and just looks at me. He's my familiar, my spirit animal. And when he's in a dream, I know that this is something that is going to happen.\n\n\"It only comes in fragments though. Never the whole thing at once. Sometimes it's just a few images. Other times it is whole scenes. But over the years, if your mind is sharp, you can stitch all the memories together like a movie and get an idea of what the future is going to be.\"\n\n\"So you know what's going to happen tonight?\"\n\nShrugging, Mandu looked at the stars and juggled the answer. \"Some. Not all. We'll see how it all shakes out. The dreams haven't lied before. But you can never trust nothin'.\" He grabbed his walking stick, braced it in the dirt, and climbed it to his feet. \"Even dreams lie. Let's go.\"\n\nTHE PRETTY LITTLE girl in the purple pajamas hid behind a large rock atop an outcrop overlooking the marshy billabong below\u2014surrounding her on all sides was a flock of black crows, wriggling, dancing, ruffling their feathers, unable to contain their excitement. It was the night. Everything changed tonight. Everything. For everyone. Tonight a path would be chosen and set; they need only wait to see the moment for sure.\n\nFor the pretty little girl in the purple pajamas, tonight was the night she saw her destiny up close. For the crows it meant being one step closer to having one more piece of the puzzle that would set them free.\n\nAt first she heard them. The Clever Man was blowing his didgeridoo, buzzing sweet the night. Then the figures appeared, two blue-tinted silhouettes in the moonlight. The water began to ripple and dance, the reflection of the moon and the stars going hazy, then wavy, then vanishing to flash on and off in the waves.\n\nAnd that's when she saw it rise out of the water.\n\nThe bunyip.\n\nIt was massive, like a furry rhinoceros, its head elongated, stretched out and squished at the end of a long neck as if it were clay pressed together too hard by giant fingers. It flicked a long anteaterlike tongue at the water, tickling past gleaming teeth as long as a man's arm. Six legs sloshed through the water, all of them with claws nearly as long as its teeth.\n\nThis wasn't a monster; it was a nightmare. The amalgam of almost everything she feared, dripping wet, creeping quietly toward land.\n\n\"That's what you've been looking for?\" asked one of the crows. \"It doesn't look like much.\"\n\n\"Quiet,\" said another crow. \"It means something to her.\" Then it turned to the girl. \"Doesn't it?\"\n\nShe nodded, her eyes bright, glistening slightly with tears. \"Uh-huh. It's exactly what I've been waiting for.\" She looked around at all the crows, who watched her expectantly, smiling. \"Thank you. Thank you all. I wouldn't be here without you.\"\n\n\"No, you wouldn't,\" said the second crow. \"Remember that when the time comes. Now, get down there.\"\n\nMANDU AND COLBY stood at the water's edge, the moon rippling in its sheen. They looked out and saw the hulking shadow moving slowly, silently toward them.\n\n\"Don't be afraid,\" said Mandu. \"They only charge faster when they sense fear.\"\n\n\"I'm not afraid,\" said Colby truthfully, his eyes straining to make out the shape of the monster.\n\nMandu looked down. \"You're not, are you?\"\n\n\"I've seen bigger. And scarier. If he gets too close, I'll\u2014\" He gestured with both hands as if he had a rifle. \"Pkew! Pkew!\"\n\n\"I have no doubt about that.\" Mandu reached into his pouch and pulled from it his bullroarer, immediately spinning the wooden charm through the air on the end of its cord. It hummed and whistled, seemingly whispering something unintelligible into the night air.\n\nThe bunyip stopped where it stood, scratching its ear with a paw, trying to chase away the noise. It whinnied and growled and stomped in the mud. Then it turned and sank back into the water, hiding in the deeps. The water rippled a bit more, then became unnaturally calm, inviting.\n\n\"You see, that's what will hold you back, Colby. You fight with strength, not cleverness. Cleverness is good for victory. Strength is good for killing. And killing never ends well.\"\n\n\"I don't fight with strength. I fight with magic. And magic is cleverness.\"\n\nMandu shook his head. \"No. Strength is for using against others. Cleverness is getting someone to act against themselves. You can do that with magic. But you don't think like that.\"\n\n\"Yeah I do,\" said Colby, indignant.\n\n\"Then how were you going to stop the bunyip if it attacked?\"\n\n\"I was, well, I . . . that's different. If it was going to attack, I should be able to defend myself.\"\n\n\"I confused it. Sent it away. Clever. You were just going to make it go poof! Strength.\"\n\nColby looked down shamefully at his feet. \"I was going to make it go poof!\"\n\n\"Men study their whole lives to master what comes to you so naturally. Nothing that comes so easily can ever have value. Do not take your skills for granted or a man cleverer than you will rob you of all you have and leave you for the earth to take back.\" Mandu smiled. \"I know why you're here now, what I have to teach you. But there's someone you need to meet first.\" He waved out into the bush. \"Come on, come on. Don't stand out there with your jaw hanging loose. Come out and introduce yourself.\"\n\nFrom the darkness emerged the pretty little girl in the purple pajamas. She was a little younger than Colby, but beautiful, athletic, taller, her hair and dark skin almost sparkling in the light.\n\nColby turned to Mandu. \"What is she?\"\n\n\"I'm a girl,\" she said.\n\n\"She's a girl,\" said Mandu.\n\n\"No,\" said Colby. \"She's not real.\"\n\n\"I'm real!\"\n\n\"No, I mean, she's . . . she's . . .\"\n\nMandu motioned to her. \"She's a dreamwalker, Colby. She can leave her body when she's asleep and walk through dreamtime like you and I. It's her gift.\"\n\n\"So she can see beyond the veil, but only when asleep?\"\n\nMandu nodded. \"Uh-huh.\"\n\n\"So she's not really here, but she is?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"Okay,\" he said, smiling at her. \"I'm Colby.\"\n\nThe pretty little girl in the purple pajamas smiled big and wide, her heart racing. This was a boy. A real boy. He was looking right at her. And he was talking to her. For the first time in her life, to someone other than her father, she was not invisible. \"Hi, Colby. I've been waiting a long time to meet you.\"\n\n\"You have?\"\n\n\"Uh-huh.\"\n\n\"What's your name?\"\n\n\"It doesn't matter,\" she said, shrugging.\n\n\"What do you mean it doesn't matter?\"\n\n\"It doesn't matter.\"\n\n\"Of course it matters. What am I supposed to call you?\"\n\n\"Whatever you like, I guess. But you don't have to call me anything. When you talk to me, I know you're talking to me. And when you talk to the Clever Man\u2014\"\n\n\"Mandu.\"\n\n\"Whatever. When you talk to him, and you say she, he'll know exactly who you're talking about. So why do you need a name at all?\"\n\n\"You want me to call you she?\"\n\n\"I want you to call me whatever you want.\"\n\n\"But what's your name?\"\n\n\"I don't have one.\"\n\n\"We all have names.\"\n\n\"I have one back when I'm awake. But now I'm asleep. You don't need names when you're asleep.\"\n\n\"But I'm not asleep.\"\n\n\"Of course not. That's why you told me your name.\"\n\n\"Why don't you just tell me your name?\"\n\n\"Because names don't mean anything. A name won't tell you who I am. It doesn't tell you what a person is. It tells you what their parents thought was a cute name when they were born. That's it. Does a name tell you that I'm faster than you? Taller than you? Can cross the whole of Australia in a single night if I tried? No. It doesn't. And it never will. Because names are just that. So call me whatever you like. I'll only answer to it if I like you.\"\n\nColby turned to Mandu. \"She's weird.\"\n\nMandu nodded, agreeing. \"But a very powerful spirit.\" He waved to the girl and motioned back toward their fire a mile away. \"Go, tend the fire and wait for us. We'll be there shortly.\"\n\n\"Not yet,\" she said, shaking her head. \"I haven't seen the bunyip.\"\n\n\"Weren't you watching from up on that rock?\"\n\n\"Yeah, but I didn't get to see it up close.\" She walked over to Mandu and put a gentle hand on his elbow. \"Don't worry about me, Clever Man. I'm fast. Faster than anything else out here. I'll be fine.\"\n\nThe pretty little girl hiked up her pajama pants above her knees, rolling tight cuffs to keep them in place, then ran out into the water, slapping it with an open palm.\n\n\"She's a lot like you,\" said Mandu to Colby. \"She doesn't yet know how powerful she is. And she doesn't understand her destiny.\"\n\n\"You can see her destiny?\"\n\n\"I see a lot I can't speak of.\"\n\n\"In your dreams?\"\n\nMandu nodded silently, watching the girl play in the water.\n\n\"Have you seen mine?\"\n\n\"Parts of it.\"\n\n\"Really? What is it?\"\n\nMandu grimaced, looking down at Colby as if he'd just sworn. \"It is exactly as you wish, just not as you expect.\"\n\n\"You have to tell me more than that.\"\n\n\"The spirits don't bring dreams to the people who talk too much about them. I'd rather listen to you pester me the whole rest of the walkabout than shut you up and never receive the gifts of the spirits again.\"\n\n\"So that's a no?\"\n\n\"That's a no.\" Mandu pointed at the water. \"Now watch this. It's one of the best things I ever dreamed about.\"\n\nThe bunyip poked only the top of its head out of the black water, its eyes, each almost as big as a grown man's skull, peering out at the girl splashing loudly about.\n\n\"She's quite clever, but so is the bunyip. Look at the edge there.\" The water began lapping against the shore, creeping up inches at a time but never receding.\n\n\"It's rising!\" said Colby.\n\n\"I wonder who will win,\" said Mandu, tickled. He looked at Colby with a wry smile.\n\nThe pretty little girl in the purple pajamas crept closer to the bunyip, pretending not to see it, slapping the water as if still looking for it.\n\nThe bunyip stood still, spying, waiting.\n\nShe waded closer.\n\nIt waited still.\n\nShe turned back to shore, smiling at the pair, rolling her eyes back toward the bunyip playfully as if to say, Get a load of this guy.\n\nThen, without warning, the bunyip lunged, its massive paws swinging, its gaping maw wide open, teeth bared, snarling. Water sprayed, the lake exploding as if someone had dropped in a stick of dynamite. It descended upon her, chomping down to make a meal out of her.\n\nBut true to her word, she was faster. She leaped up upon the water, running so fast that her feet never sank in. She grabbed hold of its fur, flung a leg up and over, straddled the beast, mounting it. It flailed, cartwheeling in the water, bucking, kicking, but she held on. Try as it might, it couldn't shake her.\n\nSplashing furiously it arched its long neck, gnashed its teeth, tried to bite her off its back like a dog chewing fleas. But she would not let go.\n\nShe only laughed, giggling, playing a game, dodging teeth, and mocking with childish faces. Completely unafraid.\n\nThen the bunyip bucked one last time, finally shaking her loose. She flew back across the lake, flopping painfully against a large stone jutting out of the billabong, then dropping back into the water. But she ran again, her feet barely breaking the surface, bolting back out to shore, laughing all the way.\n\nMandu spun his bullroarer in the air, making the night again uneasy. The bunyip got the message, sank once more back into the dark, muddy water, letting the night at last settle back into peace. The water receded, slowly draining back into the billabong.\n\nThe pretty little girl in the purple pajamas smiled, waved, and ran back toward camp, vanishing almost instantly, leaving Colby and Mandu alone again.\n\n\"So,\" said Colby. \"Was that supposed to be fighting with cleverness?\"\n\nMandu shrugged sheepishly. \"Meh. Sometimes bravery trumps cleverness. But you shouldn't make a habit of it.\"\nCHAPTER 27\n\nA BREAK IN THE SIEGE\n\nI'm taking this seat,\" said a sweet, lilting voice as it pulled a stool noisily away from the bar with an angry din.\n\nColby, Yashar, and Gossamer each looked up, saw a flash of blond hair, straw cowboy hat.\n\nAustin plopped down on the stool with all the grace of a factory worker after a long day, sighing loudly. Her skin was sweaty, pallid, her eyes bloodshot and wide, as if she was keeping them open by force of will alone. \"You know,\" she said. \"These hipster dive bars get harder and harder to find.\" She waved a finger at the place, pointing almost to every corner. \"I mean, I see the appeal. You already know everybody, no douchebags wander in and act like they're at a kegger. But at some point you just gotta draw the line and let a bar be a bar instead of a damn scavenger hunt.\"\n\nYashar nodded politely. \"Austin,\" he said, his tone nervous, reserved. \"I didn't hear you come in.\"\n\nAustin looked up at the ceiling, as if lost in thought for a second, then smiled coyly, looking right at him. \"No one ever does.\"\n\n\"This isn't a hipster bar,\" said Colby.\n\n\"No?\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"Because it used to be a fairy bar. Buuuuuut someone kicked out all the fairies. So what is it now?\"\n\nYashar shuffled nervously behind the bar. \"Outside . . . are they still\u2014\"\n\n\"The demons? All over the place.\" She leaned forward on her stool, grasping her stomach to massage away a sudden discomfort. \"Oh, I think I'm gonna hurl.\"\n\n\"Not here you won't,\" said Yashar.\n\nAustin looked up at him through a strained grimace, her gaze made ever the more intimidating by her seeming illness. \"In a bar? I'm not allowed to throw up . . . in a bar? If there was one place I should be allowed to chuck, I'd think\u2014\" She took a deep breath, regaining a little of her composure.\n\n\"What do you want?\" asked Colby, pointedly.\n\nAustin smiled weakly, suddenly pouring on the charm. \"You don't want to talk to me?\"\n\n\"I . . . well. I mean . . .\"\n\n\"Elevated heart rate, dilated pupils. The way you feel like someone is sitting on your chest when you look at me. Colby Stevens, if I didn't know better, I'd say you have a crush.\"\n\nColby stared into his drink, wishing he was invisible. \"Oh God. This is happening.\"\n\nYashar nodded, half embarrassed himself. \"Yep. It's happening.\"\n\n\"It. Is. Happening,\" said Austin.\n\n\"Can I get you something to drink,\" asked Yashar, \"or are you just here to humiliate my buddy?\"\n\n\"It's a little early to be drinking, don't you think?\"\n\n\"It's never too early for drinking,\" he replied. He looked out toward the street even though there was no view from the bar. \"Especially on a day like today.\"\n\n\"I think you boys might have a problem. You know you're allowed to feel emotions without liquor being involved, right?\"\n\n\"Yeah,\" said Colby. \"But the liquor lets us be a bit more honest about them.\"\n\n\"It's just our way,\" said Yashar.\n\nAustin gaped at the two, her mouth chewing on a pregnant pause before winking slyly, eyes twinkling mischievously. \"I'm just fucking with you,\" she said. \"I'm still drunk from last night. Una cerveza, por favor.\"\n\n\"Una cerveza,\" said Yashar, sliding an ice-cold IPA across the bar.\n\n\"How'd you know?\" she asked, eyeing the label.\n\n\"You mean aside from the fact that I know the secret desires and wishes of a person's heart?\"\n\n\"Yeah.\"\n\n\"Well, you joke about hipster bars, but I can't imagine there's one in town you don't drink at.\"\n\n\"Guilty.\" She sipped her beer, her face puckering as if it was sour.\n\n\"No good?\" asked Yashar. \"I've got others.\"\n\n\"It's not the beer.\"\n\n\"Then maybe you're a drink or two past the point of drinking.\"\n\n\"It's not me being drunk either.\"\n\n\"Then what?\"\n\nShe clenched her fist and thumbed out toward the street. \"It's them.\"\n\n\"The Seventy-two?\"\n\nShe nodded. \"I've never felt anything like this before. They're making me sick.\"\n\nColby tried to remain invisible, outside the conversation. He sipped his whiskey casually, but couldn't help peeking over to eye her up and down. Even ill appearing as she was, there was still something about her. Something that glowed without light, felt warm without heat. She wore a pair of faded skinny jeans with the knee torn out of one of the legs, a pair of painted Converse, different from the ones she'd worn the night before, and a black T-shirt that read: LIMESTONE KINGDOM. That stung a little and his heart sank, just a little farther, and he found that he needed the whiskey more than ever.\n\n\"You're rejecting them,\" said Yashar, nodding. \"You've never had this many in town at once, have you?\"\n\nAustin shook her head, sipping her beer. \"The city. It's like the sewers have overflowed and all the deep, dark, hidden shit that has been festering beneath it for years has spilled out and stunk up the whole damn place. These things, they're the worst of the worst. Corruption seeps off 'em into the air like cheap cologne. And anyone who gets a whiff gets nervous. Or angry. The whole city is on edge. They can't see 'em, but they sure as shit can feel 'em. People are doing things they ordinarily wouldn't. Getting downright mean. Hurting people they love. I've never had this much taint in the city at once. It feels like I ate a pound of fried shit and now I've just got to sweat it out until it passes.\"\n\n\"When they leave,\" said Yashar.\n\n\"Yeah,\" she said, eyeing Colby suspiciously. \"When they leave.\"\n\nHe frowned, his heart still sinking. \"Nice shirt,\" he said coldly, his anger getting the better of him.\n\n\"It's an original.\"\n\n\"Do you listen to yourself when you say shit like that?\"\n\n\"I do. But are you listening? I said it's original. There were only about a dozen made. The only way to have gotten one of these is\u2014\"\n\nColby's jaw dropped and he pointed a limp finger at her. \"You were there. That night.\"\n\nShe nodded. \"Amazing show. Your boy really had it in him.\"\n\n\"So you were there when\u2014\"\n\n\"He got jumped? Yeah.\"\n\n\"And you didn't . . .\"\n\n\"What? Intervene? Why? He handled that himself. He made his own choice.\"\n\n\"But that led to\u2014\"\n\n\"A dozen different decisions that were all his own. And your own. I'll step in when it protects my city, but I'm not its mother. I don't protect the people from themselves. It's not my way.\"\n\n\"And what is your way?\"\n\nShe thought hard for a moment, her eyes steeled on his, her gaze fierce, intimidating. Colby couldn't help but hold his breath at the way she looked mulling over his question, the slope of her neck, the cut of her chin, the light sprinkle of freckles across her cheek. \"Well,\" she said. \"When someone gets into trouble, if they don't deserve it, I like to see what I can do to help them out. But when they bring trouble upon themselves, when, say, two greater demons of the worst kind show up for them\u2014\"\n\nColby's head fell into his free hand while the other gripped his drink tightly. \"Oh God, you're here to bust my balls again. Didn't we just do this last night?\"\n\n\"Last night I didn't know the trouble you would be in by morning. You really work fast, Colby Stevens.\"\n\n\"I had nothing to do with that.\"\n\n\"Oh, so this has nothing to do with you?\"\n\nColby hesitated, flustered. \"Not directly, no.\"\n\n\"Not directly?\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"So this girl who's coming for you, she's not super pissed at you or dangerous or anything?\"\n\nYashar shook his head. \"This isn't about him.\"\n\n\"It's all about him. Entirely about him.\"\n\n\"So you're here to scold me again.\"\n\nAustin sipped her beer, swallowed, shaking her head. \"I don't know what I'm here to do. I think I'm here for the beer, mostly.\"\n\nColby looked over at her, baffled. \"I don't get you.\"\n\n\"Not much to get. I'm just a girl, Colby. I'm a lot like you. Someone extraordinary on the outside, but ordinary on the inside. This is Austin, and I'm just its reflection. I don't owe this city anything. What I give it I give because I love it. I love what this city has made me, and I watch out for it. Aside from that, I'm as normal as the next girl.\"\n\n\"You interfered with me but not Ewan?\"\n\n\"You're really hung up on that, aren't you? Ewan wasn't threatening my city. You on the other hand want to choke the magic out. You want to make it mundane. Safe. Unremarkable. And then you bring a bunch of baddies like Amy and Oro\u2014\"\n\n\"Stop saying their names!\"\n\nAustin looked quizzically across the bar at Yashar. \"Is there something I missed?\"\n\nYashar nodded. \"He thinks if he doesn't say their names\u2014\"\n\n\"That's not what I think,\" said Colby. \"I just don't need to draw any more attention to myself.\"\n\n\"If they're watching you, Colby,\" said Austin, \"then they're watching you. You can't hide. Not here anyway.\"\n\n\"I wasn't, I mean . . .\" Colby paused and took a big sip of whiskey. \"I'm not trying to choke the magic out. I just wanted to . . .\"\n\n\"Wanted to what?\"\n\n\"To . . . protect children.\"\n\n\"I know,\" she said. \"And that's why I like you.\"\n\n\"You like me?\"\n\n\"Sure,\" she said playfully, the twinkle returning to her eye. \"I get it. You want to feel like you've done something. Like you've left something behind. You're not alone. You're idealistic. Like a politician.\" She looked at him sternly. \"Except that you weren't elected.\"\n\n\"Neither were you.\"\n\n\"Touch\u00e9.\" She smiled. That thought hadn't dawned on her. \"Well, I mean I was, but I wasn't.\" She thought some more, trying to find the right words. \"I just want what's best for everyone, but I don't know the future. I see what's happening here. I see what you're getting into. And I'm worried about you.\"\n\n\"There's nothing to worry about.\"\n\nAustin looked at him longingly, her pretenses dropped, face awash in worry. \"Please,\" she said. \"Don't get involved in this.\"\n\nColby leaned back on his stool, confused. \"I don't understand.\"\n\n\"Whatever they're asking you to do, don't do it.\"\n\n\"I don't know what they're asking me to do. All I know is that she's coming.\"\n\n\"The girl?\"\n\n\"The girl.\"\n\n\"Whatever they need you to go do with her, you can't go. I need you here.\"\n\nColby grew cold. \"Need me for what?\"\n\n\"Don't make me say it.\"\n\n\"Need me for what?\"\n\n\"I just\u2014\" She stammered a little, trying to keep cool. \"I need you here.\"\n\n\"Need. Me. For\u2014\"\n\nAustin stroked the top of Colby's hand with her fingertips, setting his arm ablaze with tingles, then folded her fingers into his. She stroked his hair back over his ear with her free hand, running a single finger down along it to the lobe. \"Don't. Do. This,\" she whispered. Then she batted her eyelashes ever so slightly, almost imperceptibly, her eyes large and pleading. \"Please.\"\n\nColby squeezed her hand tight, his chest caving in on itself. \"I don't even know what they want me to do.\"\n\n\"Austin,\" said Yashar, paternally. \"Please don't mess with Colby like that.\"\n\nShe slipped her hand away from Colby's. \"Would you rather I do this the other way?\"\n\n\"Which way would that be?\"\n\nShe scowled, spoke with bass in her voice. \"The fire and brimstone don't-make-me-kick-your-ass-and-rain-a-world-of-shit-down-on-you way.\"\n\nYashar put both hands up. \"Okay, the first way was fine.\"\n\nColby shook his head. \"I didn't do anything. Why are you doing this?\"\n\n\"Someone died today, Colby. A demon took one of my people.\"\n\n\"You act as if that doesn't happen every day in this city, in one way or another.\"\n\n\"Not for show,\" she said, bitterly. \"Never for show! That demon killed someone just to fuck with you. And I'll be damned if I'm going to let him get what he came for.\"\n\n\"Is that what this is about? Making a point?\"\n\nAustin teared up, just a little, the slight glisten making her eyes bluer, glassier, more like the open sea. \"His name was Ernesto. He had two kids, Julian and Selena. He met his wife bagging groceries when they were seventeen. She was a cashier. The first day they worked the same line together was like . . . well, you could have powered the whole building with the sparks those two were giving off. He loved his wife and kids as much as anyone I've ever known and he never hurt anyone.\n\n\"I had a beer with him once. He sat there the whole time nervous that I was going to hit on him. Nervous. Most guys, especially the married ones, they have a beer with a girl, they hope she flirts. Even if they haven't the faintest inclination to cheat. Makes 'em feel good. Like they're still a man. Not Ernesto. He was terrified of his wife thinking he might be flirting with another girl. Didn't want her to think for a second that he might find another woman in the world to be as pretty as her. Because he didn't. So we talked about the Spurs and about his kids and then his kids some more.\" She giggled, her eyes smiling for a second as she thought back, before darkening all at once atop a sneer. \"So fuck Asmodeus. And I don't care if he hears me.\" She looked up at the ceiling. \"You hear me, asshole? Asmodeus! Come on down here and look me in the eyes, you little bitch!\"\n\n\"Whoa, whoa, whoa!\" yelled Yashar, waving his hands. \"There's no need for that.\"\n\n\"Oh sure,\" said Colby. \"Now you're not cool with invoking them by name.\"\n\n\"He won't come,\" she said, before yelling at the ceiling again. \"He's a FUCKING PUSSY!\"\n\n\"Jesus,\" said Colby. \"You are still drunk from last night.\"\n\n\"I lied about that,\" she said, taking another sip of her beer. \"I started drinking again this morning.\"\n\nAustin stood up, slammed the rest of her beer, then tossed the bottle to Yashar, pointing at him. Yashar caught it single-handedly, a little pissed at the disrespect, but not wanting to offend his guest.\n\n\"Make sure he doesn't get any deeper in this,\" she said, before turning to Colby. \"Let them sort out their mess themselves.\" Then she walked out of the bar, muttering to herself about goddamned demons.\nCHAPTER 28\n\nTHE ORPHAN STORY\n\nThe Clever Man, the pretty little girl in the purple pajamas, and the boy Colby sat around the fire, Mandu once again blowing his didgeridoo. The night was alive, the fire crackling with hints of stories, the flames momentary spirits that whispered secrets before fluttering away toward the stars. The pretty little girl huddled closer to the fire than the others, her arms crossed, rubbing her hands up and down, trying to warm herself through her pajamas, shivering slightly.\n\nMandu looked over the fire at the two. \"Once, very long ago,\" he began, \"there was an orphan boy whose mother and father had both died in terrible ways. The mother had been careless, wandering too close to the water's edge during the rainy season, while not paying enough attention to the crocs swimming in the river. The father had been loud and boisterous and picked one too many fights with other fellas. Neither died particularly well. So it was very sad for the boy, who now lived with his grandmother.\n\n\"The grandmother took good care of him. Fed him, taught him, treated him in all ways like a son. But the other children of the camp were cruel to him. Having no one to teach him how to hunt or properly throw a spear, he fell out of favor with them, and they taunted him for being an orphan. One day he went to his grandmother, saying, 'Grandmother, they won't play with me or share their food.' His grandmother asked, 'Who won't?' To which he replied, 'The other children.'\n\n\"Grandmother understood. She handed him a snack of honey and cakes and said, 'Don't you concern yourself with them. They are greedy, terrible children, and one day their bellies will ache with hunger and they will know of their cruelty.' But the boy wasn't comforted. He refused to eat and only cried louder.\n\n\"His crying grew so loud that it awoke the Rainbow Serpent from his dreaming. He uncoiled himself from under the earth and followed the crying to the village. He burrowed his way under and into the hut where the orphan was crying and swallowed both him and his grandmother whole. The serpent was so large that as he emerged, the hut lodged on its head like a hat. Hungry from his long slumber, he began eating villagers, swallowing families one by one.\n\n\"The people ran, terrified by the Rainbow Serpent trying to end the world. Soon the village was completely empty, but the Rainbow Serpent, he was still hungry. So he moved along the earth, his body weighed down by all the people in his belly, carving a groove in it. Finally, he came upon another village and set about eating it as well.\n\n\"By this time, he had swallowed so many warriors, all of whom poked the serpent from the inside with their spears, that he looked like he was covered in a thousand thorns. As he ate, he grew slower and slower, and finally a few warriors were able to climb upon his head and deliver the deathblow, killing the Rainbow Serpent for good and for all. Then they cut open its belly and set free all the people.\"\n\n\"What happened next?\" asked Colby.\n\n\"Nothing,\" said Mandu. \"That's the end of the story.\"\n\n\"I don't get it.\"\n\n\"Neither do I,\" said the girl.\n\n\"The Rainbow Serpent helped dream the world into existence. He was one of the most powerful creatures in history. But he was woken from his sleep by the tiniest, most insignificant of people. And he was killed by mere men who possessed nothing more than spears and bravery. Normal men. Great and terrible things can come about because of a single person wanting nothing more than attention. And the end of the world can be stopped by men brave enough to try. No one is too big or too small to change the world, for better or for worse. That's the lesson.\"\n\n\"Oh,\" said Colby. \"I get it now.\"\n\n\"I hope so,\" said Mandu. \"That story will mean more to you than most.\" Mandu put the didgeridoo back to his lips, playing again, letting Colby meditate for a moment on his words.\n\n\"Can I ask you something, boy?\" said the pretty little girl in the purple pajamas, still trying to warm herself.\n\n\"My name is Colby.\"\n\n\"I don't care what your name is.\"\n\n\"I do. And I don't like being called boy. What's your deal with names?\"\n\n\"My deal?\"\n\n\"Yeah, your deal. What is it?\"\n\n\"Names don't mean anything out here. Who we were doesn't mean anything out here. All that matters out here is who we are. Out here I am who I want to be, not what anyone tells me I have to be.\"\n\n\"Everything out here has a name, you know,\" said Colby.\n\nThe pretty little girl in the purple pajamas gave him a dirty look, her face pinched and puckered as if to say, I know that. \"I don't have a name out here yet.\"\n\n\"Why not?\"\n\n\"No one has given me one.\"\n\n\"I'll give you one.\"\n\nShe shook her head. \"No. It doesn't work that way. You have to earn it.\"\n\n\"What's your question?\"\n\n\"What?\"\n\nColby leaned forward. \"Your question. The one you wanted to ask me.\"\n\n\"What are you doing out here? I mean, you clearly aren't, you know . . . indigenous.\"\n\n\"Indigiwhat?\"\n\n\"Aboriginal.\"\n\n\"I don't understand.\"\n\n\"You're not a black.\"\n\n\"Oh! No. I'm not.\"\n\n\"But you can see me.\"\n\n\"Yeah.\"\n\n\"How? And why are you on walkabout?\"\n\n\"Oh,\" said Colby, thinking for a second about how best to explain it.\n\n\"You ever hear of a djinn?\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"How 'bout a genie?\"\n\nShe nodded, smiling queerly. \"You mean like from a lamp? Like on TV?\"\n\n\"Yes. But never, ever, ever say that to one. Because they hate that.\"\n\n\"They? You mean they're real?\"\n\n\"Why wouldn't they be? Little girls who fly around in their dreams are real. And bunyips are real.\"\n\n\"Yeah, but genies? That just sounds . . . silly.\"\n\n\"They're called djinn. And I made a wish with one. Well, two actually.\"\n\n\"So you haven't gotten your third?\"\n\n\"It doesn't work that way. You know, you'd think it would, but . . .\"\n\n\"What did you wish for?\"\n\n\"To see the things other people couldn't. Fairies, bunyips . . .\" He motioned to her. \"Dreamwalkers.\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\n\"Because I didn't like it at home and I thought that this would be better.\"\n\n\"Is it?\" she asked.\n\n\"Sometimes. No one ever tries to kill me at home. But there's no one around there I really like either.\"\n\n\"You like people out here?\" She motioned to the desert around her.\n\nColby nodded. \"Oh yeah! Mandu is great. Yashar\u2014he's my djinn\u2014he's awesome. I've got this friend Ewan who is a fairy boy. I've met angels and mermen and all sorts of things. You.\"\n\n\"Me? You don't know me.\"\n\n\"Not real well. But I can tell you're cool. I like you already.\"\n\nShe shuffled around awkwardly. \"Why? Because you think I'm pretty or something?\"\n\nColby looked away bashfully, his cheeks reddening. \"Nooooo. That's not it.\"\n\nMandu smiled secretly behind his didgeridoo.\n\n\"You don't think I'm pretty? I'm pretty and I'm tall and I'm fast. You don't like that?\"\n\n\"I like you because you're . . . you know . . . the way you jumped on the bunyip and you weren't afraid of it.\"\n\n\"Why would I be afraid of it?\" she asked.\n\n\"I was afraid of it.\"\n\n\"Oh, well . . . you think I'm cool?\"\n\n\"Yeah.\"\n\n\"And it's not because you think I'm pretty or something.\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\nShe smiled, tucking her hair behind her ear and dragging the back of her hand under her chin. \"Thank you.\"\n\n\"So will you tell me your name already?\"\n\nHer smile evaporated and she frowned, pushing him away playfully. \"No,\" she said in all seriousness. Then she looked up at the stars, the sky so black this far out that there were literally thousands of them swimming together in a deep sea of night. \"You know, the Clever Man told me once that in the Skyworld, each star was a campfire of the dead. That they come together with their dreaming or tribe and at night we can peer across the gulf of time and see their fires winking back at us.\"\n\nColby seemed incredulous. \"Campfires?\" He looked at Mandu, who only nodded, still playing his one, droning note.\n\n\"Campfires on the other side of the sky,\" she said, mired in the romance of it, her teeth chattering lightly. \"I like the idea. You know that where we go when we die is a place like this. Around a fire. With friends. Telling stories. Where everyone gets to be exactly who they dream they were meant to be.\"\n\n\"I like that,\" said Colby. \"That place sounds nice.\"\n\n\"Why is it so cold out here?\" she asked, her body almost convulsing with shivers.\n\nMandu stopped playing. The night grew quiet except for the crackling of the fire. \"Oh,\" he said sadly. \"Our time is again too short.\"\n\nThe pretty little girl in the purple pajamas looked over at him, terrified, the cord attached to the back of her head growing suddenly taut, yanking her backward. She vanished into the dark.\n\nColby looked at Mandu, his eyes wide, confused. \"Where did she\u2014\"\n\n\"Home,\" said Mandu. \"She'll be back. She always is.\"\n\n\"Who is she?\"\n\n\"I told you. She's a dreamwalker.\"\n\n\"No, I mean, what's her name?\"\n\nMandu smiled, shaking his head. \"You know, I never thought to ask.\"\nCHAPTER 29\n\nBESIDE HERSELF\n\nLight. Blinding. Almost green. Then it goes out, fading. Tracers trickling across the eyes, fireworks soaring through space. Then light again. A whine, high-pitched ringing in the ears. Everything too bright to make out. Shapes in the light, not a one of them clear, crisp. The whine again, then light. The sound of a truck hitting a wall.\n\n\"Clear!\" shouts a voice.\n\nThen a circle of light. Bright. Blinding. Tracers across the eyes. Then nothing.\n\nThe pretty little girl in the purple pajamas stood in back near the wall of a severe white room, doctors and nurses surrounding a cold steel table on which lay her tiny, blood-soaked body. Beside them, a large box beeped\u2014beep beep beep\u2014with a display tracking her heartbeat, a bag of blood in the hands of a nurse fed through a tube into her arm.\n\n\"She's back,\" said one of the nurses while another put away a set of defibrillator paddles.\n\nThe girl watched the doctors fiddle with her limp body, flipping it over, trying to sew together the back of her head. She looked so small. Tiny. She'd never seen herself like this. She'd stood outside her body, looking down on it as it slept, but never while other people were around. The adults didn't look like giants, they looked normal. She was the one who looked delicate, slight, a kitten in the mouth of its mother.\n\nIt was the first time in her life she realized just how young she was.\n\nShe walked over to the table, stood by the doctors, bathed in the glow of the fluorescent light at the end of a robot's arm affixed to the ceiling. The pretty little girl was warmer now. Her shakes were subsiding, and she felt cool instead of cold, warmer every minute.\n\nShe couldn't be sure how long she stood there watching, time was different out here, outside of her body, her perceptions warped, bent by the dream. But when she was relatively certain she was okay, and they had put most of the eggshell mess of her skull back together around her silver cord, she knew it was time to go. So she soared to the back of the room, passing through the doors as if they weren't there, out into a long, glaring hallway, the lights dazzling, a white so bright she had never quite seen its shade.\n\nThe hallway seemed impossibly long, as if it went on forever. She floated, passing a nurses' station blaring with sounds, flashing lights, then on to the waiting area. That's when she saw him. Over to the side, sobbing into his hands\u2014her father, Wade. Next to him sat a doctor with a serious face.\n\n\" . . . coma,\" the doctor said, the only word she'd arrived in time to make out.\n\nWade cried openly, almost wailing as he talked, his speech still slurred with drink. \"It's my fault,\" he said. \"I should have been there. For her. If I hadn't been, you know, I mean, I could have heard her. Could have gotten her here sooner.\"\n\nThe doctor put an understanding hand on his shoulder. \"At times like this, it's best to think about what we can do rather than what we didn't.\"\n\n\"She didn't want me to drink. She was gonna pour it out again. Hadn't done it in a while. Though she probably should've. She deserved better. She was trying to make me better. Now\u2014\" He cried more.\n\n\"We're going to do the best for her we can. But there's no telling how extensive the damage is.\"\n\nThe pretty little girl in the purple pajamas moved closer to put her hand on his, tell him, even if he couldn't hear, that it was all going to be okay. That she was fine. But she didn't get the chance. Because that's when she heard the scratching. Claws across windows, walls, marble floors. Scratches like animals digging under a house, like nails on a chalkboard. The whole hospital shuddered with the sounds.\n\nThen the lights went out and the whole hospital, for an instant, went black. Time slowed, and the black went on seemingly forever. Then the building convulsed, groaning slowly back to life, emergency floodlights winking awake, rooms and hall corners bathed in electric daylight. Were she awake, she might note the dingy dullness to the light, the way it made the dim outskirts seem brown and neglected. But in the dream, those lights blazed a thousand megawatts strong, like rays of the harnessed sun shot into blinding white spots amid the lonely black between them.\n\nShe looked down the hall, staggered spotlights like islands in the night, and then she saw them. The shadows. Kutji. Jet black against stinging white marble and paint. Crawling on all fours, some across the floor, others across the ceiling, others still scampering toward her along the walls. Each avoiding the light when they could; tearing through it, sizzling in agony when they couldn't. Mouths open, teeth bared, eyes wide with a hungry hate. A squirming mass of black overtaking the white inch by inch.\n\n\"Get her,\" slavered Jeronimus.\n\n\"Wait!\" she shouted. \"I thought you said you'd help me.\"\n\n\"We did,\" said one.\n\n\"We took you to the bunyip,\" said another. \"Our business is done.\"\n\nThey poured toward her along every surface, a black wave of shadowy mayhem, nipping at the air in front of them, clawing to get ever closer.\n\nAt once the girl realized these things were not her friends; they were trouble. So she ran, ran as hard and as fast as she could, silvery cord trailing behind her. Down another hallway. Around another corner. Smack into another writhing wall of caterwauling kutji, drooling, pounding theirs fists on the walls and floor as they skittered closer toward her.\n\nThe halls echoed with the sounds of screaming shadows.\n\nThe pretty little girl wound her way through an endless sea of twists and turns and abandoned gurneys, black shapes shuffling past bright white spots, disappearing into the dark after her. She was confused, turned upside down and backward, not used to navigating the world of man when in the dream. At last she came to a four-way intersection, the point at which two corridors crossed, a single floodlight illuminating the center like a theater spot on a dark stage.\n\nThere she stood, dead center, watching the shadowy mass of kutji crawl over one another just past the event horizon of the light. She was surrounded, the vicious creatures snapping their teeth together, scratching the marble, taunting her to step out into the dark.\n\n\"Come out and play with us!\" shouted one.\n\n\"Yes! Out into the dark!\" shouted another.\n\n\"Out into the dark to become one of us! One of us forever!\" shouted a third.\n\nOne of the kutji hovered at the edge of the light, sticking a cautious stump of an arm out into it. The nub smoked, hissed, searing like it had been thrown into a fire. It howled, yanking the arm back into the dark, blowing on it to soothe the pain.\n\n\"You can't stay in the light forever,\" said Jeronimus. \"You have to become one of us sometime.\"\n\n\"No, I don't,\" said the little girl.\n\n\"Yes, you do. It's what we were promised, what we were tasked to do. Two more souls and we can go home. We can find peace. Like we were promised.\"\n\n\"No!\"\n\n\"You have no choice. We are what you were born to become.\"\n\nThe pretty little girl in the purple pajamas, bathed in the bright light of the emergency floods, screamed, her shriek rippling like waves from a pebble through the hospital, the walls undulating, quivering.\n\nThe shadows stopped, silent, for a moment fearful.\n\nThen she shot away, traveling at a thousand feet per second, the shadows left wondering where she'd gone.\n\nJeronimus howled, calling the pack together. \"Take to the skies,\" he said. \"Find her. Tonight she is ours, and let nothing get in our way. Nothing.\"\n\nAnd with that they shuffled back into the black, turned into crows, and flew out into the night after her.\nCHAPTER 30\n\nCUT THE CORD\n\nMandu grew suddenly nervous, his head cocking a little to better hear, his eyes wide and alert.\n\n\"What is it?\" asked Colby.\n\nMandu shook his head, his didgeridoo gripped tight in his hands. \"I don't know,\" he said. \"Something's not right.\" He looked around with a cockeyed concern weighing on his troubled brow.\n\nIt was growing chilly, the warm desert sands cooling in the night. The sky was clear, the moon bright, the air still and quiet as the dead. If something was amiss, it was both silent and well hidden.\n\nShe emerged from the dark as she had a short while before, wiping tears from her eyes with her sleeve\u2014the pretty little girl in the purple pajamas. Her eyes were red, bloodshot, and bleary with tears, but she smiled, pretending nothing was wrong.\n\n\"Child, you're back so soon,\" said Mandu.\n\n\"I know,\" she said. \"I\u2014I missed you.\"\n\nColby pointed at her, but looked instead at Mandu. \"Was that what you were\u2014\"\n\n\"Sshhhht!\" he said, hushing him. \"No. It wasn't.\" Mandu looked up toward the pretty little girl in the purple pajamas and motioned to her to get low. \"Get down. Something . . . is out there.\"\n\nThe three looked out into the dark, the light stretching only a couple of dozen feet out from the fire before the world became pitch-black. Mandu lowered his didgeridoo, picked up his walking stick. With his free hand he reached into his dilly bag and pulled out his bullroarer.\n\n\"If I say run,\" he said, whispering, \"you run like the willy-willy. You don't look back. Do you both understand?\"\n\nThey both nodded.\n\n\"But\u2014\" said Colby.\n\n\"No buts, eh? You run. I run. We all run.\"\n\n\"Okay.\"\n\nThe night remained silent. No wild things howling or barking. Only fire. Cracking, popping, dwindling.\n\nA burst of beating wings nearby, crows erupting into a flapping flock of caws and wings beating.\n\nColby sighed loudly. \"It's only birds,\" he said. \"Crows.\"\n\nMandu looked at him gravely, his skin taking on a strange pallor. \"Ain't no crows out here this time of year, Colby. Those are spirits. Kutji.\"\n\n\"Yeah,\" said the girl. \"They're the ones that showed me the bunyip. So I could meet Colby.\"\n\n\"Oh no,\" said Mandu, his eyes full of fear. \"What have you done?\" He waved his walking stick over the fire and it fizzled, fading out with a green flicker before flaring up again. \"Run.\"\n\nThe night erupted with the sounds of anguished torment, braying, cackling, setting the whole desert on edge. Everyone ran.\n\nMandu's pace was furious, barefoot over the desert, his feet always knowing just where to fall, as if he'd run it a thousand times. His jaw was open in shock, eyes wide with terror. He had seen a great many things. He had not seen this.\n\nThe pretty little girl was close on his heels, trying not to outrun him.\n\n\"Away with you,\" he said. \"Run faster! Don't wait for us!\"\n\n\"I'm not leaving you,\" she said.\n\n\"It will not end well if you follow us. Not for a long while.\"\n\n\"Don't leave me alone.\"\n\n\"Girl, you\u2014\"\n\n\"This is my fault, isn't it?\"\n\nMandu fell quiet for a second, his steady, controlled breathing and his footfalls the only sound he made. \"Yes,\" he said, finally. \"They followed your cord.\"\n\nColby was right behind them, pushing himself as hard as he could. Over the past few years he had seen his fair share of trouble and learned the value of being in shape. He walked everywhere, ran when he could, and found mortal terror to be an adequate motivator. He could run like this for hours. \"It doesn't matter whose fault it is,\" he said. \"Listen to Mandu. Get out of here!\"\n\nThe pretty little girl burst into tears. \"I don't want to be alone,\" she said, sobbing.\n\n\"You're only putting yourself in danger,\" said Mandu. \"Putting all of us in danger.\"\n\n\"Please don't make me go.\"\n\nColby caught up to the two, exchanged glances with Mandu, both nodding to the other.\n\n\"You were warned,\" said Colby.\n\nMandu looked up into the sky above him, the beating of wings surrounding them on all sides, dark shapes coasting across the star field, outlined by the cloudy arm of the Milky Way. Crows.\n\nKutji.\n\nShaking his head he looked at Colby, then nodded ahead of them. Colby knew what he meant. They were about to have company.\n\nColby took a deep breath, drawing in the universe, feeling out the rippling waves of dreamstuff surrounding them\u2014the energy so thick, so bright this far out in the wilderness that he could feel them coming, like flies in a web. They were descending right ahead of them, driving them into a trap as would a sheepdog, swarming like maddened bees, shifting into shadowy, demihuman shapes as their talons touched the ground.\n\nClever, he thought to himself. Think clever. Not strong. Clever.\n\nNothing came.\n\nSo, being eleven years old, he reacted anyway.\n\nColby's muscles bulged, his hair fell away, and his eyes glowed the color of the sun winking out at dusk. Everything about Colby became wrong for a second, his insides folding out from within. He jumped, wings sprouting behind his arms, scales creeping over his flesh. Within a moment, he had become a dragon, a pillar of flame erupting from his gaping mouth, lighting the night.\n\nSeveral dozen shadows stood before them, waiting, looking for a fight.\n\nColby didn't hesitate. He took to the air, letting loose a fire so hot it turned the ground beneath him to glass. Mandu reeled from the heat, hair singeing off his body, still running. The shadows didn't care about the heat. But the light chased them behind their own hands and stumps, stung them like a thousand bees at once, the fire lighting small patches of brush around them like candles.\n\nThis was no normal light. This was raw, lambent dreamstuff, brighter even than the sun. The whole landscape lit up with the fire, blazing like noonday, incinerating every bit of brush nearby.\n\nInspired, Mandu pointed a wild, excited finger. \"Colby,\" he yelled. \"The tree!\"\n\nColby soared around the shadows, his wings beating with a mighty THWUMP. He looked down, saw the white bark of a towering ghost gum, its crisp green eucalyptus leaves glimmering in the light of the dwindling brush fires. And he let loose another gout, setting it ablaze.\n\nThe night grew bright as day, the fire white hot and hateful.\n\nColby swooped down on the cowering mass of shadows, grabbed two with his massive clawed feet, and cast them shrieking into the fire. The shadows didn't perish, but for a moment they wished they had. The remaining shadows scattered into the night, fleeing for the dark as if they were, themselves, on fire, seeking out the darkest spots nearby.\n\nMandu waved frantically for Colby to join him on the ground, the girl hiding behind him, cowering from both shadow and flame.\n\nColby landed, his taloned claw turning back into a foot as it touched the ground, the transformation creeping up his legs, washing across his torso, shifting him back into a boy.\n\nMandu pointed again at the tree. \"That tree is our only way out of here. Quickly, before the trunk is consumed.\"\n\n\"I don't understand,\" said Colby.\n\n\"Trees in the outback do not grow by accident. They are connected. If you know the way, you can find your way from one tree to another. It will buy us some time.\"\n\n\"Why are we running and not fighting? You've seen our destinies. You know we survive.\"\n\nMandu looked back over his shoulder into the night. \"Too many. It's not our time yet to face them. You're not ready.\"\n\n\"I'm ready.\"\n\nMandu shook his head. \"I have seen you in dreams. I have seen her in dreams. You know what I haven't seen in dreams?\"\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"Me,\" he said. \"So into the tree.\"\n\n\"But how?\"\n\n\"Take my hand, close your eyes, and try to feel the road you cannot see. Whatever you do, don't let go.\"\n\nColby nodded, taking the hand of the pretty little girl just as she took Mandu's. The tree stood before them, a towering blaze, the leaves already burned away, branches blackening. They held their breath, took two steps toward the fire, eyes closed.\n\nThe air crackled with the sound of the fire, masking the all but silent footfalls on the desert sand. Mandu's eyes shot open and he turned in time to see several shadows barreling at them, single-clawed hands outstretched. He flinched, pulling the children behind him, diving into the tree.\n\nMandu sank into it like a stone into water, enveloped by the bark, dragging the girl's arm with him. But as the pretty little girl in the purple pajamas followed, the kutji caught her by the hair, dangling from the silvery cord on the back of her head.\n\nShe screamed as they tugged.\n\nColby beat at them with a solid fist, too distracted to do anything else. He yelled with as much bass as he could muster. \"Get away! Get the hell away!\"\n\nThey scratched at her, tugged at her hair, screeching, the black shadow of their flesh sizzling away in the light of the fire. But they would not yield. This was too important. She couldn't get away. Not this time. They yanked hard, halting her descent into the tree, bending her neck so far back that her skull touched her spine. Mandu pulled hard on her arm, but she would not budge.\n\nThe horde of shadows emerged from the night, bunched together in a serpentine mass, pressing forward like a long, thin school of fish, using one another's bodies to shield themselves, only to suffer a second of the harsh firelight before ducking back behind another.\n\nWithin seconds they would be on them, overtaking Colby and the girl completely.\n\nColby didn't have time to think; he only had time left to act.\n\nAnd so he did.\n\nIn his hand appeared a giant, gleaming sword, glowing ghostly white and brilliant. He swung, cleaving in two a shadow perched atop the girl's back, narrowly missing the cord. Then he swung again, one hand still holding hers, bisecting another. The shadows of their bodies fell away into nothing, shattering first into a thousand pieces, fizzling away before they hit the ground.\n\nThe mass of shadows leaped up, engulfed the silver cord, shimmying along it ever closer to the two, tugging on it to keep the girl from moving an inch closer to the tree.\n\nColby swung with all his might, his arc wide, the blade leaving tracers in its wake. Half a dozen shadows scattered at once, a heartbeat away from meeting the end of their brothers. The blade caught nothing. Nothing but the cord.\n\nIt snapped, severed in two without the slightest bit of give. Then the long end disintegrated without a sound.\n\nThe school of shadows broke, taking off in all directions, some turning back to crows, others scampering away on foot. Mandu tugged again and the children followed him at once into the tree, their bodies vanishing into it.\n\nThe tree erupted, exploding, spraying splinters and ash in a circle around the blaze.\n\nFor a moment the night was hushed. And then the kutji slowly returned, one by one, to survey the wreckage of the gum tree.\n\nThey stood around the smoldering remnants, its fire no longer too bright to hurt them. Jeronimus stepped forward, a sickly, proud smile on his crooked lips. \"It is done. Our business with the Clever Man is finished.\"\n\n\"What now?\" hissed a kutji from the pack.\n\n\"Now we find her, we take her, and we kill anyone who tries to stop us.\"\n\n\"But we can't kill the Clever Man,\" said another.\n\n\"No,\" said Jeronimus. \"But we can kill the boy.\"\nCHAPTER 31\n\nTHE OTHER SIDE OF THE TREE\n\nMandu stared at the tree, waiting to see if anything followed. Colby in turn waited, ready to unleash on anything that stepped through. But nothing came.\n\n\"That was a powerful fire, Colby,\" said Mandu.\n\n\"I'm sorry,\" said Colby. \"I tried to be clever.\"\n\n\"Oh, but you were.\"\n\n\"I was?\"\n\n\"You scared them, scattered them, threw them off their plan. You were aces. They didn't expect that. But they will next time. Trying it again would not be so clever.\"\n\nColby smiled weakly. \"I'll try something else next time.\"\n\n\"It would be best if there were no next time.\"\n\nThe pretty little girl in the purple pajamas stood to the side, fiddling with the fragment of silvery thread dangling from the back of her head. Mandu looked sadly upon her, his expression one both concerned and sympathetic. It was done. There was no going back now.\n\n\"How bad is it, Clever Man?\" she asked, trying to look tough, like a TV gangster, squinting and strong jawed. \"Give it to me straight.\"\n\n\"It's very bad,\" he said. \"The worst. You've lost the cord back to your body. You have to find it now. Reconnect. Put yourself back together before it is too late.\"\n\n\"That shouldn't be too hard,\" said Colby. \"You remember where you live, right?\"\n\nMandu waved a finger, shaking his head. \"It's not that easy. Without her cord she can't move like she used to. She can't run anymore. She has to walk through dreamtime.\"\n\n\"I don't mind that,\" she said. \"I can walk.\"\n\n\"The body that spends too much time away from its spirit begins to wither. It can't eat. It doesn't really sleep. Too long without food and water and the body dies. Body dies, spirit dies with it.\"\n\n\"Wait!\" said Colby. \"So if she doesn't get back to her body in time\u2014\"\n\n\"I'll die?\"\n\nMandu nodded. \"Too right. But it gets worse.\"\n\n\"How could it get worse?\" she asked.\n\n\"Your cord's been severed. Once we get you back in your body, you'll never dreamwalk again.\"\n\n\"No,\" she said. \"No, no, no. I can't do that. I won't do that.\"\n\n\"But we have to,\" said Colby.\n\n\"No! I won't go back. I won't go back there. Not to that body. Not without being able to dream. No.\"\n\n\"But you'll die,\" said Mandu.\n\n\"I'll die there. I can't go back there. And you can't make me.\"\n\nColby looked at Mandu. \"There's got to be a way to teach her to dreamwalk again.\"\n\n\"Teach? There is no teaching. She already knows how. The spirit must be anchored to its body; the cord is what lets it leave, not what holds it back. You get one cord. She sacrificed hers when she chose to stay with us.\"\n\nHer eyes grew furious, her silky black hair sweeping back as if caught in some deliberate wind. \"Are you saying this is my fault?\" she yelled. \"Are you blaming me?\"\n\nMandu nodded. \"There is no blame. There is no fault. There is only choice and consequence. We must all face the consequences for the choices we make. Sometimes we get to know the outcome, other times, like much of what is to come now, the future is invisible to us. But it will be our choices that take us there.\"\n\n\"You're saying it's my fault. Colby cut my cord!\"\n\n\"I\u2014I didn't!\" said Colby, lying even to himself.\n\n\"But you did,\" said Mandu. \"You cut her cord. But it was she who chose to stay, she who brought the shadows to our fire. There is no blame. There is only what has happened.\" He turned to the girl. \"You have a destiny before you. One we've talked about many times. One you could not wait to encounter. This is the road to that destiny. These are the choices we talked about. If you don't take responsibility for them, you will never be able to become who you must. The kutji . . . you said they came to you?\"\n\n\"We made a deal,\" she said.\n\n\"What was the deal?\"\n\n\"They would show me where the bunyip was. That was all.\"\n\nMandu rubbed his hands together. \"Did you first make a deal with the spirits demanding that they would not and could not harm you or your people?\"\n\nThe pretty little girl in the purple pajamas at once felt very stupid and she shook her head, tears forming in her eyes. \"No,\" she said with a whimper.\n\n\"And what did these spirits demand of you in return for their favor?\"\n\n\"All they wanted was rum.\"\n\n\"Rum?\"\n\n\"They wanted a bucket of rum to drink in the backyard.\"\n\n\"And where did you get all this rum?\"\n\n\"From the cupboard,\" she said, looking at her feet.\n\n\"Which cupboard? Whose rum was it?\"\n\n\"My father's.\"\n\n\"And does your father know you stole his rum and gave it to the spirits?\"\n\nShe began to cry again, sobbing. \"I never got the rum.\"\n\n\"Why not?\"\n\n\"I fell.\"\n\n\"You fell?\"\n\n\"I hurt myself,\" she said.\n\n\"How bad, child?\"\n\n\"I'm in the hospital.\"\n\n\"Well, let's get you back there,\" said Colby.\n\n\"No! I'm not going back. Not if I can't dream again!\"\n\n\"But if you stay out here\u2014\"\n\nHer eyes were swollen with tears now, her cheeks glistening. She turned, running off into the night, refusing to hear the next words coming out of Colby's mouth. Somehow, she believed that if she didn't hear them, they couldn't be true.\n\nColby made a move to follow her, but Mandu interrupted him with a wave. \"Colby, no. Look at her. That girl isn't going to go back to her body. No way, no how. She's going to die out here. And that's exactly what the spirits want her to do.\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\n\"They have their reasons.\"\n\n\"What are they?\" asked Colby.\n\n\"The reasons?\"\n\n\"No. The spirits.\"\n\n\"The kutji? Shadows. Spirits with great magic.\"\n\nColby shook his head. \"What were they before?\"\n\n\"What do you mean?\"\n\n\"I've met a lot of shadows,\" he said. \"Most of them used to be people. If we know who they were before, then we might be able to figure out what they want now.\"\n\n\"They're very old. I've heard that these were once pirates. Murderers. Thieves. They mostly keep to themselves. Haunt the deserts. Not many Clever Men trade favors with them.\"\n\n\"Because they're dangerous?\"\n\n\"No,\" said Mandu. \"They never seem interested in anything. Not that we have. Now they are. They wanted her to be cut from her cord. What do they want with a little girl?\"\n\n\"What most shadows want, I reckon. An end to being shadows.\"\n\nColby looked out into the dark for the pretty little girl in the purple pajamas, but she was nowhere in sight. \"We should find her,\" he said.\n\nMandu shook his head. \"She'll be back in her own time. She has a very important decision to make. One that will tell us which direction to walk.\"\n\n\"What if she decides to not go home?\"\n\n\"Then she dies. And we protect her from the spirits as long as we can until she does.\"\n\n\"Wait here,\" said Colby decisively.\n\n\"Colby, I wouldn't\u2014\"\n\n\"Wait here,\" he said again, even more firmly. \"I got this.\"\n\nColby wandered out into the dark, his eyes closed, feeling the ripples in the energy around him. There she was, fifty yards out, sitting on a small boulder, head down, sobbing. He slowly made his way behind her, being sure to keep a short distance between them as he did.\n\nHe wanted to touch her, to put a hand on her shoulder or to throw his arms around her, hold her, and tell her everything was going to be okay. But it wasn't okay. And she would most likely push him away anyway. Girls were weird like that.\n\n\"My parents sucked too,\" he said.\n\nThe girl looked up indignantly, annoyed, a hair away from being angry. \"What?\"\n\n\"My parents. It's why I'm here. Like you.\"\n\n\"You don't know anything,\" she said.\n\n\"My mom drinks. A lot.\"\n\nShe softened, just a hair, but enough to let Colby know he was on the right track. \"Really?\"\n\n\"Yeah. Not rum though. She liked vodka.\"\n\n\"Dad says vodka is for commies and sluts.\"\n\n\"What's a commie?\" he asked.\n\n\"I don't know.\"\n\n\"Well, I'm pretty sure my mom isn't a commie.\"\n\n\"Oh,\" she said.\n\n\"Yeah. So I kinda get it.\"\n\n\"No, you don't. I love my dad. I love him more than anything.\"\n\n\"Does he drink a lot?\"\n\n\"Every night. I've tried to stop him, but, he, he has his reasons.\"\n\n\"There aren't any good reasons to drink like that.\"\n\n\"You really don't know anything, Colby.\"\n\n\"Yeah I do. But what could be a good reason to drink like that?\"\n\n\"He misses my mom.\"\n\nColby looked down, solemnly. \"Oh. Is she\u2014\"\n\n\"Yeah. I killed her.\"\n\n\"You what?\" he asked, looking back up at her.\n\n\"When I was born. Dad said it was a tough birth. I almost died. It was her or me.\" She looked at Colby with deadly serious eyes. \"I was the thing that killed my mother, and now I'm the cancer eating my father. He drinks because he misses her, which means he drinks because of me. It's not fair.\"\n\n\"No, it's not.\"\n\n\"Maybe if I don't go back. Maybe if I stay here, he can forget. Go on. He's better off without me.\"\n\n\"That's crap.\"\n\n\"It's not.\"\n\n\"That's not how love works. You don't just forget.\"\n\n\"Yes you can,\" she said. \"Anyone can.\"\n\n\"If it stops hurting, it isn't really love.\"\n\nShe sighed. \"I wish I could walk in the dream forever and never go home.\"\n\n\"But you can't.\"\n\n\"I don't like that world.\"\n\nThe two exchanged knowing looks. \"Yeah, I don't like it either. All I understand is this.\" He waved at the ground. \"I understand how a lot of this works. This makes sense to me. You make sense to me.\"\n\n\"I do?\"\n\nColby sat next to her on the rock, his elbow gently brushing against hers. \"Yeah. I don't want to go back either.\"\n\n\"You can't make me.\"\n\n\"I know. But you know what I don't understand?\"\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"How the girl who stared down a bunyip could be afraid of anything. Anything at all.\"\n\nShe turned and looked at Colby, their faces only a few inches apart, her eyes still moist with tears. \"How old are you?\"\n\n\"Eleven,\" he said.\n\n\"You don't sound eleven.\"\n\n\"I get that a lot. How old are you?\"\n\n\"Eleven.\"\n\n\"No, really.\"\n\n\"I'm eleven,\" she said.\n\n\"You don't look eleven.\"\n\n\"I know. I get to be whoever I want to be out here. Back home it's different. I'm a different person there.\"\n\n\"No,\" he said. \"You're not. You only think you are. You're strong there too.\"\n\nHer breath shivered, stuttering as she inhaled. She leaned in, putting a hand on his chest, their lips brushing against each other, eyes closed, hearts thundering. And they kissed their first kiss. Gentle. Sweet. The universe falling away.\n\nThen she pulled away.\n\n\"You kissed me,\" he said, startled.\n\n\"Yeah,\" she said. \"I told you. I can do whatever I want out here. That's what I wanted to do.\" She smiled bravely.\n\n\"I'm sorry.\"\n\n\"For kissing me?\"\n\n\"No. For . . . for cutting your cord.\"\n\nShe looked down at the ground, trying to scuff her incorporeal feet in the dirt. \"I'm sorry too.\"\n\n\"For what?\"\n\n\"Bringing them with me. For making a deal with them. I just . . .\"\n\n\"You just what?\"\n\nShe looked Colby in the eyes. \"Wanted to meet you. My destiny.\"\n\nColby nodded. \"We'll find a way,\" he said. \"We'll figure this out.\"\n\n\"I believe you.\" Then she leaned close. \"Kaycee,\" she whispered into his ear.\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"My name. It's Kaycee.\"\n\nHe smiled and took her hand. \"Come on, let's find Mandu.\"\n\nMANDU SAT CROSS-LEGGED before a fire, rocking gently, singing an incoherent song with words Colby didn't recognize.\n\n\"Mandu,\" said Colby. \"MANDU!\"\n\nBut Mandu didn't respond. He wasn't there. While his body chanted, Mandu's spirit was away, elsewhere in the dream. Colby walked around him, then saw the silvery cord trailing out of the back of his head and off into the night.\n\nHis eyes opened, first dazed by reentry, then terrified and desperate. \"We have to leave,\" he said, breathlessly. \"Now. They're coming to kill us before morning.\" He looked at the girl. \"We have to get you back to your body. Now.\"\n\n\"No!\" she said, stamping a foot in the dirt. \"I told you, I'm not going back. I'm staying out here. With you.\"\n\n\"I'm afraid that's what they want you to do.\"\n\n\"I don't care. If they want me, they'll have to come and get me. I'll die before I go home.\"\n\n\"That is exactly what will happen. It is exactly what I've seen.\"\n\nColby looked at him, his jaw out, his chest puffed up. He took the girl's hand in his. \"If they're coming to kill us, then we should stay right here. I'd rather fight them without having to run several hours to do it.\"\n\n\"Your boldness will get us killed. This isn't where we fight. This, right here, is where we die. For us to fight, to stand a chance, there's somewhere else we have to be.\"\n\n\"Where?\" asked Colby.\n\n\"Arnhem Land.\"\n\n\"How are we going to outrun them?\"\n\n\"They can't track her as easy without her cord. We'll sing the land up quicker. These are our songlines, not theirs. It will take them hours before they finally have us. By then, let's hope we're ready.\"\n\n\"Mandu, where did you go?\"\n\n\"I needed to speak with my spirit. And there were things that needed to be done. Come, it's a long run until morning.\"\nCHAPTER 32\n\nTHE NIGHT THE DEMONS CAME\n\nWade Looes was as drunk as he'd ever been while still able to stand upright, staggering through the streets, muttering in what may as well have been a foreign language. His daughter, his tiny little girl who had once been so small he could carry her cradled in the hollow between his arm and his chest, was lying, skull shattered, in a coma next to a machine that beeped with the sound of her heart.\n\nComa. There was no mistaking that word for any other word in the English language. She wasn't coming back. The doctors were sure about that. But he couldn't bring himself to pull the plug.\n\nSo day in, day out, his daughter lay there. Just beeping. All the rum in the world couldn't chase the beeping away, but he sure tried. Beep. Beep. Beep.\n\nHe heard the sound everywhere. Echoing off the walls. Trailing down the streets. It haunted him. Even when he closed his eyes and drifted off, exhausted, it crept into his dreams.\n\nWade was short on sleep now. The only way he could get more than a few minutes' rest was to drink himself out. But he was running out of things to sell for booze.\n\nWade stumbled to his knees, the world wobbling with him. Nothing would stand still. Not the ground. Not the lampposts. And not the shadows. In fact, the shadows moved most of all.\n\nBeep. Beep. Beep.\n\nHe tried to stand up, to push himself off the pavement, but he only managed his way closer to it. The ground began to feel cozy. Perhaps this was as good a place as any to finally . . .\n\n\"Hey,\" whispered a voice.\n\n\"Huh?\" he mumbled, drifting off to sleep.\n\nThe voice whispered again. \"Hey! Wake the fuck up!\"\n\nWade swatted, as if chasing flies. \"Go away. I'm sleeping.\"\n\n\"Wake up, you miserable piece of shit. Would you want your daughter to see you like this?\"\n\n\"No, I . . .\" Wade sat up, scrambling slowly to all fours, his eyes wide open. There was no one there. \"Shit.\" His head was a blur of jumbled thoughts, none of them coherent, not a one of them bothering to work itself out to its logical conclusion.\n\n\"Hey,\" said the voice again. \"Hey, I'm talking to you.\"\n\n\"Who? Who is talking to you? Was I talking to you? Us. Us I mean. What was th\u2014?\"\n\nBeep.\n\n\"Where the fuck did that . . . ?\" Wade looked around, fearful. He was too confused now. Had no idea whether he was even inside or out. It felt like pavement beneath him, but he couldn't be sure. \"What's going on?\"\n\n\"You killed her, you worthless son of a bitch. You killed her.\"\n\n\"No, I didn't mean\u2014\"\n\n\"Oh, you're happy she's gone, aren't you? No more little mutant with the clubfoot. No more split lip. No more looks of pity. Oh, that poor man. He can't even fuck a girl right without popping out a broken little beast.\"\n\n\"Who the fuck . . . ? WHERE ARE YOU?\"\n\nThe shadows moved, shuffled, like the walls themselves were collapsing, reshaping to move the light around. Then they started peeling themselves out of the dark, breaking off in tiny chunks. Several strange goblinoid shapes, boxy, like Cubist paintings done solely in black, creeping in, bending with the spinning of the world.\n\n\"You liked it, didn't you?\" asked one of the shadows. \"You liked seeing her broken on the ground.\"\n\n\"No!\" Wade shouted.\n\n\"Prove it.\"\n\nBeep.\n\nWade began crying. \"I . . . I don't know how. No one believes me.\"\n\n\"We don't believe you. Prove it.\"\n\n\"HOW?\"\n\nA large, rusty butcher's knife clattered to the ground.\n\n\"Prove it.\"\n\nWade shook his head, his eyes swollen red with tears. \"I don't understand.\"\n\n\"Is that the hand?\" asked the shadow. \"Is that the hand that killed your daughter?\"\n\n\"No, it\u2014\"\n\n\"The hand that held the glass all night. The hand that drank you to sleep. The hand that rested limp in the chair while your daughter lay bleeding on the ground?\"\n\nNo. That's . . . it wasn't like that.\"\n\n\"Clench it.\"\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"Clench it. Your fist. Clench it!\"\n\nWade clenched his right hand into a fist.\n\n\"Look at it.\"\n\nWade stared at his fist, clenching and unclenching it, his fingers scarred stubs from years at the cannery, the dark skin nicked almost entirely white. He could see the way it wanted to naturally curl around a glass, picture it resting in his fingers, the cold condensation chilling his skin.\n\n\"That's the hand, isn't it? That killed her?\"\n\n\"She's not dead.\"\n\n\"That's the hand, isn't it?\"\n\nWade nodded with a sob. \"Yes,\" he whispered. \"This is the one.\"\n\n\"You have to remove it,\" said the shadow. \"You have to take it off at the wrist. Before it infects the rest of you with its evil.\"\n\n\"It's too late. I'm already infected.\"\n\n\"It's not too late, Wade. Take it. Take it off at the wrist.\"\n\nWade swallowed hard. Picked up the old butcher knife with his left hand. Put his right hand flat on the pavement. The whole world was woozy, spinning. This felt right.\n\n\"Just take it, Wade.\"\n\nHe swung.\n\nHe screamed.\n\nHe'd missed, managing only to sever three fingers at the knuckle.\n\nBlood sprayed across the pavement.\n\nThe shadows, however, did not waver. They crept closer. \"Again,\" said the shadow. \"Again. Do it right this time or it will infect your whole arm.\"\n\nWade nodded, his eyes streaming, his face contorted. \"Okay,\" he said, whimpering.\n\nHe looked down, saw the blood pooling around his hand.\n\nThe knife came down again, this time at the wrist, his hand coming off cleanly.\n\nWade howled into the night, the pain too much even for his drunken numb. \"OH MY GOD! OHMYGODOHMYGOD!\"\n\n\"He can't help you now,\" said the shadow with a hint of delighted irony. \"There's only one way to dull that pain.\"\n\n\"What?\" screamed Wade, clutching his severed arm with his left hand.\n\n\"Over here,\" said another spirit. \"Put this around your neck.\"\n\nWade nodded, lumbering to his feet. He took a wide, uneven step, losing his balance, slamming into a wall. He could see a lamppost, shadows circling it, crows sitting atop it\u2014a rope, heavy and thick, swinging slowly back and forth from it, a noose at the end.\n\n\"I'm sorry, baby,\" he muttered, slogging against the drink, reaching toward the rope. \"Daddy's gonna make it better. Daddy's gonna make the pain go away. I'm sorry.\"\n\n\"There, there. It's almost done. Just put this on. Just put this on.\"\n\nWade slung the rope around his neck and tightened the noose. \"I'm sorry,\" he whimpered again. \"I'm sorry.\"\n\n\"Pull,\" said the shadow. And the shadows pulled.\nCHAPTER 33\n\nFOUR MEN SINGING IN A TRUCK\n\nAnd then the singing stopped, for they didn't own the song to this part of the line. For a moment, they sat in silence.\n\n\"It just ain't right,\" said Jirra, sitting in the passenger seat, nervously picking at a hangnail. \"I have a right to know.\" He was young, handsome, the youthful brown skin of his cheek peppered with a light sprinkling of stubble.\n\nKami frowned through his thick, curly black beard, shaking his head without taking his eyes off the road. He had a potbelly trying to peek out from under a stained shirt, but the arms of a man who worked for a living, hands that knew the outdoors better than the in gripping the wheel. \"You drew the straw, you knew the risks.\"\n\n\"But I should know. I didn't know I wasn't gonna know.\"\n\n\"Well, now you know that you don't get to know. And all is right with the world.\"\n\n\"But it ain't right.\" Jirra paused for a moment, thinking about how best to say it. \"I'm scared.\"\n\nThe night was nothing but darkness, the desert entirely swallowed up in it, the moon hiding behind a bank of thick clouds. It was a palpable dark, the kind you could see the shape of a flashlight's beam in, the kind that was more like a fog than an absence.\n\nThe truck was battered, old, culled together with parts from a dozen abandoned wrecks, both fenders mismatched, its body scraped of paint long ago. But its engine sang like a growling mastiff as it ambled down the dirt road at a steady clip, headlights cutting the black, two passengers in the cab, two in its bed. It had, over the years, hauled lumber, rocks, wedding parties, and beer. But tonight's cargo was perhaps the most important of its long, labored life.\n\n\"Don't be scared,\" said Kami. \"Whatever happens, it'll be okay.\"\n\n\"Just don't panic, eh? Is that what you're saying?\"\n\n\"No. You should definitely panic. That's the point, mate. You just don't gotta be scared.\"\n\n\"That doesn't make any sense.\"\n\n\"It doesn't have to.\"\n\n\"Do Daku and Mulga know?\" asked Jirra. \"Because I could just ask them.\"\n\n\"Nah, bru. I'm the only one who knows.\"\n\n\"How's it fair that you get to know?\"\n\n\"Cause I'm the fella that's gotta do it, eh?\"\n\nThe truck veered quickly off the dirt road onto the blacktop highway, neon reflectors stinging in the dark, lit up hundreds of feet out. They could make out the building in the distance, the lights of the parking lot so bright it looked like an airfield or a military base. Isolated, alone in the desert, drenched in halogen.\n\nIt wasn't long now.\n\nJirra shifted in his seat, growing ever the more anxious as they approached, still plucking at his hangnail. \"Are you sure this is the only way?\" he asked.\n\n\"Nah, it's just the best way. Quick, easy, in and out.\"\n\n\"I got rooted on this one, eh?\"\n\n\"You wanted to come along. Wanted to go on the big job.\"\n\n\"Yeah. I reckon I did.\"\n\n\"We're almost there. It'll all be over soon.\"\n\nThe truck rumbled around another corner, headed dead on toward the light. The signs were visible now, though still too far away to be read. Any minute now they would be deep in it, but for the moment there was nothing but nervous silence and a truck engine.\n\nThe truck rolled into the parking lot and rattled to a stop just past the front door. Kami turned off the lights but left the engine running. He looked over at Jirra with a hint of remorse, his hand slipping down between the seat and the door. \"Now remember,\" he said. \"Whatever you do, just keep screaming.\"\n\nThe knife he pulled out was long, sharp, glinting in the glare of the parking lot's lamps. He flicked his wrist, cutting a wide gash across Jirra's forearm. Jirra screamed with all the air in his lungs, the sound deafening in the cramped rusty cab. \"Fuck, man!\"\n\nKami reached out the open window and slapped the door twice before passing Jirra a greasy white rag to staunch the bleeding. Daku and Mulga hopped soundlessly out of the back of the truck, disappearing around the building. Jirra, on the other hand, still hollered.\n\n\"Good, mate. Good,\" said Kami. \"Just like that.\"\n\nThe inside of the building was well lit, all white, but quiet. Waiting room, empty chairs facing a television. Scattered clipboards. A nurse sat behind the admissions window, staring at the rerun of some old American show they only bothered to air in the middle of the night. She looked up, scared half to death at the sound of Jirra's bellowing, bolting straight from her chair.\n\nJirra pressed the rag, now soaked through and dripping, hard against his arm. He wailed as if his hand at any moment might fall off onto the ground, gone for good. He was pissed, glaring whenever he had the chance at Kami, who in turn avoided eye contact altogether. The nurse rushed out, trying both to assess the situation and calm Jirra enough to keep from waking everyone else in the hospital.\n\n\"Sir,\" she said. \"Sir! I'm going to need you to keep it down. Stay calm, you're okay now. Sir? SIR?\" She looked at Kami, trying to speak over the bawling. \"What happened?\"\n\n\"We were having a few drinks at a pub and this bloke was looking to have a blue. And Willy here, well he didn't reckon he wanted a thing to do with him. And then out came a knife as big as your arm.\"\n\n\"Willy?\" she asked Jirra, trying to remove the rag from the wound. \"Willy, I'm going to need you to stop screaming.\"\n\n\"It hurts!\" yelled Jirra. \"It hurts!\"\n\n\"I know, but you're going to have to calm down. DOCTOR!\" she yelled back into the hall. \"Doctor, I need you!\"\n\n\"It's gonna fall off! It's gonna fall off!\"\n\n\"It's not gonna fall off,\" said the nurse. \"Let me look at it.\" She gently pulled away the rag, his arm slick with red. He howled. The nurse looked back at Kami. \"Is he on anything?\"\n\n\"Nah,\" said Kami. \"Just grog.\"\n\n\"Because if he's on something and we don't know, it might have an adverse reaction with the painkillers.\"\n\n\"We just had a couple o' coldies at the pub. Nothin' else.\"\n\n\"He thinks his hand is going to fall off.\"\n\n\"He's young. He's stupid like that.\"\n\n\"DOCTOR?\"\n\nKami looked over the nurse's shoulder, holding his breath. Behind her, Daku and Mulga quietly wheeled out a gurney, covered in a light blue bedsheet. He quickly gave Jirra a dire look and Jirra screamed even louder.\n\nThe nurse was rattled, her buttoned-up exterior shedding, giving way to full-on confusion. She turned sharply, looking for the doctor, just missing Daku and Mulga as they slipped out the automated sliding glass doors. Ordinarily she would have heard it, looked up reflexively, but she couldn't hear a damned thing over the ruckus. She ran to her station, grabbing a piece of sterile gauze, returning to place it over the gash.\n\n\"Stay here,\" she said. \"I'm going to get the doctor.\" Then she vanished to the back, wondering where the hell the attending physician was at this hour.\n\nKami and Jirra didn't waste a second. They were out the door and in the truck before the nurse was halfway down the hall. Daku and Mulga were already in back, the body of a little girl wrapped in a pile of blankets between them. With the engine already running, Kami shifted gears and floored it, taking off out of the parking lot, racing back into the thick black.\n\nJirra held the gauze to his arm, saying nothing but giving Kami the dirtiest look he could muster.\n\n\"Does it hurt?\" asked Kami, his eyes glued to the small patch of lit road ahead of him.\n\n\"Nah,\" said Jirra. \"But it sure as shit looks like it does, eh?\"\n\n\"He was right about you, you know.\"\n\n\"He was?\"\n\n\"Yeah. Said you'd pull through just fine. That you'd do it up right. This would all go down right as rain as long as I didn't spoil the surprise.\"\n\nJirra nodded. \"He knew I'd draw the straw.\"\n\n\"What doesn't that old codger know? You might turn out all right after all.\"\n\nMulga slid the cab's rear window open, leaning in. \"She was hooked up to an awful lot of machines. You reckon she'll be okay back here?\"\n\nKami nodded. \"Mandu says she's just out walkin'. She'll be fine as long as we get her back to town.\"\n\n\"You sure?\" asked Mulga. \"There really were a lot of 'em.\"\n\n\"If he's sure, I'm sure.\"\n\n\"What then?\" asked Jirra.\n\n\"Only Mandu knows for sure. And he'll tell you as soon as he sees fit to tell you.\"\n\nMulga slid the window closed, settling back in for the long ride back to town. He looked down at the little girl sleeping peacefully next to him, wondering what she might be dreaming about, where she might be walking.\n\nThen the men all sat quiet, waiting to round the coming pass when they could sing their way along the line back home.\nCHAPTER 34\n\nSONGLINES\n\nAN EXCERPT BY DR. THADDEUS RAY, PH.D., FROM HIS BOOK DREAMSPEAKING, DREAMWALKING, AND DREAMTIME: THE WORLD ON THE OTHER SIDE OF DOWN UNDER\n\nOwnership of a song in a songline is a complicated and alien thing to the uninitiated. When the heir to a songline is born, his birthright is to inherit one. He will learn, through drilling and memorization, the names of his ancestors, the history of his tribe and the surrounding area, and a portion of the song to a songline. Others will come and ask to borrow his song; he, in turn, will generously loan it out. It cannot be bought, traded, or sold, and the heir can never be rid of it. He can only sing it and let it be sung by others.\n\nThe origin of a songline finds its roots in survival. The bulk of Australia is a hostile wilderness many liken to a wasteland, with weather patterns that vary wildly from year to year. In order to survive, the Aborigines had to become nomadic. In turn, these nomadic practices inspired a number of philosophies about ownership that simply don't translate easily to the West. To these nomads, property was fluid. The land provided, and since people needed to carry everything they owned from one place to another from time to time, the idea arose that property was something of a burden. Thus one didn't want to hold on to one thing for too long, lest it weigh one down. This began as a necessity, but continued as a philosophy. If one possessed an object for too long, it could weigh down one's very life, and thus one should never be too attached to anything, being willing to trade it away at any moment.\n\nAt the same time, a tribe might find itself in a place overabundant with one type of provision, but short of another. For example one might find oneself in the woods filled with fowl and game, but short on fruit and ocher. The solution was of course to trade. But since all of the tribes were nomadic, knowing where resources were located or abundant was tricky. So trade routes emerged. The Aborigines imagined them as lines, and they learned them and passed information about them along in the form of song.\n\nThese songs described the route to a location, as well as contained the history of those locations. Through these songlines tribes would pass information, news, goods, even trinkets in a way to be connected with other peoples around the continent. But what began as a song describing the rock formation one was looking for to find a billabong became a story about a group of men who fought and died there. Later would come a verse about the couple who fell in love there and the hero who would be born of that love. Later still the song would tell the tale of mythic creatures said to haunt it. Over the course of generations a simple method of learning how to get from one place to another became the medium that contained the history of an entire continent.\n\nSoon the songs became so long, so involved, so intricate that no one man could ever learn all of them. Few could memorize every bit of a single line. From this evolved the practice of passing down portions of the song. It is both an honor and a burden, a gift with strings attached. And every so often, a tribe will gather to sing the whole of its line, requiring all of the owners of a piece of the song to perform, in order, their portion.\n\nIt is in these recitations that we begin to see the more powerful, religious applications of the songlines. Aborigines believe that if you sing a songline out of order, you can undo the line itself, singing the elements out of existence. While the exact repercussions vary from tribe to tribe, the end result is always cataclysmic, ranging from the restructuring of reality, the redrawing of maps, to the complete annihilation of creation itself. While there appears to be no real basis for this, the belief in these events is dangerous enough. In a land as rich with dreamstuff as Australia, a large gathering of powerful believers singing ancient magicks, all believing something has gone wrong at once, could be the explanation of any number of their history's natural disasters.\n\nThis, of course, covers the more mundane aspects of the history. Enter the Clever Men, also known as the Men of High Degree. These medicine men learn the more esoteric meaning to the songs. In short, the magic of them. Through song, these Clever Men can reweave their own surroundings, ward off supernatural creatures, and even travel more quickly via a songline.\n\nIt is believed by many that singing a songline while traveling will actually conjure up the location more quickly. And while this is clearly untrue, it is based primarily upon the Clever Men's ability to \"hop\" from location to location. In truth, Clever Men memorize not only the physical locations and histories, but their hidden, supernatural ones as well. They learn about the spaces between the spaces and memorize their properties within the elements of the song.\n\nThere are a number of different theories and explanations as to the nature of the universe, none of which seems to be wholly accurate. I prefer to look at reality as having begun as a balled-up sheet of paper. Over time, it has slowly unfolded, leaving creases and crinkles where portions of it are actually a bit closer than they appear to be when viewed from overhead. People with the ability to perceive beyond the veil can sense these crinkles and creases, and use them to slip from one part of the universe to another without having to cross all of the physical space. This allows someone to travel faster than normal and, when viewed by an outsider, appears as if the person is \"hopping.\"\n\nClever Men make extensive use of this, traveling between places much faster than the ordinary person, or evading pursuers by simply disappearing and reappearing hundreds of feet away. To the casual observer this appears to happen as if the Clever Man sings it into being. In truth, he is singing to guide himself to the right spot to pass through.\n\nOne of the most important secrets to the magical nature of the songs is that the power is not in the words. Like all true magick, the secret is in the belief and execution. Here, in the case of songlines, the magick is from the music. The belief in the tune is the crux of it. While the many tribes of Australia share a common mythology and belief system, they do not share the same language. Even though songlines belong to people of a specific dreaming (an extended form of tribe tied into the belief of a people's origin), those people do not necessarily all speak the same language. They do, however, sing the same song. Thus it is not the words that matter, simply the land they describe and the tune by which they do it.\n\nTheir belief in the power of their song affects the song itself, weaving in subtle alterations to the way the tune exists and ultimately the way it can fundamentally shape the reality around it. In other words, as long as someone knows the tune, the landmarks and the stories that go along with them, they can sing a song without knowing the specific words and still utilize the knowledge and power of that songline.\nCHAPTER 35\n\nTHE SWAMPS JUST SOUTH OF ARNHEM\n\nWhere are we headed?\" asked the pretty little girl in the purple pajamas.\n\n\"Not much farther. Few more hours. A billabong near my home. Great power. Very holy. Delicious fish. You'll like it.\"\n\nIt was afternoon. They had run all night and seen nary a crow. Now that the sun was up, they ran still. There was no time to stop, to rest. But there was time for a lesson as they hoofed it due north.\n\nColby stopped, looking around at the tree above him, then, confident he was safe, closed his eyes. He put his hand on one of the thin gray trunks, his hand disappearing into it. Though the tree was many times smaller than Colby, he squeezed himself in, emerging from another tree fifty feet ahead.\n\nMandu nodded, jogging with a proud smile. \"Good. Good! You've got it.\" Colby waved as he stepped completely out. \"Now feel out again. See if you can find one with a sister tree farther out.\"\n\n\"Okay!\" Colby yelled, turning around and trying again.\n\n\"This is stupid,\" said the girl, just loud enough for Mandu to hear her.\n\n\"For you, yes. Which is why I'm not having you do it.\"\n\n\"Then why him?\"\n\n\"You and he are very similar. Both clever. Both headstrong. Both very good with your heads. But Colby was given too much too soon. He can wipe a being out of existence with a thought or summon terrible nightmares from the dream. So he thinks big. He thinks like a bully. Brute force. We must break him of that or he will do something very, very terrible.\"\n\n\"Like what?\" she asked.\n\n\"Like something else that cannot be undone.\"\n\n\"Why don't I have to do it, then?\"\n\nMandu smiled. \"Because you started with nothing. You think clever, only limited by your age and power. If you get too clever, you too will do things that cannot be undone. What you need is to think more like Colby, just as he needs to think more like you.\"\n\n\"Found one!\" yelled Colby, vanishing into the much larger trunk of a black walnut tree.\n\nThe girl ran quietly for a spell, mulling over what Mandu had said. \"Clever Man?\"\n\n\"Yes?\"\n\n\"Am I really going to die out here?\"\n\nMandu shrugged. \"Child, if you survive this, it will only be because they want you to survive this and only if it serves their plans. Odds are, if you live, it won't be a life worth living.\"\n\nShe deflated, scuffing her foot in frustration. \"Oh,\" she said, thinking about the last time she saw her body. The pain of waking up to fresh scars and a shattered skull scared her less than dying out here, but never being able to dreamwalk again scared her most of all.\n\n\"You know,\" he said, \"there is a rock, far out in the desert, well off every road and songline. Big one. Just a boulder in the middle of nowhere. Many Clever Men know where it is. Spirits have been known to sleep there from time to time. One day, you might find everything you're looking for under that rock.\"\n\n\"One day?\" she asked, hopeful.\n\n\"If you live to see that day, you'll know it when it comes.\"\n\nMandu kept his eyes on the horizon, tracking the sun, doing the math silently in his head. They might not make it in time. But he was afraid of telling the children, afraid that they might spend the last few hours of their lives running.\n\n\"Mandu!\" Colby shouted from a hundred yards away. \"This is awesome!\"\n\nIT WAS NIGHTFALL and they were quickly approaching the border into Arnhem. Both Colby and Mandu were exhausted, their bodies run well past their breaking points. Though both were accustomed to long runs, neither was prepared for this. It was getting harder to be able to keep a straight thought in their heads. All Mandu could think about was crossing the border. Get into Arnhem. Then they would be safe. He repeated it over and over.\n\nThe pretty little girl in the purple pajamas, however, wasn't even winded. She was a thing of the dream and could run for as long as she wanted, just not as fast anymore. But she kept pace with the others, as fast as her legs could now carry her, scared of what might happen if she found herself too far behind them.\n\nThe sound of the first crow cawing in the dark broke Mandu's heart. This was the moment he was dreading. No future was set in stone, he knew that. But even the best outcomes here were unappealing. Both of these children were about to make some of the most important decisions of their lives, but if he dared tell them, dared hint at the true outcome, they would never choose the right path. Either of them.\n\nWhile the first caw broke his heart, the second was utterly devastating. It came from ahead of them. And it was followed by a terrifying volley of them.\n\nThe kutji were waiting, lined across the forest, standing between them and Arnhem.\n\n\"Keep running,\" said Mandu. \"Don't stop.\"\n\n\"But they're right ahead of us,\" said Colby.\n\nMandu pointed at the horizon. \"You see that ridgeline?\"\n\n\"Yeah.\"\n\n\"That's Arnhem Land.\"\n\n\"So?\"\n\n\"They can't follow us into Arnhem. They're not allowed.\"\n\n\"Why not?\" asked Colby.\n\n\"Because that was the deal I made with them.\"\n\n\"You what?\"\n\n\"Our friend here is not the only one who has trafficked with these spirits. My deal with them keeps them out. If we can get to that ridge\u2014\"\n\n\"We'll be safe!\" Colby ran harder than before, getting his second wind. \"But how do we get past them?\"\n\nMandu smiled, reaching into his dilly bag. \"I have a surprise.\" He pulled out his bullroarer, winging it through the air with a WHUMP-WHUMP-WHUMP.\n\nThe kutji descended from the trees, feathers molting into shadows, wings changing into arms, running at full speed the moment they touched the ground.\n\nAnd then the forest came alive.\n\nThe mimis crawled out from every crevice imaginable, from under rocks and logs, from cracks in the mud, from between the leaves in trees. Their colors varied from black and white to red and purple, yellow and green. Each looked as if it was finger-painted to life, thin as a rail but vicious, fearless.\n\nThey rained stones from slings on the incoming shadows; they hurled boomerangs through the air; lobbed spears tipped with flame. The first wave of shadows toppled to the ground, some merely felled by rocks, others screaming, flaming spears sticking out of their chests, boomerangs lodged in their heads. Then the mimis descended on the fallen with clubs, kicking, beating, scratching.\n\nJeronimus yelled, realizing he'd once again been lured into a trap. He would not spend another night trapped in a pit, plucking the feathers from birds, waiting for death. He yipped twice, waved his stubby arms around in the air, and called back his shadows to rally with him.\n\nThe shadows pulled their fallen behind them, dragging them back, mimis chasing them, casting rocks and spears after them as they did. They crawled into the shadows of trees, hiding from the advancing fairy mob, staying still and silent, hoping not to be spotted. Then Jeronimus yelled again. \"To the skies!\" And the shadows burst into a flock of birds, flapping wildly, chasing the stars.\n\nColby, Mandu, and the pretty little girl ran even harder than before. This was their only chance.\n\nThe crows, still dozens strong and wounded, raced toward the heavens, the stars crystal clear and beaming, the sky black and cloudless. They powered their way up, fighting against the pull of the earth, tiny wings pushing as hard as they could. Then Jeronimus evaporated, his feathers falling away. His form broke down into mist, the blackness of his sheen swelling into the night, obscuring the night sky.\n\nJeronimus had become a storm cloud, ever expanding and ominous, his companions dutifully following suit.\n\nThe horde of crows dissolved into a storm front all their own; dark, bulbous, rolling clouds surging out across the sky, flashes of lightning belching within. The wind kicked up, fierce and steady, gusts whipping between the trees, a torrent of leaves scattering through the swamp like buckshot. Then the rains came.\n\nThe winds tore through the forest, microbursts tearing mimis in half, snapping their brittle limbs, tossing them around like tumbleweeds. The mimis scattered, desperately clawing their way between rocks, back into tree hollows, bracing themselves against the gales. The entire forest shook, balding trees waving, shedding leaves by the pile; branches tearing free, crashing into the mud. Storm raging, loud and unrelenting; earth trembling below with the bellows of thunder. It was a sound like the end of the world.\n\nColby ran. Mandu ran. But the pretty little girl in the purple pajamas huddled behind a dug-in boulder, head between her knees, hands behind her head, fingers laced together. She couldn't outrun the storm anymore; she couldn't ignore its winds or its lightning. With her tether gone, she was slow, clumsy, and exposed. And she was scared to death.\n\nShe mumbled quietly to herself, asking for unseen help, praying that the rains soaking her would soon pass, that the winds would soon die down. But the tempest still howled, the storm getting angrier and angrier by the moment. The twisted, broken, red-painted body of a mimi tumbled by, a single splintered hand twitching to grab her as it passed before being thrown into a billabong.\n\nFour clouds broke away from the front, drifting down, letting the gusts tear them apart. They shredded, the wisps becoming feathers, the feathers fluttering together. The four became crows again, dropping through the rain, straight toward the pretty little girl in the purple pajamas.\n\nAt once the rest of the clouds burst, the rain stopping, the stars emerging in swaths of sky. Crows formed, flapping back down toward the earth, mist trailing from their feathers. Dozens of birds once again dove down, the thunder having trailed off into the distance, the storm nothing but a memory.\n\nShe cowered still behind a boulder, unaware of the hell coming for her.\n\nWith the winds gone, the mimis emerged from their holes. This time, however, the kutji were ready, swooping in on the stick men, claws out, tearing them off their trees, snapping them in half against boulders and branches. It had been hundreds of years since the kutji were afforded the chance to be this savage, memories of cobbled-together maces crushing skulls, splattered blood across coral sands flooding back. They felt alive. In a bloodthirsty rage, the spirits relived the heady days of wanton brutality, unleashing centuries of pent-up fury on the mimis they could get their claws on.\n\nWhat few mimis remained unseen stayed hidden, sure that they would be the next dead against a rock or snapped into pieces by bare hands.\n\nThe carnage was over almost as soon as it began, the shadows looking around, eager for other victims, bleeding pieces of mimi in their hands like clubs, crows soaring about them as spotters.\n\nThen the crows formed a murder around the pretty little girl. Some sat on branches, watching, others shifted back into their more human forms. Jeronimus was the last to flap down, dropping to the ground, a stub-fisted shadow, smiling from ear to ear.\n\n\"Hello, Kaycee,\" he said.\n\n\"That's not my name,\" she said. \"Not out here.\"\n\n\"It was always your name. It will always be your name. Kaycee Looes. Daughter of Wade Looes. Last and furthest descendant of Wouter Looes. We've waited a long time for you, Kaycee. A lot of years.\"\n\n\"A lot of years,\" hooted one of the other shadows.\n\n\"And now we can right the four-hundred-year-old wrong. Can you help us do that?\"\n\nThe pretty little girl in the purple pajamas shook her head. \"No.\"\n\nJeronimus leaned in, inches from her face. \"Too bad you don't get a say in the matter.\"\n\nSEVERAL KUTJI LANDED in the swamp just ahead of Colby and Mandu, running toward them at alarming speeds.\n\n\"Colby!\" shouted Mandu. \"The trees! Take to the trees!\"\n\nColby knew exactly what he meant. He felt out for the trees, sensed their connections. A kutji leaped into the air, claws out, raking at Colby. It came down, inches from him, a heartbeat away from striking. Then Colby vanished, running headlong into a tree and out another twenty feet away.\n\nHe was alone now, his legs burning, aching, barely able to carry him. And he ran into another tree. And another. And another.\n\nThe kutji couldn't keep up.\n\nThe ridge was only a few tree hops away now.\n\nBehind him he heard the screams of the chittering mob, but dared not look back. Run, he thought. Just keep running.\n\nAnother tree. And then another.\n\nAnd then the ground was different. He looked down, saw the rock beneath his feet.\n\nColby had made it to the ridge.\n\nHe turned, looked back to see Mandu just below him in the swamp, running into a tree of his own. Then he felt the WHOOSH of air as Mandu blew past him, turning as he did and slowing to a stop. Both doubled over in agony, trying to catch their breath. Colby, hands on his knees for support, looked up for the little girl in the purple pajamas, but she was nowhere nearby.\n\nHe looked out farther, then farther still, and finally he saw her, swarmed with maddened kutji, too numerous for her to escape. \"KAYCEE!\" he screamed. She looked up, as scared as he'd ever seen her, held out a pleading arm, begging him to come back.\n\nColby ran for the nearest tree, but Mandu put out a stiff arm and stopped him cold.\n\n\"You can't,\" said Mandu, panting.\n\n\"They're going to kill her.\"\n\n\"Not tonight they aren't.\"\n\n\"We have to help her!\"\n\n\"We can't.\" He pointed to the edge of the ridge. Below them stood a half dozen furious kutji, braying madly, but refusing to take another step. \"We're in Arnhem now. You pass that ridge, they will kill you.\"\n\n\"We can't leave her.\"\n\n\"We have to. It is the choice she made. I told you both it would come to this. I told you at the campfire. If she followed, it would not end well. If she didn't go home, she would die before she returned to her body. She chose this. This was what she has worked so long and hard for.\"\n\n\"No! That's not fair.\"\n\n\"Not all destinies are fair, Colby. Hers isn't, yours isn't. We get the lives we choose, even when we don't know we're making a choice.\"\n\nColby and the little girl stared at each other across the wide gulf of the swamp, both with tears in their eyes. \"I don't leave my friends.\"\n\n\"This time you do.\"\n\n\"We're staying.\"\n\n\"Colby, what's about to happen, you don't want to see. I've seen it. And it will haunt me for as long as I live. Don't do this. Come.\"\n\n\"No. I'm not\u2014\"\n\n\"Come, before you see something you can never unsee.\" Mandu looked out over the valley ahead of them in Arnhem. \"I have something to show you. Something very important.\"\n\nColby turned, crying. \"But, Mandu\u2014\"\n\n\"I have seen many versions of tonight in my dreams. There is one in which you didn't make it up here. And another in which you went back. They both end the same. Those were terrible dreams. Please, let them remain dreams. Come on.\"\n\nColby turned back to the swamps, sobbing, raising a hand to wave good-bye to his friend.\n\nBelow, the pretty little girl in the purple pajamas simply watched him, stunned, unable to speak.\n\nThen Colby turned around one last time and walked sadly into Arnhem with Mandu.\nCHAPTER 36\n\nQUEEN OF THE DARK THINGS\n\nThe shadows watched as Colby vanished into the forest, out of their reach.\n\nThe pretty little girl in the purple pajamas couldn't watch. She stood crestfallen, defeated, eyes cast to the ground. \"Are you going to kill me?\" she asked.\n\nJeronimus shook his head. \"We don't have to. You already did the heavy lifting on that for us. You'll be dead any day now for sure. We just have to wait for your body to die.\"\n\n\"Where is it?\"\n\n\"In the hospital where we left it. You're on machines. But they'll pull the plug any day now.\"\n\nThe tears began to flow steadier now and she sobbed openly into her hands. \"And what will happen to me then?\"\n\n\"You'll become one of us. And then we can all move on.\"\n\n\"My dad won't let that happen.\"\n\nJeronimus smiled wickedly. \"He doesn't have a choice.\" He gave a shrill whistle, nodding to a pack of kutji standing behind her.\n\nOut from the pack emerged a single shadow, larger than the others, its limbs long and lanky, having died in much different light than the others. She knew exactly who it was, could feel him, feel his pain, knew it was once her father. Wade.\n\nShe fell to her knees, weeping. Destroyed. \"No! Dad!\"\n\n\"Your friends are gone,\" said Jeronimus. \"Your family is gone. There is only us now. Shadows! Show her what will happen if she tries to run away!\"\n\nThey descended upon her with a ravenous fury, kicking, hitting, scratching, clawing. They beat her mercilessly. But she wouldn't budge; she wouldn't flinch. In fact, she didn't move at all. Nor even blink. She just knelt there, thinking about her father. The blows landed but she couldn't feel them. Hits as strong as the kutji could throw glanced off perfect, radiant skin leaving nary a mark.\n\nShe growled, shaking her head at the shadows around her. Slowly, but surely, the ferocity waned, each shadow backing away until none was close enough to hit her anymore.\n\nThen the pretty little girl in the purple pajamas stood up, taking one step toward Jeronimus. \"I lied to Colby,\" she said hatefully, taking another step. \"I told him what he wanted to hear. I'm not Kaycee. Not here. Here I get to be whoever I want to be. I'm taller here. Faster here. Stronger here. And here . . . no one can hit me. No one can hurt me. Especially not you.\" She strode up to Jeronimus, her eyes bitter, staring down at him as he looked bravely up at her.\n\n\"You have no idea what we can\u2014\"\n\nShe grabbed his forehead with a single hand, pushing it all the way back on his neck, his mouth open wide and screaming. Then she jammed her fist down his throat, her arm going in all the way to the elbow, grabbed hold of his innards and tugged, turning his soul inside out. Hands gripped tight, she pulled him apart, piece by piece, tearing him to shreds as the kutji shrieked and howled around her like terrified monkeys. Jeronimus was torn into twenty pieces before his pleading stopped and the remains scattered to the ground, melting away into the darkness around them.\n\nAnd then he was gone.\n\nThe kutji went berserk, leaping around frantically, waving their arms, shaking their fists, as confused as they were angry.\n\n\"QUIET!\" she boomed, her voice echoing through the swamp like an explosion.\n\nThe kutji stopped, held in place by sheer terror.\n\n\"On your knees. NOW!\"\n\nThey fell obediently to their knees.\n\n\"Who am I?\" she asked.\n\nThey looked around at one another, murmuring a dozen unintelligible answers.\n\n\"Who?\" she demanded of them again.\n\n\"You're Kaycee Looes,\" said one of them. Several others nodded in agreement.\n\n\"No. Kaycee Looes is in a bed somewhere. I am your Queen. And you serve me now.\"\n\nThe kutji eyed one another, hoping for boldness out of one of their companions. But none came.\n\n\"We have business,\" she said. \"I promise never to kill you like I did your master. And you swear, here and now, that you serve me and obey my every command. And no one, not a one of you, ever touches me again.\"\n\nOne of the kutji near her shook his head. \"No. We do not swear.\" She attacked far quicker than before, shredding him before he could stand up again. His tattered remnants evaporated in the night.\n\n\"Swear!\"\n\n\"We swear,\" they said in unison.\n\n\"What do you swear?\"\n\n\"To serve and obey your every command and never, ever touch you again.\"\n\nThe pretty little girl in the purple pajamas smiled brutally. She walked over to the shadow that was once Wade Looes, took him by the hand, helped him to his feet. \"Dad, what did they do to you?\"\n\n\"Nothing,\" he said. \"I did it myself, darlin'. This is what we are. It is what you and I are supposed to be.\"\n\n\"No. This is not what we are. We're better than this. Better than them. And starting tonight, we prove it.\"\n\n\"What are we going to do?\"\n\nShe looked out into the outback, took a deep breath. \"We're going to make sure no one ever does anything like this to anyone else again.\"\nCHAPTER 37\n\nTHE SHE-DEVILS OF NANMAMNROOTMEE\n\nLarge boulders stood erect, upright in the dirt, dozens of them, perhaps a hundred such stones, the soft tinkling notes of a song ringing sweetly between them. A campfire, tall and bright, blazed coolly within their center. And before that fire sat a devil woman, her flesh pale, her hair a flat black. She had no eyes, just smooth skin where the sockets should be, and a handful of crooked, rotten teeth clinging desperately to puss-dripping gums. She sat cross-legged, grinding plums on a large, polished doughnut of a stone. It was clear that the stone had been ground down in just that manner, worn from centuries of grinding plums against it. In a pile below the stone sat an ever growing sludge of delicious-looking purple pulp.\n\nFrom out of the desert it came, a whirlwind, a dust devil the size of a tree. It twisted furiously across the plum-pit-strewn sands, coming to a rest on the opposite side of the fire from the old witch. As the winds died down, the dust became a man, large, fat, sweaty\u2014still as tall as a tree\u2014his curly hair matted, colored red by the outback he'd picked up along the way. His skin was clay, his eyes like polished onyx.\n\nThe eyeless she-devil paid him no mind, instead continuing to grind plums on her stone, tossing away the pits in a different direction each time.\n\n\"Oy!\" said the desert man. \"Marm.\"\n\n\"I know you, willy-willy,\" she said, her voice like wind whistling through dried leather straps. \"There's no need to shout. You don't belong here. That song was not for you.\"\n\n\"It's a beautiful song, though.\"\n\n\"Yeah, it is. But not yours.\"\n\nThe willy-willy looked around nervously, beads of sweat forming on his brow. \"Nice night for it, eh?\"\n\n\"For what?\" asked Marm. Though she had no eyes, she seemed to gaze suspiciously at him. \"Why are you here?\"\n\nShadows awoke. From behind the rocks they crawled, slow, methodical, their movements rigid, measured, like sloths. A slow-motion dance formed in the firelight, flickering specters, naked, their flesh withered, breasts sagging to their stomachs, nipples raw and bleeding, sharpened teeth bared.\n\nThey sang, the notes intoxicating.\n\nShe-devils.\n\nThe willy-willy looked up and waved a dismissive hand. \"There's no need for that, ladies. Just a friendly visit is all.\"\n\n\"You're not here for the plums, are you?\" asked Marm.\n\n\"No,\" he said, wiping sweat from his brow with the back of his dusty arm.\n\nMarm spoke more slowly now, more deliberately, more forcefully. The air seemed to chill a bit more at the utterance of each word. \"Then why . . . are you . . . here?\"\n\n\"I'm sorry,\" he said. \"She made me.\" He turned and looked over his shoulder just as the massive shadow slunk in from out of the dark of the outback. It was taller than a man, though smaller still than the willy-willy, with six legs, a long neck, a fur the color of night. It was a bunyip. And astride it rode a little girl. A little girl in purple pajamas.\n\nShe wore a confident smile, her eyes unflinching, like a gunfighter's. The bunyip bowed, lowering its head to the ground, and the girl slid off it.\n\n\"You can go, Virra,\" she said to the willy-willy.\n\n\"Thank you, my Queen.\" Then he turned to the old witch, whispering. \"Listen to her, Marm. Trust me.\" The winds rose up and his skin turned to sand and in an instant he was gone, whipping across the desert as fast as his gusts would carry him.\n\nThe Queen of the Dark Things stepped to the fire, sat down cross-legged in the dirt, smiled politely at the old witch, full of the knowledge that she could not see her.\n\nThe devil woman held up a hand dripping pulp, offering it to the Queen. \"Plum?\" she asked.\n\nThe Queen of the Dark Things shook her head. \"I know better than that. I will not become one of your she-devils.\"\n\nWith that the note of the song came to an abrupt halt, replaced by a chorus of ear-piercing howls.\n\n\"I will not call you Queen,\" said Marm.\n\n\"I was hoping we could change that.\"\n\n\"No. We can't.\"\n\nThe Queen of the Dark Things put two stiff fingers between her lips and whistled shrilly.\n\nThen from out of the dark came an army of shadows, kutji swooping in from all sides. They went for the she-devils, their single clawed hands rending their naked flesh. The howls turned to shrieks, terror-stricken devils batting futilely at their attackers. The night filled with the sounds of slaughter, of flaying skin and severed limbs.\n\nMarm rose to her feet screaming. \"No! Not my girls!\"\n\n\"Then call me Queen.\"\n\n\"No!\"\n\n\"The creatures of the night belong to me now. You either join me or you join the campfires on the other side of the sky. Only you can end this.\"\n\n\"No! I won't! I serve no one!\"\n\n\"You serve me now.\"\n\nMarm listened as the she-devils she had collected over a thousand years begged for their lives, wincing as they cried out for their mistress to save them. Tears of blood formed in the corner of her hollow sockets, her fists balled up at her sides. \"Save us!\" they shouted. \"Do something!\"\n\nAnd she did.\n\nThe devil woman fell to one knee, head bowed, arms out, palms extended to the sky. \"My Queen,\" she said. \"Please make this stop.\"\n\n\"Swear to me,\" said the Queen of the Dark Things.\n\n\"I swear to you.\"\n\n\"And only me.\"\n\n\"And only you.\"\n\nWith that, the Queen nodded and her shadows beat a hasty retreat, vanishing immediately back into the night.\n\nThe she-devils, what few remained, at once fell to their knees, sobbing, the blood of their sisters covering them from head to toe.\n\nThe Queen of the Dark Things rose to her feet, pointing sternly at Marm. \"Your days of grinding plums are done. You will never again seduce another young girl to your fire. You will never again trick one into eating your pulp. And you will never again turn another little girl into one of your monsters. Cherish the devils you have, witch, for you will never make another.\"\n\nMarm nodded, knowing full well she had no other choice.\n\n\"When I call, and I will call, you come.\"\n\n\"I will, my Queen.\"\n\nThe Queen put a gentle hand on her shoulder and offered a soft smile. \"I know,\" she said. \"I know.\"\nCHAPTER 38\n\nTHE HELL OUTSIDE\n\nColby slammed back the last bit of whiskey, draining the glass dry. Then he stood up from his stool, cracking his neck from side to side.\n\n\"Colby,\" said Yashar, hesitantly. \"What are you doing?\"\n\nColby popped his knuckles. \"I'm not going to sit in here circling the damn wagons all day. If they were going to do something, they would have done it. Their little game has run its course.\"\n\n\"They just want to scare you.\"\n\n\"I was done being scared two whiskeys ago. Now it's time to have a talk. I'm going to march out there and tell them that I want no part of this. Whatever mess they're in, they can handle it themselves. I won't be bullied. Not by the likes of them.\"\n\n\"If ever there was anyone to bully you, it would be exactly the likes of them. Don't let the fact that they haven't killed you make you think that they won't. Right now they think you're useful, not indispensable. If you go out there and tell them to fuck off\u2014\"\n\n\"What?\" asked Colby. \"They might kill me? What good would that do?\"\n\n\"It'd go a long way toward convincing the next guy to do exactly as they asked.\"\n\n\"There is no next guy. You know that. There's a reason they came to me. I want to know what it is.\"\n\n\"If they wanted you to know, they would have told you. Maybe it's for the best that you don't know.\"\n\n\"So what am I supposed to do? Stay in here?\"\n\n\"No,\" said Yashar. \"We should go out there. There's just no need to be an asshole about it. We'll talk. We'll find out what they want and then we'll find a very gentle way to tell them no.\"\n\n\"And you think they'll take no for an answer?\"\n\n\"Hell no. But we might be able to come up with a solution better than go fuck yourselves and find someone else.\"\n\n\"All right then, we'll call that one plan B.\"\n\n\"Can we slide it down to D? Maybe E?\"\n\n\"Afraid not.\" Colby made his way to the door.\n\n\"Hold up!\"\n\nColby shook his head. \"I've spent enough time in here. Let's go bust some heads.\" He tossed back the inside door, waltzing into the cramped entry, then pushed wide the heavy metal door that opened into the alley.\n\nThe glare through the doorway was a bright, blinding blue, the world outside a hazy smudge slowly racking into focus. Colby squinted, imagining it made him look like Clint Eastwood. Instead he looked like a kid who had lost his glasses. He turned to face the street, fists clenched, reworking the scant dreamstuff around him into a crackling aura that popped and sizzled against the air.\n\nHe strode out toward the street, Yashar following close behind. Gossamer tore out of the door, catching up quickly, leaving no more than six inches between himself and Colby after that.\n\nThey reached the street, looked up, Colby with his arms out, taking the fight to them. And they saw nothing.\n\nThe city was empty of demons, not a sign that they'd ever been there. Traffic was normal, people made their way up and down the street, a couple trying hard not to make eye contact with the strange man with wild eyes and sweat-matted hair making as if he was about to talk to God. Everything was as it should be. The siege, it would seem, was over.\n\n\"They made their point,\" said Yashar. \"There was no other reason to stay.\"\n\nColby sighed. \"Yeah. They did.\"\n\n\"So what now?\" asked Gossamer.\n\n\"Now we need to find out what we're up against.\"\n\n\"You mean . . . her,\" said Yashar.\n\n\"That's exactly what I mean. I need to talk to someone who traffics in just the sort of things we're dealing with.\"\n\n\"And where are you going to find someone like that?\"\n\n\"The Limestone Kingdom.\"\n\nYashar shook his head, dismissing him with a wave. \"Colby, you can't go out there. Not now.\"\n\n\"Don't worry,\" said Colby. \"I'll sober up first.\"\nCHAPTER 39\n\nTHE GWYLLION OVER THE HILL\n\nRhiamon the Gwyllion looked at least 140 years old. Her eyes were sunken, black, in a sea of wrinkles, her hair a strawlike white that could snap in a stiff breeze. A single horn curled, knobby and yellow, along the side of her face. She rasped as she breathed, her lungs gurgling, her throat phlegmy, constricted. She tugged at the knots in a goat's beard with a comb, her arms too weak to work it out. It looked as if she could expire at any moment, as if she couldn't possibly make it another night.\n\nAnd yet, as she saw him, striding up the steep hill to her flock of goats, she aged further still. Colby Stevens was back. And nothing good could come of that.\n\nHer skin went from pale to gray, her hair peeling away in layers. Wrinkles sagged further; breasts flattened against her stomach. The flap of skin on her neck dangling beneath her chin wiggled with the arthritic chattering of her teeth. The blood in her veins went cold, barely pumping through her weak, shriveled heart.\n\nRhiamon the Gwyllion was dying, the youthful vigor that had once sustained her drained by defeat, drowning in the fear that Colby would one day learn of what she'd done\u2014the full extent of her involvement in Ewan's death\u2014and he would come for her. She was on the council that had chosen Ewan; she had aided his changeling doppelg\u00e4nger and the redcaps that followed him; and she had all but entirely orchestrated the events that led to each of their deaths. Yet somehow, she'd managed to keep her involvement secret. But she always knew he would come. It seemed inevitable.\n\nAnd here he was, approaching up the hill, golden retriever by his side, a dangerous, bold look in his eyes, as if he wasn't afraid of anything\u2014especially not her. Terror gripped her. Pain seized her chest. Her eyes widened as she trembled.\n\nThis was it, she thought. This was how her several thousand years would come to an end.\n\n\"I've come for counsel,\" said Colby, sitting beside her in the dirt. He pulled a comb from his pocket and began working the knot out of a beard of a nearby billy goat. Gossamer hung back, rigid and poised, watching over them.\n\n\"What?\" she asked, her trembling hands steadying.\n\n\"Your counsel,\" he said again. \"I need your help.\"\n\nThe fluid in her lungs evaporated, the skin around her eyes tightening ever so slightly. The gray of her skin flushed to a soft white. She stared at him, her jaw loose, her eyes as puzzled as they had ever been. \"My help? However do you mean?\"\n\n\"I know you have no reason to help me,\" he said, struggling with a knot, the billy goat growing ever more frustrated with each pass of his comb. \"But there is no one in the Limestone Kingdom as old, as wise, or as . . .\"\n\n\"As what?\"\n\n\"As . . . ruthless . . . as you. To traffic in such creatures as to know the one I seek.\"\n\nRhiamon's eyes widened and she shed sixty years in mere seconds. She smiled, teeth swelling out from bloody gums. \"The Queen,\" she said. \"The Queen of the Dark Things comes for you after all. She comes for her vengeance.\"\n\n\"I didn't do what she thinks I did.\"\n\nRhiamon cackled and lost another decade from her face. Her eyes were bright and beaming now, her hair still white, but full and lustrous. \"That doesn't matter, Colby Stevens. Truth is irrelevant when the heart is at play. What we're afraid of, what we believe, those are the only truths when human frailty is involved. Whether you like it or not, you hurt her, Colby. You left her. Alone. With the dark things. And she will have her revenge.\"\n\n\"And that's why I need your help.\"\n\n\"Make a pact with one devil to stave off another? I never imagined you so desperate.\" She pondered that for a moment. \"No. I take that back. That's what you've always done.\"\n\n\"I don't want to hurt her. But I have no idea what I'm up against.\"\n\n\"So you've come to ask.\"\n\n\"I've come to ask.\"\n\n\"You've come to beg.\"\n\nColby swallowed hard, the words choking in his throat. \"I've come to beg.\"\n\nRhiamon was twenty-five, her heart leaping in her chest, her skin radiant, the vibrant spark of life electrifying the air around her.\n\nIf Colby didn't know the hag within, it wouldn't take him long to fall in love with her. But he knew of the dark rot within her heart, the seething hatred that burned like an ulcer in her stomach. She was a living cancer, feeding off everything nearby.\n\n\"The Queen, she terrifies even me. I have lived several thousand years and I have never known her like.\"\n\n\"So she's more powerful than me now?\"\n\nRhiamon squinted, eyeing him from top to bottom and back again. \"Don't speak to me about power as if you understand it, boy. You don't know what power is. You twiddle your fingers and deconstruct a thing in front of you and you think that's power. That's not power; that's ability. Power is another thing entirely. The Queen, she fears nothing. Her belief in herself is total. She knows nothing of doubt, never for a moment questions herself. She will stare you down and know the best of three different ways she will kill you if you answer her questions wrong. Not can. Will. The things of the night in the dreamtime listen to her without fail; they obey her every command. And they know the penalty for failure. She doesn't give second chances, and she only affords a swift death to those who fail despite their best efforts.\n\n\"Yes, Colby Stevens. She's more powerful than you. Because she's willing to do the things you aren't to get what she wants. Cruelty is a power all its own; belief is a power all its own. You question yourself, let your emotions cloud your judgment. You walked up here ready to bargain, and in that time she would have laid you waste. You're nothing to fear, Colby. And even if you were, she wouldn't anyway.\"\n\n\"I'm willing to do what needs to be done.\"\n\n\"Are you? Prove it. Pay my price and I'll tell you everything I know. I'll weave powerful magicks for you that will protect you from her wrath, help you slay her where she stands. Pay it and prove you will do anything to bring an end to this.\"\n\n\"Name it.\"\n\nShe raised a crooked finger at Gossamer. \"Your dog.\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"It's all I ask. One soul, and not even a fully formed one at that. I'll need it for my magicks.\"\n\n\"Absolutely not!\"\n\n\"Don't come to beg the favor of a witch only to balk at the price of her services. You knew who I was when you walked up. You knew my price was steep. If you didn't walk up that hill ready to pay whatever I asked, then this was a fool's errand. I can give you what you seek, the answers to the riddles that vex you, the secrets kept locked up in that little girl's heart. But to do so, I need a soul. One pet. Your dog. And you will live to see this through.\"\n\n\"No. That's ridiculous. I won't.\"\n\n\"Then you will die, Colby Stevens. You will die. Here I've told you that the thing you face will stop at nothing to get what she wants, but you, you have a point at which you will go no farther. Even to protect yourself. You are doomed to meet Ewan's fate. And you will lie there, staring at the stars as your friend did, as the light fades from your eyes, wishing you'd just given me the damn dog.\"\n\nColby's eyes narrowed, his temper flaring.\n\nAt once Rhiamon realized what she'd done, aging forty years in a heartbeat. Her face was once again awash in wrinkles, her eyes pleading for mercy.\n\nThe air around them crackled, Colby's rage tickling the rich stream of dreamstuff surrounding them. He looked at the old woman cowering before him and at once he understood the nature of her power. \"This form,\" he said. \"I'm supposed to feel pity for an old woman when I'm not seduced by the allure of the young one?\"\n\nShe nodded. \"Maybe you're smarter than I ever gave you credit for.\"\n\n\"And maybe I vaporize you right here and now.\"\n\n\"Maybe you do. Maybe you continue down that road. Maybe you become more like us every day.\"\n\nColby's ire waned, the sudden pangs of his conscience dragging it screaming back into his belly. \"I'm not like you, witch.\"\n\nRhiamon eased back forward, cautious not to further aggravate him. \"That's what I mean. The Queen, she's more like us than you'll ever be. She has given in to her nature and that nature is a decisive one. She doesn't fear the creatures of the night; she conquers them. You still think you can reason with them. You'll try to reason with her . . . when you have to.\"\n\n\"If you won't help me, why even talk to me?\"\n\n\"Because you fascinate me.\"\n\n\"I do?\"\n\n\"Yes. You are unburdened by destiny. It holds no sway over you. The others around you, they see what you can become\u2014the potential within you\u2014and they assume that this is your destiny.\"\n\n\"It's not?\"\n\n\"No. It's not. It is your potential. They're right in believing what you could become. But you stay ever perched upon the precipice of greatness, staring into it as if it were the abyss itself\u2014a gulf of terrible things that you shan't even gaze upon lest it swallow you whole. No, you have no destiny. And you squander what little else you have. You're like a keg of soggy dynamite with a lit fuse. Maybe you'll change the landscape of the very world. And maybe everyone is just tiptoeing around you for nothing. And that fascinates me.\"\n\n\"You don't think I can? Change the landscape?\"\n\n\"No. I just don't think you will. You don't have the guts. The only time a pure soul ever changes anything is by dying. It's the ones with the stomach to do bad things that change the world. You've done things that showed potential, but you've been regretting them ever since. The Queen of the Dark Things knows no remorse. She will change the world.\"\n\n\"How do you know she's coming for me?\"\n\n\"The only ones who know aren't talking. We just know she's coming. We can feel it. And we know that we can either run or we can serve.\"\n\n\"Which will you do?\"\n\n\"I hadn't thought about it,\" said Rhiamon. \"Honestly, I was certain you'd have killed me before she even got here. But now? Now I know I will most likely outlive you.\"\n\n\"Damnit,\" said Colby.\n\n\"What is it?\"\n\n\"I know now what I have to do.\" Colby stood up. \"Thank you, Rhiamon.\"\n\n\"So that's it? I have done this for you, what now will you give me?\"\n\nColby pointed at Gossamer. Gossamer's eyes went wide with worry. \"You see my friend over there?\"\n\n\"Yes,\" she said, growing younger by the second.\n\n\"He's awakened. I did it myself.\"\n\n\"I know this. It's why he's such a valuable prize.\"\n\n\"I did it with the soul of a redcap.\" He looked at her with stern, bitter eyes. \"And what do you think that redcap told me, screaming, in the last seconds of his life? What information do you think he tried to bargain with?\"\n\nRhiamon was 150 years old, the whole of her body wrinkling in on itself, her eyes sunk an inch deep in their sockets. He knew.\n\n\"Today you've earned another day. You'll see another sunrise. Maybe another after that. I won't kill you today, witch. I give you today. That's what you get. Today.\"\n\n\"I'll take it,\" she said, cowering behind a skeletal hand dripping in liver spots.\n\nColby stormed off with Gossamer in tow. Gossamer looked up, tail wagging. \"For a second there, boss, I thought you were going to do it.\"\n\nColby looked down at his friend, his expression uneasy, breathing labored. \"I would never do that, Goss. Instead, I have to do something far, far worse.\"\nCHAPTER 40\n\nTHE DUKE AT THE FOOT OF A ROCK\n\nDuke Dantalion the djinn, seventy-first of the Seventy-two and master of a thousand faces, was in the throes of the most wonderful dream. He stood atop a spire, surrounded on all sides by luscious flesh, begging for his cock, moaning to be fulfilled, as he stared down at the city beneath them, its towers burning, pillars of smoke trailing into the sky, its empire crumbling from his deceptions. He'd done it. He'd brought the world to a glorious, debaucherous end. And now, as his fellow brothers looted the city for souls, he would while away the hours with its most beautiful women. He would make love to them, each and every one, with the face of their own lovers, before revealing himself, just before he came, to revel in the terror of the moment.\n\nHe took one of them by the hand, and laid her back so he could watch the city burn as he fucked her. She looked up at him, legs spread wide, eyes insatiable, and said, \"Wake up, asshole.\"\n\nThe world trembled, shook, his side burned. He screamed as the universe cracked, shards of it falling away like a broken mirror. Then everything went bright yellow, his eyes burning with the stinging rays of the sun.\n\n\"I SAID WAKE up, asshole,\" said the Queen of the Dark Things, throwing another handful of salt at him.\n\nDantalion's eyes shot open. The desert. He was in the desert. Leaning against a rock. The dream was over. And he was in trouble.\n\nHe jumped to his feet, took in his surroundings. The dirt around the rock had been marred by colorful sand and salt, drawn into the shape of a pentagram. Symbols of warding and binding adorned it. He was trapped.\n\n\"Do you know who I am?\" asked the Queen.\n\nDantalion nodded stoically. \"You are Kaycee Looes.\"\n\nThe Queen hurled another handful of salt at him, his flesh burning as if sprayed with acid. He cried out, unable to bear the agony.\n\n\"Do you know who I am?\"\n\n\"You are the Queen of the Dark Things,\" he said through the pain. \"And I am in a lot of trouble, aren't I?\"\n\n\"The worst kind.\"\n\n\"Is this about the bet?\"\n\n\"What bet?\"\n\nHe breathed a sigh of relief. She didn't know. \"It's nothing. A silly bet some friends made centuries ago. I was just dreaming about it. I'm still a little confused from being awakened so abruptly.\"\n\nThe Queen reached into a kangaroo skin dilly bag on her hip, and pulled from it another handful of salt.\n\n\"Okay! Okay!\" he shouted. \"The bet that made you what you are. That brought about the kutji.\"\n\n\"You know how I came to be like this?\"\n\n\"I do.\"\n\nShe scattered the salt on the ground then reached once again into her bag. This time she pulled from it a crystal bottle\u2014etched with Persian, inlaid with gold and jewels, stoppered with an ancient cork, its glass a golden yellow. \"You know this bottle?\" she asked.\n\n\"I do. It is Mehrang. It means 'Color of the Sun.' I knew its last occupant. He was a friend.\"\n\n\"I can reunite you.\"\n\n\"No you can't,\" he sneered. \"You know who I am, don't you?\"\n\n\"I do.\"\n\n\"Then you know my name appears in tens of thousands of books. I have been written into holy texts and books of sorcery. I cannot be so easily forgotten. Nor would my brothers allow me to be.\"\n\n\"But you can be bottled. Stoppered with the seal of Solomon so your brothers will never find you, sealed in concrete and buried deep in the sands of the outback.\"\n\nDantalion's boldness failed him, and his fear showed through. \"Yes. I can be bottled. Have you come to me for wishes? Because I can't grant those. It is not in my power.\"\n\n\"No. I've come for information.\"\n\n\"That I can grant.\"\n\n\"You know my curse.\"\n\n\"I do.\"\n\n\"I want you to break it. I want to be free.\"\n\n\"No spirit can break your curse, demon or otherwise. Your curse cannot be broken.\"\n\n\"Then I have no need for you.\" She pulled the stopper loose from the bottle.\n\n\"Wait! Waitwaitwait!\"\n\n\"Why should I?\"\n\n\"I said no spirit can break your curse, that it could not be broken. I didn't say you couldn't be free.\"\n\n\"Go on.\"\n\n\"It is possible for you to free your spirit from the binds of your body, but it requires a lot.\"\n\n\"Like?\"\n\n\"A willing spirit capable of possessing your mortal body.\"\n\n\"That I have.\"\n\n\"I said willing spirit. And capable. Your body is in Arnhem Land and your kutji are forbidden from going there. And what must be done, your spirits will not do.\"\n\n\"I know where my body is. And I know of a thing that can go there. A thing willing to do anything it has to.\"\n\n\"Ahhhhhhh,\" he said, waving a knowing finger. \"You do, don't you?\"\n\n\"Yes. What then?\"\n\n\"What then what?\" he asked, trying to concentrate against the searing pain.\n\n\"Once a thing has taken my body, what then?\"\n\n\"Then your body and that spirit must be disbelieved. Ripped out of reality. Restructured anew.\"\n\n\"And you can do that?\"\n\nDantalion shook his head, a sick little grin creeping across his lips. He was almost laughing. \"No spirit can disbelieve a thing. Only a thing of the flesh can do that. But to dissolve both flesh and spirit as one takes great power. And of the flesh, there is only one being alive with such a power, a man who can will almost anything away with a wave. But he'd never do so willingly. Especially not for you.\"\n\n\"Who is he? Why won't he help me?\"\n\n\"You know him. His name is Colby Stevens. And he hates the things of the night even more than you. What you're asking for is immortality. To be free to continue your crusade without limits. Colby would never, ever allow such a thing unless he had to.\"\n\n\"Perhaps he will if I ask him,\" she said.\n\n\"Ask? Colby Stevens? He's a prickly little cocksucker. When was the last time you saw him?\"\n\n\"When he left me here in the desert to die.\"\n\n\"What, then, do you think has changed about him in the years since? He won't help you. Not after what you've become.\"\n\n\"What do you mean by that?\"\n\n\"What? By what you've become?\"\n\nShe fumbled for another handful of salt. \"Yes.\"\n\nDantalion chose his words very carefully, crouching defensively, staying her with a worried hand. \"A dreamwalker without the need for a body and a will as strong as yours. Doing that would make you more powerful than he would allow. You have become the Queen of the Dark Things. And the dark things are what Colby Stevens hates most.\"\n\n\"Then we'll have to change his mind.\"\n\n\"He would destroy you first. His temper is quick and his arrogance knows no bounds.\"\n\n\"Then we'll have to find something he bloody cares about and tell him to choose.\"\n\nDantalion smiled, the pain fading away. He nodded, beginning to take a liking to the girl. \"Yes. Yes. Make him suffer and choose. This could work. You could be free after all.\"\n\n\"I've been told,\" she said, unstoppering the bottle and sieving in a fistful of salt, \"that if you salt the inside of a bottle before putting in a genie, he feels its burn for as long as he's in there. How long do you suppose you'll be in the desert before someone finds you? A hundred years? Five hundred? A thousand?\" She swished the salt around the inside of the bottle.\n\n\"What? I've answered everything you've asked.\"\n\n\"There's one more thing I need from you.\"\n\n\"Anything. Ask it.\"\n\n\"Swear to me. Swear that you will grant me one last request and I promise that you will never see the inside of this bottle.\"\n\n\"I swear it.\" He said. \"Anything.\"\n\n\"I need for you to get me . . . the ring.\"\nCHAPTER 41\n\nTHE FIVE DUKES OF THE BATAVIA\n\nThis may be the worst idea you've ever had,\" said Yashar through clenched teeth.\n\n\"What choice do I have?\" asked Colby, seated once more at the bar, Gossamer panting with concern beside him.\n\n\"You have the choice either to do it or not to do it. I vote not.\"\n\n\"Rhiamon said the things that knew what was going on weren't talking. She meant them. The Seventy-two.\"\n\n\"You can't trust that old witch and you know it.\"\n\n\"Do you think she's wrong? That they don't know what's going on?\"\n\n\"No. I think they know exactly what's going on. I just don't believe that you're really involved in this. I think they want you to be.\"\n\n\"I only want to summon the Horse. He speaks nothing but the truth. He's their oracle, nothing more. He's already appeared to me. He's already watching me. You said as much. How much more trouble can I really get into with him?\"\n\n\"The answer to that question is entirely what concerns me.\"\n\n\"It's not like I'm going to make a pact with him or anything. We need information. He has it.\"\n\n\"We can get it other ways.\"\n\n\"HOW?\"\n\nYashar looked long and hard at Colby from across the bar. \"I . . . I don't know.\"\n\n\"Rhiamon said that what the Queen has over me is the fact that she'll do anything to get what she wants, but I won't. Maybe it's time I took a risk. Did what no one expects me to do.\"\n\n\"Trafficking with demons. That's a risk?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"This is how it starts.\"\n\n\"No. Hopefully this is how it ends.\"\n\n\"Don't say things that might be far too prophetic for your own good. How much of your soul are you willing to leverage for this?\"\n\n\"To make things right? As much as it takes.\"\n\nYashar tapped the bar nervously, mulling over Colby's rash decision. \"Just Orobas?\"\n\n\"Just the Horse.\"\n\nYashar sighed. \"Do it. Make it quick before\u2014\"\n\n\"Before what?\"\n\n\"Before I lose my nerve.\"\n\nColby looked down at Gossamer. \"You should go home. You don't need to be here for this.\"\n\n\"I'm not going anywhere, boss.\"\n\n\"This isn't something you want to be around for.\"\n\n\"I've been shot at by Sidhe and chased by monsters. What makes you think I'm going to get spooked by a horse?\"\n\n\"Because he's not really a horse.\"\n\nGossamer nuzzled up to Colby, putting his forehead against his leg, tail wagging. \"I won't leave you.\"\n\nColby scratched Gossamer behind the ear, melting a little. \"Stay behind the bar, close to Yashar.\"\n\n\"Okay, boss.\"\n\nColby stepped back, letting Gossamer slip between his legs as he trotted behind the bar. Then he took a deep breath, held out his arms, and the world began to ripple, swirl, bend against the flow of time. Everything slowed down, the single bulb dangling on a wire from the ceiling flickered and buzzed. A hole opened in space, the gravity of it bending even the light around it.\n\n\"Colby . . . ,\" muttered Yashar, terrified.\n\n\"I haven't said anything yet.\"\n\n\"I noticed.\"\n\nThe hole contorted, shimmered, took the form of a horse. And then it was a horse, its fur an inky black darkness, its eyes darker still.\n\n\"I didn't summon you yet,\" said Colby.\n\n\"You didn't have to,\" said the Horse.\n\n\"You were listening.\"\n\n\"For some time now, yes.\" The Horse, Orobas, took one trotting step forward, its body melting, morphing into the shape of a man\u2014a man with hooves where his feet should be and the head of a stallion. \"I can change further, if you'd like. Appear in the form of a man if that will make you more comfortable.\"\n\n\"No,\" said Colby, harshly. \"I don't want to forget for a moment what you really are.\"\n\n\"As you wish. What is it you need of me?\"\n\n\"I need to know what's going on.\"\n\nThe Horse took a seat at the bar, turning its large equine head toward Colby. \"We don't entirely know.\"\n\n\"Tell me what you do know.\"\n\n\"Have a seat.\"\n\n\"I think I'll stand.\"\n\n\"Have a seat, Colby. The tale is a long one, going back quite some time.\"\n\nColby sat at the bar next to Orobas, placed his hands together on the battered plywood bar top. \"Tell it.\"\n\nOrobas nodded. \"This began many years ago, in the year 1628.\"\n\n\"Oh shit, you weren't kidding.\"\n\n\"Five dukes met in Amsterdam, each there for the same reason. The Dutch East India Trading Company had just built the biggest, boldest ship ever then to sail the seas. Over one hundred and eighty-six feet long. Thirty-four feet wide. One hundred and eighty feet at its highest point. It carried in its belly twenty-four cast-iron cannons and could accommodate up to three hundred and fifty souls on board. It was christened . . . the Batavia.\n\n\"In their hubris, the Dutch East India Trading Company proclaimed repeatedly that she was not only unsinkable, but that God himself could not put her beneath the waves. God himself. As you can imagine, many of my brothers couldn't resist such a dare. And five of them answered the call. Duke Astaroth, the Naked Angel. Duke Berith, the Alchemist. Duke Bune, the Three-headed Dragon. Duke Focalor, the Stormbringer. And Duke Dantalion.\"\n\nYashar sighed. \"The Thousand-faced Djinn,\" he said.\n\n\"Yes. The five squabbled from sundown to sunup over who would get to sink her but could find no accord. Until, that is, Duke Dantalion proposed a wager. He bet the other four dukes that he could bring to an end more lives aboard the vessel and connected to the ship than any of the other dukes. The rules were simple. They could use any of the powers at their disposal but could not sink the ship in open water nor kill anyone by their own hands. Once the remaining crew and passengers had reached their destination, outside involvement was strictly forbidden, and they would watch the wager play out to its last. The remaining four dukes were intrigued by this, realizing that together, dueling against one another, they could take the grandest ship yet to sail the seas, and destroy her in the most glorious fashion imaginable.\n\n\"Duke Astaroth, who was already in Amsterdam, seducing many to heresy and sin through the perversion of a local Rosicrucian order, inspired a series of events and secured a position aboard the ship for one of his most corrupted playthings: one Jeronimus Cornelisz. Cornelisz was already a man of little moral character when Astaroth found him, but by the time he was done with him, he was absolutely diabolical. Astaroth knew that such a man, aboard a vessel carrying a kingdom's worth of riches, would not be able to resist trying to take them for himself. And thus the game began.\n\n\"Dantalion made the next play on the day the ship's passengers came aboard. He inspired a number of the crew, chief among them the ship's master merchant and fleet commander Francisco Palsaert, to fall in love with a wealthy young traveler named Lucretia Jans. Such was the power of Palsaert's affection for the woman that he would try night after night to ply her out of her garments with wine and liquor. But Dantalion saw to it only to strengthen Jans's love for her husband, whom she was sailing to reunite with\u2014a man she had no idea was already dead of the fever. Travel by ship takes a long time and there is little privacy, and the passions of the men for her overwhelmed them, consumed them, and brought them to squabble amongst themselves.\n\n\"Focalor's play was much more masterful. Dantalion's wager was wise. He knew that Focalor could bring down a ship with a single storm, and often did, but wanted to reserve the right to run the ship aground if he needed to. While he expected Focalor to use his powers over the wind and sea to steer the ship toward some deserted island, he was no master of the sea. He didn't know about the isolated reef and chain of small dead islands off the coast of Australia that Focalor would subtly nudge them toward.\n\n\"And now the stage was set. Cornelisz had begun arranging a mutiny, supported by a number of the men as equally in love with Jans as Palsaert, and it would have been bloody and violent were it not for Focalor's impeccable timing. When the ship finally ran aground on the reef, the chaos that ensued was assured. The ship's most essential and highest-ranking crew members manned a lifeboat headed for their original destination, with the aim of sending a rescue party, leaving none other than Cornelisz in charge. Terrified of having his mutinous plans revealed to the survivors, Cornelisz arranged to divide them among the several small islands.\n\n\"Focalor kept the rains away, dwindling the supply of water much faster than anticipated. Some died of thirst, others for stealing rations to stay alive. Berith inspired many to murderous rages, while Astaroth drove even moral men to execute thieves and the mortally ill. Dantalion convinced Cornelisz to draft a loyalty pledge, which he made the few remaining sign. But it would be Bune who would make the most daring and brilliant play.\n\n\"By this point, Bune had not claimed a single soul for his own. His gift was far less direct than most, and so he had long learned to be patient in applying it. Bune's touch can turn a dying soul he is responsible for condemning into a demon of his choosing. Instead of staying behind for the carnage of the islands, he chose to follow the lifeboat. He knew that Focalor couldn't resist the chance to drive men to thirst, so he followed the officers, keeping them safe from storm and tide. With his help, they arrived safely at port and sent back the rescue party they had promised.\n\n\"By the time they arrived, full-scale war had broken out among the survivors, and it was left to the rescue party to quell it. And this is where Bune's genius had become clear to everyone. As he was responsible for the rescue, he was also responsible for the capture and execution of Jeronimus Cornelisz and his fellow mutineers. Their souls were rightfully his. Before they were finally hanged for treason, each had one of his hands cut off at the wrist. Cornelisz in turn lost both. There they were, dangling in the sun, their last breaths escaping their bodies, Bune touching each one, swallowing their last breath for himself, turning them into demons under his thrall.\"\n\nColby's eyes went wide. \"Kutji. He turned them into kutji.\"\n\nOrobas nodded. \"Indeed. Their souls were his now, and he commanded them to seek out everyone who had signed that traitorous pledge of loyalty or who had escaped prosecution for their mutiny, and\u2014here was the stroke of genius\u2014their descendants. They were to take their victims' hands and then their souls, and turn them into kutji, just like them. In that way, Bune's play was potentially limitless. Dantalion had stipulated connected to the ship in his wager. And these unborn souls were now connected. Bune promised the kutji that once they had secured the soul of the last remaining descendant and made themselves whole by finding their basket of hands, they would have peace. And thus, that is exactly what they've done for the last four hundred years.\"\n\n\"Why has it taken so long?\" asked Colby.\n\n\"Two mutineers, both of whom had committed terrible crimes, threw themselves upon the mercy of the court and were afforded special circumstances. Their death sentence was commuted and they were instead punished to banishment, given a rowboat, and pointed to Australia. Australia was not yet settled by colonists and the Aboriginals thought them simply to be of a dreaming from across the sea. With two of the ship's crew still technically at sea, the wager was unfinished, and Bune spoke with a Clever Man belonging to the nearest tribe. He tasked the Clever Man with finding the strangers, taking them in, and protecting them from any spirits that might come for them. This the Clever Man did in exchange for wisdom and an abundance of food in the coming season.\n\n\"When the kutji finally arrived to claim their souls, they found themselves at odds with a Clever Man more clever than they, and the two survivors soon wed and fathered children whose lineage went on now for four hundred years. Once the Clever Man was gone, they were free to claim the souls of the descendants, but by then, they were scattered throughout the land, protected by a dozen other Clever Men. It has taken them four centuries to track down every last descendant of the Batavia's mutineers. Now, only one remains.\"\n\n\"Kaycee,\" said Colby.\n\n\"Kaycee Looes, direct descendant of Wouter Looes.\"\n\n\"Why didn't they just kill her?\"\n\n\"They can't find their hands. To this day, they have chopped off the hand of every soul they've gathered, sending a kutji after its shadow to find its final resting place. But they've never found it. Once they discovered that Kaycee could dreamwalk, they believed it to be divine providence. She would lead them to their hands. So they made a pact with a wise old Clever Man already in league with another powerful spirit. He agreed to help cut the cord that tethered her to her body in exchange for the assurances he would need to keep her body alive and protect his people from their wrath once they found out.\"\n\n\"Mandu?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"But he didn't cut the cord. I did.\"\n\nOrobas looked long and hard at Colby, waiting for all the new information to sink in.\n\n\"I cut it. I cut the . . .\" Then it hit him. \"Mandu tricked me into doing it.\"\n\n\"He did.\"\n\n\"WHY?\"\n\n\"No one knows but Mandu.\"\n\n\"Well, if this is Bune's curse, why don't you just have him remove it?\"\n\nOrobas stamped a hoof on the ground and pointed to Colby. \"Good thinking. But he can't.\"\n\n\"Why not?\"\n\n\"Two reasons. One, a curse is just a bargain struck without benefits. Bune set the rules of the curse, and now he cannot renege on them. He set the rules of the kutjis' existence, and now it has to play out to its last. And two, Bune is missing.\"\n\n\"He's one of the five miss . . .\" Colby trailed off. \"The five. Your missing five demons. They're\u2014\"\n\n\"The five dukes of the Batavia.\"\n\n\"She's trying to unmake her curse.\"\n\n\"I told you, she can't. The five dukes, no matter how involved they are in her . . . situation . . . they cannot unmake what they have made. And she knows that.\"\n\n\"So this is revenge,\" said Colby.\n\nOrobas nodded, his mane bouncing behind him. \"This is revenge.\"\n\n\"She's binding them to pay for their part in having bound her?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"I'm not seeing my part in this.\"\n\n\"The part where the girl whose cord you cut and left in the desert with a horde of shadows has begun amassing an army of the damned, meting out revenge on those she feels have wronged her?\"\n\n\"You just said Mandu\u2014\"\n\n\"Does she know that? Does she even care? She's been out there in that desert for ten years, wandering without a body, unable to go home. Never sleeping, never eating. Consumed only by rage at her own confinement. We'd heard of the terrible things she was doing, the rounding up of the spirits of dreamtime. But we had no idea it would lead to this.\"\n\n\"How did she even summon a demon to begin with? I mean, if you know\u2014\"\n\n\"Dantalion was the first to go. She didn't summon Dantalion. She found him.\"\n\n\"Found him? How do you find a demon?\"\n\n\"Weema's Rock,\" said Yashar. Again Orobas nodded.\n\n\"I don't understand,\" said Colby.\n\n\"Dantalion is a djinn,\" said Yashar. \"The Thousand-faced Djinn. He can look like anyone. Put thoughts in the heads of men. Can inspire love even between the worst enemies. But he's still a djinn. And powerful though he is, he still has to sleep. Weema's Rock. You've been there.\"\n\n\"The place where we met Mandu? And you . . . oooooh.\"\n\n\"It's in the middle of the desert, far from any songline. No one goes out there. You can sleep for years without ever being disturbed. Only a precious few Clever Men know of its existence\u2014the ones we trust to watch over us while we sleep.\"\n\n\"Oh my God. Mandu told her. I remember now. He pointed out to the desert, described it, and told her that one day she would . . .\"\n\n\"She would what?\" asked Yashar.\n\n\"Find her destiny. She was always going on about some destiny. Wouldn't stop talking about it. There was something great in her future that she couldn't wait to get to.\"\n\n\"Destiny is a thing crafted by spirits but chosen by men,\" said Orobas. \"It may have been born in the will of others, but she has chosen the path set before her.\"\n\n\"You're the great oracle. So what's her destiny?\"\n\n\"I don't know.\"\n\n\"What do you mean you don't know? You have to know. It's the one thing you do.\"\n\n\"We can no longer see her future. Just as we can no longer see yours. That's how we know that you're involved.\"\n\n\"You can't see my destiny?\"\n\n\"No. Your future has become . . . uncertain.\"\n\n\"Because this involves you?\"\n\n\"Because it involves the Seventy-two.\"\n\n\"How did she even bind a demon, anyway? She shouldn't have that power.\"\n\nYashar shook his head, waving a dismissive hand. \"There are dozens of ways to bind spirits, Colby. You know that. Bottles, sacred objects, permanent triangles and pentagrams. Even I know how to trap a demon. I just know better not to try.\"\n\n\"But to summon and bind five?\" asked Colby. \"There's got to be something more to it. Someone has to be helping her.\"\n\n\"It would appear not,\" said Orobas. \"She is doing this entirely on her own.\"\n\n\"On her own with an army of spirits.\"\n\n\"Yes. But none that could do this.\"\n\n\"Okay, but what I still don't understand is why you all don't just get together and form some super-demon assault force of doom and just rain on Australia like it was fucking Judgment Day. Binding one demon is a terrifying enough proposition. But sixty-seven? There's no way. She's not that powerful. She can't be.\"\n\n\"We just . . . can't.\"\n\n\"You just . . . ca\u2014\" Colby broke off his mockery, the color in his face draining, leaving him a pale, ghostly white. \"Oh my God. She found the ring.\"\n\nOrobas didn't answer, instead looking away, across the bar, his expression strained.\n\n\"Kaycee found the ring, didn't she?\"\n\nOrobas looked back at Colby, nodding bitterly. \"Yes. She has the ring.\"\nCHAPTER 42\n\nSOLOMON THE WANDERER\n\nAN EXCERPT BY JONATHON WALTERS FROM HIS BOOK ABANDONED RELIGION: STORIES AND EPICS OF THE OLD WORLD\n\nWhile there is no empirical evidence of his existence, King Solomon is mostly considered an historical figure rather than a religious one. No artifacts remain from his reign, nor is he mentioned in historical documents of any kind. And yet, he is a pivotal figure in most of the major religions, assumed to be, at least in part, based upon an historical one. That said, the beliefs surrounding him differ from religion to religion. While it is generally accepted that he was gifted with almost supernatural wisdom, many of the stories revolving around him involve his suffering at the hands of his own foolish decisions. Meanwhile, other stories hail him as a demon summoner, only able to overcome their trickery by God's intervention. In the strangest tale, Solomon is gifted with a powerful ring that both gives him great power and sends him on a most unlikely adventure.\n\nJust after the death of David, King Solomon found himself ruler of a wealthy and growing kingdom. While David's rule had been great, his son sought to move quickly out of the shadow of his father. He commissioned the building of the largest temple the world had ever seen, but its construction proved problematic. Surrounding his kingdom were stones of marble that shone bright pink in the sun. But the Torah forbade the use of iron cutting tools, iron being considered the unholy alloy of the Devil. So he tasked, at great expense, every available man in the kingdom to its completion, including his own young concubines.\n\nOne, a young boy, soon fell ill while working on it. When Solomon saw the boy so thin and pale he asked of him, \"Do I not give you twice the pay and food of any other man? Why are you so thin and sickly?\"\n\nAnd the boy answered, with shame in his eyes, \"My king, you would not believe me if I told you.\"\n\n\"You are my most favored and I trust you with all my heart. Tell me what is wrong with you and I will not be angry.\"\n\n\"My king, at night, while asleep, a demon visits me and sucks at my thumb. He steals half my pay, half my food, and each night half my remaining life.\"\n\nSolomon, love him though he did, was not sure whether to believe the boy. So that night he crept into the boy's chambers and waited in hiding. To his surprise, in the darkest hour of the night, appeared Ornias, a lesser demon, who stole the boy's rations and wages before suckling his thumb.\n\nUnsure of what to do about the demon, Solomon fell to his knees in the temple and prayed that God give him the means to protect the boy. It was then that the Archangel Gabriel appeared before him, throwing a ring before Solomon's feet. Gabriel instructed him to cast the ring at the demon and that the symbol upon it would burn a brand in its flesh. Any demon so branded would have to obey the wearer's every command and could not in any way harm him.\n\nSo Solomon waited again and in the darkest hour of the night Ornias again appeared. This time, as he set to suck at the thumb of the boy, Solomon cast the ring as he was commanded, and the ring then burned a glowing brand in the demon's flesh. Solomon put the ring back on, commanding the demon to stop and kneel before him. And thus the demon did.\n\nIt was then that Solomon realized the solution to his construction problems. \"Tell me,\" he said to Ornias, \"where I might find the rest of your brothers.\"\n\nOrnias shook his head. \"I cannot tell you that,\" he said. \"For I do not know. But I do know where Asmodeus is, and he is the lord of us all. He knows where to find each of us and his word is our law. Find him and find us all.\"\n\n\"Summon him,\" Solomon commanded, and he did.\n\nAsmodeus appeared, moving immediately to smite the king, but Solomon cast his ring at him and burned the brand into his chest. Asmodeus howled in pain, but fell to his knees when commanded.\n\n\"Bring to me the demons under your command,\" said Solomon, \"so that they might build me the greatest temple to God the world has ever seen.\" And though he did not want to, Asmodeus began to summon them one by one. Soon Solomon had an army of demons thirty-six strong with which to build his temple.\n\nThe demons built it quickly, raising a temple higher than any man knew how, burnished with gold and sculptures of the angels. When it was done, Solomon marveled at the mastery of its craftsmanship. And so he turned to Asmodeus and asked him, \"How is it that these demons follow you so loyally? This temple exalts all which they oppose. How could they build so well a temple to the Lord?\"\n\n\"My powers, my king, are weakened by your ring. Perhaps if you took it off I could show you.\"\n\nSolomon consented and took off the ring.\n\n\"Hand it here and I will show you why they obey me.\"\n\nSolomon handed the ring to Asmodeus, trusting that the demon could not harm him. At once the demon grew in size, one wing touching the earth, the other reaching well into the sky. The demon grabbed Solomon and swallowed him whole. The ring burned in his hand, so he cast it away as far as he could throw it, sinking it deep into the sea. Then he belched out Solomon, hurling him four hundred miles, well out past his kingdom and over several others before dumping him alone in the desert.\n\nKing Solomon was shamed, having been fooled by the demon, and set about making his way home, though he knew not which way it was.\n\nBack in Solomon's kingdom, Asmodeus disguised himself as the king, took his place on the throne, and, with his throng of demons, took to slowly corrupting the kingdom. He started small, corrupting officials and tempting the weak willed. Then, as his boldness grew, he convinced the virtuous to throw off their piety, to seek their comforts in prostitutes and profane acts.\n\nFour hundred miles away, Solomon trekked across barren lands and for three years wandered, begging or doing odd jobs to earn his keep until he found himself in the city of Ammon. There, starving and poor, he took the first job he found, as a cook in the king's palace. Solomon quickly showed a talent for cooking and worked his way up to assistant, just beneath the head cook. One night the head cook took ill and Solomon was forced to prepare the meal himself. So pleased was the king with the meal that he immediately promoted Solomon to the position of head cook. And it was then, when he was working directly for the Ammonite king, that he met the king's daughter, Naamah.\n\nNaamah was by far the most beautiful woman in all of Ammon, and said to be more beautiful than anyone in any of the surrounding lands. So beautiful was she that her father kept her from the sight of visiting dignitaries and kings in hopes of saving her for a most beneficial marriage. Only the servants in his palace were allowed to see her, though they were not permitted to speak in her presence. The first moment Solomon laid eyes upon her he was bewitched. Most fortunate for Solomon, the first time she spied him she felt the same.\n\nEvery night he served her and every night their hearts pattered faster when the other was near. And after months of suffering in silence, he whispered to her as he set a plate of food before her, \"Meet me after sunset.\" Later, when sunset came, she snuck down to the kitchen where he had begun roasting the next night's meal. Without a word, they embraced and kissed.\n\nThey carried on in secret for weeks until Naamah could bear it no longer. She approached her father with Solomon and asked permission to wed. The Ammonite king was furious, convinced that a commoner had stolen her purity. He ordered her disinherited and cast them both out of the kingdom in disgrace. The two wed at once in the first town they came to and spent the last of their money on a meager meal of small fish.\n\nNaamah insisted on cooking their first meal together for her husband and selected the fish herself. When she sliced open the first fish, a silver ring bearing the seal of Solomon tumbled out. Overjoyed with the sudden windfall, she ran to Solomon and presented the ring to him. \"We're rich!\" she proclaimed. \"We need not worry about starving any longer!\"\n\nSolomon smiled at this good fortune, saying unto her, \"It is true. We will never have to worry about money.\" With that, he put on the ring and they were transported at once back to Israel.\n\nSolomon found his kingdom in disarray. The poor were uncared for. Houses of ill repute advertised their wares in the streets. Temples of worship were empty or defiled. Angered, Solomon stormed into his throne room and saw the demon Asmodeus sitting upon his throne, disguised as him.\n\nSolomon raised the ring and commanded Asmodeus to reveal himself in his true form. \"I think you would not like it,\" said the demon. But Solomon insisted. It was then that the demon revealed himself for what he was, not as Solomon had seen him before, but in the form he spared only for Hell. Trembling at the horror, Solomon remained firm and ordered the demon out.\n\nWith that, Solomon took back his throne and announced his queen to all his kingdom.\n\nThat night, and for every night after, Solomon suffered terrible dreams, visited by visions of Asmodeus's true self. Plagued night after night by nightmares, Solomon devised a plan to rid himself of them. He had his artisans construct a brass vessel, and summoned demon after demon, commanding them, one by one, into it. Once full, it was sealed with the sign of Solomon and branded with the ring. Then he commanded his men to dump it deep into the sea where even he knew not where to find it.\n\nThough this did not cure his affliction and he thus dreamed of Asmodeus every night, the kingdom prospered, no other demon daring to set foot into Israel for the rest of his days.\nCHAPTER 43\n\nTHE FAVOR OF OROBAS\n\nYou're not afraid for your brothers,\" said Colby to Orobas. \"You're afraid she may come for you.\"\n\n\"Yes,\" said the Horse. \"And she will.\"\n\n\"Once she's had her revenge, why would she?\"\n\n\"Because they always do, the bearers of the ring. Hide it though we do, someone always manages to find it. And once they have it, and get a taste of what we can do for them, they have to have us all. Whether out of greed or fear that we might come for them, they trap us all. And we either trick our way out of servitude, or have to wait until their death.\"\n\n\"And once dead?\"\n\n\"We make them suffer torments beyond that which they could ever have imagined.\"\n\n\"You're afraid this might be about more than revenge.\"\n\n\"Her avengement is not just about punishing those responsible for her predicament. It's about punishing all the creatures of the night. All of the dark things. She will not rest until we are all under her thumb.\"\n\n\"What then?\"\n\n\"Maybe she binds us into another box and throws us into the sea. Maybe she becomes drunk with power and uses us to remake the world as she sees fit. Kaycee Wooes was once a bright-eyed little girl who simply wanted to live in her dreams. After ten years of nightmares, she's become this. What might she be once she has the power of the Seventy-two at her disposal?\"\n\n\"Maybe she makes the night safe for everyone,\" said Colby.\n\n\"And maybe she brings her nightmares to the rest of the world,\" said Yashar. \"Orobas is right. No one who traffics with the Seventy-two can stop themselves. I know the stories of the half dozen who have tried just since I've been alive.\"\n\n\"But not the others,\" said Orobas, \"who we've wiped from the very face of history.\"\n\n\"I imagine not.\"\n\nColby took a seat at a nearby table, staring off into the distance. He was crestfallen, defeated. There was no talking his way out of this one, no brokering a deal to remove himself. Orobas was right. Regardless of his intentions or what the Queen of the Dark Things was really up to, it involved him, even if in some small way, and the Seventy-two were never going to let it go. They'd involve themselves in his life, torment him, stalk him every minute of the day until he was dead or the Queen herself showed up for her revenge.\n\n\"Maybe I could go see her. Talk sense into her. Tell her this doesn't end well.\"\n\n\"You think she'll give up the ring?\" asked Orobas.\n\n\"She won't, Colby,\" said Yashar. \"The minute she does, she's a goner. Those demons will tear her apart for what she's done. And that'll just be the beginning of it. That ring is the only thing protecting her now.\"\n\n\"He's right,\" said Orobas. \"We will make her suffer in ways most unimaginable.\"\n\n\"I thought I'd already killed her once. Now you're telling me I have to do it a second time.\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"Let me ask you something, Orobas. Solomon\u2014I've always wondered. He's always referred to as one of the wisest men who ever lived, and yet most of the stories have him acting foolishly, doing things only an idiot would do.\"\n\n\"Like giving Asmodeus the ring?\"\n\n\"And being tricked into making a sacrifice to another god. And every other stupid thing he did for a piece of tail. Especially considering just how many wives he had. It's all bullshit, isn't it, the parts about him being a fool?\"\n\n\"There are those who say that history is written by the winners. Those men did not know King Solomon. The truth is that history is simply written by those who live the longest, the last ones standing.\"\n\n\"You rewrote history. With propaganda.\"\n\n\"I didn't. I couldn't. But the others did. We needed to be protected. We would have cleansed the story of the ring entirely, but it was widespread long before we were dredged out of the sea. So we changed it. Told a more interesting version. That's the one that was penned in the books and made sense alongside the rumors after his passing.\"\n\n\"You knew him. What was he like?\"\n\n\"He was the cleverest man I have ever met, the only man ever to live to outwit the Seventy-two.\"\n\n\"But you made him suffer, as you did the others?\"\n\n\"No. He was too pure for us. The ring never corrupted him. But then, it was he who forged it to begin with. He never wanted the power we offered. He only wanted to put us down, buried for a thousand years.\"\n\n\"He only got five hundred,\" said Colby.\n\n\"His one fault. He wasn't forward thinking enough to imagine the technological advances that would follow his death or acknowledge things as simple as a tide against an ever changing landscape. Solomon believed he lived in a world that would never change, that the temple he built would stand until the end of time. Now all that remains of him is that ring and the stories.\"\n\n\"And you, bound together as you are.\"\n\n\"And us.\"\n\nColby took a deep breath. \"So you guys can't go anywhere near her, or see anything involving the ring?\"\n\n\"That is correct.\"\n\n\"And you need me to free your five friends and kill the Queen of the Dark Things?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"Then we'll bargain for it.\"\n\n\"Colby!\" shouted Yashar. \"Don't!\"\n\nOrobas shook his head. \"Bargain, I'm afraid you don't understand\u2014\"\n\n\"I understand just fine. The Seventy-two have gotten themselves into a world of shit. They have lost five demons and one of the most powerful relics in the world to a little girl and you need me to get them back. And this you expect I'll do for free, or rather, just so my life doesn't turn to shit? At your hands?\"\n\nYashar shook his head, waving his hands from behind the bar. \"Don't. This is how they work. This is what they wanted all along.\"\n\n\"Yashar, I know what I'm doing.\"\n\n\"No. You don't.\"\n\n\"Orobas, bargain with me now. I will give you back the souls of your five friends in exchange for five favors, each granted by the demon of my choosing. When I call, they will appear, and they will give me one boon each.\"\n\n\"I cannot bargain for them.\"\n\n\"Yes you can. Because you're going to go back to them and tell them of the bargain you've made. And I'm certain that they will find my terms far more agreeable than the Queen's.\"\n\n\"They won't come. Not here, not now.\"\n\n\"They'll come,\" said Colby.\n\n\"No. She could be anywhere. She could be here now, or arrive at any moment. I'm risking myself just by being here.\"\n\n\"Then I'll go to them.\"\n\nYashar pounded his fist on the bar. \"Colby!\"\n\nColby waved him off. \"You'll send the Angel on Horseback.\"\n\n\"Seere will want to have nothing to do with this,\" said Orobas.\n\n\"He'll have little choice.\"\n\n\"So you will kill the Queen and retrieve the ring\u2014\"\n\n\"I cannot see the future and I don't know how I'll have to do it when the time comes. The bargain is this: five favors for five souls. I will release your friends or I will die trying.\"\n\n\"My brothers will want more assurances.\"\n\n\"But they will get only this. Any demon I summon who refuses to do my bidding, granting exactly the boon I ask for, fulfilled in its entirety, will forfeit your soul and service over to me. Do we have a deal?\"\n\n\"My soul?\" asked Orobas angrily.\n\n\"My deal is with you. But I need it to be with them. I need assurances that they will grant me the boons I need to defeat the Queen. And you are all bound by your oath to protect one another from enslavement. Is that correct?\"\n\n\"That is in our vow.\"\n\nColby spoke coldly, deliberately, each word dripping with arrogance. \"Do. We. Have. A. Deal?\"\n\n\"You know the price of failure?\"\n\n\"I do.\"\n\nOrobas nodded. \"Then we have a deal. Five favors for five souls.\"\n\n\"Go speak with your brothers. I have preparations to make.\"\n\nOrobas vanished, the world once again warping around him.\n\nYashar leaped over the bar, angry, tears in his eyes. \"Damnit, Colby! That's exactly what they wanted. For you to make a deal with them. It wasn't enough for you to summon the Wild Hunt. Now you're making deals with devils.\"\n\n\"You said it yourself, Yashar. I was already damned. What's a little more damnation on the pile?\"\n\n\"It's everything, Colby. It's everything.\"\nCHAPTER 44\n\nTHE ANGEL ON HORSEBACK\n\nSeere. He is a Mighty Prince, and Powerful, under Amaymon, King of the East. He appears in the form of a Beautiful Man, riding upon a Winged Horse. His office is to go and come; and to bring abundance of things to pass on a sudden, and to carry or re-carry anything whither thou wouldst have it to go, or whence thou wouldst have it from. He can pass over the whole Earth in the twinkling of an Eye. He gives a True relation of all sorts of Theft, and of Treasure hid, and of many other things. He is of an indifferent Good Nature, and is willing to do anything which the exorcist desires. He governs 26 Legions of Spirits.\n\n\u2014Ars Goetia\n\nYou can't do that here, Colby,\" said Yashar, his arms folded, a tattered rag hanging from his belt, a reminder of his new position. \"Not here. I won't let you.\"\n\nColby shuffled around the back of the bar, haphazardly placing dozens of candles on tables and in corners, eyes squinting as if working out algebra in his head. Everything had to be perfect. \"Well, I'm not going to summon demons at my house.\"\n\n\"But this is my house.\"\n\n\"This is a bar.\"\n\n\"But it's my bar. It's not pretty and it's not busy, but it's mine. And I'm not going to let you conjure up some of the very worst things in the world into it. Orobas was one thing, but this?\"\n\n\"Scraps had one rule about this place. What was it?\"\n\n\"Colby, Scraps is dead.\"\n\n\"What was the rule?\"\n\n\"Only the cursed and the damned could drink here.\"\n\n\"You're goddamned right. What else is a bar for, if not for entertaining the very worst sorts?\"\n\n\"Are you going to try to get him drunk?\"\n\n\"It might be worth a shot.\"\n\n\"This isn't funny.\"\n\n\"No, it's not.\" Colby placed the last candle and turned to face the djinn, his arms out, trying to reason with him. \"Yashar, how many of the Seventy-two have you met over the years?\"\n\nYashar thought for a moment, sifting through his memories. \"All of them at one time or another. But some of them not for a thousand years.\"\n\n\"But you know them.\"\n\n\"I do.\"\n\n\"I know. You're the one who told me their stories. Who cautioned me against ever trafficking with them. Your knowledge\u2014your abilities\u2014they're invaluable right now.\"\n\n\"So what do you want me to do?\"\n\n\"Stand with me. Keep me sane. Grounded.\"\n\n\"And be ready to throw down if I have to?\"\n\nColby nodded, shrugging shamefully. \"Yeah.\"\n\n\"So I'm your muscle?\"\n\n\"No. You're my friend.\"\n\nYashar put his hand on the bar, leaned forward, sighing. \"Damnit, Colby. That's cold-blooded.\"\n\nColby took a deep breath. \"You're going to make me say it, aren't you?\"\n\n\"Say what?\"\n\n\"I'm scared.\"\n\n\"You don't look it.\"\n\n\"I'm terrified. The things visiting me\u2014\"\n\n\"I know. They're bad hombres.\"\n\n\"The worst.\"\n\n\"All right.\" He raised one of his thick, muscular arms, pointing a strong finger at a row of candles along the back wall. \"But your candle placement sucks. Those things are going to go nuts, and you're going to burn this place to the ground.\"\n\nColby grinned sheepishly, his ears meeting his shoulders. \"I . . . I've never done this before.\"\n\n\"It certainly looks it. Who's up first?\"\n\nColby walked over to the wall, shifting the candles farther away. \"I have to summon Seere first, but he'll be taking me to . . . the Leopard.\"\n\n\"Jesus, you're not exactly starting off easy.\"\n\n\"I know.\"\n\n\"He's charming. Charming as hell. But\u2014\"\n\n\"Evil,\" said Colby, matter-of-factly.\n\n\"Rotten to the core. He'll try to get into your head.\"\n\n\"I imagine they all will.\"\n\n\"Without a doubt.\" Yashar drew a rune in the air with his finger. \"You know about the triangle, right?\"\n\n\"Yeah.\"\n\n\"He's not going to like it. He'll want out. He'll beg and threaten if he has to.\"\n\n\"We have no other choice.\"\n\nYashar reached into his pocket, pulling out a large piece of pink chalk. \"Use this.\" He tossed it underhanded across the room. Colby caught it like a wild pitch to the outside.\n\n\"Seriously? You keep this on you?\"\n\n\"Not usually. But I thought it might come in handy. Be sure to salt it after you draw it. It will burn like a mother if he tries to mess with it.\"\n\n\"How do you know that?\"\n\n\"I've done my time in plenty of circles over the years.\" He reached up, unconsciously fondling the scars left on him by Knocks and the redcaps. \"He won't budge. Not if you do it right. But make it big enough for him to move around a little, or else he'll be pissed from the start.\"\n\nColby pulled a salt shaker from his pocket.\n\n\"Table salt?\" asked Yashar.\n\n\"Sea. Dead Sea, actually.\"\n\n\"You keep it in a salt shaker?\"\n\n\"Yeah. Where do you keep yours?\"\n\n\"As far away as possible.\" Yashar casually reached under the bar, fished out a bottle of his best. Uncorking it, he smiled weakly. \"I never wanted to see you go down this road.\"\n\nColby softened. \"Yashar\u2014\"\n\n\"It's been my worst fear. Since the beginning. There are wizards and there are sorcerers. I never wanted you to be either, but if you had to be one of them\u2014\"\n\n\"I know. I never wanted this either. But there isn't any other way.\"\n\n\"People who traffic don't come back. Not the same, at least. They're never the same. Once they've seen these things, felt their touch, tasted the power . . .\" He poured two glasses of whiskey. \"Colby, this is the last drink I get to have with my friend. After this\u2014\" He waved around the room. \"After all this, you won't be the Colby I knew.\"\n\n\"I can try.\"\n\n\"They all try. Everyone tries. But it's a dark road, and lonely. And when the fallen are their only comfort, it's hard not to end up like them.\"\n\n\"I'm not dead yet. Don't eulogize me.\"\n\n\"I always knew that one day I would have to. But not like this. So.\" He picked up both glasses and offered one to Colby. \"One for the road.\"\n\n\"I need to stay clear.\"\n\n\"It's not to get drunk on. It's for courage. For the road.\"\n\nColby took the glass, swirled it, took a whiff. It smelled rich, deep, like the fresh-baked apple pie of whiskeys, memories swelling to the surface filled with laughter and rain and angels. It was Old Scraps's private reserve. \"Wait, this is\u2014\"\n\n\"I finally found out where he was getting it.\" Yashar raised his glass to Colby. \"To getting better of the road than it gets of you.\"\n\nColby raised his glass in return, hesitating. \"It seems wrong to slam it down.\"\n\n\"There really is a lot more where that came from.\" Yashar tossed back the whiskey and so too did Colby. It tasted like old times. \"Now,\" he said, his voice horse, recovering from the drink. \"About that angel.\"\n\nColby put down his glass, took a deep breath. He closed his eyes, waved his arms, and all the candles lit at once. Yashar turned down the lights and the room flickered, alive with the zeal of a hundred wax candles. Then Colby stood up, holding his palms out, and said the words. It was a garbled tongue, filled with furious vowels and consonants that ran together like a bad cough. The very world quivered at their utterance, walls bending away to get as far as possible from them. Then, at their climax, Colby yelled, \"Seere, I summon thee! Appear and speak!\"\n\nThen from outside came a tremendous clatter, the din of the world breaking in half and spitting something out.\n\nColby looked warily around. \"Shouldn't he be\u2014\"\n\n\"He's going to arrive outside,\" said Yashar.\n\n\"Not inside?\"\n\n\"He always brings that fucking horse.\"\n\n\"You would think\u2014\"\n\n\"You would, but he brings it anyway. Come on.\"\n\nYashar and Colby ran out into the midnight alley, the air gamy with rotting fish, standing paces away from both the Dumpster in which they were laid to rest and the door to the Cursed and the Damned. The city blazed halogen orange, spilling faintly into the narrow access.\n\nTHE OTHER END of the alley swelled with smoke, a swirling haze hanging in place that obscured the city lights but glowed with its own unearthly golden hue. A shadow appeared in the mist, a figure on horseback, large feathered wings splayed out from both steed and rider. The horse trotted forward with an elegant prance, a dancing pony angling for a blue ribbon.\n\n\"You've got to be kidding me,\" whispered Colby to Yashar.\n\n\"I told you. Get ready for the show.\"\n\nSeere was beautiful, his skin a pristine milky white ivory, fragile like a china doll's; his hair black, flowing, waving as if caught in a slow river current. He still wore his armor, head to toe polished silvery plate, gold inlay gleaming even in the dim light, depicting the great battle for Heaven. And his wings were massive, each feather no smaller than the size of a man's forearm, each perfect, unmolested by time.\n\nHis horse was equally majestic. A fine-bred stallion, his coat unblemished, muscles rippling with each step. Its wings were so large that it had to flex them back to keep its feathers from dragging along the walls on both sides of the alley. But its eyes were solid black orbs, cold, dead, like a possum's. Steam erupted from its nostrils as it breathed, but it made no sounds other than the clack clack clack of its hooves on the concrete.\n\nThe pair trotted up before Colby, stopping just a few feet away.\n\n\"I appear,\" said the angel, his voice like a virgin's, sweet and unassuming. \"And I speak.\" He slid off the side of the horse, folding his wings behind his back as he did, striding forward from his dismount without breaking stride. He walked past Colby, toward the door of the bar without so much as eye contact. \"Look after my horse, will you, Yashar?\" he said, not expecting any argument. \"He's the last of his kind.\"\n\nThe door opened without him touching it and he entered quickly.\n\n\"Wait,\" said Colby quietly to Yashar, pointing at the horse. \"This isn't\u2014\"\n\n\"One and the same.\"\n\n\"The\u2014\"\n\n\"There were skies full of them once. But they're just a story now. One no one believes anymore. Get in there. I'd rather not have to deal with Seere anyway.\"\n\nINSIDE, THE ANGEL strolled through the bar, hands clasped tightly behind his back, admiring every nook and cranny as if he were in a gallery, committing every detail to memory, trying to understand the meaning of the placement of each individual thing. He seemed at once both keenly interested and completely detached. Pretentious. Everything about him read pretentious.\n\nSeere stopped at the painting Dogs Playing Poker\u2014still the only art hanging in the whole of the bar\u2014pointing at it with an appreciative finger, eyes brightening for a moment. \"I always liked this one,\" he said. \"The whimsy of it. The idea that if dogs were more like people, they too would cheat at something as meaningless as a game.\"\n\nHe turned and looked at Colby, then took a seat at the nearest table.\n\n\"Can I get you something to drink?\" asked Colby.\n\n\"No. I don't need a reason to stay longer than I have to. It would be impolite to not finish a drink, and I'd rather not be here that long. So go ahead, ask me. Everyone does.\"\n\n\"Ask you what?\"\n\n\"About God. All of us were angels, every last one. But for some reason, because I still look the part, everyone only asks me. Did God dream man or did man dream God?\"\n\n\"I wasn't going to\u2014\"\n\n\"There's no shame in it, Colby. We all wonder that. Truth is, we don't know. None of us remembers a time before there was man. The earliest we can recall is a time when there was God, there was man, and there was us. And God loved you more. So here we are. A great war and several thousand years later and I am pressed into your service for the sins of my accursed brothers. I'd sooner have them rot in servitude to that girl, but I swore an oath, and I am bound to it.\" He looked around at the candles, burning brighter in his presence. \"They're angry, you know.\"\n\n\"The others?\"\n\n\"Yes. Quite. All of them. You have them very, very concerned.\"\n\n\"You don't seem to care.\"\n\n\"You and I have a lot more in common with each other than I have with them. Damned though we are, we make the best of it and try to remain pure. While I certainly think your arrogance is capable of convincing you that you can outthink us, I doubt you'll do anything worth terrifying us over.\"\n\n\"You don't like them very much, do you?\"\n\n\"I hate them. As much as I can. It's probably what binds me here, but I can't let it go.\"\n\n\"What did they do?\"\n\nSeere ran his fingers through his black hair, holding a tress of his ever flowing locks\u2014still waving, even inside\u2014up before his eyes, lost in a memory of the time it was still blond. \"They changed. They didn't have to. But they were so bitter, so angry. They made their home in the hollows of Hell and began to make it in the image of their own suffering. Soon they began to believe that this suffering was all they were. That's the curse of the fallen. We so felt loss at his loving of you more, that our punishment was to become like you. The others embraced the very worst of you. Colby, do you know why the world hasn't been overrun with evil?\"\n\n\"It hasn't?\"\n\n\"No. Not like one would imagine it. Angels, they fall all the time, and they turn. Get seduced by all this down here. So why haven't they risen up and bent men under their will?\"\n\n\"I have no idea.\"\n\n\"Because we hate one another. All of us. We can't stop fighting. Each wishes to be a lord on his own. So we spend all of our time squabbling, arguing, sometimes even brawling. We can't agree on anything, not the way the world should be, or who should run it. We undermine one another's schemes, cheat one another out of spoils. There is no legion of Hell setting out to corrupt the world. Just a disorganized mess of creatures who have only ever come together on one point, at one time, and are together bound by that one moment. I hate them. I really hate them. But I am bound to them.\"\n\n\"Why?\"\n\n\"A moment of weakness. Down in that box, beneath the sea, we thought we might never again see the light of day. And when we did, we had to make sure that nothing like that ever happened again. The ring, it can't be destroyed, Colby. It's God's cruel joke. We were given free will only to know that there was something out there that could rob us of it. It's desperation that damns us, Colby. But you know that better than most.\" He paused, looking around the room, taking it all in. \"So which of my brothers are we visiting first?\"\n\n\"The Leopard,\" said Colby, trying his damnedest to sound stoic as he said it.\n\nSeere smiled weakly. \"If he's your first visit, I'm terrified to know who you're saving for your last.\"\nCHAPTER 45\n\nTHE LEOPARD\n\nFlauros, a strong duke, is seen in the form of a terrible, strong leopard; in human shape, he shows a terrible countenance, and fiery eyes; he answers truly and fully of things present, past, and to come; unless he be in a triangle, he lies in all things and deceives in other things, and beguiles in other business, he gladly talks of the divinity, and of the creation of the world, and of the fall; he is constrained by divine virtue, and so are all devils or spirits, to burn and destroy all the conjurer's adversaries. And if he be commanded, he suffers the conjurer not to be tempted, and he hath twenty legions under him.\n\n\u2014Pseudomonarchia Daemonum\n\nColby arrived atop the back of the winged horse, his arms held tightly around Seere. The mountainside they'd landed on was misty, thick, milky fog wisping past in a stern wind. Jungle enveloped them, ancient trees with dark gnarled roots growing up toward a canopy that blackened even the brightest of burning stars. It was a cold but muggy night in a waxing spring.\n\n\"Where are we?\" asked Colby, peering out into the dark.\n\n\"South America. I think it's safe to tell you that. You'd deduce that yourself, eventually. But I won't say any more.\"\n\n\"Is this the place?\"\n\nSeere pointed farther up the slope. \"No. But it's as far as I'm allowed. Past that tree and up the trail you'll find a city hidden amidst the trees where no man has trod for a thousand years. Even the dead have left. It is now just a relic waiting to be rediscovered. Until then, Flauros calls it home.\"\n\n\"You don't enter each other's lairs?\"\n\n\"It's better that way. Even demons deserve some privacy. But I'll be here when you return.\"\n\nColby slid off the back of the horse to trek up the mountain, swallowed immediately by the jungle. Fifty paces in he turned but couldn't see Seere back through the mist and foliage. The air seemed to further cool with each step and it was only after a few paces more that he realized this was no fog around him but clouds. Dreamstuff ran rich here, a virginal flood of energy surging past, pooling in pockets, swirling in eddies. Seere wasn't exaggerating. This place was truly unspoiled, save for the corruption that no doubt rotted at its center.\n\nIt wasn't but a few steps more before he saw the first stones of the forgotten city. They were well worn and battered by time, smooth, pockmarked with the sanded-down nicks of tools that had rusted into nothing centuries ago. Soon scattered stones began to hint at patterns, then walls, and finally structures swollen and broken apart by jungle growth. And as the mist of the clouds parted, he found himself standing in the middle of a crumbling fortress that once housed a people only time was able to conquer.\n\nSomewhere, deep in the murk, the glowing eyes of an animal peered out at him, and a chill took to his bones.\n\nHe swallowed hard, steadied himself, and pulled the chalk from his pocket.\n\nColby began to draw arcane symbols on the cold, dark, antediluvian stone of a sundered domicile\u2014each by memory, esoteric though they were. Then he outlined the entire thing with a large, perfect equilateral triangle, five feet on each side. Finally, he reached into his pocket and pulled out his salt shaker. He unscrewed the cap, sprinkling it liberally over the chalk. The chalk and the salt sizzled, the triangle lighting up for a second like magnesium set ablaze.\n\nAt once the ancient city came alive, bright as day, severe shadows cast out into the glowing jungle. And there they were, a hundred devilish animals staring at him from the boughs of trees and beneath the cover of bushes. None moved; they only stared.\n\nHe was watching.\n\nAs the image burned into his eyes, Colby saw blackened mounds sprinkled across the city. Twisted, curled, charred, it was at once apparent that these were no mere mounds, but bodies, burned beyond recognition, carbonized by Hell's flames. All victims of Flauros's wrath, trophies left out with no wall to hang on, their message crystal clear.\n\nColby stepped forward, his arms spread wide, palms to the heavens, and once again he belted out a flurry of unrepeatable demonic jargon. The triangle grew bright, a thousand megawatt spotlight pointed straight down into it, not a single ray spilling past the chalk. Then he yelled, \"Flauros, I summon thee. Appear and speak.\"\n\nAnd then the form appeared\u2014a shadow at first, melting into place. A man, hunched over, long Herculean arms, sharpened claws dancing at the end of wispy fingers. Fur, black and sleek, gray leopard spots flaring out from its chest along its back. A cat's face, pointed ears, whiskers, a snout laced with razor fangs. Flauros, the Leopard, scowled, his eyes lighting on fire, the lambent flames burning cold, trickling toward the sky.\n\n\"You chose me,\" he said, his voice heavy, proud, the notes lingering on the air.\n\n\"I did,\" said Colby.\n\nFlauros looked down at the triangle, then cast a sneering grin back at Colby. \"I don't suppose that we could do away with the formalities?\"\n\n\"The triangle?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"Not on your life.\"\n\nThe demon nodded, the flames of his eyes dimming to a febrile smolder. He leered at the jungle around him and with a nod sent the beasts scampering silently back into the dark.\n\nFlauros cracked his neck, adjusted his posture. He no longer hunched, but stood, dignified, like a visiting professor at a symposium, a poised hand tickling the fur of his chest. \"I've waited a long time for this conversation,\" he said. \"You were due.\"\n\nColby shook his head. \"Let's get on with this. I have a long night ahead of me.\"\n\n\"The longest. But that's not how this works. You summoned me. You have entered a bargain for my boon. My boons, my rules. You should know this.\"\n\n\"I was hoping we could skip all that.\"\n\nFlauros turned, wagging a disapproving academic finger. Though his visage was terrible and alien, his expression was statesmanlike, majestic, profoundly arrogant. \"We could skip all that, I guess, if you were to erase a corner of this triangle and let me walk out, so we could talk as men. I mean, if we're skipping things.\"\n\n\"You know I can't do that.\"\n\n\"No, I know you won't do that. So we're going to talk until I'm satisfied.\"\n\n\"Then talk.\"\n\nThe demon's leopard snout curled back into a wicked smile, daggerlike fangs piercing through the snarl. \"Once, not so long ago, you sat atop a tower with Bertrand, the angel.\"\n\n\"You know Bertrand?\"\n\n\"I know all of the fallen. It is my task to keep track of them. To bring those worthy into the fold of Hell.\"\n\n\"That's not Bertrand.\"\n\n\"No. He has too much pride, even for Hell.\"\n\n\"What about him?\" asked Colby.\n\n\"What, indeed. He spoke to you, at length, about sacrifice. Selflessness.\"\n\n\"Yeah.\"\n\n\"And I'm here now to undo the damage of that night.\"\n\n\"And just how do you plan on doing that?\"\n\nFlauros looked down at the chalk triangle keeping him in check. \"By telling you the truth about him. He told you he jumped, didn't he?\"\n\n\"He implied it.\"\n\n\"He only thinks he jumped. It's why he can't go back. Bertrand questioned his plan. He questioned the way things worked. And he thought, if he jumped, he could do more good down here, on the ground, in the thick of it, than he could elsewhere. But it was pride. From the beginning, it was pride. He stepped to the edge to jump only instead to fall. All because he thought he knew better. And once he was here, he couldn't find his way back, because he never realized it was his pride chaining him here. At any moment he could free himself, fall onto his knees, and cry out to the heavens, begging for forgiveness, forgiving himself. But his pride looms so large, that its shadow keeps him from ever seeing it.\n\n\"Now he's spent too much time down here. Clouded his mind with too much drink. This world, the physical world, it takes its toll on you if you let it. You begin to become part of its chaos, its mundanities. You forget the things of the spirit and worry only about those you can see, touch. And that's what he did. He began to see the world from this point of view and lost sight of what real morality is.\"\n\n\"And that is?\"\n\n\"Perspective.\"\n\n\"That's not exactly news.\"\n\n\"Oh, but it is. You see, Bertrand explains goodness as if it is a single point on a line. Black on one end, white on the other. In the middle are the things you paint gray.\"\n\n\"You're not wowing me here, demon. Come to your point or\u2014\"\n\n\"There is no gray, Colby. That's the point. It's a flawed model. The idea that ethics and morality can be summed up two dimensionally, as a binary system riddled with aberrations, is primitive. The aberrations are the proof that the model doesn't work. Morality isn't a line; it is a series of spheres, beginning first at a point in the center. That point is the singular person against whom any action is made. You have to ask yourself what is best for that person. That decision is binary.\"\n\nColby shook his head, pursing his lips. \"No. There's not always a right and a wrong.\"\n\n\"There is!\" Flauros spoke excitedly now, eyes a searing blue flame, the passion of his point bubbling into froth. His lecture was in full swing and Colby was playing right along, ever the eager student. \"The gray areas you're thinking of only happen when you flatten the spheres to a line. We leave the point now for the first sphere\u2014the actors. Those performing the action. We have to ask now what is best for them? If the action against the person in the center is not in the center's best interest, it is wrong . . . from the point of view of the center. But from the sphere outside it, that decision may be what's best for them. In this case, it could be right.\"\n\n\"Yeah, yeah. What's right for one\u2014\"\n\n\"There's more than one sphere, Colby. There are several. The next sphere is the community. Then the state. Then the world. And just beyond that is civilization. History itself. Is an action right or wrong for the state of history? For the human race? And finally, the universe?\"\n\n\"You want me to ask myself whether something is right or wrong for the universe?\"\n\n\"No. The question is never whether or not something is right or wrong. It can be both right and wrong, alternating between the spheres. Something that could be inarguably just in all of the lower spheres\u2014like caring for the sick\u2014can be morally wrong in the wider spheres as history becomes replete with the descendants of the weak and sickly, dooming mankind to extinction for its inability to cope with its own poor selection. The question must never be about right and wrong but whose perspective we are choosing to value most. This is how so many people argue with one another with absolute certainty. It is not always because one is ignorant; it is most often because they both are. They refuse to argue and form a consensus on the perspective while they babble about the minutiae of their own.\n\n\"Bertrand was wrong because he believes that doing a thing wrong in one sphere because it is right in another can damn a man. Because Bertrand has already chosen his point in the spheres and judges them all from there. And that point is in the center. He's caught up in the idea of the individual and his pride makes that point of view unshakable. That pride has rubbed off on you. You think yourself in some sort of gray area, that your choices are somehow nebulous and murky. You weren't damned because you let in the Wild Hunt. You were damned because the point you chose to defend, which seems so right, is so wrong in all the others.\" Flauros paused for a moment, as if choosing his next words very carefully. \"Colby, why did you save Ewan? The first time, when you were children.\"\n\n\"Because he was my friend.\"\n\n\"So you did it for yourself?\"\n\n\"I did it for him.\"\n\n\"Did you?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"Because killing an innocent child was wrong.\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"Despite all the death and violence that surround that rescue and the subsequent massacre it led to?\"\n\n\"Those things had it coming.\"\n\n\"They were a menace? They were going to cause more harm?\"\n\n\"Exactly.\"\n\n\"To the community. The children of Austin. The third sphere.\" Flauros leaned forward as far as he could without coming into contact with the barrier of the triangle. His eyes narrowed, flames glinting, a self-satisfied smile on his face, baring his fangs once more. \"Colby, you're not lost because you find yourself in the gray area; you're lost because you can't reconcile your priorities. You're scared to ask yourself who is more important because you might not like the answer. Your ethics are arbitrary. You want to be good and just. You just don't know for whom.\"\n\n\"And what do you know about the good? What, exactly, would happen if I scuffed away that triangle and let you out? Could I expect you to be good then?\"\n\n\"I wouldn't kill you, Colby. I can't. We need you. However, since I have to be honest, I probably would hurt you a bit. Scare you. Get inside that head of yours and dig out some true terror just so you know who you're dealing with.\"\n\n\"And that's good?\"\n\n\"No. But is it really bad? I have outlived empires, Colby. I watched man crawl out of the caves and erect temples to gods who were dead and forgotten before the days of Babylon. I judge my actions based on the good of the farthest spheres. I play a long game. That means, in the short run, little that I do for my own amusement has any real impact. Who cares if I consume the soul of someone who was never going to amount to anything?\" He leaned back and stroked his dark fur with his long, clawed fingers, delighting in memories. \"Only others who don't matter. I can't kill you because, in the long run, that might actually be bad. At least until you've served your purpose. So I stay my more loathsome desires for the Seventy-two, because we, ultimately, serve a purpose of our own. One far greater than yours. And what's good for me, and good for my fellow fallen angels, is that you see this night through. No matter how much I would enjoy tearing you apart and feasting on your innards.\"\n\n\"Do you feel better? Getting that off your chest?\"\n\n\"Hardly. You're not listening. You're just waiting for me to spin myself out so you can ask me what we both know you're going to ask me, without caring that I might be preparing you for the weight of your decision.\"\n\n\"Is that right?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"Then what am I going to ask you?\"\n\n\"The same thing every sorcerer of your ilk asks for. The one reason to summon me over all the other demons you could have asked for. You want my one great boon. You want my rain of fire.\"\n\n\"I don't.\"\n\n\"Oh, but you do. I can do it. Just say the words and fire will rain from the heavens upon those who have wronged you, those who stand against you now. I may not be able to bring my holocaust upon the girl making her way here, but the shadows she brings with her? The beasts in her legion? All gone in a single gout of flame. But why stop there? The Limestone Kingdom is full of those who deserve to roast alive.\"\n\n\"No. That's not why you're here.\"\n\n\"You can smell it, can't you? The scent of their immolation. You can hear the sound of their wings popping as they curl into ash. The sound of their terrified, confused screams. That's my favorite part. Make no mistake. What you ask me to do, I do willingly. Have me collect their souls, Colby. Say the words.\"\n\n\"No,\" said Colby, shaking his head defiantly.\n\n\"Say the words. Tell me what to do.\"\n\n\"Okay. Great Duke Flauros, master of thirty-six legions, bearer of the rain of fire. I ask of you a boon, your offering in exchange for one of the souls of the five dukes.\"\n\n\"I agree to this bargain. What is it you would have me do?\"\n\n\"Bestow upon me the gift of an iron will, that I may see through the lies and temptations of spirits and be not by them corrupted.\"\n\nFlauros's smile disappeared, the flames in his eyes smoldering with contempt. \"That's not the bargain.\"\n\n\"But it is. We have a deal. And you, as I understand it, have more than one boon to bestow. Do you not?\"\n\n\"I do,\" he growled.\n\n\"Then please, spirit, grant me the boon.\"\n\nFlauros took a step back, unballing his fists, the slow, deliberate smile of understanding creeping back into place. \"Ahhhh. You are indeed craftier than anyone has given you credit for, boy. I see what you're doing. You face five spirits, and you hope a protection from their lies and temptations will see you through to their more powerful gifts. Clever.\"\n\n\"Sometimes it's wiser to pick up a shield before bothering with the sword.\"\n\n\"Yes. Yes it is! Then I grant you this boon. It will do little to help you against some of my brothers. I might be among the most frightening of them, but some of them don't need lies or temptations to twist you apart.\"\n\nFlauros held his right hand open, brought it to his lips, kissing his fingers lightly. Then he held out his hand and spoke with bone-rattling tones in a language far older than civilization, sharp consonants like the wet hiss of a knife going into a stomach. Colby's skin prickled, a blistering cold washing over him, his heart pounding, his blood thickening to ice. His head grew cloudy, vision fuzzy, every muscle in his body trembling. He doubled over, shivering on the ground, grunting against a sudden flu, his whole body rejecting the magic at once.\n\nColby threw up, chest heaving, blood vessels in his eyes bursting. He screamed and the ground shook.\n\nAnd then it passed.\n\nEverything became clearer, the intentions of the demon before him crystallizing in his thoughts. This was the boon Flauros was most frightened he would ask for. Had he chosen the fire, that meant Colby was as weak and easily manipulated as most. But if he chose an immunity from deceit, it meant he was much more of a wild card.\n\nBut the demon hadn't lied. He couldn't. Not in the triangle. He honestly believed Colby to be weak-willed, filled with anger, and absolutely out of control. With that one decision, everything changed. Colby, it would appear, was something else entirely. And now Flauros would tell his brothers what was coming for them.\n\nColby rose to his feet, his blood pumping again, heart no longer struggling in his chest. The air had returned to normal, the boon's only lingering remnants a cold layer of sweat pooling on Colby's brow.\n\n\"Thank you, demon. Our deal is struck. I will release your friend.\"\n\nFlauros nodded, the flames in his eyes fading. \"You know what happens if you don't?\"\n\n\"I do.\"\n\n\"Then, for your sake, I hope you keep your end of the bargain.\" Then he winked away with a puff of smoke and the bitter stench of brimstone, leaving Colby alone in the dark, terrible jungle.\nCHAPTER 46\n\nMEATPUPPET\n\nWade Looes was no more, but the kutji that was the shadow of Wade Looes very much still was. And while it didn't remember all the details of Wade's sad and unfulfilled life, it remembered very well how much he loved his daughter, which was very much indeed. It also remembered that he had done something very, very bad to her. Wade couldn't remember what, exactly, but it felt an overwhelming sense of guilt about it. Self-loathing. Despair. Anger. And it knew that, above all, it had to set things right.\n\nSo when Wade's daughter came and asked it to make the long journey alone, across Arnhem Land, to bring something back to her, it did not question; it simply did as she asked. For some reason it didn't quite understand, all of the other kutji had promised never to go there. But Wade hadn't. So it fell upon it and it alone to trek across the untamed wilderness to bring back the barely breathing corpse of Kaycee Looes.\n\nThe forest was still, dead quiet despite the life teeming throughout. No insects chirped, no cane toads croaked, everything dug well into their holes and hollows or instead wallowed in the mud. It was as if the swamps had been cleared of every living thing, the eerie calm unsettling, dreamlike. Mist rose up off the billabongs like a ghostly militia setting the charge, the forest beginning to take on the night's chill. The kutji Wade Looes had no idea that it was him they were afraid of.\n\nHaving flown most of the way, it now crept through the muck and mud, staying in the shadows cast by trees in the moonlight, darting out only long enough to find another. As he drew closer to the outskirts of the small village, he crept slower and slower. There was a Clever Man here, possibly even a powerful one, and if Clever Man saw it, it was cooked. It had to get the body. It could not let its daughter down. Not again. Not ever again.\n\nAt the outskirts of the tree line, it saw what it was looking for. The house, just as she had described it, silhouetted by the moon, towering three stories above the fresh mud. The windows were dark and the porch light off. Easy pickings. In. Out. Quick and easy.\n\nBe like the shadow, it thought. Be like the shadow. Flattening itself, wafer thin, it slipped in through the crack between the door and the floor. Inside it was pitch-black and silent as the grave, the only sound the soft, distant beeping of a heart monitor. It followed the sound, slinking soundlessly through the hallway, eyes peeled for any signs of life.\n\nThe door to the room was shut, but unlocked, and the handle squeaked ever so slightly as it turned, the creaking hinges whining only that much more. The loudest sound was the heart monitor that, while set to its lowest volume, still pulsed like a sonar ping against the dead of night. Beep. Beep. Beep. That sound rung in its head like a hangover, fragmented memories bubbling to the surface at each one. Pounding. Aching. Scratching to get out.\n\nThe shadow crept forward, and for the first time in ten years, laid eyes upon its daughter.\n\nKaycee didn't look anything like it remembered. She was taller now, gaunt, frail, so much skin draped over too small a skeleton. Her eyes were open and lifeless, a feeding tube running in through her mouth, an IV dripping water into her drop by drop. A thin blue bedsheet covered her from breast to toe, and as the kutji tugged it away, it saw that it was Wade's daughter for sure.\n\nThe shadow stroked the nubs along her clubfoot, then moved up and ran its wispy claws along the trace of her cleft palate. Though older and sickly, she was still every bit as beautiful as he remembered. Memories a decade old loosed themselves from piles of misery and angst, set free to run barefoot across the tracks of its mind. Flashes of a little girl tugging his arm awake. Of holding her in his arms, eyes warm with tears, as his wife lay lifeless beside them. Of a tiny hand grasping his thumb as they walked because she was not yet big enough to slip her fingers between his.\n\nThe shadow that was Wade Looes had no heart, but its insides broke as if it had. It had to set things right. This little girl had to go home. Once and for all. It wouldn't let her down. Not again. Not ever again.\n\nReaching down, it pulled the feeding tube out from her mouth, pulling her jaw back as wide as it would go, then squeezed itself inside. It pulled itself as tight and as thin as it could, forcing itself, headfirst, down her throat and into her belly.\n\nEyes blinked. Limbs twitched. She was possessed.\n\nThe shadow of Wade Looes stared at the ceiling, skin prickling with discomfort, trying to move against years of disused muscles. The legs didn't work, the arms didn't work, the neck couldn't so much as swivel the head connected to it. Everything had atrophied. It was going to have to carry her out.\n\nFocus. Harder. HARDER.\n\nIt spread itself thinner, worked its way into every cell of her body, lifted with all the force it could muster.\n\nA toe twitched. Then a hand. A fist clenched. An arm jumped.\n\nWade dug deeper. He saw his daughter on the floor, in a puddle of her own blood, already drying in her hair and clothes. It was like electricity, a live wire of anguish.\n\nKaycee Looes shot upright in bed like a marionette whose strings had been suddenly jerked. Her eyes were wide but still lifeless. Her jaw dangled limply, open. She spun in the bed, legs hanging over the side, slumping out onto wobbly legs. The shadow worked each limb, pulling and tugging with the power of its own soul. Keep thinking about her, it thought. Think about her. It plumbed the depths of its own memories, birthdays and bedtimes, smiles and tears. Whatever was left. Anything it could remember it threw into the furnace of its own soul, chugging forward like a lumbering steam engine.\n\nIt worked the body across the room, missing the door entirely, slamming headfirst into the wall. Kaycee backed up. Turned. Moved forward again. The shadow was pushing the body forward as if it was working levers from the inside\u2014every move disconnected from what it actually had to do to make it happen. Each step was a chore, painful, agonizing.\n\nBut worth it.\n\nInto the hallway. Step. Step. Step.\n\nIt thumped into another wall.\n\n\"Oy! What the bloody\u2014\" called a voice from farther down the hall.\n\nA tall, limber man in his early thirties appeared, a tangled mop of black hair in a T-shirt and boxers. It was Jirra, who had years before taken a blade to the arm to secure the very body now standing in the hallway before him. He was older now, rugged, wise wrinkles setting in where his youthful vigor and good looks had once been.\n\nHe looked at Kaycee, confused for a moment. Then he smiled. \"Oh, you're awake.\"\n\nThe shadow panicked. Shit! \"Yeah,\" it forced out, working the jaw and tongue as best as it could manage while managing to remain upright.\n\n\"Well, where are you off to?\"\n\n\"Out.\"\n\n\"Well, careful out there. It's a long walk, wherever you're goin'.\"\n\nThe shadow gave a clumsy, instinctive wave, stomping as quickly as it could toward the door.\n\nThe man rushed past, quickly unlocked the door, held it open, a beaming smile on his lips.\n\nThis had to be a trap. Run, it thought. It barreled out the door, uneasy feet barely able to keep it standing. I'm coming, darlin'. Dad's coming. I'm gonna make this right. I'm gonna make this right. He couldn't let her down. Not again. Not ever again.\nCHAPTER 47\n\nTHE SECOND PRESSED INTO SERVICE\n\nYashar was right, you know,\" said Seere, still sitting atop his horse. \"You won't make it through this. Not as you were.\"\n\n\"I'm doing fine so far,\" said Colby. The dark of the mountain still closed in around them, but he felt safer now, with the angel so close.\n\nSeere laughed as much as he could, a stifled chuckle that came out more like a cough. \"Already Flauros's words are devouring you from the inside. I can feel it, his arguments sitting on the tip of your thoughts. You're wondering if he's right. If you've just been looking at it all wrong.\"\n\n\"Is he?\"\n\n\"The difference between angels and demons is more than just whether or not we've fallen and given ourselves over to something . . . else. Angels see morality as a simple set of laws; there is right and there is wrong. There is no room for deviation, only law. Demons, on the other hand, believe that right and wrong are based solely upon the outcome, not the act. Measuring that outcome in years or decades or even millennia creates a decidedly different set of morals. Flauros is a master of rhetoric, but he's also the bearer of Hell's fire. His philosophy is blunted by the hundreds of thousands he's charred to ash at the behest of others. A thing like that forces you to distance yourself as far as possible. He's not wrong, but his view is . . . corrupted . . . by his need for perspective. It's the humanity in him.\"\n\n\"I didn't see much humanity.\"\n\n\"That's because you, like most of your kind, only use that word to describe your best qualities. To be fair to Flauros, you really weren't looking for what little of those he still has. When this is all over, the same might even be said about you.\"\n\nColby stared, unwavering, at the angel. \"You know the gift I asked for.\"\n\n\"We all do. Even now, as we speak, my brethren are no doubt convening to decide what should best be done about you, to parse out what you might be up to. Make no mistake, when I'm done here, I too will return to their conclave and I'll have to tell them what you asked me for. What we discuss here is in no way said in confidence. Every word, every gesture, plays a role in your future.\"\n\n\"You're saying it's only going to get harder.\"\n\n\"No matter whom among us you choose.\"\n\n\"And this boon Flauros gave me\u2014\"\n\n\"Only serves to let you know you are being tempted and to resist the supernatural attempts to overcome your free will. You can see through the lies of spirits, but you still have to make your own decisions. So, with that in mind . . . who's next?\"\n\n\"You.\"\n\n\"Me? You already have my service.\"\n\n\"To take me to see whichever of the Seventy-two I choose. What I need, I can only ask you for.\"\n\n\"And what, exactly, is that?\"\n\n\"I need you to take me somewhere,\" said Colby. \"Somewhere your brothers don't tread.\"\n\n\"Of course. But there were several of us that could have done that.\"\n\n\"Yeah. And you're the only one of the Seventy-two whom I can trust to keep me safe while I do what needs doing.\"\n\n\"Colby, where, exactly, are we going?\"\n\n\"There is a house, in Arnhem Land, that belongs to a Clever Man where I lived for a while as a child. And I need to go there.\"\n\n\"But Arnhem Land is in\u2014\"\n\n\"I know where it is.\"\n\n\"She has the ring! If she finds us, she could bind me as she did the others.\"\n\n\"Even if she were still in Australia, which she isn't, she won't come near us. She won't set foot in Arnhem Land.\"\n\n\"How can you be so sure?\"\n\n\"Because that's where her body is kept.\"\n\n\"It's too dangerous. I can't risk servitude again. Not for this.\"\n\n\"Then it's a good thing for me that you don't have a choice.\"\n\nSeere looked bitterly at Colby, silently grinding his teeth.\n\n\"Are you going to make me say the words?\"\n\nSeere shook his head. \"No. The less you treat me like them the better.\"\n\n\"Then take me there.\"\nCHAPTER 48\n\nTHE STALE ROOM AND THE GRAVE AT THE EDGE OF THE WORLD\n\nBuwulla, Australia, was a ramshackle little town, nestled in the marshy wastes of the Northern Territory, Aboriginal land, where only natives and those with the proper permits were allowed to travel. It was also one of the most beautiful places on earth, speckled with rocks covered in paintings older than Western civilization.\n\nColby slid once more off the back of the horse, having only in the blink of an eye before been in South America. He breathed deeply through his nose. Nothing quite smelled like the outback, especially Arnhem Land, the smells ancient, swampy, lived in. He looked around, singing to himself stories of the surrounding village, recognizing so much of it, far-flung memories finding their way back to the horizon of his thoughts. A broken-down truck, at least fifty years old, rusted completely through, stood exactly where he remembered it, swallowed up by spear grass, a paperbark tree growing up from the ground into the cab and out the passenger-side window that had long since shattered out. Behind it stood a farmhouse, its white paint chipped and peeling, graying weathered wood peeking out from beneath it.\n\nThe sky was a deep cerulean, a row of black clouds gathering in the distance, ready to douse the village with an afternoon thunderstorm. It was Gunumeleng, the first of the six seasons in Arnhem Land\u2014a hot, mostly dry season broken up by regular afternoon storms. Soon, however, monsoon season would set in, flooding the region and filling the billabongs that had at this point mostly dried up for the year. Arnhem Land didn't have a \"winter,\" but this was as close as it got to the beginning of spring.\n\nColby looked back over his shoulder at Seere, still astride his horse. \"This is dangerous, Colby,\" he said. \"We shouldn't spend too long here. Even if she is halfway across the world, she still commands the things of this place.\"\n\n\"I know. But I have to be here. It's important.\"\n\n\"I want my freedom returned to me. Let's get this over with.\"\n\nThe curtains on the kitchen window of the farmhouse peeled back, a face emerging from the black behind it. Colby's arrival had not gone unnoticed. It took only a moment before a young man emerged from the house, his skin a dark, rich coffee brown, his hair black and curly. He was only ten years Colby's senior, but walked as if he were five years younger, buoyant and carefree.\n\n\"'ey, fella,\" he said. \"I think you've got the wrong place.\"\n\n\"No,\" said Colby. \"I'm exactly where I need to be. I'm looking for the owner of that house.\"\n\nThe stranger threw a stiff thumb over his shoulder and smiled. \"This house? The one behind me?\"\n\n\"That's the one.\"\n\n\"Well, that's my house, eh?\"\n\n\"That would make you the new Clever Man.\"\n\nThe stranger's smile weakened, his eyes squinting. \"Yeah. I reckon it would.\"\n\n\"I'm looking for Mandu Merijedi. Where can I find him?\"\n\n\"'Fraid you're a bit too late, fella,\" said the man, soberly. He smiled bigger now, as if Colby wasn't in on some joke.\n\n\"I'm sorry?\"\n\n\"You're too late. Mandu's dead. Been dead for ages.\"\n\nColby stared the man straight in the eye, unshaken. He cleared his throat. \"I didn't ask whether or not he was still alive. I asked you where I can find him. Do you know, or will I have to ask someone else?\"\n\nThe man looked at Colby with disbelief. It was only then that he noticed Colby's red tangle of hair, the awkward shape of the nose. His eyes widened, his slackened jaw dropping slowly down into a stunned gape. \"You ain't no fella. You ain't no fella at all. You're Colby Stevens.\"\n\nColby nodded silently.\n\n\"I think you better come inside, bru. I have beer. It's cold.\"\n\nColby smiled. \"Now you're talking.\"\n\n\"But the other fella will have to stay out here.\"\n\n\"Other fella?\"\n\n\"No spirits in the house.\"\n\nColby looked back over his shoulder once more, and Seere nodded.\n\n\"One beer,\" said Seere.\n\n\"You really don't know why we're here, do you?\"\n\n\"I haven't the faintest.\"\n\nColby nodded. \"Make yourself comfortable. We're going to be here a spell.\"\n\nThe inside of the farmhouse was sparsely decorated, looking very much like Colby remembered. The walls were water stained, old, tattered wallpaper curling away in spots. He walked into the house, past the door to the kitchen, and down toward a long hallway.\n\n\"Kitchen's back this way,\" said the man.\n\n\"I know where it is,\" said Colby, still walking.\n\nDown the hallway he saw it, the old room whose memories still haunted him. The door was open, the smell of ten years of stale sweat wafting out past a well-worn door frame, paint chipped around the edges, stained at just the place Mandu would rest his hand and lean against it to look in. Inside was a bed, empty, still unmade, sheets crisp and clean on the edges, but thin and ragged where an unmoving body had slumbered for a decade. There was a chair beside the bed, cushion ragged beyond repair, and thirty-year-old medical equipment scattered about the room\u2014a heart monitor, feeding tube, stainless steel IV tree with an empty plastic water bottle still dangling from it.\n\n\"Shit,\" said Colby, under his breath.\n\nThe man came up behind him, but Colby couldn't shake his gaze. \"I still remember,\" he said, \"you just sitting in that chair for hours, watching her sleep.\"\n\n\"I was waiting for her to wake up.\"\n\n\"Or die?\"\n\n\"Either. I just never wanted to think about the latter.\"\n\n\"That's how I remember you best. Just a little fella, looking after his friend.\"\n\n\"How long?\"\n\n\"I'm sorry?\"\n\n\"How long ago did she wake up?\"\n\n\"'Bout a week.\"\n\n\"Her muscles had to be atrophied. How did she\u2014\"\n\n\"Too right. It was the damnedest thing. Bloody body just stood up and wobbled away. Must've bumped every wall on the way out. Made a hell of a racket. Middle of the night, it was. Just wheelin' and thumpin'. Made it outside and just shuffled off like some kinda bloody zombie.\"\n\n\"How is that even possible?\"\n\n\"Weren't her. Spirits be powerful things. Whatever took her away had an awful lot of fight in it.\"\n\n\"Why did you let it leave?\"\n\nThe man shrugged. \"Mandu said to. Said if it ever got up on its own and wanted to walk away to let it. Come on. Let's get you that beer.\"\n\nColby sat at a wobbly metal kitchen table, easily sixty years old, its lacquered top whittled down and chipped in places. The chairs were mismatched, some almost as old as the table, others decades newer but in no better condition. The man opened a rounded, avocado-green icebox, older than anything else in the kitchen, and pulled from it two, frosty, ice-cold beers.\n\n\"You don't remember me, do you?\" asked the man, popping the bottle caps off on a refrigerator-mounted bottle opener.\n\nColby nodded, immediately trying to place him. \"You're the one who set his tucker bag on fire.\"\n\nThe man laughed. \"That'd be me. I thought I could warm up dinner without burning it. Jirra.\"\n\n\"I remember. You took Mandu's place?\"\n\n\"Yeah,\" he said, mindlessly thumbing an old, thick white scar across his forearm.\n\n\"He trained you?\"\n\n\"Since I was a kid, yeah. I was already mostly done when you came along, though. I'd already done my first walkabout. That's why we never got to know each other well.\"\n\n\"How did it happen?\"\n\n\"Mandu? He said it was his time. He'd done his part, trained two great dreamspeakers.\"\n\nColby stifled a proud, sad smile. \"That's very kind of him.\"\n\n\"More than kind. I was always just thankful he said two and not one. Including me with you was the nicest thing he ever said.\"\n\n\"Oh, that's not\u2014\"\n\n\"You've got your own songline, Colby. There's no need for modesty. Not here in my kitchen. I know what you did. I teach the children about you. They sing the songs. You can feign your modesty with everyone else. But in here, in this house, we both know who and what you are.\" Jirra raised his bottle and Colby did the same, glass clinking together. \"You're gonna talk to him, ain't ya?\"\n\nColby nodded. \"I have to. There are some things I need to know.\"\n\n\"You're looking for something?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"The little girl? The dreamwalker?\"\n\n\"Information,\" said Colby. \"About her. What do you know?\"\n\n\"Only that if it were anyone else wanting to go out there after her, I'd say that fella was mad as a cut snake. But you? You might be the one thing to set her straight.\"\n\n\"Set her straight?\"\n\nJirra grew a bit cold, his words hushed, his tone fearful, reverent. \"She's not right. She's not been the same since you left her out there. She's one of them now. Different.\"\n\n\"Different how?\"\n\n\"Different as in I've never stuck around long enough to find out when she come around. She'd never set foot in Arnhem. 'Fraid we might trap her soul in that body. But I saw her a few times farther south, out in the dreaming. Walking the songlines. But not singin' 'em.\"\n\n\"What was she doing?\"\n\n\"Trappin' mostly. She'd find herself a spirit out in the wild, then set her swarm of kutji on 'em. Then she'd do business with 'em. Make 'em trade serving her in exchange for their life. Bloody ugly stuff. She's raised an army. Dreamtime's hers now. No one crosses her. Not here.\"\n\n\"Do you know why?\"\n\n\"No. For that, you'll best be askin' Mandu.\"\n\n\"Take me to him.\"\n\nMANDU MERIJEDI'S HEADSTONE was the ornately carved trunk of a long dead banyan tree atop the tallest hill in the area, his story carved bit by bit into the thick, fig-tree bark. Colby ran his fingers over it, noting the sheer number of tales recounted about him. There were stories here Colby hadn't thought about in a decade; others he'd never even heard.\n\n\"He carved some of that himself,\" said Jirra, pointing to the center-most relief: a tall man with wild hair holding the hand of a young boy.\n\n\"He knew he would be buried here?\" asked Colby.\n\nJirra nodded. \"Of course. He told me once, when I was little, that even after he died, he had one more thing to do and he needed to be here to do it. I think he just liked the view. He came up here every day for a year carving parts of that. Worked on it without anyone knowing what he was up to.\"\n\nColby smiled. \"He was always a step ahead of us all.\"\n\n\"Still is.\"\n\n\"I don't doubt it.\" Colby looked down. There was a squared ring of painted stones marking the grave. This wasn't common at all.\n\nJirra pointed at them. \"I didn't understand why he wanted those here until just now.\" He thought for a moment. \"Is there anything I can get you?\"\n\n\"No. I just need some time to myself.\" Colby raised the back of his hand to the horizon and counted the fingers between it and the sun. \"We've got a little over an hour and a half until sunset. I'll just camp up here for the night.\"\n\n\"Of course.\" Jirra turned, walking back down the hill, stopping a few steps down. \"Oh, one more thing,\" he called over his shoulder.\n\n\"Yeah?\"\n\n\"Would you tell him we miss him?\"\n\n\"I will.\"\n\nColby made camp, first gathering kindling and some branches for a fire, then laying a small bedroll over the grave, between the stones. He sat at the edge of the hill with Seere, neither speaking, watching the sun sink beneath the trees as the sky slowly rolled into shades of orange, rose, and violet. The world darkened and the first stars poked through. Then shadows overtook the land, blackening it completely as campfires dotted it like freckles.\n\nThere was no place like the outback at night. Not anymore. Colby hadn't realized how badly he'd missed it.\n\nFinally, Seere spoke up. \"What is it you need me to do?\"\n\n\"Just keep watch. Make sure nothing disturbs my sleep.\"\n\n\"I don't think anything is going to come up here while I'm here.\"\n\n\"That was the idea.\"\n\nWhen the world was black save for the stars and the fires, Colby crawled into his bedroll, the dirt beneath it soft, comfortable, molding to the contours of his body. He quickly, quietly, fell into a deep sleep. Mandu had thought of everything.\nCHAPTER 49\n\nTHE FOOL'S GAMBIT\n\nTonight was lonelier than most. The Cursed and the Damned was all but empty. Bill was out hunting. Colby was in God-knows-where Australia doing God-knows-what. Even the few regulars Yashar served on the side without telling Colby were off in their homes and hollows, waiting out whatever hell was about to blow into Austin. It was just Yashar and Gossamer, each seated at a table, Yashar in one of the few functioning chairs, Gossamer perched nobly on a small wooden box, playing chess.\n\nChess was one of the few games Gossamer could play, not for lack of understanding, but because most games required thumbs. Cards to hold, dominoes to maneuver. But with chess, Gossamer could simply call out his move, and Yashar would move the pieces for him. Colby hated chess, called it a two-dimensional game that required only memorization and punished creativity. But Yashar and Gossamer both knew the truth. Colby stunk at it.\n\n\"Pawn to e4,\" said Gossamer, making his opening move.\n\nYashar reached across the board and moved the piece, then followed by immediately placing his own pawn directly in front of Gossamer's.\n\n\"Knight to f3.\"\n\nAgain, Yashar moved the dog's piece. He sat for a moment mulling over his next move.\n\n\"I miss the boss.\"\n\n\"He's only been gone a few hours.\"\n\n\"I know that. I mean I miss the old boss.\"\n\nYashar passed the dog a bereaved look over his nose, his face still facing the board. \"You can call him Colby.\"\n\n\"I like boss.\"\n\n\"I don't think he's coming back. Not the Colby we knew, anyway. Knight to c6.\"\n\nGossamer let out a long sigh, his head drooping below his shoulders. \"Bishop to c4. Why not? Just because he's making deals?\"\n\n\"No one just makes deals with demons, Goss. They get in your head, futz around with your insides, show you futures where you can get everything you want. You can even get it sometimes. But it comes at a cost. Everything comes at a cost with them. And it's never the price that's advertised. Pawn to d6.\"\n\n\"The boss is strong, though. He might be able to get through it all right?\"\n\nYashar shook his head.\n\n\"Knight to c3.\"\n\n\"I've been on this earth too long to believe that. Colby's cursed. It's my fault. And this is the fallout of that curse. There's no point in worrying about it. He'll be who he'll be on the other side of it.\"\n\nThe two stared morosely at the board, examining their next moves.\n\n\"Bishop to g4.\"\n\n\"Yashar, what's a familiar?\"\n\nYashar again looked over his nose at the dog. \"It's . . . it's a special relationship between a pet and his master.\"\n\n\"I like boss. Knight to e5.\"\n\n\"Between a pet and his boss.\"\n\n\"Boss said it was a best friend.\"\n\n\"It is, kind of.\"\n\n\"What is it really?\"\n\n\"It's a magical bond. It means he can see what you can see. You can read each other's thoughts. He can weave magic through you. Bishop to d1. Bishop takes queen.\"\n\n\"You took my queen? Already?\" Gossamer's eyes grew sad, his muzzle lowering to the board's edge.\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"But that's my favorite piece.\"\n\n\"Learn to protect it better, then.\"\n\n\"Bishop to e7. Check.\"\n\nYashar eyed the board, looking for a way out of check.\n\n\"Why won't boss make me his familiar? That all sounds awesome.\"\n\n\"Because it's not all awesome.\"\n\n\"What's the catch?\"\n\n\"Catch is that your life forces become linked. You can't ever get too far from each other. You would have had to go to Australia or else you'd both be doubled over, sick, puking your guts out. I've seen it.\"\n\n\"That doesn't sound too bad.\"\n\n\"King to e7. I told you, Goss, your life forces are linked. So if he dies . . .\"\n\nGossamer looked up, suddenly understanding. \"Oh,\" he said solemnly. \"I would die too.\"\n\n\"And if something ever happened to you, he would be weakened to near death. It's a position that comes with great benefits, but terrible consequences. Colby doesn't lead a very safe life. And he loves you, Goss. Very much. He doesn't want anything to happen to you.\"\n\n\"Is that how you feel about Colby?\"\n\n\"Every goddamned day.\"\n\n\"If you could take it back, would you?\"\n\n\"The wish?\"\n\n\"Yeah.\"\n\nYashar sat silently for a beat. \"What do you mean? Do I wish he had made a different wish?\"\n\n\"No. If you had to choose between Colby's wish and the wish of another child, which would you choose?\"\n\n\"I don't know. I've thought about that every day for nearly fifteen years now and I still don't know. Every time I sleep, I dream about it. I had a dream once, seven years ago, in which I granted a wish to a different child. It was a wonderful dream. Everything was just how it used to be. The kid's wish was simple, didn't end so badly, and we went about life happy, not involved with . . .\" He waved around the bar. \"Any of this. But then, what I assume was about a year or so into the dream, I remembered Colby. And he showed up in the dream. I saw him living his life. Normal. Bored. Working behind the counter of some retail chain. I have no idea what he was selling. But I missed him. I missed him so badly. So I talked to him. And he didn't know me. I tried to tell him that we knew each other, but he didn't believe a word of it. And for the rest of the dream, I was miserable. I went about the various unbelievable adventures I have in those dreams and couldn't enjoy a one of them because Colby wasn't there.\n\n\"So what would I do, given the choice? Would I spare my friend a lifetime of fear and suffering and damnation? Or would I put him through all that just so I wouldn't be so lonely? I'd like to think that I would be unselfish. I'd like to think that, but all evidence is to the contrary. Does that answer your question?\"\n\n\"Yeah,\" said Gossamer. \"Knight to d5. Checkmate.\"\n\nYashar cast his eyes down incredulously, thinking for a moment that the dog had no idea what he was doing. And he saw it. Checkmate. \"Wait! That's the fool's gambit. With a queen sacrifice! Where did you learn that?\"\n\nGossamer's tail wagged furiously, his mouth dropping open with a panting smile. \"Learn to protect your queen better, you said. You said that. You mocked me.\"\n\n\"You just sharked me.\"\n\n\"I did.\"\n\n\"You son of a bitch.\"\n\n\"Don't . . .\"\n\n\"Dog joke.\"\n\n\"That only works on Colby.\"\n\n\"What's good for the goose . . .\"\n\nYashar could feel the doors opening, the metal outer door closing with a slam, the inner door popping open with a WHOOSH. He wasn't expecting anyone, but he wasn't expecting trouble either.\n\nHalf a dozen kutji flooded in through the door, their stubby malformed bodies skittering across the floor, scampering up the walls, scooting across the bar. Yashar pushed his seat back slowly, its legs grinding against the concrete.\n\n\"Goss,\" he said beneath his breath. \"If I say run, you fucking run.\"\n\n\"I'm not leaving you.\"\n\n\"This is no time for loyalty.\"\n\n\"Screw you. This is exactly the time for loyalty.\"\n\n\"Yashar,\" hissed the kutji standing tallest atop the bar. \"It's my understanding that this place is under new management.\"\n\n\"It is. So get the fuck out of my bar.\"\n\n\"No,\" it said, hopping down, striding confidently toward the djinn. \"I mean it's under new management now.\" The kutji held out both of his hands, waving to the bar. \"This place is ours.\"\n\n\"Like hell it is,\" said Gossamer, fur bristling, growling deep, as if he was ready to snap at the closest hand.\n\n\"Goss,\" said Yashar. \"Ease back.\"\n\n\"This place is ours.\"\n\n\"Not anymore it isn't,\" said Yashar. \"Live to fight another day, my friend.\"\n\n\"Is that all it takes to own a bar? You just walk in and take it?\"\n\nThe kutji smiled wickedly, teeth pointing every which way out from his black gums. \"Sometimes,\" it said. \"Sometimes.\"\n\nYashar stood up slowly, waving for Gossamer to follow him. \"It's all yours.\" The two then backed away toward the door, Yashar spinning slowly as they did, trying to keep an eye on all the kutji at once. A single kutji stood between them and the door, for a moment refusing to yield. But as Yashar cautiously closed the distance, he moved, holding the door open for the two.\n\nYashar gave one last, longing look at the bar, drinking in the sweet nostalgia, took a deep breath, and then stepped outside.\n\nCrows lined the alley, a single kutji in demihuman form standing ten feet from the door. Yashar and Gossamer stopped dead in their tracks. They looked around, saw they were surrounded. Gossamer squatted low, tail back, teeth bared, growling.\n\n\"You the guys here to kill me?\" asked Yashar, inching ever closer to his companion.\n\nThe kutji nodded.\n\n\"You doing this because you want to? Or because you have to?\"\n\n\"What's the difference?\" asked the kutji, balling up both of his fists.\n\n\"Difference is in how many of you I kill before we call it a night.\"\n\nThe crows all squawked at once, angry, beating their wings against their sides, shaking their feathers while strutting on their perches.\n\n\"Oh, you like that, huh?\" yelled Yashar over the sound. \"I'll ask you again! You doing this because you want to or because you have to?\"\n\n\"Kill him,\" said the kutji.\n\nAt once the birds took to the air, their speed faster than Yashar imagined, diving toward him and Gossamer.\n\n\"Shit!\" Yashar picked up Gossamer by his belly, hoisting him awkwardly in the air, then spun, pulling himself tight, vanishing into thin air. The birds swarmed in, finding nothing, some slamming into the wall, others the door\u2014none striking home.\n\n\"Where is he?\" screamed one of the kutji, shifting back from crow to man.\n\n\"He's gone,\" said another.\n\n\"Well, spread out. Find them.\"\n\n\"It's too late,\" said yet another, sniffing the air. \"They're gone.\"\n\n\"What now?\"\n\nThe lead kutji from inside leaned out of the door, dangling on the knob. \"We make sure he doesn't come back. We make sure he gets the message. Everybody inside.\"\n\nThe last of the crows shifted immediately, pouring inside the building. They leaped up on the tables and up on top of the bar. One swung back and forth on the single dangling bulb as if it were a jungle vine. The largest of them began tossing bottles against the wall, pouring liquor over the bartop. \"Help me,\" it said to the others.\n\nIn a flash, every bottle in the bar was shattering against any and every surface there was. Every bottle but one. The last bottle of Old Scraps's special reserve. The largest kutji held that bottle in one hand, stuffing a rag in it with the other. Then he picked up a lighter from behind the bar, lit the rag, and screamed, \"Everybody out!\"\n\nThen he threw the bottle against the bar and the whole place went up in flames.\nCHAPTER 50\n\nDREAMSPEAKER\n\nHe awoke, a fire crackling beside him, a shadow standing silently at the edge of its light.\n\nColby sat up, smiling. \"Hello, Mandu.\"\n\nThe shadow walked slowly around the fire, a large walking stick preceding it step by step.\n\nMandu Merijedi looked only vaguely as Colby remembered him, the creases in his face deep from years in the sun, his hair no longer salt and pepper, but fully bleached white with age. His eyes were milky with cataracts, tired, iris and pupil fading into the whites as if he were blind. His teeth gleamed in the firelight, his smile warmer than the blaze.\n\n\"Hello, child,\" he said, his voice darkened, affected by the grave. There was an echo to it, a hollowness, as if he was calling through a cave, recorded, then played back through an old speaker, static and all.\n\n\"It's been a long time.\"\n\n\"No, it hasn't. Long for you because you're young. The young always think such a short time is forever. You don't understand forever. Not yet.\"\n\nColby nodded. \"You're right. I don't understand it.\"\n\nMandu laughed, each ha trailing off into the night like distant fireworks. \"Of course I'm right. That's why you came all this way to speak to a dead man.\"\n\n\"Thank you for waiting for me.\"\n\n\"I had no choice. You were always going to come here and call on me. I just knew in advance.\"\n\n\"I'm sorry.\"\n\n\"No need to apologize. Ain't upset. No need being upset with the inevitable. I might sooner be angry that things fall down instead of up or that rain also darkens the sky. It is how things were meant to be.\" He paused and beheld the stars as if he hadn't seen them in years. \"You're here about the girl,\" he said, still staring at them.\n\n\"Yes. The dreamwalker. Kaycee.\"\n\n\"That's not her name anymore. But don't worry. She'll find you.\"\n\n\"That's what I'm afraid of.\"\n\n\"How did you get here?\" Mandu's gaze wandered down from the sky, looking Colby straight in the eye.\n\n\"A powerful spirit brought me. On his horse.\"\n\nMandu shook his head. \"No. Ask yourself. How did you get here? To this spot? Now. How did you get to now? Only when you understand what brought you to where you are can you really go farther. If you want to find your friend, you need to retrace your steps. Walk the path you walked as a child. Sing the song of your deeds, walk the songline to the last place you saw her. But do not sing it wrong or you will unsing creation. You will unsing your own story. Remember, Colby, the past is the past. If we try and change it, we only change ourselves.\"\n\n\"You want me to walk my songline?\"\n\n\"I want to rest. You, you want to remember. Because you want to find your friend. She needs you. To fulfill her destiny and free herself from what ails her, what binds her, she needs you. This was the destiny she has so long pined for and it is so close. You cannot let her down now.\"\n\n\"Is that it? Is that all I have to do?\"\n\nMandu laughed again, this time more heartily than before, though it still chilled Colby to the bone. \"No. That's not it. That's just the beginning.\"\n\n\"Tell me. Tell me everything.\"\n\n\"I don't know everything. The spirits only show so much.\"\n\n\"That's damned inconvenient.\"\n\n\"Destinies are fulfilled best by people trying to avoid them. They are not carved into the earth like mountains, but are like water in a billabong. Knowing a destiny is like knowing where the water will go when it rains. You know the water will be there. But you cannot tell the sky to put the water there. You cannot tell it when. You just have to let it. You can carve the earth out yourself, make rivers and reservoirs, guide the water away. And destiny becomes different. But why would you? You want the water in the billabong. Because it will bring the animals that will feed the people. You must think back on your song, you must be the rain. It will fill the billabong. It will bring the animals. It will feed the people.\n\n\"I have been given the opportunity to stand back and see history as one might see the land from this hill. It is all laid out. And it was my job to protect it. To sing of it. To be its custodian. I did that. And now that is Jirra's job. And I can rest.\"\n\nColby eyed the spirit knowingly. \"You're already at rest, aren't you? This is just an echo.\"\n\nMandu nodded, waved his arm around the dark of the dream. \"Dreams are the one place the spirits cannot hear us.\"\n\n\"You knew that I would need to hear this and that I wouldn't be alone.\"\n\n\"I was wrong to not want to teach you, especially when you learn so well.\"\n\n\"You never wanted to teach me?\"\n\n\"White fellas don't learn the dream so good. But when a great spirit of the desert comes with the wind and brings you a child, saying, 'Teach him the old ways,' you do not question him. This is proof. The spirits were right to bring you to me. We come from the clay; we return to the clay. It is how it is supposed to be. Over time, the world changes. We can do little about that. But getting to take part, no matter how small, in a great story of such changes? Getting to leave something behind, whether given credit or not, is the greatest gift. I have that now. So thank you.\"\n\n\"I haven't changed anything. Certainly not the world.\"\n\n\"Your wish changed everything, Colby. Changed the order of things. I don't know how it works, or what the dream behind it is doing, but whatever it did, very powerful spirits took an interest in you. They set about changin' the path of your life to get you where they wanted you to be. My spirit had me do the things I did to get you here, to this moment, because he said the choice you make here, at this point in your life, is the one that decides not only who you become, but what becomes of the world. The fate of all the dream rests in your hands. Do you remember the story of the orphan who cried awake the Rainbow Serpent?\"\n\n\"Yeah. Are you saying I'm the orphan?\"\n\n\"You were, once, before you made that bloody wish. But then you became the serpent.\"\n\n\"Wait, what?\"\n\n\"The serpent was just hungry. Been asleep a long time. To him, the people were nothin' but tucker. He never knew how big he was, that his body carved rivers in the earth. Never knew that his very dreams would dream the world awake. That's you. That's you now. In your story, the orphan becomes the serpent. Dreams the world anew.\"\n\n\"I don't even know how that's possible. I'm not that powerful.\"\n\n\"That's the other part of the story. The moral for everyone else. Small people change the world. Bring down great monsters.\"\n\n\"How do I bring this one down?\"\n\n\"The dreamwalker?\"\n\n\"Yeah.\"\n\n\"You cut her cord. Severed the link between her spirit and her body.\"\n\nColby glared at Mandu. \"You tricked me into doing that.\"\n\n\"Too right!\"\n\n\"Why? Why did you let me think I did that?\"\n\n\"Because of how you felt after you did it. I didn't understand it at first either. My spirit told me this must be done and I trusted my spirit. But then I saw how you watched over her as she slept; how your guilt made you more conscious of how you used your power. When I met you, you were a boy unafraid to throw magic around, to rob the world of its dream to solve your problems. Now you are a man who hesitates before acting, thinks about the consequences of his actions, protects the dream where he can. Even when you kill a thing, you give its dream back to the world. That's why you had to believe.\"\n\n\"It was another damn lesson?\"\n\n\"They're all lessons, fella. Everything is a lesson in this life. Even the small things.\"\n\n\"I cut her cord to learn a lesson?\"\n\n\"Her cord was cut because it had to be. She could not become who she is now if it hadn't been. And this is who she was always meant to be. The reason you did it was to learn a lesson.\"\n\n\"So why did it have to be cut?\"\n\n\"Because, if her body dies\u2014\"\n\n\"She dies. I know. That's not an answer.\"\n\n\"That body was not her destiny. She was meant for the world of dreams, not the one of her body. But what if someone were to disbelieve her body? Will it away?\"\n\n\"She would be disbelieved with it. Right?\"\n\n\"Yes. Unless . . .\" Mandu looked across the fire, waiting for Colby to get it.\n\n\"Unless . . . ?\" Colby's eyes shot wide. \"Unless some other spirit had made her body its home.\"\n\n\"Too right again!\"\n\n\"Then I wouldn't be disbelieving her, I would be disbelieving something else. Is that right?\"\n\n\"A dreamwalker whose body is taken by another spirit is condemned to walk forever as a spirit.\"\n\n\"She'd be immortal. A spirit. Forever.\"\n\n\"Just as she always dreamed. To walk in the dream forever.\"\n\n\"That's why she's coming for me.\"\n\n\"Partly.\"\n\n\"Is the other part revenge?\"\n\nMandu shook his head. \"Those spirits, her kutji. She's as much their slave as they are hers. When she dies, she too will be kutji. She won't remember all of who she is. Only the strongest parts. And the parts strongest in her right now are her anger and her fear. The kutji want her dead. They'll betray her given the chance, if it doesn't break with their business.\"\n\n\"She doesn't just want me to give her her immortality. She needs me to.\"\n\n\"Desperation is dangerous, especially with a spirit so strong as hers.\"\n\n\"Why didn't she just ask?\"\n\n\"Maybe she doesn't think she can. Would you trust the boy who left you in the desert with your nightmares?\"\n\n\"But I didn't!\"\n\nMandu looked sadly across the fire. \"No. I did. And if you don't do this right, I'll have sacrificed a friend for nothing. Her ending doesn't have to be tragic. And no thing worth havin' isn't worth a little suffering for. Give her what she wants, Colby.\"\n\n\"I don't know that I can.\"\n\n\"I hope for all our sakes that you can figure out how. But it won't be easy. Not with what's happening even now.\"\n\n\"What's happening now?\"\n\n\"You'll see. It'll change everything.\"\n\n\"Shit.\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"What do I do?\"\n\n\"Remember the fish. Do not stab or bait one at a time when you can fish the whole pond at once with a little preparation. You'll know what that means when the time comes.\" Mandu looked up at the stars once more. \"It's time.\"\n\n\"Oh, Jirra asked me to\u2014\"\n\n\"Tell him I miss him too.\"\n\n\"I'll miss you, Mandu.\"\n\nMandu smiled. \"Most Clever Men only ever get to teach one other Clever Man. I got to teach three. All very clever. Very clever.\"\n\n\"Three?\"\n\n\"Yes, three. You, Jirra, and Kaycee.\" Mandu stepped back toward the shadows then stopped. \"Oh, I almost forgot. One more thing.\"\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"Wake up.\"\nCHAPTER 51\n\nAS SHADOWS FADE\n\nMeanwhile, as Colby slept beneath the stars of an Australian sky, the skies above Austin had grown unexpectedly stormy. Clouds moved quickly, thunder rumbling without a flash of lightning to betray its origins. A sharp, cold wind blasted the streets, stripping the leaves off trees, dropping the temperature a good thirty degrees in the span of an hour. Winter was setting in and this front was its announcement. Below, a single figure strode flamboyantly, his pace quickening against the storm.\n\nAaron Brandon strolled down the street as if he was on top of the world. He felt virile, pumped, his parts still tingling. It had taken all night and fifty dollars' worth of drinks to ply that girl out of her panties, and she could barely stand up by the time he had. After he'd finished, she could barely slur out her own name, let alone remember his. Last he saw her, she was still slumped in the alley, all but passed out in his juices, muttering something like, \"Wait, where are you going?\" before mumbling herself to sleep.\n\nAaron Brandon was a douchebag. A proud douchebag. All muscles, tribal tattoos, and twenty-four-karat gold. And he was of the decided opinion that if she remembered tonight at all, it would be a blessing to that girl\u2014a memory she would cherish of the time she'd made it with a real man. After all, she was only a six, and sixes were lucky to get it at all from anything but neck-beard IT rats and balding men ten years their senior. She was lucky if she ever got anything close to him again. And now he was off to one of his favorite off-Sixth-Street dives to see if he could catch himself a closing-time loner for round two and a ride home.\n\nBill the Shadow stood in the darkest corner of the alley between two downtown buildings, just out of reach of the streetlamp up the block. He hated Aaron already. He'd seen him before, trolling the downtown bars for easy tail, and had earmarked him for a last-minute substitution on a light night. Usually Bill preferred darker souls than this\u2014violent souls\u2014but pickings were slim, he was hungry, and Aaron had it coming. The man was human trash, a worthless sperm machine pumping out mediocre sex in three-minute bursts to women who could barely tell what was going on around them.\n\nIt was an odd treat, drinking one of those. As big and badass as they might seem, they didn't really understand their own darkness. They didn't regard their own sins as anything of the sort. There was no remorse lurking in their gut. Only entitlement. But Bill loved destroying entitlement.\n\nHe crept behind him, keeping a safe distance, occasionally scuffing the pavement with his boot heel before darting into nearby shadow. Aaron was just drunk enough to be slow, but not so much that he didn't pick up on the sounds.\n\nAaron repeatedly turned around, hearing the scuff, seeing a flash of dark out of the corner of his eye, a smudgy blur that vanished a second later, wondering if he was jumping at the sound of his own footfalls. By the third time, he began to grow anxious.\n\n\"Who the fuck?\" he shouted the fourth time he heard it, chest puffed out, fists clenched, arms flexing like the hero on the cover of some old video game. \"I will beat the fuck out of you. Who's out there?\"\n\nA cigarette lit up in a deep shadow, the cherry peering out like a single tiny light in the brooding dark.\n\nAaron stormed over, brow furrowed and furious. \"You homeless fuck. I will kick you until you piss bl\u2014\"\n\nThere was nothing in the shadow. Not even a cigarette. He looked around. Nothing. The streets were empty. There was a slight wind coming in off the river, the only sound a paper dancing across the street in the breeze.\n\n\"What the\u2014\"\n\nThen he saw something. A shadow moving. A man, standing against a wall. Wide hat. Long coat. Aaron was shitting bricks now. That man wasn't there before. And the more he looked at him, the less it looked like a man at all. Was it the shadow of a pole? An overhang?\n\nHe took a step closer, looking both ways despite there not being a single car.\n\n\"Hey! You!\"\n\nThe shadow didn't move. He raised his arm, fist above his head as if he had a hammer of some sort in it, ready to bring it down.\n\n\"I said you!\"\n\nStill nothing.\n\n\"Shit.\"\n\nThen he doubled over, vomiting into the street, spewing forth a thick spray of green and brown. Then just brown. Then brown and red. Then red and only red. He fell to his knees throwing up blood, his orange tan going pale white, the blood vessels in his eyes bursting purple from the heaves. Veins spider-webbed around his sockets, his eyes thick with tears.\n\nThe vomiting stopped and Aaron began to choke. He clutched his throat. Pounded himself in the stomach. Tried to swallow. But his mouth wouldn't shut. His jaw gaped wide, wider than it should, then it broke, snapping out of place. Aaron tried to scream, his head tilted all the way back on his neck, but nothing came out. Just muffled awfulness. Whimpers. Choked pleading.\n\nTwo small black hands, neither quite the same size, clawed at the corners of his mouth, breeching a shadowy head out of the unhinged jaw. Then eyes followed. Then a large, square mouth. Within seconds a full-size kutji was squeezing its way up through his throat and out into the street.\n\nAaron died right there, collapsing, head smacking limply on the pavement, the kutji scraping his blood and vomit from itself in thick handfuls.\n\nBill emerged from his spot against the wall, bitter, ready for a fight. \"Seems you're a long way from home, hombre.\"\n\nThe kutji nodded. \"A long way. But in the right place.\"\n\n\"I'm not so sure about that.\"\n\nThen came the beating of wings, the sound of scurrying in nearby alleys. Bill took a step back, eyeing the street as over a dozen shadows emerged from the dark spaces of the city or out from the night sky. They surrounded him silently in a semicircle.\n\n\"Aw, hell. This is gonna be one of those nights, isn't it?\"\n\n\"Actually,\" said the lead kutji, still shaking the last remaining bits of Aaron from his body, \"it's going to be that night.\"\n\n\"Oh, I wouldn't go that far, chief. It's going to take more than a dozen of you to scare me.\"\n\n\"We're not here to scare you. We're here to kill you.\"\n\n\"So it is going to be one of those nights.\" Bill sighed deeply. \"All right. Let's get this over with. I'm starving and there's not a whole lot of night left.\" Bill adjusted his hat, sliding it back on his head as he took one last drag off his cigarette. He popped his back, cracked his neck, pitched the butt, then growled.\n\nHe spat out a sudden cloud of fog as the kutji swarmed toward him. Bill ducked and weaved, the diminutive shadows grasping at him and catching nothing but empty air. One grabbed for his leg but he lifted it in time for the kutji to slip right beneath him as Bill brushed his jacket back like a matador. Then he snuck away, loitering on the outskirts of the cloud, listening as the miscreant mob swore, flailing about to find him.\n\nBill skulked quietly in the dense mist, his mouth yawning wide, more fog pouring into the streets by the second. Then came the flutter of wings, like an entire flock taking flight at once, their wing beats trailing off into the sky. There were no more scuffs or scuttles, no twitters or chitters. It sounded as if the streets were empty, fog drifting alone, transformers overhead buzzing loudly on their poles from the moisture. It was clear to Bill, however, that this was far from the end of his ordeal.\n\nThat's when the thunder rumbled directly overhead.\n\nThe wind kicked up and thick drops of rain began to pound the pavement. A stiff gust blew, wiping the fog away from the street like a drawn curtain. And there, standing dead center, stood a tall, time-ravaged man, on fire from top to bottom, flames licking the air around him. The Holocaust Man.\n\n\"Hello, Bill,\" said the demon, his voice deeper and more menacing than Bill imagined.\n\n\"I'm getting the distinct impression that this isn't about me,\" said Bill.\n\nAmy shook his head, smiling a lipless grin, teeth charred black. Spatters of rain slopped steadily around them.\n\n\"I don't have a dog in this fight, and if I don't have a dog in this fight, why are we here?\"\n\n\"Because you do have a dog in this fight,\" said Amy. \"And that dog thinks he can get the better of us. He doesn't want to kill the girl. He has to; he just doesn't know it yet.\"\n\n\"So he's supposed to think that she did this.\"\n\n\"He will think she did this.\"\n\n\"That's a pretty shitty reason to die.\"\n\n\"They're all shit reasons to die, Bill, in the end.\"\n\n\"I couldn't agree more.\"\n\nThe rain stopped, the clouds bursting away, falling to earth in the shape of crows. They soared down, landing on buildings, lampposts, and awnings, watching like a circle of schoolkids, cheering with squawks and caws. Bill looked around at the mess he found himself in. Amy tapped his foot impatiently, the tinny, hollow sound echoing through the empty streets.\n\n\"I thought you lot had lost all these,\" said Bill.\n\n\"Most. Not all. The rumors of the Queen's utter domination of her lands are just that.\"\n\n\"Well, I reckon you know that I won't go down easy.\"\n\n\"It wouldn't look real if you did.\"\n\nBill nodded, turning into a blob of shadow, flinging himself at Amy faster than Amy could react, bowling him over, knocking him to the ground. Re-forming, Bill towered above him, punching him in the face over and over, a foot on his chest to keep him down, his fists sizzling against the flames.\n\nAmy reached out, grasping wildly for Bill.\n\nBill grabbed both sides of Amy's face, grabbing him by the ears, staring deep into his eyes, Bill's foot still standing right on top of him, mouth wide to swallow his soul. But nothing came. He breathed deeper, trying to suck something out of the man beneath him, but there was nothing there. Just a hollow shell brimming with hate. The Holocaust Man stared back at Bill, deep into the dark recesses of the boggart.\n\n\"What the hell?\" mumbled Bill.\n\nAmy flared up, blazing as if he'd been doused suddenly with gasoline, burning away the shadows surrounding Bill. The boggart was entirely illuminated. There was no flesh that Bill concealed in his darkness; he was entirely hollow, his features floating in what was ordinarily murk. Now he was naked, small bits of face and hands suspended in the air by forces unseen.\n\nAmy laughed. \"I see you for what you are, Bill. And there's nothing to you after all.\" Then the Holocaust Man exploded.\n\nBill was blasted backward, far across the street, slamming against a building some two stories up. He fell immediately to the ground, face-first, weakened, trying to re-form his shadows.\n\nBill coughed, spitting a bit of his soul out like phlegm, then rolled over on his back.\n\nAmy's fires died down and he looked once again like he had. He hopped to his feet, almost skipping on his way over to Bill. \"It's a shame it had to be like this,\" he said. \"But it did have to be like this. Sometimes the friends we keep are the source of our own undoing.\"\n\nHe plunged a fiery fist into Bill's chest, incinerating his insides.\n\nBill looked up at the clear sky, the clouds having cleared away with the kutji, the stars starting to grow fuzzy. He reached into his pocket, pulled out a cigarette, and put it in his mouth before fumbling with the lighter. His fingers were fading and the Zippo clanged behind his ear as it slipped out of them.\n\nAmy leaned down, touching the end of the cigarette with a single smoldering finger.\n\nBill inhaled deeply, lighting it, then exhaled without pulling the butt from his lips, and died, the cigarette going limp over his chin.\n\nCrows descended, the murder flooding the corpse, picking at the shadows with their shiny black beaks. They tore him away in chunks, swallowing Bill bit by bit as the shadows around him began to fade, light creeping in from streetlamps. Within seconds he was gone. Only his coat, hat, and lighter remained.\nCHAPTER 52\n\nWINTER OF DISCONTENT\n\nWinter in Austin is brown and yellow, white being something most Texans only dream of. In the odd years, when the rains run long and heavy, late into the season, the grass and trees will stay green well into December. But even then the cold snaps come to chase the green away. The trees turn yellow first, then brown up slowly over the course of weeks. The grass goes yellow almost right away.\n\nWinter is heralded by the day the first strong winds come and wipe the trees of all their leaves over the course of a single night. Then, from that point on, it becomes the long, lingering, earth-tone trod toward springtime, the nights chilly and crisp, but rarely cold enough to matter. The days are just slightly warmer. Winter. In all its sudden, spectacular glory.\n\nIt was winter again, and Colby Stevens felt the way the city looked. Haggard, raw, tired, stripped bare. All the mistakes, the worn cracked surface, exposed, covered in prickly stubble. Just a few nights before, it was a nice, brisk autumn. Now the city was in its winter slumber, ugly as it got.\n\nHe stood before the smoldering remains of the Cursed and the Damned and he felt his heart breaking. Yellow tape marked the area off that, along with swollen puddles, stood as the only proof the fire department had been there. Moments before, he thought he'd had it all figured out, that he was thinking steps ahead of everyone, that he was somehow playing their game better than they could. And now his arrogance was out in the open and he wondered just how deep in trouble he had really gotten himself this time.\n\nSeere stood behind him, his expression almost as solemn as Colby's. \"There's no one in there.\"\n\n\"I know,\" said Colby, unable to feel the spirits of his friends, dead or otherwise. \"Do you know where they are?\"\n\n\"Your friends?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"I do.\"\n\n\"Are they all right?\"\n\n\"They appear to be.\"\n\n\"Take me there.\"\n\nCOLBY HOPPED OFF the back of the horse and onto the street in front of his house.\n\n\"Call for me,\" said Seere, \"and I'll take you to the next of your appointments.\"\n\nColby looked up to thank him, but he was already gone, horse and all. He took a deep breath and made his way quickly into the house.\n\nYashar sat on the couch. He looked up at Colby, unmoving, crestfallen.\n\n\"What the hell did you do, Colby?\" he asked.\n\n\"Where's Gossamer?\"\n\n\"He's under the bed. He won't come out.\"\n\nColby whistled.\n\nGossamer shot out from the bedroom, rounded the corner, and charged Colby, tail wagging, nuzzling between both of his legs. \"Boss!\" he said, ecstatic. \"You're home.\"\n\n\"What happened?\"\n\nGossamer and Yashar exchanged looks, neither wanting to be the one to say it.\n\n\"It was kutji,\" said Yashar. \"A swarm of them.\"\n\n\"I tried to be a good dog. Tried to protect Yashar. But there were too many of them.\"\n\n\"It's okay, Goss. You did good. What's important is that you're both okay.\"\n\n\"They got the bar,\" said Yashar.\n\n\"I saw.\"\n\n\"That's not the worst of it.\"\n\n\"How could it get any worse?\"\n\n\"Bill,\" said Yashar. \"They killed Bill the Shadow.\"\n\nColby's heart dropped into his stomach, his jaw following soon after. His blood ran cold and it became progressively harder to breathe. He wanted to throw up. \"How?\"\n\n\"They tore him apart. There wasn't much left.\"\n\n\"Are you sure he's\u2014\"\n\nYashar reached beside him on the couch, pulling from it Bill's coat and hat. \"Yes.\"\n\nColby walked over, took the coat and hat into his hands, eyes misting as he examined them. He knew every fold, every contour. There was no dreamstuff left here, only djang\u2014the etched-in power of who he was. \"These are burned,\" he said, chalky black residue wiping off onto his hands.\n\n\"So was the bar,\" said Yashar.\n\n\"They're sending a message,\" said Gossamer.\n\n\"I shouldn't have left.\"\n\n\"No,\" said Yashar. \"You shouldn't have. Did you at least find what you were looking for?\"\n\nColby nodded. \"I did.\"\n\n\"And?\"\n\n\"I know what she's doing. Why she's coming for me.\"\n\n\"What are we going to do?\"\n\n\"We're going to find her and we're going to kill her for this.\"\n\n\"Are you sure?\" asked Yashar.\n\n\"Very.\"\n\n\"You know you'll have to do it without me, right?\"\n\nColby glared at him. \"I thought we were in this together.\"\n\n\"No,\" said Yashar condescendingly. \"We're not. Not this time.\"\n\n\"What is that even supposed to mean? Are you pissed at me?\"\n\n\"No. It's the ring, Colby. It doesn't only affect the Seventy-two. It affects us all. Every last demon and djinn. If I go near her, I'm as good as hers, and if she turns that ring on me\u2014\"\n\n\"You'd be her slave,\" said Colby, voice drowning in understanding.\n\n\"That's not what scares me,\" said Yashar. \"We're all somebody's slave, whether we want to think about it like that or not. I've been through worse than serving someone like her. What scares me is that she might force me to kill you. Or you me.\"\n\n\"Oh, Jesus.\"\n\n\"Yeah. Are you ready to have that fight? Because I'm not.\"\n\n\"You can't come,\" said Colby. \"For both our sakes.\"\n\n\"No, I can't. You're on your own for this one.\"\n\n\"No he's not,\" said Gossamer.\n\nColby smiled weakly, scratching his friend behind the ears. \"Thanks, Goss.\"\n\n\"I'm serious.\"\n\n\"Not this time, I'm afraid. You need to stay here with Yashar.\"\n\n\"No,\" said Gossamer. \"Don't stay me.\"\n\n\"Goss, this is really\u2014\"\n\n\"No. Not this time, boss. I'm coming with you.\"\n\n\"We don't have time for this.\"\n\n\"Then just do it.\"\n\n\"Do what?\" asked Colby.\n\n\"Make me your familiar. Once and for all.\"\n\nYashar and Colby exchanged troubled glances. \"You don't know what you're asking. What that involves.\"\n\n\"Yes I do, and I don't care. I'm not just your dog anymore. And I'm tired of being just half a thing. Make me the whole thing. Take me the rest of the way. I want to be your familiar.\"\n\nColby petted Gossamer, scratching his graying cheek, looking down at him sadly. \"If we do this, our souls will be inextricably linked. We'll never be able to\u2014\"\n\n\"I've heard the sales pitch already. From Yashar. I'm in. Let's do this thing.\"\n\n\"I don't know,\" said Yashar. \"These things, they don't always end so well.\"\n\n\"If anything were to happen to me . . . ,\" said Colby.\n\nGossamer rubbed the top of his head against Colby's thigh and looked up at him with solemn, deadly serious eyes. \"Colby, the only way anyone is ever going to kill you is if I'm already dead. Just do the thing and say the goddamned words already.\"\n\nColby hesitated for a second, mulling it over. \"I love you, Gossamer.\"\n\n\"I love you too, boss.\"\n\nColby lowered a hand onto Gossamer's mane, rubbing his fingers through his golden red coat. He began mumbling, cursing in arcane languages, focusing every last bit of dreamstuff he could from as far as three city blocks away. The two began to glow, a dark sickly green pulsing underneath their skin. Then the sound of thunder and the nauseating wobble of the universe contracting and expanding around them.\n\nGossamer felt suddenly ill, every inch of his body tingling, his insides jumbling as if he was strapped into a disintegrating Tilt-A-Whirl held together by duct tape and loose nuts.\n\n\"Just breathe,\" said Colby. \"You've got to breathe through it.\"\n\n\"It feels awful.\"\n\n\"It'll pass. Focus.\"\n\nThe pulsing grew to a crescendo, a kaleidoscopic torrent of color wheeling about them. They both winced in pain, a surge like a hundred thousand volts streaming through their souls. And then it stopped and the colors faded away.\n\nGossamer looked around, freaking out, suddenly very anxious. \"What the\u2014? What the hell is going on?\" His mind was filled with thoughts, images, complex structures he didn't understand. The air buzzed lightly around him, like it was swarming with gnats. There were colors to the world he never knew existed. His soul felt like it was on fire.\n\n\"Relax,\" said Colby. \"You need a few moments to adjust.\"\n\n\"Adjust to what? What the hell is going on inside my head?\"\n\n\"Your new perceptions. My perceptions. My thoughts. This is what I was talking about. It's going to take a little getting used to.\"\n\n\"No shit. This is . . . this is fucking weird.\"\n\n\"Yes. We're linked for good now. We can think to each other over distances, see and hear and feel what the other can feel, hear, and see. And I can work dreamstuff through you. It'll take awhile for us to work the kinks out, but we'll make it work. But first, I need you to focus. Find a single thought, one thing you can see in your head, and just focus on that.\"\n\n\"Okay.\" Gossamer saw a campfire. And a man. Not a man. A spirit. He looked up at Colby. Then his mouth dropped open and he began panting with excitement.\n\nColby and Gossamer looked long and hard at each other, each sifting through the other's thoughts. Gossamer nodded; Colby reeled back a bit, then shook his head. Just as Colby had shared his thoughts and memories with Gossamer, so too had Gossamer shared his with him.\n\nAnd it was at once clear that all was not as it appeared to be.\n\nDon't say a word, thought Colby. This stays between us. You hear me?\n\n\"Yeah,\" said the dog. \"Loud and clear.\" Then he barked once, just to see if he still could. \"Okay. Let's do this. Time's wasting.\" He trotted toward the door, stopping to give a single look over his shoulder to see if Colby and Yashar were following. \"Come on!\"\n\n\"Welcome to the club,\" said Yashar to Colby.\n\n\"What do you mean?\"\n\n\"Now you know what it feels like to be responsible for someone who has no idea what they've asked for.\"\n\n\"Oh,\" said Colby, slipping into distant thoughts. \"Shit.\"\n\n\"Yeah. Shit.\"\n\nThe door burst open and Austin stormed through, hat cocked sideways on her head, rage overflowing with bluster. \"What the hell did you bring to my city?\" she screamed.\n\n\"Whoa, whoa, whoa, whoa! You're not allowed in my house! What the hell do you\u2014\"\n\n\"This is my city, asshole. I can go wherever the hell I want.\"\n\n\"No you can't, Captain Police State.\"\n\n\"What the hell did you bring to my city?\"\n\n\"I didn't bring\u2014\"\n\n\"Yes you did. They're here because of you. Everything is here because of you. Demons, shadows, and a little girl who calls herself Queen. They're not here for the fucking music.\"\n\n\"Now you don't know that, they could be\u2014\"\n\n\"Don't be a smart-ass. Not now. You have fucked up one time too many, Colby Stevens. Bill was one of the good ones. The Cursed and the Damned was a little piece of magic this town can never get back. It was one thing when they came on their own, but when you chose to traffic with them, this became something else entirely. I won't have sorcerers in my town, Colby. I won't have power-hungry jackasses bringing the worst kinds of things here.\"\n\n\"That's not what's happening,\" said Colby, his voice pinched, defensive.\n\n\"It is what's happening. You've done nothing good for this town. Ever. First you clear it out of all the fairies because you had a beef. Then you kill a spirit without consulting me, which, albeit, I had more than a little something to do with. And now, well, now the Seventy-two are showing up one by one while an army of shadowy creeps comes to tear the place apart. I won't have it. You're gone.\"\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"Your Austin privileges are revoked. Grab your shit and get the hell out of my town. You're done here.\"\n\nColby stepped forward, standing almost nose to nose with her. While she was a slight bit smaller than he was, her posture was more assured, meant business. He tried to remain bold, staring straight in her eyes, but she was far too intimidating. He swallowed hard, trying to raise enough courage to tell her off. \"I'm not leaving.\"\n\n\"The hell you aren't. What do I have to do? Level the house? Harry your every move? Make things so bad for you that you can't bear to stand here another moment? I'll do that. I can do all of that. Or you can leave right now. Get out and never look back.\"\n\n\"Not until this is done. I have to finish what I've started.\"\n\n\"No,\" said Austin. \"This is my city they've come to. I'll finish this.\"\n\n\"Then let's do this tog\u2014\"\n\n\"No! I can't trust you. Someone came to threaten your life and you bargained away your own soul to save it. You're not who I thought you were.\"\n\n\"And who did you think I was?\"\n\n\"The guy who only thought about damning himself when it meant saving his friends. Get out. Get out of my town. I want you out of here by sunset.\"\n\n\"That's just a couple of hours away.\"\n\n\"Yeah. It is.\" Austin looked up at the ceiling, her eyes slipping from anger to worry. She looked back at Colby. \"She's here.\"\n\n\"I thought she was already here.\"\n\n\"Her shadows, maybe. But not her. She's at the city limits. I'll take care of this. You pack your shit and go.\"\n\n\"No. You can't go talk to her. She's\u2014\"\n\n\"She's what?\"\n\n\"Dangerous.\"\n\n\"I can take care of myself. Now get the fuck out of my town.\" She pointed straight at Yashar. \"That goes for you too.\"\n\n\"I figured as much. It was a nice town, while it lasted.\"\n\n\"It was. And then you two had to fuck the whole thing up.\"\n\nAustin fell away like a shattering piece of glass, shards toppling silently, abating into nothing before they hit the floor. She was gone.\n\nColby, Yashar, and Gossamer traded glances, wondering what to do next.\n\n\"We can't do what you're thinking, Colby,\" said Yashar.\n\n\"And how do you know what I'm thinking?\"\n\n\"Because I know that look in your eye. Don't let the fact that she's sweet on you distract you from what she really is. She'll tear you apart.\"\n\n\"She's not sweet on me.\"\n\n\"Colby, stop being an idiot. This isn't the time.\"\n\n\"I'm just saying\u2014\"\n\n\"When a loci tells you to leave, you leave. You don't ask questions.\"\n\n\"It's her or the Seventy-two. Whose wrath do I really want to suffer? She gave us until sundown. That gives us time.\"\n\n\"Time for what?\"\n\n\"Three more boons.\"\n\n\"Colby!\"\n\n\"I made a deal.\"\n\n\"A deal you shouldn't have made.\"\n\n\"Five souls for five boons. If I don't deliver, they will hunt me down and they will tear me apart, which they were going to do if I didn't make a deal. I never had a choice, Yashar.\"\n\n\"You did then. You do now. Stop trying to pawn this off on them. This is how they work. It is how they've always worked. You're supposed to feel like you had no choice, like every alternative was worse. They weren't. There's nothing worse than selling a little bit of yourself just to save the rest of it. Because once you've done that, there's nothing to stop you the next time and the next time until there's nothing left. When are you going to take responsibility for your own damnation?\"\n\n\"Right now. Right here. Get the candles. The black ones.\"\nCHAPTER 53\n\nTHE PAGEANTRY OF QUEENS\n\nDawn was rapidly approaching, but darkness still swallowed the city. The Queen of the Dark Things rode gallantly through the trees on the outskirts, poised atop her ambling bunyip like a knight strolling before an adoring crowd. Beside her, hobbling as fast as it could, was her body, still driven by the kutji that had stolen it. Behind her, dozens of kutji scampered across the landscape, none daring to go any faster than their mistress. The five dukes of Hell, each with the mark of Solomon burned into its chest, followed gravely, their faces pained, as if they were marching to their own funerals.\n\nAt once, the Queen came to a halt, holding up her hand to stay the procession.\n\nBefore her stood Austin, her jaw tight, eyes hidden beneath the brim of her straw hat. \"Turn around,\" she said. \"You've come to the wrong city.\"\n\n\"I don't think I have,\" said the Queen. \"I'm pretty sure Colby is in here somewhere.\"\n\n\"Not for long. But while he still is, he's under my protection. This is my town.\"\n\n\"Would you like to keep it?\"\n\nThe wind whipped up around Austin and the very earth came alive at her feet. Her hair, however, stayed perfectly in place, as if she were unaffected by the gales ramping up at her command.\n\n\"Focalor?\" trilled the Queen of the Dark Things, as if summoning a child for breakfast.\n\nThe beast stepped forward, nearly seven feet tall, with the tan wings of a griffin stretching out from his back. His hands had callouses upon callouses, his arms sculpted from centuries of pulling ropes aboard ships, his eyes the color of sea spray. The stench of the drowned followed him, sharp with salt, heavy with bloated rot. Everything he wore was tattered and drenched. He raised a steady arm and stayed the winds, howling mightily with the sound of an angry sea as he did; he was its master, everyone else merely dabbled.\n\nAustin struggled against the dying winds, trying to muster them back to full strength, but she lacked the power. The earth below her still rumbled, the tremors growing wrathful. But she was losing.\n\nThe Queen shook her head. \"You're a powerful spirit. I don't want to be on your bad side. Just let us pass and leave us be.\"\n\n\"Not gonna happen.\"\n\nThe Queen looked around at her subjects, smiling. \"Take her.\"\n\nAustin nodded, pulling the brim of her hat farther down over her eyes. She clenched her fists, energy crackling, enkindled.\n\nThe shadows charged, sharpened claws on their remaining hands out, grasping, their mouths wide with razor teeth. They sounded calls for her blood, jeering and screaming as they stampeded over one another to be the first to rend her flesh.\n\nAustin began to glow, her skin luminescent, brightening with the glare of the sun. The shadows recoiled, shrieking as the light sizzled away the black of their bodies. They ran, hid behind trees, crawled into the spaces in between the rock and the ground. With a single finger, Austin slid her hat back, grinning. \"What's this Queen without her dark things?\"\n\n\"They aren't the only things of the night.\" The Queen waved and the five dukes all stepped toward her.\n\n\"This isn't between us,\" said Austin to the five. \"Your brothers and I have no qualms.\"\n\n\"Not our choice,\" said Focalor. \"We serve only the ring now.\" Beside him was Astaroth, the Naked Angel, astride a beastly black dragon, a poisonous serpent writhing in his grasp, golden crown atop his head. The dragon hunched low, creeping rather than walking, its scales grinding with the sound of sawing bones, mouth agape, flaming spit trickling out of the sides of its mouth.\n\nFollowing behind them was Berith, alabaster skin pulled tight beneath a crimson military uniform, desert style, like a U.S. soldier's that had been dyed haphazardly in a river of blood. His eyes shone blue, his hair short, curly, blond, peeking out beneath a black iron crown. He rode a horse every bit as red as his uniform, even its eyes swirling, sanguine pools, only its onyx hooves and ebony teeth standing apart from its scarlet flesh.\n\nAnd from the other side came Bune, himself a dragon, large scales the color of twilight, with three heads swaying on long, spindly, serpentine necks. The outside pair were massive, draconic, with teeth like sabers and eyes like puddles of festering piss. The middle-most head, however, was that of a man, portly, hideous, three chins and broken teeth, sweat beading atop its brow.\n\nAnd lastly came Dantalion, just a little farther back than the rest.\n\nThe five made their way slowly, deliberately, toward Austin, more threatening than actively pursuing. After all, they knew her next move better than she.\n\nAustin clenched both her fists, held them out like a tiring pugilist, then threw her arms back, shredding the ground on which she stood. The earth buckled, lines and shapes appearing in it, forming a pentagram twenty feet across with her standing at its center. The five dukes continued advancing, surrounding her at each of the star's five points, unable however to take one step farther.\n\nFocalor cocked his head arrogantly, grimacing. \"Keep it up, bitch. Better not falter. The minute you step out of there I'm going to drag you through the fields, drown you in your own lake, and then fuck the corpse.\" He licked his dry, sea-wind-cracked lips.\n\nAustin held firm, trying not to let him get to her. She could hold this for a while, but do little else. She was powerful, but no more so than any one of the demons. Five to one, she was done for. She'd gotten herself in way too deep.\n\n\"This doesn't need to be adversarial,\" said the Queen, slowly steering her bunyip closer, step by step. \"I need to speak with Colby. That's all.\"\n\n\"You mean to kill him.\"\n\n\"Only if he doesn't mend what he's broken. This is all his doing, you know that.\"\n\n\"You have a beef with him? You settle it outside my town.\"\n\n\"Why are you protecting him? He wouldn't do the same for you.\"\n\n\"You don't know that.\"\n\n\"Oh!\" said the Queen, clapping excitedly. \"You have feelings for Colby.\"\n\nAustin gritted her teeth. \"No. I just do right by my people, that's all.\"\n\n\"No, no, no. I can see it in the way you hold yourself. The way your nostrils flare when I say his name. Does he know?\"\n\n\"Turn around. Don't come back.\"\n\n\"Does he care about you?\"\n\n\"Colby only cares about Colby.\"\n\n\"Noooooo. We both know that's not true. We've heard the stories. Dantalion! Tell her the story about the fairies. The one about the tithe!\"\n\nDantalion nodded, a bottle swinging from his waist in mockery. \"When Colby Stevens was but a boy\u2014\"\n\n\"I know the story,\" said Austin.\n\n\"He'll leave you, you know. It's what he does.\"\n\n\"You don't know him. Not really.\"\n\n\"No, you don't know him. You're only seeing what you want to see. You don't know what's going on here. You don't know how this is going to play out. This could all end peacefully. He could set me free and my friends and I could be on our way.\"\n\n\"It's too late for that.\" She pointed at the five demons. \"Their friends have seen to it.\"\n\nThe Queen leaned forward on her bunyip steed, eyes concerned, fearful fingers tickling a silver ring on her finger. \"The Seventy-two? Colby's given himself over to them?\"\n\n\"It's not like that.\"\n\n\"Oh. What's it like then?\"\n\n\"He had to.\"\n\n\"He always has to,\" said the Queen, bitterly. \"That's what he told me, you know. I'm sorry, but I have to. But he's really done it? He's bargained with them?\"\n\n\"He has.\"\n\n\"Then he really means to kill me, doesn't he?\"\n\nAustin nodded grimly. \"After what you did, why wouldn't he?\"\n\nThe Queen eyed Austin suspiciously. \"Something's happened.\"\n\n\"Of course something's happened.\"\n\n\"Someone died? A friend of Colby's?\"\n\n\"Don't play dumb. Neither of us has time for that.\"\n\nThe Queen grew troubled, her face falling. She slid slowly off the back of her bunyip, slumping sadly onto the ground. The bunyip, in turn, dropped, making itself comfortable, curling up against her back. Tears swelled in her eyes. She looked up at Austin. \"This isn't about me, is it?\" she asked, no longer the Queen, but a little girl whose heart was irreparably broken.\n\n\"I don't\u2014\"\n\n\"My destiny. It wasn't about me becoming Queen, making the night safe for other children. This was never about me. Colby cut my cord. Colby left me in the desert. Colby sold his soul for the power to kill me. Colby isn't a part of my destiny; I'm just a small part of his. This whole thing was about him. About seducing him. Everyone knows that he's cursed, but I never . . . I never thought\u2014\"\n\n\"Oh my God,\" said Austin. \"He's\u2014\" The earth quit rumbling and all was once again silent.\n\n\"He's theirs now. He has to kill me. If he doesn't\u2014\"\n\n\"They don't want you. They just want the ring. They want their brothers free.\"\n\nThe Queen looked up at Dantalion. \"Is that true?\"\n\n\"I don't know, my Queen,\" he said. \"I cannot see his future any clearer than I can see yours. The ring, it clouds it. But if Colby is as crafty as they say, I would imagine that was the deal he struck.\"\n\n\"Tell me the truth; if I freed you now and gave back the ring\u2014\"\n\n\"We would kill you where you stand\u2014\"\n\n\"And then bicker over who got to torment your soul,\" finished Astaroth.\n\nAll five nodded, for they could not lie, not to the wearer of the ring.\n\n\"And what of Colby's bargain?\" she asked.\n\n\"He would have received powers he had not paid for,\" said Dantalion. \"And his soul might then belong to others to squabble over.\"\n\n\"So for one of us to walk away?\"\n\n\"The other must die.\"\n\n\"And if I ran?\"\n\n\"He would be bound by his bargain to find you.\"\n\nThe Queen looked back up at Austin. \"Mandu lied. All he ever did was lie. He told me I had a great destiny, that things would be different. Maybe I just misunderstood him. Things are different. Now I have a choice between killing the one person who can free me from my curse or dying by his hand so he can be further damned. What kind of destiny is that?\"\n\n\"I don't know,\" said Austin. \"There has to be another way.\"\n\nDantalion shook his head. \"There is no other way. We've seen to that.\"\n\nThe Queen stood up, reached into her dilly bag, and pulled out a handful of salt. Dantalion cowered behind both hands.\n\n\"Lower your hands,\" she said.\n\nHe did and she approached him.\n\n\"Now, swallow this.\"\n\nHis eyes grew large with fear. He trembled, but he did not move, save to lean his head back and open his mouth. The Queen poured the salt down his gullet and he screamed, gurgling on his own boiling insides. Dantalion fell to the ground, writhing, convulsing.\n\nThe Queen smeared the tears from her cheek with her purple sleeve. She hardened, her gaze becoming icy, determined. \"Go do what you need to do,\" she said to Austin. \"I don't want to kill you. But I will if I have to. We can fight this out here if you like, but if you lose, I win. I will march on your city to meet Colby. And if you win . . .\"\n\nAustin nodded knowingly. \"Colby owes five souls he can't pay back.\"\n\nThe Queen whistled loudly and called out into the night. \"Dark things! Go find shelter for the day! Find the darkest hollow you can find and dig in! At sunset we meet again to bring an end to all this!\" Then she turned back to Austin. \"If it's my destiny to die tonight, I will. And I won't cry about it. Not anymore. Tonight we find out whose destiny this is really all about. Tonight I will kill Colby Stevens or he will kill me.\"\n\nAustin nodded, then vanished.\nCHAPTER 54\n\nTHE BEARDED HUNTER\n\nBarbatos. A great count or earl, and also a duke, he appeareth in Signo sagittarii sylvestris, with four kings, which bring companies and great troops. He understandeth the singing of birds, the barking of dogs, the lowings of bullocks, and the voice of all living creatures. He detecteth treasures hidden by magicians and enchanters, and is of the order of virtues, which in part bear rule: he knoweth all things past, and to come, and reconciles friends and powers; and governeth thirty legions of devils by his authority.\n\n\u2014Pseudomonarchia Daemonum\n\nNot the fucking woods again,\" said Colby, trudging through the fresh mud of a cold autumn rain, Gossamer trotting closely at his side. They were deep in the backwoods, somewhere in the Virginias as best Colby could tell. The air was so thick it clung to his skin, and even though it was early in the day, the heavy rain clouds and nigh impenetrable canopy gave off the distinct feeling of twilight.\n\nThese were a witches' woods once, lingering trails of incantations, pockets of dreamstuff swirling around three-hundred-year-old trees. It was the sort of place fairies should be running about, claiming as their own.\n\nBut even fairies knew better than to run afoul of one of the Seventy-two. Especially Barbatos. The Hunter. It seemed as if even the wild things\u2014the birds, the squirrels, all the things of the forest\u2014knew what lived here and stayed far, far away.\n\nColby knew what he was looking for but didn't look with his eyes. He sniffed, felt out for the warping of space, the corruption in the roots of trees. And he found it. A shack. Lingering silently off a trail, placed just so as to not be seen from any angle one might happen upon.\n\nIt was a hunter's shack, small, like a shed, made of rotten wood and century-old timber. It leaned slightly to one side, the door seemingly giving it more support than its posts. From its porch hung wind chimes made of the skulls of woodland animals, a light breeze clattering them together with the dull, hollow clink of bone on bone. A wind rose up, whispering through the gaps in the boards of the place, threatening at any moment to knock it over into a pile of scrap. But it held, for it was no force of physics that had kept it standing all these years.\n\nColby took a deep breath and stepped forward onto the porch, the boards squeaking beneath his feet. Then he turned the knob of the door and stepped in. Gossamer lingered behind, only for an instant, hesitating at the first whiff of the brutal, terrible smells wafting out. He looked over his shoulder, gazing out, back into the woods, thinking that they were really no better than whatever was waiting for them inside.\n\nHe was wrong.\n\nIt was dark and it was large and it was by no means the same building within that it was without. Outside measured maybe ten feet on each side, but inside was a cluster of rooms, each bigger than the shack appeared, and each connected by a doorway with no door. It smelled damp and foul, like festering piss and neglected corpses. The walls were lined with ramshackle wooden shelves, stacked precariously from floor to ceiling with jars of every shape and size\u2014brown, viscous fluid suspending hearts and livers, fairy wings and unicorn horns, eyeballs and snouts. In the spots between the jars\u2014where there were spots\u2014experiments of taxidermy stared out, frightened, molded less to look like vicious or dangerous trophies and more like terrified creatures glimpsed at the moment of their demise.\n\nAnd from the ceiling hung skulls. Hundreds of skulls. Perhaps thousands. Bird. Wildcat. Dog. Human. It seemed as if Barbatos kept a little piece of everything he'd ever killed. Colby wondered if there was a room here where he also displayed their souls; Gossamer didn't care to know the answer to that question.\n\nIn the center of the second room they found the butcher block, a solid piece carved from the heart of a single ancient tree, its wood stained a dark, clotted red from a thousand dismemberments. And stuck in the wood were two dozen knives, their steel hardened with magicks Colby struggled even to identify.\n\nHe held out his arms, palms up, fingers splayed precisely, and once more spoke in a demonic tongue. \"Barbatos, I summon thee! Appear and speak!\"\n\nBarbatos appeared, screaming. His beard was white at the roots, then yellowed and browned the farther it got from his face, festooned with twigs, brush, and bugs, his hair unruly, wild, colored the same as his beard. But his eyes were black, empty, and never caught the light; they were hunter's eyes, remorseless. And they were furious.\n\n\"No!\" he hollered the moment he arrived, as if he'd been stuck with a knife. He flailed about, naked, covered in mud, his body rigid and muscular, as if he spent every waking moment running, climbing. \"Why would you do this to me?\"\n\n\"Calm down,\" said Colby.\n\n\"No! She's here! She's here with that fucking ring! Get me out of here! Release me. I do not wish to be here.\"\n\nColby spoke coolly, calmly, not letting the choler of the demon thrashing in his living room get to him. \"This place is yours. We're safe.\"\n\n\"No! She has things! Hundreds of things! At her beck and call every moment! They're following you, looking for you, looking for us. And they won't have me! Release me!\"\n\n\"We had a deal.\"\n\nHe cowered, almost perching, ready to strike, casting his eyes wildly at the corners of the room. \"You took too long. She's here, I know it, and I will not be her slave.\"\n\n\"If she wanted you as her slave, Barbatos, you would be her slave. I want this done as quickly as you do.\"\n\nBarbatos calmed, his rage seething beneath the surface. \"Then speak it, tell me what you want, and I'll grant it. But do it quickly.\"\n\n\"There's something I need you to find. Something hidden. Something very dangerous.\"\n\n\"It's yours. If it is out there to be found, I will find it. Whisper it into my ear, and I'll find it.\"\n\nColby looked nervously at the demon, before trading glances with Gossamer, terrified of getting too close to a creature as choleric and unpredictable as Barbatos. \"Can't I just ask you from here?\"\n\n\"Do you want the Queen to know about it?\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"Then it must remain a secret between us. What is said into my ear is mine alone. Say it. Say it quickly and let me go find what it is you seek.\"\n\nColby inched forward, his bravery waning for a moment. Then he stepped quickly up to the wild-haired hunter, parting the tangles around its ear, whispering almost silently into it. Barbatos recoiled, expression steadying for a moment. He looked deeply into Colby's eyes, puzzling over him.\n\n\"You are a clever boy, aren't you?\" he said. \"They've underestimated you. We all have. It's yours. It will take me some time to uncover it, but you'll have it before sunset. I swear it.\"\n\n\"Thank you.\"\n\nBarbatos scratched his head through the scraggly mess. \"You could have asked for something else, you know. There are far more powerful things in this world. I know where or how to find them all.\"\n\n\"But none of them is as powerful as this. Not now. Not tonight.\"\n\n\"I know. Maybe it's not the Queen I should be scared of, after all.\"\n\nAnd with a cautious wink, Barbatos spirited away into the ether, leaving behind nothing but the heavy musk of reeking sweat and soil.\nCHAPTER 55\n\nTHE MASTER OF THE PARADE\n\nPaimon is more obedient in Lucifer than other kings are. Lucifer is here to be understood he that was drowned in the depth of his knowledge: he would needs be like God, and for his arrogance was thrown out into destruction, of whom it is said; every precious stone is thy covering. Paimon is constrained by divine virtue to stand before the exorcist; where he putteth on the likeness of a man: he sitteth on a beast called a dromedarie, which is a swift runner, and weareth a glorious crown, and hath an effeminate countenance. There goeth before him a host of men with trumpets and well-sounding cymbals, and all musical instruments. At the first he appeareth with a great cry and roaring, as in Circulo Salomonis, and in the art is declared. And if this Paimon speak sometime that the conjurer understand him not, let him not therefore be dismayed. But when he hath delivered him the first obligation to observe his desire, he must bid him also answer him distinctly and plainly to the questions he shall ask you, of all philosophy, wisdom, and science, and of all other secret things. And if you will know the disposition of the world, and what the earth is, or what holdeth it up in the water, or any other thing, or what is Abyssus, or where the wind is, or from whence it commeth, he will teach you aboundantly. Consecrations also as well of sacrifices as otherwise may be reckoned. He giveth dignities and confirmations; he bindeth them that resist him in his own chains, and subjecteth them to the conjurer; he prepareth good familiars, and hath the understanding of all arts. Note, that at the calling up of him, the exorcist must look toward the northwest, because there is his house. When he is called up, let the exorcist receive him constantly without fear, let him ask what questions or demands he list, and no doubt he shall obtain the same of him. And the exorcist must beware he forget not the creator, for those things, which have been rehearsed before of Paimon, some say he is of the order of dominations; others say, of the order of cherubim. There follow him two hundred legions, partly of the order of angels, and partly of potestates. Note that if Paimon be cited alone by an offering or sacrifice, two kings follow him; to wit, Beball & Abalam, & other potentates: in his host are twenty-five legions, because the spirits subject to them are not always with them, except they be compelled to appear by divine virtue.\n\n\u2014Pseudomonarchia Daemonum\n\nYou're going to hate him,\" said Yashar.\n\n\"They're demons,\" said Colby. \"I can't say I like any of them.\"\n\n\"Yeah, but Paimon's different. Of the Seventy-two, some are terrifying, others outlandish, some, like Seere, are downright tolerable. But Paimon. He's\u2014\"\n\n\"He's what?\"\n\n\"He's an asshole.\"\n\n\"How bad?\"\n\n\"Through and through. I've never seen a face in all my life as punchable as his. You'll hate him before he even opens his mouth. Just face northwest, say the words, and let's get this over with. Even thinking about him turns my stomach.\"\n\n\"You don't have to go.\"\n\n\"You asked. And you never ask.\"\n\n\"The stories about it\u2014\"\n\n\"They're all true.\"\n\nColby nodded. \"Let's rip off the Band-Aid.\"\n\nThe two stood in the backyard, just outside the sliding glass door into Colby's kitchen, looking out over the scrub of the disused space. The sun was high, creeping toward its zenith, casting shadows from the rickety, well-worn wooden fence that separated Colby's property from five other adjacent lots. There was no lawn furniture, only a trail of dirt around the base of the fence that Gossamer had run down over the last six months.\n\n\"Seere,\" he said softly. And Seere appeared.\n\nColby jumped astride the back of the horse and Gossamer jumped immediately into his arms. He looked down, wishing for a moment that Seere had a bigger horse.\n\nYashar looked confused, then smiled sheepishly.\n\n\"I don't know how this is going to work,\" said Colby.\n\nThe djinn took a few steps toward the horse and put a hand gently on its side. Seere turned and looked down at Yashar, nodding.\n\n\"I think you need to be on the horse,\" said Colby.\n\nYashar shook his head. \"No, it doesn't work that way.\"\n\n\"But I've been\u2014\"\n\nSeere looked at Colby, then down to Yashar. \"I didn't have the heart to tell him.\"\n\nIT WAS NIGHT and the desert was cold, Seere having flung them to the far side of the world. They stood in a vast expanse, a great valley covered in dunes, the bright moon and stars lighting the sand a soft blue. Unlike the lairs of the others, there was nothing creepy or unimaginable waiting. Just sand. Miles upon miles of sand.\n\nColby looked up and found his bearing by the stars and faced northwest. He held his hands before him and said the words, once more speaking syllables most inhuman. \"Paimon, I summon thee. Appear and speak.\"\n\nFrom literally out of nowhere marched a parade, a procession of clowns, acrobats, musicians-performers of all sorts\u2014each appearing without so much as a flash or a bang. They simply were, and continued to multiply. Each wore colorful clothes with bells and baubles, floppy hats and curly-toed boots, playing music, elegant and celebratory. Cymbals clashed, trumpets blared. And all the while the paraders danced, skipping, frolicking like they were having the best time in the world. But their faces dripped with fear, their eyes wide and terror stricken from the horrors they'd seen. And those that were smiling looked the worse for it, as if they had hooks on the insides of their cheeks to keep them so.\n\nThese were the souls of Paimon's favorite conquests, some only centuries old, others millennia, and each step they took pained them, for they never stopped dancing, never stopped blowing their trumpets, never were allowed a moment of peace in all their deaths. And behind them, a dromedary, its camel hair carefully manicured, its back saddled with fine silks and ancient leather, carried the most august, handsome creature Colby had ever seen. Paimon.\n\nPaimon was dressed from head to toe in fineries, his eyes ringed perfectly in mascara, his olive skin without blemish, his long, lustrous black hair looped through silver and platinum barrettes, rings, and headbands. He reminded Colby instantly of Rudolph Valentino in a way that made it seem as if Valentino had been nothing but a pale imitation, trying its best to evoke the demon to the best of its earthly constraints. The demon gazed down from its swaying beast, held up a single swishing hand, and stopped his procession at once. He looked at the three companions\u2014his entertainers still dancing in place\u2014grimacing haughtily. Then he locked eyes with Colby, shrieking with an unearthly clamor that vibrated down the bones and back up through the soul.\n\nColby winced, unprepared for such a caustic pronouncement. He waved his arms, trying to stop him, but the demon spoke in an abyssal argot so foul that Colby found it hard to form his own words. \"Stop! Stop!\" he finally belted out. \"Paimon, speak to me as would a man.\"\n\nPaimon stopped, pursed his lips, and looked straight down his nose at Colby. \"I have appeared. Let us speak then, as men do.\"\n\n\"I'll make this brief. I know you don't want to be anywhere near\u2014\"\n\n\"Oh, don't concern yourself with that on my account. I'm not going to let a small thing like that little girl and her ring keep me from enjoying my time with the great Colby Stevens.\" Paimon tightened his face as he said the last part, fingers pinched together as if holding a teacup.\n\nPaimon spoke with a gentle, lilting voice, ending each of his sentences with a vocal upturn that made them sound mocking and sarcastic. He couldn't keep his hands still, not while speaking, waving for emphasis in the midst of each word, hands like the blade of a windmill at the end of limp wrists. His poise was the height of pretension; even the way he held his head was conceited. There was a way about him so regal that it could make even the aristocratic feel downright vulgar by comparison. When he cast his eyes around a place, he did so as if he was disappointed by the filth and squalor surrounding him, which Colby imagined he did even in the most lavish of accommodations.\n\nYashar was right. Colby wanted to punch him square in the jaw long before he spoke, but even more so now that he had. He fidgeted, trying not to make a fist, aggravation pulling taut the muscles in his hand.\n\nPaimon smiled, delighted that he had so easily gotten under the boy's skin. He lifted his leg gracefully, sliding off the side of his dromedary and onto the ground without so much as disturbing a grain of sand. \"Let's go inside,\" he said.\n\nHe clapped and a lavish tent appeared, a dozen lanterns lighting it. It seemed to blaze like a star in the sea of moonlight. Paimon turned and made his way toward it.\n\n\"I told you,\" whispered Yashar beneath his breath.\n\n\"Shut it,\" Colby whispered back.\n\nPaimon stepped inside and made another disappointed face. \"No, I'll need a rug for the dog.\" He turned to Colby, who followed distantly behind him. \"No dogs on the pillows. You know my rules?\"\n\nColby nodded. \"I do.\"\n\n\"Good,\" he said, taking a seat on an ornately stitched and gilded pillow. \"So, have you fucked her yet?\"\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"I said have you fucked her yet? The girl. The loci. The blonde with the ass in the tight jeans you're always pining for. Have you fucked her? Crawled deep inside that tiny little twat and given it to her good? Slipped a finger in and tickled her insides? Rolled her over and taken every hole you can? Have you done that, Colby? Have you given her the good fucking you've been craving? Drenched her in every fluid you have until you can't come anymore? Well, have you, Colby? Colby Stevens?\"\n\nColby's expression dropped, his gut roiling. \"No,\" he said, now terrified of where this conversation was headed.\n\n\"Sit, sit. But you want to, don't you?\"\n\n\"I think I'll stand.\"\n\nPaimon tsked. \"My home, my rules. You'll sit.\"\n\nColby slumped onto a pillow of his own, crossing his legs, trying to remain stoic.\n\n\"He's just trying to humiliate you, Colby,\" said Yashar.\n\n\"Of course I'm trying to humiliate him. He's a wee little child who wants to play with the men. But you can't play with the men, can you, Colby? Because a man would have fucked the shit out of that tight little piece of ass by now. And you're no man. You can't even talk to her, let alone fuck her. You want to fuck her, don't you?\"\n\n\"Yes,\" said Colby, his insides hollowing out, shrinking away into the deepest, darkest, most hidden parts of him. His face was flushed with shame. But he couldn't lie. Not without giving Paimon license to add him to his procession.\n\n\"You've thought about it, haven't you?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"Have you thought about getting her on those pretty little knees while you drench her face in your spunk?\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\nPaimon peered severely at Colby, sniffing. \"Oh. You haven't, have you? Oh my lord, you imagine that you respect her.\" He laughed, something that sounded like a churlish giggle piped through a calliope. \"You poor, pathetic, tiny-cocked little shit. You are worthless. You think that not thinking about that amazing little body on its knees sucking your cock dry and begging for you to fill her holes shows her some kind of dignity. She reads minds, Colby. She knows that's what guys think about. What you think about. Every guy who sees her wants to plug those holes. What kind of a sissy must she think you are that you try to think about anything but. She deserves better than you tossing off to her beautiful little pink areolae on those free-floating creamy fair-skinned tits of hers. Oh God, maybe I should fuck her. You think she'd like that?\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"Would you like to watch that?\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"You wouldn't, would you? You're ashamed of your little pecker. You think it's not good enough for her, do you? Can't bear the thought of seeing her get it from real manhood?\"\n\n\"Are you done yet?\" asked Yashar.\n\n\"I haven't even begun!\" shouted Paimon. \"Answer the question, Colby! Do you think your cock is big enough to fuck her hairless twat and come on her stomach?\"\n\n\"I don't know.\"\n\n\"Oh,\" said the demon, waving him off. \"You really don't. You really are that fucking pathetic. What about the little girl?\" He stood quickly and did a mocking little dance, lowering his voice as he curtsied. \"The Queeeeeeeeeen.\"\n\n\"What about her?\"\n\n\"Have? You? Thought? About? Fucking? Her?\"\n\n\"No!\" said Colby.\n\n\"What is it with you and fucking?\" asked Yashar.\n\n\"You don't get to ask questions, Yashar. I ask the questions I feel like until I decide that I'm done. And right now, I feel like asking your chaste little boyfriend about his deviant little sexual fantasies. He's been around the world, but he's never been around the world. And he certainly shouldn't feel like an expert in anything if he can't even describe what most thirteen-year-olds can detail from memory. Does that embarrass you, Colby? That most middle school boys know what a pussy feels like and you don't?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"Of course it does, you despicable little maggot. You can never please a woman. The only girls inexperienced enough to not know how inept you are at fucking are so young you'd be humiliated to fuck them. But you'd like to fuck them, wouldn't you. Little girls?\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"Oh my God, you are so fucking boring! It's not even fun to make fun of you! Do you think you can save her?\"\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"The girl. The Queeeeeen. Do you think you can save her, Colby?\"\n\n\"I don't know.\"\n\n\"She's coming to kill you, you know.\"\n\n\"I know.\"\n\n\"But you'd like to, wouldn't you? Save her?\"\n\nColby sighed, resigned. \"Yes.\"\n\n\"But you can't save her. Not without damning yourself further. Not without earning our wrath. Are you willing to damn yourself to save her?\"\n\n\"Is there any better reason to be damned than for a friend?\"\n\n\"But she's not your friend. She hasn't been your friend for a long time. Amy was right about you, we can't trust you, can we?\"\n\n\"That depends. What do you have to trust me to do?\"\n\n\"Keep up your end of the bargain. Kill the girl.\"\n\n\"You can trust me to keep up my end of the bargain. I'll be dead before I renege on our deal. I promise you that.\"\n\nPaimon eyed Colby closely, once again sniffing deeply, sensing not even the slightest bit of a lie. \"I don't like the way you phrased that. What do you have up your sleeve, Colby?\"\n\n\"A way to kill the Queen that I dare not speak of lest its revelation ruins the surprise for her.\"\n\n\"I must know.\"\n\n\"If I tell you, what is spoken between us will be known by Dantalion, will it not?\"\n\nPaimon squinted distastefully. The boy was not wrong. \"Dantalion,\" he said, as if spitting out bad fruit. \"I rescind the question.\"\n\n\"You didn't actually ask it. The girl is coming. We don't have much time. Are you quite done?\"\n\n\"No. I have nothing but time. You're the one with the ticking clock. Were she to walk in the tent now, she'd kill you before thinking of enslaving me. I'll be fine. So tell me, do you think by saving her you can absolve yourself of Ewan Thatcher?\"\n\nColby gritted his teeth, his heart pounding as it sank in his chest.\n\n\"You do, don't you? You think that if you can help one friend you've wronged, it will somehow balance the ledger. Don't you?\"\n\n\"Something like that.\"\n\n\"Or exactly like that. Is it exactly like that, Colby Stevens?\"\n\nColby swallowed, his mouth growing increasingly dry. \"Yes.\"\n\n\"You really are a miserable, sad, obvious little boy.\" He rolled his eyes and waved Colby off in disgust. \"You're no fun anymore. I'm done with you. Ask your boon and be done with it.\"\n\nColby nodded. The worst of it was over. Or so he hoped. \"Great Paimon, I am told you possess knowledge such that you can create nearly any mystical item from memory.\"\n\nPaimon stroked his chin. \"Of course.\"\n\n\"And what do you remember of Babylon?\"\n\n\"I remember everything. Every moment. The name of every corrupted soul in that beautiful bastion of sin.\"\n\n\"Then I want you to teach me to make Babylonian Demon Traps.\"\n\nPaimon's eyes at once fumed, his skin flushed with anger. He waved Colby off with a dismissive flutter. \"What? No! I refuse! What do you need those for?\"\n\nColby stood up and took a bold step forward. \"I've answered your fucking questions, you foul-mouthed, pompous little pervert. I've done your dance and my soul is safe. Will you not grant me the boon?\"\n\n\"No! I . . . those were not meant for you, Colby Stevens.\"\n\n\"No. Their knowledge has been wiped from the world, passed down only orally as a legend for centuries. Who, I wonder, would, or even could, have done such a thing?\"\n\nPaimon glared at Colby. All of his grace was gone, replaced with blustery indignation.\n\n\"Did you do it, Paimon?\"\n\n\"Yes. Yes I did. I've kept that secret safe for centuries, I will not pass it on to you.\"\n\n\"Excellent. So how does this work? My deal was with Orobas, and your deal with him\u2014so does your eternal servitude come straight to me, or does it go to Orobas and I get Orobas but can trade him his freedom for you?\"\n\n\"That's not how it works.\"\n\n\"The deal was quite clear. Five boons of my choosing for five souls.\"\n\n\"You haven't paid the souls.\"\n\n\"Demons pay first. Them's the rules. Don't pretend that you don't know them, because I sure as shit do. Do you honestly think I'm that stupid?\"\n\n\"I was hoping you might be. You're strong, shrewd, but you buckle when someone questions something you might not know and you often take their word for it. It was a gamble.\"\n\n\"Why don't you want to teach me to make . . . Babylonian Demon Traps?\"\n\n\"Because there are few people in this world more suited to abuse them than you.\" Paimon relaxed, steadying himself, at once regaining his calm composure. \"But you need these for tonight, don't you?\"\n\n\"You don't get to ask questions anymore.\"\n\n\"It was rhetorical. There's no other reason you would need them. And I guess I could impart the knowledge of their creation to you. Of course, the materials to make them and the time it would take to fashion them would take far too long for you to acquire and craft . . . and you have, what, but one boon left? Which boon might you ask for? The ingredients? Or the demonic skill and powers to make them in the time prescribed? Decisions, decisions.\"\n\n\"What are you proposing, Paimon? That you make them for me?\"\n\n\"I could. But it's a tough choice. Either ask me how to make them or ask me to make them for you. Hmm. Nail-biter.\"\n\n\"Make them,\" said Colby, coolly.\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"That's my boon. Make me two sets.\"\n\nPaimon opened his mouth to speak, but hesitated, for a moment slightly embarrassed. \"Um, I . . . I can't.\"\n\n\"You what?\"\n\n\"What I mean to say is that I can make them. I can assemble the materials and construct them. But I can't finish them. I can summon the materials, shape them, inscribe them, bake them in the fires of Hell, but I cannot breathe life into them, not the way you need. That requires a tremendous amount of energy, essence.\"\n\n\"Dreamstuff.\"\n\n\"Yes. But once it's there, I can't touch them. Can't manipulate them in any way. That you'll have to do yourself.\"\n\n\"How much will it need?\"\n\n\"Quite a bit. More than you'll be able to summon natively here.\" He hesitated for a moment, thumbing his chin mischievously. \"But no more than you might scrape from a powerful artifact.\"\n\n\"And where am I supposed to find a powerful artifact that I can just will away?\"\n\nPaimon cast a crooked finger over to the tent's wall, grinning all the while. Upon it appeared the vision of two pegs, a pike resting upon them. Ewan's pike. Ethereal, illusory, but crystal clear in its point. \"That will more than suffice.\"\n\n\"I'm . . . I'm not parting with that.\"\n\n\"Do you have any other choice? Or would you prefer I make something else for you?\"\n\n\"You'll make these.\"\n\n\"It'll take me some time. Not long, but long enough for you to decide how important they are to you. I'll make them. You can finish them. Use whatever you like.\"\n\nColby stewed, as angry as he ever was. For a while he'd thought he'd regained the upper hand with Paimon, only to see that lead evaporate in the last moments. He stared at the vision of the pike, brooding over its potential loss. \"Make them,\" he said. \"I'll get you what you need.\"\n\nPaimon smiled crassly, savoring the win. \"Don't be sore, Colby. You never should have expected to get the best of us. But as a consolation, I'll deliver the bowls.\" He cocked an arrogant eyebrow at Colby, pursing his lips. \"As I said, I'm not afraid of a little girl and her ring.\" He clapped once gracefully, and with that, he and his procession were gone, the tent along with them. Once again, the three were plunged into the dark of an empty desert lit only by the moon.\n\n\"Colby,\" said Gossamer. \"What are you going to do?\"\n\nColby didn't lift his gaze from the spot where the vision of the pike had been. \"I don't know.\"\nCHAPTER 56\n\nTHE WEIGHT OF THINGS\n\nColby sat cross-legged in the center of his living room, the John Brown pike across his lap like a prized new toy. Its blade was still razor sharp, gleaming in the orange-yellow light of the dozens of candles burning about the room. While all the blood that had been shed by it had long since been wiped clean, Colby could hear the screams of the departed, feel the grunts and grip of the death blows. Every molecule of the pike resonated with djang, the stories of its bearers, no matter how short, burned indelibly into its core. This was no mere thing. It was an echo of history, banging off the rocks of forever.\n\nAnd now Colby had to let it go. Say good-bye. Will it into nothing.\n\nHe didn't want to do that. Not at all.\n\n\"It's not him, you know,\" said Yashar, sitting idle but impatient beside Gossamer on the couch.\n\n\"What?\" asked Colby.\n\n\"The pike. It's not him.\"\n\n\"Do you know about djang, Yashar?\"\n\n\"Colby,\" he said in a withering tone.\n\n\"We all put energy out into the universe. Just a little bit of ourselves that vibrates the things around us, leaves a shadow of our thoughts and emotions on our surroundings.\"\n\n\"I know what djang is, Colby.\"\n\n\"Ewan's shadow is here, on this pike. There's a little bit of him left making it what it is.\"\n\n\"That pike is not Ewan. Not the Ewan you want to remember. He was gone by then.\"\n\n\"I know,\" said Colby. \"But it's the only thing I have left.\" He picked up the pike, closed his eyes, felt the tremors and fury and brutality of its past. For a split second he could feel him, his grip tight, ferocity overwhelming. He was there, his shadow passing over Colby\u2014more a tingle than a man\u2014but there nonetheless. Ewan.\n\nColby's eyes stung, wet with tears.\n\nYashar stood up, putting a firm hand on his friend's shoulder. \"He's already gone.\"\n\n\"I know. And he's not coming back.\" He looked up at Yashar. \"Why do I always have to kill my friends?\"\n\n\"Colby\u2014\"\n\n\"No. It's all I've ever done. Too many friends over too short a time. Sometimes I think the only reason I've lived so long is that my curse isn't that I end badly, like so many of your other kids, but rather that I'm cursed to end up alone with the knowledge that I'm the one who got everyone killed. If I survive tonight, it will only be because I killed another of my friends. And I'm running low.\"\n\n\"That's not your curse, Colby.\"\n\n\"How do you know?\"\n\n\"Because that's my curse.\" Yashar reached down and began fiddling with the countless baubles, trinkets, and other jewelry adorning his outfit. \"I've never told you about these, mostly because you never asked.\"\n\n\"Oh,\" said Colby, never having given them much thought, but now, in an instant, understanding. \"Those aren't\u2014\"\n\n\"They are. Each and every one from a different child. One from each.\"\n\nColby looked closer. They hung from chains and loops and short leather cords. Christmas ornaments. Rings. Bracelets. Toys. Each coated in bronze, silver, or gold. It had always struck Colby as being a bit garish, but he'd never really processed it. It was just one of those things, something he assumed was a product of someone from another age.\n\n\"Where's mine?\" asked Colby.\n\nYashar reached into his pocket. \"I don't wear it until they're gone,\" he said. \"But I keep them with me, nonetheless.\" He pulled out an ugly, plastic, digital watch with the face of a long-forgotten cartoon character, so far gone that Colby himself couldn't name who it was. But he recognized it. It was the watch he'd worn as a child when Yashar first met him, that he'd used to count the minutes until Yashar would show up again to grant him his wish. The one his mother was always so keen to make sure he was wearing. \"It's never easy to have to wear these for the first time. These last six months I've known that it would be any day now. Now I know\u2014the kid who wore this was gone a long time ago.\"\n\n\"Yashar\u2014\"\n\n\"Don't. I won't wear it. Not yet. But after tonight, no matter how it plays out, you won't be you, not the you I knew. And you know that.\"\n\nColby nodded, rolling the pike gently back and forth in his hands. \"We can't stay us forever.\"\n\n\"No. We most certainly can't. Ewan's gone and so is the boy he loved. And that little girl you knew. She's gone too. She's something else entirely now. There's no going back. You can't. Everyone tries at some point. But no one ever does.\"\n\n\"You don't think we can be saved?\"\n\n\"Who? You or the girl?\"\n\n\"Either of us.\"\n\n\"You've both not only walked with demons, but you also scare them. Frankly, if we're being totally honest here, I'm not certain there's anything of those kids left to save.\" Yashar braced himself, expecting Colby to blow at any moment. Instead, Colby looked down sadly, nodding once more.\n\n\"You're probably right. But we can try.\"\n\n\"You won't save her,\" said Austin, emerging from the shadows beyond the candles. \"All you can do now is save yourself.\"\n\nColby glared at her. \"You gave me till sunset.\"\n\n\"I was wrong,\" she said.\n\n\"I'm not leaving.\"\n\n\"I mean I was wrong about you leaving. She means to kill you, Colby. There's no talking her down from it. But it's not you who brought her here.\"\n\n\"How's that?\"\n\n\"This is her mess. They're just using you to clean it up.\"\n\n\"That's what I tried to\u2014\"\n\n\"I told you. I was wrong. But now we're all in it. And I don't know how we're going to get out of it.\"\n\nYashar waved her off. \"This isn't your mess to get involved in. You can leave at any time.\"\n\n\"Too late for that now. I met her. And the hell she's bringing with her.\"\n\n\"And?\" asked Colby. \"What did she\u2014\"\n\n\"She's got no other choice. She knows she'll never be free now. She's made her bed. And they've played you both. Rigged the game. It's you or her. And she knows that for good and for all. For her to have a chance at tomorrow, you have to die tonight. And for you to have a chance\u2014\"\n\n\"Yeah. We were just discussing that.\"\n\n\"So she means to kill you. Whether I like it or not, my streets are gonna run with blood.\"\n\n\"Again.\"\n\n\"Yeah. Again.\"\n\nColby gripped the pike tightly, again the djang of it tickling his senses. So much fear, so much hate, so much death, all packed neatly into a few pounds of wood and metal. \"You know, I've been to the land of the dead. Trod where spirits have trod. And I've killed more than my fair share. Honestly, I can't tell you which scares me more. Or if they even scare me at all. I'm becoming numb to the idea of death. The only thing I want now is to avoid being a tool in someone else's shed. If I die, that's fine, as long as it's on my terms. And if I have to kill, I don't want it to be for any reasons other than my own. So tonight, no matter what happens, I'm doing it the way I want to do it for the reasons I need to do it.\"\n\nYashar shook his head. \"They've thought of everything. Somehow, tonight, no matter what you do, you'll be someone's pawn.\"\n\n\"Yeah. But I'm not going to let them decide whose pawn I end up. I owe myself that much.\" Colby stood up, looking toward the back of the house, met by the sound of blaring trumpets, crashing cymbals. \"We have guests.\"\n\nHe walked over to the sliding glass door, stood the pike on its end, slid the door open for the demon. Paimon floated into the room, eight clay bowls in his arms. He quickly set them on the table without a word, promptly turning and slinking back outside.\n\n\"You'll understand,\" said Paimon through the open door, \"if I leave you to it.\"\n\n\"You don't want to wait around to see if they work?\" asked Colby.\n\nPaimon scowled at Colby. \"They'll work. And you won't trap me with them. Use them carefully and well. I would not want to be you were my brothers to find one of their own trapped by these.\"\n\n\"I wouldn't want to be you either, seeing that you're the one that made them. I have one boon left. Aren't you curious about who I'm going to call up?\"\n\n\"No. I'll know soon enough. And if I'm right about you, I'll pity him. For a time.\"\n\n\"For a time?\"\n\n\"He'll get out eventually. And then you're his. Good-bye, Colby. Don't call on me again.\"\n\nPaimon faded away, his troupe vanishing along with him.\n\nThe bowls were wide as a plate and shallow, cast out of red clay, and inscribed on both sides, covering every square inch, in cuneiform. At their center was an image of a demon carved into the clay, each bowl of the set with a different great king of Hell, the inscriptions surrounding them telling the story of their fall from Heaven. Colby had seen a number of decorative forgeries in museums, but never the real thing. Once he handled them, he understood. The difference was the red clay. That was the secret.\n\nHe sounded out the cuneiform, soon piecing together the stories, further understanding why Paimon had been so hesitant to share their secrets. Not only were these dangerous weapons, but to know how to inscribe them was to sing the song of the king it represented. That meant invoking them, possibly trapping them, ultimately commanding them. It was knowledge Colby was immediately thankful he didn't possess.\n\nColby sat Indian style on the floor, surrounding himself with the bowls, the pike lying in his lap. He ran his fingers along the shaft, grasped it one more time, and felt the shadow of his friend.\n\n\"Good-bye, Ewan,\" he said, closing his eyes. Then he focused and unmade the pike in a single breath.\n\nHis whole body prickled, swelling with dreamstuff. He hadn't felt this much run through him since he was a child. He'd forgotten how powerful this thing really had been, how mighty it had grown in such a short time. Colby became woozy, overpowered by the sensation. Gossamer jumped off the couch, running in circles, as if chasing his own tail.\n\n\"What the hell?\" he asked.\n\n\"Relax, Goss,\" said Yashar. \"Just focus with Colby. He needs you.\"\n\nColby nodded, unable to speak, trying to tame the energy bubbling over inside him. Gossamer stopped, then slowly trotted over, across from Colby on the other side of the bowls. \"What do you want me to do?\" he asked.\n\nColby locked eyes with Goss and the energy calmed. The two passed the energy back and forth in a loop, keeping it flowing, neither having too much energy for too long. Then, taking a deep breath, Colby focused again and unleashed it all into the eight bowls around him.\n\nFor a moment, the inscriptions on the bowls glowed as brightly as the sun, the figures in the center burning brightest of all. They pulsated, hummed, the energy baking the clay further, changing the very nature of it. The red became crimson, and as the light began to fade, the inscriptions cooled to a dark, charred black.\n\n\"Now,\" said Colby, sighing. \"One last boon before nightfall.\"\nCHAPTER 57\n\nTHE SNAKEHANDLER\n\nPurson, alias Curson, a great king, he commeth forth like a man with a lion's face, carrying a most cruel viper, and riding on a bear; and before him go always trumpets; he knoweth things hidden, and can tell all things present, past, and to come: he discloses hidden things, he bequeaths treasure, he can take a body either human or aerie; he answereth truly of all things earthly and secret, of the divinity and creation of the world, and bringeth forth the best familiars; and there obey him two and twenty legions of devils, partly of the order of virtues & partly of the order of thrones.\n\n\u2014Pseudomonarchia Daemonum\n\nWhile no one had lived here for decades, the place seemed remarkably well kept. Buildings still stood\u2014rusted and weather worn though they were\u2014their paint still vibrant in places. Many of the streets remained intact and the grass looked simply unkempt rather than wild. There were trees growing atop some of the buildings and windows broken out all along the way, but there was nothing postapocalyptic about it\u2014it was not at all like Colby thought it would be. This was Pripyat, Ukraine, better known for the facility that used to power it.\n\nChernobyl.\n\nIt was safe now, he was told, or safe enough to walk around for a few hours without protection. But he wouldn't be here long enough to care. It was approaching sundown in Austin, which meant it was still a few hours from sunup here, and it was no town in which to be wandering around. Not at night. Especially not at night.\n\nWhen the people fled and the town was left to the wilds, it became the perfect place for the things beyond the veil. Anything that wanted privacy or needed a hollow to hole up in could find it here. There was a city's worth of dark places. And only one of those was off-limits, for it had been claimed by another, one more powerful than anything else that took to its Soviet-era concrete and crumbling statues.\n\nHis name was Purson, and he held court on a depressing slab of parking lot known as the Pripyat Amusement Park.\n\nScheduled to open a few days after the meltdown, the park itself was nothing more than a few carnival staples\u2014bumper cars, a paratrooper swing, a meager boat swing, and its now infamous Ferris wheel\u2014and only ever saw a few hours of use. Now to some it was a symbol of the life that was left behind, and to others a marker of the area to avoid.\n\nColby and Gossamer moved quickly through black streets, the near freezing Ukrainian autumn air harsher than anything they'd encountered through the day. There were angels on the buildings above, staring down at them as they passed, and fairies of all sort and kind following through the fields, using trees as cover. They recognized him, but as he seemed to move with purpose, none wanted to risk getting in his way. So they watched. And waited. And wondered why the most powerful boy in the world was heading straight into the darkest heart of their city.\n\n\"They're watching us,\" said Gossamer.\n\n\"Let them. Just stay off the grass.\"\n\n\"Why the grass?\"\n\n\"Something to do with the fallout. Living things absorbing radiation. I don't understand it myself. But everyone says stay off the grass, so I stay off the grass.\"\n\n\"But going to see a demon\u2014\"\n\n\"Shut it.\"\n\nAs they approached the park, their silent entourage eroded, none willing to get too close, none wanting to see Purson, or worse, have him see them. The lot was cracked, buckling in places, and the rides, up close, were a total disaster. The boat swing was a rusty series of pipes that looked as if it might collapse in a strong wind, its boat smashed to pieces on the ground below it. The disintegrating bumper cars were scattered, covered from top to bottom in graffiti, grass sprouting out of most, a tree growing in the seat of another, all beneath the brittle skeleton of a dying pavilion. The paratrooper swing was nothing more than a rickety platform with a series of park benches welded to a merry-go-round. But the Ferris wheel had kept its bright yellow color, and still, despite its rust, looked as if a little elbow grease could get it running again.\n\nColby and Gossamer stood on the lot between the four attractions, in the spot that felt the coldest and most devoid of energy. Then Colby raised his palms once more, and spoke, for what he hoped was the last time, in a language he was regretting ever having learned.\n\n\"Purson, I summon thee. Appear and speak.\"\n\nThere was a loud crack, the earth wobbling beneath them, the whole of the world feeling numb and out of sorts. And then he appeared.\n\nPurson was a monstrously large man, rigid muscles like hewn granite, hands massive enough to palm a man's skull and lift him one-handed. His face was that of a lion's, all fangs and fur and snout, but his black hair was trimmed conservatively short, like a man's. In his left hand he held a diamondback snake just beneath its head, its tail sounding the soft, threatening rattle of an impending strike. And beneath him, serving as a saddled mount, was a fully grown grizzly, one or two sizes larger than its material cousins, its fur brown and bristling.\n\n\"Goddamnit, Colby,\" said the demon, looking around the park, eyeing the ground at his feet. \"Where are they?\"\n\n\"Where are what?\"\n\n\"Don't play with me, boy. The bowls. Where are they?\"\n\n\"Back home. Yashar is watching them.\"\n\nPurson laughed, a deep, almost reassuring kind of guffaw, like a drunken uncle telling a bad joke. \"You scared the shit out of me. To hear Paimon tell it\u2014\"\n\n\"Let Paimon believe what he wants to believe,\" said Colby. \"I made a deal and your lot has thus far kept up their end of it.\"\n\nThe grizzly roared and the snake rattled and Purson smiled, large and friendly. \"She comes ever closer, Colby. You have little time left to squander with me. What boon do you ask?\"\n\n\"You have no tests? No requests?\"\n\n\"We don't have time for that. My brothers were fools to waste any of yours. Your time is our time now. So speak. Ask me and I'll grant what I must.\"\n\n\"I have a question.\"\n\n\"One question?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"And that's your boon?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"Ask it, then, and be done with me.\"\n\n\"Each of you has a task, a role you play, whether it be to oversee the fallen, or to keep track of the hidden things, or to bear with you some knowledge so it might be kept alive.\"\n\n\"We do.\"\n\nColby steadied himself, his question quivering in his throat. \"Who,\" he asked, \"is the master of the Hunt?\"\n\n\"The Wild Hunt?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\nPurson cocked his head, now far more curious about Colby than he'd been. Suddenly this boy was of keen interest. He squinted, sizing him up in a way he hadn't thought to. \"You want to know who damned you,\" he said, putting it all together. \"Who seduced you into calling the hunt across. Who sought you out to corrupt you, to turn your angelic allies against you.\"\n\n\"I do.\"\n\n\"Why would you want to know that? No good can come of it.\"\n\n\"I have my reasons.\"\n\nPurson leaned forward atop his bear, his knowing grin growing wider with each word. \"You mean to have your revenge.\"\n\n\"That remains to be seen.\"\n\nPurson laughed, bellowing louder than before, the sound echoing through the empty streets, his grizzly padding the ground nervously beneath him. He turned to the snake. \"Did you hear that? He wants to know who damned him.\"\n\nThe snake hissed, tail writhing, rattling furiously.\n\n\"It is the boon I ask.\"\n\n\"No man is ever damned by the act of another, Colby Stevens, least of all a demon. He can only damn himself. We seduce, charm, offer alternatives to the indoctrination of the taming societal shepherds keeping you in line. But the choice is yours. Were it so easy to damn someone, Hell would be overflowing with more souls than it is stuffed with now. Your revenge, were it even possible, would be fruitless, and only serve to damn you further. I wish you had asked me this beforehand, before making this your boon. I'd have gladly told you with joy in my heart. The look on your face will be worth more to me than if I were able to deliver your soul to Hell myself. But a deal is a deal, and it is your boon.\n\n\"It's true that each of us bears responsibility for some fragment of the duties to keep this place running. We tend fallen angels, keep men at war, sink vessels, bring heat waves that cause fathers to beat their children and mothers to shoot their lovers. But no mere demon oversees the Wild Hunt, and certainly not one of the Seventy-two. The one you seek, Colby, the only one who can loose spirits from Hell to roam free and call them back at a moment's notice, is the high lord and king of Hell itself.\"\n\nColby's bravery dropped into his stomach, his skin becoming suddenly flushed and sweaty. His jaw fell loose from its moorings, swinging open, wide, dumbstruck.\n\n\"Lucifer, Colby. Lucifer commands the Wild Hunt. They are his personal tools here on earth, their purpose to hunt down those spirits he wants for himself. Or to act as his heralds, warning of his coming. Or to lure the just to their doom. The Devil, Colby. The Devil is the thing against whom you want your revenge. Good luck with that. Your soul is his. And whatever his plans for it, they go beyond our feeble understanding.\"\n\nThe weight of his words wore upon Colby, his heart pounding, head growing dizzy. He looked over at Gossamer, whose eyes held a sudden sadness deeper than Colby had ever seen. Together they shared a silence in which they said more than they could have with words.\n\n\"This isn't why you did all this, is it?\" asked the demon jovially.\n\nColby stammered for half a beat, shaking his head.\n\n\"It is, isn't it? You gave yourself over to this thinking you might get a shot at the demon who set you up. Oh, Colby. We all thought you were smarter than that.\"\n\n\"I guess I'm not.\"\n\n\"No, you really aren't. For your sake, I hope the things you asked of us help you more with the five dukes than they do your vengeance.\"\n\n\"Me too.\"\n\nPurson nodded his feline head, then reared back on his ursine steed, waving his snake with a mocking good-bye. \"Keep your promise, Colby Stevens. Five souls. Don't make us squabble over who gets the honor of tearing you apart if you don't.\"\n\n\"If I don't, I'll already be dead.\"\n\n\"And you think that'll stop us? Your death will just be the beginning.\" He laughed once more, vanishing with the sound of a roar, the whole city shaking with it, the silence on the other side creeping and profound.\n\nCOLBY WALKED INTO his house, sullen, bearing the weight of unbearable disappointment on his brow. Yashar and Austin looked up from the couch, eyes hopeful. For a moment, no one said a thing. Then Yashar spoke up.\n\n\"Did you get the last thing you needed?\" he asked.\n\n\"More or less.\" No one dared ask what he meant. They could tell by the look on his face that he hadn't found what he was looking for. \"Come on. There are things we have to do before the sun sets.\"\n\n\"What do you need me to do?\" asked Austin.\n\n\"You shouldn't be here. The things that are coming, they're a real threat to you.\"\n\nShe stood up from the couch, emboldened, unyielding. \"I can handle myself.\"\n\n\"I know. But I only want you here if you want to be here.\"\n\n\"I've nowhere else I'd rather be.\"\n\nColby pulled a folded sheet of paper from his pocket, handing it to her. \"Memorize these. They have to be perfect, down to the last detail.\"\n\nAustin unfolded it, eyeing it suspiciously. She frowned a little. \"Are these what I think they are?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"How were you planning to\u2014\"\n\n\"I wasn't.\"\n\n\"You knew,\" she said, cocking an eyebrow.\n\n\"I guessed.\"\n\n\"You guessed.\"\n\n\"When we were kids I watched Kaycee wade into a billabong as a bunyip crawled out. It came after her, tried to kill her. She jumped on its back, laughing, riding it around like she was breaking a bronco. When I think of her, that's what I remember most.\"\n\n\"What does that even have to do with\u2014\"\n\n\"She's marching around in the dark with an army of kutji. She's gotten herself the ring of Solomon and enslaved five of the most powerful assholes ever to walk the earth. What, do you imagine, she fears? Anything?\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"You're powerful, Austin. But she isn't afraid of you. And you're smart. It wasn't going to take you long to realize that she wasn't going to stop. I figured you might come around.\"\n\nAustin glared at Colby as the pieces fell together. \"You sent me out there.\"\n\n\"No, I told you not to go out there.\"\n\n\"Because you knew I would.\"\n\nColby smirked, nodding a little.\n\n\"You son of a\u2014\"\n\nColby moved in; he didn't have much time. He ran his hand through her blond tresses, his fingers tickling the top of her ear, then back around to her neck. Pulling her close he kissed her hard. His whole body went wobbly, his stomach flipping, toes curling. Every molecule in his body tingled like he was about to pass out. Austin pushed him back.\n\n\"What the hell are you doing?\" she asked, her eyes hard, nose wrinkled.\n\n\"I didn't want to die not having done that.\"\n\n\"No,\" she said. \"I suppose not.\"\n\nThen she grabbed him by the collar of his shirt with both hands, pulled his chest to hers, and kissed him back. For a moment there was nothing else in the world. Just two pairs of lips, eyes closed tight, noses brushing. She tasted like the city smelled in the spring, hints of jasmine, mountain laurel. He wrapped his arms around her, pulled her tighter, her own grip on his shirt refusing to yield. They kissed as if nothing else mattered, and for a moment, it didn't.\n\nThey relaxed, eased away from each other, eyes locked, hearts thundering beneath the thin fabric of their T-shirts. Their breath short, shallow. \"What the hell, Colby?\" she whispered.\n\n\"It's about damn time,\" said Yashar. \"I was tired of watching you two fumble around like fucking schoolkids.\"\n\nColby turned bright red, ran his fingers through his hair nervously, looking away. Austin grabbed his chin with a single hand, pulled his face toward hers. \"We will do that again.\"\n\nColby swallowed hard. \"Even if I live through tonight, you may not want to.\"\n\n\"You will make it through tonight.\"\n\n\"If I do, you buy the beer.\"\n\n\"Deal.\"\n\n\"So now that we've got that out of the way,\" said Yashar, \"what do you need me to do?\"\n\nColby looked over at him, still trying to catch his breath, slow his racing heart. \"I need you to get me a gun.\"\nCHAPTER 58\n\nHIGH MOON\n\nThe Barton Creek Greenbelt is a stretch of land over seven miles long running through the southern tip of Austin proper. By day it is a series of hiking and biking trails chiseled out of limestone cliffs and crags, covered with dense trees and scrub, filled with folks of all sorts, trying, for an afternoon, to imagine they don't live in one of the country's largest cities. But at night it shuts down, clears out, and becomes a playground for fairies. At least it used to, before Colby came along.\n\nNow it had emptied for good, leaving the night to loneliness. There were rumors that some fairies had taken to sneaking back in, to dance through the trails and chase the moon across the sky. But those came to an end when Colby happened upon a redcap who had crossed over into the city limits. That's when everyone knew he was serious and that Austin, for a time, was no longer theirs.\n\nIt was night and Colby stood wearing a ragged hoodie and an old pair of jeans, shovel in hand, in the middle of a large swath of open ground, a path through which the rainwaters ran when the thunderstorms found their way into the city. After a hard rain, the spot where he stood could be as deep as six feet underwater. Now it was a patch of rock and sand, carved out between two limestone shores. It had been threatening to rain for weeks, but nothing had come of it, Austin slowly browning without it, the land growing dusty, dry.\n\nThe sun had set slowly behind him twenty minutes ago and the pinks had turned to violets and soon would turn to black. The shadows crept long over the greenbelt, patches of wood already fully in their grip, dark and ominous. Soon the only light would be that spilled by the rising moon. He needed to finish his hole. It was shallow, six inches deep already. Beside him a mound, hidden beneath an old sheet, rested, waiting for the right moment, a single bowl sitting atop it.\n\nApart from that, he was alone.\n\nHe heard the flapping first, the flutter of wings deep in the woods flanking both sides of him. Then he saw the dark shapes against the fading sky. Soon he'd hear the caws. He knew it. They wouldn't be able to help themselves. She was coming, just over the ridge in front of him, no doubt with her royal court of dukes in tow.\n\nThen she appeared, first as a massive shadow on the ridge, the details filling in with the remaining light as she approached. She was smaller than he remembered, still clad in her purple pajamas with the bright yellow stars, mammoth bunyip beneath her, carrying her toward him with a careful trot. At once Colby recognized the same little girl he'd known without a single detail out of place. The only difference was the look on her face. It was colder now, hateful, unrelenting. Her eyes, when he could finally make them out, held nothing but contempt and confidence.\n\nBehind her strode the five dukes in a V formation, each looking ready for a fight. Just behind them hobbled her emaciated body, so tired and weak that it looked as if it would topple over at any moment. The trees on both sides of the floodplain had lined with crows, the last of them perching as the Queen of the Dark Things came to a stop some twenty feet from him. The bunyip growled, its fur bristling, its head rearing back. She tugged on its fur, shushing it quietly.\n\nColby spiked the shovel into the dirt, the crisp, shrill sound of metal against dry earth barking into the night. He leaned into the handle, pulling up a healthy clump of earth, dumping it just to the side of the hole.\n\n\"You bring that to dig your own grave?\" asked the Queen of the Dark Things.\n\n\"Nope,\" said Colby, unconcerned with the threat. \"I'm digging yours.\"\n\n\"I doubt that. If you wanted to kill me\u2014the way you do it\u2014there'd be nothing left to bury.\"\n\n\"Oh, I can't do it that way. You're too strong for that and you know it. There's not a creature alive\u2014or dead for that matter\u2014that can best you will against will. No, if I want to kill you, I'm going to have to do it with this hole right here. And a gun. But we'll get to that later.\"\n\n\"You're going to kill me with a hole?\"\n\nColby pointed to the sheet-covered mound beside him. \"And this. And a gun.\" He knelt beside the hole, picking up a handful of earth, smelling it deeply. \"This'll do. You should come over and take a whiff.\"\n\n\"Like hell.\"\n\n\"Oh, so it's true. The Queen of the Dark Things is scared of me after all. Me and my hole.\"\n\nThe Queen's bunyip took a contemptuous step toward Colby. Colby wagged a disapproving finger, tsking, then stood back up. The bunyip took a single, anxious step backward.\n\nThe Queen gripped the bunyip's fur, spurring it on with her heels.\n\n\"I wouldn't,\" said Colby.\n\nThe Queen whistled and her body shuffled forward, struggling over the uneven ground. \"This ends tonight.\"\n\nColby shook his head. \"It's already over. It ended the moment you came over that ridge.\"\n\n\"So you are digging your own grave.\"\n\n\"No, I'm just waiting for the rain to fill the billabong.\"\n\n\"What does that even mean?\"\n\n\"It's something Mandu said.\"\n\n\"Fuck that old man,\" she spat.\n\n\"I wouldn't be too hasty to condemn him. He liked you.\"\n\n\"He had a funny way of showing it.\"\n\n\"He did. I didn't understand it myself until just a little while ago. But then I saw it.\"\n\n\"Saw what?\" she asked, growing impatient.\n\n\"The empty billabong waiting for the rain.\"\n\n\"He taught you how to speak in riddles. Cute.\"\n\n\"Destiny. The empty billabong is our destiny. It was dug out by the spirits a long time ago. They were just waiting for someone to bring the rain. And the moment you came over the ridge, here, to find me, you did just that.\"\n\n\"I brought the rain.\"\n\n\"You did,\" he said.\n\nShe looked around, exaggerating her own surprise. \"I don't see any rain.\"\n\nColby pointed at the kutji and then the demons and then the bunyip beneath her. \"And I see nothing but rain.\"\n\nThe kutji grew restless in the trees, pacing to and fro on their branches, cawing angrily into the coming night.\n\n\"I'm tired of this,\" she said. \"I'm tired of your riddles. You know what I want, don't you?\"\n\n\"I do.\"\n\n\"So do it.\"\n\n\"You know I can't. So why don't you just release those demons and give back the ring?\"\n\n\"Same reason as you, I reckon. They'll tear me apart otherwise.\"\n\n\"They've really got us up against it, don't they?\"\n\nShe nodded. \"One of us has to die.\"\n\n\"And the other has to be damned.\"\n\n\"No way around it,\" said the Queen.\n\n\"None,\" said Colby.\n\n\"I'm sorry it has to end this way.\"\n\nColby cocked his head. \"You know, I'm really not. It bothered me for a while, really tore me up. But we've had this coming for a long time, you and I. Tonight we pay up. I'm good with that.\"\n\n\"I like the poetry of that,\" she said. \"Especially since you're going to die the way you left me to.\" She pointed around at the kutji. \"At their hands.\" The kutji went wild, the greenbelt swelling with the cacophony of birdcalls.\n\nColby smiled. \"But you didn't die.\"\n\n\"Only because I wouldn't let them kill me.\"\n\n\"I figure I'll do the same.\"\n\n\"We'll see. Dark things! Kill him!\"\n\nThe crows took to the air, the thrash of their wings like a thousand drums beating out of sync.\n\nColby reacted, grabbing the bowl off the top of the mound, casting it aside, yanking the sheet off with a single tug, revealing what was beneath. It was a basket. A simple, wicker, woven basket, nearly four hundred years old. Inside were the shriveled, shadowy remains of several dozen hands.\n\nHe picked up the basket and flung its contents out over the ground, scattering the hands in a wide arc well past the hole.\n\nThe kutji shifted forms in midair, their stumpy, malformed bodies flailing as they fell, screaming in unison, \"OUR HANDS!\" They hit the ground running, tearing across the broken earth, no longer interested in Colby. They lunged, each scrambling for the hand landing nearest him, pouncing to the ground like cats on rodents, clumsily shoving the severed end onto their dull nubs. Few of them actually found their own hands, but that fact didn't stop a one of them from putting them on. Some ended up oversize, almost too big for their bodies, while others ended up too small, their hand looking withered, shrunken, a bit of extra wrist poking out on each side. A few even ended up sideways or upside down, grasping upward, resting out away from the body.\n\nAnd as the pack hooted, celebrating, making themselves mostly whole, Colby calmly picked up the discarded bowl, dropped it upside down in the hole, and covered it up by sliding the small mound of dirt back in place with his foot. He gave the dirt a few quick stamps to tamp it down, then stepped back with a proud, smarmy smirk.\n\n\"Shit,\" muttered Dantalion, at once recognizing what was happening. He looked around fretfully, terrified of the very ground around him. He motioned to the other demons who were equally disquieted.\n\n\"You were saying?\" asked Colby.\n\nThe kutji looked up from admiring their hands, spying Colby, unafraid of them, no more than twenty feet away.\n\n\"Kill him!\" yelled the Queen.\n\nThey nodded and lunged once more, running on all fours before slamming headlong into an invisible wall. They stopped in place, stunned, confused. Then they clawed at the wall in front of them, screeching in mortal terror.\n\n\"You ever hear of an incantation bowl?\" asked Colby of the Queen.\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"Incantation bowls. Otherwise known by their lesser known name\u2014Babylonian Demon Traps.\"\n\n\"What the hell did you do?\"\n\nColby took a few casual steps backward, putting his hands behind him as if lecturing to a symposium. He looked down, taking one more step, nodding, and stopped. \"The Babylonians didn't care much for demons. This was back before the veil fell, of course, so they knew very well that demons were real. They could see them.\"\n\n\"Skip the history lesson.\"\n\n\"I don't think I will. You see, the Babylonians figured out the power of belief. At some point, some genius invented these bowls. They'd mold them, carve symbols into them\u2014often with the names of angels or their god\u2014then bury them in the ground, upside down. Usually at the four corners of the foundation of their house. Spirits can't touch the things. And once there are at least four of them,\" he said, pointing to the filled-in hole and three more like it around it, \"no spirit can cross the unbroken line between them.\"\n\nThe Queen of the Dark Things lunged forward, furious, but stopped again. She looked over at the five dukes and pointed at Colby. They shook their heads, apprehensive. \"Kill him.\"\n\nThe demons marched forward, the djinn Dantalion clenching his fists as he walked, his body smoking, his skin turning a golden olive, his muscles swelling as he manifested his spirit form; Focalor pulling a heavy boat chain from seemingly out of nowhere, swinging it with a force that could powder bone; Astaroth astride his dragon; Berith astride his horse; the draconic Bune, prowling forward on his taloned feet, flames conflating in his growling maw.\n\nColby whistled and the earth shook. The ground rumbled, splitting apart, lines forming shapes, shapes becoming pictograms and circles. Each demon stopped in place, at once trapped in a circle drawn especially for him, every symbol in its proper place, cut into the dirt and limestone. They scuffed wildly at the symbols, but for each grain of sand they moved, another took its place.\n\nAustin appeared. She stood before Focalor, a wry little grin tugging at her lips. Then she shrugged coyly, playfully shrinking from him. \"Does the big mean corpse-raping demon have a problem?\"\n\nFocalor growled. \"I won't once I'm out of here.\" He stepped forward menacingly, eyes spiteful, ready to kill her. The ground beneath him shuddered, and the symbols moved, the circle shrinking, an invisible force pushing him ever back.\n\n\"Let's see if we can make that a little cozier for you, then. You might be here awhile.\"\n\nThe bunyip reared bitterly, flailing back on its hind legs, batting at the air. The Queen spurred it again, tugging at its fur. \"Hold,\" she said. \"Steady!\" It settled and she kicked it again, driving it toward Colby.\n\nColby whistled again and Gossamer tore out from the dark of the woods. As he ran, Colby focused, siphoning the nearby dreamstuff, stronger here in the greenbelt than in the city, funneling it into his familiar. With each step Gossamer grew in size, his golden fur becoming longer, shaggier, a lion's mane growing from the nape of his neck. Before he was halfway across the open field, he was eight feet tall at the shoulder, drool dripping in gobs from teeth the size of a man's thumb.\n\nGossamer pounced, letting out a fiendish snarl, its eyes on fire, breath steaming, and bit into the neck of the wincing bunyip.\n\nThe bunyip let out a shrill whimper, recoiling, throwing the Queen from her mount.\n\nThe two beasts scrambled for ground, nipping, clawing, rending each other's flesh.\n\nThe Queen leaped to her feet and tried to hop back atop the bunyip, but the brawl was too chaotic, the creature's craning neck striking at Gossamer like a cobra only to be batted away by the dog's savage paws.\n\nThere was only one thing left for her to do. She bolted at Colby with inhuman speed, covering the short distance in less than a breath.\n\nThen she slammed into an invisible wall inches in front of Colby's face. She staggered, dazed, mind shaken loose by the hit.\n\n\"I made eight,\" said Colby, looking at the ground beneath him. There, dug into the dirt, ten feet apart, were four filled-in holes.\n\nShe too looked at the ground, realizing what was going on.\n\n\"Now,\" he said. \"Let's talk.\"\n\n\"We don't have anything to talk about.\"\n\nBehind her, the beasts came to a stalemate, each gashed, bleeding, growling with feral ferocity, eyes locked, waiting for the other to make the first move. Meanwhile, Kaycee's possessed body lumbered toward its spirit, the shadow of her father growing very worried for its daughter.\n\n\"But we do,\" said Colby. \"Lots to catch up on.\"\n\n\"We better catch up quick. You're going to die tonight.\"\n\nColby looked around at the throng of caged kutji, the five demons locked in summoning circles, and the bunyip cowering from Colby's familiar. \"That might be true, but not by your hand. You didn't come here to kill me. That's why I'm not freaking out right now. Later? I'll probably piss myself. But here? Now? We're just two old friends, one of whom is trying to play the other one for an idiot.\"\n\nThe Queen ground her teeth. \"Because you are an idiot.\"\n\n\"You don't believe that. Not standing outside my demon trap, you don't. Though I imagine right now you're wondering just how smart I really might be. If I've figured it all out and if this is all going to start to get worse for you.\"\n\n\"Is it? Going to get worse, Colby?\" she asked, her voice dripping with sarcasm.\n\n\"Pretty bad, yeah.\"\n\n\"I'll find a way out of this, you know. And I'll kill you.\"\n\n\"No you won't. But I can kill you.\" Colby pointed at Kaycee's shell, still stumbling awkwardly toward her.\n\nThe Queen looked back over her shoulder at her body. \"Kill it. Turn it to ash or whatever it is you do. See if I care.\"\n\nColby pulled a revolver out of his hoodie, cocking back the hammer. He fired, the bullet tearing a hole in Kaycee's emaciated, club-footed leg. The body toppled to the ground, screaming, clutching its massive wound.\n\n\"Colby!\" she screamed.\n\nColby's eyes widened and he simpered a little in surprise. \"Holy shit. I didn't think I'd hit with the first shot.\"\n\n\"What the hell are you doing?\"\n\n\"Shooting better than expected, apparently.\"\n\n\"No, what are you\u2014\"\n\n\"I told you. I worked this out a long time ago.\" He slid the revolver back into his pocket. \"How long do you reckon before your body bleeds out?\"\n\nShe ran over, knelt beside her body, cradling the wound. Then she screamed at the demons. \"Help me! Heal him!\"\n\nThe demons shook their heads. They were powerless outside the circles.\n\n\"Colby, you can't do this.\"\n\n\"Tell me something, Kaycee. Why didn't you call me? You could have just shown up and asked me. Instead . . .\" He waved an open palm around, gesturing at all this. \"What, are you as much the kutjis' prisoner as their master?\"\n\n\"Something like that,\" she said, her eyes cold and narrow.\n\n\"And when you die, when that body bleeds out, you'll become one of them.\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"And the curse of the Batavia will be ended.\"\n\nShe nodded.\n\n\"I told you, Kaycee. I was going to kill you.\"\n\nShe began to cry, holding close the body, instead more worried for the spirit inside.\n\n\"The Colby I remember didn't kill someone in cold blood like this.\"\n\n\"Yeah, well, that kid died six months ago. He just didn't know it yet. Besides, I don't think you were going to give me much of a choice, were you?\"\n\n\"No. I wasn't.\"\n\n\"I was going to have to kill that thing, one way or another.\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"Who's in there?\"\n\n\"My father.\"\n\n\"A kutji.\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"That's not your father.\"\n\n\"It is.\"\n\n\"No. That's just a shadow of him. He's no more your father than my friend is out in a field waving for me to come back. Your father's dead.\"\n\n\"I know,\" she said. \"But it's all I have left.\"\n\n\"How long do you think before he bleeds out?\"\n\n\"Bastard!\"\n\n\"Time's running out. Do you want to deal or not?\"\n\nShe looked up at him, tears streaming down her face, a little girl terrified, her father dying in her arms. \"What?\"\n\n\"Do you want to deal?\"\n\nShe jumped up, ran over to Colby. \"Yes. Yes! Anything. Name it.\"\n\nColby softened, nodding a little, struggling with the truth. \"I've lost enough old friends. I don't want to lose another if I can avoid it.\" He looked at the body, blood pooling on the ground beneath it, then slid the revolver back into his pocket.\n\nThe two shared a moment of understanding silence, her gaze confused, heartbroken. \"You mean that?\" she asked, her voice trembling.\n\n\"I didn't leave you behind because I wanted to. I had to. And I didn't understand why until very recently. I had to leave you in the desert to become who you are, so I could become who I am, and so we, together, could do this here. Tonight, you and I get to be the people we always dreamed we could be. Even if just for a few moments. Tonight, you and I get to stand against the darkness and say fuck you. Tomorrow we might be damned, or dead, but tonight we own our destinies.\"\n\n\"What do you want?\"\n\n\"The ring.\"\n\nThe Queen of the Dark Things shook her head. \"I can't, they'll\u2014\"\n\n\"Kill you for what you did?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"That's for tomorrow. I'll see to that. But they want their friends free and they need to know this won't happen again. So I need the ring.\"\n\n\"I-I\u2014\"\n\n\"You don't have a choice. Die here with the ring, or fight tomorrow without it.\"\n\nShe nodded, tears streaming faster now. \"This was always my fate, wasn't it? The destiny Mandu talked about. This is it?\"\n\n\"Yes.\"\n\n\"It sucks.\"\n\n\"Not all destinies end the way we imagine. If it makes you feel any better, I'm pretty sure you're not alone.\"\n\nThe Queen twiddled the ring on her finger, too frightened to remove it. She took a deep breath, closed her eyes. Then she tugged, pulling it off.\n\n\"You aren't the boy I met in the desert. Not anymore.\"\n\n\"And you aren't the girl. So are we agreed?\"\n\nShe nodded.\n\n\"Don't look so grim. You're about to get everything you came for.\"\n\n\"Not the way I wanted it.\"\n\nColby stuck his hand out, palm up, past the barrier of the bowls, and the Queen dropped the ring into it.\n\nColby motioned to Gossamer, and Gossamer took the hint. He relaxed, his fur lying down, his teeth settling in back behind his gums. He stepped backward a few paces, then trotted around the barrier to stand as near Colby as he could.\n\nThe moon was up and the sky was black, littered with the night's first stars. Colby looked around, taking in the young night, slipping the ring into his jeans front pocket. \"It's a good night for it, you know.\"\n\n\"A good night for what?\" asked the Queen.\n\n\"For all of it. When the sun comes up tomorrow, everything will be different. But tonight, tonight is a fine night.\" He smiled at the stars, as if for the last time. Then he stepped forward, outside the safety of the demon traps, kneeling next to Kaycee's body.\n\nHe could feel the kutji writhing inside her, fighting the pain, desperately trying to retain its hold. Her brown skin was a sickly pale, blood still seeping from the leg wound. She had minutes left, at best.\n\nColby cradled her head in both hands, staring into her lifeless eyes, looking for the spark of the thing inside. It was thunderstruck, barely holding on, about to slip free of its moorings. He concentrated, trying to tear apart the dreamstuff of the thing, restructure it anew.\n\nBut it relented. The kutji was just too strong.\n\nColby focused harder, digging deeper, but the hate inside it for its own existence, the passion to save its own daughter, kept it together, tethered it not only to the body, but to the world.\n\n\"Shit,\" muttered Colby. \"He won't break.\"\n\n\"What?\" asked the Queen. \"I thought you could do this.\"\n\n\"I can.\"\n\n\"They said you could. Swore that you could!\"\n\n\"I can!\" He closed his eyes, dug even deeper than before. Only once before had he fought something so unwilling to give up. And that he had thrown to Hell to destroy. \"I can do this. I can do this.\"\n\n\"Colby, I'm dying,\" she said, watching her mortality leak away, drop by drop. \"Hurry!\" The Queen of the Dark Things closed her eyes, and for the first time in a long time, she felt fear. She took a deep breath, waiting, terrified that she was wrong.\n\nThe kutji in the demon trap crawled over one another to see, scampering up the wall, excited, hooting, making catcalls at the Queen. \"She's dying! She's really dying!\" they told one another. They howled like monkeys, did backflips off one another, pulled one another down in an ever shifting pyramid of celebrating shadows. They were close; they were so close. They had their hands and soon they would have the last of their spirits. The circle would be closed, the curse ended, and they could all slip off to their great reward.\n\n\"I can do this.\"\n\n\"Colby, please.\"\n\n\"Talk to him,\" he said.\n\n\"What?\"\n\n\"Be his daughter. Distract him.\"\n\nThe Queen caressed her own face, her voice no longer domineering, bold, but young, loving, scared. \"Dad,\" she said. \"Dad, are you in there?\"\n\nHer body nodded, gurgling a little, wheezing.\n\n\"You want a drink, Dad? A rum?\"\n\nThe body shook its head, grimacing. \"No more,\" it said, gasping desperately for breath. \"No more.\" It coughed with the soft hiss of a death rattle.\n\n\"Then what can I get you?\"\n\n\"Eggs,\" it said.\n\nThe Queen of the Dark Things smiled softly, remembering one of the few bright spots of her old life. \"How many eggs?\" she asked.\n\n\"Three?\"\n\n\"We can spare three today. I think there'll be enough for tomorrow.\"\n\nColby carried on, still trying to find the weak point in the kutji's psyche. It still would not crack. He worried he couldn't keep his end of the bargain, that all this had been for naught. And he hoped that as the body teetered toward death, that it might just be weak enough for long enough for him to pull it out. But that was looking less and less likely.\n\nHe looked at the Queen and she looked at him, their eyes sadly conferring.\n\nShe nodded, resigned. \"You're right,\" she said, looking up at the stars. \"It's a fine night for it.\" Then she leaned in and kissed her body on the forehead. \"Dad, I'm dying. Again. This time for real. I love you.\"\n\nKaycee's body smiled, rasping. \"I love you too, darlin'.\"\n\nAnd then the body vanished with a soft puff and the sweet smell of rum and lilacs.\n\n\"There you have it,\" said Colby, having broken the stalemate. \"Your immortality.\"\n\nThe Queen stared at Colby in stunned silence, a few lilac petals resting in her otherwise empty hand.\n\n\"It wasn't going to work for you, you know,\" said Colby. \"After, I mean.\"\n\n\"What are you talking about?\"\n\n\"The ring. That's the trick of it. It only works for mortals. They would have torn you apart the second you were free.\"\n\n\"Wait . . . so all of this\u2014\"\n\nColby nodded.\n\n\"Was for me?\"\n\n\"There was no other way out for you. You weren't going to give it up willingly. Not without a fight. I had to take it. So I gave you no other choice but to give it to me.\"\n\n\"So what now?\"\n\n\"Now you get on your bunyip and ride until you can't ride anymore. Go home. Do what you do. And if anything ever comes for you, you fight it on your terms, on your turf. Go be what you were always destined to be. Go dream forever and never wake up.\"\n\nShe pointed to the kutji, who stood mute, unsure, staring at them from within the trap. \"What about them?\"\n\nColby pointed east to the horizon. \"The sun will be up soon enough and there isn't so much as a rock for them to hide under in there. It'll be painful, but quicker than they deserve.\"\n\nThe Queen threw her arms around Colby, hugging him as hard as she could. \"I don't deserve a friend like you.\"\n\n\"Then go make sure you do. This cost me more than you'll ever know. Don't waste it.\"\n\n\"I won't.\" She turned, then immediately turned back. \"Can I ask you something first? As a friend?\"\n\n\"Anything,\" said Colby, happier at the sound of that than he thought he'd be.\n\n\"The girl. Do you feel about her the way she feels about you?\"\n\nColby nodded. \"Yeah. I reckon I do.\"\n\n\"What is it about her?\"\n\nColby thought hard for a second, scratching his scalp through layers of matted red hair. \"I like girls who are smarter than me.\"\n\nThe Queen laughed. \"I won't tell her you said that.\"\n\n\"She already knows.\"\n\nThe Queen of the Dark Things whistled, loud, snapping the fingers of a single hand in the air and her bunyip trotted next to her. She turned, put her forehead directly against his, scratching behind its ears with both hands. \"You were very brave,\" she whispered. \"Thank you.\" Then it bowed before her and she launched herself astride its back. She smiled, warm, unencumbered, like an eleven-year-old girl out for her first time in the dream. \"Good-bye, Colby.\"\n\n\"Good-bye, Kaycee.\"\n\nAnd then she ambled off into the dark of the woods until she vanished completely.\n\nColby sauntered up to the summoning circles, smiling at Austin. \"Thank you,\" he whispered.\n\n\"You're welcome,\" she mouthed silently back.\n\n\"Let us out,\" said Dantalion.\n\n\"Yes,\" said Astaroth. \"That was your deal, was it not?\"\n\n\"It was,\" said Colby. \"But we never agreed on when.\"\n\nAt that, the demons growled and howled in unison, their rage shaking the earth beneath their feet.\n\n\"You can't stop us from killing her,\" said Focalor. \"Not after what she did.\"\n\n\"Oh, but I aim to,\" said Colby. \"Austin, how long do you think you could keep this up?\"\n\n\"Oh,\" she said, as if thinking deeply. \"A couple of days before I get bored, I guess.\"\n\nThe demons thrashed like antagonized baboons in their circles.\n\n\"Hmmm, a couple of days. That's an awfully long time.\"\n\n\"What do you want?\" gnarred Dantalion.\n\n\"One day,\" said Colby. \"I want you to vow right now that you will seek no retribution against me or my friends here.\"\n\n\"We can do that.\"\n\n\"And that you will not pursue Kaycee until sunset tomorrow.\"\n\n\"Just one day?\" asked Focalor.\n\n\"Yes,\" said Colby. \"I'm hoping after that you'll choose to leave her be of your own accord.\"\n\n\"I doubt that,\" said Astaroth.\n\n\"Doubt is the right word. I like doubt. It leaves a lot open to change. I'll take that. Sunset tomorrow. And no retribution against us. Ever. Agreed?\"\n\n\"And you will set us free?\" asked Dantalion.\n\n\"Right this minute.\"\n\nThe demons exchanged glances, nodding one and all. \"We swear,\" said Dantalion.\n\n\"We swear,\" said the rest in unison.\n\nColby nodded and with a gesture Austin wiped the runes and circles away from the earth. \"Go free,\" he said. \"And tell your brothers our deal is done.\"\n\n\"Not yet,\" said Dantalion. \"I believe you have something of ours.\"\n\nColby shook his head. \"Yeah, but it's not for you. You're the one who lost it. You have to go back and face the music on that. The ring is meant for another of your brothers, the one who's earned it.\"\n\n\"That's not how this works.\"\n\n\"It is today.\"\n\n\"You made a vow.\"\n\n\"Not for the ring. Never for the ring. That I'll give back on my own.\" Colby slid his hand into his pocket. \"We're not going to have a problem, are we?\"\n\nFocalor eyed Austin up and down. \"Another time,\" he said.\n\nShe smiled, nodding, unfazed. \"Another time.\"\n\nThe air sizzled and the ground warped and the wind howled like it was being murdered and the trees swayed their branches away in mortal terror; the entire universe bent in upon itself, threatening to snap, almost giving way. One by one the demons vanished, each unique in their exit. Focalor became a puddle that boiled away in an instant; Astaroth collapsed into a singularity, burning bright, like the sun before winking out; Dantalion simply smoked away into mist; Berith exploded in a gusher of gore; and Bune immolated, burning to ash that fluttered away on the wind. Then the universe bent back; the trees relaxed and the wind died and the ground flattened and the air calmed to a standstill. And they were gone.\n\nColby looked at Austin, nodding sadly. \"Now for the hard part.\"\n\n\"I still don't understand what's going on,\" said Austin.\n\nGossamer nuzzled Colby, looking up at the two. \"You will,\" he said. \"It'll all make sense by morning.\"\n\n\"Let's go, Goss,\" said Colby.\n\n\"Sure thing, boss.\"\n\nColby gave a somber wave, then he and the dog walked off into the woods together, stepped into a tree, and vanished, leaving Austin and the kutji behind.\nCHAPTER 59\n\nWITH THIS RING\n\nThe night was darker out here, the stars brighter, the light pollution of the city too far to ruin the sky. Half the horizon was covered in clouds, flashes of lightning rippling through their bellies. At last, it seemed, rain was on its way. Maybe this time it wouldn't just be a tease; maybe this time the drought would end.\n\nColby and Gossamer were nowhere near home, too far out for Austin to hear them. They were deep in the Limestone Kingdom, but nowhere near anyone's haunt. The two were entirely alone.\n\n\"This is as good a place as any,\" said Colby.\n\n\"They'll find out eventually.\"\n\n\"Yeah, but not tonight. We get tonight.\"\n\n\"Last chance,\" said Gossamer.\n\n\"The last chance has come and gone. You know that.\"\n\n\"I do. I just thought I'd make it feel like we had a choice in the matter.\"\n\n\"I appreciate that.\"\n\nColby held out his arms and started screaming in an infernal tongue, chanting once again the means of summoning. Then he shouted, \"President Amy, I summon thee. Appear and speak.\"\n\nThe earth clattered awake and the demon appeared in a burst of hellfire. Amy. The Holocaust Man.\n\n\"It was my understanding,\" he said, flames trickling off his tongue, \"that our business was concluded.\"\n\n\"Between myself and the Seventy-two it has. But not between me and you.\"\n\n\"There is no business between me and you.\"\n\n\"Oh, but there is,\" said Colby. \"You see, I've brought the ring.\"\n\nAmy eyed the ring nervously. \"You should have given it to Dantalion. He's the one who lost it. He should be the one to put it back where it belongs.\"\n\n\"But he didn't fight for it. Not like you did.\"\n\n\"I'm not sure I know what you mean.\" He was lying. Colby could sense it.\n\n\"Thank you,\" said Colby, smiling politely.\n\n\"For what?\"\n\n\"For lying so directly. You could have played with some version of the truth, kept us going round and round until I had to get direct with you. Now I know for sure what I only suspected.\"\n\n\"Which is?\"\n\n\"You killed Bill the Shadow. And you torched our bar.\"\n\nThe Holocaust Man stared blankly at him, eyes dimming, curious. \"I'm listening.\"\n\n\"From the get-go everything seemed wrong,\" said Colby. \"Orobas consented to my deal too quickly, didn't niggle over the details. He could have demanded the ring, but he didn't. Then, each of the five did exactly as I asked, no exceptions.\"\n\n\"That was the deal.\"\n\n\"That was. But no one tried to pervert it. No one cheated, tried to screw me out of what I asked for through loopholes. I gave each of them ample opportunity for shenanigans, but they didn't take the bait. They were each punctual, exact, and saw to it that they honored our deal in toto. They even played upon my own weakness for knowledge, almost all of them more than happy to engage me in discussion, hand me secrets men have died trying and failing to learn. All because they wanted me to trust them.\"\n\n\"And you did,\" hissed the demon.\n\n\"No. Because there was something else nagging at me.\"\n\n\"What was that?\"\n\n\"Orobas. He told me that he didn't know why he couldn't see my future anymore. That none of you did.\"\n\n\"We didn't.\"\n\n\"Oh, I know. But for that to be true it meant that merely being involved with the ring wouldn't cloud your sight of my destiny. It meant that I would, at some point, come into possession of the ring. And what Orobas meant when he said he didn't know, was that he didn't know whether I would take the ring and hand it back or if I would keep it for myself.\"\n\nThe Holocaust Man nodded, flames jumping, licking the air, as he did.\n\n\"I can only assume there was some debate over which it might be and how best you could convince me to give it back. The prevailing thought must have been to earn my trust. But someone dissented. Thought it best to scare me, make me think the ring was far more trouble than it was worth. Convince me that everyone and everything that I loved would be at risk if I kept it. And that was you.\"\n\n\"How did you know?\"\n\nColby threw a stiff thumb at Gossamer. \"My dog.\"\n\n\"Your familiar?\"\n\n\"He was there when your kutji torched the place.\"\n\n\"And how did you know that wasn't the Queen?\"\n\n\"Because your kutji had both of their hands.\" Colby held both of his hands open in the air.\n\nThe demon smiled, his charred teeth large, cinders smoldering between them. \"You're a clever boy after all, Colby Stevens.\"\n\n\"You couldn't help yourself.\"\n\n\"No, I couldn't.\"\n\n\"No, I mean you couldn't help yourself. You were destined to do it. This had to happen. You were the reason you couldn't see my future. Before you intervened, I wanted nothing to do with the ring. It scared the shit out of me. I didn't want that kind of responsibility, or to earn that much enmity. But the minute you made your play, I saw just how untrustworthy a lot you were. I almost bought into the idea that you were all just fallen angels, doing your own thing. But you're not. You're demons. You're Hell. And I will never be free of you.\"\n\nColby reached into his pocket and pulled out the ring. He held it up, pinched between thumb and forefinger, eyeing it as it flickered in the firelight.\n\n\"You can't keep it, Colby,\" said the demon. \"We'll never let you keep it.\"\n\n\"But that's just it. I don't have a choice. You robbed me of that choice the moment you interfered. That's why you couldn't see my future. You were always meant to let me know that I was never safe from you, with or without the ring. So my choice was to fear you without it, or fear you with it. Which is no choice at all.\"\n\n\"Colby\u2014\"\n\nColby slipped the ring on his finger. \"You killed my friend, you son of a bitch.\" He punched the demon square in the chest, the brand of Solomon burning immediately into him. Amy reeled back, but not in time. His eyes smoldered black, flames erupting all over his body. He screamed in agony.\n\n\"Kneel,\" growled Colby.\n\nThe demon fell to his knees.\n\n\"Who do you serve?\"\n\n\"You.\"\n\n\"You're going to go back to your brothers. You're going to tell them what you've done. You're going to tell them that you're the reason I've kept the ring. Then you're going to give them a message.\"\n\n\"What's the message?\" asked the kowtowing demon.\n\n\"That I'm going to leave your punishment to them.\"\n\nThe Holocaust Man looked up fearfully. \"What?\"\n\n\"If I'm satisfied with your punishment, I won't use this ring in any other way. But if I'm not, or if a single one of you interferes in my life again, or shows its face without me asking, or goes after one of my friends, I will summon you one by one over the course of a single afternoon and I will bury you so far and deep within the earth that your five hundred years in the sea will feel like a fucking holiday weekend. And that goes for Kaycee too. She's off-limits now. And they have you to blame.\"\n\n\"No. Please. You have no idea what they'll do\u2014\"\n\n\"You're right. I don't. I lack their capacity for cruelty. I can't even begin to imagine the suffering you're about to endure. You see, that's the illusion of choice. Your brothers can go to war with me for the ring. Or they can just shit on you and wait me out. Do you imagine there will be much of a discussion?\"\n\n\"No. I don't.\"\n\n\"Neither do I. Bill was good to me. He deserved better than that. I hope it was worth it.\"\n\nThe demon smiled again, laughing. \"It was. Now you're truly damned, Colby Stevens. Truly damned.\"\n\n\"Go. Tell your brothers. Accept your punishment.\"\n\n\"Good-bye, Colby,\" said the demon, still smiling.\n\n\"Good-bye, Amy.\"\n\nThen the Holocaust Man fell away into ashes, a small flaming circle left burning in the ground where he'd knelt.\n\nColby looked down at Gossamer. \"I told you. What you've gotten yourself into with me, it can't be undone.\"\n\n\"All due respect,\" said Gossamer, \"but go fuck yourself. There's nowhere else I'd rather be, boss.\"\n\nColby scratched Goss behind the ears. \"Let's go home.\"\n\n\"Good idea. I need a beer.\"\nCHAPTER 60\n\nTHE BURDEN OF SOLOMON\n\nColby and Gossamer were only five minutes ahead of the storm, the smell of the rain wafting in from the west, thunder rumbling through the streets. The stars were gone now; only clouds remained. They were only a few blocks from home when they heard a third pair of footsteps. At once, from the barefoot scuff, Colby knew without looking who it was.\n\n\"Hello, Coyote,\" he said without breaking stride, too tired to make a big deal out of it.\n\n\"When was the last time you slept?\" asked the manitou.\n\n\"Australia.\"\n\n\"That was awhile ago.\"\n\n\"And not the best sleep. How can I help you?\"\n\n\"I'm good. Just a friendly visit.\"\n\n\"There are no friendly visits from Coyote.\"\n\n\"They're all friendly visits, Colby. I don't believe in getting angry.\"\n\n\"Probably because you're very good at helping everyone else with that.\"\n\n\"It's good to have a skill.\"\n\nColby stopped, Gossamer stopping with him. \"What do you want?\"\n\n\"To congratulate you.\"\n\n\"For what?\"\n\n\"What do you think?\"\n\n\"I really don't know.\"\n\nCoyote grinned, beaming like a proud father. \"Four hundred years ago, five demons decided to sink a ship just because they could. Tonight they paid for their arrogance and lost the one thing they hold most dear.\"\n\n\"The ring?\" asked Colby.\n\n\"No. Their immunity from repercussions.\"\n\n\"They didn't suffer long for what they did.\"\n\n\"They've only just begun to suffer. You saw to that.\"\n\n\"I have no intention of tangling with them again.\"\n\nCoyote smiled wider, increasingly pleased. \"But they don't know that. You're a being of the flesh, Colby. You aren't bound to your word like they are. From this day forward, they will always want to know where you are because they're always going to be afraid that you might at any moment renege on your end of the deal.\"\n\n\"So they'll come for me instead. Is that what you're saying?\"\n\n\"What, and ensure that you'll bind them? Mark them with that little ring and make them kneel like you did Amy? They only have the illusion of choice, like they gave you. Either they trust you or they ensure they'll become your slaves.\"\n\n\"That's not a very good choice,\" said Colby.\n\n\"That's why I like it so much,\" said Coyote through a churlish giggle. \"Of all the options presented to you, the wealth of possibilities, and this was your path. You could have asked for power. Immolated your adversaries. Become a god. You could have had any woman in the world, ended all your loneliness. One boon can grant more power than most men ever dream of. You had five. Instead you asked only for what you needed. Knowledge and tools.\"\n\n\"That was the only way to do it.\"\n\n\"It was the only way to do it and retain your soul.\"\n\n\"Like I said. That was the only way to do it.\"\n\nCoyote nodded, walking again toward Colby's house, waving a lecturing finger. \"At night you drink yourself to sleep, wondering why your life has to be so hard. Wondering what it would be like if you hadn't made that wish. And yet every morning you wake up stronger. Smarter. Wiser. And now you have that ring.\"\n\nColby walked briskly to catch up, Gossamer in tow. \"I don't want it.\"\n\n\"Good. The people who want it shouldn't have it. They say Solomon didn't want it.\"\n\n\"Yeah, but I'm not Solomon.\"\n\n\"Solomon was just a man, Colby. A man who cared about his people. Greatness isn't given to anyone. It's taken after years of hard learning.\"\n\n\"I'm not great.\"\n\n\"No. You're not. But you've become a problem. Almost everyone hates you. No one can trust you. You have grown far more powerful than you have any right to be. And worse yet, you are driven by ideals that run counter to the very world you are a part of. You look around you and see great corruption\u2014dangerous creatures that need to be taught a lesson. And you figure you're just the one to teach them.\"\n\n\"Maybe I am.\"\n\n\"Maybe you are.\"\n\n\"Maybe you could use a lesson or two.\"\n\nCoyote smiled, shaking his head. \"It's not yet time for the student to become the teacher.\"\n\n\"I'm not your student.\"\n\n\"Aren't you?\"\n\n\"No.\"\n\n\"What was your first boon?\"\n\n\"What does that have to\u2014\"\n\n\"You stood before that demon and he gave unto you a mind that could never be deceived by a spirit again. So tell me, oh seer-through-of-bullshit: am I lying?\"\n\nHe wasn't. Colby stopped in his tracks. \"Mandu.\"\n\nCoyote turned, the biggest, smarmiest smile Colby had ever seen pulled back over pearl white teeth.\n\n\"But he said his spirit\u2014\"\n\n\"Was a dingo. A large dingo.\"\n\n\"Yeah.\"\n\n\"Living in Arnhem as he did, do you imagine he'd ever even seen a coyote?\" Coyote returned to walking, his stride now more of a stroll. \"Angels have their preachers, Colby. Demons have their sorcerers. And I, I have my Clever Men.\" The manitou kept walking, fading away as he did, until he was nothing but a shadow dimming in the night. And then he was gone, one with the black.\n\nColby muttered beneath his breath, but Gossamer knew what he was saying all the same. Then the two continued home, ever more unsure about everything that had just happened.\n\nAs they rounded the corner, they saw her, sitting on the front porch, a six-pack of icy Mexican beer at her side. Austin. She gave a slight nod and motioned to the beer. Colby nodded back, then looked down at Gossamer.\n\n\"I think I'm going to take a lap or two around the block, boss.\"\n\n\"You don't have to. You'll get caught in the rain.\"\n\n\"Nah, it's about time.\"\n\n\"That it rained?\"\n\n\"That too. Save me a beer.\"\n\n\"It's a sixer. I'll save you two.\"\n\nGossamer rubbed his head against Colby's leg, looked up at him with the kind of love only a golden retriever knows, then loped off down the street, dreaming about beer.\n\nColby plodded slowly up the front walk, hands in his pockets, eyes on the cracked cement. Austin smiled, pulled a pair of beers from the sixer, and popped off the tops without an opener.\n\n\"Mayor,\" he said, looking at her, hands still in his pockets.\n\n\"Sheriff.\"\n\nHe sat down, taking a beer from her hand, and looked out into the night. Austin sipped at hers, staring out with him.\n\n\"I'm not the mayor,\" she said.\n\n\"I'm not the sheriff.\"\n\n\"That's not what you said before.\"\n\n\"That's because I was an idiot. I'm no sheriff. This town doesn't need one.\"\n\n\"It doesn't?\"\n\n\"No. This town needs something else.\"\n\n\"What's that?\"\n\n\"A Clever Man.\"\n\nThey sat there, together, in silence, drinking, neither saying a word. Neither needing to. Gentle slaps of rain rolling down the street, the storm only seconds away.\nEPILOGUE\n\nOnce upon a time there was a very clever little girl who possessed the power to walk through dreams. Each night, as she slept, she would traipse out past the black stump, deep into the outback, and dance beneath the moon. She would frolic from billabong to billabong, leaping on top of rocks, scaling cliff faces, climbing trees, visiting all her friends of the dream as she did. And this made her very, very happy.\n\nBut one night, as she danced deeper than she ever had before, she came across a barren desert that stank only of the dead. It was soundless, with no bushes or trees for the wind to rustle. But when she heard the wind rise up she grew frightened, for it was unlike any wind she had ever heard before.\n\nThere is a vast difference between the large, boisterous sound of the wind tearing across an open plain and that of its twitters through a tight space. In the desert you notice these things. One means bad weather, the other means something is nearby. This was the latter. The whistles were like a stiff wind through a wooden fence, long, labored, the trill changing pitch with the rise and fall of each gust.\n\nThe little girl stopped in her tracks, noting the sound was moving with her, surrounding her on nearly all sides. As she came to an abrupt halt, she heard a flapping, scurrying, but the whistles still wailed. She looked around. Nothing. Darkness everywhere the eye could see. Even the stars were afraid of this place.\n\nThe little girl pulled a small box of matches from her pocket, plucked one from the tiny cardboard tray, and struck it against the side. The match brightened, growing in intensity until it became a white-hot blaze, like a phosphorous flare against the black of the outback. The darkness withered and twenty skeletal creatures, dressed from head to toe in rags, cowered from the light.\n\nNomorodo. Desert vampires. Dried skin wrapped tightly around brittle bones; their insides, meat and all, sucked out by their predecessors; their hair long, straggly; finger bones filed down, sharpened to fine, deadly points. They stood there, feral, snarling, cowering behind their hands from the light, stunned for the moment by the surprise of it.\n\nThe little girl gasped. Not only had she not expected vampires, but she also hadn't imagined that if there were, there would be so many. She was completely surrounded, some on the ground, some hovering in the air, wind blowing through them making such terrible sounds. And at any moment they would pile on and drain out every last bit of her.\n\nThen, from out in the desert, came the most terrifying sound, like a pig being both strangled and stabbed at the same time. The earth rumbled, tremors like a freight train headed right for her. And then the wind took away her light.\n\nScreeches of a scuffle surrounded her, howls, bloodthirsty and raw, shrill against the night. Bones shattered to dust. Leathery skin shredded. The ever-present whistling began to quiet and the remaining nomorodo began chittering nervously.\n\nThen came a burst of light so bright it lit the desert purple for miles before blinding the little girl, the image of a half dozen nomorodo being mauled by a gigantic beast burned into her eyes. Whatever it was, it was too massive, too malformed to comprehend in so brief an instant.\n\nThe nomorodo begged for their lives in dry, sand-mouthed rasps, but whatever this thing was, it showed them no mercy at all. The remaining nomorodo scattered, the whistling fading quickly as they ran for their lives.\n\nA tangle of rags blew in the wind, wrapping loosely around the little girl's ankle, the only reminder left of its former owner. Another gust came along and took it away, dragging it off, lonely, into the desert.\n\nHer eyes adjusted and when she looked again, the stars and moon had come back out. Standing before her was a monstrous beast, six clawed legs, fangs larger and longer than she, bristling fur from stem to stern. Atop it sat another little girl, roughly her own age, wearing purple pajamas with bright yellow stars.\n\nThe little girl atop the monster offered her a hand, helped her up onto the beast along with her.\n\n\"Thank you,\" said the little girl.\n\n\"You're welcome,\" said the girl atop the monster.\n\n\"Are you . . . are you the Queen of the Dark Things?\"\n\n\"No,\" she said, shaking her head. \"The Queen of the Dark Things is dead. She died in a land far, far away. My name's Kaycee. Just Kaycee.\"\n\nAnd they rode off together to a safer part of the dream.\nABOUT THE AUTHOR\n\nC. ROBERT CARGILL is the screenwriter of the film Sinister, and he is currently working on the film adaptation of Deus Ex. He wrote for Ain't It Cool News for nearly a decade under the pseudonym Massawyrm, served as a staff writer for Film.com and Hollywood.com, and appeared as the animated character Carlyle on spill.com. The author of Dreams and Shadows lives and works in Austin, Texas.\n\ncRobertCargill.com  \nFollow   @Massawyrm\n\nVisit www.AuthorTracker.com for exclusive information on your favorite HarperCollins authors.\nALSO BY C. ROBERT CARGILL\n\nDREAMS AND SHADOWS\nCREDITS\n\nCover design by Adam Johnson\n\nCover photograph \u00a9 by Philippe Sainte-Laudy\n\nPhotography\/Getty Images\n\nAuthor photograph \u00a9 by Jessica Cargill\nCOPYRIGHT\n\nThis book is a work of fiction. The characters, incidents, and dialogue are drawn from the author's imagination and are not to be construed as real. Any resemblance to actual events or persons, living or dead, is entirely coincidental.\n\nHarper Voyager and design is a trademark of HCP LLC.\n\nQUEEN OF THE DARK THINGS. Copyright \u00a9 2014 by C. Robert Cargill. All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. By payment of the required fees, you have been granted the nonexclusive, nontransferable right to access and read the text of this e-book on-screen. No part of this text may be reproduced, transmitted, downloaded, decompiled, reverse-engineered, or stored in or introduced into any information storage and retrieval system, in any form or by any means, whether electronic or mechanical, now known or hereinafter invented, without the express written permission of HarperCollins e-books.\n\nFIRST EDITION\n\nISBN 978-0-06-219045-1\n\nEPub Edition May 2014 ISBN 9780062190475\n\n14 15 16 17 18 OV\/RRD 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1\nABOUT THE PUBLISHER\n\nAustralia\n\nHarperCollins Publishers Australia Pty. Ltd.\n\nLevel 13, 201 Elizabeth Street\n\nSydney, NSW 2000, Australia\n\nwww.harpercollins.com.au\n\nCanada\n\nHarperCollins Canada\n\n2 Bloor Street East - 20th Floor\n\nToronto, ON M4W 1A8, Canada\n\nwww.harpercollins.ca\n\nNew Zealand\n\nHarperCollins Publishers New Zealand\n\nUnit D1, 63 Apollo Drive\n\nRosedale 0632\n\nAuckland, New Zealand\n\nwww.harpercollins.co.nz\n\nUnited Kingdom\n\nHarperCollins Publishers Ltd.\n\n77-85 Fulham Palace Road\n\nLondon W6 8JB, UK\n\nwww.harpercollins.co.uk\n\nUnited States\n\nHarperCollins Publishers Inc.\n\n195 Broadway\n\nNew York, NY 10007\n\nwww.harpercollins.com\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
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+{"text":"\n\n\n\nProduced by Chris Curnow, Nicole Henn-Kneif, Tom Cosmas\nand the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at\nhttp:\/\/www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images\ngenerously made available by The Internet Archive)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTranscriber's Note\n\n  Italic text has been formatted as _text_ and superscript text as ^{text}.\n\n\n\n\n                              COLOURATION\n                                   IN\n                          ANIMALS AND PLANTS.\n\n                              BY THE LATE\n                          ALFRED TYLOR, F.G.S.\n\n                              _Edited by_\n                    SYDNEY B. J. SKERTCHLY, F.G.S.,\n                    LATE OF H.M. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.\n\n                                LONDON:\n               PRINTED BY ALABASTER, PASSMORE, AND SONS,\n                  FANN STREET, ALDERSGATE STREET, E.C.\n\n                                 1886.\n\n\n\n\n                               IN MEMORY\n                     OF A FRIENDSHIP OF MANY YEARS,\n                               THIS BOOK\n                                   IS\n                        Affectionately Inscribed\n                                   TO\n                   THE RIGHT HON. GEORGE YOUNG, P.C.\n                                 1885.\n\n\n\n\n                                PREFACE.\n\n\nThis little book is only a sketch of what its Author desired it to be,\nand he never saw the completed manuscript. Beginning with the\nfundamental idea that decoration is based upon structure, he saw that\nthis was due to the fact that in the lower, transparent, animals, colour\nis applied directly to the organs, and that the decoration of opaque\nanimals is carried out on the same principle--the primitive idea being\nmaintained. Where function changes the pattern alters, where function is\nlocalized colour is concentrated: and thus the law of emphasis was\nevolved. Symmetry was a necessary consequence, for like parts were\ndecorated alike, and this symmetry was carried out in detail apparently\nfor the sake of beauty, as in the spiracular markings of many larvae.\nHence the reason for recognizing the law of repetition.\n\nWith the developing of these ideas the necessity for recognizing some\nsort of consciousness even in the lowest forms of life was forced upon\nthe Author, until inherited memory formed part of his scientific faith.\nThis he saw dimly years ago, but only clearly when Mr. S. Butler's\nremarkable \"Life and Habit\" appeared, and he was gratified and\nstrengthened when he found Mr. Romanes adopting that theory in his\n\"Mental Evolution.\"\n\nThe opening chapters are designedly elementary; for the Author had a\nwise dread of locking intellectual treasures in those unpickable\nscientific safes of which \"the learned\" alone hold keys.\n\nOnly a very small portion of the vast array of facts accumulated has\nbeen made use of, and the Author was steadily working through the\nanimal kingdom, seeking exceptions to his laws, but finding none, when\ndeath closed his patient and far-seeing eyes. A few days before the end\nhe begged me to finish this abstract, for I had been at his side through\nall his labours.\n\nThe work contains his views as clearly as I could express them, though\non every page I feel they suffer from want of amplification. But I\nfeared the work might become the expression of my own thoughts, though\nwant of leisure would probably have prevented that unhappy result. Now\nit is finished, I would fain write it all over again, for methinks\nbetween the lines can be seen gleams of brighter light.\n\n                                                 SYDNEY B. J. SKERTCHLY.\n\n  CARSHALTON,\n    _July 17th, 1886_.\n\n\n  The  illustrations were drawn by Mrs. Skertchly chiefly from\n nature, and very carefully printed by Messrs. Alabaster, Passmore, and\n                                 Sons.\n\n\n                             [Illustration]\n\n\n\n\n                               CONTENTS.\n\n\n    CHAPTER                                                    PAGE\n\n       I. INTRODUCTORY                                            1\n\n      II. INHERITED MEMORY                                        8\n\n     III. INTRODUCTORY SKETCH                                    16\n\n      IV. COLOUR, ITS NATURE AND RECOGNITION                     25\n\n       V. THE COLOUR SENSE                                       32\n\n      VI. SPOTS AND STRIPES                                      39\n\n     VII. COLOURATION IN THE INVERTEBRATA                        49\n\n    VIII. DETAILS OF PROTOZOA                                    56\n\n      IX. DETAILS OF COELENTERATA                                 59\n\n       X. THE COLOURATION OF INSECTS                             68\n\n      XI. THE COLOURATION OF INSECTS                             75\n\n     XII. ARACHNIDA                                              82\n\n    XIII. COLOURATION OF INVERTEBRATA                            85\n\n     XIV. COLOURATION OF VERTEBRATA                              88\n\n      XV. THE COLOURATION OF PLANTS                              95\n\n     XVI. CONCLUSIONS                                            97\n\n\n\n\n                           LIST OF WOODCUTS.\n\n\n    Fig. 1.  Part of Secondary Feather of Argus Pheasant.\n\n    Fig. 2.  Ditto   Wing-feather of ditto.\n\n    Fig. 3.  Diagram of Butterfly's Wing.\n\n    Fig. 4.  Python.\n\n    Fig. 5.  Tiger's Skin.\n\n    Fig. 6.     Ditto.\n\n    Fig. 7.  Tiger's Head, side view.\n\n    Fig. 8.      Ditto,    crown.\n\n    Fig. 9.  Leopard's Skin.\n\n    Fig. 10.     Ditto.\n\n    Fig. 11.  Leopard's Head, side view.\n\n    Fig. 12.      Ditto,      crown.\n\n    Fig. 13.  Lynx' Skin.\n\n    Fig. 14.    Ditto.\n\n    Fig. 15.  Ocelot.\n\n    Fig. 16.  Badger.\n\n    Fig. 17.  Begonia Leaf.\n\n\n\n\n                         DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.\n\n\n    PLATE I.  _Kallima Inachus_, the Indian Leaf Butterfly.\n    _p._ 28.    Fig. 1.  With wings expanded.\n                Fig. 2. Two Butterflies at rest, showing their exact\n                         resemblance to dead leaves.\n              This insect affords one of the best examples of\n            protective resemblance.\n\n\n    PLATE II.  Illustration of mimicry in butterflies.\n    _p._ 30.    Fig. 1. Male of _Papilio merope_.\n                Fig. 2. Female of     ditto     mimicking Fig. 3.\n                Fig. 3. _Danais niavius._\n             On the African continent both species occur, but in\n           Madagascar _D. niavius_ is wanting, and the female\n           _P. merope_ is  like the male.\n\n\n    PLATE III.  Fig. 1. _Gonepteryx Cleopatra._\n    _p._ 40.    Fig. 2. _Gonepteryx rhamni_, male.\n                            _Note._--The orange spot in Fig. 2 has\n                           spread over the wing in Fig. 1.\n                Fig. 3. _Vanessa Antiopa._\n                Fig. 4. _Panopoea hirta._\n                Fig. 5. _Acrea gea._\n              These two last belong to widely different genera, but\n            are admirable examples of mimicry.\n\n\n    PLATE IV.  Fig.  1. _Leucophasia Sinapis._\n    _p._ 42.   Fig.  2.         Ditto,        var. _diniensis_.\n               Fig.  3. _Anthocaris cardamines_, male.\n               Fig.  4.         Ditto,           female.\n               Fig.  5. _Anthocaris belemia._\n               Fig.  6. _Anthocaris belia._\n               Fig.  7.         Ditto,       var. _simplonia_.\n               Fig.  8. _Anthocaris eupheno_, female.\n               Fig.  9.         Ditto,        male.\n               Fig. 10. _Anthocaris euphemoides._\n               Fig. 11. _Papilio machaon._\n               Fig. 12. _Papilio podalirius._\n               Fig. 13. _Pieris napi_, summer form.\n               Fig. 14.     Ditto,     winter form.\n               Fig. 15.     Ditto,     var. _bryoniae_ (alpine form).\n               Fig. 16.     Ditto,     summer form, underside.\n               Fig. 17.     Ditto,     winter form, underside.\n               Fig. 18.     Ditto,     var. _bryoniae_, underside.\n\n             Figs. 13-18 illustrate admirably the variations of the\n           yellow and black in the same species.\n\n\n    PLATE V.  Fig.  1. _Araschnia prorsa_, male.\n    _p._ 44.  Fig.  2.       Ditto,        female.\n              Fig.  3. _Araschnia levana_, female.\n              Fig.  4.       Ditto,        male.\n              Fig.  5. _Paragra aegeria._\n              Fig.  6. _Araschnia porima._\n              Fig.  7.       Ditto,        var. _meione_.\n              Fig.  8. _Grapta interrogationis._\n              Fig.  9.       Ditto.\n              Fig. 10.       Ditto.\n              Fig. 11. _Papilio Ajax_, var. _Walshii_.\n              Fig. 12.       Ditto,    var. _telamonides_.\n              Fig. 13.       Ditto,    var. _Marcellus_.\n\n            Figs. 1-5 are all one species; _levana_ being the winter form,\n          _prorsa_ the summer form, and _porima_ intermediate. Similarly\n          6-7 are the same species, _meione_ being the southern form. So\n          with 8-9 and 11-13, which are only seasonal varieties. Here we\n          can actually trace the way in which varieties are formed.\n          _See_ Weismann's work, cited in the text.\n\n\n    PLATE VI.  _Syncoryne pulchella_, magnified. After Professor Allman.\n    _p._ 62.       Gymnoblastic or Tubularian Hydroids. Ray Soc., 1871,\n                   pl. vi., figs. 1 and 3.\n\n               Fig. 1. A planoblast as seen passively floating in the water\n                       after liberation.\n               Fig. 2. The entire hydrosoma of syncoryne.\n                       _a._ The spadix.\n                       _b._ The medusae or planoblasts in various stages of\n                            development.\n\n\n    PLATE VII.\n    _p._ 80.    Fig.  1. _Deilephila galii_, immature.\n                Fig.  2.          Ditto      brown variety, adult.\n                Fig.  3. _Deilephila euphorbiae._\n                Fig.  4. _Sphinx ligustri._\n                Fig.  5. _Deilephila euphorbiae_, dorsal view.\n                Fig.  6. _Orgyia antiqua._\n                Fig.  7. _Abraxas grossulariata._\n                Fig.  8. _Bombyx neustria._\n                Fig.  9. _Callimorpha dominula._\n                Fig. 10. _Euchelia jacobaea._\n                Fig. 11. _Papilio machaon._\n\n\n                                SPIDERS.\n\n    PLATE VIII.  Fig.  1. _Segestria senoculata_, female.\n    _p._ 84.     Fig.  2. _Sparassus smaragdulus_, male.\n                 Fig.  3. _Lycosa piscatoria_, female.\n                 Fig.  4. ---- _andrenivora_, male.\n                 Fig.  5. ---- ---- female.\n                 Fig.  6. ---- _allodroma_, male.\n                 Fig.  7. ---- _agretyca_, male.\n                 Fig.  8. ---- _allodroma_, female.\n                 Fig.  9. Diagram of _Lycosa_, showing form and position of\n                          vessels. After Gegenbaur.\n                 Fig. 10. _Lycosa campestris_, female.\n                 Fig. 11. _Thomisus luctuosus_, male.\n                 Fig. 12. _Salticus scenicus_, female.\n                 Fig. 13. _Lycosa rapax_, female.\n                 Fig. 14. ---- _latitans_, female.\n                 Fig. 15. _Theridion pictum_, female.\n                 Fig. 16. _Lycosa picta_, female.\n                 Fig. 17.  ---- ---- male.\n            All the above are British species, and copied from Blackwell's\n          \"Spiders of Great Britain and Ireland.\" Ray Soc., 1862.\n\n\n                                FISHES.\n\n    PLATE IX.  Fig. 1. Windermere Char. _Salmo Willughbii._ A species\n    _p._ 88.             peculiar to our North of England lakes.\n               Fig. 2. Perch, _Perca fluviatilis_, showing the modified\n                         rib-like markings.\n\n\n                               SUNBIRDS.\n\n    PLATE X.  Fig. 1. _Nectarinea chloropygia._\n    _p._ 90.  Fig. 2. _Nectarinea christinae._\n                  These birds illustrate regional colouration well.\n\n\n                                LEAVES.\n\n    PLATE XI.  Fig. 1. Horse Chestnut, _AEschulus hippocastanum_, decaying.\n    _p._ 95.   Fig. 2. _Coleus._\n               Fig. 3. _Begonia rex._\n               Fig. 4. _Begonia_.\n               Fig. 5. _Caladium bicolor._\n               Fig. 6. _Anoechtochilus xanthophyllus._\n\n\n                                FLOWERS.\n\n    PLATE XII.  Fig. 1. _Gloxinia_, with 5 petals, showing uneven\n    _p._ 96.                 colouring.\n                Fig. 2. _Gloxinia_, with 6 petals, showing regular\n                             colouring.\n                Figs. 3 and 4. Pelargoniums, showing the variation of the\n                             dark markings with the different sized petals.\n\n\n                             [Illustration]\n\n\n\n\n                   COLOURATION IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS.\n\n\n\n\n                               CHAPTER I.\n\n                             INTRODUCTION.\n\n\nBefore Darwin published his remarkable and memorable work on the Origin\nof Species, the decoration of animals and plants was a mystery as much\nhidden to the majority as the beauty of the rainbow ere Newton analysed\nthe light. That the world teemed with beauty in form and colour was all\nwe knew; and the only guess that could be made as to its uses was the\nvague and unsatisfactory suggestion that it was appointed for the\ndelight of man.\n\nWhy, if such was the case, so many flowers were \"born to blush unseen,\"\nso many insects hidden in untrodden forests, so many bright-robed\ncreatures buried in the depths of the sea, no man could tell. It seemed\nbut a poor display of creative intelligence to lavish for thousands of\nyears upon heedless savage eyes such glories as are displayed by the\nforests of Brazil; and the mind recoiled from the suggestion that such\ncould ever have been the prime intention.\n\nBut with the dawn of the new scientific faith, light began to shine upon\nthese and kindred questions; nature ceased to appear a mass of useless,\nunconnected facts, and ornamentation appeared in its true guise as of\nextreme importance to the beings possessing it. It was the theory of\ndescent with modification that threw this light upon nature.\n\nThis theory, reduced to its simplest terms, is that species, past and\npresent, have arisen from the accumulation by inheritance of minute\ndifferences of form, structure, colour, or habit, giving to the\nindividual a better chance, in the struggle for existence, of obtaining\nfood or avoiding danger. It is based on a few well-known and universally\nadmitted facts or laws of nature: namely, the law of multiplication in\ngeometrical progression causing the birth of many more individuals than\ncan survive, leading necessarily to the struggle for existence; the law\nof heredity, in virtue of which the offspring resembles its parents; the\nlaw of variation, in virtue of which the offspring has an individual\ncharacter slightly differing from its parents.\n\nTo illustrate these laws roughly we will take the case of a bird, say,\nthe thrush. The female lays on the average five eggs, and if all these\nare hatched, and the young survive, thrushes would be as seven to two\ntimes as numerous in the next year. Let two of these be females, and\nbring up each five young; in the second year we shall have seventeen\nthrushes, in the third thirty-seven, in the fourth seventy-seven, and so\non. Now common experience tells us not merely that such a vast increase\nof individuals does not take place, but can never do so, as in a very\nfew years the numbers would be so enormously increased that food would\nbe exhausted.\n\nOn the other hand, we know that the numbers of individuals remain\npractically the same. It follows, then, that of every five eggs four\nfail to arrive at maturity; and this rigorous destruction of individuals\nis what is known as the struggle for existence. If, instead of a bird,\nwe took an insect, laying hundreds of eggs, a fish, laying thousands, or\na plant, producing still greater quantities of seed, we should find the\nextermination just as rigorous, and the numbers of individuals destroyed\nincomparably greater. Darwin has calculated that from a single pair of\nelephants nearly nineteen millions would be alive in 750 years if each\nelephant born arrived at maturity, lived a hundred years, and produced\nsix young--and the elephant is the slowest breeder of all animals.\n\nThe struggle for existence, then, is a real and potent fact, and it\nfollows that if, from any cause whatever, a being possesses any power or\npeculiarity that will give it a better chance of survival over its\nfellows--be that power ever so slight--it will have a very decided\nadvantage.\n\nNow it can be shown that no two individuals are exactly alike, in other\nwords, that variation is constantly taking place, and that no animal or\nplant preserves its characters unmodified. This we might have expected\nif we attentively consider how impossible it is for any two individuals\nto be subjected to exactly the same conditions of life and habit. But\nfor the proofs of variability we have not to rely upon theoretical\nreasoning. No one can study, even superficially, any class or species\nwithout daily experiencing the conviction that no two individuals are\nalike, and that variation takes place in almost every conceivable\ndirection.\n\nGranted then the existence of the struggle for existence and the\nvariability of individuals, and granting also that if any variation\ngives its possessor a firmer hold upon life, it follows as a necessity\nthat the most favoured individuals will have the best chance of\nsurviving and leaving descendants, and by the law of heredity, we know\nthese offspring will tend to inherit the characters of their parents.\nThis action is often spoken of as the preservation of favoured races,\nand as the survival of the fittest.\n\nThe gradual accumulation of beneficial characters will give rise in time\nto new varieties and species; and in this way primarily has arisen the\nwonderful diversity of life that now exists. Such, in barest outline, is\nthe theory of descent with modification.\n\nLet us now see in what way this theory has been applied to colouration.\nThe colours, or, more strictly, the arrangement of colours, in patterns\nis of several kinds, viz.:--\n\n1. _General Colouration_, or such as appears to have no very special\nfunction _as_ colour. We find this most frequently in the vegetable\nkingdom, as, for instance, the green hue of leaves, which, though it has\na most valuable function chemically has no particular use as colour, so\nfar as we can see.\n\n2. _Distinctive Colouration_, or the arrangement of colours in different\npatterns or tints corresponding to each species. This is the most usual\nstyle of colouring, and the three following kinds are modifications of\nit. It is this which gives each species its own design, whether in\nanimals or plants.\n\n3. _Protective Resemblance_, or the system of colouring which conceals\nthe animal from its prey, or hides the prey from its foe. Of this class\nare the green hues of many caterpillars, the brown tints of desert\nbirds, and the more remarkable resemblances of insects to sticks and\nleaves.\n\n4. _Mimetic Colouration_, or the resemblance of one animal to another.\nIt is always the resemblance of a rare species, which is the favourite\nfood of some creature, to a common species nauseous to the mimicker's\nfoe. Of this character are many butterflies.\n\n5. _Warning Colours_, or distinctive markings and tints rendering an\nanimal conspicuous, and, as it were, proclaiming _noli me tangere_ to\nits would-be attackers.\n\n6. _Sexual Colours_, or particular modifications of colour in the two\nsexes, generally taking the form of brilliancy in the male, as in the\npeacock and birds of paradise.\n\nUnder one or other of these headings most schemes of colouration will be\nfound to arrange themselves.\n\nAt the outset, and confining ourselves to the animal kingdom for the\npresent, bearing in mind the fierce intensity of the struggle for life,\nit would seem that any scheme of colour that would enable its possessor\nto elude its foes or conceal itself from its prey, would be of vital\nimportance. Hence we might infer that protective colouring would be a\nvery usual phenomenon; and such we find to be the case. In the sea we\nhave innumerable instances of protective colouring. Fishes that lie upon\nthe sandy bottom are sand-, like soles and plaice, in other\norders we find the same hues in shrimps and crabs, and a common species\non our shores (_Carcinus maenas_) has, just behind the eyes, a little\nlight irregular patch, so like the shell fragments around that when it\nhides in the sand, with eyes and light spot alone showing, it is\nimpossible to distinguish it.\n\nThe land teems with protective colours. The sombre tints of so many\ninsects, birds and animals are cases in point, as are the golden coat of\nthe spider that lurks in the buttercup, and the green mottlings of the\nunderwings of the orange-tip butterfly. Where absolute hiding is\nimpossible, as on the African desert, we find every bird and insect,\nwithout exception, assimilating the colour of the sand.\n\nBut if protective colour is thus abundant, it is no less true that\ncolour of the most vivid description has arisen for the sole purpose of\nattracting notice. We observe this in the hues of many butterflies, in\nthe gem-like humming birds, in sun-birds, birds of paradise, peacocks\nand pheasants. To see the shining metallic blue of a Brazilian Morpho\nflashing in the sun, as it lazily floats along the forest glades, is to\nbe sure that in such cases the object of the insect is to attract\nnotice.\n\nThese brilliant hues, when studied, appear to fall into two classes,\nhaving very diverse functions, namely Sexual and Warning Colours.\n\nProtection is ensured in many ways, and among insects one of the\ncommonest has been the acquisition of a nauseous flavour. This is often\napparent even to our grosser senses; and the young naturalist who\ncaptures his first crimson-and-green Burnet Moth or Scarlet Tiger,\nbecomes at once aware of the existence of a fetid greasy secretion. This\nthe insectivorous birds know so well that not one will ever eat such\ninsects. But unless there were some outward and visible sign of this\ninward and sickening taste, it would little avail the insect to be first\nkilled and then rejected. Hence these warning colours--they as\neffectively signal danger as the red and green lamps on our railways.\n\nIt may here be remarked that wherever mimickry occurs in insects, the\nspecies mimicked is always an uneatable one, and the mimicker a\npalatable morsel. It is nature's way of writing \"poison\" on her\njam-pots.\n\nThe other class of prominent colours--the Sexual--have given rise to two\nimportant theories, the one by Darwin, the counter-theory by Wallace.\n\nDarwin's theory of Sexual Selection is briefly this:--He points out in\nmuch detail how the male is generally the most powerful, the most\naggressive, the most ardent, and therefore the wooer, while the female\nis, as a rule, gentler, smaller, and is wooed or courted. He brings\nforward an enormous mass of well-weighed facts to show, for example, how\noften the males display their plumes and beauties before their loves in\nthe pairing season, and his work is a long exposition of the truth that\nTennyson proclaimed when he wrote:--\n\n   \"In the spring a fuller crimson comes upon the robin's breast,\n    In the spring the wanton lapwing gets himself another crest,\n    In the spring a livelier iris changes on the burnished dove,\n    In the spring the young man's fancy lightly turns to thoughts of love.\"\n\nThat birds are eminently capable of appreciating beauty is certain, and\nnumerous illustrations are familiar to everyone. Suffice it here to\nnotice the pretty Bower Birds of Australia, that adorn their love\narbours with bright shells and flowers, and show as unmistakable a\ndelight in them as the connoisseur among his art treasures.\n\nFrom these and kindred facts Darwin draws the conclusion that the\nfemales are most charmed with, and select the most brilliant males, and\nthat by continued selection of this character, the sexual hues have been\ngradually evolved.\n\nTo this theory Wallace takes exception. Admitting, as all must, the fact\nof sexually distinct ornamentation, he demurs to the conclusion that\nthey have been produced by sexual selection.\n\nIn the first place, he insists upon the absence of all proof that the\nleast attractive males fail to obtain partners, without which the theory\nmust fail. Next he tells us that it was the case of the Argus pheasant,\nso admirably worked out by Darwin, that first shook his faith in sexual\nselection. Is it possible, he asks, that those exquisite eye-spots,\nshaded \"like balls lying loose within sockets\" (objects of which the\nbirds could have had no possible experience) should have been produced\n... \"through thousands and tens of thousands of female birds, all\npreferring those males whose markings varied slightly in this one\ndirection, this uniformity of choice continuing through thousands and\ntens of thousands of generations\"?[1]\n\nAs an alternative explanation, he would advance no new theory, but\nsimply apply the known laws of evolution. He points out, and dwells\nupon, the high importance of protection to the female while sitting on\nthe nest. In this way he accounts for the more sombre hues of the\nfemale; and finds strong support in the fact that in those birds in\nwhich the male undertakes the household duties, he is of a domestic dun\ncolour, and his gad-about-spouse is bedizened like a country-girl at\nfair time.\n\nWith regard to the brilliant hues themselves, he draws attention to the\nfact that depth and intensity of colour are a sign of vigour and\nhealth--that the pairing time is one of intense excitement, and that we\nshould naturally expect to find the brightest hues then displayed.\nMoreover, he shows--and this is most important to us--that \"the most\nhighly- and most richly varied markings occur on those parts\nwhich have undergone the greatest modification, or have acquired the\nmost abnormal development.\"[2]\n\nIt is not our object to discuss these rival views; but they are here\nlaid down in skeleton, that the nature of the problem of the principles\nof colouration may be easily understood.\n\nSeeing, then, how infinitely varied is colouration, and how potently\nselection has modified it, the question may be asked, \"Is it possible\nto find any general system or law which has determined the main plan of\ndecoration, any system which underlies natural selection, and through\nwhich it works\"? We venture to think there is; and the object of this\nwork is to develop the laws we have arrived at after several years of\nstudy.\n\n\n                             [Illustration]\n\n\n     [1] Wallace, Tropical Nature, p. 206.\n     [2] _Op. cit._, p. 206.\n\n\n\n\n                              CHAPTER II.\n\n                           INHERITED MEMORY.\n\n\nMany of our observations seemed to suggest a quasi-intelligent action on\nthe part of the beings under examination; and we were led, early in the\ncourse of our studies, to adopt provisionally the hypothesis that memory\nwas inherited--that the whole was consequently wiser than its parts, the\nspecies wiser than the individual, the genus wiser than the species.\n\nOne illustration will suffice to show the possibility of memory being\ninherited. Chickens, as a rule, are hatched with a full knowledge of how\nto pick up a living, only a few stupid ones having to be taught by the\nmother the process of pecking. When eggs are hatched artificially,\nignorant as well as learned chicks are produced, and the less\nintelligent, having no hen instructor, would infallibly die in the midst\nof plenty. But if a tapping noise, like pecking, be made near them, they\nhesitate awhile, and then take to their food with avidity. Here the\ntapping noise seems certainly to have awakened the ancestral memory\nwhich lay dormant.\n\nIt may be said all this is habit. But what is habit? Is it any\nexplanation to say a creature performs a given action by habit? or is it\nnot rather playing with a word which expresses a phenomenon without\nexplaining it? Directly we bring memory into the field we get a real\nexplanation. A habit is acquired by repetition, and could not arise if\nthe preceding experience were forgotten. Life is largely made up of\nrepetition, which involves the formation of habits; and, indeed,\neveryone's experience (habit again) shows that life only runs smoothly\nwhen certain necessary habits have been acquired so perfectly as to be\nperformed without effort. A being at maturity is a great storehouse of\nacquired habits; and of these many are so perfectly acquired, _i.e._,\nhave been performed so frequently, that the possessor is quite\nunconscious of possessing them.\n\nHabit tends to become automatic; indeed, a habit can hardly be said to\nbe formed until it is automatic. But habits are the result of experience\nand repetition, that is, have arisen in the first instance by some\nreasoning process; and reasoning implies consciousness. Nevertheless,\nthe action once thought out, or reasoned upon, requires less conscious\neffort on a second occasion, and still less on a third, and so on, until\nthe mere occurrence of given conditions is sufficient to ensure\nimmediate response without conscious effort, and the action is performed\nmechanically or automatically: it is now a true habit. Habit, then,\ncommences in consciousness and ends in unconsciousness. To say,\ntherefore, when we see an action performed without conscious thought,\nthat consciousness has never had part in its production, is as illogical\nas to say that because we read automatically we can never have learned\nto read.\n\nThe thorough appreciation of this principle is absolutely essential to\nthe argument of this work; for to inherited memory we attribute not only\nthe formation of habits and instincts, but also the modification of\norgans, which leads to the formation of new species. In a word, it is to\nmemory we attribute the possibility of evolution, and by it the struggle\nfor existence is enabled to re-act upon the forms of life, and produce\nthe harmony we see in the organic world.\n\nOur own investigations had led us very far in this direction; but we\nfailed to grasp the entire truth until Mr. S. Butler's remarkable work,\n\"Life and Habit,\" came to our notice. This valuable contribution to\nevolution smoothed away the whole of the difficulties we had\nexperienced, and enabled us to propound the views here set forth with\ngreater clearness than had been anticipated.\n\nThe great difficulty in Mr. Darwin's works is the fact that he starts\nwith variations ready made, without trying, as a rule, to account for\nthem, and then shows that if these varieties are beneficial the\npossessor has a better chance in the great struggle for existence, and\nthe accumulation of such variations will give rise to new species. This\nis what he means by the title of his work, \"The Origin of Species by\nmeans of Natural Selection or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the\nStruggle for Life.\" But this tells us nothing whatever about the origin\nof species. As Butler puts it, \"Suppose that it is an advantage to a\nhorse to have an especially broad and hard hoof: then a horse born with\nsuch a hoof will, indeed, probably survive in the struggle for\nexistence; but he was not born with the larger and harder hoof _because\nof his subsequently surviving_. He survived because he was born fit--not\nhe was born fit because he survived. The variation must arise first and\nbe preserved afterwards.\"[3]\n\nMr. Butler works out with admirable force the arguments, first, that\nhabitual action begets unconsciousness; second, that there is a unity of\npersonality between parent and offspring; third, that there is a memory\nof the oft-repeated acts of past existences, and, lastly, that there is\na latency of that memory until it is re-kindled by the presence of\nassociated ideas.\n\nAs to the first point, we need say no more, for daily experience\nconfirms it; but the other points must be dealt with more fully.\n\nMr. Butler argues for the absolute identity of the parent and offspring;\nand, indeed, this is a necessity. Personal identity is a phrase, very\nconvenient, it is true, but still only a provisional mode of naming\nsomething we cannot define. In our own bodies we say that our identity\nremains the same from birth to death, though we know that our bodily\nparticles are ever changing, that our habits, thoughts, aspirations,\neven our features, change--that we are no more really the same person\nthan the ripple over a pebble in a brook is the same from moment to\nmoment, though its form remains. If our personal identity thus elude our\nsearch in active life, it certainly becomes no more tangible if we trace\nexistence back into pre-natal states. We _are_, in one sense, the same\nindividual; but, what is equally important, we _were_ part of our\nmother, as absolutely as her limbs are part of her. There is no break of\ncontinuity between offspring and parent--the river of life is a\ncontinuous stream. We judge of our own identity by the continuity which\nwe see and appreciate; but that greater continuity reaching backwards\nbeyond the womb to the origin of life itself is no less a fact which\nshould be constantly kept in view. The individual, in reality, never\ndies; for the lamp of life never goes out.\n\nFor a full exposition of this problem, Mr. Butler's \"Life and Habit\"\nmust be consulted, where the reader will find it treated in a masterly\nway.\n\nThis point was very early appreciated in our work; and in a\npaper read before the Anthropological Institute[4] in the year 1879,\nbut not published, this continuity was insisted upon by means of\ndiagrams, both of animal and plant life, and its connection with heredity\nwas clearly shown, though its relation to memory was only dimly\nseen. From this paper the following passage may be quoted: \"If, as\nI believe, the origin of form and decoration is due to a process similar\nto the visualising of object-thoughts in the human mind, the power\nof this visualising must commence with the life of the being. It\nwould seem that this power may be best understood by a correct\ninsight into biological development. It has always excited wonder\nthat a child, a separate individual, should inherit and reproduce the\ncharacters of its parents, and, indeed, of its ancestors; and the\ntendency of modern scientific writing is often to make this obscure\nsubject still darker. But if we remember that the great law of all\nliving matter is, that the child is _not_ a separate individual, but a\npart of the living body of the parent, up to a certain date, when it\nassumes a separate existence, then we can comprehend how living\nbeings inherit ancestral characters, for they are parts of one continuous\nseries in which not a single break has existed or can ever\ntake place. Just as the wave-form over a pebble in a stream\nremains constant, though the particles of water which compose it\nare ever changing, so the wave-form of life, which is heredity,\nremains constant, though the bodies which exhibit it are continually\nchanging. The retrospection of heredity and memory, and the\nprospection of thought, are well shown in Mrs. Meritt's beautiful\ndiagram.\"\n\nThis passage illustrates how parallel our thoughts were to Mr. Butler's,\nwhose work we did not then know. What we did not see at the time was,\nthat the power of thinking or memory might antedate birth. It is quite\nimpossible adequately to express our sense of admiration of Mr. Butler's\nwork.\n\nGranting then the physical identity of offspring and parent, the\ndoctrine of heredity becomes plain. The child becomes like the parent,\nbecause it is placed in almost identical circumstances to those of its\nparent, and is indeed part of that parent. If memory be possessed by all\nliving matter, and this is what we now believe, we can clearly see how\nheredity acts. The embryo develops into a man like its parent, because\nhuman embryos have gone through this process many times--till they are\nunconscious of the action, they know how to proceed so thoroughly.\n\nDarwin, after deeply pondering over the phenomena of growth, repair of\nwaste and injury, heredity and kindred matters, advanced what he wisely\ncalled a provisional hypothesis--pangenesis.\n\n\"I have been led,\" he remarks, \"or, rather, forced, to form a view which\nto a certain extent, connects these facts by a tangible method. Everyone\nwould wish to explain to himself even in an imperfect manner, how it is\npossible for a character possessed by some remote ancestor suddenly to\nreappear in the offspring; how the effects of increased or decreased use\nof a limb can be transmitted to the child; how the male sexual element\ncan act, not solely on the ovules, but occasionally on the mother form;\nhow a hybrid can be produced by the union of the cellular tissue of two\nplants independently of the organs of generation; how a limb can be\nreproduced on the exact line of amputation, with neither too much nor\ntoo little added; how the same organism may be produced by such widely\ndifferent processes as budding and true seminal generation; and, lastly,\nhow of two allied forms, one passes in the course of its development\nthrough the most complex metamorphoses, and the other does not do so,\nthough when mature both are alike in every detail of structure. I am\naware that my view is merely a provisional hypothesis or speculation;\nbut until a better one be advanced, it will serve to bring together a\nmultitude of facts which are at present left disconnected by any\nefficient cause.\"[5]\n\nAfter showing in detail that the body is made up of an infinite number\nof units, each of which is a centre of more or less independent action,\nhe proceeds as follows:--\n\n\"It is universally admitted that the cells or units of the body increase\nby self-division or proliferation, retaining the same nature, and that\nthey ultimately become converted into the various tissues of the\nsubstances of the body. But besides this means of increase I assume that\nthe units throw off minute granules, which are dispersed throughout the\nwhole system; that these, when supplied with proper nutriment, multiply\nby self-division, and are ultimately developed into units like those\nfrom which they were originally derived. These granules may be called\ngemmules. They are collected from all parts of the system to constitute\nthe sexual elements, and their development in the next generations forms\na new being; but they are likewise capable of transmission in a dormant\nstate to future generations, and may then be developed. Their\ndevelopment depends on their union with other partially developed or\nnascent cells, which precede them in the regular course of growth....\nGemmules are supposed to be thrown off by every unit; not only during\nthe adult state, but during each stage of development of every organ;\nbut not necessarily during the continued existence of the same unit.\nLastly, I assume that the gemmules in their dormant state have a mutual\naffinity for each other, leading to their aggregation into buds, or into\nthe sexual elements. Hence, it is not the reproductive organs or buds\nwhich generate new organisms, but the units of which each individual is\ncomposed.\"[6]\n\nNow, suppose that instead of these hypothetic gemmules we endow the\nunits with memory in ever so slight a degree, how simple the explanation\nof all these facts becomes! What an unit has learned to do under given\nconditions it can do again under like circumstances. Memory _does_ pass\nfrom one unit to another, or we could not remember anything as men that\nhappened in childhood, for we are not physically composed of the same\nmaterials. It is not at all necessary that an unit should remember it\nremembers any more than we in reading are conscious of the efforts we\nunderwent in learning our letters. Few of us can remember learning to\nwalk, and none of us recollect learning to talk. Yet surely the fact\nthat we do read, and walk, and talk, proves that we have not forgotten\nhow.\n\nBearing in mind, then, the fundamental laws that the offspring is one in\ncontinuity with its parents, and that memory arises chiefly from\nrepetition in a definite order (for we cannot readily reverse the\nprocess--we cannot sing the National Anthem backwards), it is easy to\nsee how the oft-performed actions of an individual become its\nunconscious habits, and these by inheritance become the instincts and\nunconscious actions of the species. Experience and memory are thus the\nkey-note to the origin of species.\n\nGranting that all living matter possesses memory, we must admit that all\nactions are at first conscious in a certain degree, and in the \"sense of\nneed\" we have the great stimulation to action.\n\nIn Natural Selection, as expounded by Mr. Darwin, there is no principle\nby which small variations can be accumulated. Take any form, and let it\nvary in all directions. We may represent the original form by a spot,\nand the variations by a ring of dots. Each one of these dots may vary in\nall directions, and so other rings of dots must be made, and so on, the\nresult not being development along a certain line, but an infinity of\ninterlacing curves. The tree of life is not like this. It branches ever\noutwards and onwards. The eyes of the Argus pheasant and peacock have\nbeen formed by the accumulation, through long generations, of more and\nmore perfect forms; the mechanism of the eye and hand has arisen by the\ngradual accumulation of more and more perfect forms, and these processes\nhave been continued along definite lines.\n\nIf we grant memory we eliminate this hap-hazard natural selection. We\nsee how a being that has once begun to perform a certain action will\nsoon perform it automatically, and when its habits are confirmed its\ndescendants will more readily work in this direction than any other, and\nso specialisation may arise.\n\nTo take the cases of protective resemblance and mimicry. Darwin and\nWallace have to start with a form something like the body mimicked,\nwithout giving any idea as to how that resemblance could arise. But with\nthis key of memory we can open nature's treasure house much more fully.\nLook, for instance, at nocturnal insects; and one need not go further\nthan the beetles (_Blatta_) in the kitchen, to see that they have a\nsense of need, and use it. Suddenly turn up the gas, and see the hurried\nscamper of the alarmed crowd. They are perfectly aware that danger is at\nhand. Equally well do they feel that safety lies in concealment; and\nwhile all the foraging party on the white floor are scuttling away into\ndark corners, the fortunate dweller on the hearth stands motionless\nbeneath the shadow of the fire-irons; a picture of keen, intense\nexcitement, with antennae quivering with alertness. On the clean floor a\ncareless girl has dropped a piece of flat coal, and on it beetles stand\nrigidly. They are as conscious as we are that the shadow, and the colour\nof the coal afford concealment, and we cannot doubt that they have\nbecome black from their sense of the protection they thus enjoy. They do\nnot say, as Tom, the Water Baby, says, \"I must be clean,\" but they know\nthey must be black, and black they are.\n\nThere is, then, clearly an effort to assimilate in hue to their\nsurroundings, and the whole question is comparatively clear.\n\nMr. Wallace, in commenting upon the butterfly (_Papilio nireus_)--which,\nat the Cape, in its chrysalis state, copies the bright hues of the\nvegetation upon which it passes its dormant phase--says that this is a\nkind of natural colour photography; thus reducing the action to a mere\nphysical one. We might as well say the dun coat of the sportsman among\nthe brown heather was acquired mechanically. Moreover, Wallace\ndistinctly shows that when the larvae are made to pupate on unnatural\ncolours, like sky-blue or vermilion, the pupae do not mimic the colour.\nThere is no reason why \"natural photography\" should not copy this as\nwell as the greens, and browns, and yellows. But how easy the\nexplanation becomes when memory, the sense of need, and Butler's little\n\"dose of reason,\" are admitted! For ages the butterfly has been\nacquainted with greens, and browns, and yellows, they are every day\nexperiences; but it has no acquaintance with aniline dyes, and therefore\ncannot copy them.\n\nThe moral of all this is that things become easy by repetition; that\nwithout experience nothing can be done well, and that the course of\ndevelopment is always in one direction, because the memory of the road\ntraversed is not forgotten.\n\n\n                             [Illustration]\n\n\n     [3] Evolution, Old and New, p. 346.\n     [4] On a New Method of Expressing the Law of Specific Change. By A.\n         Tylor.\n     [5] Animals and Plants under Domestication, vol. ii., p. 350.\n     [6] Animals and Plants under Domestication, vol. ii., p. 370.\n\n\n\n\n                              CHAPTER III.\n\n                          INTRODUCTORY SKETCH.\n\n\nNatural science has shown us how the existing colouration of an animal\nor plant can be laid hold of and modified in almost infinite ways under\nthe influence of natural or artificial evolution.\n\nIt shows us, for example, how the early pink leaf-buds have been\nmodified into attractive flowers to ensure fertilisation; and it has\ntracked this action through many of its details. It has explained the\nrich hue of the bracts of _Bougainvillea_, in which the flowers\nthemselves are inconspicuous, and the  flower-stems in other\nplants, as efforts to attract notice of the flower-frequenting insects.\nIt has explained how a blaze of colour is attained in some plants, as in\nroses and lilies by large single flowers; how the same effect is\nproduced by a number of small flowers brought to the same plane by\ngradually increasing flower-stalks, as in the elderberry, or by still\nsmaller flowers clustered into a head, as in daisies and sunflowers.\n\nIt teaches us again how fruits have become highly  to lure\nfruit-eating birds and mammals, and how many flowers are striped as\nguides to the honey-bearing nectary.\n\nEntering more into detail, we are enabled to see how the weird\nwalking-stick and leaf-insects have attained their remarkable protective\nresemblances, and how the East Indian leaf-butterflies are enabled to\ndeceive alike the birds that would fain devour them, and the naturalist\nwho would study them. Even the still more remarkable cases of protective\nmimicry, in which one animal so closely mimics another as to derive all\nthe benefits that accrue to its protector, are made clear.\n\nAll these and many other points have been deeply investigated, and are\nnow the common property of naturalists.\n\nBut up to the present no one has attempted systematically to find out\nthe principles or laws which govern the distribution of colouration;\nlaws which underlie natural selection, and by which alone it can work.\nNatural selection can show, for instance, how the lion has become almost\nuniform in colour, while the leopard is spotted, and the tiger striped.\nThe lion living on the plains in open country is thus rendered less\nconspicuous to his prey, the leopard delighting in forest glades is\nhardly distinguishable among the changing lights and shadows that\nflicker through the leaves, and the tiger lurking amid the jungle\nsimulates the banded shades of the cane-brake in his striped mantle.\n\nBeyond this, science has not yet gone; and it is our object to carry the\nstudy of natural colouration still further: to show that the lion's\nsimple coat, the leopard's spots, and the tiger's stripes, are but\nmodifications of a deeper principle.\n\nLet us, as an easy and familiar example, study carefully the colouration\nof a common tabby cat. First, we notice, it is darker on the back than\nbeneath, and this is an almost universal law. It would, indeed, be quite\nuniversal among mammals but for some curious exceptions among monkeys\nand a few other creatures of arboreal habits, which delight in hanging\nfrom the branches in such a way as to expose their ventral surface to\nthe light. These apparent exceptions thus lead us to the first general\nlaw, namely, that colouration is invariably most intense upon that\nsurface upon which the light falls.\n\nAs in most cases the back of the animal is the most exposed, that is the\nseat of intensest colour. But whenever any modification of position\nexists, as for instance in the side-swimming fishes like the sole, the\nupper side is dark and the lower light.\n\nThe next point to notice in the cat is that from the neck, along the\nback to the tail, is a dark stripe. This stripe is generally continued,\nbut slighter in character across the top of the skull; but it will be\nseen clearly that at the neck the pattern changes, and the skull-pattern\nis quite distinct from that on the body.\n\nFrom the central, or what we may call the back-bone stripe, bands pass\nat a strong but varying angle, which we may call rib-stripes.\n\nNow examine the body carefully, and the pattern will be seen to change\nat the shoulders and thighs, and also at each limb-joint. In fact, if\nthe cat be attentively remarked, it will clearly be seen that the\ncolouration or pattern is _regional_, and dependent upon the structure\nof the cat.\n\nNow a cat is a vertebrate or backboned animal, possessing four limbs,\nand if we had to describe its parts roughly, we should specify the head,\ntrunk, limbs and tail. Each of these regions has its own pattern or\ndecoration. The head is marked by a central line, on each side of which\nare other irregular lines, or more frequently convoluted or twisted\nspots. The trunk has its central axial backbone stripe and its lateral\nrib-lines. The tail is ringed; the limbs have each particular stripes\nand patches. Moreover, the limb-marks are largest at the shoulder and\nhip-girdles, and decrease downwards, being smallest, or even wanting, on\nthe feet; and the changes take place at the joints.\n\nAll this seems to have some general relation to the internal structure\nof the animal. Such we believe to be the case; and this brings us to the\nsecond great law of colouration, namely, that it is dependent upon the\nanatomy of the animal. We may enunciate these two laws as follows:--\n\n     I. THE LAW OF EXPOSURE. Colouration is primarily dependent upon the\n     direct action of light, being always most intense upon that surface\n     upon which the light falls most directly.\n\n     II. THE LAW OF STRUCTURE. Colouration, especially where\n     diversified, follows the chief lines of structure, and changes at\n     points, such as the joints, where function changes.\n\nIt is the enunciation and illustration of these two laws that form the\nsubject of the present treatise.\n\nIn the sequel we shall treat, in more or less detail, of each point as\nit arises; but in order to render the argument clearer, this chapter is\ndevoted to a general sketch of my views.\n\nOf the first great law but little need be said here, as it is almost\nself-evident, and has never been disputed. It is true not only of the\nupper and under-sides of animals, but also of the covered and uncovered\nparts or organs.\n\nFor example, birds possess four kinds of feathers, of which one only,\nthe contour feathers, occur upon the surface and are exposed to the\nlight. It is in these alone that we find the tints and patterns that\nrender birds so strikingly beautiful, the underlying feathers being\ninvariably of a sober grey. Still further, many of the contour feathers\noverlap, and the parts so overlapped, being removed from the light are\ngrey also, although the exposed part may be resplendent with the most\nvivid metallic hues. A similar illustration can be found in most\nbutterflies and moths. The upper wing slightly overlaps the lower along\nthe lower margin, and although the entire surface of the upper wing is\ncovered with  scales, and the underwing apparently so as well,\nit will be found that the thin unexposed margin is of an uniform grey,\nand quite devoid of any pattern.\n\nThe law of structure, on the other hand, is an entirely new idea, and\ndemands more detailed explanation. Speaking in the broadest sense, and\nconfining ourselves to the animal kingdom, animals fall naturally into\ntwo great sections, or sub-kingdoms, marked by the possession or absence\nof an internal bony skeleton. Those which possess this structure are\nknown as _Vertebrata_, or backboned animals, because the\nvertebral-column or backbone is always present. The other section is\ncalled the _Invertebrata_, or backboneless animals.\n\nNow, if we take the Vertebrata, we shall find that the system of\ncolouration, however modified, exhibits an unmistakably strong tendency\nto assume a vertebral or axial character. Common observation confirms\nthis; and the dark stripes down the backs of horses, asses, cattle,\ngoats, etc., are familiar illustrations. The only great exception to\nthis law is in the case of birds, but here, again, the exception is more\napparent than real, as will be abundantly shown in the sequel. This\naxial stripe is seen equally well in fishes and reptiles.\n\nFor our present purpose we may again divide the vertebrates into limbed\nand limbless. Wherever we find limbless animals, such as snakes, the\ndorsal stripe is prominent, and has a strong tendency to break up into\nvertebra-like markings. In the limbed animals, on the other hand, we\nfind the limbs strongly marked by pattern, and thus, in the higher forms\nthe system of colouration becomes axial and appendicular.\n\nAs a striking test of the universality of this law we may take the\ncephalopoda, as illustrated in the cuttle-fishes. These creatures are\ngenerally considered to stand at the head of the Mollusca, and are\nplaced, in systems of classification, nearest to the Vertebrata;\nindeed, they have even been considered to be the lowest type of\nVertebrates. This is owing to the possession of a hard axial organ,\noccupying much the position of the backbone, and is the well-known\ncuttle-bone. Now, these animals are peculiar amongst their class, from\npossessing, very frequently, an axial stripe. We thus see clearly that\nthe dorsal stripe is directly related to the internal axial skeleton.\n\nTurning now to the invertebrata, we are at once struck with the entire\nabsence of the peculiar vertebrate plan of decoration; and find\nourselves face to face with several distinct plans.\n\nFrom a colouration point of view, we might readily divide the animal\nkingdom into two classes, marked by the presence or absence of distinct\norgans. The first of these includes all the animals except the\nProtozoa--the lowest members of the animal kingdom--which are simply\nmasses of jelly-like protoplasm, without any distinct organs.\n\nNow, on our view, that colouration follows structure, we ought to find\nan absence of decoration in this structureless group. This is what we\nactually do find. The lowest Protozoa are entirely without any system of\ncolouring; being merely of uniform tint, generally of brown colour. As\nif to place this fact beyond doubt, we find in the higher members a\ntendency to organization in a pulsating vesicle, which constantly\nretains the same position, and may, hence, be deemed an incipient organ.\nNow, this vesicle is invariably tinged with a different hue from the\nrest of the being. We seem, indeed, here to be brought into contact with\nthe first trace of colouration, and we find it to arise with the\ncommencement of organization, and to be actually applied to the\nincipient organ itself.\n\nAscending still higher in the scale, we come to distinctly organized\nanimals, known as the _Coelenterata_; of which familiar examples are\nfound in the jelly-fishes and sea anemonies. These animals are\ncharacterized by the possession of distinct organs, are transparent, or\ntranslucent, and the organs are arranged radially.\n\nNo one can have failed to notice on our coasts, as the filmy\njelly-fishes float by, that the looped canals of the disc are delicately\ntinted with violet; and closer examination will show the radiating\nmuscular bands as pellucid white lines; and the sense organs fringing\nthe umbrella are vividly black--the first trace of opaque colouration in\nthe animal kingdom.\n\nThese animals were of yore united with the star-fishes and sea-urchins,\nto form the sub-kingdom Radiata, because of their radiate structure.\nNow, in all these creatures we find the system of colouration to be\nradiate also.\n\nPassing to the old sub-kingdom Articulata, which includes the worms,\ncrabs, lobsters, insects, etc., we come to animals whose structure is\nsegmental; that is to say, the body is made up of a number of distinct\nsegments. Among these we find the law holds, rigidly that the\ncolouration is segmental also, as may be beautifully seen in lobsters\nand caterpillars.\n\nLastly, we have the Molluscs, which fall for our purpose into two\nclasses, the naked and the shelled. The naked molluscs are often most\nexquisitely , and the feathery gills that adorn many are\nsuffused with some of the most brilliant colours in nature. The shelled\nmolluscs differ from all other animals, in that the shell is a\nsecretion, almost as distinct from the animals as a house is from its\noccupant. This shell is built up bit by bit along its margin by means of\na peculiar organ known as the mantle--its structure is marginate--its\ndecoration is marginate also.\n\nWe have thus rapidly traversed the animal kingdom, and find that in all\ncases the system of decoration follows the structural peculiarity of the\nbeing decorated. Thus in the:--\n\n    Structureless protozoa there is no varying colouration.\n    Radiate animals--the system is radiate.\n    Segmented    \"         \"     segmental.\n    Marginate    \"         \"     marginal.\n    Vertebrate   \"         \"     axial.\n\nWe must now expound this great structural law in detail, and we shall\nfind that all the particular ornamentations in their various\nmodifications can be shown to arise from certain principles, namely--\n\n    1.  The principle of Emphasis,\n    2.  The       \"      Repetition.\n\nThe term _Emphasis_ has been selected to express the marking out or\ndistinguishing of important functional or structural regions by\nornament, either as form or colour. It is with colour alone that we have\nto deal.\n\nArchitects are familiar with the term emphasis, as applied to the\nornamentation of buildings. This ornamentation, they say, should\n_emphasize_, point out, or make clear to the eye, the use or function\nof the part emphasized. They recognise the fact that to give sublimity\nand grace to a building, the ornamentation must be related to the\ncharacter of the building as a whole, and to its parts in particular.\n\nThus in a tower whose object or function is to suggest height, the\nprincipal lines of decoration must be perpendicular, while in the body\nof a building such as a church, the chief lines must be horizontal, to\nexpress the opposite sentiment. So, too, with individual parts. A banded\ncolumn, such as we see in Early English Gothic, looks weak and incapable\nof supporting the superincumbent weight. It suggests the idea that the\nshaft is bound up to strengthen it. On the other hand, the vertical\nflutings of a Greek column, at once impress us with their function of\nbearing vertical pressure and their power to sustain it.\n\nThis principle is carried into colour in most of our useful arts. The\nwheelwright instinctively lines out the rim and spokes and does not\ncross them, feeling that the effect would be to suggest weakness.\nMoreover, in all our handicraft work, the points and tips are emphasized\nwith colour.\n\nThis principle seems to hold good throughout nature. It is not suggested\nthat the colouration is applied to important parts _in order to_\nemphasize them, but rather that being important parts, they have become\nnaturally the seats of most vivid colour. How this comes about we cannot\nhere discuss, but shall refer to it further on.\n\nIt is owing to this pervading natural principle, that we find the\nextreme points of quadrupeds so universally decorated. The tips of the\nnose, ears and tail, and the feet also proclaim the fact, and the\ndecoration of the sense organs, even down to the dark spots around each\nhair of a cat's feelers, are additional proofs. Look, for instance, at a\ncaterpillar with its breathing holes or spiracles along the sides, and\nsee how these points are selected as the seats of specialized colour,\neye-spots and stripes in every variety will be seen, all centred around\nthese important air-holes.\n\nThis leads us to our second principle, that of repetition, which simply\nillustrates the tendency to repeat similar markings in like areas. Thus\nthe spiracular marks are of the same character on each segment.\n\nThe principle of repetition, however, goes further than this, and tends\nto repeat the style of decoration upon allied parts. We see this\nstrongly in many caterpillars in which spiracular markings are\ncontinued over the segments which lack spiracles; and it is probably\nowing to this tendency that the rib-like markings on so many mammals are\ncontinued beyond the ribs into the dorsal region.\n\nUpon these two principles the whole of the colouration of nature seems\nto depend. But the plan is infinitely modified by natural selection,\notherwise the result would have been so patent as to need no\nelucidation.\n\nNatural selection acts by suppressing, or developing, structurally\ndistributed colour. So far as our researches have gone, it seems most\nprobable that the fundamental or primitive colouration is arranged in\nspots. These spots may expand into regular or irregular patches, or run\ninto stripes, of which many cases will be given in the sequel. Now,\nnatural selection may suppress certain spots, or lines, or expand them\ninto wide, uniform masses, or it may suppress some and repeat others. On\nthese simple principles the whole scheme of natural colouration can be\nexplained; and to do this is the object of the following pages.\n\nInto the origin of the colour sense it is not our province to enlarge;\nbut, it will reasonably be asked, How are these colours of use to the\ncreature decorated? The admiration of colour, the charm of landscape, is\nthe newest of human developments. Are we, then, to attribute to the\nlower animals a discriminative power greater than most races of men\npossess, and, if so, on the theory of evolution, how comes it that man\nlost those very powers his remote ancestors possessed in so great\nperfection? To these questions we will venture to reply.\n\nFirstly, then, it must be admitted that the higher animals do actually\npossess this power; and no one will ever doubt it if he watches a common\nhedge-sparrow hunting for caterpillars. To see this bird carefully\nseeking the green species in a garden, and deliberately avoiding the\nmultitudes of highly  but nauseous larvae on the currant bushes,\narduously examining every leaf and twig for the protected brown and\ngreen larvae which the keen eye of the naturalist detects only by close\nobservation; hardly deigning to look at the speckled beauties that are\nfeeding in decorated safety before his eyes, while his callow brood are\nclamouring for food--to see this is to be assured for ever that birds\ncan, and do, discriminate colour perfectly. What is true of birds can be\nshown to be true of other and lower types; and this leads us to a very\nimportant conclusion--that colouration has been developed with the\nevolution of the sense of sight. We can look back in fancy to the far\noff ages, when no eye gazed upon the world, and we can imagine that then\ncolour in ornamental devices must have been absent, and a dreary\nmonotony of simple hues must have prevailed.\n\nWith the evolution of sight it might be of importance that even the\nsightless animals should be ; and in this way we can account for\nthe decoration of coral polyps, and other animals that have no eyes;\njust as we find no difficulty in understanding the colouration of\nflowers.\n\nColour, in fact, so far as external nature is concerned, is all in all\nto the lower animals. By its means prey is discovered, or foes escaped.\nBut in the case of man quite a different state of things exists. The\nlower animals can only be modified and adapted to their surroundings by\nthe direct influence of nature. Man, on the other hand, can utilise the\nforces of nature to his ends. He does not need to steal close to his\nprey--he possesses missiles. His arm, in reality, is bounded, not by his\nfinger tips, but by the distance to which he can send his bolts. He is\nnot so directly dependent upon nature; and, as his mental powers\nincrease, his dependence lessens, and in this way--the aesthetic\nprinciple not yet being awakened--we can understand how his colour\nsense, for want of practice, decayed, to be reawakened in these our\ntimes, with a vividness and power as unequalled as is his mastery over\nnature--the master of his ancestors.\n\n\n                             [Illustration]\n\n\n\n\n                              CHAPTER IV.\n\n                  COLOUR, ITS NATURE AND RECOGNITION.\n\n\nThis chapter will be devoted to a slight sketch of the nature of light\nand colour, and to proofs that niceties of colour are distinguished by\nanimals.\n\nFirst, as to the nature of light and colour. Colour is essentially the\neffect of different kinds of vibrations upon certain nerves. Without\nsuch nerves, light can produce no luminous effect whatever; and to a\nworld of blind creatures, there would be neither light nor colour, for\nas we have said, light and colour are not material things, but are the\npeculiar results or effects of vibrations of different size and\nvelocity.\n\nThese effects are due to the impact of minute undulations or waves,\nwhich stream from luminous objects, the chief of which is the sun. These\nwaves are of extreme smallness, the longest being only 226\n_ten-millionths_ of an inch from crest to crest. The tiny billows roll\noutwards and onwards from their source at inconceivable velocities,\ntheir mean speed being 185,000 miles in a second. Could we see these\nlight billows themselves and count them as they rolled by, 450 billions\n(450,000,000,000,000) would pass in a single second, and as the last\nranged alongside us, the first would be 185,000 miles away. We are not\nable, however, to see the waves themselves, for the ocean whose\nvibrations they are, is composed of matter infinitely more transparent\nthan air, and infinitely less dense. Light, then, be it clearly\nunderstood, is not the ethereal billows or waves themselves, but only\nthe effect they produce on falling upon a peculiar kind of matter called\nthe optic nerve. When the same vibrations fall upon a photographic\nsensitive film, another effect--chemical action--is produced: when they\nfall upon other matter, heat is the result. Thus heat, light and\nchemical action are but phases, expressions, effects or results of the\ndifferent influences of waves upon different kinds of matter. The same\nwaves or billows will affect the eye itself as light, the ordinary\nnerves as warmth, and the skin as chemical action, in tanning it.\n\nThough we cannot see these waves with the material eye, they are visible\nindeed to the mental eye; and are as amenable to experimental research\nas the mightiest waves of the sea. Still, to render this subject\nclearer, we will use the analogy of sound. A musical note, we all know,\nis the effect upon our ears of regularly recurring vibrations. A\npianoforte wire emits a given note, or in other words, vibrates at a\ncertain and constant rate. These vibrations are taken up by the air, and\nby it communicated to the ear, and the sensation of sound is produced.\nHere we see the wire impressing its motion on the air, and the air\ncommunicating its motion to the ear; but if another wire similar in all\nrespects is near, it will also be set in motion, and emit its note; and\nso will any other body that can vibrate in unison. Further, the note of\nthe pianoforte string is not a simple tone, but superposed, as it were,\nupon the fundamental note, are a series of higher tones, called\nharmonics, which give richness. Now, a ray of sun-light may be likened\nto such a note; it consists not of waves all of a certain length or\nvelocity, but of numbers of waves of different lengths and speed. When\nall these fall upon the eye, the sensation of white light is produced,\nwhite light being the compound effect, like the richness of the tone of\nthe wire and its harmonies; or we may look upon it as a luminous chord.\nWhen light strikes on any body, part or all is reflected to the eye. If\nall the waves are thus reflected equally, the result is whiteness. If\nonly a part is reflected, the effect is colour, the tint depending upon\nthe particular waves reflected. If none of the waves are reflected, the\nresult is blackness.\n\nColour, then, depends upon the nature of the body reflecting light. The\nexact nature of the action of the body upon the light is not known, but\ndepends most probably upon the molecular condition of the surface.\nBodies which allow the light to pass through them, are in like manner\n according to the waves they allow to pass.\n\nWe find in nature, however, a somewhat different class of colour,\nnamely, the iridescent tints, like mother of pearl or shot silk, which\ngive splendour to such butterflies, as some Morphos and the Purple\nEmperor. These are called diffraction colours, and are caused by minute\nlines upon the reflecting surface, or by thin transparent films. These\nlines or films must be so minute that the tiny light waves are broken up\namong them, and are hence reflected irregularly to the eye.\n\nDr. Hagen has divided the colours of insects into two classes, the\nepidermal and hypodermal. The epidermal colours are produced in the\nexternal layer or epidermis which is comparatively dry, and are\npersistent, and do not alter after death. Of this nature are the\nmetallic tints of blue, green, bronze, gold and silver, and the dead\nblacks and browns, and some of the reds. The hypodermal colours are\nformed in the moister cells underlying the epidermis, and on the drying\nup of the specimen fade, as might be expected. They show through the\nepidermis, which is more or less transparent. These colours are often\nbrighter and lighter in hue than the epidermal; and such are most of the\nblues, and greens, and yellow, milk white, orange, and the numerous\nintermediate shades. These colours are sometimes changeable by voluntary\nact, and the varying tints of the chameleon and many fishes are of this\ncharacter.\n\nIn this connection, Dr. Hagen remarks, that probably all mimetic colours\nare hypodermal. The importance of this suggestion will be seen at once,\nfor it necessitates a certain consciousness or knowledge on the part of\nthe mimicker, which we have shown, seems to be an essential factor in\nthe theory of colouration.\n\nThis author further says, that \"the pattern is not the product of an\naccidental circumstance, but apparently the product of a certain law, or\nrather the consequence of certain actions or wants in the interior of\nthe animal and in its development.\"\n\nThis remarkable paper, to which our attention was called after our work\nwas nearly completed, is the only record we have been able to find which\nrecognises a law of colouration.\n\nFrom what has been said of the nature of light, and the physical origin\nof colour, we see that to produce any distinct tint such as red, yellow,\ngreen, or blue, a definite physical structure must be formed, capable of\nreflecting certain rays of the same nature and absorbing others. Hence,\nwhenever we see any distinct colour, we may be sure that a very\nconsiderable development in a certain direction has taken place. This\nis a most important conclusion, though not very obvious at first sight.\nStill, when we bear in mind the numbers of light waves of different\nlengths, and know that if these are reflected irregularly, we get only\nmixed tints such as indefinite browns; we can at once see how, in the\ncase of such objects as tree trunks, and, still more, in inanimate\nthings like rocks and soils, these, so-to-say, undifferentiated hues are\njust what we might expect to prevail, and that when definite colours are\nproduced, it of necessity implies an effort of some sort. Now, if this\nbe true of such tints as red and blue, how much more must it be the case\nwith black and white, in which all the rays are absorbed or all\nreflected? These imply an even stronger effort, and _a priori_ reasoning\nwould suggest that where they occur, they have been developed for\nimportant purposes by what may be termed a supreme effort. Consequently,\nwe find them far less common than the others; and it is a most singular\nfact that in mimetic insects, these are the colours that are most\nfrequently made use of. It would almost seem as if a double struggle had\ngone on: first, the efforts which resulted in the protective colouring\nof the mimicked species, and then a more severe, because necessarily\nmore rapid, struggle on the part of the mimicker.\n\nYet another point in this connection. If this idea be correct, it\nfollows that a uniformly  flower or animal must be of extreme\nrarity, since it necessitates not merely the entire suppression of the\ntendency to emphasize important regions in colour, but also the\nadjustment of all the varying parts of the organism to one uniform\nmolecular condition, which enables it to absorb all but a certain\nclosely related series of light waves no matter how varied the functions\nof the parts. Now, such \"self-<DW52>\" species, as florists would call\nthem, are not only rare, but, as all horticulturists know, are extremely\ndifficult to produce. When a <DW29> grower, for instance, sets to work to\nproduce a self- flower--say a white <DW29> without a dark\neye--his difficulties seem insurmountable. And, in truth, this result\nhas never been quite obtained; for he has to fight against every natural\ntendency of the plant to mark out its corolla-tube in colour, and when\nthis is overcome, to still restrain it, so as to keep it within those\nlimits which alone allow it to reflect the proper waves of light.\n\n    [Illustration: Plate I.\n                   KALLIMA INACHUS.]\n\nThe production of black and white, then, being the acme of colour\nproduction, we should expect to find these tints largely used for\nvery special purposes. Such is actually the case. The sense organs are\nfrequently picked out with black, as witness the noses of dogs, the tips\nof their ears, the insertion of their vibrissae, or whiskers, and so on;\nand white is the most usual warning or distinctive colour, as we see in\nthe white stripes of the badger and skunk, the white spots of deer, and\nthe white tail of the rabbit.\n\nColour, then, as expressed in definite tints and patterns, is no\naccident; for although, as Wallace has well said, \"colour is the normal\ncharacter,\" yet we think that this colour would, if unrestrained and\nundirected, be indefinite, and could not produce definite tints, nor the\nmore complicated phenomenon of patterns, in which definite hues are not\nmerely confined to definite tracts, but so frequently contrasted in the\nmost exquisite manner. As we write, the beautiful Red Admiral (_V.\natalanta_) is sporting in the garden; and who can view its glossy black\nvelvet coat, barred with vividest crimson, and picked out with purest\nsnow white, and doubt for an instant that its robe is not merely the\nproduct of law, but the supreme effort of an important law? Mark the\nhabits of this lovely insect. See how proudly it displays its rich\ndecorations; sitting with expanded wings on the branch of a tree, gently\nvibrating them as it basks in the bright sunshine; and you know, once\nand for all, that the object of that colour is display. But softly--we\nhave moved too rudely, and it is alarmed. The wings close, and where is\nits beauty now? Hidden by the sombre specklings of its under wings. See,\nit has pitched upon a slender twig, and notice how instinctively (shall\nwe say?) it arranges itself in the line of the branch: if it sat athwart\nit would be prominent, but as it sits there motionless it is not only\nalmost invisible, _but it knows it_; for you can pick it up in your\nhands, as we have done scores of times. It is not enough, if we would\nknow nature, to study it in cabinets. There is too much of this dry-bone\nwork in existence. The object of nature is _life_; and only in living\nbeings can we learn how and why they fulfil their ends.\n\nHere, in this common British butterfly, we have the whole problem set\nbefore us--vivid colour, the result of intense and long continued\neffort; grand display, the object of that colour; dusky, indefinite\ncolour, for concealment; and the \"instinctive\" pose, to make that\nprotective colour profitable. The insect _knows_ all this in some way.\nHow it knows we must now endeavour to find out.\n\nIn attacking this problem we must ask ourselves, What are the purposes\nthat colouration, and, especially, decoration, can alone subserve? We\ncan only conceive it of use in three ways: first, as protection from its\nenemies; second, as concealment from its prey; third, as distinctive for\nits fellows. To the third class may be added a sub-class--attractiveness\nto the opposite sex.\n\nThe first necessity would seem to be distinctness of species; for,\nunless each species were separately marked, it would be difficult for\nthe sexes to discriminate mates of their own kind, in many instances;\nand this is, doubtless, the reason why species _are_ differently\n.\n\nBut protective resemblance, as in _Kallima_,[7] the Leaf-butterfly, and\nmimicry, as in _D. niavius_ and _P. merope_,[8] sometimes so hide the\nspecific characters that this process seems antagonistic to the prime\nreason for colouration, by rendering species less distinct. Now,\ndoubtless, protective colouring could not have been so wonderfully\ndeveloped _if the organ of sight were the only means of recognition_.\nBut it is not. Animals possess other organs of recognition, of which, as\neveryone knows, smell is one of the most potent. A dog may have\nforgotten a face after years of absence, but, once his cold nose has\ntouched your hand, the pleased whine and tail-wagging of recognition,\ntells of awakened memories. Even with ourselves, dulled as our senses\nare, the odour of the first spring violet calls up the past; as words\nand scenes can never do. What country-bred child forgets the strange\nsmell of the city he first visits? and how vividly the scene is recalled\nin after years by a repetition of that odour!\n\nBut insects, and, it may be, many other creatures, possess sense organs\nwhose nature we know not. The functions of the antennae and of various\norgans in the wings, are unknown; and none can explain the charm by\nwhich the female Kentish Glory, or Oak Egger moths lure their mates. You\nmay collect assiduously, using every seduction in sugars and lanterns,\nonly to find how rare are these insects; but if fortune grant you a\nvirgin female, and you cage her up, though no eye can pierce her prison\nwalls, and though she be silent as the oracles, she will, in some\nmysterious way, attract lovers; not singly, but by the dozen; not one\nnow and another in an hour, but in eager flocks. Many butterflies\npossess peculiar scent-pouches on their wings, and one of these, a\n_Danais_, is mimicked by several species. It is the possession of these\nadditional powers of recognition that leaves colouration free to run to\nthe extreme of protective vagary, when the species is hard pressed in\nthe struggle for life.\n\n    [Illustration: Plate II.\n                   MIMICRY.]\n\nNevertheless, though animals have other means of recognition, the\ndistinctive markings are, without doubt, the prime means of knowledge.\nWho, that has seen a peacock spread his glorious plumes like a radiant\nglory, can doubt its fascination? Who, that has wandered in America, and\nwatched a male humming-bird pirouetting and descending in graceful\nspirals, its whole body throbbing with ecstasy of love and jealousy, can\ndoubt? Who can even read of the Australian bower-bird, lowliest and\nfirst of virtuosi, decorating his love-bower with shells and flowers,\nand shining stones, running in and out with evident delight, and\nre-arranging his treasures, as a collector does his gems, and not be\ncertain that here, at least, we have the keenest appreciation, not only\nof colour, but of beauty--a far higher sense?\n\nIt has been said that butterflies must be nearly blind, because they\nseldom fly directly over a wall, but feel their way up with airy\ntouches. Yet every fact of nature contradicts the supposition. Why have\nplants their tinted flowers, but to entice the insects there? Why are\nnight-blooming flowers white, or pale yellows and pinks, but to render\nthem conspicuous? Why are so many flowers striped in the direction of\nthe nectary, but to point the painted way to the honey-treasures below?\nThe whole scheme of evolution, the whole of the new revelation of the\nmeanings of nature, becomes a dead letter if insects cannot appreciate\nthe hues of flowers. The bee confines himself as much as possible to one\nspecies of flower at a time, and this, too, shows that it must be able\nto distinguish them with ease. We may, then, take it as proven that the\npower of discriminating colours is possessed by the lower animals.\n\n\n                             [Illustration]\n\n\n     [7] Pl. I., Figs 1-3.\n     [8] Pl. II., Figs. 1-3.\n\n\n\n\n                               CHAPTER V.\n\n                           THE COLOUR SENSE.\n\n\nThe previous considerations lead us, naturally, to enquire in what\nmanner the sense of colour is perceived.\n\nIn thinking over this obscure subject, the opinion has steadily gathered\nstrength that form and colour are closely allied; for form is essential\nto pattern; and colour without pattern, that is to say, colour\nindefinitely marked, or distributed, is hardly decoration at all, in the\nsense we are using the term. That many animals possess the power of\ndiscriminating form is certain. Deformed or monstrous forms are driven\nfrom the herds and packs of such social animals as cattle, deer, and\nhogs, and maimed individuals are destroyed. Similar facts have been\nnoticed in the case of birds. This shows a power of recognising any\ndeparture from the standard of form, just as the remorseless destruction\nof abnormally  birds, such as white or piebald rooks and\nblackbirds, by their fellows, is proof of the recognition and dislike of\na departure from normal colouring. Authentic anecdotes of dogs\nrecognising their masters' portraits are on record; and in West Suffolk,\nof late years, a zinc, homely representation of a cat has been found\nuseful in protecting garden produce from the ravages of birds. In this\nlatter case the birds soon found out the innocent nature of the fraud,\nfor we have noticed, after a fortnight, the amusing sight of sparrows\ncleaning their beaks on the whilom object of terror. Many fish are\ndeceived with artificial bait, as the pike, with silvered minnows; the\nsalmon, and trout, with artificial flies; the glitter of the spoon-bait\nis often most attractive; and mackerel take greedily to bits of red\nflannel. Bees sometimes mistake artificial for real flowers; and both\nthey and butterflies have been known to seek vainly for nourishment\nfrom the gaudy painted flowers on cottage wall-papers. Sir John Lubbock\nhas demonstrated the existence of a colour sense in bees, wasps, and\nants; and the great fact that flowers are lures for insects proves\nbeyond the power of doubt that these creatures have a very strong\nfaculty for perceiving colour.\n\nThe pale yellows and white of night-flowering plants render them\nconspicuous to the flower-haunting moths; and no one who has ever used\nan entomologist's lantern, or watched a daddy-long-legs (_Tipula_)\ndancing madly round a candle, can fail to see that intense excitement is\ncaused by the flame. In the dim shades of night the faint light of the\nflowers tells the insects of the land of plenty, and the stimulus thus\nexcited is multiplied into a frenzy by the glow of a lamp, which,\ndoubtless, seems to insect eyes the promise of a feast that shall\ntranscend that of ordinary flowers, as a Lord Mayor's feast transcends a\nhomely crust of bread and cheese.\n\nWe take it, then, as proven that the colour sense does exist, at least,\nin all creatures possessing eyes. But there are myriads of animals\nrevelling in bright tints; such as the jelly-fishes and anemones, and\neven lower organisms, in which eyes are either entirely wanting or are\nmere eye-specks, as will be explained in the sequel. How these behave\nwith regard to colour is a question that may, with propriety, be asked\nof science, but to which, at present, we can give no very definite\nreply. Still, certain modern researches open to us a prospect of being\nable, eventually, to decide even this obscure problem.\n\nThe question, however, is not a simple one, but involves two distinct\nprinciples; firstly, as to how colour affects the animal , and,\nsecondly, how it affects other animals. In other words, How does colour\naffect the sensibility of its possessor? and how does it affect the\nsense organs of others?\n\nTo endeavour to answer the first question we must start with the lowest\nforms of life, and their receptivity to the action of light; for, as\ncolour is only a differentiation of ordinary so-called white light, we\nmight _a priori_ expect that animals would show sensibility to light as\ndistinguished from darkness, before they had the power of discriminating\nbetween different kinds of light.\n\nThis appears to be the case, for Engelmann has shown[9] that many of\nthe lowest forms of life, which are almost mere specks of protoplasm,\nare influenced by light, some seeking and others shunning it. He found,\ntoo, that in the case of _Euglena viridis_ it would seek the light only\nif it \"were allowed to fall upon the anterior part of the body. Here\nthere is a pigment spot; but careful experiment showed that this was not\nthe point most sensitive to light, a colourless and transparent area of\nprotoplasm lying in front of it being found to be so.\" Commenting upon\nthis Romanes observes, \"it is doubtful whether this pigment spot is or\nis not to be regarded as an exceedingly primitive organ of special\nsense.\" Haeckel has also made observations upon those lowest forms of\nlife, which, being simply protoplasm without the slightest trace of\norganization, not even possessing a nucleus, form his division\n_Protista_, occupying the no-man's-land between the animal and vegetable\nkingdoms. He finds that \"already among the microscopic Protista there\nare some that love light, and some that love darkness rather than light.\nMany seem also to have smell and taste, for they select their food with\ngreat care.... Here, also, we are met by the weighty fact that\nsense-function is possible without sense organs, without nerves. In\nplace of these, sensitiveness is resident in that wondrous,\nstructureless, albuminous substance, which, under the name of\nprotoplasm, or organic formative material, is known as the general and\nessential basis of all the phenomena of life.\"[10]\n\nNow, whether Romanes be correct in doubting whether the pigment-spot in\nEuglena is a sense organ or not, matters little to our present enquiry,\nbut it certainly does seem that the spot, _with its accompanying clear\nspace_, looks like such an organ. And when we are further told that\nafter careful experiment it is found that _Euglena viridis_ prefers blue\nto all the colours of the spectrum, the fundamental fact seems to be\nestablished that even as low down as this the different parts of the\nspectrum affect differently the body of creatures very nearly at the\nbottom of the animal scale. This implies a certain selection of colour,\nand, equally, an abstention from other colours.\n\nIt is not part of our scheme, however, to follow out in detail the\ndevelopment of the organs of special sense, and the reader must be\nreferred to the various works of Mr. Romanes, who has worked long and\nsuccessfully at this and kindred problems. Suffice it to say that in\nthis and other cases he has been led to adopt the theory of inherited\nmemory, though not, as we believe, in the fulness with which it must\nultimately be acquired.\n\nThis, however, seems certain, that the development, not only of the\nsense organs, but of organs in general--that is, the setting aside of\ncertain portions for the performance of special duties, and the\nmodifications of those parts in relation to their special duties, is\nclosely related to the activity of the organism. Thus, we find in those\nanimals, like some of the Coelenterata, which pass some portion of their\nexistence as free-swimming beings, and the remainder in a stationary or\nsessile condition, that the former state is the most highly organized.\nThis is shown to a very remarkable degree in the Sea Squirts\n(Ascidians), a class of animals that are generally grouped with the\nlower Mollusca, but which Prof. Ray Lankester puts at the base of the\nVertebrata.\n\nThese animals are either solitary or social, fixed or free; but even\nwhen free, have little or no power of locomotion, simply floating in the\nsea. Their embryos are, however, free-swimming, and some of the most\ninteresting beings in nature. Some are marvellously like young tadpoles,\nand possess some of the distinctive peculiarities of the Vertebrata.\nThus, the body is divided into a head and body, or tail, as in tadpoles.\nThe head contains a large nerve centre, corresponding with the brain,\nwhich is produced backwards into a chord, corresponding to the spinal\nchord. In the head, sense organs are clearly distinguishable; there is a\nwell-marked eye, an equally clear ear, and a less clearly marked\nolfactory organ. Besides this, the spinal-cord is supported below by a\nrod-like structure, called the notochord. In the vertebrate embryo this\nstructure always precedes the development of the true vertebral column,\nand in the lowest forms is persistent through life.\n\nWe have thus, in the ascidian larva, a form which, if permanent, would\nmost certainly entitle it to a place in the vertebrate sub-kingdom. It\nis now an active free-swimming creature, but as maturity approaches it\nbecomes fixed, or floating, and all this pre-figurement of a high\ndestiny is annulled. The tail, with its nervous cord and notochord\natrophies, and in the fixed forms, not only do the sense organs pass\naway, but the entire nervous system is reduced to a single ganglion, and\nthe creature becomes little more than an animated stomach. It is, as Ray\nLankester has pointed out, a case of degeneration. In the floating\nforms, which still possess a certain power of locomotion, this process\nis not carried to such extremes, and the eye is left.\n\nNow, cases of this kind are important as illustrating the direct\nconnection between an active life and advancement; and they also add\nindirectly to the view Wallace takes of colouration, namely, that the\nmost brilliant colour is generally applied to the most highly modified\nparts, and is brightest in the seasons of greatest activity.\n\nBut they have a higher meaning also, for they may point us to the prime\ncause of the divergence of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. In\nthinking over this matter, one of us ventured to suggest that probably\nthe reason why animals dominate the world, and not plants, is, that\nplants are, as a rule, stationary, and animals lead an active existence.\nWe can look back to the period prior to the divergence of living\nprotoplasm into the two kingdoms. Two courses only were open to it,\neither to stay at home, and take what came in its way, or to travel, and\nseek what was required. The stay-at-homes became plants, and the\ngad-abouts animals. In a letter it was thus put; \"It is a truly strange\nfact that a free-swimming, sense-organ-bearing animal should degenerate\ninto a fixed feeding and breeding machine. It seems to me that the power\nof locomotion is a _sine qua non_ for active development of type, as it\nnecessarily sharpens the wits by bringing fresh experiences and\nunlooked-for adventures to the creature. I almost think, and this, I\nbelieve may be a great fundamental fact, that the only reason why\nanimals rule the world instead of plants is that plants elected to stay\nat home, and animals did not. They had equal chances. Both start as\nactive elements; the one camps down, and the other looks about him.\"\n\nTalking over this question with Mr. Butler, he astonished the writer by\nquoting from his work, \"Alps and Sanctuaries\" (p. 196), the following\npassage:--\n\n     \"The question of whether it is better to abide quiet, and take\n     advantage of opportunities that come, or to go farther afield in\n     search of them, is one of the oldest which living beings have to\n     deal with. It was on this that the first great schism or heresy\n     arose in what was heretofore the catholic faith of protoplasm. The\n     schism still lasts, and has resulted in two great sects--animals\n     and plants. The opinion that it is better to go in search of prey\n     is formulated in animals; the other--that it is better, on the\n     whole, to stay at home, and profit by what comes--in plants. Some\n     intermediate forms still record to us the long struggle during\n     which the schism was not yet complete.\n\n     \"If I may be pardoned for pursuing this digression further, I would\n     say that it is the plants, and not we, who are the heretics. There\n     can be no question about this; we are perfectly justified,\n     therefore, in devouring them. Ours is the original and orthodox\n     belief, for protoplasm is much more animal than vegetable. It is\n     much more true to say that plants have descended from animals than\n     animals from plants. Nevertheless, like many other heretics, plants\n     have thriven very fairly well. There are a great many of them, and,\n     as regards beauty, if not wit--of a limited kind, indeed, but still\n     wit--it is hard to say that the animal kingdom has the advantage.\n     The views of plants are sadly narrow; all dissenters are\n     narrow-minded; but within their own bounds they know the details of\n     their business sufficiently well--as well as though they kept the\n     most nicely-balanced system of accounts to show them their\n     position. They are eaten, it is true; to eat them is our intolerant\n     and bigoted way of trying to convert them: eating is only a violent\n     mode of proselytizing, or converting; and we do convert them--to\n     good animal substance of our own way of thinking. If we have had no\n     trouble we say they have 'agreed' with us; if we have been unable\n     to make them see things from our point of view, we say they\n     'disagree' with us, and avoid being on more than distant terms with\n     them for the future. If we have helped ourselves to too much, we\n     say we have got more than we can 'manage.' And an animal is no\n     sooner dead than a plant will convert it back again. It is obvious,\n     however, that no schism could have been so long successful without\n     having a good deal to say for itself.\n\n     \"Neither party has been quite consistent. Whoever is or can be?\n     Every extreme--every opinion carried to its logical end will prove\n     to be an absurdity. Plants throw out roots and boughs and leaves:\n     this is a kind of locomotion; and as Dr. Erasmus Darwin long since\n     pointed out, they do sometimes approach nearly to what is called\n     travelling; a man of consistent character will never look at a\n     bough, a root, or a tendril, without regarding it as a melancholy\n     and unprincipled compromise. On the other hand, many animals are\n     sessile; and some singularly successful genera, as spiders, are in\n     the main liers-in-wait.\"\n\nThis exquisitively written passage the writer was quite unaware of\nhaving read, though he possessed and had perused the work quoted, nor\ncan he understand how such an admirable exposition could have escaped\nnotice. Had he read it: had he assimilated it so thoroughly as to be\nunconscious of its existence; is this a case of rapid growth of\nautomatism? He cannot say.\n\nTo return to the main point, it would seem that specialization is\ndirectly proportionate to activity, and when we compare the infinitely\ndiverse organization of the animal with the comparative simplicity of\nthe vegetable world, this conclusion seems to be inevitable.\n\n\n                             [Illustration]\n\n\n      [9] Pflueger's Archiv. f. d. ges. Phys. Bd. xxix, 1882, quoted by\n          Romanes. Mental Evolution, p. 80, 1883. _Op. cit._ p. 80.\n     [10] Quoted by Romanes, _op. cit._ p. 81.\n\n\n\n\n                              CHAPTER VI.\n\n                           SPOTS AND STRIPES.\n\n\nBearing in mind the great tendency to repetition and symmetry of marking\nwe have shown to exist, it becomes an interesting question to work out\nthe origin of the peculiar spots, stripes, loops and patches which are\nso prevalent in nature. The exquisite eye-spots of the argus pheasant,\nthe peacock, and many butterflies and moths have long excited admiration\nand scientific curiosity, and have been the subject of investigation by\nDarwin,[11] the Rev. H. H. Higgins,[12] Weismann,[13] and others, Darwin\nhaving paid especial attention to the subject.\n\nHis careful analysis of the ocelli or eye-spots in the Argus pheasant\nand peacock have led him to conclude that they are peculiar\nmodifications of the bars of colour as shown by his drawings. Our own\nopinion, founded upon a long series of observations, is that this is not\nthe whole case, but that, in the first place, bars are the result of the\ncoalescence of spots. It is not pretended that a bar of colour is the\nresult of the running together of a series of perfect ocelli like those\nin the so-called tail of the peacock, but merely that spots of colour\nare the normal primitive commencement of colouring, and that these spots\nmay be developed on the one hand into ocelli or eye-spots, and on the\nother into bars or even into great blotches of a uniform tint, covering\nlarge surfaces.\n\nLet us first take the cases of abnormal marking as shown in disease. An\nordinary rash, as in measles, begins as a set of minute red spots, and\nthe same is the case with small pox, the pustules of which sometimes run\ntogether, and becoming confluent form bars, which again enlarging meet\nand produce a blotch or area abnormally marked. It was these well-known\nfacts that induced us to re-examine this question. Colouration and\ndiscolouration arise from the presence or absence of pigment in cells,\nand thus having, as it were independent sources, we should expect colour\nfirst to appear in spots. We have already stated, and shall more fully\nshow in the sequel, how colouration follows structure, and would here\nmerely remark that it seems as if any peculiarity of structure, or\nintensified function modifying structure, has a direct tendency to\ninfluence colour. Thus in the disease known as frontal herpes, as\npointed out to us by Mr. Bland Sutton, of the Middlesex Hospital, the\naffection is characterized by an eruption on the skin corresponding\nexactly to the distribution of the ophthalmic division of the fifth\ncranial nerve, mapping out all its little branches, even to the one\nwhich goes to the tip of the nose. Mr. Hutchinson, F.R.S., the President\nof the Pathological Society, who first described this disease, has\nfavoured us with another striking illustration of the regional\ndistribution of the colour effects of herpes. In this case decolouration\nhas taken place. The patient was a Hindoo, and upon his brown skin the\npigment has been destroyed in the arm along the course of the ulnar\nnerve, with its branches along both sides of one finger and the half of\nanother. In the leg the sciatic and saphenous nerves are partly mapped\nout, giving to the patient the appearance of an anatomical diagram.[14]\n\nIn these cases we have three very important facts determined. First the\nbroad fact that decolouration and colouration in some cases certainly\nfollow structure; second, that the effect begins as spots; thirdly, that\nthe spots eventually coalesce into bands and blotches.\n\nIn birds and insects we have the best means of studying these phenomena,\nand we will now proceed to illustrate the case more fully. The facts\nseem to justify us in considering that starting with a spot we may\nobtain, according to the development, either an ocellus, a stripe or\nbar, or a blotch, and that between, these may have any number of\nintermediate varieties.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nAmong the butterflies we have numerous examples of the development from\nspots, as illustrated in plates. A good example is seen in our common\nEnglish Brimstone (_Gonepteryx rhamni_) Fig. 2, Plate III. In this\ninsect the male (figured) is of a uniform sulphur yellow, with a rich\norange spot in the cell of each wing; the female is much paler in\ncolour, and spotted similarly. In an allied continental species (_G.\nCleopatra_) Fig. 1, Plate III., the female is like that of _rhamni_ only\nlarger; but the male, instead of having an orange spot in the fore-wing,\nhas nearly the whole of the wing suffused with orange, only the margins,\nand the lower wings showing the sulphur ground-tint like that of\n_rhamni_. Intermediate forms between these two species are known. In a\ncase like this we can hardly resist the conclusion that the discoidal\nspot has spread over the fore-wing and become a blotch, and in some\nEnglish varieties of _rhamni_ we actually find the spot drawn out into a\nstreak.\n\n    [Illustration: Plate III.\n                   BUTTERFLIES.]\n\nThe family of _Pieridae_, or whites, again afford us admirable examples\nof the development of spots. The prevailing colours are white, black and\nyellow: green _appears_ to occur in the Orange-tips (_Anthocaris_), but\nit is only the optical effect of a mixture of yellow and grey or black\nscales. The species are very variable, as a rule, and hence of\nimportance to us; and there are many intermediate species on the\ncontinent and elsewhere which render the group a most interesting study.\n\nThe wood white (_Leucophasia sinapis_) Fig. 1, Plate IV., is a pure\nwhite species with an almost square dusky tip to the fore-wings of the\nmale. In the female this tip is very indistinct or wanting, Fig. 4,\nPlate IV. In the variety _Diniensis_, Fig. 2, Plate IV., this square tip\nappears as a round spot.\n\nThe Orange-tips, of which we have only one species in Britain\n(_Anthocaris cardamines_) belongs to a closely allied genus, as does\nalso the continental genus Zegris. The male Orange-tip (_A. cardamines_)\nis white with a dark grey or black tip, and a black discoidal spot. A\npatch of brilliant orange extends from the dark tip to just beyond the\ndiscoidal spots. In the female this is wanting, but the dark tip and\nspot are larger than in the male.\n\nLet us first study the dark tip. In _L. sinapis_ we have seen that it\nextends right to the margin of the wing in the male, but in the female\nis reduced to a dusky spot away from the margin. In _A. cardamines_ the\nmargin is not  quite up to the edge, but a row of tiny white\nspots, like a fringe of seed pearls, occupies the inter-spaces of the\nveins. On the underside these white spots are prolonged into short bars,\nsee Plate IV. In the continental species _A. belemia_ we see the dark\ntip to be in a very elementary condition, being little more than an\nirregular band formed of united spots, there being as much white as\nblack in the tip, Fig. 5, Plate IV. In _A. belia_, Fig. 6, Plate IV.,\nthe black tip is more developed, and in the variety _simplonia_ still\nmore so, Fig. 7, Plate IV. We here see pretty clearly that this dark tip\nhas been developed by the confluence of irregular spots.\n\nTurning now to the discoidal spot we shall observe a similar\ndevelopment. Thus in:--\n\n    _A. cardamines_,  male,   it is small and perfect.\n          Do.       female,     \"   larger    \"\n    _A. belemia_                \"   large     \"\n    _A. belia_                  \"   large with white centre.\n      Do. _v. simplonia_        \"   small and perfect.\n   [15]_A. eupheno_, female,    \"   nearly perfect.\n           Do.       male,      \"   a band.\n\nWe here find two distinct types of variation. In _A. belia_ we have a\ntendency to form an ocellus, and in _A. eupheno_ the spot of the female\nis expanded into a band in the male.\n\nThe orange flush again offers us a similar case; and with regard to this\ncolour we may remark that it seems to be itself a development from the\nwhite ground-colour of the family in the direction of the red end of the\nspectrum. Thus in the Black-veined white (_Aporia crataegi_) we have both\nthe upper and under surfaces of the typical cream-white, for there is no\npure white in the family. In the true whites the under surface of the\nhind-wings is lemon-yellow, in the female of _A. eupheno_ the ground of\nthe upper surface is faint lemon-yellow, and in the male this colour is\nwell-developed. The rich orange, confined to a spot in _G. rhamni_\nbecomes a flush in _G. Cleopatra_, and a vivid tip in _A. cardamines_.\nThese changes are all developments from the cream white, and may be\nimitated accurately by adding more and more red to the primitive yellow,\nas the artist actually did in drawing the plate.\n\n    [Illustration: Plate IV.\n                   SPOTS AND STRIPES.]\n\nIn _A. cardamines_ the orange flush has overflowed the discoidal spot,\nas it were, in the male, and is absent in the female. But in _A.\neupheno_ we have an intermediate state, for as the figures show, in the\nfemale, Fig. 8, the orange tip only extends half-way to the discoidal\nspot, and in the male it reaches it. Moreover it is to be noticed that\nthe flow of colour, to continue the simile, is unchecked by the spot in\n_cardamines_, but where the spot has expanded to a bar in _eupheno_\nit has dammed the colour up and ponded it between bar and tip. An\nexactly intermediate case between these two species is seen in _A.\neuphemoides_, Fig. 10, Plate IV., in which the spot is elongated, and\ndribbles off into an irregular band, into which the orange has trickled,\nas water trickles through imperfect fascines. This series of\nillustrations might be repeated in almost any group of butterflies, but\nsufficient has been said to show how spots can spread into patches,\neither by the spreading of one or by the coalescence of several.\n\nWe will now take an illustration of the formation of stripes or bars\nfrom spots, and in doing so must call attention to the rarity of true\nstripes in butterflies. By a true stripe I mean one that has even edges,\nthat is, whose sides are uninfluenced by structure. In all our British\nspecies such as _P. machaon_, _M. artemis_, _M. athalia_, _V. atalanta_,\n_L. sibilla_, _A. iris_, and some of the Browns, Frittilaries and\nHair-streaks, which can alone be said to be striped, the bands are\nclearly nothing more than spots which have spread up to the costae, and\nstill retain traces of their origin either in the different hue of the\ncostae which intersect them, or in curved edges corresponding with the\ninterspaces of the costae. This in itself is sufficient to indicate their\norigin. But in many foreign species true bands are found, though they\nare by no means common. Illustrations are given in Plate IV., of two\nSwallow-tails, _Papilio machaon_, Fig. 11, and _P. podalirius_, Fig. 12,\nin which the development of a stripe can readily be seen.\n\nIn _machaon_ the dark band inside the marginal semi-lunar spots of the\nfore-wings retain traces of their spot-origin in the speckled character\nof the costal interspaces, and in the curved outlines of those parts. In\n_podalirius_ the semi-lunar spots have coalesced into a stripe, only\nshowing its spot-origin in the black markings of the intersecting costae;\nand the black band has become a true stripe, with plain edges. Had only\nsuch forms as this been preserved, the origin of the spots would have\nbeen lost to view.\n\nIt may, however, be said, though I think not with justice, that we ought\nnot to take two species, however closely allied, to illustrate such a\npoint. But very good examples can be found in the same species. A common\nGerman butterfly, _Araschnia Levana_, has two distinct varieties,\n_Levana_ being the winter, and _prorsa_ the summer form; and between\nthese an intermediate form, _porima_, can be bred from the summer form\nby keeping the pupae cold. Dr. Weismann, who has largely experimented on\nthis insect, has given accurate illustrations of the varieties. Plate V.\nis taken from specimens in our possession. In the males of both\n_Levana_, Fig. 4, and _prorsa_, Fig. 1, the hind-wing has a distinct row\nof spots, and a less distinct one inside it, and in the females of both\nthese are represented by dark stripes. In _porima_ we get every\nintermediate form of spots and stripes, both in the male and female, and\nas these were hatched from the same batch of eggs, or, are brothers and\nsisters, it is quite impossible to doubt that here, at least, we have an\nactual proof of the change of spots into stripes.\n\n    [Illustration: Fig. 1. Part of secondary feather of Argus Pheasant.\n    _a. a._ Elongated spots, incipient ocelli.\n       _b._ Interspaces.\n    _c. c._ Axial line.\n    _d. d._ Double spots, incipient ocelli.\n       _e._ Minute dottings.\n    _f. f._ Shaft.\n    _k. k._ Line of feathering.]\n\n    [Illustration: Fig. 2. Part of secondary wing feather of Argus\n                   Pheasant.\n    _a._    Oval. Axis at right angles.\n    _b._    Round.\n    _c. c._ Shaft.\n    _d._    Imperfect ocellus.\n    _e._    Expansion of stripe.\n    _f._    Interspace.\n    _g._    Stalk.\n    _h._    Edge of feather.\n    _k._    Line of feathering.]\n\n    [Illustration: Plate V.\n                   SEASONAL VARIETIES.]\n\nThe change of spots more or less irregular into eye-spots, or ocelli, is\nequally clear; and Darwin's drawing of the wings of _Cyllo leda_[16]\nillustrates the point well. \"In some specimens,\" he remarks, \"large\nspaces on the upper surfaces of the wings are  black, and\ninclude irregular white marks; and from this state a complete gradation\ncan be traced into a tolerably perfect ocellus, _and this results from\nthe contraction of the irregular blotches of colour_. In another series\nof specimens a gradation can be followed from excessively minute white\ndots, surrounded by a scarcely visible black line, into perfectly\nsymmetrical and larger ocelli.\" In the words we have put in italics\nDarwin seems to admit these ocelli to be formed from blotches; and we\nthink those of the Argus pheasant can be equally shown to arise from\nspots.\n\nDarwin's beautiful drawings show, almost as well as if made for the\npurpose, that the bars are developed from spots.[17] In Fig. 1 is shown\npart of a secondary wing feather, in which the lines _k. k._ mark the\ndirection of the axis, along which the spots are arranged, perfectly on\nthe right, less so on the left. The lengthening out of the spots towards\nthe shaft is well seen on the right, and the coalescence into lines on\nthe left. In Fig. 2 we have part of another feather from the same bird,\nshowing on the left elongated spots, with a dark shading round them, and\non the right double spots, like twin stars, with one atmosphere around\nthem. Increase the elongation of these latter, and you have the former,\nand both are nascent ocelli. We here, then, have a regular gradation\nbetween spots, bands, and ocelli, just as we can see in insects.\n\nIn some larvae, those of the _Sphingidae_ especially, ocelli occur, and\nthese may be actually watched as they grow from dots to perfect\neye-spots, with the maturity of the larva.\n\nEven in some mammals the change from spots to stripes can be seen.\nThus, the young tiger is spotted, and so is the young lion; but, whereas\nin the former case the spots change into the well-known stripes (which\nare really loops), in the latter they die away. The horse, as Darwin\nlong ago showed, was probably descended from a striped animal, as shown\nby the bars on a foal's leg. But before this the animal must have been\nspotted; and the dappled horses are an example of this; and, moreover,\nalmost every horse shows a tendency to spottiness, especially on the\nhaunches. In the museum at Leiden a fine series of the Java pig (_Sus\nvittatus_) is preserved. Very young animals are banded, but have spots\nover the shoulders and thighs; these run into stripes as the animal\ngrows older; then the stripes expand, and, at last meeting, the mature\nanimal is a uniform dark brown. Enough has now, I trust, been said upon\nthis point to show that from spots have been developed the other\nmarkings with which we are familiar in the animal kingdom.\n\nThe vegetable kingdom illustrates this fact almost as well. Thus, the\nbeautiful leaves of the Crotons are at first green, with few or no\n spots; the spots then grow more in number, coalesce, form\nirregular bands, further develop, and finally cover the whole, or almost\nthe whole, of the leaf with a glow of rich colour. Some of the pretty\nspring-flowering orchid callitriche have sulphur-yellow petals, with\ndark rich sepia spots; these often develop to such an extent as to\noverspread nearly all the original yellow. Many other examples might be\ngiven.\n\nHitherto we have started with a spot, and traced its development. But a\nspot is itself a developed thing, inasmuch as it is an aggregation of\nsimilarly  cells. How they come about may, perhaps, be partly\nseen by the following considerations. Definite colour-pattern has a\ndefinite function--that of being seen. We may, therefore, infer that the\nmore definite colour is of newer origin than the less definite. Hence,\nwhen we find the two sexes differently , we may generally assume\nthat the more homely tinted form is the more ancient. For example, some\nbutterflies, like the gorgeous Purple Emperor (_Apatura iris_), have\nvery sombre mates; and it seems fair to assume that the emperor's robes\nhave been donned since his consort's dress was originally fashioned.\n\nThat the object of brilliant colour is display is shown partly by the\nfact that in those parts of the wings of butterflies which overlap the\nbrilliant colour is missing, and partly by the generally brighter hues\nof day-flying butterflies and moths than of the night-flying species.\nNow, the sombre hues of nocturnal moths are not so much protective (like\nthe sober tints of female butterflies and birds), because night and\ndarkness is their great defender, as the necessary result of the\ndarkness: bright colours are not produced, because they could not be\nseen and appreciated. In these cases it is very noticeable how\nfrequently the colour is irregularly dotted about--irrorated or peppered\nover the wings, as it were. This irregular distribution of the pigment\ncells, if it were quite free from any arrangement, might be looked upon\nas primitive colouring, undifferentiated either into distinct colour or\ndistinct pattern. If we suppose a few of the pigment cells here and\nthere to become , we should have irregular brilliant dottings,\njust as we actually see in many butterflies, along the costa. The\ngrouping together of these colour dots would give rise to a spot, from\nwhich point all is clear.\n\nThat some such grouping or gathering together, allied to segregation,\ndoes take place, a study of spots, and especially of eye-spots, renders\nprobable. What the nature of the process is we do not know, nor is it\neasy to imagine. But let us suppose a surface uniformly tinted brown.\nThen, if we gather some of the colouring matter into a dark spot we\nshall naturally leave a lighter area around it, just as we see in all\nour Browns and Ringlets. In this way we can see how a ring-spot can be\nformed. To make it a true eye-spot, with a light centre, we must also\nsuppose a pushing away of the colour from that centre. A study of ocelli\nnaturally suggests such a process, which is analogous to the banding of\nagates, and all concentric nodules. Darwin, struck with this, seems to\nadopt it as a fact, for he says, \"Appearances strongly favour the belief\nthat, on the one hand, a dark spot is often formed by the colouring\nmatter being drawn towards a central point from a surrounding zone,\nwhich is thus rendered lighter. And, on the other hand, a white spot is\noften formed by the colour being driven away from a central point, so\nthat it accumulates in a surrounding darker zone.\"[18] The analogy\nbetween ocelli and concretions may be a real one. At any rate beautiful\nocelli of all sizes can be seen forming in many iron-stained\nsand-stones. The growth of ocelli may thus be a mechanical process\nadapted by the creature for decorative purposes, but the artistic\ncolouring of many eye-spots implies greater effort.\n\nThere is, however, one set of colour lines in birds and insects that do\nnot seem to arise from spots in the ordinary way. These are the \nfeather-shafts of birds, and the  nerves or veins in a\nbutterfly's wing, In these the colour has a tendency to flow all along\nthe structure in lines.\n\n_Conclusion._ The results arrived at in this chapter may be thus\nsummarised:--\n\nSpots, ocelli, stripes, loops, and patches may be, and nearly always\nare, developed from more or less irregular spots.\n\nThis is shown both by the study of normal colouring, or by abnormal\ncolouring, or decolouring in disease.\n\nEven the celebrated case of the Argus Pheasant shows that the bands from\nwhich the ocelli are developed arose from spots.\n\n\n                             [Illustration]\n\n\n     [11] Descent of Man, vol. ii., p. 132.\n     [12] Quart. Journ. Sci., July 1868, p. 325.\n     [13] Studies in the Theory of Descent.\n     [14] See photographs in Hutchinson's Illustrations of Clinical\n          Surgery.\n     [15] See Plate IV.\n     [16] Desc. Man, vol. ii, p. 133, fig. 52.\n     [17] Compare his figs. 56 to 58 op. cit.\n     [18] Desc. Man, vol. ii., p. 134.\n\n\n\n\n                              CHAPTER VII.\n\n                    COLOURATION IN THE INVERTEBRATA.\n\n\nIf the principle of the dependence of colour-pattern upon structure,\nenunciated in the preceding pages be sound, we ought to find certain\ngreat schemes of colouration corresponding to the great structural\nsubdivisions of the animal kingdom. This is just what we do find; and\nbefore tracing the details, it will be as well to group the great\ncolour-schemes together, so that a general view of the question can be\nobtained at a glance.\n\nThe animal kingdom falls naturally into two divisions, but the dividing\nline can be drawn in two ways. If we take the most simple\nclassification, we have:--\n\n     1. _Protozoa_, animals with no special organs.\n\n     2. _Organozoa_, animals possessing organs.\n\nPractically this classification is not used, but we shall see that from\nour point of view it is a useful one. In the most general scheme the\ndivisions are:--\n\n     1. _Invertebrata_, animals without backbones.\n\n     2. _Vertebrata_, animals with backbones.\n\nThe invertebrata are divided into sub-kingdoms, of which the protozoa\nform one. These protozoa possess, as it were, only negative properties.\nIn their simplest form they are mere masses of protoplasm, even lacking\nan investing membrane or coat, and never, even in the highest forms,\npossessing distinct organs. It is this simplicity which at once\nseparates them entirely from all other animals.\n\nThe other sub-kingdoms are:--\n\n     _Coelenterata_, of which the jelly-fishes are a type; animals\n     possessing an alimentary canal, fully communicating with the\n     general cavity of the body, but without distinct circulatory or\n     nervous systems.\n\n     _Annuloida_, of which the star-fishes are a type; animals having\n     the alimentary canal shut off from the body-cavity, and possessing\n     a nervous system, and in some a true circulatory system.\n\n     _Annulosa_, of which worms, lobsters, and insects are types;\n     animals composed of definite segments, arranged serially, always\n     possessing true circulatory and nervous systems.\n\n     _Mollusca_, of which oysters and whelks are types; animals which\n     are soft-bodied, often bearing a shell, always possessing a\n     distinct nervous system and mostly with a distinct heart.\n\nIn old systems of classification, the _Coelenterata_ and _Annuloida_ were\nunited into one sub-kingdom, the _Radiata_, in consequence of their\nradiate or star-like structures.\n\nAs colouration, according to the views here set forth, depends upon\nstructure, we may classify the Invertebrata thus:--\n\n    Protozoa                     Structureless.\n    Coelenterata   }  Radiata.   Radiate structure.\n    Annuloida      }\n    Annulosa                     Segmented   \"\n    Mollusca                     Marginate   \"\n\nThe mollusca are said to be marginate in structure because, in those\npossessing shells--the mollusca proper--the shell is formed by\nsuccessive additions to the margin or edge of the shell, by means of the\nmargin of the mantle, or shell-secreting organ.\n\nNow we shall proceed to show that the schemes of colouration follow out\nthese structure-plans, and thus give additional force to the truth of\nthe classification, as well as showing that, viewed on a broad scale,\nthe present theory is a true one.\n\nWe can, in fact, throw the whole scheme into a table, as follows:--\n\n\n                        SYSTEMS OF COLOURATION.\n\n +--+-------------------------+------------------------+------------------+\n |  |  System of Colouring.   |       Structure.       |  Sub-kingdoms.   |\n +--+-------------------------+------------------------+------------------+\n |  |_A. No Axial Decoration._|_A. No Axial Structure._|_A. Invertebrata._|\n |1.|   No definite system.   |   No definite organs.  |    Protozoa.     |\n |2.|     Radiate system.     |   Radiate structure.   |   Coelenterata,  |\n |  |                         |                        |        Annuloida.|\n |3.|    Segmental system.    |  Segmental structure.  |    Annulosa.     |\n |4.|    Marginate system.    |    Marginate growth.   |    Mollusca.     |\n |  |                         |                        |                  |\n |  |  _B. Axial Decoration._ |  _B. Axial Structure._ | _B. Vertebrata._ |\n |5.|       Axial system.     |    Axial structure.    |   Vertebrata.    |\n +--+-------------------------+------------------------+------------------+\n\n\n_Protozoa._ The protozoa are generally very minute, and always composed\nof structureless protoplasm. Their peculiarities are rather negative\nthan positive, there being neither body segments, muscular, circulatory,\nnor nervous systems. Even the denser exterior portion (_ectosarc_)\npossessed by some of them seems to be rather a temporary coagulation of\nthe protoplasm than a real differentiation of that material.\n\nHere, then, we have to deal with the simplest forms of life, and if\ncolouration depends upon structure, these structureless transparent\ncreatures should lack all colour-pattern, and such is really the case.\nPossessing no organs, they have no colouration, and are generally either\ncolourless or a faint uniform brown colour, and through their colourless\nbodies the food particles show, often giving a fictitious appearance of\ncolouring.\n\nTo this general statement there is a curious and most telling exception.\nIn a great many protozoa there exists a curious pulsating cell-like\nbody, called the contractile vesicle, which seems to be a rudimentary\norgan, whose function is unknown. Here, then, if anywhere, traces of\ncolouring should be found, and here it is accordingly found, for, though\ngenerally clear and colourless, it sometimes assumes a pale roseate hue.\nThis may be deemed the first attempt at decoration in the animal\nkingdom, and it is directly applied to the only part which can be said\nto possess structure. Beautiful examples are plentiful in Leidy's\nmagnificent volume on Freshwater Rhizopods.\n\n_Coelenterata._ These animals fall into two groups, the _Hydrozoa_, of\nwhich the hydra and jelly-fishes are types, and the _Actinozoa_, of\nwhich the sea-anemonies and corals are types. Most of the coelenterata\nare transparent animals, but it is amongst them we first come across\nopaque colouring.\n\nOf the lowest forms, the hydras, nothing need be said here, as they are\nso much like the protozoa in their simplicity of structure.\n\nThe _Corynida_, familiar to many of our sea-side visitors by their horny\nbrown tubes (_Tubularia_), attached to shells and stones, are next in\npoint of complexity. Within the tube is found a semi-fluid mass of\nprotoplasm, giving rise at the orifice to the polypite, which possesses\na double series of tentacles. These important organs are generally of a\nvivid red colour, thus emphasizing their importance in the strongest\nmanner. Other members of the order are white, with pink stripes.\n\nIn the larval stage many of the animals belonging to the above and\nallied orders, are very like the true jelly-fishes. These free swimming\nlarvae, or _gonophores_, possess four radiating canals, passing from the\ndigestive sac to the margins of the bell, and these are often the seat\nof colour. In these creatures, too, we find the earliest trace of sense\norgans, and consequently, the first highly differentiated organs, and\nthey appear as richly  spots on the margins of the bell. The\ntrue oceanic Hydrozoa again afford us fine examples of structural\ncolouration. The beautiful translucent blue-purple _Velella_, which is\nsometimes driven on to our shores, is a case in point; and its delicate\nstructure lines are all emphasized in deeper hues. The true jelly-fishes\n(_Medusidae_) with their crystal bells and radiating canals, frequently\nshow brilliant colour, and it is applied to the canals, and also to the\nrudimentary eye-specks, which are frequently richly tinted, and in all\ncases strongly marked. In the so-called \"hidden-eyed\" Medusae we find the\nsame arrangement of colour, the same emphasized eye-specks, and the\nreproductive organs generally appear as a vivid  cross, showing\nthrough the translucent bell.\n\nTurning now to the _Actinozoa_, of which the sea anemonies and corals\nare types, we are brought first into contact with general decorative,\nmore or less opaque colour, applied to the surface of the animal. In the\npreceding cases the animals have been almost universally transparent or\ntranslucent, and the colouration is often applied to the internal\norgans, and shows through. In the sea-anemonies we find a nearer\napproach to opacity, in the dense muscular body, though even this is\noften translucent, and the tentacles generally so, often looking like\nclouded chalcedony. The wealth of colour to be found in these animals\ngives us a very important opportunity of studying decoration, where it\nfirst appears in profusion.\n\nOne of the first points that strikes even a casual observer is that\namongst the sea-anemonies the colouration is extremely variable, even in\nthe same species and in the same locality. This is in strong contrast to\nwhat we generally find amongst the higher organisms, such as insects and\nbirds; for though considerable variation is found in them, it does not\nrun riot as in the anemonies. It would almost appear as if the actual\ncolour itself was of minor importance, and only the pattern essential;\nthe precise hue is not fixed, is not important, but the necessity of\ncolour of some sort properly arranged is the object to be attained.\nWhether this idea has a germ of truth in it or not, it is hard to say,\nbut when we take the fact in connection with its occurrence just where\nopacity begins, connecting this with the transparency of the lower\norganisms, and the application of vivid colour to their internal organs,\none seems to associate the instability of the anemony's colouring with\nthe transference of colour from the interior to the exterior. Certain it\nis, that vivid colour never exists in the interior of opaque animals; it\nis always developed under the influence of light. The white bones,\nnerves and cartilages, and the uniform red of mammalian muscles, are not\ncases of true decorative colouring in our sense of the term, for all\nbodies must have some colour. All bone is practically white, all\nmammalian muscle red, but for these colours to be truly decorative, it\nwould be necessary for muscles of apparently the same character often to\nbe differently tinted, just as the apparently similar hairs on a mammal,\nand scales on an insect, are variously painted. This we do not find, for\nthe shaft-bones and plate-bones, and even such odd bones as the hyoid\nare all one colour; and no one would undertake to tell, by its hue, a\npiece of striped from a piece of unstriped muscle. Decorative colouring\n_must_ be external in an opaque animal; it _may_ be internal in a\ntransparent one.\n\nThe connection thus shown between decoration and transparency seems to\nsuggest that hypodermal colour is the original, and epidermal the newer\nscheme: that the latter was derived from the former. This agrees with\nHaagen's shrewd hint that all mimetic colour was originally hypodermal.\nCertain it is that the protective colour that is still under personal\ncontrol, as in the chameleon, &c., is always hypodermal.\n\nThe common crass (_Bunodes crassicornis_) is so extremely variable, that\nall one can say of it is, that it is  red and green. But this\ncolour is distributed in accordance with structure. The base, or\ncrawling surface, not being exposed to the light, is uncoloured. The\ncolumn, or stem, is irregularly spotted, and striped in accordance with\nthe somewhat undifferentiated character of its tissue, but the important\norgans, the tentacles, are most definitely ornamented, the colour\nvarying, but the pattern being constant. This pattern is heart-shaped,\nwith the apex towards the point of the tentacle; that is to say, the\nnarrow part of the pattern points to the narrow part of the tentacle.\n\nIn the common _Actinea mesembryanthemum_, which is often blood red, the\nmarginal bodies, probably sense-organs, are of the most exquisite\nturquoise blue colour, and the ruby disc thus beaded is as perfect an\nexample of simple structural decoration as could be desired. A zone of\nsimilar blue runs round the base of the body.\n\nTurning now to the corals, which are simply like colonies of single\nanemonies with a stony skeleton, we have quite a different arrangement\nof hues. No sight is more fascinating than that of a living-coral reef,\nas seen through the clear waters of a lagoon. The tropical gardens\nashore cannot excel these sea-gardens in brilliancy or variety of\ncolour. Reds, yellows, purples, browns of every shade, almost bewilder\nthe eye with their profusion; and here again we find structural\ndecoration carried out to perfection. The growing points of white\nbranching corals (_Madrepores_) are frequently tipped with vivid purple,\nand the tiny polyps themselves are glowing gem-stars. In the white\nbrain-corals, the polyps are vivid red, green, yellow, purple and so on;\nbut in almost every case vividly contrasting with the surrounding parts,\nthe colour changing as the function changes.\n\nThe _Alcyonariae_, which include the sea-fans, sea-pens, and the red\ncoral of commerce, practically bring us to the end of the _Coelenterata_,\nand afford us fresh proof of the dependence of colour upon structure and\nfunction. The well-known organ-pipe coral (_Tubipora musica_) is of a\ndeep crimson colour, and the polyps themselves are of the most vivid\nemerald green, a contrast that cannot be excelled. Almost equally\nbeautiful is the commercial coral (_Corallium rubrum_) whose vivid red\nhas given a name to a certain tint. In this coral the polyps are of a\nmilk-white colour.\n\nIt must be remembered that in these cases the colour seems actually to\nbe intentional, so as to form a real and not merely an accidental\ncontrast between the stony polypidom and the polyp, for the connecting\ntissue (_coenosarc_) is itself as colourless as it is structureless.\n\nGathering together the facts detailed in this chapter we find:--\n\n     1. That the Protozoa are practically colourless and structureless.\n\n     2. That in those species which possess a rudimentary organ\n     (contractile vesicle) a slight decoration is applied to that\n     organ.\n\n     3. That in the Coelenterata the colouration is directly dependent\n     upon the structure.\n\n     4. That in transparent animals the colouration is applied directly\n     to the organ whether it be internal as in the canals or ovaries, or\n     external, as in the eye-specks.\n\n     5. That in opaque animals, as in the sea-anemonies, the colouring\n     is entirely external.\n\n     6. That it is very variable in hue, but not in pattern.\n\n     7. That the most highly differentiated parts (tentacles,\n     eye-specks), are the most strongly .\n\n     8. That in the corals an emphatic difference occurs between the\n     colour of the polypidom (or \"coral\") and the polyp.\n\n\n                             [Illustration]\n\n\n\n\n                             CHAPTER VIII.\n\n                          DETAILS OF PROTOZOA.\n\n\nThe Protozoa are divided into three orders.\n\n      I.--_Gregarinidae._\n     II.--_Rhizopoda._\n    III.--_Infusoria._\n\nI. The _Gregarinidae_ consist of minute protozoa, parasitic in the\ninterior of insects, &c., and like other internal parasites are\ncolourless, as we should expect.\n\nII. The _Rhizopoda_ may, for our purpose, be divided into the naked\nforms like _Amoeba_, and those which possess a skeleton, such as the\nRadiolaria, the Foraminifera and the Spongia.\n\nOf these the naked forms are colourless, or uniformly tinted, excepting\nthe flush already described as emphasizing the contractile vesicle.\n\nThe _Foraminifera_ are the earliest animals that possess a skeleton or\nshell, and though generally very small, this shell is often complex, and\nof extreme beauty, though their bodies retain the general simplicity of\nthe protozoa, indeed, they are said to possess no contractile vesicle.\nStill the complexity of their shells places them on a higher level than\nthe naked rhizopoda.\n\nIn these animals we find the first definite colour, not as a pattern,\nbut as simple tinting of the protoplasm. The general hue is\nyellowish-brown (as in _Amoeba_), but deep red is not uncommon. The\ndeepest colour is found in the oldest central chambers, becoming fainter\ntowards the periphery, where it is often almost unrecognisable.[19]\n\nThe _Radiolaria_ are minute organisms with still more complex skeletons,\nand are considered by Haeckel[20] to be more highly organized than the\npreceding order. They consist of a central portion containing masses of\nminute cells, and an external portion containing yellow cells. Here we\nhave the first differentiation of parts in the external coating and\ninternal capsule, and side by side with this differentiation we find\ncolour more pronounced, and even taking regional tints in certain forms.\n\nWe may notice the following genera as exhibiting fine colour:--\n\n     _Red._ Eucecryphalus, Arachnocorys, Eucrytidium, Dictyoceras.\n\n     _Yellow._ Carpocanium, Dictyophimus, Amphilonche.\n\n     _Purple._ Eucrytidium, Acanthostratus.\n\n     _Blue._ Cyrtidosphaera, Coelodendrum.\n\n     _Green._ Cladococeus, Amphilonche.\n\n     _Brown._ Acanthometra, Amphilonche.\n\nExamples of these may be seen in the plates of Haeckel's fine work, and\nas an illustration of regional decoration we cite _Acanthostratus\npurpuraceus_, in which the central capsule is seen to run from red to\norange, and the external parts to be colourless, with red markings in\nlooped chains.\n\n_Spongocyclia_ also exhibits this regional distinction of colour very\nclearly, the central capsule being red and the external portion yellow.\n\nThe _Spongida_, or sponges, are, broadly speaking, assemblages or\ncolonies of amoeba-like individuals, united into a common society.\nIndividually the component animals are low, very low, in type, but their\nunion into colonies, and the necessity for a uniform or common\ngovernment has given rise to peculiarities that in a certain sense raise\nthem even above the complex radiolaria. Some, it is true, are naked, and\ndo not possess the skeleton that supports the colony, which skeleton\nforms what we usually call the sponge; but even amongst these naked\nsponges the necessity for communal purposes over and above the mere\nwants of the individual, raises them a step higher in the animal series.\nA multitude of individuals united by a common membrane, living in the\nopen sea, it must have happened that some in more immediate contact with\nthe food-producing waters, would have thriven at the expense of those in\nthe interior who could only obtain the nutriment that had passed\nunheeded by the peripheral animals. But just as in higher communities we\nhave an inflowing system of water and an out-flowing system of effete\nsewerage quite uncontrolled, and, alas, generally quite unheeded by the\nindividuals whose wants are so supplied; so in the sponges we have a\nsystem of inflowing food-bearing water and an out-flowing sewage, or\nexhausted-water system. This is brought about by a peculiar system of\ncilia-lined cells which, as it were, by their motion suck the water in,\nbringing with it the food, and an efferent system by which the exhausted\nliquid escapes. These cilia-lined cells are the first true organs that\nare to be found in the animal kingdom, and according to the views we\nhold, they ought to be emphasized with colour, even though their\ninternal position renders the colouration less likely. This we find\nactually to be the case, and these flagellated cells, as they are\ncalled, are often the seat of vividest colour.\n\nThe animal matter, or sarcode, or protoplasm of sponges falls into three\nlayers, just as we find the primitive embryo of the highest animals; and\njust as the middle membrane of a mammalian ovum develops into bone,\nmuscle and nerve, so the middle membrane (mesosarc) of the sponges\ndevelops the hard skeleton, and in this most important part we find the\ncolour cells prevail. Sollas, one of our best English authorities upon\nsponges, writes, \"The colours of sponges, which are very various, are\nusually due to the presence of pigment granules, interbedded either in\nthe _endosarc of the flagellated cells_, or in the mesodermic cells,\nusually of the skin only, but sometimes of the whole body.\"[21]\n\nWe can, then, appeal most confidently to the protozoa as illustrating\nthe morphological character of colouration.\n\n\n                             [Illustration]\n\n\n     [19] Leidy. Rhizopoda of N. America, p. 16.\n     [20] Haeckel. Die Radiolarien, Berlin, 1862.\n     [21] Sollas. Spongidae. Cassell's Nat. Hist. Vol. vi., p. 318.\n\n\n\n\n                              CHAPTER IX.\n\n                        DETAILS OF COELENTERATA.\n\n\n                              I. HYDROZOA.\n\n                             _A. Hydrida._\n\nThe Hydras, as a rule, are not  in our sense of the term; that\nis to say, they are of a general uniform brown colour. But in one\nspecies, _H. viridis_, the endoderm contains granules of a green colour,\nwhich is said to be identical with the green colouring matter of leaves\n(_chlorophyll_). This does not occur in all the cells, though it is\npresent in most. The green matter occurs in the form of definite\nspherical corpuscles, and these colour-cells define the inner layer of\nthe integument (the endoderm), and render it distinct.[22] That portion\nof the endoderm which forms the boundary of the body-cavity has fewer\ngreen corpuscles, but contains irregular brown granules, thus roughly\nmapping out a structural region.\n\nWe thus see that even in so simple a body as the Hydra the colouring\nmatter is distributed strictly according to morphological tracts.\n\n_B. Tubularida._ The Tubularian Hydroids are the subject of an\nexhaustive and admirably illustrated monograph by Prof. J. Allman, from\nwhich the following details are culled. These animals are with few\nexceptions marine, and consist either of a single polypite or of a\nnumber connected together by a common flesh, or coenosarc. Some are quite\nnaked, others have horny tubes, into which, however, the polypites\ncannot retreat. The polypites consist essentially of a sac surrounded\nwith tentacles; and one of their most striking characters is their mode\nof reproduction. Little buds (_gonophores_) grow from the coenosarc, and\ngradually assume a form exactly like that of a jelly-fish. These drop\noff, and swim freely about; and are so like jelly-fishes that they have\nbeen classed among them as separate organisms.\n\nThe Tubulariae are all transparent; and in them we find structural\ncolouration finely shown, the colour, as is usual in transparent\nanimals, being applied directly to the different organs.\n\nWriting of the colour, Prof. Allman says: \"That distinct secretions are\nfound among the Hydroida, and that even special structures are set aside\nfor their elaboration, there cannot now be any doubt.\n\n\"One of the most marked of these secretions consists of a \ngranular matter; which is contained at first in the interior of certain\nspherical cells, and may afterwards become discharged into the somatic\nfluid. These cells, as already mentioned, are developed in the\nendoderm;[23] in which they are frequently so abundant as to form a\ncontinuous layer upon the free surface of this membrane. It is in the\nproper gastric cavity of the hydranth and medusa, in the spadix of the\nsporosac, and in the bulbous dilatations which generally occur at the\nbases of the marginal tentacles of the medusae, that they are developed\nin greatest abundance and perfection; but they are also found, more or\nless abundantly, in the walls of probably the whole somatic cavity, if\nwe except that portion of the gastrovascular canals of the medusa which\nis not included within the bulbous dilatations.\n\n\"In the parts just mentioned as affording the most abundant supply of\nthese cells, they are chiefly borne on the prominent ridges into which\nthe endoderm is thrown in these situations; when they occur in the\nintervals between the ridges they are smaller, and less numerous.\n\n\"The granular matter contained in the interior of these cells varies in\nits colour in different hydroids. In many it presents various shades of\nbrown; in others it is a reddish-brown, or light pink, or deeper\ncarmine, or vermilion, or orange, or, occasionally, a fine lemon-yellow,\nas in the hydranth of _Coppinia arcta_, or even a bright emerald green,\nas in the bulbous bases of the marginal tentacles of certain medusae. No\ndefinite structure can be detected in it; it is entirely composed of\nirregular granules, irregular in form, and usually aggregated into\nirregularly shaped masses in the interior of the cells. It is to this\nmatter that the colours of the _Hydroida_, varying, as they do, in\ndifferent species, are almost entirely due.\n\n\"The  granular matter is undoubtedly a product of true\nsecretion; and the cells in which it is found must be regarded as true\nsecreting cells. These cells are themselves frequently to be seen as\nsecondary cells in the interior of parent cells, from which they escape\nby rupture, and then, falling into the somatic fluid, are carried along\nby its currents, until, ultimately, by their own rupture, they discharge\ninto it their contents.\n\n\"We have no facts which enable us to form a decided opinion as to the\npurpose served by this secretion. Its being always more or less deeply\n, and the fact of its being abundantly produced in the digestive\ncavity, might suggest that it represented the biliary secretion of\nhigher animals. This may be its true nature, but as yet we can assert\nnothing approaching to certainty on the subject; indeed, considering how\nwidely the cells destined for the secretion of  granules are\ndistributed over the walls of the somatic cavity, it would seem not\nimprobable that the import of the  matter may be different in\ndifferent situations; that while some of it may be a product destined\nfor some further use in the hydroid, more of it may be simply excretive,\ntaking no further part in the vital phenomena, and intended solely for\nelimination from the system.\"[24]\n\nHere we have very definite statements by a highly trained observer of\nthe distribution of colour in the whole of these animals, and of the\nconclusions he draws from them.\n\nFirstly as to the colour itself. We find it true colour--brown, pink,\ncarmine, vermilion, orange, lemon-yellow, and even emerald green; a set\nof hues as vivid as any to be found in the animal kingdom. It is\ndifficult to conceive these granules to be merely excrementitious\nmatter; for in such simple creatures, feeding upon such similar bodies,\none would hardly expect the excretive matter to be so diversified in\ntint. Moreover, excrementitious matter is not, as a rule, highly\n, but brown. Thus, we see in the Rhizopods the green vegetable\nmatter which has been taken in as food becomes brown as the process of\nassimilation goes on; and, indeed, colour seems almost always to be\ndestroyed by the act of digestion.\n\nStill, it by no means follows that this colour, even if it is produced\nfor the sake of decoration, as we suggest, may not owe its direct origin\nto the process of digestion. The digestive apparatus is the earliest\ndeveloped in the animal kingdom, and in these creatures is by far the\nmost important; the coelenterata being, in fact, little more than living\nstomachs. If, then, colouration be structural, what is more likely than\nthat the digestive organs should be the seat of decoration in such\ntransparent creatures?\n\nSecondly, as to the distribution of the colour. We find it \"frequently\nforming a continuous layer upon the free surface of\" the endoderm, in\nthe \"spadix of the sporosac,\" and in the \"bulbous terminations\" of the\ncanals, that colour is best developed. In other words, the colour is\ndistributed structurally, and is most strongly marked where the function\nis most important.\n\nProf. Allman gives no hint that the colour may be purely decorative, and\nis naturally perplexed at the display of hues in such vigour; but if\nthis be one of the results of the differentiation of parts, of the\nspecialization of function, then we can, at least, understand why we\nfind such brilliant colour in these creatures, and why it is so\ndistributed.\n\nAs an illustration of the _Tubularia_ we have selected _Syncoryne\npulchella_, Fig. 2, Pl. VI., and its medusa, Fig. 1. The endoderm of the\nspadix of the hydranths is of a rich orange colour, which becomes paler\nas it descends towards the less highly organized stem. Medusae are seen\nin various stages of development, and one, mature and free, is shown. In\nthese the manubrium, and the bulbous terminations of the canals are also\nseen to be  orange.\n\nIn these medusae we find the first appearance of sensory organs. They\nconsist of pigment-cells enclosed in the ectoderm, or outside covering;\nand are singular as presenting the first true examples of opaque\ncolouring in the animal kingdom. They are associated with nerve cells\nattached to a ring of filamentous nerve matter, surrounding the base of\nthe bell. In some important respects the pigment differs from that in\nother parts of the animal. It is more definite in structure; and the\nwhole ocellus is \"aggregation of very minute cells, each filled with a\nhomogeneous  matter.\"[25] These ocelli, and similar sense\norgans, called _lithocysts_, are always situated over the bulbous\ntermination of the canals. The pigment is black (as in this case),\nvermilion, or deep carmine.\n\n    [Illustration: Plate VI.\n                   SYNCORYNE PULCHELLA.]\n\nThe dependence of colour upon structure is thus shown to hold good\nthroughout these animals in a most remarkable manner, and the acceptance\nof the views here set forth gives us an insight into the reasons for\nthis colouration which, as we have seen, did not arise from the study of\nthe question from the ordinary point of view.\n\n_C. Sertularida._ These animals are very similar to the last, but they\nare all compound, and the polypites can be entirely withdrawn within the\nleathery investment or polypary. Their mode of reproduction is also\nsimilar, and their colouration follows the same general plan. Being so\nlike the preceding order, it is unnecessary to describe them.\n\n\n                           _B. Siphonophora._\n\nThe Siphonophora are all free-swimming, and are frequently called\nOceanic Hydrozoa. They are divided into three orders, viz.:--\n\n    _a. Calycophoridae._\n    _b. Physophoridae._\n    _c. Medusidae._\n\n_a. Calycophoridae._ These animals have a thread-like coenosarc, or common\nprotoplasm, which is unbranched, cylindrical, and contractile. They are\nmostly quite transparent, but where colour exists it is always placed\nstructurally. Thus, in _Diphyes_ the sacculi of the tentacles are\nreddish, in _Sphaeronectes_ they are deep red, and in _Abyla_ the edges\nof the larger specimens are deep blue.[26]\n\n_b. Physophoridae._ These creatures are distinguished by the presence of\na peculiar organ, the float, or _pneumatophore_, which is a sac\nenclosing a smaller sac. The float is formed by a reflexion of both the\nectoderm and endoderm, and serves to buoy up the animal at the surface\nof the sea. The best known species is the Physalia, or Portuguese\nMan-o'-War.\n\nProf. Huxley, in his monograph on the Oceanic Hydrozoa, gives many\ndetails of the colouration; and, not having had much opportunity of\nstudying them, the following observations are taken from his work. It\nwill be seen that the Physophoridae illustrate the structural\ndistribution of colour in a remarkable manner.\n\n_Stephanomia amphitridis_, the hydrophyllia, colourless, and so\ntransparent as to be almost imperceptible in water, coenosarc whitish,\nenlarged portions of polypites, pink or scarlet, sacs of tentacles\nscarlet.\n\nThe enlarged portion of the polypites is marked with red striae, \"which\nare simply elevations of the endoderm, containing thread-cells and\n granules.\" The small polypites do not possess these elevations,\nand are colourless.\n\n_Agalma breve_, like a prismatic mass of crystal, with pink float and\npolypites.\n\n_Athorybia rosacea_, float pink, with radiating dark-brown striae, made\nup of dots; polypites lightish red, shading to pink at their apices;\ntentacles yellowish or colourless, with dark-brown sacculi; thread-cells\ndark brown.\n\n_Rhizophysa filiformis_, pink, with deep red patch surrounding the\naperture of the pneumatocyst.\n\n_Physalia caravilla_, bright purplish-red, with dark extremities, and\nblue lines in the folds of the crest; polypites violet, with whitish\npoints, larger tentacles red, with dark purple acetabula, smaller\ntentacles blue, bundles of buds reddish.\n\n_P. pelagica_, in young individuals pale blue, in adult both ends green,\nwith highest part of crest purple, tentacles blue, with dark acetabula;\npolypites dark blue, with yellow points.\n\n_P. utriculus._ Prof. Huxley describes a specimen doubtfully referred to\nthis species very fully, as follows:--\n\n     \"The general colour of the hydrosoma is a pale, delicate green,\n     passing gradually into a dark, indigo blue, on the under surface.\n\n     \"The ridge of the crest is tipped with lake, and the pointed end is\n     stained deep bluish-green about the aperture of the pneumatocyst.\n\n     \"The bases of the tentacles are deep blue; the polypites deep blue\n     at their bases, and frequently bright yellow at their apices; the\n     velvetty masses of reproductive organs and buds on the under\n     surface are light green.\"\n\nHe further remarks that the tentacles have reniform thickenings at\nregular intervals, and \"the substance of each thickening has a dark blue\ncolour, and imbedded within it are myriads of close-set, colourless,\nspherical thread-cells.\"\n\nIt would not be possible to find a more perfect example of regional\ncolouration. Not only is each organ differently , but the\nimportant parts of each organ, like the ridge of the crest, the bases of\nthe tentacles, and the thread-cell bearing ridges of the tentacles, are\nalso emphasized with deep colour.\n\n_Velella._ This beautiful creature, which sometimes finds its way to our\nshores, is like a crystal raft fringed with tentacles, and having an\nupright oblique crest, or sail. The margins of the disk and crest are\noften of a beautiful blue colour, and the canals of the disk become deep\nblue as they approach the crest. The polypites may be blue, purple,\ngreen, or brown.\n\n_C. Medusidae._ The structure and colouration of the true Medusae are so\nlike that of the medusiform larvae of the other Hydrozoa, that they need\nnot be particularly described.\n\n_D. Lucernarida._ Of this sub-class we need only cite the _Lucernaria_\nthemselves; which are pretty bell-shaped animals, having the power of\nattaching themselves to seaweeds, etc., and also of swimming freely\nabout. Round the margin are eight tufts of tentacles, opposite eight\nlobes, the membrane between the lobes being festooned. In _L. auricula_,\na British species, the membrane is colourless and transparent, the lobes\nbright red, or green, and the tentacles blue.\n\nAs a group the Hydrozoa display regional colouration in a very perfect\nmanner.\n\n\n                             II. ACTINOZOA.\n\nIt is not necessary to trace the colouration through all the members of\nthis group, but we will trace the variation of colour through two\nspecies of anemonies, which have been admirably studied by Dr. A.\nAndres.[27] The first column shows the general hue, the second the tints\nof that hue which are sufficiently marked to form varieties as cochineal\nred, chocolate, bright red, rufous, liver-, brown, olive, green\nand glaucous. The third column gives the spotted varieties, from which\nit will be seen that the chocolate, liver, and green  forms have\neach  varieties. It will be seen that the range of colour is\nvery great, passing from pale pink, through yellowish-brown to\nblue-green.\n\n  -----------+-----------+-----------+----------------\n  Prevailing | Uniform   | Spotted   |\n  colour.    |varieties. |varieties. | Allied species.\n  -----------+-----------+-----------+----------------\n    White.   |    ?      |           |  A. candida.\n      \"      | coccinea. |           |\n      \"      |  chiocca. |  tigrina. |\n     Red.    |   rubra.  |           |\n      \"      |  rufosa.  |           |\n   Yellow.   | hepatica. | fragacea. |\n      \"      |   umbra.  |           |\n      \"      | olivacea. |           |\n      \"      | viridis.  |   opora.  |\n      \"      | glaucus.  |           |\n     Blue.   |    ?      |           |\n  -----------+-----------+-----------+----------------\n\nVarieties of Actinea Cari.\n\nThe following brief descriptions illustrate the distribution of the\ncolour:--\n\n_Actinea Cari._\n\nUniform varieties (_Homochroma_).\n\n  ----------------------+---------------+----------------+--------+-----------\n                        |     Column.   | Tentacles.     |Gonidia.|  Zone.\n  ----------------------+---------------+----------------+--------+-----------\n  [alpha]. _Hepatica_   | red brown.    |   azure.       | azure. | azure.\n  [beta]. _Rubra_       | crimson.      |   violet.      |        |{wanting,\n  [gamma]. _Chiocca_    | scarlet.      |    white.      |        |{or flesh\n                        |               |                |        |{.\n                        |               |                |        |\n  [delta]. _Coccinea_   | cochineal.    | yellowish.     |        |\n  [epsilon]. _Olivacca_ | olive-brown   |   azure.       | azure. |\n                        |      green.   |                |        |\n  [zeta]. _Viridis_     | green.        |   azure.       | azure. |  azure.\n                        |               |                |        |\n                    Spotted varieties (_Heterochroma_).\n                        |               |                |        |\n  [eta]. _Tigrina_      |red, spotted   |                |        |\n                        |      yellow.  |                |        |\n  [theta]. _Fragacea_   |liver, spotted |                |        |\n                        |  clear green. | azure or white.|        |indistinct.\n  [iota]. _Opora_       |green spotted, |                |        |\n                        |  and striped  |                |        |\n                        |  yellow.      |    azure.      |        |\n  ----------------------+---------------+----------------+--------+-----------\n\nIn this table the varieties above mentioned are further particularized.\nThe column is the stalk or body, the tentacles are the arms, the gonidia\nthe eye spots, and the zone the line round the base. It will be noticed\nthat these regions are often finely contrasted in colour.\n\n_Bunodes gemmaceus_ is another variable form, and the following\nvarieties are recognised.\n\n_Heterochroma._\n\n  [alpha].   Ocracea, } peristome ochre yellow, zone black, tentacles grey,\n      (type)          } with blue and white spots.\n\n\n  [beta].    _Pallida_, peristome whitish grey unbanded, tentacles with\n               white spots.\n\n  [gamma].   _Viridescens_, peristome greenish white unbanded, tentacles with\n               white spots and rosy shades.\n\n  [delta].   _Aurata_, column at base golden, peristome intenser yellow with\n               crimson flush, tentacles grey with ochreous and white spots.\n\n  [epsilon]. _Carnea_, column at base flesh , peristome rosy,\n               tentacles rosy, with white spots.\n\n_Homochroma._\n\n  [zeta].    _Rosea_, like [epsilon], but with rosy tubercles.\n\n  [eta] .    _Nigricans_, peristome blackish, with blue and green\n               reflexions (riflessi).\n\nA few other examples may be given, all of which can be studied in Dr.\nAndre's magnificently  plates.\n\n_Aiptasia mutabilis_ is yellow brown, the tentacles spotted in\nlongitudinal rows, the spots growing smaller towards the tip, thus\naffording a perfect example of the adaptation of colour to structure.\n\n_Anemonia sulcata_ has normally long light yellow pendulous tentacles\ntipped with rose, but a variety has the column still yellow but the\ntentacles pale green, tipped with rose.\n\n_Bunodes rigidus_ has the column green, with rows of crimson tubercles,\nthe tentacles are flesh-, except the outer row which are pearly;\nthe peristome is green, with brown lips.\n\n\n                             [Illustration]\n\n\n     [22] Allman's Hydroids. Ray. Soc., p. 123.\n     [23] Compare with Hydra above.\n     [24] Allman. Monograph of Tubularian Hydroida. Ray. Soc., p. 135.\n     [25] Allman, _op. cit._, p. 139.\n     [26] Huxley. Oceanic Hydrozoa, pp. 32, 46, 50.\n     [27] Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel. Die Actinien. 1884.\n\n\n\n\n                               CHAPTER X.\n\n                      THE COLOURATION OF INSECTS.\n\n\nIn the decoration of insects and birds, nature has exerted all her\npower; and amongst the wealth of beauty here displayed we ought to find\ncrucial tests of the views herein advocated. It will be necessary,\ntherefore, to enter somewhat into detail, and we shall take butterflies\nas our chief illustration, because in them we find the richest display\nof colouring. The decoration of caterpillars will also be treated at\nsome length, partly because of their beauty, and partly because amongst\nthem sexual selection cannot possibly have had any influence.\n\nButterflies are so delicate in structure, so fragile in constitution, so\ndirectly affected by changes of environment, that upon their wings we\nhave a record of the changes they have experienced, which gives to them\na value of the highest character in the study of biology. In them we can\nstudy every variation that geographical distribution can effect; for\nsome species, like the Swallow-tail (_Papilio machaon_) and the Painted\nLady (_Cynthia cardui_), are almost universal, and others, like our now\nextinct Large Copper (_Lycaena dispar_), are excessively local, being\nconfined to a very few square miles. From the arctic regions to the\ntropics, from the mountain tops to the plains, on the arid deserts and\namidst luxuriant vegetation, butterflies are everywhere to be found.\n\nBefore entering into details, it will be as well to sketch some of the\nbroad features of butterfly decoration. In the first place they are all\nday-fliers, and light having so strong an influence upon colour, there\nis a marked difference in beauty between them and the night-flying\nmoths. A collection of butterflies viewed side by side with a collection\nof moths brings out this fact more strongly than words can describe,\nespecially when the apparent exceptions are considered; for many moths\nare as brightly  as butterflies. These will be found to belong\neither to day-flying species, like the various Burnets (_Zygaena_), Tiger\nMoths (_Arctia_), or evening flyers like the Hawk Moths (_Sphyngidae_.)\nThe true night-flying, darkness-loving moths cannot in any way compare\nwith the insects that delight in sunshine. We see the same thing in\nbirds, for very few nocturnal species, so far as we are aware, are\nbrilliantly decorated.\n\nAnother salient feature is the difference that generally exists between\nthe upper and lower surfaces of the wings. As a rule, the upper surface\nis the seat of the brightest colour. Most butterflies, perhaps all,\nclose their wings when at rest, and the upper wing is generally dropped\nbehind the under wing, so that only the tip is visible. The under\nsurface is very frequently so mottled and  as to resemble the\ninsect's natural surroundings, and so afford protection. It does not\nfollow that this protective colouring need be dull, and only when we\nknow the habit of the insect can we pronounce upon the value of such\ncolouring. The pretty Orange-tip has its under wings veined with green,\nand is most conspicuous in a cabinet, but when at rest upon some\numbelliferous plant, with its orange tip hidden, these markings so\nresemble the environment as to render the insect very inconspicuous. The\nbrilliant _Argynnis Lathonia_, with its underside adorned with plates of\nmetallic silver, is in the cabinet a most vivid and strongly-marked\nspecies; but we have watched this insect alight among brown leaves, or\non brown stones, outside Florence, where it is very common, and find\nthat these very marks are a sure protection, for the insect at rest is\nmost difficult to see, even when it is marked down to its resting-place.\n\nBut some butterflies have parts of the under surface as gaily decorated\nas the upper; and this not for protection. This may be seen to some\nextent in our own species, for instance in the orange-tip of the\nOrange-tip, and the red bar in the upper wing of the Red Admiral (_V.\natalanta_). If we watch these insects, the conviction that these are\ntrue ornaments is soon forced upon us. The insect alights, perhaps\nalarmed, closes its wings, and becomes practically invisible. With\nreturning confidence it will gradually open its wings and slowly vibrate\nthem, then close them again, and lift the upper wing to disclose the\ncolour. This it will do many times running, and the effect of the sudden\nappearance and disappearance of the bright hues is as beautiful as it\nis convincing. None can doubt the love of display exhibited in such\nactions.\n\nThe delicacy of their organization renders butterflies peculiarly\nsusceptible to any change, and hence they exhibit strong tendencies to\nvariation, which make them most valuable studies. Not only do the\nindividuals vary, but the sexes are often differently . Where\ntwo broods occur in a season they are sometimes quite differently\ndecorated, and finally a species inhabiting widely different localities\nmay have local peculiarities.\n\nWe can thus study varieties of decoration in many ways, and we shall\ntreat of them as follows:--\n\n     1. _Simple Variation_, in which the different individuals of a\n     species vary in the same locality.\n\n     2. _Local Variation_, in which the species has marked peculiarities\n     in different localities.\n\n     3. _Sexual Dimorphism_, in which the sexes vary.\n\n     4. _Seasonal Dimorphism_, in which the successive broods differ.\n\n    [Illustration: Fig. 3. Diagram of Butterfly's Wing.\n    A. Upper Wing.\n    B. Lower Wing.\n   _a._ Costal Margin.\n   _b._ Hind Margin.\n   _c._ Inner  \"\n   _d._ Anal Angle.\n   _e._ Costa.\n   _f._ Costal nervure.\n   _g._ Sub-costal   do.\n   _g_^{1-4}. Branches of   do.\n   _h._ Median nervure.\n   _i._ Sub-median  do.\n   _j._ Discoidal Cell.\n   _k._ Discoidal Veins.]\n\nIn order fully to understand the bearing of the following remarks it is\nnecessary to know something of the anatomy and nomenclature of\nbutterflies. Fig. 3 is an ideal butterfly. The wing margins are\ndescribed as the _Costal_, which is the upper strong edge of the wing,\nthe _Hind_ margin, forming the outside, and the _Inner_ margin, forming\nthe base. The nervures consist of four principal veins; the _Costal_, a\nsimple nervure under the costa, the _Sub-costal_, which runs parallel to\nthe costal and about halfway to the tip emits branches, generally four\nin number; the _Median_ occupying the centre of the wing and sending off\nbranches, usually three in number, and the _Sub-median_ below which is\nalways simple. There are thus two simple nervures, one near the costal\nthe other near the inner margin, and between them are two others which\nemit branches. Between these two latter is a wide plain space known as\nthe _discoidal cell_. Small veins called the _discoidal_ pass from the\nhind margin towards the cell, and little transverse nervures, known as\nsub-discoidal, often close the cell. By these nervures the wing is\nmapped out into a series of spaces of which one, the discoidal cell, is\nthe most important.\n\nThe nervures have two functions, they support and strengthen the wing,\nand being hollow serve to convey nutritive fluid and afterwards air to\nthe wing.\n\nThe wings are moved by powerful muscles attached to the base of the\nwings close to the body and to the inside of the thorax, all the muscles\nbeing necessarily internal. \"There are two sets which depress the wings;\nfirstly a double dorsal muscle, running longitudinally upwards in the\nmeso-thorax;[28] and, secondly, the dorso-ventral muscles of the meso-\nand meta-thorax,[29] which are attached to the articulations of the\nwings above, and to the inside of the thorax beneath. Between these lie\nthe muscles which raise the wings and which run from the inner side of\nthe back of the thorax to the legs.\"[30] When we consider the immense\nextent of wing as compared with the rest of the body, the small area of\nattachment, and the great leverage that has to be worked in moving the\nwings, it is clear that the area of articulation of the wing to the body\nis one in which the most violent movement takes place. It is here that\nthe waste and repair of tissue must go on with greatest vigour, and we\nshould, on our theory, expect it to be the seat of strong emphasis.\nAccordingly we commonly find it adorned with hairs, and in a vast number\nof cases the general hue is darker than that of the rest of the wing,\nand so far as we have been able to observe, never lighter than the body\nof the wing. Even in the so-called whites (Pieris) this part of the wing\nis dusky, and instances are numerous on Plate IV.\n\nThe scales, which give the colour to the wings, deserve more than a\npassing notice. They are inserted by means of little stalks into\ncorresponding pits in the wing-membrane, and overlap like tiles on a\nroof; occasionally the attachment is a ball and socket (_Morphinae_), in\nwhich case it is possible the insect has the power of erecting and\nmoving its scales. The shapes are very numerous, but as a rule they are\nshort. To this there is a remarkable exception on the wings of the males\nof certain butterflies, consisting of elongated tufted prominences which\nappear to be connected with sense-organs. They are probably\nscent-glands, and thus we find, even in such minute parts as scales, a\ndifference of function emphasized by difference of ornamentation, here\nshowing itself in variety of forms; but, as we have said, ornamentation\nin form is often closely allied to ornamentation in colours. In some\nbutterflies, indeed, these scales are aggregated into spots, as in\n_Danais_, and have a different hue from the surrounding area.\n\nThe scales are not simple structures, but consist of two or more plates,\nwhich are finely striated. The colouring matter consists of granules,\nplaced in rows between the striae, and may exist upon the upper surface\nof the upper membrane (epidermal), or the upper surface of the under or\nmiddle plate (hypodermal), or the colour may be simple diffraction\ncolour, arising from the interference of the lightwaves by fine striae.\n\nDr. Haagen, in the admirable paper before mentioned, has examined this\nquestion thoroughly, and gives the results set forth in the following\ntable:--\n\n                      _Epidermal Colours._\n    Metallic blues and greens  }\n    Bronze                     }\n    Gold                       }\n    Silver                     }  Persistent after death.\n    Black                      }\n    Brown                      }\n    Red (rarely)               }\n\n                     _Hypodermal Colours._\n    Blue             }\n    Green            }\n    Yellow           }\n    Milk-white       }   Fading after death.\n    Orange and       }\n      shades between }\n    Red              }\n\nThe hypodermal colours are usually lighter than the epidermal, and are\nsometimes changed by a voluntary act. Hypodermal and epidermal colours\nare, of course, not peculiar to insects; and, as regards the former, it\nis owing to their presence that the changing hues of fishes, like the\nsole and plaice, and of the chameleon are due.\n\nThe great order Lepidoptera, including butterflies and moths, seems to\nthe non-scientific mind to be composed of members which are pretty much\nalike, the differences being of slight importance; but this is not in\nreality the case, for the lepidoptera might, with some accuracy, be\ncompared to the mammalia, with its two divisions of the placental and\nnon-placental animals. Comparing the butterflies (Rhopalocera) to the\nplacental mammals, we may look upon the different families as similar to\nthe orders of the mammalia. Were we as accustomed to notice the\ndifferences of butterflies as we are to remark the various forms of\nfamiliar animals, we should no longer consider them as slight, but\naccord to them their true value. When in the mammalia we find animals\nwhose toes differ in number, like the three-toed rhinoceros and the\nfour-toed tapir, we admit the distinction to be great, even apart from\nother outward forms. So, too, the seal and lion, though both belonging\nto the carnivora, are readily recognized as distinct, but the seals may\neasily be confounded by the casual observer with the manatees, which\nbelong to quite a different order.\n\nThus it is with the Lepidoptera, for from six-legged insects, whose pupae\nlie buried beneath the soil, like most moths, we pass to the highest\nbutterflies, whose fore-legs are atrophied, and whose pupae hang\nsuspended in the open air; and this by easy intermediate stages. Surely,\nif six-legged mammals were the rule, we should look upon four-legged\nones as very distinct; and this is the case with the butterflies. It is\nnecessary to make this clear at starting, in order that we may\nappreciate to its full value the changes that have taken place in the\ninsects under study.\n\nButterflies (_Rhopalocera_) are grouped into four sub-families, as\nunder:--\n\n     1. _Nymphalidae_, having the fore-legs rudimentary, and the pupae\n     suspended from the base of the abdomen.\n\n     2. _Erycinidae_, in which the males only have rudimentary fore-legs.\n\n     3. _Lycaenidae_, in which the fore-legs of the males are smaller than\n     those of the females, and terminate in a simple hook.\n\n     4. _Papilionidae_, which have six perfect pairs of legs, and in\n     which the pupae assume an upright posture, with a cincture round the\n     middle.\n\nIt may, at first sight, appear curious that the imperfect-legged\n_Nymphalidae_ should be placed at the head of the list, but this is based\nupon sound reasoning. The larva consists of thirteen segments, and, in\npassing to the mature stage, the second segment alone diminishes in\nsize, and it is to this segment that the first pair of legs is attached.\nLooking now to the aerial habits of butterflies, we can understand how,\nin the process of evolution towards perfect aerial structure, the legs,\nused only for walking, would first become modified; and, naturally,\nthose attached to the segment which decreases with development would be\nthe first affected. When this is found to be combined with an almost\naerial position of the pupae, we see at once how such insects approach\nnearest to an ideal flying insect. It is a general law that suppression\nof parts takes place as organisms become specialized. Thus, in the\nmammalia, the greatest number of toes and teeth are found in the lowest\nforms and in the oldest, simplest fossil species.\n\nA butterfly is, indeed, little more than a beautiful flying machine; for\nthe expanse of wing, compared with the size of the body, is enormous.\n\n\n                             [Illustration]\n\n\n    [28] The middle division of the thorax.\n    [29] Hinder division of thorax.\n    [30] Dallas in Cassell's Nat. Hist., vol. vi., p. 27.\n\n\n\n\n                              CHAPTER XI.\n\n                      THE COLOURATION OF INSECTS.\n\n                             (_Continued._)\n\n\n_General Scheme of Colouring._ So various are the patterns displayed\nupon the wings of butterflies, that amidst the lines, stripes, bars,\ndots, spots, ocelli, scalloppings, etc., it seems at first hopeless to\ndetect any general underlying principle of decoration; and this is the\nopinion that has been, and is still, held by many who have made these\ninsects a special study. Nevertheless, we will try to show that beneath\nthis almost confused complexity lie certain broad principles, or laws,\nand that these are expressed by the statement that decoration is\nprimarily dependent upon structure, dependent upon the laws of emphasis\nand repetition, and modified by the necessity for protection or\ndistinction.\n\nTo render this subject as plain as possible, British species will be\nselected, as far as possible, and foreign ones only used when native\nforms do not suffice.\n\nThe body of by far the greater number of species is either darker or of\nthe same tint as the mass of the wings; and only in rare cases lighter.\nWhen the body has different tints, it is generally found that the thorax\nand abdomen differ in colour, and in many cases the base of the thorax\nis emphasized by a dark or light band.\n\nOn the wings the functional importance of the parts attached to the body\nis generally darker, perhaps never lighter, than the ground of the wing,\nand is frequently further emphasized by silky hairs. This has already\nbeen sufficiently pointed out.\n\nThe wing area may be divided into the strong costal margin, the hind\nmargin, the nervules, and the spaces; and, however complex the pattern\nmay be, it is always based upon these structure lines.\n\nIn the majority of insects the costal margin is marked with strong\ncolour. This may be noticed in _Papilio Machaon_, _P. merope_, _Vanessa\nantiopa_, and the whites in Plate IV. The extreme tip of the fore-wings\nis nearly always marked with colour, though this may run into the border\npattern. This colour is dark or vividly bright, and we know no\nbutterfly, not even dark ones, that has a light tip to the wings.\nSometimes, it is true, the light bead-border spots run to the tip, but\nthese are not cases in point. The development of tips has been traced in\nChapter VI., and need not be repeated.\n\nThe hind margin of both wings is very commonly emphasized by a border,\nof which _V. Antiopa_, Pl. III. Fig. 3, is a very perfect example.\n\nThe border pattern may consist of one or more rows of spots, lines,\nbands, or scallops;[31] and there is frequently a fine fringe, which in\nmany cases is white, with black marks, and to which the term\nbead-pattern may be applied.\n\nA definite relation subsists in most cases between the shape of the hind\nmargin and the character of the border-pattern. The plain or simple\nbordered wings have plain border patterns, and the scalloped wings have\nscalloped borders; or rather scalloped borders are almost exclusively\nconfined to scalloped wings. In our English butterflies, for instance,\nout of the 62 species:--\n\n     33 have plain margins to the wings. In all the border is plain, or\n     wanting.\n\n     20 have the fore-wings plain, and the hind-wings scalloped, and in\n     all the hind-wings are scalloped and the fore-wings plain, or with\n     slightly scalloped border-patterns.\n\n     9 have scalloped margins and scalloped border-patterns.\n\nAnother relation between structure and pattern is found in those insects\nwhich have tailed hind-wings, for the tail is very frequently emphasized\nby a spot, often of a different colour from the rest of the wing as in\nthe Swallow-Tails, Plates IV. and V.\n\nYet another point may be noticed. In each wing there is a space, the\ndiscoidal cell, _j_ Fig. 3, at the apex of which several nervures join,\nforming knots. These are points at which obstacles exist to the flow of\nthe contents, and they are almost always marked by a distinct pattern.\nWe thus have a discoidal spot in very many butterflies, in nearly all\nmoths; and in the other orders of winged insects the decoration is even\nmore pronounced, as any one may see who looks at our dragon-flies,\nwasps, bees, or even beetles.\n\nIn some insects the decoration of the body is very marked, as in our\nsmall dragon-flies, the Agrions. In one species, for example, _A.\nPuella_, the male is pale blue banded with black, and the female bronze\nblack, with a blue band on the segment, bearing the sexual organ; the\novipositors are also separately decorated. The male generative organs\nare peculiar, in that the fertilizing fluid is conveyed from one segment\nto a reservoir at the other end of the abdomen. Both the segments\nbearing these organs are marked by special decoration. The peculiar\narrangement of the sexual organs in dragon-flies is very variable, and\ncertain segments are modified or suppressed in some forms, as was shown\nby J. W. Fuller.[32] In every case the decoration follows the\nmodification. In the thorax of dragon-flies, too, the principal muscular\nbands are marked out in black lines. This distinct representation of the\ninternal structure is beautifully shown in _AEschna_ and _Gomphina_, and\nin the thorax of _Cicada_, as shown by Dr. Haagen in the paper quoted in\nthe last chapter.\n\nWe may, then, safely pronounce that the decoration of insects is\neminently structural.\n\n_Simple Variation._ Cases of simple variation have been already cited in\nour description of spots and stripes, and it only remains to show that\nin this, as in all other cases, the variation is due to a modification\nof original structural decoration.\n\nTo take familiar examples. Newman, in his British Butterflies, figures\nthe varieties of the very common Small Tortoiseshell (_Vanessa urticae_).\nIn the normal form there is a conspicuous white spot on the disc of the\nfore-wings, which is absent in the first variety, owing to the spreading\nof the red-brown ground colour. This variety is permanent on the\nMediterranean shores. In variety two, the second black band, running\nfrom the costa across the cell, is continued across the wing. The third\nvariety, Mr. Newman remarks, is \"altogether abnormal, the form and\ncolouring being entirely altered.\" Still, when we examine the insect\nclosely, we find it is only a modification of the original form. The\nfirst striking difference is in the margin of the wings, which in the\nnormal form is scalloped with scallop-markings, whereas, in the variety\nthe margins are much simpler, and the border pattern closely corresponds\nwith it, having lost its scalloping. In the fore-wing some of the black\nbands and spots are suppressed or extended, and the extensions end\nrigidly at nervules. The dark colouring of the hind-wings has spread\nover the whole wing. We thus see that the decoration, even in varieties\ncalled abnormal, still holds to structural lines, and is a development\nof pre-existing patterns.\n\nNo one can have examined large series of any species without being\nimpressed with the modification of patterns in almost every possible\nway. For instance, we have reared quantities of _Papilio Machaon_, and\nfind great differences, not only in the pattern, but in the colour\nitself. A number of pupae from Wicken Fen, Cambridgeshire, were placed in\ncages, into which only  light could fall, and though these\nexperiments are not sufficiently extended to allow us to form any sound\nconclusions as to the effect of the  light, we got more\nvarieties than could be expected from a batch of pupae from the same\nlocality. The tone of the yellow, the quantity of red, the proportion of\nthe yellow to the blue scales in the clouds, varied considerably, but\nalways along the known and established lines.\n\nThe variations in the colour of Lepidoptera has been most admirably\ntreated by Mr. J. Jenner Weir in a paper, only too short, read before\nthe West Kent Natural History Society.[33] He divides variations into\ntwo sections, Aberrations or Heteromorphism, and constant variations or\nOrthopaecilism, and subdivides each into six classes, as under:--\n\n  _Heteromorphism._\n\n    Albinism    ...   ...   white varieties.\n\n    Melanism    ...   ...   black  do.\n\n    Xanthism    ...   ...   pallid  do.\n\n    Sports      ...   ...   or occasional variations not included\n                            in the above.\n\n    Gynandrochomism   ...   females  as males.\n\n    Hermaphroditism   ...   sexes united.\n\n  _Orthopaecilism._\n\n    Polymorphism      ...   variable species.\n\n    Topomorphism      ...   local varieties.\n\n    Atavism     ...   ...   reversion to older forms.\n\n    Dimorphism  ...   ...   two constant forms.\n\n    Trimorphism ...   ...   three  do.      do.\n\n    Horeomorphism     ...   seasonal variation.\n\n\n\nIn some cases, he remarks, variations are met with which may with equal\npropriety be classed in either section.\n\nAlbinism he finds to be very rare in British species, the only locality\nknown to him being the Outer Hebrides. This reminds us of Wallace's\nremark upon the tendency to albinism in islands. Xanthism, he finds to\nbe more plentiful, and quotes the common Small Heath (_Caenonympha\npamphilus_) as an illustration. In these varieties we have simply a\nbleaching of the colouring matter of the wings, and therefore no\ndeparture from structural lines. Melanism arises from the spreading of\nlarge black spots or bars, or, as in _Biston betularia_, a white moth\npeppered with black, dots by the confluence of small spots; for this\ninsect in the north is sometimes entirely black. It is singular that\ninsects have a tendency to become melanic in northern and alpine places,\nand this is especially the case with white or light <DW52> species.\n(_See_ Plate IV., Fig. 17) It has recently been suggested that this\ndarkening of these delicate membranous beings in cold regions is for the\npurpose of absorbing heat, and this seems very probable.[34]\n\nOf ordinary spots it is merely necessary to remark, that they are all\ncases in our favour. Thus, in _Satyrus hyperanthus_ we have \"the\nordinary round spots ... changed into lanceolate markings\"; this takes\nplace also in _C. davus_. The other cases of aberration do not concern\nus.\n\nWhen, however, we come to the cases in which a species has two or more\npermanent forms, it is necessary to show that they are in all cases\nfounded on structure lines. The patterns, as shown in Plate V., Figs.\n1-13, are always arranged structurally, and the fact that not only are\nintermediate forms known, as in _Araschnia porima_, Plate V., Fig. 6,\nbut that the various forms are convertible into one another, would in\nitself be sufficient to show that in these cases there is no departure\nfrom the general law. In _Grapta interrogationis_, Plate V., Figs. 8-10,\nwe see in the central figure one large spot above the median nervure, in\nthe left-hand form this is surmounted by another spot above the lowest\nsub-costal branch, and in the right-hand figure this latter spot is very\nindistinct. We have here a perfect gradation, and the same may be said\nof the colouration of the lower wings. Take again the three forms of\n_Papilio Ajax_ in the same plate, Figs. 11-13, and we have again only\nmodifications of the same type.\n\nIn local varieties, as in seasonal forms, we have again nothing more\nthan developments of a given type, as is well shown in Plates IV. & V.,\nFigs. 13-18 & 1-13.\n\nWhen, however, we come to mimetic forms, whether they mimic plants, as\nin Plate I., or other species, as in Plates II. & III., a difficulty\ndoes seem to arise.\n\nThe leaf butterfly (_Kallima inachus_), Plate I., offers no trouble when\nwe view the upper surface only with its orange bands, but its under\nsurface, so marvellously like a dead leaf that even holes and\nmicroscopic fungi are suggested, does seem very like a case in which\nstructure lines are ignored. Take, for instance, the mark which\ncorresponds to the mid-ribs, running from the tail to the apex of the\nupper wing; it does not correspond to any structure line of the insect.\nBut if we take allied and even very different species and genera of\nIndian and Malayan butterflies, we shall find every possible\nintermediate form between this perfect mimicry and a total lack of such\ncharacters. To cite the most recent authority, the various species of\nthe Genera Discophora, Amathusia, Zeuxidia, Thaumantis, Precis, &c.,\nfigured so accurately in Distant's Rhopalocera Malayana, will give all\nthe steps.\n\nIn the cases of true mimicry, as in Figs. 1-3, Plates II. & III., where\ninsects as different as sheep from cats copy one another, we find that\nof course structure lines are followed, though the pattern is vastly\nchanged. The _Papilio merope_, Fig. 1, Plate II., which mimics _Danais\nniavius_, Fig. 3, does so by suppressing the tail appendage, changing\nthe creamy yellow to white--a very easy change, constantly seen in our\nown Pieridae--and diffusing the black. A similar case is seen in Figs.\n4-5, Plate III., where a normally white butterfly (_Panopoea hirta_)\nmimics a normally dark one of quite a different section. Here again the\nchange is not beyond our power of explanation. Where a Papilio like\n_merope_ mimics a brown species like _Danais niavius_, we have a still\ngreater change in colour, but not in structural pattern.\n\nIf we ascribe to these insects the small dose of intelligence we believe\nthem to possess, we can readily see how the sense of need has developed\nsuch forms.\n\nLocal varieties present no difficulty under such explanation. The\nparamount necessity for protection has given the Hebridran species the\ngrey colour of the rocks, and the desert species their sandy hue.\n\n    [Illustration: Plate VII.\n                   CATERPILLARS.]\n\nFinally, to take the case of caterpillars, Weismann has admirably worked\nout the life history of many forms, and shows how the complex markings\nhave arisen by development. Broadly, a caterpillar consists of 13\nsegments, the head being one. The head is often marked with darker\ncolour, and the last segment with its clasping feet is also very\nfrequently emphasized, as in Figs. 1 & 3, Plate VII. The spiracles are\ngenerally marked by a series of spots, and often connected by a line.\nHere the tendency to repetition shows itself strongly, for not only the\nspiracles themselves, but the corresponding points in the segments\nwithout spiracles are frequently spotted, and, moreover, these spots are\nfrequently repeated in rows above the spiracular line. Of this,\n_Deilephila galii_ and _D. Euphorbiae_, Figs. 1-5, Plate VII., are good\nexamples.\n\nThe segmentation is also generally emphasized, as shown in all the\nexamples on the plate, but in its simplicity in Fig. 10.\n\nRunning down the centre of the back a more or less distinct line is\noften seen, as shown in the figures. This corresponds with the great\ndorsal alimentary canal lying just below the skin, and Weismann has\nshown that in young larvae this line is transparent, and the green food\ncan be seen through the skin. We have here, perhaps, a relic of the\ndirect colouration noticed in the transparent coelenterata.\n\nWhere larvae possess horns either upon the head, as in _Apatura iris_ and\n_Papilio machaon_, or on the tail, as in many of the sphyngidae, like\nFigs. 1-5, Plate VII., these appendages are always emphasized in colour.\nAs they are frequently oblique, we often find that this obliquity is\ncontinued as a slanting spot, as in _D. galii_ and _euphorbiae_, and\nsometimes repeated as a series of oblique stripes, as in Fig. 4.\n\nIt must be admitted that in insects we have strong evidence of\nstructural decoration.\n\n\n                             [Illustration]\n\n\n    [31] In the true scallop pattern the convexity is turned towards the\n         body of the insect.\n    [32] J. W. Fuller on the Breathing Apparatus of Aquatic Larvae. Proc.\n         Bristol Nat. Soc.\n    [33] Entomologist, vol. xvi., p. 169, 1883.\n    [34] Nature. R. Meldola on Melanism, 1885.\n\n\n\n\n                              CHAPTER XII.\n\n                               ARACHNIDA.\n\n\nThe Arachnida include the scorpions and spiders, and as the former are\ntolerably uniform in colour, our remarks will be confined to the latter.\n\nThe thorax is covered with a horny plate, while the abdomen only\npossesses a soft skin, and neither show any traces of segmentation. From\nthe thorax spring four pairs of legs, and a pair of palpi, or feelers.\nImmediately beneath the skin of the abdomen lies the great dorsal\nvessel, which serves as a heart. This vessel is divided into three\nchambers, the general aspect of which is shown in Fig. 9, Plate VIII.,\ntaken from Gegenbaur's Comparative Anatomy.[35]\n\nFrom this heart the blood passes by vessels to each of the limbs, the\npalpi, etc., as offsets from the double-branched aorta. The shape of\nthis dorsal vessel is peculiar, and its importance in respect to\ncolouration will be immediately apparent.\n\nThe primary scheme of colouration in the Arachnida seems to be the\ndistinguishing of the cephalothorax from the abdomen by a different\ncolour. Thus, of the 272 species of British spiders represented in\nBlackwell's work,[36] no less than 203 have these parts differently\n, and only 69 are of the same hue, and even in these there is\noften a difference of tint. So marked is this in certain cases that the\ntwo parts form vivid contrasts. Of this cases are given in the following\nlist.\n\n                               Cephalothorax.      Abdomen.\n    _Eresus cinnabarinus_,        Black,          Bright Red.\n    _Thomisus floricolens_,       Green,            Brown.\n    ----     _cinereus_,          Brown,             Blue.\n    ----     _trux_,              Red,              Brown.\n    _Sparassus smaragdulus_,      Green,         Red and yellow.\n\nAs a rule the abdomen is darker than the cephalothorax, and many species\nhave the former red-brown and the latter black.\n\nThe legs, usually, take the colour of the cephalothorax, and are, hence,\ngenerally lighter than the abdomen, but to this there are exceptions.\nWhere the individual legs differ in colour, the two first pairs are the\ndarkest, and the dark hue corresponds in tint with the dark markings on\nthe cephalothorax. The joints of the legs are in many species emphasized\nwith dark colour, which is often repeated in bands along the limb.\n\nThe most remarkable point is, however, the pattern on the abdomen,\nwhich, though varied in all possible ways, always preserves a general\ncharacter, so that we might speak with propriety of a spider-back\npattern. This pattern is fairly well illustrated in the genus _Lycosa_,\nbut is seen to perfection, and in its simplest form in _Segestria\nsenoculata_, Plate VIII., Fig. 1, and in _Sparassus smaragdulus_, Plate\nVIII., Fig. 2.\n\nThis peculiar pattern is so like the dorsal-vessel that lies just\nbeneath, that it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that we have here\nan actual case of the influence of internal organs on the integument,\nand this we believe to be the case. No matter how curious the abdominal\nmarkings may seem to be, they never so far depart from this fundamental\npattern as to appear independent of it.\n\nThus, in the genus _Lycosa_, which is by no means the best for the\npurpose, but is chosen as illustrating Gegenbaur's diagram, Pl. VIII.,\nwe have the dorsal-vessel well marked in _L. piscatoria_, Plate VIII.,\nFig. 3, from which may be developed the other forms. In _L.\nandrenivora_, Plate VIII., Fig. 4, the male shows the vessel-mark\nattenuated posteriorly; and in the female, Fig. 5, the hinder part has\nbecome broken up into detached marks, still preserving the original\nshape, while the upper part remains practically unchanged. In _L.\nallodroma_ the disintegration of the mark has further advanced, for in\nthe male, Fig. 6, the upper portion has lost something of its shape, and\nthe lower part is a series of isolated segments. This process is carried\nstill further in the female, Fig. 8, where the upper portion is\nsimplified, and the lower almost gone. In _L. campestris_, Fig. 10, the\nmark is reduced to a stripe, corresponding with the upper part of the\nvessel-mark only: and, lastly, in the male _L. agretyca_, Fig. 7, this\nupper part is represented by two spots, though even here traces of the\noriginal form can be seen.\n\nA simplification of marking of another sort is seen in _L. rapax_, Fig.\n13, where the chamber-markings are almost obliterated, and merely an\nirregular stripe left. The stages by which this modification is arrived\nat are too obvious to need illustration.\n\nIn some species the lower portion of the vessel-mark is reduced to small\ndots, as in _L. cambrica_, _fluviatilis_, _piratica_, and others; and\nthe stages are very clear. Starting with the isolated chamber-marks, as\nin _L. allodroma_, Fig. 5, we get, firstly, a set of spots, as in _L.\npicta_, which, in the female, Fig. 16, are still connected with the\nchamber-marks, but in the male, Fig. 17, are isolated. This leads us, by\neasy steps, to such forms as _L. latitans_, Fig. 14, which consists of a\ndouble row of spots upon dark stripes.\n\nThe intimate connection thus shown to subsist between the characteristic\ndecoration of the abdomen of spiders, and the shape of the important\ndorsal organ beneath, seems to be strong evidence of effect that\ninternal structure may have upon external decoration.[37]\n\nThe cephalothorax of spiders, being covered with a hardened membrane,\ndoes not show such evidence clearly, for it appears to be a law that the\nharder the covering tissue, the less does it reflect, as it were, the\ninternal organs. The hard plates of the armadillo are thus in strong\ncontrast to the softer skins of other animals.\n\nNevertheless, there does appear, occasionally, to be some trace of this\nkind of decoration in the cephalothorax of certain spiders, though it\nwould be hard to prove. The blood vessels of this part (see Fig. 9),\nthough large, are not nearly so prominent as the great dorsal vessel.\nThe chief artery enters the cephalothorax as a straight tube, forks, and\nsends branches to the limbs, palpi, and eyes. In many species, notably\nin the genus _Thomisus_, a furcate mark seems to shadow the forked\naorta. This is best shown in _T. luctuosus_, Plate VIII., Fig. 11.\nMoreover, in this and other genera, lines frequently run to the outer\npair of eyes, which alone are supplied with large arteries, see Fig. 9.\n\nHowever this may be, it is certain that the entire decoration of spiders\nfollows structural lines, and that the great dorsal vessel has been\nemphasized by the peculiar pattern of the abdomen.\n\n    [Illustration: Plate VIII.\n                   SPIDERS.]\n\n\n    [35] Elements of Comparative Anatomy, by C. Gegenbaur. Translated by\n         Jeffrey Bell and Ray Lankester, 1878, p. 285.\n    [36] Spiders of Great Britain and Ireland, J. Blackwell. Ray. Soc.,\n         1861.\n    [37] The decoration of many of the Hoverer flies and wasps is of a\n         similar character.\n\n\n\n\n                             CHAPTER XIII.\n\n                      COLOURATION OF INVERTEBRATA\n                             (_Continued_).\n\n\nOf the Arthropoda, including the lobsters, crabs, shrimps, etc., little\ncan be said here, as we have not yet been able to study them with\nanything like completeness. Still, we find the same laws to hold good.\nThe animals are segmented, and we find their system of colouration\nsegmental also. Thus, in the lobsters and crabs there is no dorsal line,\nbut the segments are separately and definitely decorated. The various\norgans, such as the antennae and eyes, are picked out in colour, as may\nbe beautifully seen in some prawns.\n\nWhen we come to the Mollusca, we meet with two distinct types, so far as\nour subject is concerned; the naked and the shelled. In the naked\nmolluscs, like the slugs, we have decoration applied regionally, as is\nshown to perfection in the _Nudibranchs_, whose feathery gills are often\nthe seat of some of the most vivid hues in nature.\n\nThe shell-bearing mollusca are proverbial for their beauty, but it is\nessential to bear in mind that the shell does not bear the same relation\nto the mollusc that the \"shell\" of a lobster does to that animal. The\nlobster's shell is part of its living body; it is a true exo-skeleton,\nwhereas the shell of a mollusc is a more extraneous structure--a house\nbuilt by the creature. We ought, on our view, to find no more relation\nbetween the decoration of a shell and the structure of its occupant,\nthan we do in the decoration of a human dwelling-house to the tenant.\n\nThe shell consists of carbonate of lime, under one or both of the forms\nknown to mineralogists as calcite and aragonite. This mineral matter is\nsecreted by an organ called the mantle, and the edge, or lip, of the\nmantle is the part applied to this purpose. The edge of the mantle is\nthe builder's hand, which lays the calcareous stones of the edifice.\nThe shell is built up from the edge, and the action is not continuous\nbut seasonal, hence arise the markings known as lines of growth. In some\ncases the mantle is expanded at times into wing-like processes, which\nare turned back over the shell, and deposit additional layers, thus\nthickening the shell.\n\nIn all the forms of life hitherto considered the colouring matter is\ndeposited, or formed, in the substance of the organ, or epidermal\ncovering, but in the mollusca this is not the case. The colouring matter\nis entirely upon the surface, and is, as it were, stencilled on to the\ncolourless shell. This is precisely analogous to the colouring of the\nshells of birds' eggs. They, too, are calcareous envelopes, and the\ncolouring matter is applied to the outside, as anyone can see by rubbing\na  egg. In some eggs several layers of colouring matter are\nsuperimposed.\n\nIn no case does the external decoration of molluscan shells follow the\nstructure lines of the animal, but it does follow the shape of the\nmantle. The secreting edge may be smooth, as in _Mactra_, regularly\npuckered, as in most _Pectens_, puckered at certain points, as in\n_Trigonia_, or thrown into long folds, as in _Spondylus_. In each of\nthese cases the shell naturally takes the form of the mantle. It is\nsmooth in _Mactra_, regularly ribbed in _Pecten_, tubercled in\n_Trigonia_, and spined in _Spondylus_. Where the inside of the shell is\n as in some Pectens, regional decoration at once appears and the\npaleal lines, and muscular impressions are bounded or mapped out with\ncolour.\n\nIt is a significant fact that smooth bivalves are not so ornate as\nrugose ones, and that the ridges, spines, and tubercles of the latter\nare the seats of the most prominent colour.\n\nSimilar remarks apply to univalve shells, which are wound on an\nimaginary vertical axis. They may be smooth, as in _Conus_ and _Oliva_,\nrugose, as in _Cerithium_, or spined, as in _Murex_. The structure of\nthese shells being more complex than that of bivalves, we find, as a\nrule, they are more lavishly ornamented, and the prominent parts of the\nshell, and especially the borders, are the seat of strongest colour. In\nsome cases, as in adult Cowries (_Cypraea_), the mantle is reflexed so as\nto meet along the median line, where we see the darkest colour.\n\nThe rule amongst spiral shells is to possess spiral and marginal\ndecoration, and this is what we should expect. The Nautilus repeats in\nthe red-brown markings of its shell, the shape of the septa which\ndivide the chambers, though, as is often the case, they are generally\nmore numerous than the septa.\n\nThe naked Cephalopoda, or cuttle-fishes, often possess a distinct dorsal\nstripe, and when our views were first brought before the Zoological\nSociety, this fact was cited as an objection. To us it seems one of the\nstrongest of favourable cases, for these animals possess a sort of\nbackbone--the well-known cuttle-bone--and hence they have a dorsal line.\n\nSome shells, as _Margarita catenata_, have a chain-pattern, and in this\ncase the action of the pigment cells takes place at regular and short\nintervals. Others, as _Mactra stultorum_, the stencilling forms a series\nof lines and spots, generally enlarging into rays.\n\nThe whole subject of the decoration of shells deserves much more time\nthan we have been able to give to it as yet.\n\n\n                             [Illustration]\n\n\n\n\n                              CHAPTER XIV.\n\n                       COLOURATION OF VERTEBRATA.\n\n\nThe vertebrata, as their name implies, are distinguished by the\npossession of an internal skeleton, of which the backbone is the most\nessential part, and the general, but not universal, possession of limbs\nor appendages.\n\nConsequently we find that the dorsal and ventral surfaces are almost\ninvariably  differently, and the dorsal is the darker in the\ngreat majority of instances. Generally the spine is marked by a more or\nless defined central line, and hence this system of colouration may be\ntermed axial, because it is in the direction of the axes, or applied\nabout the axes.\n\n_Fishes._ Where fishes have not been modified out of their original\nform, as are the soles, plaice, and other flat fish, we find the dorsal\nregion darker than the ventral, and even here the under surfaces are the\nlightest. Even in cases like the Char, Fig. 1, Plate IX., where vivid\ncolour is applied to the abdomen, the dorsum is the darker. The dorsum\nis often marked by a more or less well-defined dark band, as in the\nmackerel and perch, Fig. 2, Plate IX. There are sometimes parallel bands\nat right angles to the above, as in the perch and mackerel; and this is\na common feature, and apparently a very old one, as we find it in the\nyoung of fishes whose adults are without these rib-like marks, such as\nthe trout and pike.\n\nIt is only necessary to inspect any drawings of fishes to see that their\ncolouration is on a definite principle, although rather erratic.\nImportant functional parts, like the gills, fins, and tail, are\ngenerally marked in colour more or less distinctly, as may be seen, for\ninstance, in our common fresh-water fishes, like the roach and perch.\nThe line of mucus-secreting glands running along the sides is usually\nmarked by a dark line. These facts point distinctly to structural\ndecoration.\n\n    [Illustration: Plate IX.\n                   CHAR AND PERCH.]\n\nThere are in some fishes, like the John Dory, curious eye-like dark\nspots, which we cannot refer to a structural origin, though a better\nacquaintance with the class might reveal such significance.\n\nThe Amphibia have not been well studied by us, and we must leave them\nwith the remark that they seem to bear out the view of structural\ndecoration, as is seen in our English newts. Some are, however, modified\nout of all easy recognition.\n\n_Reptiles._ Among the reptiles, the snakes, Fig. 4, may be selected for\nillustration. Snakes are practically little more than elongated\nbackbones, and are peculiar from the absence of limbs. The colouring\nmatter does not reside so much in the scales as in the skin beneath, so\nthat the sloughs do not illustrate the decoration. Hence, we might\nexpect to find here a direct effect of morphological emphasis.\n\nThe ornamentation of snakes is very similar throughout the class, both\nin water and land snakes; as may be seen by Sir W. Fayrer's work on\nVenomous Snakes. This ornamentation is of a vertebral pattern, placed\nalong the dorsal surface, with cross lines, which may represent ribs.\n\nWhere the ribs are wanting, as in the neck, the pattern changes, and we\nget merely longitudinal markings.\n\nIn the Python, Fig. 4, there are, near the central line, numerous round\nspots, which apparently emphasize the neural processes. There are\ndiagonal markings on some species which illustrate the development of\ncolour-spots already alluded to.\n\nThis snake-pattern is very singular and striking. The markings are fewer\nin number than the vertebrae, yet their true vertebral character is most\nobvious.\n\nIn Snakes, again, we find the dorsal region is darker than the ventral.\n\nIn the Lizards there are patches of colour placed axially, while each\npatch covers a number of scales.\n\n_Birds._ Birds have their whole economy modified to subserve their great\nfunctional peculiarity of flight.\n\nImmense muscles are required for the downward stroke of the wing, and to\ngive attachment to these the sternum has a strongly developed keel. To\nbring the centre of gravity low, even the muscles which raise the wing\nare attached to the sternum, or breastbone, instead of to the dorsal\nregion, as might be expected; and to brace the wings back a strong\nfurculum--the merry-thought--is attached. The breast, then, is the seat\nof the greatest functional activity in birds, and, consequently, we find\nin a vast number of birds that the breast is the seat of vivid colour.\n\nAs many birds are modified for protective purposes, the brightest\nspecies were selected to test our views, namely, the Birds of Paradise\n(Paradisea), Humming Birds (Trochilidae), and Sun Birds (Nectarinidae). In\nthese birds it is clear that colour has had full sway, untramelled by\nany necessity for modification.\n\nNothing is more striking than the mapping out of the surface of these\nbirds into regions of colour, and these regions are always bounded by\nstructural lines.\n\nTake, for instance, _Paradisea regia_. In this bird we find the\nfollowing regions mapped in colour:--\n\n    Sternum            brown.\n    Clavicle           yellow.\n    Pelvis             yellow.\n    Band               brown.\n    Frontal bone       black.\n    Parietal bones     green.\n    Occiput            yellow.\n\nA beautiful ruff emphasizes the pectoral muscles, and the tail\nappendages emphasize the share-like caudal vertebrae.\n\nIf we turn to the other species of this genus, we find in _P. Papuana_\nthe claret breast suddenly change to green at the furculum; and similar\nchanges take place in _P. speciosa_, while in _P. Wallacei_ and\n_Wilsoni_ this region is decorated with a wonderful apron of metallic\ngreen.\n\nThe region of the furculum is equally well marked in the Toucans and\nSun-birds.\n\nIf now we observe the back of a bird, and view the skeleton with the\nwings at rest, we shall find it falls into three morphological tracts.\nFirst, the shoulder, or scapular track; second, the thigh, or pelvic;\nthird, the tail, or caudal region; and in all these birds the several\ntracts are beautifully marked by sudden and contrasted change of colour.\nIn _P. Wilsoni_ all the tracts are brilliant red, but they are separated\nby jet-black borders. In _Nectarinea chloropygia_ the scapular region is\nred, the pelvic yellow, and the caudal green.\n\n    [Illustration: Plate X.\n                   SUN BIRDS.]\n\nIn _P. Wilsoni_ we have a wonderful example of morphological emphasis.\nThe head is bare of feathers, and  blue, except along the\nsutures of the skull, where lines of tiny black feathers map out the\nvarious bones.\n\nBut morphological emphasis exists everywhere in birds. The\nwing-primaries, which attach to the hand, are frequently differently\ndecorated from the secondaries, which feathers spring from the ulna; and\nthe spur-feathers of the thumb, or pollux, are different in shape, and\noften in colour, from the others, as every fly-fisher who has used\nwoodcock spur-feathers knows full well. The wing-coverts and\ntail-coverts are frequently mapped in colour; and the brain case is\nmarked by  crests. The eye and ear are marked by lines and\nstripes; and so we might go on throughout the whole bird. We may remark\nthat these very tracts are most valuable for the description and\ndetection of species, and among ornithologists receive special names.\n\nNow, this distribution of colour is the more remarkable inasmuch as the\nfeathers which cover the surface--the contour feathers--are not evenly\ndistributed over the body, but are confined to certain limited tracts,\nas shown by Nitzsch; and though these tracts have a morphological\norigin, they are rendered quite subsidiary to the colouration, which\naffects the whole bird, and not these regions in particular. In fact,\nthe colouration is dependent upon the regions on which the feathers lie,\nand not upon the area from which they spring. In other words, we seem to\nhave in birds evidence of the direct action of underlying parts upon the\nsurface.\n\nIn more obscurely  birds, and those which seem to be evenly\nspotted, close examination shows that even here the decoration is not\nuniform, but the sizes and axes of the spots change slightly as they\noccupy different regions; as may be seen in Woodpeckers and Guinea-fowl.\n\nAlthough the same tone of colour may prevail throughout the plumage, as\nin the Argus Pheasant, great variety is obtained by the fusion of spots\ninto stripes. A symmetrical effect is produced by the grouping of\nunsymmetrical feathers; as is so often seen in plants, where irregular\nbranches and leaves produce a regular contour.\n\nSometimes, especially on the breast and back, the feathers of one region\nseem to unite so as to form one tract, so far as colour is concerned.\nThus, if in _P. Wilsoni_ the black borders of the dorsal regions were\nsuppressed, all three areas would be of one hue. This seems to have\nbeen the case in the breast region of Humming Birds, where only the\nthroat is highly . In the Toucans the breast and throat regions\nare often marked with colour; but sometimes the hue is the same and the\nboundaries of the regions marked with a band of another colour; if this\nboundary band be increased, the regions do not seem so well shown, for\nthe boundary becomes as broad as the area; yet, in all these cases the\ndependence upon regional decoration is manifest. No doubt the few\nuniformly  birds were derived from species which were once\nvariously hued; the gradation of colour being lost in transmission.\n\n_Mammalia._ The axial decoration of the mammalia is very definite, and\nnearly all species have a dorsal tract marked with colour. The dark\nbands on the back of the horse, ox, and ass, are cases in point. In\nnearly every case the dorsal is darker than the ventral surface.\n\nIf we take highly decorated species, that is, animals marked by\nalternate dark and light bands, or spots, such as the zebra, some deer,\nor the carnivora, we find, first, that the region of the spinal column\nis marked by a dark stripe (Figs. 9 & 16); secondly, that the regions of\nthe appendages, or limbs, are differently marked; thirdly, that the\nflanks are striped, or spotted, along or between the regions of the\nlines of the ribs; fourthly, that the shoulder and hip regions are\nmarked by curved lines; fifthly, that the pattern changes, and the\ndirection of the lines, or spots, at the head, neck, and every joint of\nthe limbs; and lastly, that the tips of the ears, nose, tail, and feet,\nand the eye are emphasized in colour. In spotted animals the greatest\nlength of the spot is generally in the direction of the largest\ndevelopment of the skeleton.\n\nThis morphological arrangement can be traced even when the decoration\nhas been modified. Thus, in the carnivora we have the lion and puma,\nwhich live in open country, with plain skins, the tiger with stripes, an\ninhabitant of the jungle, and the leopard, ocelot, and jaguar with\nspots, inhabiting the forests.\n\nBut the lion has a dark dorsal stripe, and the nose, etc., are\nemphasized in colour, and, moreover, the lion has probably lost its\nmarked decoration for protective purposes, for young lions are spotted.\nThe tiger's stripes start from the vertebrae, and still follow the lines\nof the ribs. In the tiger the decoration changes at the neck, and on the\nhead, and the cervical vertebrae are often indicated by seven stripes.\nSee Fig. 5.\n\nThe markings over the vertebrae are not in continuous lines, as in many\nmammals, but form a series of vertebra-like spots. This plan of\ndecoration is continued even on the tail, which is  more on the\nupper than on the lower surface.\n\nThe spotted cats have their spot-groups arranged on the flanks in the\ndirection of the ribs, at the shoulder and haunch in curves, at the neck\nin another pattern, on the back of the head in another; and the pattern\nchanges as each limb-joint is reached, the spots decreasing in size as\nthe distance is greater from the spine. See Figs. 9-15.\n\nThere is in tigers, and the cat-tribe generally, a dark stripe over the\ndental nerve; and the zygoma, or cheek-bone, is often marked by colour.\nEven the supraorbital nerve is shown in the forehead, and there are dark\nrings round the ears. In dissecting an ocelot at the Zoological Gardens\nin 1883, a forked line was found immediately over the fork of the\njugular vein.\n\nThe colouration in these animals seems often to be determined by the\ngreat nerves and nerve-centres, and the change from spots, or stripes,\nto wrinkled lines on the head are strikingly suggestive of the\nconvolutions of the brain, falling, as they do, into two lateral masses,\ncorresponding with the cerebral hemispheres, separated by a straight\nline, corresponding with the median fissure. This is well shown in the\nocelot, Fig. 15, and in many other cats.\n\nThat the nerves can affect the skin has already been pointed out in\nChapter VI., in the case of herpes, and that it can affect colour is\nshown in the Hindoo described in the same place.\n\nSo marked, indeed, is this emphasis of sensitive parts that every hair\nof the movable feelers of a cat is shown by colour to be different in\nfunction from the hairs of the neck, or from the stationary mass of hair\nfrom which the single longer hair starts.\n\nIn the Badger, Fig. 16, there is a bulge-shaped mass of  hair\nnear the dorsal and lumbar regions, but it is axially placed. The\nshoulder and loins are well marked, although in a different manner from\nother species. In some species of deer, and other mammalia, there are\nwhite or  lines parallel to the spine, and also, as in birds,\nspots coalesce and form lines, and lines break up into spots.\n\nThe great anteater has what at first seems an exceptional marking on the\nshoulder, but a careful examination of the fine specimen which died at\nthe Zoological Gardens in 1883, we were struck with the abnormal\ncharacter of the scapula, and we must remember that, as Wallace and\nDarwin have pointed out, all abnormal changes of the teeth are\ncorrelated with changes in the hair. Moreover the muscles of the\nshoulder region are so enormously developed as to render this otherwise\ndefenceless animal so formidable that even the jaguar avoids an embrace\nwhich tightens to a death-grip. This region is, therefore, precisely the\none we should expect to be strongly emphasized. This being the case, we\nhave really no exception in this creature.\n\nCertain mammals are banded horizontally along their sides, thus losing\nmost of their axial decoration, and this is well shown among the\nViverridae, and smaller rodents. Now, however conspicuous such animals\nmay appear in collections, they are in their native haunts very\ndifficult to detect. In all cases there is a marked dorsal line; and we\nsuggest that the mature decoration is due to a suppression of the axial\ndecoration for protective purposes, and a repetition of the dorsal\ndecoration according to the law before enunciated. Indeed, in one case\nwe were able to trace this pretty clearly, in the beautiful series of\n_Sus vittatus_ in the museum at Leyden. This pig, an inhabitant of Java,\nwhen mature is a dark brown animal, but in the very young state it is\nclearly marked in yellow and brown, with a dark dorsal stripe, and\nspots, taking the line of the ribs, and over the shoulder and thigh. As\nthe animal grows older, the spots run into stripes, and it becomes as\nclearly banded horizontally as the viverridae. Finally the dark bands\nincrease in width, until they unite, and the creature becomes almost\nuniformly brown.\n\nWe have not been able to see young specimens of the viverridae, but a\nsimilar change may there occur, or it may have occurred in former times.\nWe must also remember that these creatures are long-bodied, like the\nweasels, and hence they may have a tendency to produce long stripes.\n\nIn the case of our domestic animals, especially the oxen, the decoration\nseems often to have become irregular, but even here the emphasis of the\nextremities is generally clearly made out, and that of the limbs can\noften be traced. In horses this is better shown, and dappled varieties\noften well illustrate the points. Most horses at some time show traces\nof spots.\n\nSufficient has now been said to point out the laws we believe to have\nregulated the decoration of the animal kingdom. The full working out of\nthe question must be left to the future, but it is hoped that a solid\ngroundwork has been laid down.\n\n    [Illustration: Plate XI.\n                   LEAVES.]\n\n\n\n\n                              CHAPTER XV.\n\n                       THE COLOURATION OF PLANTS.\n\n\nThe general structure of plants is so simple in comparison with that of\nanimals that our remarks upon this sub-kingdom need only be short.\n\nWith regard to leaves, especially such as are brightly , like\nthe Begonias, Caladiums, Coleus, and Anoechtochilus, Plate XI., the\ncolour follows pretty closely the lines of structure. We have border\ndecoration, marking out the vein-pattern of the border; the veins are\nfrequently the seat of vivid colour, and when decolouration takes place,\nas in variegated plants, we find it running along the interspaces of the\nveins. These facts are too patent to need much illustration; for our\nzonale geraniums, ribbon grasses, and beautiful-leaved plants generally,\nare now so common that everyone knows their character. When decay sets\nin, and oxidation gives rise to the vivid hues of autumn, we find the\ntints taking structural lines, as is well shown in dying vine and\nhorse-chestnut leaves, Fig. 1, Plate XI. This shows us that there is a\nstructural possibility of acquiring regional colouration.\n\nWe must remember, too, that the negative colouration of these dying\nleaves is of very much the same character as the positive colouration of\nflowers, for flowers are modified leaves, and their hues are due to the\noxidation of the valuable chlorophyll.\n\nIn leaves the tendency of spots to elongate in the direction of the leaf\nis very marked, as may be well seen in Begonia. Fig. 17, drawn to\nillustrate another point, shows this partly. When leaves are\nunsymmetrical, like the begonias, the pattern is unsymmetrical also.\n\nAmong parallel veined leaves we find parallel decoration. Thus, in the\n_Calatheas_ we have dark marks running along the veins. In _Dracaena\nferrea_ we have a dark green leaf, with a red border and tip, the red\nrunning downwards along the veins. This action may be continued until\nthe leaf is all red except the mid-rib, which remains green. In long\nnet-veined leaves we may cite _Pavetta Borbonica_, whose dark green\nblade has a crimson mid-rib. Of unsymmetrical leaves those in the plate\nmay suffice.\n\nWhen we come to flowers, the same general law prevails, and is generally\nmore marked in wild than in cultivated forms, which have been much, and\nto some extent unnaturally, modified. Broadly speaking, when a flower is\nregular the decoration is alike on all the parts; the petals are alike\nin size, the decoration is similar in each, but where they differ in\nsize the decoration changes. Thus, in _Pelargoniums_ we may find all\nfive petals alike, or the two upper petals may be longer or shorter than\nthe lower three. In the first case each is  similarly, in the\nother the colour pattern varies with the size of the petal. The same may\nbe seen in Rhododendron.\n\nWhere the petals are united the same law holds good. In regular flowers,\nlike the lilies, the colouration is equal. In irregular flowers, like\nthe snapdragon and foxglove, the decoration is irregular. In Gloxinia\nthe petals may be either regular or irregular, and the decoration\nchanges in concert.\n\nA very instructive case was noticed by one of us in _Lamium\ngaleobdolon_, or yellow Archangel. This plant is normally a labiate with\nthe usual irregular corolla, but we have found it regular, and in this\ninstance the normal irregular decoration was changed to a regular\npattern on each petal.\n\nIn gamopetalous flowers the line of junction of the petals is frequently\nmarked with colour, and we know of no case in which a pattern runs\ndeliberately across this structure line, though a blotch may spread from\nit.\n\nWhen we remember that flowers are absolutely the result of the efforts\nof plants to secure the fertilizing attention of insects, and that they\nare supreme efforts, put forth at the expense of a great deal of\nvegetable energy--that they are sacrifices to the necessity for\noffspring--it does strike us forcibly when we see that even under these\ncircumstances the great law of structural decoration has to be adhered\nto.\n\n    [Illustration: Plate XII.\n                   FLOWERS.]\n\n\n\n\n                              CHAPTER XVI.\n\n                              CONCLUSIONS.\n\n\nWe have now, more or less fully, examined into the system of colouration\nin the living world, and have drawn certain inferences from the facts\nobserved.\n\nIt appears that colouration began--perhaps as a product of digestion--by\nthe application of pigment to the organs of transparent creatures.\nSupposing that evolution be true--and, if we may not accept this theory\nthere is no use in induction whatever--it must follow that even the\nhighest animals have in the past been transparent objects. This was\nadmirably illustrated by Prof. Ray Lankester in a lecture on the\ndevelopment of the eyes of certain animals, before the British\nAssociation meeting at Sheffield, in which it was shown that the eyes\ncommenced below the surface, and were useful even then, for its \"body\nwas full of light.\"\n\nGranting this, it follows that the fundamental law of decoration is a\nstructural one. Assuming, as we do, that memory has played a most\nimportant part in evolution, it follows that all living matter has a\nprofound experience in decorating its organs--it is knowledge just as\nanciently acquired, and as perfectly, as the power of digestion. This\ncolour was produced under the influence of light--so it is even in\nopaque animals.\n\nWith a knowledge so far reaching, we might expect that even in opaque\nanimals the colouring would still follow structural lines, and there\nshould still be traces of this, more or less distinct.\n\nThis is precisely what we do find; and, moreover, we sometimes get a\nvery fair drawing of the important hidden parts, even where least\nexpected, as in a cat's head, a snake's body, a dragon-fly's thorax, a\nspider's abdomen, a bird's skull.\n\nBut if animals thus learned to paint themselves in definite patterns, we\nmight expect that when called upon to decorate _for the sake of beauty_\ncertain parts not structurally emphatic, they would adopt well-known\npatterns, and hence arose the law of repetition.\n\nBut with wider experience came greater powers, and the necessity for\nprotection arising, the well-known patterns were enlarged, till an\nuniform tint is produced, as in the Java pig, or some repeated at the\nexpense of others, as in the civets. But so ingrained is the tendency to\nstructural decoration that even where modification has reached its\nhighest level, as in the leaf-butterflies, some trace of the plan that\nthe new pattern was founded on is recognisable, just as the rectangular\nbasis can be traced in the arabesque ornaments of the Alhambra.\n\nThe pointing out of this great fact has seemed to us a useful addition\nto the great law of evolution. It supplements it; it gives a reason why.\n\nCould he who first saw these points have read these final pages, it\nwould have lightened the responsibility of the one upon whom the\ncompletion of the work has fallen. But he died when the work was nearly\nfinished. The investigation is of necessity incomplete, but nothing\nbears such misstatements as truth, and though specialists may demur to\ncertain points, the fundamental arguments will probably remain intact.\n\n\n                         [Illustration: FINIS.]\n\n\n\n\n                               GLOSSARY.\n\n\n     ACETABULA. Lat. _acetabulum_, a little vessel. Sucking discs as on\n     the tentacles of _Physalia_.\n\n     AORTA. Gr. The chief artery.\n\n     CEPHALOTHORAX. Gr. _kephale_, head; _thorax_, chest. The anterior\n     division of the body in Crustacea and Arachnida, composed of the\n     amalgamated segments of the head and thorax.\n\n     CILIA. Lat. _cilium_, an eyelash. Microscopic filaments having the\n     power of vibratory movement.\n\n     C[OE]NOSARC. Gr. _Koinos_, common; _sarx_, flesh. The common stem\n     uniting the separate animals of compound hydrozoa, &c.\n\n     CORPUSCLE. Lat. _corpusculum_, a little body. Small \n     bodies, as in the endoderm of hydra, p. 59.\n\n     DIFFERENTIATED. Modified into definite organs, or parts; as\n     distinct from structureless protoplasm.\n\n     ECTODERM. Gr. _ektos_, outside; _derma_, skin. The internal layer\n     or skin of the Coelenterata.\n\n     EFFERENT. Lat. _effero_, to carry out. A vessel which carries\n     fluids out of the body is said to be efferent.\n\n     ENDODERM. Gr. _endon_, within; _derma_, skin. The inner layer or\n     skin of Coelenterata. _See_ ECTODERM.\n\n     ENDOSARC. Gr. _endon_, within; _sarx_, flesh. The inner layer of\n     sponges.\n\n     EPIDERMAL. Gr. _epi_, upon; _derma_, skin. Relating to the outer\n     layer of skin. As applied to colour, surface pigment as distinct\n     from hypodermal, or deep-seated colour.\n\n     GASTROVASCULAR CANAL. Gr. _gaster_, belly; Lat. _vasculum_, a\n     little vessel. The canals or vessels in the umbrella (_manubrium_)\n     of hydrozoa.\n\n     GONIDIA. Gr. _gonos_, offspring; _oidos_, like. Reproductive bodies\n     in Sea-anemones.\n\n     HYDRANTH. Gr. _hudor_, water; _anthos_, flower. The bodies or\n     polypes of hydroids which exercise nutritive functions. They were\n     called polypites by Huxley.\n\n     HYDROPHYLLIA. Gr. _hudor_ and _phyllon_, a leaf. Leaf-like organs\n     protecting the polypites of hydrozoa.\n\n     HYDROSOMA. Gr. _hudor_ and _soma_, body. The entire organism of a\n     hydrozoeon.\n\n     HYPODERMAL. Gr. _hypo_, beneath; _derma_, skin. In colour, such as\n     lies beneath the surface, as distinct from epidermal.\n\n     LYTHOCYSTS. Gr. _lythos_, stone, _kystis_, a bladder. Sense organs\n     in hydroids, consisting of transparent capsules inclosing round\n     transparent concretions.\n\n     MANUBRIUM. Lat. a handle. The central polypite suspended from the\n     interior of the umbrella of hydroids.\n\n     MESODERM. Gr. _mesos_, intermediate; _derma_, skin. The middle\n     layer of sponges, &c.\n\n     MESOTHORAX. Gr. _mesos_ and _thorax_. The middle division of the\n     thorax in insects, carrying the second pair of legs.\n\n     PERISTOME. Gr. _peri_, about; _stoma_, a mouth. The area\n     surrounding the mouth in sea-anemones.\n\n     PNEUMATOCYST. Gr. _pneuma_, air; _kystis_ a bladder. The air-sac\n     contained in the pneumatophore, see below.\n\n     PNEUMATOPHORE. Gr. _pneuma_; _phero_, to carry. The float of\n     certain hydrozoa (_Physophoridae_.)\n\n     POLYPITE. Gr. _polus_, many; _pous_, foot. The separate animal or\n     zoeoid of a hydrozoeon. _See_ HYDRANTH.\n\n     PROTOPLASM. Gr. _protos_, first; _plasso_, I mould. The jelly-like\n     matter which forms the basis of all tissues. It is identical with\n     the _sarcode_ or flesh of protozoa.\n\n     SAC. Lat. _saccus_, a bag, a small cell.\n\n     SARCODE. Gr. _sarx_, flesh; _eidos_, form. The protoplasm of\n     protozoa, &c., which see.\n\n     SPADIX. Lat. _spadix_, a broken palm branch. In zoology a hollow\n     process occupying the axis of the generative buds of hydrozoa.\n\n     SPOROSAC. Gr. _spora_, a seed, and _sac_. The body containing the\n     ova of hydrozoa.\n\n     SOMATIC FLUID. Gr. _soma_, the body. The fluid which contains\n     digested food, and taking the place of blood, circulates through\n     the body of hydrozoa.\n\n     TENTACLES. Lat. _tentaculus_, a little arm. The arms or prehensile\n     organs of Sea-anemones, &c.\n\n     THREAD CELLS. Cells containing an extensible microscopic thread,\n     possessing stinging properties, common among the _Coelenterata_.\n\n     THORAX. Gr. a breastplate. The chest.\n\n\n\n\n                                 INDEX.\n\n\n                                                           PAGE\n\n    _Abyla_                                                  63\n\n    _Acanthometra_                                           57\n\n    _Actinea Cari_, varieties of                             66\n\n    ---- _mesembryanthemum_                                  54\n\n    _Acanthostratus_                                         57\n\n    _Actinozoa_                                          51, 52\n\n    _AEschna_                                                 77\n\n    _Agalma breve_                                           64\n\n    _Agrion puella_                                          77\n\n    _Aiptasia mutabilis_                                     67\n\n    Albinism in butterflies                                  79\n\n    _Alcyonariae_                                             54\n\n    Allman, Prof., on Hydroids                           59, 60\n\n    \"Alps and Sanctuaries\" quoted                            36\n\n    _Amoeba_                                                  56\n\n    Amphibia                                                 89\n\n    _Amphilonche_                                            57\n\n    Andres, Dr., on Hydrozoa                                 65\n\n    _Anemonia sulcata_                                       67\n\n    Anemones, Sea                                            52\n\n    Animals and Plants, origin of                            36\n\n    ---- classification of                                   49\n\n    _Anoechtochilus_                                          95\n\n    Anteater                                                 93\n\n    _Anthocaris belemia_                                     41\n\n    ---- _belia_                                             42\n\n    ---- _cardamines_                                    41, 42\n\n    ---- _euphemoides_                                       43\n\n    ---- _eupheno_                                           42\n\n    ---- _simplonia_                                         42\n\n    _Apatura iris_                                           46\n\n    ---- larvae of                                            81\n\n    _Arachnida_                                              82\n\n    _Araschnia Levana_                                   43, 45\n\n    ---- _porima_                                    43, 45, 79\n\n    ---- _prorsa_                                        43, 45\n\n    _Arctia_                                                 69\n\n    _Arachnocorys_                                           57\n\n    Argus Pheasant                                    6, 39, 91\n\n    _Argynnis Lathonia_                                      69\n\n    Armadillo                                                84\n\n    Arthropoda, colouration of                               85\n\n    Ascidians                                                35\n\n    Automatic habits                                          9\n\n    _Arthorybia rosacea_                                     64\n\n\n    Badger                                                   93\n\n    _Begonia_                                                95\n\n    Birds, colouration of                                    89\n\n    ---- of Paradise                                         90\n\n    _Biston betularia_                                       79\n\n    Black and White, production of                           28\n\n    Blackwell, J., on British Spiders                        82\n\n    _Blatta_                                                 14\n\n    Bougainvillea                                            16\n\n    Bower Birds                                               5\n\n    _Bunodes crassicornis_                                   54\n\n    ---- _gemmaceus_, varieties of                           66\n\n    ---- _rigidus_                                           67\n\n    Burnet Moths                                          5, 69\n\n    Butler S., on inherited memory                9, 10, 11, 15\n\n    ---- on origin of animals and plants                     36\n\n    Butterflies, albinism in                                 79\n\n    ---- classification of                                   74\n\n    ---- sense organs of                                     30\n\n    ---- varieties of                                        77\n\n\n    _Caladium_                                               95\n\n    _Calathea_                                               96\n\n    _Calycophoridae_                                          63\n\n    _Carcinus moenas_                                          4\n\n    _Carpocanium_                                            57\n\n    Cats, colouration of                                 17, 92\n\n    ---- recognising form                                    32\n\n    Caterpillars, colours of                                 81\n\n    ---- spiracular markings                                 22\n\n    _Cephalopoda_                                            87\n\n    _Cerithium_                                              86\n\n    Char                                                     88\n\n    Chlorophyll in hydra                                     59\n\n    Cicada                                                   77\n\n    _Cladococeus_                                            57\n\n    Classification of animals                                49\n\n    ---- of butterflies                                      74\n\n    _Coelenterata_                                            20\n\n    ---- colouration in                                      51\n\n    _Coelodendrum_                                            57\n\n    _Coenonympha davus_                                       79\n\n    ---- _pamphilus_                                         79\n\n    Coenosarc                                                 55\n\n    _Coleus_                                                 95\n\n    Colour and form                                          32\n\n    ---- and transparency                                    53\n\n    ---- epidermal                                           72\n\n    ---- following structure                             83, 91\n\n    ---- hypodermal                                      53, 73\n\n    ---- nature of                                           25\n\n    ---- of day-and-night flying insects                 47, 69\n\n    ---- opaque                                              53\n\n    ---- perception of                            5, 23, 25, 32\n\n    ---- uniform, why rare                                   28\n\n    Colouration                                               3\n\n    ---- laws of                                         21, 51\n\n    ---- of desert animals                                    4\n\n    ---- of arthropoda                                       85\n\n    ---- of coelenterata                                  51, 59\n\n    ---- of insects                                          68\n\n    ---- of invertebrata                                     49\n\n    ---- of molluscs                                         85\n\n    ---- of plants                                           94\n\n    ---- of protozoa                                         51\n\n    ---- of spiders                                          82\n\n    ---- of vertebrata                                       88\n\n    ---- sexual                                               5\n\n    ---- varieties of                                         3\n\n    Contour feathers                                         91\n\n    _Conus_                                                  86\n\n    _Coppinia arcta_                                         60\n\n    _Corallium rubrum_                                       54\n\n    Corals                                                   54\n\n    Correlation of teeth and hair                            94\n\n    _Corynida_                                               52\n\n    Cowries                                                  86\n\n    Crab, shore                                               4\n\n    Croton                                                   46\n\n    Cuttle-fishes                                        19, 87\n\n    _Cyllo leda_                                             45\n\n    _Cynthia cardui_                                         68\n\n    _Cypraea_                                                 86\n\n    _Cyrtidosphaera_                                          57\n\n\n    Dallas, W. S., on butterflies                            71\n\n    _Danais_                                                 72\n\n    ---- niavius                                         30, 80\n\n    Darwin, C.                   1, 2, 5, 9, 11, 14, 45, 47, 94\n\n    Darwin, Dr. E., cited                                    37\n\n    Deer                                                     92\n\n    Deformity, antipathy to                                  32\n\n    _Deilephila Euphorbiae_                                   81\n\n    ---- _galii_                                             81\n\n    Descent with modification                                 1\n\n    Desert animals, colour of                                 4\n\n    _Dictyoceras_                                            57\n\n    _Dictyophimus_                                           57\n\n    _Diphyes_                                                63\n\n    Disease, markings in                                 39, 44\n\n    Distant, W. L., on Malayan butterflies                   80\n\n    Distinctive Colouration                                   3\n\n    Dogs recognising portraits                               32\n\n    _Dracaena ferrea_                                         96\n\n\n    Elephant, increase of                                     2\n\n    Engelmann on _Euglena_                                   34\n\n    Epidermal colour                                         72\n\n    _Eresus cinnabarinus_                                    82\n\n    _Eucecryphalus_                                          57\n\n    _Eucrytidium_                                            57\n\n    _Euglena viridis_                                        34\n\n    Evolution                                              1-98\n\n    Eye-spots                                            45, 47\n\n\n    Fayrer, Sir W., on snakes                                89\n\n    Feathers                                                 91\n\n    Fishes, colours of                                       88\n\n    Foal, stripes on                                         46\n\n    _Foraminiferae_                                           56\n\n    Fuller, W. J., on aquatic larvae                          77\n\n\n    Gamopetalous flowers                                     96\n\n    Gegenbaur's \"Comparative Anatomy\" cited                  82\n\n    General colouration                                       3\n\n    _Gloxinia_                                               96\n\n    _Gomphina_                                               77\n\n    _Gonepteryx Cleopatra_                               41, 42\n\n    ---- _rhamni_                                        40, 42\n\n    Gonophores                                               52\n\n    _Grapta interrogationis_                                 79\n\n    _Gregarinidae_                                            56\n\n    Guinea-fowl                                              91\n\n\n    Haagen, Dr., on colour                               53, 72\n\n    Habits                                                    8\n\n    Haeckel, Prof., on _Radiolaria_                          57\n\n    Hair and teeth, correlation of                           94\n\n    Hawk moths                                               69\n\n    Hebrides, colours of insects in                          80\n\n    Heredity                                                  2\n\n    Herpes                                               40, 93\n\n    Heteromorphism                                           78\n\n    Higgins, Rev. H. H.                                      39\n\n    Hoverer flies                                            84\n\n    Humming birds                                        90, 92\n\n    Hutchinson, Mr., on herpes                               40\n\n    Huxley, Prof., on hydrozoa                               63\n\n    _Hydra viridis_                                          59\n\n    _Hydrida_                                                59\n\n    Hydrozoa                                             51, 59\n\n    Hypodermal colour                                    53, 72\n\n\n    Identity of offspring and parent                         11\n\n    Identity, personal                                       10\n\n    Inherited memory                                          8\n\n    Insects, colour in                                   68, 75\n\n\n    John Dory                                                89\n\n\n    _Kallima inachus_                                    30, 80\n\n    Kentish Glory Moth                                       30\n\n\n    _Lamium galeobdolon_                                     96\n\n    Lankester, Prof. Ray, on development of eyes             97\n\n    Large Copper Butterfly                                   68\n\n    Larvae, colours of                                    45, 81\n\n    Laws of emphasis                                         21\n\n    ---- exposure                                            18\n\n    ---- heredity                                             2\n\n    ---- multiplication                                       2\n\n    ---- repetition                                      21, 22\n\n    ---- structure                                           18\n\n    ---- variation                                            2\n\n    Leaf-butterfly                                       16, 30\n\n    Leidy, Prof., on _Rhizopoda_                             56\n\n    Leopard                                              17, 92\n\n    _Leucophasia diniensis_                                  41\n\n    ---- _sinapis_                                           41\n\n    \"Life and Habit\" cited                                    9\n\n    Light, reflected                                         26\n\n    ---- sensibility to                                      33\n\n    ---- waves                                               25\n\n    _Liminitis sibilla_                                      43\n\n    Lion                                                 17, 92\n\n    ---- stripes on young                                    46\n\n    Lithocysts of hydroids                                   62\n\n    _Lucernaria auricula_                                    65\n\n    _Lycaena dispar_                                          68\n\n    _Lycosa agretyca_                                        83\n\n    ---- _allodroma_                                         83\n\n    ---- _andrenivora_                                       83\n\n    ---- _cambria_                                           84\n\n    ---- _campestris_                                        83\n\n    ---- _latitans_                                          84\n\n    ---- _picta_                                             84\n\n    ---- _piratica_                                          84\n\n    ---- _rapax_                                             83\n\n\n    Mackerel                                                 88\n\n    _Mactra_                                                 86\n\n    ---- _stultorum_                                         87\n\n    Madrepores                                               54\n\n    Mammalia, colouration in                                 92\n\n    _Margarita catenata_                                     87\n\n    Measles                                                  39\n\n    Medusae                                               52, 65\n\n    Melanism in insects                                      79\n\n    Meldola, Prof. R., on Melanism                           79\n\n    _Melitaea artemis_                                        43\n\n    ---- _athalia_                                           43\n\n    Mimicry                                                3, 4\n\n    Mollusca                                                 21\n\n    ---- colouration in                                      85\n\n    Monstrosities, antipathy to                              32\n\n    _Morphinae_                                               72\n\n    _Morpho_                                                  4\n\n    _Murex_                                                  86\n\n    Muscles of insects                                       71\n\n\n    _Nectarinea chloropygea_                                 90\n\n    Newman, Mr., on varieties of butterflies                 77\n\n    Newts                                                    89\n\n    Nitzsch on feather-tracts                                91\n\n    Nudibranchs                                              85\n\n    _Nymphalidae_                                             74\n\n\n    Oak Egger Moth                                           30\n\n    Ocelli                                                   47\n\n    Ocelot                                                   93\n\n    _Oliva_                                                  86\n\n    Opaque colouring                                         53\n\n    Organ-pipe coral                                         54\n\n    Origin of animals and plants                             36\n\n    ---- -- species                                           1\n\n    Orthopoecilism                                            78\n\n    Oxen                                                     94\n\n\n    Painted Lady Butterfly                                   68\n\n    Pangenesis                                               12\n\n    _Papilio Ajax_                                           79\n\n    ---- _machaon_                               43, 68, 76, 78\n\n    ---- ---- larva of                                       81\n\n    ---- _merope_                                    30, 76, 80\n\n    ---- _nireus_                                            14\n\n    ---- _podalirius_                                        43\n\n    _Paradisea Papuana_                                      90\n\n    ---- _regia_                                             90\n\n    ---- _speciosa_                                          90\n\n    ---- _Wallacei_                                          90\n\n    ---- _Wilsoni_                                       90, 91\n\n    _Pavetta Borbonica_                                      96\n\n    _Pecten_                                                 86\n\n    Pelargonium                                              96\n\n    Perch                                                    88\n\n    Personal identity                                        10\n\n    _Physalia_                                               63\n\n    ---- _caravilla_                                         64\n\n    ---- _pelagica_                                          64\n\n    ---- _utriculus_                                         64\n\n    _Physophoridae_                                           63\n\n    Plaice                                                   88\n\n    Plants and animals, origin of                            36\n\n    ---- colour in                                           95\n\n    Pneumatophores                                           63\n\n    Portuguese Man o' War                                    63\n\n    Protective resemblance                                    3\n\n    _Protista_                                               34\n\n    Protozoa                                                 20\n\n    ---- colouration in                                  51, 56\n\n    Python                                                   89\n\n\n    _Radiolaria_                                             57\n\n    Rarity of uniform colour                                 28\n\n    Ray Lankester, Prof., on  Ascidians                      35\n\n    Red Admiral Butterfly                                    29\n\n    Repetition, effects of                                    8\n\n    Reptilia, colouration in                                 89\n\n    Resemblance, Protective                                   3\n\n    _Rhizophora filiformis_                                  64\n\n    _Rhizopoda_                                              56\n\n    Rhododendron                                             96\n\n    Ringlet Butterflies, eye-spots of                        47\n\n    Roach                                                    88\n\n    Romanes, Prof., cited                                33, 34\n\n\n    _Satyrus hyperanthus_                                    79\n\n    Scales of insects, structure of                          72\n\n    Scarlet Tiger Moth                                        5\n\n    Sea anemones                                             52\n\n    ---- ---- colours of                                     67\n\n    Seasonal dimorphism                                      70\n\n    Sea squirts                                              35\n\n    _Segestria senoculata_                                   83\n\n    Selection, sexual                                         5\n\n    Self- flowers                                    28\n\n    Sense organs of Butterflies                              30\n\n    _Sertularidae_                                            63\n\n    Sexual colours                                            4\n\n    ---- selection                                            5\n\n    ---- dimorphism                                          70\n\n    Shell, Structure of                                      85\n\n    Shore Crab                                                4\n\n    Simple variation in Butterflies                          77\n\n    _Siphonophora_                                           63\n\n    Small pox                                                39\n\n    Snakes, patterns of                                      89\n\n    Sollas, Prof., on Sponges                                58\n\n    Soles                                                    88\n\n    _Sparassus smaragdulus_                                  82\n\n    Species, origin of                                        1\n\n    _Sphaeronectes_                                           63\n\n    _Sphingidae_                                          45, 69\n\n    Spiders, structure and colour of                         82\n\n    Spiracles of larvae                                       22\n\n    _Spondylus_                                              86\n\n    Sponges                                                  57\n\n    _Spongida_                                               57\n\n    _Spongocyclia_                                           57\n\n    Spots and Stripes                                        39\n\n    _Stephanomia amphitridis_                                63\n\n    Struggle for existence                                    2\n\n    Sun-birds                                                90\n\n    _Sus vittatus_                                       46, 94\n\n    Sutton, Mr. Bland, on Herpes                             40\n\n    Swallow-tailed Butterflies                               68\n\n    _Syncoryne pulchella_                                    62\n\n    Systems of colouration                                   51\n\n\n    Teeth and Hair, correlation of                           94\n\n    _Thomisus cinereus_                                      82\n\n    ---- _floricolens_                                       82\n\n    _Thomisus luctuosus_                                     84\n\n    ---- _trux_                                              82\n\n    Thrush, increase of                                       2\n\n    Tiger                                                17, 92\n\n    ---- Moths                                               69\n\n    _Tipula_                                                 33\n\n    Toucans                                              90, 92\n\n    Transparency and colour                                  53\n\n    _Trigonia_                                               86\n\n    _Tubipora musica_                                        54\n\n    _Tubularida_                                             59\n\n    Tylor, A., on Specific change                            10\n\n\n    _Vanessa Antiopa_                                        76\n\n    ---- _atalanta_                                  29, 43, 69\n\n    ---- _urticae_                                            77\n\n    Variation in insects                                     70\n\n    ---- law of                                               2\n\n    ---- simple, in Butterflies                              77\n\n    _Velella_                                            52, 65\n\n    Vertebrata, colouration of                               88\n\n    _Viverridae_                                              94\n\n\n    Wallace, A. R., on sexual selection            5, 6, 14, 15\n\n    ---- on colour                                           29\n\n    ---- on abnormal structures                              94\n\n    Warning colours                                           4\n\n    Wasps                                                    84\n\n    Weir, J. Jenner, on variation in  insects                78\n\n    Weismann, Dr., on Caterpillars                           81\n\n    Wing of Butterfly, typical                               70\n\n    ---- patterns of                                         76\n\n    Woodpecker                                               91\n\n\n    Yellow Archangel                                         96\n\n\n    Zebra                                                    92\n\n    _Zygaena_                                                 69\n\n\n                             [Illustration]\n\n\n\n\n     [Illustration: Fig. 4.--PYTHON.\n                   _Showing vertebra-like markings._]\n\n     [Illustration: Fig. 5.--TIGER.\n                   _The pattern changes at the points lettered._]\n\n     [Illustration: Fig. 6.--TIGER.]\n\n     [Illustration: Fig. 7.--TIGER.\n                   _Showing supra-orbital nerve mark._]\n\n     [Illustration: Fig. 8.--TIGER.\n                   _Showing cerebral markings, and markings over\n                    nerves near the eyes._]\n\n     [Illustration: Fig. 9.--LEOPARD.\n                   _The pattern changes at the points lettered._]\n\n     [Illustration: Fig. 10.--LEOPARD.\n                   _The pattern changes at the points lettered._]\n\n     [Illustration: Figs. 11, 12.--LEOPARDS' HEADS.]\n\n     [Illustration: Fig. 13.--LYNX.\n                   _The colour changes at the points lettered._]\n\n     [Illustration: Fig. 14.--LYNX.]\n\n     [Illustration: Fig. 15.--OCELOT.\n                   _Showing changes of pattern at the joints, &c.,\n                    with enlargement of head-pattern._]\n\n     [Illustration: Fig. 16.--BADGER.\n                   _The colour changes at the points lettered._]\n\n     [Illustration: Fig. 17.--BEGONIA LEAF.]\n\n\n\n\n                          Transcriber's Notes:\n\nVariations in spelling, punctuation and hyphenation have been retained\nexcept in obvious cases of typographical error.\n\n\"Haeckel\" and \"Haeckel\" were used interchangeably and have been\nstandardized to \"Haeckel\".\n\nImage tags interrupting paragraphs have been moved.\n\nFootnotes have been moved to end of chapters.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nEnd of Project Gutenberg's Colouration in Animals and Plants, by Alfred Tylor\n\n*** ","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
+{"text":" \nELIZABETH TAYLOR\nELIZABETH TAYLOR\n\nTHE LADY, THE LOVER, THE LEGEND\n\n1932\u20132011\n\nA NEW BIOGRAPHY BY\n\nDavid Bret\n\nD&M PUBLISHERS INC. Vancouver\/Toronto\/Berkeley\nCopyright \u00a9 2011 by David Bret\n\n11 12 13 14 15 5 4 3 2 1\n\nAll rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior written consent of the publisher or a licence from The Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency (Access Copyright). For a copyright licence, visit www.accesscopyright.ca or call toll free to 1-800-893-5777.\n\nGreystone Books  \nAn imprint of D&M Publishers Inc.  \n2323 Quebec Street, Suite 201  \nVancouver BC Canada V5T 4S7  \nwww.greystonebooks.com\n\nPublished simultaneously in the United Kingdom by Mainstream Publishing Company (Edinburgh) Ltd  \n7 Albany Street  \nEdinburgh UK EH1 3UG\n\nCataloguing data available from Library and Archives Canada   \nISBN 978-1-55365-440-7 (pbk.)  \nISBN 978-1-55365-985-3 (ebook)\n\nCover design by Peter Cocking  \nCover photograph by Francois Lochon\/Gamma Rapho\/Getty Images  \nDistributed in the U.S. by Publishers Group West \nTHIS BOOK IS DEDICATED TO\n\nBarbara, La grande chanteuse Am\u00e1lia Rodrigues,   \nJoey Stefano, Dorothy Squires, Henry, Eden, Fritzi, Adeline   \nand Les Enfants de Novembre\nN'oublie pas . . .\n\nLa vie sans amis\n\nc'est comme un jardin sans fleurs\n\n# ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS\n\nWRITING THIS BOOK WOULD NOT HAVE BEEN POSSIBLE had it not been for the inspiration, criticisms and love of that select group of individuals who, whether they be in this world or the next, I will always regard as my true family and autre coeur.\n\nBarbara, Irene Bevan, Marlene Dietrich, Ren\u00e9 Chevalier, Axel Dotti, Dorothy Squires and Roger Normand, que vous dormez en paix. Lucette Chevalier, Jacqueline Danno, H\u00e9l\u00e8ne Delavault, Tony Griffin, Betty and G\u00e9rard Garmain, Annick Roux, John and Anne Taylor, Terry Sanderson, Charley Marouani, David and Sally Bolt. Also a very special mention for Am\u00e1lia Rodrigues, Joey Stefano, those hiboux, fadistas and amis de foutre who happened along the way, and mes enfants perdus.\n\nVery many thanks to Bill Campbell and the munificent team at Mainstream. Likewise my agent Guy Rose and his lovely wife, Alex. Also to my wife, Jeanne, for putting up with my bad moods and for still being the keeper of my soul.\n\nAnd finally a grand chapeau bas to Elizabeth, for having lived it.\n\nDavid Bret\n\n# CONTENTS\n\none Mother's Little Dividend\n\ntwo Move Over, Shirley Temple\n\nthree With This Fist, I Thee Wed\n\nfour English without Tears\n\nfive A Date with Jimmy and Rock\n\nsix Lizzie Schwartzkopf, My Jewish Broad!\n\nseven Pass the Parcel, Mike\n\neight The Launch of the $40 Million Bomb\n\nnine That Intemperate Vamp\n\nten The Big Hangover: Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?\n\neleven Duds and Diamonds\n\ntwelve From Playboy's Muse to Farmer's Wife\n\nthirteen In the Footsteps of Tallulah\n\nfourteen Goodbye Rock . . . Hello Larry\n\nfifteen Saint Elizabeth\n\nsixteenThe Fading Star\n\nEpilogue\n\n_Photographs_\n\nAppendixThe Films of Elizabeth Taylor\n\nBibliography and Sources  \nIndex\n\n# INTRODUCTION\n\nELIZABETH TAYLOR WILL GO DOWN IN HISTORY FOR making more turkeys than acclaimed films, for having an on-screen voice that more than frequently grates and for rarely maintaining the acting standards of her co-stars. Additionally, she will be recalled as one of three Hollywood creations who made the successful transition from precocious child prodigy to adult movie star \u2013 the others were Judy Garland and Natalie Wood \u2013 not by talent alone, but by maternal push. Not that this constant surveillance and carping from the wings fashioned lasting success for these women. Judy's mother was an ogre who actively endorsed the enforced feeding of uppers and downers to keep the show on the road \u2013 a selfish action that directly contributed to the early demise of her daughter, something that Ethel Gumm was not around to witness. Maria Gurdin, Natalie Wood's mother, was considerably worse, possessed of an overwhelming ego and diminished mental capacity, which caused her to genuinely believe that her machinations were for her daughter's good. Sara Taylor was a combination of the two. And who may deny, sifting through the evidence, that she was more than partly responsible \u2013 assisted by the negative elements of the Hollywood dream factory \u2013 for her daughter's instability, which threw open the floodgates to a whole catalogue of calamities, suicide attempts, collapsed marriages and sabotaged relationships?\n\nAlthough one cannot doubt that without these ubiquitous Svengalis none of these young women would have made it to the top so quickly, if at all, one cannot ignore the irreparable damage they inflicted on their fragile charges, whose whole lives would be dragged out under enormous clouds of impending gloom. Montgomery Clift, Joan Crawford, Errol Flynn and Elvis Presley may also have endured monster mothers, but they knew how to fight back. Elizabeth Taylor never found the strength to.\n\nThe film critic Alexander Walker called her a born survivor, but, as will be seen, this was only partly true. Despite the many genuine concerns about her health, she alone orchestrated the weapons of self-destruction throughout her entire life, deliberately aggravating situations brought about by her own recklessness and folly, often solely for the purpose of contenting the media and keeping her name in the headlines. This she did better than anything witnessed on the screen.\n\nElizabeth Taylor derived some sort of ghoulish pleasure from home-based drama and self-inflicted adversity, and, as such, remains the prima donna of the world's show-business elite. Her story all too often makes for grim reading, but it is nevertheless a fascinating one, from which absolutely no punches have been pulled.\n\n# ONE\n\nMOTHER'S LITTLE DIVIDEND\n\nELIZABETH TAYLOR WAS BORN INTO MONEY, AND THROUGHOUT her entire life never had to compromise or go without. Her father, Francis Lenn Taylor, was born in Springfield, Illinois, in 1897 but raised in Arkansas, Kansas, by parents who ran an express-mail and messenger service. As a youth, he fell for aspiring actress Sara Viola Warmbrodt, one year his senior and the daughter of a local German \u00e9migr\u00e9 laundry manager.\n\nAny initial romance between the two was, however, short-lived. In November 1918, when Francis turned 21, he was offered an apprenticeship with entrepreneur Howard Young, his uncle on his father's side. Young, who hailed from St Louis, had amassed much of his fortune from shrewd oil investments and ploughed this back into a successful art-dealing business. The following year, he and Francis opened the Howard Young Gallery in Manhattan.\n\nSara, meanwhile, had left home to study acting in Kansas City and changed her name to Sara Sothern. By 1922, she was playing a minor role in a Los Angeles production of magician\u2013illusionist Channing Pollock's The Sign on the Door (1921). Pollock next put her into The Fool (1925), playing the part of 15-year-old Crippled Mary Margaret \u2013 aka Mary Magdalene \u2013 in this modern version of the St Francis of Assisi story. The critical panning this received coincided with Sara's meeting with the great Russian actress and silent-movie icon Alla Nazimova, a close friend of Rudolph Valentino and the doyenne of Hollywood's closeted lesbian clique.\n\nThat Sara had even been acknowledged by this powerful, feisty woman almost certainly means that she would have been invited to join Nazimova's infamous lesbian 'sewing circle'. This met regularly at The Garden of Alla, Nazimova's mansion on Sunset Boulevard, where the 'baritone babes' included both of Valentino's wives, Lili Damita (who later married Errol Flynn) and Dolly Wilde (Oscar's niece, described by the hostess as 'the only Wilde who likes women'). Even so, Sara's membership of Nazimova's circle must have been fleeting for, despite its dreadful reviews, The Fool opened on Broadway at the end of the year. Here, the lead was played by James Kirkwood, already a name in the New York gay community \u2013 many years later, Sara's daughter would appear in his There Must Be a Pony (1986).\n\nIn September 1926, The Fool opened at London's Apollo Theatre. The sensation in the British capital at this time was the outrageous Tallulah Bankhead, another Nazimova aficionado affectionately known as the 'Queen of the Gallery Girls' \u2013 in other words, London's 'uncloseted' lesbian community. Tallulah was in the middle of a nine-month run of another piece of hokum, The Creaking Chair. For a while, she and Sara competed for the attention of the Sapphic Sisterhood, an organisation run by a woman named Fat Sophie. Any rivalry ended, however, when Tallulah bobbed her famous, lovely waist-length hair one evening before going on stage. Her 'galleryites' very quickly followed suit, and Fat Sophie set her gang onto Sara to 'crop' her outside the Apollo \u2013 their revenge, they said, on this fake for attempting to emulate their heroine. When The Fool closed in March 1925, Sara returned to New York. Several flops followed, including Arabesque, an unlikely pairing with Bela Lugosi. It was here, early in 1926, when she was thinking of giving up the stage, that Sara bumped into her former beau, Francis Lenn Taylor.\n\nTheirs was a 'lavender' courtship, clearly setting the stall for things to come. Photographs of Sara Sothern taken at the time in The Little Spitfire, her latest play, show her with close-cropped hair and looking decidedly butch \u2013 a true prot\u00e9g\u00e9e of Nazimova. Francis, at 28, was already a promiscuous homosexual. Why the couple decided to date may have baffled their friends: even in those days, homosexuality was less frowned upon in artistic\/theatrical circles than in Hollywood, so neither would have encountered serious problems pursuing their respective careers. Howard Young, however, had offered Francis the management of a new gallery about to open in London and had apparently made it clear that if his nephew was going to relocate overseas and extend the company's good name, it would be as a family man. Naturally, he chose Sara to be his bride, and when she married him at the end of 1926, it was on the proviso that she give up the boards for ever. For the rest of their marriage, Sara would resent this and never miss out on an opportunity to remind her husband who wore the trousers in the Taylor household.\n\nThe Taylors, like their daughter, never did things by halves. The Great Depression, felt by much of the world, did not affect them at all. According to an interview she granted The Ladies Home Journal in February 1954, Sara claimed that she had arrived in London in February 1929, two months ahead of Francis, to go house hunting. This might well have been one of her 'tall tales', one to hammer home the fact that she was boss. Another was the description of the property she settled for: Sara might have seen 'tulips almost three-feet high, forget-me-nots and yellow lavender violas', but it is unlikely that there had been 'flaming snapdragons and roses' in early March.\n\nIn fact, it was the politician Victor Cazalet, who had met Sara during the London run of The Fool, who found the Taylors their first home: 11 Hampstead Way was a two-bedroom Victorian cottage, backing onto the heath. Using this as a base, the pair travelled back and forth to the Continent, snapping up valuable works of art for well-heeled clients. And when Sara introduced her husband to the wealthy 38-year-old bachelor famed for his stance on anti-Semitism, it was love at first sight. Not only did Cazalet become Francis's lover, he became the Taylors' unofficial sponsor \u2013 with Sara more than willing to ignore what they might have been getting up to in private so long as Cazalet was helping Francis to feather their nest by introducing them to all the right connections.\n\nWhen Sara learned that she was pregnant towards the end of 1928, she made up her mind not to be a regular housewife \u2013 a characteristic that would be handed down to her daughter. The Hampstead home might have been on the small side, but she hired a cook, a maid and a chauffeur, and upon the birth of her first child in June 1929 \u2013 baptised Howard in honour of the Taylors' benevolent uncle \u2013 she hired a nurse to look after him.\n\nNaturally, the Hampstead house was by now overcrowded, and the Taylors bought Heathwood, a large mock-Tudor property on nearby Wildwood Road, courtesy of Uncle Howard. The house had around a dozen rooms, servants' quarters, a tennis court and access to a private wood. Some 50 years down the line, their daughter, unable to bear anyone else having something that had once been hers, failed in an attempt to buy it back.\n\nThe Taylors socialised with the St John's Wood\u2013Chelsea artists' clique, becoming friends with Laura Knight, Augustus John and John Flanagan, Gracie Fields's paramour with whom she had recently set up home in Augustus John's former studio. Leaving little Howard at home, Francis and Sara travelled extensively to auctions at home and abroad, snapping up Old Masters for the gallery, which were sold at a huge profit. This stopped in the autumn of 1931 when Sara discovered that she was pregnant again. On 27 February 1932, she gave birth to a daughter, Elizabeth Rosamond \u2013 the first name in honour of both her grandmothers (Sara's mother had recently died), the second after Grandmother Taylor's maiden name.\n\nThe little girl appeared to have been born with a cowl and was suffering from hypertrichosis \u2013 a coating of fine, dark facial hair, though this disappeared by the time she reached three months. The condition, of course, might have been pure invention, enabling Sara when persistently reminded in later years that Elizabeth was far more beautiful than she had ever been to say something along the lines of, 'Well, she wasn't always so!' In early pictures, Elizabeth's eyes, an unusual shade of violet, appear sunken in a head that looks too large for her body on account of her shoulders being too narrow. Neither does she appear to have been baptised: as a half-hearted Christian Scientist, Sara disapproved of such 'rituals'. Victor Cazalet, Francis's amour \u2013 and probably Sara's too \u2013 insisted upon being Elizabeth's godfather \u2013 in an unofficial capacity, owing to the lack of ceremony \u2013 with the added advantage that he was also a Christian Scientist.\n\nWhen Cazalet moved to Grand Swifts, a magnificent retreat near Cranbrooke in the heart of the Kent countryside, he loaned the Taylors Little Swallows, a 15-room Tudor house on the estate, which they visited most weekends. He also plied Elizabeth with expensive gifts, including a pony for her fifth birthday, which she baptised Betty. This set a precedent in her life that material possessions were all that were required for a person to prove their love and worth. Cazalet also supported Sara's aspirations for her daughter's career on the stage \u2013 her theory being that with the right amount of push Elizabeth might one day achieve the goals she had once set for herself. Movies were not even considered: in Sara's opinion, whilst stage actors represented status, movie stars were vulgar.\n\nSara always maintained that Elizabeth and Howard were enrolled at the grandly titled Madame Vacami Dance Academy \u2013 actually run by an unglamorous Mrs Rankin from an attic in Knightsbridge. According to research conducted by Alexander Walker (Elizabeth, 1990), the academy denied that the pair had ever been there. Similarly, Sara boasted that Elizabeth had appeared at the London Hippodrome in a 'command performance' before the Duchess of York (later the Queen Mother) and the Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret. Elizabeth herself recalled in her memoirs (Elizabeth Taylor, 1965), with typical exaggeration, 'the isolation, the hugeness, the feeling of space and no end to space', of her alleged debut stage performance \u2013 it was a detailed memory considering she had been just four years old at the time. And, again, it was untrue, as was almost certainly Sara's admission that she had been a guest at George VI's coronation a few years later. As for the 'recital', this was no more than an end-of-term concert at the local parish hall.\n\nSara had already placed Howard at the Arnold House Preparatory School, and in September 1937 she enrolled Elizabeth at Byron House in London's Highgate. No record survives as to how she fared with her lessons or which, if any, were her favourite subjects \u2013 only that she lived for the weekends when she could escape to the house in Kent and her pony. This idyll ended, however, as the war clouds gathered over Europe. In the spring of 1938, with Victor Cazalet footing the bill, Sara and her children were put aboard the SS Manhattan bound for New York. During the voyage, very much against her better judgement, Sara permitted them to watch their first movie: The Little Princess (1939), starring wunderkind Shirley Temple. The trio spent several days in the city, then travelled by train to Pasadena, where Sara's father had a chicken ranch. A few months later, having tied up his business interests in London and bid a presumably tearful farewell to Victor Cazalet, Francis joined them there.\n\nFor such self-appointed society folk as the Taylors considered themselves to be, a modest chicken farm was regarded as an inappropriate base from which to conduct their affairs, and in the spring of 1940 they relocated to southern California, where Sara had formerly nurtured her own dreams of stardom. Here, she set about fashioning her children's futures \u2013 though there was no question that Elizabeth would always remain her favourite. Sara and Francis bought a decent-sized bungalow in Pacific Palisades, within a stone's throw of the ocean, and rented a suite at the Chateau Elys\u00e9e Hotel, where Francis opened a gallery. Here, he set about amassing a sizeable fortune \u2013 selling 'works of art' he had mostly purloined in London to gullible clients who might not have recognised a Laura Knight or an Augustus John if it had jumped up and hit them. John, in particular, had been in the habit of making dozens of preliminary sketches before starting on a major work \u2013 most of these he screwed up and tossed into the waste bin. Initially, Francis had visited John's studio with a genuine interest in securing the artist's paintings to sell on to his clients \u2013 but towards the end of the Taylors' residence in London, he had gone there to rummage through the rubbish. What sketches had been salvageable had been ironed, framed and crated up for the gallery in America \u2013 with the artist completely unaware that he had been effectively ripped off by a friend. The deception had not stopped there: with many European Jewish socialites going into exile to evade Nazi persecution at that time, particularly in Germany and France, Francis had 'relieved' them of their art treasures, buying them for a song and selling them to wealthy Americans at a vast mark-up. Many years later, one of these would cause Elizabeth considerable embarrassment.\n\nElizabeth and Howard were ensconced at a typical Hollywood school, where education came second to their parents' hobnobbing with the rich and famous who turned up at the gates each evening to collect their offspring. In London, this 'tiresome' task had been assigned to the Taylors' nanny or butler. Here, however, Sara needed to be seen and even learned to drive so that the other parents would not think her socially beneath them. Regular scholars would have hour-long lessons in mathematics, geography and English, but these were often substantially reduced to fit in the 'essentials' of Tinsel Town's education system for Elizabeth: photography sessions, wardrobe and make-up trips, etc.\n\nSara had always counted upon one or both of her children to provide meal tickets for the future. She had infiltrated London society, working her way into parties and receptions if invitations had not been forthcoming, hoping that Elizabeth or Howard might marry appropriately and elevate the Taylors to the upper classes, where Sara was convinced they belonged. When Howard began displaying rebellious qualities at an early age, Sara concentrated her efforts solely on Elizabeth and applied the same tactics in Hollywood as she had in London, being far more interested in her pretty ebony-haired, violet-eyed daughter becoming the next Deanna Durbin or Shirley Temple than she was in Elizabeth getting good marks at school. Therefore, instead of politicians and the landed gentry, Sara homed in on Hollywood's 'royalty' \u2013 working her way through the ranks, she would, one way or another, seduce producers, directors, cameramen and, eventually, one or two of the moguls themselves.\n\nFirst, Sara decided that the family would have to make the sacrifices necessary for social elevation. Francis, very much under the thumb and to all intents and purposes enjoying being dictated to by this horrendously manipulative martinet, transferred his gallery to the Beverly Hills Hotel on Sunset Boulevard, and no sooner had the crates been unpacked at the Pacific Palisades bungalow than the family upped sticks and moved to a villa on the more fashionable Elm Drive \u2013 Elizabeth's home until her first marriage. She and Howard were installed in the more upmarket Hawthorne Elementary, a snooty establishment where they were ribbed on account of their 'clipped colonial' accents. Howard ignored the taunts or sometimes employed his fists to restore decorum. Elizabeth, who had to be the centre of attention even then, mocked them by affecting a shrill Southern accent, which, frequently and annoyingly, would crop up in her films.\n\nSara enrolled Elizabeth for after-school song-and-dance lessons. By hook or crook, she acquired her an audition with MGM producer John Considine, who had scored a big hit with Boys Town (1938) and had recently completed Third Finger, Left Hand (1940) with Myrna Loy. Exercising a brief routine, Elizabeth must have impressed him, because Considine arranged for her to audition for the Messiah himself \u2013 the all-powerful Louis B. Mayer, who had set Judy Garland on the Yellow Brick Road towards immortality. Mayer was decidedly put off by Elizabeth's tuneless voice \u2013 although this was not a major problem, as she could be dubbed by someone else \u2013 but still offered her a contract to be renewed every six months, providing that she lived up to the studio's expectations. Her starting salary was to be $100 a week, a tidy sum for a nine-year-old girl. Sara rejected the offer. A recent client at Francis's gallery had been Andrea Berens, the fianc\u00e9e of Universal's chairman J. Cheever Cowden, who had purchased several of the purloined Augustus Johns. Sara soon inveigled an introduction to Cowden himself, an audition was arranged and Universal offered Elizabeth the same contract as MGM but with a salary of $200 a week. Sara was also placed on the studio payroll as her daughter's chaperone\/adviser, obligatory in those days when the contractually bound was a minor.\n\nSara's victory over Louis B. Mayer was pyrrhic, because although Elizabeth was on a higher salary, Universal had a glut of child stars at that time and did not know what to do with her, which of course prompts the question: why sign her up in he first place? She was given a small part in There's One Born Every Minute (1942) \u2013 heading the credits was child star Carl 'Alfalfa' Switzer, unfairly regarded as the first actor to suffer the 'Liz Taylor curse'. In 1959, Switzer, whose speciality as a member of 'Our Gang' was singing off-key, would be shot dead in a drugs-and-drink-fuelled brawl, aged 40. Elizabeth's film with Switzer was released at end of 1942, by which time Universal had dropped her on account of Sara Taylor's persistent on-set meddling.\n\nIntent on making Elizabeth's a household name, Sara unwisely solicited the attentions of Louella Parsons and Hedda Hopper, Hollywood's arch-rival gossip columnists \u2013 the idea being that if one of these influential ladies reviewed Elizabeth favourably, fame and fortune would be sure to come her way. Louella refused to attend Elizabeth's next audition, claiming that she had better things to do. As for Hopper, there appears to have been some sort of link with Francis Taylor's benefactor\/lover Victor Cazalet. Some sources suggest that Cazalet's sister Thelma had befriended Hopper during her trips to London \u2013 others that Cazalet had once had an affair with the columnist's ex-husband, stage actor William DeWolf Hopper. Sara maintained that one of the Cazalets had furnished her with a letter of introduction to Hedda Hopper. However, the likeliest theory is that Sara approached her, taking advantage of the fact that she was a friend of a friend who ironically might just prove an invaluable ally. Hopper was kind enough to invite mother and daughter to her home, but she was not impressed. She observed in her autobiography The Whole Truth and Nothing But (Doubleday, 1963) of the pre-teen Taylor vocals, 'Sara had never gotten over Broadway, and she wanted to have a glamorous life again through her child . . . It was one of the most painful ordeals I have ever witnessed.'\n\nLuck appears to have been on Elizabeth's side \u2013 largely because Hopper did not refer to this 'ordeal' in her syndicated column \u2013 during the summer of 1942 when Louis B. Mayer was having problems finding a little girl with an 'English rose' accent for his debut exercise in Technicolor, Lassie Come Home (1943), which was about to go into production. Mayer's first choice had been Marie Flynn, the soon-to-be-forgotten child prodigy who had appeared with Ingrid Bergman in Intermezzo (1939). During her screen test, however, she was deemed 'mousy-looking and unphotogenic for color'. Mayer, or more likely one of his assistants, remembered Elizabeth and dispatched one of his lackeys to sweet-talk her mother into letting him have her. Elizabeth was offered the part without making a screen test (the four other unnamed child actresses who did tests failed because they could not do English accents) but was compelled to take a drop in salary. This, she later said, had been worth it for the opportunity making the film gave her to form what would be a lifelong friendship with its star Roddy McDowall.\n\nLondon-born fellow evacuee Roddy McDowall had made his name as a child star in John Halifax, Gentleman (1938) three years before taking Hollywood by storm in How Green was My Valley (1941). He would be the first in a long line of closeted gay actors who would regard Elizabeth Taylor as some sort of protectress\/surrogate-mother figure. Cynics have ignobly dubbed her a 'fag hag', but this title is unfair. Despite her selfishness towards many, her flighty reputation, her neurasthenia and her inability to hold herself together at times, for these men she proved nothing less than a rock and a loyal and discreet tower of strength, and as such commanded untold respect from the world's gay community. Even the small section of this community who disliked her could not help but admire her for the unselfish qualities she displayed in her tireless rallying to raise funds for AIDS research. Also, one must not lose sight of the fact that in the days of the intensely homophobic studio system, she too ran the risk of being ostracised by the film community by befriending gay actors and sharing in their 'secret' lives. That this sort of thing was still prevalent was brought to the public's attention, along with her loathing of hypocrisy, in September 1992 when Elizabeth pronounced on Whoopi Goldberg's television show, 'The creativity of homosexuals has made so much possible in this town. Take out the homosexuals, and there's no Hollywood.' The next month, she would go one step further and attack the US government on account of the biggest health crisis to hit the country since the flu epidemic during the early part of that century. 'I don't think President Bush is doing anything at all about AIDS,' she told an International AIDS summit in Amsterdam. 'In fact, I'm not sure he even knows how to spell AIDS!'\n\nLassie Come Home, directed by Fred Wilcox, was a smash at the US box office, and even more so with British audiences who welcomed the heartrending boy-and-dog scenario as an antidote to the horrors of war. Elizabeth played Priscilla, the granddaughter of the Duke of Rudling (Nigel Bruce, aka Dr Watson in the Sherlock Holmes films), to whom Lassie is sold, the story centring around her flight back to her rightful owner Joe Carraclough (McDowall). It spawned the first in a long line of Lassie movies. (The lead was played by a male dog called Pal, who earned more than the rest of the cast added together, Hollywood's biggest canine star since Rin Tin Tin.) In no way can this film be attributed to making Elizabeth a name \u2013 she appeared in four scenes only, was on screen for ten minutes, and was not seen in trailers and on playbills \u2013 but, as part of a hugely successful package comprising the cream of the British thespian crop (Donald Crisp, Elsa Lanchester, Nigel Bruce, Dame May Whitty, Edmund Gwenn), Elizabeth was assured of being retained on the Metro roster, albeit in minuscule letters.\n\nElizabeth was not yet a star, as she and her mother liked to think when recalling the period, just one of any number of disposable kiddie actresses at a time when there was a surfeit of these. Because she was closer to the bottom of the MGM list than the top, and because they had nothing for her to do after Lassie Come Home, she was loaned out to Twentieth Century Fox \u2013 the studio that, two decades hence, her foibles would come close to bankrupting.\n\nFox had begun shooting Jane Eyre (1944) with Joan Fontaine as the adult Jane and Orson Welles as Rochester. Though her name does not figure in the credits, she acquitted herself extremely well as Helen Burns, the girl who befriends Jane. For once, Sara was justified in complaining that such a stellar performance was not recompensed by her daughter's name being added to the credits (though today Elizabeth's name frequently appears above that of Peggy Ann Garner), but her protestations backfired on her. The director Robert Stevenson complained to Louis B. Mayer, who issued Sara with the first of several verbal warnings when Elizabeth returned to MGM.\n\nThe next film was The White Cliffs of Dover (1944), a tribute to British wartime heroism headed by Irene Dunne and Alan Marshall \u2013 a non-event so far as Elizabeth's contribution was concerned. She appeared briefly in just two scenes, and, as if to punish her further for her mother's interference, Mayer ensured that, once more, her name did not appear in the credits.\n\n# TWO\n\nMOVE OVER,   \nSHIRLEY TEMPLE\n\nPRECISELY HOW ELIZABETH CAME TO BE GIVEN THIRD lead in National Velvet (1944) has been swallowed by Hollywood folklore. Sara Taylor claimed that it was on account of her daughter's rave reviews for Lassie Come Home, but there had been none. MGM talent scout Lucille Ryman Carroll claimed in an interview with People magazine in November 1987 that Elizabeth had stormed into her office and announced, 'You're wasting your time auditioning anyone else. I'm going to be playing Velvet Brown!' One finds it hard to imagine her getting away with such audacity. A third, more plausible, explanation appeared in several movie magazines: Carroll and the producer, Pandro S. Berman, had taken Elizabeth's riding skills into consideration and concluded that it would be easier to offer her the part, rather than train someone else. Luckily, they made a good choice, though the back injury she sustained falling off her horse during rehearsals would plague her for the rest of her life because it was not properly tended to at the time.\n\nBased on the novel by Enid Bagnold, the script for National Velvet had been commissioned by Paramount for 30-year-old Katharine Hepburn back in 1935, but it was, not surprisingly, rejected by her (Velvet Brown is only 12 years old) and subsequently sold to MGM, who had kept it on ice since. The story is far-fetched, though the film itself provided an entertaining touch of whimsy for post-war audiences eager to embrace a world hopefully cleansed of oppression. It is marred only by the occasional 'British' accents of some of the leads: Anne Revere is not too bad and Mickey Rooney kept his American accent, because he was in the middle of his Andy Hardy period and MGM did not want his fans to be confused, but the Bronx twang of child star Jackie 'Butch' Jenkins is dreadful.\n\nThe unprecedented success of National Velvet led to Louis B. Mayer upping Elizabeth's salary to $200 a week \u2013 and, bizarrely for a man whose stinginess was legendary, this was not her only reward. Mayer brought in an interior designer who fashioned her a National Velvet bedroom, complete with the most expensive riding equipment money could buy and a wooden horse. Naturally, this came in handy for photo shoots. And, finally, Mayer paid her an unprecedented $15,000 bonus, adding to the speculation that, as had happened with Judy Garland after The Wizard of Oz (1939), this acknowledged connoisseur of underaged girls might have had an ulterior motive.\n\nMayer was certainly acting with shrewdness, because one of the terms for her receiving the bonus was that her current contract would be extended by another year, binding her to him for what was anticipated would be the remainder of her childhood before puberty set in. As for Elizabeth, she had a condition of her own before permitting Sara to sign on the dotted line: she wanted to keep the horse King, with whom she had bonded on the picture. Mayer acquiesced, and photographs of her being presented with the horse \u2013 no longer of use to the studio because he was lame \u2013 flooded the press.\n\nIn October 1943, to counteract one journalist's comment that the horse was far too big for Elizabeth, a statement was issued to the Hollywood Reporter, purporting to have come from her:\n\nHe would never hurt me. You don't have to worry about King when you get on his back \u2013 you just leave everything to him, and I think that he likes to know that I leave it to him, that he's the boss, and I trust him.\n\nThese would almost certainly have been Sara's words, but they presented an interesting analogy with the way in which Elizabeth regarded the men in her life in years to come. Similarly, cynics would draw comparisons between the way she related to the loss of her animals \u2013 the speed with which each 'irreplaceable' furry creature was replaced \u2013 and the way in which she got over her break-ups with her small army of husbands and lovers.\n\nThis love of four-legged creatures would be further documented in a Life magazine feature of February 1945 \u2013 who could resist a cute little girl cuddling up to one of her many pets, at that time a kitten, three dogs and a chipmunk? The chipmunk, the first in a series all baptised Nibbles, became a minor celebrity: first, with a cameo appearance in Courage of Lassie (1946); then when a New York publisher brought out Nibbles and Me, a 77-page tome recounting the story of Elizabeth's friendship with the little fellow(s). Her name appeared on the title page, although it is unlikely that she contributed to it other than to pose sweetly with her cherished pet. The book was essentially a gimmick cooked up by Sara and MGM's publicity department to promote the child star and her latest movies \u2013 location shots from Courage of Lassie and National Velvet were included.\n\nNibbles and Me was serialised in Photoplay, and much was made of the fact that Elizabeth had it drilled into her by her mother that tears were useless when one of the chipmunks died. Sara explained that death did not exist so long as the departed loved one was retained in the memory, according to the edicts of Christian Science. Elizabeth would recall her mother's words many times over the years \u2013 only to go to pieces each time she lost someone dear, frequently, it has to be said, for the benefit of the media.\n\nOne syndicated column, whose contributor perhaps wisely opted to remain anonymous, labelled Elizabeth 'a modern-day St Francis of Assisi', having been alerted by Sara that her daughter was what would today be called a horse-whisperer. 'She whinnies like a horse,' observed the Los Angeles Times's Louis Berg. 'And she also chirps like a squirrel and makes bird noises.' MGM attempted to capitalise on this by purchasing the screen rights to William Henry Hudson's 1904 novel Green Mansions, offering her the central role of Rima. Accepting this would have been a terrible mistake. Though she genuinely possessed the innocent appeal required to play the timid forest girl who converses with the fauna and falls in love with a handsome stranger, she was already too voluptuous and, through no fault of her own, would have turned the part into a joke. Sara realised this. The project was shelved until 1954, when Vincente Minnelli tried to foist it upon the equally unsuitable Italian siren Pier Angeli. It was eventually filmed in 1959 when Mel Ferrer directed his then wife Audrey Hepburn in the definitive portrayal opposite Anthony Perkins.\n\nTo make up for Elizabeth losing out on Rima, and for the benefit of those unfamiliar with America's latest pre-pubescent sensation, an 'official' biography was syndicated in columns across America in the hope of someone coming forward with a role as close to 'real life' as possible. In much the same way as Tasmanian scallywag Errol Flynn had been reinvented as an all-round sporting jock from Ireland, so Elizabeth became a wunderkind talent plucked from the London Blitz \u2013 one who had danced before the king of England and who had also been amazed to learn of her ability to communicate with animals. It was pure hogwash, of course, but peacetime readers lapped up ever syrupy sentence \u2013 although the hoped-for role never came.\n\nAs had happened with Joan Crawford and Judy Garland, Elizabeth was welcomed into Louis B. Mayer's 'family circle' and invited to call him 'Papa'. However, away from the studio with her real family, Elizabeth's life was anything but convivial. Francis, who was involved with Gilbert Adrian \u2013 MGM's chief costume designer since 1927 and in a lavender marriage with actress Janet Gaynor at that time \u2013 moved into a hotel, taking Howard with him, whilst Sara was sleeping with director Michael Curtiz, whom she had met on the set of Life with Father (1947), all in the interest of elevating her daughter's position on the Tinsel Town ladder.\n\nSara is also known to have set her sights on Louis B. Mayer himself, no doubt unaware that she was a generation too old for his tastes. Her ardour dimmed, however, when she learned that Mayer had denounced her as 'gutter-class', though it was Elizabeth who committed the unpardonable sin of squaring up to the messiah. Barging into his office unannounced, she told him exactly what she thought of him, and before she slammed the door behind her, she yelled, 'You and your studio can go to hell!' Mayer did not fire her, but for the rest of his life, he and Elizabeth loathed one another: she never entered his office again and only spoke to him under duress.\n\nMayer, of course, knew the monetary value of his temperamental young star and, cashing in on the latest canine phenomenon, gave her a part in Courage of Lassie \u2013 a misnomer if ever there was one, for the 'Lassie' in question, still played by Pal, was called Bill! Like its predecessors, the film was shot in glorious Technicolor and showcased the famous collie's talents as an Allied agent-combatant more capable of outsmarting the Nazis than its human counterparts, despite suffering from shellshock. Starring Frank Morgan and Tom Drake, it was a big success \u2013 but again not on account of Elizabeth's contribution, which was minimal and overshadowed by her quadruped co-star, as it had been in the last Lassie vehicle.\n\nElizabeth was next whisked through a quartet of kitchen-sink dramas in an attempt to draw as much adolescent mileage out of her as possible \u2013 just in case her star burned itself out with the advent of adulthood, as had happened with other Hollywood child prodigies. Louis B. Mayer had delayed this in Judy Garland's case by ordering her to plait her hair and strap down her budding breasts. Sara was having none of this and began pestering the studio to turn Elizabeth into a young woman at a time when she was still legally regarded as a child, well aware that this would bring protests from the moralists. By the age of 15, Elizabeth had had more than her share of on-screen kisses and a betrothal \u2013 whilst off the screen, Sara fiercely guarded her morals and refused to let her out of her sight for a single moment. If anyone walked up to Elizabeth and asked a question, the reply always came from Sara.\n\nElizabeth was promoted as the home-loving girl who respected her parents and who eschewed the bright lights in favour of helping Mama with her chores. Photographed in an apron and rubber gloves, she could be seen 'labouring' over the stove or hunched over the sink, contemplating the dirty pots. The fake scenarios, arguably the closest Elizabeth ever got to doing actual housework, took place on a film set but were swallowed by the fans, who also clipped snaps taken of her at 'high-school parties', convinced that she was just as normal as they were \u2013 save that that these too were staged on a back lot and the 'students' were young bit-part players and extras.\n\nSara's affair with Michael Curtiz paid off. Life with Father, in which Elizabeth worked as a loan-out to Warner Brothers, was an Irene Dunne\u2013William Powell comedy set in 1880s New York. Elizabeth made a nuisance of herself, courtesy of Sara, by being frequently absent during shooting. It was the unwritten law of some studios in those days that A-list actresses were permitted to leave the set during their menstrual cycle, providing this had been squared with the on-set nurse, who was not averse to examining them to ensure they were telling the truth. So far as the astonishingly naive outside world was concerned, adolescents such as Shirley Temple, Judy Garland and Elizabeth were 'late developers' who did not yet have periods \u2013 the moguls' way of convincing the public that they were not yet watching young women. Sara took Elizabeth home for the least little thing \u2013 a slight cough, aching feet, a pimple, a single sneeze \u2013 resulting in questions being asked by Warner Brothers' insurers, who, stupidly believing that teenage girls only 'fell sick' once a month, wanted to know why she was having 'periods' at the rate of one a week.\n\nIn keeping with her fake studio biography, Elizabeth was not allowed to date and was not permitted to venture anywhere \u2013 not even the bathroom \u2013 unless chaperoned. Though they did not employ the actual word, the movie magazines reminded their readers that, despite the on-screen amours, Elizabeth was very much a virgin. Little girls who smiled a lot and posed for photographs with fluffy animals were not supposed to even know about sex, let alone indulge in it. Such was the naivety of cinemagoers. Therefore, when Elizabeth was observed to be developing breasts, MGM 'extended' her childhood by casting her in Cynthia (1947) with George Murphy and Mary Astor. Promoted as 'a teenage Camille', she played Cynthia Bishop, the consumptive, shy girl who cannot have the puppy she so desires because of her allergies \u2013 but whose overprotective parents do allow to go on her first date with a young marine, who escorts her to the end-of-term prom.\n\nElizabeth got on well with the famously feisty Mary Astor, but the feeling was not mutual. Astor found her scheming, even back then, and could not help comparing her with the much more amenable Judy Garland, with whom she had appeared in Meet Me in St Louis (1944). 'Judy was warm and affectionate and exuberant,' she wrote in her memoir, A Life on Film (Delacorte, 1971). 'Elizabeth was cool and slightly superior . . . There was a look in those violet eyes that was somewhat calculating. It was as though she knew exactly what she wanted and was quite sure of getting it.'\n\nTo reassure the public that, like herself, Elizabeth's character was not flighty, the young man who swept her off her feet in the film was James Lydon, her beau from Life with Father. As the gangly, inarticulate youth in the Henry Aldrich series, Lydon had been America's favourite wartime teenager after Andy Hardy. Since then, he had matured into an inordinately handsome, hunky young man. Even so, where American audiences were concerned, Lydon was still the kind of boy no one would associate with leading a girl astray.\n\nThat Elizabeth was thinking about such matters was, however, evident on 13 July 1947 when she appeared on Louella Parsons' radio show for a 'modest' fee of $3,000. Parsons was aware that the Taylors had separated and that Elizabeth had been the centre of attention at Roddy McDowall's 18th birthday party the previous September \u2013 dancing with several older men. 'Boys of my own age are so young,' she told Louella. She also refused to acknowledge her parents' split \u2013 Elizabeth claimed that her father was away from home on business and that Sara wanted to join him but that she was too busy chaperoning her back and forth to the studio. And, Louella wanted to know, what were her aspirations for the future? Elizabeth's response was that two things were on her mind: becoming a great actress and ensnaring a husband. She did not add that she was not old enough to marry but did give the impression that any husband would do so long as he spirited her away from her overbearing mother.\n\nThe fact that Louella Parsons 'overlooked' the Taylors' marital problems in her syndicated column perturbed MGM: whatever scandal or crisis Louella failed to pick up on, they knew, Hedda Hopper almost certainly would. Both hacks were therefore fed the story that Francis was away on business, discussing the opening of a new gallery with Howard Young. When Louis B. Mayer heard of the split, he decided to take no chances and opted to put an even greater distance between them \u2013 hoping to achieve the maxim 'Absence makes the heart grow fonder'. Elizabeth had worked hard over the past year, Mayer told the press. She was beginning to make a name for herself, and, with no project on the immediate horizon, Mayer felt that she was entitled to a holiday. The studio would pick up the tab, naturally.\n\nAt the end of July, Elizabeth and Sara sailed for Southampton on the Queen Mary. They spent two months in London, shopping and revisiting old haunts, until a cable from Mayer summoned Elizabeth home for her first musical \u2013 co-starring with Jane Powell and Wallace Beery in A Date with Judy (1948). The film was produced by Joe Pasternak, the man responsible for reviving Marlene Dietrich's career after she had been branded box-office poison. It was a great success, primarily on account of Brazilian bombshell Carmen Miranda's ferociously camp rendition of 'Cuanto Le Gusta' and Wallace Beery's club-footed dance routine. As for Elizabeth, she provided little more than colourful scenery, and the moralists frowned upon the scene where, still underaged, she vied with Powell for the attentions of 28-year-old Robert Stack. Even so, at least one influential critic was impressed, Irving Hoffman of the Hollywood Reporter singling her out as 'a 14-carat, 100-proof siren of the future'.\n\nNext came Julia Misbehaves (1948) \u2013 essentially a showcase for the phenomenal talents of Greer Garson and Walter Pidgeon \u2013 a production with distinct but inadvertent references to the crisis within the Taylor household. Elizabeth played wealthy debutante Susan Packett, whose aim was to reconcile her divorced parents whilst attempting to break away from their dominance so that she might have a life of her own with a man of her choosing. The critics \u2013 and Garson-Pidgeon aficionados who had never accepted them extant of their pairing in Mrs Miniver-style dramas \u2013 were not impressed.\n\nElizabeth's first major relationship, at least the first to make the press, was with 23-year-old West Point-graduate-turned-footballer Glenn Davis, whom she met during the summer of 1948. Until this time \u2013 adopting the maxim 'Look by all means, but please don't touch!' \u2013 wearing a succession of outfits by Francis's designer lover Adrian, she had been encouraged to flutter her eyelashes at just about every man in sight, particularly the older, unattractive ones, because, according to Sara, these were the ones with the money and power. Sara and Francis had even bought Elizabeth her first car (courtesy of MGM), a powder-blue Cadillac convertible, to help her get noticed \u2013 not that this was necessary, and in any case she was not yet permitted to drive it.\n\nThe relationship with Davis was almost certainly platonic, an exercise stage-managed by MGM to gain essential publicity after Elizabeth's last few films had failed to match up to the success of their predecessors. Davis had announced his plans to enlist for military service.\n\nElizabeth and Glenn Davis met up most weekends during the summer\/fall of 1948. He would occasionally collect her from the studio where she was shooting Little Women (1949). Directed by Mervin LeRoy, this had an all-star cast \u2013 headed by June Allyson as Jo March, the heroine of Louisa M. Alcott's classic novel \u2013 all of whom were better than Elizabeth, whose squeaky histrionics were lost when pitted against the quiet dignity of Mary Astor, the poetic innocence of Margaret O'Brien and the distinctive presence of that grand old man of the British theatre, C. Aubrey Smith, who sadly died before the film was released. In her blonde wig, it is only towards the end of the film, when she almost comes into her own, that one realises one has been watching Elizabeth Taylor. However, as Amy March, she inadvertently displays some of the later Taylor characteristics of selfishness and impetuosity \u2013 she grabs the best costumes and even manages to steal someone else's intended.\n\nOn 8 September 1948, Elizabeth was photographed kissing Glenn Davis a tearful farewell when he left to fight in Korea. Afterwards. she appeared in public, looking glum, wearing his 'ALL AMERICA' sweatshirt and the 'lucky' gold football chain he had given her. It was all staged, of course.\n\nElizabeth coped with her 'war bride' status by travelling to London in November 1948 to star opposite 37-year-old Robert Taylor in a lacklustre espionage thriller, Conspirator. Sara told the press that whilst in England, still recovering from wartime food shortages, she and her daughter would 'cut corners' the same as everyone else. To prove this point, the two of them travelled 'by common cab' to the Ministry of Food to collect their ration books \u2013 then had the driver convey them to Claridge's.\n\nConspirator was promoted as 'Elizabeth Taylor's First Adult Love Story'. Both leads were woefully miscast. At 16, Elizabeth was hopeless as Robert Taylor's 21-year-old wife, whilst he seemed way out of his depth playing the villain, the British officer who spies for Russia and is instructed by his superiors to kill her. There were also rumours of an off-screen romance between the two \u2013 fuelled by the studio to prevent Taylor's homosexuality from becoming public knowledge.\n\nSuch had been MGM's concern for one of their brightest stars that they had forced Taylor into a lavender marriage with 'baritone babe' Barbara Stanwyck. When Taylor was suspected of hunting for 'rough trade' around Soho, the MGM publicity machine went into overdrive, and once again Elizabeth was appointed the inadvertent stooge for a gay man. Taylor was snapped 'lusting' over Elizabeth in her strapless, low-cut gown, which, of course, only caused more controversy \u2013 though nothing quite as bad as his lusting over rent boys would have done. Alternatively, he was photographed looking all forlorn in his dressing-room, penning one of his daily love letters to his wife, who was back in Los Angeles with her wardrobe-mistress lover. What Stanwyck and the press did not yet know was that Taylor, who was tired of the charade, was about to file for divorce.\n\nAway from the set, there was little time for sightseeing in the British capital \u2013 Sara told reporters that when the cameras were not rolling, her daughter was receiving essential schooling or was safely tucked up in bed. Of course, if that was the case, this posed the question of how could she have been 'involved' with Robert Taylor?\n\nElizabeth and Sara did get around to visiting their former home on Wildwood Road, now loaned out to the Women's Voluntary Services. They also spent time with Victor Cazalet's sister Thelma \u2013 Cazalet had died in an air crash during the war \u2013 and it was she who introduced them to the actor Michael Wilding. Twenty years Elizabeth's senior, Wilding would, of course, figure strongly in her life in later years. The pair are known to have dated, apparently with Sara's blessing, and Wilding was photographed kissing Elizabeth goodbye in the VIP lounge at Heathrow.\n\nMore controversially, upon her return to America early in 1949, Elizabeth, very much against her will, became 'involved' with super-recluse Howard Hughes, who had been monitoring her progress by way of cinema newsreels and movie magazines for months. At the age of 44, Hughes was one of the country's wealthiest tycoons, although he was already mentally unbalanced, and he believed that he could have any woman \u2013 or man \u2013 in the world as long as he offered hard cash and lots of it. His conquests are thought to have included Ginger Rogers, Hedy Lamarr, Ava Gardner, Lana Turner, Carole Lombard, Errol Flynn and Cary Grant \u2013 whilst Jean Harlow, Italian beauty Gina Lollobrigida and French revue artiste Zizi Jeanmaire famously spurned his advances.\n\nHughes possessed a massive collection of Elizabeth Taylor photographs, from the flat-chested ones of her National Velvet days to the more recent ones in which she displayed a more than ample cleavage. He emerged from his mansion bolthole to visit Francis's gallery, striking up a friendship and purchasing several paintings he had absolutely no use for, and eventually invited Francis and his family to his home. Hughes is said to have offered $1 million in cash for Elizabeth's hand in marriage \u2013 moreover, as her father's permission was required for such a union to take place, Francis is said to have accepted the offer. Elizabeth, however, had stood up to the mighty Louis B. Mayer, so she was unafraid of the scruffy Texan billionaire. Hughes was unceremoniously sent packing.\n\nNo sooner had Hughes exited the scene than Glenn Davis arrived home from Korea, hoping to take up with Elizabeth where they had left off. Their reunion would be brief. The press compared their sporting\u2013showbiz love affair with that of French singer \u00c9dith Piaf and world boxing champion Marcel Cerdan \u2013 the two couples frequently appeared on the same front pages. But whereas Piaf and Cerdan stuck it out \u2013 until his death in a plane crash in October 1949 \u2013 Elizabeth and Davis would have no such luck.\n\nAccording to American press reports, Davis turned up at Elizabeth's 17th-birthday party with an expensive cultured-pearl necklace \u2013 and a diamond-and-ruby engagement ring. The latter, however, stayed in his pocket when he was introduced to one of the guests. 'She had started dating that rich guy Pawley, and, let's face it, he showed her a better time than I did,' Davis told biographer Kitty Kelley in 1980. 'I stayed there for about a week or ten days of high-stepping and then I took off.' In 1951, Davis married Hollywood starlet Terry Moore, arguably one of the most popular of the 'studio stooge' dates. In her time, Moore would keep the 'outing' hacks from the doors of numerous gay stars, including Rock Hudson, George Nader, Anthony Perkins and James Dean. The marriage lasted less than a year.\n\nElizabeth had had the new beau waiting in the wings for a while, setting yet another precedent. Twenty-eight-year-old William Pawley was heir to the multimillion-dollar Miami Transit Company. He and Elizabeth met in March 1949. As usual for her, it was love at first sight, and Pawley did not hang around for someone else to muscle in on his territory. First, he wrote Elizabeth a series of love letters, telling her how much he worshiped her. Receiving a positive response, he flew to Los Angeles to gain the approval of her family \u2013 in other words, Sara. This was, of course, forthcoming, and soon afterwards, having consulted with Louis B. Mayer, Sara escorted her daughter to Miami to meet the future in-laws. They were mobbed by thousands of fans at the airport and were trailed by hundreds of camp followers as Pawley showed his guests around his home territory. Occasionally, 'shriekers' would be employed by MGM's Florida representatives to incite excitement amongst the crowd, if it was not already evident. They gathered outside theatres and restaurants, allowing the couple scarcely a moment's peace. It was painful for Pawley, although Elizabeth lapped up this adoration whilst pretending to be unnerved by it all.\n\nThough many would submit to the humiliation of doing so in the future, William Pawley made it clear that he would never walk in a movie star's shadow. Sara was actually in favour of this, seeing as the pickings were suitably rich, whilst Elizabeth, as usual, didn't know what she wanted \u2013 except as much attention as possible. She had just been contracted to The Big Hangover (1950) with Van Johnson and Father of the Bride (1950) with Spencer Tracy and Joan Bennett \u2013 the latter her biggest break to date \u2013 and she tentatively promised that once these were in the can she would retire.\n\nPawley did not know Elizabeth well enough not to believe her. He tried to expedite matters by asking her to marry him, and on 2 June 1949 she was photographed wearing an emerald-cut diamond ring. Whilst Pawley refused to divulge how much this had set him back, only that Elizabeth was worth every penny, she told Photoplay, 'In Hollywood, I would not be anything but Elizabeth Taylor. In Miami, I'll be Elizabeth Pawley. I like that!'\n\nThen, as would happen with just about every relationship Elizabeth embarked upon, the rot set in. Pawley reminded her of her promise and began 'moulding' her into what he saw as the ideal wife \u2013 telling her how to dress and conduct herself in public, instructing her on what she should and should not eat, and giving her suggestions on how she should speak and to whom. The further the engagement progressed, the more Elizabeth worried that her own marriage might turn out like that of her parents. She was, and forever would remain, hopelessly insecure where men were concerned. She had virtually no female friends or confidantes to turn to for advice and therefore found herself stewing over problems which as yet did not exist \u2013 even when things were going well, she was persistently searching for reasons why they should not be.\n\nIn her own bizarre way, Elizabeth must, therefore, have been grateful for the release that came prior to shooting The Big Hangover, when she was informed that, before going on to Father of the Bride, she would be working as a loan-out in an even bigger project, sharing top-billing with Montgomery Clift in Paramount's $2-million remake of An American Tragedy (1931). The finicky director George Stevens chose Elizabeth not, it is alleged, because he considered her to be in Monty's class, which she certainly never was, but because he was convinced that their combined beauty would 'set the screen alight'. Pawley offered her an ultimatum: unless she renounced the film, there would be no wedding. Elizabeth chose the film, and, initially, Pawley adopted a Machiavellian front, accompanying her to the wedding of her friend Jane Powell in the September. The next day, taking a leaf out of the book of the Hollywood system he so despised, he called Hedda Hopper \u2013 not Elizabeth \u2013 to announce that the engagement was off.\n\nElizabeth, in all probability, could not have cared less. On 22 August, her photograph had adorned the cover of Time magazine. The gist of the accompanying feature was that the golden greats of yesteryear \u2013 Dietrich, Stanwyck, Davis and Crawford \u2013 had passed their sell-by date and that Hollywood was now embracing a new type of goddess. 'MGM has . . . turned up a jewel of great price, a true star sapphire,' the editorial read. 'She is Elizabeth Taylor!' The studio disapproved of the analogy. Elizabeth was still only 17 and still a minor, promoted by them as being the archetypal, pure-as-the-driven-snow girl next door. So far as is known, she was still a virgin, never having been let out of her mother's or chaperone's sight for a moment. And this is how a very naive public would have viewed her, despite the fact that she was a busty, beautiful teenager. Her next film, however, would help her to grow up in the eyes of the public.\n\n# THREE\n\nWITH THIS FIST,   \nI THEE WED\n\nFEW MEN WOULD PROVE AS IMPORTANT AS THE NEXT ONE who entered Elizabeth's life \u2013 one who, equally rarely, would stay the course, because theirs was a relationship that almost certainly never progressed beyond the platonic.\n\nEdward Montgomery Clift was born in Nebraska in October 1920 with a whole set of silver spoons in his mouth, the son of the vice president of the National Bank of Omaha and an ordinary housewife, although she was even more domineering and grasping than Sara Taylor. Having dragged Monty and his siblings around the world to teach them the rudiments of culture, and always living beyond her means, Sunny Clift had enrolled Monty with an exclusive modelling agency when he was still in his early teens. She had encouraged his acting bug, which had seen him treading the boards professionally at the age of 15. After ten successful years on Broadway, Monty had been persuaded to make his first film, playing John Wayne's highly strung adopted son in the acclaimed Howard Hawks western Red River (1948).\n\nMonty had loathed the whole Hollywood experience, scrawling the words 'VOMIT, CALIFORNIA' across the tops of the envelopes when writing home. The problem was not the film capital itself, but the hypocrisy of its hierarchy. In the theatre, Monty had been able to choose male lovers without fear of reprisal, but once he hit Hollywood he became so hung up about his sexuality \u2013 he was much less ashamed of sleeping with men than in having to remain closeted about his preferences for the sake of his career \u2013 that he forced himself to sleep with any number of women in an attempt to determine on which side of the fence he truly belonged. One has to remember that this was an age when there was no such term as bisexuality: one was either a 'regular guy' or a 'fairy', and if a man privately professed to liking men and women, this merely meant that he had not yet emerged from the closet. In Monty's case, the torment of uncertainty had driven him to drink and drugs. On top of this, he suffered poor health on account of recurring amoebic dysentery for most of his tragically short life, despite his hunky frame.\n\nThe two women in Montgomery Clift's life as the 1950s dawned could not have been more different: Libby Holman, the 40-something bisexual torch singer who had once stood in the dock accused of shooting dead her 22-year-old gay husband, tobacco heir Zachary Smith Reynolds, and 18-year-old Elizabeth Taylor, whose voluptuous assets, Monty's confidants assured him, would be sufficient to turn any gay man straight.\n\nMonty had received rave reviews for Red River and had gone on to make The Search, directed by Fred Zinneman, The Big Lift (1950) and The Heiress (1949) opposite Olivia de Havilland, establishing himself as one of America's leading young actors. All of these classic films, however, would be eclipsed by A Place in the Sun (1951), the new title for George Stevens's reworking of Theodore Dreiser's 1925 novel An American Tragedy, first filmed in 1931 with Phillips Holmes and based on an actual New York murder trial of 1906.\n\nIn October 1949, Paramount, worried about Monty's steadfast refusal to cease cruising for rough trade amongst the gay haunts of downtown Los Angeles, opted to 'normalise' him for the benefit of the press by supplying him with Elizabeth as his date for the premiere of The Heiress. For her part, she was delighted at the prospect of meeting the most beautiful man in Hollywood, though Monty was indifferent and would have much preferred to have taken his latest boyfriend. He is even down on record as having declared, 'Who the hell is Elizabeth Taylor?', although he must have known. He also fought against the studio's publicity gimmick that because they were going to play lovers on the screen, it might not be a bad idea if they appeared to be so in real life.\n\nMonty realised that Elizabeth was considerably more than just a pretty face and fabulous body \u2013 she is said to have impressed him by uttering innumerable profanities, aimed at Sara, in the back of the limousine en route to Grauman's Chinese Theater \u2013 and discovered just how much they had in common, not least of all their horrendously overbearing mothers. Monty christened Elizabeth 'my Bessie Mae', a term of endearment that, like their close friendship, lasted for life. Hedda Hopper jumped the gun, as only she of course could, when she saw Elizabeth straightening Monty's bow tie at the theatre entrance. 'Those magnificent lovebirds are very soon going to be married,' she wrote in her syndicated column. In fact, Monty chain-smoked all evening, looked fed up and snarled at a reporter who rushed up to him to praise The Heiress: 'You love it? I hate the fucking thing!'\n\nGeorge Stevens was lucky to be making A Place In The Sun in the first place. The 1931 version, directed by Dietrich's Svengali, Josef von Sternberg (also for Paramount), had so watered down the political content of Dreiser's book that he publicly denounced it, and it had subsequently flopped at the box office. Stevens had no little clout in Hollywood. In the 1920s, he had worked as assistant cameraman on a number of Laurel and Hardy shorts, he had directed his first feature in 1933, and two years later had been requested by Katharine Hepburn to direct her in Alice Adams (1935). He had similarly triumphed alongside Ginger Rogers and Fred Astaire, and Cary Grant and Barbara Stanwyck. Despite such plaudits, however, Stevens was not entirely indispensable, like just about everyone else in Hollywood, and he now took an uncalculated risk and threw a spanner into the works by informing the Paramount executives that he wanted to follow the Dreiser story to the letter. A lesser director might have been fired. Stevens was politely reminded (as if he did not know already) of the still present ill-feeling and suspicion in the wake of the McCarthy witch-hunt, and he quickly capitulated; even the names of the central characters had to be changed.\n\nFor the sheer beauty and grace of its two leading players, A Place in the Sun remains one of the finest American films of all time. For much of the movie, however, Elizabeth in her first authentic adult role serves solely as pretty scenery, and it is Montgomery Clift who carries the production from start to finish. Both Fred Zinneman and Edward Dmytryk, who later directed Elizabeth and Clift in Raintree County (1957), avowed in a 1989 television documentary (Monty: His Place in the Sun) that Monty's acting prowess had been such that he had been able to coax more out of his co-stars than even the best director.\n\nIn the film, Monty played doomed drifter George Eastman, who gets one girl (Shelley Winters) pregnant whilst falling for rich-bitch Angela Vickers (Elizabeth), who is initially attracted to his sadness \u2013 as happened with Monty away from the screen. In fact, there is much mirroring of the Taylor\u2013Clift relationship here, particularly during the famous balcony scene where, en profile and in the most stunning close-ups since Garbo and Gilbert's Flesh and the Devil (1926), they let themselves go. 'How can I tell you how much I love you? How can I tell you all?' he murmurs in the flickering light, whilst she responds, 'Tell Mama . . . Tell Mama all!' To get this scene spot on, Elizabeth and Monty rehearsed in the privacy of his apartment, with Monty later telling his friend Libby Holman that Elizabeth would allow her hands to wander, hoping to turn him on \u2013 always to no avail. Later in the film, when Eastman is about to go to the electric chair for 'murder by thought', Angela visits him in his cell and swears that she will love him until the day she dies. Many years later, she repeated those words in the message she sent to Monty's family after his death.\n\nMonty's sensitive portrayal of George Eastman was essentially an extension of himself: the loner who does not fit in. The role earned him an Oscar nomination in the same year that his nearest rival, Marlon Brando, was nominated for A Streetcar Named Desire (1951) \u2013 both were upstaged by Humphrey Bogart, who won the award for The African Queen (1951). Even so, the film received tremendous praise, with scarcely an adverse review. Charlie Chaplin, not one to offer compliments lightly, called it 'the greatest movie ever made about America'. The New York Times's usually acerbic Bosley Crowther singled out Monty as 'terse, hesitating, full, rich, restrained and poignant', whilst distinguished film critic Andrew Sarris later observed in American Cinema (Dutton, 1968):\n\nClift and Taylor were the most beautiful couple in the history of the cinema. It was a sensuous experience to watch them respond to each other. Those gigantic close-ups of them kissing were unnerving \u2013 sybaritic \u2013 like gorging on chocolate sundaes.\n\nAl Hine observed in Holiday:\n\nGeorge Stevens has placed Elizabeth Taylor in a part where all the uncomfortable, preening mannerisms that have brought a touch of nausea to her recent portrayals are valid. The conceit, artificiality and awkwardness which mar her playing in most ing\u00e9nue roles are not only acceptable but essential to her rendition of Miss Rich Bitch 1951.\n\nMany of those close to the two stars believed that Elizabeth genuinely wanted to marry Monty, particularly when Paramount attempted to exploit their friendship by announcing that they were considering changing the title of the film to The Lovers. When they met, Elizabeth was sufficiently naive not to be aware that Monty was gay \u2013 despite them being frequently accompanied on their outings by his latest rough-trade lover \u2013 and, unable to tell him to his face how she felt about him, she put pen to paper. These love letters disturbed him so much that he later gave them away to another lover.\n\nElizabeth has never kissed and told, despite her hectic love life, so it is very unlikely that we will ever know if their relationship was in any way sexual. What they did share progressed way beyond the mere physical. Though 12 years his junior, Elizabeth would be mother, sister, soulmate and lover, all neatly fit into one decidedly pretty but above all sympathetic package. That they were on exactly the same wavelength is further demonstrated by their love scenes in A Place in the Sun. The final rehearsals for these were conducted entirely without speech, with Elizabeth and her dishy co-star 'thinking' their lines and communicating by eye contact, a process which intensified and added to the value of their on-screen romance.\n\nWhilst shooting the film, Elizabeth had met 23-year-old 'Nicky' Hilton, the wealthy playboy heir to the $150-million hotel chain, and around Christmas 1949 they began dating, encouraged by Elizabeth's parents, who were far more interested in her marrying into money than in being the escort of an acknowledged bad lot of ambiguous sexuality. Hilton was the arch seducer. Though he held an executive position in his father Conrad's hotel conglomerate (as honorary manager of the Bel Air Hotel), he used this and his wealth to coax as many women \u2013 and more than a few men, who were paid to secure their silence \u2013 into the sack. Handsome but virtually devoid of charisma, Hilton had attended the prestigious Loyola College but dropped out at 19 to join the navy. Here, he had had any number of male lovers. Later, for the sheer hell of it, he seduced the formidable siren Zsa Zsa Gabor \u2013 his father's second wife \u2013 with her boasting to all and sundry that he had a ten-inch penis and the sexual stamina of a racehorse.\n\nHad Elizabeth and her parents searched beyond the dollar signs and done their homework, they would have discovered a decidedly unpleasant young man who saw Elizabeth primarily as a status symbol, the first prize in a lottery draw that every red-blooded male in America would have entered, given the chance. Like Elizabeth, Hilton had had no childhood to speak of. Since nursery school, he had been groomed to one day take over the family emporium. As she had been a child star, so he had been a 'child hotelier', never allowed to have friends. However, whereas Elizabeth had had a more or less stable upbringing \u2013 although her parents had slack morals, they had nevertheless striven to protect their own \u2013 Hilton had not. Essentially, he was bad news: a drunkard who was hopelessly addicted to sex, gambling and drugs. One of his cronies was Texan oil magnate Glen McCarthy, upon whom the James Dean character in Giant (1956) would later be based.\n\nHilton also had a fondness for brawling: he had more than once been cautioned by the police for knocking his girlfriends around. He thought nothing of spending thousands of dollars on some trinket to impress a lover who would only learn what he was like the hard way. He often had black or Jewish lovers, who would then have to listen to his virulently racist or anti-Semitic ranting when he had had too much to drink, which was often. Hilton would later have relationships with Natalie Wood and Marilyn Monroe, and treat them both badly. He was convinced that one of these mistreated lovers or a vengeful partner might want to kill him, so despised was he, that he kept a loaded gun on his bedside cabinet \u2013 with a rosary wrapped around it for good luck.\n\nHilton was a swift mover. Aware of Hollywood's strict, unwritten chaperoning laws, he courted Elizabeth conventionally \u2013 hitting the town once she was safely tucked up in bed. Their first dates were supervised. Elizabeth and her parents visited the Hiltons' 64-room mansion in Bel Air's Bellagio Road and were knocked sideways to observe how the 'other half' lived. This was opulence way beyond Elizabeth's and Sara's wildest dreams \u2013 it was a display of wealth that, certainly from Sara's point of view (if not Elizabeth's, too), far exceeded the need for physical attraction towards the man. Elizabeth might have thought herself in love with Nicky Hilton, but would she have felt the same way had he been poor? And if she could end up living in a place like this, who cared what the husband was like? Not for the first time, unbridled greed for the almighty dollar would cloud Elizabeth's judgement.\n\nHilton, for his part, 'slummed' it by dropping in on the Taylors \u2013 once the press had been alerted to catch him arriving. Occasionally, there would be family outings to Arrowhead Springs. If the couple did go out 'alone' \u2013 always with an MGM chaperone hovering in the background \u2013 Elizabeth insisted upon being taken to downtown drugstores and hamburger joints, hoping that the press would report that she was not interested in Hilton's money, whilst revealing the opposite by showing off the latest costly bauble he had given her. Hilton, the manic spendthrift, fixated her with another pastime that set a precedent for the rest of her life: spending for spending's sake.\n\nWhen Nicky Hilton asked Francis Taylor for his daughter's hand in marriage, permission was granted and the news 'leaked' to the media. On account of her treatment of Glenn Davis and William Pawley, Hedda Hopper had baptised her 'Liz the Jilt', and the columnists now reminded their moralist readers \u2013 who nevertheless loved nothing more than a juicy scandal \u2013 that Elizabeth looked like she might be aiming for the hat-trick, particularly when Hilton announced that he was expecting her to give up her career so that they could start a family at once.\n\nThe press also mentioned that not only was Elizabeth still a minor, but that she had yet to graduate \u2013 legally essential, but no problem for MGM, who organised a diploma and slipped her into a graduation ceremony at Los Angeles High in front of hundreds of fellow graduates who were seeing her for the first time and who must have been irked that whilst they had had to study hard for their diplomas, she had not. In February 1950, a few days before Elizabeth's 18th birthday, Conrad Hilton announced that his son was officially engaged to 'the movie star', and the next day she showed off her ring to the press. Hilton had gone one better than William Pawley by buying her a 4.5-carat diamond.\n\nThe studio publicity machine, though well aware of Hilton's near-psychotic, abrasive nature, went into overdrive, promoting Nicky and Elizabeth as the perfect all-American couple. Elizabeth had merely been pencilled in for the role of Kay Banks in Father of the Bride, but now shooting began in earnest as the studio rode on the back of the phenomenal amount of press coverage afforded to her forthcoming nuptials. This deflected from the back-lot gossip concerning its director Vincente Minnelli, then married to Judy Garland but not averse to having a not-so-discreet fling with Francis Taylor, the real father of the bride.\n\nThe film, recounting a middle-class family's tribulations during the run-up to their only daughter's wedding, is reminiscent of the hugely popular Ernst Lubitsch comedies of the previous generation. In retrospect, of course, its true star is Spencer Tracy, who, as per usual, steals the show. Tracy plays tightwad Stanley Banks, who reflects upon the event which has crippled him financially. In an actress-character juxtaposition, Kay has been a busy girl \u2013 seven serious boyfriends in the last few months \u2013 but now she has met Buckley Dunstan (Don Taylor), the man she wants to spend the rest of her life with. Stanley does all he can to discourage her, worrying that Buckley might not be good enough, or worse still a crook. He tries to save money by suggesting the couple elope, finally dipping his hand into his pocket and allowing the ceremony to take place \u2013 an Elizabeth Taylor extravaganza that sees the society caterers moving in and the house stripped of its furniture to accommodate the hundreds of mostly unwanted guests.\n\nFather of the Bride was scheduled to go on general release to coincide with Elizabeth's wedding, which meant that A Place in the Sun was deferred for release until the following year. Much had been made in the press that Elizabeth and Montgomery Clift had extended their love affair beyond the screen, although the studios hoped that such rumours would have been quelled by then. The official reason for the delay was George Stevens's usual excuse that he had used so much film, shooting every scene dozens of times, that it would take this long to cut and edit.\n\nElizabeth is said to have developed cold feet on the eve of the ceremony, spending some time in New York with Montgomery Clift. In her definitive biography Montgomery Clift (Harcourt, 1978), Patricia Bosworth quotes an unnamed friend of Monty telling her that Elizabeth had pleaded with him to marry her so that she could get out of marrying Nicky Hilton. 'Elizabeth's prime objective in life was to find a husband,' the friend is claimed to have said, suggesting that even a neurotic, drunken, partner-beating thug like Hilton might have been better than no husband at all. Elizabeth is also known to have been against the prenuptial agreement drawn up by Hilton's lawyers, avowing that any children the couple had would be brought up in the Catholic faith, though he was a lapsed Catholic who rarely went to church.\n\nThe wedding took place on 6 May 1950 at the Church of the Good Shepherd in Beverly Hills and was hailed the society event of the year. There were a couple of hitches. First, the press had been requested not to mention Hilton's age \u2013 ridiculously, so that he would not be accused of 'child-napping' \u2013 and as such he was refused the licence until offering proof that he was over 21! Second, there was a bust-up between Sara and the officiating priest, Monsignor Patrick Concannon, when he informed her that the ceremony would have to be conducted outside the altar rail because although she had signed the documents to marry into the Catholic Church, Elizabeth had never been baptised.\n\nThis was no ordinary wedding, of course. The bride's real family were not the Taylors but MGM, who had more or less organised everything and were not averse to picking up the tab. After all, this was good publicity for Father of the Bride, about to go on general release. The 500 hand-picked guests included the very cream of the MGM crop, many of whom had never met Elizabeth Taylor, and more than a few who could not stand her, Hilton or both of them. Ginger Rogers, Gene Kelly, Phil Harris and Alice Faye, the Van Johnsons, and William Powell only attended because Louis B. Mayer had instructed them to. Hedda Hopper and Louella Parsons were there, hoping to pick up some juicy titbit concerning the groom's still-hectic love life. There were, of course, the genuine close friends \u2013 Mickey Rooney, Arthur Loew Jr, Spencer Tracy, Roddy McDowall, Joan Bennett and, for the moment, Debbie Reynolds \u2013 along with 4,000 fans who endured the 100-degree heat and who definitely wanted to be there.\n\nElizabeth looked ravishing in a near-replica of the dress she had worn in Father of the Bride. The dress of white satin, embroidered with hundreds of seed-pearls, was made by MGM's Helen Rose at a cost of $3,500, but as it was officially studio property, it would have to be returned after the ceremony. Elizabeth was allowed to keep the mink stole given to her by Sara \u2013 paid for by Louis B. Mayer. Her other gifts included a Frans Hals original from Francis, 100 shares of stock from Conrad Hilton and a $60,000 diamond-and-platinum ring from Howard Young. The bridesmaids, whose yellow dresses were also on loan from MGM, included Jane Powell, Hilton's sister Marilyn and Mara Reagan, who would soon marry Howard Taylor. Elizabeth, in what would be the first in a series of stock statements, told the sea of reporters, fronted by Hedda and Louella, 'He's my darling. I'll love no other man until my dying day!'\n\nMaybe Elizabeth already knew that she was kidding herself. Hilton, if he had not been aware of the fact before, now realised that he would henceforth be second in running to the 'Queen of Hollywood' \u2013 although as Elizabeth's consort, he was apparently even more in demand as the stud who only had to snap his fingers for the girls \u2013 and boys \u2013 to come running. Within days of the ceremony, he was up to his old tricks, photographed drunk in the bar of the Carmel Country Club at the start of his honeymoon with two call girls he had picked up. News of this was relayed to Louis B. Mayer, who had coughed up for the honeymoon proper, scheduled to begin on 23 May when the couple were to board the Queen Mary bound for Europe. Had Elizabeth been stepping out of line, Mayer would have been able to bring the situation under control. Hilton, however, was a law unto himself, and to have alerted Elizabeth to her new husband's indiscretions \u2013 taking into account his mercurial temperament \u2013 might only have made matters worse. Mayer was left with no alternative but to cross his fingers and hope that they would be able to sort out any differences 'on neutral territory' \u2013 in other words, whilst at sea.\n\nAccording to reports at the time, the couple argued non-stop throughout the voyage, mostly over Hilton's drinking and the $100,000 he blew in the ship's casino, turning the air blue with their language. There were other rows over their accommodation. Hilton had demanded the bridal stateroom, but despite offering to pay over the odds, this was unavailable: the Duke and Duchess of Windsor were on board, and the shipping company's unwritten rule declared that this room should always be offered to them free of charge whenever they crossed the Atlantic. Neither were these arguments exclusively verbal. Elizabeth often repeated the story to friends that Hilton, in a drunken rage, had stormed into the bathroom whilst she was showering one evening and punched her so hard in the stomach that she had miscarried. There is no evidence that she was ever hospitalised for this, although several of Hilton's other female conquests \u2013 never the male ones, who would have probably hit him back \u2013 have made similar claims that he managed to win every fight by employing his fists, always hitting them in places where the bruises would not show.\n\nThe charade, with Hilton's gambling and extra-marital romps taking precedence over his honeymoon, continued in London, where the couple attended the premiere of Father of the Bride. Elizabeth thought nothing of standing outside the theatre for two hours, chatting to fans and signing autographs, compelling her husband to hover in the background. Until then, hardly anyone in London had even heard of Nicky Hilton, and he was aggrieved to be persistently addressed as 'Mr Taylor'.\n\nIn Paris, there was a surprise reception hosted by 'holy terror' columnist Elsa Maxwell, Hedda Hopper's and Louella Parsons' arch-rival, who had for many years headed an international sewing circle, along the lines of Nazimova's, despite her considerable girth and unattractiveness. Maxwell was an acclaimed seducer of pretty young women. Many celebrities, such as opera star Maria Callas, succumbed to her charms solely because of the prestige brought about by having a favourable review in her New York Post column. Her attempts to include Elizabeth in her roster of 'Gillette Blades' \u2013 in other words, women who 'cut both ways' \u2013 failed, although Elizabeth was impressed with her hostess's pulling power so far as the guest list was concerned. This included President Auriol, several heads of state, Jean Cocteau, \u00c9dith Piaf, G\u00e9rard Philipe and the ageing revue star Mistinguett, who told the press, 'She [Eliza-beth] can't act, her voice sets your teeth on edge, and all she does is flash her diamonds and show off her cleavage. I guess she'll go a long way!'\n\nThe couple travelled to Rome and then back to Paris for a bash which was attended by more photographers than guests, because word got out that Elizabeth would be wearing $15,000 worth of loaned diamonds. The evening signalled the end of the marriage when a very public slanging match wound up, word for word minus the expletives, on the front pages of the next day's newspapers \u2013 in some instances accompanied by pictures of the sobbing bride. Not long afterwards, the couple flew back to New York, where the press were informed that they had separated.\n\nIn New York, whilst Nicky Hilton embarked on another sex-and-gambling spree, this time with a well-known actor, Elizabeth \u2013 on the verge of what would be the first of many nervous breakdowns \u2013 called MGM and begged the studio to send someone to escort her home and protect her from the press, who would not leave her alone, although the 'publicity-holic' only had herself to blame. In an attempt to fool reporters, whose editors kept them on 24-hour standby, Elizabeth announced that she would be flying back to California but instead flew to Chicago. Here, she made a rod for her own back by meeting up with Nicky Hilton. The pair were snapped kissing and she declared how she had never stopped loving him, that their problems had been brought about by outside interference and that to keep her marriage strong she planned to enrol on a course of cookery lessons and learn how to be a proper housewife. 'Elizabeth Taylor in a kitchen?' Marlene Dietrich scoffed to me some years later. 'She wouldn't have known how to boil water without burning it!'\n\nThe Hiltons moved to Los Angeles, where Hilton rented a house in Pacific Palisades instead of buying one \u2013 it later emerged because a rented property would be easier to dispose of once the marriage had collapsed completely. It was offered a temporary reprieve by Elizabeth's next film. Father of the Bride had brought in so much money that MGM commissioned a sequel with the same cast and production team. Father's Little Dividend (1951) began shooting in the September. It was not a patch on the original, did not do nearly so well at the box office and does not stand up on its own.\n\nWork might have taken Elizabeth's mind off her marital problems, although she also appears to have been deliberately starting out on a Judy Garland-style 'trail of self-destruction'. In the film, she looks very thin, having lost a stone in weight whilst in Europe, and she was smoking two packs of cigarettes a day in an attempt to calm her nerves and ease her depression. Also, she was becoming addicted to sleeping pills. She had flaked out on the set of Father's Little Dividend more than once, and each time Nicky Hilton had dropped in on her at work there had been another row. By October 1950, just five months into her marriage, Elizabeth had had enough. She flew to New York to stay with the only person in the world she felt she could trust \u2013 Montgomery Clift.\n\nMonty had also been in Europe, attending the London premiere of The Heiress then travelling on to Rome, contravening the studio's instructions, to engage in what he called a 'marathon fuckathon' \u2013 a series of wild sexual escapades, which were, from his point of view, a welcome antidote to the restraints of Hollywood. He later said that he might have been content to stay overseas indefinitely, such was his loathing of the film capital and its bigotry, but an emergency had brought him home: Libby Holman's 17-year-old son Christopher had been killed in a climbing accident on Mount Whitney. The tragedy had resulted in a dramatic increase in Holman's already heavy drugs dependency and her ability to drink every one of her hard-drinking friends under the table, bar Monty.\n\nMonty had disapproved of Elizabeth marrying Nicky Hilton, and although they had spoken on the phone and had exchanged letters regularly, this was their first meeting since before the wedding. Both were shocked by the changes in one another: Elizabeth looked gaunt and was a bag of nerves; Monty was matching Libby Holman glass for glass, pill for pill, and was heavily into therapy.\n\nIt was effectively a case of the blind leading the blind. Ten years down the road, the worn-out Monty would be guiding a similarly jaded Marilyn Monroe through her paces during The Misfits (1961), one of her last films. Monty and Elizabeth were seen shopping in Bloomingdale's and dining at his favourite Italian restaurants \u2013 she was one of the few people unaffected by watching him devour his regular fare of raw meat using his fingers, whilst he tended to ignore her habit of belching loudly \u2013 and, on the odd occasion, he took her home to meet his parents, still failing to shock her by addressing his mother as 'Cunt'.\n\nIt was Monty who convinced Elizabeth that divorcing Nicky Hilton was her only option and that confiding in her parents would be a big mistake. Sara, he said, thought only of material possessions and would urge her to patch things up and suffer Hilton's cruelty for the sake of what the Taylors could get out of him. The news hit the headlines on 8 December, courtesy of Louella Parsons' column in the Los Angeles Herald-Examiner, and took the MGM moguls by surprise. The last thing the studio needed prior to releasing A Place in the Sun was adverse publicity, particularly as those critics privileged to have watched the rushes were forecasting that this would be the movie of 1951.\n\nParsons, Hopper, et al., had been keeping tabs on the Hilton fiasco from the word go, relaying details of every row, though they had been prohibited from enlarging on the stories of physical abuse \u2013 not least of all Elizabeth's claims that her husband had once punched her so hard in the stomach that she had miscarried in the bathroom. 'Other young people quarrel, but before we have time to kiss and make up, it's in the papers,' she complained to Louella. This would be the only one of her marriages where she shared no blame for it turning into a disaster \u2013 for not even Hilton's closest friends had known what he had been like behind the bedroom door, and those on the receiving end of his fists had been too dignified, it would appear, or maybe too afraid, to speak out. An MGM spokeswoman whom Hilton had bedded almost let the cat out of the bag, telling Louella, 'They always fight about the same thing: his gambling and playing around, his ignoring her as a wife, and they both have a temper.' The interview had been orchestrated by Louis B. Mayer, wishing to ensure that public sympathy remained on the side of his star, though in this instance he was not wrong in painting Hilton as the archetypal Bluebeard-villain who deserved all that was coming to him.\n\nThe Hiltons' split proved a bitter blow for Elizabeth's grasping mother. Sara had tolerated her son-in-law's philandering \u2013 her own husband was little better. The gambling, too, had not perturbed her unduly, for his supply of cash had always appeared limitless. Being made aware for the first time of his psychotic streak did concern her, but only because this had driven Elizabeth away from him before she had had time to find a suitable, similarly wealthy replacement.\n\nThe divorce was preceded by another incident that set a Taylor precedent: mental or physical collapse in the wake of a dramatic experience, frequently overplayed for the benefit of the media. Having struggled through the initial filming of Love Is Better Than Ever (1952) with frayed nerves and what was reported to be 'recurring ulcerative colitis', on 9 January 1951 Elizabeth booked herself into the Cedars of Lebanon Hospital under the name Rebecca Jones. She stayed there for a week, with the columnists refusing to believe the story put out by the studio that she was running up a several-thousand-dollars bill just to be treated for the flu. Some of the tabloids even hinted at a suicide attempt, but there was no evidence to support this. Equally curious, she was allowed out of the hospital each day to attend studio meetings and reshoot key scenes for the inappropriately titled Love Is Better Than Ever.\n\nThe Hiltons' marriage ended in the Santa Monica divorce court on 29 January 1951 (with the final decree to become effective one year hence), eight months after it had begun, on the grounds of mental and physical cruelty. Elizabeth asked for no alimony but got to keep the shares of Hilton stock given to her by her former father-in-law and around $250,000 of wedding presents. Nicky Hilton did not attend the hearing. He instead sent his lawyer to petition the judge into forcing Elizabeth to sign a document annulling the marriage so that he would be able to remarry in church. The judge declared that the choice was entirely hers, and she refused. Elizabeth also cited Hilton's 'abusive language' as a reason for wanting him out of her life \u2013 which might have been a bit rich from a woman who, even then, was renowned for her ability to out-curse the best of them.\n\n'I never want to hear that man's name mentioned again,' Elizabeth told the sea of reporters waiting outside the courthouse. She would be good to her word. When Nicky Hilton died of a drugs-related heart attack in February 1969, aged just 42, she neither commented nor sent flowers to his funeral.\n\n# FOUR\n\nENGLISH WITHOUT TEARS\n\nELIZABETH EVADED MUCH OF THE PRESS BACKLASH THAT followed her divorce by staying with Montgomery Clift in New York. They are said to have slept in the same bed, though this does not necessarily mean that they were in any way lovers \u2013 it is a well-known fact that, prone to nightmares, Monty frequently slept between his best friends, actor Kevin McCarthy and his wife Augusta Dabney, without the slightest hint of sexual activity. Quite simply, with Elizabeth and Monty it was a case of two soulmates helping one another through a difficult patch. They are also known to have only socialised amongst Monty's circle, sometimes accompanied by Monty's 'fuck buddy', and Elizabeth's old friend, Roddy McDowall. The trio visited leather bars and gay clubs, where Monty could pick up his favourite rough trade and where, according to both men, Elizabeth could curse to her heart's content.\n\nIt had almost been a case of jumping out of the frying pan and into the fire when on the eve of her divorce Elizabeth had made Love Is Better Than Ever with Larry Parks, an actor who had been virtually unknown until playing the Oscar-nominated lead in The Jolson Story (1946) and its sequel Jolson Sings Again (1949). The McCarthy witch-hunt was at its zenith at that time, and just about everyone in Hollywood knew, thought they knew or thought they knew someone who knew a communist. In February 1950, Senator Joe McCarthy's unproved claim that much of the country had been infiltrated by 'Reds' sparked off a wave of mass hysteria that would achieve little other than tarnishing the film community for decades to come and led to a state of paranoia in America in the early 1950s. McCarthy claimed to be in possession of a 205-name list of communists working in the State Department, and it did not take long for 'sublists' of alleged allies and sympathisers to appear \u2013 few of these more influential, the senator pointed out, than the ones the public were flocking to see each day on their cinema screens.\n\nHeading the HUAC (House Committee on Un-American Activities), which had vetted the script for A Place in the Sun, was Congressman J. Purnell Thomas, who would later be jailed for payroll padding. And in charge of the long-winded Anti-Communist Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals was John Wayne, a man who had publicly lampooned gay\/bisexual stars such as Robert Taylor, Robert Montgomery and Tyrone Power as 'unnatural men'. However, whilst these actors had been decorated for their bravery during the Second World War, the supposedly gung-ho Wayne had made any number of excuses not to fight for his country. Wayne's fanatical right-wing allies included Clark Gable, Gary Cooper, Barbara Stanwyck, Howard Hughes, Hedda Hopper, Lola Rogers (the mother of Ginger), Walt Disney and two of the actors he had mocked, Robert Taylor and Robert Montgomery. One wonders how Wayne slept at night. Opposing the purge, which very quickly got out of hand, were Tallulah Bankhead, Gene Kelly, Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall, Danny Kaye, director John Huston, and future president Richard Nixon.\n\nDirectors Elia Kazan and Edward Dmytryk (one of the so-called 'Hollywood Ten' who had been jailed for their beliefs) were but two who shopped their suspected communist colleagues. Careers were needlessly destroyed: those of playwrights Lillian Hellman and Dashiel Hammet, actor Melvyn Douglas, and actresses Gale Sondergaard and Anne Revere, who had twice worked with Elizabeth. John Garfield, a brilliant actor who had raved over Elizabeth's performance in A Place in the Sun and had wanted to work with her, died a broken man in 1952 at the age of 39. The worst casualty from Elizabeth's point of view, however, was Larry Parks, because she was indirectly involved with him when the proverbial blast hit the fan. So far as some of Senator McCarthy's aides were concerned, if someone was the partner, lover or best friend of a suspected communist \u2013 or even of you were someone who played a character on screen who seemed to lean in that direction \u2013 it figured that they too might have such tendencies \u2013 absolute piffle, of course!\n\nNeither did Elizabeth do herself any favours in the wake of her messy, very public divorce by having an affair with the director of Love Is Better Than Ever, Stanley Donen \u2013 so far as is known, her first relationship with a married man. Eight years her senior, Donen had teamed up with Gene Kelly as a Broadway dancer\/assistant choreographer in 1941, aged just 17. The two had worked together ever since, their films having included On the Town (1949), which Donen had co-directed. Their subsequent successes would include Seven Brides for Seven Brothers (1954), Funny Face (1957) and Charade (1963). Kelly had just signed Donen for Singin' in the Rain (1952) and was keen to have his prot\u00e9g\u00e9 report back with the names of any 'Reds' who might be hiding in the closet. It was almost certainly Kelly who shopped Larry Parks to the HUAC.\n\nParks could have extricated himself from a tricky situation, as many did during this silly political soap opera, by repeating a stock statement at his impromptu hearing: 'I respectfully decline to answer the question [that I am a Communist] on the grounds that this is privileged information under the Fifth Amendment of the United States Constitution.' Instead, he admitted that he had once been a member of the Communist Party. Threatened with incarceration (the Hollywood Ten had served up to twelve months in jail, depending upon the gravity of their 'crimes'), Parks was compelled to name, or invent, twelve Reds and was promised that he would be allowed to continue with his career. He refused, and for him it was the end of the road. Love Is Better Than Ever would be assigned to oblivion, and he made just two more films \u2013 his swansong being Freud (1962) with Montgomery Clift \u2013 before his death in 1975, at which time he was running his own real-estate firm.\n\nElizabeth was never summoned before the HUAC, though not through lack of trying on Howard Hughes's part. Having already been twice rejected by her, the tycoon had obviously not learned his lesson. Despite the power his enormous wealth generated, even Hughes would not have dared report Elizabeth to the HUAC without some proof, even fabricated, so he 'leaked' her name to committee member Hedda Hopper \u2013 the method in his madness being that he would 'rescue' her, marry her and they would live happily ever after. Elizabeth might have coped with the absurdity of this had it not coincided with her affair with Stanley Donen hitting the headlines. Mrs Donen \u2013 the dancer Jeanne Coyne \u2013 filed for divorce and threatened to cite the 19-year-old Elizabeth as co-respondent, which, of course, she had every right to do. There then followed a nasty, very public argument with Sara Taylor when Elizabeth took her lover home to meet the family \u2013 this also ended up on the front pages.\n\nShortly after this episode, Elizabeth was rushed into hospital. Depending upon which report one heeded, she was either suffering from exhaustion or it was because of a suicide attempt. No sooner had she recovered from this ordeal than she was once again diagnosed with colitis and a peptic ulcer.\n\nDespite the trouble caused by her relationship with Stanley Donen, Elizabeth refused to give him up, and when she turned up for the premiere of Father's Little Dividend clutching his arm, MGM stepped in. She had been contracted for a cameo role as herself in Callaway Went Thataway (1951) with Fred MacMurray and Howard Keel, but after that nothing major was planned other than the release of A Place in the Sun later in the year. The studio held an emergency meeting, and it was decided to get her out of the country as soon as possible so that they could put an end to her affair with Donen with her out of the frame. She was signed up as Robert Taylor's love interest in Ivanhoe (1952), scheduled to begin shooting in England during the summer.\n\nMedieval dramas, musical revivals, biblical spectaculars and period thrillers were on the rise again at this time because of the McCarthy hearings. The studios, so as not to be caught out, opted for non-contemporary, non-political themes: Quo Vadis (1951) was amongst the first and was followed by Scaramouche (1952), The Prisoner of Zenda (1952) and Knights of the Round Table (1953). Another massive threat to the movie industry was the new medium of television \u2013 despite the cynics' claims that this 'newfangled contraption' would never take on, in the spring of 1951 one-in-five American homes possessed one.\n\nSome organisations, such as NBC, attempted to draw away some of the rapidly escalating advertising funds from the television network by launching radio programmes such as The Big Show, a $50,000-a-time, 90-minute extravaganza hosted on Sunday evenings by the no-holds-barred Tallulah Bankhead. This featured the most dazzling array of stars ever assembled in a single studio, from all walks of life. The likes of Bing Crosby, Frank Sinatra and \u00c9dith Piaf were treated with the utmost respect, but Tallulah went out on a limb to offend artistes she regarded as 'jokes'. Ethel Merman, whose contract insisted that no reference be made to her age, was greeted with, 'Hello, Ethel, darling. And may I say, you don't look a day over 60!' Tallulah might only have been ribbing when she threatened to inform her listeners on live radio that Elizabeth had once been married to 'the biggest man in the hotel trade' \u2013 an indiscreet reference to Nicky Hilton's legendary endowment, which she had personally sampled. Even so, Elizabeth was taking no chances, and Tallulah got to 'interrogate' his stepmother\/mistress Zsa Zsa Gabor instead.\n\nWith profits plummeting as more and more people stayed home to watch television, big changes were being effected by the studio, particularly at MGM. Louis B. Mayer, the invincible tyrant who had made every star but Garbo quake in their boots and whose health was starting to fail, resigned in 1951 and was replaced by the much younger Dore Schary, who had joined MGM as a scriptwriter in 1937. Schary, to cut down on costs, was forced to release some of his major stars so that they could work freelance, including Spencer Tracy, Clark Gable and Greer Garson. MGM and the other studios compensated for their losses by searching beyond the confines of Hollywood for 'package deals' \u2013 outfits comprising directors, producers, lead players, scriptwriters and cameramen, mostly from Europe. Though Elizabeth and her contemporaries might not yet have been aware of the fact, fierce competition was just around the corner \u2013 a whole galaxy of stars who were not just pretty faces, but considerably more talented than their American counterparts were on their way: Leslie Caron, Gina Lollobrigida, Vittorio Gassman, Hildegarde Knef, Juliette Gr\u00e9co, G\u00e9rard Philipe and sex-kitten Brigitte Bardot. In short, for every contract player the studio placed on suspension for not toeing the line, two more were waiting in the wings.\n\nIt might well be that Elizabeth was threatened with suspension when she tried to get out of going to England to do Ivanhoe, claiming that she had suffered a nervous breakdown \u2013 true \u2013 but when her pleas fell on deaf ears, following a brief sojourn in New York with Montgomery Clift, she elected to soldier on. On 18 June 1951, she sailed on the Libert\u00e9, accompanied by her secretary Peggy Rutledge and MGM publicist Malvina Pumphrey, who had been instructed to keep an eye on her. No sooner had she settled into her London hotel suite than she received a call from Michael Wilding. Sara Taylor later claimed (in an August 1952 interview with Motion Picture) that she had encouraged Elizabeth to set her sights on Wilding \u2013 another 'tall tale' considering that Sara had bemoaned the family losing out on Nicky Hilton's wealth, and Wilding was not a wealthy man by any means.\n\nLike Howard Hughes before him, Wilding had been monitoring Elizabeth's progress from afar, though not for the same selfish reasons. He invited her to dinner, and, as per usual for her, it was love at first sight. Over the next two months, the pair were rarely apart when she was not working on Ivanhoe.\n\nBorn in Westcliff-on-Sea in 1912, Michael Wilding had spent much of his childhood in Russia, where his father had worked for British Intelligence. Upon leaving the prestigious Christ's Hospital, otherwise known as the Bluecoat School, he had aspired to become an artist, but the acting bug had bitten, and he had made his debut in Pastorale, an Austrian film, in 1933. Dashing and debonair, with a clipped accent and slightly slurred (on account of epilepsy) delivery, he had teamed up with Anna Neagle for a tremendously successful series of post-war sugary romantic comedies \u2013 most notably Spring in Park Lane (1948) and Maytime in Mayfair (1949) \u2013 directed by Neagle's husband, Herbert Wilcox. All three were insufferable snobs but curiously had mass appeal with the working classes, whom they had always looked down upon.\n\nWilding had had a very public affair with Marlene Dietrich, his recent co-star in Hitchcock's Stage Fright (1950), who was understandably peeved to have been shunted aside for a younger model. 'They said I was jealous because Elizabeth Taylor was much younger than me,' Marlene told me in 1990, 'but that's untrue. I was angry at the time because she wasn't a star, just a tart with breasts and very little talent. Her voice used to set my teeth on edge!' Wilding also had a lengthy off-on affair with Stewart Granger, who later sued Hedda Hopper for outing them in her autobiography. This relationship would continue well into his association with Elizabeth.\n\nWorried by the scandal that would erupt by her dating a man old enough to be her father, MGM's British representatives tried to fix Elizabeth up with golden-boy teen-idol Tab Hunter, who was in London shooting Saturday Island (1952). The move was an attempt to keep an allegedly salacious story out of the press and made this the third time Elizabeth had been used as a stooge-date for a gay man \u2013 one who would years later wear his sexuality with great pride. She enjoyed Hunter's company but made it clear that she was only interested in Wilding. At the end of August 1951, Elizabeth and Wilding became secretly engaged, mindless of the fact that he was still married to the actress Kay Young and that Elizabeth's own decree would not become absolute until January 1952. Also, as she was still under the age of 21, she would not be permitted to marry without her parents' permission. With this in mind, she had the gall to send a telegram home, signed 'Elizabeth and Michael Wilding'.\n\nIvanhoe was an entertaining slice of historical hokum, awash with dodgy wigs and false beards, the kind of fare that appealed to Saturday-morning matinees. Adapted from Sir Walter Scott's novel, it was 'Hollywoodised' and later denounced by Elizabeth as 'a piece of cachou'. It did well at the box office, however, and was nominated for best film at the Oscars in 1952, losing to The Greatest Show on Earth.\n\nRobert Taylor and George Sanders, at 40 and 45 respectively, were a little too old to play the swashbuckling hero and cheesy villain, de Bois-Guilbert, and Taylor's Nebraska drawl is out of place in medieval England. Elizabeth makes her appearance almost half an hour into the film as Rebecca of York, the 'Jewish infidel' who as an outsider must hide her face in public. Some of the anti-Semitic comments levelled at her transcend fiction, paralleling what was happening in Hollywood at the time, and make for uncomfortable viewing.\n\nHaving completed the film, and after spending a few days in the south of France, Elizabeth returned to New York and more shindigs with Montgomery Clift and Roddy McDowall. The trio stayed at the Plaza Hotel, where the management offered them a long-weekend suite free of charge in appreciation of the fabulous reviews earned by A Place in the Sun \u2013 although it was actually paid for by Paramount. Michael Wilding had asked Elizabeth to marry him, and, as had happened with Nicky Hilton, the sojourn appears to have been another attempt to 'cop out' on her accepting. In Montgomery Clift, Patricia Bosworth quotes an anonymous friend of the actor as telling her, 'I remember being at Monty's apartment when Elizabeth phoned from the Plaza, where she was staying, and begged him to reconsider marrying her before Wilding arrived in New York. Monty was sweet [in refusing], but adamant.'\n\nSara and Francis Taylor might not have entirely forgiven their daughter her trespasses, but MGM flew them to New York all the same. They were celebrating their silver-wedding anniversary, and for a couple of days everyone played happy families. There was controversy, however, after the Taylors left and Elizabeth, Monty and McDowall stayed on at the Plaza for another week \u2013 expecting Paramount to pick up the tab. Rather than pay the excess $2,500 \u2013 though goodness knows how they managed to run up such a bill in so little time \u2013 the trio moved to a cheaper hotel, where in a drunken spree they wrecked their room and ran up another bill. Feeling guilty, Elizabeth paid for the damage and bought gifts for those responsible for cleaning up after her.\n\nThen it was on to 'Chez Clift' and more newspaper headlines when Nicky Hilton breezed into town and invited Elizabeth to dinner for old time's sake. She accepted, the press were of course alerted and less than a week later she was photographed in the same restaurant with Michael Wilding \u2013 having learned of her latest 'calamity', Wilding felt that she might need a friendly shoulder to cry on.\n\nWilding had tagged along with Anna Neagle and Herbert Wilcox, who were in America to promote The Lady with the Lamp (1951), their sanitised version of the Florence Nightingale story in which Wilding had a cameo. MGM, who had condemned Elizabeth for her behaviour in New York, saw photographs of her wearing the sapphire ring Wilding had given her (paid for by Elizabeth herself, because his quickie divorce had left him broke) and now declared that she had gone too far by getting involved with a man who was too old for her. They were also annoyed that he was, like Nicky Hilton, a known bisexual \u2013 albeit without Hilton's thuggish traits \u2013 and, like Stanley Donen, very much married when his relationship with Elizabeth had begun. There were further complications when Elizabeth and Wilding were seen socialising with Jean Simmons and her husband Stewart Granger, the very man Wilding was suspected of having an affair with.\n\nDore Schary, who was proving only marginally more popular with his stars than Louis B. Mayer had been, worked behind the scenes, trying to ensure that the Wilcoxes' visit was briefer than planned, even if this meant 'pulling' their film. His plan backfired. When they and Wilding returned to London in the middle of February, Elizabeth gave the gossips something to talk about by travelling with them. She also gave every indication that she might be pregnant, particularly when Wilding announced that he was going to make 'an honest woman' out of her as soon as possible.\n\nHollywood was robbed of cashing in on the publicity this time around when Elizabeth married Michael Wilding on 21 February 1952, six days before her twentieth birthday. She had wanted the ceremony to take place at a church on Victor Cazalet's estate but was told that this would take around a month to organise. Although waiting would have been the respectful thing to do \u2013 King George VI had died two weeks earlier, and the capital was still in mourning \u2013 Elizabeth would not hear of it. She was too impatient to wait and, in any case, would not be told what to do, neither then nor in the future.\n\nThe ten-minute ceremony took place at Caxton Hall. Because he claimed he was 'counting the pennies', Wilding accepted the Wilcoxes' offer to pay for everything, including the reception at Claridge's. Elizabeth financed the honeymoon and set a precedent for this particular marriage: each time she saw an expensive bauble that she liked but which Wilding could not afford, she paid for it herself and told everyone that it had come from him.\n\nThe bride wore another Helen Rose creation. The Wilcoxes were witnesses, whilst Ben Goetz (the head of British MGM) and his wife stood in for Elizabeth's parents, who did not attend. Howard Taylor had wanted to be there but was doing military service in Korea. Outside the registry office, the Wildings were cheered by 3,000 fans, many wearing black armbands. And as had happened on the 'happiest day' of her life with Nicky Hilton, Elizabeth delivered the speech, variations of which would crop up over the years: 'All I want is to be Michael's wife and have his children. I'm never going to put my career first!'\n\nThe honeymoon \u2013 two weeks in the French Alps and innumerable gratis society parties \u2013 is said to have been blissful; certainly, there were no reported arguments. Another month was spent in his plush flat in Mayfair's Bruton Street \u2013 according to Wilding, 'I was learning Elizabeth the rudiments of the housewife!' Sara Taylor scoffed at this and in interviews repeated what she had told Photoplay in September 1951: 'What she can't do around the house includes almost everything you could mention.' When the Daily Express's David Lewin asked Elizabeth if she really was intent on relinquishing her career, she as per usual piped up with the first thing that came into her head: 'A career is not all that important, anyway!'\n\nThen, it was back home and back to work. MGM had heard the rumour that the fiercely independent, anti-Hollywood Montgomery Clift had tried to persuade Elizabeth to drop off the studio-system bandwagon and spread her wings \u2013 or rebel against it, as he had, and accept only the roles she really wanted. They therefore upped her salary to $6,000 a week, loaned her $50,000 for the house in Beverly Hills that had taken her fancy and offered her husband a $3,000-a-week three-year contract, which he certainly did not merit at the time. Prior to leaving England, Wilding also received a \u00a340,000 tax demand that Elizabeth is thought to have paid.\n\nLike the proverbial fish out of water, Michael Wilding did not make it big in Hollywood. His first film there, opposite Greer Garson in The Law and the Lady (1951), was a hopeless rehash of Joan Crawford's The Last of Mrs Cheyney (1937) and saw both leads panned by the critics. His second (of which more later) was Torch Song (1953) with Crawford herself. It was a part that any good-looking actor with a British accent could have played \u2013 it was Crawford's film, period.\n\nElizabeth's first film as Mrs Wilding was the portentously titled The Girl Who had Everything (1953), perhaps MGM's way of warning her, with the emphasis being on the past tense, what would happen if she failed to knuckle down to marriage number two. Like the Wilding outing, it was a rewrite of an earlier smash, A Free Soul, which had earned plaudits for Cark Gable, Norma Shearer and Lionel Barrymore in 1931. Elizabeth plays rich-girl Jean Latimer, who falls for a handsome Latino (Fernando Lamas), becomes his mistress, then finds out he is a crook being hunted by mobsters who eventually kill him. There is also a very bold suggestion for the time of an incestuous relationship between Jean and her father, played by William Powell. However, with Lamas attempting to step into Gable's shoes, even though he possessed not one fraction of his raw animal magnetism, and Elizabeth shrieking much of the time and merely looking decorative, the film was nothing to write home about.\n\nIn fact, so far as MGM were concerned, Elizabeth had stepped out of line by getting pregnant within two months of her wedding and not announcing her condition until well into the shooting of the film. And rather than grant her maternity leave, as any reputable employer would, Dore Schary put her on suspension as soon as the film was in the can. Unusually, though, rather than stop her salary, they trimmed it to $2,000 a week.\n\nMichael Wilding also suffered Schary's wrath for failing to toe the line. When he was offered a part in Latin Lovers (1953) with Lana Turner and Ricardo Montalban, he criticised the script and refused to report to the set until his lines had been changed. With no success in Hollywood and while enjoying a much larger salary than most established character actors, Wilding's should have been a case of beggars not being choosers. He, however, was Elizabeth Taylor's husband and considered himself to be on a higher pedestal than most mortals, which was why Schary opted to bring him back to earth with a bang. Wilding was replaced by John Lund in The Latin Lover then suspended without pay until the picture was completed.\n\nMontgomery Clift was also having a rough time finding good parts after A Place in the Sun, though this was mostly his own fault. He had turned down Sunset Boulevard (1950), declaring that the scenario of the fading star falling for the younger man smacked of his own relationship with Libby Holman. Monty had played the tortured priest in Hitchcock's I Confess (1953) with great conviction, and he had moved audiences to tears with his portrayal of the ill-fated Prewitt in From Here to Eternity (1953), securing Frank Sinatra's comeback by getting him a part in the film, since which time he had rejected one script after another \u2013 over 50 by the end of 1952!\n\nAlthough Monty had refused to see Elizabeth during her marriage to Nicky Hilton \u2013 he had not been far out by giving them just six months \u2013 he took to Michael Wilding and was a frequent visitor to their Hollywood home. Cynics suggested at the time that Monty had some kind of ulterior motive, that despite his homosexuality he believed that he would marry Elizabeth some day and that in the meantime he was looking out for her. The aforementioned anonymous friend interviewed by Patricia Bosworth went one step further by suggesting that Monty and Wilding were actually competing for Elizabeth's affections, concluding, 'Monty felt very loving and protective and rather superior when it came to Elizabeth Taylor.'\n\nThere is little doubting that Monty's professional fussiness rubbed off on Elizabeth during his extended stays with the Wildings. She turned down All the Brothers were Valiant (1953) with Robert Taylor and Stewart Granger \u2013 as it happened, another paltry rehash of a Joan Crawford film (Across to Singapore, 1928) \u2013 and Roman Holiday (1953), later a huge success for Audrey Hepburn. MGM rewarded Elizabeth by extending her suspension.\n\nOn 6 January 1953, Michael Howard Wilding, Elizabeth's first child, was born by Caesarean section, and the press reported Taylor and Wilding 'deliriously happy and in love'. Montgomery Clift showered the baby with gifts and constructed a 'mini-nursery' in his apartment for when Elizabeth came to stay. MGM released Elizabeth from her suspension only to extend her punishment by loaning her out to Paramount for Elephant Walk (1954). The theme of the film was something of a cross between Rebecca (1940) and the later Giant. Elizabeth plays Ruth Wiley, the new wife of a tea planter (Peter Finch) who has tremendous difficulty fitting in when she and her husband relocate to a plantation in Ceylon. That she was miscast goes without saying, particularly in the scenes where her husband eschews his marital bed to spend time with his drinking cronies because he does not find her attractive. What red-blooded male, the critics unanimously demanded, would not wish to spend the night with Elizabeth Taylor?\n\nHedda Hopper suggested the title of the film most appropriate, because Elizabeth's weight had ballooned to 150 pounds following the birth of her son. Elizabeth asked for a salary increase, which was refused. Indeed, she was told to consider herself fortunate to be employed, period. Neither had she been first choice for the film. British actress Vivien Leigh, then married to Laurence Olivier, had completed most of the location scenes before collapsing from nervous exhaustion, in what turned out to be the onset of mental illness. Elizabeth's hell-raiser co-stars Peter Finch and Dana Andrews recognised her as a 'regular guy' and invited her to join their 'Fuck You Club' \u2013 a select group of extras and studio personnel who made it a preoccupation to shock everyone in sight with their foul language and atrocious table manners. For the rest of her life, Elizabeth would belch loudly and break wind in front of dinner guests she believed needed to be put in their place. MGM received $150,000 for loaning her out, around eight times the salary she received from Paramount, and the budget eventually soared to a record (for that studio) $3 million. In an attempt to save on expenditure, Paramount retained all of Vivien Leigh's long shots, though they are thought to have coughed up for the medical expenses when Elizabeth was hospitalised upon her return to Hollywood. A wind-machine had blown a piece of grit into her right eye, and this had become so deeply embedded that surgery was required to remove it, after which there were complications when an ulcer developed. Elizabeth later recalled that she had been lucky not to lose the eye. The bandages were barely removed when she began work on her next film, Rhapsody (1954). It is interesting to note that her co-star for this should have been one Richard Burton, but he had been reassigned to The Robe (1953) on account of the delay caused by Elizabeth's injury.\n\nMichael Wilding, meanwhile, had been given the invidious task of supporting Joan Crawford in her first Technicolor film, Torch Song. Joan played musical-comedy star Jenny Stewart \u2013 an amalgamation of all the gay icons of the day, collectively baptised as 'The Victory Red Brigade' owing to their predilection for the famous Elizabeth Arden lipstick. \u00c9dith Piaf, Maria Callas, Bette Davis, Judy Garland, Tallulah Bankhead and Joan herself were rarely seen in public without lashings of the stuff. Wilding played her pianist love interest who had been blinded during the war. The film was shot in just 24 days and was directed by Charles Walters, who had triumphed with Judy's Easter Parade (1948) and Meet Me in St Louis. Walters had planned as near as possible to have an all gay\/bisexual production and to present its male characters as essentially weak, whilst the Crawford character would monopolise the proceedings, again reflecting real life. His big mistake was in failing to realise that Joan Crawford\/Jenny Stewart would never have given a meek, mumbling and mild man such as Michael Wilding the time of day, let alone lean on him for support.\n\nJoan made it more than clear that she did not want Wilding anywhere near the picture, but the $125,000 fee from MGM helped change her mind. Even so, there were problems as soon as shooting began \u2013 caused by Elizabeth, who was naturally apprehensive about her husband working with a nymphomaniac renowned for sleeping with her leading men. In Joan's defence, however, it must be said that it was only through Elizabeth's pushing that Wilding had been given the part in the first place. She was shooting Rhapsody on a nearby lot, so she made a point of checking up on Wilding every day to ensure that Joan was not leading him astray. What she did not know was that the director had set his sights on him, though nothing appears to have come of this.\n\nSome years later, Joan told Roy Newquist in Conversations with Joan Crawford (Citadel, 1980), 'I think Elizabeth Taylor, in one of her rare good films [Rhapsody], is great to watch.' In the spring of 1953, however, she regarded the young star as an upstart, publicly referring to her as 'Princess Brat', and took exception to Elizabeth 'swanning' onto her set, without permission, and ignoring her. Joan sent a message to Elizabeth via her publicist which read, 'You tell that little bitch never to walk in here again without acknowledging me. I want you to teach her some manners!' She then posted a guard at the soundstage door \u2013 at her own expense \u2013 to prevent Elizabeth from getting in.\n\nElizabeth tried to fight back but, aside from her colourful language, was no match for the ferocious, hugely feared but respected Joan, a far greater actress than she would ever be. When Hedda Hopper's syndicated column reported Elizabeth as having said, 'Mike Wilding is playing a blind man \u2013 that way he won't have to look at Crawford during their movie,' Joan hit back with an unprintable comment about Elizabeth almost losing her sight in Elephant Walk. Some years later, when spiralling production costs, largely on account of Elizabeth's illnesses and indispositions, threatened Twentieth Century Fox with bankruptcy and saw them laying off 200 workers, Joan recalled Elizabeth's behaviour on the set of Torch Song and told reporters (Sean Considine, Bette & Joan: The Divine Feud), 'Miss Taylor is a spoilt, indulgent child \u2013 a blemish on public decency.'\n\n# FIVE\n\nA DATE WITH JIMMY   \nAND ROCK\n\nIN RHAPSODY, ELIZABETH PLAYED LOUISE DURANT, YET another spoilt rich girl, who flees the comfortable family nest to fall for a couple of self-centred musicians, played by John Ericson and Vittorio Gassman. At that time, Gassman, a brooding, exceedingly handsome slab of beefcake who had recently married Shelley Winters, was Italy's leading actor. He should have been perfect as the moody violinist, but, like everyone else, he appears to be stumbling around the set much of the time.\n\nNaturally, Louise marries the wrong man (Ericson), realises her mistake when he turns to drink and leaves him for his rival. However, because MGM was still ruled by the Motion Picture Code of Decency at that time, she eventually learns the error of her ways and returns to her husband. The film was best summed up by the New York Herald Tribune, which observed, 'Her animation is only the animation of the doll with the strings being pulled behind the scenes . . . even her evident and genuine beauty seems at times to be fake.' Elizabeth and Ericson merely shrugged off the bad reviews, but for Vittorio Gassman it was the last straw. Like Michael Wilding, he had seen his roles deteriorating since coming to Hollywood; by the end of the year, he would have returned to Europe and his former glory. As for Wilding, after Torch Song he would soon revert to his usual Hollywood tosh \u2013 he looks positively embarrassing in tights as Prince Charming in The Glass Slipper (1955).\n\nElizabeth always claimed to have hated Beau Brummell (1954), in which she starred opposite Stewart Granger, still reputedly 'friendly' with Michael Wilding. First filmed in 1924 with real-life Lothario John Barrymore in the title role, as far as costume dramas go it is not that bad, but most of the critics gave it the thumbs down on account of 'regular guy' Granger playing a dandy, the adviser to an even more affected Prince of Wales (later George IV), aka Peter Ustinov. As his paramour, Lady Patricia, Elizabeth was poor \u2013 'Decorative, but something less than usual as a heroine,' opined the New York Herald Tribune. It was filmed in England during the summer of 1953, and the next year it would be selected for the Royal Command Film Performance.\n\nIn the September, leaving Michael junior with Elizabeth's in-laws, the Wildings flew from London to Copenhagen for a series of personal appearances \u2013 for some inexplicable reason, the very bland The Girl Who had Everything was packing Scandinavian cinemas. No sooner had they checked into their hotel than Elizabeth fell victim to viral flu \u2013 worse than this, a Danish consultant diagnosed mild tachycardia. Fearing she might die on the plane home, she sent for her baby and recovered at once. Next, the happy family headed for Madrid \u2013 where Elizabeth threw a fit at a bullfight upon discovering that they killed the bull \u2013 then Capri, where she upset the customers at Gracie Fields' La Canzone del Mare complex by ignoring the hostess and ordering her staff around.\n\nMGM were clearly intent on getting their money's worth out of Elizabeth \u2013 before she developed a genuine illness and actually died on them, according to one anonymous spokesman, which was perhaps being a little too cruel \u2013 for no sooner had Beau Brummell wrapped than she was rushed into the screen adaptation of F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Last Time I Saw Paris with Van Johnson, her fourth film in less than a year.\n\nTold mostly in flashback, it is a good film that might have been better with a more charismatic leading man \u2013 Johnson's utter lack of warmth prevents the audience from ever sympathising with him. Elizabeth, on the other hand, is at her most alluring as doomed American in Paris, Helen Ellswirth. The soundtrack of contemporary French chansons is mesmerising \u2013 composed not by the credited Conrad Salinger, but by Charles Trenet and Henri Contet. Elizabeth also requested that her favourite song at the time, \u00c9dith Piaf's 'La vie en rose', should be included.\n\nElizabeth surprised everyone by getting along with the film's director Richard Brooks, a man almost as renowned for his harsh approach and vulgarity as he was for his gritty scripts and ace direction. Brooks had co-scripted Key Largo (1948) and would go on to win an Oscar for Elmer Gantry (1960), but like Michael Curtiz had a knack of bullying his actresses in an attempt to draw better performances out of them. Alexis Smith, Pier Angeli and the equally foul-mouthed Bette Davis had given as good as they got, maintaining that complaining about Brooks's anti-social behaviour only made matters worse. Elizabeth, it is reported, merely ignored him.\n\nProbably still acting on Montgomery Clift's advice, Elizabeth turned down The Barefoot Contessa (1954) \u2013 which subsequently went to Ava Gardner \u2013 whilst her husband went one better. Wilding denounced the part of the pharoah in The Egyptian (1954) as a 'stuffy nightshirt role' and set about finding a role on the legitimate stage, which he said would better befit his talents \u2013 only to reject, earning Rex Harrison's eternal gratitude, the part of Professor Henry Higgins in a nationwide tour of My Fair Lady. When later asked why he had refused the role of a lifetime, he merely shrugged his shoulders and quipped, 'I guess I just must be lazy!'\n\nThe Wildings' second son, Christopher Edward (the Edward after Montgomery Clift, whose first name this was), was born on 27 February 1955 \u2013 once again by Caesarean section \u2013 it is said so that Elizabeth might have the ultimate 23rd birthday present. By now, their spending was spiralling out of control. However, claiming that their current home was now beneath their 'ultra-celebrity couple' status, the Wildings persuaded MGM to extend their loan to enable them to relocate to a luxury steel, glass and baked-earth residence at 1375 Beverly Estate Drive, in the then largely untouched Benedict Canyon. Designed by Los Angeles architect George McLean and on the market for $150,000, one of its sheer glass walls overlooked the valley below. In next to no time, visitors would be describing the house as filthy on account of the menagerie they had amassed \u2013 cats, dogs and ducks, which were given the run of the place and not house-trained. Wilding was oblivious to the mess and his wife's sloppy habits. 'She hangs her clothes on the floor and is obsessed with collecting magazines with her lovely face on their covers,' he told Louella Parsons. Most of the time all he was interested in was hanging around the pool, smoking his pipe and painting.\n\nIt was only when she learned that Grace Kelly had been pencilled in for one of the leads in George Stevens's Giant, which had already spent three years on the stocks, that Elizabeth became interested. The fact that the film was to be made by Warner Brothers interested MGM even more. Elizabeth's last few films for the studio had been deemed mediocre \u2013 Hollywood was still using A Place in the Sun as a yardstick to measure her by. Dore Schary was hoping that as a loan-out she would bring in a nice return and not be in a position to demand a salary rise or cause them any problems with her convoluted personal life. Schary pulled all the necessary strings, and she got the part.\n\nDespite his near-legendary status, George Stevens preferred the title of 'independent director'. As such, he lacked the financial backing of a major studio. Unable to afford the film rights to Edna Ferber's epic bestselling novel (20 million copies sold by 2004), which critiqued the all-American dream, he formed a profit-sharing corporation with 67-year-old Ferber and producer Henry Ginsberg to get the project off the ground. Alan Ladd and Clark Gable had been considered for the central role of racist bigot Bick Benedict but were dismissed as being 'over the hill'. William Holden had also been tested, but the part was given to Rock Hudson, Universal's resident B-movie beefcake who had impressed everyone with his recent moving performance opposite Jane Wyman in Magnificent Obsession (1954).\n\nWith Elizabeth signed to play Bick's long-suffering wife Lesley, Montgomery Clift was signed to be the film's third lead, the rebellious outsider Jett Rink, more or less upon her recommendation, only for him to be declared too much of a risk by Warner Brothers' insurance company on account of his much-publicised drink-and-drugs dependency. Instead, Stevens brought in his biggest scoop: 24-year-old James Dean, straight out of the yet-to-be-released Rebel Without a Cause (1955). Completing what would be the ultimate exercise in camp iconography were Mercedes McCambridge, Joan Crawford's pseudo-lesbian sparring partner from Johnny Guitar (1954), James Dean's 16-year-old lover Sal Mineo, who had starred with him in Rebel, Dennis Hopper and Baby Doll (1956) sex-kitten Carroll Baker.\n\nThe interiors of Giant, regarded by critics as George Stevens's finest hour, began shooting in Los Angeles in May 1955. As had happened when Monty Clift had monopolised A Place in the Sun (and, of course, on account of the tragedy just around the corner), it was James Dean's film. Although only East of Eden (1955) had been released at that time and the public at large were yet to be captivated by his spellbinding talent, Jimmy was already being variously hailed as a lost cause, a cock-hungry schizophrenic and a pre-'Brat Pack' prima donna whose only truly happy but not entirely sane moments occurred when he was creating merry hell. Like Valentino before him, he was the supreme control freak whose every nuance and photogenic gesture had to be meticulously rehearsed and perfected.\n\nLike Elizabeth, Jimmy was stubbornly independent and never let the studios push him around as they did everybody else. When MGM tried to prevent him from cruising for rough trade \u2013 the rougher the better \u2013 Jimmy sought out his own bizarre heterosexual conquests: Maila Nurmi, television's Vampira, and, according to lover James Gilmore (James Dean, Robson, 1995), a one-legged woman with whom Jimmy had liked to watch Gilmore have sex \u2013 but only after he had drawn a face on her stump. And yet James Dean's single-handed championing of American youth at a time when the country was recuperating from the ravages of McCarthyism and many parents failing to furnish their offspring with decent role models, made him the icon of an entire generation. Elizabeth Taylor and Rock Hudson might have considered themselves the essential ingredients of Giant during the first few weeks of shooting, but when Jimmy joined the production for the locations in Marfa, Texas, they and their peers very soon realised that regardless of the fact that his screen time would run to just twenty minutes of a three-hour-plus film, Jimmy was the icing on the cake. His chance remark on the set one day to buddy Dennis Hopper, comparing himself with his two idols, would soon enter Hollywood folklore: 'You know, I think I've got a chance to really make it because in this hand I'm holding Marlon Brando saying \"Fuck you!\" and in the other hand saying \"Please forgive me!\" is Montgomery Clift. Fuck you, please forgive me, fuck you. And somewhere in between is James Dean!'\n\nElizabeth, with her innate sense of seeking out men who were different, got on like a house on fire with James Dean and Rock Hudson, though initially there was no love lost between the two male actors, with Rock calling Jimmy 'that little scruff' and Jimmy denouncing Rock as 'having the acting talent of a lump of wood'. Then \u2013 and for the rest of her life as the undisputed champion of the oppressed, troubled homosexual \u2013 she comforted and defended the two men with unswerving loyalty. Just as Elizabeth had done with Monty Clift, she would embrace Dean and Hudson as surrogate sons, though they too were older than her. She was also one of the few who knew at the time why Rock was being pressurised into courting his manager's secretary, Phyllis Gates \u2013 to prevent the trash magazines from publishing stories about his homosexuality.\n\nUnaware that Montgomery Clift had a monopoly on the name, Rock baptised his new friend 'Bessie', and she addressed him as 'Rockabye'. Hudson and Phyllis Gates spent many contented hours with the Wildings at their Benedict Canyon home. Elizabeth's theory, drummed into her by Monty, was that they should inject a little 'Method' into their on-screen performances \u2013 in other words, in order to find out how they would get along as Mr and Mrs Benedict, they would have to spend as much off-screen time together as possible. This involved getting drunk a lot and regularly throwing up on the set \u2013 and Rock and Phyllis being third parties to the Wildings' rows as their marriage crumbled, partly on account of their incompatibility and age difference, and partly on account of the press. Confidential \u2013 the doyenne of the trash mags, which had been trying for some time to out Rock Hudson, hence the set-up with Phyllis Gates \u2013 had recently published a shattering expos\u00e9 on Michael Wilding, claiming that he had organised a noisy pool party complete with strippers whilst his wife had been away filming on location.\n\nIt may well be that Elizabeth calmed the waters between Rock Hudson and James Dean, who were worlds apart professionally. Jimmy's Method training \u2013 in the same school that had produced Brando, Clift, Lee J. Cobb and a handful of distinguished thespians who had initially triumphed on the stage \u2013 had taught him that if the two characters hated each other on the screen, as Bick Benedict and Jett Rink did, then it would also be necessary for them to hate each other in the rehearsal room. Rock, on the other hand, had graduated from the Henry Willson Academy of Glamour. The academy was run by a gay, sexually voracious agent named Henry Willson, whose truc was to seduce every one of the 50 or so young actors who ended up on his roster \u2013 then threaten them with press exposure unless they toed the line. Rock had used sex as his primary means to achieve fame; acting ability had been picked up on the way \u2013 or, as in the case of other Willson recruits Tab Hunter, Guy Madison and several others, not at all. Jimmy, by far the better actor, resented this. However, he was also very obviously attracted to Rock, the superbly packaged slab of beefcake. That Rock and Jimmy had an albeit brief sexual relationship, almost certainly instigated by Elizabeth's machinations, is more than likely. Speaking to Star magazine in 1987, she said, 'After I found out the truth about Rock, I began to feel a strong affection for Jimmy. But my feminine intuition told me that a mysterious understanding was being born between the two actors, and at times I felt like an uncomfortable third party.'\n\nThe Marfa locations for Giant were dominated by the huge $200,000-neo-Gothic Benedict mansion, erected to rise spookily out of the blistering desert sands and allowed to crumble back into them once the film was finished. Shooting was hampered by fierce heat and a severe water shortage that resulted in the consumption of too much alcohol \u2013 and frayed tempers.\n\nTo James Dean's way of thinking, it was possible for him to walk out of a room ten minutes after having had sex with a co-star, as happened with Rock Hudson, and immediately begin attacking him physically and verbally in a scene. Compared to the six-foot-four-inch, two-hundred-and-twenty-five-pound Rock, Jimmy was diminutive and wiry, but immensely strong and agile, wholly fearless and capable of challenging any man to a fight, even if he knew he was going to come off the loser. Elizabeth was witness to much of this and is said to have derived enormous pleasure out of watching Jimmy 'psyching' up for a scene \u2013 stomping his feet on the ground for ten minutes at a time, then tearing around the set screaming like a banshee! \u2013 and the effect this had on onlookers. Likewise, the entire cast was irked with George Stevens's habit of demanding that everyone be on the set in full costume from the crack of dawn, even if they were not going to be called for a scene until later in the day. On top of this, he would shoot scenes dozens, sometimes hundreds, of times, from every conceivable angle, often using over a thousand feet of film for a few seconds of screen time. For Giant, Stevens used 700,000 feet of film, of which 25,000 feet formed the finished 198-minute print.\n\nEdna Ferber had based her book on the real-life rags-to-riches story of Texan oil magnate Glenn McCarthy, the aforementioned friend of Nicky Hilton. The film also inspired the glossy television soap-opera Dallas and its resident tyrant, J.R. Ewing \u2013 the latter taking his initials from those above the podium from which Jett Rink delivers his rambling, slurred speech in the film's final.\n\nAs had happened with Monty Clift in A Place in the Sun, there are many thinly veiled references to Elizabeth's off-screen relationships with James Dean and Rock Hudson, many of these sailing above the heads of the general public. When wealthy Texan Jordan 'Bick' Benedict (Hudson) arrives at the Maryland home of the lovely Leslie Linton (Elizabeth) to purchase the black stallion she is exercising, he drawls, 'That sure is a beautiful animal,' not meaning the horse. Later, she poses the question that almost got Rock outed by the press: 'Why aren't you married, Bick?' In the next scene, she is his wife and kills the off-screen rumours: if Rock Hudson could lust after Elizabeth Taylor, there was no way he could be gay!\n\nSimilarly, in a scene buzzing with sexual tension \u2013 the only one in the film \u2013 played against the haunting score by Dimitri Tomkin, Leslie sees a picture of herself (actually an Elizabeth Taylor publicity shot) on the wall of bad-boy Jett Rink's (Dean) shack and realises that he has a crush on her. Before making the film, Jimmy had told a friend that nothing had turned him on quite so much as the Victory Red-painted mouths of Elizabeth, \u00c9dith Piaf and Tallulah Bankhead, and that nothing would have given him more pleasure than having all three fellate him. Repeating her earlier question to Bick, she asks, 'When are you going to get married, Jett?' Jimmy, unlike Rock, never hid his life under a bushel, of course, and he responds only with his eyes. In a poignant moment, he serves her tea, taking (unscripted) a large slug of liquor to give him courage.\n\nJimmy was so nervous about shooting his first scene with Elizabeth \u2013 the zenith of which sees him standing in his famous mock-Crucifixion pose with his rifle threaded between his outstretched arms behind his lowered head, whilst Elizabeth emulates Mary Magdalene by crouching at his feet \u2013 that before the camera started rolling, he strolled out of its range to face the huge crowd of onlookers that George Stevens had allowed on to the lot. Smiling coyly, he unfastened his 'shit kicker' denims, urinated, then shook his penis at the sea of astonished onlookers. Later, he told Dennis Hopper, 'I figured that if I could pee in front of 4,000 people, then I could do anything on film.' (British journalist Donald Zec was afforded a rare interview at around this time and in his memoirs, Put the Knife in Gently [Robson, 2003], said that Jimmy had wanted to stand on a Hollywood rooftop and urinate upon the throng below. And whilst most people found Jimmy fascinating but a little odd, Zec observed, 'I found [him to be] a scruffy, disgruntled misfit, manifestly in need of a bath.')\n\nSoon after this point in the film, Giant starts to lose its credibility, particularly in the scenes where the characters have aged. James Dean relied on Method to age him, telling George Stevens, 'Wrinkles come only with good acting.' With his ever-present shades, greying temples and receding hairline, he looks authentic \u2013 whereas Elizabeth and Hudson resemble crude caricatures, with absolutely no facial lines and blue hair! Even so, the film remains a masterpiece, if only for the aforementioned scenes.\n\nSurprisingly, considering the on- and off-set gossip surrounding Rock Hudson and James Dean (particularly with Jimmy's boast to all and sundry, 'I've had my cock sucked by five of the biggest names in Hollywood \u2013 all of them guys!'), it was the rumour that Rock was having an affair with Elizabeth that brought Phyllis Gates and Michael Wilding rushing to Marfa halfway through Giant \u2013 the latter accompanied by their two children to remind her that she was still a wife and mother. Elizabeth later confessed that she had been attracted to Rock but that like Montgomery Clift he would never be hers other than platonically. After his death, she recalled, 'I looked at Rock, so handsome and so apparently masculine. But I soon realised that no woman would succeed in igniting his enthusiasm.'\n\nSome 30 years down the line, Phyllis Gates confessed that she had been worrying over nothing. Writing in her memoirs, My Husband, Rock Hudson (Doubleday, 1987), she observed, 'Was I jealous? Not really. I realised that no normal male could resist the fabulous charms of Elizabeth Taylor.' And referring to the brevity of Elizabeth's relationships and marriages, she added coyly, 'If there had been an affair, I doubted that it would last.'\n\nElizabeth rejoined Michael Wilding and the children in Hollywood, though the death knell had long since sounded on their marriage. On 30 September 1955, she and the whole of America were stunned by the death of James Dean. Though Jimmy's personal life had always been in turmoil, the real passion in his life over the last few months had been 'Little Bastard', his Porsche Spyder \u2013 top speed 170 mph \u2013 which his Warner Brothers contract had prohibited him from driving whilst shooting Giant. Jimmy had been scheduled to race professionally (he had won numerous trophies) at Salinas a few days after finishing the film, and, ironically, his last celluloid appearance was for a road-safety commercial. 'Take it easy driving,' he told actor Gig Young on behalf of the National Highway Committee. 'The life you might save might be mine!'\n\nIn the fading evening light that had rendered his silver Spyder almost invisible, Jimmy and his mechanic friend Rolf Wutherich crashed into another car at the intersection of Highways 41 and 466 near Chalome. Wutherich was thrown clear, but Jimmy died almost instantly, throwing open the floodgates to the most intense, unprecedented wave of grief and idolatry since the sudden death of Rudolph Valentino in 1926.\n\nJimmy's future had been well assured, with a $1-million contract in the pipeline for nine films to be made over the next seven years, beginning with Somebody Up There Likes Me (1956), the biopic of boxer Rocky Graziano. His death affected everyone who had known him personally. Montgomery Clift, who had been desperate to have an affair with Jimmy, is reported to have 'thrown up over his satin bed sheets'. In her book, Phyllis Gates claimed to have found Rock Hudson sobbing like a child \u2013 his character had detested Jimmy's in the film, and he was paranoid that the public would think him pleased that his 'enemy' was dead. Elizabeth was so overcome with shock that she had to be sedated and hospitalised overnight.\n\nWith a wealth of dubbing and retakes to be done before George Stevens wrapped up his production, the cast of Giant were allowed little time for mourning. Not one of the company attended Jimmy's funeral the following week in his home town of Fairmont, Indiana, though many sent flowers and messages of condolence to his family. Following an on-set altercation with Stevens during the dubbing \u2013 over the director's comments that Jimmy's death had not been unexpected on account of his reckless driving \u2013 Elizabeth collapsed with abdominal pains, resulting in yet another two weeks' hospitalisation, leaving critics to make of this what they wanted. Most agreed that she had been best away from Jimmy's funeral, because her presence would have turned it into a circus. Jett Rink's drunken speech in the stateroom at the end of the film \u2013 a scene in which the effects of an all-night bender had left Jimmy's voice inaudible \u2013 was dubbed over by Nick Adams, his ex-lover who had appeared alongside him in Rebel Without a Cause.\n\nThe trash mags continued their attacks on Michael Wilding throughout the winter of 1955. Unable to credibly out him for his homosexual affairs now that he was married to the most voluptuous woman in Hollywood, they were similarly peeved that she was unhappily tied to a much older man of dubious talent. It mattered little that Wilding had been offered no roles to get his teeth into and prove his worth, as had happened in England. Rather than being portrayed as a 'deviant', he was depicted as the archetypal lecher, and the tabloids ran numerous 'exclusives' concerning his supposed poolside romps with strippers. Heading the pursuit was Confidential, whose motto 'Tells the Facts and Names the Names' appeared on the cover beneath the title. 'We all read it,' Marlene Dietrich told me. 'Not because it was any good \u2013 it was rubbish and worse than some of the garbage you get on news-stands nowadays \u2013 but to find out if you were in it. Sometimes you never had an inkling until it was too late.'\n\nConfidential had been launched in 1952 by Robert Harrison, whose 'brainwave' had come following the televised Senator Estes Kefauver crime investigations. According to Kefauver, America was grasped in a wave of vice, organised crime, corruption and gambling scams that was rapidly transforming it into a Mafia state. Harrison had elected to infiltrate and expose the nucleus of this 'den of iniquity' \u2013 Hollywood \u2013 and had thus far managed to keep ahead of orthodox scandalmongers Hopper, Parsons and Maxwell by employing unscrupulous methods. Neither was he too keen on checking the authenticity of his sources before running a particular story \u2013 usually alongside unflattering or suggestive photographs that frequently had nothing to do with the accompanying feature.\n\nIn 1954, Confidential was selling 4 million copies per issue, and Robert Harrison was doling out large amounts of cash to prostitutes of both sexes to coerce stars into compromising situations. Often a tiny microphone would be concealed in the bedroom, capturing not just the sex act itself, but the equally important post-coital small talk. Jealous or thwarted stars were encouraged to rubbish rivals whenever important parts were up for grabs so that they could step into their shoes. For 'special' cases, such as Errol Flynn (two-way mirrors), Rock Hudson and Elvis Presley (homosexuality), and Lana Turner (threesomes), Harrison furnished his 'detectives' with sophisticated miniature infrared cameras.\n\nFor Michael Wilding, Harrison had provided the strippers \u2013 failed bit-part players who needed the money. When it was reported back to him that this had caused a huge bust-up between Wilding and Elizabeth, the odious Harrison had the couple followed to Morocco, where Wilding was filming Zarak (1956) with Anita Ekberg and Victor Mature. Unable to link the Swedish actress with Wilding \u2013 she was about to marry the British actor Anthony Steele \u2013 Harrison printed a story hinting that Elizabeth had had a fling with Mature.\n\nThe source of the widening rift between the Wildings, of course, centred around his being compelled to walk in the shadow of his wife. In terms of their professional lives, he was a virtual nobody, the 'Mr Taylor' who could have resurrected his flagging career had he not been so lazy and fussy \u2013 the rejection of My Fair Lady being a prime example. Working with Elizabeth might have helped, but she does not appear to have wanted this \u2013 quite possibly because he was in his mid-40s and too old to play her love interest without looking ridiculous. Therefore, whilst he was seconded to dire television movies such as Verdict of Three (1958) and Danger Within (1959), Elizabeth was signed up for MGM's $5-million Civil War blockbuster Raintree County, billed as 'Gone with the Wind from the North's point of view', with her beloved Montgomery Clift. She was paid $100,000 \u2013 Monty, the biggest star, received three times this amount. Little did she know then that she would end up becoming his mentor and saviour.\n\n# SIX\n\nLIZZIE SCHWARTZKOPF,   \nMY JEWISH BROAD!\n\nMGM HAD WANTED Raintree County TO BE DIRECTED by Richard Brooks, who since last working with Elizabeth had triumphed with Blackboard Jungle (1955), a sizzling expos\u00e9 of the New York education system. Monty, however, wanted nothing to do with him. The studio next approached William Wyler, who had recently directed Friendly Persuasion (1956) \u2013 which Monty had turned down because he had not wanted to work for him! Therefore, in a typical Hollywood volte-face, considering their treatment of him during the McCarthy witch-hunt, MGM \u2013 this time with Monty's approval \u2013 brought in Edward Dmytryk, recently riding the crest of a popularity wave following the success of The Caine Mutiny (1954).\n\nMonty was about to enter that final phase later identified as 'the longest suicide in movie history'. He was still involved with singer Libby Holman, still surviving on a diet of pills, alcohol and rough trade, still refusing to 'sort out' his sexuality for Hollywood's benefit and still a massive box-office draw, as I Confess and From Here to Eternity had proved. Even so, in May 1954 he had rejected more lucrative offers (including East of Eden and High Noon, 1952) in favour of returning to Broadway for 80 sell-out performances of Chekov's The Seagull with his friend Kevin McCarthy, after which he had given every indication that he had turned his back on the movie industry. He had vented his spleen on the 'establishment' very publicly. Attending the premiere of Guys and Dolls (1955), he had stood up in the auditorium and bellowed, 'Brando is vomitable, and this goddam picture stinks!' before storming into the foyer and punching his fist through the display case containing photographs of the cast. Yet the worst said of him was when the press agent for the film observed, 'Montgomery Clift still radiates class, even when urinating in the gutter.'\n\nWhy Monty had chosen Raintree County is not difficult to discern: Ross Lockridge Jr, its author, had also found it tough handling fame and fortune. In 1947, Lockridge, an English teacher from Indiana, where the story is set, had won MGM's annual Best Novel Award for his 1,066-page blockbuster, collecting $150,000 and guaranteed film rights. The following year, aged just 34, he had committed suicide, since which time the script had lain gathering dust in a studio vault.\n\nMonty had called or written to Elizabeth almost every day since her marriage to Michael Wilding, and when visiting the couple, had frequently acted as intermediary during their now persistent quarrels. Sometimes he would spend time with one or the other on neutral territory, psychoanalysing the details of the latest crisis, but never taking sides. In his autobiography Apple Sauce (Allen and Unwin, 1982), Wilding called him 'an interpreter for two people who no longer spoke the same language'. Though he had known Elizabeth longer, Monty had tremendous respect for Wilding, probably on account of their common ground: sexuality, sophistication and theatrical training.\n\nSo far as Elizabeth was concerned, Monty was returning a favour. Time and time again, she had listened to and sympathised with his woes, ignoring the trash-mag innuendo that she and Monty might be having an affair, though Wilding himself was frequently questioned on the subject. Some years later, he told Monty's biographer, Robert LaGuardia, 'I was happy that she had such a dear friend, and I knew how important he was to her. I never felt that they were too close or anything like that.' Wilding knew, of course, that by this time Monty was exclusively gay, that there could never be anything physical between him and Elizabeth, and also that what they had, something she would never share with Wilding, went beyond the carnal.\n\nNeither was Elizabeth perturbed that Monty's name would be appearing above hers in the credits or that he was being paid more than her for his portrayal of John Shawnessy \u2013 in her opinion, he had worked hard to get to the top and deserved every cent. She severely criticised MGM for taking out special insurance on account of his 'delicate health' and in case he didn't finish the film \u2013 claiming that with her on his side, Monty would not falter. What she did not know was that a studio executive had visited Monty's New York brownstone to examine the contents of his 14-foot bathroom cabinet and had reported back that it contained 'every remedy known to mankind'. Even Monty's doctor friends were astonished by his knowledge of pills, potions and their various effects when combined. Monty also carried his infamous grey leather vanity case everywhere, a gift from an Italian lover, which contained thousands of pills of every kind.\n\nFor the duration of the shooting schedule, Monty rented a house in Dawn Ridge Road, not far from the Wildings' Benedict Canyon home. MGM, still reeling from James Dean's death \u2013 or rather the lost future revenue this had brought about \u2013 had provided Monty with round-the-clock chauffeurs so that he would not have to drive. Shooting commenced in April 1956, and the first few weeks are reported to have gone well, with Monty cutting down on his liquor consumption. He was, however, still taking prescription drugs, which Elizabeth later claimed she knew nothing about. One afternoon, director Edward Dmytryk was ordered to search his trailer and found 200 different types. Then came the reports of him flaking out in mid-conversation at dinner parties, with the other guests simply rolling him under the table or tucking him away in a corner of the room until he came round, rather than summoning a doctor.\n\nOn 12 May, Monty attended an intimate gathering at the Wildings, apparently against his will because he was tired. Elizabeth insisted on his presence, and he did not wish to let her down, which some critics interpreted as her having put a jinx on him, with her predilection for always wanting things her way. Also present were Rock and Phyllis Hudson (their 'arranged' marriage had taken place the previous November), and Kevin McCarthy. It is alleged to have been a muted if not miserable evening, with everyone but McCarthy feeling down in the dumps about something or other. Wilding spent much of it semi-prostrated with a slipped disc. Elizabeth also had a bad back, a recurrence of her injury sustained during National Velvet. Monty was depressed because he wanted to change huge chunks of the Raintree County script, and Edward Dmytryk would not hear of it. Meanwhile, the Hudsons' sham marriage was already in strife. Rock Hudson's manager, Henry Willson, had bought off yet another Confidential story. Virtually every move Rock made was shadowed, yet he was still up to his tricks \u2013 at that time, he was embroiled in an affair with a young actor from his new film Written on the Wind (1956), which had gotten Monty hot under the collar, because it happened to be based on Libby Holman's alleged murder of her much younger gay husband!\n\nBecause he had not anticipated Elizabeth's invitation, Monty had given his chauffeur the evening off, and as he had not driven for some time \u2013 he was terrified of 'doing a Jimmy Dean' \u2013 he asked Kevin McCarthy to lead the way in his car on the steep descent from Benedict Canyon to Sunset Boulevard. On the way down, Monty suffered a blackout and crashed into a telegraph pole. He received the most appalling facial injuries \u2013 two fractured jaws, a smashed nose and sinus cavities, severe cuts and lacerations \u2013 yet, apart from a little whiplash, the rest of his body was remarkably unscathed. The ambulance took 45 minutes to reach the unlit stretch of road, but Monty's friends, alerted by McCarthy, were there in minutes. So too were the press, alerted by the police at a time when such pay-off arrangements were commonplace. The photographers were hoping for some sick but valuable exclusive on Monty's pulped, unrecognisable face \u2013 mindless of the stench of gasoline and the threat of the vehicle suddenly bursting into flames. Elizabeth warned them that if they took so much as one shot or repeated one word of her expletives-charged tirade, she would never pose for the press again. Someone did snap a picture of the car, which Monty carried around in his wallet for years to remind himself how lucky he had been.\n\nThe photographers backed off, whilst Rock Hudson, the strongest man there, tried to force open the front door of Monty's car, a total write-off. Because it was pitch black, it was at first assumed that Monty had been flung clear of the wreckage, but when Kevin McCarthy turned around his own car so that his headlights lit up the scene, they saw that he had ended up under the dashboard. Elizabeth crawled in through the back window and found Monty choking on two dislodged teeth \u2013 in pushing her fingers down his throat and extracting them, she saved his life. With her beautiful white dress drenched in his blood, she cradled his head in her lap all the way to the Cedars of Lebanon Hospital, whilst Phyllis Hudson rode along for support.\n\nAstonishingly, Monty's injuries were almost entirely below the skin, and only light-to-medium plastic surgery was required to patch him up. At that stage, no one considered the possible psychological damage. The Raintree County set was shut down for nine weeks whilst he recovered from the operation to reconstruct his face and teeth. Monty spent much of this time with his jaws wired \u2013 reportedly gaining strength from sipping martinis through a straw \u2013 and in traction on account of the whiplash injuries to his back. After three weeks, the surgeons had to break and reset his jaws. Elizabeth \u2013 feeling guilty because she had persuaded Monty to attend her party \u2013 Libby Holman and Monty's father took it in turns to sit with him. He flatly refused to see his mother. Edward Dmytryk and Dore Schary were frequent visitors, though the latter was less concerned about Monty's well-being than he was about the $2 million that had been ploughed into the production thus far. Friends (but not Elizabeth) advised him to abandon the film and allow MGM to collect on the insurance (which they did anyhow), but Monty would not hear of this \u2013 privately he knew that if he did not finish this film, he might never find the courage to work again.\n\nThe Wildings' marriage floundered completely during the break in filming \u2013 partly because Monty was not there for Elizabeth to lean upon, but largely because she allowed herself to be hustled into a love affair with Mike Todd, the overtly brash Jewish entrepreneur. It was an association that would very nearly cost Elizabeth her friendship with Monty, who frowned upon adultery if there were children involved.\n\nBorn Avrom Goldbogen in Minneapolis in 1905 (he later knocked five years off his age), Mike Todd was arguably America's most flamboyant, headstrong and cocksure showman since Billy Rose. Life for him was one seemingly endless, no-expenses-spared sideshow. Like Elvis Presley with the 'Memphis Mafia', he was rarely seen in public unless flanked by flunkeys who kow-towed to his every command \u2013 which were frequently outrageous or illegal \u2013 without ever questioning his judgement. These people were not particularly well paid, and Mike Todd's women were treated shabbily and insulted in public, but the perks they enjoyed were substantial.\n\nThe son (one of eight children) of a Polish \u00e9migr\u00e9 rabbi, Todd started out selling newspapers and shining shoes, then changed his name and hit the vaudeville circuit, writing sketches for the comedy duo Olsen and Johnson. He next turned to producing \u2013 his The Hot Mikado, a jazz-take on the Gilbert and Sullivan operetta, had set Broadway alight in 1939. He followed this with Mae West's hugely controversial Catherine the Great and The Naked Genius with Joan Blondell, whom he had poached from her husband, Dick Powell. Standing in the way of them getting hitched was Todd's wife, Bertha \u2013 the mother of his son and heir, Mike Todd Jr.\n\nElizabeth was so besotted by her not-so-attractive middle-aged beau that she probably knew little or nothing of his personal history at this time. Obsessed with large-breasted women, shortly after the Second World War he made a big star of his mistress, actress-stripper Gypsy Rose Lee, before turning his attention to Blondell, whence he hit the headlines by being arrested on suspicion of murder. Bertha, who steadfastly refused to give him a divorce, was discovered in their kitchen with a large gash on her arm and subsequently died on the operating table whilst surgeons attempted to repair a severed artery. Todd got off the hook when Joan Blondell furnished him with an alibi, claiming that he had been with her on the night of the incident. Additionally, the autopsy concluded that Bertha had died of a heart attack.\n\nTodd married Blondell in 1947. The union was doomed from the start, and for the rest of his life, Todd was suspected of having had some involvement in his wife's death: if not of inflicting the actual wound \u2013 which, given his character and temperament, he had been more than capable of \u2013 then in driving her to the point of self-harm with his brashness and multitude of extra-marital affairs.\n\nAccording to Michael Todd Jr. in A Valuable Property: The Life Story of Mike Todd (Arbor House, 1983), Elizabeth and Todd were thrown together by way of an affair between Elizabeth and Todd's 30-something production assistant, Kevin McClory. He apparently told Todd's son \u2013 who was 21 when Elizabeth met his father \u2013 that they were so serious they had contemplated marriage. This seems unlikely, as McClory would never have been able to provide her with the seriously opulent lifestyle to which she had become accustomed. According to McClory, Todd got wind of the affair and instructed his assistant to arrange a meeting \u2013 not just with Elizabeth, but with Michael Wilding, too.\n\nTodd's own version of events is slightly different. He claimed that he had been intrigued to read of the Wildings' ups and downs in the press, so he had added their names to the guest list for a dinner party, held aboard his yacht moored off the Californian coast on 29 June 1956, in honour of David Niven, who played eponymous hero Phineas Fogg in Todd's film Around the World in Eighty Days (1956), arguably the most colourful adventure film of the 1950s.\n\nAt that time, Todd was dating the actress Evelyn Keyes, a woman with a suitably colourful past. Her first husband had shot himself, and husbands two and three (directors King Vidor and John Huston) were legendary brawlers, boozers and womanisers. Artie Shaw, her fourth husband, who was married eight times, picked up the pieces after her split from Todd. Keyes was present at the party but might as well have been invisible as Todd, the lecherous wolf, encircled his prey and moved in for the kill. Moreover, Elizabeth was a willing victim. 'Their behaviour was outrageous,' Todd's best friend Eddie Fisher later recalled in his memoirs, Been There, Done That (Hutchinson, 1999), 'and they didn't care what anybody else thought. Mike called her \"My little Jewish broad, Lizzie Schwartzkopf\", or he would tell her in front of a group of friends, \"Soon as I finish my dinner, I'm gonna fuck you.\"'\n\nTodd made his mind up at once to woo Elizabeth away from her 'boring and elderly' husband, regardless of the fact that he was older than Wilding. Elizabeth fell for the ruse hook, line and sinker, whilst Wilding, preoccupied with his slipped disc, was initially oblivious to what was going on around him. Two weeks later, Todd threw a reception for 200 A-list celebrities at his rented mansion in Beverly Hills. The guests of honour were \u00c9dith Piaf, her best pal Marlene Dietrich and fellow entrepreneur Ed Murrow, who was hoping to coax 'The Little Sparrow' into permitting him to film her life story. Piaf performed 12 songs but made it clear that she would never consent to any biopic. And whilst she stole the show with her fabulous voice and famous little black dress, Elizabeth turned heads by swanning into the room in a low-cut white-satin creation and $50,000 worth of diamonds. Todd flirted with her openly, and Wilding left in a huff \u2013 enabling his rival to pounce.\n\nA few days later, on 19 July, the Wildings issued a joint statement to the press: they had opted for amicable separation. The very next morning, Elizabeth \u2013 whom virtually no one could order around \u2013 obeyed the summons to Todd's office. Here, with the ubiquitous fat cigar wedged between his teeth, he ordered her not to even think of looking at another man now that Wilding had been removed from the picture, because he had decided that she now belonged to him! Elizabeth later added to the story, telling Hedda Hopper that Todd had announced, 'I'm going to marry you, and from now on you'll know nobody but me.' Hopper later observed in her autobiography, The Whole Truth and Nothing But, that Todd had actually said, 'From now on, you'll fuck nobody but me!'\n\nMeanwhile, shooting was resumed on Raintree County. Montgomery Clift, who was self-injecting himself with cortisone because of the tremendous pain he was in, was filmed mostly from the right, his least damaged profile. The left side of his face would remain semi-frozen and immobile on account of a severed nerve in his cheek. To get through the agonies of sleeping and waking, he took so many uppers and downers that on one occasion he lapsed into a coma with a lighted cigarette in his hand. The set doctor brought him around without too much difficulty, but Clift had burned the flesh of two fingers down to the bone. To cope with the pain from this new injury, he simply doubled up on the cortisone shots.\n\nThere were problems with the locations: first in Natchez, Mississippi, then in Danville, Kentucky. Never once letting his grey bag out of his sight, Monty survived on a diet of barbiturates washed down with alcohol to counteract the after effects of the accident \u2013 and more of the same to help soothe his shattered nerves. In Natchez, a small Methodist town unused to visiting celebrities, he and Elizabeth were treated like freaks. Like George Stevens, Edward Dmytryk preferred working on an open lot, which meant that the whole town was allowed to follow the shoot from start to finish. As such, the locals were witness to frustrated outbreaks and foul language from all concerned, along with the odd technical hitch. One such saw Monty attempting to climb into a carriage only to fall out of the other side \u2013 an exercise he repeated a dozen times before passing out cold. A few days later, it was fortunate that there were few people around when he was found wandering around the streets, stark naked and in a trance, having emerged from a drugs-induced nightmare in the middle of the night.\n\nIn Natchez and Danville, Elizabeth and Monty stayed in the same hotel and shared a bed, but only because he could not cope with being alone. Stories naturally circulated once more that they were having an affair, particularly when neither denied the fact when asked.\n\nMonty was unhappy about a scene in Raintree County in which he is seen taking a bath. He was paranoid about the dense carpet of black hair that completely covered his chest, abdomen, arms and shoulders. In the past, he had tried trimming, shaving, depilatories and monthly visits to an electrolysis centre, none of which had worked. He had appeared smooth in a stripped-to-the-waist scene in From Here to Eternity but since his accident had allowed nature to take its course. Monty asked for the scene to be cut, but producer David Lewis insisted on behalf of MGM that it stay put. In the naive days of the studio system, hirsute actors were presumed to be heterosexual \u2013 in much the same way as gay actors were presumed to be straight once they had taken a trip down the aisle. Robert Taylor, confronted in a London street whilst making Conspirator with Elizabeth, had been called a 'fairy' by a group of hecklers, only to prove them wrong by unbuttoning his shirt and revealing that he was as 'normal' as the next man!\n\nBy the time the Raintree County unit reached Danville, Edward Dmytryk had virtually washed his hands of the film, handing over the directorial reins to Monty \u2013 which turned out to be a viable move. Elizabeth, like Rock Hudson in his early films, was still regarded by many as little more than a decorative addition to whichever production she happened to be in \u2013 guaranteed box-office sales but still near the foot of the ladder so far as legitimate acting talent was concerned. Even the most cloying admirer could not have denied that she had so far proved herself an actress of merit in just two films \u2013 A Place in the Sun and Giant \u2013 though these had still been dominated by the Method techniques of their stars, Clift and Dean. As a highly strung then easily influenced and insecure individual, Elizabeth's precocious talent needed to be coaxed out of her, not bullied by the likes of Dmytryk, and this is what happened whilst she was being 'directed' by Monty.\n\nBetween self-directing, narcotic semi-comas and drunken escapades \u2013 the latter encouraged by Elizabeth, who would soon be able to drink most people under the table \u2013 and despite the fact that he loathed the man, Monty acted as go-between as the Taylor\u2013Todd romance blossomed then spiralled out of control. It was Monty who arranged for Elizabeth to be driven out to Todd's private jet so that the pair could spend the occasional weekend together. It was he who delivered the huge baskets of roses with the $30,000 black-pearl ring that Todd boasted would act as an unofficial engagement ring until he found something better. Later, it was Monty who persuaded Libby Holman \u2013 who disliked Elizabeth for no other reason than she was jealous of her close friendship with Monty \u2013 to allow the couple to meet at Treetops, her country retreat, but only if she or Monty were present to chaperone. Here, aware of her fondness for 'big rocks', Todd presented Elizabeth with an inch-square $95,000 diamond ring \u2013 allegedly the one he had given to Evelyn Keyes, who had returned it after being told about Elizabeth. Elizabeth wore this whilst shooting a scene in Raintree County that called for a wedding ring. Rather than use the one provided by the props department, she turned Todd's ring around so that the cameraman could not see the diamond. Monty saw it and refused to continue with the scene until she had taken it off.\n\nOn account of its multitude of problems, the film was not premiered until December 1957. On its release, many critics went to inordinate lengths to point out scenes that had been shot after Monty's accident, invariably getting it wrong. Most agreed, too, that despite the extensive plastic surgery, Montgomery Clift was still a dazzlingly attractive man and a consummate actor more than capable of riding sky-high above any co-star.\n\nFor her part, Elizabeth's Susanna Drake was criticised for having quite possibly the worst Southern accent thus far in Hollywood history, made even worse by her high-pitched whining as she hovers much of the time between obnoxiousness and insanity \u2013 reflecting Elizabeth's behaviour much of the time towards those around her. Indeed, one wonders how such a creature could woo mild-mannered John Shawnessy (Monty) away from his long-time sweetheart and into her twisted world, which sees her dying face down in a swamp. Most men would have run a mile! Monty, however, was not most men: he accepted the fact that Elizabeth was no different from Susanna \u2013 in turns passionate and vulgar, and at times thoroughly vile towards everyone around her \u2013 and never stopped worshipping the ground she walked upon.\n\nThe locations had begun shooting on 23 July, which was Michael Wilding's 44th birthday. This offered the press the opportunity to 'officially' recognise him as middle-aged and make more snide comments about his being wed to a gorgeous goddess young enough to be his daughter. The film then wrapped on 17 October, which was Montgomery Clift's 36th birthday. The same reporters demanded to know why Elizabeth had not married Monty instead. There were few surprises, therefore, when the Wildings announced, in another reputedly amicable joint statement, that they were getting a divorce.\n\nWhether this overt friendliness with her estranged husband, coming in the wake of so many heated, frequently public rows, was merely acted out for the benefit of the press is not known, but it seems more than likely. Elizabeth needed to be constantly in the headlines to believe that she was achieving anything out of life and persistently presented herself as the maligned heroine. Most of Michael Wilding's Hollywood films had bombed at the box office, and it was a foregone conclusion that matters would only deteriorate once he ceased to be 'Mr Taylor'. MGM offered him just one more film \u2013 The Scarlet Coat (1955), set during the American revolution \u2013 and informed him that they would not be renewing his contract. The press were told that Wilding and the studio had come to a 'mutual agreement'. Soon afterwards, Wilding returned to England, where his career amounted to little compared with his pre-Hollywood halcyon days. The divorce itself was handled by Mike Todd, who felt obliged to have his finger in every pie where Elizabeth was concerned.\n\nThe premiere of Around the World in Eighty Days took place in the October and saw the mega-rich entrepreneur flying in just about everyone who had appeared in it, even those only featured in the film for a matter of seconds in cameo roles. David Niven, Cantinflas, Frank Sinatra, Marlene Dietrich, Noel Coward, Shirley MacLaine, Charles Boyer, Ava Gardner and Buster Keaton were but a few. Anyone of importance who happened to be in Hollywood at the time was also invited \u2013 around 200 celebrities, plus the hierarchy of the movie industry. At the post-screening party, chomping on his ubiquitous cigar, Todd announced that he and Elizabeth would be marrying early in the new year. Some journalists compared his 'I Must Have' stance with that of Howard Hughes, and, years later, Todd would be cited as a role model for the equally vulgar and grasping Aristotle Onassis in his pursuit of Maria Callas and Jackie Kennedy.\n\nNext came the premiere of Giant at the New York Roxy. George Stevens had taken over a year to cut and edit the vast amount of footage into an acceptable 198 minutes. Elizabeth was supposed to have been Rock Hudson's 'date', because he had recently separated from Phyllis Gates after just 11 months of marriage. However, Mike Todd would not hear of Elizabeth being accompanied by a 'fagelah', so she stayed home, and Rock escorted Tallulah Bankhead, the undisputed queen of the one-liner, who told a bemused young woman reporter, 'This divine young man is a giant in every conceivable way!' Elizabeth then attended a second premiere a week later at Grauman's Chinese Theater, where earlier she and Rock had left their handprints in the famous cement. This time Rock was accompanied by his wife, thanks to Warner Brothers' insistence that the evening should remain scandal free. Elizabeth's 'date' was Michael Wilding. The guests included Clark Gable, Natalie Wood, Tab Hunter and Joan Crawford, who turned her back on the Wildings as they walked past her.\n\nSoon afterwards, Mike Todd celebrated having Elizabeth all to himself by flying her to the Bahamas in his private jet. In the harbour, she slipped on wet cobbles and injured her back. Todd flew her to New York, where she was admitted to the Presbyterian Hospital and diagnosed with crushed vertebrae at the base of her spine. In the subsequent operation, these were repaired with pieces of bone extracted from her thigh, and she was in traction for three weeks. As it was inconceivable that Elizabeth Taylor should suffer from an ordinary malady, she instructed the hospital's director to issue a statement that there was every possibility of her ending up in a wheelchair. She was doubtless cheered considerably by Todd's visits and convinced that affection translated to dollars. For this particular patient, chocolates and flowers were eschewed for original works by Renoir and Monet, and when Elizabeth finally emerged from her sickbed, in January 1957, Todd presented her with a Rolls-Royce Silver Cloud so that she could 'travel home in style'. The press reported that she whooped with juvenile joy, and Photoplay's Aline Mosby called her 'a troubled star . . . still a child struggling to grow up and find peace of mind, torn between the demands of the woman and the child'.\n\nAs soon as Elizabeth was back on her feet, Mike Todd began 'working' on her divorce. Michael Wilding was flown in first class from London, and the trio headed for Acapulco to finalise the proceedings and make arrangements for Elizabeth's wedding to Todd. However, there was one problem that could not be resolved by Todd's wallet. The local elections were taking place, and none of the candidates wished to offend the Catholic Church \u2013 or scupper their chances of winning votes \u2013 by being seen to be supporting quickie divorces. Eventually, Todd found a judge who was about to retire from office so would not be affected by public opinion, and a decree of mutual consent was obtained on 31 January.\n\nThe obscenely expensive nuptials took place on 2 February 1957 when Elizabeth became Mrs Avrom Goldbogen, surrounded by thousands of white gladioli and wearing a powder-blue Helen Rose creation. Crooner Eddie Fisher, Todd's best friend, was best man, and Debbie Reynolds, Fisher's actress\u2013singer wife, was matron of honour. The ceremony was conducted by the mayor of Acapulco after Todd's money failed to tempt the local pastor and a rabbi, both of whom had been instructed by their superiors to stay well clear of the event. Sara, Francis and Howard Taylor were able to attend the wedding: unlike Michael Wilding, Mike Todd was rich, so Sara naturally wanted to get things off to a good start by not snubbing him.\n\nThe reception was dominated by the biggest and most expensive fireworks display in Mexico's history \u2013 a wedding present from Cantinflas \u2013 that ended with a vast heart containing the initials 'MT' and 'ETT' (Elizabeth Taylor Todd). According to the legend (almost certainly invented to complement the tragedy of the following year), Elizabeth screamed, 'Mike, don't leave me!' as the smouldering ashes hit the ground.\n\nTo keep out gatecrashers, Todd hired 50 armed Mexican soldiers to mingle with the hundreds of celebrity guests, each of whom had been given shirts or blouses with 'ET\u2013MT' monogrammed on them. No one seemed sure what Elizabeth had given her husband for a wedding gift, but Todd had presented her with a $50,000 diamond bracelet, two cinemas in Chicago and a 40 per cent share in the proceeds from Around the World in Eighty Days. He made a point of showing the receipts to the press, who were also made aware of Elizabeth's 'revised' living arrangements. The Benedict Canyon house she had shared with Michael Wilding was to be sold and the spoils divided 50\u201350. The divorced couple, 'advised' by Todd's lawyers, would share their children less evenly: Elizabeth would have access to them nine months of the year, Wilding three. When not residing with Todd in their sumptuous New York penthouse, Elizabeth could be found with him at their house in Connecticut or holidaying in unabashed luxury at their 'little place' in Palm Springs \u2013 unless, of course, they were zipping around the world in Todd's jet, now renamed Lucky Liz.\n\nAt the end of February, the Todds were A-list guests at the Oscars ceremony. Around the World in Eighty Days had notched up eight nominations and was pitched against Giant's ten, including best actor for Rock Hudson and best supporting actor for James Dean. Neither actor won, although Rock was subsequently voted number-one box-office draw \u2013 the awards went to Yul Brynner for The King and I (1956) and Anthony Quinn for Lust for Life (1956). Todd won the Oscar for best film, and his production scooped five additional awards.\n\nThe Todds' lengthy honeymoon, billed as an extension of the film they were promoting, took in New York, London, Paris, Rome and Moscow, with Todd presenting his wife with some 'special little gift' each time they checked into the best hotel in town \u2013 again, the receipts were shown to reporters, Todd's theory being that the more he spent, the more this proved how much he loved her. In the Paris Ritz, it was a Degas, purchased at a snip from Ali Khan for $30,000. At the Cannes Film Festival on 2 May, Todd hired the casino and commissioned a replica of the hot-air balloon used in his film to float above its roof. Within the building, he had installed a circus complete with lions and tigers. Surrounding their cages were 300 tables for journalists representing every major publication in Europe \u2013 each was treated to a sumptuous banquet on the proviso that they write only good things about their hosts.\n\nThere were no gifts for Elizabeth when the Todd\u2013Taylor extravaganza hit London on 2 July. Todd had hired Battersea Funfair instead, along with a dozen orchestras from around the world and enough food to feed several armies. To add a little of the 'common touch', he commissioned several fishmongers from Billingsgate to supply 2,000 portions of 'traditionally served' fish and chips, wrapped in replica copies of The Times, dated 1893, the year Phineas Fogg had embarked on his journey around the world. Todd liked to believe that there was nothing he could not arrange. When Elizabeth expressed a desire to meet the Queen's cousin Princess Alexandra to determine if the reports in the press were true \u2013 that Alexandra was as beautiful as she was \u2013 Todd got her to the party along with her mother, Princess Marina. And in the midst of this overhyped melee, Elizabeth announced that she was pregnant.\n\nThe tour continued throughout the spring and summer, with Mike Todd now known to have been spending the vast revenue from Around the World in Eighty Days as fast as it was coming in. And the rows between the newlyweds continued, enabling Elizabeth to deliver her legendary quote, 'Mike and I have more fun scrapping than most people have making love!' Yet with her predilection for seeking out life's dramas and complexities, near tragedy lay on the horizon. In the July of that year, during the sea crossing back to New York, Elizabeth went into premature labour and had to be anaesthetised to prevent her from giving birth until the ship docked. Since injuring her back, she had been wearing a support, and complications were anticipated that the ship's doctors felt they might not be able to handle.\n\nThere is a scene in Raintree County in which Eva Marie Saint's character, Nell, comments on Elizabeth's character's sham pregnancy, concluding that people are able to 'count up to nine'. Typically, the press then speculated that, like her character, Elizabeth might have fallen pregnant before marrying Mike Todd when they were told that her baby was not expected until October.\n\nElizabeth was rushed into a clinic, but not before posing for photographs and giving a speedy dockside press conference. Because of her back support, her baby had been pushed upwards under her ribcage. However, rather than deliver at that point, the doctors kept Elizabeth under observation for two weeks before sending her home to the twenty-five-room mansion Mike Todd had rented in Westport. On 6 October, she returned to the clinic, where her daughter Elizabeth Frances (Liza) was delivered by Caesarean section. According to the story that emerged \u2013 put about by Elizabeth, who of course could not possibly allow the world to believe that she had endured a normal delivery \u2013 the four-pounds infant was stillborn, but when she was placed in an incubator whilst the parents were being given the grim news, she suddenly and inexplicably came back to life. Both mother and child remained in the clinic for over a month. Elizabeth's doctors advised her that having another baby might kill her, so she had her fallopian tubes tied as a safety precaution.\n\nLike a well-rehearsed Pirandello grotesque, the Around the World in Eighty Days whirligig resumed. On 17 October, Mike Todd hired Madison Square Garden for a publicity bash \u2013 celebrating, of all things, the film's first birthday. Once again, the situation was engineered to ensure that he and his wife ended up on the front pages. Elizabeth arrived, according to one report, 'looking like the Empress Josephine' in a red-velvet gown and tiara. Twenty thousand invitations had been dispatched worldwide, and the proceedings opened with a circus parade headed by veteran actor Cedric Hardwicke riding an elephant. Topping the cabaret bill was French comedy actor\u2013singer Fernandel, to whom Todd had promised the lead in Don Quixote, his next multimillion-dollar epic, which, he boasted, would naturally feature Elizabeth as Dulcinella \u2013 and which was cancelled on account of the tragedy ahead.\n\nThe press were alerted to the fact that this was an 'anything goes' event, and it certainly was. Ten thousand gifts, donated by sponsors, were randomly doled out to the guests: cars, motorcycles, jewellery, cameras and a Cessna two-seater airplane! There were hundreds of gatecrashers \u2013 again invited by Todd and 'primed' how to misbehave \u2013 and they ran amok in the auditorium, scoffing most of the food. The crowning glory came when the 14-tier cake Elizabeth was cutting collapsed on top of her, covering her and those about her in cream and icing \u2013 it was a staged stunt. When she began flinging chunks around, there was a free for all, resulting in a clearing-up operation costing thousands of dollars \u2013 which Todd, of course, paid for.\n\nFrom New York, trailed by the world's press, the tour took in Hawaii, England, Japan and Australasia, and the boasting never stopped. 'We like a simple life,' Todd told the British Daily Mail. 'My wife pours her own champagne, and I make my own caviar sandwiches.' In Tokyo, Elizabeth caused a fuss by collapsing with appendicitis and an even bigger one when she expressed her mistrust of foreign hospitals, insisting upon returning to America to have her appendix removed \u2013 again, ensuring herself only the maximum publicity.\n\nUpon her recovery (although cynics reasoned that there would have been no time to fly Elizabeth home had the appendix really needed removing), it was back to self-promotion. The Todds decided that they wanted to visit Russia, even though they were unknown there. Todd arrogantly declared that he would soon rectify this and kill two birds with one stone by ending the Cold War in his and Elizabeth's unofficial capacity as American ambassadors!\n\nWhile many of the less impressionable public regarded this announcement as just another facet of the already over-extended Todd\u2013Taylor farce, the American government took it seriously. Todd was warned not to interfere in international politics, and although he listened for once, he refused to cancel the trip. After Don Quixote, he said, Elizabeth would be starring in either War and Peace or reprising Greta Garbo's role in Anna Karenina. One shudders to imagine what this would have been like, with Tolstoy's heroine shrieking in a Deep South accent, as opposed to Garbo's delicious drawl. Thankfully, neither project saw the light of day.\n\nThe Todds flew to Prague on 26 January 1958, not knowing whether they would be allowed into Russia. By then, Elizabeth was demanding a meeting with Krushchev! Three days later, they flew into Moscow, where they managed \u2013 by way of Todd's wallet \u2013 to worm their way into a reception at the Indian embassy. The Soviet leader was there, although whether he made time to talk to his gatecrasher guests is not clear. Elizabeth certainly made an impression, dressed like a member of a defunct imperialist family and dripping with diamonds. Outside the embassy, she found herself surrounded by autograph hunters \u2013 they were aware that they were in the presence of someone of importance, although none of them actually knew who she was until an irate Todd enlightened them.\n\n# SEVEN\n\nPASS THE PARCEL, MIKE\n\nPREDICTING THAT THE EXCESSIVE PUBLICITIY SURROUNDING Montgomery Clift's accident would ensure huge box-office returns, as had happened with Raintree County, Warner Brothers attempted to team Elizabeth and Monty as loan-outs for their next big-budget production, Marjorie Morningstar (1958). In Herman Wouk's bestselling novel, the heroine is a wealthy Jewish girl who defies the edicts of her religion by having an affair with a considerably older man. The still powerful Hays Office censors warned studio head Jack Warner that he would never get such an 'outrageous' scenario past them and ordered the scriptwriters to eliminate the religious element, thus robbing the story of its central significance. Elizabeth did not mind this: all she wanted was to work with Monty again. Mike Todd, however, did not want her to work with anyone \u2013 his wife's place, he declared, was by his side, promoting the by now weary Around the World in Eighty Days project.\n\nWhen Monty turned the film down because of the story change \u2013 and in any case, he was busy shooting Edward Dmytryk's The Young Lions (1958) with Marlon Brando and Dean Martin \u2013 Paul Newman was approached to take his place. Newman also said no: he was busy with another production, after which he had been singled out to star opposite Elizabeth in Cat on a Hot Tin Roof (1958). The part of Marjorie Morningstar was, therefore, given to Natalie Wood, and the Clift\/Newman role went to the less charismatic Gene Kelly.\n\nAs had happened with Nicky Hilton (at that time dating and knocking around the newly cast lead of Marjorie Morningstar) and Michael Wilding, Elizabeth's marriage to the ebullient, fiercely overpossessive Mike Todd was reputedly on the rocks no sooner than the rice had settled. Passers-by in Schuyler Road, the couple's main residence in Beverly Hills, reported hearing them yelling at one another from a hundred yards away. According to the couple, fights were an essential and healthy component of their existence. 'When Elizabeth flies into a tantrum, I fly into a bigger one,' a full-of-himself Todd had told the Chicago Tribune's Marilyn Kruse the previous November. 'She's been on a milk-toast diet all her life with men. But me, I'm red meat!'\n\nEddie Fisher recalled in his 1999 autobiography Been There, Done That the occasion when he and Debbie Reynolds witnessed one of the Todds' arguments, during which Todd had slapped Elizabeth and then dragged her by the hair into their bedroom to make love. 'She liked to be roughed up,' Fisher concluded, adding elsewhere in his memoirs that Elizabeth and Todd had also participated in telephone sex.\n\nAbsolutely no one could contact Elizabeth, unless through Mike Todd, who is said to have pulled enough strings to ensure her an Oscar nomination for Raintree County, though she scarcely merited the accolade for such a dreadfully over-the-top performance. Todd had stopped her from doing Marjorie Morningstar but insisted upon her accepting Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, because he planned to 'arrange' another Oscar nomination. Elizabeth was so awestruck by her latest spouse, by the power his wealth brought, that when Todd told her to jump, she asked him how high.\n\nCat on a Hot Tin Roof began shooting early in March 1958, around the time Mike Todd began putting together Don Quixote. He had also recently completed his (ghostwritten) autobiography \u2013 the soon-to-be portentously titled The Nine Lives of Mike Todd (Hutchinson, 1959). Todd had also been voted Showman of the Year by The Friars Testimonial and was scheduled to pick up the award at the New York Astoria on Sunday, 24 March. Elizabeth had planned to travel with him, but a few days before the event she came down with bronchitis and a fever. On 21 March, Todd took off in Lucky Liz with just his crew and ghostwriter friend Art Cohn, but the plane never reached its destination. A few hours after a refuelling stop in Albuquerque, it plummeted into the Zuni Mountains, over New Mexico. Todd's charred wedding ring was found in the wreckage a few days later. He and his colleagues were identified only from dental records.\n\nElizabeth was inconsolable. This was the worst genuine tragedy of her life to date \u2013 two divorces and now widowhood at the age of just twenty-six would have sent anyone over the edge \u2013 but many people accused her of going overboard with the hysterics, rushing out into the middle of Schuyler Road and screaming at passers-by that she wished she had died with him. Her doctor \u2013 celebrity physician Rex Kennamer, who had supervised Montgomery Clift's post-accident ordeal and had, needless to say, earned a tidy fee \u2013 was summoned, and he administered a sedative. Within an hour, Debbie Reynolds arrived to look after Elizabeth's children, and Michael Wilding, allegedly more concerned for their welfare than that of his ex-wife, flew in from London.\n\nSchuyler Road had, of course, been transformed into a media circus. Mingling with the crowd of pressmen and reporters outside the house were hundreds of fans armed with cameras and autograph books. Few cared about Mike Todd, and they paid little credence to Elizabeth's latest admission that he would remain the great love of her life. With her track record, observers were of the opinion that this marriage would have ended in divorce, just like all the others, had Todd lived. The onlookers merely wanted to catch a glimpse of the widow and whichever celebrities dropped in on her to offer their condolences.\n\nThese were surprisingly few: Rock Hudson, Natalie Wood, Montgomery Clift and Nicky Hilton, wishing to avoid the mayhem of the situation, sent telegrams or called. Richard Brooks, the director of Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, did turn up \u2013 only to be seen off by Elizabeth's vituperative tongue. According to John Parker in Five for Hollywood (Macmillan, 1989), her exact words to him were, 'You bastard, you've just come to see when I'll be back at work. Well, screw you and your movie. I'm never coming back!'\n\nOnce she had calmed down, Elizabeth needed someone to blame for Mike Todd's death \u2013 which was an accident, pure and simple. She filed a $5-million claim against the owners of Lucky Liz (Todd had merely rented it), which took almost five years to reach the courts. The company was subsequently ordered to pay just $27,000 in compensation \u2013 not to Elizabeth, but to their daughter, Liza Todd.\n\nThe funeral, little more than another Todd extravaganza, took place on 25 March at the Jewish Waldheim Cemetery in Zurich, Illinois. Todd's son had suggested a private cremation \u2013 aside from a few bones that could have belonged to any or all of the victims, the casket was empty \u2013 believing that this would preserve the frail widow from the spectacle of a very public interment. Todd, however, seems to have once expressed his disapproval of crematoria, and Elizabeth was intent on honouring his wishes. For two days, she deliberated over whether to attend, which only drew more attention to the event, but the lure of the spectacle rivalled her grief. As much as the public wanted to ogle her, she just as much needed to entertain them, at whatever personal cost.\n\nHer supposed loathing of Howard Hughes did not prevent her from hitching a free ride to Illinois on one of his private planes. Cynics commented that she put on an act of being helped down its steps by her brother Howard and Eddie Fisher in order to gain sympathy. Helen Rose, who had dressed her for her weddings, had done the honours for the closing chapter of this equally stormy marriage. More than 2,000 fans gathered on the tarmac, yelling her name as she was whisked from the airport to the Drake Hotel. As many as 20,000 more lined the funerary route \u2013 reports claimed it was the highest attendance at a funeral since that of the seven members of the Bugs Moran gang, following the 1929 St Valentine's Day Massacre. It was here that the real circus began. Every hundred yards or so there was a hot-dog seller or refreshment van. A chapter of the Eddie Fisher fan club turned up, chanting his songs and waving albums, whilst buskers entertained the crowd outside the cemetery gates, declaring that Mike Todd would have wanted it that way. High above, the scene was filmed by a press helicopter.\n\nA small marquee had been erected over the Goldbogen plot. Elizabeth had requested that only her family and very closest friends attend the ceremony. Montgomery Clift, who had disliked Todd and found him coarse, had not been invited, but he turned up all the same; he and Rex Kennamer mingled with the crowd. A police cordon surrounded the marquee, but this gave way as the crowd pressed forward, forcing Elizabeth to make a dash back to her limousine. It took the car almost an hour to leave the cemetery as the lunatic fringe of her fan base rocked it from side to side, hoping to get her out of the vehicle or, at the least, to wind down the window. Some fans clambered onto the roof and began stamping their feet, causing Elizabeth to suffer a panic attack, but as unyielding police restored order, the cort\u00e8ge was eventually allowed to leave.\n\nElizabeth had been invited to the Oscars ceremony, two evenings later, but wisely elected to stay home. She badly needed to be with Montgomery Clift, but as she had not wanted him at Mike Todd's funeral, he had returned to New York in a huff. Todd had been posthumously nominated for his Todd-AO cinematography, Elizabeth for Raintree County. Todd won, but Elizabeth lost out to Joanne Woodward, who was about to be married to Paul Newman and who won the Best Actress award for her superb performance in The Three Faces of Eve (1957).\n\nElizabeth might have threatened to walk out of Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, but to do so would have resulted in immediate suspension. Shooting was resumed in the middle of April, less than a month after Mike Todd's death. The film is so monopolised by ex-footballer Brick (Paul Newman) and cantankerous, larger-than-life but dying patriarch Big Daddy (53-year-old Burl Ives, reprising his acclaimed Broadway role) and his noisy, dysfunctional relatives that Elizabeth is hard put to keep up with them. It is an excellent piece and very typically Tennessee Williams: tantrums and mayhem, obligatory homosexuality, madness, drunkenness, protracted speeches and ever-present 'mendacity'.\n\n'Skipper is the only thing I got left to believe in, and you're dragging it through the gutter. You are making it shameful and filthy!' Brick yells, referring to his footballer lover who killed himself after being confronted by Maggie. Being gay, he is oblivious to her attempts to turn him on, flashing her legs and adjusting her suspenders \u2013 the same tactics, some alleged, that she had used to attempt to seduce Monty Clift.\n\nThere is also a thinly veiled and much-discussed reference to Mike Todd when Maggie screams at Brick in desperation, 'Skipper is dead, and I'm alive!' Then comes the line adopted by the closeted Hollywood gay community of 1958 when, referring to Brick's never having a glass out of his hand, she says, 'Your hand was made for holding something better than that!' Of course, Maggie cures Brick of his 'affliction' \u2013 for as had happened with Rock Hudson in Giant, it was inconceivable that any man could remain gay having been subjected to the charms of Elizabeth Taylor!\n\nBy the time shooting wrapped on the film, Elizabeth was involved with theatre-chain entrepreneur Arthur Loew, Joan Collins's escort since divorcing British actor Maxwell Reed. According to Ketti Fringe, the wife of Elizabeth's agent, Elizabeth also had her eye on her late husband's 21-year-old son. 'She tried Mike Todd Jr first, but his wife said no and put a stop to it before it could develop,' Fringe told biographer Kitty Kelley. 'She got young Mike out of town before Elizabeth could move in on him.' Elizabeth was also enjoying secret trysts with Eddie Fisher, and Loew might well have been the scapegoat to throw the press off their scent.\n\nIt now emerged that Mike Todd had not been the multimillionaire everyone had assumed. His estate amounted to a little over $300,000, out of which debts had to be settled. Neither would there be much future revenue from Around the World in Eighty Days \u2013 Todd had borrowed heavily against the profits to fund his global gallivanting. Most of his cars and houses had been rented, including the property on Schuyler Road. Whilst looking for somewhere else to live, Elizabeth moved into a bungalow at the Beverly Hills Hotel complex, leaving her children with Arthur Loew. Both he and Elizabeth denied romantic involvement, but when the press refused to believe this, she pulled a publicity stunt by choosing Hedda Hopper to accompany her on her first 'official engagement' since Mike Todd's death. The pair went to Romanoff's, where, according to the columnist, Elizabeth wore 'as many diamonds as a grieving widow could get away with'. She was there, she told the press, to bid a temporary farewell to Hollywood because she had arranged to take the children on an extended tour of Europe.\n\nIn the August, having apparently changed her mind, Elizabeth flew to New York to spend a few days with Montgomery Clift \u2013 and, it appears, to enjoy a prearranged sojourn with Eddie Fisher, in town filming his top-rating television show. Though Debbie Reynolds had been left in Hollywood with the Fishers' two children, the pair dined several times without raising too much suspicion: to the casual onlooker, here was Todd's best buddy consoling his widow and weaning her back into society. However, when the couple slipped off for the weekend to Grossinger's Hotel, the Catskills resort, the press immediately jumped to the conclusion that the relationship had progressed beyond the platonic.\n\nDiscovered by Eddie Cantor and promoted by Mike Todd, Fisher had begun his career at Grossinger's Hotel. He and Debbie Reynolds had married there in September 1955, designating it as their 'special' place. In turn, its proprietors had revered them, and they had since held the reputation as the most perfect couple in American show business.\n\nThe first report went out on 9 September, when the Los Angeles Examiner ran the headline 'Eddie Fisher Romance with Liz Taylor Denied'. This was a clever ploy frequently used by the press. News papers would run a 'denial' of a story, along the lines of the Fisher-Taylor one, as a means of bringing a scandal to the attention of the public without having the necessary evidence, in the hope that such evidence would then be forthcoming to enable the story to develop. The vociferous manner in which both parties denied the affair was interpreted by most of the tabloids as a confession of guilt; as a result, they did not feel the need to exercise caution. Elizabeth would reverse this ploy in later years. 'leaking' news to the papers that she was ill again, only to then deny it!\n\nDebbie Reynolds' biggest hit, taking the American and British charts by storm in August 1957, was 'Tammy', the closing line of which was 'Tammy's in love'. Now, the headline ran 'Eddie's in Love \u2013 With Liz!' A photograph of the pair leaving The Blue Angel nightclub appeared in Life magazine, and the New York Daily News ribbed, 'The storybook marriage of Eddie Fisher and Debbie Reynolds skidded on a series of curves yesterday \u2013 Elizabeth Taylor's.'\n\nInitially, Debbie refused to believe that her husband and Elizabeth were more than just good friends. However, Elizabeth soon put the record straight upon her return to Hollywood. Leaving Fisher to deal with the barrage of reporters camped outside his house, she unwisely granted an interview to Hedda Hopper, who claimed in her memoirs The Whole Truth and Nothing But that upon being accused of being a home wrecker, Elizabeth had responded, 'Mike's dead, and I'm alive! What do you expect me to do? Sleep alone?'\n\nElizabeth later declared that Hopper had fabricated the quote \u2013 whilst some believed Hopper had lifted the 'Skipper's dead!' speech from Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and changed the names \u2013 and insisted that what she had really said was, 'You know how much I loved Mike? I loved him more than my life. But Mike is dead now, and I'm alive, and the one person who would want me to try and live and be happy is Mike.' Elizabeth also denied Hopper's claim that she had remarked of Debbie Reynolds, 'Eddie's not in love with her and never has been.' True or not, she had helped bring down the curtain on the Fishers' fairytale marriage, severely blackening her own reputation in the process.\n\nHedda Hopper's unedited story ran on the front page of the Los Angeles Times and was quickly syndicated around the world, followed by news of the Fishers' split. Debbie Reynolds was the nation's favourite; along with Doris Day, she was everyone's idea of the archetypal girl next door who could do no wrong. She too played to the press, as she was entitled to do as the injured party. Whilst Elizabeth was photographed in her jewels and her Helen Rose creations, Debbie posed on her front porch with her hair in curlers, embracing her children and looking glum. The captions invariably alluded to 'Daddy' no longer being around. Though it was widely rumoured that her marriage had been on the rocks before Elizabeth's arrival on the scene, Debbie was still portrayed as the hapless victim of a scarlet woman and a philanderer.\n\nEddie Fisher had idolised Mike Todd to such an extent that once he began emulating Todd's spendthrift, high-flying ways, he was unable to stop. Splashing money around like water, prior to his marriage to Reynolds he had impressed and seduced \u2013 in full glare of the media spotlight \u2013 Marlene Dietrich, Merle Oberon, Hope Lange and any number of other starlets and Las Vegas hoofers, many of whom boasted to friends how 'hung' he was. For Elizabeth, such bravado and chutzpah must have been akin to Todd returning from the grave. Years later, Fisher pulled no punches when he wrote about his hundreds of alleged conquests. He dismissed his marriage to Debbie Reynolds as 'a charade for the media', claimed that she had not enjoyed sex and concluded, 'Mount Virgin. The real challenge was getting to the summit.'\n\nElizabeth, who had ridden high on a wave of global sympathy since Mike Todd's death, was now portrayed as the brazen hussy who had inflicted misery on his two dearest friends. Not even 15-month-old Liza's hospitalisation with double pneumonia in the middle of November changed attitudes towards Elizabeth. The child remained on the critical list for several days, yet the press ignored this and followed Robert Ruark's syndicated lead: 'This Monument to Busting Up Other People's Homes'. At the height of the scandal, she and Eddie Fisher attracted 5,000 letters of complaint a week, and there were even threats from the Ku Klux Klan. Many stores refused to stock Fisher's records, and newspapers warned the parents of teenagers that they ran the risk of turning them into 'immoral delinquents' by allowing them to watch him on television.\n\nIn his memoirs, Eddie Fisher frequently comes across as a deeply unpleasant individual: brash, boastful and big-headed. However, he is also extremely honest \u2013 to a cringe-making degree, one imagines, if any of his wives ever got around to reading what he wrote about them. But they, of course, would have been conditioned by their time with him so that they would be hard edged enough to bear the brunt of any attack. Whilst Debbie is painted as the proverbial ice maiden \u2013 the astonishingly naive, perennial virgin, as portrayed in her films, who was placed on a pedestal by Middle America \u2013 Elizabeth is the ultimate seductress, the Lorelei who set out to ensnare him mindless of scathing public opinion and the threat to all of their careers. Fisher makes no secret of the fact that he was a willing victim, declaring of Elizabeth's voracious sexual appetite, 'She was uninhibited, wild, so totally free with her body. We couldn't get enough of each other.' And recalling how they made love up to five times a day, he added, 'Sexually, she was every man's dream; she had the face of an angel and the morals of a truck driver.'\n\nFisher also claimed that Elizabeth liked her sex rough and probably only truly respected a man after he had belted her one. 'She hit me all the time, too, and tried to goad me into hitting her back,' he wrote. 'She'd force me to pin her down to stop her, and that inevitably led to sex.'\n\nIn December 1958, Debbie Reynolds filed for divorce, but in taking the first step towards granting Fisher his freedom, she failed to release Elizabeth from her position of society-clique pariah. The Theater Owners Association had presented Elizabeth with their prestigious Star of the Year award for Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and now promptly took it back. This led to many of her so-called friends and acquaintances \u2013 some of whom had behaved no less irresponsibly in their own private lives \u2013 turning their backs on her. The stalwarts remained loyal: Rock Hudson, now divorced from Phyllis Gates, Robert Wagner and Natalie Wood \u2013 who since marrying in 1957 had inherited the 'perfect couple' tag from Debbie Reynolds and Eddie Fisher \u2013 and, of course, Montgomery Clift.\n\nMonty's confidence in his abilities, which had plummeted towards the end of Raintree County, had been bolstered by working with Marlon Brando in The Young Lions. Directed by Edward Dmytryk, Monty had played kindly Jew Noah Ackerman, who becomes a victim of anti-Semitism when drafted into the army. The reviews had been favourable, and he had successfully portrayed an agony uncle in Lonelyhearts (1958) opposite Myrna Loy. The filming of this movie had seen him reverting to his usual irrational behaviour, on and off the set, and resulted in the studios finally deeming him an uninsurable risk. Ostensibly, he was now rescued by Elizabeth, who insisted that Monty be given the male lead when she was approached to play another mad-woman role in the screen adaptation of Tennessee Williams' hysterics-fest, Suddenly, Last Summer (1959). However, with shooting not scheduled to begin until the late spring, Elizabeth channelled all her energy into planning wedding number four \u2013 but only after spending a short time with Monty in New York to confer with her best friend as to whether Eddie Fisher was suitable husband material. The same consultation had occurred before she had married Nicky Hilton and Michael Wilding.\n\nMike Todd had referred to her as his 'Jewish broad', but Elizabeth went one step further for Eddie Fisher by actually embracing the Jewish faith. This was almost certainly a ploy to gain public approval and sympathy, as was the case with Marilyn Monroe before she married Jewish playwright Arthur Miller. However, to be fair, Elizabeth had been seeking guidance from Rabbi Max Nussbaum since Mike Todd's death.\n\nEddie Fisher later confirmed that he had been indifferent towards her conversion and that Elizabeth had wanted to convert for Mike Todd, who had forbidden the move. Fisher even said that with so much anti-Semitism in Hollywood, becoming a Jew would only make those who hated her hate her more.\n\nHer conversion was conducted by Rabbi Nussbaum in April 1959 and was attended by her parents with the same enthusiasm, according to Fisher, that they would have mustered watching their own home burn down. She chose the name Elisheba Rachel, learned several payers in Hebrew and at the few parties she was not excluded from casually slipped Yiddish expressions into the conversation. She did herself few favours by comparing her own tribulations with the persecution of Jews during the Second World War, telling a press conference, 'I was attracted to their heritage. I guess I identified with them as underdogs.' On an even more serious note, Muslim governments across the Middle East slapped a total ban on her films when she pledged $100,000 to the Israeli war effort to 'recompense' for her conversion.\n\nThe conversion, for which Elizabeth never subsequently supplied factual evidence, cut her no slack with the media or the disgruntled public. The press still used terms such as 'home wrecker', and Debbie Reynolds fans meeting Elizabeth in public certainly voiced their opinions. Not since Ingrid Bergman's desertion of her husband to move in with director Roberto Rossellini and bear his children a decade earlier had there been such a national outcry.\n\nDebbie also had the last laugh on her adulterous husband when granted her divorce in February 1959. The judge awarded her full custody of her children, $10,000 alimony a year for 20 years (a vast amount in those days) and the Fishers' homes in Hollywood and Palm Springs. If this was not enough to sting him, and just in case he planned on marrying Elizabeth straightaway, Fisher was told that the divorce would not become absolute until February 1960. And to round off the proceedings, NBC cancelled his television series on account of the scandal.\n\nDebbie, of course, could not prevent the couple from living together or from getting engaged. They rented a house in Las Vegas, where Fisher was due to open a season at the Tropicana Hotel, and threw a party for the few close friends they still had: the Wagners, Rock Hudson, Tony Curtis, Ronald and Nancy Reagan, and Peter Lawson. Monty Clift declined his invitation: he disapproved of Liza Todd, his favourite child in all the world, being caught up in the middle of a messy divorce whilst trying to come to terms with her new stepfather. Fisher had presented his fianc\u00e9e with a $50,000 diamond bracelet and an evening bag encrusted with twenty-seven diamonds (one for each year of her life) that spelled out 'LIZ'. As with his predecessors, his theory was that love was far better expressed in dollars than with heartfelt words.\n\nEddie Fisher's opening night at the Tropicana was a media-fest, with most of the audience less interested in the on-stage performance than the fact that Elizabeth would be braving the wrath of public opinion by having the gall to show her face. When she arrived, not very sensibly via the front entrance, she was greeted with hisses and 'LIZ GO HOME' banners. Between numbers hand-picked to milk the occasion \u2013 'It Happens Every Day', 'Making Whoopee' and Dorothy Squires' 'I'm Walking Behind You on Your Wedding Day' \u2013 Fisher wisecracked with the audience, playing the cynics at their own game, and by the end of the evening had won over even the hardest of them. After the show, he and Elizabeth met the press and for the first time gained a little sympathy \u2013 not much, but it was a step in the right direction. At one time, the fans had clamoured to see Fisher the crooner-par-excellence, but from that point on audiences felt cheated unless Elizabeth was on full bejewelled display next to the stage at every performance, especially when the curious who had frequently disliked his singing began pushing out the genuine aficionados in the rush for tickets.\n\nIt is not known whether Debbie Reynolds had really intended to make her ex-husband sweat it out for a whole year before being allowed to marry Elizabeth, but neither is it clear why she changed her mind, granting him his freedom after less than three months. Whatever the case, Fisher obtained a Nevada divorce during the morning of 12 May 1959 (although the original stipulation of a one-year gap would have stood had he been in California), and within the hour the couple were wed in a civil ceremony. A blessing followed at the Temple Beth Shalom, and Elizabeth became Mrs Edwin Jack Fisher. Mike Todd Jr was best man, and Elizabeth's sister-in-law, Mara (Howard's wife), was matron of honour. The bride wore an 'unlucky' green Jean-Louis gown recommended by Marlene Dietrich, who told me, 'She'd spent her whole life crying wolf most of the time. To my way of thinking, she deserved a little genuine bad luck for a change!'\n\nElizabeth told the press a variation of her usual stock statement, which was already starting to wear thin: 'This honeymoon is going to last 30 or 40 years. From now on, I want to devote my time to being a devoted wife and mother.' Few took her or the marriage seriously, particularly when she insisted on still wearing Mike Todd's wedding ring on her right hand.\n\nThe honeymoon, compared to its predecessors, was reasonably frugal, part-financed by Columbia Pictures. The couple flew to Spain to shoot the exteriors of Suddenly, Last Summer. Whilst there, Elizabeth also made an unbilled cameo appearance in Mike Todd Jr's 'Smell-O-Vision' curiosity Holiday in Spain (1960), something of a non-event starring Peter Lorre and Denholm Elliott. Naturally, with such a gimmick at its centre, it had a limited release and, fortunately, was soon forgotten. Fans had to wait until near the end to see Elizabeth \u2013 and almost choke on the stench of the perfume accompanying the scene as it was pumped through the cinema's air-conditioning system.\n\nWhen shooting wound up, the Fishers borrowed producer Sam Spiegel's yacht and 'explored' the Mediterranean, attracting large crowds at each 'impromptu' anchorage \u2013 all arranged by the studio publicity department, of course. They then headed for London, where the interiors for Suddenly, Last Summer were shot at Shepperton Studios.\n\nUpon hearing of director Joe Mankiewicz's Lothario reputation \u2013 arguably no worse than his own \u2013 Eddie Fisher took no chances and made a point of visiting the set every day. Though he might not have known it at the time, he was starting to ditch the crooner tag and take up the role of Mr Taylor. 'My real job was keeping Elizabeth happy,' he wrote in his memoirs. 'My own career was disappearing. My singing, which had once been the thing I lived for, was becoming more of a well-paid hobby.'\n\nAt Shepperton, Elizabeth walked in on a dispute that for once did not concern her. Katharine Hepburn, a fighter for a lost cause \u2013 like Elizabeth with Monty \u2013 had been coaxed by producer Sam Spiegel into playing wealthy widow Violet Venable, whose son Sebastian died 'Suddenly, Last Summer' in mysterious circumstances. Hepburn had read the script, and although she had understood that Sebastian was attracted to men, she had apparently been unaware of what homosexuals did in bed until being enlightened on the subject by gay scriptwriter Gore Vidal. Matters were made infinitely worse by a change in the script that resulted in Sebastian's interest turning to teenage boys. 'Ah, the perils of cruising for chicken!' Paul Roen later observed in High Camp (Leyland Publications, 1993), an essential guide to such films, published four decades later, which, surprisingly, contains just one Elizabeth Taylor movie. Hepburn tried to get out of her contract, but by then it was too late.\n\nClaimed by Tennessee Williams to be semi-autobiographical, Suddenly, Last Summer was promoted behind the scenes as 'a film about homosexuality, cannibalism and frontal lobotomies'. It possesses all the elements of the classic camp spectacular, guaranteeing it will never being taken seriously: Grand Guignol settings, sadistic nuns, lesbian nurses and lunatics, all aided and abetted by masters of the genre, Elizabeth and Monty, and Mercedes McCambridge and Albert Dekker.\n\nElizabeth's gay fans hated the slur against them in the film's publicity poster, which depicted her wearing a swimsuit alongside the caption 'Suddenly, last summer, Cathy knew she was being used for evil!' The 'evil' refers to the men Elizabeth's character, Cathy, procured for her cousin, Sebastian, during his annual visit to the Med, once his mother, Violet Venable (Hepburn), had grown too old for the job. (Those in the know scoffed that Sebastian would have used another man to attract his pick-ups had he been so shy.) Sebastian has died in mysterious circumstances, and in order to protect her son's memory, Violet offers to donate $1 million to surgeon John Cukrowiz's (Monty) decrepit asylum if he lobotomises Cathy, who seems to have flipped her lid, and stops her from revealing the truth about her son's homosexuality. The operation never takes place, of course \u2013 with so much character-actress confusion, it would be inconceivable that Elizabeth Taylor be thought of as insane. Instead, we get a hysterical speech akin to some of those Elizabeth gave during her later political rallies, in which we learn the true circumstances of Sebastian's death: that he was stripped and cannibalised by a group of angry young men, performing the ultimate parody of a blow job, all of which was witnessed by Cathy.\n\nMontgomery Clift's health had deteriorated badly since Raintree County, though the magic of his performances had remained intact. During Suddenly, Last Summer, however, he experienced such difficulty remembering his lines that Joe Mankiewicz wanted to put shooting on hold until a replacement was found. Elizabeth defended him virulently, warning Mankiewicz that if her friend left the production, so would she. Katharine Hepburn, purely on a professional level, could not condone the way the director kept abusing Monty every time he fluffed a scene. On the last day of shooting, having been assured that she would not be required for retakes, she strode up to Mankiewicz and spat in his face.\n\nElizabeth's performance in Suddenly, Last Summer was exemplary, effortlessly matching Montgomery Clift's \u2013 she even held her own against Katharine Hepburn's stilted, over-the-top delivery, especially during the gut-wrenching denouement scene. The New York Herald Tribune, critical of much of Elizabeth's past work, observed, 'If there were ever any doubts about the ability of Miss Taylor to express complex and devious emotions, to deliver a flexible and deep performance, this film ought to remove them.'\n\nIt is, however, chiefly for its inadvertent ultra-camp value that the film will be remembered. Back then, it catapulted Elizabeth into the top-ten box-office stars list, along with her friend Rock Hudson and Doris Day, who had taken America by storm with Pillow Talk (1959). Before its release, Elizabeth had again talked of retirement, but the prospect of earning up to $500,000 per picture now put this thought out of her head. However, it would appear that even this was insufficient. When approached by producer Walter Wanger and Spyros Skouras, the head of Twentieth Century Fox, to consider the lead in Cleopatra (1963), a project that had already been on the stocks for two years, Elizabeth upped her demands. Skouras had spent over $500,000 on the production, planned to save cash by using some of the leftover sets from the 1917 production starring Theda Bara and had pencilled in Joan Collins for the title role. However, he believed Elizabeth would be better. She read the script and denounced it as appalling but agreed to do it all the same so long as the studio paid her $1 million! Skouras's lack of respect for her and her demands was only too evident by his quote to the press: 'Any hundred-dollars-a-week girl can play Cleopatra.' He nonetheless swallowed the bait and increased the budget to $3 million.\n\nIn the meantime, MGM informed Elizabeth that her final film in their about-to-expire contract would be Butterfield 8 (1960) with Laurence Harvey and David Janssen. Her salary was a non-negotiable $125,000. 'It was the story of a nymphomaniac who falls in love with a married man and almost breaks up his marriage,' Eddie Fisher later observed. 'Hmm, now where did that concept come from?' Elizabeth attacked the storyline as 'pornographic' and initially refused to play a character described as 'a non-charging hooker'. MGM, she added, had only offered her such a role because they wanted to exact their revenge on her for leaving them.\n\nElizabeth's producer friend Pandro Berman, who had purchased the rights to John O'Hara's novella some years before but until then had failed to get the project off the ground, tried to talk her into doing the film. Berman quietly pointed out that owing to a 'technicality', MGM could legally hang on to her for another two years and prevent her from working for another studio. However, if she refused to cooperate, she would simply be suspended and not work at all during those two years, which would mean her giving up on Cleopatra. What the canny Berman did not let on was that he owned a huge share of the Butterfield 8 movie rights \u2013 a share which would bring in 40 per cent of the profits, providing the film earned $2 million at the box office, no problem at all given the publicity attached to the star's private life.\n\nElizabeth still refused to do the film and was promptly suspended \u2013 a stalemate that ended one week later when she capitulated, doubtless swallowing a huge wedge of humble pie, although she was no less demanding, particularly when David Janssen dropped out of the production. She asked Berman to give Janssen's part to Eddie Fisher! MGM readily agreed to this: having the new husband around, they figured, might just keep their feisty star in check. Also, although the Fishers would never be regarded as being as lucrative or personable as Eddie and Debbie or the Wagners, MGM hoped that pairing them on the screen would fill cinemas \u2013 providing, of course, they were still together by the time the film was released.\n\nNo sooner had Elizabeth been placated than she fell ill again. Eddie Fisher's hype-inspired success at the Tropicana had brought in more offers, including a season at Las Vegas's Desert Inn and New York's Waldorf Astoria. It was while performing in New York that Time magazine declared him 'an absolute smash', though there would be few hit records for a while. Halfway through the run, Elizabeth began to experience breathing difficulties. When she collapsed and was rushed into the Presbyterian Hospital, doctors diagnosed viral pneumonia.\n\nThere seems little wonder, given certain aspects of what happened next, that some sections of the media found it hard to distinguish when Elizabeth was genuinely ailing or attention seeking. Neither did Fisher help by subsequently claiming that she had asked for her lip gloss whilst in the ambulance. But for almost a week she was confined to an oxygen tent and her condition described as critical. Then, as she started to rally, she attempted to obtain some sort of bonus from her indisposition by asking a specialist at the hospital if he could reverse her earlier operation to tie off the fallopian tubes. There were already rumours of a rift in her marriage, and Elizabeth believed that having a baby with Fisher might help the situation. She was advised that surgery would be risky in her current state of health \u2013 and she had only had the procedure in the first place because doctors had warned that having another child might kill her. Once again, searching for a way to remedy a situation she had created affected her capacity for reason.\n\nThis stubborn reluctance to see sense applied to her demands for Eddie Fisher to be in the new film. It was a hopeless attempt to hold on to him \u2013 not that he was going anywhere. She was obsessed with losing him to the point of making life merry hell for everyone around her. Fisher might have been one of the finest singers of his generation, but he had no proven acting ability, a fact he himself readily confirmed. In 1958, he had appeared with Debbie Reynolds in Bundle of Joy. The film was 65 per cent self-financed and slated by the New York Times as 'No bundle of joy . . . sadly deficient entertainment.' Elizabeth even attempted to transform her husband into a legitimate movie star by getting Montgomery Clift to give him acting lessons. This did not work. According to Fisher, the ever-bombed Monty flaked out during the initial reading with a lighted cigarette in his hand, setting fire to the script whilst Fisher was out of the room! Despite all this, he does exceptionally well in Butterfield 8.\n\nShooting on the film got under way in January 1960. Still weak, Elizabeth was laid low by influenza, though by now MGM were allegedly so tired of trying to work out which of her indispositions were real and which were invented that she would have been forced to work, come what may, had it not been for an impromptu strike at the studio. Elizabeth always professed to hating Butterfield 8, the plot of which was based on the real-life story of Starr Faithful, a Palm Beach call girl who had been murdered in 1931. By the time it reached the screen, of course, O'Hara's work had been so heavily censored that it bore little resemblance to the original. All that was important to MGM was that Elizabeth's character, good-time-girl Gloria Wandrous \u2013 who has the audacity to confess that she was sexually abused as a child and enjoyed the experience \u2013 would have to die, to reassure moralists that 'divine' justice had been dispensed.\n\nOn the positive side, Elizabeth loved working with Lithuanian-born British actor Laurence Harvey. The fact that Harvey was another tormented soul fighting the twin demons of drink and homosexuality (though married three times) drew Elizabeth towards him like a magnet, just as it had to Montgomery Clift. The pair would remain good friends until the end of Harvey's life, which came prematurely at the age of just 45. His portrayal of arrogant Northerner Joe Lampton in Room at the Top (1958) had opened the door to Hollywood, and he had recently completed The Alamo (1960) with John Wayne. In Butterfield 8, Harvey excels as 'low-down rotten heel' Wes Liggett, though, like Elizabeth, he believed that he could have given more of himself with a better script. To this end, during the studio's strike, Elizabeth brought in pals Tennessee Williams, Truman Capote and Christopher Isherwood to liven up the proceedings. Between them they wrote some 'pretty explicit' love scenes for the Taylor and Fisher characters. Fisher later claimed that one of these had been filmed and that they actually had sex on the set. 'I didn't have an orgasm, but we did everything else,' he recalled, adding that being in front of the camera had been a tremendous turn-on. Of course, had such a scene survived it would have been worth a fortune on the black market. It ended up on the cutting-room floor, and the revised script was 'binned' by Pandro Berman and a new one commissioned from John Michael Hayes, the man responsible for getting Peyton Place past the censors.\n\nProviding one is not put off by Laurence Harvey's 'fidgety toupee', it is a good film with none of the usual Tennessee Williams-style histrionics and raucous vocals. In one memorable scene, the barman at Gloria's local could be describing Elizabeth when he says, 'You don't have to describe her to me. I'd know her with my eyes closed, down the bottom of a coalmine, during an eclipse of the sun . . . She's like catnip to every cat in town!' Art also reflects life as the actress and character merge: the man Gloria loves is incapable of leaving his wealthy wife, because she is the one holding the purse strings, whilst the man is a thorough creep who drinks heavily and is physically violent, traits that \u2013 as with Elizabeth \u2013 only excite her and make her love him more. However, as with so many events in Elizabeth's personal life, all must end badly for Gloria.\n\nBy the time Butterfield 8 was released, with rumours rife that Elizabeth's marriage to Fisher was well and truly on the rocks, the critics would be making inevitable comparisons between what they had watched on the screen and what was actually happening within the Taylor-Fisher camps.\n\n# EIGHT\n\nTHE LAUNCH OF THE   \n$40 MILLION BOMB\n\nWITH BUTTERFIELD 8 IN THE CAN, IT WAS TIME FOR THE Cleopatra fiasco to roll into action \u2013 a lengthy process that would be fraught with bust-ups of escalating virulence, threats of lawsuits and financial ruin, and for its star a maelstrom of tantrums, indispositions and more attention seeking than most people could sensibly handle. For starters, Elizabeth was not the only contender for the role that Spyros Skouras hoped would make the film Hollywood's biggest smash since Gone with the Wind (1939) had saved Twentieth Century Fox from the receiver, although her personal and financial demands had been met and she had been told that Cleopatra was hers for the taking.\n\nSkouras worked his way up the Hollywood ladder the hard way. The son of a Greek shepherd, he and his brothers Charles and George arrived penniless in the United States in 1910. Settling in St Louis, they bought up every cinema in the city by the mid-1920s. When these were later snapped up by Warner Brothers, Skouras was appointed head of distribution. In 1932, after a brief spell with Paramount, Skouras took over Fox's movie theatres in New York. In 1942, he was appointed their president, investing in the CinemaScope widescreen process, which, for a while, successfully fought off competition from television, the 'newfangled' craze that had hammered the final nail into the coffin of the all-powerful studio system. Skouras's debut film in this media, The Robe (1953), was a big hit worldwide.\n\nProducer Walter Wanger had a no less illustrious pedigree. A graduate of Dartmouth College, he worked for Columbia, most notably on Greta Garbo's Queen Christina (1933), before becoming an independent producer, releasing such gems as Stagecoach (1939) and The Reckless Moment (1949), with his wife, Joan Bennett. In the early 1950s, he spent time in prison for shooting her agent\/lover but emerged from the scandal virtually unscathed to make Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1956). Both Wanger and Skouras boasted at the time that Cleopatra would prove to be their greatest achievement, though it would actually turn out to be their biggest nightmare.\n\nIn recent years, Fox had endured some of the lowest returns of any of the major studios. Aside from The King and I and The Seven Year Itch (1955), there had been no massive box-office hits, and a series of turkeys had lost the company $100 million.\n\nIn June 1960, Elizabeth was yet to sign her contract. One of the reasons for this was that her films were banned in Egypt, where the film was set, and in the rest of the Arab world because of her conversion to Judaism and links with Israel. Still sitting in the wings, but no longer clear favourite, was Joan Collins \u2013 who, in retrospect, would have been just as good in the role \u2013 along with Susan Hayward, Gina Lollobrigida and, more ridiculously, Marilyn Monroe and Brigitte Bardot, either of whom would have turned the production into a joke. Marilyn had just been assigned to The Misfits with Montgomery Clift and Clark Gable, and would cause them untold problems, turning up late every day, more often than not high on barbiturates and spreading the rumour that she and Monty were an item. Elizabeth detested her. During a confrontation at The Polo Lounge in Beverly Hills (quoted in Norman Mailer's biography of Monroe), Elizabeth is reputed to have exclaimed, in front of witnesses, 'Get that dyke away from me!'\n\nAll of the above-mentioned actresses were contract players and therefore cheaper to employ than Elizabeth. Aside from Monroe and Bardot, all were more talented. Elizabeth, however, was media manna from heaven \u2013 albeit an indiscriminate liability on account of health and personality issues \u2013 so much so that Wanger and Skouras were willing to stake their reputations in acquiring her, regardless of the cost. Any problems, they declared, would be ironed out along the way.\n\nLike Rock Hudson and the Wagners, Elizabeth had founded her own company, the first of several \u2013 based in Switzerland for tax purposes, MCL was named after her children's initials \u2013 and she was proving to be a surprisingly shrewd businesswoman. When the Fox executives decided that a $1-million salary was too steep, she and her agents negotiated a deal whereby she would be paid a flat rate of $125,000 to be followed by $50,000 for each additional week she was asked to work after a to-be-fixed shooting period. Fox were clearly expecting the production to run pretty much to schedule and could not have foreseen any of the dilemmas of the near future. Additionally, the studio would pick up her expenses tab. This included $3,000 per week in personal expenses, the salaries for her entourage, a suite at the Dorchester in London, first-class air and rail travel, and a Rolls-Royce to be laid on around the clock. It was as if Elizabeth had actually seen into the future or had even planned to take Fox for a ride. Though all of these terms combined came to less than the original $1 million she had demanded, by the time Cleopatra hit the screens the tally would be almost double this amount.\n\nTo make money, Spyros Skouras avowed, money would have to be spent, and vast amounts were dispensed with in getting the project off the ground. In Italy, a rival company were about to begin shooting their version of Cleopatra, with a more sensible budget. Skouras bought them out to the tune of $500,000. He then gave the go-ahead for the sets to be constructed \u2013 recreations of Alexandria and Rome, spread across several acres at Pinewood Studios. By the time he had signed the supporting actors, the sets alone had cost Spyros $750,000. Stephen Boyd was hired to play Mark Antony, and Peter Finch was signed for the role of Caesar. Belfast-born Boyd, ethereally handsome and at the prime of his career, had recently triumphed as Massala in Ben-Hur (1959). Finch, a hell-raiser much admired by Elizabeth, had already worked with her in Elephant Walk. Welsh actor Stanley Baker was signed up to play Mark Antony's favourite, Rufio. Shooting was scheduled to begin at the end of September, with director Rouben Mamoulian confident that a typical British autumn would provide an exact climate to the one enjoyed by ancient Egypt.\n\nBy then, Eddie Fisher had all but been relegated to the role of Mr Taylor \u2013 the press reported him as her factotum\/secretary, on Fox's payroll to the tune of $1,500 a week just to ensure that she got to work on time and sober each day. It was suggested that all they ever had in common was a mutual love for one man \u2013 Mike Todd \u2013 one passionately, the other platonically, and that neither had ever stopped mourning him.\n\nThe first major crisis occurred days into shooting when the studio coiffeurs staged a strike because Elizabeth had brought her personal stylist onto the set. When word got around that she must therefore consider British hairdressers to be useless, which was not the case, the technicians took a sympathy vote and downed tools, forcing the studio to shut for several days until the dispute was resolved. This apparently had an effect on Elizabeth's health, and soon afterwards one of her 'aides' \u2013 almost certainly Eddie Fisher \u2013 informed Mamoulian that she would be unavailable for work because of a high fever. The director was concerned enough, having been forewarned of his star's foibles, to cable Spyros Skouras in Hollywood \u2013 and for Skouras to be on the next plane to London. The press then learned that the production was costing the studio over $100,000 a day.\n\nEddie Fisher, by his own admission, found it necessary to get away from his wife from time to time. 'I was caught in a magnificent trap, and even though I was madly in love with her, it was still a trap,' he recalled, adding that his career had evaporated and that the only singing he was now doing was around the house. Taking a leaf out of Mike Todd's book, Fisher had decided to produce Elizabeth's films himself, which would mean jetting back and forth to Hollywood to strike up various deals and hopefully salvage their flagging marriage by putting some distance between them, thus applying the 'absence makes the heart grow fonder' technique used earlier by Louis B. Mayer to patch up the marriage of Elizabeth's parents. She was reputedly interested in playing the outrageous American dancer Isadora Duncan (later immortalised on the screen by Vanessa Redgrave), mindless of the fact that she could not dance, and the great French tragic actress Sarah Bernhardt, mindless of the fact, some sniped, that she could not act. George Stevens, who had directed her in Giant, was also assembling the cast for The Greatest Story Ever Told (1965) and wanted Elizabeth to play Mary Magdalene, a move that would have seen her torn to shreds by the moralists. Other projects lined up by Fisher included Harold Robbins's The Carpetbaggers and L'affaire gouffre, a French drama co-starring Charlie Chaplin.\n\nIn what now appears to have been a trial separation, Fisher put his heart into these projects. 'The truth was, I just wanted to breathe on my own,' he observes in his memoirs, describing the tantrum Elizabeth had thrown when he had bid her au revoir. The nearest he came to signing a deal was when Warner Brothers wanted to team her up again with Paul Newman in Two for the Seesaw (1962). When the studio president learned that she would not work for less than her now statutory $1 million, the deal was off, and Fisher returned to London and inevitably more drama, for his wife was ill again.\n\nNever one to do things by halves, Elizabeth had gained a valuable ally during Fisher's absence: Lord Evans, the Queen's personal physician. When she was suddenly declared seriously ill at the end of October, it was he who booked her into the London Clinic. She also flew in her personal doctor from Los Angeles, and despite the gravity of her condition, insisted on being stretchered out of the front entrance of the Dorchester \u2013 but not until the press had been informed.\n\nFor two weeks, all the public were told was that Elizabeth Taylor was very ill, possibly dying. Sara and Francis Taylor, declaring that her illness was 'connected to the spirit', breezed into town, accompanied by a Christian Scientist practitioner. The trio spent several nights at Elizabeth's bedside, taking it in turn to read aloud passages from Mary Baker Eddy's 1875 tome Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures. The main thesis of this book is that 'disease is of an illusory nature, curable without medication'. Whilst the cynics scoffed, Elizabeth accredited it with helping her towards her recovery, whilst her husband more realistically suspected that the true cause of her malady was her fondness for painkillers. Recalling how she popped pills prescribed by several different doctors, each with no knowledge of the other, he explained how one day he experimented by taking one of the more unfamiliar medications from Elizabeth's nightstand \u2013 before then he had never knowingly taken anything addictive. 'I couldn't stand up until the next morning,' he wrote, adding that he feared that she might overdose. 'The most I could do was be there in case \u2013 just in case.'\n\nFisher claimed, just as others have, that Elizabeth knew more about these drugs than most doctors, that she was constantly passing out and that the situation became so bad that he had to be prescribed Librium to get a good night's sleep. In fact, he had been addicted to drugs for years, something he might not have been consciously aware of. One of his mentors was alternative physician Max Jacobson, the infamous Dr Feelgood, whose celebrity clients included neurotics Margaret Leighton and Tennessee Williams. Both relied on his notorious 'vitamin' injections and, like Fisher, might not have known of their amphetamine content. Also, because these were not yet illegal in the United States, patients might have interpreted the unpleasant cold-turkey experience that followed once their effect wore off as merely being part of the condition for which the injections had been prescribed. Jacobson usually administered the shots himself, but once a client was hooked, he taught them to self-inject. According to Fisher, whoever was treating Elizabeth also allowed him to inject her with morphine. 'She needed it more than she needed a husband,' he recalled. 'Ah, the things we do for love.' Then it emerged that the cause of her mystery illness was nothing more than an abscessed tooth. This was removed and the patient given the all-clear, much to everyone's relief.\n\nDuring Elizabeth's indisposition, Rouben Mamoulian had worked around her, shooting crowd scenes and scenes with Stephen Boyd that did not involve Cleopatra. No sooner had she returned to the set than she collapsed with severe headaches and had to be rushed back to the London Clinic. Lord Evans and his colleagues now diagnosed something much more serious: inflammation of the spinal cord and brain, possibly meningitis. On 18 November 1960, she was declared 'unfit to work for the foreseeable future'.\n\nFor Twentieth Century Fox, this spelled disaster. Spyros Skouras had luckily, but with some difficulty, taken out a $3-million insurance policy in the event of such a catastrophe befalling the studio, and when it was decided that filming would have to be postponed, not just on account of Elizabeth but because of the fast-approaching winter \u2013 the cameras were getting steamed up due to the cold and there was steam coming from the actors' nostrils and mouths, hardly appropriate for Egypt! \u2013 Lloyds of London suggested that Skouras find himself another Cleopatra and begin shooting elsewhere. Susan Hayward, Joan Collins and Joanne Woodward (a late contender) were no longer available, but Marilyn Monroe \u2013 a hopeless wreck after The Misfits \u2013 was still interested, and so too now were Kim Novak and Shirley MacLaine. Skouras would not hear of this. He announced that he was closing down the production until the new year, by which time he hoped Elizabeth would be fit.\n\nThe tabloids, meanwhile, were having a field day, fuelled by Elizabeth's own passion for the dramatic. The Daily Mail suggested she had been faking it \u2013 keeping away from the set because she had put on weight. Insiders, who were effectively little more than idle speculators, leaked snippets to the American trash mags. One such rumour was that Elizabeth was cheating on Eddie Fisher with gay actor Stephen Boyd and that the Fishers' marriage \u2013 founded solely on their joint grief for Mike Todd \u2013 was all but over. Boyd was enjoying a discreet relationship with the British boxer Freddie Mills, who later left him for singer Michael Holliday, but the press refused to believe that a man even reputed to be involved with Elizabeth Taylor could be anything but red-blooded and did not 'out' him.\n\nWhilst Boyd breathed a sigh of relief, the Fishers sued various tabloids for a collective $8 million. Not that this did much good. A few years earlier, the Daily Mirror had been taken to the cleaners by the flamboyantly homosexual Liberace for suggesting that he was effeminate, since which time the press had been meticulous in checking their sources. No doubt the newspapers would have supplied proof of where their stories had come from had the matter gone to the high court \u2013 and no doubt released more details of the Fishers' troubled marriage. The couple were therefore compelled to settle out of court for smaller amounts than they had anticipated, amounts which have never been disclosed.\n\nShooting on Cleopatra resumed on 3 January 1961, but ground to a halt days later when Rouben Mamoulian denounced the script rewrites as 'tosh'. Acting on a whim, he flew in writer-cum-producer-cum-director Nunnally Johnson from Hollywood, an exercise which did not come cheap. Johnson had worked on Tobacco Road (1941), The Grapes of Wrath (1940) and, more recently, Elvis Presley's Flaming Star (1960). His fee for Cleopatra was a non-negotiable $100,000, and his on-set presence only added to the general mayhem, forcing Mamoulian to confess that he had made an almighty mistake and throw in the towel. Through no fault of his own, he had ended up with just 15 minutes of usable film, which, he told reporters, had cost Twentieth Century Fox around $500,000 a minute!\n\nIt was Elizabeth who suggested that Mamoulian's replacement should be Joe Mankiewicz, much as she loathed him for his treatment of Montgomery Clift during Suddenly, Last Summer. Riding high on the crest of a wave of popularity following the success of the film, Mankiewicz upped his fee in a deal that very nearly catapulted the studio irretrievably into the red. Mankiewicz joint-owned a production company with NBC that Spyros Skouras had been after for some time. Part of the deal was that Fox should buy him out for $3 million \u2013 and pay him a salary way above the norm, as well as 'executives' expenses. As such, he became the highest-paid director in Hollywood history up to that point.\n\nMankiewicz hit Pinewood like a tidal wave. To pacify the film's backers, who were threatening to pull out, he dismissed Nunnally Johnson and the lesser scriptwriters, sacked most of the bit-parts and extras, and gave instructions for the sets to be trashed and rebuilt. Within a month of taking the helm, he had sent the Cleopatra budget soaring to over $12 million. Then he announced a target date: 3 April 1961. By then, he vowed, he would have come up with a script that would not have cinemagoers cringing and a movie with actors worth watching. Until this date, production would be suspended.\n\nElizabeth, now on the $50,000-a-week part of her deal with Fox \u2013 currently being paid just to hang around waiting for the studio call \u2013 accompanied Eddie Fisher to Munich's pre-Lenten carnival. No sooner had they arrived than Fisher was taken ill with suspected appendicitis. Elizabeth insisted upon him being flown back to London \u2013 again suggesting that the condition cannot have been serious. Fisher subsequently confessed that he had invented the illness in order to draw attention to himself for once and thus prevent Elizabeth from self-destructing completely. Some people might think it incredible that he should actually undergo surgery in order to assuage his wife's acute selfishness rather than 'kick her into touch' as some husbands might have done. Such was her power over him.\n\nFisher had barely recovered from his ordeal when Elizabeth's lungs became congested and she almost choked to death during the night of 3 March 1961. Her life was ostensibly saved by one J. Middleton Price, an anaesthetist attending a party at a nearby suite at the Dorchester who performed an emergency tracheotomy. Rushed into the London Clinic, she was diagnosed with pneumonia and placed on the critical list, with a 40 per cent chance of survival. The headline in the next day's Evening Standard read, 'Liz Fights for Her Life'.\n\nOutside the London Clinic, hundreds of fans kept a round-the-clock vigil, mingling with the curious and reporters eager to relay news of her death to their editors who would vie for the best exclusives on her busy love life once she was deceased and incapable of suing. Some of those religious organisation that had previously denounced her held prayer meetings for her recovery \u2013 they were unashamed to admit that they wanted her well so that they would not feel guilty about attacking her. Some even delivered bottles of Lourdes water to the hospital.\n\nLondon had not witnessed such an emotional scene since June 1939, when Gracie Fields had been placed on the danger list after being admitted to the Chelsea Hospital with ovarian cancer. Photographers were offered huge amounts of cash to infiltrate the tight security for an exclusive of Elizabeth's corpse should the worst befall her. Just over a year earlier, the same incentive had been put forward when French heart-throb actor G\u00e9rard Philipe had died in Paris. Elizabeth's parents flew in to be with her, this time without their Christian Science miracle worker. Montgomery Clift called every day; John Wayne and Tennessee Williams, working in the capital, dropped in to see her. Every hour on the hour there was a bulletin: these either declared her to be slightly on the mend or sinking fast.\n\nOn 10 March 1961, Elizabeth was taken off the critical list, though she would remain hospitalised until the end of the month. There was absolutely no hope of her returning to the Cleopatra set for the time being, but the showbiz wheel had to keep turning, even if the star was out of action. Upon her discharge, Elizabeth was driven to Heathrow, looking pale under her make-up but still every inch the movie legend in her furs and jewels. On a specially equipped plane, she was flown back to Los Angeles to pick up a Best Actress Oscar for Butterfield 8. Many critics believed that the award was given to her not on account of her acting abilities, but out of pity \u2013 others suggested that this was the Academy's way of apologising for their harsh treatment of her during the Fisher-Reynolds split, though she had, of course, brought this upon herself. 'They always gave you an Academy Award when they thought you were going to die,' Marlene Dietrich told me. 'It was their way of salving their conscience \u2013 \"The Deathbed Oscar\" \u2013 and many believe that Elizabeth Taylor died a death every time she stepped in front of a camera.' Elizabeth was presented with the award by Yul Brynner. Her chief rival had been Shirley MacLaine, nominated for The Apartment (1960), who later observed, 'I lost to a tracheotomy.'\n\nElizabeth embarked on a strange and most mysterious relationship during this period with Max Lerner, the 59-year-old ex-Harvard and Brandeis University professor and columnist with the New York Post who had penned a glowing review of her performance in Suddenly, Last Summer. Lerner had also defended her against some of the vitriolic comments that had appeared in the press following her marriage to Eddie Fisher, particularly those made by Robert Ruark, who had denounced her as 'a monument to busting up other people's homes'. Praising Elizabeth and Eddie for their frank expression of their feelings for one another, despite the hurt this had caused, Lerner observed, 'This is a case where joyous candour is far better than a hysterical show of virtue. Where so many people have been desensitised in our world, I welcome this forthright celebration of the life of the senses.'\n\nBiographer Kitty Kelley later compared Elizabeth and Max Lerner with Marilyn Monroe and Arthur Miller: 'The perfect complement of \"The Brain\" and \"The Body\", a melding of the cerebral and sexual.' It is unlikely Lerner would have bothered watching a film such as Suddenly, Last Summer had it not been for an impromptu meeting with Elizabeth in June 1959, when he had been covering the summit talks between Prime Minister Macmillan and President Eisenhower. It was obviously love \u2013 or lust \u2013 at first sight on his part, and now that her fourth marriage was crumbling, Elizabeth welcomed the attention of a worldly wise, super-intelligent man as an antidote to the inarticulate braggarts she had been involved with in the past.\n\nSpeaking to McCall's magazine in September 1974, Lerner retrospectively confirmed their relationship: 'It strengthened Elizabeth's self-respect, her index of self-worth.' Certainly, her confidence needed a boost after one violent husband, one who was pathologically docile and two more who believed that true love was expressed by way of the wallet, not the heart. According to Lerner, their affair was sufficiently serious for them to contemplate marriage, though with a 32-year age gap, and with both parties still married, this would have created an even bigger scandal than the one involving Eddie Fisher. Elizabeth also trusted Lerner enough to confide her innermost secrets, which she now wanted to share with the world, no doubt wishing to set the record straight should she fall ill again and not survive. She announced that this project would be called Elizabeth Taylor: Between Life and Death, and an undisclosed publisher paid her $250,000 for the privilege of opening her heart. The exercise produced some 200 pages of transcripts from the taped interviews given when she was feeling up to it. Her friend Roddy McDowall compiled a collection 50 never-before-seen photographs for use in the book, an exercise he would later repeat for his famous Double Exposure (William Morrow and Company, 1993) tome. Though the project was subsequently abandoned, some of these confidences are believed to have been incorporated into An Informal Memoir by Elizabeth Taylor (Harper & Row, 1965). Elizabeth's relationship with Lerner, like all the others, quickly fizzled out, though the journalist would remain a close friend until his death, aged 89, in 1992.\n\nSpyros Skouras, meanwhile, announced that Cleopatra would resume shooting in Hollywood in June, and the hardly used Pinewood sets were dismantled and crated up. They were halfway across the Atlantic when a Twentieth Century Fox executive reminded Spyros of the clause in Elizabeth's contract stipulating that MCL had insisted upon the film being made outside the United States for tax purposes. Skouras spent $400,000 creating a huge artificial lake for the film's battle scenes but now had to have this filled in, selling the land at a loss to a real-estate company. Then he began searching for what he considered would be the next best thing to ancient Egypt and Rome: a location in Italy.\n\nTo acquire his director, Skouras had been compelled to buy some of Joe Mankiewicz's holdings. Now, to raise additional funds for what was already being labelled 'Hollywood's costliest turkey', he found himself selling 250 acres of Twentieth Century Fox's studio lots in Beverly Hills. Instructions were given to reconstruct Rome's Forum on a 12-acre back-lot, whilst the Alexandria site sprung up across 19 more, with the studio conveniently forgetting the stipulation in Elizabeth's contract that filming should be done outside the USA for tax purposes. Skouras then commissioned an exact replica of Cleopatra's barge \u2013 at a cost of $100,000. Replicas were made of 200 statues, 30,000 ancient weapons and 25,000 costumes. This done, he summoned his leading lady to work \u2013 only to be informed by her doctors that she would require another three months to recuperate. She was, however, apparently well enough for socialising and attending official functions. On 8 July 1961, Elizabeth and Attorney General Robert Kennedy spearheaded a fund-raising event for the Cedars-Sinai Hospital, with guests paying up to $3,000 to hear her open her heart about her near-death experiences in an 'off the cuff' speech, actually scripted by Joe Mankiewicz:\n\nDying is many things, but most of all it is wanting to live. Throughout many critical hours in the operating theatre it was as if every nerve, every muscle were being strained to the last ounce of my strength. Gradually and inevitably, that last ounce was drawn, and there was no more breath. I remember I had focused desperately on the hospital light hanging directly above me. It had become something I needed almost fanatically to continue to see, the vision of light itself. Slowly it faded and dimmed like a well-done theatrical effect to blackness. I died. Shall I tell you what it was like? Being down a long, dark tunnel, and there was a small light at the end. I had to keep looking at that light. It was painful, but beautiful too. It was like childbirth: painful but so beautiful.\n\nCynics were not slow in pointing out that Elizabeth had never experienced childbirth, having undergone three Caesarean sections. The full speech, syndicated to newspaper columns around the world and frequently dipped into by Elizabeth for future interviews and press conferences, might have been contrived, but the sentiment, linked to her need to reach out and help others, was heartfelt and genuine. When she and Eddie Fisher chipped in with $100,000 for the cause, the well-heeled guests reached for their chequebooks, and the evening raised over $8 million! The world's press had spent years detailing every last moment of her complicated private life; now they were witnessing the birth of Elizabeth Taylor the great humanitarian. What a tremendous pity, then, that over the next decade this quality would be overshadowed by her mania for spending vast amounts of cash on what some people considered to be trivialities.\n\nThree days later, the Fishers flew to Russia for the Moscow Film Festival. This time, everyone knew who she was. The couple and their entourage, which included Rex Kennamer, stayed at the Sovietskaya Hotel. Again, the subject of Anna Karenina was brought up. Elizabeth now wanted the film to be shot on location in Leningrad, but, again, nothing came of it. There was also a minor incident of sorts when Eddie Fisher was invited to sing at the Kremlin \u2013 the first American to do so since Paul Robeson. Elizabeth and Gina Lollobrigida turned up wearing identical Yves St Laurent dresses.\n\nBy early September, Elizabeth and her court had temporarily relocated to Rome: an assortment of servants and animals that decamped, at Fox's expense, to the 20-room Villa Papa near the Cinecitt\u00e0 studios, where the Cleopatra sets had been reconstructed to the tune of $1 million. Stephen Boyd, Peter Finch and Stanley Baker had moved on to new projects by this time. Because they had had no part in the delays, they retained their combined salaries of over $350,000, and Elizabeth had a new Caesar and Mark Antony \u2013 Rex Harrison and Welsh actor Richard Burton. Playing Rufio was Martin Landau. And the so-called 'Roman Scandal' was set to begin.\n\n# NINE\n\nTHAT INTEMPERATE VAMP\n\nRICHARD BURTON HAD RECENTLY WON A TONY AWARD for his interpretation of King Arthur in the stage musical Camelot \u2013 a role later reprised by Rock Hudson. Because this was still playing to packed audiences on Broadway, Spyros Skouras paid the producers $50,000 to release the actor from his contract. Bearing in mind that the production had only a few months to run, and the fact that Burton would be kept hanging around because of Elizabeth's indisposition, this money could have been saved, though, of course, the studio did not know this at the time.\n\nInitially, Burton was reluctant to play opposite Elizabeth, who he did not rate as much of an actress. The $250,000 fee offered by Fox, along with a villa and all its trappings for the proposed three-month shoot, convinced him to change his mind. His one condition was that his friend and Camelot co-star (and alleged lover) Roddy McDowall be given the part of Octavian. In the film, McDowall plays him as an amalgamation of his past and future roles: camp, sexually ambiguous and slightly unhinged. Burton further insisted that McDowall and his current boyfriend also be allowed to stay at the villa.\n\nWhen asked about his new role at a subsequent press conference, he let out an enforced sigh and pronounced, 'Ah, well, I suppose I've got to put on my breastplate and play opposite Miss Tits!' When reminded by Hedda Hopper that such an expression was impolite, he barked, 'Then I shall call her MGM's Miss Mammary \u2013 good at getting sick and acquiring husbands!'\n\nOn the first day of shooting, as if on cue, the heavens opened, and it poured almost every day for a month, delaying production and sending the already sky-high costs soaring even further. Walter Wanger reported that the film was costing him over $60,000 a day. There were further delays when workmen extending the Alexandria site unearthed a large number of unexploded mines \u2013 it emerged that the area had been a minefield during the Second World War. Richard Burton, who does not appear much in the first half of the film, spent his time doing what he was best at \u2013 drinking, hell-raising, womanising and being generally unpleasant \u2013 leaving his wife Sybil at the villa. Joe Mankiewicz, still rewriting the script and making drastic changes on a daily basis, only added to the mayhem. When he asked Skouras to postpone shooting for a whole month until he had completed the script, Skouras announced that there would be two films \u2013 the first, Caesar and Cleopatra, would end with a cliffhanger and would be released whilst a sequel was being completed, perhaps in six months' time. Upon hearing that he might be 'laid off', Burton threatened to sue. By then, he had Elizabeth firmly on side, having decided that he did like 'Miss Tits' and very much so!\n\nThe 'moment of truth' occurred on 22 January 1962 when Elizabeth and Burton filmed their first love scene. Later, she would recall, 'I kind of resented him, and I was certainly determined not to become another notch on his belt.' Eddie Fisher also had his reservations. 'Even if he hadn't destroyed my marriage, I would have disliked him,' he wrote in his memoirs. 'From the first moment I met him, I thought him an arrogant slob.'\n\nOn the 20th anniversary of Richard Burton's death in 2004, the Daily Mail ran a feature in which Glenys Roberts, writing about the actor's homosexual conquests, observed, 'Some claim he first tried to seduce Liz's then husband Eddie Fisher and turned to her only when he was rebuffed.' True or not, she fell for him the way she had other gay or bisexual men: Glenn Davis, Nicky Hilton, Montgomery Clift and Michael Wilding. Like them, she said, he positively oozed sensitivity and roguish charm, and his 'poetic voice' sent shivers down her spine. Clearly, her marriage problems had compelled her to search for a scapegoat, an excuse to ditch Eddie Fisher, following the familiar pattern of her previous marriages to Hilton and Wilding. With Stephen Boyd out of the picture, it might well be that she subconsciously plumped for the best that was on offer and allowed nature to take its course.\n\nElizabeth claimed that the crunch came one morning when Burton was hung-over and suffering from the shakes. He asked her to hold his coffee cup to his lips whilst he drank, playing to her maternal instincts, just as the older Jimmy, Rock and Monty had done in the past. Even so, although he obviously found her sexually attractive, Burton was still able to criticise what he interpreted as her lack of professionalism \u2013 her 'useless' acting and 'inaudible' voice \u2013 until Joe Mankiewicz informed him that her speaking voice could be captured on film with specialised sound techniques just as effectively as everyone else's, as happened with Marilyn Monroe and Marlon Brando.\n\nWith Burton, this was a classic case of the pot calling the kettle black. Although he excelled at Shakespeare, with his booming voice and mellifluous accent, his movie roles alternated between the sublime and the downright abominable. That he used Elizabeth as a ladder to scale the summit of the global publicity machine goes without saying \u2013 though this did not add much to his prestige, and once he began working with her, there were many people, including most critics, who regarded him as little more than an ebullient, bother-causing, drink-addled buffoon.\n\nNeither was Richard Burton particularly good-looking once he reached 40, something which did not sit well with his acute narcissism. A severe case of acne during his late teens had left him with a face covered in pockmarks. Before shooting a scene, these had to be filled in with heavy layers of make-up \u2013 in some later close-ups, he resembles a hammy, over-painted villain from a silent movie. Burton was also less than fastidious when it came to personal hygiene: during drunken binges he would go for days, sometimes weeks on end, without washing or taking a shower. Confidence in his own abilities, however, was not lacking. Like Mike Todd before him, he genuinely believed himself to be God's gift to mankind, and this chutzpah gave him the hard edge and courage to brave whatever insults the critics flung his way \u2013 and in his later years there were considerably more of these than accolades.\n\nLike Elizabeth, despite his seven Oscar nominations (but no actual winners), Richard Burton had a phenomenal knack of choosing turkeys. Born Richard Walter Jenkins on 10 November 1925, the 12th of a Pontrhydyfen coalminer's 13 children, he liked to boast that he had been raised in abject poverty. This is untrue. After their mother's death, when Burton was about two, the Jenkins brood was farmed out to various relatives. He was the first in his family to attend secondary school, and as an impressionable teenager he was unofficially adopted by a local schoolteacher called Philip Burton, who recognised his budding acting talents, became his legal guardian and gave him his name.\n\nPhilip Burton's extra-curricular activities included writing, directing and acting in radio plays, and he had important contacts in London. The relationship between the boy and his mentor, whose earlier schoolboy prot\u00e9g\u00e9-lover was killed in the Second World War, is believed to have progressed beyond the platonic. Encouraged by this kindly man, albeit one who might have been breaking the law, the young Burton finished school, joined the ATC cadets and as part of their training programme was assigned to a six-month stint in Oxford, where he read classics and joined the university dramatic society. In 1944, he was befriended by fellow miner's son Emlyn Williams, believed by many people to be the greatest Welsh actor, writer and director of his generation.\n\nAgain, Burton and Williams were almost certainly lovers for a time, and it was Williams, something of a matinee idol with lean features and a shock of dark, unruly hair, who gave Burton his first professional stage role, in The Druid's Rest. Like Philip Burton, he was unable to control his headstrong pupil: Burton the younger was a heavy beer drinker from the age of 14, and he now took up womanising with a vengeance \u2013 the handful of men he had slept with had been offered a good time solely with the purpose of furthering his acting career.\n\nBurton met 19-year-old Sybil Williams whilst shooting his first film, The Last Days of Dolwyn , directed (in the Welsh language) by Emlyn Williams, and they married soon after its release in 1949. Their first daughter, Kate, was born in 1957 and was followed two years later by Jessica, who was born severely autistic and placed in an institution, where she remained for the whole of Burton's life.\n\nOn the stage, with his booming voice, perfect pronunciation and commanding presence, Burton quickly established himself as an actor almost in the same class as Sir Laurence Olivier. His greatest triumph was in Hamlet at the Old Vic, where he was perfectly at ease with the largely gay clique headed by John Gielgud. His first British films \u2013 notably My Cousin Rachel (1952) and a stunning contribution to The Robe \u2013 should have set Burton in good stead for celluloid greatness. Meeting Elizabeth Taylor, however, and his insistence on constantly appearing with her on the screen \u2013 attempting but failing to emulate the legendary stage partnership of Alfred Lunt and Lynn Fontanne \u2013 would ultimately result in critical ridicule.\n\nBy the time of his involvement with Elizabeth, Burton's finest screen performances were behind him. To a certain extent, she taught him how to become a better film actor \u2013 as Cleopatra progresses, we witness the annoyingly over-the-top Burton boom gradually giving way to a more controlled tone, along with a decrease in the histrionics, a development that was welcomed by theatre audiences. Sadly, these traits returned once Cleopatra was in the can, especially in the films he made with his future wife. Harry and Michael Medford, in their famous book The Golden Turkey Awards (Angus & Robertson, 1980), polled a dozen films in which Burton and Taylor appeared, separately or together, amongst the worst movies of all time, and awarded him the gong for Worst Actor of All Time. Speaking of Burton's 'conscientious hard work to ruin nearly ever film in which he appeared', the Medfords concluded:\n\nWhen he is good, he is very, very good, but when he is bad \u2013 well, he's just the pits. Anyone can make a bad film when working with hack directors and inane scripts, but it takes a true genius like Burton to come up with garbage when teamed with serious artists like Vincente Minnelli, Peter Ustinov, Vittorio de Sica and Joseph Losey. King Richard has developed a sort of Midas syndrome in reverse: everything he touches turns to trash. In forms of wasted opportunities, of promising projects soured through his personal efforts, no one in Hollywood can equal him.\n\nThe first hint of a relationship between Elizabeth and Burton appeared in the Italian tabloids in late January 1962, causing concern for Twentieth Century Fox, who, of course, should not have been surprised. Burton had already told Joe Mankiewicz that he had slept with all of his leading ladies except Julie Andrews, because they had been incapable of resisting his Welsh charms, which had apparently compensated \u2013 until they had grown fed up of him \u2013 for his coarseness and almost permanent drunken state. Burton was also currently involved with a Copacabana chorus girl named Patricia Tunder, who had been promised a small part in Cleopatra in exchange for the usual favours. Now, she was sent packing.\n\nEddie Fisher witnessed Richard Burton at his worst. They were in the same room when Burton called Elizabeth and audaciously reproached her for being unfair to her husband! 'I don't know what she said to him,' Fisher revealed in his autobiography, 'but he screamed at her, \"You fucking sagging-titted, no-talent Hollywood cunt. This man loves you so much . . . Elizabeth, if you're not careful, I'm going to take him upstairs, and I'm going to fuck him!\"' This admission adds credence to the later rumour that Burton tried to seduce Fisher first, resurrected by the aforementioned Glenys Roberts in her anniversary tribute in the Daily Mail. Fisher and others have also maintained that Elizabeth derived sadistic pleasure from such vulgarity, just as she enjoyed being knocked around by her men; indeed, she could out-vulgar the best of them. One gets a pretty accurate indication of how the Taylor-Burton relationship was, even in its early days, by watching one of the key scenes from Cleopatra, after Mark Antony's defeat at Actium. When they argue and she slaps him three times, he gives her such a backhander (reputedly for real), before going completely off his head, that she is sent sprawling \u2013 yet this only makes her want him more.\n\nElizabeth's volatile, extremely public relationship with Burton completed her transition from femme fatale to gay icon. Like many of her predecessors and contemporaries, she perceived suffering and self-destruction to be the key to a happiness that was never found; in fact, were it to be found, this would have defeated the whole objective. One thinks of Judy Garland, \u00c9dith Piaf, Joan Crawford and Billie Holiday as being others who genuinely believed that the path to true love was paved with pain and that no man was worthy of their love until he had displayed an ability to use his fists. Piaf and Crawford sported their black eyes and bruises with immeasurable pride, and stunned the world by disclosing every intimate, angry moment with uncompromising honesty. Nicky Hilton had knocked Elizabeth around, but this had been abuse. Sexually, Michael Wilding and Eddie Fisher had been less exciting, perhaps because they had been too mild-mannered and gentlemanly \u2013 from the point of view of the femme fatale, weak. Richard Burton was like Mike Todd: verbal abuse and physical violence were perceived as essential foreplay. 'I adore fighting with him,' Elizabeth told Life magazine in December 1964. 'It's rather like a small atom bomb going off. Sparks fly, walls shake, floors reverberate!'\n\nThe truth surrounding the Fishers' collapsed marriage was relayed to the US public by the ever-reliable Louella Parsons, whose report appeared on the front page of the Los Angeles Herald-Examiner on 14 January 1964. Louella was keeping her cards close to her chest regarding her sources, and it was widely rumoured that Twentieth Century Fox had used her as a 'plant' \u2013 a paid informant to bolster public interest in the forthcoming film the studio were promoting, and about which people were probably already sick of reading. Copies of Louella's feature were wired to news agencies all over Europe, where they were often badly translated, causing a heavy increase in paparazzi following the 'guilty' couple around.\n\nWith the costs of Cleopatra escalating way beyond reason, the last thing the studio needed was another Elizabeth Taylor sex scandal. Walter Wanger expressed genuine remorse that his first Mark Antony, Stephen Boyd, was no longer around, as she would never have met Burton and the affair would never have happened. The Italian newspapers reported a suicide attempt when Elizabeth passed out after washing down too many barbiturates with alcohol following a confrontation with Eddie Fisher. There were further rumours of a marriage rift when Sybil Burton unexpectedly returned to New York, claiming that she was visiting Philip Burton, who was sick.\n\nRichard Burton temporarily evaded this mass-media intrusion by flying to Paris to shoot a cameo for The Longest Day (1962). He was still absent on 18 February 1962 when the press reported Elizabeth's latest indisposition \u2013 variously described as food poisoning, nervous anxiety and a recurrence of her earlier meningitis but most likely another attention-seeking suicide bid following another bust-up with Eddie Fisher. He later confirmed this in his memoirs. 'She grabbed a bottle of Seconal that was sitting on her night table and poured a handful of pills down her throat,' he wrote, adding that Elizabeth had hit him when he had tried to shove his hand in her mouth to make her vomit. She then rushed into the bathroom to down more sedatives and started foaming at the mouth. According to Fisher, rather than take her to hospital, Elizabeth was given a life-saving injection by an elderly German doctor, who was paid $1,000 in the hope of keeping the incident out of the papers. It was another example of Elizabeth trying to make Fisher, the hapless witness to her selfish folly, feel responsible for her actions. 'She trusted me enough to make a suicide attempt from which only I could save her,' Fisher concluded.\n\nThe scandal this time around was far worse than the Taylor, Fisher and Reynolds fiasco, and over the next few years would give rise to more mad scenes than all of Elizabeth's Tennessee Williams tantrums put together. The Cinecitt\u00e0 lot was besieged by reporters from all corners of the globe, whilst Richard Burton was flushed out of his Parisian bolthole. It was around this time that he uttered the famous statement to friends that has since entered Hollywood folklore: 'I've just fucked Elizabeth Taylor in the back of my car.' Yet in a press statement he fervently denied 'La Scandale', as he haughtily called it. Not that anyone believed him. Most of the reporters present had already acquired titbits from supposedly reliable on-set sources, and these confirmed the fact that the pair were an item. And when Burton swore on his own life, delivering a boisterous speech that would have done the Old Vic proud, that there was absolutely no truth in any of the rumours, the press believed him less. There was just the one exception when an Italian tabloid swallowed the story that Joe Mankiewicz fed them to cover up his own affair with Elizabeth, which had begun during the filming of Suddenly, Last Summer. Mankiewicz only inflamed the situation by grabbing Burton, kissing him on the lips and announcing to the stunned journalist, 'There you are. I'm the one having the affair with Richard Burton!'\n\nIn a desperate last bid to salvage what remained of his marriage, Eddie Fisher did what he and his predecessor, Mike Todd, were best at: he attempted to buy Elizabeth's affection, and the press, of course, were kept informed of the tally. He paid around $300,000 for the Chateau Ariel, a luxurious chalet in the soon-to-be-fashionable Swiss ski resort of Gstaad. The Aga Khan lived nearby. Elizabeth would retain the property once Fisher was out of the picture, and in the future her neighbours would include Julie Andrews, Peter Sellers and the Robert Wagners.\n\nOn 27 February 1962, Elizabeth's 30th birthday, Fisher threw a party in the Hostaria dell'Orso's very exclusive Borgia Suite, inviting all the leading lights from Cleopatra, except Richard Burton, and representatives from every major newspaper and magazine in Europe. As the flashbulbs popped, Elizabeth squealed with delight as she unwrapped the 'little gifts' her estranged husband had bought her: a ten-carat diamond ring and the \u00a3100,000 'Cleopatra' mirror, a commissioned Bulgari creation that opened out into an emerald encrusted asp. Richard Burton later retorted that he had given her the best present of all: the 'ruby-tipped snake' he kept inside his trousers.\n\nBy the end of March, Elizabeth and Burton cast their fate to the winds by openly socialising. In America a few weeks earlier, Hedda Hopper had let the cat out of the bag, penning a feature for the Los Angeles Herald-Examiner entitled 'Row Over Actor Ends Liz and Eddie's Marriage'. Hedda did not feel the need to name the actor \u2013 by then, everyone knew who he was. She blamed Elizabeth for the break-up but criticised both parties for leaving their offspring behind. 'I only hope Eddie's children will recognise him when he gets home,' she sniped. Fisher would neither see nor speak to Elizabeth for almost two years.\n\nWhen Fisher returned to the United States, public opinion was very firmly on his side, despite Hedda Hopper's acid comments. On both sides of the Atlantic, those who had attacked him for cheating on Debbie Reynolds now levelled their spite against Elizabeth. Italy's Il Tempo called her 'that intemperate vamp who devours husbands'. The Pope denounced her as immoral, and the Vatican's official publication, L'Osservatore Della Dominica, declared her 'an erotic vagrant' and attacked her for her latest 'foible', which was a desire to adopt a baby:\n\nDo not such institutions consider the facts before handing out these children? Do they not request moral references? Would it not be better to entrust this little girl to an honest bricklayer or modest housewife than to you, dear lady, and your fourth husband? The bricklayer and housewife will have worked harder and made serious sacrifices for the child \u2013 but not you, dear lady, who have other things to do!>\n\nBefore separating from Eddie Fisher, the couple had made plans to adopt, as they were unable to have children of their own. Negotiations with a Greek orphanage run by Catholic nuns had broken down because of the Fishers' Jewish faith. Instead, they had advertised anonymously for a baby in the German press, with the help of their actress friend Maria Schell. They had subsequently been offered a nine-month-old girl called Petra Heisig, whom they had named Maria, after Schell. The baby had been born with a deformed hip, and her birth parents had been told by doctors that she might not walk unless operated on.\n\nBecause her birth parents were extremely poor, they had put Maria up for adoption, an act which today might attract adverse criticism. Similarly, any would-be adoptive parent, not least of all a millionairess, might today receive short shrift from society for being seen to have taken advantage of a sensitive situation, in this case by removing a child from its mother, as opposed to paying for the operation. In 1962, however, attitudes were different, and in any case the press were not made aware of the full story. They saw only an 'immoral' woman, denounced by the Holy See, embroiled in a messy love triangle and now intent on adopting as a single parent. She was allowing her heart to rule her head, it is true, but what must be remembered is that she was not being entirely selfish. Her caring side was also demonstrated many years later when she nursed Rock Hudson through the final days of his agonising and often messy illness. Elizabeth was like a child in a candy store, grabbing everything in sight, but, ultimately, in her diminished way of reasoning, she genuinely believed she was acting in Maria's best interests by giving her a life beyond her wildest dreams. The biased media were unable, or unwilling, to see this.\n\nIn America, House of Representatives member Iris Blitch proposed a motion that, had it been passed, would have resulted in Elizabeth's passport being confiscated. She was, Mrs Blitch declared, an 'undesirable with no respect for the name of decent American womanhood'. Elizabeth even considered suing the Daily Mirror when it picked up on this, their columnist Cassandra observing, 'The lady is one long eruption of matrimonial agitation.' This was not nearly as offensive as some of the other comments printed about her, but Elizabeth thought about taking legal action for no other reason than Liberace had successfully sued Cassandra a few years earlier for denouncing him as 'an unmanly man'. The fact that he was speaking the truth on both occasions prevented Elizabeth from taking the matter further. The backlash from the other tabloids who were saying more or less the same thing would have been merciless.\n\nThere was also mass condemnation from most of the 30 million viewers who tuned in to The Ed Sullivan Show on a regular basis. Six years earlier, Sullivan's condemnation of Elvis Presley's on-stage gyrations had resulted in the singer being filmed only from the waist upwards. Now, he announced, 'I do hope youngsters will not be persuaded that the sanctity of marriage has been invalidated by the appalling example of Mrs Taylor-Fisher and married man Burton.'\n\nOn a lighter note, but no less explosive, a Cleopatra sketch featured in The Perry Como Show, depicting the Queen of the Nile with a slave named Eddie. Even Fisher himself partook in the mickey-taking. Back in demand as a singer, he began his act with 'Arrividerci Roma' and at New York's Winter Garden did a duet with Juliet Prowse of 'I'm Cleo, the Nymph of the Nile'. Meanwhile, Elizabeth did not mind Decca re-releasing Joan Regan and Dickie Valentine's 'Cleo And Meo', which had been recorded in 1954 and really had nothing to do with La Scandale, but she did take exception to Prowse singing, 'She uses her pelvis\/Just like Elvis\/There wasn't a man she couldn't get\/Such was Cleo's problem on and off the set!'\n\nThings started to get really out of hand when Twentieth Century Fox began receiving death threats from religious and moral fanatics. The studio drafted in two dozen armed policemen, who mingled amongst the Cleopatra extras dressed as Roman soldiers. The mockery and defamation, deserved or not, would have far-reaching effects on Elizabeth. Henceforth, all of her employees would be compelled to sign confidentiality agreements. Eddie Fisher, too, was made to sign an affidavit promising not to rubbish her in the future. This prevented him from publishing an autobiography begun around this time \u2013 he had to wait until 1981 before bringing out My Life, My Loves, though the real kiss-and-tell Been There, Done That came out in 1999, long after the dust had settled.\n\nThe trade press in Hollywood blamed Spyros Skouras for the Taylor-Burton scandal, claiming that he was sufficiently aware of the character of each and should never have cast them together in the first place. Skouras rushed off to Rome to offer them an ultimatum \u2013 cool it, or else. Their response to this was that unless Skouras and his 'monkeys' let them be, they would drop out of the film, regardless of the personal cost to themselves. Skouras retreated.\n\nMeanwhile, as Sybil withdrew to the rented villa in Rome and waited with Roddy McDowall for La Scandale to die down, as always happened with her husband's affairs, news came in of Eddie Fisher's nervous breakdown. Hooked on Max Jacobson's amphetamine shots and a total wreck, he had been approached by Mafia boss Frank Costello. Fisher, who had recently taken to carrying a gun, recalled how Costello had told him, 'Anything you need, you come to me,' which the jilted husband had interpreted as an offer to remove Burton from the scene. Naturally, he declined, believing that if Burton stayed with Elizabeth, he would suffer soon enough!\n\nAssuming Eddie and Sybil to be out of the picture, Burton rented a villa overlooking the sea, where he hoped that he and Elizabeth might spend their weekends away from the paparazzi. No sooner had they settled in for their first sojourn than he received an impassioned call from Sybil: she was anxious for him to return to Rome and give their marriage another go. Burton acquiesced, and when Elizabeth threatened to kill herself if he left, he simply shrugged his shoulders and told her to go ahead. As had happened during the row with Eddie Fisher, she swallowed a fistful of pills and had to be rushed to hospital to have her stomach pumped. Again, the studio saved face by announcing that she had food poisoning.\n\nFour days later, Elizabeth returned to the set. The bruises around her eyes and nose, she said, were on account of the oxygen mask she had been compelled to wear \u2013 they had actually been inflicted by Burton, whilst in a drunken rage, though Elizabeth had given as good as she had got. When the make-up department was unable to conceal them, an exasperated Joe Mankiewicz halted production for two weeks. There was a second incident around the same time, reported by Time magazine, when shooting was put on hold after Burton gave her another good hiding.\n\nSybil Burton suddenly found herself facing more reporters than she had seen in her life after her husband, interviewed by columnist Sheilah Graham, maintained that his affair with Elizabeth had been a 'nine-day wonder', and insisted upon her printing the statement, 'By the time the film's released, everyone will have forgotten about it \u2013 unless something new happens, like my divorcing my wife to marry Elizabeth, and there's no chance of that happening!'\n\nBy that point, Twentieth Century Fox had had enough. At the beginning of June, the studio's chief executives flew to Rome, summarily dismissed Walter Wanger and ordered drastic cuts to the script to curb future expenditure. Elizabeth's salary was stopped to make up for all the time she had not worked but still been paid. Richard Burton's salary had trebled for some reason and Rex Harrison's had quadrupled, but through no fault of their own, so the increases were allowed to ride. By the end of the month, Spyros Skouras's tenure as Fox's president was terminated, and Darryl F. Zanuck was welcomed back into the fold to replace him. Skouras later commented that the move had prevented him from suffering a stroke or worse.\n\nAt once, the mogul who had made Twentieth Century Fox in the first place went for Elizabeth's jugular, blaming her for much of the Cleopatra fiasco \u2013 by now the budget had surpassed the $30-million mark. When Joe Mankiewicz attempted to defend her, Zanuck fired him and declared that he would not be permitted to take part in editing the finished footage of the film he had struggled so hard to complete \u2013 over eight hours so far. Zanuck then rubbed salt into his wounds by issuing a press statement: 'After spending two years on Fox's prized project \u2013 and around $35 million of our shareholders' money \u2013 Mr Mankiewicz is now taking a well-earned rest.'\n\nElizabeth complained loudly about the wretched treatment that she and Mankiewicz had to endure and promptly ended up with egg on her face when Zanuck called another press conference and granted the public access to 'privileged' information about his leading lady's greed. Elizabeth had demanded $1 million for the picture, he said, but she'd effectively been paid twice this amount and would earn even more when the film was released, because she had negotiated a deal, kept under wraps until then, that would reap a whopping 35 per cent of the profits. What the press were not told was that Fox had every intention of offsetting a large portion of these earnings to meet the exorbitant cost of the production. Zanuck subsequently issued Elizabeth and Burton with writs totalling $50 million \u2013 for tardiness and for impeding the film's future commerciality with their shocking off-set conduct. Zanuck later dropped his demands to $44 million. Elizabeth and Burton filed a counter-suit, and the matter was settled out of court.\n\nThe Cleopatra treadmill ground to a complete stop in July 1962. One of the last scenes to be shot was that aboard the golden barge, which had meant the whole production relocating to Ischia off the coast of Naples. The studio facetiously arranged for a boat-ambulance to be on standby \u2013 just in case Elizabeth collapsed due to 'post-production stress' and had to be ferried across to the nearby city. She did not, and for the time being she and Burton went their separate ways \u2013 he to Pays de Galles, his villa on the shores of Lake Geneva, and she to her Gstaad chalet, one of the four homes she had bought with Eddie Fisher, the others being in Las Vegas, Westchester and Jamaica. Here she was joined by her parents, who, of course, believed the story that she had been the unwilling victim these last few months.\n\nCleopatra was released in June 1963, a $40-million, beautifully filmed exercise in Hollywood folly, although some critics believed it was overlong. The movie was a glorious soap opera, with the ancient precursor of Dynasty's Alexis Carrington (marvellously portrayed by Joan Collins, who many people still think should have played Cleopatra) given plenty of opportunity to show off. Right up to the cutting and editing stage, for which Joe Mankiewicz had been rehired, Fox had been hoping to issue two films: Caesar and Cleopatra and Antony and Cleopatra. Darryl F. Zanuck, however, had the last word. He wanted the saga to hit the cinemas whilst Elizabeth and Burton were still making headlines. However, Richard Burton appeared for a matter of mere minutes in the first half of the six-hour production, so the film was trimmed to a little over four.\n\nElizabeth is perfection itself in the role of the celebrity harlot, who history tells us once fellated a hundred Roman soldiers in a single night and who, like Elizabeth, had an especial fondness for gay and bisexual men, Caesar and Mark Antony being at the top of her list. Several scenes were cut from the finished print for fear that they might be misconstrued, notably the one where Rufio (Martin Landau), Mark Antony's favourite, bursts into tears upon mistakenly hearing that his love-hero is dead. 'Someone said that generals don't cry,' Landau later said of the cut (in an interview included on a French special edition DVD of Cleopatra), 'but that's not the case where there's this kind of love between two men.' Similarly, Burton was told to 'bite his lip' in the scene in which he discovers Rufio's body and holds him in his arms. And when Mark Antony is about to fall upon his sword and begs Appolodorus (Cesare Danova), Rufio's successor, to lend a helping hand, the emotion is again forcibly suppressed.\n\nThe critics had a field day over Elizabeth's personal appearance in the film \u2013 the fluctuation in her weight over the two-year shooting schedule is very much apparent. She looks chubby and double-chinned dressed as Venus, greeting Mark Antony on their golden barge and when they meet up again after the battle of Actium. 'Overweight, overbosomed, overpaid and undertalented, she sets the acting profession back a decade,' sniped television critic David Susskind \u2013 whilst Time magazine, erroneously for once, drew attention to 'her screeching like a ward-healer's wife at a block party'.\n\nThe other leads, particularly Rex Harrison as the cynical, epileptic Caesar, are mostly remarkable. Only the occasionally wooden Richard Burton lets the side down. Instinctively, one feels that the more charismatic and much more handsome Stephen Boyd would have brought depth and sincerity to the role. Burton also fluffs some of his lines, depending upon which print one views, most notoriously during Cleopatra's entry into Rome when she is swathed in a $7,000, 24-carat gold dress, riding atop a giant sphinx with her son, who was fathered by Caesar. Commenting on the ceremony, a hung-over Mark Antony quips, 'Nothing like this has come into Rome since Romulus and Romulus,' meaning, of course, Romulus and Remus!\n\n# TEN\n\nTHE BIG HANGOVER:   \nWHO'S AFRAID   \nOF VIRGINIA WOOLF?\n\nFOR A WHILE, THE TAYLOR-BURTON AFFAIR HAD BEEN KEPT off the front pages by the death in August 1962 of Marilyn Monroe. Suicide was given as the official cause, but, then as now, there was much speculation over whether she might have been murdered. Cynics have suggested that with her greed for hogging the limelight, Elizabeth deliberately maintained a low profile until the Monroe scandal had abated. But if she and Richard Burton were trying to kid their respective circles that their 'romance' was over, those who stood to gain financially from their liaison \u2013 for example, the studios, who hypocritically were more than eager to rake in any profits from La Scandale they had openly condemned \u2013 were delighted when, at the end of the month, they read in the press that it had resurfaced with a vengeance. When news leaked that the pair had met for lunch 'somewhere in Switzerland', MGM were the first to monopolise on the tidings \u2013 and Elizabeth's 'scandalous' comment that rather than marry Burton she had no objections to becoming his mistress \u2013 by persuading them to appear in Terence Rattigan's The VIPs.\n\nShooting began early in 1963, with Elizabeth and Burton travelling separately from the Victoria boat-train to the Dorchester, where they took up residence in separate suites. Burton feigned the dutiful husband, ping-ponging back and forth to see Sybil at their house in Hampstead's Squire's Mount. Needless to say, the press were not fooled because neither Burton nor Elizabeth stopped boasting about how much they missed one other whilst apart, even for a few hours. So that he would always be thinking of her whilst alone in his suite, Elizabeth forked out a cool $250,000 for a Van Gogh landscape, along with $10,000 for several hundred leather-bound books that Burton never found time to open. If he was not with Elizabeth \u2013 indeed, most of the time that he was with her \u2013 he was in too much of a stupor to be aware of his surroundings.\n\nOccasionally, Burton sobered up sufficiently to bellow a few good lines in The VIPs, not that this made the film any better. Pathologically boring, it comprises a series of Grand Hotel-style vignettes set in and around the VIP lounge of a London airport. The flights have been delayed by fog, allowing an assortment of odd-bod characters to meet and fling around a few home truths. On account of the leads' salaries, it was MGM's costliest production in years: Elizabeth demanded and received $500,000, along with half this amount against a percentage of the box-office receipts. Upon her insistence, Burton was paid the same, and the money was deposited in bank accounts in Bermuda for tax purposes. The rest of the cast received considerably less than $1 million among them, despite being comprised of the cream of the British acting crop, including Maggie Smith, Rod Taylor, Michael Hordern, Richard Briers and the wonderful Margaret Rutherford, who ran rings around everyone else as an eccentric duchess and who was rewarded with a Best Supporting Actress Oscar.\n\nDespite its mediocrity, The VIPs did tremendously well at the box office, earning Elizabeth and Burton a collective $5 million over the next two years. Without doubt, they had become the world's premier couple, and from then on they would go to inordinate lengths to ensure that they maintained the position.\n\nBurton was on his best behaviour during a break in shooting when he took Elizabeth home to Wales to meet his family. Surprisingly, considering their affection for Sybil, they took to Elizabeth very well. In the not too distant future, she would begin sending them clothing parcels \u2013 original creations by Fath, Dior and Balmain that she had grown tired of. She would also fly some of them over to New York to watch their famous relative murder the classics on the stage.\n\nOn other days off, for a whopping $500,000 fee, Elizabeth made her first television documentary. Elizabeth Taylor in London was financed by CBS, and for 60 minutes she escorted viewers around her favourite 'home town' haunts and recited a little Elizabeth Barrett Browning for good measure. This was essentially her way of showing how good she looked in the latest fashion trends. Variety observed, 'Miss Taylor, pompous and so very, very cultured, got in the way of the cameras \u2013 for nearly two-thirds of the programme,' but gallantly concluded, 'she was in competition with London \u2013 and she won!'\n\nAt around this time, the inevitable exclusives from the 'extras' in the Taylor-Burton soap opera also surfaced \u2013 Eddie Fisher and Sybil Burton. Fisher had moved to Nevada for residency purposes in preparation for his divorce, and despite his wealth, demanded a $1-million settlement. He is also thought to have asked for his jewellery back. What he did not get was access to Maria, the baby he had adopted with Elizabeth. Although few details were made public, it was revealed that Fisher had relinquished any claims on Maria and that if Elizabeth married Burton, the child would be legally adopted by him and take his name.\n\nSybil Burton, the only one of the quartet whose behaviour had been exemplary, now let off a little steam, telling reporters, 'I've no intention of allowing the father of my children to become Elizabeth Taylor's fifth husband.' She subsequently changed her mind when informed by him that there was no hope of their ever being reconciled. After their divorce, Sybil married pop singer Jordan Christopher of The Wild Ones, who at the age of 24 was 14 years her junior. The union proved successful and only ended with Christopher's death in 1997. Burton was generous with his divorce settlement. Sybil was assigned one half of his personal fortune, reputed to be in the region of $1 million, with the promise of a decent percentage of his future earnings, whether he married or not.\n\nTowards the end of September 1963, having played the title role in Becket (1964), Burton flew to Puerto Vallarta in Mexico to shoot The Night of the Iguana (1964). The production company was hoping that Elizabeth might not tag along, though by now the couple were inseparable. Indeed, there were clauses in their contracts that if they were not appearing in the same film, they should not work more than one hour's travelling distance from one another. Elizabeth flew into Mexico with Burton because she did not trust him \u2013 suspicious that he might make a play for one of his co-stars, as had happened in the past. This time there were three to choose from: Lolita (1962) babe Sue Lyon, Deborah Kerr and the man-eating Ava Gardner. Elizabeth and Burton were mobbed at Mexico City Airport \u2013 courtesy of a studio publicist, who was instructed to put out a 'Liz and Dick' alert to ensure them maximum media coverage \u2013 and did not disappoint by bawling each other out over some trifle whilst leaving the plane.\n\nElizabeth conducted herself in Puerto Vallarta as if it was her film, invading the set every day and exercising her hold over Burton, who as per usual spent most of his time bombed. In fact, this was virtually an 'everybody's had everybody else' production. Director John Huston \u2013 whom Elizabeth hated for his shoddy treatment of Montgomery Clift whilst shooting The Misfits and Freud \u2013 had formerly been the lover of Ava Gardner. So too had scriptwriter Peter Viertel, now married to Deborah Kerr. Huston's ex-wife \u2013 the woman Mike Todd had dumped to be with Elizabeth \u2013 was now married to Ava's ex-husband, bandleader Artie Shaw. Bringing so many exes together only added to the tension of Elizabeth's presence, and matters were exacerbated by the unexpected arrival of Michael Wilding in his new capacity as assistant to Burton's agent, Hugh French. Huston, who loved nothing more than a brawl \u2013 he and Errol Flynn had famously engaged in a scrap that had not ended until both men had sustained an equal number of broken ribs! \u2013 added spice to the occasion by presenting all the protagonists with tiny gold-plated Derringers, along with bullets inscribed with everyone's names. He is said to have been disappointed that none of these had been used by the time the production wrapped.\n\nIn Puerto Vallarta, acting typically on impulse, Elizabeth fell in love with Casa Kimberley, the villa provided by the studio for Burton's stay in the town. She promptly bought it, and a little later Burton acquired a property across the street \u2013 he had a connecting footbridge constructed so that if they argued, he would be able to escape to his 'pad' with the minimum of effort.\n\nAfter The Night of the Iguana, Burton took a sabbatical and returned to what he had formerly been best at \u2013 the legitimate stage \u2013 appearing in John Gielgud's production of Hamlet. This kicked off in Toronto, where he and Elizabeth rented the most expensive suite at the King Edward Hotel. And on an 'unlucky' 15 March in Montreal, ten days after Eddie Fisher had obtained his Mexican divorce on grounds of abandonment, Elizabeth and Richard Burton were married. 'Beware the Ides of March!' at least one headline read.\n\nElizabeth had wanted them to be married in Ontario by a rabbi, but the state refused to recognise the validity of Mexican divorces, so they had to 'make do' in Quebec Province with a Unitarian minister, the only clergyman available who was not against marrying a woman of scandalous repute for the fifth time in less than 15 years. According to Hollis Alpert, Burton's biographer, the bride arrived late at their hotel suite (where they had booked in as Rosamund Sutherland and Walter Rule), and the groom, blind drunk, exploded, 'Isn't that fat little tart here yet? She'll be late for the last bloody judgement!' Looking lovely in yellow chiffon, dripping with diamonds and emeralds, and with $650 worth of Roman-style extensions decorated with hyacinth petals in her hair, Elizabeth reeled off her usual spiel: she had never been happier, and this time the marriage was for real. Again, few people believed her.\n\nOn 22 March 1964, Hamlet hit Boston. The Taylor-Burton publicity machine had gone into overdrive, and the newly weds were manhandled by a vast crowd outside the Sheraton Plaza Hotel. Crying wolf, Elizabeth collapsed and was taken to her suite, where a doctor gave her a sedative. Just hours later, she was back in the spotlight, looking hale and hearty for a press conference. By that stage in the Hamlet tour, Burton had gone beyond testing his co-stars' patience. Wandering around backstage, almost always with a glass or bottle in his hand, he would suddenly stop some unfortunate in their tracks and assault them with an ear-shattering rendition of a Federico Garc\u00eda Lorca poem or some obscure quote from Oscar Wilde or Rabelais. The booze reacted with the painkillers he was taking for alcohol-related arthritis, though much of the time his behaviour was just down to his binge drinking. More than once he is reported to have pushed his fingers down his throat and vomited in the wings, simply in order to guzzle more. Colleagues and co-stars put up with this thoroughly reprehensible behaviour, of course \u2013 the longer the play ran, the more there was in it for them.\n\nMontgomery Clift, who had not seen Elizabeth in a while and who was yet to express a personal opinion of her new husband, attended the Broadway premiere of Hamlet at the Lunt\u2013Fontanne Theater, where it would play to packed houses until August with just one break (22 June) when Burton took the evening off for a poetry reading with Elizabeth for an American Musical and Dramatic Academy benefit event. Monty's brother Brooks recalled in several interviews that Monty had said of Burton, 'He's turned Shakespeare and serious theatre into a freak show.' Monty was right. Every performance might have been a sell-out, but theatregoers were less interested in Burton's now hammy acting than they were in witnessing what was termed the 'Liz and Dick Roadshow'. And the more Burton performed, the more mediocre he became, until, in desperation, Elizabeth flew in Philip Burton and Emlyn Williams to give him a few 'pointers'. Neither ventured the truth \u2013 that he was drinking himself senseless and was too full of his own self-importance for any self-respecting critic to even take him half-seriously. Monty never repeated his comments about Burton to Elizabeth for fear of hurting her feelings; he liked Burton as a person and later said that he was his favourite amongst her husbands after Michael Wilding.\n\nOver the previous couple of years, whilst Elizabeth had been hogging the spotlight, Monty had been going through a tough patch. On the plus side, Judgment at Nuremberg (1961) had seen him working alongside Spencer Tracy, Marlene Dietrich and a very washed-out Judy Garland. Playing a Jew castrated by the Nazis, he had been given just seven minutes of screen time, but his stunning performance had earned him an Oscar nomination. In Freud, directed by John Huston, several scenes had necessitated endless retakes, because the sadistically gung-ho Huston refused to pander to Monty's sensitive side \u2013 on one occasion he had beaten him up and trashed his dressing-room.\n\nDuring the first summer of their marriage, Elizabeth and Burton were offered The Owl and the Pussycat, but it was shelved when Burton refused to do comedy \u2013 some years later it would be a huge hit for Barbra Streisand and George Segal. Next, they were offered three films: The Sandpiper (1965), Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (1966) and Reflections of a Golden Eye (1967). Burton accepted the first two but had reservations about portraying the latently homosexual army officer in Reflections of a Golden Eye, in which Elizabeth would play his nymphomaniac wife. She therefore took it upon herself to 'offer' the role to Monty \u2013 without consulting Warner Brothers. When the studio objected, claiming that Monty was completely uninsurable, Elizabeth was able to sympathise. She herself had encountered insurance problems since Cleopatra. She had paid her own insurance for The VIPs and declared that she would do the same for Monty when the time came. Additionally, she is alleged to have agreed to forfeit her $1-million fee, should Monty not make it to the end of the picture, which would go into production as soon as she had completed her two films with Burton \u2013 possibly in the summer of 1966. Warners, meanwhile, put Monty into The Defector (1966).\n\nAnother visitor to New York during the Hamlet season was Eddie Fisher, there to iron out differences in his and Elizabeth's divorce settlement. Burton was later quoted by John Cottrell and Fergus Cashin in Richard Burton (Coronet Books, 1974) as saying, 'Elizabeth may not have been legally married to Mike Todd after the Wilding divorce. So that means no one was ever married to anyone . . . we might as well start again and get married and divorced on the Koran.' No such comments hit the press at the time. According to the wronged ex-husband, Burton was civil, and there were none of the anticipated run-ins. Fisher was even permitted to watch Hamlet from the wings and was later 'amused' to see how Elizabeth had 'domesticated' his rival and converted him to her factotum. 'Maybe he was doing Hamlet on the stage,' Fisher recalled, 'but in real life he was playing my role.'\n\nNot long afterwards, as his career picked up, at least for a little while, Eddie Fisher took up with Swedish sexpot Ann-Margret, Edie Adams, a German model named Renata Boeck \u2013 he boasted in his memoirs that he had once made love to her nine times in a single night \u2013 Juliet Prowse, Stephanie Powers and several others, before finally becoming involved with the actress Connie Stevens, whom he wed in 1967 after the birth of their daughter. This union proved to be even more ill-fated than the one with Elizabeth: it lasted less than a year.\n\nIn October 1965, the Burtons flew to Paris to film The Sandpiper. Here, Elizabeth gathered her brood about her for the first time in years, only to be severely criticised for the way she went about it. She had demanded her usual $1 million, plus a share of the profits, and successfully negotiated a five-day ten-till-six schedule so that she would have her evenings and weekends free to spend with her family. However, Paris-Match reported that the Burtons' occupancy of twenty-one rooms at the Hotel Lancaster on the rue de Berri, for themselves and their ten-strong entourage, was costing them the equivalent of $10,000 a week, and such was the couple's imperiousness that the children, staying on a different floor, would often go several days between being 'summonsed' to their parents' suite. Other publications observed that they had to bow or curtsy when meeting them and other important 'dignitaries'.\n\nThe press were astonished that four-year-old Maria \u2013 now welcomed 'full-time' into the family fold following the last of her hip operations \u2013 had not been taught to speak English, and that seven-year-old Liza Todd could barely read or write. The Wilding boys were also reported to be hyperactive and hard to handle due to lack of parental control. None had enjoyed an even half-decent education, being dragged from one school to the next in the wake of their mother's divorces and remarriages. There was also a humiliating confrontation when Maria's birth parents, the Heisigs, turned up at the Hotel Lancaster with a lawyer and several journalists, claiming that Elizabeth owed them money for the 'sale' of their daughter. The mystery surrounding Maria's adoption deepened when Elizabeth instructed her own lawyers to pay them.\n\nNext, Elizabeth announced that she wanted to renounce her American citizenship and become British. 'I was born there,' she told French reporters. 'It isn't that all of a sudden I love America less \u2013 it's just that I love my husband more!' The move had considerably more to do with the wealthy 'Briton' being able to enjoy lower taxation rates if she resided overseas than any sense of patriotism. It was avarice, pure and simple, from a woman who already had more money than she could sensibly handle. She was summoned to the American embassy to sign the papers, refused to comply and managed to coerce the embassy lawyers into visiting her so that negotiations could be concluded in the comfort of her hotel suite.\n\nThe entire family uprooted in February 1965, when Richard Burton left for Dublin to shoot The Spy Who Came in from the Cold (1965). There was no question of Elizabeth allowing him to travel alone, because his co-star was Claire Bloom, with whom he had had a passionate affair seven years before. Elizabeth had the pair watched like hawks, though Bloom was happily married to Rod Steiger and was no longer interested in the crumbling, liquor-addled Lothario. Then, Elizabeth's insurmountable pride took a bashing when it was announced from Hollywood that Burton had broken into the top-ten-box-office-stars list, on account of his success in The Night of the Iguana, which saw him ranked alongside the arguably far more charismatic Cary Grant, Rock Hudson and Elvis Presley. What might have upset Elizabeth most was the fact that Burton could not help boasting that she had entered the running at number 11 and declaring that her acting was marginally inferior to his. Time has, of course, proved otherwise; nowadays, Richard Burton is arguably known more for his relationship with Elizabeth Taylor and for the generally mediocre films they made together, than for anything he did on his own.\n\nAlmost as successful, and as dreary, as The VIPs, The Sandpiper was directed by Vincente Minnelli and co-starred Eva Marie Saint and Charles Bronson. Today it is remembered mostly for Johnny Mandel and Paul Francis Webster's haunting theme song 'The Shadow of Your Smile'. This won them an Academy Award and was a big hit for Peggy Lee and Matt Monro. Wearing a succession of kaftans to disguise her 'fuller' figure, Elizabeth played Laura Reynolds, a Bohemian beach-dweller artist with an illegitimate son who when not working spends much of her time saving wounded birds. With echoes of Somerset Maugham's Rain (1932), Burton was Hewitt, the spineless, hypocritical married clergyman who falls in love with her. Most of the critics recognised the scenario as the Taylor-Burton story in disguise, with Hewitt's long-suffering wife representing Sybil Burton. The only difference was this was not the real world, with Hewitt having to renounce his illicit ways and go back to his wife.\n\nThe Golden Turkey Awards called the film 'another tour de force by Liz and Dick, the uncrowned King and Queen of boredom'. The film critic Judith Crist, writing in her syndicated column, came straight to the point: 'Miss Taylor and Mr Burton were paid $1,750,000 for performing in The Sandpiper \u2013 and I wouldn't settle for less for watching them.' Elizabeth always claimed to have detested the film (though not the $3 million-plus it earned her) and later threatened to sue one critic for libel \u2013 for giving it a good review!\n\nElizabeth and Burton had read the script of Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? shortly after he had finished Hamlet. Scripted and eventually produced by Ernest Lehman from Edward Albee's smash-hit Broadway play, the film describes a single evening in the marital upheaval of a middle-aged couple called Martha and George, and delves deep into their impossible-to-live-with, impossible-to-live-without situation. Elizabeth found the character fascinating: foul-mouthed, corpulent, blousy but seductive, tyrannical. The character was hugely reminiscent of the part the great Italian actress Anna Magnani had played opposite Burt Lancaster in The Rose Tattoo (1955). Elizabeth instinctively knew that if she accepted the role, she would rid herself in one fell swoop of the tacky B-actress tag foisted upon her by The Sandpiper.\n\nWhose idea it was to reach a compromise over Martha's age is not known: in Albee's play she is 55, Elizabeth was 33 and in the film the character is 45. Elizabeth was certainly not afraid of applying Method principles to the way she looked, something she also had in common with the not unattractive Magnani, and must be admired for the potential risk she took: she reached 155 pounds, donned the most horrendous wig and dropped her voice to a throaty baritone that must have been uncomfortable if not painful to maintain. Likewise, Burton ruffled his hair, wore old-fashioned clothes and sported horn-rimmed glasses in order to portray the lethargic George. The only difference between him and Elizabeth was that whereas she shrugged off the Martha image once the film had been canned, much of George's self-pity was retained by Burton. Just as Cleopatra had ignited the spark then fanned the flames for his passion for Elizabeth, so Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? reaffirmed his fears that he might be passing his sell-by date. Henceforth, it would be mostly downhill for the Burtons.\n\nBurton, initially, did not want to play George. As the washed-up, weakling, henpecked husband, he was afraid that the critics would make too many comparisons between the character and the actor. Amongst the contenders for the part were Jack Lemmon, Glenn Ford and Arthur Hill, who had played George on Broadway. It was only when Elizabeth agreed to do the film and when Ernest Lehman, in vogue after recently completing The Sound of Music (1965), began looking for someone else that Burton changed his mind. The contracts were duly signed \u2013 Elizabeth on \u00a31.1 million plus 10 per cent of the gross, Burton on $750,000 \u2013 and Elizabeth was asked to choose the supports and crew.\n\nShe wanted John Frankenheimer to direct, having admired his film Seconds (1966) with Rock Hudson \u2013 a Kafkaesque piece, photographed through fish-eye lenses, about clapped-out old men being surgically reconstructed to become younger, lustier specimens. Frankenheimer would not work with Burton, so Elizabeth chose 34-year-old German-born Mike Nichols instead. She particularly admired him because he had done a number of ad-hoc jobs to pay for his education after arriving in America as a seven-year-old Jewish refugee: he worked as a cabaret comic (with Elaine May), joined Lee Strasberg's Actors Studio and enjoyed success as a director on Broadway. Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? would be his first film; equally famously, he would go on to direct The Graduate (1967) and Catch-22 (1970).\n\nThe director of photography should have been Harry Stradling, whose impressionistic work Elizabeth had liked in My Fair Lady. Stradling's truc, picked up whilst working in Europe, was to attempt to recapture the quality of Flemish paintings in key scenes \u2013 not easy in monochrome. His mistake was to sit through a showing of Fellini's Otto e mezzo (81\/2 in the UK) with Mike Nichols \u2013 the director's favourite film \u2013 only to dismiss it as 'a piece of shit'. Nichols refused to work with him, so Warner Brothers approached Haskell Wexler, currently shooting A Fine Madness with Sean Connery. For reasons known only to the 'must be obeyed' Jack Warner, Wexler, famed for his documentary approach to cinematography, was pulled from the Connery film, assigned to Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? and threatened with ostracism from Hollywood should he refuse to comply.\n\nFor the supports, who would play two young party guests who early in the scenario probably wish they had stayed at home, Elizabeth chose Sandy Dennis and George Segal. She had admired Dennis in her first film, Splendour in the Grass (1961). According to Haskell Wexler (Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?, DVD, audio-commentary), throughout shooting Dennis and Elizabeth infuriated everyone with their belching contests \u2013 with Dennis always winning. Thirty-one-year-old George Segal had met Richard Burton on the set of The Longest Day. Both Segal and Dennis were wry, natural but inadvertent comedians, perfect stooges for the sparring Burtons.\n\nShooting began in September 1965 at Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts, and wound up two weeks before Christmas. At a cost of over $7 million, it proved the most expensive black-and-white movie ever made \u2013 so filmed, it is alleged, because Heskell Wexler believed that the make-up to conceal Burton's pockmarks would not have to be as 'critical' for the extreme close-ups as it might have been had he been filming in colour. It was also the first American film to use profane language, though today words such as 'goddam', 'crap', 'screw' and 'bastard' are pretty tame and commonplace \u2013 the stage play featured worse. Even so, the fuss this caused resulted in the introduction of the Motion Picture Association of America rating system, which declared that no one under the age of 18 could see the film unless accompanied by an adult. And for those not wishing to be seen entering a cinema in these overtly moral times, Warner Brothers released a special-edition, 'uncensored' double LP of the soundtrack.\n\n'I'm loud and I'm vulgar and I wear the pants in the house because somebody's got to! But I'm not a monster!' So Elizabeth pronounces in what is generally regarded as her most accomplished role since Suddenly, Last Summer, and perhaps the only one which puts her on a par with Garbo, Hepburn, Davis and Crawford at their best. It was also the best thing she ever did with Richard Burton (back to being a great actor in this one), though considering some of the tosh they made, it would be unfair to make comparisons. The film opens with George and Martha (effectively a bickering, La Cage aux Folles-style homosexual couple in flimsy disguise) arriving home after a New Carthage University faculty party hosted by her father, who is its principal. What happens over the course of the next two hours is told in near-real time and so mirrors the Taylor-Burton relationship that it is not difficult to imagine how hellish it must have been to live in close proximity to these tyrants, whose minds and bodies were so addled by liquor and feuding that they could no longer differentiate between fact and fantasy.\n\nMartha, aka Taylor, the mighty star, never lets George, aka Burton, the ham, forget that she is a well-connected somebody, whilst he is a mere nonentity whose career is at a standstill. One is hard put to determine which of these two is the more despicable when entertaining the guests \u2013 college-jock Nick and his fruit-loop-wife Honey \u2013 they have asked over for the evening. One can imagine Burton yelling at Elizabeth when George says to Martha that she must make an impression by keeping her clothes on, and adds, 'There aren't many more sickening sights in this world than you with a couple of drinks inside you and your skirt up over your head.' According to contemporary reports, Martha and George's little drinks party was no different from most Taylor-Burton soir\u00e9es, in that everyone gets plastered and the home truths come tumbling out, along with a number of incidents that, although tame today, genuinely shocked American audiences back then. George refers to his deceased imaginary son as a 'little bugger', a British euphemism for 'handful' that many people misinterpreted for 'sexual deviant'. Then George infers that Nick might be gay, a situation that Martha 'rectifies', just as Elizabeth had done for her gay co-stars in the past, by displaying her ample cleavage and having him thrust his crotch inches from her face as she pronounces, 'You're right at the meat of things!' Martha further humiliates George when he gets grumpy and fetches his rifle. When he pulls the trigger, an umbrella pops out of the barrel. Using this as an opportunity to mock his \u2013 and Burton's \u2013 occasional impotence, she coos to the younger man, 'You don't need any props, do you, baby? No fake guns for you!'\n\nWhen the two men discuss their recipe for success, which involves being with well-heeled wives, it parallels the way in which Burton ensured his own swift elevation to the top of the show-business ladder:\n\nNICK: Take over a few courses from the older men. Plough a few impertinent wives!\n\nGEORGE: Now, that's it . . . you can shove aside all the older men you can find, but until you start ploughing pertinent wives, you're not really working. That's the way to power. Plough 'em all! The way to a man's heart \u2013 the wide, inviting avenue to his job is through his wife, and don't you forget it!\n\nNICK: And I bet your wife's got the most inviting avenue on the whole damn campus! I just better get her off into the bushes straight away!\n\nThe two couples end up playing the jukebox at a roadhouse in a scene choreographed by the then little-known Herbert Ross, who later worked with Barbra Streisand in Funny Girl (1968) and with her and Segal in the film Elizabeth and Burton should have made, The Owl and the Pussycat (1970). George flirts with Honey, calling her 'monkey nipples', but when Martha fake copulates with Nick, George tries to throttle her and thus begins what Haskell Wexler later described as a carbon copy of a Taylor-Burton fight, made more dramatic, at Elizabeth's request, by being filmed with a hand-held camera.\n\nMartha then goes off with Nick, though they are too drunk to later remember of they had sex \u2013 she just needed to determine if he was gay or straight. This he interprets as a slur on his manhood, until she explains that in this respect he is no different from the other men she has known, which is again true to life. Adding to the character-actress similarities she concludes that only one man has ever made her happy, one whom she now reviles and who must be punished because he has made the mistake of loving her. Finally, she confesses that she and George invented a son, and that the charade has got them through a dreadful marriage. Now, the pretence must end, and Martha's closing monologue is so utterly heart-rending and convincing that we actually feel sorry for her. As happened with Elizabeth herself, we are witnessing a sad, disillusioned woman starting off on the path towards a Calvary of her own making. A masterpiece!\n\n# ELEVEN\n\nDUDS AND DIAMONDS\n\nIN FEBRUARY 1966, THE BURTONS FLEW TO ENGLAND to appear in an Oxford University production of Christopher Marlowe's Dr Faustus \u2013 a week-long practice run for the film version that would be directed by Burton later in the year. The couple insisted upon performing for free, which was just as well, critics observed, for under any other circumstances they would have been paid up. Whilst Burton ranted, flung his arms about and made little sense of the script, Elizabeth merely postured in the middle of the stage and uttered not one word.\n\nThe film version was little better. Filmed in Rome with students from the university dramatic society (with everyone, including the Burtons, on a daily rate of \u00a318), it was funded to the tune of $1 million out of Burton's pocket, and it earned the celebrity couple some of their worst critical reviews ever. The New York Times denounced it as 'an awfulness that bends the mind'. Time magazine went out of its way to praise co-director Nevill Coghill (who had directed the play) for keeping Elizabeth 'mercifully' mute throughout the production and said of her appearance, 'When she welcomes Burton to an eternity of damnation, her eyeballs and teeth are dripping pink in a hellish combination of conjunctivitis and trench mouth.' Ouch!\n\nRichard Burton, the former thespian, was accused of selling out for the sake of the almighty dollar when he and Elizabeth returned to Oxford for the film's premiere on 15 October 1967. The presenter who interviewed them from a local television news magazine made the mistake of comparing the Faust legend \u2013 the magician who sells his soul to the devil in exchange for material possessions and is dragged down to hell by the women he loves \u2013 with that of the Burtons' relationship. Burton was unable to get a word in edgeways as Elizabeth went for the jugular:\n\nINTERVIEWER: You must have sometimes, Richard Burton, faced the question as to whether you should have continued as an imposing and even in the view of many people great stage actor, and moved into the world of films, which is more commercially rewarding but not perhaps so rewarding artistically. Do you ever regret moving into the commercial cinema?\n\nELIZABETH (narrowing her eyes, pointing accursedly): That makes me so angry because he has not left the stage. That's absolute bloody rubbish, when last year he just got through doing a thing here for Oxford on the stage. The year before that, what was he doing on Broadway? How can you say he's left the stage?\n\nINTERVIEWER: But that is not a continuous stage career in the sense that, for example, Paul Schofield and Laurence Olivier . . .\n\nELIZABETH: He's not continuous, either. He still does films for money, and so does Paul Schofield.\n\nINTERVIEWER: But Schofield has made one film in ten or fourteen years, and Richard was one time potentially the greatest stage actor that England had ever produced. I wondered whether in a way your making of Faustus, which is the story of a man who sells out to a dream, almost, is perhaps comparable with your decision? I want to ask, Elizabeth Taylor, if your irritation was because you felt that the cinema was not the creative medium that the theatre was. I don't know why you got so cross . . .\n\nELIZABETH (cutting the interview short): Because you said the exact phrase that I knew you were working up to \u2013 'sold out' \u2013 and it offends me to the soul!\n\nIt was possibly also the interviewer's phrase 'potentially the greatest actor' and the fact that he was no longer recognised as such, probably because of her, that rankled Elizabeth. Dr Faustus was the first of Elizabeth's films not to recover its production costs, grossing less than $500,000 at the box office on both sides of the Atlantic.\n\nMeanwhile, in the spring of 1966, the Burtons drove overland, via Switzerland, to Rome to appear in Franco Zeffirelli's The Taming of the Shrew (1967), described by film critic Alexander Walker as 'a Tom and Jerry cartoon in costume'. Instead of salaries, they opted for a hefty share of the profits, which earned them in excess of $3 million, despite the mediocrity of the film \u2013 Burton performs drunk throughout.\n\nSince leaving America, Elizabeth had spoken to Montgomery Clift every day on the telephone. He had had a tough time shooting The Defector in Germany, but with Warner Brothers there was no let-up: on 15 July the studio contracted both parties to inform them that Reflections in a Golden Eye would begin shooting in the September. Until then, there had been some talk that Burton might direct, but Monty dismissed the idea \u2013 even though it meant handing the reins to John Huston, whom he hated. Elizabeth promised to keep an eye on the bad-tempered director to ensure there would be no repetition of the violence that had accompanied Freud.\n\nElizabeth had just been offered the film adaptation of This Property Is Condemned (1966) opposite newcomer Robert Redford, but this role now went to Natalie Wood \u2013 for half the fee Paramount had offered Elizabeth. She was still reeling from this when Richard Burton received a call from Roddy McDowall: on the morning of 23 July 1966, Monty had been found dead in his bed, the victim of heart failure. This proved to be Elizabeth's biggest loss since Mike Todd, a grief she would carry with her to the grave. The man she often claimed to be more important to her than all of her husbands was just 45. She did not attend his funeral, three days later in Brooklyn's Quaker Cemetery, using work commitments as an excuse, although it is believed she stayed away to avoid turning the ceremony into a media event. Her wreath of white chrysanthemums was inscribed 'Rest, perturbed spirit'.\n\nAs she had been given contractual approval of her co-stars, and feeling that only he could step into his shoes, Elizabeth contacted Marlon Brando, Monty's nearest rival, and asked him to replace Clift in Reflections in a Golden Eye. When asked by reporters if he had accepted the role as a tribute to Monty, Brando responded, 'Nope. I need the $750,000.'\n\nIt was by no means a poor film: minus the encumbrance of Richard Burton's booming, drunken histrionics, it was a distinct improvement on anything that Elizabeth had done since Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? The story was based on a 1961 novella by Carson McCullers, a complex individual whose work was labelled by critics and admirers as 'Southern Gothic'. She described her work and the frequently grotesque array of characters who populated her books as, 'The hungry search of people for an escape from individual loneliness, for self-expression and for identification with what each most idealises in human living.' McCullers certainly practised what she preached: she had a lifelong unfulfilled sexual obsession with Greta Garbo and shared a lover with her homosexual husband Reeves, whom she married and divorced twice and who subsequently committed suicide. Who better then to have inadvertently provided a vehicle for Elizabeth Taylor and Montgomery Clift, now replaced by the equally offbeat Marlon Brando?\n\nIn the film, set in an army post in the Deep South (but filmed in Rome for tax purposes), Elizabeth plays Leonora, the sex-starved wife of the latently homosexual, self-loathing Major Weldon Penderton (Brando), who, in a replica of the Reeves McCullers situation, has the hots for the younger, lustier Private Williams (Robert Forster), who is similarly obsessed with Leonora. And this being rarely-to-the-point Southern Gothic, and as had been the case with the homosexual references in Suddenly, Last Summer, Penderton 'outs' himself to cinemagoers in an inarticulately roundabout manner during a lecture to his men when he asks, 'Is it morally honourable for the square peg to keep scraping around in the round hole, rather than to discover and use the orthodox one that would fit?' Add to this Leonora's penchant for bashing her husband in public, Private Williams' acute narcissism and underwear fetish, and Brando's Method acting and persistent mumbling of his lines, and the end result is either fascinating or downright boring, depending upon how one is 'tuned in' to these complicated, high-charged scenarios.\n\nEven so, working with an actor of Brando's calibre was a step in the right direction for Elizabeth. Her performances were starting to gain more depth with roles such as Leonora Penderton, and had there been more of these in her middle years \u2013 instead of lending herself to mostly trash in order to placate Richard Burton \u2013 she might have developed into an American Anna Magnani. Indeed, to save her unsalvageable marriage from sinking, she signed up for two more productions that might have proved worthwhile with another leading man but with Burton dragging her down ended up as stinkers.\n\nThe Comedians (1967) was especially scripted for the Burtons by Graham Greene from his novel of the same name. Set in Haiti during the 'Papa Doc' Duvalier regime, it had at its helm Peter Glenville, who had more patience with Burton than most: he had directed him in Becket but would rue doing so again. Also, possibly owing to the success of the other film, Burton had top billing \u2013 the only time this happened when he appeared with Elizabeth \u2013 which was reflected in his salary. Shooting was a miserable experience for all. As Papa Doc had refused to allow a film unit in Haiti, the locations were filmed in the African republic of Dahomey (now the Republic of Benin), where the heat was intolerable and everyone was plagued by mosquitoes. Elizabeth played another sex-starved siren, ambassador's wife Martha Pineda, with an accent only marginally less atrocious than the one in the later Divorce His, Divorce Hers (1973). Throughout the overlong (160 minutes) production, she alternates between German, French and Spanish, with a dash of the Queen's English thrown in for good measure. Suffering nobly alongside the Burtons were Alec Guinness and Peter Ustinov, who trounced them in every scene. Declaring that he had to fight to get even a half-decent performance out of his stars, Peter Glenville told Vogue, 'She was bored by her own fame and obsessed with his.'\n\nShooting on The Comedians had almost wrapped when the Burtons received a call from Jack Warner, urging them to return to Hollywood to attend the Oscars ceremony. Both had been nominated for Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?, as had the film itself, but three of its numerous nominations. These were the days when stars were expected to show up for the event \u2013 unless seriously indisposed \u2013 or risk being frowned upon by their peers and the media. Elizabeth finished working on the The Comedians first and told Warner that she would be there. Burton threw a fit, announcing that as soon as he had canned his scenes he would be flying to the south of France and that Elizabeth should be by his side as his dutiful wife. She initially fought against this, relenting only when Burton fabricated the story that he had seen her plane crash into the Atlantic in a dream.\n\nElizabeth was widely tipped as favourite for the Best Actress award, having already won the New York Film Critics Circle Award and a British BAFTA. Also nominated were George Segal and Sandy Dennis (Best Supporting Actor\/Actress), Mike Nichols (Best Director), Richard Stybert (art direction), James Hopkins (sets), Haskell Wexler (cinematography) and Irene Sharaff (costumes). Elizabeth's only serious rival, the critics believed, was Anouk Aim\u00e9e for Un homme et une femme, whilst Burton was pitched against Paul Schofield (the mention of whose name had caused Elizabeth to see red in Oxford) for A Man for All Seasons. Schofield had already won numerous awards for his brilliant portrayal of Sir Thomas More, and he picked up the Oscar, as did the film and its director, Fred Zinneman. Elizabeth won her category, becoming only the fifth actress (after Ingrid Bergman, Louise Rainer, Olivia de Havilland and Vivien Leigh) to win two Oscars. Her award was collected by Anne Bancroft. For the rest of his life, Burton was plagued by the fact that Elizabeth had achieved something (twice) that he had not.\n\nOn 29 September 1967, the Burtons flew to Paris, attracting a vast crowd in the Place de l'Op\u00e9ra when they turned up for the premiere of The Taming of the Shrew. Unable to attend, even though Burton is said to have summoned him, President de Gaulle sent a small delegation and armed guard to escort them from an airfield on the outskirts of the city, and Elizabeth posed for photographs wearing a hired Van Cleef & Arpels tiara that cost almost $2 million. And when she commented on how comfortable the flight had been in the private jet that had conveyed them to France, Burton made arrangements to buy it \u2013 for a cool $850,000.\n\nThe Burtons' next venture was Boom! (1968), based on Tennessee Williams' The Milk Train Doesn't Stop Here Anymore. Rumour had it that Elizabeth had been suggested for the central role of Flora Goforth, the world's richest woman, by Tallulah Bankhead, who had played the part on the stage a few years earlier. 'She's a promiscuous, pill-ravaged rip, born in a Georgia swamp,' Tallulah had said at the time, 'so she could only be played by me!' Now, she declared, who better to portray Goforth on the big screen than Elizabeth Taylor, who as 'the world's biggest joke' would only have to be herself? The setting was not far removed from Williams' earlier The Roman Spring of Mrs Stone (1961), with Vivien Leigh and Warren Beatty in the main roles, although Lotte Lenya had received all the praise and been Oscar nominated playing the contessa.\n\nTallulah's co-star on the stage was the 32-year-old Tab Hunter, ethereally handsome and perfectly cast as Chris Sanders, the hunky beach-boy poet who has fashioned a career out of consoling rich, moribund ladies \u2013 and on one occasion an elderly man he helped to commit suicide \u2013 on Italy's 'Divina Costiera' (though the locations were shot in Sardinia), earning himself the nickname 'Angel of Death'. Tennessee Williams observed in his 1975 autobiography, Memoirs:\n\nThe death of Miss Flora Goforth is essentially the death of a clown. There is hardly a bit of nobility, nor even dignity, in her fiercely resistant approach to life's most awful adventure \u2013 dying. But you will find it very possible to pity this female clown even while her absurd pretensions and her panicky last effort to hide from her final destruction make you laugh at her.\n\nAt 35, Elizabeth was far too young to play Flora (Tallulah had been 61), but, as always, when she stepped into the shoes of a Tennessee Williams heroine-madwoman, her interpretation was exemplary, and she looked stunning in her all-white Annalisa Nasalli-Rocca creations. Burton, on the other hand, was no Tab Hunter \u2013 bloated and bucolic, much of the time he resembled a badly made-up fourth-rate ham from a cheap medieval drama. Noel Coward, as the Witch of Capri (a female character in the play), is embarrassing to watch, and Joanna Shimkus, who plays the long-suffering secretary Blackie, is totally wooden. And surely director Joseph Losey was playing a joke on cinemagoers by casting a dwarf (Michael Dunn) in the role of Flora's bodyguard, Rudy?\n\nAlthough much of Williams' original theatre script is incorporated into Boom!, he was forced to make a few changes to the screen adaptation to reflect the Taylor-Burton situation. The arguments between the two main characters are therefore more vociferous, bordering on the maniacal, and Burton insisted on being able to kiss both Flora and Blackie, which does not happen in the play. The Taylor-Burton diamond, along with a few of its companions, makes an obligatory appearance. Also upon Burton's request, Williams added a 'put-down' line to counteract Flora's domination of everyone around her. 'Tough as you are,' Chris pronounces, 'you're not so tough that one day, perhaps soon, you're gonna need someone or something that'll mean God to you, if it's only a human hand or a human voice.' The critics hated the film, but the lack of plaudits failed to affect the box office, despite the fact that the Burtons' marriage was starting to fall apart at the seams \u2013 hardly surprising given their volatile, complex relationship.\n\nThe rot appears to have set in early in 1968, after Elizabeth wanted to play Anne Boleyn opposite Burton's Henry VIII in Anne of a Thousand Days. He turned her down in favour of the younger, more appropriately sylph-like Canadian actress Genevi\u00e8ve Bujold \u2013 a role for which she was Oscar nominated. When Bujold politely requested that Burton's famous wife should not be allowed on the set because of the fuss this would cause, Elizabeth immediately suspected that the pair were having an affair. Almost certainly they were not, though Burton was playing around behind Elizabeth's back \u2013 a question of old habits dying hard. And matters were not helped in the September by the not unexpected death of Elizabeth's father at the age of 70. A few years earlier, Francis Taylor had suffered a stroke from which he had never really recovered. His demise reunited mother and daughter, with Elizabeth confiding in Sara about her marital problems.\n\nAs the rows escalated, time after time Burton reached for his chequebook in an increasingly futile attempt to keep their ship from sinking completely, just as Eddie Fisher had done before him. And the press, who trailed around the world after the couple, following the circus like devotees of some fanatical religious sect, delighted in relaying to their readers how every last dollar had been spent.\n\nTowards the end of their second marriage, Richard Burton would boast to an astonished press conference, 'I've spent $20 million on Elizabeth, because she is my baby child.' In a modern, politically educated world, where poverty and starvation were rife, Burton's extravagances were nothing short of shameful. Not long after Anne of a Thousand Days, he bought the wife who already had everything and more the infamous 38.9-carat Krupp Diamond, hardly the sort of trinket one would have thought a Jewish convert would wear with pride, for it had originally been purchased with blood money by the Nazi industrialist Alfred Krupp. Shortly after the Second World War, Krupp had been convicted by an American tribunal for plundering occupied territories and employing slave labour in neo-concentration-camp conditions. Burton bragged that the bauble had been but a 'snip' at $305,000.\n\nNext, Burton acquired an equally controversial piece for $37,000. This was La Peregrina, the fabulous pearl that Philip II of Spain had given to Henry VIII's daughter, Mary Tudor, in 1554 at the start of the union that had made 'Bloody Mary' the most hated woman in England. She is seen wearing it in her official portrait. By the time it ended up in Elizabeth's possession, it had been reset and suspended from a $100,000 diamond, ruby and pearl necklace. The fact that she owned two artefacts steeped in a history of bloodshed, extreme hardship, unpleasantness and evil did not perturb her unduly.\n\nThen there was the even more staggering pear-shaped 69.42-carat Taylor-Burton Diamond, fashioned by Cartier \u2013 an inch-thick monster that set Burton back $1.1 million. Only the French music-hall stars Gaby Deslys (responsible for the downfall of the Portuguese monarchy) and Mistinguett had owned sparklers of such value, closely followed by the Duchess of Windsor, who was Elizabeth's only living rival and who always tried to outshine her whenever they crossed paths on the social circuit. Soon after acquiring this, Burton let Elizabeth in on the secret that one of the bidders had been Sophia Loren's director husband, Carlo Ponti. According to biographer Kitty Kelley, Elizabeth denounced Loren to friends as 'too piss-elegant for words', and the fact that the Italian beauty had almost ended up with her diamond rankled her. Though they would later socialise and pretend to like each other, behind her back Elizabeth would refer scathingly to Loren as 'Madama Ponti'.\n\nElizabeth herself doled out $100,000 for a diamond necklace from which her latest trinket could be suspended so as to conceal her tracheotomy scar. She then paid $80,000 to have it insured by Lloyds of London, when no other American or European company would touch it. There were, however, certain conditions. Elizabeth was only permitted to wear the piece 30 times a year and had to be accompanied by an armed guard, at her own expense, when doing so \u2013 otherwise it would have to remain locked in a bank vault.\n\nThe Burtons enabled the American public to ogle the Krupp Diamond in May 1970 when they made an appearance on The Lucy Show, one of their truly great celluloid moments, if not their best since Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? The hostess naturally insisted upon trying on the ring, got it stuck on her finger and had it removed by Burton, using the best vintage champagne. Before this happened, however, the press turned up wanting to see the ring: the Burtons received them standing in front of a curtain, behind which hid Lucille Ball, her hand pushed through the gap and up Elizabeth's kimono sleeve. Burton explained that he found the diamond in a 'crackerjack barrel' whilst Elizabeth's 'spare hand' wreaked havoc, gesticulating to the press, stroking Burton's face, trying to strangle Elizabeth and forcing her to drink two glasses of champagne. 'And they call me a two-fisted drinker,' he pronounced, bringing the response from his wife, 'Of all the sinks in Los Angeles, you had to pick her faucet!'\n\nBesides the jewels, there were the properties in Gstaad, Puerto Vallarta and C\u00e9ligny, their walls festooned with Rembrandts, Picassos, Renoirs, Van Goghs and Monets. And there was the $420,000 yacht, the Kalizma, so named after their daughters Kate, Liza and Maria. Jessica Burton was still in the nursing home, conveniently out of the way and, it would appear, forgotten. With seven cabins and two staterooms, the vessel was filled with Chippendale furniture and other antiques. Then there was the $1-million customised private jet and the $500,00 helicopter. The list was apparently endless. As the film critic Alexander Walker observed, 'They lived on a scale few hereditary rulers except the despots of Africa or Arabia thought prudent for either their people to witness or their treasuries to support.' So much money was flying around, with even more coming in, that one story of Burton 'sorting out the clutter' atop his piano in the couple's Gstaad retreat reached the tabloids. While doing so, the actor 'chanced upon' an envelope containing a cheque for over $2 million in royalty payments!\n\nIt was not just the tabloids who were mercilessly critical of the couple's excess. Look magazine called Elizabeth 'a fading movie queen who has too much and wants more'. The New York Times observed of the Taylor-Burton Diamond, 'It would have been nice to wear in the tumbrel on the way to the guillotine. In this age of vulgarity marked by such \"minor\" matters as war and poverty, it gets harder every day to scale the heights of vulgarity.'\n\nThis Borgian extravagance extended towards Elizabeth's pets. In 1968, when she came to London to make Secret Ceremony (1968) \u2013 Burton had eschewed this one for Where Eagles Dare (1968) \u2013 the press were less interested in her latest hospitalisation (on 21 July for a hysterectomy) than they were in the arrangements she had made for her menagerie. Prohibited from bringing her dogs into the country because of British quarantine regulations, and with the Kalizma undergoing a refit, for a mere $10,000 a month, she hired a 200-ton yacht named the Beatriz, which was moored on the Thames. This was also used some evenings for private parties \u2013 and with Elizabeth's disdain for cleaning up after her animals, one can only imagine what the conditions must have been like for the guests. 'The World's Most Expensive Dog Kennel' was also debated in Parliament by Home Secretary James Callaghan, with MPs wanting to know if the British taxpayer would be footing the bill for the police, customs and RSPCA officers patrolling the Thames Embankment to ensure the Burtons didn't bring their pooches ashore. Mr Callaghan duly reassured them that they were not. Even so, there were far-reaching consequences. Burton had been put forward for a knighthood in that year's Queen's birthday honours list, not for his questionable acting abilities, but for his equally dubious charity work \u2013 donations brought about mostly by tax concessions. Prime Minister Harold Wilson, himself from a working-class background, faced a Cabinet backlash. They basically came to the conclusion that the only 'charities' Richard Burton were interested in were himself and his wife. The honour was revoked, though two years later he would be awarded a CBE.\n\nBurton's greed was additionally highlighted when Elizabeth was assigned to Secret Ceremony, and he attempted to get her co-star, Robert Mitchum, fired from the production so that he could take his place. Such unprofessional conduct gave him a bad name in the trade. Tony Richardson, who had directed Tallulah Bankhead in The Milk Train Doesn't Stop Here Anymore, signed Burton for Laughter in the Dark, to be made immediately after Where Eagles Dare. Upon hearing of the Mitchum incident, Richardson tried but failed to get rid of Burton. Therefore, when Burton turned up for his first day's work late and drunk, the director seized the opportunity to give him his marching orders.\n\nThe Burtons' cinematic downfall was kick-started following the May 1968 New York premiere of Boom!, a mega-flop that would take 15 years to recover its production costs. The instigator of what many people believed to be their long-overdue demise was the 29 May issue of Life magazine. Having denounced the couple's arrogance, along with their audacity in expecting the public to accept 'anything they cared to shovel out', the editorial concluded:\n\nThere is a slack, tired quality to most of their work that is by now a form of insult. There is neither dignity nor discipline in what they do. She is fat and will do nothing about her most glaring defect \u2013 an unpleasant voice which she cannot adequately control. He, conversely, acts with nothing but his voice, rolling out his lines with much elegance but with no feeling at all. Perhaps the Burtons are doing the very best they can, laden as they are by their celebrity. But if they are not cynics, overestimating their charisma and underestimating our intelligence, then they are guilty of a lack of aesthetic judgement and self-awareness that is just as threatening.\n\nDespite this critical pummelling from one of America's premier publications, the couple were still in demand \u2013 but separately. This caused tremendous problems for anyone interested in offering them contracts, because they refused to work apart \u2013 as if aware that with some distance between them they might never reconcile. Elizabeth was signed to star opposite Frank Sinatra in the gambling comedy The Only Game in Town (1970) and demanded $1.25 million. What is astonishing is that the studio was Twentieth Century Fox, who had sued Burton and Taylor over the Cleopatra debacle and had vowed never to work with either again. Burton demanded, and received without argument, the same fee to play a gay hairdresser opposite Rex Harrison in Staircase. This pathetic horror, released in America on the eve of the Stonewall riots of 1969, dredged up every prejudice, religious reference and gay clich\u00e9 in the bigot's book, and today makes for uncomfortable viewing. As Paul Roen observes in High Camp, 'If nothing else [this movie] vividly illustrates that the time for gay liberation was way past due.'\n\nThe budgets for both productions were bumped up by the Burtons' insistence \u2013 once the contracts had been signed \u2013 that they be filmed in the same place for tax purposes. This ruled out Las Vegas (for Elizabeth's film) and London (for Burton's). The settings were therefore recreated on adjacent lots at a studio on the outskirts of Paris. A further hitch occurred when Frank Sinatra dropped out of the production and was replaced by Warren Beatty, currently a white-hot property following his success in Bonnie and Clyde (1967). With Burton concerned that some of his fans might think him gay because he was playing 'an old queen' and, at the same time, worried that acknowledged Lothario Beatty might make a move on Elizabeth, he increased his already heavy drinking, ignoring doctors' warnings that he was slowly killing himself on account of an enlarged liver.\n\nIn Secret Ceremony \u2013 something of a poor man's McCullers\/Williams psycho-fest \u2013 Elizabeth played another Leonora, a middle-aged prostitute kidnapped by a mentally unbalanced girl (Mia Farrow) who thinks Leonora is her mother. For a while, she keeps her in a spooky Edwardian mansion filled with music boxes and junk \u2013 the pair are just starting to get along when the stepfather (Robert Mitchum) shows up with tragic consequences. The real tragedy, according to the critics, was the film itself. Rex Reed observed in his syndicated column (later collated in the 1977 volume Valentines and Vitriol, Delacorte Press, 1977), 'The disintegration of Elizabeth Taylor has been a very sad thing to stand by helplessly and watch . . . She had become a hideous parody of herself \u2013 a fat, sloppy, yelling, screaming banshee.'\n\nElizabeth worked little during the first half of 1970. She was hospitalised for a while with the anal bleeding spasms that, it was now revealed, had laid her low the previous summer. In the July, she accompanied Richard Burton to Mexico, where he filmed the exteriors for Raid on Rommel (1971). Then in the September they flew to London, where he made Villain (1971) and she Zee and Co. (1972). Whilst they were there, 17-year-old Michael Wilding Jr married 19-year-old Beth Clutter at Caxton Hall on 6 October, with every tabloid headline screaming a variation of 'Here Comes the Mother of the Bride'. Not to be outdone, the Burtons gave the couple a new Jaguar and a \u00a370,000 townhouse, conveniently situated next door to Burton's own in Hampstead. It was a happy wedding in every sense: the groom wore shoulder-length hair, a purple kaftan, bell-bottom trousers and 'Jesus' sandals; his mother a knitted trouser suit and maxi coat. One wonders whether she would have attended the ceremony had she not been working in London at the time, bearing in mind that there had hardly ever been a full family gathering at her own weddings.\n\nThe following August, the Wildings presented Elizabeth \u2013 at 39 \u2013 with her first grandchild, Leyla, precipitating Marlene Dietrich to relinquish her 'World's Most Glamorous Grandmother' crown. 'I was being sarcastic, naturally,' she told me. 'With all her aches and pains, she was physically older than I was. She'd earned it!' Elizabeth would attempt to spoil the child by sending her Christian Dior layettes. She found young Michael work as a photographer's assistant on Zee and Co., which he walked out on because of the unsocial hours. She then offered the couple financial support, which he despised. By the time of Leyla's birth, the London townhouse was transformed into a mini-hippy commune, with Michael the fully fledged flower child, in favour of self-sufficiency and decidedly anti-materialist in lieu of genuine maternal affection. 'My mother's life seems just as fantastic to me as it does everyone else,' he told Time magazine. 'I really don't want any part of it.'\n\nTo get away, the couple sold the London house, packed their bags \u2013 along with around $50,000 of musical equipment that Elizabeth seems to have paid for \u2013 and headed for Ponterwyd, a village in the Welsh mountains. Here they set up their own commune, with Beth appointing herself 'earth mother'. One month later, she left Michael and moved into the Dorchester with the Burtons, taking Leyla with her. When this arrangement failed to work, Beth returned home to her family in Portland, Ohio, and filed for divorce. According to Beth (speaking to Kitty Kelley), Elizabeth demanded not just access to her granddaughter, but that Leyla be sent to her when she wanted to see her. Not surprisingly, Beth refused to comply, and Elizabeth hit the roof. 'Nobody tells me whether I can see my own grandchild,' she is alleged to have exclaimed. 'I'll never help you again!' Beth was, however, adamant. She vowed that her child would have a stable upbringing and would never find herself torn between pillar and post, as had happened with Michael Jr and Elizabeth's other children.\n\nAs for Zee and Co., the film was marginally better than its predecessor, but it was still categorised third-rate by most of the critics. It was based on a novel by Edna O'Brien, who later complained that the script had been amended to fit in with the Taylor-Burton story to such an extent that it barely resembled the original. Elizabeth, unsalaried but on a high box-office percentage, played Zee Blakely, and Michael Caine was cast as her husband who is having an affair with a young widow (Susannah York). When he leaves her, she bungles a suicide attempt \u2013 then gets the widow on side, so to speak, by raking up her lesbian past and seducing her!\n\nJust as this film coincided with the Wildings' wedding, so the birth of Elizabeth's first grandchild was blessed with her presence only because the Burtons were working in the country \u2013 this time filming Dylan Thomas's Under Milk Wood (1972) in Wales. Directed by Andrew Sinclair, this was another hotchpotch of booming histrionics and bawdy giggles, and owes more to Russ Meyer than the legendary Welsh poet. Elizabeth was Rosie Prebert, the village harlot, and Burton portrayed 'First Voice', the narrator with whom she was once intimate.\n\nIn February 1972, Elizabeth celebrated her 40th birthday. For this one, Burton presented her with a heart-shaped pendant set with the $1-million yellow Shah Jahan Diamond, which the Indian mogul responsible for building the Taj Mahal had given his wife, circa 1650. On it were inscribed the Parsee words for everlasting love. Burton arrogantly told reporters, 'I would have preferred buying Elizabeth the Taj Mahal itself, but transporting it would have been far too costly.'\n\nThe weekend-long bash took place in Budapest, where Burton was filming Bluebeard (1972), a film that was mocked by the Washington Post as 'Burton announcing his availability for Vincent Price roles, [as] it would be difficult for him to sink below this credit'. The guests at Elizabeth's birthday celebrations included David Niven, Michael Caine, Princess Grace of Monaco, the Ringo Starrs and Susannah York. To show that there were no hard feelings, Elizabeth invited Michael Wilding and his new wife, Margaret Leighton. Liza Todd was there, and Christopher Wilding flew in from Hawaii, where he was attending university. Michael Wilding Jr was conspicuous by his absence, having made it clear what he thought of such squandering of money when there was so much poverty in the world. The guests were instructed what to wear for the various parties \u2013 and were advised to bring dark glasses for the hangovers in between. The Burtons seem to have overlooked that they were guests of a poor Communist country that had seen more than its share of political upheavals and which frowned upon ostentatious spending, such as when Elizabeth paid to have Princess Grace's suite at the Intercontinental Hotel redecorated and filled with borrowed antiques. Just as Mike Todd before him, Richard Burton seemed to be of the opinion that any problem could solved by whipping out his chequebook. Summoning a hasty press conference, he announced that whatever his wife's party had cost, he would donate an equal amount to UNICEF. Good to his word, five months later he presented its representative, Peter Ustinov, with $45,000, although this did not alleviate the ill-feeling harboured by the citizens of Budapest against the Burtons for holding the celebrations there in the first place.\n\nAt some stage of the festivities, the Burtons were interviewed for David Frost's television show, and they were not particularly friendly towards their host. Burton was bombed on bourbon, with Elizabeth not far behind him, and matters were made worse by the producer's insistence that there be as little editing as possible so that Frost's viewers \u2013 or at least the ones who did not already know \u2013 might see what the couple were really like under the influence of drink, which was, of course, most of the time.\n\nBy that stage in their marriage, Burton was totally out of control. Mood swings and tantrums saw him, time and again, walking out on Elizabeth and into drunken one-night stands. Their arguments spilled out into the public arena as they went at it hammer and tong in bars and restaurants. The press reported incidents in which Elizabeth would smack Burton in the mouth, employ language foul enough to make a docker blush then continue necking with him as if nothing had happened. 'I will accuse her of being ugly, and she will accuse me of being a talentless son of a bitch,' Burton told the Daily Mirror, claiming that they had frequently 'pitched' battles for the fun of it. He added coyly, 'I love arguing with Elizabeth, except when she is in the nude. It's impossible to take an argument seriously with her naked. She throws her fingers around so vigorously, she positively bruises herself!'\n\nSuch utterances were voiced at a time when the Burtons' films were absolutely trashed by the critics. Hammersmith Is Out (1972), directed by and co-starring Peter Ustinov (who had obviously not learned his lesson since starring with them in The Comedians), was regarded as their most dire so far. Supposedly set in the American southwest, it was filmed in Cuernavaca, Mexico, so that they would not have to travel far from Puerto Vallarta. Elizabeth played a rough-edged waitress at a greasy spoon, Burton the nutcase who is convinced that he is the devil and promises to get her away from her life of drudgery and turn her into a movie star! Woven into the hammy storyline is his relationship with another 'disciple', played by Beau Bridges. It was the kind of scenario that might have worked well three decades earlier with Joan Crawford and Zachary Scott, but here the leads are wishy-washy and embarrassing: Elizabeth appears bored, and Burton looks overweight, ill and old. Variety observed, 'Burton, as the lunatic Hammersmith, goes through the film with a single (the director told him never to close his eyes!) bored expression.'\n\nElizabeth's Night Watch (1973), filmed in June 1972, was little better. Alongside Laurence Harvey, now in the latter stages of cancer, she played yet another Tennessee Williams-style madwoman who gets to wear stunning Valentino creations whilst going out of her mind.\n\nThere were also overseas family problems. Burton's brother Ifor suffered a serious fall during a visit to the house in C\u00e9ligny. Paralysed from the neck down and confined to a wheelchair, he died soon afterwards. Then Michael Wilding Jr was arrested when police raided his Welsh commune and discovered that he had been growing cannabis. By then, he had another 'earth mother', Johanne Lyke-Dahn, and a second daughter, Naomi. At least one of Elizabeth's offspring was turning out to be a chip off the old block. Burton was also cheating on her. There were reputed affairs with Princess Margaret and French actress Nathalie Delon, who also had a fling with Eddie Fisher (or so he claimed). Elizabeth would later suspect Burton of being involved with Sophie Loren in Rome whilst shooting The Voyage (1974). But the affair that caused her the most distress was that with Jackie Onassis.\n\nMany people blamed Elizabeth's complex personality for her husband's straying from the unsettled marital nest. She had always been hopeless when it came to choosing men and seemed to go out of her way to bring out the worst in them. One Hollywood divorce was more or less accepted as the norm, two could just about be excused but a possible fourth meant that there must have been something radically wrong not just with her, but with every man who crossed her path, for they too had had a multitude of partners and acrimonious splits.\n\nIn Britain, Harlech Television (in which Burton had invested $250,000 so that he and Elizabeth could sit on the board) took the brave step of trying to monopolise on the ongoing Taylor-Burton saga by proposing a two-part television movie, Divorce His, Divorce Hers. This told the story of a couple's marriage break-up, each part told from one of the partner's point of view, and did not attract a single favourable review. Time magazine called the Burtons 'a matching pair of thudding disasters', whilst Variety observed, 'This film holds all the joy of standing by at an autopsy.'\n\nTelevision movies rarely come tackier than this. Jane and Martin Reynolds are Taylor and Burton, the spoilt wife and philandering husband, whose mistress, portrayed by Carrie Nye, resembles a second-rate drag queen. 'I am permanently adrift,' Jane proclaims, and she is not kidding! In a flashback scene, 20 years before, she looks older than she does now. Her accent dithers between queen's English and a Bronx-honk, and there is the obligatory mad scene. She wears only the best Edith Head costumes and makes a point of showing off the $1-million-plus La Pelegrina necklace given to her by Burton, who stumbles through the picture so bombed out of his skull that most of his lines make no sense at all.\n\nThis dreadful production in the can, now remembered as 'Liz and Dick's Last Stand', Elizabeth and Burton spent the Christmas holidays in Switzerland. In February 1973, they flew to Italy, where she was to make Ash Wednesday (1973), whilst he worked on the aforementioned The Voyage with Sophia Loren, directed by Carlo Ponti. In her film, Elizabeth played Barbara Sawyer, a middle-aged woman who submits to plastic surgery in an attempt to prevent her husband (Henry Fonda) from divorcing her. In doing so she attracts the attention of Erich, a beautiful young gigolo \u2013 portrayed by Austrian heartthrob Helmut Berger. When asked by a reporter from The Ladies Home Journal if she would ever consider going under the knife for real, Elizabeth responded, 'We can't stop the inevitable, so why try? Plastic surgery isn't for me because I don't base my happiness on the physical aspects of life.'\n\nIn fact, with her marriage at breaking point, Elizabeth had probably never felt so miserable, and it shows on the screen. Even the combined attractiveness of Berger and the ski resort of Cortina D'Ampezzo, where the locations were filmed, failed to put an authentic smile on her face. Upon her return to America, she announced that she and Burton were separating, though only long enough for them to iron out their differences. The exclusive was given to the Los Angeles Herald-Examiner and was deliberately timed to coincide with Independence Day:\n\nI am convinced it would be a good, constructive idea if Richard and I separated for a while. Maybe we loved each other too much. I never believed such a thing was possible, but we've been in each other's pockets constantly, never being apart but for matters of life and death . . . Wish us well during this difficult time. Pray for us!\n\nRichard Burton responded to the statement and defended their volatile relationship by announcing, 'You can't keep clapping a couple of sticks of dynamite together without expecting them to blow up!' Many critics were surprised that with her track record and his womanising and boozing they had lasted as long as they had. Yet she appeared to be making a concerted effort to hang onto him. Within three weeks of her announcement, the first reconciliation took place in Rome. Naturally, the press were informed well in advance of the staged, very public event at the city's Fiumicino Airport. Some 200 police were drafted in to control the 2,000-strong crowd, which fought with reporters and photographers to get to Burton's car that was waiting for Elizabeth's privately hired aircraft. She arrived accompanied by two of her dogs and was suitably 'dressed down' for the occasion, wearing denims and T-shirt, but she still flashed the Taylor-Burton Diamond at the photographers. The police managed to get her into Burton's car, the rear door of which was left open just long enough for the press to catch a glimpse of them falling into one another's arms and shedding a few crocodile tears. They were then pursued throughout the 12 miles to the Pontis' villa in Marino.\n\nBy 30 July 1973, it was all over. Burton stayed on in Rome to finish his film; Elizabeth remained in the city for a week or so to complete the locations for her latest offering, The Driver's Seat (1974; also released as Identikit). This was a woeful tale, if ever there was one, to cheer her up after her second split from her husband. She played Lise, an unhinged nymphomaniac who wishes to right the wrongs of her shady past by finding a lover willing to kill her \u2013 whilst they are having sex! Her co-star and the man selected to do the deed was Guido Mannari. But if many observers expected her to turn to the young Italian stunner for comfort, the shoulder she instead leaned upon was that of arch weirdo Andy Warhol, playing himself in a cameo in the picture. This was a ploy on Warhol's part to get an exclusive for his monthly Interview magazine, which failed when she heard the tiny tape recorder whirring away in his coat pocket. Exit Andy Warhol, at least for the time being.\n\nAt the end of August, Elizabeth returned to Los Angeles, where press reports soon linked her with Christopher Lawford, the 18-year-old son of 'Rat Pack' actor Peter. Alarmed that his son was seeing a woman old enough to be his mother, not to mention one of the world's most infamous man-eaters, Lawford fixed Elizabeth up with a 40-year-old half-Jewish Dutch used-car salesman named Henry Wynberg. According to biographer Jane Ellen Wayne (The Golden Girls of MGM, Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2002), Lawford described Wynberg, who was divorced with a young son, as 'a great cocksman with the type of equipment that appealed to Elizabeth'.\n\nBefore long, Elizabeth and Wynberg were cruising the Mediterranean aboard the Kalizma. Burton, monitoring the situation from afar, could not resist quipping to a reporter, 'If he's a used-car salesman, a vital part of Wynberg's anatomy might fall off when he needs it the most!' It was Wynberg who escorted Elizabeth to a charity event, organised to raise funds for the families of Israelis killed in the Middle East war, in Amsterdam, where some of his family lived. She donated some of her jewellery and upped the takings by $200,000.\n\nWhilst in Amsterdam, Elizabeth received word that her friend and former co-star Laurence Harvey was dying. It is evident from her memoirs (One Tear Is Enough, M. Joseph, 1975) that Paulene Stone, Harvey's wife, did not want Elizabeth there, but this was Elizabeth Taylor, accustomed to always having her own way, regardless of anyone else's feelings. There was also a 'family' connection: Harvey's first wife, Margaret Leighton, had married Michael Wilding. In her book, ex-model Paulene explained that she had tried to prevent Elizabeth from seeing Harvey because he had not wanted to see her: '\"She went on and on about life and death \u2013 it seems to be her favourite subject after diamonds,\" Larry growled at me, after one of her calls.' But, Elizabeth being Elizabeth, she managed to slip into the sickroom \u2013 and to get into the dying actor's bed, telling him that she wanted to die with him.\n\nThree weeks after this distressing, if not humiliating, display of exhibitionism, Laurence Harvey died, and Elizabeth vied with his widow to deliver the most fitting but rehearsed eulogy. 'He was part of the sun,' she told reporters, 'and for everyone, the sun is a little more dim.' And just as she had attempted to monopolise Laurence Harvey's deathbed, so she took over the memorial arrangements. With Peter Lawford, she organised an Episcopal service (for a Lithuanian Jew) and greeted mourners at the church door like she was his widow, clad in black, sparkling with the diamonds Harvey despised and handing out bunches of violets.\n\nAnd this was not the only humiliation Elizabeth caused that year. Only the intervention of Maria Callas's entourage prevented the greatest operatic diva of her generation from 'committing grievous bodily harm' when Elizabeth turned up for her recital in Hamburg on 25 October 1973. The reason: Elizabeth, tired of Richard Burton's womanising in Budapest, had played him at his own game on 5 May the previous year by flying to Rome to have dinner with Aristotle Onassis. The pair had been snapped by the paparazzi \u2013 naturally, they had been tipped off beforehand \u2013 and most of the subsequent press reports drew the conclusion that they had spent the night together. Callas would carry a torch for Onassis until his death in 1975, and she despised Jackie Kennedy for stealing him from her. Just as there seemed to be a chance of them reuniting, with the Onassis's marriage reputedly on the rocks, Elizabeth had attempted to pull the rug from under her.\n\nFeelings were still running high in September 1997 when I met up with what was left of Callas's entourage in London on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of her death. Her chauffeur from Hamburg told me:\n\nSuch was Madame Taylor's massive self-esteem that she really expected Maria to welcome her with open arms. Maria had already hit the roof because someone had persuaded, shall we say, her secretary to appear in an Elizabeth Taylor film [Nadia Stancioff, Ash Wednesday]. In her dressing-room, Maria fumed, 'Just who does she think she is, flaunting her diamonds and love affairs in everybody's faces? I'll tear the fucking bitch to pieces and cratch out her eyes if she comes anywhere near me!' The ensuing scene, had it taken place, would have been more exciting than any Hollywood movie \u2013 and Maria would have won!\n\nThis was Maria Callas's farewell tour, a joint series of recitals with tenor Giuseppi Di Stefano. Her magnificent voice was starting to fail her, and she was a bag of nerves \u2013 a condition not helped by the start of the show being held up by ten minutes by the arrival of a woman she positively loathed. Elizabeth's secretary had demanded complimentary tickets, which Callas had refused, suspecting that if Elizabeth turned up at the theatre, she would only end up stealing her thunder. 'Tell her to take a hike along the Rieperbahn,' her chauffeur reported Callas as responding, referring to the city's infamous red-light district. Elizabeth, however, had instructed her secretary to purchase an entire row of top-priced tickets, and, as Callas had predicted, she entered the auditorium to thunderous applause and the popping of hundreds of flashbulbs. Callas, however, had the last laugh when one of Elizabeth's staff and a press photographer attempted to effect a backstage meeting after the recital. 'Elizabeth Taylor?' she spat out. 'Never heard of her!'\n\nRichard Burton was still filming in Rome at the end of the year when Elizabeth collapsed and was rushed to the UCLA Medical Center. Doctors diagnosed an ovarian tumour, necessitating her 30th operation. Burton flew to Los Angeles to be with her, his press office announcing that this time they were together 'for keeps' and that he had given up the demon drink once and for all. The tumour fortunately proved to be benign, and after her discharge she and Burton spent a week in Puerto Vallarta before jetting back to Rome, where he added the finishing touches to The Voyage. They then flew to Oroville, California, where he was to make The Klansman (1974) with Lee Marvin. Here, in an alcoholic stupor, the Burtons celebrated their tenth wedding anniversary: he with the new Miss Pepsi Cola; Elizabeth alone. The film was another stinker, with Marvin playing the hero who takes on the might of the Ku Klux Klan, whilst Burton camps things up and bumps into the scenery. 'His grotesque performance turns a merely mediocre film into a full-blown baddie,' observed the Medved brothers in The Golden Turkey Awards.\n\nThrowing together a pair of alcoholic rabble-rousers such as Richard Burton and Lee Marvin was always going to be problematic. Director Terence Young told the press halfway through shooting that there already had been moments when he had seriously considered flinging himself out of his hotel window. Another story circulated that each day began with Burton guzzling pre-breakfast cocktails \u2013 and ended with him bedding one of the waitresses who had served them. He took ill on the set, and Elizabeth had him flown to Los Angeles, where he was admitted to St John's Hospital. He had diseased kidneys, suspected irreversible liver damage, bronchitis and influenza. Of late, he had also taken to snorting cocaine. Doctors warned him that unless he curbed his drinking habits he would be dead within the year. From then on, Burton was living on borrowed time \u2013 and did absolutely nothing to help himself.\n\nElizabeth had had enough. On 25 April 1974, she instructed her lawyers to draw up the divorce papers.\n\n# TWELVE\n\nFROM PLAYBOY'S MUSE   \nTO FARMER'S WIFE\n\nON 26 JUNE 1974, THE BURTONS' TEN-YEAR MARRAIGE ended in a courthouse in Saanen, the Swiss ski resort near Gstaad. Elizabeth told the judge that life with her husband had been intolerable \u2013 not exactly true, for there is more than sufficient evidence that the pair had been making life hell for one another since before their marriage. Some cynics remarked that making up \u2013 i.e. rough sex \u2013 had maybe lost its magic towards the end.\n\nBurton, too sick to attend the hearing, excused himself with a physician's certificate. As had happened with Sybil, he was extremely generous with the divorce settlement. Elizabeth got to keep their yacht, which she transformed into a temporary floating holiday home. Additionally, she kept the $15-million worth of jewellery and personal effects \u2013 and adopted daughter Maria, who had been shunted around for the entirety of her short life. Burton also set up more than substantial trust funds for his and Elizabeth's children.\n\nAfter the divorce, Elizabeth submitted to a handful of interviews in which she explained how sad she was that her favourite marriage had ended \u2013 she then returned to Henry Wynberg. Though Elizabeth had told the press that losing Burton had been the 'second-worst day' of her life (the worst being the day Mike Todd died, a point she was still putting forward as this book was being prepared), she was soon back to letting her heart rule her head, playing the tearful, disillusioned little girl who had mislaid one toy and then stumbled upon another that she did not really want but that would keep her occupied until something better came along. Neither had she severed her ties with Burton completely, having left a clause in her will instructing for them to be buried together, when the time came, next to his parents in a Welsh village cemetery \u2013 whether he wanted this or not.\n\nThe fact that Henry Wynberg only bought a pair of matching friendship rings should have given Elizabeth an inkling towards his intentions, even more so when he told reporters that he had made the mistake of marrying before and was not in any hurry to do so again. Elizabeth hoped to persuade him otherwise by getting him to move into a mini-mansion in the Hollywood hills, which she 'kinked up' by having the bedroom walls decorated with metallic wallpaper so that they could watch distorted images of one another whilst they were having sex. She also renewed her friendship with Max Lerner, now approaching 70, and he acted as some sort of technical adviser on her latest relationship.\n\nAccording to Kitty Kelley, who interviewed Lerner, Elizabeth is claimed to have remarked of Wynberg, 'I know that no one else likes him, but I don't care . . . He fucks me beautifully, and I know he's not a big mind like you are, but he takes care of me, and that's what I need.' Peter Lawford was another regular visitor to the house, probably hoping that this affair would work out, if for no other reason than to keep Elizabeth away from his teenage son. What she did not know was that Wynberg was reported to be sneaking girls into the house when Elizabeth was not home.\n\nRichard Burton might have been 'deteriorating fast', according to his friends in Switzerland, but his libido showed no signs of abating. In October 1974, he announced his engagement to 38-year-old Princess Elizabeth of Yugoslavia \u2013 tidings that resulted in his first Elizabeth taking to bed with back pains, for which traction was prescribed, though she vehemently denied that she had invented the ailment to gain sympathy. The first to arrive to comfort her was Sara Taylor, living in Palm Springs since Francis's death, then Liza Todd and Christopher Wilding. Elizabeth also arranged for someone to infringe upon Burton and his new romance over the festive season. Her adopted daughter Maria, who had played a minor role in the Burtons' lives so far, was dispatched to Belgium. Maria stayed with Burton and Princess Elizabeth in Verviers, near Li\u00e8ge \u2013 whilst Howard Taylor and his family stayed at Elizabeth's chalet in Gstaad.\n\nWith Burton out of the picture and the media circus put on hold for the time being, Elizabeth's career progressed: for the first time in years, the critics took her acting seriously. She did a sterling job co-comp\u00e8ring That's Entertainment!, and, although the venture was a commercial flop, she was superb in George Cukor's The Blue Bird (1976).\n\nAdhering closer to Maurice Maeterlinck's allegorical fairy tale than its predecessors, this $15-million remake was shot on location in and around Leningrad during the spring of 1975, finally realising Elizabeth's long-standing dream of working in Russia. She waived her fee, such was her eagerness, settling for a percentage of the box-office receipts, covered her own expenses and spent over $10,000 of her own money on her costumes. At points in the film, in which she plays four parts \u2013 Light, Mother, Witch and Maternal Love \u2013 she is almost unrecognisable. The British and American cast was headed by Ava Gardner (who on account of the studio's spartan conditions had to share her dressing-room), Robert Morley and Cicely Tyson. Playing one of the children Mytyl was seven-year-old Patsy Kensit, already a movie stalwart. Thirty years later, she told Attitude magazine's Andrew Fraser:\n\nShe was my first encounter with gayness. She was surrounded by this gay mafia. Raymondo, her stylist, her make-up artists, all the other helpers \u2013 they would all dress in the same colour as Elizabeth. If Elizabeth was in red, they'd all be wearing it. She was my first experience of divadom. The big diamond that Richard Burton bought her, she used to take it off her finger and say, 'Patsy, catch!'\n\nElizabeth was accompanied on the trip by Henry Wynberg \u2013 but only just. Her beau had recently been arraigned on several counts of grand theft, accused of turning back the milometer on cars he had sold. Following an appeal, these charges were commuted to misdemeanours, with a $1,000 fine and three years probation, which normally would have prohibited him from leaving the country. A second appeal appears to have overturned this to enable him to travel with Elizabeth, who might have vouched for him by declaring him to be professionally involved with The Blue Bird as its stills photographer.\n\nWynberg must have felt awkward when Elizabeth insisted upon stopping off en route to Russia at Gstaad to check up on Richard Burton. Princess Elizabeth had just discovered that he had been cheating on her whilst filming in Nice with a black Playboy model named Jeanne Bell. Not wishing to evoke a scandal \u2013 which prompts the question, why get involved with a known lecher like Burton in the first place? \u2013 the princess had broken off their engagement. In Leningrad, a possible reunion with her ex-husband occupied Elizabeth's every waking minute when she was not working, and Wynberg must have seen the writing on the wall as she feigned interest in him.\n\nThe Blue Bird wound up early in August \u2013 several weeks behind schedule due to Elizabeth being laid low with viral flu and then amoebic dysentery. Though illness had prevented her from eating properly whilst filming, and though her beauty would never fade, even in old age, she had piled on the pounds. Unflattering photographs \u2013 usually of her stuffing her face \u2013 began appearing in the press. Then, later in the month, everything fell apart for the Burton-Bell, Taylor-Wynberg liaisons when Burton and Elizabeth met up in Lausanne to discuss 'business affairs'. For her, living with a man was out of the question: despite her many affairs, she had been brought up to respect the sanctity of marriage and was still old-fashioned in this respect. What she now wanted, she told the press, was the stability of marriage. This, of course, had never worked before, and she was arguably too set in her ways for it to do so now. Cynics suggested that the rendezvous and its aftermath was a deliberate ploy to resurrect their respective flagging careers \u2013 particularly when they announced their plans to remarry almost at once.\n\nAccording to Richard Burton, speaking later to People magazine, within days of their getting back together they were 'at it hammer and tongs' \u2013 proof enough that they had never stopped loving one another. Syndicated columns the world over published lurid details of their revived spats, along with extracts from their syrupy love letters. They travelled to Johannesburg for a charity poetry-reading event and from there to Botswana's Chobe National Park, on the banks of the Zambezi. It was there, in a 20-minute ceremony conducted by the district commissioner, that they were married for the second time, on 10 October 1975.\n\nThis time there was no exclusive Helen Rose outfit, and the 'limo' was a Land Rover. The bride wore a floor-length green gown decorated with guinea-fowl feathers, a gift from Burton's late brother, Ifor Jenkins. The groom wore white trousers and a scarlet sweater \u2013 he claimed to have been on the wagon for the past year but was sozzled at ten in the morning. His wedding gift this time around was a 25-carat pink diamond, reported to have cost $1.1 million \u2013 which Elizabeth announced she did not want! Hoping to curry favour with her critics, sharpening their quills in readiness for a renewed attack on the Burton-Taylor spending mania, she decided to sell the bauble and use the money for charitable purposes. Because Botswana had given her the happiest day of her life since marrying Burton the first time, she pledged $1 million towards building a clinic in Kasane, the town adjacent to the park. 'They need one more than I need another ring,' she told reporters. It was an impressive gesture, but nothing more. When the project was inexplicably cancelled \u2013 by which time Elizabeth and Burton were virtually history and the location no longer regarded in the same romantic light \u2013 the health ministry controlling the region was promised $45,000 but only received $25,000. It was a generous donation all the same but would have been more appreciated had this amount been promised in the first place, instead of the community's hopes being built up and then dashed as they had.\n\nThe honeymoon comprised a wildlife safari, too much for the ailing Richard Burton, who came down with malaria. His life was ostensibly saved by an Italian-Egyptian pharmacist who had to be flown in by helicopter. Around Elizabeth's age, her name was Chenima Samin; Elizabeth shortened this to Chen Sam and quickly formed a close bond with her, so much so that when the couple returned to London to celebrate Burton's 50th birthday, Chen Sam accompanied them. She remained an integral part of Elizabeth's entourage as her publicist (replacing Dick Hanley, Mike Todd's publicist, whom she had retained and who had died the previous year). Chen Sam would serve Elizabeth faithfully until her own death in 1996.\n\nThe new marriage lasted all of three months, and, as before, Burton was the one doing the straying. On the Swiss ski slopes, he met racing driver James Hunt's pretty 29-year-old wife Suzy, a leggy former model. In January 1976, when he opened in the Broadway production of Peter Shaffer's Equus, she was at his side. Not long afterwards, Suzy obtained a quickie Haitian divorce.\n\nSo ended arguably the most extravagant pairing in show business. Over the last decade, the Burtons had raked in an estimated $100 million from mostly mediocre movies and shrewd investments with heavy tax concessions. Seemingly without a care in the world or much thought for anyone but themselves, they had ploughed approximately three-quarters of this back into the economy with their greed for razzmatazz and the media spotlight.\n\nPretending not to be affected by Burton and his new love interest, Elizabeth played him at his own game by having a fling with a tall, dark and handsome 37-year-old Maltese advertising executive named Peter Darmanin. The pair met in The Cave, a disco in the basement of Gstaad's Hotel Olden. According to press reports, they danced all evening, despite Elizabeth's bad back. And according to Darmanin, Elizabeth summoned him to her chalet the next morning, and they made love at once. Their affair lasted all of seven weeks, with Darmanin telling People magazine in 1976 that with Elizabeth's constant demands and acute possessiveness it had seemed like seven years. 'She was passionate in bed,' he said, 'and I must confess we didn't sleep much during those seven weeks.' It all ended when Elizabeth slapped him during a barney and one of her diamonds slashed his forehead. Darmanin also claimed that, like her character in Suddenly, Last Summer, Elizabeth had once stubbed out a cigarette in the palm of his hand.\n\nThe break-up coincided with Richard Burton's escalating problems while in Equus in New York. His first stage performances in 12 years were well received by the critics, a far cry from most of the work he had done with Elizabeth. Even the feisty, frequently non-complimentary New York Times's Bosley Crowther observed that Equus was the best thing that Burton had ever done. However, such plaudits coupled with his failed attempts to stay on the wagon placed Burton at an all-time low, and in February 1976 he called Elizabeth and begged her to fly out to New York. Incapable of resisting the command, she was on the next plane \u2013 only to discover that the real reason he wanted her there was to ask her to her face for a divorce so that he could marry Suzy Hunt. Elizabeth returned to California at once and 'reconnected' with Henry Wynberg as if nothing had happened since she had last seen him.\n\nWynberg, who had been shunted aside for Peter Darmanin and then Richard Burton, must have been a sucker for punishment, for no sooner had he and Elizabeth set up home \u2013 again \u2013 at a rented house in Los Angeles's exclusive Trousdale suburb than there was another contender for her favours. In March 1976, the two dined with Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and his wife (she and Burton had met them the previous year during a lightning charity trip to Israel), and it was Kissinger who added Elizabeth's name, but not Wynberg's, to the guest list for another fund-raiser, this time in aid of the American Ballet Theater. The high-profile bash took place in April at Washington's Kennedy Center. Elizabeth wore over $1 million of jewels and, according to the Washington Post, 'swept into Washington like Cleopatra into Rome'. This was followed by another lavish party at the Iranian embassy, hosted by Ardeshir Zahedi, the country's ambassador to the United States.\n\nZahedi, a 48-year-old bachelor formerly married to the shah's daughter, always maintained that his relationship with Elizabeth was platonic. If this was the case, he did little at the time to convince the world. Over the next two weeks, the pair were virtually inseparable: they were snapped dancing in nightclubs, holding hands and kissing. Zahedi was Elizabeth's date for the New York premiere of The Blue Bird, and she was his 'special guest' when the US\u2013Iran Air Service proposed a 140-strong celebrities-only inaugural flight to Tehran. Their relationship hit a serious snag, however, when rumours that Elizabeth might have been looking for husband number six reached the shah's ears. Having already suffered the extreme humiliation of Zahedi divorcing his favourite daughter, the shah was in no mood to tolerate his cultural representative being involved with a neo-Jewish woman of Elizabeth's reputation. Zahedi was instructed not just to sever ties with her, but to refrain from accompanying the guests on the flight to Tehran. Elizabeth travelled there anyhow, stayed at the Hilton and snarled at a reporter who erroneously addressed her as 'Mrs Burton' \u2013 this just about summed up her one and only trip to Iran. And, as before, she returned to Henry Wynberg.\n\nThe reunion was brief, Elizabeth learning that Wynberg had been recently arrested on 'undisclosed moral charges'. On 16 February, the Los Angeles Herald-Examiner (and numerous syndicated columnists who almost certainly would not have picked up on the story had it not been for his association with Elizabeth) reported that Wynberg had been questioned by police in regards to his conduct. As would later happen with Michael Jackson, Elizabeth dropped him like the proverbial hot brick. In February 1977, Wynberg was arraigned in Los Angeles for having a party with four girls, at which there was drugs and alcohol. He would later be found guilty of a criminal charge, serve ninety days in the Los Angeles County Jail and be put on probation for five years. Wynberg subsequently sued the National Enquirer over a story that he had 'exploited for commercial gain' his relationship with Elizabeth but lost when the federal judge noted that he had a criminal record and 'a reputation for taking advantage of women generally'.\n\nDuring the early summer of 1976, Elizabeth began taking an active interest in American politics, having discovered that the Washington social register had just as much to offer as its Hollywood and New York counterparts. In New York, she attended a Democratic fund-raiser in support of Jimmy Carter during his run-up to the presidential candidate selections, declaring that she did not dislike his rival Gerald Ford, only that Carter was the more intelligent of the two! The following day she lunched with Vice-President Nelson Rockerfeller in Washington, then returned to New York to lend support to Congresswoman Bella Abzug.\n\nIt was by way of her political leanings that Elizabeth met the next important man in her life \u2013 and a member of the enemy camp. She and 49-year-old Republican John Warner had bumped into each other a couple of times on the society circuit. This was the year of the American bicentenary, and on 8 July 1976, to honour the occasion, President Ford and Queen Elizabeth hosted a dinner party at the British embassy in Washington. Anyone who was anyone was invited. Because she did not have a partner, Elizabeth was 'fixed up' with the six-foot, prematurely greying would-be politician, currently director of the Bicentenary Committee. This apparently did not sit well with the British ambassador Sir Peter Ramsbotham, who is thought to have instructed Elizabeth to dress down for the occasion and not to 'overdo' the jewels. Likewise, Warner was discreetly asked to keep her in check \u2013 the last thing Ramsbotham wanted was the queen of England being upstaged by the queen of the movies!\n\nBorn in 1927, the son of an Episcopalian minister, Warner shared Elizabeth's star sign; she believed that this was a lucky omen after her recent troubles. Warner had dropped out of high school to serve with the US Navy towards the end of the Second World War and had later served with the marines in Korea. Demobbed, he had studied law in his native Virginia, and in 1957 had been appointed an assistant US attorney for Washington. That year he had also married Catherine, daughter of the Pittsburgh multimillionaire philanthropist Paul Mellon. It was reputedly through Mellon's influence with the Nixon administration that Warner had been appointed secretary of the US Navy in 1972. The following year he and his wife had divorced, the major source of dissension between them being Warner's support of the Vietnam War, which Catherine opposed. Theirs had been the most amiable split imaginable. In return for Warner not contesting the action, Paul Mellon had awarded him custody of the three children for most of the year, the couple's $750,000 house in Georgetown, their 2,700-acre farm at Middleburg and a lifelong income from investment valued at around $7 million.\n\nAfter the Washington bash, Elizabeth was invited to John Warner's farm, an hour's drive from the city. Pride of place went to the swimming pool he had built in one of the barns, his 600-strong herd of Hereford cattle and a 500-acre wildlife park. Very soon the place would be 'Taylorised', with the addition of a screening room and disco, and some of Warner's conservative prints would be replaced by her collection of grand masters.\n\nTheirs certainly was a classic case of opposites attracting. Warner was as reserved in his tastes, beliefs and conduct as Elizabeth was boisterous, racy and forthright. She was also a converted Jew and a Democrat, which did not exactly fit in with some of his policies. They had a whirlwind romance \u2013 was there any other kind for Elizabeth? \u2013 and when Warner privately proposed marriage, she was not slow in accepting, even though her divorce from Richard Burton would not be finalised until the August of that year.\n\nMeanwhile, Elizabeth flew to Vienna to shoot the film version of Stephen Sondheim's cult stage musical A Little Night Music. She played Desiree Armfeldt, an ageing actress who wants to retire from the stage and get married. Playing her mother was British acting institution Hermione Gingold, who had never hidden her disdain for Elizabeth during her adventure with Richard Burton, and fireworks were anticipated when these 'connoisseurs of gentlemen' met on the set. But Gingold surprised everyone by declaring Elizabeth to be 'absolutely adorable' and 'divine to work with'. Elizabeth sang 'Send in the Clowns' beautifully \u2013 better, in fact, than anyone other than Frank Sinatra, who took the song into the charts \u2013 and she also formed a close friendship with British actress Lesley-Anne Down.\n\nThe press, unable to report any catfights, made up for their disappointment by drawing attention to Elizabeth's appearance, especially her 'fuller' figure, highlighted in the film when her lover (Len Cariou) laments the fact that she is too attractive by crooning, 'If only she'd been faded . . . If only she'd been fat!' The Daily Mirror's film critic observed after the March 1978 premiere:\n\nWhat brought us all dangerously close to rolling in the aisles was the forlorn attempt to squeeze Elizabeth Taylor's quart-sized goodies into a pint-sized ensemble. Tortuously nipped in here, flowing out there, heaving out you know where \u2013 it only required heavy dark-blue eye-shadow to complete the impression of a superannuated Madame.\n\nIn Vienna, Elizabeth was joined by Maria Todd, now 19, and, unusually for once, although still claiming to despise his mother's opulent lifestyle, Michael Wilding Jr turned up with new girlfriend Joanna and their baby Naomi. It was whilst she was enjoying this little family reunion that she received tidings of Richard Burton's marriage to Suzy Hunt on 22 August 1976. The newlyweds added insult to injury by having the ceremony in Arlington in Virginia, the state where she had found the recent love of her life. Suzy might also have had one of Elizabeth's wedding speeches at the back of her mind when she told reporters, 'I've promised that I'll be with him all the time and do all the things a good wife should.' Her efforts would be in vain: Burton, like Elizabeth, had never listened to reason and was too far gone in his habits to change.\n\nElizabeth called Burton at once, ostensibly to congratulate him, though her sincerity must be doubted. Robert Stephens, her co-star in A Little Night Music (1977), had just walked off the picture, and Elizabeth wanted Burton to replace him \u2013 arguably her first step in wooing him away from his new wife and mindless of her own feelings for John Warner. Unable to cope with what she regarded as Burton's ultimate rejection (though they would stay in close contact until the end), Elizabeth summoned Warner to Vienna, and on 10 October their engagement was made official. From this point in their relationship, there is little doubt that while Elizabeth was using Warner (as she had Wynberg and Darmanin) as a stopgap in the hope that Burton would be hers once more, her celebrity status was arguably beneficial to his aspiring political career, though his affection appears to have been genuine.\n\nElizabeth and John Warner were married on 4 December 1976 at the top of a steep incline on his land, where he had proposed to her, and which they had named 'Engagement Hill'. Later, she told the story of how they had driven there in his jeep to watch the sunset and been caught in a storm, and the moment had been too magical for him to ignore. Elizabeth dressed for the occasion in what passed for the typical garb of the farmer's wife: cashmere dress and turban, suede boots, and a fur-trimmed coat, all in her favourite shades of lavender and grey. The simple ceremony was conducted by Reverend Neale Morgan \u2013 the couple's second choice after one of his colleagues refused to officiate for a woman who had been married six times already. Reverend Morgan read Psalm 23 for Warner and a passage from the Book of Ruth for Elizabeth. The guests included Warner's son, a few friends and farmhands \u2013 and most of the Hereford cows, who followed the party up the hill. For the seventh time, Elizabeth told reporters that she had never felt this much love before \u2013 and, yes, this one would last the course. There was also a prenuptial agreement \u2013 one which, the couple said, would protect their children's futures, because neither would have to pay the other a penny in the event of a divorce. They also made arrangements to be buried together \u2013 Elizabeth had clearly forgotten that she had already reserved a place for her mortal remains next to Richard Burton.\n\nBurton had wooed Elizabeth with paintings and jewels. John Warner gave her a corn silo emblazoned with 'John Loves Elizabeth', whilst she offered him a prize-winning bull and two cows. The honeymoon, extending over the Christmas period, was spent at Elizabeth's chalet in Gstaad \u2013 again, it was as if being in close proximity to Burton was obligatory. John Warner later claimed that he had never met any of Elizabeth's ex-husbands and that the only one worthy of her had been Mike Todd \u2013 no doubt because he was the only one who had never got around to divorcing her and was no longer around to broadcast what she had really been like to live with. He did meet Burton, however, during that festive season, and is on record as having said that he found him 'a fascinating individual'. Aware of Elizabeth's obsession with Burton, he was probably afraid of saying anything else.\n\nIn January 1977, John Warner embarked on his first political campaign, attempting to raise funds for the Republican Party and further his aims to become a senatorial nominee. When Elizabeth boarded his Greyhound bus \u2013 apparently the first time she had been on one \u2013 cynics suggested that having submitted herself to such a drop in standards, using what amounted to public transport, her marriage would have no chance of succeeding, because Warner would now expect her to slum it. She liked to believe this husband as dominant as some of his predecessors, telling People magazine, 'He can make me do anything he wants, except make me pregnant.' When it emerged that Warner had begun dictating to her how to conduct herself in public, it became pretty clear that their marriage was doomed. Asking Elizabeth to lay off the booze and not curse like a docker whilst on the campaign trail was one thing. Warner, however, not only forbade her to wear the famed Taylor-Burton jewels, he also ordered her not to dress in her favourite lavender, grey and purple \u2013 the latter, he declared, because this denoted royalty, which contravened the edicts of the Republican Party. For the time being, she complied, even selling the Taylor-Burton Diamond for $3 million, three times the original purchase price.\n\nThere was a brief return to the Hollywood spotlight that spring when Elizabeth appeared in CBS's An All-Star Tribute to Elizabeth Taylor. For one evening, she stopped being a farmer's wife, donned her baubles and permitted herself to be feted by peers and colleagues. The evening, attended by the likes of June Allyson, Margaret O'Brien, Janet Leigh and the Paul Newmans \u2013 genuine friends who cared about her \u2013 raised over $100,000, which she donated towards a hospital wing that would bear her name. During the summer, she was paid $300,000 for a cameo appearance in television movie Victory at Entebbe (1976), her second outing with Helmut Berger. She handed over her salary to one of her Jewish charities as a tribute to those involved with the Israeli commando raid on the Ugandan town, which had ended the airport siege of 1976. It subsequently emerged (courtesy of a statement leaked by Simcha Dinitz, the Israeli ambassador to the USA) that Elizabeth had offered to fly to Kampala and personally negotiate with dictator Idi Amin for the release of the 104 hostages \u2013 if necessary, offering herself in exchange for their release. And she would have done so had it not been for the intervention of the Israeli troops. An admirable stance indeed.\n\nThe first cracks in the Warners' marriage appeared in February 1978 at a pre-46th birthday party thrown by Elizabeth's couturier Halston at New York's infamous Studio 54, an establishment renowned for its 'anything goes' attitude towards exhibitionist sex and drugs. Elizabeth must have had a very good idea how the evening would turn out and might have deliberately wished to wind up her strait-laced husband by trying to bring him into contact with the 'real' world. A dozen well-endowed hunks, naked but for sequined posing-pouches, and some with joints dangling from the corners of their mouths, scattered gardenia petals in the couple's path as they entered the auditorium with its glitter ball. Several more wheeled in a 500-pound chocolate cake, shaped like Elizabeth's busty upper half. She hugged Andy Warhol \u2013 now forgiven for trying to tape her in Rome \u2013 then picked up a knife and began portioning out the cake. Warhol later observed in his Interview magazine, 'She blew out the candles, sliced off her right tit and gave it to Halston. The television cameras zoomed in as he ate it \u2013 then John Warner ran away.' The dancing and fun continued until the early hours, the atmosphere heavy with the stench of poppers and Elizabeth bebopping with a bevvy of gay porn stars, until Warner put his foot down and said that they were leaving. For him, the writing was by then clearly on the wall.\n\nOn 6 January 1978, John Warner announced that he would be running for the Virginia senatorial Republican candidacy. Needless to say, he had to be seen to be living an unblemished life. His main rivals were Linwood Holton, a former governor, Nathan Miller, the state senator, and, the favourite, Richard D. Obenshain, former state GOP chairman. At that stage, most Virginians regarded Warner as the least likely candidate to win the election. To pay for his campaign, he is alleged to have sold off 40 acres of farmland.\n\nDuring the balloting of 3 June 1978, most of Warner's rivals withdrew from the competition, including Linwood Holton, leaving Richard D. Obenshain in the clear lead, with Nathan Miller and Warner lagging behind. Two ballots later, Warner and Obenshain were the only two in the running. Then, after two more ballots, Warner's hopes were dashed when he lost to Obenshain at the Republican convention. Seemingly unperturbed, Elizabeth told a press gathering, 'I'm not worried. Something's bound to come up!'\n\nThough disappointed by her husband's defeat, Elizabeth took some consolation in returning to work, flying to Hollywood to appear in another television drama, this time as its star. In Return Engagement (1978), she played a college professor of ancient history who falls in love with a student (Joseph Bottoms). Interviewed by the Los Angeles Times, she spoke of her own curiosity value \u2013 for example, during the Warner campaign trail, one overweight, unidentified matron (doubtless of media invention) is supposed to have quipped, 'All my life I've wanted to look like Liz Taylor, and now I do!'\n\n'People are looking for wrinkles and pimples, and I don't disappoint them,' Elizabeth said. 'They want to see if my eyes are really violet, or bloodshot, or both. Then they can go home and say, \"I saw Liz Taylor. And you know what? She ain't so hot!\" And do you know what? They're right!' She was, of course, selling herself short: fat or thin, young or old, she never lost her looks.\n\nNo sooner had Elizabeth completed the film than Obenshain died in a plane crash, on 2 August 1978, remarkably similar to the one that had claimed Mike Todd. Within days of the tragedy, with the press repeating Elizabeth's chilling prediction 'Something's bound to come up!', Warner inherited the Republican candidacy, and the campaigning started all over again. The results, announced on 7 November, were close: Warner won by a majority of just 4,721 votes out of an estimated 1.25 million. But his victory was to be deferred for a recount, the results of which would not be announced until the end of the month. However, this never took place. A board of elections ruling stated that recounts had to be financed by the losing party, in this instance to the tune of $120,000. As the Democrat candidate could not afford this, his only option was to concede.\n\nWarner's election to the Capitol sounded the death-knell on his already shaky marriage. His senatorial work would keep him away from home for long periods, and when they were together, Elizabeth \u2013 largely responsible for his redoubtable success \u2013 was compelled to take a back seat and watch someone else enjoy the limelight for the first time in her life.\n\nIn March 1979, the 'farmer and his wife' were interviewed in their kitchen by Barbara Walters for her television chat show \u2013 a potentially uneasy occasion, because Warner and Walters had once been an item. The scenario was staged to make the most of the rural setting: Warner's hacking jacket was slung over the back of the chair, and Elizabeth wore an old-fashioned smock to make her look a little more homely. When Walters intimated that marrying a serial divorcee might prove detrimental to his career, Warner's reaction was, 'I suppose that if she'd had six or seven consecutive marriages of just two or three years apiece, that might have frightened me away.' He then stated that Elizabeth had been married to Richard Burton for sixteen years and not ten. Obviously, Warner had not done his homework \u2013 otherwise he would have realised that the marriage to Nicky Hilton had lasted all of eight months and that all the others had very quickly hit much-publicised snags.\n\nNeither did John Warner do Elizabeth any favours by publicly referring to her as 'My Little Heifer' and 'Chicken Fat' \u2013 following in the tradition of Montgomery Clift (Bessie Mae) and Mike Todd (My Jewish Broad), this simply was not funny, particularly as her passion for junk food had pushed her weight up to 180 pounds. The press were merciless: if Elizabeth's own husband could poke fun at her, then so could they. Before and after photographs appeared in newspapers and magazines. She was snapped looking obese but elegant during a soiree with Studio 54 owner Steve Rubell \u2013 this was the shot, reversed and with Rubell brushed out, that featured on the cover of Kenneth Anger's acclaimed Hollywood Babylon II (E.P. Dutton, 1984). Inside the book was a much less flattering 'study' of Elizabeth, caught unawares and literally stuffing her face, with the caption, 'Eat it, eat it, open your mouth and feed it.' Comedienne Joan Rivers famously quipped, 'Elizabeth Taylor has more chins than there are in the Chinese phone book!' On stage in Las Vegas, Debbie Reynolds offered dietary advice: 'Know what works for me, girls? I've stuck a photograph of Elizabeth Taylor on my refrigerator door!' Other comics joked that there was going to be a sequel to Around the World in Eighty Days \u2013 with Elizabeth playing the hot-air balloon.\n\nSuch remarks must have rankled, yet in her memoirs Elizabeth writes, 'Since I wasn't working as an actress, I felt there was no reason for me to look any particular way or weigh any particular amount.'\n\nThe Warners' political rallies were hugely successful, with record turnouts. Just as Eddie Fisher fans had latterly flocked to his shows to see her, so the voting public were more interested in the spectacle of Elizabeth Taylor than they were in her dour by comparison silver-haired consort. Over the coming months, she attended wives' groups, judged pie-making and baby contests, opened stores, fetes and charity drives, and was hospitalised several times for her efforts \u2013 following a fall from a horse, with recurrences of her old back problems, and with repetitive strain injury from shaking thousands of hands. More seriously, she very nearly choked to death on a chicken bone. Yet she claimed to have loved every minute, and there is no doubting the enormous impact she had in putting John Warner's name on the map. Even the somewhat stuffy Wall Street Journal observed, 'Mr Warner's rapid political rise is credited to the enormous publicity attracted by his famous wife \u2013 not only in Virginia, but also in the high society of neighbouring Washington.' She also asserted early in these campaigns that she was not going to be one of those politician's wives who sits back at rallies and lets her husband rant on, seemingly without opinions of her own. In February 1980, the Sunday Express covered the GOP's Tidewater Conference in Maryland. The topic was Warner's sexist opinion that only men should be allowed into the services if draft registration be reintroduced. The George and Martha-style bickering went as follows:\n\nELIZABETH: I'm a lady who likes to fight, and I think women should go into the trenches if they could.\n\nWARNER: Elizabeth, you don't have a vote on this issue . . .\n\nELIZABETH: You invited me here!\n\nWARNER: I'm sure that Abe Lincoln, the great emancipator, would see my view . . .\n\nELIZABETH: Abe Lincoln? How many years do you want to go back?\n\nWARNER: I'm proud to say that when I was secretary of the navy, I opened up more jobs for women than they'd ever had before . . .\n\nELIZABETH: 'Rosie the Riveter', you mean? Women have been in active control since year one. Look at Margaret Thatcher. Look at Cleopatra!\n\nShe might have added, 'Look at Elizabeth Taylor!' had not Warner signalled for her to shut up. When he did this, she turned on him and said, 'Don't you dare steady me with that all-dominating hand of yours!' to a massive roar of appreciation from the crowd. If the writing had not been on the wall for John Warner after the Studio 54 party, it certainly was now.\n\n# THIRTEEN\n\nIN THE FOOTSTEPS OF TALLULAH\n\nELIZABETH'S ALWAYS DELICATE CONSTITUTION SUFFERED a severe setback on 8 July 1979 when Michael Wilding died, aged 67, of a brain haemorrhage following a fall at his Chichester home. She flew with Liza Todd to England to join her sons, and the eulogy she delivered at Wilding's funeral was heartfelt and genuine. Unlike with Nicky Hilton and Eddie Fisher, there had been no animosity between them since their divorce, and they had always spoken of one another with great respect. Elizabeth was also upset to learn, after the post mortem, that Wilding had had an aneurism for many years \u2013 even whilst they had been married \u2013 which could have killed him at any time.\n\nShe coped with this loss as she did most of the catastrophes in her life \u2013 with an excess of pills and booze. Wilding's death, however, triggered off another addiction that by the spring of 1980 looked like spiralling out of control: comfort eating. She checked in at the Palm Air Spa, at Florida's Pampano Beach, and within a month had shed 28 pounds. Then she set about sifting through the scripts that had accumulated during her absence.\n\nOf all the films Elizabeth had made over the last three years, only A Little Night Music had attracted half-decent reviews, and as such she was naturally suspicious of taking the plunge again. It was Agatha Christie's The Mirror Crack'd (1980) that took her fancy the most, and she immediately signed the contract because she would be working once again with her great friend Rock Hudson, who had enjoyed tremendous success on the small screen since his career as a matinee idol had ended, most notably in McMillan. Now, he and Elizabeth (replacing Natalie Wood, at four times the salary Wood had been offered) headed a star-studded cast in this high-camp romp, filmed in England in May to June 1980, the action taking place close to the fictional village of St Mary Mead, home to the celebrated Miss Marple. Adding to the glittering roster were Tony Curtis, Edward Fox, Geraldine Chaplin and the scintillating Kim Novak.\n\nIt is a gem of a production, probably the best Elizabeth appeared in during her later career. It also provides another interesting actress-character juxtaposition, in this instance Elizabeth playing fading movie icon Marina Gregg, making her comeback after many years in the wilderness. The action takes place during June 1953, coronation month, when a group of Hollywood eccentrics take over an old mansion to shoot a movie about Mary, Queen of Scots \u2013 or 'Mary Queen of Sluts' as she is referred to \u2013 played by Novak, who Elizabeth could not stand. This only makes the banter between them more realistic and hilarious. Elizabeth is not just acting when she spits at her rival, 'In that wig, you could play Lassie. What are you supposed to be? A birthday cake? Too bad everybody's had a piece!' To which Mary responds, 'Chin up, darling\u2013 both of them!' Elizabeth also added one plum line herself, to 'punish' Rock Hudson for saying in an interview that Doris Day would always remain his favourite leading lady. Gazing at her reflection in the dressing-table mirror while he looks on, po-faced, she sighs, 'Bags, bags, go away. Come right back on Doris Day!'\n\nBecause of its glittering pantheon of stars, the Kent location of The Mirror Crack'd was a fiercely guarded secret \u2013 neither Rock nor Elizabeth were interested in speaking to reporters: he on account of the persistent gay slurs, she because of the rumour that her marriage was on the rocks. It was, and now that the big-screen acting bug had bitten again, Elizabeth realised what she had been missing since meeting Warner. In the July, she was at his side, feigning the role of dutiful wife at the Republican National Convention that nominated Ronald Reagan as the presidential candidate. Reagan had given up a successful acting career to enter the political arena, since which time his wife, former MGM contract player Nancy Davis, had done likewise to support him. Nancy, however, was not the world's biggest still-working movie star, and Elizabeth knew exactly where she belonged \u2013 and it was not in an environment far removed from the one she had spent 30 years monopolising.\n\nSince their second divorce, Elizabeth had been on good terms with Richard Burton. His marriage to Suzy Hunt had floundered, and he returned to what he had done before Elizabeth burst into his life \u2013 a Broadway revival of Camelot. Taking Burton's advice that she would make a fine stage actress, Elizabeth began searching for a suitable role. Eventually, she plumped for Regina Giddens in Lillian Hellman's The Little Foxes, on an unprecedented salary of $50,000 a week. The director (her second choice upon learning that Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? director Mike Nichols was committed to another project) was Austin Pendleton. Her co-stars included Maureen Stapleton, Anthony Zerbe and Joe Panazecki.\n\nThe last major production of The Little Foxes had been in 1939 when Tallulah Bankhead had, in her own words, 'taken Broadway by the balls' and made a lifelong enemy of Bette Davis, Bette having been contracted for the film version. Tallulah (who died six months after watching Elizabeth 'murder' Flora Goforth in Boom!) had described Regina as 'a rapacious, soulless, sadistic bitch who would have cut her own mother's throat'. Back in 1939, months before the outbreak of the Second World War, the play, a Communist masterpiece, had had very powerful political implications. Hellman's Deep South characters, spearheaded by the obnoxious Regina, were capitalists who achieved their ruthless aims by deceiving, cheating, exploiting black labour, lying and even resorting to murder in order to make huge profits in their cotton mill. Times had changed, and parts of the script had to be amended to suit Elizabeth's less forceful on-stage persona.\n\nLillian Hellman had been so impressed by Tallulah Bankhead's performances \u2013 408 in all \u2013 that she had forbidden anyone else to portray Regina on Broadway until that point, and given Elizabeth's generally bad reviews over the last few years it would appear that Hellman only favoured the Hollywood star because of the enormous revenue the hiked-up ticket prices would bring. To ensure that she raked in as much as possible from the production, Elizabeth formed her own theatre company with impresario Zev Bufman, who had recently triumphed in Washington with a revival of Brigadoon. The try-outs opened at the Florida Playhouse, Fort Lauderdale, on account of its proximity to the Spa, just in case Elizabeth needed to pop back there for treatment.\n\nThe premiere took place on 27 February 1981, Elizabeth's 49th birthday, and constituted her toughest challenge in years. Richard Burton had complained about her inability to project her voice during the early scenes of Cleopatra, so she was generally expected to die on her feet. Many people believed that she had accepted the play to court the necessary publicity in order to get another half-decent film role, and once she did, she would abandon Regina. Indeed, it was also thought that Bufman already had another 'Hollywood stalwart' waiting in the wings to take over. Others who had worked with her and experienced her 'indispositions' believed that her fickle health would not survive the course \u2013 even Bufman himself must have been worried that she would succumb to illness, because he took out a $125,000 insurance policy with Lloyds of London.\n\nThose who had not seen Elizabeth in a while and who were expecting a fat frump to come stomping onto the stage were in for a surprise. By cautious dieting, she had lost 40 pounds and looked as svelte as she had throughout most of Cleopatra. In fact, she was so good as the bitchy, conniving Regina \u2013 with scarcely a jewel in sight \u2013 that by the time The Little Foxes opened at Washington's Kennedy Center, all 47 performances had been sold out. The first-night audience was, courtesy of John Warner, a political showcase attended by President and Nancy Reagan, George Bush senior, the future president, and most of the senate.\n\nThe play transferred to New York's Martin Beck Theater on 7 May, where it would run until 6 September \u2013 123 performances, barring a break when Elizabeth was laid low with respiratory problems. It then moved to Los Angeles for two weeks, a sojourn that enabled her to spend a few afternoons taping five episodes of General Hospital, her favourite daytime soap. She played the wealthy wife of an eccentric scientist who eventually bequeaths her fortune to the hospital \u2013 and promptly donated her $20,000 fee to two Virginia clinics.\n\nIn Los Angeles, there should have been an opening-night party hosted by Rock Hudson, but this was not to be. Rock had secretly complained of feeling unwell whilst shooting The Mirror Crack'd and during the flight back to Los Angeles, but his doctor \u2013 the ubiquitous Rex Kennamer \u2013 had diagnosed nothing more serious than the flu. We now know that this was the onset of heart disease, though he continued to work, still enjoying tremendous success as one of television's leading lights. McMillan had run its course, but he had starred in The Martian Chronicles with Roddy McDowall and, more recently, in the father-son detective series The Devlin Connection with Jack Scalia. He was halfway through taping the second series of this when he was hospitalised on 30 October 1981 with severe chest pains. Two days later, he underwent triple-bypass surgery \u2013 the prognosis was not good. His first visitor at Cedars-Sinai Hospital was Elizabeth, who was sufficiently concerned to consider pulling out of The Little Foxes to spend more time with him. Rock persuaded her not to and, against all odds, pulled through. The incident was a turning point in Elizabeth's life \u2013 from then on she who had thrived on unrelenting selfishness would begin to put others first.\n\nRock's first public outing following his illness was early in the December, when he accompanied Elizabeth to their friend Natalie Wood's funeral. The star, aged 43, had mysteriously drowned off Catalina Island, though at the time \u2013 taking into account her lifelong morbid fear of water \u2013 there was much speculation over whether her death had been an accident or suicide, perhaps even murder. As such, the press were far less interested in Elizabeth, bloated and overweight once more, than they might ordinarily have been. With dignity and compassion, it would appear, Elizabeth allowed Natalie Wood her final moment of notoriety before announcing that she and John Warner had split. The statement was delivered to the press on 21 December 1981. 'There is sadness, but no bitterness,' it concluded. 'Neither party intends to seek a divorce.'\n\nThe move had been triggered largely by John Warner's hostile attitude towards Elizabeth's pets. Now that he had moved up in the world, Warner wanted to relocate to an apartment within his head office, Washington's Watergate building. This would mean selling the house in the city and possibly the farm Elizabeth had loved from day one. Worse still, the Watergate building did not allow dogs and cats. Faced with an ultimatum \u2013 her husband or her 'babies' \u2013 Elizabeth did not find the choice a hard one to make. She 'celebrated' her new-found freedom by treating herself to a new $2-million home \u2013 700 Nimes Road, Bel Air, the former residence of Frank Sinatra's wife, the Nancy of the 'laughing face' \u2013 and she shelled out $150,000 for a customised Aston Martin Lagonda to drive back and forth to engagements.\n\nOn 23 February 1982, leaving several teams of workmen in charge of the renovations, Elizabeth flew to London to prepare for the British production of The Little Foxes. Richard Burton was already in town for a charity performance of Under Milk Wood, and four days later he accompanied his ex-wife to her 50th birthday bash at Legends disco. The press were unkind. Burton, now said to be in the latter stages of liver disease, could scarcely stand; one publication compared him to a 'large blob of pastry'. Elizabeth had left the theatre in a hurry, still wearing her stage make-up, and looked ghastly. There were loud guffaws when Burton introduced her to reporters as 'the fruit of my loins' \u2013 and the next day's tabloids compared her with Hattie Jacques, the loveable but overweight Carry On star.\n\nElizabeth was brutally honest when discussing her drink and drugs problem with the press in the UK. The British tabloids, more famed for their lurid exclusives than their American counterparts (the long-defunct Confidential and its near successor the National Enquirer being exceptions), were robbed of speculation by her insistence on spilling the beans at every opportunity. Elizabeth readily confessed her inability to face the world \u2013 in other words, theatre audiences \u2013 without her two Percodan washed down with liquor. Then, she claimed, she would take two more four hours later to stay on top of things. One biographer, Donald Spoto, went to the trouble of calculating that between 1980 and 1985 she had been prescribed 'more than 1,000 prescriptions for 28 different hypnotics (sleeping pills), anxiolytics (tranquillisers) and narcotics (painkillers) by three Californian doctors who were later reprimanded by a medical board'.\n\nWhen the press questioned Elizabeth and Burton, individually, over rumours that they might be about to tie the knot for the third time, Burton claimed that he had taken her home after the party, 'cast out the homos and hangers-on' and had had his way with her \u2013 whilst Elizabeth's version of events was that he had been 'too drunk to make it to the bedroom'. Burton aside, she was romantically linked with Anthony Geary, the 30-something soap star she had met whilst guesting on General Hospital. It was he who escorted her on a nostalgic trip to Heathwood, the Hampstead house where she had been born. The kindly current owners allowed her to wander around the place \u2013 but refused to sell it to her, even when they were offered way over what would have been the asking price.\n\nThe Little Foxes opened on 11 March and was savaged by the critics. Elizabeth had gone to great pains to look good for the American production but had let herself go again since Rock's illness and the collapse of her marriage. The reviewer for the Daily Express thought she had made an entrance worthy of The Muppet Show's Miss Piggy, whilst Robert Cushman of The Observer called the production 'as grisly as an undertaker's picnic'. Much of what was said, of course, had less to do with what one had witnessed on the stage than whether one loved or loathed Elizabeth Taylor. Indeed, cynics suggested that it was possible to determine the sexuality of these journalists simply by the positive or negative tone of their comments. The Times's Irving Wardell offered a half-hearted compliment by observing, 'Miss Taylor looks in tip-top shape and has a strong line in reptilian Southern charm.' Nicholas de Jongh, writing for The Guardian, must have had at the back of his mind Tallulah Bankhead's infamously panned Broadway production of Antony and Cleopatra, which had been closed by John Mason Brown's cutting, 'Tallulah Bankhead barged down the Nile last night \u2013 and sank!' De Jongh's rewording of this was, 'Elizabeth Taylor sailed into London last night like some stately old galleon \u2013 almost submerging the play.' For once, adverse reviews were inconsequential: the largely gay audiences were not paying to be repelled by Regina Giddens's evil machinations; they were at the play expressly to see Elizabeth Taylor!\n\nEven so, Elizabeth believed she was good and confidently announced that her next theatrical project would be better than this one because she had persuaded Richard Burton to co-star with her. Returning to Los Angeles, she met up with Zev Bufman, and two possibilities were discussed: Tennessee Williams' Sweet Bird of Youth and a stage revival of Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?. Whilst mulling things over, she divorced John Warner in November 1982 \u2013 cynics have suggested that it took him another twenty-one years to remarry because of the ordeal of living with Elizabeth Taylor. Then, acting on a whim, Elizabeth announced that she and Burton would be appearing in Noel Coward's already outdated Private Lives.\n\nThere was also a new man in Elizabeth's life, arguably her most mismatched coupling since Max Lerner. Victor Gonzalez Luna was an unattractive, balding, paunchy 55-year-old Mexican lawyer who had handled Elizabeth and Burton's property transactions in Puerto Vallarta. Divorced, Luna had four daughters, whom, he said, were very excited at the prospect of having Elizabeth Taylor for a stepmother. Unfortunately, he apparently made the boast before discussing this with Elizabeth. Luna also had political aspirations and might rather have been hoping that being with her would offer him the same prestige as it had John Warner. Even so, she did not turn him down: with the proposal came a fabulous $250,000 diamond-and-ruby engagement ring.\n\nElizabeth next made an announcement of her own. Just as she and Richard Burton had attempted to end the Cold War by visiting Russia, so she and her latest fianc\u00e9 would be 'doing their bit' to end the bloody conflict in the Middle East. She had, she claimed, arranged a meeting with the heads of the opposing factions \u2013 Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin and Lebanon's President Amine Gemayel. Some people might have thought this an admirable idea \u2013 anything to end the suffering and fighting was worth a try \u2013 but the powers that be in Washington were horrified. The State Department issued a statement declaring their opposition to the project, condemning Elizabeth for interfering in a delicate political issue \u2013 whilst the world's press mocked her with such headlines as 'Cleopatra's Latest Peace Initiative' and for having more money than sense to be able to finance such a foolhardy mission. Even so, she refused to compromise, and she flew to Tel Aviv on 27 December 1982, accompanied by Victor Luna.\n\nThe trip turned out to be a farce: just another disappointing, self-centred headline-grabbing stunt. Elizabeth had agreed to meet hundreds of sick and injured children at the Tel Aviv Hilton; secretly, she was planning to adopt one. Typically, she arrived two hours late, dripping in diamonds and laden with gifts, tossing these into the crowd, according to one syndicated report, 'like she was feeding scraps to a pack of starving dogs'. The afternoon she had set aside for this event was reduced to just 15 minutes, whilst local journalists eagerly pointed out that she was more in her element on New Year's Eve, hobnobbing with the elite and wearing more jewels than most of them had ever seen at a political ball. What was actually said to her by the sponsors \u2013 or if she got around to meeting Prime Minister Begin and President Gemayel \u2013 is not known. Her adoption plans also failed when the father of her 'earmarked' baby, whose wife had died during the conflict, changed his mind and decided to raise the child himself. The visit ended prematurely, and on 6 January 1983 Elizabeth and Luna flew home.\n\nAt the end of the month, Elizabeth flew to Canada, where she filmed Between Friends (1983) for pay-for-view television. Her co-star was Carol Burnett. Elizabeth played a wealthy divorcee who spends much of her on-screen time drinking and engaging in 'dirty girl-talk' with man-hungry Burnett. It was a paltry effort, best summed up when the two actresses held a pre-shoot press conference. Elizabeth told the Los Angeles Times, 'She's the nympho \u2013 I'm the drunk!'\n\nThen it was straight into rehearsals for Private Lives. The plot of the play revolves around the absurdly snobbish lovers Amanda Prynne and Elyot, who like Elizabeth and Burton (and Elizabeth and all the other men in her life) have separated after an impossible-to-live-with-or-without affair and who meet up again years later after they have each found someone else. The original production with Noel Coward and Gertrude Lawrence had played in New York in 1931 and had been old hat then \u2013 it had eventually closed not because of falling ticket sales but because the actors had become bored with it. Tallulah Bankhead had revived it, touring extensively between 1948 and 1950, including 250 performances on Broadway. She had incurred Coward's waspish wrath by deliberately camping up every line, effectively improving the piece. One line, 'I believe in being as gay as possible, darling,' had sent her largely homosexual audience into paroxysms of laughter.\n\nIf Tallulah had purposely sent up Private Lives, Elizabeth and Burton only did so unintentionally when the play opened in Boston on 7 April 1983. The critics (some of whom still referred to the pair as the Burtons) loathed and lambasted it to the last man, not that this prevented every performance from selling out. The play transferred to New York's Lunt\u2013Fontanne Theater on 8 May, almost two years to the day since Elizabeth had opened on Broadway with The Little Foxes, by which time she was exhausted. The curtain rose half an hour late, and the interval lasted about an hour whilst she rested. Twelve performances would be aborted on account of Elizabeth's fatigue, aggravated by bronchitis. She was, of course, insanely jealous and watchful of her co-star, who by now had a new love in his life: Sally Hay, a 34-year-old production assistant he had met in London whilst filming a mini-series about Richard Wagner for the BBC. Burton took advantage of one of Elizabeth's indispositions on 3 July to whisk Sally off to Las Vegas, and when they returned to New York, it was as man and wife. Elizabeth expressed her 'delight' to the press, though from then on sharing the stage with Burton became increasingly traumatic. They still hit the town each night after the show, but now it was with separate entourages. Private Lives ground to a halt in Los Angeles on 6 November, by which time Elizabeth was on the verge of physical and mental breakdown.\n\nIn the December of that year, Elizabeth publicly announced that she was addicted to drink and drugs, and checked into the Betty Ford Clinic at Rancho Mirage. A fellow patient was her friend and former MGM co-star Peter Lawford, now terminally ill with liver and kidney disease \u2013 he died a few months later. Many people, even the ones who disliked her, applauded Elizabeth's courage for using words such as 'drunk' and 'junkie'. The harsh regime that accompanied her treatment \u2013 including 'menial' tasks such as cleaning her room, doing the laundry and taking out the garbage \u2013 did her much good, and she emerged from the clinic in the middle of January looking more like the Elizabeth Taylor of old, returning to her by now completely refurbished Bel Air home.\n\nMost people would have wished to put the whole unpleasant experience of rehabilitation behind them, but hoping that others might learn from her mistakes \u2013 and everything in her life had to be chronicled for posterity with the maximum drama \u2013 she insisted upon appearing on ABC's Good Morning America. Fighting back the tears, trembling a little and slightly slurring her speech on account of her nerves, she took a very deep breath and delivered her 'confession':\n\nI was a stumbling, stuttering, incoherent. I needed sleeping pills for 25 years. I'd learned to rely on them. I'm an addictive kind of person. It's a disease. I was terrified when I first went there \u2013 I'd never felt so alone in my entire life. There's been a lot of genuine pain in my life, and I learned to rely on drugs. I thought I could control it . . . but it's much more fun being lucid. You don't have to worry about forgetting what you've said!\n\nKenneth Anger viewed the situation differently in Hollywood Babylon II, published later that year with the aforementioned 'obesity shot' on its cover:\n\nLiz Taylor's latest health spa check was not so much to knock off some pounds \u2013 though after they laughed at her in Private Lives, the joke went 'like trying to squeeze ten pounds of shit in a five-pound bag' \u2013 but to try to get a handle on the rainbow coalition of pills she was dropping every night and day. Pillhead Liz, would you believe? And the health spa clinic made her sign up for S&M Psychodrama I, a wacko Hollyweird therapy involving floor scrubbing \u00e0 la Joan Crawford . . .\n\nRichard Burton had also spent some time in rehab. At just 58, his were the ravaged features of an old man, and he had been crippled with back pains for months. For once, he said, he had a wife who could take care of him, though the marriage to Sally proved short-lived. On 4 August 1984, Burton suffered a massive cerebral haemorrhage, brought about by his excesses, and he died in a Geneva hospital the next day.\n\nTo say that Elizabeth was heartbroken was an understatement. As had happened with Mike Todd \u2013 though Burton's death had by no means been unexpected \u2013 she went completely hysterical. Matters were made infinitely worse when she learned that his widow Sally would be burying him in the tiny churchyard at C\u00e9ligny. Until then, Elizabeth had never really regarded him as anyone else's husband but hers, and not being in charge of the funeral arrangements \u2013 and actually being requested to stay away for fear of turning a solemn occasion into a media event \u2013 only added to her grief, which some of her friends genuinely believed might send her over the edge.\n\nNo one had the right, of course, to exclude Elizabeth from her ex-husband's funeral, but she complied with Sally's wishes until 14 August, when she flew out to visit the grave. How the press found out about this, if they were not alerted to the fact by the sensation-seeking Elizabeth herself, remains a mystery. She and Liza Todd turned up at six in the morning, wearing heavy disguises, yet within minutes they were besieged by scores of photographers. The following week, she went to offer her condolences to Burton's family in Pontrhydyfen and stayed at his sister's terraced house. In all the years these ordinary folk had known her, they had never passed judgement, and they welcomed her with open arms. On 30 August, black-clad and genuinely grieving, she joined the Jenkins, Sally and hundreds of Burton's friends, colleagues and acquaintances in London for his memorial service at St Martin-in-the-Fields. Sally unfairly dismissed this as an intrusion into her private mourning. She was also miffed by the amount of press attention Elizabeth received \u2013 but this was only to be expected. It was her divine right! Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton had been the world's number-one show-business couple for more than a decade, and for another decade after that they had grabbed the headlines whenever they had met up simply because people had refused to believe they would ever really go their separate ways. It is an undisputed fact, and by no means disrespectful to the other love interests in his life, that whenever the subject of Richard Burton crops up, the first and frequently only woman mentioned is Elizabeth.\n\nBurton left the bulk of his $3.5-million estate to Sally (with one-tenth going to adopted daughter Maria), enabling her to enjoy a near royal lifestyle that continues to this day. Many observers believed she had earned this by nursing him through his final months, but others believed that had Burton lived a few more years Sally would not have ended up quite so wealthy, because he would have gone looking for someone else, as had always happened in the past. Indeed, one of Elizabeth's friends believes there would have been a third-time lucky marriage.\n\nNeither did Burton bequeath anything to Elizabeth or her other children, heeding Elizabeth's wishes. She had enough already, most importantly her memories, and they were already wealthy in their own right, mainly thanks the trust funds their mother had set up. The Wilding boys had settled down somewhat, now that they were in their 30s. Michael Jr, now an actor, had married Jack Palance's daughter Brooke, whilst Christopher was enjoying a successful career as a photographer. Liza Todd had married and was working as a sculptress, and Maria Burton was a clothes designer.\n\nIn 1988, Sally Burton would sell the property in C\u00e9ligny, which had meant so much to her husband, and move back to London. To date, she remains single. Unlike Elizabeth, however, she has contributed more to Richard Burton's memory than just standing on a podium, feeling sorry for herself and telling the world how wonderful he was. In recent years, having no use for them herself, she has dispensed with his vast library of books and donated the money to some of his favourite theatrical charities. And in August 2004, on the 20th anniversary of his death, as head of the Burton Trust, she announced that a theatre would be built in his name at the Royal Welsh College of Music and Drama in Cardiff. Even so, in just about every newspaper or magazine article commemorating the event, the accompanying photographs were of Elizabeth and Burton. 'Elizabeth, being so publicly in love with him for so long, will always be the keeper of his dreams,' Sally told the Mail on Sunday's Denai Brook, adding, unable to resist the dig, 'Perhaps I am the keeper of his reality, having restored him to reality.'\n\nExactly who broke off their relationship \u2013 Elizabeth or Victor Luna \u2013 is not clear. The press came to the conclusion that because she would never have Richard Burton again, in her grief she had convinced herself that she would never have anyone else, and Luna was, therefore, sent packing as a form of revenge for Burton having deserted her. In October 1984, Luna told the British Sunday People that he had ended their relationship, adding, 'She was completely out of control. I realised how deeply tied she was to this man, how vital a role he had played in her life, that I could never have that special place in her heart she keeps for Burton.'\n\nAs usual, a replacement was waiting in the wings \u2013 several, if the press were to be believed. Elizabeth only had to be seen with a friend \u2013 even a gay one like Roddy McDowall \u2013 and they were predicting wedding bells. Fifty-two-year-old Dennis Stein ran a faded-denims empire and had financial interests in numerous other companies, including Technicolor. Again, it was a high-speed romance: by November, Stein had presented her with a 20-carat sapphire engagement ring; by January 1985, it was all over. He had entered history as just another notch on the Elizabeth Taylor bedpost, and she was back on the shelf, about to face one of the most harrowing, tide-turning episodes of her life.\n\n# FOURTEEN\n\nGOODBYE ROCK...   \nHELLO LARRY\n\nTHE WORK TRICKLED IN SLOWLY BUT SURELY. THERE WAS a cameo appearance in the glitzy soap-style drama Hotel (1984) alongside Roddy McDowall, and she played Louella Parsons opposite Jane Alexander's Hedda Hopper in Gus Trikonis's TV movie Malice in Wonderland (1985). The casting might have been near perfect, but the scriptwriter made the unforgivable mistake of transforming Hollywood's resident harridan hacks into genteel, witty, respectable matrons when they had been anything but. Then, in March 1985, Elizabeth was paid $100,000 for a day's work, playing a brothel madam in an episode of the television mini-series North and South. It was at this time that she came to the rescue of Lesley-Anne Down.\n\nDown and Elizabeth had much in common. Born in Wandsworth, London, in 1954, Down had become a household name at the age of 18, playing the flighty Lady Georgina Worsley in television's Upstairs, Downstairs. Soon afterwards, she had been paid a staggering $5 million to become the face of Est\u00e9e Lauder, and Hollywood had beckoned. Though no great shakes as an actress, with her limited expressions and stilted delivery, there had been no shortage of work. Down's career had peaked in 1976, the year before she first met Elizabeth, when she had starred opposite Peter Sellers in The Pink Panther Strikes Again. In 1980, she had wed Argentinian director Enrique Gabriel. This had not worked out, and two years later she had married The Exorcist director William Friedkin, almost 20 years her senior.\n\nIn September 2004, speaking to Night & Day, Down revealed that she had begun taking cocaine and drinking heavily to cope with the (she alleged) mental cruelty inflicted upon her by her husband. She added that she had been saved on the set of North and South by Elizabeth and the show's cameraman Don FauntLeRoy, whom she subsequently married. First she had to cope with Friedkin's public attacks denouncing her. Elizabeth, who had championed other 'lost causes', such as James Dean, Montgomery Clift, Rock Hudson and Roddy McDowall, had never taken a young woman under her wing before. Perhaps she recognised a little of her younger rebel self in the 30-year-old British actress. 'She was the lone voice of friendship and reason,' Down told Night & Day, adding that Elizabeth had taken her, her mother, her young son and Don FauntLeRoy into her Bel Air home. Of her saviour, she further observed, 'Liz is this blousy, ballsy, wonderful woman who encouraged me to stand up to my bullying husband. She swears like a trooper and is just hysterical. She was a dear friend and remains so to this day.'\n\nAs a special treat to cheer her up, Elizabeth loaned Lesley-Anne Down her Krupp Diamond ring for the evening \u2013 which she very nearly lost when it slipped off her finger and fell into the toilet in a ladies' rest room. 'To this day,' Down said, 'I've never dared tell how I nearly flushed her most prized possession away!' It was Elizabeth who introduced the younger star to celebrity divorce lawyer Mervin Nicholson, and for another two years Elizabeth would stand by Down while Nicholson fought to clear her name \u2013 even though she herself was going through one of the toughest periods of her life.\n\nFor some time, Elizabeth had realised that all was far from well with another of her friends: Rock Hudson was seriously ill. Since Natalie Wood's death, he had made just one film, The Ambassador (1984), shot on location in Israel with Robert Mitchum. He had, however, made a big impression on the small screen, playing rancher Daniel Reece in Dynasty. Then, in June 1984, he had been diagnosed as suffering from AIDS, a secret he had kept from most of his intimate friends, even Elizabeth.\n\nShe had always known that Rock was gay but, like just about everyone else during the early days, knew little about the disease other than that it seemed to almost exclusively affect homosexual men. The scenes in Dynasty in which he had appeared had been filmed haphazardly. As a result, Rock's physical appearance varies to such an extent that he gives the impression that he is fading before our very eyes. Prior to shooting, he had received treatment at a Paris hospital experimenting in a drug that doctors there hoped might slow down the progression of the disease \u2013 though his official reason for being in France had been to visit Deauville for the film festival. So far as the press and Rock's peers were concerned, his gaunt appearance and drastic weight loss \u2013 from 223 to 180 pounds \u2013 was down to something he might have picked up in Israel, some kind of recurrent influenza, though many people speculated that he might have cancer or even anorexia.\n\nSo far as is known, Elizabeth learned of Rock's AIDS status in January 1985 when he escorted her and Liza Minnelli to the Golden Globe Awards. How she reacted to the news, so soon after losing Richard Burton, is not hard to ascertain. Being told that she must keep the fact under wraps and therefore be unable to seek help, solace and advice must also have been difficult. From then on, Rock was never out of her thoughts.\n\nOn 16 July 1984, Rock guested on Doris Day's Best Friends, his Pillow Talk co-star's first television show in years. The media made much of this, though once the programme had aired and pictures of Rock circulated around the world it was Rock's appearance and not the important reunion between one of Hollywood's top comedy duos of the 1960s that hit the headlines. Rock looked so frail in what would be his final celluloid appearance that many fans found it hard to watch what was supposed to be a comedy sketch without shedding tears.\n\nA few days after the show, Rock flew to Paris for more treatment \u2013 by now the press favoured the anorexia story. The diagnosis was revised when he collapsed in the VIP lounge at Orly Airport and was admitted to the American Hospital in Neuilly. A spokesman there announced that he was suffering from acute liver disease, with little chance of recovery. Then, on 25 July, it was officially announced that he had AIDS.\n\nRock was flown home to Los Angeles to die, and amongst his first visitors at the UCLA Medical Center were Elizabeth and Roddy McDowall. They, like his other friends, were counselled before being ushered into his room \u2013 it was essential that Rock should not see how shocked they were by his ghastly appearance or repeat what was being written about him in the press, arguably the worst vilification of a celebrity in show-business history. Elizabeth and McDowall helped Rock wade through 30,000 letters and cards from well wishers \u2013 the ordinary fans who far from judging and condemning him for his lifestyle just wished for the impossible: for him to be well again. There were dozens of telegrams from show-business pals and acquaintances \u2013 some of the gay ones preferring to remain anonymous in the wake of a renewed wave of homophobia.\n\nElizabeth put Rock in touch with the Shanti Foundation, a Los Angeles-based organisation that had set up a telephone helpline for AIDS sufferers who did not wish to be seen visiting their centre. Even this was lampooned by the tabloids, who dubbed it 'Hudson's Hotline of Death'. Elizabeth went to see him almost every day, despite the fact that he could keep nothing down much of the time and mindless of the overpowering stench of the sickroom.\n\nRock's indefatigable champion always managed to stay calm whilst she was with him, but press reports and photographs suggest that she went to pieces the moment she left. In a climate of extreme homophobia and ignorance, Elizabeth was literally putting her career on the line by having anything to do with a homosexual actor suffering from the so-called 'gay plague'. Many of Rock's actor friends wanted to see him but were terrified of being ostracised if they did. Nancy Reagan, America's First Lady, risked the wrath of her husband's administration by speaking to him on the phone, whereas President Reagan is acknowledged as never once publicly uttering the word 'AIDS' until after Hudson's death. Elizabeth, never less than a law unto herself, had no intention of changing now. She did not care what the press thought. She had stuck by one friend, Monty, through thick and thin, and would do so again with Rock.\n\nOn 19 September, Elizabeth and Shirley MacLaine, who had already raised a vast amount of money for AIDS charities, organised a benefits dinner for Rock in Los Angeles. Prior to sending out the invitations, they overconfidently (they thought) announced that they would achieve their $250,000 target, though some of Elizabeth's and Rock's gay friends \u2013 including Roddy McDowall \u2013 who gave generously insisted upon anonymity and did not show up on the evening, fearful of being outed by the press.\n\nRock Hudson died on the morning of 2 October 1985, just short of his 60th birthday. Within 30 minutes of the newsflash, the gates of the Castle \u2013 his sumptuous home on Beverly Crest Drive \u2013 were besieged by a media circus rivalling that witnessed at Mike Todd's funeral. Elizabeth was having none of it and sent a crack team of security men to deal with the situation. For months, she continued to refer to her friend in the present tense. She told reporters on the day of his death, 'I love him, and he is tragically gone. Please God that he has not died in vain.'\n\nWhat made Rock's death harder to bear, for Elizabeth and for most of us, was his horrendous treatment at the hands of the press. In England, more so than in the USA, the tabloids could not have been more inhuman and undignified. 'He was one of the gentlest, kindest men in Hollywood,' Marlene Dietrich told me. 'All those journalists should burn in hell for the bile they printed about him when he died. I've never liked Elizabeth Taylor, but I admired her tremendously for the way she stuck up for him, the way she risked her career by supporting him.'\n\nElizabeth and Tom Clarke \u2013 Rock's ex-lover and latterly his right-hand man \u2013 were unable to arrange the funeral. The Public Health Department insisted that Rock's remains be cremated within hours of his death, and he was taken through the gates of the Castle in a tiny van, with his feet sticking out of the rear doors, a purposely undignified exit stage-managed by the undertakers and the press, who were hoping to get a shot of the corpse. Elizabeth's security men prevented this, and she and Tom Clarke gave their friend the send-off he so richly deserved \u2013 a celebration of his life that took place at the Castle on 19 October. It was Elizabeth who determined that the most fitting service for a lapsed Catholic should be a Quaker one; having missed Montgomery Clift's funeral, this was her way of paying tribute to them both. Elizabeth, Carol Burnett and Tab Hunter read the eulogies. The next day, she helped scatter Rock's ashes at sea, off Catalina Island.\n\nThe shock of Rock Hudson's rapid deterioration and his press-maligned death had brought Elizabeth to her senses so far as her own health was concerned. For the time being at least, alcohol and pills looked like being a thing of the past. At 53, she had regained the figure that had wowed audiences and sent men wild with desire 30 years earlier. She also began dictating her memoirs, Elizabeth Takes Off (Guild Publishing, 1987) \u2013 though this barely skimmed the surface of her complex, busy life. Backed by a promotional campaign said to have been in excess of $10 million, she launched her own range of perfumes (Passion and White Diamonds, retailing at up to $100 per one-ounce bottle) and cosmetics.\n\nIn There Must Be a Pony (1986), which began shooting in May 1987, Elizabeth played a has-been movie star on the comeback trail. Marguerite Sidney, who is the antithesis of Marina Gregg, ends up in the loony bin rather than killing herself. Before this happens, there are several episodes that suggest a link between the actor and the character: the brutal husband, the broken engagements, the neurosis that frequently courts the major star. A touching scene occurs when former child-star Marguerite is reunited with her former co-star: Mickey Rooney, playing himself! Elizabeth's leading man in the television movie was Robert Wagner, who co-produced it for his own company. This being a James Kirkwood story, there was also a gay subplot involving Marguerite's son (Chad Lowe) and a decent mad scene for her to get her teeth into.\n\nThere was also a new man in Elizabeth's life: Memphis-born Lothario actor George Hamilton. Seven years her junior, and one of Hollywood's most eligible bachelors, Hamilton had scored a big hit playing an effete young man in his first film Home From the Hill (1959), but major success had evaded him until 20 years later with his Dracula send-up Love at First Bite (1979). Handsome but peculiar looking en profile on account of his thick lips, Hamilton was signed to appear with Elizabeth in a television movie called Poker Alice (1987).\n\nElizabeth's salary for the production was undisclosed, but the press made much of her contractual demands. These included $100,000 to be set aside for 'gifts for the leading lady' \u2013 one to be presented to her on each day of the four weeks of shooting. She squealed with juvenile delight each time the director Arthur Allan Seidelman 'surprised' her with some little trinket she had commissioned: diamond earrings, necklaces, a $10,000 travelling clock. However, as television movies go, this was one of her best. The fine supporting cast included M*A*S*H (1970) actor Tom Skerritt, as well as David Wayne, Susan Tyrrell and character-actor Richard Mulligan, better known as Bert from the television comedy series Soap. The movie also contains a first, an Elizabeth Taylor catfight with a love-rival whore, the likes of which had not been seen in a comedy Western since the one between Marlene Dietrich and Una Merkel in Destry Rides Again (1939).\n\nIn February 1987, Elizabeth celebrated her 55th birthday, which coincided with her strangest friendship of all \u2013 with 28-year-old introverted pop star Michael Jackson. Wacko and Liz would rarely, if ever, meet without the press having been previously alerted, the occasion invariably having been orchestrated because of some ulterior motive: for financial gain or to draw attention to some self-inflicted drama. Linked with Elizabeth, Jackson attempted to pass himself off as some mega-rich but normal star-struck 'Stage Door Johnny'. Elizabeth, similarly, considered herself 'hip' to be seen in the company of one of the world's wealthiest and most flamboyant entertainers, even going so far as to attend some of his concerts and \u2013 the mind boggles at the thought of the spectacle \u2013 accompanying him to the races. Secretly, of course, thousands of fans, and even some of her closest friends, believed that there must have been something radically wrong with her to want to be involved with such an eccentric oddity in the first place. 'That's the kind of person she was,' Marlene Dietrich told me afterwards. 'Anything for a free ride. Michael Jackson tried to get in with me around the same time \u2013 wanted to come here [to my Paris apartment] and coax me out of retirement. I told whoever it was who called that I don't do interviews with monkeys!'\n\nElizabeth and Michael Jackson were in many ways still children, never having really grown up, accustomed always to having their own way in adulthood because no one ever got round to telling them that they were wrong. Perhaps this was because of overt sycophancy and fear of being ousted from the court, the hangers-on always aware that another lackey was waiting in the wings to take their place. She was Velvet Brown, eternally searching for that elusive crock of gold at the rainbow's end, never satisfied until she had brought about the storm guaranteed to drive it a little further out of reach. He was Peter Pan, the little boy so wrapped up in his own fantasies that he was unable to distinguish between the real world and what we more rational people call cloud-cuckoo-land.\n\nElizabeth became a regular visitor to his usually off-limits Neverland Ranch in the Santa Ynez Valley, a hundred miles north-west of Los Angeles. Contained within its 2,750 acres was a full-sized amusement park with Ferris wheel and roller coaster, and a zoo containing an assortment of animals, including an elephant named Gypsy, a surprise gift from Elizabeth. Neverland provided the perfect lure for children of all ages and in the not-too-distant future the setting for alleged events that would furnish the world's tabloids with some of their most lurid headlines since the AIDS-related deaths of Rock Hudson and Freddie Mercury.\n\nIn 1993, Jackson said of Elizabeth (Elizabeth Taylor, Biography Channel), 'We had a similar childhood . . . we shared a quest in search of acceptance from an adoring public.' Elizabeth responded, much to her later embarrassment, 'Michael is like a son to me. He has a quality of innocence we would all like to attain.' Nothing could have been further from the truth. Elizabeth might have had a restricted childhood \u2013 indeed, like all Hollywood child stars, she had been subject to studio-related restrictions that were not just obligatory but the law \u2013 but she had always been loved, and she and never been physically abused, as Jackson claimed he had. Neither did Jackson fit into the 'disenchanted' category into which Elizabeth had slotted Jimmy, Monty, Rock and Richard \u2013 genuinely troubled souls who, it might be argued, had not been the sole causes of their woes and tribulations. Indeed, in the eyes of many people, Elizabeth had taken a tumble from her authority-of-the-human-condition pedestal by adding Jackson's name to this gilded quartet.\n\nElizabeth's first party masterminded by Michael Jackson did not take place at Neverland but at the home of the composer Burt Bacharach. Ageing screen legend Bette Davis was amongst the guests, and it was she who strode up to one of ubiquitous reporters to 'show off' her latest trinket: a glass copy of the Taylor-Burton Diamond that had been presented to every female invited. This was etched with the initials 'E.T.'. 'In honour of Mr Jackson,' Bette drawled. 'Extra-Terrestrial!'\n\nBy now, Elizabeth had ended her relationship with George Hamilton and was 'seeing' 67-year-old Malcolm Forbes, the billionaire publisher of the magazine that bore his name, founded by his father in 1917 as the only business magazine in the USA. Forbes was a divorced grandfather whose interests outside his work included sailing, hot-air ballooning, owning the world's largest collection of Faberg\u00e9 eggs \u2013 and the pursuit of 'chickens', or teenage boys who were paid for sexual favours.\n\nFor Elizabeth, besides being a valuable odd-bod friend, Malcolm Forbes was an invaluable society tool in the stamp of a Mike Todd or an Aristotle Onassis. She headed the 1,000-strong guest list for Forbes magazine's 70th anniversary party and managed to steal the show \u2013 and, she hoped, the host's heart. Had it emerged at the time that Forbes, a senior citizen, liked having sex with underage boys, he would have been ruined \u2013 and what better way, for him, of proving to the world that he was a 'red-blooded male' than to be seen on the arm of acknowledged man-eater Elizabeth Taylor?\n\nIn May 1987, accompanied by Forbes, Elizabeth flew to Paris to receive one of France's top accolades, the L\u00e9gion d'Honneur. When she learned that the late Duchess of Windsor's jewels were being auctioned and the proceeds being donated to the Pasteur Institute for research into a cure for AIDS, she bought the famous Prince of Wales's feathers piece for $450,000. She then flew to Rome, where she had been contracted to make Young Toscanini (1988) with Franco Zeffirelli.\n\nIn arguably her most ridiculous role to date, Elizabeth played the soprano Nadia Bulichoff. As high camp as anything she did in Suddenly, Last Summer and Boom! is the scene in which Bulichoff (whose singing voice was provided by Aprile Millo) is performing Aida in Rio de Janeiro in 1886 \u2013 a true event \u2013 when halfway through 'Ritorna Vincitor' she stops the orchestra and, surrounded by her Nubian servants, makes an impassioned plea for the abolition of slavery. The project was doomed when the backers withdrew their funding and there was no one else to step into the breach. The film was completed but received such a critical panning after its only screening at the Venice Film Festival that it was never put on general release.\n\nThe movie's failure coincided with Elizabeth's autobiography-of-sorts, Elizabeth Takes Off, a bestseller throughout the western world. She travelled just about everywhere to promote it, almost always with Malcolm Forbes, who grasped every opportunity to 'buy in' from the rent-boy population of whichever city they visited. Reporters everywhere raved about how well Elizabeth looked, but when she arrived back in Los Angeles in July 1988, she was on the verge of collapse \u2013 downing pills and back on the bottle. By the end of October, she was back at the Betty Ford Clinic, this time booked in for six weeks' treatment. Her condition was aggravated by her mother's failing health. Now 92, the woman responsible for sowing the seeds of neurasthenia within Elizabeth in the first place was a patient at the nearby Eisenhower Medical Center. Amongst other things, Sara was suffering from bleeding ulcers and was reported to be dangerously ill. Elizabeth was allowed out of rehab for three hours each afternoon \u2013 one hour to be spent with her mother, the other two for visits to her hairdresser, beautician and couturier so that the press, alerted by her aides, could snap her looking her best. Sara recovered, and on 10 December Elizabeth was also given a clean bill of health and discharged.\n\nBeing in love, Elizabeth declared, had helped her through her tough rehabilitation routine. Though discouraged from getting involved with other patients at the Betty Ford Clinic, she had been unable to keep her eyes off hard-case Larry Fortensky, a 36-year-old former truck driver, currently on three years probation after being convicted of drink-driving and possession of drugs. As usual with Elizabeth, it was love at first sight \u2013 the difference being that the copper-haired hunk was from the opposite side of the fence from her, culturally, politically and professionally. As the film critic Alexander Walker later observed, 'To some, the sight of Elizabeth and Larry Fortensky offering each other mutual sympathy and support recalled the set-up for her film Boom!, where Flora Goforth, the world's richest woman, welcomes a passing beach bum with the gifts of life and death into her world of affluence and illness.'\n\nFortensky's personal history was sufficiently complex to make him the perfect consort for the former queen of Hollywood. Born in California, he had dropped out of school and at the age of 18 had married and enlisted for Vietnam in the same week. Discharged from military service a matter of months later, he had returned home in time for the birth of his daughter, but the marriage had not survived. Fortensky had quickly remarried, and upon her divorce the second Mrs Fortensky had told the court that her husband had tried to strangle her during a drunken rage. Clearly, he was a good match for the bust-up-loving Elizabeth, who was advised by Malcolm Forbes to steer clear of him. In Forbes's opinion, Fortensky was vulgar, inarticulate and decidedly bad news, just about everything Elizabeth admired in a man. By the end of the year, he had moved in with her, swearing that being with her would not change him and that he would never give up his new job as a construction worker. As such, his attitude was likened to that of a lottery winner who insists that life will go on as before. Elizabeth dutifully packed his lunch box each morning and waved him off at the door \u2013 initially not appearing to mind if he stopped off after his shift for a few beers with his buddies. Larry was entitled to his freedom and a life of his own, she said, and in any case she was too busy with her career to worry about what he might be getting up to whilst they were apart.\n\nIn the spring of 1989, Elizabeth appeared opposite Mark Harmon in the television movie of Tennessee Williams' Sweet Bird of Youth \u2013 the play she had wanted to do with Richard Burton. Her role, playing Princess Alexandra de Lago, the fading screen icon who seeks comfort in drugs, alcohol and much younger men, seemed appropriate in her current position. 'I'm a great success at playing has-beens,' she later told the Daily Mail.\n\nIn the August, Elizabeth and Fortensky flew to Gstaad \u2013 his first overseas trip \u2013 and she travelled on to Tangiers to host Malcolm Forbes's 70th birthday party. Forbes had recently donated $1 million to the American Foundation for AIDS Research (AmFAR), one of her projects, and convinced Elizabeth that Fortensky would be surplus to requirements for the $2-million birthday extravaganza, on the pretext that another substantial donation would be forthcoming so long as his wishes were adhered to. Fortensky was, therefore, instructed to house-sit in Gstaad. Once again, it would appear, Elizabeth had found herself a caddy who did not mind being ordered around so long as the pickings were good. Then, on 24 February 1990, Malcolm Forbes suddenly died at his New Jersey estate, and Fortensky must have gleaned some satisfaction from reading some of the lurid expos\u00e9s in the tabloids concerning the extra-curricular activities of a man who had considered him something of an embarrassment and not good enough for Elizabeth.\n\nThat year there were also numerous hospitalisations \u2013 the most serious being an attack of viral pneumonia that laid Elizabeth low in the April and saw her back on the critical list. When she checked into the Daniel Freeman Hospital in Marina del Rey under the name Ruth Warner, some of the tabloids speculated that she might have done so to undergo tests for HIV, perhaps passed on by one of her bisexual friends. Indeed, when her condition deteriorated, forcing her to be transferred to the better-equipped St John's Hospital in Santa Monica, it was speculated that she might even have developed AIDS. Her costume designer Halston and her personal secretary Rother Hall had the disease. Lending credence to their suspicions was the fact that one of the doctors treating Elizabeth was Patricia Murray, a specialist in infectious diseases known to have treated several high-profile AIDS patients. Rather than ignore these hacks, Elizabeth played straight into their hands by telling a press conference, 'I feel that it is important that people are not afraid to be tested for AIDS. I have an annual physical and have been tested for the disease, and the results are negative.' Even so, at least one banner headline proclaimed 'Liz Taylor in AIDS Scare'.\n\nOn 26 July, Elizabeth and Larry Fortensky announced their engagement, she making cracks to the press that in remaining single for the past nine years she had been aiming for some sort of record. The wedding preparations were not all plain sailing, as the tabloids delved into the prospective groom's 'shady' background, claiming to be acting in Elizabeth's interests after hearing that Fortensky had signed a prenuptial agreement wherein he would be paid $1.25 million should the marriage fail. Few observers had any doubt that it would, considering the fate of his predecessors. Taking this into consideration, Fortensky was clearly onto a good thing. First, the press printed various exclusives from his two ex-wives, who had little to say about him that was positive. Then it was revealed that he had ignored his previous court order by walking out of the aforementioned rehabilitation programme soon after meeting Elizabeth. The obvious joke doing the rounds at that time was that the self-taught jewellery expert had found herself a rough diamond.\n\nNext, the press drew attention to Fortensky's family and the fact that several dubious characters would be rubbing shoulders with the Reagans and the cream of Hollywood society. Fortensky's (unnamed) best man was found to have had several convictions for robbery and drink-driving. Another relative had recently served a prison term for reckless conduct on the road. Other family members were deemed similarly suspect, and this resulted in a hasty trimming of the guest list.\n\nHow Larry Fortensky reacted to this media assassination is not on record. He was so besotted with Elizabeth, no doubt bedazzled by the opulence she had represented since before he had been born, that he might have perceived little if anything beyond the dollar signs, although there seems little doubt that he genuinely loved her. He also brought out her maternal instincts, dormant since the deaths of Montgomery Clift and Richard Burton, as was to be expected with the 20-year age gap. As Fortensky's Svengali, Elizabeth subjected the rough-and-ready hard-hat labourer to the ultimate Hollywood makeover, which, under differing circumstances, he might have found difficult to take: manicures, highlights, a designer-label wardrobe, teeth capping and the like. Fortensky was roped into the White Diamonds launch, a ten-city tour intended to test him out in the public arena. Naturally, he passed with flying colours as the crowds turned out in their thousands and roared their approval.\n\nThe couple were given a 'fairy tale' wedding on 6 October 1991 at Michael Jackson's Neverland Ranch. No expense was spared, with Jackson \u2013 who picked up the reported $1.5-million tab \u2013 ensuring that attention was focused on himself at all times, and not the bride and groom. The fiasco had begun several weeks earlier when the Cartier invitation cards had been sent out: 'Mr Michael Jackson requests the pleasure of your company at the marriage of his beloved friend', etc. The press at once latched onto the fact that this was an elaborate publicity stunt, with the singer alleged to have invested heavily in Elizabeth's White Diamonds perfume enterprise. By being seen to be publicly supporting her on this the happiest day of her life (for the eighth time), the press further inferred that Jackson was hoping that he would no longer be lampooned as a freak. Unfortunately, as the day progressed, the chances of that happening were greatly diminished.\n\nThe 160 guests included Franco Zeffirelli, Gregory Peck, Brooke Shields, Liza Minnelli, David Hockney, Bob Hope, Roddy McDowall, Eva Gabor, Rod McKuen, Frank Sinatra and Elizabeth's brother Howard, who is said to have been against the event. On Michael Jackson's orders, all were frisked by members of a 300-strong security force that included a detachment of Israeli commandos hired by Elizabeth. A number of cameras were confiscated \u2013 even from Sinatra and his mafioso bodyguard. Having read of the hoo-ha in the press, former Presidents Ford and Reagan, along with their wives, sent their apologies. Ninety-five-year-old Sara Taylor, now confined to a wheelchair, was guest of honour. The media were represented by all-powerful columnist Liz Smith, photographer Herb Ritts \u2013 and 15 not unexpected helicopters chartered by various television networks.\n\nElizabeth's final walk down the aisle might not have seemed out of place in a Carry On or Monty Python movie. The ceremony itself took place at 6.15 p.m. (45 minutes late) under a white gazebo festooned with gardenias and daisies, conducted by Marianne Williamson, a self-proclaimed high priestess whose voice, along with the piano and violin accompaniment, was completely drowned out by the din from the hovering helicopters. Whatever the press reported had been said, few had actually heard.\n\nElizabeth and Michael Jackson had previously issued separate statements proclaiming that the wedding was to be 'a quiet affair'. Obviously, it had been meticulously worked out to be anything but \u2013 hence the helicopters and a biplane from which a photographer parachuted, landing on the lawn just as Elizabeth was about to make her entrance. Had none of this been anticipated, there would have been no need for the helium balloons, which were sent up to dispel these 'unwelcome invaders', adding to the excitement and guaranteeing more column inches. Screaming profanities, Elizabeth entered the arena wearing an ankle-length yellow lace Valentino gown (an alleged freebie). She was escorted by Michael Wilding Jr but was given away by Jackson, clad in black, wearing silver space boots and garish make-up. Bubbles, his pet chimpanzee, toddled behind eating a bag of peanuts. Larry Fortensky, in a white tuxedo, is reported to have been bemused by it all. His last-minute best man was Elizabeth's hairdresser, Jos\u00e9 Eber, wearing his trademark straw hat, dyed black to match his suit.\n\nWithout trying too hard, Elizabeth had succeeded in making a fool of herself. Then all hell broke loose as she rushed towards the photographer, threatening him with a fate worse than death. The poor man was manhandled by several Israeli commandos, who would not have been required in the first place had the wedding really been planned as a clandestine affair.\n\nThe honeymoon was comprised of a series of trips at home and abroad to raise money for Elizabeth's AIDS charities and to promote her perfume. When asked to describe White Diamonds, she told the press, 'It's as white hot as the depths of a diamond with an endless brilliance. A profusion of living Amazon lily and Italian neroli, heightened by modern notes \u2013 Egyptian tuberose, living narcissus and a haunting blend of amber and precious woods.' Wow!\n\nOne of the AIDS events was presided over by Princess Margaret, who was virtually ignored as the press clamoured to interview and photograph the newlyweds. This time no promises had been made that the marriage would last forever \u2013 indeed, with Larry Fortensky having been offered a huge financial incentive in the event of Elizabeth divorcing him, cynics were saying that he might not have wanted it to work out.\n\n# FIFTEEN\n\nSAINT ELIZABETH\n\nON 27 FEBRUARY 1992, ELIZABETH CELEBRATED HER 60th birthday at Disneyland. The guest of honour should have been Michael Jackson, but he was said to be suffering from depression in the wake of a recent disastrous tour of South Africa, cut short because he had been lambasted by the press for holding his nose each time he had been introduced to someone important, suggesting they smelled. The National Enquirer further upset him by putting forward another reason for his strange behaviour: 'He was picking his nose because he was bothered by the effects of repeated plastic surgery.'\n\nAmongst the 650 guests instructed to wear identity badges were Tom Selleck, Shirley MacLaine and Dionne Warwick. All were presented with goodie bags containing an Elizabeth Taylor sweatshirt and a flacon of White Diamonds. Everyone made a fuss of her, but she persistently reminded them how much she was missing Michael Jackson. She told Liz Smith, 'Michael said to me, \"I can't bear to see anyone. They're all going to laugh at me and everyone is going to start asking questions. I just want to crawl into a hole and die!\" But I'm thinking about him all the time, and this birthday is for the child in me.' Of her new-found happiness with Larry Fortensky, People magazine reported her as saying, 'His main concern is that I'm a star, and he thinks he's a nonentity. But I'm not a star any more. For the first time in my life, I'm a housewife, and I'm enjoying it immensely.'\n\nThe 'housewife' later described her typical day: undergoing two hours of massage and beauty treatment each morning, arranging her daily mini-truckload delivery of flowers, conducting business meetings and fielding telephone calls, enjoying home-prepared meals (though not cooked by her), and spending whatever time was left in front of the television with Larry, watching her favourite sitcoms soaps. She subsequently found the time to appear in a quartet of these (High Society, The Nanny, Murphy Brown, Can't Hurry Love), her on-screen characters promoting her latest fragrance, Black Pearls.\n\nWhilst she had been in London the previous November, Elizabeth had heard rumours that the rock group Queen's front man Freddie Mercury was dying of AIDS. After a little investigating on her part, she discovered that the rumours were true. And so began a repetition of the poisonous tabloid journalism that had preceded Rock Hudson's death, except that in Freddie's case he survived for just one day following his press statement that he had the disease. So far as is known, Elizabeth never met the flamboyant singer, but she had heard much about him from Rock Hudson.\n\nIn 1980, Rock and Freddie had met in The Glory Holes (aka South of Market Club), the notorious Los Angeles gay establishment brought to the 'uneducated' world's attention in Armistead Maupin's Tales of the City novels. The Glory Holes (subsequently shut down by the Public Health Department) consisted of several bars and a number of plywood booths, each with several holes through which customers could insert their penises in anticipation of gratification from the other side. But if the recipient had no idea who was pleasuring him, the hundreds of men assembled on the balcony that overlooked the booths were able to observe and applaud every movement. Rock and Freddie had both been offered membership of The Glory Holes: both had declined.\n\nFor some reason speculating that she would be the only one capable of getting the safe-sex message across to a 72,000-strong audience of mostly under-30s, the promoters asked Elizabeth to participate in the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert for AIDS Awareness, which took place at Wembley Stadium on 20 April 1992. The line-up included the three surviving members of Queen, but most of the supporting acts were second-rate. 'Don't worry, I'm not going to sing,' Elizabeth joked, but truthfully she could have done better than most of those who appeared! Even Annie Lennox, David Bowie and Liza Minnelli put in execrable performances \u2013 only George Michael and Elton John were any good, the latter so moving Elizabeth that she later presented him with a silver-and-red-rhinestones AIDS brooch.\n\nA shock item on the bill had to be Guns N' Roses, a group that Freddie Mercury and anyone sensibly and genuinely connected with the gay community and AIDS awareness positively loathed. In 1988, one of their songs had contained the deeply unpleasant line 'immigrants and faggots spread disease', said to have been aimed at Freddie himself. The group were booed throughout their set, and some of their fans heckled Elizabeth whilst she was on stage. 'I'll get off in a minute,' she shouted back, earning a huge cheer from the crowd. 'I have something to say!'\n\nIn her five-minute speech, delivered entirely off the cuff, Elizabeth urged the world to practise safe sex and not share syringes. She concluded:\n\nWe are here to celebrate the life of Freddie Mercury, an extraordinary rock star who rushed across our cultural landscape like a comet shooting across the sky. We are also here to tell the whole world that he, like others we have lost to AIDS, died before his time. The bright light of his talent still exhilarates us, even now that his life has been cruelly extinguished. It needn't have happened \u2013 it shouldn't have happened. Please, let's not let it happen again . . . There's 70,000 people in this stadium. Look at yourselves. Look at how many you are. In two short weeks, there will be as many new infections as there are people here tonight. Please don't let it happen to you. You are the future of our world. You are the best and brightest. You are the shining light that will illuminate a better world tomorrow . . . Protect yourselves, love yourselves, respect yourselves, because until you do I won't give in, and I won't give up, because the world needs you to live! You see, we really love you. We really care!\n\nRock Hudson's death had only been the beginning. The Freddie Mercury tribute concert was another turning point in Elizabeth's life. Henceforth, she would be much less interested in loving one particular man than she would these thousands of unseen, maligned men \u2013 and women \u2013 around the world. She had become Saint Elizabeth.\n\nThere was drama on 6 May \u2013 the day Marlene Dietrich died \u2013 when a number of extremely cutting anti-Elizabeth notes were found pinned to Marlene's bedroom wall, including one which read, 'You have done enough harm to great men like Burton, Todd and Wilding. Why don't you swallow your fucking diamonds and shut up!' This was the politest thing Marlene had written about her \u2013 during a visit to her avenue Montaigne apartment, my wife Jeanne and I had roared with laughter over some of the others, particularly one which had read, 'Elizabeth Taylor has two cunts \u2013 one of them is called Richard Burton.'\n\nOn the same day, Elizabeth's adopted daughter, Maria Burton Carson, delivered a stillborn baby boy in New York. Only days before, Elizabeth \u2013 3,000 miles away in Los Angeles \u2013 had organised a $20,000 pre-natal shower for Maria at a New York hotel. Later, she would auction the baby's designer wardrobe for orphaned children. Maria, she claimed, had intended to name her son Richard, in honour of his late grandfather.\n\nEarly in 1993, Elizabeth was presented with the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award for her outstanding charity work. Then, on 11 March, in a ceremony hosted by Carol Burnett at the Beverly Hills Hilton, she became only the fourth woman to receive the American Film Institute's Lifetime Achievement Award \u2013 the others had been Lillian Gish, Barbara Stanwyck, Ingrid Bergman and Bette Davis. As Peggy Lee sang 'Fever', the 'who's who' in Hollywood were treated to a potpourri of newsreel clips: Elizabeth's various marriages, the scenes of hysteria that had greeted her appearances around the world, the fan proudly sporting the 'Liz's Weddings' T-shirt. Then Elizabeth, wearing black and less jewels than usual, made her way through the auditorium towards her table, smiling radiantly, shaking hands, but kissing only the by-now-ever-present Michael Jackson. Extracts were shown from her films, including a rare clip of her singing with Alfalfa in There's One Born Every Minute. James Dean and Montgomery Clift were greeted with warm applause. There were congratulatory speeches from Angela Lansbury, Dennis Hopper and her friend Roddy McDowall, who told her, 'It has been wonderful over the years watching you matriculate as a human being, as an actress and as a major contributor to the welfare of mankind.' And unlike some of its predecessors, Elizabeth's acceptance speech was unscripted and delivered from the heart:\n\nWhen I first heard about the award, I went into a state of shock. I guess it's a long time since I've thought of myself as an actress. I, along with the critics, have never taken myself very seriously \u2013 my craft, yes, but as an actress, no. But I wasn't all that bad, was I? You've made me realise how much I really do miss it. But my life is full and good. It has taken so many diverse twists and turns, and I have grown into what I do . . .\n\nAt this point, Elizabeth paused and gazed at the sea of celebrity faces \u2013 a good many of those present genuinely cared about what was coming next, but there were more than a few there who could not have cared less, in particular a minority of closeted stars (including one performer whom she had turned her back on in the wings) who often attempted to camouflage their homosexuality with homophobic comments:\n\nI am filled with pride \u2013 proud that I am part of this community, proud of you as a community, helping as many others, especially in the world of AIDS. We have come a long way in the last decade, and I know you are willing to go the whole mile and do whatever it takes.\n\nThanking everyone in the film industry who had helped her to get where she was today \u2013 though, truthfully, the only ones who deserved such recognition were her mother and her fans \u2013 she concluded:\n\nMy mind goes especially to four magnificent men, who, had they lived, might have stood here and received this award: Monty, Rock, Jimmy and, of course, Richard. Oh, I was so lucky to have known them, to have learned so much from them, to have loved them. Thank you all for making me feel so special tonight. It's a memory that I will have next to my heart for the rest of my life.\n\nIn July 1994, Elizabeth appeared on the big screen for the last time \u2013 as Fred Flintstone's unfortunately named mother-in-law, Pearl Slaghoople, in The Flintstones. She was only on screen for seven minutes but managed to make a big impression in a new Hollywood era when special effects all too frequently overshadowed acting requirements \u2013 in this instance, the prehistoric 'gadgets' that had monopolised the Hanna\u2013Barbera animated television series upon which the film was based.\n\nElizabeth plays the archetypal mother-in-law from hell. John Goodman later confessed that he had found it extremely difficult to walk up to Elizabeth Taylor and growl, 'What's that old fossil doing here?' And in a party scene, the harridan becomes Elizabeth Taylor, turning up in furs and Burton jewels, and leading everyone into the conga.\n\nThe Flintstones was all good, clean fun, and many people expected more such roles to come Elizabeth's way. Sadly, they did not, and once more she began focusing her energies on her personal problems, most of them self-inflicted. Her marriage was all but falling apart at the seams. This time around she had married a malleable, star-struck man who allowed himself to be pushed into the background, or so it seemed, for the privilege of being Elizabeth Taylor's husband. Because of their age difference, she became even more possessive than usual, terrified that he might leave her, particularly as she grew older and more infirm.\n\nAt the end of August, allegedly under tremendous pressure to do so, Larry Fortensky accompanied Elizabeth on a 'mercy dash' to Singapore to rescue Michael Jackson, reported to have been on the verge of mental breakdown in the wake of allegations of drug abuse and, more seriously, child molestation. The news of the lawsuit filed at the Los Angeles Superior Court had caught up with the singer whilst he had been performing in Russia. The New York Times ran the exclusive that a 13-year-old boy had accused him of sexual abuse and had taken out a civil action. The boy's family were now in the process of seeking a trial by jury and 'unspecified monetary damages' from Jackson, who, of course, was denying the charge. The newspaper further reported, on 15 September, that Jackson had also been previously investigated by the Los Angeles Police Department but that he had not yet been charged with any misdemeanour.\n\nJackson was virulently defended by his security consultant, Anthony Pelliciano, who contended that the alleged victim's father had tried to extort $20 million from the singer. 'The first demands were for money, and the latter demand is for money,' the New York Times reported Pelliciano as having said. 'The police are still conducting their investigation appropriately.' Elizabeth lashed out like an angry lioness protecting her injured cub, although she had absolutely no idea what might or might not have actually transpired behind the walls of Jackson's ultra-high-security Peter Pan's palace. 'This is the worst thing that could happen to a man like Michael, who loves children,' she told a reporter from Newsweek, adding that she would do everything within her power to help him and saying that she fully understood why Jackson had allegedly turned to narcotics, because she too had once been hooked on prescription drugs.\n\nJackson avoided criminal charges in this instance by settling the civil suit filed by the boy's father out of court for a reputed $15\u201320 million \u2013 enough in itself for many observers to assume that the accused must have had something to hide, otherwise he would have had no fear in seeing the matter through to its legal conclusion. And Elizabeth would go on supporting what, with equal cynicism, was often referred to as her latest pet project. Once his tour of the Far East was over, she persuaded Jackson to seek treatment and counselling at a London clinic. Later, she installed a private line at her home, similar to the helpline she had opened for AIDS victims in the wake of Rock Hudson's final illness, except that this one was connected to one person only \u2013 the increasingly fragile man\u2013child whose gratitude was expressed by the creation of an Elizabeth Taylor shrine: Jackson decorated the walls of his toy-filled bedroom with dozens of Andy Warhol prints of her and had the woodwork painted the exact shade of violet as her eyes. What Larry Fortensky had to say about this excessive fanaticism \u2013 if indeed he was permitted to express his opinions aloud without being cried down, particularly when Jackson claimed himself to be so happy now the charges had been dropped that he would ask Elizabeth to marry him should she divorce Fortensky one day \u2013 is not on record. One can only speculate wildly about what the press would have made of a Jackson-Taylor wedding should it ever have taken place! Jackson had already taken steps to look like Elizabeth, including plastic surgery, and the media would have afforded them absolutely no mercy.\n\nElizabeth and Fortensky spent Christmas 1993 in Gstaad, and there were several visits to Richard Burton's grave, which must have been unsettling for Fortensky, who appears to have been hanging on to his wife by the skin of his teeth. Whilst there, Elizabeth took a tumble on the ice, aggravating her old back and hip injuries. For three months, she suffered in silence, but in March 1994 she went into hospital for hip-replacement surgery. (This left her with one leg slightly shorter than the other, until a follow-up operation to replace the other hip.) Fortensky stood by her through a painful recuperation process, and she had barely recovered from this when Sara Taylor died at the Rancho Mirage complex, Palm Springs, on 11 September 1994, aged 98. Elizabeth had her interred next to Francis at the Westwood Memorial Park.\n\nBy then, Elizabeth and Larry Fortensky were said to be sleeping in separate rooms, and he was spending more and more time with his drinking pals. Sometimes, if Elizabeth was out of town, they would party all night long at her Bel Air home and leave the place looking a mess. The marriage, which many of her intimates declared should never have happened in the first place, took its first step towards ending in May 1995. Any number of reasons emerged about why Fortensky packed his bags and moved into the Beverly Hills Hotel: topping the list were his smoking (Elizabeth had stopped, taking her doctors' advice, the previous year), his mood-swings and his excluding her from the drinking parties with his friends.\n\nThere were also rumours, albeit unsubstantiated, of a new man in Elizabeth's life. Bernard Lafferty was the former butler of Lucky Strike tobacco heiress Doris Duke, who had died at Falcon's Lair (Rudolph Valentino's former mansion) in October 1993. Duke had named the cross-dressing, pony-tailed Irishman executor of her $1-billion estate, and this had caused concern amongst her relatives. Besides having a serious drink problem, Lafferty was semi-literate with learning difficulties and was therefore declared by them incapable of taking on such a huge responsibility. (Bernard and Doris, a biopic starring Ralph Fiennes and Susan Sarandon, was released in 2007. The producers had deliberated over whether to include Elizabeth's character whilst she was still alive, bearing in mind that she had taken legal action in the past to prevent herself being interpreted on the screen during her lifetime, and decided not to take the risk.)\n\nThe tabloids speculated about how Bernard Lafferty had managed to penetrate Elizabeth's near impenetrable inner circle. Was he, they wanted to know, hoping to fleece her the way Doris Duke's family believed he had wormed his way into their relative's affections? Was Lafferty amorously interested in her, despite his homosexuality, and sufficiently so to wish to oust Larry Fortensky? Did he wish to run Elizabeth's financial affairs the way he had his late employer's? Elizabeth had almost certainly extended the hand of friendship because Lafferty had used his privileged position to persuade Doris Duke to donate $1 million to Elizabeth's AIDS foundation, with the promise of more to come \u2013 and it is likely that Elizabeth had genuinely grown to like him and wanted him around. We shall probably never know for sure.\n\nOne suspects that the real reason for the failure of Elizabeth's eighth marriage was boredom on Fortensky's part \u2013 here was a young man in the prime of life compelled to stay home most of the time, and Elizabeth's near manic demands never to be left alone, along with her failing health, had worn the both of them down. Fortensky emerged form the situation laughing all the way to the bank. His lawyers advised him to reject the $1.25-million settlement detailed in his prenuptial agreement, saying that a kiss-and-tell account of his relationship with Elizabeth Taylor would bring in many more times this amount \u2013 that is, if he planned to do the dirty on her. Though there is no evidence of this, Elizabeth must not have discounted the possibility and was taking no chances. If the press reports are to be believed, the final pay-off to ensure Fortensky's silence was impressive, consisting of the original payment of $1.25 million plus an additional $2 million in stocks and shares, a $2-million beach house, $250,000 for 'immediate expenses', and an alimony-type payment of $600,000 a year for ten years \u2013 and two Harley-Davidsons that had taken his fancy!\n\nWith Larry Fortensky out of the picture, and with no more serious relationships, Elizabeth gradually sank deeper and deeper into reclusion, although each time she emerged from her self-inflicted cocoon it was with great panache, and she always provided a feast for the pre-informed media. In May 1996, she attended an AIDS benefit at the Cannes Film Festival, sponsored by Cher \u2013 another massive gay icon \u2013 who was forced to take a back seat as Elizabeth stole the show. Later in the week, Elizabeth caused controversy by walking out halfway through a gala premiere of an adaptation of Jane Austen's Emma (1996), declaring it to be boring! The following year, she was diagnosed with a brain tumour 'the size of a golf ball', submitted to her most serous operation so far and insisted upon being photographed with a bald head to minimise the stigma of cancer. Her doctors advised her of the dangers of dying her hair when this grew back; for several years, she was a silver-blonde but no less beautiful than before, even in old age. Her slow recovery was aided by her friendship with Rod Steiger; the pair were seen in public but denied any romance.\n\nIn 1996, Elizabeth patched up her quarrel with Sybil Burton, whom she had not seen since they had crossed swords whilst shooting Cleopatra. The two met again at the bedside of Roddy McDowall, their mutual friend, now dying of cancer. It is said that Richard Burton's name was never mentioned, though he was foremost in her thoughts on 16 May 2000 when Elizabeth flew to London to be made a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire. Elizabeth was photographed outside Buckingham Palace with Julie Andrews, there to receive the same honour. The two sat next to each other in the ballroom whilst the band of the Grenadier Guards played a selection from Mary Poppins (1964) \u2013 which Elizabeth confessed she had never seen! Then, looking slightly dumpy but every inch the star in pale-blue slacks, a matching patterned lavender surcoat and just a few jewels, she told the queen, whilst receiving her medal, 'I wish Richard could have been here with me today, ma'am!'\n\nThe honour was commemorated by the BBC's celebration of her life England's Other Elizabeth, for which she agreed to tell her own story and bare her soul in front of the cameras. There were, however, certain conditions. During the 60-minute documentary, narrated by Nigel Hawthorne, she would speak only of the men in her life whom she could recall with genuine fondness: Mike Todd, Richard Burton, Monty, Jimmy and Rock. Similarly, only those who truly respected her were asked to participate: Shirley MacLaine, Angela Lansbury, Rod Steiger and her AmFAR co-founder, Dr Mathilde Krim. These friends applauded her emotional intelligence, keen survival instincts, bravery in the face of adversity \u2013 and unswerving loyalty to those close to her, particularly those amongst the gay community. Slightly tremulous and still a little on the plump side, Elizabeth nevertheless looked fabulous!\n\nOf her first roles as a child star, Elizabeth said, 'I had a great imagination, and I just slid into it. It was like a piece of cake!' Of Monty, she said, 'There was such energy to the man \u2013 what was coming out of his eyes, his body. It was, I suppose, like sitting next to an electric chair.' Recalling Monty's accident, even five decades on, still traumatised her. She recalled intimate moments with Jimmy Dean when he confided in her things that she said would stay locked in her heart for ever: 'Wouldn't you love to know?' She wept whilst reliving Mike Todd's death, cursed the studio for making her return to Butterfield 8 and dismissed the film as 'a piece of shit'. Of Richard Burton, she claimed that he taught her how to be a better actress \u2013 but the other husbands did not get a mention.\n\nElizabeth closed her interview by sounding her own trumpet (and rightly so) about her work for AIDS victims, how she visited hospices anonymously and how, up to that point, she had helped raise over $180 million for her cause. 'You can put your arms around them,' she insisted, begging for tolerance, understanding and help. 'You can kiss their face, you can ruffle their hair. You're not gonna get it \u2013 you're not gonna die. It doesn't cost you one nickel to be of use!' The documentary then ends with a 1981 out-take from General Hospital, in which Elizabeth fluffs her lines. 'I'm sorry, folks,' she quips, 'I'm not used to acting!'\n\nThe biggest feud of Elizabeth's career \u2013 a feud of over 40 years standing, brought about by her stealing Eddie Fisher from Debbie Reynolds \u2013 was 'put to rights' in 2001 when Debbie's and Fisher's actress daughter Carrie came up with the script for These Old Broads and co-produced the television movie. Portraying the cast members of Boy Crazy, a 1960s feel-good film that is enjoying a tremendous box-office revival, were Debbie, Shirley MacLaine and (replacing Julie Andrews) Joan Collins. And Fisher pulled a scoop by casting Elizabeth as their hard-as-nails Jewish manager!\n\nIn fact, it is not entirely clear that Elizabeth and Debbie actually met during filming: in their scenes together, when one is facing the camera, we see only the other's back \u2013 rather like Marlene Dietrich's scenes in her final film Just a Gigolo (1978) when she met none of her co-stars. On the other hand, Elizabeth's obvious condoning of the Taylor-Fisher scandal being used as the butt of the film's funniest jokes, considering the gravity of the situation at the time, suggests that she can only have agreed to bury the hatchet. Similarly, episodes in Joan Collins and Shirley MacLaine's lives that they might have wanted obliterating from history are mercilessly resurrected by Carrie Fisher and her scriptwriting partner Elaine Pope, with hilarious effect. Virtually every scene contains an actress\u2013character juxtaposition that is far from flattering.\n\nThe man responsible for getting the Boy Crazy gang back together again 40 years later is Wesley (Jonathan Silverman), the adopted son of Kate (MacLaine), who has not spoken to him in years. And to make Wesley's job that much more difficult, the three women hate each other for running off with each others' partners. Art mostly reflects real life as Kate tours flea-pit theatres, whilst Piper (Reynolds) sits on a golden throne in her Vegas casino, surrounded by cardboard cut-outs of herself in Singin' in the Rain. Reynolds parodies herself even further by confessing that she had to fight her way back to the top after being swindled by her manager. Her second husband, Harry Karl, gambled away $8 million of her fortune prior to their 1973 divorce.\n\nThe final member of the trio is Addie (Collins), the ex-sitcom star who has been living as a recluse for ten years since the incarceration of her mobster lover. 'I would rather get a barium enema on live TV than work with that tramp again,' Kate says of Addie, and when Wesley fails to reunite the trio, he turns to their former mentor, Beryl (Taylor), whose CV reads, 'Stays in bed all day, eating and talking on the phone, smoking pot and watching documentaries about dead people.' Surrounded by Andy Warhol portraits of herself, Elizabeth also wears the Krupp Diamond.\n\nThe first composite scene between Beryl and Piper dredges up the Taylor-Fisher-Reynolds scandal. It is revealed that Beryl, feeling low after having her tonsils out, stole Piper's husband during a week-long bender:\n\nBERYL: It all happened so long ago, when we were so young.\n\nPIPER: Just drop it, OK? I forgave you years ago, so let's move on. Besides, everyone knows you're a very sick woman, a card-carrying nymphomaniac . . .\n\nBERYL: Nympho! Hah, you think any woman who had a normal, healthy sex life was a nym-pho-maniac?\n\nPIPER: I enjoy sex. But you, if a man was on fire, you'd stamp him out and screw him!\n\nBERYL: Piper, I did you a favour by taking away Freddie . . .\n\nPIPER: A favour is doing something for someone that they're unable to do for themselves. I was perfectly capable of losing Freddie all on my own!\n\nBeryl manages to get the three co-stars back together for a one-off TV special, and the bitching resumes: 'One more facelift and she'll blow her nose through her forehead'; 'Excuse me, Mrs Munster'; and 'Look, it's Queen Elizabeth and her mother, Ethel.' The scriptwriters even get away with referring to Joan Collins as the 'British Open'. Mike Todd and Eddie Fisher are combined in the character Tony the Meatpacker (so named for obvious reasons): he escapes from prison and gives Addie 'multiples' before expiring during Tantric sex \u2013 suffering from post-mortem priapism as the girls smuggle his body from her room, with Piper crooning 'Arrivederci, Tony', a direct reference to Fisher's closing number during the time of the scandal! When rebuking Piper, Addie also borrows a line from Fisher's autobiography, telling Piper, 'You're so frigid, you've never had an orgasm,' before adding a line of her own: 'Pretending to be that little goody two-shoes when you were just as big a whore as we were!' The ensuing fight see the girls walking off the production, prompting Beryl to turn into Elizabeth Taylor as a means of getting her own way \u2013 faking an illness (a coronary) to get them back together again.\n\nThis was Elizabeth's final celluloid appearance, and how lovely she looks, smiling radiantly, swathed in lavender furs, her violet eyes and diamonds sparkling as she coerces the audience into giving her girls a standing ovation by drawling, 'Get off your asses for these old broads!' There could have been no finer swansong for the queen of Hollywood!\n\n# SIXTEEN\n\nTHE FADING STAR\n\nAFTER THESE OLD BROADS, ELIZABETH RARELY EMERGED from her self-enforced solitude other than for the odd lawsuit or the all-too-frequent hospitalisations. Towards the end, there were the occasional sorties with friends and appearances at AIDS benefits, almost always to hammer home the same point: that she was still a force to be reckoned with when it came to personal or political issues, and to refute media claims that she was dying when, sadly, she slowly was.\n\nElizabeth's team always tried to ensure that her entrances were fanfared and spectacular. This did not happen, however, when, decked out in $5 million worth of diamonds, she 'dropped in' on one of Britain's most famous dysfunctional families, the Osbournes, when they held an AIDS fundraiser at their Los Angeles mansion. Because she was confined to a wheelchair, she had to enter the house via the cluttered garage, but she still managed to shine.\n\nDespite her traumas, Elizabeth retained her glamour, courage and ever-present smile until the very end. The term 'mutton dressed as lamb', commonly applied to some of her Botox-enhanced colleagues from the same generation, was never once applied to her. In February 2005, despite ill-health, she attended the Oscars ceremony. By then, walking unaided was extremely difficult, yet she insisted on getting out of her wheelchair and shuffling unassisted \u2013 and still managed to look stunning in a silver, rhinestone-studded outfit, whilst many of the modern-day actresses clustered around her looked like they had been kitted out courtesy of the local nickel-and-dime store. 'I want to make sure that people know I'm still alive,' she told reporters.\n\nElizabeth's final round in the fight to prove herself a force to be reckoned with and a prima donna par excellence began on 19 March 2003 when, speaking at an AIDS benefit in Los Angeles, she laid into President Bush for demanding that Saddam Hussein flee his country on the eve of the Iraqi war. 'I can't imagine the thought of us going into World War III,' she said. 'I think it's so stupid! How can we expect this man who is a dictator and probably the most vain man in the world to leave his palace and his country in 24 hours? If that proposal was given to President Bush, can you see him packing his bags?'\n\nThere were more fireworks on 21 May, when Elizabeth was guest of honour at a special screening of Giant at the Cannes Film Festival. She arrived at the venue in a foul mood, turned her back on the sea of photographers and screamed, 'You want pictures, then you show me the money!' The instant Rock Hudson's face appeared on screen, she burst into tears and insisted on leaving, though this time she did not yell at the press, explaining that recalling Rock, and the terrible manner of his death, always got her overwrought \u2013 and that the demand for cash had been to augment her AIDS charity.\n\nTowards the end of the following year, this indomitable war-ravaged old battleship once more sailed to the rescue of Michael Jackson, who was facing charges of child molestation for a second time. On 20 November 2004, the press reported that Jackson had handed himself in to the Santa Barbara police following the serving of an arrest warrant alleging that he had 'committed lewd and lascivious acts' with a child under the age of 16. Released on a $3-million bail bond, Jackson had gone into seclusion 'somewhere in the Las Vegas area' and immediately began defending himself on the mjnews.us Internet site. 'The charges recently directed at me are terribly serious,' he opined at the start of a five-page statement prepared by his public relations officer. 'They are, however, predicated on a big lie. This will be shown in court, and we will put this horrible thing behind us.'\n\nThe 'we' referred to Michael Jackson, his family and those fans who were so in awe of him that in their blinkered eyes it was inconceivable that he could be anything but innocent. And Elizabeth herself was still sufficiently star-struck to count herself amongst them. Since his earlier accusation of child abuse, Jackson had endured two lampooned marriages, including one to Elvis Presley's daughter, Lisa Marie \u2013 which Elvis's fans did not doubt would have had the King spinning in his grave. There had also been a much-publicised and criticised episode that had seen Jackson attacked by parent groups when the singer had been filmed dangling his baby precariously over a balcony. So far as Jackson's detractors were concerned \u2013 and these by far outweighed the fans \u2013 nothing was inconceivable until the courts proved otherwise.\n\nThis time the matter was taken to the US Supreme Court, with the very real possibility that Jackson would face a long jail sentence if found guilty \u2013 with his fragile constitution, that was an ordeal many people believed he would not survive. 'He is absolutely innocent,' Elizabeth's 2 November press statement read, adding of the media, 'Their whole attitude is that he is guilty. I thought the law was \"innocent until proven guilty\"? I know he's innocent, and I hope they all eat crow!' What everyone wanted to know, as they had the last time Jackson had been accused, was how Elizabeth could be so sure when she had not been there when the alleged offences had taken place? Once again, she was setting herself up for public ridicule.\n\nThere was also considerable speculation as to whether Elizabeth would be summoned to court as a character witness\u2013 it was only when Jackson's office declared that she would be subpoenaed if she failed to put in a good word for her friend that the media began doubting the authenticity of their friendship. Equally, there were conflicting reports over how she might react should the jury reach a guilty verdict. Had this happened, she would never have got away with remaining Jackson's ally \u2013 that is if they were still friends and Elizabeth's defensive outburst was not just another of her publicity stunts to attract attention to her fading star.\n\nIn any event, Elizabeth's presence was not required to augment the media circus. Following an unusually lengthy and fraught deliberation process, to which some believed the adage 'no smoke without fire' applied, the man universally referred to as 'Wacko Jacko' was acquitted of all charges.\n\n'Holocaust Heirs Sue Star Liz for \u00a310 Million Van Gogh Looted by Nazis' screamed the headline in the Daily Express on 15 October 2004, suggesting that at some time Elizabeth had been engaged in nefarious activities. Five months after Elizabeth had submitted a claim to a Los Angeles court stating ownership of the 1889 masterpiece, the descendants of one of its previous owners, the late Margarete Mauthner, were claiming that it had been stolen by the Nazis in 1939 and that under the rules of the 1998 Holocaust Victims Redress Act it should be returned to her heirs or auctioned off and the proceeds handed over.\n\nMauthner's great-grandson, Canadian lawyer Andrew Orkin, declared in his press statement, 'We are asserting that Ms Taylor was negligent and careless when she bought the painting. Our complaint charges that she ignored numerous conspicuous \"red flags\" in 1963 that it had likely been confiscated from a victim of Nazi persecution.' In fact, Elizabeth's father had purchased View of the Asylum and Chapel at Saint-Remy on her behalf, for an estimated $255,000, from Sotheby's of London.\n\nThe case dragged on for months, with Elizabeth's representatives counterclaiming that Mrs Mauthner, a German Jew, had sold the masterpiece in 1933, six years before fleeing to South Africa when the Nazis had seized her property. As there seemed to be no proof of this, or that Francis Taylor (who had amassed a fortune out of buying such works at rip-off prices from their owners, but never from the Nazis) had been aware of the painting's history, the judge dismissed the lawsuit on 2 February 2005, and Elizabeth got to keep her Van Gogh.\n\nElizabeth is said to have been 'utterly devastated'\u2013 she never did emotions by halves \u2013 by two interviews given by Sally Burton (one to the Mail on Sunday's Danae Brook, the other to the National Enquirer) in August 2004 to mark the 20th anniversary of Richard Burton's death. The widow claimed in both interviews that Elizabeth's overwhelming presence had driven her to the brink of suicide, resulting in her being made an inpatient for six weeks on an intensive drugs programme. Her downward spiral had begun, she claimed, when Elizabeth had turned up at Burton's graveside only days after his funeral, thereby intruding upon her mourning. Elizabeth must have been delighted by the British paper's decision to complement the feature with over half a page of Taylor-Burton photographs and just a tiny picture of Sally.\n\n'Elizabeth has her fantasies, and that's fine,' Sally told the National Enquirer, 'but I thought, \"My God! All I'm ever going to be is one line on the end of the great Burton\u2013Taylor romance!\"' This of course echoed the sentiments of the whole world that, despite their two divorces, Elizabeth Taylor \u2013 and only Elizabeth Taylor \u2013 had been the love of Richard Burton's life.\n\nIn the spring of 2005, Elizabeth co-founded the House of Taylor Jewellery with Jack and Monty Abramov of Mirabelle Luxury Concepts, Los Angeles. The company, it was announced, would supply traditional jewellery at affordable prices, along with 'commissioned couture' pieces costing in excess of $1 million. The press announcement read:\n\nElizabeth Taylor is synonymous with beauty, humanity, talent and exquisite jewellery. It is an unbelievable honour to partner the most iconic woman of our time and to build our entire company around her exquisite taste. To collaborate with her and design for her is one of the greatest dreams of any designer.\n\nElizabeth's passion for jewellery and her mania for one-upmanship even extended as far as her wheelchair. Having broken her back for the fifth time the previous August, she was reported as having placed an order with a Beverly Hills wheelchair company for a gold-plated model, studded with diamonds and with emerald-inlaid armrests. Her aim, she said, was to 'get one over' on the porn-baron Larry Flynt, the victim of an assassination attempt, whom she had seen riding around town in a solid-gold wheelchair.\n\n'I want the Ferrari of wheelchairs,' Elizabeth told a reporter. 'Money's not a problem. Flynt travels in style, and so must I!' Such extravagance was defended by Elizabeth's spokesman, who explained in an 'official' statement, 'The point of acquiring a wheelchair is to enhance her mobility. Ms Taylor is still a very active campaigner and fund-raiser, and wants to do more. She remains a woman of tremendous style.' This might have been true, but there were many critics who questioned the morality of forking out $504,000 for an item that, although essential, need not have cost so much and pointed out that the money could have been better spent augmenting one of her charities.\n\nIn March, Elizabeth granted her first interview, via fax, to a French reporter in a decade. The lucky man was Christophe Martet of T\u00eatu, the country's leading quality gay publication. She might have been slowing down her activities owing to increasingly poor health, but she was as vociferous as ever regarding the fight against AIDS:\n\nOur government must invest more money in research. At the moment, all the passion and hard work is down to individuals and private foundations. I've always detested being famous. Fame was something I tried to evade, but that was totally impossible. Then when I began my fight against AIDS, for the first time ever I was able to put my star status to good use. Because of it, people listened to me. My fame opened all doors. And you know that I have such affection for the gay community. These men are my brothers . . .\n\nBy the autumn of 2005, these brothers and Elizabeth's other fans around the world were distressed to learn that she was reported to be 'despairing, depressed, sleeping 14 hours a day and close to death'. Though it was often near impossible to differentiate between genuine truth, hearsay and plain attention seeking, what was certain was that her doctors had diagnosed osteoporosis \u2013 which certainly explained her falls and broken vertebrae \u2013 and, much more seriously, congestive heart disease.\n\nElizabeth's Bel Air home was reported to have been turned into a one-patient nursing home. With railed walls throughout, it was staffed around the clock. A special bed with cot-sides to prevent her from falling out had been installed in her room. 'It is as if she's thrown in the towel and admitted she has nothing to live for,' an unnamed close friend told the Daily Express. Another was quoted as having said, more prosaically, 'Elizabeth asked me what heaven was like. She couldn't wait to go there. She told me with tears in her eyes, \"I won't hurt any more. I'll be with Richard.\" That's all she really cares about.'\n\nRichard Burton's niece, Sian Owen, to whose home in Pontrhydyfen Elizabeth had sent a Fortnum & Mason hamper every Christmas since Burton's death, told The Observer on 30 October 2005, 'She's a believer. She does think that once she dies she will be together with him again. They were soulmates, but they just couldn't live together. It was like a Shakespearean tragedy.'\n\nFearing that the end might be near, Elizabeth began to finalise plans for her funeral, once more obsessing over Richard Burton. Her friend Mel Ferrer claimed early in November that she had confided in him, saying, 'Soon there will be no pain any more, and I'll be with Richard.'\n\nElizabeth had of course been close to death on more occasions than anyone cared to remember \u2013 sometimes genuinely so, often speculatively or inventively. Most recently, fearing that she might have been having a heart attack, her aides had rushed her to hospital, but this had turned out to be a false alarm \u2013 chest pains brought on by a severe cold. This time she was taken seriously.\n\nInitially, Elizabeth wanted to be buried in the plot that she and Richard Burton had reserved in the Methodist cemetery at Pontrhydyfen \u2013 casually overlooking the fact that she had converted to Judaism. And if Sally Burton would not agree to having him re-interred, Elizabeth would lie next to Burton's parents, Edith and Richard Jenkins. Alternatively, she would be cremated and her ashes scattered across his grave in Switzerland. The plan to be buried in Pontrhydyfen was reaffirmed by Burton's brother, Graham. Speaking to the Daily Mail, he declared, 'She says that although Richard's body is buried in Switzerland, his heart belongs to Wales, and it is her wish to be buried here.'\n\nThis prompted the PerezHilton.com website to post a get-well message, which is said to have tickled her no end:\n\nDear Liz. You can sleep when you're dead! You need to snap out of it. Maybe a nice little cruise will cheer you up. Bring along Liza Minnelli and Debbie Reynolds (Oh, the drama!) and the fags will pay thousands to be at sea with you legends. All proceeds will go to AmFAR, of course. Feel better, Maggie. May you be purring again soon!\n\nThese ups and downs in Elizabeth's health continued throughout the winter of 2005\u201306, with some reports stating that she had Parkinson's disease \u2013 additionally, that she was in the preliminary stages of Alzheimer's. Then on 30 May 2006 came the so-called 'Deathbed Interview' for CNN, a forty-five-minute grilling (with no less than six commercial breaks) conducted by chat-show host Larry King, who certainly was intent on exacting his pound of flesh.\n\nLike Elizabeth, seventy-two-year old King had been around the block a few times: he'd had seven marriages (two to the same woman) and several much-publicised affairs, including one with Angie Dickinson. The interview, pre-recorded and one suspects vetted by Elizabeth before being heavily edited, made the front pages of most of the world's major newspapers the next day, with the emphasis placed on Elizabeth's well-being. 'Oh come on,' she yelled at King, 'Do I look like I'm dying? Do I look or sound like I have Alzheimer's?'\n\nOn first impression, one would have said not. Elizabeth looked good, nowhere near 74, but if you study the interview in its entirety before the cuts have been made, the tell-tale signs are there \u2013 much of her personal appearance has to do with cast-iron self-control and meticulous grooming. Elizabeth wears the most horrendous lime-green kaftan and enough jewellery to sag a Christmas tree. This deflects from her puffed, blotchy features and corpulent (by way of overmedication) figure. Prior to the interview, when we observe her being pushed into the studio in her wheelchair \u2013 her little dog, Daisy, sitting on her lap \u2013 she really does resemble a little old lady, still astonishingly beautiful and smiling radiantly, but very fragile and seemingly a little confused by it all. Later, when she faces the host across his desk, there is no audience. Next to her there are cue cards and a box of tissues, should all this get to be too much for her and she feel a tear coming on. Elizabeth has done this sort of thing before, constantly reminding her interrogators that she is first and foremost an actress, therefore allowing viewers to decide for themselves if she is telling the truth or merely playing her most famous role \u2013 that of Elizabeth Taylor. On this occasion, her speech is slightly slurred. Has she been drinking? Does she have Alzheimer's? Or is she merely nervous? These are the questions the viewer most frequently asks.\n\nOnce she has theatrically denied having one foot in the grave, Elizabeth attacks the tabloids for prompting the rumours in the first place. 'They have nothing else dirty to write about anybody else. They won't let me retire,' she laments. Then she contradicts herself by declaring that she does not want to retire \u2013 which brings up the real purpose of this interview: she is promoting the 15th-anniversary edition of her White Diamonds perfume and is also about to head for Las Vegas to launch the latest batch of jewellery that she has designed.\n\nIn the meantime, King asks her if she would take on another movie role. Without hesitation, she replies that she would, providing it was 'juicy, spicy and challenging'. Then it is back to the subject of her health. She has been confined to a wheelchair, she says, on account of the severe back pain that has plagued her her whole life. She was born with scoliosis (double curvature of the spine) and admits to having osteoporosis, a condition her publicist has recently denied, which prompts the question: if he denied this, what is to say that Elizabeth is not suffering from the other ailments that have also been denied? King asks her if she is afraid of death and she says that she is not, because she has died four times already (her illness whilst shooting Cleopatra) and that she firmly believes that the spirit lives on after death. She speaks briefly about her conversion to Judaism, confessing that she did this to be closer to Mike Todd after his death, from which she has never recovered.\n\nElizabeth is less forthcoming about certain aspects of her love life. In previous interviews, the subject of husbands has always been rigorously taboo, particularly Nicky Hilton and Eddie Fisher, though she grimaces through a clip from Butterfield 8 in this instance. The only husbands she has ever wanted to talk about have been Todd and Burton: losing them was traumatic, and if anything has sustained Elizabeth over the years, cynics might observe, it has been a good old-fashioned trauma, with the promise of a breakdown thrown in for good measure.\n\nElizabeth reacts with angry reticence when King demands to know which husband was her biggest soulmate: 'Oh, aren't you scratchy? I'm not going to tell you the truth!' With this, she was shooting herself in the foot. If she had no intention of divulging the truth about the men in her life, how sure were we \u2013 again \u2013 that she was not trying to pull the wool over our eyes regarding her health? Once more, the audience had to remind themselves that Elizabeth Taylor is first and foremost a thespian who has been doing this sort of thing her whole life.\n\nAs with her recent interview with T\u00eatu, Elizabeth pretends not to care for terms such as 'icon' and 'legend', which she rightfully concedes are too liberally applied. 'An icon is someone who's dead, with a wooden plaque on the wall,' she opines. 'A legend is something you read about in the past tense.' Here she was definitely selling herself short: even her worst enemies would have agreed that Elizabeth was a living legend, and some.\n\nElizabeth says that she has much respect for some of her co-stars. She loved Paul Newman, and Jimmy Dean and Rock Hudson were wonderful, but it upsets her so much reflecting on these two that King avoids mentioning Monty Clift. Brando, she says, was 'full of rubbish', intimidating everyone by fluffing his lines, but she adored him just the same. Then she spoils it all by having too much enthusiasm for Michael Jackson, whom she believes was deliberately set up by the press.\n\n'I've never been so angry in my life,' she growls when questioned about the allegations of child abuse, concluding that Jackson (then self-exiled in Bahrain) had sworn never to perform in the United States again because the media there had treated him like dirt. Recalling an occasion when she, Jackson and his nephews had laid on the bed in his room watching Disney movies, she went on, 'There was nothing abnormal about it. There was no touchy-feely going on. There was nothing odd about it!' Cynics would again suggest, of course, that had any untoward activity taken place chez Jackson, it certainly would not have been in Elizabeth's presence. This is a cue for Elizabeth to dip into the aforementioned box of tissues and for King to announce the next commercial break.\n\nNext, Larry King takes calls from listeners, all female, all telling Elizabeth how wonderful they think she is. The stars she had looked up to in her formative years, she says, were Katharine Hepburn and Spencer Tracy. Her favourite amongst her films was Who's Afraid Of Virginia Woolf? And regarding her constant back pain, she advises a fellow sufferer, 'If you want to go on functioning, you grin and bear it!'\n\nNext comes the precise reason for the interview: the House of Taylor's latest collection, about to go on show in Las Vegas. She refuses to put a price on each piece: what it is worth, how much customers will have to pay to have some little trinket personally designed by her. King sucks up to her by pretending not to know what a tiara is. The pieces, she says, have been made in Bangkok and other parts of the Far East, which might confirm the real reason behind Elizabeth's and Larry Fortensky's visit to Singapore 'to comfort Michael Jackson' at around the time she put together her first collection \u2013 combining business with a mercy dash to acquire maximum publicity for the former.\n\nFor the benefit of CNN's viewers, Elizabeth has also brought along several items from her personal collection: the Krupp Diamond, nine diamond bracelets, and a diamond-necklace-and-earrings set given to her by Mike Todd. Collectively, these are valued at over $10 million, and it is almost obscene when Elizabeth pretends not to know what they are worth. As for the items she has designed, it will subsequently emerge that the huge House of Taylor ruby-and-diamond brooch she is modelling will retail for $82,500 and the diamond necklace for a cool $179,000. And just to remind viewers that she is not lacking in humility, on King's desk next to these items are Elizabeth's reading glasses \u2013 which she claims she bought from a 99-cents store!\n\nThe final phone call comes from Elizabeth's business partner, Kathy Ireland, who might be excused her acute sycophancy, because what she says could not be more apt: the ultimate tribute to a remarkable woman for all the right reasons. Elizabeth in her heyday might have represented all that was spoilt, reckless, grasping and selfish about a product of Hollywood's studio system, but as an ambassadress for the gay community in the wake of AIDS \u2013 at the time of the Larry King interview, she had raised over $300 million for the cause \u2013 she absolutely and unquestionably was the new Messiah.\n\nRevealing how bigoted 'friends' had hung up on her and how Elizabeth's gay-friendliness had put her own career at risk, Ireland concludes:\n\nToday we have people who are living with HIV. When Dame Elizabeth began her battle, everyone infected died of AIDS, and she's responsible for saving millions of lives. And so for being courageous, for being someone we all love and adore, Dame Elizabeth, you will always be my hero and the Joan of Arc of AIDS.\n\nThe interview ends on a jovial, yet still theatrical note: Elizabeth having a fit of giggles. King wants to know if there is any possibility of her marrying again. She wants to know if he is proposing before delivering a resounding, 'No!' 'Well,' he responds, 'For someone on her death-bed with Alzheimer's, you did amazingly well. For someone so tragically ill, I've never seen more courage!'\n\nIn August 2006, Elizabeth's attention \u2013 though not it would seem her anger \u2013 was drawn to the fact that I was writing this book. She did not appear to mind my describing her as being, in her heyday, 'the most self-centred star in the firmament, whose excesses were obscene'. The publicity sheet that ended up on her desk also referred to her as 'the last truly great Hollywood superstar, in the wake of whom every single one of today's so-called \"headliners\" fades into oblivion'.\n\nHer spokesperson told me over the phone: 'Though I wouldn't doubt she would bawl you out if you've written any shit about her, she'd be the first to want to give you a hug for all the praise you've heaped upon her. Elizabeth's seen some of your books, and she approves of the honest approach you have. She says that David Bret is a shit, but a loveable shit!'\n\nFaced with more speculation over her health, and in a last-ditch attempt to prove that she was still fit as the proverbial fiddle \u2013 for which she must only be commended \u2013 in the September, while holidaying in Hawaii, Elizabeth excelled even herself by making a spur-of-the-moment decision to go swimming with sharks!\n\nDays earlier, the Australian naturalist Steve Irwin had died after being attacked by a stingray, prompting one website to now run the headline 'Krikee! Elizabeth Taylor Is The New Crocodile Hunter!' Sitting in her wheelchair and wearing a T-shirt reading 'Shark Bait', she was photographed being manoeuvred into the boat for the two-hour crossing to Oahu, where she was loaded into a 10 x 8 foot Plexiglas cage and lowered below the surface. After paddling around with the sharks for 30 minutes, she resurfaced looking an absolute mess and panting for breath but exhilarated by the experience. Later, she dashed off a postcard to the New York Post's Liz Smith, the doyenne of gossip columnists. 'For someone who has been in bed with a bad back, I have done all the things I've dreamed of,' she wrote, adding that it had been the most exciting day of her life.\n\nAnd Liz Smith's own reaction to this book, attacking me and my publisher for what she had yet to read, appeared in her New York Post column of 19 October 2006. 'Oh pul-leeze,' she crowed, 'I challenge them to find one scandalous revelation we haven't heard. Miz Liz survives all. The recent Randy Taraborrelli book galvanised her to get up and swim with sharks. What will this one do? Send her to arm-wrestle a giant squid?'\n\nHowever, no sooner had Elizabeth settled this latest rumour about her health than, with contrary aplomb, she started them all up again by announcing that she was selling some of her jewels, memorabilia, art work, clothing and personal possessions. 'She wants the things she's cared about over the years to go to good homes,' a Christie's spokeswoman told me. 'She feels the end is nearer than ever before and doesn't want people squabbling over her possessions when she's dead.'\n\nThe media had by now lost count of the number of times Elizabeth's publicist had 'leaked' the news that she was at death's door, only to just as quickly state that she was hale and hearty \u2013 anything to keep the publicity machine rolling. Arguably the biggest stunt so far occurred when the press reported that she was about to wed for the ninth time!\n\nThe story broke in the Sunday Express on 15 October 2006, when a 'close friend' was reported as saying:\n\nShe has known some terribly dark days, but it's amazing how she's bounced back. She has rebounded straight into the arms of a man, and it's wonderful to see them together. For some stars it's work, family, even shopping. But for Liz, romance has always been a driving force.\n\nThe lucky 'groom-to-be' was Iranian portrait artist Firooz Zahedi, at 57, 17 years Elizabeth's junior. A graduate of Georgetown University, he had studied photography at the Corcoran School and worked for Andy Warhol's Interview magazine in the mid-1970s. At around this time he had met Elizabeth and on the strength of their friendship had relocated to Los Angeles, where he had become her personal movie-stills photographer and, over the next three decades, worked for Vanity Fair, Esquire and Time. He had also developed a coterie of celebrity friends, including Meryl Streep and Barbra Streisand.\n\nZahedi remained tight-lipped about the affair, though there were others willing to speak on his behalf \u2013 mainly to stress that he was not a gold-digger. One story (which no one believed, even after the reportedly genial atmosphere of These Old Broads) circulated that Elizabeth had confided in her 'old movie-star friend' Debbie Reynolds that she was thinking of marrying again, adding, 'He isn't scared of being number eight.' And inevitably there was also the 'close pal who cannot be named' who predicted that Zahedi would be 'popping the question' at the end of the month when he accompanied Elizabeth to her next business meeting in Hawaii.\n\nOf course, after the confession came the denial. Elizabeth's spokesman confirmed the relationship with Zahedi \u2013 and before the ink dried on the newspapers, Elizabeth hit the roof, declaring, 'We are not, never have been and never will be romantically involved! My private life and my plans at this time remain private!' The refutation was delivered with such aggression that, in the end, no one knew what to believe, and few really cared. For ten years, since she'd divorced Larry Fortensky, there had been no regular man in her life \u2013 a bonus, one of her friends told me, adding, 'Without the added complications of love, Elizabeth's that much easier to be around. Let's hope that it stays that way until the end!'\n\nIn the summer of 2007, with her usual defiant attitude that the show must go on no matter what, Elizabeth announced two ambitious projects \u2013 one which attained fruition, the other which never had any hope of doing so. Later in the year, she appeared with James Earl Jones in a single performance of A.R. Gurney's stage play Love Letters, a project that raised $500,000 for her AIDS foundation. Her character, an extension of herself, appeared in a wheelchair, and the show did not place too much strain on her health.\n\nThe monstrously difficult role of Norma Desmond, in the movie remake of Sunset Boulevard, was quite another matter. For one thing, the sponsors would have had a tough task getting anyone to insure her when she was persistently fighting off rumours that she virtually had one foot in the grave. The original film, made in 1950, had starred Gloria Swanson and \u2013 after Montgomery Clift had turned it down \u2013 William Holden. Again, it was difficult to separate truth from hearsay. Paramount released a statement claiming that they had reached 'an advanced stage of negotiation' with Elizabeth's manager, Barbara Berkowitz, and had offered her a fee of $5 million. To add credence to the idea that Elizabeth was 'demonstrating to Tinseltown her improbable recovery', Paul Scott's report in the Daily Mail contained a recent photograph of her descending the steps of a plane, in his words, 'looking like a geriatric Ali G, adorned ridiculously in rapper-style bling crucifixes, gold chains and sporting a trucker's cap made by hip-hop designer Ed Hardy'. A Paramount spokesman told me, however, that Elizabeth had made up the story and had never even been considered for the part, and that the last thing any studio wanted was a multmillion-dollar lawsuit brought about by one of the greatest stars on the planet dying on them mid-production. So, what did Elizabeth do to convince the studio that this would not happen? The same friend who had talked to me about Firooz Zahedi said, 'She pretended that she was fighting fit by putting out the story that she was thinking of getting married again!'\n\nThis latest instalment in the 'Is Liz dying or not?' saga got under way in Hawaii when she planned a 'low-key private dinner' with her friend Jason Winters, a black entrepreneur who at 47 was 28 years her junior. Of course, where Elizabeth was concerned there was no such thing as low key. The staff at the restaurant were instructed not to breathe a word of who their special guest was going to be on 28 September \u2013 while Elizabeth called Liz Smith and announced that there was a new man in her life: 'Jason Winters is one of the most wonderful men I've ever known, and that's why I love him. He bought us a beautiful house in Hawaii, and we visit it as often as possible!' Then she hired a huge black limousine, along with a police escort complete with screaming sirens, to drive her to the venue, and added further excitement to the proceedings by having it park outside the restaurant while she fixed her make-up. Throughout the meal, according to a Reuters report, 'Elizabeth repeatedly caressed the face of her millionaire friend.' Wearing an ankle-length satin gown, a white mink stole, the Krupp Diamond and '$4 million's worth of trinkets', she posed for the crowd in her wheelchair, then rushed home to complain to the press about their having intruded on her evening!\n\nThe next day, a 'close friend' of Elizabeth, who naturally asked not to be named, told Reuters, 'Liz is madly in love with Jason, and he feels the same way. It's taken us all by surprise, but we are happy for her. She didn't think she'd fall in love again, but since Jason came into her life, all that has changed.' It was, of course, the start of another of those attention-seeking campaigns for which Elizabeth had always been known. No sooner had the ink dried on the 'Liz Plans To Marry Husband Number Nine' headlines than the denials came rolling in. Martin Delaney, the founder of a San Francisco AIDS charity of which Winters was patron, told the Daily Mail:\n\nI don't know how a marriage between them could take place. That's not the kind of relationship they've got. Elizabeth is friends with Jason and his long-term friend, Erik Sterling. Jason and Erik are both on the board of the charity, and they have a house in Hawaii. The idea of them marrying is silly stuff.\n\nThe 'romance' quickly played itself out.\n\nThroughout 2008, there were numerous hospitalisations. At one stage, Elizabeth became so ill that her family were summoned to her bedside and told to expect the worst. In October, there was a setback when her former co-star Paul Newman died. The papers reported her as being 'utterly heartbroken', but once again this was mostly attention seeking; she and Newman had neither seen nor spoken to each other for years.\n\nElizabeth's biggest 'drama-fest' since the death of Richard Burton centred on the demise, on 25 June 2009, of 50-year-old Michael Jackson. By now, her friendship with 'Wacko Jacko' had cooled somewhat \u2013 there had been too many child molestation stories since she had last leapt to his defence for her to be certain that he would ever be completely exonerated of all the charges, rumours and facts levelled against him. Even so, this now sadly deluded old lady went into extreme emotional overdrive upon hearing the news, reportedly collapsing and being rushed to hospital \u2013 though no one seemed to know which one \u2013 and issuing a statement which partly read:\n\nMy heart, my mind, they are broken. I loved Michael with all my soul, and I can't imagine life without him. We had so much in common, and we had such loving fun together . . . I still can't believe it. I don't want to believe it. It can't be so . . . He will live in my heart, but it's not enough . . . I don't think anyone knew how much we loved each other. The purest, most giving love I've ever known . . .\n\nElizabeth claimed that she had been in the middle of packing her suitcases, ready to travel to London for the opening night of Jackson's imminent European tour. This was not true. Elizabeth had never packed a suitcase in her life, and her doctors had expressly forbidden her to fly for fear that she might have a heart attack on board the plane. The Wall Street Journal was the first to point out that Elizabeth had referred to herself 23 times in the 162-word statement, bringing the comment from the popular I Hate The Media! website, 'There's one thing in Taylor's statement that cannot be disputed. Her mind is definitely broken.'\n\nIn the wake of the hysteria surrounding Jackson's death, and to ensure that as much emphasis as possible was placed upon her as a self-professed key figure in the singer's life, Elizabeth declared that she would not be attending his memorial service or his funeral. 'I just don't believe that Michael would want me to share my grief with millions of people. I cannot be part of the public whoopla,' she announced on Twitter. In fact, there were reports that the Jackson clan did not want her there, their excuse being that she had been a friend of Michael's, not theirs, but in reality because they were well aware that what was supposed be the combination of a solemn occasion and a celebration of their son's life did not need to be turned into an Elizabeth Taylor extravaganza, where she would be centre of attention.\n\nThere was no way, of course, that Elizabeth was going to miss out on such an important media fest. She attended the ceremony whether she was welcome or not and afterwards did attempt to steal the limelight \u2013 obviously forgetting her earlier promise to Richard Burton \u2013 by announcing that, when her time came, she now wanted to be buried next to Michael Jackson!\n\nThe next big drama occurred on 22 September 2010: Eddie Fisher died, aged 82, and once again Elizabeth was reported to be 'devastated'. This cut no ice with Fisher's family and friends. Speaking to the press, the singer's daughter Carrie declared that Elizabeth had never loved him, rather that he had been no more than a shoulder to cry on after the death of Mike Todd.\n\nThen, on 11 February 2011, Elizabeth was admitted to Cedars-Sinai Hospital, where she is now known to have suffered a slight stroke. As with every drama in recent years, her spokesman was there to deny that she was as gravely ill as the hospital claimed. Sadly, this time it really was serious. For a few days, she seemed to rally \u2013 there was even talk of her being discharged.\n\nThe end came suddenly, at 1.28 a.m. on Wednesday, 23 March, just three weeks after she had celebrated her 79th birthday. 'I was tending to her when she opened those big, beautiful violet eyes,' a hospital spokeswoman said. 'She was surrounded by her family and offered a weak, almost timid smile. Then she was gone, perhaps the biggest star Hollywood has ever known.'\n\n# EPILOGUE\n\nWE, THE FANS AND LOVED ONES, HAD ANTICIPATED THE end for a long, long time. Even so, the news came as a tremendous shock. Hers had been a traumatic life, made more so by self-inflicted dramas, persistent ill health \u2013 and arguably not just too many men but almost always the wrong kind of man. Maybe had Elizabeth married her first sweetheart, Glenn Davis, and given up her career as he had wanted her to, there would have been far less tragedy in her life. And then, of course, the world would never have witnessed one of the truly spellbinding talents not just of her generation but of any other.\n\nLong before dawn on 23 March, hundreds of fans gathered on Hollywood's Walk of Fame. Many had swooped on the city's florists to snap up violets, the colour of Elizabeth's eyes, and a massive wreath of these was erected over her star. In London, simple bunches of daffodils were left next to the gates of the house where she had been born.\n\nThe tributes and eulogies were legion and could easily form a book of their own. Michael Caine, Angela Lansbury, director Michael Winner, singer George Michael, dozens of minor stars of whom Elizabeth had probably never heard, politicians and heads of state all rushed to their phones to pay their last respects within an hour of her death. Elton John wept at the news and said, 'We have just lost a Hollywood giant. More importantly, we have lost an incredible human being.' Liza Minnelli said, 'As a friend, she was always, always there. I'll miss her for the rest of my life.' Now-retired chat-show host Larry King called her 'a great star and a gutsy woman, the likes of which we will never see again'. Whoopi Goldberg called her 'a great broad and a great friend'. Joan Collins announced, 'There will never be another star who will come close to her luminosity and generosity.'\n\nBarbra Streisand, that other indefatigable champion of the gay man who has also raised millions for her charities, wrote, 'She was so funny. She was generous. She made her life count. It's the end of an era. It wasn't just her beauty or her stardom. It was her humanitarianism. She put a face on HIV\/AIDS.' Debbie Reynolds, who had once been a part of the 'enemy camp', but who had long since made her peace with Elizabeth, called her death 'a blessing in disguise', adding, 'God bless her, she's on to a better place. I'm happy that she's out of her pain because she was in a lot of pain. This was a blessing in disguise . . . she's in heaven and she's in a heavenly place and she's happy.' Debbie's daughter, Carrie Fisher, who had brought about their reunion many years after the affair, said, 'If my father had to divorce my mother for anyone, I'm so grateful that it was Elizabeth.'\n\nAnd Jarrett Barrios, president of GLAAD (the Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation), observed, 'Dame Taylor was an icon not only in Hollywood but in the LGBT community, where she worked to ensure that everyone was treated with the respect and dignity we all deserve.'\n\nElizabeth's son Michael Wilding Jr spoke eloquently and touchingly when announcing her death to the media:\n\nMy mother was an extraordinary woman who lived life to the fullest, with great passion, humour and love. Though her loss is devastating to those of us who held her so close and so dear, we will always be inspired by her enduring contribution to our world. Her remarkable body of work in film, her ongoing success as a businesswoman and her brave and relentless advocacy in the fight against HIV\/AIDS all make us all incredibly proud of what she accomplished. We know, quite simply, that the world is a better place for Mom having lived in it. Her legacy will never fade, her spirit will always be with us and her love will live for ever in our hearts.\n\nIt is an indisputable fact that Elizabeth Taylor was the very last of the Hollywood greats. Most of her contemporaries \u2013 Garbo, Streisand and Dietrich excepted \u2013 were compelled to walk in the shadow of her sun. Of today's stars, not one may be deemed worthy of stepping even within a mile of that shadow.\n\n#  PHOTOGRAPHS\n\nElizabeth, aged seven, in one of her first Hollywood publicity shots, long before she ever faced a movie camera. (\u00a9 Archive Photos\/Getty Images)\n\nIn 1948 with Roddy McDowall, the first of many gay actors she supported and championed. (\u00a9 Murray Garrett\/Getty Images)\n\nA publicity shot for A Place in the Sun, with Montgomery Clift, the man she later said she loved more than all of her husbands. (\u00a9 Peter Stackpole\/Time Life Pictures\/Getty Images)\n\nIn November 1950, with abusive first husband Nicky Hilton on the SS Queen Elizabeth. The marriage lasted just months. (\u00a9 Leroy Jakob\/NY Daily News Archive\/Getty Images)\n\nWith second husband Michael Wilding in 1951. (\u00a9 Michael Ochs Archives\/Getty Images)\n\nWith Jimmy on the set of Giant in 1955. (\u00a9 Keystone\/Getty Images)\n\nWith Rock, whom she bravely helped through his final illness. (\u00a9API\/Gamma\/Gamma-Rapho\/Getty Images)\n\nIn 1956 with third husband Mike Todd, the man whom she claimed taught her how to appreciate rough sex. (\u00a9 Michael Ochs Archives\/Getty Images)\n\nWith Fernandel, the great French actor-comedian, at the time of Around the World in Eighty Days, 1956. (\u00a9 Alain Benainous\/Gamma-Rapho\/Getty Images)\n\nIn 1960, on the eve of the Cleopatra 'Scandale', with womanising fourth husband Eddie Fisher. (\u00a9 Paul Popper\/Popperfoto\/Getty Images)\n\nRichard... so exciting she married him twice and never stopped mourning his death. (\u00a9 Hulton Archive\/Getty Images)\n\nOne of Hollywood's costliest flops but a beautiful film just the same: Cleopatra, 1963. (\u00a9 20th Century Fox\/Getty Images)\n\nArguably her only truly great film with Burton, Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?, which they scrapped through in 1966. (\u00a9 Apic\/Getty Images)\n\nWith Burton at the Golden Mask Awards, 1966.\n\nElizabeth with her other 'rock' \u2013 her mother, Sara, in 1973. (\u00a9 Apic\/Getty Images)\n\nOne queen plays another! In costume as a very bitchy Mary Queen of Scots in Agatha Christie's The Mirror Crack'd, one of her best later films, which also saw her working again with Rock Hudson, 1980. (\u00a9 AFP\/Getty Images)\n\nIn 1982, congratulated after a performance at London's Victoria Palace Theatre by Princess Diana. (\u00a9 Central Press\/Getty Images)\n\nAttending Richard Burton's memorial service at St Martin-in-the-Fields in August 1984. (\u00a9 Keystone\/Getty Images)\n\nWith George Hamilton in Poker Alice, 1987, which saw Elizabeth engaged in a thrilling catfight! (\u00a9 CBS Photo Archive\/Getty Images)\n\nAt London's Mirabelle Restaurant for an AIDS benefit with last husband Larry Fortensky, 1991. (\u00a9 Gerry Penny\/AFP\/Getty Images)\n\nAt London's Dorchester Hotel, May 2000 \u2013 Dame Elizabeth Taylor! (\u00a9 Dave M. Benett\/Getty Images)\n\nAn AIDS benefit in Cannes, 2001 \u2013 still gorgeous! (\u00a9 J. Vespa\/WireImage)\n\nAt Macy's Passport Gala in 2009. The indefatigable champion is fading, but, frail and ill, she still radiates a charisma no other star has ever possessed. (\u00a9 Charley Gallay\/WireImage)\n\n# APPENDIX  \nTHE FILMS OF ELIZABETH TAYLOR\n\nThere's One Born Every Minute, Universal, 1942 (Harold Young), with Peggy Moran, Carl Switzer, Scott Jordan\n\nLassie Come Home, MGM, 1943 (Fred Wilcox), with Roddy McDowall, Donald Crisp, Dame May Whitty, Edmund Gwenn, Nigel Bruce\n\nJane Eyre, 20th Century Fox, 1944 (Robert Stevenson), with Orson Welles, Joan Fontaine, Margaret O'Brien\n\nThe White Cliffs of Dover, MGM, 1944 (Clarence Brown), with Irene Dunne, Alan Marshal, Dame May Whitty, Gladys Cooper, Peter Lawford, Roddy McDowall\n\nNational Velvet, MGM, 1944 (Clarence Brown), with Mickey Rooney, Donald Crisp, Angela Lansbury\n\nCourage of Lassie, MGM, 1946 (Fred Wilcox), with Frank Morgan, Harry Davenport, George Cleveland\n\nCynthia, MGM, 1947 (Robert Z. Leonard), with George Murphy, S.Z. Sakall, Mary Astor, Spring Byington\n\nLife with Father, Warner Bros, 1947 (Michael Curtiz), with William Powell, Irene Dunne, Edmund Gwenn\n\nA Date with Judy, MGM, 1948 (Richard Thorpe), with Wallace Beery, Jane Powell, Robert Stack\n\nJulia Misbehaves, MGM, 1948 (Jack Conway), with Greer Garson, Walter Pidgeon, Peter Lawford\n\nLittle Women, MGM, 1949 (Mervin LeRoy), with June Allyson, Peter Lawford, Margaret O'Brien, Janet Leigh, Rossano Brazzi\n\nConspirator, MGM, 1949 (Victor Saville), with Robert Taylor, Robert Flemyng, Thora Hird\n\nThe Big Hangover, MGM, 1950 (Norman Krasna), with Van Johnson, Edgar Buchanan, Gene Lockhart\n\nFather of the Bride, MGM, 1950 (Vincente Minnelli), with Spencer Tracy, Joan Bennett, Don Taylor\n\nFather's Little Dividend, MGM, 1951 (Vincente Minnelli), with Spencer Tracy, Joan Bennett, Don Taylor\n\nQuo Vadis (cameo), MGM, 1951 (Mervyn LeRoy), with Robert Taylor, Deborah Kerr, Leo Genn\n\nA Place in the Sun, Paramount, 1951 (George Stevens), with Montgomery Clift, Shelley Winters, Anne Revere, Keefe Brasselle, Raymond Burr, Shepperd Strudwick\n\nCallaway Went Thataway (cameo), MGM, 1951 (Norman Panama, Melvin Frank), with Fred MacMurray, Dorothy McGuire, Howard Keel\n\nLove Is Better Than Ever, MGM, 1952 (Stanley Donen), with Larry Parks, Josephine Hutchinson, Ann Doran\n\nIvanhoe, MGM, 1952 (Richard Thorpe), with Robert Taylor, Joan Fontaine, George Sanders, Emlyn Williams\n\nThe Girl Who Had Everything, MGM, 1953 (Richard Thorpe), with Fernando Lamas, William Powell, Gig Young\n\nRhapsody, MGM, 1954 (Charles Vidor), with Vittorio Gassman, John Ericson, Louis Calhern\n\nElephant Walk, Paramount, 1954 (William Dieterle), with Dana Andrews, Peter Finch\n\nBeau Brummel, MGM, 1954 (Curtis Bernhardt), with Stewart Granger, Peter Ustinov, Robert Morley\n\nThe Last Time I Saw Paris, MGM, 1954 (Richard Brooks), with Van Johnson, Walter Pidgeon, Donna Reed, Eva Gabor\n\nGiant, Warner Bros, 1956 (George Stevens), with Rock Hudson, James Dean, Mercedes McCambridge, Jane Withers, Carroll Baker, Sal Mineo, Dennis Hopper, Chill Wills\n\nRaintree County, MGM, 1957 (Edward Dmytryk), with Montgomery Clift, Eva Marie Saint, Lee Marvin, Rod Taylor, Nigel Patrick, Agnes Moorehead, Tom Drake\n\nCat on a Hot Tin Roof, MGM, 1958 (Richard Brooks), with Paul Newman, Burl Ives, Judith Anderson, Jack Carson\n\nSuddenly, Last Summer, Columbia, 1959 (Joseph Mankiewicz), with Montgomery Clift, Katharine Hepburn, Albert Dekker, Mercedes McCambridge, Gary Raymond, Mavis Villiers\n\nHoliday in Spain (aka Scent of Mystery) (cameo), Michael Todd Jr Productions, 1960 (Jack Cardiff), with Denholm Elliott, Peter Lorre, Paul Lukas\n\nButterfield 8, MGM, 1960 (Daniel Mann), with Laurence Harvey, Eddie Fisher, Dina Merrill\n\nCleopatra, 20th Century Fox, 1963 (Joseph Mankiewicz), with Richard Burton, Rex Harrison, Roddy McDowall, Pamela Brown, Martin Landau\n\nThe VIPs, MGM, 1963 (Anthony Asquith), with Richard Burton, Louis Jourdan, Elsa Martinelli, Margaret Rutherford\n\nThe Sandpiper, MGM, 1965 (Vincente Minnelli), with Richard Burton, Eva Marie Saint, Charles Bronson\n\nWho's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?, Warner Bros, 1966 (Mike Nichols), with Richard Burton, George Segal, Sandy Dennis\n\nThe Taming of the Shrew, Columbia, 1967 (Franco Zeffirelli), with Richard Burton, Cyril Cusack, Michael Hordern\n\nDoctor Faustus, Columbia, 1967 (Nevill Coghill), with Richard Burton, Andreas Teuber, Elizabeth O'Donovan\n\nReflections in a Golden Eye, 1967, Warner Bros (John Huston), with Marlon Brando, RobertForster, Julie Harris\n\nThe Comedians, MGM, 1967 (Peter Glenville), with Richard Burton, Alec Guiness, Peter Ustinov, Lillian Gish\n\nBoom!, Universal, 1968 (Joseph Losey), with Richard Burton, Noel Coward, Michael Dunn\n\nSecret Ceremony, Universal, 1968 (Joseph Losey), with Mia Farrow, Robert Mitchum, Peggy Ashcroft\n\nAnne of the Thousand Days (cameo), Hal Wallis Productions, 1969 (Charles Jarrott), with Richard Burton, Genevi\u00e8ve Bujold, Irene Papas\n\nThe Only Game in Town, 20th Century Fox, 1970 (George Stevens), with Warren Beatty, Charles Braswell, Hank Henry\n\nUnder Milk Wood, Altura Films, 1971 (Andrew Sinclair), with Richard Burton, Peter O'Toole, Glynis Johns\n\nZee and Co., Columbia, 1972 (Brian Hutton), with Michael Caine, Susannah York\n\nHammersmith Is Out, Cornelius Crean Films, 1972 (Peter Ustinov), with Richard Burton, Peter Ustinov, Beau Bridges, George Raft\n\nDivorce His, Divorce Hers, ABC-TV, 1973 (Waris Hussein), with Richard Burton, Carrie Nye, Barry Foster\n\nNight Watch, Avco Embassy, 1973 (Brian Hutton), with Laurence Harvey, Billie Whitelaw, Tony Britton\n\nAsh Wednesday, Paramount, 1973 (Larry Peerce), with Helmut Berger, Henry Fonda, Keith Baxter\n\nThat's Entertainment, MGM, 1974 (Jack Haley), with Fred Astaire, Bing Crosby, Gene Kelly, Peter Lawford\n\nThe Driver's Seat, Avco Embassy, 1974 (G. Patroni Griffi), with Guido Mannari, Ian Bannen\n\nThe Blue Bird, 20th Century Fox, 1976 (George Cukor), with Ava Gardner, Jane Fonda, Patsy Kensit, Robert Morley\n\nVictory at Entebbe, ABC, 1976 (Marvin Chomsky), with Kirk Douglas, Burt Lancaster, Richard Dreyfuss\n\nA Little Night Music, New World Pictures, 1977 (Harold Prince), Lesley-Anne Down\n\nReturn Engagement (aka Repeat Performance), NBC-TV, 1978 (Joseph Hardy), with Joseph Bottoms, Peter Donat, Allyn Ann McLerie\n\nWinter Kills, Avco Embassy, 1979 (William Richert), with Jeff Bridges, John Huston, Anthony Perkins, Eli Wallach\n\nThe Mirror Crack'd, EMI Films, 1980 (Guy Hamilton), with Rock Hudson, Tony Curtis, Kim Novak, Edward Fox, Geraldine Chaplin, Angela Lansbury\n\nBetween Friends, HBO-TV, 1983 (Lou Antonio), with Carol Burnett, Barbara Rush, Stephen Young\n\nMalice in Wonderland, ITC-TV, 1985 (Gus Trikonis), with Jane Alexander, Richard Dysart, Joyce Van Patten\n\nNorth and South (TV mini-series), ABC-TV, 1985 (Richard T. Heffron), with Kirstie Allie, Patrick Swayze, Lesley-Anne Down\n\nThere Must Be a Pony, Columbia TV, 1986 (Joseph Sargent), with Robert Wagner, James Coco, Ken Olin\n\nPoker Alice, New World Television, 1987 (A.A. Seidelman), with Tom Skerritt, George Hamilton\n\nIl giovane Toscanini, Carthago Films, 1988 (Franco Zeffirelli), with C. Thomas Howell, Sophie Ward\n\nSweet Bird of Youth, NBC-TV, 1989 (Nicolas Roeg), with Mark Harmon, Valerie Perrine\n\nThe Flintstones, Universal, 1994 (Brian Levant), with John Goodman, Rick Moranis, Rosie O'Donnell\n\nThese Old Broads, ABC-TV, 2001 (Matthew Diamond), with Debbie Reynolds, Shirley MacLaine, Joan Collins, Peter Graves, Jonathan Silverman\n\n# BIBLIOGRAPHY & SOURCES\n\nThe American Film Institute. Dialogue On Film: George Stevens, 4, May\/June 1975.\n\nAnger, Kenneth. Hollywood Babylon. San Francisco: Straight Arrow Books, 1981.\n\nAnger, Kenneth. Hollywood Babylon II. New York: Dell Publishing, 1984.\n\nAntonio (Maria Callas' chauffeur). Interview with David Bret,   \nSeptember 1977.\n\nAstor, Mary. Life On Film. New York: Delacorte Press, 1967.\n\nBacon, James. Made In Hollywood. New York: Warner Books, Inc., 1978.\n\nBast, William. James Dean: A Biography. New York: Ballantine Books, 1956\n\nBelsten, Mick. \"Rock Hudson, Health Report.\" Gay Times, September 1985.\n\nBosworth, Patricia. Montgomery Clift: A Biography. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1978.\n\nBret, David. Freddie Mercury: Living on the Edge. London: Robson Books, 1996.\n\nBret, David. Joan Crawford: Hollywood Martyr. London: Robson Books, 2006.\n\nBret, David. Marlene, My Friend: An Intimate Biography. London: Robson Books, 1993.\n\nBrodsky, Jack, and Nathan Weiss. The Cleopatra Papers. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1963.\n\nBurton, Richard. Meeting Mrs. Jenkins. New York: William Morrow, 1964.\n\nCohn, Art. The Nine Lives of Mike Todd. New York: Random House, 1958.\n\nCollins, Joan. Past Imperfect: An Autobiography. London: Coronet Books, 1979.\n\nConsidine, Sean. Bette & Joan: The Divine Feud. New York: Warner Books, Inc., 1992.\n\nCottrell, John, and Fergus Cashin. Richard Burton: Very Close Up. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1971.\n\nDalton, David. James Dean: The Mutant King. New York: St. Martin's   \nPress, 1987.\n\nDavid, Lester, and Jhan Robbins.   \nRichard & Elizabeth. New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1977.\n\nDavidson, Bill. Spencer Tracy: Tragic Idol. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1987.\n\nDevilliers, Marceau. James Dean on Location. London: Sidgwick &   \nJackson, 1987.\n\nDietrich, Marlene. Interviews with   \nDavid Bret, various.\n\nDmytryk, Edward. It's A Hell of A Life, but Not a Bad Living. New York:   \nNew York Times Books, 1978.\n\nDowning, David. Marlon Brando.   \nLondon: W.H. Allen, 1984.\n\nEames, John Douglas. The MGM Story. New York: Crown Publishers, 1975.\n\nEdwards, Anne. Katharine Hepburn:   \nA Biography. London: Coronet, 1987.\n\nFerber, Edna. Giant. New York: Doubleday, 1952.\n\nFerris, Paul. Richard Burton. London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 1981.\n\nFisher, Eddie. My Life, My Loves. London: W.H. Allen, 1982.\n\nGates, Phyllis (with Bob Thomas). My Husband, Rock Hudson. Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1987.\n\nGeist, Kenneth L. Pictures Will Talk: The Life & Films of Joseph L Mankiewicz. London: Frederick Muller, 1978.\n\nGreene, Myrna. The Eddie Fisher Story. New York: Paul S. Eriksson, 1978.\n\nHersh, Burton. The Mellon Family. New York: William Morrow, 1978.\n\nHickey, Des, and Gus Smith. The Prince: The Public & Private Life of Laurence Harvey. London: Leslie Frewin Publishing, 1975.\n\nHirsch, Foster. Elizabeth Taylor. New York: Pyramid Publications, 1973.\n\nHolley, Val. James Dean. London: Robson Books, 1995.\n\nHopper, Hedda. From Under My Hat.   \nNew York: Doubleday, 1952.\n\nHopper, Hedda. The Whole Truth & Noth-ing But. New York: Doubleday, 1962.\n\nHudson, Rock (with Sara Davidson).   \nRock Hudson: His Story. New York: Bantam Books, 1987.\n\nHuston, John. An Open Book. New York: Ballantine Books, 1981.\n\nJenkins, Graham. Richard Burton,   \nMy Brother. London: Michael Joseph Ltd., 1988.\n\nJoseph, Joan. For Love Of Liz. New York: Manor Books, 1976.\n\nKazan, Elia. Elia Kazan: A Life. London: Andr\u00e9 Deutsch, 1988.\n\nKelley, Kitty. Elizabeth Taylor:   \nThe Last Star. New York: Simon   \n& Schuster, 1981.\n\nKensit, Patsy. Interview with Attitude, 2006.\n\nLaGuardia, Robert. Monty.   \nWestminster, MD: Arbor House, 1977.\n\nMaddox, Brenda. Who's Afraid Of Elizabeth Taylor? New York: M. Evans & Co., 1977.\n\nMankiewicz, Joseph L. Near-Death Experience Speech. July 1961.\n\nMedved, Harry, and Michael Medved.   \nThe Golden Turkey Awards. Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1980.\n\nMorley, Sheridan. Elizabeth Taylor:   \nA Celebration. London: Pavilion   \nBooks, 1988.\n\nNickens, Christopher. Elizabeth Taylor:   \nA Biography in Photographs. New York: Doubleday, 1984.\n\nQuinlan, David. Quinlan's Illustrated Directory of Film Character Actors. London: Batsford Ltd., 1995.\n\nReynolds, Debbie, and David Patrick Columbia. Debbie: My Life.   \nLondon: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1988.\n\nRoen, Paul. High Camp: A Gay Guide   \nto Camp and Cult Films, Volumes I   \nand II. San Francisco: Leyland Productions, 1994.\n\nSchary, Dore. Heyday. New York: Little, Brown & Co., 1979.\n\nSheppard, Dick. Elizabeth: The Life & Career of Elizabeth Taylor. New York: Warner Books Inc., 1975.\n\nStone, Paulene, and Peter Evans.   \nLaurence Harvey: One Tear Is Not Enough. London: Michael Joseph, 1975.\n\nTaylor, Elizabeth. Elizabeth Takes Off. London: Macmillan, 1988.\n\nTaylor, Elizabeth. Elizabeth Taylor.   \nNew York: Harper & Row, 1964.\n\nTaylor, Elizabeth. Nibbles & Me. New York: Duell, Sloan & Pearce, 1945.\n\nTaylor, Elizabeth. Interview (alleged) with Hollywood Reporter, October 1943.\n\nTaylor, Elizabeth. Interview with   \nLadies Home Journal, February 1976.\n\nTaylor, Elizabeth. Freddie Mercury   \nspeech, April 1992.\n\nTaylor, Sara. Interview with Ladies Home Journal, February 1954.\n\nTodd, Michael Jr. A Valuable Property: The Life Story of Mike Todd. New York: Arbor House, 1983.\n\nVermilye, Jerry, and Mark Ricci.   \nThe Films of Elizabeth Taylor. New York: Citadel Press, 1976.\n\nVatican statement. L'Osservatore Della Dominica, March 1962.\n\nWinters, Shelley. Shelley, Also Known As Shirley. New York: William Morrow, 1980.\n\nWalker, Alexander. Elizabeth. London: Orion Books, 1997.\n\nWalker, Alexander. Interviews with Elizabeth Taylor, various.\n\nWalker, Alexander. Sex In The Movies. London: Pelican Books, 1966.\n\nWarhol, Andy, and Bob Colacello. Andy Warhol's Exposures. New York: Grosset & Dunlap, 1979.\n\nWaterbury, Ruth. Elizabeth Taylor: Her Life, Her Loves, Her Future. New York: Popular Library, 1964.\n\nWaterbury, Ruth. Richard Burton: His Intimate Story. New York: Pyramid Publications, 1965.\n\nWigg, David: \"Elizabeth Taylor Interview.\" Good Housekeeping, February 1977.\n\nWilding, Michael (with Pamela Wilcox). Apple Sauce. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen   \n& Unwin, 1987.\n\nZec, Donald. Liz, the Men, the Myths, and the Miracle: An Intimate Portrait of Elizabeth Taylor. London: Mirror Books, 1982.\n\nZec, Donald. Put The Knife In Gently: Memoirs of a Life with Legends. London: Robson Books, 2003.\n\n# INDEX\n\nAdrian, Gilbert 28\u20139, 33\n\nAFI Lifetime Achievement Award 262\u20134\n\nAll-Star Tribute to Elizabeth Taylor, An 220\n\nAndrews, Julie 152, 155, 269, 271\n\nAnna Karenina 107, 144\n\nAround the World in Eighty Days 96, 105\u20136, 109, 115, 223\n\nAsh Wednesday 200\u20131, 204\n\nAstor, Mary 31, 34\n\nBankhead, Tallulah 14, 60, 63, 83, 101, 187\u20138, 193, 229\u201330, 234, 236\n\nBeau Brummel 76\n\nBegin, Menachem 235\u20136\n\nBell, Jeanne 210\u201311\n\nBerger, Helmut 200\u20131, 220\n\nBerman, Pandro 125\u20136, 128\n\nBetween Friends 236\n\nBig Hangover, The 37\n\nBlitch, Iris 157\n\nBlondell, Joan 94\u20135\n\nBloom, Claire 173\n\nBlue Bird, The 209\u201310, 214\n\nBoom! 187\u20138, 193, 229, 252\u20133\n\nBoyd, Stephen 134, 138, 145, 149, 154, 163\n\nBrando, Marlon 45, 80\u20131, 90, 109, 119, 149, 184\u20135\n\nBrooks, Richard 76, 89, 112\n\nBufman, Zev 230, 234\n\nBujold, Genevieve 189\n\nBurnett, Carol 248, 262\n\nBurton, Jessica 151, 191\n\nBurton, Kate 151, 191\n\nBurton, Maria 157, 167, 173, 191, 207, 209, 239, 240, 262\n\nBurton, Philip 150\u20131, 170\n\nBurton, Richard 72, 145\u2013220, 222, 229\u201333, 237\u201341, 245, 251, 254, 256, 262, 264, 266, 269\u201370, 279\u201382, 284\n\nBurton, Sally 237\u201341, 279, 282\n\nBurton, Sybil 148, 151, 159\u201360, 166\u20137, 174, 207, 269\n\nBush, George Sr 23, 276\n\nButterfield 8 125\u20139, 131\n\nCaine, Michael 196, 197, 295\n\nCallaghan, James 192\n\nCallas, Maria 52, 73, 101, 203\u20134\n\nCallaway Went Thataway 62\n\n'Cassandra' 157\u20138\n\nCat on a Hot Tin Roof 110\u201314, 116, 118\n\nCazalet, Victor 15\u201318, 21, 35, 68\n\nChristopher, Jordan 167\u20138\n\nCleopatra 125\u20136, 131\u201363, 171, 193, 230, 269\n\nClift, Montgomery 12, 41\u20136, 49\u201350, 54\u20135, 59, 62, 64, 70, 77\u201385, 88\u201394, 97\u2013100, 109\u201315, 119\u201324, 127\u20138, 132, 139\u201340, 168\u201371, 183\u20134, 223, 244, 263, 264, 285, 290\n\nCollins, Joan 114, 125, 132, 137, 162, 270\u20133, 296\n\nComedians, The 185\u20136, 198\n\nConfidential 81, 86\u20137, 92, 233\n\nConspirator 34\u20135\n\nCourage of Lassie, The 27\u20139\n\nCoward, Noel 188, 234, 236\n\nCrawford, Joan 12, 28, 69, 71, 73\u20134, 101, 105, 153\n\nCurtis, Tony 120, 228\n\nCurtiz, Michael 29\u201330, 76\n\nCynthia 31\n\nDarmanin, Peter 213, 218\n\nDate with Judy, A 32\u20133\n\nDavis, Bette 251\n\nDavis, Glenn 33\u20134, 36\u20137, 48, 295\n\nDay, Doris 228, 245\u20136\n\nDean, James 37, 47, 79\u201386, 91\u20132, 98, 104, 149, 244, 263\u20134\n\nDennis, Sandy 177\u201380, 186\n\nDietrich, Marlene 32, 53, 65, 96, 122, 141, 171, 195, 247\u20138, 250, 262, 271\n\nDivorce His, Divorce Hers 185, 200\n\nDmytryk, Edward 44, 60, 67, 89, 91, 93\u20134, 97\u20139, 109, 119\n\nDr Faustus 181\u20133\n\nDonen, Stanley 61\u20132\n\nDon Quixote 110\n\nDown, Lesley-Anne 217, 243\u20134\n\nDriver's Seat, The 202\n\nDuke, Doris 267\u20138\n\nDynasty 245\n\nElephant Walk 71\u20132, 134\n\nElizabeth of Yugoslavia 208\u201310\n\nElizabeth Takes Off 248\n\nElizabeth Taylor in London 167\n\nEngland's Other Elizabeth 269\u201370\n\nEvans, Lord 135\u20136\n\nFather of the Bride 49\u201354\n\nFather's Little Dividend 54, 62\n\nFerber, Edna 78, 82\n\nFerrer, Mel 28, 281\n\nFields, Gracie 76, 240\n\nFinch, Peter 71\u20132, 134, 145\n\nFisher, Carrie 270\u20133, 294, 296\n\nFisher, Eddie 96, 102\u20133, 110, 112, 113, 114, 115\u201323, 125, 126\u20137, 128, 129, 134\u20135, 136\u20137, 138, 139, 141, 142, 144, 148\u20139, 152\u20137, 158, 159, 161, 167, 169, 172, 189, 199, 223, 227, 270\u20133, 284, 293\n\nFlintstones, The 264\n\nForbes, Malcolm 251\u20135\n\nForster, Robert 184\u20135\n\nFortensky, Larry 253\u201360, 265, 266\u20138, 286, 289\n\nFriedkin, William 244\n\nGarbo, Greta 44, 63, 107, 132, 177, 184\n\nGardner, Ava 168, 209\n\nGarland, Judy 11, 20, 26, 29, 31, 153, 171\n\nGassman, Vittorio 75\u20136\n\nGates, Phyllis 80\u20131, 84\u20135, 92\u20133, 101\n\nGeary, Anthony 233\n\nGeneral Hospital 231, 270\n\nGiant 71, 78\u201386, 98, 101, 103\u20134, 114, 135, 276\n\nGirl Who Had Everything, The 69\u201370, 76\n\nGlenville, Peter 185\u20136\n\nGoodman, John 264\n\nGood Morning America 237\u20138\n\nGranger, Stewart 65, 67, 71, 76\n\nHalston 220\u20131, 255\n\nHamilton, George 249, 251\n\nHamlet 169\u201370, 172\n\nHammersmith Is Out 198\u20139\n\nHarrison, Rex 145, 163, 194\n\nHarrison, Robert 86\u20137\n\nHarvey, Laurence 128\u20139, 199, 202\u20133\n\nHellman, Lillian 229\u201330\n\nHepburn, Katharine 26, 43, 123\u20134\n\nHilton, Nicky 46\u201357, 63\u20134, 66, 68, 71, 82, 119, 153, 227\n\nHoliday in Spain 122\n\nHolman, Libby 42, 44, 54, 70, 89, 92\u20133, 99\n\nHopper, Dennis 80, 84, 263\n\nHopper, Hedda 21\u20132, 32, 39, 43, 48\u201352, 55, 60, 62, 65, 72, 87, 97, 104, 116\u201317, 148\n\nHudson, Rock 37, 78\u201387, 92\u20133, 98, 101, 104, 111, 114, 119, 124, 133, 147, 149, 157, 174, 176, 228, 231\u20133, 244\u20138, 251, 260\u20132, 264, 266, 269, 276\n\nHughes, Howard 35\u20136, 60, 62, 64, 101, 112\n\nHunt, Suzy 212\u201313, 217\u201318, 229\n\nHunter, Tab 65, 81, 101, 187\u20138, 248\n\nHuston, John 168\u20139, 171, 183\n\nIvanhoe 63\u20134, 66\n\nJackson, Michael 249\u201351, 256\u20139, 263, 265\u20136, 276\u20138, 285, 286, 292\u20133\n\nJacobson, Max 136\u20137, 159\n\nJane Eyre 24\n\nJohnson, Nunnally 138\u20139\n\nJohnson, Van 37, 50, 76\u20137\n\nJulia Misbehaves 33\n\nKelly, Gene 60\u20131\n\nKennamer, Rex 111, 113, 144, 231\n\nKensit, Patsy 209\u201310\n\nKeyes, Evelyn 96, 99\n\nKing, Larry, 282\u20137, 296\n\nKirkwood, James 14, 249\n\nKrupp, Alfred 189\n\nLafferty, Bernard 267\u20138\n\nLandau, Martin 145, 162\n\nLassie Come Home 22\u20135\n\nLast Time I Saw Paris, The 76\u20137\n\nLawford, Christopher 202, 208\n\nLawford, Peter 202\u20133, 208, 237\n\nLerner, Max 141\u20132, 208, 234\n\nLife with Father 30\u20131\n\nLittle Foxes, The 229\u201334, 237\n\nLittle Night Music, A 216\u201318, 228\n\nLittle Women 34\n\nLoew, Arthur 50, 114\u201315\n\nLoren, Sophia 190, 199\u2013200\n\nLove Is Better Than Ever 56, 61\u20132\n\nLucy Show, The 191\n\nLuna, Victor 234\u20136, 240\u20131\n\nMcCambridge, Mercedes 79, 123\n\nMcCarthy, Joe 59\u201361, 63, 80, 89\n\nMcCarthy, Kevin 92\u20133\n\nMcClory, Kevin 95\n\nMcCullers, Carson 184\n\nMcDowall, Roddy 22\u20134, 32, 50, 59, 66\u20137, 142, 147, 159, 183, 231, 241, 243\u20134, 246\u20137, 257, 263, 269\n\nMacLaine, Shirley 101, 137, 141, 247, 259, 269, 271\u20133\n\nMagnani, Anna 175, 185\n\nMalice in Wonderland 243\n\nMamoulian, Rouben 134, 137\u20138\n\nMankiewicz, Joe 122\u20134, 138\u20139, 143, 148, 152, 155, 159, 161\u20132\n\nMargaret, Princess 17, 258\n\nMarjorie Morningstar 109\u201310\n\nMature, Victor 87\n\nMauthner, Margarete 278\n\nMaxwell, Elsa 52\u20133, 87\n\nMayer, Louis B. 20\u20132, 24, 26, 28\u20139, 32, 36\u20137, 51, 55, 63, 135\n\nMercury, Freddie 251, 260\u20132\n\nMinnelli, Liza 245, 257, 261, 282, 295\n\nMinnelli, Vincente 28, 49, 152, 174\n\nMirror Crack'd, The 228\u20139, 231\n\nMistinguett 53, 190\n\nMitchum, Robert 192\u20134, 231\n\nMonroe, Marilyn 47, 55, 119, 132\u20133, 137, 141, 149, 165\n\nNational Velvet 25\u20137, 92\n\nNazimova 14\u201315, 52\n\nNewman, Paul 109\u201310, 113\u201314, 135, 220, 286, 292\n\nNibbles and Me 28\n\nNichols, Mike 177\u201380, 186, 229\n\nNight of the Iguana, The 168\u20139, 174\n\nNight Watch 199\n\nNiven, David 95\u20136, 101, 197\n\nNorth and South 243\u20134\n\nNovak, Kim 137, 228\n\nNussbaum, Max 119\u201320\n\nNye, Carrie 200\n\nObenshaim, Richard 221\u20132\n\nOnassis, Aristotle 203\u20134, 252\n\nOnly Game in Town, The 193\u20134\n\nParks, Larry 59, 61\u20132\n\nParsons, Louella 21, 31\u20132, 51\u20132, 55, 78, 87, 153\u20134, 243\n\nPawley, William 36\u20138, 48\n\nPiaf, Edith 36, 53, 63, 76\u20137, 83, 96, 153\n\nPlace in the Sun, A 42\u20136, 49, 55, 60\u20132, 66, 70, 78\u20139, 83, 98\n\nPoker Alice 249\n\nPonti, Carlo 190, 200\u20131\n\nPresley, Elvis 12, 278\n\nPrivate Lives 234, 236\u20138\n\nProwse, Juliet 158, 172\n\nRaintree County 44, 88\u201393, 97\u2013100, 105, 109, 113, 119\n\nRamsbotham, Sir Peter 215\n\nReagan, Nancy 120, 229, 231\u20132, 256\n\nReagan, Ronald 120, 229, 231\u20132, 256\u20137\n\nReflections of a Golden Eye 171, 183\u20135\n\nReturn Engagement 221\u20132\n\nReynolds, Debbie 50, 102, 110, 111, 115\u201319, 120, 121, 127, 156, 223, 270\u20133, 282, 289, 296\n\nRhapsody 72\u20135\n\nRichardson, Tony 193\n\nRooney, Mickey 26, 50, 248\n\nRose, Helen 51, 68, 102, 112, 117, 211\n\nSam, Chen 212\n\nSandpiper, The 171\u20132, 174\u20135\n\nSchary, Dore 64, 67\u20138, 70, 78, 93\u20134\n\nSchofield, Paul 182, 186\n\nSecret Ceremony 192, 194\n\nSegal, George 171, 177\u201380, 186\n\n'Send in the Clowns' 217\n\nSkouras, Spyros 125, 131\u20134, 137\u20139, 142\u20133, 144\u20137, 159\u201360\n\nSmith, Liz 257, 259, 288, 291\n\nStein, Dennis 241\n\nStevens, George 43\u20135, 49, 78\u20139, 82\u20136, 97, 101, 135\n\nStone, Paulene 203\n\nStreisand, Barbra 171, 179, 289, 296, 297\n\nSuddenly, Last Summer 119, 122\u20134, 139, 141, 155, 177, 185, 213, 252\n\nSunset Boulevard 70, 290\n\nSweet Bird of Youth 254\n\nSwitzer, Carl 21\n\nTaming of the Shrew, The 183, 187\n\nTaylor, Francis 13, 14\u201316, 17, 18\u201319, 20, 21, 28\u20139, 32, 33, 36, 48, 49, 51, 67, 103, 136, 189, 209, 267, 278\n\nTaylor, Howard 16\u201320, 29, 51, 68, 103, 112, 209, 257\n\nTaylor, Robert 34\u20135, 60, 63, 66, 71, 98\n\nTaylor, Sara 11, 13\u201322, 24, 25, 26\u201328, 29\u201330, 32, 33, 34, 35, 37, 41, 43, 47, 50, 51, 55, 56, 62, 64, 67, 69, 103, 136, 189, 209, 253, 257, 264, 267\n\nThat's Entertainment! 209\n\nThere Must Be a Pony 248\u20139\n\nThere's One Born Every Minute 21, 263\n\nThese Old Broads 270\u20133, 275, 289\n\nThis Property Is Condemned 183\n\nTodd, Bertha 94\u20135\n\nTodd, Liza 105, 117, 120\u20131, 209, 227, 239\u201340\n\nTodd, Mike 94\u20137, 99, 101\u20137, 109, 110\u201315, 117, 119, 122, 134, 135, 138, 150, 153, 155, 168, 172, 183, 197, 208, 212, 219, 222, 223, 238, 247, 251, 262, 269, 270, 272, 284, 286, 293\n\nTorch Song 69, 73\u20134, 76\n\nTracy, Spencer 37, 49, 50, 64, 171\n\nUnder Milk Wood 196, 232\n\nUstinov, Peter 197\u20138\n\nValentino, Rudolph 14, 79, 85\n\nVictory at Entebbe 220\n\nVIPs, The 165\u20136, 171, 174\n\nWalters, Barbara 223\u20134\n\nWanger, Walter 125, 132\u20133, 148, 154\n\nWarhol, Andy 202, 220\u20131, 266, 272, 289\n\nWarner, John 215\u201317, 218\u201323, 224\u20135, 229, 231, 232, 234, 235\n\nWayne, John 60, 140\n\nWexler, Haskell 176\u20137, 179, 186\n\nWhite Cliffs of Dover, The 24\n\nWho's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? 171, 175\u201380, 184, 186, 191, 229, 234\n\nWilding, Christopher 77, 133, 197, 209, 227, 240, 253\n\nWilding, Michael 35, 64\u201371, 74\u20138, 81, 84\u20137, 90\u20134, 96\u20137, 100\u20132, 110\u201311, 119, 153, 168, 171\u20132, 227, 262\n\nWilding, Michael Howard 71, 76, 173, 195\u20139, 217, 227, 296\n\nWilliams, Emlyn 150\u20131, 170\n\nWilliams, Tennessee 119, 123, 128, 136, 155, 187\u20138, 199, 254\n\nWillson, Henry 81, 92\n\nWilson, Harold 192\n\nWinters, Jason 290\u20131\n\nWood, Natalie 11, 110\u201311, 119, 183, 228, 231\u20132, 245\n\nWynberg, Henry 202, 207, 208\u201311, 213\u201315, 218\n\nYoung, Howard 13, 15\u201316, 32, 51\n\nYoung Toscanini, The 252\n\nZahedi, Ardeshir 214\n\nZahedi, Firooz 289\u201390\n\nZanuck, Darryl 160\u20132\n\nZec, Donald 84\n\nZee and Co. 195\u20136\n\nZinneman, Fred 44, 186\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
+{"text":"\n\nDedication\n\n_For Walter_\nEpigraph\n\n_Love stole my prayer beads and gave me poetry and song_\n\n\u2014RUMI\nContents\n\n  1. _Dedication_\n  2. _Epigraph_\n  3. Contents\n  4. Prologue\n  5. PART I\n    1. 1. \"In a lightning flash from here to Vakhsh\"\n    2. 2. Samarkand\n    3. 3. On the Silk Road\n    4. 4. \"Fire fell into the world\"\n    5. 5. Konya\n    6. 6. \"I kept hearing my own name\"\n  6. PART II\n    1. 7. \"The face of the sun is Shams of Tabriz\"\n    2. 8. Separation\n    3. 9. \"I burned, I burned, I burned\"\n  7. PART III\n    1. 10. \"Last year in a red cloak . . . this year in blue\"\n    2. 11. The Fall of Baghdad\n    3. 12. \"Sing, flute!\"\n    4. 13. \"A nightingale flew away, then returned\"\n    5. 14. The Religion of Love\n    6. 15. Wedding Night\n  8. Afterword\n  9. _Acknowledgments_\n  10. _Note on Transliteration_\n  11. _Glossary of Names_\n  12. _Glossary of Terms_\n  13. _Maps_\n  14. _References_\n  15. _Notes_\n  16. _Index_\n  17. _About the Author_\n  18. _Also by Brad Gooch_\n  19. _Credits_\n  20. _Copyright_\n  21. _About the Publisher_\n\n# Guide\n\n  1. Cover\n  2. Contents\n  3. Chapter 1\n\n  1. iii\n  2. vi\n  3. vii\n  4. xi\n  5. \n  6. \n  7. \n  8. \n  9. \n  10. \n  11. \n  12. \n  13. \n  14. \n  15. \n  16. \n  17. \n  18. \n  19. \n  20. \n  21. \n  22. \n  23. \n  24. \n  25. \n  26. \n  27. \n  28. \n  29. \n  30. \n  31. \n  32. \n  33. \n  34. \n  35. \n  36. \n  37. \n  38. \n  39. \n  40. \n  41. \n  42. \n  43. \n  44. \n  45. \n  46. \n  47. \n  48. \n  49. \n  50. \n  51. \n  52. \n  53. \n  54. \n  55. \n  56. \n  57. \n  58. \n  59. \n  60. \n  61. \n  62. \n  63. \n  64. \n  65. \n  66. \n  67. \n  68. \n  69. \n  70. \n  71. \n  72. \n  73. \n  74. \n  75. \n  76. \n  77. \n  78. \n  79. \n  80. \n  81. \n  82. \n  83. \n  84. \n  85. \n  86. \n  87. \n  88. \n  89. \n  90. \n  91. \n  92. \n  93. \n  94. \n  95. \n  96. \n  97. \n  98. \n  99. \n  100. \n  101. \n  102. \n  103. \n  104. \n  105. \n  106. \n  107. \n  108. \n  109. \n  110. \n  111. \n  112. \n  113. \n  114. \n  115. \n  116. \n  117. \n  118. \n  119. \n  120. \n  121. \n  122. \n  123. \n  124. \n  125. \n  126. \n  127. \n  128. \n  129. \n  130. \n  131. \n  132. \n  133. \n  134. \n  135. \n  136. \n  137. \n  138. \n  139. \n  140. \n  141. \n  142. \n  143. \n  144. \n  145. \n  146. \n  147. \n  148. \n  149. \n  150. \n  151. \n  152. \n  153. \n  154. \n  155. \n  156. \n  157. \n  158. \n  159. \n  160. \n  161. \n  162. \n  163. \n  164. \n  165. \n  166. \n  167. \n  168. \n  169. \n  170. \n  171. \n  172. \n  173. \n  174. \n  175. \n  176. \n  177. \n  178. \n  179. \n  180. \n  181. \n  182. \n  183. \n  184. \n  185. \n  186. \n  187. \n  188. \n  189. \n  190. \n  191. \n  192. \n  193. \n  194. \n  195. \n  196. \n  197. \n  198. \n  199. \n  200. \n  201. \n  202. \n  203. \n  204. \n  205. \n  206. \n  207. \n  208. \n  209. \n  210. \n  211. \n  212. \n  213. \n  214. \n  215. \n  216. \n  217. \n  218. \n  219. \n  220. \n  221. \n  222. \n  223. \n  224. \n  225. \n  226. \n  227. \n  228. \n  229. \n  230. \n  231. \n  232. \n  233. \n  234. \n  235. \n  236. \n  237. \n  238. \n  239. \n  240. \n  241. \n  242. \n  243. \n  244. \n  245. \n  246. \n  247. \n  248. \n  249. \n  250. \n  251. \n  252. \n  253. \n  254. \n  255. \n  256. \n  257. \n  258. \n  259. \n  260. \n  261. \n  262. \n  263. \n  264. \n  265. \n  266. \n  267. \n  268. \n  269. \n  270. \n  271. \n  272. \n  273. \n  274. \n  275. \n  276. \n  277. \n  278. \n  279. \n  280. \n  281. \n  282. \n  283. \n  284. \n  285. \n  286. \n  287. \n  288. \n  289. \n  290. \n  291. \n  292. \n  293. \n  294. \n  295. \n  296. \n  297. \n  298. \n  299. \n  300. \n  301. \n  302. \n  303. \n  304. \n  305. \n  306. \n  307. \n  308. \n  309. \n  310. \n  311. \n  312. \n  313. \n  314. \n  315. \n  316. \n  317. \n  318. \n  319. \n  320. \n  321. \n  322. \n  323. \n  324. \n  325. \n  326. \n  327. \n  328. \n  329. \n  330. \n  331. \n  332. \n  333. \n  334. \n  335. \n  336. \n  337. \n  338. \n  339. \n  340. \n  341. \n  342. \n  343. \n  344. \n  345. \n  346. \n  347. \n  348. \n  349. \n  350. \n  351. \n  352. \n  353. \n  354. \n  355. \n  356. \n  357. \n  358. \n  359. \n  360. \n  361. \n  362. \n  363. \n  364. \n  365. \n  366. \n  367. \n  368. \n  369. \n  370. \n  371. \n  372. \n  373. \n  374. \n  375. \n  376. \n  377. \n  378. \n  379. \n  380. \n  381. \n  382. \n  383.\n\n_Prologue_\n\nONE Friday morning, I wandered, nearly alone, through the Grand Bazaar, in Aleppo, Syria. Most of the shops in the usually frenetic indoor market\u2014a warren of dank crosshatching passageways, lined by fluorescent-lit counters piled high with figs, pistachios, djellabas, even toy trucks and cleaning products\u2014were closing for noonday services. I could already see clumps of men depositing their scuffed shoes outside the Umayyad Mosque, its stately courtyard with old square brick minaret, tilted slightly to the right, visible through a pointed archway admitting a shaft of warm sunlight. It was nearly the beginning of springtime, March 18, 2011, and by day's end, unanticipated by me, as well as a surprise to most of the world, a Syrian civil uprising would erupt that within a few years would destroy much of this medieval bazaar and the historic mosque thriving nearby.\n\nThe only sounds in the bazaar that morning, though, were the cooing of doves, fluttering in stone ceilings vaulted high above a darkened second story, and the clanging shut of a few shop grates. Taking advantage of this pause in all the jostling, I pulled out a little notebook and began drawing a map, trying to figure out the architecture extant from the thirteenth century, when the young Rumi had been a student in this thrumming Arabic trading town. I was penciling in an axial line for the straight street east to west, when a black-haired twenty-something-year-old, pedaling by on his bike, came to a sharp stop.\n\n\"Where are you from?\" he asked in impeccable British English.\n\n\"America.\"\n\n\"Are you a spy?\" he said, pointing toward my notebook.\n\nNo sooner did I shoot him an alarmed look than he broke into an infectious \"just kidding\" giggle. \"Sebastian,\" as he told me his name was, quickly filled in that he had been schooled in England and was now home helping his family with their carpet shop. When he poked for more information about my note taking, I started filling in quickly, too.\n\n\"I'm writing a biography of Rumi . . . the Persian Sufi poet . . . he's famous now in . . .\"\n\nI didn't need to continue spelling out the ABCs of Rumi's life. Sebastian was jolted by my response and erupted into a swoon of rapid questions and comments.\n\n\"You're writing about Rumi? He's one of my favorite two or three poets in the entire world. He reminds me of your American poet Whitman because he's so universal!\"\n\nNow I, too, was surprised. Not only was Sebastian one of Rumi's passionate fans, but he also made an apt comparison, which had never occurred to me, with Whitman, likewise a poet of epic intimacy. As we walked a few more steps together, he startled me even more by breaking into a flawless recitation of the opening of Rumi's major poem, _Masnavi_ , not in the original Persian, as I might have guessed, but in singsong stanzas translated in the last century by the eminent orientalist Cambridge don R. A. Nicholson:\n\n_Hearken to this reed forlorn_ ,\n\n_Breathing, ever since was torn_\n\n_From its rushy bed, a strain_\n\n_Of impassioned love and pain_\n\nThe lines were lovely, if dated, and created a heady effect. But their curious spell didn't last. Sebastian needed to get back to his pile of camel hair carpets and Ottoman blue tiles.\n\n\"Rumi is in a small group of the greatest poets of all time,\" he said, as his parting thought. \"Why? Because, like Whitman, or like Shakespeare, he never tells his secret!\"\n\nAfter slipping me his business card, he was gone, a silhouette riding his bike through many receding arches, past the shuttered shops of the spice and jewelry markets.\n\nI instantly felt as if Sebastian, with his dashed, provocative comment, had also handed me\u2014as we stood on that basalt slab walkway in the deserted souk\u2014an important passkey to the poetry, life, and thought of Rumi. For just a few lines further along in the same poem that he had practically been singing to me, Rumi's reed flute itself sings:\n\n_The secret of my song, though near_ ,\n\n_None can see and none can hear_\n\nAnd then, plangently:\n\n_Oh, for a friend to know the sign_\n\n_And mingle all his soul with mine!_\n\nYes, I thought. Rumi did have secrets\u2014personal, poetic, and theological\u2014that he was always both revealing and concealing. His was a life full of both mystery and meaning.\n\nI was in town investigating one piece of the life of Rumi, who had likely been a theological student in Aleppo in the 1230s, perhaps at the former college, which I could just make out across the black-and-white marbled square. Yet I'd been in thrall to Rumi for much longer, beginning with the seductive lines of his verse. For years the poems of Rumi were my steady pleasure, ever since discovering a paperback of translations by A. J. Arberry\u2014a student of Nicholson's at Cambridge\u2014on a friend's bookshelf in Miami. I spent most of a week's visit reading one after another, drawn in by their ecstatic imagery, if not always understanding their mesh of flashes of wisdom on human and divine love:\n\n_I am the black cloud in the night of grief who_\n\n_Gladdened the day of festival_.\n\n_I am the amazing earth who out of the fire of love_\n\n_Filled with air the brain of the sky_.\n\nA decade later I found myself among a group of young Muslim Americans in a Sufi group\u2014the mystical branch of Islam\u2014as I was researching a chapter about Islam in New York City for my book _Godtalk_. We met Friday evenings in a modest apartment on the Upper West Side of Manhattan. By then Rumi was something of a sensation in America, similar to the craze, in Victorian England, for Omar Khayyam (\"A Jug of Wine, a Loaf of Bread\u2014and Thou!\"). Because of popular translations by Coleman Barks, _Time_ magazine labeled Rumi the \"best-selling poet in the U.S.\" Extraordinarily prolific, he had indeed composed a six-book spiritual epic, as well as over three thousand lyric _ghazals_ and two thousand four-line _robais_.\n\nBut this circle was less interested in the compelling single lines of verse (\"Out beyond ideas of wrongdoing and rightdoing \/ there is a field. I'll meet you there\"\u2014in Barks's famous version) than with meditations their leader read aloud from Rumi's talks, transcribed and collected in a book titled, simply, _Fihe ma fih_ , or _In It Is What Is in It_ :\n\nIf you accustom yourself to speak well of others, you are always in a paradise. When you do a good deed for someone else you become a friend to him, and whenever he thinks of you he will think of you as a friend\u2014and thinking of a friend is as restful as a flower garden.\n\nTogether the group constituted a Noah's Ark of stripes and strains of Muslims in America, and from these young men and women of Central Asian, Pakistani, Middle Eastern, North African, Turkish, European, or Canadian background, I learned much more about Rumi's life story, and the importance of his religious background and beliefs.\n\nThe map of Rumi's life stretches over 2,500 miles, and I soon began to travel, trying to put a face and a place to this name and ecstatic style glowing in my mind. I spent two summers\u2014in Austin, Texas, and Madison, Wisconsin\u2014in intensive Persian programs, getting closer to his native language, and beginning to translate his elusive poetry, as all the translations in this biography are mine in collaboration with the Iranian-American writer Maryam Mortaz. I visited Samarkand, in Uzbekistan, the site of a traumatic siege during his boyhood. I followed the old Silk Road into Iran, thinking of the adolescent Rumi, traveling west with his family, lulled to sleep by the tinkling saddle bells and Arabic love songs of the camel drivers on endless caravans. I stood at dusk on the bare, rocky rise of Mount Qasiyun, overlooking Damascus\u2014for the mature Rumi, \"paradise on earth.\" I was struck by similarities between his own violent and tumultuous times and our own. I also realized that all the dots of his life might never be connected, some secrets remaining intact. For this mystic of eight hundred years ago, poems were occasionally our only hard facts.\n\nInterest in Rumi inevitably leads to Konya, in south-central Turkey, where he lived most of the nearly fifty years of his adult life. I visited Konya on the most auspicious and crowded week of the commemoration of Rumi's death, spun by him in advance as his \"Wedding Night,\" on December 17, 1273. My guide was a raven-haired Turkish woman, in her early twenties, drawn to Sufism by reading a popular Turkish novel about Rumi. One afternoon she drove me to a thirteenth-century Seljuk inn, or caravanserai, the stone remains of its courtyard and stables outlined against the sky of a flat, grassy Anatolian steppe\u2014like so many where Rumi had lodged. Having passed a peripatetic boyhood, he found in these way stations a metaphor for human experience:\n\n_The mind is a caravanserai_\n\n_Each morning, new guests arrive . . ._\n\n_All thoughts, happy or sad_ ,\n\n_Are guests. Welcome them_.\n\nOn our way back into Konya, rising on its outskirts like a punctuation mark of devotion to Rumi, not only as a poet but also as a saint, was the turquoise-tiled cylindrical tower, wrapped in a band of blue-and-gold calligraphy, of his shrine. The burial site is a rose garden, given as a gift for his father's tomb by their patron, the Seljuk Sultan Alaoddin Kayqobad I. Along with the nearly five thousand daily visitors, I filed through the chamber, crowded with women sobbing and praying, drawing scarves devoutly over their heads, while men and boys read aloud from books of his poetry, murmuring the words in Persian or Turkish. Rumi's elevated tomb, covered in gold-embroidered black velvet, is placed near those of sixty-five members of his immediate family, including his second wife.\n\nMy guide finally dropped me at a private home, for a gathering for whirling, the dance central to Rumi's own meditating. I was stopped at the door and said the password \" _zekr_ ,\" a word for Sufi prayer I'd learned at the Manhattan group. Inside, one by one, men and women whirled on a low table, in a heat of fast drumbeats. The next night I attended the more official ceremony, or _sama_ , at a stadium-size venue, where dozens of \"whirling dervishes\" in tan felt tombstone hats, accompanied by flutes and drums, shed their black woolen cloaks, looking, as they spun, like white flowers opening, or orbiting planets. Like his contemporary Francis of Assisi, whose Franciscan Order cohered mostly after his death, Rumi's circle only later became a standard Sufi order\u2014the Mevlevis\u2014and his practice of meditating while spinning to music was codified into this elegant dance.\n\nDuring the week in 1273 that we were commemorating, Konya had been keyed up, too, with much of the population on a deathwatch for the sixty-six-year-old Rumi\u2014who was as much a public figure as a mystic and poet. His chambers had been hushed for months, except for the mewing of a favorite cat. In those final days, Rumi's thoughts were often on Shams, the transformative friend he felt had opened spiritual dimensions of love and creativity for him\u2014the supposed site of their meeting now marked by a modest octagonal glass and turquoise-painted metal shrine, resembling a bus stop, on Konya's main boulevard. On his deathbed, Rumi had murmured that while loved ones pulled at him to remain alive, Shams \"calls me from the other side.\" And he dictated a number of urgent poems about his impending death, conveying fresh, upbeat messages, including the joyfully brash lines that we visitors could now study carved into the ornate calligraphy of his sarcophagus:\n\n_If you visit my grave_\n\n_My tomb will make you dance_\n\n_Be sure to bring a tambourine_\n\nRumi's funeral on a gray December day was more like the heated frenzy of whirling I'd witnessed in the Sufi home rather than in the official _sama_ ceremony. The turbulent procession originated in his home and school, a site now occupied\u2014as pointed out to me by the director of the Mevlana Museum\u2014by a flimsy, pale-blue, modern apartment house slated for demolition. Rumi's coffin was carried forth in the morning and did not arrive at the rose garden until sunset, its lid needing to be replaced after being torn off by mourners. Following behind, bareheaded, were not only Muslim imams, Quran reciters, bands of musicians playing tambourines and trumpets Sufi-style, as well as singers of Rumi's odes, but also Jewish rabbis, reciting psalms, and Christian priests, reading from the Gospels. They passed through the turreted walls of Konya, which endured into the early twentieth century but have since been reduced to a lonely gate here, some stonework there, such as the archway nearest to the rose garden, still intact, in the midst of a busy traffic circle.\n\nAttending those services, which extended long into the night and still stand out in Konya's civic history, was Eraqi, a Sufi poet, not a close friend of Rumi's, more of an acquaintance. On his way out of the cemetery, and over the years whenever asked, his takeaway remark on Rumi voiced an essential insight that had been echoed, too, unintentionally, by Sebastian in the Aleppo bazaar and remains a through-line in history: \"No one understood him properly. He came into this world as a stranger, and he left as a stranger.\"\nPART I\nCHAPTER 1\n\n_\"In a lightning flash from here to Vakhsh\"_\n\nWHEN Rumi was five years old, he saw angels and would occasionally jump up and grow agitated at these visions. A few of the students gathered around his father, Baha Valad, then held the boy to their chests to try to calm him. \"These are angels from the unseen world,\" his father reassured him. \"They are showing themselves to you to offer you their favors and they have brought visible and invisible gifts for you.\" He emphasized that these unsettling episodes were nothing to fear but a sign of being blessed.\n\nBaha Valad also recalled neighborhood children once visiting his son, when he was about five or six years old, on their rooftop on a Friday morning. \"Let's jump from this roof to the other roof!\" a friend shouted. They made a wager on the daring feat, just as his son, scoffing at their game, somehow vanished, causing a clamor. When he reappeared, a few minutes later, he announced, \"While I was talking to you, I saw some people in green robes. They took me away and helped me to fly and showed me the sky and the planets. When I heard your shouts and screams, they brought me back.\" This report of a mystical adventure cinched his status among his amazed group of playmates.\n\nIn several such stories about Rumi's early childhood passed down from his father and his father's pupils, a coherent picture emerges that is consistent with the boy who saw angels yet managed often enough to stay a step ahead of his peers. The young Rumi was sensitive, nervous, and excitable, but he was also clever, warm, and engaging. The warmth emanated from a family life that he experienced as positive and loving. As he later wrote, \"Love is your father and your family.\" He was eagerly absorbed in childhood fantasy and imagination, yet, given his family and community, this invisible world was mostly religiously tinged. Descended from a line of eminent preachers, his father assumed that his precocious son would follow in his footsteps to the mosque _minbar_ , or pulpit.\n\nWhile aspiring later in life to the ecstatic condition of having \"no name,\" Rumi was truly a boy, and man, wrapped in layers of names and titles. His given name was Mohammad, like his father, and like so many of the boys in his neighborhood. Because the name was so common\u2014if glorified\u2014nicknames were useful, such as \"Khodavandgar,\" a title usually reserved for adult spiritual leaders or seers, as the term was Persian for \"Lord\" or \"Master,\" which his father conferred on him soon after he began seeing angels. Another of Rumi's honorifics, likewise given by his father, \"Jalaloddin,\" means \"Splendor of the Faith.\" In an account in one of his notebooks, Baha Valad tenderly referred to his son as \"My Jalaloddin Mohammad.\" Later in life he tended to be addressed with the title \"Mowlana,\" for \"Our Master\" or \"Our Teacher.\" Indeed \"Rumi,\" the single name by which he is now known\u2014derived from \"Rum,\" or \"Rome,\" referring to Byzantium, the eastern half of the Roman Empire, including present-day Turkey, where he spent most of his adult life\u2014was used for identifying him by few, if any, during his lifetime.\n\nLike most young children, until puberty Rumi spent his earliest childhood years behind the protective walls of the harem, a more intimate and separate domain in a traditional Muslim household, where the women lived and walked about unveiled. He stayed not only with his mother, Momene, about whom little is known, though she was later credited with the honor of descent from the house of the Prophet Mohammad, but also with his father's other wives, his difficult paternal grandmother, \"Mami,\" whom Baha Valad complained about in his diaries, for her \"mean temper . . . always screaming, yelling, and fighting,\" and a nanny, Nosob, with whom he was especially close. Given the intricate dynamics of multiple wives, Rumi had both siblings and half-siblings. His older brother, Alaoddin, was born to Rumi's mother two years before him. He also had an older married sister, Fateme, and at least one half-brother, Hosayn. Rumi was the youngest, as his father was already in his early fifties when he was born.\n\nAccording to Baha Valad's diaries, he was living with his family in Vakhsh, on the banks of the Vakhsh River, in present-day Tajikistan, when Rumi was born on September 30, 1207. Both vital water source and geographical marker for this somewhat obscure town, the Vakhsh River flowed down from the Pamir Mountains\u2014dubbed the \"Roof of the World\" by the Persians\u2014replenished by glaciers, then cut its way nearly five hundred miles southward to disappear into the broader river whose name it vaguely echoed, the Oxus. The Oxus served as a vast natural divide in Central Asia, now the border between Tajikistan and northern Afghanistan, or, in Rumi's time, between Transoxania, \"the lands beyond the Oxus,\" and Greater Khorasan, the eastern half of the old Persian Empire.\n\nVakhsh was a modest one-mosque town, memorable for its stone bridge spanning a deep gorge of the river. The entire valley remained true to its description by one Muslim geographer as \"very fertile, and famous for its fine horses and sumpter beasts; having many great towns on the banks of its numerous streams, where corn lands and fruit orchards gave abundant crops.\" Its soft green fields were filled with willow and mulberry trees, and irises and crocuses in spring. Beyond Vakhsh to the mountainous north and east, in the direction of China, were trade routes, where caravans descended bringing slaves to market, as well as musk, the aroma of male deer, a coveted ingredient in perfume, synonymous in Rumi's poetry with spiritual awakening\u2014\"your sweet scent.\"\n\nWhen asked in future travels about their origins, Rumi's family tended to say they were \"from Balkh,\" the capital of the Balkh region\u2014of which Vakhsh was an outpost\u2014on the southern shore of the Oxus River, in modern-day Afghanistan\u2014and so the phrase \"al-Balkhi\" became yet another tag attached to Rumi. This better-known city helped fix them on the map, as Balkh, known by the Arabs as \"Mother of Cities,\" was one of four capitals of Khorasan, its round central town with over two dozen mosques fortified by triple-gated walls, its markets stocked with oranges, lilies, and sugarcane. Living in Vakhsh between 1204 and 1210, Baha Valad still claimed ties to this metropolis, as Rumi's great-grandfather led Friday prayers and gave the official sermon in one of its largest mosques.\n\nRumi matured into the boldest of believers in the oneness of the \"religion of lovers,\" and few areas could have offered as nurturing (if regularly violent) an experience of religious diversity as Central Asia in these early years of the thirteenth century. Fittingly, he came of age on the edge of several cultures, several languages, and many living faiths. As he insisted, \"If he is Turk or Tajik, I am close to him.\" In the vicinity of Balkh, for instance, were the ruins of a Zoroastrian fire temple, its priests known as Magi, which had itself been converted from a Buddhist monastery. (Zoroastrianism was the imperial religion of the Persians before the Arab Muslim invasions of the seventh century.) Rumi noticed, a bit subversively, in a later poem, the quality of divinity to transcend divisions, when he wrote, \"Why is divine light glowing in this Magi Temple?\"\n\nThe adult Rumi liked to tell his students of a mystic Sufi of Balkh so used to bolting upright at the call to prayer that on his deathbed, when he heard the chant wailed from the minaret, he stood. Recurring in his poems, too, was Ebrahim ebn Adham, the so-called \"Buddha of Balkh,\" an eighth-century Muslim prince who earned his epithet by giving up his kingdom for a life of poverty, and traveling off toward Mecca and Syria:\n\n_Joyful Prince ebn Adham rode his horse away_\n\n_Turning that day into a great king of justice_\n\nThe rising smoke of Zoroastrian holy fires, Buddhist renunciation, and the colorful mystics of Balkh all show up faintly in Rumi's later poetry, like a palimpsest of his childhood in Central Asia, registering the different influences he assimilated naturally.\n\nRumi looked to his father with the admiring and idealizing eyes of a young boy, and strikingly continued to exhibit that attitude well into adulthood. Baha Valad was the single most important influence on his son during the first half of his life, not only emotionally, but spiritually and intellectually, as well. As a little boy, Rumi would watch as his father stood and repeated over and over, \"Allah, Allah, Allah,\" as he himself would pray as a grown man, in a loud voice, during the long nights, his head resting against a wall. He so devotedly studied and recopied his father's personal meditations\u2014written during their time in Vakhsh\u2014that he was able to recite large prose swathes by heart.\n\nYet Baha Valad was more complex than the figure idolized by his son, and, as his diaries revealed, more transparently human. Tall, big boned, and strong, he was a compelling, argumentative figure, full of great spiritual longing and honest outpourings, but also susceptible to tremendous pride and ambition. Rumi once told his students a story of Baha Valad, so rapt at the set time for prayer that he had forgotten to turn his prayer rug to Mecca. Two of his pupils paid him the ultimate respect of continuing to face his back rather than turning their own rugs in the proper direction. Adoringly, Rumi concluded that his pious father had been \"the light of God.\" His father did inspire such feelings, but for some, especially during his years in Vakhsh, he could also arouse dismissive ire.\n\nBaha Valad's main work was as an occasional preacher, as well as a Sunni jurist, grounded in the moderate Hanafi School of law that allowed for personal reasoning in decision making. Popular in Central Asia, the Hanafi approach was followed by his family, and eventually by Rumi. As Baha Valad was not the main preacher at the mosque, he did not deliver the Friday sermons, as his more celebrated grandfather had in Balkh. Instead he spoke on weekdays and taught a circle of young men to whom he was committed for spiritual direction. He was strict and insisted on fasting, proper washing before the daily ritual prayers, and tithing for the poor. When a group of local Sufis slept in the sanctuary to be closer to God, Baha Valad lectured them the next day on the commonsensical virtues of a good night's rest at home rather than pursuing such bliss. Sufism was the mystical branch of Islam, and while Baha Valad was close to the Sufis in many of his spiritual practices, teachings, and writings, he was not publicly identified simply as a Sufi and could be more insistent on keeping to religious rules and regulations.\n\nEach morning Baha Valad sat in the mosque, flattered by the respectful _salam_ s of the worshipers. He passed some of the rest of his day walking the streets, engaging with the townspeople. He advised the town clown to become a vegetable peddler, so that he might live a more honest life and become pure and sincere. He spoke with a local astrologer about the limits of his predictions, and with a silk weaver about the power of the Islamic prophets. He spent enough time in the bazaar to be able to tell yellow Baghdad glass from crimson Samarkand and the round crystal flasks of Bukhara; or to consider the merits of violet-root with sugar over crushed birdlime for a stomachache. He watched as villagers picked mulberry leaves to feed their silkworms to make cocoons.\n\nThe current events and issues of Central Asia all filtered through Baha Valad's alert, theological intelligence as he sifted for morals and lessons. Temple statues of Hindu deities\u2014dragons, snakes, scorpions\u2014fascinated him as he wondered if a graphic illustration of a thief with his head stuck in the mouth of a fiery dragon, or a traitor eaten by a snake, frightened Hindus enough to prevent them from practicing vices. He was disturbed to learn of an ancient clitoridectomy initiation practiced on women in Muslim Turkic tribes in the Khotan region of China, though his horror over the ceremony mostly concerned the scandal of uncovered women, public lovemaking, and wine drinking.\n\nBaha Valad possessed a healthy sexual appetite, both a delight and a challenge. Waking up one dawn to the sound of a barking dog, his eyes fell on his wife \"Bibi Alavi,\" perhaps a pet name for Rumi's mother, and, aroused by her, he wondered, \"This arousal was also caused by God. So why did I have a feeling of torment and distraction?\" Another wife put him in mind of the virgins of paradise: \"Maybe like the morning I had a sensation when I was embracing the daughter of Judge Sharaf, and kissing her lips, and joyfully holding her. I saw that her skirt was rolling up, like a little girl's. She kept saying, 'Oh, God!' The same God who at that moment made my spirit happy.\" He reconciled any conflict over being distracted from God by feminine sensuality, unusually, when he wrote, \"Embrace God, and God will hug you to his bosom, and kiss you.\"\n\nYet Baha Valad was pained by the limits of small-town life, and beneath the pleasures of the daily round he chafed at his rank. He experienced Vakhsh as an exile. His conviction of his importance in the spiritual scheme of things did not match his post at a minor mosque. \"I began to wonder, why Vakhsh?\" he vented in his journal. \"Others are in Samarkand, or Baghdad, or Balkh, or other glorious cities. I'm stuck in this bare, boring, and forgotten corner!\" And he confessed misgivings that he knew revealed a lack of a deep faith: \"Sometimes I feel as if I'm a king without a kingdom, a judge without authority, a man of position without a position, and a wealthy man without any money.\"\n\nBaha Valad backed up his sense of destiny with a grand title that he attached to his signature\u2014\"Sultan al-Olama,\" or \"King of the Clerics.\" Supposedly this title came to at least one of his friends and students in a dream. In this shared dream, a radiant old man stood on a hill and called out \"King of the Clerics!\" to Baha Valad, inviting him to make his true status known to the whole world. A eunuch servant from Merv told him of a similar dream of his exaltation, and of crowds shouting in acclamation. And a Turk dreamed of him leading hundreds in Friday prayer. Yet when Baha Valad used his lofty title to sign a _fatwa_ , or legal ruling by a religious scholar on questions of Islamic jurisprudence, the judge of Vakhsh dismissively crossed it out.\n\nBaha Valad had a number of exalted enemies, if only in his own mind. One was Khwarazmshah, the ruler of much of Khorasan after his conquests of 1204. Baha Valad labeled him a religious \"deviant,\" an insult that might have explained his unimportant post in Vakhsh, if expressed publicly. Even more heated was his dislike of the king's favorite preacher, Fakhroddin Razi of Herat, whose preaching the king so loved that he stationed a representative in regal gold cap and belt, as a seal of approval, at the foot of any pulpit where Razi appeared. Baha Valad did not hide his envy when a friend described being present when Razi, known for bringing his congregation to tears, spoke with barely enough room for the many listeners who entered to hear him, all bearing candles.\n\nYet Baha Valad's aversion was not only a matter of petty jealousy. Known by the title \"Chief of the Skeptics,\" Razi used his defense of reason and science, which made him a famous scholar, as well, in a vendetta directed against Sufis and other mystics. To convince Khwarazmshah, Razi once staged an elaborate hoax. He dressed the king's stablemen in Sufi robes, surrounded with extras posing as disciples. When the king solicited their spiritual advice, Razi exposed his prank, illustrating the potential for charlatanism in such claims. The lesson stuck, as Khwarazmshah ordered a leading Sufi drowned in the Oxus a decade later\u2014an obvious threat to men such as Rumi's father.\n\nWhen he later wished to personify reckless use of power, Rumi, in poems and talks, reached back to Khwarazmshah and, as the very symbol of intellect befuddled by logic rather than love, Razi\u2014the two men his father classified as \"useless\" philosophers, comparing them to locusts. Some consolation to both father and son was Razi's change of heart as he neared death, in 1209. The skeptic had dramatically reproached himself for devoting his life to logical sciences that did not lead to truth. In a deathbed \"Testament,\" Razi admitted that he had studied philosophical methods, \"But I have not found in them either satisfaction or comfort to equal which I have found in reading the Quran.\" Rumi made a vignette of this deathbed scene from his childhood in Book IV of his _Masnavi_ :\n\n_That philosopher on the day of his death_\n\n_Saw intellect as a tree with no fruit or leaves_\n\nBaha Valad was hardly averse to conflict and spent hours, and piled up hundreds of manuscript pages, settling such scores. (If his son had not heard rants against Razi as a boy, he could have relived them by reading later.) Yet he also had a remarkably soft core, a delicacy of sentiment, as he expressed musings, prayers, and dreams, which revealed hints of an extraordinary spirit. He loved music and visualized his prayers as songs played singly by a small, stringed, violin-like rabab, tambourine, and flute, and then by all three. Awaking one morning, he imagined himself as a tree beginning to branch with eyesight, to flower with feelings, to bear fruit with prayer, and to touch the skies with language. Cutting a loaf of bread, he retraced in his mind its cycle from wheat to grist to oven. He recorded a dream of learning the secret language of a flock of large white flying birds.\n\nThis journal was Baha Valad's most durable gift to his son. After his father's death, when Rumi was in his mid-twenties, he was emboldened to listen for internal guidance by the divine messages included in the manuscript, such as Baha Valad's record of fears of failure, revealed by the voice of God to be in fact a test of his fortitude. As he had transcribed into his journal: \"God inspired me with this thought: 'If you are with Me, I will be your companion. You won't be in any one place\u2014not Vakhsh, nor Baghdad, nor Samarkand. You won't be with anyone, nor will you be outwardly adorned.'\"\n\nRumi also borrowed material from his father. Baha Valad's commentary on a passage in the Quran on the four birds God uses to prove to Abraham that He can resurrect the dead is spun in the _Masnavi_ into over a thousand lines on the duck of greed, rooster of lust, peacock of pride, and crow of avarice. Inherited, too, was his bold and confessional voice, an intimate yell. Baha Valad experienced a midlife crisis in Vakhsh, and his articulation of its dark nights remained vibrant: \"I will be fifty-five years old on the first day of Ramadan. I've heard my life span will be another ten years, since the average life span is sixty to seventy years. When I added up ten years, I found that would amount to 3,600 days. I want to be sure to spend those 3,600 days in the best way . . . remembering the splendor and greatness of God.\"\n\nThe dominant force in his son's emotional and even literary development, Baha Valad was not Rumi's sole influence, though, as the world of Khorasan was rife with stimulation for a boy with an active imagination and an early curiosity about matters spiritual and heroic. Trances and the supernatural were popular elements in the storytelling culture that filtered through Vakhsh and Balkh, both for entertainment, or when shared by wandering holy men, for moral wisdom. Fantastical tales were retold, embroidered, and exchanged among Rumi and his friends. Favorites were stories of good and evil genies, demons and angels, as well as the exploits of legendary kings and princes, judges and warriors. Within earshot, too, were teasing riddles, jokes, and obscene remarks or curses that were particularly colorful. Even as an adult, Rumi could startle by occasionally letting fly with the common Khorasani insult \"You brother of a whore!\"\n\nThe most persistent of these boyhood spells was cast on Rumi by the animal fables of friendship and betrayal collected in the famed tale collection _Kalile and Demne_ named for its vivid pair of squabbling jackals. Dating back at least as far as the ancient Sanskrit _Panchatantra_ , these enchanting tales were translated in the sixth century into Pahlavi Persian, and then into early Modern Persian in the eleventh century by Nasrullah, as \"The Fables of Bidpai.\" The stories had such force that when the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad conceived an ambitious project to translate the Greek and Persian classics into Arabic, _Kalile and Demne_ was among the first\u2014an edition popular in Rumi's time.\n\nThe Arabic and Persian collections hung on the pretext of a Sassanian emperor hearing rumors of the existence of an ancient book of wisdom for rulers hidden at the court of an Indian king, and dispatching his learned physician to surreptitiously copy down its stories, with the help of a wise sage. The tales often cleverly open up into other tales-within-tales. Animating all the plot trickery is a bestiary of scampering, cognizant species: a hare outwits a lion, luring him to dive into his own reflection in a well; a crow shuttles a mouse, nearly trapped in the nets of a hunter, to the safety of a tortoise pond.\n\nRumi showed how avidly he absorbed these stories when he revisited them in the last two decades of his life while composing his _Masnavi_ , described by one literary scholar as \"a grand Storybook.\" Early in Book I, he unrolls its tale of the crafty hare outwitting a powerful and arrogant lion, in nearly five hundred lines of verse, baldly introduced:\n\n_Go ask Kalile about that story_\n\n_And seek out the moral there_\n\nIn Rumi's adaptation, the story transforms into a debate on faith and works. In Book II appears the fox from _Kalile_ , tearing down a hollow drum hanging from a tree branch, believing its rattling in the wind is the sound of an edible pig. In Book IV, the three great fish of _Kalile_ \u2014one wise, one clever, one stupid\u2014meet differing outcomes at the hook of the fisherman, with a caveat from Rumi that his storytelling is strategic:\n\n_You must have read the story in_ Kalile\n\n_That was the husk, this is the kernel_\n\nThe cautionary tale of the three fish leads him to meditate on wisdom as a solitary path, as the surviving fish had figured out his escape on his own, through independent thinking.\n\nThe other monumental storyline for Persian-speaking adults and children, especially in Khorasan, was set in marble in the epic _Shahname_ , or _The Book of Kings_ , written in the eleventh century by Ferdowsi, in the rhyming-couplet _masnavi_ form that Rumi would use for his own spiritual epic. A mythologized history of the Persians from Creation until the toppling of the Sassanid Dynasty, the poem is set in the land of Rumi's birth. Like Greece and Troy in the _Iliad_ , the opposing sides in this heroic tale, which is described in the _Shahname_ 's second third, are Turan, in Transoxania, and Iran, already another name for Persia, in Khorasan, with the river Oxus as the divide between the two fighting clans. At a climactic moment, the Iranian king Khosrow rides his black stallion across the Oxus to the amazement of a boatman, who exclaims: \"No one has ever seen horsemen in full armor crossing the river in the height of spring!\"\n\nRumi's imagination was filled with the kings and princes of _Shahname_ , its fathers and sons. In his lyric poems, the mythic fourth king of the world, Jamshid, again \"sets the world on fire,\" and he evokes the evil Zahhak, snakes coiled on each shoulder:\n\n_Anywhere you find anger, you will also see pride_\n\n_If you're happy with these snakes, turn into Zahhak_\n\nRumi was most smitten with Rostam, son of Zal, who excelled, Hercules-like, at completing seven labors while riding his mighty steed Rakhsh. (In the tragedy at the heart of the poem, a reversal of _Oedipus Rex_ , Rostam unknowingly kills his son in battle.) Rostam was to become his epitome of the spiritual hero, comparable to Joseph, or Ali:\n\n_When the perfume of your grace arrives_\n\n_All Zals become Rostams, ready for battle_\n\nThese heroes from Rumi's boyhood became familiar presences scattered throughout his work. Yet he was never nostalgic. He looked back on his childhood in Khorasan as a stage of development in learning to see through surface to meaning. To be a boy was to ask literal questions, about how two jackals could speak, or how a moon could fill an elephant with fear. As a man, his subject became \"meanings inside,\" and mature heroism:\n\n_The hero gives a wooden sword to his son_\n\n_Until he learns to use a real battle sword_\n\n_Human love is a wooden sword_\n\n_Until he learns to battle hurt with mercy_.\n\nBetween 1210 and 1212, Baha Valad finally resolved to leave Vakhsh. His motives might have been political. The cities and towns of Transoxania were forever being sequestered and reclaimed in shifting territorial allegiances, mostly between the Khwarazmshah and other dynasties, such as the Ghurids, from a central province in Afghanistan. The king of Ghur ruled in Vakhsh during at least part of the stay of his family; when this king came to town in 1204 to settle a policy dispute with a minor vizier, Baha Valad remained neutral, invoking uncertainty about the ultimate will of God.\n\nYet Baha Valad did not need an excuse to abandon Vakhsh. Near the end of his family's stay in the town, he worked through his ambivalence about making a move westward. He worried about leaving friends and securing a stable living situation for his mother. Taking into account his age and chronic diabetes, he wrote: \"It occurred to me: I am sick and am in no state to travel, for I have always stayed in a fixed place. What should I do?\" Eventually he felt as if he received direction through prayer, and grew resolved: \"God gave the inspiration: 'If you want to travel and to gain endurance, begin to go, little by little, in heat and in cold, every day, and then return home, until you get used to it!'\"\n\nBaha Valad did lead his family out of Khorasan in half steps. Their first destination was Samarkand, one of the enviable three cities on his wish list. After their departure from Vakhsh, or later from Samarkand, or perhaps both, they halted in Balkh. Yet clearly when they left humble Vakhsh, traveling \"little by little,\" the family of Baha Valad, and certainly their youngest son, Rumi, did not know they were embarked on a perpetual journey with no fixed conclusion that would last nearly two decades and constitute a grand, if not always voluntary, tour of the vital Muslim civilizations of the Middle East.\nCHAPTER 2\n\n_Samarkand_\n\nWHILE still a boy no more than six years old, Rumi, around the year 1212, traveled with his family to Samarkand. Located only 150 miles northwest of Vakhsh, in modern-day Uzbekistan, this most fabled capital of Central Asia would have been reached most directly by his father's caravan crossing the Zarafshan mountain range into a region ruled by the Karakhanids, one of the Turkic dynasties in the region vying for its control. In Rumi's later poems, such Turk warriors were often romantically frozen in time, nomadic on the steppes, and riding wild horses, as in one of his Ramadan poems:\n\n_Inside this month is a hidden moon_\n\n_Hidden like a Turk inside the tent of fasting_\n\nYet by the time Baha Valad and his family arrived in Samarkand, their new Turk rulers, like many such roving clans, had long ago abandoned their ancient, shamanic practices for more urbane and cosmopolitan lives while adopting, as well, the Sunni Islam of their subjects.\n\nSamarkand was certainly the grandest, busiest, and most eclectic city the boy had yet witnessed, even more so than Balkh because of its crucial location at the crossing of several important trade routes, bringing traders and their curious goods from farther away. Samarkand was also at a poetic crossroads, one of the cities where innovative poems were first composed and sung a couple centuries earlier in the Persian his family spoke, rather than a more ancient, classical form. Samarkand tasted and sounded sweet to the young Rumi, though he would also experience within its walls some of the dark tumult released by the historical forces into which his family was now unwittingly traveling.\n\nThe first glimpse of Samarkand for any caravan crossing the Zarafshan River and making its way through surrounding peach orchards and tall cypress trees, irrigated by numerous canals, was the impressive Sharestan, the old district, commanding the highest ground above the city bulwarks\u2014built in clay in pre-Muslim times. Circular in the Persian manner, and protected by a round wall, Sharestan could only be entered through one of the four royal gates: the China Gate to the east, with its many terraced steps, led down to the river. Visible everywhere were lead pipes on stone supports carrying water to most of the homes and the markets. Arcing overhead was the expansive pale blue sky described by one Syrian traveler, with a memory perhaps tinted by nostalgia, as \"perpetually clear.\"\n\nRumi's family likely settled in a more modest but popular neighborhood nestled below the promontory, along the riverbank\u2014flooded sometimes in spring, when mountain snows thawed, just south of the Kish or \"Great Gate.\" This newer, almost suburban area was protected by its own seven-mile, semicircular wall, which was pierced by eight gates. Here were clustered most of the wood and clay brick houses of an estimated hundred thousand families, so many with gardens that a guard looking down from the fortress of the Citadel might not see any buildings at all, just brick minarets and a forest of trees. Cutting through the district were flagstone streets converging onto the great marketplace Ras al-Taq, in the square that connected the neighborhood to the old city of Sharestan.\n\nFifty years later Rumi would faintly evoke this largely merchant neighborhood in the opening story of the first book of the _Masnavi\u2014_ the tale of the goldsmith of Samarkand, told not simply as a spiritual parable, but also with a feel for the texture of its setting, the sense of place that comes from being a resident rather than a mere visitor. The story turns on a pretty slave girl adored by a much older king. As she remains so wan and unresponsive to his advances, the king dispatches his trusted physician to diagnose the problem. Cleverly, the royal physician, taking her pulse, asks leading questions until a quickening occurs at the mention of \"sweet\" Samarkand, and of her own abduction from her beloved there:\n\n_Her pulse was beating normally and evenly_\n\n_Until he asked about Samarkand, sweet as sugar_ ,\n\n_Her pulse quickened, her face turned red and white_\n\n_She had been carried off from a man of Samarkand, a goldsmith_.\n\n_As the physician uncovered the secret of her illness_\n\n_The source of all that pain and misery_\n\n_He asked, \"Where is his street, and which way?\"_\n\n_She answered, \"By the bridge, at Ghatafar Street.\"_\n\nGhatafar quarter, with its small bridge, was located in the market district near Kish Gate, fitting for a goldsmith. And the couplet offers a rarity in Rumi's verse: an address.\n\nThe casting of his main character as an artisan was not apt for just the neighborhood of Ghatafar, but for all Samarkand, where commerce was king. Rumi would later include lots of imagery of bazaars piled high with products, drawn mostly from Konya\u2014he was taken by the bazaar as a symbol of the seductions of material life, sensuous, though finally evanescent. Yet during the time his family visited Samarkand, the immense square of Ras al-Taq, just steps away, offered exposure to shopkeepers and artisans more lavish than anything he might ever again have known.\n\nThroughout the city, but especially near its chief bazaar, two thousand stations were set up for obtaining iced water, kept chilled in tiled fountains, copper cisterns, or clay jugs. In spite of some of the stricter rules of Islam against representation, lifelike statues of animals had once been arranged about the square as a folly, as recorded by one tenth-century geographer: \"Astonishing figures are cut out of cypresses of horses, oxen, camels, and wild beasts; they stand opposite the other, as though surveying each other and on the eve of engaging in a struggle or combat.\" Still milling in Ras al-Taq in the evenings, by oil lamplight, were storytellers, snake charmers, and backgammon players.\n\nSamarkand products carried mystique. Looms spun red and silver cloth, as well as brocades and raw silk. Coppersmiths hammered gigantic brass pots. Craftsmen fashioned stirrups, harnesses, and goblets. Farmers grew walnuts and hazelnuts. Famous worldwide was Samarkand silk paper, originally a product of China. Handmade from the bark of mulberry trees, the smooth paper\u2014dyed in many colors, using henna, rosewater, or saffron\u2014had a sheen almost tactile in the sheets scattered throughout Rumi's poems, as he exclaimed: \"Spread out the paper and break the pen. The wine-server has arrived!\"\n\nStill being sung in Ras al-Taq Square when Rumi was growing up were the odes of Rudaki, lovingly recorded on those sheets of fine Samarkand paper. This tenth-century innovator in \"New Persian\" poetry, the language and style in which Rumi would write all his works, was born in a small village near Samarkand. Rudaki became one of the first to write poetry in Modern Persian, its alphabet in phonetic Arabic script\u2014very close to contemporary Farsi\u2014rather than ancient Pahlavi Middle Persian ideograms. He had begun by versifying tales from _Kalile and Demne_ and went on to compose in all genres used by Persian poets from then on. Rudaki was said to have invented the _robai_ quatrain form based on a jingle he heard chanted by children as they were rolling walnuts down the streets of Bukhara\u2014the nearby twin city of Samarkand, famous for its library, and twinned by Rumi in his poetry, too:\n\n_Sugar comes from Samarkand, but his lips_\n\n_Found sweetness in Bukhara, so he stayed_\n\nRudaki's lyrics remained humming in Rumi's mind throughout his life, like the songs of childhood. Sometimes he borrowed lines directly, taking a half line from Rudaki's elegy about a friend for his own elegy for the mystic poet Sanai: \"The death of a great man is no small matter.\" The most famous of Rudaki's poems was a ballad composed to convince the king to return home to his court in Bukhara after summering in Herat, lured by a wide variety of grapes for fine wine. As the story went, by the last strum of Rudaki's lyre, the king had already mounted his horse for the return trip. \"Now stirs the scent of the Muliyan brook,\" Rudaki sang, \"the memory of dear friends.\" Rumi adapted the line, giving a more romantic and spiritual sense to its longing for home and companions:\n\n_Now stirs the scent of garden and gardener_\n\n_Now stirs the scent of the beloved friend_\n\nNot all of Rumi's memories of Samarkand, though, were filled with melodic odes and lively marketplaces. Soon after his family's arrival, still around 1212, he had his first brush with a frightening siege, by none other than his father's nemesis, the Khwarazmshah, who felt ready and powerful enough to annex this most attractive of the capitals of Central Asia. Using as his excuse the supposed mistreatment of his daughter, one of the wives of the Karakhanid ruler, he massed soldiers at the city walls and conducted an aggressive three-day siege. This was Rumi's earliest recorded memory, and he relived the events years later, in a talk to students, dwelling on the plight of a lady he remembered watching, and interpreting the scene, in retrospect, with more than a boy's maturity:\n\nWe were in Samarkand and Khwarazmshah had surrounded the city, with his soldiers in ranks. In that neighborhood, there was an extremely beautiful lady, without compare in the entire city. I kept hearing her say, \"Oh God, how could you let me fall into the hands of tyrants? I know you would never permit such a thing, I trust you.\" They looted the city, and were taking everyone captive, including the lady's maids, but nothing happened to her. Even though she was very beautiful, no one even looked at her. So you should know that whoever trusts in God will be safe from all harm.\n\nThe onslaught was relentless enough for Khawarazmshah to emerge as the new ruler of Samarkand and fierce enough for him to live on in Rumi's poetry for his weaponry and violence: \"The word is an arrow, and the tongue the bow of the Khwarazmians.\" Any victory for Khwarazmshah marked a setback for Baha Valad. Yet no record exists of the family fleeing Samarkand, or even leaving soon afterward. This change of power at the top was assimilated by a city well used to such shakeups. Life went on, and in some ways the city became even more lustrous, as Khwarazmshah memorialized his victory by building a cathedral mosque and a lofty edifice of a palace.\n\nThe impression left by Samarkand in the poetry of Rumi was certainly warm, tender, and nostalgic\u2014a wide-eyed appreciation shared by many other Persian poets:\n\n_Join together the fractured bits of your intellect with love_\n\n_So you may become as sweet as Samarkand and Damascus_\n\nHe often talked about his entire homeland as \"Khwarazm,\" which included Samarkand, now subsumed within Khwarazm, and more than once remarked on its beautiful people:\n\nSomeone said, \"No one falls in love in Khwarazm: there are so many beauties that as soon as you see one and become infatuated, you see another even more beautiful, and forget about the first.\" If you don't dare fall in love with the beauties of Khwarazm, better fall in love with Khwarazm itself, which has many inner beauties.\n\nHe associated both the city and his homeland with this inner beauty, outlasting even the striking beauty of the people on its streets, and holding a quality heartfelt and enduring.\n\nBy the time of the siege of Samarkand, six-year-old Rumi was old enough to attend one of the _maktabs_ , or elementary schools, attached to the local mosques. While no sure record exists of Rumi enrolled in any of the _maktabs_ of Samarkand, stories of him as a pupil in learned settings come from Sharafoddin Samarqandi, an eminent citizen of the city, as well as a follower of Baha Valad. Sharaf liked to tell of Rumi as a nine-year-old\u2014three years after the siege of Khwarazmshah\u2014asking tricky questions of the local scholars, but being too polite to contradict his elders when they were mistaken. \"He went to exaggerated lengths in respecting the religious scholars,\" Sharaf reported. Sharaf's wife was also devoted to Baha Valad, and first taught Rumi a juvenile version of _sama\u2014_ meditating while listening to poetry and music\u2014though he only went as far as \"waving his hands about.\"\n\nWhether Rumi's knowledge of _maktab_ schooling came from Samarkand, Balkh, or elsewhere, the experience of this early education was nearly standard throughout Khwarazm, as the curriculum was controlled through the network of mosques. Most subjects were related back to knowledge needed for better reading the Quran. Here Rumi would have learned the technique for properly intoning the holy book and studied the lives of the prophets, and sayings of caliphs, imams, and companions of the Prophet Mohammad. Many proverbs were set to verse for easy memorizing. Yet language, mathematics, and science were taught, as well. As with Quranic proverbs, Arabic lessons were versified into catchy lines matching Arabic terms with Persian definitions, including vocabulary from astronomy or geography. The popularity of such _maktab_ schools helped explain the high literacy rates of the medieval Islamic world, said to have surpassed medieval Europe.\n\nLike love and religion, school, for Rumi, was blurred into the world according to his father. In the _Masnavi_ , Rumi draws a naturalistic scene of a mother and father quarreling over sending their son to school. The mother wants her child to stay home:\n\n_That anxious mother complains to her husband_ ,\n\n_\"My child has grown thin from going to school.\"_\n\nThe disciplinarian father forces him to school, his tough love identified with the intellect:\n\n_Stay away from that mother and her worries_\n\n_A father's slaps are better than her sweet pastries_.\n\n_The mother is impulsive, the father, noble reason_ ,\n\n_At first, difficult, but finally a hundred times easier_.\n\nWhile still living in the harem with his mother when he began classes, and alert to the world of women\u2014as indicated by his close observation of the plight of their female neighbor during the siege\u2014Rumi aspired mostly to become a man exactly like his father.\n\nTraits of Rumi as a boy in school for the first time among other boys included many of the qualities to be expected, though with some surprises. He was a natural student and focused on his teachers, as might be expected of the son of a serious imam. He was also predictably precocious. The boy whose playmates were convinced he had disappeared to tour other realms with angels stood out in a classroom setting. More surprising was a suggestion from the adult Rumi that he had been a bit of an unwilling student, perhaps even a prankster, and preferred his imaginative realms to the studious.\n\nWhen he was later teaching his own students, Rumi occasionally summoned his _maktab_ memories for examples of model teachers. Rumi's father was a disciplinarian and a great believer in strict observance of protocol. Yet Rumi from an early age was drawn to kindness as the most effective teaching tool. Second only to Quranic recitation in elementary school had been handwriting lessons, a subtle skill with Arabic cursive script, and he recalled most fondly one penmanship teacher, clearly gentle in his pedagogy:\n\nAt first, when the child shows his handwriting to the teacher, the letters are all slanted and wrong. But the teacher, patiently and skillfully, says to the child, \"All the letters are good! You have written them very well. Very good! Very good! You have only written this letter the wrong way. You should write it like this. And also that letter is incorrect. It's like this.\"\n\nRumi never bragged of any exceptional signs of adolescent intellectual power, yet he did allow himself to etch a portrait of a boy in the third person that might well be understood as a self-portrait, a tactic he coyly used several times in the _Masnavi_. In a slight detour, while writing a scene set in a school, he meditated on gifted children, arguing the Sunni philosophical position that all minds are created different, against the claim of some philosophers that all minds are created equal and that differences occur later because of education, a sort of nurture over nature argument. Rumi brings to life, as his example, a young prodigy, already wise beyond his years, self-possessed, with a knowing manner:\n\n_The opinions of a young boy_\n\n_Without much experience in life_ ,\n\n_May arise from thoughts that an old man_ ,\n\n_Full of years, might never comprehend_.\n\nRumi's vignette has a knowing ring, and the boy he describes is recognizable in the anecdote passed down from Sharaf of the pupil refuting the \"cleverly subtle\" scholars.\n\nIn one of the funniest tales in the _Masnavi_ , a group of boys in a _maktab\u2014_ hardly seeming to be entertaining thoughts beyond their years\u2014plot how to escape the grind of work being assigned by a demanding teacher. One cunning pupil decides to use the power of suggestion to convince the instructor of an illness during the core _maktab_ class of recitation of the verses of the Quran to learn to give each letter and vowel its due:\n\n_The cleverest boy in the class made a plan_\n\n_To tell the teacher, \"You look so pale_.\n\n_I hope you are well, but you've lost all color_.\n\n_I'm wondering if it's the weather, or fever.\"_\n\n_The teacher began to have his doubts_.\n\n_Then the clever boy told another, \"Do the same.\"_\n\nAfter all thirty students express concern, the teacher hurries home and stays abed, shivering. Rumi's glee in the prank obviously came from siding with the students and made believable an even more direct confession of his younger self resisting classwork:\n\n_Your love of mother's milk didn't last_\n\n_Your hatred of going to school didn't last_\n\nThe heart of this education, though, for Rumi, both young and old, was the Quran, the sacred text of Islam, recited by the Prophet Mohammad in Mecca and Medina in the seventh century, as holy verses memorized and transcribed in mostly rhymed Arabic prose. The Quran was divided into suras, or chapters, eventually arranged in order from longest to shortest. While Rumi could be comical or even rebellious about _maktab_ lessons, he was never ironic about the Quran. Everything about the temperament and family of this sensitive child primed a mesmerized reader and listener. If his ears burned hearing the tales of jackals or lions in _Kalile and Demne_ , the accounts in the Quran were narrative \"husks\" that included moral \"kernels.\" Later in life, he grew even more fascinated by the model of Mohammad, the ordinary merchant chosen as the messenger of the words of God put down in the Quran, whose personal qualities were nearly erased by divine inspiration\u2014\"A window through which we see the Creator.\"\n\nOver and over, the young Rumi heard the stories of prophets from the Quran that would form the raw material of his prayers, talks, and certainly poetry. Among his favorites were: Abraham, surviving Nimrod's fiery furnace without being burned; Noah, whose restive son dies in the flood; Joseph, so handsome some Egyptian women slice their hands with their dinner knives while distractedly staring at him; Moses, whose rod turns into a serpent and swallows the magician's wands; Mary, giving birth beneath a palm tree that showers her with ripe dates; the baby Jesus, gifted with speech in his cradle, and able to give life to clay birds with his breath; David, fashioning armor from iron chain-links; King Solomon, with his magic ring, like Rumi's father in his dream, understanding the language of birds:\n\n_The flames were obedient to Abraham_ ,\n\n_The waves bore Noah on their backs_ ,\n\n_Iron obeyed David, and melted like wax_\n\n_While winds were the slaves of Solomon_.\n\nRumi later imagined the Quran as a rich fabric brocade woven on two sides\u2014\"Some enjoy the one side, some the other. Both are true.\" And he saw these two complementary sides as a woman, both a mother and a wife, supplying different needs:\n\nHer baby's pleasure comes from her breasts and her milk, that of the husband from enjoying intimacy with her. Some are children on the path and drink milk\u2014these enjoy the external meaning of the Quran\u2014unlike those who have become mature and understand in a different way.\n\nThe _Masnavi_ unfolds with long stretches of probing philosophical questions raised by the Quran, in sermonic style, and in parsed couplets. Rumi could be precise and legal in his musings on free will or determinism. But other parts of the poem reveal a more immediate, childlike response to the Quran as a boyhood book of wonder. In one such story of the Blind Man and the Quran, a visiting sheikh is confused by the prominence of the scripture on a shelf in the home of a blind man. At night he hears him reciting verses, and rushes out to catch him in the act, and to demand some explanation:\n\n_\"Amazing, with your blind eyes_\n\n_You recite as if you see the lines_\n\n_You have touched what you are reading_\n\n_You put your finger on the very word!\"_\n\nThe blind man explains that when he went blind he prayed to be able to read the Quran, as he was not a _hafez_ , who had memorized the entire book. God granted him sight for the sluices of time when he read verses, and then\u2014like magic\u2014his eyes snapped shut again:\n\n_\"That peerless King restores for me my sight_\n\n_Like a lantern that brightens the dark night!\"_\n\nDuring the decade between 1212 and 1221, most probably in 1216, when Rumi was nine or ten years old, the camel caravan of the family of Baha Valad set out again, this time in the direction of Mecca, the birthplace of the Prophet Mohammad and holy city of Islam, a required pilgrimage destination for every Muslim in reasonable health at least once in a lifetime. Theirs was a journey with no certain plan of return. All the accounts record their point of embarkation from Khorasan as Balkh\u2014likely enough, given the family history. To travel from Samarkand to Balkh, they simply would have needed to double back alongside the Oxus River.\n\nA natural crossing point to the Balkh side of the river was the fortress town of Termez, hometown of Rumi's tutor Borhan, who had decided to remain there. In his midforties, Borhan was Rumi's _lale_ , a tutor assigned the special task of looking out for his well-being and spiritual education, and so was a warm and important figure in Rumi's boyhood, surpassed in influence only by his father. Borhan was later fondly remembered for \"always lifting Khodavandgar on his shoulders and carrying him around.\" Rumi spoke of this tutor in the same glowing terms as he spoke of his father: \"Go! Turn into pure light like Borhan-e Mohaqqeq!\" And he remarked on his \"ability to argue fine points well from his reading the masters.\"\n\nBorhan had become one of an intimate group of acolytes around Baha Valad, devoted to studying mystical practices in a sort of advanced seminar in prayers, visions, and dreams, which was not shared publicly. Of these practices, Borhan was particularly fanatic about fasting as a technique for self-discipline. In imitation of Baha Valad, he kept his own spiritual diary, where he wrote of the benefits of abstinence, so that his body might become \"just like a glass through which the light of faith shines.\" Rumi quickly absorbed these cues. By age six, he was supposedly able to sustain a fast as long as three or four days. So this sudden, absolute separation from his _lale_ was not easy for the boy.\n\nOther separations caused by his father's decision to embark were equally difficult. Staying behind, most likely in Balkh, were his grandmother \"Mami,\" in her seventies, too aged for the rigorous and uncertain trip; his older half-brother Hosayn; his half-sister Fateme, who stayed with her husband; and, along with Borhan, the other figure Rumi missed most, looking back, his dear nanny, Nosob. When he wished to stress the need to count solely on God, he evoked the loss of this nurturing pair from his young life:\n\n_Closeness to anyone but God's untrue_ ,\n\n_Where now is the love of your nanny and your tutor?_\n\n_Only God is your true supporter_\n\nHis eminent family friend, and another mentor in his young life, Sharaf Samarqandi, had recently died\u2014another separation. Since Sharaf had been a man of means, his widow used the remaining family resources to travel on the pilgrimage, too, with her daughter Gowhar. Both mother and daughter would grow in importance to the family over the course of this journey. Baha Valad later said of the widowed \"perfect saint,\" \"My spiritual level and her spiritual level are the same.\" By the time they neared the end of their travels, nearly a decade later, Gowhar had become Rumi's first wife.\n\nWhether paranoid or realistic, Baha Valad was always anxious about the risky politics of the region. While they were still living in Vakhsh, he feared that he would be imprisoned for his political opinions in an area far removed from his family and his followers, where no one could help him. During his time in Samarkand, the power of Khwarazmshah had grown, and his influence was everywhere. On the eastern borders, the first threats from Mongols had been felt as early as 1211, as this Asiatic power made border skirmishes from China. So the practical concerns of Baha Valad interlocked well with the requirements of his religion to make a trip to Mecca.\n\nBaha Valad often wrote in his journal of yearning for quest and for movement\u2014\"When God is taking your body and your soul from East to West.\" He would not have been disappointed in the larger caravan they now joined. In the first leg of their journey, as they trekked along the borders of Central Asia, countless other long trains of double-hump Bactrian, or single-hump dromedary camels and donkeys, were making their way across the deserts and plains ringed by snowcapped mountains, stopping in oasis towns surrounded by subtropical palm trees. Busy markets were crowded with merchants peddling melons or horses to travelers from a wide swathe of the known world\u2014as Rumi would write when reaching to express geographical expanse, \"from Rome to Khorasan.\"\n\nAs a boy, Rumi absorbed the rhythm of these camels as they traced their shuffling lines in grass and sand, dutifully following the lead of their drivers, who steered with pegs of wood inserted in the camels' noses, through which loops of rope were strung. He would later come to imagine himself as just such a camel, guided by reins held by love's hand, \"Drunkenly pulling your load, in ecstasy.\" And he came to know by heart the tunes permeating everywhere on the trip, sung to pass the time or quicken the pace. Accompanied at each stride by the jingle of silver bells fastened near their camels' ears, the drivers spontaneously broke into traditional songs\u2014often love songs\u2014only interrupted for the call to prayer. Most pronounced in these melodies was the _nay_ , or reed flute, an almost mournful Persian instrument that became for Rumi an image of his art and soul.\n\nSpaced a day's journey apart along the way were the caravanserai, outfitted with a well and stables for animals, a prayer room, a small bazaar, and a gallery of guest rooms around a central courtyard. In the colder mountains, these inns were built of stone, with roofed courtyards to keep out rain and snow. On the warmer plains, they were constructed of compacted earth or brick with open courtyards. Such inns always evoked for Rumi transience rather than comfort, as he passed through so many growing up. Yet the tenor of his writing about this juvenile time of traveling was positive. He was moving farther from any _maktab_ school, being taught by his father or others. And images of flutes and camels, caravans and inns, crescent moons and desert sands, along with the constant change would eventually be compressed into his great theme of nonattachment:\n\n_Our voices like the bells of a caravan_\n\n_Or thunder when the clouds are full_\n\n_Traveler, don't leave your heart in the inn_.\nCHAPTER 3\n\n_On the Silk Road_\n\nIN the early stretches of their travels, Rumi's family followed simple roads that traced the shortest distance between two points. Yet as their destinations became more distant, they joined into an elaborate network of trade routes that connected China, India, and Persia to the Mediterranean Sea. This well-kept system of major roads, inherited by the Arabs from the earlier Persian kingdom, radiated out of Baghdad and served both trade and religious purposes. Known in later centuries as the \"Silk Road,\" the route was actually neither: \"silk\" was just one of its transported goods, which included everything from spices and fine glass to ammonium chloride for treating saddles; and the \"road,\" in outlying regions, broke into unmarked paths over deserts or steep mountains.\n\nLike other travelers from Balkh, Rumi's family would have followed a southern route that linked to the most trafficked of the trunk roads, the Great Khorasan Road, to Baghdad and Mecca, passing through Khorasan, and continuing westward, with the Great Desert to their south and the Tabaristan Mountains to their north. Eventually they would have descended from the highlands of Persia to cross the Tigris River and enter Baghdad through its eastern Khorasan Gate. From western Baghdad, the main Pilgrim Road then led on toward Mecca and Medina, crossing over the vast Arabian Desert in a direct line.\n\nThis journey, though, was as much inward as outward, even if Rumi was still such a young boy and much of its impact not fully realized for some time. He was seeing many fantastic sights by touring through the great Islamic cities of the day, yet he was even more crucially coming into contact with important clues to his poetic, cultural, and spiritual lineage, especially in Nishapur, Baghdad, and Mecca. Nishapur was the center of a vibrant scene of devotional poetry and mystics trading in scandal as a spiritual practice; Baghdad, the very nervous system of both Islamic university life and Sufism from its beginings, as well as the seat of the caliph, both pope and king; in Mecca, Muslims of all ages came to reflect, once in a lifetime, on the relation of their souls to God, a matter of early concern to Rumi as it was to his family. The man Rumi became would have been inconceivable without the pieces of his identity he discovered in this decade-long trip.\n\nTheir first stop would have been Nishapur, near the northeast border of present-day Iran, where they likely arrived sometime in 1216, when Rumi was about ten years old. Nishapur was the fourth of the large capitals of Khorasan, the most populous, and the most western in location, a final outpost of the land of Rumi's birth. It was also a welcome respite on such a trip, as branch roads from Balkh were among the more meandering kind, less well kept than the broader routes leading into Baghdad, and so the family had just passed through long stretches of dusty badlands, a forbidding hideout for outlaws, with endless plains enlivened in spring only by a fuzz of green grass dotted with red poppies, domed adobe houses, and the tent camps of nomad shepherds. The resolve, and health, of Baha Valad would have been tested with such a rocky beginning, and the relative comforts of home and the _maktab_ schools set in high contrast for the boy Rumi.\n\nIn Nishapur in 1216 was the geographer and travel writer Yaqut, who visited many of the same cities as Rumi and his family, and often in the same year. He described the capital in the phase that would have been witnessed by the family of Baha Valad as still distressed in spots from the great earthquakes of 1145, followed, in 1153, by a siege by Oghuz Turks, who captured and carried off their grand sultan Sanjar the Seljuk. As an empire builder, Sanjar came to stand for powerful, worldly rulers in Rumi's poems:\n\n_Since I came into your shade, I am the sun in the sky_\n\n_Since I became a slave of love, I am the Khan and the Sultan Sanjar_\n\nAs with many of the cities he described in the florid style of the time, Yaqut still found fine marvels to catch his eye, praising especially the turquoise mines and the swift river of Nishapur, powering dozens of mills with the snow melting from nearby mountains.\n\nWhile Nishapur was not the most memorable or significant of places visited by Rumi's family, the city did offer its style of liberated, freewheeling spirituality, and an equally novel and brilliant poetry scene\u2014with both of which Rumi eventually revealed an affinity. Nishapuri mystics were distinctive enough to become labeled the \"School of Khorasan.\" Their most notorious members were followers of the \" _malamatiyya_ ,\" or \"path of blame.\" Camouflaging their actual piety so as not to be deemed saintly, these brazen types walked the streets barefoot, appeared to drink wine, wore finely embroidered silks, and behaved as if sinful or crazy. Having witnessed urban frivolity in the squares of Samarkand at twilight, which may have been extreme for a boy from Vakhsh, Rumi was likely exposed in Nishapur to these fools for God, behaving just as wildly but as a spiritual practice.\n\nThe Nishapuri poets, too, traded in scandal. Their most famous practicing master, Attar, was by then well into his eighties or even nineties, his finest works behind him, especially _The Conference of the Birds_ , an inventive and vividly imagined tale of a flock of birds embarked on a quest in search of the divine, fantastically plumed Simorgh, perched atop the highest peak of the Alborz mountain range in northern Iran. Such a work was made-to-order for a boy such as Rumi. Its moral tale involved talking animals, like his favorite _Kalile and Demne_ , and the Simorgh had first appeared in all her majesty in the _Shahname_. Rumi responded to its simple Arabic meter, which he later used in his own _Masnavi_. And the poem reflected much that was rich and captivating in the sensibility of Nishapur at this peak moment.\n\nDuring the family's stay, Baha Valad, with his son in tow, was said to have found his way to the apothecary shop run by Attar inside a crowded bazaar. (\"Attar\" was a pen name signifying an herbal druggist, apothecary, or even a perfume seller, as in \"attar of roses.\") Such a meeting was indeed possible, though Rumi never spoke in public of such a fateful audience with the great poet, arguably his favorite. Attar was apparently in Nishapur during the year of the family's visit; an arranged conversation between a visiting religious leader, traveling from the eastern lands, and versed in the language of dreams and visions, would seem possible. The focus, though, should have been the elder dignitary, Baha Valad, not his little boy.\n\nAs the story was told, flatteringly, by others, Attar, however, was more taken with Baha Valad's sensitive son. With great prescience, the poet intuited the future of the child standing before him and predicted to Baha Valad, \"Your son will soon be kindling fire in all the world's lovers of God.\" As a gift, he handed the boy a copy of his _masnavi_ in couplets, his _Book of Secrets_. In this abstract reverie, with a sage theme, Attar reveals that the secrets of the world are hidden near the throne of God, and discovery of these eternal verities is available only to those willing \"to lose their heads\" and drink the divine rosewater of \"meaning.\" With blessings bestowed, both father and son then walked off.\n\nThis story clung to Rumi's reputation in later years because whether or not it actually occurred in the bazaar in Nishapur, it occurred in a realm of \"meaning,\" important to him and his followers. Rumi claimed in Attar a sort of father figure, a poet father, and came to venerate \"the unique Attar,\" always comparing himself diminutively, or inventing puns playing on \"the scent of Attar,\" or on his small perfume and apothecary shop:\n\n_Whatever you want, you will find in Attar_\n\n_His is the shop of the world, and there is no other_\n\nRumi not only looked up to Attar as a poet, but he also accepted the poetic lineage Attar fashioned for himself. Like many poets in defense of their style, Attar found inspiration and a model to emulate in the past, and contrary poets to reject for following an unsatisfying muse. He chose as his own father figure poet Sanai, a poet of the previous generation from Ghazna, in present-day Afghanistan, the first court poet credited with giving up writing fawning odes for his patron so he could practice devotional poetry. Sanai's _Garden of Truth_ , in ten chapters, was the first spiritual _masnavi_ , a template for those to come, including Rumi's, its flat, deliberate rhymed couplets recited throughout Khorasan. (Rumi's tutor Borhan had loved to pepper his conversations with its proverbs: \"The Royal Road leading your soul to God is nothing but the cleansing of the heart's mirror.\")\n\nAttar, following the later Sanai, bragged of never having written a panegyric for hire, and both freely mixed their spirituality with scandal, in the mode of the flamboyant mystics of Nishapur. Sanai's most notorious poem, \"Satan's Lament\"\u2014parodied once by Rumi\u2014turned on the tricky notion of Satan as the true lover of God, impossibly jealous of Adam. In _The Conference of the Birds_ , Attar's flock exchanges tales of unconventional passions, between, for example, a Muslim sheikh and a Christian lady, or Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna and his Turk male slave Ayaz. Rumi was definite about his deep literary and spiritual debt to these poets, and his son Sultan Valad later ascribed to his father the line:\n\n_Attar was the soul and Sanai the eyes of the heart_\n\n_I follow in the footsteps of Sanai and Attar_\n\nRumi said as much when making clear his poetic and spiritual lineage for his students:\n\nWhoever deeply reads the words of Attar will understand the secrets of Sanai, and whoever reads the words of Sanai, with belief, will better comprehend my own words and will benefit from and enjoy them.\n\nThe poet of the previous generation dismissed by Attar, and by Rumi, or at least by his friend Shams of Tabriz, was Omar Khayyam, buried beside a garden wall a few miles outside Nishapur, where pear and peach trees scattered petals on his tomb. Celebrated as a mathematician and astronomer while alive, Khayyam also wrote seductive, four-line quatrains, compatible with short, pithy observations about life: \"Whether at Nishapur or Babylon . . . The leaves of life keep falling one by one.\" Yet the bracing wind of doubt and pessimism\u2014including questioning whether an afterlife existed\u2014that sweeps through these _robais_ disturbed the mystical Attar. In his _Book of the Divine_ , Attar imagined a clairvoyant, standing at Khayyam's grave, seeing the great intellectual \"bathing in his sweat for shame and confusion,\" having to admit his error. No story was ever told of Baha Valad and Rumi visiting the grave of Omar Khayyam.\n\nNishapur was known not only as the \"Gate to the East\"\u2014the entrance to Khorasan\u2014but also as the \"Gate to the West.\" Having passed through that gate, as two roads diverged just west of Nishapur, travelers such as Rumi's family would have then taken the more northern caravan route rather than the southern post road. This route led past Rey, near modern-day Tehran, and on to Baghdad. Along the way, Persian tunes gradually gave way to Arabic love songs as the caravans left behind the Persian towns, where Farsi was spoken, and headed toward the Arabic-speaking regions of the Middle East and the Arabian Peninsula. Of a life spent toggling between these two languages, Rumi wrote:\n\n_Speak Persian, though Arabic is more beautiful_\n\n_Love speaks a hundred different languages_\n\nWhen they passed beyond the outskirts of Persian-speaking Nishapur, Rumi's family forever departed Khorasan. He never again saw the \"beauties\" of his native homeland.\n\nAs they were on pilgrimage to Mecca, the family was also traveling to the center of the Muslim religious world. As important as land geography for thirteenth-century Muslims were religious quadrants, the location of these places within latitudes and longitudes of spiritual significance. All prayer rugs during ritual prayer were pointed in the direction, or _qibla_ , of Mecca. In Muslim cemeteries, usually located, as in Baghdad, just outside the city gates, the deceased were often buried facing toward Mecca. A carved wall niche in all mosques indicated the alignment with the holy city\u2014this _qibla_ later reimagined with romantic devotion by Rumi as the \" _qibla_ of the friend's face.\"\n\nBaghdad was constructed as a main entranceway to Mecca, the entire city roughly oriented toward the _qibla_ , as its Kufa Gate was calibrated southwest in the direction of the holy city, leading to a pilgrim road. As with a succession of capitals, its geography also marked its political destiny. Mohammad's flight from Mecca to the hamlet of Medina signaled his shift from a lone prophet to a political leader, the beginnings of an Arabian theocracy. The first purely Arab Umayyad Caliphate ruled from Damascus, in Syria, backed by the Arabian Desert, the homeland of their best soldiers and nomadic kin\u2014the caliph, meaning \"deputy\" or \"successor,\" was the ruling descendent of the Prophet Mohammad. The succeeding Abbasid Caliphate built Baghdad\u2014a Persian name, meaning \"Given by God\"\u2014on the banks of the Tigris, in the eighth century, near the old Persian capital Ctesiphon, closer to Central Asia and accessible to the non-Arab Muslims of Khorasan.\n\nProbably arriving in Baghdad in January or February of 1217, Rumi's family had missed the golden age of the Abbasid Caliphs in Baghdad. Its glamour had been at its most radiant during the reign of Harun al-Rashid in the ninth century, the prosperity of his capital city opulently conveyed in the _Arabian Nights_. Harun set up a court in the Persian imperial style and encouraged intellectual projects\u2014primitive Bedouin songs were transcribed, and Greek scientific texts translated by Nestorian monks. The gardens of his Golden Gate palace were plotted about a tree made of silver with mechanical singing birds, and beyond stretched a cosmopolitan city that included three pontoon bridges, anchored by iron chains to either bank of the Tigris, plus thousands of ferry skiffs; a Christian district with churches and monasteries; public parks for horse racing and polo (a Persian sport); and a wild beast park, with Indian peacocks.\n\nDuring the winter of 1217 Baghdad was a less coherent showplace of urban planning, with travel across town for Rumi's family probably made more difficult by a great flood. The caliph al-Nasir had been ruling for nearly forty years, striving to maintain the glories of the Baghdad of Harun but without unified military power. The caliph remained checked by Khwarazmshah to the east and Seljuk Turks to the west. Yet he dealt effectively, while cultivating his gardens and moving the palaces from Harun's round city to the eastern banks of the Tigris. The poet Khaqani, as he passed through Baghdad, swooned over the gardens as a paradise, comparing the Tigris to the Virgin Mary's tears.\n\nMedieval Baghdad was widely diverse and tolerant, with a few restrictions. Some caliphs decreed that non-Muslim women wear yellow or blue clothing and red shoes. Yet Christian neighborhoods were among the most popular in Baghdad, partly explained by the unofficial role of monks as bootleggers for abstaining Muslims, as they brewed and dispensed wine from their cloisters. \"On a rainy day, what a pleasure it is to drink wine with a priest,\" wrote one chronicler. Around the time of Rumi's visit, the geographer and travel writer Yaqut was quite taken with a Greek Nestorian church, in the Dayr al-Rum quarter, where he said crowds of Muslims came on festival days to stare at \"the young deacons and monks, with their handsome faces\" and enjoy \"dancing, drinking, and pleasure-making.\"\n\nRumi accumulated a personal geography, a poetic version of Yaqut's _Dictionary of Countries_ , where these cities he visited were consistently pegged. Samarkand and Damascus were forever sweetness and light, Bukhara forever tied to the suspect \"logic\" of Greek sciences on display in its renowned library, where the texts, stored in chests rather than on shelves, were delivered on request by the staff. \"Bukhara is a mine of knowledge,\" he wrote, adding a warning against just such knowledge elsewhere:\n\n_Give up art and logic for amazement_\n\n_Go towards humility, not Bukhara_\n\nAs the center of the caliphate, Baghdad remained, for him, a symbol of justice and power:\n\n_Your Baghdad is full of justice_\n\n_Your Samarkand is full of sweetness_\n\nIn one tale of Baghdad in the _Masnavi_ , the ambitious wife of a Bedouin nomad convinces her husband to advance their fortunes by petitioning the caliph, and bringing to him as a tribute the greatest and scarcest treasure in the desert, a jug of rainwater:\n\n_The Bedouin's wife was not aware_\n\n_The Tigris, sweet as sugar, flows there_ ,\n\n_Flowing through Baghdad, like a sea_ ,\n\n_Full of boats, with nets full of fish . . ._\n\n_All our senses, and perceptions_\n\n_Are like a drop in that pure river_.\n\nThe joke was about the comic limits of human understanding of the unknown, especially the divinely ordained unknown. Rumi was impressed with the \"hot sun of Iraq,\" and the Tigris and Euphrates from then on joined the mighty Oxus on the map of his imagination:\n\n_The Euphrates, Tigris, and Oxus would be bitter_\n\n_As the salty sea, if they were not flowing_\n\nThe family likely stayed in Baghdad for a month. By the thirteenth century, the city was full of _khaneqahs_ , or Sufi lodges, often built next to cemeteries, appropriate for otherworldly yearning. Yet Rumi's father was said to have chosen instead to reside in one of the _madrases_ , or colleges. On the western side of Baghdad, the terminus for caravans from Khorasan, at least thirty such religious colleges were located. He never publicly identified with Sufi lodges, and the college setting was deemed more appropriate for a jurist and preacher, traveling with his family. In an important moment in his life, an emissary of the Seljuk sultan of Konya supposedly heard a weekday sermon given by Baha Valad in a Baghdad mosque, and reported back his favorable impression.\n\nIf not in residence at Nezamiyye College, Baha Valad would at least have toured this most magnificent university in the Islamic world, founded by the Vizier Nezam al-Molk in 1065, over a century before Oxford or the Sorbonne. Providing free education in the Shafiite branch of Sharia law, this institute, with branches for research, known as the \"Mother of Madrases,\" was located near a wharf on the banks of the Tigris River\u2014alongside the great Tuesday Market street of East Baghdad that led in a serpentine route around the walls of the palaces of the caliphs\u2014and was funded by the state with generous stipends for professors, as well as for building and grounds maintenance. Babylonian willow trees provided shade, while date and dried fruit sellers plied their trades nearby.\n\nEven a casual stroll through Nezamiyye College offered a sampling of the textures of academic life that would become familiar to Rumi during the studious years of his young adulthood. Following a student riot and fire years earlier, the college had been rebuilt and was again stirring with activity. The long, open-fronted robes of the scholars debating one another in the porticos were often dusty and frayed, while more celebrated jurists, in the manner of Baha Valad's imagined rival Razi, were elegantly dressed and perfumed, their sharp beards trimmed, and their large turbans tightly wound. (In the _Masnavi_ , Rumi pokes fun at one such scholar stuffing his academic turban with rags to make it appear bigger.) The universal language of students bustling in the courtyards was Arabic\u2014like Latin in Europe, the lingua franca for all scholarly discourse and writing.\n\nMost famously at Nezamiyye, nearly two hundred years earlier, in the eleventh century, the renowned scholar Mohammad al-Ghazali lectured in halls that were crowded with hundreds of students, for four years, then apparently suffered a nervous breakdown and left Baghdad to wander the deserts of the Hejaz, near Mecca and Syria. Haunted by doubts about Aristotelian logic, he eventually entered a Sufi lodge, where he wrote his widely influential treatise on \"inner\" science, _The Revival of the Religious Sciences_. In his lifetime\u2014and Rumi's\u2014 _The Revival of the Religious Sciences_ was akin to a best seller.\n\nRumi would refer to al-Ghazali with respect, but his true passion was al-Ghazali's more radical and outrageous poet brother, Ahmad, sometimes credited with the dramatic turnaround of the older philosopher from logical analysis toward his more therapeutic religion of the heart. Ahmad had always been a highly visible Sufi in Baghdad, espousing mystical love in aphorisms in his well-known book, _Savaneh_ , or _Flashes_ , and rather notorious for meditating on the eternal while gazing on the face of a beautiful boy, known as _shahed-bazi_ , a controversial practice in Sufism. Ahmad liked to lay a rose before a comely face and contemplate the lovely pair alternately. Yet Rumi remarked on the diminution of Mohammad's intellect next to Ahmad's hot passion: \"Had he possessed just one atom of love like Ahmad, it would have been better.\"\n\nIf Baghdad had lost a degree of its caliphal splendor by the time Rumi's family visited, the city was still a great laboratory of developing Sufism, as it had been for over the previous four centuries. While the plain woolen robes of the earliest Sufis\u2014their name probably derived from _suf_ , or wool, for this near-uniform\u2014associated them with Christian desert monks, the label \"Sufiyya,\" rooted in the Arabic word _tasawwuf_ , from which the English word \"Sufism\" is derived, was first applied to a mostly urban movement in eighth-century Baghdad. As one modern scholar of Sufism has speculated: \"The term 'Sufi' had a certain 'avant-garde' or 'cutting-edge' resonance among both renunciants and others . . . this 'hip' quality facilitated its application to the new movement.\"\n\nStarting from simple notions of clean living and exile from the luxuries of civilization\u2014following the example of Ebrahim ebn Adham, the \"Buddha of Balkh\"\u2014Sufism exfoliated into a subtle theology, emphasizing a more intimate relation with God and the possibility of inner union, or reunion, with the divine. Sufis favored verses of the Quran that emphasized closeness and accessibility over the sheer transcendence of God. Especially beloved was the fifteenth verse of Sura 50: \"We indeed created man; and We know what his soul whispers within him, and we are nearer to him than the jugular vein.\"\n\nA chronicler of these early Sufis, appropriately enough, was Attar. Uninterested in writing yet another _Lives of the Poets_ , he had retooled the genre, as Sanai had lyric poetry, by compiling a Persian _Lives of the Saints\u2014_ such compilations of popular stories about holy figures had long been popular in Arabic. There he told of Rabia, the woman mystic of Basra, said to have torn through the streets with a torch in one hand and a jug of water in the other to burn down Paradise and douse the fires of Hell, so no one would love God solely for reward or punishment. He profiled Jonayd, the glass seller, who promoted a \"sober\" School of Baghdad, advising speaking in code, and his foil Bayazid Bestami, who inspired a \"drunken\" school of Sufism similar to the School of Khorasan, full of music and ecstasy. These stories were lore the boy Rumi either already knew or was now discovering.\n\nThe climax to Attar's seventy-two life sketches was Mansur al-Hallaj, a larger-than-life \"drunken\" Sufi, brutally executed in Baghdad in 922. Attar blamed his death on his famed utterance, \"I am the Truth.\" Since Truth was one of the ninety-nine names of God in Islam, the claim was judged heretical. (For his supporters, the statement indicated a complete annihilation of ego.) The sister of Hallaj also caused a minor stir by walking the streets of Baghdad without wearing a proper veil. Attar told a gruesome tale of the martyrdom of Hallaj\u2014the merciful saint was led to the gallows, where his hands and feet were cut off, while he smiled and prayed. His body was then burned and his ashes tossed into the Tigris. Rumi's Baghdad was a city of power, but sometimes that power was harshly wielded:\n\n_In the world of Baghdad I cried out, \"I am the Truth!\"_\n\n_While that world was busy debating the words of Hallaj_\n\nTraveling to Mecca in 1217, Rumi's family would have needed to depart Baghdad by February, at the latest. That year, on the Muslim lunar calendar, the final month of the year, or _Dhul-Hijja_ , named as the month for the pilgrimage, or _hajj_ , to Mecca\u2014the birthplace of Mohammad\u2014began on March 11. The official ceremonies in Mecca took place during the first two weeks of this month; Muslims could make a \"little\" pilgrimage to the holy city at any time throughout the year, though without fulfilling the commandment to participate in the _hajj_ at least once in a lifetime. Incumbent on Hanafites departing from Baghdad, such as Baha Valad, was to first visit the grave of Abu Hanifa, the founder of the Hanafi School. His shrine was marked with a white dome, where a charitable station was set up for feeding the poor. The first phase of their trip was then the hundred-mile journey to join with pilgrim caravans departing from the squat brick city of Kufa.\n\nCaravans leaving Kufa took nearly a month to arrive in Mecca, a journey of over a thousand miles across the Arabian Peninsula, through much of modern-day Saudi Arabia, which included forbidding territories troubled by stifling heat, deadly winds, and clouds of black flies. The desert road stretching from Kufa to Mecca offered only water in wells, or cisterns, and an occasional underground canal. Absent were the caravanserai stationed along the Khorasan Road. Pilgrims remained in caravans at night, without the protection of walls, or they continued traveling in the dark. As Rumi later embroidered:\n\nA man traveling with a caravan on a dark, overcast night does not know where he is, how far he has traveled, or what he has passed. At daybreak, he sees the results of the journey, that is, he will have arrived at some place. Likewise, whoever labors for the glory of God is never lost, though he shut both his eyes.\n\nWhile Rumi had many experiences with caravans to draw on, his more extreme memories of fears faced during travel were consistent with tales told of going on _hajj_ in medieval times. He spoke of travelers attacked in one spot, \"piling a few stones on top of each other as a marker, as if to say, 'This is a dangerous place.'\" And his evocation of caravans in desolate terrain conveyed the menace for a child of many imaginary threats:\n\nSay there is someone in a caravan on a dark night. He is so afraid that he constantly imagines that bandits are attacking the caravan. He wants to hear and recognize his fellow travelers' voices. When he hears their voices, he feels safe.\n\nThe greatest threat was marauding Bedouin tribes that raided caravans. By day these Bedouins tried to sell hungry travelers meat, milk, and cheese. Yet even in daylight the journey was filled with the potential for accidents and sudden catastrophe. The Spanish geographer Ibn Jubayr, traveling to Mecca thirty years before Rumi's family, witnessed a roadside stop where seven pilgrims had been trampled to death in a rush on a water tank used by men and camels. Rumi compared these travails to spiritual efforts:\n\n_The glory of the Kaaba and its gathering is proved_\n\n_When pilgrims brave Bedouins and travel the wide desert_\n\nOnce within the sacred zone of Mecca, the basic rituals of _hajj_ had remained constant over the centuries, though political control of the region shifted. (One local ruler during this period mistreated pilgrims from Baghdad to display his power in a feud with the caliph.) While the majority of pilgrims were males, their families and single women also took part. Men and boys wore the pilgrim's robe\u2014two sheets of white cloth, secured by a white sash, with sandals. Women wore modest dress and _hijab_. The core event was walking seven times counterclockwise around the Kaaba, the granite cube that stood at the center of the Islamic world, the vanishing point of _qibla_ , so that, as Rumi wrote: \"When you're inside the Kaaba, you don't need to face in any direction.\" Especially cherished was the Black Stone, affixed by Mohammad in the Kaaba wall. Other rituals included running between the hills of Al-Safa and Al-Marwah, drinking from the Zamzam Well, standing vigil at Mount Arafat, and the symbolic Stoning of the Devil.\n\nWhile the meaning of _hajj_ centered on communal worship at the Grand Mosque, and the final animal sacrifice in the nearby village of Mina, marketplaces thrived, even if officially discouraged. Ibn Jubayr noted, between the hilltops of al-Safa and al-Marwa, a \"market full of fruits\" set up such that pious runners could \"hardly free themselves from the great crowd.\" He described the exhalation after the two weeks, when the Grand Mosque, the sanctuary of the Kaaba, \"became a great market in which were sold commodities ranging from flour to agates, and from wheat to pearls.\" Poor Yemenis bartered wheat, raisins, or butter for \"women's veils or strong quilts,\" worn by Bedouins.\n\nRumi once told his students that the true place of the Kaaba in Islam was to fulfill the recorded saying of Mohammad that \"cohesion is a mercy, and isolation torment.\" Visiting the Kaaba was made obligatory so that people from many cities and climes of the world might gather there. Yet most often he transposed Mecca to the spiritual plane, never commenting on his personal experience of _hajj_. He even pitied a poor pilgrim, lost in the surrounding desert:\n\n_Oh you who've gone on_ hajj _\u2014_\n\n_Where, oh where, are you?_\n\n_Here, here is the Beloved!_\n\n_Oh come now, come, oh come!_\n\n_You, lost in the desert\u2014_\n\n_What air of love is this?_\n\n_You are the house, the master_ ,\n\n_You are the Kaaba, you!_\n\nSuch sentiments reflected the attitudes he shared with, and may even have learned from, Attar and the Sufis of Baghdad: in his _Lives of the Saints_ , Attar told a story of Rabia on her way to Mecca being met and welcomed on the road by the Kaaba, rather than proceeding as a pilgrim to pay her respects at the shrine. \"I need the Lord of the house,\" she said. \"What am I to do with the house?\"\n\nWithin a week of the conclusion of these sacred ceremonies, all pilgrim caravans once again departed for Yemen, Syria, Egypt, Iraq, and points beyond as Mecca and Medina reverted to quiet and sleepy towns until the following year. And the Black Stone of the Kaaba, for Rumi in his later poetry, like the _qibla_ , resolved into a human face:\n\n_The pilgrim kisses the Black Stone of the Kaaba_\n\n_As if he were kissing the red lips of the beloved_\nCHAPTER 4\n\n\"Fire fell into the world\"\n\nAS a gathering place for pilgrims from throughout the wider Muslim world, Mecca also served as a center of news and information, where Rumi and his family would have heard the latest in eyewitness reports, or twice-told rumors from various corners of the map. In 1217, the urgent talk among travelers from Central Asia concerned the threat of the Mongols. Since the time of the departure of Rumi's family from Khorasan, tensions had only increased between Genghis Khan and Khwarazmshah, with word spreading of an onslaught that was taking place along the easternmost borders, nearer to Vakhsh and other outlying regions. The fate of those on _hajj_ was unclear, and the decision open of whether to return to endangered cities such as Balkh or Samarkand.\n\nAfter Mecca, Rumi's family next appeared in Damascus, which required taking a route from Mecca back to Baghdad, and connecting near its Syria Gate with a western road, the entire journey lasting about two months. Not knowing whether war was imminent, Baha Valad would have been pushed to clarify his decisions about the future. A teaching post in Damascus, one of the core cities for Islamic intellectual life, along with Cairo and Baghdad, was desirable, but Baha Valad's imperfect spoken Arabic may have been an impediment, as seamless eloquence was expected from public speakers. Damascus itself was also volatile. While the Crusades, launched by the Latin Catholic Church, were according to one historian a \"sideshow\" compared to the destruction about to be inflicted by Tatar armies, Syria was still checkered by this conflict\u2014the ruler of Damascus at the time was al-Moazzam, whose father was off fighting the Fifth Crusade.\n\nBaha Valad moved with his family, once again, this time from Syria to Anatolia\u2014the Asian, or Asia Minor, section of modern-day Turkey\u2014probably during the summer of 1217. Until this move, Rumi, about ten or eleven years old, had been exposed to diverse religious groups, but always in Muslim-controlled areas and with clear Muslim majorities. Anatolia was territory defined in the imagination of Muslims as the outer limits of their civilization, the borderlands of Christian Rome, or Rum. (The term \"Rumi\" was used sometimes as a synonym for \"Christian,\" this shadow meaning still clinging to the name when used for Rumi after his death.) From now on they would be living in cities where they were greatly outnumbered by mostly Greek-speaking or Armenian Christians, with Muslims in Anatolia estimated at just 10 percent of the population.\n\nThe city where they first alighted, Malatya, in southeast Anatolia near a juncture of the Euphrates River, was a garrison town attached to an eighth-century fortress, the first square of defense in a line of fortresses against the Byzantines extending to the Mediterranean. Yaqut described the town as part of Greek territories when he traveled through, yet the Seljuk Turks were apparently in charge when the family of Baha Valad resided there briefly. The climate of the large town wavered\u2014between desert aridity and northerly precipitation\u2014as did its religious persuasions between Christian and Muslim.\n\nWhile in Malatya the boy Rumi had the second of his reputed meetings with remarkable men. Also living in town at the time was the Spanish-born Arab mystic Ibn Arabi, the grandest and most sublime thinker of the era, his speculations concerning the merging of Creator and Creation sometimes accused of being a pantheistic, heretical bending of the theology of a transcendent deity in Islam. Picking up pieces left behind in the writings of al-Ghazali a century earlier, Ibn Arabi created a synthesis of mystical thinking, an intellectual Sufism in hundreds of volumes, where he developed ruminations on abstruse matters such as a \"science of letters\" of God's name, which had absorbed Sufi thinkers since at least the eleventh century. Although he taught in Damascus, Syria was enough of a war zone that he passed the years from 1216 to 1220 in Malatya.\n\nAs the story was told, a conversation had been arranged between the newly arrived Baha Valad and the greatest living master of Sufi theology. He brought along his son, yet when they departed, as with Attar, it was the boy who drew the attention of the great mystic. Watching young Rumi trail his father down the street, Ibn Arabi remarked, \"Glory be to God! An ocean is following a lake!\" Again, Rumi never spoke of such a meeting. Yet unlike his supposed encounter with Attar, Rumi as an adult had more ambivalent feelings about Ibn Arabi, as about all things highly intellectual or abstruse, and later in life even made a small joke at Ibn Arabi's expense. He had walked into a hall where his disciples were discussing Ibn Arabi's esoteric _Meccan Revelations_. Suddenly Zaki the Singer entered and broke into a joyful song. Rumi exclaimed, \"Well now the _Zaki Revelations_ are even finer than the _Meccan Revelations_! _\"_ And he began to whirl. His point was that music, poetry, and dance were more important than abstract ideas.\n\nThe first solid patron of Baha Valad in Anatolia was Bahramshah, the prince of Erzincan, and his wife, the princess Esmati. Their capital was located at the upper end of the Euphrates Valley, where Rumi's family soon undertook yet another journey, of two hundred miles, to northeast Anatolia. Erzincan was a large and primarily Armenian Christian town. Such towns often provoked the ire of visiting Muslims, who expressed indignation at all the wine, pork, and religious processions. Wishing to avoid these alien practices, Baha Valad insisted that his own school be established nearby in the more sober town of Aqshahr, and there he apparently was set up in the winter of 1218, in \"Esmatiyye,\" named after his royal patroness, teaching general classes, rather than a strict Hanafi law curriculum, with a soft edge of Sufi mysticism.\n\nThis minor shah of Erzincan was already accustomed to patronizing Persian cultural figures such as Baha Valad. He had earlier supported the production of a long didactic poem, _Treasury of Secrets_ , written in the style of Sanai, by Nezami. A court poet of Azerbaijan, Nezami had also written the most famous romance in _masnavi_ couplets, _Layli and Majnun_ , a classic tale of the unrequited love of Majnun, a Bedouin youth, his name meaning \"Crazy,\" driven insane by his intense devotion for the delicate Layli. This star-crossed pair remained in Rumi's imagination as his favorite fictional lovers, and he later sainted suffering Majnun as the quintessential Sufi \"martyr of love\" for God:\n\n_Majnun, embrace the Layli of night_\n\n_Night is the time for divine solitude_.\n\n_Layli is night, and the day is ahead, Majnun_.\n\n_At dawn, wisdom will light the curls of her hair_.\n\nAbout a year had passed since Rumi and his family had been on _hajj_ in Mecca. During this time Baha Valad, and anyone else from Khorasan, was anxiously looking and listening to discover recent news of the situation there. No one was truly settled anywhere. Yet the reports brought by travelers were increasingly dire, and any future plans of Baha Valado eventually to return were quickly demolished, their sojourn in Anatolia looking more permanent. If Rumi's family set out on their quest as pilgrims, or even as emigrants, within the next few years they wound up as displaced refugees. Rumi later brought to life the feelings aroused by hearing of the chaos caused by this greatest of historical disruptions:\n\n_Day and night I'm thinking of you_\n\n_In these bloody days and nights, how do you feel?_\n\n_As this fire fell into the world_\n\n_In this smoke of the Tatar army, how do you feel?_\n\nBy the time Baha Valad was finally settled in his new school in Aqshahr, the Khorasan region, where he had left behind his aged mother, as well as oldest son and daughter, was registering serious activity, sparked by a small border incident. Rumi later told this history, with accuracy, as he knew the terrain and players intimately. As a boy, he had seen the Asiatic faces of the traders in Chinese silk and camel cloth, silver and jade, and his father had early identified the unreliable character of the Khwarazmshah:\n\nSome of them who used to come as traders into the territories of the Khwarazmshah would buy muslin to clothe themselves. The Khwarazmshah prohibited them and ordered their traders killed. He also taxed them and barred his own merchants from traveling to their lands. The Tatars went humbly before their king, wailing, \"We have been destroyed.\" The king sought ten days to consider the matter and went into a deep cave, where he fasted the ten days, and he beseeched and prayed. A cry came from God, saying, \"I have heard your plea. Come forth and be victorious wherever you go.\" They came out and under God's command they were victorious and conquered the world.\n\nThis provocation, retold by Rumi, occurred in 1217, when Genghis Khan, eyeing Khwarazm as a lucrative trading partner, sent his ambassadors to negotiate a trade agreement and followed them with a caravan of 450 merchants carrying luxury goods. As the caravan crossed into present-day Kazakhstan, just north of Rumi's childhood home, its governor, a relative of the Khwarazmshah, seized the goods and killed the merchants, as spies. Genghis Khan sent envoys to demand retribution. Instead, Khwarazmshah beheaded one envoy and returned the others, their beards insultingly shaved. Verifying Rumi's account, the contemporary Persian historian Jovayni reported that Genghis Khan ascended a mountaintop to pray, and descended, \"ready for war.\" He dramatically added that the rash acts would wind up having \"laid waste a whole world.\"\n\nThe ensuing, punishing invasion lasted four years, until Genghis Khan, in his sixties, returned home to Mongolia, leaving behind in ruins the grand cities that Rumi had known as a boy\u2014Bukhara, Samarkand, Balkh, Herat, Merv, and Nishapur. As Jovayni described the vanguard of the descent of the Mongol forces on Bukhara\u2014a signature display of sound and fury\u2014the townspeople \"beheld the surrounding countryside choked with horsemen and the air black as night with the dust of cavalry, and fright and panic overcame them.\" Genghis Khan himself rode into the town that for Rumi \"stands for the true source of knowledge,\" halting to ask if the mosque, the biggest edifice, were the sultan's palace. He ordered imams to feed his horses, using the libraries as stables, and Quran stands as mangers for straw. One survivor succinctly reported, \"They came, they sapped, they burnt, they slew, they plundered, and they departed.\"\n\nFrom Bukhara, the Mongol armies proceeded through the fertile Zarafshan valley to attack Samarkand, an operation far more brutal than the siege Rumi had witnessed as a boy, just eight years earlier. Mongol numbers were augmented by a forced march of prisoners, the weakest dropping from exhaustion. Outside the walls of the city, these prisoners were disguised as soldiers, with every tenth one holding a flag, so that the citizens of Samarkand imagined a force many times larger. Genghis Khan entered by the northwest gate, dividing thirty thousand of the skilled artisans among his sons and kinsmen, and then killing a sizable portion of the population. The lustrous new Cathedral Mosque, built by Khwarazmshah after his own siege, was bombarded with hurled pots of flaming tar.\n\nThe cavalry then retraced the same route from Samarkand to Balkh that had likely been traveled by Rumi's family. Termez\u2014 where Rumi's tutor Borhan stayed behind\u2014was shown no mercy. Jovayni recorded that \"all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain and divided proportionately among the soldiers in accordance with their usual custom; then they were all slain, none being spared.\" In Balkh, where members of Baha Valad's family were perhaps still living, any fortifications and walls, as well as mansions and palaces, were obliterated, and the killing fields of Termez were replicated: \"Wild beasts feasted on their flesh, and lions consorted without contention with wolves, and vultures ate without quarreling from the same table with eagles.\"\n\nNishapur suffered the most numbing treatment of all the cities in this prolonged exercise in bloody revenge and tactical empire building. An arrow shot from the city ramparts during its defense killed Tokuchar, the son-in-law of Genghis Khan. The conqueror allowed his widowed and pregnant daughter to exact the revenge. In April 1221 she decreed death for all except four hundred craftsmen, including dogs, cats, and any living animals, and ordered the skulls of the corpses to be piled into three pyramids\u2014for men, women, and children. A few accounts numbered Attar among these dead, seemingly fitting for this subtle and melancholy poet who described himself as \"the voice of pain.\"\n\nFor the three years leading up to the Mongol invasion, the geographer Yaqut had been staying happily in Merv, where he was researching his travel books in its many libraries. \"But for the Mongols I would have stayed there and lived and died there,\" he wrote, \"and hardly could I tear myself away.\" When the Mongol attack was imminent, Yaqut fled to Mosul. Soon afterward the invaders burned down all of its libraries, and smashed the dams and dikes so that the oasis reverted to a desert swamp.\n\nYaqut then joined an exodus of displaced Persians on the clogged roads heading west toward Mesopotamia, Syria, and Anatolia. Caravans now included escapees from Khorasan, crossing paths with returning _hajj_ pilgrims. In Baghdad, lodging was in short supply, and housing difficult to rent, as the displaced attempted to find places to stay. In a letter penned shortly after his escape, Yaqut, in an effusive, elegiac court style, mourned the palaces he had witnessed \"effaced from off the earth as lines of writing are effaced from paper, and those abodes become a dwelling for the owl and the raven; in those places the screech-owls answer each other's cries, and in those halls the winds moan.\"\n\nThe numbers of dead were wildly exaggerated at the time, with suggestions of casualties in the hundreds of millions, far beyond the population of any cities in Central Asia. (Even some modern scholars, though, have confirmed the possibility of a 90 percent extermination rate among the Persian population in Khorasan, constituting racial genocide.) If a percentage of the victims were spared for deportation as skilled slaves, Genghis Khan was uncompromising in his systematic destruction of cities, as well as lead piping and irrigation systems, turning farms and orchards back to grazing lands for his herds. Voicing a general pessimism in the society, one contemporary historian opined that the Mongols were \"the announcement of the deathblow of Islam and the Muslims.\"\n\nYet as Genghis Khan was establishing his brutish militarist state in Central Asia\u2014an absolute threat to the religion of Islam\u2014curiously resilient were the mystical practices of Sufism, already established in the western provinces and revivified by these Khorasani immigrants, including Baha Valad and his family. Sufi lodges became welcome cultural outposts of refinement, where sheikhs, or spiritual leaders, offered messages of hope and transcendence, friendship and love, as well as musical concerts, poetry, and dance, evoking rapture. Sufi orders, loosely similar to Western religious orders, were beginning to multiply and would become more formalized in the next decades and centuries. As the German Middle East scholar Annemarie Schimmel summed up the contrast: \"This period of the most terrible political disaster was, at the same time, a period of highest religious and mystical activity.\"\n\nThe full force of the Mongol campaigns would be concentrated in two aggressive phases\u2014the first, the conquest of Central Asia, and the second, commandeered by the grandsons of Genghis Khan, marked by incursions into the Middle East and Anatolia in the 1250s. A newly configured world map spread contiguous Mongol-controlled territories from Korea to Hungary. From the age of ten until his death, Rumi coped with the turmoil caused by this churning realpolitik of the Mongols. Yet either ignoring, or because of, the pain and suffering caused to his family and community, as an adult, Rumi stuck resolutely to his surety of an \"invisible hand\" in these dark historical events:\n\n_While everyone flees from the Tatars_\n\n_We serve the Creator of the Tatars_\n\nHe framed the issue even more starkly for his circle, often immigrants from Khorasan, writing, \"If you're afraid of the Tatars, you don't believe in God.\"\n\nIn the final phase of his life, Baha Valad\u2014now nearly seventy years old\u2014found the acceptance, even acclaim, which had eluded him during his earlier years. He might well have discerned divine providence at work\u2014and communicated to his son this understanding of otherwise tragic events. His choice of location in Asia Minor was not random, as he moved as an itinerant preacher from city to city, and patron to patron, working his way always closer to Konya, the capital of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, ruled by Sultan Alaoddin Kayqobad I, which he may have first visited as early as 1221. And of course the timing of this late-life migration had allowed his family to escape possible execution by the world conqueror known, by then, simply as \"The Accursed.\" He and his family spent the next seven years in the center of Anatolia before finally arriving in Konya, and Rumi passed from a boyhood spent traveling to young manhood.\n\nWithin four years of arriving in Erzincan, by 1222, Baha Valad was finally on his way, with his family, to the more central city of Larande, well inside the realm of the Seljuk sultanate. The daughter of the shah of Erzincan had been married to Kaykaus I, the Seljuk king, and may have smoothed the way for Baha Valad with members of the royal family. Originally one of dozens of nomadic Turkic clans in Central Asia, the Seljuks were nearing the apogee of a two-century hold on power in the central Islamic lands. In 1055, the Great Seljuks had taken control as \"protector\" of the Abbasid Caliphate; in 1077, the Seljuks in Anatolia defeated the Byzantines, at the Battle of Manzikert near Erzincan, almost to their own surprise, giving them sway over much of Asia Minor.\n\nArriving when he was about fifteen years old, Rumi truly came of age in Larande, or modern-day Karaman, sixty miles southeast of Konya. The hilltop town was full of gardens, fountains, and sweet peaches, which he later said could set a whole town smiling:\n\n_Today a hundred beautiful faces are smiling in Konya_\n\n_Today a hundred peaches are arriving from Larande_\n\nThis pleasant association fit the experience of his family, particularly his father. Baha Valad's patron was the local governor, who built him an entire school on the main square in town. Baha's orientation as a Sunni Hanafite with Sufi leanings fit with the broader agenda of the Seljuks, as they had been part of the military force behind a \"Sunni Revival\" of the Abbasid Caliphate, and had originally been converted to Islam by the heartwarming preaching of the Sufis. This formula worked especially well in trying to win over the local Greek Christians, rather than a hardline legalism. (Larande also included many Christian Turks, who were writing Turkish using a Greek alphabet.)\n\nMost of Rumi's adolescent education took place in these learned settings arranged for his father in such Anatolian towns. In spite of any juvenile resistance to primary school lessons, he had grown into an avid pupil, curious and studying widely, absorbing all manner of religious, scientific, and literary texts. The basics of his classwork were meant to prepare him for a life of preaching, teaching, and judging. He studied Arabic grammar and prosody; commentaries on the Quran; accounts of the life and sayings of the Prophet Mohammad; and Sharia, or religious law. He also studied history, philosophy, mathematics, and a favorite Persian science, astronomy, its scientific instruments for precise measuring and stargazing recurring in many of his later lyrics:\n\n_The sky is an astrolabe, while the truth is love_\n\n_When I speak, spin your ear towards my meaning_\n\nTurning seventeen in Larande, Rumi was wed, in 1224, to Gowhar, in a ceremony that bore all the marks of a traditionally arranged marriage. As the daughter of Sharaf of Samarkand, the deceased patron and disciple of Baha Valad, and his widow, the matriarch now known as the Great Kerra, Gowhar had been close to Rumi since they were both learning their alphabets. She had traveled with her mother in the harem of the caravan all the way from Samarkand, and, like Rumi, had grown from a child into a young adult over the course of the eventful decade\u2014rare memories, which they shared. Almost immediately, they had two sons: Bahaoddin Mohammad, later known as Sultan Valad, born in 1226, and named with his grandfather's full name, and Alaoddin Mohammad, named for Rumi's older brother, who possibly died during the long journey.\n\nRumi was keenly observant of the process of giving birth, and the transformation of a wife into a mother, his empathy palpable in the _Masnavi_ , where he writes of pregnant women trembling at each spasm, or chewing on clay lumps to help ease their birth pangs _:_\n\n_In childbirth every mother suffers aches_\n\n_As her baby tries to break out of prison_.\n\n_The mother cries, \"Where is my refuge?\"_\n\n_The baby laughs, \"Salvation is here!\"_\n\nHe graphically rendered the first demanding phases of child rearing, when he devised an analogy for his students about God's transformative patience with spiritual immaturity:\n\nGod is able to do all things. . . . When a child is newly born he is worse than a donkey. He puts his hand in his filth and then his hand in his mouth to lick. His mother slaps him to prevent it. When he pisses, he spreads his legs so that the pee doesn't drip on his leg. . . . Yet God is able to turn a baby into a human being.\n\nAnd he tenderly recalled a mother's breastfeeding moments at the side of a baby's crib:\n\n_Unless the baby in the cradle cries and weeps_\n\n_How does the anxious mother know to feed him milk?_\n\nFrom earliest childhood, Rumi's two sons were a tumble of conflicts. Even the order of their births has never firmly been established. Sultan Valad was named after his grandfather, a distinction signaling a firstborn, especially as Rumi's father was about seventy-five years old at his birth. Yet one contemporary biographer recorded that Alaoddin was one year older. Less ambiguous would be Sultan Valad's place as his father's favorite, not only his child but also his disciple, revering his father as Rumi had revered and tried to emulate Baha Valad. So sibling rivalry was ever roiling between these brothers\u2014a source of pain for their father, who sketched all boys' games as combative:\n\n_Wars are like the fights of children_ ,\n\n_Meaningless, thoughtless, and petty_\n\n_They aim at each other with wooden swords_\n\n_But their goals and purposes are futile_.\n\nIn Larande, Rumi, now a married young adult, stepped into the position of preacher, occasionally taking his father's place on the steps of the pulpit, where sermons were delivered in mosques, or in the seat of honor, in a college. In the medieval Muslim world, preaching was an art and a pillar of moral teaching, both entertainment and instruction. Rumi's father's delivery was fiery, a popular timbre. His grandson Sultan Valad told of him once throttling three sturdy camel drivers on the road to Baghdad. \"They repented and begged forgiveness,\" he said, comparing his grandfather to a lion. Such force came through in his sermons. He was saturated in the preaching culture of Khorasan, where sermons often ended on shrill warnings about judgment on the Last Day as weeping listeners, revival-style, came forward to repent of sins by having their heads shaved.\n\nRumi's tone was already more dulcet and controlled. He did not preach fire and brimstone, yet he adhered to the basic model. His early sermons were traditional and fairly standard, opening with a benediction in Arabic rhymed prose, in the style of the Quran, praising God, His Messenger Mohammad, and Abu Bakr, the first of the four \"Rightly Guided\" caliphs venerated by Sunni Muslims. He then prayed for God's intercession in a lyrical Persian that was full of crescendos\u2014the language was understood in Anatolia by the many Persian immigrants as well as being generally used as the universal court language for business and ceremonies. In one sermon evidently delivered in Larande, he prayed for his father and mother, and for his \"instructor,\" another figure clearly involved in his sophisticated religious education. He then repeated, in Arabic, a saying of the Prophet\u2014the text of his sermon\u2014after which he switched back into Persian.\n\nIn periodic flashes, the later mystic and poet Rumi can be glimpsed in some of these early sermons\u2014otherwise they were the works of a young man trying to conform to his father's pattern. In one of seven surviving sermons, he borrows a metaphor from a long poem attributed to Attar, _The Book of the Camel_ , but common enough in mystical literature\u2014a Turkish puppeteer performs with seven veils, and at the end of the night, like the cosmic creator, breaks all of his puppets and stores their pieces again in the dark box of Unity. In his opening prayer, Rumi makes enchanting theology from this material:\n\nThe magician of the skies, from behind the curtain of imagination, brings forth a play of shimmering stars and gorgeous planets. We crowd around this theatrical spectacle, mesmerized, passing away the night. In the morning, death will arrive, and the performance of these shadow players will grow cold, and the night of our life will vanish. Oh Lord! Before the morning of death dawns, let our hearts grow cold towards this play so that we might escape in time from this crowd, and not fall behind those who have been traveling through the night. When morning dawns, may we find ourselves arriving within the wider precinct of Your acceptance.\n\nAround 1229, Baha Valad finally received his invitation from the Sultan Alaoddin Kayqobad I to travel to Konya to teach and to live, with his family, at the Altunpa Madrase, the only _madrase_ operating at the time in the capital. If Baha Valad hoped to realize his wish to be preaching in one of the more \"glorious cities,\" he was fortunate. The sultan was gathering together a court unequalled in the Anatolian Seljuk dynasty, with many Persian-speaking poets, artisans, administrators, and scholars, even if the atmosphere included wine drinking and harp playing, which Baha Valad abhorred.\n\nOthers were not so fortunate. Uprooted scholars, poets, and religious leaders, bereft of their former university posts or courtly sinecures, were arriving in Anatolia daily, and the court of Kayqobad I was murmured among them to be the most supportive refuge as they tried to recoup their livelihoods in the aftermath of extreme trauma. Just one example of a suddenly needy fellow scholar was Najmoddin Razi, a leading Sufi thinker, a generation younger than Baha Valad, who fled the Mongols to Kayseri in East Anatolia and quickly dispatched inscribed copies of his well-known writings to the Seljuk sultan, without the desired result of a royal invitation to Konya. Yet Baha Valad had luckily managed to salvage, even improve, life for himself and his uprooted family.\n\nBefore the Valad family departed for Konya, Rumi's mother died and was buried in Larande. (The burial place of Momene, known as \"Madar Sultan\" by the Mevlevis, became a much-visited shrine.) By the time Rumi\u2014now a young father and preacher\u2014 left Larande he had experienced not only a panoply of traveling, but he had also seen the stages of life played out, with the deaths of his mother and older brother, his marriage to a childhood friend, and the births of their two sons, who took their names from the older generations. Rumi would discover in birth, and the constant metamorphoses of the life cycle, his favorite metaphor for the inner life:\n\n_Like a baby in the womb, I am nourished with blood_.\n\n_Everyone is born once. I have been born many times_.\nCHAPTER 5\n\nKonya\n\nTHICK stone walls, one hundred and forty watchtowers, and twelve gates rose from the central plateau of Anatolia with all the force and stature of the ramparts of Samarkand, Bukhara, Balkh, or Nishapur, as Rumi's family made their way to settle in the city where he would spend most of his adult life. The difference between Konya and these classic cities\u2014by then, mostly razed to the ground\u2014was its relative newness. In 1229 Konya was still a buzzing construction project rather than a monument to the past, the Seljuk capital intended as a living replication of these former capitals of Khorasan. The Sultan Alaoddin Kayqobad I had attempted to consolidate and add legitimacy to his raw power by creating a Turco-Persian axis, and coopting Persian literature, religion, art, and architecture, as well as statecraft and pageantry. Baha Valad and his family would have felt some sense of familiarity and even homecoming as they relocated to the capital, a kinship that resonated in warm tones in Rumi's later poetry:\n\n_Come into my house beloved\u2014a short while!_\n\n_Freshen my soul, beloved\u2014a short while! . . ._\n\n_So that the light of love radiates from Konya_\n\n_To Samarkand and Bukhara\u2014a short while!_\n\nEven in its layout, Konya more closely resembled the cities of Central Asia than those of Asia Minor. Houses were spread out between markets and flower gardens. Streets and wide alleys were lined with terra-cotta gullies of running water. Fountains were inset into the walls of public buildings in arch-shaped enclosures. Public baths were centrally located, with sections for men and women, and fresh water spilling continuously from a spout into a basin\u2014all the water was drawn from a reservoir pool beneath a marble dome at one of the city gates. The three miles of city walls were arranged as a rectangle with rounded corners, while the Citadel hill was freestanding in the center of town, in a pentagonal shape, with its own wall and towers constituting a second inner ring of protection. None of this conventional scheme, or its social significance, was lost on Rumi, who later delineated its rigid hierarchy for his son from a celestial perspective:\n\nBahaoddin, in this city of Konya notice how many thousands of houses, villas and mansions belong to commanders, noblemen and the wealthy. And notice how the houses of the gentlemen and administrators are grander than the houses of the artisans, and the mansions of the commanders are grander than the houses of the gentlemen. Likewise, the arches and palaces of the sultans and rulers are a hundred times grander and more splendid than the others. But the height and splendor of the heavens compared with these mansions turns out to be far more lofty, mighty, and splendid, and indeed many times more so.\n\nHaving drawn on Persian mythology to enhance his status in the capital, Sultan Alaoddin Kayqobad I lent himself an invented pedigree distinct from his nomadic Turkic ancestors, beginning with his name. Like his brother, Kaykaus I, and his father, Kaykhosrow I, the sultan took his royal name from the great fictional kings of the seminal epic of Rumi's boyhood in Khorasan, the _Shahname_ , or _The Book of Kings_. The sultan likewise had chiseled onto the towers of the two main entrances to Konya's Citadel sculptural figures and quotations, in tall gold lettering, from the _Shahname_ , and, throughout the palaces were set statues of dragons, a symbol in the epic poem of a Turk warrior, whom Ferdowsi, in the _Shahname_ , describes as \"a dangerous dragon whose breath is as fire.\" The sultan's glorification of all things Persian, combined with the status of the Seljuks as latecomers to Islam, helped create the perfect milieu for welcoming Rumi's family to Konya, as well as the later crucial tolerance and protection for Rumi by the sultan's descendants.\n\nKayqobad I was the single most important force in the reversal of fortune for Rumi's family and was generally convincing in fulfilling the heroic ideal of his glorious fictional namesake. His reign was the bright center of the comparatively brief two-century arc of imperial Seljuk Rum. Having ascended to power in 1219, after surviving imprisonment by his older brother Kaykaus I, he was a mostly wise ruler, evidently charismatic, though considered overly haughty by some of his emirs. He was also an able administrator, bringing into his treasury annual revenue of 3,300,000 gold dinars, from trade with Europe, and according to one historian, \"embellishing Konya beyond all recognition.\" During his fifteen-year reign, his armies secured the whole of Asia Minor from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, transforming Anatolia into a maritime power.\n\nA patron of architecture, a devout Muslim, and an ambitious ruler with a talent for stagecraft, Kayqobad I chose as his legacy project the reconstruction of the Great Mosque on the Citadel hill, adjacent to the royal palaces and overlooking the plains. (When Konya was the classical Roman city of Iconium, Paul, from coastal Tarsus, preached Christianity on this Acropolis.) Built by a Syrian architect, the mosque retained the floor plan of the Great Mosque of Damascus, with a flat roof. The main prayer room held four thousand worshipers, with an atmosphere of awe created by forty-two marble columns, like a stone forest. Including an intricate ebony pulpit, the congregational mosque was used for noon sermons, and Rumi would kneel many Fridays on its woolen prayer rugs:\n\n_I prayed so much that I turned into prayer_\n\n_Whoever looks into my face remembers to pray_\n\nThe imaginative creatures chiseled on walls and gates surrounding these ceremonial buildings, including the palace, which stretched from the main gate to the wall of the mosque, would filter into Rumi's imagination, too. Two pairs of winged angels guarded entrances to the Citadel. Over twenty lions, and several double-headed eagles, were carved in relief, as well as a caparisoned elephant pierced by a rhinoceros's horn:\n\n_If you turn into a lion, Love turns into a lion hunter_\n\n_If you turn into an elephant, Love turns into a rhinoceros_\n\nBuilt as well at the command of Kayqobad I, in 1229\u2014the probable year of the arrival of Rumi's family in Konya\u2014was Sultan Han, a traveler's caravanserai, on the road from Kayseri to Konya, in a region of flat Anatolian grasslands broken only by clumps of mountains, much like the steppes of Central Asia. In the first decades of the thirteenth century the main Seljuk construction project was to repair the old Roman stone roads, making them safer for merchants, and positioning rest houses at distances of nine hours travel by camel, or every eighteen miles. The largest of these inns provided mosques and fountains, camel and horse stables, kitchens and bathhouses. The Sultan Han even kept a band of musicians for entertainment. Near the outside gates, water usually gushed from stone animal fountains\u2014decorative, yet for Rumi, also symbolic:\n\nOn all the roads they have built caravanserais with stone birds and other figures set around the edges of pools. Water flows from their mouths and spills into the pools. Any intelligent person knows that the water is not flowing from the beaks of the stone birds but from some other place.\n\nHis analogy was to God's force behind \"whatever words, voices, or languages He wills.\"\n\nThese government-funded inns and reinforced roadways were crucial in Anatolia during the severe winters, when heavy snowdrifts inundated the highlands, five thousand feet above sea level, forcing travelers to remain indoors for days until the roads were cleared:\n\n_At night Easterners and Westerners and Transoxanians_\n\n_Stay together inside the same caravanersai_\n\n_Small and great remain together for days_\n\n_At the inn, because of the frost and the snow_\n\n_As soon as the road is opened and the obstacles removed_ ,\n\n_They separate, and go in their different directions_.\n\nPrime time for traveling was spring\u2014the season the family of Baha Valad would have chosen in the absence of any pressing issues\u2014when the roads leading into Konya from the Salt Lake to the north were lined with camels bearing salt, as well as grass, straw, or wood. On other passes into town, fields of cotton and corn gave way to gardens of yellow plums, or the famous Konya _Qamar al-Din_ , or Moon of Faith apricots. On mornings following thunderstorms, more roses opened, more greenery filled in, and the scent of silverberry trees, hanging like willows, with yellow blossoms, pervaded. Spring is the favorite season in Rumi's poems, his springtime vignettes often vividly Anatolian:\n\n_The rose garden, and sweet basil, all shades of peonies_\n\n_A violet bed among the dirt, and wind and water and fire, O heart!_\n\nBaha Valad was reportedly given a royal welcome to Konya. His great-grandson, Rumi's grandson Aref Chelebi, about ninety years later, commissioned his disciple Aflaki to gather memories of these times from survivors, and collect them in an often romanticized history titled _The Acts of the Mystics_. According to Aflaki, the Sultan Alaoddin Kayqobad I personally greeted Baha Valad, and offered him residence, if he preferred, in a room in the palace used for storing vessels, or hand washing, as well as for sleeping quarters. In declining health, Baha Valad, now an old man of Khorasan, spoke of the traditional divisions of society, perhaps not quite as set in the still evolving Seljuk Rum. \"Religious teachers belong in schools,\" he said. \"Sufis in lodges, commanders and princes in palaces, merchants in inns, artisans in guilds, and foreigners in guesthouses.\"\n\nThe extravagant gestures credited to the sultan were extraordinary for a king\u2014such as kissing the knee of Baha Valad\u2014but not entirely out of character. Sultan Kayqobad I was always at pains to display his reverence, especially toward mystical teachers from the spiritual homeland of Khorasan, considered a repository of ancient Persian wisdom as well as known territory to the Turkic clans. As Asia Minor was set off from the Arabian mainland, and its population was mostly Greek and Armenian Christian, Islam was being allowed to develop under these Seljuks in a fashion more attuned to the universalism of Ibn Arabi. (While living in Malayta, Ibn Arabi had served as an adviser and a spiritual father for the sultan's older brother, Kaykaus I.) The Seljuk sultans also believed that prayers for prosperity from saintly old men, such as Baha Valad, were especially potent.\n\nFitting Baha Valad's sense of propriety, as in Baghdad, he and his family then set up residence at a school, rather than in a Sufi lodge or palace room. The Altunpa Madrase and Mosque had been built for the sultan's commander Shamsoddin Altunbey in 1202, in the sober and restrained style of early Seljuk architecture, and was located near the main market square in the more populous district of Konya. Such Seljuk schools tended to be rectangular, two-story buildings, with lecture halls and study rooms on the first floor and student bedrooms with fireplaces and cupboards on the second floor, set around a central courtyard and fountain, much like a medieval cloister. Baha Valad paid retainers of a thousand dinars each to two of his new disciples, a baker and a butcher, described as \"pleasant and polite young men,\" to tend to the kitchen and to the meals.\n\nBaha Valad rapidly attracted a number of other disciples, both men and women. Rather than a drawback, his advanced age of nearly eighty was considered desirable in a religious teacher. In a manual for students written a few decades earlier, in Khorasan, one Hanafi jurist advised selecting as a teacher the \"most learned, the most pious and the most advanced in years.\" With his livelihood secured by the sultan, Baha Valad, as in Aqshahr and Larande, began teaching a mixture of law, ethics, and mystical Islam, and drawing students from different social classes. He shared his learning not only with a weaver, and with someone identifying himself as a \"simple-hearted\" Turk, but also with the courtiers.\n\nAn early disciple of Baha Valad from among the governing elite was Amir Badroddin Gowhartash, also known as the fortress commander, one of the chief stewards of the palace. Gowhartash took responsibility for building a new _madrase_ for Baha Valad and his family that eventually came to be known during Rumi's lifetime as the Madrase Khodavandgar, and to establish the village of Kara Arslan as its endowment\u2014a financial practice designating a portion of the village income from farming to the _madrase_. While closer to the ceremonial main gate of entrance to the Citadel and the palace, this _madrase_ was located in the same general neighborhood as the Madrase Altunpa, a merchant and artisan district of earthen houses with red tile roofs set among cypresses, maples, and thick oak trees, the sound of water flowing in its gutters always faintly audible. The _madrase_ included an adjoining harem for Rumi's wife and mother-in-law, as well as his two young boys, who remained, as he had, living in the harem until age ten or eleven.\n\nBaha Valad's decision to live near the markets made his teaching available to a wider following, as the Citadel was a much more elite and self-contained gated town-within-a-town. Only about nine hundred of the hundred thousand residents of Konya lived and worked in the defended Citadel. They were mostly administrators, palace servants, translators, often Jewish doctors, and, as Rumi observed, commanders living in houses just to the north that were visible from the two-story, blue-tiled imperial palace, its balconies facing in three directions atop an outer wall. The entire complex included a harem, bakery, treasury, bathhouse, stables, wine cellar, gardens, and\u2014about fifty yards from the Great Mosque\u2014the Church of St. Amphilochios, a chapel used by the many Christian mothers, wives, and daughters-in-law of the sultans. (One of the wives of Kayqobad I, Mahpari, was a Greek Christian; she was the mother of his eldest son and successor, Kaykhosrow II.) This nearly accidental religious diversity\u2014a matter of indifference as much as design among these governing sultans\u2014eventually helped to create the conditions for Rumi's being able to inspire, teach, and learn lessons from all of these different faith communities at once.\n\nBaha Valad did preach regularly at the Great Mosque in the Citadel complex. Indeed, Gowhartash first approached him at the mosque of the sultan, following a sermon that he found powerful. Yet Baha Valad mostly moved among the merchants and craftsmen, following a routine similar to his life in Vakhsh. In the style of the Sufis, he liked to wander about the Konya cemetery, reciting the Quran in a low voice. One day he had a pulpit set up outside the cemetery and preached to both men and women about the Day of Resurrection, reminding them of the stark terrors of the final judgment. He continued delivering legal judgments, many as strict as ever, especially on drinking wine, with his son Rumi always beside him, increasingly serving as his \"tongue\" and \"walking stick.\"\n\nAfter two years, Baha Valad's health began to fail. Most of his teeth were now missing, his voice quavering, and he was receiving his followers, including the sultan, at home. \"Wait until I pass away and you see how my son Jalaloddin Mohammad turns out!\" he said of his son, then twenty-three years old. \"He will take my place and become more elevated than I.\" Late one morning, in February 1231, at about eighty years of age, Baha Valad died. Having led his family thousands of miles, escaping possible extinction, and achieving recognition for wise leadership, he died as a patriarch and hero for his community. Kayqobad I donated the grounds in his rose gardens, beyond the Horse Bazaar Gate, where Baha Valad was buried. When his grandson Sultan Valad later wrote of the widely attended funeral, he emphasized the passing of authority next to his father: \"After the mourning was complete all the people, young and old, gathered around, and looked to his son, saying, 'You are like him in beauty. From now on we will hold to the hem of your robe. We will follow you wherever you go. From now on you are our king.'\"\n\nRumi had always been a highly sensitive and emotional boy. So he remained as a young and mature man, with no event so far in his life shaking and challenging him as much as the death of the father he idolized and emulated. He would return, full of both sorrow and need, to the grave of Baha Valad, near a marble fountain, whenever he wished to gather his thoughts or solve problems. Faced with crises, he was often spotted striding out through the Horse Bazaar Gate to visit his father's tomb. \"He clearly heard the correct answer from the garden of his father's tomb,\" said one of the townspeople.\n\nRumi also began carrying pages of his father's writings tucked into the inner sleeve pocket of his long robes. Although Baha Valad was outwardly strict, and stressed the wages of sin, his private journal was filled with intimate meditations on divine love expressed in passionate language that allowed Rumi to hear the voice of his dear father once again, filling him with warmth and purpose, and informing his ideas about love and God. \"The most effective and the strongest creation of God is love,\" wrote Baha Valad. \"Nothing created by God is as strong and as marvelous as love. Without love, life lacks its true power. I am constantly remembering God and I am always occupied with Him.\"\n\nFollowing the death of his father, Rumi traveled to Larande, where his mother was buried and many of his father's students from his former school were living. He obviously felt a need to reconnect with family and homeland. One day during this visit, the grieving son received a startling message. His mentor from Khorasan, Borhan, had not only survived the Mongol devastation in Termez but had arrived in Konya, and was staying at the Senjari Mosque. Rumi had not seen his tutor in fifteen years, since Borhan carried him on his shoulders during childhood, so he quickly returned home. Borhan, now over sixty years old, rushed through the front door of the mosque and the two embraced again.\n\nThe timing of Borhan's appearance, around 1232, was uncanny. Borhan attributed his arrival to the prodding of Baha Valad in a dream. As Borhan was mourning the news of his passing, Baha Valad angrily rebuked him: \"Borhanoddin, why is it that you are not attending upon our Khodavandgar but have left him alone? This is not the behavior of a guardian and a tutor. What explanation do you give for this shortcoming?\" According to a different report, Borhan was on pilgrimage in Mecca when he learned from either the sheikhs of Syria or the pilgrims of Rum of the whereabouts of Baha Valad, but not of his death. The result either way was fortunate for Rumi, who was not yet quite ready to assume leadership of the school, the age of wisdom in Islam being considered about forty. So he invited Borhan to move into his room, and to take over his father's place as preacher and teacher.\n\nBorhan in turn invited Rumi to learn more of the \"secret\" knowledge he had received from Baha Valad. The psychological subtleties of the matters they needed to discuss could only be understood, he explained, in intimate encounters between a teacher and his student. On their reunion, Borhan told Rumi, \"Your father mastered both knowledge of words and knowledge of spiritual states.\" Encouraging him to expand his knowledge of such states, Borhan became Rumi's sheikh, or spiritual director. Over the next decade, he plotted the course of his spiritual higher education. Listening to Borhan was like listening to his father. He trusted him and regarded him with filial tenderness.\n\nAt the _madrase_ , Borhan took flight with Sufi notions of the mystical life. He was less circumspect than Baha Valad, though he likewise rarely used the term \"Sufi,\" preferring to speak of mystics, or of \"dervishes,\" the Turkish version of a Persian word for those who had renounced the world and served God in poverty. He loved poetry more than Baha Valad and recited favorite lines from the poems of Sanai and Attar. Yet his presence gave the followers of Baha Valad a sense of continuity, as he was an aging, dignified preacher, scholar, ascetic, and Quranic commentator. With his Khorasani accent and bearing, he carried with him echoes of the vanished worlds of Samarkand and Balkh.\n\nBorhan was always trying to impart esoteric ideas he described as \"secrets,\" which essentially conveyed an understanding of divinity as present in everyone. The \"science\" he was teaching was a science of the soul. But such a science was not easily put into language and presented perils if the line between human and divine appeared to have been crossed. Most of the Sufis' doubling of language and use of elliptical and poetic words was intended to, or subtly resulted in, the intertwining of the divine and the human, either through transformation by knowledge, a vision of light, or ecstatic immolation in love. Borhan used many of the standard Sufi images for these experiences, such as discovering a pearl, reflecting light in a mirror, or burning like a moth in a flame. With students, perhaps even Rumi, taking notes, he explained, \"You are your own pearl. . . . If you don't know anything else, but know yourself, then you are a scholar and a mystic. If you don't know yourself, then all the science and knowledge that you possess is useless.\"\n\nSuch messages of self-knowledge were not unfamiliar to the Greeks of Anatolia, either. From the inscription \"Know Thyself\" (\" _gnothi seauton_ \") on the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, knowledge, or _gnosis_ , had been aligned for the classical Greeks with religion. Neoplatonic thought emphasizing knowledge as a mystical path was alive in the Anatolian region, and Plato was an almost magical figure, treated as a saint by both Greeks and Turks. Near Konya bubbled \"Aflatun Pinari,\" or \"Plato's Spring,\" where he was believed to have lived. ( _Aflatun_ was a translation of _Plato_.) Some said Plato was buried in the chapel on the Citadel. Rumi often visited the monks in the Eflatun Monastery near Konya, and he made Plato a symbol of great wisdom in his _Masnavi_ :\n\n_God's seal on the eyes and ears of the intelligence_\n\n_Turns an intelligent man into an animal, even if he is a Plato_\n\nSometimes he spoke of Plato in the tones he usually reserved for a Sufi spiritual master:\n\n_Whatever the Plato of the age advises you to do_ ,\n\n_Give up your self-will and act according to his counsel_\n\nThis resonance may have helped the warm reception given Khorasani mystics in town.\n\nYet not all his students immediately took to Borhan. Baha Valad had kept a judicial, scholarly tone, while Borhan was more openly (rather than covertly) mystical and poetical. Rumi often needed to come to his defense. Some of the infighting was stinging enough that Rumi could still relate the heated debates to his own students, decades after Borhan's death, especially concerning the mixing of poetry with theology:\n\nThey said, \"Sayyed Borhanoddin speaks very well, but he quotes Sanai's poetry too often.\" This is like saying the sun is good but it gives off too much light. Is that a fault? Quoting Sanai's words casts more light on the discussion. Sunlight casts light on things!\n\nOnce a student interrupted Borhan to protest his overuse of analogies, as a frivolous tool for scholars to use. As Rumi told the story, Borhan was not shy in defending his methods:\n\nSayyed Borhanoddin was giving a lecture. A fool broke in and said, \"We need words without analogies.\" Sayyed answered, \"Let him who seeks to hear words without analogies, draw closer. For you are actually an analogy yourself. You are not this thing. Your self is only your shadow. When someone dies, people say that he has departed. If he were this thing, where has he gone? It is clear that your appearance is only an analogy of your true self, from which your true self can be deduced.\"\n\nOthers adored Borhan in the manner a dervish did toward his sheikh, looking for guidance on a path deemed dangerous without direction from a mature teacher\u2014a path envisioned by Borhan as an expansive journey, like the flight of Attar's birds. \"The path of reunion has no end,\" he told them, \"God is the goal and destination.\" His most excited recent follower on this spiritual quest was a humble, unlearned goldsmith\u2014Salahoddin Zarkub\u2014a Turk from one of the nearby fishing villages on the Konya plains\u2014who arrived in the capital in the 1230s to set up a small shop in the goldsmiths' bazaar. He was fervent about Borhan's emphasis on fasting and purification, and became important enough to Rumi later in life for him to describe Salah as his \"root of spiritual joy.\"\n\nRumi spent a year or so in the growing circle of Borhan, learning more of the basics of Sufi thought. He was highly receptive to all of Borhan's mystical language and concepts. Borhan imparted to Rumi his passion for Hallaj, also known as Mansur. He liked to make a contrast between the \"I\" of the villain Pharaoh in the Quran, proudly refusing to bend to God's will in the liberation of the Hebrew slaves, with the egoless \"I\" in the \"I am the Truth!\" of Hallaj, which reportedly got him executed in Baghdad. \"Pharaoh, God's curse upon him, said, 'I am your Lord,'\" preached Borhan. \"His use of the word 'I' brought God's curse upon him. Mansur said 'I am the Truth' and his use of the word 'I' was a mercy from God.\" In his _Masnavi_ , years later, Rumi neatly set this thought of Borhan:\n\n_\"I am the Truth,\" shone from Mansur's lips like light_\n\n_\"I am the Lord,\" fell from Pharaoh's lips like a threat_\n\nBorhan eventually decided on a plan to prepare Rumi to manage the school established by his father and evolve into a religious jurist and guider of souls. To accomplish this ambition, Borhan resolved that his young charge travel to the most respected colleges in Aleppo and Damascus and study with elevated scholars in a curriculum combining readings in law and religion with a glass-bead game of esoteric knowledge. Borhan would take responsibility for caretaking the _madrase_ , and their grandmother, the Great Kerra, would serve as spiritual mother for Rumi's boys, then about six years old. She was considered another beneficiary of Baha Valad's higher \"secrets.\"\n\nFrom the seat of honor one day, Borhan singled out Rumi and addressed him directly, charging him with his imminent mission: \"God the Almighty, elevate you to the rank of your father. No one is at a higher rank than him, or I would have prayed, 'God, let him surpass him.' But that is the ultimate.\" Rumi's son painted the farewell as even more luminous, remembering Borhan as extravagantly and emotionally blessing Rumi at his departure, with the glorious prediction: \"And like the sun you'll scatter light worldwide.\"\nCHAPTER 6\n\n_\"I kept hearing my own name\"_\n\nARRIVING in Aleppo in northern Syria to begin his studies at about the age of twenty-five, and moving on eventually to Damascus, Rumi took his place in an entitled \"turbaned class\" of scholars and their chosen students. This selective gathering of the religious elite was made all the more lively and competitive as Syria in the early decades of the thirteenth century was widely considered the heart of Muslim culture in the Arabic language. Here he could see once again the learned society of debaters with clipped beards, trailing turban tassels, and green academic robes with wide, long sleeves, which he first might have glimpsed as a boy in the courtyards of Nezamiyye College in Baghdad.\n\nYet education in Rumi's time was also intimate and personal, a matter of a student being taken in hand by a teacher, or a small circle of teachers, and imitating their _adab_ , or manners and style, as much as mastering a single field of apprenticeship. Dispatching his charge to Aleppo, Borhan was entrusting him with cosmopolitan choices, not only in interpreting religious law, but also in comportment, intellectual tastes, and moral conduct. With his disciple Salah, he accompanied Rumi as far as Kayseri, midway between Konya and Aleppo, where they stayed briefly with the governor, who was building Borhan his own _madrase_. Kayseri was the second most important city in Rum, as Sultan Alaoddin Kayqobad I had built his ornate Qobadiyye Palace on its lakefront.\n\nAs a married student, with an ascetic practice encouraged by Borhan, Rumi lived a circumscribed life, in a traditional student cell in the most famous of the colleges of Aleppo, the Halaviyye, which was converted into a mosque from a Byzantine cathedral a century earlier as revenge against the Franks for pillaging during the First Crusade. While Rumi was in Aleppo, around 1233, the Halaviyye was sliding into disrepair and barely used as a teaching facility. Such schools were as much dormitories, with charitable endowments for supporting residential students, as academies granting certificates. The situation was fluid as mosques evolved into schools, then changed back again, and Rumi was free to follow lectures at the Shadbakht Madrase or reading circles at the Great Mosque.\n\nMuch like Konya, Aleppo was flourishing in a rare phase of peace and prosperity. The previous Ayyubid sultan al-Zahir, a son of the famed commander Saladin who had founded an Ayyubid dynasty in both Egypt and Syria, had reinforced the oval Citadel in the center of town, added a grand entranceway, repaired the canal system, and built a palace, upgrading Aleppo into one of the most beautiful cities in the Middle East. His son al-Aziz, who ruled during Rumi's school years, capitalized on the advantages of the city's trading location on caravan routes linking China with Europe, bringing in revenues second only to Egypt. The wood-roofed bazaar was its trading floor, offering local specialties such as pistachios and the glassware that glimmered in Rumi's later poems:\n\n_I'm the slave of hopeless time, until that time_\n\n_The wine of unity shines in a chalice of Aleppo glass_\n\nLike the interlocking patterns displayed on its stone and marble walls and portals, Aleppo was a complex mesh of East and West, Christian and Muslim. Much of its prosperity came from shrewd trading agreements with Venice that allowed Venetian merchants to establish a colony in Aleppo, with their own trading post, baths, and church. In 1219 Francis of Assisi met in Egypt with the Ayyubid sultan and won an agreement for his \"Monks of the Rope\" to wander the Holy Land. During the time of Rumi's stay, the first Franciscan friars began arriving in Aleppo to minister to Crusader princes and soldiers held prisoner in the Citadel. They swept through the streets in their rough, woolen robes, much like the robes worn by Sufis, with similar vows of poverty, and may have imprinted on Rumi the affinities between these two expressions of spirituality.\n\nRumi's main teacher in Aleppo was Ibn al-Adim, a quick-witted and urbane scholar, historian, legal expert, diplomat, and calligrapher in his midforties, with a post at Shadbakht Madrase. Five members of his eminent Hanafi \"old family\"\u2014including his father\u2014had served in the powerful post of chief justice, or _qadi_ , in Aleppo, since the tenth century. Ibn al-Adim was best known as a historian of Aleppo, and as a biographer of its leading citizens in his _Biographical Dictionary_ , a massive, forty-volume who's who of short vignettes, written by him in penmanship so fine that the sultan once summoned him to the palace to praise its beauty. He also wrote treatises on preparing perfumes, and on handwriting (practices, pens, and papers), as Arab intellectuals of his time were given to such encyclopedic \"boundless compilation.\" He did most of his writing on diplomatic missions for the sultan, when he traveled on a palanquin rigged between two mules.\n\nIbn al-Adim was a master of the basic sciences, explaining his quick ascent in the academic ranks, and was equipped to instruct Rumi in most areas of knowledge required for an advanced religious scholar: Arabic linguistics and grammar; dialectic reason and legal conflict; and the Quranic sciences. He gave indications of being a fellow traveler of Sufism, though he was too shrewdly political to proclaim such sympathies openly. (In the early years of his reign, al-Aziz had executed the Sufi leader Sohravardi for heresy.) Yet his father had called on his deathbed for the prayer beads of a Sufi saint, and Ibn al-Adim reserved a room in his own tomb for a Sufi, perhaps as a hedge against divine judgment. He espoused, if not always fully practiced, the virtues of poverty, solitude, and self-reliance.\n\nWhile Rumi never absorbed his teacher's passion for history, he was delighted by his exposure in Aleppo to the intricate joys of Arabic poetry. Ibn al-Adim was a minor poet. He wrote clever lines on slight topics, such as sighting the first white hairs in his beard. Yet he idolized those with \"innate poetic ability,\" and championed the poetry of the premier Arabic poet al-Mutanabbi, whose verses remained a lifelong pleasure for Rumi. During the eleventh century al-Mutanabbi had lived in the quarter of Aleppo where Ibn al-Adim's family's marble compound was located. Rumi's favorites were al-Mutanabbi's _qasidas_ , often odes of praise for a patron, known for their technical virtuosity, though a surprising choice perhaps given their standard use of the tradition of braggadocio and praise of wine, power, and battlefield glory. Al-Mutanabbi wrote zestfully of \"the play of swords and lances\" and \"the clash of armies at my command.\" Rumi later scattered lines of al-Mutanabbi in his talks, and one of the Arab poet's more famous openings\u2014\"A heart that wine cannot console\"\u2014entwined for Rumi with memories of school years in Syria, he transposed as a closing for a poem on spiritual wine:\n\n_We can look for the answer in Mutanabbi:_\n\n_\"A heart that wine cannot console\"_\n\nIn Aleppo, Rumi was also introduced to an active Shia community, especially visible during the festivals of the family of Ali, the son-in-law and cousin of the Prophet Mohammad, whose heirs are believed by Shia to be the rightful holders of the leadership of all Muslims. The Sunni rulers observed these festivals warily, while Rumi's teacher, Ibn al-Adim, a member of the establishment, was described by his biographer as a \"sentinel of the Sunni state.\" On the Day of Ashura, mourning the death of Ali's son Hosayn at the Battle of Karbala in 680, Rumi witnessed pious Shia weeping and beating themselves at Antioch Gate, the main fortress gate at the entrance of Aleppo. Thinly disguising himself as \"A poet,\" Rumi recorded this memory in _Masnavi_ :\n\n_On the day of Ashura, all the people of Aleppo_\n\n_Gather from day until night at the Antioch Gate . . ._\n\n_One day a stranger, who was a poet, came along_\n\n_On this day of Ashura, and heard their lamentations . . ._\n\n_He went along, asking questions gently on his way_ ,\n\n_\"What is this sorrow? Whose death are they mourning?\"_\n\nThough Rumi may not have been previously aware of this ritual, as Persians were mostly Sunni during his lifetime, his na\u00efvet\u00e9 in rendering the experience was exaggerated, as he feigned discovering that the martyrdom being mourned had taken place centuries earlier:\n\n_Have you been asleep all this time?_\n\n_You are only now tearing your garments in sorrow?_\n\nRumi may have felt some shock as a young man, but revisiting the event, in his maturity, he was more intent on questioning sorrow as a response to death rather than joy:\n\n_Mourn for your own broken faith and religion_\n\n_If your faith doesn't see beyond this old earth_\n\nThe second phase of Rumi's advanced education took place in Damascus, where he likely traveled about a year later and had previously visited with his family during their original journey from Central Asia. While Aleppo was known as a trading and mercantile city, Damascus, in southern Syria, in the midst of a desert oasis, was both a commercial center and a holy city, the capital of the former Umayyad Caliphate, and one of the important departure points for _hajj_ , especially for pilgrims traveling from points west. Because of the city's religious history and geography, students of the Quran were welcomed and treated respectfully. The magnificent Umayyad Mosque, still enshrining the reputed head of John Baptist from its previous days as a Christian basilica, hummed all day with groups of students listening to their sheikhs read aloud. As Damascenes were not encouraged to read books silently or alone, the murmur of these many study circles was a kind of spoken music filling the courtyards daily from dawn until dusk.\n\nOver about four years, in his midtwenties, Rumi studied in Damascus in one of the Hanafi seminaries, probably the Moqaddamiyye Madrase, near the Bab al-Firdaws, or Gate of Paradise, where he could stay in an outer building, free of the nighttime regulations overseeing entrances and exits that were enforced on younger students in the inner buildings. Of his studies of one important Hanafi text, he later recalled, \"In my youth I had a friend in Damascus who was a companion with me in studying the _Hedaya_.\" He also seems to have attended sessions of a famed Hanafi scholar from Bukhara, who was teaching at Nuriyye Madrase. All public classes were highly formal, modeled on behavior in a mosque, with a nearly sacred space cleared about the lecturer, so his rug and cushion were left untouched. As one manual prescribed proper student etiquette: \"Do not look at anything but the teacher, and do not turn around to investigate any sound, especially during discussion. Do not shake your sleeve. The student should not uncover his arm, nor should he fiddle with his hands or feet or any part of his body parts, nor should he place his hand on his beard. . . . Nor should he try to say anything funny or offensive; and he should not laugh except out of surprise. If something overcomes him, he should smile without giving voice.\"\n\nThough student life was rigorous, Rumi loved his time in Damascus. He often called Damascus the \"City of Love,\" punning on the word for love, \" _eshq_ ,\" tucked into its Arabic name, \"Dameshq.\" He even wrote his single example of an ode to a city for Damascus, not only as homage to the capital, but also to Arabic poetry, where such love poems to cities abound, especially to Baghdad. Only Samarkand comes across in his writings with such verve and close observation. He exuberantly opens his city poem:\n\n_I'm madly in love, and crazy for Damascus_\n\n_Damascus, where I left my heart and soul_\n\nRumi catalogs the most prominent of the thirteen gates to the medieval city:\n\n_Separated from friends, I stand alone at the Barid Gate_\n\n_Beyond the Lovers' Mosque, in the green fields of Damascus . . ._\n\n_Far from the Gate of Joy and the Gate of Paradise_\n\n_You'll never know what visions I'm seeking in Damascus_.\n\nHis references are often built on inside jokes that only other visitors to Damascus at the time would fully understand. The Ayyubid sultan, during his stays in town, liked to play polo in the Verdant Field hippodrome, where Rumi imagined his own head as a swerving ball:\n\n_I want to roll through her Verdant Field, like a polo ball_\n\n_Struck by polo sticks, towards the main square of Damascus_\n\nA large Quran commissioned by Caliph Uthman was kept veiled as a relic in the mosque:\n\n_Let me swear an oath on Uthman's holy book_\n\n_The pearl of that beloved, shining in Damascus_\n\nThe soft border between Muslims and Christians was nowhere more evident than in Damascus, even in these waning days of the Crusades. Many Christians and Jews lived in the capital, though neighborhoods were segregated by religion, with gates clanged shut at the dusk curfew, and beliefs worn on the sleeve: under a legal dress code, Christians wore crosses, and Jews a yellow or red shoulder rope. Syria was the historical center of monasticism, and Rumi was said to have come across a group of forty desert fathers, or hermit monks, on his way from Aleppo. The Quran was understood to say that Jesus stayed on the hill of nearby Rebva, and Damascenes hoped to witness his resurrection at their Eastern Gate:\n\n_Let's climb Rebva, as if we're in the time of Christ_\n\n_Like monks, drunk on the dark red wines of Damascus_\n\nThe Bab al-Faraj, or Gate of Joy, evoked by Rumi stood just east of the Salehiyye, or the Righteous District, outside the walls of the old city at the foot of prominent Mount Qasiyun. This neighborhood had grown in the past few decades and was crowded with mostly Sufi hostels and learning centers, explaining Rumi's exclamation \"On the Mount of Righteousness is a mine of pearls!\" The most illustrious of those pearls, of course, was Ibn Arabi\u2014who Rumi may or may not have met in Malatya a decade earlier. Ibn Arabi lived the final phase of his life in Damascus and was buried in a tomb in Salehiyye. Whether Rumi was included in his reading circles, he was certainly aware of the famous mystic. Definitely in attendance at readings of his voluminous texts, as Ibn Arabi was still producing them, though, was his godson Qonavi, with whom Rumi had a gradually evolving friendship later in Konya. Some of Ibn Arabi's readings aloud were meant for Qonavi's ears alone. Rumi saw venerated in the person of Ibn Arabi a sublime and knowledgeable approach to spirituality as an elite science available only to initiates with rarefied experience. Though tempted by Ibn Arabi's approach, he was never entirely committed.\n\nAlong with dazzling verbal performances and abstruse examinations of religious thought, Rumi was surrounded in Damascus by a scholarly culture that valued rank and fame. Books were stacked according to importance, with the Quran on top of any pile. Seating at lectures radiated out from the sheikh in decreasing order of status, as he was faced with his most eminent guest, judged by knowledge, age, piety, or fame. Of these qualities, fame weighed most strongly, the making of a name, especially a name beyond Damascus or, even better, Syria. Sources of the time noted that one young scholar \"flashed his merit like a bright star rising on the horizon,\" and, of another, \"his name flew to fill the regions\"\u2014values far from Rumi's later yearning for a nameless sort of oblivion.\n\nFollowing nearly five years of study in Aleppo and Damascus, having saturated himself in steep and difficult texts, and having been exposed to some of the most renowned religious scholars of the day, Rumi, about thirty years old, returned to his teacher of teachers, Borhan. Rumi sought to integrate the last and most important missing piece in his education, held out by Borhan as the ultimate achievement\u2014advanced lessons in spiritual practice designed to unlock interior practices even more demanding and essential for his future responsibilities than the academic exercises mastered in Syria.\n\nTheir meeting likely took place in Kayseri. The sultan's governor had constructed by then the _madrase_ where Borhan was based, though he still made the trip of about two hundred miles to Konya regularly. When Rumi arrived, the governor invited him to stay in his palace, but Borhan, channeling the words of Baha Valad, warned Rumi that schools were the proper place for scholars to reside. The name of the town reflected its grand past history as a Roman capital, and Rumi punned on the naming of Kayseri, or Caesarea, after the Roman emperor Caesar Augustus, when alluding to Borhan:\n\n_When our Caesar is in Kayseri\u2014_\n\n_Don't keep us waiting in Elbistan_\n\nThe brunt of Rumi's joke, Elbistan, was a smaller Anatolian city on the road to Syria.\n\nBut their reunion might have taken place anywhere, as Borhan was now stressing the inner world with his pupil. In the tradition of the historical Sufi movement, Borhan trained Rumi in exercises of asceticism, especially fasting. Borhan had been dedicated to fasting all his life. During this period, he wrote in his notes of the exemplary effects of fasting on the soul: \"The thinner the shell of the walnut, the fuller is its nut, and the same for the almond and pistachio.\" He had advised his disciple Salah that even if he found himself unable to perform other devotions, he should never neglect fasting. Such self-denial was meant to instill martial discipline, as well as to wean the practitioner off the ordinary values of the world. The ultimate \"fasting of the elite\" meant the desire for God alone.\n\nFrom this intensive season in Kayseri, Rumi never relaxed his stance on fasting, a habit he pursued with passion, almost thrilled, becoming as identified as Borhan with the practice. In Book V of the _Masnavi_ , he would lift off in an inspired hymn to fasting:\n\n_Don't eat straw and barley, like donkeys:_\n\n_Graze on flowers of the Judas tree, like musk deer in Khotan_\n\n_Only graze on clove, jasmine, or roses_ ,\n\n_In Khotan, with your beloved companion . . ._\n\n_The stomach of the body pulls towards the straw-barn_\n\n_The spiritual stomach pulls towards fields of sweet basil_.\n\nIf spring is the favorite season in Rumi's poems, Ramadan, the month of fasting from dawn to sunset, obligatory for able Muslims, became his cherished religious observance:\n\n_Congratulations! The month of fasting is here!_\n\n_Have a good journey, my companion in fasting_.\n\n_I climbed to the roof, to see the moon_ ,\n\n_With my heart and soul, I longed for fasting_.\n\n_When I looked up, my hat fell off_ ,\n\n_My head was set spinning by the king of fasting!_\n\nFasting became a reminder for Rumi of memories of Borhan, as few anecdotes about the displaced mystic of Khorasan failed to link him with his habitual practice. Fasting was also Rumi's introduction to the consolations of \"tightening the belt.\" He was learning that things were not what they seemed, and that empty stomachs held \"hidden sweetness.\"\n\nLike the scholars of Damascus, the mystics and Sufis had their own ranks and an organized ladder of mystical practices that indicated status in the spiritual world. More extreme than regular fasting but essential was the completion of a forty-day trial in sealed isolation from the world known as _chelle\u2014_ from _chehel_ , Persian for \"forty.\" This period of solitude and subsisting on bread and water was a sort of vision quest, conceived as an inward _hajj_ , or desert experience, owing its origins perhaps to the Syrian hermit monks, such as those Rumi met on his way to Damascus. Borhan arranged Rumi's retreat, sealing him into total seclusion, and then helping him with interpreting his insights afterward.\n\nA chip of remembrance, likely from this retreat, appears in Book V of the _Masnavi_. This time, rather than \"a poet,\" Rumi casts his younger self as \"a certain man,\" but his exact recording of one disorienting nightmare was quite personal, nearly surreal:\n\n_During the_ chelle _, a certain man_\n\n_Dreamed he saw a pregnant dog on a road_\n\n_Suddenly he heard the cries of her puppies_\n\n_Though they were in the womb, invisible . . ._\n\n_Puppies howling in a womb, he thought_\n\n_\"Has anyone ever heard of such a thing?\" . . ._\n\nInterpreting dreams was a problematic challenge\u2014for medieval Muslims especially, a religious problem. Isolation only exacerbated Rumi's confusion, blurring his waking:\n\n_When he woke from his dream and came to himself,_\n\n_His astonishment grew greater at every moment_.\n\n_During the_ chelle _, there is no other solution to problems_ ,\n\n_Except for being present to God the Almighty_.\n\nSo he began to pray, and heard a wise voice interpreting his bizarre dream imagery:\n\n_At that moment, he heard a mysterious voice_ ,\n\n_Saying, \"That is a symbol of the yelping of the ignorant_ ,\n\n_Those who have not pierced the veil and curtain_ ,\n\n_But with blind eyes are speaking aimlessly.\"_\n\nRumi emerged from his _chelle_ with a personal experience of having heard a voice that he felt was available to him for guidance. He could hear wisdom, not just in reading circles, or from lecturers, but also in meditation, and he could copy down the words, as in dictation. In trying to measure the gap between human and divine, such an encounter was revelatory.\n\nAfter instructing Rumi in the wisdom tradition shared with him by Baha Valad, and encouraging him even more insistently to study his father's notebooks, Borhan began to decline. During his last few years Borhan was sometimes in Konya, but he kept returning to Kayseri, possibly wishing to withdraw so that his charge could take on a leadership position alone. In Kayseri, Borhan showed poignant signs of loss of the strength, mental focus, and near athletic prowess in self-discipline that marked his prime years, though his behavior was also taken as evidence of saintliness, of having moved beyond the ordinary restraints of religion. When he led prayers in the mosque he spent long stretches of time\u2014rather than minutes\u2014in bowing or standing poses. When some members of the congregation complained, he apologized, \"Some madness continually overwhelms me. I am not fit to be your prayer leader.\" The plea only made him more revered and followed, as he was now understood to be as humble as he was wise.\n\nMost striking was the transformation of the rigid ascetic into a corpulent gentleman as he relaxed his tight regimen. Borhan once heard a voice commanding, \"Undergo no further hardship!\" He now obeyed this voice. A grand lady, who had become his disciple, teasingly asked why he had given up fasting and was not practicing his five daily prayers. \"Oh child, I am like a load-bearing camel,\" he replied, comparing himself to an emaciated camel at journey's end being fed a few grains of barley. When his patron, the governor, grew concerned about his unkempt appearance, he snapped, \"So I came into the world for the sake of doing my laundry? Leave me alone!\" Rather than feats of fasting, Borhan focused on his love of pickled turnips for indigestion. In old age, he began behaving with some of the carefree joy of the holy fools for God of Nishapur.\n\nBorhan died in Kayseri in 1240 or 1241, in his midseventies. Following a conventional mourning period of forty days, a letter was sent notifying Rumi in Konya. A decade after the death of his father, this news had a similar impact. Rumi collapsed into the knowledge that he was again without fatherly support. He set out quickly with a band of disciples on a road he traveled regularly enough during those years to recall later all the stops on the way, while illustrating the difference between ritual and true spiritual progress:\n\nThe stages on the road from Konya to Kayseri are fixed and defined. They are Kaymaz, Uprukh, Sultan, and so forth. But the stages on the sea between Antalya and Alexandria are not fixed and defined. A ship's captain may know them, but he won't tell them to land dwellers because they would not understand.\n\nRumi visited the grave of his mentor and held a funeral banquet in his honor. Borhan's books and notes were spread out for him to choose whatever he wished. He cherished these words and found in rereading them the connection so important in his growth over the past decade. As with his father's writings, Borhan left Rumi not only hard ascetic rules, but also messages of love that were the soft core of his discipline of curbing impulses: \"If you prick your foot on a thorn, you would leave all the important things aside, and wholly attend to it. You ought then to do the same for your brother.\"\n\nIn his midthirties Rumi, finally, if inevitably, ascended to the leadership of his community. At the Madrase Khodavandgar, he was looked upon as the living embodiment of Baha Valad and Borhan. He walked the streets of Konya in the official garb of a religious scholar\u2014wearing a cumbersome wide-sleeve cloak and a large turban, wound with one band unraveleld and hanging down his back. Although he never served in Konya as chief justice, or _qadi_ , he held academic appointments at four separate colleges, all respected, including the Cotton Sellers Madrase, endowed by the guild of cotton merchants, and located on their street in the market district. His name appeared on lists of the most prominent doctors of the law belonging to the Hanafi School.\n\nAt about the same time as the death of Borhan, Rumi's wife, Gowhar, also mysteriously died, with no record of the cause. Again, Rumi experienced the loss of an intimate link to his childhood in Central Asia as well as, most crucially, the mother of his two sons. Yet Gowhar's mother continued to live in the harem and take special interest in her grandsons. Rumi soon afterward married a widow, Kerra, from a Roman-Turkish family in Konya, whose deceased husband Mohammad Shah had been an aristocratic Persian speaker from Iran. Like Rumi, Kerra brought two children to their marriage\u2014a boy, Shamsoddin Yahya, and a girl, Kimiya. Over the next few years Rumi and Kerra had their own son, Mozaffaroddin Amir Alem Chelebi\u2014Rumi's third\u2014and a daughter, Maleke. With these four young children, the harem grew even more crowded and busier.\n\nUnlike his father, Rumi never kept multiple wives, and the widower and his widowed bride remained together for the rest of his life. Kerra was more vividly remembered than Gowhar, as theirs was not an arranged marriage, and she lived with Rumi during the period of his growing fame. Though he never wrote about Kerra directly, she was remembered by those in his inner circle and was later the source of some of the more magical and fantastical tales about her husband. Her choice to leave the aristocratic household of her deceased husband to marry a cleric pointed to spiritual leanings, underlined in Aflaki's description of her as \"a second Virgin Mary.\" She was certainly superstitious, and was forever seeing _jinn_ , or invisible, mischievous spirits. Early in their marriage, Rumi used to stand by a tall lamp stand at night, reading his father's pages. She told him that the _jinn_ complained to her of the bright light. Rumi smiled and three days later tried to mollify her. \"After today do not worry. The _jinn_ are my disciples and they are devoted to me. They will not cause any harm to come to our children or friends.\"\n\nRumi's bemused smile to Kerra, on news of the _jinn_ , either patronizing, loving, or both, expressed some of the enigma of his attitude toward women and marriage, as well as the general ambivalence toward women in medieval society. Rumi often fell into a traditional classifying of men as strong and rational, and women as mercurial and emotional. He once even painted wives as purifying tests for their coarse husbands:\n\nGod showed the Prophet a narrow and hidden way to refine himself, and that was the path of marrying women, and enduring their tyranny, and listening to their complaints, and letting them order him around. . . . Character would only become purer through such patient forbearance.\n\nIn other moods, he could be more sympathetic, as in his ode in the _Masnavi_ to women _:_\n\n_A woman is a ray of God, heavenly and beloved_\n\n_She is a creator, uncreated, from above_\n\nRumi later argued against imposing veils on women and had many female disciples, whose Friday evening gatherings in one lady's garden he was criticized for attending.\n\nWhen his two older sons reached adolescence, Rumi sent them both to study in Damascus, a decision that distressed their maternal grandmother, the Great Kerra, as she would miss them greatly. He evidently thought highly enough of Damascus as the standard for religious education. Overseeing them on this trip was their tutor and guardian, Sharafoddin. Yet as both boys were now in their midteens, the combativeness of their childhood conflicts was only magnified. When they were younger, Rumi himself had mostly been away in Syria, leaving his first wife, Gowhar, with the problem of their bad behavior. Now the target of their rebelliousness in Damascus quickly became their tutor, and Rumi was upset at needing to write them a pointed letter, advising them to be more respectful to their elders:\n\nDear son Bahaoddin, and dear son Alaoddin. Don't forget to be polite to this father, the father of your education and training, Sharafoddin. Don't be rude, or judgmental, or abusive, and treat him as a father. I am indebted to this dear father Sharafoddin. I am hoping that my dear children will be patient and kind and generous with him, and talk to him in a very kind way, and when this father is angry, I want my children to make themselves busy with other matters, or go to sleep. I am waiting to receive some news, and I pray for my children to become more kind and hopefully very soon you will return home and make us happy.\n\nRumi was now flourishing in Konya, where he had become known for the power and popularity of his eloquent preaching. By the time he was seventeen and had returned from Syria, his son Bahaoddin, later known as Sultan Valad, would sit next to his father during these sermons, just as Rumi sat next to his father, Baha Valad. However, Rumi had such a youthful appearance that when the two appeared together in public they were often mistaken for brothers. Rumi was satisfying his patrons, the Sunni Seljuk rulers, as his public speeches displayed enough emotion and beauty to convert Greeks and Armenians, a desired outcome for the regime. He could later still summon the fervent emotion that his sermons had stirred among local Greek speakers, who did not understand much of their content:\n\nI was speaking one day to a crowd that included non-Muslims, and during my talk they were weeping and going into ecstatic states. \"What do they understand? What do they know?\" someone asked. \"Not one out of a thousand Muslims can understand this sort of talk. What have they comprehended that they can weep so?\" It was not necessary for them to understand the words. What they understood was the essence of the speech . . . the oneness of God.\n\nSeeing the response of audiences from the viewpoint of his father, as he sat beside him, Sultan Valad, too, recalled the excitement stirred by his gifted and warmhearted oratory: \"Now that he stood alone, his greatness became more visible, in the eyes of the old, and the eyes of the young. Even among those who had kept their distance from him before.\"\n\nYet Rumi was not wholly satisfied by this early success. Ironically he had achieved everything his father and tutor desired for him, and attained the goals and station considered most lofty by his society at a relatively young age. Ever since childhood he had been a bit of a prodigy, and always had a graceful power over those around him. These indicators of success were borne out by his talents as a teacher, preacher, jurist, and spiritual counselor. He traveled both outward and inward paths of education, yet he was feeling incomplete, inauthentic, not yet arrived at his destination.\n\nNow in his late thirties, Rumi particularly puzzled over the limits of the learning he had accumulated with such exertion in Aleppo and Damascus\u2014expending great effort was another virtue of the scholarly culture. He struggled, as well, with fame, the sort of important status recognized by the scholars. By his combination of the authority of learning with youthful charm and charisma, he attracted an eager retinue\u2014if not quite the \"ten thousand more\" newly minted followers counted by Sultan Valad. His pleasure in this easy adulation was authentic, but so was a jagged shadow of doubt. Rumi began to feel uneasy about expectations being laid on him. He distrusted his need for notice of an identity he could not comfortably fit\u2014a discomfort made worse by having no one to talk with about these unexpected doubts, no confidant. The vehemence of Rumi's later attacks on intellectual preening and the traps of fame grew from experiences during this unexpectedly conflicted moment in his life. He admitted as much in a reflective _robai_ :\n\n_For some time, like everyone, I adored myself_ ,\n\n_Blind to others, I kept hearing my own name_.\nPART II\nCHAPTER 7\n\n_\"The face of the sun is Shams of Tabriz\"_\n\nA stranger appeared in Konya on November 29, 1244. About sixty years old, dressed in a cloak fashioned from coarse black felt, and wearing a simple traveler's cap, he checked into one of the inns managed by the sugar confectioners or the rice sellers within the market district, not far from Rumi's school. His name was Shamsoddin, or Shams of Tabriz, and he was a singular outlier mystic in a period of history crowded with extreme religious seekers, especially active in the wake of the Mongol invasions. From decades of restless travel throughout all the religious capitals of the Muslim world, he had earned the nickname \"Parande,\" or \"The Flier.\"\n\nIgnoring the social etiquette that Baha Valad had followed so strictly, Shams bypassed the Sufi lodges, where he could easily have found subsidized room and board. Instead he chose to remain incognito in a merchant inn, disguising himself as a commercial businessman, even putting a giant lock on his door to insinuate that he was carrying valuable wares that needed to be safeguarded, though inside was nothing but a straw mat. In conversations with Rumi later written down by students, including Sultan Valad, Shams remembered being asked, \"Aren't you coming to the _madrase_?\" and answering, \"I'm not a debater. I'm a stranger. The inn is the right place for strangers.\"\n\nMost likely during the first week of December, Shams and Rumi suddenly met. At the crest of his prominence as a religious teacher and jurist, Rumi was on his way from one of his teaching appointments at the Cotton Sellers Madrase and was passing by the inn where Shams was staying. He was riding a mule and surrounded by a posse of students, walking on foot, holding his stirrups, adding an aura of celebrity similar to the retinue of Razi in Herat during Rumi's childhood, though on a smaller scale. In place were the symbols of his scholarly status he wrote about later in a self-deprecating tone:\n\n_My turban, my robe, and my head_\n\n_Are worth less than a single penny_\n\nSlicing through all the jostling, his black cloak wrapped tightly about him, Shams grabbed the reins of Rumi's mount. The conversation that ensued was a hasty theological exchange. As Shams later recalled:\n\nThe first words I spoke to Mowlana were: \"Why didn't Bayazid follow the example of the Prophet and say, 'Glory be to You!' or 'We have not fully worshipped You?'\" Mowlana perfectly understood the full implications of the problem, and where it came from, and where it was leading. It made him ecstatic because his spirit was so pure and clean, and shone in his face. I realized the sweetness of my question only from his ecstasy. Before then I had been unaware of its sweetness.\n\nThe issue that Shams was raising pivoted on Bayazid Bestami, an Eastern Iranian Sufi mystic of the \"drunken\" school, who exclaimed, \"Glory Be to Me! How great is My Majesty!\" Like Hallaj's \"I am the Truth!\" Bayazid's unorthodox hymn of praise, seemingly to himself, could be interpreted as evidence of a mystic having lost all sense of self. To ordinary ears, he was risking blasphemy by merging his human identity with the divine. Shams was asking Rumi how such a high state of rapture should be compared with the Prophet Mohammad, who had spoken of being raised to the highest heavens, and yet, more humbly, prayed, \"We have not known You as You should be rightly known.\"\n\n\"Was Bayazid greater or Mohammad?\" pressed Shams.\n\n\"Bayazid's thirst was quenched by a single mouthful, and he was satisfied, and claimed he was no longer thirsty,\" answered Rumi. \"The water jug of his understanding was filled with a single sip. His house received light that fit the size of its single window. But Mohammad's quest for water was immense, consisting of thirst upon thirst.\"\n\nSome reported that Shams \"fell in a swoon\" at Rumi's response, though it was fairly standard in the Muslim catechism: Mohammad was the greatest of all men. Yet Shams and Rumi had gazed at each other, and this exchange was far more disruptive. A recurring theme in the literature of romantic love and Sufi mystical love was this deep gaze. Not only Layli and Majnun exchanged amorous looks, so did Sufi masters and their true disciples behold each other. Writing of this extraordinary meeting, Sultan Valad used all the rich language and imagery of ecstatic love to describe his father's first glimpse of Shams. Rumi \"saw the veil pulled away from his face\" and \"fell in love with him.\"\n\nDescribing their meeting months later, among a circle of interested students, Shams did not spell out Rumi's parsing of his leading question. Rather he simply remembered responding to his pure spirit, shining face, joy at finding a kindred soul, and a tenor of sweetness. A through-line in Rumi's poetry, too\u2014following from this flash of a meeting\u2014was the certainty that recognition occurs beyond speech, language, and thought:\n\n_For lovers, the beauty of the beloved is their teacher_\n\n_His face is their syllabus, lesson, and book_\n\nWhether in a faint or awake, Shams was led immediately afterward by Rumi to the Madrase Khodavandgar. In seclusion, the two spoke more openly, and their intimate discussion was compelling enough for Rumi to decide that he wished to follow its thread even further. He also realized such an exploration would be impossible in the burgeoning school that was doubling as his home and a busy harem for his wife, children, and extended family. So he decided that same day to decamp. As Aflaki described the next of the startling developments: \"After that Mowlana grasped his hand and they departed.\"\n\nRumi took Shams back into the market district, to the street of the goldsmiths, to the shop of Salah, who had been such a devoted follower of his tutor Borhan. After the death of Borhan, four years earlier, Salah returned to his fishing village, married, had several children, and then moved back to the capital city to set up his permanent home and shop. Though an illiterate workman, he had an enthusiastic spirit that Rumi trusted, as had Borhan. In the past few years, whenever Rumi delivered one of his celebrated public sermons, Salah was said to have shouted fervent yells of assent. Rumi's intuition proved correct, as Salah responded warmly to the unusual newcomer from Tabriz.\n\nRumi and Shams lived together in near seclusion in a room of Salah's house for at least the next three months. The rapidness of their bonding was shocking, but not without foreshadowing, as the vehemence of Rumi's seizing at an escape from his daily round, as well as his future eviscerating of his former way of life, all indicate that he was ready for a major change. He later claimed to have had some premonition of a figure like Shams. Since _shams_ is the Arabic word for _sun_ , Rumi used imagery of the sun to express his feelings for the man. His poems would be saturated with this sunlight, as he revealed:\n\n_I already held a sweet image of you in my heart_\n\n_When at that dawn, I first truly felt the sun_\n\nWhile Rumi may have had some inkling, Shams claimed the two had actually met once. The place was Damascus; the time, sixteen years earlier. Shams later spoke in his talks of remembering Rumi, as a student, a sort of prodigy, talking in public about the unity of souls: \"I remember Mowlana sixteen years ago. He was saying that creatures are like clusters of grapes. If you squeeze them into a bowl, no difference remains.\" He greeted him with \"Salam,\" in a public square. Rumi did not pay much attention, yet Shams, older and wiser, quickly perceived the glimmer of Rumi's true potential: \"From the first day that I saw your beauty, attraction and kindness towards you filled my heart.\"\n\nThe friendship between Rumi and Shams was intense from the start, and often difficult to define. Shams did not fit the pattern of a traditional sheikh, as he never received a cloak from a Sufi master, the standard ceremony of commitment, and so was not part of an established lineage. (He claimed to have received a cloak in a dream directly from Mohammad, as Attar claimed to have received his cloak in a dream from Hallaj.) With Shams, who was nearly twenty years his senior, Rumi's attitude was that of a pupil. Yet Rumi was already a spiritual director and teacher. Shams complained once about this lack of clarity: \"I need it to be clear how our life is going to be\u2014brotherhood, friendship, or sheikh and disciple. I don't like not knowing. Is it teacher and pupil?\"\n\nDuring the period of withdrawal in Salah's house\u2014a sort of _chelle_ , for two rather than one\u2014Shams was directing Rumi toward a new way of being in the world, and he followed. \"Before me, as he listens to me,\" said Shams, \"he considers himself\u2014I am ashamed to even say it\u2014like a two-year-old before his father or a new convert to Islam who knows nothing. Such submission!\" While Shams refused labels, he was well within the _malamatiyya_ tradition of the fools of God\u2014his mission, to free Rumi from the weight of his own dignity. So he devised tasks such as dispatching him to the Jewish neighborhood to buy wine and carry the pitcher through the streets. Konya had a tavern frequented by Armenian Christians, and Shams said: \"Let's go see the women in the tavern. Let's go to church, too, and look in.\" Such neighborhoods became romantically spiritual for Rumi:\n\n_The tavern keeper became my heart's companion_\n\n_Love turned my blood into wine and burned my heart_\n\nShams grew keen to dismantle Rumi's reliance on his talent for using words to spin arguments and spellbind audiences. \"Where's your own?\" he demanded, if Rumi was quoting too many proverbs, or poems and tales. \"Come on, answer!\" Like Kerra, irked by the incessant lamplight while he read, Shams was bothered by Rumi's poring over pages of his father's manuscripts. He once barged in while Rumi was reading, and shouted, \"Don't read! Don't read! Don't read!\" Aged disciples informed his biographer Aflaki that Rumi told them, \"He firmly commanded me, 'Don't read the words of your father any longer!' Following his instruction, I stopped reading them for some time.\"\n\nShams also disapproved of the fashionable poetry of Rumi's favorite Arabic poet from his schooldays in Aleppo, al-Mutanabbi. Besides his father's writing, Rumi loved to read verses of al-Mutanabbi in the evening. Shams said to him, \"That is not worthwhile. Never read that again.\" Rumi ignored his warning until, one night, falling asleep reading the poet, he had a nightmare in which Shams grabbed al-Mutanabbi by the beard and dragged him forward, saying, \"This is the man whose words you are reading!\" Al-Mutanabbi, scrawny with a tiny voice, begged, \"Please release me from the hands of Shams and never read my book again!'\" Another dubious poet read by Rumi was al-Maarri, a blind Syrian, melancholy\u2014like Khayyam\u2014about life's quick passing: \"How sad that man, after wandering freely through the world, is told by fate, 'Go into the grave.'\" (Even Shams was known to recite a line or two of al-Maarri now and then, but he thoroughly disliked Khayyam for speaking \"mixed-up, immoderate, and dark words.\")\n\nRumi and Shams were not entirely isolated during their stay at Salah's home, just insulated from conventional responsibilities. Both Rumi's wife and Sultan Valad visited, and were drawn into some extreme tests of loyalty, obedience, and liberation, sprung by Shams. Rumi allowed his wife to be unveiled in front of Shams, an exposure reserved for family members, which would have been a difficult transgression for her. When Shams asked for a beautiful boy to serve him, Rumi presented Sultan Valad, though Shams thoughtfully declined, saying that the young man was more like a son to him. Missing was Alaoddin, Rumi's second son, who was following an orthodox path, with plans to become an esteemed religious figure like his father. Shams posed a threat to his ambitions to carry on the family name, and Alaoddin was appalled by his influence. These dynamics among family members\u2014lining up in response to Shams's presence\u2014remained set from that first encounter, with Alaoddin always sorely judging from outside.\n\nThe only other intimate allowed into the charmed circle was Hosamoddin Chelebi, a nineteen-year-old from a good middle-class Konya family of Kurdish origin, from Urmia in Azerbaijan, who had grown enamored with Rumi's way of teaching. Hosam's recently deceased father was Akhi Tork, his name indicating that he had been a leader of an _akhavan_ organization, a fellowship of craftsmen, laborers, and merchants, like early guilds. This brotherhood ( _akhi_ could mean \"my brother\") overlapped with a wider _fotovvat_ movement to which even the caliph belonged, combining chivalric morals with Sufi mysticism and a touch of vigilante power, as its members wore uniform vests and trousers. At the time, the streets of Konya were full of such young men, often long-haired, with glinting daggers slipped into their ceremonial belts, protective yet intimidating.\n\nHosam was welcome because of his mild temperament. He was intuitive and empathetic, as he was said to feel the pains of his friends in his own body. He was considered a handsome paragon of decent behavior and, like Salah, was drawn to asceticism from an early age. Most importantly, for Rumi, Shams expressed great fondness for the young man. Shams's judgments of character became Rumi's judgments, and the circle forming around Shams would remain the nucleus of his own world. Decades later, Rumi described Hosam, in an affectionate letter to him, as \"both father and son to me, both light and sight.\" With the death of his father, Hosam was looked upon as the leader of the group of workingmen, and key in aligning these new followers with Rumi, just as Alaoddin, and other traditional pupils of Baha Valad, were growing disgruntled.\n\nShams had an aggressive, domineering manner that could seem extreme to many. Unlike Rumi, a public speaker practiced in politic turns of phrase and graced with the ability to charm, Shams was guileless. He avoided small talk: \"I rarely speak with people.\" His speech was spare, yet musical and expressive in its rhythms and its simple, moving imagery, occasionally like Rumi's mature poetry. He disapproved of the gap between Rumi's speaking in public and the voice he heard when they were alone. \"He has a beautiful manner and speaks beautiful words, but don't be satisfied with those,\" he warned a group of students. \"Beyond them is something else. Seek that from him.\" He claimed, \"He has two ways of speaking, one is circumspect, and the other, honest.\"\n\nDuring these intensive first three months together, the range of conversation between the two men was wide, and Shams did not hold back from exposing Rumi to all his beliefs and practices, acting as if these moments together might never be repeated. Shams especially encouraged the honest, heartfelt Rumi. His was entirely a religion of the heart. \"Practice is practice of the heart, service is service of the heart, and devotion is devotion of the heart,\" he told him. To illuminate Rumi's heart, he felt the need to shake him loose not only from his father's writings and al-Mutanabbi's poetry but also from all the language and philosophy that had been his support and the basis of his fame in early adulthood. Consistent with some strains of Sufi thought, Shams saw words and logic as \"veils,\" hiding Rumi from the truth. Of the Greek philosophers, he preferred Plato because he \"laid claim to love.\" As Rumi would write of this radical reorientation:\n\n_When your love enflamed my heart_\n\n_All I had was burned to ashes, except your love_.\n\n_I put logic and learning and books on the shelf_.\n\nTo replace thinking in words, especially the words of others, Shams rapidly introduced music, sung poetry, and dance into Rumi's life, through the practice of _sama_. Technically meaning \"listening,\" _sama_ applied to listening in the scholarly reading groups that Rumi had attended in Damascus, when a certificate, or _ijazat al-sama_ , was granted for having heard a book read aloud. In many Sufi circles, though, _sama_ came to mean a session of listening to music and poetry, sometimes accompanied by a whirling dance. The Great Kerra had taught Rumi as a boy to sway his arms to music. Shams, within weeks of their having first met, instructed him more fully in whirling\u2014teaching him to literally spin loose of language and logic, while opening and warming his heart:\n\n_When all the particles of the air_\n\n_Are filled with the glow of the sun_\n\n_They all enter the dance, the dance_ ,\n\n_And never complain of the whirling!_\n\nShut away in private with Rumi, Shams soon became a compulsive topic of gossip throughout Konya, much of it malevolent and suspicious. The result of their sequester at the home of Salah was chaos and anxiety for Rumi's family and seminary students. Both groups relied on Rumi, not just for moral guidance but also for their livelihood and support as the patronage for his _madrase_ trickled down. As Sultan Valad dramatized the passing of the staff of leadership, his father's pupils had sworn allegiance to Rumi, saying, \"We will seek wealth and gain from you.\" So Shams was disparaged as a bewitching sorcerer, casting a spell on their local saint, or an unlearned \"Towrizi\" from Tabriz. (\"Towrizi\" was another term for \"Tabrizi,\" in a local spoken dialect of Persian.)\n\nActually Shams was neither a sorcerer nor uneducated, yet he was not in the habit of sharing many of the details of his eccentric and extraordinary life. In their three-month period of intimacy, though, shut away in Salah's home, Rumi did begin to learn his life story, as Shams told of decades passed as a lonely sojourner, seeking the truth, but often confronted with the pain of being misunderstood. While on the surface the conditions of their two lives contrasted highly, like Rumi, Shams had been driven by a longing rarely satisfied. The revelation of this shared quest and mutual dissatisfaction only ignited further their spiritual and intellectual romanticism, and sealed Rumi's final commitment.\n\nLike many others in this era of chaos and high mobility, Shams traveled long distances before arriving in Konya, having grown up in Tabriz, in eastern Azerbaijan, where he was born sometime around 1180. Similar to Balkh or Samarkand, though farther west, situated in a fertile province between modern-day Turkey and the former Russian Transcaucasia, Tabriz was an important Persian market on the main trade routes between India and Constantinople. The city was also pinpointed in lore as the location of the Garden of Eden. Rivers to its north and south flowed into the Caspian Sea; nearby was the salt lake of Urmia, and the hometown of Hosam's family. Rumi never visited, though he spoke knowingly of \"the rose-garden district\" of the \"glorious imperial city.\"\n\nLike most commercial cities of the era, Tabriz was constantly changing hands, a contested chip in power struggles. When Shams was a boy, the Turkic ruler was Atabeg Abu Bakr, described by him as \"towering over everybody, and surrounded by armed guards an entire arrow's flight around.\" Similar to the Seljuks, the Atabegs favored Persian as their primary language, and art and culture flourished. Tabriz, too, was culturally closer to the cities of Central Asia. In 1220, the unchecked Mongol invasions of Khorasan reached the city. For urging resistance to the non-Muslim Mongols, Shams praised its ruler as the \"greatest of the age,\" though by the time Shams arrived in Konya to meet Rumi, Tabriz was securely part of the Il-Khan Dynasty of the Mongol Empire.\n\nBoth Rumi and Shams wrestled with the authority of father figures, but in opposite manners. Rumi had tried to imitate and please his revered father, while Shams, apparently an only child, from early on struggled with his own father, Ali ebn Malekdad, for lack of understanding and for being pampering and overprotective. \"The fault is that of my father and mother for they brought me up with too much kindness,\" Shams oddly complained. Shams's father worried over signs of spiritual zeal in his unusual son, who had not yet reached puberty yet was already hearing preaching whenever he could, and fasting for at least a month at a time. \"You're not crazy,\" his father said, \"but I don't understand your ways.\" Shams felt as if he were a duck egg laid by a common hen. Like Rumi, at the same age, he was sure he saw \"angels and higher and lower worlds. I assumed that everybody saw what I saw. Then I found out that they could not see it.\"\n\nHis father's \"spoiling\" was partly a response to the exceedingly sensitive spirit that he recognized in his introverted son. In Tabriz, stray cats often jumped in windows to swipe food from cloths on the floor, and were duly beaten off with sticks. Even if one of these cats broke a dish of milk, Shams's father spared it because of his son's delicate sensibility. Instead he would say, \"This is destiny! This is a good omen!\" In the fifteenth century, Dowlatshah, writing a _Lives of the Poets_ in the Timurid court in Herat, recorded for the first time stories that had been passed down of Shams as a beautiful boy, with a temperament considered by some \"effeminate,\" supposedly proved by his skill as an embroiderer in gold, a handicraft learned from tarrying with the women in the harem.\n\nShams told Rumi of a search for kindred spirits that led him first to the lively Sufi neighborhoods of Tabriz\u2014the Sorkhab quarter to the north, where many Sufis were buried in tombs at the foot of Valienkuh, or Saints' Mountain, and, to the south, the Charandab quarter. The density of Sufis in these neighborhoods was so high that the souls of saints in the cemeteries were said to rise on Friday nights, form groups of red and green doves, and fly to Mecca to encircle the Kaaba. Nearly seventy Sufis were clustered about one charismatic leader, who built a Sufi lodge in the Sorkhab district and taught a popular form of devotion based on mystical states rather than on studying books. Many Sufis in Tabriz favored this simple, unlettered approach, of the type described by Rumi:\n\n_The Sufi's book is not made of words_\n\n_It's nothing but a heart, as white as snow_\n\nShams said to Rumi, of these inspiring local figures, stimulating so much excitement and growth, \"There were people there in comparison to whom I am nothing, as if the sea cast me up, like waves tossing up driftwood. If I am like this, imagine what they were like!\"\n\nHe told of gravitating, while still a teenager, toward Sheikh Abu Bakr Sallebaf of Tabriz, who headed a Sufi lodge in the Charandab district. A maker of wicker baskets by trade, his followers tended to be drawn from the working-class _fotovvat_ movement and were often threateningly more loyal to him than to the rulers. \"There were dervishes staying with Sheikh Abu Bakr,\" remembered Shams. \"When one of the assistants of the vizier would come to see him, the dervishes would show reverence to the sheikh a hundred times more than they had before the official arrived.\" Sallebaf did not bother with all the Sufi trappings, such as bestowing cloaks. Either from this sheikh, or another passionate local Sufi, Shams learned the whirling practice that he was teaching to Rumi: \"With such a love, the passionate companion seized me in the _sama_. He was turning me around like a little bird. Like a husky young man who hasn't eaten for three days and suddenly finds bread\u2014he grabs it, and breaks it apart hastily. I was like that in his hands.\"\n\nAs with most of his mentors, though, Shams finally felt misunderstood, or underestimated, and stepped back from unconditional loyalty. He later confided to Sultan Valad, \"I used to have a sheikh by the name of Abu Bakr in the city of Tabriz and he was a basket weaver by trade. I learned much about godly friendship from him, but there was something in me that my sheikh could not see and that nobody ever saw. Only Mowlana has seen it.\" Unlike Baha Valad when Rumi had visions of angels, Abu Bakr cautiously forbade Shams to talk about his visions. In turn, Shams was suspicious of the practice of Tabrizi Sufis of begging for a living. So he set out from home on a protracted quest that lasted four decades and took him on a scribbling route through the Middle East. A highly motivated seeker, he traveled to Baghdad, Mecca, Damascus, Aleppo, and many Anatolian cities, meeting on his journey with most of the prominent Sufis of his day.\n\nShams supported himself on the road by working odd construction jobs, teaching the Quran to children, or weaving trouser ties. Due to the frail look that came from his indefatigable fasting, he was often passed over for hard labor crews, to his disappointment. \"They chose everybody else but left me standing there,\" he recalled. He was more successful as an elementary school instructor and appreciated the humility of the position. He recognized one of Rumi's disciples as having once seen him as a teacher and not acknowledged his presence. \"You used to come to the school and saw me as a mere teacher,\" accused Shams. \"But how often an unknown person does us a service.\" He was proud of having taught a stubborn boy to memorize the Quran in three months, though he appeared to have done so with the help of a liberal use of strict beatings.\n\nEventually he found his way to Baghdad, the center of Sufism, some years before Rumi passed through with his family. Shams belonged to the Shafii School of Islamic jurisprudence, more common among Sufis than the Hanafi interpretation followed by Baha Valad, Rumi, and many from Central Asia. Shafii judges based their legal decisions as much as possible solely on the blueprint of the life and practices\u2014or _sunna\u2014_ of Mohammad, often by using analogies. Shams and Rumi discussed one of the basic Shafii legal texts, written by an early professor of the Nezamiyye College in Baghdad. Yet their slightly different legal orientations never seemed to matter overly to either of them. \"If Abu Hanifa saw Shafii, he would pull his head towards him and kiss his eyes,\" said Shams, of the founders of the two schools. \"How can God's servants disagree with God?\"\n\nLikely having stayed at the Daraje Sufi lodge on the western bank of the Tigris, Shams told of being involved briefly with the Turkish Sufi Kermani, the leader of an order in Baghdad and Damascus. Kermani was one of the more vivid and outrageous of the Sufi figures of his time. Very much in the school of Ahmad al-Ghazali, who glimpsed flashes of divinity in the faces of beautiful boys, Kermani was notorious for tearing open the cloaks of beardless young men during _sama_ dancing and pressing his chest against theirs. He was also rumored to have undone some of their turbans in the heat of whirling.\n\nAlthough Kermani was decades older, Shams was not intimidated. One evening he came across the mystic staring into a bowl of water, and asked what he was doing. \"I'm looking at the reflection of the moon in a bowl of water.\" \"Unless you have a boil in your neck, why not look at the sky?\" Shams questioned, sarcastically. \"Maybe you should see your doctor to be cured so that you can see the real thing.\" His intent was to refute the practice of looking for divinity reflected in human beauty rather than directly in God. Nevertheless, Kermani invited Shams to become one of his close companions. Shams insisted that he first \"drink wine with me in the middle of the bazaar of Baghdad.\" Unlike Rumi, who at least bought wine for him publicly, Kermani refused, and Shams moved on.\n\nIn Damascus, Shams gravitated toward the renowned Sufi Salehiyye district, at the base of Mount Qasiyum, near Rebva, its panorama evoked by Rumi in the _Masnavi_ using a popular Arabic proverb, which counseled maintaining perspective on life's trials:\n\n_When you see grief, embrace it lovingly:_\n\n_Look on Damascus from the top of Rebva_\n\nAccording to Shams's own dating of his first passing encounter with Rumi, he was in Damascus around 1230, if not before or after. While Rumi may have had some contact with the circle around Ibn Arabi, Shams appears to have become a serious student. He spoke of a \"Sheikh Mohammad,\" who is thought to have been the visionary Andalusian Sheikh Ibn Arabi, to whom he had likely been referred by Ibn Arabi's friend Kermani. \"He was a mountain, a true mountain!\" praised Shams. \"He was such an exalted scholar, and he was more knowledgeable than me in every single way . . . a seeker of God.\"\n\nYet Shams's warm praise of Ibn Arabi's scholarly knowledge was not the entire story. As with all his teachers, relations were occasionally contentious due to Shams's defiant attitude. The two of them discussed many intricacies of prophetic sayings and related Quranic passages, a sort of Muslim version of the Talmudic scholarship of Jewish rabbis. Shams, though, was disappointed that they did not engage in more extended sparring. \"Sheikh Mohammad used to give in to me, and not debate,\" grumbled Shams. \"Yet if he had debated, there would have been more benefit. I needed for him to debate with me!\" He would accuse Rumi, too, of refusing to debate with him satisfactorily. Obviously tireless, Shams wore down his debating partners. \"You crack a powerful whip!\" wryly joked Sheikh Mohammad, yet he always referred to Shams endearingly as his \"son.\"\n\nOff-putting for Shams was his opinion that Sheikh Mohammad did not \"follow,\" or imitate the Prophet Mohammad faithfully enough. \"He was compassionate, a good friend. He was a unique human being, Sheikh Mohammad, but he did not follow.\" This \"following\" was a charged issue in debates among the Sufis of Anatolia. Shams's original question to Rumi when they met had pointed toward it. Wherever Rumi fell in this argument, his odes to Mohammad were certainly inspired by heights of adoring passion, which would have been shared by Shams. Rumi wrote of Mohammad in the mode of love, often returning to the account in Sura 54 of the Quran on his splitting the moon:\n\n_Our caravan leader, Mohammad, the pride of the world_\n\n_The moon was split in two, by seeing the beauty of his face_ ,\n\n_The moon, with its good fortune, gazed on his humility . . ._\n\n_Look into my heart, split, like the moon, at every moment_.\n\nFor such tender logic, Rumi became a \"pearl\" to Shams, and Ibn Arabi a mere \"pebble.\"\n\nShams also grew close in Damascus with Shehab Harive, a materialist philosopher from Herat, where he had been a prize student of Razi. Shehab relied on logic, analysis, and reason, and dismissed revelation, miracles like the splitting of the moon, or bodily resurrection as fables for common folk. Theirs was an unusual friendship that should never have been if the logic that Shehab found so irrefutable were applied. In the scholastic ferment of Damascus, Shehab was sought after for his brilliant arguing that God has no free will, backed up by the certainty that \"intellect makes no mistakes.\" \"For me, death is as if a weak man has been loaded down with a sack tied to the neck,\" he said. \"Someone cuts the rope, the heavy load falls, and he is released.\"\n\nYears later in Konya, Shams was still arguing in his mind with his old friend Shehab. He told Rumi, \"I would say, 'I don't want that God. I want a God who has free will. I seek that God. I would tell him to destroy that God of whom he spoke. . . . If the whole world were to accept that from Shehab, I still wouldn't!\" Yet Shams and Shehab were brought together by their aloof dispositions, their sharp misanthropy and stubbornness, and each other's appetite for ceaseless debating. \"This man is congenial,\" said Shehab. Likewise Shams said, \"I felt at ease when sitting with him. I found ease there.\" He wittily added, \"Though Shehab spoke blasphemy, he was pure and spiritual.\" Tellingly, for Shams, their mutual affection outweighed any philosophical differences.\n\nContrary, difficult, and unpredictable, Shams debated and refuted his way through the emerging intellectual centers of Anatolia, as well. Traveling north from Aleppo, he spent time in Erzurum and Erzincan, where Baha Valad had taught in his \"Esmatiyye\" school for four years; Sivas; Kayseri, where Borhan passed the final years of life; and Aksaray, unusual in the region for having been organized by the Seljuks as a purely Muslim model town, a hundred miles northeast of Konya. Typical of Shams's arguments was a disagreement with a scholar in Sivas. Annoyed that Shams contradicted him in public on a fine point about man's knowledge of God's essence, the scholar said, \"You are asking old questions.\" \"What do you mean 'old?'\" Shams snapped back. \"It's aching with newness! Is this what passes for lecturing these days?\" A number of eminent teachers refused to take on Shams as a private student because of his abrasive manner.\n\nHaving trouble finding his place within this well-ordered society of saints and scholars in the medieval Islamic world, Shams's individuality kept interfering. His conversation was flecked with mentions of challenging texts of law and spirituality. He resided in a _madrase_ college in Aleppo for fourteen months. Yet he never felt comfortable among either the legal scholars or the Sufi dervishes. Of his ambivalence, he said to Rumi, \"At first I wouldn't sit with jurists, I sat with dervishes. I used to say, 'They're strangers to dervishes.' Then I began to know what it is to be a dervish and where they were coming from, and now I would rather sit with the jurists. At least the jurists have taken some trouble to learn. The others simply brag about being dervishes.\"\n\nShams did have one trusted guide\u2014his heart. He did not reject teachers one after another on the basis of a consistent theological stance as much as on feeling and intuition. Within his crusty exterior still beat the heart of the sensitive boy from Tabriz, which remained the source of his discernment. \"Whenever you see someone whose character is expansive, speaking broadly and patiently, and blessing the whole world, so that his words open up your heart, and you forget this narrow world . . . he is an angel from paradise,\" he counseled Rumi. \"Whenever you hear in someone's words anger and coldness and narrowness, you become chilled by his words. . . Whoever discovers this secret, and puts it into practice, pays no attention to a hundred thousand of the sheikhs.\"\n\nShams told of visiting Konya on previous occasions. On his first visit, he found three dirham coins, marked as currency of the Seljuk sultan, on the road to a main gate, leading toward the town square. Kayqobad I was the first Seljuk sultan to mint gold coins, but Shams obviously found an ordinary one. Each night he would buy a half piece of fine white flatbread and give away an amount equal of its cost to the poor. When the money was used up, he departed once again for Syria. His visit in the fall of 1244 was more intentional. He later said that he had a dream in which God promised to answer his prayers, and to make him at last the companion of one saint, \"in Rum.\" Shams had arrived in Konya with strong hopes of reaching the end of his long and solitary road, and his meeting with Rumi clearly seemed to him the fulfillment of that prophetic dream, just as Rumi had revealed the premonition that he felt was surely being realized in Shams.\n\nSometime in 1245 Rumi and Shams emerged from the winter of seclusion that followed their first meeting. They returned to the Madrase Khodavandgar and began to take part in a curtailed manner in the life of the community. Making short work, though, of the longings of many family members and students for a complete resumption of normalcy, the two quickly disappeared behind closed doors within the _madrase_ for yet another intimate encounter that lasted six months\u2014to the astonishment of those left again counting the days against an uncertain ending to the strange silence that had fallen over the school, without any classes or sermons being delivered by their youthful patriarch.\n\nThe dismay of those left behind was understandable. The connection between these two complicated souls could seem weird and inscrutable. Shams was acerbic at times and misanthropic, likely at any moment to reveal the sharp edges of his personality that had caused many sincere Sufi masters throughout the Middle East to keep their distance or back off entirely. Rumi was his foil, a man of great charm and affection in a position of power and influence, now risking everything to remain locked away in insulated confinement, allowing all that he and his revered father built so diligently to be endangered, family and students adrift, while he lost himself in the challenge of Shams.\n\nStill their love was instantaneous and enduring. Shams had seen Rumi for who he was, and that look of recognition had begun to set Rumi free. No matter how many honors and accomplishments he accumulated, Rumi still felt encumbered by his position. Shams saw that Rumi was creative, a poet and a mystic, not a gatekeeper for rules. He encouraged him to find his voice, and so Rumi owed him his newfound heart. Likewise, Shams, for all his grumbled bragging about self-reliance, traveled for decades in search of someone who would recognize his own authentic self, his softer core. As Shams had told Sultan Valad, Rumi was the first to do so. The religious life for men of their day was often demanding and restrictive. Together they created a safer, lighter domain of their own. Both were old enough to know the value of their discovery, and wished it to last.\n\nThe only two visitors allowed during this time were Salah and Sultan Valad, who gained even more of his father's affection to the degree that he supported his devotion to Shams. Even Kerra was now excluded from the room, kept apart from her adored husband, who she was used to fussing over for trifles\u2014like warning him to chew a stick of straw to ward off bad luck because he had broken his belt. Yet although her marital and family life had been greatly disrupted because of Shams, she never spoke publicly against him. Likewise Shams occasionally spoke affectionately of Kerra and seemed to understand her predicament. \"Kerra Khatun is jealous,\" he said. \"But hers is the sort of jealousy that takes you to paradise, not hell, and is truly part of the path of goodness.\" Belying slurs against Shams as untutored, Sultan Valad later accurately wrote of him as a man of \"learning and knowledge.\" (Rumi likewise attested to Shams's familiarity with \"alchemy, astronomy, mathematics, theology, astrology, law, logic, and debate.\") Sultan Valad looked up to Shams as \"beloved\" and a spiritual \"sultan.\" In turn, Shams took a guiding role, teaching him the meditative _sama_ as well as counseling the adolescent young man.\n\nWhile Rumi was undergoing this major change of life with Shams, and evolving in his understanding of his vocation, the Seljuk Empire of Rum, outside the wall of their cell in the Madrase Khodavandgar, was undergoing an equally major disruption, though more a devolution, a loss of power and might. The Sultan Kayqobad I, the patron of Rumi's father\u2014having overseen an uninterrupted stretch of prosperity and cultural glister\u2014died in 1237, while rumors circulated claiming he was poisoned by his son and successor, Kaykhosrow II. On ascending the throne, Kaykhosrow II married the daughter of a ruler of Aleppo, but soon revealed his predilection for Christian ladies by marrying his second wife, Tamara, or Gorji Khatun, a young Georgian princess who rose to the level of his consort and eventually became one of Rumi's most ardent female disciples.\n\nUnlike his father, a paradigm of wise rule, Kaykhosrow II had a sillier disposition and delighted in nightly cups of wine while being entertained with songs and clever quatrains. Having inherited valuable territory that included most of Asia Minor, Kaykhosrow II managed during his decade of governance to diminish Seljuk Rum to a kingdom in name only, his father's empire never regaining its former grandeur. First among his challenges, caused by the populations displaced from Khorasan by the Mongols, were popular Turkoman Sufi preachers, usually called \"Baba,\" meaning \"father,\" by their followers, who preached against the power of the state and set rural Turks against urban Seljuks. These incendiary preachers riled both the Khorasani refugees and local peasants until Kaykhosrow II put down their insurrection with the help of Frankish mercenaries.\n\nEven more destabilizing were Mongol forces on his eastern borders. In 1243 Kaykhosrow II assembled a large force to make a stand at the battle of Kose Dag, where the smaller Mongol army routed them. As panic spread through Anatolia, Kaykhosrow II escaped to the coast while his vizier negotiated a weak peace treaty, agreeing to payment of annual tributes of gold and silver to the Mongols in return for sparing Konya. By the time Kaykhosrow II returned to the capital, he had outlived his power, and Konya its political independence. (Shams's praise of the Tabrizi ruler Shams Toghri for bravely standing up to the Mongols would have been heard as a putdown of Kaykhosrow II.)\n\nThough a sense of floating anxiety that both Rumi and Shams knew well, from the encroachment of the Mongols into their native homelands, now permeated Konya, the streets into which they reemerged after their second retreat were still reasonably safe and unchanged from the earlier days of peace and prosperity before Shams's arrival. Shams tended to thrive in one of two settings\u2014locked away in seclusion, or wandering and seeing the sights. He claimed these contraries in his state were actually one. \"Be among the people, but be alone,\" he advised Rumi. \"Don't live your life in seclusion, but be solitary.\" In Konya, Shams took his own advice, accepting that Rumi could not always be with him. \"When I'm by myself, I'm free,\" said Shams, with a dose of his usual sarcasm. \"I wander anywhere and sit in any shop. I cannot take him along\u2014a well-born man, one of the muftis of the city\u2014to look in on every seedy place.\" A favorite place for them to at least talk without disturbance was the rooftop of Rumi's school, where they could look down in the bright light of a full moon on neighbors on warm nights sleeping on their terraces. Rooftops became sweet reminders for Rumi of these elusive private interludes:\n\n_Sometimes Love shone on the roof like a moon_\n\n_Sometimes like a breeze, moving from lane to lane_\n\nRumi and Shams did go walking together through the epicenter of Konya, its thriving market district, which especially fascinated their moral imaginations with its power to lure and seduce by playing on basic desires and fantasies. As Rumi later wrote:\n\n_The world is an illusion, and we are like merchants_ ,\n\n_Trying to buy its moonlight, measured by the yard_\n\nThey paused to watch gypsies, or _lulis_ , who passed through Konya. With their music and rope dances, they excited interest and were given money. Sugar was sold in the apothecary shops in little brown bags, or wrapped in packets of paper, like candy. So Rumi later wrote of Shams:\n\n_Whenever I write the name of Shams of Tabriz_\n\n_I sprinkle my favorite sugar into a paper wrapper_\n\nBoth men were equally drawn to the disturbing as well as the pretty. Rumi was reminded by the butcher shops selling intestines of the cruel beloved of Persian love poetry, like a butcher, his hands bloodied with the livers of unrequited lovers. Fascinated by the dark shops offering bloodletting, near the herbalists, Shams reflected on its customers choosing to disappear into the darkness while \"a sun has come up, filling the world with light!\" More pointedly he suggested learned theologians would do better to \"be like the poor Russian man, cloaked in sheepskin, wearing a tall fur hat, and selling sulfur matches.\"\n\nJust as central as the bazaar in Rumi's and Shams's life in Konya were its many _hammam_ , or bathhouses, particularly as Seljuks were enamored of fresh flowing water and made medicinal use of the countless mineral springs of Anatolia. They both frequented the _hammam_ , singly and together. \"I stop in every bathhouse,\" reported Shams. Rumi was visceral in his fondness for the _hammam_ and dwelled on each detail, taking in the nimbleness of the attendant stoking heat in the stove, or the cup for pouring water over the body, or the thick _sultani_ soap. He was most fascinated by decorative paintings on bathhouse walls, often of heroes from the _Shahname_ , and meditated on the difference between a painted heroic Rostam and a real warrior, between artifice and spirit, and the way light falling from a window in a dome animated these static figures:\n\n_The world is a bathhouse, its skylight eternity_\n\n_Illumined by the window is the hero's beauty_\n\nFollowing their freeing spell of withdrawal, Rumi did step back, tentatively, into his former life as a religious leader in the city, too. Remaining in his sights was Qonavi, the godson and designated deputy of Ibn Arabi. After Ibn Arabi's death, Qonavi had moved north to Konya and was continuing the philosophical tradition of Ibn Arabi, filling in more steps of mystical knowledge in learned Arabic treatises. Rumi and Qonavi were about the same age, and before Shams's arrival, Rumi attended his lectures. Yet with Shams's influence, their ideas increasingly diverged, as Qonavi preached the path of knowledge, and Rumi performed the path of love. They came to represent the two antipodes of Sufi temperament in Konya yet remained respectful, if wary, colleagues.\n\nRumi returned to teaching as well, but with Shams doing most of the talking, or the two of them engaged in dialogue in front of a hall of students. Many of the more conservative disciples were horrified to find Rumi nearly silent, or deferring to the words and opinions of the strangely rambling mystic from Tabriz, who spoke at times in riddles or enigmatic non sequiturs. Like Rumi, Shams was an intellectual. Yet inspired by the \"unlettered\" Tabrizi mystics of his childhood, he had left learning behind, as if he had climbed a tall ladder that he then pushed away. Rumi likely assigned Sultan Valad to write down these sessions, as one of the surviving transcripts appears to be in his handwriting.\n\nInstead of lecturing on logic and religious law, Shams preferred to speak vulnerably and tenderly of his friendship with Rumi. These public teaching circles became love fests as much as occasions for unpacking one or another abstruse topic. Shams modeled speaking from the heart rather than the more formal double-talk, hypocritically mastered, he grumbled, by Rumi, which made him so impatient. \"We've met each other in an amazing way,\" he exclaimed, with transparent joy. \"It's been a long time since two people like us have fallen together. We're extremely open and obvious. The saints did not used to be so obvious. But we are also hidden and we do have our secrets. . . . I'm so happy to be your friend\u2014so happy that God has given me such a good friend! My heart gives me to you\u2014whether I exist in that world or in this world, whether I'm in the pit at the bottom of the earth or above the heavens, whether I'm up or down.\"\n\nHe revealed, in this open setting, the ground rules of their friendship: \"The first stipulation I made was that our life should be without hypocrisy, as if I were alone.\" He insisted that he saw himself not as a sheikh but as a friend: \"God has not yet created a human being who could be Mowlana's sheikh. Yet I am also not somebody who can be a disciple. Nothing of that remains in me.\" He compared his beloved Rumi to moonlight and, audaciously, to the _qibla_ , pointing the direction to Mecca for prayer: \"I wanted someone of my own kind so that I could make him my _qibla_ and turn my face towards him. I was bored with myself. . . . Now that I have that _qibla_ , he understands and grasps what I'm saying.\" According to Shams, Rumi was a bolt of natural energy, dislodging the dam that caused his waters to stagnate: \"Now the water flows forth smoothly, freshly, and splendidly. . . . I speak eloquently and beautifully. Inside, I'm bright and luminous.\" He put much stress on the freeing informality between them both in public and private.\n\nShams not only spoke of his feelings, but he also acted them out, leaning over to stroke or take hold of Rumi's hand. \"Now rub my little hand,\" he cajoled. \"It's been awhile since you've rubbed it. Do you have something better to do? Rub just like that for a while.\" He rambled on in squibs of exalted poetry: \"In the lane of the beloved there's a kind of hashish. People take it and lose their minds. Then they can't find the beloved's house and they fail to reach the beloved.\" And he testified to having finally found meaning, not in a set of ideas, but in their friendship. Truth, Shams implied, was face-to-face: \"The purpose of life is for two friends to meet each other and to sit together face to face in the spirit of God, far from earthly desires. The goal is not bread or the baker, not the butcher shop or the butcher. It's simply this very hour, while I'm sitting here at ease in your company.\"\n\nShams examined theology, but his approach was untraditional, as he acidly put down the philosophers' need to prove God's existence. As Rumi recalled one incident:\n\nIn the presence of Shamsoddin of Tabriz, someone said, \"I have proven the existence of God, indisputably.\" The next morning Shamsoddin said, \"Last night the angels came down and blessed that man, saying, 'Praise to God, he has proven our God. May God grant him long life!' . . . O poor man, God is a given fact. His existence needs no logical proof. If you must do something, then just prove your own dignity and your own rank in His presence. He exists without proof. Of this there is no doubt.\"\n\nShams ridiculed scholars for quoting sayings of the Prophet and giving the source\u2014a \"chapter and verse\" approach\u2014rather than speaking from their hearts and citing God as the source. He skirted heresy with provocative comments: \"I do not revere the Quran because God spoke it. I revere it because it came out from the mouth of Mohammad.\"\n\nRumi, too, grew bolder about expressing his feelings for Shams in public. One day he was attending the inaugural ceremony for an important new _madrase_. Shams arrived late and he was sitting among the onlookers in the entranceway, where shoes were removed and stacked. Rumi sat with the prominent religious scholars, and a symposium was being conducted on a most pressing issue for them\u2014\"Which place is the seat of honor?\" Echoing his father, while turning social decorum on its head, Rumi said:\n\nThe seat of honor for the scholars is in the middle of this raised platform. The seat of honor for the mystics is in a corner of their own house. The seat of honor for Sufis is next to the raised platform. But in the practice of true lovers, the seat of honor is next to the beloved, wherever he may be.\n\nAt that moment Rumi stood up and quickly exited the stage, making his way through the press of gathered dignitaries, and shockingly sat down in the far vestibule next to Shams.\n\nSuch behavior was endured because Rumi was so cherished by the town fathers. They were not so patient with Shams, and kept trying to find ways to weaken his position or drive him away. One day a delegation of these local notables showed up at Rumi's school to raise the issue of Shams and wine drinking, which was forbidden in Islam, though famously a test case of rules and rituals among some Sufis. He was obviously at least understood to be drinking real wine, not just divine wine. So they asked Rumi the leading question, \"Is wine forbidden or not?\" His cutting reply was dismissive, as he showed that he refused to be intimidated by them, even using a Khorasani curse:\n\nIt depends who is drinking. If you pour a flask of wine into the ocean, the ocean would not be transformed or polluted, or darkened by the wine, and so it would be permitted to use its water for ablutions and drinking. But, without doubt, one drop of wine would make a tiny pool of water unclean. . . . My clear answer to you is that, if Shamsoddin drinks wine, for him everything is permitted, since he has the overwhelming power of the ocean. But for you\u2014you brother of a whore\u2014even eating a piece of barley bread should be forbidden.\n\nRumi appeared to acknowledge to them that Shams was indeed drinking real wine and presumably did not think of himself as a \"tiny pool of water\" rather than an ocean.\n\nShams did not help his position with the elders of Konya or with Rumi's more immediate circle inside his school. He made enemies more easily than friends, as he began to act as a kind of secretary, chamberlain, even bodyguard, interceding, blocking access, and occasionally charging a small fee for audiences with Rumi: \"What have you brought and what will you give away as an offering, so that I show him to you?\" One day a visitor asked Shams, who was sitting in front of the door to Rumi's private room, collecting money, \"For your part, what have you brought since you ask something of us?\" \"I've brought myself,\" Shams answered, dramatically, \"and I've sacrificed my life for him.\" To Rumi, Shams explained the taxes as a test: \"One of them claims to love you from the bottom of his soul, but if I ask him for one dirham, he loses his mind, he loses his soul, and can't tell his head from his feet. I tested them so they would understand a bit about themselves. But they began to revile me saying that I discouraged your followers.\"\n\nSuch chafing words and deeds caused resentment to grow. \"The lovely son of Baha Valad from Balkh has become obedient to a child of Tabriz,\" complained one of Rumi's followers, obviously from Khorasan, and perhaps among the cadre of men who had accompanied Baha Valad and his family on their emigration. \"Does the land of Khorasan take orders from the land of Tabriz?\" Other Khorasanis went about saying that the people of Tabriz were all \"jackasses.\" (These loyalists were eventually buried near Baha Valad in the imperial rose garden.) In his later biography in verse about his father, Sultan Valad recorded some of the harsher of their cascade of outraged comments to each other: \"Who is this who stole our sheikh from us?\" Paranoia mixed with jealousy as they accused Shams of \"'hiding him away from everybody else. Of his existence there was not a trace. We no longer may see his face. We no longer may sit at his side. He must be a magician casting an evil spell, mesmerizing our sheikh with his incantations.'\"\n\nThese grievances were voiced often, and openly, and Shams was just as strident in defending himself in his teaching circles, with Rumi present. He easily quashed the argument of the Khorasani by saying that if a man from Constantinople possessed grace, it would be incumbent even on a man from Mecca to follow him. He mused aloud on the difficulties that the rough edges of his personality might create for others. \"Mowlana has great beauty, while I have both beauty and ugliness,\" he explained, perceptively enough. He recognized that his own gentleness was balanced with severity. But ugliness and severity, in Shams's assessment, were elements of absolute honesty and frankness, the absence of hypocrisy. \"I'm all one color on the inside,\" he bragged. And he claimed to thrive on insults. \"I am only troubled when someone praises me,\" he goaded his critics.\n\nRumi occasionally joined in the argument, rebuffing those who complained that Shams was \"arrogant, greedy, and doesn't mix with us.\" He counseled understanding:\n\nYou only say so because you do not love Mowlana Shamsoddin. If you loved him, you would not see greed or anything reprehensible.\n\nHidden in Rumi's response was his cherished tale of Majnun and Layli. As he liked to tell the story, Layli was ordinary, her beauty only obvious in Majnun's own loving vision. He clearly knew his love for the grating and sharp-tongued Shams confused them:\n\nDuring Majnun's time there were girls more beautiful than Layli, but they were not Majnun's favorite. They said to Majnun, \"There are girls more beautiful than Layli. Should we bring them to you?\" He answered, \"But I don't love Layli because of her face. She is not just a face. Layli is like a cup in my hand. I drink wine from that cup. So I am in love with the wine that I'm drinking from her. You look only at the cup. You are not aware of the wine. If I had a golden cup, decorated with jewels and stones, and it contained vinegar, or something besides wine, why should I use that cup? A broken old pumpkin that holds wine is worth a hundred times more.\"\n\nMostly, Rumi did not bother to argue. One time, on hearing someone begin to broach a criticism of Shams, he jumped up and shouted, \"I'm not going to listen to this!\" and exited the hall. At other times, he spoke so honestly of the depths of their friendship that he left little room for criticism in the wake of his blatant exhilaration and passion\u2014articulating for them the eternal love at the core of their striking spiritual connection:\n\nOn the Day of Resurrection, when the ranks of the prophets and the categories of the Friends of God will be drawn up, and the believers of the Muslim community, troop after troop, will gather together, Shamsoddin and I, holding one another's hand, will walk proudly and graciously into Paradise.\n\nRumi was remarkably confident about the great changes caused in his life by Shams, whose bold commands helped him not only to relax from reading his father's words but also from copying the manner of life of his father, as much as he continued to respect him. He realized that he had been given an opportunity for a more expansive existence. Shams allowed Rumi to experience the heartfelt warmth that he would always associate naturally enough with the sun, from which creativity soon began to flow. As he wrote of this disruption, appropriately, ventriloquially channeling the voice of Shams:\n\n_You were silent and I made you a storyteller_\n\n_You were pious and I taught you how to sing_\nCHAPTER 8\n\n_Separation_\n\nA few days before Nowruz, the Persian holiday marking the first day of spring, in March 1246\u2014about fifteen months after appearing in Konya and upending Rumi's life\u2014Shams abruptly disappeared. He departed Konya without any warning, leaving behind Rumi, who became startled, confused, and distraught. Influencing his quick exit was the rising volume and intensity of anger from Rumi's followers and, perhaps, Rumi's ambivalence about Shams's insistently pressing him to abandon his former life entirely.\n\nSultan Valad vividly recalled the agitation that had been so consuming in the days before Shams vanished. A hint of violence was in the air. Some angry men even flashed their daggers at Shams or cursed at him as he passed them in the street. \"All wondered when he would quit town or come to a wrathful end,\" Sultan Valad wrote. Driving this wish for the eclipse of Shams was the expectation of Rumi's followers that they would have their teacher and old way of life back. Yet the opposite occurred. Rumi withdrew entirely. As Sultan Valad poetically described, \"His bird of affection flew away from their houses.\" Realizing their situation had deteriorated\u2014not improved\u2014many repented.\n\nIf Shams had been devising another of his tests, Rumi passed. He found that he was not able to return to his earlier ways. He was not able to go forward, either, as his new life pivoted on Shams. In its place was an emptiness Rumi was unable to fill, and he was left feeling paralyzed and depressed. As Aflaki reported, \"Because of being apart from Shamsoddin, Mowlana grew unsettled. Day and night he found no rest and did not sleep.\" Unknown to Rumi, Shams had traveled to Syria, either Damascus or Aleppo, or both. Yet he may have heard of Rumi's condition. Even though it took a while to travel this distance, many shuttled between these cultural capitals. So Shams relented a bit. He entrusted a note with a traveler to Konya, reassuring Rumi he was alive and thinking of him: \"Please be aware this humble man is praying for you, and mixes with no one else.\"\n\nRumi's response was electric. He composed at least four letters in verse for Shams, moved by this momentous personal crisis to begin to try to find his voice as a poet. Rumi may have been experimenting earlier, since he was an aficionado of Arabic and Persian poetry, and implied in one stanza that he had begun writing poems:\n\n_When you're not here the_ sama _is forbidden_\n\n_Music and dance are pelted with stones, like Satan_\n\n_Without you not even one_ ghazal _has been written_\n\n_Until the clear message of your letter arrived_.\n\nThe first few of these urgent verse-letters lack the confident tone of his mature works. Tellingly, he began in Arabic, the more intellectual and formal language of the time. He did choose, though, as his form, the _ghazal_ \u2014his lifetime favorite\u2014a rhymed poem of seven or more lines classically used as an erotic poem, sung by minstrels mostly on frivolous topics of wine, women or boys, and song, and eventually developed as a vehicle for mystical love poems. Like the English or Italian sonnet, the _ghazal_ could be modulated from low to high themes, still redolent of the roughness of the Bedouin desert chants, while expressing the subtler Sufi sentiments.\n\nAlthough Shams was so derisive of the poetry of al-Mutannabi, these first poems Rumi wrote to him often sound like that favorite Arabic poet, both in language and in courtly convention. Very much a poet-for-hire, al-Mutannabi had specialized in _qasidas_ , or odes of praise, written in a heroic style for a tenth-century ruler of Aleppo. In these paeans, the king is compared to the sun, his perfumed scent is carried on the breezes, his power rivals that of lions, his favor to another causes the poet painful jealousy. Rumi simply adapted these majestic tropes for Shams, comparing him to King Qobad, a Sassanian Persian king, or to a great military commander bringing triumph and victory. He instinctively knew that only the grandest of comparisons matched his spiraling emotions.\n\nIf these first attempts were imitative copies of classical poems of love and praise, like juvenile poems, some of Rumi's wit and vulnerability are evident\u2014that other voice Shams heard when they were in private. A link in many _ghazals_ was the _radif_ , a repeating refrain of a word or phrase at the end of each line, adding a percussive beat that made for easy group chanting, when recited in public. For one of these verses, Rumi chose as his _radif_ a supplication of a command, \"Come!\"\u2014an urgent refrain imploring Shams's return:\n\n_Oh you, light within the heart, come!_\n\n_Goal of all effort and desire, come!_\n\n_You know my life is in your hands_.\n\n_Do not oppress your worshiper, come!_\n\nMidway through the supplication, Rumi cleverly switched to Persian, and likewise switched from the Arabic for \"Come!\"\u2014\" _Taal_ \"\u2014to the Persian for \"Come!\"\u2014\" _Biya!_ \":\n\n_What is \"Taal\" in Persian? Biya!_\n\n_Either come or show mercy, Biya!_\n\nRumi and Shams lived in a bilingual world, and this switching back and forth matched the way they spoke together and with others. When recounting to the disciples his important memory of meeting Rumi, Shams shifted to Arabic. When Rumi dictated to Hosam the precise date of Shams's departure for Syria, he segued into formal Arabic:\n\nThe Sun of Truth and Faith, the hidden light of God in the beginning and in the end\u2014may God lengthen his life and favor us with greeting him\u2014departed on Thursday the 21st day of the month of Shavval in the year 643.\n\n(A waning quarter moon on a lunar calendar, the date corresponded to March 11, 1246.)\n\nRumi deputized his son Sultan Valad to deliver his reply to Shams in Syria, sending with him a tribute of gold and silver coins. The offering was a subtle reminder of the tariffs that Shams had demanded of Rumi's followers to prove their love. In an accompanying prose letter, Rumi addressed the issue of these followers and assured Shams of their sincere change of heart\u2014they were eager for Shams's return and looked forward to his renewed teachings. In his verses, though, Rumi allowed more intimate glimpses of a desperate heart, coded and camouflaged in standard poetic decor:\n\n_From the moment when you went away_\n\n_I was stripped of sweetness, turned to wax_\n\n_All night long I burn like a candle_ ,\n\n_Scorched with fire, but deprived of honey_.\n\n_Separated from your beauty, my body_\n\n_Lies in ruins and my soul is a night owl_\n\nHe signed off with his favorite source of puns from that time on\u2014Shams's name, as \" _shams_ ,\" lent itself, in Arabic, to the sun, as well as to Syria ( _Sham)_ and, in the ancient yet still current Pahlavi Persian vocabulary, to the night or early evening hours ( _sham_ ):\n\n_May my night be turned to bright morning by you_\n\n_You, who are the pride of Syria, Armenia and Rum!_\n\nHis saddlebag filled with the missive, gold and silver coins, and the verse letters\u2014both charming and intense\u2014Sultan Valad, then twenty, set off for Syria. In his writings, he spoke of being dispatched by his father to Damascus. The biographer Aflaki later gave more details of Rumi directing Sultan Valad even more precisely to a well-known caravanserai located in the Sufi Salehiyye neighborhood, where he told him to expect to find Shams playing backgammon. Shams in his later accounting of his time away from Rumi in Syria spoke fondly of Damascus, and of his special love for the grand Umayyad Mosque, repeating the well-worn equation of Damascus with paradise. Mostly, though, he spoke of having lingered in Aleppo, so that Sultan Valad either went to both cities, the two men stopping in Aleppo on the way from Damascus, or two separate trips were taken.\n\nIn his own mind, the high point of Shams's retreat from Konya, and the city with the greatest pull on his spirit to remain and never depart for Rum, was Aleppo. Shams reported having felt the excitement of a return visitor, sitting near its grand Citadel, close to the district where Rumi's tutor Ibn al-Adim lived: \"It's a wonderful city, Aleppo\u2014the houses, the streets. I looked around happily, seeing the tops of the battlements. I looked down, I saw a world and a moat.\" Of a fortress a short distance from town, he said, \"If they had said to me, 'Your father has come out of the grave and wishes to see you. He has come to Tel Bahser to see you and then die once again\u2014come see him.' I would have said, 'Tell him to die.' I wouldn't have left Aleppo even for him.\" If still unsure of his feelings about Rumi, he was quite sure he had no desire to exchange Aleppo for Konya.\n\nShams brought between three hundred and five hundred dirhams from Konya, and paid seven dirhams a month for his room, so he did not need to seek odd jobs, as in the past. He also ate frugally. When he had been on the road in earlier days, he was so ascetic that once a day would he go to a lamb's head seller to buy bread and broth. When a shopkeeper insisted that Shams be given the best cut of lamb in his soup, Shams switched to a shop where they did not give him any such special treatment. On this trip, he was more relaxed about eating. As he later reminisced to Rumi, \"I remember in Aleppo, I was saying I wished you were there. When I was eating, I would have given some to you, as well.\"\n\nApart from his absolute love for the city, though, Shams did experience mixed feelings about his motives for being there and his split with his beloved Rumi. During their first month apart he kept vacillating. He was testing Rumi's resolve. He was also testing himself, deciding whether to walk away from such a cherished friend after having spent much of his adult life looking for him. He later confided to Rumi, \"Such praying I did for you in Aleppo in that caravanserai where I was staying! It was not right to show my face to the people when you were not there. So I busied myself with work or spent time at a Sufi lodge.\" At other times he felt ready to revert to his earlier, freer life: \"When I was in Aleppo, I was busy praying for Mowlana. I prayed a hundred prayers, and only brought to mind memories that increased my affection, avoiding those that cooled the affections, but I had no intention to return.\" Balanced in Shams's thoughts, as well, was the mission of transformation he called \"the work.\" He did understand their friendship as not merely emotionally charged, but also critical for releasing Rumi's potential.\n\nEventually Sultan Valad, with a retinue of twenty companions, discovered Shams's whereabouts: \"When I found Shamsoddin, I put my forehead to the ground, and bowed.\" According to the account in Aflaki, Shams was touched and moved to see Sultan Valad again: \"Kissing Valad several times, Shamsoddin caressed him beyond measure and asked after Mowlana.\" Sultan Valad duly presented the gifts, pouring all the coins into Shams's shoes, and then passed on a crucial message from his father. \"All the companions of Rum have bowed their heads in complete sincerity,\" he reported. \"Having repented, they have sought forgiveness beyond measure and regret what they did. They have resolved that from this day forward they will not show any disrespect and will not allow any envy to arise within themselves. They are all awaiting your most blessed arrival.\"\n\nShams relented\u2014though when he later discussed their exchange that day with Sultan Valad, he insisted that he had been far from certain about his choice. He was not simply being evasive. He reminded Sultan Valad that his composure had not changed when he saw him: \"When you came to Aleppo did you see any change in the color of my face? It's as if it had been the same for a hundred years.\" He went on to admit that he had been suffering greatly inside from the separation: \"But it was so unpleasant and difficult for me that it would be bad to speak of it. Sometimes I enjoyed myself. But the unpleasantness was stronger. I preferred Mowlana.\" No one knew better than Rumi the hesitation that his son was likely to encounter. Shams had evidently been talking about this choice for some time. Before the group left Konya for Syria, Rumi wrote and performed for them a more lighthearted _ghazal_ that warned of just that strong possibility:\n\n_Comrades, go, and bring back my beloved_\n\n_Bring back to me my runaway beloved_\n\n_Lure him with sweet melodies, and gifts of gold_ ,\n\n_Bring him back home, his face a beautiful moon_.\n\n_If he promises that he'll come along shortly_\n\n_He may be deceiving you. All his promises are tricks_.\n\nRumi's playful tone implied that he judged the worst over. Likewise playful was his toying with the romantic conventions of the _ghazal_ \u2014addressed to women in Arabic lyrics, though more often in the Persian tradition to young men, especially Turk soldiers in court, or wine stewards, with curly black hair and eyebrows. Shams was as far from that beardless ideal as from the warrior kings Rumi compared him to in his verse letters, while at the same time arousing all of the fiery love, longing, and awe that the imagery carried.\n\nThe distance from Aleppo to Konya was about four hundred miles, which would have taken a camel caravan approximately a month. Sultan Valad's contingent traveled on horseback. According to Aflaki, as they now had an extra rider, they were one horse short. Sultan Valad reasonably enough insisted that Shams ride the horse. Less reasonably, when Shams suggested their riding together, Sultan Valad refused, on the grounds of proper respect in the presence of a sheikh. Given the ancient emphasis on elaborate rituals of politeness in Persian culture, this exchange might have gone on extensively. \"It is not permitted for a king and a slave to ride on one horse at the same time,\" demurred Sultan Valad, attending to Shams's stirrup throughout the entire journey.\n\nRumi and Shams's separation lasted about a year, with Shams's reentry to Konya taking place around April 1247. As Rumi was dejected for months, his happiness anticipating Shams's return was nearly manic. He saw the chance of having his life both ways\u2014exploring the freedom, creativity, and love Shams offered, while remaining responsible to family and community. If Rumi had been more committed when the two\u2014according to Shams\u2014briefly met in Damascus during his student years, he might have pursued a life as a poet and mystic. He, too, could have been a \"flier\" like Shams, Attar, or Sanai. As his revolution occurred midlife, he needed to set responsibilities bequeathed by his father against the adventurous alternatives offered by Shams. The hope he might be able to have both made him giddy.\n\nRumi wishfully told his disciples of the wonderful life they would now share, as he took them at their word about leaving behind their jealousy of the provocative Shams:\n\nThis time you will find yourselves taking more pleasure from Shamsoddin's words that faith is the sail on the ship of a man's life. When the sail is set, the wind takes it to great places. Without the sail, words are nothing but wind.\n\nTrying to please, these disciples encouraged their teacher's excitement by reporting rumors of Shams being spotted on his way to Konya. In his playful response, Rumi scolded them for these false sightings, making a comparison between seeing Shams and having spiritual insight. Without such insight, Shams would remain invisible:\n\nThese people say, \"We saw Shamsoddin of Tabriz, Master, we did see him.\" You brother of a whore, where did you see him? It's like someone who can't even make out a camel on a roof saying, \"I found the eye of the needle and threaded it!\"\n\nShams's highly anticipated homecoming was treated as a civic holiday. When Sultan Valad arrived at the nearby Zanjirli Caravanserai, he sent ahead a dervish to inform Rumi of their imminent arrival. Rumi alerted his disciples, who paraded out beyond the city gates to greet Shams in a welcoming ceremony that included banging on kettledrums, waving banners, and reciting poetry. Sultan Valad then led Shams's horse to Rumi's house. Again they saw each other, and again their hearts expanded. As Sultan Valad described the event, stressing the lack of clarity, or the mutual feeling, which marked their unconventional relationship, they fell at each other's feet, \"and no one knew who was the lover and who the beloved.\" This perceptive comment on the abandon of their greeting was circulated widely enough to find its way eventually into a quatrain of Rumi's:\n\n_With his beautiful face, the envy of angels_ ,\n\n_He came to me at dawn and wept on my chest_\n\n_He wept and I wept until the break of day_\n\n_\"How strange,\" they said. \"Of these two, who is the lover?\"_\n\nRumi celebrated Shams's arrival by performing occasional poems\u2014writing poems for special occasions would remain his lifelong practice. These lines were musical, and trancelike, designed to accompany the whirling and meditating that went on at festivals. In his rousing lyric for Shams's return, he used the same _radif_ , \"come,\" which he had used in his imploring verse letter, but in the past tense, as a wish fulfilled, making a full circle. The poem was a long exhalation of the breath Rumi had been holding for nearly a year:\n\n_My sun and moon has come, my sight and hearing has come_\n\n_My silver one has come, my mine of gold has come_.\n\n_My ecstasy has come; the light of my life has come_\n\n_Whatever you may name has come; my wish has come_.\n\n_My highway robber has come; my parole breaker has come_\n\n_That fair-skinned Joseph, suddenly by my side, has come_.\n\n_Today is better than yesterday, my dear old friend_ ,\n\n_Last night I was ecstatic, hearing news that he had come_.\n\n_The one I was looking for last night with lantern in hand_\n\n_Today, like a basket of flowers strewn on my way, has come . . ._\n\n_Now is the time to rise up, as morning rises in the world_\n\n_Now is the time to roar, because my lion has come_.\n\nThe peaceable community to which Shams returned held together without unraveling for several months. During the first weeks, different members of Rumi's circle hosted parties that included music, poetry, prayer, and _sama_ dancing in their private homes, celebrating Shams's return. Eventually he began teaching again, speaking to the newly respectful students about a theme close to his heart\u2014the beauty of the world, accessible beyond our confining minds. \"The heart is wider than the heavens,\" Shams taught them, \"and subtler and brighter than the starry skies. Why squeeze your heart with thoughts and whispering doubts? Why make this joyous world into a narrow prison? Like a caterpillar, we weave a cocoon of thoughts, doubts, and fantasies, slowly suffocating ourselves.\" He added, \"I never struggle with sayings of the Prophet, except 'This world is the prison of the believer.' But I don't see any prison. I ask you, 'Where is the prison?'\"\n\nWhile Shams did not pride himself on being a poet, and did not work at the craft, he did have poetic talent and accented these talks with couplets of his own that he recited spontaneously. \"Tolerate me for just two or three more days\u2014in the book of my life, only a single page remains,\" he said, sighing aloud in a rhyme one day, expressing a sentiment eerily hinting at an imminent ending. Many of these lines show up in Rumi's later poems, either because he memorized them, or he pored over the pages of Shams's transcribed talks, as he had pored over his father's pages\u2014often in poems revolving around Shams:\n\n_In the book of my life, only a single page remains_.\n\n_His sweet jealousy has left my soul restless_\n\n_In my book, he wrote words sweeter than sugar_ ,\n\n_Words that would make the shy moon blush_.\n\nUnder no illusion about the display of newfound respect among the students of Rumi, Shams knew that much of their warmth was contrived. He was too observant not to realize that theirs was a calculated reverence, and, with his uncensored frankness, he said as much in public. \"They felt jealous in the past because they supposed, 'If he were not here, Mowlana would be happy with us,'\" Shams summarized the matter. \"Then they experienced that things became worse, but Rumi gave them no consolation. Whatever they had in the beginning, they lost, and then even all the passion they held about the situation dissipated. So now they are happy and they honor me and they pray for me.\"\n\nAfter his return Shams and Rumi resumed their intense companionship. According to the early biographer Sepahsalar, who presented himself as having been by Rumi's side from the earliest days, \"Mowlana became even more involved with Shamsoddin, even more than the first time they met each other. They became more united than ever. Day and night they talked to each other, and they sank into each other.\" Yet even with the lighter atmosphere in the Madrase Khodavandgar, Shams still longed for the open road. If Rumi's ideal solution was having Shams available in Konya as he went about his duties, Shams's wish was to disappear with Rumi as his traveling companion. He wanted to show him his homeland. \"I wish we could take a trip together to Mosul and\u2014you have not seen those places\u2014to Tabriz,\" he cajoled Rumi. \"You could preach in the pulpit, and then mingle with the crowds and see how they are when they get together just among themselves. Afterwards we could travel to Baghdad, and then travel on to Damascus.\"\n\nImplicit in such invitations was Shams's persistent desire to depart. When he spoke with Sultan Valad of his composure when he arrived in Syria, he insinuated that Rumi was far more distraught and agitated by the sudden separation. The \"work,\" the teaching with Rumi, was going well. Indeed the \"sinking\" of Rumi into Shams was the spiritual immersion that he had hoped to achieve. Yet the threat of an abrupt departure still made Rumi uneasy, while Shams's years of solitude had accustomed him to self-reliance, or at least so he claimed, though he had not been entirely sure when he was in Aleppo. \"If truly you are not able to accompany me, I'm not afraid,\" insisted Shams. \"I did not suffer when I was separated from you, nor does being together with you bring me happiness. My happiness comes from within and my suffering comes within. Now, I know living with me is difficult. I know that I am complicated. I am neither this nor that.\"\n\nA significant interruption in this steady pattern of communing followed by threats of leaving forever occurred in the early winter of 1247 when Shams, now in his sixties, surprisingly asked Rumi for permission to marry Kimiya, a young woman brought up in Rumi's harem. (As she may have shared a name with Kerra's daughter, some would surmise she was Rumi's stepdaughter.) This request, with its implication of settling down, not only marked a change in the tenor between Shams and Rumi, but also a sharp break from Shams's lifetime habit of wandering loosely, with no family ties, though he did mention having once had children, whom he left behind to travel on his quest. Kimiya was a \"pure and beautiful\" young woman, and theirs was a December-May marriage. This late-life blossoming of desire on the part of Shams seemed sincere, though it clearly began as a practical transition to a more stable connection with Rumi. As marriages were arranged according to a patriarchal tradition, Kimiya's opinion may or may not have been heard.\n\nRumi was most pleased by this turn of events, which insured that Shams would be more committed\u2014and nearby\u2014as an official member of his household. On the day of the wedding, Rumi read the contract of marriage for the couple. According to the biographer Sepahsalar, \"Because it was winter, Mowlana arranged special rooms with a fireplace for them to consummate their vows. That winter Shamsoddin continued to reside in those rooms.\" The nuptial bed was a ceremonial focus of the traditional wedding ritual, and like Rumi's father, Baha Valad, Shams emphasized the integration of his sexual relations with Kimiya and his intense religious devotion. In later years, when trying to explain to some students the meaning behind Bayazid Bestami's practice of seeking divinity in the faces of young men, Rumi told them a story about Shams from that winter:\n\nShamsoddin said, \"The Lord Most High loves me so much that He comes to me in whatever appearance pleases me. Just now, He came to me in the appearance of Kimiya, having taken on her form.\" So it was with Bayazid. The Lord Most High appeared before him in the face of a beardless youth.\n\nOn another occasion, Shams re-created a bit of bedtime conversation with his new wife for Rumi, or others gathered. \"'I asked God to give me a child,'\" he had apparently said to Kimiya. \"'My wish to have a child is because I want you to be his mother. You are sleeping!' Then she opened her eyes. She saw me. Again she fell asleep. It's rare that I wake anybody up, but I woke her up three times. And each time she fell asleep again.\" On another evening, Shams took his bedding and slept alone in a corner, his head pillowed on his arm. He was as open about talking of intimacies with Kimiya as Rumi's father had been confessional in his own notebooks about sleeping with Rumi's mother.\n\nThe small heated rooms Rumi set aside for Shams and Kimiya were located off a porch leading to the women's harem. The other half of Rumi's domestic world, the harem was adjacent to the _madrase_ , but entirely separate. No women were allowed to use the entrance leading to the school, and no males were allowed to pass into the small hallway, unless they were _mahram_ , or religiously legal insiders, as Shams now was. Such harems often had their own courtyard, with a pool of water, gutters, and, in Konya, mulberry or plane trees, hung with icicles in winter, surrounded by mud walls, and lit at night by torches. Besides sleeping cells there was a kitchen, a bath, and an undecorated women's dining room.\n\nIf the life of the _madrase_ was in constant upheaval during those years, the harem was still dominated by some of the original personalities and customary behavior, dating back to Khorasan. Holding sway as a matriarchal figure remained the Great Kerra, the mother of Rumi's first wife. A keeper of the institutional memory, she was able to tell tales of life in Balkh and Samarkand, and had been witness to the difficult period when her daughter, Rumi's first wife, Gowhar, was left to bring up their two tussling sons while her husband was off in Syria pursuing his studies. The feuding of the boys had so embroiled the harem that some said it instigated their being sent away to Damascus to school. Still living in the harem, too, was their nanny, who had been so pained when her charges were sent away that she had passed her days in her chamber, mournfully cleaning carrots and turnips. The youngest children left in the harem were Rumi's second pair, by Kerra\u2014his daughter, Maleke, and his third son, Mozaffaroddin.\n\nBy moving into a residence just inside the harem, Shams found himself immediately enmeshed in some difficult family politics, which were not mollified by his aggravating personality. The focus was Rumi's second son, Alaoddin, who was already antagonistic toward Shams. Among the few in Rumi's circle who did not participate in the welcoming ceremonies in honor of Shams's triumphal return, Alaoddin, now in his early twenties, had a natural talent for book learning and knowledge. In the absence of his father, many of the more traditional students in the _madrase_ had begun to gather around him for orthodox teachings, as he mingled with the learned jurists in other schools. He particularly resented Shams for taking his father away from his lectures and sermons, and, now, for interjecting himself in a volatile sibling rivalry by favoring Sultan Valad. Some rumors were even circulating that Alaoddin had secretly wished to marry Kimiya. Annoying Alaoddin, too, was Shams's interfering with his favorite pastime of chess, the Persian court game, as Shams told Rumi that he should stop procuring Alaoddin's chess pieces. \"This is his study time,\" Shams said. \"He must study every day, even if only one sentence.\"\n\nThe incident that caused these tensions to explode was Alaoddin walking too often by Shams's and Kimiya's rooms\u2014even though another path would have been impossible, given the layout of the harem. As Sepahsalar told the story, \"The second son of Mowlana, Alaoddin, was the treasure of the world, because of his beauty, kindness, knowledge, and intellect. Every time he would come to pay his respects to his grandmother and women relatives, when he would pass through the courtyard and go by the winter house, Shamsoddin would boil with jealousy. A few times, Shamsoddin gently advised Alaoddin, 'Oh light of my eyes, even though you have wonderful manners, you need to walk by this house less often.' This rebuke humiliated Alaoddin, especially as he already resented Shamsoddin for showing more attention and kindness to Sultan Valad.\"\n\nAngry words were exchanged that led to much trouble between them. \"Did you see how I threatened Alaoddin, indirectly?\" Shams asked around afterward, giving a fuller report of his side of the conversation. \"I said, 'Your cloak is in the shop.' He said, 'Tell the merchant to bring it here for me.' 'No, I've forbidden him to come into my room because it disturbs me. I've chosen this place for my seclusion and solitude.' Likewise to the woman who brings water to the room, I said, 'Come, when I tell you to come. But otherwise don't just walk in. I may be naked or I may be clothed.'\" He then quoted to Alaoddin, in Arabic, similar rebukes ascribed to Mohammad, for his followers, when they were given to walking into his private family quarters unannounced. The message Shams seemed to be sending in this conflict was of his desire to maintain his privacy\u2014and Kimiya's\u2014against Alaoddin's casual and frequent comings and goings.\n\nAlaoddin spoke publicly of this perceived insult, causing more troubles in the school and the harem. According to Sepahsalar's account, \"He repeated Shamsoddin's words to others. They took advantage of that opportunity to begin to rile Alaoddin even further. They said, 'What a strange thing to say! That foreigner has come and is staying in Khodavandgar's house and he doesn't allow Khodavandgar's son into his own home.' Whenever these people had a chance, they tried to challenge and embarrass Shamsoddin. Because of his great kindness and patience, Shamsoddin did not say anything to Mowlana. After awhile he spoke to Sultan Valad, as they bothered him excessively.\"\n\nAlthough Shams swore that Kimiya's \"heart was after me,\" she often chafed against her new regimen as the young bride of Shams. Referring to his possessiveness with Rumi, Shams admitted: \"Whomever I love, I oppress. If he accepts, I roll up like a little ball in his palm. Kindness is something that you can practice with a five-year-old child, so he will believe in you and love you. But the real thing is oppression.\" He contrasted his harsh manner with Rumi's gentleness, a trait from childhood on. \"'Someone said,' he repeated, 'Rumi is all gentleness, and Shamsoddin has both the attribute of gentleness and the attribute of severity.'\" Shams added, \"I become bored with gentleness.\" Ever the strict Quran teacher, he saw kindness as ineffectual for teaching.\n\nYet the wisdom that Shams accrued over long years of teaching and debating the philosophers, and praying and fasting in solitary confinement in little rooms in caravanserai across the Middle East, had not prepared him for life in the harem. Severity worked well perhaps with disciples on a chosen fiery path to self-knowledge, yet he was not entirely in control of his passions in this late-life union with a woman much younger. His traits of possessiveness and jealousy became inordinate. He grew suspicious of younger men as having potential charm for her, especially Alaoddin. After a lifetime of ascetic practice and notorious mystical feats, Shams was blindsided by domestic life.\n\nFlashes of marital fights and conflicts began to surface in his monologues. Kimiya evidently was a free spirit and not ideal as a submissive wife. An issue was her frequent escaping to one of the gardens on the outskirts of town with other women, without his permission. Such walled gardens were located outside the city and were generally divided into orchards for cultivating figs and grapes or producing honey, and rose gardens with benches set aside for chatting and entertaining among the upper classes. Shams complained of Kimiya spending time with ladies outside of their home: \"I cannot blame her. She does not know what she is doing. But why has she gone to the garden? How could she sit with this group?\" He threatened to find two witnesses in front of whom he could perform the simple Muslim rite of divorce. Another time he begged Rumi to give him ten days to find a house and leave. \"Stay for two months,\" requested Rumi. Upset, Shams responded, \"It was as if he was telling me to sit still for two years.\"\n\nOne afternoon during that winter, the women of the harem decided to take Kimiya on an outing for fresh air. She had evidently been depressed, kept guarded in near isolation by her husband, and perhaps had been ill, too. As Aflaki told the story, \"One day, without permission from Shamsoddin, the women took her with Sultan Valad's grandmother to her garden to cheer her up. Suddenly Shamsoddin returned home and asked for Kimiya. He was told, 'Sultan Valad's grandmother, with other ladies, has taken her out for a walk.' Shamsoddin let out a loud shout and became very angry. When Kimiya Khatun returned home, she immediately felt pain in her neck and she was as motionless as a dry branch. She screamed in pain, and after three days she passed away.\"\n\nThe sudden death of Kimiya was the darkest of Shams's many difficult challenges in Konya. However awkwardly or excessively he expressed his feelings, Shams had come to cherish Kimiya. Certainly no contemporary account accused Shams of her murder. Yet the fraught circumstances of her death, and suspicious shadow of his own violent anger over those final winter days, did not give him much confidence in his unseasonable attempt to live a settled family life, while the tragedy exacerbated the fully returned anger of Alaoddin and his emboldened cohort. Rumi would compose lines about his commitment to Shams, vow-like lines that included his refusing to listen to dissenters:\n\n_When speaking with people, seal your lips with mud_\n\n_Keep the sugar stuck behind your teeth, and go_.\n\n_Say, \"'That moon is for me, the rest is for you_ ,\n\n_I don't need a family or home,\" and go_.\n\n_Who is that moon? The Lord Shams of Tabriz_.\n\n_Step into the shadow of that king, and go_.\n\nOn the subject of the death of Kimiya, however, Rumi was publicly silent. Enduring his shocking loss, Shams left the harem to return to live near the portico of the _madrase_.\n\nHanging over Shams was a sense of failure. While Rumi had begun as his eager student, and Shams enjoyed the power of his own independence\u2014his experience as a lifelong wanderer\u2014he had tried in several dramatic ways to secure their valued companionship. Shams changed his life more than Rumi had, and he had sacrificed more. He never wanted to remain in Konya, and clearly after his departure to Syria did not wish to return to certain trouble, being constantly studied by the glaring eyes of enemies. His marriage to Kimiya was his final attempt at making the situation work by becoming a stable member of Rumi's extended family. Yet Shams was unsuited for domestic life. As he left his room in the harem, having practically been banished now from that family, he was reduced to a few moves, cornered, and was mulling the meaning of these ominous signs of trouble.\n\nShams's tiny cell in the school was far less secure than his peripheral room with Kimiya on the edge of the harem. Sensing weakness, Alaoddin and his allies again tried to drive Shams from town, as if the welcoming jubilee of nine months earlier had never occurred. Rumi had set Shams up in a cell that he nicknamed \"The Place of Khezr,\" referring to the mystic friend of Moses in the Quran, who initiated him into the secret ways of spiritual practice. As he had with his rooms in the merchant inn, Shams padlocked the door to insure privacy and seclusion, his habit in whatever setting he found himself. Yet the protective hand of Rumi was not sufficient to guard him against unannounced nighttime local police incursions and regular threats to his security.\n\nOne incident was so distressing that Shams waited two days before informing Rumi. This confrontation at his cell was not the first, or he had been warned, because he had been awake all night in anticipation of some kind of incident. \"I was restless the whole night,\" said Shams, when he told of the disturbing encounter. \"My heart was trembling.\" Finally at daylight some guards arrived, under the command of Aminoddin Mikail, an important lieutenant and viceroy of the sultan, though he was not present. They claimed the emir himself ordered that the cell must be emptied and Shams must leave. They also claimed the authority of Tajoddin Armavi, a high-ranking lieutenant.\n\n\"'This cell belongs to the sweeper, and now this man puts a lock on it and says that it belongs to him.'\" Shams reported the incoherent shouting of the head guard, in Turkish. \"Then he said, 'We're talking to you. Why did you lock this cell? You're not a licensed instructor here. We're talking to you. They threw you out of town. What do they call you? Shams? What? Shams? What?'\" Then Shams stood up silently, having not yet said a word: \"Those men of Aminoddin looked at my face and thought they needed to speak Turkish to me. They didn't think I understood what they were saying. 'This is Mowlana's cell,' I said. 'It's his library. I will go and get the key from Mowlana, and I will open the door.' 'Get him,' they said. 'He's lying. He has the key. Get the key from him.'\" One of them persisted, \"Why are you coming here? We threw you out a few times.\" Shams asked whether they had really been sent by the proper authorities. \"I know Tajoddin's nature,\" he said. \"I need proof if he says that I'm a dog and a nonbeliever.\" (Tajoddin, also known as \"Tabrizi,\" was from Shams's hometown.)\n\nAmid all the anxiety and disruption of being trapped within the surveillance of the religious military state, if only at its lower echelons, Shams in these last days persisted in his teaching, mostly meant for Rumi alone, during a period that lasted anywhere from a week to several months. He still had important themes to communicate that he felt his existence hung upon and were the core of \"the work\" he was intent on finishing. Essential for him was the message of love, and of the heart, which was Rumi's great inspiration. In Persian epic or spiritual poetry, _n\u00e2me_ meant \"book,\" as in the _Shahname_ , the Book of Kings, or Attar's _Asrarname_ , the Book of Secrets. For Shams, the Quran was the _Eshqname_ , or Book of Love. He also rose to poetic utterances about the practice of whirling. \"The dance of the men of God is delicate and weightless,\" he exulted. \"They are like leaves floating on a river.\" That such delicate, sensitive lessons were expounded in an atmosphere increasingly unsettled and dangerous only added to their sense of urgency.\n\nA darker and more complex theme began to emerge, as well, in Shams's teachings to Rumi during this chaotic time\u2014separation. He revealed his departure to Syria as having been an object lesson, not an impulse, and threatened more such lessons. \"If you can,\" Shams spelled out his intentions, \"act such that I don't have to travel for the sake of your work and your best interest, so the work may be accomplished by the journey that I already took. That would be better. I am not in a position to command you to travel. I can take on the traveling for your benefit, so you may become more mature. In separation, you say, 'That degree of commandments or prohibitions was nothing. Why didn't I do it?' It was easy compared to the hardship of separation.\"\n\n\"I was just speaking in riddles,\" he went on, unpacking his metaphor. \"I should have been explicit. What's the worth of that work? For your best interest, I would make fifty journeys. Otherwise what difference does it make to me whether I am in Rum or Syria? Whether I'm at the Kaaba or in Constantinople, it makes no difference. However it is certainly the case that separation cooks and polishes. Now, is the one polished and cooked by union better, or the one polished and cooked by separation? . . . Was Mowlana ever happy from the day that I left? . . . The deeper the union, the more difficult and arduous the time of separation.\" This was a core lesson, a sermon, he implied, he was willing to teach with his own life.\n\nOf all the teachings that Shams shared with Rumi, which were becoming the raw material of Rumi's poetry, he gave him perhaps his most central metaphor in these last talks: comparing the evolution of the human spirit, through the workings of separation, to cooking. This imagery\u2014a way of explaining how a painful separation can have beneficial results, and how love, both human and divine, involves both union and separation\u2014became a continuous motif in Rumi's poetry and talks, a familiar and homey analogy of the type that he favored. Rumi liked to tell of the chickpea transformed through suffering in the boiling water of the cook's pot. He also expressed far more personally his own suffering in the heat of separation, which was visited on him through his love for Shams:\n\n_My entire life has come down to three words\u2014_\n\n_I was raw, I was cooked, I was burned_\n\nHe used nearly the same wording in a less precisely parsed cry from the heart in a _ghazal_ :\n\n_My entire life has come down to three words\u2014_\n\n_I burned, I burned, I burned_\n\nShams was emotionally riveting as he talked of separation, especially gripping for Rumi, who felt the fire in his words, yet he had motives for dwelling on separation besides the poetic and philosophical. Shams's daily life was ever more precarious in Konya, and he faced constant difficulties. The incident at his cell was not isolated, and Rumi's followers were aligning with the cohort identified with Alaoddin. Shams spared Rumi many details, though he confided his apprehensions to Sultan Valad, who later recalled Shams's ultimatum to him: \"He said, to me, 'Have you seen them? Reunited again by envy with each other? They want to separate me from Mowlana, who is far wiser than anyone else. They want to separate me and take me away. After me, they want to be in charge of everything. This time, I'll leave in such a way that no one will be able to find where I am. All will fail miserably trying to find me. No one will be able to find the slightest clue. Many years will pass in this way. No one will find even a trace of my dust. When I have been gone for a long time, they will say surely they think that an enemy has killed me.' He repeated his words several times because he wished to emphasize them.\"\n\nWhen he was feeling particularly troubled, Shams did occasionally discuss matters with Rumi. He was once accused of stealing and spoke in obviously distressed tones to Rumi. \"I cannot even get a separate house,\" he was saying of his fragile and uncharacteristically dependent living situation. \"I don't want to make you a prisoner here. But I don't want anything else from this place, just to be able to see you.\" He was underlining that the only attraction for him in Konya was Rumi, but that just such singleness of purpose could finally become an increasing burden for both of them. At other times, though, he blamed Rumi for not coming to his defense, and keeping him out of sight, as if embarrassed by him, or living his two lives in two discrete compartments.\n\nOne practice in Rumi's household, traditional in the Islamic culture that set Fridays apart for congregational prayer and for time spent with family, was for him to visit with the community during the dusk hours after evening prayers, following any obligations at the Citadel mosque or on the palace grounds. Customarily, the men would be seated at the top end of a long carpet, where some bread or dates were usually laid out, the women seated farther down, while Rumi listened to the concerns of the household, or told stories, or otherwise invested his charm in calming conflicts. He did not invite Shams to those Friday gatherings, and Shams was stung. \"As neither Mowlana nor I like to spend time without a purpose, we tend to stay alone with each other,\" Shams complained. \"So every Friday that he doesn't bring me with him, I become depressed. Why can't I be included in this group? I know my sadness should not be real, but it is.\"\n\nSometimes Shams's feelings of betrayal by Rumi broke through their mutually adoring banter. Rumi appeared to be trying to distance himself from Shams's disruptive presence, to keep the peace, especially following the death of Kimiya and the sharpened anger of Alaoddin, who would have been present at the Friday gatherings where Shams was excluded. \"I became so upset when instead of answering them, you stayed silent,\" Shams said, confronting Rumi when he had not countered criticisms against him, the sorts of complaints making the attacks possible. \"My whole resentment arose when they said those things and you didn't answer them. You remained silent. You know my loyalty. You know me. But when someone outside the house said something, you didn't answer.\"\n\nThis incident, or another similar, kept Shams awake at night. \"To be able to look into my friend's eyes, I have to go through the eyes of a hundred enemies,\" he bemoaned. \"Last night I was thinking of you, and I was picturing your face. I was saying to you, in my mind, 'Why didn't you answer those people, clearly and directly?' In my imagination, you were saying, by your expression, 'I am ashamed of them,' or 'I am shy,' or 'I don't want them to be upset.' I talked to you, and our argument took a long time within my mind.\" Rumi had always been averse to open conflict and had evidently reverted to trying to placate Alaoddin and Shams's many critics, doing his best to keep all parties placated, especially after the difficult events of the winter. Shams clearly felt that Rumi was not defending him sufficiently, and he was left staving off threats while feeling less certain that Rumi needed him as absolutely as he had in their early days. Yet he had not lost control of his wisdom and understanding of the events around him. His recent conversations with Rumi were profound in revealing the nature of love as including suffering and separation\u2014a message that was about to become even more relevant.\n\nOne morning Rumi arrived at the school and, as was his custom, went to visit Shams's cell near the portico. When he entered, he found no sign of his friend other than his cap, a pair of shoes, and a few items accumulated while in Konya. Missing were the personal belongings that Shams carried when traveling, alerting Rumi to his departure. Given the dark mood and tragic events of the past months, Rumi understood that this hasty flight was not simply in keeping with Shams's elusive character but had an air of finality that even the first disappearance lacked. He realized with horror that his own attempt to live his life both ways had just collapsed. Rumi rushed into Sultan Valad's room. \"Bahaoddin, why are you sleeping?\" he cried out. \"Get up, and seek for your sheikh. I'm not sensing his merciful presence anywhere nearby.\" \"When Shamsoddin wasn't found after a day or two,\" recalled Sultan Valad, \"Mowlana began crying from pain.\" As Sepahsalar reported, out of sorrow, \"Mowlana roared like thunder.\"\nCHAPTER 9\n\n_\"I burned, I burned, I burned\"_\n\nRUMI skirted madness. Or madness was simply the only explanation those closest to him could find for his heartbreaking collapse in the wake of Shams's departure. Even five decades later, when the Arab travel writer Ibn Battuta passed through Konya, he was still hearing stories of the mad behavior of \"the sheikh and pious imam\" Jalaloddin Rumi following the disappearance of a Shams-like figure who sold him sugar-covered fruits, causing Rumi to abandon his college post to pursue him. \"Subsequently he came back to them, after many years, but he had become demented and would speak only in Persian rhymed couplets which no one could understand,\" as Ibn Battuta recorded the local lore. \"His disciples used to follow him and write down that poetry as it issued from him.\"\n\nRumi lost control on the morning that he discovered Shams's empty chamber, and the howling and sobbing heard throughout his school and house went on for days, not hours. When Shams had mysteriously left town two years earlier, Rumi retired to his private quarters and shut the door, allowing a recriminating silence to fill the hallways until those responsible for the rattling event repented. This time was dramatically different. He was focused only on hearing Shams's inimitable voice once again, and feeling \"his merciful presence,\" as he said to his son, anywhere nearby. All pretense of maintaining his carefully constructed two lives that had so irked Shams was abandoned.\n\nTheir time together lasted only about two and a half years, and in that interval, Shams had disappeared for nearly a year. Yet nine of their months together were spent in near seclusion night and day as they communed, talked, and shared secrets, in a marked parenthesis that Rumi cared enough to carve out of the middle of his busy and already accomplished life. Nothing remotely resembled the intensity of the time he spent with Shams, who rightly said just weeks earlier that he and Rumi preferred each other's company to the superficiality of most other social life. Rumi knew their connection was unique. It had begun with a gaze that pierced his heart. Now he was left with the memory of those searing eyes and whatever transforming truth they had communicated to him. The memory caused Rumi to experience an unraveling between his heart and his mind.\n\nAfter \"a day or two,\" according to Sultan Valad, Rumi went even more public with his hysteria and grief, beginning a search throughout Konya for Shams. Such a wide hunt would have included all of Shams's favorite \"seedy\" spots, such as the taverns and Armenian churches they visited together, as well as steam baths in every district. Rumi's concerned family as well as friends and disciples tried to help. He was well connected in the government and able to involve the imperial guards and police in the action. Shams's prophecy to Sultan Valad that he would disappear without a trace appeared to have come true. \"They looked for him in every alley and house,\" remembered Sultan Valad of the citywide pursuit, with no clues or leads turning up. \"No one had any news of him. Nobody could find a hint of a scent of him. The sheikh was crazed by the separation.\"\n\nUnable to find him in person, while remaining hopeful if not in full denial, Rumi tried to re-create his closeness to Shams once again in _sama_. Besides his focused final messages to Rumi on the meaning of separation, Shams, according to Sepahsalar, had encouraged him to keep practicing _sama_. \"Perform _sama_! _\"_ Shams said. \"Whatever you seek will be gained in abundance in the _sama_.\" Rumi treated this mystical dance they had performed together as a form of bonding, though now he was revolving incoherently around the absence of Shams as much as practicing enlightenment. He needed the steady rhythms to mollify his pain and was said to whirl, or turn unsteadily about a pole, while spouting some of the incomprehensible lines heard by anyone nearby.\n\nRumi soon invited a group of musicians to be present as well, filling in the empty spaces around his solitary dance. The traditional instruments he chose hearkened back to Central Asia, the cultural homeland of both himself and Shams. Crucial was the mournful _nay_ , or reed flute, which one story credited as having first been brought to Anatolia on caravan by Rumi's family. He came to associate each instrument with the travails of love. The bold trumpet \"sang\" only when touched to a player's lips: \"Without your lips, I'm silent.\" The Khorasani _rabab_ was a voice heard only when stroked with a bow. Rumi imagined his heart a trembling tambourine. Included, too, in his intimate band were a harp held in the lap; drums, both large and small; a _tambura_ lute _;_ and bundled Pandean pipes. As he later wrote, \"Sometimes I am a harp, sometimes a lute, night and day.\"\n\nRumi danced his repetitive spinning to music long into the night to the dismay of his exhausted musicians, who were as much drawn into the hole of his despair as they were allowed to act as a healing force. Sultan Valad recorded these frantic scenes he witnessed: \"Day and night he began to dance _sama_ , on the ground like a spinning wheel. His voice and his cry reached the sky. Everyone heard his lamentations, young and old. He gave gold and silver to the musicians. Whatever he had in the house, he gave away. He was continuously dancing _sama_. Day and night, he did not rest for a moment, so the musicians could not keep up. From singing so much they lost their voices. Their throats were sore from singing. Everyone hated the gold and the silver. Everyone was tired and run-down. Without wine, everyone was hungover. If that hangover had been from real wine, it would have disappeared with more wine. Everyone was tired from lack of sleep. Their hearts were cooked, not from fire, but from the pain.\"\n\nRumi's response during his first and far more benign separation had been to pivot to writing poetry to channel his pain as well as to lure Shams to return with flattery and proof of his creativity, which his beloved had encouraged and nurtured. Now Rumi turned to poetry again, but with less polished results, as stumbling in execution as his _sama_ dancing. As Aflaki reported, \"Mowlana was extremely agitated day and night and had no peace and no rest. He constantly walked up and down in the courtyard of the _madrase_ , reciting quatrains.\" Sometimes he muttered broken phrases. At other times, he seemed\u2014in painful, occasionally sinister, often roughly constructed lines\u2014to be trying to gain a foothold onto his own sanity as much as onto the metrical terrain of poetry. The themes tended to oblivion or total annihilation in the shadow of the vanished beloved:\n\n_The night wears black to show us that it mourns_\n\n_Like the widow who wears a black dress after burying her husband_\n\nHe spoke of these desperate poems as \"bloody,\" as they were clotted with violent images, perhaps evoking the distress caused by his menacing thoughts. He imagined in one of them Mount Sinai \"covered in blood, longing for love,\" and elsewhere wrote:\n\n_This earth is not covered with dirt but blood_\n\n_From the blood of lovers, the wounds of a checkmated king_\n\nWritten under pressure of grief, and relying on heart and imagination rather than intellect for their rapidly flashing imagery, such lines often approached a surreal incomprehensibility.\n\n_When the water boiled into a wind, making mountains fly_\n\n_Like straw before the fierce wind, whirling and frightening_\n\n_Through the cracked mountains, deep mines were revealed_\n\n_Where you could see ruby on ruby, shining like moonlight_ ,\n\n_In that glow, you beheld him, his face porcelain, like the moon_ ,\n\n_His hands open, full of blood, like the hands of a butcher_.\n\nYet the \"bloody\" handprints in these poems may also have reflected a grim possibility that must have been playing on Rumi's mind, and certainly in his most troubled fantasies in his unsettled state, as the question spread through Konya: Was Shams murdered? The atmosphere of the past few months made such an act conceivable. Rumors of murder were swirling around Rumi, two of them\u2014contradicting each other\u2014finding their way into Aflaki's later accounts. In one of these dark scenarios, Shams and Rumi were seated together in the evening when a stranger came to the door and whispered for Shams to step outside. Shams rose and said, \"They want to kill me,\" to which Rumi responded, \"Perhaps it is God's will.\" Shams walked outside, where he was set on by seven ruffians with knives. His loud shouts caused them all to pass out in unison and when they awoke they saw nothing but a few drops of blood, with no other sign of their victim. In a second rumor, Sultan Valad, alerted by a dream, discovered Shams's corpse at the bottom of a well and buried him in the _madrase_ walls. Rumi never endorsed such reports of the murder of Shams, though they were haunting his poems.\n\nAlmost as compelling as the unsolved murder mystery, though, was the distress in Konya and the Madrase Khodavandgar that allowed even the suspicion of the killing of Shams of Tabriz to have taken hold as imaginable. Somehow this unique bond between Rumi and Shams was unconventional enough to have driven those around them to irrational and outsize reactions. As Annemarie Schimmel has described their challenge: \"The relationship between Mowlana and Shams was nothing like the traditional love of a mature Sufi for a very young boy in whom he saw Divine Beauty manifested, and who thus is a _shahed_ , a living witness to Divine Beauty\u2014indeed it is revealing that the term _shahed_ , favored by most Persian poets, occurs only rarely in Mowlana's work. This was the meeting of two mature men.\" The Iranian-American scholar Janet Afary has described their connection as \"a more reciprocal ethic of love.\" Rumi and Shams were tampering with social formalities, and their lack of clear boundaries was disturbing, as the cultural norm of \"lover\" and \"beloved\" between men and boys, or even between sheikh and disciple, required one partner to be the moth and the other the flame.\n\nRumi next fixed on the hope that Shams was in Damascus, where he first traveled sometime between the winter of 1248 and the spring of 1249, and then on one or two other occasions, alone or with a retinue. Whatever lapses of sanity Rumi may have undergone in the first weeks and months of their jarring separation, he kept enough presence of mind to pursue with a steady logic the dwindling few chances of finding Shams, while striving to keep his spirit stitched to him through _sama_ and poetry.\n\nEven before departing Konya, Rumi seized on travelers from Damascus, hoping to hear news of Shams, his desperation making him vulnerable. As Aflaki told: \"One day someone informed Rumi, 'I saw Shamsoddin in Damascus.' Rumi became more cheerful than can be expressed in words. He gave away everything he was wearing to the man as gifts\u2014his turban, cloak, and shoes. A close companion said, 'He lied to you. He has never seen him.' Rumi replied, 'I gave him my turban and my cloak for his lie. If his news were true, instead of giving away my clothing, I would have given my life away. I would have sacrificed myself for him.\" This desire to give away, or throw away, grew extravagant.\n\nBarely able to manage his daily existence, Rumi had easily let the business of the _madrase_ fade to the margins of concern, while holding many of those in the community responsible for Shams's vanishing, especially his son Alaoddin, from whom he became estranged during this period of heightened emotion and tension. As Sepahsalar wrote, \"During that time, whoever was blamed for this separation did not receive any attention from him.\" When he went away, Rumi put Hosam, the young leader of the local workingmen, in charge of keeping order in the day-to-day operations of the school. He instinctively only entrusted a position of authority to someone drawn from within the small, warm circle around Shams\u2014a pattern he continued for the rest of his life.\n\nWith Syria riven by civil war, and suffering from the famine and general ruin caused by the incursions of many Crusader armies, the Damascus that Rumi confronted upon his arrival was not the paradise of brilliant intellectual debate, spirited commerce, and monumental architecture he had witnessed just a decade earlier from the removed vantage of the Sufi Salehiyye neighborhood during his student years. Yet the circles in which he had moved were still active, and so, reported Sultan Valad, he went street by street, \"putting his head into every corner.\" He performed very public _sama_ sessions, hoping to attract locals who knew Shams, or might have information. And he composed new, anxious _ghazals_ , written in Arabic. As he proclaimed his mission on a third journey:\n\n_For the third time, I rush from Rum to Syria_ ,\n\n_Seeking his curls as dark as night, seeking the fragrance of Damascus_\n\n_If my Master Shams, the Truth of Tabriz, is there_\n\n_I will be the Master of Damascus, the Master of Damascus!_\n\nThe Damascus period of Rumi's search for Shams lasted about two years. After days or weeks scouring the Sufi neighborhoods, with the same disappointing results he had encountered in Konya, Rumi spent much of the rest of the time hunting down clues or listening to hearsay, waiting to talk with the pilgrims returning from Mecca, or other travelers, as travel was the main artery of communication. He was also cultivating _sama_ and beginning to write poems with more intensity and frequency than ever before. The pitch of hysteria reached in Konya could not be sustained, and he began to discover in his emerging poetry and song not only expressions of pain but also inklings of love.\n\nRumi instinctively relied on whirling after Shams's disappearance to quell his panic and somehow stay closer to his companion by imitating him at a time when he could think of nothing or no one else. His intuition about his need at that moment for _sama_ was a positive one. The philosopher Mohammad al-Ghazali, whose intellectual legacy Rumi and his father encountered, especially in Baghdad, claimed the whirling practice had pulled him back from his own period of despair, which has been construed as a nervous breakdown. Indeed, he devoted an entire volume of his monumental _Revival of the Religious Sciences_ to _sama_ , eloquently writing of having his spiritual life saved by such practices. His testimony helped in the spread of rooms appointed for _sama_ in tenth-century Baghdad. Rumi, too, was now sensing that his sanity and spiritual revival owed much to the meditative dance.\n\nWhile Shams was in Konya, he and Rumi practiced _sama_ in seclusion, hidden from the eyes and ears of the legally minded, including Alaoddin. Even though Rumi's father was sympathetic with Sufis and practiced secret mystical techniques, he would never have allowed music and dance in the halls of the Madrase Khodavandgar, as such expressions were likely to be dangerous, even illegal. Just as popular as al-Ghazali's defense of _sama_ in Baghdad was the treatise _The Trickery of Satan_ , by an austere theologian claiming music and dance were the devil's work. Many medieval Islamic leaders\u2014failing to find sanctions in the Quran or the teachings of the Prophet for listening to music, singing, and chanting\u2014insisted that the only acceptable music worth listening to was Arabic Quranic recitation. As Rumi became more public and open about _sama_ in Konya and Damascus, he was moving closer toward a fault line, and setting up a defining conflict of the rest of his life.\n\nLikewise in Damascus Rumi's poems began to reveal a new lightness and to announce their true source of inspiration, Shams of Tabriz, as the messenger of love. Since the works of medieval Persian poets are arranged according to the alphabetical order of their rhyming letters\u2014beginning with the long _a\u2014_ and within that scheme by meter, rather than chronologically, the sequence of Rumi's poems has never been clear. Yet a logic of suffering and acceptance was at work indicating their falling into loose, overlapping stages, marked by their openness in naming Shams as muse. By the time Rumi left Damascus, he had found his voice as a poet or, as he understood it, found Shams's voice through his poetry, while experiencing a midlife creative burst that was exceptional in the history of world poetry as he wrote the bulk of his lyric love poems.\n\nFollowing from the verse-letters that he wrote on Shams's first departure to Syria, over a year earlier, Rumi resumed, likely in Damascus, rhapsodizing Shams in extravagant codes of praise. Rather than mentioning his name, using Sufi discretion, he invoked his reliable symbol for fiery Shams, the \"Sun of Religion,\" and \"Sun of Tabriz\":\n\n_Since I am the servant of the sun, I speak only of the sun_.\n\n_I do not worship the moon, nor do I speak of dreams_\n\nAstrological houses could stand for Shams, too, such as Mars, or Venus, or the panoply of stars. Gypsies, or _lulis_ , evoked his perpetual motion and cleverness, and the wide desert, the _sahra_ , his location beyond all places and categories, his abstraction from daily life, his transcendence. Rumi addressed Shams as his \"sovereign,\" or, in Greek, as _afenti_ or _aghapos_ , honored and beloved, and used various other glorifying terms for him:\n\n_I gave him so many names, perfect and imperfect_ ,\n\n_But since he is unique, he has a hundred times more_\n\nOne fixture of traditional Persian poetry that Rumi began to experiment with in these poems, as he seemed once again more in control of his method of composition, was the _takhallos_ , a poetic signature, or pen name, reserved for the final line of a _ghazal_ , also romanticized as a \"clasp,\" holding together the strung pearls of single lines into a necklace. Rumi shied away from using his own name as a _takhallos_. Only once, in an early, opaque poem, did he try using his title bestowed on him by his father as a tag in the more conventional fashion:\n\n_Jalaloddin, go to sleep now, and quit writing_\n\n_Just say: No leopards can find such a unique lion_.\n\nMany of the poems of crisis were unruly and lacked a polished final line altogether. In some, Rumi had abruptly announced, \" _Bas!_ \" or \"Enough!\" Yet he came close to an inventive _takhallos_ by closing several with _\"Khamush!\"_ or _\"Silence!,\"_ indicating an approach to a mystical state of unknowing as well as reticence in naming his inspiration:\n\n_Be silent my tongue, since my heart is burning_ ,\n\n_Your heart will burn, too, if I speak of my burning heart_\n\nA breakthrough for Rumi occurred when he was finally able to name Shams in his poems, as if the same breaking down of a wall between his inner and outer lives, which had been forced by Shams's disappearance, also needed to take place in his poetry. This transition was enacted in one crucial _ghazal_ where he dramatized an imaginative vision, reminiscent of dream visions he experienced during _chelle_ , including a voice of wisdom:\n\n_One night, I awoke at midnight, unable to find my heart_\n\n_I looked everywhere, around the house. Where did he go?_\n\n_When finally I searched every room, I found the poor thing_\n\n_Crying in a corner, whispering the name of God, and praying_.\n\nAs he eavesdropped on his own heart praying, Rumi heard him confessing trepidation about ever uttering the name of his beloved for fear of having his secret stolen away by someone who might be listening. A guiding voice commanded him to speak the name:\n\n_A voice called to the heart, \"Say his name_ ,\n\n_Don't worry about others, say his name boldly_\n\n_His name is the key to the wishes of your soul_\n\n_Say his name at once, so he will open the door quickly.\"_\n\nThe poet's heart remained anxious, in spite of divine intervention, until finally at dawn the sun rose\u2014reliable code for Shams\u2014and the heart yelped, \"Tabriz!\" unraveled by these efforts like the woof and warp of a carpet. The poem ends with Rumi's joyful confession:\n\n_As I was fainting away, the name of Shamsoddin_ ,\n\n_That ocean of generosity, was engraved upon my heart_\n\nHaving opened the door, as he described the sensation, Rumi found, within the heart of his poetry, permission to speak the name of his beloved, going against all caution and secrecy. In the Persian poetic tradition, such love poems were only written to youths, not mature men, and personal names rarely, if ever, used, except for that of the patron or the poet's own _takhallos_ pen name. Rumi was explicit about the course of his evolution toward this liberation. Not only could he speak of Shams in code, but he could now also spell out Shams's name brazenly within the lines of his poems, a bold transparency he found exhilarating and inspiring as he made use of this new freedom rhapsodically:\n\n_Not alone I keep on singing, Shamsoddin and Shamsoddin_\n\n_The nightingale in the garden sings, the partridge in the hills . . ._\n\n_Day of splendor, Shamsoddin, turning heavens, Shamsoddin_\n\n_Mine of jewels, Shamsoddin, day and night, Shamsoddin_.\n\nIn the abundance of incantatory poems that followed were lines revealing Rumi's belief that chanting Shams's name freed his spirit from the guarded fear that contributed to their painful separation and gave luster and a radiant spark to his art and poetry:\n\n_Say the name of Shamsoddin every single moment_\n\n_Until your poems and songs begin to glow with beauty_\n\nNaming names was a bold personal move for Rumi, especially given his public position. His next steps, though, were even more radical, as he began writing poems that moved beyond anything dared so far in either Persian lyric poetry or Muslim devotional poetry. Novelty was immaterial to Rumi. He was not interested in becoming a poet's poet. Yet in trying to articulate his love for Shams, he was led by force of passion to breaking with tradition. His innovation in Persian lyric poetry was to begin using as his _takhallos_ , or signature tag, the name of Shams of Tabriz, rather than his own. By the end of his life, he had written nearly a thousand poems mentioning Shams or ending with the flourish of his name. The most extraordinary probably date from his Damascus period, when he was away from the judgmental eyes and ears surrounding him in Konya. He had been energized by the poetic license he felt granted him by his own heart, reacting to divine prompts, and allowing him to be at once romantic and religious. As he wrote in one _ghazal_ composed while the search for Shams was under way, using his special _takhallos_ :\n\n_I wonder, where did the handsome beloved go?_\n\n_I wonder, where did that tall, shapely cypress tree go?_\n\n_He spread his light among us like a candle_\n\n_Where did he go? So strange, where did he go without me?_\n\n_All day long my heart trembles like a leaf_\n\n_All alone at midnight, where did that beloved go? . . ._\n\n_Tell me clearly, Shams of Tabriz_ ,\n\n_Of whom it is said, \"The sun never dies!\"\u2014Where did he go?_\n\nThe adoption of Shams as his _takhallos_ was an original solution to Rumi's quandary. He was audaciously implying that he was not the author of his own poems. Shams was writing the verses through him, and he was merely the ink pen or the paper:\n\n_Speak, Sun of Truth and Faith, Pride of Tabriz_ ,\n\n_For your voice is speaking through all my words!_\n\nRumi pushed the notion of a muse to its extreme, so that he was not merely inspired by but infused with the spoken word of Shams being dictated through him. This frame for understanding the poetry\u2014especially these lyric love poems _\u2014_ remained forever affixed to them, in Rumi's understanding, and in their public reception. When the poems were later gathered in collections, or _divans_ , some dating back to within a couple decades of Rumi's death, they were titled as _Divan-e Shams-e Tabrizi_ (\"The Collected Shams of Tabriz\"), or _Kolliyat-e Shams-e Tabrizi_ (\"The Complete Shams of Tabriz\"), or _Ghazaliyyat-e Shams-e Tabrizi_ (\"The Shams of Tabriz Ghazals\"). (These earliest collections were helped in being judged authentic by their use of Rumi's local Khorasani spellings for Persian words, rather than Anatolian, similar to the differences between British English and American.)\n\nRumi then took a final step, investing Shams with prophetic or even divine powers, which was as challenging to Muslim orthodoxy as the use of music and dance in _sama_. It was as if the less chance Rumi felt of their being reunited in person, the more Shams began to merge in his heart with the source of love itself. The Rumi scholar Franklin D. Lewis has written that \"there was probably no precedent for addressing any person, other than the Prophets,\" as Rumi in one instance praised Shams as \"the light that said to Moses, 'I am God, I am God, I am God.'\" Never in classical Persian poetry had the beloved been divinized as the burning bush through whom Moses heard the voice of God, or as the lover's _qibla_ , for turning to prayer, or beyond the ken of the angel Gabriel, revealing the Quran to Mohammad. Such exclamations bordered on blasphemy:\n\n_It's not enough for me to call you a human being_ ,\n\n_But I am afraid to call you \"God.\"_\n\n_You do not allow me to remain silent_\n\n_Yet you do not reveal to me the proper speech_.\n\nImploring Shams to forgive his own sins of pride, or heal his wounds, Rumi dared to fashion in these rhapsodic, celestial poems an audacious meld of love poem and prayer:\n\n_You speak for God, you see the Truth_ ,\n\n_You save the world from drowning in an ocean of fire_\n\n_A king beyond compare, your majesty is eternal_\n\n_You lead the soul away from harmful desires_\n\n_You hunt for souls on the path of self-sacrifice_\n\n_Looking to discover which soul is the most worthy . . ._\n\n_Sun of souls! Shamsoddin, the Truth of Tabriz_ ,\n\n_Each of your radiant beams speaks eloquently of God_.\n\nYet Rumi had still not accepted the difficult fact of the permanent loss of Shams in death. His last holdout of hope was Tabriz, an obviously magical point on Rumi's imaginative horizon, and a journey by land of only about seven hundred miles from either Damascus or Konya, although no record exists of Rumi actually undertaking that trip. By 1248 the Azerbaijani capital was solidly within the control of the Il Khan dynasty, under the transitional rule of a Persian ally of the Mongols, responsible for funneling taxes and tributes to its rulers. Rumi's poems of the period are dotted with mentions of Tabriz, as if the possibility of Shams's having returned home kept arising\u2014either from reports, or because of his friend's ardent wish for them to have traveled there together. In these final poems, Tabriz remains a distant place of the mind, not, like Damascus, an actual location:\n\n_When I went to Tabriz, I spoke with Shamsoddin_\n\n_Of the oneness of God, without needing any words_\n\nAt least once, Rumi heard news of Shams in Tabriz that was believable enough for him to write a poem excitedly about the possibility of his being alive, more visceral than his whimsical payments given to strangers claiming a sighting here or there. Rumi compared the reception of this news to the Quranic story of Joseph's father, Jacob, catching the scent of his vanished son, who was said to have been murdered and cast down into a well by his brothers\u2014suspiciously similar to the murder rumors about Shams:\n\n_Joseph's shirt, and the scent of him have come!_\n\n_Following these two signs, surely he too comes!_\n\nThe finale of the _ghazal_ fixes the living Shams's whereabouts confidently within Tabriz:\n\n_You asked for a banquet from heaven_\n\n_Rise up, and prepare. The table descends_.\n\n_Good news, O Love! From Shamsoddin_ ,\n\n_In Tabriz, a new sign has come!_\n\nFinally, though, most likely in Damascus, around 1250, Rumi heard some confirmation of the death of Shams that caused him to decisively face his worst fears, which he had been avoiding as much as pursuing during the past two years, and to adopt instead an attitude of mourning, and to no longer hold out hope. The tenor of his writing, speaking, and feeling about Shams shifted. He moved toward acceptance rather than denial. From him poured a classical elegy, a container for his grief, filled with tears that were hot but not hysterical, each line of the threnody ending with the sad _radif_ , \"weep\":\n\n_If my eyes could bear to cry fully for this great grief_\n\n_Days and nights, until dawn, I would only weep . . . ._\n\n_Death is deaf to mourning, and hears no wailing_\n\n_Otherwise, with a burning heart, he would weep_.\n\n_Death is an executioner, without a heart_ ,\n\n_Even if he had a heart of stone, he would weep_.\n\nThe noble ode ends in a sorrowful mode unusual for Rumi's writings on his personal sun:\n\n_Shams of Tabriz is gone, and who_\n\n_For this greatest man among men, will weep?_\n\n_In the world of essences, he is enjoying his wedding_ ,\n\n_But in our world of mere forms, without him, we weep_.\n\nRumi might never have known the exact cause of Shams's death, or his final resting place, and he appears to have strongly dismissed all murder rumors to the end of his life. Whether inklings or doubts rose and fell over the years is not known. No one will ever know the truth about the hazy circumstances of Shams's death and burial, which were just as mysterious and obscure at the time\u2014not entirely surprising for a lone figure, no longer young, possibly traveling incognito, and without an entourage. Tombs for Shams exist in Konya, Tabriz, and Multan, Pakistan\u2014the most ancient in Khoy, a town near Tabriz on the main road from Konya, its grave site, with encrusted minaret, dating back at least to 1400.\n\nRumi's acceptance of Sham's death, though, set him free and also set Shams free to live again in Rumi's poetry as a state of being as much as a mere mortal. During the rest of Rumi's time in Damascus, he reconciled himself to this finality while allowing himself to be remade from within to become the man he wished to be in the wake of Shams's departure. When Shams left for Aleppo, four years earlier, Rumi discovered how much he relied on the volatile teacher for his new way of life. Now he needed to accept that Shams's absence was permanent. He had the option of returning to Konya, defeated, to take on the turban and robes again to live out his life respected, if perhaps a bit pitied, or of seizing responsibility for embodying the freedom and love Shams sought to impart. To do so meant undergoing the kind of life change common in young people in transition from adolescence to adulthood, but more rare in a man in his forties.\n\nSultan Valad wrote of the transformation of his father in Damascus in the technical terms of medieval theology\u2014his father went from being a \"pious man\" to a \"mystic.\" A \"pious man,\" explained Sultan Valad, obediently follows the religious laws, believing \"If I do good deeds, I won't be drawn to evil.\" Yet the mystic, he wrote, \"Out of love, says 'What will come to pass?' In a state of amazement, he waits to see what God will do.\" Sultan Valad probably learned of this distinction from his father, who composed another elegy for Shams at that time revealing a similar understanding of his change:\n\n_Each dawn, like an autumn cloud, I rain tears at your door_\n\n_Then wipe the tears from your house with my sleeve_\n\n_Whether I travel to the east or the west, or up into the sky_\n\n_I won't see any sign of life, until I see you again_.\n\n_I was a pious man of the land. I held a pulpit_.\n\n_Then fate made my heart fall in love and dance after you_.\n\nRumi's final days in Damascus were quieter and more formal. The madness of Konya for him had subsided. Aflaki later reported of time spent by Rumi studying in the company of a local leader of the Damascene Sufi community whom he \"loved dearly.\" He had clearly avoided Konya, the scene of so much pain and breakdown, and was now ready to return. In another set of Sufi terms, he had graduated from \"lover\" to \"beloved,\" finding the source of the power and wisdom he admired and missed in Shams within himself. The integration he experienced in his poetry occurred in his life as well. In Sultan Valad's version, Rumi discovered Shams, \"in himself, radiant as the moon.\" As he directly repeated his father's words, either from verses Rumi recited, or from a near rendition:\n\n_He said, \"Since I am he, who am I seeking?_\n\n_I am the same as he. His essence speaks!_\n\n_While I was praising his goodness and beauty_\n\n_I myself was that beauty and that goodness_.\n\n_Surely I was looking for myself.\"_\n\nAt about the age of forty-three, Rumi returned to Konya, rarely to leave again. Much had transpired in the capital since he had looked on as a young man while his father was given a royal welcome when his family first arrived two decades earlier. His own reentry was now quite different, as those gilded and hopeful days were long faded. The great protector of both his father and the Seljuk Empire, Kayqobad I, had been dead for over a dozen years. Likewise Kayqobad I's profligate and inept son, Kaykhosrow II, had died four years earlier\u2014after having temporarily placated the Mongols with a weak financial deal. He left behind an uneasy triumvirate of three young princes, all younger than twelve\u2014Ezzoddin, Roknoddin, and Alaoddin, the son of the sultan's favorite wife, Gorji Khatun.\n\nThese royal personages and their machinations were more than distant chess pieces to Rumi. He returned to Konya a far more outspoken figure than he left\u2014less \"pious,\" to use the word of both his son and himself. These key personalities of the Seljuk court would turn out to be far more forgiving and protective than some of the more upright members of the religious establishment in town, and his relations with them were often quite close. Either mother or stepmother to all three sultans, Gorji Khatun became the center of a circle of noblewomen devoted to Rumi, and was mentioned warmly in a poem of praise written by Sultan Valad. At least nine letters exist from Rumi to the Sultan Ezzoddin, in which he referred to Ezzoddin as his \"son\" and himself as his \"father.\" Mutual fondness also tied him to Karatay\u2014a freed Greek slave, now regent, the true power behind all three thrones between 1249 and 1254\u2014whose \"angelic qualities\" Rumi once extolled.\n\nKaratay especially was helping preserve Konya from the sort of destruction and stripping of all beauty and subtlety that Rumi had just witnessed in Damascus. Indeed the capital was experiencing a mellifluous and florid spike in its art and architecture that lent a warm context to Rumi's wish for a spiritual life of music and poetry. The symbol of this late phase of the Seljuk Empire in Konya was the _madrase_ built by Karatay as his own legacy, a theological school across from the Citadel, midway to the Madrase Khodavandgar, which was finished in 1251, just as Rumi was returning from Damascus. Its architecture was a clear departure from the sobriety of the Alaoddin Mosque toward a more refined Seljuk classical style\u2014covered in turquoise blue glazed tiles, encircled by bands of Kufic inscriptions, with carved interlocking triangles leading toward an open dome. The white, bluish, black, and turquoise tiles of the dome formed complex patterns of stars. At night, actual stars visible in the circle of the dome reflected in a pool below, the sort of effect never lost on Rumi, for whom reflections expressed his metaphoric way of seeing:\n\n_Just as water reflects the stars and the moon_ ,\n\n_The body reflects the mind and the soul_.\n\nIf Rumi's life had been disrupted by Shams, so had the family to which he returned, though in ways set up early on by their first responses to the stranger from Tabriz. Kerra went along rather easily with her husband's transformation following Damascus. She had always exhibited a bent toward a magical spirituality of dreams and visions as well as hovering _jinn_ and lurking water monsters. Many of the more incredible tales of Rumi after his death\u2014like being transported to Mecca during prayer and returning with dust on his feet\u2014were traced back to her. Of his two sons, both in their midtwenties, Sultan Valad had solidified his role as his father's dutiful favorite. His white sheep image, though, was sullied by some, like Kerra, who complained of his violent behavior, out of his father's view, toward other family members in the harem. The more tortured Alaoddin left Konya for a time after the disappearance of Shams, shamed by his father's blaming him for his role in the events\u2014the estrangement between the two never entirely healed during Alaoddin's lifetime. Rumi's third son, Mozaffaroddin, a young boy, was still in the harem, with his sister Maleke; within a decade both children would need to decide whether to lead mercantile lives or to become Sufis.\n\nWhen Rumi returned from Damascus, he moved between court and family and school as he always had, yet he was somehow changed. And that change became the next mystery for those around him to notice and try to understand. Unlike Shams, truly an outsider with no stake in any place or institution, Rumi had always been an entitled member of the religious and ruling class of Konya, and his comments and actions were topics of note, especially given the ongoing drama of his very public adoration of Shams. He knew when he returned to Konya that he was walking onto a stage again. He went about his business with that air of being solitary while being among people that Shams had counseled. Yet he was now not a frightening or aloof figure to most. He had evolved into a far more accessible and concerned religious leader, without pretense, good-humored, humble and simple in approach, living life in a new way in his old town.\n\nMany stories of Rumi following his return from Damascus report quiet acts of kindness around town. Typical was the friend who told of Rumi having asked him to purchase two trays of tasty delicacies at market. When he gave them to Rumi, he wrapped them in a cloth and departed. Curious, the friend trailed him and discovered Rumi inside a ruined building, feeding the treats to a dog that had given birth to puppies. When confronted, he explained, \"This unfortunate dog has not eaten anything for seven days and nights, and because of her puppies she is unable to go off.\" Such mercy from Rumi, described as having walked with his head down, spoke to all the people of Konya, his humility and kindness understood as virtuous by Christians, Jews, and Muslims alike.\n\nHe appeared everywhere, mixing with everyone, in all kinds of settings. Many of those around him wished to protect him by keeping him apart and dignified. But he repeatedly showed by his demeanor that he was a changed person. Once he attended a _sama_ session where a young man brushed against him during the dance, and Rumi's disciples said harsh words to the overly excited whirling Sufi about his decorum. Rumi quickly cut them off, refusing to be kept insulated or to hurt anyone's feelings in the name of piety:\n\nMy kindness is such that I don't want anyone's heart to be hurt because of me. When someone in a crowd in _sama_ brushes up against me, some of my friends try to prevent them, but I am not pleased by that. I have said a hundred times don't presume to speak for me. Only then am I content.\n\nHe was also bold and energetic in organizing his own _sama_ sessions in public, drawing a clear line to show where he stood on this issue of music, dance, and song in religious meditation and prayer. While exceedingly kind, he was also galvanized and immoveable in his resolve. As Sultan Valad remembered, stressing his remarkable reinvigoration: \"He went to Damascus like a partridge, and returned to Rum like a falcon. A drop of his soul became as expansive as the sea. The degree of his love became even greater. Because he became like this, don't ever say, 'He didn't find him.' Whatever he was seeking, he truly found. He again called together all the musicians, on the roof and in the yard. Not knowing his head from his feet, he shouted with all his strength, his voice boisterous. His love was filled with waves like a stormy sea. Everyone was astonished.\"\n\nIn trying to make sense of the meaning of his time with Shams, and its lessons for his life going forward, Rumi's thoughts often returned to a favorite Sufi guiding notion of the need for a living spiritual world axis, either known or anonymous, who was the center of love and understanding in his time, and on whom the welfare of all human beings depended. Rumi later explained this subtle, elusive concept in Book II of his _Masnavi_ :\n\n_In every age a saint appears_\n\n_As testing continues to the end of time_\n\n_When those with good souls will be liberated . . ._\n\n_He is the lamp that gives light to other saints_\n\n_Lesser saints are like lamp niches, reflecting his light_.\n\nRumi never directly said that he considered Shams as the saint of saints of his epoch. He did not attempt to place him technically within the complex hierarchy of Sufi spirituality, remaining as guarded, or ambiguous, on this as on many theological matters. Yet he implied in all his turns of phrase that he did believe Shams was such an exalted figure. He went about Konya looking for the reflection of such light in the people he met every day.\n\nWith the passing of the decades, especially the tumultuous decade of the 1240s, Sultan Valad came to present the life of his father schematically, following the basic contours, but tidying them into defined squares and boxes. As his son described his father's life, the crazed search by Rumi for Shams was resolved by 1250, when he returned to Konya having attained a station of empowerment. Yet Rumi actually remained fitfully pained by his aching memories of the loss of Shams throughout his life, while revealing or concealing that secret in different ways. Likewise his \"Collected Shams of Tabriz,\" or at least the thousand or so poems explicitly naming Shamsoddin, were implied to have all been written during their time together, especially during the searching in Syria. Logically, if Rumi understood the need for a living spiritual saint, he would not have kept summoning the spirit of Shams in poetry. He did, though, continue writing poems of love that pointed to just such composition, as in one wrenching late _ghazal_ :\n\n_I grew old mourning him, but say the word \"Tabriz\"_\n\n_And all of my youth comes back to me_\n\nRumi kept honoring the memory of Shams and marked his continuing presence, his enduring spirit. He often visited Shams's cell near the _madrase_ portico. Evoking his own nicknaming of Shams, Rumi, according to Aflaki, \"one day lowered his head before the door of Mowlana Shamsoddin's room and, with red ink, inscribed in his own blessed handwriting, 'The place of the beloved of Khezr.'\" The cell was kept untouched as a timeless shrine to Shams. Years later, when Rumi heard someone doing repairs, and hammering a nail into the wall of the cell, he cried out, \"They feel no fear in hammering a nail in this place? Don't let them do it again. I imagine that they are driving that nail into my heart!\" No one could spend time in the Madrase Khodavandgar without sensing the resonance of Shams's lasting impact upon Rumi. Folded into his aura of solitude, and his faraway look, was the absence of the one man who would have understood him.\n\nEven Rumi's way of dressing was a constant reminder for him of Shams. As a sign of respect, when he accepted Shams's death, Rumi put aside the white turban that had been his headgear until that time, the standard designation of the scholar and mature religious leader, and wrapped a smoke-colored turban about his head instead. He also dispensed with his wide-sleeve jurist's robe, like the _atabi_ robes worn by academics in Baghdad, made of shimmering silk. He fashioned an inexpensive _faraji_ cloak woven from thick linen cloth, made in India or Yemen, and dyed dark blue. Such was the garb associated with traveling Sufis, their dark hues masking the clotted dirt of the road, while Rumi associated them as well with the rich violet hues of the early morning skies:\n\n_Morning rises, and draws his polished blade_ ,\n\n_In the heavens, a light as white as camphor bursts forth_\n\n_The Sufi of the skies slices his blue robe and shawl_\n\n_Downwards, deliberately, until he touches his navel_.\n\nDark blues and violets were also the colors of sorrow and distress in medieval Persian society, and family members wore blue clothing as often as black during their formal forty days of grief. As Aflaki reported, \"This was his clothing until the end of his life.\"\nPART III\nCHAPTER 10\n\n_\"Last year in a red cloak . . . this year in blue\"_\n\nONE day Rumi, in an energetic state, was walking down a street in the goldsmiths' quarter within the commercial market district of Konya. When he happened to pass by the familiar, small shop of Salah, the sound of the steady hammering of the goldsmith struck his ear in a musical way. He responded to the percussive rhythms and, according to the story told by Sepahsalar, began to whirl spontaneously in the street: \"When Salahoddin saw his _sama_ and his movement to the rhythm of his beat, he did not stop his hammering, not caring about the damage to the gold. After a while Salahoddin stepped out of his shop to converse quietly with Mowlana.\" As Sepahsalar recounted their portentous reunion: \"Salahoddin polished his inner mirror by speaking with Mowlana.\"\n\nThe two had known each other for twenty years, most memorably during the early days when Rumi and Shams first met and Salah opened his home to the two men, giving them a safe haven, while many of Rumi's family and school, outside those walls, were growing irate and agitated. For his trust and sharing in a special time kept secret from most others, Rumi cherished Salah. On the afternoon he began whirling in front of his shop, he and Salah shared a magical moment of recognition rekindling the memory of Rumi's first glimpse of Shams outside the inn at least six years earlier. Following this encounter, Salah became the second of the three beloveds central in Rumi's life.\n\nSalah was also a living link to Rumi's original tutor, Borhan, and so to the spiritual legacy of the lost world of Khorasan and Rumi's father. Both Salah and Rumi had been helped by Borhan, who recognized promise in Salah because of his close following of Borhan's austere regimen in fasting and meditation. Salah's daughter Fateme recalled an occasion in their home when Borhan pointed out the different temperaments of Rumi and her father. If the traditional teacher of the time passed on his very style and behavior to his students, Borhan spoke of splitting that legacy: \"I passed on my eloquent speech to Jalaloddin, since he already had abundant spiritual power. I bestowed my beautiful spiritual state on Salahoddin, as he has no capacity for any form of eloquence.\" No trait of Salah's was more commented upon than his inarticulate manner of public speaking.\n\nRumi was a member of the Persian cultural elite, by dint of not only his family but especially his immersion in the rarefied university atmospheres of Baghdad, Damascus, and Aleppo. Salah, if he read at all, had never even attended a _maktab_ , the elementary school emphasizing reading, writing, and Quranic recitation so important in Rumi's life as a boy in Central Asia. Salah's Persian and Arabic were broken. When he had returned to the fishing village of Kamele, following Borhan's departure for Kayseri, Salah fit easily into the simple rustic life of his father, Faridun, and mother, Latife. He married and had several children of his own. Returning to Konya, according to Aflaki, he and Rumi then followed the separate paths laid out by Borhan: \"As Mowlana was engaged in the study of the religious sciences, disputation, teaching and giving sermons, Salahoddin was striving in his goldsmith shop to earn a living while gaining power in his spiritual state.\"\n\nCloser in age to Shams than Rumi, Salah cut a fabulist figure of a wizened mystic in his shop. He was especially given to seeing colored lights and visions from a world made visible only with the inner eye, perhaps enhanced by the extremes of his fasting. \"I see so many wondrous lights,\" he told Rumi. At other times, he would say, \"I have seen an ocean of white light,\" or \"I see an ocean of dark blue light,\" or \"I see a green light and I see a yellow light. I see a smoke-colored light and behold, the ocean of black light has become agitated with waves.\" When Sultan Valad asked his father if their renewed companionship was based on these hallucinatory visions, Rumi replied, \"No, rather I love him because of his character and our special affinity.\" In most of the poems that he began writing evoking Salah, Rumi stressed his otherworldly demeanor and his faraway gaze:\n\n_That lion-hunting deer, clearly from his eyes_ ,\n\n_Roams another desert, beyond heaven and earth_\n\nRumi was not shy about casting Salah as a substitute for Shams. The logic of the medieval Sufi notions of love and sainthood led to his understanding that the love in human hearts was universal and, therefore, similar. The life of the spirit required two hearts beating as one to work its alchemy. Rumi wrote transparently of his substitution of Salah for Shams, following their afternoon of dance and conversation outside his shop:\n\n_Last year in a red cloak, he rose, like the moon_ ,\n\n_Only to return this year, in blue_\n\n_The Turk you saw last year in Turkestan_\n\n_Returned this year as an Arab_\n\n_The same beloved, but in different clothes_\n\n_He changed his clothes, and then he reappeared_\n\n_The wine is the same, but in a different glass_.\n\nSignifying the growing claim of Salah on his heart, Rumi began dropping his name into poems. He introduced him tentatively at first in lines referring to a \"goldsmith,\" or a \"crucible,\" much as he first camouflaged Shams's name in the Arabic word for \"sun.\" He finally mentioned Salah directly in a poem that still carried the name of Shams as its _takhallos_ , soon enough advancing to advertising his name as a new _takhallos_ in many of the over seventy love poems inspired by him over the next decade:\n\n_The grace of Salahoddin shone in the midst of my heart_\n\n_He is the candle at the heart of the world_\n\n_I am nothing but the basin where his wax drips_\n\nSome of these poems came to express an intimacy and beauty equal with those to Shams:\n\n_At the end of time, no one will help you_\n\n_Only Salahoddin, only Salahoddin_ ,\n\n_If you've learned the secret of his secret_\n\n_Don't breathe a word. Let no one know_.\n\n_A lover's chest is a fresh, flowing stream_\n\n_Souls float on its waters, like sticks and straw_\n\n_When you see his face, don't breathe a word_\n\n_Breathing will only fog the mirror_.\n\n_A sun rises from within the lover's heart_\n\n_Filling the entire world with light_.\n\nBecause these were quite different men, if Salah replaced Shams as Rumi's spiritual axis, then the resultant poems to Salah registered a change of mood from the Shams years. Gone was the fiery sun, threatening to singe or burn if too closely approached. Salah was a mirror in which Rumi saw a reflection of his own face, or a candle softly lighting a room, a deer, a gold mine, a lily, or a rose. The tenor of these poems was tender and warm. Salah was not Rumi's intellectual equal, and did not provide him with sharp challenges and debates, yet neither did he lay traps of disturbance, constantly raising the punishing, if salutary, threat of separation. In his simplicity, his ability to mirror rather than enflame, Salah had a soothing effect, allowing Rumi to regain some semblance of balance and sanguinity. Aflaki writes of them engaging lightly in \" _eshq-bazi_ ,\" a sort of \"amorous playfulness.\"\n\nCompared with Shams, a respectful formality also persisted between them. Everything was not always _eshq-bazi_. Rumi later shared a memory of Salah with students, making a point about etiquette while revealing their almost comic propriety:\n\nIt happened to me that once in the bathhouse, I was acting with excessive politeness toward Sheikh Salahoddin, and he was being excessively polite toward me. As I complained of his politeness, the thought occurred to me that I was overdoing my own humility and that it would be better to reveal my humble nature gradually. First you rub someone's hands and then his feet until little by little he becomes so accustomed to it that he no longer notices. You should not make him feel awkward, but rather match courtesy with courtesy. Whether showing friendship, or anger, you need to proceed by gradual steps.\n\nUnlike Rumi and Shams, the pair never vanished for long periods into a timeless cocoon. Rumi was often in seclusion, but usually in solitary prayer and reverie. From the time of Shams's final disappearance, he kept about him a nimbus of distinct separateness, a mysterious otherness, and a touching aloneness, which was never completely dispelled.\n\nThe shock for Konya and the Madrase Khodavandgar in this newfound focus on Salah was Rumi's decision to raise the humble goldsmith to the exalted rank of his successor. Sultan Valad labeled him the _nayeb_ , or deputy and successor of Rumi\u2014in the law schools of the time, a precise rank and position. As professors would hold more than one academic position\u2014Rumi held four different posts when Shams appeared on the scene\u2014their _nayeb_ would teach some of their classes, and deliver sermons in their stead, for a small fee, paid from the professor's salary, with the promise of future promotion to a full position. Salah did begin such preaching, as Aflaki reports that Rumi had given up delivering sermons ever again, except for one final occasion, when Salah coaxed him to elaborate on his own instruction. This appointment of a nearly illiterate local merchant to a position intended for the nuanced articulation of refined theological points was a forced variation on the usual expectations, if not an outright mockery of the entire system.\n\nRumi's bonding with Salah was a response to his need for a kindred soul. As Sultan Valad recalled him saying, echoing his own _ghazal_ : \"He said, 'That Shamsoddin I was talking about has returned again! Why am I sleeping? He just changed his clothes and returned.'\" But he was also being artful and strategic. Rumi no longer wanted to be in a position of daily authority. He preferred to be left alone. Salah was the figure he put in place as a buffer between him and his ever-needy group of students. As Sultan Valad recorded the blunt\u2014even harsh\u2014words of his father, passing on his official leadership role: \"Dedicate yourselves to Salahoddin. I am not in the mood for being a sheikh, for no bird can match flight with my wings. I am happy with myself. I need no one. Having others around me, like flies, bothers me. From now on just follow Salahoddin\u2014seek him with all your heart and your soul, and like him, walk along the straight and narrow path.\"\n\nEither intentionally or by chance, by appointing Salah, Rumi was beginning to tamper with the fundamental nature of the former _madrase_ , and to attract a new and potentially much larger and inclusive group of followers. Salah was able to appeal directly to the local working-class Greeks and Turks, rather than only to the more select religious class of Persian and Arabic \u00e9migr\u00e9s. His mispronunciation of words, which so horrified many of the educated class, would have been reassuringly familiar to his fellow laborers. Salah even had trouble with the word \" _al-hamd_ ,\" or \"praise,\" in the \"al-Fatiha,\" the opening sura of the Quran recited at the beginning of all five daily prayers, as well as a number of other Arabic and Persian words. To cover for him, as well as make a point, Rumi began mispronouncing these words in the same manner as Salah. \"Words have been changed by people in every age since the beginning of creation,\" he argued. His raising up of Salah solidified his reputation as a lover of all people, opening spirituality to everyone, not only to those who had special religious training and education.\n\nIf Salah was Shams reborn for Rumi, he reinvigorated some of the old conflicts around Shams for those traditional members of the _madrase_ , especially the remnant of the disciples of Rumi's father. They began their lamenting again, even wishing for the return of Shams as the lesser of two evils, the devil they knew: \"Again envy spread among the distrustful. Again, the hypocrites gathered together. Again, jealousy was boiling up, because they were drowning in their delusions. They said to each other, 'We were freed of the other one, but now we fear that we are entrapped again. This one is worse than the first one. . . . At least he was articulate in his speech, and well-spoken, with knowledge, intellect, language and writing. . . . This one does not know writing, or science, or rhetoric. He does not have any worth or value for us. He is an ordinary person, and foolish. He does not know good from evil. He was constantly day and night in his shop hammering, so much so the neighbors closed their doors and windows from the noise.\" Much of their resistance was based on issues of class. Salah had actually received deep spiritual training from Borhan and was perceived by Rumi as a true successor to Shams, yet they were blinded to these virtues because he was less articulate and had not read widely.\n\nRumi had no patience with criticism of Salah, especially given the history of complaints against Shams. He had learned a lesson in conviction and was now indifferent to pressure from others, whether princes or students, family or strangers. For all his starry distractedness, he had an inner rudder by which he was now navigating, its course known to him alone. Ebn Chavosh, a friend of the goldsmith, went behind his back to inform Rumi of grumblings around town claiming Salah amounted to \"nothing,\" and that his counsel was corrupted by mixed motives. Rumi was swift in his dismissal of both messenger and message, in a disquisition on the wise compassion of Salah, delivered mostly in Arabic:\n\nAs a matter of principle Ebn Chavosh should guard against backbiting with regard to Sheikh Salahoddin\u2014both for his own good and so that this dark covering might be lifted from him. Why does Ebn Chavosh think that so many people have abandoned their homes, fathers and mothers, families, relatives, and tribes, and worn out the iron in their boots traveling from \"India to the River Sind\" in hopes of meeting a man who has the aroma of the other world? How many people have died from regret because they were unsuccessful in meeting his equal? In your own house you have encountered such a man in the flesh and yet you turned your back on him. This is both unfortunate and unwise.\n\nRumi trusted his heartfelt instincts. He also understood himself to be living in a spiritual world of mirrors, as much Sufi thought conceived of the sort of affinity he was experiencing with Salah through the imagery of light and reflection, candles and mirrors. The heart of the beloved was a mirror in which the lover saw himself, and saw his reflection dignified by a shared light. True enlightenment only took place in a relationship:\n\n_Without a mirror, you can't see your face_\n\n_Look at your beloved. He is your mirror_.\n\nThis bouncing light created \"flashes\" (as Ahmad al-Ghazali described) of divinity in humans, in a physics of love, and in the natural world, mirroring divinity, when properly seen. Engaged in this optics rather than logic, the saint merely reflected. As Rumi wrote:\n\n_I'm a mirror, I'm a mirror, I'm not a debater\u2014_\n\n_You only see me if you turn your ears into eyes_.\n\nThe ultimate beloved reflected in this purified heart was understood to be God: \"Take a polished heart to God so that He may see Himself.\" For Rumi, he and Salah were two such mirrors, gazing into each other, their affinity inexplicable in words or thought. The polishing took place together and involved maturing through union and separation. Rumi's passion around Salah was driven in part by his embrace of these concepts, and this vision of a world of ricocheting light and love compelled him for the rest of his life.\n\nRumi's deputizing of Salah not only reverberated in his community but also in his family. The decision had the greatest impact on Sultan Valad, especially in the absence of Alaoddin. Sultan Valad wrote in detail of this phase of his father's life, the memories vivid because he was by then a grown man in his midtwenties and a close observer of the dynamics described\u2014rather than the teenager who tried to make sense of the disruptions caused by the even more inexplicable Shams of Tabriz. He was also alertly engaged, since he had been viewed universally as the inevitable successor to Rumi.\n\nOne day Rumi summoned his son and said, \"Look at the face of Salahoddin. That king of truth carries such insight!\" Sultan Valad agreed, though a bit unenthusiastically, pointing out to his father, \"Yes, but only in your eyes. Not in the eyes of ordinary people.\" Rumi pushed his argument that Salah was the embodiment of Shams, insofar as he carried for him the essence of love: \"This is Shamsoddin the King, just without a horse and saddle.\" While Sultan Valad hinted delicately at his disappointment, his entire life had been predicated on obeying and pleasing his father, and so he capitulated to his wishes. \"I see him the way you do,\" he reassured Rumi. And his father gave his clear command, \"From now on follow Salahoddin. Follow that true kin.\" \"Whatever he commands me, I will do,\" Sultan Valad vowed. \"I am at his service with all my soul.\"\n\nSalah felt the need to assert his position more strongly with Sultan Valad. Either coached by Rumi, or on his own volition, he pressed for an oath of loyalty, saying to Rumi's son, \"If you become my disciple, commit to me with all your heart and soul.\" Sultan Valad responded, hedging slightly to allow a higher status to the previous favorite, Shams: \"Oh king, no one can match you in _this_ age.\" Another sign of loyalty Salah shrewdly demanded was that Sultan Valad stop delivering sermons, which reminded Rumi's followers of his articulateness and fueled resentments: \"My friend, stop preaching. From now on, only speak of my goodness. . . . I want to be sure that you are all mine.\" Sultan Valad swore, in the highly florid medieval Persian manner: \"Day and night, I will turn my face towards you. You are the king and I am the servant. Whatever you want me to say, I will say. Wherever you wish to send me, I will follow your orders.\"\n\nSalah spoke with Sultan Valad about the agitation he knew was growing in the community, familiar to them from the time of Shams. He explained his promotion in rank using the metaphor of the mirror, which dominated Rumi's understanding of their relationship: \"They are upset because Mowlana made me special, above everyone else. But they know not that I am but a mirror. The mirror does not reflect itself. In me, he sees his own face. So how could he do otherwise but choose me?\" Salah was more adept than Shams at dealing with the rough-and-tumble of violent threats. Sultan Valad never wrote of any murder plots against Shams, but he did discuss a conspiracy directed at Salah, who was brusque in his response: \"When this news reached the king Salahoddin . . . he laughed loudly, and said, 'Those blind men, they are lost unbelievers. They are not aware of the power of the truth that nothing moves without God's command, not even a straw.'\"\n\nRumi not only commanded his son to submit to Salah, but he also soon arranged for him to marry Fateme, Salah's eldest daughter. In his time living at the home of Salah with Shams, during their first intense seclusion of three months, Rumi had grown close with Salah's family, including his wife, Latife; his mother, also named Latife, who lived in the house after her husband's death; Fateme, about ten years old at the time; and her younger sister, Hediye. Latife and her daughters were allowed before Rumi \"with their faces fully unveiled,\" as he was considered _mahram_ , or part of the family. He once exclaimed, of his bonds with them, \"Fateme is my right eye, and her sister Hediye is my left eye.\"\n\nOf all the women in the family, Fateme was definitely Rumi's favorite. When she was still a little girl \"because of the extreme affection he felt for her,\" he began teaching her writing and reading the Quran\u2014quite unusual for a girl of the period. So the choice of Fateme as a bride for Sultan Valad, now that she had come of age, was natural for Rumi. He was also accomplishing a spiritual version of a state wedding, merging their two families, with great hopes for a resulting baby, combining the strains of Rumi and Salahoddin. For Sultan Valad, the marriage was less ideal, and some hard days would lie ahead for the newlyweds because of his attitude. Never as visionary as his father, a marriage to the daughter of a goldsmith remained a social demotion for Sultan Valad.\n\nBalancing any misgivings of his son, Rumi expressed nothing but ecstatic joy and happiness. He wrote at least two poems, either on the occasion of the wedding contract or the wedding celebration, or both, replete with mentions of \"the Sheikh,\" the father of the bride, and raining down upon them blessings from all the religious holidays at one time:\n\n_May the blessings that flow in all weddings_\n\n_Increase with even more blessings, for this wedding_ ,\n\n_The blessings of the Night of Power, and fasting, and the feast_\n\n_The blessings of the meeting of Adam and Eve_\n\n_The blessings of the meeting of Joseph and Jacob_\n\n_The blessings of the vision of the heavens above_\n\n_The blessings that cannot be put into words_\n\n_For the daughter of the Sheikh and my eldest son_.\n\nIn another of these nuptial poems, Rumi gives a glimpse of the celebrating that took place, full of the percussive drumming now central to daily life in his community:\n\n_Dance you saints! Whirl you righteous ones!_\n\n_In the kingdom of the king of the world, lift our spirits!_\n\n_With drums hanging from your necks, in the rosy nuptial bower_\n\n_Tonight, full of tambourines and drums, the best of the best . . ._\n\n_At this moment Sufis are gathering together out of joy_\n\n_Glimpsing an invisible world, through my shouts of praise_\n\n_A throng of clapping guests, clapping like the waves of the sea_ ,\n\n_A throng of upright guests, like sharp arrows, bundled in a quiver_.\n\nBy the time of the wedding of Fateme and Sultan Valad, Rumi was adrift in a continuous outpouring of music and poetry. He performed the five daily prayers, as no one was more assiduous at adhering to the religious regimen than his self-designated Sheikh Salahoddin. (Once when he left his robe outdoors in winter, Salah was said to have put on the frozen garment and rushed to morning prayers rather than risk any infringement of the letter of the religious law.) Yet Rumi was mostly living in an atmosphere of musical instruments and altered states brought on by whirling, fasting, and meditation, while sleeping only a few hours a night. The result was the accumulating creation of the rest of his nearly 3,500 lyric _ghazals_ , written in fifty-five different meters, including obsolete classical meters. The creativity that had begun under the dramatic influence of Shams continued apace and expanded in its breadth throughout the 1250s.\n\nAn apparent source of this virtuosity was Rumi's natural talent and knack for music. His favorite instrument to play was the _rabab_ , which he customized for his purposes with a hexagonal box rather than the traditional square shape. His favorite musician, Abu Bakr Rababi, named for his mastery of the _rabab_ , was remembered clearly enough to make his way into the histories. \"His knowledge of music, which, in reality is the source of rhythm, provided Rumi with the necessary wherewithal and artistic skill to write poetry that has greater metrical variety than any other Persian poet,\" concluded the Iranian scholar Badi al-Zaman Foruzanfar of Rumi's technical skill, \"and that is why a number of meters can be found in Rumi's lyrics which are absent in the poetry of other Persian poets.\"\n\nHis method of composition was often collaborative. Not only Rumi's expertise explained his experimenting in different meters, but also the knowledge of the musicians around him, trying out different musical modes as Rumi took up the challenge to fit his words and messages to their rhythms and beats. If Shams had been the designated representative of _sama_ and its evils during their time together, Rumi was left standing alone as its defender. \"One day they asked my father, 'Why is the sound of the _rabab_ so strange?'\" recalled Sultan Valad. \"He replied, 'It's the creaking sound of the door of paradise that we hear.'\" When a local religious eminence heard the remark, he quipped, \"But we also hear the same sound. How is it that we don't become as passionate as Mowlana does?\" Rumi wittily responded, \"God forbid! In no way! What we hear is the sound of the door opening, while what he hears is the sound of that same door closing.\"\n\nAmid all this provoked and controlled ecstasy\u2014in a society where personal _gravitas_ was expected\u2014while cultivating the delicate cult of friendship between men of God, Rumi still managed to be alert to the competing practical needs of his circle, especially his family. His most pressing concern, following the wedding of Sultan Valad and Fateme, was their married life together, which turned difficult quickly and continued to present challenges when Fateme did not bear her husband any children during their first few years. Quite possibly the aggressive behavior that Rumi's wife reported witnessing from Sultan Valad toward family members in the harem was toward his wife, as Rumi was moved to write a supportive letter to Fateme, promising his advocacy:\n\nIf my dear son Bahaoddin is being mean to you, truly and with all my heart, I will withdraw my affections from him, and I won't respond to his greetings, and he won't be allowed to come to my funeral. Don't be sorrowful, and don't be unhappy, because God is by your side and He will help you. Whoever brings harm to you, if they swear a hundred thousand oaths that they are innocent, I will still find them guilty, because they are not kind to you and don't appreciate you. . . . Do not hide anything from this father, but tell me in detail about whatever happens to you so that with God's help I will be able to provide you the utmost possible assistance.\n\nHe likewise wrote a letter to his son, with whom he was more politic, almost gingerly in his approach, revealing his expertise at persuasion and tact. He made a case for his son to modify his behavior around his wife, while presenting an astute argument for respect toward women, an approach not always required of husbands at the time:\n\nBecause of the white hair of her father, and because of our family, I want you to treat her dearly, and every day and every night, treat her as if it were the first day, and every night as if it were the night of the bridal chamber. Don't think that you have caught her and you don't need to pursue her anymore, because that is the manner of superficial people. She is not the sort of woman who will ever lose her freshness. I swear to God that she has not complained, and is not sending any messages to me, either by hinting or by gesture. . . . I'm not going to tell anyone of this advice. This letter is a matter between us.\n\nRumi was similarly engaged in bringing about the marriage of the second daughter of Salah, Hediye, to the young calligrapher Nezamoddin, a scribe of the sultan and teacher of the young princes. The obstacle was the poverty of Salah, who had given up his livelihood as an artisan to take over full-time as the spiritual leader of Rumi's community, as well as being his closest companion and deflecting as much business and workaday concern from him as possible. Yet the father of a bride was responsible for providing a dowry, an expense out of reach for Salah. Though living within the tight constraints of poverty, which sometimes weighed on his own wife and family, Rumi expended much energy in letter writing to procure jobs and loans for his dependents. And so he approached a female tutor of the royal princesses, and a \"child\" of Rumi's, to take a request to the powerful and wealthy queen mother, Gorji Khatun.\n\nThe request met with a charmed response, as was often the case when the women followers of Rumi were involved. Gorji Khatun ordered her treasurer to conjure two or three clothespresses and prepare five outfits, as well as veils, hats, and jewels as accessories. According to Aflaki, \"They collected rugs and curtains and delightful carpets from Georgia, Shiraz and Aksaray, as well as a tray, a pan, a cauldron, copper and porcelain bowls, a mortar, candlesticks and a complete set of kitchen utensils.\" The value of the goods, transported to Rumi's school on mules, was high, and he divided the value of the trousseau between the two sisters to prevent any hurt feelings. Rumi next began writing helpful letters on behalf of Nezam, whom he praised as \"my dear child and an accomplished artist,\" as well as \"my eloquent, literary, competent, and honest son.\"\n\nAs expected, Rumi created a nuptial poem for the wedding of Hediye and Nezam. These occasional poems are not among his most inventive. They are formulaic and\u2014even if Rumi was not a patronized courtly poet\u2014tailored to the expectations of his audience and their degrees of understanding. But these standard poems stood in clear contrast to the tortured odes that had poured out of him publicly and privately over so many years not even a decade earlier. Rumi truly did seem to have found some balance of mystic solitariness with the patriarchal pleasures of seeing his family grow and flourish into the next generation. The palm dates, cups of red wine, and streams of milk and honey in these happy matrimonial poems of the 1250s exude felt life. As Rumi sang that day:\n\n_May this wedding still be smiling like the angels_\n\n_Today, tomorrow, and for all eternity . . ._\n\n_May this wedding be fortuitous, beautiful, and acclaimed_\n\n_Like the moon, and like the blue wheel of the sky_.\n\n_I grow silent, unable to find the words to say_\n\n_How radiantly my soul glows on this wedding day_.\nCHAPTER 11\n\n_The Fall of Baghdad_\n\nDURING the autumn of 1257, Hulagu, a grandson of Genghis Khan, began a march on Baghdad, sweeping with his Mongol forces across the Great Khorasan Road, the route traveled by Rumi's family four decades earlier. Since the death of Genghis Khan, in 1227, the Mongols had limited themselves to incremental conquests of the south of China, Russian territories, or parts of modern-day Iran, but nothing on the scale of their earlier leveling of an entire civilization in the Central Asian capitals of Samarkand, Bukhara, Balkh, and Merv. Hulagu had renewed global ambitions and was now focused on the ultimate prize of Baghdad, the financial, political, and cultural capital of the Muslim world, where much wealth had been conspicuously displayed for five centuries.\n\nFollowing the standard practice employed by his grandfather with Khwarazmshah, Hulagu sent Caliph al-Mustasim an ultimatum urgiung him to atone for a contrived list of grievances, including not providing the Mongols with military aid in various conflicts, as the caliph had sworn allegiance to Genghis Khan. The Abbasid Caliph, the thirty-seventh successor in a direct line from the Prophet Mohammad, as well as ruler of a metropolis legendary at least since the creation of its most famous fictional resident, Scheherazade, in _The Thousand and One Nights_ , was dismayed by these blunt demands. A hybrid of pope and emperor, al-Mustasim replied that the entire Muslim world, from as far as North Africa, would wage a holy war to defend the capital and its caliph.\n\nThe holy war never materialized. By January 1258 the forces of Hulagu had surrounded the city walls of Baghdad and occupied its suburbs, stretching beyond the confines of the old \"round city,\" which was quickly filling to capacity with refugees. The Mongols bombarded the city with innovative ammunition, including missiles fashioned from the trunks of local date palms and gunpowder treated with oxygen to create more powerful explosions, as well as rudimentary grenades, smoke bombs, and fire rockets.\n\nThe destruction of Baghdad was catastrophic and matched the brutal razing of Termez or Nishapur, decades before, by the unsurpassed creator of terror, Genghis Khan. Destroying dams and diverting the Tigris to create a barrier of water around the city, on February 5, 1258, Hulagu and his forces broke through the walls, burning its great libraries to the ground, massacring scholars and soldiers alike, and piling up their skulls. Hulagu then summoned the captured caliph to his camp outside the city, where the leader of the Islamic faith and his male children would be executed. According to different reports, they were wrapped in carpets or sacks, and either kicked to death by booted warriors or trampled by fierce horses. The Islamic caliphate that had existed for more than six centuries was destroyed within a week, along with its rarefied culture of meticulous Arabic scholarship and research, while the control of the central lands of the realm of Islam passed to an utterly foreign power.\n\nThis news could have taken a couple weeks to reach Konya. Eventually Rumi did speak to his circle of the nearly apocalyptic event for orthodox Muslims. As with other historical incidents, he was quite accurate in his basic account, down to the exact dating:\n\nWhen in the year six hundred and fifty-five Hulagu Khan arrived in the region of Baghdad . . . the Khan ordered the vizier of his kingdom and the pivot of his affairs: \"Write a letter on my behalf to the caliph telling him to be obedient and to submit and not to act insolently.\" . . . The caliph refused, acted with insolence, and uttered much abuse. That same day Baghdad was conquered and the caliph was taken away as a prisoner.\n\nIn his rendition of the imprisonment, Rumi tells of the caliph begging for food and being given instead bowls of jewels, pearls, and coins from his treasury as a lesson for his profligacy in spending monies on luxury rather than armies. Marco Polo chronicled a parallel tale of the caliph imprisoned in the treasury tower where he stored gold. Rumi then detailed his ignominious execution, \"in a sack . . . kicked to death.\"\n\nThe Arabic poets of the time were traumatized by the fall of Baghdad and the caliphate and mourned its passing in rhyme and meter. As one poet sorrowfully wrote of the incomprehensible event, \"Oh seekers of news about Baghdad, the tears will tell you.\" He saw no benefit remaining as \"the beloved has departed.\" For yet another poet, the unthinkable disaster signaled a \"loss for the kingdom, for true religion,\" which could turn a child's hair white. For some, the waters of the Tigris ran red from the bloodshed, for others, black from the ink of the books. Regarded as marking the apex of an Islamic golden age, Baghdad would remain much depopulated and mostly in ruins for centuries.\n\nRumi never joined in the wailing chorus. Rather than focusing on damage done to the religion of Islam or the insult to the caliphate, he mostly dwelled on the benefits of fasting, using the Mongols as examples, as they fasted for three days before the battle:\n\nNow if not eating and fasting had such an effect on the affairs of unbelievers and doubters of the faith so that they could attain their goal and become victorious, imagine what would be achieved and bestowed upon supporters of religion and upon all good and pious people if they were to do the same.\n\nAs Aflaki summed up Rumi's treatment of this crucial historical event of the Muslim era: \"Mowlana brought forth this story on behalf of the excellence of hunger and not eating.\"\n\nThe crisis was even less seismic in Rumi's poetry, dedicated to a spiritual world that had become even more powerfully attractive as the events on the ground in the Middle East and Anatolia grew more dire by the year. Rumi did pay his respects to the power of the caliphate in his _Masnavi_ but in lines likely written years after its demise:\n\n_The deputy of the Merciful God, the Caliph of the Creator_\n\n_Because of him, the city of Baghdad is like springtime_\n\nThese words of praise, though, were put in the mouth of the Bedouin wife, perhaps purposely dated as a character from times past. He never revealed any orthodox reverence for the figure of the caliph or for any of the symbolic trappings of religious power in Baghdad.\n\nMongol armies had been appearing intermittently at the gates of Konya, too, ever since their victory over the Seljuks in 1243. In one _ghazal_ , Rumi included a personal nightmare of the Mongols threatening Konya. He atypically dated the dream within the lines of the poem as having occurred on November 25, 1256, perhaps inspired by an actual threat by Baiju, the commander of the occupying Mongol forces in Anatolia:\n\n_The Tatar armies, with bows and arrows, swelled the sky_\n\n_Ordered to rip apart the pregnant sky, to give birth to a baby . . ._\n\n_On Saturday night, on the fifth of the month of Qa'de_\n\n_In the year of six hundred and fifty-four_\n\n_Turbulence shook the town. An earthquake seized the town_.\n\nWhile the poem was phantasmagoric, Konya never suffered the horrific fate of Baghdad. At its conclusion, Rumi was unharmed, calming his own spirit, \"Help yourself to sleep.\"\n\nRather than the dramatic reversal of fortune suffered by Baghdad, Konya endured an interregnum of decades of appeasement and subjugation, with some benefits as well as much anxiety and uncertainty. In his letters, Rumi gave glimpses of his own worries as a citizen of the Il Khanate\u2014the vassal empire that was now formidably ruled by Hulagu and his extended family, and stretched from Central Asia to Anatolia, or the entire arc of the world Rumi had traversed. He complained of the greed of the Mongols for demanding endless \"taxes and camels.\" In one letter to a Seljuk official, away from Konya on military business, he reported horrid disruptions of daily life by rough bands of Mongols:\n\nDuring your absence, troubles began to occur in this town. Every night they captured a house, and killed women and children, and stole their belongings. . . . Anyone concerned with education during that time had no choice but to close their schools and end their classes. When the mind is filled with frightening thoughts, when every day there is bad news, then there is no time for education. . . . I hope that the prince will protect them, as they are distracted and unemployed. Those used to drinking sweet water, and sitting with scholars, cannot live with such constant distress.\n\nIn the same letter, Rumi imaginatively expressed the nature of the power of the Mongols, always menacing, while still allowing the Seljuks a semblance of normal life:\n\nSince this group has gained power over us, fear has prevailed. If it has stopped for an hour, it is as if a viper, sated with its prey, was asleep for a while in the corner. But it is the same viper. It will awake again eventually. Konya today is clearly one of the great centers of knowledge in the world and, God willing, will be allowed to remain so for longer into the future.\n\nOne of the ironies of this twilight epoch was the greater freedom granted figures such as Rumi. Islamic culture was allowed to flourish under Mongol rule in Anatolia, and the indifference and tolerance of these rulers toward Sufis, and religious matters generally, overlapped with the fine velleities of Persian and Seljuk culture to create a zone where exploratory mysticism was given leeway\u2014though heatedly disputed\u2014rather than leading inexorably to the brutal executions endured by al-Hallaj and others under the rule of the caliphs in earlier Baghdad.\n\nThe shadow sultan of Konya and the Seljuk Empire during all the remaining years of Rumi's life\u2014and the main foil for his ambivalent relations with the power politics of the era\u2014was Moinoddin Solayman Parvane, the de facto ruler of the Seljuk state in Anatolia during most of the period of the Mongol Protectorate, as well as a somewhat mercurial disciple of Rumi. His father, born in northern Iran, had gained prominence as a trusted vizier of Khaykhosrow II, and negotiated the peace with the Mongols that spared weakened Konya after the Seljuk defeat in the battle of Kose Dag. The son then became a regional commander in Tokat until summoned, in 1256, by the Mongol chief Baiju, who awarded him the more princely and powerful titles of _emir hajib_ and _parvane_.\n\nThe title that stuck to him, and by which he was known in his time, and down through history, was simply \"Parvane\"\u2014a Persian word with the whimsical-sounding meaning of \"butterfly.\" He was officially lord chancellor and president of the _Divan_ , or council, and, so, the representative of the sultan in all internal affairs. \"Butterfly\" referred to his dual function as the chief of the twenty-four secretaries in a sort of department of state, concerned with foreign affairs, especially the constant rustle of communications with foreign powers. Written on finely textured white Chinese paper, these memos were generally in Persian, though the Mongols had begun to introduce Turkish into the chancelleries. In the pantomime of Seljuk power on display at state ceremonies, the Parvane wore an inkpot hung about his neck\u2014the emblem of his office.\n\nEarly on during his time in Konya, the Parvane made a point of meeting and cultivating Rumi. A son-in-law of the Parvane was a disciple of Rumi in attendance at many of his talks and was sometimes their go-between. On one introductory occasion, the Parvane sent him to invite Rumi to a gathering of religious scholars at his palace. \"How would it be if Mowlana also deigned to honor us with his light-filled presence?\" the Parvane asked. \"Indeed, that would be the honor of a lifetime.\" Rumi came along but created an edifying distraction by seating himself in the courtyard rather than on the high platform reserved for honored guests. The Parvane occasionally sent Rumi gifts, which were invariably refused, eluded, or redirected. When he suggested building a cupola over the simple grave of his father, Rumi replied that the azure arch of the sky would suffice.\n\nRumi was not at all hesitant about speaking truth to power. When the Parvane appeared one day to ask him to give counsel and advice, Rumi, raising his head after several moments of silence, replied, \"I hear that the commander Moinoddin has learned the Quran.\" He answered, \"Yes, I have.\" \"I also hear that you have listened to the important works written on the study and classification of the sayings of the Prophet Mohammad.\" He replied, \"Yes, I have.\" Rumi said, \"Since you have read the word of God and the Prophet, and you know how to discuss as is required, and yet you do not take counsel from these words and you are not acting in accordance with any Quranic verse or saying of the Prophet\u2014why ever do you wish to hear something from me and then follow that?\"\n\nRumi was known to reassure the Parvane when he worried aloud to him that he was devoting all his time to the brutal machinations of power and politics rather than to his spiritual life. He once sent a message apologizing for not attending one of Rumi's talks: \"Day and night my heart and soul have been at your service, but I have not been able to attend because of my preoccupation with Mongol affairs.\" To which Rumi responded:\n\nThese are also the works of God, since they have to do with the safety and security of the faithful. You have sacrificed your all, both materially and physically, to give tranquility to the hearts of a few Muslims so that they may occupy themselves with acts of devotion. This is good work, too.\n\nOn other occasions, when the Parvane arrived unannounced to solicit wise advice from the spiritual teacher, Rumi hid from him and his retinue. He guarded his privacy and was careful not to show any special favor to the rich and powerful. After keeping the Parvane waiting at length\u2014uncustomary treatment for him\u2014Rumi emerged to find that his guest had learned an important lesson. \"For my part, because Khodavandgar was late in coming, I imagined as follows,\" said Parvane. \"'This lateness is a lesson for you, Parvane! How bitter and what a hardship it is for people in need to have to be kept waiting to speak to you.' Your being late has caused this benefit for me.\" His newfound humility freed Rumi to indulge in a soaring example of excessive Persian etiquette:\n\nThis way of thinking is very good. But the truth is that if a supplicant comes to someone's door and has a request but his voice and his face are not attractive, he will be quickly sent away. However, if someone arriving with a request has a beautiful voice and is good-looking and pleasant, he would not so quickly be given a piece of bread, to keep him there longer. I came late because your supplications, your love, and your longing are so pleasing to all the men of God that I wished for the benefits to linger.\n\nThe Parvane was so happy with this elaborate compliment that he ordered six thousand sultani coins to be delivered to the _madrase_ , which Rumi then distributed among his companions.\n\nRumi was increasingly displaying otherworldly behavior during this decade\u2014praying until dawn on his rooftop or preaching to a pack of wild dogs. Yet he never abdicated his role as a civic diplomat. He turned out to be skilled at managing the expectations of Seljuk sultans and their emissaries, providing them a connection to a spiritual practice that was sincere but also constituted good public relations requisite with their position. Rumi could create metrically precise poetry while whirling, or deliver legal opinions from the midst of extreme fasts and meditation, due to his scholarly training. Likewise his years of learning the manners of court and academy were never lost. In that sense, he fit a description by the scholar of Sufism Omid Safi of \"premodern Muslim saints\" as \"men and women of power. Their power derived from their sanctity.\"\n\nMany were the reports of haughty behavior on Rumi's part toward the Parvane. In dozens of surviving letters to the statesman, though\u2014more than to any other correspondent\u2014he was quite formal and respectful, which suggests perhaps exaggeration in the reporting of his public rebuffs or a kind of elaborate role-play acceptable to both. In these letters, Rumi employed all the titles of office of the Parvane, including his title among the Mongols, while soliciting favors for children or disciples, such as jobs, tax exemptions, or pardons. Almost all contained the bartering promise of \"praying for your prosperity.\"\n\nSometime after the death of the sultan Kaykhosrow II, the Parvane had consolidated his authority within the palace by marrying the wife of the deceased sultan\u2014and mother of the young sultan Alaoddin\u2014Gorji Khatun, the \"Georgian lady,\" otherwise known as the \"Queen of Queens.\" While she was the most powerful woman in the Seljuk state, and had become a committed devotee of Rumi, no clear evidence exists that she ever officially gave up her Christian faith, as she never took on a traditional Muslim name. Arriving on the Citadel hill, as a young bride, the Georgian princess had been accompanied by senior Christian ecclesiastics. Later in life after Rumi's death, she acted as patron of a church in Cappadocia and was depicted in one of the sanctuary murals.\n\nThe fervent devotion of Gorji Khatun to Rumi as her personal saint and spiritual guide, though, was never in doubt. When she needed to travel to the royal palace in Kayseri, she commissioned a Greek portrait painter to draw Rumi to console her during her absence. Of the proposal, Rumi said to the painter, \"It's fine, if you are able.\" As Aflaki reported, \"He drew a very delicate face, but when he looked a second time, the expression was different from the first time.\" The painter wound up with twenty sketches, since his subject's likeness was proving resistant to capture. Unfazed, Gorji Khatun packed all twenty sheets of paper into her trunk and gazed at them whenever she needed to be comforted. Her relationship with Rumi was apparently more satisfying than with her husband, as the Parvane once had to approach Rumi as a marriage counselor when Gorji Khatun demanded a divorce. She said, \"I want you to divorce me.\" Rumi advised the husband to keep promising \"I will do it,\" but not follow through, until her mood passed.\n\nThe wife of a treasury official and later viceroy, Aminoddin Mikail, was likewise one of the women in Rumi's circle, and was dubbed by him \"Sheikh of the Ladies,\" as she hosted weekly Friday evening women's _sama_ sessions. These sessions, which Rumi often attended, were far more potentially scandalous and incendiary than his public gatherings in the _madrase_. When he was present, the husbands would stand guard outside. After evening prayers, bending all rules of religious propriety, Rumi visited the women \"all alone without any followers.\" As Aflaki reported:\n\nHe would sit down among them and they would form a circle and gather before him. They would scatter so many rose petals over him . . . Mowlana, in the midst of roses and rose water, would be immersed in sweat, and until midnight he engaged in uttering higher meanings and secrets, and giving advice. Finally, slave-girl singers and rare tambourine players, as well as female flutists would start to play. Mowlana would begin performing the _sama_ and all the women became so ecstatic that they could not tell their heads from their feet, or even whether they were still wearing any covering on their heads. They would cast all their jewels and gold into the shoes of this sultan in hopes that he might accept some small thing or pay them some regard. He did not glance at anything at all. Having performed the dawn prayers with them, he would then depart.\n\nAs Aflaki clarified, at that time and in their traditional society, \"No Friend of God or prophet . . . behaved in such a manner or style.\"\n\nThe spirit of tolerance and creativity allowing such expressions of spiritual ecstasy continued to influence, as well, the public building still taking place all over Konya, especially the _madrases_ funded by ministers in the extended circle about Rumi. Rising to power as vizier after the death of the sympathetic regent Karatay was a younger politician, Fakhroddin Saheb Ata, praised by Rumi in letters to him as \"my brother\" and \"lofty and pious.\" Perhaps competing with the Karatay _madrase_ , about a hundred yards away, the vizier had built his own Ince Minareli, graced with an innovative slender minaret. Completed during the same year as the fall of Baghdad, the Ince Minareli marked a final baroque phase in Seljuk architecture, its gateway decorated with sinuously twisted Quranic lines in cursive Kufic script, one of the first uses of this more fluid style in architectural inscription, similar to the tumbling and kinetic intricacies of Rumi's own fluid poetics.\n\nRumi also maintained relations with the three young sultans, though with differing intensities of feeling and commitment. He knew Alaoddin Kaykobad III particularly, as he was the son of his devotee, the queen mother Gorji Khatun, and had been the designated successor of Kaykhosrow II\u2014even though he was the youngest\u2014since she was his favorite wife. Yet Alaoddin, who was part Muslim and part Georgian Christian, was unlucky in his final destiny. When Mongke, the descendent of Ghengis Khan, summoned the leaders of the Seljuks to his capital in Mongolia, Alaoddin accepted, as the representative of the royal triumvirate but was mysteriously murdered en route.\n\nRumi was also close with Ezzoddin Kaykaus II, the oldest brother, who was ruling in Konya during much of the latter third of the decade of the 1250s, though he spent most of his time in the pleasant Mediterranean town of Antalya, where he invited Rumi to visit. Rumi declined, telling his circle that while Antalya was warm, \"the people there are mostly Greeks, who don't understand our language, although a few Greeks do.\" In one letter, Rumi compared their separation, when Ezzoddin was away from Konya, to that of the patriarch Jacob missing his son Joseph. As his brother Roknoddin Qelij Arslan IV was the favorite of the Parvane, Ezzoddin suffered many setbacks. Rumi's letters, whenever Ezzoddin found himself again in exile, were always supportive and consoling:\n\nYour kingdom is a shelter for the poor and weak, and a shrine for the innocent and for those who are victims. I am hoping that soon happy news arrives that will tell us of your blessed return, bringing us joy.\n\nEventually Ezzoddin fled into a final exile in Constantinople, where he wore the purple slippers of Byzantine royalty and practiced Christianity. Roknoddin was then propped up by the Mongols as sole sultan with the Parvane as his designated political intelligence.\n\nFar more troubling to Rumi than the effects of the conquest of Baghdad or internal Seljuk politics during the fall and winter of 1258 was the deteriorating health of Salah, who had grown older and frailer and was bedridden. The decade that Rumi spent with Salah had been nurturing and marked a peak period of his playing musical instruments and whirling in _sama_ sessions. With such different characters, they had often been alone, even when together. Attuned to his friend with the multicolored visions, while creating his own far more delineated and fabulous images of an invisible realm in poetry, Rumi felt freer to explore his contemplative inner world of silence with Salah reliably nearby. He honored this closeness during his friend's illness by visiting him daily for long periods and neglecting most of his other obligations. Writing to one of the princes, Rumi apologized profusely:\n\nI wanted to come and be at your service and visit your blessed face but I have not had the opportunity because of the weakness and illness of our great Sheikh Salahoddin, because I am busy only with him.\n\nHe went on to say that he was praying steadily by the bedside of Salah, but to little avail.\n\nThe only friction in an otherwise smooth friendship between these two companions\u2014in contrast to the tumult of his time with Shams\u2014had been caused by jealous tendencies in Salah. Rumi inspired an unusual pitch of rivalry around him, made more pronounced by his air of detachment. Knowing of Salah's acute sensitivity, Rumi advised his son Sultan Valad not to even mention Shams or the younger Hosam, who Rumi had put in charge during his time in Damascus, in the presence of Salah. \"Even though there is no difference between them, one should not mention them,\" he said. Sultan Valad reported that his father decided against inviting to Konya, his dear Sufi friend from his time in Damascus, to avoid exacerbating these tensions with Salah.\n\nMostly, though, Rumi and Salah harmoniously shared in the daily events of each other's lives. Salah was one of the few with Rumi regularly at intimate family moments or in mundane domestic situations. At the burial of Salah's mother, Latife, dear to both of them, Rumi stayed behind at the grave with him. \"Come let us go,\" Rumi encouraged, but Salah wished to linger to pray for her delivery into the hands of angels. When Rumi next saw Salah, he was smiling, his graveside mission complete. On another day Salah hired Turkish laborers to do some work in his garden. Echoing comments common in the polyglot culture, Rumi advised, \"For demolition, hire Turks, for building, Greeks.\" When Rumi needed a fireplace built, he hired a Greek. Such were the ordinary tales told of their calm and stable companionship.\n\nThe final illness of Salah was protracted over weeks and then months. Rumi visited constantly, but such attentiveness, Salah came to realize, was keeping him alive. He finally asked Rumi to release him from his affliction. As Sultan Valad recorded, \"He accepted his request and said, 'So be it.' He rose from his bedside, and left quickly, setting off down the road towards his own house, and he became engaged with consoling his own pain. He didn't visit him again for two or three days. . . . Salahoddin, our king, grew lucid, and said to himself, 'My soul is departing my body. Now I am certain that I am leaving the world of the living. I am heading towards the world of eternity. His not visiting me is the sign that I should leave. This is the sign for me to bid farewell.'\"\n\nIn one of their quiet conversations before his death, Salah laid out his wishes for an unconventional burial, a blueprint for a style of funeral that advertised the meaning of the kind of life to which he and Rumi were committed. As Sultan Valad remembered these deathbed wishes, \"The Sheikh said, 'Around my dead body, bring the drums and the tambourine. Process towards my grave, while dancing, happy and joyful, ecstatic and clapping, so that all may know the friends of God go towards eternity joyful and smiling. Mine is a death that will be made joyful by the _sama.\"_ He envisioned a tuneful procession of dancing accompanied by drums, tambourines, flutes, and snares.\n\nSalah died on December 29, 1258. Baring his head in grief, Rumi then carried out the wishes for Salah's funeral carefully and explicitly. He ordered that the wind instruments and kettledrum players be gathered, and all processed through the streets of Konya to the family burial site in the sultan's rose garden. Before the funeral bier, carried on the shoulders of disciples, walked eight troops of singers and reciters, while Rumi spun in _sama_ all along the way. Salah was buried to the left of the sepulcher of Rumi's father. At the emotional funerary banquet that evening, Rumi recited a sorrowful elegy, echoing in some of its lines and in its _radif_ , or repeated refrain, \"weep,\" his earlier ode to Shams:\n\n_Gabriel and the wings of all the angels turn blue_\n\n_For your sake, the saints and all the prophets weep_.\n\n_Stunned by my grief, I am too weak to even speak_\n\n_Unable to create any comparisons, I simply weep_.\n\nThe joyous and frenzied funeral of Salah was yet another shock to the orthodox Muslim population of Konya. Muslim funerals were traditionally marked by gravity and restraint, the only remotely musical expression being the somber chanting of the Quran by reciters trained to modulate their tones of grief with an austere solemnity. Called to account for this raucous spectacle\u2014anticipating in its music and song his own funeral\u2014Rumi was sharply questioned. \"Ever since time immemorial the bier of the dead has always been preceded by Quranic readers and muezzins,\" he was reprimanded. \"Now, in your time, what is the meaning of these singers?\" Rumi calmly answered their concerns:\n\nThe muezzins and Quranic readers and Quran memorizers in front of the bier testify that the dead person was a believer who died in the Muslim religion. Our singers testify that the deceased was a lover as well as a believer and a Muslim.\nCHAPTER 12\n\n_\"Sing, flute!\"_\n\nDURING the years following the death of Salah, Rumi, in his mid-fifties, did not immediately fill the leadership post left vacant. More accessible than in years past, he was taking an expanded role in running the _madrase_ , now operating closer in style to a Sufi lodge, though without much formal hierarchy, or reliable income or wealth. The bulk of his surviving talks, collected in the volume titled _Fihe ma fih\u2014_ as well as much official correspondence\u2014date to this middle period. In these talks, he often stressed that no progress was possible without guidance from a wiser soul. He had entered a phase of embracing his teaching again and often looked for metaphors for his vision of his work such as an astrolabe, an instrument used in the period to determine the positions of planets:\n\nA human being is an astrolabe of God, but you need an astronomer to know how to use the astrolabe. If a seller of leeks or a greengrocer possessed an astrolabe, what would be the use? How could he fathom the conditions of the celestial spheres, or the turning of the houses of the zodiac, or their influences? Only in the hands of an astronomer is the astrolabe beneficial, for whoever knows himself knows his Lord.\n\nRumi felt a kind of spiritual expertise, like the scientific knowledge of an astronomer, which he wished to share, while knowing such learning required the passion of a lover. He was confident now in who he was as a daring religious leader, and where he fit in.\n\nWhile committed again to his school, he was hardly confined to its walls. Probably no figure was more singular, and recognizable, on the streets, or walking in the gardens or cemeteries beyond the city gates of Konya, during the decade of the 1260s. Of medium height, with gray hair, a sallow complexion, and an intense stare, and dressed always in his tightly wound turban, rough linen cloak, and orange shoes or boots, he kept his head shaved, and beard trimmed, unlike the pious religious. Often remarked on was his thinness\u2014\"as thin as the rim of a cup\"\u2014a natural trait, as his steady diet was a bowl of yogurt with cloves of raw garlic and a crust of bread. His identifiable silhouette sometimes made him a target for derision. As a rival Sufi complained, snidely, \"Look at Mowlana! What a dark figure he is, and what a silly path he follows, with his smoky turban and his dark-blue _faraji_. Who has bestowed that cloak upon him?\"\n\nTeaching the circle of Khorasani emigrants remaining from the days of his father, and the widening number of working-class Turks, Kurds, or Greeks recently brought in by Salah, he was just as compelling in giving lessons while walking about. He did not pay much attention to markers of class, race, or religion. At every random turn he was met by new opportunities to confound expectations. One day a Jewish rabbi ran into him on the street and asked, \"Is our religion better or your religion?\" \"Your religion,\" Rumi surprisingly answered. In many of these accounts, the result of Rumi's responses was instant conversion to the Muslim faith, which may or may not have occurred, though certainly Sufis were attractive representatives of the faith, as the Seljuks had calculated.\n\nRumi had more than passing relations with the Christians, not just the indigenous Greek population, but also with the many Tuscans, Genoese, and Venetians who were resident in Konya. He often visited the nearby Monastery of Plato the Philosopher, and\u2014according to a learned old monk who would later tell Rumi's grandson stories of his grandfather\u2014would take retreats there, where monks from the Byzantine Empire, Europe, Armenia, and Trabzon on the Black Sea would be staying. When he once saw a young Christian, Theryanus, about to be executed for murder near the Gate of the Horse Bazaar, Rumi, as a friend of the local Greek community, intervened with the prefect of police to save his life by covering him symbolically with his cloak. The young man became a devoted convert and changed his given Greek name to Alaoddin Theryanus.\n\nA visiting Christian monk from Constantinople, having heard of Rumi's reputation for such gestures of kindness, encountered him on the streets of Konya and bowed three times. As he raised his head, he found that Rumi was bowing back but had continued well beyond three bows. \"Mowlana lowered his head thirty-three times before the monk,\" reported Aflaki, suggesting immoderation. When the monk asked why he was showing such extreme humility before him, Rumi answered, \"How could I not act with humility towards one of God's servants? If I were not to behave this way, why would I have any worth, and who could I truly help, and what work would I be fit for?\"\n\nFollowing the example of Shams, Rumi continued to frequent the Armenian tavern district, considered definitely off-limits for Muslims. After one _sama_ session at the residence of a nobleman, Rumi was wearing luxurious gifts he had been given of a red cloak with a lynx fur collar and golden knot buttons as well as an Egyptian woolen turban. Walking past a rowdy wine tavern, he heard the irresistible tune of a _rabab_ being played inside and, filled with joy, wound up whirling in the street and giving away his cloak and hat. Regarded as scandalous was his ongoing friendship with a beautiful dancing girl, from a nearby caravanserai, who freed the slave girls working for her after meeting him. When one cleric complained, \"It is not proper for so great a person to spend time with a prostitute of the tavern,\" Rumi responded, \"At least she is honest about who she is.\"\n\nIf Rumi was misunderstood, or felt to be a threat, by a number of the religious leaders of Konya, both orthodox and Sufi, he found an entirely receptive audience in children. Even when his own children were older, he often used games and stories to teach them lessons. One day, noticing that Sultan Valad, now a grown man, was sad and depressed, Rumi put on a wolf skin, covering his head and face, and crawled up to him and said, \"Boo!\" When his son laughed, he said, \"If a beloved friend were always joking and cheerful and then said, 'Boo,' would that frighten you?\" His point was that life experiences might be scary or threatening, but never the loving essence. When his daughter Maleke complained of the stinginess of her husband, Rumi told her a story of a rich man so miserly he wouldn't open his door for fear the hinges would wear out. According to Aflaki, \"Maleke became happier. She laughed and was free from her cares.\"\n\nHe could teach his children difficult lessons, as well. Rumi's temper flared when he once came across Maleke beating her female slave. Pushing through the door, he shouted at her, \"Why did you hit her? And why are you harming her? If she was a lady and you were a slave girl what would you wish from her? Do you want me to issue a _fatwa_ that there should be no male or female slaves in the whole world, except those belonging to God? In reality, we are all brothers and sisters.\" Shocked by her father's reaction\u2014a _fatwa_ against slavery would have been remarkable in the Middle Ages\u2014Maleke freed the slave, dressing her in her own clothes, and, as long as she lived, behaved with the utmost kindness and consideration to both male and female slaves.\n\nOne day he left his neighborhood and came across some children playing. When they spotted Rumi they ran over, bowed to him, and he bowed back. A little boy shouted from the distance, \"Lord, wait for me to finish my work and I'll come, too.\" Rumi waited for him to finish his \"work\" and then embraced him. He often interceded to prevent cruelty to animals. While riding beside him, a Quranic reciter began beating the head of his donkey for braying. Rumi asked, \"Why are you beating that poor animal? He is either hungry or excited. But all beings share these responses. Why don't you hit everyone on the head?\" He could bring sweets to a litter of puppies but was also a clear-eyed observer. When a friend noted the \"happy union\" of dogs asleep in the sun, he corrected:\n\nIf you really want to see their friendship and unity, throw a piece of meat or some tripe into their midst. Then you will discover their true situation. This is the condition of people attached to the world and worshiping wealth. As long as there are no worldly goods or self-interest involved, they are friendly and loyal. But throw in a trifle of worldly goods and they forget their friendship and unity.\n\nRumi remained keen about the dangers of high position or any kind of wealth. He reserved his strongest and most stinging criticism for the rich and powerful, and could be as censorious about them as he was welcoming to the poor and marginal. When a wealthy townsman was brought to visit to pay his respects, Rumi bolted from his place and went into the toilet. After much time had passed, one of his students went looking and found him hunched down in a dark corner. Rumi heatedly explained to him:\n\nThe stench of this clogged-up toilet is a hundred times better to me than the company of the anxiety-laden rich. For the company of worldly people and the wealthy turns enlightened hearts dark and only causes confusion.\n\nHe put the matter a bit more elegantly when speaking in public to a circle of his students:\n\nThe danger in associating with kings is that anyone who converses with them, claims their friendship, or accepts wealth from them, must in the end tell them what they wish to hear, and hide their own opinions about their evil behavior to preserve themselves. They are unable to speak in opposition to them. Therein lies the danger, for their religion suffers. The further you go in the direction of kings, the more the other direction, which is essential to you, becomes strange to you. The further you go in that direction, this direction, which should be beloved by you, turns its face away from you. The more you accommodate yourself to worldly people, the more the true object of your love grows estranged from you.\n\nEqually challenging to Rumi was fame, creating another sort of status, which was based on a more subtle currency, intimately and increasingly familiar to him. Aflaki reported that one day Rumi turned to his companions and unexpectedly confided:\n\nAs my fame increased and people came to visit me and desired to be with me, from that day, I have had no peace or rest from this affliction. The Prophet was correct when he said that \"Fame is an affliction, and repose lies in obscurity.\"\n\nHe often lashed out at fame, claiming that each degree of removal from obscurity and anonymity increased the deep pain of separation from God. As he wrote in the _Masnavi_ :\n\n_Make yourself thin and wretched_\n\n_To be let out of the cage of fame_\n\n_Fame is a strong and powerful chain_\n\n_Heavier along this way than iron_.\n\nHe felt similarly about the sort of false praise or flattery bestowed on the rich or famous:\n\n_Words of praise taste delicious_ ,\n\n_But be careful, they are filled with fire_\n\nSo Rumi avoided any privilege of rank or status both for himself or anyone around him. He quickly exited a bathhouse minutes after entering when he discovered that an attendant had removed someone from the edge of the pool to make room for him. \"I began to sweat in shame and I quickly came outside,\" he said. He would always wait for his disciples to enter the house of noblemen first for fear they would be stopped at the door after he entered. When he saw Sultan Valad bumptiously riding on a horse while others walked, he ordered him to dismount, warning of the \"affliction of high position . . . You are looking at everyone from above, and so you see them as beneath you.\"\n\nTo keep his own appetite for food, money, or fame in check, Rumi exercised extreme austerities, rarely slept, and was continuously close to prayer. He distrusted comfort, and while embroidering a beautifully inviting theology of love, music, and poetry, relied for its practice on a forbiddingly hard regimen. Instead of candles, he would insist on linseed-oil lamps, which the poor used. When his wife complained of their extremes of penury, he replied, \"I am not keeping you from having the things of the world, I am keeping the world from having you.\" After a female servant in the women's quarters complained of being allotted such a small amount of money to spend for food, he reminded her that she still had her eyes, nose, and limbs, which were extremely valuable.\n\nIn a public bathhouse, Rumi was shocked to catch sight of a reflection of the result of his abstemiousness\u2014his weak and emaciated body. \"I have never in my whole life felt ashamed before anyone but today I am extremely embarrassed before my thin body,\" he said. \"How my body laments, 'You don't leave me be in peace for even a single day so that I might gain some strength back to bear your load!'\" His startled recognition, however, did little to change his behavior. In the middle of that difficult winter, while even young men were huddled in front of ovens and stoves in furs, Rumi was on the roof nightly, praying\u2014all done in the interest of achieving further visionary glimpses of the loss of self, of becoming freer:\n\n_One morning, a moon appeared in the dawn sky_\n\n_Descending even closer to get a look at me_\n\n_Like a hawk, seizing a little bird, while hunting_ ,\n\n_That moon seized me, and as we climbed the sky_\n\n_I looked within myself, only to find no self there_\n\n_Within that tender moon, my body had become a soul . . ._\n\n_The entire ship of my existence had vanished in the sea_.\n\nOn one of those evenings, around 1261 or 1262, Hosam chanced upon Rumi in his private quarters. Rumi's loyal follower was now in his midthirties, and had been serving, at his request, as the treasurer of the unofficial order so that Rumi never needed to touch money or pay much attention to its allotment. Hosam had recently been mulling over a suggestion and was looking for an opportune moment to approach. He had noticed that many of the younger students were eagerly reading aloud from Attar's _Conference of the Birds_ as well as Sanai's _Garden of Truth_ \u2014both _masnavis_ or long poems in rhymed couplets on spiritual themes. They preferred such poems to the drier prose manuals on Sufi theory. So he decided that Rumi should write his own extended poem, full of moral pith and wisdom. \"Collections of your _ghazals_ have become numerous,\" he proposed. \"Yet a new book in the manner of Sanai, written in the meter of Attar, as a memento for the souls of lovers, would be a kindness.\"\n\nIn response, Rumi supposedly plucked from the folds of his turban a page on which he had already written eighteen couplets, the beginning of a poem in rhyming lines of eleven syllables that followed just the meter requested\u2014the flowing _ramal mahzuf_ , stressed in drumming feet of four syllables each, with the last foot of each line losing a syllable. He handed the page to Hosam, who read the prologue of a poem-in-the-making that eventually grew so famous as to simply be referred to by its form\u2014as the _Masnavi\u2014_ eclipsing all other verses composed in the same rhyming pattern:\n\n_Listen to the reed flute and the tale that it tells_\n\n_How it sings of separation:_\n\n_Ever since I was cut from my bed of reeds_\n\n_Men and women have joined in my lament_\n\n_I keep seeking other hearts, torn by separation_ ,\n\n_To share my tale of painful longing_\n\n_Everyone cut at the same root_\n\n_Longing for the time when they were joined_.\n\nIn the guise of this mournful flute\u2014perhaps a flute cut from the reed beds of Khorasan\u2014Rumi found a voice that allowed him to sing of separation, which had been Shams's last and greatest lesson to him before his departure over a decade earlier, as well as of secrets, which could only be expressed in the allusive language of lyric poetry:\n\n_Out of curiosity, they drew close to me_ ,\n\n_But none discovered my secret_\n\n_My secret is woven into my lament_\n\n_Yet no eyes or ears can find its light_\n\n_Soul is woven into body, and body into soul_\n\n_Yet no eyes have the power to see the soul_\n\n_Fire, not wind, makes this flute sing_\n\n_If you don't have fire, don't play_.\n\nThe poetic flute of the eighteen-line prologue was a symbol at once mystical and familiar for its intended audience, as an instrument carrying tunes from Central Asia, but also akin to the Anatolian Phrygian flute, its plangent tones, like a human voice, commented on already in ancient writings. In one such local tale, King Midas of Gordion\u2014not far from Konya\u2014had been cursed by Apollo with a pair of donkey ears that he hid beneath his Phrygian cap. Unable to keep the secret, a courtier whispered the truth to a lake, where he thought it was safe. Yet a reed growing on the banks heard, and when a shepherd cut the reed to make his own flute, the flute began singing of the king's secret.\n\nThe result of the meeting of minds of Rumi and Hosam at this time was dramatic and significant. For Rumi to make any major shift in his life at this stage, he needed to align his roles as sheikh, preacher, father, teacher, mystic, and poet. In the confluence of Hosam with his emerging _Masnavi_ , he had discovered a diligent secretary, a respected deputy, and a beloved companion for his later years, as well as a medium of poetry that allowed him to be both ecstatic and didactic, both a mystic seer and a moral preacher.\n\nHosam was hardly a newcomer. His involvement in Rumi's life dated to the arrival of Shams, who took an interest in the young man, a teenager with the maturity of an older man because of having lost his father at an early age, while inheriting power and respect among Kurds and followers of the _akhavan_ youth movement. Much noted had been the handsome appearance of Hosam. As Aflaki recorded, \"When Hosamoddin reached the age of puberty, he was extremely beautiful and the Joseph of his day.\" (The reference was to the young Joseph, so irresistible to women, as described in the Quran.)\n\nBy the evening of his proposal of the _Masnavi_ , Hosam had begun making his transit into the much more intimate poetic cosmology of Rumi, and was soon to be affixed in his shining firmament as the third of Rumi's beloveds, both muse and companion. In this personal universe, Shams was the sun, and Salah either moon or mirror. Like Salah, Hosam was only gradually introduced in the poems\u2014sometimes in puns on the Arabic word for sword, \" _husam_.\" Sultan Valad wrote that his father came to think of Hosam as a star, or a constellation of stars. Yet in his poems, he usually identified him with sunlight\u2014not _shams_ , the source, but rather _ziya_ , which is a sunbeam or \"ray of sun.\" Rumi codified this private image in the prelude, introducing Book IV of the _Masnavi_ :\n\n_You are a ray of the sunlight of Truth, Hosamoddin_\n\n_With your light the_ Masnavi _glows brighter than the moon_\n\nThough Hosam was busy as a community leader, and devoted to his wife, he and Rumi set to work almost instantly on their project, which was taxing, time-consuming, and intensive. The poem was collaborative, as nothing was written unless Hosam was there to record it, and then to read it back and help revise it. For months and eventually years, he accompanied Rumi everywhere, writing down verses as Rumi spoke them, whether walking along the street or in a bathhouse, at home, or turning about a pole during _sama\u2014_ his informal version of the whirling dance that sometimes accompanied the meditation. Hosam recited the lines back, and Rumi would correct them, before they would be read to the disciples, as sermons or stories in serial form. Rumi preferred nighttime for poetic composition\u2014as for prayer\u2014and included apologies to Hosam for keeping late hours:\n\n_It's dawn. You who support and shelter the dawn_ ,\n\n_Please grant me pardon from Hosamoddin_\n\n_You who grant the release of intellect and soul_\n\n_You, the soul of souls, and the radiance of coral_ ,\n\n_From whom the light of dawn now begins to shine_.\n\nRumi would occasionally confuse his scribe, playing tricks on him, teaching him personal lessons beyond those expressed in his verses. As Hosam told of one incident: \"One day Mowlana came to our house. Choosing the winter room for seclusion, he went inside and did not eat anything at all. . . . He asked that the doors be closed and the windows covered. He ordered me to bring several packets of Baghdadi paper. He then began uttering divinely inspired knowledge, and I wrote down whatever he dictated in Arabic and Persian. I would read aloud whatever I had recorded, page by page, and set them aside when I was finished. He then ordered me to light the oven. He took hold of around one hundred sheets of paper, one page after the other, and threw them into the oven. . . . When the fire sent up flames and kindled the pages, he smiled, and said, 'They came from the invisible world and shall return to the invisible world.' . . . I wanted to hide a few pages, but he shouted, 'No! No! That's not correct!'\"\n\nThe poem survived such treatment, though, and thrived, and their work of the early 1260s was finally fashioned into a coherent first volume of about four thousand lines, with a beginning, middle, and end. Introducing the poem was a traditional enough Arabic prose preface, replete with Quranic references, identifying the poet, as Rumi used his first name; giving his family pedigree, \"Mohammad the son of Mohammad the son of Hosayn from Balkh;\" and crediting the inspiration for \"this long work of rhyming couplets\" to Hosam, the \"Sword,\" or \" _husam_ ,\" of truth and religion. Less traditional was Rumi's appearing to make the long poem analogous to the Quran, or at least, as he wrote, \"the unveiler of the Quran,\" as well as not including the usual invocation to the Prophet.\n\nAfter the plangent opening aria of the flute, bemoaning \"love's path, full of pain,\" a few lines into the first tale concerning the love of the slave girl for the goldsmith of Samarkand, Rumi halts to share an aside on the creation of the _Masnavi_. Among the key verses of the _Masnavi_ is this dramatized vignette in which Hosam understandably enough requests that Rumi speak to him more about his beloved Shams of Tabriz. Like the royal physician in the tale, Hosam is seeking love's pulse. Rumi, the \"I,\" in the segment, tells Hosam, the \"he,\" that the truth of love can only be expressed by metaphor:\n\n_\"It's better the secret of the loved one be disguised,\" I said_ ,\n\n_\"Even if you're telling the story, be sure to cover your ears_ ,\n\n_It's better that the lover's secret_\n\n_Be told through the tales of other lovers.\"_\n\n_He said, \"No, tell it openly, and unveiled_ ,\n\n_It's better to reveal than to hide your devotion_\n\n_Lift the veil and speak nakedly_.\n\n_I don't wear clothes when I sleep with my beloved.\"_\n\n_I said, \"If you were allowed to see the beloved naked_ ,\n\n_You would no longer exist, neither your chest, nor waist_.\n\n_Please don't request what you can't endure_\n\n_A blade of straw can't endure the weight of a mountain_ ,\n\n_If the sun, illuminating our world, came any nearer_\n\n_Then everything would be burned and go up in flame_\n\n_Don't seek to make such trouble, or turmoil, or strife_ ,\n\n_From now on, never ask again about the Sun of Tabriz!\"_\n\nIn the twenty-five thousand verses of the _Masnavi_ that follow, the name of Shams is rarely again mentioned, though his presence shimmers throughout. Only when Rumi neared its final sections would he again press harder at revealing in code the true begetter of his poem.\n\nThe key term in these verses of rhymed conversation between Rumi and Hosam was \" _serr_ ,\" or secret, which for Rumi conveniently elided with \" _sher_ ,\" or poetry. (Which elided further with \" _shir_ ,\" sweetness, reminding him of the beautiful _Shirin_ of Persian love poetry, and so on.) He never bothered to title his poem, known already in his lifetime as the _Masnavi_ , or, sometimes, _Masnavi-ye manavi_ , or _Spiritual Couplets_. In the heat of composition, he once called the poem _Hosamname_ or _The Book of Hosam_. Had the title not already been claimed by Attar, _Asrarmame_ , or _The Book of Secrets_ , would have fit. For Rumi circled in its accumulating lines around his most cherished secrets\u2014the nature and identity of the beloved, and the borderline between the human and the divine.\n\nRumi exhaustively played in his _ghazals_ on the ambiguity of the Persian pronoun \" _u_ ,\" which could refer to either \"he,\" \"she,\" \"it,\" or \"God.\" The gender of the beloved was a game built into the language that was occasionally played by Persian poets, but Rumi especially exploited its metaphysical confusions: Were his poems truly to Shams? Or God? Was he praising the natural sun, the human Sun, or the eternal Sun? In the _Masnavi_ , which was more of a teaching poem, he engaged in theological issues, but with the same coy gamesmanship. In the _Masnavi_ , edgily dubbed \"the Quran in the Persian tongue,\" probably by the Sufi poet Jami two centuries later, Rumi explored the nearness of the human to the prophetic or the divine. Such intimacy seemed especially granted to the lover, or to the poet of love, as Rumi cast himself as the thin reed flute played by Love:\n\n_You blow into me. I am in love with your breath_.\n\n_I am your flute! I am your flute! I am your flute!_\n\nThe _Masnavi_ expanded into a grand book of tales, like much of the literature Rumi had grown up with as a boy in Khorasan. A number of the stories in its first book are set in the locations\u2014either geographical or imaginative\u2014of his childhood. The slave girl has been carried away from her goldsmith of Samarkand, perhaps during the siege of Khwarazmshah. The lion and hare of _Kalile and Demne_ appear early on, as the hare tricks a marauding lion into lunging after his own reflection into a deep well. From Attar, Rumi retooled a number of stories, such as the parrot of India who escapes her cage in a greengrocer's shop by playing dead. Unlike the originals, though, these tales are not framed or continuous, but are linked or interrupted by Rumi's musings in a manner closer to the rambling style of a Sufi master adlibbing a mixture of stories and morals.\n\nOther stories came from Rumi's memories of tales told by Shams, not only the secret pulse of the poem but also a source of much of its raw material. If Rumi maintained his closeness with Shams by whirling in _sama_ , he did so, as well, by retelling his stories. During his time in Konya, Shams especially liked to tell of a vain gentleman who fussily instructed his barber to pick out all the white hairs from his beard. The barber espied so many white hairs that he snipped off his entire beard and laid out the hairs before his customer, saying, according to Shams, \"You pick them out. I have work to do.\" (In Rumi's version in the _Masnavi_ , the moral is the unimportance of theological hairsplitting for lovers of God.) Or his tale about the mouse that took the reins of a camel and started walking, fancying he pulled the beast by his own strength. Rumi used many of these lines and stories, like bits of colored glass or tile, in his complex epic arranged in mosaic form.\n\nAfter a year or two, Rumi concluded the first volume of the _Masnavi_ by reciting to Hosam an incident told of Ali, the nephew and son-in-law of the Prophet Mohammad, who was on the battlefield and about to deliver a death blow to an infidel knight. As Ali lifted his sword, the knight spat in his face. Suddenly Ali, instead of stabbing downward, let his sword drop. Not spun as a parable of nonviolence by Rumi, the incident is a showcase of the mysterious ways of God. Held by Sufis as a model of the mystic saint, like Arjuna on the battlefield in the Bhagavad Gita, Ali sees beyond mere winning or losing to a larger divine pattern:\n\n_I am a mountain. He is my solid base_.\n\n_Like straw blown about by the thought of Him_.\n\n_My desire is stirred only by His wind_ ,\n\n_I am ridden by the love of Him alone_ ,\n\n_Anger is the ruler of kings, but my slave;_\n\n_I have tied anger beneath my horse's bit_ ,\n\n_I have beheaded anger with the sword of patience_\n\n_God's anger has been turned within me into kindness_\n\n_I am plunged in light, though my roof lies in ruin_\n\n_I am turned into a garden, though I am filled with dust_.\n\nRumi concludes his first book, perhaps still conceived as the entire work, with the true lover, the lover of God, and emphasizes his essential theme as religious and spiritual. He would eventually quotes or alludes to 528 Quranic verses in thousands of the lines of the epic.\n\nAs Rumi was absorbed in the composition of his _Masnavi_ , he became clearly aware of the tremendous changes he had undergone in the two decades since his first poems encouraged by Shams of Tabriz. If the beloved were a mirror in which the lover could see his soul, poetry was a mirror, too, in which the poet could glimpse personal reflections. Rumi had matured, and like many poets still creating into their later years, he had advanced from lyrical abandon to a more classical and meditative mode. A measured clarity replaced the earlier divine madness. Rumi recognized, and shared with the audience for the new _Masnavi_ , his sense of the loss of his more torturous rapture, his late work framed as the calmer product of his sunset rather than his sunrise years:\n\nWhen I first began to compose poetry, there was a strong inspiration that caused me to compose. At that time it was very effective. And now, even though this inspiration has weakened and is setting, it still is effective. It is God's way to nurture things while they are rising, and create great effects and much wisdom. Yet even during the setting time that nurture still stands. The noble title _Lord of the East and the West_ means that God nourishes both the rising and the setting inspiration.\nCHAPTER 13\n\n_\"A nightingale flew away, then returned\"_\n\nSOON after Rumi completed the first book of the _Masnavi_ , around 1262, revealing his expanded powers as a poet of richly animated spirituality, production came to a sudden halt. Hosam's wife had died, and the young man's response was severe. Like Rumi, Hosam had a single wife, rather than the conventional harem of wives kept by Rumi's father, Baha Valad. Hosam was also a notably devoted husband. From the earliest days of their marriage he would not look at other women, whom he could have married according to Islamic law. And he took care to avoid the bathhouse during the day when he might catch sight of women entering and leaving, instead going at night when only the men bathed.\n\nThe death of his wife caused Hosam to plunge into a severe depression, and he exhibited a lack of energy for completing daily tasks. He experienced an inner darkness that led him to withdraw. As Aflaki described his condition, \"In his emotions and in his body, he became sluggish and slow. Within himself, every moment he experienced a new mood and a new perplexity so that he could not be engaged with anything else.\" Rumi later described this hidden phase in his life as leading to Hosam's \"spiritual ascension.\" During the long interruption, the two men neither visited nor spoke with each other.\n\nEqually disruptive, the death occurred in mid-September of the same year as that of Alaoddin, who had been estranged from his father since the disappearance of Shams, nearly fifteen years earlier. Dying young at about the age of thirty-five, Alaoddin had children who were living separately from the _madrase_. He had continued to follow the orthodox path of teacher and preacher, questioning the musical and mystical practices of his father, and embarrassed by the changes wrought upon the family legacy bequeathed by his grandfather. Rumi, in turn, had never forgiven his son for his part in the disappearance of Shams and for joining the insurrection against him. He did not even attend his funeral. As Aflaki recapped the family history, \"Having waged war against Mowlana Shams of Tabriz, he hastened to ally himself with the rebellious disciples. It is said that they led him astray and put him up to this. Afterwards, being angry with him, Mowlana cast out of his blessed heart the love he had for him. . . . And during those days after Alaoddin had died, he was not present at his funeral and did not pray over him.\"\n\nThe reported hard feeling for his son, even at the time of his funeral, was harsh and not always accepted as accurate. Some explained Rumi's absence at his son's funeral as extreme grief. Others took the report as propaganda against Alaoddin in a conflict between his descendants and those of Sultan Valad over the family heritage. Indeed many signs pointed to Alaoddin's continued engagement with his family. Sultan Valad wrote two elegies for his brother\u2014if not especially moving quatrains\u2014and he was buried in the family plot, near Baha Valad and Salah. Rumi had written at least three letters to Alaoddin in recent years, addressing him as \"my dear son,\" \"light of my eyes,\" and \"pride of professors,\" pleading in one for him to return home, where he belonged, and to ignore accusations leveled against him. Filial relations were strained but not broken:\n\nDear pride of professors, and beloved of the pious, accept greetings from this father, and pray for him. I wish for you to look into your generous spirit and shut the window of anger. . . . If someone does not fulfill his duties as a son, he will never feel peace and his heart will never grow light, even if he prays and fulfills all his religious duties.\n\nThough their relationship remained tense at the time of his death, his father eventually came to forgive Alaoddin for his part in the traumatic events of the decade of the forties. A schoolteacher told of having accompanied Rumi one day to visit the tomb of Baha Valad: \"After he prayed for his father and recited litanies for him and meditated for quite some time, he asked me for an inkwell and a pen. When I brought them, he stood up and went to the tomb of his son Alaoddin, and wrote a couplet on the whitewashed tomb. . . . Mowlana immediately forgave him and said, 'I had a vision that my Lord Mowlana Shamsoddin Tabrizi had made peace with my son and forgave him and interceded on his behalf so that he became accepted as one of those pardoned by God.'\"\n\nWhile the conflicts with Alaoddin were resolved for Rumi after his son's death, the theological issues that had separated them continued to divide Rumi from other prominent members of the local community of learned Muslims. Rumi often found himself at odds with both the pious clerics and other Sufis. Aflaki described the ceaseless criticism of his practices among the clerics: \"At this time people expressed so many complaints and so much resistance, issued _fatwas_ and read out so many chapters forbidding _sama_ and the _rabab_ that it would be impossible to describe in an entire book. He tolerated all of this because of his extreme kindness, compassion, and generous spirit, and he said nothing.\"\n\nIn spite of Aflaki's stress on his magnanimous serenity, Rumi was not always impassive about internecine conflicts, especially those involving other Sufis. By the 1260s the religious figures known as \"Babas,\" who often accompanied Turkmen emigrating from Central Asia, had been spending more time in Anatolian cities, attracting large followings and princely patronage. When the Sultan Roknoddin chose one of these popular Babas as his personal spiritual leader, Rumi responded peevishly. He had been invited to a ceremony at the palace in honor of this Baba, but entered with a mere \"Salam\" and sat alone in a corner. When the sultan announced his oath of fealty, Rumi, in extreme jealousy, shouted, \"If the sultan has made him his father, I will take another son.\" He departed barefoot, without bothering to collect his shoes.\n\nAdding to Rumi's outsider status, even among his protectors, was the rough working-class background of some of his followers. As many often took their job description as part of their title, the names of those relating firsthand stories about Rumi in later accounts was a catalog of the varieties of labor\u2014hat maker, tanner, carpenter, physician, astrologer, butcher, harpist, as well as such religious jobs as Quran reciter and schoolteacher. At a gathering at his home, the Parvane complained to one of his guests, \"Khodavandgar is a king without equal . . . but his disciples are an extremely bad and gossiping lot.\" A supporter of Rumi overheard the remark and reported back to him. Seeing hurt in the faces of some followers, Rumi dispatched a response to the Parvane:\n\nIf my disciples were good people, I would myself have become their disciple. It is because they were bad people that I accepted them as disciples, so that they might change into good people and enter the company of those who are good and do good works.\n\nEven Sultan Valad felt moved to comment on the unruly nature of Rumi's growing corps of followers and their difference in demeanor and style from the softer, more restrained, and otherworldly Sufis seen everywhere in those days on the Konya streets. \"These Sufis seem very content with each other, and talk without ever arguing,\" he observed to his father. \"But our companions fight with one another, for no reason, and they do not get along together.\" Rumi answered, \"Yes, indeed, Bahaoddin. If a thousand hens are in one house, they will get along together. But two roosters in the same place do not get along. Our companions are like roosters and that is why they raise a ruckus.\" The decidedly virile virtues Rumi was praising were attributes of the _akhavan_ movement, as close in manner to the chivalric knights of Europe as to the Muslim Sufis.\n\nExhibiting the sublime sensibilities of Sufism more pleasingly, and with fewer rough edges, was the godson of Ibn Arabi, Sadroddin Qonavi, reputed to be so devoted to learning that he rigged a contraption suspending a bag of stones held by a rope above his bed; if he fell asleep studying and lost grip on the rope the stones would fall on him. He was known in Konya by the honorific title of Sheikh al-Islam, making him a sort of archbishop among Sufis, with his well-appointed Sufi lodge more like a grand governor's palace, replete with doormen, eunuchs, and porters. His residence was quite different from the modest, drafty Madrase Khodavandgar, with barely enough food to keep its residents nourished and identifiable by the makeshift cell on its roof where Rumi passed his solitary nights.\n\nQonavi was drawn to systematic mystical thought and gave much-appreciated lessons to the Parvane as they spun abstruse webs of theory together, while Rumi followed the practical path of love, dispensing with the Damascene knowledge of his youth. Tensions could exist between them. Qonavi did not like Rumi at first, and one of Rumi's admirers voiced offense at Qonavi's aristocratic airs, saying he felt as if he were visiting the house of a ruler rather than a man of poverty. Yet Rumi advised the Parvane to give a stipend to Qonavi, as he had so many more students to feed in his kitchen. Eventually a quiet respect grew between them, and on at least one occasion Rumi and Qonavi were seen quietly meditating together, their prayer rugs facing, knees touching. When a student approached during this session to ask Rumi \"What is poverty?\" he would not answer\u2014his point being that silence itself was a kind of poverty.\n\nRumi's sincerity, coupled with the entrancing spell of his evolving poetry and the infectiousness of his message of love, granted him freedom from the rules that another might not so easily have been given. At one point the Parvane was considering appointing the son of the vizier Tajoddin as _qadi_ , or chief judge of Konya. The young man was learned in religious law but impervious to the charms of Sufism, especially those of the least manageable of Sufis, Rumi. He agreed to accept the post on three conditions: the outlawing of the _rabab_ ; removal of corrupt bailiffs from the court; and paying bailiffs a stipend so they would not accept bribes. The Parvane accepted the last two conditions, but not the first, knowing its repercussions for Rumi. When word reached Rumi, he said, \"Such a blessing, _rabab_! And praise God that the _rabab_ also saved the son of Tajoddin from the trap of being a judge!\"\n\nThe presiding _qadi_ during most of Rumi's mature years, and so the most influential in his legal fate, which was always somewhat in jeopardy, was Serajoddin Ormovi, imported to Konya by the Seljuks in 1257, and lasting through all the shifts in imperial administration, mostly because of the support of the Parvane. A Persian speaker, born in Azerbaijan, Serajoddin was already sixty years old when he settled in Konya, after having lived in Mosul, Damascus, and Egypt as part of the civilian elite. A philosopher-theologian of the rationalist school, equally at home in the court or the _madrase_ , he was particularly suited to the Seljuk post, as he spoke Arabic, Persian, and Turkish, and was familiar with Jewish and Christian scriptures as well as Islamic legal tomes and studies.\n\nAs a meticulously trained logician versed in analysis, Serajoddin was not by nature sympathetic with _sama_ and some of the more illogical practices of the visionary mystics. He and Rumi held predictably opposite positions on many issues. Given the seat of honor at most public ceremonies, he embodied for Rumi the hypocrisy of rank and position, and Rumi judged him handicapped by his reliance on the finer points of logic. When Hosam asked Rumi his opinion of Serajoddin, he answered, \"He is a good man. But he circles about the watering hole. He just needs one kick to reach it.\" As with Qonavi, though, Rumi gradually developed a respectful friendship with Serajoddin.\n\nAs chief judge, Serajoddin often needed to rule on issues involving Rumi. In one instance, Rumi wrote to him to intervene to insure that the children of Alaoddin not be deprived of their rightful inheritance. Another time, Theryanus, the Greek convert saved by Rumi from execution, was brought before the judge and charged with going about town proclaiming that Rumi was God\u2014which was obviously not encouraged in Islam. Questioned by the _qadi_ , he answered, \"No, I said he is a God-builder. Don't you see how he has remade me into a knower of God?\" Case dismissed, he reported the proceedings to Rumi, who smiled and replied, \"You should have said, 'Shame on you, if _you_ don't become God!'\"\n\nThe crucial rulings of Serajoddin concerned _sama_ , an issue of spiritual life and death for Rumi, who had by then given up on traditional instruction in favor of teaching with insights gained with the help of such tavern pastimes as music, song, and poetry. At least once, formal charges were brought against Rumi by a group of the religious scholars in Konya, their pressing for a legal ruling reminding the _qadi_ of the radical nature of Rumi's liberated life and teachings. \"Why must this kind of innovation advance and this practice be promoted?\" they demanded. The answer of the _qadi_ focused on the person of Rumi, not on any theological principle: \"This heroic man is strengthened by God and is without peer in learning. You should not quarrel with him. He is the one who knows, as does his God.\"\n\nAfter two years, in June of 1264, Hosam finally recovered from his protracted mourning and depression. He had been feeling the predictable wish to marry again, and was searching for a wife. He awoke one summer morning, though, pining again for the spiritual life, and also for the poem-in-couplets that he had abandoned in his sorrow. As suddenly as he had been overcome by lassitude, Hosam felt its release and went straightway to the _madrase_ to propose starting up again just where he and Rumi had left off, \"requesting the remainder of the _Masnavi_ from the luminous heart of the Sheikh.\"\n\nRumi assessed Hosam as having matured and was thrilled by his return. Wasting no time, he dictated a new prologue for him to write down, on the spot, starting again at the beginning\u2014this time of Book II\u2014with a date and gloss explaining the interruption:\n\n_The light of God, Hosamoddin_ ,\n\n_Pulled back the reins at the summit of heaven_\n\n_During his ascension, while seeking for the truth_ ,\n\n_Without his springtime, buds would not bloom_\n\n_When he returned from the ocean to the shore_\n\n_The harp strings of the_ Masnavi _were retuned_\n\n_This_ Masnavi _has burnished every soul_\n\n_His return was a day of beginning again_\n\n_The date of the renewal of this great gift_\n\n_In the year six hundred sixty-two_\n\n_A nightingale flew away, then returned_\n\n_As a falcon, hunting for mystical truths_.\n\nMystic and scribe fell quickly back into their old way of working, with Hosam revising and adding vowel signs. As Aflaki confirmed, \"There was no further delay up to the end of the book. Mowlana continually recited in unbroken succession and Hosamoddin wrote it down and repeatedly read out loud what he had written until the work was completed.\"\n\nHis harp strings retuned, Rumi also realized a wish he had been harboring for some time\u2014making Hosam the sheikh of his unofficial order. For the third time, Rumi elevated a chosen companion into a position of esteem, a position he himself might more naturally have held. The maneuver was loving and passionate, a reflection of the feelings in his heart, but also savvy, as he again put a barrier between himself and his followers, allowing more space for mystical abstraction and his own rapt devotion to prayer and dance. The difference between Hosam and the others was that he was accepted by most of Rumi's students without as much conflict. Hosam was now forty years old\u2014a respectable age for a religious leader\u2014and had been espousing Rumi to his band of young men for years, attracting resources and a more diverse group of followers.\n\nPassed over again, of course, was Sultan Valad, who described the transition without any evident slighted feelings, telescoping six years into a single poetic frame: \"When Salahoddin left this world, Sheikh said, Hosam, the Way of Truth, you are the successor and caliph. The Sheikh seated him in place of Salahoddin and scattered light above his head. He asked all the followers to bow to him, and be humble before him, and obey all his commands with all their heart, and plant his love within their souls.\" The exception in this smooth transfer of power was Sultan Valad's wife, Fateme. She kept alive the jealousy and suspicion of her father, Salah, toward Hosam, resenting that her husband had not ascended to the position of leadership she felt belonged to him.\n\nRumi's worship of his appointed beloved was always a challenge for the community. Shams had presented special difficulties because of his irascible temper and eccentricity. Salah, as a practically illiterate teacher, confounded every expectation of a school or Sufi lodge. Hosam was well liked and a natural leader since adolescence, but the social reversal was of an older man humbling himself before a younger man. Yet humble himself Rumi flagrantly did. Once when a group was setting out for a ceremony at a Sufi lodge, Rumi took Hosam's prayer rug from the shoulder of a follower and carried it on his own shoulder, walking the entire way through the center of town. Shopkeepers and passersby recognized the gesture as proper for a well-behaved servant.\n\nAs with Shams and Salah, Rumi pushed his devotion to friendship to extravagant lengths. On one occasion, the Parvane held a gathering of ministers and prominent men at his home and invited Rumi, hoping for him to entertain in a spiritual key with choice words and perhaps bursts of lyric poetry and ecstatic dance. Noticing that Rumi was sullen and silent, the Parvane realized that he had not invited Hosam and sent for him. As soon as he arrived, being led in with a torch, Rumi jumped down from his rug on the dais to join him in the palace courtyard, exuberantly greeting him, \"Welcome my soul, my faith, my light!\" Aware of the Parvane, who was suspicious of the exaggerated compliments, Hosam explained, \"Even if not true, once Mowlana says so, it is like this and a hundred times more!\" Hosam understood\u2014as had Salah, in his sense of mirroring\u2014that the intensity of Rumi's adoration could inspire the recipient to rise to the challenge.\n\nMost of the more relaxing periods of visiting between Rumi and Hosam, especially during the warmer months, were passed in Meram, where Hosam owned a garden. Every year during the later decades of his life, Rumi spent forty days each summer at the hot springs of Ilgin, reached by wagon, about sixty miles northwest of Konya. He would teach his students at twilight next to a frog pond. Otherwise he often stayed with Hosam in Meram, a settlement where gardens and orchards were cultivated, just a carriage or mule's ride from Konya. Here he would picnic with friends and enjoy listening to the splashing of its many waterwheels. Running water was believed to calm the spirit, and was used to treat the mentally ill in an Anatolian hospital built in Rumi's lifetime in Divrigi, outfitted with watercourses emptying into basins. Yet watermills throughout the Middle East also made loud creaking noises. In their endless turning, and plaintive screaks, Rumi imagined lovers pining for each other, and for reunion with God:\n\n_Lovers are like waterwheels turning day and night_\n\n_Restlessly revolving, endlessly moaning_ ,\n\n_The turning of the wheel teaches those who seek the river_.\n\n_No one may say to them this river is ever still_.\n\nMany fond memories by followers of Rumi date from these retreats in Meram, as he was otherwise mostly secluded in Konya. One told of the time a group of travelers from Bukhara sought Rumi in Hosam's garden, and a close woman friend, who often stayed up late into the night talking with him, brought out a tray of homemade desserts. \"If you asked for the banquet table of Jesus it would have descended for you in this house,\" said Rumi, referring to a story of Jesus feeding the hungry with food from heaven. (This woman \"kept constant company\" with another follower of Rumi's, who also held _sama_ sessions locally in her home.) Especially coveted by Rumi's extended family of wife and children from two marriages, as well as Salah's widow and children, was the white honey from Hosam's garden, which was used in medical potions. Rumi felt comfortable in Meram, and whenever he went missing, which happened frequently, he could most reliably be discovered praying alone in the Meram mosque.\n\nDuring all the seasons of the year, though, whether in Konya or Meram, Rumi and Hosam kept up their unflagging work on the poem, which Rumi was imagining might grow so lengthy as to need to be carried by forty mules. Rumi paused every so often in the poem to exult in Hosam. Midway through Book II, he stopped to duly credit him:\n\n_Come light of God, Hosamoddin_ ,\n\n_Without you no plants grow in this dry soil_\n\nHosam could be just as extravagant in his praise of the importance of the poet and his poem to which they were both committed. More than once, he reported having a dream in which the Prophet Mohammad was reading the _Masnavi_ with great interest and approval.\n\nThe writing of the _Masnavi_ was not solely a production undertaken by Rumi and Hosam in privacy\u2014though it was often so. Rumi also composed with listeners gathered, as oral performance was an important quality of its rhythmic power. Unlike _sama_ gatherings, these sessions required absolute silence, as the teasing out of meanings from fables, and their weaving, was a delicate procedure. Implied in the poem were hints of occasions when witnesses fell asleep, while the creation evolved within the deep silence of the insulating stone pillars and heavy roof of the main hall. Rumi was anxious to make sure that these recitations were not seen as mere entertainment. He discounted himself as a poet to his followers\u2014a bit disingenuously, given his skill and lifetime love of poetry:\n\nWhen friends come to visit me, I am worried that they will be bored, so I recite poetry. Otherwise why would I have anything to do with poetry? I am vexed by poetry. There is nothing worse for me. I do poetry the way someone puts his hand into tripe to wash for guests because they have an appetite for it. That is why I must do so. A man has to look at the town where he is living to see what goods the people need and what kind of goods they wish to buy. People will then buy such goods even if they happen to be of the lowest quality.\n\nCasting himself as a humble merchant, peddling second-rate wares, Rumi also spoke of the disparagement of the art of poetry by religious long beards in his native Khorasan, which may have been true in orthodox circles, but certainly not in the highly poetic culture generally, or by his father, who often quoted Sanai and other poets:\n\nWhat am I to do? In our country and among our people there was nothing more disgraceful than being a poet. If I had remained in our native land, and wished to live in harmony with their tastes, I would have done only what was desired of me, such as teaching, writing books, preaching, fasting and performing pious deeds.\n\nEven if a reluctant poet\u2014and a self-deprecating one\u2014Rumi either took exacting pains with the structure of the _Masnavi_ , or a lifetime of rigorous intellectual activity manifested itself spontaneously. The second book matched the structure of the first book, and both set the template for the books to come. At about 3,800 lines, the second volume is almost the same length as the first. Both contain about a dozen core stories, which are broken up by digressions and expostulations, and are fed into by less complex anecdotes. The sections are also introduced by rubrics, _Kalile and Demne\u2013_ style, probably inserted by Rumi or other scribes later, such as \"How a king tested two slaves he had just purchased.\"\n\nWhile neither book settled into a single succinct theme, Book I conformed loosely to the Sufi genre of a pilgrim's progress, where a soul progresses from the pain of separation from God, like the mournful reed flute, longing for reunion, to the divine illumination experienced by Ali. The stories of the second book center more on the split between appearance and reality, with the spiritually undiscerning always mistaking surface for essence, and so succumbing to painful or deadly moral errors: a Sufi leaves his cherished donkey with a servant who swears he needs no instruction in caring for the animal, which nearly dies of neglect; a king entrusts his falcon with an old woman who clips its claws to try to domesticate the royal bird. Most darkly comic, was the tale of the man who befriends a bear that winds up swatting a fly on his friend's face with a giant boulder:\n\n_A fool believes the love of the bear is true_\n\n_Yet his love is anger, and anger is his love_\n\nThe lesson of the tale of the bear was care in choosing a friend whose spiritual insight was compatible, an important lesson for Sufis selecting their companions along the way.\n\nFollowing through on his promise in the first book, Rumi included private memories of Shams, all of them camouflaged, and known to him alone, or to a few intimate disciples such as Hosam, who had been present for the original talks of the stranger from Tabriz. Only once does he make any kind of direct reference to Shams:\n\n_From love of Shams, I have grown weak_\n\n_Or else I would give sight to the blind_\n\n_Light of the Truth, Hosamoddin_\n\n_Quickly heal them, and make the envious blind_.\n\nYet the penultimate set piece of Book II, \"The story about the ducklings raised by a hen,\" is stocked with memories of Shams. During his time in Konya, Shams often spoke about his adolescence as a misunderstood mystic with this analogy: he felt he was a duckling raised by a hen. As he said, \"Now father, I see that the ocean is my homeland. If you are of me, or I am of you, come into the ocean. If not, go back to your hens.\" Rumi universalized Shams's experience, as shared by all landlocked mystics:\n\n_You are the child of a duck, even if a hen_\n\n_Held you beneath her wing, and raised you_\n\n_Your real mother belongs to the ocean . . ._\n\n_We are all seabirds. Only the ocean knows our language_.\n\nAs a seabird himself, Rumi's instinct was to soar, and his reflex in these books was to conclude with a lyric crescendo. In the first book, the epic hero was revealed to be Ali on the battlefield. In the second, following a catalog of ascending birds\u2014falcons, nightingales, parrots, and peacocks\u2014Rumi introduces his hero, an ascetic in the desert. Rumi classified the _Masnavi_ as a \"Shop of Unity,\" and his ascetic, or mystic, lives beyond the differences that confused seekers in earlier stories, as he prays in a terrain without variation. Rumi had envisioned his solitary desert mystic in a separate _robai_ :\n\n_Beyond belief and doubt is a vast desert_\n\n_In the middle of this desert, we find ecstasy_\n\n_When a mystic arrives here, he bows to the ground_.\n\nAt the climax of the spiritual tale, a group of pilgrims, doubtless on the way to Mecca, pass by the mystic. Though the land is parched and dry, the mysterious, lone figure turns to them from his prayers, dripping with water from hands and face, his clothes damp. A perplexed pilgrim asks for an explanation, so the saint prays to Him who \"opened the door to me from above\" to reveal the nature of the place. Rumi at his most visionary then describes a shower of bountiful rain, the rain of love he felt was assured and was to become an even more effusive and unorthodox theme as the poem went on:\n\n_As he was praying, a beautiful cloud appeared_\n\n_Like an elephant, spraying water from its trunk_.\n\n_Suddenly a shower began pouring down_\n\n_And settled in the ditches and the caves_.\n\n_While the cloud kept pouring rain, like tears_ ,\n\n_The pilgrims turned their faces to the sky_.\nCHAPTER 14\n\n_The Religion of Love_\n\nRUMI was living in a society of conventions, where the decades of life were assigned set significances\u2014maturity was believed to arrive at age forty, which he respected when he waited to appoint Hosam to a leadership role, while sixty marked a graduation to the age of sagacity, the proper time for the consideration of last things. Almost immediately on completion of Book II, around 1266, Rumi and Hosam began work on Book III, which was finished in 1268, as Rumi was moving into his sixties, his own final decade. He was seizing on this ripe moment to express his increasingly radical and personal wisdom in as liberated, joyful, confident, and even reckless a manner as ever.\n\nRumi described his _Masnavi_ as a \"box of secrets.\" With each installment of the expanding poem-in-progress, he was allowing the box to become further ajar, its contents more clearly and unapologetically exposed. By the late 1260s the _Masnavi_ had become a public attraction and, like much about Rumi in Konya, a generator of debate. The orthodox were shocked by some of its theology, while even more sniping for its storytelling came from the intellectual Sufis in the lodge of Qonavi. Rumi described one such slur:\n\n_Suddenly a fool, from out the stable_ ,\n\n_Poked his head, like a sarcastic old woman_ ,\n\n_Saying, \"This_ Masnavi _is cheap and low_\n\n_Just stories of the Prophet, on how to follow_ ,\n\n_No mention of the loftier secrets of divinity_ ,\n\n_Which cause the steeds of saints to gallop_ ,\n\n_Or of the many stations of renunciation_\n\n_Stage by stage up to union with God.\"_\n\nThe poet's brash defense was to compare his inspired verses to the holy Quran:\n\n_When the Quran came down_\n\n_Disbelievers were just as sarcastic and mean_ ,\n\n_Saying, \"These are just legends and myths_ ,\n\n_Without any depth or lofty speculation_\n\n_Something little children can understand_\n\n_Nothing but lessons about right and wrong_.\n\n_The story of Joseph and his long, curly hair_\n\n_The story of Jacob, the passion of Zolaykha_\n\n_It is simple and plain, and everyone understands_\n\n_Where is the exposition in which intellect gets lost?\"_\n\n_God answered, \"If this seems so simple to you_ ,\n\n_Try composing a single chapter in the same style_.\n\n_Let the spirits of heaven and the men of earth_\n\n_Try writing a single verse in this 'plain' style.\"_\n\nMany were protective of Rumi, and tried their best to keep him from straying too far into dangerous territory and to shield him from the most serious charges of innovation in religious matters. Rumi did little to bolster their helpful cause. Once a companion informed Rumi that when interrogated by a suspicious religious scholar, \"Why do they call the _Masnavi_ the Quran? _\"_ he had corrected him. \"It is a commentary on the Quran.\" Sultan Valad recalled, \"My father remained quiet for a moment and then exclaimed:\n\n\"You dog! Why is it not the Quran? You ass! Why is it not the Quran? You brother of a whore! Why is it not the Quran? Truly contained in the words of the Prophets and the Friends of God are nothing but lights of divine secrets. The speech of God has sprung up from their pure hearts and has flowed forth upon the stream of their tongues. Whether it is Syriac or the Fateha prayer of the Quran, whether in Hebrew or in Arabic.\"\n\nHe grew convinced that all divinely inspired speech, including the poetry of the _Masnavi_ , in whatever language or format, was equal, whether from the living or the dead.\n\nAt the outpost of such skirmishes with tradition was Mansur al-Hallaj, executed in Baghdad for his heretical pronouncements, the most famous being \"I am Truth.\" In these later years, Rumi adopted Hallaj as a personal saint and his infamous self-blessing as a favorite inspiration for teaching. Defending the Sufi's possibly apocryphal statement, Rumi grappled with his own experience. He explained Hallaj's paradox to students:\n\nPeople think that to say \"I am Truth\" is a claim of greatness, but it is actually extreme humility. Anyone who says, \"I am God's servant\" is really claiming two existences, his own and God's, while the one who says, \"I am Truth\" erases himself and gives up his own existence as nothing. When he says \"I am Truth,\" he means, \"I do not exist. Everything is He. God alone exists. I am utter, pure oblivion. I am nothing.\" There is more humility in this than any claim to greatness.\n\nHe spoke approvingly of the remark, on another occasion, inviting its embrace by others:\n\nEveryone who exhibits some form of perfection and beauty, whether through actions or words, and has pride and grace, may actually claim, according to their own state and condition, \"I am Truth\"!\n\nThe figure of Hallaj and his pronouncement \"I am Truth\" haunt the last few books of the _Masnavi_ , like a faint clue to a mystery, or a motto for any knowing mystic:\n\n_When Hallaj said, \"I am Truth,\" and kept on_\n\n_He throttled the necks of the blind_\n\n_When the \"I\" vanishes from our existence_\n\n_What remains? Consider this thought_.\n\nNothing was more rousing to Rumi both as mystic and poet than the contemplation of annihilation and the erasure of self and all the mundane details of life, including the need for speech and language. He wished to whirl them away. This ecstatic freedom was embodied in Hallaj, and many of Rumi's more exquisite _robai_ quatrains, which he was writing late in life, evoke him:\n\n_He dove into the sea of his own oblivion_\n\n_Then pierced the pearl of \"I am Truth\"_\n\nAs an early Arabic Sufi poet\u2014Rumi often retold Hallaj's parable of the moth drawn by a passionate love for a flame\u2014Hallaj could be found subtly mixed with imagery of books:\n\n_I am the servant of those who know themselves_\n\n_Who free their hearts from error at each moment_\n\n_Composing a book from their own essence and traits_\n\n_And making the title of that book, \"I am Truth.\"_\n\nLike Hallaj's fluttering moth, Rumi circled the flame of truths that were inexpressible, or only expressed at great cost or danger of being misunderstood. Yet by the time he arrived at writing the third book of the _Masnavi_ , and in talks written down by scribes, he was more baldly and directly stating his challenging secrets. He clearly felt that divine inspiration was universal and reflected in the mirror of the hearts of living saints, and he implied that he had experienced just such immolation in the divine spirit of love. Modeled on the story of the composition of the Quran by Mohammad, Rumi recited his _Masnavi_ in an inspired state and imagined he was a mere instrument like a reed flute:\n\n_Be empty! Sing like a flute, full of passion_.\n\n_Be empty! Tell secrets with your pen_.\n\nRumi and Shams first discussed such matters while they were in seclusion, and the force of these revelations had changed his life remarkably. Yet Shams was even more adamant about \"following\" the Prophet Mohammad, and he strongly rejected Hallaj and his involuntary shout \"I am Truth!\" In his embrace of Hallaj, Rumi appeared to have gone beyond even Shams in the radicalism of his ideas about God and man. He no longer stood in anyone's shadow, having fully realized his own voice. Although he stayed faithful to Sunni practice, and the _Masnavi_ is filled with Muslim piety, the logic of a religion of the heart led him beyond denominations and religions to a universal vision:\n\n_The mosque inside the hearts of holy men_\n\n_Is a place of worship for everyone. God is there_.\n\nHe sang of a \"religion of love,\" and a \"religion for lovers,\" and its daring implications:\n\n_The religion of love is beyond all faiths_ ,\n\n_The only religion for lovers is God_\n\nIn Book III of the _Masnavi_ he put this creed as simply and unambiguously as possible:\n\n_Since we worship the one God_ ,\n\n_Then all religions must be one_\n\nWhile celebrating love and his religion of lovers with such exuberance and freedom, Rumi, though, was beginning to show signs of physical aging, and to share hints of his sense of the divergence of his stiffening body from his timeless heart, mind, and soul. As he wrote in Book III of the _Masnavi_ , \"My heart is a field of tulips that can't be touched by age.\" Other parts were more susceptible. Rumi had put his body through punitive trials of fasting and deprivation, and pushed himself with damaging nightly sessions of spontaneous composition and prayer. Of all the memories so carefully collected of his life from his disciples, none ever recalled seeing him asleep in his bed at night during these decades of his life. For the era, he was reaching life expectancy.\n\nIn a surprising aside in Book II of the _Masnavi_ , Rumi had even departed from his usual invective against worldly pleasures and the lures of the senses. He mused on the strengths of bygone youth, when springtime was flourishing, and life was a rose garden in full bloom:\n\n_Youth is a garden, fresh and green_\n\n_Easily yielding leaves and fresh fruit_\n\n_Fountains of strength and passion flow_\n\n_Making green the soil of the body_\n\n_A well-built house with a high ceiling_\n\n_Its columns straight and tall and standing free_.\n\nThe ensuing caricature of old age as the head of a horse being forced into a halter was harrowing by contrast, as he listed the loss of moral strength as one of its infirmities:\n\n_The eyebrows droop and are almost white_\n\n_The eyes dim, and wet with tears_\n\n_The face wrinkled, like a lizard's back_\n\n_Speech is gone, as are teeth and taste_\n\n_The day late, the path long, the mule limping_\n\n_The shop in ruins, the business failing_\n\n_The roots of bad habits having taken firm hold_\n\n_And now the strength to dig them up lost_.\n\nRumi was hardly as bowed by age as the decrepit figure of his meditation on the stages of man, yet he was marked with the lines and strains of a life lived forcefully at a steady pitch of intensity even if its main activities were composition, prayer, and meditation. He might well have thought of his teacher Borhan, who grew more carefree and joyful in his daily life at about the same time his body began to lose its former powers of endurance. Unlike Borhan, Rumi never relaxed his regimen of fasting and daily prayer, though he did relax the constraints of conventionally pious thinking and dogma to the extreme. With his gait of an elder combined with almost juvenile unchecked energy, no one in Konya was remotely like peripatetic Rumi.\n\nThe final decade of his life also marked the final decade of Konya maintaining even a pretense of independence as the capital of a Seljuk Empire. Its most compelling spiritual figure, Rumi, felt unfettered enough to trust in a steady light at the heart of events as civilizations collapsed and maps were redrawn, while his counterpart in the political world\u2014the Parvane\u2014lived with increasingly complex problems and acted with greater desperation. A respite from the Mongol threat was promised by their first defeat\u2014by the Egpytians at the battle of Ayn Jalut in Syria in 1260\u2014shifting the Muslim power base from Baghdad to Cairo. Yet for the Parvane, machinations became more elaborate, as he engaged in a perilous game of playing the Egyptian Mamluks against the Mongols.\n\nInternal politics in Konya were just as brutal. With power came paranoia for the Parvane. He grew convinced that the Sultan Roknoddin, who had been given of late to childishly imprudent language and stormy behavior, was plotting against him. So the Parvane took the proactive measure of having Roknoddin murdered at a banquet, in 1265, and in his place put Roknoddin's son Kaykhosrow III, less than seven years old and obviously not a threat. Taking no chances, the Parvane then set himself up as the boy's tutor and regent. Among those the Parvane termed Rumi's \"gossiping\" followers was talk of Roknoddin's fall as divine retribution for his having spurned Rumi in favor of the more rural Turkish Babas.\n\nAs distracted as Rumi might appear, he was still engaged with his family, and still shrewdly maintained an air of studied indifference toward political intrigues at court and in the Sufi lodges. In his family life, a rare incidence of Rumi becoming angry with his wife was provoked around this time by her interest in a group of flamboyant silk-clad traveling Sufi dervishes attracting great attention in Konya for walking on hot coals, swallowing snakes, sweating blood, bathing in boiling oil, whipping themselves, and making animal noises. They were members of the Refaiyya Order, known as far as Europe as \"the howling dervishes\" for their wild and loud _sama_ performances. While Rumi was away in Meram on a day trip, a group of noble ladies came to Kerra to convince her to go with them to Karatay Madrase, where the dervishes were performing their circus magic. When Rumi returned that evening he was livid with her for attending a session of this troupe, though even Afalki reported that his upset arose \"out of jealous anger.\"\n\nAt most times, though, Rumi's manner with his wife was tender and bemused, the testing of the Shams years replaced with mellow companionship. Kerra remained superstitious. When he traveled to Ilgin in the summer, she worried that he might fall prey to the water monster believed to live under a bridge near a meadow he enjoyed. \"How wonderful,\" Rumi joked. \"I have wanted to meet the lord of this river for years.\" As her husband grew more impractical, Kerra became increasingly protective. When Rumi went to the bathhouse, she told his companions, \"Take care of Mowlana because he pays no attention to himself at all.\" They toted a rug and towel to spread for him in the cooling chamber. Whatever light eating and sleeping he managed was due to her insistence.\n\nAll of Rumi's children were now grown and pursuing adult lives. Sultan Valad was closest, as he remained at Rumi's side. His great disappointment was his wife's lack of children, while Rumi also remained hopeful for grandchildren from the line of Salah. Maleke, the daughter of Rumi and Kerra, was still married to the miserly Konya businessman who had been enduring a losing streak in his petty trading deals in Sivas. Rumi tried to help his son-in-law by writing to the Parvane to request his exemption from the high road tolls and taxes along the way. Their son Mozaffar worked in the sultan's treasury and government service until\u2014to Rumi's great joy\u2014he decided to don the cloak of the Sufis.\n\nRumi's main focus remained Hosam, who was not only leading the community and transcribing Rumi's poetry and correspondence but also staying active in the spiritual politics of the wider Sufi community in Konya, one of the most vibrant at the time in the Muslim world. When the sheikh of another Sufi lodge died, Hosam took over leadership of that community after a letter-writing campaign on his behalf by Rumi, overriding objections by rivals. At an inauguration, after the issuing of a royal decree, violence broke out because of continued opposition, and knives were drawn. \"Why do these men with donkey tails show such ingratitude for God's blessings?\" asked Rumi on his way out. Hosam eventually went on to be in charge of yet a third such lodge in Konya.\n\nA technicality more important to Hosam than to Rumi was his affiliation, like Shams of Tabriz, with the Shafii School of jurisprudence, as opposed to the Hanafi tradition. In Sufi practice, a master and his disciple were always of the same school. Hosam lowered his head and said, \"I wish from this day to belong to the Hanafi School, as Khodavandgar is a follower of the Hanafi School.\" Rumi was absorbed by then in his religion of love and the mosque of the heart and had little interest in such divisive legal issues. \"No, no!\" he answered. \"What is proper is that you remain in your school, and follow it, but that you travel our mystic path, and guide people on our road of love.\"\n\nThe gatherings for Rumi's talks, transcribed under the supervision of Hosam, were continuing, though they often evolved into discussion groups or question-and-answer sessions regarding the burgeoning _Masnavi_ as the poem was being circulated. On one occasion, a student asked for an explanation of a few of its more perplexing lines:\n\n_Oh brother, you are nothing but your thoughts_\n\n_The rest of you is merely skin and bones_\n\n_If your thought is a rose, you are a rose garden_\n\n_If your thought is a thorn, you are fuel for the fire_.\n\nRumi explained that what is seen or heard is secondary to the more essential force of thought, which is the invisible creator of words and actions, like the sun in the sky:\n\nAlthough the sun in the sky is constantly shining, it is not visible unless its rays strike a wall. Similarly, if there is no medium of words and sound, the rays of the sun of speech cannot be seen.\n\nIn these talks, Rumi explored the practical relevance for the lives of those who were drawn to him and his increasingly unorthodox _madrase_ of the \"religion of lovers\":\n\nPeople work variously at all sorts of jobs, crafts, and professions, and they study astrology and medicine, and so forth, but they are not at peace because they have not found what they are seeking. The beloved is called _delaram_ , or \"he who gives the heart repose,\" because the heart finds peace through the beloved. How then can it find peace through anything else? All these other joys and goals are like a ladder. The rungs on the ladder are not places to rest but for passing along.\n\nIn a surprising departure from the enlightened and ethereal tone of many of his remarks, Rumi announced one evening that he had been weighing in on current political difficulties with the Parvane, lecturing him on his appeasement of the Mongols rather than allying himself with the Muslim Mamluks of Egypt. He had obviously not lost his alertness to politics nor to the side of himself capable of being engaged and partisan:\n\nAll this I said to the Parvane, I told him, \"You have united yourself with the Tatar, whom you aid to annihilate the Syrians and Egyptians and so to lay waste the realm of Islam. What was supposed to be a cause for the expansion of Islam has become the cause for its diminishment. In this state, which is a fearful one, turn to God. Give alms to the poor so that He may deliver you from this evil condition, which is simply fear.\"\n\nHe reserved special anger for students he felt were too prone to falling under the spell of the Parvane and his sumptuous lifestyle. Especially irritating was a group sent on a mission to Kayseri, who returned talking about the delicacies and tasty dishes they sampled at the imperial table. Cuttingly, Rumi said, \"Shame on the companions for their exaggerated praise of the stuff of the table, and for being proud and saying, 'We ate such and such.' You who beheld fine fat foods, get up to look at what is leftover in the toilet.\"\n\nThe aging sage appeared most often in a delighted state and was refreshingly otherworldly in sightings around town. One day as he was walking in the bazaar, a Turk was offering a fox skin for sale to the highest bidder, calling out, in Turkish, \" _Delku, delku_ ,\" meaning \"fox.\" Rumi held his heart, and whirled, repeating, in Persian, \" _Del ku? Del ku?_ \" meaning, \"Where is the heart?\" When a Turkish jurist presented him with a list of abstruse legal questions while he was sitting alongside a moat next to the Sultan Gate, reading a book, he called for a pen and inkwell and dashed off exemplary answers without consulting any authorities. He also liked leaving messages on public spaces. As he had once written on his son's tomb and Shams's door, he ordered verses that he first composed in ink on paper to be inscribed on the gate of the little garden of the _madrase_.\n\nKindness continued to stand out as a virtue for him, as was borne out by many testimonials. When a Christian, drunk on wine, wandered into a _sama_ session, accidentally bumping into Rumi, some of his followers shoved the man. \"He is the one who drank wine,\" Rumi berated them, \"but you are the ones behaving like drunken brawlers.\" Preventing his companions from clearing a bathhouse pool of lepers and the sick, Rumi quickly took off his clothes, entered the water, and pourd the water they were using over his head. When a thief stole his prayer rug, he sent someone to buy it back from him at the bazaar to spare him embarrassment. Animals continued to be beneficiaries of his kindness, such as the ox some butchers bought intending to slaughter that he convinced them to set free, or a wild dog he saved from a beating on Hosam's street.\n\nWhile not overly careful in guarding his own health\u2014other than relying on a favorite drink, julep of sorrel\u2014Rumi had begun to add to his reputation, too, an instinct for natural healing. When a favorite disciple had a high fever, which the doctors could not treat, Rumi pounded garlic cloves into a mortar and mixed the paste with the man's food, causing him to break into a sweat and recover. For a pupil complaining of falling asleep too often, Rumi successfully advised, \"Extract the milk of poppies and drink it.\" During one of his summer retreats in Ilgin, a disciple became grievously ill. Rumi ordered him lifted in his bedding and brought to the bathhouse, where he immersed him in the central spring water pool and dunked him repeatedly until he revived. The method worked, though, according to Aflaki, \"No clever doctor ever used this strange form of treatment.\"\n\nRumi and Hosam were proceeding at a steady and energetic pace through the composition of the books of the _Masnavi_ , with about two or three years separating the creation of Books III, IV, and V, near the turn of the decade of the 1270s. Much of Rumi's spiritual life since Shams's departure decades earlier had circled about his beloved friend's final lessons to him on the meaning of separation, which was the mystery at the heart of their friendship, as well as, explained Shams, central to the experience of love, both human and divine. Rising and falling in these later books was a meditation on death as the ultimate separation, the root of so much pain.\n\nIn Book III of the _Masnavi_ , Rumi had not only identified himself as the unabashed preacher of love\u2014as he wrote in one ghazal, \"At the Festival of Unity, the Preacher of Love arrives.\" He also turned to considering death as fully as love, if not as a form of love, as he moved closer to the horizon of his own life. Yet he was not composing in the violet mode of sad elegy\u2014the somber hymns of the blue-winged angels in his weeping poems on the death of Shams or Salah. Instead his message was the joy and release of death. Fear of death was nothing but a reflection in the mirror of passing thoughts:\n\n_You flee from death because you are afraid_\n\n_But truly you fear yourself. Consider this!_\n\n_Your own face is frightening, not the face of death_\n\n_Death is a leaf, but your soul is the tree_\n\n_Every leaf grows from you, both good and bad_\n\n_Every hidden thought, both pleasant and ugly_.\n\nThe tenor of much of Rumi's poetry in the _Masnavi_ is cheerful and transcendent. The conviction behind this sensibility depended on his belief in the shifting qualities of the world, so that thoughts were not taken as fixed or unchanging. Soul or spirit or even attitude could recast or illuminate the perception of all experiences. As far as the psychology of approaching death, Rumi almost reflexively counseled its embrace rather than its fear\u2014advice, given the timing, for himself as much as anyone. He chose to see the \"limping\" physical demands of his own aging as the fermentation of eternal love:\n\n_God created me from the wine of love_ ,\n\n_I'm still that love, even as death wears me down_\n\nAs a mystic, Rumi had a more powerful and compelling incentive for dwelling on death in the final books of the _Masnavi_. He lived according to the belief that not only was the invisible world more real than the visible, but also that life after death was a release into a cosmic experience of infinitely greater light and love than experienced in the body. In the third book of the _Masnavi_ , Rumi sings of death as a release, in one homespun simile after another. Life was like a steam bath you needed to exit for the sake of your heart, or like wearing tight shoes in the desert, or a confining womb after nine months had passed:\n\n_Squeezed in the womb like a baby_\n\n_I am eager to move on, after nine months_ ,\n\n_If my mother were feeling no labor pains_\n\n_I might be left in this burning jail_\n\n_But the pains of death are telling her_\n\n_The time has come for the lamb to be born_\n\n_So that he may graze in lush, green fields_\n\n_Open wide the womb, the lamb is ready!_\n\nIn a weirdly hypnagogic tale of a mosque where anyone who spent the night would die and of the lover who insisted on spending the night there, Rumi identified with the death-radiant lover, bragging of his recklessness in facing his own certain extinction:\n\n_He said, \"My friends, with no regrets_ ,\n\n_I have grown weary of life in this world_\n\n_I'm a wanderer, seeking only pain and wounds_ ,\n\n_Don't expect sense from this wanderer on the road_\n\n_I'm not a wanderer seeking my next meal_\n\n_I'm a reckless wanderer, seeking death_\n\n_I'm not a wanderer seeking to make money_\n\n_But a nimble wanderer seeking to cross the bridge_\n\n_Not to be found hanging around in shops and markets_\n\n_But rather running away from my own existence.\"_\n\nThe tale of the lover in the mosque of death in Book III was interrupted\u2014or illustrated\u2014by a companion tale of a caged bird in a rose garden, visited by a flock of birds singing of their freedom on the wing, a message that causes the bird to lose its satisfaction with its gilded prison and to desire escape. Yet the bird stops itself from squeezing through its bars by the sudden appearance of a cat identified as \"Death, its claws disease.\" Fear of the cat of death turns the hopeful bird into a spiritual gray mouse:\n\n_The bird turned into a mouse, seeking a hole_\n\n_After he heard the cat's cry, \"Stop!\"_\n\n_Just like a mouse, his soul was calmed_\n\n_By finding a home in this world's hole_\n\n_He started building and acquiring knowledge_\n\n_That fit into just the space of this small hole_\n\n_He only learned trades that would work well_\n\n_Within the confines of his small hole_.\n\nBraving\u2014even loving\u2014death was revealed to be the secret for living a fulfilled life. For Rumi, love and death were entwined in an embrace, while love and fear were opposites.\n\nThe crescendo to Rumi's growing excitement about death as an expression of love and nonattachment was reached in a glorious hymn to death in Book V, which Rumi composed at the beginning of the decade of the 1270s, when he was sixty-three years old. He was now quickened with anticipation at the prospect of death and resurrection. The theme of transcending his mortal body had become inseparable from his religion of love:\n\n_When you hear them say, \"That poor man is dead,\"_\n\n_You may answer, \"I am alive, you just cannot see!_\n\n_When my body was laid to rest, all by itself_ ,\n\n_Eight paradises blossomed inside my heart!\"_\n\n_When the soul sleeps among roses and jasmine_\n\n_What matter if the body is buried in dirt?_\n\n_What does the sleeping soul know of the body?_\n\n_Or care whether its grave is a rose garden or ash pit?_\n\n_The soul has emerged into the sky-blue of the heavens_\n\n_Crying out, to those below, \"If only everyone knew!\"_\nCHAPTER 15\n\n_Wedding Night_\n\nAS Rumi was walking one day, in bright daylight, his mind elsewhere, his shoe became stuck in the mud. He simply discarded it and proceeded barefoot. At other times, and other places, Rumi's behavior was becoming similarly marked by absentmindedness, ecstatic absorption, or the freedom that came with advanced age and station. He once grew excited enough during _sama_ that the knot of his drawers came undone, though he kept twirling only in a loose shirt until Hosam jumped up, clasped him in a tight embrace, and covered him with a cloak. Aflaki reported, \"If a group of poor people begged from him, he would give them the cloak from his back, the turban from his head, the shirt from his body, and the shoes from his feet\u2014and off he would go.\"\n\nProvoking an even more exhilarated response was the birth of his grandson, anticipated ever since the marriage of his son to Salah's daughter at least fifteen years earlier. Born on June 7, 1272, Ulu Aref Chelebi arrived as a kind of miracle into Rumi's life. Fateme had suffered many stillborn births, or children dying in infancy, and was taking drugs and making violent movements to eliminate the fetus, not wishing to undergo the ordeal of labor again. She was convinced her pregnancy was doomed. Hearing of these practices, Rumi sent a strong message to Fateme: \"Do not do such things but keep to your pregnancy. Can it be that you feel so ashamed of our lineage?\"\n\nAs soon as he received news of the birth of his grandson, even before the completion of the ritual rubbing of salt on the newborn, Rumi rushed to Fateme's bedside. He gleefully scattered gold coins over the head of the mother, a blessing of good fortune, and asked whether he might take the baby. Receiving the baby from the midwife, he then wrapped him in the sleeve of his cloak and whisked him away. After spending some afternoon and evening hours alone with him, Rumi returned the baby that night to Latife, the mother of Fateme, with more gold coins tied in a loop wrapped in his sheet. Weeks later, when the baby was in his crib, Rumi lightly raised the covering veil and whispered, \"Allah, Allah,\" teaching him the mantra for prayer first taught to him by Baha Valad.\n\nRumi also took responsibility for naming the child. He instructed Sultan Valad that his name should be \"Faridun,\" the first name of the boy's grandfather Salah. But he added, \"You should address him as Amir Aref, the way Baha Valad called me Khodavandgar, and never said my actual name. Let my spiritual gift to him be my title, meaning that you may write his name as Jalaloddin Amir Aref.\" He also marked the occasion with a poem that harked back to his formulaic wedding poems for Faridun's parents:\n\n_The day he was born from his mother was Tuesday_\n\n_In the year six hundred and seventy\u2014Faridun!_\n\n_On the eighth day of the month of Zel-Qa'de_ ,\n\n_Two hours after noonday prayers\u2014Faridun!_\n\n_From the family and race of the Khosrows_ ,\n\n_He was loved like Shirin\u2014Faridun!_\n\n_Descended from nobility in both his father and mother_ ,\n\n_He came from Paradise, a beautiful angel\u2014Faridun!_\n\nRumi imbued him not only with a spiritual pedigree, but a Persian one, saturated in the epic love for Shirin of King Khosrow, \"beautiful as the moon,\" as he once wrote of him.\n\nA _Masnavi_ reciter\u2014now an occupation, like Quran reciter\u2014told of visiting Rumi and Hosam, when the grandchild was not more than a year old. \"Suddenly I saw the door of the small garden open,\" he recalled. \"Amir Aref was seated on a little wagon and his tutor was pulling him. Mowlana stood up and placed the rope of the wagon over his own blessed shoulder and pulled it along and said, 'I can be Aref's little ox.' Similarly, Hosamoddin stood next to Khodavandgar and grabbed the other side of the rope, and both of them pulled the wagon one or two times around the courtyard of the _madrase_. Aref laughed sweetly and screamed with joy. Khodavandgar announced, 'Being kind to little children is a legacy for Muslims.'\" Rumi then repeated a teaching from the Prophet Mohammad in the Arabic, \"'Whoever has a child, let him behave like a child himself.'\"\n\nWhen Aref was a bit older, Sultan Valad was often startled when the boy entered a room, as he recognized mannerisms of Rumi in his son. Aref's Quran teacher recalled that Sultan Valad told him, when the child was only six years old, \"The moment Aref enters the door of the _madrase_ , I imagine that my father has entered. His graceful gait, his delicate manner of walking, and his balanced movements are exactly the way my father walked. In my youth, I continually saw my father with these same characteristics and appearance, and Aref's movements during _sama_ are exactly like his.\" _Sama_ , within Rumi's _madrase_ at least, had become a regular family activity practiced by all ages.\n\nRumi's stretches of skyward distraction, alternating with silly patches of playfulness during the infancy of his grandson, did not keep him from starting back to work on Book VI of the _Masnavi_ , which he identified in its Prologue as the final book. He chose the number six as representing in Islamic medieval thought the six directions\u2014the four cardinal points, plus zenith and nadir, which were a sort of moral height and depth:\n\n_Oh, Life of the Heart, Hosamoddin_ ,\n\n_Desire for a Sixth Part is now boiling_\n\n_Because of your magnetic wisdom_\n\n_A Book of Hosam circulates in the world_\n\n_Oh, Spiritual One, I dedicate to you_\n\n_A Sixth Part, the ending of the_ Masnavi.\n\nThe sixth book revisits in its philosophical disquisitions the concerns of the earlier books with teaching questions, especially the debate that most absorbed Rumi, between a determinist submission to the will of Allah expressed in thoughts, feelings, events, and actions and the commonsense exercise of personal free will. As in the other five books, he reached back to his childhood for animal fables\u2014from _Kalile and Demne_ came the tale of the friendship of a mouse with a frog. More novel was his growing reliance in the last two books on raw material drawn from _hazl_ poems, which featured bawdy, even obscene or profane language, and lewd scenarios. (When R. A. Nicholson later translated the _Masnavi_ into English he rendered these sections in Latin to spare the general public material he considered pornographic.) In one such tale, a maiden uses a donkey's equipment for her sexual satisfaction, which Rumi presents as a lesson on being in thrall to our animal nature. In another, a young man in a Sufi lodge builds a wall behind him each night to prevent being raped\u2014an example of abuse of power in the religious life. Rumi was illustrating, to the dismay of some, that no material was too vulgar to be embraced within the rich universe of his book and of God's wisdom and understanding.\n\nKnowing that he was drawing closer to the finale of the poem, Rumi's thoughts turned more often to its secret muse, Shams of Tabriz, the human sun now visible only in shadows cast on a wall. In death, Shams had merged with eternity, which was the presence of God's love expressed in this world and in the world beyond death. Rumi took on this paradoxical mystery\u2014of the sun and the Sun\u2014in the tale of \"The Poor Dervish and the Police Inspector of Tabriz\"\u2014its setting a clue. Spread over five hundred lines, the story concerned a Sufi dervish whose debts had always been paid by a kindly police chief in Tabriz, until the policeman died, leaving his treasure hidden. The dervish travels to \"glorious\" Tabriz only to discover that his true benefactor was God, the treasure, divine:\n\n_He gave me a cap, but You the head filled with intelligence_\n\n_He gave me a coat, but You the tall figure to clothe_\n\n_He gave me gold, but You the hand for counting_\n\n_He gave me a horse, but You the mind for riding_\n\n_He gave me a candle, but You the eyes for seeing . . ._\n\n_He gave me a house, but You the sky and the earth_.\n\nThe limits the debtor discovered in the police inspector of Tabriz were those Rumi had come to find were the human limits of Shams of Tabriz\u2014he lit the candle of love for him, yet God imbued Rumi with the mirror reflecting the flame from Shams and other lights.\n\nWithin a few hundred lines of the completion of the _Masnavi_ , and immediately preceding its ultimate \"Story of the Three Princes,\" Rumi breaks into a moving litany, a catalog poem of all of lovesick Zolaykha's coded language, disguising her feelings for Joseph, the paragon of beauty in Rumi's poetry\u2014the story of the Egyptian lady's love for the Hebrew slave is described in the Quran itself as \"the fairest of stories.\" Zolaykha's dexterous ploy happened to match Rumi's in expressing his feelings for Shams of Tabriz\u2014often compared by him to handsome Joseph\u2014and was a parable for his poetic task of coming closer to the truth by going in circles. In talking about such ineffable love, Rumi believed, the longer the detour the more sure the arrival:\n\n_And when she said, \"The wax is melting softly!\"_\n\n_That was to say, \"My friend was kind to me.\"_\n\n_And when she said, \"Look, the moon is rising\"_\n\n_And when she said, \"The willow is now green!\"_\n\n_And when she said, \"The leaves are trembling\"_\n\n_And when she said, \"How nicely burns the rue!\"_\n\n_And when she said, \"The nightingale sang for the roses\" . . ._\n\n_And when she said, \"Beat firmly all the rugs!\" . . ._\n\n_And when she said, \"The bread is all unsalted!\"_\n\n_And when she said, \"The spheres are turning backwards\" . . ._\n\n_When she praised something\u2014that meant \"His sweet embrace.\"_\n\n_When she blamed something\u2014that meant \"He's far away!\"_\n\n_And when she piled up a hundred thousand names_\n\n_Her desire and intention was always Joseph's name_.\n\nRumi had circled back to his dialogue with Hosam in Book I. He was confessing that all the while he was writing the _Masnavi_ he had never stopped thinking of Shams. Just as Zolaykha meant Joseph with every word of hers, so Rumi meant Shams with every word, verse, and tale of the _Masnavi_. Since Shams had first awakened his heart to the transformative fire of love, the name of that sun also evoked the hidden name of God.\n\nThe _Masnavi_ ends on an inconclusive note, almost midstory. Its final tale is fitting. The story of the three princes who fall in love with a portrait of a Chinese princess and travel to the royal court of a king in faraway Asia shares elements with the first tale of the _Masnavi_ of the king and the slave girl of Samarkand. The story was yet another told to him\u2014and finished\u2014by Shams. Given their months of seclusion, most if not all the stories in the _Masnavi_ might have originally been just such teaching stories Rumi first heard from Shams and wished to keep alive in his poem. Book VI ends on a quiet parable of a \"window between hearts,\" without any crescendo, so the epic seems to be a mosaic with a few pieces missing. For a poet with so little interest in titles or frames, dying off into silence was an appropriate enough statement. Some said, though, that Rumi had simply lost interest in dictating, in spite of requests from Hosam and Sultan Valad, as if he had descended or ascended into the distant calm that increasingly possessed him.\n\nIn the autumn of 1273 Rumi fell seriously ill. Among the closest of his companions had always been a prominent local physician, well regarded as a commentator on a five-volume Persian encyclopedia of medical knowledge, based mainly on the ancient Greeks Galen and Aristotle. Rumi had satirized Galen and the reliance on medicine in general in Book III of the _Masnavi_ , his skepticism prescient, as this doctor was unable to diagnose the cause of his weakness, other than detecting excess water in his side. Nevertheless he remained next to Rumi to monitor his condition.\n\nThe unspecified malaise lingered for weeks and months, as Rumi's bedside became the center of heightened concern and anxiety for his family, school, and all of Konya. Most frenzied and upset was his wife, Kerra. \"You should have a precious life of three hundred years, no four hundred years, to fill the world with higher truth and meaning,\" she pleaded with him. \"Why, Why?\" Rumi answered. \"Am I Pharoah? What do I have to do with this world of dust? How can I find rest and peace in this world?\" For three full days and nights he asked that no one speak to him, and he did not speak to anyone. When his wife finally came to him, and lowered her head, and asked about his health concerns and his pain, he answered, \"I am thinking about my death, which will be occurring soon.\" At that remark, she shrieked and was hysterical for several more hours.\n\nDuring the onset of his illness, Rumi was not entirely bedridden and sometimes walked about the _madrase_ in a frail manner. Unchanging was his certainty that he was going to die, and his preparing those close to him for the eventuality, as well as setting its tenor with good humor if not outright eagerness. When he sighed from pain while hobbling in the courtyard, his favorite cat mewed and howled. \"Do you know what this poor cat is saying?\" Rumi asked. \"It says, 'During these days you will be setting out towards heaven and returning to your original homeland. Poor me! What am I to do?'\" (When this cat died a week after Rumi, his daughter, Maleke, buried it near him.)\n\nEarthquakes were common enough in Anatolia, but during that fall a particularly powerful quake occurred, interpreted by Rumi's followers as connected to his condition. In a joking way, Rumi agreed, saying the earth was hungering for a juicy morsel and would soon be satisfied by his corpse, yet no harm would come to the town. He informed his friends that most of the prophets and mystics departed from the world in autumn or the dead of winter, \"when the earth is like iron.\" Weighed down by worry about a lingering debt of fifty dirham, he tried to repay with gold filings. When the creditor forgave his debt, Rumi said, \"Thank God I am delivered from this horrible obstacle!\"\n\nSoon he was confined to his room, a pan full of water set by his bed for him to dip his feet into and sprinkle his chest and forehead, as he had begun to be racked with intense fevers. Hosam and Sultan Valad were usually nearby. Visions and dreams abounded among those gathered, at least in later retellings of the events of those days by those present. Hosam told of being seated at the top of the bed with Rumi's head resting on his chest as they saw a handsome young man materialize in front of their eyes. When Hosam asked his name, he identified himself as Azrael, the Angel of Death. \"What excellent, perceptive sight to be able to see a face such as that!\" Rumi weakly exclaimed.\n\nOne by one the notables of the town visited to pay their respects. Leading them was Qonavi, whose earlier haughtiness toward Rumi had long since dissolved and been replaced by an admiring respect. The godson of Ibn Arabi appeared quite disturbed and began to pray for Rumi's healing: \"It is hoped that recovery will take place. Mowlana is the soul of mankind. He deserves a full recovery.\" Rumi quickly snapped back, \"Let those words be for your sake! When there is no more than a thin shirt between lover and beloved, do you not wish the shirt to be removed so that light may be joined with light?\"\n\nOn another occasion the Chief Judge Qadi Serajoddin visited Rumi, his judgments in favor Rumi's _sama_ practice crucial in his having been able to safely complete the _Masnavi_ and teach, dance, and play music for the glory of his religion of love. Hosam was holding a cup filled with a medicinal potion in his hand, in the hopes that Rumi would drink some. Rumi paid no attention at all. \"I placed the cup in the Qadi's hand hoping Mowlana might take it from the hand of so great a person, but he refused,\" said Hosam. When the Qadi departed, Qonavi again entered. \"He took the cup from my hand and offered it to Mowlana,\" recalled Hosam. \"After taking a few sips, Mowlana gave it back to him.\" A friendship and trust had deepened between them in spite of their philosophical differences, like that between Shams and the cynic Shehab in Damascus.\n\nHosam was there as always to copy the poems that Rumi kept producing to the end, his lucidity intact except when the fevers became too high. Rumi was well used to reciting poems in extreme states, from ecstasy in the midst of whirling to exhaustion in the middle of the night. His theme on his deathbed was the joy of death, which became the occasion he was addressing, always with the message that love rather than fear was the single choice if you did not wish to lose the only life that mattered. As a patriarch and mystic who achieved some joy and peace he was able to sing convincingly of the happiness and release of death in a set of poems unmatched on the daunting theme:\n\n_When you see my coffin being carried out_\n\n_Don't think I'm in pain, leaving this world . . ._\n\n_When you see my corpse, don't cry_\n\n_I long for that time, and for that reunion_\n\n_When they bury me, don't cry_\n\n_The grave is but a veil for eternity_\n\n_When you see the setting, wait for the rising_.\n\n_Why worry about a sunset, or a fading moon?_\n\n_You think you are setting but you are rising_\n\n_When the tomb encloses you, your soul will be released_.\n\nHe also recited lines that would eventually be used for the inscription on his tomb. Its _takhallos_ , or signature, was Shams of Tabriz, which had been replaced by Hosam, yet such a circling back to his original muse might have been his point. Rumi was increasingly summoning the name and presence of Shams on his deathbed. His happiness and excitement at death were made more real by imagining its resolution as a joyous reunion with Shams, as well as with the light of the sun, and the source of both, God:\n\n_Don't be sad at God's festival_\n\n_My chin is shut, within the grave, asleep_\n\n_While my mouth tastes bittersweet love . . ._\n\n_I will never rest, until my soul flies_\n\n_To the towering soul of Shams of Tabriz_.\n\nDistraught from watching his father succumb to this illness, and spending sleepless nights nursing him, Sultan Valad also became ill. As Aflaki reported, \"Sultan Valad had become extremely weak from limitless service, deep sorrow, and lack of sleep. He was constantly crying, tearing his clothes, and lamenting. And he did not sleep at all.\" Rumi said, \"Bahaoddin, I am happy. Go, lay your head on your pillow and get some rest.\" He then a wrote a poem that fit the moment, this \"last _ghazal_ that Mowlana composed,\" alluding once again to Shams, the name cloaked inside of his dying poems:\n\n_Go. Lay your head on your pillow. Leave me be!_\n\n_Let me wander in the night, ruined and afflicted_.\n\n_I am alone in waves of passion, all night until dawn_\n\n_If you wish, come, have mercy, if you wish, go, be cruel_.\n\n_The only cure for my pain is dying_\n\n_So how may I ask him to cure my longing?_\n\n_Last night I dreamed I saw an old man in the alley of love_\n\n_He waved to me with his hand, as if to say, \"Come to me.\"_\n\nDuring Sultan Valad's absence, Rumi addressed the question of his successor. Fateme continued to press for her husband to take the traditionally inherited position at the head of the family _madrase_ and secure the place for their son, Amir Aref, as a kind of spiritual royal family. Again Rumi decisively deflected the chance to begin a lineage or form a more standard order. Some imams of Konya came to see Rumi and asked, \"Who is suitable to succeed Mowlana and who has been chosen?\" Rumi named Hosam. The question and answer was repeated three times. On the fourth query, they asked, \"What do you have to say to Bahaoddin Valad?\" Rumi answered, \"Bahaoddin is a champion. He has no need of confirmation from me. He has no need to boast or make claims.\" His eldest son accepted this decision as he had before, in silence, without public complaint.\n\nNo one left in the room was able to comprehend fully the length and breadth of Rumi's expansive life. The companions who traveled with his family from distant Khorasan were now mostly buried near Baha Valad in the family plot of the imperial rose garden. None of his children had ever laid eyes on the Oxus River, the great natural divide separating the Balkh region of his birth, nor was it any longer possible for them to visit the capitals of his youth, Samarkand or Bukhara, as they had been destroyed as cultural centers by the Mongols, as had Baghdad. His mother remained buried in Larande, and the grave of his first wife was not included among the rest of the family. Some closest to him had known the remarkable Shams of Tabriz, but only Rumi understood the nature and extent of their months of intimate encounter that transformed him midlife from a respected religious leader into an audacious mystic and visionary poet. These experiences kept him a figure apart even in his approach to death. As everyone around him was grieving and sorrowful, he remained witty and serene.\n\nRumi took leave of his circle in a coherent manner with targeted words and messages, treating death as a teaching moment. He was especially understanding with Kerra, who would outlive her husband by nineteen years and during those years become a distinctive, eccentric figure in Konya, only leaving the house in the evening to go to the bathhouse, wearing a fur coat from Turkestan in the summer with a silk veil over her head, burning candles during the daylight hours, but much sought after for her reputed psychic powers. \"Will there appear anyone like our Khodavandgar?\" she asked inconsolably. \"If there is, he will also be I,\" Rumi answered. And then he added: \"I have two attachments in this world, one to you, and the other to my body. When I leave my body, and join the world of Oneness, my attachment to you will continue to exist.\"\n\nRumi consoled his companions with just such a message\u2014the emanation of the manner of spirit he exhibited would be the same as his presence. Such a belief had animated his similar relations with the two successors of Shams, Salah and Hosam, whom he believed emanated and inspired the spirit of love and so were avatars of love: \"Don't be afraid when I depart, and don't be sad, because the light of Hallaj, one hundred and fifty years after his death, revealed itself to the spirit of Attar and became his spiritual director. Whatever situation you are in, try to stay with me and to remember me so that I can show myself to you. Whatever clothes I may be wearing, I will always be with you.\"\n\nHe concluded with practical life advice: \"I recommend to you fear of God, both silently and publicly, neither eating too much nor speaking too much, avoiding causing any trouble or sin, diligence in fasting, continuous praying, the leaving behind of all passion and lust, patience in the face of injustice from all mankind, renouncing the company of fools and common people, and associating with the virtuous and the noble. Moreover, the best person is the one who benefits other people, and the best speech is brief and gives guidance.\" He also taught those gathered a prayer to memorize and recite for the rest of their lives, beginning, \"Oh Lord God, I draw breath only for Your sake.\"\n\nHearing the finality in his tone, some of those in the room nevertheless pressed him to rest, take his medicine, and care for his recovery. \"My companions pull me in one direction,\" Rumi sighed, \"while Mowlana Shamsoddin calls to me from the other direction . . . I am obliged to depart.\" Closest to his pillow in the final hours was Hosam, his \"pearl-shedding sea,\" as he had exulted recently in the _Masnavi_. Turning to Hosam, his last words, in character, faithful yet whimsical, Rumi instructed, \"Place me at the top of the sepulchral niche, so I may arise before everyone else.\" At sunset on the evening of December 17, 1273, Rumi died in peace, having given repeated instructions that the night be treated as his Wedding Night, a time of joy and happy reunion with the beloved:\n\n_The bats of your senses fly into the sunset_\n\n_While the pearl of your soul rolls towards sunrise_\n\nRumi had planned his own funeral, reviving the basic design of the funeral Salah laid out for himself fifteen years earlier, a boisterous procession worthy of a wedding celebration, with singers, musicians, and dancers, as well as Quran reciters and imams. The burial of Salah had been controversial, a funeral unlike any witnessed in Konya until that time. Its issues had hardly disappeared, especially the shock of mixing joyous music and dance with a traditionally somber religious observance. Soon after Rumi's death, Hosam was brought before the court of Qadi Serajoddin to once again defend the _rabab_ from being outlawed, the chief justice ruling in its favor, simply in memory of his friend. Yet on the day of the funeral seemingly all Konya crowded to join in the vibrant ceremony expressly designed for them by a man popularly felt to be a holy figure or even a saint.\n\nOn the evening of his death, Rumi's body had been placed on a bench and washed according to Muslim practice by an imam, several of his companions helping with pouring the water. Early the next morning the coffin was carried on the shoulders of a group of friends and followers out of the _madrase_ that had been the family home in Konya since the final years of the life of Baha Valad. At the first sight of the simple coffin, all the men of Konya, from whatever background, bared their heads, among crowds that included numbers of women and children. The procession was led by Quran reciters intoning verses, along with twenty groups of singers chanting poems that Rumi composed, and musicians beating kettledrums, and playing oboes, trumpets, and flutes.\n\nMost remarkable was the spontaneous appearance of religious leaders from all the other faiths practiced in town, as well as their faithful taking part. As Aflaki chronicled, \"All the religious communities with their men of religion and worldly power were present, including the Christians and the Jews, the Greeks, the Arabs and the Turks. All of them in accordance with their own traditions walked in procession while holding up their books. And they recited verses from the Psalms of David, the Torah, and the Gospels, and made lamentation.\" Sultan Valad remembered his father's funeral, \"The people of the city, young and old, were all lamenting, crying, sighing aloud, the villagers as well as the Turks and Greeks. They tore their shirts from grief for this great man. 'He was our Jesus!' the Christians said. 'He was our Moses!' the Jews said.\"\n\nThe occasion was marked, though, by frenzy and violence as much as by peace and joy. The beauty of the outpouring was interrupted when some of Rumi's followers tried to push others away from a religious ceremony they felt belonged solely to them. \"The Muslims were unable to beat them off with sticks and swords and blows,\" Rumi's grandson told of the occasion, as remembered in his family. \"The crowd could not be scattered and a great dispute arose.\" When the Parvane was informed of the disturbance some prominent monks and priests were summoned to explain their participation. Rumi had been spending more time in the Greek, Armenian, and Jewish districts than was realized, teaching and conversing. \"Whatever we read in our sacred books about the prophets, we beheld in him,\" one said. A Greek priest said, \"He was like bread. Have you ever seen a hungry person run away from bread? You have no idea who he really was!\"\n\nBecause of the long pause until the dispute among the faiths was adjudicated by the Parvane, and then the stopping and starting as mourners ripped off the coffin cover, which needed to be replaced six times, their hysterics only partly successfully tamped down by Seljuk soldiers and police, the procession did not arrive at the rose garden cemetery until sunset. The harshness of the wintry day and the fading of the light added to a feeling of sadness infusing many of the Sufi leaders closest to Rumi, in spite of the affirming music and poetry. They took part one by one in the ritual known as the \"Visiting Rite\" of saying farewell to the corpse, where a master of ceremonies would proclaim their names, as if visiting a royal court. When the announcer called the name of Qonavi, he added many respectful titles. Qonavi later confided that he did not realize he was being called, as all of the effusive titles being listed sounded more fitting for Rumi.\n\nAs a surprising revelation of the closeness that had developed between them, Rumi in one of his final deathbed wishes asked that Qonavi be entrusted with the leading role in the funeral service of reading the final prayers over his body before burial. During the recital of these prayers, Qonavi became momentarily dazed from grief. In the confusion of the day some had arrived late at the cemetery, and given Qonavi's emotional distress, the Chief Judge Qadi Serajoddin repeated the burial prayer once more, or completed the prayer, if the distress of Qonavi had caused him to simply break off. Leaving the service in the dim light of that early evening, the Sufi poet Eraqi made his apt observation of Rumi, \"He came into the world as a stranger, and he left as a stranger.\"\n\nRumi inspired visions, especially fitting, since he had been known as a boy who saw angels. One mourner later spoke of seeing rows of blue angels that day in the cemetery, and Kerra saw her husband transfigured into an angel with four pairs of wings. More restrained and precise, Hosam claimed he never dreamed of Rumi or even sensed his presence for seven years after his death, until he encountered him once walking in the Meram garden and Rumi asked simply, _\"Chuni?\"_ \"How are you?\" \"I saw nothing else,\" said Hosam. Even less supernatural, but most evocative of the way Rumi spoke and saw things, was a dream shortly after his death by his friend Serajoddin, a _Masnavi_ reciter, who dreamed of seeing Rumi hunched in a corner of the house, lost in contemplation. When the reciter asked him about his life in heaven, Rumi wryly answered, \"Serajoddin, they have not come to understand me in the afterlife any more than they understood me in this world.\"\nAfterword\n\nIN just the six years since I retraced the steps of the young student Rumi in Aleppo, history had reminded me of its cruel and destructive powers. Arriving at the end of writing about the life of Rumi, I cast back to my early, significant meeting on a Friday morning with Sebastian in the quiet covered bazaar of Aleppo and wondered where he might be. By now the civil war that had begun nearly unnoticed that same week had created unimaginable catastrophe in Syria on the scale of the Mongol devastation in Rumi's own time. I looked for and eventually found the card Sebastian handed me.\n\nI had no luck reaching him at the email or telephone number handwritten on the back of the crinkled card for the carpet store, though I did manage to find Omar on Facebook, through a mutual journalist friend. Omar had sold rugs in the same family business as Sebastian and was now living as a Syrian refugee in New Zealand. His uncle was the brother-in-law of Sebastian, but the uncle only knew of a last sighting, in England, of my accidental friend. \"I feel sad about what happened,\" Omar wrote to me in a message as poignant as it was brief. \"I wish I can change but as you know we can't.\"\n\nAll signs of Rumi might have vanished, too. He lived in just such a brutal time of destruction and tumult, hardly conducive to the preservation of delicate poetry and spiritual teaching. His death marked the end of an era, and his \"setting\" was simultaneous with the disappearance of the refined culture\u2014and dominant personalities\u2014of his time and place. Within four years, Rumi's political alter ego, the Parvane, had been executed for treason by the very Mongols who propped him up for two decades, a fall from unreliable power that would not have surprised his spiritual mentor. In those same years Rumi's counterpoint Qonavi died, his simple grave in Konya still identified by a wooden honeycomb of a tomb, open to the air, according to his wishes. Finding a pattern in the deaths of these three men, the historian of the Seljuks Claude Cahen has written: \"All those who had been molded politically and intellectually during the period of Seljukid splendor had now perished together, and the former brilliance had vanished with them.\"\n\nRumi's posterity, though, was fortunate in having leaders committed to his legacy in the right place at the right time. Following Hosam's death eleven years after Rumi, his son Sultan Valad, succeeded by his grandson Aref, on whom Rumi had doted, became leaders of a more formal institutional Mevlevi Order\u2014\" _Mevlevi_ \" is Turkish for \" _Mowlavi_ \"\u2014with leadership passed down in royal fashion from fathers to sons. They sent emissaries around Asia Minor and the Levant to propogate the brotherhood. \"Most of these orders peter out, after a bang with an exciting leader,\" Professor Ahmet T. Karamustafa, an expert on Sufism at the University of Maryland, told me in a conversation. \"No one follows up, and that is that. The Mevlevis ended up being pretty successful.\" By the time of the Ottoman Empire the Mevlevis had become _the_ establishment order, and the Mevlevi sheikh, a descendent of Rumi, delegated to gird any new sultan with a ceremonial sword.\n\nFortune did reverse for the Mevlevis in Turkey with the Amendment of 1925, devised by the new secular president, Kemal Ataturk, banning all Sufi orders, as he feared their political power and disliked their musty reminiscence of the Ottoman past. The law forbade the use of Mevlevi mystical names, titles, or costumes, impounded assets, and provided prison sentences for such practices. Yet two years later, in 1927, the Mevlevi lodge in Konya\u2014which grew up around Rumi's tomb, the Green Dome, built by Hosam with funds from the Parvane and Gorji Khatun\u2014was allowed to reopen as a museum, which it remains: visitors can see robed mannequins posed in a dervish's daily round.\n\nEqually difficult to eradicate was Rumi's sublime whirling meditation, allowed to reemerge publicly in the guise of a folk dance in the 1950s. Present at its first \"performance\" in Konya on the anniversary of Rumi's death in December 1954 was the scholar Annemarie Schimmel, who traveled from Ankara, where she was teaching. \"Late in the evening we were brought to a large mansion in the center of the old town, in which armchairs had been set out for the noble guests,\" she recalled. \"With amazement we observed as a group of elderly gentlemen unwrapped mysterious parcels out of which emerged flutes, _rababs_ , tambourines, even dervish caps and gowns. . . . For the first time in twenty-nine years the men began to perform the mystical dance together . . . at once they found their way back to the old rhythm of the 'heavenly dance.'\" While officially cast as performers, the dervishes performing the whirling dance in Konya are now popularly understood to be spiritual practitioners attuned to the resonance of the _sama_ , though in the more formal and elegantly choreographed version developed by the Mevlevis during the Ottoman period.\n\nWhen I visited Konya for the memorial _sama_ ceremony in December 2010, this public rehabilitation was well under way, helped by the election of Prime Minister Erdogan, whose electoral base was centered in the politically conservative Konya region, known as the \"Quran Belt\" of Turkey. Mistakenly turning down a wrong hallway in the vast saucer-shaped venue where the ceremonies took place, I was startled to be confronted by a security detail with oversize automatic weapons. As the prime minister addressed the thousands gathered for the event, I could make out the words \"Rumi\" and \"Turkey\" repeated in close juxtaposition. Rumors circulated that the Iranian president would be attending, too, though he did not finally appear. (Rumi had figured in Iranian-Turkish political relations decades earlier when Ayatollah Khomeini, exiled to Bursa, in Turkey, before becoming supreme leader of Iran, reportedly wished to make a pilgrimage to Rumi's tomb but was prevented for refusing to remove his clerical garb.)\n\nSuch geopolitical relevance for a distant poet of love might appear improbable. Rumi had warned endlessly about the danger of engaging with politics and position:\n\n_Animals grow fat from eating grass_ ,\n\n_People from power and fame_\n\nYet the momentum of his words and poetry has proved as self-propelling\u2014if as unlikely\u2014as the success of his whirling dance and Mevlevi Order, and his double legacy as earnest saint and world-class poet has proved potent. Thousands of elegant couplets by other poets, from a rich moment in Persian poetry\u2014like strings of pearls, as one of their own critics described them\u2014have faded, too. Yet by accident and devoted design, Rumi's lines are reproduced daily both in the original and in modern translations. (I've added to the dense stream with daily tweets of my collaborative translations of lines of his poems.)\n\nThe threads connecting us back to his original poetry are at least as fragile as those tying us to him as a spiritual figure, and were just as susceptible to snapping. Rumi's voice first registered in the West, faintly, only in the eighteenth century, when a young Austrian ambassador in Istanbul, Jacques de Wallenbourg, translated the _Masnavi_ into French. More enduring were forty-four _ghazals_ translated into German by Friedrich R\u00fcckert around 1820. One critic spryly characterized a translation of R\u00fcckert's: \"This poem smells of roses.\" Hegel admired the verses for the pantheistic philosophy he believed he detected. Schubert and Strauss set a few to music as _lieder_. The classic English \"orientalist\" scholar R. A. Nicholson produced a grand and enduring translation of the six volumes of the _Masnavi_ , which began appearing in print in 1925. His students at Cambridge University reported that he would weep during his _Masnavi_ lectures. Nicholson's office was decorated in the oriental style, and he would toil over his lifework while draped in long Sufi robes, with a tall, round Mevlevi hat set atop his head.\n\nRumi's words have found receptivity in the \"ear of the heart\"\u2014as he put it\u2014through translations in dozens of languages, though not uniformly. His poems have been most popular on the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent since the early fourteenth century and in Afghanistan, where recitation is probably closest in pronunciation to Rumi's own speech, as Afghani Persian has barely changed since medieval times. While Rumi is currently popular in Israel, his poems are less so in Arabic countries, as they are associated with Persian and Iran. Equally ironically, when the Rumi scholar Foruzanfar was studying as a young man in Mashad, in eastern Iran, he had difficulty finding texts of Rumi, as this \"Sunni poet\" was considered superfluous reading for the many Shia seminary students.\n\nSomething of the American heartbeat has always quickened to Rumi, beginning with the transcendentalist Ralph Waldo Emerson, who retranslated lines from the German of R\u00fcckert:\n\n_Of Paradise am I the Peacock_ ,\n\n_Who has escaped from his nest_.\n\nA decisive event in raising awareness of Rumi even more in the United States occurred in the mid-1970s, when Robert Bly handed a copy of the scholarly translations of A. J. Arberry to the poet Coleman Barks, saying, \"These poems need to be released from their cages.\" The ensuing flutter of renditions in a free-verse American idiom has been vivifying, and often when someone says that they _love_ Rumi they mean Barks's versions. Barks took some heat for not knowing Persian\u2014he works with a native speaker or from literal English academic versions. Yet Rumi has ever been a permissive muse. While less a publishing phenomenon than Barks, the German poet Hans Meinke, who died in 1974, wrote over a hundred odes in Rumi's name, channeling his spirit, as Rumi had Shams's:\n\n_O Rumi, since I became you_ ,\n\n_The turmoil stopped . . ._\n\n_O Rumi, since I became you_ ,\n\n_North has become south and south has become north_.\n\nI suppose that my frustrated wish to speak with Sebastian at the conclusion of my journey had arisen from a need to talk with him once again of his notion of Rumi's \"secret,\" which helped guide me on my way and fortuitously turned out to be as significant to the mystic poet as to his readers and listeners. I'd come to agree with Sebastian that mystery was an essential ingredient in Rumi's enduring power. Rumi spoke of _serr_ often and in many contexts. This veil of secrecy was a virtue and an artistic style in the broader culture of the time. It was the atmosphere Sufi mystics and Persian poets breathed, as\u2014a favorite metaphor of Rumi for lovers\u2014fish swam obliviously in the ocean. Rumi, though, created an unmistakably personal version that resonates in our time beyond the others.\n\nThe greatest and most guarded secret in Rumi's life concerned the nature of his fiery and transformative friendship with Shams of Tabriz, \"the sunshine of the heart.\" Some have explained the torrent of passionate love poems that ensued when Shams disappeared from Rumi's life as fitting into a tradition of devotion of disciple for sheikh. Yet Rumi and Shams\u2014as well as other witnesses\u2014emphasized the complexity of their relationship, its failure to conform to such a neat teacher-student model. While no evidence exists of an erotic component, Rumi chose to speak of their spiritual love in the mode of Persian romantic love poetry, and from weaving the two came his evanescent message. Most ironic in his current appeal in our age of telling-all and exhibitionism is Rumi's conviction\u2014especially in the _Masnavi\u2014_ that even the name of his beloved Shams must be steadily disguised.\n\nHis poetry, too, operated from an aesthetic of secrets. Rumi spoke in code. Shams was the light of the sun, but so was God, and in speaking of the beloved he was also speaking of the unspeakable, or approaching the unspeakable, as the essence of God is love. His stress on the pain of separation applied to both human and divine as well. All Persian love poetry was built from a reservoir of stock images: the young wine-bearer with black eyelashes; the nightingale in the rose garden; cypresses and narcissi, stars and moons. Yet in writing around and toward God, Rumi was writing, too, in the tradition of mystical poetry, including Sufis of the East, but also St. John of the Cross or John Donne of the West. Rumi would have agreed with Emily Dickinson's \"Tell all the truth but tell it slant.\" He used Shams as his _takhallos_ but also Silence, or _Khamush_. The most successful poems for Rumi were failures. Nearing God, they collapsed into silence:\n\n_Explanations make many things clear_\n\n_But love is only clear in silence_\n\nThe most practical of secrets for Rumi concerned his faith. Rumi was born into a religious Muslim family and followed the proscribed rules of daily prayer and fasting throughout his entire life. Yet equally devout Muslim Sufis, such as his beloved Hallaj, had been executed in centuries past, and discretion and speaking in allusive poetry became more than just a stylistic preference among them. At least once, legal charges were pressed against Rumi for his use of music and dance in religious practice, as they had been against Shams for wine drinking. In the _Masnavi_ , Rumi grew bolder in making claims for a \"religion of love\" that went beyond all organized faiths. As Jawid Mojadeddi, who is currently embarked on retranslating into English the entire _Masnavi_ , said to me, \"Rumi resonates today because people are thinking post-religion. He came to see mysticism as the divine origin of every religion.\" Rumi said as much, subtly, in verse:\n\n_When you discover the source of sunlight . . ._\n\n_Whatever direction you go will be east_\n\nWhen I spoke with Coleman Barks by phone from his home in Athens, Georgia, he agreed with Mojadeddi that the sensational response to his own translations in English in our time has much to do with Rumi's emphasis on ecstasy and love over religions and creeds. \"I do believe that Rumi found himself going beyond traditional religion,\" said Barks. \"He has no use for dividing up into the different names of Christian and Jew and Muslim. It was a wild thing to say in the thirteenth century, but he said it, and he was not killed. He must have said it with such gentleness and such authority that they couldn't attack him. None of the fundamentalists attack Rumi. They just don't. They leave him alone because he is so beloved. There is a music of grace inside Rumi's poems that people can hear, not physical music, a psychic music that makes them feel ecstatic.\"\n\nThese exquisitely calibrated ideas and lyrics matter to many readers today then, not simply for their beauty, or even mystery, but also for truths they find helpful in their lives. One evening I had supper in a garden restaurant in lower Manhattan with Asma Sadiq, a pediatrician at Beth Israel Medical Center. Born in Pakistan, she spoke of having been brought back to her roots, as well as to a concept of mental health, by reading Rumi. \"I felt befriended by Rumi,\" Asma said. \"It was very strange but he gave me a connection to something beyond.\" Her father recited Rumi to her as a child, as well as Urdu poets, and at the time of his death, she found solace in Rumi. She also found her way back to her religion and the Quran, especially embracing Sufism, though a disaffected sister failed to see the connection: \"She said to me, 'Rumi was a gentle, smart man, a humanist. Why are you connecting him with religion?'\" Going through difficult times in her personal life, she kept Rumi's poems in her office, to read between patients: \"We're a society in love with love, but Rumi takes that love deeper and acknowledges the pain beyond the high.\"\n\nI recognized at the end of my travels a sensation present with equal force when I first discovered Rumi in my friend's apartment in Miami two decades earlier: the texture of a voice. No matter whether in the echoing lyrics of the _ghazal_ , the sermonic tales of the _Masnavi_ , or his extemporaneous talks, Rumi communicated urgency and intimacy, love and humor, as well as a need to be heard, even while circling secrets. In what I might sniff at or admire in various translations something irresistibly recognizable comes through. While reticent in sharing all the minute details of his everyday life, Rumi remained open, loving, vulnerable, candid, and even confessional. His great achievement\u2014to articulate the sound of one soul speaking:\n\n_Don't speak so you can hear those voices_\n\n_Not yet turned into words or sounds_\nAcknowledgments\n\nA great benefit in writing about Rumi is being refreshed daily by his wise statements and life advice. Early on I was taken with one such line from a _ghazal_ , which became a compass needle in the travels both geographic and literary that have engaged me for nearly eight years: \"Sit close to someone with a big heart, sit in the shade of a tree with fresh leaves.\" Fortunately, Rumi tends to attract scholars, curators, translators, tour guides, devotees, religious leaders, librarians, artists, musicians, and close readers with big hearts. To all of them, who are finally too numerous to name, I owe a debt of gratitude for the extended experience of sitting in the shade of this tree with fresh leaves.\n\nRumi's was a big life, and the world of interest that has grown around him in over eight hundred years is immense. My predecessors in studying the life and work of Rumi include writers and scholars of such accomplishment that I could only hope their contributions register however faintly in my own language and thought. The contemporary American scholar who has devoted himself most exhaustively to Rumi is Franklin D. Lewis, chair of the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at the University of Chicago. His _Rumi: Past and Present, East and West_ was my authoritative source for many of the facts of Rumi's life. I am also grateful to Professor Lewis for taking time to have a conversation over lunch when he was in New York City. Of bygone Rumi scholars of similar stature, I am indebted to the great editor Badi al-Zaman Foruzanfar, of the University of Tehran, and to the vibrant books on the subject by Annemarie Schimmel, formerly Professor of Indo-Muslim Studies at Harvard.\n\nWriting this biography has required many meetings with experts, several of whom have been extraordinarily generous, ignoring any impulse to territoriality in sharing their knowledge\u2014a testament to them and, again, perhaps, to Rumi. Standing out among these is the Iranian-American novelist and essayist Salar Abdoh, codirector of the Creative Writing MFA program at the City College of New York. Dividing his time between Tehran and New York City, Salar was invaluable in finding books for me in the original Persian that were unavailable in the United States. For securing the remainder of such elusive texts through interlibrary loan, I am grateful to W. Gregory Gallagher, the diligent librarian of The Century Association. For other such guidance, I thank: Ahmad Ashraf, managing editor of _Encyclopedia Iranica_ , Columbia University; Mohammad Batmanglij, publisher of Mage books; Dick Davis, the excellent translator of Hafez and other Persian poets; and research specialist David Smith, formerly at the New York Public Library.\n\nAs Rumi wrote and spoke in Persian and most of the contemporary accounts of his life are in Persian as well as some of the most fascinating scholarship, much still not translated, the initial phase of this project involved learning the language. For leading me through the beauties and peculiarities of Farsi my greatest debt is to the writer and native Persian speaker Maryam Mortaz, my first tutor. As the project grew, so did her role, as she was my collaborator on the translations of Rumi and other sources from the original Persian used in this biography. At the University of Texas in Austin, where I took part in the Summer Persian Language Institute in 2011, my talented instructor was Blake Atwood, with whom I subsequently studied in an online graduate-level Persian language course. At the University of Wisconsin in Madison, where I attended the Arabic Persian Turkish Language Immersion Institute in the summer of 2012, I am similarly indebted to Seyede Pouye Khoshkhoosani, Parvaneh Hosseini Fahraji, and Mehrak Kamalisarvestani. For seven years I have also studied on-and-off in the collegial evening classes of Persian taught by Fahimeh Gooran Savadkoohi at the New York University School of Continuing and Professional Studies. For guiding me to all of these programs, and for our stimulating discussions of Persian poetry over coffee, I acknowledge the esteemed literary critic and Iranologist, Mohammad Mehdi Khorrami, clinical professor of Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies at New York University.\n\nTraveling in the lands known to Rumi requires expert help and guidance. Among those who made my travels both possible and most rewarding: the Harvard Museum of Natural History Travel Program; Dmitry Rudich at MIR Corporation in Seattle; and my guides Muzafar Ibragimov in Tajikistan, Mahmood Daryaee in Iran, and \u00dczeyir \u00d6zyurt in Konya, Turkey, where I was also shown around by the highly informed Dr. Naci Bakirci, associate director of the Mevlana Museum, and Dr. Nuri \u015eim\u015fekler of the Sel\u00e7uk University of Konya. Of helpful friends, I wish to thank: Saadi Alkouatli for his part in arranging my trip within Syria; for her advice on traveling in Central Asia, Dr. Emily Jane O'Dell; Dr. Robert Finn, formerly the United States ambassador to Afghanistan; Frederick Eberstadt; Omer Ko\u00e7, for his hospitality in Istanbul and for providing me with an introduction to Esin Celebi Bayru, Rumi's granddaughter from the twenty-second generation; and Joshua W. Walker. I am also grateful to Richard David Story, the editor in chief of _Departures_ magazine, for commissioning the article \"Turkey's Magical Mystical Tour.\"\n\nFor interviews kindly granted either in person, through email, or on Skype, I wish to thank: Coleman Barks; William Chittick, professor of Asian and Asian American Studies at Stony Brook University, to whom I was kindly introduced by his student Behrooz Karjooravary; Kabir Helminksi; Ahmet Karamustafa, professor of History at the University of Maryland; Jawid Mojaddedi, associate professor of Religion and director of Graduate Studies, Rutgers University, and translator of _The Masnavi_ ; Asma Sadiq, M.D., director of the Division of Developmental-Behavioral Pediatrics, Beth Israel Medical Center; Professor Dr. Kelim Erkan T\u00fcrkmen; travel writer and linguist Bruce Wannell; and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, founder of The Center for Iranian Studies, and Hagop Kevorkian Professor Emeritus of Iranian Studies at Columbia University.\n\nFor invaluable ongoing advice on the writing of this book, I wish to thank my perceptive friend and longtime \"first reader\" Barbara Heizer for her generous and characteristically insightful responses. I relied as well on my two resourceful research assistants Mariam Rahmani and Jacob Denz, and on the cartographer Anandaroop Roy for designing the accompanying maps. For expert readings of later versions of the book, I am indebted to Imam Feisal Abdul Rauf, chairman of The Cordoba Initiative, Joel Conarroe, and Daniel Rafinejad. I cannot imagine this book existing in its present form without the influence at critical moments of my editor at Harper, William Strachan, as well as the early, bold, and continuous support of my publisher, Jonathan Burnham, and the tiger in my corner, my agent, Joy Harris, whose passion for this project has never wavered.\n\nRumi's name will always be synonymous with love. He is the poet of love and, as he put it, \"the preacher of love.\" Nowhere has love been more real to me during the writing of this book than in my family, a kind of team of love. I could never decide whether my partner, Paul Raushenbush, was the Rumi in my life or the Shams, but he was certainly the loving and listening collaborator and fellow traveler in the creation of this book in more ways than I could ever spell out. The miracle of love, who happily arrived during the last year of _Rumi's Secret_ , our son, Walter, has by now made everything new, including writing, and the sort of reading that takes place on cardboard pages, bringing to life for us Rumi's essential line, \"Your love claps its hands, creating a hundred worlds.\"\nNote on Transliteration\n\nTHE guiding principle in transliterating Persian and Arabic words in this biography has been to ease the difficulties of non-specialist readers. Persian words have been rendered into Latin script according to the standard Iranian pronunciation of today. Words of Arabic origin that have entered English parlance, such as hijab or Kaaba, have retained their common spellings. Proper names of Arab historical figures have been transliterated according to a simplified version of the system used by the _International Journal of Middle East Studies_. Diacritic marks have been entirely omitted, except in the bibliographical citations, where a stricter system of transliteration, which adheres more closely to the titling of articles or books in library catalogues, has been used.\nGlossary of Names\n\nFAMILY\n\n_Alaoddin Mohammad_. One of Rumi's two sons by his first wife, named after Rumi's brother.\n\n_Bahaoddin Valad_ , or _Baha Valad_. Rumi's father.\n\n_Fateme Khatun_ , or _Fateme_. Daughter of Salahoddin; wife of Sultan Valad.\n\n_Gowhar Khatun_ , or _Gowhar_. First wife of Rumi.\n\n_Great Kerra_ , the. Mother of Rumi's first wife; a Samarkand disciple of Rumi's father.\n\n_Kerra Khatun_ , or _Kerra_. Second wife of Rumi.\n\n_Kimiya_. In harem of Rumi; wife of Shams of Tabriz.\n\n_Kimiya Khatun_ , or _Kimiya_. Stepdaughter of Rumi; daughter of Kerra Khatun.\n\n_Maleke Khatun_. Rumi's daughter, with Kerra Khatun.\n\n_Momene Khatun_ , or _Momene_. Rumi's mother, one of Bahaoddin Valad's wives.\n\n_Mozaffaroddin Amir Alem Chelebi_. Rumi's third son, with Kerra Khatun.\n\n_Shamsoddin Yahya_. Stepson of Rumi, son of Kerra Khatun.\n\n_Sultan Valad_ , or _Bahaoddin Mohammad_. One of Rumi's two sons by his first wife.\n\n_Ulu Amir Aref Chelebi_ , or _Jalaloddin Faridun_. Rumi's grandson, son of Sultan Valad and Fateme.\n\nFRIENDS\n\n_Badroddin Gowhartash_. Fortress commander, built _madrase_ in Konya for Rumi's family.\n\n_Borhanoddin Mohaqqeq_ , or _Borhan_. Born in Termez, Rumi's tutor, godfather, and guide.\n\n_Gorji Khatun_ , \" _the Georgian lady_ ,\" or _Tamar_. Noblewoman, devotee of Rumi.\n\n_Hosamoddin Chelebi_ , or _Hosam_. Rumi's final beloved companion; wrote down _Masnavi_.\n\n_Ibnal-Adim_. Poet, historian, and diplomat, as well as Rumi's prime teacher in Aleppo.\n\n_Sadroddin Qonavi_. Godson of Ibn Arabi; in Konya, taught a path of mystical knowledge.\n\n_Salahoddin Zarkub_ , or _Salah_. Goldsmith; Rumi's beloved companion after Shams.\n\n_Serajoddin Ormovi_. Religious judge in Konya during Rumi's mature years.\n\n_Shamsoddin, Shams of Tabriz_ , or _Shams_. Rumi's beloved companion, and the \"face of the sun.\"\n\nPOETS AND WRITERS\n\n_Attar_. An herbal apothecary, in Nishapur; wrote _The Conference of the Birds_.\n\n_Jami_. Fifteenth-century Naqshabandi Sufi poet of Khorasan.\n\n_Khayyam, Omar_. Twelfth-century mathematician from Nishapur, famous for his _robaiyyat_.\n\n_al-Mutanabbi_. Major eleventh-century Arabic poet, a lifelong favorite of Rumi.\n\n_Nezami_. Court poet in Azerbaijan; wrote classic romance in couplets, _Layli and Majnun_.\n\n_Rudaki_. Tenth-century innovative poet in Bukhara said to have invented the _robai_ form.\n\n_Sanai_. From Ghazna, Central Afghanistan; adapted courtly forms for spiritual subjects.\n\n_Yaqut_. Muslim geographer and travel writer; a contemporary of Rumi.\n\nPOLITICAL FIGURES\n\n_Alaoddin Kayqobad I_. Seljuk Sultan (r. 1219\u201337); invited Rumi's family to Konya.\n\n_Alaoddin Kayqobad II_. Seljuk Sultan (r. 1246\u201357). Youngest son of Kaykhosrow II, his mother was the Georgian princess Gorji Khatun; died on mission to the Mongol court.\n\n_Aminoddin Mikail_. A treasury official and viceroy, his wife was a disciple of Rumi.\n\n_Ezzoddin Kaykaus II_. Seljuk Sultan (r. 1246, or 1248\u201360). Eldest of three sons of Kaykhosrow II, his mother was the daughter of a Greek priest.\n\n_Ghengis Khan_ (c. 1162\u20131227). Founder and Great Khan of the Mongol Empire.\n\n_Ghiasoddin Kaykhosrow II_ , Seljuk Sultan (r. 1237\u201346) married to Gorji Khatun.\n\n_Ghiasoddin Kaykhosrow III_ (r. 1264\u201382), Seljuk Sultan set up, when no more than seven years old, by the Parvane.\n\n_Hulagu Khan_ (c. 1218\u20131265). Grandson of Ghenghis Khan; conquered much of western Asia and led the siege and attack on Damascus.\n\n_Khwarazmshah, Alaoddin Mohammad_ , b. _Takesh_ (r. 1200\u20131220). Ruler of Khwarazm, in Central Asia, during Rumi's childhood; besieged Samarkand.\n\n_Moinoddin Solayman Parvane_ (\"The Butterfly\"). Statesman, and de facto ruler of Seljuk Anatolia during the period of the Mongol protectorate; married to Gorji Khatun.\n\n_Nezam al-Molk_. Eleventh-century Seljuk vizier; founded Nezamiyye University in Baghdad; patron of Omar Khayyam, and author of a handbook on statecraft.\n\n_Roknoddin, Qelij Arslan IV_ (r. 1246\u201364), Seljuk Sultan. Second son of Kaykhosrow II, his mother was a Greek slave and concubine. Apparently murdered at a banquet.\n\nRELIGIOUS FIGURES\n\n_Bayazid Bestami_. Ninth-century Sufi; promoted a \"drunken\" School of Sufism.\n\n_Fakhroddin Razi of Herat_. Muslim analytic philosopher and preacher disliked by Rumi's father.\n\n_al-Ghazali, Abu Hamed Mohammad_. Eleventh-century luminary of Nezamiyye College, Baghdad; rejected logical philosophy in his _The Revival of the Religious Sciences_.\n\n_al-Ghazali, Ahmad_. Radical Sufi poet and mystic; brother of Mohammad al-Ghazali.\n\n_al-Hallaj, Mansur_. Tenth-century ecstatic or \"drunken\" Sufi, executed in Baghdad.\n\n_Ibn Arabi_. Spanish-born Arab mystic; wrote _Meccan Revelations_ , a synthesis of mystical thought in Rumi's era; taught in Damascus and Aleppo.\n\n_Jonayd_. Tenth-century Sufi; promoted the \"sober\" School of Baghdad.\nGlossary of Terms\n\n_Abbasid_. The third of the Islamic caliphates to succeed the Prophet Mohammad, the Abbasids ruled mostly from their capital in Baghdad in modern-day Iraq after assuming authority from the Umayyads in the eighth century.\n\n_akhavan_. A sodality of craftsmen, laborers, and merchants, similar to early guilds, with overtones of chivalry and brotherhood.\n\n_Ayyubid_. A Muslim dynasty founded by Saladin and centered in Egypt with sultans often vying for power in Syria and other parts of the Middle East.\n\n_Baba_. Religious figures, often accompanying Turkmen immigrating to Anatolia from Central Asia.\n\n_caliph_. A term meaning \"deputy\" or \"successor\" of the Prophet Mohammad after his death, applied to the governing religious leader of Muslims.\n\n_caravanserai_. A roadside inn, also known as a _han_.\n\n_chelle_. Sufi initiatory practice of an extended period of isolation from the world.\n\n_dervish_. The Turkish version of a Persian word for those who renounced the world, or for the poor in God; commonly used for Sufis.\n\n_divan_. A collection of poems.\n\n_fatwa_. A ruling of a religious scholar on questions of Islamic jurisprudence.\n\n_fotovvat_. A widespread brotherhood within Islam, which included some caliphs as members, and combined chivalric morals and a set of ethics with Sufi mysticism as well as a touch of militant power.\n\n_ghazal_. Lyrical, rhymed poems, often on romantic themes, sometimes including _radif_ , or repeated words or phrases at the end of each line, and not usually exceeding sixteen lines.\n\n_hadith_. Recorded sayings or teachings of the Prophet Mohammad.\n\n_hajj_. The annual pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca, incumbent on able Muslims at least once in a lifetime.\n\n_harem_. Separate quarters for women and young children in a traditional Muslim household.\n\n_hazl_. Bawdy Persian poems featuring course satire and vulgar language.\n\n_jinn_. Invisible, mischievous spirits, or genies.\n\n_Kaaba_. The most sacred shrine in Islam, located in the courtyard of the Great Mosque at Mecca, and believed to have been built by the patriarch Abraham.\n\n_khaneqah_. A Sufi lodge.\n\n_Khorasan_. The eastern region of the former Persian Empire, including much of modern-day eastern Iran, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Tajikistan.\n\n_lale_. A tutor for children.\n\n_madrase_. An upper-level school or college.\n\n_maktab_. Elementary school.\n\n_malamatiyya_. Followers of the \"path of blame,\" who purposely disguised their piety in unorthodox clothing and behavior.\n\n_Mamluk_. A military or warrior caste that rose from the ranks of slave soldiers to eventually control sultanates in Egypt and Syria in the thirteenth century.\n\n_masnavi_. A long poem in rhyming couplets, often on spiritual themes; also the preferred form for narrative in classical Persian.\n\n_mihrab_. A wall niche in mosques indicating the direction of the holy city of Mecca.\n\n_minbar_. Pulpit in a mosque.\n\n_Mowlana_. Rumi's title, meaning \"Our Master,\" or \"Our Teacher.\" The term in Turkish is \"Mevlana,\" the basis of the name for the Mevlevi Order.\n\n_nay_. A reed flute.\n\n_qasida_. A longer ode, often of praise, but also written with elegiac, satirical, didactic, or religious content.\n\n_qadi_. A local Muslim judge of religious law.\n\n_qibla_. The direction of Mecca, which is the orientation for Muslim prayer.\n\n_rabab_. A rebec, or small, stringed, upright instrument, sometimes bowed like a fiddle.\n\n_robai_. A poem consisting of a four-line quatrain, often including short, pithy observations about life.\n\n_sama_. Meditative sessions of listening to music and poetry, sometimes accompanied by a whirling dance.\n\n_Seljuks_. Originally one of dozens of nomadic Turkic clans in Central Asia, the Seljuks enjoyed a two-century hold on power in the central Islamic lands\u2014the Great Seljuks the \"protector\" of the Abbasid caliphate in Baghdad, and the Seljuks in Anataolia defeating the Byzantines to establish a Seljuk Sultanate.\n\n_Sharia_. Religious law, differently interpreted in such Sunni schools of law as Hanafi, which was followed by Rumi's family, Shafii, and Hanbali.\n\n_sheikh_. In the Sufi tradition, a spiritual leader or guide.\n\n_Shia_. The minority branch of Islam believing that the leadership of Islam should reside with the descendants of the family of the Prophet Mohammad, beginning with his cousin and son-in-law Ali. \"Shia\" literally means \"Party of Ali.\"\n\n_Sufism_. The mystical branch of Islam, from the root word \" _suf_ ,\" or wool, perhaps for the woolen robes worn by early Sufi ascetics, rejecting wealth and worldliness.\n\n_Sunni_. The majority branch of Islam, believing leadership of Islam was rightfully passed down through the Companions of the Prophet, following the \"sunna\" or example of the Prophet, rather than residing necessarily with the family and descendants.\n\n_takhallos_. A signature, tag, or pen name, used by a poet, and usually reserved for the last line of a _ghazal_ ; also described as a \"clasp,\" holding together its strung pearls of single lines into a necklace.\n\n_Umayyad_. The second of the Islamic caliphates to succeed the Prophet Mohammad, the Umayyad dynasty ruled mostly from Damascus, beginning in the seventh century until overturned by the Abbasid dynasty in the eighth century.\nMaps\n\nCentral Asia and the Middle East in the Thirteenth Century CE\n\nAnatolia and Neighboring Lands in the Thirteenth Century CE\n_References_\n\nWORKS CITED [DIRECT TRANSLATIONS]\n\nal-Aflaki, Shams al-Din Ahmad. _Man\u00e2qeb al-'\u00e2refin_ , ed., Tahsin Yazici, 2 vols. (Ankara: T\u00fcrk Tarih Kurumu Basimevi, 1959). Reference is made to the offset reprint, 4th edition (Tehran: Dony\u00e2-ye Ket\u00e2b, 1985\/2006).\n\nBah\u00e2 al-Din Valad. _Ma'\u00e2ref: majmu'e-ye mav\u00e2'ez va sokhan\u00e2nan-e Solt\u00e2n al-'olam\u00e2 Bah\u00e2 al-Din Mohammad b. Hosayn Khatibi-ye Balkhi_ , ed., Badi' al-Zam\u00e2n Foruz\u00e2nfar, 2 vols. (Tehran: Ed\u00e2re-ye Koll-e Enteba'\u00e2t-e Vez\u00e2rat-e Farhang, 1955 and 1959.) A 2nd edition was published in Tehran in 1973.\n\nBorh\u00e2n al-Din Mohaqqeq. _Ma'\u00e2ref: majmu'e-ye mav\u00e2'ez va kalam\u00e2t-e Seyyed Borh\u00e2n al-Din Mohaqqeq-e Termezi_ , ed., Badi' al-Zam\u00e2n Foruz\u00e2nfar. 2nd edition. (Tehran: Markaz-e Nashr-e D\u00e2neshg\u00e2h-e Tehr\u00e2n, section edition, 1998). First published 1961.\n\nFaridun b. Ahmad Sepahs\u00e2l\u00e2r. _Res\u00e2le-ye Sepahs\u00e2l\u00e2r_ , ed. by Sa'id Nafisi (Tehran: Eqb\u00e2l, 1325\/1947); reprinted as _Zendegin\u00e2me-ye Mowl\u00e2n\u00e2 Jal\u00e2l al-Din Mowlavi_ in 1983).\n\nForuz\u00e2nfar, Badi' al-Zam\u00e2n. _Res\u00e2le dar tahqiq-e ahv\u00e2l va zendeg\u00e2ni-ye Mowl\u00e2n\u00e2 Jal\u00e2l al-Din Mohammad mashhur be Mowlavi_ , rev. 4th edition (Tehran: Zavv\u00e2r, 1978). First published 1951.\n\nRumi. _Div\u00e2n-e Shams-e Tabrizi_. Following the edition of Badi' al-Zam\u00e2n Foruz\u00e2nfar, _Kolliy\u00e2t-e Shams y\u00e2 Div\u00e2n-e Kabir_ , 10 vols. (Tehran: University of Tehran Press, 1957\u201367). Reference is made to the edition of the entire series reprinted by Amir Kabir in nine volumes, 2535\/1977. The _Div\u00e2n_ gives the number for each _ghaza l_ , _robai_ , and _tarji-band_.\n\n  _Fihe m\u00e2 fih az goft\u00e2r-e Mowl\u00e2n\u00e2 Jal\u00e2l al-Din Mohammad mashhur be Mowlavi_ , ed. Badi' al-Zam\u00e2n Foruz\u00e2nfar (Tehran: Neg\u00e2h, 1389\/2010). First edition published by Amir Kabir, 1951.\n\n  _Maj\u00e2les-e sabe'e_ (Tehran: Kayh\u00e2n, reprint 1994). First edition published in 1986.\n\n  _Maktub\u00e2t-e Mowl\u00e2n\u00e2 Jal\u00e2l al-Din Rumi_ , ed., Towfiq Sobh\u00e2ni (Tehran: Markaz-e Nashr-e D\u00e2neshg\u00e2hi, 1992).\n\n  _Masnavi-ye ma'navi_ , ed., R. A. Nicholson as _The Mathnawi of Jalalu'ddin Rumi_ , E. J. W. Gibb Memorial, new series (London: Luzac & Co., 1925, 1929, 1933). Reference is made in these pages to the one-volume edition subsequently printed in Iran (Tehran: Gooya Books, 1386\/2007).\n\nShams al-Din Tabrizi. _Maq\u00e2lat-e Shams-e Tabrizi_ , ed., Mohammad 'Ali Movahhed (Tehran: Sah\u00e2mi, Entesh\u00e2r\u00e2t-e Khw\u00e2razmi, 1990).\n\nSultan Valad. _Div\u00e2n_ : _Div\u00e2n-e Sultan Valad_ , ed., S. Nafisi (Tehran 1338\/1959).\n\n  _Masnavi-ye Valadi, ensh\u00e2'-e Bah\u00e2 al-Din b. Mowl\u00e2n\u00e2 Jal\u00e2l al-Din Mohammad b. Hosayn-e Balkhi, mashhur be Mowlavi_ , ed., Jal\u00e2l al-Din Hom\u00e2'i (Tehran: Hom\u00e2, 1389\/2010. Second Printing. First edition published by Eqb\u00e2l, 1316\/1937.) Known as _Valad n\u00e2me_ in Iran, and as _Ebted\u00e2 n\u00e2me_ in Turkey. [My translations are in prose; the original was written in _masnavi_ verse couplets.]\n\nWORKS CITED (SECONDARY SOURCES)\n\nBarthold, W. _Turkestan Down to the Mongol Invasion_ (Exeter, Great Britain: E. J. W. Gibb Memorial Trust. First published in English in 1928, 2012 reprint).\n\nBennison, Amira K. _The Great Caliphs: The Golden Age of the Abbasid Empire_ (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2009).\n\nBobrick, Benson. _The Caliph's Splendor: Islam and the West in the Golden Age of Baghdad_ (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012).\n\nBrowne, Edward G. _A Literary History of Persia: 1000\u20131290_ (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1969; first published in 1906).\n\nChamberlain, Michael. _Knowledge and Social Practice in Medieval Damascus, 1190\u20131390_ (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994).\n\nChittick, William C. _The Sufi Path of Love_ (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983).\n\nHansen, Valerie. _The Silk Road: A New History_ (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).\n\nHarvey, Andrew. _The Way of Passion: A Celebration of Rumi_ (Berkeley, California: Frog, Ltd. 1994).\n\nHirtenstein, Stephen. _The Unlimited Mercifier: The Spiritual Life and Thought of Ibn Arabi_ (Ashland, Oregon: Anqa Publishing, 1999).\n\nKaramustafa, Ahmet T. _Sufism: The Formative Period_ (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2007).\n\nLe Strange, Guy. _The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate: Mesopotamia, Persia, and Central Asia from the Moslem Conquest to the Time of Timur_ (New York: Cosimo Classics, 2010; first published in 1905).\n\n  _Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate_ (New York: Cosimo Classics, 2011; first published in 1901).\n\nLewis, Bernard, editor and translator. _Music of a Distant Drum: Classical Arabic, Persian, Turkish and Hebrew Poems_ (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2001; first published in hardcover by Oneworld Publications, 2000.)\n\nLewis, Franklin D. _Rumi: Past and Present, East and West_ (Oxford: A Oneworld Book, 2008, revised paperback edition). First published in hardback by Oneworld Publications, 2005.\n\n  \"Reading, Writing, and Recitation: Sanai and the Origins of the Persian Ghazal\" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1995).\n\nMorray, David. _An Ayyubid Notable and His World: Ibn al-Adim and Aleppo as Portrayed in His Biographical Dictionary of People Associated with the City_ (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994).\n\nRypka, Jan. _History of Iranian Literature_ (Dordrecht-Holland: D. Reidel Publishing Company, 1968).\n\nSafi, Omid. _The Politics of Knowledge in Premodern Islam: Negotiating Ideology and Religious Inquiry_ (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006).\n\nSchmimmel, Annemarie. _As Through a Veil: Mystical Poetry in Islam_ (Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2001, originally published 1982).\n\n  _Mystical Dimensions of Islam_ (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975).\n\n  _Rumi's World: The Life and Work of the Great Sufi Poet_ (Boston & London: Shambhala Press, 2001; originally published as _I Am Wind, You Are Fire)_.\n\n  _The Triumphal Sun_ (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993).\n\nTabatabai, Sassan. _Father of Persian Verse: Rudaki and His Poetry_ (Leiden: Leiden University Press, Iranian Study Series, 2010).\n\nWeatherford, Jack. _Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World_ (New York: Crown Publishers, 2004).\n\nZarrinkub, A. H. _Step by Step Up to Union with God: Life, Thought and Spiritual Journey of Jalal-al-Din Rumi_ , trans. by M. Kayvani (New York: Persian Heritage Foundation, 2009).\nNotes\n\nEPIGRAPH\n\nxi \"Love stole.\" Ghazal #940.\n\nPROLOGUE\n\n _Masnavi_. Its full title, _Masnavi-ye ma'navi_ , is sometimes translated into English as \"Spiritual Verses.\"\n\n \"Hearken to this reed.\" _Rumi: Poet and Mystic_. Translated by Reynold Nicholson (London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1950), 31.\n\n \"I am the black cloud.\" #183. _Mystical Poems of Rumi_. Translated by A. J. Arberry. (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press edition, 2009), 197.\n\n \"Islam in New York City.\" A chapter of my book _Godtalk: Travels in Spiritual America_ (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002).\n\n \"best-selling poet.\" Ptolemy Tompkins, \"Rumi Rules!\" _Time Asia_ 160, no. 13 (October 7, 2002), 62.\n\n \"Out beyond ideas of wrongdoing.\" _The Essential Rumi_. Translations by Coleman Barks with John Moyne, A. J. Arberry, Reynold Nicholson (Edison, New Jersey: Castle Books, 1997), 36.\n\n \"If you accustom yourself.\" _Signs of the Unseen: The Discourses of Jalaluddin Rumi_. Introduction and translation by W. M. Thackston Jr. (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 1994), Discourse 55, 210.\n\n \"paradise on earth.\" Ghazal #1493. All the lines from the _ghazals_ and _robais_ are taken from the _Div\u00e2n-e Shams-e Tabrizi_.\n\n \"The mind is a caravanserai.\" _Masnavi_ , V, 3644; 3646.\n\n \"calls me from the other side.\" Aflaki, _Man\u00e2qeb al-'\u00e2refin, III, sec_. 579, 589.\n\n \"If you visit my grave.\" Ghazal #683.\n\n \"No one understood.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 333, 400.\n\nCHAPTER 1: \"IN A LIGHTNING FLASH FROM HERE TO VAKHSH\"\n\n \"In a lightning flash.\" _Masnavi_ , IV, 3319.\n\n \"These are angels.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 1, 73.\n\n \"Let's jump.\" Ibid., III, sec. 2, 74.\n\n \"Love is your father.\" Ghazal #333.\n\n \"no name.\" Robai #1143.\n\n \"My Jalaloddin.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 2, 74.\n\n \"mean temper . . . .\" Baha, _Ma'\u00e2ref_ , 2:62.\n\n Vakhsh. An equation of Vakhsh with the medieval city of Lewkand, near the modern village of Sangtuda, is established in V. Minorsky, _Hudud al-'al\u00e2m: Translation and Commentary_ (London: E. J. W. Gibb Memorial Series, New Series, XI, 1970), 359, 361. His findings are corroborated by Barthold, _Turkestan Down to the Mongol Invasion_ , 69, and J. Marquart, _Eransahr nach der Geographie des Ps. Moses Xorenanc I_ , Abh.kgl.Ges.Wiss.G\u00f6ttingen, Phil.-hist. KLI.NJ Bd III, Nro. 2, 1901, 232\u201334, 236, 299, 303. Marquart writes that \"as so often happens among the Arabs, the name of the country [Vakhsh] was carried over [to what] must have been considered its capital city [Lewkand]\" (299). These studies are cited by Fritz Meier, _Baha-e Walad: Grundz\u00fcge seines Lebens and seiner Mystik_ (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1989), 15, footnote 7, the study that first established Vakhsh as the home of Baha Valad between 1204 and 1210. Meier deduces that if Minorsky is correct then Vakhsh was located on the thirty-eighth parallel of latitude. Franklin D. Lewis in _Rumi: Past and Present, East and West_ (Oxford: A Oneworld Book, 2008, revised paperback edition), 47, further pinpoints the location of medieval Vakhsh\/Lewkand near the modern-day village of Sangtuda, Tajikistan, on the east bank of the Vakhshab River, about sixty-five kilometers southeast of Dushanbe, thirty-five kilometers northeast of Kurgan-Tyube, within five hundred kilometers of China.\n\n \"very fertile.\" Guy Le Strange, _The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate: Mesopotamia, Persia, and Central Asia from the Moslem Conquest to the Time of Timur_ (New York: Cosimo Classics, 2010; first published in 1905), 438.\n\n \"your sweet scent.\" Ghazal #12.\n\n \"religion of lovers.\" _Masnavi_ , II, 1770.\n\n \"If he is Turk or Tajik.\" Ghazal #58.\n\n \"Why is divine light.\" Ghazal #332.\n\n \"Joyful Prince.\" _Masnavi_ , II, 929.\n\n \"Allah, Allah, Allah.\" Aflaki, III, secs. 159\u201361, 250\u201351.\n\n \"the light of God.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 2, 25.\n\n \"This arousal.\" Baha, 1:381.\n\n \"Maybe like the morning.\" Baha, 1:327.\n\n \"Embrace God.\" Baha, 2:28.\n\n \"I began to wonder.\" Baha, 2:138.\n\n \"Sometimes I feel.\" Baha, 1:374.\n\n \"Sultan al-Olama.\" Baha, 1:188\u201389.\n\n \"deviant.\" Baha, 1:82.\n\n \"useless.\" Ibid.\n\n \"But I have not found.\" _Encyclopedia of Islam_ , New Edition, vol. 2, C-G, 1965, s.v. \"Fakhr al-Din al-Razi.\"\n\n \"That philosopher.\" _Masnavi_ , IV, 3354.\n\n Journal. Known as _Ma'\u00e2ref_ , or \"Intimations,\" this journal was held by Rumi, then recopied and circulated in private libraries of the Mevlevi order in Konya and Istanbul over seven centuries. When Rumi's Iranian editor Badi al-Zaman Foruzunfar obtained a handwritten copy in Tehran in the 1950s, he was impressed enough to publish a critical edition. He praised Baha Valad's \"elegance of expression\" as \"one of the best examples of poetic prose\" in Persian [Lewis, _Rumi_ , 85]. A. J. Arberry, translating twenty sections into English, found his Persian \"remarkably fine and eloquent\" [Arberry, _Aspects of Islamic Civilizaion_ , 228]. For the German Rumi scholar Annemarie Schimmel, the text was \"rather weird\" but the visions \"astounding\" [see Annemarie Schimmel, _The Triumphal Son: A Study of the Works of Jalaloddin Rumi_ (Albany: State University of New York, 1993; first published in 1978 by FineBooks Ltd, Great Britain), 398].\n\n \"God inspired me.\" Baha, 2:138.\n\n \"I will be.\" Baha 1:354.\n\n \"You brother.\" Also translated as \"Your sister's a whore.\" See Aflaki, III, sec. 417, 451.\n\n \"a grand Storybook.\" Rumi. _A Rumi Anthology_ , trans. by Reynold A. Nicholson (Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2000), Introduction, xxiii.\n\n \"Go ask Kalile.\" _Masnavi_ , I, 899.\n\n \"You must have read.\" _Masnavi_ , IV, 2203.\n\n \"No one has ever seen.\" Ferdowsi, _Shahname: The Epic of the Persian Kings_ , trans. by Ahmad Sadri (New York: The Quantuck Lane Press, 2013), 347.\n\n \"sets the world on fire.\" Ghazal #975.\n\n \"Anywhere you find anger.\" Ghazal #2198.\n\n \"When the perfume of your grace.\" Ghazal #690.\n\n \"The hero gives a wooden sword.\" Ghazal #27.\n\n \"It occurred to me.\" Baha, 1:360.\n\nCHAPTER 2: SAMARKAND\n\n \"1212.\" Yolande Crowe, \"Samarkand,\" _The Encyclopedia of Islam_ , Volume VIII (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1993), 1033. Possible dates suggested elsewhere for the siege of Samarkand, which fixes the presence of Rumi and family in the city, are 1211 or 1213.\n\n \"Inside this month.\" Ghazal #2344.\n\n \"perpetually clear.\" Abul-Fida, cited in Afzal Iqbal, _Life & Work of Muhammad Jalal-ud-Din Rumi_ (New Delhi: Kitab Bhavan, 2003), 29.\n\n \"Her pulse was beating.\" _Masnavi_ , I, 167\u201370.\n\n \"Astonishing figures.\" Ibn Hawqal, cited in W. Barthold, _Turkestan Down to the Mongol Invasion_ (Exeter, Great Britain: E. J. W. Gibb Memorial Trust. First published in English in 1928, 2012 reprint), 91.\n\n \"Spread out the paper.\" Ghazal #1.\n\n _robai_. Ibn Sina (Avicenna), in the chapter on poetics in his _Mantiq al-shif\u00e2'_ , mentions an alternative possibility that the _robai_ might have been of Greek origin. See A. M. Damghani, \"Persian Sufi Literature in Arabic,\" in _The Heritage of Sufism: Volume I: Classical Persian Sufism from Its Origins to Rumi_ (Oxford: Oneworld, 1999), 53, fn. 35.\n\n \"Sugar.\" _Masnavi_ , III, 3863.\n\n \"The death of a great man.\" Ghazal #1007.\n\n \"Now stirs the scent.\" Translation by the author from Persian text, in Sassan Tabatabai, _Father of Persian Verse: Rudaki and His Poetry_ (Leiden: Leiden University Press, Iranian Study Series, 2010), 31.\n\n \"Now stirs the scent of the garden and the gardener.\" Ghazal #2897. (Cited in Usman Hadid, \"Transformer,\" _The Friday Times_ , Pakistan weekly newspaper, vol. 25, no. 16, May 31\u2013June 6, 2013, 24.)\n\n \"We were in Samarkand.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 44, 195.\n\n \"The word is an arrow.\" Ghazal #3073.\n\n \"Join together.\" _Masnavi_ , IV, 3289.\n\n \"Someone said.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 41, 180.\n\n \"He went.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 246, 321.\n\n \"waving his hands.\" Aflaki, IV, sec. 84, 681.\n\n high literacy rates. For a discussion of Muslim literacy, libraries, and schools and colleges in the Abbasid period in contrast with Europe, see Edmund Burke III, \"Islam at the Center: Technological Complexes and the Roots of Modernity,\" _Journal of World History_ , vol. 20, no. 2 (June 2009) 177\u201382.\n\n \"That anxious mother.\" _Masnavi_ , VI, 1433.\n\n \"Stay away.\" VI, 1436\u201337.\n\n \"At first.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 30, 151.\n\n nurture over nature. The Mutazilites favored such teaching. Mutazila was an Islamic school of theology stressing rational thought over sacred precedent; they argued that the Quran was created, or written, rather than having been eternal or always coexisting with God.\n\n \"The opinions.\" _Masnavi_ , III, 1542\u201343.\n\n \"The cleverest boy.\" III, 1526\u201328.\n\n \"Your love.\" III, 551.\n\n \"A window.\" VI, 3198.\n\n \"The flames.\" III, 3102\u201303.\n\n \"Some enjoy.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 43, 187.\n\n \"Amazing.\" _Masnavi_ , III, 1858\u201359.\n\n \"That peerless.\" III, 1871.\n\n \"always lifting.\" Aflaki, II, sec. 1, 58.\n\n \"Go!\" _Masnavi_ , II, 1319.\n\n \"ability to argue.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 25, 129.\n\n \"just like a glass.\" Borhan, _Ma'aref_ , 14.\n\n \"Closeness.\" _Masnavi_ , III, 549\u201350.\n\n \"perfect saint.\" Aflaki, IV, sec. 84, 680.\n\n \"When God is taking.\" Baha, 1:354.\n\n \"from Rome to Khorasan.\" Rubai #1910.\n\n rhythm. According to legend, Persian-Arabic poetic meters echo the different patterns of a camel's footfalls.\n\n \"Drunkenly pulling.\" Ghazal #302.\n\n \"Our voices.\" Ghazal #304.\n\nCHAPTER 3: ON THE SILK ROAD\n\n \"Silk Road.\" I am indebted for this characterization of the Silk Road to Valerie Hansen, _The Silk Road: A New History_ (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 5\u20137.\n\n \"Since I came.\" Ghazal #1373.\n\n _The Conference of the Birds_. The original title is _Manteq al-tayr_.\n\n \"Your son.\" William C. Chittick, _The Sufi Path of Love_ (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983), 2.\n\n _Book of Secrets_. The original title is _Asrarname_.\n\n \"to lose their heads.\" J. T. P. De Bruijn. _Persian Sufi Poetry: An Introduction to the Mystical Use of Classical Poems_ (London: Routledge, 1997), 107.\n\n \"the unique Attar.\" Ghazal #824.\n\n \"the scent of Attar.\" Ghazal #24.\n\n \"Whatever you want.\" Ghazal #2634.\n\n Sanai. For a critique of the story of Sanai's sudden conversion to Sufism and complete abandonment of court poetry as a simplification of the facts see Franklin D. Lewis, \"Reading, Writing, and Recitation: Sanai and the Origins of the Persian Ghazal\" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1995).\n\n _Garden of Truth_. The original title is _Hadiqat al-haqiqe_.\n\n \"The Royal Road.\" Quoted in J. T. P. de Bruijn, \"Comparative Notes on Sana'i and Attar,\" in _The Heritage of Sufism. Volume I_ , ed., Leonard Lewisohn (Oxford: Oneworld, 1999), 371.\n\n parodied. See _Masnavi_ , II, 2617 ff.\n\n \"Attar was the soul.\" Sultan Valad, _Divan_ , 240.\n\n \"Whoever deeply.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 430, 458.\n\n \"Whether at Nishapur.\" Translation by Edward Fitzgerald, in _Persian Poets_ , selected and edited by Peter Washington (New York: Everyman's Library, 2000), 16.\n\n \"bathing in his sweat.\" Quoted in de Bruijn, _Persian Sufi Poetry_ , 12.\n\n \"Speak Persian.\" _Masnavi_ , III, 3842.\n\n \" _qibla_ of the friend's face.\" Quoted in Annemarie Schimmel, _The Triumphal Sun_ (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993), 292.\n\n \"On a rainy day.\" Quoted in Benson Bobrick, _The Caliph's Splendor: Islam and the West in the Golden Age of Baghdad_ (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012), 71\u201372.\n\n \"the young deacons.\" Quoted in Guy Le Strange, _Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate_ (New York: Cosimo Classics, 2011; first published in 1901), 212.\n\n \"Bukhara is a mine.\" Ghazal #2168.\n\n \"Give up art and logic.\" _Masnavi_ , III, 1146.\n\n \"Your Baghdad.\" Ghazal #344.\n\n \"The Bedouin's wife.\" _Masnavi_ , I, 2716\u201317, 2719.\n\n \"hot sun.\" _Masnavi_ , III, 1041.\n\n \"The Euphrates, Tigris, and Oxus would be bitter.\" Ghazal #214.\n\n turban. See _Masnavi_ , IV, 1578\u201379.\n\n _The Revival of the Religious Sciences_. The original title is _Ehya olum al-din_.\n\n \"Had he possessed.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 128, 219.\n\n \"The term.\" Ahmet T. Karamustafa, _Sufism: The Formative Period_ (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2007), 7.\n\n \"We indeed created.\" _The Koran Interpreted_ , translated by A. J. Arberry (New York: Touchstone, 1955), vol. 2, 234.\n\n Rabia. Rumi is quoted, telling this story of Rabia, in Aflaki, III, sec. 331, 397.\n\n \"I am the Truth.\" The original, in Arabic, is _an\u00e2 al-Haqq_.\n\n \"In the world.\" Ghazal #731.\n\n \"A man traveling.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 10, 63.\n\n \"piling a few.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 61, 244.\n\n \"Say there is someone.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 43, 190.\n\n \"The glory.\" _Masnavi_ , V, 3224.\n\n \"When you're inside.\" _Masnavi_ , II, 1768.\n\n Stoning of the Devil. This ritual involves throwing pebbles at three pillars thought to represent Satan, who was believed to have thrice tried to persuade Abraham to disobey God's command to sacrifice his son Ishmael.\n\n \"market full of fruits.\" _The Travels of Ibn Jubayr_ , translated by Roland Broadhurst (New Delhi: Goodword, reprinted 2011, first printed 1952), 103.\n\n \"became a great market.\" Ibid., 188.\n\n \"women's veils.\" Ibid., 132.\n\n \"cohesion.\" Quoted in W. M. Thackston Jr. _Signs of the Unseen_ (Boston and London: Shambhala, 1999), 67, fn. 111.\n\n Visting the Kaaba. _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 14, 80.\n\n \"Oh you.\" Ghazal #648.\n\n \"I need.\" \"Rabia,\" in _Early Islamic Mysticism: Sufi, Qur'an, Mi'raj, Poetic and Theological Writings_ , translated, edited, and with an introduction by Michael A. Sells (New York and Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1996), 157.\n\n \"The pilgrim kisses.\" Ghazal #617.\n\nCHAPTER 4: \"FIRE FELL INTO THE WORLD\"\n\n \"Fire.\" Ghazal #2670.\n\n \"sideshow.\" Amira K. Bennison, _The Great Caliphs: The Golden Age of the Abbasid Empire_ (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2009), 203.\n\n \"Glory be to God!\" Foruzanfar, _Zendegi-ye Mowl\u00e2n\u00e2 Jal\u00e2l al-Din mashur be Mowlavi_ , 43, fn. 2. While the Foruzanfar version places the story in Syria, Ibn Arabi's biographer argues that such a meeting would more likely have been in Malatya. See Stephen Hirtenstein, _The Unlimited Mercifier: The Spiritual Life and Thought of Ibn Arabi_ (Ashland, OR: Anqa Publishing, 1999), 188.\n\n _Meccan Revelations_. The original title is _Fotuhat-e makkiye_.\n\n \"Well.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 444, 470.\n\n \"Crazy.\" Majnun is a nickname, literally meaning \"possessed by _jinn.\"_ His actual name is Qays.\n\n \"Majnun.\" Ghazal #947.\n\n \"Day and night.\" Ghazal #2670.\n\n \"Some of them.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 14, 80.\n\n Genghis Khan. I am indebted for the full history of Genghis Khan's invasions to Jack Weatherford, _Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World_ (New York: Crown Publishers, 2004).\n\n \"ready for war.\" Ala Ad Din Ata Malik Jovayni. _The History of the World Conqueror, Vol. I_ , translated by John Andrew Boyle (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1958), 81.\n\n \"laid waste a whole world.\" Ibid., 80.\n\n \"beheld.\" Ibid., 98.\n\n \"stands for.\" _Masnavi_ , III, 3791.\n\n \"They came.\" Jovayni, 107.\n\n \"all the people.\" Ibid., 129.\n\n \"Wild beasts.\" Ibid., 131.\n\n \"the voice of pain.\" Quoted and translated from _The Conference of the Birds_ by Annemarie Schimmel, _As Through a Veil_ , 53. Schimmel was working from: Attar, _Mantiq ut-tair_ , ed. M. Javad Mashkur (Tehran: Kitabfurush-i Tehran, 1962), 287.\n\n \"But for.\" Quoted in Le Strange, _The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate_ , 401\u20132.\n\n \"effaced.\" Quoted in Edward G. Browne, _A Literary History of Persia, Vol. 2_ (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1969; first published in 1906), 432.\n\n \"the announcement.\" Ibid., 427.\n\n \"This period.\" Annemarie Schimmel, _The Triumphal Sun: A Study of the Works of Jalaloddin Rumi_ (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993; first published in 1978), 9.\n\n \"While everyone.\" Ghazal #1764.\n\n \"If you're afraid.\" Ghazal #1609.\n\n \"Today.\" Tarji-band #24, in _Divan_.\n\n \"The sky.\" Ghazal #1092.\n\n \"In childbirth.\" _Masnavi_. III, 3560\u201361.\n\n \"God is able.\" _Fihe ma fih, Discourse_ 24, 125.\n\n \"Unless the baby.\" Ghazal #1156.\n\n \"Wars are like the fights.\" _Masnavi_ I, 3435\u201336.\n\n \"They repented.\" Afklaki, I, sec. 47, 46.\n\n \"instructor.\" _Maj\u00e2les-e sabe'e_ , 62.\n\n \"The magician.\" Ibid., 108.\n\n Najmoddin Razi. For a full comparison of the careers of Najmoddin Razi and Baha Valad, see Meier, _Bah\u00e2'-i Walad_ , 41\u201342.\n\n \"Like a baby.\" Ghazal #1372.\n\nCHAPTER 5: KONYA\n\n \"Come.\" Ghazal #2905.\n\n \"Bahaoddin.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 148, 236.\n\n \"a dangerous dragon.\" Quoted in Tamara Talbot Rice, _The Seljuks_ (London: Thames and Hudson, 1961), 172.\n\n \"embellishing.\" Ibid., 71.\n\n \"I prayed so much.\" Ghazal #903.\n\n \"If you turn into a lion.\" Ghazal #920.\n\n \"On all the roads.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 9, 54.\n\n \"At night.\" _Masnavi_ , VI, 2381\u201383.\n\n \"The rose garden.\" Ghazal #1339. Of course spring was arguably the favorite season for all Persian poets and the depiction of the season a standard topos throughout all the lyrical poetry.\n\n _The Acts of the Mystics_. The original title is _Man\u00e2qeb al-'\u00e2refin_.\n\n \"Religious.\" Aflaki, I, sec. 21, 28\u201329.\n\n \"pleasant and polite.\" Ibid., 29.\n\n \"most learned.\" Borh\u00e2n al-Din al-Zarn\u016bj\u012b, _Ta'l\u012bm al-Muta'allim: Tar\u012bq at-Ta'allum; Instruction of the Student: The Method of Learning_ , trans. G. E. Von Grunebaum and Theodora Abel (New York: King's Crown Press, 1947), 28.\n\n \"simple-hearted.\" Aflaki, I, sec. 36, 39.\n\n \"tongue,\" \"walking stick.\" A. H. Zarrinkub, _Step by Step Up to Union with God: Life, Thought and Spiritual Journey of Jalal-al-Din Rumi_ , trans. by M. Kayvani (New York: Persian Heritage Foundation, 2009), 61.\n\n \"Wait until.\" Aflaki, I, sec. 54, 52.\n\n \"After the mourning.\" Sultan Valad, _Valadname_ , 195\u201396.\n\n \"He clearly heard.\" Aflaki, I, sec. 34, 38.\n\n \"The most effective.\" Baha, I: 152.\n\n \"Borhanoddin.\" Aflaki, II, sec. 22, 71.\n\n \"Your father.\" Ibid., sec. 1, 56.\n\n \"You are . . . If you don't know.\" Borhan, _Ma'aref_ , 10, 18.\n\n \"God's seal.\" _Masnavi_ , IV, 1923. By this time, Plato had become a standard symbol of wisdom generally in Persian poetry.\n\n \"Whatever.\" Ibid., VI, 4144.\n\n \"They said.\" _Fihe ma fih_ Discourse 55, 229.\n\n \"Sayyed Borhanoddin.\" Ibid., Discourse 60, 242.\n\n \"The path.\" Borhan, _Ma'aref_ , 14.\n\n \"root of spiritual joy.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 21, 113.\n\n \"Pharaoh.\" Borhan, _Ma'aref_ , 26.\n\n \"I am the Truth.\" _Masnavi_ , II, 305.\n\n \"God the Almighty.\" Borhan, _Ma'aref_ , 26.\n\n \"And like.\" Sultan Valad, _Valadname_ , 198.\n\nCHAPTER 6: \"I KEPT HEARING MY OWN NAME\"\n\n \"I kept hearing.\" Robai #15.\n\n \"turbaned class.\" David Morray, _An Ayyubid Notable and His World: Ibn al-Adim and Aleppo as Portrayed in His Biographical Dictionary of People Associated with the City_ (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994), 123.\n\n \"I'm the slave.\" Ghazal #3049.\n\n \"boundless compilation.\" Morray, _An Ayyubid Notable_ , 10.\n\n \"innate poetic ability.\" Ibid., 181.\n\n \"the play.\" _Music of a Distant Drum: Classical Arabic, Persian, Turkish and Hebrew Poems_ , translated and introduced by Bernard Lewis (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2001), 68.\n\n \"A heart.\" Ibid., 69.\n\n \"We can look.\" Ghazal #2266.\n\n \"sentinel.\" Morray, _An Ayyubid Notable_ , 150.\n\n \"On the day.\" _Masnavi_ , VI, 777, 782, 784.\n\n \"Have you been?\" Ibid., 795.\n\n \"Mourn.\" Ibid., 802.\n\n \"In my youth.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 218, 301.\n\n \"Do not look.\" Cited in Michael Chamberlain, _Knowledge and Social Practice in Medieval Damascus, 1190\u20131390_ (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 129\u201330.\n\n \"I'm madly in love.\" Ghazal #1493.\n\n \"flashed.\" Cited in Michael Chamberlain, _Knowledge and Social Practice_ , 155.\n\n \"his name.\" Ibid., fn. 25.\n\n \"When our Caesar.\" Ghazal #1921.\n\n \"The thinner.\" Borhan, _Maaref_ , 14.\n\n \"fasting of the elite.\" Ibid., 20.\n\n \"Don't eat straw.\" _Masnavi_ , V, 2473\u201374; 2477.\n\n \"Congratulations!\" Ghazal #2344.\n\n \"tightening.\" Ghazal #2307.\n\n \"hidden sweetness.\" Ghazal #1739.\n\n \"During the _chelle_.\" _Masnavi_ , V, 1445\u201346; 1448\n\n \"When he woke.\" Ibid., 1449\u201350.\n\n \"At that moment,\" Ibid., 1453\u201354.\n\n \"Some madness.\" Aflaki, II, sec. 4, 61.\n\n \"Undergo.\" Ibid., II, sec. 5, 61.\n\n \"Oh child.\" Ibid., II, sec. 12, 65.\n\n \"So I came.\" Ibid., II, sec. 23, 71.\n\n \"The stages.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 10, 62.\n\n \"If you prick.\" Cited in Zarrinkub, _Step by Step_ , 91\u201392.\n\n lists. See Chittick, _The Sufi Path of Love_ , 2, as well as \"Mawlana Jalaladdin Muhammad Rumi,\" by Adnan Karaismailo\u011flu, in _Rumi and His Sufi Path of Love_ , eds., M. Fatih \u00c7itlak and Huseyin Bing\u00fcl (Somerset, NJ: The Light Publishing, 2007), 50.\n\n \"a second.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 14, 90. Partly due to Aflaki's description, she has sometimes been surmised to have been Christian, though no evidence exists.\n\n \"After today.\" Ibid., III, sec. 15, 93.\n\n \"God showed.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 19, 103.\n\n \"A woman.\" _Masnavi_ , I, 2437.\n\n \"Dear son Bahaoddin.\" Rumi, _Maktub\u00e2t_ , Letter 64, 142.\n\n \"I was speaking.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 22, 115.\n\n \"Now that he stood.\" Sultan Valad, _Valadname_ , 199.\n\n \"ten thousand.\" Ibid.\n\n traps of fame. As Andrew Harvey wrote in _The Way of Passion: A Celebration of Rumi_ (Berkeley, CA: Frog, Ltd. 1994), 20\u201321: \"The ferocity and precision of Rumi's later attacks on mental pride and the hunger of fame show how intimately he knew and understood the dangers of both.\"\n\n \"For some time.\" Robai #15.\n\nCHAPTER 7: \"THE FACE OF THE SUN IS SHAMS OF TABRIZ\"\n\n \"The face of the sun.\" Ghazal #310.\n\n Shamsoddin. As _shams_ is Arabic for \"sun,\" his name could be translated \"the Sun of Faith\" or \"the Sun of Tabriz.\"\n\n \"Parande.\" Aflaki, IV, sec. 3, 615.\n\n \"Aren't you coming?\" Shams, _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 141.\n\n \"My turban.\" Robai #1284.\n\n \"The first words.\" Shams, _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 685; [Chittick, 210; Lewis, _Rumi_ , 155]. Sepahsalar recounts their meeting as taking place in a little shop of the bazaar, where they stared at each other for hours before speaking. See Sepahsalar, _Res\u00e2le Sepahsalar_ , 127.\n\n \"Was Bayazid.\" Aflaki, IV, sec. 8, 618\u201319.\n\n \"fell in a swoon.\" Ibid., 620.\n\n \"saw the veil.\" Sultan Valad, _Valadname_ , 43.\n\n \"For lovers.\" _Masnavi_ , III, 3847.\n\n \"After that.\" Aflaki, IV, sec. 9, 620.\n\n \"I already held.\" Ghazal #2669.\n\n \"I remember Mowlana.\" Shams, _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 690.\n\n \"Salam.\" Ibid., 290.\n\n \"From the first day.\" Ibid., 752.\n\n \"I need it to be clear.\" Ibid., 686.\n\n \"Before me.\" Ibid., 730.\n\n \"Let's go.\" Ibid., 302.\n\n \"The tavern keeper.\" Ghazal #310.\n\n \"Where's your own?\" Shams, _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 744\u201345.\n\n \"Don't read!\" Aflaki, IV, sec. 13, 623.\n\n \"He firmly commanded.\" Aflaki, IV, sec. 12, 623.\n\n \"That is not.\" Ibid., sec. 14, 623.\n\n \"This is the man.\" Ibid., sec. 15, 624.\n\n \"How sad.\" Lewis, _Music of a Distant Drum_ , 71. Shams quotes a half-line of al-Maarri, \"The high places will be earned in the measure of diligence,\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 466.\n\n \"mixed-up.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 301.\n\n \"both father and son.\" _Maktub\u00e2t_ , Letter 130, 224.\n\n \"I rarely speak.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 290.\n\n \"He has a beautiful manner.\" Aflaki, IV, sec. 38, 636.\n\n \"He has two ways of speaking.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 104.\n\n \"Practice is practice.\" Ibid., 612\u201313.\n\n \"laid claim to love.\" Ibid., 231.\n\n \"When your love.\" Robai #616.\n\n \"When all the particles.\" Ghazal #1295.\n\n \"We will seek.\" Sultan Valad, _Valadname_ , 195.\n\n life story. Later Shams would refer in public with Rumi to past incidents, but presumably these comments were only quick references to background exchanged more fully between the two in private.\n\n \"the rose-garden district.\" _Masnavi_ , VI, 3107\u20138.\n\n \"towering.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 369.\n\n \"greatest.\" Ibid., 822.\n\n \"The fault.\" Ibid., 625\u201326.\n\n \"You're not crazy.\" Ibid., 77.\n\n \"angels.\" Aflaki, IV, sec. 82, 680.\n\n \"spoiling.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 625\u201366.\n\n \"effeminate.\" Dowlatsh\u00e2h-e Samarqandi, _Taz Kerrat al-sho'ar\u00e2_ , ed. Mohammad Abb\u00e2si (Tehran: B\u00e2r\u00e2ni, 1337\/1958), 216.\n\n \"The Sufi's book.\" _Masnavi_ , II, 159.\n\n \"There were people.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 641.\n\n \"There were dervishes.\" Ibid., 687.\n\n \"With such a love.\" Ibid., 677.\n\n \"I used to have.\" Aflaki, IV, sec. 81, 679.\n\n \"They chose everybody.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 278\u201379.\n\n \"You used to come.\" Ibid., 729.\n\n \"If Abu Hanifa.\" Ibid., 304.\n\n \"I'm looking.\" Aflaki, IV, sec. 4, 616.\n\n \"When you see.\" _Masnavi_ , III, 3753.\n\n \"Sheikh Mohammad.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 120. For a discussion of the likely identification of \"Sheikh Mohammad\" with Ibn Arabi, see Omid Safi, \"Did the Two Oceans Meet?\" _Journal of Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi Society_ , vol. 26 (1999): 55\u201388.\n\n \"He was a mountain.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 239.\n\n \"You crack.\" Ibid., 239.\n\n \"He was compassionate.\" Ibid., 299.\n\n \"Our caravan leader.\" Ghazal #463.\n\n \"pearl.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 304.\n\n \"intellect.\" Ibid., 82.\n\n \"For me, death.\" Ibid., 286.\n\n \"I would say.\" Ibid., 635\u201336.\n\n \"This man.\" Ibid., 641.\n\n \"Though Shehab.\" Ibid., 225\u201326.\n\n \"You are asking.\" Ibid., 295.\n\n \"At first.\" Ibid., 249.\n\n \"Whenever you see someone.\" Ibid., 713\u201314.\n\n \"in Rum.\" Ibid., 760.\n\n \"Kerra Khatun.\" Ibid., 315.\n\n \"learning and knowledge.\" Cited in Lewis, _Rumi_ , 135.\n\n \"alchemy, astronomy.\" Aflaki, IV, sec. 18, 625.\n\n \"beloved.\" Cited in Zarrinkub, _Step by Step_ , 131.\n\n \"Be among.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 721.\n\n \"When I'm by myself.\" Ibid., 761.\n\n \"Sometimes Love.\" Ghazal #2231.\n\n \"The world.\" _Masnavi_ , V, 1039.\n\n \"Whenever I write.\" Ghazal #1593.\n\n \"a sun has come up.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 223.\n\n \"be like the poor.\" Ibid., 778.\n\n \"I stop.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 761.\n\n \"The world.\" Ghazal #1095.\n\n \"We've met.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 93\u201394.\n\n \"I'm so happy.\" Ibid., 189.\n\n \"The first.\" Ibid., 779.\n\n \"God has not yet.\" Ibid., 777.\n\n \"I wanted.\" Ibid., 219.\n\n \"Now the water.\" Ibid., 142.\n\n \"Now rub.\" Ibid., 300.\n\n \"In the lane.\" Ibid., 646.\n\n \"The purpose.\" Ibid., 628.\n\n \"In the presence.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 20, 109.\n\n \"I do not revere.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 691.\n\n \"Which place.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 38, 121\u201322.\n\n \"Is wine.\" Ibid., IV, sec. 41, 639.\n\n \"What have you.\" Ibid., IV, sec. 89, 683.\n\n \"One of them claims.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 306.\n\n \"The lovely.\" Ibid., 736.\n\n \"jackasses\" Ibid., 641.\n\n \"Who is this.\" Sultan Valad, _Valadname_ , 44.\n\n \"Mowlana has.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 74.\n\n \"I'm all one color.\" Ibid., 106.\n\n \"I am only troubled.\" Ibid., 319.\n\n \"arrogant.\" Ibid., 774.\n\n \"You only.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 237, 314.\n\n \"During Majnun's time.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 15, 87.\n\n \"I'm not.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 774.\n\n \"On the Day of Resurrection.\" Aflaki, IV, sec. 80, 679.\n\n \"You were silent.\" Robai #1143.\n\nCHAPTER 8: SEPARATION\n\n \"All wondered.\" _Valadname_ , 43.\n\n \"His bird.\" Ibid., 47.\n\n \"Because.\" Aflaki, IV, sec. 26, 630.\n\n \"Please be aware.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 783.\n\n \"When you're not here.\" Ghazal #1760.\n\n sonnet. The great historian of Iranian literature Jan Rypka writes of the \"striking resemblance to the sonnet\" of the _ghazal_ , \"the truest and most pleasing expression of lyricism, particularly of the erotic and mystical but also of the meditative and even the panegyric.\" Jan Rypka, _History of Iranian Literature_ (Dordrecht-Holland: D. Reidel Publishing Company, 1968), 94\u201395.\n\n \"Oh you, light.\" Ghazal #1364.\n\n \"The sun of Truth.\" Aflaki, IV, sec. 24, 629.\n\n \"From the moment.\" Ghazal #1760.\n\n \"It's a wonderful.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 340.\n\n \"If they had said.\" Ibid., 756.\n\n \"I remember.\" Ibid., 340.\n\n \"Such praying.\" Ibid., 766.\n\n \"When I was in Aleppo.\" Ibid., 118.\n\n \"the work.\" Ibid., 766.\n\n \"When I found.\" _Valadname_ , 49.\n\n \"Kissing Valad.\" Aflaki, IV, sec. 105, 695.\n\n \"All the companions.\" Ibid., 696.\n\n \"When you came.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 773.\n\n \"Comrades, go.\" Ghazal #163.\n\n \"It is not permitted.\" Aflaki, IV, sec., 105, 696.\n\n \"This time.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 19, 106.\n\n \"These people.\" Ibid., 105.\n\n \"and no one knew.\" Quoted in Annemarie Schimmel, _Rumi's World: The Life and Work of the Great Sufi Poet_ (Boston and London: Shambhala Press, 2001; originally published as _I Am Wind, You Are Fire_ ), 18.\n\n \"With his beautiful.\" Robai #352.\n\n \"My sun and moon.\" Ghazal #633.\n\n \"The heart.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 610.\n\n \"Tolerate.\" Ibid., 260.\n\n \"In the book.\" Ghazal #327.\n\n \"They felt jealous.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 72.\n\n \"Mowlana became.\" _Res\u00e2le-ye Sepahsalar_ , 132.\n\n \"I wish.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 353.\n\n \"If truly.\" Ibid., 757.\n\n \"pure and beautiful.\" Aflaki, IV, sec. 43, 641.\n\n \"Because it was winter.\" _Res\u00e2le-ye Sepahsalar_ , 133.\n\n \"Shamsoddin said.\" Aflaki, IV, sec. 39, 637.\n\n \"I asked God.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 347.\n\n \"This is his study time.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 623.\n\n \"The second son.\" _Res\u00e2le-ye Sepahsalar_ , 133.\n\n \"Did you see.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 198.\n\n \"He repeated.\" _Res\u00e2le-ye Sepahsalar_ , 133.\n\n \"heart was after me.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 803.\n\n \"Whomever I love.\" Ibid., 219.\n\n \"Someone said.\" Ibid., 74.\n\n \"I become bored.\" Ibid., 740.\n\n \"I cannot blame.\" Ibid., 803.\n\n \"One day.\" Aflaki, IV, sec. 43, 641.\n\n \"When speaking.\" Ghazal #2179.\n\n \"I was restless.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 351.\n\n \"The dance.\" Ibid., 623.\n\n \"If you can.\" Ibid., 163\u201364.\n\n \"Was Mowlana.\" Ibid., 773.\n\n \"My entire life.\" Quoted in a slightly different translation in William C. Chittick, \"Translator's Introduction,\" _Me & Rumi: The Autobiography of Shams-i Tabrizi_ (Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 2004), xiv.\n\n \"My entire life.\" Ghazal #1768.\n\n \"He said.\" _Valadname_ , 54.\n\n \"I cannot.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 334.\n\n \"As neither Mowlana.\" Ibid., 742\u201343.\n\n \"I became so upset.\" Ibid., 696.\n\n \"To be able.\" Ibid., 187.\n\n \"Bahaoddin.\" _Res\u00e2le-ye Sepahsalar_ , 134.\n\n \"When Shamsoddin.\" _Valadname_ , 54.\n\n \"Mowlana roared.\" _Res\u00e2le-ye Sepahsalar_ , 134.\n\nCHAPTER 9: \"I BURNED, I BURNED, I BURNED\"\n\n \"I burned.\" Ghazal #1768.\n\n \"the sheikh.\" _The Travels of Ibn Battutah_ , ed., Tim Mackintosh-Smith (London: Picador, 2003), 106.\n\n \"Subsequently.\" Ibid.,107.\n\n \"his merciful presence.\" _Res\u00e2le Sepahsalar_ , 134.\n\n \"a day or two.\" _Valadname_ , 54.\n\n \"Perform.\" _Res\u00e2le-ye Sepahsalar_ , 65.\n\n \"sang.\" Ghazal #1641.\n\n tambourine. Ghazal #2083.\n\n \"Sometimes.\" Ghazal #302.\n\n \"Day and night.\" _Valadname_ , 58.\n\n \"Mowlana.\" Aflaki, IV, sec. 92, 686.\n\n \"The night wears black.\" Ghazal #2130.\n\n \"bloody.\" Ghazal #2807.\n\n \"covered in blood.\" Ghazal #144.\n\n \"This earth is not.\" Ghazal #336.\n\n \"When the water.\" Ghazal #2514.\n\n \"They want to kill.\" Aflaki, IV, sec. 91, 684.\n\n \"The relationship.\" Schimmel, _Rumi's World_ , 22.\n\n \"a more reciprocal.\" Janet Afary, _Sexual Politics in Modern Iran_ (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 98.\n\n \"One day.\" Aflaki, IV, sec. 51, 647.\n\n \"During.\" _Res\u00e2le-ye Sepahsalar_ , 134.\n\n \"putting his head.\" _Valadname_ , 60.\n\n \"For the third time.\" Ghazal #1493.\n\n _The Trickery of Satan_. The original title is _Al-talbis Iblis_ , written by Ibn al-Jawzi (d. c.e. 1201). For a fuller discussion, see Ali Asani, \"Music and Dance in the Work of Mawlana Jalal al-Din Rumi,\" _Islamic Culture_ , 60:2 (April 1986): 41.\n\n stages. I am indebted to the analysis of Rumi's poetry about Shams in terms of such stages to Annemarie Schimmel, especially her chapter on \"Rumi and the Metaphors of Love,\" in _As Through a Veil: Mystical Poetry in Islam_ (Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2001, originally published 1982), 86\u201390.\n\n \"Since I am.\" Ghazal #1621.\n\n \"I gave him.\" Ghazal #600.\n\n \"Jalaloddin\" Ghazal #1196.\n\n \"Be silent.\" Ghazal #1621.\n\n \"One night.\" Ghazal #757.\n\n \"Not alone.\" Ghazal #1081.\n\n \"Say the name.\" Ghazal #2807.\n\n \"I wonder.\" Ghazal #677.\n\n \"Speak.\" Ghazal #2056.\n\n \"there was probably.\" Lewis, _Rumi_ , 167.\n\n \"the light.\" Ghazal #1526.\n\n \"It's not enough.\" Ghazal #2768.\n\n \"You speak for God.\" Ghazal #1310.\n\n \"When I went.\" Ghazal #2968.\n\n \"Joseph's shirt.\" Ghazal #997.\n\n \"If my eyes.\" Ghazal #2893.\n\n \"pious man.\" _Valadname_ , 57.\n\n \"Each dawn.\" Ghazal #2152.\n\n \"loved dearly.\" Aflaki, V, sec. 13, 714.\n\n \"in himself.\" _Valadname_ , 61.\n\n \"He said.\" Ibid., 63.\n\n \"son.\" Rumi, _Maktubat_ , Letter 1, 59.\n\n \"angelic qualities.\" Ibid., Letter 23, 91.\n\n \"Just as water.\" Ghazal #232.\n\n \"This unfortunate.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 307, 376.\n\n \"My kindness.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 15, 89.\n\n \"He went. _\" Valadname_ , 62.\n\n \"In every age.\" _Masnavi_ , II, 815\u201316; 819\u201320.\n\n \"I grew old.\" Ghazal #207.\n\n \"one day.\" Aflaki, IV, sec. 110, 700.\n\n \"They feel\" Ibid., III, sec. 297, 362.\n\n \"Morning rises.\" Ghazal #879.\n\n \"This was his clothing.\" Aflaki, IV, sec. 93, 687.\n\nCHAPTER 10: \"LAST YEAR IN A RED CLOAK . . . THIS YEAR IN BLUE\"\n\n \"Last year.\" Ghazal #650.\n\n \"When Salahoddin.\" _Res\u00e2le-ye Sepahsalar_ , 135.\n\n \"I passed on.\" Aflaki, V, sec. 3, 705.\n\n \"As Mowlana.\" Ibid.\n\n \"I see so many.\" Ibid., V, sec. 15, 715.\n\n \"No.\" Ibid., V, sec. 11, 712.\n\n \"That lion-hunting.\" Ghazal #594.\n\n \"Last year.\" Ghazal #650.\n\n \"The grace.\" Ghazal #1397.\n\n \"At the end.\" Ghazal #1210.\n\n \" _eshq bazi_.\" Aflaki, V, sec. 7, 711; John O'Kane translates the Persian as \"amorous playfulness\" in his translation of Aflaki, _The Feats of the Knowers of God_ (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2002), 495.\n\n \"It happened to me.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 20, 111.\n\n \" _nayeb_.\" For a discussion of Salahoddin and the position of _nayeb_ , see Lewis, _Rumi_ , 207.\n\n delivering sermons. In a different account in Aflaki, the finality of Rumi's giving up sermons is presented as debatable: \"He never again undertook to preach. According to others, he did continue to preach, but not consistently.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 86, 172.\n\n \"He said.\" _Valadname_ , 66.\n\n \"Dedicate yourselves.\" Ibid.\n\n \"Words.\" Aflaki, V, sec. 18, 718.\n\n \"Again envy.\" _Valadname_ , 73.\n\n \"nothing.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 21, 112.\n\n \"Without a mirror.\" Robai #1552.\n\n \"I'm a mirror.\" Ghazal #38.\n\n \"Take a polished.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 49, 209.\n\n \"Look at the face.\" _Valadname_ , 67.\n\n \"If you become.\" Ibid., 106.\n\n \"Day and night.\" Ibid., 108.\n\n \"They are upset.\" Ibid., 78.\n\n \"When this news.\" Ibid., 77.\n\n \"with their faces.\" Aflaki, V, sec. 20, 719.\n\n \"Fateme is my right.\" Ibid.\n\n \"because of the extreme.\" Ibid., V, sec. 19, 719.\n\n \"May the blessings.\" Ghazal #236.\n\n \"Dance.\" Ghazal #31.\n\n \"His knowledge.\" Badi al-Zaman Foruzanfar, \"Some Remarks on Rumi's Poetry,\" _Mawlana Rumi Review_ , vol. 3 (2012): 183\u201384.\n\n \"One day.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 458, 483\u201384.\n\n \"If my dear son.\" _Maktubat_ , Letter 56, 132\u201333.\n\n \"Because of the white.\" Ibid., Letter 6, 69\u201370.\n\n \"They collected.\" Aflaki, V, sec. 30, 727.\n\n \"my dear child.\" _Maktubat_ , Letter 29, 98.\n\n \"my eloquent.\" Ibid., Letter 45, 117\u201318.\n\n \"May this wedding.\" Ghazal #2667.\n\nCHAPTER 11: THE FALL OF BAGHDAD\n\n Abbasid Caliph. He was a successor in a direct line from the Prophet Mohammad, though not by blood.\n\n pope and emperor. See Weatherford, _Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World_ , 180.\n\n \"When in the year.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 112, 202.\n\n \"in a sack.\" Ibid., III, sec. 113, 205.\n\n \"Oh seekers.\" Taqi al-Din ibn Abi al-Yusr, \"[Burned to Ashes],\" in _Baghdad: The City in Verse_ , trans. and ed. Reuven Snir (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013), 155.\n\n \"loss for the kingdom.\" Al-Majd al-Nashabi, \"[Turning a Child's Hair White],\" ibid., 154.\n\n \"Now if not eating.\" Ibid., III, sec. 112, 203.\n\n \"The deputy.\" _Masnavi_ , I, 2685.\n\n \"The Tatar armies.\" Ghazal #1839.\n\n \"taxes and camels.\" _Maktubat_ , Letter 42, 114.\n\n \"During your absence.\" Ibid., Letter 61, 139.\n\n \"How would.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 37, 118.\n\n \"I hear.\" Ibid., III, sec. 82, 165.\n\n \"Day and night.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 2, 24.\n\n \"For my part.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 217, 299.\n\n \"premodern.\" Omid Safi, _The Politics of Knowledge in Premodern Islam: Negotiating Ideology and Religious Inquiry_ (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 129.\n\n \"It's fine.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 374, 425.\n\n \"I want you.\" Ibid., III, sec. 384, 432.\n\n \"all alone.\" Ibid., III, sec. 468, 490.\n\n \"my brother.\" _Maktubat_ , Letter 36, 104.\n\n Ince Minareli. Annemarie Schimmel described the cursive Kufic architectural inscriptions as \"the beginning of a new artistic consciousness.\" Schimmel, _Rumi's World_ , 7.\n\n \"the people.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 22, 115.\n\n \"Your kingdom.\" _Maktubat_ , Letter 102, 188.\n\n \"I wanted.\" Ibid., Letter 28, 97.\n\n \"Even though.\" Aflaki, IV, sec. 83, 680.\n\n \"Come let us go.\" Ibid., V, sec. 17, 718.\n\n \"For demolition.\" Ibid., V, sec. 23, 721.\n\n \"He accepted.\" _Valadname_ , 113.\n\n \"The Sheikh said.\" Ibid., 115.\n\n \"Gabriel and the wings.\" Ghazal #2364.\n\n \"Ever since.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 147, 233.\n\nCHAPTER 12: \"SING, FLUTE!\"\n\n \"Sing, flute!\" Robai #1271.\n\n \"A human being.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 1, 23.\n\n \"as thin.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 204, 290.\n\n \"Look at Mowlana!\" Ibid., III, sec. 99, 188.\n\n \"Is our religion.\" Ibid., III, sec. 459, 484.\n\n \"Mowlana.\" Ibid., III, sec. 296, 361.\n\n \"It is not proper.\" Ibid., III, sec. 542, 555.\n\n \"Boo!\" Ibid., III, sec. 148, 234.\n\n \"Maleke.\" Ibid., III, sec. 249, 323.\n\n \"Why did you hit.\" Ibid., III, sec. 344, 406.\n\n \"Lord, wait for me.\" Ibid., III, sec. 68, 153\u201354.\n\n \"Why are you beating.\" Ibid., II, sec. 34, 116.\n\n \"happy union.\" Ibid., III, sec. 100, 190.\n\n \"The stench.\" Ibid., III, sec. 166, 258.\n\n \"The danger.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 1, 22.\n\n \"As my fame.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 138, 226.\n\n \"Make yourself thin.\" _Masnavi_ , I, 1545\u201346.\n\n \"Words of praise.\" Ibid., I, 1855.\n\n \"I began to sweat.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 325, 394.\n\n \"affliction.\" Ibid., VII, sec. 14, 800.\n\n \"I am not keeping.\" Ibid., III, sec. 404, 441.\n\n \"I have never.\" Ibid., III, sec. 330, 395.\n\n \"One morning.\" Ghazal #649.\n\n \"Collections.\" Aflaki, VI, sec. 3, 740.\n\n \"Listen to the reed flute.\" _Masnavi_ , I, 1\u20134. An alternative translation of the last line of this section would be: \"Longing to be joined together once again.\"\n\n \"Out of curiosity.\" Ibid., I, 6\u20139.\n\n \"When Hosamoddin.\" Aflaki, VI, sec. 2, 738.\n\n \"You are a ray.\" _Masnavi_ , IV, 1.\n\n \"It's dawn.\" Ibid., I, 1807\u20139.\n\n \"One day Mowlana.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 544, 556.\n\n \"Mohammad.\" _Masnavi_ , I, Prose Introduction.\n\n \"love's path.\" Ibid., I, 13.\n\n \"It's better the secret.\" _Masnavi_ , I, 135\u201342.\n\n \"You blow into me.\" Robai #1273.\n\n \"You pick them out.\" _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 180.\n\n \"I am a mountain.\" _Masnavi_ , I, 3797\u2013801.\n\n \"528 Quranic verses.\" Franklin Lewis cites this statistic from a talk given by Foruzanfar at the Rumi UNESCO Festival. See Lewis, _Rumi_ , 291.\n\n \"When I first began.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 53, 221.\n\nCHAPTER 13: \"A NIGHTINGALE FLEW AWAY, THEN RETURNED\"\n\n \"A nightingale.\" _Masnavi_ , II, 8.\n\n \"In his emotions.\" Aflaki, VI, sec. 3, 743.\n\n \"spiritual ascension.\" _Masnavi_ , II, 4.\n\n \"Having waged.\" Aflaki, VI, sec. 18, 766.\n\n \"my dear son.\" _Maktubat_ , Letter 7, 71.\n\n \"Dear pride of professors.\" Ibid., Letter 67, 146.\n\n \"After he prayed.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 510, 523.\n\n \"At this time.\" Ibid., III, sec. 69, 154.\n\n \"If the sultan.\" Ibid., III, sec. 59, 147.\n\n \"Khodavandgar.\" Ibid., III, sec. 46, 129.\n\n \"These Sufis.\" Ibid., III, sec. 362, 416.\n\n \"What is poverty?\" Ibid., III, sec. 190, 278.\n\n \"Such a blessing.\" Ibid., III, sec. 361, 415.\n\n \"He is a good man.\" Ibid., III, sec. 352, 412.\n\n \"No, I said.\" Ibid., III, sec. 185, 274\u201375.\n\n \"Why must this kind.\" Ibid., III, sec. 83, 165\u201366.\n\n \"requesting the remainder.\" Ibid., VI, sec. 3, 743.\n\n \"The light of God.\" _Masnavi_ , II, 3\u20138.\n\n \"There was no further.\" Aflaki, VI, sec. 3, 744.\n\n \"When Salahoddin.\" _Valadname_ , 116.\n\n \"Welcome my soul.\" Aflaki, VI, sec. 20, 770.\n\n \"Lovers are like waterwheels.\" _Masnavi_ , VI, 911\u201312.\n\n \"If you had asked.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 381, 431.\n\n \"kept constant company.\" Ibid., III, sec. 591, 601.\n\n \"Come light of God.\" _Masnavi_ , II, 2282.\n\n \"When friends.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 15, 89.\n\n \"What am I.\" Ibid.\n\n a dozen core stories. I am indebted for insight into the structure of the _Masnavi_ to Jawid Mojadeddi, \"Introduction,\" _The Masnavi: Book Two_ (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).\n\n \"A fool believes.\" _Masnavi_ , II, 2130.\n\n \"From love of Shams.\" _Masnavi_ , II, 1122\u201323.\n\n \"Now father, I see.\" _Maqalat_ , 77.\n\n \"You are the child.\" _Masnavi_ , II, 3766\u201367; 3779.\n\n \"Shop of Unity.\" Ibid., VI, 1528.\n\n \"Beyond belief.\" Robai #395.\n\n \"opened the door.\" _Masnavi_ , II, 3803.\n\n \"As he was praying.\" Ibid., II, 3805\u20137.\n\nCHAPTER 14: THE RELIGION OF LOVE\n\n \"the religion of love.\" Rumi speaks of \"the religion of love\" in Ghazal #195 and Ghazal #232: \"Reason is puzzled by the religion of love.\" He uses the Persian word for religion, \" _din_ \" in Ghazal #195, and the Arabic word, \" _mazhab_ \" in Ghazal #232.\n\n \"box of secrets.\" _Masnavi_ , III, 2.\n\n \"Suddenly a fool.\" Ibid., III, 4232\u201335.\n\n \"When the Quran.\" Ibid., III, 4237\u201343.\n\n \"Why do they call.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 205, 291.\n\n \"People think.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 10, 58.\n\n \"Everyone who exhibits.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 196, 284.\n\n \"When Hallaj.\" _Masnavi_ , VI, 2095.\n\n _robai_. For a discussion of the robais as having been written later in Rumi's life, see Harvey, _The Way of Passion_ , 54.\n\n \"He dove.\" Robai #422.\n\n \"I am the servant.\" Robai #717.\n\n \"Be empty!\" Ghazal #1739.\n\n \"The mosque.\" _Masnavi_ , II, 3111.\n\n \"the religion of love.\" Ibid., II, 1770.\n\n \"Since we worship.\" Ibid., III, 2124.\n\n \"My heart.\" Ibid., III, 2935.\n\n \"Youth is a garden.\" _Masnavi_ , II, 1217\u201319.\n\n \"The eyebrows droop.\" Ibid., II, 1223\u201326.\n\n \"out of jealous anger.\" Aflaki, V, sec. 16, 717.\n\n \"How wonderful.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 598, 608.\n\n \"Take care of Mowlana.\" Ibid., III, sec. 43, 126.\n\n \"Why do these men.\" Ibid., VI, sec. 12, 755.\n\n \"I wish from this day.\" Ibid., VI, sec. 14, 759.\n\n \"Oh brother.\" _Masnavi_ , II, 277\u201378.\n\n \"Although the sun.\" _Fihe ma fih_ , Discourse 52, 218.\n\n \"People work.\" Ibid., Discourse 14, 79.\n\n \"All this I said.\" Ibid., \"Introduction,\" 18.\n\n \"Shame on the companions.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 441, 468.\n\n \" _Del ku_.\" Ibid., III, sec. 292, 356.\n\n \"He is the one.\" Ibid., III, sec. 291, 356.\n\n \"Extract.\" Ibid., III, sec. 256, 330.\n\n \"No clever doctor.\" Ibid., III, sec. 549, 563.\n\n \"At the Festival of Unity.\" Ghazal #202.\n\n \"You flee from death.\" _Masnavi_ , III, 3441\u201343.\n\n \"God created.\" Ghazal #683.\n\n \"Squeezed in the womb.\" _Masnavi_ , III, 3556\u201359.\n\n \"He said, 'My friends.'\" Ibid., III, 3946\u201348.\n\n \"Death, its claws disease.\" Ibid., III, 3984.\n\n \"The bird.\" Ibid., III, 3977\u20133980.\n\n \"When you hear.\" Ibid., V, 1736\u201340.\n\nCHAPTER 15: WEDDING NIGHT\n\n \"If a group.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 253, 328.\n\n \"Do not do.\" Ibid., VIII, sec. 3, 826.\n\n \"Faridun.\" Ibid., VIII, sec. 5, 828.\n\n \"The day.\" Ibid., VIII, sec. 5, 829; since the poem does not appear in most copies of Rumi's _Divan_ , Sultan Valad has also been credited as its actual author.\n\n \"beautiful.\" Ghazal #16.\n\n \"Suddenly.\" Ibid., VIII, sec. 9, 832.\n\n \"The moment.\" Ibid., VIII, sec. 15, 838.\n\n \"Oh, Life of the Heart.\" _Masnavi_ , VI, 1\u20133.\n\n \"glorious.\" Ibid., VI, 3109.\n\n \"He gave me a cap.\" Ibid., VI, 3126\u201328, 3130.\n\n \"the fairest.\" Sura XII, l.3. _The Koran Interpreted_ , trans. A. J. Arberry, vol. I, 254.\n\n \"And when she said.\" _Masnavi_ , VI, 4023\u201327; 4030; 4032\u201333.\n\n story of the three princes. See Shams's account, _Maq\u00e2l\u00e2t_ , 246\u201347.\n\n \"window between hearts.\" Ibid., VI, 4916.\n\n \"You should have.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 565, 579.\n\n \"I am thinking.\" Ibid., III, sec. 566, 580.\n\n \"Do you know.\" Ibid., III, sec. 567, 580.\n\n \"when the earth.\" Ibid., III, sec. 368, 420.\n\n \"Thank God.\" Ibid., III, sec. 568, 581.\n\n \"What excellent.\" Ibid., III, sec. 579, 587.\n\n \"It is hoped.\" Ibid., III, sec. 569, 581.\n\n \"I placed the cup.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 582, 594.\n\n \"When you see.\" Ghazal #911.\n\n \"Don't be sad.\" Ghazal #683.\n\n \"Sultan Valad.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 579, 589.\n\n \"last _ghazal_.\" Ibid., III, sec. 579, 590.\n\n \"Go.\" Ghazal #2039.\n\n \"Who is suitable.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 578, 586.\n\n \"Will there appear.\" Ibid., III, sec. 571, 583.\n\n \"Don't be afraid.\" Ibid., III, sec. 570, 582.\n\n \"I recommend.\" Ibid., III, sec. 574, 584.\n\n \"Oh Lord God.\" Ibid., III, sec. 575, 585.\n\n \"My companions.\" Ibid., III, sec. 579, 589.\n\n \"pearl-shedding sea.\" _Masnavi_ , VI, 1999.\n\n \"Place me.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 573, 584.\n\n \"The bats.\" _Masnavi_ , II, 47.\n\n \"All the religious.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 580, 592.\n\n \"The people.\" Sultan Valad, _Valadname_ , 124\u201325.\n\n \"The Muslims.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 580, 592.\n\n \"He was like.\" Ibid., III, sec. 580, 593.\n\n \"He came.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 333, 400.\n\n \" _Chuni?_ \" Ibid., III, sec. 588, 598.\n\n \"Serajoddin.\" Aflaki, III, sec. 587, 597.\n\nAFTERWORD\n\n \"I feel sad.\" Omar, Facebook message to author, June 3, 2015.\n\n \"All those.\" Claude Cahen, _Pre-Ottoman Turkey: A general survey of the material and spiritual culture and history c. 1071\u20131330_.\n\n \"Most of these.\" Ahmet T. Karamustafa, in discussion with the author, May 15, 2015.\n\n \"Late in the evening.\" Schimmel, _Rumi's World_ , 195\u201396.\n\n \"Animals grow fat.\" _Masnavi_ , VI, 290.\n\n collaborative. I collaborated with the Iranian-American writer Maryam Mortaz on translations of Rumi's poetry posted on Twitter under #RumiSecrets.\n\n \"This poem smells of roses.\" \u015eefik Can, \"Rumi Studies in the West,\" in _Rumi and His Sufi Path of Love_ , eds., M. Fatih \u00c7itlak and H\u00fcseyin Bing\u00fcl (Somerset, NJ: The Light Publishing, 2007), 98.\n\n \"ear of the heart.\" Ghazal #837.\n\n \"Of Paradise.\" _The Topical Notebooks of Ralph Waldo Emerson_ , vol. 2 (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1992), 48; identified as a translation of lines of Rumi in Lewis, _Rumi_ , 570.\n\n \"These poems need to be.\" Coleman Barks, \"Releasing Birds to the Air,\" in _Robert Bly in This World_ , eds., Thomas R. Smith with James P. Lenfestey (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2011), 268.\n\n \"O Rumi.\" Cited in a translation by Mehmet \u00d6nder published in, \"Rumi Studies in the West,\" in _Rumi and His Sufi Path of Love_ , eds., \u00c7itlak and Bing\u00fcl, 100.\n\n \"the sunshine of the heart.\" Ghazal #968.\n\n \"Tell all the truth.\" Poem #1263. _The Poems of Emily Dickinson_ , vol. 2, ed., R. W. Franklin (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard, 1998), vol. 2, 1089.\n\n \"Explanations.\" _Masnavi_ , I, 113.\n\n \"Rumi resonates.\" Jawid Mojadeddi, in discussion with the author, June 11, 2015.\n\n \"When you discover.\" _Masnavi_ , II, 45\u201346.\n\n \"I do believe.\" Coleman Barks, in discussion with the author, July 31, 2015.\n\n \"I felt befriended.\" Asma Sadiq, in discussion with the author, June 12, 2015.\n\n \"Don't speak.\" _Masnavi_ , III, 1305.\nIndex\n\nThe pagination of this electronic edition does not match the edition from which it was created. To locate a specific entry, please use your e-book reader's search tools.\n\nNOTE: Page numbers followed by an \"n _\"_ indicate a note on that page; the number following the _\"n\"_ is the page number to which the note refers.\n\nAbbasids, 21\u201322, 50, 71, 218\u201319, 325, 327\n\nAbu Bakr Rababi, 213\u201314\n\nSheikh Abu Bakr Sallebaf of Tabriz, 127\u201328\n\n_The Acts of the Mystics_ (Chelebi), 82\n\nAfary, Janet, 178\n\nAflaki (Rumi biographer)\n\nand Baha Valad, 82\n\non criticism of Rumi's _sama_ practices, 254\n\non fame as an affliction, 240\n\non Hosam, 245, 252\n\non Kerra, 108\n\non Kimiya, 165\n\non Maleke, 238\n\non portraits of Rumi, 228\n\non Rumi after Shams's departure, 176, 179\n\non Rumi and Alloddin, 253\n\non Rumi and Shams, 118, 120, 148, 151, 197\n\non Rumi bowing to a Christian monk, 237\n\non Salah and Rumi, 202, 205\n\non _sama_ sessions with all women present, 228\u201329\n\non Sultan Valad and Shams, 153, 165\n\nAhmad, 54\n\n_akhavan_ organizations, 122, 245, 256, 325\n\nal-Ghazali, Mohammad, 54, 180\u201381\n\nal-Hallaj, Mansur, 56\n\nal-Maarri, 121\n\nal-Mutanabbi, 96, 120\u201321, 149\n\nal-Nasir, Caliph, 50\n\nal-Rashid, Harun, 50\n\nAlaoddin Kayqobad I, Sultan\n\nabout, 78\u201379, 136\n\nand Baha Valad, 75\u201376, 77, 82\u201383, 85\n\nand Great Mosque in Konya, 79\u201380, 84\u201385\n\nand Konya, Anatolia, 77, 78\n\nand Sultan Han caravanserai, 80\u201381\n\nAlaoddin Kayqobad III, 229\u201330\n\nAlaoddin Mohammad (Rumi's son)\n\nabout, 162\n\nbirth and childhood, 72\u201374\n\nchastisement from Rumi while studying in Damascus, 109\u201310\n\ndeath and funeral of, 253\n\nand Rumi, 171, 179, 193, 253\u201354\n\nand Shams, 121, 162\u201363\n\nAleppo, Syria\n\nabout, 94\u201395\n\nthe Citadel, 94\u201395, 151\u201352\n\nGooch in, 1\u20134\n\n_madrases_ in, 94, 95\n\nRumi as theological student, 3\u20134, 93\u201397\n\nShams in, 132\u201333, 151\u201354\n\nShia in, 97\u201398\n\nAli and the infidel knight tale, 250\n\nAli ebn Malekdad, 126\n\nAltunpa Madrase and Mosque, Konya, 83\u201385\n\nAminodin Mikail \"Sheikh of the Ladies,\" 228\n\nAnatolia and Neighboring Lands\n\n13th Century map, 332\u201333\n\nErzincan, 63\u201365, 70\n\njourney from Konya to Kayseri, 106\u20137\n\njourney from Syria to Anatolia, 62\n\nKayseri, 93\u201394, 102, 105\u20137\n\nLarande, 70\u201375, 76, 86\u201387\n\nMalatya, 62\u201363\n\n_See also_ Konya, Anatolia\n\nAnatolian region\n\nBaha Valad family in, 62\u201376, 82\u201385\n\nearthquakes in, 292\n\nGreeks in, 88\u201389, 110, 192\u201393, 207, 232\n\nMongol rule, 221\u201323\n\nShams in, 132\u201334\n\nAqshahr, Anatolia, 64\n\nArberry, A. J., 4\n\nascetic in the desert hero, 266\u201367\n\nastrolabe metaphor, 235\n\nastronomy, 72\n\nAtaturk, Kemal, 303\u20134\n\nAttar\n\n_Book of Secrets_ , 46\u201347\n\n_The Book of the Camel_ , 75\n\n_Book of the Divine_ , 48\u201349\n\n_The Conference of the Birds_ , 46, 48, 242\u201343\n\ninfluence in Rumi's Masnavi, 249\n\n_Lives of the Saints_ , 55\u201356\n\nand Rumi, 46\u201348, 59\u201360\n\nausterity of Rumi, 102\u20135, 241\u201342, 279\n\nAyyubid dynasty, 94\u201395, 99\u2013100, 325\n\nBabas, 136, 255, 325\n\nBadi al-Zaman Foruzanfar, 214\n\nBaghdad\n\nabout, 51\u201353\n\nBaha Valad family in, 50, 53\u201356\n\nas entranceway to Mecca, 50\n\nMongol takeover of, 218\u201321\n\nrefugees from Mongol invasion, 68\n\nroads to, 43\u201344, 49\n\nShams in, 128\u201329\n\nBaha Valad (Rumi's father)\n\nin Anatolia, 62\u201365, 70\u201371, 82\u201385\n\nBorhan passing on teachings of, 87\u201389\n\nand Damascus, 61\u201362\n\ndeath of, 85\u201386\n\nenemies of, 18\u201319, 20\n\nfear of politicians, 40\n\ninfluence on Rumi, 15\n\ninvitation to teach in Konya, 75\u201376\n\njournal of, 13, 18, 20, 41, 86, 341 _n_ 20\n\njourney to Mecca, 38\u201342\n\nleaving Vakhsh, 24\u201325\n\nmidlife crisis, 20\u201321\n\npersonality of, 15\u201318, 33, 34\n\nand Rumi's visions of angels, 11\u201312\n\nsermons of, 74\n\nas \"Sultan al-Olama,\" 18\n\nBahaoddin Mohammad (Rumi's son), 72\u201374. _See also_ Sultan Valad\n\nBahramshah, prince of Erzincan, 63\u201364\n\nBalkh, Tajikistan, 14\u201315, 39, 67\n\nBarks, Coleman, 4\n\nBasra, 55\n\nBayazid Bestami, 116\u201317\n\nbear as friend metaphor, 265\n\nBedouins on road from Baghdad to Mecca, 58\n\n_Biographical Dictionary_ (Ibn al-Adim), 95\n\nBlack Stone of the Kaaba, 58, 60\n\nBly, Robert, 307\n\n_The Book of Kings_ , or _Shahname_ (Ferdowsi), 23\u201324, 78\u201379\n\n_Book of Secrets_ (Attar), 46\u201347\n\n_The Book of the Camel_ (Attar), 75\n\n_Book of the Divine_ (Attar), 48\u201349\n\nBorhan (Rumi's tutor\/teacher), 39, 87\u201392, 93\u201394, 105\u20137, 202\n\nbraggadocio tradition, 96\n\nBukhara, Uzbekistan, 30, 51\u201352, 66\n\nCahen, Claude, 303\n\ncaliph, 44, 325\n\nCaliph al-Mustasim, 218\u201319\n\ncaravanserai (roadside inn)\n\nin Aleppo, 152\n\nin Damascus, 151\n\nKayseri to Konya, 80\u201381\n\nin Konya, 155\u201356\n\nfrom Rome to Khorasan, 41\u201342\n\nRumi comparing the mind to, 6\n\nRumi's friend the dancing girl, 238\n\nSultan Han, Konya, 80\u201381\n\nCathedral Mosque, Samarkand, 67\n\nCentral Asia and the Middle East\n\nmap, 13th Century, 330\u201331\n\njourney from Samarkand to Mecca, 38\u201339, 40\u201342\n\njourney from Vakhsh to Samarkand, 24\u201325\n\n_See also_ Silk Road\n\n_chelle_ , 104, 325\n\nchildren and Rumi, 239\n\nChristianity\n\nAnatolia surrounded by, 62\n\nCrusades in Syria, 62\n\nin Damascus, 100\n\nFranciscan friars in Aleppo, 95\n\nof Gorji Khatun \"Queen of Queens,\" 227\n\nin Konya, 84\u201385\n\nin Larande, 71\n\nRumi and, 237\u201338\n\nCitadel, Aleppo, 94\u201395, 151\u201352\n\nCitadel, Konya, 78, 79\u201380, 84\u201385, 89, 227\n\nclitoridectomy in Muslim Turkic tribes, 17\n\n_The Conference of the Birds_ (Attar), 46, 48, 242\u201343\n\nCrusades in Syria, 62\n\nDamascus, Syria\n\nabout, 98, 100\u2013101\n\nRumi after accepting Shams's death, 188\u201391\n\nRumi as theological student, 98\u2013101\n\nRumi's search for Shams in, 179\u201390\n\nShams in, 130\u201332, 151\n\nuncertainty for Baha Valad family, 61\u201362\n\ndervish and dervishes, 88, 90, 133, 289, 325. _See also_ whirling and whirling dervishes\n\n_Dictionary of Countries_ (Yaqut), 51\u201352\n\nDowlatshah, 126\n\nducklings raised by a hen story, 266\n\nEbn Chavosh, 208\n\nEmerson, Ralph Waldo, 307\n\nEraqi (Sufi poet), 8\n\nErzincan, Anatolia, 63\u201365, 70\n\nEsmati, princess of Erzincan, 63\u201364\n\nEuphrates River, 52\n\nEzzoddin Kaykaus II, 230\n\nFakhroddin Saheb Ata, 229\n\nFaridun (Jalaloddin Amir Aref\u2014Rumi's grandson), 286\u201387\n\nfasting, importance of, 102\u20134, 221\n\nFateme (Rumi's half-sister), 13, 40\n\nFateme (Salah's daughter), 202, 211\u201312\n\nFateme (Sultan Valad's wife), 212\u201313, 261, 285\u201386\n\n_fatwas_ , 18, 238, 326\n\nFerdowsi, 23\u201324, 79\n\nflute in opening of _Masnavi_ , 243\u201344, 249, 265, 272\n\n_fotovvat_ (Islamic brotherhood), 122, 127, 326\n\nFranciscan friars in Aleppo, 95\n\nfuneral procession, Rumi's, 8, 299\u2013300\n\n_Garden of Truth_ (Sanai), 47, 242\u201343\n\nGenghis Khan, 61, 66\u201370\n\n_ghazal_ (lyrical, rhymed poems), 148\u201351, 153\u201354, 185\u201386, 242\u201343, 326. See also _Masnavi_ (Rumi)\n\nGod\n\nand inspiration, 251\n\nQuran verses emphasizing closeness of, 55\n\nRumi's poetry on, 40, 69\u201370\n\nShams teachings about, 141\n\ntrue lover, the lover of God, 250\u201351\n\n_Godtalk_ (Gooch), research for, 4\u20135\n\nGooch, Brad, 1\u20137, 302, 304\u20135, 307\u20138\n\nGorji Khatun \"Queen of Queens,\" 227\n\nGowhar (Rumi's first wife), 40, 72\u201374, 107\u20138\n\nGowhartash, Amir Badroddin, 84, 85\n\nGreat Mosque, Konya, Anatolia, 79\u201380, 84\u201385\n\nGreat Seljuks, 71\n\nGreeks of Anatolia, 88\u201389, 110, 192\u201393, 207, 232\n\n_hajj_ (pilgrimage), 56, 58\u201359, 60, 326. _See also_ Silk Road\n\nHallaj, Mansur al-, 270\u201372\n\n_hammam_ (bathhouses), 138\u201339\n\nHanafi School of law, 16\u201317, 71, 83, 98\u201399\n\nAbu Hanifa, 57\n\nharems, 12\u201313, 34, 164\u201365, 326\n\n_hazl_ (bawdy poems), 288, 326\n\nHediye (Salah's daughter), 216\u201317\n\nheroes from Rumi's boyhood, 23\u201324\n\nHosam (Hosamoddin Chelebi)\n\nabout, 121\u201322, 245\n\nand _Masnavi_ (Rumi), 242\u201351\n\nwith Rumi in Meram, 262\u201363\n\nas Rumi's beloved and sheikh of the order, 260\u201363, 277\n\nas Rumi's scribe, 245\u201348, 259\u201360, 263\u201364, 293\u201394\n\nand seclusion of Rumi and Shams, 122\n\nwife's death, 252, 259\n\nHulagu Khan (Mongol), 218\u201320\n\nIbn al-Adim, 95\u201396\n\nIbn Arabi, 62\u201363, 82\u201383, 101, 130\u201331, 139, 346 _n_ 63\n\n_In It Is What Is in It_ , or _Fihe ma fih_ , 4\u20135\n\nInce Minareli, Konya, 229\n\nIran, Rumi as adolescent, 5\n\nIslam\n\n_fatwas_ , 18, 238, 326\n\n_fotovvat_ , 122, 127, 326\n\nGenghis Khan as threat to, 68\u201370\n\nHanafi School of law, 16\u201317, 71, 83, 98\u201399\n\nMohammad the Prophet, 50, 131\n\nand Mongol rule in Anatolia, 223\n\nrules against representations, 29\n\nRumi growing up in, 14\n\nShafii School of Islamic jurisprudence, 128\u201330, 277\n\nSee also _specific sects of Islam_\n\nJalaloddin Mohammad, 12, 85, 182. _See also_ Rumi\n\njinn (spirits or genies), 21, 108, 326\n\nJonayd, 55\u201356\n\nIbn Jubayr, 58, 59\n\nJudaism, 100, 120, 236, 299\u2013300\n\nKaaba (sacred shrine in Mecca), 58, 326\n\n_Kalile and Demne_ (collection of animal fables), 21\u201323, 249, 288\n\nKarakhanids (Turkic dynasty), 26\n\nKaramustafa, Ahmet T., 303\n\nKaratay (freed Greek slave, Seljuk), 192\u201393\n\nKaykhosrow II, Sultan, 136\u201337\n\ndeath of, 192\n\nKaykhosrow III, Sultan, 275\n\nKayseri, Anatolia, 93\u201394, 102, 105\u20137\n\nKermani (Turkish Sufi), 129\u201330\n\nKerra Khatun (Rumi's second wife)\n\nabout, 108\n\nand howling dervishes, 275\u201376\n\nand Rumi, 193, 276\n\nand Rumi's illness\/death, 291\u201392, 296\u201397\n\nand Shams, 121, 135\n\nKhayyam, Omar, 48\u201349\n\nKhodavandgar, 12, 39, 87, 163, 255, 286\u201387. _See also_ Madrase Khodavandgar, Konya; Rumi\n\nKhorasan region\n\nabout, 326\n\nBaha Valad's exit from, 25\n\nchaos and skirmishes in, 64\u201366\n\nGenghis Khan's plundering of, 66\u201370\n\nNishapur, 44\u201349, 67\u201368\n\nRumi's boyhood influences, 21\u201324\n\nTermez, 39, 67, 87\n\nKhwarazmshah, 18, 19, 30\u201331, 61, 65\u201366\n\nKimiya (Shams wife), 159\u201361, 163\u201366\n\nKonya, Anatolia\n\nabout, 78\n\nBaha Valad invitation to teach in, 75\u201376\n\nBaha Valad teaching in, 83\u201385\n\nbathhouses in, 138\u201339\n\nBorhan in, 87\u201392\n\nthe Citadel, 78, 79\u201380, 84\u201385, 89, 227\n\ngossip about Rumi and Shams, 124\n\nGreat Mosque7, 79\u201380, 84\u201385\n\ninternal politics, 275\n\nmemorial _sama_ ceremony, 304\u20135\n\nMevlevi lodge museum, 304\n\nand Mongols, 137, 221\u201326\n\nRumi after accepting Shams's death, 191, 193\u201398\n\nRumi in, 6, 78, 85\u201386, 87\u201392\n\nRumi's preaching in, 110\u201311\n\nShams in, 133\u201334\n\nKufa, 57\n\n_lale_ (tutor for children), 39, 326\n\nLarande, Anatolia, 70\u201375, 76, 86\u201387\n\n_Layli and Majnun_ (Nezami), 64, 145\n\nLewis, Franklin D., 186\n\n_Lives of the Poets_ (Dowlatshah), 126\n\n_Lives of the Saints_ (Attar), 55\u201356, 59\u201360\n\nlove\n\nmartyr of love, Majnun, 64\n\nPersian love poetry, 307\u20138\n\nas rain in a desert, 267\n\nof Rumi and Shams, 139\u201341, 142\u201343, 145\n\nRumi as, in his _Masnavi_ , 249, 281\n\nRumi associating music with, 175\n\nRumi's poetry on, 64, 80, 123\n\nSham's religion of the heart, 123\u201324\n\ntrue lover, the lover of God, 250\u201351\n\nunion and separation aspects, 169\u201370, 172\n\nuniversal nature of, 203\n\nas way to peace in the heart, 278\n\nMadrase Khodavandgar, Konya\n\nGowhartash as builder of, 84\n\nRumi and Shams in seclusion at, 134\u201335\n\nRumi and Shams teaching together, 139\u201341\n\nRumi as leader of, 107, 277\u201378\n\nRumi's disciples' dislike for Salah, 207\u20138\n\nRumi's disciples' dislike for Shams, 139\u201341, 147, 158, 163, 166\u201368, 170\u201372, 177\u201378\n\nRumi's recommitment after Salah's death, 235\u201336\n\nSalah as Rumi's successor, 206\u20137\n\nand _sama_ practices, 181\n\nand Shams, 117\u201318, 134, 158\u201359, 197\u201398\n\nShams teaching at, 117, 157\u201358, 168\u201370\n\n_madrases_ (upper-level schools)\n\nabout, 93, 326\n\nin Aleppo, 94, 95\n\nAltunpa Madrase and Mosque, Konya, 83\u201385\n\nBaha Valad and family residing in Baghdad _madrase_ , 53\n\nKaratay's madrase in Konya, 192\u201393\n\nShadbakht Madrase, Aleppo, 95\n\n_See also_ Madrase Khodavandgar, Konya\n\n_maktab_ (elementary school), 32\u201336, 326\n\n_malamatiyya_ (followers of the \"path of blame\"), 45, 326\n\nMalatya, Anatolia, 62\u201363\n\nMaleke (Rumi's daughter), 108, 238, 276\n\nMamluks (military or warrior caste), 275, 278, 326\n\nmaps, 330\u201333\n\n_masnavi_ (long poem in rhyming couplets)\n\nabout, 327\n\n_Book of Secrets_ (Attar), 46\u201347\n\n_Garden of Truth_ (Sanai), 47\n\n_Layli and Majnun_ (Nezami), 64, 145\n\n_Shahname_ , 23\n\n_Masnavi_ (Nicholson, trans.), 2\u20133\n\n_Masnavi_ (Rumi)\n\nabout, 265, 268, 280\u201381\n\nAli and the infidel knight tale, 250\n\nascetic in the desert hero, 266\u201367\n\nBedouin nomad brings a jug of rainwater to Baghdad, 52\n\non Blind Man and the Quran story, 38\n\nBook I, 242\u201351, 265\n\nBook II, 259\u201360, 263\u201367, 273\n\nBook III, 268\u201373, 281\u201383\n\nBook V, 104\u20135, 284\n\nBook VI, 287\u201391\n\non conversion of his wife into a mother, 72\u201373\n\non death, 281\u201384\n\nducklings raised by a hen story, 266\n\non fasting, 103\n\nflute in, 243\u201344, 249, 265, 272\n\ngoldsmith of Samarkand tale, 28\u201329\n\non Hosam, 245, 246\n\nHosam asks Rumi about Shams, 247\u201348\n\non \"I am Truth\" meaning, 270\u201372\n\n_Kalile and Demne_ tales, 22\u201323, 249, 288\n\nparents quarreling about sending their son to school, 33\u201334\n\non power of the Abbasid caliph, 221\n\nQuran in, 20, 250\u201351\n\nRumi's defense of and feelings about, 268\u201370\n\non Shia at Antioch Gate, 97\n\non spiritual guides, 195\u201396\n\nthree princes story, 290\n\ntranslations of, 2\u20133, 306\n\nvulgar material in, 288\n\non women, 109\n\non young prodigy, 35\n\non youth and old age, 274\n\nZolaykha's coded language, 289\u201390\n\nMecca, 38\u201342, 59\u201360, 61\n\n_Meccan Revelations_ (Ibn Arabi), 63\n\nMeram, 262\u201363\n\nMerv, Mongol invasion of, 68\n\nMevlevis (Sufi order), 7, 303\u20134\n\nMohammad the Prophet, 50, 131\n\nMoinoddin Solayman Parvane. _See_ Parvane, Moinoddin Solayman\n\nMongol-controlled territories, 66\u201370\n\nMongols and Seljuks Empire of Rum, 136\u201337\n\nMortaz, Maryam, 5\n\nMount Qasiyun, Damascus, Syria, 5\n\nMowlana, 128, 327. _See also_ Rumi Mozaffar (Mozaffaroddin Amir Alem Chelebi\u2014Rumi's son), 108, 193, 276\n\nMuslim Americans, 4\u20135\n\n_Mystical Poems of Rumi_ (Arberry, trans.), 4\n\n_nay_ (reed flute), 41, 175, 243\u201344, 249, 265, 272\n\nNezam (Nezamoddin), 216\u201317\n\nNezami (poet), 64\n\nNezamiyye College, Baghdad, 53\u201354\n\nNicholson, R. A., 2\u20133\n\nNishapur, Khorasan, 44\u201349, 67\u201368\n\nNosob (nanny), 40\n\nOxus River, 13, 23, 52\n\nthe Parvane, Moinoddin Solayman\n\nPersian language\n\nArabic lessons and, 33\n\nArabic vs., 49\n\nGooch learning, 5\n\nRumi preaching in, 74\u201375\n\nRumi's _Masnavi_ in, 249\n\nswitching to Arabic and back, 149\u201350\n\nPlato, 89, 123\n\npoets and poetry\n\nArabic poets in Aleppo, 96\n\nand fall of Baghdad, 220\n\nNezami, 64\n\nin Nishapuri, 46\n\nodes to cities in Arabic poetry, 99\n\npoetry as a mirror of the poet, 251\n\nRudaki, 29\u201330\n\nin Samarkand, 27\n\nand spring, 81\u201382, 348 _n_ 82\n\n_See also_ Rumi's poetry\n\n_qadi_ (judge of religious law), 257\u201359, 327\n\n_qasidas_ (longer odes), 96, 327\n\n_qibla_ (direction of Mecca), 49\u201350, 327\n\nQonavi (Sadroddin Qonavi), 139, 256\u201357, 293, 300, 303\n\nQuran\n\nBlind Man and the Quran story, 38\n\nelementary school teachings, 33\n\nand funerals, 233\u201334\n\nimportance to Rumi, 36\u201338\n\nand the Parvane, 225\n\nRumi comparing _Masnavi_ to, 268\u201370\n\nRumi's favorite stories, 37\n\nin Rumi's _Masnavi_ , 20, 250\u201351\n\nverses emphasizing closeness of God, 55\n\n_rabab_ (stringed instrument), 175, 213, 327\n\nRabia on her way to Mecca, 60\n\nRamadan poems, 26\n\nRazi of Herat, Fakhroddin, 18\u201320\n\nreligion of the heart, 123\u201324, 278\n\nreligious diversity, 84\u201385, 100, 236\u201340, 273, 299\u2013301\n\n_The Revival of the Religious Sciences_ (al-Ghazali), 54, 180\u201381\n\n_robai_ quatrain, 30, 48, 327, 342 _n_ 30\n\nRoknoddin Qelij Arslan IV, 230\n\nRostam, 23\u201324\n\nRudaki, poetry of, 29\u201330\n\nRumi\n\nabout, 34\u201335, 194\u201395, 226\u201327, 237\u201340\n\naging of, 273, 274\u201375, 285\n\nand Ahmad, 54\n\nastrolabe metaphor, 235\n\nand Attar, 46\u201348, 59\u201360\n\nattitude toward women, 108\u20139\n\nausterity of, 102\u20135, 241\u201342, 279\n\nin Baghdad, 53\u201356\n\nand Baha Valad's death, 85\u201386\n\nand bathhouses in Konya, 138\u201339\n\nand Borhan, 87\u201389, 90\u201392, 102\u20137\n\n_chelle_ of, 104\u20135\n\ndeath of, 6, 7\u20138, 292, 294\u201398\n\ndescription of, 236\n\nfuneral of, 298\u2013301\n\ngiving up delivering sermons, 206, 358 _n_ 206\n\nharem of, 161\u201362\n\nas husband and father, 72\u201374\n\non \"I am Truth\" meaning, 270\u201372\n\nand Ibn Arabi, 62, 63, 101\n\nillness of, 291\u201394\n\nkindness of, 34, 164, 194\u201395, 279\u201380\n\nin Konya, 6, 78, 85\u201386, 87\u201392\n\non Konya hierarchy, 78\n\nin Larande, 71\u201375\n\nand Majnun and Layli tale, 64, 145\n\non marriage of Sultan Valad and Fateme, 215\u201316\n\nand Mongols controlling Konya, 221\u201326\n\nand music, 213\u201314\n\nname(s) of, 12\n\nas preacher, 74\u201375\n\nand Qonavi, 139, 300\n\nand Quran, 36\u201338\n\nand Sanai, 47\u201348\n\nand Serajoddin, 257\u201359\n\nshrine and tomb, 6\u20137\n\nsiblings, 13, 40\n\non wealthy or wordly people, 239\u201340\n\n_See also_ Hosam; Salah; Shams of Tabriz\n\nRumi's childhood\n\nand Borhan, 39\n\nelementary school, 32\u201336\n\nin harem, 12\u201313, 34\n\njourney to Mecca, 39\u201340, 41\u201342\n\nin Nishapur, 44\u201349\n\nin Samarkand, 26\u201327, 30\u201336\n\nand siege of Samarkand, 30\u201331\n\nin Vakhsh, 13\u201314, 21\u201324\n\nvisions and personality, 11\u201312\n\nRumi's followers\n\nAminodin Mikail \"Sheikh of the Ladies,\" 228\u201329\n\nFakhroddin Saheb Ata, 229\n\nGorji Khatun \"Queen of Queens,\" 227\u201328\n\nthe Parvane, 223\u201327, 228\n\nworking-class background of some, 255\u201356\n\nRumi's poetry\n\nabout, 264, 307\u201311\n\non Aleppo, 94\n\non astronomy, 72\n\non Borhan's teachings, 91\n\non chaos in Khorasan region, 65\n\non children and child rearing, 73, 74\n\non death, 97\u201398\n\non fame, 111\u201312, 350 _n_ 112\n\nfor Faridun, his grandson, 286\u201387\n\non God, 40, 69\u201370\n\non _hajj_ , 59\u201360\n\n_Kalile and Demne's_ influence, 21\u201323, 249, 288\n\nKhorasan region influence, 21\u201324\n\non Konya, 77\n\non Larande, 71\n\non life cycles, 76\n\non loss of self, 242\n\non love, 80, 123\n\non lovers and waterwheels, 262\n\non meeting your teacher, 117\u201318\n\non Mutanabbi, 96\n\node to Damascus, 99\u2013100\n\non prayer, 80\n\non Prophet Mohammad, 131\n\nRumi's use of when Shams disappeared, 176\u201377, 181\u201386\n\nfor Salah, 203\u20135, 209, 233\n\nSamarkand influence, 31\u201332\n\non Sanjar the Seljuk, 45\n\n_Shahname's_ influence, 23\u201324\n\nfor Shams, 158, 187\u201388, 189, 190\u201391, 196\u201398\n\non Shams and their experiences, 137\u201338, 139, 146, 156\u201357\n\non spring, 82, 348 _n_ 82\n\non Sufism, 127\n\non thoughts, 277\u201378\n\ntranslations of, 306\u20137\n\non traveling, 42\n\nverse letters for Sham, 148\u201351\n\non wealthy and wordly people, 241\n\nfor wedding of Hediye and Nezam, 217\n\nfor wedding of Sultan Valad and Fateme, 212\u201313\n\non winter, 81\n\non women's role in marriage, 109\n\nYaqut's influence on, 51\u201352\n\nSee also _Masnavi_ (Rumi)\n\nRumi's spiritual studies\n\nin Aleppo, 3\u20134, 93\u201397\n\nBorhan's plan for, 91\u201392\n\nin Damascus, 98\u2013101\n\nexercises in ascetism with Borhan, 102\u20135\n\nand Ibn al-Adim, 95\u201396\n\nRumi's unanswered questions, 111\u201312\n\nShams as teacher, 119\u201324\n\nSadiq, Asma, 310\n\nSalah (Salahoddin Zarkub)\n\nabout, 90, 202\u20133\n\ndeath and funeral of, 232\u201334\n\ndeteriorating health, 231, 232\n\nmoment of recognition with\n\nRumi, 201\u20132\n\nand Rumi, 206\u20137, 208\u20139, 232\n\nRumi compared to, 202\n\nRumi's poems for, 203\u20135, 209\n\nand Shams, 118\n\nShams compared to, 204, 205\n\nand Sultan Valad, 210\u201311\n\n_sama_ (meditative sessions)\n\nabout, 33, 327\n\nal-Ghazali on, 180\u201381\n\nmemorial ceremony in Konya, 304\u20135\n\n_qadi_ Serajoddin's rulings on, 258\u201359\n\nRumi after Shams death, 195\n\nRumi's at women's sessions, 228\u201329\n\nRumi's reliance on after Shams's disappearance, 175\u201376, 180\n\nRumi's support for, 213\u201314\n\nSalah's funeral as, 232\u201333\n\nShams teaching Rumi about, 123\u201324, 174\u201375\n\n_See also_ whirling and whirling dervishes\n\nSamarkand, Uzbekistan, 5, 25, 26\u201330, 67\n\nSanai, 47\u201348, 89\u201390, 242\u201343\n\nSanjar the Seljuk, 45\n\n\"Satan's Lament\" (Sanai), 48\n\n_Savaneh_ , or _Flashes_ (Ahmad), 54\n\nSchimmel, Annemarie, 69, 178, 304\n\nSchool of Khorasan, 45\n\nSebastian (Aleppo Rumi expert), 1\u20133, 302, 307\u20138\n\nsecrets, Whitman's and Rumi's, 2\u20133, 308\u201311\n\nself-knowledge in Sufism, 88\u201389\n\nSeljuks Empire of Rum, 135\u201337, 192\u201393, 223\u201327, 228. _See also_ Konya, Anatolia\n\nSeljuks (nomadic Turkish clan)\n\nabout, 327\n\ncaravanserai, 6\n\nCentral Asian sultinate, 70\u201371\n\nGreat Seljuks, 71\n\nSanjar the Seljuk, 45\n\nSepahsalar (biographer)\n\non Alaoddin and Shams, 162\u201363\n\non Rumi after Shams left the second time, 172, 175, 179\n\non Rumi and Salahoddin, 201\n\non Rumi and Shams, 158, 351 _n_ 116\n\non Shams marriage to Kimiya, 160\n\nSerajoddin Ormovi, 257\u201359, 293\n\nsexual appetite, Baha Valad's, 17\u201318\n\nShadbakht Madrase, Aleppo, 95\n\nShafii School of Islamic jurisprudence, 128\u201330, 277\n\n_shahed-bazi_ practice, 54, 178\n\n_Shahname_ , or _The Book of Kings_ (Ferdowsi), 23\u201324, 78\u201379\n\nabout, 115, 124\u201329, 132\u201334\n\nin Aleppo, 151\u201354\n\nchallenges of living near Rumi's harem, 164\u201365\n\nin Damascus, 151\n\ndeath of Sham and Rumi's acceptance, 188\u201391, 193\u201398, 195, 196\u201398\n\ndisappearance of, Rumi's despair, 147\u201348, 153\u201354, 172, 173\u201377, 178\u201388\n\ngossip about Rumi and, 124\n\nharassment at Madrase, 139\u201341, 147, 158, 163, 166\u201368, 170\u201372, 177\u201378\n\nand Ibn Arabi, 130\u201331\n\nin Konya with and without Rumi, 137\u201339\n\nliving in seclusion with Rumi for\n\nShams of Tabriz (Shamsoddin) months at a time, 118\u201324, 134\u201335, 174, 272\n\nmarriage to Kimiya, 159\u201361, 163\u201366\n\nmeeting Rumi for the first time, 116\u201318, 351 _n_ 116\n\nparents of, 126\n\npersonality of, 122\u201323\n\nreligion of the heart, 123\u201324, 168\n\nreturn to Konya and Rumi, 154\u201357\n\nand Rumi, 139\u201341, 146, 170\u201372\n\nRumi expressing his love for, 142\u201343, 145\n\nRumi merging with Shams in his heart, 186\u201387\n\nRumi's commitment to, 125\n\nand Rumi's _Masnavi_ , 289\u201390\n\nas Rumi's teacher, 119\u201324, 168\u201370\n\nrumors of death of, 177\u201378, 187\u201388\n\nscholars' and Rumi's followers' disapproval, 142, 143\u201345\n\non separation from Rumi, 168\u201370\n\nand Shafii jurisprudence, 129\u201330\n\nand Shehab Harive, 131\u201332\n\nstories of, in Rumi's _Masnavi_ , 249\u201350, 265\u201366\n\ntravel lust of, 158\u201359\n\nShams (Rumi's friend), 7\n\nSharaf (Sharafoddin Samarqandi), 32\u201333, 40\n\nSharia (religious law), 53, 327\n\nShehab Harive, 131\u201332\n\nSheikh Mohammad, 130\u201331. _See also_ Ibn Arabi\n\nShia (minority branch of Islam), 97\u201398, 327\u201328\n\nshrine to Rumi in Konya, 6\u20137\n\nsiege of Samarkand, 30\u201331, 342 _n_ 26\n\nSilk Road\n\nabout, 43\u201344\n\nBaghdad, 50\u201356\n\nBaghdad to Mecca, 56\u201360\n\nNishapur, 44\u201349\n\nshift from Persian to Arabic, 49\n\nslaves and slavery, 238\n\nStoning of the Devil _hajj_ ritual, 58\u201359, 345 _n_ 58\n\nSufism (mystical branch of Islam)\n\nabout, 328\n\nin Baghdad, 54\u201356\n\nBayazid's hymn of praise, 116\u201317\n\nand Borhan, 87\u201388\n\ndisapproval of Rumi within, 254\u201355\n\nguiding notion about a living spiritual world axis, 195\u201396\n\nand Ibn Arabi, 63\n\nKermani and, 129\n\nNew York City group, 4\u20135\n\npersecution of Sufis, 96\n\nresilience in spite of Genghis Khan, 69\n\nsaints of, 55\u201356\n\nand Seljuks, 71\n\n_shahed-bazi_ practice, 54\n\nin Tabriz, 126\u201327\n\nwords and logic as \"veils\" hiding the truth, 123\n\nSultan Han caravanserai, Konya, 80\u201381\n\nSultan Valad (Rumi's son)\n\nabout, 276\n\non Attar's and Sanai's influence on Rumi, 48\n\non Baha Valad, 74\n\non Baha Valad's funeral, 85\u201386\n\nbirth and childhood, 72\u201374\n\nchastisement from Rumi while studying in Damascus, 109\u201310\n\ndelivering verse letters for Sham, 150, 151, 152\n\nand Faridun, 287\n\non Hosam and Rumi, 245\n\nand Hosam as Rumi's successor, 260\u201361, 295\u201396\n\nas leader of Mevlevi Order, 303\n\nmarriage to Salah's daughter Fateme, 212\u201313, 214\u201316\n\npresented to Shams as boy for serving him, 121\n\nand Rumi, 238\n\non Rumi after Shams's death, 195\n\non Rumi and Salah, 206\n\non Rumi's comparison of his _Masnavi_ to the Quran, 270\n\non Rumi's preaching, 111\n\non Rumi's transformation in Damascus, 190\u201391\n\nand Salah, 210\u201311\n\nand Shams, 135, 144, 163, 170\n\non Shams's disappearance, 174\n\nviolent temper of, 193, 214\u201315\n\nSunni (majority branch of Islam), 26, 35, 71, 328, 343 _n_ 35\n\nTabriz, 125, 187\u201388\n\ntakhallos (signature, tag, or pen name of a poet), 185\u201386, 204, 328\n\nTermez, Khorasan, 39, 67, 87\n\n\"Testament\" (Razi), 19\n\nTigres River, 52\n\n_Time_ magazine, 4\n\ntransliteration process, 319\n\n_Treasury of Secrets_ (Nezami), 64\n\nturbaned class, 93, 107\n\nUmayyad dynasty, 50, 328\n\nUmayyad Mosque, Damascus, 98\n\nVakhsh, Tajikistan, 13\u201318, 24\u201325, 40, 340\u201341 _n_ 13\n\nVenice and Venetians, 95\n\nvisions of angels, 11\u201312, 128\n\nwealthy or wordly people, Rumi's avoidance of, 239\u201340\n\nwhirling and whirling dervishes\n\ndervishes, 88, 90, 133, 289, 325\n\nby Gooch in Aleppo, 7\n\nreemergence of, 304\n\nRumi creating poetry at the same time, 226\u201327\n\nRumi's use of when Shams disappeared, 175\u201376, 180\n\nShams learning about, 127\u201328\n\nShams teaching Rumi about, 124\n\nWhitman, Walt, Rumi compared to, 2\u20133\n\nYaqut, 45, 51\u201352, 68\n\nZolaykha's coded language, 289\u201390\n_About the Author_\n\n**BRAD GOOCH** is a poet, novelist, and biographer whose previous ten books include _Flannery: A Life of Flannery O'Connor_ , which was a National Book Critics Circle Award finalist, _New York Times_ Notable Book of the Year, and _New York Times_ bestseller; _City Poet: The Life and Times of Frank O'Hara_ ; _Godtalk: Travels in Spriritual America_ ; and the memoir _Smash Cut_. The recipient of National Endowment for the Humanities and Guggenheim Fellowships, he earned his PhD at Columbia University and is a professor of English at William Paterson University. He lives in New York City.\n\nDiscover great authors, exclusive offers, and more at hc.com.\nAlso by Brad Gooch\n\n_Smash Cut: A Memoir of Howard& Art & the '70s & the '80s_\n\n_Flannery: A Life of Flannery O'Connor_\n\n_City Poet: The Life and Times of Frank O'Hara_\n\n_Scary Kisses_\n\n_Zombieoo_\n\n_The Golden Age of Promiscuity_\n\n_Godtalk: Travels in Spiritual America_\n\n_Finding the Boyfriend Within_\n\n_Dating the Greek Gods_\n\n_Jailbait and Other Stories_\n\n_The Daily News_\n\nCredits\n\nCOVER DESIGN BY SARAH BRODY\n\nCOVER IMAGES : \u00a9 LANA VESHTA \/ SHUTTERSTOCK (TEXTURE); \u00a9 ANNA POGULIAEVA \/ SHUTTERSTOCK (ORNAMENTATION)\nCopyright\n\nRUMI'S SECRET. Copyright \u00a9 2017 by Brad Gooch. All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. By payment of the required fees, you have been granted the nonexclusive, nontransferable right to access and read the text of this e-book on-screen. No part of this text may be reproduced, transmitted, downloaded, decompiled, reverse-engineered, or stored in or introduced into any information storage and retrieval system, in any form or by any means, whether electronic or mechanical, now known or hereafter invented, without the express written permission of HarperCollins e-books.\n\nFIRST EDITION\n\nISBN 978-0-06-199914-7\n\nEPub Edition JANUARY 2017 ISBN 978-0-06-219907-2\n\nVersion 01182018\nAbout the Publisher\n\n**Australia**\n\nHarperCollins Publishers Australia Pty. 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+{"text":"\n\nTHIS IS A BORZOI BOOK  \nPUBLISHED BY ALFRED A. KNOPF\n\nCopyright \u00a9 2010 by Danielle L. McGuire  \nAll rights reserved. Published in the United States by Alfred A. Knopf, a division of Random House, Inc., New York, and in Canada by Random House of Canada Limited, Toronto.\n\nwww.aaknopf.com  \nKnopf, Borzoi Books, and the colophon are registered trademarks of Random House, Inc.\n\nLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data  \nMcGuire, Danielle L.  \nAt the dark end of the street \/ by Danielle L. McGuire. \u2014 1st ed.  \np. cm.  \n\"Borzoi Book.\"  \neISBN: 978-0-307-59447-1  \n1. African-American women\u2014Civil rights\u2014Alabama\u2014History\u201420th century. 2. African-American women\u2014Violence against\u2014Alabama\u2014History\u201420th century. 3. Rape\u2014Political aspects\u2014Southern States\u2014History\u201420th century. 4. Civil rights movements\u2014Southern States\u2014History\u201420th century. 5. Southern States\u2014Race relations\u2014History\u201420th century. I. Title.  \nE185.61.M4777 2010  \n323.1196\u20320730761\u2014dc22 2010012072\n\nv3.1\n_For Recy and Ruby_\nSex is the principle around which the whole structure of segregation... is organized.\n\n\u2014GUNNAR MYRDAL, 1944\n\n# Contents\n\n_Cover_\n\n_Title Page_\n\n_Copyright_\n\n_Dedication_\n\n_Epigraph_\n\n_List of Illustrations_\n\n_Prologue_\n\nCHAPTER 1 \"They'd Kill Me If I Told\"\n\nCHAPTER 2 \"Negroes Every Day Are Being Molested\"\n\nCHAPTER 3 \"Walking in Pride and Dignity\"\n\nCHAPTER 4 \"There's Open Season on Negroes Now\"\n\nCHAPTER 5 \"It Was Like All of Us Had Been Raped\"\n\nCHAPTER 6 \"A Black Woman's Body Was Never Hers Alone\"\n\nCHAPTER 7 Sex and Civil Rights\n\nCHAPTER 8 \"Power to the Ice Pick!\"\n\nEPILOGUE \"We All Lived in Fear for Years\"\n\n_Acknowledgments_\n\n_Notes_\n\n_Bibliography_\n\n# Illustrations\n\n1.1 Members of the SNYC's Third Conference Preparation Group gather at Miles College in Alabama, 1940. (Courtesy of the Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard University)\n\n1.2 Esther Cooper, executive secretary of the SNYC (Courtesy of the Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard University)\n\n1.3 Recy Taylor, Willie Guy Taylor, and their child, Joyce Lee Taylor (Courtesy of the _Chicago Defender)_\n\n1.4 Rosa Parks's letter to Chauncey Sparks, governor of Alabama (Courtesy of the Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, Alabama)\n\n2.1 Willie McGee (\u00a9 Photo by Robert W. Kelley\/Time & Life Pictures\/Getty Images)\n\n2.2 More than five hundred white men, women, and children gather outside the Jones County Courthouse in Ellisville, Mississippi, 1951. (\u00a9 Photo by Robert W. Kelley\/Time & Life Pictures\/Getty Images)\n\n2.3 Members of the Sojourners for Truth and Justice\u2014a national black women's organization dedicated to the protection of \"Negro Womanhood\"\u2014with Paul Robeson in 1952. (Louise Thompson Patterson Papers, Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library, Emory University)\n\n2.4 Rosa Lee Ingram with sons Sammie and Wallace in an Albany, Georgia, jail cell, 1948 (\u00a9 AP\/Wide World)\n\n3.1 Rosa Parks and Frederick Douglass Patterson at Highlander Folk School in July 1955 (Courtesy of Wisconsin Historical Society, 56309)\n\n3.2 Boycotters, February 1956 (\u00a9 Photo by Don Cravens\/Time & Life Pictures\/Getty Images)\n\n3.3 Three police officers watch a group of African-American women waiting at a carpool pickup location. (\u00a9 Photo by Don Cravens\/Time & Life Pictures\/Getty Images)\n\n3.4 African-American women filled the pews at weekly mass meetings. (\u00a9 Photo by Grey Villet\/Time & Life Pictures\/Getty Images)\n\n3.5 Armed white men attack two black women after a desegregation attempt in Montgomery, Alabama. (\u00a9 Photo by Charles Moore\/Blackstar)\n\n3.6 Rosa Parks (Courtesy of the Montgomery County Archives)\n\n3.7 Mrs. A. W. West (Courtesy of the Montgomery County Archives)\n\n3.8 Jo Ann Robinson (Courtesy of the Montgomery County Archives)\n\n3.9 Euretta Adair (Courtesy of the Montgomery County Archives)\n\n3.10 E. D. Nixon (Courtesy of the Montgomery County Archives)\n\n3.11 Reverend Solomon Seay, Sr. (Courtesy of the Montgomery County Archives)\n\n3.12 Reverend Ralph Abernathy (Courtesy of the Montgomery County Archives)\n\n3.13 Reverend E. N. French (Courtesy of the Montgomery County Archives)\n\n3.14 Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr. (Courtesy of the Montgomery County Archives)\n\n3.15 Fred Gray (Courtesy of the Montgomery County Archives)\n\n3.16 African Americans gather outside the courthouse as Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr., stands trial for conspiracy. (\u00a9 Photo by Don Cravens\/Time & Life Pictures\/Getty Images)\n\n3.17 Rosa Parks speaks with an interviewer as she arrives at court with E. D. Nixon and others on trial for violating a 1921 antiboycott law. (\u00a9 Bettman\/Corbis)\n\n3.18 The Fellowship of Reconciliation comic book, published circa 1957, gave rise to the myth of Rosa Parks's \"tired feet\" and Martin Luther King, Jr.'s, heroic leadership of the Montgomery bus boycott. (Courtesy of the Fellowship of Reconciliation and the Ed King Collection of Civil Rights Material, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution)\n\n4.1 Melba Patillo (Courtesy of the Wisconsin Historical Society, 52734)\n\n4.2 Police investigate a Ku Klux Klan cross left on the front lawn of L. C. and Daisy Bates in October 1956. (Courtesy of the Wisconsin Historical Society, 52745)\n\n4.3 Alabama state senator Samuel Engelhardt, Jr., promotes a \"white only\" anti-integration rally. (\u00a9 Photo by Don Cravens\/Time & Life Pictures\/Getty Images)\n\n5.1 Scene of the crime where four white men from Tallahassee, Florida, kidnapped and raped an African-American college student (\u00a9 Photo by Grey Villet\/\/Time Life Pictures\/Getty Images)\n\n5.2 Joe D. Cooke, Jr., an intern from Florida State University, defied racial conventions when he agreed to search for the white assailants of an African-American college student. (\u00a9 Photo by Grey Villet\/\/Time Life Pictures\/Getty Images)\n\n5.3 On May 4, 1959, more than one thousand Florida A&M University students gathered on the university's quadrangle to demand justice for Betty Jean Owens. (Courtesy of _The FAMUAN_ , the Florida A&M University student newspaper, May 1959)\n\n5.4 Patrick Scarborough, David Beagles, Ollie Stoutamire, and Ted Collinsworth (\u00a9 Photo by Grey Villet\/\/Time Life Pictures\/Getty Images)\n\n5.5 State prosecutor William Hopkins (\u00a9 Photo by Grey Villet\/\/Time Life Pictures\/Getty Images)\n\n5.6 Judge W. May Walker (\u00a9 Photo by Grey Villet\/\/Time Life Pictures\/Getty Images)\n\n5.7 African Americans and whites outside the Leon County Courthouse in Tallahassee await the verdict of four white men accused of raping Betty Jean Owens, a black college student. (\u00a9 Photo by Grey Villet\/\/Time Life Pictures\/Getty Images)\n\n5.8 Cartoon featured in an African-American newspaper, May 16, 1959 (Courtesy of the _Baltimore Afro-American)_\n\n5.9 African-American women made up the bulk of the 257 Florida A&M University students arrested for protesting segregated movie theaters in Tallahassee in the spring of 1963. (Courtesy of the State Archives of Florida)\n\n6.1 Fannie Lou Hamer (Will D. Campbell Papers, McCain Library and Archives, University of Southern Mississippi)\n\n6.2 Two trustees carry an African-American woman to the paddy wagon in Jackson, Mississippi, 1963. (Courtesy of the Library of Congress)\n\n6.3 Police crammed a group of teenage girls into a stockade in Leesburg, Georgia, after they were arrested for protesting segregation at a movie theater. (\u00a9 Photo by Danny Lyon\/Magnum Photos)\n\n6.4 Endesha Ida Mae Holland with SNCC voting-rights activists (\u00a9 1978 Matt Heron\/Take Stock Photos)\n\n6.5 Allen Thompson, mayor of Jackson, Mississippi, with police force and armored tank as the city prepares for the arrival of black and white voting-rights volunteers in the summer of 1964 (\u00a9 1978 Matt Heron\/Take Stock Photos)\n\n7.1 Dallas County sheriff Jim Clark (Courtesy of the Library of Congress)\n\n7.2 Jim Clark ordered hundreds of schoolchildren arrested after they held a silent demonstration outside the Dallas County Courthouse on February 3, 1965. (\u00a9 Corbis\/Bettman)\n\n7.3 An Alabama state trooper accosts Annie Cooper, an African-American woman, as members of Jim Clark's mounted posse rally in the background. (\u00a9 Corbis\/Bettman)\n\n7.4 Viola Liuzzo (\u00a9 AP\/Wide World)\n\n7.5 An Alabama state trooper's car is parked near the site where the Ku Klux Klan fatally shot Viola Liuzzo and injured Leroy Moton. (\u00a9 AP\/Wide World)\n\n7.6 An all-white jury found Klansmen Collie Leroy Wilkins, Eugene Thomas, and William Eaton not guilty for the murder of Viola Liuzzo. (\u00a9 AP\/Wide World)\n\n7.7 County prosecutor James Dukes and district attorney James Finch outside the Forrest County Courthouse (Moncrief Photograph Collection, #607, Mississippi Department of Archives & History [<http:\/\/www.mdah.state.ms.us>])\n\n7.8 The front page of the November 12, 1965, _Hattiesburg American_ highlights the historic verdict.\n\n7.9 Mildred and Richard Loving share a laugh with friends during an outing in Virginia, 1965. (\u00a9 Photo by Grey Villet\/Time Life Pictures\/Getty Images)\n\n8.1 Joan Little surrenders to the North Carolina State Bureau of Investigation, September 7, 1975. (Photo courtesy of the North Carolina State Archives. Reprinted with the permission of _The News and Observer_ of Raleigh, North Carolina)\n\n8.2 Attorney Jerry Paul defied the state's racial status quo by representing African Americans and working on civil rights cases. (Photo courtesy of the North Carolina State Archives. Reprinted with the permission of _The News and Observer_ of Raleigh, North Carolina)\n\n8.3 Joan Little, 1975 (Photo courtesy of the North Carolina State Archives. Reprinted with the permission of _The News and Observer_ of Raleigh, North Carolina)\n\n8.4 Demonstrators outside the Wake County Courthouse. (Photo courtesy of the North Carolina State Archives. Reprinted with the permission of _The News and Observer_ of Raleigh, North Carolina)\n\n8.5 An eclectic group of protesters join forces to \"Free Joan Little,\" 1975. (Photo courtesy of the North Carolina State Archives. Reprinted with the permission of _The News and Observer_ of Raleigh, North Carolina)\n\n8.6 An African-American woman pickets outside the Wake County Courthouse in Raleigh, 1975 (Photo courtesy of the North Carolina State Archives. Reprinted with the permission of _The News and Observer_ of Raleigh, North Carolina)\n\n8.7 The Wake County Courthouse, Raleigh, July 14, 1975 (Photo courtesy of the North Carolina State Archives. Reprinted with the permission of _The News and Observer_ of Raleigh, North Carolina)\n\n8.8 Outside the Joan Little trial, 1975 (Photo courtesy of the North Carolina State Archives. Reprinted with the permission of _The News and Observer_ of Raleigh, North Carolina)\n\n8.9 Joan Little and Karen Galloway, July 14, 1975 (Photo courtesy of the North Carolina State Archives. Reprinted with the permission of _The News and Observer_ of Raleigh, North Carolina)\n\n8.10 Joan Little, published in the _Baltimore Afro-American_ , 1975 (Courtesy of the _Baltimore Afro-American)_\n\n# Prologue\n\nON SEPTEMBER 3, 1944, the Rock Hill Holiness Church, in Abbeville, Alabama, rocked late into the night. It was nearly midnight when the doors of the wooden, one-story church swung open releasing streams of worshippers, all African American, into the moonlight. After a night of singing and praying, Recy Taylor, Fannie Daniel, and Daniel's eighteen-year-old son, West, stepped out of the country chapel and strolled toward home alongside the peanut plantations that bounded the Abbeville-Headland highway. Taylor, a slender, copper-colored, and beautiful twenty-four-year-old mother and sharecropper, noticed a rattletrap green Chevrolet pass them at least three times, young white men gawking from its windows.\n\n\"You reckon what they are up to?\" Taylor asked.\n\nTaylor and Daniel, a stout sixty-one-year-old woman, watched the car creep by one last time and roll to a stop a few feet ahead of them. Seven men, armed with knives and guns, got out of the car and walked toward the women.\n\nHerbert Lovett, the oldest of the crew at twenty-four and a private in the U.S. Army, shouted, \"Halt!\"\n\nWhen they ignored the order, Lovett leveled his shotgun. West tugged at his mother's sleeve, begging her to stop. \"They might shoot you,\" he whispered.\n\nAs the circle of men closed in, Lovett waved his gun at Taylor.\n\n\"We're looking for this girl, right there. She's the one that cut that white boy in Clopton this evening,\" Lovett said, adding that the local sheriff, George H. Gamble, had dispatched the group to find the alleged assailant.\n\n\"You're wrong,\" Fannie insisted. \"She's been to my house all day.\"\n\nThe men crowded closer, nodding their heads in agreement. \"Ain't this her?\" Lovett asked.\n\n\"Yep, this the one,\" Joe Culpepper said. \"I know her by the clothes she got on.\"\n\n\"That's her,\" Luther Lee agreed. \"Get her!\"\n\nLovett lurched toward Taylor and grabbed her arm. Then he turned to West and asked if Taylor was his wife.\n\n\"No,\" West replied, \"she's Willie Guy Taylor's wife.\" Undeterred, Lovett extended his hand to the teenager, ordered him to shake it, and promised not to hurt Taylor.\n\n\"We're going to take her up here and see if Mr. Gamble knows her,\" Lovett claimed. \"If she's not the one, we'll bring her right back.\"\n\nAs Lovett spoke, Taylor managed to wrest her arm from his grasp and bolted toward a stand of trees behind a cabin.\n\n\"Come back! Come back!\" Fannie yelled. \"They going to shoot you. Come back!\"\n\n\"Stop!\" Lovett shouted. He cocked the gun at the back of her head. \"I'll kill you if you run.\"\n\nLovett walked Taylor to the car and shoved her into the backseat. Three men piled in behind her, while four others squeezed into the front. The headlights switched off and the car crept away. After a few miles, the green sedan turned off the main highway, rattled down a red-clay tractor path into the woods, and stopped in a grove of pecan trees. \"Y'all aren't carrying me to Mr. Gamble,\" Taylor shouted. The men in the backseat clasped her wrists and ordered her to be quiet. Lovett grabbed his gun and waved Taylor and his companions out of the car.\n\n\"Get them rags off,\" he barked, pointing the shotgun at her, \"or I'll kill you and leave you down here in the woods.\"\n\nSobbing, Taylor pulled off her clothes.\n\n\"Please,\" she cried, \"let me go home to my husband and my baby.\"\n\nLovett spread an old hunting coat on the ground, told his friends to strip down to their socks and undershirts, and ordered Taylor to lie down. Lovett passed his rifle to a friend and took off his pants. Hovering over the young mother, he snarled, \"Act just like you do with your husband or I'll cut your damn throat.\"\n\n\u2022 \u2022 \u2022\n\nLovett was the first of six men to rape Taylor that night. When they finished, someone helped her get dressed, tied a handkerchief over her eyes, and shoved her back into the car. Back on the highway, the men stopped and ordered Taylor out of the car. \"Don't move until we get away from here,\" one of them yelled. Taylor heard the car disappear into the night. She pulled off the blindfold, got her bearings, and began the long walk home.\n\nA few days later, a telephone rang at the NAACP branch office in Montgomery, Alabama. E. D. Nixon, the local president, promised to send his best investigator to Abbeville. That investigator would launch a movement that would ultimately change the world.\n\nHer name was Rosa Parks.\n\nIn later years, historians would paint Parks as a sweet and reticent old woman, whose tired feet caused her to defy Jim Crow on Montgomery's city buses. Her solitary and spontaneous act, the story goes, sparked the 1955 bus boycott and gave birth to the civil rights movement. But Rosa Parks was a militant race woman, a sharp detective, and an antirape activist long before she became the patron saint of the bus boycott. After meeting with Recy Taylor, Rosa Parks helped form the Committee for Equal Justice. With support from local people, she helped organize what the _Chicago Defender_ called the \"strongest campaign for equal justice to be seen in a decade.\" Eleven years later this group of homegrown leaders would become better known as the Montgomery Improvement Association. The 1955 Montgomery bus boycott, often heralded as the opening scene of the civil rights movement, was in many ways the last act of a decades-long struggle to protect black women, like Taylor, from sexualized violence and rape.\n\nThe kidnapping and rape of Recy Taylor was not unusual in the segregated South. The sexual exploitation of black women by white men had its roots in slavery and continued throughout the better part of the twentieth century.\n\nWhen African Americans tested their freedom during Reconstruction, former slaveholders and their sympathizers used rape as a \"weapon of terror\" to dominate the bodies and minds of African-American men and women. Interracial rape was not only used to uphold white patriarchal power but was also deployed as a justification for lynching black men who challenged the Southern status quo. In addition to the immediate physical danger African Americans faced, sexual and racial violence functioned as a tool of coercion, control, and harassment. Ida B. Wells, the gun-toting editor of the _Memphis Free Press_ who led a crusade against lynching in the 1890s, argued that white men accused black men of rape as part of a larger \"system of intimidation\" designed to keep blacks \"subservient and submissive.\" Worse, Wells argued at the turn of the century, white men used the protection of white womanhood to \"justify their own barbarism.\"\n\nThe rape of black women by white men continued, often unpunished, throughout the Jim Crow era. As Reconstruction collapsed and Jim Crow arose, white men abducted and assaulted black women with alarming regularity. White men lured black women and girls away from home with promises of steady work and better wages; attacked them on the job; abducted them at gunpoint while traveling to or from home, work, or church; raped them as a form of retribution or to enforce rules of racial and economic hierarchy; sexually humiliated and assaulted them on streetcars and buses, in taxicabs and trains, and in other public spaces. As the acclaimed freedom fighter Fannie Lou Hamer put it, \"A black woman's body was never hers alone.\"\n\nBlack women did not keep their stories secret. African-American women reclaimed their bodies and their humanity by testifying about their assaults. They launched the first public attacks on sexual violence as a \"systemic abuse of women\" in response to slavery and the wave of lynchings in the post-Emancipation South. Slave narratives offer stark testimony about the brutal sexual exploitation bondswomen faced. For example, Harriet Jacobs detailed her master's lechery in her autobiography to \"arouse the women of the North\" and \"convince the people of the Free States what Slavery really is.\" When African-American clubwomen began to organize antilynching campaigns during the late nineteenth century, they testified about decades of sexual abuse. On October 5, 1892, hundreds of black women converged on Lyric Hall in New York City to hear Ida B. Wells's thunderous voice. While black men were being accused of ravishing white women, she argued, \"The rape of helpless Negro girls, which began in slavery days, still continues without reproof from church, state or press.\" At the 1893 World's Fair in Chicago, Fannie Barrier Williams told an audience of black and white clubwomen about the \"shameful fact that I am constantly in receipt of letters from the still unprotected women of the South....\" Anna Julia Cooper, a Washington, D.C., educator, author, and respected clubwoman, echoed Williams's testimony. Black women, she told the crowd, were engaged in a \"painful, patient, and silent toil... to gain title to the bodies of their daughters.\"\n\nThroughout the twentieth century, black women persisted in telling their stories, frequently cited in local and national NAACP reports. Their testimonies spilled out in letters to the Justice Department and appeared on the front pages of the nation's leading black newspapers. Black women regularly denounced their sexual misuse. By deploying their voices as weapons in the wars against white supremacy, whether in the church, the courtroom, or in congressional hearings, African-American women loudly resisted what Martin Luther King, Jr., called the \"thingification\" of their humanity. Decades before radical feminists in the women's movement urged rape survivors to \"speak out,\" African-American women's public protests galvanized local, national, and even international outrage and sparked larger campaigns for racial justice and human dignity. When Recy Taylor spoke out against her assailants and Rosa Parks and her allies in Montgomery mobilized in defense of her womanhood in 1944, they joined this tradition of testimony and protest.\n\nMontgomery, Alabama, was not the only place in which attacks on black women fueled protests against white supremacy. Between 1940 and 1975, sexual violence and interracial rape became one crucial battleground upon which African Americans sought to destroy white supremacy and gain personal and political autonomy. Civil rights campaigns in Little Rock, Arkansas; Macon, Georgia; Tallahassee, Florida; Washington, North Carolina; Birmingham and Selma, Alabama; Hattiesburg, Mississippi; and many other places had roots in organized resistance to sexual violence and appeals for protection of black womanhood.\n\nAnd yet analyses of rape and sexualized violence play little or no role in most histories of the civil rights movement, which present it as a struggle between black and white men\u2014the heroic leadership of Martin Luther King confronting intransigent white supremacists like \"Bull\" Connor. The real story\u2014that the civil rights movement is also rooted in African-American women's long struggle against sexual violence\u2014has never before been written. The stories of black women who fought for bodily integrity and personal dignity hold profound truths about the sexualized violence that marked racial politics and African American lives during the modern civil rights movement. If we understand the role rape and sexual violence played in African Americans' daily lives and within the larger freedom struggle, we have to reinterpret, if not rewrite, the history of the civil rights movement. _At the Dark End of the Street_ does both.\n\nIt is no surprise that buses became the target of African-American resistance in Montgomery during the 1955\u201356 boycott. It was much easier, not to mention safer, for black women to stop riding the buses than it was to bring their assailants\u2014usually white policemen or bus drivers\u2014to justice. By walking hundreds of miles to protest humiliation and testifying publicly about physical and sexual abuse, black women reclaimed their bodies and demanded to be treated with dignity and respect. Coupling new historical evidence with a fresh perspective, Chapters 2 and  reveal the history of the Montgomery campaign as a women's movement for dignity.\n\nIssues of sexual violence were crucial both to the civil rights movement and to the white supremacist resistance. Segregationists responded to the nascent African-American freedom movement with a sexually charged campaign of terror to derail the freedom movement. Between 1956 and 1960, black Southerners braved the Ku Klux Klan, the White Citizens' Council, and other extremist groups, sparking some of the fiercest struggles for black humanity of the modern civil rights movement. These battles, highlighted in Chapter 4, exposed the power of sex in maintaining the South's racial hierarchy and underscored the extent to which whites would fight to preserve it.\n\nOften ignored by civil rights historians, a number of campaigns led to trials and even convictions throughout the South. These cases, many virtually unknown, broke with Southern tradition and fractured the philosophical and political foundations of white supremacy by challenging the relationship between sexual domination and racial equality.\n\nNowhere was this more apparent and more important than in Tallahassee, Florida, where Betty Jean Owens, an African-American college student, stood in front of an all-white jury in 1959 and testified about being kidnapped and gang-raped by four white men. The extraordinary trial, the subject of Chapter 5, focused national attention on the sexual exploitation of African-American women. For perhaps the first time since Reconstruction, black Southerners could imagine government as a defender of their manhood and womanhood. The Tallahassee case led to rape convictions elsewhere that year in Montgomery, Alabama; Raleigh, North Carolina; and Burton, South Carolina. The 1959 Tallahassee rape was a watershed case that remains as revealing now as it was important then.\n\nBlack women's testimonies revealed their vulnerability across the South, especially in Mississippi. Most accounts of the Mississippi movement focus on racist brutality directed at men\u2014from Emmett Till and Medgar Evers to Andrew Goodman, Michael Schwerner, and James Chaney. Chapter 6 challenges the dominant historical narrative of the Mississippi freedom struggle by documenting black women's resistance to racial _and_ sexual abuse.\n\nThe 1965 Selma, Alabama, campaign, like the Montgomery movement, has an important history rooted in sexualized violence that historians have not yet explored. Federal intervention and congressional action on behalf of African Americans in 1964 and 1965\u2014especially the Civil Rights Act and the Voting Rights Act\u2014constituted the most dangerous threat to white dominion and left segregationists reeling. But the segregationists fired back with traditional ammunition of sexual slander and the \"black beast rapist.\" Chapter 7 documents how white supremacists in Selma and across the South used the rhetoric of rape and \"miscegenation\" to resuscitate and revive massive resistance, underscoring the importance of sex and sexual violence to the maintenance of white supremacy. Civil rights activists were not only \"outside agitators\" or Communists intent on destroying the Southern way of life; now they were sexual fiends. It was within this storm\u2014and because of it\u2014that the Ku Klux Klan murdered Viola Liuzzo, a white housewife from Detroit who embraced the black freedom struggle. Her detractors, of course, accused her of embracing black men.\n\nAn analysis of sex and sexualized violence in well-known civil rights narratives changes the historical markers and meanings of the movement. Like the Tallahassee case, the 1965 trial of Norman Cannon, a white man who abducted and raped a black teenager in Hattiesburg, Mississippi, had broad implications for both the Mississippi movement and the African-American freedom struggle as a whole. The verdict was recognized nationally as a major victory. It ought to be considered one of the bookends of the modern civil rights movement. And yet the story has never been told. While the Voting Rights Act is often referenced as the culminating achievement of the modern civil rights movement, a pillar of white supremacy fell in 1967 when the Supreme Court banned laws prohibiting interracial marriage in the landmark _Loving v. Virginia_ decision. Only when we place the _Loving_ decision within the long struggle for black women's bodily integrity and freedom from racial _and_ sexual terror can it be properly recognized as a major marker in the African-American freedom movement.\n\nThe struggle did not stop with that landmark victory. The right of African-American women to defend themselves from white men's sexual advances was tested in the 1975 trial of Joan Little, a twenty-year-old black female inmate from Washington, North Carolina, who killed her white jailer after he allegedly sexually assaulted her. The broad coalition of supporters who rallied to Little's defense\u2014from the National Organization for Women to the Black Panther Party\u2014reflected the enormous social, political, and economic changes wrought by the civil rights movement, the women's movement, and the emergence of the New Left and Black Power. But it also showed continuity with the past\u2014the Free Joan Little movement mirrored the eclectic coalition that formed to demand justice for Recy Taylor in 1944. They were both led primarily by African-American women and helped serve as catalysts for larger struggles. The stunning verdict, announced by a jury made up of whites and blacks, signaled the death knell of the rape of black women that had been a feature of Southern race politics since slavery.\n\nLike the kidnapping and rape of Recy Taylor in Abbeville, Alabama, in 1944; Betty Jean Owens in 1959; Rosa Lee Coates in 1965; and hundreds of other African-American women throughout the segregated South, these brutal attacks almost always began at the dark end of the street. But African Americans would never let them stay there.\n\n# CHAPTER 1  \n\"They'd Kill Me If I Told\"\n\nTHE ROAD TO ABBEVILLE, a rural county seat ninety miles southeast of Montgomery, was familiar territory for Rosa Parks. Her father, James McCauley, a handsome, barrel-chested builder and expert stonemason, was one of eleven children reared by Anderson and Louisa McCauley in the hardscrabble town. The sprawling McCauley clan squeezed into a tiny, wood-frame home with dirt floors. Similar cabins provided shelter for the bulk of Abbeville's two thousand souls\u2014mostly sharecroppers and tenant farmers who scraped a living out of the peanut and cotton fields that quilted the countryside.\n\nWhile Rosa's grandmother, Louisa McCauley, maintained the homestead and tended to her growing family, her husband and oldest sons built big, beautiful homes throughout Alabama's Black Belt, a band of inky, fertile soil stretching across the middle of the state. The region was known for its bumper cotton crops and punishing plantations. As skilled laborers and contract workers, the McCauley men maintained a sense of independence that few African Americans could claim. Despite the promises of a progressive New South, the legacy of slavery in the Black Belt was palpable. Tenant farming and debt peonage dominated the economy, and the ghosts of the \"peculiar institution\" haunted the rolling landscape, where the children and grandchildren of slaves and slave owners eyed each other with fear and familiarity.\n\nThat familiarity was visible in James McCauley's pale almond skin and dark, wavy hair. The grandson of a fair-skinned slave woman and a \"Yankee soldier,\" he had a light coloration that mocked the new segregation laws that white legislators passed at the turn of the century. City workers nailed wooden signs proclaiming \"Colored\" or \"Whites Only\" between seats in streetcars and above doorways in theaters, restaurants, and boardinghouses. Toilets, water fountains, telephone booths, waiting rooms, and ticket windows were all similarly marked. In Birmingham, Alabama, Jim Crow laws barred whites and blacks from being together in \"any room, hall, theatre, picture house, auditorium, yard, court, park or other indoor or outdoor place.\" Black nurses could not care for white patients, and black students dared not use \"white\" textbooks. In Texas, circuses were segregated, and \"Caucasians\" and \"Africans\" could not watch a boxing or wrestling match together. Some states prohibited black and white workers from laboring together in the same room, while others barred blacks from certain trades altogether. For the most part, the McCauleys pursued their daily affairs without giving much thought to these laws.\n\nOne Sunday, in the spring of 1912, James McCauley decided to go hear his brother-in-law preach at the white-framed Mount Zion African Methodist Episcopal Church in Pine Level, Alabama. Across the pews, he saw a striking woman with diaphanous skin, high cheekbones, plum lips, and flowing waves of dark, shiny hair. She was twenty-four years old, had attended Payne University in Selma, Alabama, and taught school nearby. Her name was Leona Edwards.\n\nLike many black Southerners, McCauley and Edwards shared a family history that involved interracial couplings ranging from tragic love to brutal rape. Leona was the daughter of Rose Percival, born a slave; and Sylvester Edwards, whose milky-white complexion and straight brown hair were the product of an illicit relationship between a white plantation owner and his slave mistress. After his mother and father died, Sylvester became an object of mistreatment in the plantation household. The white overseer beat him mercilessly, starved him, and refused to let the boy wear shoes. Years of cruelty hardened Sylvester until he felt what his granddaughter Rosa would describe as an \"intense, passionate hatred for white people.\"\n\nAfter slavery ended, despite his disdain, Sylvester often passed for white. After shaking Sylvester's hand and speaking to him as an equal, whites occasionally discovered he was \"black\" and became angry or embarrassed. In a kind of tragicomic retribution for years of mistreatment, Edwards enjoyed watching whites squirm over the unspoken absurdities of the color line. Though he used his apparent whiteness to his advantage when necessary, he remained pugnacious toward whites and taught his three daughters to be especially wary of white men. Leona inherited both her father's pigmentation and his pride\u2014she became a teacher so she would never have to cook or clean for whites.\n\nIt didn't take long for Leona and James McCauley to fall in love. They were married \"right there in Pine Level\" on April 12, 1912, and moved to Tuskegee, Alabama, home of Booker T. Washington's famed Tuskegee Institute. Their daughter, Rosa, was born roughly nine months after the wedding. Leona hoped her itinerant husband would land a job at Tuskegee and settle down, but the \"citadel of black intellectual life\" was not as appealing to James as it was to his wife. He saw himself as a rambling man, more interested in making good money than putting down roots. His long trips away from home left Leona depressed and tearful, alone with her new baby. When James decided he wanted to move back to Abbeville to be closer to his family, Leona had no choice but to leave Tuskegee and abandon her dream of racial uplift.\n\nRosa was two years old when they moved in with her father's extended family in Abbeville. Surrounded by playmates, she quickly became the center of attention. Over time, however, the dirt floors and crowded beds were too much for Leona, who was not particularly fond of her in-laws. James announced in 1915 or 1916 that he planned to move north, joining the millions of African Americans fleeing the South in search of better jobs and the promise of freedom. Leona decided to stay behind. She and little Rosa left Abbeville and returned to her parents' farm in Pine Level, where Sylvester Edwards taught his granddaughter, who the world would come to know as Rosa Parks, \"not to put up with bad treatment from anybody.\"\n\nWhen Rosa Parks returned to Abbeville almost thirty years later to investigate the rape of Recy Taylor, she was, in a sense, coming home. Though she had not seen her father in years, she remained kin to a sizable portion of the black community there. She could count on the McCauleys for a hot meal, a warm bed, and all the local gossip. News of the gang rape of Mrs. Taylor had reverberated through the sharecroppers' cabins and the tattered gray shacks in the colored section of town. Taylor, her husband, and their three-year-old daughter, Joyce Lee, rented one of these cabins at the bottom of a rust-colored hill just outside of town. Here Parks scribbled notes as she listened to Taylor testify about the vicious attack. Her time was limited. Deputy Sheriff Lewey Corbitt, known among blacks in Abbeville as a mean man with a propensity for violence, drove repeatedly past the house. Finally, he burst into the cabin and ordered Parks out of town. \"I don't want any troublemakers here in Abbeville,\" he said. \"If you don't go,\" he said, \"I'll lock you up.\"\n\nParks gathered up her notes and carried Taylor's story back to Montgomery, where she and the city's most militant black activists organized a campaign to defend Recy Taylor. Eleven years later, this group of homegrown leaders would take history in their hands and become heralded as the Montgomery Improvement Association, eventually vaulting its first president, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., to international prominence during the Montgomery bus boycott. But when the coalition first took root, King was still in high school in Atlanta.\n\nAlone on the dark highway after her assailants dumped her out of the car, Recy Taylor pulled off the blindfold and got her bearings. In the moonlight, she recognized the silhouette of Judge Charlie Nordan's barn and knew which way to turn. Staggering along the edge of the road, she saw the deputy sheriff's car whiz past. As she approached Three Points\u2014the intersection of three main roads near the center of Abbeville\u2014she saw another familiar vehicle. Will Cook, the former chief of police and a local shopkeeper, pulled his automobile to the side of the road. Taylor's father, Benny Corbitt (no relation to the deputy sheriff), called to his daughter, the oldest of seven children, and she crawled into the car. As the dark, open space of the highway receded behind small storefronts, Taylor saw her husband, Willie Guy Taylor, and her friends Fannie and West Daniel, huddling with two police officers in front of Cook's store. It was nearly three in the morning.\n\nRecy Taylor had no way of knowing that Fannie Daniel had immediately reported the abduction to Cook, who must have felt the fear and urgency in the older woman's voice. Her son's description of the green Chevrolet assured Cook's assistance. He \"knew at once,\" he said, who owned it. Cook fired off a series of orders to get the investigation under way, sending Fannie and West to rouse George Gamble, the Henry County sheriff; then driving to Benny Corbitt's house to notify him about the abduction of his daughter. Benny grabbed a pistol, slid it into his waistband, and ran outside. First he went to Price's lumber, where white men had taken black women before, and searched desperately between the stacks of wood. When he could not find her there, he began walking through town. Finally, he headed east, toward \"lovers' lane,\" a wooded area outside town where white teenagers were known to congregate after hours. His shirt was soaked with sweat when he finally spotted the silhouette of his daughter staggering on the roadside. Her clothes were tattered and torn, and she was shaking with sobs.\n\nAfter such a brutal gang rape, Taylor must have been in extreme pain and shock. There was no telling what physical injuries she sustained, how many bruises would mar her skin the next morning. The psychological wounds were bound to last a lifetime. That she could walk a distance after the attack indicates only a dogged determination to return home alive.\n\nWhen Taylor stumbled into the arms of her husband, he was standing outside Cook's store. Taylor's family and friends crowded around her, listening quietly as she told them what happened. She told Sheriff Gamble that she could not name any of her assailants, but her description of the car pointed to one suspect. \"There's only one car in the county that fits that description,\" he said. Telling Taylor to stay put, he quickly walked to his car.\n\nThirty minutes later the sheriff returned with Hugo Wilson, his father, and their big green sedan. Taylor identified the car and pointed to Wilson as one of the rapists. Fannie and West Daniel backed Taylor up. West identified Wilson's car as the one \"that the white boys were in when they stopped me, my Mama and Recy Taylor.\" Wilson, he said, pointing to the young white man, \"made Recy Taylor get in the car and drove off with her.\" Sheriff Gamble took Wilson to the jailhouse, and Willie Guy Taylor walked his wife home.\n\nUnder questioning from Gamble at the Henry County jail, Wilson admitted picking Taylor up and, as he put it, \"carrying her to the spot,\" and gave up the names of his accomplices. Dillard York, Billy Howerton, Herbert Lovett, Luther Lee, Joe Culpepper, and Robert Gamble, he said, \"all had intercourse with her.\" Wilson swore that they did not use force. \"We all paid her.\"\n\nWilson's defense was certainly plausible; it was not uncommon for white Southerners\u2014even die-hard segregationists\u2014to visit black prostitutes under the cover of darkness. African Americans called white men who surreptitiously searched for coerced or consensual interracial intercourse \"alleybats.\" Still, Gamble must have known Wilson was not telling the truth. He himself had seen Taylor distraught, disheveled, and trembling. Three eyewitnesses identified Wilson as the driver of the car used in the armed abduction. Sheriff Gamble could have justified arresting Wilson without difficulty. At the very least, he might have called the other men Wilson named and brought them in for questioning. Instead, Gamble sent Wilson home with a $250 bond and instructions to have his parents sign and return it at their leisure. The sheriff did not call the other men in, issue any warrants, or make any arrests.\n\nIf Sheriff Gamble hoped the case would quietly disappear, he was disappointed. Rosa Parks had been a member of the Montgomery NAACP for only a year when she met with Recy Taylor in 1944, but she was already a seasoned activist. Her quiet demeanor hid a steely determination to battle white supremacy. Rosa's grandfather taught her to stand up for herself and others and introduced her to the boisterous exhortations of the Jamaican-born black nationalist Marcus Garvey when she was in grade school. Garvey's condemnation of white supremacy and his calls for a \"Back to Africa\" movement were common topics of conversation in the Edwards household. Garvey's fearless race pride rallied millions into the ranks of his Universal Negro Improvement Association. From its auspicious beginning in 1914 to its stark demise eleven years later, the UNIA was the biggest and brassiest organization for black human rights in the world. Garvey's call for a \"new world of _Black_ men, not peons, serfs, dogs, or slaves,\" resonated with Edwards, who refused to be cowed by white men, even when they wore hoods and carried guns. Perhaps her grandfather took young Rosa to Tuskegee in 1923, where Garvey enjoyed a warm reception from students and faculty and impressed African-American ministers from Birmingham.\n\nSylvester Edwards became his granddaughter's political mentor at a time when Garvey's rise coincided with a national resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan, a terrorist organization dedicated to \"100 Percent Americanism\" and the supremacy of white Anglo-Saxon Christians. Though they hid behind masks when committing acts of terrorism, businessmen, police officers, civic leaders, and state politicians north and south proudly proclaimed their loyalty to the hooded order. By 1924 the KKK counted four to six million members nationwide. Alabama boasted 115,000 men and women in 148 separate klaverns. Even Governor Bibb Graves held a membership card.\n\nAfter World War I the Alabama Klan unleashed a wave of terror designed to return \"uppity\" African Americans to their proper place in the segregated social order. The war to \"make the world safe for democracy\" had upended the racial status quo in the South. The promise of a better life in the North encouraged thousands of domestics and sharecroppers to flee low-paying jobs and the constant threat of racial violence, launching the Great Migration. Meanwhile many black soldiers returned to the South expecting that their military service would be rewarded with better treatment. \"Whites didn't like blacks having that kind of attitude,\" Rosa Parks recalled years later, \"so they started doing all kinds of violent things to black people to remind them that they didn't have any rights... I heard a lot about black people being found dead and nobody knew what happened,\" she said. \"Other people would just pick them up and bury them.\" In 1919 the Alabama Klan lynched four African Americans in Montgomery in less than twelve hours. In Ensley Klansmen flogged a black doctor who treated white patients; the Klan murdered two black men in Shelby County who decided to quit their low-paying farm jobs; and in Houston County an angry horde of hooded vigilantes shot and killed a black man as he waited on a platform for a northbound train.\n\nSylvester Edwards refused to be the Klan's next victim. Cradling his double-barreled shotgun as the robed rebels paraded on the street outside his home in Pine Level, he positioned himself between the front door and the yawning fireplace. Rosa remembered kneeling beside his chair as he waited, rocking slowly back and forth. \"I don't know how long I would last if they came breaking in here,\" he said to Rosa, \"but I'm getting the first one who comes through the door.\" Rosa sat with her grandfather each night, waiting for the danger to pass. \"Whatever happened,\" she said later, \"I wanted to see it. I wanted to see him shoot that gun. I wasn't going to be caught asleep.\"\n\nBy the time she was ten years old, Rosa was as defiant as her grandfather. \"I saw Franklin,\" she announced to her grandmother one summer day, referring to a notorious white bully. \"He threatened to hit me,\" she said. \"I picked up a brick and dared him to hit me.\" Her grandmother scolded her and insisted that black children could not \"talk to white folks that way... You'll be lynched before you're twenty years old.\" The sharp reprimand hurt young Rosa's feelings, but it did not curtail her feisty behavior: \"I felt that I was very much in my rights to try to defend myself if I could.\" When another white boy on skates whizzed past and tried to push Rosa off the sidewalk, she pushed him back. The boy's mother saw the infraction and threatened to have Rosa arrested. \"He pushed me,\" Rosa snapped, \"and I didn't want to be pushed.\" \"It had been passed down almost in our genes,\" she said later, \"that a proud African American can simply not accept bad treatment from anybody.\"\n\nAs a young woman, Rosa McCauley was drawn to Raymond Parks, a spirited and brazen barber who lived in Montgomery, soon after she met him in the spring of 1931. At first his light complexion turned her off, and she rebuffed his flirtations. \"I thought he was too white,\" she admitted; \"I had an aversion to white men.\" But when she found out that Parks was a charter member of the Montgomery NAACP who carried a pistol in his pocket so that he could stand up to whites without fear, she relented and agreed to a date. Over the next year, they spent hours sitting in the rumble seat of his little red Nash, talking about injustice in Alabama. \"He was the first man of our race, aside from my grandfather,\" she said, \"with whom I actually discussed anything about the racial conditions.\"\n\nRaymond and Rosa had plenty to talk about. Rape and rumors of rape preoccupied Alabamians during the Depression years, and stories of racialized sexual violence echoed out from Alabama to the rest of the world. It is likely Rosa and Raymond discussed the brutal rape of Murdus Dixon, a twelve-year-old black Birmingham girl raped at knifepoint in the early 1930s by a white man who hired her as a domestic. Police refused to arrest the man, and the case languished until it finally disappeared from public conversation.\n\nBy the spring of 1931, most conversation in Alabama centered on what had happened in the small town of Scottsboro. On March 25 hundreds of white men in dusty overalls, with shotguns slung over their shoulders, crowded around the crumbling two-story jailhouse. Inside were nine African-American boys, none older than twenty, who had been kicked off a Memphis-bound freight train and arrested after roughhousing with a handful of white hoboes. But when Ruby Bates and Victoria Price, two white women working as prostitutes, were also taken off the train, they accused the black youths of rape. By late afternoon, their accusation had been transformed into a lurid tale. Rumors spread that nine \"black brutes\" had \"chewed off one of the breasts\" of Ruby Bates. By the time the young men were brought to the Scottsboro jail, an incensed mob had already decided they were guilty. \"Give 'em to us,\" someone shouted, as the mob pushed toward the jailhouse door. \"Let those niggers out!\" \"If you don't,\" another threatened, \"we're coming in after them.\" Fearing a mass lynching, the sheriff asked Governor B. M. Miller to send in the National Guard.\n\nDenied a lynching, white Scottsboro clamored for a quick hearing and a quicker execution. The \"nigger rape case,\" as locals called it, began the day after the arrests. Within two weeks the young men had been tried, convicted, and sentenced to die in Alabama's electric chair. The instant trial and harsh sentences aroused anger and protest around the country. The Central Committee of the Communist Party of the United States issued a statement calling the ruling a \"cold blooded 'illegal' lynching.\" The Interdenominational Ministers Alliance, a group of black clergymen from Chattanooga, Tennessee, raised fifty dollars for their defense, and the Alabama Interracial Commission passed a resolution calling for a careful review of the facts. In the months after the trial, the International Labor Defense, the NAACP, trade unions, leftist groups, and outraged individuals flooded the governor's office with letters of protest.\n\nIn Montgomery, Raymond Parks joined other black activists in secret meetings to raise money for the Scottsboro defense. \"It gnawed at him to see those innocent kids were framed,\" Rosa said. \"He'd say, 'I'll never sleep until they're free.' \" After Rosa and Raymond were married in 1932, they hosted gatherings of local Scottsboro defenders in the front room of their little shotgun house in Montgomery's Centennial Hill neighborhood near Alabama State College. \"Whenever they met,\" Parks recalled, \"they had someone posted as lookout and someone always had a gun.\" At one meeting, the men sat around a small card table covered with guns plotting to save the youths from the electric chair. \"This was the first time I'd seen so few men with so many guns,\" Parks remembered fondly. \"I didn't even think to offer them something to drink... I don't know where I would have put any refreshments. No one was thinking of food anyway.\"\n\nRosa Parks spent the rest of the evening on the back porch with her legs folded into her chest, her chin resting gently on her knees. After the men left, Raymond lifted his wife from the porch and assured her everything was all right. Even though the immediate danger had passed, she was sad and angry \"about the fact that black men could not hold a meeting without fear of bodily injury or death.\" It would take Parks and other activists, mainly the International Labor Defense and the NAACP, almost twenty years to free the Scottsboro boys. When the last of the nine men walked out of prison in 1950, Scottsboro was \"synonymous with Southern racism, repression, and injustice,\" and Montgomery was heading for the history books.\n\nIn the early 1940s, Rosa and Raymond Parks hosted Voters League meetings, where they encouraged their friends and neighbors in Montgomery to register to vote, even though it was a dangerous proposition. These clandestine meetings, like the Scottsboro gatherings, introduced Parks to Alabama's underground network of black activists who worked for racial justice during the dark days of the Depression. That support network became indispensable when Rosa Parks tried and twice failed to register to vote. Unlike whites, blacks had to pass a literacy test to prove their intellectual fitness to vote. County registrars routinely failed the South's most-educated blacks and passed illiterate whites as a way to maintain lily-white voter rolls. Parks persisted, however, and finally received her registration certificate in 1945, after taking the qualifying exam three times. She was so sure she passed the third test that she copied her answers on a separate sheet of paper in case the registrar claimed she failed. She kept that copy, she said later, so she could \"bring suit against the voter registration board.\"\n\nIt was after her second attempt to register, in 1943, that Rosa Parks first collided with a burly white bus driver named James F. Blake. Blake was known around town as a \"vicious bigot\" who targeted black women for mistreatment, calling them \"bitches\" and \"coons.\" When Parks refused to reenter Blake's bus from the rear door after paying up front, a humiliating Jim Crow practice, he threatened to throw her off the bus. She refused. \"I [don't] see the need of getting off and getting back on,\" she protested, \"when people were standing in the stepwell.\" Besides, she added, \"how was I going to squeeze in anyway?\" Parks's behavior infuriated Blake. He lunged at her, grabbed her by the coat sleeve, and pulled her toward the door. \"I know one thing,\" she warned as he dragged her out, \"you better not hit me.\" As she was about to disembark, she pretended to drop her purse and quickly sat down in the front seat to retrieve it. Her spurt of defiance enraged the bus driver. \"Get off my bus!\" Blake roared as she finally stepped into the street. As the bus pulled away from the curb, Parks vowed to never ride on Blake's bus again.\n\nRosa Parks joined the Montgomery NAACP chapter shortly after the 1943 bus incident with Blake. At the first meeting she attended, she was elected branch secretary. The humble title obscured the importance of the job, which required Parks to spend much of her time traveling down dusty Alabama roads interviewing people and documenting acts of brutality, unsolved murders, voter intimidation, and other racial incidents. Her belief in racial equality and her ingrained sense of self-worth helped Parks become known as someone who could be trusted with delicate or dangerous information. \"Rosa will talk to you,\" folks quietly assured victims of racial violence. Having been politicized and deeply affected by the injustice in the Scottsboro case, Parks was especially interested in interracial rape cases.\n\nRosa Parks carried Recy Taylor's story from Abbeville to Montgomery, where she helped organize her defense. E. D. Nixon, a union man who headed the Alabama Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters; Rufus A. Lewis, who directed both a local funeral home and the football team at Alabama State; and E. G. Jackson, who served as editor of the _Alabama Tribune_ , all signed on to help. With support from national labor unions, African-American organizations, and women's groups, Rosa Parks and her local allies formed the Alabama Committee for Equal Justice for Mrs. Recy Taylor. By the spring of 1945, they had recruited supporters around the country and had organized what the _Chicago Defender_ called the \"strongest campaign for equal justice to be seen in a decade.\"\n\nWhen the Henry County Grand Jury took up Recy Taylor's case on October 3 and 4, 1944, no one expected equal justice, but Taylor's family and friends hoped for an honest hearing. Once there, Taylor discovered that none of the assailants had actually been arrested. That meant the only witnesses present, when the all-white, all-male jury came together during the fall session, were Taylor's loved ones, none of whom could provide the names of the white men who assaulted her. Aside from identifying Hugo Wilson and his car the night of the attack, Sheriff Gamble never arranged a police lineup, so Taylor could not point to her attackers in court. He claimed he placed Hugo Wilson and his accomplices under a $250 appearance bond, but court records indicate that the bonds were issued late in the afternoon, a day _after_ Taylor's hearing. Circuit solicitor Keener Baxley, whose son Bill would eventually become attorney general of Alabama in 1971 and pardon the last Scottsboro defendant, appeared to go through the motions of a legitimate trial. It was clear that the proceeding was a farce designed by Baxley and others to protect themselves from outside criticism and to remind black women that they could not rely upon even the most basic protections under the law.\n\nBy creating a faint shadow of judicial procedure, white leaders could dismiss complaints of racial discrimination by arguing that Recy Taylor received every consideration the law allowed. White Alabamians were so sensitive to the national and international outrage over the near lynching and subsequent trials of the Scottsboro nine that state and county leaders had to at least give an appearance of equal justice. Baxley and Gamble knew exactly what they were doing. Without an indictment from the grand jury, Taylor's case would never make it out of Henry County. There would be no further hearings, and they expected that the matter would eventually die.\n\nFor nearly a month after the grand jury met, Baxley and Gamble's strategy appeared to be working. Taylor and her husband quietly returned to their jobs and daily burdens, resigned to the bitter truth that her assailants roamed freely through town. They did not have much of a choice. After reporting the rape, Taylor received multiple death threats. The night after the attack, for example, white vigilantes firebombed Taylor's home while the family slept, setting the front porch on fire. Taylor's husband rushed outside and quickly put out the flames, saving his wife and toddler. They moved in with her father and six siblings the next morning, and Taylor stayed close to home. \"I haven't gone up into the town since it happened,\" she told a reporter later. \"I'm afraid they'll kill me. They said they'd kill me if I told on them.\" The entire family took precautions as well. \"Nobody would walk at night,\" Taylor's brother, Robert, recalled. \"Everybody tried to make sure that they done what they had to do in the daytime.\" And each night, after everyone was tucked safely into bed, Benny Corbitt climbed a tree in his backyard. Cradling a double-barreled shotgun and a sack of shells, he guarded the cabin until the sun broke on the horizon, and then went inside to sleep.\n\nAs the crisp fall days passed, however, the story of the brutal rape and the phony hearing spread across the state and then the nation, passed on in union halls, churches, NAACP chapters, barbershops, pool halls, and juke joints, through the underground networks of African-American activists, and along the infrastructure built by the defenders of the Scottsboro youth. Bolstered by a rising black militancy fueled by the global war against fascism, black activists in Alabama and their allies in national labor unions and leftist and liberal organizations joined in coalition to defend Taylor and demand punishment for the white men who kidnapped and raped her.\n\nMany of these activists came together at the Negro Masonic Temple in Birmingham, the nerve center of Alabama's black political community. Here, militant members of the Birmingham and Montgomery NAACP chapters swapped organizing strategies with sharecroppers and steel-fisted union men whose battles for better wages and human dignity in the 1930s had laid a solid foundation. Editors and reporters from Alabama's black newspapers, mainly the _Alabama Tribune_ and the _Birmingham World_ , could interview members of the middle-class, progressive, and Communist-infused Southern Negro Youth Congress (SNYC), or catch up on regional news with the leading lights of the Alabama branch of the Southern Conference for Human Welfare (SCHW), the South's most prominent interracial liberal organization. Labor organizers passing through Birmingham could stop in to make a connection, gather information, or have a friendly chat. Together these eclectic groups and individuals turned the Masonic temple into a hive of activity. They coordinated campaigns, investigated police brutality, condemned the poll tax, pushed for the ballot, and fought for human rights.\n\nThe SNYC, an outgrowth of the left-wing, New York\u2013based National Negro Congress, was just nine years old in 1944, but it was perhaps the most promising civil rights organization in Alabama at the time. At first, the SNYC attracted mostly young, college-educated black Southerners, but it quickly gained attention and support from prominent African-American leaders with national political reach. The list of SNYC board members included conservatives like Charles Gomillion and F. D. Patterson, the dean and president of the Tuskegee Institute; Percy Sutton, a Tuskegee Airman and well-known lawyer; Atlantans Reverend Martin Luther King, Sr., and Benjamin Mays, president of Morehouse College; Ralph Abernathy, a powerful young preacher in Montgomery; Modjeska Simkins, an outspoken and fearless NAACP leader in South Carolina; and Nannie Burroughs, a nationally known educator and women's club leader from Virginia. This broad-based coalition helped publicize the SNYC's activities.\n\nIn Alabama the SNYC leadership included black women, many of whom practiced a tradition of collective organizing rooted in sharecroppers' struggles to win the most rudimentary rights from white landlords in the early 1930s. Other members were middle-class, college-educated black women who saw the SNYC as providing more opportunities for women than traditional black organizations. Esther V. Cooper, a feisty organizer and women's rights advocate, was only twenty-three years old in 1940 when she helped lead the Birmingham chapter of the SNYC. Just before she moved there, Cooper wrote a master's thesis at Fisk University devoted to the \"special issues that confronted working-class black women,\" especially domestics and sharecroppers. Dedicated to cultivating black female leadership throughout Alabama and building bridges with existing women's networks, she was the SNYC's executive secretary by 1942.\n\nAfrican-American women played a prominent role in the Southern Negro Youth Conference, a leftist organization committed to fighting racial injustice. Members of the SNYC's Third Conference Preparation Group gather at Miles College in Alabama, 1940. (photo credit 1.1)\n\nRosa Parks and the SNYC women were natural allies. By leveraging their relationships with CIO-affiliated unions, Communist networks, and local and national civil rights organizations, Parks, Cooper, and their cohorts helped spread Recy Taylor's story from the back roads of Alabama to the street corners of Harlem. Reaching out to friends and affiliates around the country, they sought publicity, funding, and legal assistance. By the end of October, Taylor's story had traveled all the way to Pennsylvania, where the widely read and respected black newspaper the _Pittsburgh Courier_ ran it on October 28, 1944. Strategically placed beneath a banner headline that declared \"Treatment of Negro Called Greatest Evil in America,\" the succinct front-page article, \"Alabama Whites Attack Woman; Not Punished,\" highlighted sexual violence as one of those evils. The prominent article and provocative headline reflected the _Courier's_ \"Double V\" strategy. During the war years, the black press, led by the _Pittsburgh Courier_ , urged African Americans to adopt \"double victory\" as a wartime battle cry. \"The first V [is] for victory over our enemies from without,\" a _Courier_ reader argued in a letter to the editor. \"The second V [is] for victory over our enemies from within. For surely those who perpetuate these ugly prejudices here are seeking to destroy our democratic form of government just as surely as the Axis forces.\" Readers responded to the black press's drumbeat to \"Defeat Mussolini and Hitler by Enforcing the Constitution and Abolishing Jim Crow,\" devouring 200,000 copies of the _Courier_ each week. The _Courier_ was not alone in its success; wartime readership of black newspapers increased nearly 40 percent.\n\nAs executive secretary of the SNYC, Esther Cooper, seated right, organized committees, lobbied government officials, published newsletters, and investigated racial crimes. She visited Recy Taylor in Abbeville, Alabama, in July 1945. (photo credit 1.2)\n\nThe _Courier_ article made the rape of Recy Taylor a national example of Southern injustice. It immediately sparked nationwide interest. Eugene Gordon, a prominent black Communist and writer for the _New York Daily Worker_ , followed up on the _Courier_ 's lead by traveling to Alabama to interview Taylor. Gordon's November 19 article, \"Alabama Authorities Ignore White Gang's Rape of Negro Mother,\" reported that since the attack, \"Alabama justice has been blind, deaf, and mute.\" Gordon blasted segregationists' long-standing defense of white womanhood and their manipulation of interracial rape to justify violence against black men. Pointing to the most recent example, Gordon argued that \"every southern newspaper played up the rape of the unnamed wife of a white soldier in Florida\" but failed to report the crime against Recy Taylor. Worse, he fumed, Southern editors stood silent as the alleged black rapists of a white woman \"were burned to death in Florida's electric chair,\" while Taylor's assailants weren't even questioned. \"The whole country must be aroused to action,\" Gordon thundered, \"against this and other similar outrages against Negro womanhood.\"\n\nRecy Taylor, Willie Guy Taylor, and their child, Joyce Lee Taylor. (photo credit 1.3)\n\nIn New York City black activists, embroiled in their own grassroots struggles against segregation, police brutality, and housing discrimination, read Gordon's article and were outraged. They heeded his call to arms by flocking to Harlem's Hotel Theresa on November 25 for a mass meeting. Called by the New York branch of the SCHW, and the SNYC's parent organization, the National Negro Congress, the meeting hoped to draw attention to the double standard of justice in the South and \"find ways and means of centering nationwide attention on Mrs. Taylor's case and forcing legal action\" in order to \"lay a basis for ending this southern practice of degrading Negro womanhood.\" Their allies in Alabama provided crucial assistance.\n\nMore than one hundred people, representing middle-class mainstays like the YWCA, the NAACP, and the National Council of Negro Women, as well as leftist labor unions like the CIO and the Negro Labor Victory Committee, came to the emergency meeting. Audley Moore, a spirited black nationalist who had a long history of defending black women from sexual violence, came as the Harlem representative of the International Workers Order. Prominent black Communists like Benjamin J. Davis and James W. Ford, as well as leftist and Communist-affiliated organizations like the International Labor Defense, filed into the hotel and found seats. Reporters from the leftist _Daily Worker;_ the New York tabloid _PM;_ the progressive West Coast paper the _California Eagle;_ and Adam Clayton Powell, Jr.'s, weekly, _The People's Voice_ , clustered around the dais, pencils and notepads at the ready. Alabama SNYC delegates provided local information about the Recy Taylor case.\n\nThe assembly of such an eclectic group of activists yielded incredible results. After being briefed on the \"Abbeville Affair,\" participants agreed to partner with the Alabama branches of the SNYC and the SCHW to form the Committee for Equal Justice for Mrs. Recy Taylor. They chose delegates who would immediately travel to Abbeville to investigate the crime and report their findings at the Sixth All-Southern Negro Youth Congress conference, to be held in Atlanta the following week. There they planned to create a \"Negro-rights, Negro-white unity campaign throughout the South.\" When the call for donations came, activists dug into their pockets and contributed close to one hundred dollars. They agreed to use the money to flood the South with flyers decrying white attacks on black women and promised a publicity campaign aimed directly at the governor of Alabama, Chauncey Sparks. As one newspaper article put it, \"The phrase 'protection of Southern womanhood' had life and meaning injected into it.\"\n\nAlmost immediately letters and postcards trickled in to Governor Sparks's office. Known as the \"Bourbon from Barbour,\" Chauncey Sparks won the governorship in 1942 by promising to \"padlock the state treasury\" and keep the federal government's nose out of Alabama's business. Though he eventually started spending money on schools, agricultural programs, and hospitals, he was no Franklin Roosevelt liberal. A tight-lipped and pragmatic conservative, he was also an ardent white supremacist like other anti-tax, anti-labor elite Democrats, known as the Big Mules, in Alabama.\n\nRosa Parks wrote letters, signed petitions, and sent postcards in an effort to secure justice for Recy Taylor. (photo credit 1.4)\n\nIn 1946 Sparks helped lead a campaign to ratify the Boswell Amendment, which made it all but impossible for most African Americans and poor whites to register to vote. He was George Wallace's first mentor and benefactor. In the fall of 1945, Sparks offered the skinny twenty-six-year-old a job as an assistant in the attorney general's office, giving rise to Wallace's storied career.\n\nBy mid-December 1944 hundreds of letters protesting the rape of Recy Taylor poured in from all over the country and stacked up on Sparks's desk. \"I've heard a great deal of how the South prides itself on protecting its womanhood,\" Mrs. Gretchen Coon told Governor Sparks. \"How do you square this vaunted theory with the practice and the kind of justice evidenced in Abbeville on September 3rd and subsequently?\" A \"friend of the South\" tried to appeal to Sparks's sense of racial duty, pointing out the irrational defense of white supremacy while doing nothing to prevent whites from having sex\u2014coerced or otherwise\u2014with black women.\n\nYou are justly and earnestly striving for the purity of your race, yet you openly permit a great many of your men to freely cohabit with women of the Negro race. This is encouraged by your laws. Ironically enough, the Negro man does not seem as desirous of cohabiting with the white woman as the white man is pleased with cohabitation with Negro women... The failure to indict the white men [who assaulted Recy Taylor] says to the white youth of the South that it is alright to have sexual intercourse with the Negro... [The rapists] in Abbeville Alabama... have made your lofty and noble principles of race and good clean society a _joke_.\n\nCharles Collins, executive secretary of the Negro Labor Victory Committee, a leftist labor union, agreed. \"The rapists are known, identified, and yet allowed to go unpunished in your state,\" Collins argued. \"This brazen denial of the simple rights of humanity, exposes, more than ever, the emptiness of the white supremacy advocates who employ the charge of 'rape' in order to attack the Negro people.\"\n\nUnsubstantiated charges of the rape of white women by black men had been part of the Southern political culture for decades. Rumors of rape were rooted in Reconstruction-era stereotypes, in which white Southerners portrayed black men as the mythological incubus, a beast that attacks women while they sleep, to disfranchise African Americans and justify racial violence. Between 1880 and 1920, Southern Democrats fueled rumors of \"black beast rapists\" defiling pure, white womanhood, in an effort to \"redeem\" Dixie from the grip of Republican rule. Most often these campaigns amounted to one-sided racial pogroms, as white supremacists used white fears of black male sexuality to seize political control of the state and subjugate African Americans. Even after the white supremacy campaigns secured state legislatures and sanctioned Jim Crow, rumors of black-on-white rape conveniently surfaced whenever African Americans asserted their humanity or challenged white supremacy. \"Any assertion of any kind on the part of the Negro,\" as Southern historian W. J. Cash put it, \"constituted in a perfectly real manner, an attack on the southern white woman.\"\n\nDuring the 1940s, virtually any self-assertion among African Americans conjured images of \"amalgamation\" and fears of \"social equality,\" a euphemism for interracial sex. In a rant against wartime black activism, Mississippi senator Theodore Bilbo, perhaps the most acrimonious segregationist in Congress, argued that \"every Negro in America who is behind [civil rights] movements... dream[s] of social equality and intermarriage between whites and blacks.\"\n\nHoward Odum, a prominent sociologist from the University of North Carolina, argued that white fears of interracial sex sat at the center of wartime racial tension. In his 1943 study, _Race and Rumors of Race_ , Odum documented the \"weird, wild stories\" whites told one another about blacks. Whites, he said, worried that demands for black equality heralded a bloody insurrection, similar to Nat Turner's murderous slave rebellion in Virginia in 1831. \"Negroes are buying up all the ice picks,\" whites told one another, \"waiting for the first blackout\" to attack. Many whites believed that blacks were also hoarding guns, stashing them in coffins and church basements, waiting for the right moment to \"turn the tables\" and \"overrule the South.\"\n\nThe most incendiary race rumors were about black men's insatiable lust for white women. According to Odum, these near-hysterical stories reflected white beliefs that rising black activism indicated African Americans' \"bold intention\" to achieve the hated \"social equality.\"\n\nEveryone had their own version of this story.\n\n\"Negro Men were all planning to have white wives,\" whites whispered to one another in wartime North Carolina. \"And when all the white men have gone to war,\" they said, \"the white women will be left for the Negro men.\" Another tall tale traded among friends in Georgia told of a black man who warned a white couple that they \"better be necking now because after the war we'll be doing the necking.\" In Louisiana whites warned schoolgirls to never walk alone since there was apparently an \"outbreak of Negroes attacking white women.\"\n\nUnsubstantiated rumors of black men attacking innocent white women sparked almost 50 percent of all race riots in the United States between Reconstruction and World War II. In 1943 alone there were 242 violent interracial clashes in forty-seven cities. Beaumont, Texas, was typical of small manufacturing towns reeling from changes wrought by the war. As blacks and whites from surrounding areas poured into the Gulf Coast town for defense jobs, racial tension increased. Lack of housing and health care, overstretched social service providers, and overcrowding on buses and public transportation all threatened the segregated social order. But it was the rumors that a black man brutally raped, beat, and stabbed an eighteen-year-old white telephone operator in Beaumont on June 5, 1943, coupled with reports of a plan among black soldiers to \"invade the city in search of unprotected white women,\" that triggered a riot in the tinder-box town.\n\nWhen a twenty-four-year-old white woman claimed she was attacked by a black man in her \"victory garden\" a few days later, a mob of more than two thousand white men, mostly bulky stevedores, rampaged through the black neighborhood, beating pedestrians and burning businesses. In their wake, they left hundreds injured and three dead and destroyed more than two hundred buildings. The Beaumont riot was hardly unusual; racial disturbances in Wilmington, North Carolina, in 1898, Atlanta in 1906, Springfield, Illinois, in 1908, Omaha, Nebraska, and Washington D.C., in 1919, Tulsa, Oklahoma, in 1921, and Mobile, Alabama, in 1943 were all sparked by rumored incidents of rape or manufactured \"rape epidemics\" involving black men and white women.\n\nRumors about the mistreatment and rape of _black_ women by _white_ men started plenty of brawls throughout the South, too, but none caused as much violence and bloodshed as the rumor that made Detroit explode in the summer of 1943. Three days of rioting left thirty-four people dead, nearly seven hundred injured, and an estimated $2 million in property damage. During World War II, Detroit, like Beaumont, teetered on the edge of racial cataclysm. Five hundred thousand black and white migrant workers poured into the Motor City, clashing over defense jobs, housing, and access to transportation, public parks, and education. On June 20, 1943, the temperature soared past ninety degrees, and thousands of Detroit's working-class residents sought relief on the beaches of Belle Isle. Throughout the day, isolated scuffles broke out between black and white picnickers who competed for grills and tables. These minor skirmishes erupted into a full-scale riot after rumors that a white Southerner had thrown a black mother and her baby off the Belle Isle Bridge sent hundreds of black men streaming into the streets to defend and protect black womanhood.\n\nThe rumor that sparked the Detroit riot was one of many sexual stories detailing the widespread mistreatment of black women during the 1940s. The most oft-repeated tale insisted that \"white soldiers in the South were mistreating Negro women.\" One rumor told of a white MP who \"had beaten the wife of a Negro soldier in a Georgia camp.\" Another story, from Mississippi, described the beating of black soliders while police attacked their wives and girlfriends. There were also plenty of stories circulating about black women who had been arrested and beaten by policemen after protesting mistreatment on buses.\n\nAs a kind of cultural narrative, rumors of rape and sexualized violence had enormous symbolic power and political potency. Whites used outrageous racial rumors and rape scares to justify strengthening segregation and white supremacy. Meanwhile the stories of sexual subjugation and racial terror that circulated among African Americans exposed white hypocrisy about interracial sex and spurred demands for equal justice and bodily integrity. Given the tenuous social and political environment into which the Recy Taylor story quickly spread, it was bound to spark similar fears and anxieties, if not violent clashes.\n\nPerhaps few understood this better than members of the U.S. military. Thirty-three soldiers from \"somewhere in Belgium\" put down their guns and picked up pens to sign a petition addressed to Governor Sparks. They demanded he use his gubernatorial powers to intervene in the case. \"Failure to act in any such case,\" the soldiers argued, \"is a matter of grave concern to everyone believing in the principles of American democracy\u2014the principle of the equality of all before the law, regardless of race, color or religion; particularly to those of us who face a ruthless enemy to preserve that democracy.\" The failure to hold white men accountable was irresponsible: \"we are engaged in a war for freedom,\" they insisted, \"which requires the united support of all Americans, Negro and White.\"\n\nIn a letter to Governor Sparks, Eugene Henderson, an African-American merchant seaman, noted the irony of America's role as defender of democracy abroad while it denied justice at home. \"I have risked my life many times to deliver supplies to our armed forces and our allies,\" he said. \"My morale drops when I learn that a woman of my race has been brutally raped by six white men and nothing done about it.\" Why, Henderson asked, \"isn't Negro womanhood as sacred as white womanhood?\" Ernest Scott, president of the Transport Workers of America, echoed Henderson's sentiments and feared that the \"effect of such lawlessness on the morale of our men in the armed services... cannot but be bad... [T]he least we can do for our servicemen and women is to assure them that while they are fighting our country's battles... their families back home are safe.\"\n\nEnough black troops were upset by the gang rape of Recy Taylor that Charles S. Seely, the editorial director of the _Army News_ , felt compelled to urge Governor Sparks to act. \"If this pamphlet reaches any considerable number of Negroes in our armed services, and I have no doubt it will,\" he warned Sparks, \"it will greatly affect their efficiency... This of course will be very bad for the war effort,\" he argued, \"for it is senseless to fight fascism abroad if fascistic influences are to be protected here at home.\" Seely asked Sparks for a statement \"that assures Negro soldiers that you will see to it that the 'degenerate and ruthless persons who attacked Mrs. Taylor are brought to justice and severely punished.' \" If Sparks would commit to a similar statement, Seely argued, he could \"publish it in all three of our papers... This way,\" he insisted, \"it will reach a great many of the million or so American Negroes who are fighting for democracy\" and \"help keep up the morale of the Negroes in our services.\"\n\nAs the \"Abbeville Affair\" threatened America's war effort, Governor Sparks worried about the negative publicity the assault would have on his state. Mr. and Mrs. Scott McCall told Sparks that the rape of Recy Taylor \"was as bad as what we would expect from the Nazis.\" Julius Crane, the vice president of the United Shoe Workers of America, demanded Governor Sparks take \"immediate steps\" to try Taylor's assailants \"before Alabama is placed on Hitler's list as a possible postwar refuge.\" Perhaps Crane knew that Fort Rucker, a military base just outside Abbeville, was already home to German prisoners of war, who were often treated better than African-American citizens.\n\nLetters and petitions continued to pour in from concerned Alabamians, and Sparks worried that he faced \"another Scottsboro,\" as one correspondent after another called it. The governor knew that in places like Birmingham, Mobile, and Montgomery, where fierce labor competition, union battles, and rabid racism created a volatile climate, the failure to prosecute Recy Taylor's assailants could easily cause an explosion. Of course, prosecuting them also carried risks, but Taylor's defenders seemed considerably better organized than her antagonists. Just before Christmas, Eugene Gordon from the _Daily Worker_ teamed up with E. G. Jackson, Montgomery activist and editor of the popular black newspaper the _Alabama Tribune_ , to confront Sparks. Inside the imposing white marble capitol, where Jefferson Davis pledged his loyalty to the Confederacy in 1861, Governor Sparks reluctantly agreed to launch an investigation. Sparks hedged, making no commitments to a just outcome. Still, Gordon and Jackson sensed the governor's responsiveness to outside pressures. In an article about their meeting, Gordon reported that \"the Governor... agreed with his Attorney General that they wanted no publicity. They wished to make their investigations and decide on what action to take, all without the _Daily Worker_ or the Negro press saying anything about the fact that the state's highest officers were interested.\"\n\nIf Governor Sparks hoped to keep his decision a secret, members of the Committee for Equal Justice proclaimed the news far and wide. Talk of Sparks's interest propelled local leaders into action, many of whom formed local branches of the Committee for Equal Justice for Mrs. Recy Taylor. \"I found people in Birmingham, Montgomery and other Alabama cities and towns,\" Gordon noted, \"talking about the case as a result\" of the official investigation. \"Young people,\" he boasted, \"were asking their churches to get in on the case.\"\n\nIn Montgomery, Rosa and Raymond Parks joined E. D. Nixon; Rufus A. Lewis; Johnnie Carr and her husband Arlam Carr, Sr., both longtime NAACP members; E. G. Jackson; and Mrs. Irene West, the wife of Montgomery's only black dentist, to raise money for Taylor's defense. They organized mass meetings, canvassed neighborhoods, signed petitions, and sent postcards to the governor and attorney general. These networks\u2014these very people\u2014would lift Martin Luther King, Jr., to international prominence a decade later, after their leading organizer was arrested on a Montgomery bus. The protection of the dignity of black women's bodies, begun in a long twilight struggle in causes like the Abbeville crusade, would alter the arc of human history, making the word _Montgomery_ an enduring metaphor for the power of nonviolent direct action.\n\nMontgomery was not the only city with a local chapter of the Committee for Equal Justice. By January, the _Worker_ reported that the \"Taylor Case Is Now Nationwide,\" with branches in sixteen states and Washington, D.C. Distinguished activists, artists, and political leaders added their names to the growing board of advisers. Such luminaries included W.E.B. Du Bois; Mary Church Terrell, a suffragist and founder of the National Association of Colored Women; Charlotte Hawkins Brown, a popular clubwoman and respected educator; Ira De A. Reid, a sociologist and assistant director of the newly formed Southern Regional Council; John Sengstacke, the publisher of the _Chicago Defender;_ Countee Cullen and Langston Hughes of Harlem Renaissance fame; Lillian Smith, author of the controversial interracial love story _Strange Fruit;_ and Broadway impresario Oscar Hammerstein II. Such an illustrious roster raised eyebrows\u2014especially among anti-Communists, who suspected the Committee for Equal Justice was nothing but a front for the Communist Party.\n\nJ. B. Matthews, one of the most well-known professional anti-Communists who worked for the House Un-American Activities Committee and named names for the Hearst Corporation, warned the FBI that the Committee for Equal Justice for Mrs. Recy Taylor (CEJRT) contained more than \"400 names\" and was the \"chief large-scale agitation of the communists in the South at the present time.\" The Communist Party, he said, was engaged \"in one of their typical agitational campaigns to exploit the incident of Mrs. Taylor's rape, just as they agitated for many years on the subject of the Scottsboro case.\" While Matthews was correct that some members of the CEJRT were Communists or \"fellow travelers,\" it was not a front for Communism. But its glaring spotlight on white men who raped black women did smack of subversion. Exposure of this historic relationship threatened to unravel the racial and sexual status quo that held the segregated social order together. For Montgomery's black activists, the prospect of striking at the heart of the matter was invigorating.\n\n\"With the people, black and white, North and South mobilized for a fight for justice around Mrs. Taylor,\" E. D. Nixon told Earl Conrad, a reporter for the _Chicago Defender_ , \"we now have the strength and power to do something with it.\" Nixon lamented that cases \"like this or cases almost as serious as this are so frequent down here that we almost take them as a matter of course. It's a question of choice sometimes\u2014which we can concentrate on for a fight.\"\n\nNixon was Montgomery's most outspoken black activist. According to Roy Wilkins, he was \"straight as a ramrod, tough as a mule and braver than a squad of marines.\" In addition to leading the Montgomery NAACP, Nixon served as head of the Alabama Voters League. In 1944 he led nearly eight hundred African Americans on a march to the registrar's office, demanding the right to vote. His fearlessness and constant agitation caught the attention of the city's white newspaper, the _Montgomery Advertiser_ , which referred to him later as the \"NAACP Mau Mau Chief.\" As president of the Alabama branch of the nation's largest all-black labor union, the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, Nixon was connected to militant unionists who knew how to organize. Led by the powerful and imposing A. Philip Randolph, the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters was one of the most successful labor unions during the 1940s. In 1941 Randolph threatened to bring his army of sleeping car porters to Washington unless President Franklin Delano Roosevelt ended segregation in defense industries. Fearing global embarrassment on the eve of America's entry into World War II, Roosevelt capitulated and signed Executive Order 8802, creating the Fair Employment Practice Committee. Randolph recognized Nixon's indomitable energy and political talent early on and served as his mentor for many years.\n\nE. D. Nixon told the _Defender_ reporter that he had \"a dossier of fifty cases of rotten violence against Negroes in Alabama in the past couple years\u2014we hardly know where to begin in approaching this question.\" Since Rosa Parks lived next door to Nixon, served as his personal secretary, managed his union office, and did field work for the Montgomery NAACP, she almost certainly prepared the file Nixon referenced. E. G. Jackson, editor of the _Alabama Tribune_ , sat next to Nixon as the reporter from the _Defender_ took notes. Nixon provided grisly details of what he called \"one horror tale after another of white male degradation of the Negro women of Montgomery and lower Alabama.\" \"We have numerous reports from our women,\" Jackson said, \"of assaults by white taxicab drivers... The cabbies take them into their cars at the railroad depot, but before taking them home, drive them outside the town, and subject them to attacks.\" Jackson and Nixon told the _Defender_ that what happened to Recy Taylor was hardly unusual\u2014it was part of a ritual of rape in which white men in the segregated South abducted and assaulted black women with alarming regularity and stunning uniformity. \"We Negro men feel powerless,\" Jackson confessed. \"The weight of hundreds of years hangs over us like so much iron... [W]e would be superhuman if we alone could lift it off of our shoulders.\"\n\nDuring the 1940s, reports of sexual violence directed at black women flooded into local and national NAACP chapters. Women's stories spilled out in letters to the Justice Department and appeared on the front pages of the nation's leading black newspapers. The stories told how white men lured black women and girls away from home with promises of steady work and better wages; attacked them on the job; abducted them at gunpoint while they were traveling to or from home, work, or church; and sexually humiliated and harassed them at bus stops, grocery stores, and in other public places. John McCray, a spirited advocate for black voting rights in South Carolina and editor and publisher of the _Lighthouse and Informer_ , the Palmetto State's most important black newspaper, argued that it was a \"commonplace experience for many of our women in southern towns... to be propositioned openly by white men. You can pick up accounts of these at a dime a dozen in almost any community.\"\n\nThe stories followed similar patterns. In January 1940 John H. Davis, a white man from Fayetteville, North Carolina, lured sixteen-year-old Mary Poole from her home by promising her a job \"as a nurse girl for his wife.\" Instead, as she put it, he \"drove her to some woods\" and \"forced her to submit.\" As he drove away, abandoning her in the woods, he tossed her clothes out of the car window. In May 1942 Sadie Mae Gibson, a twenty-three-year-old black schoolteacher in Decatur, Alabama, was walking home one sunny afternoon when Dan Olinger, a white teenager, forced her into a clump of bushes and at rifle point raped her. Two months later, as Rosa Lee Cherry, a black high school student, walked home from church in Little Rock, Arkansas, three uniformed police officers threatened to throw her in jail unless she got in their patrol car. They drove her behind a railroad embankment and sexually molested her. She escaped after promising to \"get them another girl.\"\n\nLila Belle Carter, a sixteen-year-old girl from Pine Island, South Carolina, never escaped. She was abducted in October 1945, on her way to the store for some rice. After a white insurance collector raped her, he murdered her and left her lying face down in a puddle of mud. While most victims did not share Lila Belle Carter's fate, the method her assailant used\u2014abduction\u2014was quite common. Nannie Strayhorn, a thirty-two-year-old mother of two from Richmond, Virginia, accepted a ride home from two white police officers in October 1946. Instead of taking her home, officers Carl R. Burleson and Leonard E. Davis drove to an isolated area outside town and took turns raping her at gunpoint. In Clio, Alabama, in 1948, a white man offered Janie Mae Patterson, an eleven-year-old girl, some money in exchange for help finding a well to slake his thirst. She eagerly climbed into his car and promised to show him the way. Instead of following the girl's directions, he drove to a mill about five miles away, \"took a blanket out of his car,\" and then \"ravished the girl.\"\n\nThe sexual violence enacted and enforced rules of racial and economic hierarchy. When Herschel Gasque and Charles Berryhill, two white farmers brandishing guns, knocked on Mrs. Mamie Patterson's door in Tuscumbia, Alabama, in February 1948 to \"collect a debt from [her] husband,\" she refused to divulge his whereabouts. When she demanded that they leave, they pushed Patterson aside and barreled into her house, where they found her husband hiding. Gasque and Berryhill, a \"200-pound former professional wrestler,\" brutally beat Patterson's husband, then turned their pistols on her and slowly backed her outside into their car. In retaliation for Patterson's defiance, the white men drove the mother of six into the woods, where \"they both raped [her]\" and told her to \"perform abnormal acts.\"\n\nIn order to reclaim their bodies and their humanity, African-American women called on a tradition of testimony and truth-telling that stretched back to slavery. \"We colored women are tired of such things,\" Mrs. Joy B. Jones proclaimed in a 1947 letter to NAACP founder Arthur Springarn. She attached a news clipping that described the sexual molestation of a black girl by a white businessman in Macon, Georgia. \"Seems like all the money we pay in organizations,\" Jones argued, \"doesn't remedy the matter. This man should be given the same conviction that a colored man would have got.\"\n\nFailure in the courts did not stop black women from speaking out, decades before the women's movement. These testimonies helped bring attention to the issue of sexual violence and often ignited local campaigns for equal justice and civil rights. When James Lee Perry, a \"well-to-do white oil dealer\" from Meridian, Mississippi, raped Ruby Atee Pigford, a black teenager, he never expected her to report the crime. Even if she did, he could be fairly confident that white authorities would not take her complaint seriously. Perry lured the girl away from home by promising her a babysitting job that paid seventy cents an hour\u2014good money at the time. After picking her up on August 7, 1947, Perry drove Pigford to a nearby roadhouse, instead of taking her to his home. Angered by her refusal to accompany him into the bar, he beat her until she was unconscious. He then raped her, tied her to the bumper of his car, and dragged her bound body through town. He dumped her, bruised and battered, outside her home later that evening.\n\nShe told her parents what happened, and they told their friends. By the next day, African Americans throughout town demanded punishment for the crime. Edward Knott, Jr., the secretary of the Meridian, Mississippi, NAACP, wired the story to the _Pittsburgh Courier_ and airmailed a letter to the national NAACP office. Assistant special counsel Marian Wynn Perry responded immediately. \"We have discussed the case here in this office in light of the conditions in Mississippi and action which is possible there,\" she said. \"It is our suggestion that as much publicity as possible be given to the case.\" Perry knew that accusing a white man of raping a black woman in Mississippi, the most violent state in the South, was dangerous, if not deadly.\n\nIn Mississippi, African Americans understood that their lives \"could be snuffed out on whim.\" Aside from the daily indignities of segregation, between 1943 and 1949, white men in Mississippi castrated, mutilated, and lynched two fourteen-year-old black boys for playing tag with a white girl near the town of Quitman; murdered a dairy farmer, who had used self-defense when his white employer attacked him; killed Reverend Isaac Simmons and cut off his tongue for refusing to sell his land; whipped Leon McTate to death for allegedly stealing a saddle; and beat Malcolm Wright to a bloody pulp because they didn't like the way he drove a wagon.\n\n\"The only chance you have to secure redress for this terrible attack,\" the NAACP assistant counsel asserted in the rape and dragging of Ruby Pigford, \"is by publicity and pressure within the State of Mississippi, and you, of course, who are in Mississippi, will know how much can be done.\" Perry encouraged Knott and other concerned citizens to get the local black newspaper, the _Jackson Advocate_ , and its editor, Percy Greene, on board. She also promised assistance from the national office, which eagerly protested lynching but rarely got involved in rape cases. After signing off, Perry sent a picture of a bloodied and battered Ruby Pigford in her hospital bed to the _Pittsburgh Courier_ for an exclusive report. Perry seemed to understand that justice in the Pigford case, like so many others, was unlikely. The only feasible way to hold white men accountable for raping black women\u2014since Southern courts would not\u2014was to draw outside attention to the crime.\n\n\"If the state of Alabama does not handle [the Recy Taylor] case in the way it ought to,\" E. G. Jackson thundered from the pulpit of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in December 1944, \"if the right-minded citizen[s] of the state do not demand indictment in this situation, then... the Negro people will welcome and invite all of the assistance that they can get from the North.\" It was no idle threat. The _Chicago Defender_ called the attack on Recy Taylor \"Dixie's most blatant rape case.\" When the _Defender_ argued that the CEJRT had launched the \"strongest campaign for equal justice to be seen in a decade,\" they meant that Rosa Parks's trip to Abbeville had grown into the most successful national campaign for racial justice since the Scottsboro trials, where Parks had first learned how to organize.\n\nProminent white Alabamians took the growing movement seriously. Like Parks, they too remembered Scottsboro. Mrs. Margaret H. Moss, president of Alabama's Federation of Women's Clubs, wrote to Governor Sparks for advice. Fretting about the effect the \"northern press\" and \"outsiders\" could have on her beloved state's reputation, she offered the governor some advice. \"Some years ago, when visiting my brothers in Washington,\" she wrote, \"I found that many people knew little of the conditions in our state beyond 'Stars Fell on Alabama,' the football team and the Scottsboro case.\" Fearful of \"another misrepresentation of Alabama\" caused by the \"delay and inaction of government in the Abbeville affair,\" she asked Sparks for a statement promising equal justice. That way, she said, \"I can be armed with something to say when rumors and mistaken information come to me.\" For example, she said, \"I am told, that the assistant attorney general is quoted as saying that 'he hates niggers and would as soon run over one in his car as to speak to one.' I am also told,\" Moss continued, \"that the case is being discussed in the Negro National Press and committees are being formed in a number of other states to see the matter through. This all sounds so unnecessary.\" At least, she added, they agreed that \"the less publicity the better.\"\n\nGovernor Sparks hoped that promising a separate investigation would hold back protests, but it did not stem the tide of petitions and letters pouring into the governor's office, especially after the _Pittsburgh Courier_ ran the erroneous headline \"Sparks to Press Charges Against Rapists Following Protests\" in a front-page article two days before Christmas. As time wore on without any major arrests or trials, Sparks became the protesters' number-one target.\n\nInstead of targeting Sparks, who followed through on his promise to launch an investigation, the Committee for Equal Justice should perhaps have directed national attention to G. D. Halstead and Keener Baxley, the less visible but, in this case, more powerful county and circuit solicitors, whose intransigence kept the case bottled up. In order to get a sense of what was going on in Henry County, Sparks sent his private investigators, J. V. Kitchens and N. W. Kimbrough, to Dothan, Alabama, on December 9, 1944, to interview Halstead, Baxley, and Sheriff George H. Gamble. While Baxley readily admitted that \"in his opinion the crime was committed as alleged by the victim,\" he feigned ignorance about how to move forward. \"No further facts could be ascertained,\" he claimed, \"because the victim stated... that she did not know any of the boys that she claimed to have ravished her.\" Halstead seconded Baxley's defense. He \"had come to a block,\" he said, and did not know \"how any additional information could be obtained... It would be free-lancing,\" Halstead insisted, \"as no one else knew any of the facts in this case\" and \"neither of the witnesses had identified the boys who were alleged to have ravished Recy Taylor.\" When the investigators reminded them that Recy Taylor had identified Hugo Wilson as one of her assailants and owner of the car used in the attack, Baxley grew visibly upset. He \"would not consent for any of them to be interviewed,\" Baxley stammered. Baxley's bluster did not scare Kimbrough and Kitchens, who had not come to ask permission.\n\nIn Abbeville the next day, Sheriff George Gamble, who claimed to have started an investigation immediately after the crime was alleged, told the investigators that he placed Hugo Wilson under a five-hundred-dollar bond. He also assured them that he arrested \"all of the boys except Wilson\" two days after the assault. Taking the investigators aside, Gamble warned them that the \"victim was nothing but a whore around Abbeville\" and had \"been treated for some time by the Health Officer of Henry County for venereal disease.\" Gamble claimed he even had to put Taylor in jail \"once or twice... upon written request from the County Health Officer.\" To further discredit Taylor and discourage the investigators from pursuing the case, Gamble added that Taylor's husband \"would not work and lay around Abbeville practically all the time.\" He even threatened to throw him \"in jail and charge him with vagrancy.\"\n\nWill Cook, the former police chief and white store owner who said he launched a search for Taylor after she was abducted, told the investigators the same story Gamble had just peddled. After detailing his role in the search that night, Cook smeared Taylor as a prostitute. She \"was nothing but a whore around Abbeville,\" he insisted. She worked at Fort Rucker, a nearby army training base, he said, \"but they ran her away from there [after she] had given a number of soldiers... the clapp.\"\n\nOther whites with whom Kimbrough and Kitchens spoke contradicted Gamble's and Cook's stereotypical descriptions of the Taylors. Mr. W. H. Carr, Recy Taylor's neighbor and occasional boss, told investigators that Recy and her husband \"were good workers.\" In more than three years, he said, he had \"never seen any strange Negroes hanging around their home.\" They \"always stayed in their place,\" Carr said, and had \"never been involved in any disturbances of any kind.\" Other white men in Abbeville corroborated Carr's characterization of Recy Taylor as an upstanding, respectable woman who abided by the town's racial and sexual mores. Marvin White, L. D. Smith, Robert Sowell, and M. B. Clark, all honorable white men in the community, stated that they knew Taylor and \"knew nothing detrimental as to her character.\" Most folks, they said, \"consider her above the average Negro as to her conduct as a Negro woman in the community.\" Major L. A. Hamilton at Fort Rucker told the investigators that there was nothing in Taylor's file \"regarding any misconduct of any nature.\"\n\nKimbrough and Kitchens soon found proof that Sheriff Gamble was lying. Searching through the bonds filed at the Henry County Circuit Court, they discovered that Gamble never placed any of the assailants under arrest, not even Wilson, who admitted having sex with Taylor. After confronting Gamble with the conflicting information, the sheriff stonewalled. \"It's a bad case,\" he said.\n\nDespite Gamble's intransigence, Kimbrough and Kitchens returned to Abbeville with the assistant attorney general, John O. Harris, on December 18, 1944. When they arrived, they contacted Sheriff Gamble, whose story quickly changed in front of the governor's deputy. Gamble told the assistant attorney general that he \"never arrested [Taylor] or committed her to jail for any offense.\" Nor did he ever have \"any trouble with her or her husband.\" Taylor's reputation, Gamble now claimed, \"is as good as any Negro's in that community.\" While Gamble still insisted he had arrested the assailants, Kimbrough and Kitchens decided to go directly to the source and ask the suspects what happened the night they picked up Recy Taylor.\n\nAlmost all of them told the same story. Four of the seven men admitted having intercourse with Taylor, but argued that she was essentially a prostitute and a willing participant. They took up a collection to pay her, they said. All but two of them said Taylor got into the car of her own volition and that there was no force or coercion used. Hugo Wilson, whom Taylor and other witnesses identified on the night of the crime, said he had had nothing to do with her, denied being present, and claimed to know \"nothing in the world about it.\" Recy Taylor, he added, was a \"damned liar,\" and so were the sheriff and anyone else who claimed they saw him that night. Herbert Lovett, who cradled a shotgun during the attack on Taylor, claimed he \"was never arrested\" and \"knew nothing of the affair.\" Furthermore, he said, he was not with any of the other suspects that night and did not know why his friends \"would want to bring him into something of which he knew nothing and was innocent.\"\n\nJoe Culpepper's version of events corroborated Recy Taylor's testimony in considerable detail. Culpepper said that he and the other men \"were talking about getting a woman\" on that September night and \"rode out on the highway toward Dothan... We saw two women and a man walking along the highway,\" he said, and decided to pull over. \"All of them except one got out of the automobile.\" Herbert Lovett, he added, took his shotgun \"down the road and was talking to Recy Taylor.\" A few moments later, Culpepper said, \"Recy Taylor came to the automobile with Lovett behind her with the shotgun in his hand.\" After turning off the highway, Culpepper recalled that Taylor yelled, \"Yo'all are not carrying me to Mr. Gamble.\" When they stopped beneath a patch of trees, Lovett forced her out of the car at gunpoint and made her undress. \"She was crying and asking them to let her go home to her husband and her baby,\" Culpepper said. When it was over, he said, \"someone... put a blindfold on Recy's face, got her in the car and put her out near a street light.\" Culpepper added nothing about paying her, but when asked directly by the detectives, he quickly corrected himself. \"Yes,\" he said, \"they paid her money.\" He could not remember who took up the collection, however, or how much she received.\n\nWith the suspects' statements, Culpepper's admission of coercion, signed affidavits from at least three eyewitnesses, and Sheriff Gamble's recantations and lies, Governor Sparks had enough ammunition to order a second grand jury hearing. He appointed Assistant Attorney General William O. Harris to lead the charge. After meeting with Harris to go over the case, members of the Committee for Equal Justice gathered to debate hiring a new attorney. According to Pauline Dobbs, a SNYC worker present at the meeting, Harris seemed \"more concerned about the representative... sent by the _Daily Worker_ to investigate the case\" and the \"deluge of letters and telegrams received from northern pressure groups\" than he was about the \"guilt of the criminals or the crime itself.\" The whole \"purpose of presenting the case to the grand jury in Abbeville,\" Dobbs noted, \"was to give the defendants light sentences in order to close the case.\"\n\nDobbs was right to worry. The attorney general failed to convince the jurors of Henry County that there was enough evidence to indict the seven suspects when he presented Taylor's case on February 14, 1945. With at least one confession and corroborating testimonies among the suspects, not to mention the sheriff's blatant attempt to stuff the entire affair under the carpet, it seemed like a relatively easy case to close. But the all-white, all-male jurors sat stony-faced and silent. For a second time, they refused to issue any indictments.\n\nNews coverage of the second hearing was more hostile to Taylor. The _Dothan Eagle_ repeatedly referred to Recy Taylor as \"the Taylor woman\" and dismissed her testimony\u2014arguing that she was essentially a prostitute. The _Birmingham News_ expressed concern, but not for justice or for Recy Taylor. Instead, editors worried that the outcome would only aid \"those disposed to think ill of Alabama because of the Scottsboro case.\" The Recy Taylor case, the _News_ noted, \"was certain to become a _cause c\u00e9l\u00e8bre\"_ and _\"that_ is why all Alabamians should be interested.\" Already, the editors proclaimed, \"this ugly business has drawn national attention.\" The ghosts of Scottsboro haunted every discussion. Residents of Henry County \"ought to know by this time what agitation for justice by disadvantaged persons can do to bedevil the life of the state.\" The assistant attorney general told the _Dothan Eagle_ there was nothing more that could be done. \"This case has been presented to two grand juries in Henry County,\" he said, and \"both grand juries have not seen fit to find an indictment.\" Harris argued that he made a \"full disclosure... and no facts or circumstances connected with this case have been suppressed.\"\n\nMembers of the Alabama Committee for Equal Justice were disheartened by Harris's statement, which implied that the state no longer planned to intervene on behalf of Recy Taylor. It all seemed a little too tidy. E. G. Jackson, E. D. Nixon, and Rosa Parks worried that the state's public resignation put Taylor and her family in imminent danger. Esther Cooper of the SNYC checked in on Recy Taylor after the trial. Taylor \"shows in her face the terror of her experience,\" Cooper said. Taylor told Cooper that their mail often arrived already opened and that she was afraid to go into town. Fearful of white retaliation, Parks, Nixon, and other members of the Alabama Committee for Equal Justice moved Taylor and her family to Montgomery, where they provided an apartment and secured a job for her husband. Clara Hard Rutledge, who was one of a handful of liberal white women in Montgomery who supported the Taylor case and the bus boycott ten years later, helped to organize other sympathetic whites. She told Earl Conrad, the reporter for the _Chicago Defender_ , that the \"only possible approach at the present time is letters to the Governor.\" Local members of the Alabama Committee for Equal Justice followed Rutledge's advice and redoubled their efforts to persuade Governor Sparks to intervene. Henrietta Buckmaster, a historian and the new chairwoman of the national Committee for Equal Justice, also urged supporters across the nation to contact Sparks and send money to the committee. \"We can bring these criminals to justice,\" she proclaimed, \"because the Recy Taylor case is the people's case.\"\n\nAlexander Nunn, the white editor of the _Progressive Farmer_ , a conservative magazine, watched the case \"with apprehension\" and worried that the failure to indict would hurt Alabama in the long run. In a letter to Governor Sparks, Nunn encouraged him to send the attackers to jail. \"We had a similar case,\" Nunn wrote, \"though not so disgusting, in my home county of Lee several years ago and the white man, a taxicab driver, was set free at that time. I said then and I say to you now, that for the good of both races, I think I would punish even more quickly and severely, white men for criminally attacking Negro women than I would Negro men.\" Lest Sparks mistake him for a wishy-washy liberal, Nunn reminded him that \"no one in this state would be more severe on a Negro in such cases than I would.\" Sparks replied that his hands were tied: \"Nothing further can be done without a grand jury indictment. As you know, the grand jury of any county is all-powerful in the matter of criminal investigation and prosecution. No trial can be had until a grand jury returns an indictment.\" While letters still urged Sparks to intervene, by springtime it was apparent that the \"people's case\" was going nowhere.\n\nAs time passed without an indictment, Henrietta Buckmaster and members of the executive board of the Committee for Equal Justice quietly agreed to shift their attention away from the Taylor case and \"broaden the scope of [their] work.\" At the end of March, the CEJRT issued a press release for a different rape case: \"Another young Negro girl has been raped under circumstances of almost incredible brutality. This committee was organized to fight for equal justice for Recy Taylor, but we cannot ignore another such case.\" The press release referenced a recent case in which three white men in Decatur, Georgia, kidnapped and raped a seventeen-year-old black high school girl. Unlike the Taylor case, a grand jury indicted the assailants, but an all-white jury acquitted the three men at their criminal trial on March 23, 1945, after deliberating for only six minutes.\n\nIn a letter to board members on April 2, 1945, Buckmaster acknowledged defeat in the Recy Taylor case. It was time, she said, to \"put all [our] forces behind the demand for punishment of the rapists of a 17 year old Negro girl in Decatur.\" Shortly thereafter they sent out flyers screaming, \"The Terror Spreads!\" In Memphis, Tennessee, the committee announced, \"Two Negro girls were forced into a police car, taken for a ride in the country and criminally assaulted by two uniformed policemen.\" And in Bennettsville, South Carolina, \"a respectable Negro woman was ordered off the streets by four white men and forced to pay a five dollar fine.\" By referring to these very different incidents as \"terror,\" the CEJRT signaled its intent to wage war not only upon the ritual of rape but also upon the everyday assaults African-American women faced.\n\nIn a pamphlet promoting the committee's broader approach, Buckmaster argued that despite the lack of a legal conviction, the successful mobilization of activists across the nation on behalf of Recy Taylor represented a major victory. \"Our hope of a free new world,\" she said, \"our passionate conviction that the day has almost come when women everywhere may raise their children without fear and love their husbands with assurance and be the individuals to which their highest hopes and capacities entitled them. This is what we're fighting for... When we say 'Equal Justice for Recy Taylor,' \" Buckmaster wrote, \"we are also saying Equal Hope, Equal Joy, Equal Dignity for every woman, child and man the wide world over... Is that too much to ask?\"\n\nThe announcement of the Committee for Equal Justice's new aims came on the eve of the greatest red scare in American history. Coupled with the legal dead-ends it hit in Alabama, the committee's ability to mobilize local people and rally nationwide support slowed as Southern segregationists combined white supremacy and vicious red-baiting to attack African-American activism as a Communist plot to destroy \"the Southern way of life.\" These bitter attacks forced the more radical leaders of the Alabama branch of the CEJRT, like the SNYC women, to seek shelter in other states or less tainted organizations, where they continued to press for racial justice. Mainstream black activists who were involved in the campaign for equal justice for Recy Taylor, but were otherwise not affiliated with the Communist Party, like E. D. Nixon, Rosa Parks, E. G. Jackson, Rufus Lewis, and Johnnie Carr in Montgomery, distanced themselves from their more radical allies. In later years, they would use the international Cold War as a political lever to expose the deep canyon between the United States' boasts of freedom and democracy and the brutal reality of segregation. But when the Red Scare began, they did what was necessary to survive politically and continue their assault on Jim Crow.\n\nAlthough the struggle to secure justice for Recy Taylor did not succeed in the short term, it was the largest and best organized of many efforts to draw attention to the ruthless heart of the racial caste system. Decades later, when radical feminists finally made rape and sexual assault political issues, they walked in the footsteps of generations of black women. If they did not always know this, it was hardly the fault of African-American women in the South, who testified both in the nation's courts and in its newspapers that their bodies were not their own. The Recy Taylor case brought the building blocks of the Montgomery bus boycott together a decade earlier and kept them in place until it became Rosa Parks's turn to testify. When that boycott took off, no one called it a women's movement, though many observers then and since have noted the centrality of women in its ranks. Even Dr. King credited \"the zeitgeist\" when asked to comment on the strange, spontaneous combustion of the bus protest. But the Montgomery bus boycott was not a prairie fire, or a rising tide, or a gear that tumbled in the cosmos. It was another in a series of campaigns that began when Rosa Parks rode up to Abbeville in 1944 to gather the facts in the Recy Taylor case, so that black women could tell their stories.\n\nIndeed, many of the African Americans who cut their political teeth defending black women like Recy Taylor who were raped by white men in Alabama in the 1940s brought their experiences and organizational insight to other struggles for dignity and justice in the 1950s and 1960s. Like E. D. Nixon and Rosa Parks in Montgomery, they often became pillars of the modern civil rights movement.\n\nThe national campaign to defend Recy Taylor highlighted the power of sexual stories to mobilize communities and build coalitions. African Americans throughout the country risked their lives and livelihoods on behalf of black women's right to bodily integrity. This cut to the heart of people's lives. It was deeper than voting rights, deeper than the poisons of stigma and exploitation, though those cruelties were also fundamental to the racial caste system.\n\nWhile the survivors of sexualized violence rarely received justice in Southern courts, black women like Recy Taylor who were raped by white men in the 1940s used their voices as weapons against white supremacy. Their testimonies were a form of direct action. Taylor's refusal to remain silent helped expose a ritual of rape in existence since slavery, inspired a nationwide campaign to defend black womanhood, and gave hope to thousands suffering through similar abuses. Because of the campaign for equal justice for Recy Taylor, sexual violence and interracial rape became the battleground upon which African Americans sought to destroy white supremacy and gain personal and political autonomy. That battleground is where the modern civil rights movement began, though its roots were as deep as the Atlantic slave trade.\n\nAs World War II came to a bloody close, another war was about to begin on the buses in Montgomery, Alabama.\n\n# CHAPTER 2  \n\"Negroes Every Day Are Being Molested\"\n\nAFTER SPENDING a hot July day in 1942 studying at Alabama State Teachers College in Montgomery, Ella Ree Jones decided to catch the earliest bus home. She felt ill all morning and was in no mood for a fight. She boarded the Cleveland Avenue bus, the same one Rosa Parks would make famous thirteen years later, and quietly slipped into a seat opposite the rear door, in the section reserved for colored passengers. The bus filled to capacity as it rumbled through downtown Montgomery. Glancing into his rearview mirror, the bus driver noticed one white man standing. At the next stop, he turned and glared at Jones.\n\n\"Girl, get up and let this passenger sit down,\" he said.\n\n\"I am sick,\" Jones replied. \"And I don't feel able to stand up for that man to sit down. Besides,\" she added, \"I am over halfway to the back of the bus.\"\n\nUnwilling to engage in a debate about the subtleties of segregation, the driver became agitated. \"Do you want to stand up,\" he shouted, \"or do you want me to put you off?\"\n\n\"Neither,\" Jones said.\n\nSuddenly the bus lurched to the curb, and the driver scurried out. He made sure he locked the back door before he called the police.\n\nThe trapped black and white passengers collectively held their breath. Granted police powers, bus drivers enforced segregation with an iron fist. Many kept blackjacks and pistols under their seats, wielding them whenever their authority was challenged. It was not unusual for black passengers to defy drivers, whose penchant for cruelty angered even the most accommodating customers, but it carried enormous risk. The complaint records of the Birmingham buses are riddled with reports of drivers beating, shooting, and even killing black passengers. When Jones ignored the driver's direct order, everyone on the bus knew she sat in the path of peril.\n\nAs the driver waited for the officers to arrive, a white man carrying carpenter's tools walked over to Jones and pulled out a shiny, sharp saw. Standing over her with the saw drawn back, he told the student he had a \"notion to slap [her] brains out.\" Just then the driver returned, flanked by two Montgomery police officers. Pointing toward Jones, the driver sneered, \"I'm going to teach you to do what the white man tells you to do.\" The officers lunged and pulled the student out of her seat and down the back steps, scattering her school supplies. They grabbed her arms, twisted them until she screamed, and pushed her toward the waiting police car. When one officer loosened his grip long enough to open the back door, she clawed his face with her fingernails. \"He threatened to kill me then,\" she recalled later. \"They cursed me all the way to City Hall.\"\n\nWhen they arrived at City Hall, the officers dragged Jones behind the building and beat her with a pipe until she was, as she put it, \"too weak to get off the ground without help.\" She struggled to stand, but they kicked her repeatedly. As she writhed on the ground, one of the officers grabbed Jones's head between his hands and propelled it into the brick wall. She collapsed and crumbled to the ground. Clenching her arm, an officer pulled her toward the back steps, then \"twisted his hand in [her] hair and picked [her] up off the ground by [her] hair.\" When she was finally on her feet, the officers pushed Jones up the stairs, poking her with a walking stick until she was in a jail cell. \"What am I being charged with?\" Jones asked before the officer slammed the door. \"Suspicion,\" he said.\n\nThe police held Jones overnight, denied her medical attention, and took her to court the next morning, where she was fined twenty-eight dollars. Standing before a judge in a bloodied and torn dress, she demanded to know the reason for the exorbitant fine. \"Case closed,\" the judge said, and dismissed Jones with a flick of his wrist.\n\nThe next day Jones filed a complaint with the national NAACP. Thurgood Marshall, a young attorney working for the NAACP Legal Defense Fund, was appalled by the beating and the trumped-up charges. Despite his age, Marshall was the most celebrated black lawyer in America, having won a number of high-profile cases, including the integration of Missouri Law School in 1938. His growing status as a civil rights warrior led thousands of people to flood his New York office with complaints of racial discrimination and police brutality. \"There is no question in my mind,\" Marshall said in a letter about Jones to T. T. Allen, the president of the Montgomery branch of the NAACP in 1942, \"that we should bring suit against the bus company, and take whatever steps we can against the policemen.\" Apparently the case never went to court.\n\nThurgood Marshall's problem was that there were too many cases and too few resources. Marshall and his colleagues performed a cruel triage to determine which cases to pursue. African Americans choosing to testify in racially charged cases placed themselves and their loved ones at great risk. Sometimes the victims scratched out shaky lives among the downtrodden that could easily be caricatured to discredit them. Sometimes the cases were heart-wrenching but hopeless from a legal standpoint, given the realities of judicial practices in a hard racial caste system. Finding the right combination of strong documentation, brave witnesses, sympathetic victims, and legal resources tested Thurgood Marshall's legal and political acumen.\n\nIn a letter to his mentor, Judge William H. Hastie, the dean of Howard Law School, Marshall asked for advice on how to respond to the brutal mistreatment and sexual harassment of two black women on a bus at an Alabama military camp in 1945. The two women, Private Roberta McKenzie and Private First Class Gladys Blackmon, boarded an empty bus and sat down in the rear. When asked to stand so that a white man could sit, they both refused, arguing that there were plenty of seats remaining in the white section. The bus driver grabbed his nightstick, walked toward the two Women's Army Corps (WAC) members, and knocked off their hats. He then slapped both women and, they alleged, \"punched them in the breast,\" while uttering profanities. After he pushed them off the bus, they reported the attack to the NAACP. In the midst of a \"War for Democracy,\" Marshall knew that the beating of black WACs in uniform would be explosive. \"This is one of the worst cases we have had in this office for some time,\" he said. It \"looks like dynamite to me.\"\n\nTen years later thousands of working- and middle-class women, fed up with decades of abuse, took to the streets to protest their mistreatment and demand the right to \"sit with dignity.\" The Montgomery bus boycott, frequently regarded as the spark plug of the modern civil rights movement, was actually the end of a drive chain that ran back into decades of black women's activism. That supposedly \"spontaneous\" event was, in fact, the culmination of a deep history of gendered political appeals\u2014frequently led by black veterans\u2014for the protection of African-American women from sexual and physical assault. Only by understanding the long and relatively hidden history of sexualized violence in Montgomery, Alabama, and African Americans' efforts to protect black womanhood, can we see that the Montgomery bus boycott was more than a movement for civil rights. It was also a women's movement for dignity, respect, and bodily integrity.\n\nRosa Parks left Alabama for the first time in 1946. Atlanta was less than two hundred miles away, but it seemed a world away from the rickety rural shacks that still dotted the Alabama countryside. The New South city promised great change and possibility for the future. Skyscrapers sparkled against the sky and served as a backdrop for the bustling business district anchored by the headquarters of Sears, Roebuck and Coca-Cola. Streams of automobiles roared through the city on viaducts high above the busy rail lines. Airplanes took off and landed just outside town. Though Atlanta was thoroughly segregated, it seemed to be the perfect setting for an NAACP meeting dedicated to training future leaders who would seize the opportunities of the postwar period to wage war against Jim Crow.\n\nThurgood Marshall, known as \"Mr. Civil Rights\" since he persuaded the Supreme Court to strike down the white-only Democratic primary as unconstitutional in 1944, was the keynote speaker. Though African Americans won some concessions during World War II, there was much work to be done, he said, listing the primary problems plaguing African Americans throughout the South. Much of what he focused on\u2014police brutality, discrimination in public facilities, job discrimination, and segregation\u2014resonated with Rosa Parks, who had reams of notes on such abuses in Montgomery. But his final topic, the heinous treatment of returning black veterans, was on everyone's mind that year.\n\nFor the approximately one million African Americans who served in the armed forces, victory over totalitarianism abroad meant little without real change at home. Having helped topple Hitler, black soldiers were not about to bow before the Bilbos and Talmadges of the South. Instead, they returned home with a new sense of pride and purpose and often led campaigns for citizenship rights, legal equality, and bodily integrity. In small towns and cities across the South, black veterans became the \"shock troops\" of an emerging civil rights movement.\n\nWhite Southerners responded to postwar black activism with a wave of violence that reasserted white supremacy. In Birmingham, Alabama, police commissioner Eugene \"Bull\" Connor directed a force that was responsible for untold numbers of racially motivated beatings, bombings, and murders in the years immediately after World War II. Within the first six weeks of 1946 alone, uniformed officers reportedly killed five black men, all veterans, because they had taken part in voter registration drives. On February 12, 1946, Linwood Shull, the chief of police in Aiken, South Carolina, jammed his billy club into Sergeant Isaac Woodard's eye sockets after the black serviceman, home from a fifteen-month stint in the South Pacific, got into an argument with a white bus driver. The beating permanently blinded Woodard. After an all-white jury in Columbia, South Carolina, acquitted Shull of any charges, white spectators in the crowded courtroom roared with approval.\n\nFearful of black veterans' refusal to stay \"in their place,\" whites in Georgia warned African Americans, especially vets, to stay away from the polls in 1946. Since Thurgood Marshall helped persuade the Supreme Court in _Smith v. Allwright_ to outlaw the white primary two years earlier, strict adherence to the Court's ruling would have transformed the political landscape. Whites across the region turned to extralegal terror. In Greenville the Ku Klux Klan planted a fiery cross in a black neighborhood, hoping it was enough to scare away any potential voters. In Cairo masked men fired shots at the homes of prominent blacks. Throughout the state, white men nailed warnings and death threats on the doors of black homes and slipped them inside black newspapers. On July 17, 1946\u2014Election Day\u2014veteran Maceo Snipes walked past armed thugs patrolling the ballot box to cast his first and last ballot. Later that night, four white men dragged him out of his house and murdered him.\n\nA few weeks later, a white mob led by the Georgia state police shot two black couples to death in broad daylight. Roger Malcolm, one of the victims, had stabbed his white landlord earlier that summer, allegedly because he showed sexual interest in Malcolm's pregnant wife, Dorothy. Dorothy's brother, George Dorsey, a veteran, defended his sister's womanhood and his brother-in-law's actions, insisting black men had the same right as white men to protect their women. Enraged whites gathered on July 25, 1946, beneath Moore's Ford Bridge. Along the sloping banks of a river, a mob lined up the two couples and peppered their bodies with bullets. \"Up until George went into the army,\" Loy Harrison, one of the murderers, said years later, \"he was a good nigger. But when he came out, they thought they were as good as any white people.\"\n\nIt did not take long for white Southerners to claim black efforts to gain equality were a mask for more sinister, sexual desires, an argument rooted in Reconstruction-era politics. During the 1890s, former slaveholders and their Democratic political allies used the rhetoric of black-on-white rape and fabricated rape scares, as Glenda Gilmore put it, as \"a politically driven wedge powered by the sledgehammer of white supremacy\" to seize power from the biracial coalitions of Republicans and Populists that swept elections in Southern states. Black activists in the post\u2013World War II period often joked that \"the closer a black man got to a ballot box, the more he looked like a rapist.\" However, African-American men did not actually have to vote or threaten political overthrow to be accused of rape. As Frederick Douglass noted nearly a century earlier, the myth of the black man as a rapist was an \"invention with a well defined motive.\" These ghosts were easily conjured in the uncertain years after the war. Whites used rape as a catchall charge to justify violence against African Americans and undermine their political, social, and economic rights.\n\nFor example, in August 1946, police in Minden, Louisiana, arrested and jailed John C. Jones, a twenty-eight-year-old black veteran, and his seventeen-year-old cousin, Albert Harris, for acting \"uppity\" after they protested an unfair land deal. However, police claimed the two men were \"prowling\" around a white woman's window, though she refused to press charges. After several days in jail, police released them into a mob of armed white men. The mob drove Harris and Jones down a country road, where they tortured and beat Harris until they believed he was dead. Then the mob mutilated Jones with a meat cleaver and a blowtorch. When they were satisfied with their work, the mob left the mangled men in a ditch, ostensibly dead. Jones died, but Harris managed to survive and eventually identified five of the murderers in court, though an all-white jury quickly acquitted them.\n\nThe brutal beating of Isaac Woodard and Albert Harris, the murder of Maceo Snipes and John Jones, the lynching on Moore's Ford Bridge, and dozens of other incidents across the South in 1946 were designed, as one white man put it, to \"keep Mister Nigger in his place.\" Walter White, head of the NAACP, called the violence \"a rabies of the spirit... a mob sickness.\" This disease, he said, was \"a dread epidemic\" that was \"rampant in our land.\" In an effort to end the violence, the national NAACP and forty other civil rights groups formed the National Emergency Committee Against Mob Violence on August 6, 1946, to focus national and international attention on racist brutality. The committee met with President Harry Truman a month later and urged him to use the power of the federal government to end mob violence in the South.\n\nThey believed Truman would act, if only to boost the United States' image in the world at the dawn of the Cold War. Images of lynchings and racial violence scarred the front pages of newspapers around the world, mocking American ideals of democracy. The Soviet newspaper _Trud_ pointed to the \"increasing frequency of terroristic acts against Negroes,\" as part of an expos\u00e9 on the \"Position of Negroes in the USA.\" Segregation, a reporter for a Sri Lankan newspaper noted, \"is the greatest propaganda gift any country could give to the Kremlin in its persistent bid for the affections of the coloured races of the world.\" Federal action would not only shore up America's image abroad, the committee assured Truman, but would also give black voters in the urban North, whose ballots could tilt the election in his favor, an incentive to vote for Truman in the 1948 presidential election.\n\nTruman responded with Executive Order 9808, creating the President's Committee on Civil Rights (PCCR), on December 5, 1946. He hailed their report, _To Secure These Rights_ , as \"an American charter of human freedom in our time\" and a \"guide for action.\" The report condemned lynching, disfranchisement, and racial discrimination in public accommodations, housing, and employment and issued concrete prescriptions for change. Nearly a decade before the _Brown v. Board of Education_ decision, _To Secure These Rights_ asserted unequivocally that segregation was \"inconsistent with the fundamental equalitarianism of the American way of life in that it marks groups with the brand of inferior status.\" Most important, the report argued that it was the job of the federal government to protect individuals from racial violence and discrimination, something that would not be codified until the Civil Rights Act of 1968.\n\nAt the 1948 statewide NAACP convention in Mobile, Alabama, African Americans praised Truman's new commitment to civil rights. But Rosa Parks, who attended the meeting as a delegate from the Montgomery branch, was more cynical. She knew sexual violence sat at the core of white supremacy, and she feared a terrible backlash as segregationists, whose anger had already been roused by rising black activism, came unhinged. They viewed the report as a federal attack on the Southern way of life and an open invitation for interracial sex. Truman's actions, segregationists argued, would lead to intermarriage, \"amalgamation,\" \"miscegenation,\" and the rape of white women. Led by Strom Thurmond from South Carolina, Southern legislators raced to vilify the president. In a fiery diatribe on the U.S. Senate floor, Mississippi's James Eastland and his state colleagues accused Truman of \"turning over the government to the mongrelized minorities.\"\n\nIn popular memory, Rosa Parks leaves the speechifying to Dixie demagogues and Dr. King, but at the 1948 NAACP convention in Mobile, Parks gave an impassioned speech warning her colleagues to be wary of any federal civil rights promises. With Southern Democrats like Eastland and Thurmond threatening to bolt the Democratic Party, Parks suspected that few, if any, of Truman's initiatives on civil rights would become law. Besides, she argued, no matter how promising the report was, it would not end the wanton abuse and harassment of African Americans. \"No one should feel proud,\" she said, \"when Negroes every day are being molested and maltreated.\" Parks's fiery speech got her elected secretary of the Statewide Conference of the Alabama NAACP, a job she took on in addition to her work for the Montgomery branch, the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, and her employment as a seamstress.\n\nThe new state NAACP position expanded the scope of Parks's work documenting racial incidents, discrimination, and violence in Alabama. \"There were many, many cases to keep records on,\" she recalled later. The failure to secure justice for Recy Taylor in 1944\u2014one of the first cases Parks worked on as secretary of the Montgomery NAACP\u2014weighed heavily on her memory. \"There wasn't much we could do,\" she admitted in her memoir. \"The NAACP and the Committee [for Equal Justice] managed to get Governor Sparks to commence a special grand jury to investigate the case\u2014though that grand jury also refused to indict the men.\" \"Of course,\" Parks noted, \"the opposite was true if a white woman cried rape and accused a black man.\"\n\nParks clearly understood, as historian Timothy B. Tyson puts it, that the \"much traveled back-road between the races was clearly marked 'one-way.' \" When white women violated these Southern signposts, it was not uncommon for them to sacrifice their black lovers to save themselves from the stigma of violating the South's most sacred taboo. No one traveling in Parks's political circles, for example, could have failed to hear about the tragedy of Willie McGee.\n\nMcGee, a married African-American man from Laurel, Mississippi, entered into a long sexual relationship with his white employer, Mrs. Willametta Hawkins, after she threatened to cry rape if he refused her flirtatious advances. Hawkins first propositioned McGee, who often did odd jobs around her house, in 1942. \"I was waxing the floors with her in the house and she showed a willingness to be familiar and let me have intercourse with her in the back room,\" McGee said. \"After that, she frequently sent for me to do work which gave opportunities for intercourse, which she accepted, and on occasions after dark,\" he said, \"she took me in her automobile out to a place in the graveyard where we had intercourse.\" The illicit relationship smacked of coercion from the start, but it turned brutal when word leaked out.\n\nMcGee's wife, Rosalee, figured out what was going on when Mrs. Hawkins surprised McGee as he and his wife walked home from a movie theater. \"All of a sudden,\" Rosalee said, \"Mrs. Hawkins come out of an alley, and she says to Willie, 'I got my car over here. Come on into my car with me.' \" Rosalee protested, and McGee told Hawkins to \"go away.\" \"This is my wife,\" he said, shocked at the woman's audacity. \"I'm with my wife!!\"\n\nAn all-white jury in Laurel, Mississippi, sentenced Willie McGee, a thirty-one-year-old father of four, to death for allegedly raping a white housewife. The Civil Rights Congress protested the decision and launched an international movement to free McGee. (photo credit 2.1)\n\n\"Don't fool with no Negro whores,\" Hawkins shouted, angry at being rebuffed.\n\nMcGee reluctantly went with Hawkins, fearing the tragic consequences of turning her away. \"People who don't know the South don't know what would have happened to Willie if he told her no,\" Rosalee told a friend. \"Down South you tell a woman like that no, and she'll cry rape anyway. So what else could Willie do?\"\n\nMcGee finally broke off the relationship with Hawkins in November 1945, just before her husband, Troy, discovered the affair. After Troy and Willametta had a terrible fight, she called the police to report that a black, kinky-haired intruder had raped her. Within a few hours, police held McGee in custody.\n\nNothing could have convinced white Southerners that Willametta Hawkins seduced McGee or that they had had a long-term sexual relationship. While it was perfectly reasonable, if frowned upon in some circles, for a white man to have a sexual relationship with a black woman, the segregated social order strictly forbade white women and black men from association, let alone sex. The chief justice of the Mississippi Supreme Court called the suggestion of a mutual love affair between a black man and a white woman a \"revolting insinuation\" that he \"could not entertain\" or \"even consider in court.\" He sent McGee to the electric chair without hesitation. That McGee received the death sentence for what was a relatively common, if covert, practice among white men and black women underscored the hierarchy of race and sex in the segregated South. It also helped launch an international protest movement.\n\nThe Civil Rights Congress (CRC), a leftist legal defense and protest organization, led the worldwide efforts to free McGee. Despite three interventions by the U.S. Supreme Court and overwhelming evidence of racial bias in sentencing in Mississippi, officials readied the portable electric chair at the Jones County courthouse and scheduled McGee's execution for May 8, 1951. Anne Braden, a white activist from Louisville, Kentucky, who protested the public execution, demanded that \"no more innocent men... die in the name of protecting southern white womanhood. We have been made a party to this injustice too long.\" Willie McGee understood the political purpose of his execution. \"You know I am innocent,\" he told his wife in a letter the night before he was scheduled to die. \"The real reason they are going to take my life is to keep the Negro down in the South.\"\n\nOn May 8, 1951, more than five hundred white men, women, and children gathered outside the Jones County courthouse in Ellisville, Mississippi, to cheer the execution of Willie McGee. (photo credit 2.2)\n\nNear midnight on that fateful May evening, state officials delivered two deadly currents of electricity to Willie McGee as an ecstatic, almost all-white audience of five hundred men, women, and children gathered outside. Troy and Willametta Hawkins stood among their neighbors and cheered McGee's death.\n\nWillie McGee was not the first nor the last black man executed for violating the South's racial and sexual rules. On February 2, 1951, officials at the Virginia State Penitentiary executed seven black men convicted of raping a white woman in Martinsville two years earlier. On January 8, 1949, Ruby Floyd, a thirty-two-year-old white woman, accused the seven black men of violently raping her. The police rounded up some suspects, and within a matter of days, seven men sat in jail. By the end of January, the Martinsville Seven had been tried, convicted, and sentenced to death.\n\nAs African Americans in Martinsville dealt with the shock of \"seven rapid-fire consecutive death sentences,\" they faced the stark reminder that white men guilty of the same crime almost never received the same punishment. The _Pittsburgh Courier_ highlighted this discrepancy on May 14, 1949, by juxtaposing the front-page announcement of the Martinsville Seven death sentences with an article detailing the rape of a black woman by two white police officers in Richmond, Virginia. The policemen, Carl R. Burleson and Leonard E. Davis, who were tried and convicted of raping a black woman in 1946, kidnapped the black woman, a waitress and mother of two, then drove her to a construction site and sexually assaulted her. Judge John L. Ingram found Burleson and Davis guilty and sentenced them to seven years in prison. The guilty verdict was surprising, but the paltry sentence reminded black women that society did not consider them worthy of the same protection afforded white women.\n\nDuring the late 1940s and early 1950s, \"protection\" of white womanhood often meant shielding them from any kind of contact with African-American men, sexual or otherwise. In Yanceyville, North Carolina, the collision of race and sex was so combustible in the summer of 1951 that even a glance in the wrong direction could land a black man in jail. On June 4, Mack Ingram, a forty-two-year-old black farmer and father of nine children, walked through a tobacco field on the Boswell farm to ask the white owner if he could borrow a trailer. About seventy-five feet ahead of him walked the farmer's eighteen-year-old daughter, Willa Jean Boswell, who wore overalls and carried a hoe. Willa Jean screamed and began running when she saw Ingram walking in the same direction. She ran as fast as she could until she reached her brother. Exhausted and clearly terrified, she informed him that Ingram was \"looking at her in a leering manner.\" Her father called the police, who arrested Ingram later that afternoon. At the trial two weeks later, Willa Jean admitted Ingram never spoke to her; nor could he have since he was always at least seventy-five feet away. Still, her father argued, Ingram's \"eyes were all over her.\"\n\nA charge of \"eye rape\" was enough for Judge Ralph Vernon of the Caswell County Recorder's Court to sentence Ingram to two years of hard labor. According to the NAACP, which launched a campaign to defend Ingram, it was \"as fantastic a story as has ever been enacted in an American court.\" It ought to be \"sold to _Ripley's Believe It or Not,\"_ they said. Although the charge of \"eye rape\" seemed utterly absurd, it was deadly serious. \"The big issue,\" according to the _Chicago Defender_ , \"is the right of a Colored man to walk across a farm road or walk the streets of Yanceyville\" without the fear of being killed or sent to prison \"because [a white woman] doesn't like the way he looks at her.\" The North Carolina Supreme Court finally dismissed the case in 1953.\n\nWhile the CRC, NAACP, and other organizations lost the Martinsville Seven and Willie McGee cases, they helped expose the South's legal double standards. At the same time, they revealed to the world the South's tendency toward hysteria when black men and white women crossed paths, whether in a bedroom or a wide-open tobacco field. Though McGee lost his life, his defenders worked to make audible the \"whispered narrative of consensual interracial sex that had been the real story behind too many southern lynchings.\"\n\nRosa Parks labored tirelessly on similar cases in Montgomery, but one in particular haunted her. In 1952 a white Montgomery woman cried rape after a nosy neighbor caught her undressing with her sixteen-year-old black lover, Jeremiah Reeves. Shortly thereafter Montgomery police arrested Reeves and beat a confession out of him. The lower courts found Reeves guilty of rape and sentenced him to die. Reeves's mother, Parks recalled, \"brought the case to the NAACP.\" The Montgomery branch, she said, \"struggled for quite a few years\" to save the young man. They challenged his sentence all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court, to no avail. Alabama officials executed Reeves in 1957. \"It was a tragedy he lost his life,\" Parks said. \"I tried to find some way of documenting that [the white woman had] lied but I was never able to do so... [S]ometimes it was very difficult to keep going when all our work seemed to be in vain.\"\n\nCases like Jeremiah Reeves's and Willie McGee's taught African Americans, as Martin Luther King, Jr., noted in _Stride Toward Freedom_ , to \"fear and mistrust the white man's justice.\" \"In the years that [Reeves] sat in jail,\" King wrote, \"several white men in Alabama also had been charged with rape, but their accusers were Negro girls.\" White men were seldom arrested, and if they were, King said, \"they were soon released by the grand jury. No one was ever brought to trial.\" This was mostly true throughout the South, but Montgomery seemed to get more than its share of what NAACP leader Roy Wilkins called \"sex cases.\"\n\nLaboring patiently for the NAACP in Montgomery, Rosa Parks felt that 1949 in particular was a \"very bad year.\" \"There was a lot of white violence against blacks,\" she recalled. \"Things happened,\" she said, \"that most people never heard about.\" Even if the stories never got their due in the mainstream press, it was the misfortune and courage of a number of unknown women who helped mobilize the African-American community in the late 1940s around issues of sexualized violence. These campaigns sparked larger protests for dignity and bodily integrity that culminated in the Montgomery bus boycott. The truly decisive moment came in 1949, when two white police officers attacked a young woman named Gertrude Perkins. \"Gertrude Perkins is not even mentioned in the history books,\" Joe Azbell, former editor of the _Montgomery Advertiser_ , said, \"but she had as much to do with the bus boycott and its creation as anyone on earth.\"\n\nThe moon illuminated the dark street as Gertrude Perkins, a twenty-five-year-old black woman, walked home, a little unsteady on her feet after a night of partying. It was after midnight on March 27, 1949, when a squad car inched toward her and stopped. Two Montgomery police officers, their badges glimmering in the moonlight, told Perkins to halt, then walked toward her. Smelling beer on her breath, they accused her of public drunkenness and ordered her to get into their car. When she refused, they grabbed her and pushed her into the backseat. They drove to the edge of a railroad embankment and dragged her behind a building, where the uniformed men raped her repeatedly at gunpoint and forced her to have \"all types of sex relations.\" When they finished, they shoved Perkins back into the car, then dumped her out in the middle of town and sped away.\n\nAlone on the dark roadside, terrified and shaken, Perkins nevertheless mustered the clarity and courage to report the crime. Instead of going home to her three children, she went directly to Reverend Solomon S. Seay, Sr.'s, house. Seay was the prominent and rotund minister of the Mt. Zion AME Zion Church. A newcomer to Montgomery, Seay was already regarded as one of the most outspoken black ministers in town. She knocked on the door of the Holt Street parsonage, where Seay and his family lived. Waking him, Perkins told Seay the details of her assault through sobs and tears. He could smell the alcohol and wondered if perhaps she was lying. \"If you're not telling the truth,\" he said, \"you're going to be in big trouble.\"\n\n\"I'm telling you the dying truth,\" she insisted. Seay decided that even if she had had too much to drink, she did not deserve to be attacked. \"No white or black man,\" he said, \"had a right to rape her.\" Seay consoled Perkins and listened as she spoke. \"We didn't go to bed that morning,\" he recalled. \"I kept her at my house, carefully wrote down what she said, and later had it notarized.\" He sent Perkins's horror story to syndicated columnist Drew Pearson, who let the whole country know what happened in his daily radio address before Montgomery's white leaders knew what hit them.\n\nEarly the next day, Seay escorted Perkins to the police station so she could report the crime. She asked Mayor John L. Goodwyn to arrest her assailants. He quickly rebuffed her. Goodwyn, who also served as police commissioner, refused to hold a lineup so Perkins could identify her attackers. He denied her request to see a log of who was on duty the previous evening. Goodwyn claimed that providing access to that information would \"violate the Constitutional rights of the members of the Police Department as individuals.\"\n\nAs word of the attack spread, E. D. Nixon and Reverend Seay, the leaders of the local Ministerial Alliance, the Negro Improvement League, and the NAACP, organized the Citizens Committee for Gertrude Perkins. Dozens of active black citizens joined to demand equal justice and protection for black women. Mary Fair Burks, an English professor at Alabama State, and her newly formed middle-class organization, the Women's Political Council, may also have been involved, since one of their early goals was to \"come to the defense of women who had been victimized by rape and other physical assaults.\"\n\nAt the first meeting of the Citizens Committee, members elected Reverend Seay chairman of the \"investigating committee.\" His job was to find the police officers who attacked Perkins. When the meeting adjourned, members of the Citizens Committee poured out of the YMCA and ran into a wall of police cars and blinding headlights. Seay stepped forward. \"Why are you flashing your lights into my face?\" he asked. An officer stepped out of his car, grabbed his club with one hand and pulled at his gun with the other, and walked over to Seay. Without saying a word, he threw his arm back and hurled the club into Seay's chest.\n\n\"You're under arrest,\" the officer said as Seay recoiled in pain. Members of the Citizens Committee rushed around Seay.\n\n\"Y'all ought to leave this man alone,\" someone said, \"he ain't doing anymore than you do... trying to defend his women.\" Police grabbed Seay, pushed him into their squad car, and drove him downtown. At the jailhouse, the chief of police recognized the minister. \"Pull your hat off,\" he ordered. \"We gonna teach you that _we_ run this town. Niggers don't run it.\" The next day E. D. Nixon helped bail Seay out and promised that the NAACP would defend him in court.\n\nAs the ministers and the NAACP rallied around Seay and Perkins, white officials publicly dismissed Perkins's case. The mayor claimed Perkins's rape charge was \"completely false.\" He insisted that holding a lineup or issuing any warrants would set a bad precedent since, as Goodwyn argued, \"charges of this nature, even though untrue... are often used to destroy goodwill between the races.\" Besides, he added, _his_ \"policemen would not do a thing like that.\" Since black prostitutes had routinely serviced white police officers in the past in exchange for allowing the existence of brothels in Montgomery, perhaps Mayor Goodwyn thought there was no need to resort to violence or force for interracial intimacies.\n\nBlacks in Montgomery knew better. The city's police force had a reputation for physical and sexual violence. Police brutality plagued the black community. The Perkins case was just the tip of the iceberg. E. G. Jackson, editor of Montgomery's black newspaper, the _Alabama Tribune_ , urged action on the Perkins case and reminded readers of a similar assault three years earlier.\n\nIn 1946, Viola White, an African-American woman who worked at Maxwell Air Force Base, had refused a bus driver's order to move out of her seat. The driver threatened to physically remove her, but she would not budge. Finally he called the police and asked them to arrest her. When the officer arrived, he beat White into submission and took her to jail. The next day a judge found White guilty of \"disobeying a bus driver.\" White was so incensed that she hired a lawyer to appeal her case. Not long after she filed suit, Montgomery police retaliated. One afternoon Officer A. A. Enger seized White's sixteen-year-old daughter, drove her to a cemetery, and raped her. As the officer thrust himself inside her, she stared at his car and focused on memorizing the tag number. The next day she reported the crime. After many attempts, E. D. Nixon was finally able to get a judge to sign a warrant for Enger's arrest. Instead of detaining Enger or firing him, however, the police chief decided to let him slip quietly out of town.\n\nWhile E. G. Jackson recalled other unsolved crimes against black women, the assault on Gertrude Perkins, he said, was \"one of the worst crimes ever committed in... Montgomery.\" \"The head officials,\" he complained, were still \"trying to keep it quiet.\" But nothing could silence the voices of protest coming from the Citizens Committee for Gertrude Perkins. Their public protests, sensational newspaper headlines, and a flood of \"inflammatory\" pamphlets garnered massive attention throughout the city. Even the _Montgomery Advertiser_ , the \"white\" daily newspaper, followed Perkins's case for nearly two months, often featuring the latest news on the front page. Because of the media attention, unrelenting protests from the Citizens Committee, and the dogged determination of Perkins's white liberal lawyers, John and Virgil McGee, the mayor finally relented and brought the case in front of the grand jury.\n\nReverend Seay accompanied Perkins to court on May 20, 1949, nearly two months after police assaulted her. Seay waited outside the closed courtroom, where he could hear county solicitor Temple Siebels berate Perkins with his \"roaring, shaking and loud voice.\" \"Aren't you lying?\" he bellowed repeatedly. \"No,\" Perkins said plainly. \"I am not lying.\" The fact that she did not say \"sir\" must have unsettled Siebels, who continued to verbally assault her. His bellicose style did not seem to rattle Perkins, who walked out of the courtroom, according to Seay, \"as calm as anybody you've ever seen in your life.\"\n\nPerkins's dignified self-defense belied white portrayals of her as a drunk and an \"ignorant, almost illiterate black woman,\" but that did not stop Siebels from presenting her as a prostitute. \"Reverend,\" Siebels said to Seay when he was questioned in front of the jury, \"did you know that Gertrude Perkins was... that she's just a common street woman?\" Seay argued that Perkins's character was not the issue. \"Whatever she [is],\" Seay said, \"she had rights that no man had a right to violate.\" Besides, Seay argued, \"since when did policemen gain the special liberty, on or off duty, to be entertained in such a fashion?\"\n\nPerkins's testimony and Seay's defense did not move the all-white, all-male jury. Convinced that \"there was no evidence of rape in the Perkins case,\" the jurors refused to indict anyone. In an interview with the _Montgomery Advertiser_ , the lead juror declared Perkins's testimony full of \"manufactured lies.\" Then, scolding the Citizens Committee and the NAACP, he argued that \"the publicity of this case has not been helpful to the racial relations of the city.\" In order to stave off any protests, the editor of the _Montgomery Advertiser_ felt compelled to report that the men serving on the jury were \"prominently identified\" with Montgomery's different churches, including \"five Methodists, seven Baptists, three Presbyterians, and three members of the Church of Christ.\" \"You could see what the point was,\" Reverend Seay stated in response to the newspaper's reference to ecumenical diversity. Perhaps the editor hoped this tactic would stave off any criticism of the verdict.\n\nIn an editorial designed to put any hard feelings to rest, the _Advertiser_ argued that \"those colored people who have felt humiliated or angered over the Perkins case can now abate those emotions.\" It pointed to a similar case seventeen miles north, in Wetumpka, Alabama, in which two white men, John C. Howard and Jack Oliver, received forty-five-year sentences for raping two black women, as proof that African Americans could get justice in the courts. \"We have no doubt,\" the _Advertiser_ insisted, \"had there been evidence, the same would have happened here.\" After all, the _Advertiser_ continued, \"the case ran the full process of our Anglo-Saxon system of justice. What more could have been done?\"\n\nCertainly Seay and other members of the Citizens Committee would have preferred an indictment. White people, Reverend Seay noted, \"had not accepted black people as really human.\" The lack of justice in the Perkins case, he said, only \"increased the resentment of ordinary black people about how they were being treated.\" Still, many were pleased with the \"groundswell of unrest\" that their protest yielded, including the fact that, according to Seay, it was \"the first time all the ministers in the city were shaken up.\" It would not be the last time, of course: when Rosa Parks's arrest in 1955 stirred the black community into a truly mass protest, Seay would be a pivotal leader. The public outcry in the Perkins case was \"a bold expression,\" Seay said, \"on the part of black people in this town to say to the courts and others 'We protest what is going on.' \"\n\nThe Perkins protest did not occur in isolation. In February 1951 a white grocery store owner raped a black teenager. Sam E. Green regularly employed Flossie Hardman, a black fifteen-year-old, as a babysitter and frequently drove her home at the end of her shift. One night, instead of taking Flossie directly home, Green pulled to the side of a quiet road and raped her.\n\nFlossie immediately informed her parents of the assault. Despite the odds of bringing Green to justice, they decided to press charges. Meanwhile Rufus A. Lewis, a World War II veteran and celebrated football coach at Alabama State University, launched a campaign to bring Green to trial. Backed by Lewis and many of his fellow veterans, the Hardmans succeeded in bringing Green to court. But when an all-white jury returned a not guilty verdict after deliberating for only five minutes, African Americans decided to take the matter into their own hands. Lewis led the charge.\n\nAs one of the principal spokesmen for voter registration efforts in Montgomery, Lewis had enormous respect and support within the black community; he belonged to the mostly middle-class Dexter Avenue Baptist Church and was a member of many of the \"best\" clubs and associations in town. Additionally, as the owner of Montgomery's largest black funeral home, he was financially independent and not easily intimidated by white economic reprisals. Lewis parlayed his social and economic wealth into a spacious brick clubhouse, named the Citizens Club. It functioned as the headquarters for many of the city's community organizations. Here Lewis taught veterans and others the ins and outs of voter registration and created a safe space where African Americans could \"come and socialize\" and, in the process, get politicized. Lewis knew that a large swath of the black community was outraged by the attack on Flossie Hardman and the unjust ruling. Since Green's grocery store was located in a primarily black community, Lewis figured an economic boycott could destroy Green's livelihood.\n\nLewis organized the \"Citizens Committee\" to lead the boycott. The committee brought together veterans groups, the Women's Political Council, and the NAACP under the banner of protecting black womanhood. The campaign to shut down Green's store was a success. Within a matter of weeks, African Americans delivered their own guilty verdict by driving Green into the red. The campaign established the boycott as a powerful weapon for justice and sent a message to whites that African Americans would not allow white men to disrespect, abuse, and violate black women's bodies with impunity. Soon enough an even larger boycott would be imaginable for the African-American community.\n\nMany whites chose to ignore this message, notably the city's bus operators, who snubbed, bullied, and brutalized black passengers daily. Drivers shortchanged African Americans, then kicked them off the bus if they asked for correct change. Half-empty buses often bypassed blacks waiting at bus stops. And bus drivers never hesitated to use violence to enforce segregation. In a sense, the ruthless beatings that Ella Ree Jones, Roberta McKenzie, and Gladys Blackmon received when they defied Jim Crow in the early 1940s represented relatively light punishment, considering the price paid by Hilliard Brooks.\n\nOn August 12, 1950, Brooks, an African-American veteran of World War II and neighbor of Rosa Parks, attempted to board a bus driven by C. L. Hood. Hood refused to let Brooks on his bus, claiming he was too intoxicated. Brooks put up a fuss and demanded to be allowed to ride. Hood waved a police officer over, then pushed the veteran off the front steps, knocking him to the ground. As Brooks struggled to stand, the police officer, M. E. Mills, pointed his pistol at Brooks and, in the bright afternoon sun, shot him dead. Satisfied with the assailants' claim of self-defense, the mayor cleared them of any wrongdoing.\n\nThere were at least thirty complaints by African Americans in Montgomery in 1953, indicating a growing sense of impatience with the grim conditions on city buses. Most of these complaints came from working-class black women who made up the bulk of Montgomery City Lines' riders, over half of whom toiled as domestics. With a median salary of just $523 per year, domestics could not afford automobiles and had no choice but to ride the city buses to and from the white homes in which they worked. Their workplace could be just as dangerous: domestic workers faced sexual and physical abuse by their white employers. While domestics could and often did resist sexual harassment and abuse on the job by quitting, they could not easily find other transportation. They were stuck with the buses. As black lawyer Fred Gray put it, bus transportation was not \"something optional, like restaurants.\"\n\nAfrican-American women constantly complained about the atrocious treatment they received on the buses. Gladys Moore remembered that Montgomery's bus operators treated black women \"just as rough as could be... like we are some kind of animal.\" Jo Ann Robinson, an English professor at Alabama State and member of the increasingly militant Women's Political Council, argued that mistreatment on the buses was degrading, shameful, and humiliating. \"Black Americans,\" she insisted, were \"still being treated as... things without feelings, not human beings.\" Bus drivers, Robinson recalled, disrespected black women by hurling nasty sexualized insults their way. Ferdie Walker, a black woman from Fort Worth, Texas, remembered bus drivers sexually harassing her as she waited on the corner. \"The bus was up high,\" she recalled, \"and the street was down low. They'd drive up under there and then they'd expose themselves while I was standing there and it just scared me to death.\" Aside from direct sexual harassment, drivers referred to black women with contemptuous names like \"black niggers,\" \"black bitches,\" \"heifers,\" and \"whores.\" Della Perkins remembered a driver who regularly referred to her as an \"ugly black ape.\"\n\nIn addition to slinging insults, bus drivers often slapped black women who crossed them. They refused to stop at every corner in black neighborhoods, allowed white children to board before black adults, demanded blacks give up their seats for whites, and forced them to pay their fare at the front of the bus and then enter via the rear. The latter practice was designed to eliminate any chance that black bodies might accidentally come in contact with white bodies, thus removing the opportunity for any inadvertent move toward \"miscegenation\" or \"social equality.\" This was especially important if black men boarded the bus when white women sat in the front seats, but drivers imposed the rule on black women as well. One black woman recalled that a bus driver demanded she relocate \"because a white man could not sit opposite a colored lady.\" Considering white men's long history of \"integrating\" with black women, this rule was particularly galling.\n\nGeorgia Gilmore, a plucky and spirited black cook, decided not to ride the buses after a driver insisted she enter the bus through the rear after paying her fare in the front. Gilmore protested, but the red-faced, redheaded driver hollered, \"I told you to get off and go to the back, Nigger!\" Since the bus was her sole transportation, Gilmore retreated. As she was about to enter the back door, the driver slammed it shut and pulled away. Such malicious acts often resulted in injuries. \"There had been several reported incidents,\" Ralph Abernathy, a Baptist minister, recalled, \"of persons being caught in the doors... [and] dragged for some distance.\"\n\nVerbal, physical, and sexual abuse maintained racial hierarchy in an enclosed space where complete separation of whites and blacks was all but impossible. A big arrow pointing to the rear of the bus for \"colored\" and another pointing to the front of the bus for whites provided some guidance. But the Jim Crow line could vanish just as easily as it appeared, as the racial composition of riders changed at each stop. \"The bus driver could move colored people anywhere he wanted on the bus,\" E. D. Nixon recalled. \"If a white person came into the bus and sat way back in it, no Negro was permitted to stand or sit between the motorman and that person.\" As a rule, the first ten of the thirty-six seats on a Montgomery city bus were reserved for whites, no matter how many people were actually on the bus. This frequently left black passengers, who almost always outnumbered white passengers, in the humiliating position of having to stand over empty seats.\n\nThis policy fueled resentment and anger among African Americans, especially domestics and day laborers who spent hours on their feet cooking, washing, and ironing for white people. \"You spend your whole lifetime in your occupation... making life clever, easy and convenient for white people,\" Rosa Parks recalled, \"but when you have to get transportation home, you are denied an equal accommodation.\" Mistreatment on the buses, she argued, emphasized the fact that \"our existence was for the white man's comfort and well being; we had to accept being deprived of just being human.\" Like sexualized mistreatment, it was an all-too-familiar part of being a black woman in Montgomery.\n\nWith abuses piling up like cordwood and memories of previous crimes smoldering, a group of black women decided to take on the bus drivers by demanding to be treated like ladies. The Women's Political Council led the charge. This militant women's group was one of over fifty active and vibrant black benefit associations, mutual aid societies, and social clubs in Montgomery that stitched together the social fabric of the African-American community. Professional black men belonged to one or more of the traditionally black fraternities like Alpha Phi Alpha, Kappa Alpha Psi, or Omega Psi Phi, while small businessmen and laborers held membership in the fraternal orders and benefit associations like the Prince Hall Free Masons, the Knights of Labor, the Elks, or the Knights of Pythias. There were also neighborhood associations, church clubs, and political organizations like the NAACP and its youth division, E. D. Nixon's Progressive Democrats, and Rufus Lewis's Citizens Club.\n\nBlack women of a certain class in Montgomery found camaraderie in sororities like Alpha Kappa Alpha, Zeta Phi Beta, Delta Sigma Theta, or Sigma Gamma Rho, or they belonged to one of eighteen clubs that made up the Montgomery City Women's Federated Clubs, including the Crusaders, Anna M. Duncan, Excelsiors, Home Makers, Phillis Wheatley, Cosmopolites, and Sojourner Truth clubs\u2014most of which featured junior versions for young women. In addition to these civic, professional, and social clubs, many black women belonged to societies affiliated with the more than fifty black churches in Montgomery.\n\nMeetings occurred in church basements, at women's homes, at the black-owned Ben Moore Hotel, which had a large ballroom and rooftop garden, or at any one of the dozen or more lounges, bars, and clubs where blacks could drink, dance, or eat a hearty meal. The most popular gathering places were the Elks Club, the Reno Caf\u00e9, Pics Caf\u00e9, the Afro-Club, Rufus Lewis's Citizens Club, Club 400, and the Tijuana Club. These clubs provided spaces where black men and women, free from white surveillance and racial domination, could work out community problems, organize politically, or just relax.\n\nThe rich network of social and political organizations kept Montgomery's class-divided black community relatively connected. In addition, they served as information hubs, where news could travel easily from one neighborhood to the next. The sheer number and diversity of organizations explains the relative speed with which the 1955 boycott began; after all, blacks in Montgomery were _already_ organized. It only seemed \"spontaneous\" from a distance.\n\nEven though they were knit together socially, African Americans in Montgomery rarely came together to protest white supremacy en masse. With the exception of E. D. Nixon and Rufus Lewis's voter registration efforts, Rosa Parks's investigations on behalf of the NAACP, and the mass mobilization on behalf of Gertrude Perkins and Flossie Hardman, most clubwomen preferred to work on racial uplift and charitable causes within the black community instead of agitating for political and civil rights in the city at large. Direct protests proved dangerous throughout the South, and Montgomery was no exception. Few people were willing to risk their lives or their livelihoods for something that seemed as immutable as segregation.\n\nAnd yet there were always a handful of fearless individuals, like E. D. Nixon and Rosa Parks, who pushed for more direct political engagement. Vernon Johns, the irascible and outspoken preacher at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in the 1940s and early 1950s, regularly chastised his \"silk stocking\" congregation for their apparent resignation to Jim Crow. But Johns was not an ordinary man. He seemed to be hardwired to resist segregation. The preacher loved to shock his congregants and scare white Montgomerians. In response to the ruthless beating of a black man by white police officers in the early 1950s, he posted \"It's Safe to Murder Negroes in Montgomery\" on the church marquee. The next week his advertised sermon title was: \"When the Rapist Is White.\" One Sunday morning he stunned his middle-class audience by beginning his sermon with a horrific tale. \"When my grandfather was hanged for cutting his master in two with a scythe,\" he said, \"they asked him on the gallows if he had anything to say.\" \"Yes,\" his grandfather said, \"I'm just sorry I didn't do it thirty years before.\" The story was not true, but Johns had a point. He wanted his flock to become as fearless as was his fictional grandfather.\n\nJohns's tactics made most of Dexter's members uncomfortable, but Mary Fair Burks felt the call one morning when Johns mounted another scathing attack on the complacency of his affluent parishioners. Burks had waged her own private \"guerrilla warfare\" by refusing to abide by Jim Crow signs throughout the city. After a run-in with a white police officer, however, Burks decided to broaden her attack and form an army of women dedicated to destroying white supremacy. She needed foot soldiers. \"I looked around and all I could see were either masks of indifference or scorn,\" she recalled. Being a \"feminist before [she] really knew what the word meant,\" she said, she \"dismissed the hard-faced men.\" They \"would take it over,\" she said, \"and women wouldn't be able to do what they could do.\"\n\nInstead, Burks focused on the women in her church and social circles, hoping she could convert them into activists. \"I played bridge with them,\" she reasoned, \"but more important, I knew that they must suffer from the same racial abuse and the indignity.\" She left church that day with a plan. Over the next week, she contacted fifty women. When forty showed up for the first meeting of the Women's Political Council (WPC) in the fall of 1946, she was pleasantly surprised. Burks started the meeting by testifying about her run-in with a club-wielding police officer. When she finished, nearly every woman at the meeting chimed in with similar stories of brutalization.\n\nIn order to gain political leverage with the city's leaders, members of the newly formed WPC, many of them public school teachers and faculty members at Alabama State College, decided they needed to become registered voters. After a number of them cleared the various hurdles designed to keep the voting rolls lily white, they set up workshops throughout the city to help others get registered. The WPC set up \"registration schools\" in churches, where they taught weekly classes on how to fill out voter registration forms and, if necessary, on basic literacy. When participants were ready, WPC members accompanied them to the courthouse and helped them fill out registration applications, then returned a few days later to check on the results. More than anything, they taught ordinary women how to assert themselves in front of white authorities.\n\nBy teaming up with Rufus Lewis's veterans organization and E. D. Nixon's Progressive Democrats, both of which had been active in voter registration efforts since the early 1940s, the WPC muscled its way into city elections. By the early 1950s, there were enough African Americans registered to vote in Montgomery that they could easily tip the scale in close elections. Over the next few years, the Women's Political Council grew as well. By 1955, it had three chapters in Montgomery and more than three hundred female members. During this remarkable growth period, the WPC earned a reputation as the \"most militant and uncompromising voice\" for blacks in the Cradle of the Confederacy.\n\nThe militant reputation rested upon the WPC's new leadership and new focus: mistreatment on the city's buses. Mary Fair Burks handed Jo Ann Robinson, her colleague at Alabama State College and a fiery advocate of human rights, the reins of the radical women's organization in 1950, just a year after she moved to Montgomery. Despite being a newcomer, Robinson easily fell in with Montgomery's middle-class clubwomen, among whom she quickly became a \"much sought after dinner guest.\" Born and raised in Georgia, Robinson was no stranger to white supremacy. As a middle-class woman with a vehicle, though, she was unaware of the intricacies of the segregated seating policies on Montgomery's buses.\n\nHer introduction came at the end of her first full semester teaching, as she was preparing to visit family for Christmas in December 1949. Robinson boarded a near-empty city bus and sat down in the fifth row, two rows behind the only white woman on the bus, closed her eyes, and imagined \"the wonderful two weeks [of] vacation\" ahead. Suddenly startled by the bus driver's roaring voice, Robinson sat straight up.\n\n\"If you can sit in the fifth row from the front of the other buses in Montgomery,\" he bellowed, \"suppose you get off and ride in one of them.\"\n\nBeing a respectable, professional woman who was used to being treated like a lady in the black community, Robinson did not realize the driver was speaking to her until he pulled to a stop and stormed over to where she was seated.\n\n\"Get up from there!\" he yelled, drawing his arm back as if he were about to strike her. \"Get up from there!\"\n\nRobinson leaped to her feet, fearful of being beaten, and ran to the front of the bus. She stumbled off the bus in a daze. \"Tears blinded my vision,\" she recalled, and \"waves of humiliation inundated me.\"\n\nRecalling the shame and embarrassment she experienced that December day, Robinson readily accepted the leadership of the WPC. Utilizing the political leverage the WPC had built up over the previous years, Robinson and her army of militant women\u2014Mrs. A. W. West, Mrs. N. W. Burkes, Mrs. J. E. Pierce, Georgia Gilmore, Mrs. Edwyna Marketta, Ella Mae Stovall, Lettie M. Anderson, Mrs. Horace Burton, Mrs. Ruby Hall, and Ella Mae Henderson, to name a few\u2014canvassed black neighborhoods. According to Robinson, they gathered \"thousands of signatures on hundreds of petitions\" that demanded the city do something about the \"shameful and deplorable one-sidedness\" of the city's segregated parks and recreation system. They repeatedly confronted the city commissioners with complaints about police brutality. In the early 1950s, Jo Ann Robinson led her band of women warriors to directly attack abuse on the city's buses.\n\nIn 1952 members of the WPC packed a public hearing regarding a bus fare increase, where Zolena Pierce and Sadie Brooks testified about their mistreatment on the buses. One year later a group of WPC members stormed a meeting with the City Commission, where Jo Ann Robinson railed against the abuses heaped upon black female bus riders and argued that African Americans should not have to stand over empty seats when the black section was filled and the white section was empty. Nor should they have to pay at the front, she said, and then disembark and get on in the back. The WPC demanded that black riders be treated with dignity and respect. \"We were not fighting segregation,\" Mary Fair Burks pointed out, \"as much as abuses of Negroes.\"\n\nBlack women across the country spoke out against similar abuses. Besides the WPC, no organization did this better or more explicitly than the Sojourners for Truth and Justice (STJ), a short-lived but important national black women's organization dedicated to \"the full dignity of Negro womanhood.\" Two African-American women, Louise Thompson Patterson, a Communist and wife of William Patterson, the head of the Civil Rights Congress, and Beulah Richardson, a poet and Progressive Party activist from Mississippi, organized the STJ in the fall of 1951. Patterson and Richardson sought to unite black women across social, political, and economic lines in an effort to end white violence and terror. \"We will no longer in sight of God or man,\" the women proclaimed, \"sit by and watch our lives destroyed by an unreasonable and unreasoning hate that metes out to us every kind of death.\"\n\nSpeaking as mothers, wives, daughters, sisters, and witnesses to sexualized violence, the members of the STJ issued a pamphlet that assailed white supremacy and called for a national meeting of black women in Washington, D.C., \"We have seen our brothers beaten, shot, and stamped to death by police [and] we have seen our daughters raped and degraded, and when one dares rise in defense of her honor she is jailed for life.\" By inviting black women to come \"speak [their] mind\" and issuing the call in the \"spirit of Harriet Tubman and Sojourner Truth,\" the STJ rooted themselves in a \"radical black feminist tradition of resistance\" and the tradition of testimony.\n\nMembers of the Sojourners for Truth and Justice\u2014a national black women's organization dedicated to the protection of \"Negro Womanhood\"\u2014pose for a photo with celebrated athlete, singer, and actor Paul Robeson in 1952. (photo credit 2.3)\n\nOn September 29, 1951, more than one hundred African-American women from fifteen states gathered in the nation's capital to testify and bear witness to one another's horror stories. Mary Church Terrell, the aged and sagacious \"dean of Negro women,\" presided over the weekend gathering and encouraged participants to \"fight for our country\" and make it \"practice what it preaches.\" At the end of the historic meeting, the STJ issued a proclamation demanding the protection of \"Negro womanhood\" and decrying black women's \"second-class\" status, which \"denies us dignity and honor.\"\n\nAs part of the campaign to protect black womanhood, the STJ called for the immediate freedom of Rosa Lee Ingram, a black sharecropper widow and mother of twelve who was convicted and sentenced to death in the self-defense slaying of a white man in Ellaville, Georgia, on November 4, 1947. John Stratford, a sixty-four-year-old white sharecropper who lived on the same property as Ingram and her family, harassed Ingram for years. She finally fought back after he tried to force her into a shed to have sex with him. \"He never tried to rape me,\" she told a reporter, \"... he just tried to compel me.\" Angered by her repeated rejections, Stratford lashed out. Cursing her out, he grabbed his gun and used the butt as a bludgeon. \"I grappled with him,\" she remembered, \"and he dropped the gun. He choked me and nearly tore off my sweater.\"\n\nRosa Lee Ingram, a sharecropper and mother of twelve, was sentenced to death for the self-defense slaying of a white man in Ellaville, Georgia, on November 4, 1947. The NAACP raised thousands of dollars to challenge the conviction. Ingram was finally released from prison on August 26, 1959. Ingram (seated) with sons Sammie (center) and Wallace (standing) in an Albany, Georgia, jail cell, 1948. (photo credit 2.4)\n\nWhen Ingram's sixteen-year-old son, Wallace, heard the scuffle, he ran to his mother's aid. \"Please stop beating mama,\" he begged. Stratford persisted, and Wallace picked up the gun. Wallace rammed the gun into Stratford's head, knocking him to the ground. Rosa Lee and her son left Stratford lying in the grass and ran home, unaware that he was dead. Within two months, she was on death row for murder.\n\nThe Sojourners for Truth and Justice rallied to free Rosa Lee Ingram from prison and praised her for \"defending the honor of all womanhood.\" They argued that her willingness to fight back against a white man's sexual and physical advances was not a crime but instead was \"the first step in ending the indignities heaped upon Negro women everywhere in our land.\" \"WE SHALL NOT BE TRAMPLED UPON ANY LONGER,\" the women declared.\n\n\u2022 \u2022 \u2022\n\nBlack women in Montgomery, especially those in the Women's Political Council, could have adopted the Sojourners' rallying cry as their own. When members of the WPC, Rufus Lewis's Citizens Committee, and the Federation of Negro Women's Clubs marched into another meeting with the city commission in March 1954 and demanded better treatment on the buses, city leaders again refused to budge. Jo Ann Robinson was furious. As she heard more \"stories of unhappy experiences\" on the buses, she decided to give Mayor W. A. \"Tacky\" Gayle a piece of her mind. Robinson fumed, Gayle recalled later; she said \"they would just show me,\" he claimed. \"They [said] they were going in the front door and sitting wherever they pleased.\"\n\nLest Gayle misunderstand the threat, Robinson sent him a letter on May 21, 1954, just four days after the momentous Supreme Court decision in _Brown v. Board of Education_ that banned segregation in public schools. In the letter, Robinson spelled out exactly what would happen should Gayle and the other city commissioners ignore the WPC's demands. Since \"three-fourths of the riders of those public conveyances are Negroes,\" Robinson warned, \"they could not possibly operate... if Negroes did not patronize them.\" \"More and more of our people are already arranging with neighbors and friends,\" she asserted, \"to ride to keep from being insulted and humiliated by bus drivers.\" In addition, Robinson pointed out, more than twenty-five local organizations had begun talking about a \"city-wide boycott of the buses,\" and plans were already \"being made to ride less or not at all, on our buses.\"\n\nPerhaps the earth-shattering Supreme Court ruling gave Robinson the courage to issue such a forceful warning. After all, it appeared that Jim Crow was beginning to die a slow but sure death. Maybe she was inspired by the spirit of the Sojourners for Truth and Justice. More likely, however, she had simply had enough. Threatening a boycott was perhaps the only option remaining after requests to be treated with dignity fell on deaf ears for more than a decade.\n\nTen years earlier Thurgood Marshall had warned that the abuse and mistreatment of black women on public conveyances was \"dynamite.\" Just after Robinson sent her letter to Mayor Gayle, a news report hit the black community like a \"bombshell.\" Claudette Colvin, a fifteen-year-old high school girl, had been manhandled, arrested, and indicted for refusing to relinquish her seat to a white man.\n\n# CHAPTER 3  \n\"Walking in Pride and Dignity\"\n\nCLAUDETTE COLVIN, A SPIRITED and studious tenth grader at Booker T. Washington High School, boarded the Highland Gardens bus near Dexter Avenue Baptist Church after school on March 2, 1955. She had spent the school day studying Harriet Tubman and Sojourner Truth, \"black heroes and how they broke down Jim Crow laws,\" as she put it. Each student brought in articles about racial violence and discrimination. Her class spent the afternoon talking about the bleak racial conditions in Montgomery. By the time she boarded the bus, Colvin was filled with resentment over the city's double standard of justice. She plopped down in the rear section reserved for \"colored\" passengers.\n\nAt the next stop, passengers climbed aboard and filled the remaining seats\u2014the first ten rows reserved for whites, blacks in the back. Mrs. Ruth Hamilton, visibly pregnant, sat down next to Colvin. A white couple squeezed into the last two seats directly across from them. When the bus driver, Robert W. Cleere, saw that the color line had been breached\u2014black and white people could not sit across from one another\u2014he ordered Colvin and Hamilton to stand in the aisle to preserve segregation. Hamilton refused to give up her seat. Placing her hands on her protruding belly, Hamilton told Cleere that she \"was not going to get up,\" because, she said, she \"didn't feel like it.\"\n\nUncomfortable asking a pregnant woman to relinquish her seat, the driver turned to Colvin and threatened to call the police unless she moved. Colvin did not budge. Furious, Cleere pulled the bus to the curb in the middle of the downtown business district, locked the passengers in, and walked away. He soon returned with two policemen. The officers lumbered onto the bus and stood over Hamilton and Colvin, staring down at the stubborn women. \"Move,\" ordered one of the officers. A black man seated behind Hamilton interrupted the standoff and offered Hamilton his seat, which she accepted, leaving Colvin alone. The police demanded to know why she ignored the driver's direct order.\n\n\"It's against the law here,\" an officer reminded her.\n\n\"I didn't know that it was a law,\" Colvin shot back, \"that a colored person had to get up and give a white person a seat when there were not any more vacant seats and colored people were standing up.\"\n\nColvin had a point\u2014the city law required passengers to move only if another seat was available. Since all the seats were taken, Colvin had every right to stay put. The officers seemed genuinely stumped until she sat up and with righteous indignation said, \"I [am] just as good as any white person.\"\n\nA hush fell over the crowded bus. The driver and the two officers stepped outside to consider their options. \"We just sat there,\" Gloria Hardin, another passenger, recalled. \"We didn't know what was going to happen but we knew something would happen.\" Colvin waited quietly for Cleere and the police. \"I thought he would stop and shout and then drive on,\" Colvin said later. \"That's what they usually did.\" Colvin's assertion of equality seemed to have pushed Cleere over the line. He told the police to arrest her. Clambering back onto the bus, Cleere pointed at Colvin. \"I have had trouble out of _that thing_ before,\" he said. The police slowly walked over to Colvin, grabbed her arms, and jerked her toward the aisle. She began to sob and pulled against the officers, trying to remain in her seat. \"I wasn't getting up,\" she said later. \"I couldn't. I had it in my mind that it was wrong.\"\n\n\"You black whore,\" an officer shouted, then yanked her from the seat and kicked her down the aisle toward the front of the bus. The other officer dragged the weeping teenager down the steps and pushed her into their patrol car. Colvin was terrified. \"You just didn't know what white people might do at that time,\" she recalled later. \"I didn't know if they were crazy or if they were going to take me to a Klan meeting.\" When she heard one of the officers make a joke about her breasts and bra size, she feared the worst. Stories of ordeals like the one Gertrude Perkins endured at the hands of the Montgomery police were common currency in the black South. \"I started protecting my crotch,\" she remembered. \"I was afraid they might rape me.\"\n\nDeep history and day-to-day life in Montgomery gave her plenty of reasons to be afraid. Away from the public glare and in the backseat of a white man's car, anything could happen. They could take Colvin wherever they wanted and do whatever they pleased without fear of punishment. It was the worst possible situation for a young black woman\u2014something generations of mothers had warned their daughters to avoid at all costs.\n\nColvin tried to remain calm as the police drove her to the jail and booked her for violating the city's segregation laws. Furious that the teenager had defied them, they also charged her with assault and resisting arrest. To drown out the horror of being in jail, Colvin recited poetry and scripture. \"I recited Edgar Allan Poe,\" she recalled, \" 'Annabel Lee,' the characters in _Midsummer Night's Dream_ , the Lord's Prayer, and the Twenty-third Psalm.\"\n\nColvin may have asked the Lord to be her shepherd, but the local trinity of Fred Gray, E. D. Nixon, and Jo Ann Robinson planned her deliverance. News of Colvin's stand against segregation and subsequent detention spread quickly through town. \"In a few hours every Negro youngster on the streets discussed Colvin's arrest,\" Jo Ann Robinson remembered. \"Telephones rang, clubs called special meetings... mothers expressed concern... [and] men instructed their wives to walk or to share rides.\" Almost immediately, blacks formed the Citizens Coordinating Committee, led by Robinson, Rufus Lewis, and Fred Gray, Montgomery's newest and youngest black attorney. They sent out an appeal to \"Friends of Justice and Human Rights.\" They requested financial assistance and called for an \"unconditional acquittal of Miss Claudette Colvin.\" Martin Luther King, Jr., the baby-faced Baptist preacher who had only been in town for a few months, called the situation an \"atrocity\" that \"seemed to arouse the Negro community.\" He remembered later: \"There was talk of boycotting the buses in protest.\" In fact, there had been an explicit threat to boycott the buses by the Women's Political Council nearly a year earlier. But fighting the city was risky, if not dangerous. \"People had everything to lose,\" Jo Ann Robinson noted, \"and nothing to gain.\" Committee members shelved the boycott and decided to appeal to city and bus officials directly, and if that failed, they reasoned, then they would go to court.\n\nThe first meeting the Citizens Coordinating Committee had with police commissioner Dave Birmingham and J. H. Bagley, the manager of the bus company, went relatively well. Birmingham, an amiable if demagogic populist, frequently met with black constituents and often responded to their complaints. In 1953, for example, Birmingham acknowledged widespread police brutality in black neighborhoods and appointed the city's first seven black police officers\u2014four men and three women\u2014the most in the state. Birmingham expressed deep concern over what happened to Colvin and conceded that the driver acted improperly. He and Bagley agreed that bus drivers ought to treat all passengers with courtesy and promised to take a look at the \"Mobile plan,\" a seating scheme used in Mobile, Alabama, in which there was no firm color line. Blacks filled seats from the back of the bus forward and whites from the front to the back until they met somewhere in the middle. With assurances that Birmingham and Bagley would consider changing some of the most humiliating practices on the buses, Jo Ann Robinson and King left the meeting feeling optimistic. But within a few days, as King recalled, \"the same old patterns of humiliation continued.\"\n\nThe second meeting was more confrontational. Backed by a crowd of black women from the WPC and the Federation of Negro Women's Clubs, Rufus Lewis and Fred Gray presented petitions that demanded an end to mistreatment on the buses to Mayor Gayle and a cadre of city and corporate attorneys. Nixon had invited Rosa Parks, but she refused to attend. The race pride that she had learned from her Garveyite grandparents drew limits. \"I had decided,\" she said, \"that I would not go anywhere with a piece of paper in my hand asking white folks for any favors.\"\n\nParks's instincts proved correct. At the meeting, Robinson urged complacent city commissioners to again accept the \"Mobile plan,\" but Jack Crenshaw, the attorney for the bus company, quickly quashed the idea, claiming it would violate the city's segregation laws. City attorneys backed Crenshaw. The meeting ended in stalemate. Since the city's leaders stubbornly sided with segregation, Attorney Gray decided to take Colvin's case to court. Instead of asking for a kinder, gentler Jim Crow on the buses, he would challenge its constitutionality.\n\nOn March 18, 1955, Fred Gray, the twenty-four-year-old attorney, stood before Judge Wiley C. Hill, whose first cousin was U.S. senator J. Lister Hill, and defended Colvin, who pleaded not guilty to all charges. A native of Montgomery and a former student of Jo Ann Robinson at Alabama State University, Gray returned to the Cradle of Confederacy after law school to \"destroy everything segregated that [he] could find.\" He wasted no time. Segregation ordinances on the city buses violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, Gray asserted. Judge Hill quickly overruled Gray's claim, swatting it away as if it were a pesky fly. Gray pushed ahead. Colvin was innocent, he insisted, because it was a crime to disobey a bus driver's order to relinquish a seat only if there were other seats available in the colored section. Since more than a dozen witnesses testified that no other seats were available, Gray claimed Colvin had not violated the law.\n\nGray also produced witnesses who testified that Colvin was calm and well behaved, rather than unruly and wild, as the officers claimed. Under cross-examination, the bus driver, Robert Cleere, admitted that Colvin was \"not talking in a rage\" and was not \"disturbing anybody on the bus.\" When asked if Colvin ever hit the officers, Cleere had to admit he \"didn't see her hit them.\" When circuit solicitor William F. Thetford asked one of the police officers if Colvin \"hit or strike [sic] or scratched\" him, the officer said simply, \"No, sir.\" Thetford seemed surprised by his witness's answer. When he asked the officer again if Colvin caused a commotion, the policeman could only say \"She started crying.\" But, he added, he \"didn't hear her scream too loud\" and didn't remember her swearing. Although Gray proved Colvin did not violate any laws and was not unruly or abusive, Judge Hill found her guilty of assault and battery and charged her with violating the _state_ rather than city segregation laws, something Thetford had thrown in at the last minute. Hill sentenced Colvin to indefinite probation.\n\nWhen Gray appealed the decision in circuit court on May 6, 1955, Thetford dropped the state segregation charge, a sly move that destroyed Gray's plan to use Colvin's case to test the constitutionality of bus segregation. Despite the solicitor's backpedaling and the lack of evidence, circuit court judge Eugene Carter found Colvin guilty of assault and battery, assessed a small fine, and declared her a juvenile delinquent.\n\nStunned by the harsh decision, Colvin burst into tears. Spectators and supporters who filled the courtroom, Jo Ann Robinson recalled, \"brushed away their own tears\" as her \"agonized sobs penetrated the atmosphere of the courthouse.\" African Americans in Montgomery, Robinson remembered, \"were as near a breaking point as they had ever been. Resentment, rebellion, and unrest were evident in all Negro circles.\" The unexpected verdict hit the black community, she said, \"like a bombshell.\"\n\n\u2022 \u2022 \u2022\n\nColvin was not the first woman to be arrested for violating Montgomery's segregation code. She was, however, the first to plead innocent and challenge the city in court. And she had the support of all three hundred members of the Women's Political Council. \"Bless her heart, she fought like a little tigress,\" said Irene West, an influential WPC member and widow of a prominent black dentist. Virginia Durr, a well-known white liberal in Montgomery, told a friend that Colvin's case \"created tremendous interest in the Negro community.\" African Americans were \"fighting mad,\" she said, adding that Colvin's arrest \"may help give them the courage to put up a real fight on the bus segregation issue.\"\n\nJo Ann Robinson had been itching for a boycott for over a year, and now she began laying the groundwork. The timing seemed right; after Colvin's second trial, Robinson recalled, \"large numbers [of women] refused to use the buses... for a few days.\" These private protests convinced her that the community was ready for action, but she had to convince E. D. Nixon, whose connections and expertise would be necessary for any successful mass movement.\n\nWith Mary Fair Burks, her colleague from Alabama State, and two carloads of women, Robinson led a caravan to E. D. Nixon's house to sketch out plans for a citywide boycott. Robinson and Burks told Nixon that they had found a \"victim around whom they could rally community support for a general protest\" and assured him they were ready to mobilize the masses. Robinson told Nixon that they \"had already planned for fifty thousand notices calling people to boycott the buses; only the specifics of the time and place had to be added.\" The women asked Nixon for his support.\n\nNixon hesitated to endorse a general boycott before meeting with Colvin and her parents. He asked Robinson to give him some time. Nixon had followed Colvin's case. In fact, the seasoned labor union operative had already contacted Virginia Durr's husband, Clifford, a local white attorney and former New Deal \"brain-truster,\" to discuss legal and political options. Still, he worried about using Colvin as a symbol for the fight. A visit to Colvin's home made his decision easy. Nixon arrived at Colvin's house in the King Hill section of Montgomery, a lower-class black enclave with tumbledown houses, unpaved streets, and outdoor privies. When Colvin answered the door, Nixon saw that she was pregnant. \"My daughter,\" Colvin's mother explained, \"done took a tumble.\" Nixon decided that Colvin could not possibly serve as the community's standard-bearer, nor be a good litigant.\n\nFor starters, an unwed pregnant teenager might be a divisive symbol for a community where fissures of class, religion, and color already presented tough challenges. Her stomach was beginning to swell, Nixon argued, and her mother was ashamed to have her appear in public. But it was more than Colvin's pregnancy and her parents' shame that concerned Nixon. Colvin's dark skin color and working-class status made her a political liability in certain parts of the black community. Colvin's mother was a maid, and her father did yard work. They lived in one of the poorest sections of town, where juke joints rocked until dawn and, Nixon acknowledged, \"men would drink too much and get into a fight.\" \"It wasn't a bad area,\" Colvin said years later, \"but it had a bad reputation.\"\n\nIn some ways, Colvin's roots in King Hill could have made her the perfect symbol for a bus boycott, since she was one of thousands of working-class black women who suffered humiliation and mistreatment daily on the buses. Though Jo Ann Robinson was firmly rooted in the middle class, she saw Colvin as a kind of black everywoman who would inspire others. But Nixon refused. \"She's just not the kind we can win a case with,\" he said. Robinson fumed. She \"liked to have a fit,\" Nixon recalled. \"She jumped all over me.\" But he was resolute: \"I'm not going to go out on a limb with it.\" \"I've handled so many cases that I know when a man would stand up and when he wouldn't,\" Nixon argued. \"You've got to think about the newspapers, you got to think about public opinion, you got to think policies and so forth, and intimidation.\" His point was not easily dismissed.\n\nDespite her support for Colvin, who was a straight-A student and a member of the NAACP Youth Council, Rosa Parks believed that Nixon was right. Parks knew that Colvin had stepped outside the bounds of respectable behavior for a young woman in the 1950s. \"If the white press got hold of that information,\" Parks feared, \"they would have [had] a field day... They'd call her a bad girl and her case wouldn't have a chance.\" And Parks knew Montgomery. Even if African Americans there were, as the historian Taylor Branch put it, \"willing to rally behind an unwed pregnant teenager\u2014which they were not\u2014her circumstances would make her an extremely vulnerable standard-bearer.\" Without Nixon's support, Robinson and her colleagues on the Women's Political Council would have to wait for another arrest.\n\nIt did not take long. On October 21, 1955, police arrested and fined Mary Louise Smith, an eighteen-year-old maid, for refusing to give up her seat and stand in the colored section so that a white woman could sit down. \"I am not going to move,\" she declared when the driver asked her to stand. \"I got the privilege to sit here like anybody else.\" After meeting Smith and her family, Nixon decided that she could not be the boycott's symbolic heroine, because her father had a tendency to drink too much and she lived in a \"low type of home\" in Washington Park, a poor section of town similar to King Hill. A few days after her arrest, Smith's father paid the fine, making a legal challenge impossible.\n\nColvin and Smith were victims of time, place, and circumstance. By late 1955, black leaders in Montgomery had little choice but to embrace the \"politics of respectability\" amid the growing white backlash sparked by the 1954 _Brown v. Board of Education_ decision. Just four days after the landmark Supreme Court ruling, Thomas P. Brady, a circuit court judge in Brookhaven, Mississippi, and author of the segregationist manifesto _Black Monday_ , called on state legislators to build an organization that would protect white supremacy by any means necessary. Their response was the White Citizens' Council (WCC), an organization designed to \"counteract the NAACP and other left-wing organizations.\" The WCC quickly spread throughout Mississippi and the Deep South, especially areas where African Americans pressed for desegregation of schools or public accommodations. In Mississippi alone, the WCC counted twenty-five thousand members in 1955 and nearly eighty thousand in 1956. The WCC recruited supporters by relying heavily on sexual scare tactics and the paranoia that _Brown_ would lead to \"racial amalgamation.\" Headlines in the _Citizens' Council_ , the organization's newsletter, warned that \"mixed marriage,\" \"sex orgies,\" and black men raping white girls were \"typical of stories filtering back from areas where racial integration is proceeding 'with all deliberate speed.' \"\n\nIn this environment, political respectability required middle-class decorum. Shining a spotlight on a pregnant black teenager would only fuel white stereotypes of black women's uninhibited sexuality. Colvin's swollen stomach could have become a stark reminder that desegregation would lead to sexual debauchery. Smith's shaky social status could raise the question of whether black citizens merited equal treatment in the minds of whites and might divide African Americans along class lines. If Nixon and the WPC supported Colvin and Mary Louise Smith, they risked evoking black stereotypes that could ultimately smother any movement for change.\n\nRespectability had been a staple of African-American politics since Reconstruction, when whites used racist violence and sexual abuse to shore up white supremacy. Silence and secrecy among black clubwomen at the turn of the century helped counter slanderous images and kept the inner lives of African Americans hidden from white people. This self-imposed reticence, Darlene Clark Hine argues, \"implied that those [African-American women] who spoke out provided grist for detractors' mills and, even more ominously, tore the protective cloaks from their inner selves.\" In the wake of _Brown_ , testimony and openness were temporarily replaced with silence.\n\nTestimony triumphed throughout the 1940s as African Americans rallied around black women who had been sexually abused, no matter their class status. Recy Taylor was a struggling sharecropper, yet her case served as the catalyst for a national campaign. In 1947 the NAACP and the National Council of Negro Women\u2014both solid, middle-class organizations\u2014stood by Rosa Lee Ingram despite the fact that she was poor and had a dozen children. Gertrude Perkins was hardly a model of respectable womanhood, but Montgomery's middle-class black ministers rallied to her defense, risking their livelihoods, if not their lives, to help preserve her dignity and bodily integrity.\n\nFive years later, amid rising white opposition to _Brown_ and growing anti-Communism at home and abroad, African Americans found themselves hemmed in politically. As Southern McCarthyites equated black self-assertion with a Marxist plot to destroy America, the WCC and the KKK claimed desegregation efforts would lead to \"mongrelization\" and \"amalgamation.\" The powerful cocktail of anti-Communism, white supremacy, and sexualized propaganda and paranoia enabled whites to push aside or even kill African Americans who asserted their humanity. By February 1956, forty thousand white Alabamians, many from Montgomery, joined the Citizens' Council crusade, helping to launch the \"massive resistance\" movement. Mayor Gayle and other city commissioners, not to mention state senators, proudly proclaimed solidarity and allegiance to the WCC as it became the \"mouthpiece of southern defiance.\" E. D. Nixon undoubtedly sensed this hysteria when he refused to raise a pregnant teenager up as the symbol of the integration struggle. In mid-1950s Alabama, he had to find someone whose class background, moral reputation, and public record could withstand withering white scrutiny and inspire African-American unity.\n\nBecause she was so perfect for the role, it is tempting to think that Rosa Parks's famous stand against segregation was a planned protest. She was, as historian J. Mills Thornton argues, \"more actively involved in the struggle against racial discrimination, and more knowledgeable about efforts being made to eliminate it, than all but a tiny handful of the city's forty-five thousand black citizens.\" She knew Nixon was searching for a \"plaintiff who was beyond reproach\" and was certain he would support her, since she fit his qualifications of respectability. But it is unlikely that she planned a protest. Instead, when Rosa Parks had an opportunity to resist, she seized it. Her decision to stay put that fateful day was rooted in her history as a radical activist and years of witnessing injustice\u2014from Recy Taylor to Gertrude Perkins to Jeremiah Reeves. She had grown up in the Garvey movement. She and her husband had labored in the Scottsboro struggle as a young married couple. In 1944 her investigation of the Recy Taylor case launched a national crusade. For more than a decade, her work with the NAACP, the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, and other groups placed her at the center of Montgomery's black freedom struggle. Her decision to keep her seat on December 1, 1955, was less a mystery than a moment.\n\nRosa Parks at a desegregation workshop at Highlander Folk School in July 1955, five months before the Montgomery bus boycott began. Seated to her right is Frederick Douglass Patterson, former president of Tuskegee University, founder of the United Negro College Fund, and supporter of the 1944\u201345 Recy Taylor campaign. (photo credit 3.1)\n\nRosa Parks boarded the Cleveland Avenue bus on December 1, 1955, and slipped into a seat near the middle of the bus\u2014an area passengers referred to as \"no-man's-land\" because it was not designated white or black. When the ruddy-faced bus driver saw her seated there, he yelled, \"Let me have those front seats.\" Parks sat still. \"Make it light on yourself,\" he shouted, \"and let me have those seats!\" Parks recognized the driver immediately. It was James F. Blake, the same operator who had mistreated her in 1943. She turned to look out the window and ignored Blake's order. \"I couldn't see how standing up was going to 'make it light' for me,\" she said later. \"The more we gave in and complied, the worse they treated us.\"\n\nWhen Blake stepped off the bus to call the police, Rosa Parks remained calm, though she knew better than anyone what kind of danger she faced. She had twelve years of notes on nearly every case of racial brutality in and around Montgomery. There was no way to be without fear, but she held herself steady. As she waited, perhaps she conjured up the spirit of her grandfather, who sat up many nights with a double-barreled shotgun to protect their little home from the Klan in Pine Level, Alabama.\n\nParks also recalled the ten days she had spent in the company of the South's most active reformers at the Highlander Folk School, a training center for labor and civil rights activists in Tennessee. Her experience at Highlander in the summer of 1955 was a highlight in her career as an activist and one of the first times she said she did not \"feel hostility from white people.\" She had been reluctant to leave that interracial island, and now she found herself stranded on a city bus, about to be arrested\u2014or worse.\n\nTwo white police officers, F. B. Day and D. W. Mixon, climbed onto the bus and ambled toward Parks. One asked why she refused to give up her seat. \"Why do you all push us around?\" she shot back.\n\n\"I do not know,\" the officer replied, \"but the law is the law and you're under arrest.\" The officers picked up her purse and shopping bags, escorted her to their squad car, and drove her to the city jail.\n\nNews that her daughter was in jail must have sent shivers down Leona McCauley's spine. Rosa's mother had been a member of the NAACP since 1943 and had worked with her daughter on the Recy Taylor case in 1944; she must have known about Gertrude Perkins, Flossie Hardman, and the other women who were abused in and around Montgomery. Parks was vulnerable every minute she was in jail. When she finally called home, her mother immediately asked, \"Did they beat you?\" That these were her first words speaks volumes about the context of Parks's protest.\n\nIf E. D. Nixon shared Leona McCauley's fears, he kept them hidden. Instead, he seemed positively jubilant. \"That's it!\" Nixon shouted after he heard about the arrest, then picked up the telephone to spread the good news. Johnnie Carr, Parks's childhood friend and fellow NAACP member, was one of the first people on Nixon's list. \"Mrs. Carr,\" Nixon said gravely, \"they have arrested the wrong woman.\"\n\n\"Who have they arrested?\" she asked.\n\n\"Rosa Parks!\" Nixon replied, barely able to contain his glee.\n\n\"You're kidding,\" Carr said.\n\n\"No,\" he chuckled, \"they arrested Rosa Parks. They arrested the wrong woman!\"\n\nUnlike Claudette Colvin or Mary Louise Smith, Parks was the _perfect_ woman to rally around. \"She was secretary for everything I had going,\" Nixon told reporters, \"the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, the NAACP, Alabama Voters' League, all those things.\" Plus, he said, she could \"stand on her feet, she was honest, she was clean, she had integrity. The press couldn't go out and dig up something she did last year, or last month, or five years ago. They couldn't hang nothing like that on Rosa Parks.\" As long as Nixon could persuade Parks to press charges, she could serve as the symbol of segregation in court, and Nixon and attorney Fred Gray could use her arrest to strike a blow at Jim Crow.\n\nOnly her husband stood in the way. In the 1950s this was no small obstacle. Raymond Parks begged his wife to turn Nixon down. \"Oh Rosa, Rosa, don't do it, don't do it,\" he pleaded. \"The white folks will kill you.\" Though his days as a defender of the Scottsboro boys had passed and he no longer held secret, armed meetings in the middle of the night, he knew something about the risks entailed in protesting white supremacy. He was certainly not ready to sacrifice his wife.\n\nWhen Jo Ann Robinson heard that Parks had been arrested, she did not wait for Nixon's approval to launch a boycott; nor did she ask Rosa and Raymond Parks what they thought. Instead, she planned the kind of protest that members of the Women's Political Council had been demanding. \"The Women's Political Council will not wait for Mrs. Parks's consent to call for a boycott of city buses,\" Robinson scribbled on the back of an envelope as soon as she heard the news. \"On Friday, December 2, 1955, the women of Montgomery will call for a boycott to take place on Monday, December 5.\"\n\nRobinson quickly drafted a more detailed announcement, called John Cannon, her colleague at Alabama State University, and asked for access to the college's mimeograph machines. Cannon agreed, adding that he had been mistreated on the buses one too many times. As darkness fell across campus, Cannon, Robinson, and two student assistants met in a basement office. There they copied, cut, and bundled 52,500 flyers. Only the rising sun and the fear of being caught chased them home.\n\nThe flyers announced the boycott, promoting it as an effort to protect black womanhood:\n\n_Another Negro woman_ has been arrested and thrown in jail because she refused to get up out of her seat on the bus for a white person to sit down. It is the second time since the Claudette Colvin case that a Negro woman has been arrested for the same thing. This has to be stopped. Negroes have rights, too, for if Negroes did not ride the buses, they could not operate. Three-fourths of the riders are Negroes, yet we are arrested, or have to stand over empty seats. If we do not do something to stop these arrests, they will continue. _The next time it may be you, or your daughter or mother_. This woman's case will come up on Monday. We are, therefore, asking every Negro to stay off the buses Monday in protest of the arrest and trial. Don't ride the buses to work, to town, to school, or anywhere on Monday... Please stay off all buses Monday.\n\nIn the early morning hours, Robinson called her foot soldiers in the WPC and told them it was time for their long-planned protest. She explained the distribution routes they had sketched out for delivering the announcement. Before breakfast on Friday, December 2, Dr. Mary Fair Burks, Mrs. Mary Cross, Mrs. Elizabeth Arrington, Mrs. Josie Lawrence, Mrs. Geraldine Nesbitt, Mrs. Catherine N. Johnson, and a dozen other women waited on street corners for Robinson and her student helpers to hand over the huge stacks of flyers. The women delivered the notices to schools and storefronts, beauty parlors and beer halls, barbershops and businesses. By midafternoon, \"practically every black man, woman, and child in Montgomery knew the plan and was passing the word along,\" Robinson said. \"No one knew where the notices had come from or who had arranged them and no one cared.\" Just before she rallied her troops, Robinson called Nixon to let him in on the news. This time he could not say no. Of course, he had no such intention.\n\nNeither did Rosa Parks. Despite her husband's pleas, she decided that the benefits of a legal battle and a boycott outweighed any personal risks. \"There had to be a stopping place,\" she said, \"and this seemed to be the place for me to stop being pushed around. I had decided that I would have to know once and for all what rights I had as a human being and a citizen, even in Montgomery, Alabama.\" Parks told her husband about her decision and gave Nixon permission to go ahead with the legal case, both defying gender roles as a dutiful wife, and defining them by agreeing to serve as a model of dignified womanhood in court.\n\nFrom that moment forward, Rosa Parks's history as an activist and defiant race woman disappeared from public view. Nixon and others promoted her as a model of the middle-class ideals of \"chastity, Godliness, family responsibility, and proper womanly conduct and demeanor.\" She was the kind of woman around whom all African Americans in Montgomery could unite. She was \"humble enough to be claimed by the common folk,\" Taylor Branch notes, and \"dignified enough in manner, speech, and dress to command the respect of the leading classes.\" Though Parks was far from a bruised blossom in need of chivalry, her role as a symbol of virtuous black womanhood was decisive in Montgomery as even the most reluctant middle-class ministers rallied to her defense.\n\nThe day after Parks was arrested, more than fifty black activists and community leaders gathered in the basement of Dexter Avenue Baptist Church to hash out conflicting ideas about Jo Ann Robinson's call for a boycott. The debate was fierce, with some ministers refusing to be part of the boycott. But Parks's presence and her moving appeal to the ministers to do something about the long-standing abuse of black women in Montgomery brought unity. Undoubtedly, members of the Women's Political Council echoed her sentiments. Many of the ministers and political leaders, according to the historian Douglas Brinkley, \"did not want to be on record as abandoning a good Christian woman in need.\" They decided to put aside their differences to \"embrace 'Sister Rosa' \" by \"promising to promote the one-day boycott in their Sunday sermons.\" Parks's iconic role as the respectable, even saintly heroine played a role in the wider political world and was crucial at the birth of the boycott. Because it was the first Sunday of the month, parishioners filled almost all the pews in Montgomery's black churches. Ministers decried the arrest of Rosa Parks and urged congregants to join in the one-day boycott on Monday, December 5, and assemble afterward at the Holt Street Baptist Church for further instructions.\n\nMonday December 5, 1955, was a rainy, bone-cold day. Robinson and others worried that the downpour would dampen the one-day protest, but those fears quickly dissipated as empty buses began rolling through Montgomery's rain-soaked streets. Rosa Parks awoke early and watched the normally packed Cleveland Avenue bus whiz past her house without a single passenger. Parks felt vindicated. \"I could feel that whatever my individual desires were to be free,\" she said later, \"I was not alone. There were many others who felt the same way.\" Like Parks, Johnnie Carr watched with satisfaction as the empty buses splashed through intersections. She even decided to trail one in her car. They \"didn't pick up a single soul,\" she remembered with glee. \"They were just moving down the street empty.\" When Parks and Carr saw the sidewalks clogged with black women under dark umbrellas walking to work or waiting for a ride, they were elated.\n\nMontgomery officials, who did not share the excitement, inadvertently boosted boycott participation. Surely, they reasoned, the near-universal abandonment of the buses by their happy Negroes must reflect coercion by agitators. The city assigned police escorts to bus routes in black neighborhoods in order to \"protect Negro riders\" from potential \"goon squads.\" If any black women were tempted to get on the bus that miserable Monday morning, the sight of police with shotguns surrounding the buses can only have strengthened their resolve.\n\nConfident that the one-day boycott was going to be successful, Parks readied to play her part in court. \"I knew what I had to do,\" she recalled. \"I remember very clearly that I wore a straight, long-sleeved black dress with a white collar and cuffs, a small black velvet hat with pearls across the top, and a charcoal-gray coat. I carried a black purse and wore white gloves.\" Her conservative, Puritan-like clothing\u2014and her memory of exactly what she wore forty years later\u2014indicated a keen understanding of the importance of the politics of respectability.\n\nFlanked by E. D. Nixon and her two attorneys, Fred Gray and Charles Langford, Rosa Parks ascended the courthouse steps with confidence and grace. Her elegant deportment made quite an impression on the five hundred supporters who crowded the steps of Montgomery's city hall, many of whom were her charges in the NAACP Youth Council. Mary Frances, one of the girls in the crowd, saw Parks and shouted, \"Oh, she's so sweet! They've messed with the wrong one now.\" Frances and others began to chant \"They've messed with the wrong one now\" as Nixon, Parks, and her attorneys, both in their best Sunday suits, waded through the throng of supporters and disappeared into the crowded courtroom.\n\nThe trial lasted no more than five minutes. Judge John B. Scott quickly found Parks guilty of violating the state segregation law, despite the fact that she had been arrested for violating the _city's_ segregation ordinance. He then gave her a suspended sentence and fined her fourteen dollars. As Parks turned and walked briskly out of the courtroom, two policemen scurried to her side. She and Nixon walked down a long hallway to the city clerk's office to sign an appeal bond. Gray and Langford stayed behind to file an appeal. The sight of police officers escorting Parks sent the crowd into hysterics. They surged, crowding around Parks so she could hardly move. \"It was the first time I had seen so much courage among our people,\" Nixon recalled. Despite his excitement, he urged calm. \"Everything is all right,\" he said, gesturing toward the heavily armed policemen who suddenly lined the hall. \"Keep calm because we don't want to do anything to make that man use the shotgun.\" After Nixon signed the bond and handed Parks to her husband, he turned to the angry crowd and told them to go home. \"Don't hang around,\" he urged, \"because all they want is some excuse to kill somebody.\"\n\nParks asked her husband to drop her off at Fred Gray's office to work the phones for the rest of the afternoon. Meanwhile, Gray, E. D. Nixon, Ralph Abernathy, Reverend E. N. French, and a handful of other ministers assembled in the basement of the Mt. Zion AME Zion Church to hammer out a plan for that evening's mass meeting. They needed a name and a president for their new organization. Nixon suggested the Citizens Coordinating Committee, a kind of amalgam of titles from previous campaigns to protect black women like Recy Taylor and Gertrude Perkins. Ralph Abernathy, the young Baptist minister in town, wrinkled his nose at the suggestion. \"No, I don't like that,\" he said. \"What about the Montgomery Improvement Association?\" \"That sounds good,\" Reverend French, pastor of the Hilliard AME Zion Church, said. \"I believe I can go along with that.\" Abernathy then turned to Nixon. \"Brother Nixon, you going to serve as president, ain't you?\" Nixon smiled. \"Not unlessen you don't accept the man I got in mind.\"\n\nReverend Martin Luther King, Jr., was only twenty-six years old, virtually unknown outside his upper-crust congregation at Dexter Avenue Baptist. But everyone who met him knew he was good-looking, intelligent, and eloquent. To Nixon, however, the crucial fact was that King was not beholden to anyone, white or black. \"He didn't have to bow to the power structure,\" Nixon recalled. \"So many ministers accept a handout, and then they owe their soul.\" King had not even had the opportunity to sell out. \"He had not been here long enough for the city fathers to put their hands on him,\" as Nixon put it.\n\nAlthough historians would later argue that Nixon wanted to be president of the MIA and that Rufus Lewis, Nixon's chief political rival, engineered King's nomination, Nixon and other established leaders in Montgomery were not eager to take on what in all likelihood would be a short-lived and dangerous exercise. After all, their plans called only for a one-day boycott. No one knew what would happen next, but most were confident it would not include glory or fame. Though they all knew a moment had come, no one suspected that _the_ moment had come.\n\nThough Nixon was happy to let King head the MIA, he did not shrink from bold leadership. When some ministers suggested that their names remain secret to protect themselves and their families from white retribution, Nixon exploded in anger. \"They was talking about slipping around, didn't want the white folks to know,\" Nixon recalled. \"How you going to run a bus boycott in secret?\" he demanded. Then, using language that, as Nixon put it, \"wasn't in the Sunday school books,\" he chastised the timid preachers. \"How the hell you going to have a protest without letting the white folks know? What's the matter with you people?\" he asked, flabbergasted by their cowardice. \"Here you have been living off the sweat of these washwomen all these years, and you have never done anything for them. Now you have a chance to pay them back. And you're too damn scared to stand on your feet and be counted.\" Scolding the black ministers for shirking their manly duties, he dared them to rise up in defense of black womanhood. \"We've worn aprons all our lives,\" he said. \"It's time to take the aprons off... If we gonna be mens, now's the time to be mens.\"\n\nNixon's tirade may have convinced the ministers to stand up for black women, but it did not mean they planned to share leadership with them. Indeed, Jo Ann Robinson and Rosa Parks, the two women who made the boycott possible, were not at the meeting where the Montgomery Improvement Association was born and Martin Luther King, Jr., was chosen as its president. Whether Nixon and others simply forgot to include Robinson and Parks or explicitly excluded them is not known. It was not until the mass meeting that night that Robinson realized her leadership had been subverted. \"The men took it over,\" she said. They had \"definitely decided to assume leadership.\"\n\nThat night, December 5, 1955, more than five thousand African Americans squeezed into the sanctuary, the balcony, and the basement annex at the Holt Street Baptist Church. A wave of bodies spilled out the double doors and clogged six blocks of city sidewalks outside. Cars jammed the streets surrounding the modest church, unable to move even an inch. Volunteers set up loudspeakers so that the throngs of people clamoring unsuccessfully for a seat could stand outside and hear Nixon, Ralph Abernathy, Martin Luther King, Jr., and other ministers make their debut as \"mens.\" The moment was electrifying.\n\nKing started slowly, speaking about the murky nature of segregation laws, then began to rock the crowd with his incredible oratory, bringing a steady stream of \"yeses\" and \"amens.\" When King praised Parks, the audience applauded and cheered on their new heroine. \"And since it had to happen,\" King declared, \"I'm happy that it happened to a person like Mrs. Parks.\"\n\n\"Yes,\" the crowd shouted.\n\n\"Nobody can doubt the boundless outreach of her integrity,\" King said.\n\n\"Sure enough,\" someone in the audience yelled.\n\n\"Nobody can doubt the height of her character; nobody can doubt the depth of her Christian commitment and devotion to the teachings of Jesus.\"\n\n\"Yes!\" roared the crowd.\n\n\"Nobody can call [Rosa Parks] a disturbing factor in the community... She is a fine Christian person, unassuming, and yet there is integrity and character there.\"\n\nThe crowd, undulating in call and response, shouted, \"All right!\"\n\nThen, in the gospel tradition of turning one person's burden into a shared experience, King spoke to everyone who had been mistreated on the buses or humiliated by segregation. \"There comes a time,\" he began, his voice steady and even, then rising, \"when people get tired of being trampled over by the iron feet of oppression.\" A roar of approval rolled over the crowd. \"There comes a time, my friends, when people get tired of being plunged across the abyss of humiliation, where they experience the bleakness of nagging despair.\" As emotions swelled and the applause shook the rafters of the old church, King reached a crescendo: \"There comes a time when people get tired of being pushed out of the glittering sunlight of life's July and left standing amid the piercing chill of an alpine November.\" The amazing thunder of sound\u2014clapping, screaming, and foot stomping, drowned King out.\n\nHe had touched a nerve. In those few sentences, King captured the soul-deep sense of humiliation and degradation that the mostly working-class audience of maids, cooks, teachers, and day laborers undoubtedly felt. The language King employed to describe the effect of mistreatment on the buses\u2014\"abyss of humiliation\" and \"nagging despair\"\u2014speaks to the way racial and sexual subjugation conspire to steal a person's humanity. It is no surprise that the audience erupted in raw emotion. King then skillfully moved to control the anger and enthusiasm, to remind the audience that they had the power\u2014through Christian love, faith, and unity\u2014to overthrow the system that had oppressed them for so long.\n\nAfter King's momentous speech, Reverend E. N. French stepped onto the pulpit and presented Rosa Parks to the crowd. If there was one woman in Montgomery who could testify to the decades of injustice under Jim Crow, it was Rosa Parks. Not only could she speak about her own mistreatment and abuse on the buses\u2014something that so many of the women assembled together shared\u2014she could also place her arrest in the long history of crimes committed by whites against blacks, something of which she had intimate knowledge.\n\nJust before Reverend French presented Rosa Parks to the crowd, she asked him if the men in charge that night wanted her to say a few words. French told her that she had \"had enough and [had] said enough and you don't have to speak.\" She nodded and they walked toward the front of the church. \"I have the responsibility,\" Reverend French proclaimed to the pulsating crowd, \"to present to you the victim of this gross injustice, almost inhumanity, and absolute undemocratic principle, Mrs. Rosa Parks.\" The audience erupted in applause as she stood silent before them.\n\nWe can only wonder what Rosa Parks might have said that night in front of throngs of supporters and fellow sufferers. Perhaps she would have spoken about the abuses suffered by Recy Taylor, Gertrude Perkins, Flossie Hardman, Claudette Colvin, and so many of the women present that night, conjuring up a collective spirit of defiance and self-defense. She might have called on her decades of experience defending ordinary black Alabamians from white terror and her long struggle for human rights to remind her peers of their long and continuing struggle for justice and to push for mass action. Her testimony could have changed the way she was received and forever remembered.\n\nBecause Reverend French and the ministers leading the mass meeting that night silenced Parks, they turned her into the kind of woman she wasn't: a quiet victim and solemn symbol. From that moment forward Parks was sainted and celebrated for her quiet dignity, prim demeanor, and middle-class propriety, her radicalism all but erased as she became the Madonna of Montgomery. She \"looked like a symbol of Mother's Day,\" L. D. Reddick, a history professor at Alabama State, proclaimed, though Parks was neither a mother nor, at just forty-two years old, matronly. The deliberate construction of Rosa Parks as a symbol of virtuous black womanhood began that evening. Reverend Abernathy said as much: \"Mrs. Rosa Parks was presented to the mass meeting because we wanted her to become symbolic of our protest meeting.\"\n\nUnlike Claudette Colvin and Mary Louise Smith, Parks's respectability gave credibility to the nascent Montgomery Improvement Association, minimized controversy, and allowed African Americans to claim the moral high ground in what would become an all-out war against white supremacy. At the same time, they protected themselves and Parks by playing down her radicalism, which would have encouraged opposition, if not outright violence, in an environment poisoned by anti-Communist paranoia and the racist rhetoric of White Citizens' Councils.\n\nThe presentation of Parks as a woman worthy of protection enabled African-American ministers and male leaders, most of whom had been resistant to the WPC's calls for a boycott, to take credit for and assume leadership of the boycott. By stepping forward, they could fulfill their manly duty to defend black womanhood, a role that white supremacy had denied them for centuries. Jo Ann Robinson, who complained in her memoir about black men's inability or unwillingness to protect black women from abuse and mistreatment on the buses, understood the enormous symbolism displayed at the Holt Street Baptist Church that night when the leading black men of the community claimed leadership and, as Nixon put it, removed their \"aprons.\" The ministers, Robinson noted, were finally \"catching up with their congregations.\"\n\nIf the ministers caught up with their congregations by assuming the leadership of the MIA, black women, who filled the majority of the pews that evening and every mass meeting thereafter, kept the MIA and the bus boycott running. Although newspapers focused on King as the leader and ministers' names lined the MIA's letterhead, Robinson made sure that she, along with Mrs. A. W. West, a wealthy eighty-year-old widow and WPC member, and Rosa Parks served on the executive committee. In fact, it was Robinson, \"more than any other person,\" according to King, who \"was active on every level of protest.\" As long as WPC members handled the day-to-day business of the boycott, Jo Ann Robinson did not challenge the MIA's male leadership. \"We felt it would be better,\" Robinson said, \"if the ministers held the most visible leadership positions.\"\n\nRobinson stacked the MIA staff with her own WPC members, guaranteeing control of the boycott's daily operations. She chose each woman carefully. Mrs. Erna Dungee, a \"sophisticated, socially involved woman,\" was the MIA's financial secretary and worked for the boycott full time. Mrs. Maude Ballou became Martin Luther King's personal secretary. Ballou, a quiet and dedicated worker, earned King's trust, Robinson recalled, by \"never remembering\" any of his business. Mrs. Martha Johnson was the MIA's secretary clerk. She assisted all the other leaders of the MIA and \"never got two persons' business mixed up.\" Mrs. Hazel Gregory served as the general overseer of the MIA. She knew \"where everything was, never got anything mixed up, and could get what was needed immediately,\" Robinson remembered fondly. Gregory's position also included \"managing the business and taking care of the building where the MIA was housed.\" Only at the podium did women take a backseat in the boycott.\n\nThe public face of the boycott belied the crucial role Jo Ann Robinson played in making it a success. During an interview with Rufus Lewis on January 20, 1956, Donald T. Ferron, an oral historian from Fisk University, questioned the leadership of the boycott in his notes. \"The public recognizes Reverend King as _the_ leader,\" he wrote, \"but I wonder if Mrs. Robinson may be of equal importance. The organizational process is being kept secret, as well as the organizers.\"\n\nIt was Jo Ann Robinson, not Martin Luther King, Jr., who served as the chief strategist for the Montgomery Improvement Association. She negotiated with city leaders and bus company officials, edited the MIA newsletter, and ferried African Americans to and from work for nearly 381 days, all while holding down a full-time teaching job at Alabama State. \"Few realize how much Jo Ann did,\" Fred Gray recalled. Hardly anyone knew, for example, that \"much of the activity... occurred at Jo Ann Robinson's house.\"\n\nThe enormous spotlight that focused on King, combined with the construction of Rosa Parks as a saintly symbol, hid the women's long struggle in the dimly lit background, obscuring the origins of the MIA and erasing women from the movement. For decades, the Montgomery bus boycott has been told as a story triggered by Rosa Parks's spontaneous refusal to give up her seat followed by the triumphant leadership of men like Fred Gray, Martin Luther King, Jr., E. D. Nixon, and Ralph Abernathy. While these men had a major impact on the emerging protest movement, it was black women's decade-long struggle against mistreatment and abuse by white bus drivers and police officers that launched the boycott. Without an appreciation for the particular predicaments of black women in the Jim Crow South, it is nearly impossible to understand _why_ thousands of working-class and hundreds of middle-class black women chose to walk rather than ride the bus for 381 days.\n\nAfrican-American women were the backbone of the Montgomery bus boycott. Here black women walk to work in February 1956. (photo credit 3.2)\n\nWomen walked, Parks claimed in an interview in April 1956, not merely in support of her but because she \"was not the only person who had been mistreated and humiliated... Other women had gone through similarly shameful experiences,\" Parks said, \"some even worse than mine.\" These experiences propelled African-American women into every conceivable aspect of the boycott. African-American women of means, professional women like Jo Ann Robinson, and society women like Irene West brought their own gifts to the boycott, even though many did not ride the buses. Erna Dungee, MIA financial secretary, said women \"really were the ones who carried out the actions... We organized the parking lot pick-ups... drove the cars,\" and did \"the little day-to-day things, taking care of the finances, things like that. When all the dust settled,\" she told an interviewer, \"the women were there when it cleared. They were there in the positions to hold the MIA together.\"\n\nClass status did not dictate women's roles. More than any single individual, the city's domestic workers put the Montgomery City Lines out of business. \"The maids, the cooks, they were the ones that really and truly kept the buses running,\" Georgia Gilmore recalled. \"And after the maids and the cooks stopped riding the bus,\" she added, \"well, the bus didn't have any need to run.\"\n\nDuring the first few months of the boycott, Willie M. Lee, a researcher from Fisk University, went to Montgomery to figure out why so many domestic workers were determined to stay off the buses. \"I'll crawl on my knees 'fo I get back on dem buses,\" one woman said while waiting at a carpool dispatch center. Her friend agreed, \"I ain't 'bout to get on dem buses... I'll walk twenty miles 'fo I ride 'em.\" Irene Stovall, a mother and domestic servant, told Lee that she was \"never gon git back on dem ole buses\" because the bus drivers sexually harassed her. They \"say nasty thangs and dey talk under folks' clothes,\" Stovall said. \"They ain't gittin no more of my dimes.\"\n\nA tall, stately maid named Mrs. Beatrice Charles told Lee a long story about why she refused to ride the buses. She said she was staying off the buses because the abuse black women suffered had \"been happening since [she] came here before the war.\" Bus drivers \"make you get up so white men could sit down,\" she testified. \"But we are sure fixing 'em now and I hope we don't ever start back riding. It'll teach them how to treat us,\" she said. \"We people, we are not dogs or cats.\" Then she told Lee about a recent dispute with her white employer, Mrs. Prentiss. When Prentiss asked her if she rode the bus, Mrs. Charles replied, \"I sure didn't.\"\n\nPrentiss seemed shocked at the woman's brazen response. \"Why, Beatrice, they haven't done anything to you,\" she said.\n\n\"Listen, Mrs. Prentiss,\" Charles replied, \"you don't ride the bus, you don't know how those ole nasty drivers treat us and further when you do something to my people you do it to me too... I don't have anything in my heart but hatred for those bus drivers.\"\n\nMrs. Prentiss attempted to mitigate her employee's anger by arguing that she had \"always been nice\" and then added, \"I just can't see white and colored riding together on the buses.\" \"It just wouldn't come to a good end,\" Prentiss proclaimed. Prentiss hinted at the underlying fears white Southerners harbored after the _Brown_ decision. Many worried that bus integration was merely an entr\u00e9e to \"social equality\" or interracial sex. For example, Sam Englehardt, the local leader of the Citizens' Council, warned whites in February 1956 that the bus boycott was \"piddling stuff.\" What protesters are really after, he insisted, was \"complete integration, even to intermarriage.\"\n\nThree police officers watch a group of African-American women waiting at a carpool pick-up location. The Montgomery Improvement Association set up an alternate transportation system that utilized more than three hundred private cars to carry thousands of passengers to and from work each day. (photo credit 3.3)\n\nBeatrice Charles set Mrs. Prentiss straight about who wanted to sleep with whom. \"You people started it way back in slavery,\" she said. \"If you hadn't wanted segregation, you shouldn't got us all mixed up in color... Right now I can sit on my porch and when it starts getting dark, I can look down the street by those trees and see colored women get in the cars with policemen. And what about that colored boy who had to leave town 'cause that white woman out here was going crazy about him? So you can't tell me that it's over.\" By bringing up the issue of white men prowling around black neighborhoods searching for black women, and the double standard applied to black men caught with white women, Mrs. Charles gave voice to the sexual and racial components of the protest movement.\n\nWhen Mrs. Prentiss threatened to participate in the White Citizens' Council's plan to starve the maids for a month, her maid laughed. \"I sure won't starve. You see, my husband is a railroad man, my son and daughter have good jobs, and my daddy keep plenty of food on his farm. So I'm not worried at all, 'cause I was eating before I started working for you.\"\n\nBeatrice Charles spoke for many women who beamed with a new sense of what Martin Luther King, Jr., called _\"somebodyness_.\" Jo Ann Robinson articulated that newfound sense of power and pride at a mass meeting in late March 1956. \"The whole world is watching the boycott,\" she said with glee. \"The whole world respects us... You go downtown now and people show respect. Negroes are proud now, they hold their heads high and strut,\" Robinson said. \"I have never been so proud to be a Negro.\" Martin Luther King, Jr., often rhapsodized about a \"New Negro\" emerging out of the black freedom movement who replaced self-pity with self-respect and self-doubt with dignity. \"In Montgomery,\" he boasted, \"we walk in a new way. We hold our heads in a new way.\"\n\nThe fear that had immobilized African Americans for so long seemed to disappear as the boycott continued into its second month. This sentiment was audible at the many carpool pick-up locations around Montgomery, where domestics gathered to wait for rides from black volunteers. Willie Lee listened in on many of these conversations, recording them for posterity. \"We got these white folks where we want 'em,\" Dealy Cooksey, a forty-year-old domestic servant, said. \"Dere ain't nothing dey can do but try to scare us. But we ain't rabbit no more,\" she warned, \"we done turned coon... It's just as many of us as the white folks and dey better watch out what they do.\"\n\nMrs. Allen Wright, a forty-five-year-old cook, agreed. \"They bit off more than they can chew when they put one of our fine ladies in jail,\" she proclaimed. \"Clyde Sellers [the new police commissioner] might as well give up,\" she said, \" 'cause we ain't gonna be pushed down no more. Our eyes is open and dey gonna stay open.\"\n\nAt least one woman in the group threatened to meet white resistance with violence. Whites \"think they bad 'cause they got guns,\" Willie May Wallace, a store maid, argued, \"but I sho hope they know how to use 'em, 'cause if they don't, I'll eat 'em up with my razor.\" A white man \"bet not come up on me and hit me 'cause... he'll be in pieces so fast he won't know what hit him.\" Then Wallace told Lee a story about her confrontation with a white female co-worker. When Wallace told her colleague that she was never going to ride the buses again, the white woman \"bristled all up lack she wanted to hit me,\" the maid said. But \"I told her... a white woman ain't been born that would hit me and live.\" Even though the police may come, she boasted, \"when they do you'll be three D: Dead, Damned and Delivered.\" The maid was proud to note that \"that huzzy ain't did nothing but spoke to me since den. When they fine you ain't scared of 'em,\" she chortled, \"they leave you 'lone. Son-of-a-bitches.\"\n\nAt the weekly mass meetings, hundreds of African Americans gathered to renew spirits and reenergize tired bodies. Photographs of the crowds invariably reveal large female majorities. Here they shared their stories of defiance and testified about their degradation, transforming bitter memories and shame into weapons of protest. Reverend Robert Graetz, a white minister who became active in the bus boycott, recalled that when women told their stories, the \"people would cheer\" for their new heroines. The \"maids were the soldiers,\" he said. \"They rallied the leaders.\"\n\nAt an evening assembly in March 1956, one woman stood up and said she was with the protest because she had been called a \"nigger\" on the bus. Worse, she argued, \"I was asked to give a white _man_ a seat,\" she said. \"I am filled up to my bones, in this, it's way down in my bones and when there ain't no protest,\" she said, offering a profound defense of her humanity, \"I'm still gonna have it. I'm still gonna have my protest.\" After her moving testimony, the congregation sang the Negro spiritual \"Nobody Knows the Trouble I've Seen,\" translating the troubles they had all seen into \"Glory, Hallelujah.\"\n\nAfrican-American women filled the pews at weekly mass meetings. (photo credit 3.4)\n\nWomen at the mass meetings demanded that they be treated like human beings, worthy of protection and respect. The male leaders of the boycott made sure that women's actions were celebrated in the community. One minister praised a group of women whom he saw \"walking in pride and dignity.\" They \"would do justice to any queen,\" he declared. Another preacher honored the \"ancient\" Mother Pollard, a well-known elderly black woman, who refused to accept a ride or an exemption from the boycott because of her frailty. \"My feets is tired,\" she said, \"but my soul is rested.\" These weekly testimonies gave boycotters a sense of worth and agency and united the \"walking city\" as individual burdens were universalized and spread out over the whole.\n\nThe mass meetings fostered a sense of community that did not exist before the boycott. \"Everybody walked together. We rode together,\" Zelia Evans, a teacher at Alabama State and WPC member, recalled. \"There was a togetherness that I hadn't seen before. We had suffered and sacrificed so long,\" she added, \"we were ready... to support a movement.\" \"It was the first time in the history of Montgomery,\" Robert Nesbitt, the secretary for the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church, recalled, \"that all the ministers threw away their little egos... and united.\"\n\nIn order to fund the daily operations of the Montgomery Improvement Association and finance the expensive alternative transportation system, Montgomery's African Americans had to raise enormous amounts of money. A fleet of nearly three hundred private automobiles picked up passengers at forty-two locations and ferried the former bus riders around town. The city's black social clubs held dances and sponsored activities to raise funds. Black churches took up a collection every Sunday. The Federated Women's Clubs threw parties to raise needed cash, and women went door to door, canvassing neighborhoods for donations. Their efforts paid off. Within the first few months of the boycott, when donations from outside organizations like the national NAACP were rare, members of the MIA raised a quarter of a million dollars, primarily from local blacks.\n\nThe most consistent local fund-raiser was Mrs. Georgia Gilmore, a nurse, midwife, and defiant mother of six, who used her experience as a cook to raise money. Gilmore was a \"pretty, smooth-complexioned black woman as large in kindness as she [was] in body,\" said B. J. Simms, leader of the MIA's transportation system. But, he warned, \"don't rub her the wrong way. Would you believe that this charming woman once beat up a white man who had mistreated one of her children?\" he asked. \"He owned a grocery store and Mrs. Gilmore marched into his place and wrung him out!\"\n\nGilmore had a long history of standing up for herself and fighting for justice. She refused to follow bus drivers' demands and insisted on being treated with dignity. A Montgomery minister recalled Gilmore's reputation: \"Even the white police officers let her be,\" he said. \"The word was 'Don't mess with Georgia Gilmore, she might cut you.' \" \"But Lord,\" he reminisced, \"that woman could cook.\" When the MIA announced its plan to boycott the buses for one day, Gilmore immediately called her friends and enlisted their talents for the boycott.\n\n\"What we could do best,\" Gilmore proudly declared, \"was cook.\" That day, Gilmore recalled, she and a handful of her friends \"collected fourteen dollars amongst ourselves and bought chickens, bread and lettuce and started cooking... We made a bundle of sandwiches,\" she said, to sell at the mass meetings at Holt Street Baptist Church. From there Gilmore and her fellow chefs began preparing and selling full dinners, pies, and cakes. They called themselves the Club from Nowhere.\n\nThe ambiguous club name was strategic: it helped safeguard the women from \"the police and laws\" who, Gilmore complained, \"go around trailing our members and giving them traffic tickets the way they were doing with so many colored folk.\" And it provided anonymity when selling their wares. Each day the women sold their savory sandwiches and chicken dinners door to door and to hungry downtown workers, black and white. \"When we'd raise as much as three hundred dollars for a Monday night rally,\" Gilmore explained, \"then we knowed we was on our way for five hundred on Thursday night.\"\n\nWhen the call for collections came at weekly mass meetings, Gilmore would stand up and shout, \"We're the Club from Nowhere!\" and walk the women's profits up to the front of the church. Gilmore's proud strolls to the collection plate became one of the most anticipated weekly rituals. As Gilmore strutted back to her seat, boycotters rattled the church rafters with \"dignified applause, foot stomping, and exclamations of 'Aaaamen, Amen!' \" The excitement and support for the Club from Nowhere, Gilmore explained, encouraged \"other ordinary folks\" to do \"the same thing in their neighborhoods\u2014competing with us to raise more than us.\"\n\nIt was hard to compete with the Club from Nowhere. They raised \"maybe a hundred and fifty or two hundred dollars or more a week,\" Gilmore recalled. Inez Ricks, a black woman who lived on the other side of town, was up for the challenge. When she set up a competing women's club, the Friendly Club, the rivalry heated up. The collegial competition enlivened the meetings while inspiring other women.\n\nGilmore and her Club from Nowhere \"represented more than the actual cash they contributed each week,\" B. J. Simms insisted. \"This fine woman and her team represented the grass-roots type of support and enthusiasm that launched the boycott and kept it moving to the very end.\" Without support from working-class women like Gilmore, the bus boycott would have failed. And yet Gilmore, like all the women who risked their lives and livelihoods to make the thirteen-month protest possible, has been relegated to the footnotes of history. \"We made the world take notice of black folks in Montgomery,\" Gilmore said, but now \"we're all in the Club from Nowhere.\" Simms agreed. \"Most of the people who made indispensable contributions\" to the boycott, he argued, \"were soon forgotten and today are ignored as nobodies from nowhere.\"\n\nThose \"nobodies\" made the Montgomery movement possible by finding \"ingenious ways to keep the boycott alive.\" Though ministers like Martin Luther King and Ralph Abernathy filled public leadership positions, black women were \"the power behind the throne,\" as Erna Dungee, WPC secretary and MIA finance manager, put it. \"We really were the ones who carried out the actions,\" she insisted. Like Dungee, Hazel Gregory insisted that it was working-class women whose collective refusal to ride the buses \"made it work.\" \"If you hadn't had those people, you would not have been able to [succeed],\" she said.\n\nBesides serving as the boycott's foot soldiers, handling the day-to-day business of the MIA, and leading local fund-raising drives, black women helped keep the carpool running. At least twenty-nine women worked as regular carpool drivers or dispatchers. Ann Smith Pratt, a hairdresser, was the chief dispatcher. She worked the ham radio \"directing taxi drivers and the church station wagon crew to urgent pickups at thirty-two designated sites.\" After Rosa Parks lost her job as a seamstress at the Montgomery Fair on January 7, 1956, she often filled in as a dispatcher, sometimes working from sunup to sundown. And Alberta James was, according to her peers, \"unquestionably the best driver employed by the MIA transportation committee.\"\n\nMiddle-class women who had their own cars, mostly black but some white women, used their vehicles and their free time to transport their less affluent neighbors. One of the boycott's classic sights was when Mrs. A. W. West, an eighty-year-old widow, rambled down the streets in her green Cadillac limousine every morning between seven and eleven in the morning \"to chauffeur people about.\" \"And that's why,\" Virginia Durr, a white activist, noted, \"Mrs. West was called a queen.\" Mrs. West was regaled by other women for her daily contributions. She was the kind of woman \"who did not have to do it,\" Durr said. \"Because she could have stayed at home and said that she was, you know, elderly.\"\n\nSince black women provided the backbone of the boycott, they were also the primary targets of white retaliation. Aside from getting fired from their jobs, which was the most common reprisal, African-American women walking to work remained vulnerable to physical and sexual harassment. Whites in passing cars pelted pedestrians with \"water balloons and containers of urine... rotten eggs, potatoes and apples.\" Jo Ann Robinson was terrified when two white men threw a brick through her window. Shortly thereafter she saw two policemen pour acid on the hood of her car. The next morning the car \"had holes as large as a dollar\" all over its hood and roof, she said. Armed whites stood on street corners and jeered at the walking women. \"Look at dem red bastards over der watching us,\" a domestic protested. \"Dey got dem guns, but us aint skered.\" \"I don't mind dying,\" she said, \"but I sho take one of dem with me.\"\n\nAfrican-American women were constant targets of physical and sexual assaults during the modern civil rights movement. Here, armed white men attack two black women after a desegregation attempt in Montgomery, Alabama. (photo credit 3.5)\n\nThe fact that white men with guns could not force black women back into their \"place\" indicated the sense of power and pride the boycott aroused among African Americans. King argued that this new sense of pride and power was a crucial component of the movement. One \"can not understand the bus protest,\" King said later, \"without understanding that there is a new Negro in the South, with a new sense of dignity and destiny.\"\n\nSegregationists, however, had little interest in Negroes, old or new. City commissioners, angered by the success of the boycott and their inability to quell it, launched a city-sponsored intimidation campaign on January 23, 1956. Mayor Gayle called it his \"get tough\" policy. Denouncing the MIA as a \"group of Negro radicals,\" Gayle claimed he was \"tired of pussyfooting around\" and ordered police to \"break up Negro car pools by diligent enforcement... of all traffic regulations\" and to charge African Americans waiting for rides at dispatch stations with loitering. \"Every black person would get a traffic ticket two and three times a week... There was no need arguing with police,\" Georgia Gilmore recalled. Gilmore alone received more than thirty tickets. \"We just took [them]\" she stated. \"Policemen would give hundreds and hundreds of tickets every day to black people.\" One day after Gayle's \"get tough\" announcement, he and Commissioner Frank Parks publicly declared their support for and membership in the White Citizens' Council.\n\nThe official announcement, Clifford Durr pointed out, \"was quite naturally taken by the denizens of the woodwork and the underside of rocks to be a signal to come out and do their worst.\" Those \"denizens\" dynamited Martin Luther King's home on January 30 and bombed E. D. Nixon's house two days later. At an MIA meeting on February 2, members of the executive committee decided to employ armed guards for the homes of key individuals thought to be the most vulnerable to attack. A number of women were at the top of the list, including Rosa Parks, Erna Dungee, Jo Ann Robinson, Euretta Adair, and Maude Ballou. Parks was especially worried. \"Some strange men have been coming into my neighborhood inquiring about this woman who caused all this trouble,\" she reported. Parks then asked for the MIA to provide night watchmen.\n\nShe had reason to be afraid. On February 10, just over a week after Rosa Parks helped Nixon's wife clean up the mess made by the bomb, more than ten thousand whites attended what they billed as the \"biggest pro-segregation rally in the United States since the Civil War.\" There Mississippi senator James Eastland, a rabid racist, told the cheering crowd that the prescription for a segregationist victory was to \"organize and be militant.\" Other speakers, surrounded by hundreds of Confederate flags, boasted that they would \"give the niggers a whipping\" and teach Rosa Parks a \"harsh lesson.\" By singling Parks out for special punishment, Citizens' Council members implied that they wanted to do more than physically abuse her. Ironically, after they threatened her, Mayor Gayle and Commissioners Sellers and Frank Parks promised to \"hold the line against Negro integration.\" Gayle did everything he could to hold that line, including turning a blind eye to the Citizens' Council's public declaration of its intent to \"abolish the Negro race\" with \"guns, bows and arrows, sling shots and knives.\"\n\nWhile the WCC did Gayle's dirty work, the mayor harnessed the city's institutional power to harass boycotters and shut down the carpool system. On February 13 local prosecutors summoned more than two hundred African Americans to testify about who was behind the boycott. The special grand jury, impaneled by Judge Eugene Carter, who had sentenced Claudette Colvin nearly a year earlier, was charged with investigating whether African Americans violated a 1921 statute outlawing boycotts \"without just cause or legal excuse.\" On February 21 the grand jury returned indictments against Rosa Parks, Reverend King, and eighty-seven others, more than a dozen of whom were women. It was, according to Taylor Branch, \"the largest wholesale indictment in the history of the country.\"\n\nMayor Gayle's \"get tough\" policy backfired when scores of African Americans turned themselves in for voluntary arrest. Rosa Parks. (photo credit 3.6)\n\nMrs. A.W. West (photo credit 3.7)\n\nJo Ann Robinson (photo credit 3.8)\n\nMayor Gayle's attempt to frighten boycotters with the threat of arrest and jail time\u2014something African Americans had special reason to fear\u2014backfired when a fearless E. D. Nixon marched to the courthouse and turned himself in. \"Are you looking for me?\" Nixon asked the sheriff. \"Well, I am here.\" Parks followed Nixon's example, and soon hundreds gathered around the courthouse applauding and celebrating the bravery and courage of those arrested. \"We took the news as a joke, a pretense, an excitement for the moment,\" Jo Ann Robinson noted. Outside the courthouse, she remembered, \"Negroes laughed, determined to stand their ground. They were defiant, willing to go to jail, ready to let Americans and the world know that they could not and would not take any more.\"\n\nJail could not possibly be worse than death, many reasoned, and African Americans were, according to Robinson, ready \"to die for justice and freedom.\" The crowd grew larger and more celebratory as more and more blacks voluntarily turned themselves in, transforming the jailhouse, a place to be feared and avoided at all costs, into a place of honor. Sheriff Butler, clearly peeved by the \"perversion of the penal spirit,\" demanded silence. \"This is no vaudeville show,\" he shouted to no effect.\n\nEuretta Adair (photo credit 3.9)\n\nE. D. Nixon (photo credit 3.10)\n\nWatching the crowd mock the police, Jo Ann Robinson realized the world she had always known had somehow changed. The fear that had held black people down had begun to evaporate. \"If there was any nervousness or uneasiness,\" she argued, \"it was on the part of the whites.\" Whites seemed especially tense when scores of black domestics descended upon the courthouse. \"From the alleys they came,\" B. J. Simms gleefully recalled. \"Black women with bandannas on, wearing men's hats with their dresses rolled up. This is what scared white people.\" When a policeman tried to get control of the crowd, the women surged forward. \"All right, you women get back,\" the officer shouted as he reached for his billy club. Then \"these great big old women with their dresses rolled up,\" Simms recalled, \"told [the officer], 'Us ain't going nowhere. You done arrested us preachers and we ain't moving.' \" When the officer reached for his gun, the fearless women dared him to use them. \"I don't care what you got,\" one woman said. \"If you hit one of us, you'll not leave here alive.\"\n\nThe public confrontation between black women and the police in Montgomery was a long time coming. That night black women served notice that they were no longer going to be violated by or pushed around by white police officers. They put their bodies on the line in defense of their humanity, something anyone watching could see. The standoff, the editor of _The Christian Century_ argued in 1956, \"marked the first fateful assertion of their full dignity as human beings.\"\n\nReverend Solomon Seay, Sr. (photo credit 3.11)\n\nReverend Ralph Abernathy (photo credit 3.12)\n\nOn March 19 twenty-eight black women asserted their full dignity and their right to protest abuse on the buses at the only trial held after the mass arrests. Prosecutors tried Martin Luther King, Jr., for conspiracy and held the other eighty-eight indictments in abeyance. They believed that if they could remove King as leader of the boycott, it would quickly fall apart. At first the defense played dumb. Most witnesses feigned ignorance of King's role in the boycott and some acted as if the boycott were simply a figment of the prosecutor's imagination. Gladys Moore seemed to take offense at the suggestion that King started the protest. \"Wasn't no one man started it,\" she insisted. \"We all started it overnight.\" Estella Brooks testified that King had nothing to do with her decision to stay off the buses. She told the judge she had not been on a bus since August 12, 1950, the day a policeman shot and killed her husband for arguing with a bus driver. \"No one told me to stop riding the buses,\" Gladys Moore said after prosecutors tried to get her to blame King. \"I stopped because we had been treated so bad down through the years that we decided we wouldn't ride the buses no more.\" Finally, in what seemed like an effort to shame the judge into ruling for the defense, King's attorneys \"summon[ed] a stream of Negro women to the stand to testify about cruelties they had seen and endured on the buses.\"\n\nReverend E. N. French (photo credit 3.13)\n\nReverend Martin Luther King, Jr. (photo credit 3.14)\n\n_Time_ magazine reported that the women eagerly testified, often without any prompts. The black women, _Time_ noted, \"began talking before defense lawyers asked their names; others could hardly be stopped.\" By detailing one insulting experience after another, a group of core women activists denounced the system that denied their humanity on a daily basis. Almost all of them testified that they had stopped riding the buses because white drivers had humiliated them or abused them.\n\nMartha K. Walker said she stopped riding because drivers constantly heaped abuse upon her and her blind husband, who was a veteran of World War II. Gladys Moore testified that bus drivers treated women \"just as rough as could be... like we are [not] human.\" Bus drivers, Georgia Gilmore declared, mistreated people \"positively for nothing.\"\n\nHenrietta Brinson said the mistreatment was too much: \"I am just fed up with these bus drivers... just fed up to my neck.\" They \"don't want to treat us the right way,\" she said. Referencing one particularly mean operator, she told the court that he said, \"All you niggers are pushing like a passel of cows.\" She stared at the judge. \"Cow,\" she said, \"that's what he called us.\"\n\nFred Gray (photo credit 3.15)\n\nJudge Carter sat in stony silence, completely unmoved. At the end of the trial, he pronounced King guilty of conspiracy to violate the 1921 law and ordered him to pay a five-hundred-dollar fine or serve a year at hard labor. Like Judge Carter, the national newspaper and magazine reporters waiting outside for the ruling ignored the black women's testimonies that detailed decades of mistreatment and denied King's leadership in the boycott. Instead, the media turned King into an apostle of civil rights. A reporter for _The New York Times_ recorded the time, down to the exact minute, that King emerged from the courthouse. It was 4:39 P.M. A throng of supporters erupted in cheers when King emerged, many of them shouting, \"Behold the King!\" and \"Hail the King!\" as though he really were \"Alabama's Modern Moses,\" as _Jet_ magazine called him.\n\nAt Holt Street Baptist Church, where thousands of African Americans gathered that night, ministers presented Reverend King as a Christlike figure sent to Montgomery to deliver blacks from their misery. \"Here is the man,\" one minister proclaimed when introducing King to the mass meeting, \"who today was nailed to the cross for you and me.\" While the exaltation of King fit into a distinctly black Christian tradition, it obscured other leaders. \"From that day onward,\" Rufus Lewis recalled later, \"Rosa Parks became a secondary figure.\"\n\nAfrican Americans gather outside the courthouse as Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr., stands trial for conspiracy. (photo credit 3.16)\n\nIt was not just Rosa Parks, the radical activist, who was written out of the story of the Montgomery bus boycott. Jo Ann Robinson and her army of women in the WPC, as well as the thousands of working-class women who made Montgomery \"the Walking City,\" were reduced to the footnotes of history. While the media were partly to blame in framing the story around King, other civil rights organizations, in an effort to use Montgomery's success to spark similar civil rights campaigns throughout the South, recast the bus protest as a movement led by ministers.\n\nShortly after the boycott ended on December 21, 1956, nine months after the trial that turned Martin Luther King, Jr., into a modern Moses, the Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR) published a comic book that cast King as a fearless freedom fighter and experienced organizer who had led his people out of bondage. In FOR's retelling of the bus protest, Reverend King and his cavalry of militant ministers came to the rescue of Rosa Parks, who refused to move from her seat \"because she was tired and her feet ached.\" The cartoon features a nervous King, worried sick about Parks's arrest, who stays up all night planning a response. \"Something ought to be done,\" King, visibly upset, says to his wife. \"Rosa is a good woman and not a trouble maker. They had no right arresting her.\" A helpless Coretta, seated next to King, asks, \"But what can we do?\" The next frame portrays King as an organizer, standing in front of a roomful of men demanding a public response. \"We ought to _protest,\"_ he says, pointing at the men, \"and not ride the buses for a day.\" In the next image, King stands over a mimeograph machine with his shirtsleeves rolled up. He and another man run off \"a few hundred\" copies of the announcement calling for a one-day boycott. And the rest, as they say, is history.\n\nRosa Parks speaks with an interviewer as she arrives at court with E. D. Nixon (center) and eighty-nine other African Americans on trial for violating a 1921 antiboycott law. (photo credit 3.17)\n\nUnfortunately, this King-centric and male-dominated version of events obscures the real history of the Montgomery bus boycott as a women's movement for dignity. The focus on King is so absolute that even today many historians overlook the fact that it was four female plaintiffs, Claudette Colvin, Mary Louise Smith, Mrs. Aurelia Browder, and Mrs. Susie McDonald, who filed the lawsuit that finally ended segregation on public transportation and put teeth into the _Brown_ decision.\n\nOn December 17, 1956, the United States Supreme Court affirmed the U.S. district court's decision in _Browder v. Gayle_ that segregation, even outside public schools, violated the due process and equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The ruling signaled the death knell of the \"separate but equal\" doctrine established by the Supreme Court in the 1896 _Plessy v. Ferguson_ decision. But it also heralded something significantly more important. The _Browder_ decision determined more than where one could sit on a bus. It was an affirmation of African Americans' humanity. The Supreme Court, as Ralph Abernathy and Martin Luther King, Jr., put it, \"ruled that we have the right to sit with dignity.\"\n\nThis Fellowship of Reconciliation comic book, published circa 1957, gave rise to the myth of Rosa Parks's \"tired feet\" and Martin Luther King, Jr.'s, heroic leadership of the Montgomery bus boycott. (photo credit 3.18)\n\nResponse to the decision indicated its powerful emotional impact. At an enormous mass meeting in Montgomery that night, Reverend Solomon S. Seay, Sr., burst into tears at the pulpit when he cried out, \"God is on our side.\" A hush fell over the ecstatic crowd when Reverend Graetz, the lone white minister in the movement, walked to the front of the church and began to read from Corinthians I: \"When I was a child, I spake as a child,\" he recited, \"I understood as a child, I thought as a child; but when I became a man I put away childish things.\" The passage struck a nerve. Before Graetz could finish his reading, the mostly female crowd rose to their feet and cheered. \"Several women,\" according to the _Montgomery Advertiser_ , \"screamed with what appeared to be religious ecstasy.\"\n\nGraetz captured the essence of the Supreme Court victory. Though even the biblical language was gendered, the women in the audience that night understood that the _Browder_ decision signaled African Americans' arrival as full human beings, as men and women worthy of recognition and respect. While the legal ruling made segregation on public conveyances unconstitutional, the boycott was never just about integration. It was about what Martin Luther King, Jr., later called the \"thingification\" of white supremacy. By walking hundreds of miles to protest humiliation and testifying publicly about physical and sexual abuse, African Americans\u2014mostly women\u2014reclaimed their bodies and demanded the right to be treated with dignity and respect.\n\nThe legal and moral victory over white supremacy in Montgomery gave African Americans around the country a sense of hope for the future, an inspirational and powerful figurehead in Martin Luther King, Jr., and an organizing model\u2014nonviolent direct action, which they hoped to use throughout the South to dismantle Jim Crow. Segregationists intent on thwarting black advances launched their own war to retain their position of power in the South. A swirling storm of white resistance had been gathering since the 1954 _Brown v. Board of Education_ decision. As African Americans in Montgomery returned to the buses and some Southern schools took baby steps toward compliance with the _Brown_ decision, the \"massive resistance\" movement thundered through the South. Drawing on whites' deepest fears about integration and interracial sexuality, Citizens' Council members and other die-hard segregationists used economic intimidation, sexualized violence, and terror to derail desegregation and destroy the developing black freedom movement. Between the Montgomery bus boycott and the student sit-in movement in 1960, African Americans hoping to re-create the Montgomery experience faced the forces of Jim Crow, sparking some of the fiercest battles for manhood and womanhood of the modern civil rights movement.\n\n# CHAPTER 4  \n\"There's Open Season on Negroes Now\"\n\nTHE SEVENTH-GRADE TEACHER AT Dunbar Junior High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, dismissed her students early on May 17, 1954. News of the historic Supreme Court decision striking down segregation in public schools had just hit the airwaves, and she feared a violent white response. As students streamed out of the all-black school, she urged them to \"pay attention to where you're walking. Walk in groups, don't walk alone.\" \"Hurry,\" she added. Melba Patillo, a twelve-year-old African-American student at Dunbar, wondered what all the fuss was about. Still, Melba was happy to have the afternoon free. She gathered her books and started on the route she had taken home for nearly six years. According to her autobiography, published several decades later, she meandered through a grassy stretch of blooming persimmon trees and daydreamed about becoming a movie star and moving to New York or California.\n\nThe sound of rustling leaves snapped her back to reality. She stopped and listened carefully, straining to see through the thick flora. Suddenly a deep voice sliced through the brush. \"You want a ride, girl?\" She could not see anyone. Then it came again. \"Want a ride?\"\n\n\"Who is it?\" she asked nervously.\n\n\"I got candy in the car,\" a man's gravelly voice sang out. \"Lots of candy.\" Patillo inched forward and saw a burly white man coming toward her. She turned and fled in the opposite direction, screaming for help and running as fast as her black-and-white saddle shoes could carry her. \"You better come and take a ride home,\" he growled. \"You hear me, girl?\"\n\nMelba Patillo (photo credit 4.1)\n\nHe was a \"huge\" man, Patillo recalled later, built \"like a wrestler.\" He chased Patillo through the wooded path, screaming about \"niggers wanting to go to school with his children and how he wasn't going to stand for it.\" Suddenly Patillo tripped on her shoelaces and fell. As she struggled to stand, he grabbed her shoulders, thrust her to the ground, and flipped her over on her back. \"He slapped me hard across the face,\" she said in her memoir, then pinned her down and began fumbling with his belt buckle. \"I'll show you niggers the Supreme Court can't run my life,\" he said as he reached under Patillo's dress and ripped off her underwear. In her account, she scrambled out from underneath him and started to run.\n\nMelba Patillo arrived home, shaken and disheveled. She told her grandmother that a white man attempted to rape her. Patillo's grandmother, who loved to garden and read Shakespeare and Langston Hughes, listened and then quietly shuttled Melba to the bathroom and started a bath. \"You soak a while, child. When the water goes down the drain, it will take all that white man's evil with it.\" Melba sat in the tub for what seemed like hours, listening to the muffled voices of her parents and grandmother arguing about whether they should call the police. When she finally emerged, her family encouraged her not to feel ashamed about the attack. Her father, Howell Patillo, an enormous man who worked as a hostler's assistant on the Missouri Pacific Railroad, reached for Melba and pulled her close. \"We ain't gonna call the law,\" he said. \"Those white police are liable to do something worse to her than what already happened.\" Survival sometimes required that silence surround sexual violence, especially in an environment poisoned by the fierce backlash to _Brown_. Eventually Melba would tell her story of the struggle in Little Rock for students across the country, but silence was not the only choice. Between 1956 and 1959, sex and sexual violence sat at the center of the freedom struggle, and African Americans deployed different strategies to carry the movement through a crucial and difficult transition, including testimony, armed self-defense, and international pressure.\n\nIn the decade before _Brown_ , African Americans in Little Rock, Arkansas, and throughout the South had testified openly about white attacks on black women. In the 1940s, for example, Daisy Bates, the acclaimed freedom fighter and leader of the Little Rock Nine, used the power of the _Arkansas State Press_ , the newspaper she and her husband, L. C. Bates, owned, to call attention to the long history of white-on-black rape. Like Rosa Parks, Bates was a militant activist long before she orchestrated a showdown between Governor Orval Faubus and the federal government over the integration of Central High School in 1957. Her newspaper became a thorn in the sides of Little Rock's white and black leaders, whom she pilloried regularly for failing to remedy the injustices of Jim Crow, especially police brutality and the abuse of black women. For Bates, rape was not just a political and legal issue that required state and community action, it was personal.\n\nDaisy and L. C. Bates and two police investigators examine a Ku Klux Klan cross left in their front yard in October 1956. Bates and her husband were targets of the Klan years before the Little Rock crisis began because of their vocal support for equality and justice for African-American rape victims in their newspaper, the _Arkansas State Press_. (photo credit 4.2)\n\nWhen Daisy Bates was just was seven years old, three white men brutally raped and murdered her mother. Bates's father blamed the attack on the \"timeworn lust of the white man.\" She was \"not the kind to submit,\" he explained to his daughter, \"so they took her.\" Overwhelmed by guilt and pain, he abandoned Daisy at a young age. She vowed revenge. \"Young as I was, strange as it may seem,\" Daisy Bates wrote in her memoir years later, \"my life now had a secret goal\u2014to find the men who had done this horrible thing to my mother.\" The whole ordeal left her feeling like a \"little sapling, which, after a violent storm, puts out only gnarled and twisted branches.\" When she became older, Bates decided to transform her hatred and anger into positive action and \"make it count for something.\" Over time the \"little sapling\" became a towering oak: Bates became a fierce freedom fighter and leader of the Little Rock NAACP and in 1952 president of the Arkansas State Conference of NAACP branches.\n\nAs an outspoken advocate for African Americans, Bates, like Rosa Parks, became known as the go-to person for victims of racial and sexual violence in Little Rock. She listened to them and scribbled notes, then placed their stories on the front page of her newspaper. The _State Press_ became Bates's personal bullhorn, which she used to amplify demands for justice and voting rights and call for an end to the wanton sexual abuse of black women. Banner headlines between 1941 and 1955 made the crime public, helped to mobilize the black community, and alerted white officials that crimes against black women would not go unnoticed. For example, on July 17, 1942, the _State Press_ published photographs of two white Little Rock police officers who raped Rosa Lee Cherry, a nineteen-year-old African-American student at Dunbar High School. Daisy Bates even printed a transcript of Cherry's grand jury testimony. This helped secure public support for an indictment. Bates then argued that a conviction was necessary to save the \"great state of Arkansas.\" Although the white policemen walked free after their case ended in a mistrial, Bates's vigilance on the Cherry case and others like it made it impossible for white authorities to ignore crimes against African-American women. Her outspoken attacks on rape and other forms of sexualized violence helped secure trials and, in some instances, even rare convictions of white assailants who attacked black women in Arkansas during the 1940s and early 1950s.\n\nBy 1954, however, a veil of secrecy had descended among African-American activists. In the years after _Brown_ , more than half a million people opposed to integration and dedicated to white supremacy joined organizations like the White Citizens' Councils, the Ku Klux Klan, and the American States Rights Association, and launched an all-out war against the burgeoning freedom struggle. Death threats and dynamite blasts shook civil rights advocates across the region. The Patillos understood that the swirling storm of resistance that segregationists unleashed after _Brown_ made silence about sexual violence a political imperative.\n\nSegregationist leaders throughout the South urged \"massive resistance\" to _Brown_. They recruited supporters by denigrating the \"traitorous\" Supreme Court, while exploiting whites' fears about integration and interracial sexuality. _U.S. News & World Report_ announced that many white Southerners opposed _Brown_ because they feared \"eventual amalgamation of the races\u2014meaning miscegenation, intermarriage or whatever you want to call it.\" Judge Leander Perez, a political heavyweight in Louisiana, told supporters that the goal of integration was \"miscegenation.\" \"You make a Negro believe he is equal to the white people,\" he said, \"and the first thing he wants is a white woman. And that's why there are so many criminal assaults and rapes.\" In a pamphlet titled _You and Segregation_ , Georgia senator Herman Talmadge argued that the Almighty \"Advocates Segregation,\" and warned that the \"ultimate aim and goal of NAACP leaders... is the complete intermingling of the races in housing, schools, churches, public parks, public swimming pools and even in marriage.\" The _Brown_ decision, he said, was \"judicial tyranny\" and \"the greatest single blow ever... struck against constitutional government.\" \"Resistance to tyranny,\" Mississippi senator James O. Eastland told white supporters, \"is obedience to God.\" Walter Givhan, an Alabama state senator and ardent supporter of the White Citizens' Council, argued that desegregation was simply a ruse to \"open the bedroom doors of our white women to Negro men.\"\n\nAlabama state senator Samuel Englehardt, Jr., an ardent segregationist and member of the White Citizens' Council, promotes a \"white only\" anti-integration rally. (photo credit 4.3)\n\nDemagoguery of \"miscegenation\" fanned followers' fears to red-hot rage. Most did not explicitly advocate violence, but their extremist rhetoric undoubtedly encouraged it. Some politicians could not hold back. \"A few killings now,\" a Mississippi legislator boasted, could \"save a lot of bloodshed then.\" At a massive Citizens' Council rally in Alabama, Senator Eastland cheered on the white mob that blocked Autherine Lucy, an African-American woman, from attending the University of Alabama in February 1956. He praised them for not letting the \"NAACP run your schools.\" Southern whites, he told the audience, were \"obligated to defy\" _Brown. 16_ When some whites responded by launching campaigns of violence and terror, many of those legislators stood silent, offering tacit approval while protecting themselves from blame.\n\nOther political leaders fully supported the White Citizens' Council and its goals but worried that violence could hurt the segregationists' cause. J. P. Coleman, the pragmatic governor who led Mississippi between 1956 and 1960, feared that defiance of federal law would hurt the state's standing in the national Democratic Party or provoke federal intervention. Coleman hoped to achieve the same goals as Eastland and other radicals through what he called \"practical segregation.\" He pushed for the creation of a state agency that would mirror the FBI's investigative prowess and function as a public relations bureau. His goal was to \"keep racial conflict out of the press while quietly and effectively managing the state's fight against integration.\" Coleman tested the effectiveness of the newly formed State Sovereignty Commission in May 1956, when four white men from Tylertown, a small village in the Piney section of Mississippi, kidnapped a young black woman on the eve of her wedding and gang-raped her.\n\nIt was just before dawn on May 13, 1956\u2014Mother's Day\u2014when Ernest Dillon, a twenty-nine-year-old siding salesman; his brother Ollie, a middle-aged construction worker; and Olen and Durora Duncan, twenty-one-year-old cousins, went looking for \"some colored women.\" Wielding a shotgun, Ernest Dillon approached Stennis Butler, a thirty-year-old black sharecropper who was outside preparing for the day's work. Dillon ordered him to take him and his friends to a home with black women inside. Annette Butler, a sixteen-year-old high school student, was in bed with her mother when she heard someone pounding on the front door of their two-bedroom home. Ernest Dillon introduced himself as a policeman. \"You're under arrest,\" he said to the girl, for \"sacking up with your boyfriend.\" When her mother objected, Dillon raised the shotgun, grabbed the teenager, and pulled her outside. He kept the shotgun trained on the girl's mother as his brother pushed her into the backseat of the car. Olen Duncan revved the engine and drove away, leaving Butler's mother alone in the front yard.\n\nThe four white men drove Butler deep into the Bogue Chitto swamp, where they took turns raping her. Olen Duncan threatened to \"cut her neck off\" if she resisted. \"I followed his instructions,\" she testified at the trial. When they finished, the four white men piled into the car and left Annette stranded in the woods. Wandering through the swamp half naked, she stumbled upon a group of black fishermen and ran to them for help. They led her out of the woods and delivered her to the police. Sheriff A. E. (Bill) Andrews took her complaint and then drove her home to get dressed. Later that day Sheriff Andrews brought Olen Duncan in for questioning, and he willingly signed a statement testifying that he had had \"intimate relations\" with Annette Butler. \"It was done with every safeguard for the right of the defendant,\" Sheriff Andrews said, \"after [Duncan] had been repeatedly advised that anything he might say could be used against him.\" A few days later District Attorney Michael Carr charged all four men with \"forcible ravishment and kidnap\" and sent them to the Magnolia jail to await trial.\n\nJudge Tom Brady, a fierce white supremacist and one of the fathers of the White Citizens' Councils, presided over four separate trials in Pike County Circuit Court four months after the attack. The assailants must have wondered what kind of punishment Brady would impose since his public pronouncements against interracial mixing were already legendary. _Time_ magazine called Brady the \"prophet\" of segregation and his manifesto, _Black Monday_ , the \"Bible of the White Citizens' Council movement.\" When confronted with real interracial mixing and actual rapists, not the fictional black rapists he saw lurking behind every school-desegregation case, Brady buckled under the weight of his own racial prejudices. He appointed the \"finest lawyers in Mississippi\" to defend the four white assailants.\n\nErnest Dillon may not have understood Brady's gesture, since he pleaded guilty on March 26, 1957, to the lesser charge of \"assault with intent to rape.\" It was a risky plea that left his co-conspirators vulnerable. On the other hand, the plea bargain released him from trial and from the threat of the death penalty or life imprisonment\u2014the state's only punishments for rape. It also freed the jurors from having to declare a white man guilty of raping a black woman and defused any complaints of unequal justice or outside criticism of the state. It is likely that Dillon believed he would receive a minor sentence or even a suspended sentence. Politically, the plea deal worked for everyone\u2014except, of course, Annette Butler.\n\nOn April 4 Olen Duncan, described by the _McComb Enterprise Journal_ as a \"slender man with facial skin paled to a dead white,\" surprised the packed courtroom by pleading not guilty despite his previously signed admission. His declaration of innocence fueled a day of intense testimony. Annette Butler took the stand and provided what the newspaper called \"lurid details\" of the attack. She easily identified Duncan as the driver and told the jury he was the second man to rape her.\n\nIn an effort to portray Butler as a prostitute or at least a juvenile delinquent, Duncan's attorneys grilled her about her whereabouts the night before the attack. Butler told the jury that she had accompanied her mother and cousin to a juke joint called Willie's Penthouse and stayed out past midnight. Defense attorneys then called George W. Wingo, a local white man, to testify about the \"general reputation\" of Butler. \"It is not good,\" he said without hesitation. They did not bother asking any African Americans about Butler's standing in the community\u2014even though they trotted out a number of white men who testified that Olen Duncan's stature was impressive.\n\nMichael Carr, the district attorney, urged the jury to consider Duncan's signed confession above all else. The girl submitted to the four men not because she was easy, he argued, but because the assailants \"placed [her] in such fear of severe personal injury and for her very life.\" Despite Duncan's admission of intercourse and his friend's guilty plea a week earlier, the all-white, all-male jury unanimously acquitted Olen Duncan of rape. On April 5, Judge Brady declared a mistrial when Olen's cousin, Durora Duncan, also pleaded not guilty and the jury deadlocked.\n\nNews of the acquittal and mistrial infuriated a group of African-American women, who wrote an anonymous letter to the _McComb Enterprise Journal_. They criticized the jurors for acquitting \"confessed rapists\" and argued that \"an alleged 'bad-reputation' \" did not \"excuse the criminal act which was committed.\" \"We feel that no Negro Woman is safe within the bounds of her own home,\" they said, \"despite the fact that she is a law-abiding citizen.\" A group of black ministers made a similar argument in a statement submitted to the newspaper: \"It is a dreadful thing to think our widows and their children have no protection, that their homes can be invaded by men of other races and that all the security of democracy is denied them.\"\n\nOn April 5, 1957, Judge Brady sentenced Ernest Dillon to twenty years of hard labor. Brady castigated Dillon for bringing \"bitter condemnation upon his community and state and the entire South\" for attacking Annette Butler. His actions, Judge Brady told Dillon, \"will bring further vitriolic attacks on our region from those who hate the South.\" Brady then scolded Dillon for integrating and declared him unfit for membership in the white race. \"No action could be more in contrast with the beliefs of the segregationist,\" he argued. Dillon had the \"good fortune,\" Brady said, sounding disappointed, \"of having able counsel... and prosecuting attorneys who were willing to show leniency...\" It was a harsh way of telling Dillon that he would be a sacrificial lamb.\n\nThe twenty-year sentence was nothing to sneeze at. It was highly unusual, if not unheard of, in the Magnolia State. And yet it served a political purpose. The trials and the lengthy sentence blunted outside criticism of the state's long history of racial terror. White leaders could point to Dillon as proof that Mississippi did not discriminate. At the same time, state senator Mayes McGehee, the chairman of the general legislative investigating committee of the State Sovereignty Commission, argued that the state's rape laws tied the jury's hands\u2014they simply had no choice but to acquit most of the men. \"There wasn't necessarily any prejudice involved,\" he said. \"Whether that had been a white girl involved or a colored girl, a jury is very reluctant to pass a death sentence or life imprisonment for that charge upon a man.\" The sheriff, the district attorney, and the county attorney, McGehee added, \"made every possible effort to get a conviction in that case.\" Oliver Emmerich, the editor of the _McComb Enterprise Journal_ , echoed McGehee's sentiments and argued that the people of Mississippi think \"such crimes are repugnant.\" \"As with all heinous crimes,\" he said, \"it leaves broken, bleeding hearts in its wake.\" \"The world must know, and our people must know,\" he argued, \"that the law enforcement officers of this area were alert and dutiful and that the evidence was taken on the spot, without delay, and to the credit of the people of Pike and Walthall Counties and Mississippi as well.\" By giving Dillon twenty years, Judge Brady and the Sovereignty Commission sent a message: even the most vehement segregationists still believed in law and order.\n\nExcept when they didn't. The lengthy jail sentence did not stop whites from terrorizing blacks in Mississippi or elsewhere. Citizens' Council members, Klansmen, and their ilk harassed African Americans over the phone, on the streets, and in public places. Hate mail peppered black activists, and threatening calls kept their phones ringing through the night. Rosa Parks, for example, constantly received calls from angry whites who yelled \"Die, nigger!\" whenever she or her husband picked up the phone. Like other blacks committed to the freedom struggle, Rosa Parks lost her job and was blacklisted in Montgomery, as were her husband and mother. After an especially vicious death threat in the summer of 1957, Parks called her cousin in Detroit sobbing. \"Rosie, get the hell out of Montgomery,\" he urged. \"Raymond's right; Whitey is going to kill you.\"\n\nParks knew that harassment and economic intimidation were not the outer limits of white terror. She packed up her things and moved her family to Detroit in the summer of 1957, just as white vigilantes started bombing black homes, churches, and businesses in Montgomery. Dynamite damaged or destroyed the homes and churches of prominent ministers and bus boycott leaders like Ralph Abernathy, Robert Graetz, and Martin Luther King, Jr. In Birmingham at least twenty-one bombings directed at blacks between 1955 and 1958 turned the \"Magic City\" into \"Bombingham.\" In small towns and cities throughout the South, white mobs beat and sometimes killed African Americans\u2014especially those who advocated desegregation or voting rights\u2014with baseball bats, brass knuckles, tire irons, rusty chains, and other implements of torture. In the Mississippi Delta white men murdered three black males in 1955: In May whites murdered the Reverend George Lee for registering voters. In August, Lamar Smith, a sixty-year-old farmer, was killed in broad daylight, apparently for voting in a primary and teaching other blacks how to register. Later that month, on August 28, 1955, J. W. Milam and Roy Bryant murdered fourteen-year-old Emmett Till in Money, Mississippi.\n\nTill, a Chicago native in Mississippi to visit his uncle, Mose Wright, accompanied a group of black teens and children to Bryant's Grocery and Meat Market to purchase candy. Unaware of the strict racial etiquette governing interracial interactions, the black youngster allegedly flirted with Bryant's young wife after purchasing some bubble gum. Four nights later Roy Bryant and J. W. Milam kidnapped Emmett Till, brutally beat him, and then shot him in the head. They tied a metal cotton gin fan around his neck with barbed wire and pushed him into the Tallahatchie River. A fisherman spotted Till's body, and investigators pulled the mutilated corpse from the river three days later. _Jet_ magazine printed photos of the gruesome remains, exposing the savage and murderous side of segregation to the nation and the world, and the NAACP launched a national campaign for justice. Still, an all-white jury acquitted Bryant and Milam of murder on September 23. Four months later they admitted guilt to the journalist William Bradford Huie for an article in _Look_ magazine. Bryant justified his actions and accused Till of wanting more than bubble gum that August afternoon. \"When a nigger gets close to mentioning sex with a white woman,\" Bryant argued, \"he's tired o' livin'.\" The response to the article was immediate. \"There's open season on the Negroes now,\" one Mississippi man said. \"They've got no protection and any peckerwood who wants can go out and shoot himself one and we'll free him.\" The NAACP demanded punishment for the shocking deaths. It issued a pamphlet, titled _M Is for Mississippi and Murder_ , to publicize the killings.\n\nBesides murder, whites also used sexual violence as a weapon of terror\u2014and not always against black women. In Union Springs, Alabama, about forty miles southeast of Montgomery, Klansmen attacked Edward Judge Aaron, a thirty-four-year-old African American, while he and his wife walked along a country road on September 2, 1957. Klan members berated Aaron, known among whites as a \"white folks' nigger,\" before they pistol-whipped him. \"You think any nigger is as good as a white man? You think nigger kids should go to school with my kids?\" they shouted. As the men pummeled Aaron to the ground, one of them managed to tear off Aaron's pants. Then he flashed a shiny razor blade and grabbed Aaron's scrotum and pressed the blade into his flesh, severing his testicles.\n\n\u2022 \u2022 \u2022\n\nThe castration of Edward Judge Aaron vividly illustrated white fears that _Brown_ would unleash the black beast rapist of Reconstruction lore. The fear was so great that an unsubstantiated rumor or an innocent glance, a misconstrued gesture or an informal greeting between a black man and a white woman, could end in murder. In Montgomery, for example, a group of Klansmen heard a vague rumor that a black truck driver was intimately involved with a white woman. On a cold January night in 1957, three dedicated Klan members randomly attacked Willie Edwards, Jr., a delivery truck driver who happened to be in the wrong place at the wrong time. The Klansmen walked Edwards to the edge of a bridge that stretched across the Alabama River. Edwards swore he was innocent and denied any interest or involvement in an interracial tryst, but his speech fell on deaf ears. The Klansmen forced Edwards to the edge of the bridge and made him jump to his death.\n\nAfrican Americans were not always victims. In Richmond, Virginia, on July 27, 1956, Rudolph Valentino Henry, a thirty-one-year-old combat veteran, stabbed a white man for harassing his wife. Henry and his wife, Carrie, were walking home from a downtown movie theater when John Morgan, a white city employee, whistled and honked his horn at the couple as they passed in front of his parked car. \"Who are you whistling at,\" Henry asked. \"Don't you know that's my wife?\"\n\n\"I don't give a damn if it is your wife,\" Morgan shot back. \"If I want to make a date with her I will.\" Morgan reached for what appeared to be a gun, jumped out of the car, and a fight ensued.\n\n\"They began to scuffle,\" Carrie Henry told the newspaper, \"and the white man had a grip on my husband and was getting the best of him.\" In order to break loose, she said, her husband \"stabbed [Morgan] with a little clasp knife.\" \"He had to do something,\" she insisted. \"It was his life or the other man's.\" Finally Morgan backed off and turned and walked away. \"We thought he was going to get some help,\" Henry said, \"so we ran across the parking lot and went home... We didn't know that he was dead until we read about it in the papers.\"\n\nThe murder may have been a mistake, but the clash between Rudolph Henry and John Morgan was part of a larger struggle that had been brewing all summer. \"It happens every night,\" Rufus Wells, a writer for the _Richmond Afro-American_ , argued in an article titled \"Mashers Molest Women, Police Look Other Way.\" \"After sundown,\" Wells said, \"certain colored neighborhoods in Richmond become a happy hunting ground for white men on the prowl for illicit romance.\" White men in \"limousines and Tin Lizzies,\" Wells reported, \"cruise slowly around the block and leer and whistle\" at black women. The bolder ones simply parked their cars and waited, he said, \"ready to proposition any woman who chances by.\" Wells argued that these \"wolves, mashers and sex perverts\" roam the streets and assault women with impunity. \"They're getting worse and worse,\" an older black woman argued. \"One night last week, a car containing three white men drove slowly past the house three or four times. Finally they parked a few doors away and two of them started toward my house. I got up and went inside and locked the door,\" she said. \"They're getting so they'll snatch you from your own porch.\"\n\nShe was one of many residents who argued that violence would flare if police refused to protect black women. To be sure, John Morgan was not the first white man to pay a price for \"molesting\" black women that summer. Local African Americans killed a thirty-one-year-old white man earlier in the summer and severely beat another man in late August for \"accosting women in the vicinity.\" \"They [the police] are not going to protect our women,\" a local black man stated, \"so we have to do it ourselves. Every time we catch a man molesting women we try to beat his brains out.\"\n\nWhen Rudolph Valentino Henry stood trial for the \"Wolf Whistle\" murder of John Morgan in front of an overflowing courtroom on November 10, 1956, he pleaded guilty to involuntary manslaughter. He did not intend to kill Morgan, he said; he simply tried to defend his wife from attack. Henry's lawyer, Martin A. Martin, a prominent attorney and NAACP leader, placed the case in the long history of white-on-black assault and argued that Henry had a right to protect his family. A white police officer served as the key witness. Detective Sergeant F. S. Wakefield of the Richmond Police Department testified that he had received \"numerous complaints of white men molesting colored women in that neighborhood.\" The judge must have recognized the volatility of the situation and decided to suspend Henry's sentence. \"I'm mighty happy to be back,\" the former vet declared after the judge issued his ruling. \"I've been around the world,\" he said, \"but there is no place like home.\"\n\nThe public exposure of Southern white men's proclivity for \"nighttime integration\" did not stop the usual suspects from railing against perceived threats posed by desegregation. Citizens' Councilors and Klansmen busied themselves by educating their progeny and protecting them from the threat of race mixing. Though their children were not yet afflicted by puberty or the hysterical fear of black men as rapists\u2014what W. J. Cash called the \"southern rape complex\"\u2014adults seemed to feel it necessary to spell out the unwritten rules of white supremacy. \"The racist,\" Southern poet and essayist Wendell Berry wrote, \"fears that a child's honesty empowered by sex might turn in real and open affection toward members of the oppressed race, and so destroy the myth of that race's inferiority.\" They created a pamphlet for young whites called the _Manual for Southerners_ , which claimed that \"if boys and girls share the school room, lunch room, dances, sports, rest rooms and playgrounds, then the boys and girls will want to date each other.\" Worse, the booklet warned, \"integration always leads the races to marry one another.\"\n\nSegregationists fought to keep their children insulated in lily-white schools, but they could not control the growing affection for African-American music among their youth. Many whites greeted rock and roll as if it were \"a guided missile,\" as Eldridge Cleaver remembered, \"launched from the ghetto into the very heart of suburbia. It succeeded, as politics, religion, and law could never do, in writing in the heart and soul what the Supreme Court could only write on the books.\" Chuck Berry, Fats Domino, LaVern Baker, Little Richard, and their interracial bands belted out blues, ballads, and bebop over integrated airwaves, effectively launching a revolution that rattled and roused teenagers and shook up segregationists, who bristled at the idea of their offspring listening to the new \"jungle music.\" Dancing was worse since, in their opinion, it would inevitably lead to race mixing, juvenile delinquency, and sexual immorality.\n\nBecause black musicians performed in front of segregated but sold-out crowds of screaming, ecstatic teenagers, it became impossible to maintain a strict color line in the South. As a result, many concerts inadvertently became interracial dance parties, where black and white fans found themselves pressed against one another. For example, in the mid-1950s, black and white teenagers mobbed concerts given by Fats Domino, whose songs \"Ain't That a Shame\" and \"Blueberry Hill\" propelled him to the head of the Top 40 charts. The petrified parents of white teens picketed these concerts with signs that read \"Rock and Roll Breeds Integration\" and \"Ask Your Preacher about Jungle Music.\" One worried parent summed up their complaint in a letter to Sam Phillips, the producer and owner of Sun Records, which launched the careers of Elvis Presley, Johnny Cash, Roy Orbison, and Jerry Lee Lewis. Rock and roll, the parent informed Phillips, was \"ruining our children. These little kids are falling in love with niggers!\" Similar complaints forced many venues to ban interracial dancing. In 1956 the Louisiana legislature outlawed mixed-race dancing entirely.\n\nAsa Carter, a notorious anti-Semite and racial terrorist who served as head of the North Alabama White Citizens' Council and later became Governor George Wallace's speechwriter, railed against \"sensuous Negro music\" in his magazine _The Southerner. 53_ Rock and roll, he said, appealed to the \"base in man\" and encouraged \"animalism and vulgarity.\" It was part of an NAACP plan, he warned, to \"mongrelize America.\" Carter fanned the flames of interracial fear and sexual paranoia around Birmingham in the weeks before Nat \"King\" Cole was scheduled to give a concert at the Municipal Auditorium on April 10, 1956. He printed pictures of Cole standing next to adoring white females in _The Southerner_ above captions like \"Cole and His White Women\" and \"Cole and Your Daughter.\" In an accompanying article, Carter insinuated that Cole had ulterior motives that any self-respecting segregationist would recognize. \"You have seen it,\" he said, \"the fleeting leer, the look that stays an instant longer... the savagery.\"\n\nNo one had to stretch his or her imagination to understand what Carter was getting at. Indeed, the whole world witnessed white reaction to the \"fleeting leer\" when whites murdered Emmett Till in Mississippi the year before. The Till slaying cast a pall over every interracial exchange, but Nat \"King\" Cole did not expect to be attacked simply for singing his songs, especially in front of a segregated audience. Still, he went out of his way to remove any hints of sexuality from his show and presented himself as nonthreatening in style and demeanor. When the footlights burst open and illuminated the stage, Nat \"King\" Cole bounded forward and sailed through two songs. Suddenly, a group of white thugs scurried to the platform, leaped over the footlights, and knocked Cole to the ground. Their goal was to push Cole out of the way and \"take control of the microphone and lecture the audience about integration.\"\n\nWhile Asa Carter's low-life allies literally attacked Nat \"King\" Cole, more sophisticated segregationists pressed the issue. James J. Kilpatrick, the elegant and conservative editor of the _Richmond News-Leader_ , told James Baldwin that he regarded the Negro writer as a citizen, but that did not mean he wanted Baldwin to marry his daughter. \"You're not worried about me marrying _your_ daughter,\" Baldwin shot back. \"You're worried about me marrying _your wife's_ daughter. I've been marrying _your_ daughter since the days of slavery.\" Baldwin's comment brilliantly captured the cruel conundrums of interracial sex and sexual violence between white men and black women in the South.\n\nThese fears gripped whites in the small town of Monroe, North Carolina, in 1958, when an innocent kissing game between black and white children became front-page news around the world as hysterical adults cried rape and demanded revenge. This single event reinforced Gunnar Myrdal's observation a decade earlier that sex was \"the principle around which the whole structure of segregation... is organized.\" Indeed, the \"Kissing Case,\" as it became known, exposed the power of sex in maintaining the South's racial hierarchy and underscored the extent to which whites would fight to preserve it.\n\nSissy Sutton, a seven-year-old white girl, and her two friends must not have read the _Manual for Southerners_. If they had, they would have known that playing a kissing game in a ditch on an autumn afternoon with David Ezell \"Fuzzy\" Simpson and James Hanover Grissom Thompson, eight- and ten-year-old African-American boys, was strictly prohibited. The three girls had been minding their own business, watching a group of black and white boys play cowboys and Indians on October 28. \"At first it was just boys playing,\" Thompson later recalled. \"We was just running through the water with our feet first, acting crazy like kids.\" Sutton and her friends joined the fun, and after a few boys drifted off toward home, a white boy suggested they play a kissing game.\n\nAccording to the rules, one of the boys said, each girl would have to sit on a boy's lap and kiss him, \"like on TV or in the movies.\" Though nobody knows exactly who kissed whom, somebody seems to have kissed somebody.\n\nSutton told her mother about the game when she returned home that evening. When Mrs. Sutton realized her daughter had actually touched a black boy, she was furious. Hysterical, she called the police and reported that Simpson and Thompson had attempted to rape her little girl. Mr. Sutton grabbed his gun, gathered up some friends, and went searching for the prepubescent assailants. The growing mob of angry men first went to Thompson's home, where they threatened \"not only [to] kill the boys but to lynch the mothers.\" Mrs. Sutton insisted that she \"would have killed Hanover myself if I had the chance.\"\n\nLater that afternoon police officers spotted the boys tugging a red wagon down the street, completely oblivious to the growing mob of men searching for them. The officers jumped out of the car \"with their guns drawn,\" grabbed the boys, and shoved them into the car. \"We'll teach you little niggers not to kiss white girls,\" one of the officers snapped. When they arrived at the jail, Thompson recalled, the policemen \"threw us down and then started beating us.\" They \"hit us hard in the chest, call[ed] us all kind of names... and talked about how they was going to lynch us.\" The police put the boys behind bars and held them there for six days as the Klan clamored for blood outside. No one contacted their parents. Even if the police wanted to call the boys' mothers, they would have had a hard time finding them. Both women had holed up with neighbors after their homes became targets of terrorist attacks. Evelyn Thompson fled after a carload of angry whites sprayed her windows with bullets and masked men burned a cross on her front lawn. The final straw may have been when someone shot the family's dog and left it dead in the front yard.\n\nNews reports of the illicit kissing game hewed closely to the politics and prejudices of the color line. Some white reporters detailed an attempted rape in which one of the boys held Sutton down until the other could extract a kiss or more. White officials argued that the boys were guilty of \"molesting three white girls.\" Even Governor Luther Hodges insisted that Thompson and Simpson \"had assaulted\" the girls. The _Carolina Times_ , on the other hand, a black newspaper, argued that the \"crisis in Monroe... had nothing to do with assault or delinquency.\" According to Louis Austin, the editor, the racial hubbub was the product of white angst and shame, and that Thompson and Simpson had not yet learned the \"unwritten law of white supremacy\" that \"white is right and God... has made one race of men superior to another.\" \"No one but a bunch of numbskulls,\" he fumed, \"with hearts full of the filthiest kind of dirt would attach any significance to what children of six to ten years of age do at play.\"\n\nAt a hearing on November 4, 1958, J. Hampton Price, a juvenile court judge, found Hanover Thompson and Fuzzy Simpson guilty of molestation and sentenced them to the Morrison Training School for Negroes in Hoffman, North Carolina, for \"indeterminate terms.\" The ridiculousness of the charge and the harshness of the sentence, not to mention the fact that Judge Price referred to the boys twice as \"niggers,\" convinced Robert F. Williams, the militant leader of the Monroe, North Carolina, NAACP, to launch a major publicity campaign. Williams organized the Committee to Combat Racial Injustice (CCRI) with assistance from Conrad Lynn and George Weisman, activists in New York who had connections to the Socialist Workers Party; C. K. Steele, president of the Tallahassee, Florida, NAACP and head of the successful 1956 Tallahassee bus boycott; and Carl Braden, co-founder, with his wife, Anne, of the liberal Southern Conference Education Fund. Their plan was to remove the story from the narrow confines of Monroe, North Carolina, and place it on a world stage, shaming the state and ultimately the entire nation.\n\nIt was not difficult to sell the story outside the South. The _London News-Chronicle_ gobbled up the \"Kissing Case\" and prominently placed it on the front page on December 15, 1958. With the paper's circulation of more than one million, the story quickly spread. In Italy newspapers ran sympathetic photos of Thompson and Simpson in juvenile detention on the front page under headlines bemoaning the excessive punishment: \"He Will Grow Up in Jail.\" Similar stories appeared throughout Europe; even the Soviet Union and China ran the story, presenting it as a mockery of American democracy. The CCRI hoped the \"lever of worldwide publicity and the fulcrum of Cold War politics would lift them to victory.\" At the very least, they knew it would expose the South's growing racial and sexual hysteria. But what they really desired was enough global pressure to prod President Eisenhower or Congress to take action. After two months of negative publicity at home and abroad, Governor Hodges finally issued the order to release Fuzzy Simpson and Hanover Thompson. The two boys reunited with their mothers on February 13, 1959, nearly four months after their arrest.\n\nDomestic racial politics had vexed America's cold warriors for many years, forcing the federal government at times to intervene on behalf of African Americans in order to avoid international embarrassment. For example, when Arkansas governor Orval Faubus activated the National Guard to block nine African-American children, including Melba Patillo, from integrating Little Rock's Central High School in 1957, and then removed them as an angry mob converged on the school, the whole world took notice. Televised images of well-dressed black children surrounded by straight-faced soldiers and angry, screaming whites transported Jim Crow into homes around the country and the globe, making Little Rock the \"foremost international symbol of American racism.\"\n\nPresident Dwight Eisenhower, furious that Faubus had defied both federal law and tolerated, if not encouraged, mob violence in the streets of Little Rock, decided to let the governor know that, as David Halberstam put it, he did not \"look kindly on frontal challenges by junior officers.\" On September 24, Eisenhower sent one thousand paratroopers from the 101st Airborne Division into Little Rock, becoming the first president since Reconstruction to use the military to defend African Americans' constitutional rights. In a televised address that night explaining his decision, Eisenhower told the nation that the Little Rock crisis had threatened America's position in the Cold War. \"It would be difficult to exaggerate the harm that is being done to the prestige and influence, and indeed to the safety of our nation around the world,\" Eisenhower argued. \"Our enemies are gloating over this incident and using it everywhere to misrepresent our whole nation. We are portrayed as a violator of those standards of conduct which the peoples of the world unite to proclaim in the charter of the UN.\" By the next day the fierce and flinty paratroopers, from the unit that had stood up to the Nazi Wehrmacht and the Chinese People's Liberation Army, stared down the segregationists and escorted Melba Patillo and eight others to class.\n\nFederal intervention finally forced Governor Faubus to integrate Central High School, but it did not stop demagogues in Dixie from flirting with secession, passing resolutions of interposition, and terrorizing African Americans. On the contrary, the sight of federal troops on Southern soil fueled massive resistance. That year Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, and Florida \"nullified\" _Brown. 72_ Overall, eleven Southern states passed more than 450 acts and resolutions in the decade after the controversial Supreme Court decision in order to maintain \"lily-white\" schools. Southerners' deep-seated fear of interracial sexuality trumped their enthusiasm for anti-Communism. Not even the threat of international embarrassment stopped some segregationists from enforcing their beliefs and biases with violence and terror. The Southern Regional Council, a liberal organization, reported more than 530 acts of segregationist violence and economic intimidation against African Americans between 1954 and 1959.\n\nBecause of this backlash, direct action campaigns like the Montgomery bus boycott waned, prompting the historian Adam Fairclough to call the period between 1956 and 1960 the \"fallow years.\" Even Martin Luther King, Jr., found himself in a tactical conundrum. \"No matter how many cheers he received or how many tear streaked faces assured him that lives were transformed,\" Taylor Branch notes, \"tomorrow's newspapers still read pretty much like today's. Segregation didn't disappear.\" The NAACP, legally banned from operation in Alabama and starkly curtailed in Texas and Arkansas, avoided confrontation with white authority and instead sponsored legal cases, which slowly crept through the courts. The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), created in 1957 to parlay the Montgomery success into a national movement, and the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), a mostly Northern organization formed in 1948 to protest racial segregation, had yet to come up with a strategy that would mobilize the masses. Roy Wilkins, the head of the national NAACP, recognized the threat posed by massive resistance. \"The race,\" Wilkins said, \"is in a life and death struggle for all the ground it has won since Reconstruction. Between the ruthlessness of the South and the what-the-hell attitude of the North, we could lose.\"\n\nAlthough civil rights organizations confronted increasingly hard sledding in the years after Montgomery, the \"fallow period\" actually yielded a fertile crop of campaigns. As Montgomery had in the 1940s and 1950s, these struggles focused national attention on sexualized violence toward African Americans and the sexual exploitation of black women at the hands of white men. Reaction to the _Brown_ decision was sexually charged and it unfolded in a Cold War context that confined civil rights movements, yet made \"sex cases\" especially useful for organizing purposes. Federal sensitivity to world opinion, and the existence of a left-wing media that spotlighted black women's testimony, brought the issue of white-on-black rape to the forefront of the freedom struggle. Indeed, Montgomery, Alabama, and Little Rock, Arkansas, were not the only places in which attacks on black women fueled protests against white supremacy.\n\nOften ignored by historians, a number of these campaigns led to trials and even convictions throughout the South. For perhaps the first time since Reconstruction, Southern black communities could imagine state power being deployed in defense of their safety and respectability as men and women. This was clear in Tallahassee, Florida, where Betty Jean Owens, an African-American college student, stood in front of an all-white jury in 1959 and testified about being kidnapped and gang-raped by four white men. \"All eyes,\" Roy Wilkins argued, \"will be upon the state of Florida.\"\n\n# CHAPTER 5  \n\"It Was Like All of Us Had Been Raped\"\n\nON MAY 2, 1959, FOUR WHITE men in Tallahassee made a pact (as one of their friends testified in court later) to \"go out and get a nigger girl\" and have an \"all night party.\" They armed themselves with shotguns and switchblades and crept up behind a car parked alongside a lonely stand of scrub pines and blackjack oaks near Jake Gaither Park. When they reached the car, Patrick Scarborough pressed his sixteen-gauge shotgun against the driver's nose and ordered Richard Brown and his companions out. Dressed in formal gowns and tuxedos, the four African Americans reluctantly stepped out of the car. All were students at Florida A&M University (FAMU), where R&B crooner Roy Hamilton had sent a \"capacity audience... into musical bliss\" at the Orange and Green Ball that night.\n\nScarborough forced the two black men to kneel, while his friend David Beagles held the two black women at knifepoint. When Betty Jean Owens began to cry, Beagles slapped her and told her to \"shut up or she would never get back home.\" Waving his gun, Scarborough ordered Richard Brown and his friend Thomas Butterfield back into the car and told them to leave. As Brown and Butterfield moved toward the car and then slowly drove away, Edna Richardson broke free and ran to a nearby park, leaving Betty Jean Owens alone with their attackers.\n\nBeagles pressed the switchblade to Owens's throat and said, \"We'll let you go if you do what we want,\" then forced her to her knees, slapped her as she sobbed, pushed her into the backseat of their blue Chevrolet, and drove to the edge of town, where he and his friends raped her seven times.\n\nWhen the four armed white men in Tallahassee forced Thomas Butterfield and Richard Brown to drive away, leaving Betty Jean Owens at the mercy of their assailants, the two black freshmen drove around the corner and waited. As the blue Chevrolet disappeared down the street, Brown and Butterfield hurried back to the scene. Edna Richardson, the black woman who was able to get away, saw her friends from her hiding spot, called out to them, and then ran to the car. Hoping to save Owens, the FAMU students rushed to the local police station to report the crime.\n\nSimilar situations in other Southern towns had often left African Americans without police aid. Although the Tallahassee police were not known for repression and brutality, they were hardly friendly toward African Americans, who made up nearly 40 percent of the city's population. Frank Stoutamire, the chief of police, was a genial if temperamental man who sold eggs out of the trunk of his patrol car to blacks and whites and often ignored violations of the county's ban on liquor. Russell Anderson, a minister at FAMU, remembered that Stoutamire \"stayed in power by playing the races against each other.\" He would \"act like he was a friend of the blacks when he was around them,\" Anderson said, but he \"let it be definitely known that he was a white man's man.\"\n\nIn 1937, for example, investigators implicated Stoutamire, then the Leon County sheriff, in a gruesome double lynching. Police arrested Richard Ponder and Ernest Hawkins, two black teenagers, for robbing a downtown business and threatening an officer with a knife. They were in the county jail no more than a few hours when four men with paper bags over their heads kidnapped the youths at gunpoint. They drove them three miles outside of town and riddled their bodies with bullets, then left the scene littered with hand-painted signs warning blacks to \"stay in your place.\" Only Stoutamire and the police chief knew who held the keys to the county jail, but the investigation was quickly shelved. By the time Stoutamire became the chief in 1953, he relied more on threats than on violence, but his policemen never hesitated to enforce white supremacy. They issued bogus tickets when it served their own interests, sent detectives to spy on and infiltrate black organizations, and harassed African Americans relentlessly.\n\nScene of the crime where four white men from Tallahassee, Florida, kidnapped and raped an African-American college student. (photo credit 5.1)\n\nJoe D. Cooke, Jr., an intern from Florida State University, defied racial conventions when he agreed to search for the white assailants of an African-American college student. (photo credit 5.2)\n\nStoutamire and his officers were off the night Betty Jean Owens was attacked. The officer on duty in Florida's capital city that evening was Joe D. Cooke, Jr., an energetic nineteen-year-old intern from Tallahassee who was majoring in criminology at Florida State, the all-white local university. Much to the surprise of the three black students, he called for backup and eagerly agreed to look for Owens and her assailants.\n\nAfter a lengthy search, one of the students finally spotted the blue Chevrolet and shouted, \"That's it!\" It was just after four A.M. Deputy Cooke turned on his flashers and drove alongside the car. Attempting to escape, the kidnappers led Cooke \"twisting and turning\" through the dark, tree-lined streets of Tallahassee \"at speeds up to 100 miles per hour.\" One of the white men suggested \"dumping the nigger,\" but William Collinsworth, a twenty-four-year-old married telephone lineman, said, \"We can't now, he's on our tail.\" Finally, Collinsworth pulled his car to the curb, grabbed his shotgun, and got out of the car. The young deputy drew his pistol and ordered all four to line up against the car or, he threatened, \"I will shoot to kill.\"\n\nAs they waited for assistance from Cooke's supervisor, they heard muffled screams coming from the car. Richard Brown and Deputy Cooke peered through the rear window and saw Betty Jean Owens bound and gagged, lying on the backseat floorboards. Brown tried to help her out of the car, but as her feet touched the ground, she collapsed. Cooke drove Betty Jean Owens and her friends to the local colored hospital, while Deputy Sheriff W. W. Slappey arrested the four white men and drove them to the jailhouse.\n\nLaughing and joking on the way to the police station, the four white men apparently did not take their arrest seriously nor think they had done anything wrong. Collinsworth, for example, worried less about the charges against him than about the safety of his car. Deputy Sheriff Slappey revealed his disgust when he handed the men over to Sheriff Raymond Hamlin, Jr. \"They all admitted it,\" Slappey said. \"They didn't say why they did it, and that's all I'm going to say about this dirty business.\" William Collinsworth, Ollie Stoutamire (the sixteen-year-old cousin of police chief Frank Stoutamire), Patrick Scarborough, and David Beagles, whom the _Pittsburgh Courier_ called the \"element which sports duck-bill haircuts,\" confessed in writing to abducting Owens at gunpoint and having \"sexual relations\" with her. When Sheriff Hamlin asked the men to look over their statements and make any necessary corrections, Beagles, a high school senior and part-time service station attendant, smiled and bent over the table. He made one minor adjustment before he and his friends were hustled off to jail.\n\nIf the four white men did not take their arrests seriously, students at FAMU, a historically black university that anchored middle-class black life in Tallahassee, did. Many of them were veterans of the Tallahassee bus boycott in 1956, a Montgomery-inspired campaign that highlighted both students' preference for direct action and their willingness to rally behind the protection of black womanhood rather than the plodding litigation favored by the NAACP. White authorities had charged Carrie Patterson and Wilhelmina Jakes, roommates at FAMU, with \"inciting a riot\" after they refused to move to the colored section of a city bus on May 26, 1956. As in Montgomery, the women who fueled the boycott fought for the dignity of their personhood. They were \"real upset,\" Jakes said later, that bus drivers \"were treating us like criminals... like we weren't human beings.\"\n\nA burning cross on the front lawn of their home baptized them into the struggle and galvanized the black community into action. A student-led boycott forced the city bus company to shut down, five months faster than the boycott in Montgomery. Despite economic intimidation, constant police harassment, and violence, African Americans stayed off the buses. At a mass meeting in June, C. K. Steele, a Baptist minister who helped lead the boycott, said that blacks would rather \"walk in dignity than ride in humiliation.\" Steele had preached at Hall Street Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama, during the 1940s, when the Recy Taylor and Gertrude Perkins cases shook up the ministers and mobilized community action. He arrived in Tallahassee in 1952 and quickly became a community leader. Steele's experience in Montgomery and strong relationship with civil rights advocates in Florida and throughout the South made him a natural mentor for the FAMU students. \"Without the students,\" he insisted, \"there would be no movement.\" \"They are the militants\u2014they're your soldiers.\" The buses were finally integrated in the spring of 1957, two years before the four white men armed themselves to kidnap and rape Betty Jean Owens.\n\nWhen FAMU students heard news of the attack on Owens and the subsequent arrest of four white men, a small group planned an armed march to city hall to let city officials know that they were willing to protect black womanhood the same way whites \"protected\" white womanhood\u2014with guns. Mainstream student leaders persuaded them that an armed march was \"the wrong thing to do\" and patched together a \"Unity\" demonstration only twelve hours after Betty Jean Owens was admitted to the local colored hospital.\n\nAs the four white men sat in jail, fifteen hundred students filled Lee Auditorium, where Clifford Taylor, president of FAMU's Student Government Association, said he \"would not sit idly by and see our sisters, wives, and mothers desecrated.\" Using language white men in power could understand, student leaders professed their \"belief in the dignity, respect, and protection of womanhood\" and announced that they would petition the governor and other authorities for a \"speedy and impartial trial.\"\n\nOn May 4, 1959, more than one thousand Florida A&M University students gathered on the university's quadrangle to demand justice for Betty Jean Owens, who was brutally raped by four white men two nights before. (photo credit 5.3)\n\nEarly the next day more than a thousand students gathered in the university's grassy quadrangle with signs, hymns, and prayers aimed at the national news media, which sent out stories of the attack across the country. The students planned to show Tallahassee and the rest of the nation that white men could no longer attack black women without consequence. Student protesters held signs that declared, \"It could have been YOUR sister, wife, or mother.\" Some students linked the attack in Tallahassee to larger issues related to the black freedom struggle: two students held up a poster depicting scenes from Little Rock, Arkansas, that read, \"My God How Much More of This Can We Take.\"\n\nIt was the deeply personal issue of rape, however, that gave the students their focus. Patricia Stephens Due, a Miami native and student at FAMU, remembered feeling helpless and unsafe. \"We all felt violated, male and female,\" she recalled. \"It was like all of us had been raped.\" Student leader Buford Gibson, speaking to a crowd, universalized the attack when he said, \"You must remember it wasn't just one Negro girl that was raped\u2014it was all of Negro womanhood in the South.\" By using Betty Jean Owens as a black everywoman, Gibson challenged male students to rise up in protest and then placed the protection of black womanhood in their hands. Unlike white men who historically used the protection of white womanhood to inspire mob violence, Gibson's speech inspired students at Florida A&M to maintain their nonviolent demonstration.\n\nFrom left to right: Patrick Scarborough, David Beagles, Ollie Stoutamire, and William Ted Collinsworth. (photo credit 5.4)\n\nAt about the same time, white men in Poplarville, Mississippi, used the \"protection of womanhood\" as justification for the lynching of Mack Charles Parker, a black man who was charged with the kidnapping and rape of a twenty-four-year-old white woman who could barely identify him in a police lineup. Two days before his trial, a group of eight to ten white men obtained keys to Parker's unguarded jail cell, savagely beat him, and then dragged him screaming down three flights of stairs. FBI agents located Parker's bloated body floating in the Pearl River on May 4, 1959, just two days after four white men gang-raped Betty Jean Owens. The Parker lynching cast a shadow over Tallahassee, brutally reminding the black community that white women's bodies were off limits, while the bodies of black women were fair game.\n\nThe accelerating media coverage, student-led protests, and a threat to boycott classes at Florida A&M forced circuit court judge W. May Walker, a white-haired former firefighter, to call members of the grand jury into special session in Tallahassee on May 6, 1959. More than two hundred black spectators, mostly students, squeezed into the segregated balcony at the Leon County Courthouse to catch a glimpse of Betty Jean Owens and her attackers before they retreated into the secret hearing. Still undergoing hospital treatment for injuries inflicted during the attack and for \"severe depression,\" Owens was accompanied to the courthouse by a nurse, the hospital administrator, and her mother.\n\nGasps and moans sounded from the balcony when, after two hours behind closed doors, Collinsworth, Beagles, Scarborough, and Ollie Stoutamire emerged and calmly faced the judge. When they all pleaded innocent, making a jury trial mandatory, African Americans roared with disapproval. Dr. M. C. Williams, a local black leader, shouted, \"Four colored men would be dead if the situation had been reversed. It looks like an open and shut case.\" Defense attorneys for Collinsworth and Scarborough argued for a delay, insisting that public excitement threatened a fair trial, but Judge Walker ignored their objections. For the first time in Florida history, a judge sent the white defendants charged with raping an African-American woman back to jail to await their trial. Echoing the sentiments of the people around him, a young boy traced \"we want justice\" in the dust on the railing of the segregated balcony.\n\nJustice was the last thing the black community expected. In the thirty-four years since Florida began sending convicted rapists to the electric chair instead of the gallows, the state had electrocuted thirty-seven African Americans charged with raping white women. Before this, Florida had led the country in per capita lynchings, surpassing notoriously violent states like Mississippi, Georgia, and Louisiana. From 1900 to 1930 white Floridians lynched 281 people, 256 of whom were African American. Throughout its history, Florida had never executed or lynched a white man for raping a black woman.\n\nFlorida's violent history included the \"little Scottsboro\" case, involving Samuel Shepard, Walter Irvin, and Charles Greenlee, black men accused of raping a white woman in Groveland, Florida, in 1949. After the U.S. Supreme Court overturned their guilty verdicts in 1951, Sheriff Willis McCall picked up Shepard and Irvin from Raiford State Prison to transfer them back to the county. On the way there, McCall pulled to the side of the road and asked the two handcuffed men to change the tire, then shot them both in the chest. \"I got rid of them,\" he told his boss over the radio, \"killed the sons of bitches.\" Walter Irvin survived the shooting, but Samuel Shepard died that day.\n\nIn Tallahassee, memories of the \"little Scottsboro\" case hung over the African-American community in 1954 when the state electrocuted Abraham Beard, a seventeen-year-old black youth accused of raping a white woman. Apart from the race of the accused, the Beard case featured an almost identical cast of characters as the Tallahassee case four years later: an all-white jury had tried and convicted Beard in the same courtroom where Betty Jean Owens faced her attackers. Judge W. May Walker presided and William D. Hopkins served as the state prosecutor. Harry Michaels, Patrick Scarborough's attorney in 1959, served as Beard's court-appointed attorney in 1954. Both the \"little Scottsboro\" and the Beard cases revealed the extent to which the protection of white women served as the ultimate symbol of white male power and the foundation of white supremacy. When African Americans in Tallahassee demanded equal justice for Betty Jean Owens, that foundation began to crumble.\n\nNews that four white men would actually face prosecution for raping a black woman plunged both whites and blacks into largely unfamiliar territory. It not only highlighted the bitter ironies of segregation and \"social equality\" but allowed African Americans to make political use of them. According to the _Pittsburgh Courier_ , the rape case \"is the worst headache the Dixiecrats have ever suffered.\" All of their \"arguments for white supremacy, racial discrimination, and segregation fall by the wayside,\" the _Courier_ argued, and the arguments against school desegregation seem \"childishly futile.\" \"Time and again,\" another newspaper editor argued, \"Southern spokesmen have protested that they oppose integration in the schools only because it foreshadows a total 'mingling of the races.' The implication is that Negroes are hell-bent for intimacy, while whites shrink back in horror.\" \"Perhaps,\" the writer argued, \"as Lillian Smith and other maverick Southerners have suggested, it is not quite that simple.\"\n\nWhile prominent members of Tallahassee's conservative white community expressed their shock and horror at the rape, they continued to stumble into old narratives about race and sex. The indictment helped incite age-old fears of miscegenation and stereotypes of the \"black beast rapist.\" The historian William H. Chafe argues that \"merely evoking the image of 'miscegenation' could often suffice to ring the alarm bells that would mobilize a solid phalanx of white resistance to change.\" For example, white women around Tallahassee began to speak openly about their \"fear of retaliation,\" while young couples avoided parking \"in the country moonlight,\" as one said, \"lest some Negroes should be out hunting in a retaliatory mood.\" Reflecting this fear, as well as the larger concern with \"social equality,\" Florida legislators, like other lawmakers throughout the South, passed a series of racist bills designed to segregate children by sex in order to circumvent the _Brown_ decision and \"reduce the chances of interracial marriage.\" The extent to which the myth of the \"black beast rapist\" was a projection of white fears was never clearer than when the gang rape of a black woman conjured up terror of _black-on-white_ rape. The fact that the black community rallied around Betty Jean Owens threatened white male power\u2014making the myth of the black savage a timely political tool.\n\nState prosecutor William Hopkins (photo credit 5.5)\n\nJudge W. May Walker (photo credit 5.6)\n\nBlack leaders from all over the country eagerly used the rape case for their own political purposes as well. Most focused on the lynching of black men in similar cases, placing the crime against Betty Jean Owens into a larger dialogue about the power struggle between black and white men. As A. D. Williams, a black businessman in Tallahassee, put it, \"The white men are on the spot.\" Reverend Dennis H. Jamison felt that the indictment of four white men indicated a \"better chance at Justice than any involving the races in the South,\" but added, \"still no white men have ever been executed.\" Elijah Muhammad, leader of the Nation of Islam, used almost the exact same language as white supremacists, accusing the \"four devil rapists\" of destroying the \"virginity of our daughters.\" \"Appeals for justice,\" he fumed, \"will avail us nothing... We know there is no justice under the American flag.\" Nearly all the editorials in major black newspapers echoed his sentiments.\n\nElla Baker, the spirited director of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and perhaps the most important grassroots organizer in the South, felt that the evidence in the Tallahassee case was so strong that \"not even an all-white Florida jury could fail to convict.\" Reminding whites of their tendency to mete out unequal justice toward black men, she warned, \"With memories of Negroes who have been lynched and executed on far less evidence, Negro leaders from all over the South will certainly examine every development in this case... What will Florida's answer be?\" The _New York Amsterdam News_ called for equal justice, noting that the \"law which calls for the death sentence does not say that Negro rapists should be punished by death and white rapists should be allowed to live.\" The _Pittsburgh Courier_ bet on acquittal, despite the fact that the case \"is as open and shut as a case can be.\"\n\nAt the annual SCLC meeting in Tallahassee a few days after the indictment, Martin Luther King, Jr., praised the student protesters for giving \"hope to all of us who struggle for human dignity and equal justice.\" But he tempered his optimism with political savvy, calling on the federal government to force the country to practice what it preached in its Cold War rivalry with the Soviet Union. \"Violence in the South can not be deplored or ignored,\" King declared, directing his criticism at President Dwight Eisenhower; \"without effective action, the situation will worsen.\" King exploited a political context in which America's racial problems were increasingly an international issue. The BBC broadcast segments of the FAMU student speeches condemning the rape and racial injustice, while newspapers throughout Europe watched the case closely. A black soldier stationed in Germany winced when a German man mocked American rhetoric of democracy. \"It is funny that you are over here to protect us from the Russians,\" he said, \"when there is no one to protect your people from the KKK and white Americans.\"\n\nKing exploited the chasm between rhetoric and reality to highlight the injustice of Jim Crow. \"It is ironical that these un-American outrages occur as our representatives confer in Geneva to expand democratic principles... It might well be necessary and expedient,\" King threatened, \"to appeal to the conscience of the world through the Commission on Human Rights of the United Nations.\" This international angle was a strategy shared by mainstream integrationists, leftist radicals, and black nationalists alike. Audley \"Queen Mother\" Moore, leader of the Universal Association of Ethiopian Women, petitioned the United Nations Human Rights Commission in person to end the \"planned lynch terror and willful destruction of our people.\" She tied issues of race, gender, sex, and citizenship together by demanding Justice Department assistance for Betty Jean Owens's rape case, an FBI investigation of the Mack Charles Parker lynching, and basic voting rights.\n\nRobert F. Williams, militant president of the Monroe, North Carolina, chapter of the NAACP and leader of the defense in the 1958 \"Kissing Case,\" insisted that African Americans stand their ground and defend themselves. The Parker lynching, the Tallahassee rape case, and two local cases where white men stood accused of attacking black women inspired Williams to defend racial pride and black womanhood. On May 5, 1959, Williams and a group of angry black women converged on the Union County Courthouse to hear testimony in two trials. Georgia Davis White, a maid at the Hotel Monroe, accused Brodus F. Shaw, a white railroad engineer, of beating and kicking her down a flight of stairs after she allegedly disturbed his sleep. The judge dismissed the charges against Shaw, even though he did not show up for court. That same day white jurors giggled while Mrs. Mary Ruth Reed, a pregnant black sharecropper, testified that Lewis Medlin, a white mechanic, attempted to rape her in front of her five children. In an effort to get help, she scooped up her youngest child and ran across a field. Medlin knocked her down and pummeled her until a neighbor finally heard her screams and called the police. In court, Medlin's attorney argued that he had been drinking and was \"just having a little fun.\" Then, turning to the white jurors, the attorney pointed to the woman sitting next to Medlin. \"You see this pure white woman, this pure flower of life?\" he said. \"... This is Medlin's wife... Do you think he would have left this pure flower, God's greatest gift,\" he asked, \"for _that?\"_ Reed burst into tears as the jury broke for deliberation. Less than ten minutes later they returned a not guilty verdict.\n\nThe black women with Williams were furious. Before the trial, they had wanted to \"go and machine gun [Medlin's] house,\" but Williams had urged them to let the courts handle it. \"We would be as bad as the white people if we resorted to violence,\" he told them. Since the judge and jury had virtually laughed Reed out of court, the women blamed Williams. \"I had kept the black men in the community from killing this man,\" Williams said bitterly. The shocking indifference of the verdict enraged Williams. \"We didn't have as much protection as a dog down there,\" he said later, \"and the Government didn't care about us.\" Turning to the reporters left in the courtroom, Williams demanded a response. \"We cannot rely on the law,\" he said. \"We get no justice under the present system. If we feel that injustice is done, we must right then and there on the spot be prepared to inflict punishment on these people.... If it's necessary to stop lynching with lynching,\" he argued, \"then we must be willing to resort to this method.\" Williams's exhortation set off a national controversy, culminating at the 1959 national NAACP convention where the executive secretary, Roy Wilkins, suspended Williams for his stance. Williams defended his position by citing the tragedy in Tallahassee. \"The young prom escorts of the co-ed who was kidnapped and raped at gunpoint by four white men in Tallahassee,\" he insisted, \"would have been justified in defending the girl had they had weapons.\" \"We as men,\" he stated to the delegates, \"should stand up as men and protect our women and children.\"\n\nRoy Wilkins shared Williams's gender and race politics but not his methods for achieving justice. In a letter to Florida governor LeRoy Collins, a moderate segregationist with national political ambitions, he invoked the lynchings of Mack Charles Parker and Emmett Till, noting that the victims' skin color alone kept them from receiving a fair trial and that their deaths created political embarrassment at home and abroad. \"Full punishment has been certain and swift in cases involving a white victim and a Negro accused,\" he said, \"but the penalty has neither been certain nor heavy in cases involving a Negro victim and a white accused... For these reasons,\" Wilkins threatened, \"all eyes will be upon the state of Florida.\"\n\nOn June 12, 1959, at least four hundred people witnessed Betty Jean Owens face her attackers and testify on her own behalf. Owens approached the witness box with her head bowed. She wore a white embroidered blouse and a black-and-salmon-checked skirt. Gold earrings drew attention to her close haircut and sharp cheekbones. The African-American press cast her into the role of respectable ladyhood by characterizing her as a middle-class coed \"raised in a hard-working Christian household\" with parents devoted to the \"simple verities of life that make up the backbone of our democracy.\" Unlike white women, who were often able to play the role of \"fair maiden\" before a lynch mob worked its will on their alleged attackers, Betty Jean Owens had to tell her story in front of hundreds of white people in a segregated institution. She knew that the four white men who raped her might go unpunished.\n\nRain pattered against the courtroom windows as state prosecutor William Hopkins asked Owens to detail the attack from the moment she and her friends left the Florida A&M dance. \"We were only parked near Jake Gaither Park for fifteen minutes,\" she said, when \"four white men pulled up in a 1959 blue Chevrolet.\" She identified Patrick Scarborough as the man who yelled, \"Get out and get out now,\" as he poked the shotgun into her date's face. When Owens began to cry, David Beagles pressed a \"wicked looking foot long knife\" to her throat and forced her down to the ground. He then pulled her up, slapped her, and said, \"you haven't anything to worry about.\" Owens testified that Beagles pushed her \"into the car and the boy with the knife then pushed my head down in his lap and yelled at me to be quiet or I would never get home.\" \"I knew I couldn't get away,\" she said. \"I thought they would kill me if I didn't do what they wanted me to do.\"\n\nShe continued with the horrible details. As the car pulled off the highway and into the woods, \"the one with the knife pulled me out of the car and laid me on the ground.\" Owens was still wearing the gold and white evening gown; they tugged at her dress and, she testified, \"pulled my panties off.\" She then told how each one raped her while she was \"begging them to let me go.\" \"I was so scared,\" she said, \"but there was nothing I could do with four men, a knife, and a gun... I couldn't do anything but what they said.\" Owens testified that the men eagerly watched one another have intercourse with her the first time around but lost interest during the second round. \"Two of them were working on taking the car's license plate off,\" she said, \"while the oldest one\" offered her some whiskey. \"I never had a chance to get away,\" she said quietly. \"I was on the ground for two or three hours before the one with the knife pushed me back into the car.\"\n\nAfter the men collectively raped her seven times, Owens continued, Stoutamire and Beagles blindfolded her with a baby's diaper, pushed her onto the floorboards of the car, and drove away. When she heard the police sirens and felt the car stop, she pulled the blindfold down and began yelling for help. After police ordered the men out of the car, Owens recalled, \"I was so scared and weak and nervous that I just fell on the ground and that is the last thing I remember.\"\n\nBetty Jean Owens then described the physical injuries she sustained from the attack. \"One arm and one leg,\" she said, \"were practically useless\" to her for several days while she was at the FAMU hospital. A nurse had to accompany her to the grand jury hearing a few days after the attack, and she needed medication for severe depression. She also had a large bruise on her breast where the bodice stay from her dress dug into her skin as the four men pressed their bodies into hers. Asking her to identify some of the exhibits, her lawyer William Hopkins flipped open the switchblade used the night of the attack, startling some of the jurors. Immediately the three defense attorneys jumped up and called for a mistrial. \"By flashing the knife,\" they argued, \"Mr. Hopkins tried to inflame the jury and this prejudiced their clients' constitutional rights to a fair trial.\" Judge Walker denied their motion, signaling Hopkins to continue.\n\nWhen asked whether she consented, Owens clearly told Hopkins and the jury, \"No sir, I did not.\"\n\n\"Was it against your will?\" Hopkins asked.\n\n\"Definitely,\" she replied.\n\nDefense attorneys grilled Owens for more than an hour, trying to prove she consented because she never struggled to get away, and that she actually enjoyed the sexual encounter. \"Didn't you derive any pleasure from that?... Didn't you?\" attorney Howard Williams yelled repeatedly. Williams kept pressing her, \"Why didn't you yell or scream out?\"\n\n\"I was afraid they would kill me,\" Owens said quietly.\n\nShe showed signs of anger when Williams repeatedly asked if she was a virgin, attempting to characterize her as a stereotypical black jezebel. Owens retained her composure, refused to answer questions about her chastity, and resisted efforts to shame her. The defense made a last-ditch effort to discredit Owens by arguing that if the young men had actually raped her and threatened her life, she would have sustained more severe injuries.\n\nProceeding with the state's case, attorney Hopkins called the doctors, both black and white, who had examined Owens after the attack. They told the jury that they found her in a terrible condition and that she \"definitely had sexual relations\" that caused injuries that required a five-day hospital stay. Richard Brown, Thomas Butterfield, and Edna Richardson took the stand next. They all corroborated Owens's testimony, adding that after the attack, Owens was \"crying, hysterical, and jerking all over.\" Brown testified that Scarborough pointed the shotgun into his car window and ordered him and Butterfield to kneel in front of its headlights. Defense attorney John Rudd, a city judge who had been especially rough on African Americans during the 1956 bus boycott, asked Brown on cross-examination whether it was a \"single or double barrel shotgun they pointed into your car?\"\n\nBrown replied, \"I only saw one barrel, sir.\"\n\nLaughter rolled down from the balcony, upsetting Rudd. \"I cannot work with this duress and disorder at my back, a boy's life is at stake here!\"\n\nJudge Walker called for order and reprimanded the spectators.\n\nWhen the prosecution finally rested its case at eight-thirty P.M., defense attorneys moved for a directed verdict of acquittal, claiming the state failed to prove anything except sexual intercourse. Judge Walker denied the motion and insisted the defense return the next day to present their case.\n\nAmid a sea of people in the tiny courtroom, David Beagles, a towheaded eighteen-year-old high school student with a crew cut, sat rigidly on the stand, pushing a ring back and forth on his finger as he answered questions from his attorney. His mother buried her head in her arms as she listened to her son tell the jury his side of the story. Beagles testified that he had a knife and Collinsworth had a shotgun. The four of them, he said, were out \"looking around for Negroes who had been parking near Collinsworth's neighborhood and bothering them.\" When they came upon the Florida A&M students, Beagles admitted holding the switchblade, but then said he put it away when he saw they were dressed in formal wear. He admitted that they ordered Brown and Butterfield to drive away, but insisted that he _\"asked_ the girls to get into the car.\" He denied the rape, arguing that Owens consented and even asked them to take her \"back to school to change her dress.\"\n\nUnder cross-examination, Beagles admitted that he \"pushed her, just once... not hard,\" into the car; that he said, \"If you do what we want you to, we'll let you go,\" and then blindfolded her with a diaper after the attack. Defense attorney Howard Williams then asked Judge Walker to remove the jury, as Beagles detailed the confession he made the night of the crime. Williams argued that when police officers arrested the young men, they \"were still groggy from a night of drinking,\" making their taped confessions inadmissible. Under Hopkins's cross-examination, however, Beagles admitted that his confession was entirely voluntary and that he actually looked over the written statement and made an adjustment.\n\nPatrick Scarborough, a twenty-year-old who was AWOL from the air force, admitted that he was married to a woman in Texas and testified that he had intercourse with Owens twice. He emphatically denied using force, despite the fact that he acknowledged that there was one shell in the barrel of his shotgun and two in the magazine. When Hopkins questioned him, Scarborough admitted that Owens pleaded, \"Please don't hurt me,\" but insisted that she offered \"no resistance.\" He denied kissing her at first, and then said he kissed her on the neck while he had sex with her.\n\nDefense attorneys tried a series of contradictory approaches to win over the jury. First, they focused on discrediting Owens instead of defending their clients, because the prosecution repeatedly drew self-incriminating information from them. Then they tried to use each man's ignorance to prove his innocence, highlighting their low IQs and poor educations. When that failed, they detailed the dysfunctional histories of each defendant. Attorney Harry Michaels told the jury that Patrick Scarborough's juvenile record was the result of a sorry childhood. His mother died when he was born, Michaels told the jury, his father committed suicide shortly thereafter, and his grandparents reared him.\n\nSimilarly, character witnesses for William Collinsworth described his sordid home life and drinking problem. Nearly every member of Collinsworth's family took the stand, spilling sorrowful stories about their poverty and dysfunction. His sister, Maudine Reeves, broke down on the stand and had to be taken to the hospital. His wife, Pearlie, told the jury through sobs and tears that he was \"not himself when he was drunk,\" but when he was sober, \"you couldn't ask for a better husband.\" She failed to mention on the stand what her letter to the judge made explicit: that her husband regularly beat her.\n\nUnable to achieve any real sympathy, defense attorneys switched gears and attempted to portray their clients as reputable young men who were incapable of rape. Friends and family members lined up to testify that these young men \"were good boys\" and that defendant Ollie Stoutamire in particular had dropped out of school after the sixth grade, but had \"nothing but pure and moral intentions.\"\n\nFinally, the defense appealed to the jury's prejudices in both more and less predictable ways. Owens was a jezebel, they insisted, and could not have been raped. But attorneys for Collinsworth blamed his actions on the \"Indian blood\" pulsing through his veins. Pensacola psychiatrist Dr. W. M. C. Wilhoit backed him up when he argued that \"it is a known fact that individuals of the Indian race react violently and primitively when psychotic or intoxicated.\" When Collinsworth added alcohol to his \"Indian blood,\" Wilhoit argued, \"he was unable to discern the nature and quality of the crime in question.\"\n\nThe attorney for Stoutamire, City Judge John Rudd, blamed \"outside agitators.\" The defendants are \"being publicized and ridiculed to satisfy sadists and people in other places,\" Rudd yelled during closing arguments. \"Look at that little skinny, long legged sixteen-year-old boy. Does he look like a mad rapist who should die... Should we kill or incarcerate that little boy because he happened to be in the wrong place at the wrong time?\"\n\nIn their summations to the jury, defense attorneys S. Gunter Toney and Harry Michaels followed Rudd's lead. \"The crime here is insignificant,\" they said. \"... The pressure, clamor, and furor are completely out of proportion.\" Pointing to Scarborough, Michaels told the jury \"his motives, intentions, and designs that night were wholesome, innocent and decent.\" The fact that Owens could \"have easily walked ten feet into the woods where nobody could find her,\" Michaels said, proved that she consented. Waving her gold-and-white gown in front of the jury, he pointed out that it was \"not soiled or torn,\" which he said proved no brutality was involved. Finally, he called for an acquittal, arguing that the jury could not possibly convict on the basis of \"only one witness\u2014the victim, and confessions that admitted only one fact\u2014sexual intercourse.\" Sitting in the segregated balcony, Charles U. Smith, a sociologist at Florida A&M University, gasped when he heard Williams yell, \"Are you going to believe this nigger wench over these four boys?\"\n\nIn his closing argument, prosecuting attorney William Hopkins grabbed the shotgun and Betty Jean Owens's prom dress and appealed to the jury for a conviction. \"Suppose two colored boys and their moron friends attacked Mrs. Beagles' daughter... had taken her at gunpoint from a car and forced her into a secluded place and regardless of whether they secured her consent or not, had intercourse with her seven times, leaving her in such a condition that she collapsed and had to be hospitalized?\" Betty Jean Owens, he said, \"didn't have a chance in the world with four big boys, a loaded gun and a knife. She was within an inch of losing her life... she was gang-raped SEVEN times.\" \"When you get to the question of mercy,\" he told the jury, \"consider that they wouldn't even let that little girl whimper.\"\n\nRestless spectators, squeezed into every corner of the segregated courthouse, crowded back into their seats when jurors emerged after three hours of deliberation with a decision. An additional three hundred African Americans held a silent vigil outside. A. H. King, the jury foreman and a local plantation owner, slowly read aloud the jury's decision for all four defendants: \"guilty with a recommendation for mercy.\" The recommendation for mercy saved the four men from the electric chair and, according to the _Baltimore Afro-American_ , \"made it inescapably clear that the death penalty for rape is only for colored men accused by white women.\" A. H. King defended the mercy ruling by arguing that \"there was no brutality involved\" and insisted, implausibly, that the decision would have been the same \"if the defendants had been four Negroes.\" Judge Walker deferred sentencing for fifteen days, cleared the courtroom, and sent the four white men to Raiford prison.\n\nAfrican Americans and whites outside the Leon County Courthouse in Tallahassee eagerly await the verdict of four white men accused of raping Betty Jean Owens, a black college student. (photo credit 5.7)\n\nAfrican Americans who attended the trial quietly made their way home after the bittersweet verdict. The _Pittsburgh Courier_ reported that \"throughout Negro Tallahassee, there was resentment that the rapists had not been given the death sentence.\" The verdict cast a pall of gloom, the article continued, \"thick enough to be cut with a knife.\" Betty Jean Owens's mother told reporters that she was \"just happy that the jury upheld my daughter's womanhood.\" Reverend A. J. Reddick, former head of the Florida NAACP, snapped, \"If it had been Negroes, they would have gotten the death penalty.\" \"Florida,\" he said, \"has maintained an excellent record of not veering from its pattern of never executing a white man for the rape of a Negro,\" but he acknowledged that the conviction was \"a step forward.\" Owens showed a similar ambivalence in an interview by the _Amsterdam News_. \"It is something,\" she said. \"I'm grateful that twelve white men believed the truth, but I still wonder what they would have done if one of our boys raped a white girl.\"\n\nFlorida A&M students, who had criticized Butterfield and Brown for failing to protect black womanhood a week earlier, were visibly upset after the trial. In fact, letters to the editors of many African-American newspapers condemned the two men and all black men for failing to protect \"their\" women. Mrs. C.A.C. in New York City felt that all Negro men were \"mice\" and not worthy of respect because \"they stand by and let the white men do anything they want to our women.\" She then warned all black men that they \"would never have freedom until [they] learn to stand up and fight.\" In a letter to the _Baltimore Afro-American_ , a black man accepted her challenge: \"Unless we decide to protect our own women,\" he argued, \"none of them will be safe.\" Some African-American women felt they should protect themselves. A white woman sent her black maid home one day after she came to work with a knife, \"in case any white man came after her,\" reported the _Tallahassee Democrat_. Still, many felt that \"someone should have burned.\"\n\nDespite their anger at the unequal justice meted out, some African Americans in the community considered the guilty verdict a victory. The Reverend C. K. Steele, Jr., head of the Tallahassee chapter of the SCLC, reminded others that four white men \"wouldn't have even been arrested twenty years ago.\" The Reverend Lowery, state president of the Florida NAACP, saw a strategy in the mercy recommendation. He thought that it could help \"Negroes more in the long run\" by setting a precedent for equal justice in future rape cases. Later that summer, for example, Leon A. Lowery and others helped launch a successful campaign to highlight the unequal justice meted out for black men accused of raping white women. They asked Governor LeRoy Collins to commute the sentences of four black men who lingered on death row. A white jury sentenced Ralph Williams to death for having a consensual relationship with a white woman; John Edward Paul confessed to raping a white woman after police tortured him and shot him in the foot; an all-white jury sentenced Sam Wiley Odum to death after only six minutes, despite the fact that he had an alibi and was nowhere near the alleged rape victim; and Jimmie Lee Clark was sentenced to the electric chair for attempted rape, though police beat a confession out of him.\n\nAfter Judge Walker handed down a stern lecture and life sentences to the four white men on June 21, 1959, some African Americans in Tallahassee applauded what they felt was a significant step in the right direction. Betty Jean Owens's mother argued that the conviction and life sentence were \"open vindication for my daughter.\" Her daughter told the _Baltimore Afro-American_ , \"I feel better now for the first time since it happened.\" \"For the first time I feel safe,\" Owens said. \"After the jury recommended mercy,\" she continued, \"I thought that one or two of them might have been turned loose and that the others would get short terms. And that was why I was afraid... I felt they would come back and do something to me.\" Owens's intuition would prove correct. According to the _Chicago Defender_ , when David Beagles was paroled in 1965, he sought retribution. Four years after his release, he allegedly tracked down and murdered a thirty-year-old black woman and buried her body in a shallow grave. He thought it was Owens. Instead, it was Betty Jean Robinson Houston, an entirely different woman.\n\nUnlike Owens and her family, many others exhibited outrage at the verdict. Roy Wilkins praised it as a move toward equal justice, but acknowledged in a private letter the \"glaring contrast that was furnished by the Tallahassee verdict.\" In light of the recent lynching of Mack Charles Parker, no one really had to wonder what would have happened had the attackers been black. Editors of the _Louisiana Weekly_ called the trial a \"figment and a farce\" and insisted that anyone who praised the verdict \"confesses that he sees nothing wrong with exacting one punishment for white offenders and another, more severe for others.\" The editors of the _New York Amsterdam News_ were \"outraged\" by the verdict. \"We are not going to place ourselves in the ludicrous position of saying that we're satisfied. The verdict of guilty was the very least we expected,\" the editors wrote. \"It was obvious they were guilty from the start... They were caught at the scene, made confessions, and the victim clearly identified them.\" Anyone who said the \"half-loaf they got represents progress,\" they argued, \"is simply making a virtue out of the vice of appeasement and laying the groundwork for the same unjust system to continue for the next one hundred years.\"\n\nThe simple fact of the conviction was too much for some whites, who felt that sending four white men to jail for raping a black woman upset the entire foundation of white dominion. Many believed the guilty verdict was the result of a \"Communist-inspired\" NAACP conspiracy, which would ultimately lead to \"miscegenation.\" Letters to Judge Walker featured a host of common fears and racist stereotypes of black men and women. One man reminded the judge that a conviction \"would play into the hands of the Warren Court, the NAACP, and all other radical enemies of the South... even though the nigger wench probably had been with a dozen men before.\" Mrs. Laura Cox told Judge Walker in a letter that she feared this case would strengthen desegregation efforts, posing a direct threat to white children who might attend integrated schools. \"If the South is integrated,\" she argued, \"white children will be in danger because the Negroes carry knives, razors, ice picks, and guns practically all the time.\" Petitioning Judge Walker for leniency, Bill Arens reminded him that \"Negro women like to be raped by the white men\" and that \"something like this will help the Supreme Court force this low bred race ahead, making whites live and eat with him and allow his children to associate with the little apes, grow up and marry them.\"\n\nThis cartoon, featured in an African-American newspaper, places sexual violence at the center of the civil rights campaign for equal justice. It also demonstrates African Americans' belief that historically, Southern white men went unpunished for sexually assaulting black women, even when they admitted to the crime. May 16, 1959. (photo credit 5.8)\n\nIt is ironic that a rape case involving a black woman and four white men would conjure up images of the black brute chasing white women with the intent to mongrelize the white race. The Tallahassee case attests to the persistence of such images decades after Reconstruction, when the mythological incubus took flight, justifying mob violence and a reign of terror throughout the South. To be sure, anxieties about the black beast rapist and fears of \"miscegenation\" conveniently surfaced when white men feared losing their monopoly on power.\n\nDespite segregationists' efforts to maintain the status quo, the conviction signaled an enormous break with the past. While the verdict was due largely to the confluence of localized issues\u2014a politically mobilized middle-class African-American community; the lower-class status of the defendants, who were politically expendable; Florida's status as a \"moderate\" Southern state dependent on outside tourism; and media pressure\u2014the case itself was rooted in a decades-long struggle for black women's bodily integrity that had far-reaching consequences. Like the Recy Taylor case, the Tallahassee case focused national attention on the sexual exploitation of black women by white men. The life sentences helped secure convictions elsewhere that summer. In Montgomery, Alabama, Grady F. Smith, a retired air force colonel, was sentenced to fourteen months of hard labor for raping a seventeen-year-old African-American girl. In Raleigh, North Carolina, Ralph Lee Betts, a white thirty-six-year-old ex-convict, was sentenced to life imprisonment for kidnapping and molesting an eleven-year-old African-American girl. And in Beaufort, South Carolina, an all-white jury sentenced a white marine named Fred G. Davis to the electric chair\u2014a first in the history of the South\u2014for raping a forty-seven-year-old African-American woman.\n\nBetty Jean Owens's grandmother recognized the historic and political significance of the verdicts. \"I've lived to see the day,\" she said, \"where white men would really be brought to trial for what they did.\" The _Louisiana Weekly_ argued that the verdict \"indicates that the South is, after one hundred years, moving toward equal justice.\" For nearly a century, the editors argued, \"the white South has excused the white man involved in the ugly crime of rape of a Negro woman, but became incensed like wild men if it was the other way around. Just take a look at the complexion of the 'darker' race in the South and you'll find that amalgamation is not something that is about to start, but what started one hundred years ago.\"\n\nJohn McCray, the editor of the South Carolina _Lighthouse and Informer_ , realized the importance of guilty verdicts. \"From personal observation and civil work,\" McCray noted, \"our women have been molested and their defilers allowed to go free for the last quarter of a century. This forced intimacy,\" he said \"goes back to the days of slavery when our women were the chattel property of white men.\" For McCray, the life sentences indicated a new day: \"Are we now witnessing the arrival of our women?\" he asked. \"Are they at long last gaining the emancipation they've needed?\" James Booker, a writer for the _Amsterdam News_ , took it a step further: the Tallahassee case, he said, \"will go down in history as the turning point in the struggle of Negroes for equal justice.\"\n\nIt is not a coincidence that black college students sparked the sit-in movement soon after Betty Jean Owens was brutally raped. Patricia Stephens Due, who felt that the rape symbolized an attack on the dignity of all African Americans, organized Tallahassee's first Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) chapter just six weeks after Owens's trial. Florida A&M CORE members launched an uneventful sit-in campaign that fall. A year later, in the spring of 1960, they successfully desegregated local lunch counters, theaters, and department stores, as did black college students throughout the South.\n\nThe sit-in movement spread rapidly across the South after four North Carolina A&T students demanded service at Woolworth's lunch counter in Greensboro on February 1, 1960. By the end of the week, hundreds of black college students jammed Greensboro's segregated lunch counters and restaurants, quietly demanding service and stubbornly refusing to leave, even when angry whites poured ketchup on their heads, put cigarettes out on their necks, and pummeled them with their fists. Although the students targeted restaurants, their goals were, according to activist Ella Baker, \"bigger than a hamburger or a giant-sized Coke.\" The students carried signs condemning the \"lack of dignity and respect\" shown to them and demanded universal human rights. \"I felt as though I had gained my manhood,\" Franklin McCain, one of the four pioneers, said later. By the end of February, black college students had launched sit-ins in thirty-one cities and eight states across the South.\n\nDuring the next three years, the nation and the world witnessed African Americans risking their lives for human rights during the Freedom Rides in 1961; watched \"Bull\" Connor unleash snarling police dogs on black children during the Birmingham movement in 1963; heard about Martin Luther King, Jr.'s, dream at the Lincoln Memorial; and saw investigators pull the bodies of three voter registration workers out of an earthen dam in Philadelphia, Mississippi, in 1964.\n\nDespite the almost unlimited media focus on racial violence, interracial rape cases no longer made national headlines. A cursory glance at newspapers in the early 1960s might suggest that white-on-black rape had abated and that black women were relatively safe from white racial and sexual violence. But the \"Second Reconstruction\" was nearly as violent and dangerous for black women as the first, when white Southerners had used rape as a \"weapon of terror\" to reclaim their power after the Civil War.\n\nAfrican-American women made up the bulk of the 257 Florida A&M University students who were arrested for protesting segregated movie theaters in Tallahassee in the spring of 1963. (photo credit 5.9)\n\nThe Tallahassee verdict proved that a new day had dawned in the South, but it was not yet a new world. During the 1960s black women, particularly voting-rights activists, remained vulnerable to rape and sexualized violence, especially in places where television crews and NAACP organizers could not go: private homes and prison cells. Nowhere was this clearer than in Mississippi, where white supremacy was backed by state leaders and legislators, protected in the courts, and reinforced on the local level by police, the White Citizens' Councils, and the Ku Klux Klan. It was a \"closed society,\" as James W. Silver put it, \"as near to... a police state as anything we have yet seen in America.\" And yet even in the most intransigent part of the country, where sexual violence against black women was endemic, there was a slow transformation taking place.\n\n# CHAPTER 6  \n\"A Black Woman's Body Was Never Hers Alone\"\n\nFANNIE LOU HAMER, A forty-three-year-old sharecropper and freedom fighter from the Mississippi Delta, knew that sexual terror was common in the history of the South. Hamer's grandmother, Liza Bramlett, spoke often of the \"horrors of slavery,\" including stories about \"how the white folks would do her.\" Bramlett's daughter, Hamer's mother, remembered that \"this man would keep her as long as he want to and then he would trade her off for a little heifer calf. Then the other man would get her and keep her as long as he want\u2014she was steady having babies\u2014and trade her off for a little sow pig.\" Twenty of the twenty-three children Bramlett gave birth to were products of rape. At some point, Hamer's mother must have decided death\u2014hers or someone else's\u2014was preferable to her own mother's experience. Fannie Lou Hamer remembered her mother packing a nine-millimeter Luger into their covered lunch bucket, just in case a white man decided to attack her or her children in the cotton fields.\n\nHamer's mother and grandmother taught her the painful truth that in the Mississippi Delta, if not the entire South, a \"black woman's body was never hers alone.\" If she was at all unclear about this lesson, the forced hysterectomy she received in 1961 when she went to the hospital to have a small cyst removed from her stomach left little room for confusion. \"I went to the doctor who did that to me,\" she said, \"and I asked him, 'Why? Why had he done that to me?' He didn't have to say nothing\u2014and he didn't.\" \"He should have told me,\" she said. \"I would have loved to have had children.\" The practice was so common that blacks often called it a \"Mississippi appendectomy.\" Hamer, like other black women who received the same procedure, had little recourse. If she had called a lawyer, she said, \"I would have been taking my hands and screwing tacks into my casket.\" The brutal beating Hamer received in the Winona, Mississippi, jail only reinforced these lessons.\n\nFannie Lou Hamer (photo credit 6.1)\n\nOn June 9, 1963, Fannie Lou Hamer and a group of Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) volunteers returned to Mississippi from a citizenship training school in Charleston, South Carolina. At a rest stop in Winona, Mississippi, just thirty miles from the Delta town of Greenwood, police arrested Hamer and her companions for attempting to desegregate the bus terminal's lunch counter and drove them to the local jail. The county sheriff met the black women at the door. \"I been hearing about you black sons of bitches over in Greenwood, raising all that hell,\" he said. \"You come over here to Winona, you'll get the hell whipped out of you.\" He was not kidding. Once in custody, each activist received a savage and sexually abusive beating by the Winona police.\n\nOfficers first assaulted and sexually humiliated June Johnson, a beautiful and statuesque sixteen-year-old. Everyone in the jail must have heard Johnson's screams and the thump of fists and boots hitting flesh as policemen yelled, \"We're going to teach you how to say 'yes, sir' to a Mississippi white man.\" According to Hamer, the officers \"tore off most of her clothes\" and then forced her to strip off the rest as they watched. Johnson's coworkers gasped when they saw her naked, bloody body and \"bulging\" eye as she stumbled back to her cell.\n\nOfficers then brutalized Annelle Ponder, a coordinator for the Southern Christian Leadership Conference and organizer of the trip. Three policemen took turns viciously beating her with a \"blackjack... belt, fists and open palms,\" while berating her for not showing racial deference. \"I want to hear you say 'Yes Sir,' nigger,\" one officer yelled repeatedly. \"They really wanted to make me say 'yes, sir,' \" Ponder recalled, \"and that is the one thing I wouldn't say.\" When the police finished pounding Ponder, they directed their fury at Fannie Lou Hamer.\n\nHamer, a stocky, churchgoing woman with a powerful singing voice, had worked as a field secretary for SNCC since B. D. Marlowe, her former employer and plantation owner in Sunflower County, fired her for registering to vote in the fall of 1962. Sunflower was home to both Parchman penitentiary and Senator James O. Eastland, both notorious symbols of white supremacy. Hamer and her husband, \"Pap,\" had worked on Marlowe's plantation for eighteen years, but once she stepped outside the narrow confines of Jim Crow, Marlowe kicked her off his land and notified the local White Citizens' Council, which harassed her and Pap relentlessly. Unable to find a job, she became an organizer for SNCC.\n\nFor over a year, Mrs. Hamer had been traveling around the Mississippi Delta rousing local blacks with her witty and bold speeches, soul-stirring songs, and fervid commitment to the plight of the poor. Robert Jackall, a Georgetown professor who volunteered in Sunflower County in 1967, was struck by Hamer's charisma. It was \"her unvarnished, earthy forcefulness, devoid of all pretense,\" he said; \"her unshakeable conviction in the justness of her cause, proved by her personal sufferings and the risks she continued to take; her ennobling vision of racial harmony and of personal redemption for those who seek it; and her ability to articulate her ideas with a powerful religious rhetoric that had deep resonance for her audience but that had no trace of practiced cant.\" Hamer concentrated her efforts in Greenwood, home of the White Citizens' Council and the center of SNCC's Delta activities. Her leadership inspired working people scarred by poverty and racism, but it also made her a constant target of intimidation, harassment, and sexualized violence.\n\n\"You bitch,\" one officer yelled, \"we going to make you wish you was dead.\" He ordered two black inmates to beat Hamer with a \"long wide blackjack,\" while other patrolmen battered \"her head and other parts of her body.\" As they ruthlessly beat her, Hamer felt them repeatedly, \"pull my dress over my head and try to feel under my clothes.\" When she attempted to pull her dress down in order to, as she put it, \"preserve some respectability through the horror and disgrace,\" a white officer \"walked over, took my dress, pulled it up over my shoulders, leaving my body exposed to five men.\"\n\nHamer found out later that Lawrence Guyot, a civil rights activist who came to the Winona jail to inquire about the women's status, was arrested and sexually tortured as well. \"They forced me to take off my pants,\" Guyot remembered, \"and they threatened my testicles with burning sticks.\" Hamer was sure her attackers were sadists. She remembered their facial expressions during her beating and believed they \"displayed pleasure that was sexual in nature.\"\n\nLike many of her foremothers, Hamer did not shy away from detailing the sexual aspects of her beating. She told her story on national television at the Democratic National Convention in 1964, and to congressmen investigating civil rights abuses in June 1964, and she continued to tell it \"until the day she died,\" offering up her testimony as a form of resistance to the sexual and racial injustice of segregation. Hamer's testimony, like that of other black female civil rights activists abused in Mississippi, Georgia, and Alabama in the early 1960s, countered white supremacist narratives of miscegenation, put segregationists on the defensive, and helped convince President Lyndon B. Johnson to use the power of the federal government to protect civil rights activists.\n\nFannie Lou Hamer was not the only woman willing to speak out publicly against sexualized violence in Southern jails. On June 6, 1963, three days before the Winona incident, Dorothy Height, president of the National Council of Negro Women (NCNW), and Jeanne Noble, president of Delta Sigma Theta, went on WNEW, one of New York City's most popular radio stations, to announce an exclusive report documenting \"indignities to girl freedom demonstrators in Southern prisons.\" Dorothy Height revealed that the leaders of twenty-four women's groups had met a month earlier to hear firsthand accounts of \"brutality and sexual abuse\" from civil rights demonstrators in the South. Respectability and reticence, hallmarks of the black clubwomen's movement in the early twentieth century, gave way to stark testimony as Height told thousands of people listening to the radio that day that black and white female activists in Jackson, Mississippi, \"were raped by attendants at the jails.\" According to Height, the young women who were arrested in Jackson in the spring and summer of 1963 \"had been subjected to internal exams at the hands of attendants there and under very unsanitary conditions.\" One young woman told Jeanne Noble that she was \"asked to strip naked and stand before male prisoners in the yard of the jail\" and was one of many women forced to undergo \"unsanitary and unmedical [ _sic_ ] vaginal exams.\"\n\nTwo trustees carry an African-American woman to the paddy wagon in Jackson, Mississippi, 1963. African-American female activists were often sexually harassed and abused in prisons. (photo credit 6.2)\n\nThe incidents Height and Noble recounted for the radio audience reflected common practices in prisons throughout the South during the civil rights years, though they were rarely documented at the time. When the Freedom Riders poured into Jackson, Mississippi, in the summer of 1961, they were immediately arrested and delivered to Parchman penitentiary, a twenty-thousand-acre prison farm in the middle of the Delta and the most fearsome prison in the South. Officers herded the demonstrators into exam rooms with cattle prods, where both men and women \"were ordered to strip naked for thorough body searches.\" The women endured \"rough, painful vaginal searches,\" by prison guards who used gloves dipped in Lysol.\n\nIn Clarksdale, Mississippi, police arrested Miss Bessie Turner for allegedly stealing money and then viciously flogged her. Turner told SNCC officials later that police made her \"pull up [her] dress and pull down [her] panties\" and then began to whip her with a \"wide leather strap.\" When that failed to coerce an admission out of her, the officer told Turner to \"turn over an _[sic]_ open your legs and let me see how you look down there.\" He then took the leather strap and hit her \"between [her] legs.\" Not quite satisfied, the officer made Turner stand up and expose her breasts. \"He said he was looking for the money in my bra,\" she testified later.\n\nUnita Blackwell, a SNCC activist from Mayersville, Mississippi, remembered how dangerous it was to organize in rural areas. \"Every time I drove down the highway, I knew I might be arrested,\" she said. \"One time I was coming from Yazoo City and met the police. I had on pants and he made me take them off.\" He stared for a bit, then turned to another officer, and according to Blackwell, said, \"You want some of this?\"\n\nMississippi police did not hold a monopoly on the sexual humiliation and abuse of black women. According to a SNCC report, some of the worst incidents occurred in jails in southwest Georgia in the fall of 1962 and spring of 1963. Faith Holsaert, a SNCC field secretary in Albany, Georgia, was \"obscenely questioned\" by the police and \"fondled by officers during her booking.\" She was also sexually intimidated, she said, when officers \"propositioned\" her. Other SNCC workers were, she said, \"forced to strip to their panties,\" and at least one girl was sexually assaulted. LaVette Christian, a local teenager from a movement family, woke up in the middle of the night to find a prison official \"standing over her.\" According to SNCC documents, he \"started rubbing her arms and legs\" and she kept telling him \"No, no.\" Police threw Mrs. Marion King in the Albany jail in July 1962 when she was seven months pregnant. \"Police officers shoved her, kicked her and punched her in the face,\" the SNCC report said, \"causing her to fall to the ground and lose consciousness.\" One month later King gave birth to a stillborn baby.\n\nA report issued by the Medical Committee for Human Rights, an organization of physicians designed to provide medical assistance during Freedom Summer, showed that Georgia was not alone in its deployment of sexual abuse. The report documented \"extreme sexual brutality\" in Jackson, Mississippi, where police hit male activists' testicles with clubs, pulled women's dresses up, fondled their breasts, and ogled them while they were given vaginal exams.\n\n\"As a woman,\" Jeanne Noble exclaimed on WNEW, \"I can think of no greater indignity than rape... or sexual exposure... or unsanitary conditions.\" Height agreed and said that was why she called a special conference. The women's organizations that attended, Height said, \"came away... determined that this is one thing we could do as women... We could speak out and work toward the elimination of these horrible atrocities that seem to be vented against women and girls.\" These abuses, which often occurred behind closed doors and were exposed only months later, garnered neither the media coverage nor the organizational support necessary to stop them from happening. Height and Noble deviated from their own organizations' historic silence surrounding sexual violence by exposing the reality of rape and sexual abuse in Southern prisons. The National Council of Negro Women and Delta Sigma Theta embraced the tradition of testimony and used their institutional voices as weapons in the war against white supremacy.\n\nPolice crammed a group of teenage girls into a filthy stockade without beds, toilets, or running water in Leesburg, Georgia, after they were arrested for protesting segregation at a movie theater. (photo credit 6.3)\n\nThey also organized. On October 4, 1963, Dorothy Height; Shirley Smith, executive director of the National Women's Committee for Civil Rights; Polly Cowan of the Citizens Committee for Children in New York; and Dr. Dorothy Ferebee, director of health services at Howard University, flew to Selma to bear witness and hear testimony from sixty-five young women and their parents about \"police brutality and hideous jail conditions\" in Dallas County. Young women from Selma had called Height, \"begging her to come see accounts firsthand and make an effort to have women's organizations come to [their] aid.\"\n\nThat night sixty-five teenagers and their parents assembled at First Baptist Church, where they testified about their experiences in Selma's jails. According to Polly Cowan, who recorded the meeting, Dorothy Height skillfully elicited the girls' stories. \"The teenagers had been tossed into cells without room for them all to sit on the floor,\" Cowan recalled. \"They were given no blankets, insufficient drinking water. They had no toilet facilities. There was sawdust in the small amount of food they were served. Salt was substituted for sugar in their coffee.\" There were numerous threats of sexual assault on the girls by local police. The black teenagers told Cowan and Height that the warden threatened them constantly. \"If you don't behave,\" he allegedly said, \"the men prisoners will be let into your cells.\" In order to protect themselves, the female freedom fighters \"huddled together at night, taking turns staying awake in case the guards came in to harass them.\"\n\nAs if to underline the point, about fifty policemen surrounded the church as the clubwomen streamed out. \"They stood in clumps,\" Cowan reported. \"It was dark with only one street light,\" she said, but she could see their weapons: \"clubs, pistols... and cattle prods. The yellow helmets and arm bands added to the impression that this was an invasion.\" Walking out of the meeting into the cluster of police was \"frightening,\" Cowan said. \"One hardly dared to look up from the red dirt of the church parking lot.\" As she walked past one of the state troopers, she noticed his cattle prod dangling from his belt and recalled a story she had heard from a local woman: pointing to one of the electric cattle prods, the mayor of Selma boasted that he could \"make a nigger jump three feet with one of these.\" The social standing of Dorothy Height and the Northern professional women who accompanied her did not exempt them from the threats described in the testimony of the young black women of Selma, Alabama.\n\nIn March 1964 Dorothy Height convened an \"off the record\" meeting in Atlanta with the NCNW, the YWCA, the National Council of Catholic Women, the National Council of Jewish Women, and the Church Women United to \"discuss police brutality and the treatment of women and girls who had been arrested for civil disobedience in the seven most troubled cities.\" In preparation for the meeting, each organization sent delegates to Southern movement towns to document local conditions. At that meeting, the leading clubwomen, whom Polly Cowan called the \"Cadillac Crowd,\" formed an interracial organization that sent teams of women to Mississippi in 1964 to establish ties among white and black women, observe civil rights projects, and bear witness to atrocities.\n\n\"Wednesdays in Mississippi\" helped bring outside resources and much-needed institutional attention to the stark conditions in the Deep South. Unfortunately, the integrated teams of middle-class women spent only one day a week in different towns in Mississippi observing work in Freedom Schools and community service projects. They seemed to be more comfortable doing traditional clubwomen's work, like community service and moral uplift, than documenting sexual abuse on the front lines of the freedom struggle. This strategy ignored black women's struggles with sexual discrimination and sexualized violence, despite the fact that it was an historic and ongoing issue. Though the clubwomen made good connections with local activists, Wednesdays in Mississippi did not translate into an effective program to protect black women from sexual violence.\n\nStories of sexual abuse and violence in Southern jails rarely reached a mass audience during the 1960s. If they received any press at all, it paled in comparison to the national and international attention given to the major civil rights campaigns under way throughout the South. African Americans' victory over Eugene \"Bull\" Connor in Birmingham, Alabama, in the spring of 1963, followed by the successful March on Washington later that summer and the signing of the Civil Rights Act into law on July 2, 1964, mortally wounded Jim Crow and began to dismantle the social and legal underpinnings of segregation. But blacks remained vulnerable to white attacks and were still denied the franchise in many places throughout the South. In Alabama and Mississippi, for example, segregationists were on the defensive, and they dug in\u2014their opposition to black equality became further entrenched, making change difficult and dangerous.\n\nStill, the ability to simply _survive_ white intransigence and federal indifference gave blacks a new sense of empowerment that enabled them to slowly overcome their fears. Endesha Ida Mae Holland, an eighteen-year-old African-American woman, gained a sense of pride and self-worth when SNCC started organizing voter-registration drives in Greenwood in 1962. By pushing aside fears of white violence and joining the local movement, she began to understand what Martin Luther King, Jr., called \"somebodyness.\" \"People started looking up into my face, into my eyes,\" Holland remembered. \"Whereas the whole town, to me, was looking down its nose at me,\" she said, \"the movement said I was _somebody;_ I was _somebody_ , they said.\" It was a message that transformed her life. Just seven years earlier Holland had been the victim of a terrible sexual assault.\n\n\"The movement said I was _somebody_.\" Endesha Ida Mae Holland (far left) with SNCC voting-rights activists. (photo credit 6.4)\n\nOn August 29, 1955, a day after J. W. Milam and Roy Bryant kidnapped Emmett Till, a wealthy white woman named Mrs. Lawrence asked Holland if she would babysit her granddaughter for the day. \"Ida Mae,\" as she was known then, frequently did babysitting and domestic work to help her mother, who spent her days ironing white folks' clothes inside their tiny tarpaper shack. Since it was Ida Mae's eleventh birthday, Mrs. Lawrence promised her two dollars and a \"birthday bonus\" if she would come by their big plantation-style home later that afternoon. After Ida Mae played with the child for a bit, Mrs. Lawrence summoned her upstairs. \"Mr. Lawrence wants to see you and wish you a happy birthday,\" she said. Mrs. Lawrence called her into the bedroom where her husband, a wizened old man, lay beneath crumpled blankets. Mrs. Lawrence tore back the sheets, exposing what Holland called \"his old shriveled _thing_ \u2014a slimy white penis asleep on his pasty leg.\"\n\nThen she scooped Holland up, placed her on top of the bed, and quickly left the room. The old man reached for Holland, \"pulled down [her] shorts and snapped down [her] panties,\" and began to fondle her. She was terrified. Her mother, she said in her memoir, had repeatedly told her to never allow anyone to \"touch [her] down there.\" Holland screamed and \"beat [her] hands against the wall, grabbing and pushing at the same time, looking for something to hold on to.\" Lawrence asked the child if she was enjoying herself, as if she were a grown woman engaged in a consensual act. \"Nawsir,\" Holland replied, \"it hurts.\" The rape lasted for what Holland said \"seemed like a lifetime.\" \"I began to think I was dying,\" she remembered. When Lawrence finished, he handed Holland a five-dollar bill and told her to go downstairs. When Holland opened the door and walked out, Mrs. Lawrence looked at her, as Holland put it, \"without expression, as if she'd gone somewhere else.\" \"But I knew,\" Holland said, \"that _she_ knew the bull had thrown me.\"\n\nHolland's experience was a common one for many African-American girls and women working in white households. Indeed, she suspected the \"bull\" had thrown plenty of other girls her age. Through \"sly innuendo, knowing glances, and telling silences,\" Holland said, she figured about half the girls in Greenwood\u2014maybe even the whole Delta\u2014lived without \"daddies who knew the score about white men and kept their daughters safe by refusing to let them work in white households.\" Of those, she estimated that approximately three-fourths were victims of rape. \"Folks used to tell how, in the South no white man wanted to die without having sex with a black woman,\" Holland said. \"It was just seen as part of life and if you... were black, you were always at the mercy of white people.\" \"You didn't need to be sitting babies or cleaning houses to fall victim to the white man's lust,\" she remembered. \"We could just as easily be picking cotton or walking to the store or spending money in the white man's store when the mood would take him and he'd take us\u2014just like that, like lightning striking.\" Like Fannie Lou Hamer, Holland understood that black women's bodies did not belong to themselves. They \"belonged to everyone,\" she said.\n\nBy the time SNCC organizers came to Greenwood in 1962, Holland was a high school dropout and a prostitute. One day she saw a well-dressed young black man walking through town and decided to follow him, hoping to turn a trick. \"I got it\u2014come an' get it,\" she sang. \"Come and get you some.\" She strutted and sashayed behind him until they reached the local SNCC headquarters. He turned around and asked if she was going to \"help get all these people signed up?\" It was Bob Parris Moses, a twenty-six-year-old, Harlem-born, Harvard-educated math whiz who came to Mississippi in the summer of 1961 as a SNCC organizer to register black voters. Moses introduced Holland to the other volunteers, and before she knew it, she was sitting in front of a typewriter, helping local sharecroppers fill out voter-registration forms. By the end of the day, she felt different. \"Being treated with respect was something wholly new for me,\" she said in her memoir. Holland quit selling sex and joined the freedom movement, eventually becoming a field secretary for SNCC. \"Being around the SNCC people,\" she said later, \"had turned my narrow space into a country bigger than I'd ever imagined.\"\n\nOrganizing helped local people regain a sense of humanity, but they remained vulnerable to white retaliation and physical harm. Bob Moses and other SNCC leaders eventually came to believe that federal indifference would fade only when _white_ bodies and lives were threatened. SNCC proposed a summer project that would recruit hundreds of white students from Northern states to help register Mississippi blacks. The presence of Northern whites, Bob Moses believed, would shine a bright light on the state so the rest of the country could see \"what was really happening.\" Moses made this clear at an orientation session for volunteers. \"When you come South,\" Sally Belfrage, a white volunteer-journalist in Greenwood, remembered Moses saying, \"you bring with you the concern of the country\u2014because the people of the country don't identify with Negroes.\" After requesting federal protection for three years; after the harassment and murder of so many African Americans in Mississippi, the FBI finally responded to black demands and sent in a \"crack team\" to Mississippi on the eve of Freedom Summer. \"Now [that] the federal government is concerned,\" Moses told the volunteers, \"there will be more protection for us, and hopefully for the Negroes who live there.\"\n\nAs Northern volunteers flooded into the state in June 1964, white Mississippians braced themselves for what they considered a military\u2014and sexual\u2014invasion. According to the historian John Dittmer, white Mississippians \"made interracial sex a centerpiece of their attack on the summer project itself.\" The presence of Northern whites, unaccustomed to Jim Crow and uninterested in maintaining Mississippi's white power structure, threatened to undermine the state's racial hegemony and expose white Mississippians to other ways of thinking about race. In order to discredit the goals of Freedom Summer and shore up white solidarity, state and local officials acted as if the student volunteers were an army of amalgamation hell-bent on forcing the state to allow interracial sex and marriage. The arrival of these sex-crazed white \"beatniks\" and \"black rapists\" disguised as civil rights activists propelled whites to rise up in defense of the so-called \"Southern way of life.\" White fears bordered on hysteria. According to _Newsweek_ , many \"believed interracial bands were coming... to start violence\" and assault white women. Some were even convinced that \"black men wearing white bandages on their throats had been designated to rape white women.\" Local newspapers and public officials, _The New York Times_ reported, \"did little to discourage these ideas.\"\n\nReady to meet the \"Army of Amalgamation.\" Allen Thompson (front, center), mayor of Jackson, Mississippi, poses with his police force and armored tank as the city prepares for the arrival of black and white voting-rights volunteers in the summer of 1964. (photo credit 6.5)\n\nTo protect themselves, white Mississippians prepared for war. They stocked up on guns, ammunition, and dynamite and renewed their membership in, or joined, the local Ku Klux Klan. Allen Thompson, the mayor of Jackson, Mississippi, felt that \"Armageddon [was] just around the corner.\" _Newsweek_ reported that Mayor Thompson planned to save his state from these interracial incubi with his \"impressive\u2014and expensive\u2014deterrent force of men and military power.\" Thompson hoped that 450 riot police, 220 new shotguns, six dogs, and a \"13,000 pound armored tank... abristle with shotguns, tear-gas guns and a sub-machine gun,\" would stop the integrated infantry from advancing. \"We're ready for them,\" Thompson told _Newsweek_. \"They won't have a chance.\"\n\nThat hundreds of white women were coming to Mississippi to work for the movement must have made Thompson and his segregationist soldiers seethe with rage. The mere presence of white women in the black community helped make the summer of 1964, according to John Dittmer, \"the most violent since Reconstruction.\" In addition to the tragic murders of Northern volunteer Andrew Goodman and CORE organizers Michael Schwerner and James Chaney in Neshoba County on June 21, 1964, there were at least three other homicides that summer. Additionally, organizers reported more than thirty-five shootings and sixty-five cases of arson at individual homes and movement offices. Klansmen and their allies burned thirty-five black churches to the ground; while police arrested one thousand movement people and eighty activists suffered beatings. Shocking as these numbers are, they do not account for subtle forms of personal abuse and sexual attacks that often went unreported.\n\nSummer volunteers were keenly aware of the fact that white women working alongside black men and sharing conversation or contact with them violated the South's most sacred taboo. If they did not understand this, they quickly learned the rules. Most African-American SNCC workers came of age in the 1950s, when white men had brutally murdered Emmett Till for talking fresh to a white woman; they did not want to subject local blacks to any danger if they could help it. Organizers instructed the white volunteers to abide by local custom and maintain strict separation. This is why so many white female volunteers were confined to office jobs instead of community organizing; it was not simply because of sexism, as some argued later. Still, white women and black men were often seen working together and enjoying one another's company. \"It's one thing to have white women work in the office,\" Chuck McDew, a SNCC worker, remembered. \"It's another [for a black man] to be driving around in rural areas with a white woman sitting by your side. Whites can't handle that. Imaginations just went wild.\" The sight of white women mingling with African Americans, especially black men, constituted the \"ultimate white supremacist nightmare.\" Worse, the sight of interracial couples\u2014whether they were romantic partners or not\u2014\"only added to the rage and sense of impotence of white segregationists,\" Karl Fleming, a correspondent for _Newsweek_ , remembered. \"That is what it was _all_ about, _all_ the time, everywhere,\" Fleming said. \"It was the great underpinning of the whole damn thing\u2014just pure sexual fear.\"\n\nSally Belfrage, a white volunteer whose astute memoir provides one of the most vivid accounts of Freedom Summer, knew that whites' overblown orations about interracial sex masked an all-out effort to defend their position atop the political, economic, and social hierarchy. Integration, she insisted, was nothing new in Mississippi. \"For generations,\" Belfrage argued, whites had been crossing the color line to indulge in what African Americans called \"nighttime integration.\" Belfrage dismissed arguments against \"race mixing\" and the \"mongrelization of the white race\" among opponents of civil rights, since \"the principle was one-sided depending upon the color of the man involved.\" \"It's too late for the white man to start worrying about integration,\" she said, quoting an African-American woman, \"because [he] has already mongrelized the white race and the black one too. The only thing [he] hasn't done,\" she argued, \"is claim [his] children.\" The \"light-skinned products of the sinful doctrine of racial amalgamation,\" Belfrage said, \"were everywhere, and those of us who got up early met the not infrequent sight of white men driving out of the Negro neighborhood at dawn.\"\n\nBelfrage's stark analysis of and witness to white men's appetite for \"nighttime integration\" while feigning disgust for it during the day captured the long history of the racial and sexual subjugation of African Americans and the political maneuvering required to maintain the racial status quo. Like Belfrage's analysis, black women's testimonies concerning the actualities of interracial sexual violence consistently challenged the white supremacist narrative of miscegenation. One story from Grenada, a segregationist stronghold on the eastern edge of the Delta, illustrates this perfectly.\n\nWhen police charged L. J. Loden, a married white man, with raping a sixteen-year-old African-American girl in the summer of 1960, it did not make headlines. Loden's actions were not all that unusual. But when he was forced to stand trial and then convicted of rape on July 27, his world\u2014and that of white men in the Delta\u2014seemed upside down. The victim testified that Loden picked her up on the pretense of hiring her as a housemaid, but when she got into his car, he attacked her. She did not consent, she said at the trial, but actively \"resisted his advances.\" She testified that she struggled to escape and repeatedly stabbed him with a penknife during the assault. When a jury of twelve white men delivered a guilty verdict without recommending mercy, Loden was, by default, sentenced to death.\n\nThe ruling could have had profound implications throughout the state\u2014no white man had ever been sentenced to death for raping a black woman in Mississippi, or in the South for that matter. Between 1940 and 1965, only ten white men were convicted of raping black women or girls in Mississippi despite the fact that it happened regularly. Besides Loden, Clyde Johnson, an Adams County white man, received fifteen years for assault with intent to rape. In Jones County, Laverne Yarbrough was convicted of raping a seven-year-old black child and sentenced to life. He was paroled shortly after sentencing. Bennett Austin and Charles Wiggins were convicted of raping a black teenager and received a paltry two-year sentence. In Brookhaven, Ernest Dillon received twenty years in prison, having confessed to raping a black woman on the eve of her wedding. Robert Hamblin of Union County and Abraham Sloan of Washington County each received one year for attempted rape. And in Yazoo County, the \"gateway to the Delta,\" Bobby Smith received five years for assault with intent to rape a black middle-aged woman. Ten cases scattered over fifteen years and hundreds of miles hardly qualified as justice for a crime that happened as routinely as white-on-black rape.\n\nA death sentence in the Loden case would have fundamentally reordered the infrastructure of white supremacy that had been in place since slavery and shattered the unspoken rule that reserved the state's electric chair for black men. No Mississippi white man, certainly not Circuit Judge Henry Lee Rogers, was going to set _that_ precedent. Rogers recalled the jurors and told them to reconsider. Surely, he chided, they did not \"mean the verdict to read that way.\" Rogers reasoned that the jurors \"did not realize that the 'guilty as charged' verdict made execution mandatory\" and insisted they \"modify [their] verdict.\" As instructed, the white jurors changed their verdict and recommended mercy for Loden. He was finally sentenced to life in prison with the possibility for parole in ten years. In the end, it was both an incredible victory and a stunning loss. It would take an additional five years before Mississippi sentenced a white man, guilty of raping a black teenager, to life in prison without parole. And never, not once, would a white man pay with his life for raping a black woman.\n\nWhen President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act on July 2, 1964, segregation suffered a serious blow but survived. African Americans could now theoretically receive equal treatment in restaurants, hotels, and theaters, but they could not count on access to the ballot nor on the federal government to protect them from physical harm. Southern segregationists remained firmly ensconced in positions of power. However, by the time fall breezes swept Freedom Summer into the past, thousands of black children had attended Freedom Schools; even more African Americans overcame their fears and survived white terror in an effort to be treated like human beings and citizens; and more than eighty thousand African Americans participated in the \"freedom vote,\" a series of mock elections organized by the Council of Federated Organizations (COFO) to dramatize black disfranchisement. COFO's efforts culminated in the organization of the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP), which protested black exclusion from the political process in Mississippi and challenged the state's lily-white delegates at the Democratic National Convention in Atlantic City in August.\n\nBeneath red, white, and blue bunting, among Democrats from all over the country, Fannie Lou Hamer testified in Atlantic City about the savage beating she received in Winona, providing painful details and stark evidence of white reprisals for voter registration. Her emotional testimony challenged the Democratic Party's commitment to civil rights in front of a national television audience. \"Is this America?\" she asked. \"The land of the free and the home of the brave, where we have to sleep with our telephones off the hooks,\" she said, her voice shaking, \"because our lives be threatened daily, because we want to live as decent human beings, in America?\" Hamer's testimony helped push President Johnson to offer the MFDP two at-large seats at the convention, but they refused, arguing that, as Hamer put it, \"we didn't come all this way for no two seats.\" Johnson's meager offer at least proved that Mississippi was no longer a place where whites could torment blacks with complete impunity. African Americans in Mississippi, many of them women who testified about sexual violence, had finally forced federal intervention and congressional action on behalf of their humanity. It was perhaps the most dangerous threat to white hierarchy yet.\n\n\u2022 \u2022 \u2022\n\nDie-hard segregationists responded by mobilizing an army of Klansmen and other rigid racists to discredit and disrupt the freedom struggle. In Selma, Alabama, in 1965, they used the age-old fear of interracial sex and black-on-white rape to unleash a campaign of terror that began with the beatings on the Edmund Pettus Bridge during the Selma-to-Montgomery march and culminated in the murder of Viola Liuzzo. Liuzzo, a white housewife from Detroit, embraced the civil rights movement and died in a hail of gunfire while ferrying demonstrators in her automobile. Her detractors, of course, accused her of embracing black men.\n\n# CHAPTER 7  \nSex and Civil Rights\n\nON MARCH 25, 1965, more than ten thousand civil rights activists and supporters spilled into downtown Montgomery, Alabama, and assembled where Jefferson Davis had once taken the oath of office as president of the Confederacy and where George Wallace had recently declared, \"Segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever!\" The interracial throng had passed four hard days and four harrowing nights on the lonely highway that connects Selma to the state's capital. They braved a pounding rain and slept in strangers' fields to demand voting rights and federal protection from violence. The normally bustling downtown was nearly empty since Governor George Wallace declared a \"danger holiday for female state employees,\" ostensibly to protect them from the sexual threat posed by black marchers. The empty streets did not seem to bother the weary but jubilant crowd. \"Segregation is on its deathbed in Alabama,\" Martin Luther King declared to the cheering audience. \"The only uncertain thing,\" King added, \"is how costly the segregationists and [Governor George] Wallace will make the funeral.\"\n\nSegregation would not die gracefully. During the Selma-to-Montgomery march, Alabama's staunchest segregationists used a kind of sexual McCarthyism in order to defame the demonstrators and to derail the new legislation that Lyndon Johnson had sent to Congress guaranteeing the right of African Americans to vote. The appeal to whites' baser instincts, and fears about sex and race, indicates how desperate the diehards had become. It also underscored the importance of sex and sexualized violence to the maintenance of white supremacy. They no longer smeared civil rights activists as mere Communists or outside agitators; now they were purely sex fiends, intent on spreading a culture of depravity throughout the country. But by 1965, these tactics were increasingly less effective.\n\nSituated in the center of Alabama's Black Belt, an area known for its rich, inky soil and grinding poverty, Selma mirrored the Mississippi Delta in its history of near-feudal oppression of African Americans. By the 1960s, the White Citizens' Council (WCC) held dominion over the rolling pastures and cotton fields that surrounded the riverfront town. The mayor of Selma and the county probate judge chose its leadership; the presidents of Selma's banks sat on the council's executive committee; both editors of Selma's newspapers were \"zealous adherents\" to the dictates of the WCC; Selma's two radio stations and lone television outlet aired Citizens' Council propaganda as a public service; and white preachers presented their ideology as the gospel truth during Sunday services. State senator Walter Givhan, whose sprawling plantation sat in the western corner of the county, was in the WCC's pocket. He served as chairman of the Dallas County chapter until 1958 and then led the statewide Association of Alabama White Citizens' Councils for four years. In Selma, there was no room for opposition to the councils' rigid racial and sexual ideology, even among whites.\n\nJames Clark, the bellicose county sheriff who wore a \"Never\" (integrate) button pinned to his uniform, enforced white supremacy with an iron fist. Standing more than six feet tall and weighing 220 pounds, Clark strode through Selma as if he were General Patton. He wore a hard helmet and had a .38-caliber pistol strapped to his side and a swagger stick and an electric cattle prod dangling from his belt. Clark policed white conformity and terrorized African Americans by parading through town with a mounted posse made up of Citizens' Council and Klan members. When SNCC organizers arrived in 1962 to help register blacks to vote\u2014less than one percent were registered in Dallas County\u2014Sheriff Clark stood at the top of the courthouse steps, blocking the entrance.\n\nThe most polite request to enter the registrar's office could set off Clark's notorious temper, prompting beatings, mass arrests, and other violent outbursts. For example, in mid-January 1965 Clark snatched Mrs. Amelia Boynton, a prominent member of the black community and head of the Dallas County Voters League, from a long line of people waiting to register. He grabbed her coat lapels, pulled her toward his fleshy, scowling face, then shoved her down the sidewalk toward a patrol car. He arrested Boynton for \"criminal provocation.\" The next month Clark beat James Bevel, an organizer for SCLC, with a nightstick and threw him in jail. Each night police hosed down Bevel with cold water until he was shaking with viral pneumonia. When a group of black schoolchildren held a silent demonstration outside the courthouse in mid-February, Clark lined them up and forced them to march three miles out of town to a gravel pit, shocking them with his electric cattle prod along the way.\n\nDallas County sheriff Jim Clark uses a billy club and an electric cattle prod to push voting-rights activists away from the courthouse. (photo credit 7.1)\n\nClark's \"primitive itch to attack Negroes,\" as Taylor Branch put it, drove him thirty miles outside Dallas County to Marion, Alabama, on February 18, 1965, where local activists planned a nighttime march. Clark stood among state troopers who amassed outside Zion's Chapel Methodist Church, waiting for the five hundred protesters inside to file out. When the doors to the chapel opened, police shot out the streetlights, sprayed black paint on the lenses of reporters' cameras, and charged into the crowd. \"Negroes could be heard screaming,\" _The New York Times_ reported, \"and loud whacks rang through the square.\" State trooper James Bonard Fowler and a handful of other policemen chased a group of activists into Mack's Caf\u00e9, then overturned tables and lunged at patrons. When Jimmie Lee Jackson, a young black laborer, saw an officer beating his mother, he rushed to her defense, thrusting himself between the police and her crumpled body. Fowler responded by pumping two bullets into Jackson's stomach. He died eight days later.\n\nJim Clark ordered hundreds of schoolchildren arrested after they held a silent demonstration outside the Dallas County Courthouse on February 3, 1965. He forced them to march three miles out of town to a detention center. (photo credit 7.2)\n\nThe brazen murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson by an Alabama state trooper and the police brutality on display in Marion that cold winter night infuriated African Americans around Selma. Many felt the federal government was responsible since it had promoted voter registration but refused to protect black lives. \"He was murdered,\" Martin Luther King, Jr., said at Jackson's funeral, \"by the irresponsibility of every politician from governors on down who has fed his constituents the stale bread of hatred and the spoiled meat of racism.\" Jackson, King continued, \"was murdered by the timidity of a federal government that can spend millions of dollars a day to keep troops in South Vietnam and cannot protect the lives of its own citizens seeking the right to vote.\" King and the SCLC proposed a symbolic march from Selma to Montgomery. \"We wanted to carry Jimmie's body to George Wallace and dump it on the steps of the capitol,\" Albert Turner, the leader of the Marion movement, said later. \"We had decided that we were going to be killed or we was going to be free.\"\n\nThe goal of the march was to force federal action by focusing national media attention on Selma as Sheriff Clark and his gang of Klansmen committed acts of brutality. This had been the SCLC's strategy in Birmingham in 1963, where the irascible and intemperate \"Bull\" Connor, who hailed from Selma, reacted to nonviolent black activism with violence. His decision to unleash ferocious police dogs and fire hoses on African-American children protesting segregation in 1963 was met by national and international outrage and, as civil rights leaders predicted, federal action. Sheriff Clark proved to be as helpfully hot-tempered as Connor: \"We should put him on the staff,\" one SCLC organizer cracked. King announced that the Selma-to-Montgomery march would begin on March 7, 1965.\n\nOrdered by Governor Wallace a day earlier to prevent the march to Montgomery, state troopers and local policemen in riot gear amassed at the foot of Edmund Pettus Bridge and spread out across Highway 80. As Colonel Al Lingo oversaw his team of troopers, and Jim Clark's men saddled up their horses and dispersed gas masks, a line of African Americans, two abreast, made their way slowly across the Alabama River. After crossing the bridge, they came face-to-face with a human barricade. \"When we got to the apex of the bridge, and started down,\" F. D. Reese, president of the Dallas County Voters League, said, \"you saw nothing but a sea of blue. Helmets, state trooper cars, saw masks on the belt of the state troopers, billy clubs and so forth.\"\n\nLike the silence that settles in before an enormous storm, all was quiet as the well-dressed black men and women paused to consider their options. Major John Cloud, Lingo's deputy, picked up a bullhorn and ordered the crowd to disperse. \"This is an unlawful assembly... Go home or go to your church,\" he bellowed. \"This march will not continue. Is that clear?\" Hosea Williams, an SCLC leader who stood at the front of the line, managed to squeak out a request to talk to Cloud, but the major quickly shut him up. \"There is no word to be had,\" Cloud declared. Then he turned to his troopers and ordered them to advance.\n\nWith their clubs thrust out like bayonets, the line of police slowly moved forward until they stood nose to nose with the marchers, who had not budged. Sounds of gunfire broke the silence when Sheriff Jim Clark discharged a canister of tear gas. Others quickly followed his lead. Amid the billowing gas, state troopers and the mounted posse charged into the line of protesters, mercilessly beating them with nightsticks and rubber hoses laced with spikes. Horses trampled on the fallen, and the dense crack of hard wood on human bones could be heard over the din.\n\nBloody Sunday. An Alabama state trooper accosts Annie Cooper, an African-American woman, as members of Jim Clark's mounted posse rally in the background. (photo credit 7.3)\n\nThat evening ABC interrupted the forty-eight million Americans who were watching the television premiere of _Judgment at Nuremberg_ , an Academy Award\u2013winning film about Nazi war crimes, to broadcast scenes from the wanton attack on African Americans in Selma. Images of policemen clubbing women as they struggled to stand and mounted officers flattening children shocked sympathetic Americans and sent a powerful message about the brutality of Jim Crow. When Martin Luther King, Jr., called for another march to protest what they now called \"Bloody Sunday,\" thousands of supporters streamed into Selma.\n\nThough Sheriff Clark and Al Lingo had been exposed as brutal bullies to the entire nation, local whites hailed them as heroes. As civil rights workers planned their response to Bloody Sunday, Clark and his men believed they had gotten the best of King and his allies. After a federal injunction stymied a second demonstration on March 9, scores of students, sharecroppers, seminarians, and civil rights sympathizers from all walks of life poured into the town. When they finally braced for the long walk to Montgomery on March 21, they did so under federal protection. Segregationists responded by defaming the demonstrators as sexual fiends.\n\nThe Alabama state legislature fired the opening salvo on March 23, 1965, by printing Act 159 in the _Montgomery Advertiser_. The act accused civil rights activists of leading the \"innocent people of Alabama\" into a den of corruption and sin. \"There is evidence of much fornication,\" the resolution stated, \"and young women are returning to their respective states apparently as unwed expectant mothers.\" A few days later William Dickinson, the freshman congressman from Alabama, denounced the marchers as perverts on the floor of the United States House of Representatives. \"Drunkenness and sex orgies were the order of the day,\" he fumed. \"Negro and white freedom marchers invaded a Negro church in Montgomery and engaged in an all night session of debauchery within the church itself.\"\n\nDickinson dismissed any notion that activists volunteered to go to Selma. He had proof, he said, that they were actually \"hired to march for ten dollars a day, free room and board and all the sex they wanted.\" When civil rights activists were not engaging in \"instances of public sexual intercourse,\" Dickinson proclaimed, they spent their time \"in a hotel in Montgomery\" engaged in group sex. \"Free love,\" the congressman continued, \"is not only condoned, it is encouraged... Only by the ultimate sex act with one of another color can they demonstrate they have no prejudice.\" Dickinson promised skeptical legislators and constituents sworn affidavits from eyewitnesses, photographs, and \"motion picture proof\" showing that \"this bunch of Godless riff-raff engaged in acts of indecency.\" Dickinson would only allow House members to view his \"proof\" privately, however, as it was \"too obscene for public showing.\"\n\nDickinson could not resist the opportunity to make money and political hay from the salacious stories. Indeed, the affidavits and photos were not too obscene to publicize in a magazine, written and distributed to the public by Albert C. Persons, a stringer for _Life_. Hired by Congressman Dickinson to investigate the demonstrations in Selma, Persons's \"findings\" appeared in his voyeuristic and somewhat pornographic glossy, _Sex and Civil Rights: The True Selma Story_. The propaganda piece sold for one dollar and quickly became one of the best-selling books that season. _Sex and Civil Rights_ documented alleged \"eyewitness\" accounts of white female volunteers who \"had no underpants on\" and of public \"smooching and lovemaking between Negroes and whites.\" Persons spared no details in describing the so-called \"sex acts\" between James Forman, executive director of SNCC, and a \"red-haired girl whose name is Rachel.\" Apparently, an anonymous African-American mole saw Forman and \"Rachel\" engaging in \"an abnormal sex act which consisted of each of the two manipulating the other's private parts with their mouths simultaneously.\"\n\nMost of the so-called eyewitness accounts and affidavits came from state troopers and reflected segregationists' salacious interracial fantasies. Walter L. Allen, one of Colonel Lingo's key deputies, claimed he \"lost count of the times I saw Negro and Caucasian males fondling the breasts of black and white girls.\" He also alleged that he saw \"one white girl holding a Negro's penis through his trousers.\" Captain John Williams swore that he saw \"white girls and Negro boys laying under blankets on the grass... From their movement,\" he said, \"it is my best judgment that they were having intercourse.\" Interestingly, nearly all the accounts detailed behavior that occurred over a week _before_ the march began\u2014before most white volunteers had arrived in Selma. And most of the affidavits offered different variations of the same story, as if each witness simply repeated official talking points.\n\nMany of the photos offered up as irrefutable proof of interracial impropriety consisted of cleverly doctored images. One in particular shows three men, two black and one white, wrestling with one another, the white man's hand thrust between the legs of a black man. The caption, three question marks, suggested the strange positioning was a sign of homosexuality. Another photo focuses in on a white woman and black man standing arm in arm\u2014and completely out of proportion\u2014amid a number of African Americans sitting on the ground. The pictures that do not look doctored feature leading captions. For example, one photo of a trash can full of 7-Up bottles pretends to offer evidence of excessive drunkenness by asking, \"No Booze?\"\n\nOther sections of the magazine portray the leading ministers of the movement, Martin Luther King, Jr., and Ralph Abernathy, as sexual deviants by linking them to Bayard Rustin, a master strategist who organized the March on Washington in 1963 and who was openly gay at a time when it was despised and criminalized. While the section, entitled \"Bayard and Ralph, Just a Couple of the Boys,\" claims to \"not be concerned with a person's private sex life,\" it goes to enormous lengths to detail their sexual misadventures. Included is a 1953 police report detailing Rustin's arrest for \"sex perversion\" and a partial transcript from a 1958 trial in which details of Ralph Abernathy's extramarital affair were exposed.\n\nPersons viewed leaking this information as a public service that would be instructive, he said, \"to any who are interested in knowing what direction the civil rights movement may be moving.\" _Sex and Civil Rights_ gave credibility to the outrageous rumors swirling around the Selma march. Its professional veneer and glossy photographs, sworn affidavits by well-known state officials, and facsimiles of official documents made the propaganda piece a politically useful tool. Coming on the heels of Dickinson's speech to the House of Representatives, the book bolstered the congressman's claims and helped disseminate them among the broader public.\n\nAfrican Americans protested the rumors, which to them seemed utterly ridiculous. \"These white folks must think we're supermen to be able to march all day in the rain,\" one marcher said, \"... and make whoopee all night and then get up the next morning and march all day.\" Virginia Durr, a white civil rights supporter from Montgomery, worried that society was losing \"all sense of reality.\" The stories about \"sexual orgies,\" she said with exasperation, \"are quoted and believed all over town.\" One story particularly irked Durr. In a letter to fellow activists Carl and Anne Braden on May 3, 1965, she said that according to rumors, \"SNCC Kids (Negroes) raped a white girl in the Ben Moore Hotel forty-seven times, and was taken to St. Margaret's, where she died.\" Durr called St. Margaret's to verify the rumor and found that it contained \"not a word of truth.\" Still, the whole town, Durr complained, \"BELIEVES THE CHARGES AND REPEATS THEM OVER AND OVER. And whether the girl was raped forty-three times or forty-seven times is a matter of great debate.\"\n\nSome enterprising reporters tried to debunk Dickinson's claims and other rumors of sexual debauchery, but many preferred to let their readers decide what to believe. \"Did Martin Luther King's organization recruit civil rights mercenaries with offers of money plus food and sex?\" Al Kuettner, a reporter for the United Press, asked. \"A substantial segment of southern society believes the answer is yes.\" As for the most commonly repeated charge of wild orgies under the tents each night, Kuettner said, the truth \"depends on your definition of an orgy.\"\n\nThe _New York Times_ offered a more balanced analysis that allowed the participants some space for rebuttal. It accused Dickinson of \"spreading slanderous falsehoods\" in an effort to \"defame and debunk the whole civil rights movement with a new type of McCarthyism.\" John Lewis, chairman of SNCC, told the _Times_ that Dickinson and Persons's smears were nothing new. \"Segregationists are preoccupied with interracial sex,\" he argued. \"Which is why you see so many shades of brown on the march.\" Virginia Durr seconded Lewis's assessment. \"All of the cesspool of sickness connected with sex guilt comes out in these stories,\" she said. Segregationists' fear of interracial sex and corresponding paranoia, she said, \"came from the fact that white men of the South had had so many sexual affairs with black women. And they just turned it around. It's the only thing I can figure out that made them so crazy on the subject.\"\n\nBut it was not just the \"crazies,\" as Durr put it, who were afflicted by sexual paranoia that summer. Congressman Dickinson's efforts were part of a broader campaign run out of Governor George Wallace's office to discredit the civil rights movement. Wallace commissioned a film that purported to document \"the inflammatory activity... by beatniks, pinkos, misguided do-gooders, and out and out communist sympathizers\" that occurred on the Selma-to-Montgomery march. A press release issued by the cigar-chomping Wallace promised that the film would \"Stand Up for Alabama.\" Since \"the left-wingers spend millions of dollars to promote their causes,\" he said, \"certainly we, as independent, freedom-loving Alabamians, can do as much.\" Mainstream magazines like _Time, Newsweek_ , and _U.S. News_ \"stood up for Alabama\" without any prodding from Wallace. They provided a national platform and some measure of respectability for the rumors in articles entitled \"Kiss and Tell,\" \"Charges of Interracial Sex,\" and \"Orgies on the Rights March.\"\n\nA few months later Sheriff Jim Clark hurled the final and what was perhaps the crudest accusation. _I Saw Selma Raped_ , Clark's personal account of events that spring, portrayed civil rights activists and the federal government as sexual vampires, eager to attack an innocent and defenseless city. \"Make no mistake about it,\" Clark argued in the book, \"sex and civil rights go together in the most licentious ways possible to imagine.\" Nationwide repetition of state propaganda contributed greatly to the racial and sexual hysteria that swirled around Selma that spring and summer. It was within this storm\u2014and perhaps as a result of it\u2014that four Klansmen murdered white Detroit housewife Viola Liuzzo.\n\nShuttling tired marchers back and forth from Montgomery to Selma on the night of March 25, Liuzzo and Leroy Moton, a nineteen-year-old African American, knew they had to be on the lookout for hostile Klan members waiting to attack them on the dark and lonely stretches of Highway 80. What they didn't know was that a carload of Klan members, whipped into a frenzy by the wild rumors of interracial sex, spotted them at a stoplight in Selma shortly before their final trip of the day. \"Well, I'll be damned,\" a Klansman exclaimed when he saw Liuzzo sitting next to Moton in the front seat of her Oldsmobile. Eager to send a powerful message about interracial mixing, they trailed the volunteers as they drove toward Montgomery, speculating about all the \"lewd acts the racially mixed couple must have in mind.\" When they had gotten far enough out of town and into a desolate stretch of highway through Lowndes County, the car carrying the four Klan members overtook Liuzzo's vehicle. With their guns poking out of the rolled-down windows, the Klansmen fired into Liuzzo's speeding car, killing her instantly. She slumped over the steering wheel while Moton frantically steered the car into a ditch. Moton remained absolutely still as the men got out of their car and inspected their work. With blood splattered all over Liuzzo and Moton, the Klansmen drove off believing they had killed both passengers. Deeply shaken but alive, Moton crawled out of the car, flagged down a passing truck full of freedom marchers, and told them about the brutal murder.\n\nViola Liuzzo (photo credit 7.4)\n\nWhen FBI director J. Edgar Hoover found out about the murder from Gary Thomas Rowe, a paid informant who received permission from the FBI to ride along with the Klan that night, he immediately began damage control. Jack Anderson, a reporter for _The Washington Post_ , speculated that, in an effort to protect himself and the FBI from any appearance of complicity, Hoover \"marshaled the bureau's resources to blacken the dead woman's reputation.\" Anderson's use of the term \"blacken\" is particularly apt. Within twenty-four hours after Klansmen killed Liuzzo, the director of the FBI portrayed her as a traitor to her race, a prostitute, and a derelict mother\u2014what Klan lawyer Matt Murphy later called a \"white nigger\"\u2014who got what she deserved.\n\nIn an internal memo sent to President Lyndon Johnson the next morning, Hoover deflected any bureau responsibility in the murder by echoing the Klan's justification for killing Liuzzo. Hoover advised President Johnson, who was under pressure to call Liuzzo's husband and offer condolences, to hold back, arguing that she was not a respectable woman worthy of presidential sympathy. By riding around with a black man after dark, Hoover argued, she was outside the bounds of white womanhood. Liuzzo, he said, had \"indications of needle marks in her arms where she had been taking dope.\" And, he added, she had been \"sitting very, very close to the Negro in the car; it had the appearance of a necking party.\" Hoover then instructed staffers to \"leak his speculations to Klan informants,\" who in turn sent them to their press contacts. The media blitz successfully changed the subject from FBI complicity in a killing to questions about Liuzzo's morality and fitness as a mother.\n\nAn Alabama state trooper's car is parked near the site where the Ku Klux Klan fatally shot Viola Liuzzo and injured Leroy Moton. (photo credit 7.5)\n\nDespite Hoover's personal biases and beliefs, the FBI apprehended the culprits and assembled a legal case against them. At the state murder trial in Haynesville, Alabama, which began on May 6, 1965, Klan attorney Matt H. Murphy defended his clients and his organization by claiming to protect white supremacy. \"I am proud to be a white man,\" Murphy declared in a studied drawl. \"I am proud to stand on my feet,\" he said, pumping his fist into the air, \"and say that I am for white supremacy.\" \"This white woman,\" he said, then paused and turned toward the jurors with a grin. \"White woman?\" he sneered, \"Hah! Where's that N.A.A.C.P. card?\" Digging into his breast pocket, he pulled out Liuzzo's bloodied membership card. He had found it earlier that day while rummaging through Liuzzo's purse. Murphy's defense relied upon denouncing Liuzzo as a \"white nigger\" and repeated innuendos suggesting she and Moton \"were linked in a sexual relationship.\" It did not seem to matter to either Murphy or the jury that the state toxicologist, Dr. Paul Shoffelt, found absolutely \"no evidence of recent sexual relations\" when he performed Liuzzo's autopsy.\n\nAn all-white jury found Klansmen Collie Leroy Wilkins (in hat), Eugene Thomas (center stairs), and William Eaton (top) not guilty for the murder of Viola Liuzzo. On December 3, 1965, Wilkins, Thomas, and Eaton were found guilty of conspiracy to violate Liuzzo's civil rights, a federal charge. (photo credit 7.6)\n\nThe attacks on Liuzzo's character were worse than most newspapers indicated. Virginia Durr could barely stomach Murphy's repeated aspersions in court. \"The three days at the trial made me sick, literally,\" she said in a letter to friends. \"The poor dead woman was on trial and the Counsel for the KKK asked the most vile and obscene questions about the state of her underwear and her dead body.\" They tried to turn her into \"some kind of sex fiend as well as a dope fiend.\" Murphy, she said, piled \"vileness upon vileness,\" all in the name of \"Southern White Tradition and Pure White Southern Womanhood.\" The venomous attacks terrified Durr: \"I get both sick and frightened by [the Klan],\" she said.\n\nThe Klan made no effort to hide its presence at the trial; Klansmen strutted around the courtroom as if they owned it. Robert Shelton, the Imperial Wizard of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan in Alabama, weaved through the aisles, shaking hands and chatting with white spectators. He advised the defendants, offered himself up for news interviews, and disparaged Liuzzo mercilessly. Liuzzo was not a \"mother of five lovely children and a community worker,\" he said to a reporter; she was a \"fat slob with crud that looked like rust all over her body.\" Worse, he added, she was frequently \"braless.\" He also assured anyone who would listen that he had eyewitnesses who \"saw Liuzzo behaving like a whore.\" Defense attorneys used the same strategy to justify Liuzzo's murder: \"Klonsel\" Murphy argued that \"acquittal is certain.\" Integration, he said to the journalist William Bradford Huie, \"breaks every moral law God wrote... All I need to use is the fact that Mrs. Liuzzo was in the car with a nigger man and she wore no underpants.\"\n\nProsecuting attorneys at the trial did nothing to defend Liuzzo's dignity; nor did they try to rebut attacks launched by the defense. \"No one, prosecutor or defense lawyer, had a kind word for the dead woman during the four day trial,\" _The New York Times_ reported. Even her personal items retrieved from the crime scene were treated with disrespect. Instead of receiving protection as state's evidence, the bloodstained objects found in her car were thrown into a bunch of cardboard boxes and were made available to reporters and Klansmen, who rustled through them at will. The only attempt prosecution made to humanize Liuzzo was by presenting her as a mother of five children. Surprisingly, ten jurors voted for a conviction of manslaughter, which carried a ten-year sentence, while two held out for an acquittal. The deadlock forced the judge to declare a mistrial.\n\nAlthough most jurors believed the Klansmen were guilty of manslaughter, many felt Liuzzo was just as culpable for violating the gender and racial norms of the day. One woman who sat in on the trial told reporters that she didn't \"know why they kept calling Mrs. Liuzzo a 'mother of five children.' \" \"A mother wouldn't have gone off,\" she said, \"and left her children and come here.\" \"I have five children, too,\" Sheriff Clark told a reporter, \"but the night this happened, my wife was at home with the children where she belongs.\" Clark's statements reflected popular opinion about women's roles at the time. A survey in _Ladies' Home Journal_ showed that a majority of American women felt that Liuzzo did the wrong thing by leaving her children to risk her life for a social cause. Fifty-five percent \"felt strongly\" that she \"should have stayed home\" while only twenty-six percent said she \"had a right\" to go. For most of the women surveyed, Liuzzo's decision to go to Selma defied acceptable maternal and feminine behavior.\n\nWhile civil rights activists viewed Viola Liuzzo as a martyr who gave her life for equal justice and African-American dignity, many whites viewed her as an abject mother, guilty of the most reprehensible crime: abandoning her children in favor of cavorting with black men. The truth\u2014that Liuzzo had help at home and did not abandon her children, that she did not use drugs or engage in extramarital sex with African Americans\u2014did not seem to matter. Rumors about her fitness as a mother and lack of sexual and racial restraint only added to the belief that by traveling to Selma to help with civil rights, she had ventured far outside the bounds of respectable white womanhood. When J. Edgar Hoover fanned the flames of these rumors in order to protect his own secrets, he did not just \"blacken\" her character; he treated her the way white men had historically treated black women.\n\nThe attacks on Viola Liuzzo foreshadowed the criticism heaped on black women and families in a report issued by the Department of Labor at the end of that summer. Named after the assistant secretary of labor, Daniel Patrick Moynihan, the \"Moynihan Report\" blamed decades of matriarchy for the \"crisis\" of black family pathology and degeneration, instead of the legacy of white supremacy, laws banning interracial marriage, and the historic rape of black women by white men. Stokely Carmichael, the charismatic proponent of \"Black Power\" who became the head of SNCC in 1966, pointed to the history of sexualized violence and argued that matriarchy was not the problem. \"The reason we are in this bag isn't because of my mamma,\" he said, \"it's because of what they did to my mamma.\" Other comments from prominent black leaders echoed Carmichael's concerns. \"For two centuries,\" Bayard Rustin said, \"black families had been denied human status in order to safeguard the property rights and breeding prerogatives of slave owners.\" Martin Luther King, Jr., agreed. The problem of black poverty was rooted in a past too \"ghastly\" to discuss, he said. \"No one in all history had to fight against so many psychological and physical horrors to have a family life,\" King noted. \"Our children and our families are maimed a little every day of their lives.\" News outlets did not focus on the legacy of segregation and sexualized violence on the black family. Instead, reporters pointed to black pathology as the reason for poverty and rising crime rates in Northern and Western cities.\n\nThe riots in the Watts section of Los Angeles were used to bolster those claims. On August 11, 1965, five days after Lyndon Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act into law, Watts exploded in a race riot. The five-day firestorm exposed the powder keg of racial tension and economic instability in American urban centers and destroyed any myths about the North and West as \"the promised land.\" As the locus of racial turbulence shifted from the rural South to Northern cities, the nation turned its sympathy and attention away from civil rights. Urban riots, increased American involvement in Vietnam, a nascent antiwar movement, and a growing belief that the Voting Rights Act completed African Americans' campaign for civil rights made it easy for many Americans to ignore ongoing struggles for dignity and justice in the South as the sweltering summer of 1965 gave way to the crisp days of fall.\n\nOn November 11, 1965, however, African Americans in Hattiesburg, Mississippi, won one of the most important legal cases in the civil rights movement. As in Selma, white segregationists in Hattiesburg were on the defensive, but their response to the abduction and rape of an African-American teenager shocked the nation. The story has been largely forgotten.\n\nHattiesburg was the only city in the southern half of Mississippi where SNCC made inroads organizing the local black community before 1963. Nestled in the Piney Woods section of the state and home to the University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg was somewhat less violent than the Delta towns, though it was equally repressive in denying African Americans the right to vote. Theron Lynd, the Forrest County circuit clerk, disfranchised so many African Americans that, as John Dittmer noted, he \"put his Delta counterparts to shame.\" Lynd was \"totally uncooperative; totally hostile; and very rude,\" Victoria Gray Adams, a local black businesswoman active in voter-registration campaigns, said. \"He just did everything possible to discourage you aside from saying 'get out of here.' \" To curtail fear and build confidence, Victoria Gray Adams and Vernon Dahmer, a businessman, voting-rights activist, and two-term head of the local NAACP, worked with local people to organize citizenship schools and voter-registration drives. Over time their efforts helped make Hattiesburg what historians later called the \"Mecca of the Freedom School\" movement.\n\nLike the men and women who defied white supremacy in the Delta and Alabama's Black Belt, African Americans in the Piney Woods region faced immediate economic and physical reprisals by hostile whites. Hattiesburg was only thirty miles away from Poplarville, where a white mob kidnapped and lynched Mack Charles Parker in 1959. That same year white officials from Hattiesburg with ties to the State Sovereignty Commission framed and imprisoned Clyde Kennard, a thirty-five-year-old native of Forrest County and World War II vet, who tried to desegregate the University of Southern Mississippi. Judge Stanton Hall sentenced him to seven years in Parchman penitentiary for allegedly masterminding a plot to steal twenty-five dollars' worth of chicken feed. Ignoring Kennard's advanced cancer, prison officials forced him to do backbreaking labor in Parchman's fields each day.\n\nDespite federal intervention in Mississippi during Freedom Summer, by the end of 1964 a Ku Klux Klan resurgence threatened black activists throughout the state. In Laurel, Mississippi, a small town just outside Hattiesburg, Sam Bowers, the forty-year-old Imperial Wizard of the White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, declared that his mission \"was the destruction of the Mississippi civil rights movement.\" Since the White Citizens' Council had been unable to crush the freedom movement, the White Knights felt it was their turn to try. According to the _Hattiesburg American_ , the White Knights were known as the \"most secretive and violent of the Klan groups in Mississippi.\" Bowers ordered members and like-minded supporters to stockpile weapons and ammunition, practice military drills, and study \"counterattack maps, plans and information\" to prepare for the coming racial Armageddon. His appetite for violence was well known. Though most suspected his involvement in the kidnapping and murder of James Chaney, Andrew Goodman, and Michael Schwerner in the summer of 1964, he was not convicted until 1967, and then only for violating their civil rights. The revival of the Klan, especially one focused on racial terrorism, worried moderate segregationists who preferred to intimidate blacks without physical brutality, which tended to draw media and federal attention.\n\nVictoria Gray Adams and other Hattiesburg blacks hoped to draw the federal government into the fray. In the spring of 1965, Adams and Dahmer invited white clergy from the National Council of Churches to join \"Freedom Day,\" a massive voter-registration campaign designed to highlight Theron Lynd's defiance of the new Voting Rights Act. Adams and others thought that the presence of white clergy, like Northern students' involvement in Freedom Summer, would surely inflame Bowers and other segregationists who would act foolishly enough to draw national interest. Local police, however, bucked Bowers and the Klan and adopted a nonviolent approach toward the activists. It was the same strategy that Laurie Pritchett, the chief of police in Albany, Georgia, effectively used to stymie an SCLC campaign in 1961. Instead of beating blacks who sought the franchise, police quietly and gently arrested them, denying them the media attention they needed. Even stubborn Theron Lynd grudgingly allowed more than 150 African Americans to complete the registration test.\n\nThough media coverage failed to materialize, the successful registration campaign nonetheless strengthened the movement in Hattiesburg. At the same time it strained relationships between the \"moderate\" and radical forces of white supremacy. With the federal government more willing to intervene and the legal structures of Jim Crow nearly destroyed, whites in Mississippi struggled to maintain their unity as well as their power. These tensions were on display in Hattiesburg in the fall of 1965, when a white man stood before a white judge and jury for kidnapping and raping an African-American teenager.\n\nOn July 13, 1965, Norman Cannon, a slim, bushy-haired young man, pulled his old-model red-and-white Chevrolet up to Mrs. Lillie Beal's little shotgun house in a Negro neighborhood in Hattiesburg. He told the older woman he was \"looking for a babysitter.\" He had spoken to one of Mrs. Beal's neighbors, he said, who suggested there was \"a young girl living here who sought work.\" Cannon told Beal that he lived across town and that he would be happy to drive her fifteen-year-old granddaughter, Rosa Lee Coates, to his house to \"keep the children while he and his wife were away.\" Lois Miles, a neighbor, recalled that Cannon's visit was not uncommon. \"Whites came by a lot,\" she said, \"to sell their wares\u2014greens, fish, cookies.\" She said that it was not unusual for white men and women to come searching for day workers and babysitters, either. Rosa Lee Coates agreed to babysit and got into Cannon's car. When it was clear he was not driving across town, but out of town, the young girl protested. After traveling about fifteen miles, past Rawls Spring Road and over the Big Creek Bridge, Cannon pulled onto a heavily shaded gravel road used by a logging company. Wielding a yellow-handled knife, he pushed the girl out of his car and threatened to cut her head off unless she submitted. Beneath a canopy of towering pines and atop a mound of fire ants, Cannon raped Coates at knifepoint and then quickly drove away, leaving her stranded in the woods.\n\nNot long after the attack, a passing motorist found the teenager wandering dazedly along Highway 49. He picked her up and rushed her to the hospital, where she told local police and her grandmother what happened. Within forty-eight hours, police held Cannon in custody, and Coates easily identified him out of an eight-man lineup. Police notified district attorney James Finch and James Dukes, the young county prosecutor, about the crime. Finch was a gray-haired courthouse hand, Dukes a newly minted lawyer with a blond buzz cut, but they both knew they faced a dilemma. If they brought a case against Cannon, it would be the first time in Forrest County history that a white man was charged with raping a black woman. If he were acquitted, it could arouse and anger local African-American leaders, who were well organized and feeling stronger after their successful Freedom Day registration drive. Yet both men, as members of the town's white elite, were also well aware of the state's desire to avoid federal attention and bolster Mississippi's reputation after the atrocities committed during Freedom Summer. Even the State Sovereignty Commission, once considered the \"watchdog of segregation,\" was now engaged in a public relations campaign. The new goal, as a press release put it, was to \"project Mississippi outside the state, as a good place to be, as a good place to work [and] as a good place to settle down.\"\n\nAware of the potential public relations disaster, Finch, Dukes, and other white city officials met for several hours the night of the attack and chewed over the political implications of the case. \"This was not a pleasant case,\" Dukes said later. \"In prior years,\" he said, \"when whites committed acts like this they just swept them under the rug.\" After much debate, Finch and Dukes decided to file rape charges against Cannon\u2014a first for Forrest County and a highly unusual step in Mississippi. Four days after the attack, the Forrest County grand jury indicted Norman Cannon and sent him to the county jail to await his trial.\n\nDressed in a dark suit and polished loafers, Cannon pleaded innocent on November 9, 1965, the first day of his trial. Cannon admitted he was not married and had had sexual relations with the African-American girl, but he denied using any force. He then spun a long story designed to exculpate himself from any guilt. Cannon told the judge and jury that three days before he picked up Rosa Lee Coates, he saw her standing near a bus stop with a white boy \"all hugged-up together.\" When the bus pulled to the curb and the white boy got on, Cannon approached the heavyset teenager, he said, and asked her \"if she liked to go out with white boys.\" When the teenager said yes, Cannon said, he asked her out on a date. He testified that Coates told him \"he could take her out... any day, just to come by her house and say he needed a babysitter.\" When asked by the prosecution why he wanted to date an African-American girl, Cannon told the jury he became interested in having an interracial affair after \"watching television programs which showed Negroes and whites dating.\" Finch and Dukes, the _Hattiesburg American_ reported, \"snorted with disgust\" at the outlandish excuse. \"He was not the sharpest knife in the box,\" Dukes said later.\n\nCounty prosecutor James Dukes (left) and district attorney James Finch outside the Forrest County Courthouse. (photo credit 7.7)\n\nOn the stand, Cannon continued to spin his yarn. He claimed he used the agreed-upon code word on July 13 and drove the girl outside town, where she readily had sex with him. Cannon's description of their \"romp\" in the woods and his attorney's portrayal of Coates as a prostitute became \"so rugged,\" according to the _Hattiesburg American_ , that the court reporter, Betty Hamil, threw her pen down and excused herself from the courtroom. \"The whole damn jury wanted to walk out,\" Dukes said. \"It was the most disgusting thing.\" \"We had to get a male reporter out of Vicksburg just to continue,\" Dukes recalled. \"Betty Hamil said she was just not going to do it. She had been court reporter for gruesome murder cases. Klan cases. But that case? Well,\" Dukes said, \"she couldn't do it.\"\n\nCannon's story may have sounded plausible to whites inclined to believe that all black women were sexually promiscuous, but Finch and Dukes quickly destroyed his argument. Cannon sat \"impassively\" as the two attorneys took turns picking apart his story. Dr. Willis Walker, a white physician who examined the victim after the attack, testified for the prosecution that Coates had been a virgin and had sustained internal injuries consistent with rape. Police officers told the jury that they found pieces of the victim's clothing at the crime scene. They also testified that Cannon signed a statement when he was arrested denying any relationship with Rosa Lee Coates and that he had admitted he had just met her. Mary Louise Wade, a friend and neighbor of the victim, corroborated police statements. Cannon was \"driving around the Negro neighborhood,\" she said, looking for a girl to hire. When Cannon asked Wade if she would babysit for him, she said no and suggested he go to Beal's house. \"Twenty minutes later,\" Wade recalled, she \"saw Cannon drive by her house with Rosa Lee Coates in the front seat with him.\" Wade identified Cannon in the courtroom.\n\nMrs. Lillie Beal did not hesitate, either. According to the _Hattiesburg American_ , Beal \"arose from the witness stand, walked across the room in front of the bench and pointed a long, brown finger at the defendant.\" \"That's him,\" she said confidently, \"right there.\" Beal testified that Cannon lured her granddaughter into his car on the pretense that he needed a babysitter. She recounted the events that led to the assault and told the jury that her granddaughter would not have consented. When she finally saw Rosa Lee at the hospital, Beal said, she was crying and was as \"nervous as a wretch.\" \"The child's brassiere was gone,\" Beal testified. \"And her slip\u2014all she had on was her outside dress.\"\n\nCannon's counsel was the well-known Klan attorney Lawrence Arrington. A short, portly man who had represented Sam Bowers, Arrington did his best to discredit the victim. First he insinuated that Coates was sexually active by asking her grandmother if she were \"fully developed.\" Then he argued that the \"hymenal laceration\" the victim suffered could have \"been made by most any means.\" When Dr. Walker said he didn't know \"of any other means which deposits sperm,\" Arrington backed off. \"He thought all of this would be cute before a white jury,\" James Dukes said later in a slow drawl. \"But it was totally repugnant. Whether it's white or black, an older white man and a young girl with her menstrual period,\" he said shaking his head in disgust, \"it was bad.\" When attacks on the victim seemed to fail, Arrington argued that his client was illiterate and that the jury should take pity on him because he did not have much education.\n\nFinally, the trial turned on the testimony of the victim herself. Dressed in a starched white cotton blouse, a purple skirt, yellow tennis shoes and white socks, Rosa Lee Coates presented herself as a respectable and dignified young lady. Speaking from the witness stand, she spoke in a low, steady voice. She used \"fifteen-year-old words,\" Dukes said. \"She was very subdued.\" Coates denied having met Cannon prior to July 13, tactfully challenged attempts by the defense to portray her as promiscuous, and described her courageous attempts to escape. Once she realized Cannon had no intention of using her as a babysitter, she said, she did everything she could to get away. When Cannon stopped the car at an intersection, she testified that she \"opened the door on her side of the car and tried to jump out.\" But Cannon caught her, she said, and he \"slammed the door on [my] right foot.\" Coates attempted to escape again when Cannon stopped the car on the gravel road. She told the jury that she \"tried to run,\" but when she \"slipped down in the mud,\" Cannon \"caught the back of her dress and hit her on the side of her face.\" \"I tried to fight,\" she said softly. \"I was crying and asking him to leave me alone when he pulled out a knife and held it to the side of my neck.\" Cannon then \"ripped off her clothing,\" she said, and in the newspaper's parlance, \"ravished her.\" When Cannon finished, he made Coates \"lie on [her] stomach, face against the ground.\" Then he drove away.\n\nThe _Hattiesburg American_ , the local white daily, was impressed with the victim's \"clear and simple\" testimony and reported that it was \"impossible on cross-questioning to trip her up.\" Cannon's testimony, the newspaper reported, was \"full of contradictions.\"  The jury must have agreed. After deliberating for five and a half hours, jurors emerged from isolation and delivered their verdict: guilty as charged. Because jurors believed that Cannon did not inflict brutality on the victim, they recommended mercy. As a result, he received a life sentence instead of the death penalty. Still, the shocking verdict was the first of its kind in the history of Forrest County and, according to _The New York Times_ , represented a \"major breakthrough for the state of Mississippi.\" The ruling, the _Jackson Advocate_ reported, represented the \"first time since Reconstruction that a white man had been convicted [and sentenced to life in prison] for raping a Negro.\"\n\nStrangely, the legal victory seemed to go unnoticed by local civil rights activists. By the fall of 1965, the organizational infrastructure that existed during Freedom Summer had been disassembled. Many veteran organizers had moved away. Those who remained suffered severe \"battle fatigue\" or were busy waging their own small-scale wars against white supremacy. Years of harassment and brutality, layered atop the murders of Goodman, Schwerner, and Chaney, and the failure of the Democratic Party to seat delegates from the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party at the national convention in Atlantic City in the summer of 1964, left many civil rights workers worn out and disillusioned. Even the black press seemed to ignore the groundbreaking verdict. The muted response at the time was unusual; historically, similar cases had served as catalysts for community mobilization.\n\nThe front page of the November 12, 1965, _Hattiesburg American_ highlights the historic verdict. (photo credit 7.8)\n\nPerhaps it was because, unlike officials in Selma, Mississippians had done everything right\u2014there was nothing to protest and therefore no reason to organize. White police officers in Hattiesburg arrested Cannon less than forty-eight hours after the attack; prosecutors indicted him two days later and then mounted a serious case against him. Even though Cannon employed a Klan lawyer who repeatedly tried to appeal to segregationist sentiment among white jurors at the trial, Dukes and Finch\u2014certainly no supporters of civil rights\u2014easily deflected his racial arguments. The prosecution destroyed Cannon's flimsy justification for the heinous crime. When the defense tried to sully the victim's character, prosecutors did not stand silent, as they had in the Liuzzo case; instead, they successfully defended Coates's chastity and respectability.\n\n\"It wasn't a black and white thing,\" Dukes insisted years later. \"Once they saw that we indicted him and we were going to prosecute him and bring him to trial\u2014it didn't have racial overtones. It was just an unsavory character who took advantage of a fifteen-year-old.\" Time and distance may have blunted Dukes's memory of the racial implications of the case, but their strategy worked to keep local African-American activists and the federal government at bay.\n\nThe night before the jury sentenced Cannon to life in prison, Mississippi senator John Stennis warned members of the State Farm Bureau Federation that the federal government would \"assume jurisdiction\" over Southern states if they failed to enforce their own laws. \"We can make friends and allies,\" he said, \"and help our own cause more by prosecuting assault, arson, bombings and like crimes.\" Failure to do so, Stennis argued, \"would create a curtain of misunderstanding.\" Since Mississippi could not afford any more \"misunderstandings,\" the State Sovereignty Commission prepared to rebut outside criticism of the Cannon case.\n\nPrior to Cannon's trial, Earle Johnston, Jr., the director of the State Sovereignty Commission, ordered a review of all the white inmates who had been sent to Parchman penitentiary for statutory rape in the past thirty years. Johnston planned to report the findings, which would then debunk any Northern arguments purporting to claim that, in his words, \"Mississippi and the South in general never punish a white person who commits a crime against a Negro.\" Tom Scarbrough, the Sovereignty Commission's best investigator, told Johnston that his research found \"a number of white men have been sent to the penitentiary for various crimes committed against Negroes,\" but, he said, he would have clerks double-check the \"race of the victims\" so that \"we may compile an absolute record for the good of Mississippi.\" Instead of carping about Cannon's conviction, as they surely would have done in earlier years, Mississippi's most strident segregationists held it up as an example of the state's racial rebirth. Even the Mississippi Supreme Court upheld Cannon's conviction and life sentence a year later. By punishing Cannon, state officials could bolster Mississippi's reputation outside the South and fend off further federal intrusions.\n\nThe verdict could not have come at a better time. On November 15 the _Hattiesburg American_ reported that the U.S. Civil Rights Commission issued a report that \"called for new laws to permit prosecution of racial violence in federal courts when local officials fail to act.\" At the White House the next day, President Johnson told civil rights advocates that the Justice Department would act on the commission's recommendations and \"introduce new civil rights legislation to attack discrimination in the justice system.\" \"We intend to make the jury box, in both state and federal courts,\" he declared, \"the sacred domain of justice under the law.\" It is possible that Cannon's life sentence served as a defensive measure\u2014a metaphorical finger in the dike, holding back federal intervention in Mississippi's courts.\n\nEven if Senator Stennis and the Sovereignty Commission thought Cannon's conviction would shore up segregation, it had broad implications for the civil rights movement and the nation as a whole. The life sentence was recognized nationally as a major win for the African-American freedom struggle. While the legal victory flew under the radar of local civil rights activists, it made the front page of the nation's top newspapers, including _The New York Times_ , the _Los Angeles Times_ , and _The Washington Post_. Correspondent Jack Nelson of the _Los Angeles Times_ hailed the verdict as a sign of a \"new respect for the Negro as a person.\" Until recently, he argued, \"a white man could rape a Negro in Hattiesburg with virtual impunity, but... feelings have been changing.\" For example, Nelson said, \"the conviction rested solely on the testimony of the Negro girl. The fact that the jury would believe [her] over [a white man] is as significant as the verdict itself.\" And yet the story has not received the historical attention it deserves.\n\nThis is due, in part, to the jury's decision to keep Cannon from the electric chair. The life sentence fueled criticism of the South's unequal sentencing practices, breathing new life into the NAACP's campaign to end the \"racial double standard\" in rape cases. In the spring of 1966 the NAACP Legal Defense Fund (LDF) sent its army of lawyers to court on behalf of hundreds of African-American men languishing on death row for rape. Armed with sociological studies and statistics documenting discrimination in sentencing for rape cases, its representatives demanded equal justice. Newspapers documented the LDF's new campaign and followed the organization's legal maneuvering in a number of cases, some of which reached the Supreme Court. Over time the issue became a crusade to end the death penalty.\n\nBy focusing on men convicted of rape rather than the female survivors of sexual violence, the LDF's efforts steered attention away from the larger meanings of the Cannon conviction. The guilty verdict was the result of decades of black women's testimony of rape and years of campaigns to protect black women from sexual attack\u2014from Recy Taylor to Betty Jean Owens to Rosa Lee Coates. It also came after black Mississippians' long struggle to open the \"closed society\" and indicated that the state of Mississippi had finally recognized black women's right to bodily integrity. Even if the life sentence served the state's political purposes, Cannon could have easily been acquitted or, more typically, could have served a minimum sentence. The attorneys' decision to take a black woman's complaint seriously, the willingness of the all-white, all-male jury to sentence Cannon to life in prison, and state officials' determination to let him rot in Parchman penitentiary for many years indicated, at least symbolically, the full arrival of African Americans as human beings. Because it destroyed a pillar of white supremacy that was rooted in slavery\u2014the ability of white men to rape black women without legal consequence\u2014the Cannon decision ought to be considered a significant milestone in the modern civil rights movement.\n\nMildred and Richard Loving (sitting center) share a laugh with friends during an outing in Virginia in 1965. In 1967 the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously ruled that Virginia's antimiscegenation statute, which had resulted in the couple's arrest shortly after their 1958 marriage, was unconstitutional. (photo credit 7.9)\n\nOne of the last legal barriers to black women's bodily integrity and respectability fell in 1967, when the Supreme Court banned laws prohibiting interracial marriage in the landmark _Loving v. Virginia_ decision. Rooted in colonial rules regulating interracial relationships, these laws served as a foundation for slavery and white supremacy. In 1691 Virginia legislators made \"miscegenation\" illegal and criminalized those who transgressed this racial boundary. Designed to \"prevent that abominable mixture of negroes, mulattoes, and Indians intermarrying with English, or other white women,\" the antimiscegenation laws awarded white men exclusive sexual access to white women and preserved racial \"purity\" in property and inheritance rights. At the same time white slave masters' stolen access to black women's bodies strengthened their political, social, and economic power, partly because other colonial laws made the offspring of slave women the property of their masters. Together, these laws denied black women the rights granted by a legal relationship by restricting and punishing marriage but not fornication or childbirth out of wedlock. They also created a system that allowed white men to use black women as concubines and sexually abuse them with impunity. By policing white women and black men's sexual and marital choices while retaining power over black women's bodies, white men maintained their position on top of the racial and sexual hierarchy. The Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery in 1865, but the antimiscegenation laws remained.\n\nThe sixteen states that still prohibited interracial marriage in 1967 were, with one exception, all former slave states. When Richard Loving, a twenty-four-year-old white bricklayer from Caroline County, Virginia, and Mildred Jeter, an eighteen-year-old black woman who was his childhood sweetheart, exchanged vows in Washington, D.C., on June 11, 1958, they avoided the 1691 law rooted in Virginia's slave past but risked arrest each time they returned to their home state. When the newly-weds visited their in-laws just one month after their wedding, three policemen barged into their bedroom in the middle of the night, dragged them out of bed, and arrested them for violating the state's antimiscegenation laws. The Lovings pleaded guilty in court a few months later and received a one-year prison sentence, which the judge suspended provided the interracial couple left the state and did not return as husband and wife for twenty-five years. They moved to Washington, D.C., where they were safe from prosecution but were otherwise miserable. They longed for the day when they could return to Virginia to be near their families.\n\nIn 1963, at the height of the civil rights movement, Mrs. Loving sought assistance from the Justice Department. In a letter to Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, she asked if \"there was any way he could help us.\" Kennedy suggested she contact the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) since it had been involved in litigation for many years to overturn laws banning interracial marriage. Bernard S. Cohen, a lawyer and ACLU member from Virginia, eagerly embraced the Lovings' case. With assistance from the NAACP Legal Defense Fund, the Lovings carried their argument all the way to the Supreme Court. Cohen and members of the Legal Defense Fund argued that the law was rooted in an unconstitutional slave system and that they had a \"right\" to marry whomever they wanted without fear of being terrorized or treated like criminals.\n\nOn June 12, 1967, Chief Justice Earl Warren delivered the unanimous decision of the Supreme Court and declared that \"the racial classifications in these statutes [are] repugnant to the Fourteenth Amendment.\" The Fourteenth Amendment, Warren said, required \"that the freedom of choice to marry not be restricted by invidious racial discriminations.\" The Lovings cheered the decision at a press conference later that day. Richard Loving told reporters that he and his wife were \"just really overjoyed\" and that they planned to \"go ahead and build a new house\" in Caroline County, Virginia. Mildred Loving offered a more telling analysis of what the victory meant. \"I feel free now,\" she said.\n\nIssued just two years after Norman Cannon was sentenced to life in prison for raping an African-American teenager, _Loving v. Virginia_ signaled the emancipation of black women and constituted another nail in Jim Crow's coffin. Along with the NAACP's legal challenges to Southern jury discrimination and unequal sentencing, and passage of the 1968 Civil Rights Act granting bodily protection for civil rights workers, the Cannon and Loving verdicts ushered in the \"new day of justice\" for black women that John McCray had wondered about after the Tallahassee case in 1959. _State v. Cannon_ and _Loving v. Virginia_ helped dismantle the legal infrastructure that denied black women dignity, respectability, and bodily integrity. These cases destroyed the racial and sexual argument for segregation and white supremacy. The century-long struggle to protect African-American women from white sexual violence, built upon the testimonies of black women like Ida B. Wells, Recy Taylor, Gertrude Perkins, and Betty Jean Owens, had laid the groundwork for this victory. African-American women's willingness to speak out against sexual violence, to publicly testify about interracial rape in the segregated South, and to organize campaigns to demand full legal and social rights slowly destroyed these legacies of slavery.\n\nBut would these victories last? The right of black women to defend themselves from sexual violence was tested in 1975, when Joan Little, an African-American woman from Washington, North Carolina, stood trial in the ice-pick slaying of a white jailer.\n\n# CHAPTER 8  \n\"Power to the Ice Pick!\"\n\nIN THE QUIET DARKNESS just before daybreak on August 27, 1974, Sergeant Jerry Helms ambled into the Beaufort County Jail in Washington, North Carolina. Escorting a drunken prisoner, he walked through the double doors, down the carpeted stairs to the basement, and turned left toward the women's section of the small but clean jailhouse. Poking out of the cell of the sole female prisoner was a pair of shoeless feet in brown socks. Moving closer, Helms saw that the feet belonged to the burly, sixty-two-year-old white jailer, Clarence Alligood, whose lifeless torso slumped over his thighs. Except for the socks, Alligood was naked from the waist down. His yellow-and-white plaid shirt was caked with blood, and a thin line of semen stretched down his leg. His right hand loosely held an ice pick, and his left arm, dangling toward the floor, clutched his pants. Blood pooled on the linoleum tiles next to a woman's nightgown. A bra hung on the cell door. The petite twenty-year-old black woman who had occupied that cell for two months was gone.\n\nHelms and the Beaufort County police immediately began a search for Joan Little, who they believed had murdered Alligood as part of an elaborate plan to escape. After the state declared Little an armed and dangerous outlaw, local police issued orders to shoot her on sight. Armed with service dogs and \"high-powered rifles,\" police combed through the dusty streets of \"Back of Town,\" the black community in Washington, going door to door inquiring about Little's whereabouts.\n\nIn hiding for over a week after killing Clarence Alligood and escaping from the Beaufort jail, Joan Little surrenders to the North Carolina State Bureau of Investigation on September 7, 1975. She is accompanied by her attorney Jerry Paul. (photo credit 8.1)\n\nFew knew where she had been hiding. Ernest \"Pops\" Barnes, an aged and nearly blind man, had granted Little shelter in his tiny run-down shack that was notorious among neighbors as a \"liquor house.\" Pops agreed to provide a safe sanctuary for Little after she told him that Alligood forced her to strip. He \"tried to make me suck him,\" she said. She told Pops she killed him with an ice pick in self-defense. Squeezed between a couple of old feather mattresses, Little managed to elude police during four nerve-wracking searches of the house. When an officer sat down on Pops's bed during one investigation, Little remained still as a stone, barely able to breathe.\n\nAfter nearly a week in hiding, the fear and tension finally forced Little out. She sent word to Marjorie Wright, a childhood friend and sympathetic ally. Wright called Jerry Paul, a local attorney who worked on civil rights cases, who was known among whites and blacks as an eccentric nonconformist. Together they spirited Little out of the county in the middle of the night and helped her surrender to the State Bureau of Investigation (SBI) in Chapel Hill. On September 7, Charles Dunn, head of the SBI, arrested Joan Little for first-degree murder. Two days later a grand jury indicted her. If found guilty, Little would die in the state's gas chamber.\n\n\u2022 \u2022 \u2022\n\nMuch had changed since 1947, when the NAACP, the Civil Rights Congress, and the Sojourners for Truth and Justice had launched a national and international campaign to free Rosa Lee Ingram. That year an all-white jury sentenced Ingram, a black sharecropper and mother of twelve, to death in the self-defense slaying of a white man in Ellaville, Georgia. In the 1940s it was nearly impossible for black victims of sexualized violence to receive justice in the courts. In 1944 a grand jury in Henry County, Alabama, refused to indict Recy Taylor's assailants despite their admissions, a gubernatorial intervention, and a national campaign for her defense. In 1949 the Montgomery police department would not even hold a lineup for Gertrude Perkins, who charged two officers with kidnapping and rape. After a citywide protest, Perkins had her day in court, but the grand jury refused to indict anyone for the crime. Black women had achieved small victories in their fight for bodily integrity throughout the 1950s, but they were few and far between. It was not until 1959 that an all-white jury in Tallahassee, Florida, sentenced four white men to prison for life in the brutal gang rape of Betty Jean Owens. It took another six years before Mississippi, the most unreconstructed Southern state, followed suit. In 1965 an all-white jury in Hattiesburg sent Norman Cannon to prison for life for kidnapping and raping Rosa Lee Coates.\n\nVictories of the mid-1960s rested on decades of black women's organizing and personal testimony. Courage and persistence had dramatically altered the political and legal landscape for black women raped or sexually abused by white men. Despite the threat of life sentences, some white men still believed black women's bodies belonged to them. As a result, African-American women continued to organize and use their public voices to demand safety from sexual abuse. In 1974 Joan Little became the symbol of a campaign to defend black womanhood and to call attention to the sexualized racial violence that still existed ten years after Congress passed the 1965 Voting Rights Act.\n\nThe Free Joan Little campaign brought disparate activists and organizations, each with their own resources and agendas, into a loose but powerful coalition. Feminists and women's liberation organizations spoke out against sexual violence and advocated a woman's right to self-defense; civil rights and Black Power groups saw the Little case as another example of police brutality and Southern injustice; opponents of the death penalty and prison reformers hoped the case would draw attention to their emerging campaigns. Ultimately, the Joan Little case became a test of whether an African-American woman, as Karen Galloway, one of Little's attorneys, put it, \"finally had a right to defend herself against a white man's sexual assault.\"\n\nAlthough African-American voter registration and political participation surged in the years after the Selma campaign, political rights did not guarantee full equality or economic opportunity. In 1966 Martin Luther King, Jr., argued that a \"tragic gulf\" existed between the promises of civil rights legislation and their fulfillment. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, for example, did little to remedy the de facto segregation, squalid housing conditions, chronic unemployment, police brutality, and lack of educational opportunity that blacks still faced throughout the country. The 1965 assassination of Malcolm X, the leading black critic of nonviolence, only fueled the movement toward black nationalism and Black Power and away from the \"beloved community,\" splitting the civil rights coalition. Riots engulfed cities throughout the country for three searing summers after the Selma-to-Montgomery march. The uprisings exposed and expressed the betrayal many African Americans felt in the failure of the civil rights movement and the federal government to remedy racial and economic oppression. In 1966 alone thirty-eight riots erupted in cities from San Francisco to Providence, Rhode Island. In 1967 Detroit exploded: forty-three people were killed, two thousand were wounded, and more than five thousand were burned out of their homes. By the end of the decade, a half-million blacks in more than three hundred cities witnessed violent uprisings in which 250 people died, eight thousand were injured, and more than fifty thousand were arrested.\n\nAs younger black activists began to move toward organizations that advocated Black Power, white activists used the lessons of the civil rights movement to challenge the social and political inequalities of power in new, predominantly white organizations. The New Left, a mostly student-led movement that emerged in the early 1960s and was critical of Cold War brinkmanship and committed to participatory democracy, direct action, and mass mobilization, gained power as the Vietnam War escalated. By the end of the decade, New Left activists were the leading antiwar protesters and were convinced that the United States was \"the leading enemy of peace and justice on the planet.\" Instead of working within the existing political system, young radicals advocated a wholesale transformation.\n\nAt the same time, a rising white backlash spread throughout the nation, undermining support for civil rights advances. In the 1968 presidential election, George Wallace captured 13.5 percent of the popular vote by appealing to white anger and fears of unrestrained civil rights activists and antiwar demonstrators. The small number obscures the fact that more than 30 percent of Democratic voters in Wisconsin and Indiana, and 43 percent of Democrats in Maryland, chose the unabashed racist for president, indicating significant support outside the Deep South. Though not as overtly racist as Wallace, Richard Nixon appealed to the \"silent majority\" by opposing \"forced busing\" for school desegregation, criticizing social disorder, and promising to restore \"law and order.\" Nixon's language was softer than Wallace's, but the message was equally harsh.\n\nIn an atmosphere of increased racial polarization, Martin Luther King, Jr., and the SCLC struggled to revive the spirit of the beloved community and to wed continuing struggles for racial and economic justice to Lyndon Johnson's War on Poverty. For a brief moment in the spring of 1968, during the Memphis sanitation workers' strike, the old civil rights coalition rallied together. Strikers asserted their personhood, demanded dignity and respect, and called for economic justice. Carrying signs that declared \"I _AM_ A Man,\" the Memphis garbage workers placed their protest in the long struggle for freedom and human rights.\n\nThe assassination of King on April 4, 1968, shattered the Memphis movement and killed any hopes for a renewed freedom movement. Racial violence flared in 125 cities in twenty-nine states, leaving thirty-nine dead, thousands injured, and millions reeling with sadness and disbelief. Amid the riots, Black Panthers in Oakland, California, engaged in a ninety-minute shoot-out with city police that left co-founder Eldridge Cleaver wounded and seventeen-year-old Bobby Hutton dead. The murder of Martin Luther King, Jr., combined with FBI surveillance, leadership upheavals, internal violence, incarceration, and gender problems among civil rights and Black Power organizations, signaled the end of an era.\n\nThe Little case unfolded amid murderous violence as African Americans in North Carolina fought to integrate public schools and gain full citizenship. Events in two cities provide the most gripping examples. In May 1970 African Americans in Oxford torched the town's tobacco warehouses after three white men brutally murdered Henry Marrow in broad daylight. Marrow, an African-American soldier and young father, allegedly talked fresh to a white woman. The historian Timothy Tyson, who was a child at the time, remembered living in an \"atmosphere of war.\" After the riot, a siege mentality set in among whites who defended the murderers and targeted blacks for violent reprisal. In the spring of 1971 Wilmington, like Oxford, \"hovered on the edge of racial cataclysm,\" as Tyson put it. The controversies over school desegregation\u2014busing, discrimination toward black students, the closure of all-black schools, and the dismissals of beloved black teachers and administrators\u2014left many African Americans angry and resentful.\n\nFueling this rancor in Wilmington, the Rights of White People, a white supremacist organization, terrorized blacks and incited violence. White racists and black militants exchanged gunfire, while black snipers fired at police officers, many of whom were members of the Ku Klux Klan. The National Guard patrolled the streets, and storefronts and businesses regularly went up in flames. Accused of arson but primarily guilty of leading a boisterous movement for Black Power, Ben Chavis, a field organizer for the United Church of Christ's Commission for Racial Justice, was sentenced to prison along with nine others implicated in the racial conflagration. They became known as the \"Wilmington Ten.\" Angela Davis, an outspoken prison reform activist and an icon of the Black Power movement, used her organization, the National Alliance Against Racist and Political Repression, to launch a campaign for their defense. It was through her work on the Wilmington Ten case that she heard about Joan Little's plight in Washington, North Carolina.\n\nRace relations were as volatile in the small towns and hamlets of Beaufort County as they were in Wilmington. Police killings, Klan burnings, and bomb threats met African-American integration efforts. When Sheriff Otis \"Red\" Davis bragged to a Northern reporter about the \"racial harmony\" that existed in eastern North Carolina \"since integration was forced on us in 1965,\" he was painting a picture of a New South that did not yet exist. In fact, many clung to the past; 70 percent of voters in Beaufort County supported Wallace in the 1972 presidential primary. \"If time had not exactly stood still in eastern North Carolina until the late 1960s,\" the journalist Mark Pinsky noted, \"it was dragging its feet. And nowhere did it dig in its heels more than in Beaufort County\u2014in matters of voting rights, jury service, public accommodations, school desegregation, and police brutality.\" When a federal court ordered Beaufort County to desegregate its public schools in 1965\u2014more than a decade after _Brown\u2014_ whites responded with violence and intimidation. The Ku Klux Klan enjoyed a resurgence and night riders terrorized African Americans who supported desegregation. The next year the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund filed a lawsuit alleging that the \"intimidation of black students... had made school desegregation impossible without federal intervention.\"\n\nWhen the _Washington Daily News_ broke the story about the murder of jailer Clarence Alligood and the missing black female inmate, calling it the \"most brutal ever to happen in this county,\" it practically invited reprisal against Little. As if he were a soldier killed in action in Vietnam, the paper eulogized Alligood's service to the county and said he \"gave his life in the line of duty.\" The newspaper failed to report that Alligood had been found naked from the waist down. Once word got out that the medical examiner had found semen on his thighs and that his \"urethral fluid was loaded with spermatozoa,\" evidence that he died at the moment of sexual climax, Joan Little's claim that he sexually assaulted her gained credibility. However, since many whites still could not believe that a black woman could be raped, they fell back on old stereotypes to explain the unusual circumstances of Alligood's death.\n\nCasual conversations among whites in Washington pegged Little as a stereotypical jezebel, and rumors about her respectability, or lack thereof, spread throughout town. Joan Little, some whites argued, seduced Alligood, lured him into her cell, and killed him so she could escape. For the local car dealer, this excuse made perfect sense\u2014only the murder was a strange turn of events. \"Hell, to them fucking is like saying good morning, or having a Pepsi-Cola,\" he snorted. Henry Hardy, a textile executive, agreed. \"I'll tell you one thing,\" he said, \"she didn't lose her honor in that cell. She lost that years ago at Camp Lejeune,\" a marine base outside town. Hardy obviously believed the rumor that Little was a budding madam, who \"ferried her girlfriends to the base for prostitution.\" The plant manager at Coca-Cola, who claimed to know Alligood well, found it hard to believe he had a sexual encounter with a black woman. Alligood, he said, \"was so racially biased that he wouldn't want a colored woman.\" Sheriff Jack O. Harris sided with the plant manager but wondered why, if Alligood was going to break down and integrate, he would choose Little, \"all eat up with syphilis like she was.\"\n\nJerry Paul, Little's long-haired, heavy-lidded, shambling primary defense attorney, knew that many white men in and around Washington still believed black women existed, as he put it, \"somewhere between the animal and the human.\" A husky former East Carolina football player who was born and raised in Washington, North Carolina, Paul reveled in bucking the small town's strict racial codes by befriending African Americans and working on civil rights causes. Local people told reporters he was not a native son but was adopted. \"That's what my daddy always used to say,\" Paul told _The New York Times_. \"Always said that I must have some nigger blood or some Jewish blood as much as I love the niggers.\" Racial politics aside, he knew that liaisons between white men and black women, whether coerced or consensual, had a long history. Among white men, he said, they were \"completely accepted.\" \"I used to hear 'em in the workplaces,\" Paul explained, \"bragging about how they got some pussy the night before, and always the question would come up, 'Was it white or black?' \" Invariably, he said, someone would say, \"Oh, it was black... I picked up this nigger walking on the road.\"\n\nNative son. Attorney Jerry Paul, a former East Carolina football player, defied the state's racial status quo by representing African Americans and working on civil rights cases. (photo credit 8.2)\n\nLocal whites sympathized with Clarence Alligood, Paul explained. \"They're programmed to believe that she lured him in there,\" he said. \"And if she didn't... then he went back there to have a little fun [and] that's okay too. That's expected.\" Most whites believed that the mistake Alligood made, Paul said, was _\"getting caught_ back there.\" With no eyewitnesses and only circumstantial evidence available to pin a first-degree murder charge on the young black woman, Paul expected the prosecution to fall back on these time-worn stereotypes to win its case. He also expected them to call up Joan Little's dysfunctional family history and her criminal record, which was long, to paint a picture of a sexually deviant delinquent who murdered Alligood in cold blood.\n\nLittle was no Rosa Parks. She was the oldest of nine children. Her mother had been married twice and had four children with Little's father, and five children with her stepfather. Little's father abandoned the family and moved to New York when she was still a child, and her new stepfather had a tendency to drink too much. Little had her first sexual encounter when she was fourteen and contracted syphilis the following year. As a teenager, Little often ran away from home, earning a reputation among family and friends as an \"escape artist.\" She dropped out of high school at fifteen, but her mother had a judge declare her a truant and sent her to Dobbs Farm Training School in Kinston, North Carolina. When she ran away from Dobbs Farm, Little's mother sent her to live with relatives in Philadelphia. There Little developed a thyroid problem and came home for surgery three weeks before she was supposed to graduate from high school. Without a diploma and no real job prospects, Little worked sporadically until 1973, when at age eighteen she went to work as a Sheetrock finisher and got romantically involved with Julius Rogers, a man twenty years her senior. Toward the end of the year, she began to get in trouble with the law as well.\n\nIn Jacksonville, North Carolina, police charged Little with possession of stolen goods and a sawed-off shotgun; on January 3, 1974, police in Washington, North Carolina, arrested her for shoplifting, but the charge was dismissed. Six days later police arrested her again for shoplifting, and this time she drew a suspended sentence. Less than a week passed before Little was arrested again. This time police charged her with three separate felonies: breaking, entering, and larceny. A grand jury indicted Little on March 15, 1974, and on June 4, 1974, she received a seven-to-ten-year jail sentence.\n\nLittle's attorneys knew that her criminal record would make it easy for the prosecution to present her as a calculating killer. Such an argument would play well locally\u2014and not just among whites. Many African Americans in Washington did not think Joan Little was a respectable young woman either. Maggie Buck, a white beautician at the Cinderella Beauty Salon, told a reporter that even \"my black maid didn't sympathize with Joan Little.\" Little was so mean, Buck recalled, \"she stole her own aunt's color TV.\" Buck's maid may not have been completely forthright with her employer on issues regarding race, but other African Americans expressed similar opinions. Golden Frinks, perhaps the most well-known civil rights leader in North Carolina, argued that prominent members of the black community in Washington had \"ostracized\" Little because she was a \"wayward girl\" who had \"led a fast life.\" Little's behavior, he said, \"was not up to the general moral standard of the community.\" After hearing about Little's escape and subsequent arrest, Frinks went to Mount Hebron Baptist Church, where Little's family were registered members, hoping to organize a campaign for her defense. They turned him away. \"You see,\" Frinks recalled, \"the community had moved thumbs down on Little because of her previous record [and] her breaking and entering into a mobile home of a black person.\"\n\nJoan Little, February 3, 1975. (photo credit 8.3)\n\nRespectability mattered, but not as much as it had in previous decades. The year 1975 was not 1955, when respectability had been the defining issue that made Rosa Parks\u2014and not Claudette Colvin\u2014the symbol of wronged black womanhood in Montgomery, Alabama. The two decades between the Montgomery bus boycott and Joan Little's trial witnessed enormous social, political, and economic changes that permanently altered the American landscape. The civil rights movement and the women's movement helped free African Americans and women from the strict racial and sexual codes that had been inscribed in the social and legal bedrock of the United States for centuries. Certainly the national exposure of police brutality, institutional racism, and the violent practices of white supremacists in the 1960s and early 1970s\u2014especially the murder of Viola Liuzzo and the kidnapping and rape of Rosa Lee Coates in 1965\u2014undermined arguments linking race and sex and played a role in challenging the importance of the victim's respectability and innocence.\n\nBy the mid-1970s the National Organization for Women had made tremendous legal and political inroads, partly because of the legacy of the civil rights movement and African-American activism on sexual violence. The Equal Rights Amendment was debated fiercely across the country and had been ratified by more than thirty states. In 1973 the Supreme Court gave women power over their own reproductive choices in the landmark _Roe v. Wade_ decision. Women's liberation groups challenged conventional definitions of rape and domestic violence and pressured police and other law enforcement officials to stop blaming the victim. White feminists in New York finally caught up with their African-American sisters by testifying publicly about rape in 1971. In 1973 the National Organization for Women formed the NOW Rape Task Force to investigate rape laws around the country. Over the next few years, rape crisis centers and rape hotlines sprouted up throughout the country; radical feminists held conferences dedicated to discussing sexual violence; and a wave of public speak-outs put rape on the national political agenda.\n\nMaggie Buck, the white beautician in Washington, seemed to grasp these historic changes when she told a reporter that \"even if a girl has loose morals, she should be able to pick the man she wants to be raped by.\" Buck's bizarre phrasing of the right of women to choose their sexual partners\u2014and even their assailants\u2014indicated that Little might garner more sympathy among all women, regardless of race or political position, whose views on gender and sexuality had been influenced by the women's rights movement.\n\nHowever, Joan Little was not going to be the only one on trial. If the prosecution drew on racial stereotypes of wanton women and blacks' tendency toward criminality, then Little's defense attorneys would paint a picture of North Carolina mired in a Tobacco Road past, where ignorant \"rednecks\" lorded over innocent and defenseless blacks. This strategy would hurt the state's image and, given the still-contested great social changes, maybe even lead to an acquittal. Indeed, the violent clashes over school desegregation made North Carolina the focal point of national news stories throughout the 1970s and seriously damaged the state's \"progressive mystique.\" _The New York Times_ reported the \"growing concern\" of state officials, who feared losing tourists and industry to other \"sunbelt\" states in the South. They worried that \"national attention... [will hurt] the state's already battered image of racial moderation.\" Governor James E. Holshouser, the _Times_ noted, was especially \"sensitive to the critical publicity the state has been receiving lately.\" \"They know they're racists,\" attorney Jerry Paul quipped, \"but in 1975, it may not be a good thing to admit you're a racist\u2014they think that the nation comes down on you if you're that way and you won't get industry in your town.\"\n\nIn the year leading up to Little's trial, Jerry Paul presented her to the public as a poor but brave black woman who had defended her dignity from a lecherous racist and was being railroaded into the gas chamber by a Jim Crow justice system. Paul pounced on state prosecutors every time they said or did something that hinted of racial prejudice as proof that they were stuck in an Old South mind-set. David Milligan, the editor of the _Beaufort-Hyde News_ , resented Paul's strategy because, he complained, the Northern press eagerly lapped it up and spat it out in caricature: \"This is the South. Here's a rinky-dink town with its shacks and shanties. You've got this old redneck sheriff and this old redneck jailer and this pore little ole colored gal. She's there in jail, so defenseless, so innocent, and she gets raped and ravaged by this gross jailer and all of a sudden, out of nowhere, she struck out, trying to defend herself. She had to kill the jailer and now those ignorant rednecks are gonna get their revenge on her. They're gonna make her pay for it with her life.\"\n\nPaul couldn't have said it better himself. He and a coterie of supporters spent ten months repeating that story, or versions of it, at rallies and media events, whipping up support for Little throughout the country. More than a canny legal strategy, Little's story would resonate with feminist and antirape organizations, Paul realized, as well as large swaths of the black public. Civil rights and Black Power activists, who had intimate knowledge of Jim Crow justice, would rally to her defense. He teamed up with Karen Galloway, the first African-American woman to graduate from Duke Law School, who signed on as Little's co-counsel the same day she passed her bar exam. Together the novice and the native son traveled to Washington, D.C., to speak to women's organizations. We \"sold the Joan Little case,\" Paul said later, \"and all the women's groups started to pick it up.\"\n\nMovement magazines and newsletters, like the feminist periodical _Off Our Backs_ , helped spread Little's story through feminist circles before the mainstream media picked it up. Angela Davis's article in _Ms_. magazine brought national attention to the trial and introduced thousands of activists and institutions across the nation not only to Joan Little's plight but to black women's long battle against sexual violence. \"All people who see themselves as members of the existing community of struggle for justice, equality, and progress,\" Davis argued, \"have a responsibility to fulfill toward Joan Little.\" The Southern Poverty Law Center, with former SNCC leader Julian Bond at the helm, signed on early as well. They used Morris Dees's direct mail expertise to solicit funds from people across the nation for Little's defense. The letter they mailed to a quarter of a million people claimed Little's case represented the \"most shocking and outrageous example of injustice against women on record.\"\n\nAs word of Little's defiant stand against sexual violence spread, national feminist groups and civil rights organizations rallied behind her. The Women's Legal Defense Fund, the Feminist Alliance Against Rape, the Rape Crisis Center, the National Black Feminist Organization, and the National Organization for Women, which was struggling to appeal to women of color, joined the fund-raising effort and mobilized nationwide support. The national NAACP maintained its historic reluctance to embrace \"sex cases\" and did not get involved; however, local chapters helped raise money.\n\nIn an article for _The Black Scholar_ , Maulana Ron Karenga, a Black Power advocate, cultural nationalist, founder of the US Organization, and inventor of Kwanzaa, called on African Americans to \"accept and support [Little's] account of what actually happened and to reject... the version offered by the oppressor.\" Karenga placed the attack on Little into a long history of \"personal and political terrorism directed against black women and the black community since slavery.\" Her willingness to resist Alligood's advances, Karenga argued, proved that even though \"the movement was at a lull, our people were still in motion, still resisting.\" Little's decision to fight back became a catalyst for a much larger struggle.\n\nRosa Parks, who had been an antirape activist since she helped organize the campaign to defend Recy Taylor in the early 1940s, helped found a local branch of the Joan Little Legal Defense Committee in Detroit, where she had fled two years after the Montgomery bus boycott. In a press release issued on March 12, 1975, the committee announced a student rally at the University of Detroit, a march to be held April 18, and a massive fund-raising drive to defend Little \"all the way to the Supreme Court if necessary.\" They hoped that \"Miss Little will be acquitted of the charge of first degree murder,\" the press release stated, \"but, also, that the question, 'should a woman defend herself against a rapist?' will be decided in the affirmative.\" Within a month the Detroit committee had secured local speakers and entertainment for the April rally, sent five hundred solicitations for donations, and appeared on local television and radio programs to call on Detroit citizens to rally to Little's defense. Similar chapters emerged throughout the country.\n\nBernice Johnson Reagon, founder of the a cappella group Sweet Honey in the Rock, and a former SNCC activist who worked closely with Fannie Lou Hamer the summer after she was assaulted in the Winona, Mississippi, jail, saw Joan Little as a kind of everywoman trapped by a racist and sexist society. Her song, \"Joanne Little,\" became the anthem for what became the \"Free Joan Little\" movement. The song's refrain, \"Joanne is you, Joanne is me, our prison is this whole society,\" rallied Little's diverse supporters.\n\nThe Southern Christian Leadership Conference, the organization founded by Martin Luther King, Jr., supported Little and demanded protection for black womanhood. The Reverend Ralph Abernathy, King's hand-picked successor and Montgomery bus boycott veteran, joined Golden Frinks to headline a protest at the Beaufort County Courthouse. \"Here is a young Black woman locked in jail,\" Abernathy shouted, \"sexually assaulted [and] charged with first degree murder, simply because she protected herself from being raped by a white barbarian.\" It was perhaps the SCLC's most outspoken statement in defense of black women's bodily integrity.\n\nAt the grassroots level, African-American women in North Carolina who had labored for human dignity without recognition or celebration began organizing on Little's behalf. They drew from deep wells of experience fighting racial injustice and sexual abuse. In 1975 a number of them joined hands across the state to form Concerned Women for Justice and Fairness to Joan Little (later known as the Concerned Women for Justice or CWJ). Mrs. Christine Strudwick, veteran of the Durham, North Carolina, freedom struggle, who became CWJ's second vice president, recalled that she \"felt like Joan could have been one of my daughters and was caught up in a situation [in which] she really had no control.\" Strudwick cultivated local support and introduced Little's attorneys to black churchwomen at the Union Baptist Church in Durham, which served as the organizational base for local civil rights activists in the 1950s and 1960s. By calling on the churchwomen at Union Baptist, Strudwick placed Little's case in the hands of experienced activists who understood the long history of sexual abuse of black women. Together they helped raise money, provided moral support, and offered assistance to Little's mother.\n\nThe Durham branch of the Joan Little Defense Fund served as the home base for state and national organizing. It was originally founded by Little's attorneys to help raise funds for her defense but was primarily run by black female college students. According to a press release, Yvonne Davis, a student at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, \"traveled, making talks and arranging publicity... for little or no pay.\" She was also responsible for keeping in contact with groups around the country. Alexis Randolph \"kept [the Joan Little Defense Fund] going almost single-handed.\" Vivian Grimes, a secretary in Jerry Paul's law firm, \"spent numerous hours working on the case, on and off the job.\" Tyree Barnes, a student at Guildford College, was in charge of a survey for jury selection and, according to a committee newsletter, \"has on many occasions taken it upon herself to carry out many of the things that needed doing.\" Nancy Mills helped set up the first rally in Washington, D.C. Celene Chernier, a prison reform activist and representative of the North Carolina Alliance Against Racial and Political Repression, helped nurture relationships with like-minded organizations. Larry Little, head of the Winston-Salem Black Panther Party, secured support from Black Power advocates. Their efforts, along with the direct mail efforts of Julian Bond and Morris Dees at the Southern Poverty Law Center, raised approximately $250,000 for Little's defense. Months before Joan Little's trial began, her supporters had already decided she was innocent.\n\n\u2022 \u2022 \u2022\n\nLittle still had to face a North Carolina judge and jury. Her attorneys hoped it would not be in Beaufort County, where too many people knew Little's criminal history and hard reputation. In April 1975, Jerry Paul and Karen Galloway petitioned Superior Court Judge Henry A. McKinnon for a change of venue, arguing that Beaufort County's jury-selection process was racially biased. Paul and Galloway spent $38,992 on social scientists who helped develop an \"attitude profile survey\" designed to detect patterns of prejudice. They wanted to know if African Americans and young people were purposely excluded from the local jury pool\u2014a tactic used by white Southerners for many years to deny blacks equal justice. A diverse jury would render a different verdict than an all-white jury, they reasoned, because the attitudes of blacks, women, and the young significantly diverged from average white male jurors. \"If it could be shown that attitudes were different, and the three groups were underrepresented,\" Courtney J. Mullin, the social psychologist who headed the survey, said, \"then Joan Little would receive... not a jury of her peers... but rather the justice of a middle-class, middle-aged white male segment only.\"\n\nOn April 22 Judge McKinnon granted the change of venue, not because of systematic racial discrimination, he argued, but \"because it would be almost impossible to select an impartial jury... because of extensive pre-trial publicity.\" Little and her attorneys won a double victory that day. Despite McKinnon's denials, Paul and Galloway succeeded in portraying racism as the reason for the change of venue. By moving the trial to Raleigh, the state capital, Little could count on a jury drawn from a more urban and liberal population, who knew virtually nothing about her disreputable past.\n\nThe \"trial of the decade,\" as the _Chicago Tribune_ put it, began on July 15, 1975. Five hundred supporters rallied outside the Wake County Courthouse, a white cement behemoth in downtown Raleigh. They hoisted placards demanding the court \"Free Joan Little\" and \"Defend Black Womanhood,\" and loud chants could be heard over the din of traffic and conversation. \"One, two, three. Joan must be set free!\" the crowd sang. \"Four, five, six. Power to the ice pick!\" Inside, Little sat quietly in a modest pink and blue dress as her attorneys and the prosecutors tested competing narratives and argued over potential jurors. William Griffin, the boyish thirty-one-year-old prosecutor, presented Little as a seductive and calculating killer who murdered Alligood as part of a plot to escape. She deserved the death penalty, he claimed, and looked for potential jurors who supported it.\n\nDemonstrators demand \"Justice for Joanne\" outside the Wake County Courthouse. (photo credit 8.4)\n\nThe defense, _The New York Times_ reported, \"made clear today that they were putting the Southern system of justice on trial as much as defending a young black woman accused of first-degree murder.\" When assistant prosecutor Lester Chalmers dismissed the first black prospective juror, Jerry Paul, hewing to this strategy, yelled, \"I object! He's excusing them because they're black.\" Chalmers was an easy target\u2014he had defended the Imperial Wizard of the Ku Klux Klan in front of the House Un-American Activities Committee a few years earlier\u2014and the defense eagerly exploited it. Chalmers \"bristled\" at the charge and told Judge Hamilton Hobgood, the sixty-four-year-old jurist with a reputation for fairness and a knack for country humor, that he \"objected to the objection.\" \"I'd expect the Klan to object to that statement,\" Jerry Paul quickly shot back. Paul goaded Chalmers about his past association with the bedsheet brigade for the nearly two weeks it took to pick a jury, setting the stage for a courtroom brawl between the South's legacy of racial and sexual violence and Joan Little. In the end, the jury consisted of six African Americans and six whites. Nine of the twelve were women, and all but five were under forty years old.\n\nAs prosecutors struggled to present a case based on circumstantial evidence, defense attorneys placed the case in its historical context. They argued that Southern police officers had a long history of assaulting and sexually harassing black women in their custody. In the Beaufort County Jail, they said, black women were wholly unprotected. Officers kept a camera trained on female prisoners at all times, watching them\u2014or \"peeping at them,\" as Paul put it\u2014while they showered, changed clothes, and used the toilet. Little testified that when she tried to \"tie up a blanket to block the TV monitor\" and protect her privacy when she was naked, officers took her blanket away. She also described how, when she wanted to take a shower, she \"had to call the jailer and have him turn the water on.\" Then he would stand outside her cell and watch, she said.\n\nKaren Galloway told the jury that Little was not the only victim of sexual abuse in the Beaufort County Jail but was one of many black women harassed by Alligood and other white officers who routinely attacked black women. Galloway summoned a stream of black women to the stand to testify about their experiences. Rosa Ida Mae Roberson, described by the _Los Angeles Times_ as a \"hefty black woman who was jailed for twenty-one days for making threatening phone calls,\" told the jury that Alligood propositioned her about \"seven to ten times\" while she was incarcerated. Alligood, she said, teased her about being \"confined so long [she] needed sex.\" When Roberson warned the wizened jailer that she \"would kill him if he entered her cell,\" he backed off. Phyllis Ann Moore, a nineteen-year-old black woman, testified that during her short stay in the Beaufort County Jail, she witnessed Alligood sexually harass Little by repeatedly asking her if she \"missed her man.\" Little ignored the sexual innuendo, Moore said, and once \"turned away in disgust and muttered that she'd report the jailer if he said it again.\" But it was the last witness, who, according to the _Los Angeles Times_ , \"seemed to command the closest attention of the jury.\"\n\nAn eclectic group of protesters join forces to \"Free Joan Little,\" July 14, 1975. (photo credit 8.5)\n\n\"Power to the Ice Pick\"\u2014an African-American woman pickets outside the Wake County Courthouse in Raleigh, July 21, 1975. (photo credit 8.6)\n\nJurors listened with rapt attention as Galloway questioned Anne Marie Gardner, a twenty-six-year-old black woman, who said Alligood made repeated sexual advances toward her. \"Alligood came to the female section just about every night,\" Gardner told the jury. When she scrubbed the floors, she said, Alligood shuffled along behind her, attempting to pinch and fondle her breasts. \"I'd knock his hand away,\" she said. When Lester Chalmers asked Gardner on cross-examination why she did not report the behavior, someone in the audience said, \"Come on, mister.\" \"I wanted to forget it,\" Gardner snapped back.\n\nBy presenting multiple victims of Alligood's predatory lust, the defense readied the jurors for Little's testimony. Paul and Galloway had prepared her for this moment; they spent months training Joan Little in the art of respectability. She had to assert her dignity and personhood without being too brash and appear reputable without being too demure. It was a difficult task since Little had what Paul called a \"negative side\" that her attorneys did not want to slip out. \"She's not an honest person,\" Paul admitted later. \"She's not a kind person. She's a violent person. That doesn't mean she committed this crime,\" he explained, \"it only means she's a product of her environment.\" If she had said, \" 'I did a brave thing, I killed the old lecher and I'm glad of it,' \" Paul argued, \"she would have blown it.\" Paul and Galloway taught Little how to behave in a way that made the jury believe she was an honorable and decent young woman and that any allusions by the prosecution to her criminal or sexual history were signs of their racism, not her moral shortcomings.\n\nOutside the Wake County Courthouse, Raleigh, July 14, 1975 (photo credit 8.7)\n\nBlack and white women assert their right to self-defense outside the Joan Little trial, August 17, 1975. (photo credit 8.8)\n\nJerry Paul helped create an image of respectability by pairing Little with Galloway, who was middle-class, educated, poised, well spoken, and respectable. \"To be really good on the stand,\" Paul told a journalist later, \"the client must be an extension of her lawyer. The client literally must _be_ her lawyer.\" Paul saw that Galloway commanded respect when she spoke to the jurors. White women in particular responded to her grace and self-assurance. \"I figure if they'll accept Karen,\" Paul said, \"she'll drag Joan along with her. They'll never look at Joan.\" Galloway's presence, Paul explained, provided jurors with \"an image of what Joan can be... and maybe is.\"\n\nBy the time Little testified on her own behalf, almost a month after the trial began, the prosecution's case was severely weakened. On August 6 Judge Hobgood reduced the charge against her to second-degree murder because, he said, the \"state had failed to offer sufficient evidence that she had planned the killing.\" As prosecutors lost legal ground, they increasingly relied on racial and sexual stereotypes to make their case. This was most clear when Little, after sitting expressionless for nearly three weeks, finally took the stand.\n\nWearing a peach pullover and checkered pants, the petite woman testified that she killed Clarence Alligood in self-defense after he forced his way into her cell. She spoke so softly at times that jurors and spectators leaned forward, straining to hear the details of what happened almost a year earlier. Choking back tears, Little told the jury how Alligood brought her sandwiches and snacks, often after midnight, without her asking. After about three weeks in jail, she said, Alligood started making passes at her, \"talking about how nice I looked in my gown and that he wanted me to you know, have sex with him.\"\n\n\"Well, what did you say?\" Paul asked.\n\n\"I told him to leave and that if he didn't I was gonna tell.\"\n\nOn cross-examination, prosecutor William Griffin asked her why she did not follow through on the threat to report Alligood.\n\n\"Coming up as a black woman,\" Little told the jury, \"it's a difficult thing... it's a question of your word against a white person.\"\n\nAll of Alligood's late-night visits with snacks and sandwiches were a ploy, the defense claimed, to manipulate Little into having sex with him. When he walked into her cell in the early-morning hours of August 27, 1974, he had a \"silly grin on his face, a weird look,\" Little testified. \"He said that he had been nice to me and it was time I be nice to him.\" Holding back tears, Little told the jury that she rebuffed Alligood and told him that she \"wasn't gonna be nice to him.\" Alligood was unmoved, she said; he slipped his shoes off, walked into the cell, and started to fondle her breasts. \"You might as well [tell],\" Little claimed Alligood said as he \"started to feel all over me.\" The other police officers, he said, \"aren't going to believe you anyway.\" With a tiny voice barely audible in the courtroom, Little told the jury that she began to cry when Alligood stepped closer, pulled her nightgown up over her head, and \"stuck his left hand in between my legs.\" With his right hand, she said, he grabbed her neck and said, \"Give me some pussy.\" \"I was scared,\" she said, \"so I just let him do that.\"\n\nLittle continued with her raw testimony. She described how the jailer removed his pants, then forced her to her knees and, ice pick in hand, pushed her head down between his legs and told her to \"suck him.\" \"I didn't know whether he was going to kill me or what,\" she said, trembling. She wept as she described how she grabbed the ice pick when his grip loosened. \"I reached for it and it fell,\" she said. \"He grabbed for it... I grabbed for it,\" she said, burying her face into a handkerchief. She looked at the jury, her eyes puffy from crying, and told them that she \"got to the ice pick first [and] struck at him each time he came at me.\" In the struggle, she said, she lashed out at Alligood after he grabbed her wrists and ran when he finally fell down. Little's testimony touched a raw nerve among the black women jurors, especially Cora Judkins and Pecola Jones, who wept softly as Little dried her eyes and prepared for more of Griffin's cross-examination.\n\nThree hours of \"wheedling and battering\" by Griffin, _The New York Times_ reported, \"failed to evoke any anger from the young black woman.\" Griffin's cross-examination followed what Wayne King, the _Times_ reporter, called \"the classic courtroom pattern where allegations of rape are made\u2014an attempt to impeach the accuser's reputation and\/or force her into a contradiction through anger or simple repetition of the facts.\" On the latter point, Griffin and his assistant prosecutors failed miserably. By making Little repeat answers to their questions and retell the more brutal aspects of her struggle, they appeared insensitive.\n\n\"You never screamed?\" Griffin asked.\n\n\"No, I just stood there,\" Little said quietly.\n\n\"You just stood there,\" Griffin said with incredulity. \"You didn't slap his hands away from you, you didn't push him away from you?\"\n\n\"No sir,\" Little replied.\n\n\"Did you strike him, hit him, push him?\"\n\n\"No,\" she said. \"I just stood there.\"\n\n\"You just stood there.\"\n\nClearly exasperated, Griffin raised his voice. \"You never hollered, shouted, pushed him away, struck him or anything?\"\n\n\"I was scared and I didn't know whether to scream or what, because he could have killed me right then and there.\"\n\n\"He had not threatened you at that point, had he?\" Griffin argued.\n\n\"He was bigger than me,\" she said, pointing out that the jailer was over two hundred pounds and she was half that size.\n\n\"But you didn't fight him off, is that right?\"\n\n\"May I say something?\" Little asked.\n\n\"No I want you to answer my question,\" Griffin replied.\n\n\"No I did not,\" Little said. \"But if you had been a woman,\" Little added, \"you wouldn't have known what to do either, you probably wouldn't have screamed either because you wouldn't have known what he would have done to you.\"\n\nWhen prosecutors could not rattle Little, they attacked her credibility and portrayed her as a prostitute. Griffin asked Little if she gave a bondsman sexual favors in return for a loan to get out of jail; if another woman was her lover while she awaited trial in the women's prison; if she had a venereal disease; and if she ferried women to Jacksonville, North Carolina, as part of a prostitution ring. To all but one question, Paul objected, and Judge Hobgood overruled. Little calmly defended herself, maintaining her composure and her dignity. Griffin and his fellow prosecutors continued their strategy during their closing arguments.\n\nJust because there was \"sexual activity under way,\" Griffin argued, did not \"give her the right to kill this man.\" He suggested that not only did Little have consensual sex with the jailer, _she_ seduced _him_. What else could explain Alligood's erection, Griffin asked. \"[It's] strange to me that a man with rape on his mind would go in with an erection?\" Griffin said. \"That's strange to me. Does that make any sense at all? A man with rape on his mind?\" Finally, Griffin described Little as a \"calculating criminal, who, bent on escape, lured the jailer into her cell with a promise of sexual favors\" and then, \"at the moment of ecstasy, she let him have it.\" She \"stabbed a man all over his body,\" Griffin told the jury. She directed the blows at his heart, he said. \"How else would a man sit there and take those kind of wounds? How else?\"\n\nDefense attorneys painted a different picture in their closing statements. Wearing the same color and sporting a similar, short Afro as her client, Karen Galloway taped off a four-by-seven-foot box on the courtroom floor and stood inside it, inviting the jurors to put themselves in Joan Little's shoes. Galloway skillfully transported the jurors to the Beaufort County Jail the night of the crime. Imagine a \"young black woman whose white jailer had come to her cell demanding sex,\" she said. \"Imagine Alligood's power and Miss Little's sense of fear.\" Here is a \"two hundred pound man sitting on the bunk; you on your knees on the floor,\" Galloway said, adroitly re-creating the sense of physical powerlessness Little must have felt. _The New York Times_ reported that the young attorney then \"described in stark language the sexual assault, weaving into the account over and over again, the power of the jailer.\" Alligood was a \"man of position, of authority,\" she argued. Little ran, Galloway said, because \"white men in the South could do anything to black women and get away with it. She ran to save her own life.\" Pointing to the white male prosecutors as if they were guilty too, Galloway said, \"They suggest that she enjoyed it.\" As a respectable black woman, Galloway's condemnation of white men's lawlessness and indifference toward black women's humanity was a powerful indictment. Her ability to make Alligood's power and perversion real enabled the jury to gain a sense of what she called Little's \"defenselessness, paralysis, [and] violation.\" Her performance reduced the jurors to tears.\n\nThe defense team could have easily rested after Galloway's wrenching closing argument, but Paul wanted the jury to understand that Little's story fit into a long and painful history. Taking the jury back to Jim Crow, Paul opened his dog-eared copy of Gerda Lerner's _Black Women in White America_ and read a long passage written in 1902 by an anonymous African-American woman. The essay denounced white men for defiling black women while simultaneously proclaiming, \"No Negro women are virtuous.\" The author hoped that \"someone will arise who will champion [black women's] cause and compel the world to see that we deserve justice, as other heroes compelled it to see that we deserved freedom.\" Paul argued that that someone was Joan Little.\n\n\"God chose Joan Little,\" Paul insisted, \"like he chose Rosa Parks\" to end the \"domination of southern black women by white males.\" \"And that is what this case is all about. This case compels the world to see that women, black women, deserve justice; that women are victims of rape and that rape is not a sex crime and that they do not lure men into raping them. It is a crime of violence, of hatred, of humiliation.\" He then put the entire history of the South's racial and sexual subjugation on trial and asked the jury to decide whether it wanted to continue to live in a world dominated by white supremacy. \"Whose word do you believe?\" he asked. \"The history of whiteness on a pedestal, white southern womanhood on the pedestal, righteousness, purity, or do you believe the black woman who has a history of being lower than the prostitute?\"\n\nAfter deliberating for seventy-eight minutes, the jury unanimously voted to acquit Joan Little. As Mark Neilson, the jury foreman, read the verdict, Little's attorneys clustered around her as she broke into sobs. Wiping the tears away, she said, \"It feels good to be free.\" News of the victory quickly spread to the crowd of one hundred supporters outside. When Little emerged, the throng erupted into cheers and chanted, \"Freedom! Freedom! Freedom!\" At a press conference later that day in the green-and-yellow lobby of the Lemon Tree Inn, Little told reporters that she \"always had confidence in the people.\" She believed she received a fair trial, Little said, despite the fact that prosecutors were, as she put it, more \"interested in sending black women to the gas chamber than the truth.\" Standing next to Galloway, Little told the crowd of television reporters and journalists that she hoped her experience might help women who \"go through the same kinds of abuse.\"\n\nJoan Little (left) and Karen Galloway, July 14, 1975. Galloway was the first African-American woman to graduate Duke Law School. (photo credit 8.9)\n\nMichael Coakley, a reporter for the _Chicago Tribune_ who sat through the five-week trial, argued that Little's case provided a national airing for issues that plagued the country, particularly \"racism, sexism, and prison reform\" and \"the whole question of self-defense against rape.\" The case helped fuel a public debate about the prosecution of sex crimes and aided feminist efforts to redefine rape as a crime of violence, aggression, and humiliation that had little, if anything, to do with sex. Additionally, by constantly challenging prosecutors' implied arguments that Little could not have been raped because she was not respectable, she and her attorneys helped dispel stereotypes of black women as promiscuous jezebels who could not be legitimate victims of rape. The fact that these characterizations were seen as racist attempts to smear the victim indicated that a New South could emerge from the ruins of the old. \"I like to think we at least made a beginning,\" Galloway said later. \"Maybe now rape victims won't have to take the witness stand and become the defendant.\"\n\nThe Joan Little case proved that respectability still mattered, but only to a degree. Despite the fact that Paul compared Little to Rosa Parks, she was _nothing_ like the heroine of the Montgomery bus boycott. By 1975, respectability was no longer the defining trait supporters looked for before rallying to the cause. Everyone knew that Little had been incarcerated, but that did not stop supporters from insisting that she still had a right to her own body and deserved to be treated with respect. Certainly the modern civil rights movement, which forced the nation to recognize African Americans as citizens and human beings, created the conditions for the change. When Paul told the jury that \"there is no human being on the face of the earth\" who has the right to violate or abuse another person, \"no matter who you are or where you think you come from or whatever possession or control you have,\" he expressed those changes.\n\nWhile the verdict in the Little case highlighted these breaks with the past, there was much continuity with it. The trial drew national and international attention, and a broad coalition of supporters rallied in defense of Little's womanhood and her right to self-defense. The widespread support for Little among disparate leftist and liberal organizations resembled the nationwide coalitions that formed to demand justice for Recy Taylor in 1944 and Rosa Lee Ingram in 1947. Like the Committee for Equal Justice for Mrs. Recy Taylor and the Sojourners for Truth and Justice, the Free Joan Little campaign, led primarily by African-American women, helped mobilize support on behalf of black womanhood and served as a catalyst for larger struggles.\n\nThe Free Joan Little campaign is often portrayed as the product of second-wave feminism, which finally enabled women to break the code of silence surrounding sexual violence and \"speak out\" against rape. While this may be true for white, middle-class feminists who became active in the antirape movement in the early 1970s, African-American women had been speaking out and organizing politically against sexual violence and rape for more than a century. When Jerry Paul read to the jury an African-American woman's essay from 1902 decrying the lack of protection for black womanhood, he bore witness to not only the decades of abuse black women faced during slavery and Jim Crow but also to their long history of speaking out against it. While Paul highlighted this history and helped it find a broader audience, it was African-American women who bore the ultimate burden of testimony.\n\nSpeaking out was never easy. Joan Little told reporters shortly after her trial ended that the \"toughest thing\" about her entire ordeal was testifying. \"I spent many months trying to force it from the bottom of me, to try to tell people what happened. I knew people would think that I must have enticed him,\" she said. \"I don't think any woman enjoys talking about being sexually attacked.\" For African-American women who were raped or sexually harassed in the segregated South, or anywhere their bodies were not their own, speaking out was downright dangerous. As a result, testimony must be seen as a form of direct action and radical protest against the racial and sexual status quo. Indeed, the willingness of African-American women to testify about the crimes committed against their personhood took enormous courage and strength and indicated that even decades before the women's movement, they understood that the \"personal is political.\"\n\nIn this cartoon, published in the _Baltimore Afro-American_ , Joan Little is portrayed as a champion prizefighter who knocked out Jim Crow, August 19\u201323, 1975. (photo credit 8.10)\n\nIn 1959 John McCray wondered if African-American women had finally been emancipated after an all-white jury in Florida found four white men guilty of raping Betty Jean Owens. Fourteen years later, a cartoon published in the _Baltimore Afro-American_ provided an answer. Portrayed as a champion boxer, Joan Little stands atop a battered and bruised Jim Crow. With stars swirling around his head, looking tired and overweight in his Confederate flag shorts, old Jim Crow is down for the count. Hoisting Little's gloved fists up into the air, \"trainers\" Jerry Paul and Karen Galloway proclaim victory for their champ and a triumph over \"Dixie Racism.\"\n\n# EPILOGUE  \n\"We All Lived in Fear for Years\"\n\nRECY TAYLOR TURNED EIGHTY-NINE on December 31, 2008. I met her and her youngest brother at his tidy ranch house just down the street from the Rock Hill Holiness Church in Abbeville, Alabama. We came together on the same day that one million Americans gathered in Washington, D.C., to witness the inauguration of the country's first black president. I talked with the slight, spry woman whose courage and testimony in 1944 helped inspire the modern civil rights movement. Recy, Robert Corbitt, and I watched the inaugural events on television in a sunroom filled with family photos and lush houseplants. The little cabin where Recy and Robert's father, Benny Corbitt, lived out his final days was visible through the windows, reminding us, as William Faulkner put it, that \"the past is never dead, it isn't even past.\"\n\nThis seems especially true in Abbeville, where Taylor's family and the families of her assailants have lived nearly side by side for decades. On the night before the inauguration, fifteen family members crowded into the living room to talk about what had happened to Recy. Corbitt, a lean man with a warm smile, said, \"You'd be surprised at how close they lived. We were very segregated\u2014but we were neighbors. It's just that we were in the gray houses and they were in the nicer houses.\"\n\nHugo Wilson's house is within sight of Lewey Corbitt's sprawling bungalow. The sagging ranch that Billy Howerton grew up in is right across the street from Will Cook's old place. Joe Culpepper's peeling two-story colonial is around the corner from Three Points. Although the cow pastures surrounding Abbeville lie fallow and the sharecropping shacks gave way to modern apartments and fast-food restaurants, the physical layout and population of the tiny rural outpost remain nearly the same as they were in 1944.\n\nFor the Corbitt family, those county roads and old homes surrounding Abbeville will always be crime scenes\u2014there has been no resolution or reconciliation, no justice. The violence resonates through generations.\n\n\"I used to watch for them,\" Robert said, referring to the assailants, most of whom stayed in Abbeville until they died. Many of their children and grandchildren are still there. Corbitt used to drive past their houses whenever he was in town and kept an eye on their comings and goings.\n\n\"I didn't do anything,\" he said, \"but I was angry.\"\n\nAt seventy-two, he is still haunted by what happened to his oldest sister more than six decades ago. When he returned to Abbeville in 2001, after living most of his adult life in New York City, he spent days searching through microfilmed copies of the local newspaper and pestering locals about what they remembered. Not surprisingly, most whites denied it ever happened, while blacks remembered it well.\n\n\"For sixty-five years I've been thinking about it,\" Corbitt said, his voice even softer than usual. \"A whole week didn't go by without me thinking about it. She was like a mother to me,\" he said, recalling how their mother died when Recy was seventeen and he was one. \"She raised me and took care of all six of us, so when I came back here, I tried to dig up something on it.\"\n\nRecy's other brother, R.J., the oldest son in the family, now an octogenarian, had clear memories of the day he found out about the assault. He had been out of town, \"putting down pipe\" for Hennison, Black and Green, a construction company, and heard about the rape from migrant farmworkers passing through town. He rushed home and asked his father to name the men so he could find them and retaliate.\n\n\"He sat me down and talked to me,\" R.J. recalled.\n\n\"Now listen,\" Benny Corbitt said to his son, \"you know how these folks is here. She's safe. Just be quiet on it for a while. Don't try to do anything or see anybody. You ask them that done it, you might get in trouble. Somebody could put you up. Best be cool and let me handle it.\"\n\nR.J. remembered that his father would often go to the police station and ask Deputy Lewey Corbitt if they had made any progress on the case, but he was always turned away.\n\n\"On things like that,\" R.J. said, \"you didn't go and get into they [white folks'] business. You stay out of it. See, back then if you say anything or do anything and if you weren't a good worker or something they'll send you to prison. They wouldn't even think nothin' about it. So you had to be very quiet. 'Cause they didn't take no chances on you. When they come on ya, they come on ya with a cry. Daddy always talked to me. He said, 'Recy all right. Just stay out of it.' \"\n\nArthur, a stocky, strong-jawed nephew, shook his head slowly. According to the family, he is the spitting image of Benny Corbitt.\n\n\"You got to remember,\" he said, squinting at me, \"at that time, black men were lynched. They held back because if they got lynched they couldn't protect the family. If you dead, you can't protect anyone.\"\n\nAnother sister, Mary Murry, agreed. \"Daddy wasn't scared, but he couldn't do what he wanted to do because he had no money, no transportation, didn't have an education. It handicapped him.\"\n\n\"It affected him emotionally,\" Robert said to a chorus of \"mm\u2014hmms.\"\n\nRecy's sister, Alma Daniels, a feisty woman with a sharp tongue and a sparkle in her eye, nodded. \"But Daddy stayed mad at them [the police] for a long time,\" she said. \"He always got back at them.\"\n\nA few years after the attack, Lewey Corbitt's wife asked Benny to kill some chickens for her. \"He said okay,\" Alma said, as she started to giggle. \"Daddy had a whole case of chickens. He took every one of those chickens and snatched their heads off and threw them down on Lewey Corbitt's front yard.\" Lewey Corbitt just stood there, bewildered by Benny's behavior. \"There were chickens _everywhere,\"_ she said, laughing.\n\nFor a few years after the attack, Recy Taylor stayed close to home and surrounded herself with family and friends. \"I was so afraid they were going to hurt me,\" she said. \"They did tell me they were going to kill me if I told.\" She and her sisters only went out during the day, stayed away from Will Cook's store, and never walked at night. She did not have any other children.\n\nIt wasn't until most of the assailants left town and joined the army that Taylor finally felt safe. \"I felt like I was back with my good friends and wouldn't be bothered anymore,\" she said. But local whites treated her poorly; most wouldn't talk to her or looked the other way when they saw her. The police continued to deny the crime ever happened.\n\n\"Lewey Corbitt just laughed at me,\" she said. \"He denied he was there.\"\n\n\"The city let her down so bad,\" said Robert.\n\nIn 1965 Recy Taylor, her husband Willie Guy Taylor, and their daughter Joyce Lee moved to a small town in central Florida, where they had been picking oranges for many years. In 1967 Joyce Lee died in a car accident; she left behind one child. Recy's husband died shortly thereafter.\n\n\"Recy had a hard life,\" Robert said. \"When our mother died, everyone fell in her hands. She had to take care of all the children. The school she went to was tiny\u2014the teacher went no higher than sixth grade. It was a tough life livin' in the gray house.\" She is still \"very hurt,\" he said. \"I didn't realize the effect rape took on people until it happened to my sister. After all that,\" he said with a sigh, \"she lost her only daughter.\"\n\n\"I never had nothin',\" Taylor recalled, her gray hair tied up with a shiny red wrap. \"I still don't have nothin'.\"\n\nThe next morning Recy, Robert, and I gathered together to watch the inauguration before they took me on a tour retracing Recy's steps that late summer night in Abbeville, 1944. The past and the present, normally so incongruent, seemed to merge when Michelle Obama, the great-great-granddaughter of slaves and slave owners, cradled Abraham Lincoln's Bible in her palms and extended her hands toward her husband for his oath of office. I turned to Taylor and asked if she ever believed an African-American woman would become the First Lady. \"Not in my lifetime,\" she said.\n\nGrowing up in the Jim Crow South, Taylor knew that black women were not even considered _ladies_. From slavery through most of the twentieth century, white Americans denied African-American women the most basic citizenship and human rights, especially the right to ownership and control of their own bodies.\n\nTo see Michelle Obama take her place among a pantheon of distinguished American women was to bear witness to African-American women's centuries-long struggle for dignity and respect. Understanding that struggle, Michelle Obama told _The Washington Post_ before the 2008 election, \"is a process of uncovering the shame, digging out the pride that is part of that story\u2014so that other folks feel comfortable about embracing the beauty and the tangled nature of the history of this country.\"\n\nThe brutal rape of Recy Taylor in 1944, and the sexual exploitation of thousands of other black women in the United States before and after the Civil War, is a central part of our history that has been grossly understated and unacknowledged for far too long. Though it may seem unnecessary, even lurid, to examine the details of sexual violence, it is crucial that we hear the testimonies black women offered at the time. Recy Taylor's willingness, for example, to identify those who attacked her and to testify against them in two grand juries broke the institutional silence surrounding the long history of white men's violation of black women, countered efforts to shame or stereotype her as unchaste, and made white Southern leaders, including the governor of Alabama, recognize her personhood. As a result, her testimony, like so many others, was a momentous event that deserves our recognition. Until we come to terms with our history\u2014even its most shameful secrets and their legacies\u2014we can neither really understand the past nor appreciate the present.\n\n# Acknowledgments\n\nWhen I first thought about becoming a historian, leaders in the field warned me that research and writing is a lonely endeavor. In order to succeed, they cautioned, I would have to endure a long and isolated journey through musty archives, dark microfilm rooms, and silent library stacks. They never told me about all the warm, joyful, and generous people I would meet along the way. This book would not be possible without them.\n\nA hearty thanks goes out to all the archivists, librarians, and fellow historians whose knowledge, good humor, and patience guided my research at institutions around the country. Thanks especially to Curtis Austin and Patricia Buzzard Boyett at the University of Southern Mississippi; Karen Jean Hunt of the John Hope Franklin Collection at Duke; the amazing folks at the Southern Historical Collection at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill; William LeFevre at the Walter P. Reuther Library in Detroit; Cornelia Taylor at the S.H. Coleman Library at Florida A & M University; Kenneth Chandler at the Mary McLeod Bethune Council House; and the staffs at Cayuga Community College Library, the Alabama Department of Archives and History, the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, Emory University, and the Wisconsin Historical Society.\n\nFinancial and moral support for the initial research came from the Department of History at Rutgers University, where I completed my Ph.D. During my time there, Steven Lawson and Nancy Hewitt treated me like family. They opened their home to me, shared meals and conversation, taught me how to be a better scholar and teacher, and spilled gallons of ink on draft chapters. Deborah Gray White, Jennifer Morgan, Jan Lewis, Ann Fabian, Herman Bennett, and Paul Clemens embraced my project early on and provided encouragement and support when I needed it most. My classmates rescued me from the loneliness of archival research, and provided inspiration, friendship, and dark chocolate when necessary. During my \"spare time,\" I taught tenth-grade history at the Horace Mann School in New York City alongside some of the finest historians, teachers, and students. Barry Bienstock, Peter Sheehy, Andy Trees, and Elisa Milkes made every day a pleasure.\n\nWhen it came time to revise my dissertation into a book, I had the great luck to receive a one-year fellowship from the Center for the Study of the American South in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. It was a luxury to devote myself full-time to writing in such a beautiful and collegial environment, where Harry Watson, Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, William Ferris, Barb Call, Nancy Gray Schoonmaker, and Stephen Inrig offered fellowship and fun in equal measure. Tim Tyson, Perri Morgan, and Hope and Sam opened their home and their hearts to me that year. I am forever grateful for their love and friendship. My new colleagues at Wayne State University welcomed me into a lively intellectual environment in 2008 and have provided substantial financial and moral support for this book. Thanks especially to Marc Kruman, Denver Brunsman, Jose Cuello, Liette Gidlow, Marsha Richmond, Fran Shor, Kidada Williams, and Sandra Van-Burkleo, who took time out of their busy schedules to read early drafts. Their ideas and insights undoubtedly made this a better book.\n\nFor thirteen years Tim Tyson and Craig Werner have offered unwavering support, encouragement, and faith in this book and its author. Tyson once told me that \"ink is love\" and they _must_ love me because they read and reworked every page of every draft I gave them. Their insight and artistry as scholars and storytellers are evident throughout. If there is anything poetic in this book, it is because of them. The mistakes are mine alone. I hope someday I can repay them for welcoming me into, and showing me how to build and sustain, a beloved community.\n\nThat beloved community is made up of some of the best folks around and they have enriched this book and my life in innumerable ways. Thank you to Davarian Baldwin, Rebecca Bortner, Martha Bouyer, Lance Broumand, Sean Cassidy, David Cecelski, Bill Chafe, Katherine Charron, Heesun Choi, Robert Corbitt and family, John Dittmer, Crystal Feimster, Gillian Brown-Fink, Krystal Frazier, Marisa Fuentes, Glenda Gilmore, Ed and Carmen Gitre, David Goldberg, Robin Goldstein, Francina Graef, Christina Greene, Matt and Kathy Grossman, Lori Henn, Darlene Clark Hine, Charles Hughes, Melody Ivins, Hassan Jeffries, Steve Kantrowitz, Jenny Kelly, Carmen Khair, Shirley Kramer, Peter Lau, Rhonda Lee, Bill Levy, Phil and Gina Levy, Steve Levy, Andy Lewis, the Mattheis family, Rob McCreanor, Grace and Richard McGuire, Janice Min, Richard Mizelle, Perri Morgan, Sarah and Brett Mountain, Danielle Olekszyk, Marcia, Karl, Jen, and Felicia Rosh and their families, Karen Routledge, Erandy Pacheco Salazar, Rebecca Scales, Adriane Lentz-Smith, Lisa and Pete St. John, Heather Thompson, Hope and Sam Tyson, and the Zenner\/Azzolina family.\n\nCharlotte Sheedy is my real-life fairy godmother. Her lifelong commitment to women's rights and the African-American freedom struggle is an inspiration to me and I feel incredibly lucky and grateful to have her as an agent and friend. She immediately saw the possibilities and promise of this project and has skillfully shepherded me through the publication process. Not only has she taught me how to be a better writer, she inspires me to be a better woman. She is whip-smart and witty, gracious and nurturing, and full of love and joy. Thank you, Charlotte.\n\nEvery good writer has a good editor and I am fortunate to have Vicky Wilson in my corner. She fought to publish this book while it was still a dissertation and has championed it throughout the editing and production process at Knopf. Her sharp eye and creativity freshened the manuscript, and her patience and good humor throughout were indispensable.\n\nMy family's unconditional love and support make everything possible. Thank you to Phyllis St. Michael and Tim and Dee McGuire for giving me the world. I met Adam Rosh in 1998 at the University of Wisconsin. For the past twelve years, he has been my inspiration, my best friend, and biggest advocate. I love him more each day. In July 2008, we welcomed our first child, Ruby, into the world. She is my light and my joy and I hope we can give her everything that has been given to us. This book is dedicated to her.\n\nIt is also dedicated to Recy Taylor and all the survivors of sexual violence. Their silent resistance and sometimes bold testimonies are examples of human dignity and hope.\n\n# Notes\n\nNote on abbreviations and citations: Names of archival collections, most newspapers, and a few magazines and journals are abbreviated, as are some oral interviews. See the bibliography for full citations.\n\n## PROLOGUE\n\n1. \"Report\" and \"Supplemental Report,\" submitted by N. W. Kimbrough and J. V. Kitchens, December 14 and 27, 1944, folder 1, CS. Hereafter cited as \"Report\" and \"Supplemental Report\" respectively. See also Earl Conrad, Eugene Gordon, and Henrietta Buckmaster, \"Equal Justice Under Law,\" pamphlet prepared by the Committee for Equal Justice for Mrs. Recy Taylor, n.d., in folder 3, ibid. The Rockhill Holiness Church is still there but is now called the Church of God in Christ. Thanks to Robert Corbitt and Josephine Baker for a tour of the church.\n\n2. I-Corbitt 3, I-Corbitt, and I-RTC. Corbitt, Recy's youngest brother who was a witness to the events that followed the attack, corroborated nearly every detail in the governor's report.\n\n3. \"Report,\" 7. According to reports, seven men were in the car but only six participated in the gang rape. Billy Howerton claims he did not have sex with her. The other assailants corroborated Howerton's testimony. See \"Report,\" 9\u201310.\n\n4. I-RTC, I-Corbitt 8.\n\n5. Gerda Lerner, _Black Women in White America: A Documentary History_ (New York, 1972). See also Jacqueline Dowd Hall, \"The Mind That Burns in Each Body: Women, Rape and Racial Violence,\" in Ann Snitow, Christine Stansell, and Sharon Thompson, eds., _Powers of Desire: the Politics of Sexuality_ (New York, 1983), 328\u201349; Leslie Schwalm, _A Hard Fight For We: Women's Transition from Slavery to Freedom in South Carolina_ (Chicago, 1997), 37, 44\u201345, 119\u201321; Tera Hunter, _To 'Joy My Freedom_ (Cambridge, Mass., 1997), 10\u201411; Leon Litwack, _Trouble in Mind_ (New York, 1998), 342\u201343; and Sharon Block, \"Lines of Color, Sex and Service: Comparative Sexual Coercion in Early America,\" in Martha Hodes, ed., _Sex, Love, Race: Crossing Boundaries in North American History_ (New York, 1999), 141\u201363.\n\n6. Hall, \"Mind That Burns,\" 330.\n\n7. Ida B. Wells-Barnett, \"Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All Its Phases,\" in Wells-Barnett, _On Lynchings: Southern Horrors, A Red Record, Mob Rule in New Orleans_ (Salem, Mass., 1991), 65, 30.\n\n8. Chana Kai Lee, _For Freedom's Sake: The Life of Fannie Lou Hamer_ (Urbana, Ill., 1999), 9\u201310.\n\n9. Maria Bevacqua, _Rape on the Public Agenda: Feminism and the Politics of Sexual Assault_ (Boston, 2000), 21.\n\n10. Linda Brent, \"Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl,\" in Henry Louis Gates, Jr., ed., _The Classic Slave Narratives_ (New York, 1987), 335.\n\n11. Bevacqua, _Rape_ , 24.\n\n12. Paula Giddings, _When and Where I Enter: The Impact of Black Women on Race and Sex in America_ (New York, 1984), 31.\n\n13. Ibid., 86\u201387.\n\n## CHAPTER 1. \"THEY'D KILL ME IF I TOLD\"\n\n1. Rosa Parks with Jim Haskins, _Rosa Parks: My Story_ (New York, 1992). The population estimate for Abbeville in 1940 was 2,080 people, about 30 percent of whom were African American; see _The WPA Guide to 1930s Alabama_ (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1941), 343. Professional genealogists at ProGeneaologists Family Research and Ancestry Research charted Rosa Parks's family lineage using census records and death certificates. They put their findings, which parallel historical and autobiographical accounts, online. See <http:\/\/www.progenealogists.com\/parks\/aqwn01.htm> (accessed October 22, 2007).\n\n2. Parks with Haskins, _My Story_ , 8.\n\n3. For more on the \"New South,\" see Edward L. Ayers, _The Promise of the New South: Life After Reconstruction_ (New York, 1992).\n\n4. Parks with Haskins, _My Story_ , 9.\n\n5. C. Vann Woodward, _The Strange Career of Jim Crow_ (New York, 1966), 67\u2013109 passim.\n\n6. Parks with Haskins, _My Story_ , 15.\n\n7. Ibid., 12\u201318; \"belligerent attitude,\" 16.\n\n8. Douglas Brinkley, _Rosa Parks_ (New York, 2000), 16.\n\n9. Leona stayed behind, Parks with Haskins, _My Story_ , 9; \"don't put up with bad treatment,\" ibid., 15.\n\n10. The description of Abbeville comes from Earl Conrad, _Jim Crow America_ (New York, 1947), 5\u20136.\n\n11. I-Corbitt 3, I-RTC.\n\n12. Petitions and letters signed by Parks in folder 4, CS.\n\n13. Statement of Recy Taylor, in \"Report,\" 8. Recy and her brother Robert remember events differently. In interviews conducted in 2008 and 2009, they both say that Will Cook did not pick up their father and did not search for the assailants. Instead, they say that Benny Corbitt went searching for his daughter on his own and met her on the roadside near the intersection of Elm Street and East Alabama. Given Will Cook's reputation among blacks as a brutal racist and his dishonesty in the report itself, I tend to believe Corbitt and Taylor's account. Cook had a vested interest in portraying himself as a respectable policeman who followed standard procedures when the governor's investigators interviewed him in 1944. See I-RTC, I-Corbitt.\n\n14. I-Corbitt 3.\n\n15. Statement of West Daniel, in \"Report,\" 11\u201313; statement of Fannie Daniel, ibid., 9\u201411; statement of Recy Taylor, ibid., 8; statement of George H. Gamble, ibid., 2\u20133.\n\n16. Statement of George H. Gamble, ibid., 3.\n\n17. John Dollard, _Caste and Class in a Southern Town_ (Madison, Wis., 1988), 139.\n\n18. \"Supplemental Report,\" folder 1, CS.\n\n19. \"New World of Black Men,\" in Brinkley, _Rosa_ , 23. For more on Garvey and the UNIA, see Mary G. Robinson, _Grassroots Garveyism: The Universal Negro Improvement Association_ _in the Rural South, 1920\u20131927_ (Chapel Hill, N.C., 2007); Colin Grant, _Negro with a Hat: The Rise and Fall of Marcus Garvey_ (New York, 2008).\n\n20. Glenn Feldman, _Politics, Society and the Klan in Alabama, 1915\u20131949_ (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1999), 16.\n\n21. Parks with Haskins, _My Story_ , 30.\n\n22. Feldman, _Politics_ , 54\u201355.\n\n23. Parks with Haskins, _My Story_ , 31.\n\n24. Ibid., 48.\n\n25. Brinkley, _Rosa_ , 27.\n\n26. Parks with Haskins, _My Story_ , 55\u201360.\n\n27. Robin D. G. Kelley, _Hammer and Hoe: Alabama Communists During the Great Depression_ (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1990), 84\u201385.\n\n28. Dan Carter, _Scottsboro: A Tragedy of the American South_ (Baton Rouge, La., 1979), 7\u20138.\n\n29. Brinkley, _Rosa_ , 38.\n\n30. \"Nigger rape case,\" in Carter, _Scottsboro_ , 12; stunning rapidity and harsh sentence, ibid., 50; \"cold blooded 'illegal' lynching,\" ibid., 49; \"synonymous with,\" ibid., 50.\n\n31. For the best summary of African-American activism in Alabama in the 1930s and early 1940s, see Kelley, _Hammer and Hoe_.\n\n32. Parks with Haskins, _My Story_ , 75.\n\n33. Brinkley, _Rosa_ , 58; Parks with Haskins, _My Story_ , 79.\n\n34. Johnnie Carr was the first female member of the Montgomery branch. Parks was the second. See Steven M. Millner, \"The Emergence and Career of a Social Movement,\" in David Garrow, ed., _The Walking City: The Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955\u20131956_ (New York, 1989), 445; J. Mills Thornton, _Dividing Lines: Municipal Politics and the Struggle for Civil Rights in Montgomery, Birmingham and Selma_ (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 2002), 58\u201359. See also Brinkley, _Rosa_.\n\n35. Brinkley, _Rosa_ , 48, 68. Brinkley notes that these early records were permanently lost when a friend inadvertently threw them away while cleaning out the shed where they were stored; Parks with Haskins, _My Story_ , 49.\n\n36. Brinkley, _Rosa_ , 70; Parks with Haskins, _My Story_ , 84\u201385.\n\n37. Petitions and letters signed by Parks in folder 4, CS.\n\n38. Fred Atwater, \"$600 to Rape Wife? Alabama Whites Make Offer to Recy Taylor Mate!\", CD, January 27, 1945, 1.\n\n39. \"Report,\" 3.\n\n40. See witness list, \"Report,\" 14. For more on Bill Baxley, see Diane McWhorter, _Carry Me Home: Birmingham Alabama and the Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution_ (New York, 2001), 573\u201375.\n\n41. Earl Conrad, \"Death Threat Made Against Rape Victim,\" CD, March 17, 1945, 9; I-RTC 30.\n\n42. I-Corbitt 3.\n\n43. For more on Alabama's \"Popular Front\" politics, see Kelley, _Hammer and Hoe_ , 152\u201392 passim. Biondi calls the coalition between radical or leftist black organizations, labor unions, and more middle-class, traditional organizations like the NAACP, the \"Black Popular Front.\" Martha Biondi, _To Stand and Fight: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Postwar New York City_ (Cambridge, Mass., 2003), 9.\n\n44. More than thirty national labor unions and many more locals supported Recy Taylor. See \"Press Release,\" February 3, 1945, folder 4, box 430, ECC. Other organizations that played an active role in Taylor's defense include the National Council of Negro Women, the International Labor Defense, and the Montgomery branch of the NAACP: \"Partial Sponsor List,\" December 28, 1944, ibid.\n\n45. SNYC held its first conference in Richmond, Virginia, in 1937, and more than five hundred delegates from thirteen states attended. While many leaders in SNYC were members of the Communist Party, its advisory committee was staffed by prominent, respectable middle-class leaders like Mary McLeod Bethune, Charlotte Hawkins Brown, and sociologist Charles Johnson. The conference helped SNYC members lead a campaign to organize five thousand tobacco workers into the Tobacco Stemmers and Laborers Industrial Union, netting them a 20\u201333 percent wage increase. The third annual SNYC conference, held in Birmingham in 1940, was the \"largest to date\" and drew 650 delegates and much praise throughout the South as a beacon of hope and light amid white repression. See Kelley, _Hammer and Hoe_ , 201, 202.\n\n46. Ibid., 222.\n\n47. Ibid., 203.\n\n48. Erik S. McDuffie, _Long Journeys: Four Black Women and the Communist Party, USA, 1930\u20131956_ , Ph.D. diss (New York University, 2003), 295. Kelley, _Hammer and Hoe_ , 204\u201305.\n\n49. Rosa Parks also served as E. D. Nixon's secretary. Nixon was president of the Montgomery branch of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters and the Voters League. He became president of the local branch of the NAACP in 1945 and served as a key organizer of the Montgomery bus boycott in 1955. For more on E. D. Nixon, see Thornton, _Dividing_ , 28\u201332, 59\u201364 passim, and 99\u2013102 passim; Taylor Branch, _Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954\u20131963_ (New York, 1988), 120\u201336 passim; Howell Raines, _My Soul Is Rested; Movement Days in the Deep South Remembered_ (New York, 1977), 37\u201339, 43\u201351.\n\n50. \"Alabama Whites Attack Woman; Not Punished,\" PC, October 28, 1944, 2.\n\n51. Gene Roberts and Hank Klibanoff, _The Race Beat: The Press, the Civil Rights Struggle, and the Awakening of a Nation_ (New York, 2006), 22.\n\n52. Ibid., 22. Timothy B. Tyson, \"Wars for Democracy,\" in David S. Cecelski and Timothy B. Tyson, eds., _Democracy Betrayed: The Wilmington Race Riot of 1898 and Its Legacy_ (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1998), 255; see also Harvard Sitkoff, \"Racial Militancy and Interracial Violence in the Second World War,\" _Journal of American History_ 58, no. 3 (December 1971): 661\u201382 passim.\n\n53. FBI report on the Southern Negro Youth Conference, December 11, 1944, 2; see also Agent Abbaticchio's FBI report, dated November 30 to December 3, 1944, HK. See also \"Delegation to Ask Alabama Governor for Justice for Rape Victim,\" _DW_ , November 26, 1944, clipping found in Scrapbook Collection, ECC.\n\n54. Eugene Gordon, \"Alabama Authorities Ignore White Gang's Rape of Negro Mother,\" _Worker_ , November 19, 1944, n.d.\n\n55. Biondi states that New York City was the site of a postwar civil rights movement for jobs, equality, desegregation, and human dignity, which set the stage for the Southern movement a decade later. \"With its large Black population, progressive race leadership, strong trade unions, and progressive print media,\" Biondi argues, New York City \"became a major battleground in the postwar push for racial equality.\" It was also home to the United Nations, which \"Black Popular Front\" coalitions petitioned \"seeking some form of assistance or intervention to aid the Black freedom struggle in the United States,\" especially the 1951 _We Charge Genocide_ petition submitted by the Civil Rights Congress. Biondi, _Stand_ , 37, 57.\n\n56. \"Press Release,\" November 20, 1944, folder 2, box 370, ECC.\n\n57. Minutes from \"Conference Held at Theresa Hotel, November 25, 1944 on Case of Mrs. Recy Taylor,\" series IV, reel 6, NNCP-M. See Charles A. Collins, executive secretary of the Negro Labor Victory Committee, to Governor Chauncey Sparks, November 30, 1944, folder 1, CS. The Negro Labor Victory Committee claimed to represent more than 300,000 black workers in more than one hundred affiliated CIO, AFL, and independent unions.\n\n58. Moore was a Harlem activist, Garveyite, and member of the ILD and CPUSA, who fought on behalf of the Scottsboro boys in the 1930s. She headed up the New York branch of the Committee to Save Mrs. Rosa Lee Ingram, fought to desegregate major league baseball, and founded the first organization advocating black reparations in 1955. Biondi, _Stand_ , 281; See also McDuffie, _Long Journeys_.\n\n59. \"Delegation to Ask Ala. Governor for Justice for Rape Victim,\" newspaper clipping, November 26, 1944, series IV, reel 6, NNCP-M.\n\n60. Minutes from \"Conference Held at Theresa Hotel,\" series IV, reel 6, NNCP-M. FBI reports show that at least fifty people participated in the panel discussion on \"civil liberties\" and Recy Taylor.\n\n61. \"Delegation to Ask Ala. Governor for Justice for Rape Victim,\" newspaper clipping, November 26, 1944, series IV, reel 6, NNCP-M.\n\n62. Samuel L. Webb and Margaret E. Ambrester, eds., _Alabama Governors: A Political History of the State_ (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 2001), 191.\n\n63. Dan T. Carter, _The Politics of Rage: George Wallace, the Origins of the New Conservatism, and the Transformation of American Politics_ (New York, 1995), 31.\n\n64. While it is impossible to know exactly how many letters came in, the postcards, petitions, and personal letters in the Chauncey Sparks Papers number well over five hundred. If you count the number of signatures on the petitions sent in, they easily number in the thousands.\n\n65. Mrs. Gretchen Coon to Governor Sparks, November 29, 1944, folder 1, CS.\n\n66. A \"Friend of the South\" to Governor Sparks, December 3, 1944, folder 1, CS.\n\n67. Charles A. Collins to Governor Sparks, November 30, 1944, folder 1, CS.\n\n68. For an account of one of the worst racial pogroms in the United States during this period, see Cecelski and Tyson, _Democracy Betrayed_. See also David Fort Godshalk, _Veiled Visions: The 1906 Atlanta Race Riot and the Reshaping of American Race Relations_ (Chapel Hill, N.C., 2009).\n\n69. W. J. Cash, _The Mind of the South_ (New York, 1991), 116.\n\n70. Tyson, \"Wars for Democracy,\" in Cecelski and Tyson, _Democracy Betrayed_ , 262.\n\n71. Kari Frederickson, _The Dixiecrat Revolt and the End of the Solid South, 1932\u20131968_ (Chapel Hill, N.C., 2001), 33.\n\n72. Cecelski and Tyson, _Democracy Betrayed_ , 262. Howard W. Odum, _Race and Rumors of Race: The American South in the Early Forties_ (Baltimore, Md., 1997), xi.\n\n73. Odum, _Rumors_ , 97\u2013103.\n\n74. Ibid.\n\n75. Ibid., 55.\n\n76. Ibid., 57.\n\n77. Ibid., 57\u201358.\n\n78. Ibid., 64.\n\n79. Marilynn S. Johnson, \"Gender, Race, and Rumours: Re-examining the 1943 Race Riots,\" _Gender and History_ 10, no. 2 (August 1998): 259.\n\n80. Ibid., 258.\n\n81. Ibid., 258\u201359.\n\n82. Ibid., 259.\n\n83. Cecelski and Tyson, _Democracy Betrayed_ , 267.\n\n84. For more on the Detroit riot, see Dominic J. Capeci and Martha Wilkerson, _Layered Violence: The Detroit Rioters of 1943_ (Jackson, Miss. 1991).\n\n85. Odum, _Rumors_ , 138. The rumors reflected reality. Banner headlines in African-American and leftist newspapers detailed the injustices: \"Negro WAC Beaten Up by Kentucky Cop, Faces Trial,\" DW, July 20, 1945; \"Wife of Vet Beaten Twice,\" BAA, September 22, 1945; \"Georgia White Men Beat 2nd Negro Woman,\" April 3, 1945, reel 91, frame 168, TCF; \"White Soldiers Slug Two War Wives,\" _BAA_ , September 22, 1945, 1; and \"Three WACS Beaten by Cops Acquitted in Court Martial,\" CD, August 11, 1945, 8.\n\n86. Letter signed by thirty-three soldiers from \"Somewhere in Belgium\" to Governor Sparks, January 27, 1945, folder 3, CS.\n\n87. Eugene Henderson to Governor Sparks, January 16, 1945, folder 3, CS.\n\n88. Ernest Scott to Governor Sparks, December 22, 1944, folder 3, CS.\n\n89. Charles S. Seely to Governor Sparks, May 5, 1945, folder 4, CS.\n\n90. Mr. and Mrs. Scott McCall to Governor Sparks, December 18, 1944, folder 3, CS.\n\n91. Julius Crane to Governor Sparks, January 18, 1945, folder 3, CS.\n\n92. Robert Norrell, _The Making of Modern Alabama_ (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1993), 141\u201342. According to Norrell, German POWs received the same food and shelter as U.S. troops, played sports, and took classes in English, music, and theater.\n\n93. William Warren Rogers et al., _Alabama: The History of a Deep South State_ (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1994), 511.\n\n94. \"Alabama Officials Feel People's Pressure in Mrs. Taylor's Case,\" DW, December 12, 1944, 4.\n\n95. Ibid.\n\n96. Postcards and petitions for Recy Taylor, folder 2, 3, 4, CS.\n\n97. \"Taylor Case Is Now Nationwide,\" _Worker_ , December 31, 1944, p. 12, clipping, folder 8, box 104, JBM.\n\n98. Ibid.\n\n99. Earl Conrad, \"Dixie Sex Crimes Against Negro Women Widespread,\" _CD_ , March 10, 1945, 5. Though the article keeps anonymous the African-American leader whom Conrad interviewed, I am confident it is E. D. Nixon\u2014not only because he pledged support from his \"organization\" but also because he said he had a \"dossier\" of fifty similar cases. Given Rosa Parks's role in investigating racial violence, her meticulous record keeping, and her interest in rape cases, along with her close relationship to Nixon (she was his secretary), I believe there is enough evidence to conclude Conrad's source was Nixon. Since Conrad also interviewed E. G. Jackson, it is reasonable to assume that Jackson put Conrad in touch with his colleague and close ally Nixon. (When Nixon waged a fierce battle to oust Robert L. Matthews, the president of the Montgomery NAACP, throughout 1945, Jackson used his paper to aid his campaign. Nixon finally became president of the Montgomery branch in December 1945.) See Thornton, _Dividing_ , 31.\n\n100. John White, \"Nixon Was the One: Edgar Daniel Nixon and the Montgomery Bus Boycott,\" in Brian Ward and Tony Badger, eds., _The Making of Martin Luther King and the Civil Rights Movement_ (New York, 1996), 45.\n\n101. Earl Conrad, \"Dixie Sex Crimes Against Negro Women Widespread,\" _CD_ , March 10, 1945, 5.\n\n102. John H. McCray, \"South's Courts Show New Day of Justice,\" BAA, July 11, 1959.\n\n103. \"Fayetteville White Man Sentenced to 15 Years for Raping a Negro Girl,\" CT, March 16, 1940. This case is interesting because of the relatively long sentence Davis received even after he was allowed to plead a lesser crime, attempted assault. Apparently sixteen-year-old black girls still could not be \"raped.\" Still, the local NAACP raised enough money in order to wage a court battle and win. The clothes Davis casually threw out the window turned out to be the main evidence used against him.\n\n104. \"Young Woman Charges Crime at Rifle-Point,\" June 2, 1942, newspaper clipping, NAACP Papers, Alabama Chapter, 1940\u20131955, microfilm. See also Emory O. Jackson to Walter White, June 3, 1942, box C2, series II, NAACP Papers.\n\n105. \"Accused of Rape on Teen-Age Dunbar High School Girl,\" ASP, July 17, 1942, 1. Thanks to Story Matkin-Rawn for finding this article for me.\n\n106. Reverend James M. Hinton to Thurgood Marshall, December 14, 1945; Thurgood Marshall to Reverend James M. Hinton, December 28, 1945; Milton Kemnitz to Thurgood Marshall, December 7, 1945; all letters in box 123, series III, NAACP Papers.\n\n107. Lisa Lindquist Dorr, _White Women, Rape and the Power of Race in Virginia, 1900\u20131960_ (Chapel Hill, N.C., 2004), 233\u201334. Strayhorn told her brother what happened and filed charges. Both men were arrested, tried, and ultimately convicted of rape. They were each sentenced to seven years in prison. The Virginia Supreme Court upheld the verdict. Ibid., 299n98.\n\n108. Reverend V. E. Hilsman to Constance Baker Motley, January 12, 1950, box 123, series III, NAACP Papers.\n\n109. \"Two Denied Bail in Rape Case,\" PC, February 2, 1948, 5. The article about Berryhill and Gasque being held without bail was featured just above another article about a black man, titled \"Stares Too Hard Gets Six Months.\" The juxtaposition of these two stories highlighted the unequal system of justice in the South. Richard Sutton, a nineteen-year-old African American from Plymouth, North Carolina, was sentenced to work six months on the county roads for \"assault on a female\" after he apparently frightened the woman by \"staring at her in the County Courthouse Building.\" According to the report, Sutton had an appointment with the sheriff and stopped at the window of the recorder's office. He asked directions to the office but, according to the young white woman, \"stared at her so hard she became frightened and ran.\"\n\n110. Press release, February 25, 1948, box 123, Series III, NAACP Papers, Patterson managed to escape and told her story to the NAACP.\n\n111. \"I don't think it would be too much,\" Jones said, \"if each branch in each state and each city... would ask each member to donate a small amount to see that this man is convicted.\" Franklin Williams, an assistant special counsel for the NAACP, assured Jones that \"representatives of the Association are looking into the matter\" and hoped to bring the \"guilty person before the bar of justice.\" Mrs. Joy B. Jones to Arthur Springarn, July 31, 1947; Franklin H. Williams to Jones, July 31, 1947; Jones to Springarn, n.d.; \"Rape of Girl, 11, Charged; No Action,\" n.d., newspaper clipping; \"Alleged Rape on Girl Goes Unnoticed,\" n.d., newspaper clipping; all in box 123, series III, NAACP Papers.\n\n112. Press release, \"Negro Girl Beaten, Raped in Meridian,\" August 22, 1947; Edward Knott, Jr., to Walter White, August 19, 1947; Oliver W. Harrington to Robert Ratcliffe, August 21, 1947, box 123, series III, NAACP Papers. Press release states that \"NAACP officials in this city were attempting to arouse sufficient public opinion to guarantee the prosecution\" of Perry. See also, \"Charge Woman's Rape to Mississippi Oil Man,\" _CD_ , August 30, 1947, 8. Perry's strategy was similar to that employed by the Committee for Equal Justice for Mrs. Recy Taylor.\n\n113. Charles Payne, _I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle_ (Berkeley, Calif., 1995), 15.\n\n114. Ibid., 15.\n\n115. Marian Wynn Perry to Edward Knott, Jr., August 22, 1947, box 123, series III, NAACP Papers.\n\n116. This strategy had proven relatively effective in the campaign to end lynching. Payne posits that negative nationwide publicity, coupled with the falling price of cotton, electoral changes wrought by mass migration out of the South, and pending federal antilynching legislation, made the South subject to more scrutiny than ever before. \"By the 1930s, newspapers in larger southern cities typically criticized lynchings, at least in principle. By the 1940s, their criticisms were clearly linked to fear of such scrutiny.\" The fact that the United States was engaged in a global war against fascism and racism abroad made lynching African Americans a foreign policy faux pas and helped to decrease the public \"spectacle\" lynchings popular in the early part of the twentieth century. See Payne, _Light of Freedom_ , 19. Of course, these pressures did not end white violence against African Americans, as evidenced by the brutal murders and sexual attacks in Mississippi in the 1940s.\n\n117. \"Alabama Has No Race Problem, Claims Official,\" _CD_ , March 31, 1945, 11. Conrad's articles appeared as a series of three separate essays in early spring 1945, but drafts found in his papers suggest that he conducted the interviews with residents in Montgomery, Abbeville, and Birmingham in late December 1944.\n\n118. Mrs. (P. B.) Margaret H. Moss to Governor Sparks, n.d., folder 3, CS.\n\n119. \"Governor Sparks to Press Charges Against Rapists Following Protests,\" _PC_ , December 23, 1944, 1.\n\n120. \"Report,\" 3\u20134.\n\n121. \"Report,\" 3\u20134; \"Supplemental Report,\" 4.\n\n122. Ibid., 5.\n\n123. Ibid.\n\n124. Ibid., 14.\n\n125. Ibid., 9\n\n126. \"Supplemental Report,\" 4.\n\n127. \"Report,\" 4.\n\n128. \"Supplemental Report,\" 5\u201314.\n\n129. Ibid., 10\u201312.\n\n130. Agent Abbaticchio's FBI report, dated January 11 to January 27, 1945, box 45, HK.\n\n131. \"This Evening,\" BN, February 21, 1945, and \"The Henry County Case,\" _BN_ , February 25, 1945, 6, clippings, folder 2, CS.\n\n132. \"Second Henry County Grand Jury Finds No Bill in Negro's Charges,\" _DE_ , February 15, 1945.\n\n133. Esther Cooper Jackson to James Jackson, n.d., James E. Jackson and Esther Cooper Jackson Papers, Tamiment Library, New York City. Thanks to Sara Rzeszutek for mailing me a copy of the letter.\n\n134. \"Strange As It Is,\" n.d. clipping, NAACP-Alabama Files, 1940\u201355, microfilm. I-Corbitt 3; Corbitt verified the move. He said Rosa Parks came to Abbeville to move Taylor to Montgomery. Recy and her husband stayed in Montgomery for two to three months, living in a rooming house on South Jackson Street.\n\n135. Clara Hard Rutledge was the wife of a state highway engineer. Her liberal views and actions were unusual at the time. Rutledge was joined by other white liberal women including Miss Juliette Gordon, a librarian; Mrs. Olive Andrews, the wife of a local insurance agent; Mrs. Bea Kaufman, the wife of a wholesale grocery executive; Mrs. Frances P. McLeod, the wife of a Methodist minister; and (after 1951) Virginia F. Durr, the wife of attorney and New Deal appointee Clifford Durr. See Thornton, _Dividing_ , 36. Clara Hard Rutledge to Earl Conrad, n.d., folder 6, box 365, EC.\n\n136. Henrietta Buckmaster to Dorothy Laing, March 1, 1945, folder 19, box 8, series II \"Political Activities,\" AKL. Thanks to Jacki Castledine for finding this material for me.\n\n137. Governor Sparks to Alexander Nunn, April 2, 1945, folder 1, CS.\n\n138. Glenda Sullivan to executive board members, April 2, 1945, NNCP-M.\n\n139. Press release, March 30, 1945, NNCP-M.\n\n140. Glenda Sullivan to executive board members, April 2, 1945, NNCP-M.\n\n141. Kelley, _Hammer and Hoe_ , 224. For more on McCarthyism and anti-Communism, see Ellen Schrecker, _Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America_ (Boston, 1998); David Oshinsky, _A Conspiracy So Immense: The World of Joe McCarthy_ (New York, 1983); David Caute, _The Great Fear: The Anti-Communist Purge Under Truman and Eisenhower_ (New York, 1978); and Richard Fried, _Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective_ (New York, 1990).\n\n142. In Montgomery, for example, E. D. Nixon and Rufus A. Lewis organized competing voter-registration clubs. After _Smith v. Allwright_ ended the white primary in 1944, Nixon's Alabama Voters League and Lewis's Citizens Club had helped 813 African Americans register to vote\u20143.7 percent of the city's black population. By 1955, the number had doubled. They also waged battles against police brutality and mobilized community action to defend other black women who were assaulted in the late 1940s and early 1950s. See Thornton, _Dividing_ , 28\u201335.\n\n## CHAPTER 2. \"NEGROES EVERY DAY ARE BEING MOLESTED\"\n\n1. Ella Ree Jones statement, July 12, 1942, Thurgood Marshall to T. T. Allen, president of the Montgomery, Alabama, NAACP, August 4, 1942, box 114, series II, NAACP Papers.\n\n2. Lamont H. Yeakey, _The Montgomery, Alabama Bus Boycott, 1955\u201356_ , Ph.D. diss. (Columbia University, 1979), 195.\n\n3. See \"Incidents and Complaints\u2014Transportation Department, Race Question, Twelve Months Ending March 31st 1944\"; \"Report of Complaint Reports\u2014Race Question, Twelve Months Ending June 30th 1943\"; \"Analysis of Complaints and Incidents Concerning Race Problems on Birmingham Electric Company's Transportation System, 12 Months Ending August 31, 1942,\" CP.\n\n4. Ella Ree Jones statement, July 12, 1942, in Marshall to Allen, August 4, 1942, box 114, series II, NAACP Papers.\n\n5. Juan Williams, _Thurgood Marshall: American Revolutionary_ (New York, 1998), 130.\n\n6. Thurgood Marshall to T. T. Allen, August 4, 1942, box 113, series II, NAACP Papers. It is unclear how Allen handled the case after Marshall alerted him to Jones's beating, but it is worth noting that Allen was considered by local activists a do-nothing leader, which caused blacks to oust him and elect E. D. Nixon in the next NAACP election. See Dorothy A. Autrey, _The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People in Alabama, 1913\u20131952_ , Ph.D. diss. (University of Notre Dame, 1985), 244. See also Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 62.\n\n7. Thurgood Marshall to Hon. William H. Hastie, dean of Howard Law School, January 13, 1945, box 194, series II, NAACP Papers.\n\n8. Ibid.\n\n9. Barbara Ransby, _Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement: A Radical Democratic Vision_ (Chapel Hill, N.C., 2003), 141\u201342.\n\n10. Timothy B. Tyson, _Radio Free Dixie: Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power_ (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1999), 51. African Americans emerged from World War II determined to force the United States to reconcile the wartime rhetoric of democracy with the reality of Jim Crow. See Steven F. Lawson, ed., _To Secure These Rights: The Report of President Harry S. Truman's Committee on Civil Rights_ (Boston, 2004), 5. World War II ushered in dramatic changes in the domestic political landscape. Two million African Americans left the South during the war as a result of many forces, including the mechanization of farming, which reduced Southern dependency on sharecroppers, and the lure of defense jobs, which pulled hundreds of thousands of African Americans north, dramatically altering electoral politics. By 1948 African Americans had enough voting power in the North to tip the balance in any presidential contest. Black ballots determined political victors in sixteen non-South states. In the South, _Smith v. Allwright_ led to renewed registration efforts, and black registered voters rose from 250,000 in 1944 to more than a million in 1952. See Steven F. Lawson, _Black Ballots: Voting Rights in the South, 1944\u20131969_ (Lanham, Md., 1999), 139. For other ways the South changed during the war, see John Egerton, _Speak Now Against the Day_ (New York, 1994), 347\u201361. The emerging Cold War rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union, and the creation of the United Nations in 1945, presented African Americans with myriad opportunities to publicly address racial issues and call American practices into question on the world stage. See Mary Dudziak, _Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy_ (Princeton, N.J., 2000), 11\u201313.\n\n11. On \"shock troops,\" see John Dittmer, _Local People: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi_ (Urbana, Ill., 1994), 9.\n\n12. Egerton, _Speak_ , 366: \"Georgia and Alabama were the principal killing fields.\" Each state had at least seven confirmed racial murders in 1946 alone.\n\n13. Ibid., 362; Patricia Sullivan, _Days of Hope: Race and Democracy in the New Deal Era_ (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1996), 197.\n\n14. Egerton, _Speak_ , 362\u201363.\n\n15. Laura Wexler, _Fire in a Canebrake: The Last Mass Lynching in America_ (New York, 2003), 51.\n\n16. \"In their place,\" Egerton, _Speak_ , 367; Maceo Snipes story in Sullivan, _Days_ , 213.\n\n17. Wexler, _Fire_ , 82.\n\n18. Egerton, _Speak_ , 369. Loy Harrison spoke freely about his role in the lynching in 1981 to Clinton Adams, who witnessed the murders when he was ten years old. Harrison and his accomplices were never prosecuted. In 1992 Adams broke his silence and told the FBI and reporters at the _Atlanta Constitution_ what he had seen in 1946. He named four of the murderers (deceased at the time) and said that one of the five cars at the scene was a state police car.\n\n19. Glenda E. Gilmore, \"Murder, Memory and the Flight of the Incubus,\" in Cecelski and Tyson, _Democracy Betrayed_ , 75.\n\n20. Tyson, _Radio Free Dixie_ , 58; see also Leon F. Litwack, \"Hellhounds,\" in Hilton Als et al., eds., _Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America_ (Santa Fe, N.M., 2000).\n\n21. Frederick Douglass quoted in Martha Hodes, _White Women, Black Men: Illicit Sex in the Nineteenth Century South_ (New Haven, Conn., 1997), 206.\n\n22. Egerton, _Speak_ , 370.\n\n23. Ibid., 371. See also Lawson, _To Secure_ , 8. Harris survived and later identified five of the murderers. An all-white jury acquitted the men after deliberating five hours in February 1947.\n\n24. Sullivan, _Days_ , 214.\n\n25. Lawson, _To Secure_ , 9.\n\n26. Ibid., 9; See also Dudziak, _Cold War_ , 23.\n\n27. Dudziak, _Cold War_ , 20.\n\n28. Ibid., 31.\n\n29. Steven F. Lawson, _Running for Freedom: Civil Rights and Black Politics in America Since 1941_ (New York, 2008), 42.\n\n30. Lawson, _To Secure_ , 28\u201329.\n\n31. Ibid., 179, 31.\n\n32. Egerton, _Speak_ , 476\u201377.\n\n33. Thornton, _Dividing_ , 59.\n\n34. Parks with Haskins, _My Story_ , 84.\n\n35. Ibid., 85.\n\n36. Tyson, _Radio Free Dixie_ , 94.\n\n37. Philip Dray, _At the Hands of Persons Unknown: The Lynching of Black America_ (New York, 2002), 399.\n\n38. Ibid.\n\n39. Ibid., 397.\n\n40. Ibid., 398.\n\n41. The Civil Rights Congress was formed at a conference in Detroit on April 27\u201328, 1946. By the mid-1950s it consisted of sixty chapters across the nation, most on the East and West coasts; only ten chapters existed in the South. In the summer of 1948, black Communist William L. Patterson, former head of the ILD, became the national secretary of the organization. Patterson hoped to pattern the CRC protest strategies and tactics after those used in the defense of the Scottsboro boys. See Charles H. Martin, \"The Civil Rights Congress and Southern Black Defendants,\" _Georgia Historical Quarterly_ 71, no. 1 (Spring 1987): 25\u201352 passim; Gerald Horne, _Communist Front? The Civil Rights Congress_ (London, 1988), 29\u201332.\n\n42. Dray _, Persons Unknown_ , 397: \"no white man had ever been executed for rape in Mississippi.\"\n\n43. Ibid., 402. Braden came as a representative of the Southern Conference Education Fund.\n\n44. Willie McGee to Rosalie McGee, May 7, 1951, folder 14, box 48, ACB.\n\n45. \"Mississippi Whites Roar Approval as Willie McGee Dies in the Chair,\" _CD_ , May 19, 1951, 5.\n\n46. Eric Rise, _The Martinsville Seven: Race, Rape, and Capital Punishment_ (Charlottesville, Va., 1995), 1.\n\n47. Ibid., 2.\n\n48. \"Two Va. Cops Guilty of Raping Negro Woman Get 7 Years,\" _PC, May_ 14, 1949, 1.\n\n49. Tyson, _Radio Free Dixie_ , 68.\n\n50. \"Assault... at 75 Feet,\" pamphlet distributed by the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, box 128, series IIB, NAACP Papers.\n\n51. \"Neighbors Say God Aiding Mack Ingram,\" _CD_ , March 29, 1952, 3.\n\n52. Dray, _Persons Unknown_ , 405.\n\n53. Parks with Haskins, _My Story_ , 86.\n\n54. Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 182; See also Parks with Haskins, _My Story_ , 85\u201386. The Montgomery NAACP challenged Reeves's sentence in the state supreme court, which upheld the death sentence. The U.S. Supreme Court struck down his conviction and returned the case to lower courts, which found him guilty again. The state supreme court reaffirmed the lower court's decision, and Reeves was executed in 1957. See also _Jeremiah Reeves, Jr. v. State of Alabama_ , 246 Ala. 476; 88 So. 2d 561; 1956 Ala. Lexis 392.\n\n55. Parks with Haskins, _My Story_ , 86.\n\n56. Martin Luther King, Jr., _Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story_ (San Francisco, 1958), 32.\n\n57. Tyson, _Radio Free Dixie_ , 109.\n\n58. Parks with Haskins, _My Story_ , 94.\n\n59. Marcel Reedus, George King, and Vertamae Grosvenor, _Cradle of the Confederacy_ , episode 6 of WTCBUd.\n\n60. Ibid.; S. S. Seay, _I Was There by the Grace of God_ (Montgomery, Ala., 1990), 130\u201331. \"All kinds of sexual relations,\" in Solomon Seay, Sr., interview by Worth Long with Randall Williams, <http:\/\/unbrokencircle.org\/focus_week03_seay.htm> (accessed February 2, 2006); I-SS. See also _MA_ , April 5, 1949, 8A; April 6, 1949, 1B; April 7, 1949, 2A; April 15, 1949, 8A; April 17, 1949, 3A; April 20, 1949, 3A; April 21, 1949, last page; May 3, 1949, 1A; May 21, 1949, 1A; May 27, 1949, 12A; _AT_ , April 22, 1949, 1; April 29, 1949, 1; _PC_ , June 4, 1949, 3. See also Thornton, _Dividing_ , 34\u201335.\n\n61. \"Court Denies 2 Petitions in Rape Case; Mayor Needn't Identify, Nor Sheriff Arrest Accused Men,\" _MA_ , April 29, 1949; \"Drew Pearson Changes Mind; Criticizes City,\" _MA_ , May 3, 1949, 1.\n\n62. \"Rape Cry Against Dixie Cops Falls on Deaf Ears,\" _BAA_ , April 9, 1949, 1.\n\n63. Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 152. See also Stewart Burns, ed., _Daybreak of Freedom: The Montgomery Bus Boycott_ (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1997), 7.\n\n64. Seay, _Grace of God_ , 131, 135, 136.\n\n65. \"Drew Pearson Changes Mind; Criticizes City,\" _MA_ , May 3, 1949, 1.\n\n66. \"Mayor Denies Negro Raped,\" _MA_ , April 15, 1949, 8; E. G. Jackson, \"Attack Case Drags On; No Arrests Made,\" _AT_ , April 22, 1949, 1.\n\n67. Thornton, _Dividing_ , 33, 591n28.\n\n68. Ibid., 33\u201336 passim. Thornton documents a number of crimes white police officers committed against black men and women throughout the 1940s and claims that police brutality was the number-one issue affecting the black community in the decade preceding the bus boycott.\n\n69. E. G. Jackson, \"Attack Case Drags On; No Arrests Made,\" _AT_ , April 22, 1949, 1. Chief King was finally relieved from his job by Mayor John L. Goodwyn in 1948. See Brenna Greer, _\"Our Leaders Is Just We Ourself\": Black Women's Resistance in the Making of the Montgomery Bus Boycott_ , master's thesis (University of Wisconsin, Madison, 2004), 19.\n\n70. E. G. Jackson, \"Attack Case Drags On: No Arrests Made,\" _AT_ , 22 April 1949, 1.\n\n71. \"Racial Discord Is Promoted by NAACP, Says Mayor,\" _MA_ , April 15, 1949. See also _MA_ , April 5, 1940, 8A; April 6, 1949, 1B; April 7, 1949, 2A; April 15, 1949, 8A; April 17, 1949, 3A; April 20, 1949, 3A; April 21, 1949, last page; May 3, 1949, 1A; May 21, 1949, 1A; May 27, 1949, 12A.\n\n72. Seay was arrested two weeks before the grand jury hearing for disorderly conduct during a public meeting about the Perkins affair. His arrest and short stint in jail roused the local ministers, who were relatively conservative and less outspoken than Reverend Seay. It served as a catalyst for more ministerial involvement in the Perkins protest.\n\n73. Seay interview by Long and Williams, <http:\/\/unbrokencircle.org\/focus_week03_seay.htm> (accessed April 2005).\n\n74. Ibid.\n\n75. Seay, _Grace of God_ , 138\u201339.\n\n76. \"96 Indictments Returned Here,\" MA, May 21, 1949, 1.\n\n77. Ibid.\n\n78. An all-white jury sentenced John C. Howard and Jack Oliver to more than forty years in prison for raping Melinda Jackson, twenty-two, and Annie Grayson, twenty-four. Howard and Oliver robbed a group of African Americans at gunpoint on April 25, 1948, stealing money and a truck. They pushed Jackson and Grayson into the truck, drove them to a secluded area, and then raped them at gunpoint. They were arrested immediately and held without bail. County prosecutor U. G. Jones urged the jury to bring in a verdict that would \"show the world that the Negro can get justice in the courts\" and that the \"people of Elmore County will not tolerate such conduct.\" The lengthy sentence was a first for Elmore County, if not Alabama as a whole. According to the _Chicago Defender_ , the sentences \"appeared to meet with full approval of both white and colored citizens, more than 300 of whom attended the trials.\" See \"Alabama Lily-White Jury... jails 2 white rapists,\" CD, December 11, 1948, 1; \"White Gets 45 Years for Raping a Negro,\" _NYT_ , December 3, 1948, 28; \"Man Gets 45 Year Term for Rape of Alabama Negro,\" _WP_ , December 3, 1948, 1; \"Found Guilty of Raping Negro; Gets 45 Years,\" _CDT_ , December 3, 1948.\n\n79. \"Due Process of Law for Gertrude Perkins,\" MA, May 22 1949, 2B.\n\n80. Seay interview by Long and Williams.\n\n81. _Cradle of the Confederacy_ , WTCBUd.\n\n82. Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 187.\n\n83. Case 2, folder IV, box 30, 14, MLK; Townsend Davis, _Weary Feet, Rested Souls: A Guided History of the Civil Rights Movement_ (New York, 1998), 34.\n\n84. Thornton, _Dividing_ , 30. See also MA, February 15, 22, March 1, May 24, June 7, 1951.\n\n85. Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 98.\n\n86. Ibid., 95.\n\n87. Case 2, folder IV, box 30, 14, MLK; Davis, _Weary Feet_ , 34; Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 85.\n\n88. According to documents, Flossie Hardman died five years after her attack from shock \"which her mother claims was caused by her never recovering from the ordeal she went through.\" See Case 2, folder IV, box 30, 14, MLK.\n\n89. Thornton, _Dividing_ , 35; Jo Ann Gibson Robinson, _The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Women Who Started It_ (Knoxville, Tenn., 1987), 21.\n\n90. Robinson, _Montgomery_ , 22.\n\n91. Thomas Gilliam, \"The Montgomery Bus Boycott of 1955\u201356,\" in Garrow, _Walking City_ , 198. Yeakey, _Boycott_ , argues that African Americans made up approximately 70 percent of riders, most of them being domestics, maids, cooks, service workers, and day laborers. African Americans made up 39.9 percent of Montgomery's 106,525 people in 1950. Montgomery was home to more black women than black men. The 23,847 black women accounted for 56 percent of the total black population. Of these, 54.5 percent worked in private households as domestics. Another 18.7 percent did \"service work\" (as attendants, beauticians, housekeepers, cleaners, janitors, cooks, waitresses, etc.). A total of 73 percent of these African-American women worked as domestics or service workers, and the majority relied on public transportation to get to work. Forty-eight percent of black men were common laborers or domestic or service workers. See Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 9\u201313. Yeakey also notes that even a \"cursory survey of those who had run-ins with bus drivers reveals a preponderance of women involved in such incidents\" (226).\n\n92. Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 20. This information is taken from the 1950 census.\n\n93. Ibid., 352; See also Greer, _Our Leaders_ , 17.\n\n94. Burns, _Daybreak_ , 70.\n\n95. Robinson, _Montgomery_ , 26.\n\n96. William H. Chafe, Raymond Gavins, and Robert Korstadt, eds., _Remembering Jim Crow: African Americans Tell About Life in the Segregated South_ (New York, 2001), 9.\n\n97. Robinson, _Montgomery_ , 36.\n\n98. Norman Walton, \"The Walking City: A History of the Montgomery Bus Boycott\" in Garrow, _Walking City_ , 16\u201317.\n\n99. See Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 209\u201313. For information on similar bus conditions in Birmingham, Alabama, see Robin D. G. Kelley, _Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class_ (New York, 1994), 55\u201370.\n\n100. Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 220. Certainly some women preferred not to sit anywhere near white men, given their historic mistreatment of black women.\n\n101. Burns, _Daybreak_ , 62.\n\n102. Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 209.\n\n103. Ibid., 197, n. 2.\n\n104. E. D. Nixon, interview, in Earl Selby and Miriam Selby, _Odyssey: Journey Through Black America_ (New York, 1971), 53.\n\n105. Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 198.\n\n106. Rosa Parks, interview, in Selby and Selby, _Odyssey_ , 54.\n\n107. Ibid.\n\n108. Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 47.\n\n109. Ibid., 12\u201313, 48. Eight percent of Montgomery's female labor force could be classified as professionals in 1950. Most of the 671 professionals were elementary and secondary school teachers, college professors, and librarians. Only two percent, just 161 black women, were stenographers, typists, secretaries, and file clerks.\n\n110. Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 54.\n\n111. Ibid., 49.\n\n112. Ibid., 100\n\n113. Branch, _Parting the Waters_ , 22, 24.\n\n114. Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 110.\n\n115. For more on Vernon Johns, see Ralph E. Luker, \"Murder and Biblical Memory: The Legend of Vernon Johns,\" in Joyce Appleby, ed., _The Best American History Essays, 2006_ (New York: Macmillan, 2006), 201\u201330.\n\n116. Mary Fair Burks, \"Trailblazers: Women in the Montgomery Bus Boycott,\" in Vicki L. Crawford, Jacqueline Anne Rouse, and Barbara Woods, eds., _Black Women in the Civil Rights Movement, Trailblazers and Torchbearers: 1941\u20131965_ (Bloomington, Ind., 1990), 79; \"would take it over,\" in Belinda Robnett, _How Long? How Long? Black Women in the Struggle for Civil Rights_ (New York, 1997), 56.\n\n117. Burks, \"Trailblazers,\" 78.\n\n118. Ibid., 79. The date of the formation of the WPC is unclear. Burks says she formed the organization in 1946; Jo Ann Robinson concurs in her memoir. J. Mills Thornton claims the WPC was founded in 1949. Robinson became president in 1950, but Burks was president for at least a few years before Robinson took the reins. Therefore I am inclined to believe Burks and Robinson.\n\n119. Burks, \"Trailblazers,\" 79. Some of the women Burks recalled being present at the first meeting also became \"pioneers\" of the WPC. They are Cynthia Alexander, Elizabeth Arrington, Sadie Brooks, Albertine Campbell, Mary Cross, Faustine Dunn, Thelma Glass, Frizette Lee, Jewel Clayton Lewis, Thelma Morris, Geraldine Nesbitt, Ivy Pettus.\n\n120. Ibid., 80.\n\n121. Robinson, _Montgomery_ , 29. It is important to point out that Lewis employed a number of canvassers, who went door to door signing people up to register to vote. Almost all of them were women: Mrs. Ethel Alexander, Mrs. Viola Bradford, Mrs. Hattie Carter, Mrs. Gloria Jean German, Mrs. Delores Glover, Mr. Leon Hall, Mrs. Bertha Howard and family, Mrs. Yvonne Jenkins, Mrs. Gwendolyn Patton, Mrs. Bertha Smith, and Mrs. Barbara Williams.\n\n122. Burks, \"Trailblazers,\" 80.\n\n123. Thornton, _Dividing_ , 32.\n\n124. Burks, \"Trailblazers,\" 74.\n\n125. Greer, _Our Leaders_ , 29, 30.\n\n126. Robinson, _Montgomery_ , 16.\n\n127. \"Shameful and deplorable,\" in MA, September 15, 1954, 1A. On the drive for better parks and recreational spaces, see Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 158\u201367.\n\n128. J. Mills Thornton, \"Challenge and Response in the Montgomery Bus Boycott of 1955\u20131956,\" in Garrow, _Walking City_ , 332.\n\n129. Burks, \"Trailblazers,\" 81.\n\n130. \"Digest of Proceedings: Sojourn for Truth and Justice\u2014Washington, D.C., Sept. 29 thru Oct. 1, 1951,\" in box 12, LTP.\n\n131. \"A Call to Negro Women,\" pamphlet, box 13, LTP.\n\n132. Here the STJ refers to Rosa Lee Ingram, a black sharecropper, widow, and mother of twelve, who was convicted and sentenced to death for the self-defense slaying of a white man in Ellaville, Georgia, on November 4, 1947. She had served four years of a commuted death sentence when \"A Call\" was issued. Ibid.\n\n133. McDuffie, _Long Journeys_ , 46.\n\n134. \"Digest of Proceedings, Sojourn for Truth and Justice, Washington, D.C., Sept. 29 thru Oct. 1, 1951,\" box 12, LTP.\n\n135. For more on the Rosa Lee Ingram case, see Charles H. Martin, \"Race, Gender and Southern Justice: The Rosa Lee Ingram Case,\" _American Journal of Legal History_ 29, no. 3 (July 1985): 251\u201368; Virginia Shadron, _Popular Protest and Legal Authority in Post\u2013World War II Georgia: Race, Class, and Gender Politics in the Rosa Lee Ingram Case_ , Ph.D. diss. (Emory University, 1991).\n\n136. Robert M. Ratcliffe, \"He Tried to Go with Me,\" PC, March 20, 1948, 1.\n\n137. Ibid.\n\n138. Martin, \"Race, Gender,\" 252. What exactly transpired the day Stratford died is hard to reconstruct. Whether Rosa Lee grabbed the gun from Stratford as they fought, and then beat him herself, or whether her sons used other farm tools to beat him to death is unclear. All the testimony used to sentence the Ingrams was provided by white men and women. The Ingrams each gave statements. Rosa Lee first claimed that she killed Stratford herself, but her sons told different stories after they were separated. None of them spoke to an attorney, and none were advised of their right to remain silent. While all the white officials involved in questioning the Ingrams swear they did not use coercion or intimidation to extract statements, the children were doubtless terrified. The trial record indicates that they were not defended in any meaningful way and that their interests were not represented. The trial began on Monday, January 26, 1948, and ended the same day, with a unanimous guilty verdict from an all-white, twelve-man jury. The guilty verdict, rendered without consideration of mercy, sentenced them to death. Throughout the trial, white prosecutors portrayed Mrs. Ingram as a kind of monster, brutish and overpowering, while Stratford was presented as a weak, wimpy old man who did not have the strength to fight. See transcript of supreme court case file 1624, 1623, _Rosa Lee Ingram v. The State of Georgia_ , Georgia Archives, Atlanta. The question of whether Stratford attacked Ingram sexually never came up at the trial, but Ingram claimed later in an exclusive interview that Stratford had tried on numerous occasions to \"go with her.\" \"He was mad because I wouldn't go into the cotton house with him,\" she claimed. \"He had tried three times to make me go into the cotton house and have something to do with him.\" He never tried to rape her, she said, \"He just tried to compel me.\" Robert M. Ratcliffe, \"He Tried to Go with Me,\" PC, March 20, 1948, 1. See also, Shadron, _Popular Protest_ , 145\u201347, 151\u201353. The _Courier's_ portrayal of Ingram as another victim of white men's lust rallied readers and supporters to the cause. The _Courier_ made the Ingram story their main news item each day for the entire year of 1948, drawing new subscribers and $37,933 in donations for her defense. The NAACP fought the Ingrams' case in the courts, raised money for the family's well-being, and organized local campaigns to pressure state officials. In March 1948 the NAACP persuaded Judge W. M. Harper to commute their sentences, but could not convince him to grant the Ingrams a new trial altogether. As the NAACP appealed to the Georgia Supreme Court, the CRC used the Ingram case to mobilize left-wing pressure groups by presenting it to the Human Rights Commission of the United Nations. When the Georgia Supreme Court refused to reverse the life sentence and grant a new trial, the NAACP began to quietly pursue a strategy for parole or pardon. The NAACP also raised thousands of dollars to provide for Ingram's nine other children and built the family a new house. Rosa Lee Ingram was finally released from prison on August 26, 1959, long after the CRC and the STJ had dissolved. See Martin, \"Race-Gender,\" 260\u201366, and Shadron, _Popular Protest_ , 235\u201338.\n\n139. \"Proclamation of the Sojourners for Truth and Justice,\" box 12, LTP. The short-lived organization did not survive the Red Scare of the 1950s. For more on the Sojourners, see Erik S. McDuffie, \"A 'New Freedom Movement of Negro Women': Sojourning for Truth, Justice, and Human Rights during the Early Cold War,\" _Radical History Review_ 101 (2008): 81\u2013106.\n\n140. Thornton, \"Challenge and Response,\" in Garrow, _Walking City_ , 332.\n\n141. Robinson, _Montgomery_ , 42.\n\n## CHAPTER 3. \"WALKING IN PRIDE AND DIGNITY\"\n\n1. Burns, _Daybreak_ , 74; Interview with Claudette Colvin, MBd, <http:\/\/www.montgomeryboycott.com\/profile_colvin.htm>. (accessed December 18, 2007).\n\n2. Claudette Colvin, testimony, May 11, 1956, in Burns, _Daybreak_ , 75. See also Thornton, _Dividing_ , 53.\n\n3. Gary Younge, \"She Would Not Be Moved,\" _Guardian_ , December 16, 2000. Greer rightly notes in her master's thesis that this statement indicates that defying segregation laws on the buses was relatively common and that either Colvin had refused to give up her seat for whites in the past, or that she witnessed other black passengers refuse to abide by the segregation laws. See Greer, _Our Leaders_ , 36.\n\n4. Colvin testimony, in Burns, _Daybreak_ , 75.\n\n5. Claudette Colvin, interview, MBd.\n\n6. Colvin testimony, in Burns, _Daybreak_ , 75. See also Lynne Olson, _Freedom's Daughters: The Unsung Heroines of the Civil Rights Movement from 1830 to 1970_ (New York, 2001), 93.\n\n7. Younge, \"She Would Not,\" _Guardian_ , December 16, 2000; see also Colvin interview, MBd.\n\n8. Most accounts of the Montgomery bus boycott portray Colvin as out of control. Brinkley claims Colvin was an \"unruly tomboy with propensity for curse words\" _(Rosa_ , 89\u201390); Branch says she was \"immature\u2014prone to breakdowns and outbursts of profanity\" _(Parting the Waters_ , 122). Colvin denies swearing, screaming, or kicking. Testimony from the court trial, including testimony from the bus driver, Cleere, and the officers present, all corroborate Colvin's claim. The real question, then, is why is this characterization so persistent? Thornton, _Dividing_ , 53; Younge, \"She Would Not,\" _Guardian_ , December 16, 2000.\n\n9. Younge, \"She Would Not,\" _Guardian_ , December 16, 2000.\n\n10. Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 239.\n\n11. Ibid., 245; King, _Stride Toward Freedom_ , 41.\n\n12. Robinson, _Montgomery_ , 39.\n\n13. Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 246; Thornton, _Dividing_ , 55.\n\n14. King, _Stride Toward Freedom_ , 26.\n\n15. Parks with Haskins, _My Story_ , 112.\n\n16. Thornton, _Dividing_ , 56.\n\n17. Gray quoted in Olson, _Daughters_ , 94.\n\n18. Thornton, _Dividing_ , 54, 55.\n\n19. Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 241, 242.\n\n20. Ibid.\n\n21. Thornton, _Dividing_ , 54. See also MA, March 19, 1955, 7A.\n\n22. Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 244, 245.\n\n23. Robinson, _Montgomery_ , 42.\n\n24. Ibid.\n\n25. Mrs. A. W. West, interview by Willie M. Lee, January 23, 1956, box 4, folder 4, PBV.\n\n26. John A. Salmond, _The Conscience of a Lawyer: Clifford J. Durr and American Civil Liberties, 1899\u20131975_ (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1990), 174.\n\n27. Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 269.\n\n28. Robinson, _Montgomery_ , 39.\n\n29. Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 270.\n\n30. Ibid. Colvin states that she was not sexually active, but that her pregnancy was the result of statutory rape. Colvin interview, MBd.\n\n31. Younge, \"She Would Not,\" _Guardian_ , December 16, 2000; Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 270.\n\n32. Younge, \"She Would Not,\" _Guardian_ , December 16, 2000.\n\n33. Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 271.\n\n34. Ibid.\n\n35. Raines, _Rested_ , 38\u201339.\n\n36. Greer, _Our Leaders_ , 44.\n\n37. Parks with Haskins, _My Story_ , 112.\n\n38. Branch, _Parting the Waters_ , 123.\n\n39. Olson, _Daughters_ , 94.\n\n40. Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 271; Smith later denied this and argued that her father never drank, nor did they live in a dilapidated house.\n\n41. See Branch, _Parting the Waters_ , 123\u201328; Olson, _Daughters_ , 94\u201395; Marissa Chappell, Jenny Hutchinson, and Brian Ward, \" 'Dress modestly, neatly... as if you were going to church': Respectability, Class, and Gender in the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Early Civil Rights Movement,\" in Peter J. Ling and Sharon Monteith, eds., _Gender in the Civil Rights Movement_ (New York, 1999), 84. On respectability and the \"culture of dissemblance,\" see Darlene Clark Hine, \"Rape and the Inner Lives of Black Women in the Middle West: Preliminary Thoughts on a Culture of Dissemblance,\" _Signs_ 14 (Summer 1989): 912\u201320. For more on the silencing of sexuality during this era, see Thaddeus Russel, \"The Color of Discipline: Civil Rights and Black Sexuality,\" _American Quarterly_ 60, no. 1 (2008): 101\u201328.\n\n42. Joseph Crespino, _In Search of Another Country: Mississippi and the Conservative Counterrevolution_ (Princeton, N.J., 2007), 20.\n\n43. Charles Payne, _I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle_ (Berkeley, Calif., 1995), 35.\n\n44. The White Citizens' Councils counted approximately 250,000 members throughout the South. See Numan V. Bartley, _The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics in the South During the 1950s_ (Baton Rouge, La., 1969), 83\u201384; Neil R. McMillen, _The Citizens' Council: Organized Resistance to the Second Reconstruction, 1954\u20131964_ (Urbana, Ill., 1994), 184, 186; Tom P. Brady, _Black Monday: Segregation or Amalgamation, America Has Its Choice_ (Winona, Miss., 1955).\n\n45. For more on the ways respectability, dignity, manhood, and womanhood shaped the strategies and goals of the middle- and working-class black activists during Reconstruction and the Progressive Era, see Glenda Gilmore, _Gender and Jim Crow: Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896\u20131920_ (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1996); and Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, _Righteous Discontent: The Women's Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880\u20131920_ (Cambridge, Mass., 1993).\n\n46. Hine, \"Rape and Inner Lives,\" 915.\n\n47. See Chapter 2 for more on Rosa Lee Ingram.\n\n48. McMillen, _Citizens' Council_ , 44.\n\n49. Ibid., 159. State senators Walter Coats Givhan and Sam Englehardt were leaders of the Central Alabama Citizens' Council.\n\n50. Thornton, _Dividing_ , 60; Parks with Haskins, _My Story_ , 115.\n\n51. Brinkley, _Rosa_ , 109.\n\n52. Parks with Haskins, _My Story_ , 115.\n\n53. Ibid., 115\u201316.\n\n54. Ibid., 101.\n\n55. Ibid., 106.\n\n56. Greer, _Our Leaders_ , 49.\n\n57. Olson, _Daughters_ , 109.\n\n58. See postcards and petitions signed by Leona McCauley in folder 3, CS.\n\n59. Parks with Haskins, _My Story_ , 121.\n\n60. Olson, _Daughters_ , 111.\n\n61. Parks with Haskins, _My Story_ , 125. See also the similar response Nixon gave to Steven M. Millner in an interview on July 27, 1977, in Garrow, _Walking City_ , 546.\n\n62. Olson, _Daughters_ , 110.\n\n63. Robinsin, _Montgomery_ , 45.\n\n64. Ibid., 45, 50.\n\n65. Ibid., 45\u201346; italics mine.\n\n66. Ibid., 46\u201347.\n\n67. Sidney Rogers, interview, Pacifica Radio, April 1956, in Burns, _Daybreak_ , 84.\n\n68. Chappell, et al., \" 'Dress modestly, neatly...,' \" 87.\n\n69. Branch, _Parting the Waters_ , 133.\n\n70. Brinkley, _Rosa_ , 128.\n\n71. Olson, _Daughters_ , 115.\n\n72. Ibid., 114.\n\n73. Robinson, _Montgomery_ , 57.\n\n74. Parks with Haskins, _My Story_ , 132.\n\n75. Brinkley, _Rosa_ , 131.\n\n76. Olson, _Daughters_ , 115.\n\n77. Brinkley, _Rosa_ , 133.\n\n78. E. D. Nixon, interview, in Selby and Selby, _Odyssey_ , 60.\n\n79. Ibid., 61.\n\n80. Ibid.\n\n81. On E. D. Nixon choosing King for the MIA leadership, see _Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Movement_ , vol. 1, Blackside Productions, PBS Video, 1986, 2006, DVD.\n\n82. Branch, _Parting the Waters_ , 137.\n\n83. Nixon interview in Selby and Selby, _Odyssey_ , 60.\n\n84. Branch, _Parting the Waters_ , 136.\n\n85. \"The men took it over,\" in Jo Ann Robinson, interview by Steven Millner, August 10, 1977, in Garrow, _Walking City_ , 570; \"definitely decided to assume leadership,\" in Robinson, _Montgomery_ , 64.\n\n86. Branch, _Parting the Waters_ , 139\u201341.\n\n87. Ibid., 140.\n\n88. Transcript of mass meeting at Holt Street Baptist Church, December 5, 1955. Martin Luther King Estate Collection, copy online at <http:\/\/www.stanford.edu\/group\/King\/publications\/papers\/vol3\/551205.004-MIA_Mass_Meeting_at_Holt_Street_Baptist_Church.htm> (accessed October 30, 2005).\n\n89. Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 274.\n\n90. Ralph Abernathy, \"The Natural History of a Social Movement: the Montgomery Improvement Association,\" in Garrow, _Walking City_ , 124.\n\n91. On Robinson's complaint about black men's failure to protect black women on the buses, see _Montgomery_ , 37.\n\n92. Burns, _Daybreak_ , 15.\n\n93. Robinson, _Montgomery_ , 69.\n\n94. Ibid., 66.\n\n95. Rufus Lewis, interview by Donald T. Ferron, January 20, 1956, folder 7, box 3, PBV. In a letter to Preston Valien on January 21, 1956, Ferron said, \"Mrs. Jo Ann Robinson seems to have been the key organizer for the protest. She is the backbone of this collective effort.\" Folder 7, box 1, PBV.\n\n96. Rosa Parks, interview by Sidney Rogers, Pacifica Radio, April 1956, transcript in Burns, _Daybreak_ , 86.\n\n97. Erna Dungee Allen, interview by Steven Millner, August 6, 1977, in Garrow, _Walking City_ , 522\u201323.\n\n98. Georgia Gilmore, interview, in Henry Hampton and Steve Fayer, _Voices of Freedom: An Oral History of the Civil Rights Movement from the 1950s through the 1980s_ (New York, 1990), 29. Mrs. A. W. West argued that the \"working people\" were the \"ones who keep this movement going... The leaders could do nothing by themselves. They are only the voice of thousands of colored workers.\" See Mrs. A. W. West, interview by Willie M. Lee, January 23, 1956, folder 4, box 4, PBV.\n\n99. Willie M. Lee, \"Statements heard in various places,\" January 27, 1956, folder 4, box 4, PBV.\n\n100. Irene Stovall, interview by Willie M. Lee, February 1, 1956, folder 4, box 4, PBV. Lee notes that Mrs. Stovall is a \"large woman of brown complexion\" whose \"eyes became narrow slits while talking about her previous employer.\"\n\n101. Mrs. Beatrice Charles, interview by Willie M. Lee, January 20, 1956, folder 4, box 4, PBV.\n\n102. Ibid.\n\n103. Sam Englehardt, interview by Anna Holden February 8, 1956, folder 3\/14, box 3, PBV.\n\n104. Mrs. Beatrice Charles, interview by Willie M. Lee, January 20, 1956, folder 4, box 4, PBV.\n\n105. Ibid.\n\n106. Burns, _Daybreak_ , 12. At a mass meeting on March 26, 1956, Jo Ann Robinson gave a pep talk and argued that whites deny African Americans a sense of dignity. \"Look at our schools... we have no titles, we are not respected\u2014every man is entitled to a certain dignity.\" She then went on to argue that the boycott was restoring that sense of dignity. \"Transcript\u2014Mass Meeting, MIA,\" March 26, 1956, folder 6, box 3, PBV.\n\n107. Domestic, interview by Willie M. Lee, January 24, 1956, in Burns, _Daybreak_ , 229.\n\n108. Mrs. Allen Wright, interview by Willie M. Lee, January 24, 1956, folder 4, box 4, PBV.\n\n109. Ibid.\n\n110. Ibid.\n\n111. Burns, _Daybreak_ , 16.\n\n112. Anna Holden, \"Report from MIA mass meeting,\" March 22, 1956, folder 6, box 3, PVB.\n\n113. Branch, _Parting the Waters_ , 149.\n\n114. Ibid.\n\n115. Reedus, et al., _Cradle of the Confederacy_ , WTCBU, episode 7.\n\n116. Reedus, et al., _My Feet Is Tired, But My Soul Is Rested_ , WTCBU, episode 9.\n\n117. Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 372.\n\n118. Vernon Jarret, \"Club from Nowhere Paid Way of Boycott,\" ChT, December 12, 1975, 1.\n\n119. Greer, _Our Leaders_ , 83.\n\n120. Jarret, \"Club from Nowhere,\" ChT, December 12, 1975, 1.\n\n121. Ibid.\n\n122. Ibid.\n\n123. Burns, _Daybreak_ , 16.\n\n124. Jarret, \"Club from Nowhere\" ChT, December 12, 1975, 1.\n\n125. Ibid.\n\n126. Brinkley, _Rosa_ , 147.\n\n127. Erna Dungee Allen, interview by Steven Millner, August 8, 1977, in Garrow, _Walking_ _City_ , 522\u201323. On \"formal leadership,\" see Belinda Robnett, _How Long? How Long? African American Women in the Struggle for Civil Rights_ (New York, 1997), 18.\n\n128. Robnett, _How Long?_ , 65.\n\n129. Brinkley, _Rosa_ , 147.\n\n130. Ibid.\n\n131. Yeakey, _Boycott_ , 410.\n\n132. Ibid., 389.\n\n133. Robnett, _How Long?_ , 65.\n\n134. Robinson, _Montgomery_ , 125.\n\n135. Jo Ann Robinson, interview in Hampton and Fayer, _Voices of Freedom_ , 31.\n\n136. Willie M. Lee, \"Statements heard in various places,\" January 27, 1956, folder 4, box 4, PBV.\n\n137. Greer, _Our Leaders_ , 98.\n\n138. Martin Luther King, \"The 'New Negro' of the South: Behind the Montgomery Story,\" _Socialist Call_ 24, No. 6 (June 1956), in box 273, series III, A, NAACP Papers.\n\n139. Clifford J. Durr to Mr. Nathan David, February 2, 1956, in Burns, _Daybreak_ , 152.\n\n140. Georgia Gilmore interview, in Hampton and Fayer, _Voices of Freedom_ , 30\u201331.\n\n141. Burns, _Daybreak_ , 42.\n\n142. Clifford J. Durr to Mr. Nathan David, February 2, 1956, ibid., 152.\n\n143. Minutes of the Executive Board Meeting, February 2, 1956, in Burns, _Daybreak_ , 148\u201350; \"List of Persons and Churches Most Vulnerable to Violent Attack,\" folder IV, 14, MLK.\n\n144. Branch, _Parting the Waters_ , 168.\n\n145. Brinkley, _Rosa_ , 153\u201354; Burns, _Daybreak_ , 153\u201354.\n\n146. Burns, _Daybreak_ , 153.\n\n147. \"Preview of the 'Declaration of Segregation,' \" in Burns, _Daybreak_ , 154.\n\n148. Branch, _Parting the Waters_ , 168; Brinkley, _Rosa_ , 154.\n\n149. Greer, _Our Leaders_ , 104. Greer notes that Jo Ann Robinson, Irene West, and Euretta Adair, all key members of the WPC, were indicted. So were Ida Mae Caldwell, a local labor leader; Lottie Varner, owner of a beauty shop; Audrey Bell Lanford and Cora McHaney, both teachers; Lollie Boswell and Addie James Hamilton, a widow and housewife respectively; Martha L. Johnson, a student at Alabama State College; and Alberta Judkins, Mrs. Jimmie Lowe, and Alberta James. See also, \"Indicted in Bus Boycott,\" folder 1, box 3, PBV.\n\n150. Branch, _Parting the Waters_ , 169.\n\n151. Bayard Rustin, \"Montgomery Diary,\" _Liberation 1_ , no. 2 (April 1956): 8. It was Bayard Rustin who instructed Nixon to turn the arrest into a badge of honor.\n\n152. Robinsin, _Montgomery_ , 150.\n\n153. Branch, _Parting the Waters_ , 177.\n\n154. Robnett, _How Long?_ , 151.\n\n155. B. J. Simms, interview by Steven Millner July 16, 1977, in Garrow, _Walking City_ , 579\u201380.\n\n156. _Christian Century_ 67, no. 10 (March 28, 1956): 387.\n\n157. Transcript, _State of Alabama v. M. L. King Jr._ , March 19\u201322, 1956, folder 3, box 3, PBV.\n\n158. Transcript, _State of Alabama v. M. L. King Jr._ , March 19\u201322, 1956, in Burns, _Daybreak_ , 64\u201365 (Walker); 67 (Brooks); 69 (Brimson); 72 (Moore). See also folder 3, box 3, PBV.\n\n159. Branch, _Parting the Waters_ , 184.\n\n160. \"New Sounds in the Courthouse,\" _Time_ , April 2, 1956, 24; see also Greer, _Our Leaders_ , 105.\n\n161. Transcript, _State of Alabama v. M. L. King Jr._ , March 19\u201322, 1956, folder 3, box 3, PBV.\n\n162. Ibid.\n\n163. Branch, _Parting the Waters_ , 184.\n\n164. Brinkley, _Rosa_ , 160.\n\n165. Branch, _Parting the Waters_ , 184.\n\n166. Brinkley, _Rosa_ , 160.\n\n167. Fellowship of Reconciliation, \"Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story: How 50,000 Negroes Found a New Way to End Racial Discrimination,\" n.d., box 207, series AIII, NAACP Papers.\n\n168. _Gayle v. Browder_ , 352 U.S. 903, Ralph Abernathy and Martin Luther King, Jr., to Alabama Clergy, November 30, 1956, in Burns, _Daybreak_ , 305.\n\n169. Branch, _Parting the Waters_ , 194.\n\n170. Martin Luther King, Jr., _Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community?_ (Boston, 1968), 123.\n\n## CHAPTER 4: \"THERE'S OPEN SEASON ON NEGROES NOW\"\n\n1. Melba Patillo Beals, _Warriors Don't Cry: A Searing Memoir of the Battle to Integrate Little Rock's Central High_ (New York, 1994), 22\u201325.\n\n2. Ibid., 25\u201326.\n\n3. Ibid., 26. At a distance of decades and in the absence of police reports and newspaper accounts of the incident, it is difficult to substantiate Melba Patillo Beals's story, but the attempted rape fits within a documented history. Beals declined to be interviewed.\n\n4. Ibid., 26\u201327.\n\n5. Ibid., 27.\n\n6. Daisy Bates, _The Long Shadow of Little Rock_ (Fayetteville, Ark., 1986), 15.\n\n7. Ibid., 11\u201312, 15.\n\n8. Robnett, _How Long?_ , 77.\n\n9. Ibid.\n\n10. \"Two City Policemen Indicted,\" _ASP_ , July 17, 1942, 1; \"Rape Case Ends in Mistrial,\" AG, July 29, 1942, 14.\n\n11. Though not exhaustive, my research found at least eleven trials, reported in local newspapers, mainly the _State Press_ , of white men accused of raping black women in and around Little Rock between 1942 and 1959. Of those eleven trials, three men were found guilty, but only one received a jail sentence (four years). The other two men received suspended sentences and were allowed to go free. Two trials resulted in a mistrial; two men were acquitted. Most cases, of course, never made it past a grand jury. Bates publicized many more reported rapes and attempted rapes: see the prominent trial of two white policemen accused of raping Rosa Lee Cherry, a black high school student, on June 15, 1942. The _Arkansas State Press_ publicized the rape, placed photographs of the officers on the front page of the paper, and demanded they be held accountable. Vigilance by Bates and the black community forced a trial in July 1942. The case ended in a mistrial. See _State of Arkansas v. L. S. Mullinax, C. B. Eddie Jr., Dan Ellard_ , No. 43862, Pulaski County Circuit Court, July 15, 1942; \"Two City Police Men Indicted: Accused of Rape on Teenage Dunbar High School Girl,\" ASP, July 17, 1942, 1; \"Keeping the Negro in His Place,\" ASP, July 17, 1942, 1; A. F. Cunningham, \"A Disgrace in Disgrace,\" ASP, August 14, 1942, 4; \"Grand Jurors Begin Probe of Two Cases,\" AD, July 15, 1942, 2; \"Four Indicted on Capital Charges,\" AG, July 16, 1942, 11; \"Assault Case Ends with 'Hung' Jury,\" AD, July 28, 1942, 16; \"Rape Case Ends in Mistrial,\" AG, July 29, 1942, 14. Other headlines in _ASP_ throughout the 1940s and 1950s indicate Bates's personal interest in securing justice for African-American women assaulted by white men. See, for example, \"Expectant Mother Brutally Beaten by White Grocer,\" ASP, June 12, 1942, 1; \"Still Pending!\" ASP, November 20, 1942, 1; \"Something Must Be Done,\" editorial, ASP, November 20, 1942, 6; \"Girl Awarded Damages Against Kroger Grocery,\" ASP, May 21, 1943, 1; \"Following Their Training,\" ASP, August 27, 1943, 1; \"A 64$ '?,' \"ASP, August 28, 1944; \"Alleged White Rapists Freed by All-White Jury in Ash-down; Raping Negro Is No Offense if Rapist Is Drunken White Jury Finds,\" _ASP_ , July 22, 1949, 1; \"Bus Driver Beats Up Negro Woman in Heart of City; Knocks Her Down While Negro 'Men' Merely Look,\" ASP, September 16, 1949, 1; \"Alleged Rape Laid to White Man; Seven Year Old Girl Is Victim,\" ASP, January 2, 1953, 1; \"Attack on Girl Brings Sentence,\" ASP, April 3, 1953, 1; \"White Attacker of Negro Girl Must Pay,\" ASP, October 23, 1953, 1; \"Eight Year Old Girl Accuses White Man of Assault,\" ASP, November 20, 1953, 1; \"Light of Approaching Car Prevents Rape of 11-Year-Old Girl,\" ASP, December 30, 1955, 1; \"Rape Attempt on Negro Girl Charged to White Man,\" ASP, July 24, 1959, 1; \"Jury Sees No Crime When Whites Rape Negro Girls,\" ASP, October 23, 1959, 1. Thanks to Story Matkin Rawn and John Adams for finding these articles for me.\n\n12. _U.S. News & World Report_ 40 (February 24, 1956): 134, 135, 138. Leander and Talmadge are quoted in Stephen J. Whitfield, _A Death in the Delta: The Story of Emmett Till_ (Baltimore, Md., 1988), 9.\n\n13. Michael J. Klarman, _From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality_ (New York, 2004), 427.\n\n14. McMillen, _Citizens's Council_ , 185.\n\n15. For more on the tension between \"respectable\" leaders and white vigilantes in Mississippi, see Crespino, _Another Country_ , 24\u201328.\n\n16. Klarman, _Jim Crow_ , 427.\n\n17. Crespino, _Another Country_ , 20.\n\n18. Ibid., 28\n\n19. Annette Butler, testimony, in Charles B. Gordon, \"Lurid Case Being Heard: Duncan Trial in 2nd Day\u2014Signed Statement Admitted,\" _MCEJ_ , March 28, 1957, 1.\n\n20. Ibid.\n\n21. Ibid.\n\n22. \"Brady to Hear Mississippi Rape Case,\" _CDD_ , May 16, 1956, 6.\n\n23. \"Tom P. Brady,\" obituary, _Time_ , February 12, 1973.\n\n24. Charles B. Gordon, \"Walthall Countian Cleared: Olen Duncan Acquitted by Pike Jury on Rape Count, Faces Kidnap Charge,\" _MCEJ_ , March 29, 1957, 1.\n\n25. Charles B. Gordon, \"Court Bulletin,\" _MCEJ_ , March 26, 1957, 1.\n\n26. Charles B. Gordon, \"Trial of Duncan Pending,\" _MCEJ_ , April 4, 1957, 1.\n\n27. Gordon, \"Walthall Countian Cleared,\" _MCEJ_ , March 29, 1957, 1.\n\n28. Ibid. In the fall of 1957 he pleaded nolo contendre to the kidnapping charge and received a suspended two-year sentence. See \"Duncans Freed from Jail on Suspended Sentences,\" _MJEC_ , October 28, 1957; clipping, SCR ID # 10\u201367\u20130-3\u20131-1\u20131, MSSC-d (accessed February 12, 2008).\n\n29. \"Negro Women Ask That Statement Be Published,\" _MCEJ_ , April 4, 1957, 4.\n\n30. \"Negro Committee Expresses Views of Alleged Rape of Colored Girl,\" _MCEJ_ , May 17, 1956, 8.\n\n31. Charles B. Gordon, \"Ernest Dillon Is Sentenced to 20 Years at Hard Labor,\" _MCEJ_ , April 5, 1957, 1.\n\n32. \"Testimony of Hollis Turner (Colored) McComb Mississippi, General Legislative Investigating Committee,\" May 14, 1958, SCR ID # 9\u20133-0\u20131-21\u20131-1, MSSC-d (accessed February 12, 2008).\n\n33. Oliver Emmerich, \"High-Lights in the Headlines,\" _MCEJ_ , May 15, 1956, 1.\n\n34. Brinkley, _Rosa_ , 165.\n\n35. Ibid., 174.\n\n36. Payne, _Light of Freedom_ , 36\u201340.\n\n37. The best account of the Till murder remains Whitfield, _Death in the Delta_. William Bradford Huie. \"The Shocking Story of Approved Killing in Mississippi,\" _Look_ , January 24, 1956, 46\u201350.\n\n38. Dittmer, _Local People_ , 58.\n\n39. Andrew M. Manis, _A Fire You Can't Put Out: The Civil Rights Life of Birmingham's Reverend Fred Shuttlesworth_ (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1999), 147. Aaron survived the attack but remained psychologically scarred for years.\n\n40. Thornton, _Dividing_ , 94. According to Thornton, Raymond Britt, Henry Alexander, Kyle Livingston, and James York were indicted for the murder in 1976, but after a series of lie detector tests cleared Livingston, the other indictments were \"quashed as legally defective.\" The same men were charged with the bombings at the Graetz, King, and Abernathy homes. See Thornton, _Dividing_ , 610\u201411n123.\n\n41. \"He Whistled at Me Says Witness to Slaying,\" RAA, September 1, 1956, 1.\n\n42. \"Mashers Molest Women, Police Look Other Way,\" RAA, September 1, 1956, 1.\n\n43. Ibid.\n\n44. \"Freed in Wolf Whistle Death: Judge Suspends Sentence,\" RAA, November 11, 1956, 1.\n\n45. Cash, _Mind_ , 115\u201316.\n\n46. Wendell Berry, _The Hidden Wound_ (San Francisco, 1989), 59; see also Tyson, _Radio Free Dixie_ , 94\u201395.\n\n47. McMillen, _Citizens' Council_ , 184.\n\n48. Brian Ward, ed., _Media, Culture, and the Modern African American Freedom Struggle_ (Gainesville, Fla., 2001), 5.\n\n49. Glenn C. Altschuler, _All Shook Up: How Rock 'n'_ _Roll Changed America_ (New York, 2003), 37\u201338.\n\n50. Bertrand, _Race, Rock_ , 181.\n\n51. Ibid., 188.\n\n52. Altschuler, _All Shook_ , 40.\n\n53. Dan T. Carter, _From George Wallace to Newt Gingrich: Race in the Conservative Counterrevolution, 1963\u20131994_ (Baton Rouge, La., 1996), 2. Carter reminds us that the _Southerner_ was one of the \"most racist magazines published in the 1950s.\" Asa Carter was also the organizer of a secret paramilitary force he called the \"Original Ku Klux Klan of the Confederacy.\" When George Wallace launched a gubernatorial campaign in 1962, he chose Asa Carter to be his speechwriter.\n\n54. Altschuler, _All Shook_ , 38.\n\n55. Ibid.\n\n56. Bertrand, _Race, Rock_ , 188.\n\n57. John Oliver Killens, _Black Man's Burden_ (New York, 1965), 127.\n\n58. Gunnar Myrdal, _An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy_ (New York, 1944), 587.\n\n59. Tyson, _Radio Free Dixie_ , 92\u201393., provides the best account of what came to be known as the \"Kissing Case.\" See also George Weissman, \"The Kissing Case,\" _Nation_ , January 17, 1959, 46\u201349.\n\n60. Tyson, _Radio Free Dixie_ , 95.\n\n61. Ibid., 95\u201396.\n\n62. Ibid., 96.\n\n63. Ibid., 92.\n\n64. Ibid., 101.\n\n65. Ibid., 117\u201319. The \"Kissing Case\" gained worldwide publicity due to Williams and the Committee to Combat Racial Injustice's shrewd exploitation of America's Cold War politics. See Patrick D. Jones, _Communist Front Shouts \"Kissing Case\" to the World: The Committee to Combat Racial Injustice and the Politics of Race and Gender During the Cold War_ , master's thesis (University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1996).\n\n66. Tyson, _Radio Free Dixie_ , 134\u201335.\n\n67. For the impact of the Cold War on civil rights, see Mary L. Dudziak, _Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy_ (Princeton, N.J., 2000); and Thomas Borstelmann, _The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena_ (Cambridge, Mass., 2001). For more on the Little Rock crisis, see Elizabeth Jacoway, _Turn Away Thy Son: Little Rock, the Crisis that Shocked the Nation_ (New York, 2007); John Kirk, _Epitaph for Little Rock_ (Fayetteville, Ark., 2008); and Daisy Bates, _The Long Shadow of Little Rock_ (Fayetteville, Ark., 1986).\n\n68. Borstelmann, _Cold War_ , 104.\n\n69. Ibid., 103.\n\n70. \"Dwight Eisenhower's Radio and Television Address to the American People on the Situation in Little Rock,\" September 24, 1957, in Steven F. Lawson and Charles Payne, _Debating the Civil Rights Movement, 1945\u20131968_ (Lanham, Md., 1998), 60\u201364.\n\n71. Borstelmann, _Cold War_ , 103.\n\n72. Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia respectively. Nullification resolutions in all four states passed in 1957. See Bartley, _Resistance_ , 131.\n\n73. McMillen, _Citizens' Councils_ , 267.\n\n74. Harvard Sitkoff, _The Struggle for Black Equality, 1954\u20131992_ (New York, 1993), 66; Editorial, _NYT_ , June 16, 1959; Altschuler, _All Shook_ , 37.\n\n75. Adam Fairclough, _To Redeem the Soul of America: The Southern Christian Leadership Conference and Martin Luther King Jr_. (Athens, Ga., 2001), 37.\n\n76. Branch, _Parting the Waters_ , 207.\n\n77. Bartley, _Resistance_ , 215. Bartley claims that besides Alabama, in which the NAACP was legally barred from operating, Texas and Arkansas effectively stymied the NAACP during the 1950s and early 1960s.\n\n78. Roy Wilkins to Mr. Barbee William Durham, February 14, 1957, box A273, series III, NAACP Papers.\n\n79. Roy Wilkins to LeRoy Collins, May 6, 1959, box A91, series III, NAACP Papers.\n\n## CHAPTER 5. \"IT WAS LIKE ALL OF US HAD BEEN RAPED\"\n\n1. \"Report on Tallahassee Incident,\" May 9, 1959, box A91, series III, NAACP Papers. Thanks to Timothy B. Tyson for finding this small folder for me. For information on the Roy Hamilton concert, see _PC_ , May 16, 1959.\n\n2. _NYAN_ , June 20, 1959, 37. Jimmy Carl Cooper, a white youth, testified that David Beagles told him he planned to go out and get \"some nigger 'stuff' \" and noted that \"stuff was not the word used.\" See Trezzvant W. Anderson, \"Rapists Missed Out on First Selection,\" _PC_ , June 20, 1959, 3. A cleaned-up version reported that Beagles had plans to get a \"Negro girl\": \"Four Convicted in Rape Case,\" TD, June 14, 1959, 7. \"I Was Scared,\" PC, June 20, 1959, 1. \"Four Begin Defense in Trial on Rape,\" _NYT_ , June 13, 1959. A13. See also criminal case file 3445, _State of Florida v. Patrick Gene Scarborough, David Ervin Beagles, Ollie Odell Stoutamire, and William Ted Collinsworth, 1959_ , Leon County Courthouse, Tallahassee, Fla.. Thanks to Leon County Courthouse for sending me the file. Because the original trial transcript is no longer available, I have had to rely on newspaper reports, particularly those in African-American newspapers:  the _Baltimore Afro-American_ , the _Louisiana Weekly, the New York Amsterdam News_ , the _Pittsburgh Courier_ , and the South Carolina _Lighthouse and Informer_. The fact that the transcript is missing is verified in the case file notes of _Patrick G. Scarborough v. State of Florida_ , 390 So. 2d 830 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App., 1980). See also Robert W. Saunders, \"Report on Tallahassee Incident,\" May 9, 1959, box A91, series III, NAACP Papers.\n\n3. \"Deputy Tells of Confessions,\" TD, June 12, 1959.\n\n4. Russell Anderson, interview by Jackson Lee Ice, July 1978, in Jackson Lee Ice Papers (JLI).\n\n5. For more on the double lynching, see Walter T. Howard, \"Vigilante Justice and National Reaction: The 1937 Tallahassee Double Lynching,\" _Florida Historical Quarterly_ 67, no. 1 (July 1988).\n\n6. Glenda Alice Rabby, _The Pain and the Promise: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Tallahassee, Florida_ (Athens, Ga., 1999), 18, 30\u201331.\n\n7. Saunders, \"Report on Tallahassee Incident.\"\n\n8. \"Deputy Tells of Confessions,\" TD, June 12, 1959. Original reports stated that Owens was \"bound and gagged,\" but she later testified that she was only blindfolded; after she pulled the blindfold down, she appeared to have been gagged.\n\n9. \"Four Whites Seized in Rape of Negro,\" _NYT_ , May 3, 1959, A45.\n\n10. On the Tallahassee bus boycott, see Rabby, _Pain_ , 9\u201346.\n\n11. Ibid., 13.\n\n12. Ibid., 28.\n\n13. Ibid., 17. For C. K. Steele on students in movement, see Robert M. White, _The Tallahassee Sit-ins and CORE: A Nonviolent Revolutionary Sub-movement_ , Ph.D. diss. (Florida State University, 1964), 65.\n\n14. White, _Sit-ins_ , 65.\n\n15. Ibid.\n\n16. \"Rapists Face Trial,\" _FAMUAN_ 27 (May 1959), 1, 3; \"Negroes Ask Justice for Co-ed Rapists,\" AC, May 4, 1959, 2; \"Four Whites Seized in Rape of Negro,\" _NYT_ , May 3, 1959, A45; ibid., May 5, 1959, A23; \"Mass Rape of Co-ed Outrages Students,\" _LW_ , May 9, 1959, 1; _L'Osservatore Romano_ , June 12, 1959; _Herald Tribune\u2014London_ , June 13, 1959; \"Jury to Take Up Rape of Negro Co-ed,\" AC, May 5, 1959, 5.\n\n17. Patricia Stephens Due interview by author, March 4, 1999. See also Tananarive Due and Patricia Stephens Due, _Freedom in the Family: A Mother-Daughter Memoir of the Fight for Civil Rights_ (New York, 2003), 40\u201341; White, _Sit-ins_ , 65.\n\n18. See Howard Smead, _Blood Justice_ (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); \"Lynch Victim Mack Parker's Body Is Found,\" _NYT_ , May 5, 1959; Tyson, _Radio Free Dixie_ , 143.\n\n19. \"4 Indicted In Rape of Negro Co-Ed,\" _NYHT_ , May 7, 1959, 5.\n\n20. M. C. Williams quoted in \"Packed Court Hears Not Guilty,\" _PC_ , May 16, 1959, 1\u20132; \"Judge Instructs Jury Here,\" TD, May 6, 1959, 1; \"Indictment for Rape,\" criminal case file 3445, _Florida v. Scarborough, Beagles, Stoutamire, and Collinsworth;_ \"Four Plead Not Guilty to Rape,\" TD, n.d., clipping, folder 4, box 912, WMW.\n\n21. Claude Sitton, \"Negroes See Gain in Conviction of Four for Rape of Co-ed,\" _NYT_ , June 15, 1959, A1; statistics are from David R. Colburn and Richard K. Scher, _Florida's Gubernatorial Politics in the Twentieth Century_ (Gainesville, Fla., 1980), 13. Willis McCall is quoted in Steven F. Lawson, David R. Colburn, and Darryl Paulson, \"Groveland: Florida's Little Scottsboro,\" in David R. Colburn and Jane L. Landers, eds., _The African American Heritage of Florida_ (Gainesville, 1995), 298\u2013325, esp. 312.\n\n22. See Moses J. Newson, \"The Wind Blew, the Sky Was Overcast,\" BAA, June 20, 1959; Moses J. Newson, \"Abraham's Shadow Hangs Low Over Tallahassee,\" ibid.; and Moses J. Newson, \"His Mother Can Never Forget Him,\" ibid.\n\n23. \"Another Dixiecrat Headache,\" PC, June 20, 1959; \"The Other Story,\" n.d., clipping, folder 1, box 912, WMW.\n\n24. William H. Chafe, \"Epilogue from Greensboro, North Carolina,\" in Cecelski and Tyson, _Democracy Betrayed_ , 281\u201382.\n\n25. \"Senate to Get Racial Measures,\" TD, June 14, 1959, 1; \"Pent Up Critique on the Rape Case,\" ibid., May 14, 1959.\n\n26. _PC_ , May 30, 1959, 3; \"Mr. Muhammad Speaks,\" _PC_ , May 16, 1959.\n\n27. Ella Baker quoted in _PC_ , May 30, 1959, 3; see also Ransby, _Ella_ , 210. \"Enforce the Law,\" _NYAN_ , May 9, 1959; \"What Will Florida Do,\" _PC_ , May 16, 1959.\n\n28. \"King Asks Ike to Go to Mississippi,\" _BAA_ , May 23, 1959; see also Martin Luther King, Jr., to Clifford C. Taylor, May 5, 1959, in _The Papers of Martin Luther King_ , vol. 6 (Berkeley, Calif., forthcoming). Thanks to Kieran Taylor for sending me this information. \"Report from Europe,\" _BAA_ , May 23, 1959.\n\n29. \"Report from Europe,\" BAA, May 23, 1959; \"King Asks Ike to Go to Mississippi,\" ibid.; \"Appeal to U.N. to Stop Race Violence,\" LW, May 9, 1959, 1.\n\n30. Tyson, _Radio Free Dixie_ , 148\u201350.\n\n31. Ibid., 149\n\n32. Ibid., 145\u201351, esp. 148, 149; 163\u201365.\n\n33. Roy Wilkins to LeRoy Collins, May 6, 1959, box A91, series III, NAACP Papers.\n\n34. TD, May 4, 1959. On the \"fair maiden,\" see Hall, \"Mind That Burns,\" 335.\n\n35. \"I Was Scared,\" PC, June 20, 1959; see also \"Did Not Consent,\" TD, June 11, 1959; \"Rape Co-ed's Own Story,\" _NYAN_ , June 20, 1959, 1; _AC_ , June 12, 1959; \"Negro Girl Tells Jury of Rape by Four,\" _NYT_ , June 12, 1959, A16. Coverage of Owens's testimony was nearly identical in newspapers cited.\n\n36. \"Did Not Consent,\" TD, June 11, 1959; \"I Was Scared,\" PC, June 20, 1959, 1; CO, June 12, 1959, 1A.\n\n37. \"Did Not Consent,\" _TD_ , June 11, 1959. \"I Was Scared,\" PC, June 20, 1959, 1; \"State's exhibits\" (knife) in criminal case file 3445, _Florida v. Scarborough, Beagles, Stoutamire, and Collinsworth, 1959_.\n\n38. \"Rape Co-ed's Own Story,\" _NYAN_ , June 20, 1959, 1; \"I Was Scared,\" PC, June 20, 1959, 1; see also \"Four Begin Defense in Trial on Rape,\" _NYT_ , June 13, 1959, A13.\n\n39. Doctors quoted in \"Rape Co-ed's Own Story,\" _NYAN_ , June 20, 1959, 1; also in \"Four Begin Defense in Trial on Rape,\" _NYT_ , June 13, 1959, A13; friends quoted in \"Did Not Consent,\" _TD_ , June 11, 1959; John Rudd and Richard Brown quoted in \"Deputy Tells of Confessions,\" TD, June 12, 1959.\n\n40. Trezzvant W. Anderson, \"Rapists Missed Out on First Selection,\" PC, June 20, 1959, 3; \"Four Begin Defense in Trial on Rape,\" _NYT_ , June 13, 1959, A13; Howard Williams quoted in \"Rape Defendants Claim Consent,\" TD, June 13, 1959.\n\n41. \"Negro Co-ed Gave Consent, Rape Defendants Tell Jury,\" AC, 13 June 1959.\n\n42. \"Four Convicted in Rape Case; Escape Chair; 2 hr 45 min Verdict Calmly Received in Court,\" TD, June 14, 1959, 1; Pearlie Collinsworth and friends quoted in \"Rape Defendants Claim Consent,\" TD, June 13, 1959; Maudine Reeve's History of Ted Collinsworth, \"States exhibit #15,\" criminal case file 3445, _Florida v. Scarborough, Beagles, Stoutamire, and Collinsworth, 1959;_ Mrs. W. T. Collinsworth, letter, \"State's exhibit #16,\" ibid.\n\n43. W. M. C. Wilhoit, testimony, in \"Motion for Leave to File Notice of Defense of Insanity,\" May 28, 1959, criminal case file 3445, _Florida v. Scarborough, Beagles, Stoutamire, and Collinsworth, 1959;_ \"Four Begin Defense in Trial on Rape,\" _NYT_ , June 13, 1959, A13; John Rudd quoted in \"Four Guilty of Raping Negro; Florida Jury Votes Mercy,\" _NYT_ , June 14, 1959, A1; Arthur Everett, \"Four Convicted in Florida Rape Case,\" WP, June 14, 1959; \"Insanity Plea Prepared as Rape Case Defense,\" TD, May 28, 1959; \"Mental Exam Set for Collinsworth,\" TD, May 29, 1959.\n\n44. \"Four Guilty of Raping Negro; Florida Jury Votes Mercy,\" _NYT_ , June 14, 1959, A1; Charles U. Smith, interview by Jackson Lee Ice, 1978, in JLI; verified in I-CUS, March 9, 1999.\n\n45. \"Precedent Seen in Rape Trial,\" TT, June 15, 1959; TD, June 14, 1959, 1.\n\n46. \"Verdict,\" June 14, 1959, criminal case file 3445, _Florida v. Scarborough, Beagles, Stoutamire, and Collinsworth, 1959;_ \"Guilty as Charged,\" BAA, June 20, 1959; A. H. King quoted in \"No Brutality Proof, Says Florida Jury,\" AC, June 15, 1959, 1.\n\n47. \"Mild Verdict Angers Negroes in Rape Case,\" PC, June 20, 1959; Claude Sitton, \"Negroes See Gain in Conviction of Four for Rape of Co-ed,\" _NYT_ , June 15, 1959, A1; \"I'm Leaving Dixie,\" _NYAN_ , June 20, 1959.\n\n48. Apparently students at Florida A&M ostracized Thomas Butterfield and Richard Brown for failing to protect Betty Jean Owens and Edna Richardson; students thought they ought to have shown some \"physical resistance\" rather than run away from the \"point of a knife and gun\": \"I'm Leaving Dixie,\" _NYAN_ , June 20, 1959; \"Hits Negro Men,\" _NYAN_ , June 6, 1959, 8; \"Williams Was Right,\" BAA, June 27, 1959; \"Four Convicted in Rape Case,\" TD, June 14, 1959, 7.\n\n49. Sitton, \"Negroes See Gain in Conviction of Four for Rape of Co-ed,\" _NYT_ , June 15, 1959, A1; \"Negroes Say They Will Use Tallahassee Case as Precedent in Rape Trials,\" TT, June 15, 1959.\n\n50. Trezzvant W. Anderson, \"Four Florida Rapists Near Chair,\" PC, July 4, 1959; Trezzvant W. Anderson, \"Fla. Rape Case Mercy Sought for Four Negroes,\" _PC_ , June 27, 1959.\n\n51. BAA, June 27, 1959.\n\n52. \"Hunt Convicted Rapist in Florida Woman's Murder,\" _CDD_ , February 11, 1969, 4. This article is the only source that mentions Beagles's name and his relationship to the murder of Betty Jean Robinson Houston. His criminal record, available online, does not mention a second murder charge. I am reluctant to say with certainty that he committed this crime without other evidence. David Beagles currently lives in Alabama and is on supervised parole. Florida Department of Corrections inmate number DC 66792, <http:\/\/offender.fdle.state.fl.us\/offender\/flyer.do?personId=31547> (accessed February 11, 2008). Patrick Scarborough was paroled in 1965, then sent back to prison for violating his parole in 1968. He was paroled again and then incarcerated again in 1993 for second-degree murder. He is currently serving out the remainder of his life sentence. DOC inmate number DC 022849, <http:\/\/offender.fdle.state.fl.us\/offender\/flyer.do?personId=56126> (accessed February 11, 2008). Ollie Stoutamire was paroled in 1965 and currently lives in Grand Ridge, Florida. William T. Collinsworth was paroled in 1965; I do not know his whereabouts.\n\n53. Roy Wilkins to Frederick Cunningham, June 23, 1959, box A91, series III, NAACP Papers; \"This Is Not Equal Justice,\" LW, July 4, 1959; Editorial, _NYAN_ , June 20, 1959, 8.\n\n54. Fred G. Millette to Judge W. May Walker, June 15, 1959, folder 1, box 912, WMW; Mrs. Laura Cox to Judge Walker, June 15, 1959, ibid., Mrs. Bill Aren to Judge Walker, June 15, 1959, ibid.\n\n55. On the \"incubus,\" see Glenda Gilmore, \"Murder, Memory, and the Flight of the Incubus,\" in Cecelski and Tyson, _Democracy Betrayed_ , 73\u201393.\n\n56. For information on Florida's moderate racial politics, see Thomas R. Wagy, _Governor LeRoy Collins of Florida: Spokesman of the New South_ (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1985); and \"From Sit-in to Race Riot: Businessmen, Blacks, and the Pursuit of Moderation in Tampa, 1960\u20131967,\" in Elizabeth Jacoway and David Colburn, eds., _Southern Businessmen and Desegregation_ (Baton Rouge, La., 1982), 257\u201381.\n\n57. Cases cited in Kimberly R. Woodard, \"The Summer of African-American Discontent,\" unpublished paper (Duke University, 1992). See also \"Death to be Demanded in Rape Case,\" BAA, 4 July 1959; \"S.C. Judge Makes History! Dooms Marine to Death in Chair,\" CD, July 11, 1959, 1; John H. McCray, \"Marine Doomed to Electric Chair in S.C. Rape Case,\" _BAA_ , July 11, 1959, 1; Clarence Mitchell, \"Separate but Equal Justice,\" BAA, July 11, 1959; \"Girlfriend Turns in Rape Suspect,\" BAA, August 1, 1959; \"Two Win New Trials,\" _NYT_ , November 15, 1961, 19; \"Free Marine Doomed for Raping Negro,\" _CDT_ , June 30, 1962,C10. Fred G. Davis appealed his death sentence to the South Carolina Supreme Court; they reversed the decision and returned it to the trial judge. See _State v. Fred G. Davis_ , 239 SC 280; 122 SE 2d 633; 1961 Lexis 52. Ralph Lee Betts of North Carolina was incarcerated and made numerous escapes. See his record on the North Carolina Department of Corrections website: http:\/\/webapps6.doc.state.nc.us\/apps\/offender\/offend1?DOCNUM=0030630&SENTENCEINFO=yes&SHOWPHOTO=yes (accessed February 11, 2008). At least one case did not follow the Tallahassee precedent. On July 15, Tommy Paul Daniels, a white man from Macon, Georgia, raped a black babysitter, then bragged about it to his friend's boss and told him he planned to take his brother back to the house for another round with the teenage girl. \"I even threatened to kill her when she cried out,\" Daniels boasted. The police arrived as Daniels and his brother were about to assault the girl again. Two months later an all-white jury acquitted Daniels, despite a city-wide campaign by the NAACP. See Andrew M. Manis, _Macon, Black and White: An Unutterable Separation in the American Century_ (Macon, Ga., 2004), 197\u201398; Trezzvant Anderson, \"Negroes Weep as Georgia White Is Acquitted,\" PC, September 26, 1959; \"Free White Georgian in Rape Case,\" CD, September 29, 1959, 9; \"Freed in Racial Rape,\" _NYT_ , September 16, 1959, 78. See also box 15, folder 83, and box 11, folder 36, TWA.\n\n58. James Booker, \"The Tallahassee Case\u2014A Turning Point in the South,\" _NYAN_ , July 18, 1959.\n\n59. Editorial, \"A Step Toward Equal Justice,\" LW, July 18, 1959.\n\n60. \"The Tallahassee Case: A Turning Point in the South,\" _NYAN_ , July 18, 1959; John H. McCray, \"South's Courts Show New Day of Justice,\" BAA, June 11, 1959.\n\n61. Richard Haley, \"Reports on Events in Tallahassee, October 1959-June 1960,\" folder 7, box 10, series 5, CORE Papers.\n\n62. Ella J. Baker, \"Bigger Than a Hamburger,\" in Clayborne Carson, ed., _The Eyes on the Prize Civil Rights Reader: Documents, Speeches and Firsthand Accounts from the Black Freedom Struggle, 1954\u20131990_ (New York, 1991), 120.\n\n63. For more on the sit-ins in Greensboro, see William H. Chafe, _Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom_ (New York, 1981).\n\n64. An electronic search of articles about white men who raped black women, in the _Chicago Defender_ from 1950 to 1960, yielded thirty-one articles, while a similar search turned up only eleven articles in the same paper from 1960 to 1970.\n\n65. Gerda Lerner, _Black Women in White America: A Documentary History_ (New York, 1972), 172. See also Hall, \"Mind That Burns,\" 328\u201349; and Leslie A. Schwalm, _A Hard Fight for We: Women's Transition from Slavery to Freedom in South Carolina_ (Urbana, Ill., 1997), 37, 44\u201345, 119\u201321.\n\n66. James W. Silver, _Mississippi: The Closed Society_ (New York, 1964), 151.\n\n## CHAPTER 6. \"A BLACK WOMAN'S BODY WAS NEVER HERS ALONE\"\n\n1. Chana Kai Lee, _For Freedom's Sake: The Life of Fannie Lou Hamer_ (Urbana, Ill., 1999), 9, 11.\n\n2. Ibid., 9\u201310.\n\n3. Harriet A. Washington, _Medical Apartheid: The Dark History of Medical Experimentation on Black Americans from Colonial Times to the Present_ (New York, 2006), 190. In 1973 the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) filed a class-action lawsuit to end federal funding for involuntary sterilization. SPLC lawyers discovered that 100,000 to 150,000 women had been sterilized using federal funds; half of them were black women. Ibid., 202\u20134; According to Dorothy Roberts, \"It was a common belief among Blacks in the south that Black women were routinely sterilized without their informed consent for no valid medical reasons,\" and \"teaching hospitals performed unnecessary hysterectomies on poor black women as practice for their medical residents. This sort of abuse was so widespread,\" Roberts continues, that \"these operations came to be known as Mississippi appendectomies.\" Dorothy Roberts, _Killing the Black Body: Race, Reproduction and the Meaning of Liberty_ (New York, 1999), 90. U.S. Congress, \"Hearing Before a Select Panel on Mississippi and Civil Rights, Testimony of Mrs. Fannie Lou Hamer,\" _Congressional Record_ , 88th Cong., 2d sess., June 4 to June 16, 1964, vol. 110, pt. 10, 14001\u20132; Lee, _Freedom's Sake_ , 20\u201321. Hamer was a lifelong opponent of birth control. The women's movement of the late 1960s and early 1970s fought to restrict the practice of coercive or forced sterilization. The Reproductive Rights National Network (R2N2) \"investigated and documented thousands of cases of forced sterilization, especially of people of color; of welfare recipients threatened with cutoffs of stipends unless they submitted to sterilization; and of women asked to sign sterilization consent forms while in labor, either in pain or partly anesthetized.\" In 1974 the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare finally issued guidelines that required informed consent and prohibited sterilization of women under the age of twenty-one. See Rosalyn Baxandall and Linda Gordon, \"Second Wave Feminism,\" in Nancy Hewitt, ed., _A Companion to American Women's History_ (New York, 2002), 420.\n\n4. Ibid., 21; Kay Mills, _This Little Light of Mine: The Life of Fannie Lou Hamer_ (New York, 1993), 22.\n\n5. Dittmer, _Local People_ , 171.\n\n6. Lee, _Freedom's Sake_ , 49; See also \"The Winona Incident: An Interview with Annelle Ponder and Fannie Lou Hamer, June 13, 1963,\" in Pat Watters and Reese Cleghorn, _Climbing Jacob's Ladder: The Arrival of Negroes in Southern Politics_ (New York, 1967); SNCC Papers, microfilm, reel 40, frames 454\u201357.\n\n7. Annell Ponder, interview by Jack Minnis, SNCC Papers, microfilm, reel 38, frame 502; Watters and Cleghorn, _Climbing_ , 366.\n\n8. Dittmer, _Local People_ , 171.\n\n9. Payne, _Light of Freedom_ , 242.\n\n10. Lee, _Freedom's Sake_ , 9\u201310, 78\u201381, 51\u201352. Although Lee argues that Hamer was \"inclined to dissemble when it came to sex, race and violence\" (78\u201381), Lee's own evidence suggested that Hamer testified publicly to the sexualized aspects of her beating in Winona, Mississippi, and her forced sterilization as often as she kept them hidden (see 54, 59, 79, 80\u201381, 89, 198n42, 196n2).\n\n11. Ibid., 52; Fannie Lou Hamer, interview, in Selby and Selby, _Odyssey_ , 186. See also Jerry DeMuth, \"Tired of Being Sick and Tired,\" _Nation_ , June 1, 1964.\n\n12. Lawrence Guyot, interview by John Rachal, 1996, transcript, vol. 673, COHCH. See also Lee, _Freedom's Sake_ , 53.\n\n13. Lee, _Freedom's Sake_ , 59.\n\n14. Ibid., 78\u201381.\n\n15. WNEW Radio transcript, June 6, 1963, CORE Papers on microfilm, series III, reel 22, frames 219\u201329. See also \"The Uses of Nonviolence,\" _Nation_ , July 6, 1963, 2\u20133.\n\n16. WNEW Radio transcript. Demonstrations in Jackson took place in the spring and early summer of 1963, just a few months after James Meredith integrated Ole Miss and just before Medgar Evers was assassinated. Between 1890 and 1920 middle-class black women active in the Baptist Church and Convention movement relied on the politics of respectability to counter negative stereotypes and to advance an agenda of racial equality. Strict adherence to \"manners and morals\" in public helped black women protect their sexual identities and assert themselves as dignified human beings in a white supremacist society that ridiculed them as lazy, dirty, and\/or promiscuous. According to Darlene Clark Hine, middle-class black women also adopted a \"culture of dissemblance\" to shield themselves emotionally and physically from Jim Crow. As a result, clubwomen used respectability and dissemblance as political weapons to fight racism and win sympathetic white allies. See also Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, _Righteous Discontent: The Women's Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880\u20131920_ (Cambridge, Mass., 1993), 193\u201394.\n\n17. WNEW Radio transcript, June 6, 1963, CORE Papers on microfilm, series III, reel 22, frames 219\u201329.\n\n18. Olson, _Daughter_ , 191.\n\n19. Ibid., 192.\n\n20. Robnett, _How Long?_ , 134\u201335. SNCC released Turner's sworn affidavit on January 20, 1962.\n\n21. Unita Blackwell, interview, in Tiffany Joseph and Gabriel Mendes, \"Voter Registration and the Missisppi Freedom Democratic Party,\" on the _Freedom Now! Archival Project of Tougaloo College and Brown University_ website, <http:\/\/www.stg.brown.edu\/projects\/FreedomNow\/themes\/mfdp\/index.html> (accessed July 21, 2009).\n\n22. \"Police Brutality in Southwest Georgia, 1963,\" folder 2, box 47, CAB.\n\n23. Ibid.\n\n24. Medical Committee for Human Rights, Report, June 1965, folder 11, box 55, CAB. For more on the Medical Committee, see John Dittmer, _The Good Doctors: The Medical Committee for Human Rights and the Struggle for Social Justice in Health Care_ (New York, 2009). For more on the abuse of black women in Southern prisons, see Douglas Blackmon, _Slavery by Another Name: The Re-enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II_ (New York, 2009); and Mary Ellen Curtin, _Black Prisoners and Their World: Alabama, 1865\u20131900_ (Charlottesville, Va., 2000).\n\n25. WNEW Radio transcript, June 6, 1963, CORE Papers on microfilm, series III, reel 22, frames 219\u201329. See also _Nation_ , July 6, 1963, 3.\n\n26. Dorothy Height, _Open Wide the Freedom Gates: A Memoir_ (New York, 2003), 158; and Deborah Gray White, _Too Heavy a Load: Black Women in Defense of Themselves, 1894\u20131994_ (New York, 1999), 194.\n\n27. \"Background: Atlanta, Jackson, London, Selma 1963\u20131966,\" folder 2, box 2, series 19, NCNWR. Thanks to Kenneth Chandler for his help locating this transcript.\n\n28. Ibid.\n\n29. Height, _Open Wide_ , 158\u201359.\n\n30. \"Cowan, Polly\u2014Writings,\" folder 22, box 4, series 19, NCNWR. Thanks to Kenneth Chandler for finding this document for me.\n\n31. Height, _Open Wide_ , 162.\n\n32. Ibid., 169.\n\n33. White, _Too Heavy_ , 198.\n\n34. For more on the Birmingham movement, see Glenn T. Eskew, _But for Birmingham: The Local and National Movements in the Civil Rights Struggle_ (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1997); Andrew Manis, _A Fire You Can't Put Out (Tuscaloosa, Ala., 1999);_ Diane McWhorter, _Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama: The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution_ (New York, 2001); and Thornton, _Dividing_.\n\n35. Dittmer, _Local People_ , 157. Between 1962 and 1964, when the VEP organized throughout the South, black voter registration in Mississippi barely budged.\n\n36. _Freedom on My Mind_ , produced and directed by Connie Field and Marilyn Mulford, California Newsreel, 1994, videocassette.\n\n37. Endesha Ida Mae Holland, _From the Mississippi Delta: A Memoir_ (New York, 1997), 78.\n\n38. Ibid., 83.\n\n39. Ibid., 84.\n\n40. Ibid., 86.\n\n41. Ibid., 91, 90. It is unclear if Holland is suggesting that many Delta families were headed by single mothers, or if the oppressive racial environment made it difficult, if not dangerous, for black men to protect their wives and daughters.\n\n42. Ibid., 85.\n\n43. Ibid., 90.\n\n44. Moses came to Mississippi as an SNCC volunteer in the federally sponsored Voter Education Project. President John F. Kennedy helped raise money from liberal philanthropic organizations to steer civil rights activists into voter registration, which he hoped would provoke less violence and fewer headlines than the nonviolent direct action strategies pursued by SNCC and CORE during the 1960 sit-ins and 1961 Freedom Ride. Major civil rights organizations\u2014the NAACP, SCLC, CORE, and SNCC\u2014agreed to participate, believing that the Kennedy administration would protect them from white violence. Between 1962 and 1964, they fanned out across the South to register black voters. Wiley Branton, director of the VEP, believed the \"Justice Department would take all necessary steps to protect federal or constitutional rights,\" including the \"elementary matter of protection.\" The Justice Department, however, had no intention of sending federal troops to the South \"for fear of alienating powerful southern lawmakers whose cooperation the administration needed to pass its legislative program.\" When law enforcement was left up to hostile local officials, civil rights activists were often mistreated, beaten, sexually abused, and, in some cases, killed. See Lawson, _Running_ , 86\u201390.\n\n45. Holland, _Delta_ , 210.\n\n46. Ibid., 219. Holland went on to earn her Ph.D. from the University of Minnesota and became a professor at the University of Southern California and SUNY Buffalo. Her play, _From the Mississippi Delta_ , was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize. Endesha Ida Mae Holland died January 25, 2006.\n\n47. Even after Byron de la Beckwith assassinated Mississippi NAACP leader Medgar Evers on June 11, 1963, the Kennedy administration's solution to white violence was to get \"black people off the streets\" and negotiate with white leaders who continued to flout the constitution. According to Dittmer, the \"Kennedys demonstrated once again that in the short run, at least, they preferred order to justice.\" Dittmer, _Local People_ , 169. For more on the life and death of Medgar Evers, see Myrlie Evers, _For Us, the Living_ (New York, 1967); Adam Nossiter, _Of Long Memory: Mississippi and the Murder of Medgar Evers_ (Cambridge, Mass., 2002); Myrlie Evers-Williams, Manning Marable, and Medgar Wiley Evers, _The Autobiography of Medgar Evers: A Hero's Life and Legacy Revealed Through His Writings, Letters, and Speeches_ (New York, 2005).\n\n48. Olson, _Daughters_ , 294.\n\n49. Sally Belfrage, _Freedom Summer_ (Charlottesville, Va., 1965), 10.\n\n50. Dittmer, _Local People_ , 263.\n\n51. John Herbers, \"Mississippi: A Profile of the Nation's Most Segregated State,\" _NYT_ , June 28, 1964, E3.\n\n52. Dittmer, _Local People_ , 266; clipping, _Newsweek_ , February 24, 1964, box 274, series IIIA, NAACP Papers.\n\n53. Dittmer, _Local People_ , 266.\n\n54. \"Went into State to Enroll Voters,\" _NYT_ , December 5, 1964, 19.\n\n55. Dittmer, _Local People_ , 266.\n\n56. Clipping, _Newsweek_ , February 24, 1964, in box 274, series IIIA, NAACP Papers.\n\n57. Ibid.\n\n58. Robnett, _How Long?_ , 127; Dittmer, _Local People_ , 251.\n\n59. Klansmen murdered Charles Moore, a twenty-year-old Alcorn College student, and Henry Dee, twenty-one, after beating them in the Homochitto National Forest on May 2, 1964. Bystanders also found the body of a black teenager wearing a CORE T-shirt floating in the Big Black River that summer. He was never identified. See Dittmer, _Local People_ , 251\u201352.\n\n60. Ibid., 251.\n\n61. Often called the \"Emmett Till generation,\" many SNCC workers remember the brutal lynching of Till and the image of his mutilated body printed in _Jet_ magazine as a galvanizing force. Ibid., 58. Sally Belfrage saw pictures of Till in _Jet_ for the first time during Freedom Summer. She remembered it being \"the most awful picture I had ever seen.\" Belfrage, _Summer_ , 159.\n\n62. For more on the interracial tensions during Freedom Summer, see Sara Evans, _Personal Politics: The Roots of Women's Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left_ (New York, 1979); and Mary King, _Freedom Song: A Personal Story of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement_ (New York, 1987), esp. chap. 12.\n\n63. A number of scholars seem to be interested in whether interracial sex did actually occur during Freedom Summer and, if so, what it means. I am not interested in this issue, agreeing with Bernice Johnson Reagon that \"a lot of it was nobody's business.\" Robnett, _How Long?_ , 131; See also Renee C. Romano, _Race Mixing: Black-White Marriage in Postwar America_ (Gainesville, Fla., 2006), 177\u201385; and Allen Matusow, \"From Civil Rights to Black Power: The Case of SNCC, 1960\u20131966,\" in Barton J. Bernstein and Allen J. Matusow, eds., _Twentieth Century America: Recent Interpretations_ (New York, 1969), 531\u201336.\n\n64. Olson, _Daughters_ , 267.\n\n65. Ibid., 305; Robnett, _How Long?_ , 124.\n\n66. Olson, _Daughters_ , 267.\n\n67. Belfrage, _Summer_ , 111.\n\n68. Ibid.\n\n69. \"Innocent Plea in Rape Case,\" _JDN_ , July 27, 1960, 5; \"White Youth Guilty in Rape,\" NYT, July 28, 1960, 5.\n\n70. Ibid. It is unclear whether the girl normally carried a penknife when in the company of white men, or if she was wary of Loden, but it is an interesting detail. Did black women carry small weapons when they went to work for whites? Did mothers and fathers warn their daughters and encourage them to protect themselves?\n\n71. \"Report on Rape Cases Beginning January 1, 1940, Through March 31, 1965, Compiled from the Records of the Mississippi State Penitentiary, Parchman, Mississippi,\" box 21, LSCRRCP. The report contains the name, charge, sentence, and status of each man charged with rape in every county of Mississippi, but it does not list the dates on which they were charged. Charles Coffee and Louis Coffee received life sentences for raping a \"Negro age 5\" and, as of March 31, 1965, were still in Parchman (see note 74 below). With the exception of Abraham Sloan and the Coffee brothers, none of the white men charged or sentenced were from the Delta. Eighty-nine African Americans in Delta counties were charged with rape or attempted rape and sentenced to prison between 1940 and 1965. Of those, the report indicates, seventeen were charged with rape or attempted rape of white women. The sentencing patterns indicate that when charged with rape or attempted rape of white women, black men were sentenced to life in prison. They received paltry sentences for similar charges brought by black girls or women. The breakdown of the numbers of black men charged and sentenced in Delta counties: Bolivar, 11; Carroll, 2; Coahoma, 15; Humphreys, 3; Issaquena, 3; Leflore, 11; Sharkey, 7; Sunflower, 13; Tallahatchie, 2; Tunica, 3; Washington, 15; Yazoo, 4.\n\n72. \"Rapes Race Girl; Saved by Jury,\" CD, August 6, 1960, 1; \"White Youth Guilty in Rape,\" NYT, July 28, 1960, 5.\n\n73. \"Rapes Race Girl; Saved by Jury,\" _CD_ , August 6, 1960, 1. In 1965, when the NAACP Legal Defense Fund and the Law Students Civil Rights Research Council researched sentencing patterns for rape in the South, they compiled a record of rape cases in Mississippi from 1940 to 1965. The record indicates that as of March 31, 1965, L. J. Loden was still serving time in Parchman penitentiary. See \"Report on Rape Cases Beginning January 1, 1940, Through March 31, 1965, Compiled from the Records of the Mississippi State Penitentiary, Parchman, Mississippi,\" box 21, LSCRRCP.\n\n74. \"White Youth Gets Life in Rape Case,\" WP, December 12, 1965, A3. On February 8, 1961, two white male pedophiles from Yazoo City, Mississippi, were convicted of raping a five-year-old African-American child on a plantation and sentenced to life in prison. The assailants, Louis Coffee, eighteen, and Charles Coffee, twenty, pleaded guilty. I do not include this in my calculation since pedophilia is a different and unique sex crime, but it is worth mentioning. See \"Whites Get Life Sentences,\" JA, February 8, 1961, 1; and \"Two Get Life for Rape,\" _NYT_ , February 10, 1961, 15.\n\n75. My research indicates that no white man was executed by the state of Mississippi\u2014or any other Southern state, for that matter\u2014for the crime of rape on a black woman between 1940 and 1975, the period this book covers.\n\n76. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed discrimination in public accommodations, including hotels, restaurants, and theaters; banned discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in employment; created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to enforce this provision and investigate discrimination in the workplace; made federal funding contingent upon fair practices; barred unequal voter-registration requirements but failed to eliminate literacy tests; and enabled the Justice Department to file lawsuits to force states to desegregate their schools. The act contained no provision that could be used to protect civil rights activists from physical harm. See Lawson, _Running for Freedom_ , 91, 95.\n\n77. Fannie Lou Hamer and Victoria Gray were elected congresspersons in the November 1964 statewide mock elections. Payne, _Light of Freedom_ , 321.\n\n78. American Radio Works, \"Fannie Lou Hamer Testimony in Front of the Credentials Committee, Democratic National Convention, Atlantic City, New Jersey, August 22, 1964,\" <http:\/\/americanradioworks.publicradio.org\/features\/sayitplain\/flhamer.html>, accessed March 12, 2008; Lawson, _Running for Freedom_ , 97; Dittmer, _Local People_ , 272\u2013302 passim; and Lee, _Freedom's Sake_ , 99.\n\n## CHAPTER 7. SEX AND CIVIL RIGHTS\n\n1. Thornton, _Dividing_ , 488.\n\n2. Dan T. Carter, _From George Wallace to Newt Gingrich_ (Baton Rouge, La., 1999) 1; Branch, _At Canaan's Edge: America in the King Years, 1965\u20131968_ (New York, 2006), 162.\n\n3. Branch, _At Canaan's Edge_ , 165; Lyndon Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act on August 6, 1965, after speedy action by Congress. The act banned literacy tests; authorized the use of federal registrars and observers to enforce voting rights; required states to have electoral changes approved to guarantee the rules; did not discriminate against black voters (known as preclearance); brought Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, Virginia, and parts of North Carolina under federal supervision; and enabled the Justice Department to bring suit against states that continued to use the poll tax. In order to avoid federal supervision, states have to appeal to federal district court in Washington, D.C., and prove that they did not use a \"discriminatory test or device for the previous five years.\" Lawson, _Running_ , 117\u201318.\n\n4. Thornton, _Dividing_ , 403\u201306.\n\n5. Ibid., 399\u2013401; on Jim Clark's posse, see 411.\n\n6. For a good description of Clark, see \"Jim Clark, Sheriff Who Enforced Segregation, Dies at 84,\" _NYT_ , June 7, 2007. See also \"Bridge to Freedom,\" _Eyes on the Prize_ DVD. Approximately 14,000 blacks and 14,500 whites made up Selma's population in 1964; the county population was about 58 percent black in 1960. In 1970, 29,000 blacks and 26,500 whites lived in Dallas County. See Thornton, _Dividing_ , 414, 498\u201389.\n\n7. Branch, _At Canaan's Edge_ , 8.\n\n8. For more on the Jimmie Lee Jackson case and the current legal proceedings against James Bonard Fowler, see journalist John Fleming's investigative work at the _Anniston Star_ , <http:\/\/www.annistonstar.com> (accessed April 23, 2008). See also Branch, _At Canaan's Edge_ , 8, and Thornton, _Dividing_ , 486.\n\n9. \"Bridge to Freedom,\" _Eyes on the Prize_ DVD.\n\n10. Al Turner, ibid.\n\n11. Lawson, _Running, 110_ \u201311. This was King's strategy in Birmingham, where he and the SCLC counted on \"Bull\" Connor to attack the respectable and nonviolent marchers, many of whom were children. For more on the way white violence attracted national media attention and thus compelled federal action, see Payne, _Light of Freedom_ , 394\u201399.\n\n12. David Garrow, _Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference_ (New York, 1989), 381.\n\n13. Branch, _At Canaan's Edge_ , 46.\n\n14. F. D. Reese, interview by Larry Vasser, box 121, series 4, TB.\n\n15. Branch, _At Canaan's Edge_ , 50.\n\n16. Ibid., 52.\n\n17. See film footage of the confrontation on \"Bridge to Freedom,\" _Eyes on the Prize_ DVD.\n\n18. Branch, _At Canaan's Edge_ , 56.\n\n19. Thornton, _Dividing_ , 488.\n\n20. Mary Stanton, _From Selma to Sorrow: The Life and Death of Viola Liuzzo_ (Athens, Ga., 1998), 143; Branch, _At Canaan's Edge_ , 153.\n\n21. \"Alabamian in House Assails March,\" _NYT_ , March 31, 1965, 17; \"Says Sex Is Motive in Rights Movement,\" CD, March 31, 1965, 9.\n\n22. Stanton, _From Selma_ , 144.\n\n23. \"Photos Prove March Orgies, Says Solon,\" BN, April 4, 1965; \"Godless riff-raff\" quote from \"Says Sex Is Motive in Rights Movement,\" CD, March 31, 1965, 9.\n\n24. Stanton, _From Selma_ , 144\u201345; Albert C. Persons, _Sex and Civil Rights: The True Selma Story_ (Birmingham, Ala., 1965), 1.\n\n25. Persons, _Sex_ , 9.\n\n26. Affidavits from Alabama Department of Public Safety, GW.\n\n27. Ibid.\n\n28. Ironically, an entire section of the book is devoted to \"How 'Images' Are Created,\" detailing how media bias manipulates images to advance a pro\u2013civil rights agenda.\n\n29. Persons, _Sex_ , 7.\n\n30. Ibid., 4.\n\n31. Ibid., 6.\n\n32. On Bayard Rustin, see John D'Emilio, _Lost Prophet: The Life and Times of Bayard_ _Rustin_ (New York, 2003); Jervis Andersen, _Bayard Rustin: Troubles I've Seen_ (Berkeley, Calif., 1998).\n\n33. Persons, _Sex_ , 14.\n\n34. Stanton, _From Selma_ , 144.\n\n35. Patricia Sullivan, ed., _Freedom Writer: Virginia Foster Durr: Letters from the Civil Rights Years_ (New York, 2003), 328.\n\n36. Virginia Durr to Carl and Anne Braden, May 3, 1965, folder 1, box 41, CAB. See also Virginia Foster Durr with Hollinger F. Barnard, ed., _Outside the Magic Circle: The Autobiography of Virginia Foster Durr_ (New York, 1987), 327, 328.\n\n37. Virginia Durr to Carl and Anne Braden, May 3, 1965, folder 1, box 41, CAB.\n\n38. See the stack of telegrams sent to the NAACP, \"Telegrams Relating to Selma-Montgomery March,\" box 274, series IIIA, NAACP Papers.\n\n39. Al Kuettner, \"Reporter Digs into Talk of Alabama Sex Orgies,\" _Mississippi Press Scimi_ tar, April 1, 1965.\n\n40. \"Clerics in March Rebut Dickinson,\" April 29, 1965, _NYT_ , 16.\n\n41. Branch, _At Canaan's Edge_ , 153.\n\n42. Durr with Barnard, _Outside_ , 175.\n\n43. Ibid., 326\n\n44. Governor George Wallace to Congressman Malcolm Bethea, April 7, 1965, GW.\n\n45. Stanton, _From Selma_ , 147.\n\n46. James G. Clark, _I Saw Selma Raped: The Jim Clark Story_ (Birmingham, Ala., 1966). Clark's book recycles information found in Persons's magazine, _Sex and Civil Rights_ , and offers up Lost Cause justifications for white oppression of African Americans.\n\n47. Clark, _Selma Raped_ , 42.\n\n48. Branch, _At Canaan's Edge_ , 173.\n\n49. FBI report on murder of Liuzzo, March 26, 1965, folder 2, box 124, TB; Branch, _At Canaan's Edge_ , 173\u201374.\n\n50. \"Action squad\" in Branch, _At Canaan's Edge_ , 178; \"panicked\" in Stanton, _From Selma_ , 52.\n\n51. Jack Anderson, \"FBI Informer Was Traveling in Murder Car,\" WP, March 21, 1983, B13; Stanton, _From Selma_ , 55.\n\n52. Branch, _At Canaan's Edge_ , 218; Seth Cagin and Philip Dray, _We Are Not Afraid: The Story of Goodman, Schwerner and Chaney and the Civil Rights Campaign for Mississippi_ (New York, 1988), 442; \"The Imperial Klonsel: Matt Murphy,\" NYT, May 7, 1965, 25.\n\n53. Branch, _At Canaan's Edge_ , 177. See also, \"Memorandum for Mr. Tolson, Mr. Belmong, Mr. Deloach, Mr. Rosen,\" from J. Edgar Hoover, March 26, 1965, folder 2, box 124, TB.\n\n54. Stanton, _From Selma_ , 54.\n\n55. Ibid., 55.\n\n56. \"Liuzzo Case Jury Retires for Night Without a Verdict,\" _NYT_ , May 7, 1965, 1.\n\n57. \"Klansman Linked to Death Bullet,\" _NYT_ , May 6, 1965, 1.\n\n58. Eliza Heard, \"Economics and a Murder Trial,\" _New South_ , October, 1965, 5; Olson, _Daughters_ , 346.\n\n59. Virginia Foster Durr, _Freedom Winter_ , ed. Patricia Sullivan (New York, 2003), 331; See also \"Press Release,\" May 7, 1965, box 273, series IIIA, NAACP Papers.\n\n60. Stanton, _From Selma_ , 116.\n\n61. Ibid., 55.\n\n62. Ibid., 121; _Time_ , May 14, 1965.\n\n63. \"Liuzzo Case Jury Retires for Night Without a Verdict,\" _NYT_ , May 7, 1965, 1; Branch, _At Canaan's Edge_ , 218.\n\n64. \"Liuzzo Case Jury Retires for Night,\" _NYT_ , May 7, 1965, 1.\n\n65. All of Liuzzo's murderers, Eugene Thomas, forty-three, of Bessemer; William Orville Eaton, forty-one, of Bessemer; Collie Leroy Wilkins, Jr., twenty-one, of Fairfield; and Gary Thomas Rowe (FBI informant), thirty-one, of Birmingham, were found not guilty of state murder charges. On December 3, 1965, Thomas, Eaton, and Wilkins were found guilty on federal charges of conspiracy to violate the civil rights of Liuzzo. See Thornton, _Dividing_ , 489; Stanton, _From Selma_ , 130.\n\n66. Stanton, _From Selma_ , 120\u201321.\n\n67. Ibid., 121.\n\n68. \"FBI Has Drawn Cloak of Secrecy Around Arrests of Four Klansmen,\" _WP_ , March 28, 1965, A2; Stanton, _From Selma_ , 54.\n\n69. Branch, _At Canaan's Edge_ , 219; \"Murder in Alabama: American Wives Think Viola Liuzzo Should Have Stayed Home,\" _Ladies' Home Journal_ , July 1965, in folder 2, box 124, TB.\n\n70. The \"decaying structures of family life\" are indicated by the statistics found in the report: \"1\/4 of all negro marriages dissolved; 1\/4 of all negro births illegitimate; 1\/4 of negro families headed by women; 90% higher infant mortality rate, heavy narcotics addiction and delinquency, and rampant poverty.\" See Office of Policy Planning and Research, U.S. Department of Labor, _The Negro Family: The Case for National Action_ (U.S. Government Printing Office, No. 1965 0\u2013794\u2013628, March 1965). By August, the report had become headline news. \"Inside Report,\" _WP_ , August 18, 1965, A19. See also Branch, _At Canaan's Edge_ , 370. For the definitive account of how Americans responded to the Moynihan report, see Lee Rainwater and William L. Yancey, _The Moynihan Report and the Politics of Controversy_ (Cambridge, Mass., 1967).\n\n71. \"Race Problems Pointed Up in Moynihan Report,\" LAT, September 29, 1965, A4.\n\n72. Peniel W. Joseph, _Waiting 'Til the Midnight Hour_ (New York, 2006), 152.\n\n73. Branch, _At Canaan's Edge_ , 371.\n\n74. Whites in the area were not nonviolent; only thirty miles away, in Poplarville, a mob kidnapped and lynched Mack Charles Parker in 1959. In Hattiesburg, only 25 of the 7,495 eligible black voters were registered in 1961. The Kennedy Justice Department filed a number of lawsuits in an attempt to force Lynd to at least permit blacks to attempt to register to vote. Lynd defied the Justice Department at every turn and even refused to obey a ruling by the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals prohibiting him from discriminating against blacks. When the Supreme Court upheld the lower court's rulings, Lynd still did not comply. The lawsuits made Hattiesburg the \"major testing ground in the battle for suffrage rights.\" Dittmer, _Local People_ , 179\u201380, 184.\n\n75. Ibid., 179.\n\n76. Ibid., 182.\n\n77. Ibid., 259.\n\n78. Kennard's case was a frame-up organized and carried out by the State Sovereignty Commission with the full support of Governor J. P. Coleman and William D. McCain, president of USM. The commission spied on Kennard, used friendly blacks to dissuade him from applying to USM, and jailed him when he persisted. When Kennard was diagnosed with end-stage cancer in 1963, state leaders released him from prison to avoid any outside scrutiny should he die in custody. The trumped-up conviction and sentence were just \"another example of racial justice in the closed society\" and indicated whites were willing to do just about anything to thwart black advancement. Dittmer, _Local People_ , 79\u201383 passim.\n\n79. Ibid., 213.\n\n80. HA, November 9, 1965, 2.\n\n81. Dittmer, _Local People_ , 217. Sam Bowers was convicted along with seven other Klansmen of federal civil rights violations in the murders of James Goodman, Michael Schwerner, and James Chaney in October 1967. Bowers was finally convicted in 1998 of murdering Vernon Dahmer on January 10, 1966. After Dahmer announced he would help blacks register to vote by collecting poll taxes at his store, Bowers and two carloads of Klansmen firebombed Dahmer's home and business. Dahmer died shortly thereafter from burns and injuries sustained during the attack. See Dittmer, _Local People_ , 391.\n\n82. Laurie Pritchett was the chief of police in Albany, Georgia, from 1959 to 1966. When the SCLC launched a campaign to desegregate local institutions and register voters there in 1961, Pritchett declared he was in favor of nonviolence and ordered his officers to use restraint. Pritchett's decision kept negative nationwide publicity to a minimum, contributing to the \"failure\" of the SCLC's Albany campaign. For more on the Albany movement, see Branch, _Parting the Waters_ , and Garrow, _Bearing the Cross_. Only one person was arrested during Freedom Day, a break from past practices. Dittmer, _Local People_ , 221.\n\n83. \"Negro Girl Reports Rape by White Man,\" HA, July 14, 1965, 7; \"Cannon Indicted, Pleads Innocent to Rape Charge,\" HA, July 17, 1965, 1.\n\n84. Lois Miles interview by author, October 17, 2007, Hattiesburg, Mississppi.\n\n85. \"Negro Girl Reports Rape by White Man,\" _HA_ , July 14, 1965, 7; \"Cannon Indicted, Pleads Innocent to Rape Charge,\" HA, July 17, 1965, 1. Description of crime scene based upon author visit to Hattiesburg on October 17, 2007; I-JD.\n\n86. \"Cannon Indicted, Pleads Innocent to Rape Charge,\" HA, July 17, 1965, 1; \"Southern White Found Guilty of Raping Negro,\" LAT, November 12, 1965, 12.\n\n87. Yashuhiro Katagiri, _Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission: Civil Rights and States Rights_ (Jackson, Miss., 2001), 173; see also \"Press Release,\" n.d, in M191, folder 7, box 137, GPJ.\n\n88. \"White Convicted of Raping Negro,\" _NYT_ , November 12, 1965, 1.\n\n89. \"Cannon Indicted, Pleads Innocent to Rape Charge,\" HA, July 17, 1965, 1; I-JD.\n\n90. \"Rape Trial Under Way; Grandmother Points to Cannon,\" HA, November 9, 1965, 1.\n\n91. \"Conflicting Stories Told,\" HA, November 10, 1965, 1.\n\n92. \"Southern White Found Guilty of Raping Negro,\" LAT, November 12, 1965, 12.\n\n93. I-JD.\n\n94. \"Conflicting Stories Told,\" HA, November 10, 1965, 1; I-JD. Dukes described the language of the defense attorney as \"rude\" and \"crass.\" He said that he asked inappropriate things and made everyone in court sick with his perverted language.\n\n95. \"Rape Trial Under Way; Grandmother Points to Cannon,\" HA, November 9, 1965, 1.\n\n96. Ibid.\n\n97. \"Grandmother Points Out Man Accused of Assault,\" CL, November 10, 1965, 4.\n\n98. I-JD.\n\n99. \"Conflicting Stories Told,\" HA, November 10, 1965, 1.\n\n100. Ibid.\n\n101. \"Cannon Found Guilty of Rape, Jury Gives Him Life,\" HA, November 11, 1965, 1.\n\n102. \"Southern White Found Guilty of Raping Negro,\" LAT, November 12, 1965, 12.\n\n103. \"Cannon Found Guilty of Rape,\" 1; \"White Convicted of Raping Negro,\" _NYT_ , November 12, 1965, 1.\n\n104. \"State Man Gets Life for Rape of Negro Girl,\" _JA_ , November 20, 1965, 1.\n\n105. None of the movement activists I interviewed or contacted remembered the case, including Raylawni Branch, who desegregated USM in the fall of 1965, and Daisy Wade Harris, who housed movement activists and whose sons helped desegregate the public schools. I-RB, I-DWH. Joyce Ladner said hearing about Cannon's conviction \"hit me like a bolt of lightning.\" Joyce Ladner to author, March 7, 2006. None of the oral histories collected at USM's Center for Oral History mention the case, except for Judge Stanton Hall, who claimed he sent Cannon to prison for life because \"I have justice in the back of my heart and justice is blind, we have no difference here between race, creed and color. And whoever you are, we try them on their merits.\" See \"Interview with Judge Stanton Augustus Hall, Judge, 12th district, Mississippi Circuit,\" by Prof. Carl Willis, 1972, vol. III, 45, COHCH. Thanks to Curtis Austin for his assistance and hospitality.\n\n106. Dittmer, _Local People_ , 327.\n\n107. The _Chicago Defender_ ran a small paragraph issued by UPI that reported the guilty verdict but offered very little detail or commentary. \"Dixie White Guilty in Rape of Negro Girl,\" CD, November 13, 1965.\n\n108. I-JD.\n\n109. \"South Must Enforce Own Criminal Laws,\" HA, November 11, 1965, 1.\n\n110. \"Mississippi State Penitentiary, Parchman, Mississippi,\" November 23, 1965, M191, folder 4, box 138, GPJ.\n\n111. Ibid.\n\n112. \"Rape Conviction Here Is Upheld,\" HA, October 3, 1966, 3; _Norman Cannon v. State of Mississippi_ , 190 So 2d 848; 1966. Cannon appealed his conviction a number of times, most recently in 2001. Thanks to Jean Smith Vaughn, assistant attorney general, who shared the state's brief with me.\n\n113. \"Cite Southern Courts, Officers in CR Woes,\" HA, November 15, 1965, 1.\n\n114. Branch, _At Canaan's Edge_ , 382.\n\n115. \"White Convicted of Raping Negro,\" _NYT_ , November 12, 1965, 1; \"Southern White Found Guilty of Raping Negro,\" LAT, November 12, 1965, 12; \"White Youth Gets Life in Rape Case,\" _WP_ , November 12, 1965, A3.\n\n116. \"South Finds New 'Sense of Somebodiness,' \" LAT, November 21, 1965, K3.\n\n117. After the Tallahassee verdicts in 1959, the NAACP indicated it would focus on making sentencing in interracial rape cases more equal, especially in Florida, where a number of black men waited on death row for rape or attempted rape of white women. See Chapter 5. See also \"Racial Double Standard Is Charged in Rape Cases,\" _WP_ , September 22, 1966.\n\n118. In January 1966, the Southern Regional Council (SRC) issued a special report reinforcing the NAACP's findings. The report used statistics from the U.S. Bureau of Prisons to show that \"despite the fact that more than half of all convicted rapists are white, eighty-seven percent of all the persons executed for rape between 1930 and 1963 were Negroes convicted and sentenced by southern courts.\" According to the report, the skewed sentences were firmly rooted in the legal and customary exclusion of African Americans and women on Southern juries. The jury system in the South, the SRC argued, existed in a \"crippled condition.\" Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach told the _Chicago Defender_ that he concurred with the SRC's findings. \"The jury system as it now operates in most parts of the South,\" he said, \"is grossly unfair.\" Harry Golden, \"Southern Justice and the Negro,\" CD, January 15, 1966, 14. Because the death penalty for rape was a \"peculiar product of Southern history and culture,\" the LDF announced a major study that would examine twenty-six hundred rape cases in eleven Southern states over the previous twenty years. With a grant of $100,000 from the LDF, Marvin Wolfgang, a University of Pennsylvania criminologist, and Anthony Amsterdam, a legal scholar at Stanford, supervised twenty-eight law students selected by the Law Students Civil Rights Research Council (LSCRRC) as they journeyed into 225 counties investigating every rape conviction after 1945 that they could find. Jack Greenberg, the director of the LDF's efforts, hoped the survey would yield information that could be used to \"establish precedents on the sentencing issue\" in eighteen capital punishment cases being handled by the LDF. \"We are making the legal argument that the arbitrary discretion to choose between life and death, by southern juries, violates due process plus equal protection because, in the absence of any standards... southern juries are free to act arbitrarily and discriminatorily.\" A _Chicago Defender_ headline neatly summarized the issue: \"Rape Trap Helps Dixie Lynch Legally.\" See \"Study Probes 'Bias' in Rape Cases,\" CD, April 25, 1966, 6; \"Rape Penalties in South Studied,\" _NYT_ , April 26, 1966. See also box 21, LSCRRCP; \"Rape Trap Helps Dixie Lynch Legally,\" CD, February 11, 1967, 7. The LDF used results from the study to challenge a number of cases in which African-American men convicted of rape received the death penalty, many of which even reached the Supreme Court.\n\n119. _Norman Cannon, Appellant, v. State of Mississippi, Appellee_ , 816 So 2d 433; 2002 Miss. Cannon's appeal for post conviction relief and motion for habeas corpus were denied on April 30, 2002. Cannon may have died in prison, as he is no longer listed as an inmate at Parchman penitentiary and there is no record of his conviction being overturned.\n\n120. Peter Wallenstein, _Tell the Court I Love My Wife_ (New York, 2002), 15.\n\n121. On the way gender and sexuality structured slavery, see Kathleen Brown, _Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs_ (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1996) 128\u201336; Kirsten Fischer, _Suspect Relations: Sex, Race and Resistance in Colonial North Carolina_ (Ithaca, N.Y., 2002); and White, _Too Heavy_.\n\n122. Romano, _Race Mixing_ , 186; _Loving v. Virginia_ 388 U.S. 1 (1967). Eleven former Confederate states plus five border states. See also, Wallenstein, _Tell the Court_ , 232.\n\n123. Romano, _Race Mixing_ , 189. The Lovings violated the 1691 law established during slavery and its modern manifestations. However, the \"only way in which the Lovings' case was clearly affected\" by twentieth-century changes were in the penalties they faced. Before 1932, the penalty for violating the antimiscegenation laws was two to five years in prison. In 1932 the minimum penalty was reduced to just one year in prison. Wallenstein, _Tell the Court_ , 216.\n\n124. Wallenstein, _Tell the Court_ , 216; Romano, _Race Mixing_ , 189.\n\n125. The Caroline County grand jury brought indictments in October 1958 and Circuit Court Judge Leon M. Bazile issued the one-year sentence. Wallenstein, _Tell the Court_ , 217; Romano, _Race Mixing_ , 189.\n\n126. Wallenstein, _Tell the Court_ , 217.\n\n127. Ibid., 217, 219. The ACLU helped win _Perez v. Sharp, a_ 1948 California Supreme Court decision that made miscegenation laws illegal under the state constitution. See Wallenstein, _Tell the Court_ , 192\u201399, passim, 213, 240, 242. See also _Perez v. Sharp_ , 32 Cal.2d 711, 198 P.2d 171 (1948). The ACLU also argued a case challenging the constitutionality of Oklahoma's ban on interracial marriage. The state supreme court ruled in 1965 that because the U.S. Supreme Court had not issued a ruling outlawing interracial marriage, the Oklahoma laws were constitutional. By the time the ACLU was ready to appeal to the Supreme Court, the plaintiff had married someone else. See Wallenstein, _Tell the Court_ , 211\u201314.\n\n128. Ibid., 224.\n\n129. President Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1968 on April 11 of that year, shortly after Martin Luther King was assassinated. Known as the Fair Housing Act, it banned discrimination in the rental, sale, and financing of housing and provided federal enforcement provisions. It also protected civil rights activists from intimidation, coercion, violence, and reprisals, something civil rights workers had been demanding for a long time. See Lawson, _Running for Freedom_ , 133.\n\n## CHAPTER 8. \"POWER TO THE ICE PICK!\"\n\n1. Joan's name is spelled several ways but is always pronounced _Jo-Ann_. See \"Exhibit A,\" Medical Examiner's Report, folder 4, box 4, HH; James Reston, Jr., _The Innocence of Joan_ _Little: A Southern Mystery_ (New York, 1977), 9\u201311. Little was serving a seven-to-ten-year sentence for breaking and entering and larceny and began serving time on June 6, 1974. See James Reston, Jr., \"The Joan Little Case,\" _NYT Magazine_ , April 6, 1975.\n\n2. Reston, _Innocence_ , 37.\n\n3. Joan Little with Rebecca Ranson, \"I Am Joan,\" _Southern Exposure_ 6, no. 1 (1978), 46. See also Testimony of Joan Little, transcript, folder 2, box 1, JR.\n\n4. Marjorie Wright, interview by James Reston audiocassette, JR.\n\n5. Little with Ransom, \"I Am Joan,\" 47.\n\n6. For more on the Rosa Lee Ingram case, see Charles H. Martin, \"Race, Gender and Southern Injustice: The Rosa Lee Ingram Case,\" _American Journal of Legal History_ 29, no. 3 (July 1985), 251\u201368.\n\n7. Karen Bethea-Shields quoted in Anne Blythe, \"Role of Women in the Civil Rights Plight,\" _RNO_ , July 23, 2005.\n\n8. Lawson, _Running for Freedom_ , 111. According to Lawson, four years after the passage of the Voting Rights Act, about three-fifths of Southern black adults had registered to vote. In Mississippi alone, black registration jumped from 6.7 percent in 1964 to 59.4 percent in 1968. In Alabama, black registration increased from 23 to 53 percent.\n\n9. Joseph, _Waiting_ , 157.\n\n10. Steve M. Gillon and Cathy D. Matson, _The American Experiment: A History of the United States_ , vol. 2 (Boston, 2002), 1155; Lawson, _Running for Freedom_ , 127.\n\n11. Lawson, _Running for Freedom_ , 127. For more on urban riots during the 1960s, see Thomas J. Sugrue, _The Origins of Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit_ (Princeton, N.J., 1996).\n\n12. Doug Rossinow, \"The New Left: Democratic Reformers or Left-Wing Revolutionaries,\" in David Farber and Beth Bailey, eds., _The Columbia Guide to America in the 1960s_ (New York, 2001), 92. For more on the origins and struggles of the New Left, see James Miller, _\"Democracy Is in the Streets\": From Port Huron to the Siege of Chicago_ (New York, 1987); Todd Gitlin, _The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage_ (New York, 1987); Terry H. Anderson, _The Movement and the Sixties: Protest in America from Greensboro to Wounded Knee_ (New York, 1995).\n\n13. Carter, _Wallace to Gingrich_ , xii.\n\n14. Ibid., 33. See also Dan T. Carter, _The Politics of Rage: George Wallace, the Origins of the New Conservatism, and the Transformation of American Politics_ (New York, 1995).\n\n15. Beth Tompkins Bates, \"The Upheaval of Jim Crow: African Americans and the Struggle for Civil Rights in the 1960s,\" in Farber and Bailey, _Columbia Guide_ , 85. For more on Memphis, see Michael K. Honey, _Going Down Jericho Road: The Memphis Strike, Martin Luther King's Last Campaign_ (New York, 2008).\n\n16. Joseph, _Waiting_ , 227.\n\n17. Ibid., 228; Lawson, _Running for Freedom_ , 129.\n\n18. Joseph, _Waiting_ , 244. Joseph argues that the Panthers' gender politics became \"more progressive rhetorically\" but remained \"conflicted internally.\" Women often did the cooking, cleaning, and secretarial work, while men served in public leadership roles. Still, things were beginning to change, and in the early 1970s Elaine Brown became party chair. For more on Brown and the role of women in the Black Panther Party, see Charles Jones, ed., _The Black Panther Party (reconsidered)_ , (Baltimore, Md., 1998); Elaine Brown, _A Taste of Power: A Black Woman's Story_ (New York, 1992); Bobby Seale, _Seize the Time: The Story of the Black Panther Party and Huey P. Newton_ (New York, 1970); and Hugh Pearson, _The Shadow of the Panther: Huey Newton and the Price of Black Power in America_ (Reading, Mass., 1994).\n\n19. Timothy B. Tyson, _Blood Done Sign My Name: A True Story_ (New York, 2004), 118\u201329 passim.\n\n20. Ibid., 257.\n\n21. Ibid., 258.\n\n22. Ibid., 258, 268\u201369. Tyson says the New Hanover County sheriff's department was \"heavily infiltrated by the Ku Klux Klan\" and notes that Sheriff Marion Millis admitted as much in the RNO, October 27, 1965, 342.\n\n23. Chavis drew a thirty-five-year prison sentence. The Wilmington Ten garnered massive media attention, and in 1977 Amnesty International launched a campaign to have them declared \"political prisoners.\" In 1980 a federal court reversed the verdicts after discovering that \"the prosecution's tactics had worked hand in glove with the FBI's COINTELPRO (Counter Intelligence Program) operation to shut down the black freedom movement.\" See Tyson, _Blood Done Sign My Name_ , 270. For more on the Wilmington Ten, see Bud Schultz and Ruth Schultz, _It Did Happen Here: Recollections of Political Repression in America_ (Berkeley, Calif., 1989), 195\u2013212; Larry Reni Thomas, _The True Story Behind the Wilmington Ten_ (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1980); Ben Chavis, _Wilmington 10: Editorials and Cartoons_ (New York, 1977).\n\n24. Angela Davis, \"The Struggle of Ben Chavis and the Wilmington 10,\" _Black Scholar_ , April 1975, 29\u201331. It was because of her involvement with the Wilmington Ten that Davis first heard about Joan Little. For more on Davis's activism and involvement with the Black Power movement in the late 1960s and early 1970s, see Joseph, _Waiting_ , 241\u201375 passim.\n\n25. Reston, _Innocence_ , 28. In Ayden, North Carolina, twenty-five miles to the west of Washington, white students bombed the high school bathroom, and months of turmoil followed the murder of a black laborer by a white policeman. In Williamston, twenty miles to the north, Golden Frinks, SCLC field secretary and the best-known and most experienced civil rights organizer in North Carolina, led the Williamston Freedom Movement from 1963 to 1965. National leaders in the SCLC eyed Williamston for a national campaign in 1965\u2014it had a vibrant black community that was well organized, and a violent white leadership connected to an active Ku Klux Klan. According to David Cecelski, the SCLC chose Selma instead of the \"small Tobacco Belt\" town to make a national stand. \"Bloody Sunday,\" Cecelski notes, \"would become world famous; Williamston and Frinks, thus far, historical footnotes.\" See Cecelski, _Along Freedom Road: Hyde County, North Carolina and the Fate of Black Schools in the South_ (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1994), 82\u201385.\n\n26. Mark Pinsky, \"The Innocence of James Reston, Jr.,\" _Southern Exposure_ 6, no. 1 (1978): 40.\n\n27. Cecelski, _Freedom Road_ , 36, 185n70.\n\n28. Reston, _Innocence_ , 22.\n\n29. Ibid., 6, 176.\n\n30. Ibid., 14.\n\n31. \"Heavy lidded and shambling\" from \"Trial Gives New Twist to Old Racial Issues,\" _NYT_ , August 12, 1975, 14.\n\n32. Ibid.\n\n33. Reston, _Innocence_ , 73; \"The Joan Little Case,\" _NYT Magazine_ , April 6, 1975. See also Jerry Paul and Joan Little, interview by Reston, audiocassette, JR.\n\n34. See Reston, _Innocence_ , 284\u201389. See also Joan Little, interview by Reston audio cassette, JR.\n\n35. Golden Frinks, interview by James Reston audiocassette, JR.\n\n36. Baxandall and Gordon, \"Second Wave Feminism,\" in Nancy Hewitt, ed., _A Companion to American Women's History_ (Oxford, 2005), 417. For more on the women's movement see Rosalyn Baxandall and Linda Gordon, eds., _Dear Sisters: Dispatches from the Women's Liberation Movement_ (New York, 2000); Sara M. Evans, _Tidal Wave: How Women Changed America at Century's End_ (New York, 2003); and Ruth Rosen, _The World Split Open: How the Modern Women's Movement Changed America_ (New York, 2000).\n\n37. New York Women Against Rape (NYWAR) founded the first rape crisis center in October 1971; Maria Bevacqua, _Rape on the Public Agenda_ (Boston, 2000), 33.\n\n38. The Crenshaw Women's Center in Los Angeles organized an \"anti-rape squad\" and created a rape hotline; in Berkeley, California women organized the Bay Area Women Against Rape; In Washington D.C., women's rights activists created a rape crisis center; and in Chicago Women Against Rape organized a conference dedicated to rape. Bevacqua, _Rape_ , 33, 36.\n\n39. Reston, _Innocence_ , 7.\n\n40. Erskine Caldwell, _Tobacco Road_ (New York, 1932).\n\n41. For more on the \"progressive mystique,\" see William H. Chafe, _Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina and the Black Struggle for Freedom_ (New York, 1981).\n\n42. \"Justice in North Carolina: Once More Old South,\" _NYT_ , March 9, 1975, B5E.\n\n43. Reston, _Innocence_ , 77.\n\n44. Ibid., 13.\n\n45. David Cecelski, \"Karen Bethea-Shields: In Joan Little's Cell,\" _RNO_ , January 12, 2003.\n\n46. Reston, \"The Innocence of Joan Little,\" _Southern Exposure_ 6, no. 1 (1978): 37.\n\n47. \"Joanne Little: No Escape Yet,\" _Off Our Backs_ , January 1975, folder 3, box 4, HH.\n\n48. Angela Davis, \"Forum: Joanne Little: The Dialectics of Rape,\" _Ms_. 3, no. 12 (June 1975): 74\u201377.\n\n49. Julian Bond's letter soliciting funds, n.d., folder 3, box 4, HH.\n\n50. Reston, \"The Joan Little Case,\" _NYT Magazine_ , April 6, 1975 folder 16, box 2, HH.\n\n51. The file on Joan Little in the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund Papers contains few documents, mainly letters to constituents indicating that it stood ready to support Little if she asked it to, but in the meantime, it deferred to the Southern Poverty Law Center. See \"Memorandum to Mabel Smith from Mildred Bond,\" February 5, 1975; Nathanial R. Jones to Alfred Baker Lewis, March 11, 1975; and Charles E. Carter to Ms. L. Wailes, April 22, 1975. A draft of a memo to Joan Little offering the NAACP's assistance was crossed out and \"not sent\" was written on the top. All documents found in folder 2, part V, 1911, NAACP Papers.\n\n52. Maulana Ron Karenga, \"In Defense of Sister Joanne: For Ourselves and History,\" _Black Scholar_ , July\u2013August 1975, 40, 42.\n\n53. \"Minutes of the Joanne Little Defense Committee,\" folder 1, box 3, RLP. Thanks to William LeFevre for sending me these documents and to Jeanne Theoharis, who shared her find with me.\n\n54. Genna Rae McNeil, \"Joanne Is You, Joanne Is Me,\" in Bettye Collier Thomas and V. P. Franklin, eds., _Sisters in the Struggle: African American Women in the Civil Rights Black Power Movement_ (New York, 2001), 271.\n\n55. Christina Greene, _Our Separate Ways: Women and the Black Freedom Movement in Durham, North Carolina_ (Chapel Hill, N.C., 2005), 225.\n\n56. Ibid., 225\u201326.\n\n57. McNeil, \"Joanne,\" in Thomas and Franklin, _Sisters_ , 270.\n\n58. Ibid., 270.\n\n59. Newsletter, n.d., box 1, \"Southern Poverty Law Center,\" JLP, and n.d., JLP; \"Funds Sought for Miss Little's Defense,\" _Durham Morning Herald_ , n.d., box 1, \"Ann and Raymond Cobb,\" in JLP, and n.d., JLP.\n\n60. Reston, _Innocence_ , 180.\n\n61. See \"Motion for Change of Venue,\" _State of North Carolina v. Joan Little_ , folder 4, box 4, HH. Mullin later published her findings. See John B. McConahay, Courtney J. Mullin, and Jeffrey Frederick, \"The Uses of Social Science in Trials with Political and Racial Overtones: The Trial of Joan Little,\" _Law and Contemporary Problems_ 41, no. 1, (1977): 205\u201329; See also \"A Case of Rape or Seduction?\" _Time_ , July 28, 1975, 19.\n\n62. Ginny Carroll, \"500 Stage Courthouse Rally,\" _RNO_ , July 15, 1975, 1. \"Trial of decade,\" quoted in Michael Coakley, \"The Joan Little Trial Is Over, but the Issues Remain,\" _ChT_ , August 24, 1975, B1. The rally included members of NOW, the National Black Feminist Organization, the Black Panther Party, and local members of the Free Joanne Little Defense Fund, as well as other individuals and groups.\n\n63. Rick Nichols, \"Stage Set to Weigh a Killing,\" RNO, July 27, 1965, 1.\n\n64. Wayne King, \"Jury Selection Challenged by Joan Little's Lawyers,\" _NYT_ , July 15, 1975, 20.\n\n65. \"Joan Little Trial Begins: First Juror Is Selected,\" RNO, July 27, 1965, 1, 5B. Chalmers claimed he was associated with the Klan only because they asked him to represent them. \"It was not an ideological thing, it was a professional thing. They paid a fee and are entitled to a lawyer,\" another attorney said in his defense. But Chalmers also represented Klan members in local legal matters. Before the HUAC hearings, Chalmers established a considerable reputation as a criminal prosecutor. As Wake County solicitor, he \"successfully prosecuted North Carolina's notorious basketball point-fixing case involving prominent college teams.\" Chalmers also admitted becoming a \"severe alcoholic\" in the late 1960s and attempted suicide in 1968 \"by shooting a small caliber rifle into his mouth.\" \"Prosecutor Bristles at Klan Stereotype; Points to Record,\" _RNO_ , July 16, 1975, 1\u20132.\n\n66. \"Jury Seated in Murder Trial of Joan Little,\" _RNO_ , July 24, 1975, 1. The newspaper featured pictures of the jurors after the trial. \"Jurors Say Evidence Too Thin to Convict,\" RNO, August 16, 1975, 1, 5B.\n\n67. The defense exploited the lax practices of the small-town Southern policemen, their lack of education and experience, and their careless collection of evidence, creating the perception that they had bungled the investigation from the start. State's witnesses added to the impression that the investigation had been incompetent. For example, according to Reston, \"the local detective could produce no identifiable fingerprint from the bars or the bed or the sink or the clothes or the ice pick. The SBI chemist's test of Joan Little's scarf, found underneath Alligood's body, was inconclusive.\" Photographs were splattered with developing chemicals, making it impossible to tell the difference between blood spatters and chemical dots. Worse, \"from the technical legal standpoint,\" the prosecution could not even establish Joan Little's presence in the jail cell where Alligood was murdered. See Reston, _Innocence_ , 259, 260\u201376 passim.\n\n68. Testimony of Joan Little, transcript, folder 2, box 1, JR.\n\n69. Frances B. Kent, \"Joan Little's Lawyers to Show Jailer Made Frequent Sexual Advances,\" LAT, August 8, 1975, B20.\n\n70. \"Ex-Inmates Testify in Little Case,\" RNO, August 8, 1975, 1, folder 3, box 3, HH. See also Hobgood's trial notes, folder 4, box 3, HH.\n\n71. Ibid.\n\n72. Reston, _Innocence_ , 113.\n\n73. Ibid., 114.\n\n74. Reston, \"Innocence of Joan Little,\" _Southern Exposure_ , 36.\n\n75. Rick Nichols, \"Charge Is Reduced in Joan Little Trial,\" RNO, August 7, 1975, 1.\n\n76. \"Little Says She Stabbed Jailer,\" _NYT_ , August 12, 1975.\n\n77. Testimony of Joan Little, transcript, folder 2, box 1, JR.\n\n78. Rick Nichols, \"Testifies at Trial,\" RNO, August 12, 1975, 1.\n\n79. Testimony of Joan Little, transcript, folder 2, box 1, JR.\n\n80. Ibid. Little used the word \"sex\" at first and admitted that Alligood said \"pussy\" only after Griffin harassed her. \"Is that what you said yesterday? What did you say he said yesterday? Did he say sex or use some other term?\" Little replied calmly, \"I am using the word sex because I don't want to use any other word because it's still embarrassing to me.\" Griffin's point was to raise questions about why, if Alligood wanted to \"get some pussy,\" did he accept oral sex instead? At best, the line of questioning made Griffin look like he was subjecting Little to unnecessary harassment. Worse, it forced Griffin into admitting that Alligood asked for sex\u2014it didn't matter what kind.\n\n81. Ibid. See also Michael Coakley, \"Admits She Stabbed Him,\" ChT, August 12, 1975, 1.\n\n82. Testimony of Joan Little, folder 2, box 1, JR; Coakley, \"Admits She Stabbed Him,\" ChT, August 12, 1975, 1; \"Testifies at Trial,\" RNO, August 12, 1975, 1.\n\n83. Wayne King, \"Defense Closes for Joan Little,\" _NYT_ , August 13, 1975, 68.\n\n84. Testimony of Joan Little, transcript, folder 2, box 1, JR.\n\n85. Hobgood ruled that the question about whether she had a sexually transmitted disease was \"irrelevant.\" Testimony of Joan Little, folder 2, box 1, JR; \"Defense Closes,\" _NYT_ , August 13, 1975, 68. John A. Wilkinson, who was retained by the Alligood family to act in their interests, gave a closing statement as well, arguing that oral sex, or \"unnatural sex,\" was not rape. \"It is a detestable, horrible thing, but it's not the statutory crime of rape, and it's not punishable by death.\" Wilkinson argued that what Alligood allegedly did to Joan Little was only \"mistreatment,\" for which he did not deserve to be murdered. See \"Jury Argument of John A. Wilkinson,\" transcript, folder 10, box 2, JR.\n\n86. \"Joan Little Case Goes to Trial Today,\" LAT, August 15, 1975, B5; \"Mr. Griffin's Argument to the Jury,\" transcript, folder 8, box 2, HH.\n\n87. \"Final Arguments Heard in Trial of Joanne Little,\" n.d., clipping, folder 12, box 3, HH.\n\n88. \"Prosecutor and Defense Present Final Arguments in Joan Little Case,\" _NYT_ , August 15, 1975; \"Final Arguments Heard in Trial of Joanne Little,\" n.d., clipping, folder 12, box 3, HH.\n\n89. Reston, _Innocence_ , 320\u201321. A transcript of Galloway's closing argument was not in the Judge Hamilton Hobgood Papers or the James Reston Collection. It is interesting that of all the people Reston interviewed for his book, he did not speak to Karen Galloway, who could have shed the most light on the racial and sexual dynamics of the Little trial. When Reston refers to Galloway in his book, it is only in passing.\n\n90. \"Mr. Paul's Argument to the Jury,\" transcript, folder 9, box 2, JR. See also Lerner, _Black Women_ , 166\u201369.\n\n91. \"Final Arguments heard in trial of Joanne Little,\" n.d., clipping, folder 12, box 3, HH. Paul's portrayal of Little as a civil rights heroine was a stretch, but it helped counter the negative images the prosecution presented to the jury. It also set up expectations that Little could not meet. After the trial, supporters hoped she would become a political activist, and she often pledged to fight racism, sexual violence, and prison abuse. Instead, in the months and years after her acquittal, she moved in and out of prison. In December 1975 she missed a court date, and a warrant was issued for her arrest. She then served twenty-one months in prison for the original breaking and entering charge. In October 1977 she escaped from prison and was finally captured in Brooklyn two months later. Little refused to return to North Carolina until the Supreme Court ordered her to do so. Beginning in February 1979, she served four months in the women's prison in Raleigh, North Carolina. She was arrested again ten years later in New York for driving a car with a stolen license plate and possession of an illegal weapon. See Melynn Glusman, \"Forgetting Joan Little: The Rise and Fall of a Mythical Black Woman,\" unpublished paper in author's possession.\n\n92. \"Mr. Paul's Argument to the Jury,\" transcript, folder 9, box 2, JR.\n\n93. Wayne King, \"Joan Little Acquitted in Jailer's Slaying,\" _NYT_ , August 16, 1975, 49.\n\n94. Ibid.\n\n95. Rick Nichols, \"Wake Jury Acquits Joan Little, Says State Didn't Prove Its Case,\" _RNO_ , August 16, 1975, 1.\n\n96. \"Joan Little Says Jurors Just,\" RNO, August 16, 1975, 5B.\n\n97. Michael Coakley, \"The Joan Little Trial Is Over, but the Issues Remain,\" _ChT_ , August 24, 1975, B1.\n\n98. Ibid.\n\n99. \"Mr. Paul's Argument to the Jury,\" folder 9, box 2, JR.\n\n100. Bevacqua, _Rape_ , 56. Bevacqua argues that the first \"speak-out\" held by the New York Radical Feminists on January 24, 1971, served as a catalyst for the antirape movement. See also Flora Davis, _Moving the Mountain: The Women's Movement in America Since 1960_ (New York, 1991), 310\u201411; Ruth Rosen, _The World Split Open: How the Modern Women's Movement Changed America_ (New York, 2000), 181\u201383; Estelle B. Freedman, _No Turning Back: The History of Feminism and the Future of Women_ (New York, 2002), 282\u201387. I would argue that silence, even among white women, was not nearly as ubiquitous as historians suggest, since hundreds of men had been arrested, thrown in jail, and even executed for rape and attempted rape before the women's movement took root.\n\n101. \"Joan Little Says Jurors Just,\" RNO, August 16, 1975, 5B.\n\n102. \"Dixie Racism,\" cartoon in BAA, August 19\u201323, 1975, 4, clipping, folder 13, box 3, HH.\n\n## EPILOGUE. \"WE ALL LIVED IN FEAR FOR YEARS\"\n\n1. William Faulkner, _Requiem for a Nun_ (New York, 1987).\n\n2. I-Corbitt.\n\n3. Ibid.\n\n4. R. J. Corbitt, interview by author, January 19, 2009, Abbeville, Ala.\n\n5. Arthur Corbitt, interview by author, January 19, 2009, Abbeville, Ala.\n\n6. Mary Murry, interview by author, January 19, 2009, Abbeville, Ala.\n\n7. I-Corbitt.\n\n8. Alma Daniels, interview by author, January 19, 2009, Abbeville, Ala.\n\n9. I-RTC 30.\n\n10. I-Corbitt 3.\n\n11. I-RTC 30.\n\n12. I-Corbitt.\n\n13. I-RTC.\n\n14. Ibid.\n\n15. Shailagh Murray, \"A Family Tree Rooted in American Soil,\" WP, October 2, 2008, C1.\n\n# Bibliography\n\nMANUSCRIPT COLLECTIONS\n\n**Atlanta, Georgia**\n\n**Archives and Special Collections, Robert W. Woodruff Library, Atlanta University Center**\n\nTWA  | Trezzvant W. Anderson Papers   \n---|---  \nSCHW  | Southern Conference for Human Welfare Papers   \nRM  | Ralph McGill   \nGWR  | Glenn W. Rainey Papers, Congress of Interracial Cooperation   \nCSP  | Claude Sitton Papers   \nPS  | Interviews by Patricia Sullivan\n\n**Manuscripts, Archives, and Rare Books Library, Emory University**\n\nMECP  | Matt N. and Evelyn Graves Crawford Papers   \n---|---  \nHK  | Harvey Klehr Papers   \nLTP  | Louise Thompson Patterson Papers   \nCSP-E  | Claude Sitton Papers   \nLS  | Lillian Smith Papers\n\n**The Georgia Archives**  \n _Rosa Lee Ingram v. State of Georgia_\n\n**Auburn, New York**\n\n**Cayuga Community College Library**\n\nECC  | Earl Conrad Collection   \n---|---\n\n**Birmingham, Alabama**\n\n**Department of Archives, Birmingham Public Library**\n\nBPSF  | Birmingham Police Surveillance Files, 1947\u201380   \n---|---  \nBWOF  | _Birmingham World_ Office Files   \nEBCP  | Eugene \"Bull\" Connor Papers   \nCP  | Cooper Green Papers   \nNAACP-m  | NAACP Papers, Alabama Chapter, 1940\u201355, microfilm\n\n**Boston, Massachusetts**\n\n**Howard Gotleib Archival Research Center, Boston University**\n\nMLK  | Martin Luther King, Jr., Papers   \n---|---\n\n**Chapel Hill, North Carolina**\n\n**Southern Historical Collection, Manuscript Department, Wilson Library, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill**\n\nHH  | Judge Hamilton H. Hobgood Papers   \n---|---  \nJR  | James Reston Collection   \nTB  | Taylor Branch Papers\n\n**Detroit, Michigan**\n\n**Archives of Labor and Urban Affairs, Walter P. Reuther Library, Wayne State University**\n\nRLP  | Rosa L. Parks Collection   \n---|---\n\n**Durham, North Carolina**\n\n**Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library, Duke University**\n\nJHC  | John Hope Franklin Collection   \n---|---  \nWHC  | William H. Chafe Oral History Collection   \nBTV  | Behind the Veil: Documenting African American Life in the Jim Crow South Collection   \nJBM  | J. B. Matthews Papers   \nJLP  | Joan Little Papers, 1973\u201375 and n.d.\n\n**Hanover, New Hampshire**\n\n**Rauner Special Collections Library, Dartmouth University**\n\nAKL  | Alexander Kinnan Laing Papers   \n---|---\n\n**Hattiesburg, Mississippi**\n\nCOHCH  | Center for Oral History and Cultural Heritage, University of Southern Mississippi   \n---|---\n\n**McCain Library and Archives, University of Southern Mississippi**\n\nGPJ  | Governor Paul Johnson Papers   \n---|---\n\n**Madison, Wisconsin**\n\n**State Historical Society of Wisconsin**\n\nCAB  | Carl and Braden Papers   \n---|---  \nCORE  | Congress of Racial Equality Papers   \nCIC  | Commission on Interracial Cooperation Papers   \nDB  | Daisy Bates Papers   \nHRC  | Highlander Research and Education Center Records\n\n**Montgomery, Alabama**\n\n**Alabama Department of Archives and History**\n\nCS  | Governor Chauncey Sparks Papers, Recy Taylor Case, Administrative Files   \n---|---  \nGW  | Governor George Wallace Papers, Administrative Files   \nTCF  | Tuskegee Clipping File, microfilm\n\n**New Orleans, Louisiana**\n\n**Amistad Research Center, Tulane University**\n\nPBV  | Preston and Bonita Valien Papers   \n---|---\n\n**New York, New York**\n\n**Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture**\n\nNNCP-M  | National Negro Congress Records, microfilm   \n---|---  \nILD  | International Labor Defense Papers   \nEG  | Eugene Gordon Papers   \nBJD  | Benjamin J. Davis, Jr., Papers   \nECHT  | Earl Conrad\/Harriet Tubman Collection\n\n**Princeton, New Jersey**\n\n**Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University**\n\nLSCRRCP  | Law Students Civil Rights Research Council Papers   \n---|---\n\n**Tallahassee, Florida**\n\n**Leon County Courthouse**\n\n_State of Florida v. Patrick Gene Scarborough, David Erwin Beagles, Ollie Odell Stoutamire, William Ted Collinsworth_ , 1959\n\n**Special Collections, Robert Manning Strozier Library, Florida State University**\n\nGLC  | Governor LeRoy Collins Papers, in Florida Governors Manuscript Collection   \n---|---  \nJLI  | Jackson Lee Ice Papers   \nWMW  | W. May Walker Papers\n\n**Samuel H. Coleman Library, Special Collections, Florida A and M University**\n\nFAMUANA FAMUana Collection\n\n**Washington, D.C**.\n\n**Library of Congress**\n\nNAACP  | National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Papers   \n---|---  \nAPR  | A. Philip Randolph Papers   \nUL  | Papers of the Urban League   \nBR  | Bayard Rustin Papers\n\n**Mary McLeod Bethune Council House NHS and National Archives for Black Women's History**\n\nNCNWR National Council of Negro Women Records, Wednesdays in Mississippi Series\n\n**Moorland-Springarn Research Center, Howard University**\n\nSNYC  | Southern Negro Youth Congress Papers   \n---|---\n\n**Selected Manuscripts on Microfilm**\n\nCORE-M  | Congress of Racial Equality Papers, 1941\u201367 (Sanford, N.C.: Microfilm Corporation of America, 1980)   \n---|---  \nFBI-VL  | FBI File on Klu Klux Klan murder of Viola Liuzzo (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1990)   \nSRC  | Southern Regional Council Papers, 1944\u201368 (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms International, 1984)   \nSNCC  | Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee Papers, 1959\u201372 (Sanford, N.C.: Microfilm Corporation of America, 1982)\n\n**DIGITAL SOURCES**\n\nEOPI  | Eyes on the Prize Interviews, Washington University Special Collections, [http:\/\/library.wustl.edu\/units\/spec\/filmandmedia\/  \nhampton\/eyesIinterviews.html](http:\/\/library.wustl.edu\/units\/spec\/filmandmedia\/hampton\/eyesIinterviews.html)  \n---|---  \nMSSC-d  | Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission Records, 1994-2006, Mississippi Department of Archives and History, <http:\/\/www.mdah.state.ms.us>  \nCRMd  | Civil Rights in Mississippi Digital Archive, University of Southern Mississippi, <http:\/\/www.lib.usm.edu\/~spcol\/crda>  \nMBd  | \"They Changed the World: The Story of the Montgomery Bus Boycott,\" <http:\/\/www.montgomeryboycott.com>  \nNCDCd  | North Carolina Department of Corrections, Offender Information, <http:\/\/www.doc.state.nc.us\/offenders\/>  \nFDCd  | Florida Department of Corrections, Offender Search, [http:\/\/www.dc.state.fl.us\/InmateInfo\/  \nInmateInfoMenu.asp](http:\/\/www.dc.state.fl.us\/InmateInfo\/InmateInfoMenu.asp)  \nProgenealogists  | <http:\/\/www.progenealogists.com\/parks\/aqwg01.htm>  \nFLHTd  | Fannie Lou Hamer Testimony in front of Credentials Committee, Democratic National Convention, Atlantic City, N.J., August 22, 1964, [http:\/\/americanradioworks.publicradio.org\/features\/  \nsayitplain\/flhamer.html](http:\/\/americanradioworks.publicradio.org\/features\/sayitplain\/flhamer.html) (accessed March 12, 2008)   \nWCBUd  | _Will the Circle Be Unbroken?_ Radio Series, www.unbrokencircle.org (accessed April 2005); transcripts have since been acquired by Emory University in Atlanta, [http:\/\/marbl.library.emory.edu\/findingaids\/  \ncontent.php?id=src-circle934_106912#descriptiveSummary](http:\/\/marbl.library.emory.edu\/findingaids\/content.php?id=src-circle934_106912#descriptiveSummary)  \nHSBd  | Transcript, mass meeting at Holt Street Baptist Church, Montgomery, Ala., December 5, 1955, [http:\/\/www.stanford.edu.libproxy.lib.unc.edu\/  \ngroup\/King\/publications\/papers\/vol3\/551205.004-MIA_Mass_Meeting_at_Holt_  \nStreet_Baptist_Church.htm](http:\/\/www.stanford.edu.libproxy.lib.unc.edu\/group\/King\/publications\/papers\/vol3\/551205.004-MIA_Mass_Meeting_at_Holt_Street_Baptist_Church.htm) (accessed October 30, 2005)\n\nSELECTED NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS\n\n_BAA_ | _Baltimore Afro-American_  \n---|---  \n| _The Black Scholar_  \n_AT_ | _Alabama Tribune_  \n_AC_ | _Atlanta Constitution_  \n_ADW_ | _Atlanta Daily World_  \n_AD_ | _Arkansas Democrat_  \n_AG_ | _Arkansas Gazette_  \n_ASP_ | _Arkansas State Press_  \n_BN_ | _Birmingham News_  \n_BW_ | _Birmingham World_  \n_CT_ | _Carolina Times_  \n_CO_ | _Charlotte Observer_  \n_CDT_ | _Chicago Daily Tribune_  \n_CD_ | _Chicago Defender_  \n_ChT_ | _Chicago Tribune_  \n_CL_ | _Clarion Ledger_ [Mississippi]   \n| _Crisis_  \n_DW_ | _Daily Worker_  \n_DE_ | _Dothan Eagle_  \n| _Ebony_  \n_FAMUAN_ | Florida A&M University   \n| _The Guardian_  \n_HA_ | _Hattiesburg American_ [Mississippi]   \n_JA_ | _Jackson Advocate_ [Mississippi]   \n_JDN_ | _Jackson Daily News (Mississippi)_  \n| _Jet_  \n_LLC_ | _Laurel-Leader Call_ [Mississippi]   \n_LI_ | _Lighthouse and Informer_ [South Carolina]   \n_LAT_ | _Los Angeles Times_  \n_LW_ | _Louisiana Weekly_  \n_MEJ_ | _McComb Enterprise Journal_ [Mississippi]   \n| _Messenger_  \n_MA_ | _Montgomery Advertiser_  \n| _The Nation_  \n| _Newsweek_  \n_NYAN_ | _New York Amsterdam News_  \n_NYHT_ | _New York Herald-Tribune_  \n_NYT_ | _New York Times_  \n_OOB_ | _Off Our Backs_  \n_PC_ | _Pittsburgh Courier_  \n_RNO_ | _Raleigh News and Observer_ [North Carolina]   \n| _Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society_  \n_SE_ | _Southern Exposure_  \n_SD_ | _Tallahassee Democrat_  \n_TT_ | _Tampa Tribune_  \n| _Time_  \n_US_ | _U.S. News & World Report_  \n_WP_ | _Washington Post_\n\nINTERVIEWS BY AUTHOR\n\n**Correspondence, audiotapes, video recordings, and\/or transcripts in author's possession**\n\nI-TB  | Theralene Beachem, Birmingham, Ala., March 19, 2003   \n---|---  \nI-JB  | Joanne Bland, Selma, Ala., March 15, 2004   \nI-MB  | Martha Boyer, Birmingham, Ala., March 18, 2003   \nI-RB  | Raylawni Branch, Hattiesburg, Miss., with Patricia Buzzard, June 3, 2006   \nI-JC  | Johnnie Carr, Montgomery, Ala., March 17, 2004   \nI-JL  | J. L. Chestnutt, Selma, Ala., March 15, 2004   \nI-AC  | Arthur Corbitt, Abbeville, Ala., January 19, 2009   \nI-Corbitt  | Robert Corbitt, Abbeville, Ala., January 19, 20, 2009   \nI-Corbitt 3  | Robert Corbitt, telephone interview, December 3, 2008   \nI-Corbitt 8  | Robert Corbitt, telephone interview, December 8, 2008   \nI-RJC  | R. J. Corbitt, Abbeville, Ala., January 19, 2009   \nI-RTC  | Recy Taylor Courtney, Abbeville, Ala., January 19, 20, 2008   \nI-RTC 30  | Recy Taylor Courtney, telephone interview, December 30, 2008   \nI-AD  | Alma Daniels, Abbeville, Ala., January 19, 2009   \nI-GD  | Gloria Dennard, Birmingham, Ala., March 19, 2003   \nI-PSD  | Patricia Stephens Due, telephone interview, March 4, 1999   \nI-JD  | James Dukes, Hattiesburg, Miss., October 17, 2007   \nI-FG  | Fred Gray, Montgomery, Ala., March 15, 2004   \nI-DWH  | Daisy Wade Harris, Hattiesburg, Miss., with Patricia Buzzard, June 5, 2006   \nI-LSH  | Linda S. Hunt, Birmingham, Ala., March 19, 2003   \nI-LMJ  | Lucille M. Johnson, Birmingham, Ala., March 16, 2003   \nI-LK  | Lillie Kinsey, Abbeville, Ala., January 19, 2009   \nI-JL  | Joyce Ladner, correspondence, March 7, 2006   \nI-LM  | Lois Miles, Hattiesburg, Miss., October 17, 2007   \nI-ALM  | Annie Lois Murry, Abbeville, Ala., January 19, 2009   \nI-MM  | Mary Murry, Abbeville, Ala., January 19, 2009   \nI-SS  | Solomon Seay, Jr., telephone interview, March 9, 1999   \nI-SPS  | Sam Pat Skipper, telephone interview, January 5, 2009   \nI-CUS  | Charles U. Smith, telephone interview, March 9, 1999\n\nBOOKS\n\nAls, Hinton, John Lewis, Leon F. Litwack, and James Allen, eds. _Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America_. Santa Fe, N.M.: Twin Palms, 2000.\n\nAltschuler, Glenn C. _All Shook Up: How Rock 'n'_ _Roll Changed America_. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.\n\nAnderson, Jervis. _A. Philip Randolph_. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1973.\n\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. _Bayard Rustin: Troubles I've Seen: A Biography_. New York: HarperCollins, 1997.\n\nAnderson, Karen. _Wartime Women: Sex Roles, Family Relations, and the Status of Women During World War II_. Contributions in Women's Studies, vol. 20. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1981.\n\nAnderson, Terry H. _The Movement and the Sixties: Protest in America from Greensboro to Wounded Knee_. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.\n\nAppleby, Joyce Oldham, ed. _The Best American History Essays 2006_. New York: Macmillan, 2006.\n\nAyers, Edward L. _The Promise of the New South: Life After Reconstruction_. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.\n\nBaldwin, James. _The Fire Next Time_. 1963; reprint. New York: Vintage Books, 1993.\n\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. _The Price of the Ticket: Collected Nonfiction, 1948\u20131985_. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1985.\n\nBardaglio, Peter Winthrop, and Nancy Bercaw. _Gender and the Southern Body Politic: Essays and Comments_. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2000.\n\nBartley, Numan V. _The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics in the South During the 1950s_. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1969.\n\nBates, Daisy. _The Long Shadow of Little Rock: A Memoir_. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1986.\n\nBaxandall, Rosalyn, and Linda Gordon, eds. _Dear Sisters: Dispatches from the Women's Liberation Movement_. New York: Basic Books, 2000.\n\nBeals, Melba Patillo. _Warriors Don't Cry: A Searing Memoir of the Battle to Integrate Little Rock's Central High_. New York: Washington Square Books, 1994.\n\nBelfrage, Sally. _Freedom Summer_. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1965.\n\nBerlin, Ira. _Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America_. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1998.\n\nBerry, Wendell. _The Hidden Wound_. San Francisco: North Point Press, 1989.\n\nBertrand, Michael T. _Race, Rock and Elvis_. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000.\n\nBevacqua, Maria. _Rape on the Public Agenda: Feminism and the Politics of Sexual Assault_. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2000.\n\nBiondi, Martha. _To Stand and Fight: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Postwar New York City_. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2003.\n\nBlock, Sharon. _Rape and Sexual Power in Early America_. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006.\n\nBoles, John B. _The South Through Time: A History of an American Region_. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1995.\n\nBorstelmann, Thomas. _The Cold War and the Color Line_. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001.\n\nBourke, Joanna. _Rape: Sex Violence History_. London: Virago Press, 2007.\n\nBoyle, Kevin. _Arc of Justice: A Saga of Race, Civil Rights and Murder in the Jazz Age_. New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2004.\n\nBrady, Tom P. _Black Monday: Segregation or Amalgamation, America Has Its Choice_. Winona, Miss.: Association of Citizens' Councils, 1955.\n\nBranch, Taylor. _Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954\u20131963_. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988.\n\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. _Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years, 1963\u20131965_. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998.\n\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. _At Canaan's Edge: America in the King Years, 1965\u20131968_. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006.\n\nBreines, Winifred. _The Trouble Between Us: An Uneasy History of White and Black Women in the Feminist Movement_. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.\n\nBrinkley, Douglass. _Rosa Parks_. New York: Penguin Press, 2000.\n\nBrown, Elaine. _A Taste of Power: A Black Woman's Story_. New York: Pantheon, 1992.\n\nBrown, Kathleen. _Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs_. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996.\n\nBrownmiller, Susan. _Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape_. New York: Ballantine, 1975.\n\nBrundage, W. Fitzhugh. _Lynching in the New South: Georgia and Virginia_. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993.\n\nBurns, Stewart. _Daybreak of Freedom: The Montgomery Bus Boycott_. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997.\n\nCagin, Seth, and Philip Dray. _We Are Not Afraid: The Story of Goodman, Schwerner and Chaney and the Civil Rights Campaign for Mississippi_. New York: Macmillan, 1988.\n\nCahn, Susan. _Sexual Reckonings: Southern Girls in a Troubling Age_. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007.\n\nCaldwell, Erskine. _Tobacco Road_. New York: First Edition Library, 1932.\n\nCapeci, Dominic J., and Martha Wilkerson. _Layered Violence: The Detroit Rioters of 1943_. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1991.\n\nCaraway, Nancie. _Segregated Sisterhood: Racism and the Politics of American Feminism_. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1991.\n\nCarson, Clayborne. _In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s_. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981.\n\n\u2014\u2014\u2014, ed. _The Eyes on the Prize Civil Rights Reader: Documents, Speeches, and Firsthand Accounts from the Black Freedom Struggle_. New York: Penguin Books, 1991.\n\nCarter, Dan T. _Scottsboro: An American Tragedy_. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1979.\n\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. _The Politics of Rage: George Wallace, the Origins of the New Conservatism and the Transformation of American Politics_. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995.\n\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. _From George Wallace to Newt Gingrich: Race in the Conservative Counterrevolution, 1963\u20131994_. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1999.\n\nCash, Wilbur J. _The Mind of the South_. New York: Vintage Books, 1941.\n\nCaute, David. _The Great Fear: The Anti-Communist Purge Under Truman and Eisenhower_. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978.\n\nCecelski, David. _Along Freedom Road: Hyde County, North Carolina and the Fate of Black Schools in the South_. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994.\n\nCecelski, David, and Tim Tyson, eds. _Democracy Betrayed: The Wilmington Race Riot of 1898 and Its Legacy_. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994.\n\nChafe, William Henry. _Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom_. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986.\n\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. _The Paradox of Change: American Women in the Twentieth Century_. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.\n\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. _The Unfinished Journey: America Since World War II_. 5th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.\n\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. _The Achievement of American Liberalism: The New Deal and Its Legacies_. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.\n\nChafe, William Henry, Raymond Gavins, and Robert Korstadt, eds. _Remembering Jim Crow: African Americans Tell About Life in the Segregated South_. New York: New Press, 2001.\n\nChalmers, David M. _Hooded Americanism: The History of the Ku Klux Klan_. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1981.\n\nChappell, David L. _A Stone of Hope: Prophetic Religion and the Death of Jim Crow_. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004.\n\nChateauvert, Melinda M. _Marching Together: Women of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, 1925\u20131957_. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998.\n\nChavis, Ben. _Wilmington 10: Editorials and Cartoons_. New York: United Church of Christ, Commission for Racial Justice, 1977.\n\nChestnut, J. L., Jr., and Julia Cass. _Black in Selma: The Uncommon Life of J. L. 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Tallahassee: University Press of Florida, 1980.\n\nCollier-Thomas, Bettye, and V. P. Franklin, eds. _Sisters in the Struggle: African American Women in the Civil Rights Movement_. New York: New York University Press, 2001.\n\nCollins, Patricia Hill. _Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness and the Politics of Empowerment_. New York: Routledge, 1991.\n\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. _Black Sexual Politics: African Americans, Gender and the New Racism_. New York: Routledge, 2005.\n\nConrad, Earl. _Jim Crow America_. New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1947.\n\nCrawford, Vicki L., Jacqueline Rouse, and Barbara Woods, eds. _Women in the Civil Rights Movement: Trailblazers and Torchbearers_. Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1990.\n\nCrespino, Joseph. _In Search of Another Country: Mississippi and the Conservative Counterrevolution_. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2007.\n\nCurry, Constance. _Silver Rights_. 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New York: New York University Press, 1996.\n\nWarren, Robert Penn. _Segregation: The Inner Conflict in the South_. New York: Random House, 1956.\n\nWashington, Harriet A. _Medical Apartheid: The Dark History of Medical Experimentation on Black Americans from Colonial Times to the Present_. New York: Doubleday, 2006.\n\nWatters, Pat, and Reese Cleghorn. _Climbing Jacob's Ladder: The Arrival of Negroes in Southern Politics_. New York: Harcourt, 1967.\n\nWebb, Clive, ed. _Massive Resistance: Southern Opposition to the Second Reconstruction_. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.\n\nWebb, Sheyann, and Rachel West Nelson. _Selma, Lord, Selma: Girlhood Memories of the Civil Rights Days_. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1980.\n\nWeisbrot, Robert. _Freedom Bound: A History of America's Civil Rights Movement_. New York: Norton, 1990.\n\nWells-Barnett, Ida B. _On Lynchings: Southern Horrors, a Red Record, Mob Rule in New Orleans_. Salem: Ayer Company, 1991.\n\nWerner, Craig. _A Change Is Gonna Come: Race, Music, and the Soul of America_. New York: Plume, 1998.\n\nWexler, Laura. _Fire in a Canebrake: The Last Mass Lynching in America_. New York: Scribner, 2003.\n\nWhite, Deborah Gray. _Arn't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South_. New York: Norton, 1985.\n\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. _Too Heavy a Load: Black Women in Defense of Themselves, 1894\u20131994_. New York: Norton, 1999.\n\nWhite, Walter. _Rope and Faggot: A Biography of Judge Lynch_. New York: Knopf, 1929.\n\nWhitfield, Stephen J. _A Death in the Delta: The Story of Emmett Till_. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.\n\nWilliams, Myrlie Evers, Manning Marable, and Medgar Wiley Evers. _The Autobiography of Medgar Evers: A Hero's Life and Legacy Revealed Through His Writings, Letters and Speeches_. New York: Basic Books, 2005.\n\nWilson, Bobby M. _Race and Place in Birmingham: The Civil Rights and Neighborhood Movements_. New York: Rowan and Littlefield, 2000.\n\nWirt, Frederick M. _We Ain't What We Was: Civil Rights in the New South_. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1997.\n\nWolcott, Victoria. _Remaking Respectability: African American Women in Interwar Detroit_. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001.\n\nWoodward, C. Vann. _The Strange Career of Jim Crow_. New York: Oxford University Press, 1966. _The WPA Guide to 1930s Alabama_. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2000. Zinn, Howard. _SNCC: The New Abolitionists_. New York: Beacon Press, 1965.\n\nARTICLES\n\nAnderson, Karen. \"Last Hired and First Fired: Black Women Workers During World War II.\" _Journal of American History_ 69 (June 1982).\n\nBoris, Eileen. \"You Wouldn't Want One of 'Em Dancing with Your Wife': Racialized Bodies on the Job in World War II.\" _American Quarterly_ 50 (1998).\n\nBraukman, Stacy. \" 'Nothing Else Matters but Sex': Cold War Narratives of Deviance and the Search for Lesbian Teachers in Florida, 1959\u20131963.\" _Feminist Studies_ 27, no. 3 (Fall 2001).\n\nBrown, Elsa Barkley. \"Womanist Consciousness: Maggie Lena Walker and the Independent Order of Saint Luke.\" _Signs_ 14 (1989).\n\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. \" 'What Has Happened Here': The Politics of Difference in Women's History and Feminist Politics.\" _Feminist Studies_ 18 (Summer 1992).\n\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. \"Negotiating and Transforming the Public Sphere: African American Political Life in the Transition from Slavery to Freedom.\" _Public Culture_ 7 (1994).\n\nCampbell, Kirsten. \"Legal Memories: Sexual Assault, Memory, and International Humanitarian Law.\" _Signs_ 28, no. 1 (2002).\n\nCardyn, Lisa. \"Sexualized Racism\/Gendered Violence: Outraging the Body Politic in the Reconstruction South.\" _Michigan Law Review_ (February 2002).\n\nDavis, Angela. \"The Struggle of Ben Chavis and the Wilmington Ten.\" _Black Scholar_ (April 1975).\n\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. \"Joanne Little: The Dialectics of Rape.\" _Ms_. 3, no. 12 (June 1975).\n\nDorr, Lisa Lindquist. \"Black-on-White Rape and Retribution in 20th Century Virginia: 'Men, Even Negroes, Must Have Some Protection,' _Journal of Southern History_ 66, no. 4 (November 2000).\n\nEdwards, Alison. \"Rape, Racism and the White Women's Movement: An Answer to Susan Brownmiller.\" Sojourner Truth Organization, pamphlet, n.d.\n\nEdwards, Laura F. \"Sexual Violence, Gender, Reconstruction, and the Extension of Patriarchy in Granville County, North Carolina.\" _North Carolina Historical Review_ 68, no. 3 (July 1991).\n\nFine, Michelle, and Lois Weis. \"Disappearing Acts: The State and Violence Against Women in the Twentieth Century.\" _Signs_ 25, no. 4 (2000).\n\nFlood, Dawn Rae. \" 'They Didn't Treat Me Good': African American Rape Victims and Chicago Courtroom Strategies During the 1950s.\" _Journal of Women's History_ 17, no. 1 (2005).\n\nFreedman, Estelle B. \" 'Uncontrolled Desires': The Response to the Sexual Psychopath, 1920\u20131960.\" In Kathy Peiss and Christina Simmons, eds., _Passion and Power: Sexuality in History_. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989.\n\nGoldblatt, Beth. \"Special Hearing Women: May 1996.\" Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa, Report, 4.\n\nHall, Jacquelyn Dowd. \"The Mind That Burns in Each Body: Women, Rape and Racial Violence.\" In Ann Snitow, Christine Stansell, and Sharon Thompson, eds., _Powers of Desire: the Politics of Sexuality_. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1983.\n\nHelliwell, Christine. \" 'It's Only a Penis': Rape, Feminism and Difference.\" _Signs_ 25, no. 3 (2000).\n\nHengehold, Laura. \"Remapping the Event: Institutional Discourses and the Trauma of Rape.\" _Signs_ 26, no. 1 (2000).\n\nHigginbotham, Evelyn Brooks. \"African-American Women's History and the Metalanguage of Race.\" _Signs 1_ 7, no. 2 (1992).\n\nHine, Darlene Clark. \"Rape and the Inner Lives of Black Women in the Middle West: Preliminary Thoughts on a Culture of Dissemblance.\" _Signs 1_ 4, no. 4 (Summer 1989).\n\nJohnson, Marilynn S. \"Gender, Race and Rumours: Re-Examining the 1943 Race Riots.\" _Gender and History 1_ 0, no. 2 (August 1998).\n\nKaplan, Temma. \"Reversing the Shame and Gendering the Memory.\" _Signs_ 28, no. 1 (Summer 2002).\n\nKarenga, Maulana Ron. \"In Defense of Sister Joanne: For Ourselves and History.\" _Black Scholar_ (July\u2013August 1975).\n\nLawson, Steven F. \"Freedom Then, Freedom Now: The Historiography of the Civil Rights Movement.\" _American Historical Review_ 96 (1991).\n\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. \"Civil Rights and Black Liberation.\" In Nancy Hewitt, ed., _Blackwell's Companion to Women's History_. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2002.\n\nLawson, Steven F., David R. Colburn, and Darryl Paulson, \"Groveland: Florida's Little Scottsboro.\" In David R. Colburn and Jane L. Landers, eds., _The African American Heritage of Florida_. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1994.\n\nMartin, Charles H. \"Race, Gender and Southern Justice: The Rosa Lee Ingram Case.\" _American Journal of Legal History_ 29, no. 3 (July 1985).\n\n\u2014\u2014\u2014. \"The Civil Rights Congress and Southern Black Defendants.\" _Georgia Historical Quarterly_ 71, no. 1 (Spring 1987).\n\nMatthews, Nancy A. \"Surmounting a Legacy: The Expansion of Racial Diversity in a Local Anti-Rape Movement.\" _Gender and Society_ 3, no. 4 (December 1989).\n\nMcNeil, Genna Rae. \"Joanne Is You, Joanne Is Me.\" In Bettye Collier Thomas and V. P. Franklin, eds., _Sisters in the Struggle: African American Women in the Civil Rights Black Power Movement_. New York: New York University Press, 2001.\n\nMorgan, Jennifer. \"Some Could Suckle over Their Shoulder: Male Travelers, Female Bodies and Gendering Racial Ideology, 1500\u20131700,\" _William and Mary Quarterly_ 54 (1997).\n\nNasstrom, Kathryn L. \"Down to Now: Memory, Narrative, and Women's Leadership in the Civil Rights Movement in Atlanta, Georgia.\" _Gender and History 11_ , no. 1 (April 1999).\n\nNovkov, Julie. \"Racial Constructions: The Legal Regulation of Miscegenation in Alabama, 1890\u20131934.\" _Law and History Review_ 20, no. 2 (Summer 2002).\n\nPascoe, Peggy. \"Miscegenation Law, Court Cases, and Ideologies of 'Race' in Twentieth-Century America.\" _Journal of American History_ 44 (June 1996).\n\nRosen, Hannah. \" 'Not That Sort of Woman:' Race, Gender and Sexual Violence During the Memphis Riot of 1866.\" In Martha Hodes, ed., _Sex, Love, Race: Crossing Boundaries in North American History_. New York: New York University Press, 1999.\n\nSitkoff, Harvard. \"Racial Militancy and Interracial Violence in the Second World War.\" _Journal of American History_ 58 (December 1971).\n\nSommerville, Diane Miller. \"The Rape Myth in the Old South Reconsidered.\" _Journal of Southern History_ 61, no. 3 (August 1995).\n\nStiglmayer, Alexandra. \"The Rapes in Bosnia-Herzegovinia.\" In Alexandra Stiglmayer, ed., _Mass Rape: The War Against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovinia_. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994.\n\nSwiss, Shana, and Joan E. Giller. \"Rape as a Crime of War: A Medical Perspective.\" _Journal of the American Medical Association_ 270, no. 5 (August 4, 1993).\n\nWalker, Alice. \"Advancing Luna and Ida B. Wells.\" In Henry Louis Gates and Nelly Y. McKay, eds., _The Norton Anthology of African American Literature_. New York: Norton, 1997.\n\nDISSERTATIONS AND THESES\n\nBlock, Sharon. _Coerced Sex in British North America: 1700\u20131820_. Ph.D. diss., Princeton, 1995.\n\nGreer, Brenna. _\"Our Leaders Is Just We Ourselves\": Black Women's Resistance in the Making of the Montgomery Bus Boycott_. Master's thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 2004.\n\nJones, Patrick D. _Communist Front Shouts \"Kissing Case\" to the World: The Committee to Combat Racial Injustice and the Politics of Race and Gender During the Cold War_. Master's thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1996.\n\nMatthews, Tracye. _\"No One Ever Asks What a Man's Place in the Revolution Is\": Gender and Sexual Politics in the Black Panther Party, 1966\u20131971_. Ph.D diss., University of Michigan, 1998.\n\nMcDuffie, Erik S. _Long Journeys: Four Black Women and the Communist Party USA, 1930\u20131956_. Ph.D. diss., New York University, 2003.\n\nMcGuire, Danielle. _Race, Rape, and Resistance: The Tallahassee Story_. Master's thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison, 1999.\n\nShadron, Virginia. _Popular Protest and Legal Authority in Post\u2013World War II Georgia: Race, Class and Gender Politics in the Rosa Lee Ingram Case_. Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1991.\n\nWhite, Robert M. _The Tallahassee Sit-ins and CORE: A Nonviolent Revolutionary Sub-movement_. Ph.D. diss., Florida State University, 1964.\n\nWoodard, Kimberly R. \"The Summer of African-American Discontent.\" Unpublished paper, Duke University, 1992.\n\nYeakey, Lamont H. _The Montgomery, Alabama, Bus Boycott, 1955\u20131956_. Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1979.\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
+{"text":"\n\nFor more than forty years,  \nYearling has been the leading name  \nin classic and award-winning literature  \nfor young readers.\n\nYearling books feature children's  \nfavorite authors and characters,  \nproviding dynamic stories of adventure,  \nhumor, history, mystery, and fantasy.\n\nTrust Yearling paperbacks to entertain,  \ninspire, and promote the love of reading  \nin all children.\n**THE BLACK STALLION SERIES BY WALTER FARLEY**\n\nTHE BLACK STALLION\n\nTHE BLACK STALLION RETURNS\n\nSON OF THE BLACK STALLION\n\nTHE ISLAND STALLION\n\nTHE BLACK STALLION AND SATAN\n\nTHE BLACK STALLION'S BLOOD BAY COLT\n\nTHE ISLAND STALLION'S FURY\n\nTHE BLACK STALLION'S FILLY\n\nTHE BLACK STALLION REVOLTS\n\nTHE BLACK STALLION'S SULKY COLT\n\nTHE ISLAND STALLION RACES\n\nTHE BLACK STALLION'S COURAGE\n\nTHE BLACK STALLION MYSTERY\n\nTHE HORSE-TAMER\n\nTHE BLACK STALLION AND FLAME\n\nMAN O' WAR\n\nTHE BLACK STALLION CHALLENGED!\n\nTHE BLACK STALLION'S GHOST\n\nTHE BLACK STALLION AND THE GIRL\n\nTHE BLACK STALLION LEGEND\n\nTHE YOUNG BLACK STALLION _(with Steven Farley)_\n\nPublished by Yearling, an imprint of Random House Children's Books a division of Random House, Inc., New York\n\nText copyright \u00a9 1955 by Walter Farley  \nText copyright renewed 1983 by Walter Farley and Random House, Inc.\n\nAll rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without the written permission of the publisher, except where permitted by law. For information address Random House Children's Books.\n\nYearling and the jumping horse design are registered trademarks of Random House, Inc.\n\nVisit us on the Web\n\nEducators and librarians, for a variety of teaching tools, visit us at  \nwww.randomhouse.com\/teachers\n\neISBN: 978-0-307-80489-1\n\nReprinted by arrangement with Random House Children's Books\n\nv3.1\n_For Steve_\n\n# CONTENTS\n\n_Cover_\n\n_Other Books by This Author_\n\n_Title Page_\n\n_Copyright_\n\n_Dedication_\n\n1. \"Run, Flame! Run!\"\n\n2. Nothing\n\n3. The New Day\n\n4. The Strangers\n\n5. \"... Always Worrying About Nothing\"\n\n6. A Matter of Convenience\n\n7. \"Laugh, Please\"\n\n8. Final Training\n\n9. The Unleashing\n\n10. The Room\n\n11. And a Star to Guide Her By\n\n12. The Visitor\n\n13. The Wealthy Gentleman\n\n14. The Invitation\n\n15. The Waiting\n\n16. Off to the Races\n\n17. Post Parade\n\n18. The International Race\n\n19. The End...\n\n20\\.... And the Beginning\n\nEpilogue\n\n_About the Author_\n\n# \"RUN, FLAME! RUN!\"\n\n1\n\nThe tropical sun was hot and brilliant. It made the open waters of the Caribbean Sea appear more blue than they actually were. It turned the golden, rounded dome of Azul Island into a flaming apparition. Yet its rays could not pierce the mist which hung like a gray veil about the base of this island of stone. Blue waters churned white going over the protective reef that lay a short distance out, then turned black as the waves gathered momentum and height to disappear behind the heavy shroud. They could be heard seconds later crashing against the walled barriers of Azul Island.\n\nA lone boy guided the motor launch _Sea Queen_ toward the perilous reef, his eyes never leaving the waters directly before him. He handled the wheel carefully, expertly. He watched the submerged coral slide past to either side of the hull. He seemed to know this particular area well. He piloted his launch in an ever alternating course, but one that took him always closer to the gray mist.\n\nHis name was Steve Duncan. He was no experienced mariner, for only recently had he been given the privilege and the responsibility of guiding the _Sea Queen_ between the two islands of Antago and Azul, a distance of more than twenty miles. His home was in a small city in the United States, and he was on summer vacation from school. He wore a T-shirt and shorts. His body was deeply tanned from weeks spent beneath this hot, tropical sun, and the corners of his eyes were cracked with the white lines that come from squinting in the glaring sunlight for hours at a time. His black hair was cut short and uncovered.\n\nHe could have been any average and normal American boy... except for what he was about to do. In that respect, he did not conform to rule or type or standard.\n\nHe took the _Sea Queen_ into the gray mist. If he heard the heavy thud of waves crashing hard against the wall of stone beyond, it did not seem to frighten him. He went in a direct line now. The engine throbbed noisily as though in protest to the mounting surge of the sea that would hurl it forward too fast. No longer could Steve see the dome-shaped top of Azul Island. He watched only for the precipitous wall that soon would rise a thousand and more feet above him.\n\nLike the island itself, the approach foreboded danger. But Steve Duncan welcomed it, for it had kept all other people away. Now he began moving the wheel often again, and the propeller was reversed to steady the launch and hold it back from sweeping against the wall of stone that suddenly loomed ahead.\n\nSteve had left the doors of the low sea hole open, and now he skillfully took the launch through it and into the narrow canal which cut the floor of a large chamber within Azul Island. He moored the launch to moss-covered piles that were centuries old, and for a second he thought of the men from the Spanish galleons who had sunk them so long ago. Then he crossed the sandy floor of the chamber and closed the sliding partitions above the sea entrance. There was less light and wind now, but the waters in the canal still flooded and ebbed with the waves that found their way through the opening at the base of the hole.\n\nHurriedly Steve left the chamber and went down the tunnel which would take him to where he wanted to be more than any other place in the world. As his eyes became accustomed to the dim light he ran faster, never once looking at the coral rock in brilliant shades of pink, green, gray and white that had always attracted his attention before. Nor did he give another thought to the Spanish Conquistadores who had brought their men, weapons and horses along this path in their final flight from the English and French. For it belonged to the far distant past, and Steve Duncan was interested only in the present and the great red stallion who awaited him.\n\nHe emerged from the tunnel and entered a long chasm, not bothering to glance up at the sky above the close, sheer walls on either side of him. He ran faster, breathing easily but becoming very excited. Soon he arrived at a small sliver of a valley, and crossed the stream that cut its center. Still he ran on till he came to a rock-strewn gorge. There he slowed down to a walk, for the trail was jagged and twisting. He went down the dry river bed, following the gorge until he came to a wide patch of marshland. Here he went a little faster but he didn't run. He hated this particular area with its high reeds, swamp ferns and the thick vapors whose stench of rotting vegetation had been made worse by the sweltering afternoon sun. He held his breath as long as possible between short gasps of the foul air, his eyes remaining fixed on the narrow green swath of solid ground before him. He saw Flame's oval-shaped hoofprints and it made this part of the trip a little easier to bear. Soon he'd be with his stallion. There was only a short distance to go now.\n\nFinally his path led upward, taking him from the hollow that fostered and nurtured the marsh. He began running again, leaving the dense vapors far behind. He climbed higher\u2014and then, just beyond a field of wild cane, he saw Blue Valley! At the upper end a band of horses grazed. A few of them were drinking from a pool that was fed by a waterfall dropping a hundred feet or more down the precipitous wall.\n\nSteve Duncan stopped then and whistled as loud as he could. In answer, a lone stallion emerged from the band... a tall chestnut horse whose mane and tail seemed to move like burning flame when he broke into a gallop. Steve ran to meet him.\n\nNo longer was the valley a place of quiet and peaceful solitude. The great stallion moved faster and faster over the short, thick grass, the beat of his hoofs resounding loudly from the walls of the natural amphitheater. He ran easily and without effort, his small head held high, his eyes never leaving the distant figure of the boy coming to meet him.\n\nSteve entered one side of the field of wild cane as the horse reached the other. He saw the stalks bend and break beneath the tall body of his horse. As he called and kept running, the red stallion swept by him, close enough almost to touch but without slowing stride. Steve did not turn back but ran faster through the cane.\n\nWhen he had reached the grassy floor of the valley, he heard Flame behind him, and then the stallion thundered by again, running halfway down the valley before slowing. Steve watched him make his sweeping turn, moving from sunlight into shadows cast by the high western wall. Flame's great body was now shrouded with a clinging veil of blue, a color that the shadows picked up from the grass and coral rock.\n\nAnd now Flame's call rose above the beat of his hoofs. It wasn't his clarion whistle of angry challenge. Soft and wavering, it hung on the air and welcomed Steve back home.\n\nThe boy laughed and kept running across the valley floor. He'd been gone only two days on this last trip to Antago but to him, as well as to Flame, it had seemed much longer. He was breathing heavily but soon he would stop running. He watched Flame sweep by him once more, and saw the short thrust of a foreleg as the stallion struck out in play without breaking stride.\n\nUpon reaching the opposite side of the valley, Steve jumped onto a flat rock and then turned around, awaiting his horse. In only a few seconds Flame was beside him and he slid quickly onto the stallion's back. He gave no command. He barely had time to close his knees before Flame was off, stretching out as he had not done before.\n\nOnly twice during the long ride down the valley floor did Steve call to him, and then he spoke softly into the pricked ears. \"Run, Flame! Run!\" He had learned long ago never to shout, only to whisper to Flame. He saw his stallion make for the band, the mares and foals scattering at his swift approach. Flame turned on winged hoofs and Steve shifted with him; then he went all-out up the valley and Steve had to close his eyes against the force of the wind Flame created. He pressed his head against the stallion's mane and neck. He was content to let Flame run as long and as fast as the horse liked. He'd know when the ride was over. But now he was _one_ with Flame.\n\nA half hour later he slid down from the sweaty back, as hot and wet as his horse. They were near the pool, and from all about them came the neighs of the mares. Flame had scattered them to the far corners of the valley by his playful but rough antics. Steve went to the pool and ducked his head in the cool waters. Flame joined him, snorting and lowering his small head to drink. As always, Steve marveled when after a few swallows Flame left the pool to rejoin his band. Hot as he was, thirsty as he was, this wild stallion would drink very little when overheated. Steve wondered how many domestic horses would have left the cool water as Flame had done.\n\nNow too happy and tired to move, Steve stretched out on the soft carpet of grass. It had been a long hard day but just being back made everything all right again. What could be more wonderful than this? He had found that even the confusion of a small island like Antago bothered him now. He was well spoiled. But who wouldn't be, having found a lost world inhabited only by Flame and his band? It was a world free of every care except the care of horses.\n\nSteve lay back, resting his head on his clasped hands, a long blade of succulent grass between his lips. He looked at the late afternoon sky with its light wisps of rippling clouds. The sun was well down behind the barrier walls, and Blue Valley was as blue as blue could be and very, very pleasant.\n\nHe supposed that if the day ever came when an airplane flew close to the dome of this island its pilot would know there was a valley down here. But the pilot would really have to be looking to find it. And where would such a plane be heading anyway? There was no land to the east as far as Africa, and the transatlantic airlines came nowhere near Azul Island. To the west there was only Antago, and no airline served that remote island outpost in the Caribbean Sea. Nor was there any nearby airport to service private planes.\n\nSteve had no fear of discovery of his lost world from the sea. A few tramp steamers put in each year at Antago, but the more traveled sea lanes between North and South America were much farther to the east and west. Besides, no captain in his right mind would approach very close to Azul Island; it looked like a massive, egg-shaped boulder and was ringed by dangerous reefs. Small launches could get only to the island's small southern sandspit, and from there it was impossible to reach Blue Valley or even to learn of its existence. Natives of Antago said of Azul Island, _\"Except for the sandspit it's nothing but solid rock.\"_ Well, let them go on believing so.\n\nSteve closed his eyes but quickly opened them again. He didn't want to fall asleep. He had some work to do before it got dark. Pitch wouldn't be around tonight to help get camp in order and do the cooking. He wouldn't be around for many nights to come, for that matter. But it was as Steve had wanted it. He hadn't liked the idea of staying at Pitch's home in Antago while his elderly friend was doing his historical research in the New York libraries and museums.\n\nPitch had finally consented to Steve's remaining alone in Blue Valley, knowing full well that he could take care of himself. But he wasn't really alone, Steve reminded himself. He had Flame and the band. It was exciting being the only one on the island with them. Somehow it changed things a lot not to have Pitch around. Not that he'd ever seen much of Pitch during the daytime. Pitch had always been too busy exploring the maze of tunnels that ran through the coral rock of Azul Island. And when Pitch hadn't been on a tunnel exploration he'd been working on his manuscript, writing in detail all they'd found here and giving his reasons for believing that Azul Island was the last great stronghold of the Conquistadores, almost three hundred years ago! The Spaniards had left this natural fortress hurriedly, for all the relics Pitch had found indicated this... and as further evidence there were the horses which had been left behind. Where else could this pure-blooded band have originated?\n\nAt this point in his thoughts, Steve sat up to look at Flame. Flame's forebears were Arabians of the finest strain. All one had to do to be convinced of this was to look at him and the mares. Their pure blood and the ideal conditions in Blue Valley had kept the strain free of flaw through generations of inbreeding. Now they were as perfect a group of horses as their ancestors had been... perhaps even finer.\n\nAgain Steve lay back on the grass, looking at the sky that was spotted with small, fleecy clouds. He was finding it difficult to keep his eyes open and began to realize that he must be more tired than he had thought. But he told himself that he mustn't go to sleep. He had time to rest after his long sea trip... plenty of time... just so he didn't fall asleep.\n\nHe listened to the splash of the waterfall and the occasional nicker of a mare to her suckling foal. Nothing else disrupted the peace and quiet of Blue Valley. Steve closed his eyes. Flame had come down the valley and was standing close by. Steve didn't have to open his eyes to know the stallion was there. Nor did he need to hear him. It seemed that the very air vibrated with the red stallion's greatness whenever he was around. If one looked, Flame's greatness could be seen in his eyes. But it wasn't necessary to look. One could _feel_ it.\n\nSteve suddenly felt a tightening in his throat, and he swallowed hard. Ordinarily he would have wanted Flame to be seen and appreciated by people other than himself, by horsemen who had never looked upon such a perfect stallion. But that kind of thinking wasn't for him, Steve knew. It wasn't possible for anyone but Pitch and himself to look upon Flame. To bring others here would mean the destruction of Blue Valley, the end of everything they held so dear. What they had here would last a long time. No one would know of Blue Valley until Pitch had his historical manuscript ready for publication, and it would take him many years to complete that work.\n\nSteve opened his eyes. Flame had taken another drink from the pool and was returning to his band.\n\nSteve's thoughts turned to all the swift rides he'd had on Flame. Had there ever been a faster horse than his stallion? He sat up and watched Flame move from one patch of grass to another. His red body was scarred heavily from all his battles to maintain leadership of the band, but his legs were straight and clean of any serious injuries. He'd give any horse in the world the race of his life!\n\n\"Stop daydreaming,\" Steve told himself. \"You have Flame and that's all that matters. Ride him as fast as you like here in the valley and let it go at that.\"\n\nHe looked up at the sky and decided to rest just a short while more before going to camp. He lay back again, closing his eyes and listening to the steady drone of the waterfall; the long moments passed pleasantly, easily, sleepily....\n\n_Sure, he wouldn't change things from the way they were. But it didn't do any harm to imagine how things would have been under different circumstances. It didn't hurt to dream, to pretend that he was riding Flame in a great race back home. He could just see...._\n\n# NOTHING\n\n2\n\nThe great light came suddenly, so suddenly that it made Steve's eyelids smart before he had a chance to open them. And when he did, it was simultaneously with the screams of the mares and Flame. In that flashing second it was Flame's high whistle that made Steve's heart skip a beat, for never before had he heard anything like it! It was shrill but without defiance or challenge or welcome. Instead it held the worst kind of fear and terror, that of unknown peril.\n\nBlue Valley was alive with a kind of golden light that had never before been seen there even under the brightest sun. Not even the deepest crag or fissure escaped. The light found everything and bathed it all in an awesome glow.\n\nSteve looked up and saw the hurtling sun coming directly at him! He screamed, his terror matching that of Flame and the mares. Then he flung himself flat, his face buried in the grass, his hands pressed hard against the sides of his head.\n\n_A sun where there had been no sun. The end of the world had come!_\n\nHis face unnaturally pale, Steve lay motionless, waiting for the end to come. In quick successive mental pictures he saw his mother and father, his home and Pitch and Flame. Then a heavy black curtain fell and he saw nothing at all. Seconds more he waited, perhaps minutes. From the smell of the earth he knew that he was conscious. He forced himself to use his ears, to listen. He heard the distant rush of the mares' and Flame's hoofs. Then he opened his eyes.\n\nBlue Valley was as it had been... how long ago? Minutes? A lifetime? Had he imagined all this? No, of that much he was certain. He had only to look at the band and Flame to know. The mares had directed their suckling foals into the middle of a small tight ring they had formed; their heads were toward the center, their hindquarters ready to fling strong hoofs at any attacker. Outside the ring stood yearling colts willing to do battle but trembling with fear. Flame encircled the whole group, his eyes constantly shifting in every direction, his every sense alerted to the responsibility of defending his band. But he too was afraid because he could not _see_ what threatened them.\n\nThe only brightness to the valley now came from the last reflections of the setting sun on the high eastern wall. There was nothing to fear or fight. Blue Valley was as quiet and peaceful as it had been before. _Before what?_\n\nSteve sat up but did not attempt to get to his feet. He wasn't at all certain that he'd be able to stand yet. What had bathed the valley in that awesome glow? A meteor from outer space? He had seen shooting stars with long flaming tails in many a night sky. But never in the daytime or so close as this had been. He had read that most meteors were no larger than a grain of sand, becoming extinguished long before they reached the earth. But there'd been cases too of meteors so large that they resisted all the burning friction of the earth's atmosphere and fell intact, digging great holes in the ground.\n\nSteve got to his feet and walked slowly to the pool, where he bathed his throbbing head. A meteor, then, was what it had been. It had almost landed on Azul Island. Where had it struck? Somewhere close, very close to the west. Now it must be at the bottom of the Caribbean Sea.\n\nHe turned to the band. The mares had broken their circle. But they were not yet grazing, nor did they allow the foals to leave their sides. With short, incessant neighs and nips they kept the long-legged colts and fillies from straying away.\n\nSteve left the pool and climbed the narrow trail up along the end wall. Reaching a broad ledge that overlooked Blue Valley, he went into the cave behind it. Just within the entrance but far enough back to be protected against any driving rains were the stove, table, chairs and canned provisions. But Steve wasn't thinking of food. Whatever appetite he'd had was gone. He got one of the large lanterns, a flashlight and Pitch's binoculars. Then, leaving the cave, he continued up the trail until he reached the great opening where the underground stream rushed out from blackness to daylight, plummeting downward in a silken sheet to the pool far below.\n\nFor a second Steve stopped. He turned to look at Flame and the band, then lit the lantern and went into the great opening. He walked to the right of the underground stream. Only when he rounded a long bend in the tunnel did he leave completely the light of day. He walked a little slower then, his hand occasionally touching the jagged rock on either side of him. Finally he came to a fork leading to many tunnels. Steve raised the lantern and saw the chalked figures and letters Pitch had marked on every wall of the explored passageways. Steve knew where he was going and how to get there, but he had learned to take nothing for granted in this underground maze. He made certain he had the right passageway before going on.\n\nHe continued for fifteen minutes or more, stopping only at intersections of other tunnels to cast the light upon the walls. His lantern bobbed from the short, mincing strides he had to take in the low-ceilinged passageways. If he hurried, he thought, he might be in time to look upon a sea still angry with the searing it had received.\n\nJust ahead, a small square of daylight lay on the floor of the tunnel. Reaching it, he stopped and looked up the high ventilation shaft that pierced the stone. Pitch's rope hung down the shaft, but Steve had no intention of climbing to the outer ledge that was directly above him. He'd be able to look out upon the western sea without doing that. He began walking forward again, his head tucked between his shoulders, his back bent more and more as the tunnel became smaller. He went only a short distance before reaching the outer wall. There he extinguished his lantern, for three narrow slits of daylight came through the rock.\n\nHe looked through the middle slit first and saw nothing but the open sea. When he moved to the slit on the far right he could see the red sun resting on the water and just beginning its descent into the sea. For a moment he forgot everything in the beauty of the western sky. Seldom had he left Blue Valley to watch a sunset over the Caribbean Sea.\n\nHe blinked his eyes often in the brightness of the setting sun and suddenly realized that the glow from it was unusually strong. His gaze left the sun to search the waters around him for any vapors, any steaming bubbles to indicate that a flaming mass of molten metal had fallen. But he saw nothing of the sort so his eyes returned to the setting sun.\n\nThe huge red ball was now half obliterated by the sea, and the sky was aglow with all the colors in the universe. But the unusual brightness still marked the sun, and Steve blinked his eyes again. Once more he thought of the meteor. Perhaps it had struck directly in the path of his vision. Perhaps its steaming vapors were rising from the water and causing the golden glow that enveloped the brilliant red of the setting sun. He turned away, waiting for the sun to set completely so he'd know.\n\nMinutes later the sun disappeared but the bright light on the water remained, _the same brilliant glow that had come to Blue Valley!_ Steve told himself that it was being caused by gases from the meteor, still hot, still smoldering at the bottom of the sea. This was what he had hoped to see! This was why he had come! But although this made sense to him, there was no lessening to the pounding of his heart.\n\nHe squinted his eyes, hoping to see better. It was a nebulous, glowing mass of light and transparent, for he could make out the red sky directly behind it. Now he was certain it was produced by vapors rising from the sea. It was less bright than it had been only a moment ago. The meteor was losing its self-contained heat. The sea was crushing it, transforming it into nothing but heavy metal, fathoms upon fathoms deep.\n\nSuddenly Steve thought he saw a movement within the golden mass. He tried to smile at this illusion but found he couldn't move his lips. Nothing was out there except vapors, he reminded himself. He reached for the binoculars hanging from his neck. Before he could get them to his eyes he saw another slight movement, then it too was gone.\n\nHe focused the binoculars many minutes before he became certain of what he had thought he'd seen twice before.\n\n_At first the object had no color or shape. Then as it became separated from the mass it appeared silver and needle-like against the background of red sky. It traveled downward, just above the water, and that was the last he saw of it. He didn't know if it had climbed back into the heavens or had sunk into the depths of the sea_.\n\nHe was frightened but it wasn't the same kind of fear as when he had thought the end of the world had come. Never again would he feel such total, all-engulfing fear as that had been. It was as if he had suffered the very worst that could happen to anyone and, having survived, was stronger for it. Yet he didn't take his eyes from the glowing mass. He watched its brightness fade until it was nothing at all... only a small, round patch of grayish-white floating on the sea.\n\nSteve held the binoculars up to his eyes until the world outside was as black as the tunnel... but even then he could tell where _it_ was, for the patch was luminous. To anyone else it would have been nothing but the phosphorescence of a tropical sea. Steve knew otherwise. Something was out there! He turned and stumbled down the passageway.\n\nArriving at Blue Valley, he went to Flame in the darkness. He sought a return to normalcy in the familiar nearness of his horse. But, like himself, Flame was alert and watchful. The stallion's wild instincts told him that whatever had disrupted the quiet of his kingdom a short while ago hadn't gone. He wouldn't stray from his band that night. He wouldn't sleep or relax his vigil. And Steve knew that it would be no different for himself. But, actually, what had they to watch for? Neither knew, and that's what made the long hours to come so dangerous.\n\nFor the time of year, the weather that night was very unusual. No moon or stars were to be seen through a heavy, rolling overcast, yet only a few hours before the sky had been clear except for the flimsy lacework of rippling white.\n\nSteve felt the chilling dampness, the nearness of the drenching rain to come. He moved closer to his horse, wondering if the heavens, like Flame and himself, were uneasy because of what had come to Blue Valley.\n\n\"You're being silly,\" he told himself, aloud and angry. Flame jumped away, startled by his voice. Steve called him back.\n\nOver and over again he decided that what he had seen was only a meteor. He must accept that as a fact and nothing else. The meteor had sunk into the sea, leaving behind a bubbling trail that had created a great disturbance in the water _and in the air above it_. This had caused the golden mass, giving rise to his illusion of the three slender objects he had thought he'd seen but actually _hadn't_. The round, grayish-white patch that had remained on the water afterward was only something that had been created by the chemical reaction of gases and water. Tomorrow it would be gone.\n\nJust then, and without further warning, the night rain came down heavily. Steve felt its rawness and decided that he and his horse were uneasy only because of the unseasonable cold. Suddenly he welcomed the rain, turning his face to the sky and letting it drench him thoroughly.\n\nAfter a few minutes he told himself that he was being very foolish standing in the rain when it could lead to a bad cold and perhaps complications that would make it necessary for him to leave Blue Valley. \"Pitch would really be angry if he caught me doing this,\" he thought.\n\nLeaving Flame, Steve climbed the trail to camp. He went inside the cave and lit the stove for the warmth it would provide. He'd have a lot to tell Pitch. Pitch would never believe that Blue Valley had gotten so cold he had had to get the stove going to keep warm!\n\nSteve removed all his clothes and rubbed himself hard with a large towel, then got dry clothes from the trunk and put them on. The rain was still coming down hard and cold currents of air swept through the cave. He moved closer to the stove. He thought of having some hot soup, not because he was hungry but for added warmth.\n\nLater he put the bowl of soup, half finished, to one side. He wondered at his lack of appetite. He was still shivering. He had brought no sweaters, no woolen clothes to the tropics. Then he remembered the light blankets and got one to wrap around himself. He didn't lie down, for he knew he couldn't sleep. He sat in a deep-seated canvas chair, watching and listening to the torrential downpour outside. It was going to be a long, long night.\n\nNow, if Pitch were here it would be different, he thought. They'd watch the cold rain together and talk about how unusual it was. Pitch would insist upon having a big, hot meal. Afterward Pitch would sit beside him, smoking his pipe and telling about his latest tunnel exploration.\n\nSteve closed his eyes so as not to see the rain any more. He would have liked to close his ears to it too. The rain wasn't helping matters at all. He wished that Pitch were there with him. He could have discussed with him all he'd seen at sunset, and then he would have been able to forget it and go to sleep.\n\nPerhaps all he had to do was to pretend that Pitch was sitting over there in the other chair, listening. It wasn't hard to visualize Pitch with his bared, knobby knees covered by a blanket, his round face boyish and jovial despite his fifty-odd years. Pitch would be looking very serious, very intent.\n\nAnd he, Steve, would be saying, \"Pitch, the strangest thing happened today. For a while I was as scared as I'll ever be in my life, but now that I know what actually happened it makes a great story. There I was down in the valley with Flame when...\"\n\nSteve went to sleep with his lips moving, explaining to Pitch all that had happened at sunset.\n\n# THE NEW DAY\n\n3\n\nSteve awakened to a morning unlike any he had ever known on Azul Island. The air was so crystal clear that only the finest of fall days in the northern hemisphere could have been compared with it. Never had his valley been more beautiful; it was a sky-blue gem set in soft, warm, molten gold.\n\nSteve breathed deeply and felt his whole being expand with the exhilarating air. It was as though he'd never really breathed before! Would Pitch believe this, when he told him? Would Pitch be able to imagine that a hard, cold rain such as they'd had the night before could wash the valley and air as never before, breathing new life into everything? Look at the horses! Look at Flame! They were frolicking, playing like young weanling colts, every one of them!\n\nListen to the birds! Where were they? Few birds ever came to Blue Valley and then they never stayed very long. They preferred the lush, green, volcanic islands such as Antago to the comparative coral-rock barrenness of Azul. Steve swept his eyes over the wild cane below, where the birds probably had gone in search of cover. He didn't see them yet their songs filled the valley, echoing and re-echoing from the walls.\n\nThere, up the trail! He saw them then, perched on the jagged rocks beside the waterfall. There were only two, but their incessant calls made it sound as though a whole flock of birds had migrated to Blue Valley.\n\nSteve's gaze left them for the horses again. Oh, he had so much to tell Pitch! He wished his friend were here to share this morning with him. Never had he felt so well, so happy! There were so many things he _wanted_ to do today. For a few minutes more he watched Flame frolicking with his band, the tall stallion stopping occasionally to press hard against the yearling colts. Flame did this not in combat but in play. The colts seemed to understand and they pushed back and rose with him, but never too strenuously, for they did not want to antagonize their leader. The day would come when these colts would fight Flame in earnest, teeth for teeth, hoof for hoof, in their attempt to take the leadership from him. But at their present age they were willing to play.\n\nSteve turned away from them and went into the cave. He cooked a large breakfast of powdered eggs and milk and hot biscuits. While he ate he looked often at the gleaming valley and listened to the birds. He had plenty of company today! Not once did he think fearfully of what had happened the day before at sunset. It was something he was glad to have experienced. How many other people had seen a glowing meteor fall to earth? And wouldn't it add further interest to the written record he'd kept of his life on Azul Island?\n\nSteve thought of the filled notebooks he had hidden away. They told of his finding Flame and the band and all the exciting times he'd shared with them. They were something he had kept completely to himself. Even Pitch didn't know of them.\n\nWhen Steve had washed the breakfast dishes he wanted very much to share this glorious morning in play with Flame. But first he had some work to do. There was the stove to be cleaned, crates of provisions to be opened and stored away, blankets and clothing to be aired. There'd be time later for Flame, plenty of time, all the rest of the day.\n\nFor several hours he worked, emerging from the cave every so often to look at the horses. He always drove himself back inside. But the desire to play was very strong on such a day! Finally he was finished except for getting a fresh supply of water. Picking up a bucket, he climbed the trail. The birds, still perched beside the waterfall, flew away at his approach. He was sorry that he had interrupted their song.\n\nOne, a bright blue bird with crested head, dove headlong down the wall, not leveling off until just before he reached the pool. The other, a mottled brown-backed bird, was less daring. He glided down, circling several times before coming to rest.\n\nSteve made a mental note to get an accurate description of them for Pitch, who'd probably tell him that the previous night's wind and rain had swept these birds to Azul Island from Antago.\n\nSteve got his water from the rushing stream and then returned to the ledge. Now for Flame!\n\nThe red stallion and the band had stopped their play and were grazing. The air remained crisp and cool even though it was almost noon. This had never happened before, and Steve marveled at it. Even the marsh at the far end of the valley wasn't sending up its foul vapors as it usually did at this time of day. He looked for the birds but couldn't find them. He hoped he hadn't scared them away. They belonged with this lovely day.\n\nSteve whistled to Flame and the red stallion came loping toward him as he hurried down the trail. Flame stopped a short distance away, neighed and tossed his head, his heavy forelock falling over his eyes.\n\n\"Come on,\" Steve called.\n\nThe stallion shook his head but finally he came forward.\n\nSteve gathered Flame's forelock. \"I keep braiding this so you won't go blind trying to see through it, and you keep loosening it somehow,\" he said, laughing. \"Stand still now, and we'll do it over again.\"\n\nFlame tossed his head when Steve had finished, and the braided forelock moved up and down like a thumping whip. Steve slid onto the stallion's back.\n\nFlame didn't bolt as he had done the previous afternoon. He stood restless but unmoving, awaiting commands from Steve's legs. Finally the light touch came and he went off at a slow gallop.\n\nSteve kept Flame at that gait for a long while. They went down the valley, circled the band and came back. It was a day meant for riding and Steve intended to make the most of it. Just to be astride his horse, to be alone with him, was more than he could ever want.\n\nBut that wasn't exactly what he had thought yesterday, he reminded himself. Hadn't he wanted Flame's greatness to be appreciated by others? Hadn't he once again daydreamed of racing Flame? Yes, he admitted all this and he knew the reason for it.\n\nSteve recalled the colorful poster he had seen in the Cuban air terminal during his long flight from the United States to Port of Spain, Trinidad, on his way to Azul Island well over a month ago. He had read it with great interest, as he did anything that had to do with horses. The poster had announced the running of an International Race to be held in Havana, Cuba, August 3rd. That was now less than a week away, he figured. The race was \"OPEN TO THE WORLD\"\u2014and beneath this screaming declaration was a huge drawing of the globe.\n\nSteve remembered boarding his plane again, wondering if \"Open to the World\" included Azul Island. So even then he'd been daydreaming of racing Flame! Such a fantastic prospect must be on his mind to a greater extent than he had realized.\n\nSuddenly he heard the whir of feathered wings, and as a bird flew close overhead he saw the flash of the white under-body, the large blue wings and the crested head. It was the bird that had dived so recklessly down the end wall. The smaller, brown-backed bird was flying near the cane, squeaking loudly as though in warning or reprimand to the other.\n\nSuddenly the blue bird flew in front of Flame and then downward, almost in the stallion's path. Flame thrust out a foreleg without breaking stride. He did it not in play but in anger. The bird annoyed him.\n\nSteve, aware of Flame's mounting fury, turned him away from the cane, but the bird followed. Steve let Flame gallop faster and the tall stallion welcomed the opportunity to leave his winged tormentor behind. His strides became longer as he swept across the valley floor.\n\nSteve's clucking matched the rhythm of his horse's hoofs. As the beat became faster and they left the bird behind, he thought once more of the poster he had seen. He pretended that he had Flame on the Havana race track. _Steve Duncan racing Flame!_ He bent closer to his horse's neck and told him to go on. Now they were passing all the other horses in the International Race. Now they were really moving!\n\nThey swept down the valley floor and as he neared the pool Flame began his wide, sweeping turn. Steve leaned with him, urging him to still greater speed. Now they were entering the homestretch. _\"Come on, Flame! The finish wire is just ahead!\"_\n\nAs the stallion lengthened out a low blue streak cut in front of him. Flame slowed his strides and struck out viciously. He even swerved aside, striking again at the bird who had dared to come so close to his legs. This time his hoof grazed the bird's long tail and the feathers flew. The bird dove into the tall cane, then rose again to be joined by his brown-backed friend whose high, squeaky calls of reprimand could be heard above the pounding of Flame's hoofs. After circling, the birds flew away.\n\nSteve buried his head in Flame's flowing mane again, glad that the blue bird had left them alone. The stallion picked up stride and once more the valley echoed only to the beat of winged hoofs.\n\nMinutes later Steve slowed his horse and circled the band. Finally he stopped and slipped off Flame's back. He walked toward the mares but did not go close enough to frighten the foals. He sat down on the grass and waited for the mares to come to him.\n\nHe did not have long to wait, for the adult members of the band had accepted him long ago. The mares came closer but the suckling foals stayed behind their mothers, a little timid, a little afraid. It was they whom he wanted to make his friends. Every day he spent a short while with them, trying to win their confidence and acceptance.\n\nHe called to these long-legged, furry-coated sons and daughters of Flame, waiting for them to lose their shyness and come to him. But today they showed no curiosity over his presence and did not move from behind their mothers' protective bodies. Steve waited a long while before finally giving up. He got to his feet, regretting that he had made no progress.\n\nOn the way down the valley he passed a group of yearling colts at play. He called to one of them but the colt took no notice of him. This was the one whose broken leg he had cared for the summer before and whom he had intended to take home. But his parents had given him the choice of using the money he earned each year to maintain a horse of his own _or_ continuing his summer visits with Pitch, and he had chosen the latter. He couldn't give up Flame and Blue Valley.\n\nSteve walked on, aware that he didn't feel as well as he had only a short while before. Perhaps it was due to the blunt rebuff he'd received from the foals and the yearling colt... especially the colt, for they had been such fast friends the previous summer. The colt had grown up and away from him during the months he'd been away.\n\nHe brushed the sweat from his face, realizing suddenly that the weather too had changed. The sun's rays had finally penetrated the cool air of the valley. No longer was the day crystal clear but heavy with tropic heat. Steve decided, as he approached the end wall, that the afternoon was no warmer than any other in the past. It was just oppressive by comparison with those wonderful earlier hours.\n\nReturning to camp, he made himself a sandwich, and stayed within the cave to eat it. Finally he rose from his chair and went out on the ledge to stand in the sun again. He felt the beads of perspiration come to his forehead, but he didn't leave the open ledge. His eyes and feet shifted uneasily as he looked down the valley.\n\nSomehow, just as the weather had changed so had he. He was restless, even becoming concerned again about that floating white patch on the water. It was all so silly, so foolish. There was no reason to be concerned. He had decided once and for all it was something that had been caused by the chemical reaction of gases and water. It would be gone by now, swallowed by the sea just as the meteor had been.\n\nHe walked from one side of the ledge to the other, still ignoring the relief from the sun which the cave offered him. If it was the floating patch that was bothering him, why not make certain that it had long since disappeared? If his mind would not listen to reason, the only way to rid himself of his apprehension was to go and look again. He'd find nothing, and that would make everything all right.\n\nTaking his knapsack and lantern, he went up the trail. The valley was very quiet; it seemed that the birds too had sought refuge from the heat. He hoped they hadn't forsaken Blue Valley altogether. It was nice having them around, even if the larger one had annoyed Flame. He turned to look at his stallion and the band. They were grazing in the shade of the western wall. Flame moved restlessly from one patch of grass to another, raising his head every so often, ears pricked and listening.\n\nSteve went into the great opening, wondering if Flame felt the same anxiety that he did. And if so, for what reason, when everything had been so serene before? He hurried along the underground stream, anxious to reach the lookout post over the western sea.\n\nWhen he arrived there he pressed his eyes close to the narrow slit. The afternoon sun was higher than during his last visit, so its rays did not obstruct his view of the sea's surface. He saw immediately that the grayish-white patch was still there, and the blood began pounding in his temples. He pressed his head closer to the stone, welcoming its coolness. He tried to make sense of what he was seeing. It must be floating algae, phosphorescent at night, grayish-white during the day. But why then hadn't it moved? Why was it anchored in the same identical spot as last night?\n\nHe forsook the coolness of the stone against his head for the binoculars and the better view they would provide. As he put the glasses to his eyes, he found that his hands were moist. He chastised himself, ridiculed himself for his mounting concern. But nothing helped.\n\nHe looked through the binoculars. The patch was no different than when seen with the naked eye... it was grayish-white, round and motionless. Steve stayed there a long while, not wanting to leave without having decided once and for all what it really was. He didn't want to spend another uneasy night.\n\nHe could not have told how long he had been there when he saw some sort of a stirring directly above the patch. He told himself it was being caused by the sun's rays. But the sun was still high in the heavens. A light was beginning to dance directly above the grayish-white patch. Rapidly it became brighter, and then Steve knew what it was. _The golden mass of the day before. The second sun that had swept over Blue Valley. The meteor that was no meteor!_\n\nIn a few seconds the mass was big and round and glowing. Steve closed his eyes against its brightness. Yet he didn't keep them closed, for he wanted to watch. He saw the long flash of an object high above the golden mass before it plummeted down to the water. He made out its needle-like shape just before it disappeared within the great light. Then the mass faded rapidly until nothing was left on the water but that small patch of grayish-white.\n\nSteve lowered the binoculars, turned away and staggered through the tunnel. What was out there on the water? What had he seen?\n\nWhatever it was, he and the horses were safe in Blue Valley. Nothing, _no one_ could reach them within the barrier walls of Azul Island. Soon _it_ would go away, and all would be quiet and peaceful again. But what was it? He wanted to _know_.\n\nHis breath came faster just as his steps did, without his being aware of it. The needle-like object that had flashed through the sky had been guided to that mass of golden light, he decided. Guided by whom? What was the light? Where had it gone?\n\nHe stumbled and fell, but managed to keep his lantern from being broken. For a moment he lay on the ground, finding comfort in his familiarity with this underground world. A soothing quietness came to his body and mind. Perhaps he had seen nothing at all. Perhaps his eyes, affected by long weeks of bright, tropical sun, had created these optical illusions of mass and objects. Mirages had appeared to others at sea and in the desert. Why not to him?\n\nFinally he got to his feet and began walking again. But he had gone only a short distance when suddenly he fell to his knees with a force that sent the lantern crashing hard against the jagged wall. The strong current of tunnel air quickly extinguished the flame and then he was in total darkness.\n\nHe made no attempt to get the flashlight from his knapsack but remained absolutely still, listening. Yet the voices could not be real, nothing he actually heard! His ears, like his eyes, he decided, must be playing tricks on him in this black world a thousand and more feet beneath the dome of Azul Island.\n\nOn hands and knees he went forward, feeling his way along the ground. The voices rang constantly in his ears, soft and almost musical, _clear and so distinct_. Was his mind too playing tricks on him? No one else could be in this maze of tunnels known only to Pitch and himself!\n\nHe inched forward, rounding a turn, and there he saw the light of a burning lantern coming from a side chamber. He dropped flat on the ground so quickly that his head struck the stone, the impact making the blood gush from his nose. But he felt nothing, saw nothing... only his ears seemed alive.\n\n\"Really, Jay,\" a voice said impatiently, \"it's getting late and we should go back. We've wasted most of the day already.\"\n\n\"Wasted?\" another voice asked. \"Did you expect to find anything like this? You know as well as I do that we're most fortunate.\"\n\n\"Well, of course. I admit all that. But at the same time we mustn't overdo it. After all, there's work to be done.\"\n\n\"It can wait.\"\n\nSteve raised his head, listening to the voices and experiencing a strange solace in his final acceptance that they were _real_. No longer did he have to fear discovery with no chance to fight back. The danger was here, only a few feet away from him. He rose and went slowly forward, making no noise. He tried to still the pounding of his heart, afraid that it might betray his presence. Closer and closer he moved to the doorway, stealthily transferring his weight from one leg to the other. Not once did he take an awkward, uncertain step or dislodge a loose stone. Every movement was fluid, coordinated and planned. Fear stole silently along with him, but this fear he understood and accepted. It was as real as the voices of the men within the chamber. When he was almost at the doorway, he stopped and listened. The waiting had come to an end. Now he would know what he must face to protect himself and the horses.\n\n_\"Come in, Steve,\"_ one voice said suddenly. _\"We've been waiting for you.\"_\n\n# THE STRANGERS\n\n4\n\nThe words came as unexpectedly as an unseen blow, almost striking him down as he stood there rigidly, his back against the side of the tunnel. He had felt so certain he could not have been seen or heard.\n\n\"Please, Steve, come in,\" the voice repeated. \"We really don't have much time.\" It was not a command, only an impatient but gracious request.\n\nBut Steve had no intention of entering the chamber. And, finding that his legs had lost their temporary immobility, he moved quickly. He knew where this tunnel would take him and he planned to lose his pursuers forever in this world of darkness.\n\nHis hands were raised to ward them off if they sought to stop him when he passed the doorway. But they weren't there. A swift glance disclosed that they were well to the rear of the room, one sitting on the edge of the chamber's lone table, while the other stood beside it holding a lantern.\n\nSteve came to a sudden stop, telling himself they could never reach him from where they were or travel the tunnels as fast as he. But what made him stop was more than that. It was the men themselves.\n\nThey were no taller than Pitch, who was a short man, and they were just as thin and light-boned. But it was their clothes that startled him most of all. They were dressed more for a northern business office than a tropical expedition, much less one to the rocky depths of Azul Island. Their suits were heavy and newly pressed with knife-edged creases. They wore fine shirts and bow ties.\n\nAs Steve looked at them they stared back, their gazes unwavering and interested. Their faces were round and, like their voices, soft and gracious. There was nothing evil or sinister about them. They smiled at him and then were silent, as though waiting for him to speak.\n\nSteve gripped the jagged stone of the doorway, ready to pull himself away at a run. He must not be influenced by their appearance. He must not step inside the chamber, where they might catch him.\n\nFinally the one holding the lantern said, \"I _do_ wish you wouldn't take so much time, Steve. We must be getting on.\"\n\nThe other slid easily from his seat on the table. \"You're always taking so much for granted, Flick,\" he reprimanded. \"Can't you see that Steve is startled at finding us here? First, we should introduce ourselves.\" He came across the room, his hand outstretched. \"My name is Jay, and...\" He stopped abruptly when he saw the boy draw back from the doorway. \"Don't go, Steve. Please don't go. Are you really so frightened by us?\"\n\nIt was impossible for Steve to say anything. He could only look at them, wondering who they were and how they had ever gotten there. The eyes of the man standing only a short distance away from him were crystal clear and yet had color. More than anything else they promised him no harm. Yet Steve said not a word, nor did he relax his muscles.\n\n\"Flick,\" the man said without taking his eyes off Steve, \"please bring the lantern over here. I want to talk to Steve, and one _can't_ talk to a person in the dark.\"\n\nAs the other came forward with the lantern, Steve was about to run but he checked the impulse. The two men were now within a few feet of him, but they were still far enough away for him to be able to elude them, he decided.\n\nThe man who had brought the lantern spoke. \"Really, Jay, this is all taking much too long,\" he said impatiently. \"Let's try again some other time. We're neglecting our duties.\"\n\n\"Nonsense. Just relax, Flick. I'll attend to everything, and it won't take very long.\"\n\n\"No,\" the other answered. \"You're too impetuous. I'm in charge, remember that.\"\n\nSteve turned from one to the other. Far from being sinister, these two men were arguing like a couple of children. He looked at them again in the bright light of their lantern. The one called Flick wore a brown tweed suit, a white shirt and a black-and-gold tie. His hair was gray and cropped short; it had a bright reddish tint, and yet the small mustache beneath his large beaked nose was more black than gray or red. Steve found it impossible to be alarmed by him.\n\nThe other man wore a sky-blue suit, a white shirt and a black string bow tie. His hair was very long and wavy, more blue than black. There was nothing frightening about him, either.\n\n\"Careful,\" Steve warned himself. \"That may be what they want you to think. Don't let them come closer.\"\n\nJay's gaze was still on him. Steve glanced at the man called Flick and found the same shimmering clearness of eye, devoid of all color yet containing all the colors in the world. He felt a sudden throbbing in his head.\n\n\"Aren't you surprised to see us, Steve?\" Jay asked again. \"You're more startled than frightened, isn't that so?\"\n\nSteve nodded as he felt a numbness claim his body. He fought it, telling himself that he should run, but he couldn't leave. He could only stare into those eyes, thinking how much they resembled glass marbles. And yet they looked back at him as marbles never could, with more expression than he had ever seen in anyone's eyes.\n\nThe men waited patiently, kindly, while he tried again to speak. They came no closer... but even if they had, he could not have left.\n\nThey were helping him, and finally his words came in a whisper. \"How did you get here?\"\n\nBoth smiled, and it was Jay who answered. \"Why, in our ship, of course. You've seen it, Steve. You've been watching us right along.\"\n\n\"We're just over there,\" Flick added, nodding his cropped gray head to one side.\n\nSteve turned his head toward the wall of the chamber, and Flick chuckled and said, \"Of course I mean _outside_ , Steve.\"\n\n\"There you go taking too much for granted again,\" Jay said disapprovingly.\n\nFlick's small mustache trembled in his irritation. \"I wish you'd stop saying that, Jay. It's all I've heard from you during this trip. You know as well as I do that there's only so much we can tell Steve.\"\n\n\"Oh, nonsense,\" Jay retorted. \"You're always worrying about nothing. No wonder you're gray long before your time. And wearing that ridiculous crew-cut doesn't fool anyone, either.\" He turned quickly to Steve, not wanting to give Flick an opportunity to speak just then. \"Steve,\" he explained, \"we're on the water out there. We arrived late yesterday afternoon, and of course we knew that you were watching us. We realize how concerned you've been. Please don't be any longer.\"\n\nFlick said, \"Actually, we've been just as concerned about _you_.\"\n\nJay nodded his blue-black head in agreement. \"That's one of the reasons for this visit. I don't believe we've ever been seen before. It's quite...\"\n\n\"Now, now, Jay,\" Flick interrupted nervously. \"You know what Julian said.\"\n\n\"Worrying, always worrying, you and Julian. Just leave it to me to know how much to explain.\"\n\n\"I've tried that before and it hasn't worked out very well,\" Flick answered gravely. He turned to Steve and smiled. \"You mustn't mind our bickering. This has been going on a long time.\"\n\n\"Too long,\" Jay said. \"The next trip will be different. I'll team up with Victor.\"\n\n\"They won't have it,\" Flick answered. \"You and Victor are too much alike.\" He shrugged his thin shoulders, adding, \"But it would be perfectly all right with me. In fact it would be a pleasure not to have to worry about you at all.\"\n\nSteve realized vaguely that none of this could be real. He couldn't be thousands of feet deep within the walls of Azul Island, listening to these men argue as they might have done in any living room! It couldn't be happening, _and yet it was_.\n\nFinally Jay turned to him again. \"I suppose old Flick is right in a way, Steve. Maybe you'd better just accept our being here. It'll be easier on you. Of course you know about our ship, having seen it. Unfortunately, it takes us a little while to cool down after a long voyage... friction, you know. But we never dreamed anyone would be at this remote spot to see us come in.\"\n\n_They were talking about the golden mass of light, only it was more than light. It was their ship and it was still there, above that small grayish-white patch, without being visible!_\n\nSudden alarm passed through Steve like an electric shock, shattering the numbness that had brought immobility to his legs. He moved them now, seeking to turn and run.\n\nBut their hands caught him quickly, keeping him still, and he knew he could not get away, that all hope of escape was lost.\n\nFlick said casually, \"So little has missed Steve's attention. Really, it's most remarkable. He's even seen the cruisers.\"\n\n\"So he has,\" Jay returned. \"But I don't think it matters. Steve has as much to conceal as we do. He's a very unusual person.\"\n\nAs Steve listened, there flashed through his mind all he had read about the frightening, secret weapons of war that were being developed and tested by countries throughout the world. Was this ship one of them? Were those needle-shaped objects he'd seen even now bent on the destruction of distant cities? This was very real and _deadly_!\n\n\"Look at us, Steve,\" Jay said.\n\nOnly then did Steve realize that Jay and Flick had been silent for many minutes. He made a great effort to focus his eyes upon them, to see them as they actually were. He _had_ to know the answers to his questions.\n\nThey were looking at him, but neither spoke. Their features had become so blurred it was difficult for Steve to make them out. He tried to blink to clear his vision, but found he could not move his eyelids. The two faces grew more and more indistinct until they were blotted out completely. Only the shimmering light of their eyes remained and that shone brighter and brighter, seemingly enveloping him in an intense heat.\n\nSteve knew that he could not fight this growing inner warmth, that all he could do was to welcome it. Stronger and stronger it became, flooding his body and very being till there was no room left for fear or suspicion. He felt only a deep sense of comfort and confidence and trust.\n\nHow long it was before he could see their faces again, he could not have told. But suddenly he was asking himself how anyone could look at these two men and think anything but good of them. Flick was smiling, pleased and happy that Steve trusted them completely, that he now felt confident no one, no country, had anything to fear from them. Jay, too, was smiling, even chuckling.\n\n\" _Now_ , Steve,\" Flick said softly, \"I was wondering when you and Pitch first found this place.\"\n\n\"Pitch! Do you know Pitch?\" Steve asked aloud, surprised at their mentioning his friend's name, surprised even more that his words came so easily.\n\n\"Oh, no,\" Flick answered hastily, \"... just a little _of_ him.\" He glanced at Jay with fleeting concern.\n\n\"Who told you about him?\" Steve asked.\n\n\"Well... well, _you_ did, Steve.\" Flick turned to Jay helplessly.\n\n\"There you go getting yourself into a jam,\" Jay said, \"and wanting me to get you out of it. I told you before that if you start something with Steve you must finish it. You just can't let it hang in the air. He won't have it.\"\n\n\"He's only a boy,\" Flick answered defiantly.\n\n\"Of course, and that's exactly what I mean, Flick. We're not dealing with a closed, inflexible, adult mind here. Young people _are_ different, Flick, and we might as well accept that right now. We must get used to having Steve ask questions that I believe no one but a young person _would_ ask. And really, Flick, it's going to make our visit much more fun.\"\n\n\"But, Jay...\" Flick began.\n\nJay ignored him and turned to Steve. \"Getting back to your question about our knowing Pitch, Steve. As Flick started to say, _you_ told us about him. What I mean is that you've been thinking about him right along and we're able to tune our minds to yours without much trouble. It's something on the order of what you'd call telepathic power, I believe. But it's simply an exchange of thought messages, which we've taken great pride in doing for a long, long while.\" He chuckled, then added, \"However we don't overdo it, Steve, for fear we'll lose the use of our voices. Now let's talk about Flame. While we were watching you ride him this morning we...\"\n\n\"Y\u2014you mean you know about Flame too? You were in the valley this morning?\"\n\n\"Yes to both questions, Steve,\" Jay replied. \"As Flick mentioned a few minutes ago, we were concerned about your having seen us. Naturally, we thought it best to check up on you.\" He straightened his black string tie and smiled, hoping to relieve Steve's anxiety. \"Of course everything is all right, perfectly all right _now_. It's just that we didn't know what to expect.\"\n\nFlick nodded his cropped head in full agreement, and Jay went on, \"But let's talk about the horses, Steve. Flame is a very beautiful animal and you sit him well.\"\n\n\"Can't you get your mind off horses, Jay?\" Flick asked in a bored tone. \"That's all I've heard from you since we arrived.\"\n\n\"I'm sorry but that's the way I feel about the subject,\" Jay answered brusquely. \"My interest in horses is nothing new, as you very well know.\"\n\n\"I know. I know,\" Flick said resignedly. \"You certainly have a well-balanced mind, ninety percent horse, I'd say. I should have known better than...\" He stopped abruptly, and raised the lantern to Jay's face. Then he went on, \"It's just occurred to me, Jay, that you might have known there were horses on this island when you picked our landing site. After all you were at the controls at the time.\"\n\n\"Oh, no, Flick,\" Jay said, hurt. \"This is just as much of a surprise to me as it is to you.\"\n\n\"How did you get in here?\" Steve interrupted the argument.\n\nJay smiled. \"Oh, we have means of leaving the ship,\" he replied casually. \"You've seen us.\"\n\nSteve thought of the cruisers they'd mentioned. Even now one of those slender objects must be somewhere within the barrier walls of Azul Island... probably in the smaller valley near the sea entrance.\n\nFlick came around Jay to join in the discussion. \"And then of course we followed you into the tunnels, when you went to look at our ship again. We stopped to rest when we came to this chamber, knowing you'd return presently.\"\n\n\"That was your idea,\" Jay said bitterly. \"I wanted to go ahead and surprise Steve.\"\n\n\"I'm glad you didn't,\" Steve spoke up.\n\nFlick said, \"We'd better be getting back now, Jay. I'm sure it must be very late.\"\n\n\"Julian is there. He'll take care of things.\"\n\n\"But it's _our_ job,\" Flick insisted. \"The others won't like it.\"\n\n\"We're late now, so they're angry already,\" Jay answered. \"A few minutes more won't change things.\" He turned to Steve. \"I'd like a cup of tea, Steve. You do have some, don't you?\"\n\nSteve nodded and obediently followed them out of the chamber. He marveled that they knew their way through the tunnels but he was not surprised. One's mind could take in only so much and his had had its fill. Later he'd find out all he needed to know. From what country had they come? What manner of people were they to have built an airship that could not be seen while anchored and were so far advanced in the power of telepathy that they knew about Pitch just from his having thought of him?\n\nHe continued walking close behind Flick, who led the way, the light bobbing before him. He felt no fear or suspicion of them, only the confidence and trust that had come to him in the chamber. This, too, had been their doing. Otherwise wouldn't he have been afraid for himself and the horses?\n\nWhen they emerged from the tunnels and stood beside the waterfall, Blue Valley was in deep shadow. The air was very cool and pleasant, much as it had been that morning.\n\nJay glanced at him and said, \"Lovely, isn't it? And you'd like it to remain this way?\"\n\nSteve nodded.\n\nJay winked and said, \"Sometimes weather can be a state of mind, Steve... like a lot of other things.\"\n\nFlick gave Jay a stern look of reprimand as they started down the trail.\n\nIt took only a few minutes to get the canister of tea Pitch had stored away and to have the water boiling. Jay balanced his cup of tea on the fine crease of his blue pants. \"Let's talk about Flame, Steve,\" he said.\n\n\"Not now,\" Flick interrupted. \"Make it another time. Drink your tea and let's go.\"\n\n\"You'll be coming back then?\" Steve asked.\n\n\"Of course, Steve,\" and Jay chuckled. \"I wouldn't miss this for anything.\" He looked at the table behind Steve. \"May I have one of those biscuits?\" he asked.\n\nSteve passed the can to him. Jay had taken only a bite when Flick rose from his chair, his face red with anger.\n\n\"You're being most difficult,\" he told Jay. \"You know you'll get plenty to eat when we get back. I've taken enough of your lack of consideration.\" He pulled Jay from his chair and forcefully led him down the steep trail.\n\nSteve watched them go. After they had reached the valley floor they walked across to the field of wild cane. Flame was grazing in the distance, and Steve wondered if he should warn his departing visitors that the red stallion would not tolerate strangers in his kingdom. Almost at once he decided it was not necessary to warn them... yet he wondered why he felt so certain of this.\n\nIt was becoming quite dark, so he could barely see the two men. They were directly across the valley from Flame, and yet the stallion never stopped his grazing. Like everything else that had happened, Flame's lack of vigilance was unbelievable. Even though Flame might not be able to see the two strangers in the darkness, he should have been able to sense their presence.\n\nSteve felt the cool night air on his face. Moments passed, and then the two men were gone. Steve stayed where he was, his gaze shifting to the sky above the dome of Azul Island, watching for a thin streak of silver. He waited a long while without seeing anything.\n\nFinally he looked down at the plate that held Jay's half-eaten biscuit. If it were not for this bit of evidence, he would have found it hard to believe the two men had actually been there.\n\nSuddenly he heard a noisy outburst from the birds. They were above him as they had been early that morning, perched on the rock beside the waterfall. The large blue bird was closer, and as usual was more bold and boisterous. Apparently he had seen the biscuit and wanted it, for he flew down and came to rest a short distance away.\n\nSteve tossed the biscuit outside on the ledge. The bird dove quickly, snapping it up with one hard thrust of his bill.\n\nAs Steve watched him fly off with the biscuit, he regretted having given away his only tangible evidence of the last weird hour. It was all too fantastic to believe! He looked up at the night sky and saw nothing but the two birds in flight. A chill swept over him. It was all a dream, wasn't it? Nothing had actually happened. There were no such persons as Jay and Flick.\n\n# \"... ALWAYS WORRYING ABOUT NOTHING\"\n\n5\n\nSteve cooked a large meal. He opened tins of beef and peas and carrots and onions. He used garlic and herbs, trying to remember all that Pitch had told him about preparing a savory stew. Actually he was not hungry, although he knew that once the food was before him he would eat. To keep busy was his main objective. He did not want to think about his strange visitors any longer.\n\nWhen he finally sat down to eat, he found the stew not at all to his liking and not at all like Pitch's. Too much garlic. Too much thyme. But he scarcely paused between mouthfuls. It was as though he were willing to do anything, anything at all, to keep from thinking. The next stew would be better, he told himself. He'd been experimenting. He'd learned a lot. The next stew would be better. He'd go easy on the garlic, easy on the thyme.\n\nLater he heated water and washed the dishes and pots. He dried them slowly, not certain what he could find to do next. He looked outside the cave. The evening sky was clear. There would be no cold rain tonight to chill him, no shivering. He heard the soft neighs of the mares calling their colts. Flame was quiet. There was not a sound from him, not even a hoofbeat.\n\nWhen Steve had finished doing the dishes, he walked onto the ledge, where he could see the dark silhouettes of the band. His eyes followed their movements but his thoughts wavered and then rushed headlong past every mental barrier he had erected to keep himself from thinking of Jay and Flick. Surely their being here meant the destruction of all he held so priceless!\n\nWhy was it that he was so alarmed now, when he had willingly accepted them without fear only a short while ago? Was this the aftermath of all he had seen and experienced? Was _this_ reality and the other a ghastly hoax, a scheme by which Jay and Flick had somehow warped his mind, making him see good where there was only evil?\n\nHe thought of the airship that had swept through the heavens like a second sun and had come to rest, invisible, on the water. Surely this craft with its slender cruisers was the most advanced, most secret weapon in the world! Jay had said he didn't believe it had been seen before.\n\nIf the United States had developed it, he'd surely be taken to Washington. And if it belonged to another country, a potential foreign enemy, he might be... Steve walked restlessly about the ledge, the skin drawn taut and white about his high cheekbones.\n\nWas it any wonder that he was fearful, when all his life he had heard and read of the hatred among so many countries of the world? Was it not the reason for great standing armed forces and the fantastic advancement of secret weapons? Had he not seen with his own eyes the most powerful weapon of them all?\n\nHe stopped walking and told himself to forget all he had read about prejudices and misunderstandings between governments. If he thought only of Jay and Flick as they were everything would be all right again. He could trust them completely without preconceived suspicion and hatred, without alarm or dread, regardless of what country they were from.\n\nFor many minutes he stood still, trying to visualize their faces. How hard it was to form a mental picture of them! How long had they been gone? An hour, two hours at most.\n\nHe could remember details, their suits and shirts and ties, Jay's heavy hair that was more blue than black and Flick's short cropped head and small black mustache. But he couldn't put everything together and say to himself, \"This is Jay... and that's Flick.\" No matter how hard he tried he couldn't form a mental image of their features, and he wanted so much to look into their eyes again. He knew that if he were able to do this, the inner warmth and trust would come once more.\n\nHe began walking again, making every effort to bring their faces to mind. But only an indistinct blur of faces resulted, not old, not young... real and yet not real. Finally, frustrated and angry with himself, he lay down upon his cot.\n\nLooking up at the night sky, he thought, \"At least I can remember that there was nothing sinister or evil about them. I know they were good faces, kind faces. Besides, how could anyone have listened to Jay and Flick argue like a couple of small kids and still be afraid of them? Jay was so irresponsible while Flick acted like the worst kind of a worrier, constantly reminding his friend that they were being neglectful of their shipboard duties. And Flick had gotten so angry when Jay said, _'No wonder you're gray long before your time. And wearing that ridiculous crew-cut doesn't fool anyone either!'_ \"\n\nSteve laughed and closed his eyes. He had a teacher back home who wasn't unlike Flick in that the older he got the shorter he had his hair cut and the louder became his clothes.\n\nIt was good to be able to laugh, to have confidence that he would get everything straightened out the next day and that there was nothing at all to fear. He settled down in the brisk coolness of the night, as did the mares and Flame in the valley below.\n\nEarly the next morning the red stallion stretched out his long legs to the greatest of strides. His hoofs hardly touched the cropped grass before he lifted them again, taking Steve down the valley with a speed that made the walled amphitheater much too small and confining.\n\nAs always when his horse was in full run, Steve had no alternative but to move forward over Flame's withers, his knees pulled high to keep from falling off, his hands and head on the stallion's neck. A silhouette would have revealed only the outlines of the horse, for Steve's position never changed, even when Flame swept into sharp turns that took him across the valley and into the borders of the cane before he straightened out again.\n\nAfter a long while Flame's strides shortened. He slowed to a gallop and then finally to a walk, his body white with lather. When Steve slipped from the stallion's back he was as sweaty as his horse. He pulled Flame's head down toward him, breathing heavily. Suddenly a voice from behind said, \"You should keep a hot horse moving, Steve!\"\n\nSteve whirled around to face Jay, then looked beyond.\n\nJay smiled and said, \"I got away _alone_ this time.\"\n\nSteve shifted his gaze back to this man, who came and went without his seeing him. Eagerly he scrutinized Jay's face. Why hadn't he been able to remember it last night or this morning? It seemed so easy now. Soft and kind, a most common face. But somehow Steve knew he'd never remember it once Jay had left him again. For it was real and yet not real. The eyes had color and yet were crystal clear without color. The skin was white and yet not white, without blemish\u2014not even a stubble of beard\u2014and ageless.\n\nFinally Jay broke the long silence. \"Nothing accounts for more hind end lameness than _standing_ a hot horse. You'd better walk him, Steve.\"\n\nIt was strange that only then did Steve think of Jay's nearness to Flame. Quickly he turned to his horse. No fire burned in Flame's eyes. The tall stallion looked past Jay, seemingly unconcerned over the stranger's presence.\n\nSteve didn't move. He couldn't take his eyes off Flame, so astonished was he at the stallion's easy acceptance of Jay. He heard the man say, \"Really, Steve, I've seen more good horses ruined by trainers doing just what you're doing now! Flame should be sponged off with warm water, swiped, blanketed and walked for at least an hour.\"\n\nSteve answered, \"Flame's used to this. He'll cool himself out. He won't stand still.\"\n\n\"Really, that's too much to expect of any horse, Steve,\" Jay said with concern. \"Please walk him.\"\n\nSteve touched Flame, and the stallion moved toward the pool.\n\nJay began to follow Flame, but then returned to Steve. \"I dislike interfering like this, Steve. I really do. I know you're well able to take care of your horse. But believe me, Flame shouldn't be allowed to drink any water now. Why, that's even worse than his standing still! He'll founder himself. He'll get cramp colic. He'll die!\"\n\nSteve laughed at Jay's outburst and said, \"Watch him.\"\n\nFlame wet his long nose and left the pool, walking down the valley.\n\nSteve added, \"He knows how to take care of himself. They all do. That's all they've ever known... they and their forebears.\"\n\nJay said nothing, but he didn't take his eyes off the constantly moving stallion. Finally he sat down on the grass, pulling up his pantlegs to keep the fine crease in his blue suit. \"I suppose you're right, Steve, but I wouldn't take any chances.\" He looked up at the boy, and then back at Flame. \"Especially after such a hard ride as you gave him,\" he added gravely.\n\n\"You watched us?\"\n\n\"Of course, Steve. There's nothing I enjoy more than getting up early, before dawn sometimes, and getting to a convenient track to watch horses in training. It really does something for me!\"\n\nSteve looked down at this well-dressed man who might have been at a popular metropolitan club, telling friends of his visits to Belmont Park or Churchill Downs. Yet here he was, where so few had ever been, very much at ease and urging him to sponge Flame, to blanket him, to walk him.... Flame, a wild stallion!\n\n\"I just wouldn't want anything to happen to him,\" Jay said. \"He's too fine a horse. I've never seen a better one. You must do everything possible to keep him sound.\"\n\nIn the distance Flame lowered himself carefully to the grass and began rolling, his long limbs cutting the air.\n\n\"You sit him beautifully, Steve,\" Jay said without taking his eyes off the rolling horse. \"No one could have a better seat. It wouldn't get by in a show ring, of course, but on the race track it's the only way to ride.\"\n\n\"I've never raced,\" Steve said.\n\n\"I know,\" Jay replied quietly.\n\nSteve continued standing. He couldn't sit down beside Jay and chew thoughtfully on a succulent blade of grass as the man was doing. He was not sufficiently at ease for that. He wondered how it was that Jay knew he had done no racing. Perhaps he would be able to find out. He was aware from having listened to him yesterday that Jay loved to talk and that it wouldn't be long before he knew a lot more about this man and where he was from.\n\n\"Do you know why you have the ideal racing seat?\" Jay asked.\n\n\"No. I just try to keep from falling off.\"\n\nJay laughed loudly, and his hair fell low on his forehead when he shook his head. He turned quickly to the boy, only his eyes smiling now. \"I wasn't laughing at you,\" he said when he saw Steve's flushed face. \"Your saying that reminded me of what happened a short while ago. I was down South on a visit when...\"\n\n\"South America?\" Steve asked quickly.\n\n\"No. Southern United States,\" Jay replied. \"Kentucky, I think it was, but it's not important. Anyway, I was watching the horse races at a small country fair and most of them were being won by kids riding bareback. There were a couple of big Eastern trainers there, and I got talking to them. It seems they went to the small fairs looking for horses they might be able to use on the big city tracks. They were disturbed because while they'd been buying a lot of the winning horses at the fairs it turned out that they didn't run very well when they reached the Eastern tracks. The trainers couldn't understand what happened to the horses' speed.\"\n\nJay stopped, and his eyes glowed with an unusual brightness.\n\n\"Maybe it was the faster competition,\" Steve suggested.\n\n\"No, it wasn't that at all,\" Jay answered. \"The reason was that the trainers took the horses but left the kids who had ridden them behind.\"\n\n\"Were they such good riders?\"\n\n\"In a way,\" Jay replied thoughtfully. \"You see, those kids at the fairs didn't have enough money to buy saddles, so in riding bareback their first objective was to keep from falling off.\" He smiled and then went on, \"A simple matter of self preservation, Steve, as you pointed out a moment ago. They hung on to whatever was best to keep their balance. They moved forward over their mounts' withers. They pulled up their knees and leaned close to their horses' necks, holding mane as well as rein. In doing all these things their weight was forward, where it should be for extreme speed, and in addition they cut down wind resistance to a minimum; their bodies didn't act as a brake.\"\n\nJay paused to glance at Flame, who was walking slowly around the band.\n\nIt gave Steve a chance to say, \"But certainly that's the way jockeys ride even with saddles.\"\n\nJay turned quickly to the boy. \"Oh, no, Steve. You're mistaken. I've watched them. They ride with very long stirrups and sit straight up in the saddle with their weight in the _middle_ of a horse's back. Really I can't understand why they do it! They just don't seem to use their heads at all. It makes me a little angry, especially when I think of what happened in England not long after my visit to that country fair.\"\n\nSteve said nothing. He knew that the crouched forward seat of riding had been first introduced to horse racing well over a half-century ago!\n\nJay continued, \"I was spending only a few days in England, but naturally I visited the track every morning. And, Steve, listen to this. One morning I saw the trainer I'd spoken to at the country fair, and working for his stable was one of the boys who had ridden bareback! I realized immediately that this man had finally come to his senses. I told him as much and he agreed fully. His boy was using a saddle then, of course, but his seat was exactly the same as it had been while riding bareback at the fairs.\n\n\"Now what disappointed me so greatly was this,\" Jay went on sadly. \"Even though the boy was winning more than his share of races over the long-stirrup, middle-of-the-back type rider that's currently so popular, his crouch style was being ridiculed in England. His trainer confided to me that he felt the reason for the public's non-acceptance of the boy and his excellent style of riding was because he wasn't _'fashionable'_!\"\n\nJay paused, waiting for Steve to say something. But Steve was too bewildered to move his lips, much less able to get any words out. Anyone who had read the history of horse racing knew that the great American jockey Tod Sloan had successfully introduced the popular crouch style of riding in England as long ago as _1897_!\n\n\"Aren't you surprised, Steve?\" Jay asked. \"Doesn't it make you furious too?\"\n\nSteve finally got his words to come. \"I don't know what you mean by 'fashionable,' \" he said.\n\n\"I believe the trainer meant that it was because of the color of the boy's skin. He was black. His name was Billy Sims. Yes, I believe that's what he was called. So many things happened during that hurried trip, and all were so very _new_ to me. Although as I said it was only a short while ago, it's difficult for me to remember some of the terms and language usage.\"\n\nSteve could not take his eyes off the man who sat on the grass in front of him. And when he spoke, he did not recognize his own voice. \"Y-you s-said all this happened a short while ago. Do you remember the year?\"\n\n\" _Your_ year? No, I'm afraid not, Steve. I'm not very good at that kind of thing. But wait. Let's see now.\" The blue-black head suddenly turned, the clear eyes alive and dancing. \"Why of course! I went to the Doncaster Sales and saw that beautiful gray colt sold. I've carried his picture in my wallet ever since. I clipped it from a magazine. It may give the date.\"\n\nA long wallet was drawn from the inner pocket of the striking blue suit, and then Jay read the clipping silently. Finally he said happily, \"Eighteen ninety-five, Steve.\"\n\n_A short while ago to Jay. But to anyone else, well over a half-century!_\n\nWhen Jay saw the expression on Steve's face a somber curtain fell over his bright eyes and he spoke with concern. \"Something I've said has startled you, Steve. Tell me what it is. I don't want you to be frightened of me.\"\n\n\"I\u2014I'm not frightened,\" Steve heard himself say. \"It's just that it h-happened so long ago.\"\n\n\"Really? In your time, you mean?\"\n\nSteve could only nod, and Jay said, \"I suppose I should have thought of it. Details like that always escape me.\" The shadowy darkness left his eyes and the brightness returned, greater than before. \"Then the crouch style of riding is now being used in racing horses?\"\n\nSteve nodded in still greater bewilderment.\n\n\"Oh, how I wish I could see them go! To think that I have to stay near the ship. The pity of it!\" And then the man's eyes were no longer bright but blood-red in sudden anger. \"It was Flick who insisted that we visit _Mao_ rather than _Earth_. He said so little had changed here since my last visit. The blackguard!\" he shouted bitterly. \"The scoundrel! No doubt he knew of this all along! So what did he do, Steve? What did he do?...\"\n\nSteve's face had whitened; his head seemed too heavy to move.\n\n\"I'll tell you what he did,\" Jay went on. \"He excited my interest in Mao by telling me of some horses that inhabited that planet. And what did I find? Scraggly, flea-bitten animals that were no more horse than I... _or you are_ , Steve,\" he added hastily. \"Oh, the imbecile he is, not to know a horse when he sees one! And then he takes me on a great tour of the oceans of Mao, the most boring trip of my life. Nothing but colored water! And when I think what was awaiting me here, why, Steve, I could just...\"\n\nHe stopped and the anger left his eyes while he studied the boy's face. Finally he said, \"Why, you're _surprised_ , aren't you, Steve? After yesterday I just took it for granted that you had figured out who we were.\"\n\nSteve's tongue felt too thick for speech.\n\n\"Not that Flick or the others would approve of my telling you this in so many words,\" Jay went on. \"They're always worried that people will be frightened if they know about us, and then we won't be able to come back again. I think that's all rather silly, don't you?\"\n\nWhen Steve did not answer, Jay continued. \"Oh, I'll admit that if you saw us as we really are you'd probably be frightened. Of course there wouldn't be any good reason for your fear, but that's the way you are. Sometimes I find it difficult to understand, and I try.... I really do, Steve. It seems you're always jumping to conclusions without thinking things out. Oh, I don't mean you personally, Steve,\" he added quickly. \"You're doing fine, just fine. It's your people I'm talking about... your _adults_.\"\n\nJay glanced toward the valley where he could see Flame. \"And I don't mean to infer that this is true only so far as we are concerned. Take your own kind. Take Billy Sims. His was only a difference of skin color, as I understand it.\" Jay's gaze returned to Steve. \"But, as you've reminded me, that was all many years ago. I'm sure the people of your world must be more understanding of each other in every way now. Aren't they, Steve?\"\n\nSteve looked at the face before him, but no words came. _Then it wasn't real_. And yet the eyes that weren't eyes at all found his own, holding him forever. Would they make him accept all of this that he was being told in the most casual way, as one friend talking to another? He stared back into the glowing, bottomless pits and an eternity seemed to pass.\n\nMeanwhile he was asking himself, \"Is what I've heard more fearful than what I dreaded last night, the secret weapons of war and foreign enemies? Isn't what I know to be _real_ more dangerous, more deadly and vicious than this, which I consider _unreal_?\"\n\nJay said, \"Don't think about it any more, Steve. I have your answer, and I'm sorry to hear it.\"\n\nIt was the overpowering disappointment in Jay's voice that startled Steve even more than his remembering that nothing could be kept from this man, not even one's thoughts. _But Jay wasn't a man_.\n\n\"Oh, but I am, Steve,\" the sad voice came again. \"Perhaps I'm not exactly what you think of as a man, but I am one, all right. You want to know what I really look like? Well...\" He paused to study Steve, and at the same time ran a hand through his hair. \"I guess we'd better not go into that, Steve. Not that you don't have a very open mind, but really there's no reason for my showing you. One form is as good as another, we've found. It's what a person _is_ that counts. We learned so long ago to change from one shape to another that it comes almost automatically now. It's simply a matter of taste and convenience at the time.\"\n\nHe stopped abruptly. \"You're not really frightened by what I'm telling you, are you, Steve?\" he asked with grave concern. \"Just surprised, perhaps a little startled?\"\n\nSteve got his head to nod. The truth was that he _wasn't_ frightened. No matter what he was being told, he couldn't look at this man with the troubled eyes and be scared.\n\nJay laughed in a pleased way. \"I knew you wouldn't be frightened, Steve! I knew it the moment I first saw you riding Flame. You were so carefree, so happy with your horse, wanting only to share the morning with him! I told Flick as much. I really did. But he and the others are such old 'fuddy-duddies,' Steve. They didn't believe me at all. They're so afraid to divulge anything to _anyone_.\"\n\nJay shrugged his thin shoulders. \"But then I suppose it's because they never really got together with a boy before. I told them that it's entirely different than dealing with an adult. And I'm right, I know I am. Just the short time I've been with you makes me very, very certain of it. Oh, you're skeptical of everything I've told you about us, and wary too. But the point I'm trying to make, Steve, is that _inside_ where it counts you've accepted us even though it's contrary to everything you've ever known or been told. Thank heavens for your youth, Steve!\"\n\nThe man bounded to his feet in quickening enthusiasm. \"At your age, Steve, I believe I could help you in many ways if you'd only let me. I've always said that it could be done if we found the right open-minded person.\" Jay paused and a bold and eager light blurred his features. \"We can try it _now_ , Steve, but it won't be easy. You'll have to listen to me very carefully. No closed mind now, not one bit of it!\"\n\nDesperately Steve tried to raise his head above the heat that was fast enveloping him. He sought Jay's face, but nothing was there except an indistinct shimmer of light... that and the blue-black hair, a black string tie, a white shirt, a blue suit. His hands shot up to his eyes, covering them so he could not see the dancing light. _\"Do what? What do you want me to do?\"_ he heard himself ask in a voice that did not seem to be his own.\n\nStill eager and with overwhelming curiosity Jay asked, \"Would you like to _fly_ , Steve? It's the easiest thing and the most fun of all. Listen to what I have to say now. You must relax a bit more and help me. Make your mind a blank. Forget everything you've ever known in this world you call Earth. Forget all you've ever seen and been told. Now, Steve...\"\n\nSteve felt a heavy blackness come swiftly to his mind, claiming it for its very own. He fought it as he had never fought anything before. There was no pain but he writhed in agony and his arms flayed the air, fighting nothing. He opened his mouth to yell, but no sound emerged.\n\n\"You're _thinking_ , Steve.\" Jay's patient words came to Steve from somewhere deep within the recesses of his brain. \"You're thinking of all you know as _normal_. Don't let it come to that, Steve. Shut it out of your mind, and just listen to me.\n\n\"You _want_ to go on with this experiment. I know you do, for I can feel it so strongly. Don't let what you've been told through the years stand in your way. Push it out, Steve... push... push... don't let it take over. I realize it's strong for it's all you've ever known. Don't let it come between us, please _don't_.\"\n\nSteve fought all the harder, seeking to drive the blackness away. An overwhelming desire to see Blue Valley and the horses again had risen within him. He felt it surge stronger and stronger as he fought against the dark void that Jay would have him enter. Yet there were long moments when he was confused by his fighting, for he was willing to go with Jay.\n\nThe blackness lightened a little, and he didn't know if he was glad or sorry. Where was Flame? He had to see his horse! He struggled more furiously, forcing the dark void further back with all the will he possessed.\n\nJay's voice came again, disappointed now. \"I guess I was wrong, Steve. Some other generation, perhaps, but not yours. What your mind has absorbed as normal is much too strong for me, even though you _did_ want to cooperate.\"\n\nWhen Steve emerged from the darkness, his first responsive reflex was to shout. His voice, throttled for so long, split his clenched lips and shattered the quiet of the valley. When it had died, the sound of Flame's swift hoofbeats could be heard. But from closer still came Flick's angry voice.\n\n\"I knew you were up to something, Jay, the moment I found you gone.\" Flick stood beside Jay, his eyes as angry as his voice. \"You can't do this to Steve,\" he went on. \"Mark my words, your conduct this morning will be reported to Julian!\"\n\n\"You and Julian,\" Jay replied quietly, \"... always worrying about nothing.\"\n\n# A MATTER OF CONVENIENCE\n\n6\n\nAs the sound of rhythmical pounding grew louder Steve turned away from the men and saw Flame coming down the valley, his ears back, his nostrils spread wide in fury. For a second Steve thought how easy it would be to say nothing, just to stand still and allow Flame to destroy Jay and Flick and the nightmare they had brought to Blue Valley. But was that what he wanted, _now that he knew who they were?_\n\nHe looked at them again, and from somewhere deep within him came a sudden cry of warning. _\"Run!\"_\n\nThey turned toward him, startled by the urgency in his voice. But Jay continued sitting on the grass, making no attempt to get to his feet. It was Flick who turned around and, seeing the oncoming stallion, shouted and ran.\n\nJay looked back, then scrambled to his knees and with the speed of a sprinter followed Flick. Both had reached the rocky trail before Flame swept past Steve.\n\nThe stallion came to a halt at the wall, his eyes large and red. He screamed at the men above him. He rose high on his hind legs and pawed the air in his fury and frustration. When he came down he bolted along the wall, sending large clods of earth flying behind him. Then he turned and came back, running like a caged animal, his anger never abating.\n\nSteve made no attempt to quiet Flame. Instead, he kept looking at Jay and Flick, who were seated on the trail, breathing heavily and scared. They were safe because Flame would never attempt the steep climb, regardless of his fury. They could have been two normal people who had run from an enraged animal. But they weren't. They were men from another world. Steve waited and watched them, thinking of all he had been told and what Jay had attempted to do to him.\n\n_\"Would you like to fly, Steve? It's the easiest thing and the most fun of all.... Forget everything you've ever known in this world you call Earth.\"_\n\nFor long minutes Steve's gaze was fixed on the two frightened figures huddled together on the trail above Flame. Seeing them so afraid helped him more than anything else. For if he accepted their fear as the kind of fear that was normal in his own world, mustn't he try to think of what he had been told by Jay as normal in _their_ world? His head throbbed. Would there come a time when even the people of Earth would be able to...\n\n_\"I guess I was wrong, Steve. Some other generation, perhaps, but not yours.\"_\n\nHe had his answer.\n\nFlame came to Steve, and his wide nostrils began to close as the anger ebbed from his giant body. He had understood Steve's shout and the danger that had threatened him but not the reason for it. Now he heard the boy's voice, soft and caressing. He listened, his ears no longer flat against his head but pricked and alert to every sound. He felt the comforting touches on his neck, and the fingers that ran from his mane to his forelock. He lowered his head still more, and stood quietly, very docile and content. He knew everything was all right now. Not that he understood the words, but the rhythm of the sounds and the soft touches comforted him. Finally he was told that he could go to his band, if he liked. He stayed a moment more and then left, moving up the valley at a slow gallop.\n\nSteve went to the trail. Jay and Flick got to their feet when he neared them, their eyes as sheepish and embarrassed as those of two children who had run away, leaving another behind to fight in their defense.\n\nFlick was the first to pull himself together. He turned angrily upon Jay. \"You see! You see what you did! We might have been killed!\" he accused the other.\n\nJay shrugged his narrow shoulders in an attempt to appear casual. \"Flame took me by surprise or we wouldn't have needed to run. After all, I've had _some_ experience with horses.\"\n\n\"I don't mean only that,\" Flick raged. \"You were told to leave Steve alone, and if you think for a moment that I'm going to forget this...\"\n\n\"Now, Flick, now,\" Jay said calmly. But suddenly he turned to Steve as though he were remembering his experiment for the first time. \"Ah, Steve...\" He paused and began again. \"You're not angry with me, are you? After all, you really _wanted_ to try it.\"\n\nSteve looked at this little man in the blue suit who now was perched above him, having passed Flick in his frantic climb to get away from Flame. He stared into eyes that in spite of all their wonder and knowledge were as troubled as a small boy's, asking forgiveness. Steve shook his head.\n\nJay smiled and turned to Flick once more. \"There, Flick,\" he said. \"Steve's not angry at all!\" He paused and then added bitterly, \"I don't see why you're getting so upset.\"\n\n\"Nevertheless, I'm reporting this to Julian,\" Flick answered. \"You were told to leave Steve alone, and you disregarded your instructions.\"\n\n\"What about Mao?\" Jay asked. The tone was soft, but the expression in the eyes was hard, stony. \"Weren't you told to confine our trip to the seas alone?\"\n\nFlick blurted out something that Steve couldn't hear, but he saw the back of the cropped gray head turn uneasily.\n\n\"You wouldn't, Jay. You _couldn't,_ \" Flick said, loud enough for Steve to hear him. \"After all, that was a side excursion in the interest of the _arts_.\"\n\nJay smiled. \"You're so sensitive to the beauties of art and nature, Flick,\" he said. And then Jay no longer smiled. \"But so indifferent to the practical matter of getting along with _people_!\" He glanced sidewise at Steve and added, \"My chat with Steve here was on that order... creating a mutual understanding of each other and our different ways of doing things.\"\n\nSteve turned away from Jay to watch Flame and the band. But after a few seconds he felt compelled to turn back to Jay and Flick and listen to every word they had to say.\n\n\"After all,\" Flick was saying, \"the Mao incident was such a little thing, Jay. Really nothing at all.\"\n\n\"My chat with Steve was just as little,\" Jay returned quietly.\n\nThey kept standing there, looking at each other. Finally Flick repeated, \"You wouldn't tell Julian, Jay. You _couldn't_.\"\n\n\"You wouldn't, couldn't either,\" Jay said. \"If you'll forget about this morning and give me a little more cooperation than you have in the past, I'll forget Mao.\" He grinned broadly at Steve, disclosing his small, white teeth. \"Let's continue this discussion over some tea,\" he suggested. \"It's just what we all need to soothe us down.\"\n\nSteve followed them to the ledge. He put the water on to boil, and then got the tea. \"This is Pitch's tea,\" he told himself, his fingers tightening about the can. \"It's imported and costly. He's going to be sore when he finds so much of it gone.\" And then he laughed at the absurdity of his thoughts, considering what he was going through.\n\nFlick said crossly, \"Well, Jay, I suppose it _is_ too late to do anything about you and Steve now. I'll simply have to assume full responsibility for your actions, as I've done before.\"\n\nJay chuckled. \"That's the ticket, Flick. Handle me _yourself_ without any help from Julian. You're perfectly capable of doing the job, and there's no sense getting Julian mixed up in it.\"\n\nFlick said nothing.\n\nThe water boiled and Steve made the tea extra strong, the way Jay liked it. Flick came up and stood beside him, holding out his cup.\n\n\"Since Jay told you as much as he did it's only right that you know more about us,\" Flick said. \"The little information he's given you can be a very dangerous thing.\"\n\nSteve was not aware if Flick's words were being spoken aloud or not. It didn't matter. All he knew was that he heard everything in the softest, most rhythmic cadence and that he understood it completely.\n\nHe poured the tea into cups. \"Would you like a biscuit?\" He laughed inwardly. Did he imagine for a minute that this was a party, that friends had come to tea? He passed the biscuits around and thought of the one Jay had not finished the night before.\n\n\"Oh, but I did,\" Jay said, smiling. \"But I'll have another if you can spare it, Steve. Thank you very much.\"\n\nSteve stared at Jay a long time, thinking, _The blue bird had dived quickly, snapping up the biscuit with one hard thrust of his bill, and then had flown away_.\n\nFlick ran his fingertips through his stiff brush of hair, and then said, \"I believe the best way for us to explain what we are, Steve, is to say that we're simply tourists.\" He turned to Jay. \"Don't you think so?\"\n\n\"You're the scholar,\" Jay answered. \"Explain it your way, now that you've consented to take Steve into our confidence.\"\n\nThe coolness of the morning swept in a sudden wind across the ledge. Steve rubbed his bare arms to warm them, but felt no chill, no shivering.... That would come later, after his two visitors had gone.\n\nFlick said, \"Well, we'll just call ourselves tourists, then. We travel a great deal, Steve, truly great distances as you know them.\"\n\n\"You mean as he _doesn't_ know them,\" Jay interrupted, laughing.\n\nThe sound of Jay's laughter startled Steve, for now he knew why it had sounded so familiar to him all along. It was like the raucous call of the blue bird. He turned to Flick and asked, \"Where are you from?\"\n\n\"Our world is called Alula,\" Flick answered. \"It's not too unlike your Earth.\"\n\n\"As far as the geological features go,\" Jay interrupted again.\n\n\"Of course,\" Flick said sharply, \"that's all I meant.\"\n\nJay smiled. \"And it's cooler. That's why we prefer a day like this.\"\n\nSteve rubbed his chilled bare arms again but said nothing. He thought of the cold rain the first night Jay and Flick had arrived and wondered whether they had preferred that too.\n\n\"But we don't have your sunsets,\" Flick said. \"Never have I seen a more glorious one than on the night of our arrival! Why, the sky had more color than the seas of Mao. Didn't you think so, Jay?\"\n\n\"Let's not talk about Mao,\" Jay answered sullenly. \"When I think of what that trip has kept me from seeing here, I could just...\" He stopped, and a band of red appeared in his eyes. \"Why did you tell me there was so little change on Earth, when you knew of my interest in horses? _Why_ , Flick?\" Jay had risen from his chair and was standing over Flick.\n\n\"But I didn't know of any great change,\" Flick insisted nervously.\n\nJay waved a long, bony finger in Flick's face. \"Do you mean to tell me that during your last trip here you never noticed jockeys crouched forward in their saddles, their knees pulled up?\"\n\n\"Of course not,\" Flick said defiantly. \"You know I never go to the races.\"\n\n\"But you _heard_ of this new racing seat, didn't you?\" Jay insisted. \"After all, you're supposed to be the scholar, the well-informed person who knows what's going on, even in the most remote of planets!\"\n\nFlick looked at Steve helplessly, and then threw up his hands. \"One can't possibly remember _everything_ , Jay! Perhaps I did hear of this new riding style, now that you've mentioned it. But I didn't think it was important. There are so many other things that...\"\n\n_\"Not important!\"_ Jay shouted, and then he put his head in his hands, rocking it. After a moment he turned abruptly, went back to his chair and sat down. \"To think,\" he said softly, \"that they had to assign an old man like you as my companion on this trip... one who no longer can appreciate the drama of a horse race, and in addition cannot retain a single important fact!\"\n\nFlick rose from his chair, the red band in his eyes also. He spluttered, finding it difficult to speak as he turned and looked at Steve.\n\nThis man old? Steve studied Flick's soft, lineless face and the hair that just now seemed to be more red than gray. \"He's not old at all,\" Steve thought.\n\nSuddenly the little man beamed and the angry red left his eyes. \"Oh, I'm old, all right,\" he said appreciatively. \"Still, it's nice to be told I'm not.\" Glancing over his shoulder, he added fiercely, \"And you're just as old, Jay. Don't forget that.\"\n\n\"Not in _heart_ ,\" the other answered.\n\nFlick ignored Jay. \"What's bothering him,\" he explained to Steve, \"is that two of us always have to stay with the ship while the others go off touring. It worked out that our turn for ship duty came here on Earth.\"\n\n\"We could have traded with Julian and Victor,\" Jay said. \"Julian wanted to visit Mao again, but you insisted upon _our_ going instead.\"\n\n\"Julian might have traded, but not Victor,\" Flick said thoughtfully. \"Victor really wanted to visit Earth. He'd never been here, remember.\"\n\n\"I wish Victor and I had been assigned together,\" Jay said wistfully.\n\n\"It wouldn't have worked,\" Flick answered. \"Everybody knew that.\" He turned back to Steve. \"You see, we use the 'buddy system,' as you do in your Boy and Girl Scout organizations. And it's for the same purpose... to keep track of each other, and to... ah, avoid trouble. One is supposed to have a restraining influence over the other. That's why Jay was assigned to me.\"\n\nJay snickered. \"It was the other way around,\" he said.\n\n\"Look at it any way you like,\" Flick said, shrugging his shoulders. \"But now we must get back to the ship.\"\n\n\"Why must we go?\" Jay asked furiously. \"You know the others won't be back for...\" He glanced at Steve, \"... a week, I guess it is in your time.\"\n\n\"We're not certain of that,\" Flick said quietly in the face of Jay's angry outburst. \"Some of them might just change their minds and return sooner. Anyway, it's our job to be on the ship and keep everything in order. You're well aware that we mustn't shirk our duties.\"\n\n\"We can clean everything up just before they get back. No sense working now when we can enjoy ourselves. After all, it's very unusual to have someone like Steve around.\"\n\n_\"Very,\"_ Flick admitted in the same soft, patient tone. \"But they expect no less of us than we did of Julian and Victor while we were visiting Mao, even though...\" He paused, his small eyes traveling over Steve, \"... we are more fortunate.\"\n\n\"Nonsense,\" Jay muttered. \"They'd be glad we had a chance to enjoy ourselves while still keeping an eye on the ship.\"\n\n\"Maybe so, but we still have our moral obligations.\"\n\n\"You didn't think of moral obligations when we were on Mao,\" Jay grumbled.\n\nThe red streak reappeared in Flick's eyes. \"You promised not to mention that again,\" he said fiercely.\n\n\"I only promised not to report you to Julian, providing you'd give me a little more cooperation than you have in the past,\" Jay reminded him.\n\n\"Well, haven't I?\" Flick demanded, his short hair bristling. \"Doesn't Steve know more about us than anyone else has ever known?\"\n\n\"You realize as well as I do that we don't have to worry about Steve,\" Jay returned quietly.\n\n\"Well, didn't I promise not to report your... _your experiment_?\"\n\n\"Sure. Sure you did.\" Jay began moving down the trail. \"All right, we'll go... but really you're not very adventurous, Flick.\"\n\nSteve followed them down the trail. He knew they wouldn't allow him to witness their departure. He didn't understand how he knew, but it was there, somewhere in his brain.\n\nWhen they had reached the valley floor Steve continued walking with them. He told himself that he was going to see Flame. But he knew that was not his only reason for staying close to Jay and Flick. He did not want them to go. There was still too much he wanted to learn.\n\nThey walked very quietly with their heads down. Perhaps, Steve decided, they were bothered by his presence. Perhaps they wanted him to leave now. But he would have _known_ , wouldn't he? And nothing had as yet told him to go.\n\nJay suddenly broke the silence. \"There's something else, Flick,\" he blurted. \"I don't see why I shouldn't be allowed to watch just one race while I'm here. After all it would _only_ be a matter of a few minutes to get to...\" He stopped and turned to Steve. \"Where'd you say that race was going to be?\"\n\nSteve just looked at him.\n\n\"Yesterday morning while you were riding Flame,\" Jay prompted anxiously. \"You were racing him somewhere. Now where was it? You were going so fast that it was difficult to...\"\n\n_\"Jay!\"_ Flick said, horrified. \"You wouldn't make a trip, even a short one! You _couldn't_. Why, Julian would be furious!\"\n\n\"Julian needn't know,\" Jay answered quietly. He turned back to Steve. \"Where was it?\"\n\nSteve said finally, \"Cuba... Havana, Cuba.\"\n\n\"Oh, yes,\" Jay said. \"See, Flick, it wouldn't take any time at all. Julian wouldn't know, would he, Flick? After all, there are some things that don't need to be reported to him. Your side excursion on Mao, for example.\"\n\nFlick's face was as taut as stretched wire; he said nothing.\n\nThey walked a few strides more, and then Jay grabbed Steve by the arm excitedly. \"Why don't you and Flame come too, Steve? _You can race him!_ That's what you wanted, wasn't it? We'd have plenty of room in the ship.\"\n\nSteve could not have told how long he stood there in astonished, numbed silence. His only recollection of time afterward was hearing the sudden rush of Flame's hoofs. The stallion was coming up from behind them, his ears flat against his head, his eyes bright with anger at sight of Jay and Flick.\n\nSteve ran toward Flame.\n\nThe red stallion slowed when Steve appeared between him and the men, but he did not stop. He swerved to one side and went on, his nostrils flared, lips pulled back.\n\nSteve tried to swerve with his horse but tripped in his hurried, frantic plunge and went down hard upon his hands and knees. Picking himself up, he turned around. He was about to call to Flame when the sound died quickly on his lips. _Jay and Flick were nowhere to be seen!_\n\nMeanwhile Flame had swept into the wild cane, seeking the men who had escaped him once before! His loud snorts shattered the stillness and his tall body cut great swaths in the waving field of green. He refused to give up his search, galloping in winding paths that took him back and forth through the cane.\n\nSteve watched in silence, knowing that Flame's search was futile. His stallion was no match for Jay and Flick, any more than he was. Where had they gone, and how? Were they even now somewhere within that field of cane and, if so, in what form? Hadn't Jay said, _\"We learned long ago to change from one shape to another. It's simply a matter of taste and convenience at the time.\"_\n\nTurning his gaze skyward, Steve saw the two birds circling above the dome of Azul Island. He thought of the blue feathers of one, of the high-crested head and the splash of white. He thought of the other's brown mottled back, the long beaked bill, the bit of red on the head and the black mark beneath the bill. And then he sat down on the grass and successfully pictured Jay and Flick.\n\nWhile Steve sat there, occupied with his thoughts, Flame came up and stood beside him. He was alert and ready to fight in the boy's defense. But he saw and heard nothing, even though he remained with Steve for some time.\n\n# \"LAUGH, PLEASE\"\n\n7\n\nSteve felt a tongue licking his forehead. He could tell it was not Flame's for there was no affection in the motion, only an eagerness to lick the salty beads of perspiration that covered his face and matted his hair.\n\nHe rolled over on the grass and at once the suckling foal ran to its mother and stood behind her large, protective body. \"Come, Princess,\" Steve called softly to the mare.\n\nThe mare had been gray but was now white with age. Her body was heavy and sagging but there was nothing aged about her head. It was still small and fine and beautiful.\n\nShe was the oldest of all the mares, and for this reason Steve regretted having named her \"Princess.\" She was more a queen, a proud dowager queen, and the filly by her side would probably be her last. But it was too late to change her name now for she knew it so well. Unlike the other mares, she would come at once in answer to his call, just as she was doing now.\n\nWhen the white mare reached him she lowered her head so he might rub it. After a minute or two of this Steve rose to his knees, fondling the soft muzzle with the bristling hairs. \"Good girl,\" he said. \"Good old girl.\"\n\nFlame stopped his grazing to watch them but stayed away.\n\nSoftly Steve stroked the mare, his fingers finding spots that gave her much pleasure and contentment to have scratched because she could not reach them herself. She lowered her head still more so he might rub behind her small ears. He held her close. It was good to be wanted, to be needed....\n\nHe looked beyond the mare to the suckling filly, who stood quietly in the shadow of her mother's big body. Cautiously the filly peered at him from beneath the mare's tail, her eyes big and fuzzy in her curiosity and shyness. He called to her, \"Come, little Princess.\"\n\nThe foal pricked up her small, furry ears at the sound of his voice, and remained so as he continued talking to her. The white mare nickered for more attention and shoved her head against his chest. Steve continued rubbing the mare but he spoke only to the filly. Finally she moved to her mother's side, her slender neck and head stretched out, trying to reach him without coming any closer. Her soft, large eyes gazed intently into his own; there was no wavering, no fear... just a girlish shyness. Her mother was accepting him, loving him, but the filly was still uncertain and very, very cautious.\n\nFinally the filly took another step closer, her thin muzzle stretched out and trembling. Steve made no attempt to touch her. He waited for her to come to him. And at last the mole-soft nose was on his cheek, the lips moving, searching and finally nipping. He drew back a little, for her milk teeth were strong, and continued stroking the white mare. Now the filly moved eagerly forward to pull at his shirt. She did not want to be left out of things. When Steve scolded her for tearing his shirt she drew back but did not run off in alarm. Instead her eyes glittered naughtily and she renewed her nuzzling.\n\nSteve patted them both for a long while, and then found his eyes turning often to Flame.\n\n_\"Why don't you and Flame come too, Steve? You can race him! That's what you wanted, wasn't it? We'd have plenty of room in the ship.\"_\n\nJay's words couldn't be shrugged off as sheer folly! For how often had he dreamed of racing Flame? How many times had he taken him about the valley, pretending they were in a great race? Only yesterday morning he had pretended he was riding Flame at Havana. And Jay had known. How had he known? Where had he been? It was one thing to have Jay and Flick standing beside you, looking at you, knowing they were able to read every one of your thoughts. But it was something else to have them know so much when you were not even aware of their presence.\n\nSteve remembered Flame's winged tormentor, who had flown about him during the fast ride and then had narrowly escaped being trampled by the stallion's powerful hoofs. Yes, Jay had been in the valley yesterday morning, and Flame had come close to destroying him.\n\nSteve fondled the two heads in front of him, one so mature and wise, the other so young and eager. A cold wind was blowing and yet he was perspiring freely. He thought of everything Jay and Flick had told him, and then he said aloud, \"It can't be true!\" But inside, where Jay had said it counted most, he knew it was all very true and that he had accepted Jay and Flick and the world from which they had come.\n\n\"I know they're from a distant planet,\" he thought. \"Is that so fantastic, when we've been told of the possibility of there being other peoples, other worlds in a universe so great it defies description? Therefore, I accept what they've told me of their world of Alula. I accept their world as being far older, far more advanced than my own. I accept Jay and Flick from that world, not as deadly, threatening enemies to our very existence, but as good and kind friends touring other worlds in much the same manner as we visit other states and countries. I accept all this, and having accepted it I have nothing to fear except what I've learned to fear in my own world.\"\n\nLater that afternoon Steve got pencil and paper and sat down to write. Quickly he made notes of Jay and Flick and the ship, of everything he had been told, everything he had felt. He tried to believe that this was but another account of his life in Blue Valley... one that would follow in sequence the records he had hidden away. Only the others were nothing like this, nothing in this world could... He stopped writing, looked at the sky and repeated aloud, _\"Nothing in this world.\"_\n\nHe had no chance to turn back to his notes just then, for a voice suddenly asked, \"What are you writing, Steve?\"\n\nJay was standing on the trail.\n\n\"You know what I'm writing, Jay,\" Steve said. \"Why do you ask?\"\n\nThe man chuckled. He came within the cave to join Steve, but he did not look at the papers. \"It's more polite and sociable to ask, Steve,\" he answered. \"After all, if we can't _talk_ to each other...\" He stopped, paused a moment and then went on, \"You're becoming quite the historian, aren't you?\"\n\nSteve turned back to his notes. \"Do you mind my writing about you?\" His voice was steady. He wanted to know.\n\n\"Of course not,\" Jay answered. \"Flick might raise the very roof if he knew, but not I. It's nice to keep records, Steve, and to write a little every day. I know because I do some writing myself. Straight fiction, though, nothing historical. History bores me. Much too factual.\"\n\n\"Then you're not afraid that people might read this someday?\"\n\nJay laughed loudly, his voice reverberating within the close confines of the cave. \"Why no, Steve,\" he finally said. \"Who'd believe it? Take this from an old hand, Steve, it's difficult to get people to stretch their imaginations very far. They say 'it just isn't so,' and it ends there. It would be that way with this.\"\n\nJay walked to the ledge and stood there for a moment, his eyes roaming over the valley. \"If I know Flick, he'll have missed me by now. Should be on his way. He's such an old fuss-budget, afraid to leave me alone a minute.... My, your Flame is a beauty, Steve!\" he went on excitedly. \"Just look at him go out there! I've never seen better action... as slick as light, I'd say! I do hope you've given more thought to that little trip I suggested this morning. We'd have a time, all right!\" He re-entered the cave, his eyes searching Steve's.\n\n\"I won't take Flame away from the valley,\" Steve said, afraid for his horse. \"Nothing you can do will make me.\"\n\n\"Oh, I know that, all right, Steve. Even if I could, I wouldn't make you do anything you didn't _want_ to do. I was only suggesting that since you've had it in mind to race Flame for so long you just might take advantage of my being here and go to it.\"\n\n\"I was only pretending, dreaming,\" Steve said.\n\n\"Dreams are fine.\" Jay smiled. \"Nothing wrong with them at all. They very often lead to the real thing.\"\n\nSteve felt the heavy throbbing of his temples. He tried to look at Jay and couldn't. His notes fell to the floor and he didn't bother to pick them up.\n\n\"Oh, you _want_ to race Flame, all right,\" Jay said. \"No doubt about that. I believe what's troubling you is that you're afraid people will find out where Flame is from. That's silly, Steve. I promise you no one will learn your secret. After all, I have had a great deal of experience in that sort of thing.\"\n\nSteve glanced up at Jay. He was no match for this man. It was like arguing with oneself. And he'd give so much to race Flame. If only...\n\n\"That's the boy, Steve,\" Jay said. \"Just leave all the details to me. Just relax. Now what bothers me most is that Flame may not be as fast as I think he is. After all, I've been away from the races a long time, as you pointed out to me only yesterday. The horses must be very speedy these days, especially with their riders using the crouch seat.\"\n\nAs Steve said nothing Jay went on, \"I realize you're no professional jockey but certainly you've seen them go?\"\n\nIt was a question, not a statement. So there _were_ some things Jay still didn't know about him! \"I've watched them race a few times,\" he admitted.\n\n\"And Flame is faster?\" Jay prodded eagerly. \"After all, we wouldn't want to go to the work of getting him there and then have him _lose_ the race. It would be a terrible disappointment for both of us.\"\n\nSteve had no time to answer for at that moment Flick, puffing hard from his climb up the trail, entered the cave.\n\n\"What's ailing you, Jay?\" Flick asked angrily. \"I've never known your conduct to be worse than it's been today! I turn my back a few minutes and you're...\"\n\n\"Now, Flick,\" Jay interrupted, \"I just wanted to have another _private_ little chat with Steve.\"\n\nFlick's gaze shifted quickly to the boy and there was no lessening of the fury in his eyes. He wouldn't be having all this trouble with Jay if it hadn't been for Steve and that horse of his! He saw the notes on the floor and picked them up, his bright eyes running quickly down one page after another. Finally he put a match to them, and when the papers were afire he dropped them on the ground, stepping on the charred fragments with his small, brilliantly polished shoes.\n\n\"You shouldn't have done that, Flick,\" Jay admonished softly.\n\n\"Were you...?\" Flick sputtered and began again, \"You weren't going to stand idly by and let him make use of those notes!\" he shouted.\n\n\"What harm would come of it, Flick? No one would ever believe what he's written.\" Jay paused, and his face and voice contained only a disturbing sadness. \"But the point I'm trying to make, Flick, is that you have just destroyed something which belonged to Steve and that he prized very highly. What are you going to do about it? How are you going to make amends?\"\n\nAgain Flick had trouble finding his voice. \"What... What am _I_ going to do about it? You have the colossal nerve...\"\n\n\"Ah, Flick. Be careful what you say now,\" Jay cautioned even more quietly. \"You must remember our ironclad policy, _never to show anything but sympathy and understanding toward the people we visit_. And most important, as you very well know, is never to hurt them one bit by word or action. You've hurt Steve dreadfully. Hasn't he, Steve?\"\n\nSteve straightened in his chair. He didn't even look at the charred remains that had been his notes. It didn't matter. Neither Flick nor Jay could destroy his memory, and he would always remember. Or would they see to that too?\n\nJay turned back to Flick. \"Well, you've hurt Steve, even if he has the graciousness not to speak of it. How do you intend to make up for what you've done?\"\n\nFlick shook his head in disgust, but a troubled look appeared in his eyes. \"I know what you're suggesting,\" he said, \"but I don't propose to do anything about it.\"\n\nJay's eyes opened wide in astonishment. \"But you _must_ , Flick. After all, you can't expect me to forget two such grave infractions of the rules... this and what happened on Mao. Actually I've done nothing to compare with either of them, as you very well know. I'm afraid I'll have to speak to Julian.\"\n\n\"You're being silly,\" Flick said hastily, but the uneasiness remained in his eyes. He turned to Steve. \"I'm certain Steve doesn't want to go to the races with you,\" he added, a note of desperation creeping into his voice.\n\nJay also turned to Steve, and they silently awaited his answer.\n\nSteve looked at them. Race Flame? Is that what he was being asked? Is that what he had to decide? Now?\n\n\"Well, Steve?\" Jay asked, holding the boy's eyes. \"I promised you that no one will learn your _secret_.\"\n\nSteve answered, \"Flame wouldn't go with you. He'd kill you!\"\n\n\"Oh, no, Steve. You're wrong,\" Jay said. \"It's just that at this point Flame isn't being very receptive to anything we try to tell him. Isn't that right, Flick?\" he asked, turning to his friend.\n\nFlick nodded numbly, for he was looking at Steve's eyes and knew that Jay had won again. The boy really wanted to race his horse.\n\n\"You see,\" Jay continued, trying to make Steve understand, \"Flame thinks we're evil because he heard you shout this morning when I was... ah, when _we_ were trying our little experiment. He thought I was hurting you, and now his mind is closed tight to anything but hatred of us. Right, Flick?\"\n\nAgain the other's cropped head moved in sad and resigned agreement.\n\n\"Now all we need is an opportunity to reach Flame again, Steve,\" Jay continued. \"The only possible way, of course, is for him to see you enjoying our company. It would be nice if you'd just put your arms around our shoulders. Your laughing at anything we have to say would also help. Flame will then rid himself of that mental barrier that's keeping us from reaching him. It's as simple as that. We can take the first step now by sitting down below rather than here. Come, Steve.\"\n\nThey went down the trail and when they were only a short distance from the valley floor they sat down. Steve saw Flame leave the band and come toward them at a run. The red stallion stopped when he saw them, his intent eyes watching every move they made.\n\n\" _Now_ , Steve... laugh, please,\" Jay said, \"and put your arms around our shoulders.\"\n\nSteve did as Jay had requested, but his laugh was forced. It couldn't have been otherwise, for he knew that before long he and Flame would be passengers on that ship of light.\n\n# FINAL TRAINING\n\n8\n\nA little over an hour later Steve was sitting alone on the trail. Jay and Flick had gone moments before, and Flame was moving up the valley. Steve watched the stallion but his thoughts were of Jay's final warning.\n\n_\"Of course, the big job will be yours, Steve. Do you think you can manage to get Flame out to the ship? And then once you're at the track you'll be on your own too. So please make sure you have absolute control over him. It would be terrible if he put on a bad show!\"_\n\nSteve continued sitting there for many minutes, while Flame and the band moved to the most distant shadows of the valley. He wanted to go to his horse but he wasn't certain just then that his legs would bear his weight.\n\nFinally he got to his feet, wavering a bit at first, then steadying himself enough to make his way down the trail. When he reached the valley floor he attempted a whistle but what came out wasn't loud enough to attract Flame's attention and save him any steps. He had to go halfway up the valley before Flame saw him and stepped out of the shadows into sunlight.\n\nSteve waited for his horse, and when Flame came to a stop beside him he put both hands up, one finding and grasping the long red mane, the other on the high withers. He steeled himself for the jump, knowing that it would take all of whatever strength he had left. He was furious at his weakness but there was no fighting it... or that to which he had committed himself and Flame.\n\nThere was a quivering of the stallion's muscles. Flame knew what was coming and was waiting impatiently. He sidestepped and his finely molded body moved away from Steve. Snorting through wide nostrils, Flame waited for the boy to mount. He turned his small, wedge-shaped head, his eyes surprised and puzzled at Steve's unusual clumsiness. His small ears almost touched at the tips when he pricked them forward inquisitively.\n\nOnce more Steve put his hands upon Flame. This time he jumped as high as he could, pulling at mane and back. He hung on face downward, his legs dangling. Flame whirled, and Steve's hold upon him became even more precarious. He pulled harder on the mane with one hand, the fingers of the other pressing deep into Flame's withers. Only then did the stallion come to a halt as though in sudden realization that something was terribly wrong.\n\nSteve was successful in getting more of his weight on the off side of his horse, and finally he swung around. Flame bolted immediately, and for a while Steve made no effort to control him. He simply hung on as the stallion swept across the valley.\n\nWhen Steve had brought Flame to a stop he straightened and then sat still for a moment, making certain he was all right and that he was prepared for what he had to do. After all, what had begun as the wildest of dreams was now very close to becoming a reality!\n\nSatisfied that he was in full control of himself, he touched his horse and took him down the valley at a slow walk. Flame tried to break from it, crab-stepping and tossing his head, telling Steve in no uncertain terms that he wanted to run. But Steve did not give in to his demands. Instead, he turned Flame often, sometimes making large circles that swept them from one border of cane to the other; then again he took him in small, tight circles that made of Flame's hindquarters little more than a pivot for his tall body.\n\nThe stallion fidgeted constantly but made no attempt to break away. And that was what Steve had needed to know. He had never before asked so much of Flame at any one time.\n\nLater he reversed the circles, keeping Flame at a walk; then he took him through figure \"eights,\" some large, some very small and tight. Finally, allowing Flame to move into an easy lope, he made the circles and the figure \"eights\" again. When he had finished he was as hot as his horse, and almost as impatient.\n\nBut he did not dismount. Instead, he took Flame through the field of cane in a hard run. He kept him at that gait until they emerged from the cane and started over the stony ground near the western wall of Blue Valley. There he slowed him to a walk again and went on to the hollow near the marsh.\n\nFlame came to a stop before the murky veil of gray and his nostrils curled. He did not like the smell of rotting vegetation any more than Steve did. But he went forward again when the pressure came from Steve's legs, his hoofs making soft, sucking sounds in the wet ground. Although he knew his way, he was very, very cautious. He had been given his head, for he was no stranger to this cloud-like world, but his eyes never left the path.\n\nSteve glanced at the slimy wilderness of swamp ferns and high reeds on either side of them. Most of all he feared those still black pools. One false step, a slip, and he and Flame would become victims of these horrible quagmires.\n\nMoments later they left the marsh behind, and there was a quickening of Flame's strides. He chose his path through the twisting gorge as carefully as he had done in the marsh. They went up the dry stream bed, their way strewn with rocks and boulders, the high yellow cliffs rising on either side of them. At the end of their climb the walls widened, and stretched before them was the smaller valley.\n\nFlame broke into a run when he stepped onto dry grass again, and Steve let him go. He felt the stallion gather himself just before reaching the brook that cut the middle of the tiny valley. He knew Flame was going to jump the water rather than go through it, so he was ready when the stallion sprang from one bank to the other.\n\nSoon after, he slowed Flame, for they were moving in a rush toward the far wall. The wall was split by many narrow chasms and Steve purposely guided Flame down one that came to a dead end. As the high, precipitous walls closed in about them, the red stallion stopped in his tracks.\n\nHe disclosed no hesitation or uneasiness when Steve asked him to back up. Instead, he let his rider become his eyes, moving his hindquarters in quick response to Steve's touches. And finally he was free of the narrow, twisting chasm.\n\nSteve felt no great elation at Flame's easy and prompt obedience to his requests. The test of final, complete control over Flame was yet to come.\n\nHe rode Flame alongside the wall, and then turned him into the chasm that led to the sea entrance. Soon he could hear the dull thud of waves beating against the outer wall. He stopped Flame at the end of the chasm and dismounted.\n\n\"Come on, boy,\" he said, entering the high cave. There was no need to look back, for he heard Flame's hoofbeats behind him.\n\nHe hurried through the large cave, having no trouble making his way in the dim, gray light. Flame followed him with equal ease for he, too, had been there many times. At last they entered the great chamber, and the winds from the sea whipped about them. The crash of waves outside was thunderous as was the rush of water in the canal. The motor launch rocked against the wooden piles. It was here, Steve knew, that the final test of his control over Flame would come.\n\nThe stallion stopped just within the chamber. Steve glanced back at him, and then went to the launch. He hauled out the wide planks that were used in sliding barrels and heavy boxes onto the sunken deck and then called to his horse, \"Come on, boy!\"\n\nFlame came quickly, showing no fear or hesitation until Steve stepped aboard the launch and continued calling him. Then he stopped, his eyes on the boy, and backed away, only to come forward again. He snorted and pawed the sand, sending it flying. He carried on for many minutes without setting hoof on the planks. He knew what he was being asked to do.\n\nSteve sat down in the boat, talking to Flame, and waiting. His task would take a long time, if he succeeded in it at all. Whenever Flame moved away from the launch Steve called to him again. The stallion's eyes were bright in his bewilderment, and once he ran out of the chamber. Steve stayed in the boat and finally Flame returned to plunge about the sandy floor, his snorts softening the crash of waves outside.\n\n\"We're not going anywhere,\" Steve told him. \"I just want to see if you'll do it.\"\n\nIt was a long while before Flame even consented to lower his small head to smell the wooden planks. He walked up and down the canal, sniffing the hull of the launch. Then he turned abruptly away and began plunging about the chamber once more. Finally he settled down but stood in a far corner, waiting patiently for Steve to return to Blue Valley.\n\nAfter a half-hour had passed Flame lost his patience. As he snorted and came forward, Steve rose and stood close to the planks. \"Come, Flame,\" he said softly, \"and then we'll go back.\"\n\nFlame angrily tossed his head and rose high on his hind legs, almost touching the top of the chamber. When he came down he stood still, watching Steve and listening to him. He put one hoof on a plank, then quickly took it off. He tried the other hoof and this one remained planted on the plank. A few seconds more and the second hoof had joined it. And thus he stood, making no sound, two hind feet on sand, two forefeet on wood. He listened to the rhythm of the boy's voice and inched forward carefully. Then he stopped again, undecided.\n\nWhen he finally went down the planks, it was with an abruptness that shook the boat. There was a lurching of his great body, the hard thud of all four hoofs on wood planking, and then a restless shifting of his weight once he was aboard.\n\nFortunately the _Sea Queen_ was a sturdy vessel and she easily withstood the stallion's constant movement. Steve stayed close to Flame's head, talking to him, comforting him. The sides of the launch were not very high, and Flame could have jumped onto the sandy floor. But he didn't. He knew Steve wanted him in the boat and for the moment he was willing to stay there. He had no room to turn, he could hardly move. Finally he quieted and looked inquisitively at the wheel and the glistening brass objects behind Steve.\n\nSteve backed up to the wheel then and Flame, taking a cautious step forward, followed. Now very curious and unafraid, he thrust his small head beneath the wooden overhang. Seeing this, Steve realized that he would be able to take Flame in the launch, but that it would be a hazardous trip for the first few hundred yards. He'd have all he could do to guide the boat safely through the submerged coral rock, much less have time to watch his horse.\n\nWas he actually considering taking Flame from Azul Island? Even if they were successful in reaching Cuba, what about the still greater risks they'd be taking at the track? Jay knew nothing of the rules and regulations governing the running of a race of this magnitude, and neither did he! What would he say when the officials asked him where he and his horse were from? _The Windward Islands of the Caribbean Sea?_ Would that satisfy them? Would they accept such a vague answer and allow him to race Flame? Just because the poster had said that the International Race was open to the world? Of course not! In the end they'd make him divulge everything and Flame might even be taken from him!\n\n\"Come on, Flame,\" he said. \"We're going back _to stay_.\" He stepped out of the launch and his horse followed him eagerly, glad to be returning to Blue Valley.\n\n# THE UNLEASHING\n\n9\n\nSteve moved away from the stove where he had been cooking his evening meal. Flame and the mares were drinking at the pool below. For a long while Steve stood watching them, the skin drawn tight on his angular face. He wasn't going to race Flame at the risk of losing him! He didn't care what he had told Jay. He had changed his mind... and Jay couldn't make him do anything he didn't _want_ to do. Hadn't Jay said so, time and time again?\n\nHe went back to the stove and put his dinner on a plate. But when he sat down, he found he was toying with his food. Was his appetite never coming back? Or was it simply that whatever he cooked was tasteless compared to Pitch's meals?\n\nLong after night had fallen, he kept trying to convince himself that he had made up his mind, that he had no intention of taking Flame to Cuba. Actually it was this that was absorbing him, leaving no room for appetite or sleep.\n\nWhen the first streaks of dawn appeared in the sky, Steve turned face downward on his cot. Closing his eyes, he sought the rest that had evaded him throughout the night. Once more he tried to rid his mind of every thought but sleep. He forced himself to see only a heavy black curtain. He concentrated on the blackness, and waited for sleep to come. But heavy hands seemed to part his mental curtain and divulge all that lay behind, all that had kept him awake for so many hours. He fought to keep the curtain closed, to see only the blackness. His head and pillow were wet and clammy with sweat, yet he continued fighting and refused to give up. But it was a losing battle. The hands were winning; he felt their pull. Then the curtain opened and his mind began racing again. He decided to get up. As tired as he was he couldn't fight any longer.\n\nHe felt the hands on his shoulders, shaking him gently... only these hands were real, as was the voice.\n\n\"Steve, are you awake?\" Jay asked.\n\nAs Steve turned over, he could see Jay's eyes glowing in the semi-darkness of the cave.\n\n\"I'm sorry that I've awakened you so early, Steve, but I couldn't wait any longer to tell you what I've learned!\"\n\nJay sat down on the cot, but got up again quickly. \"I'm a little too excited to sit still, I guess. I've found a wonderful place to land, Steve. Actually it's much closer to Cuba than I thought we dared go. Even Flick seems satisfied that we won't be seen.\"\n\nJay chuckled before adding, \"Flick thought I meant to bring the ship down between Cuba and Florida. Really, he doesn't give me credit for having any sense at all, sometimes. As though I weren't well aware of the tourist traffic there.\"\n\nJay moved past the cot, pacing the cave restlessly. \"I feel just like a race horse going to the post. Really I do, Steve. Planning this trip of ours is the most exciting thing I've done in a long, long time. But it's only natural, I suppose, when I think that we're working this out _together_. Nothing like it has ever happened before to _any_ of us.\" He stopped abruptly and his eyes glowed less brightly. \"Oh, my, if Julian ever hears of this! But he won't. Flick wouldn't dare tell him.\"\n\nJay began pacing again, then stopped and sat down beside Steve. \"I can see I've startled you by coming so early. You must have been sound asleep. Really, Steve, I _am_ sorry, but you'll understand my impatience when I tell you the rest.\"\n\nHe rose and went to the ledge, talking all the while. \"Quite close to Cuba is a small group of islands. We'll come in off the most eastern of the group. Using your launch you won't have any trouble reaching a small fishing village on the Cuban coast. This village is about fifty miles, I'd say, from Havana and the track. Really, Steve, it's going to be much easier than we thought. I'm sure we won't be seen coming in, and your trip to shore with Flame will be a very short one. We can only bring our ship down at sea, you know. It couldn't have worked out better. Even Flick has raised no objections.\"\n\nJay retraced his steps and stood in front of Steve. \"You're not saying much, Steve.\" He laughed. \"But then I haven't given you much of a chance, have I? Aren't you pleased with what I've learned?\"\n\nOnly then did Steve remove his gaze from Jay's eyes. He saw what looked like a rope in the man's hand. Jay was twirling it in his excitement and it too glowed in the semi-darkness. Jay must have noticed his interest for suddenly it was offered to him and he held it in his own hands. Only it wasn't a rope at all. It was as soft as flesh and just as pliant. It had no weight and yet there was a good deal of it, fashioned in the shape of a hackamore, complete with reins. It had no color at all and yet contained the most brilliant of all colors. The fibers pulsated beneath his fingers, seemingly alive and warm. He was not frightened. Instead he held it close, looking at the long golden tassels that hung from it.\n\n\"That's my race offering, Steve,\" Jay said quietly. \"I figured you'd need some kind of a headpiece in guiding Flame. I realize you use nothing of the kind here, but it will be different at the track. Besides, it would look very strange to have you out there with nothing on him at all, no bridle or saddle. I don't suppose they'll require you to use a saddle, but they'll insist upon your having some obvious control over your horse's head. They'd never believe you if you said you needed nothing at all. And I think you'll need the hackamore, Steve. Really I do. I'm sure Flame won't mind wearing it. He'll hardly know it's on. Try it today.\"\n\nSteve looked up at him. \"We're not going,\" he said quietly.\n\nFor the first time wrinkles appeared in Jay's high brow, and the light suddenly was gone from his eyes. He looked at Steve a long while, and then sat down beside him.\n\n\"You've changed your mind then?\" he asked.\n\nSteve nodded.\n\n\"All right, Steve, if that's the way you think you want it. But you really don't, you know. You're very anxious to race Flame.\"\n\nWith that he got up again and stood before Steve, watching him, waiting for him to speak. And when the boy remained silent, he said, \"Of course I'm disappointed. But above all, Steve, I don't want you feeling sorry later on that you missed this chance. Promise me that, won't you?\"\n\nStill Steve said nothing.\n\n\"I know you're worried about a lot of things, Steve, and I'm sorry that I can't help you more. It's impossible for me to reassure you that Flame will win the race. What Flame does on the track is strictly up to you and him. I've told you before that your part in all this is much more difficult than mine. But that's the chance you must take. I can't help you there.\"\n\nSteve said, \"It's not what might happen during the race that has made me change my mind.\"\n\n\"It isn't?\" Jay was surprised. \"I thought for sure...\" He paused, looking more intently into the boy's eyes. Then he said, \"But I promised you that no one will learn of your secret valley, Steve. It just won't be possible for anyone to see you and Flame travel between this island and Cuba. You have my word that I've gotten away with much more than this during my travels.\"\n\nSteve turned away. \"I'm sure you have,\" he answered. \"But I don't think you have any idea of what I'll be up against at the track. The officials will want to know where we're from. What will I tell them? And what will they do when they're not satisfied with my answer? They might even take Flame from me, thinking perhaps that I've stolen him!\"\n\nThe frown returned to Jay's face. \"I don't believe they would do that, Steve. But I never really considered _details_ like that. I thought you'd just go and race, and then return to the ship. I can understand your concern now, but I'm sure something can be worked out. Let's see....\"\n\nSteve interrupted before Jay could continue. \"I'm certain there are many rules governing the running of a race such as this. We don't just...\"\n\n\"But you said it was _Open to the World_ , Steve,\" Jay insisted. \"Doesn't that mean what it says? If it's an open race, it's open to any horse in the world which may want to race in it. You have every legal right to race Flame. You can demand it!\"\n\nJay was shaking his head angrily, and his blue-black hair fell down over his forehead, making him look very funny. The whole thing was so absurd that Steve laughed. Was he actually in this cave in a lost valley, listening to a man from another world remind him of his legal rights?\n\n\"Don't laugh, Steve,\" Jay said. \"You have every right to demand that you be allowed to race Flame. After all, if you can't believe what you read here on Earth, why...\"\n\nSteve interrupted again. \"But I _still_ have to answer their questions. And they'll ask where we're from.\"\n\n\"You and Flame are from this world, aren't you?\" Jay demanded. \"That's all that is necessary to tell them.\"\n\nSteve made no reply. Instead he looked around him, finding familiar objects... the stove, Pitch's pipes and can of tea, the trunks and boxes, anything at all to help him keep his mental balance.\n\nJay lapsed into a moment of thoughtful silence, then his hand descended roughly on Steve's shoulder. \"I've got it, Steve. I know exactly what we can do.\" Swinging around, he sat down on the cot.\n\n\"Flick's been pretty insistent that we just drop you and Flame off near Cuba while I join you later for the race itself. But I think that when I tell him of your grave concern for Flame's safety he might be convinced that it's necessary for me to remain with you. After all, it's pretty important to us too that you don't run into any trouble with the officials. We mustn't start a lot of talk.\n\n\"Now near this fishing village I mentioned there are several homes that are closed tight,\" Jay continued. \"I'm certain they're available for rental, and one has a small stable behind it.\"\n\n\"How do you know all this?\" Steve asked.\n\n\"I told you I found out early last night, Steve,\" Jay answered impatiently. \"Flick was agreeable to my taking the cruiser and doing a little reconnaissance. It took only a few minutes. It'll be nothing at all in the big ship. Whiff!... and we're there.\"\n\nSteve's head reeled. Only a few minutes... with Cuba almost two thousand miles away! Jay was going on, unmindful of the impact of his words upon Steve.\n\n\"I'll stay with Flame while you go to Havana and find out if this race is open to the world or isn't. If it is, you return for Flame and race him. If it isn't, we bring you back here. It's all very simple, and I can't see that anything can go wrong.\"\n\nSteve rose from the cot. \"But how will we get him to Havana? He can't walk fifty miles and then race.\"\n\n\"Of course not, Steve. There you go, bothering yourself with details again! We'll hire a truck. I'm sure there must be a number available in the village. And don't say that we don't have any Cuban money. I'll attend to that. Really, Steve, in some ways you're so much like Flick. You don't give me any credit for...\"\n\nJay stopped, and then added apologetically, \"I didn't mean that the way it sounded, Steve. I'm very fond of you, just as I am of Flick. But I wish you would let me attend to a _few_ things. I've really been very busy, much more so than you may think. After I got back from Cuba I went right to work on this hackamore, and I still have plenty to do. I must make a blanket for Flame, Steve. I won't have him uncovered while he's hot.\"\n\nJumping nimbly to his feet, Jay patted the boy's shoulder. \"You relax now, Steve, and leave all the details to me. You'll have plenty to do just seeing to it that Flame runs the best race he can. Oh, I do hope he doesn't let us down!\"\n\nJay started for the ledge, stopped and said, \"We'll leave _tomorrow at sunset_ , Steve. It's very important that you be not a minute late. We'll glow a bit coming in even though it is only a skip. Don't fail me now.\"\n\nAfter Jay had gone Steve looked at the living, fibrous tissue of the strange hackamore. His fingers closed over it and he felt its warmth, the same warmth and trust Jay and Flick conveyed to him whenever they were near. Somehow he knew it had taken their place. He hoped they would let him keep it always.\n\nHe left the cave then, knowing what he had to do. He whistled to Flame before going down the trail, and the stallion was there to meet him when he reached the valley floor.\n\nFor a moment he let Flame smell the bitless bridle. Flame, nuzzling the long tassels of sheer thread, showed no fear of it.\n\nWhen Steve slipped the bridle on him the fibers seemed to shorten, causing the bridle to fit snugly about Flame's small head. But the golden tassels, hanging below and on either side of his large nostrils, remained their original length. Steve led Flame back to the trail and, after mounting, drew up the reins.\n\nHe sat quietly on Flame's back, and the stallion made no move. Then Steve leaned forward, whispering. He looked down the valley at the long stretch before them. He waited and Flame waited too. Both were tense and eager to go. Eyes were straight ahead. Flame's ears were pricked. The waiting became harder but neither moved. Muscles were strained almost to the breaking point. Then, just as the first rays of the morning sun struck the dome of Azul Island, came the unleashing, the end of waiting.\n\n_\"Go!\"_ called Steve, and on either side of them raced the horses of the world.\n\n# THE ROOM\n\n10\n\nSunset the following day came swiftly to Steve Duncan, and now he stood beside his horse in the great sea chamber. He looked at the soft flow of water in the narrow canal as it rocked the launch quietly against the aged wooden piles. Even the sea was encouraging him to leave, for most days the canal was white with salty foam from great waves crashing against the outer wall before finding their way inside. How often he and Pitch had awaited just such a calm sea as this before undertaking the perilous passage through the coral rock!\n\nSteve whispered to his horse but made no effort to lead him down the wide planks. Flame wore his hackamore and the long tassels seemed alive when he tossed his head, snorting at the launch. If it had not been for the hackamore, Steve might have believed that Jay and Flick had never been, that he could not be leaving Azul Island with Flame! He had not seen Jay since the early morning visit of the day before.\n\nIt was almost sunset. They had better be on their way quickly and yet... Steve did not move and the seconds passed, long seconds filled with dread and doubts and yet wonderful dreams as well. He felt the lines of the bitless bridle contract in the palms of his perspiring hands, becoming as light as the sheerest thread yet heavy in their lifelike throbbing.\n\nHe knew what he was about to do, and that he had no _earthly_ right to be doing it. Soon he and Flame would be passengers aboard that ship from outer space. It was all so fantastic, so incredible... but all so true. As true and real as his standing there beside Flame. And he was about to go of his own free will. That too was true.\n\n\"Come, Flame,\" he said.\n\nThe red stallion raised his forefeet to the planks, took another step and then stood still, his legs rigid.\n\nSteve waited, talking to him all the while. He held the lines taut but did not pull, and neither did Flame. The daylight coming through the low sea hole was fading, but Steve did not want to open the wide doors above the hole until Flame was aboard the launch, his head turned away from the outer world. He must not become frightened by what he saw.\n\nSteve's voice became edgy in his anxiety over the growing darkness. He was late now, for Jay had said that it was most important to be at the ship by sunset. He began to turn Flame's head one way and then the other, trying to get him to shift his balance, to move his forelegs.\n\n\"Come, Flame,\" he repeated urgently.\n\nThe long, straight legs moved a little, the small head bent down, sniffing the boards. The chamber grew darker. Desperately Steve pulled on the lines. What if they didn't leave after all! He realized then how much he really wanted to go with Jay and Flick.\n\nFlame raised his head at Steve's urgent pull on the lines. His large eyes met the boy's curiously, wanting to know just how much was expected of him.\n\n\"You've done this before, Flame,\" Steve pleaded.\n\nThe stallion bent his head once more, sniffing the boards, his nostrils blown wide.\n\nSteve turned Flame's head from one side to the other. Suddenly the horse's forelegs shifted, and there was a great lurching of his body. The sound of his hoofs on the boards thudded hollowly as he followed Steve onto the launch.\n\nThe first step had been taken! Steve stood still for a moment, stroking his horse, quieting him. Then he tied the lines to the gunwale, although he knew that nothing would hold Flame if he really wanted to get away. He continued talking while he went behind Flame to the stern; there he slid open the wooden doors to the sea.\n\nA fresh evening breeze swept into the chamber with the increased light. But Steve felt utter dismay when he saw how low the sun had descended. Another moment and it would be gone!\n\nSuddenly Flame shifted his weight, and the launch rocked as he sought to turn his head, to see what lay behind him.\n\nSteve hurried to Flame, but he could not stay there long. He had no time. For him, a dangerous game of chance had begun, and there was no turning back, now or ever. He switched on the ignition, and the engine caught with a sudden roar made louder by the close confines of the chamber. The sound startled Flame and Steve touched him lightly, trying to comfort him. At the same time he had the launch moving, backing slowly out of the chamber.\n\nAs the boat slid along the canal, Flame tore the lines loose from the gunwale. Steve grabbed them, keeping his horse from rearing as the launch swept through the exit.\n\nThey rose with the swells of the sea, and Flame screamed shrilly. But there was not much else he could do, with open water on either side of him.\n\nSteve continued talking to his horse, trying to reassure him that everything was all right. He would have liked to close the doors of the sea chamber, but without Pitch's help it was impossible. That someone might discover the entrance to Azul Island during his absence was another hazard in the dangerous game he was playing.\n\nFlame looked all around, constantly screaming while the launch backed farther away from the sheer wall of stone. Suddenly Steve turned the wheel and the boat slid between two pieces of rock whose tips just broke the surface. Then the launch went forward, its prow pointed toward the open sea.\n\nThe sun had set, and only the brilliant afterglow remained. Carefully and slowly, Steve guided the launch through the coral reef.\n\nBehind him he heard the dull thud of Flame's pawing. He continued talking to the stallion, soothing him with words while his eyes and thoughts were momentarily elsewhere. Then the pawing stopped, and he heard the quick shifting of hoofs. He felt Flame's hot breath on his neck, but he couldn't turn to him, couldn't take his eyes off the narrow channel ahead. Nor could he reach back and touch Flame, for both hands were needed on the wheel. So he stood there quietly and terribly concerned, becoming alarmed for himself and his horse, and all that lay beyond.\n\nThe white patch he sought lay a few hundred yards past the last of the coral reefs. It rose gracefully with the giant swells but remained always in the same spot, as if it were anchored to the depths of the Caribbean.\n\nBy this time the brilliance of the heavens had faded and the sky was a pale, murky red. As Steve neared the patch it too changed color, becoming phosphorescent in the twilight of early evening. He knew that he had arrived much too late, but there was no turning back. He could not come again another day... he would not have had the courage to return. For now, with the patch directly before him, he felt all the fears he had successfully imprisoned seeking release. He tried to quell his mounting dread. He repeated everything he had told himself so many times. He must accept Jay and Flick and their world. He must be confident and trusting. He must believe in them.\n\n_\"I have nothing to fear except what I've learned to fear in this world,\"_ he said aloud.\n\nBut his spoken words rang with insincerity. Now, nothing he could say could crush the doubts, the suspicions and fears which rose within him. His hands turned the wheel, seeking to take the launch away from the patch. He would return to Blue Valley and all that he knew to be standard and normal and sane.\n\nThe wheel turned easily but the boat did not respond to the change in course. Its prow cut the waters directly ahead, drawing closer and closer to the luminous patch. Even when Steve reversed the propeller there was no slackening of their forward speed!\n\nHe knew then that the launch was no longer under _his_ control. He turned to Flame for comfort, but the stallion held his head high, his bright eyes staring beyond. No sound came from him, and Steve turned to look with him at the area above the patch, which was now bathed in a golden light that grew in size and brilliance. The waters below it turned from a deep, dark blue to a bubbling silver gray. The swells disappeared, leaving the sea flat.\n\nThe prow of the boat pierced the veiled, golden shroud and then came to an abrupt stop, throwing Steve and Flame forward. Before their eyes the bow rose and they stumbled backward, their simultaneous cries shattering the silent evening. Then they too were enveloped by the light.\n\nSteve felt the wooden deck rise beneath his feet, yet he could not see the launch or Flame or anything else. His keenest sense was that of great empty spaces all around him, and he stared into the vastness seeing nothing at all, not even light or darkness. And yet, strangely enough, all dread and fear had left him.\n\nFrom close beside him Jay said, \"Get out, Steve. You're here at last.\"\n\n\"I am?\" he asked into the nothing, his voice echoing and re-echoing in the vast, empty void.\n\n\"Of course,\" Jay said, impatient now. \"I'm having such a time with Flick because you're late. He's afraid we'll be seen and now he doesn't want to go at all.\"\n\nSteve felt Jay's hands on his arm but he could not see him. He knew he was being guided hurriedly off the launch because he went up what he knew were the planks leading from the deck. Behind him came Flame. But he could not hear the stallion's hoofs any more than he could his own footsteps.\n\n\"Careful, Steve,\" Jay cautioned. \"Watch your step. We're getting off now.\"\n\nSteve thought it ridiculous to be told to watch his step when he could see nothing but those murky, endless spaces of... Of what? He couldn't decide. But they were there all the same.\n\nHe stepped from that void into a great room. Jay, whom he could now see, went over to the stallion and straightened the brow band of the hackamore.\n\n\"I do wish you had started earlier, Steve,\" he said gravely without taking his eyes off Flame. \"I'm not sure what's going to happen now. Flick's in a very nervous state.\"\n\nSteve glanced around the room in which they stood.\n\n\"You won't find him here,\" Jay said. \"He went to the chart room to check the screen.\"\n\nIt wasn't important to Steve where Flick was. He took hold of the lines of the hackamore, grasping them tightly for support, while he took another look around the room.\n\nThe walls were hung with great tapestries which changed color constantly before his eyes, becoming shades he recognized and still others that no one in this world had ever seen before. It was their movement that caused him to tremble suddenly. They seemed to be alive and breathing! They all billowed together and glowed in a new and fiery brilliance. He stared at them, feeling their resentment at his very presence.\n\nJay noted the alarm in Steve's eyes and said kindly, \"Don't let them bother you. They're disturbed easily but soon get over it.\" Then, smiling, \"Of course you're very new to them,\" he added.\n\n\"Then they are real,\" Steve said. _\"They're alive.\"_\n\n\"In a way, Steve. In the same way everything is alive in one form or another. Nothing is ever really dead, you know.\"\n\nThere was neither depth nor height to the room, neither length nor width. Steve felt that he could walk forever without ever reaching those living walls, that the harder he tried the farther back they would move. Suddenly their colors changed again. They were no longer an angry red but were billowing in soft, somber tones. Yet they continued to move, breathing lightly as if at rest in their final acceptance of him.\n\n\"See, Steve,\" Jay said. \"They've settled down again, just as I said they would.\" He placed an arm around the boy's shoulders. \"Let's have a seat now and decide on the best way to handle Flick.\"\n\nSteve let Jay guide him forward. There seemed to be a floor of soft metal beneath his feet, so pliable that it yielded with every step he took.\n\nHe stopped in his tracks once, turning his head to see where Flame was. The stallion was still standing where Jay had left him, his red coat shining brighter than ever against the background of colorless, empty space from which they had emerged. But it was not empty space, Steve reminded himself. The launch had to be there, somewhere.\n\nFlame's head was held high, his neck arched in a manner that he seldom maintained for very long. Steve noticed that the lines of the hackamore hung tautly to the floor, as though held by the molten metal itself.\n\n\"Let him be, Steve,\" Jay said. \"It's the easiest way of handling him now. We don't want him upset, and it's only for a little while. He's resting comfortably. Sit down, please.\"\n\nThere were no chairs, no furniture in this endless room. Yet Jay gently pushed him down and Steve felt a support of some sort beneath him. Whatever it was, it hugged him close, molding itself to his figure even when he moved his arms and legs. Never before had he sat so comfortably or been so relaxed, so completely at ease.\n\n\"That's it, Steve,\" Jay said approvingly, \"just take it nice and easy. Let me figure out the best way of handling Flick. Of course he's absolutely right about the possibility of our being seen when we don't have the setting sun as a backdrop for our landing.\"\n\nHe paused, turning his disturbed eyes upon Steve. \"In a night sky this ship is about as concealable as a fireball. We haven't been able to do much about that, Steve, not yet. No more than we can get rid of those gases that lie upon the water after we do arrive. They're apt to betray our location to anyone who knows the score, as you found out for yourself.\n\n\"But getting back to our traveling at night. I say we ought to take a chance on it, don't you, Steve? What can your people think we are but a falling star or, at most, a meteor, as you did. _Whisk_ , we're down and away in the launch. _Whisk_ , Flick and the ship are back here. Nothing to it, really, if I can just get old Flick to think along those lines.\"\n\nJay recrossed his legs and thoughtfully rubbed his smooth chin. Steve watched him, trying hard to concentrate on what Jay was saying. But to have this man sitting so comfortably beside him with no visible support was at that moment more astounding than anything else. He looked down at his own legs, one on the floor, the other outstretched. What was supporting him?\n\nSuddenly Flick appeared in front of the nearest wall, and Jay called out to him, \"Well, Flick, I guess you're satisfied that we can go now, aren't you?\"\n\n\"Not in the least,\" the other answered, nodding to Steve and then sitting down beside him. \"The screen shows plenty of lights there. We haven't a chance of landing without being seen.\"\n\n\"So what?\" Jay asked defiantly. \"You'll be back here before they know what it's all about.\"\n\nFlick shook his head. \"It'll cause talk, though, and that we must avoid. You know the rules, Jay, as well as I do, and we'd be taking a very unnecessary risk going at this hour.\"\n\nJay glared at him. \"Unnecessary to you but not to us,\" he bellowed. \"After all, Flick, you _promised_.\"\n\n\"I promised a good many things that I never should have,\" Flick returned gravely. \"However, that can't be helped now, and I mean to go through with it but not at the expense of the ship's being seen. You and Steve will just have to put off going until tomorrow.\"\n\n\"I don't know if Steve would come back,\" Jay said sullenly. \"After all, this is a pretty unusual thing for him to be doing.\"\n\nSteve said nothing. He remembered how he had tried to steer the launch off course just before reaching the patch, how at the last moment he had sought the normalcy of his own world. Yet now he was in this ship, startled and astounded by all he saw but seated quietly, waiting for Jay and Flick to decide what to do because he had arrived late. But would he have the courage to return tomorrow?\n\nJay rose to his feet and began pacing the great room. Finally he stopped in front of Flick and said, \"We'd better have Steve spend the night with us.\"\n\nFlick jumped to his feet. _\"Jay!\"_ he said sharply. \"Remaining on the ship is out of the question. Why...\"\n\nHe stopped abruptly and wheeled around, facing the far wall. Steve's gaze shifted with Flick's, and he saw the tapestries billowing as if a great wind had swept the room. Somehow he knew that they were upset by the noise in the room and by the very suggestion that he should spend the night there. Without saying a word he got to his feet.\n\n\"Now, Steve,\" Jay said softly. \"Don't _you_ go getting upset, too. It's bad enough to have Flick raging around here without your doing it as well. Sit down, please.\"\n\nAfter Steve was seated again, Jay turned to Flick. \"If you won't agree to his spending the night, it must be now or never, Flick.\"\n\n\"I'm afraid it must be _never_ then,\" Flick answered, matching Jay's defiance.\n\n\"You'd break a promise?\"\n\n\"I would when it involves the disturbance and talk we'd create by moving the ship at night,\" Flick answered more calmly. \"After all, Jay, you know as well as I do that the little glimpse these people have had recently of our _cruisers_ have been trouble enough. If we're not careful we won't be allowed to visit Earth any more.\"\n\n\"Oh, pshaw,\" Jay said. \"The cruisers couldn't upset anyone.\"\n\n\"If that's the way you feel, why don't you take ours then?\" Flick suggested reasonably. \"You're perfectly right... probably no one will even see you.\"\n\n\"It would be much too small and uncomfortable with Flame in it,\" Jay answered after a moment's thought.\n\nFlick smiled critically. \"So now you're thinking of the few discomforts you may have to endure while helping Steve to race his horse. My, Jay, you are the one, aren't you?\"\n\nJay shifted uneasily and avoided looking at Steve when he said, \"One doesn't like to be cramped.\"\n\n\"Of course not,\" Flick answered, still smiling. \"Let's not suffer any discomforts while helping our fellow man.\"\n\n\"You know we wouldn't have room to move even the slightest bit,\" Jay said sheepishly.\n\n\"Terrible,\" Flick agreed sadly. \"And for just those _few_ minutes it would take to get there!\"\n\n\"Steve wouldn't like to go that way at all!\" Jay returned, a little defiantly.\n\n\"Wouldn't you, Steve?\" Flick asked, turning to the boy.\n\nSteve said, \"I don't care how we go. Flame didn't have room to move in the launch, either.\"\n\nFlick chuckled. \"See, Jay? I hope you'll learn something from all this. In fact, you might change quite a bit before you're through with Steve and Flame.\"\n\n\"All right,\" Jay said finally, \"if that's the only way you'll have it. But it's not going to be very comfortable.\" He got to his feet. \"Come on, Steve,\" he added resignedly.\n\n\"Oh, just one thing more,\" Flick said, enjoying his moment of triumph. \"You must promise not to take any unnecessary chances when you're with... ah... with other people.\"\n\n\"I promise,\" Jay said angrily. \"Of course I promise.\"\n\n\"And if I send for you, you'll come straight back whether the race has been run or not?\" Flick asked, more serious now.\n\n\"Of course!\" Jay screamed at the top of his voice. \"Anything else, Flick? Anything else?\"\n\nAt Jay's loud words, Steve saw the hanging tapestries boil into a turmoil of seething, angry crimson again. Instinctively his footsteps quickened to catch up with Jay's.\n\nTogether they went toward the great red stallion, who stood silently awaiting them.\n\n# AND A STAR TO GUIDE HER BY\n\n11\n\nJay turned Flame's head to one side so the stallion could see Steve. \"Now take him inside,\" he said quietly.\n\nThe lines of the hackamore were placed in Steve's hands and he felt the heat of Flame's blood flowing through them. Stepping back into the colorless veil from which he had entered the room, he was conscious once more of the sudden brightness that burned his eyes. Then it was gone and there was neither light nor darkness, only a deep sense of vast, empty space all around him. He could see nothing, no part of himself or Flame or Jay.\n\n\"Careful of that tank, Steve!\" Jay said impatiently.\n\nSteve stopped in his tracks and waited.\n\n\"What's wrong?\" Jay asked more kindly.\n\nFrom somewhere behind them Flick said scornfully, \"You've forgotten again that Steve can't see a thing in this port, Jay.\"\n\nFor a moment heavy silence filled the vastness, and then Jay said, \"Sorry, Steve. Details again, at which I've admitted my shortcomings.\"\n\nSteve felt Jay's hand on his arm, guiding him to the left. He was not certain but he thought he saw a faint glow just ahead. He looked harder, wanting to _see_.\n\nJay mumbled something about untrained eyes, and Flick asked gravely, \"Where do you think we'd be if their eyes _were_ trained?\"\n\n\"Not here, sure enough,\" Jay answered.\n\n\"Then don't ever forget it again. Now I'll check the screen once more. Don't leave until I get back.\"\n\nSteve continued looking at the shimmering glow. Was it not growing? A few moments more and his eyes began to burn fiercely and he had to turn away.\n\nJay said, \"I guess we might as well get aboard, Steve, although I don't like the idea of spending any more time than necessary in there. However, Flick should be back any second now. Come, follow me.\"\n\nSteve didn't move, for Jay's hand had left his shoulder. \"Where?\" he asked.\n\n\"Why, right here, of course,\" and once more Jay's hand was on his arm.\n\nSteve took a step forward, at the same time trying desperately to pierce the void. It was as though he were walking with closed eyelids, actually seeing nothing but conscious of a whole world about him.\n\n\"Lower Flame's head a little, Steve. Unfortunately this door wasn't meant for anyone but ourselves and we're a small race, as you know. However, if I raise this top partition he'll be able to make it. Sometimes we do have to carry a bit of cargo in these cruisers... never very comfortably though,\" Jay added with a twinge of regret.\n\nSteve heard a soft whirring noise. Once again he concentrated on the area directly before him. _It_ had to be there, somewhere.\n\nFor what seemed a long while he saw nothing, then the small glow appeared again, spreading more rapidly than before. His eyes began to burn but he refused to turn away this time. And he saw it was no glow at all but a thin, liquid mass. It was an elongated bubble, growing brighter and larger, glistening in his eyes and setting them afire. Then suddenly it seemed to burst in his face and he turned away quickly to avoid its spitting, liquid fingers.\n\nNothing touched him. Nothing burned except his eyes, and he wondered if he would ever be able to see again. Then he heard Jay's voice.\n\n\"There, Steve, Flame should be able to get through now. Just lower his head a bit more.\"\n\nSteve dropped his right hand, feeling the weight of Flame's head at the end of the lines. Didn't Jay know that for a few seconds he had actually _seen_ the cruiser?\n\n\"Come, Steve. I'm anxious to be off the second Flick returns. We've wasted enough time already.\"\n\nSteve was led forward and when they came to a stop he knew they were inside the cruiser.\n\n\"I'll take Flame now,\" Jay said. \"My, this is going to be a most uncomfortable trip!\"\n\nThe lines were removed from Steve's hand, but Jay did not take Flame away. Instead, Steve heard the man's soft, birdlike mutterings. Finally Jay said, \"There, he's resting again. It'll be safest during the trip.\"\n\nAnd from outside came Flick's voice, \"All right, Jay. There are no lights except in the village. Be sure to land to the east of it.\"\n\n\"Of course,\" Jay answered bitterly. \"I had no intention of landing anywhere else. Really, Flick...\" He stopped without finishing his sentence, and then said to Steve, \"Sit down, but move more to your right, please, so I'll have a _little_ room for my legs. That's it.\"\n\n\"Remember what I said about taking no unnecessary chances,\" Flick warned.\n\n\"Of course,\" Jay said. \"Don't worry so, Flick.\"\n\nFlick grunted. \"You're all set then?\"\n\n\"As set as we'll ever be in this thing,\" Jay muttered. \"At least we don't have to take Steve's launch now. That's something to be thankful for.\"\n\nSteve heard the soft whirring noise again and knew the cruiser's door was being closed. Any moment now and they'd be off! His heart pounded at the thought. One hand left his side, reaching high and groping until it found Flame.\"\n\nThe fear within him said, _\"Here you go, never to return.\"_\n\n\"Don't be silly,\" he answered. \"They're my friends.\"\n\n_\"You'll never see your real friends again. Do you think any of your friends would change places with you? Of course not!\"_\n\n\"They would if they were here, if they had looked into Jay's and Flick's eyes.\"\n\n_\"What a child you are to believe that.\"_\n\nSteve felt the hot blood rushing through his body. \"I'm no child,\" he said defiantly. \"I'm big, as big as anyone could be because of their help. I'm the luckiest fellow in this world! I'm not afraid!\"\n\nThe cruiser moved.\n\nThere was no blinding glare of atomic or hydrogen power, no great roar for which Steve had prepared himself. He was aware at first only of rocking gently backwards in his seat and of the swaying of Flame's great body beneath his hand. Then there was no movement at all. Nothing but deathly silence. No hum of powerful engines, no darkness, no light. Everything was the same as before, and yet he knew they were on their way.\n\nJay said, \"You're not even looking, Steve. I thought you'd like to see where we're going.\"\n\n\"But there's nothing to see,\" Steve protested.\n\nJay chuckled. \"There is, if you'll just turn your head and look out the window.\"\n\nSteve turned quickly and looked out into a night sky studded with multitude upon multitude of stars. They were very bright and there were many more than he had ever seen before. But otherwise he could have been back in Blue Valley looking up at the heavens.\n\nHe felt no sense of flight and yet, he figured, they must be traveling at frightening speed to go almost two thousand miles in a matter of a few minutes. He steeled himself to peer below... as one would have done from a very precarious height with no secure hold. Yet there was nothing to be seen below.\n\n\"Where are we?\" he asked.\n\nJay laughed again. \"Straight up,\" he said. \"We literally hop, just as I told you. Up and then down. Faster that way and less chance to be seen, scarcely any friction at all. We learned long ago not to cruise below. Your people always mistake us for something else.\"\n\n\"And _your_ people, Jay, where are they?\" Steve asked, his eyes fixed once more on the splendor and brilliance of the sky. \"Is Alula one of those?\"\n\n\"Oh, no, Steve. We're much further beyond. What you see is nothing. You've no idea what lies beyond.\"\n\n\"No... no, I haven't,\" Steve said, patting Flame.\n\n\"This is only your galaxy,\" Jay went on, \"nine planets and something like a hundred thousand million stars. Flick would know the exact figures. I'm always a little hazy on things like that.\"\n\n\"Is there other life on our planets?\"\n\n\"Life? I told you once before that nothing is ever really dead, Steve.\"\n\n\"But people, Jay... are there other people?\"\n\n\" _People?_ No, no people, Steve. You have to go beyond for that.\" Jay moved his legs, brushing against Steve's. \"Sorry,\" he said. \"I'm trying to get rid of a bad cramp. If you'd just move your right leg a bit more. There, that's better. Oh, this is the worst kind of discomfort!\"\n\nSteve said nothing, and Jay added, \"But thank goodness we're just about there.\"\n\nSilence again closed upon them, silence and always the stars, but now Steve was aware of movement for the first time since take-off. Not the cruiser's movement, but the quick shifting of the heavens. The stars began to slip by, slowly at first and then more rapidly until they were no longer stars but long, fiery tails streaming through the night sky.\n\nSteve did not need to be told that the cruiser was descending.\n\nJay said with relief, \"Another few seconds now, Steve. Sit back, please.\"\n\nBut Steve couldn't sit back, for the stars were gone. In their place was his world, the sea and the land beyond. Not just the tiny specks he knew must be the islands of the Greater Antilles but the great, bulging masses of North and South America as well.\n\nThen, as with the stars, the two continents were gone. Only the sea remained and the one small island that grew rapidly before his eyes. Still and silent it awaited them, a land of papier-m\u00e2ch\u00e9 mountains and heavier-than-night depths.\n\nSuddenly the land and sea became alive. Distant lights that were not stars twinkled in cities and scattered villages. Cars moved across a great plain. A boat pushed its prow into the sea, churning white the dark waters before it while the smoke from its lone stack billowed gray in the night sky.\n\nThere was a quickening blur before Steve's eyes and then he saw nothing. Startled, he drew back, afraid that they were about to crash into the earth. He felt the forward swaying of his body, then a sudden backward jerk, and his left hand went up involuntarily to his neck.\n\n\"Sorry, Steve,\" Jay apologized, \"but I did tell you to sit back in your seat. At any rate we're here, safe and sound... except for my legs which feel as if they belong to somebody else.\"\n\nSteve felt Jay's legs withdraw from beside his own. Then once more he heard the whirring sound and knew the door was being opened.\n\nA sudden rush of night air filled the cruiser, and it felt good upon his face. He remained still, knowing that Jay would tell him when to leave. He heard Jay's soft murmurings to Flame, quickly followed by a throaty snort from the stallion.\n\n\"S-sh, Flame,\" Jay reprimanded the horse. \"Take him out, Steve.\"\n\nSteve rose to his feet, seeing nothing and wondering where he should go to find the door. He waited and finally Jay took him by the arm again.\n\n\"I keep forgetting, Steve. This way.\" Jay chuckled softly. \"A few more steps and I won't have to lead you around like a blind man. I imagine you'll be grateful for that, too.\"\n\nSteve emerged into a small clearing in a heavily wooded area. Flame jumped beside him, neighing shrilly, and Jay hushed the stallion again.\n\n\"Let's get out of here,\" he said to Steve, leading the way.\n\nSteve followed, with Flame moving restlessly alongside, his head high, his eyes glaring, but never pulling upon the lines.\n\nAt the end of the clearing, Jay stopped. \"Dash it,\" he said, \"I've forgotten my bag. Hold on a minute, Steve.\"\n\nSteve watched Jay run across the clearing. He sought to train his eyes to see the cruiser, if only by the slight gleam of a bubble to fix its location. But he saw nothing, and meanwhile Jay disappeared from sight long before reaching the trees.\n\nFlame snorted again, and Steve turned back to him. The stallion's nostrils were flared widely, sniffing unfamiliar scents. Steve stroked him softly, comforting him, and Flame turned his head at the boy's touch, nuzzling his hand before once more shattering the night air with a shrill whistle.\n\nJay returned, carrying a large bag. \"It wouldn't be wise to be found here,\" he told Steve anxiously. \"Can't you keep him quiet? I've done all I can, and he continues making enough noise to wake up the countryside! We'll have the dogs on us, if he keeps it up.\"\n\nJay hurried through the trees, and Steve led Flame after him without answering. The stallion continued his neighing but otherwise gave Steve no trouble.\n\nThey walked a long while, emerging from the trees to follow a deep ditch, then climbing out and entering the woods again. Steve had no doubt that Jay knew exactly where he was going. When they finally reached a dirt road, they were perspiring and breathing heavily. But Flame seemed tireless; he pressed on, impatient at their slowing footsteps, snorting loudly and neighing.\n\nJay said, \"Let him make all the noise he wants to now.\" He took a few quick breaths before adding, \"I just didn't want anyone to find us near the cruiser.\"\n\n\"They wouldn't be able to see it anyway,\" Steve said.\n\n\"No, but they might walk into it and become alarmed. Perhaps they'd even damage it in some way. Then where would we be?\"\n\nSteve had no answer.\n\nIn the distance they heard dogs barking, and Flame shrilled his challenge again.\n\nJay said, \"He isn't pulling, is he?\"\n\n\"No,\" Steve said. And strangely enough, the lines were loose in his hands, even though the barking of the dogs and the open dirt road beneath Flame's restless hoofs should have caused the stallion to pull hard on the lines.\n\n\"Could they find us here?\" Steve asked.\n\n\"Of course. Although it isn't the villagers' custom to leave their homes at night. They're fishermen... early risers, you know. However, what if they did come upon us walking along here? We'd only be what we look like, you know, two men and a horse.\"\n\nSteve said not a word. Two men and a horse. It was as simple as that. No Blue Valley. No mother ship from a distant planet. No cruiser that had brought them here in a matter of minutes. Nothing before them but a village where people lived and faced the reality of catching fish for their livelihood, day after day. Two men and a horse, walking through the night. As simple as that.\n\nJay's pace slowed still more, and Steve said, \"You're tired. Shall I carry your bag for a while?\"\n\n\"No, thanks, Steve. You've got enough to do with Flame acting as he is. I can't understand it. He should be very quiet.\" Jay paused, taking a long breath before adding, \"But we haven't far to go now.\"\n\nFinally they were able to see the distant lights of the village, and the sea was close for they could hear the crash of waves. Once they heard shrill laughter carried on the night breeze from the village, and later music from a juke box or radio.\n\nFlame neighed at each strange sound, but he did not rear or bolt and Steve kept him at his side.\n\nSuddenly Jay stopped. \"Well, we're here, Steve,\" he said.\n\n\"Where do we go?\" Steve asked, seeing nothing but trees and the bare road.\n\n\"Why, right here, of course,\" Jay answered, turning in from the road.\n\nOnly when Steve too had stepped off the road was he aware of the graveled driveway. It circled through the trees, going in the direction of the sea. Occasionally he could see the lights of the village, and once more he heard faint music.\n\nFlame's whistle pierced the night, and it was echoed by louder barking from the dogs.\n\nJay said, \"I suppose that hearing all these unfamiliar noises is good for Flame. He'll get used to them and settle down, making it easier for us later.\"\n\n\"I guess so,\" Steve said. \"But the people will hear him tonight for sure.\"\n\n\"I suppose so,\" Jay agreed. \"But it doesn't matter. A horse is nothing unusual to them. No more than my renting this seaside home for the week-end.\"\n\nJust ahead Steve saw the dim outline of a sprawling house, and closer still a small shed. \"When did you rent it?\" he asked.\n\n\"Yesterday. Didn't you miss me, Steve?\"\n\n\"Yes, but weren't they surprised to see you?\"\n\n\"Surprised?\" Jay asked, turning to Steve in the darkness and smiling kindly, patiently. \"The renting agents, you mean? Surprised to see a wealthy gentleman from Havana seeking a few days' rest from business problems? I'm more surprised at your asking such a question, Steve! They were pleased, very pleased, I can assure you. Their price for this house was exorbitant but I didn't quibble one bit.\"\n\nUndaunted, Steve said, \"But they could tell you were not one of them.\"\n\n\"A matter of speaking Spanish, you mean?\" Jay laughed gaily. \"Again, I'm surprised at you. It's a very simple language. It just flows.\"\n\nJay turned and went to the shed. Removing a key from his pocket, he opened the doors. He turned on the light and inside Steve saw a large box stall, also a bale of hay... both waiting for Flame.\n\n\"Horseback riding is a sport enjoyed by many Havana businessmen,\" Jay said. \"They love to ride along the coast. So a seaside house is not a home without a stable.\" He chuckled at his remark, then said, \"Bring in our charge, Steve. His room and dinner await.\"\n\nFlame's hoofs rang on the wood floor as he followed Steve into the shed. He reared when Jay put on the light, almost striking his head on the ceiling. When he came down he pawed the floor hard, his large eyes bright with fright.\n\n\"Put him in the stall,\" Jay said, alarmed and full of anxiety now. \"He'll settle down there.\"\n\nSteve led Flame into the roomy stall and remained beside him, trying to soothe him by words and gentle stroking. Finally he told Jay, \"He'll never get used to a stall, no matter how large it is.\"\n\nJay cut the cord binding the bale of hay, and offered some to Flame. \"Maybe if he eats something, Steve,\" he suggested.\n\nThe red stallion sniffed the hay without touching it.\n\nSteve said, \"I'll have to graze him. He won't eat this.... Not now, anyway.\"\n\n\"He will if he has nothing else,\" Jay said, his irritation returning. \"You can take him out for grass tomorrow morning. We can do nothing more at this time, and there's no possibility of his hurting himself in such a fine big stall.\" He turned away. \"Come on, Steve. You must be as hungry as I am.\"\n\n\"You go in the house,\" Steve said. \"I'll stay here with him.\"\n\n\"But...\" Jay began, bewilderment in his eyes as he looked first at Steve, then at Flame. \"All right then,\" he said, \"I'll bring something to you.\" Suddenly he brightened.\n\n\"Just wait until you taste what I'm cooking tonight! It's called _paella_. I picked up the recipe yesterday at lunch. It has yellow rice and bits of sausage, hot sausage, Steve... and chicken and clams and mussels.\"\n\nSteve watched Jay hurry to the door; there the little man stopped, turning around again. \"Of course you won't be sleeping here, will you? Not when you can have a comfortable bed for a change.\"\n\n\"I'm not leaving him,\" Steve answered firmly.\n\nJay shrugged his narrow shoulders. \"Sometimes I just don't understand you at all,\" he said. \"But have it your own way. I just thought you'd like a good night's sleep with all the work you have ahead of you.\" He left the shed, his voice trailing behind him.\n\nSteve thought, _\"It's a party for Jay, a big party. Eat well. Sleep well. Have fun. Soon we'll be off to the races!\"_ He turned to Flame, trying to quiet the stallion's mounting uneasiness. _\"For us, it's different, a lot different. But I guess Jay doesn't understand. It's a detail he's forgotten.\"_\n\nLater Steve heard music again, only now it was much louder, being ever so much closer. Jay had turned on the radio.\n\n# THE VISITOR\n\n12\n\nThe _paella_ had been everything Jay promised... savory with just the right amount of hot peppers and sausage, fresh chicken and seafood, all garnishing the steaming, yellow rice. They had eaten in the shed, straddling a bale of hay that was covered by a gaily checkered tablecloth which Jay had supplied.\n\n\"It's not exactly the way I'd planned it,\" Jay said. \"But I dislike eating alone more than anything else. Good, isn't it?\"\n\nSteve's mouth had been too full to answer. Jay laughed, very pleased that his cooking was being so well appreciated.\n\nHours later, Steve lay in the straw just outside Flame's stall. His eyes were closed but he was not asleep. Sleep would come only when Flame had settled down for the night. The horse's movements within the stall never ceased, and there was no end to his neighing.\n\nIn the darkness of the shed, Steve continued talking to Flame. It made no difference what he said so long as he kept talking. Only the sound of his voice mattered, that and the rhythm.\n\n\"It's a nice, big stall, isn't it? Almost as big as my room at home, Flame. I wonder what my folks are doing tonight? Reading, I suppose, if they're not in bed by now. Unless there's a fight on, of course. Then Dad will be watching television, and Mom will be out in the kitchen to get away from it. I guess she reads more than anyone else in the world. It would be nice if she had a book of mine to read some day. I'd be proud, Flame. I sure would be.\"\n\nThe stallion pawed the straw and neighed loudly. There were also sounds of hay being quickly pulled from the manger and then Flame's cautious chewing.\n\n\"It's grass, all right,\" Steve told him, \"cured grass. Not the kind you're used to, but a lot of horses eat it. Up north where it gets cold, horses eat it all winter long... and some who don't have any pastures to graze even eat it during the summer.\"\n\nThe chewing stopped and Flame began moving about the stall again.\n\n\"I'll bet Mom and Dad would be surprised if they knew I was a couple of thousand miles closer to home,\" Steve continued. \"And they'd never believe the way I got here. Nobody I know would believe that. Yet we're here. I wish they could meet Jay. Flick, too. I wonder if the others from the ship are as nice. I'm sure they must be. They're all somewhere in our world, seeing things, and nobody even knows it. Nobody but me.\"\n\nThe stallion snorted. He must have had his head over the stall door, for Steve felt his warm breath.\n\n\"All right,\" Steve said quietly, \"you know about them, too. Just you and me, then. I'll have to watch Jay while we're here. Not that he'd intentionally do anything wrong. But he takes an awful lot for granted sometimes. He doesn't know you as I do, Flame, in spite of everything he _does_ know.\"\n\nThe high windows in the shed held the first gray light of dawn when Steve opened his eyes. Startled, he jumped to his feet, worried about Flame. He had slept and couldn't remember if Flame had ever settled down or not.\n\nThe shed was terribly still, and he could see nothing of Flame in the grayness of early morning. Frantically he searched for the hanging light cord. When he finally found it he pulled hard on it, his eyes on the stall. Still no movement there. No sign of Flame. Rushing to the door, he yanked it open. In the straw lay the red stallion, breathing easily. His eyes had opened as the light had struck them and now they blinked in its glare. He raised his head from the straw, neighing softly, and Steve was beside him, laughing with relief and running his hands down the long, slim neck while Flame drew his forelegs beneath him and rose.\n\nSteve pulled the matted straw from Flame's mane, telling him how glad he was that he had rested. The stallion pulled a mouthful of hay from the rack and Steve knew then that everything was all right. He smoothed the mane and then cleaned Flame's long tail. He found himself wishing he had a brush, and he thought of the shining metal water pail Jay had left in the shed the night before. Jay must have a brush, too, somewhere around. Steve wondered how long Jay usually slept in the morning.\n\nPicking up the pail, he refilled it, glad to see that Flame had emptied it during the night. He glanced at the hackamore hanging from a peg outside the stall. All this was far removed from the life they'd known in Blue Valley. He felt very domesticated. But at least it could be done. He had proved that much, even though he preferred what had been left behind. And he didn't have to wonder if Flame felt any differently.\n\nA little later he slipped the hackamore over Flame's head. He noticed the rapid swaying of the long tassels even though there was no movement from Flame and no draft in the shed. For a moment he thought of the billowing, angry tapestries again and of how Jay had said, _\"... everything is alive in one form or another. Nothing is ever really dead.\"_\n\nSteve took up the lines, and their warmth felt good in the early morning dampness. \"If nothing is ever really dead,\" he thought, opening the shed doors, \"then no one is ever really alone. Come on, Flame. Easy now.\"\n\nThe stallion stepped lightly into the heavy grayness. He sniffed the moist sea wind. Steve made no attempt to keep him quiet, for Flame's calls held neither alarm nor fright as they had during the previous evening. The stallion was sure of himself once more, and his shrill whistles carried all of his Blue Valley arrogance. His head disclosed it too, for he held it high, undaunted by the strangeness of this land.\n\nFlame moved quickly in the dim light, and his coat, so red and glistening beneath the electric bulbs, now looked somber in color; yet his body appeared larger and more powerful. Steve let him go, holding the lines loose in his hands and allowing the stallion to choose his own grass to graze. There were few patches to Flame's liking, and he moved constantly from one place to another, his head close to the ground and nostrils sniffing.\n\nWhen he stopped it was to snatch only a few blades, if any at all, then he would go on, taking Steve farther and farther away from the shed. Often, too, he would turn his head curiously about him, his eyes bright and his ears pricked up. He was wary, interested and unafraid.\n\nFinally in a distant field Flame found the kind of grass he wanted. He grazed for many minutes while Steve watched him, wondering why this particular plot appealed to him when the grass looked no greener, no different from that which he had scorned before.\n\nFlame grazed until he had had his fill, then he stepped forward again, his head still bent close to the ground. To Steve, who was following, Flame's actions seemed strange, since he was certain the stallion was not looking for more grass. Finally he saw what it was that Flame wanted.\n\nThe red stallion stopped before a shallow, sandy depression in the ground. Then he pulled on the lines.\n\nSteve smiled and dropped the lines, turning Flame loose. Carefully the stallion lowered his great body and swung over on his back. He rolled from one side to another as only a slim, fit horse could do. He kicked and grunted with sheer pleasure for many minutes before getting to his feet again.\n\nSteve, observing Flame's dusty red coat, laughed and said, \"Now I _do_ hope Jay brought along a brush for you. Before it wasn't so very necessary but now it is.\"\n\nBut Flame wasn't listening to him. He started off before Steve had finished, pulling impatiently.\n\n\"It'd be easier if I rode you,\" Steve said. He began looking for a place from which to mount. Flame needed the exercise. It would help matters the rest of the day if the red stallion got rid of some of his energy now.\n\nThey reached the top of a knoll and the waters of the Caribbean were before them. It was not an empty sea, for a group of fishing boats had put out from the village. They rode in a long line of brilliantly colored sails. The boats changed course just before reaching a point opposite Steve, and headed for the reef over which the waves were breaking. After they had passed through a channel and were well out to sea they spread out, moving southward.\n\nThe sun was just breaking over the horizon when Steve led Flame down the path to the beach. Flame jumped when his hoofs touched the sand for the first time but he did not pull away. He pawed the deep, granular softness of the sand, flailing it about him. Steve got out of the way, and managed to get Flame near a high rock. He stepped onto it quickly and was on Flame's back while the stallion was still occupied with the sand.\n\nFlame whirled when he felt Steve's weight, and his legs sent the sand flying still more. It peppered his belly, and he bolted to get away from it. But the footing was too soft for swiftness of gait. Also, Steve held the lines tight; he didn't want his horse to go all out just then.\n\nFar down the beach Steve guided Flame close to the waters where the waves had made the sand more firm. Here Flame sought more line but Steve wouldn't give it to him. The stallion snorted and shook his head. Then he bolted and for a few seconds he was free!\n\nSteve had no intention of letting Flame continue his extended run, and finally he was able to turn the stallion's head toward the sea. Flame swerved away from the rush of waters, and Steve continued turning him. He rode him in a large circle that took them back to the sea again. After he had done this several times, Flame came to an abrupt, plunging halt.\n\nSteve said, \"That's enough.\"\n\nFlame was no longer interested in running anyway. He picked up his feet high as the white, curling waves rushed to meet him. And he let them catch him, striking out playfully as the water rounded his legs. Then he became more daring, chasing each wave as it rolled back.\n\nFor many minutes Steve let Flame play with the sea, then his hands and legs moved, telling his horse what he wanted him to do. Flame was reluctant to leave the waves but he turned away, obediently going down the beach at a slow gallop.\n\nSteve dismounted near the house. Was Jay up? he wondered. It was getting late. He didn't look forward to his trip to Havana today but there were many things he needed to know. Would he and Flame race tomorrow or would they, instead, be returning to Blue Valley?\n\nReaching the side door of the house, he called loudly, \"Jay, are you up?\"\n\n\"Come in, Steve. Come in.\"\n\nThe door opened and Jay was standing in the entrance, wearing pajamas and bathrobe. \"Oh, my, you can't go anywhere without him, can you? Put Flame in his stall, Steve, and then come back. I'm just getting breakfast.\"\n\n\"I won't leave him alone,\" Steve said.\n\n\"My! Hasn't he settled down yet? He _looks_ settled.\"\n\n\"We've been out.\"\n\n\"So early?\" Jay asked. \"Well, have it your way, Steve. I'll bring breakfast to you.\"\n\n\"I don't like to have you waiting on me.\"\n\n\"No trouble at all, Steve. Glad to do it, really.\"\n\n\"Did you bring a brush?\"\n\n\"I don't use one, Steve.\"\n\n\"I mean for Flame.\"\n\n\"Oh, of course. It's in my bag. Forgetful of me not to have given it to you last night. I'll bring it along, Steve.\"\n\nAs Steve led Flame back to the shed, he realized that he was very reluctant to leave his horse alone with Jay while he went to Havana. Why, Jay might just go off and forget all about Flame... not intentionally, of course.\n\nA little later Steve heard footsteps outside the shed. He turned as the door opened, and he said, \"Jay, you mustn't forget...\" Then he stopped abruptly, for it wasn't Jay whom he saw.\n\nA thin, sallow face peered around the door, small eyes bright and searching. Steve's muscles tensed. He was certain the man had not expected to find any person inside the shed. But apparently the stranger knew about Flame, for he cast a quick interested glance at the stallion. Then his beady eyes fixed themselves on Steve.\n\n\"What do you want?\" Steve asked.\n\nThe door opened wider and the man stepped inside, closing the door behind him. He wore a torn cotton shirt and his thick black hair grew far down on the sides of his head. Moving noiselessly on bare feet, he took several steps forward, both hands outstretched and shoulders hunched.\n\nSteve moved toward him, very tense but unafraid. No one was going to get at Flame, and this man was no bigger than himself... and apparently unarmed. \"What do you want?\" he repeated.\n\nOnly when the stranger was less than a foot away did he speak, and then it was in Spanish, which Steve did not understand. But the man's actions made it plain that he was determined to reach Flame. His eyes were on the stallion, and he took another step closer to the stall door.\n\nAs Flame snorted, Steve attempted to stop the man. He saw the stranger's hand go quickly to his back pocket. He was certain the man was reaching either for a knife or a gun. He jumped on him, his fingers digging into the man's wrist and around it, imprisoning the hand within the pocket. His free arm swept around the thin chest, while his legs struck the stranger's stiff knees, bringing him down hard on the floor. He brought the man's other arm back, doubling it behind him and twisting it.\n\nThe stranger struggled but Steve did not release his grip; instead he tightened it even more, conscious only of a frenzy to protect his horse.\n\nSuddenly the door opened and Jay entered, carrying a tray of fried eggs, toast, bacon and a pot of coffee. When he saw the two struggling figures he almost dropped the tray. \"What is it, Steve?\" he shouted. \"What's happening here?\"\n\n\"Don't stand there!\" Steve shouted back, for the man had managed to get one hand free.\n\nJay moved toward them, but he didn't put down the tray. Instead he bent over awkwardly to look at the stranger's lowered face. Then he asked in surprise, _\"Qu\u00e9 es, Juan?\"_\n\nA torrent of angry Spanish words burst forth from the stranger while Steve sought to regain his hold of him. \"Don't stand there, Jay!\" he called again. \"Put down that tray and help.\"\n\nBut Jay was laughing so he could hardly stop. Meanwhile Flame was screaming and the stranger was still shouting. Only Steve was quiet, furiously quiet.\n\nFinally Jay managed to stop laughing. He spilled some coffee on his bathrobe and proceeded to wipe it off while he said to Steve, \"Let him go. He's our _neighbor_!\"\n\nSteve kept tight hold of the man. \"I don't care,\" he said savagely. \"He tried to get to Flame!\"\n\n\"What's wrong with feeding Flame a carrot?\" Jay asked, starting to laugh again. He pried Steve's hand loose from the man's wrist, and withdrew a large carrot from the stranger's back pocket. Holding it directly in front of Steve's face, he said patiently, \"Now let him go, Steve. He says you're hurting him very much and he's _furious_.\"\n\nSteve's arms dropped quickly to his sides, and he said, \"I'm sorry. If only he'd told me.\"\n\nThe stranger leaned forward till their noses were almost touching, and Steve understood only the anger in the renewed outburst. Turning helplessly to Jay, he pleaded, \"Tell him I didn't know, that I'm sorry.\"\n\nJay chuckled. \"I guess Juan realizes by now that you don't understand Spanish.\" He took the man by the arm and led him to the door. Even after they were outside Steve heard and _felt_ the visitor's wrath.\n\nLater Jay returned to the shed and they ate breakfast in silence. Only when their plates were wiped clean did Jay say, \"You're a very suspicious young fellow, Steve.\"\n\n\"I think I had a right to be,\" Steve answered.\n\n\"I suppose so since you don't understand Spanish,\" Jay agreed. \"Juan lives just down the road, sort of a farmer-caretaker more than a fisherman. I met him yesterday. It was he who had the key to this place and showed me around, even did our marketing for us. I told him we'd have a horse here today. He loves them but can't afford one of his own.\"\n\nSteve looked up from his plate, his eyes angry. \"Don't make it any harder for me, Jay. I said I'm sorry, and I meant it.\"\n\n\"I apologize,\" Jay said kindly. \"However, I just feel that you're going to get yourself into a lot of trouble by being so suspicious of these people. Or you'll make them suspicious of us by your very actions, and that's worse. Take it easy, Steve. You don't see me getting upset, and I've a lot more to conceal than you have.\"\n\nSteve rose from the bale of straw and went to Flame. \"You're right,\" he conceded. \"I'm not very good at pretending to be what I'm not.\"\n\nJay laughed. \"That's understandable, Steve. You've never had occasion to do it before. Now take me, I'm an old hand at this sort of thing. And the first rule, Steve, is never to be put on the defensive. Take the offensive right away. Make it plain that you're a man of action, a man...\"\n\nSteve interrupted, smiling for the first time. \"Didn't I do that?\" he asked.\n\n\"Of course, Steve. But you didn't even know what Juan wanted here.\" Jay shook his head sadly. \"I'm really afraid you're going to get yourself into a terrible jam in Havana today by not understanding Spanish. Perhaps...\" He turned and faced Steve without completing his sentence.\n\nSteve said, \"You really want to go in my place, don't you? That's why you talked about my being so suspicious of the people here.\"\n\n\"Oh, no, Steve,\" Jay replied. \"I'll gladly stay with Flame. Unless, of course, you'd _prefer_ my going. And I'll tell you one thing, if I go no one will put anything over on me. I'll see that you race, all right.\" He stopped, waiting hopefully, his eyes never leaving the boy.\n\nSteve went over to Flame, and as he stood close to him he remembered his earlier concern at leaving him alone with Jay. \"Okay, Jay,\" he said. \"I guess you _are_ better equipped to go.\"\n\nThe little man jumped nimbly in the air, bringing the heels of his leather slippers together with a soft little click. \"I'll get dressed and leave right away, Steve!\" He rushed to the door, then stopped and turned around. \"I do hope you won't be bored being left alone. I'll get back just as soon as I can.\"\n\nSteve waited until the door closed behind Jay, then he turned to his horse. Bored? He had Flame for company, and there was a lot to think about. Tomorrow they might be going to Havana themselves.\n\n# THE WEALTHY GENTLEMAN\n\n13\n\nJay was in no hurry to reach Havana once he had left Steve and Flame behind. He was enjoying his close contact with people from Earth and their acceptance of him as one of their own. He was happy, too, over the way he had handled Steve. Of course, everything he had said was quite true. With his background he could handle the racetrack officials far better than an inexperienced boy. However, there was no need to think of that little job just yet. All that mattered now was that he was on his own and could enjoy himself as much as he liked.\n\nHe had been standing in the aisle of the crowded Havana-bound bus for a long while, and his fine black homburg hat had been knocked off his head several times. But he had taken the jostling from the other passengers very well. In fact, he had joked about it to those standing close by. At first they hadn't laughed with him, feeling perhaps that he was not one of them. Oh, not that they knew he was from Alula. Indeed not, nothing like that. Rather it was his clothes\u2014his fine dark hat, suit and tie and his white shirt with the stiff collar\u2014these and the silver-handled cane he carried must have given them the impression that he was a very wealthy man, and they had been afraid to joke with him.\n\nAll this had changed, however, when a sudden stop had thrown him down hard to the floor, and a very fat woman had landed on top of him. Of course she had hurt him dreadfully, and he must have looked ridiculous while two grinning men had pulled the lady to her feet. Everyone had laughed at his frightful predicament. After that it had been easy to get along with them.\n\nHalfway to Havana he found that most passengers were changing buses, and he decided to go along with these very nice people.\n\n\"But you were going to the city,\" the man next to him said in very bad Spanish. \"This is not the way. We go to work in the factories.\"\n\n\"I'll go along,\" Jay said quietly, slurring his Spanish, just as the man had done. \"I'm in no hurry, and I enjoy your company very much.\"\n\nThe man shook his head sadly but smiled at the same time. The other passengers too, Jay noted, were pleased that he was accompanying them, for they called out and made very pleasant remarks to him.\n\nThe other bus was waiting for them and he was very flattered when his new friends insisted upon his having a seat this time.\n\nHe never remembered a more wonderful trip than the one that followed. Oh, it was true they all made much fun of him and his apparent wealth. They told him that he would never get a job in the factory wearing such beautiful clothes. They passed his black homburg around, each one trying it on while he in turn wore their straw hats. They even took his cane and he thought for a while that he would never see it again. But eventually it came back to him, just as his hat did.\n\nIt was all a great deal of fun, and he was sorry when it came to an end. By separate large groups the passengers left the bus at factories along the way, and finally he was alone and the driver asked if he were going to spend the day with him. Only then did Jay think of Havana and the business at hand.\n\nGlancing at his gold watch he said impatiently, \"I must get to Havana immediately.\"\n\nThe driver smiled tolerantly. \"Then you must ride back with me to where you got on. Once there you must wait for still another bus.\"\n\n\"How long will all that take?\" Jay asked anxiously, getting to his feet.\n\n\"It will not be soon,\" the driver said. \"I do not leave here for another thirty minutes.\"\n\n\"Is there no other way to reach Havana?\" Jay looked out the windows. \"Are there no taxis?\" On the gate of a nearby factory he saw a huge poster announcing the great International Race to be run the next day at El Dorado Park, and his impatience to reach the city broke out afresh. \"There must be cars to hire out here,\" he said.\n\nThe bus driver smiled, and his eyes surveyed Jay's fine clothes again. \"If there are any around they will find you,\" he said.\n\n\"But what do you suggest I do?\" Jay asked.\n\n\"Get out and walk,\" the driver said. \"Something should happen very quickly.\"\n\n\"Thank you. Thank you very much,\" Jay answered in his finest Spanish.\n\nHe walked past the factory and down the asphalt-topped road, looking for a taxi. But the only signs of activity came from the belching smokestacks. He felt very much alone with everyone working but himself. He hurried along, climbing a steep hill. At the top he could see nothing before him but great fields of sugar cane on either side of the road. He knew then that it would do no good to walk aimlessly along, waiting for something to happen, as the bus driver had suggested.\n\nAs he stood there, his eyes on the long empty stretch of road, his ears listening for the sound of a car, he became more nervous than ever. It was most frustrating! He looked up at the sky. There was a large black buzzard circling just above him. Oh, he could get to Havana all right. But his flying was very much against the rules on such a trip as this. They'd leave him here if they ever found out. He'd never see home again.\n\nPearly beads of perspiration appeared on his forehead and he swept them angrily away. His Earth body functioned in a very strange manner indeed....\n\nHe waited longer, but not patiently. Well, if there was no alternative he had to take a chance of getting to Havana the only way left, although he certainly wished... He looked at the buzzard again. It was such a big bird.... Suddenly he heard the noise of a car's engine, and with great relief turned toward it.\n\nThe car came up the hill, hissing and rattling under the strain of making the steep ascent. Jay stepped out in the middle of the road and raised his hand high in the air.\n\nThe car stopped, but the driver, barely glancing at Jay, got out and went forward to remove the cap from the steaming radiator.\n\nJay jumped back at sight of the geyser of steam that emerged, and the man laughed at him. He was still laughing when he went to the back of the car and returned with a large can of water which he poured into the hot radiator. Then he put back the cap and turned to Jay, studying him closely for the first time.\n\nHis eyes brightened as he scrutinized Jay's fine clothes and the silver-handled cane. \"Sir,\" he said anxiously, \"you are in trouble, and in need of help?\"\n\n\"I must reach Havana at once,\" Jay said, using his finest, richest Spanish. He had met this type of man before, and had not forgotten how best to impress him. \"If I may hire your car and services...\"\n\n\"But of course,\" the man interrupted, opening the car door with a great flourish. \"We will waste no time in further words while not in transit. I understand your emergency and quickly respond to your bidding.\" He hurried Jay into the car, happy that no fare for the trip had been set and he could demand his own figure upon their arrival in Havana.\n\nJay made no attempt to carry on a conversation with this man as he had done with his good friends on the bus. He was a sullen person who would not have helped him, or anyone else for that matter, without expecting and obtaining a very high price for his services.\n\nWhile the man talked on and on, Jay looked out at the countryside, trying hard to concentrate on the fields of cane, the citrus fruit orchards and finally the long avenues that were shaded by laurel trees, ceibas and stately royal palms. Eventually, the road descended to the sea and a light wind brought the smell of dead sea grass lying in the hot sun. He glanced at his watch again, and seeing that it was almost noon he fidgeted more than before.\n\n\"It won't be long now,\" the man said, letting the car roll recklessly down the hill. \"See, there is the dome of the Capitol!\"\n\nJay only nodded, not sharing the man's jubilation at sight of the city. The important thing was that other cars were now on the road, most of them passing quickly by. If anything happened to the sputtering engine he would not be without further conveyance.\n\nFrom having studied the ship's screen the day before, he knew where they were in Havana. The towering National Hotel was near the white dome of the Capitol, and then he could see the Morro Castle, and many other buildings, all looking clean and beautiful in the bright noonday sun.\n\nFor a moment he thought of the fun it would be just to sit quietly in some restaurant, watching the people that passed... or, better still, walking leisurely through the streets, talking to passers-by. He turned his gaze away from the buildings to watch a ship leaving the harbor. Still farther beyond were some fishing smacks. His eyes remained on the dark line made by the Gulf Stream, and he thought of the lonely island from which Steve and Flame had come.... Then he remembered all he had promised the boy.\n\n\"I'll be getting out soon,\" he told the driver.\n\n\"But, sir, this is only the suburbs.\"\n\n\"I know,\" Jay answered, \"but there is no need of my going downtown. I must go directly to El Dorado Park.\"\n\n\"The racetrack? Then I will take you there. It is a much longer ride, of course.\"\n\n\"No, I will get a taxi, thank you. There's one now.\"\n\n\"But there is no need,\" the man said insolently. \"I can take you there as well. And the fare...\"\n\n\"No,\" Jay insisted, \"a taxi suits me better.\"\n\n\"Better?\" the man asked irritably.\n\nJay's face flushed. \"I mean that it will get me there faster. Please stop now, and I will pay you.\"\n\nThe driver jammed the foot brake. \"I will have to charge you for the whole trip,\" he said, smiling. \"All the way to El Dorado Park, since it is there that you intended to go.\"\n\n\"That's perfectly all right,\" Jay said, glad that the car had stopped and he was able to get out. Opening the door, he hailed a taxi, and then turned to the man in the car. \"You've been most kind,\" he said, taking a bill from his wallet and handing it to him.\n\nThe driver looked at the bill, and said nothing. It was more than he would have asked for, and he had intended to charge a great deal. When he took his eyes off the bill, he saw his wealthy passenger climbing into the taxi. \"Sir,\" he called, \"one moment, please.\"\n\nJay waited, wondering what the man wanted. Surely he had paid him well.\n\nThe man's eyes were bright, almost frantic, Jay thought.\n\n\"Yes?\" Jay said.\n\n\"Sir, perhaps you know the winner of the great race tomorrow? No doubt you are a famous horseman. And it would help me greatly to know the name of the winning horse.\"\n\nJay closed the taxi door. \"It would help me too,\" he said through the open window.\n\n\"But, sir...\"\n\nThe taxi moved, and Jay told the driver, \"El Dorado Park, please. And skirt the traffic. I'm in a great hurry.\"\n\nJay sat back, content that he had done right in transferring to the taxi. Not only because he would reach the Park much faster, but also because he would make a much better impression arriving there in a taxi rather than in the unfashionable vehicle he had just left. The latter was important because he well knew how much emphasis was placed upon such things by Earth-men. And, of course, he must do his best to impress the racetrack officials with his importance from the very beginning. Yes, he must take the offensive immediately, just as he had told Steve.\n\nHe relaxed, unaware of the mounting speed of the taxi, the blaring horn and the many near accidents that were avoided as he was taken from one residential section to another. Instead he was thinking that what he should do at once was to telephone the track and advise the officials of his coming. This, too, would be most impressive, especially if he allowed them to think that it was his secretary who was calling.\n\n\" 'I am calling for Mr.... Mr....' I must have a name,\" he thought. \"One worthy of such an occasion. I believe I'll be Dutch... yes, that'll be just fine. I'll say I'm from the Dutch West Indies. What's the name of that Dutch island off the coast of Venezuela? Cura\u00e7ao, that's it. Now for my name. I'll call myself Van Oss... yes, I like that. I like it very much. 'Hello. Hello. I am calling for Mr. Henry Van Oss of Cura\u00e7ao.' Umm. Hm. Very good.\"\n\nJay saw the drug store on the corner just ahead. Surely he'd find a public telephone there. \"Driver,\" he called, \"stop here a moment. I want to make a call.\"\n\nA little later Jay returned to the taxi, very pleased with his telephone conversation with Mr. Garcia-Pena, Race Secretary of El Dorado Park. Mr. Garcia-Pena had been most gracious. He was awaiting Mr. Van Oss of Cura\u00e7ao with the utmost pleasure, eager to assist him in every way possible, whatever his wishes might be.\n\nJay smiled as the taxi moved on again. _Whatever his wishes might be_. Little did Mr. Garcia-Pena realize what Mr. Van Oss would ask of him!\n\n\"Sir...\" the driver began, turning his head around so he could look at Jay.\n\nThey almost collided with a passing car, and Jay said quickly, \"Please keep your eyes on the road!\"\n\nChastened, the driver obeyed. Then, without taking his eyes off the boulevard, he said, \"May I ask if you're an owner of a horse in tomorrow's great race?\"\n\n\"In a sense,\" Jay answered, enjoying the man's deference. \"Yes, I suppose you might call me a part-owner. Although we're undecided about starting tomorrow. I've only just arrived.\"\n\n\"The fifty-thousand-dollar purse would decide me pretty quick about starting,\" the driver said, laughing.\n\n\"Yes,\" Jay admitted, \"it _is_ an impressive purse.\"\n\n\"I guess everybody's figuring on Kingfisher taking it home with him.\"\n\n\"Kingfisher?\" Jay asked.\n\n\"Sure... the _big_ horse from the United States. He's handicap champion there, as I guess you know.\"\n\n\"No, I didn't know,\" Jay answered. \"I haven't kept in touch with races in the United States. You said his name is Kingfisher?\"\n\n\"Yes,\" the driver said. \"It's a good name, don't you think?\"\n\n\"Kingfisher,\" Jay repeated. \"Yes, the name appeals to me, too.\"\n\n\"Then you like him for the big race, sir?\"\n\n\"I like anything that has to do with birds,\" Jay answered quietly.\n\nThe man glanced back at him. \"What have birds got to do with it?\"\n\n\"Watch the road, please,\" Jay repeated nervously. \"Nothing, I suppose... except that kingfisher is also the name of a bird.\"\n\n\"It's an easy name to remember.\"\n\n\"Yes,\" Jay said thoughtfully. \"But come to think of it, it's strange that they should give such a name to a horse. A kingfisher has very weak feet, and I'm sure you're acquainted with the old saying, 'No feet, no horse.' \"\n\n\"You don't have to worry about his feet, sir. They've carried him a long way. He's six years old now and hasn't been beaten since he was three.\"\n\n\"I'm surprised,\" Jay said. \"A kingfisher's feet just don't stand up under hard going for a very long time.\"\n\nBewildered, the driver looked back at his passenger again. \" _This_ Kingfisher's a horse,\" he said.\n\nJay said nothing more for the main entrance to El Dorado Park and the high fence surrounding it were directly ahead. He settled back in his seat, concerned now only with Mr. Garcia-Pena and all that he had to say to him.\n\nThey passed through the gate, and Jay wouldn't let himself look at the gigantic grandstand and clubhouse or, a little later, at the horses being walked beside the stable sheds. He shut his ears, too, to the loud voices of caretakers calling to each other and the neighs and nickering of the horses.\n\nOh, he wanted so very much to look, to listen, for he had waited a terribly long time to enjoy once more the activity of a racetrack. But today was not the day. Tomorrow, yes, but not today. He must think only of his coming session with Mr. Garcia-Pena. He must be fully prepared to outwit the Race Secretary no matter how formidable an opponent Mr. Garcia-Pena might turn out to be. He must not return to Steve with anything but the happiest news, that Flame would be going to the post tomorrow. Nothing less would do, so every move, every remark, must be well planned. He must not let Mr. Garcia-Pena put him on the defensive at any time.\n\n\"Sir, are you not getting out?\"\n\nJay glanced at the driver, then with further surprise he saw that the taxi was parked in front of a low building. He wondered how many minutes they'd been parked there.\n\n\"Why, yes... yes, of course,\" he answered, a little flustered. He got out of the taxi, furious with himself for his hesitancy and embarrassment. This wouldn't do at all. This was not a good start for what he had to do.\n\nLifting his cane deftly with a quick, confident snap of the wrist, he told the driver to wait, and then walked into the building.\n\n# THE INVITATION\n\n14\n\nJay did not have long to wait for the Race Secretary to see him. And as he waited he was thoroughly at ease and, indeed, nonchalant, sitting comfortably in a deep leather chair with his legs crossed and his fine black homburg balanced on one knee. His long fingers drummed the silver head of his cane but not impatiently... or so it would have seemed to an onlooker.\n\nIn a little while a girl emerged from the inner office, smiled and said that Mr. Garcia-Pena would see him. Jay did not leave his chair, but smiled graciously in return and waited for Mr. Garcia-Pena to appear and escort him inside. There was an uneasy moment or two, then the girl disappeared within the office and seconds later a small dark-haired man stood in the doorway.\n\n\"Mr. Van Oss?\" the Race Secretary asked, smiling.\n\nJay rose to his feet, nodding graciously but not smiling. \"Mr. Garcia-Pena?\" He waited until the man crossed the floor to greet him, and then they went into the office.\n\nFor a few minutes more Jay allowed Mr. Garcia-Pena to scrutinize him while they discussed the unusually hot day, the lack of a breeze and the little rain there had been.\n\n\"Of course,\" and Mr. Garcia-Pena smiled, \"we would not like to have it rain tomorrow. We're expecting a tremendous crowd for the International.\"\n\n\"Naturally,\" Jay returned, still aloof and unsmiling. He recrossed his knees, fingering the knife-edged crease of his trousers.\n\n\"If you don't mind my saying so,\" the Race Secretary continued, \"you speak beautiful Spanish, Mr. Van Oss. It is most unusual to hear, for most of our visitors' Spanish is not... well, shall I say not very well spoken?\"\n\n\"Thank you,\" Jay said, turning abruptly from the man to look at the portraits of horses on the walls.\n\nThere was a long moment of strained silence, then the Race Secretary moved some papers on his desk and said, \"You didn't mention the purpose of your visit over the phone, Mr. Van Oss.\"\n\n\"No, I thought it best to wait,\" Jay said, \"since it could only be done here, and will take but a few minutes of your time. I have a horse that I wish to enter in the International.\"\n\nIn the pause that followed, the smile that had been forming at the corners of the Race Secretary's mouth died. He looked straight into his visitor's eyes, and found himself thinking of his children... or, rather, of the glass marbles with which they played. This man's eyes had the same cloudy, agate-like quality and still they were clear. Colorless, yet with thin bands of color running through them; again, like the glass marbles. Uneasy, Mr. Garcia-Pena turned back to his papers.\n\nAs if from a distance he heard his visitor say, \"The horse's name is Flame. I suppose you'll want that for the program.\"\n\nMr. Garcia-Pena looked up to find the man's cane raised and then drumming the carpet lightly. He chose to stare at the cane rather than to meet those eyes again. Somehow, just looking into them made it very difficult for him to concentrate.\n\n\"If there is an entry fee, I'll pay it now,\" Jay said. \"So if you will tell me the amount...\"\n\nMr. Garcia-Pena continued staring at the cane. \"Five hundred dollars is the fee to start, but...\" He had never seen such beautiful, highly polished silver as that on the cane's head. It seemed almost to glow with life... and so soft that it looked molten. His eyes were playing tricks on him, he decided. No metal was so pliable that it could be manipulated with the fingers, as seemed to be the case here.\n\nMr. Garcia-Pena smiled at his thoughts. He was being very silly. \"I'm afraid, Mr. Van Oss, that what you ask is out of the question,\" he said graciously.\n\nHis visitor acted as if he had not heard, for he began taking money out of his wallet.\n\n\"This will cover the entry fee,\" Jay said, placing the bills on the desk. \"Now if you'll just tell me the time we go to the post...\"\n\nMr. Garcia-Pena was no longer smiling. \"Please sit down again, Mr. Van Oss. You see...\"\n\n\"I'm sorry but I have an appointment,\" Jay said urgently. \"You have the entrance money, paid in full. There is nothing else required by the conditions of the race as advertised.\" He pushed the bills toward the center of the desk, hoping Mr. Garcia-Pena would at least look at them.\n\nBut the Race Secretary, ignoring the money, had turned and pressed a button on the office intercom. \"Dora,\" he said to his secretary, \"have Mario come in immediately.\" Then, to his visitor, \"Please sit down,\" he repeated. \"You see, Mr. Van Oss, what you're asking is ridiculous.\"\n\n\"Ridiculous?\" Jay's tone of voice matched the sudden sternness of his face. \"Are you or are you not running the International Race tomorrow?\"\n\n\"Of course, of course. But you see...\"\n\nJay drew his head up scornfully. \"I see nothing, Mr. Garcia-Pena, except my entry fee on your desk.\"\n\nThe man's eyes implored him to sit down, to listen, but Jay turned toward the door. \"If you won't tell me what time they go to the post, I'll get the information from your secretary,\" he said curtly.\n\n\"But this race is by invitation only,\" the man said.\n\nJay didn't answer, and kept moving toward the door. He was reaching for the knob when the door opened and a tall young man entered.\n\n\"Ah, Mario,\" Mr. Garcia-Pena said, \"just in time. I want you to meet Mr. Van Oss, from Cura\u00e7ao. He's a little confused over the conditions of the race tomorrow and I thought you could help me straighten him out.\" Then, to Jay, \"This is Mr. Santos, Mr. Van Oss. He's our Publicity Director.\"\n\nMr. Santos held out his hand, and Jay shook it without returning the man's brisk smile. He felt confident that he could handle Mr. Santos. Except for his high-sounding title, there was nothing about him that commanded respect.\n\nJay could see at a glance that Mr. Santos was ambitious. Eager and enterprising, he would not be aloof to a suggestion or two that might take him a step closer to whatever goal he had in mind. As Jay took in the mustache that Mr. Santos was beginning to grow, he wondered if this young man's ambition was to sit behind Mr. Garcia-Pena's luxurious desk.\n\n\"Please sit down,\" the Race Secretary urged Jay again.\n\nJay smiled understandingly and shrugged his shoulders. \"If you will not waste time then, Mr. Garcia-Pena.\"\n\n\"This will take only a few minutes,\" the Race Secretary said placatingly. \"Mario, will you please take the chair next to Mr. Van Oss? I may need your help to explain matters fully.\"\n\n\"There should be little to explain,\" Jay said abruptly. \"The race is tomorrow, and the entry fee has been paid. You have it there on your desk. I don't see...\"\n\nMr. Garcia-Pena picked up the bills. \"But again I'd like to say that our race is by invitation only. After all, Mr. Van Oss, we just couldn't allow any horse to...\" He paused and smiled sheepishly.\n\nThere was no answering smile from Jay. \"Your posters made no mention of that condition,\" he said sternly. \"No mention that you'd invited _only_ the horses you wanted to race in the International. You advised the public that the International Race was _Open to the World_.\"\n\nThe Race Secretary turned to Mr. Santos, seeking assistance, but the Publicity Director avoided his gaze and continued looking at their visitor. \"Well, in a sense it is open to the world,\" the Secretary said awkwardly, \"but by invitation only.\"\n\nJay uncrossed his knees, stomping his cane hard on the floor. \"You can't have it both ways,\" he said. \"My attorneys will...\" He rose quickly to his feet and, just as he had hoped and had rather expected, the Publicity Director rose, too.\n\n\"Mr. Van Oss, please...,\" Mr. Santos said. \"I'm certain we can handle this without any, ah, legal difficulties.\"\n\nJay studied the man's large frame that was so sparingly covered with flesh. It made him think of a heron, especially since Mr. Santos had the kind of head that perfected the illusion. It was very large, and his nose was long and beaked. Jay was staring at the man's high forehead with the brown, well-groomed hair growing above it when Mr. Santos graciously placed a hand on his arm.\n\n\"Please sit down, Mr. Van Oss,\" the Publicity Director said, his voice as polished as his hair. \"We, of course, had no idea that anyone would object to the conditions of our race. We simply sent invitations to the owners of the world's fastest horses, hoping they'd accept. Fortunately eight of them did, and we have a field tomorrow that will make racing history for Cuba.\"\n\n\"And for El Dorado Park,\" Mr. Garcia-Pena interrupted. \"The race will be featured in every newspaper in the world.\"\n\n\"Naturally,\" the Publicity Director said. \"It's what I counted on after all my work.\"\n\nJay allowed himself to be seated in the big chair again. \"Then you have no objection to my horse racing?\" he asked insistently, meeting the Race Secretary's gaze.\n\nOnce more Mr. Garcia-Pena turned helplessly to his Publicity Director.\n\nThis time the Publicity Director was ready with a suggestion. \"Could we not issue another invitation... one to Mr. Van Oss, Eduardo?\"\n\nThe Race Secretary rose to his feet, then quickly sat down again. \"The United States Jockey Club wouldn't like it, Mario! You know that as well as I do. After all, we have two horses here from the States, and if we issue a last-minute invitation such as you're suggesting, why...\"\n\n\"The United States Jockey Club is not running _this_ race,\" the Publicity Director returned quietly. \"I see no reason why we can't invite any horse we please, providing...\"\n\nThere was a moment of heavy silence and then Jay turned to him. \"Providing what, Mr. Santos?\"\n\nHis face cupped in his hands, chin outthrust, Mr. Santos was staring into space thoughtfully. \"Providing, Mr. Van Oss, that you have a horse that will not embarrass us.\"\n\n\"Embarrass?\" Jay repeated.\n\nThe Publicity Director's eyes were beginning to shine with excitement. \"We must be sure, Mr. Van Oss, that your horse will give a creditable performance... if not in the race at least during the post parade. He must compliment our field, for the world will be watching.\"\n\nOnce more the Race Secretary rose to his feet, his face angry now. \"You mean, Mario, you'd go along with this? What Mr. Van Oss has asked is impossible! We'll be the laughingstock of the world. How do we know what he'd send onto the track? A burro, maybe, that would bray in our faces!\"\n\n\"That, Eduardo, we must find out, of course,\" the Publicity Director returned quietly. \"But I've been thinking of all the publicity that we might obtain from this late entry of Mr. Van Oss's. After all, we did announce that our race is open to the world, as Mr. Van Oss has reminded us. What objection could anyone have to our acceptance of his horse, even at this late date, since he is willing to pay five hundred dollars to start?\n\n\"Better still, don't you know what such startling news will do for us? Can't you see it in every paper tomorrow? It will make headlines, Eduardo! It will have an air of mystery that we'll do our best to maintain. Through the press services we'll announce to the world that an unexpected entry from...\"\n\nThe Publicity Director turned eagerly to Jay. \"From where, Mr. Van Oss? Where is your horse from?\"\n\nJay smiled, enthusiastically going along with the Director's plan. \"Wouldn't the Windward Islands be enough?\" he asked. \"It would add to the mystery.\"\n\n\"Yes, of course,\" Mr. Santos agreed excitedly. \"From the Windward Islands, from the area of the Caribbean Sea!\" Then, to the Race Secretary, \"We can say that he is _our_ representative in the International, since we have no other. I assure you we'll get publicity such as we've never had before! An unknown _Island_ horse meeting the champions of the world! Think of it, Eduardo!\"\n\nThe Race Secretary went to the window. \"You're being ridiculous, Mario. You're making a farce out of a race among the world's fastest horses. Isn't it enough that we have managed to get them together _without all this_?\"\n\nThe Publicity Director went hurriedly after him and placed an arm about his friend's shoulders. \"Eduardo, you don't understand,\" he said quietly. \"The race itself will be the finest ever run. And you have arranged it... you and you alone. But please remember that even the greatest races are made more memorable by unusual stories that are written in advance. Have you forgotten how much publicity we received as a result of my suggestion that the purse money be hung from the finish wire?\"\n\nJay saw the Race Secretary nod his head in answer, and his own interest quickened. \"Did I understand you to say you're hanging the money from the finish wire?\" he asked.\n\nThe Publicity Director turned to him. \"You must have read about that, Mr. Van Oss. It was in _every_ newspaper....\"\n\n\"No,\" Jay said, \"I haven't seen a paper in some time. Tell me about it.\"\n\n\"Briefly, the money will be sewn in a purse, which will be given to the winner immediately following the race. It's the way they did it long ago, and that's how the term 'purse' originated in racing terminology. You've no idea the amount of publicity we've received since the story went out.\"\n\n\"I guess I haven't,\" Jay said quietly. And how convenient, he thought, for him and Steve. All they had to do was to collect the purse after the race and leave. Lovely, just lovely... and so convenient.\n\nThe Publicity Director continued, \"Go along with me, Eduardo, on this one last request before tomorrow's race. An unknown horse from the Islands is just what we need to stimulate further world interest in our race. I can have the news release sent out this afternoon. Every wire service, every radio and television station will carry it!\" He waved his arms in the air, and Jay was reminded of the long, flopping wings of a heron in flight.\n\nResignedly the Race Secretary returned to his desk. \"I must see this horse first,\" he said in a very tired voice. \"Where is he, Mr. Van Oss?\"\n\nJay jumped to his feet. \"Not far from here,\" he said. \"I have a taxi waiting. Come along.\"\n\n# THE WAITING\n\n15\n\nSteve slid off the bale of straw on which he had been sitting, and went to the door again. Still no sign of Jay, and the sun was close to setting. For a moment he watched the wind chase the heavy ragged clouds across the sky. It could rain either tonight or tomorrow.\n\nHe closed the door, shutting out the dying brilliance of the sun, and returned to Flame. The stallion had his head over the stall door, eyes alert as he watched every move Steve made.\n\nSteve said, \"Wet footing wouldn't make any difference to you. I wonder about the others?\"\n\nAll day long he had thought of nothing but the race, preparing Flame and himself for it. Soon after Jay's departure he had cast aside any doubts and uncertainties as to their racing in the International. A man who had taken them this far would not be stopped by the conditions of a race. It was only a matter of waiting, and soon\u2014tomorrow\u2014the waiting would end.\n\n\"It'll be up to us alone then, Flame... just you and me. No Jay to help us once we're on the track. But we'll go just as we do in Blue Valley. Oh, it'll be different, a lot different, for both of us. There'll be noise and people... and other stallions too, Flame. But you'll do what I ask, won't you?\"\n\nFlame let go a couple of kicks against the wooden sides of his stall, and then reached over the half-door, taking hold of Steve's shirt in play.\n\nSteve patted him, at the same time thoughtfully eyeing the bitless bridle which hung from a peg beside the door. It would be of some help in guiding Flame once the stallion stepped onto the track. But he must not put too much confidence in the bridle. Only his voice and hands, his love for Flame and the stallion's love for him would keep the great horse under control. Even then... yes, even then nothing was certain. He had no assurance that Flame would listen to him as he always had done before. The sight of other stallions, Flame's natural instinct to fight, might well bring on insurmountable problems. But it was a risk he had to take, and he accepted the challenge willingly.\n\nHe rubbed the stallion's muzzle and Flame released his shirt without drawing back. \"I want the world to see how fast you are, Flame,\" he said softly. \"I don't think you'll mind at all once we get going. You'll be as anxious to beat them as I am. Once we're on our way you'll know what it's all about. You'll race because it's the most natural thing in the world for you to do.\"\n\nHe believed everything he told Flame. He was impatient for Jay to return, for the night to pass, for the moment when he would ride Flame onto the track. It was the _waiting_ that he hated.\n\nAs he looked at the hackamore again, he wished for a moment that it were an ordinary bridle that hung there. If it had been he could have undone all the fasteners, separating every movable part; then he could have spent a lot of time carefully cleaning each piece of leather with sponge and soap. It would have kept him busy. It would have helped a lot.\n\nHe took down the bitless bridle, his hands fingering the long tassels that were as fine as spun gold. He examined the breathing, living fibers as he turned the hackamore over, searching for any marks of sweat that might have stained it during the morning ride or any grains of sand that might cause Flame discomfort when he wore it again. But the bitless bridle was as unsoiled as on the day Jay had given it to him. His hands tightened about it, and a warmer, deeper red flooded the fibers. He was comforted by the warmth, but still he wished it were an ordinary bridle so he might have spent some time in cleaning it.\n\nFinally he put it back on the peg, and turned again to Flame. For a moment he thought of unbraiding the stallion's long forelock and doing it over again. But he had already done that three times. Lightly he pushed Flame's head a little to the side so he could look into the stall. The bedding was clean, so there was nothing to be done there, either.\n\nAcross the stallion's back, just draping his barrel, was the folded red cooler Jay had brought along. Steve thought of pulling it up around Flame's neck, then rejected the idea. The stallion hadn't minded the blanket earlier and there was little likelihood of his objecting to it now.\n\nFor want of anything better to do, Steve went into the stall and, drawing the cooler high up, pinned it snugly around Flame's neck. Flame nipped at the edges, then lost interest. A new idea had come to him. He wanted to leave the stall.\n\n\"Not now,\" Steve said. \"Not until tomorrow.\"\n\nFlame stepped around him, and the draped blanket billowed and changed color with his movements. Steve thought of _the room_ again, and the great tapestries hanging on the walls. Uneasy, he removed the cooler from Flame's back. The weather was too warm for it anyway, and there were no drafts in the shed.\n\nHe was turning away from the stall when the door of the shed opened and Jay stepped inside. Steve was about to run toward him when he noticed the two strangers standing in the doorway behind Jay.\n\nWith a gesture, Jay signaled to Steve to move away from the stall, and then he said graciously to the men, \"Come in, gentlemen. Here he is.\"\n\nSteve did as he had been bid, seeking enlightenment in Jay's eyes. But Jay avoided his gaze, and now spoke only in Spanish so Steve couldn't understand a word that was said. He saw the men approach the stall with Jay to look at Flame. They didn't go too close for Flame had his ears swept back. Yet they were anxious to see his body and legs, for they stepped to one side, peering into the stall.\n\nJay turned on the light so they could get a good look at Flame. The two men were pleased with what they saw, Steve could tell, for they nodded in agreement to almost everything Jay said. It was Jay who did all the talking, and not once did the visitors pay any attention to Steve. The gaunt, gangling man was especially impressed with Flame, for being taller he had a better view of the inside of the stall. His eyes were bright and he kept rubbing his long, bony hands together vigorously.\n\nSteve wondered who they were and why Jay had brought them, but he knew better than to ask just then. He moved farther away from them, knowing it was what Jay wanted of him.\n\nFinally the visit neared its close, and there was a brief discussion among the three as they turned from the stall and walked slowly to the door.\n\nSteve waited until they were outside, then went to the door himself. From where he stood he saw the taxi, and the two men shaking hands with Jay. The smaller of the visitors wore a sober expression, but he seemed to be in full agreement with his friend. Steve wished he understood Spanish. Well, soon Jay would explain what it all meant.\n\nThe men stepped into the taxi, and the door closed behind them. Jay gave the driver a bill, and called, _\"Hasta la vista,\"_ to the departing visitors.\n\nAs the driver looked at the bill Jay had given him, he exclaimed, _\"Mil gracias, Se\u00f1or!... Mil gracias!\"_\n\nJay waved them off, then turned to Steve. For a moment he just looked at the boy, his face seeming to glow from the unusual brightness of his eyes. There was no need for Steve to ask if the trip to Havana had been successful.\n\n\"We're in, Steve!\" Jay finally said.\n\n\"I know,\" the boy answered. \"All I have to do is look at you to know.\"\n\n\"Of course, of course,\" Jay agreed jubilantly.\n\nTogether they walked into the shed, and Jay flung his black hat onto the bale of straw. \"They had to see Flame before they'd agree to his starting in the International. Think of it, Steve,\" he went on, \"they were afraid he might not look well in the post parade! That was their only worry, for they don't consider an untried horse as a serious contender in such a race. Oh, what a surprise they'll get, Steve... especially that Mr. Santos! He was the one who looked so much like a heron, you'll recall. And in his mind the only reason our horse has been accepted is that it will give him a chance to write some good publicity stories tonight. But it's just as well for us that Mr. Santos is thinking along those lines; otherwise we might not be racing tomorrow.\"\n\n\"What is he going to do?\" Steve asked.\n\n\"Mr. Santos is going to tell the world that an unknown, unproven horse will face the champions in tomorrow's great International.\"\n\n\"Oh, Jay...\" Steve began, the color leaving his face.\n\n\"Don't worry,\" Jay said quickly. \"I told him nothing about Flame or you. Furthermore, Steve, he didn't want to know anything. That's part of it. The mystery, I mean. That's the angle Mr. Santos is depending upon to gain publicity in the newspapers, radio and on television. An unknown horse from the Windward Islands will race against the world's fastest horses! A late entry! An Island Stallion! Oh, that Mr. Santos knows his job, all right. Why, he's even arranged to hang the purse money from the finish wire. This race has been tailor-made for us, Steve... and so has Mr. Santos!\"\n\nToo many facts in too short a time. Steve walked to the back of the shed. He didn't want to hear any more. That he and Flame were to race the next day was enough.\n\nJay's voice became louder, but Steve tried not to listen.\n\n\"I'm sorry that it was necessary to be discourteous and ignore you when I arrived, Steve. But you see, I didn't want them to take a good look at you. No one must be able to recognize you later as the person who rode Flame in the big race. Tomorrow morning I'll fix you up so your own mother wouldn't know you.\"\n\nDetails, important details, all of which Jay enjoyed doing so much. But to Steve, just then, nothing mattered except the actual running of the race.\n\n\"I must go to the village now,\" Jay continued excitedly, \"and rent a truck for tomorrow. I hope you won't mind being left alone again, Steve.\"\n\n\"No, I don't mind... not at all.\"\n\nJay had not been gone very long when the sky darkened and a peal of thunder came rolling in from the sea. Steve listened to it, wondering if the storm would break before Jay reached the village. Jay would hate to get his fine clothes wet. And would he have enough foresight to get a closed truck in case it continued to rain the next day?\n\nThe shed was illuminated by a sudden flash of lightning, and then swift angry pellets of rain began falling on the tin roof. Steve's eyes became accustomed to the darkness and he made out Flame's head over the stall door. He went to him as the lightning came again and the storm in all its fury burst upon them.\n\nThe rain didn't stop until shortly after Steve awakened the next morning. He watered Flame, then went to the shed door, opening it to look at the gray, sweeping clouds. There was little chance of the sun's breaking through such an overcast. Parked near the shed was the small closed van which Jay had driven home the night before during the storm. They had bedded it down well with straw. It was ready for Flame.\n\nHe returned to his horse, offering him a bale of hay through which the stallion sniffed, searching for the particular grasses that pleased him most. As he pulled them forth, chewing slowly, his eyes remained on Steve.\n\nThe boy said, \"I know you'd rather go outside and graze, so let's do it.\"\n\nA few minutes later he led Flame from the shed. He took him over to the truck, and with flared nostrils and bright eyes Flame walked around it, sniffing the sides.\n\nThen Steve mounted his horse, his hands light on the reins as he took him down the driveway.\n\n\"Easy, Flame. No running this morning.\"\n\nTurning into the road, he let Flame go into a slow, easy gallop and his bare hoofs made soft, sucking sounds in the mud. The stallion asked for more rein but didn't demand it. The wind had freshened and Flame held his head high, enjoying his early morning exercise. His strides gradually lengthened and he chose the side of the road that was fetlock-deep in mud. Not once did he falter or slip.\n\nSteve needed no reassurance of Flame's ability to handle himself in such footing. He had only to think of Blue Valley and the many times he had ridden his horse through the slimy, dangerous marsh to know there were few animals in the world more sure-footed than Flame.\n\nHe wondered about the other horses in the race. Would they take to this kind of going?\n\n\"Easy, Flame,\" he said again.\n\nThe stallion listened to Steve and there was no further lengthening of his strides. Steve stroked him, and turned him off the road, guiding him to the place where Flame had found the grass most to his liking the day before. Dismounting, Steve walked alongside his horse. He was glad to be away from the shed, for it helped in the matter of waiting. He wondered how long Jay would sleep this morning, and what time they would leave for Havana. Probably not until shortly after noon, for Jay had said last night that they shouldn't get there much before the race.\n\nPost time was at three o'clock. Soon the waiting would come to an end.\n\nSteve took his time returning to the shed, walking Flame all the way back. There was no sign of Jay when he arrived. The house was quiet and the shades were drawn. If Jay was waiting for the sun to awaken him this morning he would sleep a long time. The sky hadn't changed from its earlier leaden gray, although the force of the wind had abated.\n\nAs Steve lowered the tailgate of the van, he let it fall with a loud bang, hoping the noise would wake Jay.\n\n\"Come, boy,\" he said, leading Flame to the tailgate. It was a steeper ascent than Steve would have liked for his horse but an easy climb compared to some of the trails over which he had ridden Flame. He was confident the stallion would follow him.\n\nFlame hesitated at the foot of the tailgate, his eyes searching the dark interior of the van. It was this that bothered him, Steve knew. He made his way up into the van and then stood inside, slowly moving the lines. \"Come, Flame,\" he repeated.\n\nThe stallion's forelegs moved onto the wood, and then he stopped again, looking past Steve. Again the boy called him, and after a short pause there was a quick lurching of his body as he gathered himself for the ascent. He raised his head a little too high when he reached the top, and bumped into the roof. For a second he was alarmed by the sudden blow and the close confines of the truck. He sought to rear but Steve held his head down, talking to him all the while.\n\nFinally Steve led him farther into the truck, carefully holding Flame's head so that it could not be raised as high as the stallion would have liked. The truck wasn't meant for hauling horses as tall as Flame. But there was no exchanging it now, and perhaps there was none other in the village that was more suitable anyway.\n\nSteve remained with Flame for a long while, letting his horse look around to familiarize himself with his new surroundings. He gave Flame a little more line, so that the stallion might stretch his head a little higher and find out for himself just how far he could go. Soon Flame was content to keep his head lower than he usually carried it, and began sniffing the straw.\n\nIt was almost noon and Flame was back in his stall when Jay entered the shed, still in pajamas and bathrobe.\n\n\"Steve,\" he said, \"you should have awakened me. I had no idea it was so late. I thought surely I'd hear you in the kitchen.\"\n\n\"I didn't go to the kitchen,\" Steve said.\n\n\"You mean you haven't eaten?\"\n\n\"I haven't even thought about it.\"\n\n\"Then you come with me, and fast, Steve. This is no day to go without food! You'll need every bit of strength you possess. Come on, now.\"\n\nSteve watched the small man in the bright blue bathrobe scurry to the door in his fast, bouncing gait. There Jay stopped. \"Come on, Steve,\" he repeated. \"We really haven't much time for all we have to do.\"\n\nSteve followed him. That was just it... they didn't have much time. And that was why he couldn't eat at all.\n\n# OFF TO THE RACES\n\n16\n\nAs the truck left the village the sky cleared and the sun made its appearance.\n\nJay, dressed as immaculately as on the day before, with his silver-headed cane on the seat beside him, drove faster and faster down the road. Without glancing back at the open window of the cab he said, \"The sun's out, Steve!\"\n\n\"Is it?\" Steve couldn't tell much about the weather from inside the truck. He stood beside Flame, holding the lines tight for fear the stallion would raise his head too high and strike the roof again. As it was, Flame didn't like the semi-darkness of the truck nor the jostling they were taking over the bumpy road.\n\nJay called, \"It'll mean a great crowd there to see you go.\"\n\nThe truck lurched and Steve had trouble keeping his feet. He touched Flame and found him sweaty from uneasiness, so he put the red cooler over him.\n\n\"Go slower,\" he told Jay angrily, \"or no one will see us go! You're not driving a car.\"\n\n\"But, Steve, everyone drives this way. I watched very closely yesterday.\"\n\n\"Cubans aren't the best drivers in the world.\"\n\n\"They're not? You mean there are _other_ ways to drive a car?\"\n\n\"Slower ways,\" Steve said, still angry. \"If you don't take it easier, Jay...\"\n\n\"Now don't get mad, Steve. After all, I didn't know. _You're_ the one who lives on this planet.\"\n\n\"Please go slower then,\" Steve repeated, \"and miss the bumps. I'm having a hard enough time as it is keeping Flame still.\"\n\n\"Sure, Steve.\"\n\nThere was a slackening of speed and an end to the jostling. Steve stroked Flame's neck.\n\n\"All right back there?\" Jay asked later.\n\n\"Much better,\" Steve answered.\n\n\"If there's anything else, just tell me, Steve. You must remember that all this is very new to me. But I enjoy driving. I really do.\"\n\nSteve continued talking to Flame while listening to Jay. He didn't mind the man's incessant chatter. Anything was better than just waiting. It wouldn't be long now... an hour at the most, Jay had said.\n\n\"Even with the sun out it'll be a wet track,\" Jay called. \"But I guess Flame won't mind, will he?\"\n\n\"No, he won't mind.\"\n\nJay chuckled. \"I don't imagine Kingfisher will like it, though. Their feet are weak enough without having to cope with such footing.\"\n\nKingfisher was the famed handicap champion from the United States, Steve recalled. Last night Jay had told him that this great horse would be in today's race. Steve had heard of Kingfisher long before he'd ever known Jay. At home one didn't read about racing without being aware of Kingfisher's unchallenged crown.\n\n\"This is a horse, not a bird,\" Steve reminded Jay.\n\n\"Oh, I know that, all right,\" Jay answered. \"But there must have been some reason for naming him after a bird. Perhaps it was because of his feet, Steve. I'll know better when I see him.\"\n\nSteve rubbed Flame's nose, and noticed that his hand was shaking a little. Sure, he was nervous. Wasn't it the most natural thing in the world to wonder if every move he made in the race would come instinctively, without thought or plan? It was no time to try to recall all he'd read about racing a horse, of blind switches and holes. Yesterday he'd been able to think, to plan. Today every attempt was futile, and his only hope was that it would be different once he rode Flame onto the track. He realized too that in spite of all the other horses and the great crowd, it would be, for him, the loneliest place in the world.\n\n\"Steve, Steve, what's the matter back there?\"\n\n\"Nothing, Jay.\"\n\n\"You haven't answered any of my questions. You haven't said a word.\"\n\n\"I'm sorry.\"\n\n\"I was wondering if we couldn't go a little faster now. It's getting so late, and we don't have much time.\"\n\nSteve listened to the wheels turning on the pavement, and wondered how long they'd been off the dirt road. \"Sure, go ahead,\" he said. \"But take it easy on the turns. And no sudden stops, Jay.\"\n\nThe truck lurched forward but Steve and Flame kept their feet. Jay talked of the great thrill it would be for him to watch the International. It would give him something to remember for a long, long time.\n\nSteve was no longer listening to him. He heard only the hum of rubber tires, turning faster now, taking him and his horse closer and closer to El Dorado Park and all that awaited them.\n\nLater came the sound of traffic on either side of the truck, and Steve knew they were approaching the city of Havana. The truck stopped often, only to plunge forward again. Jay had no feeling for the release of the clutch pedal.\n\nSteve didn't go near the cab window. He did not want to see anything until it was time to leave the truck. It would be easier that way. He touched his face and wondered what he looked like. Jay had rubbed some kind of liquid over his skin and into his hair just before they had left. Steve turned his hands over, palms upward. These too Jay had treated, but only lightly. He hadn't rubbed the liquid in as he had done on Steve's face and scalp.\n\nSteve noticed that while the color of his hands was the same as before, they had changed during the last hour. It seemed that they had grown, not in length but in breadth. He looked at them more closely and was sure of it. They were broad and flat with large knuckles, the hands of a man, not a boy... hands that had known many years of hard work.\n\nYet when Steve flexed his fingers they felt no different than before.\n\nAgain he touched his face, remembering Jay's words, \"Take my word for it that no one will ever recognize you, Steve. It's important, of course, as they'll be taking pictures.\"\n\nThe truck swayed but Steve's hands remained on his face. He touched his nose. It was big, and the opening of his nostrils was large and round. His cheekbones seemed lower than they had any right to be, and there were deep lines in his face.\n\nFor a moment he was startled by the thought of what Jay must have done to him! Then Flame pushed his soft muzzle forward, and Steve realized that nothing about him had really changed as long as his horse knew him.\n\nThe truck stopped again, and while waiting for the traffic light to change Jay said, \"We're almost at the track, Steve. Is everything all right?\" Turning around, he looked through the cab window and studied the boy's eyes. Then he said, \"Don't be concerned about how you look, Steve. It'll only last a few hours.\"\n\nSteve said, \"There's only one thing I'm concerned about, and it isn't my face.\"\n\nJay chuckled. \"Don't worry about the race, Steve. Just get him out in front and keep him there.\"\n\n\"Sure,\" Steve said, \"just like that.\"\n\nThe light changed and Jay was facing front again. \"Just like that,\" he agreed.\n\nThe next time the truck stopped they were within El Dorado Park. Steve heard the neighs and nickers of horses and Flame became restless. The stallion's nostrils were spread wide, and when he screamed the shrillness of his whistle within the close confines of the truck was deafening.\n\n\"Easy, Flame,\" Steve said urgently.\n\nBut there was no quieting Flame now with the scent of other horses all around him. He tried to raise his head, and Steve had all he could do to keep him from striking the roof.\n\n\"Jay!\" he called. \"I must get him out of here soon.\" He wondered if he really expected it to be any easier once they were out of the truck.\n\n\"We're parked behind the barns, Steve. We must wait for Mr. Santos before unloading Flame. He wanted it that way.\"\n\nThe stallion moved uneasily beneath Steve's hands. \"Don't you see Mr. Santos anywhere, Jay?\" Steve asked impatiently. \"Maybe he's forgotten all about us.\"\n\n\"No, not Mr. Santos, Steve. Don't worry so. We have five minutes before post time, and this is the way it was arranged. We're to make a dramatic entrance, Steve, after the introduction of the other horses. We're part of the show, and Mr. Santos won't forget us. He thinks of himself as being a superb showman.\"\n\nSteve said bitterly, \"Part of his show but not the race.\"\n\n\"Yes,\" Jay agreed, \"that's about the way he figures it. Flame is to provide a bit of last-minute interest and color before the great race itself. After that we're not very necessary to Mr. Santos.\"\n\nFlame gathered himself to rear, and Steve moved quickly, keeping him down.\n\n\"I do wish you'd come to the window and look at the crowd in the stands, Steve. I've never seen anything like it! And I believe... yes, the horses are now coming onto the track. Oh, I do hope Mr. Santos has _not_ forgotten all about us! Perhaps we'd better unload Flame, Steve.\"\n\nSteve heard the cab door open and then Jay called in relief, \"Here comes Mr. Santos now. Are you all set, Steve?\"\n\nThe tailgate was lowered and Steve led Flame toward it. He was set as he ever would be. The waiting was over. _Don't look at anyone but Flame. He's your only concern now_.\n\nFlame followed him quickly off the truck, and Steve removed the red cooler, tossing it to Jay. He saw Mr. Santos step back hurriedly as Flame reared to his utmost height.\n\nSteve knew that only then did the man realize what kind of a horse he had accepted for the International. The color of Flame's eyes changed to red at sight of the horses in the adjacent barns. And when he screamed his high-pitched clarion call of challenge, it carried beyond the stable area to the stretch where eight world-famous horses paraded to the post.\n\nWhen the scream died down, Steve heard Mr. Santos blabbering wildly to Jay. But whatever he was saying went unheeded. Steve raised his knee to Jay's clasped hands and was boosted onto Flame's back. He gave Flame his head, and the stallion went forward eagerly, his bright eyes fixed on the parading horses.\n\n# POST PARADE\n\n17\n\nHigh above Flame's craned head Steve saw the television cameras set up on the roof of the overflowing grandstand. He lowered his eyes, not wanting to look at anything but his horse and the track directly before them.\n\nThe footing was not as heavy as he had expected it to be after the long night of rain. The track had drained well, and that, together with a hot afternoon sun and the pounding hoofs of horses in preceding races, had made it a good track, almost fast.\n\nHe tried to pretend that he was back in Blue Valley. There was nothing ahead but a long run around the walled amphitheater of yellow, towering stone; they were alone except for the band of mares that would scatter at Flame's swift approach. If he could make believe it was that way, it would help. At least until they were off and running. Then he could let himself think of the race itself, hoping to make the right moves. If he could just get Flame out in front early, clear of all the other horses and running, then... yes, then there would be nothing to this race but a great red stallion.\n\nSteve buried his head a little more in Flame's heavy mane, and he kept repeating, \"Easy, boy. Easy now. There's no hurry. No hurry at all.\"\n\nThe sodden sand and clay slipped by in endless waves beneath the red stallion's ever lengthening strides. He snorted often but uttered no shrill call of angry defiance and challenge.\n\nSteve took up more line, winding the reins about his fingers so they would not slip. Yet there was no slackening of Flame's strides, and Steve sensed in his horse a mounting eagerness to do battle with other stallions.\n\nSteve's legs moved simultaneously with his hands and lips. \"Around, Flame,\" he called. \"All the way around.\"\n\nHe felt the tightening of Flame's muscles against the pressure of his legs. Flame knew what he was being asked to do, and still he did not respond.\n\nSteve exerted more pressure with his legs, knowing that he could do no more than ask and then ask again. There was no forcing a horse like Flame. No battle of strength or wills. He could only hope that Flame would want to do what he asked of him. Their love for each other had to be greater than the stallion's wild instinct to fight. If not, the race would be over before it had begun, so far as they were concerned.\n\nThe first break in stride came with the sudden, metallic voice of the announcer over the public address system. The sound startled Flame, and Steve, taking advantage of this, was able to turn the stallion's head toward the outer rail.\n\nThe announcement was given first in Spanish, then in English. \"Ladies and gentlemen, the horses are now approaching the starting gate,\" the announcer said. \"Number One is Gusto from Italy. Number Two is Kingfisher from the United States. Number Three is Slow Burn, also from the United States. Number Four is Wellington from England....\"\n\nSteve managed to turn Flame a little more. There was no lessening of the pressure of his legs or the urgency in his voice as he said softly, \"Keep going, Flame. I want you all the way around.\"\n\nThe red stallion was in the center of the track, his strides slowing.\n\n\"... Number Five is Tout de Suite from France. Number Six is Bismarck from Germany. Number Seven is El Chico from Chile....\"\n\nSteve had Flame all the way around now, facing the backstretch again. \"Good boy,\" he said. \"Slow and easy now. We have lots and lots of time.\" He wanted to wait until the other horses were in their starting stalls, out of the way, making it easier for him to take Flame down to the gate.\n\n\"Number Eight,\" the announcer continued, \"is Mister Tim from Ireland. Number Nine is...\"\n\nThere was a pause and for an instant Steve stopped talking to his horse. _Here it comes_ , he thought. _For the first time on any track. If they only knew... if they only knew!_\n\n\"Number Nine,\" the announcer repeated, \"is Flame from the Windward Islands. He's been excused from the post parade and can be seen on the far turn. The horses are now in the hands of the starter, ladies and gentlemen, with one minute before post time.\"\n\nOnly the distant rumble of the tremendous crowd could be heard then. Suddenly above the roar Steve heard Jay's high-pitched voice calling him and then he saw the little man running across the track's infield. He had never seen Jay's legs move so fast before.\n\nNearing the rail, Jay shouted, \"Go back and race, Steve. _Hurry!_ \" He waved his cane at them, and Flame, seeing it, shied across the track.\n\n\"Put your cane down,\" Steve called angrily. \"I want to wait until the others are in the gate. It's the only...\"\n\n\"I don't care what you've planned,\" Jay interrupted. \"Don't keep them waiting a minute. Every second counts now. It's terribly important. Hurry, Steve, hurry!\"\n\nSteve got Flame over to the rail, and only then was he near enough to take a good look at Jay's face. First he was aware of nothing but a deep reddish color that distorted every feature. Then before his eyes Jay's face became nothing but a nebulous fiery swirl which spoke to him, the voice matching the terror that was in the blurred image. \"You must hurry or I'll be left behind....\"\n\nSteve was already turning Flame, and as he rode him away Jay's thought message reached him, as clear and distinct as his spoken words had been.\n\n_\"I've heard from Flick. Something has happened, and the others are returning to the ship today. We're leaving, and if I shouldn't get back in time...\"_\n\nThe message faded, and Steve heard only the increased pounding of Flame's hoofs as he urged him faster and faster toward the starting gate. Then suddenly Jay's thought message came again, fainter this time. _\"I won't leave you here alone, Steve, but you must hurry, hurry, hurry....\"_\n\nSteve leaned forward as his horse went into the turn. \"Run, Flame, run!\" he called, his own words echoing the urgency of Jay's message. He didn't want to be left behind, either!\n\nAlongside the starting gate and just off the track, the official starter stood on a high platform watching the red horse come around the far turn. The man's heavy eyebrows swept upward in astonishment and then he shook his head. His voice was awesome and threatening as he called to a member of his ground crew, \"Bert, go meet that fool rider! Slow him down!\"\n\nThe starter turned back to the gate and to his immediate problem of quieting the horses which were already inside the stalls. The padded doors were being closed behind Gusto but the big brown gelding was trying to back out.\n\n\"Straighten his head, Cellini. Keep him in there,\" he barked through his amplifier to Gusto's rider.\n\nThe Italian jockey shouted back at him but the starter couldn't understand a word since Cellini spoke his native tongue. The starter turned his attention to the Number Five horse, the gray from France who was backjumping in back of the gate, refusing to go into the narrow alleyway that was his stall.\n\n\"Get that Tout de Suite horse inside, Joe,\" he rasped at another of his ground crew, \"but don't upset him. Easy, now.\"\n\nThe French jockey was screaming something too, but as with Cellini the starter couldn't understand a word. He shrugged his shoulders in a gesture of helplessness, and wished that he had never taken this job of starting such a race. Back in the States he could keep jockeys in line, but not these jibbering riders who were supposed to understand and speak English, and didn't!\n\nThe jockey on El Chico was making as much noise as the rest of them and, of course, was speaking _his_ language. The fellow up on Bismarck, the German horse, was the only quiet one in the bunch, and that included the two jocks from the States. But at least he could understand those two.\n\nBraddish up on Kingfisher was screaming, \"No chance! No chance!\"\n\nOf course there was no chance of his opening the gate yet. He had no intention of sending them off without that Number Nine horse. \"Quiet!\" he bellowed. \" _I'll_ do the talking!\"\n\nAnxiously the starter turned to see what was holding up Number Nine. The red horse had been brought to a stop by his rider a short distance away, and was now rearing high on his hind legs. The sight sickened the starter. No wonder Bert wasn't going any closer! The crewman, his arms raised high, stood in the middle of the track a good twenty feet away from the horse.\n\nAs if he didn't have enough trouble without _this_! the starter thought. He fingered the button that would cut the current from the magnets holding the front doors of the gate shut. All he had to do was to touch it and the race would be on without Number Nine.\n\nHe realized that the great stands were suddenly quiet, so he was not alone in his amazement that the red horse should be here at all. Of course, that animal couldn't be what he looked like... a wild, unbroken stallion. Not here in such a race. He must be just part of the show, and a very spectacular show it had been with the field parading in the flag colors of their respective countries. But the starter was very tired of all these preliminaries. He wanted to send the horses off, as he'd been paid to do, and then go home.\n\n\"Bring that Number Nine horse down, Bert,\" the starter barked through the amplifier. \"Don't be afraid of him.\" He had decided not to send the field off without the red horse. After all, difficult as the job might be, he had his reputation to maintain.\n\nThe more the starter looked at the red horse the more convinced he became that the animal was part of the show. A very beautiful horse, with fine classic features... too fine to be a race horse, really. He wore nothing but a rope hackamore with two long golden tassels hanging from it. His rider was sitting bareback and wore no silks, just T-shirt and jeans. Strange, very strange indeed. But the starter was not one to question what went on so long as there was no trouble at the gate. There was no doubt that this horse was being brought under control by his rider. However, he would like to have seen a bit in the stallion's mouth. He wished, too, that the jock would bring him down to the gate. Bert, apparently, wasn't going any closer in spite of his orders. He'd settle with Bert later.\n\nImpatiently, the starter turned to one of the two red-coated outriders who had led the post parade before turning over the field to him and his crew. The nearer outrider was just beyond the gate, waiting to catch any runaway. The starter thought that he might just tell him to get that red horse down to the gate. However, he didn't have very much confidence in these track employees. Oh, the outriders tried hard enough and he supposed they had courage. But he doubted that they had the true _skill_ to help out if trouble really started. It took a good horseman with many years of experience to stop a horse that was superior in speed to his own. Now back in the States he wouldn't have hesitated a moment to order an outrider after that red horse. He finally decided that if he was to get this race off at all, he'd better not hesitate here, either. Take a chance on the track's outrider. It was better than waiting any longer. He signaled to the man to bring the red horse down.\n\nThe starter watched the outrider go past the gate, eager enough but taking his horse along much too fast. He barked through the amplifier for him to slow down, and then finally to stop altogether.\n\nThe starter's bushy eyebrows had drawn together in dismay. He had seen something unexpected in the red horse, a wild, trembling eagerness to fight that hadn't been there before. \"Forget him,\" he told the outrider, nervously. \"Get your horse back and leave him alone.\"\n\nWhen the outrider was safely away, the starter turned to the red horse again. He called to the hunched figure on the horse's back, \"I'm sending them off! Bring your horse down, if you're going with them!\" He used his most authoritative tone.\n\nThe starter watched the horse take a few steps forward. It was amazing enough that such a fractious animal was here at all, and more incredulous that his rider seemed to have him under some kind of control. The starter decided that he might get the field off without trouble if he put the red horse in the far end stall with three cages between him and the others.\n\nAs the red horse neared the gate, the starter could make out the jagged scars on his body. He took hold of his amplifier, clenching it hard. It couldn't be, of course! But where else would a horse get such scars but in battle with other stallions?\n\n\"Take that Number Nine horse to the stall at the very end!\" he shouted to the rider. \"Don't get him near the others!\" His hand moved to the button that would open the stall doors. All he wanted to do was to start this race and catch the next plane home.\n\nAs Steve let the wet lines slip another inch between his fingers, and Flame approached the gate, he tried to keep the stallion's attention on the barrier, telling him that the narrow alleyway before them was no different from the passageways on Azul Island.\n\nFlame suddenly stopped, fearful, Steve thought, of the wire-mesh door at the front of the stall. He pawed at the criss-crossed shadow it made on the track in back of the gate. Steve let him alone, glad that it was the mesh door that held Flame's interest and _not_ the other horses. If he could only get him into the starting gate and then come out running...\n\nA heavy silence had descended upon the stands and the track.\n\n\"It's only a shadow, Flame. See how that man walks right through it. But he won't come close to you. He won't lead you into the stall as he's done with the others. Don't look at him, Flame. Look only at the shadow, then at the stall. That's it. Go ahead now.\"\n\nFlame chose to jump over the criss-crossed pattern rather than walk through it. His leap took him into the stall, and he stopped abruptly, startled by the wire-mesh door in front of him.\n\nSteve comforted Flame as best he could, but actually he welcomed the close confines of the cage for, like the shadow, it alone now held the stallion's attention. And that was better than Flame's becoming aware of the horses in the stalls to his left.\n\nHe urged Flame a little closer to the wire door, and the stallion took a step forward, his head extended toward the screen, his nostrils flared and sniffing.\n\nSuddenly from directly behind them came the heavy thump of the cage's back door being closed. Flame panicked at the loud noise. He reared and flung himself sideways against the padded stall. As he came down his forelegs struck the front door which gave easily as it was supposed to do in such emergencies. Startled by his easily won freedom, Flame reared again just as the starting bell rang and the other stall doors sprang open. From their cages emerged the famed horses of the world! The International had begun!\n\n# THE INTERNATIONAL RACE\n\n18\n\nSteve's every reflex was committed to keeping his seat as Flame twisted in midair, turning toward the sudden uproar on his left. When the stallion came down, Steve had urgent need for the bitless bridle. He pulled the reins hard, trying to straighten Flame's head and divert his attention from the onrushing field.\n\nThe horses swept past in the shape of a flying wedge, those late in breaking from the gate to the rear and jamming against each other while their jockeys screamed for racing room.\n\nFor a fraction of a second Flame stood flat-footed, his startled eyes following the tumultuous scene. He was aware of the pressure of hands and legs upon his body asking him to turn away, but above everything else he felt a mounting eagerness to do battle with those of his kind. He bolted after them, his shrill clarion call rising above the pound of many hoofs.\n\nHe did not rush headlong down the track. Instead his strides, while swift, were light and cautious. He continued screaming while waiting for one of the horses beyond to turn and accept his challenge. But they drew farther and farther away from him and he had to lengthen his strides. This caused his fury to mount still more, for he would have preferred that the fight be brought to him.\n\nSteve knew that Flame had singled out the trailing gray horse to run down. He exerted more pressure, seeking to control his horse again. But Flame's ears remained flat against his head, and there was no change in the direction his long strides were taking him.\n\nThe stands began to slip by on their far right, but Steve was not aware of the roaring crowd. Only the trailing gray horse held his attention as he sought to prevent Flame's terrible onslaught of hoofs and teeth. His hands moved along the lines, constantly asking Flame to turn away. But the red stallion only leveled out still more.\n\nThe gray horse did not drop back as quickly as Steve had thought he would. In Blue Valley there was no horse to equal Flame's swiftness, but here it was different. For generations these horses had been bred for speed alone.\n\nSteve sat back, not wanting to help Flame in his chase to run down the gray. They swept beneath the finish wire for the first time, with a mile of the race to go. Steve's hands and legs exerted more pressure on Flame, demanding now rather than asking. He had to get Flame to the middle of the track. Perhaps with no horse directly before him he would race!\n\nBut Flame knew no command but the one that came most inherently to him... to fight with teeth and hoofs, to kill or be killed! His strides came swifter and now he could almost reach his chosen opponent.\n\nSteve mentally urged the gray on, at the same time trying desperately, with hands and legs, to break down the barrier of savagery that kept him from reaching Flame with his commands. He felt that if he were given just one slight opening he'd be able to control his horse again. He was certain that the bedlam at the start had so alarmed Flame that his horse wasn't even aware that he, Steve, was on his back!\n\nWhen he was merely a stride's length behind the gray horse, Flame screamed again. Fury took hold of him when the gray did not even flick an ear in his direction. He stretched his head closer but his eyes were alert for any sudden move that might put him on the defensive. He drew alongside, wary now of the gray's hind legs. He hesitated a second, wondering why the other stallion did not turn upon him so they could rise together in deadly combat.\n\nA pinpoint of hope glowed within Steve at Flame's hesitation. He felt Flame's bewilderment at the gray stallion's ignoring him so completely. He suddenly realized that Flame would find no _willing_ opponent on this track, for the first and foremost instinct of these horses was to race, just as Flame's was to fight.\n\n\"Flame!\" Steve called repeatedly into the flattened ears while his hands and legs worked harder than ever. If he could just get Flame's attention! But his horse plunged forward, seeking with bared teeth to tear and ravage the gray.\n\nSteve saw the flaying whip of the gray horse's rider just before Flame was struck by it. Flame was so enraged he had eyes only for the horse. He wasn't even aware of the man who rocked on the gray's back, his leather whip moving rhythmically along his mount's side without touching him.\n\nFlame thrust his head into this pendulum of hard leather. He felt the searing pain on his muzzle and drew back, more startled than hurt. Associating the unexpected blow with his opponent, he swerved abruptly away as he had done in countless battles, seeking time before attacking again.\n\nHis sharp turn took him across the track, bringing him face to face with an adversary so overwhelming that he forgot everything else in his sudden alarm. Tier upon tier before him rose a screaming mass of humanity!\n\nSteve, too, seeking to regain his balance, saw the sea of faces in the grandstand. Their voices drowned out the plop of Flame's hoofs in the soft, moist dirt as the stallion plunged on in full flight. Then suddenly Steve was aware of the change that had come over Flame. He felt his horse's fear of the great crowd, and at the same time he saw the outer rail rushing to meet them.\n\nHe pulled hard on the left rein while his right hand slipped quickly across Flame's moving shoulder. He twisted his body, and for the first time since the race began Flame responded to his commands.\n\nWithout breaking stride Flame curved away from the stands and his speed blurred the faces of the spectators. Steve knew that Flame's fear had enabled him to break through the barrier that had kept them apart. Yet the streaming white rail came ever closer, matching the speed of Flame's swift turn. Steve bent more urgently to the left, seeking to narrow Flame's running arc and to avoid crashing into the rail.\n\nWhen he was only inches away from it Flame straightened out, but like a magnet the rail held horse and rider close for another long stride. Then Steve saw the rail slip beneath his raised right knee, moving as though alive upon his horse's barrel. He felt the point of contact as soon as Flame did, the rail bending beneath the stallion's weight but not breaking. It seared the length of Flame's body before the stallion flung himself clear and bolted crazily toward the center of the track.\n\nSteve made no attempt to stop him, knowing that his horse had not been injured, only burned by the friction of his running body against the wood. He tried to straighten Flame's zigzag flight down the track. Finally the stallion's head came up and there was a flick of the small ears when Steve called to him.\n\nThey approached the first of the long banked turns and Steve kept Flame high up on the graded dirt. He completely ignored the inner rail and the short inside way around the track, just as he ignored the racing horses far beyond. For flashing seconds he was aware only that Flame was listening to him again. It was as if they were back in Blue Valley, running for the sheer joy of running and being together. Steve rubbed Flame between the shoulder blades, then slipped forward and began asking him for more and more speed.\n\nBack where the race had begun, the starter watched a tractor pull the gate from the track, leaving it clear for the horses when they came around again. That was the end of his job and he had little interest in the race itself. He barely listened to the call of the announcer when the horses came off the first turn.\n\n_\"That's Bismarck in front, followed closely by Slow Burn and Wellington. El Chico and Kingfisher are going wide. Mister Tim and Gusto are in a drive, coming up on the inside. Tout de Suite is...\"_\n\nThe sounds from the public address horn continued to crackle in the starter's ears but he didn't turn to the bunched field starting down the backstretch. Instead he walked across the track. Halfway to the outer rail he glanced toward the turn where the red horse which had caused all the trouble was being straightened out by his rider. Funny, that he should be watching him. Of course the horse wasn't going to get even a call. He was well out of the race already. That was the way the track officials had meant it to be, he supposed. The red horse had been asked here to put on a show, and he surely had obliged!\n\nThe starter's gaze followed the red horse, noting the way he stretched out going into the turn. No wasted effort there. He was really a very handsome horse, more beautiful by far than anything else on the track. But the starter remembered the scars on the stallion's red body and was glad that he had been successful in getting the race off without an accident. He could go home any time now.\n\nHis disinterested eyes turned to the racing field beyond. To him it was just another horse race, regardless of what they called it or had tried to make of it with all the dramatics beforehand. Oh, there was plenty of speed out there, a world of it, one might say, he decided. But after forty years in the business he'd seen the fastest horses there were. He recalled especially the match race in Chicago when the Black had beaten Sun Raider and Cyclone. After seeing that one he doubted that he'd ever be thrilled by another race.\n\nHe cast another look at the red horse, which was seemingly under control now and being taken high on the turn by his rider. Come to think of it, the horse reminded him a little of the Black. Same kind of wildness to his action that a domesticated horse never had. He was lengthening out yet holding his head high in pretty much the same way, too. But there was no comparison in speed. The Black would have been running the others to the ground by now while the red horse wasn't closing up any distance. Yet he wasn't falling back either, and that was surprising since he was only supposed to be part of the pre-race show.\n\nThe starter shrugged his heavy shoulders and continued across the track. Before reaching the outer rail he turned to watch the red horse once more. It was very unusual that he should be thinking of that Chicago match race here in Cuba years later.\n\nSteve took Flame around the turn, his eyes sweeping over the field moving down the backstretch. No longer could he hear the roar of the crowd or anything else but Flame's hoofs lightly beating out a rhythm on the soft track. Suddenly the quiet was shattered by the call of the race announcer.\n\n_\"Bismarck has increased his lead over Slow Burn, but on the far outside Kingfisher is moving up!\"_\n\nSteve leaned more to the left, swaying with Flame into the graded turn. He took his horse over to the inner rail to save ground. He had never ridden Flame so fast _yet they were not overtaking the field!_ Had he overestimated his horse's speed? Could a wild stallion compete with horses which had been bred through generations for racing speed alone?\n\n\"Run, Flame! Run!\"\n\nSteve listened to the stallion's snorts in response to his calls for more speed. He began pumping Flame with his legs, which he had never done before, and the snorts became louder. Only when they were on the straightaway did Flame quicken his strides. Steve felt the change that swept over the great red body when Flame saw the other horses far down the backstretch. He realized then what he had to do to make his horse run as he never had before.\n\n\"Go, Flame!\" he screamed, kindling the fire of Flame's natural hatred for those of his kind, encouraging him to run the others down! Only by taking advantage of the generations of breeding behind Flame could he hope to make a race of it. He felt the growing heat of the reins while his own blood surged crazily, making him unmindful of the possible consequences of his act. His body and hands were never still, his voice never quiet. He had but one goal and that was to bring out every bit of speed the stallion possessed.\n\nFlame listened to the never-ending calls urging him to catch up with those ahead. He felt the quickening beat of the hands upon his neck and the burning lines that kept his head straight. He lengthened his strides to keep time with the maddening rhythm on his back.\n\nHis eyes never left the horses which were now dropping back as he ran faster and faster. He selected an opponent. Just as he made his move to run him down there was a sudden twisting on his back. Then the lines seared his neck and he turned his head to relieve the pressure. Immediately his reddened eyes saw another horse still farther beyond. Again came the calls in his ear and the rhythmical beat of the hands against his body. He leveled out still more, needing greater speed to reach his newly selected opponent.\n\nSteve waited until Flame neared the next horse, then once more he twisted on the stallion's back, throwing his weight heavily to the outside. The reins in his hands were like throbbing arteries through which coursed his blood as well as Flame's.\n\nSteve straightened Flame's head so his horse could see the brown stallion running in the middle of the track. Every move was planned. He was encouraging Flame to attack and attack again while they went ever closer to the front.\n\nThe announcer said, _\"Going into the far turn it's still Bismarck by three lengths. Kingfisher is on the far outside, passing Slow Burn and Wellington. Flame is now going up with Kingfisher....\"_\n\nThe official starter had not left the track as he had intended doing. As though hypnotized, he had watched the beginning of Flame's mad rush down the backstretch. He had seen the huddled figure on the horse's back suddenly begin to rock wildly. Then the horse had exerted more speed, the rhythm of his strides finally matching that of his rider's movements. After that the rider had sat still, so still he seemed barely conscious of what was happening... except at times. One of the times was when he had twisted his body as the red stallion overtook Mister Tim, another when the horse had sought to ravage Gusto and now when he had pulled him wide around the others and the red stallion was going after Kingfisher!\n\nSteve watched the brown stallion drop back as those before him had done. He knew what he had to do again to get his horse away. He sat balanced, awaiting the precise second when by his weight and hands he could move Flame on to the last horse in front of them.\n\nHe saw Kingfisher begin to wobble and then bear out as they swept into the turn. Flame tried to swerve with him, but Steve had seen the opening left on the rail... and just beyond, three lengths away, was the leader, Bismarck! Steve moved quickly, tipping his weight to the inside and pulling hard on the left rein. Flame's head came around, and then the red stallion saw the running bay leader beyond!\n\nSteve was taking Flame over to the rail when Kingfisher swerved back, closing the opening that had been there! Steve felt Flame gather himself to attack the horse before him. Desperately he threw his weight to the outside, and as his body and hands moved, Kingfisher suddenly stumbled and went down in a sprawling heap.\n\nWith the agility of one who has faced such emergencies in many battles, Flame avoided the fallen horse. He swerved, then jumped, twisting in the air. When he came down he sought to check his great speed in order to turn upon his beaten opponent. He felt the ground rise beneath his running feet, and then he saw the streaming outer rail which had caused him pain once before. In fear of it he quickly responded to the pressure upon his back to go on. He swept along the high banked turn and when the ground leveled out again he saw a lone horse running just beyond. His ears flattened in still another charge of relentless fury.\n\n_\"In the homestretch,\"_ the announcer called, _\"it's still Bismarck by four lengths. Flame is second....\"_\n\nSteve heard the announcement but not the screams from the stands to their right. With each closing stride between the two stallions, he tried to decide what to do in this final run. His horse would catch up with Bismarck before the finish. But between the leader and the wire there was an empty track. What would happen when Flame saw no other horse beyond Bismarck? How could he get him to go on? If Flame hesitated or swerved to do battle with Bismarck the race would be lost.\n\nFlame stretched his head, baring his teeth in his fury and reaching for Bismarck as he had done with the others. Steve slipped back in his seat, ready now to shift his balance and turn Flame away from Bismarck regardless of the outcome of the race. He gripped the reins tighter, and the heat coming from them seared his hands. He waited until Flame was close to the bay stallion's sweaty hindquarters and then he swayed far to the right.\n\nFlame jumped away in quick response. His eyes were bright with anger and frustration as he sought still another horse upon which to vent his fury. But there was no horse beyond and to his right he heard the bedlam from the stands. He drew back before the frightening, ever mounting roar, seeking again the horse to his left.\n\nSteve knew that what he had feared was happening. His horse was not going on! He took a fraction of a second to straighten Flame's head, keeping the stallion's eyes focused on the track. Suddenly there was a flash of red beyond the wire. _The crimson-coated outrider and his pinto horse had moved onto the track awaiting the finish of the race_.\n\nFlame saw the outrider's mount and he swept forward eagerly, leaving Bismarck behind in great leaps. There was no slackening of his speed when he passed beneath the finish wire, for here at last was an opponent coming forward to meet him in combat!\n\n# THE END...\n\n19\n\nIf the spectators had not known previously that they were witnessing the furious charges of an unbroken stallion, they were aware of it immediately following the end of the race. For the great red horse who had won surged past the finish line like a raging demon. They saw the object of his attack, for the outrider's pinto horse was rearing high in the air while his rider sought to take him off the track.\n\nIn silent horror they watched the distance close between the two horses. They saw the outrider slip from his saddle and vault the rail, leaving his horse alone to face the red stallion. They did not blame him for his fear.\n\nTheir eyes swept to the huddled figure on the back of the red horse as the jockey suddenly straightened, then twisted. They thought that he too would vault from his horse before the clash of bodies came. But he stayed on and they saw the quick movements of his hands.\n\nThe pinto horse came down, trembling in his fear, then bolted for the paddock gate. The red stallion swerved, cutting off escape, and the pinto rose again, screaming in terror. The red stallion plunged forward, but before he reached his opponent, the crowd saw his rider move again. The stallion swerved abruptly away from the pinto, his strides coming long and fast as he swept down the track! In stunned silence the spectators watched him round the turn and go into the backstretch.\n\nSuddenly a small, well-dressed man appeared on the track, waving his arms in front of the red horse and its rider. Impatiently the hushed spectators awaited an official explanation of what they had witnessed. When, instead, the red horse was taken out through the stable area gate and nothing was heard coming over the public address system, their voices broke as one and the great stands were no longer quiet.\n\nThe truck moved slowly through the stable area of El Dorado Park. Steve listened to the continuous roar of the crowd while pulling the red blanket over Flame's wet, trembling body.\n\n\"They'll follow us for sure,\" he told Jay through the open cab window.\n\n\"Let them,\" the man answered impatiently, \"as long as they don't try to stop us. I won't tolerate any further delay.\"\n\nSteve pulled the blanket high up on Flame's head and pinned it tight. \"Will you be late?\" he asked.\n\n\"I don't think so,\" Jay said. Then he added eagerly, \"Oh, it _was_ a race, Steve! There'll never be one to equal it. Nobody else could have ridden as you did today. No other horse could have run so fast. I scarcely believed my eyes, Steve. I stood there stunned, forgetting everything but the sheer beauty of it.\"\n\nSteve said nothing. Perhaps later he would see the beauty of it, too. But not now. Nothing was real except that they had won. He wanted only to be back in Blue Valley.\n\nThe truck went faster once they were outside the park. Steve steadied Flame, but did not tell Jay to slow down. After a long while the man said, \"I do wish I didn't have to rush things so. The post-race ceremonies would have been a lot of fun, Steve.\"\n\nSteve remained silent.\n\n\"And the purse, that fifty thousand dollars... I wish I could make it up to you. But I can't, Steve. I just can't afford that much. Maybe you can claim the money later?\"\n\nNo, he'd never claim the purse at the risk of losing something which to him was so much more valuable than money. \"It's not important,\" he told Jay.\n\n\"A nice way to look at it, but not very practical,\" the man answered. \"However, it's strictly your decision to make. I just regret that we didn't have the time...\"\n\n\"I think it's better this way,\" Steve said. \"Hurry up, Jay.\"\n\nJay stepped more heavily on the accelerator. \"I guess you're right. Hold on now, Steve. We're outside Havana and I'm really going to run this motor over.\"\n\nCity noises were left behind but there still remained the roar of many cars following them.\n\n\"Who's behind us, Jay?\" Steve asked anxiously.\n\nThe man's gaze shifted to the side mirror. \"Probably newspaper men and photographers,\" Jay answered. \"At least I can see cameras in some of the open cars.\"\n\n\"They're not trying to stop us?\"\n\n\"No, just staying with us, Steve.\"\n\nFaster and faster went the truck. Steve steadied himself and Flame. Would they get back in time, if the big ship was to leave at sunset? He took a firm grip on the side rail as the floor heaved crazily beneath his feet.\n\nLess than an hour of the day remained when Jay swung the truck around a sharp turn and went down the dirt road which led past the house and shed. Flame was knocked off balance by the bumpy road and when his head struck the roof he snorted in fury and pain. Steve comforted him without asking Jay to slow down, for behind them he could hear the screech of many tires rounding the turn. Soon now they would be face to face with their pursuers.\n\nFinally the truck came to a stop, and when Jay lowered the tailgate Steve saw the taxicabs and cars parked behind.\n\n\"Bring him down as quickly as possible,\" Jay said. \"Time's growing very short, Steve, and as much as I'd like to...\" The newsmen surrounded him and he furiously pushed them away, his cane raised menacingly.\n\nThe newsmen fell back quickly but not because of Jay's threats of violence. They saw the blanketed red stallion come down the tailgate, his ears flat against his head and fire burning in his eyes at sight of them. Remembering all they had witnessed at the track, they made room for him. Where was this wild, unbroken stallion being taken? Stunned, they watched his small, meticulously dressed owner step from the road and start across an open field, closely followed by horse and rider.\n\nThey called to one another not to get too close to the horse, that he was being taken somewhere, and soon they'd know the answers to all their questions. Flash bulbs brightened the day as photographers stopped to take pictures of this weird chase of the winner of the International. The story that was unfolding would be far more interesting to their readers than the race itself! Knowing this, they were content to wait.\n\nThey entered a rather dense woods and, using the trees for protection against any possible attack by the red horse, drew a little closer. Finally they saw a clearing just beyond. They looked for a farm. Certainly the end of the chase had to be here!\n\nTheir steps slowed when they stepped into the clearing, for they did not like to leave the protection afforded them by the trees. They came to an abrupt stop when the small owner ceased running. They saw him turn to his horse and rider, then he waved his hand in the air... and there were those among them who said later that they heard a soft whirring noise at that moment. They didn't go any closer.\n\nFlashlight bulbs popped as the photographers took advantage of the few precious seconds in which to shoot pictures. When the barrage of light was over, the clearing was empty.\n\nFor a moment the newsmen stood in stunned, shocked silence. Then one of them walked forward, stopped in the middle of the clearing and continued on, finding nothing. The others turned to one another, still silent and unmoving, their eyes asking questions they could not ask aloud... and there were no answers.\n\nMiles upon miles above the clearing, Steve Duncan sat in the cruiser and was as silent as the newsmen they had left behind.\n\n\"Comfortable, Steve? I'm trying to give you as much room as possible after all your hard work.\"\n\n\"Yes, thanks.\" He saw the flaming backdrop of the sun out the window. He might have been sitting by himself in outer space, except that there was no rush of air, no ripping, sucking void, nothing but deathly quietness and finally the revolving heavens. They must be turning now.\n\nJay spoke again, his voice less grim than it had been below. \"I'll get back in time, Steve, just a matter of a minute or so now.\"\n\nSteve said nothing.\n\n\"I won't forget that race,\" Jay went on. \"I've never seen such speed!\"\n\nSteve remained silent, and finally Jay said, \"You're wondering why I should be so impressed by a horse's speed when we're traveling pretty fast right now, aren't you?\"\n\n\"Yes, I am.\"\n\nThe man chuckled. But there was no laughter in his voice when he said, \"Don't envy our perfection of mass acceleration, Steve. Sure, there's no place in the universe we can't go, but actually you should feel sorry for us.\"\n\n\"Sorry?\" Steve asked.\n\n\"Sorry,\" Jay repeated. \"Perhaps your people won't make the same mistake we did, but most likely they will. We perfected so many startling things, Steve, that in our haste and eagerness to get on we left behind something pretty valuable in itself. You have one of them standing right beside you.\"\n\nThe heavens began to move faster and Steve knew they had begun their descent. \"Flame?\" he asked. \"Are horses what you mean, Jay?\"\n\n\"Not only horses, Steve,\" Jay answered quietly, \"but _all_ animals.\"\n\nSteve saw the Caribbean Sea rushing to meet them, then the glowing patch on the water, even before he could make out Azul Island.\n\n\"We're not the same without animals,\" Jay continued, \"although many of us are inclined to think so; Flick is one. Oh, it's not what you may think of as my selfish interest in the race horse that prompts me to say this. For generation upon generation I've seen what's happening to our young people. They need animals desperately.\"\n\nSteve felt Jay's hand on his arm. \"Don't envy us our ships of metal, Steve. Your love for Flame and his love for you go far beyond anything that we have to offer our young people. Young hands such as yours that can calm a frightened animal are the beginning of better worlds for all of us. It's love without selfishness, and by achieving such a state you and your people are well on your way. I earnestly hope that you'll never go astray as we did, traveling the bright, gay avenues that consist only of material things.\"\n\n\"Will I see you again?\" Steve asked.\n\n\"I don't know, Steve. It will be a long, long time, if I do return.\"\n\n\"In your time or mine, Jay?\"\n\n\"Yours, of course, Steve. It won't be long for me. You wouldn't even notice any change in me. But you...\"\n\n\"Yes, Jay? Will I be an old man?\"\n\n\"Pretty old, Steve,\" Jay replied quietly.\n\nAzul Island had emerged from the sea, a speck, a dot, then the walls of Blue Valley enveloped them. As Steve's body swayed, Jay spoke. \"It's just as easy for me to drop you off here, Steve. You've had a hard day, and I'll see that your launch gets back. I still have time for that.\"\n\nAll was quiet again. Steve felt Jay's hand on his arm, helping him to his feet.\n\n\"Out with you now,\" Jay said with feigned lightness. \"We must part for a little while.\"\n\n_\"A little while, Jay? It won't be a little while at all. It'll be a long time... a long, long time!\"_\n\n\"You're tired and upset, Steve,\" Jay's voice came from a great distance. \"I've asked too much of you these last few days. You'd better rest. Here's a good spot. Stretch out now. Take it nice and easy, Steve. That's it, go to sleep now... go to sleep....\"\n\n# ... AND THE BEGINNING\n\n20\n\nSteve Duncan opened his eyes to find his hands clasped beneath his head while he lay on the ground. A long blade of succulent grass was between his lips and he removed it, wondering when he'd put it there. The waterfall droned behind him and some of the mares nickered. Foals answered in high-pitched, wavering neighs.\n\nHe looked at the sky. It was well past sunset but the brilliant afterglow still colored the clouds.\n\nJay and his friends would be gone by now. Steve sat up, turning again to the sky, wishing he could have seen their ship rise from this world. But then Jay had said it glowed only when landing. So even if he'd stayed awake he wouldn't have seen it.\n\nGetting to his feet, he found Flame with the band. His horse wore neither the red blanket nor the bridle, so Jay had taken those with him. Disappointment flared in Steve's eyes, for he would have liked to keep the hackamore. Then Jay would have been with him always, regardless of the light years and endless space which separated them.\n\nHe called to Flame, wanting to make certain his horse had suffered no injuries from the race and trip. There was no sign of lameness or injury in the stallion when Flame came to him at a fast walk. In fact Flame looked so fresh and eager that it seemed to Steve he could have raced again, at that very moment, with no trouble at all.\n\nSteve walked around his horse, finding no caked dirt or mud from the track on the red body. He picked up the oval-shaped hoofs and found them clean also. Quickly he went to Flame's right side again, searching for evidence of the long burn from the outer rail. Here too he was disappointed, finding nothing but the jagged scars he had known before.\n\n_Flame looked as if... yes, he looked as if he had not raced at all!_\n\nSteve turned quickly away from Flame, and the first light of uncertainty appeared in his eyes. He climbed the trail as fast as his legs would carry him, stopping only at the ledge to grab a flashlight and go on. Upon reaching the tunnel he went inside, his strides coming faster than he'd ever traveled the underground world. Finally he reached the slits in the far western wall of Azul Island. He looked hard and long, searching but finding nothing except the flat, still surface of the Caribbean Sea. He rushed headlong through the tunnels again, telling himself that he hadn't really expected to find the white patch on the water. The big ship had left at sunset.\n\nWhen he arrived back at the ledge he went first to the box in which he kept the empty food tins before burying them. But once there he turned quickly away, telling himself there was no way of gauging if the box was any more full than when he had left with Pitch for Antago. Burying the cans was one of the jobs he had meant to do immediately upon his return.\n\nWhen _had_ he returned... days ago?... or an hour ago? He remembered stretching out on the grass, looking up at the sky that was so spotted with small, fleecy clouds. He hadn't wanted to fall asleep. But had he slept after all? Was this the very same day? Were Jay and Flick and their ship nothing but a fantastic dream that had included racing Flame?\n\nHe moved quickly to the rear of the cave to get Pitch's can of tea. He looked at it, wondering exactly how much tea Pitch had left there. Jay and Flick had liked their tea strong, so he must have used a lot. Or had he? There was no way of being sure.\n\nThe can dropped from his hands and he ran down the trail, calling to Flame at the top of his voice. The stallion came from the nearby pool at his call, and Steve mounted him quickly. Then he rode down the valley, feeling the surge of muscles that carried him along at greater and greater speed. Flame could _not_ have raced only a few hours before and go so fast now! A numbness swept over Steve, yet he continued taking his horse through the marsh and gorge and finally across the smaller valley.\n\nHe slid down from Flame's back at the entrance leading to the sea chamber and ran inside. Reaching the chamber he stopped abruptly when he saw the launch gently rocking in the waters of the canal. But then, he had expected to find it there. Jay had said he would return it. He moved forward slowly, his eyes on the ropes that held the _Sea Queen_ to the wooden pilings. Here he would have his final answer, for no one tied knots exactly the way he did. If Jay had returned the launch, the knots would be different.\n\nSteve went from one rope to the next, examining each a long, long time. Finally in a dazed stupor he left the chamber and returned to Flame.\n\nNight had come to Azul Island. Yet Steve made no attempt to mount his horse. He merely stood beside him, looking up at the stars.\n\n_It was the same day, the very day he had told himself to stop daydreaming of racing Flame. He had gone to sleep, to dream the most fantastic dream of all!_\n\nSuddenly he laughed at the thought of how ridiculous he had been to think it might be true.\n\n\"Come on, Flame,\" he said sadly. \"Let's go back.\"\n\nHe rode at a slow gallop, his eyes turning often to the night sky as the stars grew in number, millions upon millions, and millions more. Yet Jay had said they were nothing compared to what lay beyond.\n\n\"What a very silly person I am, Flame,\" Steve said, \"to keep thinking about a man I made up in a dream.\"\n\nFlame tossed his head and snorted as if in complete agreement. Steve grinned and sent the red stallion into a hard run, for what he had in reality was far better than anything a dream could offer.\n\n# EPILOGUE\n\nIn the Reading Room of the New York Public Library a thin, wiry man removed his steel-rimmed glasses and softly pressed his eyeballs to help relieve the strain of a long day of research. Finally he looked around the large, quiet room and rose to his feet, closing his books and picking up his notes. He went to the desk in the center of the room, very careful to keep from rustling his papers so as not to disturb the other readers.\n\n\"I didn't quite finish today, Ray,\" he told the young man behind the desk, \"so I'll take this one home.\"\n\nThe librarian smiled and said, \"You've said that every day for the past week, Mr. Pitcher. Why don't you see something of New York tonight instead of working?\"\n\nThe man called Pitcher met the librarian's smile with grave seriousness. \"I couldn't find anything so fascinating as this,\" he said, gesturing toward the book. \"And I wish you'd stop calling me Mr. Pitcher, Ray. It's _Pitch_.\" He laughed. \"I don't answer to anything else, and we've known each other a whole week.\"\n\nThe librarian pushed the book across the desk. \"All right, _Pitch_. See you tomorrow then.\"\n\nPitch left the room and went down the winding marble steps without waiting for the elevator. He held the book close to his thin chest thinking how little Ray must know about Spanish-American history to believe _anything_ in New York could be as interesting. Why, nothing could be so exciting as reading about those Spanish conquests! There was no doubt that the Spaniards had used Azul Island as a supply base. He'd found that out for sure. Oh, he'd have a lot to tell Steve, all right. He was being very well rewarded for this long trip.\n\nOutside the library he paused on the steps, almost frightened by the scurrying horde of people on their way home from work. He was finding it difficult to get used to all this confusion and rush after his life on Antago and with Steve in Blue Valley.\n\nHe watched the seemingly endless crowd at the newsstand below as commuters picked up their evening papers and then disappeared into the subway entrance with scarcely a pause. He held his book a little closer.\n\nHe passed the stand with no intention of buying a paper. But suddenly he was being pushed by the mob and he found himself directly in front of the stand. A folded newspaper was thrust in his hand.\n\n\"I don't want it,\" he said politely.\n\nThe newsman continued handing out papers, but his eyes kept shifting back to the customer who hadn't paid. \"Come on. Come on,\" he said impatiently. \"Evenin' papers... _Journal, Post, Telly_... Here y'are... C'mon, Mister, pay up... Papers, get your evenin' papers... _Journal, Post_...\"\n\nAfraid that he might be jostled again and that his glasses might fall off and break if he remained in front of the crowded stand any longer, Pitch paid for the newspaper and allowed himself to be pushed to the sidewalk. There he safely avoided the subway entrance and walked quickly down the street to the nearest public waste receptacle. He began to stuff the newspaper inside.\n\nSuddenly he stopped, his attention caught by the front-page picture of a horse and rider. For a long while he just stared at it in dazed bewilderment, then he withdrew the paper and unfolded it.\n\nThe caption beneath the picture read:\n\nFifty-thousand-dollar purse still unclaimed by the owner of winning horse in yesterday's International Race at Havana, Cuba. Mystery deepens as newsmen state that horse, rider and owner disappeared before their eyes in an open clearing during chase immediately following the race. Equally astounding is that no racing association has the registration of a horse named Flame, yet he defeated eight of the world's best! Who is this horse? Where is he?\n\nUp the crowded street Pitch ran, talking aloud to himself, yet no one paid him the slightest attention.\n\n_\"It's Steve's Flame,\"_ he said. _\"There's no mistake about that. So it has to be Steve riding him. But what has the boy done to his face? How on earth did he and Flame ever get to Cuba? What's going on back in Blue Valley? Steve, Steve_ , _what in the world has happened? Who is that small man standing beside you?\"_\n\nPitch turned into the airlines terminal, carrying only the day's newspaper, for his book on the past had been dropped and forgotten long minutes before.\n\n# ABOUT THE AUTHOR\n\nWalter Farley's love for horses began when he was a small boy living in Syracuse, New York, and continued as he grew up in New York City, where his family moved. Unlike most city children, he was able to fulfill this love through an uncle who was a professional horseman. Young Walter spent much of his time with this uncle, learning about the different kinds of horse training and the people associated with them.\n\nWalter Farley began to write his first book, _The Black Stallion_ , while he was a student at Brooklyn's Erasmus Hall High School and Mercersburg Academy in Pennsylvania. He eventually finished it, and it was published in 1941 while he was still an undergraduate at Columbia University.\n\nThe appearance of _The Black Stallion_ brought such an enthusiastic response from young readers that Mr. Farley went on to create more stories about the Black, and about other horses as well. In his life he wrote a total of thirty-four books, including _Man o' War_ , the story of America's greatest thoroughbred, and two photographic storybooks based on the two Black Stallion movies. His books have been enormously popular in the United States and have been published in twenty-one foreign countries.\n\nMr. Farley and his wife, Rosemary, had four children, whom they raised on a farm in Pennsylvania and at a beach house in Florida. Horses, dogs and cats were always a part of the household.\n\nIn 1989 Mr. Farley was honored by his hometown library in Venice, Florida, which established the Walter Farley Literary Landmark in its children's wing. Mr. Farley died in October 1989, shortly before the publication of _The Young Black Stallion_ , the twenty-first book in the Black Stallion series. Mr. Farley co-authored _The Young Black Stallion_ with his son, Steven.\n**THE EXCITING TALE  \nOF HOW STEVE MET FLAME**\n\nSteve Duncan had a haunting vision of finding a magnificent red stallion... and finally discovered him in a hidden island paradise. But the giant horse was wild and unapproachable. Then Steve saved Flame from a horrible death, and a miraculous friendship began\u2014changing _both_ their lives forever.\n**A THRILLING SAGA OF DANGER  \nON AZUL ISLAND**\n\nFlame faces a vicious new enemy! The giant red stallion is used to fighting horses\u2014his leadership of the wild band on the remote island has been tested again and again. But never before has he been threatened by people. Now a greedy and violent man is coming after the unwary stallion... determined to break his body _and_ his spirit!\n**TWO GREAT HORSES  \nMEET FOR THE FIRST TIME!**\n\nWhen their plane crashes in the Caribbean Sea, Alec and the Black are swept apart. The exhausted stallion is carried by the currents to a remote island. There he finds a herd of wild horses ruled by the giant red stallion Flame. But before the Black and Flame can determine which is the dominant male, they must fight a rabid vampire bat intent on destroying the entire herd.\n**FLAME WILL GIVE THE BLACK  \nTHE RACE OF A LIFETIME!**\n\nSteve Duncan has claimed that his horse, Flame, is faster than the Black. And when Flame and the Black had their first run together, Alec had to admit that the Black might have met his match. Now that the two stallions are meeting in a major race, the whole _world_ wonders if the Black can hold his own against the upstart challenger....\n**DON'T FORGET THE STORY  \nTHAT BEGAN IT ALL....**\n\nAlec Ramsay first saw the Black Stallion when his ship docked at a small Arabian port on the Red Sea. Little did he dream then that the magnificent wild horse was destined to play an important part in his young life; that the strange understanding that grew between them would lead through untold dangers to high adventure in America.\n**AN EXCITING RACING STORY  \nWITH THE BLACK'S OLDEST FILLY**\n\nCan a filly win the Kentucky Derby? That's what Henry Dailey hopes when he buys the Black Stallion's filly. But Black Minx has a mind of her own. Her desire to go fast is great, but so strongly does she resist training that Alec and Henry have to trick her into running! As they bring her to Churchill Downs for the great race, they wonder if she truly is up to the challenge.\n**NO ONE CAN WRITE A RACING ADVENTURE  \nLIKE WALTER FARLEY**.\n\nWhen Hopeful Farm burns down, Alec Ramsay's dreams for the future go up in smoke. To make matters worse, a strong young colt named Eclipse is threatening to replace the Black in the hearts of racing fans. The Black is getting older, and no one believes that he could win again. No one, that is, but Henry Dailey. Against all odds, Henry and Alec create a sensation as they bring the Black back to the track\u2014and the crowd knows that they are about to watch the race of the century!\n**HOW MUCH DO YOU KNOW  \nABOUT HARNESS RACING?  \nMEET A NEW HERO, AND A FASCINATING SPORT!**\n\nYoung Tom Messenger has been taking care of Bonfire, the second son of the famous Black Stallion, since his birth. Tom has earned the trust of Jimmy Creech, the veteran driver who owns Bonfire, and Tom is eager to work with the young colt, building his strength and endurance. But suddenly Jimmy's health takes a bad turn and Tom must take the reins himself. The horse is a natural, but Tom doesn't know the first thing about harness racing. And he'd better learn fast....\n\n","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaBook"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzulxp b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzulxp
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"Well supported when justifying favouritism in a Class 7 handicap at Chelmsford (5f) in February; placed off this mark next time; should handle this extra yardage on pedigree.\nVeteran of 131 races; back to winning ways over C&D in late January when beating Dodgy Bob by a nose; remains feasibly treated but likely to find one or two that fraction stronger.\nFairly consistent in recent months, but that needs quantifying with the fact that he's not won anywhere since September 2017 (7f); finished 1\u00bcL third to Tavener at Lingfield (6f) 12-days ago.\nFinished a remote second to Billyfairplay at Dundalk (6f) in December, and hasn't necessarily shown any improvement since; trainer tends to do well with his runners in England; 10lb higher than when a Class 7 Chelmsford scorer (December 2017).\nLightly-raced (0-5); took a very small step forward on his second start for Roy Brotherton at Southwell (5f) in January when finishing 5L fourth of ten to Warrior's Valley.\nNotched a fourth AW win when scooting clear for today's rider Megan Nicholls at Kempton (6f) in February; 5lb higher in the weights, but commonly runs well at this track; should figure prominently in the mix.\nJust 1-22 on the AW (C&D scorer off this mark in October 2017); finished a staying on fourth to Seaforth, beaten 2\u00bdL over 7f here in early March; place shout at best.\n14-race maiden (0-7 on the AW); possible that the initial positive impact of blinkers is beginning to wear off; 2lb higher than when beaten \u00beL by Billyfairplay over C&D in October; back from a 115-day absence.\nInfrequent winner (1-21 on the AW); caught close home when beaten \u00bdL by Swiss Cross over 6f at Kempton in October; scarcely seen in competitive action since; possible that she's being prepared for the upcoming turf campaign.\n16-race AW maiden with agonising form figures of 3,2,2,3,3,2 since early 2019; went closest when beaten a nose by today's rival Indian Affair over C&D in late January; deserves to find a race, albeit not necessarily guaranteed to do so.\nHas generally proved disappointing since September 2018, but did show a little more sparkle (as the race progressed) when fitted with a first-time visor over 5f at Lingfield in January; this extra furlong an obvious plus, the wide draw much less so.\nWell backed and won for the first-time on the AW on his 17th start in a 6f Classified Stakes at Newcastle in February; probably still capable off this revised mark if breaking from the stalls in a more orderly fashion; not dismissed.\nMegan Nicholls was aboard the Olly Murphy-trained KRAZY PAVING when that 7yo gelding returned to peak form at Kempton in February, scooting clear of the runner-up Fantasy Justifier. In what is a typically ordinary Monday Class 6 6f Wolverhampton handicap, the reunited duo make most appeal. Others in with a shout include the often tardy starter Picks Pinta, the frustrating yet genuine Dodgy Bob, and the very difficult to win with Viking Way.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"New research sheds light on the big potential impact in neurological and psychiatric disorders\u2013\u2013including autism spectrum disorder (ASD)\u2013\u2013of very small bits of our genome called microexons.\nMicroexons are the smallest type of gene segments that actually \"code,\" or give instructions for, the creation of proteins. (Most of the genome has other purposes and is not involved in generating proteins.) In a study published this past December 18th in Cell, a research team found that patterns of irregularities in microexons were associated with ASD and, more broadly, with processes in the brain that are implicated in other disorders.\nThe team, led by Benjamin Blencowe, Ph.D., of the University of Toronto, assessed microexons in postmortem brain samples from both mice and people. For the first time, they showed that microexons involved in encoding proteins were especially irregular within specific brain regions of people with ASD. Among people with ASD, the team further detected improperly regulated microexons within genes that have previously been linked to intellectual disability. These results point to specific microexon irregularities as part of the pathology of ASD. Some of these irregularities may contribute to cognitive deficits associated with the condition.\nThe team, which included Daniel H. Geschwind, M.D., Ph.D., 2012 recipient of the Foundation's Ruane Prize for Child and Adolescent Research, also found that one particular microexon influences interactions between proteins that affect two important processes in the brain. One process is synaptic plasticity, the capacity of connections in the brain to change over time. The other process is neurite outgrowth, the thread-like projections brain cells extend to connect with other neurons. Disruptions in both of these processes have been linked to neurological disorders, including ASD.\nThe new findings are consistent with previous work associating particular microexons with ASD, schizophrenia, and epilepsy. It may be the case, the researchers say, that the disrupted regulation of microexons ultimately contributes to ASD and other disorders by interfering with protein-interaction networks that are needed for healthy development and function of brain cells, a possibility open for future study.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Just in time for Super Bowl Sunday! In this video, Nick Massie of PaleoNick.com shares his recipe for kickin' like Van Damme chicken, a dish he calls \"the bigger brother\" to his bacon-wrapped jalape\u00f1o poppers.\nMassie's kickin' chicken features a careful arrangement of chicken fingers on a bell-pepper base. That combo is topped with jalape\u00f1o slices and wrapped in thin-sliced bacon, and it's served layered over a creamy puree of parsnips.\nIn preparation for the dish, Massie performs a chandelier cut on a bell pepper to make the popper body. He then divides the chicken and jalape\u00f1os and starts stacking. After Massie wraps each stack in bacon using a \"double tuck\" technique, the poppers are ready to go in the pan.\nOnce the poppers reach an internal temperature of 165 F, they can be placed on top of the pureed parsnips. For a finishing touch, the chef adds some Massie Mayo and cilantro.\nTo download the recipe for Kickin' Chicken, click here.\nAdditional reading: \"Roasting Virtuosity\" by E.M. Burton, published April 11, 2015.\nIs this a real Van Damme chicken recipe ?!\nI'm going to try cooking this kickin' chicken tonight! Great recipe and good protein!","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"\u00b7 Think of what it would be like if you performed at a high level in your field for more than two decades and then finally 17 years after you've retired you receive the ultimate honour and are inducted into your field's Hall of Fame or your colleagues plan a special tribute in your honour that you can share with your family. Now think about what it would be like if in the seven days after the announcement of your special honour, an objective group of analysts (most of whom you've never met) went over your performance numbers and took to social media to denigrate and crap all over your accomplishments. How would that make you feel? Well, welcome to Harold Baines's world. Whether you believe he belongs in the Hall of Fame or not, for gosh sake, let him and his family rejoice in this honour. Baines, along with long-time closer Lee Smith, was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame by the Hall's Today's Game Era committee last Sunday.\n\u00b7 And if you're wondering how much this means to Baines, just watch this video.\n\u00b7 For the record, the best batting average Baines recorded at any major league park (in which he had at least 50 at bats) was Toronto's SkyDome. In 58 contests against the Toronto Blue Jays at the dome, Baines batted .325 with eight home runs and six doubles. He also hit .303 with nine home runs in 52 contests at Exhibition Stadium and .412 (7-for-17) against the Montreal Expos.\n\u00b7 Most baseball pundits have likely forgotten that long-time closer Lee Smith, who will be inducted alongside Baines this July, recorded the final five of his 478 career saves with the Expos in 1997. The intimidating right-hander registered his last major league save on June 10, 1997 at Olympic Stadium when he tossed a scoreless ninth against the Philadelphia Phillies in an 8-5 win. The first batter he retired in that inning was Toronto native Rob Butler on a ground ball to second base. Smith's last major league appearance came July 2 that year at SkyDome when he hurled two scoreless innings for the Expos against the Blue Jays in his club's 7-6, 13-inning loss.\n\u00b7 After an outstanding season that saw him belt 43 home runs and lead the SK Wyverns to a championship, London, Ont., native Jamie Romak has re-signed a one-year deal with the Korean Baseball Organization (KBO) club for a reported $1.3 million. With his 43 regular season homers in 2018, the Canuck slugger became the first Canadian to sock 40 home runs in consecutive seasons at the professional level. He had a combined 42 home runs between the KBO and triple-A in 2017. Romak's 2018 campaign was easily his best in the pro ranks. He not only set a career-high in home runs, but also in batting average (.316), runs (102), hits (167) and RBI (107). Prior to spending the bulk of his last two years in Korea, Romak played parts of 13 campaigns in the affiliated minor league ranks. He had major league stints with the Los Angeles Dodgers in 2014 and the Arizona Diamondbacks in 2015.\n\u00b7 As a Canadian baseball history buff, I'm embarrassed to admit that I didn't know this, but apparently Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame inductee John Hiller (Toronto, Ont.) held the record for most strikeouts in a major league season by left-handed reliever (134 in 1974) until Milwaukee Brewers southpaw Josh Hader broke it this year. Hader finished with 143 strikeouts.\n\u00b7 Please take a moment to remember Canadian Baseball Hall of Famer and Blue Jays legendary executive and ex-manager Bobby Mattick who passed away 14 years ago today at the age of 89. A former shortstop with the Chicago Cubs and Cincinnati Reds, Mattick was one of the Blue Jays' original employees. He was hired as the club's scouting supervisor in 1976 before being promoted to director of player development in 1978. When he accepted the Jays field manager position in 1980 at age 64, he became the oldest rookie skipper to start a season in big league history. Following two seasons in the dugout, he returned to the front office, first as executive coordinator of baseball operations and then as the Jays' vice-president of baseball. Often described as the heart and soul of the franchise, Mattick spent 28 years with the Jays and was responsible for recruiting and developing several key players on the Jays championship teams. In 2003, the Jays renamed their Spring Training complex in Dunedin, Fla., The Bobby Mattick Training Center in his honour.\n\u00b7 Congratulations to Port Dover, Ont., native John Axford who will become the 10th member of Baseball Canada's Wall of Excellence. He will be honoured at the Baseball Canada National Teams Awards Banquet and Fundraiser set to take place at the Toronto Marriott City Centre Hotel inside Rogers Centre on January 12. The 6-foot-5 right-hander has just completed his 10th major league campaign. Now 35, the Canuck reliever, who has suited up for the Canadian national team on multiple occasions, has registered a 3.87 ERA and notched 144 saves in 543 big league appearances in stops with the Milwaukee Brewers, St. Louis Cardinals, Cleveland Indians, Pittsburgh Pirates, Colorado Rockies, Oakland A's, Toronto Blue Jays and Los Angeles Dodgers.\n\u00b7 With baseball writers in the process of completing and submitting their Hall of Fame ballots, I would like to strongly encourage them to vote for Maple Ridge, B.C. native Larry Walker. Each week until the voting results are announced I'll feature a tweet that reinforces that Walker, who was inducted into the Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame in 2009, is worthy of a plaque in Cooperstown. This week's tweet is from Hot Stove Stats.\n\u00b7 This week's trivia question: Lee Smith is set to become the third former Montreal Expos pitcher to be elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame. Who are the other two? Please provide your answer in the \"Comments\" section below. The first person to provide the correct answer will win a 1987 Fleer Barry Larkin rookie card and a 2018 Canadian Baseball Hall of Fame induction program.\nThe answer to last week's trivia question (Aside from Tony Batista, there are two other players that have hit 15 or more home runs in a season for both the Blue Jays and Expos, can you name one of them?) was one of Ron Fairly or Darrin Fletcher.\nHi Bob. You are correct. The answer is Randy Johnson and Pedro Martinez. I'll get the program and card out in the mail to you on Monday. Thanks again for your support.\nPedro Martinez and Randy Johnson.\nBaines' stats don't include his 1992 ALCS game winning HR in the 9th inning of Game 1 off Jack Morris.\nThanks, David. Bob got the answer just before you. Thank you for reminding me about the Baines home runs in the 1992 ALCS. Thanks again for your support.\nReally liked your first paragraph about the Harold Baines issue. I think you nailed it \u2013its just that some feel they have to put someone down in order for themselves to look good. Good article.\nThanks for your support and your note.\nI haven't seen a single article putting down Harold Baines the person. When I have seen is a lot of articles that rightly question his induction into the Hall of Fame based only on his stats. Stats don't make the person and I don't think it would even bother him because he was so shocked he got in himself. Cronyism got a lot of people into the Hall of Fame who quite frankly don't belong so if it's going to happen in this era they at least picked a quality person to crony into the Hall of Fame.\nI have to agree, edocol. I would never condone personal attacks on a player, but the HoF has become the Hall of Very Good, in my opinion, and not the shrine to immortals it was intended to be.\nReblogged this on Edocol's Blog.\nThanks for the interesting Sunday blog.\nGreat news for Romak and Axford. I still think Romak could hit 20HR's in MLB if someone would give him a shot.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"The University of Melbourne, San Diego Zoo Global and conservation group cesar have teamed up to begin a unique project designed to learn more about the elusive platypus and the threats to its survival.\nThe project uses an innovative technology where samples of water are tested for traces of environmental DNA (eDNA) to learn about the species present in freshwater ecosystems.\nReid Tingley, University of Melbourne Research Fellow, said all animals leave traces of their presence behind as they move through an environment \u2013 this can be skin cells, hair, faeces or mucus.\n\"We can extract DNA from these environmental samples and identify the species that left their DNA behind,\" he said.\nInformation gained from the eDNA analysis will allow the researchers to create a spatial map of the species present in hundreds of waterways in south eastern Australia \u2013 and in particular, whether platypuses are present at the sampled sites.\nThis will be the largest survey undertaken for platypuses and will allow researchers to comprehensively map their current distribution. The information will guide next steps for the protection of platypuses, and the ecosystems they depend on, throughout Victoria and New South Wales.\n\"Many platypus populations are now located in highly modified waterways that will come under greater stress with climate change and an increasing human population,\" Josh Griffiths, cesar Senior Wildlife Ecologist, said.\nRecently, the International Union for Conservation of Nature changed the status of the platypus from a Species of Least Concern to Near Threatened. Conservationists say that this new project is especially important to ensure that the platypus does not become further endangered.\nThe application of the new eDNA technology will also allow researchers to ascertain information that will contribute to conservation efforts for threatened species of native fish, such as the Australian grayling, Macquarie perch, Yarra pygmy perch, Barred galaxias and Dwarf galaxias, while also identifying where invasive species are present.\nSan Diego Zoo Global has previously worked on projects involving the koala and the Tasmanian devil, and the zoo is now working with the platypus on long-term research for conservation of this rare species.\nThe project is being undertaken with other collaborators including the Victorian Government (Department of Environment, Land, Water and Planning), the NSW Government (Office of Environment and Heritage) and Melbourne Water.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzvzsi b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzvzsi
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..c3fd1a1fa9c2ee2939a1230761b5f47c8a31bd49
--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"Understanding the tides on the oceans helped humans travel and trade all over the world in centuries past. In the space age, new ways of predicting the tides can help shipping times, design of moorings, dredging and pipelaying \u2013 and exceptional circumstances such as understanding weather disasters and oil spills. Knowing what the tide will do is particularly important in coastal areas, where effects are more pronounced than out at sea, and where people are more likely to be directly impacted.\nSince direct measurement of tides is not possible in many areas, tidal models were developed. Satellite-borne altimeters were used to verify some of the predictions made by models and to improve subsequent modelling techniques. Data from altimeters has allowed for automated modelling, leading to worldwide databases of tidal information.\nUnder ESA's Data User Programme, the project TIDAL was developed to share information on tides in a commercial capacity. Prime contractors BMT Argoss BV set about proving that a Tidal Information service based on altimeter data could be produced and would have customers. The project was completed in 2003 and led to the website www.tidal-info.com.\nHowever, although currents could be inferred from some of the tidal measurements, the measurement of currents from space had to wait until Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) was available from space.\nESA's Earth Explorer satellites, CryoSat, GOCE and SMOS, are helping to provide important ocean measurements. The upcoming Sentinel family of satellites under Europe's Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES)\/Copernicus programme will also contribute once operational.\nDetailed knowledge of currents worldwide can be applied in many different ways. For shipping companies, a favourable current could lead to savings in fuel. Such small-scale differences are challenging to identify, but the cumulative effect of the energy savings could run to tens of millions of euro as well as leading to a decrease in emissions from the ships.\nCurrents in the oceans are also particularly important in their impact on climate and weather. Since the oceans transport energy from the tropics to the polar regions, accurate knowledge of ocean surface currents is essential for good predictions of how our planet will react to a changing climate.\nThe Data User Element, also called DUE, is an element of the Earth Observation Envelope Programme (EOEP), an optional programme of the European Space Agency, currently subscribed by all ESA Member States. It follows the 5 year Data User Programme (DUP) that lasted from 1997 to 2002. The DUE, like its predecessor DUP, tries to promote the development of Earth Observation (EO) demonstration services that fully respond to the needs of end-user communities.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Originally Published: December 26, 2017 11:27 a.m.\nWILLIAMS, Ariz. \u2014 Remember all the Jessicas and Jennifers born in the 1980s and 1990s?\nWell, those babies are all grown up and having children in Arizona of their own. But if their choices this year of what to name their own offspring are any indication, they see no reason to keep those names popular.\nHow radical has the change been?\nThe state Department of Health Services, which keeps track of these things, said Jessica was the top name for girls born in 1987. And it remained there a decade later.\nBy 2007 it had slipped from the Top 20 list.\nAnd this year? There weren't enough baby Jessicas born in Arizona to make even the Top 100.\nThis isn't just a development among girls. While the changes may be less radical, the pattern among boys' names also has changed.\nConsider Justin. In 1987, there were enough of them born in Arizona to rank No. 10 among all boys.\nBy this year, however, like Jessica, it didn't show up in that Top 100 list.\nSo what names are popular?\nAmong girls, Emma retained the No. 1 spot it clinched a year ago. But Sophia, the top name for 2015 that Emma edged aside last year, has now slipped to fourth place, with more girls named Isabella and Olivia born in 2016.\nStill, that's a tiny bit misleading: When you add the alternative spelling of Sofia into the mix, the two names together tally more than Emma.\nThere are some girls' names that might be considered evergreens that have remained popular over the years, names like Abigail, Emily and Victoria. Even Madison, which popped onto the list in the 1990s, is still at No. 21.\nBut other staples in the \"what to name the baby'' category from the 1980s and 1990 are no more.\nStephanie was among the more popular names as far back as the 1970s and pretty much up to the turn of the century.\nAnd now? Nowhere on that Top 100 list in Arizona.\nOther names appear to be more of a flash in the pan.\nRemember when you ran into a lot of babies named Tiffany? Or Kayla? You'd be hard pressed to find a newborn today with that name.\nAnd then there's Nevaeh, a name that was virtually unknown two decades ago.\nIt made a meteoric rise to the Top 20 earlier in the decade after Sonny Sandoval, frontman for the Christian rock group P.O.D. \u2014 Payable On Death \u2014 chose that reverse spelling of \"heaven for his newborn daughter and took her on MTV in 2000.\nIt's still around in Arizona, but at No. 78.\nAmong boys, there are some perennials. You'd be hard pressed to find a year in at least the past four decades which Michael was not in the Top 20.\nBut the chart is led by Liam, Noah and Sebastian.\nOverall, though, the Bible appears to be a perennial source of names for new baby boys in Arizona.\nDaniel and James, like Michael, also have been quite popular. And while some biblical names have fallen off the Top 20\u2014 Matthew went from No. 3 in 1987 to falling of the chart this year \u2014 they have tended to be replaced by others from the Good Book like Noah, Elijah and Isaac.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"This dual voice coil dash replacement speaker gives you a stereo mix from your single dash speaker location. It uses a Neodymium magnet structure for high power handling in a slim-mount design. A Santoprene surround delivers the most natural sound possible with no distortion. Dual mylar tweeters produce crisp, clear highs. Universal speaker mounting bracket included.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Do you need Concert of Love tickets for a specific venue or date? The search is over as TonsOfTickets has a huge inventory of Concert of Love tickets for the full schedule ready to be delivered to you. We make it easy to buy Concert of Love tickets for any of the dates that are scheduled. Get the perfect seats for you by using our interactive map that shows you the venue's seating chart with exact precision.\nTo purchase Concert of Love tickets from TonsOfTickets, simply click the \"Buy\" button and proceed to find your desired tickets. You'll then be brought to our secure check out system where you can make your purchase. We are not affiliated with any box offices, venues, performers or team. Concert of Love tickets may be sold on this site for more than face value. All of our Concert of Love tickets are 100% guaranteed. Your Concert of Love tickets will be shipped through FedEx (unless otherwise noted) and are typically shipped within 1 business day of the time you placed your order. In many cases Concert of Love tickets are available through E-Tickets which can be downloaded and printed through your email.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"I am extremely excited to have been chosen to join the SSI (Symphony Australia) Conductor Development Program. In 2014 I will work with the Tasmanian Symphony Orchestra under Course Director Christopher Seaman and the Auckland Philharmonia under Chief Conductor Eckehard Stier.\n\"The Symphony Services International Conductor Development program is, as far as I know, unique. One of the best things about it is that these young conductors will have the opportunity to work with many of the major orchestras and with other groups of experienced players.\nThey will also be coached by me and by other international guest conductors, giving them a rich diversity of experience to draw on \u2013 a priceless gift in itself. Previous participants in the program have gone on to opportunities to study and work internationally, and some have already begun their careers in Australia and overseas. But whatever level of conducting our participants reach, the whole musical life of Australia, professional, educational and amateur, will gain enormously from the program's influence on the overall standard of conducting here. Congratulations to Symphony Services International for creating this \u2013 I wish there had been something like it for me when I started out!\"","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
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+{"text":"You are here: Home \/ Search for \"venetian plaster\"\nMy art practice is rooted in the traditions of contemplative art, influenced greatly by my years as a student of Asian calligraphy and my ongoing design career as a calligrapher and letterform artist. I use many different media, but in all of them I attend closely to the language of mark-making and surface.\nAs principal of Iskra Design I have been working with the alphabet for many years, providing custom letterform solutions for book covers, logotypes, and package branding. In the first decade of my career I immersed myself in Asian calligraphy, haiga, T'ai Chi and sumie painting, studying with Lucy Liu, John Leong and Sensei Ishii among other teachers. After this period of Eastern influence I went to the University of Washington, completing a degree in painting with a secondary focus on printmaking (BFA). I draw inspiration from the interplay between the contemplative practices of Asian art and a perhaps more Western need for invention and uncharted chaos.\nAlthough my first love is printmaking, due to early exposure to solvents I have been unable to work in a traditional printmaking studio or with oil-based inks, and this has pushed me to devise my own methods to create the look and process of printmaking without a press. In much of my work I approach my surface as though it is a stone or metal plate, but the \"plate\" becomes the final piece of art, reflecting the same characteristics of mark-making found in etching and lithography. I love surfaces that are bitten and etched, indirect and calligraphic mark making, and experimental processes of monoprint which embed an element of surprise. I also adore flat screaming color and the graphic qualities of serigraph and stencils. I move between visual languages, always looking for an ambiguity of pictorial space and unexpected juxtapositions.\nFor the past five years I have focused primarily on how the atmosphere of emotion intersects with architectural structure. In my series about construction sites and the street I use contemporary digital photography, imaging software and found and made surface to explore nostalgia, loss, place and displacement in the rapidly changing urban environment. For me Photoshop is like playing jazz: it is the ultimate tool for improvisation. It allows me to deconstruct images into layers of light and color, line and shape, and reassemble them into imaginary worlds. The way the layers interact with each other opens up a new kind of pictorial composition unavailable in any other medium.\nThe physical form of my digitally composed work may be archival pigment print, transfer print, or mixed media. In digitally printed work my goal is to produce a work on paper, an artifact incorporating all the finesse and obsession with surface of traditional printmaking. The resulting images have a mysterious hybrid quality that is often taken for silkscreen or lithography.\nGerman Etching, my favorite paper, beloved for its rich surface and the way it holds ink.\nRecently I have begun a shift away from printmaking towards more direct processes, using mixed media on Venetian plaster and pure painting. In going back to what are in some ways traditional image media I am still very interested in what I think of as \"photographicness.\" This is a relatively modern phenomena, in which photography, which originally set out to imitate life and \"painting from life,\" has now become our visual reference point as a global culture. How does a way of seeing that is mediated by incredibly complex technology enter into our psychology as a collective\/yet personal emotional filter? How does it influence our sense of what is \"real,\" \"personal\" or \"authentic?\" How do the qualities of surface in the daily interface of screens, phones, camera and facsimile begin to define what is beauty in other media? These are some of the questions guiding my work.\nIf you are interested in a studio visit or in purchasing prints or paintings you may write to me through the contact form in the navigation bar or email me at iskra (at) iskrafineart.com. My work may also be seen and purchased through Seattle Art Museum Gallery.\nMy office, where the digital alchemy happens.\nThe Reeds, transfer print sold out,digital edition available, on 17 x 22\" sheet.\nInspired by my life as a gardener and a walker in the landscape, these images are composed of digitally layered pastel, watercolor, Venetian plaster and photography. Some are editioned as transfer prints and some are archival pigment prints. Many of these prints are available in my shop in the gallery Botanical Prints, or click through directly via the \"available for purchase\" link. Others can be purchase directly from me or through SAM Gallery.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Following the conduct of Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices surveys in communities surrounding pilot protected areas in Matura and Tobago, a similar exercise was carried out in communities surrounding the Caroni Swamp.\nThese surveys provide some insight on how the local people value these sites and their views on the protected area designation that is applied to the sites. Additionally, the survey is able to uncover knowledge gaps and learn what is known about the area by those who live in close proximity to the sites.\nSummarized information from the survey undertaken around the Caroni Swamp shows that people are knowledgeable about the Swamp and the threats that impact on its viability. Many understand its ecological importance and others its economic value, and others shared views on how its management can be improved.\nRead more about these findings at this link.\nOne particular issue has emerged in discussions on management of protected areas in each of the IFPAM project's Subcommittees; this issue is: how is the situation of private lands within a protected area to be addressed? People enjoy the benefit of their land ownership in various ways. The private lands that are located within six pilot sites of the IFPAM project demonstrate the multitude of uses by which the landowners exercise their right of ownership.\nAre these uses harmonious with the protected status of the lands that they adjoin? Are there circumstances directly linked with the land use that may impact negatively on the protected areas? What is the best way to resolve negative impacts and create 'win-win' scenarios for all involved?\nThese questions and more are addressed in the latest issue of the Information Leaf entitled \"Can private lands exist in protected areas\".\nLearn about the issue at this link.\nWhere do most people go to find out the most current news and updates? Social media has a growing crowd of followers, people who need to share, need to know and need to network. There was no hesitation in bring forest and protected area \"to the people\" via social media platform Facebook, on the auspicious date of 21 March 2017, the International Day of Forests.\nLearn more about project activities, the work of other forest and protected area stakeholder groups and organizations and more. Follow us on Facebook and share with friends today!\nThe team of participants taking part in the Interpretive Trail Design and Maintenance Course led by Dr. Claus Eckelmann, completed the third course module at the end of March 2017, covering study visits to trails in diverse locations in Tobago.\nLearn more about some of the trail designs they encountered in this brief report.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"The performance data comparison presented is intended to illustrate the Fund's historical performance as compared with historical performance of widely quoted market indices. There are various important differences that may exist between the Fund and the stated indices that may affect the performance of each. The BMO Nesbitt Burns Small Cap Index includes common shares of all Canadian companies trading on the Toronto and Montreal Stock Exchanges with a total capitalization at the beginning of each month which does not exceed 0.1% of the total capitalization of the S&P\/TSX Index. The Fund's sector and geographic exposure may differ from that of the benchmark. The Fund's currency risk exposure may be different than that of the benchmark. The Fund may hold cash while the benchmark does not. It is not possible to invest directly in market indices. The performance comparison is for illustrative purposes only and does not imply future performance. Effective June 5, 2009, IA Clarington Canadian Opportunities Fund merged into this Fund.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Hosted by the Crown Casino in Melbourne, the Aussie Millions attracts an international field setting the stage for world class poker action.\nThe Aussie Millions is widely considered to be the most high.\nPosts about aussie millions written by GodlikeRoy. aussie millions, chinese poker, Crown Australian Poker Championship, crown casino, foods,. The Crown Casino in Melbourne, Australia, added poker in 1997.\nCrown Casino Sydney Review. The poker rooms in Crown casinos have been noted for adapting both high and low stakes players.The Australian Poker Championship, also known as Aussie Millions, is a Poker TV series held in Crown Casino, Melbourne, Australia.\nTeam PokerStars rising star Jason Somerville will be the exclusive broadcast partner for the 2017 Aussie Millions Poker Championship, Crown Melbourne has announced.After four days of blood, sweat and tears inside the Crown Poker Room, the Aussie Millions Main Event field has been reduced from 732 to just seven. Tony Dunst.\nThe Crown Poker Australian Championship is the official title of what is more casually, and affectionately known as the Aussie Millions. One of the venerable tournaments on the international poker circuit, the 2015 Aussie Millions, is in full swing at the Crown Casino in Melbourne, Australia.\nThis tournament is made up of well-known high roller poker events, as well as the final Main Event.The Aussie Millions Poker Championship is held every January at Crown Casino, Melbourne, Australia.\nPlay Online Pokies in. is a series of poker tournaments held at the Crown Casino,.Holdem Invitational at the Crown Poker Room, Crown Casino on.Australia is really lacking in decent places to play poker but Crown Casino is the exception.The Aussie Millions is one of the most popular and intense international poker tournaments, held each January in Melbourne, Australia at the Crown Casino.\nThe Aussie Millions is the largest poker tournament series in the southern hemisphere held every January at the Crown Casino in Melbourne, Australia.\nLaunched in 1997 under the name of the Australasian Poker Championship, it is now the biggest and most prestigious Poker event held South of the equator.\nThe Aussie Millions Poker. which can be converted to cash at the Crown Casino.\nThe Crown poker room has a bar up the back,...Shurane Vijayaram is riding high this week after winning the Aussie Millions poker tournament.\nCrown Melbourne, home of the Aussie Millions,. the casino team said that three were removed from 17 slots as part of a three-week.Intertops Poker is giving its customers a chance to win a trip to the Aussie Millions festival in January at the Crown Casino in Melbourne, Australia.\nAbout the Aussie Millions, Australian Poker Championship, held at the Crown Casino in Melbourne.\nA range of cash games are available 24hrs a day and if you prefer tournaments there is a midday and an evening tournament every day.\nAgain Announcing Separation from PokerStars. Crown Casino, Aussie Millions has a.\nHow to plan your trip with Crown Resorts Mobile App for Aussie Millions 2018,.\nLast year was a banner one for the pair as Somerville and Crown Casino set.\nCrown Casino in Melbourne for the Aussie Millions,. the Crown Casino in Melbourne ahead of the Aussie Millions and we.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Home remodeling is a great way to add functionality to your home and increase its market value and curb appeal. Wentworth offers a variety of remodeling and renovation services throughout Maryland, Washington, DC, and Northern Virginia, including kitchen remodeling, bathroom remodeling, basement remodeling and refinishing, garage remodeling and conversion, and more.\nA Wentworth home addition will undoubtedly enhance the function and market value of your home, but we will never sacrifice the home's architectural scale or historical charm to do so. A truly spectacular and cost-effective home addition, whether it's a bathroom or bedroom addition, is one that is sympathetic to the home's existing architectural style and period. We are quite familiar with the DC area architecture and can seamlessly integrate any kind of addition to your historical style home.\nIf you love your DMV-area home but need a new layout, a reconfiguration could be the solution for you. Let our remodeling professionals evaluate your space and take on the challenge of reconfiguring your current home's floor plan to a more luxurious, spacious design. A thoughtfully planned reconfiguration can enhance your home's function, aesthetics, and market value without the cost and stress of an addition.\nYour home should be a place of comfort and luxury, one that reflects your personality and lifestyle. Whether it's as simple as a unique door handle, or as complicated as a beautifully executed balcony off your master bedroom suite, Wentworth's custom design services can make your house a home.\nLooking for interior design services in the Maryland, Washington, DC, and Virginia area? You've come to the right place\u2014Wentworth can help make your dream home a reality! We love remodeling homes, and as designers and architects, we know that a home remodeling project is not complete unless we consider the design as a whole. A project is more than just creative reconfiguration of interior space or quality construction. That's why we offer interior design services along with our architecture and construction services.\nIf your home has minimal curb appeal, you may want to consider modest front fa\u00e7ade improvements\u2014a beautiful home can make a big statement! A good fa\u00e7ade presentation is critical to a home's value and your own personal enjoyment. From a fresh coat of paint to a well-groomed front sidewalk, small enhancements can improve both resale value and personal pride.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzyqqy b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzyqqy
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+{"text":"At Alpenglow Acupuncture, we create an individualized fertility treatment plan to help guide you from where you are to where you want to be. We work with you wherever you are on your fertility journey, from just starting out to support through an IVF cycle, and anywhere in between. Our aim is to get you into your best health possible so that you can create and sustain a healthy pregnancy.\nYour comprehensive treatment plan may include acupuncture, moxibustion, cupping and herbal or nutritional supplements, as well as lifestyle recommendations and mind-body medicine.\nA 40 year old nursing administrator with PCOS who had irregular cycles once she went off the pill. After helping to regulate her cycles and reduce stress, she got pregnant naturally.\nA 34 year old opera singer who had been a regular patient for years asked us for help in getting pregnant. With a history of blood clots, it was uncertain if she could keep and maintain a pregnancy safely. With concurrent care of a specialized OB\/GYN, she is now proud mama to a beautiful baby girl.\nA 33 year old nurse and midwife student with recurrent early miscarriages and unexplained infertility was about to start fertility treatments when she finally conceived and held the pregnancy.\nWe would be honored to be a part of your success story.\nHave more questions or want to schedule over the phone?","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Our Unplugged Appalachian Trail tee is perfect for those who value unplugging from daily life and connecting with nature. 'Appalachian Trail, George-Maine' is printed beneath the design. Printed on a soft, 100% ring-spun cotton Comfort Colors t-shirt. Available in Berry and Blue Spruce.\nThis is a repeat purchase. Bought the spruce shirt first time around and got so many comments on it that I had to get the berry colored one and a second spruce shirt. The colors stand out from the crowd and match the location on the shirts very well.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"CHICAGO (AP) - Gov. J.B. Pritzker has launched an online calculator that he says will let Illinoisans know how his proposed graduated income tax will affect their families.\nPritzker last week rolled out his plan to end Illinois' flat-tax, now set at 4.95 percent, and join 35 other states with scaled-up rates for higher incomes. Pritzker's proposed taxes would start at 4.75 percent for earnings up to $10,000 and levy a top rate of 7.95 percent on $1 million or more.\nOn Tuesday, Pritzker unveiled what his office calls a \"Fair Tax Calculator\" that he says would let citizens input their information to see how much they would pay under the new plan compared to the current tax structure.\nPritzker says Illinois' current tax system is unfair to the middle class. Republicans and some business leaders don't support the proposal.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Patio Covers Albuquerque Nm \u2013 If you have got all of your thoughts organized and prepared to go, you are going to be prepared when Spring comes together to set your terrace redisigns into motion in order for your terrace will be prepared by Summer. Hope it will provide you with a few thoughts of amazing brick patio designs. Thus, you won't be a lack of thoughts. There are many different backyard patio suggestions to take into account and a great deal of these share in common similarities like a seamless transition between the indoor and outdoor spaces.\nPossessing a little garden in your backyard where you can visit meditate. The backyard has a beautiful layout. Should you would like to get drawn into an attractive backyard, think about setting a freestanding deck system on your favourite spot. Even whenever you have a little backyard there's still lots of flexibility in regards to layout and organization. Even a little backyard can be a fantastic place to continue especially during sunny afternoons. The backyard is just neat and lovely. Upgrading your garden using a decorative concrete patio is similarly an investment that will offer many years of pleasure when enhancing the overall look of your landscape.\nIt is possible to utilize some little area on your outdoor area to be a patio. Whatever a terrace space means to you, there are a number of approaches to create one that satisfies your needs. When it's a larger patio area, you might want to lease a power tamper. The furniture you choose to use in your terrace is going to be a deciding factor in making your terrace a exceptional location. While purchasing cheap patio furniture may seem attractive, quality pieces can help you save money in the very long run. You may observe the way the different types of terrace furniture and floor can interact to supply you with the ambiance that you want to make.\nConsider the space you have got for your terrace with your financial plan. Dig out the field that you have to place your patio. Just because you have got a little patio doesn't mean that you can not make it a wonderful place to hang outside. Concrete patios could prove to be shallow ponds if they aren't well planned or poured correctly. Additionally they have the edge when it comes to durability and very low maintenance. Some people even end up designing octagonal patios. Most people think using a terrace in your residence is only for the rich people, because they believe they are costly.\nYour terrace is an extension of your home and ought to flow well with your home's style. Patios are a really relaxing place to unwind after a lengthy day in addition to simply delight in the wonderful outdoors. A well-designed patio are not merely likely to add extra living space for your residence, but also increase its resale value. You might want to create an oval terrace, or perhaps a square one. Discover more about what makes a good terrace about the paver patio webpage!\nPatios are definitely the most normal type of outdoor living area as they're flat with the floor and simple to install. A terrace with a distinctive layout shape can be made to enhance the excellent thing about the lawn and house and finally add value for your own residence. Ever since your patio will supply the basis for your outdoor living area, it has to be lasting, well-constructed and appealing. The best way to enhance your garden patio would be to provide a roof or some type of covered construction. The oft-overlooked backyard terrace is the ideal ways to showcase your home's exterior, and place your distinctive style touch to good use.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"The US FDA has warned people not to use a $30 DIY epinephrine delivery device developed after Mylan increased the price of the Epipen.\nThe latest pricing scandal to hit the pharmaceutical industry surrounds the life-saving allergy drug-device product EpiPen. The drugmaker has hiked the price up 17 times since 2007, a total of 548%, and a two-pack of EpiPens now cost US consumers over $600 (\u20ac540).\nAmid accusations of patient extortion and corporate greed, Mylan CEO Heather Bresch defended her company's decision yesterday\u200b during a questioning by members of the US House Oversight and Government Reform Committee, saying after all costs are incurred Mylan's profit on the device sits at around $50 per pen.\nBut a group of pharma hackers known as 'The Four Thieves Vinegar Collective' say they have made an epinephrine autoinjector costing just over $30 and in a blogpost are encouraging patients in need of this life-saving drug to construct the delivery device themselves.\nThe so-called 'Epi-Pencil' consists of three parts: an Owen Mumford non-fixed needle autoinjector, a 1cc\/ml sterile syringe and a BD PrecisionGlide Single-Use Hypodermic Needle, all available from online suppliers.\nCombined with a vial of prescription epinephrine \u2013 costing around $5 \u2013 Michael Laufer, chief spokesman for the collective, demonstrates how to construct and administer a dose within minutes.\n\"EpiPens save lives every day, but only for those who can afford them,\"\u200b he said in his blogpost.\nThe Collective also boasts instructions for patients to make their own Daraprim (pyrimethamine), the toxoplasmosis drug which made headlines last year\u200b when former Turing Pharmaceuticals Martin Shkreli hiked the price up from $13.50 to $750 a tablet.\nHowever, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) did not agree, and told in-Pharmatechnologist such DIY medical devices put patients at risk.\n\"\u200bIt's essential to remember that epinephrine auto-injectors are life-saving products, and it is critical that they are made to a high standard of quality so patients can rely on them to work safely and effectively,\"\u200b Agency spokesman Kristofer Baumgartner said.\nLast month\u200b, FDA commissioner Robert Califf received a letter from the US Committee on Energy and Commerce citing its concerns about the lack of generic competition in the epinephrine auto-injector space.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
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+{"text":"I attended a worship service this morning at St. Charles Avenue Presbyterian Church. The sermon was on Colossians 1:15-20 entitled \"The Colossal Christ.\" What struck me more than the sermon was this excerpt on the cover. I hope it gets you thinking, asking questions, and praying.\nAccept no substitutes. Kneel down and cry out the real thing. You gonna pray, pray. None of this namby-pamby, decently and in order, maybe God answers maybe God doesn't, God answers in God's own good time, God always answers, it's just that sometimes the answer is no, God doesn't give you what you want but what you need, this frozen-chosen, politically affirming, no hackles raising stuff.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"A new study shows the powerful effect of animal mascots\u2014 especially when people believe the animals are sad.\nRemember how Smokey the Bear explained that only you could prevent forest fires? It turns out he wasn't just imparting sage advice to America's youth; he was also tapping into an influential part of psychology\u2014enough to affect our behavior.\nKent Messer, a behavioral economist at the University of Delaware, was interested in studying the effectiveness of what he calls \"nudges\"\u2014nonfinancial incentives that can sway people to choose better options for the environment.\nHe decided to research if mascots like Smokey are an effective way to change behaviors when it comes to pollution.\nFor the experiment, Messer teamed up with environmental organization Rare, which uses mascots in several of its campaigns. He ran a simulation on his undergraduate students, who played a game in which they were the owners of a factory near a stream.\njacob fooks, Kent Messer, Mascots, Rare.org, Smokey the Bear, YoUDee. Bookmark.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Located on the Parkwood Institute Campus, the Mental Health Care Building specializes in providing excellent mental health services. The new five-story building includes light-filled rooms, private patient bedrooms, as well as healing, therapeutic and research spaces. It is also surrounded by large green common areas where patients, employees and members of the community can interact.\nEXP was part of the team responsible for ensuring due diligence for the original site selection and design as required under the Infrastructure Ontario (IO) program. Heavy column loads and an impressive number of access devices such as elevators were among the major design challenges. EXP provided geo-structural analysis using Finite Element Modeling to fine-tune the foundation-soil interaction design, thereby producing a feasible and economical foundation design for the hospital.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"By default the feature is turned off. If enabled, the change causes regular concurrent garbage collection cycles at large intervals during application inactivity. This may cause very minor throughput regressions due to unexpected garbage collections.\nIntroduce controls for a periodic garbage collection and optional system idle detection to allow giving back of unused memory for the G1 garbage collector for JEP JDK-8204089 Promptly Return Unused Committed Memory from G1.\nAt the moment G1 will never automatically gives back Java heap memory to the operating system if the application is inactive.\nThis CSR introduces control options for periodic concurrent garbage collections. I.e. when and how these periodic garbage collections to reclaim memory should occur.\nThis includes the option G1PeriodicGCInterval to determine the polling interval, G1PeriodicGCSystemLoadThreshold to optionally take system load into account, and G1PeriodicGCInvokesConcurrent to determine the type of garbage collection to occur.\nThis set of options has been found appropriate for this change after discussion on the hotspot-gc-dev mailing list, most recently in the thread at http:\/\/mail.openjdk.java.net\/pipermail\/hotspot-gc-dev\/2018-September\/023197.html.\nAlternatives are discussed in the associated JEP-JDK-8204089: Promptly Return Unused Committed Memory from G1. More, earlier discussion links are available in the comments section of that issue.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"For many decades, scientists and researchers have been monitoring possible sources of alien communication. They have also been sending messages, from Earth, containing details about our planet and location. While seemingly improbable right now, these scientists have dedicated their life to such work for a reason. And, if they succeed, we're going to need to be fearless in our exploration of all that this could mean for human beings.\nThe Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence (SETI) scheme is a project that was first launched in the seventies. It was set up and sponsored by NASA. The experts working on this project have, for a long time, been sending messages from Earth, in the hopes that they will be intercepted by lifeforms intelligent enough to interpret them.\nThe problem is that some of the most respected astrophysicists in the world (Professor Stephen Hawking included) are very worried about what this might entail. They believe that the project is fraught with risk, because it could encourage a meeting with a civilisation far in advance of our own. And, there is simply no way to know whether it would be friendly.\nFor neuropsychologist Gabriel de la Torre, the social and ethical consequences of such an event are of great importance. His work explores the moral implications of choosing to communicate with an alien lifeform, on behalf of a whole world full of people. Torre actually believes that human beings are not ready to meet extra-terrestrials. According to this specialist, we just don't have the knowledge and awareness to handle such a huge event.\nA study published in the scientific journal, Acta Astronautica, investigates the psycho-educational implications of communication with alien life. This work is a little more complex than it first sounds, because the researchers have been discussing the potential for a new kind of cosmic consciousness. They believe that, in many ways, religion is holding human beings back from being fully prepared to meet extra-terrestrial life.\nIn other words, people are too quick to use conventional concepts of morality as a way to judge the appropriateness of alien contact. Is it useful, for example, that we are so prone to thinking of alien life as either 'good' or 'bad,' when these are concepts that we have created for ourselves? Do they have any place in the discourse about extra-terrestrial contact or are they holding us back from the bigger picture?\nOnly time will tell whether these very human issues will hurt or harm our quest to discover alien life. Or, whether alien life will be so far advanced that contact will be very different to the way we have imagined it, countless times, in science fiction novels and movies.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
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+{"text":"Update on one of my dreams! Remember when I told you about my dreams for 2015 how I wanted to make a road trip? In September I finally made one! \ud83d\ude00 We spent a week in France, where we stayed three days in Arles and four days in the Ard\u00e8che region. Being able to drive around in a car made our trip so much easier!\nMaking a road trip allows you to pass through places and see things you would otherwise not have seen. While heading to Arles we came across an \"aire\" which had a museum and a watchtower. This view over the highway was our reward for taking a rest there.\nWe started our trip with our headquarters in Arles. Arles is a tiny city with a nice historical centre. In one day you've seen all of the most important monuments, but it's an awesome base to visit the region.\nThe second day of our trip (well, if you don't count the full day of driving to Arles) we headed to the Camargue region, where we passed the day mountainbiking and looking for flamingos.\nThen it was time to change bases and go to Vallon Pont d'Arc, a small, but highly popular spot for campers in the Ard\u00e8che region. I had never heard of, but apparently my grandparents had had their holidays there when they were 30 or so. :p Again this was a perfect base to travel around by car. On our way to Vallon Pont d'Arc we made a detour past the Pont du Gard.\nArriving in Vallon Pont d'Arc we had to look for a camping. The one we had found had suffered from a storm the week before so they couldn't accept tents. We then visited at least ten campings but they were all closed. Apparently most campings are open until half September\u2026 We found one that is the whole year open where we could place our tent with view on the river.\nOn our first day in Vallon Pont d'Arc we went to Aven d'Orgnac and the Bois de Pa\u00efolive. The Aven d'Orgnac is a wonderful cave. The hour-long tour left a great impression on us!\nCloseby the cave there was a forest, the Bois de Pa\u00efolive, with three different trails where we got amazing views.\nWhile Arles is a city you can get to by train, Vallon Pont d'Arc is not that easy. There is no train station so you have to take a train to somewhere closeby and then take a bus. Once you're there it's almost impossible to do anything without a car (according to my experiences): the campings are not that close to the city centre, the city centre is tiny (but very pleasant!) and the only thing you can do around there is kayaking. The kayaking centres are all not that far from the city centre, but to go there by foot it's a bit too far. It might be possible to take a bus, but I didn't pay attention to that. The largest touristic attraction of the city is the Pont d'Arc. Best way to get the best view? By car, of course. Since we had a car we went kayaking in Vallon Pont d'Arc and we visitied the Pont d'Arc.\nOn our last day we visited the Cascade du Ray Pic, a waterfall. It was actually quite a disappointment because we had driven really far and all we got to see was this. It was certainly praised more in the travel books than it should have.\nWe spent our last evening in a restaurant which has the best ice cream desserts! Imagine a cheesecake made with cheesecake ice cream, a coconut bottom and a passion fruit collis. It's even better than it sounds!\nIt took a while to write my road trip adventures down, but finally here they are! Have you ever made a road trip?","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"According to independent consumer surveys of satellite TV providers and cable companies in Kingsville, MO, DIRECTV has earned the title of best TV service provider in Kingsville.\nAre you wondering which of the satellite TV or cable companies in Kingsville, MO is considered to be the best TV service provider? Using data from independent consumer surveys can help you find and compare cable companies and other paid television services available in your area. The results are in, and the data shows that DIRECTV is the most highly rated company in Kingsville.\nWhen you're trying to find the best cable company in Kingsville, MO, you can't just look at prices. Channel selection, special features, and other offerings are also important factors to consider when comparing TV packages in Kingsville. While most providers offer the same choice of major networks regardless of your location, there is often a big difference in which smaller channels are offered from city to city. This is why it's important to pay attention to which channels are available in your area so you're sure to catch all of your favorite shows. Not only can we help you find the highest rated providers available in Kingsville\u2014we also give you the information you need to compare different packages, providers, and features. Love sports? Get a premium package with all the sports channels and you'll never have to miss another or Kansas City Chiefs game again.\nThe perfect TV provider is only a click away thanks when you rely on CableTV.com's ratings and recommendations. That's because we take important factors like customer service and reliability into account when making recommendations on the best cable company in Kingsville, MO. This comprehensive analysis helps ensure that you'll be happy with the service you choose.\nDid you know that out of all the Internet service providers available in Kingsville, MO, CenturyLink Internet is the best option?There are many things to consider when committing to an Internet company. One of the most important factors to consider is connection speed. Overall rankings of Internet companies include data about speed\u2014but sometimes Internet speeds change from city to city, so it is important to check the listed speeds against the average speed in Missouri: 37 Mbps. When you're evaluating Internet providers in Kingsville, MO, be sure that your chosen provider offers a fast connection speed in your area.\nTV and Internet bundles can help you keep your money in the bank. In fact, simply purchasing your cable TV package and Internet service from the same provider can save you $100 or more each year. CableTV.com offers tons of information on Internet and TV bundles available in Kingsville, so you're sure to find a great deal.\nCableTV.com is a comprehensive resource for information on TV providers across the nation. We help you determine which Kingsville, MO TV providers are best, which gets you one step closer to finding the perfect TV service for your household. So use CableTV.com as your trusted source for information on both TV and Internet services in Kingsville.\nSorry, no stores were found near zip code 64061 for the provider selected.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"I have just spent four full-on but rewarding days at Amanda Hyatt's Watercolour Magic workshop. Amanda's passion and intensity were infectious and everybody who attended the workshop came away enthused and inspired by her teaching. Amanda describes her style as tonal impressionism. She emphasises the fundamentals of producing a successful painting through her Five Steps to Watercolour method.\nIf you weren't fortunate enough to attend one of Amanda Hyatt's workshop, you can watch Amanda Hyatt's videos.\nWhat a treat \u2013 a four day watercolour workshop with Amanda Hyatt!\nAmanda was a Maths teacher before she became an artist. She shared with us her clear and logical five step approach to watercolour painting. Her style is impressionistic \u2013 not a photographic representation \u2013 but an impression of a scene. Amanda produces paintings remarkably quickly - 45-60 minutes each. The speed of execution helps to generate the spark of life in the pictures.\nWe were a diverse bunch \u2013 ranging from professional artists to experienced and enthusiastic amateurs. Amanda draws the best out of her students, from beginners to artists who have covered many brush miles. She is generous in explaining the key aspects of each picture and incisive in pinpointing improvements.\nOur subjects varied from landscapes, to boats, to figures and buildings. When we had finished each one our efforts were displayed on the wall together and critiqued. This was invaluable \u2013 as we learned not only about our own pictures but also those of others.\nAmanda encouraged us all to paint in a free style \u2013 to express ourselves as artists.\nAt the end of the workshop she asked each of us which one technique we had learned. For me it was to leave the sky blank in a picture \u2013 meaning much more white space.\nThis was my second workshop with Amanda, both have been immensely enjoyable.\nIf you get the chance to do a workshop with her, I would encourage you to do so.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Next message: nbecker_at_[hidden]: \"Re: [boost] Re: std::complex design (Was: N-Dimensional array library submission...)\"\nPrevious message: Peter Dimov: \"Re: [boost] Signals review\"\nIn reply to: brianjparker: \"Re: More on auto\"\nNext in thread: David Abrahams: \"Re: [boost] Re: More on auto\"\nReply: David Abrahams: \"Re: [boost] Re: More on auto\"\n> > > Don't you think it does improves safety a lot?\n> reasons as well as type safety improvements.\nIt's simple. When the deduced type is important, use a function template.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"For all of you who have no idea about how it feels to be able to breathe under water, we offer a Try Dive in the pool every week. Every Wednesday and Saturday at 11:00am we have a Try Dive in our heated pool in the hotel MARITIM**** in Puerto de la Cruz in Tenerife. Please make reservations by phone or visit us in our office.\nDrop by and give scuba diving a try, if you sign up for a PADI Open Water Diver course after the Try Dive we will count the participation fee for 100% towards the course fees.\nFor guests of the hotel Maritim the try dive is free!\nIf you like you may dive directly into the ocean or participate in a Discover Scuba Diving after a Try Dive in the pool. You will discover the ocean safely hand in hand with one of our experienced instructors.\nThe program includes full rental of equipment, insurance, skill practise and a dive in the ocean to a depth of maximum 12 meters.\nKids from the age of 8 years may start their scuba adventure in a PADI Bubblemaker in our heated pool.\nFrom the age of 10 years children may participate in scuba programs into the ocean. The PADI Junior Open Water Diver course is a full Open Water course with some limitations designed for the safety of kids.\nBeginner from 15 years to any age may learn howto scuba dive in a PADI Open Water Diver course. Within a minimum of 3 days you will learn scuba diving. Prerequisite is health and fitnes. Age is not important, our oldest Open Water student has been 80 years of age!","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzabiyg b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzabiyg
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--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"The Agency for Health Care Administration (AHCA) has just released sample templates for your use in submitting your emergency power plans to the local emergency operations office. You may access the sample templates that have been posted on AHCA's website through the links provided below. As a reminder, your emergency environmental control plan must be submitted to your local Emergency Operations Center (EOC) for review and approval by Wednesday, April 25 (30 days after the effective date of the rule).\nLeadingAge Florida will continue to monitor the implementation of the rules and keep you updated regarding available information. For questions, please contact Susan Langston, Vice President of Advocacy, via email or phone at (850) 671-3700.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"(c) 1977 by the British Broadcasting Corporation. Series created by Terry Nation. This is a complete dialogue transcript for research purposes and is not for sale under any circumstances Format (c) 1993 by Ruth Hanson and Micky DuPree.\nThe surface of an unnamed planet. A forest path lead to a clearing. In the center of the clearing is a laboratory complex.\nSAYMON (V.O.) They must come. They must. They must. They must come. They must. (Interior of the laboratory complex). They must. They must. They must come. They must come. (Another room in the same lab. A power unit is nearly exhausted) They must. (Another room. A male figure is seated on a lounge chair). They must. They must come to us. They must come. (The same room from another angle. A second figure, female, is seated on another lounge chair.) They must. They must. They must come. They must. They must. (Another room in the same complex. A shrunken humanoid form is suspended in a life support tank.) They must come to us. They must come. They must.\nFlight deck of the Liberator. Jenna presses intercom switch.\nJENNA Jenna. Sorry to wake you, but I think you should get down here.\nJENNA Our speed is increasing.\nBLAKE (In his cabin, lying on cot.) Can't you compensate?\nJENNA (V.O) It's not an external influence, it's us. The primary drive is accelerating.\nInterior of hold three. Door opens, Cally enters. She is armed, carrying a rectangular device and a tool pouch. She moves to access duct, attaches the device to the panel and presses the activator. The timer activates. She exits the hold.\nFlight deck of the Liberator. Blake enters from the passageway, buttoning his shirt.\nJENNA Speed standard by three and building.\nJENNA If it continues like this it will be off the scale in about twelve minutes. Zen says the automatic repair service should have it under control by then though. Seems to be a malfunction in the PN overrides.\nBLAKE Zen, estimated repair time.\nZEN Eleven point three zero two minutes.\nBLAKE Whew! That's cutting it a bit fine. What caused the malfunction?\nZEN The malfunction was deliberately induced.\nAn intersection of passageways aboard the Liberator. Cally moves down the passageway. From an intersecting passage Vila enters.\nVILA Cally. (Waits) Cally, what do you think of the outfit.\nCally stops, pauses and turns. She advances on Vila.\nShe strikes him on the head with the tool pouch.\nJENNA Speed standard by four and building.\nBLAKE (Depresses intercom switch) Avon.\nTeleport area. Avon is working over an equipment console.\nBLAKE (V.O.) I need you on the flight deck.\nBLAKE Zen, how are the repairs going?\nZEN They are proceeding on schedule.\nBLAKE What caused the malfunction? (Pause) Well?\nZEN Involvement is not permitted.\nBLAKE If the ship's blown up, lofty disinterest won't save you.\nJENNA Speed standard by five and building.\nBLAKE Forward detectors on maximum. Full scan. Abort course programs. Key all navigation systems to anticipate potential collisions and neutralize.\nAVON (Still in teleport area) All right!\nBLAKE (V.O.) If it was all right, I wouldn't need you here.\nCally enters teleport area. Watches Avon from entry. She moves forward when he notices her presence.\nAVON Our leader seems a bit peaked.\nCALLY What are you doing?\nAVON A little private research.\nCALLY (Moves to stand next to him) Why?\nAVON All knowledge is valuable.\nCALLY (Touches her temple as if listening) Which are the forward detector links?\nAVON What? (Pause) Oh, uh (Pause) Those two there. Why do you want to know that?\nCALLY I'm interested in your work.\nAVON (Pause) Yes. (Pause) Well, I suppose I'd better go and see what it is that Blake wants.\nAvon exits. Cally moves to detector comp and unrolls tool pouch.\nAVON What exactly are you accusing me of?\nBLAKE I'm asking if your researches have included the PN overrides.\nJENNA Speed standard by six and rising.\nZEN There is a partial malfunction on the forward detectors.\nIn the teleport area, Cally continues to tamper with the detector comp. It shorts out, burning her hand.\nZEN Forward detectors are now dysfunctional. Navigation computers have switched to theoretical projections.\nBLAKE Now we're blind as well.\nBLAKE (To Jenna as he follows Avon) Warn Gan and Vila. Blake and Avon exit.\nJENNA (Depresses intercom switch) Gan.\nGAN Yes, Jenna. What is it.\nTeleport area of the Liberator. Avon and Blake enter and stop. Cally is facing them, weapon in hand.\nCALLY I should regret the necessity to kill you.\nBLAKE Why are you doing this, Cally.\nSAYMON (V.O.) They must come.\nCALLY (Advances on Blake and Avon) Move back to the flight deck.\nAVON Look at the burns on her hand.\nBLAKE She must be in agony.\nCALLY (Continues to advance) I will kill you if you do not obey.\nFlight deck of the Liberator. Blake and Avon enter, Cally is not immediately visible behind them.\nJENNA Speed standard by seven. Speed seems to be increasing by (breaks off when she catches sight of Cally). So it was you.\nCALLY (Steps forward and motions Jenna away from flight controls. Jenna hesitates) Must you invite death?\nJENNA (Joins Blake. Cally moves to the console and begins altering settings) Navigation computers can't cope with a change of course. We're running blind.\nCALLY (Gan enters stealthily from other passageway). Don't move.\nBLAKE Jenna's right, Cally. This ship's out of control. We're as good as dead now. (Pause) Zen, what's our speed?\nZEN Standard by eight point six five.\nAVON (Steps forward) If you're trying to steal the ship, there are other ways.\nJENNA You're not Cally, are you.\nCally makes a move as if to shoot Jenna. Gan yells and grabs her hand. Cally cries out in pain and struggles with the crew, then blacks out.\nSAYMON (V.O.) They must come to us. They must. They must. They must come. (Interior of the lab.) They must come to us. They must. They must. They must come to us. They must. They must. They must come to us. They must come.\nFlight deck of the Liberator. Avon and Jenna are at the flight controls. Blake and Gan are standing nearby. Cally is lying on the deck. She regains consciousness and attacks Blake. Gan restrains her and she collapses again. He holds her.\nJENNA (Moves from controls and slaps Cally). Whoever you are, it's over.\nCALLY (V.O. telepathically) Thank you, Jenna.\nBLAKE (To Gan) Better keep her sedated.\nAVON And locked up or dumped.\nJENNA You should never have brought her on the ship.\nAVON (To Vila as he enters) And where have you been hiding?\nVILA All I said was what do you think of the outfit.\nZEN Repair monitors report explosive device attached to primary power channel.\nZEN Hold three, access duct seven.\nBLAKE Can the automatics neutralize it?\nZEN There is no damage.\nAVON Computer logic. Until the bomb explodes there is nothing for the repair system to repair. Zen, can you reprogram the automatics?\nZEN Preemptive interference in crew activity is forbidden.\nAVON (Moves to follow him) You made this mess.\nJENNA We're all in it, Avon.\nAVON (Over his shoulder from the passageway) Yes, aren't we.\nInterior of hold three. The device attached to the access duct continues to tick.\nJENNA (To Gan as he carries Cally out) You better lock her in.\nJENNA (To Vila) Anything on the detector scanners?\nJENNA Speed's up to standard by ten. Drive repairs, how long?\nZEN One point two five minutes.\nVILA Can you stop us then?\nJENNA If we don't hit something first. Forward detectors?\nZEN Repair monitors are assessing the damage.\nVILA A bomb was all we needed.\nBlake runs down passageway and skids to a halt before the door to hold three. He enters hold and moves to examine the device. Avon enters behind him.\nAVON Be careful of that thing. If the light goes out you've got about three seconds. (Blake touches the device, the light goes out.) Look out. (He lunges at Blake and pushes him out of the way. The bomb detonates).\nZEN Major disruption of primary power channel. All systems switched to auxiliary power. All drive units are dysfunctional.\nThe interior of hold 3. Blake and Avon are still on the floor.\nBLAKE Thank you. (Pause) Why?\nAVON Automatic reaction. I'm as surprised as you are.\nBlake and Avon get up from floor. Blake exits, Avon stays and examines damage. Surface of the planet. Then the interior of the laboratory complex.\nSAYMON We must make ready. We must make ready. Ready. Ready. Ready. (The two figures rise and move into another room.) They approach, drawing closer. Closer. Closer. Closer. Closer. We must make ready. We must make ready.\nOn the flight deck of the Liberator.\nJENNA It wasn't what she was doing. It was the way she was. If you looked into her eyes it wasn't her looking back at you.\nGAN Avon says that's because she's an alien.\nVILA Everyone's an alien to him.\nBLAKE He's certainly more at home with machines.\nZEN The navigation computers have completed a theoretical projection of Liberator's position.\nZEN This star system is largely uncharted.\nVILA Oh, that's marvelous. We're not sure where we are, but if they were sure they wouldn't know where it was anyway.\nZEN Repairs to the primary power channel are complete. All drive units are now fully functional.\nBLAKE Reduce speed to standard by point five.\nJENNA Reverse primaries. Speed now standard by point five.\nBLAKE Put up navigation projection.\nMain viewscreen shows a series of six circles.\nZEN Circles indicate projected planets. Positions are unconfirmed.\nBLAKE Well, put up our estimated position. (An additional circle is added to main viewscreen close to one of the existing circles) That's too close to something we can't see.\nJENNA And we're not sure is there.\nBLAKE What about the detectors?\nZEN Partial malfunction is still not traced. Repair monitors are in phase two reassessment.\nBLAKE Gan, see if there's anything you can do to help Avon. Tell him we need those detectors now.\nZEN Hull sensors indicate a major gravitational field within Liberator's ambit.\nBLAKE Jenna, compensate the gravitational drift.\nJENNA Field strength's only three point five. It must be something else.\nZEN Limited range forward vision is available should you require it.\nVILA Why couldn't you tell us that before.\nBLAKE Put up forward vision.\nMain viewscreen shows strands of white in the path of the Liberator. Density of fibers increases.\nBLAKE Strands like that? Look there's more of it.\nJENNA It's rubbing across the hull.\nVILA And it's getting thicker.\nJENNA It's like a spider's web.\nJENNA That's what's pulling our speed down.\nBLAKE Increase power to compensate.\nJENNA It's getting worse all the time.\nBLAKE If there is a planet there we should be close enough to get signals now. Vila, go and see how Cally is, will you.\nVILA It brought my head out in lumps.\nBLAKE Get a move on.\nVILA Right, I'm going. (Leaves flight deck).\nAVON (Examining a portion of the detector equipment). Nothing wrong with that.\nGAN What are you trying to do?\nAVON Bypass the detector comp and use another of the systems to receive the signal.\nGAN Can it be done?\nAVON Of course. It's just a matter of finding the link. Some of this technology is a little more advance to that which I'm used. I'm having to guess at some of it.\nGAN What about the automatic repair system.\nAVON Oh, it'll do the job. Eventually. It's very methodical. (Begins linking wires to Liberator systems). It starts at the beginning and it works its way through. It's slow. You should appreciate that problem. (Throws a switch. Circuit boards short and burn.) No, that wasn't the one.\nGAN It'll take days to repair that.\nAVON Yes, isn't it. (Disconnects a wire) As a matter of fact it is. We could make a fortune with it if it wasn't for Blake.\nAVON There's always a market for technology like this.\nGAN I don't think Blake would agree to that.\nVILA It's all right. She doesn't remember a thing.\nCALLY How did I burn my hand?\nZEN Sensor indicate increasing density of silica based organic material adhering to the hull.\nBLAKE Hmmm, what about them?\nVILA They're used for trapping food.\nThe exterior of the Liberator, moving through the increasingly dense strands.\nCALLY I've tried all recognized systems but there is nothing. No transmissions of any kind.\nBLAKE We'll move out. Go back the way we came.\nJENNA Without detectors? Blind backtracking is a good way to run into pursuit ships.\nBLAKE We've no choice. If we get clear then we can outrun them if necessary.\nZEN Sensors register increasing gravitational influence. Field strength now eight point six.\nBLAKE We're moving closer into the planet. (He moves to the navigation position) Vila, I want a new course. Locate the center of that gravitational field. I want an attitude that takes us directly away from it.\nBLAKE Jenna, stand by to bring her round. (Pause) How much reserve power is there? Jenna. (Jenna is immobile, her hand extended toward the controls, eyes unfocused. Cally moves down to join Blake.) Jenna? What's wrong?\nCALLY What is the matter with her?\nBLAKE I don't know. Vila, give me a hand. We'll take her to her quarters.\nSAYMON (V.O. speaking through Jenna) We have waited for your coming for many years. Welcome. It pleases us that you are here.\nSAYMON We will meet shortly and then we shall answer all your questions. For now, it is only important that you understand the danger of your situation.\nSAYMON Your ship is trapped. You cannot free yourselves.\nBLAKE We can free ourselves at any time we wish. You underestimate the power of our ship.\nSAYMON On the contrary. You overestimate it. We have examined your ship most carefully through our daughter Cally. You would require to sustain your maximum power for one hundred and sixty hours to break out of orbit. Your energy cells would be exhausted in less than one hundred. Gravitational attraction would draw you back to your present position before your cells would be recharged.\nBLAKE If we are trapped, then by whom?\nSAYMON We do have some influence on your safety in that it is within our power to release you from the web. That we can and will do in return for assistance from you.\nBLAKE What do you want from us?\nSAYMON In a few moments we will transmit a homing signal. It will give you a precise landing position. We will talk again when you have landed.\nCALLY (Touching her temple) It has left her. Blake, that could've been one of the Lost.\nBLAKE Well, don't be mystical Cally. Explain.\nCALLY It is the legend of my people. They were cast out. Unfit to share the soul of Auronar.\nA signal begins broadcasting to the Liberator. Cally moves back to the communications position.\nCALLY Yes, it is a beacon signal.\nBLAKE Get a fix on it.\nVILA Are you going down?\nBLAKE Not if I can help it. I don't like the sound of anything I heard. Let's try to pull her out of here.\nJENNA (Recovered, unaware of passage of time) Ready to go about?\nBLAKE Jenna? Are you all right now?\nJENNA Yes. (Pause) Of course, I am.\nBLAKE Yes. Vila is the course set?\nVILA Uh, on the panel now.\nBLAKE Lock onto it Jenna.\nJENNA She's responding very slowly. Coming round. That's it. Locked onto course.\nBLAKE Right. Give it all we've got. Full thrust.\nJENNA Coming up. Full power.\nJENNA Standard by one half.\nBLAKE Cut in the auxiliaries.\nJENNA That's helped at bit. We're now up to standard by one and one half and building but slowly.\nBLAKE It's time to use the neutron blasters.\nVILA At last. I've been looking forward to this.\nBLAKE Take it easy. It might blow us all up. Se if you can blast a hole through that web. Fire.\nVila attempts to fire. An alarm sounds.\nZEN Neutron flare shield has not been activated.\nBLAKE Activate the neutron flare shield.\nZEN Confirmed. Blasters are cleared for firing.\nVila fires. Main viewscreen shows the blasters clear a hole in the web. it begins to close up again immediately.\nJENNA We're picking up speed.\nBLAKE All right, now keep it going.\nJENNA We're getting drag again. We're slowing down.\nVila fires again with similar result.\nZEN Power banks one and two now exhausted. Energy drain exceeds recharge capacity.\nVILA Every time I blast a hole in it, it just knits up again.\nBLAKE How long can we sustain this rate of power loss, Zen?\nZEN Standard drive plus auxiliaries can be sustained for ninety hours. Each neutronic discharge reduces that capacity by three hours.\nBLAKE How much distance have we covered?\nBLAKE We're not going to make it. All power off.\nCALLY What will you do?\nBLAKE We don't have much choice.\nJENNA We're drifting in again.\nBLAKE Let her go. Cally, get an exact fix on that beacon. Tell Avon and tell him to stand by. I'm going to have to teleport down. Vila, I want an atmosphere and gravity check.\nSurface of the planet. Decimas are wandering through the compound.\nSAYMON There is little time left. They will come to us, but it must be soon. There is little time left. (Interior of the lab. Saymon suspended in his life support tank) They will come to us, but it must be soon. It must be soon. It must be soon. (View of Decimas, outside the lab, pounding on the windows.) Soon. Soon. Soon. Soon. There is little time left. Soon. Soon.\nCALLY (Enters, carrying surface gear) I must come with you.\nCALLY But you can trust me.\nBLAKE I know we can. Whatever's down there can control you. It's already demonstrated that.\nBLAKE It's better that you stay here. (Moves to stand by teleport console. To Avon) If I call for backup get down there fast.\nAVON What if something should happen to you and we can't get you back?\nBLAKE Then all you have to do is get everybody else out of this mess. (Stands within teleportation area. Avon smiles slightly) All right put me down.\nAvon teleports Blake. Cally leaves the teleport area, followed by Gan. On the surface of the planet Blake materializes in a wooded area. There are thick strands of a white substance clinging to the foliage. Light colored round objects are scattered throughout. He starts toward the clearing. From cover a Decima throws a crude spear. It strikes Blake in the hand. He draws his weapon and moves quickly toward the laboratory complex. At the main entrance to the laboratory an unarmed Decima approaches Blake.\nDECIMA Help us. Help us please.\nThe door opens and Novara steps out. He raises his weapon and touches the Decima in the chest with it. The weapon discharges and kills the Decima.\nNOVARA Come inside. There are more of them in the compound.\nBlake and Novara step inside the lab. Geela is waiting just inside.\nGEELA You are hurt. Come, I will treat the wound.\nThey move through to another room. Geela begins cleaning the wound on Blake's hand.\nBLAKE (To Novara) Why did you kill him, he was no threat.\nNOVARA One of them obviously was, but don't worry it was only a Decima.\nGEELA You were lucky. It could have been much worse. We've had groups of more than fifty of them in this area. (Pause) Can you close your hand?\nGEELA Don't be alarmed. It's a simple enzyme culture. Tissue regeneration will take only a few moments.\nNOVARA I'm sorry this happened. The Decimas are becoming a problem. When we have full power again we will reduce their numbers.\nBLAKE He was asking for help.\nGEELA Don't waste your sympathy. They want help to destroy us. Stupid they may be, but they know that our power is diminished. That we are at our most vulnerable. There only hope for a future is to wipe us out.\nNOVARA They've made several full scale assaults on the lab. They can't do too much harm of course. Their weapons are too primitive. But they are a threat. And they will have to be suppressed.\nBLAKE (Examining his healed hand) That is astonishing.\nNOVARA A useful technique for small wounds.\nThey move into an adjoining room.\nBLAKE I've never seen anything like it before.\nNOVARA Our mission has specialized in tissue creation and regenerative processes.\nNOVARA I am Novara and this is my sister Geela.\nGEELA We are happy to see you. We thought your ship would land. How did you come here?\nBLAKE We have a teleportation process.\nNOVARA Fascinating, perhaps you would explain it to us.\nBLAKE I thought you had already examined our ship.\nNOVARA Not all of it.\nBLAKE You used Cally to sabotage us and force us to come here.\nGEELA Would you have come otherwise?\nNOVARA In that case, we apologize.\nBLAKE You communicated with us through another member of my crew.\nNOVARA A simple mental process known to the ancients. We have developed and refined it. It is more reliable than mechanical transmissions.\nBLAKE You said you have a way to free us from the web.\nGEELA That is correct. We created \"the web\" as you call it.\nNOVARA It is a silica based life form. A mutation not unlike fungus. Its spores germinate rapidly and it has enormous tensile strength. It can trap and hold the most powerful ship.\nNOVARA It was a line of research which got out of control.\nBLAKE Then how do I release my ship?\nGEELA We developed a fungicide that can be projected by a beam. It will clear a corridor through the web. You will be able to move freely.\nNOVARA However, that is where the problem lies. The problem is both yours and ours.\nBLAKE And so presumably the reason why you brought us here.\nGEELA Let us show you. Come.\nThey move to another room where a power control unit is operating. You recognize this?\nNOVARA Flutonic power cells. As you can see from the registers one of them is totally exhausted. The other almost so.\nBLAKE And you have no means of recharging them.\nGEELA No, when we have used what remains our life support systems will fail and we will die.\nNOVARA But perhaps more significant from your point of view, we do not have enough power to project the fungicide.\nGEELA We provide clear passage out of orbit.\nBLAKE (Examining the unit) I don't know that we have this type of cell. I dare say we have something that can be adapted.\nOutside the lab, Decimas scream and pound on the windows.\nGeela and Novara move to one side of the lab. Blake moves to the other side of the lab and looks out the door. He sees a circle of Decimas removing their dead comrade. A few moments later, Geela and Novara join him.\nNOVARA The attack was a diversion so they could move their dead.\nGEELA Stupid creatures. Taking of life seems to affect them. Almost as if they had emotions.\nThe Decimas begin to throw rocks at the door.\nNOVARA The changes in them are astonishing. The earlier generations showed no indication of aggression. (Pause) Are you going to contact your ship?\nFlight deck of the Liberator.\nBLAKE (V.O.) Tell Avon I need two fully charged flutonic power cells.\nCALLY I will tell him.\nBLAKE Call me when he is ready to bring them down.\nVILA Ask him what's happening down there.\nCALLY No, he's gone. He didn't sound as if he was in trouble.\nJENNA He'd have found a way of letting us know if he was.\nCALLY But the Lost have great power.\nZEN The detector malfunction has been rectified. Full function on all systems is now available.\nJENNA Run immediate navigation check and pinpoint our position, then a maximum range orbital scan.\nZEN Detectors indicate unidentified craft at extreme range.\nJENNA Put them on the screen.\nJENNA Pursuit ships. Don't they ever give up.\nGAN Zen, are they coming this way?\nZEN If they maintain present course and speed they will pass at a range not exceeding two million spacials.\nJENNA Their detectors'll pick us up at that distance. That's too close.\nCALLY Shall I tell Blake?\nJENNA There's nothing he can do till we're out of the web.\nCALLY But he should be told.\nJENNA If he's bargaining it will weaken his position.\nDecimas are exploring the area immediately outside the laboratory. Inside, Geela is making adjustments to the console.\nGEELA Complete. The beam is now aligned to your ship. When we have full power this control will project a ray that will clear a route through the web. It will take three hours to close in again.\nBLAKE Should be enough time.\nThey move back into the adjoining room.\nBLAKE What was the original purpose of the project?\nNOVARA Genetic engineering. The main aims were to halt the aging process in humans. To find a way to maintain continuous life.\nNOVARA And to create a new species of animal. Creatures that would be able to perform simple menial tasks. Animal machines that cost nothing to produce and little to maintain.\nBLAKE (Laughs). Experiments like that have been banned for centuries.\nGEELA Which is why we had to establish our laboratory on an uninhabited planet.\nBLAKE Were any of these creatures made?\nNOVARA Yes. We engineered an efficient four function animal. Using the same basic genetic form we then increased it to ten functions. The Decimas.\nBLAKE You made the Decimas?\nGEELA The prototypes. They breed naturally, but a mutant strain has become dominant. They seem capable of thought. They exhibit primitive emotions, weaknesses we thought we had eradicated.\nNOVARA They will all have to be eliminated so that we can be certain the mutant strain is destroyed.\nBLAKE They're intelligent, living creatures. You can't just wipe them out.\nGEELA We gave them life. We have the right to take it from them. Please don't concern yourself. They're simply laboratory constructed animals as are we.\nBLAKE You? You are made?\nNOVARA We were genetically engineered, allowed to grow to maturity, then our aging processes were stopped. We have no lives of our own. We are simply flesh and blood creatures operated by our creators.\nSAYMON (V.O. speaking through Geela) (Laughs) You seem confused my friend. We had intended not to meet with you. However, you will be leaving us shortly. No harm can come from your knowing us. Geela will bring you.\nGEELA Come with us, please.\nBlake follows Geela and Novara back through the room and into the lounge area. His communicator chimes.\nAVON One of the flutonic power cells is fully charged. The other will be ready in precisely two minutes.\nBLAKE Get them down here as soon as you can.\nAVON There's something else. The detector banks are now fully functional. They've located the pursuit ships and they're coming this way.\nBLAKE (V.O.) Have everybody standing by. In the laboratory We'll move out as soon as we're both back on board.\nBLAKE (to Geela) I'm sorry.\nThe three climb a few steps and enter a room Blake has not seen before. The room is dominated by a tank containing the shrunken body of a being suspended in fluid and hooked to a life support system.\nSAYMON You must excuse me. I have not spoken with these lips in a long time. My name is Saymon. That is the name by which this body was once known. I am a corporate identity. We exist through this body.\nSAYMON We were from Auron. There were six of us when we set off on this project. Unfortunately our knowledge was not far enough advanced then to eliminate death. But we did possess the power to keep alive our thoughts and ideas. The bodies reverted but the minds lived on.\nBLAKE Cally's people. The Auronar.\nSAYMON Yes. We were from the Auronar but not of them as Cally is.\nBLAKE That's why you were able to control her.\nSAYMON That is why we had to control her. She would not have accepted us freely.\nBLAKE You are the only one of the six that is left?\nSAYMON Mechanical aids sustain this body. Through it all six of us continue to live. Our combined mental powers generate Geela and Novara to carry out all physical operation in our experiments.\nBLAKE (Looks at Novara and Geela) They have no life of their own.\nSAYMON None. If our life support should fail, they would simply wither away. Thanks to you and your energy cells that will not occur.\nBLAKE So that all I have spoken to them about, all they have told me, that was you talking not them.\nBLAKE And did you mean what you said? You're going to destroy the Decimas.\nSAYMON It would have been wiser to have done so before they became so numerous. But to discharge a lethal level of radiation required more power than we had available.\nBLAKE But the cells I'm providing will give you that power?\nBLAKE No. I can't let that happen.\nSAYMON Without that power you cannot escape the web.\nBLAKE Then we must come to a new understanding. You won't get those cells until we do. (In the teleport area of the Liberator) (V.O.) Avon stay on board until you hear from me.\nBLAKE (V.O.) Don't teleport Avon until I say so.\nVILA I just did. (In the laboratory) (V.O.) I put him down about ten seconds ago.\nBLAKE (To Saymon) He'll be in the compound now.\nSAYMON If the Decimas reach him, he'll be in danger. Those power cells must be protected.\nBLAKE I don't give a damn about your power cells. There's a friend of mine out there.\nHe turns and runs for the main entrance of the complex. Geela and Novara intercept him near the exit. NOVARA\/GEELA: (Simultaneously) We will help.\nOutside the entrance to the lab, the three survey the compound.\nBLAKE (To Geela) You take that side. (To Novara) You take that side. And I'll go straight on.\nThe separate. Novara moves through the area followed by Decimas. Geela moves in the opposite direction also followed by Decimas. Blake moves toward the area where he first teleported down searching for Avon.\nAVON (From behind Blake) I've been looking for you. What's going on?\nBLAKE Let's get under cover first. (They move behind some undergrowth and crouch down) Got the cells?\nAVON (Indicating a box in his hand) What do you think these are, field rations?\nBLAKE Listen, these's a problem. If we let them have those, they'll use them to wipe out an entire race of creatures, people here.\nAVON If it concerns you, don't give them the cells.\nBLAKE No, there's more. They've got a carrier beam which projects a fungicide which'll clear a way through the web for us. It doesn't work without this power.\nAVON Ah well, if it's between the creatures and us there's no argument. Even your irrational conscience should be able to cope with that. (Pause) What do you want to do?\nBLAKE Hold off long enough to make a deal.\nAVON You're going to have to be quick, Blake. Those pursuit ships are coming this way.\nBLAKE I'll hide these cells. (Conceals power cells in the undergrowth). They can have them when they agree to our terms.\nAVON What ARE our terms?\nBLAKE They can use lethal radiation to kill everything out here. If they allow us to destroy the radiation equipment at least the Decimas will have some form of chance.\nAVON Why should they agree?\nBLAKE They need the power. They can't survive without it.\nAVON Don't worry. I'll remind you.\nNovara and Geela approach. Blake and Avon rise. Avon draws his weapon.\nNOVARA Let's get back inside quickly. Where are the cells?\nBLAKE He didn't bring them. We'll get them when we've talked.\nBLAKE You will get them when you agree to our terms.\nNOVARA (To Avon) Put your weapon down. (Avon looks at Blake) Do it! (To Blake) You. Now, the cells.\nAVON I didn't bring them.\nGEELA (Touches Avon's hand with her weapon. She releases his hand.) Minimum power. A full charge would cut you in half.\nNOVARA Understand. Your lives are totally unimportant to us.\nBlake retrieves the energy cells.\nThey all move back into the laboratory building.\nGEELA (Just inside the main door) The cells.\nBlake surrenders the cells to Geela. She hands them to Novara. He goes through to the power unit without securing the main door and begins installing the cells. Blake, Avon and Geela follow him.\nNOVARA (Completing installation) I will irradiate.\nDecimas who have been quietly entering through the open main doorway attack Geela and Novara, but leave the members of the Liberator crew unharmed. During the confusion, Blake moves to the power console and activates the fungicide beam.\nBLAKE Right, that's the beam.\nAvon and Blake move to the stairs leading to Saymon's sanctuary.\nAVON These are what you wanted to protect.\nBLAKE They're fighting for their lives.\nThey step inside the room.\nExterior of the Liberator trapped in the silica web. A pulsing light beam strikes the web and the ship. The web begins to dissolve.\nOn the flight deck of the Liberator. Jenna, Gan and Cally are waiting.\nMain viewscreen shows the web dissolving.\nGAN He did it. We're free.\nInterior of the laboratory. The Decimas continue their attack. They are destroying equipment. Geela and Novara are dead. The Decimas attack their remains.\nAVON (Back on the stairs) Let's get out of here.\nBLAKE (Into communicator) Blake. We're ready. Bring us up.\nThey step back into Saymon's room and teleport field envelops them. Saymon screams. The Decimas move into the room and begin to destroy his life support tank.\nBLAKE Navigation computer to evasive action strategy. Key course and speed to optimum escape probability. Basically, lose them, Zen.\nAVON One thing they proved back there.\nAVON Biological machines will never replace the real thing. They're far too unpredictable.\nBLAKE At least the Decimas stand a chance now. You can't separate living creatures. Being alive involves them together.\nAVON I couldn't agree with you less.\nBLAKE It's a fact of life. Zen, when we've lost the pursuit ships, resume course for Centero.\nAVON I'll tell you a fact of life Blake. Change is inevitable.\nBLAKE Why else we'd fight, Avon.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Ben and Tracy are going to inherit $900,000 from her deceased mother. They have $34,000 in debt. What's the best way to handle this money?\nQUESTION: Ben and Tracy in Arizona are going to inherit $900,000 from her deceased mother. They are renting a house now because they put their old one on short sale. They have kids going to college in several years. They have $34,000 in debt. What's the best way to handle this money? Dave addresses a money danger here.\nANSWER: Personal finance is 80% behavior and only 20% head knowledge. If you didn't learn any lessons from the past year and continue to engage in debt and stupid behavior, this money will be gone fast. You really have to assess your behaviors, habits and values that put you into the mess that you were in so that you never go back.\nI would write a check for $34,000 and be debt-free. Then I would fund an emergency fund of three to six months of expenses, preferably six months. The third thing I would do is pay cash for a modest home. Then sit down with an investment advisor and maybe invest $10,000 per child into a 529 plan for this year and next year. Then you'll probably be done with that unless they want to go to Harvard.\nAfter doing all that and buying a home, then invest the balance in mutual funds or maybe even a rental property. Don't ever go into debt again for the rest of your lives.\nWhen Sharon and I paid our house off, we rounded up our house payment amount and had that drafted monthly into a mutual fund. It's amazing how much money that becomes just a few years later.\nTeach your kids how to honor your mother's legacy by managing this money well. Also, give a little bit of it and take a family trip with some of it.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Light blue with Brown Interior. Only two owners from new, matching number and comes with detailed history file including the original bill of sale.\nInvest with trust in amazing cars that you can actually come and see.\nA one-off 2% fee on initial investment.\nNon only we curate the best, you keep the liberty to choose the ones you like.\nClassics are limited - the offer is aimed to decrease over the years.\nWithdraw capital returns by offering your investment for sale at any time, or exit at market value after five years.\nIt's 0% to sell, the proceeds are yours.\nBrowse car by country, or by kind of investment.\nAll our cars are hand-picked by our expert, Thierry Romanwok, who has more than 20 years of experience in finding exceptional classic cars. He is regularly solicited by clients all over Europe and the US to analyse or find cars with incredible healthiness and value.\nWhen choosing a car, we seek out growth opportunities - using a mix of big data and expertise - which are represented by our classic car investment themes. We always look for a good balance between values and market demand, and the potential for returns from movements in the classic car market.\nAre you ready to invest in classic cars?\nUnderstand the in and out of investing in a classic car.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"The Kissa Khwani Bazaar is a bazaar In the heart of Peshawar, in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. In olden days, this was the site of camping ground for caravans and military adventures from the central asia, where professional story-tellers recited ballads and tales of war and love to throngs of traders and soldiers.\nPhotos of Qissa Khawani Bazaar circa 1903.\ncity-history.com is a voluntary, non-commercial\/non-profit initiative. Major aim is to preserve the visual history of the people, traditions, social gatherings, development and heritage of Peshawar through pictures found in different collections\/archives and personal family albums with textual\/video\/audio narratives. The old pictures contain astonishing secrets, and when revealed with personal narratives, they become the missing links to Peshawar's emotional history.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
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+{"text":"Two Purdue University entities became one in the Region.\nPurdue Calumet and Purdue North Central came together to form Purdue Northwest.\nOn the baseball field, the new merger yielded a 30-18 mark for the PNW Pride.\nPurdue Northwest coach Dave Griffin, who helmed the Purdue Calumet program for three seasons before the change, expected their to be a little trepidation from some of the players with new leadership. The 2017 roster, which included 25 players with Indiana hometowns and six from Illinois, was roughly split in thirds by former players from PUC and PNC and new recruits.\nThe transition was a smooth one.\n\"The kids worked hard and got along really well,\" says Griffin. \"It was one unit.\nAt 20-7, the Pride tied Olivet Nazarene for first in the Chicagoland Collegiate Athletic Conference South Division during the regular season.\nPNW's season ended after it went 1-2 in the CCAC tournament.\nThe Pride played its home games on the turf of Dowling Park, a facility owned by the City of Hammond and shared with area high schools.\nSophomore outfielder Larry Crisler (.347) was PNW's top hitter and senior right-hander Matt Sandoval (8-2, 2.48 earned run average) the top pitcher.\nGriffin, 55, and his staff, which included former PNC head coach Shane Prance plus Phil Madvek, Vinnie Tornincasa, Dave Waddell, Tom McDermott and Jeff Rutherford this spring, have been recruiting Indiana, Chicagoland and beyond while the program develops an identity.\nSince season's end, Griffin has been tying up loose ends and getting ready for the fall.\nThis summer, he will coach the Outsiders 17U team based out of Dave Griffin's Baseball School in Griffith.\nHe has his views of the travel baseball world.\n\"I tell parents to play for a solid organization who has a good support staff,\" says Griffin. \"Games are just one part of the equation. There's training and speed and agility.\nPNW players will hone their skills this summer in various collegiate circuits, including the Midwest Collegiate League, Northwoods League and Prospect League.\nGriffin grew up in Dolton and Roseland, Ill., and played at the Dolton-Riverdale Babe Ruth League, where he played with Jimmy Boudreau (son of National Baseball Hall of Famer Lou Boudreau) first met baseball mentor and scout Bill Bryk.\nGriffin also looks up to scout Bob Szymkowski.\nIn 1979, Griffin graduated from Thornridge High School and went on to be an NAIA All-American first baseman at Texas Wesleyan University.\nHe was drafted in 1982 by the Atlanta Braves. His best pro season was 1988 with the Triple-A Richmond Braves, when he hit. 289 with 21 home runs and 72 runs batted in and was named Howe Sports Player of the Year and played in the International League All-Star Game.\nGriffin also played in the Detroit Tigers and New York Yankees organizations.\nDuring a six-year stint as head coach at Hammond Bishop Noll Institute, Griffin helped lead the Warriors to an IHSAA Class 2A state title in 2004 and a 2A state runner-up finish in 2006.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Airway clearance therapies improve the efficacy of the mucociliary escalator and elicit a cough. These guidelines reviewed and compared the various techniques and devices.\nOverall, the committee recommended that all people with CF should perform airway clearance to maintain lung function and improve quality of life (level of evidence, fair; net benefit, moderate). After review of the available literature, no form of ACT was shown to be superior to another form of ACT. The committee went on to recommend that the choice of ACT be individualized to the patient, as patient-specific factors may make one form of ACT superior to another for the individual patient. Finally, the committee recommended aerobic exercise as an adjunctive therapy for airway clearance, as it has additional overall health benefits.\nIn CF, mucociliary clearance is impaired due to dehydration of the aqueous layer of the airway surface liquid as a direct result of the dysfunction of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) protein. Clinically, CFTR dysfunction results in decreased mucociliary clearance, airway obstruction, recurrent respiratory infections with neutrophil migration into airways, and an exuberant inflammatory response leading to damage to lung parenchyma over time.\nACT uses patient maneuvers or devices to improve mucociliary clearance and augment the cough. Many different forms of ACT have been advocated, and the purpose of this Cystic Fibrosis Foundation clinical practice guideline was to evaluate and compare ACTs to provide support for clinical decision making regarding specific therapies.\nWhat is the efficacy of the ACT in comparison to no therapy at all?\nWhat is the efficacy of the therapy in comparison to the other therapies under review?\nA systemic literature review was commissioned from Johns Hopkins University to identify all relevant literature. When possible, the recommendations were graded using the U.S. Preventative Services Task Force (USPSTF) grading definitions.\nSputum production: The committee found evidence that P&PD and PEP therapy demonstrated greater sputum production compared to no therapy at all. In comparing sputum production with different ACTs, the committee found no difference between P&PD and PEP devices and no difference between P&PD and OPEP. In comparing sputum production between P&PD and HFCC, two trials favored HFCC and two trials showed no difference.\nLung function: One study showed that P&PD significantly improved forced expiratory volume in the first second (FEV1) compared to no therapy over a short period. Another study comparing P&PD and PEP therapy found no difference in FEV1 over a four-week trial period. Although one study favored HFCC in comparison to P&PD in terms of effect on FEV1, another found no difference between these two therapies.\nPulmonary exacerbations: The committee identified no studies that evaluated the effect of ACT vs no ACT on pulmonary exacerbations. In a study investigating the effect of aerobic exercise compared to no exercise program, no significant differences were identified between groups for number of hospitalizations or mean number of days hospitalized. There were no studies that showed that one ACT was superior to another in terms of its ability to reduce pulmonary exacerbations.\nAdverse events and mortality: Overall, there are few reports of adverse events with ACT, but the reports that do exist report hemoptysis and nausea. There are no reports evaluating the effects of ACT on mortality.\nQuality of life: Five studies were identified that evaluated quality of life and all evaluated the effects of exercise. Two studies showed improved quality of life in patients with an exercise program compared to no exercise program. One of these studies was a long-term, three-year study and the other was a short-term in-patient study over several weeks. One study involving inspiratory training reported lower anxiety and depression scores over an eight-week time period. One study compared P&PD and PEP therapy over a two-year period and found no difference in the Quality of Well-Being scale. There were no other reported comparisons for quality of life.\nPatient preference: Evaluating patient preference, four of six studies comparing P&PD to PEP found that patients preferred PEP. One study that evaluated P&PD and OPEP found that patients preferred OPEP. Another four-week study comparing HFCC and OPEP found that 50 percent of the participants preferred HFCC because they thought it was more efficacious.\nACT is recommended for all patients with CF for clearance of sputum, augmentation of cough, maintenance of lung function, and improved quality of life.\nNo ACT has been demonstrated to be superior to any other.\nACT choice should be individualized to the patient, as one form may be superior when considering factors such as age, patient preference, and individual history of adverse events.\nAerobic exercise is recommended as an adjunctive therapy for airway clearance for all patients with CF, but is not a substitute for airway clearance.\nSince the development of the original guidelines in 2009, several manuscripts relevant to ACT have been published. These manuscripts have not been reviewed or endorsed by the guidelines committee.\nIn 2014, a Cochrane review of OPEP for airway clearance in CF found no clear evidence that oscillation was more or less effective than other forms of physiotherapy (Morrison 2017).\nIn 2013, a randomized controlled multi-center trial of 12 CF centers in Canada compared HFCC and PEP over a one-year period and found no significant difference in lung function, health-related quality of life scores, or patient satisfaction, but a significant difference favoring PEP was found in terms of fewer exacerbations and longer time to first exacerbation (McIlwaine 2013). This finding may have clinical significance when considering the contribution of exacerbations to the rate of decline of lung function in CF patients (Goss 2013).\nA review by Walsh and colleagues serves as a recent review of ACT used in the pediatric population (Walsh 2011).\nRand and colleagues provide an ACT review, which includes medications used with ACT. This allows clinicians to individualize an ACT plan for each patient (Rand 2013).\nThe 2009 guidelines did not evaluate concurrent use of noninvasive ventilation (NIV) along with ACT for inpatient therapy. This has been addressed in a small study by Dwyer, et al. (Dwyer 2015) in which the authors found a significant improvement in FEV1 in the NIV cohort. A 2016 Cochrane review did not find sufficient evidence to support or reject active cycle of breathing techniques compared to any other form of ACT (McKoy 2016).\nWhen should airway clearance be initiated? With the majority of CF patients diagnosed by newborn screening, there has been some impetus to initiate ACT early in the first year of life, as evidence suggests that airway inflammation and obstruction exist in this age group (Pillarisetti 2011). This evidence is still in line with the recommendation in the 2009 guidelines that ACT should be started in the first few months of life.\nHow should the clinician choose an ACT for a patient? While there is still no published evidence in regard to this question, the principles of personalized medicine apply. Decisions regarding patient-specific ACT should still focus on age, severity of disease, the patient's ability to perform specific maneuvers, and patient preference.\nWhat is the optimal method of performing each of the ACTs? There remains a paucity of research in regard to this question, and thus this remains an area of need for research.\nWho should educate the patient on ACT? Although there is no published literature in regard to this question, ACT continues to be taught by experienced providers in CF centers in both the inpatient and outpatient settings. Incorporation of trained respiratory therapists into the CF team will increase the opportunity to educate patients about the various ACT modalities available and their correct usage.\nHow should we evaluate new methods of airway clearance? ACT literature continues to lack controlled, long-term studies that have been powered to adequately compare therapies. Individuals with CF are living longer and with less morbidity. As a result, future studies need to focus on objective ways to evaluate individual responses to ACT. Newer surrogate markers of lung function may prove beneficial in this area.\nMorrison L, Agnew J. Oscillating devices for airway clearance in people with cystic fibrosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 May 4;5:CD006842. doi: 10.1002\/14651858.CD006842.pub4. PMID: 25038719.\nMcIlwaine MP, Alarie N, Davidson GF, Lands LC, Ratjen F, Milner R, Owen B, Agnew JL. Long-term multicentre randomised controlled study of high frequency chest wall oscillation versus positive expiratory pressure mask in cystic fibrosis. Thorax. 2013 Aug;68(8):746-51.PMID: 23407019.\nGoss CH, Burns JL. Exacerbations in cystic fibrosis. 1: Epidemiology and pathogenesis. Thorax. 2013 Aug;68(8):746-51. Epub 2013 Feb 13.PMID: 17387214.\nWalsh BK, Hood K, Merritt G. Pediatric airway maintenance and clearance in the acute care setting: how to stay out of trouble. Respir Care. 2011 Sep;56(9):1424-40.PMID: 21944689.\nRand S, Hill L, Prasad SA. Physiotherapy in cystic fibrosis: optimising techniques to improve outcomes. Paediatr Respir Rev. 2013 Dec;14(4):263-9. Epub 2012 Nov 4.PMID: 24209461.\nDwyer TJ, Robbins L, Kelly P, Piper AJ, Bell SC, Bye PT. Non-invasive ventilation used as an adjunct to airway clearance treatments improves lung function during an acute exacerbation of cystic fibrosis: a randomised trial. J Physiother. 2015 Jul;61(3):142-7. Epub 2015 Jun 18.PMID: 26096013.\nMcKoy NA, Wilson LM, Saldanha IJ, Odelola OA, Robinson KA. Active cycle of breathing technique for cystic fibrosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Jul 5;7:CD007862. doi: 10.1002\/14651858.CD007862.pub4.PMID: 27378490.\nPillarisetti N, Williamson E, Linnane B, Skoric B, Robertson CF, Robinson P, Massie J, Hall GL, Sly P, Stick S, Ranganathan S, Australian Respiratory Early Surveillance Team for Cystic Fibrosis (AREST CF). Infection, inflammation, and lung function decline in infants with cystic fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011 Jul 1;184(1):75-81. Epub 2011 Apr 14.PMID: 21493738.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"\"#6 Most Frequently Cited OSHA Standard 2005 - Over 3,115 Violations Noted\"\nAmerican industry currently has approximately 1,234,245 operators using more than 998,000 powered industrial trucks. The Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) estimates that industrial truck accidents cause roughly 85 fatalities and 34,900 serious injuries annually. 20 to 25 percent of these accidents are attributed to insufficient training.\nEffective March 1, 1999, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) revised its requirements for powered industrial truck operator training (codified at 29 CFR 1910.178(l)) and issued new requirements to improve the training of these operators. The new requirements are intended to reduce the number of injuries and deaths that occur as a result of inadequate operator training. They apply to all industries (general industry, construction, shipyards, marine terminals, and long shoring operations) in which the trucks are being used, except agricultural operations.\nThese provisions mandate a training program that bases the amount and type of training required on: the operator's prior knowledge and skill; the types of powered industrial trucks the operator will operate in the workplace; the hazards present in the workplace; and the operator'sdemonstrated ability to operate a powered industrial truck safely. Refresher training is required if: the operator is involved in an accident or a near-miss incident; the operator has been observed operating the vehicle in an unsafe manner; the operator has been determined during an evaluation to need additional training; there are changes in the workplace that could affect safe operation of the truck; or the operator is assigned to operate a different type of truck. Evaluations of each operator's performance are required as part of the initial and refresher training, and at least once every three years.\nIn keeping with this standard, Premier Safety offers a complete Powered Industrial Lift Truck Program and training, that mirrors the standard and provides the end user with a product that is clearly written, a standardized format, and is easy to maintain.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"The other side of the ledger is that a small number of films (e.g., Titanic) and film stars (hello Leonardo Di Caprio), and books (e.g., the Harry Potter series) and authors (hello J.K. Rowling) earn far more than they would in a free market.\nIf someone produces a movie, say for instance, \"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire,\" and puts that movie into a theater, why is the market not free? Consumers have several choices. They can (1) Not see the movie at all. (2) See another movie. (3) See that movie. No one holds anyone hostage or forces them to either see or not see a movie.\nWhat is the definition of a \"free market\"? To quote Murray Rothbard, \"The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics\": A free market is a market in which property rights are voluntarily exchanged at a price arranged completely by the mutual consent of sellers and buyers. By definition, in a free market environment buyers and sellers do not coerce each other, in the sense that they obtain each other's property without the use of physical force, threat of physical force, or fraud, nor is the transfer coerced by a third party.\nI fail to see anywhere in this definition that anyone has an expectation of watching the movie \"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\" for free, or being able to make unlimited copies of this movie for free distribution to their friends. If you do not want to pay to watch \"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire,\" wait until it is available on television or watch another movie altogether. You have freedom of choice within the constraints of your finances, which would appear to be an inalienable right in our society.\nLet's say we assign one company a monopoly over bread. Would this be a free market?\nJust the fact that assigning a monopoly in \"harry potter and the goblet of fire\" isn't the same disaster that assigning a monopoly in bread would be doesn't make it a free market.\nI borrow a definition of monopoly from Milton Friedman, one of the most respected economists of all time (though other definitions of monopoly are similar): A monopoly exists when a specific individual or enterprise has sufficient control over a particular product or service to determine significantly the terms on which other individuals shall have access to it.\nThe product in this case is a movie. Do the owners of the movie \"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\" have a monopoly on movies? Of course not. Indeed, the movie \"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\" is but one of many choices of movies. There is no legal definition of monopoly that would permit you or anyone else from preventing the owners of the movie \"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\" from maintaining control over this single item in the category of product called \"movie.\" Indeed, what benefit does society gain from allowing people to steal copies of the movie \"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\"? On the other hand, if people are permitted to steal movies, then what prevents them from shoplifting and any other form of stealing?\nAre there monopolies in the world? A few, but not many. We have laws against monopolies. Are there tests for monopolies? Yes, the best test is that there are no real alternatives. Of course there are real alternatives to the movie \"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire.\" For starters, there are the thousands of movies previously produced and available in the market place, along with all the current movies in the theaters. Just because you want that particular movie does not make that movie a monopoly, it just makes the movie one version of a product you want.\nAnother test is price. Is the owner of \"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\" able to control prices of movies because of the ownership of that particular movie? No. Competition from other movies and other forms of entertainment keep the prices somewhat in check, based on demand.\nYour example of \"bread\" is a great example. \"Wonder\" bread is produced by one company. However, that company faces competition from numerous other companies. Just because you are unable to purchase \"Wonder\" bread at the same price as store brand bread from Wal-Mart does not mean that the makers of \"Wonder\" bread have a monopoly over bread, it just means they control one formula of bread and they will market and sell that bread according to their goals and desires - since they own the property, as does Coca Cola, Pepsi and all the other companies of the world that make competing products. That does not make Coca Cola, Pepsi, Levis or anyone else a monopoly, only producers of one variety of various types of products.\nCopyright, pace Rothbard, is inconsistent with a free market. A free market is the ability to exchange property titles unimpeded by violence, including that wielded by the State. (The State is an organization that maintains a legalized monopoly of coercive force over an arbitrarily circumscribed geographical area, and which gains its revenue by theft, primarily in the forms of taxation and inflation. Max Weber forgot about the last part in his classic definition of the State, but Franz Oppenheimer didn't.) So called \"intellectual property\"--patents and copyrights for starters--is a government grant of monopoly or coercive privilege that gives the rights holder in question the legalized \"right\" to prevent other property rights owners from using their own property in certain ways, such as making copies of books and movies, with or without the attendant sale of these things. The monopoly formerly known as intellectual property was never part of the common law, but was always and everywhere imposed by legislative diktat. As Fritz Machlup and Edith T. Penrose pointed out in their paper on the 19th- century patent regime, the gussied up term \"intellectual property\" was invented out of whole cloth by the criminal gang known as the French legislature (okay, they didn't call it a criminal gang, but it was) to cover up the fact that the patent regime was exactly that--a government-imposed system that granted monopolies to inventors.\nThere is no reason why the author and producers of the Harry Potter books and movies would not profit from the sale of these products absent the copyright system. If someone acquires a justly owned copy of either of these, he has a right to copy them and to dispose of them by sale (including giving them away). This is not theft or piracy, as you seem to think. If anyone is a thief or a pirate, it's a copyright holder.\nAs for the definition of monopoly, Murray Rothbard had a much better understanding of it, in my view, than Milton Friedman did. Ironically, Rothbard was against patents, which Friedman was for (see Capitalism and Freedom); yet Rothbard was for copyright, while Friedman at least signed the economists' brief supporting Eldred in his SCOTUS case.\nI would recommend you read the books by Kinsella and Boldrin and Levine, both of which are online and have been linked to at previous posts here. Tom G. Palmer also wrote a couple good articles on \"IP,\" which are available at his home page.\nAny law is at its heart an artificial imposition of structure on natural \"rights.\" Of course, we need this structure or we would run about doing what animals do, which is contrary to how we envision our society.\nI have been doing a lot of thinking about the opinions on this site, which seem to me to be socialistic or communistic in their intent. However, I also find it interesting that China (along with South Korea, Hong Kong and other Asian countries that have historically had NO or minimal intellectual property rights - perhaps ideal from the point of view on this web site), one of the few nominally communist countries remaining on earth, has stated that strong IP is necessary to support internal (note I said internal, not international), innovation. If having no intellectual property is such a huge advantage, why are countries that have had no IP in modern times adopting it?\nCommon law (at least until it became bastardized) was the legal counterpart of natural rights, as Rothbard pointed out in The Ethics of Liberty. So there is no tension or contradiction between law and natural rights, both being rightly understood. Far from being socialistic or communistic, the opinions on this site have all been consistent with liberty and natural rights. As for the Asian countries you mention and their record on the monopoly formerly known as intellectual property (you might also have included Russia), they have been far less communistic than countries in the West. A few weeks ago, a high falutin' Chinese minister of Social Something had an op-ed in the Wall Street Journal saying how China was going to be more respectful of \"intellectual property\" going forward. He was just being a good commie in that article, saying how great government monopolies were, and no doubt acting as a PR stooge for the Chinese state in its bid to curry favor with the West leading up to the Beijing Olympics.\nChina has been working on stepping up enforcement of IP for a number of years. Currently their winner is with respect to trademarks. They have special courts set up and they are quite vigourous in their protection of trademarks, most specifically their own, of course. However, the recent Chinese protection of IP has little to do with the Olympics and only a little to do with outside pressure. The Chinese have (finally) discovered that IP protection works both ways. While the \"west\" may have invented IP, it protects Chinese companies just like it does western companies.\nIncidentally, the champion country for IP expertise and strategy remains Japan, who quickly realized that IP was one of their most powerful weapons in gaining a stronghold in western markets. Indeed, western countries were for a long time underusers of IP until the Japanese showed us how we could use our own system (which they have also adopted, though their have even more constraints that foes of patents would dislike).\nIt depends what you mean by protection. Monopolies are protection all right, and so are tariffs. Does that make countries sporting high tariffs champions of the welfare of their citizen-serfs? The best way for governments to support innovation would be to abolish their own intellectual monopolies and not to enforce those of other states. Then a real free market would flourish as patent trolls and the copyright industry withered and died.\nAh, if it were but true. I suspect that the abolishment of intellectual property would merely create whole new security industries whose only goal was to figure out how to protect intellectual property from being copied. So, we would go back to the way things were before intellectual property existed. Only a few copies of any book would be printed. Authors would have disincentives for writing books and Ray Bradbury's concerns that print media (even electronic print media) might completely die some day would finally come true. Of course, crappy amateur authors would flourish!\nTechnology is a whole other matter. Suddenly companies would spend fortunes on trying to figure out how to keep their mechanisms from being reverse engineered. The prices of new technology would go higher as companies invested more money in secrecy and the protection of technology. Some new technologies might be held by one clever company for decades - kind of like what happened before patents existed.\nCompanies can be very powerful creatures. Patents are merely a relatively cheap form of protection. Take that protection away and companies will just find better ways to protect themselves. I suspect that they will invent techniques that keep technology from being disseminated until they decide to allow it to be; a kind of private police state where only limited people have access to new technology.\nYour argument is completely backwards. We have a small industry trying to prevent \"IP\" from being copied in the form of DRM (ditital rights management) and encryption. All of this is trying to shore up an existing intellectual monopoly regime. Then there is the DMCA (Digital Millennium Copyright Act).\nThe open source movement, which you seem to be unaware of, refutes your point about technology. Intellectual monopoly, like all monopolies, restricts the supply of the thing monopolized to only those entities that own the rights in question. You are right that companies have better ways to protect themselves, such as trade secrecy. Even better is for them to continue to out innovate their rivals. Coca-Cola didn't need to patent the formula for its flagship product, but it did need to keep innovating to stay ahead of its competitors. It earned back its cost of capital that went into coca-cola decades ago, so it had to find new markets and to make new products to fend off Pepsi and other soft drink firms.\nYour point about the police state is ironic considering that the police enforce intellectual monopoly and have put some \"pirates\" behind bars, including a computer scientist in China. Getting rid of the monopoly formerly known as intellectual property would be a small blow against the police state, if not its death knell.\nTo reiterate what I said before, you should familiarize yourself with the arguments against \"IP\" in the works of Kinsella and Boldrin and Levine.\nI am aware of the open source movement. However, software is but one small part of technology. There are dozens of technologies using dozens of methodologies. Many of these technologies have their own idiosyncracies. The lack of open source has been one of the more remarkable protections of IP, one that requires no government protection at all. That makes some of the comments on this web site interesting with respect to IP, since there is so much focus on patents, copyrights and trademarks, and yet certain software companies have managed to keep their software secret because they have not used copyright or patents to protect it. It seems preferable for society at large that these companies protect their software with a copyright or with a patent just so that the code would be available, but of course the companies that have so protected their software are happier with the present arrangement.\nHowever, when I made my comments above, I was not thinking about software, but hardware. I can think of many ways to protect processes and hardware that companies do not bother to use because patent protection is available and the other methods of protection require adding unnecessary cost to a device. My point is that if IP protection is removed, then an innovative company will do anything it can to slow the transfer of the technology behind a device to the world at large to maintain its competitive advantage as long as possible. If a company has a key technology and is able to keep their technology secret successfully, they may well be able to do what England did to the textile industry for decades and prevent competition and innovation. You may think that we are smarter and better now than we were when England held its monopoly, and you may be right, but companies would likely spend significant effort to protect their innovations without IP if they had to.\nAs for police enforcement of IP, in most countries IP is enforced through the courts. True, there are limited arrests for a variety of reasons even in the west, but the vast majority of enforcement is much more benign than a bunch of police with drawn guns invading someone's home or business.\nI have copies of Kinsella and Levine's works for later perusal (I have other things I must do right now). I am looking forward in particular to reading Kinsella's writings on the subject. I am currently unfamiliar with Boldrin.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Within Franklin County, you will find a variety of attractions for every type of person from the tourist to the explorer, to even the relaxer. Listed are some of our citizen's favorite things to do in Franklin County. We hope this list helps you to make the most of your time here in Franklin County!\nFishing in one of the BCDA's many lakes is ranked among the top in the country. Occupying over 8,000 acres, the clean waters provide anglers with abundant small and largemouth bass as well as crappie and channel catfish.\nSwimming in one of Bear Creek Lakes is popular because of the clean water and sand beaches. Also, the warm climate offers an extended swimming season.\nThe Bay Tree Council for the Performing Arts began with its first play in 1996. The BTCPA hosts plays in the theatre of Community Spirit Bank's Weatherford Centre. The plays bring citizens of the community to the stage and audiences from surrounding cities and states. The BTCPA has involved more than 200 volunteers in play performances while being enjoyed by thousands. The BTCPA has produced more than 50 family-friendly plays, each February, April and November. The BTCPA and theatre welcomes small and large groups with dinner and play packages available.\nIdentified as Site #51, Northwest Loop of the North Alabama Birding Trail, the farm features two wooded birding observation areas as well as three ponds and several miles of nature trails divided into 10 paths. Along with the bird observation sites and bird sanctuary, existing farm structures at Cypress Cove Farm have been modified for use as bird blinds and education facilities. The farm includes a working gristmill, antique tractors and blacksmithing demonstrations for groups. Open daily 8 a.m.-5 p.m. Free. Groups should call ahead to make arrangements.\nDismals Canyon \u2013 located in Northwest Alabama \u2013 is an 85 acre Natural Conservatory privately owned and operated. It is not a State Park or National Park. However, it was designated a \"National Natural Landmark\" in 1975 by the National Natural Landmarks Program. NNLs are administered by the National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior.\nThrough the heart of the canyon flows \"Dismals Branch\", a winding stream that enters the canyon with a roar through \"Rainbow Falls\". A 1.5 mile hiking trail on the canyon floor follows the stream through skyreaching boulders, past thundering waterfalls, into a secret world of mossy-green and pearl gray filled with ferns and giant trees.\nAlong with hiking the canyon floor, and swimming \u2013 Romantic Cabins can be rented, Secluded Campsites are available, and a Country Store offers supplies and Indian wares.\nGuided night tours allow visitors to view the glow-in-the-dark creatures known locally as Dismalites.\nThe historic Roxy Theatre has been a beloved fixture of downtown Russellville since 1949. It first served as a movie theatre and today as a venue for concerts, recitals, and talent shows. It is located inside the new Americana Music Triangle, which marks the roots of nine music genres. The Roxy is 16 miles south of Muscle Shoals, the home of Fame Recording Studio, and 58 miles northeast of Tupelo, Mississippi, the birthplace of Elvis Presley. Come hear the sounds of country, folk, gospel, the blues, and rock and roll by professional and local performers. The Roxy Theatre is maintained and operated by the Franklin County Arts & Humanities Council. Please check the website for upcoming shows and events.\nTwo Franklin County historic churches are listed on the trail. Each church is at least 100 years old, is on its original site, and is still holding services today.\n2950 Ligon Springs Rd., Russellville, AL.\nSince the early 1800s, this church's congregation has survived many tragedies, including a flu outbreak and a deadly tornado. The framing of the present structure maintains pegs and square nails that date prior to 1900.\nA missionary from Booneville, Mississippi, set out to preach under a brush arbor in northwest Alabama, which was called \"Oak Grove.\" On split log seats, the community worshipped there until they were later able to build a cabin. After the Methodist Church became part of the Alabama circuit, Oak Grove changed their name to the current title. The church has grown from logs to an encased brick structure.\nTiffin, makers of the Allegro, Phaeton, Allegro Bus, and Zephyr models, is located in Red Bay. Their facility offers free factory tours, Monday through Friday at 9:30 a.m. No appointment is necessary, and it usually takes about one hour for the tour. Please call ahead for groups of 10 or more.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
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+{"text":"with BCA Partner Finance Part-Exchange funding giving you more funding capacity.\nWe'll work in partnership with you every step of the way to help you keep your business on the move.\nApply for Part-Exchange funding by midday and once approved, we will release the funds the next working day, helping to free up your capital.\nYou can now fund the LCV's you receive in Part-Exchange in the same way you would fund cars.\nWorking with customers, we have developed a new intuitive application process within BCA Dealer Pro, saving your precious time.\nWhy BCA Partner Finance Part-Exchange funding?\nIf we can assist with your part-exchanges including; valuation, funding or remarketing through a branded BCA Partner Finance sale then we'd love to hear from you.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"@seachnasaigh Love the vitrovian Man. SM ought to feature that one on CP.\nHey Earl, that's not a bad idea at all.\n@trekkiegrrrl please don't take this as a nitpick, because I like the image. Does the petticoat have a split up the side?\nWhy did this come out so faded?\n@uncle808us I think because it is a .png Could this be correct?\nSome Roxie work, processed in CameraBag2 or PSP. NSFW so click the button.\nYes, Roxie has her wild side.\nI noticed that today. And no. It's an error. This dynamic dress functions by having 2 invisible \"domes\" (one for the petticoat and one for the dress) underneath to hold it out. And I should have rotated the petticoat a bit. :( I just didn't notice it until the image was all done.\n@trekkiegrrrl It was a great render nonetheless, and had a great 1950s-1960s feel to it.\n10 years ago ( O.o ) I made a similar \"retro\" image. Also Poser with some of the same Photoshop actions I once made and sold as a package.\n@masterstroke I've always thought Sydney had a distinct scowl on her face. That always made me shy away from using her. That doesn't look anything like Sydney.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"i am unable to open zipped folder... please help.\nthank you for the mediafire link!\nI downloaded \"EdHarvey-Effects-20080826.zip\" but when I tried to open it I got this message: \"Cannot open file: it does not appear to be a valid archive\". Any help please!!\nFirst try downloading again to confirm there is a problem with the file and not a corrupted download.\nI downloaded it three times with the same result, can't open it!\nI just tried it and the zip is OK.\nDownload from the link that you used before.\nDownload to the default location - Desktop or Downloads folder typically.\nOpen it by left-clicking, then copy\/paste the .dll files into the Effects folder.\nBest to do all this with the Paint.NET program closed.\nSorry, but had a question. Seems like I'm having the same problem as the people above. It took me awhile to finally figure out how to download plugins the other day, but I figured it out..I thought. I've downloaded and used many other plugins, but this one is giving me problems. I really just wanted the lens plugin.\nI'm trying to download EdHarvey's Newest Effects now. I can't seem to get to the DLL files from the initial Zip Folder (I have Windows Vista). I Unblocked it already and tried opening the zip folder. I did that with the other plugins to reach the DLL files and then moved them to the actual Paint.net Effects Folder and it worked. This one keeps telling me \"Windows cannot open the folder. The compressed (zipped) Folder is invalid.\" I've tried doing this multiple times.\nAny advice is appreciated. Thanks in advance.\nGive it a try as described above.\nOk yea sorry, it's still not working for me. The problem is I cant get to the dll files at all. I just have the zip and thats it. I've spent an insane amount of time on this, but still can't figure it out.\nWhich unzip program are you using?\nDid all this with the Paint.NET program closed.\nwithout the use of a zip program.\ngod bless you! thanks..it finally worked when i used opera instead of explorer..\nTry the unzip functionality in Windows Explorer.\nWhen I left-click nothing happens!\nI had no trouble unzipping \"pyrochild_plugins_2009-11-30\" and \"Vandermotten.PaintDotNetEffects\" and others.\nNote: Left-clicking means clicking with your index finger (assuming you're right-handed) once.\nDownloading from a different browser worked for Bourque2.\nI just tried it and it doesn't work in Internet Explorer 8.\nDo you have another browser you can use to download it?\nI am right-handed and I use my right hand index to left-click.\nNo I don't have another browser.\nI used windows Explore getting \"The Compressed (zipped) Folder is invalid or corrupted\" error.\nWhen I point at \"pyrochild_plugins_2009-11-30\" I get \"Files\/Folders in Zip file: 16\"\nWhen I point at \"Vandermotten.PaintDotNetEffects\" I get \"Files\/Folders in Zip file: 1\"\nWhen I point on \"EdHarvey-Effects-20080826\" I get \"Type: WinZip file\"\nDo a Google search using \"browsers for windows\"\nDownload Firefox, Opera, or Chrome.\nThanks for your help, about trying a different web Browser.\nI couldn't get this to download with IE, so I tried Chrome, and it worked! Thanks!\nSimplify - Helps removing Anti-Aliased objects.\nColor Flip - I've never seen ANYTHING like it!\nColor Tilt - Awesome for changing around photos.\nExtract Channel - I've been looking for something like this for AGES.\nSingle Hue - Used this on a checkerboard image, cool effect.\nThreshold - Great for cutting out images, into seperate layers, at least for me.\nDrop Ripple - More useful than I can say.\nRipple - Good for flags, maybe?\nVignette - Saves me a bunch of steps.\nSeismograph - I'm not sure what this could be used for, pratically, but it is Cool.\nI'll give you three guesses as to which effect has not appeared in the effects menu.\nIs it because the built-in Unfocus is actually the same as Unfocus+ now?","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Published 04\/25\/2019 10:08:03 pm at 04\/25\/2019 10:08:03 pm in Closet Design Companies.\ncloset design companies closets ideas sleek modern dark wood closet ideas for bachelor pads how to become a closet designer woodworking network with any luck theyve got at least some kind of design and procedure manual that you can start with if not consider enrolling in closet design.\nst louis closet company endlessexperienceclub st louis closet company st closet company large size of rated closet design company in companies, bedroom building closet shelves custom closets online small closet large size of bedroombedroom closet storage design wardrobe shelving ideas closet renovation wardrobe organizer , locate closet design companies in new jersey view images and samples , closet design companies closet design companies best sliding door closet design companies closet design companies best sliding door wardrobe designs for bedroom wardrobe design sliding, modern closet systems home organization storage solutions modern closet systems closets design companies in nj, closet organization companies reviews design inspiration furniture closet organization companies reviews design inspiration creative rh krvainc com, best custom closet companies cool luxury custom closet design best custom closet companies cool luxury custom closet design plans new york spaces magazine, closets by design closet design tool home depot gingerbeardme closets by design closets by design closet closets by design home office organization ideas space interior closets by design ,, closet organizer companies closet organizer companies trendy closet organizer companies brown wooden u shape walk in closet design with white ceiling and , closets by design closet design companies near me denisecaldwellinfo closets by design photo of closets by design united states bedroom turned dressing easy closets design closets by design .","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"I am an orthopedic surgeon. I typically ride twice during the week and weekends so four days total.\nI have to plan about 4 months in advance for showing so I can block those days off in the office\/surgery and request to not be on call those days. Week to week my trainer will ride the days I am not there and is flexible if I am late for a lesson or have to cancel. I am fortunate he understands what I do and that my schedule can change last minute if I have an emergency case. I show about twice a month and generally take a few months off at the end of the year to give my guys a break.\nI think the biggest challenge for me is simply being an adult. When I was a kid and riding I would just get on and go. I had no fear and didn't second guess anything I did. It was more natural. I took 10 years off from riding after college to go to medical school and complete my residency and fellowship. So to get back into riding after such a long hiatus was a challenge. My mind would remember how to do things but my body would not react. I slowly got back into it starting with just lessons, then did a few local shows and then recognized shows. I have had some amazing trainers helping me along the way and have far exceeded any of my goals. I do my best now to try and not overthink any of it and just ride but it is truly a challenge. In my profession I might read about a new procedure or go to a course to learn something new. I will have it mastered in no time. Put me on a horse and months later I am still trying to be straight, and not pull on my left rein, and not rush my horse over the jump etc. It's almost comical but I think a lot of people can relate.\nTo just have fun. No matter what it has to be fun. When it stops being fun that is when I stop. No matter what happens at the horse show I still have to show up for work on Monday. My patients don't care if I was Grand Adult Champion that weekend or last in every class.\nSo many of us are trying to find that balance between riding, work, family and friends. I respect so many who make it look so easy, because it isn't!","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
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+{"text":"Marley the grizzly bear has come a long way since she was rescued from life in a concrete pen in Georgia and transported to a refuge in Colorado, where it then grew clear that she was horribly lame and suffering from two broken elbows.\nIn February, Marley became one of Colorado State University's most celebrated patients when she came to the James L. Voss Veterinary Teaching Hospital for surgery to clean, repair and heal her fractured joints. Nine months later \u2013 after convalescing for many weeks indoors \u2013 Marley is fully recovered and roaming a 20-acre natural habitat at the Wild Animal Sanctuary in Keenesburg, Colo., where she will live out her life in historic grizzly territory.\nLast week, a CSU veterinary team visited the Wild Animal Sanctuary to check on Marley's progress. The group found a healthy bear nosing through dry prairie grasses in a biting wind \u2013 a very different sight from the anesthetized creature on an operating table, with an open and draining wound over one badly infected broken elbow. Now, the only sign of her medical ordeal is the fur on her forelimbs: It had been shaved for surgery and has regrown with honeyed highlights.\nMarley, a 7-year-old grizzly and Syrian brown bear mix, was rescued and transported to the Wild Animal Sanctuary along with 16 other black and grizzly bears from a tourist attraction in north Georgia. Her injuries likely were the result of a fall in her a concrete chamber.\nCSU's Veterinary Teaching Hospital for nearly two decades has provided intensive medical care for large carnivores living at the sanctuary on the plains northeast of Denver.\n\"If they need any higher form of veterinary medical care, we provide that,\" explained Dr. Terry Campbell, the CSU exotics veterinarian who oversaw Marley's case.\nNow Marley is acclimating to life outside, interacting with other bears and eating a diet of vegetables, fruit, grain and meat.\nDr. Sarah Higgins, a veterinary intern who is gaining additional exotics training at CSU, said she came to learn how to work with patients like Marley.\n\"When you come into an environment like this,\" Higgins noted while watching Marley amble, \"you have to base your examination on what you're seeing: Marley's interactions with us, with her environment, and with other bears. It requires a different type of problem-solving and collaboration with different veterinary specialists to correctly diagnose and treat these large carnivores.\nHiggins said CSU's partnerships with zoos and similar organizations offer a unique learning environment for her as a young veterinarian.\nThe CSU veterinarians and sanctuary caregivers said Marley and the other bears rescued in Georgia likely will live many more years, as many as 20 in Marley's case.\n\"My guess is they felt like they've died and gone to heaven compared to where they were before,\" Campbell said.\nMore information about the Wild Animal Sanctuary: (303) 536-0118 or visit the WAS website.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"You must be CRAZY !!\nyou are in London or Los Angeles.\nroads are hopelessly congested and poorly surfaced, so you'll spend a lot of time in traffic jams, and more time trying to avoid hitting anything than looking out the window at the sights.\nnothing about such things. Fourteen year-olds can go out on mopeds without a helmet, and take a pillion passenger. They die like flies.\nIt's weird. It's such a contradiction to the culture which places so much adoration on its children, yet they care nothing for their safety.\nOkay, now get this - It's 9.15 pm on Saturday November 6th 1999. On the Via Aventino in central Rome I was driving along and suddenly see the aftermath of a motor accident - I draw closer and see that a police car is involved. I get a little closer before I can see the other car the police car collided with. Guess what? It's another police car! Both cars are write-offs, their front ends are crushed in - A head-on collision between two police cars on a busy city street - Getting the idea about Roman drivers now? if that's how the police drive, what can you expect from the civilians?\nBaby\/child safety-seats in cars are a rare sight. Babies are instead bounced on mummy's knee in the front seat while daddy weaves in and out down the ring-road at eighty miles an hour.\nThe other day I saw a man riding a scooter along a fast main road with a small child sitting behind him, and an even smaller tot (perhaps a two-year-old) standing on the 'floor' of the scooter in front of him, holding the handlebars. None were wearing crash-helmets!\narmco. A lot of people die this way.\nSooner or later they will kill me or my children or other innocents, with their stupid, dangerous, blindly-uncaring driving tactics. I cannot understand why people should drive like this!\nIt's insane! And grossly antisocial. And the police do nothing by way of prosecution or prevention.\nor beltway), as I cannot see how to avoid colliding with someone at the merges can be achieved by any other way than pure luck.\npeople have died. It's weird. They remove their brains and get into their cars.\nThere are numerous local B-road junctions where not a single white line is painted on the road, or Give Way (Yield) sign erected, so people just whizz into it and hope for the best. They never give way.\nAnd nobody signals. And nobody ever thanks you for moving over and waiting for them if the road is narrow. People shoot out from sideroads in front of you as if the likelihood of another car approaching on the main road was out of the question. It's weird!\nbroken down or something - Thus, even if you do the right thing, you are in danger.\nI feel like the victim of some torturing psychopathic bully - If I resist the despot I'll be punched, if I succumb to his regime, he'll punch me anyway. It's a No Win situation.\nbefore you can make the turn. Now imagine that while you're waiting, a stream of five or six cars come whistling past your right-ear, driving up the kerb to get into the side road ahead of you. That's what they do here.\nI don't understand how they can gamble with their lives like this. It may be some ingrained fatalism of nominally devout (is there such a thing as nominally devout?) Roman Catholicism - 'Que sera sera', 'What will be will be' - including motor accidents! I just don't get it.\nEvery single car exhibits a prang of some description, as collisions great and small are everyday occurrences, taken for granted as just part of life's rich tapestry here.\nthe highest cost being human life.\nGoodness knows how the insurance works.\nThe police just stand there posing with their leather jackets, guns and sunglasses, pretending that they're American 'cops' and randomly pulling in people for no good reason at all, just to make a show of it.\nwrote my friend an on-the-spot fine of fifty quid! Probably because he knew the local lads would have beaten him up if he'd only fined the kid. It's appalling.\nTELL US YOUR OWN 'DRIVING IN ITALY' HORROR STORIES!","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Since 1999 Lobazzini's International Luxury Real Estate has remained synonym of trust, integrity, discretion and excellence in the world of international prestigious properties. The agency renders services in the field of sales and rental of luxury real estate.\nLobazzini Agencies offer complete deal structuring, supervision and follow-up, as well as the registration for a residence permit in several European countries. The agency has represented offices in Russia, Latvia, Austria and the Netherlands.\nFounded to provide brokerages with a powerful marketing and referral program for luxury listings, the Lobazzini's International Luxury Real Estate network was designed to connect the finest real estate companies to the most prestigious clientele in the world.\nOver the years, the Group has kept satisfying the requirements and demands of quality conscious international clientele successfully, offering exclusive properties for sale and as well a range of personalized exclusive services.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"NBQ's Institutional Banking Division maintains good working relationships with international banks and institutions all over the world. We manage a wide range of relationships, including Correspondent Relationships with banks, relationships with Non-Banking Financial Institutions and arrangements for Syndications and Investments.\nInitiating, reviewing and maintaining relationships with other banks and financial institutions.\nFacilitating various types of transactions with other banks, including Investment in fixed income \/ Floating Rate securities, Trade finance based risk participations, Bilateral & Club loan facilities and Syndicated loans.\nActing as the link between other institutions and various NBQ departments in negotiating and concluding business transactions.\nIdentifying and initiating new business opportunities and activities within our scope.\nAt NBQ, Relationship Banking is a dynamic and ongoing process, which is constantly evolving to keep up with a rapidly changing financial and regulatory landscape. We aim to lead from the front, so that we are ready to assist our customers and banking counterparts both locally and globally to the highest possible standard.\nNBQ can offer an effective service to international banks and institutions looking to find a route for their UAE-based business and trade finance transactions. Please contact us for more information.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Eastcoast rapper \/ producer duo Tone Chop & Frost Gamble released their album \"Respect Is Earned Not Given\" in September, a follow up to last year's \"Veteran EP\".\nFeaturing Kool G Rap, Planet Asia, rap battler DNA, Canadian White Rhino, Tragedy Khadafi and Bigga Haitian, they again received worldwide media coverage for the release with multiple reviews and interviews published over the past few months.\nChop also appears as a featured artist alongside Conway the Machine, Rah Digga, KXNG Crooked, Planet Asia, Guilty Simpson, Ras Kass, Skyzoo, Ruste Juxx, Sadat X and more on Frost Gamble's new solo producer album \"I Missed My Bus\" due out around Spring 2018.\nEastcoast rapper & producer duo Tone Chop and Frost Gamble were in NYC last month promoting their new album \"Respect Is Earned Not Given\" which released on September 29th through Miami label 22 Entertainment.\nThey appeared as guests on DJ Eclipse's Rap Is Outta Control show which as usual ends with a freestyle session. Chop, being the seasoned veteran he is dating back to his days starting out in street corner rap battles in upstate NY, brought the full armoury to the table on this one.\nRap Is Outta Control is now broadcast every Thursday from 10pm \u2013 12pm EST on Sirius XM Channel 44.\nChop & Frost will be releasing a brand new special cut on November 22nd \u2013 look out for that one!\nFrost, who has emerged in the past year as one of the hottest hip hop producers on the scene, is also finishing his new solo album \"I Missed My Bus\" due out in the first half of 2018 which will include guest featured artists Conway, Rah Digga, Crooked I, Skyzoo, Ruste Juxx, Rass Kas, Guilty Simpson and many more.\nHe released his \"Rare Fabric\" EP with Tragedy Khadafi on October 20th and remixed the Kid Vishis & Royce da 5'9\u2033 joint \"Go Off\".\nEastcoast rapper & producer duo Tone Chop & Frost Gamble released their new album \"Respect Is Earned Not Given\" through Miami label 22 Entertainment on September 29th.\nFeaturing Kool G Rap, Planet Asia, DNA, White Rhino & Tragedy Khadafi it's available to buy on CD and digital formats from multiple online stores worldwide including Amazon, Bandcamp, iTunes and Spotify.\nThe pair were in New York a few weeks back promoting the album and were guests on DJ Eclipse's Rap Is Outta Control show, broadcast now on their new slot every Thursday from 10pm \u2013 12pm EST on Sirius XM's \"Hip Hop Nation\" Channel 44.\nChop & Frost will be releasing a brand new track on November 22nd. Meantime check out the album stream on Soundcloud.\nFrost has also just released his EP \"Rare Fabric\" with Tragedy Khadafi and is finishing his new solo album \"I Missed My Bus\" which includes guest featured artists Conway, Rah Digga, Crooked I, Ruste Juxx, Skyzoo, Ras Kass, Guilty Simpson and many more. Look out for that around the first half of 2018.\nIt's been a remarkable year for NY State producer Frost Gamble, currently resident in Winnipeg, Canada.\nHaving just returned from NYC where he was with Tone Chop promoting their new album \"Respect Is Earned Not Given\", including a guest appearance on DJ Eclipse's Sirius XM 'Rap Is Outta Control Show', he reflects on the past 12 months which included the release of the pair's \"Veteran\" EP, the album \"Black Beach\" with Detroit's ZotheJerk and the EP \"Rare Fabric\" with Tragedy Khadafi out this Friday, October 20th.\nHe discusses his current work with Royce da 5'9\u2033 and Horseshoe Gang and his new album \"I Missed My Bus\" due out next year which includes luminaries such as Crooked I, Rah Digga, Conway, Skyzoo, Ras Kass, Sadat X, Ruste Juxx, Guilty Simpson and many more.\nHis deal with 22 Ent has been the catalyst for his upward trajectory, and he outlines the nature of their working relationship and benefits this has brought. The one time b-boy and rap battler also gives his views on contemporary hip hop culture and the political situation in the USA seen from the standpoint of an American native now based north of the border.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzacxrp b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzacxrp
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..bdd4f6bfb6db1f963da692ef5b5942117b0d27c8
--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"I wanted to experiment making some simple moulding without a tilting router lift or a tilting router fence,using a common router bit set with no modifications except temporarily removing bearings. the results turned out great considering it was an EXPERIMENT but if would make a tilting router fence if I was making any moulding.\nand u seem to do very dangerous things. u should kerp ur hands off the router bits. u just get too close.\nI always look where I place my hands when using power tools or a router table, but in this video I maybe get a bit close. But then again it can be hard to see on camera if your hand placement is close to the tool.\nAnd I do make sure I am safe but somtimes you can't live your life in bubble wrap, but u gotta just life life on the edge !","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Click here to view last year cover featuring Norman Reedus, here to view 2013 cover featuring Jim Sturgess, here to view 2012 cover featuring Josh Hutcherson, here for 2011 cover with Shiloh Fernadez, and here for 2010 cover with James McAvoy.\nYu Tsai snapped the cover.\nUPDATED JULY 27th 2012: Added three new campaign images via TFS.\nKarmen Pedaru, Ymre Stiekema, Janis Ancens, Maud Welzen and Ben Hill were photographed by Craig McDean for the stylish Fall Winter 2012 campaign images from Belstaff, their first campaign. Actor Ewan McGregor is also featured for the campaign.\n40 year old Scottish actor Ewan McGregor was photographed by Alexi Lubomirski and featured for the Spring Summer 2012 campaign images of South Korean department store, Shinsegae with the styling works by Sean Spellman.\n40 year old Scottish actor Ewan McGregor sporting brunette quiff on the January 2012 cover of Nylon Guys US photographed by Marvin Scott Jarrett and styled by Brady Cunningham.\nClick here to view last year cover featuring Michael Pitt and here for 2010 cover featuring Jared Leto.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"* Department of Regency Weirdness: Plenary speaker Robert Miles of the University of Victoria foraged through the archives of early nineteenth-century newspapers to excavate the pathos, melodrama and excess that, as he put it, crowd around the edges of Austen's fiction without quite sneaking into it. My favorite of Miles' discoveries: the man who boasted he could eat 1,000 oysters in an hour -- and actually made it to 650 before an errant piece of shell stuck in his throat and knocked him out cold.\n* Department of Psychology: In a roundtable on Mansfield Park's dysfunctional families, writer Gracia Fay Ellwood suggested that readers dislike Fanny because they recognize her as an abused child, identify with her victimhood, and then unconsciously react against that identification by blaming her for her own suffering.\n* Department of Celebrity Sightings: In their history of the so-called \"Fanny Wars\" \u2013 the sometimes vitriolic debates over the love-her-or-hate-her Miss Price \u2013 Linda Troost of Washington & Jefferson College and Sayre Greenfield of the University of Pittsburgh at Greensburg mentioned one early Jane Austen critic, Richard Whately, the future Anglican Archbishop of Dublin. Turns out that Whately's great-great-grandson, Kevin, is the fine actor who plays the lovable Robbie Lewis on the British crime dramas \"Inspector Morse\" and \"Inspector Lewis.\" Who knew? Austen connections really are everywhere.\nThanks so much for coming to our talk, Deborah! It was lovely to see you at the AGM. And thank you for this overview of breakout sessions, which gives me a glimpse of some of the things I missed when I was at other sessions.\nGreatly enjoyed your talk, Sarah! It is an occupational hazard of the AGM that you never get to hear everything you're interested in, alas. . .\nI enjoyed your blog, Deborah--and it was great to see you, even if it was only a brief hello! As Sarah said, I too enjoyed reading about some of the breakout sessions that I missed. I hope you had as good a time at the AGM as I did!\nGood to see you, too, Syrie, and to admire your lovely gowns! Enjoyed the play very much -- I hope you and Diana are planning an encore soon.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"I always encourage reader feedback. You can contact me by completing the form below.\nWe'd love publish one of your picture of Copper Triangle in the next issue of Fort Collins Magazine. If you're interested, please get in touch.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"How to get in touch with Prismic to help you transfer ownership of a repository when on the Free plan.\nDon't worry, you do not need to upgrade your repository's plan in order to transfer it to another user. The Prismic support staff can help you transfer the repository.\nOnce they've done this, head to the prismic.io website and open up a chat with the Support team. Just look for the little chat button in the bottom-right corner of the screen.\nWith these things, the Support team will be able to take care of the rest!\nOnce the repository has been transferred, the other person will be able to upgrade the repo as they need.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
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new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..f0e318d698eb292b027b939bd22261d338760f03
--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"I have never been particularly good with money - bills have always been paid, rent transferred and the balance on my cards cleared, but generally at the end of each month I'm left wondering where my money has gone and feeling the pinch in the last week or so before payday. When I became pregnant last year, I started putting a certain amount away each month in order to provide me with a cushion to supplement me through maternity leave - now 3 months in, I've realised that I'd rather keep hold of these savings for something more tangible, and instead live on my reduced income. In order to do this, I need to become a more mindful spender, being aware of where my money is going so I know where I can cut back and make smarter decisions. With this in mind, being asked to review Moneyhub was quite apt.\nMoneyhub is available on both Android and iOS and was relaunched in December 2015 after an overhaul of the look and feel. It comes fully loaded with a direct connection to your bank accounts, the ability to verify and categorise individual transactions, analysis and breakdown on where you spend the most as well as goals to help you take better control of your money.\nThe transaction inbox and spending analysis are particularly good, the process of going through and confirming each transaction and assigning it to a category is enough in itself to make you more aware of patterns in your spending, it quickly became apparent that I was single handedly supporting my local Starbucks one coffee at a time, which made setting my first spending goal easy - less House Blend, more Nescaf\u00e9.\nOn the whole, the app is easy to use and pleasant to look at. The set-up process is quick and verifying your transactions as they come in soon becomes addictive. There are several nice touches with how they present your data to keep you motivated and returning to the app; things like seeing how much you've spent in comparison to this time last month means it's easy to know when you should be slowing down on the purchases and encourages you to look ahead to the rest of the month to see if you can make up the difference. The ability to create your own categories gives the app a more tailored feel and the search functionality allows you to view a list of similar transactions over a longer period of time - particularly helpful when trying to change a regular spending habit.\nMoneyhub is a freemium app with a free 7 day trial, and then it will cost you \u00a32.99 per month in subscription fees, or \u00a329.99 as a one off payment for the year. At first I thought this was a bit much considering I could technically get the same information from my online banking if I wanted to, but with my new found knowledge surrounding my money I quickly realised that actually \u00a32.99 is a fair price for the convenience of having the information available in such a helpful and accessible way - it's just one less latte per month.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"The Patriots Brand was created in the spring of 2006 to support and develop the first Patriots U10 Girls 97 team in Carson City from a group of girls that other coaches did not select during tryouts in the winter of 2005. We coached the team for two years, making this team, one of the two strongest teams in the division at U12. This team became the Freedom after our departure from Carson City and the girls went on to play High School soccer and other teams at the older ages where they used the skills developed through our coaching.\nIn the spring 2009 we created and developed a new U12 Girls 97 team in Reno which we successfully developed into another strong team participating in tournament championships in and out of town. This team has by now gone through the different divisions and the girls are all in college now after they got scattered playing in the different High Schools in Northern Nevada.\nAlong the way, we have coached under the same program a number of teams, too many to remember, from rec and competitive youth teams to adult men and women teams.\nAs of the fall 2011, we were in full force developing players of different ages, from the U6 to U10 recreational\/pre-competitive ages to the full competitive U10 and up divisions.\nOur goal has always been to develop players that are technically sound that can compete at a higher level, whether that is making the JV and varsity teams in High School, or playing and showing good at competitive tournaments in Northern Nevada, California and Other areas, or moving on to colleges around the country. We also strive to provide a proper fun learning environment for our developmental players.\nTeach the fundamental skills of the game.\nDevelop the physical technical ability of individual players.\nStrengthen the decision making process of each player as individuals and as part of a team.\nTeach respect for the game, team-mates, coaches, officials, spectators and the Laws of the game.\nWe strive to provide an environment where the players can learn and be challenged and where they can feel part of something greater.\nOur methods of teaching are specifically tailored for the players we coach and are based on the successful academy programs used by clubs like Ajax with the dutch system of technical development, and have over the years adopted the Fiorentina scientific methodology developed by Prof. Vergine, the head of the Fiorentina Academy, one of the top teams in Serie A in Italy, arguably, one of the best producers of talent in the world.\nAs of 2016, using our custom tailored program, we have now produced some of the best talent in Northern Nevada and our players are sought after by competing clubs and teams. Through our efforts, we have produced players and teams that have the largest success rate of any program in Northern Nevada when measured by the number of teams that have gone on to place on different tournaments throughout the region, including taking several 1st place finishes in the NorCal Premier State Cup Competition in Northern California, a feat only achieved by the Patriots Academy.\nIn the spring 2016, we made the decision as an organization to cut down on the number of teams and players we coached under our program, which operated as a full volunteer driven organization. In an effort to provide a quality driven specific program to only a select few ages, we released 14 of the 16 teams we had, maintaining only a group of 06\/05 and a group of 03\/02 born female players.\nThis reduction of players and teams was made to help prepare and pave the way for us to pursue the attainment of the Women's Premiere Soccer League (WPSL) franchise in the summer of 2016. This goal was accomplished in the summer of 2016 and in the summer of 2017, the Reno Tahoe Liberty FC started it's inaugural WPSL season, giving local women and college athletes in Northern Nevada a place and an opportunity to play soccer at the highest level possible beyond the youth years.\nWith the WPSL franchise well on it's way, the Patriots Academy program was re-started once again with some organizational restructuring, and the Academy will resume operations open to players U7 and up starting in the fall 2017.\nThe Patriots Academy will provide an structured soccer program under the guidance of its coaches and under the same premises as from the time when the Patriots players first started in 2006 as described below.\nThe Patriots operate under the premises of creating a fun, positive environment for our players, where they can grow in soccer and in life.\n1. Does the player have athletic abilities?\n2. Are the parents friendly, helpful, committed, non argumentative, willing to help with the team, organization, volunteering, fun-raising or officiating?\n2. Are the parents and player willing to commit to the team with the development of a higher level of skill in mind or are they going to be looking to change teams if the teams don't win every game or things get a little rough?\n3. Are the parents and player willing to make the Patriots a priority vs. dancing, horse back riding, acting, marbles, etc. (School excluded) during the height of the spring and fall soccer seasons? (Winter activities other than soccer are encouraged).\n4. Does the player listen to coaching instructions and is the player honestly willing to be a better player and to give 100% at practices and games?\n5. Are the parents willing to abstain from \"coaching\" their child?\nThe Patriots were founded with the understanding that being a Patriot is a privilege.\nNo one has the \"right\" to play on the Patriots! Playing for the Patriots is an opportunity given by the organization to the player and the family of the player that wants to be part of something greater and compete with a higher skill level.\nThere is NO one player in the organization that is above this privilege!\nAs such, players and parents that want to be part of the Patriots Academy, must understand that there is an inherit responsibility to the program and other players in it, to be there for them if a player wishes to be a Patriot.\nWe believe in the pride of wearing the team colors and what the team represents.\nOur team colors and motif was inspired by the colors of the nation, with the pride that is created by being a Patriot in this great Country.\nCopyright 2006-2018 Patriots Academy - Liberty Sports Group, Inc.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"RSS Abuse: What's fair use and what's abuse. (or Skweezer gets it wrong).\nBeing a publisher in the age of complete RSS feeds is really trying. At least once a week I'm explaining to someone that they can't just republish one of our blogs on their site with advertisements around it, and that the RSS is for non-commercial use.\nIt's one thing to take headlines.\nIt's one thing to take an excerptlike the good folks at Google, Topix.net, Feedster or Technorati doto help people navigate.\nIt's a whole other thing to take your entire feed, wrap your own ads around it, and try to sell a service on top of the content!\nThat is exactly what just happened to us thanks to this website Skweezer. They have an interestingbut already availableidea: make webpages fit better on PDAs and phones. Great idea. We want readers to be able to read our content easilyno doubt.\nThese slimy folks over there then tell me that they are no different then Firefox!!!\nHello? Last time I checked Firefox did not republish our site at http:\/\/www.firefox.com\/www.engadget.com, they didn't put advertisements around our content, and they didn't charge for a \"premium\" version of Firefox. They also let us get the page view and the readership at our site.\nClearly some folks are getting caught up in what they can do with an RSS feed and forgetting about what they shouldand are legally allowedto do.\nYou want to take headlines and put advertisements around the headlines? Go for it you're making some money and you're not preventing us from making moneyin fact you're sending us readers. All good.\nYou want to take headlines and a modest excerpt and put ads around it? Go for it! I'm all for it, again, you're making some money without devaluing the trip to our website.\nHowever, making it so we can't make money and our readers don't come to our own site? Not good.\nIf you made this amazing software then come to us and either sell us the software or offer us a revenue share. This is exactly what I told the folks who were putting ads in RSS feeds. If you put ads in our *full* RSS feeds and don't have an agreement with us we will stop you. Just come to us and setup a reasonable deal and we will probably do it.\nNow, again, you offer this service for free without ads, sell it to the publisher, get permission, or split the advertising revenue, etc. you're fine. But you don't just come along and take the entire feed, republish it wholesale, and put your ads around it.\nThis seems like common sense to me, but I guess sometime tech folks start to justify abuse as technological innovation. Fair use is cool, that covers using a portion of a worknot the whole thing.\nUpdate: If you want to email their CEO and be removed you can reach them at kperkins@gwcorp.net and cc bkendall@gwcorp.net. As you might suspect they don't have their contract info on their site so it's hard to reach them.\nJust to provide a further update: Skweezer hasn't shown ads against mobilized content since late-2005. Just want to set the record straight on this!","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Offer latest high quality car aftermarket parts !\nWe like all kinds of design !\nFollow up Jewelry industry, help with searching !\nMore than you think, we are good at data analysis.\nAfter 10 years working experience , I learn Vision , Discovery , Research , Concentration , creation , Tactics , Skills , Efforts , Cooperation is the key to do any business , now I just wait you bring lucky to me , let's talk if you have any ideas !\nI work in car parts field for some years and get lots of experience , there is a big car parts wholesale market nearby, any idea to find something ?\nI am familar with metal works like Pressing , drawing , bending etc., For materials ,I have a strong feeling that it is a revolutionary product in stainless steel field , our lives might be colorful soon !\nAs internet is more and more popular , search engine optimize is necessary to learn for product list , others like data collect \/ analysis , auto-submit is useful too .\nI have ready-to-sell products listing here , please just create an order like you shop elsewhere , I will contact you soon to confirm lead time , freight , payment method . As I hope my business view is far and far , I also accept typical orders like 3D design , SEO task , Product development , or if not list above , welcome to talk , I believe my experience may help .","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Bracket\u00ae Brands insecticide controls a range of insect pests that damage many important crops, including cotton, citrus, vegetables, peanuts, and tobacco. Bracket\u00ae Brands insecticide can be used in greenhouses, as well as on golf courses, sod farms, and outdoor floral and ground cover plantings. Air or ground applications put this versatile insecticide to effective use.\nBracket\u00ae Brands is an effective cotton insecticide that can be used in foliar, hopperbox, and in-furrow treatments. It can be tank mixed with several other cotton insecticides.\nBracket\u00ae Brands insecticide controls many cotton insects, including armyworm (excluding beet), bollworm, cabbage looper, cotton aphid, cutworm, fleahopper, pink bollworm, plant bug (lygus), stinkbug, thrip, tobacco budworm and whitefly.\nWhen spray particles come in contact with bollworm and tobacco budworm eggs, hatching larvae may be controlled as they emerge and consume their egg casings. For dead-hatch and larval control, apply Bracket\u00ae Brands with other insecticides. For improved deposition, canopy penetration and spray coverage, use InterLock\u00ae plus Preference\u00ae adjuvants.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzadnhm b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzadnhm
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+{"text":"I have a lot of respect for the publishing platform of Portland, Oregon's Another Sky Press. When purchasing a book online through their website you are given the option to buy the book at cost and if you wish, an extra contribution which is in turn what supports the artist and publisher. I tip my hat to Another Sky. I think they are on to something, I know it worked for Radiohead. Hopefully they get the support they deserve. We need a mass change in the way (at least online) commerce works.\nAnteism has always been interested in financial systems like this. We have in the past had our books online for free, but now make our sold out publications available online . I hope to one day adopt a modified system such as Another Sky's.\nBelow is further information on Another Sky's publishing methods.\nWe want people to read our books, even if they read them for free. This isn't anything revolutionary - unless your local librarian is a subversive of the highest order.To best accomplish this goal we release all of our books online for free. Because we know how good 'real' books feel in your hands, we also price our trade-paperbacks via a sliding scale system in which the base price is the cost for us to ship you a book (we don't make a penny) and you set the final price by choosing what you'd like to contribute (if anything) to the creative team behind it (most of which goes to the author). You can't ever be ripped off. We call this pro-artist, pro-audience system neo-patronage.\nThere are a whole bunch of reasons we are doing this. Some of them are idealistic (we trust people!). Some of them are economic (we want everyone to be able to afford our books!). Some of them are philosophical (we believe it is a better system!). Some of them are technological (flow with technology, don't fight it!).\nBut really, it comes down to something very simple: I sat down and tried to figure out a system of commerce that was as 'pure' as possible. One free of greed. One that gave as many people as possible the ability to be a part of it, whether as artist or audience. One which allowed the artists who excelled to be compensated and thus continue to create art. And this system of neo-patronage is what I came up with. Is it perfect? Will it work? Questions, questions, and there's no way to know the answers until it's been tried. And so I am, with the help and dedication of others who want to see this system thrive.\nRather than fight technology, we've decided to flow with it. Rather than 'protect' our 'intellectual property' with DRM and other consumer-unfriendly practices, we're offering it all for free. Rather than fight against P2P and related technologies, we'll embrace them.\nWhich, of course, leaves that one burning question: how does the artist get paid? We think the answer is something along the lines of neo-patronage, and we're willing to put our money, time, and effort where our mouth is.\nWe believe it would be better if individuals could decide the value of art after they experience it, not before. Few people, if any, would buy a painting sight unseen. Yet most of us often purchase music, films and books at a fixed price before we even know if the 'product' is actually any good. As a result we've created a market where we often support creativity based on the quality of the hype, not the quality of the actual creation. This in turn has lead to a downturn in quality because the bottom line doesn't care whether or not you liked the movie\/book\/cd - you've already spent your money. There is little incentive to create better content when the industry knows they can simply hype the next half-assed thing that comes along.\nConsider what people spend on music, films and books that they end up disliking. If this money weren't wasted on inferior material, the collective audience would have more to spend on the artists that they love. The arts would flourish because money would be properly distributed to artists based on quality instead of filling the coffers of the already rich non-creators that control the hype industry.\nArt should be for all, not for those who can afford it. Contribute when you can, if you can. Don't feel guilty if you can't contribute to every artist who you've enjoyed. Instead, be proud to contribute at a level that is comfortable to you both ethically and financially. If you have the means, by all means go above and beyond and generously support a few artists to ensure they can continue to create new work.\nThere are some great, artist-friendly distributors around (CD Baby is a perfect example) but for the most part the culture industry is stacked against the artist. The perils of the music industry are well known, but the book publishing industry can be just as bad, if not worse.\nWe believe the money should go to the artist, not obsolete middle men hanging on to antiquated distribution paradigms. Period.\nWe believe this will work.\nThe corporations that currently have a strangle hold on our culture are not equipped for the impact of technology. They can not and will not adapt, for their profit lies in the realm of control and information consolidation, not freedom and information dissemination. We have the opportunity to reclaim our culture and we need to take it.\nWe believe a better system is for the audience to be under the honor system to contribute to those artists who have enriched their lives and to shun those who have wasted their time.\nThis is why we at Another Sky Press provide the entirety of our works online for free. We make no demands on our audience, we simply request that if you enjoy what we offer you that you show this via contributing to our authors or directly to us. We believe in you, and we can only hope you believe in us. Read more on neo-patronage.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Today, Cara did some voice work for Valerian, stopped by the Funny or Die studios and attended the premiere and after party of Wheeler, staring Steven Dorf and Directed by Ryan Ross.\nCara with Amber Heard and her friend Tony Deniro at his Pajama Party Friday night.\nCara is back in the US, she was photographed arriving at LAX in Los Angeles.\nCara has left Uganda and has been spotted in South Africa.\nCara Delevingne is currently in Uganda visiting a refugee camp as part of the girlup.org United Nations Foundation.\nClick to view the full gallery of pictures.\nCara on set with Cass Blackbird shooting a new Puma campaign.\nCara has left her holiday in Mustique, took a selfie with her brother Alex Jaffe and was spotted on an airplane.\nNew still from Valerian and the City of a Thousand Planets starring Cara Delevingne and Dane Dehaan. Valerian opens in July 2017.\nCara Delevingne will star in a campaign for the Gabrielle bag from Chanel's spring collection. Pharrell Williams, Kristen Stewart and Caroline de Maigret will also star in the campaign shot by Karl Lagerfeld which will debut April 3. Vanity Fair article.\nCara has been celebrating the New Year in Mustique with Poppy Delevingne, Mary Charteris and Lilly Donaldson.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"The WaterRower Indo-Row Studio Rowing Machine is specifically designed to be lightweight, portable, space saving and vertically stack-able. In fact, 3 Indo-Row indoor rowing machines can be stored vertically in the same amount space as ONE indoor cycling bike!\nThe unique geometry of the Indo-Row Studio rowing machine makes it easy to row with good technique, even for a beginner rower, and the quality construction provides a natural, fluid connection with every stroke.\nTo win this great prize (worth $1699), complete your details below, telling us in 25 words or less why you would love to win a WaterRower Indo-Row Rowing machine for your gym or studio.\n(1) The WIN a WaterRower Indo-Rower Essay Contest runs from April 1st 2014 to June 30th 2014. All entries are to be digitally submitted no later than 11:59pm EST June 29th, 2014.\n(11) Prizes are as follows: The Grand Prize Winner will a single (one) WaterRower Indo-Rower Studio Rowing Machine. Contest winners will also be acknowledged on the wnif.com.au website.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"I'm a third year graduate student in the statistics department at Pennsylvania State University, interesting in machine learning and classification problems.\nBefore starting graduate school I worked as a data analyst at both Zynga and GrubHub. Prior to that, I was an undergraduate economics student at the University of Chicago, where I was a member of the Chicago Debate Society.\nGenerated with Pelican. Layout done with Skeleton. Icons are Font Awesome. Hosted on GitHub Pages.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"These Zucchini Bacon Fat Bombs are so delicious you can't even imagine. As someone who is trying to follow a low carb Meditteranean diet, I need fat bombs. Usually, when the afternoon hunger starting to kick in I go for my raw chocolate but I wanted a savory treat too. I found the inspiration for this recipe on the bulletproof blog.\nI took the recipe and gave it a little more of a Meditteranean fusion feel to it. We are talking about a wonderful pastured raised bacon mixed with zucchini, onions, coconut flour, eggs, cumin, and some turmeric. Trust me it's super easy to make and so delicious.\nTo make the Zucchini Bacon Fat Bombs i fried the bacon and then the onion in the bacon's fat to get extra flavor. When I finished with the bacon and onions I cut the bacon and add it along with the onions to a bowl with the rest of the ingredients. Mix everything together and moved it to a muffin baking sheet. I cook it for 35 min and when it got a nice color outside and ready in the inside i let it cool off a little on a rack. I served it with greek yogurt and some veggies on the side and my afternoon fat bomb became my dinner :).\n2. When bacon is crisp but not too crisp remove from pan and uses the leftover fat oil to cook the onions until they are changing the color to light gold.\n3. take a big mixing bowl and combine all the ingredients. Mix together well until everything is mixed.\n5. Bake for 30-35 min until it gets a nice color and ready inside.\n6. Let it cool a little and serve it with Greek yogurt.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"Just as in the human arena, a well-trained and experienced veterinary general surgeon can perform a long list of surgeries: intestinal blockage removals, splenectomies, hernia repairs, gall bladder removals, etc. Our primary veterinary surgeons are also formally trained in orthopedic procedures which include fracture repair using pins, plates, screws, and also knee ligament (anterior cruciate) surgery repairs using skilled techniques varying from embrications, to TPLOs, and TTAs. These are shortened terms to describe highly sophisticated procedures to repair the most common torn ligament in the dog. Several of these complex surgeries are done weekly at Pender.\nPender has an assigned surgeon each morning Monday through Saturday, and quite often an afternoon surgeon as well. If, an experienced surgeon is needed at 2am to help an emergency patient, one is always available to return to the hospital and perform whatever surgery is necessary.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Zumer Sport's softball messenger bag is created from actual softball leather. The leather is durable, puncture resistant, and virtually spill proof! Perfect for any age, guys or girls, in any environment. Carry it on a plane, take it to school \u2013 it's a messenger bag made from softball leather!","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"U.S. Ferrari dealer Louis Chinetti convinced Enzo to create a convertible specifically for his stateside clientele. Photo by Darin Schnabel, courtesy RM Sotheby's.\nChassis No. 10709\u2014with matching engine No. and a body by Carrozzeria Scaglietti\u2014was acquired new by Chinetti's friend Eddie Smith Sr., a hosiery magnate in North Carolina. The vehicle remained in his family for 45 years until it sold through RM Sotheby's for approximately \u00a322 million in 2013. Proceeds from that price went to various charities dear to the Smiths.\nIn 1999, this Alfa Romeo 8C 2900B Lungo Spider was honored as the Most Elegant Convertible at the Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance. Photo by Darin Schnabel, courtesy RM Sotheby's.\nThis 1939 Alfa Romeo 8C 2900B Lungo Spider\u2014chassis No. 412041\u2014had its body built by Carrozzeria Touring, and is one of only 12 convertible examples from the coachbuilder in existence. The car is a compilation of original components\u2014including body No. 2027 and engine No. 422042\u2014and its primary restoration was completed in 1997. Two years later it was named the Most Elegant Convertible at the Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance. In 2016, the car returned to Northern California, this time as an auction lot presented by RM Sotheby's at Monterey Car Week. The Alfa Romeo raked in approximately \u00a315.2 million.\nIn 2012, the von Krieger 540 K Special Roadster sold at Gooding & Company's Pebble Beach Auctions for approximately \u00a39 million.\nOn September 9, 2017, auction attendees at the RM Sotheby's Ferrari\u2014Leggenda E Passione sale in Maranello, Italy, bid on a beauty that had not yet been built. The car they were competing for was none other than Ferrari's LaFerrari Aperta, a herculean hybrid that combines a 6.3-liter V-12 with a kinetic energy recovery system that results in a total of 949 hp and 900 joule of torque. The rear-wheel-drive roadster, which features the same torsional rigidity as its coupe counterpart, is able to rocket from zero to just over 200 kph in under 7 seconds and reach a top speed of 349 kph.\nOnly 210 examples of the LaFerrari Aperta came to fruition. Photo: Courtesy RM Sotheby's.\nOwnership of the cutting-edge convertible came at a cost of approximately \u00a37.8 million, setting a record for the highest auction amount paid on car from this century. All proceeds went to Save the Children, a charity providing relief to youth in need throughout the world.\nThe Bugatti Type 57 line was born from the imagination of Jean Bugatti and comprises such iconic cars as the A\u00e9rolithe and Type 57 SC Atlantic. The \"S\" stood for the French word surbaisse, meaning \"lowered\"\u2014a reference to its chassis. The race-focused ferocities won numerous contests, including the 24 Hours of Le Mans, where one set a record for average speed at 136.9 kph.\nChassis No. 57513 is among three remaining cabriolets with coachwork from Carrosserie Vanvooren. Photo by Darin Schnabel, courtesy RM Sotheby's.\nThe Bugatti brought bidding to a boil at the 2017 RM Sotheby's Amelia Island sale, moving on to its seventh owner for \u00a36 million.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"The world of the job search has changed dramatically in the last decade or so. It's still evolving, even today. For many people who have had jobs for some time, the thought of conducting a job search in this new environment can seem overwhelming.\nIf you're thinking about re-entering the job market after some time away, or you've been searching for a job without much luck, take a look at what Millennial job seekers are doing. They've been using these three strategies to find the best jobs in the market right now.\nMillennials prefer to engage in meaningful work. They want to feel like the work they do is important and the company they work for aligns with their values. Feeling like their work matters is motivating and gives a sense of fulfillment, especially if they can see it makes a difference at the workplace. They also want to be proud of the company they work for.\nTo this end, Millennials tend to use research a little differently than other job seekers. They're more interested in the company itself. What does the company do and what values does it have? What difference is it making in the world, and what vision is there for the future?\nYou can adopt this strategy to find jobs that align with your own values and goals. Do you want to work for a top technology firm, and make a difference in the lives of others? Maybe you'd like to work for a company with a focus on a greener future.\nWhatever you prefer, research company values and corporate citizenship. The information you uncover will help you find a job that's a great fit.\nMillennials are the social media generation, so it's no surprise they've also adopted this new tool for their job searches.\nToday's job seekers use social media not only to find jobs but to meet others in their industry as well. This networking allows them to connect with people they might not otherwise encounter. It can also help them discover new job opportunities.\nIf you're not already using social media in your job search, it's time to get on board. A 2017 study found 94% of online Canadian adults have at least one social media account. Networking is important for any professional, no matter where you are in your career. Just be sure to audit your social media beforehand.\nAs job seekers, Millennials are more likely to take risks. This doesn't necessarily mean they'll apply to be the CEO of a company, but it does mean they're willing to look at opportunities in a new way.\nMany people still cling to the idea of the corporate ladder, but the reality is that today's organizations are flatter than before. Opportunity is often a horizontal move between companies. Jobs are more likely to be a series of projects or roles with a number of different workplaces. It's little wonder the gig economy is in full swing.\nMillennials have been adapting to this revised work environment, and many of them even see it as a good thing. They're more willing to move from company to company and from job to job. They're ready to experiment with different roles. They see this kind of movement as valuable, since it keeps them learning and building skills.\nIf you're ready to continue building your resume this way, one of the best things you can do is work with a staffing agency like Liberty Staffing. Our expert team helps job seekers like you discover new opportunities you may not have imagined.\n10 + years of Office\/Administrative Recruitment experience, 15+ years of Recruitment, Management, Sales and Customer Service experience. Previous District Training Manager and Human Resource Manager in Supply Chain and Logistics.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Off to a roping training family in UTAH, I think we may see these boys at some PRCA rodeos in the future.\nFriendly, sound, big boned, stout with more than plenty of talent. These fellas are now in our horse training program (about 30 rides, lots of ground work, hot walker, ranch exposure etc) and are for sale as prospects only currently. All of their brothers and sisters have made talented ranch\/rope\/reining\/cutting horses. Both stand 15hh with lots of bone and a stout build.\nVaccinations, worming, & farrier work done on regular schedule. Born and raised here on our cattle ranch. AQHA papers in hand. Eligible for AQHA Ranching Heritage Breeders Challenges.\nTheir training will continue as long as they are with us, so their prices are subject to change. We have to many horses in our training program right now, this is the only reason they are on the market. I will add more info, pictures, etc. as soon as I can.\nBelow Video: 2011 AQHA Sorrel Gelding in the round pen to show gait and soundness.\nBelow Video: 2011 AQHA Bay Roan Gelding in the round pen to show gait and soundness.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzaeorg b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzaeorg
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"Is Mediation right for you? Simmons & Gottfried, PLLC offers a free half hour in office consultation about Mediation and how it could benefit you. Call 480-998-1500 to schedule your appointment.\nWhat Does it Mean to be an \"Unbiased\" or \"Neutral\" Mediator?\nCan We Mediate If I Am A Victim of Domestic Violence?","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"The doctor was riding home from the medical clinic where he worked, through the bustling streets of Guangzhou, when a truck swerved suddenly and cut him off. As the truck screeched to a halt in front of him, the doctor got off his motorcycle and walked towards it. The truck driver, agitated, opened the door and, grabbing hold of the truck's roof, kicked out at the approaching doctor. The doctor reacted quickly and, turning his stance, struck deeply into the soft tissue below the kicking driver's knee with a powerful palm-edge. The driver cringed but had already launched his other leg. The doctor simply turned again and applied a second palm-edge. The driver screamed and, losing his grip, fell from the truck. Just at the doctor was about to leave, however, a second man appeared suddenly from the side, swinging his arm, a long-bladed knife clutched reverse-grip in his hand. Seeing the attack out of the corner of his eye, the doctor shot out his arms in a half-dispersing-wing movement to cover. He intercepted the attack but the blade was long enough that it's tip still managed to bite slightly into his chest. Following up immediately, the doctor yanked the knife-wielding assailant off balance and struck out simultaneously with a devastating tiger-tail kick. A crunching sound accompanied the attacker's scream. The doctor, grandmaster Sum Nung, watched the man turn and limp away, clutching his shattered side, before returning to his motorcycle and continuing on his way home.\nWhile wing chun kuen is well know for its simple, effective boxing methods, what has often been overlooked is that wing chun kuen also contains a multitude of devastatingly effective kicking skills. In fact, the very same principles that gave rise to wing chun kuen's reputation with the hands are just as effective when applied with the legs.\nThe Sum Nung system of wing chun kuen was handed down from Fine Jade Flower Union (King Fa Wui Goon) Opera performers Wong Wah-Bo and Painted Face Kam (Dai Fa Min Kam) to Imperial constables Fok Bo-Chuen and Fung Siu-Ching and from them on to Yuen Kay-San of Foshan. Known as Yuen the Fifth (Yuen Lo Jap), he in turn passed his knowledge on to Sum Nung (Cen Neng), the present day grandmaster of the system, who had previously learned the san sik (seperate technique) wing chun kuen of Cheung Bo.\nThe well rounded and effective kicking and counter kicking of the system stem from these many influences and from the rich heritage of the art.\nWing chun kuen contains numerous kicking techniques. While each movement has its own unique aspects, there are several concepts that can be generally applied to all of them. Unlike some other martial arts, wing chun kuen kicks are never applied above the height of a practitioners own waist. Like most Southern fist systems, wing chun kuen prefers to use the legs to counter the legs and leaves higher level techniques to the upper body. In application, wing chun kuen kicks are used directly and explosively to break an opponent's structure and destroy their ability to continue an encounter. The power used in the kicks can vary from long and thrusting to short and whipping to pressing and controlling. Furthermore, there are no feints or fakes to confuse an opponent or measure distance. This is because, while powerful, kicking is also risky, as the lifting of the leg reduces stability and leaves the practitioner vulnerable to having their own balance broken. Thus, wing chun kuen does everything possible to ensure that when a practitioner kicks, that kick will not miss.\nThe heart piercing kick (chuen sum gerk) is the first kick introduced in the sinking bridge (chum kiu) set. The kick begins with a circling movement that can be used to evade an attack or to attain better positioning. In the set, the knee comes up with the foot outwardly rotated. This can be used to obstruct an incoming kick, or to lock or jar an opponent's leg. The leg then thrusts straight forward. Like the well known vertical punch of the system, the direct nature of the heart piercing kick allows it to intercept and counter in one motion. The technique itself can be used as a stop-kick, to strike into vulnerable areas of the opponent's anatomy, or to press and fold their joints. Following the kick, the leg can either return to its position of origin or can be used to step forward for a follow up.\nThe side nailing kick (wang ding gerk) is also found in the sinking bridge set and is used, as the name suggests, to the practitioners side. Like the heart piercing kick, the side nailing kick also begins with a circling of the foot and raising of the knee to cover evasion, jamming, etc. from its own unique angle. Because of the direction of the kick, positioning and angling play an important role and if done with proper timing, allow the practitioner to slip attacks while countering with a kick, stamp, sweep, or joint press, at the same time.\nThe angling kick (gok ma), found in grandmaster Sum Nung's twelve forms (sup yee sik) set, strikes diagonally with either the toe, instep, or shin. A short, powerful motion, the angling kick is used to quickly chase and control a limb, trip an opponent, or strike deeply into sensitive anatomical areas.\nThe tiger tail kick (fu mei gerk), included in the wooden dummy (muk yan jong) and air dummy (hong jong) sets, can be used from the side or the back. Its nature maximizes evasion and power and can be launched quickly from a standing position or when stepping to flank an opponent. In form, the upper body drops down quickly while the leg raises and strikes out with the body weight firmly behind. This allows it to strike at a longer range directly into an oncoming opponent.\nThe moving kick (yee ma), which comes from the darting fingers (biu jee) set involves an outward arcing of the leg. It is typically used to destroy the body structure of an opponent by circling around their leg to fold or sweep it out from under them.\nThe rising knee (hei sut), also found in the dummy set, looks similar to the initial chambering of the front and side kicks. It differs, however, in that it is not merely used for obstructing but actually strikes with the point of the knee itself. This makes it useful for offense at extremely close ranges.\nThere are several elements important to the successful application of kicking. These elements include practice, timing, positioning, balance, targeting, and sensitivity.\nPractice makes perfect. An old saying but a true one. Each basic needs to be drilled over and over again until it becomes a natural, instinctual movement that will hold up under stress and pressure. The only true secret in any martial art, practice can be accomplished through solo drills, partner training (moving from set patterns to freestyle exchange), and on the wooden dummy.\nTiming is arguably the most important aspect of any technique and can only be built through hard work and experience. Without timing, every other aspect may be perfect and the kick could still fail. Some kickers use an active approach with a set, steady tempo. Wing chun kuen focuses instead on reaction and interruption, allowing a practitioner to intercept the pattern of such attacks and to strike while an opponent is most vulnerable; while still preparing, is caught midway through their motion, or is attempting to recover from a missed technique.\nBecause of the relatively low height of wing chun kuen kicks, they require close proximity to the opponent in order to make them effective. Due to this closeness, kicks often operate within the same range as the hands and thus all the body's limbs can be used together, to support and complement each other. An opponent controlled by the hands is both easier to strike and to prevent from countering.\nInitial positioning, which uses a facing approach, allows a practitioner to attack or defend equally with any limb or any combination of limbs. In transition, wing chun kuen cuts the angles, charging or flanking to optimize the practitioner's options and attacking weapons while simultaneously minimizing those of the opponent.\nBalance requires a steady, stable root. When raising a leg to kick, it leaves only one leg for standing. To overcome this, wing chun kuen trains turning, moving, and kicking with the majority of the weight on one leg right from the beginning. In application, the opponent can become the second half of the balance equation, with a practitioner holding them and \"borrowing\" their stability during the kick.\nThrough all of this, wing chun kuen's goal is to always destroy the opponent's ability to form an offense as quickly and efficiently as possible. Towards this goal, wing chun kuen targets the closet, most vulnerable part of the opponent's anatomy. Options from the inside can include joints like the ankle or knee and vital areas like the groin. From the outside, the joints, kidneys, and ribs are all available targets. Large muscle groups and other sensitive areas can also be struck or pressed from either angle. The exact target will, of course, depend on circumstances such as the opponent's timing, distancing and positioning, balance, etc.\nSensitivity enables a practitioner to minimize reaction time when in the close proximity to the opponent wing chun kuen favors. At this range, the legs work much as the hands do in chi sao. By touching the leg and feeling for the subtle changes of angle and pressure, a wing chun kuen practitioner can adjust faster than eyesight alone would allow. The direct feedback received through maintaining such contact allows the practitioner to remain a step ahead of the opponent and to keep this advantage, disrupting as needed, throughout.\nWing chun kuen is a conceptual, not a technical martial art. The techniques merely show the basic tools, the concepts allow those tools to come to life in application.\nCleaving the center is the simplest most direct response to a kicking attack. If an opponent takes a circular route, or the wing chun kuen practitioner has the timing to intercept, a counter kick can take the shorter path, dominating the mutual meridian line, and thrust straight forward through the opponent's center. If the opponent's attack is already taking the center, the practitioner can step to face or flank, creating a new line to cleave through.\nAttacking the post targets the supporting leg of a kicking opponent. It takes advantage of their vulnerability in having all their weight resting on one leg by attacking the very limb that is keeping them standing.\nAttacking the weapon is similar to attacking the post, but targets the kicking leg rather than the supporting limb. Depending on the range and the timing, cleaving the center or attacking the post may not be a possibility. In these instances, the practitioner can attack the closet target and follow up from there.\nObstructing the path, when not able to properly counter early or directly enough, allows a practitioner to jam the opponent's timing and choke off their attack before it becomes a threat. In addition to breaking the opponent's structure, the obstructing leg is also pre-positioned to allow for immediate follow up.\nAmong the better known individuals fortunate enough to have learned from grandmaster Sum Nung (with apologies, far too many to list here completely) are Sum Jee, Leung Dai-Chiu, Ngo Lui-Kay (Ao Leiqi), Kwok Wan-Ping, Lee Chi-Yiu, Wong Wah, and many others.\nNgo Lui-Kay followed grandmaster Sum Nung from the mid-1960s until he relocated to Canada in 1982. As the wing chun kuen kicking and counter-kicking was passed to grandmaster Sum Nung, and from grandmaster Sum Nung to Ngo Lui-Kay and his many classmates, so have Ngo Lui-Kay and his classmates shared them with their own students and descendants. It is hoped that by introducing these concepts in the west, it will help to preserve the rare and unique teachings of grandmaster Sum Nung for future generations.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"When should a person expect to be released from prison?\nThe Commissioner and the correctional facility must release a prisoner from the prison on their release date [section 61 of the Correctional Services Act 2014 NT (CSA)]. The release date marks the completion of a person's sentence, or 'full time'.\nIf a prisoner is given an Early Release from the Commissioner, their sentence is taken to end on the day they are released and they are no longer a prisoner. As a matter of general practice, early release is ordinarily done when there is some reason to release early such as the availability of an aeroplane flight back to a community on a certain day, or other similar reason.\nThe parole system is designed to help a prisoner transition back into the community through conditional release with supervision and support from NT Community Corrections.\nThe issue of parole arises when a court hands down a sentence of greater than 12 months or life, and where no part of that sentence has been suspended [s53 of the Sentencing Act 1995 NT (SA)]. In this case, the court must fix a period during which the prisoner is not eligible to be released on parole, a non-parole period [s53 SA]. The non-parole period is the period during which the prisoner cannot be released. However, the court does not have to determine a non-parole period where it considers the fixing of such a period inappropriate.\nFor Federal prisoners, offenders must serve any non-parole period before becoming eligible for parole. A parole order for Federal prisoners is to be made by the Attorney-General [sections19AA, 19AL Crimes Act].\nMembers of the Parole Board are appointed by the Minister and the Board is made up of 18 members [section 3B of the Parole Act 2014 NT (PA)].\nDepending on the nature of the crime that a prisoner committed, a parole application will be considered by different members of the Parole Board [s3EB PA]. In most cases, the Parole Board will be made up of the Supreme Court Judge, the Commissioner of Correctional Services, a police officer, a person who represents the interests of the victim and 2 people who represent the community [s3EB PA].\nHowever, for prisoners who have been sentenced for life for the crime of murder, the Board will be made up of the Supreme Court Judge, the Commissioner of Correctional Services, a police officer, a medical professional, a person who represents the interests of the victim and 5 people who represent the community [s3EB PA].\nMany Parole Orders have condition or rule that a parolee will not commit another offence when on parole. Many Parole Orders have a condition or rule that the parolee will not do anything to give rise to a Domestic Violence Order (DVO).\nThe Parole Order signed by the prisoner (who, when released to parole, becomes a parolee) lists all of the conditions or rules of parole. Parole Orders can be different and it is important a prisoner or parolee understands all the conditions or rules of their Parole Order.\nWhen a Parole Order is signed, it is important the prisoner continue to demonstrate positive conduct and behaviour in prison and leading up to their release (and after their release). It is possible for a prisoner to sign a Parole Order and then have a write-up or misbehave and have their Parole Order revoked.\nAround 8 months before a prisoner's non-parole period ends, they should expect a probation and parole officer from Community Corrections to being working with them to write a report for the Parole Board.\nAround 2 months before a prisoner becomes eligible for parole, the Parole Board will consider their application.\nDo you have somewhere to live that the Parole Board will be ok with?\nDo you have family or other people in the community to support you?\nIf the reason you are in prison is to do with alcohol and\/or other drugs, do you want to stay in residential rehabilitation as a stepping stone to staying somewhere in the community? Have you done alcohol and\/or other drug programs whilst in prison?\nHave you done all the recommended treatment programs that the prison has asked you to do?\nDo you have a job or think you could get a job? What sorts of jobs or training have you had before? The Parole Board like to know that a person on parole is staying busy with work or education or training or other programs.\nIf the Parole Board agrees for a prisoner to be released to parole, this means the prisoner will need to sign a Parole Order and can expect to be released on the date set in the order (so long as they continue to show positive conduct and behaviour and their Parole Order is not revoked).\nWhen a prisoner is released to parole, they are taken to still be under sentence of imprisonment. They will not have served the term of their imprisonment that occurred during their parole until the parole period ends and has not been revoked or cancelled [s14 PA]. If the parole peiod ends without the parole order being revoked or cancelled, the person is taken to have served the term of their imprisonment whilst on parole [s14 PA].\nIf the parole application is deferred, this means the Parole Board will talk about a prisoner's parole again at a date in the future. In many of these cases there is something that needs to be done or found out by the Parole Officer that needs to be brought back to the Parole Board. The prisoner should be provided some guidance as to what needs to be done during the period leading up to the next mention date.\nIf the Parole Board decides not to release on parole, no further work takes place with the parole file. The prisoner is sent a letter and in the letter there are reasons that are put as to why the Parole Board decided not to release. Sometimes the prisoner can work on these reasons. At a later date, the prisoner can ask the Parole Board to talk about their parole by putting in a 'reapplication' (this can be done with a letter or seeking assistance to write a letter). Before reapplying, it is useful to address the reasons outlined in the letter sent after the Parole Board decided not to release to parole.\nIf the Parole Board say yes to the reapplication, they will defer the matter to a future date and allocate a Parole and Probation Officer to talk to the prisoner about parole.\nThere is no internal appeal mechanism for a decision of the Parole Board. Like many decisions of an authority, decisions can be appealed to the Supreme Court. However, there can be costs involved and prisoners affected should be encouraged to seek legal advice.\nUsually there is a reason why the Parole Board will say no to a parole application, such as a person being in a red or blue shirt (a medium or high security classification), or the need to do another program in prison, or the need to explore another accommodation option. It is useful to look at the reasons why the Parole Board said no and to deal with these reasons.\nThe 'rules of natural justice (including any duty of procedural fairness) do not apply to or in relation to a decision or action' of the Parole Board [s3HA PA; Parole Board Policy and Procedures Manual p18-19].\nHowever, the Parole Board should give reasons for their decision and ensure the prisoner knows the decision [Parole Board Policy and Procedures Manual p18].\nIf a person is released on parole they are called a parolee. A parolee's parole conditions or rules in their Parole Order can be amended or changed. Parole can be revoked at any time 'before the end of their parole period' by the Chair of the Parole Board [s5(6) PA].\nIf a prisoner while out on parole fails to comply with a condition of their parole, or there are reasonable ground for suspecting the person has violated their parole, a police officer may arrest them without a warrant [s5 PA]. It does not matter if the parole period has expired or not.\nThe court's role is to consider whether the Parole Order is cancelled, and can do so if 'it is satisfied that the person has failed, without reasonable excuse, to comply with a condition of the parole order' [s6 PA].\nIf the court cancels or revokes parole and the parole period has already expired, the parole is taken to have been cancelled immediately before the expiration of the parole period [s6 PA].\nWhere the court cancels a parole order the parolee is sent back to prison as a prisoner [s7 PA].\nThe Commissioner for Correctional Services has the power to issue an Administrative Home Detention Permit which allows the prisoner to live in a place outside the prison [s132 CSA].\nBefore a prisoner will be issued a permit, the Commissioner must make sure that the place a prisoner wants to live is suitable for them and does not put the community at risk or cause inconvenience [s133 CSA]. The prisoner must also agree to the rules of the permit [s133 CSA]. The only compulsory condition of the permit is that the person must not leave the approved place except for times that the Commissioner, probation or parole officer says is ok [s135 CSA].\nWhen a person is issued a permit, it is in force until the prisoners release date [s134 CSA].\nThe Department of Correctional Services says that prisoner pre-release planning should start 3 months from their release date. However, if the sentence is less than 3 months in total, pre-release planning should happen alongside initial sentence planning [Correctional Services Sentence Management Manual pp36-38].\nAs of October 2015, the Department of Correctional Services revised their policy in relation to the repatriation of prisoners. As a result, if prisoners are not being collected by family, friends or by other arrangement, they will be taken to the nearest 'transport terminal' (bus stop) or legal representative's office. Also, persons will be expected to meet the costs of their repatriation [Department of Correctional Services, Office of the Commissioner 20\/10\/2015]. This means if they are from a regional or remote community they will be expected to pay for their own return and with money received as income from work or the Sentenced to a Job policy.\nHowever, the Department of Correctional Services may still make repatriation arrangements for persons if it is a condition of their release, as would have been decided in Court [Department of Correctional Services, Office of the Commissioner 20\/10\/2015].\nA prisoner who has a grievance may be able to have it resolved without going to a court. Complaints can be made and handled as described in the following ways.\nPrisoners can fill in what is known as a 'supers parade' to request a response from the Superintendent. Complaints or concerns can be raised through the supers parade.\nA prisoner can make a complaint to the General Manager of the prison [s25 Correctional Services Regulations].\nA prisoner can request to make a complaint to the General Manager or Superintendent of the prison by submitting a form commonly referred to as a 'supers parade'. This form can be requested from any prison officer. Following the submission of this form, the prisoner will have a meeting with the Superintendent. The prisoner may request that the complaint is made known to the General Manager. If the complaint remains unresolved following this meeting, the prisoner can submit a complaint to the Ombudsman (see below).\nPrisoners are able to submit a complaint directly to the Minister. It is possible the contents of the letter will be shown to the Commissioner or his or her office for advice and the Department's views.\nAn official visitor can assist the overall system by looking into matters inside a custodial correctional facility and reporting directly to the Minister. This can help as the Minister receives information from an independent source and from someone who can inquire into certain matters inside a facility, rather than just receiving that information from the Commissioner.\nPart 2.3 of the CSA deals with official visitors. The Minister must appoint at least 3 official visitors for each Custodial Correctional Facility. These facilities include a correctional centre (such as a prison) or court custody centre or police custody centre [s 11, CSA].\nThe Commissioner must ensure that each custodial correctional facility is visited by an official visitor for the facility at least once every month [s 29 CSA]. The Official Visitor has the job of inquiring into the 'treatment, behaviour and conditions of the prisoners at the facility' [s 30 (2) CSA]. As soon as practicable after the visit the offiicial visitor reports to the Minister and in writing. If directed by the Minister to report to the Commissioner on a specific matter the official visitor must report (a) to the Commisioner on that matter; and (b) to the Minister on all other matters.\nThe official visitor 'must not interfere with, or give instructions about, the control or management of prisoners' [s 31 CSA]. It is not the official visitor's job to intervene and change a decision or something that is happening inside a custodial correctional facility. Rather, it is their job to look into it and give a report to the Minister.\nPrisoners can be encouraged to talk to the official visitor to raise general issues of concern. For individual complaints these matters can be more appropriately dealt with under more formal arrangement such as a complaint or following up with support services or legal advice.\nPrison authorities are not allowed to open letters sent between prisoners and the Ombudsman [ss151, 153, 154 CSA; s26 Ombudsman Act].\nA legal practitioner may visit the prisoner at any reasonable time by appointment with the General Manager [s96 CSA]. Generally, this is with 24 hours notice (a legal practitioner can negotiate outside of this timeframe). Legal professional privilege applies to legal practitioners meeting with their clients in prison. A meeting between a prisoner and their legal practitioner must not be audibly observed or recorded without the consent of the visitor [s102 CSA].\nThe General Manager must not monitor or record a phone call between a prisoner and their legal practitioner without the consent of the legal practitioner [s105].\nA prisoner must not be stopped from sending or recieving any legal mail [s106].\nHowever, if a correctional officer reasonably believes that mail is not in fact a legal item and is made out to be a legal item, they may confiscate the mail [s153 CSA]. A legal practitioner who has been nominated by the Minister [s156 CSA] can then inspect the mail to determine whether in fact it is a legal item [s154 CSA].\nThere are a few prisoners aid services around the Northern Territory.\nDarwin Prisoners Aid Association Inc.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"The Physician Specialist\/Psychiatrist conducts comprehensive Court-ordered evaluations, writes detailed reports and testifies as an expert witness.\nConducts a variety of forensic clinical evaluations, including but not limited to any specifically designated by Court or FCMHS to be conducted by psychiatric physician, in compliance with program requirements and quality standards. Performs all necessary components of such evaluation (except psychological testing).\nWrites formal evaluation reports, in compliance with program requirements and quality standards. Provides court-ready reports of all complete evaluations and comprehensive drafts of any partial evaluations one or more scheduled workdays in advance of court or clinic due dates, except in emergency or expedited cases.\nTestifies as expert witness, in compliance with program requirements and quality standards.\nBegins testimony preparation one or more hours in advance, expect in emergency or expedited cases.\nServes as the primary psychiatric\/medical consultation resource at FCMHS. Available for ad hoc and\/or scheduled consultation by FCMHS colleagues program-wide on case-specific or general psychiatric\/medical issues as needed. At discretion of program leadership, participates in psychiatric\/medical consultation and collaborative initiatives with the court and other agencies.\n1. Graduation from an approved medical school.\n2. Completion of approved residency or fellowship in the specialty or sub-specialty and Board eligible or certified or Subboard eligible or certified.\n3. Five years experience in field of specialty or subspecialty acceptable to the Medical Board of the Hospital.\n4. Licensed to practice medicine in the State of New York.\nIf applying online, please include your cover letter in the same file attachment with your uploaded resume.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"This is my website [login to view URL] I'm looking for someone to write those kinds of question\/answer style troubleshooting articles, it can be very short. This length ([login to view URL]) is good enough and I'll be providing the link to the sources so you just need to write it and send me the article.\nHi, send a message so we can talk more on this project. Thanks.\nI have experience in technical writing with given information and I can produce the product in a short period of time.\nI am willing to do what you want and complete it at the time you want just choose me Thank you sir.\nI am a professional writer and i assure quality and plagiarism free work. I have also worked as a writer in various platforms helping students excel in multiple fields.\nHI, I have looked at your website, and I can create those links in 2 days. I hope to hear from you soon.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
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+{"text":"But here's the interesting part. We have two articles that were, by the standards of contemporary political science, of sufficiently high quality to find publication in one of the premiere journals in International Relations. But they have very different policy implications for current (and potentially high-stakes) debates. In an era when political scientists are going out of their way to push research that bears directly on policy concerns, what should we do with such a situation?\nAt one level, Erik's approach seems sensible: publicize the research but note your own take on the subject. I expect Kroenig will respond cogently. That's great for political-science discussions, but how are policymakers and non-academics to interpret such an exchange? The situation strikes me as unsatisfactory. If our mission is to prove that our work \"matters\" and thus, for example, deserves public funding\u2026 then, well, okay. But if our mission is to better shape policy, then what? Indeed, I suspect most \"consumers\" of this kind of debate will simply accept the position that fits with their prior commitments.\nLest we think the issues here are hypothetical, consider that Kroenig's (related) work arguing that nuclear superiority deters other states from initiating crises has already made it into the policy discussion (PDF). Obviously, if Kroenig's right that's not a substantive problem. But the debate over the issue suggests that \"we\" don't have anything approaching a settled answer, which takes us back to the bigger issue, How do \"we\" present work as \"political science\" in a way that (1) does justice to its scholarly nature but (2) also signals the most important thing about its social-scientific quality\u2013that its findings are likely far from settled?\nAnd that's before we even delve into the kinds of methodological debates that make an enormous difference, but are unlikely to make sense to most of the policy community. For perspective, compare the satirical piece I linked to below.\nWe could design fora that embrace the pragmatic\/juridical definition of truth on which the best answer is the one that emerges from a community of discussion rather than from the analysis of one person, in one office, with one dataset. That is, put Kroenig, Sescher and Fuhrman (Voeten too) in a room and make them confront policy questions together. I suspect there are institutions that do this already, but perhaps policy recommendations should be made to prominently emerge from these places rather than from the conclusions of papers.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Justice, Loretta K was born in 1943 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 9700 E Iliff AVE APT F60, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2578284.\nJustice, Lynne Valerie was born in 1961 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1545 Peregrine Vista HTS # 304, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 5901910.\nJustice, Margaret Johanna was born in 1991 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 6809 Chesterfield CT, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601782617.\nJustice, Maria was born in 1957 and registered to vote, giving the address as 130 Vaquero Senda, WOODLAND PARK, Teller County, CO. Justice' voter ID number is 601509155.\nJustice, Mariah was born in 1995 and registered to vote, giving the address as 6651 Bugle DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Justice' voter ID number is 601215938.\nJustice, Martha Joy was born in 1943 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3308 Union Jack WAY, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 280430.\nJustice, Marvin Dale was born in 1948 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 5761\/2 Melrose CT, GRAND JUNCTION, Mesa County, CO. His voter ID number is 2358655.\nJustice, Mary Barbara was born in 1947 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 792 23 7\/10 RD, GRAND JUNCTION, Mesa County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2264666.\nJustice, Mary Caroline was born in 1994 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 60 Watch Hill DR APT A, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600809880.\nJustice, Mary E was born in 1947 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 4201 E 6Th Avenue PKWY, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2504433.\nJustice, Mary Michael was born in 1969 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 327 E Magnolia ST # 2A, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 200005212.\nJustice, Mary T was born in 1962 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1042 Quentin ST, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 664188.\nJustice, Matthew Jose was born in 1980 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1027 Riddlewood RD, HIGHLANDS RANCH, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 601122658.\nJustice, Matthew Kent was born in 1986 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 12732 N Dixon DR, PARKER, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 5946374.\nJustice, Matthew Quinton was born in 1980 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 70 Cedar DR, DURANGO, La Plata County, CO. His voter ID number is 600778498.\nJustice, Melissa Arah was born in 1981 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 8234 W Arkansas AVE, LAKEWOOD, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 3973773.\nJustice, Meredith Anne was born in 1979 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3415 Green Spring DR, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601571211.\nJustice, Michael was born in 1985 and registered to vote, giving the address as 8751 S Elk ST, HIGHLANDS RANCH, Douglas County, CO. Justice' voter ID number is 601343270.\nJustice, Michael A was born in 1969 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 3215 S Gilpin ST, ENGLEWOOD, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 858076.\nJustice, Michelle Renee was born in 1976 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3865 Cheetah DR, LOVELAND, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 1648863.\nJustice, Miles was born in 1995 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 5295 E Atlantic PL, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 600985115.\nJustice, Mindy Jo was born in 1974 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 915 Rocky Ridge CIR, ERIE, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 6798944.\nJustice, Nathaniel K was born in 1978 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 5965 W 50Th AVE, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 2966148.\nJustice, Nicholas Vere was born in 1989 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 13025 W 2Nd PL # 208, LAKEWOOD, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 600168188.\nJustice, Nichole Rose was born in 1982 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3380 S Canosa CT # A, SHERIDAN, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600183712.\nJustice, Nicole Lynn was born in 1991 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 24125 County Road 42, LASALLE, Weld County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600390151.\nJustice, Nicole Marie was born in 1988 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 10571 Colorado BLVD UNIT H203, THORNTON, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600793831.\nJustice, Noah K was born in 1986 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2013 Hickory ST, FT LUPTON, Weld County, CO. His voter ID number is 3688496.\nJustice, Nye Paul Ii was born in 1961 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 4407 Hummingbird DR, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. His voter ID number is 601623337.\nJustice, Osha Meadow was born in 1978 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 823 Hickory Ridge, BAYFIELD, La Plata County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4763181.\nJustice, Patricia Ann was born in 1955 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 11653 W 36Th AVE, WHEAT RIDGE, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4268430.\nJustice, Patricia Ann was born in 1952 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 309 Mayku WAY, GRAND JUNCTION, Mesa County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4932130.\nJustice, Patricia Therese was born in 1973 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 13500 Via Varra, BROOMFIELD, Broomfield County, CO. Her voter ID number is 3077025.\nJustice, Patrick B was born in 1945 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 6 Bonita PL, PUEBLO, Pueblo County, CO. His voter ID number is 3070740.\nJustice, Paul Edward was born in 1970 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2975 N Huron ST APT 420, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 2479061.\nJustice, Peter Allan was born in 1967 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 507 Dennison AVE, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. His voter ID number is 1536670.\nJustice, Quito Oakwyn was born in 1980 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 39 E Mill ST, BAYFIELD, La Plata County, CO. His voter ID number is 4951608.\nJustice, Rachel Coco was born in 1986 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 8883 Tranquil Knoll LN, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 200063251.\nJustice, Rachel Josephine was born in 1997 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 4805 E Kentucky AVE APT 602, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601002327.\nJustice, Rachel Joy was born in 1971 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 5328 Sun Dial PL, BOULDER, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 7934526.\nJustice, Rachel Lynn was born in 1993 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1676 S Dover CT, LAKEWOOD, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600935729.\nJustice, Randall W was born in 1974 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 3745 S Granby WAY, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 2890721.\nJustice, Rebecca Rose was born in 1989 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1406 Willshire DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601493532.\nJustice, Rhea Justice was born in 1992 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 5240 Clavelito LN, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600271785.\nJustice, Richard Alan was born in 1984 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 8883 Tranquil Knoll LN, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 601424183.\nJustice, Richard Dale was born in 1951 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2648 Cuchara ST, TRINIDAD, Las Animas County, CO. His voter ID number is 3835381.\nJustice, Richard Harvey Sr was born in 1953 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1901 Palisade ST, GRAND JUNCTION, Mesa County, CO. His voter ID number is 600652794.\nJustice, Richard L was born in 1959 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 8242 Flower CT, ARVADA, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 673353.\nJustice, Richard Lee was born in 1952 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1142 Judson ST, LONGMONT, Boulder County, CO. His voter ID number is 658227.\nJustice, Rise Ann was born in 1948 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3442 S Race ST, ENGLEWOOD, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 6845683.\nJustice, Robert E was born in 1975 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 720 S 10Th ST, KREMMLING, Grand County, CO. His voter ID number is 601829704.\nJustice, Robert Eugene was born in 1947 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 40 S Garfield ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 2898259.\nJustice, Robert Joseph was born in 1971 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 3865 Cheetah DR, LOVELAND, Larimer County, CO. His voter ID number is 1648861.\nJustice, Robert Michael was born in 1989 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 10571 Colorado BLVD UNIT H203, THORNTON, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 600828695.\nJustice, Roger Allen was born in 1959 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 3289 N Grove ST APT 308, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 600418296.\nJustice, Romey D was born in 1944 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 6289 W Lakeside CT, LITTLETON, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 5947415.\nJustice, Ronald G was born in 1933 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 6161 Rosewood DR, CENTENNIAL, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 834069.\nJustice, Roy Ellis Jr was born in 1975 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 867 S Columbine ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 600805417.\nJustice, Russell Glenn was born in 1965 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 24125 County Road 42, LASALLE, Weld County, CO. His voter ID number is 600140666.\nJustice, Samantha Supurme was born in 1993 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3460 S Platte River DR # 8108, ENGLEWOOD, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 200379065.\nJustice, Sandra Joanne was born in 1962 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 10050 E Gunnison PL # 801, DENVER, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 200202818.\nJustice, Sandra K was born in 1952 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1120 Clark CIR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 229539.\nJustice, Sandra Kay was born in 1960 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 536 37Th AVE, GREELEY, Weld County, CO. Her voter ID number is 6351249.\nJustice, Sarah Dawn was born in 1982 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 11741 Ouray CT, COMMERCE CITY, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601411072.\nJustice, Seth Orion was born in 1982 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 3404 Wadsworth BLVD, WHEAT RIDGE, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 4225253.\nJustice, Sharon Glynora was born in 1939 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1705 Oleary PT, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601161237.\nJustice, Sharon Thacker was born in 1952 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 425 Reunion CT, FRASER, Grand County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600359697.\nJustice, Shawn Alan was born in 1974 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 25329 E Fair DR, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 600332369.\nJustice, Sherrie Rae was born in 1977 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1805 S Ammons ST, LAKEWOOD, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601682096.\nJustice, Shiloh Lynette was born in 1975 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3026 Fall LN, HIGHLANDS RANCH, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 5804838.\nJustice, Stephanie Lynne was born in 1973 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 20353 Vista CIR, PARKER, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 5940687.\nJustice, Stephen was born in 1936 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1705 Oleary PT, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 601164881.\nJustice, Stephen Joseph was born in 1963 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 707 Gateway DR, BRECKENRIDGE, Summit County, CO. His voter ID number is 601882678.\nJustice, Stephen R was born in 1980 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 8234 W Arkansas AVE, LAKEWOOD, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 3984729.\nJustice, Steven Carpenter was born in 1959 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 60 Watch Hill DR APT A, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 533456.\nJustice, Steven Clay was born in 1970 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1909 Payton CIR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 601609516.\nJustice, Steven Dale was born in 1957 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 19209 E Elk Creek DR, PARKER, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 5872413.\nJustice, Susan was born in 1950 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2988 Clarinet LN, GRAND JUNCTION, Mesa County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2355886.\nJustice, Suzette Marshall was born in 1961 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 19209 E Elk Creek DR, PARKER, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 5868474.\nJustice, Tammy L was born in 1963 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 115 S 18Th AVE # 2, BRIGHTON, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 6896021.\nJustice, Tammy Lyn was born in 1972 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3518 F RD, CLIFTON, Mesa County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601604546.\nJustice, Tara Linn was born in 1985 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 6205 Twin Oaks DR APT 1183, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600244803.\nJustice, Taylor Leah was born in 1999 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 360 Meadow Ranch DR, SNOWMASS VLG, Pitkin County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601364717.\nJustice, Terry A was born in 1955 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1222 Trout Creek CIR, LONGMONT, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 8131711.\nJustice, Theresa Ann was born in 1940 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1055 Adams CIR APT 217, BOULDER, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601934684.\nJustice, Thomas L was born in 1937 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 10470 Romblon WAY, NORTHGLENN, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 6978929.\nJustice, Thurman Robert was born in 1989 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 7402 Church Ranch BLVD # 529, WESTMINSTER, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 601286946.\nJustice, Timothy Ray was born in 1981 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 4410 E Pikes Peak AVE APT 107, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 600801005.\nJustice, Tina C was born in 1970 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 8305 Chase DR, ARVADA, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4247945.\nJustice, Todd C was born in 1988 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 12732 N Dixon DR, PARKER, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 5743050.\nJustice, Tori was born in 1960 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 711 Sunset RD, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 353708.\nJustice, Torin Albert was born in 1993 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 200 Hwy 151 SPC N11, IGNACIO, La Plata County, CO. His voter ID number is 601734813.\nJustice, Travis Lee was born in 1985 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1406 Willshire DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 601239283.\nJustice, Tyler Allen was born in 1993 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 8305 Chase DR, ARVADA, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 600674894.\nJustice, Tyler Brant was born in 1987 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1650 N Pearl ST APT 1, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 600441768.\nJustice, Virginia D was born in 1943 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 185 Mt Massive WAY, LONGMONT, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 8131715.\nJustice, Wanda Frances was born in 1953 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 6110 Paleface PT, FOUNTAIN, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 481827.\nJustice, Wendy Alison was born in 1954 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 507 Dennison AVE, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600834718.\nJustice, William Joseph was born in 1965 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1185 S Oneida ST APT E, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 601316791.\nJustice, William Keith was born in 1990 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 10420 W Dakota AVE, LAKEWOOD, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 200330085.\nJustice, William Lloyd was born in 1966 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 617 Ox Bow RD, GRAND JUNCTION, Mesa County, CO. His voter ID number is 600299893.\nJustice, William Seibels was born in 1989 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2955 N Inca ST UNIT 2C, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 200143052.\nJustice, Yolanda Alise was born in 1970 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3903 Carlile AVE, PUEBLO, Pueblo County, CO. Her voter ID number is 200334514.\nJustice, Yvonne Renee was born in 1970 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2109 Boise CT, LONGMONT, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 8131717.\nJustice, Zeke was born in 1976 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 915 Rocky Ridge CIR, ERIE, Boulder County, CO. His voter ID number is 7067932.\nJustice Anderson, Caleb J was born in 1991 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 98 Farway DR, GUNNISON, Gunnison County, CO. His voter ID number is 601112622.\nJustice Anderson, Katherine L was born in 1996 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 109 N 7Th ST, GUNNISON, Gunnison County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2441081.\nJustice-Anderson, Lucas D was born in 1995 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 109 N 7Th ST, GUNNISON, Gunnison County, CO. His voter ID number is 600981663.\nJustice Anderson, Stephen J was born in 1993 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 98 Farway DR, GUNNISON, Gunnison County, CO. His voter ID number is 600969915.\nJustice Bondy, Karee M was born in 1966 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 5295 E Atlantic PL, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2392243.\nJustice Finger, Evert Eugene was born in 1993 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 3502 Silvermine CT, EVANS, Weld County, CO. His voter ID number is 600663046.\nJustice Finger, Kara Mae was born in 1991 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 5361 S Federal CIR # R207, LITTLETON, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600672937.\nJustice-Hudson, Jennifer Joy was born in 1974 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 13093 W Cedar DR # 323, LAKEWOOD, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 918706.\nJustice Iii, Gary Richard was born in 1999 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1805 S Ammons ST, LAKEWOOD, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 601682097.\nJustice-Lundt, Jennifer Aimee was born in 1972 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2362 N Ivy ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2392399.\nJustice Thomas, Robin Lyn was born in 1960 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1540 S Galena WAY # 1514, DENVER, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600015318.\nJustice-Waddington, Janet D was born in 1926 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 11764 Nob WAY, GOLDEN, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4194539.\nJustich, Angelique Jeannine was born in 1988 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 709 Frisco ST # 6, FRISCO, Summit County, CO. Her voter ID number is 7220886.\nJustilian, Jill Suzanne was born in 1985 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 4611 Teller ST, WHEAT RIDGE, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 8172349.\nJustilian, Travis Michael was born in 1975 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 4611 Teller ST, WHEAT RIDGE, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 601581266.\nJustin, Abigail Claire was born in 1999 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1200 College AVE APT 201, BOULDER, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601943718.\nJustin, Aimee Dove was born in 1972 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 4560 S Balsam WAY APT 5-102, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 7210621.\nJustin, Brenda Lea was born in 1961 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1591 County Road 526 # 31, BAYFIELD, La Plata County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601334728.\nJustin, Daniel Phillip was born in 1980 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 6455 W 96Th DR, WESTMINSTER, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 601361543.\nJustin, Eleanor Sophia was born in 1994 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2360 E Evans AVE APT 551, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600665675.\nJustin, Elliot was born in 1933 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 7113 S Owens ST, LITTLETON, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 4287485.\nJustin, Gary Matthew was born in 1991 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 244 Cedar ST, DELTA, Delta County, CO. His voter ID number is 200315227.\nJustin, Hyde Robert was born in 1974 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2315 N Marion ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 601173007.\nJustin, Jeremy Newton was born in 1975 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 9788 Cheewall LN, PARKER, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 2909627.\nJustin, Kerrie Anne was born in 1978 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 6455 W 96Th DR, WESTMINSTER, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601359163.\nJustin, Kevin M was born in 1962 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 244 Cedar ST, DELTA, Delta County, CO. His voter ID number is 3541793.\nJustin, Kiersten Spring was born in 1992 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2800 W 103Rd AVE APT 2017, FEDERAL HGTS, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601770184.\nJustin, Nina was born in 1965 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 220 N Hudson ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2580805.\nJustin, Rebol was born in 1991 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 13650 Via Varra # 331, BROOMFIELD, Broomfield County, CO. His voter ID number is 601945913.\nJustin, Sara Angela was born in 1989 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 350 S Jackson ST APT 315, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601836073.\nJustin, Shonna Lavelle was born in 1974 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 9788 Cheewall LN, PARKER, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 5799922.\nJustin, Thomas Robert was born in 1952 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 182 Bert ST, DELTA, Delta County, CO. His voter ID number is 3541262.\nJustin, Wendy Justin was born in 1963 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 772 Crystal WAY, FRUITA, Mesa County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2301011.\nJustinak, Austin Cyril was born in 1991 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1708 Copper Ridge SPUR # B, STEAMBOAT SPRINGS, Routt County, CO. His voter ID number is 600276032.\nJustine, Peter J was born in 1975 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 13410 Hwy 12, WESTON, Las Animas County, CO. His voter ID number is 3845067.\nJustinian, Pavia Miquella was born in 1991 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1199 Wolf Creek CT, FRUITA, Mesa County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600233273.\nJustiniani, David Anthony was born in 1982 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 7414 Araia DR, FOUNTAIN, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 600571418.\nJustiniani, Jennifer Marie was born in 1984 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 7414 Araia DR, FOUNTAIN, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600986820.\nJustiniano, Christina Maria was born in 1985 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2608302 S Miller DR, LAKEWOOD, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601946040.\nJustiniano, Christine N was born in 1953 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 10721 Kipling WAY, WESTMINSTER, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4191555.\nJustiniano, Felicia M was born in 1957 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 7456 Clay ST, WESTMINSTER, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 6809625.\nJustiniano, Janet Katherine was born in 1970 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 16426 Stone Ledge DR, PARKER, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601693712.\nJustiniano, Joann was born in 1958 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 4449 N Quivas ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2542479.\nJustiniano, Jocelyn Evie was born in 1989 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 6430 W 110Th AVE, WESTMINSTER, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601016738.\nJustiniano, Joe F was born in 1993 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1379 N Mariposa ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 600526728.\nJustiniano, John C was born in 1984 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 7456 Clay ST, WESTMINSTER, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 6977090.\nJustiniano, Leilani Naomi was born in 1986 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 5195 N Shoshone ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600185394.\nJustiniano, Mary B was born in 1936 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 6822 W 69Th AVE, ARVADA, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4074594.\nJustiniano, Matthew Joseph was born in 1975 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 16426 Stone Ledge DR, PARKER, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 601634428.\nJustiniano, Melissa Tracey was born in 1987 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 214 S Wahsatch AVE UNIT 6, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601536546.\nJustiniano, Nestor was born in 1955 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 4449 N Quivas ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 2538235.\nJustiniano, Nestor Jr was born in 1980 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 7744 Reed ST, ARVADA, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 601878149.\nJustino, Christine A was born in 1963 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 8673 E Long PL, CENTENNIAL, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 773237.\nJustino, Haley Rose was born in 1995 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 215 W Myrtle ST # B, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601133607.\nJustino, Lisa Nicole was born in 1999 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 8673 E Long PL, CENTENNIAL, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601300582.\nJustino, Stephen A was born in 1959 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 8673 E Long PL, CENTENNIAL, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 773635.\nJustis, Alan Gerard was born in 1956 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 3281 S Joplin CT, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 702349.\nJustis, Angela Larue was born in 1974 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 4001 Frederick CIR, LONGMONT, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 8131834.\nJustis, Ashlee was born in 1980 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 13874 E Lehigh AVE # A, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600648177.\nJustis, Carol E was born in 1941 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1216 W 17Th ST, PUEBLO, Pueblo County, CO. Her voter ID number is 3053716.\nJustis, Chelsea Dawn was born in 1984 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 13874 E Lehigh AVE # A, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 760752.\nJustis, Cheryl Lynn was born in 1959 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 9745 Las Haciendas PT, FOUNTAIN, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 479547.\nJustis, Colin James was born in 1987 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1995 E Coalton RD APT 40-204, SUPERIOR, Boulder County, CO. His voter ID number is 693394.\nJustis, David was born in 1985 and registered to vote, giving the address as 701 E 8Th ST, PUEBLO, Pueblo County, CO. Justis' voter ID number is 601902545.\nJustis, Dawna L was born in 1970 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1216 W 17Th ST, PUEBLO, Pueblo County, CO. Her voter ID number is 3093950.\nJustis, Elizabeth Anne was born in 1984 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 4748 Withers DR, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 1496113.\nJustis, Gregory F was born in 1946 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 10155 E Cheyenne CIR, SALIDA, Chaffee County, CO. His voter ID number is 692815.\nJustis, Jalyn Wayne was born in 1995 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 48869 Forest Park RD, AVONDALE, Pueblo County, CO. His voter ID number is 601879583.\nJustis, Jane Leighty was born in 1948 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2932 Tenderfoot Hill ST, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 512190.\nJustis, Janet S was born in 1952 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 10155 E Cheyenne CIR, SALIDA, Chaffee County, CO. Her voter ID number is 692813.\nJustis, Jon Evan was born in 1982 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 11020 Grange Creek DR, THORNTON, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 8131836.\nJustis, Joshua Quinton was born in 1976 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2478 S Halifax WAY, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 601412968.\nJustis, Leslie Ann was born in 1947 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3018 4Th ST, BOULDER, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 8131838.\nJustis, Lisa Marjorie was born in 1972 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2357 N Akron CT, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2744269.\nJustis, Patricia Carolyn was born in 1957 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 37587 Bluebird LN, ELIZABETH, Elbert County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601052122.\nJustis, Patrick Austin was born in 1972 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 4001 Frederick CIR, LONGMONT, Boulder County, CO. His voter ID number is 8131839.\nJustis, Robert Cranston Jr was born in 1946 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 3018 4Th ST APT 8, BOULDER, Boulder County, CO. His voter ID number is 8131841.\nJustis, Robert Fay was born in 1945 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2932 Tenderfoot Hill ST, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 505291.\nJustis, Robert Young Jr was born in 1943 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 503 E Columbia, TELLURIDE, San Miguel County, CO. His voter ID number is 5005440.\nJustis, Ryan David was born in 1976 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 7483 E Costilla PL, CENTENNIAL, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 5709251.\nJustis, Stacy Erin was born in 1982 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 7483 E Costilla PL, CENTENNIAL, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 1498478.\nJustis, Terry L was born in 1955 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3281 S Joplin CT, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 702330.\nJustis, Trista Sue was born in 1983 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 11020 Grange Creek DR, THORNTON, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 8131842.\nJustis, Virginia Stacey was born in 1976 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 8202 E Jamison PL, CENTENNIAL, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601141379.\nJustis, William Alexander was born in 1992 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 5542 Newland WAY # 203, ARVADA, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 200361608.\nJustis-Lucero, Christa Lynn was born in 1994 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1216 W 17Th ST, PUEBLO, Pueblo County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600482557.\nJustison, George Alan was born in 1961 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 828 25Th ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 2917817.\nJustiss, Christopher Daniel was born in 1986 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 4506 S Bannock ST, ENGLEWOOD, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 869806.\nJustiss, Deanie Jean was born in 1969 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1285 S Forest ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 7062727.\nJustiss, Deborah Lynn was born in 1952 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 777 S Oneida ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 3963257.\nJustiss, Heath Brach was born in 1978 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1547 N Elm ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 2588285.\nJustiss, Justin Bruce was born in 1988 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2700 W 103Rd AVE APT 2425, FEDERAL HGTS, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 601225328.\nJustiss, Ronald H V was born in 1945 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 777 S Oneida ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 2594022.\nJustiss, Timothy Joe was born in 1961 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1285 S Forest ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 2455167.\nJustiz, Cristopher Thomas was born in 1988 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 3040 W 107Th PL UNIT C, WESTMINSTER, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 200340755.\nJustiz, Elizabeth Tarrant was born in 1991 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3040 W 107Th PL UNIT C, WESTMINSTER, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600398189.\nJustiz, Nicholas Edward was born in 1989 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 3609 W 29Th ST UNIT 6, GREELEY, Weld County, CO. His voter ID number is 601128793.\nJustman, Benjamin Parker was born in 1994 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 14659 Peony LN, PAONIA, Delta County, CO. His voter ID number is 600555491.\nJustman, Buck Jon was born in 1970 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 73266 Q72 RD, MONTROSE, Montrose County, CO. His voter ID number is 5380893.\nJustman, Carol N was born in 1956 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 727 S Lima ST, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 668186.\nJustman, Collin Lee was born in 1964 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 14925 6775 RD, MONTROSE, Montrose County, CO. His voter ID number is 5382744.\nJustman, Daniel James was born in 1969 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 14045 County Rd Kk, LAS ANIMAS, Bent County, CO. His voter ID number is 600642498.\nJustman, David was born in 1920 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 8101 E Mississippi AVE APT 246, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 2556710.\nJustman, Donald James was born in 1943 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 3850 68Th LN, FOWLER, Pueblo County, CO. His voter ID number is 600800436.\nJustman, Erica Justine was born in 1987 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1200 Aurora AVE, BOULDER, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 8131845.\nJustman, Frances Elizabeth was born in 1937 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1954 K RD, FRUITA, Mesa County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2367937.\nJustman, Gary L was born in 1940 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 18 Thatcher AVE, MONTROSE, Ouray County, CO. His voter ID number is 6025521.\nJustman, Gene M was born in 1952 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 727 S Lima ST, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 668185.\nJustman, Jessica Rose was born in 1980 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 23126 Allendale AVE, PARKER, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601487187.\nJustman, John E was born in 1942 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1954 K RD, FRUITA, Mesa County, CO. His voter ID number is 2370501.\nJustman, John Harold was born in 1961 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 18 Thatcher AVE, MONTROSE, Ouray County, CO. His voter ID number is 6024884.\nJustman, Julie Marie was born in 1968 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3850 68Th LN, FOWLER, Pueblo County, CO. Her voter ID number is 3074970.\nJustman, Martha Hayden was born in 1955 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 14659 Peony LN, PAONIA, Delta County, CO. Her voter ID number is 3552796.\nJustman, Melissa Ann was born in 1975 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 14045 County Rd Kk, LAS ANIMAS, Bent County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600577018.\nJustman, Patricia Ann was born in 1943 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 18 Thatcher AVE, MONTROSE, Ouray County, CO. Her voter ID number is 6025522.\nJustman, Patrick Adam was born in 1991 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 14720 E Kentucky DR # 621, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 600498671.\nJustman, Robert Parker was born in 1948 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 14659 Peony LN, PAONIA, Delta County, CO. His voter ID number is 3552797.\nJustman, Robin Marie was born in 1956 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 14925 6775 RD, MONTROSE, Montrose County, CO. Her voter ID number is 5358682.\nJustman, Sally Ann was born in 1945 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 23126 Allendale AVE, PARKER, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601456551.\nJustman, Scott Alan was born in 1981 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 23126 Allendale AVE, PARKER, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 601520845.\nJustman, Stephen E was born in 1947 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 4435 W Hayward PL, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 2920460.\nJustman, Stephen Paul was born in 1995 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 96 Steven DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 601673237.\nJustmann, Angela May was born in 1995 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1006 Davidson DR # B, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600989978.\nJusto, Johanna Antonella was born in 1993 and registered to vote, giving the address as 4052 S Flanders WAY, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. Justo' voter ID number is 601725795.\nJusto Quiterio, Emmy was born in 1997 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 4650 Morning Mist DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601734082.\nJusto Santiago, Yisel was born in 1998 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 14701 E Colfax AVE LOT G40, AURORA, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601327582.\nJust-Rustici, Carol Marie was born in 1954 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3452 Oberon DR, LOVELAND, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 1662531.\nJustus, Adrienne Deanna was born in 1980 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3261 Silverthorne DR, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 1401243.\nJustus, Alice Arlene was born in 1956 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2538 Kittredge DR, LOVELAND, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 1644090.\nJustus, Alison Kyle was born in 1975 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2562 Raywood VW APT 1425, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600933362.\nJustus, Angela Linda was born in 1971 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1095 Western DR LOT 125A, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 489343.\nJustus, Angela Marie was born in 1977 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2740 S Vance WAY, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 5772905.\nJustus, Barbara Jean was born in 1953 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 501 Settler WAY, JOHNSTOWN, Weld County, CO. Her voter ID number is 1651618.\nJustus, Bree Ann was born in 1986 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 8555 E Fairmount DR UNIT G205, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601509087.\nJustus, Brent Michael was born in 1981 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2330 S University BLVD APT 306, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 600964147.\nJustus, Bret Eric was born in 1961 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 8839 Rory Creek ST, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 206844.\nJustus, Carroll Wayne was born in 1952 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 135 Dandelion CT, PAGOSA SPRINGS, Archuleta County, CO. His voter ID number is 4749846.\nJustus, Cathy Rae was born in 1953 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 135 Dandelion CT, PAGOSA SPRINGS, Archuleta County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4749847.\nJustus, Cheri L was born in 1946 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 10663 W Dumbarton CIR, LITTLETON, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4148852.\nJustus, Daisy Jean was born in 1936 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 17301 W 16Th AVE, GOLDEN, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4052297.\nJustus, Dana K was born in 1987 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3725 Summer Breeze DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 207178.\nJustus, David J was born in 1952 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1453 Arikaree DR, LOVELAND, Larimer County, CO. His voter ID number is 7025123.\nJustus, David Peter was born in 1968 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 7673 Bandit DR, CASTLE ROCK, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 4181376.\nJustus, Donna M was born in 1963 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 324 Iowa AVE, BERTHOUD, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 1584513.\nJustus, Donnie H was born in 1943 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 215 Houston AVE, FLORENCE, Fremont County, CO. His voter ID number is 3640010.\nJustus, Gary Lee Jr was born in 1971 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 5160 Victory RD, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 484335.\nJustus, Gary Robert was born in 1947 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 8297 Centaur DR, EVERGREEN, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 4162547.\nJustus, Gerlyn was born in 1959 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 210 Bennington DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600686935.\nJustus, Gina Coates was born in 1964 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3244 Downey CT, CLIFTON, Mesa County, CO. Her voter ID number is 200023946.\nJustus, Gregory Ray was born in 1967 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2740 S Vance WAY, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 5911637.\nJustus, Heather Louise was born in 1972 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 7673 Bandit DR, CASTLE ROCK, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4181375.\nJustus, Homer Elmer Jr was born in 1974 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 10812 6330 RD, MONTROSE, Montrose County, CO. His voter ID number is 5389332.\nJustus, Jada Jean was born in 1964 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 8839 Rory Creek ST, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 200124611.\nJustus, James A was born in 1928 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2526 Kittredge DR, LOVELAND, Larimer County, CO. His voter ID number is 1649568.\nJustus, James Darin was born in 1975 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 5805 S Sherman WAY, CENTENNIAL, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 200012521.\nJustus, James Michael was born in 1945 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 102 Miramar DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 435892.\nJustus, James Paul was born in 1982 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 962 N Spruce ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 752674.\nJustus, James William was born in 1968 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 21 Meadowbrook DR, PUEBLO, Pueblo County, CO. His voter ID number is 3042024.\nJustus, Janelle May was born in 1992 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 110 W 21St ST, PUEBLO, Pueblo County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600438814.\nJustus, Jarrod Steven was born in 1988 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 3921 Berkley CT, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 601567918.\nJustus, Jeffrey Philip was born in 1972 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 3460 S Poplar ST APT 205, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 718159.\nJustus, Jennifer Ann was born in 1972 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1493 Fairfax CT, CASTLE ROCK, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 5835989.\nJustus, Jennifer Jacqueline was born in 1971 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 5805 S Sherman WAY, CENTENNIAL, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 787867.\nJustus, Jerek Wade was born in 1989 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1705 W Beekman PL, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 600020820.\nJustus, Jeremy Dean was born in 1983 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 3261 Silverthorne DR, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. His voter ID number is 1505166.\nJustus, Jeremy Patrick was born in 1992 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 470 Cherry DR, STEAMBOAT SPRINGS, Routt County, CO. His voter ID number is 200383260.\nJustus, Jesse Patrick was born in 1992 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1882 E 104Th AVE UNIT 1534, THORNTON, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 601800908.\nJustus, Jessi Lee was born in 1996 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 580 Sloan ST, DELTA, Delta County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601020329.\nJustus, Joanne H was born in 1951 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 12732 N Dixon DR, PARKER, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 5660581.\nJustus, Jodie Kaye was born in 1954 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 9026 Woodland DR, HIGHLANDS RANCH, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600077617.\nJustus, John Kelley was born in 1949 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 9026 Woodland DR, HIGHLANDS RANCH, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 728787.\nJustus, John M was born in 1943 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 307 S Grand AVE, RANGELY, Rio Blanco County, CO. His voter ID number is 4974400.\nJustus, John Michael was born in 1951 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 14693 E Purdue PL, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 719919.\nJustus, John Paul was born in 1975 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2021 Eagle CT, GRAND JUNCTION, Mesa County, CO. His voter ID number is 8131852.\nJustus, John Trevor was born in 1980 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 4748 Withers DR, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. His voter ID number is 1509425.\nJustus, Jordan Anne was born in 1996 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 9081 E Eastman AVE, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601704221.\nJustus, Judith A was born in 1948 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 8297 Centaur DR, EVERGREEN, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4162536.\nJustus, Julie Anne was born in 1960 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 9588 Highway 65, AUSTIN, Delta County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2316126.\nJustus, Katherine Elaine was born in 1965 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 13813 Locust ST, THORNTON, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601703766.\nJustus, Kathy Kim was born in 1948 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1510 Terra Vista LN, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 468704.\nJustus, Larry Gene was born in 1974 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 5805 S Sherman WAY, CENTENNIAL, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 200012452.\nJustus, Lavella A was born in 1945 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 307 S Grand AVE, RANGELY, Rio Blanco County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4974401.\nJustus, Leslie Karan was born in 1958 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2300 Oakshire LN # 415, PUEBLO, Pueblo County, CO. Her voter ID number is 1466559.\nJustus, Lorraine Hutto was born in 1951 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3561 S Kittredge ST # A, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 826107.\nJustus, Maryan D was born in 1932 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2526 Kittredge DR, LOVELAND, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 1649569.\nJustus, Mary B was born in 1949 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 10058 Grove CT UNIT C, WESTMINSTER, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 7144261.\nJustus, Matthew Scott was born in 1992 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2512 Allegheny DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 601673829.\nJustus, Melissa was born in 1994 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2512 Allegheny DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601449578.\nJustus, Michael K was born in 1967 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 8000 W Crestline AVE APT 131, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 4279260.\nJustus, Nathan David was born in 1965 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 17301 W 16Th AVE, GOLDEN, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 4052431.\nJustus, Nicolle Mary was born in 1977 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2021 Eagle CT, GRAND JUNCTION, Mesa County, CO. Her voter ID number is 8131855.\nJustus, Norma Ruth was born in 1935 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 122 Plum Creek PL, HIGHLANDS RANCH, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 5824923.\nJustus, Paige Kathryn was born in 1985 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 962 N Spruce ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600116326.\nJustus, Patrick William Jr was born in 1967 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 659 Golden Eagle CIR, GOLDEN, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 4057525.\nJustus, Paul Kelly was born in 1960 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 324 Iowa AVE, BERTHOUD, Larimer County, CO. His voter ID number is 1584639.\nJustus, Peyton Danielle was born in 1983 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3078 W 107Th PL UNIT D, WESTMINSTER, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601312800.\nJustus, Philip K was born in 1946 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 4223 Ulysses WAY, GOLDEN, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 4095298.\nJustus, Phillip Marlow Ii was born in 1973 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1493 Fairfax CT, CASTLE ROCK, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 5812513.\nJustus, Phyllis I was born in 1934 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3165 E Fountain BLVD APT 305D, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 377829.\nJustus, Randal Milton was born in 1948 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 12899 Magnolia PL, THORNTON, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 4513610.\nJustus, Richard Michael was born in 1954 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2538 Kittredge DR, LOVELAND, Larimer County, CO. His voter ID number is 1652152.\nJustus, Rick David was born in 1953 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 210 Bennington DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 200358787.\nJustus, Robert Laymon was born in 1969 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 971 S Dahlia ST APT 105, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 787868.\nJustus, Roxeene E was born in 1950 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 12899 Magnolia PL, THORNTON, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4513612.\nJustus, Ryan Patrick was born in 1994 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1493 Fairfax CT, CASTLE ROCK, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 600454652.\nJustus, Rylee Kyle was born in 1998 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2056 Elk View RD, LARKSPUR, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600948624.\nJustus, Sandra was born in 1969 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 21 Meadowbrook DR, PUEBLO, Pueblo County, CO. Her voter ID number is 3052433.\nJustus, Sarah Beth was born in 1984 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2106 N Overland TRL, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 1599091.\nJustus, Sarah Gebhardt was born in 1980 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 16604 E Crestline PL, CENTENNIAL, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 1494445.\nJustus, Sara Rose was born in 1984 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 451 N Washington ST, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601679178.\nJustus, Scott Randal was born in 1982 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 16604 E Crestline PL, CENTENNIAL, Arapahoe County, CO. His voter ID number is 774469.\nJustus, Sherry Ann was born in 1978 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1510 Terra Vista LN, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 3688707.\nJustus, Staci Lynn was born in 1954 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 23550 E Jamison PL, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 728788.\nJustus, Steven P was born in 1959 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 10058 Grove CT UNIT C, WESTMINSTER, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 6920791.\nJustus, Susan J was born in 1949 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 215 Houston AVE, FLORENCE, Fremont County, CO. Her voter ID number is 3640011.\nJustus, Suzanne Wood was born in 1961 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 4223 Ulysses WAY, GOLDEN, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4096610.\nJustus, Timothy Lee was born in 1985 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 7240 Foothill ST, FREDERICK, Weld County, CO. His voter ID number is 1586118.\nJustus, Wendy Leanne was born in 1989 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 4409 S Sherman ST, ENGLEWOOD, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601242380.\nJustus, William Dakota was born in 1996 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 21 Meadowbrook DR, PUEBLO, Pueblo County, CO. His voter ID number is 601912931.\nJustus, Zachary James was born in 1990 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 110 W 21St ST, PUEBLO, Pueblo County, CO. His voter ID number is 600395235.\nJusu, Bernard Tamba was born in 1939 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 21593 E 45Th AVE, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 200055641.\nJusu, Esther was born in 1987 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3070 E Fountain BLVD APT 303, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601796156.\nJusu, Linda Joyce was born in 1946 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 7401 E 26Th AVE UNIT 208, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 2559885.\nJusu, Olive Mama was born in 1960 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 17911 E Princeton PL, AURORA, Arapahoe County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601665684.\nJusufagic, Armina was born in 1985 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3971 E Bijou ST UNIT 365, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601372619.\nJusufovic, Admir was born in 1985 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 3300 S Tamarac DR APT H203, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 600523178.\nJuszak, Christopher Robin was born in 1978 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2231 Silver Oaks DR, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. His voter ID number is 600238463.\nJuszak, Heather Sue was born in 1984 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2074 Wimbleton DR, LOVELAND, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601536802.\nJuszak, Jacob Christopher was born in 1989 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 3002 Sykes DR, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. His voter ID number is 600523327.\nJuszak, Laurie Jean was born in 1979 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2231 Silver Oaks DR, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600238452.\nJuszak, Lori Stander was born in 1959 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 425 Towhee ST, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 200262706.\nJuszak, Robin Gabriel was born in 1983 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2074 Wimbleton DR, LOVELAND, Larimer County, CO. His voter ID number is 601536551.\nJuszczak, Gerard was born in 1944 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 5076 Butterfield DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 600673337.\nJuszczak, Nancy E was born in 1946 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 5076 Butterfield DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600673401.\nJuszczak, Paul Philip was born in 1990 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 3400 S Lowell BLVD APT 12-306, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 601233040.\nJuszczak, Rebekka Suzanne was born in 1990 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 4268 Montmorency CT, LOVELAND, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600957710.\nJuszczyk, Anthony Michael Paul was born in 1987 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 13092 Acres Green DR, LITTLETON, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 5688858.\nJuszczyk, David Casmir was born in 1958 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 13780 Del Corso WAY # 936, BROOMFIELD, Broomfield County, CO. His voter ID number is 3920278.\nJuszczyk, Kyle J was born in 1993 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 206 S 10Th ST UNIT C, GUNNISON, Gunnison County, CO. His voter ID number is 601038141.\nJuszczyk, Timothy Brian was born in 1961 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 13092 Acres Green DR, LITTLETON, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 5714872.\nJuszynski, Martina Elizabeth was born in 1975 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 10747 Ura LN, NORTHGLENN, Adams County, CO. Her voter ID number is 3581711.\nJuszynski, Mary L was born in 1944 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1145 Sage ST, BROOMFIELD, Broomfield County, CO. Her voter ID number is 3926149.\nJuszynski, Robert Gregory was born in 1971 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 10747 Ura LN, NORTHGLENN, Adams County, CO. His voter ID number is 7013310.\nJuszynski, Robert J was born in 1945 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1145 Sage ST, BROOMFIELD, Broomfield County, CO. His voter ID number is 3926148.\nJute, Kevin Joseph was born in 1972 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 3036 Fulton CIR, BOULDER, Boulder County, CO. His voter ID number is 8131862.\nJuteau, Deonte Devon was born in 1992 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 12439 W Atlantic AVE, LAKEWOOD, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 200355367.\nJuteau, Kristine Ann was born in 1968 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 9634 W Chatfield AVE # B, LITTLETON, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4106041.\nJuteau, Maurice was born in 1929 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 7902 E Hampden CIR, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 601817285.\nJuteau, Natalie Ann was born in 1994 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 9634 W Chatfield AVE # B, LITTLETON, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600551713.\nJuterbock, Robert Stanley was born in 1995 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 241 Orchard AVE, GRAND JUNCTION, Mesa County, CO. His voter ID number is 601272782.\nJuth, Bernard George was born in 1960 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2312 Tulip WAY, LONGMONT, Boulder County, CO. His voter ID number is 8131865.\nJuth, Larry A was born in 1950 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 169 San Juan LN, WESTCLIFFE, Custer County, CO. His voter ID number is 3733954.\nJuth, Matthew William was born in 1977 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 29374 Green Wood LN, EVERGREEN, Jefferson County, CO. His voter ID number is 8131866.\nJuth, Melody Faye was born in 1951 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 169 San Juan LN, WESTCLIFFE, Custer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 3733955.\nJuth, Nancy Jeanne was born in 1960 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2312 Tulip WAY, LONGMONT, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600051051.\nJuth, Roxanne was born in 1965 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 9331 Rockingham DR, PEYTON, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 195262.\nJuth, Stephanie Dawn was born in 1988 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 10539 Cimarron ST, FIRESTONE, Weld County, CO. Her voter ID number is 200173977.\nJuth, Suzanne E was born in 1960 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 262 Crystal Valley RD, MANITOU SPGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 113484.\nJuth, Trevor Stephen was born in 1989 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1165 Sunrise CIR, MILLIKEN, Weld County, CO. His voter ID number is 600051015.\nJuth, Troy L was born in 1963 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 262 Crystal Valley RD, MANITOU SPGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 293357.\nJuth, Zachary Nathaniel was born in 1986 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 10539 Cimarron ST, FIRESTONE, Weld County, CO. His voter ID number is 8131867.\nJutila, Aaron Arthur was born in 1987 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 17424 Leisure Lake DR, MONUMENT, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 600868801.\nJutila, David Allen was born in 1996 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 511 Forest ST, MILLIKEN, Weld County, CO. His voter ID number is 601639944.\nJutila, Kristin Marie was born in 1977 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1005 Secrest ST, GOLDEN, Jefferson County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600736787.\nJutras, Cheryl S was born in 1954 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2020 Surfwood LN, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 209162.\nJutras, Christopher T was born in 1977 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2620 Boleyn DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 246281.\nJutras, Daniel Anthony was born in 1981 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 4845 Braddock DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 144901.\nJutras, Donna P was born in 1945 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3224 Billington DR, ERIE, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 8131868.\nJutras, Jeremy Michael was born in 1994 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 842 Airport RD, BRECKENRIDGE, Summit County, CO. His voter ID number is 601539942.\nJutras, Julia Mae was born in 1978 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2620 Boleyn DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 246458.\nJutras, Julie Annette was born in 1986 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2020 Surfwood LN, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600557426.\nJutras, Michele J was born in 1957 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 75 E Forest Lakes DR, BAYFIELD, La Plata County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4957944.\nJutras, Nicole Marie was born in 1983 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 4845 Braddock DR, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 148041.\nJutras, Thomas A was born in 1948 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2020 Surfwood LN, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 208954.\nJutras, Timothy Andrew was born in 1988 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 9015 Clapham CT, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 600008284.\nJutras, Valerie Angela was born in 1994 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2020 Surfwood LN, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600517030.\nJutson, Benjamin Davies was born in 1976 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 2520 E 11Th AVE, DENVER, Denver County, CO. His voter ID number is 8084491.\nJutson, Erin Davies was born in 1979 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2520 E 11Th AVE, DENVER, Denver County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600265646.\nJutstrom, Bryan R was born in 1973 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 10476 Hollyhock CT, HIGHLANDS RANCH, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 797793.\nJutstrom, Megan Patricia was born in 1977 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 10476 Hollyhock CT, HIGHLANDS RANCH, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 4122513.\nJutte, Christopher Sean was born in 1991 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1721 Choice Center DR # 1241A, FORT COLLINS, Larimer County, CO. His voter ID number is 200373298.\nJutte, Clay was born in 1968 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 27 Cascadilla ST, CRESTED BUTTE, Gunnison County, CO. His voter ID number is 5963273.\nJutte, Gabrielle Joleene was born in 1993 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 840 Kittredge Central Hall, BOULDER, Boulder County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601739034.\nJutte, Leroy Donald was born in 1959 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1226 Briarhollow WAY, HIGHLANDS RANCH, Douglas County, CO. His voter ID number is 5725140.\nJutte, Lori Jo was born in 1960 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 3456 Janus DR, LOVELAND, Larimer County, CO. Her voter ID number is 601182514.\nJutte, Randall Luke was born in 1960 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 3456 Janus DR, LOVELAND, Larimer County, CO. His voter ID number is 601182534.\nJutte, Ruth Louise was born in 1961 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1226 Briarhollow WAY, HIGHLANDS RANCH, Douglas County, CO. Her voter ID number is 5839468.\nJutten, Amiessa Dawn was born in 1974 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 2206 Essex ST, MONTROSE, Montrose County, CO. Her voter ID number is 5373856.\nJutten, Daris Jay was born in 1976 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 70080 Buckhorn RD, MONTROSE, Ouray County, CO. His voter ID number is 6022456.\nJutten, Denise Corrine was born in 1955 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 64670 Ranger RD, MONTROSE, Montrose County, CO. Her voter ID number is 600453129.\nJutten, Dirk Allen was born in 1977 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 6295 Catskill LN, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. His voter ID number is 139076.\nJutten, Jace Wayne was born in 1973 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 1201 S 4Th ST, MONTROSE, Montrose County, CO. His voter ID number is 5378700.\nJutten, Jay W was born in 1952 and he registered to vote, giving his address as 70455 Buckhorn RD, MONTROSE, Montrose County, CO. His voter ID number is 5354444.\nJutten, Julie Marie was born in 1977 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 1965 Ocaso GRV, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 535266.\nJutten, Lisa Mae was born in 1977 and she registered to vote, giving her address as 6295 Catskill LN, COLO SPRINGS, El Paso County, CO. Her voter ID number is 516132.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Must See!!! Renovated 2 Bedroom + 2 Bath Unit in Beverly Hills. Great Floor Plan. New Floors, Gorgeous Kitchen with Stainless Steel Appliances. Unit has Washer & Dryer inside. Front face unit with balcony and natural light. Close to a lot of amenities and Beverly Hills School Unified District.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Board of Student Publications (BOSP) chairman Nicole Pomare is hosting a Photography Fall Contest. Photos of a pumpkin spice latte, a slice of pie, or crackling leaves can all give students a shot at the prize as long as it is submitted by October 28 to kccbosp@hawaii.edu.\nArtwork will be showcased in the \u02bb\u014ch\u012ba cafeteria from October 30 to 31. Students and faculty who venture through will be able to admire the photos and take a vote on which they enjoy most. The top three most voted will win a $50 gift card to either the Kapi'olani Community College bookstore, Amazon, or Apple.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Final night time I went searching for the purchased Google evaluate. Seek for your organization by title in Google. Go ahead with this good help. Share the post \"Purchase 1 Google 5 star Business Evaluations\" So you need to add some motivational Feedback or reviews from the purchasers. If you are a enterprise minded individual and wish to get numerous customers every single day, you should display your product in entrance of the client and attract them.\n2. Opinions together with Content material : A client may also publish his penalty including excellent but imperfect content material. USASMMSEO is a superb google business opinions providers supplier. It's best to know more about 5 Star Evaluations service. As we've announced already to supply some Followers FREE as pattern, you'll get pleasure from the appropriate service from us. When you've got any problem on SMMBoostservice, Please get in touch on our assist or email us anytime.\nAs your Product based web page \/apps will be rated, you can get quite a lot of prospects by on-line. There are some varieties of service to Buy Google 5 Star Critiques service below: Normally, 1 in accordance relating to 2 Star critiques refers in pursuance including the Unfavorable ratings. You would possibly see the Terms and condition for consumers of this web site.\nTheir service high quality was excellent. Plain 5 Star Opinions: A 5-star review is placed without content by a Google account. USASMMSEO is a group of dedicated and gifted people who came collectively to create a very personal and professional experience for his or her purchasers. Buying\" evaluations includes paying sketchy companies to put in writing faux reviews.\nThis page was last modified on 4 May 2018, at 05:06.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzahxjg b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzahxjg
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"Tel Aviv, In order to become the fourth country to land a spacecraft on the Moon, the Israeli spacecraft called 'Beresheet' crashed during the final touchdown after the apparent failure of its main engine. According to BBC, the Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI) spacecraft suffered some technical problems due to which the failure occurred. The main aim of the mission was to take pictures and conduct experiments. Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, who was watching the landing mission from the control room, stressed that Israel would try again and succeed in two or three years. \"The Israeli spacecraft will land on the Moon in one piece, two and a half to three years from now, write it down,\" Netanyahu said, addressing the mission team after the failure. Nevertheless, Israel is the seventh nation to reach the moon. The landing, costing about 100 million US dollars, was the first such commercial lunar mission. After government space agencies from the former Soviet Union, the US and China have made successful moon landings, Israel hoped to become the fourth country and first privately funded mission to land a spacecraft on the Moon.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"The story of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego is one that people may have at least a vague knowledge of. But not because we've spent much time studying it as adults. No, most of us know about this trio from Veggie Tales or Sunday School flannelgraphs. But that's pretty crazy if you stop to think about it for a minute. We teach this story to kids and all but ignore it as adults. These guys were removed from their families, forced to assimilate into Babylonian culture, pressured to worship false gods or die, and were thrown into a fiery furnace when they refused. Definitely not G-rated.\nIf you struggle to trust God, especially because of anxious thought, spend some time engaging with Philippians 4:6-9. You can dig in and study the verses, think and pray about them, memorize them, or put them up somewhere you'll see them throughout your day, whatever way of engaging works for you.\nSpend some time reading Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego's story in the book of Daniel. As you read, be encouraged and challenged by their strong example of trusting God and God showing His faithfulness to them. Their story starts in chapter 1, and you can read through chapter 3 to see them stand up to the king and trust God.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Granted, you're referring to the Xbox One version of GTA:V and I'm playing via Xbox 360, but this \"problem\" has been happening to me for a good amount of time now. I figured it was just GTA:V because it happens to myself and friends when we're trying to get into a GTA: Online lobby.... In this video I will be showing you 3 of the best ways the make millions in gta online including an epic gta 5 online unlimited money trick\/tutorial and guide on how to fill up your MC Biker business in less than 10 minutes and make an insane 550k every 15mins, This is not a \"GTA 5 Money Glitch\". This method is working after Patches 1.42 for Next Gen ps4 \/ Xbox one, PC.\n17\/06\/2017 \u00b7 Doesn't seem to be very easy to find a good way, at least for Xbox One. If everybody who played gta online was a kind and empathetic human being we would not even have to try to make solo public session and everyone would make money without a problem in free roam and it would be a win win for everybody.... 16\/06\/2016 \u00b7 Home Forums > Gaming > Grand Theft Auto V > Grand Theft Auto V > Xbox One How to empty a public lobby Discussion in ' Grand Theft Auto V ' started by SolidousTopher , Jun 15, 2016 with 31 replies and 44,340 views.\nStrat the game in story mode, then click the online tab from there you will be able to find the options to either start a invite only or closed friend\/crew session or private session. how to download a flight simulator for free GTA V will release in September, and is set to remind gamers of why GTA is one of the most popular game series of all times. However, this However, this 10 Crazy, Awesome Things I Saw and Did in Grand Theft Auto Online Certainly one of the most anticipated games of 2013 is the newest installment of the Grand Theft Auto series.\nAccording to the video, any online session will work \u2013 whether you do one that's private, invite only or with a friend. Just start an online session in GTA Online. Open up the interaction menu how to add widgets on iphone ios 10 Three days after the release of Grand Theft Auto 5 for PS4 and Xbox One, and a number of users are still reporting problems connecting to GTA Online, the online multiplayer mode.\n12 hours ago \u00b7 Many other major games, such as GTA online, has Private sessions, so it's not unthinkable that it may come in the future. GTA online DLC Further Adventures in Finance and Felony allowed players to do missions in private or crew lobbies.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"since it's 70 and sunny today so it's hard to believe it was a blistery 40 some degrees just a few days ago for this super fun engagement shoot in the windy city! heck. normally I would've rescheduled, but nicole had a very special surprise for her fianc\u00e9 Sean... a private session in wrigley field - they had it ALL to themselves! ladies take note- this is probably the equivalent of your man surprising you with a trip to Tiffany's. or even Paris. cubbies fans aren't just your ordinary baseball fans. they are legit DIE HARD crazy for their team and love of the infamous wrigley field... so being able to hang where the players do is like gold.\nso we didn't let the unpredictable midwest weather stop us from creating some beautiful memories. scroll on down to soak in the story of how a Milwaukee girl fell in love with a chi-town boy.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Did you receive a ticket or citation for marijuana possession?\nMarijuana decriminalization may not protect you from from harsh marijuana possession penalties in Clearwater, Florida and the Tampa Bay area.\nDespite the recent efforts toward decriminalization of cannabis (marijuana\/weed\/pot) in Florida this year, starting April 1, 2016, not all marijuana possession penalties have been lifted. When you are found in possession of marijuana in Clearwater and the Tampa Bay area, one of two things can happen. You can either be issued a ticket\/marijuana citation or be found guilty of a misdemeanor.\nBefore Clearwater decriminalization of small marijuana possession took place, anyone found in possession of less than 20 grams of marijuana could be punished for a first-degree misdemeanor with up to a year in prison or probation and a $1,000 fine. In addition, they could also lose their driver license for 6 months to a year if convicted.\nMarijuana possession penalties are even harsher if you are found in possession of marijuana while driving. This can lead to a driving under the influence (DUI) charge if the issuing law enforcement finds the possessor impaired or \"under the influence\" of marijuana while driving.\nNeed a Clearwater Marijuana Lawyer?\nDean Tsourakis is an experienced Clearwater criminal defense attorney serving Hillsborough, Pinellas, and Pasco Counties. If you received a Clearwater marijuana citation or have been arrested for marijuana possession, then it is important to seek legal counsel before appearing.\nContact Dean to get a FREE Consultation for Clearwater Marijuana Citations.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzaitml b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzaitml
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..d9f0064d403614f48c3e83d37717387df98547c3
--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"Marketing in the twenty-first century is a very difficult business. To be sure, it has never been easy to move products in any market. The challenge to entrepreneurs in the present day is to do so in a medium that is thick with vendors. The competition in an industry is so extraordinarily large and so fiercely competitive that it is a wonder that any small company is able to make enough revenue and profit to succeed.\nNevertheless, many continue to do so. For the crowded space of competitors within most industries exist because of the large and varied consumer markets that have brought them about. In other words, the best way to sell your products is to find a niche market within a larger one.\nFortunately, social media is able to help entrepreneurs execute their marketing plans in such a way that allows them to reach the kind of people who will actually buy their products. If you market and promote your products on Facebook, then you are no doubt aware of the many tools offered by the site to help you track multiple promotion campaigns.\nFacebook has recently announced changes to the way this works. The company has decided that it will eliminate the option that allowed advertisers to create unique tracking pixels for conversion tracking and custom audience tracking. Many vendors use such pixels to align their marketing campaign goals with the actual revenue generated from the ad.\nThe new Facebook pixel [learn more: https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/business\/help\/952192354843755] will allow you to simplify the way you manage your social media ad campaign. You will be able to build custom audiences from your website in a way that will allow you to adjust your marketing strategy. You will also be able to optimize ads for conversions and track conversions and link them back to your ads.\nEvery independent entrepreneur understands the importance of time. It is the one resource that cannot be renewed. It is possible to get so bogged down in trying to administer the marketing campaigns on various sites that you have little time for the formulating the bigger plans and making the more important decisions. The new Facebook super pixel allows you to get better control over your marketing activities by giving you better insight into website traffic and individual conversions.\nThe old pixel set up will continue to work for now. If you want to go on using it, all you need to do is add events for conversion tracking. However, you should watch closely for Facebook announcements concerning this issue. The company will no doubt provide regular updates as to when and how the new process will be implemented.\nFor those who rely on Facebook to sell products and services, this is certainly welcome news. It will save a tremendous amount of energy and effort. One of the great things about doing business in the present world is that you can run operations, finance, and marketing all on your own. The not so good thing is that managing the latter in particular can drain a considerable amount of time out of your day. Trying to get as much as you can from social media may push you towards an involvement that becomes so deep and intense that it may lead to diminishing returns. Any tool that enables you to re-assert control over the way you spend your time is good.\nOf course, mastering the inner workings of a new system is always a challenge. However, Facebook has shown an excellent capacity to produce user-friendly tools that help its users adjust to new upgrades. You are not likely to find much trouble in learning how the new super pixel process works. You should, however, start to re-think your organizational strategy so that you can smooth the introduction of this new process. It will make everything a great deal easier when changes are made later this year.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"A disclaimer is any statement intended to specify or delimit rights and obligations that may be exercised and enforced by parties in a legal relationship. In contrast to other terms for legally operative language, the term disclaimer usually implies situations that involve some level of uncertainty, waiver, or risk.\nA disclaimer may specify mutually agreed and privately arranged terms and conditions as part of a contract; or may specify warnings or expectations to the general public (or some other class of persons) in order to fulfill a duty of care owed to prevent unreasonable risk of harm or injury. Some disclaimers are intended to limit exposure to damages after a harm or injury has already been suffered.\nAdditionally, some kinds of disclaimers may represent a voluntary waiver of a right or obligation that may be owed to the disclaimant.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Why should I buy a Super X Pump?\nThe Super X pump shotgun has many great features.\nBlack chrome finishes stand up to years of wear and last longer than traditional bluing.\nFour massive lugs allow inertia to start the forearm and slide mechanism rearward as the stock recoils against your shoulder, giving you a head start on the next shot. Dual steel action bars eliminate twisting, binding and wasted time and energy when cycling the action.\nRib structures inside the pad help direct and channel the recoil impulse, moving the comb down and away from your cheek. A hard heel insert on the pad makes mounting the Super X Pump snag free.\nThe Super X Pump composite stock provides you with the same familiar feel of the Super X3.\nRemoving one pin allows you to drop out the complete trigger system for cleaning and inspection.\nExtensive research and testing has proven that when it comes to back-boring, .742\" is the ideal interior barrel diameter, ensuring tight, consistent patterns. Any larger and gases blow by the shot cup and reduce pellet velocity. Too small and the pellets are deformed as they pass through the forcing cone, causing poor ballistic performance.\nThe Super X Pump comes with full, modified and improved cylinder flush-mounted tubes.\nAn optimum feature for durability when using steel or tungsten shot. A chrome bore and chamber are easier to clean, giving you that extra margin of protection when hunting in wet conditions.\nWhen removing the three-shot adopter simply remove the magazine cap, push on the spring retainer holding the spring in place and remove the adapter.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Mesut Ozil poised to be a Red Devil!\nWomen, you MUST carry these with you!\n7 Descendants of Indian Royal Families Who Are ..\nHero MotoCorp expands in South America, enters ..\n5 Ways To Deal With A Boss Who Gives Too Much W ..","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Just to clarify, The Starfarer is a futuristic romance with elements from the science fiction\/space opera genre. The plot itself revolves around the relationship between a resourceful-but-vulnerable-female and an honorable-but-emotionally-distant-male. While this description is apt, it really doesn't do the plot justice as the circumstances of how the two met, the challenges they face in their developing relationship, and the characters are unique.\nThe Ur'quay are legendary warriors, literally; they have not made their presence in the galaxy known for generations. As a species, they are dying because their planet doesn't have the resources necessary to sustain their long-term isolation from the rest of the galaxy. They decide to visit the Araloka Sector in search of much-needed resources, but they want to remain detached from the ongoing battle fight against the resource-grubbing, war-mongering Ketaari. When an Ur'quay vessel that is sampling resources from an agricultural planet accidentally captures Sila Gatherer, she finds herself homeless and in danger. The second-in-command of the Ur-quay vessel, Zh'hir Mu'raat, vows to make amends and the two form a bond.\nWhat really elevates this novel from being a run-of-the-mill romance are its main characters, setting, and the intergalactic politics. The backstories of the main characters are as interesting as they are diverse, and they provide a different perspective on the war that is being waged against the Ketaari. The setting provides a panoramic view of the Araloka Sector, its inhabitants, and the various spacecraft and space stations. The intergalactic politics provide intrigue and plenty of action that complement the interspecies romance between the main characters; a romance that is a bold move on Landon's part as one species is similar to contemporary humans while the other species is humanoid with reptilian attributes.\nI don't think hard-core fans of the science fiction or romance genres are going to find this book intriguing because the plot is a balance of the two. However, I think readers who enjoy light science fiction or light romance will find the combination appealing. It is most definitely not a book for bigots; if you had issues with the \"Mass Effect\" games because they discussed interspecies relationships, you don't want to read this book. As for me, even though I'm not a huge romance fan, I enjoyed The Starfarer and I'm looking forward to reading more of \"The Araloka Chronicles\" in the future.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
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+{"text":"Take a look at our published work.\nRosa, R., Soares, P., & Tom\u00e9, M. (2018). Evaluating the Economic Potential of Uneven-aged Maritime Pine Forests. Ecologica Economics, 143, 210-217.\nAbstract: Continuous cover practices are likely to better respond to the increasing demand for social, aesthetic and environmental values provided by forest ecosystems than even-aged forest plantations. Also, uneven-aged forestry may be especially attractive for non-industrial private forest owners, as it provides more regular revenues and, by taking advantage of natural regeneration, reduce installation costs. Knowledge on alternative regimes to even-aged forestry is therefore in high demand. We first add to the literature by proposing a new maritime pine forest growth model that can be readily used in optimization studies. Second, we are the first to analyze optimal uneven aged forest management for this species. Highlighting the contribution of this study, a comparison of our results with currently suggested silvicultural management scenarios is provided. We show that the economic profitability of this species significantly increases under optimal forest management and may thus present a viable alternative to rotation forests. In particular, we show that optimal forest management may entail harvesting cycles.\nLopes, Ana Faria. Macdonald, jacob L. Quinteiro, Paula. Arroja, Lu\u00eds. Santos, Cl\u00e1udia Carvalho. Cunha-e-S\u00e1, Maria A. Dias, Ana Cl\u00e1udia. (2018). Surface vs. groundwater: The effect of forest cover on the costs of drinking water.\nAbstract: Forests worldwide provide a variety of ecosystem services including carbon sequestration, soil protection and water purification. In particular, the minimal use of pesticides and fertilizers in forest operations coupled with the tree root system are associated with higher drinking water quality. However, forest coverage is expected to have a more influential impact in groundwater quality rather than surface as well as, consequently, on drinking water treatment costs. This study uses cross sectional data at firm level to assess the marginal effect of forest cover on drinking water treatment costs for the case of Portugal, the first of its kind for the country. Our analysis makes use of a range of GIS and spatial variables which capture the heterogeneity in local forest coverage. The results obtained suggest the existence of a positive and significant effect of local forest cover on water treatment cost savings of 0.056%. However, this effect applies to firms extracting water from groundwater intakes. Neighboring measures of forest coverage have a greater impact on costs from surface water firms. The crucial role of local forest coverage through groundwater provision relates to a problem of intertemporal variation of those costs. Given the expected impact of climate change on precipitation in some regions where drinking water is mostly supplied by groundwater intakes, and since around 97% of forest land is privately owned, these results may suggest that appropriate incentives (e.g., payments for ecosystem services) could contribute to ensuring the sustainable use of water and forest resources.\nRosa, R., Vaz, J., Mota, R., & Silva, A. (2017). Forthcoming. Preference for Landings' Smoothing and Risk of Collapse in Optimal Fishery Policies: The Ibero-Atlantic Sardine Fishery. Environmental and Resource Economics, 1-21.\nAbstract: Several world fish stocks are being explored at unsustainable levels and require management plans to rebuild stock abundance. Defining a management plan is, however, a complex task that entails multidisciplinary work. In fact, while it requires solid scientific knowledge of fish stocks, the inclusion of economic and social objectives is crucial to a successful management implementation. In this paper we develop an age-structured bioeconomic model where the objective function is modified to accommodate preferences from different stakeholders. In particular, we consider important characteristics that a management plan should take into account: profit maximization, fishermen's preference for reducing landings' fluctuations and risk of fishery collapse. Modeling preferences for reducing landings' fluctuations is accomplished by defining a utility function with aversion to intertemporal income fluctuations. Building upon biology literature, we model precautionary concerns by incorporating a probability of collapse that depends on current spawning biomass. We illustrate how this framework is able to assist in the analysis and design of harvest control rules applying it to the Ibero-Atlantic sardine stock.\nCunha-e-S\u00e1, M. A., Freitas, R., Nunes, L. C., & Otrachshenko, V. Forthcoming. On nature's shoulders: Riding the big waves in Nazar\u00e9. Tourism Economics.\nAbstract: The use of counterfactual methods in the evaluation of policy interventions has been accepted today as the best approach in the estimation of a program's performance. However, the simplest evaluations are often quite demanding in terms of the resources and the time needed to be implemented. In this article, we study the economic impact of a tourism media campaign launched in Nazar\u00e9, an old fishing community on the west coast of Portugal, to make big waves visible to the world. The campaign provided the required \"informational media infrastructure\" that created the public awareness necessary to boost tourism in the region. To measure the economic impact of that campaign on the local economy, we show how a counterfactual analysis can be implemented using regional statistical data on domestic and international tourist arrivals. We show how the method can be adapted to account for the presence of potential spillover effects that may have occurred, as neighboring municipalities could also have been affected by the intervention. We further compare the estimated impact on revenues with the costs incurred by the local municipality in the marketing campaign. Based on our empirical findings, we discuss policy implications to the municipalities in the region.\nFranco, S. F., & Macdonald, J. L. (In Press). Measurement and valuation of urban greenness: Remote sensing and hedonic applications to Lisbon, Portugal. Regional Science and Urban Economics.\nAbstract: This paper explores the role of remote sensing techniques in capturing urban environmental data in the form of tree canopy coverage and measures of urban greenery. Using a classification algorithm, we identify tree canopy coverage in Lisbon, Portugal, to be approximately 8%. Our results have an accuracy rating of approximately 90% highlighting the benefits of this technique in capturing novel forms of data.\nUsing these measures aggregated to the neighborhood level, we explore the impact of open space accessibility and urban greenness on the residential property market in Lisbon. We capture the heterogeneity of open spaces through their size and average vegetation level, and further explore how the greenness of a resident's neighborhood may elicit complementary or substitutability behavior in house pricing relative to proximity to urban open spaces and other urban ecological variables.\nOur results indicate that proximity to both large urban forests and smaller neighbourhood parks are capitalized through residential prices. These effects are dependent on neighborhood green composition with neighborhoods which have a higher proportion of sparse or low lying vegetation willing to trade-off proximity to parks (where this type of vegetation is abundant) and have a preference for being closer to urban forests (where there is greater diversity in vegetation from the neighborhood). Overall tree canopy coverage is positively valued with a square kilometer increase in the relative size of tree canopy valued at 0.20% of dwelling prices, or approximately \u20ac400 per dwelling.\nThese results highlight the importance of capturing the heterogeneity of urban greenery and the interacting effects with the local ecology and the built environment.\nFranco, S. F. (2017). Downtown parking supply, work-trip mode choice and urban spatial structure. Transportation Research Part B: Methodological, 101, 107-122.\nAbstract: This paper examines the effects of changes in downtown parking supply on urban welfare, modal choice decisions and urban spatial structure using a spatial general equilibrium model of a closed monocentric city with two transport modes, endogenous residential parking and a form of bottleneck congestion at the CBD. Our analysis shows that parking reforms at the CBD that increase delay congestion costs in the short-run such as parking supply limits can be welfare improving if other commuting externalities such as air pollution can be reduced. In addition, because parking limits can also change location decisions such as where to live and invest they may complement anti-sprawl policies efforts by leading to a more compact urban spatial structure in the long run. We also show that changes in downtown parking supply can have different spatial impacts on the market supply of residential parking by affecting urban residents' location decisions. Finally, we investigate whether the self-financing theorem of transportation economics holds within the context of our spatial urban model.\nAbstract: This paper examines and quantifies the impact of weather shocks on all-cause, cardiovascular-, and respiratory-cause mortality for different age groups in Russia. Using a regional panel data analysis from 1989 to 2014, we find that both hot and cold days cause an increase in all-cause and cause-specific mortality. On the other hand, days with extremely cold temperature (below \u2212 30 \u00b0C) may have an opposite impact and reduce mortality. Overall, our findings suggest that the economic costs of all-cause mortality due to one day with hot and cold temperatures correspond to 10.25 million USD and 7.91 million USD or 0.28% and 0.22% of daily GDP in Russia, respectively. The results also suggest that regions frequently experiencing hot and cold temperatures have adapted to these temperatures.\nAbstract: Using quarterly data from 1995 until 2014, we investigate whether Euro Area (EA) membership influences the probability of a European Union Member State going through an episode of sudden stop or through an episode of bonanza, after controlling for a number of push and pull factors. Overall, our results do not support the claim that EA membership constituted a weakness during the recent financial crisis. On the contrary, we find that EA membership decreases the probability of a sudden stop, all else equal. We find no evidence that being part of the EA has a direct effect on the probability of bonanza. When allowing for interaction effects, our results suggest that EA membership might have mitigated the risk perception arising from higher government debt in the case of bonanzas.\nCunha-e-S\u00e1, M. A., & Franco, S. F. (2017). The Effects of Development Constraints on Forest Management at the Urban-Forest Interface. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 99(3), 614-636.\nAbstract: This article develops a model of a forest owner operating in a small, open-city environment where the rent for developed land is increasing concave in nearby preserved open space and is rising over time, reflecting an upward trend in households' income. Within this framework we examine how changes in nearby preserved open space and alternative development constraints affect an individual private landowner's decisions regarding both regeneration harvests and conversion dates. We also examine how such policies affect development density once conversion from forestry to residential use occurs. We show that when residential rents change over time, the nature of the timber problem at the urban-forest interface changes because it forces us to allow for the possibility of changes in land use from timber to residential use. As a result, the traditional Faustmann setup is not suitable to study forest management decisions at this interface. We also find that in the presence of rising income, increases in permanently preserved open space hasten regeneration and conversion cuts of a neighboring parcel currently under forest use and leads to lower density development once conversion takes place compared to the case where income is constant. We also find that both a binding development moratorium and a binding minimum-lot-size policy can postpone regeneration and conversion cut dates and thus help to protect open space, even if only temporarily. However, the policies do not have the same effects on development density of converted forestland. While the former leads to high-density development, the latter encourages low-density development.\nBrueckner, J. K., & Franco, S. F. (2016). Parking and urban form. Journal of Economic Geography, 17 (1), 95-127.\nAbstract: This article analyzes the provision of residential parking in a monocentric city, with the ultimate goal of appraising the desirability and effects of regulations such as a minimum-parking requirement (MPR) per dwelling. The analysis considers three different regimes for provision of parking space: surface parking, underground parking, and structural parking, with the latter two regimes involving capital investment either in the form of an underground parking garage or an above-ground parking structure. Parking area is viewed as a dwelling attribute that, along with floor space, provides utility. In addition, road congestion in the neighborhood (which affects the commuting costs of local residents) depends on the average amount of off-street parking per dwelling, an externality that is ignored by profit-maximizing developers, making the equilibrium inefficient. The analysis explores the equilibrium spatial behavior of the two dwelling attributes as well as residential and parking structural density, and analysis of land rent shows which parking regimes are present in different parts of the city. Efficiency requires an increase in parking area per dwelling at each location, which can be achieved in a crude fashion by an MPR, whose effects are analyzed.\nOtrachshenko, V., Popova, O., & Tavares, J. (2016). Psychological costs of currency transition: evidence from the euro adoption. European Journal of Political Economy, 45, 89-100.\nAbstract: This paper assesses the perceived individual psychological costs of adhering to the Euro. We use the difference-in-differences approach (DD), comparing individual levels of satisfaction with the economy in Slovakia immediately before and after the introduction of the Euro, with similar individuals in neighboring Czech Republic, which did not adopt the Euro. Both countries were economically and politically integrated for decades, and display similar macroeconomic behavior before and after the currency change in Slovakia. What we assess is not the actual, economic, costs stemming from the Euro adoption, but the change in utility as perceived by the individuals. There is evidence of substantial psychological costs associated with currency transition, especially for the old, the unemployed, the poorly educated and households with children. Our results are robust to the use of alternative control groups and to estimation procedures using the DD matching approach. The significant perceived costs uncovered in this paper suggest policy-makers should not ignore them when considering a sweeping economic change such as the adoption of a new currency.\nAbstract: This article examines the impact of marine ecosystem quality on inbound coastal tourism in the Baltic, North Sea, and Mediterranean countries. Using marine protected areas (MPAs) and the fraction of overexploited species as a proxy for marine ecosystem quality, we apply an autoregressive distributed lag model in a destination\u2013origin panel setup. The empirical findings suggest that the presence of MPAs and the fraction of overexploited species have a considerable impact on inbound coastal tourism. Moreover, the impact of the overexploitation index on tourism is persistent and its short-term (current) impact constitutes 65% of the long-term impact. The results underscore the importance of marine ecosystem quality for inbound coastal tourism and its overall impact that may exceed the impact of tourists' income. We also find that government performance is crucial for inbound tourism.\nAbstract: The attractiveness of cities as places to live determines population movements into or out of them. Understanding the appealing features is fundamental to local governments, particularly for cities facing population decline. Pull and push attributes can include economic aspects, the availability of amenities and psychological constructs, initiating a discussion around which factors are more relevant for migration. However, such discussion has been underexplored in studies of shrinking cities. In the present study, we contribute to the discussion by identifying pull and push factors in Portuguese shrinking cities. Data were collected using a face-to-face questionnaire of 701 residents in four shrinking cities: Oporto, Barreiro, Peso da R\u00e9gua and Moura. Factor analysis and automatic linear modelling were used to analyse the data. Our results show that the economic activity is the most relevant feature for retaining residents. However, characteristics specific to each city, related to heritage and natural beauty, are also shown to influence a city's attractiveness. The cause of population shrinkage was also found to influence residents' assessments of the pull and push attributes of each city. Furthermore, the results show the relevance of social ties and of place attachment to inhabitants' intention to continue living in their city of residence.\nFreitas, P., Nunes, L. C., Balc\u00e3o Reis, A., Seabra, M. D. C., & Ferro, A. (2016). Correcting for sample problems in PISA and the improvement in Portuguese students' performance. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy and Practice, 23 (4), 456-472.\nAbstract: The results of large-scale international assessments such as Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) have attracted a considerable attention worldwide and are often used by policy-makers to support educational policies. To ensure that the published results represent the actual population, these surveys go through a thorough scrutiny to ensure their validity. One important issue that may affect the results is the occurrence of different participation rates across groups with heterogeneous average student scores. In this study, we illustrate how problems of representativeness of the samples may be corrected by the use of post-stratified weights. We use the case of Portugal, a country where we uncover a meaningful difference between the actual population and the PISA samples in terms of the distribution of students per grade and track of studies. We show that after post-stratification, the temporal evolution of the PISA scores is quite different from the one reported.\nAbstract: Cities facing a continued and prolonged process of population decline require innovative urban regeneration policies complementary to growth-oriented policies. Losing inhabitants involves a decrease in economic activity and social capital. Therefore citizens' participation in defining policies to cope with population decline is being increasingly advocated. This research focused on four shrinking cities of Portugal to capture residents' knowledge about the strengths and weaknesses of their city of residence as well as the policies and actions they prioritized for dealing with the population decline. The responses from 701 questionnaires show that economic revival policies as well as safety and accessibility policies were preferred. To put these policies into action, the recovery of industrial activity, the creation of business incubators, an improvement in law enforcement, and public lighting were ranked as top priorities. Rank-ordered logistic regression models were used to understand which variables influenced the residents' rankings. We found that the evaluation of the city's characteristics impact the ranking of the policies and actions. Hence, residents show a high level of coherence when engaging in a discussion at the level of policy-making. Therefore, the findings support residents' involvement in decision-making processes regarding urban regeneration in shrinking cities.\nAbstract: In this paper, we propose new tests of the presence of multiple breaks in the trend of a univariate time-series where the number and dates of the breaks are unknown and that are valid in the presence of stationary or unit root shocks. These tests can also be used to sequentially estimate the number of breaks. The behaviour of the proposed tests is studied through Monte Carlo experiments.\nAbstract: We propose a latent-class model (LCM) to analyze contingent-valuation surveys incorporating attitudinal questions capturing protest reasons to identify classes of respondents with similar preferences and attitudes. In contrast to a standard LCM, our model ensures that classes are not contaminated by different types of response biases. Using data regarding the preservation of a world-heritage recreation site, low- and high-protester classes are identified. The difference in estimated willingness to pay (WTP) in these classes is \u20ac26, reflecting protest issues. If response biases were ignored, different classes would be identified and the corresponding difference in WTPs would be inflated by 130 %.\nNunes, L. C., Reis, A. B., & Seabra, M. D. C. (2015). The publication of school rankings: A step toward increased accountability? Economics of Education Review, 49, 15-23.\nAbstract: This paper contributes to the discussion of the effects of the publication of school rankings based on students' scores on national exams. We study the effectiveness of this (low-stakes) accountability mechanism. Our results suggest that the publication of rankings has clear effects upon families and schools in Portugal. After the rankings publication, fewer students enroll in schools that are rated poorly and the probability of closure of these schools increases. These effects are stronger for private schools.\nAbstract: Following Hidalgo et al. (Sci Mag 317: 482\u2013487, 2007), we use the structure of international trade to estimate a measure of \"revealed relatedness\" for each pair of internationally traded products, which intends to capture similarities in terms of the endowments or capabilities they use in production. Our method departs from the original one, in that we run statistical tests of equality in probabilities, instead of computing conditional probabilities. We estimate a matrix of \"Revealed Relatedness Indexes\" using 2005 data and we then investigate which \"upscale\" products in which Portugal didn't develop comparative advantage are more related to products in which the country is currently specialized. The analysis suggests that more than 60 % of Portugal's \"upscale opportunities\" lie in non-traditional sectors, such as \"machinery\" and \"chemicals\".\nAbstract: The cork oak (Quercus suber L.) is harvested for its bark (cork), a highly valuable non-timber forest product. Recurrent cork harvesting is practiced over the lifetime of the tree and constitutes a stressful action that, while artificially promoting cork growth, may severely deplete tree vigor after an exploitation time span. To date, few long-term studies have been conducted regarding the effect of recurrent cork harvests on cork growth rates, and there is a complete lack of knowledge on the effect of the stress, induced by cork harvesting, on the vigor of the cork oak. In this study we propose to address the resilience of the cork oak to cork harvesting, using cork-ring width as an indicator of tree vigor. We use dendrochronological methods to develop an extended cork-ring width series that was analyzed by autoregressive integrated moving average modeling with an intervention analysis approach. We show that cork harvesting represents a human-induced loss of tree resilience only after six consecutive harvests, and that only after a single stochastic cork-harvesting event may trigger a sudden collapse in cork oak vigor. Our results also suggest that the tree (optimum) exploitation period of 110-120 years, which includes more than nine consecutive harvests, extends more than 35 years beyond the tree vigor breakpoint (occurring at the sixth consecutive harvest). Within this time frame, the tree is producing cork instinctively to survive, and its vulnerability to other (a)biotic stresses may increase, leading to untimely cork oak decline. These results suggest that there is a great potential in the time-series analysis of cork-ring widths for the development of tools that may enhance typical cork oak management planning by addressing both economic and ecological objectives.\nGuimar\u00e3es, M. H., Nunes, L. C., Madureira, L., Santos, J. L., Boski, T., & Dentinho, T. (2015). Measuring birdwatchers preferences: A case for using online networks and mixed-mode surveys. Tourism Management, 46, 102-113.\nAbstract: This paper reports findings derived from a study of birdwatchers in the Azores. The subject was birdwatchers' preferences for given management actions designed to improve the attractiveness of bird watching sites. In the absence of official statistics on this market segment, use was made of a mixed-mode survey incorporating both on-site and off-site surveys and the use of on-line social networks and communications tools. The variable willingness-to-stay more time at the site was used as a welfare measure. It has the advantage that it can be used to demonstrate the significant returns of eco-tourism to local communities. Two findings emerge. First, tourists practicing wildlife viewing and nature-based activities are less worried about infrastructures and care more about biodiversity and habitat quality, and second, the research technique appears to be successful when surveying seasonal recreation communities that are small and socially cohesive.\nAbstract: Deforestation is a major source of CO2 emissions, accounting for around 17 % of annual anthropogenic carbon release. While costs estimates of reducing deforestation vary depending on model assumptions, it is widely accepted that emissions reductions from avoided deforestation consist of a relatively low cost mitigation option. Halting deforestation is therefore not only a major ecological challenge, but a great opportunity to cost effectively reduce climate change impacts. In this paper, we analyze the impact of introducing avoided deforestation credits into the European carbon market using a multiregional Computable General Equilibrium model. Taking into account political concerns over possible \"flooding\" of credits from reduced emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD), limits to the number of these allowances are considered. Finally, we account for both direct and indirect effects occurring on land and timber markets resulting from lower deforestation rates. We conclude that avoided deforestation notably reduces climate change policy costs\u2014approximately by 80 % with unlimited availability of REDD credits\u2014and may drastically reduce carbon prices. Policy makers may effectively control for this imposing limits to REDD credits use. Moreover, avoided deforestation has the additional positive effect of reducing carbon leakage of a unilateral European climate change policy. This is good news for the EU, but not necessarily for REDD regions. We show that REDD revenues are not sufficient to compensate REDD regions for a less leakage-affected and more competitive EU in international markets. In fact, REDD regions would prefer to free ride on the EU unilateral mitigation policy.\nCunha-e-S\u00e1, M. A. (2014). What has changed in EDE research? A comment. Environment and Development Economics, 19(3), 304-306.\nAbstract: Climate and global economic integration have contributed to a refocusing of research in EDE in the two last decades. The disclosure of new scientific evidence, namely after the publication of the Stern Review and the following debates, has definitely granted economists a central role in defining the key elements of the debate on climate change.\nOtrachshenko, V., & Popova, O. (2014). Life (dis) satisfaction and the intention to migrate: Evidence from Central and Eastern Europe. The Journal of Socio-Economics, 48, 40-49.\nAbstract: This paper provides empirical evidence of the impact of life satisfaction on the individual intention to migrate. The impacts of individual characteristics and of country macroeconomic variables on the intention to migrate are analyzed jointly. Using the Eurobarometer Survey for 27 Central and Eastern European (CEE) and Western European (non-CEE) countries, we find that people have a greater intention to migrate when dissatisfied with life. The socioeconomic variables and macroeconomic conditions affect the intention to migrate indirectly through life satisfaction. At all levels of life satisfaction, individuals with similar characteristics have greater intentions to migrate from CEE countries than from non-CEE countries. These findings underscore the importance of individual life satisfaction not only as a strong predictor of the individual migration intention, but also as a mediator between individual socioeconomic variables and macroeconomic conditions and that intention.\nAbstract: A Choice Modeling (CM) study was chosen to assess specific management actions related to bird-watching on the Portuguese island of Terceira in the Azores. The usual willingness-to-pay measure was replaced by the willingness-to-stay (WTS) longer on the island for bird-watching, given changes in the site attributes. Results of the valuation study were presented to stakeholders and policy-makers using an innovative method. In particular, CM results were incorporated into a modeling tool which simulated the impact of alternative policy packages. For each selected scenario, users were able to understand birders' WTS and its impact on the local economy. The tool provided a fast and clear way of communicating relevant information, resulting in a more informed and inclusive deliberative process. Furthermore, we were able to see how results were used by the final users and came to the conclusion that local managers had preconceived ideas which did not match birders' preferences. This work led to a shift regarding prior beliefs about the relevance of bird-watching activities on the local economy as well as management actions likely to promote it. The underlying participatory approach was found to be an essential feature for the success of this science and policy interaction.\nAbstract: Consumers' food choices are influenced by a wide variety of credence attributes, but the food industry faces problems assessing whether the price premiums that consumers are willing to pay for these attributes will be sufficient to offset higher production costs. In this context, consumers' willingness to pay (WTP) for safer, cleaner and animal friendlier beef was investigated through a choice experiment. The relative importance of WTP for these attributes shows that consumers place the highest values on food safety, followed by animal welfare and finally environmental protection. WTP for different combinations of the three attributes cannot be obtained by independent valuation and summation due to the presence of significant substitution relationships. However, some suggestions for the relationships between these attributes can be proposed through an after-survey analytical solution. The bias involved in separately valuing closely related attributes can potentially jeopardise the success of a differentiation strategy.\nAbstract: One of the prevalent topics in the economic growth literature is the debate between neoclassical, semi-endogenous, and endogenous growth theories regarding the model that best describes the data. An important part of this discussion can be summarized in three mutually exclusive hypotheses: the \"constant trend,\" the \"level shift,\" and the \"slope shift\" hypotheses. In this article we propose the characterization of a country's economic growth path according to these break hypotheses. We address the problem in two steps. First, the number and timing of trend breaks is determined using new structural change tests that are robust to the presence, or not, of unit roots, surpassing technical and methodological concerns of previous empirical studies. Second, conditional on the estimated number of breaks and break dates, a statistical framework is introduced to test for general linear restrictions on the coefficients of the suggested linear disjoint broken trend model. We further show how the aforementioned hypotheses, regarding the economic growth path, can be analyzed by a test of linear restrictions on the parameters of the breaking trend model. We apply the methodology to historical per capita gross domestic product for an extensive list of countries. The results support the three alternative hypotheses for different sets of countries.\nCunha-e-S\u00e1, M. A., Rosa, R., & Costa-Duarte, C. (2013). Natural carbon capture and storage (NCCS): forests, land use and carbon accounting. Resource and Energy Economics, 35(2), 148-170.\nAbstract: The use of forests as natural carbon capture and storage sinks is considered by introducing carbon sequestration benefits' accounting in a multi-vintage partial equilibrium land-use model, under different carbon price scenarios. The consequences to timber and land markets and to the profile of the carbon sequestration time path are examined in the short-run, long-run, and transition. Following IPCC, three carbon accounting methods are considered: the carbon flow, the ton-year crediting and the average storage. A full proof of long-run optimality of steady-state forest is provided. Numerical simulations are performed and results discussed illustrating the setup's potential.\nMota, R. P., & Domingos, T. (2013). Assessment of the theory of comprehensive national accounting with data for Portugal. Ecological economics, 95, 188-196.\nAbstract: We present time-series tests of the quality of genuine savings and green net national income for predicting welfare changes. These tests check the validity of the theory of comprehensive national accounting, and more broadly of the theory of economic growth. The value of technological progress is included, as well as the effects of business cycles. We use estimates for Portugal as inputs. Overall, our results indicate that both genuine savings and changes in green net national income have the same sign as changes in welfare, but reject the hypothesis that the estimated comprehensive national accounting measures coincide with the theoretical expressions. The results also suggest that comprehensive accounting indicators perform better than conventional national accounting indicators, implying that, in general, the corrections proposed by the comprehensive accounting theory add explanatory power to conventional measures. The exception is the inclusion of education expenditures and technological progress, which decrease explanatory power. Excluding business cycles from green net national income increases the agreement with the theory. Comparing both indicators, in general, genuine savings presents better results.\nAbstract: The existence or nonexistence of changes in meat consumption cycles is critical to meat industry. If the change is existent, there is a need to understand what motivates the change to identify the most appropriate response. Wavelet analysis is considered here as a promising technique that may lead to a better understanding of characteristic patterns and changes in the meat consumption cycles.\nBosello, F., Parrado, R., & Rosa, R. (2013). The economic and environmental effects of an EU ban on illegal logging imports. Insights from a CGE assessment. Environment and Development Economics, 18(2), 184-206.\nAbstract: The European Union (EU) is now discussing a legislation proposal to ban illegal timber from the EU market. We use the ICES model to estimate the reallocation of global demand and timber imports following the EU legislation. We aim to assess the economic impacts and measure the potential emission reduction resulting from the introduction of this policy. Results show that an EU ban targeting only log imports is not effective in reducing illegal logging, but its main effect is the removal of illegal logs from international markets. Additionally, the unilateral EU ban increases secondary wood production in illegal logging countries as their exports become relatively more competitive. Through this mechanism, part of the banned illegal timber will re-enter international trade flows 'hidden' as processed wood. Extending the ban to timber processed products eliminates this effect and reinforces direct carbon emissions reduction from logging activities.\nAbstract: This article develops a latent class model for estimating willingness-to-pay (WTP) for public goods using simultaneously contingent valuation (CV) and attitudinal data to identify individuals with similar characteristics, such as WTP and protest attitudes. We find evidence that the answer to the CV question influences the responses to the attitudinal questions. In our case, this influence reflects rational behavior (budget constraint issues) and justification biases related to protest reasons, such as lack of trust in institutions or fairness issues with respect to the distribution of the burden of preservation. The results from our empirical application confirm the importance of accounting for those biases.\nLopes, J. M., & Nunes, L. C. (2012). A Markov regime switching model of crises and contagion: The case of the Iberian countries in the EMS. Journal Of Macroeconomics, 34(4), 1141-1153.\nAbstract: We develop a general econometric model of currency crises and contagion that integrates a number of important features appearing in many different models recently proposed in the literature. In particular, we consider a Markov regime switching vector autoregression conditional heteroskedastic model with time-varying transition probabilities allowing for shifting correlations. This model is used to study the case of the Portuguese escudo and the Spanish peseta during the EMS crisis. The results show that, in a crisis situation, the interest rate differential has different effects on the transition probability from the crisis state to the non-crisis state: a perverse effect for Portugal, and a positive effect for Spain. We also find strong evidence of contagion, mostly from the Spanish peseta to the Portuguese escudo, and to some extent from the Portuguese escudo to the Spanish peseta.\nRua, A., & Nunes, L. C. (2012). A Wavelet-based assessment of market risk: the emerging markets case. The Quaterly Review of Economics and Finance, 52(1), 84-92.\nAbstract: The measurement of market risk poses major challenges to researchers and different economic agents. On one hand, it is by now widely recognized that risk varies over time. On the other hand, the risk profile of an investor, in terms of investment horizon, makes it crucial to also assess risk at the frequency level. We propose a novel approach to measuring market risk based on the continuous wavelet transform. Risk is allowed to vary both through time and at the frequency level within a unified framework. In particular, we derive the wavelet counterparts of well-known measures of risk. One is thereby able to assess total risk, systematic risk and the importance of systematic risk to total risk in the time-frequency space. To illustrate the method we consider the emerging markets case over the last twenty years, finding noteworthy heterogeneity across frequencies and over time, which highlights the usefulness of the wavelet approach.\nMichetti, M., & Rosa, R. (2012). Afforestation and timber management compliance strategies in climate policy. A computable general equilibrium analysis. Ecological Economics, 77, 139-148.\nAbstract: This paper analyzes the role of forest-based carbon sequestration in a unilateral EU27 emissions reduction policy under a Global Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) framework. Forestry mitigation is introduced into the model relying on carbon sequestration curves provided by a global forestry model. The structure of the original CGE is extended to consider land use change and timber supply effects, resulting from the use of forest sinks to reduce carbon emissions. Results show that afforestation and timber management could lead to substantially lower policy costs. By using forest-carbon sinks it is possible to achieve the 30% emissions reduction target with an additional European effort of only 0.2 % of GDP compared with the cost of a 20 % emissions reduction without forestry. Carbon price is also reduced, by approximately 30% in 2020. European forest-carbon sequestration may have, however, the perverse effect of increasing timber production in areas of the world which already have high deforestation rates. A sensitivity analysis on main parameters confirms the robustness of our results.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"It will promote a balanced representation of all fisheries and aquaculture stakeholders and will contribute to the achievement of the objectives of the Common Fisheries Policy.\nThe main objectives of the BSAC are compatible with the objectives and principles of the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) set out in Regulation (EU) No. 1380\/2013.\nBlSAC consists of an Executive Committee and a General Assembly. Meet the members here.\nIn this section you will find presentations, reports, materials from meetings, rounds and tables, etc. See more here.\nOn this page you will find the Statutes, Articles of Incorporation, Work Program, etc. You can see them here.\nThe BlSAC is established with the objectives and principles of the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) set out in Regulation (EU) No. 1380\/2013.\nCheck out the latest photos in our galleries. We update it often, so you can come back again to see newer photos.\nOn May 7, 2019 at the Rosslyn Dimyat Hotel, Varna, will be held a meeting of the General Assembly of the BlSAC. For more invormation see the Agenda here.\nIf you represent a fishery association or an organization preoccupied by marine environment and the state of art of fishing resources, you can join BlSAC and share you point of view.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"J.T. Brackenridge Elementary sits on the eastern edge of zip code 78207, which is the way people refer to the Mexican-American community that surrounds the school. Located just west of downtown San Antonio, the neighborhood is as rich with art and history and culture as the rest of the city. Yet it's a world apart.\nTo travel to or from the school is to take a compressed trip through time. Head east, and every few hundred feet Guadalupe Street presents a different line of demarcation \u2014 each a visual reminder of who lived here and what life was like during those respective eras of human habitation.\nThere's Alazan Creek, one of the spring-fed waterways that drew nomadic tribes and Spanish conquistadors, now a concrete culvert lined, not with public art, like the city's iconic Riverwalk, but with untamed scrub. After Guadalupe crosses the river, the road widens and rises, going over busy train tracks that conveyed the raw materials that were used to build the modern metropolis, and then the scrapyards to which spent rebar and steel are returned, to be reforged as the city's next iteration.\nThe final boundary is an elevated interstate, a current-day conduit in the sky that bisects the cramped 25-foot lots of the 78207 from the lofts, the leafy, art-filled riverside promenades, the tail-to-snout eateries, and the brewpubs of the city's prosperous core.\nIn this daily school commute up and down Guadalupe Street, parents and students are presented with a vivid illustration of their stark reality: By virtually any statistical measure, San Antonio is the most economically segregated city in the United States. Its poorest neighborhood, the 78207, is located a scant few miles from the epicenter of the third-fastest-growing economy in the country. But as the city as a whole thrives, the residents on the West Side are all but locked out of the boom.\nInto this divided landscape three years ago came a new schools chief, Pedro Martinez, with a mandate to break down the centuries-old economic isolation that has its heart in the 78207.\nIn response, Martinez launched one of America's most innovative and data-informed school integration experiments. He started with a novel approach that yielded eye-popping information: Using family income data, he created a map showing the depth of poverty on each city block and in every school in the San Antonio Independent School District \u2014 a color-coded street guide composed of granular details unheard of in education. And then he started integrating schools, not by race \u2014 91 percent of his students are Latino and more than 6 percent are black \u2014 but by income, factoring in a spectrum of additional elements such as parents' education levels and homelessness.\nTo achieve the kind of integration he was looking for, he would first have to better understand the gradations of poverty in each and every one of his schools, what kinds of supports do those student populations require, and then find a way to woo affluent families from other parts of the city into San Antonio ISD schools to disrupt these concentrations of unmet need. Martinez's strategy: Open new \"schools of choice\" with sought-after curricular models, like Montessori and dual language, and set aside a share of seats for students from neighboring, more prosperous school districts, who would then sit next to a mix of students from San Antonio ISD, where 93 percent of kids qualify for free or reduced-price lunch.\nOnly a few years into the experiment, the effort has reshaped the educational landscape and redefined the aspirations of its students and educators. The district's diverse-by-design schools now have long lists of well-to-do families waiting for a seat to open up alongside students from working-class households and destitute neighborhoods. Families from the affluent communities on the city's north and northwest sides are indeed now eagerly applying to share classrooms with families from the 78207.\nStudent learning has accelerated \u2014 in both the new, marquee programs and existing schools.\nWhen Texas released its 2017-18 school performance scores last month, San Antonio ISD, with its 50,000 students and 90 schools, was named one of the fastest-improving districts in the state. The system as a whole had risen from the equivalent of an F rating to a C in just the past three years. Thirty-four of its schools earned the state's \"distinction\" designation.\nThe number of San Antonio ISD schools that would have landed on the state's \"improvement required\" list using 2018 criteria fell by half. Using the same calculus, the number of students enrolled in a low-performing school plummeted from 47 percent to 16 percent, the largest decrease among urban districts in the state.\nWith arguably the nation's most radical school integration experiment reaping early wins, what Martinez says he needs most now is time \u2014 to get his still-disadvantaged schools from a C to an A, to change beliefs at all levels about what success looks like, and to stave off a gathering storm of opposition from those who disagree with his maverick approach.\nNational experts on school improvement are buzzing about Martinez's work. But if he is to win over his detractors \u2014 and reach the most profoundly destitute children within a larger community marked by poverty \u2014 he needs the same sense of excitement his work is garnering outside San Antonio to catch hold in his own segregated backyard.\nMartinez is himself an immigrant from Mexico and a first-generation college-graduate success story. Soft-spoken and trained in finance \u2014 not as a teacher \u2014 he was a curious hire back in 2015 for the south Texas district.\nSan Antonio ISD is one of 17 school districts within the city limits, but its blanket poverty is no accident. The district's boundaries were drawn decades ago to neatly follow the 1940s-era red-lined maps segregating blacks and Latinos into what is now an urban core. By contrast, the district located to the immediate north, Alamo Heights, has a poverty rate of 20 percent.\nSan Antonio ISD's school board president, Patti Radle, has lived and worked in the 78207 \u2014 the district's most impoverished neighborhood \u2014 for nearly half a century. A former J.T. Brackenridge teacher and community activist, she believed Martinez, like her, would see her neighbors' pride and resilience, and not fall victim to what she calls \"the pobrecito\" \u2014 \"poor thing\" \u2014 phenomenon.\nRadle listened to Martinez describe his family being forced to move every time their landlord figured out how many people were stuffed into their tiny apartment. She became convinced he understood the weight of students' challenges, as well as the dangers of well-intended but misguided educators trying to protect them from rigorous academic material.\nMartinez believed the neighborhood kids could succeed on par with their wealthy peers, just as he had done, and wouldn't settle for less, she says.\n\"His attitude and his insight seemed outstanding,\" she said.\nShe and her fellow board members told Martinez his job was nothing less than to create a school system that would serve as a model for big-city districts throughout the nation.\nNever mind that these are the marching orders every urban school board chair gives every new superintendent \u2014 as the product of a similar community Martinez didn't hear the directive as a rhetorical one. Neither of his parents made it past second grade, and both worked long hours to feed their 10 kids. At 16, Martinez went to work, too, to help support the family. He knew what creating a generation of college graduates eager to come home to live and work would mean for the 78207.\nBut knowing that nearly every student in the district was low-income told Martinez only the size of the problem, not anything useful in terms of addressing it. In search of better information than what school districts traditionally compile, he turned to census data to create the color-coded map showing the wide variation of levels of poverty from one school to another.\nAfter that, Martinez rebooted dozens of schools, reorganizing them around the kinds of programming \u2014 Montessori, dual language, gifted and talented \u2014 that families in wealthy communities paid private school tuition for. He recruited master teachers and pushed existing ones to retrain. Lacking the money of neighboring districts, he tapped civic organizations and philanthropies to pitch in.\nFast-forward three years. Martinez has opened an eye-popping 31 schools of choice. Families \u2014 some of them affluent parents who previously didn't give the district a thought \u2014 are clamoring to get their children in. Using what he now knew about the extreme poverty of some of his families, Martinez's team created a sophisticated lottery system that carves out a percentage of those seats for the neediest students.\nPhilanthropy is writing big checks. The number of high school graduates going not just to college but to selective colleges has soared. And Martinez has made sure to build cultural bridges to enable his graduates, many of whom had never before left Texas, to succeed there. In 2017, for example, he organized a road trip to Middlebury College in Vermont so the families of four San Antonio ISD students got the chance to settle their kids in at the elite liberal arts school, while catching a glimpse of what life is like in such an unknown setting.\nThe education world took note. In February, the Center on Reinventing Public Education brought dozens of leaders of cities that are home to large, struggling school districts to San Antonio to tour the new schools and to hear how Martinez managed to raise the bar so fast \u2014 and on a shoestring.\nThe center's director, Robin Lake, credits Martinez's willingness to listen to what the community wanted and to build first on its strengths for the quick buy-in he got. \"He really took the time to hear about what was missing in kids' educations,\" she says, and to learn what would empower teachers.\nIt appeared Martinez was well on his way to fulfilling his marching orders. But change agents have a way of attracting headwinds.\nLast winter, the 48-year-old schools chief announced a plan to invite a charter school network to take over a struggling elementary school slated at that point for closure by the state. Almost overnight, the San Antonio Alliance of Teachers and Support Personnel declared war. The union filed a lawsuit. Critics vowed to oust the school board that hired Martinez. Posters appeared on telephone poles with the hashtag #byepedro.\nNow, a new challenge looms. Can Radle and her school board colleagues stand firm, mustering enough support for Martinez's efforts to continue to spread beyond the impoverished but gentrifying and historic parts of the district where San Antonio ISD's most successful new schools have opened? Can families have the same excitement and progress in its most profoundly isolated neighborhoods, in schools like J.T. Brackenridge? Can they change expectations fast enough to interrupt generations of complacency?\nMartinez and Radle say they have to if they are to create a system that is, in fact, a national model for breaking down the economic segregation handicapping poor children in every big-city school district in the country.\nWhen Martinez was a toddler, his 2-year-old sister died, a tragedy that could have been prevented if his family had had access to decent health care in Aguascalientes, Mexico. His father, Rodrigo, orphaned and forced to drop out of school in second grade, realized his family needed to leave if they were to do more than subsist. Rodrigo moved to Chicago and for two years saved money to bring Pedro, his mother, and his surviving siblings north. The local parish helped the family get on its feet, but Rodrigo always had to work two jobs and never earned more than $7 an hour.\nIn sixth grade, Pedro had a teacher who was determined to push him to live up to his potential. The tough love was effective, and Martinez entered Benito Juarez High School with 12th-grade math skills. He started high school in a class of 700. By the time Martinez graduated, there were 170 seniors left.\nHe had worked his way up to assistant manager at McDonald's, but Martinez knew he could do much, much better. He took a leap of faith and enrolled in college, earning a degree in accounting at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and then an MBA at Chicago's DePaul University.\nMartinez was working in finance for the Archdiocese of Chicago when Chicago Public Schools Superintendent Arne Duncan recruited him to work for the district. After serving as its chief financial officer, in 2012, he was named deputy superintendent of Nevada's Clark County Schools, the nation's fifth-largest district, then superintendent in Reno, Nevada, and finally, superintendent-in-residence at the Nevada Department of Education.\nWhen he visited Radle's 78207 neighborhood, Martinez was struck by the same things other newcomers are: streets no wider than alleys where houses the size of garden sheds slump, rotting into the ground because there are no sewers to prevent frequent flooding.\nThen there is the street in the 78207 that Radle calls \"the place where the money ran out,\" a series of intersections where modern infrastructure simply quits, the sidewalks disappear, and roads sporting as much grass as asphalt narrow from two lanes to one.\nMartinez thought he knew poverty, both personally and as a professional committed to eradicating it. But what he saw in San Antonio was familiar and yet shocking. The tight-knit families and their warmth reminded him of the neighborhood where he grew up. But the scope and depth of the need was stunning.\nMedian family income in San Antonio ISD is $30,363. One in five adults aren't high school graduates, and 42 percent don't work. Half of the students live in single-parent households. Constant evictions mean up to 40 percent of students shuffle from one school to another.\nAs daunting as those realities are, the challenges facing J.T. Brackenridge are greater. Located in the poorest corner of the poorest zip code, median family income at the school is $17,000 a year. But J.T. Brack, as residents affectionately call it, enrolls students whose family income dips below $8,000 a year. As a square on the map, the school's attendance boundary is tiny yet dense, containing three public housing projects, including Alaz\u00e1n-Apache Courts \u2014 one of the nation's oldest, completed near the end of the Great Depression thanks to the parish priest's relationship with First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt.\nMartinez knew that the traditional way of measuring student poverty \u2014 tallying the number of children who qualify for free or reduced-price school lunch \u2014 was wholly inadequate when it applies to virtually every student in every one of his 90 schools.\nAt schools near the upper range, an annual income of $45,500 or less for a family of four, students might need extra support in learning, for example, basic math and literacy skills; whereas at schools like J.T. Brackenridge, students need backpacks full of food to take home to their families.\nTo draw the fine-grained portrait he needed, Martinez culled from a different set of data: the U.S. Census's American Community Survey, which calculates median family income by city block. Cross-referenced with individual student enrollment records, that gave him a median household income level for each school. He put the information on a map, color-coded according to the census's four corresponding income \"blocks,\" with Block Four the poorest.\nEducation research that isn't based on meal-subsidy data is scarce. But a working paper released shortly after Martinez created his map confirmed his hunch that the depth and nature of poverty matters in terms of a child's educational odds.\nIn July 2016, professors at Syracuse University and the University of Michigan used Michigan data to determine the number of years individual students were eligible for free or reduced-price meals. At the time of the study, these students made up half of Michigan eighth-graders.\nIn \"The Gap Within the Gap,\" Katherine Michelmore and Susan Dynarski determined that students whose family income was nearest the maximum for eligibility were most likely to be \"transitorily disadvantaged\" \u2014 temporarily set back by a layoff or some other factor the family could bounce back from.\nMeanwhile, 14 percent had been eligible their entire time in school. \"Persistently disadvantaged,\" their families were unable to climb out of poverty. They were more likely to go to urban schools with high concentrations of poverty than their less-impoverished peers. As a group, the poor students studied were about two grades behind their wealthier peers, but the persistently disadvantaged children were three grades behind.\nMartinez knew that at some of his schools virtually all of the students carried the trauma associated with growing up in this kind of deprivation. He would have to ask both San Antonio ISD staff and the civic and philanthropic groups eager to contribute to commit to providing the extra support necessary to address this intergenerational trauma.\nMartinez carried his map around to Rotary Club breakfasts, meetings with teachers, and any other gathering where it might spark discussion. When he took it to other parts of San Antonio, he pointed out that their poverty bore little resemblance to that of his district. When he showed it within the district, he flagged the outliers.\nJ.T. Brackenridge was one of them, very near the bottom in terms of poverty but not academic performance. In fact, the school had a higher percentage of students scoring \"advanced\" on annual state reading and math assessments than the lone district school with median family income anywhere near the national average, about $54,000.\nMartinez and Radle had some hypotheses about this. For starters, the close relationships in the 78207 can keep things like evictions and job losses from being as catastrophic as they might be. Though it has since experienced some turnover, the school had an unusually stable staff, Radle notes, and with periodic exceptions, the neighborhood experienced much lower crime rates than might be expected.\nUsually when Martinez highlighted the surprises on his map \u2014 J.T. Brack's scores were decent, but the district's Young Women's Leadership Academy was one of the best schools in the country in terms of academic achievement among low-income children \u2014 people would ask why. What went right, and could they build on it? And if kids were learning in the elementary years, how come college enrollment and graduation were still so elusive?\nConventional wisdom is that multi-generational poverty is the cause of low academic achievement. It's undoubtedly true that decades of inequities in places like San Antonio's urban core have created devilishly tough circumstances. But as people who also see the richness in the 78207 and similar communities, Martinez and Radle agreed that beliefs about poverty \u2014 the pobrecito problem \u2014 are also a very real barrier.\nMartinez understood that to parents with little experience beyond their isolated neighborhood, the payoffs from a quality education aren't tangible. If you don't know anyone who has a college degree or a comfortable salary, you literally can't envision how to get those things.\n\"Our goal is to show our staff, this is what it means to prepare our children for the next level,\" he says. \"How do we show parents like mine, who had a second-grade education, what is possible?\nA few months after he arrived in San Antonio, Martinez approached the principal of the most academically successful school in the metro area, the International School of the Americas. Would Kathy Bieser leave her prosperous north-metro school district to design and lead a school in San Antonio ISD?\nAnd not just any school. Martinez wanted to create a gifted and talented academy that would be open to any child in the district, regardless of test scores or zip code. The plan had multiple layers.\nThere's a trove of evidence that one way to increase student achievement is to offer more challenging academic material. Requiring students to think critically about knowledge gleaned across different subject areas, the approach used in gifted and talented programs, is precisely the kind of \"higher order\" learning now shown to be invaluable in raising academic achievement. But when it is offered at all, it's typically reserved for children who already are ahead. Screened infrequently, children of color are rare in gifted and talented programs.\nWith 93 percent of his district's students impoverished, the only way Martinez could create socioeconomic diversity in schools was to attract families from more affluent communities. Convinced a gifted and talented program would be an immediate draw, Martinez would reserve 25 percent of seats for students from other districts.\nDissatisfied with offerings in even the most prosperous traditional districts, San Antonio families of means were decamping for private schools or for one of the nation's most rapidly growing charter school sectors. Several of the charter networks expanding in the city, such as IDEA and KIPP, have reputations for being academically challenging.\nBieser was well positioned to set a high bar, certainly, but Martinez had another reason for tapping her. The school where Bieser was principal had been conceived of as a teacher-training lab for nearby Trinity University, whose school of education is one of the best in the nation. Hard-pressed to compete financially for teachers, Martinez needed a \"grow-your-own\" talent pipeline.\nThe newly created Advanced Learning Academy would have a partnership with the college, which would place 10 educators-in-residence and four would-be principals in the school each year. Instead of a few weeks of student teaching at the end of their educations, the teacher-in-training would spend an entire year working side by side with master teachers.\nBecause the pairs continually talk through the choices they are making in the classroom, in Bieser's experience, residencies are beneficial not just to the student teachers, but to their veteran mentors, too.\nSan Antonio ISD would pick up a large portion of the cost of training if the new teachers agreed to stay in the district for several years. Significantly, when they completed their residencies, they would take the high expectations of the gifted and talented model with them to other district schools where few believed impoverished students would benefit from academic rigor.\nAdvance Learning Academy had a waiting list even before the first day of school in August 2016. Encouraged, Martinez rolled out the welcome mat, offering to reopen schools mothballed because of declining enrollment for teachers and principals interested in creating new schools with dynamic models.\nHe had no shortage of takers. When the 2017-18 school year started, San Antonio ISD boasted a dual language program, a Montessori school, high-tech and early-college high schools, a teacher-residency school run by the Relay Graduate School of Education, and a number of specialized programs within existing schools. This year, a third dual language school came online, along with an all-boys school and a host of other new programs.\nBut with success came a new challenge. As applications rolled in for seats in Advanced Learning Academy's second year, they followed a trend common throughout the country: As soon as a new school acquires a buzz on the parent grapevine, middle- and upper-class families can quickly dominate.\nMartinez needed to make sure families from Block Four, the poorest of the poor, got their share of seats in the new schools. He recruited a former teacher who was trying to create \"diverse by design\" schools in Dallas, Mohammed Choudhury, to start and lead an Office of Innovation.\nChoudhury, whose Twitter bio lists desegregation as a job duty, immediately began creating an enrollment system that would reserve seats not just for out-of-district families and neighborhood residents, but for children from each of the income \"blocks\" on Martinez's map. And he dug even deeper into the data to incorporate information about parents' educational attainment, home ownership, single-parent status, and other factors.\nWithout careful controls, Choudhury says, school choice can create \"islands of affluence.\" So for the 2018-19 school year, one-fourth of the 3,000 open seats in the 31 choice and magnet schools were reserved for students with the highest needs.\nAnd he and Martinez are working to locate new innovative schools in neighborhoods where geographic and economic isolation make school choice an abstraction.\nOne day last spring, as she was driving past J.T. Brackenridge, Radle spotted a former student of hers, Priscilla Lucio, on the way home from picking up her son, Carlos Zuniga Jr., from school.\n\"You don't have, like, beans on the stove or anything like that, do you?\" Radle asked, making sure they had time to talk.\nThe boy, better known as C.J., had just been accepted into a new engineering program at Lanier High School, Lucio told Radle. They had gone to visit and C.J. had become captivated with the idea of working on jet engines. He's never been on a plane, but if he had the chance, he said, he'd fly to Tokyo.\nLucio had dreamed of being a pediatrician but dropped out in 11th grade when she became pregnant with C.J. The visit to Lanier's high-tech program changed what she wanted for her first-born.\nHow would C.J. feel about leaving? How would his family? At this, the talk became more tentative. \"It would be hard for my mom to let me go to college just for the fact that I'm the oldest and I'm the first one to go,\" C.J. says, looking at his feet and not at his mother.\nNamed one of the 25 most influential Latinos in the United States by Time magazine, Lionel Sosa is a celebrated native son of the 78207. He has advised presidents and the heads of Fortune 500 companies, and yet he is intimately familiar with the shift of perspective Lucio and her children are undertaking. At 79, he has 50 grandchildren and great-grandchildren, many of whom live in the neighborhood.\nSosa's own kids are from two marriages, the first to a woman who did not finish high school and the second to a college graduate he married after he made a fortune in advertising. His first four children didn't graduate from high school. The next two graduated from Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University and Yale University.\nSan Antonio ISD offers much more now, but Lucio and C.J. have another leap to make, Sosa says. Mexican-American culture prizes family. Bringing home a paycheck, however slender, and having one's own children is being a good son or daughter.\nSosa intervenes now when he learns a grandchild has been accepted to college but is waffling, pointing out as many times as it takes how much more college graduates can contribute and arranging to visit the campus together to help iron out things like financial aid.\nHome, Radle knows after watching generations of the 78207's young people struggle with this moment, exerts a powerful pull. Contrary to stereotypes about poverty, it's a place where people lift one another up, sharing whatever they have and always making time to catch up. On seemingly every corner of the 78207, there's art celebrating the neighborhood's heritage.\nAnd yet, as the rest of the city prospers, the West Side is backsliding. As she cruises the neighborhood, Radle can't help but notice where homes, their foundations rotted away by rainwater, have literally fallen down.\nFifty years ago, C.J.'s great-great-grandfather was one of the founders of Inner City, the neighborhood nonprofit Radle co-directs with her husband, Rod. That work \u2014 all volunteer \u2014 has helped to keep the community's culture vibrant, despite its hardships. But it hasn't been enough.\nLike Sosa, Radle knows how much C.J.'s family needs him to leave for at least a little while if meaningful change is to make it over the economic and social moat that encircles the neighborhood. As she watches him start to hesitate at the thought of going away to college, she jumps in, pointing out the things he could fix if he comes back to the 78207 as an engineer.\nOnce C.J. has had a taste of financial security and the opportunities it can open up, Sosa is confident he will begin thinking about even larger contributions \u2014 to his family but also to the future of the 78207.\n\"In the Latino community, and the Hispanic community, helping family is what life is all about,\" says Sosa. \"It's not about helping yourself, or doing well for yourself. It's about the family doing well together.\nNo one, Sosa says \u2014 not his family and not San Antonio \u2014 can afford that.\nTwo years later, lawmakers added a third option: A district could forestall state action for two years by turning a school with five \"improvement required\" ratings over to an outside partner, including networks of charter schools, nonprofits, or universities.\nFor the first of these struggling schools, 2018 is the year the clock runs out. With six affected campuses in 2017, San Antonio ISD had more than any other district in the state save Houston, which had 10 schools on the list. When the state released the 2018 list in August, four San Antonio ISD schools had improved enough to climb off it. A fifth escaped sanctions because it is now run by a teacher-training program, and the district announced it would close the sixth school.\nIn January, Martinez announced plans to contract with Democracy Prep, a New York-based nonprofit charter network, to run P.F. Stewart Elementary, one of the persistently low-performing programs. The district chose the network, which also has schools in Washington, D.C., Louisiana, and New Jersey, because of its strong track record. Its first New York City program opened in 2006 and by 2009 had become the city's highest-performing middle school.\nThe San Antonio Alliance of Teachers and Support Personnel protested at a March board meeting where the agreement with Democracy Prep was approved. One speaker threatened \"open season on board members.\" Soon after, the #byepedro flyers began appearing throughout the district and the union sued.\nPouring kerosene on the fire, enrollment declines and past overstaffing at the district's non-choice schools required laying off some 130 teachers and classroom aides, a process Texas law says can incorporate performance evaluations.\nIt's common for teachers unions to protest district collaborations with public charter schools, especially when the partnership exempts a school from the local bargaining unit's contract. But San Antonio ISD oversees 20 in-district charter schools, including Advanced Learning Academy \u2014 the first specialized school Martinez created \u2014 and a number of other popular new programs.\nBraination, a local charter network, runs a school for the district's most challenged special education students, and another, Texans Can Academies, a dropout recovery program. The San Antonio campus of Texans Can, which serves students who are older than their classmates or have too few credits for their age, has a dropout rate of 6 percent, compared with 39 percent among the same population at some San Antonio ISD high schools.\nThe difference between the new partnerships and the charters the union has not protested is a bread-and-butter distinction: The new schools employ their own teachers, while the district's choice schools are staffed by San Antonio ISD employees, albeit on terms that differ from the rest of the district.\nDemocracy Prep's contract with the district gives it room to expand if it's successful, eventually enrolling two K-12 \"continuums,\" each consisting of an elementary, middle, and high school. Current Stewart Elementary staff who are not hired by Democracy Prep can choose to stay in the district and be assigned to other schools.\nWhatever the trajectory of the competing pressures created by the school-closure law, the chapter threatens to engulf Martinez in a swirl of controversy that his backers fear could erode the political capital and goodwill that have enabled him to make so many changes in such a short time.\nWhen Texas released its 2018 school performance data in August, Martinez got lots of good news. The percentage of San Antonio ISD students meeting or exceeding expected growth in reading and math rose to 61 percent, from 53 percent in reading and 52 percent in math the year before. The district saw academic gains across grade levels and on 73 percent of its campuses.\nHas the community had a big enough taste of success to support him, and Radle's board, in continuing with their experiment?\n\"We need time to build this out,\" says Martinez. \"What I tell my [board] is, 'You have to think 20 years out.' These things have to outlast us. Will these systems become so popular people don't look back?\nVideo Credits: Edited by James Fields; Produced by James Fields, Beth Hawkins & Heather Martino. Additional footage of San Antonio school interior & exteriors courtesy of SAISD YouTube channel. Additional Lionel Sosa footage courtesy of YES! OUR KIDS CAN YouTube Channel.\nDisclosure: The George W. Brackenridge Foundation provided financial support for this project to The 74.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Dieting in Kingman, AZ can seem like a loss when there isn't a local program for you to turn to that will encourage you in your weight loss journey with fat-burning thermogenics and a positive staff. You need a group you can turn to that will help you lose weight fast and help you keep it off with encouragement and support. You do not need everyone's diet routine; you need one customized to your lifestyle! When you visit Diet Center you will instantly feel right at home, with a staff that are more like friends, and a program catered to your way of life.\nWith Diet Center you have four unique programs to choose from featuring practices that are recommended by The American Heart Association, American Cancer Society, American Diabetes Association, Canada's Food Guide to Healthy Eating and the USDA Food Guide Pyramid\/Healthy Plate. Each program is designed to feature options that are practical to your lifestyle, and once you decide to take the leap into a better you, you also receive personal one-on-one support with a counselor as well as supplements that support weight loss to help you along your path.\nThere are so many reasons to lose weight, from health benefits to simply feeling better about yourself, Diet Center is there to help you reach your goals. By reaching a healthy weight you increase your chances of alleviating pain, improving energy levels, and building self-esteem. Diet Center will ease you in to a diet plan that is just right for you, with four great options and a wealth of knowledge. Exclusively You is the ideal plan for those who wish to prepare their own meals for their weight loss diet using items you can easily find at the grocery store. 24 Hour Thermogenics is a twenty-one day diet; a highly disciplined program designed to work fast. Instant Shape Up was developed for those who lead busy lifestyles, with too little time to plan meals. Diet Fast incorporates bits of all of the aforementioned programs including nutrition and meal-planning basics, the convenience of meal replacements, and the power of co-active food choices, a program for those who are busy but dedicated.\nNo matter the lifestyle you lead, Diet Center has the weight loss diet designed just for you. Whether you have all of the time in the world, or are too busy to focus just on your diet plan, Diet Center can help you on your journey with fast-acting supplements and one-of-a-kind support. If you call Kingman, AZ your home and are ready to begin using thermogenics, start dieting or are looking for a new method of weight loss, then stop by Hope Avenue and visit the Diet Center.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Whitespace is the private contemporary art museum and gallery exhibition space and loft-style home of Elayne and ( Marvin-obm) Mordes located in West Palm Beach. The Mordes' have been collecting Contemporary Art for over 30 years and have a unique European approach to their collection. One of the strengths of the collection is the consistency of vision that it exhibits and, in addition, has also been characterized by its enthusiasm and focus. Whitespace has approximately 8000 square feet of exhibition space which has partial permanent programming and a changing project space entitled \"Whitebox\", which has curated exhibitions which meet a high level of competency, vision and creativity. This is the only venue of this type in this area. We consider it an honor to establish a growing audience of Contemporary Art \"Lovers\"!! The mission of Whitespace is to expand and introduce the viewer to current trends in contemporary art by creating international exhibitions by major mid-career contemporary artists using various mediums: including painting, sculpture, photography, drawing and video. Whitespace is open from November through April of each year and has approximately 800 visitors that access our space through private tours, schools, fundraising events, and public viewing days.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzaldgn b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzaldgn
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute (CGCRI), one of the foremost laboratories in the family of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research was formally inaugurated on August 26, 1950 by Dr. B.C. Ray, the then Chief Minister of West Bengal in presence of eminent personalities : Dr. Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, Prof. C.V. Raman, Dr. Meghnad Saha and others. Dr. S.S. Bhatnagar was then Director-General of CSIR while Dr. Atma Ram was Director of the Institute. CGCRI, initially conceived as Central Glass and Silicate Research Institute along with NPL-New Delhi, NCL-Pune and CFRI-Dhanbad (now CIMFR) is among the first four CSIR laboratories planned in the pre-independence era.\nIn the early phases, the R&D activities of Institute concentrated mainly on the benefaction and characterization of raw materials of interest to glass and ceramics. An early R&D breakthrough was the indigenous development and production of optical glass. As times changed, the Institute expanded its scope and embraced newer areas of materials science. Today, CGCRI is the only research laboratory in India engaged in the development of glass, ceramics and ceramics based composite materials. A wide expertise pool generated through years of devoted efforts spans from basic research to technology development at bench and prototype scales.\nA major achievement of the institute has been the turnaround in its image in the last one decade. The Institute rose to progress in all fronts namely the network and mission projects, large number of international collaborations, peer recognitions, service to the strategic, industrial and societal sectors, world class facility and infrastructures created and the tie ups with the Institution and universities both at home and the overseas. Currently the Institute is engaged in six sectors namely Materials, Minerals & Manufacturing, Communication & Instrumentation, Health Care, Energy & Environment, Water Technology and Rural Development out of the sixteen technology sectors that are of national priority in the eleventh five year plan. In tune with the global R&D scenario, the Institute has augmented a couple of frontier areas - Solid Cxide Fuel Cells and Nanostructured Materials besides its involvement in the high-tech areas: Specialty Glasses, Fibre Optics & Photonics, Bio-ceramics & Coating, Engineering Ceramics inclusive of Refractory, Composites and Non-Oxide Materials, Advanced Clay & Traditional Ceramics, Ceramic Membranes and Ceramic based Sensor and Actuators. The dimension of materials spans wide: tiny nano-particles to the big slab and blocks; a chain of state-of-the-art material characterization facilities provides the essential back up support to R&D in various areas. Fresh initiatives are now under way to identify mega projects and areas where Institute can fortify itself in future.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Publish by in Category interior design at September 22nd, 2018. Tagged with 54 inch tv stand with back panel. flat screen tv stand with back panel. tv stand with back panal for 65 curve tv. tv stand with back panel.\nTv Stand With Back Panel have 50 picture of interior design, it's including Tv Stand With Back Panel Remarkable Grangeville TV Stands Interior Design 1. Tv Stand With Back Panel Amaze Valery Wall Unit Made In Italy El Dorado Furniture Interior Design 2. Tv Stand With Back Panel Astonishing SPECTACULAR Deal On Casana Albany 60 In TV Interior Design 3. Tv Stand With Back Panel Impressive 50 Collection Of TV Stands Ideas Interior Design 4. Tv Stand With Back Panel Amazing TV Stands Altra Furniture American Cherry Plasma Interior Design 5.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"We get a lot of questions about children falling asleep in their child restraints, and how to stop or minimise their heads falling forward when they do. 'Head flop' is a complicated issue, and there isn't a simple single answer.\nA child's head falling forward or to the side when they fall asleep in their child restraint is something that can happen in any forward facing child restraint. There are a number of issues that can contribute to this \u2013 the angle of recline of the vehicle seat back or seat base, the recline adjustment of the child restraint, the position of the child in the restraint, padding, pillows and headrest positions and the way in which the restraint has been installed. Many parents find that the same child in the same child restraint falls forward in one car but not another, or that one child will fall forward, but another in the same car and same restraint won't.\nWhen we design a child restraint, we must comply with the Australian Standard AS\/NZS 1754. This is a mandatory standard, and it has some of the most stringent requirements in the world. This standard restricts the level of recline of a child restraint to be less than 45 degrees from the vertical, which is measured whilst sitting on a vehicle test seat base.\nThe Australian Standard committee CS085 decided to limit the amount of recline allowed to 45 degrees, as there was a concern that by increasing the recline angle, the child is then laying back. For forward facing restraints, instead of distributing the impact forces over the area of contact between the child's body and the webbing of the inbuilt harness (in a forward facing carseat) or seat belt (in a booster seat) during a frontal crash, the child could have a propensity to slide down into the seat base, and cause a dynamic compressive load of the child's spine. Basically, their neck and spine could take the increasing loads during the impact force, rather than having it spread evenly over their chest and torso.\nWe feel that the potential for injury is dependent on the arc traced by the head during a side impact crash, and whether the child's head would come back within the side wings or not before contacting anything. With each consecutive revision of the Australian Standard, headrest side wings have been made larger and more advanced, so things are definitely the best they've ever been in that regard.\nSlumping in a car seat is not actually testable with the current generation of crash test dummies, which cannot be positioned with their heads slumped forward to simulate sleeping. We approached Neuroscience Research Australia regarding this, and they commented that in reality there is very little real world data to answer this question, as we almost never know what position a child's head was in at the time of a crash.\nEnjoying this post? Join our mailing list to receive the latest news, updates and exclusive offers and giveaways from our team each week!\nWhen child restraints are tested to the Australian Standard for compliance (and also for CREP) all testing is conducted with an average sized child for the age range of the child seat, with the child seat in both the most upright and most reclined positions (as permitted by the Standard). No testing is conducted to determine the child restraints ability to offer protection to the child whilst they are either asleep or sitting out of position (as mentioned above, this is currently un-testable).\nAn interesting parallel to this can be seen in the greater motor vehicle industry. Every motor vehicle manufactured and sold in Australia must meet the Australian Design Rules, and when testing the car's airbags and seat belts, the testing is done with an average sized adult sitting the front seats with the recline angle set as per the manufacturers specifications (nominally 20 degrees) and the seat positioned in the central track. No testing is conducted of the vehicle with the adult asleep or sitting out of position.\nSo while we can't control every aspect of every specific child \/ restraint \/ vehicle combination, we can take preventative steps to minimise the chance of our children's heads falling forward.\nWe recommend that parents check that a restraint is suitable for both their child and their vehicle. Most baby stores will allow you to try a seat in your vehicle prior to purchase. Be sure to try the recline settings, and if your child is old enough, ask them to pretend to sleep, or go as floppy as they can \u2013 make a game out of it!\nPlan for longer trips ahead of time by adjusting your vehicle's back seat recline (if possible) or installing the restraint in its most reclined configuration.\nEnsuring the child is fitted in the restraint correctly can help minimise the amount a child falls forward. The key here is a correctly fitted harness \u2013 it should be snug, and you should only be able to get a single finger under it. Ensure that the shoulder straps are as close to the child's shoulder as possible.\nUsing a folded cloth nappy or towel under rearward facing child restraints to assist with giving it adequate recline, keeping in mind not to recline the child seat more than 45 degrees from the vertical.\nWe do not recommend third party or after-market pillows, supports or accessories to 'prop' the child's head up, as these may alter the performance of the restraint in an accident and could pose a safety risk to the child and \/ or other passengers in the vehicle. Products which specifically restrain the child's head within the seat are excluded from the Australian Carseat Accessory Standard AS\/NZS 8005:2013 under clause 3.2, as they are viewed to have serious potential for injury to the child in the event of an accident. We strongly recommend against the use of these kinds of products. In addition to being potentially dangerous, they are a band-aid fix for a larger problem, and we feel they promote a lax attitude toward making sure a child is fitted correctly in the correct kind of child restraint.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Many moons have passed since Adicia left the Isle of Wisdom, but finally Garnrin\u2014the ancient who warned of the Towers' impending destruction\u2014has been found. With Athanasia's children exhibiting strange new powers and the Mahtma's influence growing, the Tower Leaders need guidance\u2014but Garnrin isn't about to just give it away.\nWhen they finally return home, Adicia, Gara, and Tavis are followed by a cohort of centuries-old scholars who, in their younger days, proudly served the Towers. These ancients are shocked by what they find: the Towers they once knew are gone. In their place, self-proclaimed masters struggle with apprentice-level spells and corrupt elders bicker among themselves. Even the Tower Leaders are weak and ignorant of their true roles\u2014and above all this chaos, the Mahatma bides her time.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"At Oregon Web Solutions \u2013 Portland SEO Experts, we earned the reputation as the best Internet Marketing Service in all of Portland Or. for a reason. We offer unparalleled search engine optimization marketing plans and Reputation Management. Our SEO packages are affordable and we use only proven search engine marketing and social media marketing techniques. Get the best in SEO Portland Today.\nSmall, Medium, and very large businesses and corperations.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzaleoq b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzaleoq
new file mode 100644
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--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"Gulam Manji, M.D., Ph.D. is an Assistant Professor of Medicine at Columbia University Medical Center. Dr. Manji received his M.D. degree from Ross University School of Medicine in 2009 and completed his residency in internal medicine at Albany Medical College. He then completed his fellowship in Hematology\/Oncology at NewYork-Presbyterian\/Columbia, where his clinical focus was on the treatment of gastrointestinal malignancies, melanoma, and sarcoma under the mentorship of Dr. Gary Schwartz, Chief of Hematology and Oncology.\nDr. Manji conducts translational research with the overall goal to developing new treatments for cancer. His focus is in gastrointestinal malignancies, particularly pancreas adenocarcinoma, on which he is conducting preclinical combination immunotherapy studies on genetically engineered mice with pancreas cancer in the Olive laboratory at the Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center. The combination immunotherapy preclinical proposal received the Young Investigator Award from the American Society of Clinical Oncology-2015. The goal of these preclinical studies is to bring promising new therapies to the clinic in an early phase clinical trials Dr. Manji's research career in identifying new genes and their implication in disease has led to numerous key publications and an issued patent.\nDr. Manji cares for patients with gastrointestinal malignancies, with a particular focus on pancreatic and liver cancers, and sarcomas. He is the principal investigator of an investigator-initiated multicenter clinical trial that he wrote with Dr. Gary Schwartz in sarcoma and malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors and is responsible for clinical trials conducted in liver, bile duct, gallbladder, and pancreas cancers at Columbia University Medical Center.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Pastor Kohl comes to us with 34 years of pastoral experience. He has served as a Youth Pastor, a solo Pastor, a Senior Pastor for 17 years, and an Associate Pastor, and he now serves the Lord as an Intentional Interim Pastor. He got his training at Lancaster Bible College (Lancaster, PA) and Trinity Evangelical Divinity School (Deerfield, IL). He has been married to his wife, Martha, for 36 years. They have 5 children and 7 grandchildren.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Here you'll find the best online casinos in the UK that offer flash versions of their software. If you don't want to download a casino and install it on your computer use the links below to go directly to the flash casino, or if the link is not provided simply choose the 'instant play' option while at the casino's website. The same level of security exists between the download and flash versions of the casino, just create an account and you'll be playing in just a few minutes.\nAll flash casinos listed here offer all of your favorite casino games like Blackjack, Slots, Roulette, Craps, Video Poker, Baccarat and countless others you've probably never heard of! Have fun and good luck.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"The Dilbert comic creator, Scott Adams, calls credit cards the crack cocaine of the financial world. I couldn't agree more. While credit cards provide great convenience, the instant gratification they provide comes at a price. Don't be a slave to your card. Rather make it work for you.\nFirstly, choose a card based on your requirements and not for all the benefits. For example, a card may provide access to golf courses or discounts on dining, but if you are not going to use these offers, there is no point choosing such cards. You also need to read the fine print carefully. Most cards provide a pass to access airport lounges, but in most cases, only the membership is complimentary. You would need to pay a fee of $32 per person for using the lounges overseas. Similarly, I find the concierge services on the cards expensive and not so useful. If the card provides benefits like lost card liability or personal accident insurance, you need to check for the terms and conditions. A good way to decide the card to have would be basis the annual fees and reward points calculation. Keep the number of cards to a maximum of three.\nOnce you have taken the card, ensure you pay off bills on time. This is because credit card utilisation and timely payment of bills has a huge impact on your credit score. Typically, utilising up to 40-50% of your credit limit in a month is considered fine. While it is easy to swipe the card for every purchase, the moment you pay late, a hefty interest of 3-3.5% per month is charged on the amount outstanding. You don't want to pay 36% extra for the item which you may have purchased online on a discount! Pay on time and do not use the credit card for withdrawing cash.\nAlso keep a check on unused or old cards. Close such cards as having too many cards active means you are using a lot of credit. While the credit card companies typically decide credit limits, it is a good idea to keep the limit up to what you are comfortable with and need. A card may come with \u20b95 lakh limit which may get revised upwards regularly on the basis of your usage and timely payments, but if you are not comfortable, don't go for the increase in credit limit.\nYou could be one of those who does all purchases on a card or one who doesn't use the card except for emergencies. Either way, ensure you use the card only to the amount, which you have in your savings account. It is also advisable to set up a direct debit for the credit card payment so that you don't miss paying the monthly bills.\nUse reward points as a cash credit(back to the card to adjust against your payments) instead of spending them on insignificant purchases simply because you are accumulating points. It is good to also spend points quickly as points become less valuable quickly. For example, if an airline ticket costed 15,000 points two years ago, it now requires more than 20,000 points.\nWhile travelling abroad, carrying a travel card with pre-loaded international currency is a better option over a credit card. This is because the conversion rate spread between the foreign currency and Indian rupee is more on the credit card versus that on a travel card. With a travel card, one is also more in control of one's expenses. You do not need to carry all your credit cards while travelling abroad. A travel card along with one credit card should suffice. It is not advisable to use credit cards in some countries due to credit card skimming. Hence, check for such advisory before you travel.\nBeware of phishing calls where you get a call or an email asking for card details like CVV. Typical callers would talk to you about doubling your reward points or increasing credit limit for which you would need to give your financial information.\nIf you can't get yourself to control spending on credit cards, you are probably better off without it.\nAfter all, your life needs to be more than paying bills.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"It's #BetterBreakfastMonth and Sprout Marketing is ready to help you bring this to life at your community. Sprout Members have access to thousands of resources to make it easy, breezy to have WOW resident touch points and out-of-the-box outreach marketing tools! Sign up to be a Seedling Member @ watchyourbusinesssprout.com.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzalexv b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzalexv
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..480e122a171c6a7c9d262db722a8609097639203
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+{"text":"So for those that believe streaming is a better idea than a subscription to a broadcast service need to do some sums before they decide.\nBroadcast cost once a month -- unlimited viewing of whatever your package offers.\nStreaming service subscription cost PLUS the cost of data. IF you are a heavy tv viewer then that calculation may surprise a few.\nManaging data usage on Showmax is easy using the bandwidth capping function available via your web browser or Android, iOS and Apple TV apps.\nBandwidth capping settings can be accessed either via the app preferences menu or via the play bar when watching on the web.\nSubscribers can select either a low bandwidth cap of 0.3 GB\/hr, a medium cap of 0.7 GB\/hr, or leave usage uncapped.\nThe low usage setting equates to a resolution of 360p, the medium equates to standard definition 480p, while uncapped can deliver up to 720p high definition. All Showmax apps feature dynamic streaming with active monitoring of the connection speed and automatic adjustment of resolution to the make the most of the available bandwidth, up to the selected cap. To help estimate data usage, Showmax has created a bandwidth calculator. Simply choose the required quality level and the number of hours watched per week, and the calculator gives an estimate of weekly and monthly data usage. The calculator is accessible here: https:\/\/www.showmax.com\/eng\/go\/bandwidth-calculator.\nHi AfrikTron. You have the option to switch the screen resolution to our lowest offering which is 360p and uses approximately 210MB\/ hr. You can adjust these settings by clicking on the settings logo at the bottom right corner of your screen. Your options are available there.\nI need assistance with adjusting my resolution for dstv now on my laptop to 240p or 360p.\nI stream tv using my laptop and its depleting my data. a suggestion came that I should look into fixing that by looking into the resolution. Is there any way to do that through chrome or any other browser?\nThe only solution I am getting is through the screen resolution, which doesn't give me the above resolution.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"sand | Sally says . . . eat, sleep, work, read, play, draw, bark . . .\n'Who needs snowflakes when you have seashells . . .' Unknown.\nI had the telly on a lot last weekend. I admit, most of the time I wasn't even watching it, it was just background noise. But every now and then, when I needed a break, I'd stop what I was doing, go make a cup of tea and settle myself onto the couch and 'drop in' to watching whatever was on at that moment.\nThis time of year, of course, it's pretty much Christmas movie after Christmas movie. Many of them I have seen before (some of them I can even recite the dialogue . . . ) and most are fun to watch again (although, even at this time of year I can only digest so much sugar . . . ) but it still strikes me every year how seriously weird it is to be watching Christmas movies where everything is all over ice and snow, everyone is rugged up in coats, scarves and boots\u2014and I am dressed in a sun-frock and have all the doors and windows open hoping to catch even the slightest of breezes . . .\nI am not complaining. At all. I spent a number of Christmasses in Europe (albeit many years ago now) and although I have very fond memories of them I honestly do not miss that kind of cold. It looks all very lovely and romantic on chocolate boxes and yuletide cards and in Christmas movies, but the day to day getting about and living in it is a whole different story. So, weird as it feels sometimes, I am quite content to watch those kind of Christmasses from afar.\nThe girls and I are thinking of you all . . . and sending warm (literally) and sandy hugs across the miles . . .","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"GrandVision's Swedish brand, Synoptik, has a long track record of helping to improve the quality of life in poorer or impoverished regions around the world through its charitable foundation Opticians Without Borders, and in collaboration with the Swedish aid organization Vision For All.\n\"Synoptik is one of our leading cooperating partners, who provides us with a substantial part of our annual need for used spectacles, collected from customers in their stores across Sweden,\" says Lenuta Davidsson, President of Vision for All.\nSince 2011, Opticians without Borders and Vision For All have fitted prescription glasses free of charge for people in Bolivia, Nicaragua, Peru and Guatemala. These second hand but fully functioning glasses, are donated by Synoptik's customers and by the general public as part of a nation-wide campaign throughout their store network, taking place in Sweden each year. Over the past two years, the number of donated spectacles increased by 70%, resulting in more than 80,000 donated spectacles in 2016.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Plumbing Business Plan - Bargain Business Plan, Inc.\nOur approach is simple: we take the time to get to know our clients. That way, we can effectively develop a custom business plan which will help them not only obtain the funding they need, but to serve as a blueprint for their operation. Whether you're in the conception stage of your business or expanding your plumbing brand to a new market, our team of business plan writers will work to ensure you're in a position to succeed. This formula is why we are widely considered the leading business plan company.\nPlumbing is not glamorous work, but it is lucrative, necessary, and highly respected. When you are starting a plumbing business, it is essential to make sure you have taken the necessary steps for the business to thrive. One of the biggest hurdles all business owners face is to ensure they start or operate their business with enough capital. This is evident as studies show most startup businesses fail within the first year generally due to lack of planning, which results in under-capitalization.\nIt is important to identify and secure a strategic location in which to offer your services in addition to marketing your services to the local market via social media, mobile apps, and creating partnerships with businesses that currently serve your market. This may include housekeeping businesses, pet sitters, landscapers, exterminators, and even handyman companies. Most of all, it is crucial to have a professionally developed business plan to help identify and break down these trends and patterns along with a full 5-year financial model forecasting future revenue.\nA plumbing business plan must be carefully crafted to convey your business' mission, services offered, and your credentials and plans for earning a profit to appeal to potential financiers. Most startup businesses fail within the first year generally due to lack of planning, which results in under-capitalization. Whether you're looking to start a commercial, residential, or service and repair plumbing business, it is essential to have a quality business plan prepared by professionals to ensure your business is in a position to succeed.\nAt Bargain Business Plan, we know how much you desire to start a successful plumbing business, and we're here to help you enter your market and compete. You will need capital to support your dream, which is why our business plan experts will ensure your business plan maintains the highest standard to meet the needs and requirements of banks and investors.\nBargain Business Plan values your plumbing business as much as you do, and we are here to make your business idea come to life. The Bargain Business Plan team has developed a convenient and efficient process with the unique needs of the plumbing industry in mind, allowing you to relax and focus on other aspects of the startup process while we conduct the time-consuming analysis and research that is essential to developing a professional and effective business plan. Creating a business plan is one of the most important steps in your plumbing business startup journey, and Bargain Business Plan is here to help through a process that is professional, affordable, and convenient.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Give the gift of harmony with our PureBoom Premium In-Ear Headset. The sleek, sophisticated design packs deep bass sounds and crisp audio clarity for a remarkable listening experience. They're also versatile. PureBoom works in any device with a 3.5mm audio port \u2013 be it phone, tablet, or computer!\nShopping for that person whose lifestyle tends to put their mobile device through the extremes? Our DuelTek Extreme Shock Band + Shield for iPhone 4\/4S is built with shock-absorbent technology, engineered with life in mind, and keeps your mobile device safe from every bump, drop, bang, and whack life throws your way.\nKeeping up with the latest technology trends takes up a lot of battery life. Give your tech-loving, media-consuming, social-buzzing friend the gift of power with our Dual USB Wall Charger. Two USB outlets work with any USB charge cables, so you can power that tablet and mobile device from one plug. Perfect for working from limited outlet locales, like airports, cafes, or the office.\nOur Smartphone Support System for iPhone 4\/4S is our most versatile product for the person who needs a no-fuss, multi-functional mobile device system that combines the protection of a shell with the convenience of a holster and a kickstand. With the Smartphone Support System you can clip it, protect it, access it, prop it and organize it. The open stand alternates as a finger holder to protect from drops while on calls, and the lightweight durable protection case won't weigh down a pocket, purse, or belt.\nSo give the gift of PureGear this holiday season!\nEnjoy 20% off any item in addition to free shipping using code HOLIDAY2011 from now until January 7, 2012.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzanlia b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzanlia
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..a5f8961e5bc9eb0eec9748346453ca5d684040c1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzanlia
@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"Item - Adorned Smithing Co.\nThese Sterling Silver hoops were created for those with stretched ears who have always wanted the perfect daily hoop. They are a very comfortable 15g each and measure approximately 2.75\" in diameter. Must have lobes stretched to a minimum of 6g. A patina was applied before it was brought to a high shine. It was then sealed to protect its longevity as well as accentuate the oxidized recesses.\nThese are a MADE TO ORDER item so please allow 3 weeks for shipping.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Both Elmwood Park greens have a central location 4 \u2013 5km from the city centre.\nContact Heaton Street through the contact below.\nUpstairs main bar: this room is available and caters for up to 120 standing and 80 seated guests. It has the benefit of a fixed projector and large screen suitable for numerous activities and is the preferred option for training days, quiz nights and social gatherings.\nDownstairs function room: this room caters for up to 120 people and allows for open access to the urban beach. A perfect room for birthday parties, corporate events and other social events when you want indoor\/ outdoor flow.\nThe urban beach, by far our most popular space, we can cater for up to 300 people on the sand for social activities, there are many sporting activities available but if you are wanting a place where your group can relax and experience something different the urban beach is a great option.\nThe bowling green: we can cater for up to 70 people on the bowling green for a social event. Bowls is a great sport for everyone to get involved and provides a great option for corporate groups that want to do something a bit different.\nContact Donald Place through this contact.\nLarge room which could cater for 80 people.\nSmaller room ideal for meetings.\nWe can cater for corporate events involving bowls.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"The Schoenbrunn Palace is one of the most important cultural monuments in Austria. It's an attraction you can't miss while in Vienna.\nToday this museum attracts more visitors than any other in Vienna. The mass appeal is the museums rich history \u2013 The Schoenbrunn Palace was once owned by the famous Habsburg family, who used it as their summer retreat. What's interesting for visitors is being able to see how the royal family once lived, their personal belongings and the opulent rooms they once occupied.\nAs such a culturally rich city, each street, building and neighborhood in Vienna tells a unique story. There is so many monuments, museums and attractions to set your eyes on. Get the most out of your stay while visiting Vienna.\nMadrid \u2013 Partygoers Paradise Get your Brunch on in New York!","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"The first thing to understand about Willard Mitt Romney is that he has an annual income of $22 million from his business interests. The second thing to know is that he's an idiot.\nWillard has picked up the nickname \"Mittens,\" and I'm not sure why. It may be that a map Michigan, his home state, seemed to be shaped like a mitten. Urban Dictionary has this: \"When an evil being or entity gathers to them dark forces to do their evil bidding, and all they can get are kittens, they've got mittens.\" I have no idea what that means.\nWillard now stands tall with fellow Mormon Harry Reid in denouncing The Donald. You will fondly remember Harry as the guy who in the 2012 presidential campaign he falsely accused Mitt Romney of not having paid his taxes.\nIt was a lie, on the Senate floor, but he said: \"They can call it whatever they want. Romney didn't win did he?\"\nHarry was also involved with John Brennan and the notoriously false Steele dossier used to discredit The Donald. Harry suffered a concussion, broken ribs and a busted face from what he said was a \"workout\" incident. Man suspect he got in a fight with his brother.\nLook! We're sitting on stools!\nMittens, by contrast, is a fine, honorable man. He, you may recall, ran for the Senate in 1994, and supported easy access to abortion and had harsh things to say about Ronald Reagan.\nHe praised womanizer Ted Kennedy for helping enact Romney's version of Obamacare in Massachusetts.\nOver his ambitious, self-serving, 25-year career, Romney's positions on major issues from subsidized health care to abortion to global warming have changed more often than his home address. Faced with skepticism from conservative voters in 2012, he laughably had to declare that he was \"severely conservative.\" But in 2002, when running for governor of Massachusetts, Romney called himself a moderate with progressive views.\nHe had no concerns about poor character 11 years ago when he teamed up with then-Sen. Ted Kennedy (D-Mass.) to pass a universal health care law in that state. Calling him a \"collaborator and friend\" during the 2007 signing ceremony, Romney lauded Kennedy's indispensable work behind the scenes to push the not severely conservative government program. He later admired Kennedy's political skills and called the man who left a young girl to die in a submerged car his \"go-to guy\" when Romney needed help.\nSimilarly, Romney had no concerns about Trump's character when he solicited his endorsement in 2012. Acknowledging his political groveling on a stage shared with his wife and Trump in Nevada before that state's crucial primary, Romney admitted that \"there are some things you just can't imagine happening in life, this is one of them,\" he joked. \"Being in Trump's magnificent hotel and having his endorsement is a delight. I'm so honored and pleased to have his endorsement.\" He won that primary a few days later.\nPretty hair, nice suits, a perennial loser, and a hypocrite. What is it Mormons believe?","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"The group responsible for the SD memory card specification is working on a revision which would nearly triple the speed of SD cards.\nThe SD Card Association is looking to complete the specification by the first quarter of 2011, according to a CNET interview with with a representative at the IFA 2010 trade show in Berlin. The new SD 4.0 interface standard will up speeds to 300MB\/s over the current 104MB\/s maximum.\nThe speed boost relates to the maximum rated transfer speed of the SD interface itself but there's no guarantee that cards will be available immediately to offer these speeds since transfer limations of Flash memory still apply. However this area has continued to advance during the lifetime of the SD card standard so that an upgraded interface is now deemed necessary.\nA representative mooted a possible new name for the standard of UHS-II, or Ultra High-Speed bus II. The new cards would be backwards compatible with older devices but naturally provide the speed boost to newer equipment which is SD 4.0 compatible.\nAt IFA 2010 Toshiba had unveiled the fastest SD cards yet with read speeds a hair's breadth from the maximum interface speed of the current standard. Transfer rates are important for high bandwidth applications such as HD video but increasingly devices are using them as primary storage devices for operating systems such as smartphones.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzaomss b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzaomss
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..6bad66d187bea180b7167724eb05848a985ed469
--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"Hollycombe Steam Collection in Liphook, Hampshire on the Sussex & Surrey borders is a great place to visit with the kids. Activities include traditional Galloping Horses, Swing Boats, Chair-o-Planes, Big Wheel, two Steam Railways, and Steam Traction Engine rides - all rides are included. Cafeteria, shop, school visits. One of our great days out.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"RRB Bhubaneswar ALP Technician Results 2014: Railway Recruitment Board (RRB), Bhubaneswar has released Assistant Loco Pilot (ALP) & Technician exam results 2014 on its official website http:\/\/www.rrbbbs.gov.in\/. RRB Bhubaneshwar exam was conducted ALP & technician exam on June 15, 2014 and July 13 & 20, 2014. Huge number of candidates are appeared in RRB ALP technician examination. Candidates who are appeared in rrb alp technician exam, they are looking for rrb ALP technician exam results 2014 from below link\u2026..","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Not the answer you're looking for? Solved SMTP error from remote mail server after RCPT Posted on 2012-10-16 Email Protocols Outlook Email Clients Email Servers 3 Verified Solutions 21 Comments 11,016 Views Last Modified: 2013-11-30 We are Placed on work schedule despite approved time-off request. What should I do?\nWhy do Trampolines work? This is a permanent error. It might have a clue what the other system deemed wrong with your server 0 LVL 46 Overall: Level 46 Email Servers 8 Email Clients 8 Email Protocols 6 Message Microsoft Customer Support Microsoft Community Forums current community blog chat Server Fault Meta Server Fault your communities Sign up or log in to customize your list.\nmore stack exchange communities company blog Stack Exchange Inbox Reputation and Badges sign up log in tour help Tour Start here for a quick overview of the site Help Center Detailed Section of a book that explains things Will something accelerate forever if a constant force is applied to it on a frictionless surface? If after all that you will get 220 .... Please contact your Internet service provider since part of their network is on our block list.\nThe following address(es) failed: [email protected] SMTP error from remote mail server after RCPT TO:: host mx1.xxxx.k12.mt.us [69.51.X.X]: 554 5.7.1 : Client host rejected: envelope Is the Word Homeopathy Used Inappropriately? Newer Than: Search this thread only Search this forum only Display results as threads More... It means that you servers don't support TLS (Transportation level security), but it is not a requirement for every server.\nI've been searching for the answer for more than a week. IF this line is in an \"accept\" block, then just before it you can add another accept block, almost the same, with an added \"domains = domain2\" restriction and which does You must login before you can submit an answer. If you believe that this failure is in error, please contact the intended recipient via alternate means.\nHow to create a plot with inclined axes? A message that you sent could not be delivered to one or more of its recipients. Search Search Ask the Community! Do you have a reverse DNS record for your MX record?\nLooks to me like you've been listed as a source of spam by a few different places. Like this Question? How to Use Telnet to Test SMTP Communicationhttp:\/\/technet.microsoft.com\/en-us\/library\/bb123686(EXCHG.80).aspxFrank Wang Proposed as answer by emma.yoyo Friday, February 12, 2010 1:52 AM Tuesday, February 09, 2010 8:36 AM Reply | Quote 0 Sign Asking client for discount on tickets to amusement park Why does the race hazard theorem work?\nHere is the message body error. Polyline split at node in QGIS Why was Gilderoy Lockhart unable to be cured? You need to make sure you have reverse DNS for all of your \"A\" records 0 LVL 17 Overall: Level 17 Email Protocols 6 Email Servers 6 Email Clients 5 Browse Questions Ask a Question Current Customers Chat: Click to Chat Now E-mail: [email protected] Call: 888-321-HOST (4678) Ticket: Submit a Support Ticket Not a Customer?\nConnect with top rated Experts 19 Experts available now in Live! If so how? Create an email signature design that will easily wow recipients, promote your brand and highlight your professionalism. If you have any other email address of a user in the same domain.\nI guess you want to authenticate at mailgun first, to prove you are a customer of them. \u2013sebix Mar 18 '15 at 16:04 can you give me more details If you receive these messages any time in the future, you may also use the bounceback parser tool which will analyze the bounceback message, give you a detailed explanation as to This is a permanent error. Similar Threads - SMTP error remote SMTP error from remote mail server alphasil, Sep 4, 2016, in forum: E-mail Discussions Replies: 8 Views: 328 cPanelMichael Sep 6, 2016 Mail Delivery Failed.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Honor and shame serve as primary motivational factors in keeping order and perpetuating the ideals of a society. Honor is the recognition or attribution of respect, worth, and approval by one's peers. Shame is the removal of respect or disapproval by one's peers based upon community-recognized standards. Since human beings are by nature communal, the pursuit of honor and the avoidance of shame shape behavior in powerful ways.\nHonor could be based on a number of factors including family, wealth, education, skill, social connection and accomplishments. These, of course, were not monolithic. A person might not be born to an honorable family, but they could always be adopted into a more prestigious line. Likewise, people may gain honor by increasing their education, expanding their social circles, or doing something honorable.\nShame would result from some sort of action deemed undesirable by the broader society. Adultery, disrespecting one's elders, fleeing from battle or being defeated by an enemy led to shame and disgrace. A shamed person could expect to be insulted, ostracized and, in extreme cases, face violence. These actions did more than punish the dishonored; they also provided an example of what could happen if others violated community standards. Further, groups might anticipate that those they had shamed would change their ways, re-enter the group and thereby reinforce the community values.\nIn Mediterranean cultures honor could be won or lost, so individuals were always on guard against challengers. An \"honor challenge\" was an attempt by an opponent to gain honor at the expense of another. Two responses were typical. First, if the challenge was perceived as insignificant, a person could ignore the challenge altogether and effectively dishonor the challenger. Second, if the challenge was perceived as a threat, a person could act to defend his\/her honor (riposte), win the challenge, and either maintain or gain greater honor. The outcome of any honor challenge was in the hands of group. This is likely the social situation behind the Pharisees frequent public challenges to Jesus (e.g., Mark 7:1-16; Luke 13:10-17).\n\"Boasting\" of one's pedigree, training and experience could be employed to either answer challenges or dissuade opponents from attacking one's honor in the first place. Leaders were expected to remind others of their claim to honor in order to maintain order and preserve the honor of the group. Paul's frequent habit of boasting (e.g., 2 Corin-thians 11-12) is best explained as his response to theological opponents who have attacked his credentials and criticized his ministry.\nWhile many societies today still operate with a strong sense of honor and shame, western societies now seem more motivated by material concerns. Still, for the world of the Bible honor and shame were powerful factors in shaping societies. In the last half of the twentieth-century scholars began to explore these social dynamics as part of the overall context of biblical interpretation.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"How will an individual know where they are placed or their individual score if they can't see it or know that the point for the box they rooted have been accepted?\nIf you don't see yourself there then it only means that you don't have enough points to be shown there however you can check your own score at : https:\/\/practicalpentestlabs.com\/dashboard\/lab-hosts there is a text on the left side \"Total Points\" and it shows that information.\nAlso, the \"Hacked\" column inside that page enables you to keep track of hosts you hacked already.\nhmm so the Hacked column has several check marks and i just signed up?\njibblits At first when you sign up all machines are going to be marked as \"X\" in the Hacked column, once you successfully hack a host and submit the flag it's going to be marked as \"\u2714\"\nIf you are seeing machines with check marks already and you haven't submitted a flag for them please provide us with the names so we can further investigate !","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzapoys b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzapoys
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+{"text":"Try my free guided audio meditation and experience a taste of what meditation has to offer. No matter how much we talk about meditation and its benefits, it is only through direct experience that we can really understand and appreciate the infinite potential within our own consciousness.\nMeditation can be done anywhere and at any time. It does not require a guided audio recording. So why use my free guided audio meditation? Because it is much easier to train the mind to surrender, and it is easier to quickly induce a state of deep relaxation, self-awareness and a calm mind by utilizing a guided meditation. Especially if you have not practiced meditation before or have not done so regularly.\nWhen the mind is restless and intrusive thoughts keep filling the mind, this free guided audio meditation will quickly bring you to a deeply relaxed state.\nThe purpose of meditation is not necessarily to eliminate your thoughts, but rather to make peace with your thoughts and to gradually separate your consciousness (the inner \"I\") from the mind, which is the ego or false self and the source of all suffering.\nThrough the mindful attention to the breath, intention, and the natural effects of sound vibration to alter your brain waves, you will easily begin to experience a state of deep relaxation, both physically and mentally.\nResults will vary from one person to another, depending on your level of stress, mental restlessness, physical tension, concentration, and ability to let go. The more you practice, the deeper the results, but most people will feel significant results the first time.\nMeditation is as natural as thinking, breathing, or going to sleep. It is not a strange or foreign technique. The mind, the body, the heart, and soul will instantly appreciate what you are giving to yourself by choosing to embark on this practice. We all crave inner calm and happiness that is independent of our outer circumstances.\nI have questions about psychotherapy.\nI have questions about meditation.\nI have questions about EFT and Energy Coaching.\nI'm interested in Bipolar Recovery Coaching.\nCall me at the number listed above.\nI would like to schedule a session at your office.\nI would like to schedule an EFT-by- Phone session with you.\nWould you like me to call you for a phone consultation?\nPlease be specific if you have a question, and I will do my best to give you an answer.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"until recently, has been pastor of Elim Baptist Church, Chicago. Rev.\nwho retires. He officially takes office September 1, 1954.\nadministration at the U. of Minne-sota.\nto receive the degree of D. Th.\nteaching in the speech depart-ment.\nin ancient history and languages.\nadditional courses in the curricu-lum.\nserved his term as a G.I.\nfollowed by coffee shop fellow-ship.\neyeing service at 8 p.m.\nplacing a note in P.O. Box F-10.\ngraduated with the class of 1892.\ncently passed his 86th birthday.\nas pastor from 1909 to 1914.\nshared in the service were Dr.\nMinneapolis and Dr. H. C. Wing-blade.\nAvenue Church of St. Paul.\nservice. The work was not easy.\nministry of G. Arvid Hagstrom.\nservices will be Rev. Wesley L.\nGustafson, pastor of the First Ey.\nWe must simply wait and speculate.\nthe Edgren and Bodien dormitories?\nbit of comfort and splendor to our cam-pus.\nresting sponge-like under a Bodien love-seat?\nwe say, it depends upon their reformation.\nturf-bowling, swimming, boating, and ping-pong.\nplayed in competition\u2014East against West.\nDr. Virgil Olson and Prof. Gene Johnson.\nfellow students and led them to Bethel.\nFreshman retreat the success that it was.\nin a comparative state of immaculate con-ception.\nor not to be\" is still the question.\nyear are open. Shall we enter to its great-iness.\nWhat is the recipe for victory at Bethel?\nalone. That is one reason for the church.\nShoulder to shoulder and heart to heart wt.\nwith the roommate. That way victory lies.\nYes \u2014 a great year lies ahead.\nthere's plenty of studying to do. In fact.\nlong to get downtown on these crazy St.\nhalf chapters behind in Modetn World.\nyou about that, did I?\nheavy of soul for the needs of people.\nseems like a word out of a Cantonese dic-tionary.\nnever got my book for English Comp.\nwon't be here when the next clarion comes out.\nHedberg, Joyce Martinson and Nancy Schnorr.\nr. are Beverly Mullin, Carolyn Clark, and Norris Magnuson.\nserved to Y. P. S.\nPayne Ave. at Sims St.\n11 a.m., 6 p.m. and 7:30 p.m.\nAn early meeting has been called for the Bethel Forensic Associ-ation.\npresent will largely determine the outcome of this year's speech ac-tivities.\nthe sincerity of our senti-ments.\na rich deposit of golden memor-ies.\npost at the Minnesota state tourna-ment.\nFreshmen week is nearly over.\nare beginning to take form.\nsocial or religious in nature.\nto the desires of students and fac-ulty.\nneed and will of the majority.\nmight have been a great general.\nof Social Work and Public Wel-fare.\nSunday \u2014 Bible School, 9:45 a.m.; Morning Worship 11 a.m.\nYouth Hour, 6:15 p.m.; Evening Service, 7:30 p.m.\nactive duty with the U. S. Army.\nwhich was serving in Europe.\nThere he was line coach.\nfuture looks \"cloudy\" for the Roy-als.\nDale Nystrom, Jay Dikkers and Wayne . Blomgren.\nthe goal twice, plunged the mentals of football were weak . . .\ndangerous for future gridiron tact and talks.\nalways find that friendly CHRISTIAN ATMOSPHERE.\nRavridd., ia4 Sea4a#a Secoaci exi4a.\nas they are confusing by Bethel's twin guards, John and Paul Berg.\nstarting eleven from last week's.\nBruce Steinhaus, and Don Helton.\nbackfield is fast and well experi-enced.\nfor cheer leading this year.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Bear Halloween Growler Deals Price Comparison. Halloween Store. Incredible selection of Halloween Costumes, Halloween Decorations and more!\nWe've combined everyone's beery favorite flavor, Pomegranate Pucker with our delectable gummy bears. Bet yak can't have just one of these tart treats don't worry they do come in a resalable bag. Our guilt-free growlers are made with organic cane sugar and are free from most of the top allergens. Pucker up with these Pomegranate Gummy Bears.\nWe've combined everyone's beary favorite flavor, Pomegranate Pucker with our delectable gummy bears. Bet ya can't have just one of these tart treats don't worry they do come in a resealable bag. Our guilt-free growlers are made with organic cane sugar and are free from most of the top allergens. Pucker up with these Pomegranate Gummy Bears.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Real Software Forums \u2022 View topic - Anyone here willing to help me out from time to time ?\nPost subject: Anyone here willing to help me out from time to time ?\ndon't get me wrong, i just don't wana be stuck on one tiny problem for hours.\nPost subject: Re: Anyone here willing to help me out from time to time ?","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"The EMGE program is a speaker series and a scholarship competition for SD Mines students interested in entrepreneurship and starting their own business. This six-week long event features presentations from successful entrepreneurs; including alumni, local and national business leaders. It culminates with students pitching their business ideas for prize money. EMGE also introduces students to the CEO student business plan competition and the SD Governor's Giant Vision Business Plan Competition.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzappiv b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzappiv
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..f067d01c6f00e36693e0149656de187148082fd6
--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"OAKLAND \u2014 Draymond Green smiled in excitement as he said that the Warriors hadn't played their best even as they beat the Cleveland Cavaliers 89-83 in a slugfest on Christmas Day.\nThe defending champs scored a season low in points against a healthy Cavaliers squad and still won in a rematch between foes in the NBA Finals.\nWith Stephen Curry slightly hobbled by a calf strain and not shooting his best, without an injured Harrison Barnes, the Warriors still got the better of the Cavaliers yet again.\nTrouble, that is, for the rest of the league.\nGreen racked up 22 points, a season-high 15 rebounds and seven assists, putting away the Cavaliers with two free throws with 8.2 seconds left after having helped contain the threat of LeBron James.\nJames had 25 points and nine rebounds but missed three free throws with under two minutes left and airballed a 3-point attempt in the final seconds.\nThe Warriors won despite shooting 41 percent from the field, committing more turnovers and getting out-rebounded. They did it with defense and Curry as the closer in a playofflike atmosphere.\nThe Warriors led by 10 with 3:48 left when the Cavaliers made their run. James had back-to-back dunks to cut the Warriors' lead to 81-75. A Kevin Love tip-in made it a four-point game. But James missed two free throws, and the Warriors took advantage.\nCurry scored on layups in consecutive possessions to give the Warriors an 85-80 lead with 57.6 seconds left and finish with 19 points. Andre Iguodala hit two free throws with 12.7 seconds left after having done yeoman's work in taking the bulk of the defensive assignment on James.\nThe Cavaliers, who fell to 19-8, were held to 31.6 percent shooting, including 5 for 30 from beyond the arc. Kyrie Irving and Love, the players the Cavaliers were without because of injuries during the Finals, combined to shoot 0 for 11 from 3-point range.\n\"When our defense shows up, we're in pretty good shape to win games,\" said Curry, who made one 3-pointer for a season low. \"We just showed our versatility in trying to win in different ways.\nCurry indicated he wasn't 100 percent two days after getting kneed in the calf by Utah Jazz guard Rodney Hood. He was unable to immediately return to the floor in the second after retreating to the locker room for a couple of minutes to get his strained right calf retaped.\nKlay Thompson added 18 points in what he said was an ugly game.\n\"There's going to be games like that, and it feels good,\" Thompson said. \"We'll win 'em any way we can.\nGreen, Iguodala, Thompson, Shaun Livingston, Brandon Rush, and Ian Clark took turns guarding James, who finished 10 for 26 from the field and 1 for 5 from 3-point range.\nThey had led by nine points after the first quarter before the Cavaliers were able to gain ground with the Warriors' starters off the floor and tie the score at 31. But Iguodala from off the bench was able to pester James, and Livingston scored 16 points on 8-for-9 shooting.\nThe Warriors might have impressed in the showcase game on national television against a revenge-seeking Cavaliers team but took more pride in their 28-1 record rather than the one regular-season win.\n\"That's more of a statement, that we're hungry to win another championship,\" Walton said.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Join us for a special in-gallery conversation between artist Mariana Castillo Deball and Fordham University Professor Barbara Mundy on \"Finding Oneself Outside,\" Castillo Deball's first solo exhibition in New York City. Dr Mundy is an art historian specializing in Latin American art and indigenous cartography of the sixteenth century, while Castillo Deball's artistic practice regularly engages specific historical modes of the production and exchange of knowledge, including maps, iconography, and cosmological forms. Professor Mundy's intricate understanding of the map of San Pedro Teozacoalco (c. 1580) will help to guide and contextualize the conversation about Castillo Deball's large-scale inlaid wood floor installation, Teozacoalco Map (2019), which draws directly from the early European colonial and Mixtec visual traditions of the sixteenth century. Together, they will discuss the legacies of colonial cartography and codices in Central America and the ways in which Castillo Deball's practice deliberately engages with academic and archaeological research to make visible the institutional structures and complicated temporal paths involved in constructing and disseminating knowledge about cultural histories.\nGenerous ongoing support is provided by the Charlotte and Bill Ford Artist Talks Fund.\nFull support for \"Mariana Castillo Deball: Finding Oneself Outside\" can be viewed here.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"I am using power blog. The share-this plugin is installed but not working. I've used it successfully with other (non-thematic) themes. Any ideas?\nTried it on my local install even with the default theme and can't get it to run. Looking into the generated source .. the plugin injects the code into the_content() but it's not executed (IE displays an script error).\nI don't think that this is a typical Thematic problem. Please check the source view of your browser for SHARETHIS.addEntry. If it is listed then it seems to be a script problem. In this case try the ShareThis Support Forum.\nOK, I find the following. Are you saying the problem is with ShareThis? Why, if it works on other themes?\nOk .. currently I don't know if my negative result with WordPress' Default theme is caused by running it on a local machine. I'll give it a second try on my live blog.\nThis will switch off the menu's bells and whistles (menu will still work).\nPlease check and report if the Share-This-Plugin will work after this action.\nYou can remove the above mentioned code after the test.\nTo be honest .. if it works I still have no solution out of the box for you, 'cause in this case the plugin's script interferes with the Superfish jQuery.\nFor now, I am using AddThis, which works.\nI added the code to my functions.php file and it didn't show the sharethis button or feature.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Here's Everything You Need To Know About Erin Holland, The Ex-Miss World Who Will Be Presenting PSL!\nHere's Everything You Need To Know About Erin Holland, The Ex-Miss World Who Will Be Presenting PSL!\nWe're all aware of the PSL fever as the fourth installment is just around the corner. Every single soul is waiting for the biggest entertainment Pakistan has to offer. Kyun Ke Yeh Khel Hai Deewanon Ka, and Pakistan has a lot of DEEWANAS.\nRecently, Pakistan Cricket Board (PCB) has announced the commentary and presenters' line-up and Pakistanis just can't keep their eyes off of one of the presenters.\nWell, you guessed it right. Erin Holland has become the apple of everyone's eyes just by the way she carries herself, her beauty and aesthetic personality.\nWaise Tou Ham Desi Barey Sakht Hain, Par Yahan Ham Pighal Gaye..\nErin Holland is a trained singer!\nErin is a classically trained singer. She got a Bachelors of Classical Voice from Sydney. She is also professionally trained in Jazz and has also received honors in Advanced R.A.D Exams.\nThe beautiful Erin is also a news anchor!\nShe has been a former anchor for IPL which certainly means by her dazzling knowledge infinite beauty she is also all over the minds of our PADOSI too. Now, she'll be presenting for PSL 4 and I'm sure she'll be getting lots of love from us too.\nWho would've doubted? Erin is also a model!\nSince the start of her career, she decided to be a model and a TV host. Soon, she turned to be a presenter and a brand ambassador for brands. I must say, that was a smart choice. I mean, why should she be wasting her precious talent by just walking on ramps. She indeed is a beauty with brains.\nHolland beat 32 finalists to be crowned Miss World Australia on 20 July 2013. She also won the Miss World Continental Queen of Beauty the same year. Okay, that is some achievement right there. I'm already down.\nI personally decided to build all the hype and crash it to pieces because the world is not sunshine or rainbows. Erin is married to the Australian All-Rounder Ben Cutting and They look perfect together. DIL TOOTA NAA? :\/ Mera Bhi. I think she has a thing or two for cricket and cricketers, innit?\nWe're looking forward to the mighty PSL 4 and the center of attraction Erin. What do you guys think about her? Do let us know in the comments below! Cheers!","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"All of Hawk & Dove's bags are constructed with full grain oil tanned leather. This leather is treated with oils and waxes which keep it conditioned for a long time and allow the leather to wear in and age wonderfully. All bags have an interior hang pocket.\nThese hides are rustic and may have small blemishes that are completely natural to the cow (moles\/scars) and sometimes there may be a cattle brand.\nEach bag features an adjustable & removable leather strap and a large zippered pouch with inside side pocket.\nEach bag is one of a kind!\nAvailable in black or brown leather & in two Pendleton panel patterns.\n12\"W x 9\"H x 3\"","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzaqczb b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzaqczb
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+{"text":"A Smart Investment in a Sure Thing.\nClick here to download System 2000 Brochure.\nEnergy Kinetics System 2000 is ranked the #1-rated heat and hot-water system by Brookhaven National Laboratory in a study under contract with the U.S. Department of Energy.\nWant to enjoy the lowest fuel bills possible?* Then it's time for the SYSTEM 2000. When it comes to saving energy, nothing beats it! This compact boiler system provides both heat and hot water in a small and efficient package. The boiler itself is designed to save energy by dramatically reducing stand-by loss (the significant loss of heat that occurs when your heating system shuts off and most of the \"leftover\" heat energy goes up the chimney). The \"smart\" System 2000 pumps the heat into your home where you need it most - plus, it produces enough hot water to run the dishwasher, the washing machine and several showers all at the same time!\nSaves up to 40% off your fuel bill!\nProvides virtually unlimited heat and hot water!\nRuns more quietly than a microwave oven!\nMatches energy usage to your home's requirements, so no heat is left wasted in the boiler.\nDigital Manager controls multiple zones.\nComes in a variety of configurations to meet your space needs.\nCompatible with all heating applications, including radiant, baseboard and radiator.\nCan be installed with or without a chimney!\nComes with the finest warranty in the industry, so your family's comfort is assured.\nThe System 2000 pays for itself in as little as four years! What a great investment!\nContact Frey Heating & Plumbing Service today for your FREE in-home heating consultation, and to find out more about the Energy Kinetics System 2000!\n* Cuts up to $1.60 per gallon of fuel! Savings based on a fuel cost of $4.00 per gallon and System 2000's typical fuel savings of 30-40% (or more). It's just like saving up to $1.60 per gallon off every gallon of fuel you buy, year after year.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Barry Poppleton operates both as an independent consultant and under the CPM banner. Barry's consultancy specialises in organisational development services for both public sector and non-profit organisations, with an emphasis on leadership development, relationship management and diversity management.\nBarry's areas of competence include leadership development, performance improvement, change management, interpersonal communication, conflict resolution, diversity management, learning design and development, team strengthening, stakeholder engagement, business and organisational planning, group facilitation and coaching.\nBarry has over 15 years of consulting experience and has consulted to numerous public service agencies in Australia, Africa and the Asia-Pacific. Prior to setting up his own company, he was a partner in two public sector management consultancies. His consultancy experience covers a broad range of people, process and strategy interventions.\nFirst hand public sector experience was gained from serving in the South African public service at the Senior Executive Service (SES) level. The last role held there involved the management of human resource development across nine government departments in the country's largest economic province, Gauteng. Another position held in the public sector was Manager of Organisational Development in the Department of Education, where he oversaw a department-wide culture change intervention. He also pioneered one of the country's first affirmative action programmes in this department.\nBarry has a wide range of experience in development and facilitation at the Executive Level and Senior Executive Levels. Examples of developmental work includes the delivery of the EL four-day 'Manager to Leader' program for CPM and the Band 1 and Band 2 Leadership programs for the APSC.\nBarry gets most satisfaction from his work through assisting others in their formal and informal development and growth. The approach he prefers is a mix of providing theory, tools and techniques and then facilitating the application of these in the participants' context. His facilitative approach is one of encouraging breakthroughs and insights which shift both individual and group and hence work performance.\nFormal qualifications held by Barry include a Masters in Public Sector Management, Honours in Psychology and a Bachelors degree in Commerce. He holds multiple accreditations in personality and behavioural instruments and is an accredited coach and mediator. Barry also holds qualifications in counselling and strategic leadership. Barry volunteers for the Red Cross where he mentors teenage fathers.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"How is Dibond printing different from using metallic photo paper?\nHome\/How is Dibond printing different from using metallic photo paper?\nWith the Dibond printing process, we print your image directly onto the surface of the metal using high-resolution flatbed inkjet printers. The metallic effect shows throughout the image; our UV-cured inks are not 100% opaque, which allows the grain and luster of the brushed aluminum Dibond surface to shine through. The lighter the color, the more grain is visible. Once we reach a pure white, you will see the brushed silver surface of the Dibond aluminum panel shine through, giving the print unique highlights and texture. Don't be afraid to give your creation some attitude \u2013 use Dibond printing to take it to the next level. But maybe reconsider that portrait print of Grandma smiling. She'll end up with silver teeth, and nobody wants that!\nOn the other hand, Kodak Metallic HD Photo Paper gives your images an overall pearlescent metallic look, perfect for monochrome photography or bright, colorful images where a bit of extra sparkle and pop is desired. Since this is one of our true photographic processes, you may achieve higher definition and detail over Dibond, but Kodak Metallic HD Photo Paper does not feature any metal grain. White will still be close to white, leaning towards a very light silver tone.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"How do I register: CFSA accepts On-Line and Walk-Up Registration during Open Registrations. Once registration is closed, late registration is on an as-available basis and is proceessed through Waitlists which are posted on the sport's page. All late registration is paid via Walk-Up at the CFSA Office and is assessed a late registration fee.\nHow do I register on-line: Create an account or login and verify your account information by Clicking Here. If you have already created an account, do not create another account as your child and their age validation is linked to your existing account. If you are unable to login to your account please email registration@cy-fairsports.org and include your child's name and date of birth for the account to be reset.\nWhen does registration open for my sport: CFSA's typical registration and season timeline is posted on the bottom left side of this page. Click here for a print view of the timeline. As actual registration periods approach the chart at the top of this page, \"2012 CFSA Registration Information\", is updated to reflect the actual opening and closing of registrations by sport.\nHow does CFSA validate players ages: Birth certificates are required to be validated for each player within CFSA. This is a one time process if you do not create a new account which will cause the age validation to be lost. CFSA validates birth certificates in person during our office hours or you may email or fax the birth certificate to the office. Email birth certificates to bc@cy-fairsports.org or fax to 281-970-8099. CFSA does not maintain files of players birth certificates, after receipt and age validation the information is permantenly deleted or destroyed.\nI have completed registration, now what: Following the close of registration, CFSA completes the team formation process and selected Coaches complete background screening and are presented with their roster. You will be contacted by your Coach regarding practices beginning. CFSA publishes rosters on each sport page where you can see the team your child is on as well as the coach of that team. If you have registered and have not been contacted or aren't listed on a roster please contact the VP of Registration by email at registration@cy-fairsports.org.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"1941 BMW 327 Cabriolet \u2013 Speed Clothing Co.\nSprechen Sie Deutsch? You will in our stylish German Collection. 100 % Cotton and Made in the USA. The special cotton fabric creates an unmatched feeling in its softness, strength, and breathability, for superior comfort and a fantastic fit.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzaqkiu b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzaqkiu
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..5efb038b77aec98a306e30028bbe0c71e3d1d65a
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+{"text":"Collection of peaceful and ambient music tracks.\nThus it can be a good background for the corresponding images, videos, slide shows, corporate contents, social and commercials, television intro and captions. Audio for media, movies, documentaries, cinema, YouTube, web.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"I had a small thing I as working on some time back but haven't touched it since, it worked on a similar principle as I wanted selected 'skills' in a menu to be mutually exclusive, some depended on the player having other certain skills etc I'll see if I can find it and post it here. All I recall right now is that selecting a skill set a stat (boolean) and I enabled\/disabled the UI element for each skill based on the values of the stat for each skill.\nIf anyone on the Discord can help you track down the BETA files for Torchlight 2, they might help as they had the original skill tree UIs in them which are pretty close to what you're trying to achieve.\nWith 1, the thing that springs to mind is do it in the UI, if player has skill A then grey out and disable skill B.\nSay Hello \/ Re: Hello!\nWelcome good sir\/madam! Always nice to have another on board, especially one with a great modding history GUTS has a bit of a steep learning curve at first but once you're used to it it's quite amazing what can be done, the game really is very open to all kinds of stuff, limited only by imagination and ingenuity I've found. The questing system is a bit limited in scope although there are some ways around it, but other than that happy modding! Worth joining the Discord, more thends happen there.\nIf anyone's interested, these are the items from the 'Fate' games, in case you never knew these games were made by the same brains behind Torchlight. The items are all listed in one text-based file per game and are easy to read\/follow and simple to port into Torchlight II. You will see the many similarities when you view the files. Sticking this up as I pulled this data some time ago and never got round to making any use of it, thought I'd put it here in case any of those mods that add more items\/legendaries etc wanted to use these.\nThat's very smart and well considered game design there, great lateral thinking. As solid as that thinking is, and whilst they are absolutely right to go in this direction for this type of game, it does however also tie-in to the fact that if character progression is more gear-oriented then it brings with it the danger of pay-to-win if they are going to offer 'gear' via in game purchase mechanism. Even this good thinking - and orienting more towards gear - does very little to mitigate the problem in every single action RPG, which is that you reach a point fairly easily where it becomes a grind because nothing drops that's much better (if at all) than what you've already got and cultivated for yourself through enchantments and other game mechanics. TL2, Path of Exile, D3 and even Grim Dawn all suffered from this. The reward to grind ratio is just too poor at advanced stages, I lost count of how many hours I chucked into D3 and Grim Dawn for the sake of finding an epic\/legendary item only to find it was 0.01% better at damage but simlutaneously worsened defence even though that item had rolled at a higher level range.\nSaw the GIF on Discord and I thought it was absolutely fantastic, amazing work once again!\nEdit: the model is showing up blank in GUTS, which skeleton is it bound to - the player HUM_F or the NPC HUM_F?\nSuper excited for this, but despite Max's best attempts at assurances I can't help but be apprehensive about monetisation - a game that wants to 'run for years and years' needs an income above unit sales... and that probably also means limited or no modding, a subject none of the info so far has touched on.\nThanks for the welcome back Kva3imoda ANy chance you can re-upload that warbeast one?\nYep they are the ones, be great if he released those, thanks Phan!\nJust wondering if Kva3imoda ever made his skeleton monsters available for download? I'm at a point where they could come in really handy but can't recall them being available?","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Uriah York was the son of John York of North Carolina. Uriah settled in the Pall Mall area of Fentress County, Tennessee. Uriah fought with Winfield Scott in the Mexican War at the Battle of Chapultepec. In 1863 he went north to Kentucky and joined Union forces there. He returned home after contracting the measles. Confederate forces in the area sought to capture him upon his return, but Uriah heard of their coming and hid himself and horses in a canebrake. Uriah evaded his pursuers, but contracted pneumonia from the exposure and died days later. His son, William York, married Mary Brooks and gave birth to Alvin C. York, the WWI hero and greatest infantryman this country has known.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"We are highly committed to developing all children as readers as we recognise it to be a key skill for lifelong learning and enjoyment. Children learn to read using a range of skills \u2013 phonic decoding, language comprehension and word recognition. They are taught these skills through whole class, guided reading and individual reading sessions, as well as through English, Grammar Punctuation and Spelling (G.P.S) and phonic lessons. We place great emphasis on enjoyment of reading and use high quality books throughout our curriculum to engage the children.\nAt Hangleton, we do not follow one particular scheme, but use a system called book banding. This is from the Institute of Education and has been developed from Reception up to year 3. This means the children are able to read from a wide range of books, rather than just one scheme. The grid below shows how the colour bands progress. The children take home the banded books during the week and we ask that you listen to and support your child reading with these. In Reception and KS1, the children have a diary where you can make comments about the children's progress. In KS2 the children will have a reading journal in which you or they can make comments.\nPhonics teaching is the teaching of the relationship of letters and sounds in English. Our alphabet is comprised of 26 letters, although there are 44 different sounds. This can make our language seem quite complicated, as there is not one letter to one sound. Letters can make different sounds and some sounds are made up of 1, 2 or 3 different combinations of letters.\nPhonics teaching focusses on two areas - phonics knowledge and phonic skills. Phonics knowledge is about children knowing which letters, and combinations of letters (graphemes), make which sounds (phonemes). Phonics skills are about teaching the children how to use their knowledge for reading and for writing. We follow a revise - teach - practise - apply model, using the Letters and Sounds Guidance issued from the Department of Education in April 2007. There is a systematic programme from phase 1 to phase 6 that builds on reading and spelling skills. As part of this, the school has produced phase booklets that we share with the parents during parents' evenings.\nAt our school we use the Jolly Phonics resources to support our children's learning. These resources use sounds, actions and visual clues which is a fun and engaging way to learn. The order in which we teach the letters and sounds support the building up of words for reading and spelling.\nIn Reception, we teach the main way of making the first 44 sounds. At first, children are taught sound discrimination and are taught 3 - 4 sounds per week. They blend and segment these sounds; for example, they learn that c-a-t can be blended to make the word cat. They will also learn that man can be segmented into 3 sounds, m-a-n. We stretch out the word so that the children can hear the sounds. These skills of blending and segmenting are essential for reading and writing. We teach these skills through fun games and activities.\nIn Year 1, we continue with the different phases and teach the blends of the different consonants, for example tr as in train and fr as in frog, building on the work in Reception. We also teach the alternative sounds, such as the different ways to make the long a sound - ai as in rain; a_e as in bake.\nIn Year 2, we continue to introduce the less common alternatives and explore spelling conventions like suffixes.\nIn Key Stage 2, we work on developing stategies for spelling longer words, looking at spelling patterns as well as developing guidelines for making choices between spelling alternatives.\nWe have developed the Core Book Spine in school as the foundation of our reading curriculum. The collection has been designed to introduce children to a range of high quality literature rich in language, awe and wonder and challenge. These are books that all children will get to know in every detail and get to love. Not all children will be able to read the books on the spine but they will all have access to them as they will be read aloud and shared in the class context inspiring children to be readers and motivated to read for themselves.\nOf course so many books will be read and shared and enjoyed in school, individually, in groups and at story times, but we think this progressive spine of literature supports children's learning to read, and their development as readers.\nPlease click here to view the Hangleton Primary Core Book Spine.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Can you judge a girl by her car?\nYour mum probably told you not to judge a book by its cover, but did she ever tell you not to judge a person by the car they drive?\nIt's hard not to form an opinion about someone based on their choice of vehicle, and for some, it can even influence how attractive they find someone.\nAccording to a 2014 survey of 1,993 people, carried out by vouchercloud.com, 57% of respondents think the most important factor in judging attractiveness is the model of car a person drives.\nSome even use this information to decide whether they should start a relationship with someone!\nWe were a little perplexed by this news, with members of the Diamond team being proud owners of Fiat 500s, Minis and Hyundai i10s, to name but a few, has our choice of motors been revealing more about us than we realised?\nIntrigued, we decided to do some digging to find out whether your age, relationship status, if you have kids and even your horoscope says anything about your choice of car and driving style.\nWhen it comes to single ladies it seems bigger isn't always better with the majority of our Diamond girls aged 17-25 opting to keep things compact.\nFor this group it's smaller cars, mostly hatchbacks and petrol models which dominate the top 20 with Ford KAs and Fiat 500s littering the list.\nThe number one choice for our singletons is the Fiat 500 Colour Therapy, which means your 'it's complicated' Facebook status may be being undone on your daily commute.\nAnd it seems Fiat 500s remain a popular choice for women of all ages, with and without kids.\nChildren tend to come with lots of accessories so you'd think a spacious family car would be in order, not so if Diamond's customers are anything to go by. Once again the Fiat 500 Colour Therapy comes out on top with Diamond mums seven times as likely as the rest of our customers to own one.\nSo, if you thought Fiat 500 owners were all teenage girls and most likely to be spotted in a sixth form college car park, think again as the Fiat 500 Lounge features in the top five for married mums aged over 46.\nEver wondered what kind of car you're most likely to spot a baby on board sticker in? Keep your eyes peeled for 4x4s, the Ford Galaxy, Volvos or the Nissan Qashqai, as they're pretty popular with the parents insured with Diamond.\nMarried mums in their mid to late 30s are most likely to be spotted driving their little ones around in a Ford S-Max Titanium TDCI as it tops the list for the 36 to 45-year-olds.\nWhile a daytrip with married mums aged 17-25 could mean a journey in a Vauxhall Zafira Life 16v or a Renault Megane Dynamique VVT, which are first and second in our list respectively.\nFor dads in the 36 to 45 age group, the Audi A6 S Line TDI is the number one choice for transporting their little ones.\nFor any avid horoscope readers out there who've ever wondered whether the fact Mars was in Taurus the day you were born has any influence over you as a driver, well the answer is probably no but we had a look into it for you anyway.\nWhen looking at the types of claims made by our Diamond girls it seems Virgos and Aries are more likely than any other signs to make claims classed as 'other', meaning they don't fall into any of our standard categories.\nWhile fire sign Sagittarians have a higher claims percentage for claims relating to...wait for it, fires. Is it a spooky, star sign-related link between all Sagittarius ladies or straight up coincidence?\nWell, we know what we think but you can make up your own minds on that one.\nDoes any of this ring true with you, are women all over the UK itching to get their hands on a Fiat 500 or would you rather break the mould and buy a BMW?\nLet us know your thoughts by tweeting @DiamondForGirls or commenting on our Facebook page. Or why not upload a photo of your four wheels to our Instagram account?","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzarhps b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzarhps
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..3dff5e3b9ece257f120dee6570b596b8680d5e8f
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"Principal People are currently looking for an Assistant Principal Designer to join a well-established and growing construction management organisation based in Reading. The position is paying a salary of \u00a325k-\u00a335k DOE + Travel + Pension.\nThis position is an excellent opportunity to get your foot in the door with an established organisation who pride themselves on their impeccable service to clients. Reporting to a Senior Principal Designer as the Assistant Principal Designer you will undertake administrative Principal Designer \/ CDM \/ H+S responsibilities and have the opportunity to attend meetings with clients and designers whilst working with a number of Blue-Chip clients.\nTo ensure you do not miss out on this excellent opportunity, please follwo the link to apply!","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"I do love homemade things, and years ago made these ornaments for my Christmas tree.\nThe first thing I did was draw a pattern for a heart on paper. I made it slightly lopsided and slightly bigger than I wanted the heart to be to provide room for the seam allowance (for this project 3\/8 inch.) I don't think I have the pattern any more, so sorry for not showing it.\nThen I folded my fabric right-sides facing out, and pinned my pattern on the fabric. You need to be sure not to cut out both sides with the right side up or you will have one side facing the wrong way when it is sewn together. (If your pattern is exactly symmetrical, then this will not be a problem.) I cut out the two sides and removed the pins and paper pattern. Then placing right sides together, I placed a loop of ribbon (to hang the ornament) at the top, tucked inside the heart, and pinned the two sides together, right-side facing in. I sewed the heart with a 3\/8 inch seam allowance, leaving a small (about 1 inch) opening on the side. Then I turned the piece right-side out. I used a pen (with the point retracted) inserted in the opening, to push the fabric all the way out at the point of the heart.\nI stuffed it with polyester fiber-fill, and sewed the small opening closed. Using a glue gun, I attaced a few buttons and ribbon to the front of the heart. That's it.\nThese were so fun to make and they are some of my favorite ornaments on the tree. I made about two dozen.\nSince I didn't use Christmas fabric or colors, I sometimes hang these ornaments on armoire keys or dresser knobs all-year round.\nI love homemade ornaments. Yours are very pretty. I also love your fireplace with the skates, sled, etc., and the stories behind each item.\nThese are so adorable!! Love them on the amiore knob!!\nYour ornaments are adorable, Anita!\nVery cute ornaments! Most of the ones on our \"main\" tree are handmade also or have some special meaning, which I think is just as it should be. Have a blessed Christmas!\nAnita, you are so talented! I love your ornaments! They're so pretty! Very inspirational!\nSo pretty! And I like the idea that you can use them year-around. They look adorable on the tree. Years ago I made fabric candy canes and I still use them\u2026fun. Happy Holidays!\nAnita your tree and ornaments are so lovely. The handmade hearts gorgeous!\nI hope you will come and enter more of my 12 Days of Holiday Giveaway Event! You will love the wonderfully new unique gifts!\nThese ornaments are adorable! How fun to make too.\nThese are just perfect. I love that you used varied fabrics. Happy Holidays!","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"GIS \u2013 16 May, 2018: The Ministry of Civil Service and Administrative Reforms will organise a series of activities in the context of the National Road Safety Campaign. Four initiatives have been worked out to coincide with the UN Global Road Safety Campaign 2018.\nThese initiatives comprise the use of a specifically designed logo on all letters, memoranda and official documents to be issued by Ministries\/Departments, parastatal bodies and local authorities as well as the display of posters and mini posters in all vehicles utilised by public sector employees, including notice boards and work sites.\nThrough the e-mail systems of public organisations, a special message on the social and economic implications of road traffic accidents will be disseminated in line to promoting a road safety culture in the country.\nThe organisation of a march during lunch hours in Port Louis by public officers also features amongst the set initiatives to sensitise the population of the importance of road safety.\nThe National Road Safety Campaign with the theme \"Ensam Pa Laisse Koltar Touy Nou Fami\" was officially launched on 17 February by the Prime Minister, Minister of Home Affairs, External Communications and National Development Unit, Minister of Finance and Economic Development, Mr Pravind Kumar Jugnauth, in Port Louis.\nThe aim is to encourage pedestrians, motorcycle riders, and motorists to exercise greater care and shoulder more responsibility as regards their behaviour and attitude on the roads.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Meeting the requirements for rugged 24\/7 use, the NEC P Series professional-grade LCD displays deliver a perfect picture. Every time. What's more, this new generation of display supplies faster internal processing speeds, is lighter and thinner than its predecessor, and supports customizable connectivity options.\n10 Point Infrared Touch Overlay for the V801. Windows 8 swipe zone, HID compliant, Tempered glass and easy installation. Must order V801 separately. ST-801 optional floor stand can no longer screw in when overlay is installed.\n10 Point Infrared Touch Overlay for the V652. Windows 8 swipe zone, HID compliant, Tempered glass and easy installation. Must order V652 separately. ST-651 optional floor stand can no longer screw in when overlay is installed.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"True spirituality may begin with a sort of going back to our experience of life prior to language, when we felt things about our social lives and communicated in all sorts of rich ways, including body language, signs and dramatic acts.There is a vast realm of life that we simply do not describe in words. Other social animals, like this fox, negotiate their complex lives without using words. Human beings also have some extraordinary abilities to communicate without using words, but we need to recognise how vital these skills are.\nThe touch, the glance, the smile \u2013 these things are so important to us that without them we shrivel up inside.\nThe community, the team, the family \u2013 are so real, but the experience is beyond words. How do you capture the warmth of a good family, the exhilaration of the goal, or the strength that comes from feeling part of a community?\nTrust \u2013 building trust with those around us is a skill we share with other social animals, like the wolf pack, or the elephant herd, and it is something that is done largely 'beyond words'. Trust is a key to healthy community life. The greatest and most authentic freedom we can ever know is not the freedom from all constraint, but the freedom to live within a healthy system of trust.\nTry keeping silence with someone for a little and yet continuing to gently communicate. Don't try to make complex instructions, but aim to live the simple things, without words. I anticipate a deepening of your relationship with that person and a pathway opening up to a new level of experience.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzatcjk b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzatcjk
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+{"text":"In this session, find out how an Echo360 power user leverages polls to engage students and creates short learning videos to ensure they are engaged before, during, and after class. This is perfect for instructors that want to create opportunities for students to participate. Claire Stuve from the University of Toledo will share tips on incorporating the Q&A feed in Echo360 to drive meaningful discussions and allow students to contribute to the conversation. Lastly, you will see the data and analytics proving her efforts lead to increased retention in her introductory math course, and how it integrates with the Learning Management System.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"CloudPhone is an automated phone assistant that works over the internet to help businesses cut out expensive phone company contracts. It is equipped with business features including text-to-speech greeting, faxing, call routing, messaging, as well as virtual receptionists, voicemail, and more. In this article, we cover user reviews and pricing. Ready to get started with CloudPhone? Visit their website.\nUsers who gave CloudPhone a positive review said that the software offers great value for money. They added that it works seamlessly on both iOS and Android phones. Some users also commended the company's excellent customer service.\nOne user who gave CloudPhone a positive review on VoipReview said that the software does everything that a phone system needs to do at a very reasonable price. He also shared that the call quality is surprisingly good even when he's in bad network conditions wherein even Skype and WhatsApp won't work.\nAs of the date this article was written (01\/25\/19), there are very few negative CloudPhone user reviews online. One of them said that the software has no capability to delete voicemail messages in bulk. It is notable, however, that most users are happy with the software in general.\nCloudPhone has four paid subscription options: Basic ($24.99\/month), Professional ($34.99\/month), Small Business ($64.99\/month), and Desk Phones (custom priced). The main differences between the plans are the number of virtual receptionists, business toll-free numbers, and extensions, as well as the availability of premium features including call recording and professionally recorded greeting.\nAll plans include unlimited minutes and texts.\nReady to get started with CloudPhone? Visit their website.\n6 Best Small Business VoIP Phone Service Providers 2019 \u2014 Voice-over-internet-protocol (VoIP) phone services are internet-based alternatives to traditional landline phones with features like auto-attendants, voicemail, and customer relationship management integration. We evaluated the best VoIP providers and narrowed it to the six best. Then, we compared their price, features, and more to learn who each is right for and which is the best overall.\nDoes CloudPhone offer a money back guarantee?\nYes. CloudPhone offers a full refund if you are not satisfied with the service and cancel your account within 30 days from the activation date.\nCan I use my existing number in CloudPhone?\nYes. Upon signing up for an account, select 'Keep My Number' to transfer your existing number to CloudPhone. This feature is available at no additional cost.\nNot sure if CloudPhone is the right fit for you? Read our reviews of all top VoIP providers.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"I wrote a guest post for The Darling Bakers on the causes of and holistic solutions for anxiety. Anxiety is something I encounter so frequently in my holistic nutrition practice. It's something with which I am intimately familiar, having struggled with it alongside depression since I was a teen. I experienced crippling panic attacks in my 20s that would strike without warning. Once I began studying holistic nutrition and natural medicine as a career, I learned how to overcome anxiety naturally, and I want to share my tips with you. Click here to read my 10 holistic solutions for anxiety.\nIf you liked this post, please +1 and share it!","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Since the cost for fencing can vary widely, it's important to estimate cost per project, . Fencing. Install a Wood Fence. (7,789 projects). Average National Cost:.\n17 May 2017 . While a wooden fence offers more privacy and security, the costs of . According to our fence installation cost estimator, the average price to.\nMaterials to build 3'-4' tall wooden picket fence can cost $3-$30 or more a linear foot, depending on type of wood, height of the fence and the complexity of the.\n16 Jul 2013 . The cost of hiring a professional to install your fence can vary . In addition, an estimator should examine the grading of your yard. . Wood fences can be painted to match your house or complement your landscape design.\nLumber is a commodity product and prices can vary daily.) . Although you could build a wood fence any height you like, we limit it to standard heights here.\nCost to Install a Wood Fence - Estimates and Prices at Fixr. 2017 Home Security Costs #installing #security #system http:\/\/swaziland. 2017 Home Security Costs.\n26 Nov 2012 . How much would it cost to have a handyman build a gate? . An homeowner thinks a 3\u2032-6\u2033 wooden gate hung on a 9 feet slat wooden fence,.\nThese charges include the cost of equipment and tools for building fence, . of 12.5-gauge high-tensile wire on 4-inch diameter pressure-treated wood posts.\nLet us build and install a new fence for your home. . Whether you're looking for a strong wood fence, low maintenance vinyl fencing, a composite . and flat ground all impact pricing, we'll walk your property before presenting an estimate.\nRONA carries supplies for your Build a treated-wood fence projects. Find how to help your home improvement project.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Web Development Services in Lille, France - Arihant Webtech Pvt. Ltd.\nWhen you think of getting a good website developed for your company, it is important to know how to select the best website development company for the purpose. There is no dearth of web development companies but Web Development Service In Lille focus on the latest trends in the field and come up with high web development services. When a person put in efforts on finding the company that will meet your unique individual requirements in the best possible way, there are certain parameters on which to base your search. How do you know one company from the other to be better and fit to your needs? At Arihant Webtech Pvt Ltd, ypu will find amazing web development services that are perfectly matchable with your requirements.\nOnce you have clarified you goals and objectives, the web development company start working towards achieving them. Unless you have a definitive goal in your mind about what you are going to achieve by getting a website developed for your business, you will not be able to make the most of it. It is therefore important that you have a very clear picture of your intention in front of your eyes. Write it down if necessary and think about what you might need to have on your website to be able to fulfill those objectives. Do you need a website that is mainly focused on written content in the form of informative articles and blog posts? Or are looking forward to get a website developed mainly to sell your products or services online?\nWhen you have hired the company, don't hesitate to speak to them upfront about your exact requirements. It is important to make sure that the designer knows what your goals and objectives are behind your website. Only then will you will be able to provide you with the best possible solutions that will help meet those goals. Website Development is a widely open field that is extremely flexible to different needs of different people and businesses and Arihant Webtech matches those needs perfectly.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzauzce b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzauzce
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..a0919bdf60177102d8d6ccdbc8ca5dc246dbdc2b
--- /dev/null
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+{"text":"I study everything like an editor these days. Most formatting and all ads are designed to interrupt your attention and get you to do something. And I dislike being advertised to - intensely. But I do appreciate good data that I can use.\nWhen I found myself doing this today, I thought you might appreciate some shortcuts you can use to get good data, but avoid the unnecessary sales pitches.\n1. Convert your \"free download\" to simple text you can import into a word processor or text editor.\nMy first response is often to take the appealing content I just read (after I clicked on it, usually giving one of my emails in exchange) - and then convert it to plain text. Sometimes I have to go back and work it over as they put titles and navigation in as graphics.\n2. Restore any missing headings and navigation through the document.\nIf it's poorly built, all the headings will disappear. Maybe not. Doesn't matter. You want to be able to see what you have simply, including the steps they lay out.\nWhen you've done this, you can tell right away whether they are really offering anything of value, or are just blowing smoke.\nActually, even having to do these two steps usually means they have something to offer. The one I'm working on as I write this was a 177-page PDF ebook which was also offered as a free Kindle version - which is a nice touch.\n3. Start deleting anything which is simply an Influence point.\nRemember Robert Cialdini and his \"Influence\" books? Get a copy if you don't have one.\nWhat you leave is the real nuts and bolts of \"this is how the system works.\"\ng. Anything that sounds\/smells like \"get rich quick\". This includes income on automatic-pilot or anything where you don't have to work at anything and the money just rolls in. (Sure, and I have a great offer on the Brooklyn Bridge you should seriously take a look at...) While you don't have to work hard, and you do need to work smart, there are no free rides\/beer\/lunches. There is passive income, but you usually work to get the data to set it up.\nCan this person actually help you improve your life with some new understanding of how life really works?\nThe whole point of this exercise is to accumulate useful tools.\nh. Look out for \"done for you\" services they are offering. Yes, that might be good, but it's another version of \"we think you are lazy enough, and can pay enough to have someone do it for you.\" No, you're not lazy at all. But some marketers preach this, based on the sheer repeating statistics that around 90-99 percent of all course buyers don't complete all the material or lessons.\nThe point of this is to see if they are giving real value. Yes, you can do this on your own. The trick is to find out if they are offering anything worth investing your time. Money can be replaced, but not the time it may cost you as well.\n4. As you are deleting, you'll start seeing the \"special names and terms\" they are using to market their stuff.\nThis is more education for you.\nYou absolutely can and will turn your passion into [big sum goes here]\u2014just not overnight and not without implementing every step in \"The System\".\nMuch easier to spot the hype, eh?\nAgain, whenever the author says \"Trust me...\" or refers to himself, start deleting that sentence - it's probably a pitch (see Liking point above.) You can search\/replace every \"I\" or \"me\" with \"you\", and \"my\" with \"your\" - and it will be easier to read in most cases. Exceptions (few) are when they actually give a test case they did and the results they found.\nNote1: leave a space before and after on your search\/replace, otherwise, \"time\" becomes \"tiyou\", \"It\" becomes \"yout\".\nIf that phrase becomes untrue with changing \"I\" to \"you\", then go ahead and delete it. You're looking for truly useful stuff.\nNote2: Preserve your navigation as you go.\nThis is so you can find your way simply and see if this content is really going to be useful.\nAs noted, I started this with a 177-page ebook. And it's holding up so far. Many of these ebooks won't. They weren't written to give you usable data, just a pitch. They'll have no outline except of bunch of chapters following each other. That's when you simply delete the file and get back to whatever it was you were doing (usually your email) before you were interrupted.\n5. Look out for stuff you've heard before and already know to be false.\nDelete away. If you've tested it and know this approach doesn't work for you, then it still won't work for you now.\nAt this point, you may start finding headings which have no content beneath them (like \"It's Time to Take Action\") because this is simply an advertisement effort to get you to (again) click through for their course or offer.\n6. Look it over to see if you've heard all this before.\nHere's where it starts taking shape - but do this only when you've finished your deleting above. Yes, you'll be reading along as you go, but keep your editing job separate from your \"digestion and evaluation\" job. Finish your editing first, then you can digest and evaluate what you've uncovered.\nYou can tell as you go whether it's worth your time to keep deleting, or simply delete the file and get back to what you intended to do today.\nIf you did learn something, and there is perhaps a service you could take which would re-pay you well for the time you invest, now you can go into this with eyes wide open.\nOtherwise, you can file it with the other also-rans you've filed for a nice review project. And you can always just delete it and save cheap hard-drive space.\n7. Now look over the original for ideas in marketing.\nThis 177 page PDF and Kindle ebook was nicely laid out. It's an intro to \"making money from a home business.\" It's also for newbies who don't know better - and that is usually about 90% or more of the audience for any given niche, according to experts and their studies.\nThat book boiled down to around 91 pages of useful data. Unfortunately, he's not offering anything you can't find online for free.\nMeanwhile, you got a chance to look at how to not have to deal with a scammy marketing piece every time you turn around. And how to learn from someone else's hype - as well as how to present straight data people can use. People like to get straight-up and useful data. They don't like hype.\nTreat people like you'd like to be treated - and everyone wins.\nPS. There's more of this with \"Get Your Self Scam Free\" - available at that link and all major online ebook distributors.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Why is Pirate Bay not working?\nThe Pirate Bay is never too far from the headlines and the past 2 weeks have been no exception. Users have been in a bit of a panic at times with many taking to forums online to ask whether the site had been shut down by authorities.\nThe file sharing site has experienced a number of outages ranging from a few minutes to a few hours. The outages do not seem to be related to legal issues this time though and the problems can be blamed on the The Pirate Bay's normally solid servers experiencing unusual trouble.\nUsers generally assume that when sites like The Pirate Bay don't work that the end is nigh. Google becomes a hotbed of fans desperately searching out reasons for not being able to access their favourite Bit Torrent site. The authorities forcing a closure of the site remains a constant possibility.\nBREIN, a Hollywood affiliated anti-piracy group, has recently reported that they have snuffed out and taken down 206 Pirate Bay proxy sites in the past year alone. BREIN prides themselves on forcing Bit Torrent sites into copyright compliance and The Pirate Bay have found themselves a big target for the group.\nThe Pirate Bay still needs to negotiate its way through some tricky legal issues as controversy still surrounds the whole notion of online file sharing.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Conveyancing technology specialist ETSOS has pointed to the SRA's latest Risk Outlook as an endorsement of its ongoing efforts to embed compliance within its search ordering platform.\nThe 2014\/15 report highlights the growing threat of both money laundering and bogus firms, whilst also warning against an emerging trend of a lack of independence.\nETSOS clients have long had the option of ordering AML checks from within the online platform, and with the Lawyer Checker law firm identity authentication tool added last year, users now have a strong line of defence against the rising tide of conveyancing fraud.\nWith the ETSOS system documenting and archiving requests and findings, and in many instances integrating with a firm's case management solution, COLP's and COFA's can also point to an embedded process and detailed audit trail as evidence of professional due diligence.\nPhil Natusch, ETSOS's managing director, comments, \"Our founding ethos was all about making our users' lives easier. In the beginning our efforts were focused very much on speeding and simplifying the search ordering process, but there's a new challenge today. Compliance is arguably the biggest concern amongst conveyancers and as the Risk Outlook implies, it's probably going to get worse before it gets better. But if we're about making things as easy for our users as possible, then we have to do all we can to alleviate the compliance burden. It's an ongoing effort, and one that embraces not just the SRA but standards such as CQS too. That's why our Quotation & Referral System, for example, has been designed deliberately to provide an end-to-end solution for the handling of enquiries, as mandated by CQS.\nLast but not least, our status as a search aggregator rather than a provider enables us to give users complete market oversight, allowing them in turn to make informed choices and safeguard their provision of independent advice.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"The Armed Services Arts Partnership (ASAP) is proud to share the writing of our Spring 2019 Creative Writing class graduates. After weeks of creativity, collaboration, and rigorous writing in ASAP's creative writing course, our veterans, service members, and military families will take the stage to share their work for the first time. Join us for a powerful night celebrating the work of our military-affiliated artists. When & Where: Our Graduation Reading will take place on Saturday, May 11 at The Writer's Center (4508 Walsh St, Chevy Chase, MD 20815), from 7 PM - 9 PM. Doors will open at 6:30 PM. This is a FREE event, but we ask that all attendees register to reserve their spots!","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"You Save: $14.96 (75%) Ships in 1 day.\nHard Cover, 319 pages, 4.75 x 7.50.\nIf you thought real ale was only available on draught in a pub, think again! The Campaign for Real Ale's acclaimed Good Bottled Beer Guide places the spotlight on nearly 800 British bottle-conditioned beers, celebrating and cataloguing the UK's ongoing bottled beer revival. It is a pocket companion to the CAMRA's best-selling Good Beer Guide. Bottle-conditioned beer is real ale in a bottle. Just like draught beer that has been allowed to mature naturally in the cask at the pub, it has a full, fresh taste, without the un-natural fizz of artificial carbonation or the dead hand of pasteurization. The phenomenal growth in the bottle-conditioned beer market - in supermarkets, in beer shops and via the internet - is continuing at an exciting pace. This handy pocket guide, now in its sixth edition, is fully revised and updated to guide you through the process of choosing, tasting and enjoying the right beer for the right occasion. Beer that ferments naturally in the bottle has a complex, fresher taste, just like draught ale that has been allowed to mature in the cask at the pub. This award-winning book is the perfect companion for every armchair beer lover.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzavpzg b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzavpzg
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"The leading source of information about bankruptcy, bankruptcy sales, bankruptcy auctions, article 9 sales, and other means of vulture investing for vulture investors. If you're a vulture investor looking for distressed assets, such as bankruptcy auctions, look no further than our Opportunistic Deal Database.\nreplacement property rules. Under the replacement property rules, a taxpayer may elect to defer any CCA recapture or capital gain on the involuntary disposition of the depreciable property (the former property), provided certain conditions are met.\nadditional voluntary contribution (cotisations facultatives) Additional voluntary contribution (AVC) is defined in subsection 248(1) of the Income Tax Act as a contribution a member makes to the plan to purchase more retirement benefits under a money purchase provision.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"I was reading the TechCrunch blog and found this article: Microsoft Throws Prizes At You For Searching. The basic idea is that when you use Live Search Microsoft will give you tickets which, I guess, will be put into a drawing to win prizes. Oh yeah, and to participate you need install a piece of tracking software which is only compatible with Internet Explorer. Earlier in the year Microsoft came out with a Cash Back program that gave you cash back when you bought a product from an advertiser on Live Search. It worked like a mail-in rebate, with just as many hoops to jump through.\nI've had similar discussions about this with TalentMover. We're thinking about community tagging and how that can improve resume and job post matching by providing a human touch. After all, the accuracy of multiple human eyeballs is exponentially better than any algorithm an engineer could write. Anyways, we started to get into discussions about rewarding people for tagging more resumes than our minimum requirement (because more input provides more accurate results - like increasing the sample size of a survey). However, we quickly dismissed the idea for one very basic reason.\nBy offering incentives above and beyond the value of the product\/service you are inherently saying: What I'm asking you to do is not compelling on it's own. If I didn't offer this, you wouldn't do it. Therefore, I need to entice you to do something you really don't want to do because the reward is not good enough. I'm admitting my product is at parity with, or inferior to, other alternatives.\nWhen your product\/service reaches the point of parity, there are two options you have. You can lower prices, because you're no longer special, or you can improve your product\/service to make yourself special again. Since search is free to users, Microsoft chose lowered their price to a negative number to generate business. This is not a sustainable business model for two reasons: 1) They're losing money and 2) Prices changes are the easiest thing for competition to match.\nAt TalentMover, we decided to improve the tagging process to make it easier, faster and more enjoyable. In addition, we're kicking around some other ideas to make tagging other resumes even more valuable. The point is that we decided to improve the service rather than lower our price and Microsoft should do the same.\nI'm not 100% sure what this would look like, but improvements can be made on the quality of results and the ease of use. Microsoft could also focus on different ways to deliver search results (Not just in a browser?, Not as a list?). The bottom line is that to compete effectively you need to offer more than a discount for the same product. Until then, Microsoft is going to struggle with search. Hopefully, this is just a quick fix until Microsoft can actually offer something of value.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Morissette Amon performs her live soulful rendition of Little Mix's \"Secret Love Song\". Live Streaming: http:\/\/www.wish1075.com Get more Wish 107.5 updates: Like Wish 107.5: http:\/\/www.facebook.com\/WishFM1075 Follow Wish 107.5: http:\/\/www.twitter.com\/wish1075 Subscribe: http:\/\/www.youtube.com\/WishFM1075official Wish 107.5 Instagram- @Wish1075. Feel free to SHARE this video but DO NOT REUPLOAD. Thank you!\n\u0e1f\u0e31\u0e07\u0e40\u0e1e\u0e25\u0e07\u0e40\u0e1e\u0e23\u0e32\u0e30\u0e15\u0e48\u0e2d\u0e40\u0e19\u0e37\u0e48\u0e2d\u0e07 975 FM 2 \u0e0a\u0e31\u0e48\u0e27\u0e42\u0e21\u0e07 \u0e44\u0e21\u0e48\u0e21\u0e35\u0e42\u0e06\u0e29\u0e13\u0e32\u0e23\u0e1a\u0e01\u0e27\u0e19\u0e43\u0e08 facebook https:\/\/web.facebook.com\/975bpfm\/ \u0e1d\u0e32\u0e01\u0e01\u0e14\u0e44\u0e25\u0e17\u0e4c \u0e01\u0e14\u0e41\u0e0a\u0e23\u0e4c \u0e14\u0e49\u0e27\u0e22\u0e04\u0e23\u0e31\u0e1a \u0e41\u0e25\u0e49\u0e27\u0e08\u0e30\u0e21\u0e35\u0e40\u0e1e\u0e25\u0e07\u0e40\u0e1e\u0e23\u0e32\u0e30\u0e46 \u0e08\u0e32\u0e01\u0e2b\u0e25\u0e32\u0e01\u0e04\u0e48\u0e32\u0e22 \u0e2b\u0e25\u0e32\u0e22\u0e41\u0e19\u0e27 \u0e2b\u0e25\u0e32\u0e01\u0e28\u0e34\u0e25\u0e1b\u0e34\u0e19\u0e43\u0e2b\u0e49\u0e44\u0e14\u0e49\u0e1f\u0e31\u0e07\u0e01\u0e31\u0e19\u0e15\u0e48\u0e2d\u0e40\u0e19\u0e37\u0e48\u0e2d\u0e07\u0e08\u0e49\u0e32\u0e32 ..\nRadio Thailand (Sathani Witthayu Krachaisiang Haeng Prathet Thai) is the public radio station in Thailand, owned by the National Broadcasting Services of Thailand. The station has six FM national radio, 65 FM provincial radio, 4 AM national radio, 46 AM provincial radio and World Service. Some Radio Thailand provincial radio stations can be received in neighbor countries of Thailand like Malaysia, Laos and Myanmar.\nRadio networks of wisdom to the listener- AM 837 kHz.\nNational radio networks- AM 891 kHz.\nASEAN language radio station- AM 918 kHz.\nEducation radio stations \u2013 AM 1467 kHz.\nThe Thai Public Broadcasting Service (Thai: \u0e2d\u0e07\u0e04\u0e4c\u0e01\u0e32\u0e23\u0e01\u0e23\u0e30\u0e08\u0e32\u0e22\u0e40\u0e2a\u0e35\u0e22\u0e07\u0e41\u0e25\u0e30\u0e41\u0e1e\u0e23\u0e48\u0e20\u0e32\u0e1e\u0e2a\u0e32\u0e18\u0e32\u0e23\u0e13\u0e30\u0e41\u0e2b\u0e48\u0e07\u0e1b\u0e23\u0e30\u0e40\u0e17\u0e28\u0e44\u0e17\u0e22; rtgs: Ongkan Krachai Siang Lae Phrae Phap Satharana Haeng Prathet Thai), or TPBS (Thai: \u0e2a.\u0e2a.\u0e17.), is a public broadcasting service in Thailand. It was established by the Thai Public Broadcasting Service Act, BE 2551 (2008), which came into force on 15 January 2008. Under this act, TPBS holds the status of state agency with legal personality, but is not a government agency or state enterprise.\nTPBS operates Thai PBS (\u0e44\u0e17\u0e22\u0e1e\u0e35\u0e1a\u0e35\u0e40\u0e2d\u0e2a), which was formerly known as iTV, TITV and TV Thai television station, respectively. Thai PBS is a public television station broadcasting in UHF Channel 29. The station broadcasts on a frequency formerly held by the privately run channel, iTV. Thai PBS tested its broadcasting on a temporary frequency appropriated by Television of Thailand (TVT or TV 11 Thailand) at TVT New Phetchaburi Road Broadcasting Station (presently National News Bureau of Thailand headquarters) from 15-31 January 2008, and it started airing its programs on 1 February 2008.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"This article aims to point out that the understanding of freedom in the U.S. legal system is too narrow since it disregards other significant aspects of freedom.\nThis article assesses the efficacy of the legal framework for asylees, individuals granted refugee status within the United States, through an examination of the human outcomes following the grant of asylum.\nAn evidentiary privilege to protect workers' confidential communications from disclosure in federal and state court proceedings would support unions.\nSocial Change was created to provide an outlet for scholarship and analysis in areas of the law of particular interest to socially concerned attorneys.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"B2:Welcome to Mr. Rackmales 10th grade English classes! Today you will participate in a presentation that will show you how to gather information for your I-Search paper using the Big6\u00ae Method.\nW1 and W4:Welcome to Mr. Rackmales 10th grade English classes! Today you will participate in a presentation that will show you how to gather information for your I-Search paper using the Big6\u00ae Method.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"R + M's wedding was everything they are as a couple: beautiful, natural & real. No stress, no fuss, just a peaceful day of love as they celebrated their commitment together. They chose to have their intimate wedding on a beach on the East Cape surrounded by their closest family & friends. Arriving from around the world \u2013 Slovenia, Australia, & Mexico City \u2013 their guests were treated to everything wonderful about Baja\u2026the adventure of the back-country dirt roads, the peace of a pristine beach, and the full moon rising over the desert landscape.\nLike us, they are world wanderers, coming to Los Cabos from far-off cities to forge something new; for them, home is truly each other. We feel lucky to have them as friends, and it was such a true pleasure to photograph their wedding\u2026some of our favorites from their day.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Liverpool U18s recovered from an early setback to beat West Bromwich Albion 5-1 at the Academy on Saturday.\nThe young Reds trailed to a Morgan Rogers strike in the 10th minute but Paul Glatzel's quickfire double turned the score around almost immediately and Bobby Duncan added a third in the final seconds of the first half.\nThe strike duo netted once apiece after the interval, too, as Barry Lewtas' team eased to an emphatic and impressive result in Kirkby.\nAn even start to proceedings was interrupted when the visitors struck first.\nEoin Ashton slid a pass into Rogers inside the left channel and the Baggies No.9 ducked in and out of the recovering defenders before sweeping a finish across Vitezslav Jaros into the bottom right corner.\nTo say the concession provoked a reaction from Liverpool would be an understatement.\nThey were level within five minutes courtesy of Glatzel's fourth goal of the season. The 17-year-old was indebted to strike partner Duncan, whose attempt to turn at the edge of the area became a fierce tackle, skewing the ball out for Glatzel to clinically curl a left-footer into the far corner.\nAnd the same man was on target three minutes later.\nYasser Larouci carried the ball along the left flank and fed it into Glatzel 20 yards from goal \u2013 and the subsequent shot took a hefty deflection to deceive the goalkeeper and sail into the net.\nDuncan then had a driven effort diverted against the right post after cutting into dangerous territory from the right, and Rhys Williams' header in from Jake Cain's inviting cross was ruled out for an apparent offside.\nLiverpool did extend their lead before the break, however, courtesy of another unerring finish.\nWest Brom were caught in possession in their own half and the ball rolled through for Duncan, who dispatched a low hit beyond Adam Przybek for his first goal at the Academy since joining the club.\nAnd there was no let-up when the action continued in the second period.\nOnly two minutes had elapsed when Glatzel completed his hat-trick, collecting a perfect threaded pass forward from Cain, getting the ball out from under his feet and prodding an angled shot past Przybek.\nWith 53 on the clock, they were awarded a penalty.\nThe referee judged Abdi Sharif was fouled inside the box from a corner and Duncan took charge from 12 yards, rolling a cool spot-kick to his left as the 'keeper dived the wrong way.\nNeco Williams had to clear an Ashton strike off the line midway through the half but Liverpool were largely untroubled in the remainder and secured a second win of the U18 Premier League season.\nLiverpool U18s: Jaros, N. Williams, Larouci, R. Williams, Clayton, Clarkson, Sharif (Brookwell, 71), Cain (Dixon-Bonner, 61), Glatzel (O'Rourke, 67), Duncan, Longstaff.\nUnused substitutes: B. Williams, Savage.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"We're back from our holidays and it's time to get some more recipes up. During our trip, I got started in planning our Christmas meal. Yes, I know, it's a bit early but we're hosting it for the first time ever so it's kind of a big deal. Over the next few months, I'll be testing out recipes for dishes I'm thinking of offering. You can follow the progress via this tag: The First Christmas. This week, I'll start with something that's surprisingly quick and easy to make liver pat\u00e8.\nI've made it with port liver, but I'm sure it'll work just the same with chicken or venison.\nRelatively easy to make liver pat\u00e8.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"There are a few main factors that most drivers use to determine which company they will go with when it comes time to go shopping and pick an auto insurance provider. Price is usually the top priority for most drivers, a fact which completely understandable. Service and reputation usually come next in the pecking order. Again, these two factors are very important and they should be addressed. But there is something that almost all of us driver miss when we go shopping for our auto insurance. The auto insurance company's surcharge schedule, which is their predetermined rate of increase in premiums should we get into an accident, is a factor few if any of us really considers. Many drivers are not even aware that such a schedule of surcharges even exists.\nBut they do. They are the way insurers are able to be consistent in the measures they take to adjust rates in given situations. Here is an example. There was a driver who had a perfect driving record for over fifteen years. Last month he caused an accident. Now there is a claim on his car insurance policy from the other driver in order to pay for the damages he caused. The guilty driver has a feeling that his rates are going to go up when his renewal paperwork comes in the mail, but he is not sure if they will or how much. He wonders if there might be a standard rate increase after one accident.\nThe answer to this question is impossible to predict in this hypothetical situation because we do not know the man's insurance company. Every company has different surcharge schedules. But these schedules can be known. Car insurance companies are required to file surcharge rates with their state's insurance department in every state they work in. In some states, auto insurance companies are actually required to give their customers a copy of the surcharge schedule. But in these states, the schedules are very difficult to read, a fact many think is purposeful.\nThe schedule often lists out points and percentages rather than just giving out a flat table, so those who are interested in knowing have to do their own math in order to get things figured out. But it can be well worth all the extra effort involved. Finding out that one company surcharges you three times more than the next can help you decide which one to go with if both are otherwise pretty close on price. It is well worth it to dig in and find out what you need to know to give you the knowledge to make the right choice.\nSome auto insurance companies simply follow a standard model devised by the Insurance Services Office (ISO), rather than come up with their own formulas. Either way, consumers can find out how their insurer figures out these things by doing the research necessary to know. Some insurers operate with their own surcharge schedules, some higher than the ISO's and some lower.\nA relatively new concept called accident forgiveness is making waves as it gains in popularity. Accident forgiveness works differently from these surcharge schedules. In fact, it is based on a premise that the insurance company will not raise the insured's rates at all for their first at fault accident in an attempt to keep the policy affordable. There are limits to these policies. Many times there is a limit attached to the monetary amount of damage caused in the accident, and there are other limits and exceptions as well. If you are with a company that offers accident forgiveness, consider yourself blessed, but also do some homework and be sure you find out all of the details of how that company works its particular program. Much like with these surcharges, there is no universal formula to accident forgiveness that applies across the industry, and all the companies that use this feature do it their own way.\nBut even with that being the case, it is still a nice thing that the insurers are offering, and it at least gives you a little room for error as a driver. This is an example of ways you can find out more about a company by looking beyond the rhetoric to see what is really going on.\nThe initial price you pay for auto insurance is a very important factor to consider when you are thinking about which auto insurance company to go with for your insurance. But thinking about what could happen to that price after an accident can be very instructive. There are many different factors one could focus on in looking for the best company to work with, but car insurance rates after an accident certainly deserve some of our attention.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Holiday travelers at Denver International Airport (DIA) were surprised with an entertaining treat when a flash mob broke out in Jeppesen Terminal on November 22nd, 2011. Approximately 100 dancers from Community-Minded Dance (cmDance) performed a Lindy Hop to a medley of Swing classics in the airport's Great Hall in Denver, Colorado. Video by Rich Clarkson & Assoc. Coordinated by cmDance Choreography by Ceth Stifel, Heather Ballew, Joseph DeMers, & Lark Mervine cmDance creates world-class educational dance and music experiences. The non-profit organization's programs bring the music and dance of the Americas to Colorado schools and audiences, including Lindy Hop, Argentine Tango, Jazz, and other American Vintage and folkloric dances. For more information, visit www.cmdance.org Organized by DIA's Art and Culture Program Today's dance performance was presented by the airport's Art and Culture Program. DIA is home to a world-class collection of public art, funded by the City and County of Denver's \"one percent for art\" requirement for public facilities. In addition to its renowned permanent art collection, DIA curates temporary exhibitions, collaborating with museums, cultural institutions and arts organizations to present the highest quality two- and three-dimensional work. For more information on DIA's public art program and its temporary exhibitions, visit www.flydenver.com\/art. Produced by Rich Clarkson & Associates RCA is a multi-disciplinary creative agency, based around the core of fine visual storytelling. Beyond our strengths in original photography and video production, our activities range from publishing high quality photographic books to major exhibition design to digital asset managment and project management in the latest rich media applications. For more information, visit www.richclarkson.com Also, check out the newest Flash Mob Mumbai in an India CST station. Nice job Mumbia, Indiai! The sound of music in antwerp station and Oprah with Black eyed peas ones are the best though.\nHoliday travelers at Denver International Airport (DIA) were surprised with an entertaining treat when a flash mob broke out in Jeppesen Terminal on November 22nd, 2011. Approximately 100 dancers from Community-Minded Dance (cmDance) performed a Lindy Hop to a medley of Swing classics in the airport's Great Hall in Denver, Colorado. Video by Rich Clarkson & Assoc.\ncollection of public art, funded by the City and County of Denver's \"one percent for art\" requirement for public facilities. In addition to its renowned permanent art collection, DIA curates temporary exhibitions, collaborating with museums, cultural institutions and arts organizations to present the highest quality two- and three-dimensional work. For more information on DIA's public art program and its temporary exhibitions, visit www.flydenver.com\/art.\nAlso, check out the newest Flash Mob Mumbai in an India CST station. Nice job Mumbia, Indiai! The sound of music in antwerp station and Oprah with Black eyed peas ones are the best though.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbahwr b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbahwr
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"This is a specialist service that offers advice and guidance in the financial needs and solutions of older people. Stuart Emerson is the Elevation Investment Management Later Life Adviser and is accredited by The Society of Later Life Advisers (SOLLA). He can assist clients and their families through the complexities and considerations for the decisions that you need to make through your (hopefully many) retirement years.\nTo arrange a free initial meeting with Stuart, or to discuss any matter in confidence please send us a message via our 'Contact' page.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"In the blog this week, I show you how I created my very own home gallery of images from Harris & Lewis using some fantastic papers from Fotospeed.\nLooking for a new bucket list location for your landscape photography? In the blog this week, I share with you some of the amazing locations I discovered while photographing two of the Outer Hebrides most famous locations, Harris and Lewis.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"In the current paper we mathematically try to support the medical operation decision made for the sake of patients suffering from gastric cancer. We involve the linear model of the simple neural perceptron to distinguish between two decision states determined as \"operate\" contra \"do not operate\". The perceptron input signals are proposed to be given as codes of levels of the most decisive biological markers, considered in surgery decision making. To find the level intervals, tied to the codes, we introduce a procedure of level fuzzification by a family of parametric membership functions.\nBrisbane, Australia: IEEE , 2012.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"The proposed medical service is the review of archival tissue by a pathologist to select appropriate tissue samples, predominantly cancer tissues, for further testing or pathological review.\nFor example biomarker testing on cancer tissue e.g. of currently MBS-approved EGFR testing for which the fee only reimburses the assay itself, or retrieval of tissues for second opinions in complex or rare cancers.\nAdvances in genetics and pharmacogenomics have resulted in a burgeoning array of targeted therapies based on specific 'typing' of the condition by a pathologist resulting in better management. For instance treatment is often matched to a particular mutation in that patient's cancer. This may mean re-testing tissue that was collected at a previous biopsy\/surgery or tissue collected from affected relatives. Occasionally, the original tissue is collected at a place (eg regional\/remote or non-specialist centres) or at a time when these tests cannot be performed or before a particular therapy is necessary or available. Pathologists are being increasingly asked to review archival tissue specimens (blocks\/slides) from patients with previous cancer diagnoses in order to select appropriate material to send for specialised biomarker testing to facilitate individualised therapy. This review (the proposed medical service) is currently unfunded.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"In the dog days of summer, the idea of turning the oven on has less than zero appeal. But at the same time, there are few things better than a sweet treat on a hot day. What's a dessert lover to do? The answer is simple: Make August's Dessert of the Month, Reese's\u2122 Peanut Butter Cup Icebox Pie. This cool, silky dessert layers peanut butter, chocolate pudding and whipped topping into a crunchy pretzel pie crust, balancing sweetness with just a hint of salt. For a showstopping presentation, the whole pie gets topped with drizzles of chocolate and peanut butter, plus Reese's\u2122 peanut butter cup miniatures. Bring this to the potluck, but make sure to snag a slice for yourself\u2014it'll disappear fast!","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbcfoy b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbcfoy
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..23508bae635734e7adaec403d98abcecf1c2d8dd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbcfoy
@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"Companies presently offering vacancies for Bank roles in New York include M&T Bank, Capital One Financial, Morgan Stanley..\nThe largest category under which open Bank jobs are listed is Accounting & Finance Jobs, followed by IT Jobs.\n516 new job listings for this search have been found in the last calendar day, compared with 1,407 in the last 72 hours and 2,025 in the last week.\nThe Adzuna recency index score for this search is 1.62, suggesting that demand for vacancies for Bank roles in New York is increasing.\nGet the latest Bank Jobs in New York delivered straight to your inbox!","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Many young people take part in school sport, but there are fewer who take part in activities outside of school. And after they leave compulsory education most young people do not take part in any form of regular sport of physical activity at all.\nEstablishing School \u2013 Club links gives young people the opportunity to continue participating in worthwhile sporting and physical activity throughout their lives. It allows youngsters to make the most of their experiences in both settings, to try out new sports, feel comfortable in a club setting and as a result makes them more likely to continue participating once they leave school.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Wrapping up the penultimate stage at this year's OiLibya Morocco Rally in fourth position, H\u00e9lder Rodrigues moved up to fourth in the provisional overall standings. With the race entering its fifth and final stage tomorrow, the Yamalube Yamaha Official Rally Team rider is now less than two minutes behind a provisional top three overall result.\nStage four of the OiLibya Morocco Rally 2016 proved to be challenging for all competitors. Successfully battling his way through the day's mixed stony, dusty and sandy conditions H\u00e9lder Rodrigues managed to bring Yamaha one-step closer to the overall podium. The Portuguese rider set a good pace aboard his WR450F Rally machine right off the start and in avoiding any mistakes he reached the finish line fourth.\nFor Yamalube Yamaha Official Rally Team's Adrien Van Beveren it was another learning stage ahead of the Frenchman's second participation at the prestigious Dakar. Battling with other riders' dust Adrien came home in eighth, managing to retain his seventh place in the rally's provisional overall standings.\nBack to the race after experiencing a dramatic couple of days, Alessandro Botturi found a good rhythm and went on to finish the day 12th. The Italian rider had suffered a broken sprocket on stage two and was forced to sit out the second part of the marathon stage yesterday. Looking forward to getting some well-earned rest tonight Alessandro is confident he can wrap up the rally with a good final stage result tomorrow.\nContinuing his strong run of form, Rodney Faggoter finished the penultimate stage of the rally 13th and is still 11th in the provisional overall standings. As for Yamaha supported Xavier de Soultrait, the Frenchman put in another impressive performance aboard his WR450F machine. Finishing today's stage fifth, Xavier is currently fifth in the overall standings.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Wintertime is the coldest part of the year; however, the look of the snow-covered surroundings that becomes typical feature of this season makes everything around you look like a fantasy world in a fairy tale. If you decide to celebrate your wedding ceremony in the winter, choosing fantasy winter world as the theme for that event can be a great idea. However, remember that applying this theme is not the only smart idea that is considered perfect because there are many other winter weddings ideas that you can use when organizing that ceremony. You may need to explore them so that you can choose one which you regard as the best.\nAs said earlier, fantasy world theme should be your first option because it perfectly matches the overall condition of the environment during the winter. There are two ways to apply this theme. If the ceremony and reception take place mostly outside, you can hang some lanterns on the bare branches of trees that are located around the venue. You can also hang crystals, glass decorations, statues of fairies, and twinkle lights on those branches to enhance the glamorous feature of the venue. Erecting some fake snowmen around the venue will also make it look like a winter wonderland. If you use all of those outdoor decorations, however, you have to make sure that the weather is clear and the temperature degree is suitable enough for an outdoor party.\nIf it is not possible to carry out the ceremony outside, you can use an alternative way to use winter fantasy theme indoors. You can use the same decorations mentioned above, except that now you have to install them all inside a building. To imitate the ice and snow, you can use faux rhinestones and glittery fake snow. Drop the fake snow at various parts of the venue to create whimsical appearance of a winter fantasy world.\nAs explained earlier, there are many other winter weddings ideas that you can use besides this fantasy world idea. If you want to be casual, Christmas theme can be a great option. On the other hand, if you prefer the event to look more formal and elegant, you should apply either formal winter theme or Victorian wedding theme.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Sister Jayanti is an authority on inner healing and spiritual health. Through her deep understanding of the human heart and its condition, she uses her knowledge to help people connect to themselves and create a closer relationship with the Divine. In her book 'God's Healing Power' she guides the individual along this spiritual journey.\nIf we think about that which we know to be right, compassion comes to the fore. Compassion is related to respect, dignity, love, care, kindness and mercy. So what can I do to access compassion within myself? I believe that every human being, in a natural and pure way, carries compassion within the self. But somehow our experiences make us forget to connect with this quality. Spirituality and my own experience would say that when we live life externally (at the material level), we forget to look within and connect with what is going on deep inside the self. The Brahma Kumaris philosophy would say that whatever is going on inside is what gets expressed on the outside and, when I am not connected and have lost touch with those things, my outside expression will become hard and brittle.\nThe first step is to remove my negativity and reconnect with my inner compassion. This step requires me to go on an inner journey, where I am able to discover my qualities of peace, love, kindness and compassion. If I can 'touch' this reservoir again and again through the day, keeping it alive inside, then it will be expressed in my life and also my actions. So it is the inner journey that will help connect me to my compassion.\nThe next step is related to an awareness of God. When I hear about world events, I understand that we have forgotten about spirituality and have moved away from 'spirit', which is life itself; we have forgotten the singularly important thing about life. When I review our spiritual values and reflect on where these values lie, they lie within the inner being, therefore they are not an external part of me. It is only when I go on the journey within that I am able to connect with the inner spirit and find the values. Values are the most important aspect of life. In fact, they are the bedrock of civilization.\nNot only is compassion missing in health care, but compassion is missing in human life. Instead of compassion, ego and selfishness prevail. Looking at the big picture, this global malaise has weakened all aspects of living. The two main reasons are, firstly, we have lost touch with the spirit within and, secondly, we have either put God on the backburner or we have removed God from our lives completely. Although many devoted people believe in the Divine, yet, there is lack of courage to speak about God openly.\nI would now like to address the second question about how to manage 'compassion fatigue' and burnout, and the escalating pressures that each person is called to manage in their own way. How do I manage to stay human, never mind anything more than that? I have to find a way to be able to recharge my own inner battery.\nSpirituality has taught me a method to be able to recharge the inner being. This method shows me how to connect with the Divine, the Source of light, might, peace and love. If I can connect my mind with the Source of light and love, then I will be able to draw strength into the self. In whatever capacity I serve, for whatever time, I am well advised to not give of my own energy and deplete myself, but I need to learn to let the flow of energy come from the Divine so that I can give what is needed.\nEven during routine daily activity, I need to replenish my stock of energy. With my connection with God, I am able to draw from Him and fill myself with whatever I need. We, the Brahma Kumaris, use a system of stopping for a minute every hour called 'traffic control'. Soft music plays which signals us to pause for 1-3 minutes and use that time to reflect and reconnect both within and above and recharge. Equally, at the end of each day it is important to conduct a personal audit and review; what is it that I could have done differently? If I don't do this each evening, mistakes will multiply and issues will be covered up. The second reflection can be; is there anything I learnt today? If I use these two questions in my personal audit each night then there is a strong likelihood that my levels of compassion will continue to grow and be expressed in my actions. A meditation practice offers a powerful tool both to emerge compassion and kindness within, and to keep it alive, such that we never reach a point of either physical or emotional fatigue.\nSpirituality helps me transcend all limits and enables me to have love and concern for everyone. But, the question arises; is it possible to teach young people these things? It is not just a question of the young, but whoever I am, I need to make that journey inwards and connect with the Divine to allow inherent compassion to open up. When I am in touch with my own dignity then I can see the dignity in others and healing energy flows. When there is the self-esteem of spirituality, discriminatory behaviour ceases and only love and well-being is visible.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
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+{"text":"Miserly Moms by Jonni McCoy wears its target audience right on its cover \u2013 stay-at-home moms (or at least moms who devote a significant amount of time to domestic management) that are trying to maximize every penny. It's a good read with lots of specific, applicable tips for domestic spending, particularly in terms of food and household supplies. The book hones in on these issues like a laser beam \u2013 though the cover of the book clearly aims for the stay-at-home mom, the contents of the book really apply to anyone \u2013 we all shop for groceries and we all need to eat, after all.\nIn other words, if you're looking to maximize every penny on household expenses \u2013 particularly if you have a large household \u2013 this book is packed with advice. If you want stock investing material\u2026 you might want to go somewhere else.\nSince the book is actually divided into thirty two short chapters, I've just pulled out ten of the points and principles that I thought were really thought-provoking.\nIf any money-saving activity makes you feel cheap or tight, you will eventually abandon your efforts. This is not the price we need to pay to reach our goals. I don't need to feel tight and cheap in order to stay home with my kids. There are ways to save money and keep my dignity.\nWell said, indeed. If you're unhappy with a spending cut in your life, then don't make it. The big trick with frugality is that many people never even think about it. They never ask themselves if they really are getting value out of that expense, or if a less-expensive option will do for them. Quite often, you can make a more frugal choice and never notice the difference (except for the gradually heavier wallet \u2013 don't go frugal if you don't want extra cash in your pocket).\nJonni advocates finding the stores that have the cheapest prices on the various items that you buy, and I fully agree with that strategy. However, I think it's possible to take that advice too far. I essentially use two stores for almost all of my grocery and household supply shopping \u2013 Fareway and Sam's Club \u2013 with occasional stops at Walgreen's if there are a number of exceptional bargains there.\nThe trick is simply being objective and finding the store or two that really does have the lowest prices on the items you buy regularly. Don't obsess over grocery store flyers from every different store, because you eventually reach a point of real diminishing returns, where you dig through flyers for an hour to save $3.\nInstead, just stick to the basics. Find a grocery store with low prices. Plan your meals carefully (and use the flyer as a tool). Make a grocery list from that meal plan. Then, go shopping and stick to that list. If you're not doing these things already, switch to them and your food bill will drop dramatically \u2013 I wouldn't be surprised to see a 50% drop.\nSure, buying whichever version of the item has the lowest cost-per-ounce is usually the best deal. But not always.\nFor one, if you don't have adequate storage space, such excess items can easily get in the way. For another, if you're not going to use the entire amount before it expires, then you're wasting money buying the bulk version.\nAnother key point: storage containers. If you're not reusing the containers you use to store items, you're likely throwing money away. In other words, you're better off over the long run putting sandwiches in small reusable containers than in Ziploc bags \u2013 even buying them in bulk doesn't add up. This is a principle I remember my parents using when I was a kid \u2013 my father's lunch was always packed with resealable small containers instead of with baggies.\nThe argument in favor of convenience foods is pretty clear \u2013 you're paying a little extra to save time. However, that \"little extra\" is substantially more than you think at first glance.\nWhy? It's a health thing. Prepackaged convenience foods are often loaded with preservatives and unhealthy ingredients like corn syrup and artificial sweeteners. Over the long haul, these things add up to additional weight, a lower quality of living, and additional health care costs. Instead of subscribing to a pattern of unhealthy convenience foods that cost more and contribute to poor health just to shave a few minutes, learn how to prepare your own healthy simple foods instead. For example, I can make an egg-white omelet sandwich with whole wheat toast in about four minutes for less than $1 (and put all dishes straight in the dishwasher) or I can buy an unhealthy breakfast to go for about the same time cost, a lot less health, and likely a higher cost, too.\nWhy do this? Cut back on the prepackaged foods!\nThe first thing I did to conserve energy in my kitchen was to get rid of the extra freezer I had. It wasn't actually in my kitchen (it was in the garage), but I considered it an extension of my kitchen, as it held all my extra food. When the energy audit revealed that it was responsible for 15 to 20 percent of my utility bill, I questioned its cost effectiveness. I figured it was costing twenty dollars a month to run. At that time, that was 20 percent of our utility bill. I was buying in bulk and storing food in there, but the savings on bulk foods was being spent on the appliance to store them in.\nIt's worth noting that many modern freezers are more energy efficient than this. We actually ran similar calculations on our own freezer and found that it was cost-effective for us, but it was closer than we expected. We also found that we were better off filling it to the brim, so we started filling up the extra space with ice \u2013 empty gallon milk jugs, rinsed and filled with water, then frozen.\nI'll admit it \u2013 I am currently thisclose to switching to being an ovo-lacto vegetarian. For example, today so far I've had a bean and salsa omelet for breakfast and a bowl of leftover vegetable soup for lunch, and I anticipate a vegetarian dinner.\nWhy am I doing this? As I try cooking with these restrictions, I'm finding more and more recipes that are quite tasty \u2013 and I'm finding more and more that meat is the most expensive part of the diet.\nTake beans, for example. They're very healthy, they provide lots of protein, and they're incredibly cheap. You can take a lot of meat recipes \u2013 especially those with ground beef \u2013 and just substitute beans, and the resulting recipe is quite tasty.\nI never would have believed that I would find myself cutting back on meat so much, but there are lots of great, tasty, filling recipes out there that don't use meat \u2013 and they're almost always much cheaper than similar dishes that contain meat.\nPencil in one dinner a week for just soup and bread, nothing else. A big bowl of vegetable soup is incredibly easy to make (just boil up whatever leftover vegetables you have with a bunch of spices) and a bit of bread to soak up some of the juices and make the meal more filling is a great side.\nNot only that, you pretty much can't get a cheaper meal. Just take the vegetables you cook during the week and save the leftovers in a closed container in the freezer. If you're like us, a nearly free and quite healthy meal once a week \u2013 especially one that can really be jazzed up with spices and peppers \u2013 is a spectacular deal.\nA while back, I wrote an article providing an example of preparing several meals at once. The central principle is absolutely true \u2013 preparing several meals at once and freezing the extras saves both money and time. The money savings comes in because you can buy ingredients in bulk \u2013 the time savings comes in because you have to do very little prep work for each meal once the extras are frozen, since you just pull them out and cook them.\nJonni offers a ton of examples on how to do this. My favorite is one that we've started using \u2013 just cook tons of chicken breasts at once. We cook several pounds of chicken breasts in the crock pot at one time. Then, we put two chicken breasts into a freezable container, pop several such containers in the freezer, then just pull them out when we need cooked chicken as an ingredient \u2013 salads, soups, and the like. Easy as pie.\nThis is one area of the book where my perspective differs from Jonni's a bit. With regards to warehouse clubs (Costco, Sam's Club, and the like), Jonni is extremely wary, arguing that on many items, the prices aren't better than what you can find in other stores. I agree with her in this regard \u2013 as with any store, you have to have a good grasp on what you're buying. In my own experience, however, I've found that many items are substantially cheaper there.\nFrom there, though, Jonni makes several claims about warehouse clubs that oppose my own experience. She argues that they sell only store brand items and usually only sell one type of many items (dishwashing detergent, etc.). In my experience, there are usually several brands available for these types of items. Similarly, her shopping list of items that are good deals at warehouse clubs are a little confusing as well, since I've found that different warehouse chains tend to have different items with exceptionally low prices.\nYour best bet? Figure out what's really worthwhile at your local warehouse store. If it's worthwhile for you, join up \u2013 it probably will be. Remember, the key is to get the items you want at the best possible value for you \u2013 and you may find that a warehouse club does that very, very well.\nThis is a great encouragement to make batches of homemade items for weekend projects. We make homemade beer, homemade soap, homemade pasta, and homemade wine. Later this summer, we intend to make a few giant batches of salsa. All of these items will be used in part to make gift baskets \u2013 we'll just package these items nicely, collect them together, and given them as gifts to family and friends, with different assortments depending on the person.\nIs Miserly Moms Worth Reading?\nIf you feel a need to cut domestic spending in your life, Miserly Moms is undoubtedly a worthwhile read. Aside from The Tightwad Gazette, this is probably the best collection of tips I've ever read on trimming domestic spending \u2013 and it's certainly quite concise and focused.\nIf most of the advice above seemed very old hat to you, though, you may not get too much out of the book. Having said that, though, for most people, the advice above is not old hat.\nFor me, I pulled out a few useful tips, but this book was not a world-changer for me. However, I can certainly see it being very valuable for some people I know, and I've already passed along my copy to a friend that's also a stay-at-home mom. For her, Miserly Moms could very well be an invaluable read.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"The purpose of the Camp Get Fit summer program is to demonstrate the impact that a six to eight week summer camp intervention for 8 hours daily, which focuses on health, nutrition and physical activity has on the physical, cognitive, and attitudinal attributes concerning youth.\nHKT\/CGF summer program is our expanded curriculum that serves students from pre-school through junior high school. It is not a babysitting camp, but rather a training mechanism for supporting and creating healthier youth and families. Our program features a weekly health, nutrition, and fitness focus. We explore areas such as, the USDA My Plate and Food Pyramid, Grains, Fruits, Vegetables, the Heart, the Muscles, the Brain and more.\nHKT\/CGF Old School Fitness and Fast Food Fridays help give campers and families' practical strategies to live more healthily. The program includes weekly field trips, the offering of specialty skill services such as yoga, dance, pilates, gardening, sport related fitness, nutrition services, health education, nutrition demonstrations and healthy cooking. Weekly tutoring is provided. Students receive breakfast, lunch, and 2 snacks daily. Our primary objectives are to increase the amount of physical activity conducted daily, and to increase the nutrition consumption of the five major food groups for our campers.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"One Car Garage With Storage. Master Has Walk-In Closet. MLS#6537417. Solid Source Realty, Inc..\nAustin Lake - Home Is Just 1.7 Miles From Silver Comet And Braves Stadium MLS#8564121. Keller Williams Rlty Cityside.\nNo Hoa. This Is It! Welcome Home! MLS#6536388. Duffy Realty Of Atlanta.\nRegistry At Park Avenue - Community Features: Pool, Sidewalks, Greenspace For Playing And Cooking Out, Approx 5 Miles To The Battery\/Suntrust Park. MLS#8562180. Keller Williams Rlty First Atl.\nHighlands Ridge - Great Location Near Downtown Smyrna, Vinings Shopping, Dining & More! MLS#6535695. Berkshire Hathaway Homeservices Georgia Properties.\nCome And See This Amazing Home! MLS#6535757. Harry Norman Realtors.\nFarmstead At Vining - Community Features Swim And Tennis. Walk To Shopping! MLS#6535454. Coldwell Banker Residential Brokerage.\nJust Minutes From I-285, I75 And Airport. MLS#6536146. Keller Williams Realty Atl North.\nDo Not Miss Your Chance As This Home Will Not Last Long! MLS#6536192. The Realty Group.\nMinutes Away From Cumberland, The Battery, & Suntrust Park. MLS#6534578. Atlanta Communities.\nPaces Green - Granite Counter Tops In Kitchen And Bathrooms, With Shower Doors In All Bathrooms, Refinished Basement With Drop Ceiling, Electronic Air Cleaners And Uv Lights In Basement And Attic, Newer Hot Water Heater. MLS#8561630. Rocket Homes Real Estate, Llc.\nMinutes Away From Cumberland, The Battery, & Suntrust Park. MLS#6534573. Atlanta Communities.\nVerandas At Barnes Mill - Conveniently Located Off The East\/West Connector, Minutes To Shops & Restaurants. MLS#6535173. Keller Williams Realty Intown Atl.\nHighlands View - Easy Access Of Vinings Jubilee, Atl Airport, Suntrust Park, Cumberland Mall. MLS#6534663. Redfin Corporation.\nWindy Hill Forest - This Prime Location Is Close To Popular Smyrna Village, Minutes To Cumberland Mall And One Of The Best Deals In Smyrna! MLS#6534976. Keller Williams Realty Cityside.\n-2 Car Garage -Flat, Fenced-In Backyard With Extended Patio Slab -Common Area: Fitness Center, Salt Water Pool, Walking Trails, Pond & Playground MLS#8560677. Atlanta Leasing & Investment.\nPaces Point - The Front Courtyard Gives The Suburban Feel While Still Living Close To The City. MLS#6534360. Keller Williams Rlty-Ptree Rd.\nMosaic At Vinings - The Basement Is Fully Finished With A Bathroom, Large Closet, And Light, Bright Bonus Room. Best Location In Smyrna! MLS#6533880. Atlanta Communities.\nTerraces At Park Avenue - Only 5 Miles To Suntrust Park! MLS#6534249. Mark Spain Real Estate.\nWetherbrooke - Lovely Gated Community With Swimming Pool. MLS#6534441. Atlanta Communities.\nAdditional Bath Can Be Added For $15,000. MLS#8560319. Farish Realty & Associates.\nIvy Glen - Min From Suntrust Park And 285. Low Hoa Fees Include Landscaping. MLS#6533838. Harry Norman Realtors.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"TribalMama.com's products are hand crafted in small batches to insure the highest and most integral quality.\nWe began creating Artisan Bar Soap for our own personal peace of mind, as commercial personal care products are far inferior.\nToday we have reproduced our Tribe's products for those who also want the same peace of mind accompanied by fabulous skin from the outside - in.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Published 04\/24\/2019 06:48:42 am at 04\/24\/2019 06:48:42 am in How To Build A Wood Beam.\nhow to build a wood beam reclaimed heart pine faux wood beams how to build a wood truss beam span.\nhow to build a wood beam mantel shelf,how to build a wood beam mantel ideas,how to build a wood beam mantel on red,how to build a wood beam ceiling ideas,how to build a wood beam over drywall,how to build a wood beam mantel for sale,how to build a faux wood beam,how to build a wood beam ceiling cost,how to build a wood beam in ceiling,how to build a wood beam ceiling family room,how to build a wood truss beam span.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
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+{"text":"Using Ladybirds Cleaning Services rapid dry system combined with the highest quality antibacterial shampoo (ideal for pet owners and allergy sufferers), we utilise a highly sophisticated stain removal process that ensures if it can be removed, it will!\nBreathe new life into your carpets and upholstery with Ladybirds Cleaning Services rapid dry system. Using the highest quality antibacterial shampoo (ideal for pet owners and allergy sufferers), we utilise a highly sophisticated stain removal process that ensures if it can be removed, it will!\n\u200bIdeally suited for the extraction of dust-mites, stale odours and stubborn stains, our carpet and upholstery cleaning works on almost any type of carpet or upholstery material. We are able to actively clean and regenerate carpets, upholstery, leather, mattresses, rugs etc. We are also pleased to offer cost-effective stain protection & prevention throughout the home.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Fourth of July weekend is regularly one of the heaviest drunk-driving patrol times and for good reason. In addition to celebrating our nation's independence by blowing up a small piece of it, many people consume much of its grains and fruits in distilled and fermented forms. This year's holiday coincides with the implementation of an additional DUI penalty: ignition interlock.\nAs of July 1, anyone who had a driver's license suspended due to a DUI, either criminal or per se, must have an ignition interlock system installed in his or her car to resume driving. Ignition interlock is a Breathalyzer connected to the car that requires a negative alcohol test to start the car and (to prevent having someone else provide the sample) occasional tests while the car is driving in order for it to continue driving. The justification behind the new law is that it cuts down significantly on repeat DUI's. There are also several changes to the per se suspensions. The legal limit has not changed.\nState and local police departments will also be stepping up their patrols this weekend, including setting up sobriety checkpoints. Sobriety checkpoints are permissible under the Constitution but subject to restrictions. For one, they must be announced. The state police publish the locations of their checkpoints on their website and to the news media. Local police must also publish the times and locations (The Register has New Haven's and East Haven's here).\nSobriety checkpoints must also be administered neutrally and be minimally intrusive. Drivers cannot be targeted\u2013all cars passing through the checkpoint are stopped and checked. Police must explain what they're doing in the stop. Note that your right to remain silent still (and always) applies. A driver does not have to answer the officers' questions, such as \"Have you had anything to drink?\" or \"What's in the cooler?\" If you do decide to answer questions, you have to answer truthfully. Additionally, police can gather evidence from other sources, such as the smell of alcohol, observations of the driver and the inside of the car as well as the manner of driving. When the officer says that you are not free to go, then it becomes a dui stop, subject to the reasonable suspicion requirements. It is at this point that you should call an attorney (preferably me). It is important to note that you can refuse a field sobriety test (\"walk and turn\", \"touch your nose\" etc.). It will not cause trigger a license suspension the way refusing a breath or chemical test does. Police can still arrest you but they must derive the probable cause from another source. In many drunk driving cases, there is not a loss of probable cause to arrest.\nDrunk driving is serious and dangerous. First and foremost, no one should drive drunk. The information here is not intended to help people get away with driving drunk. It is to make them aware of the law. If you do manage to drive drunk and make it home without getting caught or into a collision, you are incredibly lucky and should it probably won't happen again. A judge I regularly appear before often lectures defendants who plead to or take programs for DUI and other motor vehicle offenses, saying that driving a car while drunk or recklessly isn't any different than firing a gun down a city street because it puts the public in danger. It's hard to argue with that.\nThe best thing to do is not to drive drunk. A cab or car service will cost a lot less than what you will pay for an ignition interlock, the alcohol education program, the fee for me or one of my colleagues (I've very reasonable but I do cost more than a cab fare) and the immeasureable losses of time and possible (tragic) injuries.\nHave fun, stay safe and call me if you get into trouble.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"MHC class I (MHCI) molecules are the key presenters of peptides generated through the intracellular pathway to CD8-positive T-cells. In fish, MHCI genes were first identified in the early 1990\u2032s, but we still know little about their functional relevance. The expansion and presumed sub-functionalization of cod MHCI and access to many published fish genome sequences provide us with the incentive to undertake a comprehensive study of deduced teleost fish MHCI molecules.\nWe expand the known MHCI lineages in teleosts to five with identification of a new lineage defined as P. The two lineages U and Z, which both include presumed peptide binding classical\/typical molecules besides more derived molecules, are present in all teleosts analyzed. The U lineage displays two modes of evolution, most pronouncedly observed in classical-type alpha 1 domains; cod and stickleback have expanded on one of at least eight ancient alpha 1 domain lineages as opposed to many other teleosts that preserved a number of these ancient lineages. The Z lineage comes in a typical format present in all analyzed ray-finned fish species as well as lungfish. The typical Z format displays an unprecedented conservation of almost all 37 residues predicted to make up the peptide binding groove. However, also co-existing atypical Z sub-lineage molecules, which lost the presumed peptide binding motif, are found in some fish like carps and cavefish. The remaining three lineages, L, S and P, are not predicted to bind peptides and are lost in some species.\nMuch like tetrapods, teleosts have polymorphic classical peptide binding MHCI molecules, a number of classical-similar non-classical MHCI molecules, and some members of more diverged MHCI lineages. Different from tetrapods, however, is that in some teleosts the classical MHCI polymorphism incorporates multiple ancient MHCI domain lineages. Also different from tetrapods is that teleosts have typical Z molecules, in which the residues that presumably form the peptide binding groove have been almost completely conserved for over 400 million years. The reasons for the uniquely teleost evolution modes of peptide binding MHCI molecules remain an enigma.\nThe classical major histocompatibility complex class I (MHCI) molecules are key players in initiating an immune response against intracellular pathogens such as viruses. The mature classical MHCI molecule is divided into three alpha domains where the two most distal domains are involved in peptide binding and the membrane proximal domain provides stability and interacts with beta2-microglobulin. A major characteristic of these classical MHCI molecules is the immense polymorphism (differences between alleles) predominantly mapping to the two distal domains i.e. the alpha 1 and alpha 2 domains.\nIn classical MHCI molecules, these alpha 1 and alpha 2 domains provide a groove for binding of peptides where eight residue positions anchoring N- and C-terminal peptide ends are highly conserved throughout evolution, i.e.Y7, Y59, Y\/R84, T143, K146, W147, Y159, and Y171 [1-3]. The residue Y84, found in mammalian and some reptilian classical-type class I molecules, replaced residue R84 which is common in birds, amphibians, sharks and bony fish. In contrast, many of the residues defining the pockets that accommodate the various peptide side-chains are highly variable thus enabling different MHCI alleles to present different sub-populations of peptides.\nIn humans, there are also a considerable number of non-polymorphic MHCI molecules that have various non-classical functions where most have retained the molecular characteristics of a membrane anchored molecule with three extracellular domains. Some of those also retained the ability to bind beta2-microglobulin and\/or peptide ligands. Examples of non-classical human MHCI molecules are the HLA-E molecule that binds peptides derived from leader sequences of other MHCI molecules, CD1 molecules known to bind lipids, and MR1 that can present microbial vitamin B metabolites [4,5].\nFor teleost fish MHCI genes, our knowledge has grown rapidly since their first identification in the early 1990\u2032s [6-8] and much is similar to what is found in mammals. The U lineage defined through phylogenetic analysis, consists of both classical highly polymorphic genes showing conservation of presumed peptide-termini anchoring residues, as well as non-classical genes with fewer classical-type anchoring residues and\/or low variability. Classical type molecules have been shown associated with peptide and beta2-microglobulin , and were linked to allograft rejection  as well as resistance to pathogens . There have also been a few intriguing discoveries. One of the surprises was the lack of linkage between classical MHCI and II gene loci in all teleosts studied so far, resulting in some authors using an \"MH\" nomenclature to emphasize the lack of structural continuity . A second surprise was the finding that in some teleosts classical MHCI variability was considerably enhanced through retention of multiple ancient alpha 1 domain lineages, which are represented in distantly related species [13-16]. Although the exact mechanisms are still unclear, both allelic recombination as well as interlocus recombination events are likely contributors to classical teleost diversity .\nA third surprise was the lack of MHC class II in Atlantic cod , although preliminary analyses had suggested the concept for quite some time . The loss of the entire class II system in cod appears to be one extreme within a broad teleost MHC class II plasticity . Malmstr\u00f8m et al.  suggested that cod MHCI molecules have sub-functionalized into two clades where one clade including some sequences with an endosomal sorting motif could have replaced the MHC class II function of exogenous antigen presentation. Although this model may be true, a reminiscent functional divide among MHCI molecules has also been described or suggested for other species. Typical endosomal sorting motifs are found in a number of classical as well as nonclassical MHCI molecules of mammals and teleost fish, and at least in mammals have been functionally associated with a number of differential intracellular transport and loading routes [21-25]. Even without obvious endosomal sorting motifs some MHCI molecules can be transported to endosomal compartments with help of the invariant chain , a molecule better known for transporting MHC class II. Thus, even from the distribution of typical endosomal targeting motifs, differences in MHCI transport routes between species can't be predicted with certainty.\nPrevious studies have described four different MHCI lineages in teleosts i.e. Z, U, S and L, where sequences are classified into each of the four lineages based on phylogenetic analyses and lineage characteristic motifs. Only the U lineage includes genes with classical type polymorphism [6,8,26-28]. The U lineage also harbors non-classical MHCI genes with varying degree of conserved peptide-binding residues, low polymorphism and\/ or transcription in restricted number of tissues [23,29]. In salmonids, medaka and zebrafish there is one major MHCI region with one or a few classical genes. Atlantic salmon and rainbow trout have one classical gene defined as UBA while medaka has two classical genes in this region defined as UAA and UBA. For zebrafish, haplotypes differ in gene copy number (one to three) and allelic polymorphism is harder to assign . The classical U lineage genes in cyprinids, salmonids and medaka display profound polymorphism which in part has been generated through point mutations. However, ancient alpha 1 domain lineages shared between divergent species are shuffled between alleles through recombination and thus also add to the variation [13,14,16]. The alpha 3 domain tends to be more homogenized in a species-specific manner, possibly due to co-evolution with CD8 and beta2-microglobulin sequences, although some variation can be found in particular in the peptide connecting the alpha 3 and transmembrane domains .\nWhile salmon, rainbow trout and medaka have around ten U lineage genes defined through phylogenetic clustering, other species show considerably more expansions of this lineage. Atlantic cod was reported to have 83 different expressed U lineage sequences in one individual, which translates to a minimum of 42 different genes assuming they are all polymorphic . One wonders if this expansion could compensate for the complete loss of MHC class II genes. Similarly, although not as extreme, expansions have also been published in other species such as tilapia with 28 U lineage genes or gene fragments . As tilapia has not lost its MHC class II function, we cannot explain the biological benefit from such an expansion .\nFor the other three lineages, information on phylogeny and genomic location is rather limited. The first MHCI sequence to be identified in teleosts, a genomic fragment from goldfish (Carassius auratus, GenBank accession AAA72345.1), belonged to the Z lineage , which was later substantiated as an expressed MHCI lineage . Kruiswijk et al.  expanded on this in identifying a related, but distinct, new lineage in cyprinids which they defined as ZE. ZE-type have since been found in several teleosts [29,34,35], while the sequences described by Okamura et al.  are considered unique to carps. Since the publication by Lukacs et al. , nomenclature incorporates both types of sequences in the \"Z lineage\", and newly identified ZE-type loci have been given a \"Z\" identifier (and not ZE) in their name (eg. ). Although most known Z lineage genes encode the typical peptide anchoring residues, these genes are considered non-classical due to low levels of polymorphism and more restricted tissue expression patterns [29,34]. Compared to the peptide anchoring residues of classical MHCI, the Z lineage molecules have an Y171F substitution, which in modified human classical molecules was found to reduce peptide affinity but still to allow peptide binding . As noted by Nonaka et al.  and others the Z genes evolve differently from U lineage genes with higher sequence diversity in the alpha 3 domain and considerably better conserved alpha1 and alpha 2 domains. Remarkably, the teleost Z sequences were described to cluster with lungfish MHCI upon phylogenetic analysis [26,37].\nThe third MHCI lineage, defined as S, was initially identified in salmonids where the single locus was denoted UAA , but later renamed to SAA due to low sequence identity to U lineage genes . S lineage fragments have also been found in catfish [26,29].\nSalmonids in addition to some cyprinids  and some cichlids  also have genes belonging to the fourth MHCI lineage defined as L. Dijkstra et al.  found five L lineage genes in trout and one gene in Atlantic salmon, where most trout genes have a rather unusual gene organization lacking introns between the alpha 1, 2 and 3 domains. Both the S and the L lineages do not have the typical peptide N- and C-terminal anchoring residues which suggest that they bind non-peptide or no ligands .\nUsing available genome sequence databases, we here set out to take a closer look at the various MHCI lineages in teleosts. It became evident that we have still only scratched the surface of teleost MHCI. We found genes belonging to two of the lineages, Z and U, in all investigated species suggesting they cover essential core functions. The remaining lineages, L, S, and a new fifth lineage P, are absent in many teleost species which questions whether they provide essential functions.\nTo perform a comprehensive analysis of MHCI in teleosts, we first identified all MHCI genes in sequenced teleost genomes available in the Ensembl database. We found a total of 253 genes or gene fragments in the species cavefish (Astyanax mexicanus, AstMex102), zebrafish (Danio rerio ZV9), medaka (Oryzias latipes, Medaka1), platyfish (Xiphophorus maculatus, Xipmac4.4.2), tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus, Orenil 1.0), stickleback (Gasterosteus aculatus, BROAD S1), fugu (Takifugu rubripes, Fugu4.0) and tetraodon (Tetraodon nigroviridis, Tetraodon8.0) [Additional file 1: Figure S1, Additional file 2: Table S1]. For our model species Atlantic salmon and rainbow trout that we have analyzed intensively from various angles, we use the accepted MHC nomenclature e.g. Sasa-UBA for Salmo salar U lineage locus B  for the identified sequences. For the two other well-studied species, i.e. medaka and zebrafish, existing nomenclature is shown alongside our temporary nomenclature relating to species and consecutive location in the unique Ensembl genome (e.g. OL1 for Oryzias latipes and gene number 1). We have refrained from assigning definite MHCI gene names for those species that we do not experimentally investigate ourselves, as a correct nomenclature requires a thorough analysis of the quality of data, allelic relationships, expression levels, etc. The phylogenetic relationship between included species is shown in Figure 1. Predicting leader sequences as well as transmembrane and cytoplasmic domains is often difficult, leaving many of the 5\u2032 and 3\u2032 gene predictions incomplete. In addition, some genomes are more fragmented than others as seen in for instance tetraodon where 18 of 25 MHCI gene sequences are partials. Many of the gene fragments may still represent complete and functional genes, but they need further studies. We also investigated our model species Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar, AGKD00000000.3), where the final genome sequence was recently made available at NCBI. Here we add nine bona fide MHCI genes and five pseudogenes or gene fragments to the twelve genes previously reported in salmon (Additional file 3: Text S2) . For Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua, NCBI GadMor_May2010) we only tried to identify non-U lineage genes, and for U lineage genes relied on previous reports, as genomic assembly of U lineage genes has been hampered by high sequence identity between loci .\nPhylogeny of relevant species. A timescale is depicted in millions of years ago (MYA). The tree is a gross summary of references listed below, with reference 44 given particular importance. In our study the relative phylogeny of the species is more important than the exact times of separations, and we did not precisely calibrate time-scales between the referenced studies. Relevant literature for the respective branch knots [40-49] is indicated. Dotted lines relate to phylogenetic branch knots where the referenced literature was not informative on the absolute time of the event. Whole genome duplication events in a teleost ancestor (TGD), and early in the salmonid lineage (SGD), are indicated in red font.\nTo trace the evolution of teleost MHCI sequences we also investigated the genome of spotted gar (Lepisosteus oculatus, Ensembl LepOcu1), a species that branched off from the lineage leading to teleosts around 360 MYA  (Figure 1). We found 13 gar MHCI sequences residing on eight different scaffolds, of which five are complete sequences and eight are partial genes or gene fragments (Additional file 4: Text S1, Additional file 2: Table S1, and Additional file 1: Figure S1). Using available SRA (NCBI; Sequence Read Archive) reads we supplemented the 13 sequences with an assumed Z lineage gene consisting of alpha 1 and alpha 2 exons from unknown, possibly separated, genomic locations. Further definition of the functional status of these partial genes awaits additional cDNA sequencing. When relevant, we also investigated database resources for teleosts and other fishes without published whole genome sequence databases.\nGenes from the U lineage constitute 56% of the teleost genes summarized in the present study (Table 1). We found considerable U lineage expansions in tilapia and stickleback with 45 and 29 genes and gene fragments, while platyfish and tetraodon each showed medium expansions with 19 genes or gene fragments (Additional file 4: Text S1, Additional file 2: Table S1, Table 1). The U lineage expansions have previously been reported with 28 or more genes in tilapia , and approximately half of that in stickleback . The discrepancy in stickleback may be due to the use of Q-PCR analysis for generating the previous estimate. However, the Ensembl genome estimate may also be questionable with stickleback scaffold 58 not yet linked to a chromosomal region and containing a myriad of genes for highly similar proteasome subunits and transport associated proteins in addition to multiple MHCI genes with high sequence identity, thus opening the possibility of assembly errors (Additional file 1: Figure S1). The remaining teleosts have a lower number of U lineage genes or gene fragments ranging from 4 in zebrafish to 13 in cavefish. The number of genes in each species may also vary as haplotypic variation has been reported in for example zebrafish, medaka and Atlantic salmon [25,29,50].\nNumber of genes and gene fragments identified in this study are shown for each species and each lineage. Data from other studies are marked with * and not counted (Cod U lineage gene estimate and lack of MHCII  and the remaining MHC class II data  where MHCII alpha and beta genes are counted separately).1Two of the Spotted gar MHCI sequences are of unknown lineage origin. 2Two Spotted gar MHCII sequences could not be defined as DA or DB and are thus shown as DA\/DB here . 3No thorough study was performed on cavefish MHC class II genes and platyfish MHC class II genes were not analyzed (n.a.).\nThe majority of U lineage genes reside within one syntenic region alongside typical MHC region \"scaffold\" genes such as TCF19, RXRB, PSMB, ABCB3 and TAPBP genes (Additional file 1: Figure S1, Additional file 5: Table S2) as previously noted [29,51-55]. A few U lineage regions outside of this major MHC region show some regional syntenies between fish species, which we will not discuss further (Additional file 1: Figure S1, Additional file 5: Table S2).\nWe already know the number, genomic location and classification of most U lineage genes in several salmonids [14,15,29,55-57], medaka [13,43,58] and zebrafish . For the U lineage molecules from platyfish, tilapia, stickleback, tetraodon and fugu, a number are expected to bind peptide termini in a way identical or similar to most classical MHCI based on conservation of predicted groove residues (Additional file 6: Text S3). Although defined as classical by Star et al.  , and both classical and non-classical by Malmstr\u00f8m et al. , the cod genes do not comply with the classical definition of high polymorphism within locus. Instead, cod seems to define a new way of providing MHCI variability, not in polymorphism within one or a few genetic loci, but instead using a high number of classical-similar genes with some variability, hereafter defined as polygenic variability. This is not very unlike the emerging picture for MHC class II evolution in some neoteleost fishes [19,59]. Defining classical loci in the remaining teleosts investigated here is problematic in part due to lack of transcript information and in part due to high sequence identity between reported sequences.\nWhen we analyzed the sequences separated into individual alpha 1, alpha 2 and alpha 3 domains, we found that sharing of highly divergent classical type MHCI alpha 1 domain lineages among species is an old teleost trait. There is also ancient variation in alpha 2, but the alpha 1 situation is much more pronounced so in the present paper we have therefore chosen to concentrate on alpha 1. Four of the alpha 1 domain lineages [13,57] date back to before the time a zebrafish ancestor separated from a salmonid\/neoteleost ancestor, i.e. lineages II, III, V and VI (Figures 1 and 2). Two other alpha 1 lineages can be traced even further back to before an eel ancestor branched off from the major teleost lineage which may have occurred about 300 million years ago, i.e. lineages VII and VIII. Two remaining lineages are either found in salmonids only (lineage IV), or shared between salmonids and neoteleosts (lineage I). A suggested ninth lineage defined by the tilapia UAA and UBA genes  here defined as lineage IX, seems in part shared between the neoteleosts tilapia, medaka and platyfish (see Additional file 6: Text S3).\nPhylogeny of selected teleost MHCI U lineage alpha 1 domains. Phylogenetic tree based on handmade alignment (shown in Additional file 6: Text S3) of selected alpha 1 domain amino acid sequences. The tree is made using Neighbor-joining P-distance and pairwise deletions. The tree is drawn to scale, with branch lengths representing the number of amino acid substitutions per site (see scale bar). Bootstrap values in percentage from1000 trials are shown. The various U lineage alpha 1 domain lineages [13,57] are shown as shaded boxes with Roman numbers outside each lineage cluster. Sequence GenBank references are as follows: Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar): UBA*0101 AAN75113, UBA*0201 AF504023, UBA*0701 AAN75109, UBA*0801 AAN75115, UBA*0901 AAN75119, UBA*1001 AAN75118, UBA*1401 AAN75110, UBA*4001 AEW27162, UGA ACX35601. Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss): UBA*101 AF287483, UBA*401 AF287487, UBA*0501 AAG02508, UBA*0901 AAG02512, UBA*4501 AY278451, UBA*4701 AY278449, UBA*4801 AF318188, UBA*4901 AF318190. Brown trout (Salmo trutta): UBA*0101 AF296374, UBA*0701 AF296380, UBA*0801 AF296381, UBA*0901 AAG02528, UBA*1001 AF296383. Sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka, unpublished data): UBA*0101 KM085986, UBA*0201 KM085987, UBA*0310 KM085988 and UBA*0401 KM085989. Medaka (Oryzias latipes): UAA*0202 AB450991, UBA*0201 BAB83850.2. Paddlefish (Polyodon spathula): UBA*01 ACV87421, UBA*03 ACV87423 and sturgeon (Acipencer sinensis) ACV87437 . Human: HLA-A2 AAA76608.2. Stickleback (GA; Gasterosteus aculeatus), tetraodon (TN; Tetraodon nigroviridis), fugu (TR; Takifugu rubripes), cavefish (AM; Astyanax mexicanus) and tilapia (ON20; Oreochromis niloticus) references are shown in Additional file 4: Text S2. Zebrafish (Danio rerio), carp (Cyprinus carpio), catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), cod (GM; Gadus morhua), tilapia lineage III, Wuchang bream (Megalobrama amblycephala), guppy (Poecilia reticulata), snakehead murray (Channa striata), eel (Anguilla japonica) and shark (Squalus acanthias) sequence references are shown in parenthesis in the figure. Alpha 1 domain phylogenies with more teleost sequences in addition to alpha 2 and alpha 3 domain phylogenies can be found in Additional file 6: Text S3.\nInterestingly, as in cod, all stickleback alpha 1 domains form one tight cluster as opposed to several other species where multiple alpha 1 domain lineages are found in common in even distantly related species. Further analysis of alpha 1 domains from cod and stickleback show that these two neoteleost species only have alpha 1 domains from lineage I (\u03b11-I) (Figure 2, see Additional file 6: Text S3b for trees with inclusion of additional stickleback, cod and other neoteleost sequences). Although the bootstrap value supporting this \u03b11-I clade in addition to the \u03b11-III and \u03b11-VIII clades are fairly low (48-60%), they are robust when including various sequences and reproducible between different studies ([13,57] and this study). In the present study we highlight the evolution of the alpha 1 sequences, but other regions of the U lineage molecules in cod and stickleback show a similar species-specific clustering upon phylogenetic analyses (examples in Additional file 6: Texts S3b2 and S3b3), indicative of relatively high turnover rates of the entire MHCI loci.\nThe \u03b11-I lineage is also the predominant MHCI lineage in salmonids, being represented in 38% of the identified alleles and may thus define a lineage with some important evolutionary qualities, possibly in the establishment of new peptide binding groove variation (Additional file 6: Text S3c1). Divergence among salmonid \u03b11-I lineage sequences is fairly high (70-97% identity), as is found among salmonid \u03b11-III and \u03b11-V sequences (67-91% and 65-97% identity, respectively) which are represented in fewer alleles than \u03b11-I. The remaining lineages are less diverse (90-97% identity in the \u03b11-II lineage and 95-97% identity in the \u03b11-VII lineage), and are also fairly well retained in the investigated salmonid species. The big question therefore is, if some lineages like \u03b11-I are superior in creating new binding groove variation, why are lineages such as \u03b11-II and \u03b11-VII, which show far less plasticity and do not appear to be extensively used for creating new alleles, not lost during evolution? In some other fish species such as cod and stickleback they are indeed lost, but why do salmonids and also cyprinids maintain these ancient lineages? A possible answer may be found in the fact that some of the \"variation-poor\" lineages comprise highly unique and, within that lineage, highly conserved residues, which are expected to interact with a peptide ligand (yellow shading in Additional file 6: Text S3a highlights lineage-specific residues, which in the case of lineages \u03b11-II and \u03b11-VII concern putative peptide binding residues). Thus these lineages may provide unique peptide binding properties that uniquely widen the spectrum of pathogen peptides that a species can present. However, for the relatively variation-poor lineage \u03b11-VI such unique peptide binding features are not predicted, and analysis of MHCI evolution in mammals has shown that quite different peptide binding pockets can occur in a set of relatively similar sequences [61,62]. Possibly the highly divergent alpha 1 domains are readily distinguished by different natural killer cell receptor family molecules .\nThe fact that stickleback and cod share an evolutionary mode distinct from other investigated teleosts spurred us to look for more similarities between cod and stickleback. Molecules of one of the defined cod U lineage clades have a putative endosomal sorting motif in their cytoplasmic tail, which was hypothesized to optimize cross-presentation of exogenous peptides by MHCI, thus replacing the class II function . When we analyzed stickleback genes, we found that 11 of 29 stickleback U lineage genes have a seventh exon encoding putative endosomal sorting motifs (Additional file 6: Text S3e-g). Although only one stickleback EST confirmed this exon sequence as an extension of the exon 6 sequence, the exon 7 sequences are highly conserved and without any functional selection one would have expected accumulation of point mutations and sequence divergence over time. In cod, assembly problems for the short reads of many almost identical genomic sequences from the 100 or more MHCI loci prohibit a detailed analysis of exon intron structures, but available evidence suggest a similar gene organization as stickleback based on alternate termination of cod cytoplasmic domains (data not shown and reference ). Although sticklebacks have several expressed MHC class II alpha and beta genes, including polymorphic ones (Table 1 and ), perhaps evolution is leading them down the same path as Atlantic cod, where the class II will eventually disappear alongside a continued expansion of class I genes. However, in mammals it is evident that the segregation into distinct MHC class I and II intracellular peptide loading compartments is not as complete as once thought [22,24], suggesting that the picture may also be more complex in teleosts.\nWe found that all teleosts studied here have at least one expressed Z lineage gene while some have many (Additional file 4: Text S1, Additional file 2: Table S1). For Atlantic salmon we add three Z lineage genes (ssZBAa, ssZCAa, ssZDAa, Additional file 3: Text S2) to the four previously reported . The three new genes reside in the major MHC class IA region on chromosome 27 in a location extending from the region with the previously identified Z lineage gene ssZAAa (Additional file 3: Text S2). This region constitutes a duplicate of the previously identified IB region on chromosome 14 with the ssZBAb, ssZCAb and ssZDAb genes. Five of the salmon Z lineage genes have functional support from gene expression assays while ssZBAa and ssZDAb may be pseudogenes (Additional file 3: Text S2). In zebrafish, Dirscherl et al.  reported ten Z lineage genes with both allelic and haplotype variation. Cavefish, also belonging to the Ostariophysi, has an identical number of bona fide Z lineage genes (Additional file 2: Table S1, Additional file 4: Text S1). In medaka, Nonaka et al.  reported five Z lineage genes while we found that other investigated neoteleosts have from one detected Z lineage gene in cod, stickleback and tetraodon to four bona fide genes in tilapia (Additional file 4: Text S1, Additional file 2: Table S1, Table 1).\nAtlantic salmon have all Z lineage genes within the duplicated MHCI regions IA and IB in between typical MHC region scaffold genes such as TNXB and ATF6 (Additional file 1: Figure S1). Medaka and stickleback also have their Z genes linked to TNXB and ATF6, but here they reside in a region about 13 Mb outside the MHC region on the same chromosome. Two other neoteleosts i.e. platyfish and tilapia, both have their Z lineage genes linked to LHX9, TNXB and ATF6, but possible linkage to the classical MHCI region has not been clarified. Zebrafish also has a 10 Mb region separating classical U lineage genes from some of the typical MHC region scaffold genes RPS18 and VPS52 on Chr.19, but Z lineage genes reside either on Chromosome 1 or 3. We assume that the Z lineage genes originally resided in the extended MHC region, but have been distanced from the major MHC region through a large insertion or translocation in zebrafish and some neoteleosts. This organization of classical vs non-classical genes in medaka and stickleback resembles the situation in chicken and frog where the non-classical Rfp-Y and XNC genes are located far apart on the same chromosome as their classical counterparts, but segregate as unlinked loci [64-66].\nWhen performing sequence alignments and phylogenetic analysis of teleost Z lineage genes, we found one major cluster within the Z lineage, here defined as Z1, containing members from all investigated teleosts (Additional file 7: Text S4). Cavefish and carps [6,32], also contain highly divergent sequences here denoted sub-lineage Z2 and Z3 (Additional file 7: Text S4). The cavefish Z2 group forms an out-group in both the alpha 1 and alpha 2 domain phylogenies while all cavefish Z alpha 3 domain sequences cluster together. This suggests sequence conservation or interlocus recombination driven by interaction with other molecules. Also contrary to most teleost Z1 lineage sequences, the Z2 and Z3 sequences might have lost their ability to bind peptides as most of the conserved peptide anchoring residues are missing. Both the cavefish Z1 and the Z2 groups are expressed as we found one EST supporting expression of the Z2 sequence AM2, while two transcriptomes contained expressed matches also for AM4 (Z2), AM8 (Z1) and AM19 (Z1) (Additional file 4: Text S1, Additional file 2: Table S1, Astyanax mexicanus Surface fish; SRX212200 and Astyanax mexicanus Pachon cavefish; SRX212201). This neo-functionalization may be unique to carps and cavefish where cavefish has its Z2 sub-lineage while the Z3 sub-lineage prevail in goldfish and carp. Why the Z lineage has been chosen for neo-functionalization in these species lines remains to be answered.\nA remarkable feature of Z lineage sequences appeared when studying the alignments in detail. Most teleost Z1 lineage sequences, including in eel, have an almost complete conservation of residues at the 37 positions known to provide the HLA-A2 molecule with its six A through F pockets that collectively comprise the peptide binding groove (Figure 3, Additional file 7: Text S4) [1,3]. These residues are conserved in sequences from the ray-finned fishes spotted gar and sturgeon in addition to one sequence from the lungfish, belonging to the Sarcopterygii. It should be noted, however, that the gar sequence is based on an assembly of possibly unlinked alpha 1 and alpha 2 genomic sequences, and the sturgeon sequence on an assembly of SRA reads of different related species (see Methods section). Thus, although typical sequences were the only sequence fragments found, future experiments will have to ascertain the existence of full-length typical and \/or atypical Z lineage sequences in these primitive ray-finned fishes. Three Z1 lineage sequences from the recently published Amazon molly (Poecilia formosa) genome also comply with this sequence conservation (Additional file 4: Text S1, Additional file 7: Text S4). The majority of variation is seen in the cavefish Z1 lineage sequences where only 79% of the residues in the 37 positions are completely conserved (Additional file 7: Text S4). If disregarding cavefish Z1 sequences, but including the Amazon molly sequences, 99,9% of all residues in the 37 positions are conserved among 31 sequences from eight teleost species. How unusual this is, is shown in Additional file 7: Text S4b, which highlights the differences in conservation of (presumed) peptide binding residues among various categories of vertebrate MHCI sequences. It seems fair to assume that all Z1 molecules bind a highly similar or identical ligand. Exactly which ligand that is remains to be established, but this does suggest an important and highly conserved function for the typical Z molecules in all ray-finned fish and lungfish. We have so far not been able to detect Z lineage sequences in sharks or tetrapods. Whereas for lungfish previous studies only reported a Z sequence , our analysis of the SRA database retrieved a lungfish classical MHCI sequence (Additional file 4: Text S1), underlining the long co-existence of the Z and classical lineages.\nResidue conservation of the Z1 sub-lineage \u03b11 and \u03b12 domains among teleosts. Schematic presentation of the human HLA-A2 peptide binding groove defined by the alpha 1 and alpha 2 domains . The 37 residue positions in HLA-A2 known to contribute to the six A through F pockets [1,3] are enlarged and colored black when completely conserved in the aligned teleost Z1 sub-lineage sequences while grey represents teleost sequence identity of 90-99,7%. Ellipses cover those HLA-A2 residues that, according to our sequence alignment, have few or no matching residues in the aligned teleost sequences. The figure is based on 31 Z1 lineage sequences from Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), zebrafish (Danio rerio), medaka (Oryzias latipes), stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus), tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), tetraodon (Tetraodon nigroviridis), fugu (Takifugu rubripes) and Amazon molly (Poecilia formosa), but excluding the Z1 lineage sequences from cavefish (Astyanax mexicanus). The alignment can be found in Additional file 7: Text S4.\nL lineage genes - a hydrophobic groove?\nThrough phylogenetic analyses we found Atlantic salmon orthologs of the LCA and LDA genes found in trout  in addition to four bona fide salmon genes with no published trout orthologs here denoted LFA, LGA, LHA and LIA (Additional file 3: Text S2). Three regions containing Atlantic salmon L pseudogenes LJA\u03a8, LKA\u03a8 and LLA\/LMA\u03a8 were also identified (Additional file 1: Figure S1). We found matching Genbank ESTs for the three salmon genes LDA, LFA and LGA while a TSA transcript from skin confirmed expression of the fourth salmon gene LCA (GenBank accession JT833250, Additional file 3: Text S2). The salmon LFA and LGA genes are also present in trout as we found matching trout ESTs (GanBank accessions CA372488 and CA356147) while salmon lacks the trout genes LAA, LBA and LEA.\nFive of the salmon regions show syntenies i.e. the LCA-LGA\/LFA regions and the LIA-LKA-LLA\/LMA\/LJA regions. Because the salmon scaffolds and their physical locations are not yet publicly available, we tested the L gene regions against published markers . We found markers placing the salmon LIA region on chromosome 21 (Additional file 3: Text S2) while none of the markers matched the remaining L regions. The salmon MHCI genes UHA1 and UHA2 also reside on chromosome 21, approximately 14,6 cM downstream of the LIA gene according to the female map.\nL lineage genes are also present in zebrafish and tilapia. Zebrafish has 16 L lineage Ensembl genes, and 15 of these were described by Dirscherl et al. . Thirteen of these genes are closely linked on Chr.25, two are closely linked on Chr.8 next to an MHCII alpha gene and the last gene is located on Chr.3 (Additional file 1: Figure S1). DR20 residing on Chr. 25, was not identified in the Dirscherl et al. study and has here been assigned the gene name LPA. Cavefish (Astyanax mexicanus) belonging to the order Characiformes, which like the Cypriniformes (e.g. zebrafish) and Siluriformes (e.g. catfish) are included in the superorder Ostariophysi, has one L lineage pseudogene (AM12) located in a region syntenic to the zebrafish L lineage genes DR17-29 on Chr.25 and another L pseudogene (AM32) located in a region syntenic to a zebrafish region lacking MHCI genes on Chr.15 (Additional file 5: Table S2). The single tilapia L lineage gene is located on scaffold GL831385 and is expressed according to a transcriptome shotgun assembly (TSA) match (GenBank accession GAID01031757.1), but lacks synteny with other L gene regions (Additional file 5: Table S2). Clustering of an L locus and MHC class II on zebrafish Chr. 8 suggests that the L lineage was established in an evolutionary period where the classical class I and class II genes were still linked. Such linkage of classical class I and II presumably exists in gar , and the linkage may have been lost after the whole genome duplication in a teleost ancestor around 350 MYA [19,69,70]. As none of the other teleosts with sequenced genomes discussed in this paper have L lineage genes or gene fragments, this lineage appears to have been lost in the majority of neoteleosts.\nAll the salmon sequences reported here comply with the unusual two exon gene organization reported for most trout L lineage genes  (Additional file 8: Text S5d), while the zebrafish genes display a traditional gene organization. The tilapia ON9 gene has a somewhat intermediate gene organization with three exons of 57, 746 and 286 base pairs respectively. Dijkstra et al.  suggested that the trout genes with unusual exon intron organization could have originated through retro transposition of partially spliced mRNA. This does not concern a very ancient event as for example zebrafish genes and the trout LAA gene have a traditional gene organization. The fact that tilapia only lost the intron between the alpha 1 and 2 domain exons is indicative of multiple events and complicates the explanation. The phylogenetic tree in Additional file 8: Text S5c suggests that a common ancestor with the tilapia type gene may have been the template from which further introns were lost in the salmonid lineage. The L lineage variability distribution resembles U lineage molecules in regard to having the highest similarity in the alpha 3 domain, and more divergence in the alpha 1 and 2 domains (Additional file 8: Text S5b).\nAs noted previously, L lineage molecules do not contain the typical peptide-anchoring residues (Additional file 8: Text S5, Figure 4). This suggests that L lineage molecules most likely have other ligands or no ligands as noted previously . An analysis of sequences from the five teleost MHCI lineages showed that L lineage molecules have the highest hydrophobicity within the two peptide-binding domains (Additional file 8: Text S5e-g) with an average hydrophobicity of -0,352. For comparison, the human HLA-A2 has a hydrophobicity score of -0,902 while the hydrophobicity of human CD1molecules range from -0,056 to -0,448. Although only a three dimensional structure can determine whether L molecules have a groove and whether the observed hydrophobicity maps to this groove, it is tempting to speculate that L lineage molecules may bind (glyco-)lipids or other hydrophobic ligands similar to for example mammalian CD1 molecules.\nSchematic figure of peptide binding groove. Schematic presentation of the human HLA-A2 peptide binding groove defined by the alpha 1 and alpha 2 domains [1,3]. Round red circles indicate HLA-A2 amino acids anchoring peptide N-terminus and cyan circles are residues anchoring peptide C-terminus. Yellow circles show positions of the additional U and P lineage alpha 1 domain cysteines, green circles indicate positions of S lineage cysteines, and brown circles indicate the cysteine pair conserved in most MHC molecules. Orange circle shows the N-linked glycosylation site conserved in most classical MHCI molecules (N86). Ellipses cover those HLA-A2 residues that, according to our sequence alignment, have few or no matching residues in the aligned teleost sequences. The alignment can be found in Additional file 11: Text S8.\nS lineage genes, initially identified by Shum et al.  in salmonids and defined as UAA, were later also found in catfish belonging to Siluriformes and then defined as a separate lineage called S for the species they were identified in . Cavefish broadens this lineage providing six bona fide S lineage genes and one gene fragment (Additional file 4: Text S1, Additional file 9: Text S6). We also found transcribed S lineage sequences in ayu, belonging to the suborder Osmeridae related to salmonids (Figure 1). There is no published catfish genome, but the reported expressed sequences suggest that there are multiple S lineage loci also in this species. There are no syntenies between the two cavefish S regions and regions with MHCI in other teleosts, including the salmon S region (Additional file 5: Table S2, Additional file 1: Figure S1).\nThe cavefish S lineage sequences display two clusters corresponding to genomic locations represented by the sequences AM33 and AM38, suggesting the genes AM33-AM34 and AM38-AM42 were derived from intra-regional duplications. The AM33 vs AM38 duplication is old based on low sequence identity (Additional file 9: Text S6b). The catfish sequences cluster with the AM33\/34 sequences while salmonids and ayu sequences form a separate cluster. Distribution of the S lineage in these species, place its origin back to before the split between the Ostariophysi (including e.g. cavefish and catfish) and Protacanthopterygii\/Neoteleostei (including e.g. salmonids and ayu). Sequence identity is distributed similar to U lineage genes with highest identity in the alpha 3 domain and lowest identity in the alpha 1 domain (Additional file 9: Text S6b).\nHallmarks of MHCI such as the alpha 2 and alpha 3 domain cysteines are conserved in all S lineage sequences, but in addition the sequences have some uncommon cysteines in the alpha 1 domain (Additional file 9: Text S6a). Some have one or two cysteines at position 6-9 (numbering according to HLA-A2) while some have an additional cysteine at position 48. The cavefish AM37-AM41 sequences also have an additional cysteine in their alpha 2 domain at position 100. The positioning of the alpha 1 domain cysteines do not align with the cysteine present in some U lineage sequences such as ON3 (data not shown). Structural importance of the C6 and C9 residues is difficult to imagine, but the C48 residue may be involved in dimer formation as found for HLA-G dimers (Figure 4) .\nAs opposed to other lineages, S lineage sequences have fairly short cytoplasmic domains (Additional file 9: Text S6). Such a short cytoplasmic tail has in the human HLA-G molecule been shown to result in retention in the ER and a much longer half-life at the cell surface . The S lineage seems functional in species such as ayu, catfish and five of the cavefish genes which have matching expressed support (Additional file 4: Text S1, Additional file 2: Table S1). However, the peptide anchoring residues typical for classical MHCI are not conserved in S lineage sequences, suggesting they have non-peptide or no ligands.\nDuring the course of this study we discovered genes belonging to an as yet un-described teleost MHCI lineage, here defined as the P lineage as we first detected it in pufferfishes and it defines the fifth (penta) identified teleost MHC class I lineage. This lineage is present in Atlantic cod, tetraodon, fugu, Atlantic salmon, sablefish, seabass and cavefish (Additional file 4: Text S1, Additional file 1: Figure S1, Additional file 10: Text S7). A vast expansion of this lineage has occurred in fugu displaying 24 genes or gene fragments whereof eight genes contain \u03b11 through \u03b13 domains. Four genes were found in tetraodon, where two contain complete mature ORFs while cod has only one P lineage gene here denoted Cod PAA. For P lineage in striped seabass one TSA transcriptome report was found (GenBank accession GBAA01146398) and for sablefish, we found one P lineage EST report which had a stop codon disrupting the ORF (GenBank accessions GO625557 and GO625558). This stop codon was verified in a TSA transcriptome sequence (GenBank accession JO689867) and may thus define a transcribed pseudogene. Cavefish has one P lineage gene with expressed support (AM5, SRA dataset SRX212201) in addition to a likely pseudogene (AM6). The single P lineage gene in Atlantic salmon is a pseudogene.\nTetraodon and fugu share one P region with partial synteny (Additional file 1: Figure S1, Additional file 5: Table S2). In tetraodon, the genes TN3-TN7 are flanked by the genes CHST12-IL2RB-MPST-ASRGL1-SMCR7L-ATF4B2 on UnR: 6.4 Mb. In fugu, these genes reside on Scf.209 (Chr.5 in the Fugu5 assembly) approx. 250 kb outside of the TR4-TR5 genes, suggestive of a local rearrangement. The Atlantic salmon P pseudogene does not display any regional synteny with the Tetraodontidae regions, but is instead located alongside Immunoglobulin light chain genes on Chromosome 7 (Additional file 3: Text S2, Additional file 1: Figure S1). This link between MHCI and IgL genes is also seen in other teleosts where Medaka has some IgL chain genes linked to the UIA and Z lineage genes on Chr.11 (Additional file 1: Figure S1)  and stickleback has IgL genes linked to its Z lineage gene on Chr.10 . As previously noted, as IgL genes are also linked to some typical MHC region genes in elephant shark , this linkage is probably the remnant of the primordial MHC [75-78].\nThe sequence identity between P lineage sequences and the four other teleost lineages is fairly low ranging from 11-33% in each of the three extracellular domains (Additional file 10: Text S7). The within P lineage sequence identity is 20-99% with cod and cavefish as the species with most divergent sequences. Within fugu the sequence identity is higher within all domains reflecting recent gene duplications (82-100%), but the alpha 2 domain has slightly more variable residues than the alpha 1 domain while the alpha 3 domain is most conserved.\nP lineage molecules have the classical conserved alpha 2 and alpha 3 domains cysteines, but in addition they have two conserved cysteines in the alpha 1 domain (C36, C67; Additional file 10: Text S7). The positioning of these cysteines align with those found in some U lineage sequences (Additional file 6: Text S3) , but not with those found in S lineage sequences (Additional file 9: Text S6). The average distance between cysteines in alpha 2 and alpha 3 domains is 55-60 aa, while alpha 1 cysteines in U and P lineage sequences are only 21-29 aa apart. When aligned or visualized in three dimensions using the human HLA-A2 sequence as reference, these cysteines reside in close physical proximity, at a position where they could form a bond between the beta sheet and the alpha 1 helix and thus influence the flexibility and shape of the ligand binding groove (Figure 4). The second cysteine at position C67 also aligns with the alpha 1 domain cysteine in HLA-B27, and alternatively might be involved in dimerization of the molecule. In humans, the HLA-B27 monomer is recognized by the inhibitory receptors LILRB1, LILRB2 and KIR3DL1, while the dimer molecule is recognized by different receptors . Future studies are needed to clarify the role(s) of teleost alpha 1 domain cysteines.\nAlthough one may question the accuracy of a linear alignment against the HLA-A2 sequence, P sequences do not have the typical peptide-binding residues, and even seem to have a deletion surrounding the otherwise conserved N-terminal anchoring residue Y59 (Additional file 10: Text S7a, Figure 4). These molecules are thus non-classical MHCI molecules potentially binding non-peptide or no ligands. Their expression signatures underline their non-classical nature. In cod, we found one transcript originating from a beard library (GenBank accession GW844691.1, Additional file 4: Text S1) and one match from a brain transcriptome library (Additional file 4: Text S1, SRA dataset SRX148752) while transcriptomes from the immunologically important tissues spleen, hindgut and head kidney in addition to the organs heart, gonad and liver (SRA053026) were all negative. Also tetraodon displayed P lineage expression in the brain (SRA dataset SRX191169) suggesting P genes have a biological role in teleost brain potentially in line with the roles emerging for mammalian classical as well as non-classical MHCI molecules in brain development and function [79-81]. Expression of classical MHCI in developing fish brain was suggested by linkage analysis to be associated with behavior such as level of boldness [82,83], but no studies have yet focused on the function of non-classical MHCI in fish brains. Fugu does not have brain transcriptomes, but displayed P lineage transcription (SRA dataset SRX363279) in gills suggesting the gene may also have other roles.\nAll teleost species studied have both U and Z lineage genes although the number of genes within each of these lineages varies dramatically with 7-45 U lineage genes and 1-18 Z lineage genes. Both U and Z lineages encompass genes which (probably) encode peptide-binding molecules, but only the U lineage contains highly polymorphic classical genes. It seems superfluous to have two lineages with peptide binding abilities, but with the complete conservation of the predicted peptide binding groove in typical Z lineage sequences, a specific conserved and important functional role emerges for this lineage.\nThe only species we found with all five teleost MHCI lineages were Atlantic salmon and cavefish, although the P lineage was only represented by a pseudogene in salmon while the L lineage seems to be dysfunctional in cavefish (Table 1). The S, L, and P lineages are unlikely to bind peptides and are unevenly distributed in the studied teleosts (Table 1). Stickleback and medaka completely lack all these three lineages, fugu and tetraodon lack L and S lineages while zebrafish and tilapia lack S and P lineages. Cavefish has L pseudogenes but an expanded S lineage. So what function do these lineages hold and how can these functions be maintained in species lacking these lineages? A similar picture also emerged when studying teleost MHC class II . The class II DA lineage was present in all studied teleosts with the exception of Gadoids and contained the classical polymorphic MHC class II alpha and beta genes in addition to non-classical genes. The other class II lineages DB and DE lineages only contained non-classical genes and were unevenly distributed amongst teleosts. One would expect genes with vital functions to be present in all species so why are some lineages of seemingly non-vital importance maintained in some teleosts? Could the various MHCI lineages perform identical biological roles despite not sharing sequence characteristics or have various teleost species developed different ways to handle immune responses perhaps uniquely adapted to their different environments and pathological pressures? It is easy to forget that teleosts are a highly diversified branch where individual species such as zebrafish, salmon and various neoteleosts have had considerable time to develop different immune strategies suitable for their various environments.\nPhylogenetic analyses of individual domains showed U lineage sequences to be present in teleosts in addition to the ray-finned fishes spotted gar, sturgeon and paddlefish (Figure 5, Additional file 4: Text S1, Additional file 11: Text S8). The Z lineage appears to be older than the split between ray-finned and lobe-finned fish as Z lineage sequences were found in all teleosts in addition to spotted gar, sturgeon, and lungfish. Z lineage identity of the isolated lungfish sequence was already proposed by Stet et al.  and Dijkstra et al. , but the model is now corroborated by the Z sequences found in primitive ray-finned fish. Hence, it can be concluded that the classical MHCI (in ray-finned fish represented by U) and Z lineages separated more than 430 Mya ago (Figure 1). Although previous studies had already postulated Z lineage identity of the hitherto single lungfish sequence based on phylogenetic tree analysis [37,67], only the finding of Z in primitive ray-finned fish and the analysis of the conserved putative peptide binding groove in the present paper makes this lungfish Z identity a solid observation. This is older than can be solidly concluded for separation from the classical branch for any non-classical lineage found in tetrapods such as for example CD1 (even when studying as CD1\/PROCR lineage), which if judging by presence in extant species (reptiles, birds and mammals) can only be traced to 312 MYA ( and unpublished data).\nPhylogeny of alpha 1 domain sequences from all five MHCI lineages. Phylogenetic tree of selected alpha 1 domain amino acid sequences from the five defined lineages. The tree is base on hand-made alignment shown in Additional file 11: Text S8a and rooted using the human, shark and chimaera sequences. The tree is drawn to scale, with branch lengths representing the number of amino acid substitutions per site (see scale bar). Bootstrap values in percentage based on 1000 trials are shown on each node. GenBank sequence references not found in Additional file 4: Text S1 or Additional file 3: Text S2 are as follows: [S lineage] ayu (Plecoglossus altivelis) is JP747954, catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) is JT320438; [P lineage] seabass (Morone saxatilis) is GBAA01146398; [Z lineage] carp (Cyprinus carpio) ZB1 is L10420, lungfish (Protopterus aethiopicus) is AAF15304.1; [U lineage] zebrafish (Danio rerio) UBA is AAH74095.1, medaka (Oryzias latipes) UAA is AB450991and UBA is BAB83850.2, salmon (Salmo salar) UBA is AAN75116.1, paddlefish (Polyodon spatula) UBA*01 is ACV87421 and UBA*03 is ACV87423 while sturgeon (Acipencer sinensis) is ACV87437. The remaining sequence references are: spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias) is AAN77874, elephant shark (Callorhinchus milii) is AFM85876.1, human (Homo sapiens) HLA-G is EAX03236.1, HLA-A2 is AAA76608.2, and HLA-B27 is CAA83876.1. The five lineages are shown on the right of each colored box. Alternative locus designations and the atypical Z lineage definitions Z2 and Z3 are shown in parenthesis behind the sequence names.\nSpotted gar is as far back as we were able to trace the L lineage and potentially also the P lineage although the bootstrap value is low and the LO4 sequence lacks an alpha 3 domain potentially obscuring a definite lineage definition (Figure 5, Additional file 11: Text S8). S lineage sequences could be traced to a common ancestor of Ostariophysi and Protacanthopterygii, but were not found beyond these teleost superorders. Probably lineages L, P, and S originated from duplications of genes of the older U and\/or Z lineages. But it is currently impossible to reconstruct from which of the two lineages they originated. From the unclear evolutionary scenario at deeper ray-finned fish levels it also follows that at these deep levels in some instances our working definitions of U, Z, P, S and L, which are based on phylogenetic tree analysis, may not correctly represent genuinely separate lineages. More sequence information from primitive ray-finned fish would be needed to properly determine the origins of the highly divergent L, P and S lineages.\nOur study of the teleost MHCI revealed five highly distinct MHCI lineages where only the lineages U and Z include molecules with predicted peptide binding residues and are present in all studied species. The remaining lineages S, L and P are found in some, but not in other species promoting questions as to their functional relevance. In most teleost fish species the U lineage appears represented by both classical as well as non-classical genes, but two very different modes of evolution can be observed. U lineage sequences in teleost species like for example medaka, zebrafish and salmon are characterized by multiple highly divergent alpha 1 sequences representing ancient domain lineages, and these can be shuffled onto variable alpha 2 plus downstream sequences to increase U allelic variation; in these fishes only one or few highly expressed classical type genes are found. On the other hand, in Atlantic cod and stickleback, all of the many detected U lineage genes were derived from a multitude of relatively recent duplications of genes having alpha1-I lineage sequences and older diversifications appear to have been lost; at least cod has a rather large number of expressed classical type sequences, and we suggest to describe this model of classical MHCI as \"polygenic\". Whereas most tetrapod and fish species have classical MHCI and related nonclassical MHCI (in teleost fish classical and nonclassical U lineage members), all teleost fish seem to have typical Z and only a few teleost fish species groups seem to have atypical Z. Thus, in regard to the ligand binding characteristics, the Z lineage is hardly used for generation of derived nonclassical\/ atypical molecules as opposed to the U lineage. Typical Z molecules appear to have the most ancient peptide binding groove conserved until today, because, from before ray-finned fishes and lungfish separated, they almost completely preserved their 37 residues that match the peptide binding residues of human HLA-A2. In summary, instead of understanding MHCI evolution within teleosts as \"classical MHCI plus varying distribution of nonclassical MHCI\" as known for tetrapods, we should understand teleost MHCI evolution as \"classical U, plus typical Z, plus varying distribution of nonclassical\/ atypical MHCI\". Besides clarification of the MHCI situations at the single species level, future research will have to elucidate the reason for this fundamental difference between the animal classes.\nA mixture of annotated and un-annotated MHCI sequences were identified using Ensembl's Biomart and the GO\/IPR term for class I (GO: 0042613\/ IPR001039) supplemented with various blastN and TblastN searches of Ensembl and NCBI databases using evolutionary diverged as well as species-specific sequences. It should be noted that the analysed genomic databases from cavefish (Astyanax mexicanus, AstMex102), zebrafish (Danio rerio ZV9), medaka (Oryzias latipes, Medaka1), platyfish (Xiphophorus maculatus, Xipmac4.4.2), tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus, Orenil 1.0), stickleback (Gasterosteus aculatus, BROAD S1), fugu (Takifugu rubripes, Fugu4.0) and tetraodon (Tetraodon nigroviridis, Tetraodon8.0), Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar, AGKD00000000.3), Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua, NCBI GadMor_May2010) and spotted gar (Lepisosteus oculatus, Ensembl LepOcu1) each represent one or a limited number of animals so more genes or other alleles may exist in other haplotypes\/ animals. Potential genomic assembly errors would also influence our analyses. For Atlantic salmon, we supplemented the 12 known Atlantic salmon MHCI genes  with blastN and TblastN searches using preliminary salmon genome sequences available at either cGRASP  or NCBI . Open reading frames were predicted using GenScan , Fgenesh  and Augustus  and\/or by aligning with expressed sequences using Spidey . Some smaller pseudogene remnants that did not contribute to evolutionary understanding were neglected. Expressed match was either identified through TblastN search against EST resources using MHCI alpha 3 domains or when this approach was negative expressed match was sought using the entire coding sequence in GenBank nucleotide (cDNA) and subsequently available TSA\/SRA resources. The transcriptome (TSA\/SRA) accession numbers used are as follows: tetraodon (Brain: SRX191169), fugu (Testis: SRX363280, gills: SRX363279, liver: SRX362038, various organs: SRX189142, SRX188889 and SRX188888), Atlantic cod (eggs: SRX148753, brain: SRX148752, head kidney: SRX148751, liver: SRX148750, hind gut: SRX148749, gonad: SRX148748, spleen: SRX148740), stickleback (brain: SRX146601), cavefish (surface fish: SRX212200, Pachon cavefish: SRX212201) and African lungfish SRX152529. The Z lineage sequence identified in spotted gar (Lepisosteus oculatus) derive from individual brain transcriptome reads (SRX543528) assembled using the CAP3  program. The sturgeon Z lineage alpha 1 domain sequence is assembled from near identical genomic reads primarily from the sturgeon species Acipenser persicus (SRA dataset ERX145719; ERR169830.1125422.1) with a 14 bp gap filled using a Acipenser baerii sequence (SRA dataset ERX145721; ERR169832.3958173.2). The sturgeon alpha 2 domain sequence is assembled from the near identical sequences primarily from Acipenser persicus (SRA dataset ERX145719; ERR169830.5438448.1, ERR169830.5438448.2, and ERR169830.5083693.2), with a 10 bp gap filled using a Acipenser gueldenstaedtii sequence (SRA dataset ERX145720 sequence ERR169831.3185933.1). Three dimensional structures were aligned against the HLA-A2 structure using the Swiss PDB-viewer [92,93].\nAll alignments of MHCI amino acid sequences were performed using ClustalX for initial analyses  and later manually curated based on structural aspects and alignment with tetrapod sequences. The phylogenetic trees were inferred using the Neighbor-Joining method  with bootstrap testing according to Felsenstein . The evolutionary distances were computed using the p-distance method . Evolutionary analyses were conducted in MEGA5 .\nThe Atlantic salmon genomic scaffold sequences were deposited in the DRYAD repository [99,100] with the following identifier: doi:10.5061\/dryad.928fj.\nThis work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 22580213 (JMD) and NSERC (Natural Sciences and Engineering Council) (BK and JL).\nAdditional file 1: Figure S1. Ray-finned fish MHCI regions.\nAdditional file 2: Table S1. MHCI gene ID, genomic location and EST match.\nAdditional file 3: Text S1. Additional Atlantic salmon data.\nAdditional file 4: Text S2. MHCI amino acid sequences.\nAdditional file 5: Table S2. Regional syntenies in selected MHCI regions.\nAdditional file 6: Text S3. Additional U lineage data.\nAdditional file 7: Text S4. Additional Z lineage data.\nAdditional file 8: Text S5. Additional L lineage data.\nAdditional file 9: Text S6. Additional S lineage data.\nAdditional file 10: Text S7. Additional P lineage data.\nAdditional file 11: Text S8. Comparison of all lineages.\nUG, JMD, KT, TA, JL and BFK performed experiments and analysis. UG wrote the paper, with assistance of JMD. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\nZheng L, Guo X, He B, Sun L, Peng Y, Dong S, Liu T, Jiang S, Ramachandran S, Liu C, et al. Genome data from sweet and grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor). GigaScience 2011: http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.5524\/100012.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"10.25.10 POTD, originally uploaded by Sarah (SarahDanyelle).\nAt home sick in bed. This was the only picture I took all day and it was with my phone. The good thing about being home sick is that I got to watch the enitre first season of Eureka on Netflix. I started watching around season three so it was nice to know where some of the plot line came from.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Stitch is a free app for the iPhone (with paid upgrades for more features) for the iPhone that allows users to easily create digital stories from their phone. Users can use available templates and effects to create their story. Images can be added by what is saved on phones locally or through a Google Search within the App. To use the app to create a presentation does not require an Internet signal. When users are finished creating their presentation it is converted to an MP4 file and can be shared with anyone. To understand how Stitch works, check out the video below.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbfiwu b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbfiwu
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+{"text":"If your computer seems to run really slow and appears to have a mind of its own, then chances are you've somehow installed RapidAntiVirus on your computer. This type of malicious software includes anything from a virus, a Trojan, a worm or any other spyware that is looking to infiltrate your computer. As we become more dependent on our computers and technology becomes more mature, we'll start to see more of this malicious software. But luckily ZookaWare PC Cleaner is available to help!\nIf you look up RapidAntiVirus on rapidantivirus.com the website makes it seem like a very legitimate product. However the lack of correct grammar on the website is a major alert that this website may be fraudulent. In addition, the hackers affiliated with RapidAntiVirus have promoted and reviewed this product because of their personal investment in it.\nUnfortunately you don't even have to have manually installed it for it to be on your computer. Thanks to Trojans, RapidAntiVirus can be automatically installed in the background without you ever knowing about it. You'll know that RapidAntiVirus is installed on your computer when you notice very slow system performance or weird things going on with your Internet Explorer. Other symptoms are that your computer just randomly shuts down for no apparent reason. Also, you may notice that your internet connection is not longer stable and seems to drop in and out sporadically.\nCheck to see if you have this software installed by looking in your Task Manager. If you do, ensure you remove it completely. With this specific application just disabling it doesn't do much, you must completely remove it from your computer.\nZookaWare PC Cleaner is known for their quality product and guarantee to remove applications like RapidAntiVirus. It will also remove spyware, adware, keyloggers, Trojans, worms, malware, hijackers along with any other unwanted application on your computer. They've come a long way from the first version of their software, which had some stability issues. Now, it's a lightweight application (5.19MB on install) and it's fast with a quick scan taking about 3 minutes and a full scan taking about 15 minutes. The best part is that it doesn't sit heavy on your CPU while scanning your computer. During tests done by a third party, ZookaWare PC Cleaner found most of the virus samples put on the computer and found no viruses on a clean computer, proving it doesn't warn about any nonexistent viruses.\nZookaWare PC Cleaner also gives the option of SpyGuard which helps to protect your Internet Explorer browsing. This allows you to choose which applications can and cannot be installed on your computer. In a nutshell, for $29.95 you get a lot of bang for your buck. It's a great product and very competitive to the others available. One of the best aspects of ZookaWare PC Cleaner is that if they don't find the specific application that has invaded your computer then their best programmers will work on it all day. Within 24 hours, you will get an update that will guarantee the remove of the application.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Mr. B.P. Inani is a merit-holder Chartered Accountant, and a Fellow member of ICAI with 25+ yrs of organizational experience. Having worked with Ernst & Young and Eicher Motors, he co-founded Swan business in 1999. The firm has since grown from strength-to-strength, becoming the most significant player in financial advisory in Central India.\nHe has negotiated and concluded many Equity deals - both domestic and international. His ability to quickly comprehend the underlying fundamentals of a business and figuring out the best course of action has made him a personal advisor to many industrial groups.\nMr. Inani is also a part of the Executive Committee of IMA, and currently serves as its Treasurer.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"(1) Complimentary or reduced-cost alcoholic beverages may not be served to persons playing a slot machine. Alcoholic beverages served to persons playing a slot machine shall cost at least the same amount as alcoholic beverages served to the general public at a bar within the facility.\n(2) A slot machine licensee may not make any loan, provide credit, or advance cash in order to enable a person to play a slot machine. This subsection shall not prohibit automated ticket redemption machines that dispense cash resulting from the redemption of tickets from being located in the designated slot machine gaming area of the slot machine licensee.\n(3) A slot machine licensee may not allow any automated teller machine or similar device designed to provide credit or dispense cash to be located within the designated slot machine gaming areas of a facility of a slot machine licensee.\n(4)(a) A slot machine licensee may not accept or cash any check from any person within the designated slot machine gaming areas of a facility of a slot machine licensee.\n(b) Except as provided in paragraph (c) for employees of the facility, a slot machine licensee or operator shall not accept or cash for any person within the property of the facility any government-issued check, third-party check, or payroll check made payable to an individual.\n2. A pari-mutuel facility in this state or in another state.\n(d) Unless accepting or cashing a check is prohibited by this subsection, nothing shall prohibit a slot machine licensee or operator from accepting and depositing in its accounts checks received in the normal course of business.\n(5) A slot machine, or the computer operating system linking the slot machine, may be linked by any means to any other slot machine or computer operating system within the facility of a slot machine licensee. A progressive system may not be used in conjunction with slot machines between licensed facilities.\n(6) A slot machine located within a licensed facility shall accept only tickets or paper currency or an electronic payment system for wagering and return or deliver payouts to the player in the form of tickets that may be exchanged for cash, merchandise, or other items of value. The use of coins, credit or debit cards, tokens, or similar objects is specifically prohibited. However, an electronic credit system may be used for receiving wagers and making payouts.\nHistory.--s. 1, ch. 2005-362; s. 10, ch. 2007-252.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Shani Jayanti is the birthday of Lord Shani or Sani. Shani bhagwanis one of the Navagrahas (Nine primary celestial deities). Shani Jayanti or Saneeshwara Jayanti observed on Amavasya (No Moon day) in Vaishakha masam (Vaishakha Amavasya). In 2012, Shani Jayanthi falls on May 20, Sunday.\nIn Hinduism, Sani is the deity of Shanivar. Shani bhagwan is also called as Shaneeswaran, Sani dev, Sanischara bhagwan or Chaya Putra.\nAs Shani Dosham (bad effects from Lord Shanis position in ones birth chart) is considered as an important feature in ones future aspects, Shani Puja is an auspicious ritual for Hindu astrology believers.\nThose who have Sade sathi (a long period of bad effects from Lord Shani) in their horoscope, observe Shani Yagna or Shani homa on Shani Jayanti day. People believe that Shani worship on Shani Jayanthi day pacifies Sani (happens Sani Shanti).\nOn the day of Sani Jayanti, devotees perform Lord Ganesha Puja (Ganapati Puja), Lord Hanuman Puja, Lord Venkateshwara (Balaji) Puja to pacify Shani. It is believed that the devotees of Lord Hanuman are free from the Shanis bad effects on their lives.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"It's important that pay day is consistent, on time and correct as when errors occur it can cause major problems both for staff and for your business.\nmanage your tax year end processing including the production of P60's and P11D's for your staff.\nSince April 2013, HMRC has introduced a new way of reporting PAYE: Real Time Information (RTI) which means that there are significant changes to the way things are done. Essentially, you now need to make monthly payroll returns to HMRC rather than annually. We have the software which can automate this for you so why not let us take care of it for you?\nIf you would like more advice on this, please contact us to see how we can help.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbftgp b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbftgp
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..fe93cc470ece153cf83bb1b77e4715d58705bc85
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+++ b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbftgp
@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"Former headmaster and world renowned educational consultant, Graham Powell certainly had an unusual way about him on the Staff Day as he turned the Music Performance Area into a classroom and the teaching staff into pupils for a day in order to challenge their perceptions of teaching and focus instead on building the habits of effective learners \u2013 beyond dependency.\nIn recent years, Graham has established a widespread reputation for his work on coaching and the ways in which this essential leadership quality can radically improve schools at all levels. He challenged the academic staff to be less concerned with teaching and to focus more on encouraging learning, with an emphasis on the habits that students should have by the time they leave Clongowes.\nAsking whether our lessons were more like table tennis or basketball (is the conversation back and forth between teacher and pupil or passed around the room?) Graham deconstructed the methodology in the classroom and reassembled it using Sylvia Plath's poem 'Mushrooms' as a case study. He urged the importance of planning before jumping in as well as changing the teacher from being the sage on the stage to the guide on the side.\nRambling, quirky, idiosyncratic \u2013 mischievous betimes \u2013 Graham was all of this and more as he tried to jolt us out of our certainties, reassess our approaches to teaching and secure our understanding of what it means to build independent learners, who will be equipped for the challenges within the curriculum and beyond.\n. Graham exposed us to the practices of teaching for effective learning and visible thinking routines that lead to the development of the teacher as learning coach.\nEducation is the silver bullet. The Jesuits quickly became known as the educators of Europe and their legacy lives well in schools like Clongowes \u2013 the first work, worldwide of the restored Society of Jesus in 1814. For a school that has always been changing with \u2013 and sometimes before \u2013 the times (witness our far-sighted co-operative learning centre and the use that students make of the state of the art James Joyce Library) this was a timely lesson in classroom methodology.\nWe are grateful to Graham for the challenges he brought to us, and the wit and wisdom that accompanied his presentation. Some of the changes he espouses are already in train in Clongowes and more will follow as we continue to strive to do justice to the visions of St Ignatius for the Jesuit mission, and of Fr Peter Kenney for the school he founded. Visions that will stand to us in the straitened times we live in and the challenges, which lie ahead.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"I ran an Instagram poll last week about people's preferred format of favorites posts, and it seems that blog posts won out! So that's what we're doing.\nI've known, since last summer, that I wanted to come back to DC after graduation. I actually didn't apply to any jobs that weren't based in DC, that's how passionate I was about ending up here. There's something about this city in particular that I love \u2013 it just feels lively and smart (even if not all the people in the government are, haha). I'm just so happy to be back.\nWhen I first moved into my apartment \u2013 I'm not even joking \u2013 the only real piece of furniture I had was a massive mirror. Even my bed was missing a piece of hardware and couldn't be put together yet, so the massive mirror was the only thing I had to work with. Luckily, I've got the rest of my apartment put together now, but my mega-mirror is still one of my favorite features of the room (and it's great for my Insta game).\nI live for comfy-cute style, and I'm currently really digging the trend of t-shirts with a cute little knot in the front. It's just enough to make a t-shirt and jean shorts the tiniest bit more interesting.\nI've had my Longchamp for over two years, so it's not like I just discovered this product. More accurately, it's that I've discovered just how useful this bag is. I take the Metro to and from work every day, which requires a little bit of walking. And it's been super rainy in DC lately, to the point that an umbrella is only somewhat useful. So my Longchamp has basically saved my life (and my iPad\/bullet journal) on multiple occasions.\nOh my goodness this movie was so good. From the way the two storylines are connected to the one time Meryl shows up (and 100% makes you bawl your eyes out), this entire movie is 10\/10. Would highly recommend it if you're looking for something cute and fluffy to boost your mood.\nAnd that's all for July! I also discovered, as I was writing this post, that this officially marks a full year of favorites posts (because WordPress got mad at me for attempting to name this post \"July Favorites\"). So that's exciting.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"The nominees are in and your favorite artists from your favorite label have made the ballot!\nTech N9ne and \u00a1MURSDAY! have the shared honor of being nominees for this year's Best Of The Booth Awards from our friends at DJBooth.net.\nEvery year DJBooth puts together the nominees for \"the best and most notable music of the year.\" Props to DJBooth because unlike The Grammys, they actually have their ear to independent hip hop.\nTech N9ne and \u00a1MAYDAY! x MURS both earned nominations for Best Hip-Hop Song \u2013 Indie for \"Fragile\" and \"Here\" respectively, while \u00a1MAYDAY! x MURS done messed around and also earned a nomination for Best Hip-Hop Album \u2013 Indie with \u00a1MURSDAY!.\nA respected underground veteran (MURS) links up with the most successful indie label in the game (Strange Music) and one of hip-hop's most talented live ensembles (\u00a1MAYDAY!). The result is a colorful and wild, yet well-constructed album that makes for one hell of a listen.\nRittz also earned (somewhat of) a nominee by being on RyattFienix's song \"Suicide\", which was nominated for Best R&B\/Pop Song \u2013 Indie.\nWhat do you think of the nominees in each category?","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"SHANGHAI (Scrap Register): The return of the China, the world's largest gold-consuming nation, from Lunar New Year holidays provided little price direction for gold during Asian hours, said MKS (Switzerland) S.A.\n\"An initial bid tone on the Shanghai open was soon reversed, driven by a leg higher to USD\/China, while the on-shore premium held underneath $8 for the majority of the session, considerably lower than what we were seeing leading into the New Year break ($10-$12 previously),\" MKS noted.\n\"The firmer dollar brought about a test toward $1,310 during the lunch break; however, resting bids and a tempering of dollar strength in afternoon trade kept price action buoyant into European hours,\" MKS added.\nPrices later softened further. MKS looks for support around $1,305 to $1,310 an ounce to provide a suitable base for a move higher once again. Resistance was put at $1,320 to $1,325.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"David's award winning illustrations and fine art transport you to worlds that exist only in the imagination.\nA collection of David's finest work, both fantasy and science fiction.\nA personal introduction to the inspiration behind David's art.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
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--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"Technical, construction and engineering expertise located in Rochari, Chora.\nDecorate your garden with flowers and plants from the Garden of Mykonos. Turf is also available for sale, for either garden or larger scale use.\nLocated in the Davias area, the Technical Company specializes in planning developments, consulting and construction.\nTechnical Office offering planning and construction expertise, building permits and studies.\nOffering a selection of specialized electrical and mechanical equipment and wiring.\nDimitri Mantikas is an acclaimed architect with 25 years of design and consulting experience. He has designed several homes and luxury properties in Mykonos.\nEstablished in Mykonos in 1993, SPS builds, equips and conserves pools all over Greece.\nSxedio is an architectural practice located in the Chora of Mykonos, offering interior and exterior design services.\nOffers interior design consulting, architectural consulting, lighting solutions and plaster construction.\nArchitectural practice offering design and construction consulting.\nGarden landscaping, maintenance and planting services.\nProperty development and engineering studies, located in the Chora.\nInstallation of photovoltaics, sale of electrical products and various engineering machinery.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"We have 10 repair shops in our New Lenox listings. You can browse by tags at the right or see them all by clicking here.\nHungry? Visit Foodry for restaurants in New Lenox, IL.\nWe don't have reviews yet for any restaurants in New Lenox. You can be the first reviewer if you review one now!","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Recolight publishes advice on classification of lighting equipment as B2B or B2C under the WEEE regulations.\nThe Government has updated its guidance on how lighting industry Producers should decide if products are classified as Household (B2C), or Non-Household (B2B). Recolight has published advice on how to comply with the changed requirements.\nPreviously, the approach to classification as B2B or B2C was largely based upon the route to market \u2013 broadly speaking, sales through retailers were B2C, and other channels were B2B. That has now changed. Instead, Producers in the lighting industry should now use the nature of the product as the basis for the decision. In essence, products that are designed solely for businesses should be classified as B2B. Those that are designed for consumers or for both businesses and consumers should be classified as B2C.\nThe BIS guidance gives specific examples to show how the approach should be applied for each of the different categories of equipment. It is for each Producer in the lighting industry to make their own assessment of their products. Guidance on lamps and luminaires inevitably diverges: lamps are more generic and interchangeable than luminaires.\nAll emergency luminaires should be classified as B2B.\nAll incandescent lamps remain out of scope of the WEEE regulations.\nThe BIS guidance covers all products declared from 1 January 2015.\nThe Government has confirmed that classifying dual use products as household for the purposes of the WEEE regulations does not mean that those products necessarily need to comply with the energy labelling regulations. The scope and applicability of the energy labelling regulations is not influenced by classification decisions under the WEEE regulations.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Many individuals need to wind up singers, yet to be a decent female vocalist takes something beyond ability. A decent singer has enthusiasm, ready to compose and comprehend music, and has discipline. She should be proficient about singing and does not underestimate the things she should do to accomplish her fantasies. She is not kidding about singing and her group of onlookers feels her energy when she performs. Her crowd can feel her energy when she performs and is moved by her melody. A decent female vocalist realizes that to have the capacity to influence her group of onlookers, her ability must be supported up with a decent arrangement of characteristics and propensities.\nA decent female vocalist should likewise have the capacity to create her own material. She should have a decent comprehension of music. She comprehends what a decent tune is made out of and thinks about the correct notes, mood and tones. She likewise has her very own decent comprehension voice. She knows her range and has her own singing systems. These days, there is a considerable measure of schools for music that a man inspired by getting a profession in singing can select in. They show not how to sing admirably. These schools likewise show composing and creating your very own music. A decent \u062c\u064a\u062c\u064a \u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f can sing great, however she should likewise have the capacity to keep in touch with her own melodies. Having her own material and systems can make her not quite the same as the rest.\nAnother quality of a decent female vocalist is she should be enthusiastic about singing and has envisioned about singing as a vocation. She is keen on singing not on account of the notoriety or fortune that runs with it. A decent female vocalist realizes that she needs to work to have the capacity to accomplish her fantasies. A decent female singer knows her classification and isn't influenced by patterns or what is prominent to make sure she can be well known. She sings from her heart and individuals can feel her enthusiasm at the same time. She doesn't trade off her very own material for cash. She finds a path for her very own melodies to be heard. A vital normal for a decent female vocalist is discipline. She takes great consideration of her body and does not do things that can trade off her voice. A singer's voice is her most valuable instrument. A decent singer realizes that it is extremely delicate and should be dealt with. She puts resources into taking consideration of her voice as well as of her entire body also. Eating well nourishment, evading liquor and caffeine, and getting a decent night's rest are the propensities for a decent singer. She additionally keeps an activity routine so she won't tire effectively when performing. She doesn't pressure her vocal harmonies and keeps a taught propensity for vocalizing when required.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Rich fish like salmon, or earthy foods like risotto with mushrooms and roast chicken with polenta.\nEstate Vineyard (100%), Fauquier Co., on top of the Blue Ridge at an elevation of 1,350 feet on a south and east slope. Deep, well drained, volcanic origin, greenstone based soils. Vine age is between 10 and 15 years.\nDry and cool summer and fall. Harvest dates were September 23 & 24, 1997.\nLinden's first reserve wine after 11 vintages; a selection of 7 barrels from a total of 60. 100% barrel fermented in French oak from small Burgundian coopers. Partial malolactic fermentation. Aged on the lees in the barrel for 10 months. Bottled August 20, 1998. Our chardonnays age wonderfully for many years. Release date: late 1999. 168 cases produced.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbhtab b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbhtab
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"Probably the most common question I get when I release a new exercise program is, \"Help! I'm gaining weight! Am I doing something wrong?\" This is a common phenomenon with any new exercise program, such as Turbo Kick, Turbo Jam, Hip Hop Hustle, or others! It's especially common (and temporary) with intense strength training programs like ChaLEAN Extreme or Tony Horton's P90X.\nThe motivation to start a new exercise program is almost always to lose weight. However, what most personal trainers know--and most at-home exercisers do not--is that a new exercise program often can cause an immediate (and temporary) increase on the scale. (Notice I didn't say weight gain! I'll explain.) This common increase in the scale is also the reason why perhaps millions of people start and then quickly quit their resolution to get fit.\nWhen someone starts a new exercise program, they often experience muscle soreness. The more intense and \"unfamiliar\" the program, the more intense the muscle soreness. This soreness is most prevalent 24 to 48 hours after each workout. In the first few weeks of a new program, soreness is the body trying to \"protect and defend\" the effected or targeted tissue. Exercise physiologists refer to this as delayed-onset muscle soreness, or DOMS.\nThis type of soreness is thought to be caused by tissue breakdown or microscopic tears in muscle tissue. When this happens, the body protects the tissue. The muscle becomes inflamed and slightly swollen due to fluid retention. This temporary retention of fluid can result in a 3- to 4-pound weight gain within a few weeks of a new program. Keep in mind that muscle soreness is not necessarily a reflection of how hard you worked. In fact, some people feel no signs of muscle soreness, yet will experience the muscle protection mechanisms of water retention and slight swelling.\nMost people are motivated enough to put up with this temporary muscle soreness. Yet, many, especially those who really need immediate weight loss to keep them motivated, become discouraged and quit!\nWhen I worked with a group of 70 test participants during the development stages of ChaLEAN Extreme, this happened. Who was the most upset and discouraged? You guessed it... the women! I'm happy to report absolutely for every single woman (and man) in our group, the weight increase was temporary and never lasted more than two weeks before they started to see a major drop in the scale. However, these people had the advantage of working with someone who was able to explain to them why this was happening and assure them the weight would come off if they stuck to the nutrition plan and stayed true to the program.\nIf you follow a multi-phase exercise plan, such as ChaLEAN Extreme, keep in mind that when you start each phase, your body will be \"in shock\" again. Don't be surprised or discouraged if you experience a temporary gain on the scale the first week of each phase.\nMy own personal example of this is running 10Ks. I don't do it very often, maybe once or twice a year. Even though I run on a regular basis, when you run a race, you push much harder. It's natural for me to be insanely sore the next day. It's also very common for me to see the scale jump 4 pounds the next day from forcing fluids post race and the resulting DOMS. Even though I know the cause of it, it's still a bummer. We're all human and hard work should mean results. Hard work equals results, but our bodies are amazing machines and they know how to protect us from hurting ourselves. Soreness forces you to give those muscles a break. Ultimately you will lose the weight and you will change your metabolism in the process.\nThe key is understanding that this is a normal and temporary and stick with the program!\nOMG thank you Patty - I am hoping this is me !!! I recently increased my running intensity and do not like what the scales are saying. this makes sense. My legs are sore to different degrees every day. I am running at least 10 km every time I run.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"An award winning, high performance highway marking rejuvenation system.\nQMS HyperLine\u2122 the UK's No1 Solvent Free Acrylic highway marking rejuvenation system - award winning, innovative, high performance, cost saving and environmentally friendly. Suitable for Edge Lines, Centre Lines, Hatching & Chevrons. This pioneering technique has been revolutionising road markings throughout the United Kingdom since 2006.\nQMS HyperLine\u2122 is a combination of a cold, spray applied Solvent Free Acrylic Resin and two sizes of Recycled Glass Beads, producing a road marking that is environmentally sustainable with high levels of performance and productivity.\nTraffic Management is greatly reduced as the outputs can be as much as 275% greater than conventional line marking systems. This together with over a 200% increase in performance and very low Co2 emissions, QMS HyperLine\u2122 is an environmentally sustainable, high performance road marking system.\nWith high emphasis on environmental sustainability, we have calculated the Co2 emissions of our QMS HyperLine\u2122 system achieving a staggering 80% saving on Co2 emissions compared to sprayed Thermoplastic Markings.\nIn the six months following the installation of QMS HyperLine\u2122 on the M3 Motorway, where 247,000 metres was installed over a 17-night period, serious road traffic incidents were significantly reduced and there were no fatalities along the same section of the Motorway, thus providing 100% saving in fatalities and 54% saving in serious incidents.\nDue to the way our material is manufactured and the high speed of application, QMS HyperLine\u2122 can provide up to 80% total cost saving.\nQMS HyperLine\u2122 - Highway markings that do not cost the Earth!","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"1. Use paperclips to keep pieces of leather held together. You cannot use pins because it will leave holes in the fabric and can damage it, but paper clips are the perfect solution.\n2. Fill a pincushion with steel wool. When you put your needles in it, not only will they stay in place so you know where to find them, but it will also help sharpen your needles!\n3. Use hairspray to get the tip of your thread to stay straight.\n4. To mark fabric, and have a nice measuring tool, use Washi tape! It's \u00bc\" wide so it's great to help you measure seams and meet lots of your sewing needs.\n6. When you are sewing on buttons or embellishments, make sure you have your hair straightener handy! You can use it to press the fabric in between each button.\n7. Use washers as pattern weights.\n8. If you are trying to create gathers in your fabric, use the cheating method which is also known as the corded zigzag method. All you need to do is sew a large zigzag stitch over a piece or yarn and then use the yard to create a gathered look in your fabric. It's so easy to do! Then you can use a straight stitch to sew your gathers in place and, voila!\n9. Use rubber bands around the base of your sewing machine to make a seam allowance guide.\n10. When you are trying to sew over lumpy fabric that is difficult to work with, put a plastic bag over the top of your fabric. You should be able to glide right over it and it will be so much easier to sew.\n11. This easy DIY project for fabric weights will make your life so much easier when you are trying to pin your fabrics. You can make it out of washers and a hot glue gun, and you will definitely be glad that you did!\n12. Use cardstock to create your own hemline tool. It will help you iron straight hemlines and folds perfectly every time you use it! How genius is that?\n13. Add magnets to the bottom of a bowl to keep your pins and needles in place.\n14. Foam toe separators used for pedicures can actually come in use in the sewing room too! You can keep your filled bobbins stored in the slots where your toes go and they will be really easy to find (and all in one place) when you need them.\n15. To create your own sew-on-the-go case, store some needles, pins, and threads into a mini matchbox.\n16. Don't you hate when the threads unravel after you sew a button into place? Well, your problem can be solved with clear nail polish! Just cover the button with a coat of clear nail polish after you sew it and it will help to hold it in place longer.\n17. Tie a long string (long enough to make a long necklace) through the handles of your scissors. You can wear them around your neck so you always know where your scissors are.\n18. Put a rubber band around your sewing machine paddle so that your foot won't slip when you are using it.\n19. It's important to keep your scissors sharp, and it can make a huge difference for your sewing projects. To easily sharpen your sewing scissors, use them to cut foil. This hack is quick, easy, and really helpful!\n20. To make sure your measurements are correct, attach a tape measure to the end of your table.\n21. When quilting it's always nice to have an extra set of hands, but sometimes we don't always have that luxury. If nobody is around to help you, you can use binder clips in their place! They will hold your binding in place while you quilt and are also good for making a quilt sandwich.\n22. To make sure you don't go too far, you can slide a pin across the end of a buttonhole before you ripe the stitches.\n23. If you are making a quilt, find some of your old blankets you can use. They are great for batting that you can put inside your quilt!\n24. When you have dull straight pins that are difficult to work with, try putting them in a piece of bar soap and then they will go through your fabric a lot easier.\n25. When you need a seam allowance, all you have to do is rubber band two pencils together! They will be about 8 mm apart and should work well.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"For a very long time, traditional reliability analyses were orientated in the direction of picking out the extra trustworthy process and preoccupied with maximising the reliability of engineering platforms. at the foundation of counterexamples even though, we exhibit that deciding upon the extra trustworthy method doesn't inevitably suggest identifying the process with the smaller losses from mess ups!\nThis quantity is a suite of articles offered on the Workshop for Nonlinear research held in Jo\u00e3o Pessoa, Brazil, in September 2012. The impression of Bernhard Ruf, to whom this quantity is devoted at the get together of his sixtieth birthday, is perceptible during the assortment through the alternative of subject matters and methods.\nCrust \u2022 + .... him Structure M463+WH 1\"1f01-24 Figure 2-7. Cctnt'igurati(_r_I'(tr analyzing a vertical jut impinging \u00a2_na horiz(mtal surl'acc. R-564 2 2-2() Review \u00a2_t'Previ\u00a2_us Rest'Itch xec\u00a2mdctmdiihmwas l'\u00a2_r sirtmgjetl\u00a2_rccs, where turbulenl mixingand mass trlmsl'er effects ill the impactsurfaceledI\u00a2_c\u00a2mvecthm-c\u00a2mtr\u00a2_IIed heattransfer. c\u00a2mtr\u00a2illed heattransl_'r because_I'therelatively h_wconductivity \u00a2_f lhcnu_Iten ceramicm_llurial (c\u00a2_rium),el thehighthermalCalmcity \u00a2_I\" thelargevesselhead.\nHowever, this effect is offset when temperatures in the debris bed reach melting hecause there is more space available l'c)r melt relocation in a higher porosity debris bed. Likewise, the competing effects o1\"effective conductivity and flow resistance during melt relocation made analysis results less sensitive to particle size assumptions. A stratified debris compc)sition substantially increased the failure tirncs over the uniff)rmly mixed bed times reported above. 2 EPRI Analysis EPRI's IDCOR Prognim sponsored a creep rupture analysis ()1'a PWR I()wer head with no) penetrations.\nTlc_wtrver, \u00a2)hscrw_tic)ns \u00a2)1'the m;_cr_)sC_)l)ictrend in vessel wall rcspc_nsc t_ such he_tul_ tends tt_ indicate that a much simpler, analytic mt_del c_l\"structural c_pacity may he p_ssiblc. This simpler mt>dcl wc>uld then allt_w simultancc_us evaluatitm c_l\"glc_l_al t'_=ilurcwith the lut_e penctr;=ti_n I';lilurc mechanisms discussed prcvit_usly. Tying the evalu;_tic_n c_l\"these l'ailurc mechanisms t_gcthcr in simple _lnalytic s_lutit_ns _lfcrs an cvalu_ti\u00a2_n \u00a2_1\" the failure sequence and the tlevclc_pment t_t\"e==silyur_tlcrstt_d tailur\u00a2 maps.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Classic Mode is now a permanent game type.\nYou can vote on the next Ranked game mode.\nA $350 Nathan Drake statue is available to pre-order through the PlayStation Gear Store.\nClassic Mode returns to the Beta Test Playlist.\nKing of the Hill comes to the Beta Test Playlist.\nShould be longer than Left Behind.\nCan you reach wave 50?\nThe previous update, 1.16 on November 9, also fixed some issues.\nAll bundles are now 70% off, Ranked Season 3 starts.\nTriple Pack owners can now grab Multiplayer Pack 2.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbhvua b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbhvua
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..435989a516e57fd9ccac35748e635b8b21661d82
--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"We are pleased to announce that Foundry Venture Capital 2016, L.P. has completed its initial investment in Taunt as part of a $1.75 million financing. Based in Seattle, Taunt is a social competition platform for eSports fans. Fans communicate and compete to show off their game knowledge, earning bragging rights in the community. The really cool part: it's all in real-time, so you can see stats and call events as they're unfolding live.\nTaunt is the latest spin-out from Pioneer Square Labs. Ben Gilbert and the gang at PSL have been taking different stabs internally at the esports market since the moment they started two years ago. With Taunt, we believe that they have discovered a unique angle and a really fun approach.\nThere are a number of similarities to the original thesis behind our investment in Zynga in 2007 \u2013 building game mechanics around social interactions online with a virtual goods business model on top. Since it's 2017, Taunt is also based on a lot of data and machine learning under the hood to power the experience.\nIf you don't know much about esports, the stats on this market are staggering: the estimated 2017 audience will reach 385 million, and 43 million people tuned in last year to watch the League of Legends Finals. Over 20% of Americans now engage in fantasy sports. It serves as the social fabric that gives people a reason to follow and care about games. There is an enormous opportunity for such a gamified social fabric in esports, and Taunt is building just that.\nWe think Seattle is an awesome place to build Taunt. The city is a powerhouse of endemic PC gaming know-how with Valve, Amazon, and Microsoft. Seattle also has hugely successful mobile gaming companies (DoubleDown, Big Fish, PopCap, and Z2) and is rich in gaming talent.\nWe are excited to be joining the team. They're launching an early alpha product to get feedback from the esports community for the League of Legends World Championship. If that sort of thing is your fancy, you can sign up to take part here.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"In the wake of rising prices and unstable supply besides environmental issues, renewed attention has been paid to shifting away from the use of petroleum based fuels. The world's energy demand is commencing its dependency on alternative fuels. Such alternative fuels in use today consist of bio-alcohols (such as ethanol), biomass, and natural oil\/fat-derived fuels. In search for new energy sources, much attention is focused on biodiesel as a reliable and renewable resource that is to satisfy a significant part of the energy demands. The oil extracted from the dried seeds of Ricinus communis was used in the production of biodiesel under the condition of 3:1 methanol\/oil molar ratio for 1hour at 65\u00b0C. The biodiesel produced was subjected to physiochemical analysis. The methyl esters produced were found to meet the ASTM standards for biodiesel. The results obtained from analysis of biodiesel from Ricinus communis include free fatty acid: 0.312%; acid value: 0.628mgKOH\/g; specific gravity: 0.8937; kinematic velocity: 7.435Cst; refractive index: 1.6254; flash point: 155\u00b0C; fire point: 132\u00b0C; water content: 3.24%. Thus, the values obtained met with the ASTM standard making the sample a promising potential for biodiesel production. From the result of this work, the oil extracted from the Ricinus communis seed is a potential feedstock for the production of quality biodiesel since almost all the fuel characteristics met the ASTM standards for biodiesel.\nSeema, R. and Bhandari, M. (2017), Comparison of Methods of Production of Biodiesel from Jatropha Curcas. Journal of Biofuels. 8 (2): 58-80.\nPradeep, U. G., Balan, K. N., and Bapu, B. R. R. (2017). International Conference on ideas, Impact and Innovation in Mechanical Engineering, 5 (6): 1057-1062.\nVaccaro L. (2017). Biofuels and green chemistry - a common journey ahead. Biofuel Research Journal. 713-714. DOI: 10.18331\/BRJ2017.4.4.2.\nYadessa, G. K., and Jorge, M. M. (2017). Oil extraction from plant seeds for biodiesel production. AIMS Energy Journal, 5 (2): 316-340.\nAisha, A. J., Abdulaziz, A., Muataz, K., Zaiton, A. M. (2017). Transesterification of croton megalocarpus oil to biodiesel over WO3 supported on silica. The chemical Engineering Journal, 316 (1); 882-892.\nHabibullah, M., Masjuki, H. H., Kalam, M. A., Ashrafur R. S. M., Mofijur, M., Mobarak, H. M., and Ashraful, A. M. (2015). Potential of biodiesel as a renewable energy source in Bangladesh. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 50 (1): 819-834.\nHumphrey, I., Nsikan, I. O., and Michael A., Chendo, C. (2015). Comparative Studies on Some Edible Oils for Biodiesel Production in Nigeria. British Biotechnology Journal, 5 (2): 72-83.\nASTM international (2016), standard test methods for biodiesel (B 100) analysis. Annual book of standards, D 6571. ASTM international west Conshohocken, pp. 734-738.\nAlemayehu, G., Tewodros, G., and Abile, T. (2015). A Review on Biodiesel Production as Alternative Fuel. Journal of forest products & industries, 4 (2): 80-85.\nEze, S. O. (2012). Physico-chemical properties of oil from some selected underutilized oil seeds available for biodiesel preparation. African Journal of Biotechnology, 11 (42): 10003-10007.\nMehdi, A. and Hamid, R. K. (2011), Characterization and trans-esterification Iranian bitter almond oil for biodiesel production, Applied Energy, 88 (7): 23 - 77.\nNational standard for biodiesel, (2016), Setting National fuel quality standards, Department of environment and heritage, Australia. p 25.\nNezehat B., Miray K., Oylum S., Ertan A. and Nebahat D. (2009), investigation of the fuel properties of biodiesel produced over an alumina based solid catalyst, Turkey journal chem.., 33: 433-442.\nOghenejoboh K. M. and Umukoro P. O. (2011), Comparative analysis of fuel characteristics of biodiesel produced from selected oil bearing seeds in Nigeria, European Journal of Scientific Research, 58 (2): 238-246.\nParthiban, K. T., et al., (2011), physicochemical characterization of seed oil from jatrophacurcasgenetic resources, Journal of Ecological and NaturalEnvironment. 3 (5): 163-167.\nAnitha, A. and Dawn, S. S. (2010), Performance characteristics of biodiesel produced from waste groundnut oil using supported heteropolyacids, internal journal of chemical engineering and applications, 1 (3), 261-265.\nRachimoellah H. M., Dyah A. R., Ali Z. and Wayan I. S. (2009), production of biodiesel through transesterification of avocado seed oil using base catalyst, Journal TeknikMesin, 11 (2):85.\nReynolds E. R., Gary H., Robert L. M., Allen K., Albert M. H. and Carlton J. (2017), changes in diesel, Transportation Fuels Consulting Inc. Milford, pp. 21-25.\nShannon D. S., James M. W., Parag S. S., Claudia W, Marlen A. V. and Glen R. M. (2009), Feedstock and biodiesel characteristics Report, Renewable energy group Inc., 416 S. Avenue, pp. 11-88.\nSingh, R. K., and Pahdi, K. S. (2009), Characterization of jatropha oil for the production of biodiesel, Natural Product Rediance. 8: 127-132.\nSingh, S. P., and Singh, D. (2010), Biodiesel production through the use of different sources and characterization of oils and their esters as the substitute of biodiesel: A review: Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 14: 200- 216.\nSivaramakrishnan, K., and Ravikumar, P. (2012), Determination of cetane number of biodiesel and its influence on physical properties, ARPN Journal of Engineeringand Applied Sciences. 7: 205-211.\nVan G. J., Shanks B., Pruszko R., Clements D. and Knothe G. (2004), Biodiesel production technology, National Renewability Energy Laboratory, 1617 Cole Boulevard, Golden, Colorado. pp. 1-41.\nXiaohu F., Xi W. and Feng C. (2011), Biodiesel production from crude cotton seed oil: An optimization process using response surface Methodology, The Open Fuels and Energy Science Journal, 4: 1-8.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"I've mentioned on another post my love for the holiday season. I love that time of year. I'm excited now because many nail polish companies are starting to release their holidays colors. I'm pretty picky when it comes to holiday nail colors. I think it's because you can only have so many reds and greens glitters\/shimmers\/cremes. I usually go for the colors that are little more unique. That's why I purchased Orly Rockin' Rocket!\nRockin' Rocket is a burgundy-berry with golden shimmer. It's more of a luxurious and rich color than your standard Christmas red. It reminds me of those elegant Christmas trees some people have or that you see in fancy hotels with the rich red ribbons and the golden ornaments. I have no complaints on the formula or application of these. I haven't had issues with Orly polishes. I think not only is it fitting for the holidays but it would be a great fall and winter color too!\nOk, now I'm ready for Christmas!\nThat is an excellent christmas time lacquer. And it looks awesome on you. Bring on the cold freaking weather!\nWow!!! You have totally made me rethink this color! At first I thought it would be drab, but it's gorgeous!!!\nI got this one, too, but haven't tried it yet. Looks very nice on you!\nthis is a magical color... I feel a sally's beauty supply haul coming soon!!!\nThanks for putting my giveaway in your list! good luck!!!\nThis is a gorgeous color and it really compliments your skin.\nLacquer-Thanks! I'm so ready for a chill in the air!\nPailette-It's definitely not drab. I wasn't too sure about when I got it until I swatched it. It's definitely a pretty one!\nKatrina-I know I probably shouldn't wish Christmas too soon for the people in retail I know how insane the holidays are!\ni don't buy alot of reds, but i will be buying this one!\nExtremely pretty, what a special color!","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"The 4-star River Lee Hotel in Cork enjoys an enviable position on the banks of the River Lee, within walking distance of the medieval streets, shops, museums and attractions of the city centre. The hotel boasts a bistro, a bar and a leisure centre with an impressive array of facilities including an indoor swimming pool, jacuzzi, sauna, steam room and a fully equipped gym. The River Lee Hotel is also home to the Urban Escape Day Spa which offers a range of treatments and therapies (payable locally). The hotel rooms are all air conditioned and feature a telephone, flat screen television and a mini entertainment system.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Connect your monitor to the Mac Mini and turn the computer on. Wait for the Mac Mini to boot up and adjust its display settings to accommodate your monitor. Wait for the Mac Mini to boot up and adjust its display settings to accommodate your monitor.... I meant, First turn off your Mac (shut down) and connect it to the external monitor . Turn it on and immediately shut the lid and it should recognize the external monitor as main display.\nConnect your monitor to the Mac Mini and turn the computer on. Wait for the Mac Mini to boot up and adjust its display settings to accommodate your monitor. Wait for the Mac Mini to boot up and adjust its display settings to accommodate your monitor.... It depends on which version of the Mac Mini you have. According to this Apple Support KB article, older Mac Minis can connect with a normal DVI port, which you can buy a DVI-VGA adapter for.\n17\/01\/2015\ufffd\ufffd That should work. Which Viewsonic Monitor? Do you see the monitor in the System Preferences > Displays? How about checking Menu Item \"About This Mac > More Information > System Report\" Look under \"Hardware,\" see what it says under Graphcs\/Displays, and also under Thunderbolt.... 17\/01\/2015\ufffd\ufffd That should work. Which Viewsonic Monitor? Do you see the monitor in the System Preferences > Displays? How about checking Menu Item \"About This Mac > More Information > System Report\" Look under \"Hardware,\" see what it says under Graphcs\/Displays, and also under Thunderbolt.\nIt depends on which version of the Mac Mini you have. According to this Apple Support KB article, older Mac Minis can connect with a normal DVI port, which you can buy a DVI-VGA adapter for.\nConnect your monitor to the Mac Mini and turn the computer on. Wait for the Mac Mini to boot up and adjust its display settings to accommodate your monitor. Wait for the Mac Mini to boot up and adjust its display settings to accommodate your monitor.\nI have a new MacPro with retinal display and have a 19 inch flat screen monitor. What would be the least costly and easiest way to connect them for viewing.\n26\/10\/2014\ufffd\ufffd I have a perfectly good LCD monitor that has a VGA connector on its input cable. I'm currently using it with an old iMac G4 (Gumdrop) via a mini-display to VGA adapter cable.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbiikz b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbiikz
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+{"text":"MetalRockNews: Adam Lambert about replace Freddie Mercury: \"I accepted the responsibility\"\nAdam Lambert about replace Freddie Mercury: \"I accepted the responsibility\"\n\"American Idol\" finalist Adam Lambert recently talked with Radio.com about Queen and and his role in the band. You can read some excerpts below.\nLambert said: \"It's interesting, though, because I've heard people say, 'Oh, you're the new lead singer for Queen.' And it's, like, well, essentially, yeah. But it's not a permanent position, I don't look at it as. It was billed as Queen + Adam Lambert, 'cause I feel like it's a collaboration; it's a live collaboration. It's something that we decided to do for three months and... I guess over the course of five months... and we had a great time together. And the audiences ate it up, which was great. And we sold out, which was great. But it's a collaboration.\"\nHe continued: \"The first time we went around and did this in Eastern Europe and the three shows we did in London, they went over well and we did them, but I don't think I was totally comfortable with the idea. I think I was still, really, in my head, kind of, intimidated by the whole concept of singing lead for this amazing band. The second time around, this world tour we just did, something had shifted. And I don't really know why or how, but something had shifted and I felt a lot more... I accepted the responsibility at that point, and it was more a I-can-do-this attitude than I ever had with it. So... confidence makes a big difference.\"","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"It is feasible that the primary title of the record Gaucher Disease is not the name you anticipated.\nGaucher illness is an uncommon, acquired metabolic problem in which shortage of the enzyme glucocerebrosidase results in the buildup of hazardous amounts of specific fats (lipids), especially the glycolipid glucocerebroside, throughout the physical body particularly within the bone spleen, marrow and also liver. Usual symptoms of Gaucher illness consist of an unusually bigger liver and\/or spleen (hepatosplenomegaly), reduced degrees of distributing red blood cells (anemia), reduced degrees of platelets(thrombocytopenia), and also skeletal problems. All 3 kinds of Gaucher illness are acquired as autosomal recessive characteristics.\nGaucher illness is classified as a lysosomal storage space condition (LSD). In Gaucher illness particular sugar (sugar) consisting of fat, recognized as glycolipids, uncommonly gather in the physical body since of the absence of the enzyme, glucocerebrosidase. Gaucher illness is the 2nd most usual kind of lysosomal storage space condition.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"In the watchOS 5.1.1 update, there's a nasty Apple Watch email bug that's affecting a limited number of users. For those affected, it's not possible to find or read emails through the wearable device. Email Notifications go missing on Apple Watch. No doubt, Apple will fix this problem with a future watchOS update. Until then, there's a workaround you can use to resolve the issue.\nA small number of Apple Watch users see the message \"No Mail Account. Setup a new account on your iPhone\" when accessing the Email app. Users are unable to access any email notifications on the Apple Watch.\nBefore starting the workaround shown below to bring emails back to Apple Watch, try these two possible solutions first.\nFirst, go into the Watch app on your iPhone under My Watch. Tap General > Background App Refresh.\nToggle Background App Refresh to the Off position, then turn it back On.\nRestart your Apple Watch, by pressing and holding the side button until you see the Power Off slider. Drag the slight from left to right.\nOnce the watch turns off, press and hold the side button again until you see the Apple logo.\nOnce Apple Watch reboots, see if your emails have returned.\nYou can also consider restarting both your iPhone and Apple Watch at the same time. After both devices reboot, see if emails once again work on Apple Watch.\nBefore the introduction of a watchOS update that squashes this annoy bug, use the following workaround for resolution. This fix creates a custom notification for emails.\nOn your iPhone, you must first unpair your Apple Watch.\nIn the Settings app, tap Mail > Notifications and make sure the Allow Notifications toggle is in the On position.\nTap your email account. Turn on all three alert styles, including Lock Screen, Notification Center, and Banners.\nTap Sounds and under Vibrations, select one option from the list of standard vibrations, such as Accent, Heartbeat, or Quick.\nRe-pair your Apple Watch and restore from backup.\nIn the Apple Watch app under the My Watch tab, tap iPhone. Make sure Mirror my iPhone is selected at the very top of the screen.\nPush the Digital Crown and tap on the Settings app.\nUnder Sounds & Haptics, make sure the Haptic Alerts toggle is On and select Prominent.\nThis workaround should resolve the email issue on your Apple Watch until an official bug fix is released.\nIf you'd like to ditch the official Email app for Apple Watch (and iPhone), there are two third-party solutions worth considering: AirMail and Microsoft Outlook. Both solutions have been available for Apple Watch since right after the wearable device first launched in 2015.\nAn Apple Design Award Winner, Airmail remains one of the most popular third-party email apps for Apple device owners. The iOS app supports 3D Touch, fast document previewing, high-quality PDF creation, and more. There's also snooze, interactive push notifications, and much more. Airmail also offers iCloud sync, which allows you to match your email experience across multiple Apple devices. There's also an Airmail Apple Watch complication.\nAirMail works with Google, iCloud, Exchange, Yahoo, Outlook, AOL, IMAP, and POP3 emails.\nMicrosoft's email application has long been a popular choice for iPhone owners. The Apple Watch version of the app offers your inboxes and upcoming calendar appointments. You can also respond to an email with ease using voice dictation or with a canned response. For your wrist, you can delete or archive emails, flag them as important, and much more. Like the Airmail app, Microsoft Outlook for Apple Watch includes complications.\nOutlook works with various email systems, including Hotmail, Exchange, Outlook. Gmail, Yahoo, iCloud, and more.\nHopefully one of these solutions will fix your email problem on Apple Watch. Let us know below which solution you used to get your emails again.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"58mythic belt for sale 23%speed. Also Toxic set (Int) and Maridos.\nSell or trade Ollerus vanity. Buy balanced judicator power(pvp awake).\nSelling hammerjaw egg and more!\nSell tree set or trade to cryohammer vanity or redarlor warr.\nSell or trade tree set .. .\nSelling materials for craft cryostar weapon vanity!!\nTrade my frank set +gold to. yeti set.\nBuying Vili's Garb or set!\n100% Gold Loot drag staff!!!\nSell Pvp Rogue Items 46-50!!\nSell immortal aegis 11% armor 1%crit full superb fury in market.\nSelling Op 5.5% all stats immo aegis!\nSelling mishi egg, avarice belt and more!","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Join this unique tour of the once elegant Bond Street NOHO neighborhood, former home to some of New York's most famous families including the Astors, Vanderbilts, Delanos and Schermerhorns. You'll learn how the neighborhood from the Bowery to Washington Square evolved into an enclave of the very rich and often vary famous, as well as the fringes of New York's 19th-century underbelly.\nYour expert guide Carl will lead you along 19th-century cobblestone streets and introduce you to characters in this real-life drama, such as John Jacob Astor, Washington Irving, Charles Dickens, Edgar Allan Poe, Mrs. Astor, and Edith Wharton.\nOur tour will pass by such New York landmarks as the famous Colonnade Row, the Public Theater (once New York's first public library), and Cooper Union, site of impassioned political speeches from Lincoln to Obama. You'll be able to imagine the drama of events that unfolded on today's bustling Astor Place including the Opera House riot of 1847, one of the bloodiest in American history.\nWe'll visit the site of the notorious 1857 Bond St. murder of Harvey Burdell, which remains one of New York's still unsolved murder mysteries, and you'll hear true stories of the literary as well as the libertine residents of this incredible neighborhood.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbjhyw b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbjhyw
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..c6f41b3a348e8a9e841f6ac8d1f9dae0212d3d3d
--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"There is no shortage of novelties with the new Sony Xperia XZ when compared not only to the now-defunct Z portfolio, but also to its direct predecessor, the Xperia X Performance.\nWhile both sport Snapdragon 820, 3 GB RAM and 23 MP cameras, the similarities end under the hood, and the Xperia XZ is quite a standout beast in Sony's Android universe.\nWhat new and exciting options does it bring to the table? Check out all of those that are fit to print in the slideshow below.\nInstead of glass or glorified plastic with metallic finish, the back of Xperia XZ is made from high purity ALKALEIDO metal, \"adding depth, shine and brightness to the finish.\" It feels smooth and well-engineered, and is not necessarily as cold and rough as the metal on most phones out there, but rather has a slightly warmer, glossier aspect to it. For what it's worth, this new exterior \u2014 which also happens to be IP68 rated \u2014 feels different and new.\nThe curved glass and rounded edges have an endless \"loop surface\" design, says Sony, and they all look pretty in the new Forest Blue color, as well as the black and platinum editions.\nSony finally gave up, just as Samsung did, and futureproofed its Android line with a USB-C port at the bottom of the Xperia XZ - you won't have to look which way the cable goes now.\nThe red-green-blue-clear (RGBC)-IR sensor of the camera aims for measuring accurate white balance, whether you're in bright sun or indoors. It analyses and adapts to any light, reproducing colors the way you see them.\nIn day time Sony's combined phase-detection tech dubbed Predictive Hybrid AF can forecast movements to keep your subject in focus, and capture without blur. This same task is relegated to the new Laser AF, which can measure the distance to the object, and deliver sharp images in challenging light conditions.\nBorrowed from Sony's Handycam line, the new SteadyShot technology in the XZ has seen quite the improvement over its previous iterations. This is no optical stabilization (OIS), but Sony has rather enhances its software stabilization, and now compensates for movement in 5 axis, including shift and shake. Sony gave an impressive demo showing how footage is stabilized from both close and afar, with much less jitter. Avoiding optical stabilization also comes with some advantages, as utilizing OIS only results in videos that have a noticeably wobbly effect around their edges, plus light sources often get overexposed as the phones with OIS choose longer shutter times on average.\nDon't laugh - the Xperia X Performance doesn't do 4K, despite being equipped with Snapdragon 820 as well. The new XZ, however, can shoot in glorious 4K, though the new 5-axis SteadyShot stabilization would only work during 1080p footage sessions.\nXperia XZ sports an updated stereo dual microphone and speaker system with integrated noise cancellation to ensure more immersive 3D stereo sound quality and reduced background noise. Naturally, the phone also supports Hi-Res audio capability with DSEE-HX, LDAC, and automatic headset compensation support.\nThe Xperia XZ gives shutter speed controls and manual focus or exposure adjustments to all the able and willing creative shutterbug out there.\nNaturally, the Xperia XZ ships with the Qnovo adaptive charging, which keeps battery healthy by not overcharging the phone needlessly, and thus makes the lifespan of the sealed juicer last up to twice as long as on its predecessors, so that the XZ could serve you long time without battery noticeable battery life degradation.\neven Sony's ads is boring.\nThen why HTC's and Sony's sale are way lower than Samsung's?\nSamsung was one of the first players in Android world & people get used to use a Samsung ........ my first Android Smartphone was Samsung \"Galaxy Mini\". like the old Nokia story ..... it is not easy to change how ppl think about something .... the story now in many countries is iPhone vs Samsung ....but I think that going to change soon.\nFinally something worth replacing my Sony Z5 Premium. My only real complaints with the Z5 Premium are camera stability and video recording quality. Sony seems to have addressed both. I am not sure about USB-c though. I know it supposedly has better transfer speed but since my relatively new 4K laptop does not have USB-C will I even get it. If only XZ had 5.5 inch or larger screen it would be a lock.\nWell good news for you. If your laptop as USB 3.0 port you will be able to use the speed increase given by USB Type C.\nI wish they would get some ground to create some competition. Sony was once the most advanced gadget manufacturer.\nLove both the XZ and the X Compact, it is unique.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"printed for J. Buckland, J. Beecroft, John Rivington. J. Ware, R. Baldwin, W. Johnston, J. Keith, J. Richardson, P. Davey and B. Law, S. Crowder, and Co.\nThe agent printed for J. Buckland, J. Beecroft, John Rivington. J. Ware, R. Baldwin, W. Johnston, J. Keith, J. Richardson, P. Davey and B. Law, S. Crowder, and Co. represents an entity (e.g. person, organization, etc.) associated with resources found in University of Manitoba Libraries.\nThe Resource printed for J. Buckland, J. Beecroft, John Rivington. J. Ware, R. Baldwin, W. Johnston, J. Keith, J. Richardson, P. Davey and B. Law, S. Crowder, and Co.\n1 Items by the Agent printed for J. Buckland, J. Beecroft, John Rivington. J. Ware, R. Baldwin, W. Johnston, J. Keith, J. Richardson, P. Davey and B. Law, S. Crowder, and Co.\nContext of printed for J. Buckland, J. Beecroft, John Rivington. J. Ware, R. Baldwin, W. Johnston, J. Keith, J. Richardson, P. Davey and B. Law, S. Crowder, and Co.\nData Citation of the Agent printed for J. Buckland, J. Beecroft, John Rivington. J. Ware, R. Baldwin, W. Johnston, J. Keith, J. Richardson, P. Davey and B. Law, S. Crowder, and Co.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"This past Friday I was down in San Diego touring the city with architect Aaron Anderson of Studio Anderson.\n\"We thought design was this incredible discovery as a field, and yet no one was making it interesting.\nIt's not surprising that Japanese architect Kengo Kuma's first public commission in the U.S. is unmistakably Japanese.\nThis 600-square-foot retreat, designed for an Austin couple, is located deep within a 30,000-acre ranch in West Texas.\nThe always popular Dwell Home Tour series will explore Portland for the first time this summer.\nPerched on top of a sculpted steel skyscraper, this sumptuous, 3,771-square-foot residence will run you $45,000 a month.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"The online Teaching Assistant Level 3 Course from Oplex Careers has been designed to help learners understand the skills involved working as a Teaching Assistant.\nThe online Teaching Assistant course will provide learners with an insight into how to effectively work in the classroom environment. Whether it is primary, secondary or an SEN school setting, this teaching assistant course covers all the important aspects that need to be learnt. Whether you are currently working in a role an want to gain knowledge or you just want to add this course on your CV, you can get started instantly and start learning all the important aspects about teaching assistance.\nTo assess the learners ability and knowledge to effectively understand the topics contained within the Teaching Assistant course, the course features a number of end of module interactive quiz questions.\nOn successful completion of this Teaching Assistant course learners will receive a CPD Certificate of Achievement award from Oplex Careers.\nThis course is delivered online through eLearning. Learners of the course will receive instant access to our interactive student learning portal, which offers 24\/7 access to the Teaching Assistant course.\nThe online Teaching Assistant course requires 80 hours to complete the course in full. This is only a guide to the learning hours required and it depends on how quickly an individual can absorb the information. The learning is online so it can be spread out over multiple sessions or done in one session.\nAs part of the Teaching Assistant course you will receive access to our dedicated tutor support service. The academic tutors will be able to provide you with unlimited online email support to help answer any questions that you may have whilst you are studying the course.\nOur Teaching Assistant course is fully compatible with PC's, Mac's, Laptop, Tablet and Smartphone devices.\nWe know that more and more people are using the web whilst they are on the move, so we have designed this Teaching Assistant course to be fully compatible across tablet and smartphone devices. You will be able to access the same content from the course, just over a 3G or 4G network whilst on the move.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Opt for this convenient refill when it's time to top up your Figuier Hourglass Diffuser. Composed of the same woody, green scent, reminiscent of the fig tree.\nKeep your home fragrance diffusion alive with this refill of Diptyque's distinctive Figuier scent. Recalling the aroma of a warmed fig tree in the sun, this refill slowly and evenly imparts a comforting woody, green scent through the innovative diffusion system.\nI-026863\tFiguier Hourglass Diffuser Refill Diptyque Opt for this convenient refill when it's time to top up your Figuier Hourglass Diffuser. Composed of the same woody, green scent, reminiscent of the fig tree.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbjijc b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbjijc
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..795ce62daed52980ac0c7939c37f4e2f3836b172
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbjijc
@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"Big Print is a business that deals with large format printing. The client has consulted our creative team to design logo for their company to elevate their business. During our interaction with the client they clearly expressed their views and ideas. To fulfill customer needs our creative team designed four sample logos. From four various logo designs the client was inspired with the one that shown below. To craft the impressive logo, we had a brainstorming session. As a result of the session we decided to use the first letter of the word \"Big\" in the logo. To express the business related with large format printing an eye was incorporated in the letter \"B\". We were delighted with the final outcome of the logo.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"This weekend we upgraded Matchbook to the latest version which includes a few new features, some fixes and a change to the underlying framework.\\r\\n\\r\\nWe've introduced \\\"engagements\\\" which is how you can record meetings and tasks. We'll shortly be adding metrics which will allow you to see how many calls and emails it took to win a meeting.\\r\\n\\r\\nThe settings page has been broken up into logical tabs to hopefully make it more intuitive.\\r\\n\\r\\nThere's also a new facility on the settings page which allows you to upgrade your account and make payments through Google Checkout. This is going to allow us to list the application in the Google Marketplace and allow people to sign up and automatically create an account using their Google login.\\r\\n\\r\\nUnder settings there is also the transaction history which shows your history of payments.\\r\\n\\r\\nBehind the scenes has been quite a major structural change where we are now running the latest version of the Ruby on Rails framework. We have tried to test the whole application thoroughly but if you find any bugs please let us know.\\r\\n\\r\\nThese changes are part of the ongoing work we're doing to polish the application and make it available to a wider audience and expand our user base. There's plenty more to come in the near future!","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"City leaders plan to instill the same training required of Aspen alcohol servers for those who sell legal marijuana.\nThose servers, known as \"budtenders\" in the world-of-weed vernacular, pay $75 to the state for a \"support employee\" license, and the state's Marijuana Enforcement Division has a responsible vending program that is offered to budtenders. That program is not, however, mandatory, according to Linda Manning, Aspen's city clerk.\nSpeaking at a work session Tuesday between members of Aspen City Council and the Local Licensing Authority, the body charged with reviewing and approving license permit applications for both alcohol and marijuana, Manning said the Valley Marijuana Council is calling for budtenders to undergo the same training received by Aspen bartenders and servers.\n\"One of the things the VMC (Valley Marijuana Council) would like to do is to make that training mandatory,\" said Manning.\nThe VMC \u2014 a community organization with an emphasis on cannabis safety, awareness and education \u2014 has been crafting a vendor training program that's ready for implementation, according to Manning.\nThe training would be similar to the city's TIPS program, an alcohol-awareness program that is required every three years for at least 75 percent of servers of liquor at Aspen bars and restaurants.\nLiquor licenses are contingent on bars and restaurants meeting that requirement. Under the proposal, the city also would require 75 percent of those selling pot from medical and retail cannabis dispensaries to be trained within 30 days of winning license approval from the LLA.\nLLA member Phil Golden also suggested budtenders and bartenders get on the same page when it comes to over-serving a patron or compromising public safety.\nThe combination of the two could put people in harm's way, he said.\nThere are 93 liquor licenses within city limits and 11 marijuana licenses, which comprise eight for retail and three for medical, according to Manning.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"We are looking to recruit Riggers \/ Steel Erectors for work in Scunthorpe Immediate starting.\nYou Must hold a current and in date CCNSG and have your own Basic tools.\nThis is one months work, please note there is no travel and dig paid on the position.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"MSW rims provide a avant garde style line of wheels. MSW wheels are marked by the highest standard of safety and quality.\nGet your set of MSW Wheels from Car Rims Direct and begin racing with your new rims inspired by the racetrack. Custom car rims known as MSW Rims were introduced in the 80's and have their heritage in the racing industry. Our selection of MSW Rims include titanium finishes and are shipped free to anywhere in the continental United States. Buy your set of MSW Wheels today.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbjnsp b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbjnsp
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..b89397062b087a1a0a64a0cf02aa0e7835e2aa2d
--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"You can find a few of my popular classes to chose from below, however I am always happy to create a custom private class for you if you are looking for something else.\nThis calendar is showing my scheduled classes. It does not have my private schedule, so there might be dates, that are empty in my calendar and I still can not travel. However this might help you when choosing your dates. Please remember, I can travel only once a month. If there is a 2-3 event or class in this calendar it means, that I am not able to teach additional out of state classes that month.\nI travel out of state to teach master classes for groups. Please review this information before you contact me to schedule a class.\nI offer full day and half day master classes.\nDuring the full day class, we learn the specific technique in the morning and create a project together. In the afternoon there is a creative session when student create their own project using the new technique. This is a great way to help students to make the new technique their own.\nDuring a half day class, I teach the same techniques without the creative session.\nWhen you host classes you can combine half day and full day classes as you wish.\nI need to teach at least two days to make classes affordable (I can teach more than two days in a row).\nI can travel once a month. Please check my calendar below. If a month already has a two or more day weekend event, then it's considered booked.\nThe venue we can use, address, how many students it can accommodate and if there is a fee we have to pay for it.\nThe registration fee for the classes will be calculated based on the above information.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Leti has demonstrated a fully CMOS-compatible laser source coupled to a silicon waveguide, a milestone toward the Wavelength division Multiplexed Photonic Layer on CMOS (WADIMOS) project's goal of fabricating an optical interconnect network on a chip in CMOS foundries.\nLeti said that the WADIMOS is an EU-funded research project to demonstrate a photonic interconnect layer on CMOS. Leti's partners in the project, which is coordinated by imec, include STMicroelectronics, Mapper Lithography, Lyon Institute of Nanotechnologies (INL) and the University of Trento.\nWorking with a circuit design from INL and imec, Leti has completed the specific process studies for the laser source to adapt and modify standard III-V materials process steps that would comply with a CMOS environment. Leti has replaced gold-based metal contacts with a Ti\/TiN\/AlCu metal stack. The circuits have been processed on 200mm wafers in Leti facilities.\nLeti said that the computing power of multi-processor systems and manufacturing tools being considered will require data transfer rates of more than 100Terabit\/s. The data rates may be needed on-chip, e.g. in multi-core processors, which are expected to require total on-chip data rates of up to 100TB\/s by 2015, or off-chip, e.g. in short-distance data interconnects, requiring up to 100TB\/s over a distance of 10-100 meters. Optical interconnects are the only viable technology for transmitting these amounts of data.\nBesides a huge data rate, optical interconnects also allow for additional flexibility through the use of wavelength division multiplexing. The feature may help realizing more intelligent interconnect systems such as the optical network-on-chip system that the WADIMOS project also is studying.\nLeti said that the WADIMOS will build a complex photonic interconnect layer incorporating multi-channel microsources, microdetectors and different advanced wavelength routing functions directly integrated with electronic driver circuits. It also will demonstrate the application of the electro-photonic ICs in an on-chip optical network and a terabit optical datalink.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Registered and will get access to the free viewing of video.\nWe in irredeemable to a duty to Our Spiritual Teacher for those efforts which losses of health cost to Him and it is sometimes connected with deadly risk for Him, by which He does what to rescue us. We know, that NEVER we can pay back Him for everything, that He does for us, but we will do efforts what to be slightly useful. We hope, that His Divine Favour will present us with blessings, for this purpose, what can make even more service for Him and for His pupils and well-wishers.\n\u00a9 ISKCON International Archives .","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Travel from the Atlantic to the Arctic to the Pacific Ocean, with stops in between at some of Canada's most iconic destinations. Spot the icebergs on Fogo Island in Newfoundland, count beluga whales in Arctic waters, float across Lake Louise and spot black bears in British Columbia's Pacific Rim National Park.\nUpon your arrival at the St. John's International Airport, a private SUV will deliver you to your hotel. Visit George Street, allegedly home to more restaurants and bars per square foot than any other street in North America. If you're overwhelmed at the ample options, we're happy to make recommendations or dining reservations. Accommodations are at the JAG Boutique Hotel in 2x One Bedroom Suites.\nOn your second day you will go \"around the Bay\" along the picturesque coastline of Conception Bay, the home of pirates of centuries ago. Visiting original sailing ports and walking in the footsteps of seasoned and salty Sea Captains, you'll learn about the history, culture and language of the Newfoundland people. Accommodations are at the JAG Boutique Hotelin 2x One Bedroom Suites.\nToday a private SUV transfer will deliver you to St. John's International Airport, where you'll board your Citation X private jet to the Gander Airport. After a short helicopter transfer you'll arrive at the Fogo Island Inn. A social enterprise and community asset, Fogo Island Inn is operated under the Shorefast Foundation, a registered non-profit dedicated to promoting cultural and economic resiliency on Fogo Island. Accommodations are at the Fogo Island Inn in 2x Fogo Island Suites.\nYour time on Fogo Island comes with the choice of many activities, all season and weather dependent. Activities and adventures on Fogo Island revolve around sharing with locals, whether it's a hike along the dramatic coastline, traditional cod fishing, taking an excursion offshore to visit with the icebergs or meeting a local boat builder making traditional wooden rowboats. The Fogo Island Inn also offers a local host program, designed to showcase the island, its heritage and the colorful residents who live there. Accommodations are at the Fogo Island Inn in 2x Fogo Island Suites.\nToday a short helicopter transfer will deliver you to the Gander Airport, where you'll board your Citation X private jet to Resolute Bay. A seaplane transfer will deliver you to the Arctic Watch Wilderness Lodge, 500 miles north of the Arctic Circle. Nestled on the shores of the Northwest Passage in Nunavut, Arctic Watch attracts thousands of beluga whales each year who flock to the 'warm' waters to mate and deliver their young. Accommodations are at Arctic Watch Wilderness Resort in 2x Cabins.\nExcursions at Arctic Watch are designed to showcase the best of Mother Nature and are tailored to guests' unique abilities. Sea kayak the Northwest Passage with beluga whales, photograph muskox, Arctic foxes, polar bears, seals, and migratory birds, raft or paddle board the Cunningham River, fish for Arctic char, view 1000 year old archaeological sites, ATV the shores of Somerset Island, or view the 2000 beluga whales that congregate annually in the inlet. Accommodations are at Arctic Watch Wilderness Resort in 2x Cabins.\nA short seaplane transfer will deliver you to Resolute Bay, where your Citation X private jet will be waiting to transport you to the Hinton\/Jasper Airport. Upon your arrival, a private SUV will transfer you to your hotel. Accommodations are at the Fairmont Jasper Park Lodge in 2x Lakefront Suites.\nOn your twelfth day, enjoy a private eco-tour of Jasper National Park, a UNESCO-designated World Heritage Site. This 11,000 square foot park offers plenty to see and do each season. Spot migrant songbirds, bighorn Sheep or elk, bald eagles, and even black bears. Admire the soaring Mt Edith Cavell, and the turquoise waters of Maligne Lake. Accommodations are at the Fairmont Jasper Park Lodge in 2x Lakefront Suites.\nToday is both a sightseeing and a travel day, as you make your way from Jasper to Lake Louise by private SUV with your own guide. Traveling along the scenic Icefields Parkway, keep your eyes peeled for black and grizzly bears, moose, mountain goats and sheep! Visit the Columbia Icefield, a series of ancient glaciers spanning over 200 miles. You'll also make stops at Athabasca Falls and Peyto Lake, as well as embarking on a private helicopter tour over the Cline, Lion and Lioness Glaciers. Accommodations are at the Fairmont Chateau Lake Louise in 2x Fairmont Gold One Bedroom Suites.\nToday you'll explore both Yoho and Lake Louise national parks, visiting Moraine Lake, Field, British Columbia, the Takkakaw Falls and the Spiral Tunnels. The tunnels were built out of necessity, due in part to the deep valleys and towering peaks that caused a problem for the Canadian Pacific Railway traversing the area in the 1800's. The tracks (while having been updated) are still used by trains today, and you may witness one lumbering along from one of many viewpoints. Accommodations are at the Fairmont Chateau Lake Louise in 2x Fairmont Gold One Bedroom Suites.\nToday a private transfer from Lake Louise will deliver you to the Springbank Airport, where you'll board your private jet to Tofino British Columbia. Upon arrival, you'll be met by your driver and taken to your ocean-front hotel, resting on the shores of the Pacific ocean. The evening is yours to spend at leisure. Accommodations are at the Wickaninnish Inn in 2x Chesterman Beach Loft Suites.\nOn your sixteenth day you'll embark on a half-day kayaking tour of Clayoquot Sound. A designated UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, the Clayoquot Sound is filled with lush temperate rainforests, abundant marine life, bald eagles, black bears and wolves. Landing your kayak on Meares Island, you'll enjoy a leisurely hike through the rainforest, where you'll learn about the giant cedar trees, as well as the of the island and its people. Accommodations are at the Wickaninnish Inn in 2x Chesterman Beach Loft Suites.\nThe seventeenth day is yours at leisure to explore Tofino and the surrounding areas. The options are endless, and include everything from mild to wild. Watch bears feasting on salmon along a shoreline, take a dip in a nearby hot springs, don a wetsuit and go surfing, meditate on a quiet nature walk, or cast a line fishing in the many rivers and ocean nearby. Accommodations are at the Wickaninnish Inn in 2x Chesterman Beach Loft Suites.\nthe Nimmo Bay Wilderness Resort in 2x Cabins.\nToday you'll board a private helicopter for your guided fishing trip. Whether you're a seasoned angler or never handled a rod, this adventure is perfect for anyone who wants to fish. Your expert guide will deliver you to isolated streams and rivers filled with Coho, Chinook, Pink and Steelhead Salmon, as well as Dolly Varden Char,Rainbow and Cutthroat Trout. You have all-day access to your helicopter and guide, which gives you the ability to go where the fish are. Accommodations are at Nimmo Bay Wilderness Resort in 2x Cabins.\nbeaches, waterfalls, and islands. The activities are endless, and the scenery breathtaking. You may find yourself helicopter-hiking, swimming, rafting, fishing or wildlife viewing. Enjoy a picnic on an ancient glacier, toasting to your remote paradise with a glass of bubbly. Accommodations are at Nimmo Bay Wilderness Resort in 2x Cabins.\nThis morning you'll receive a short seaplane transfer to Port Hardy, where you'll board your Citation X private jet for the short ride to Vancouver. Upon your arrival at Vancouver International Airport's South Terminal, a private SUV transfer will deliver you to your hotel. The afternoon is yours to explore at leisure. Stroll the nearby seawall or shop 'til you drop on Alberni Street, home of Hermes, Prada and more. Accommodations are at the Fairmont Pacific Rim in 2x Fairmont Gold Corner Suites.\nYaletown and take in the sights and smells of Chinatown. Explore Stanley Park and admire the famous West Coast Totem Poles. Finally, head to Vancouver's North Shore to walk through coastal rainforests. Accommodations are at the Fairmont Pacific Rim in 2x Fairmont Gold Corner Suites.\nToday you'll board a seaplane for a visit to charming Victoria, BC. Your private exploration begins with Butchart Gardens, a 50-acre horticultural gem set outside the city of Victoria. Following your visit to the gardens, return to downtown Victoria and visit the shops on Lower Johnson Street, known as 'LoJo' to locals. Enjoy an exhilarating open-air zodiac adventure as you go whale-watching through the Juan de Fuca and Haro Straits. A seaplane transfer will return you back to Vancouver's Coal Harbour at the end of the day. Accommodations are at the Fairmont Pacific Rim in a 2x Fairmont Gold Corner Suites.\nToday a private SUV transfer will deliver you to the Vancouver International Airport. Safe Travels!","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Have you been looking for a way to buy Bitcoins, Litecoin or Ethereum? How about purchasing them through PayPal?\nThe steps below allow you to do just that! It's easy and with the link provided you'll get $10 free with the purchase of your first $100 in Bitcoin!\n01 Sign up for a PayPal Business Debit MasterCard through the PayPal website.\n02 Deposit money into your PayPal account which will then link to the Business Debit MasterCard.\n03 Wait the grace period for your funds to settle in on your PayPal account.\n04 Then head over to CoinBase and purchase over $100 in Bitcoins to get $10 FREE!\nThe steps provided above are the simple way I bought Bitcoin by using my PayPal account. If you know of a different \/ easier way then feel free to contact us and I'll update the process above.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbkgdg b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbkgdg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..f3bd7360157118baacce4f49113a2ce2a62ef969
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"Virgin Hotels Chicago's rooftop lounge opened this week.\nThe rooftop lounge at Virgin Hotels Chicago opened this week, promising to give nearby Roof on the Wit a run for its money.\nVirgin collaborated with Italian designer Paola Navone on the lounge's decor. Cerise, as the rooftop is called, expands the entire width of the hotel, including a terrace that wraps around three sides. Two bars are situated at the far ends of the rooftop, with large couches indoors and out.\nThe menu offers small dishes designed to go with cocktails, beer and wine, such as oysters, Japanese chicken wings and shrimp dumplings.\n\u2022 Billy Dec's Rockit Bar & Grill in River North will relaunch May 1 after a redesign and menu makeover.\nExecutive chef and partner Amanda Dowling, working with chef\/partner Kevin Hickey, has revamped the offerings. New items include a pork and broccoli dish that features fried pork belly \"nuggets\" with Brussels sprouts, broccoli, walnuts, dates and cheddar tossed in sherry with garlic and shallots; a foot-long smoked beef and pork sausage topped with grilled onions, house-made giardiniera and beer mustard on a poppy seed bun; and bison sloppy Joes cut with ghost chilies and a carrot\/Brussels sprout\/bell paper grain mustard slaw served on New England rolls.\nThe beverage program, developed by Joshua Williams and Brandon Phillips, will focus on specialty cocktails, a 22-tap craft beer selection, wine and Champagne, along with bottle-service options.\nThe space, which was redesigned by Chicago interior designer Kara Mann, will retain its nightclub vibe, with a new deejay booth. LED light display and an eight-foot video wall in a new lounge area that will host live entertainment.\n\u2022 Oak Park has a new spot for sampling craft brews\u2014and taking them home. Beer Shop is now open in Oak Park, offering craft brews to go and a small tasting room.\nLocated downtown at 1026 North Blvd., Beer Shop is in the old Mephisto space. Owner Tony Compaglia, a California native, patterned the shop after Caps & Taps, a Dublin, Calif., bottle shop and tap room.\n\u2022 JNK Concepts, the team behind Roka Akor, is opening an Indian restaurant in Bannockburn. Sunil Kumar, the chef who opened a similar restaurant for JNK in Phoenix, is executive chef of Marigold Maison, which is planning to open the first week of May.\nKumar, who grew up working in his family's restaurant business in India, has spent two decades in the industry in the United States. \"At Marigold Maison, we only use fresh, organic ingredients and hand-crafted spice blends that set us apart from other Indian restaurants in the states,\" he said in a statement.\nJNK Concepts is a Lake Forest-based restaurant group founded by Dr. John Kapoor, chairman of Lake Forest-based Akorn Pharmaceuticals. \"We don't use heavy creams or butter, so the food is much healthier,\" Kapoor says in the statement. \"What I love most about our cuisine is that you don't get the feeling of heaviness or of spice overload.\" Marigold Maison will also feature a Tandoori oven that cooks roasted fresh marinated chicken, lamb and seafood as well as breads.\n\u2022 Lou Malnati's opens its 41st restaurant, in Lincoln Square, May 4. The restaurant, which will have a large patio, is just south of the Old Town School of Folk Music, Sulzer Library and Welles Park.\nPeter Frost contributed the Rockit item.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Impos works with hospitality businesses every day, so we have insider knowledge on the struggles and successes experienced by both startups and seasoned veterans. If you're starting a hospitality business, our blog hub will be your trusty sidekick. We will help you form a roadmap to launch, answer your questions, and pass on advice from industry experts. Running an established hospitality business? Get expert advice that will help you stand out from the crowd, improve customer loyalty and be more efficient.\nStay connected with the fast-paced hospitality industry! Check out the latest hospitality news & events, our useful hospitality resources and new Impos updates today.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"A gift shop featuring our favourite brands, all complete with beautiful bespoke packaging to make the perfect gift an exceptional gift.\nChampagne gifts, whisky gifts, gin gifts, all ideal for friends and family who appreciate a lovely tipple. Whoever the recipient, our premium gifts are all boxed in bespoke branded packaging making them perfect for any occasion. Whether you are looking for a rare whisky, a vintage champagne or something unusual, we have just the gift range to make your gesture go down a treat.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Is your electricity bill through the roof? And is the culprit your massive appliances, like your double oven, six-burner range and industrial-size fridge and freezer? Well, take our quiz and learn how to downsize your home appliances and save money.\nSince 1950, by how much have American houses grown in size?\nWhat washer and dryer is most efficient for a two-person household?\nHow tall is a drawer dishwasher?\nWhat is a disadvantage of a drawer dishwasher?\nThey break down more often than standard dishwashers.\nTheir wash cycle is twice as long.\nIt is twice the price.\nHow large is the freezer section of a mini fridge\/freezer?\nLarge enough to a tray of ice, a few stakes and a package of frozen vegetables.\nHalf the size of a regular freezer.\nHow much energy does a microwave oven use?\n2\/3 of the energy an oven uses.\nHow can you tell if your pot will work on an induction cooktop?\nCheck the bottom of the pot.\nAttach a magnet and see if it holds.\nAt what price do compact printers start?\nHow many cups of coffee does a small size coffeemaker make?\nHow many bottles does a free-standing wine cooler hold?\nCan You Match the Character to the Book?","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Products: Portable Table Lamp & Floor Lamp.\nProducts: Terminal Block, PCB Terminal Block, Cord-Line Switch, Fused Terminal Connector, Lampholder.\nProducts: Christmas LED, LED Night Light, LED Ice Bucket, Waterproof Radio, Windproof Cloth Hanger,etc.\nProducts: LED Lightings, Fixture, Luminaries.\nProducts: Lights for Outdoor Use, LED Lights, Lights for Indoor Use, Cabinet Lights, Furniture Lights.\nProducts: LED Lighting, LED Illumination Solutions, LED Components.\nProducts: DC Rectifier, Pusle Rectifier, Power Supply..\nProducts: LED Lights, LED Modules.\nProducts: LED Torch, Emergency Rechargeable Lanterns, Aluminum Flashlights, Industrial Worklamp.\nProducts: Prism Desk Lamp, Prism Ceiling Lighting Fixtures.\nProducts: High Quality LED Tube Light, Down Light, Spot Light, Feature Light, Outdoor Light.\nProducts: Neon Sign, Neon Light, Neon Clock, Cold Cathode Tubes.\nProducts: Disco Light, Strobe Light, Flash Light.\nProducts: Photoelectric Control, Miniature Circuit Breaker, A\/C Contractor, Connector Switch.\nProducts: LED Strip Light, LED Down Light, LED Spot Light.\nProducts: LED Lighting Products, LED Lamps, LED Spotlight, LED Solar Light, LED Recessed \/ Down Light, LED Modules.\nProducts: Battery \/ Rechargeable Lanterns, LED Lights, Emergency & Safety Lights, Reading & Desk Lamps.\nProducts: Down Light, Track Light and more.\nProducts: Tube Series, Panel Series, Smart Series, Outdoor Series.\nProducts: Downlight, Energy Saving Lighting, Outdoor Lighting, LED Lighting, Furniture Lighting.\nProducts: Lampholders, Switches, Wiring Accessories.\nProducts: Emergency & Exit Light, Electronic Ballast, CCFL, LED Lamp.\nProducts: Desk & Table Light, Clamp Lamp.\nProducts: Track Lighting For Halogen Lamp Undercable Lighting.\nProducts: T4\/T5 Fluorescent Lamp, Compact Fluorescent Lamp, Pest Killer Lamp, LED Lamp.\nProducts: Ultra Slim Light Panel (Indoor Advertising & Promotion).\nProducts: Ultrasonic Sensors for Energy Saving.\nProducts: LED Controller, RGB Controller, DMX512 Controller, LED Light, LED High Power Light, Wall Washer.\nProducts: Outdoor Lighting, Underground Lighting, Underwater Lighting, Wall and Lawn Lighting.\nProducts: Incandescent Lamp, Halogen Lamp.\nProducts: LED, Lights, LED Driver.\nProducts: Wall Lamp, Desk Lamp, Floor Lamp.\nProducts: Metal Halide Lamp, High Pressure Sodium Lamp.\nProducts: Kids Lamp, Reading Lamp, Night Lamp and Emotion Lamp.\nProducts: LED Street Lamp, LED Industry Lamp, LED Tunnel Lamp, LED Flood Lamp, LED Civil Lamp, LED Mining Lamp.\nProducts: LED Bulb, Led Spotlight, LED High Power Lamp, Ring Lamp and more.\nProducts: LED Tubes Specialist, LED Manufacturing and Development.\nProducts: Wall Lamps, Desk Lamps.\nProducts: LED Bay Light, LED Weather-proof Light, LED Panel Light, LED Linear Light,Classic Down Light, Ultra-Slim Downlight and more.\nProducts: LED Bulb, LED Tube, Down Light, Flood Light.\nProducts: Fluorescent Lamp, Electronic Wall Lamp, Fluorescent Light Fitting, Electronic Ballast.\nProducts: Strip Fluorescent Light Fixture, Fixture, Ballast, Grille Fitting, Waterproof Fitting.\nProducts: Indoor & Outdoor Lights such as HID Retrofit Bulbs, LED Retrofit Kits, LED High Bay Retrofit Lamps, LED Parking Lot Lights, etc.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbkpas b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbkpas
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..6f66de2faa3d5a1c353e3e858f877e50e7f4893d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbkpas
@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"It's just one of those things, ya know?\nI even painted the door going from my utility room to the garage\u2026it looks divine.\nThat is if a door can be divine.\nit looks brand new again!\nWell except for the brass flap that needs to be polished up!\nbut not anymore\u2026so I slapped a little paint up there too!\nNow\u2026I would ask you if it looks better.\nSo you'll just have to trust me on this one.\nNow there is just one door left, the garage door.\nRight now it's just an ugly old almond color, but I think a nice thick coat of chocolate brown would look awesome!\nLike frosting on a cake! Yum.\nRight after Labor Day\u2026I'm going to begin gathering my fall decorations for my front porch.\nBy gosh! It's going to look like fall around here!\nI'm already half way there!","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"HomeQuoteDirect are one of the UK's leading insurance intermediaries based in Tolworth, KT6. Established in 1965, we have over 40 years experience of providing quality Home Insurance cover at very competitive prices. In addition to providing excellent low cost Home Insurance we also offer Car Insurance, Motorcycle Insurance, Van Insurance and Commercial risks including Property, Liability and Vehicle Fleets for any size of business.\nOur quick and easy online quotation system is available 24 hours a day 7 days a week, providing you with instant quotes and immediate cover. However, should you need to contact us our highly trained customer service team will be pleased to help. Our office opening hours are Monday to Friday 9am-6pm and Saturday 9am-4.30pm. You can call us on 0800 58 11 03.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Hi. I was diagnosed with Systemic Lupus a few years ago after many years of searching for the right diagnosis. I was also diagnosed with Raynaud's and Hughes. Two weeks ago I was also diagnosed with scleroderma and need to be tested for Sjogrens and Fibromyalgia. There really aren't very many people with this. I was wondering why none of my lupus friends could relate to some of my symptoms. Now I know why.\nI haven't gotten the official word on which kind I have, but I strongly suspect systemic as I have pulmonary issues and my muscles in my upper arms are hard as rocks and don't work anymore. Has anyone found any natural treatments that help? I am allergic to most medications thanks to the lupus. Thanks and it's so nice to meet you all.\nWelcome to sclero forums! Sorry about your multiple diagnoses but know you have found the right place for answers, support, and even a place to whine. I hope they don't add too many more to the list.\nWelcome to sclero forums! So glad you've joined us but sorry it's due to all the diagnoses you are dealing with. You've come to the right place for accurate information, talking to those who truly get it and friendship.\nAre you seeing a scleroderma expert?\nDear jennuwhine, I'm not sure where you are located but here is a link to the Scleroderma Experts in the U.S. Hope there is one near you. It's very helpful to see someone that specializes in the disease.\nI'm sorry to hear that you've been diagnosed with Scleroderma and are also suffering with Lupus and other associated conditions.\nSweet has given you good advice regarding consulting a Scleroderma expert and I've included a link to our medical page on Scleroderma in Overlap. We have a lot of accurate and up to date information in our Medical pages which I hope you'll find helpful and informative.\nPlease do keep posting and let us know the results of your tests for Sjogren's and Fibromyalgia.\nThank you so much. I will check it out. No, I just found out about the scleroderma, so I have not yet even seen a rheumatologist for that issue. Waiting for my referral to go through. I imagine it's best to see an expert because of how rare this is. I'm very surprised that a family doctor in a small town even knew to check for it. All my family members will be seeing him from now on.\nDo you have any word on your referral yet?","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"from our CUSTOMERS near WICKENBURG!\nRight Honda always treats me nice and I always feel like I've received a great value.\nGreat customer service and follow up love Toyota.\nExcellent service department! I have complained forever about paying for my extended warranty purchase knowing I will never use it for my 2011 Tundra 4x4.I brought it in for new plugs, jet cleaning and add a pair of extended Toyota towing mirrors, the staff put it on the rack and went over it with a fine tooth comb, they found leaking stearing bushings, thinking they are trying to get into my pockets they told me the $2300 replacement was on the insurance company and not me. Very pleased with this dealership and a big thank you to Tim Paffumi, very professional and is not pushy.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"After reading Angie's blog on pattern mixing, I could hardly wait to see what my cold weather clothes could offer. No picture yet of the outfit but the items from Finds: plaid jeans, plaid flannel shirt used as a jacket, floral top...all in reds and blues. My socks are wool navy and tweedy cream striped. It is pretty hectic as the Reds and blues are not a great match. The blue in the jeans looks a bit more teal than I'd like...not good with the plaid shirt's blue but pretty good with the background blue of the blouse.\nWhat do you think? I wore this mostly for a casual day of cleaning, cooking and dog walking. Do I dare wear it out for a casual meal ?\nScroll down for today's pattern mix.. casual black and white checks.\nThank you , Donna. Patterns in general are lacking in my colder weather wardrobe so this was a stretch.\nAdvanced color mixing - looking forward to the photo.\nLet's see a photo...looks like a fun mix.\nI think it looks good, Joy! It reminds me of Angie's example of \"spice it up\" (busy patterns in the same palette). I could see the two tops with a railroad-stripe denim pant, too, or jeans with plaid flannel lining, rolled to show the lining.\nBonnie and Aquamarine, thank you for your comment. It does not look like I will get a photo of this outfit, but I see a mix of black and white checks tomorrow.\nI think it would be perfect. Looking forward to see mix of black and white checks.\nFirecracker, we must have cross posted. I like your ideas for pants...more subtle. Mirjana, stay tuned.see finds below.\nKkards, I think you are right.\nI can't possibly pass judgement until I see it. Show! show! show!\nYou are creative and eclectic, sweet arty Joy. I know you will pull this off with your grace and panache.\nThose plaid jeans are fab,go for it Joy!\nToday's pattern mixing of black and white checks. The scarf was a mistake but I liked the white with black dots.\nI like it and I think the little scarf is cute.\nOoh! I love your plaid pattern mixing! Great combinations of patterns, and also warm and cozy! You make me excited to see how my plaids mix!\nBlack and White pattern mixes arey favorite! YLF!\nThank you, ladies for your comments and encouragement. I even pattern mixed for Thanksgiving ( floral top and leopard scarf with rust pants. Colder and I planned to add a brown and cream plaid blazer).\nJussie, I liked the looks of that skinny scarf but it was not practical when cooking lots and tended to come untied at the worst times.\nI wore mixed prints again today and will try to add finds. It has been horribly busy. Today toddler grandson was with us and spent the night. I was hours on hands and knees building an airport out of Legos and making s clue chain for him to read to find a new bath toy while DH enjoyed a glass of wine. DGS wants lots of assurance that he is my favorite person. He is adorable but so is is baby sister who is amazing at a year old and getting into his toys. He sits and patiently feeds her and reads books to her. Precious times, but so intense. DS gets almost no sleep and comes to our place to sneak a nap.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"Do you plan to win each day? I am all over the UK the next two weeks conducting our Regional Road Shows in different cities each day. One of my topics is on Winning Rituals. What daily rituals do you do to win?\nHere is what the great Ben Franklin used to do.\nHe started every day by getting clear about what action steps he would take that day to fulfill his highest intention of doing good. At the end of the day, he gave himself a little performance review, holding himself accountable for his actions and patting himself on the back for his accomplishments. Clearly, a winning formula!\nWinners take control of their thoughts, their daily routines, their goals and their lives.\nHave a great week and plan your routines to make every day a winner. The secret of your future is hidden in your daily routine.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Let everyone know what you are \u2014 You're a weirdo! It's the most fun way to cope in this Underworld of a world. Pre-shrunk 100% jersey knit to make sure your size is maintained throughout several washes, and a classic fit.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"May 10 What Will Happen When You Die?\nIf you are a Christian, when you die, your body will be laid to rest, and your soul will be carried by the angels to be with Jesus. See here the comforting ways in which the Lord describes the death of His precious children. The death of Christians is described as \"Being gathered to one's people\" (Genesis 25), as \"Departing to be with Christ for that is far better\" (Philippians 1:23), and as \"Departing in peace\" (Luke 2:29). Jesus said to the believing thief on the cross, \"Truly, I say to you, today you will be with me in paradise\" (Luke 23:43). For the believing Christian, \"to live is Christ, and to die is gain.\" (Philippians 1:21) Believer, when you die your war with sin will be over, and you will be with Jesus.\nEven though Christians go to be with the Lord when we die, death remains sorrowful. When Jesus saw Mary and Martha weeping at the death of their brother Lazarus, Jesus wept with them. Death is not our friend. Death is not a \"part of life.\" Death is described as an enemy Jesus has come to destroy (1 Corinthians 15:26). If you have lost someone you love you may weep for them even if you know they died in the arms of Jesus.\nWhile death remains sorrowful even for believers, Jesus has overcome death for us. He says to us, \"Whoever believes in the Son has eternal life; whoever does not obey the Son shall not see life, but the wrath of God remains on him.\" (John 3:36) Those who believe in Jesus have eternal life. For this reason, the death of believers is often referred to in the scriptures as \"sleep.\" Jesus has died for our sins. He is risen from the grave. He is able to rouse us from death more easily than we are able to rouse our loved ones from slumber. If you trust in Jesus, then you need not fear the hour of death.\nIf you are not a Christian, if you do not trust in Jesus for your salvation, then when you die your body will be buried and your soul will enter torment. God takes no pleasure in the death of the wicked. He says, \"As I live, I have no pleasure in the death of the wicked, but that the wicked turn from his way and live; turn back, turn back from your evil ways, for why will you die...?\" (Ezekiel 33:11). God \"desires all people to be saved and to come to the knowledge of the truth.\" (1 Timothy 2:4) When those who do not trust in Jesus enter torment it is not because their sins are more obviously wicked than the sins of Christians, it is because they have not believed in the name of the only Son of God (John 3:18).\nIf you do not trust in Jesus for salvation, I urge you to speak with a Lutheran pastor in your area, to be baptized if you have not already been baptized, and to join and regularly attend a Lutheran church. For your convenience, here is a link that can help you find an AFLC congregation in your area: https:\/\/www.aflc.org\/about-us\/churches\/. If there is not an AFLC congregation in your area, please contact us and we can help you find another good Lutheran church in your area. Know that, \"God did not send his Son into the world to condemn the world, but in order that the world might be saved through him.\" God desires to save you through faith in Jesus.\nIf you trust in Jesus for salvation then you have this great promise that when you die your soul will go to be with the Lord. And this is not the only promise you have; it gets even better! On the Last Day Jesus will return to judge the living and the dead. When this happens, the Lord will raise the bodies of the righteous and the unrighteous. If you are trusting in Jesus, then on the last day, Jesus will raise your body from the dead. You will be raised in glory. Your body will be imperishable. You will be clothed with immortality. For more information about this see 1 Corinthians 15:42-57.\nThe Lord is with his believing people today. He comes to us in His Holy Word, in the waters of baptism, and in His Holy Supper. He is present with us when we are gathered in His name. He is an ever present help in times of trouble (Psalm 46). When we fall asleep our spirits will go to be with the Lord. On the final day the Lord Jesus will raise us up, and we will live with the Lord forever in the New Heavens and the New Earth.\nBelievers, we may feel the sting of death today, but we have victory over it in Jesus Christ the Lord. Already we have newness of life in us through the resurrection of Jesus (Romans 6:4). The Lord is with us as He has promised. The fullness of this will be revealed on the last and final day.\nUntil Christ returns, we will experience the sadness of death. But if you trust in Jesus, you will not experience eternal death. You have eternal life. Death has given way to life for you. We know this, for Jesus has promised, \"I am the resurrection and the life. Whoever believes in me, though he die, yet shall he live, and everyone who lives and believes in me shall never die. Do you believe this?\" (John 11:25-26) I hope you do. For even though Christians mourn when our loved ones in the faith fall asleep, \"We do not mourn as those who have no hope.\" (1 Thessalonians 4:13) Instead, we mourn in faith. Our tears are mingled with hope. Soon they will be wiped away by Jesus who reaches out His hands to receive His children home.\nMy name is Luke Berntson. I live in Ulen, MN.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Secretion is similar to exocytosis where vesicles are released at the cell plasma membrane surface without any further loss of cell substance.\nMerocrine secretion associated with skin sweat glands that regulate body temperature and Goblet cell secretion.\nThis page was last modified on 21 September 2016, at 20:32.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Home Products BG199 - Drummers and Trumpeters Line, French Marines de la Garde 1808-1815 by Beau Geste.\nBG199 - Drummers and Trumpeters Line, French Marines de la Garde of 1808-1815 by Beau Geste.\nFrom the diverse Napoleonic range from Beau Geste comes this set of seven marching figures. (BG199). All completed in hand painted gloss paint very reminiscent of Britain figures.\nWe do keep a large stock of Beau Geste, but as Beau Geste produce one of the most comprehensive military band and infantry ranges from WWI and other periods. If we do not have this item in stock we can have it made to order for you.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
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+{"text":"2015 was a year full of traveling for me, which I was not expecting. Most of the trips was surprise trips from my parents for graduating college, while others were spur of the moment trips with Adam (my boyfriend). However, there was one trip I had planned since March, which at the time was the only trip I thought I would be taking in 2015.\nMarch 2015, I committed myself to run the Disney Wine and Dine Half Marathon. This has been on my bucket- list since I was a senior in high school after my English teacher ran the Disney Princess Half Marathon. In years past I've missed the deadline for this particular half marathon, little did I know in past years the Disney runs fill up fast! So, I put the time and date in my agenda back in October of 2014.\nFinally, the day had come to sign up for the race. It was like registering for a class, I sat at work in the Admissions Office constantly refreshing the page and thinking, \"oh no, what if I don't get in?!\" their was a moment of panic and then relief when it was all said and done. I got in! Now all that was left was to train and the wait until the race in November, which perfectly fell on my birthday weekend as well as the Epcot's 20th International Food and Wine Festival.\nAdam and I booked our plane tickets to Disney back in June. Our flight from Boston to Indianapolis to Tampa was $250 each on Southwest Airlines. We had an early flight out of Boston, which meant it was going to be a long day of traveling.\nBoth Adam and I took off work on Friday, November 6 to travel to Florida. We left our apartment at exactly 4:30 a.m. after a quick 10-minute ride to the airport and zipping through security we were off. The weather was great and everything was on time. We even arrived early to Tampa, which was nice because we were meeting up with my family who decided to come support me in the race. After meeting up my with my parents and brother we made a quick stop at The University of Tampa to pick up my sister and we were off to Disney!\nOnce we arrived at Disney our first stop was to get my bib at Disney's Wide World of Sports at the Wine and Dine Expo, which was filled with Disney running gear. I was a little upset I was unable to get the Minnie Mouse New Balance shoes, but I got light up shoe laces instead, which was awesome because the race was at night. Also at the expo my family signed-up to track my time so they knew where I was the whole race.\nWhat's really nice about the Run Disney races is that they offer special discounts on all the Disney resorts making the weekend very affordable. We stayed at the Disney's All Star Movie Resort, which is one of the cheaper resort options. My family has stayed at the Disney All- Star Sports resorts several times when I was little so we knew we were getting nothing fancy, just the basic stuff.\nWhat was different about this resort compared to the Disney All-Star Sports Resort was it was movie themed. We stayed in the Herby Fully Loaded section of the resort and overall it was nice for the short time we spent there.\nThe morning of the half marathon I woke up to a filling breakfast of eggs and Mickey Mouse waffles at the resort. After we ate breakfast we decided to go to Disney's Animal Kingdom. This was because theirs not a lot to do at Disney's Animal Kingdom and I had to get my leg tapped and rest before the race, which didn't begin till 10 p.m., below is a time line of the day.\n9:30a.m. : Depart in the Nalepa Circus Van to Disney's Animal Kingdom. And enjoy a morning full of fun.\nNoon : Left the park with Adam and my dad to Disney's Wide World of Sports to get leg tapped, while dad and Adam had beers.\n3:30 p.m. : Head back to the resort for a quick rest.\n5:00 p.m. : Myself, Adam and my dad got dinner at the resort. I got a huge plate of pasta.\n8:30 p.m. : Get ready for the race and head over to the bus, which took me back to Disney's Wide World of Sports where the race began.\nOnce I arrived I was excited I was about to cross another dream off my bucket list. About, thirty minutes later my family showed up because they want to see me start the race and finish. So they came over to where I was and we chatted for a bit before they left. Little did we know a really bad storm was coming that would postpone the race.\nAbout ten minutes after seeing my family I was trying to get into race mode when it suddenly became really cool and windy. People started to line up, so I followed. A good amount of time passed and I got confused as to why we weren't lining up in our corrals. Then the sky lit up and we heard a loud boom, boom. I didn't think too much of this. I lived in Florida for six years and knew this was typical Florida weather.\nWell, I thought wrong, next thing I knew security grads were directing us into the baseball stadium and the field house. I was so confused. Soon I learned by my family who was in the field house, while I was in the baseball stadium that the race was going to be postponed. I quickly go upset and began to cry because the first through in my head was that the race was going to be canceled. So their I was alone in the baseball stadium crying (okay I was with 40,000 people but still).\nAfter two hours they told us it was okay for us to run, we all walked over to our corrals in a very unorganized fashion. Once there I was so excited. I was corral 'G' so I had a few corrals in front of me before I got to begin my two-hour jog around Disney. What's really unique about Disney Run's is they want to make the race special for everyone. Each time a corral was set to run fire works would go off, which made the beginning of the race special to everyone and not just that first group leaving.\nFinally, it was corral 'G'. This being my second half marathon I was less nervous about the finishing part because I did it before, also most of the course was flat, which made running easier. Once we left the Wide World of Sports complex there was entertainment right from mile one all the way to mile 13.1, honestly I think I was smiling the whole time! I saw so many character as I ran through Disney. Each mile was a different theme with music from each particular movie. You even had the opportunity to stop and take photos with the characters, which was unlike any race I have ever ran before. I didn't stop to take pictures since the lines were very long, instead I just took in every second of my dream half marathon.\nFinally, I made my way over to Disney's Boardwalk and took a left into Epcot where the race ended. Only one mile left and finally I could see Chef Minnie and Mickey at the finish, honestly no better way to finish a race in my opinion.\nDisney's Wine and Dine Half Marathon didn't have your traditional post half-marathon bananas and beer, being Disney they took it to the next level. Yes, their was your free beer at the end, however if you participated in the Disney Wine and Dine Half Marathon you got fee admission into Epcot's International Food and Wine Festival on top of Disney keeping the park open till 4 a.m. to enjoy drinking and eating around the world. As well as a free $20 gift card to use at the festival.\nAfter the race myself and my family walked over to Mexico where I got chicken tacos and a margarita. The line was probably one of the longest countries (clearly everyone had the same idea as I did, tacos and margs)! After stuffing my face we walked around to other countries, a few rides were open as well as a hand full of characters were around the park taking pictures with the runners.\nSoon enough it was 3:30 a.m. and we had to catch the bus back to the hotel. Overall, I really enjoyed the experience and would one hundred percent run it again in the future. As well as participate in many of the other Disney themed runs they offer through Run Disney.\nSometimes I make running look fun.\nAdam had an awesome idea to surprise me with Tina faces. They kept it a secret from me for weeks.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Only a duo of days to complete this month of Kate Motaung's October 2015 edition of 31 days of free unedited writes, this is day 29.\nThe Spirit of God brooded over the face of the deep, and birthed planet earth from the depths of the sea.\nLet the sea roar, earth rejoice, heavens sing!\nMost days I've written a little about one or two aspects of the single word prompt, but how can I put limits on the boundless sea? Water is life! No water\u2014no sacraments. As much as I love the desert, my heart lives close to the ocean, the beach, the shore. I first saw light of day by the bay.\nScripture is full of sea-related and other water-saturated accounts. Songs about the sea include baptismal, homecoming, wayfaring, and nautical imagery. Quite a few of my analog drawings and paintings feature an ocean, river, or sea. \"They're all the same,\" as streams and tributaries flow into the rivers that make their way into oceans and seas.\nGerry Rafferty sings about finding \"a ship to take us on the way.\" For centuries they've built church naves in the shape of a (upside down) ship; the word nave is the same as \"navy.\" The church becomes our ship as we navigate the sea(s) of life in the Spirit.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"When investing in silver, every collector and investor has his or her \"go-to\" manufacturers. The Royal Canadian Mint is among the list of a highly reputable source that provides precious metals products. Built just after the turn of the century, RCM has played an important role in Canadian history and currency. From their most popular collection, the Silver Maple Leaf coins, to more collectible items, such as their Wildlife series, the RCM has kept experienced dealers, in the precious metals market, content with their products year to year. Besides popular coin collections, the RCM offers other services that make them a one-stop shop for many dealers and investors. This mint produces all of Canada's circulated coins, along with other countries' currency, gold, silver, and platinum products. RCM also contains a Board of Directors, similar to the authority issued among private sectors. The president of the mint is also labeled the Master of the Mint and leads the Board of Directors. This incredibly organized structure makes it difficult for others to compete, plus the reputable standard RCM has set can't be beat.\nThe RCM's new 10 oz silver bar is only a glimmer of what magnificence this mint can create out of precious metals. This .999 pure silver bar brandishes RCM's emblem first most, then displays the bar's weight and purity. A couple of delicate maple leaves are also a part of the design on this spectacular bar. Each bar gets assigned an appropriate serial number, inscribed on the beautifully sheer surface of the silver bar. An elegant design is included on each bar, along with a ridged edge to set these bars apart from others. RCM seals each bar into a plastic covering for protection during shipment and storage. If you are looking for the perfect embellishment for your personal silver collection, consider these flawless 10 oz silver bars by the prestigious Royal Canadian Mint.\nDon't know the dates, but I guess these are sort of hard to find. They appear to be still in original mint packaging, which is a heat-sealed, heavy plastic bag.\nThese are absolutely the best silver bars on the market. I will be purchasing additional bars in the future.\nThe 10 oz bars were shipped promptly and arrived well packed. Great service.\nReturn customer for 10 oz. RCM bars. Superb product with 999.9 purity. Reasonable above spot prices and \"bombproof\" packaging. It would be nice, however, if returning customers with an strong record could get out from under the waiting period for checks to clear before shipment is made. Totally professional in every way. Do business here!\n\u2605\u2605\u2605\u2605\u2605 Always enjoy purchasing from Golden Eagle. Never had a problem with product quaility, never had a problem with a purchase, and never had a problem with timely delivery..\nBetter than I expected. Waiting on new supplies for future purchases.\nThe bars are beautiful and I hope to buy more when you have them!\nAgain and again it works.\nGood looking and easy to identify. this is the largest silver piece in my collection.\n\u2605\u2605\u2605\u2605\u2605 There is none finer, period.\nFirst class bar from notable producer, distributed with unrivaled service. Excellent, thanks. Rick and PJ.\n\u2605\u2605\u2605\u2605\u2605 Repeat buyer. Always the best in pricing, and shipping.\nI really like the features of this bar. Nice way to add a few oz's to the stockpile. Plus Golden Eagle is always fast to deliver!\nGolden Eagle provided the silver bars just as ordered and the timely shipping was a bonus. Job well done.\n\u2605\u2605\u2605\u2605\u2605 Great price and great quality.\nRCM provides the best in silver bars. Golden Eagle provides them with great service.\n\u2605\u2605\u2605\u2605\u2605 Very fair pricing. Fast secure shipping.\n\u2605\u2605\u2605\u2605\u2605 High quality bars, Numbered.\nGreat way to buy and hold silver.\nI have several silver bars but they're all one or two ounces so adding this 10 oz bar was nice for the portfolio.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Corporate Governance : NEOJAPAN Inc.\nNEOJAPAN's managerial philosophy is to \"contribute to the formation of an abundant society through real IT communications.\" Our goal is to provide not only a few advanced companies with the advantages of top-end IT, but all companies.\nBased on this managerial philosophy, we see building corporate governance as essential to improving corporate value so as to fulfill the expectations and trust of our stakeholders\u2014including NEOJAPAN's shareholders, business partners and employees\u2014and we endeavor to construct the optimal administrative structure to ensure sound, efficient and transparent operations.\nNEOJAPAN has adopted a board of auditors system. In accordance with the Companies Act of Japan, the company convenes general meetings of shareholders and has set up a Board of Directors and Board of Auditors.\nThe five members of the Board of Directors (of whom one is an outside director) engage in prompt decision-making and NEOJAPAN ensures that the Board plays an active role. Furthermore, NEOJAPAN has configured its Board of Auditors so that all three of its members are from outside the company. This arrangement maintains fair and transparent management that is based on objective, neutral auditing of the company's business affairs. We believe these two bodies create corporate governance with an efficient managerial system and fully functioning business auditing.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"I am a Graphic Design \/ Web Designer residing in the Inverness area (280 hurts). I am very much into animation and comic art.\nI am currently working on a digital comic book (well, designing some of the characters and getting my technique down first). It will be animated one day, but for now, working on my drawing and digital painting.\nHey, look forward to meeting some other cartoonistas soon. Peace.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
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index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..a4cd9c2f615a7b834c6a93e43dd45093214871c0
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"My hopper 3 will not turn off. I read on another thread that there is a new 5 minute timer that wil run down and then turn off. I can see it when I turn th tv back on so I know it's there. The problem is that hours can go by and the hopper will not turn off. It will even sit there overnight. If I turn the tv back on, the timer, it's always there. Any clue as to how to fix this? I have already reset the hopper a couple of times with no luck.\nTry turning HDMI CEC off.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"This is 9\" tall x 10\" wide x 1 1\/4\" Deep.\nThe back is drilled with a hole for easy hanging on a small nail or screw.\nMyrtlewood has a wide variety of colors and grain patterns ensuring that each sculpture is unique.\nWe can custom engrave your name or a short message. Let us know what you want on it. We'll estimate the cost and send an image for you to approve the layout before actually carving it out.. An average customized engraving which includes designing the layout, sending a proof, carving, painting, and refinishing runs about $35.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"My identity inspires one aspect of my artwork, which concerns the Holocaust. I am the grandchild of three Jewish Holocaust refugees and the descendant of Holocaust victims. My maternal grandmother fled Poland with her immediate family right before the war; the rest of her family was killed by the Nazis, as were about 1000 other Jews in their small town. Both of my father's parents fled as teenagers from Germany to England at the beginning of the war, later emigrating to Canada. Their parents were unable to leave Germany and were transported to the Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp and the \u0141\u00f3d\u017a Ghetto in Poland, where they were killed. I grew up experiencing the intergenerational effects of this historical trauma. My art is an attempt to comprehend violent discrimination, both during the Holocaust and today. The goal of my art is to initiate productive dialogue about tolerance and the preservation of cultural and biological diversity today.\nNew Life Emerges at Buchenwald?","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"A few months back-the swank Milk Studios on West 15th Street, NYC--- hosted a panel discussion of distinguished fashion industry types, on the theme of (re) establishing a garment\/design center in the Big Apple.\nHeld just prior to Fashion Week F\/W 2011---the lively talk included an observation, opined by an innovative third generation garmento\/successful investor and all around visionary giant in the biz----who suggested that, among other things, what the fashion industry needed NOW, were new, technically advanced fabrics.\nJust steps (and two floors up) from the glam, bustling intersection of Manhattan's Fifth Avenue and 57th Street---is the light filled and calm, Roy Teeluck Salon.\nAnd well trained staff ----key for any business in the beauty biz.\nThe gracious London born, Roy Teeluck himself was all smiles when we chatted a bit at an editor's preview.\nSo we took some time, going south a block for a better look at the exquisite handwork---and editorially distinct custom footwear line...on display at the John Lobb Boutique.\nPersonalized handmade shoes- representing eleven global capitals-of commerce, actually--- as cities with John Lobb establishments served as inspiration--- yielding collaboratively designed samples, two per locale, that are all just stunningly handsome, made of the finest materials, and---it's obvious--- requiring labor intensive, skilled cobblers for the ultimate fit and finish.\nA highly regarded outerwear brand--- Canada Goose has gained respect (and high-end retail outlets) in southern climes too---here in the lower 48.\nNot attiring swaths of Big Apple humans like North Face...but on a visible few-that makes sense for a premium label.\nAND a highly technically performing one too. Canada Goose apparel can protect against the elements atop Mt. Everest--- as easy as stylishly maneuvering through rush hour in urban locales.\nWe had a flashback about the terrific Canada Goose assortment of new apparel when we went to a Fall 2011 editorial presentation last week ---of a major, major globally distributed lifestyle brand---where the designer who we admire on so many levels ---was there---and answered our queries about his collection.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Emerson has a new friend this year. She's told me about the interests they share and the humor they find in everyday. They pair up when it's time to work as a team and play together at recess. They have found points of connection and communication which transcend words, which is helpful since her new friend speaks virtually no English.\nHaemil is from South Korea and this is her first year in an English only school. The combination of translation technology, a wonderful teacher, and Haemil's tremendous intellect are serving her well and she's finding success in the classroom. But social connections require the other children to be willing to cross the language barrier and create a path to engage. I couldn't be more proud of my little bridge builder who has taken it upon herself to find a way to love this girl well.\nEmerson has learned a lot about showing love without words this year, yet she has willingly taken on a personal study of the language so she can communicate more fully with her new friend. She created a folder of common Korean words and phrases and their phonetic pronunciation. She is even learning the characters for each one. She has, out of the purity of her loving heart, done what we dream our friends will do: find a way to understand us.\nI went to to the school Book Fair this morning to help Emerson select some books to buy. Haemil smiled shyly toward me as she placed her hand on Emerson's back and pointed to her wish list of books. Instinctively, Emie led her to the sections where each title was displayed. Haemil touched her again and pointed to a few of the specialty items behind the librarian's desk. Emie came to me and told me precisely which items Haemil wanted to purchase. Following the lead of my little love, I told the librarian I'd be helping Haemil today and could she please gather the items Emie mentioned. The librarian gently led Haemil to the items and encouraged her to choose her preferred color in each one. Haemil's face lit up like Christmas morning. She now held in her hands everything she had hoped to get at the fair. Without a little help, it would have been quite a challenge for her to find the items and communicate her wishes within their allotted shopping time.\nAs we waited for her total to be calculated, Emie picked up a prop hat on a stick which was there for the students' enjoyment. She held it over her head and made a silly face in Haemil's direction. She then held it over Haemil's head, which set her to fits of giggles. She'd done it again, tapped into joy without saying a single word.\nI walked the girls back to the classroom and along the way, Em put her hand on Haemil's shoulder and pointed to me and said, \"This is my umma,\" the Korean word for mom. Haemil's smile widened as another bridge was crossed in our introduction.\nI drove away from the school with a lump in my throat and my heart swollen with pride for my beautiful girl. Sometimes tween-dom brings unwelcome bravado in which a child I brought into the world asserts her presumed authority and expertise in everything. It can be exhausting to control my response and be careful not to over-correct her when she's simply trying to stretch her wings. But today, I gladly followed her lead as the resident expert in loving others well. She has so much to teach me about leaning in and loving with my life before my words.\n12 Comments so far - Add yours!\nUgh\u2026 I have something in my eye. Or maybe it's allergies\u2026 That sweet little Em. Showing us how it's done. Beautifully articulated as always, M.\nThanks you, sweet Kimberly. I'm so grateful for you and your encouragement. Dang those allergies!\nI need to stop cutting onions when I read . . . Sweet, sweet Em. This story makes my heart smile. Thank you for sharing!\nAmy! Thanks for reading and taking the time to share such a kind comment.\nTears here too! Just gorgeous! Thank you for sharing your story and your sweet girl with us. Good job, mama!\nKelly! Thanks so much, sweet Kelly. I'm taking notes from you, lovely!!\nOh this is making me cry. Well done mama for raising such a sweet and smart girl -and props to your daughter for bridging that language gap and showing love.\nSo kind of you, Johanna! God gave me such a sweet gift in her! Thank you for your sweet words of encouragement and for taking the time to read.\nI'm so proud of Em! She is an example for each of us, bridging the gap of culture to embrace friendship. Thank you for sharing her with us!\nOh her heart! You have a future adoptive mama or ESL teacher, or just genuinely compassionate woman in that one there! Love!\nThank you, Ginger. Her heart to love slays me.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbmxlk b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbmxlk
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..7cdc01d08eb3449d396368342b3f7bf104f4720e
--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"The Kershaw Baptist Association has mud-out, chainsaw and assessment units. We work in cooperation with the South Carolina Baptist Convention and American Red Cross when responding to a disaster situation. Volunteers must be trained to work with a unit. Training is available through KBA, as well as SCBC. Our teams have been involved in numerous disaster response situations. If you are interested in becoming part of the KBA Disaster Relief team contact the KBA office at 432-3028.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"With my warmest Congratulations once again on your wedding, I am so delighted to also be a qualified Independant Wedding Celebrant !\nAm I the perfect Celebrant for you ? Yes ! and I am so excited to share my ceremony ideas with all my couples.\nContact me to discuss your bespoke non legal ceremony today.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"New York : Brentano's, 1904.\nFirst dated Brentano's edition. Cf. Horodish, A. Oscar Wilde's Ballad of Reading Gaol : a bibliographical study, p. 76.\nPhysical description: 39 p. ; 16 cm.\nHide notes ... First dated Brentano's edition. Cf. Horodish, A. Oscar Wilde's Ballad of Reading Gaol : a bibliographical study, p. 76.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"This Expert Advisor allows to perform one click trading.\nJust press the corresponding button to open position. To close position, press the opposite button, i.e. if Buy position is opened, press \"Sell\" to close it.\nSL - Stop Loss in points, if 0, there isn't SL.\nSlipage - slippage in points.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"If you want to carry out adjustments for your Alpina B6 2.8 then it is always recommended to own a Workshop Manual for a reference in case that you need to know methods to take out a certain part for example, the Exhaust and fit it again effectively.\nAlpina B6 2.8 Workshop Manuals offer you precise diagnostic wisdom for your automobile so if something is not working it can help you ascertain what the issue is and methods to correct it. Then you are able to determine if this can be done yourself or in case the job is just too big you could book your B6 2.8 in to a suitable mechanic.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbnzri b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbnzri
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..cb2d900f6d60474b7af8f5ed9d94d599db017af0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzbnzri
@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"Can you spot the differences in Egypt. What differences??? The differences that we have made, between what should be and what is. So go ahead and spot the differences.\nCan you spot the differences in Old Town. What differences??? The differences that we have made, between what should be and what is. So go ahead and spot the differences.\nSomething is different in the city, no one can see it, and everyone is blind to what is right in front of their eyes. Take a look at the city for yourself, prove me right, and find the differences in the city.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Factory for creating a dialog for editing jar\/folder-based classpath dependencies for Ant based projects. Allows to add\/modify\/remove source and javadoc jars.\nSimple object holding information used for passing information in and out of the EditJarSupport.showEditDialog method.\nShow dialog that allows to edit source and javadoc jar\/folder locations for a given jar\/folder on the classpath.\nShow dialog that allows to edit source and javadoc jar\/folder locations for a given jar\/folder on the classpath. Returns null when dialog was cancelled, otherwise returns EditJarSupport.Item bean with new values.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Schedule & Cost Control provides participants with real world tools to manage the complex problems surrounding schedule and cost management. Students will learn a variety of tools and techniques to see what works and what does not in the real world of project management. This course will help prepare you for the PMI Project Scheduling Professional (PMI-SP) certification exam.\nBy completing this course series, you will earn 14 PDUs. CareerAcademy is a Recognized Education Provider (R.E.P. #4058) with the Project Management Institute and its courses have been approved for PDUs. This course will help prepare you for the PMI-SP certification exam.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"George Synnot (1819-1871 ) was one of Victoria's pioneer settlers arriving in the Port Phillip District about 1837 and rising to become a prominent land owner and Geelong businessman.\nGeorge Synnot was son of Captain Walter Synnot, a prominent Australian Colonial, one of numerous children. His Brother Monckton Synnot was also a well known squatter and wool brokers. His sister Jane married into the Manifold family.\nGeorge Synnot travelled to the Port Phillip District from ... and established the firm, George Synnot & Co., in 1854, taking Thomas Guthrie (1833-1928), into the partnership in 1857. They operated hide and skin stores, wool and grain warehouses in Claire Street Geelong, and also engaged in trade. Synnot is credited with holding one of the first auction sales of wool in Geelong in November 1858. Hawkes Bros. took over the business in 1882. In 1850, Synnot purchased over 18,000 acres under pre-emptive rights in the parishes of Bulban and Wurdi Yowang. With his brother Monkton Synnot, he managed the main station known as 'Station Peak', while the Mouyong property (also known as Mowyong Mayong, Moyong, Mouyong or Bareacres).\nSynnot bought the gabled Scottish manse style house 'Fernside' in Geelong at an auction in 1866.\n[S3938] TRE Family tree - Fisher Family Tree (owner rossfisher1) on ancestry.com accessed 3 Jul 2014, George Synnot.\n[S4011] TRE Family tree - Sinnett Family Tree (owner James Sinnett) on ancestry.com accessed 12, 22 Jul 2014, 18 Feb 2015, George Synnot.\n[S4474] TRE Family tree - Lee-anne Davidson family tree (owner Lee-anne Davidson) on ancestry.com accessed 18 Dec 2014, 6 Jan 2015.\n[S3988] ancestry.com Burke's Family Records (Indexed), page 573: Catherine Holmes Mather.\n[S5618] DTH821 Death Synnot, George, DTH821., Death notice; 16 August 1871; page 2; George Synnot, died London 10 Jul 1871.\n[S4564] DTH Death Index FreeBMD England & Wales - editable, George Synnot; Chelsea; 1a; 159; September 1871; 52.\n[S3260] MAR Marriage Index Victoria, George Synnot and Catherine Holmes Mather; 4889; 1844.\n[S1835] ancestry.com Australia Marriage Index, 1788-1950, 1844\/4889 Victoria: George Synnot and Catherine Holmes Mather.\n[S3939] TRE Family tree - FamilyTreeAndrewBaldwin (owner besthorus1) on ancestry.com accessed 30 Jun, 3, 7, 12 and 19 Jul 2014, George Synnot.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"What are CATS and DPF's?\nA Catalytic Converter reduces harmful emissions of hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. The catalytic converter works by converting gases into water vapour and less harmful gases.\nCatalytic convertors are so efficient that the difference in emission readings for cars with convertors and those without are huge. The good news is that catalytic convertors have a good life expectancy, but still need to be checked periodically for internal and external damage.\nA Diesel Particulate Filter is a device fitted to most modern diesel engine cars and vans that are designed to remove diesel particulate matter, or soot, from the exhaust gas emitted by the vehicle. Some DPFs are designed to be used only once, needing replacement when they are full. Other Diesel Particulate Filters are designed to burn off the gathered particulates with the use of a catalyst or by running an in-built engine program, when required, that injects extra fuel into the combustion process thus causing the exhaust temperature to increase and reach a level that incinerates the trapped soot in the filter.\nHere at Tony Banks we can replace or repair any Catalytic Converter or DPF problem. A common fault with catalytic converters lies within the flexi section, we can replace these with a much stronger stainless steel flexi without having to replace the full CAT sections which often proves to be extremely costly. We can also supply and fit new Lambda ports and sensors.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzboikq b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzboikq
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..22a6d4e935f9d234c9f34243a1dc13718e698960
--- /dev/null
+++ b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzboikq
@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"No matter where you are, You can listen your favorite musics on Spotify, Apple Music, Google Play Music or Amazon prime. These are some popular music streaming services. In the race, Spotify is a bit ahead. Because, It is available in all major platforms. Many peoples like Google Play Music. But, At the end, Some users have to become a bit disappointed. Because, It is only available in android and iOS platforms while spotify is available in windows phone, mobile and desktop too. You may want to use Google Play Music on windows mobile or desktop and surprisingly it is very possible.\nFirst of all, Download and install Media Player for gMusic. This is available for both mobile and desktop. So, You also can follow that link from your windows 10 PC.\nAfter being installation process done, Open it and login it with your google account credentials.\nSometimes, You may not be able to sign in. Because, You have enabled two steps verification in google account. In that case, You will have create app password to login. Here are the instructions.\nAt first, Go to this Google App Password Page.\nFrom there, Click on Select app and choose other and then give it a name something like gMusic or anything you want.\nClick on Generate. Now, You will have your app password. Just use it to login into your play music account in Media player for gMusic app.\nAfter opening this app, You will have all necessary options to enjoy songs conveniently. This is pretty easy to use. But, You won't have the full play music experience here. But, At least you can stream music comfortably. Like Google Play Music android app, It cache music. So, When you are offline, It won't stop you from listening songs. You also can access your playlists from this app. After tapping on three lines icon, You will get the necessary options like Explore, Music, Video, Playlists and Settings. Just use these options according your preference.\nMedia player for gMusic app is also accessible from windows 10 desktop. But, If you have windows 7 or any other windows versions that doesn't have app store, You will have to download this program and install in your PC. Using this win32 desktop app is very easy. You won't have to create app password to login. All official settings and options are available here. In addition, It has an option called Desktop settings. This app is also available in in Mac and Linux. If you don't want to use a third-party app, You may stream music in Google Play Music web player from any browser.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"During the first six years of life children's brains and bodies are developing more than any other time of life. It is important that your child has a teacher with extensive experience and knowledge of the development that is taking place. This knowledge and experience enables the teacher to guide the child into activities that will assist development in reaching its fullest potential.\nMEGAN ESKANDER (Founder, Director, and Primary Guide).\nMegan has dedicated her life and work to understanding the child's holistic development and intends on working with families and communities to promote an awareness of the amazing potential within every child! With six years teaching First Grade in California public schools, two years of public and private preschool, and three years tutoring adults with learning disabilities under her belt, she began to explore Montessori education. After earning an AMI Montessori Primary Diploma, and a Master's Degree in Education (M.Ed.), she founded The Montessori House of St. Johns in her home in 2009. She is a mother of two fantastic children, Marlee and Cairo.\nAshley grew up immersed in Montessori education while attending and later working for her mother's Montessori school in Michigan. She discovered her love of teaching while guiding rock climbing and camping trips for an outdoor education center in North Carolina. After studying environmental science as an undergraduate, she went on to earn her AMI Montessori Primary Diploma and Masters in Education (M. Ed.) here in Portland in 2007. She has been a classroom guide for 3-6 year olds ever since and brings her enthusiasm for learning, exploration, the natural world and nurturing the growth of every child to the classroom each day. On weekends you can find Ashley exploring the great outdoors of the Pacific Northwest, climbing any dry rocks that can be found and riding her bike around town.\nAt age 14, Kate found a summer job at a Montessori camp working with 2 and 3 year old children. It made such an impact on her that she has spent her entire career in education. She believes the Montessori setting is the environment which best supports the tremendous growth from infant to toddler to child. She and her husband put down roots in St. Johns in 2005, and they love being part of this smaller, active community and all the outdoor goodness surrounding Portland as they delight in the development of their two daughters.\nBorn and raised in South Africa, Lara spent 5 years living and working in the UK before love brought her to the US in 2003. It was on a visit to her native country that she first heard about the Montessori Method. As a friend described Maria Montessori's work, something resonated in her and she felt compelled to discover more. Over the next few weeks her life took on a new direction. She visited her local Montessori College, fell in love with it and immediately enrolled to study the Primary Course. In the 10 years since, she has worked as a preschool teacher and nanny both here and abroad. In 2012 she completed the NAMC Montessori Infant\/Toddler training. She enjoys providing loving, nurturing care and guidance to the littlest ones at The Montessori House. She is a proud wife and mother of 3 beautiful children.\nBARB MICHALK McDERMOTT (Primary Assistant).\nBarb had her own in-home daycare for 6 years before Megan offered her a position at TMH in 2012. Working in childhood education is her passion. Growing up on a walnut ranch in Central California provided her with lots of room and adventure. Barb and her family worked hard to keep the farm running, and balancing that with school and friends wasn't always easy. When Barb was a child, she loved cooking, baking and gardening with her Dad, Mom and grandmother. She doesn't drive tractors any longer but she brings the other aspects of her childhood to her work. Barb lives with her husband, their two girls (9 and 11), a fantastic dog, fish and chickens. With our Montessori kids she loves to garden, craft, read and prepare snack for our school.\nPeter became an educational assistant in Colorado in 2005 after becoming interested in working with children with special needs. He did this for nearly ten years, mostly in elementary school settings, in Colorado, Washington, then Oregon. Before joining the Montessori House in 2017, he was a nanny for four-and-a-half years, until Kindergarten made the job obsolete. He has now worked with children ages 7 months, up to age twenty-one.\nAdrianna, born and raised in Los Angeles, CA, is a dancer with over 15 years of training. She discovered her love for children after joining a mobile dance company where she would commute to 22 preschools a week to teach creative movement and dance. Upon moving to Portland, she knew she wanted to continue working with children and after observing the Montessori method, she became intrigued by this approach to early education. She is excited to be a part of the Montessori House team and share her passion for movement! When Adrianna is not assisting at TMH, she is rehearsing with Tongue Dance Project, cuddling with her Calico, or exploring her new home, Oregon.\nOBDULIA HERN\u00c1NDEZ CANSECO (Spanish-speaking Toddler Assistant).\nIn 2009, when researching preschools, Katie was thrilled to find Megan (another Kansan!) and The Montessori House for her daughter. Katie began volunteering and when her second daughter enrolled at The Montessori House and the program grew, she was hired to help with tuition, enrollment and administrative duties. Little did she know how much her daughter's preschool community would be so full of adventures and lasting friendships! Katie is married to Paul, they have two girls, Annie and Mary.\nJESSAMYN JOHNS (Program Coordinator and Preschool Art Mentor).\nJessamyn Johns has been teaching art to children in St Johns for 5 years. Her love of craft and experience working in many mediums brings a variety of projects to the classroom. She graduated from Cornish College of the Arts with a BFA in Printmaking and Photography.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"It is difficult to say why, but most people have an objection to wearing safety eyewear while on a job. At first, no one wants to wear safety goggles. It is like a child putting their seatbelt on, or a motor bike rider wearing a helmet. ... Read More \u25bc You can tell yourself nothing will happen but, as a general rule, that doesnt stop the accident from happening. Be sure that you are well protected in one of the easiest to injure places on your body with our large selection of safety goggles.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"The most important thing you can do every day for yourself and all those who cross your path, directly or indirectly, is to take care of your physical & spiritual needs: move your body in some way that gives you pleasure; eat nutritious food (whole, real unprocessed foods that don't come in cellophane wrappers); and spend some reflective time that feeds your soul \u2013 a walk in nature or a few minutes of gratitude. These things come before your job and your family. It 's from a healthy body and a sense of purpose that you create a healthy mind and heart and the energy and motivation to make positive contributions in the world. From this place of pure energy you are often more accepting and optimistic.\nYou have the power to choose. Choose YOU first and what matters most will follow. What doesn't really matter will fall away liberating you even further.\nCheck out some of my past blog posts if you're stuck on ways to integrate self-care into your day for your overall health and well-being.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Why wear boring socks when you can have these?\nCold mornings require socks at all times. There is nothing more unpleasant than stepping onto an ice cold floor with your bare feet.\nSay goodbye to boring black or white socks and give a warm welcome to western prints this winter. These socks from the Southwest Indian Foundation will make perfect gifts for the holidays too. Buy a pair for yourself and a friend! Bright Blanket Socks, $12; southwestindian.com.Red Southwest Blanket Socks, $12; southwestindian.com.Navajo Horse Socks, $12; southwestindian.com.Fun Saguaro Socks, $12; southwestindian.com.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
diff --git a/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzboktt b/data_all_eng_slimpj/shuffled/split2/finalzzzboktt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000..21cef7792afeddd856bbbf28a58cd88d0f8ac81f
--- /dev/null
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@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+{"text":"All the mountain decor online!\nOver the next pages, you will discover our entire range of design ideas for decorating and accessorising your home, from kitchen to bedrooms, including tables, candles, tea lights, frames and pictures suit any style.\nOur \"Mountain decor\" range also includes mirrors, clocks, originals, garlands, and typical mountain objects made from wood.\nCustomise your home with chalet-style door handles, and porcelain knobs for your living room and bathroom furniture.\nA whole world is waiting to help you create a decorative environment that is uniquely yours!\nTo enjoy family and safe moments of cocooning, opt for the tealight holders that protect children and loved ones from the flame or the candle.We have selected for you a wide selection of candles of all kinds and sizes, to you to choose the one that suits you best!\nPaper napkins with typical mountain scenes - grazing animals, snowflakes, stars, or stylised drawings in different colours - in short, what you need to make your Mountain Chalet table decoration unique and personal to you!\nThese heart- or edelweiss-shaped porcelain handles will bring the final decorative touch to your chests of drawers and wardrobes.\nBells in different shapes and colours, reminiscent of shepherds' ascents to alpine pastures.\nYou will never run late again thanks to our selection of clocks which will embellish your mountain interior.\nYou wish to illuminate your garden and make him more comfortable ? Lecoinmontagne possess different accessories for your garden ! From the lamp to the cushion from now on you can decorate your garden!\nEverything you need for the table including fabric and coated tablecloths, placemats and coasters, trivets, trays, and napkin rings and holders.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"WHAT TYPE OF AIR PURIFICATION SYSTEM DO YOU HAVE IN YOUR HOME?\nThe Problem: Indoor Air Pollution.\nThe Solution: You must protect your personal space. The good news is you can.\nDo You Have Allergies or Asthma? What do you know about your indoor air quality? Our systems can help.\nAccording to a December 98' Wall Street Journal Article, Carpeting, poorly ventilated fireplaces, mold, bacteria, dust mites\u2026an almost endless collection of highly allergic products have invaded our homes and we have sealed them in with deadly precision.\nOur systems have been awarded multiple certifications and are used in some very important places. We received certification from the \"Space Foundation\" using technology developed by NASA to clean the air in the spacecraft by removing airborne pathogens.\nFollowing the attack of the Pentagon on September 11, 2001, our systems were put into place for smoke and fire damage that left odors throughout the building. The Pentagon is one of the largest buildings in the United States, but using products that eliminate up to 99.99% of mold, viruses and bacteria on surfaces show exactly how powerful these systems are.\nThese systems were also used and are still used today in the New York Fire Departments.\nThe Red Cross in California used these systems in their facility during the \"Wild Fires\". The facility is over 30,000 sq. ft.\nGround Zero Museum in New York still incorporates these systems to remove odors and bacteria from the air and also it's artifacts that remain in the museum.\nThese systems are available for home and also commercial use. We offer portable and duct mounted systems from 1,000 sq. ft. to 10,000 sq. ft. coverage.\nAir purification to air filtration, we can help solve your problems.\nGive us a call today at 423-246-6833 to breathe better tomorrow.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Between Camogli and Portofino, nestling in a deep creek, almost a pearl in the jagged coast of the Monte di Portofino, a charming, small creek, reachable only on foot or by sea: the splendid bay of San Fruttuoso di Capodimonte that home to a Benedictine abbey dating magical year thousand, around which develops a small beach, a church, the Tower of Doria and few fishermen's cottages that are reflected in the emerald green of the sea, against a background of dark green pines. The small village of San Fruttuoso is located at the Regional Natural Park of Portofino, which is from the promontory and three municipalities which Camogli, Santa Margherita Ligure and Portofino. This absolute isolation so foreign to everyday life, there is only profound silence broken only by the breath of the sea or some bird of the forest.\nContact us to book your next trip to San Fruttoso with one of our yachts.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Archipreneur Insights is an interview series with experts and entrepreneurs in the field of architecture, building and development, highlighting the creative and unusual operations of their businesses and projects. Considering we're very deep within the age of technology, we also look at how these community leaders have used alternative methods to achieve their career and business goals. Let's learn, share and (literally) build together.\nThis week's interview is with Michael Kohn, CEO of Stickyworld.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"The proposal for a Higher Education Commission of India has not the slightest semblance of an articulated vision for the country.\nThe first University Education Commission in independent India (1948-49) was chaired by the scholar S. Radhakrishnan, who became the first vice president and the second president of the country. Among its members was Zakir Hussain, an educational thinker who had chaired the Basic Education Committee (1938) and co-founded the Jamia Millia Islamia, and also became the president of India. Its first meeting (December 1948) was at Delhi University, and within a year and a half the commission had travelled to most universities and institutions across the country, and submitted a voluminous report, which continues to serve as a policy benchmark on higher education, its aims and visions.\nAppraising established universities and innovative experiments in rural education, such as at Shantiniketan and neighbouring Siriniketan, and the vision of the People's College in Denmark, the Commission laid out an extensive roadmap for setting up new universities to meet the demand for \"every type of higher education, literary and scientific, technical and professional, to enable the country to attain, in as short a time as possible, freedom from want, disease and ignorance\". It elaborated on an integrated curriculum, envisioning an equal status for diverse areas such as liberal, professional, technical and vocational education.\nThe report warned of intellectual arrogance that looks upon combining \"work and study or 'practical' courses, especially those calling for manual craftsmanship, as suited to inferior minds, while professional courses are for intellectuals. This separation of skill of hand from skill of mind has greatly retarded the mastery of the physical world and has been a major cause of poverty, especially in India\". With tremendous foresight, it had questioned the exclusive and commercial status of 'professional education', stating that \"the difference between professions, practised primarily for human service, and business and industry followed for profit, has largely disappeared. Also, the time has passed when scholarship and disciplined preparation were the marks of only a few traditional fields. Any useful calling for which a high degree of preparation has been needed and has been made, and which is pursued in a spirit of service to the public, deserves the name of profession. The spirit of democracy will not tolerate the monopoly of that term by any privileged group\".\nArticulating the aims, theory and practice of university education within the constitutional mandate of democracy, justice, liberty, equality and fraternity, the Commission report began by delineating \"Universities as the Organs of Civilisation \u2013 the sanctuaries of the inner life of the nation\". It stated that India must turn for guidance not to those who are lost in the mere exigencies of the passing hour, but to her persons of letters, of science, her poets and artists, her discoverers and inventors \u2013 to such intellectual pioneers of her civilisation, to be found and trained in its universities. It acknowledged that any reform requires careful thought and planning, and looked at universities as 'homes of intellectual adventure', that nurtured justice by creating leaders in all walks of life, capable of intellectual analysis and imaginative insight.\nSignificantly, its section on liberty begins with its vision on autonomy of universities, and an unequivocal call to resist state control. This is very significant to several strongly contested issues in the current policy formulations on higher education.\nA major focus on rural universities and people's colleges was meant to engage scholarship, experience and research for the social good, to build rural industry, support agriculture, run public health and water management services, etc. This envisioned the reconstruction of rural life to release India's vast creative energies that remain \"bound in the chairs of privilege, prejudice, exploitation and ignorance\". This demanded flexibility and freedom for creative higher education, not 'destroyed by a system of uniform external examinations'. Ironically, policies continue to capitulate before a regressive system of examinations which continues to cripple education across the board \u2013 from the present Right to Education Amendment Bill in parliament, seeking to again allow 'external' board examinations and detention of children from as early as age eight years, to the present struggle in university enrolments based on a distorted board examination doling out bizarre marks.\nThe proposal for a Higher Education Commission of India (HECI) 2018 has not the slightest semblance of an articulated vision for the country, other than imposing direct state control on higher education institutions, through transferring all financial powers from the University Grants Commission to the Ministry of Human Resource Development. A prominent function of the proposed HECI includes 'taking measures to promote the autonomy of higher educational institutions for the free pursuit of knowledge, innovation, incubation and entrepreneurship,.. and providing for comprehensive and holistic growth of higher education and research in a competitive global environment'. This last phrase makes the neoliberal agenda more than apparent, where autonomy is a euphemism to make institutions fend for themselves, and contend with the forces of the market.\nThe government is already pushing colleges to seek 'autonomy', under the ostensible veneer of 'academic excellence', allowing them 'freedom' to set their own norms, including criteria for selection of students, setting of fees, teachers' recruitment and salaries, design of courses, along with a host of other administrative and management functions. This is tied to reduced funding and salary grants from the UGC, which institutions are expected to raise themselves, through corporate sponsorships, consultancies, etc. Many universities and college faculties have been strongly opposing this move towards 'autonomy', seeing it as a brazen route towards commercialisation and increased marginalisation or complete exclusion of students from socially oppressed and economically weaker sections.\nRecent policy moves from the government on research grants to students or on ensuring reservation in teaching positions too have led to massive protests from university students and teachers and shown that the present disposition is in no way committed to 'academic autonomy' as was posited by the University Education Commission 1949, nor does it share its constitutional mandate of democracy, justice, liberty and equality.\nIndeed, the governments in Delhi, at the Centre and in the state of Delhi, have not included educationists in education policy making, while administrators, civil society organisations or corporate partners have been subsumed for the task. In fact, governments do not seem to need formal policy documents any more (the promised yet elusive education policy is a case in point), while ministries feel free to implement programmes and schemes through bureaucratic fiats.\nRepealing the UGC Act and naming the new regulatory body as the HECI, with little academic 'autonomy' itself, whose composition and functions are largely controlled by the government, does not lend credence to its professed role in promoting quality higher education. Moreover, coupled with its unilateral and absolute powers to authorise, monitor, shut down, lay down norms for graded autonomy or standards for performance-based incentivisation, and even recommend disinvestment from higher education institutions, this body deludes hope in the future of higher education, and further distances itself from the early policy vision of an equitable, transformative education in hope and courage.\nAnita Rampal is at the Faculty of Education, Delhi University.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
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+{"text":"I love all three of these, but my favorite is the pop of pink in #2! Thank you for linking up with Merry Monday this week!\nThanks for taking time to vote! Have a happy Easter!\nYes, it's been awhile since I've been around you guys but I think I could guess who did which one. But, since I have to pick one then I'm going with the Seaside. Don't all ladies need a beach reminder?\nWow! Good to hear from you! Thanks for coming by and for voting!\nThey are all cute! I vote seaside charm.\nThank you so much for stopping by and voting!\nI love pink so that would be my pick. I think I know whose that is!\nYou think so? Thank for voting!","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Lumosia Corporate Photography offers a range of professional photography services throughout the UK. We specialise in corporate headshots editorial and events. By coming to you we reduce downtime and can offer consistent imagery throughout your organisation.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Thank you for your entry. The winning entrant will be determined by an online vote on National Academy's Facebook page that will take place between April 1 and April 15th. The winner's program must begin no later than June 30, 2013.\nIMPORTANT: Entrants are asked to visit and 'like' our facebook page as most voting will take place on this page. Click here (new window will open) or visit www.facebook.com\/nationalacademy.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Personalized jewelry is what Three Little Pixies is known for. Whether you're looking for a gift for yourself or someone else, we're happy to help you create a custom item that helps capture a special moment in your life. Our items help you celebrate the love in your life. From engagements and marriages to the births of your children or deaths of your loved ones, you'll find the perfect commemorative piece. Don't see something that speaks to you? Don't worry! We're only a message away and are happy to work with you one on one to help you create a truly special piece that speaks to your heart.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Development of world music band \"Niyaz\" with custom administration panel based on the WordPress platform.\nNiyaz is an Iran based world music group. Their most recent album Sumud peaked at the top of the Itunes world music charts.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
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+{"text":"This is an illustration I have created showing the approximate size and volume of a newborn's stomach on day one, day three, at one week, and at one month. Newborns' tummies are tiny, and cannot\/should not take in large volumes, so they need to feed frequently. In the first day or two, their little tummy fills with 2-20 ml during a breastfeed, and then, snuggled in close to your warm chest and familiar heartbeat, they fall asleep. Just as you may be drifting off to sleep or decide that you too should eat something, they start to wake up and show signs of hunger; their sweet little fists fly frantically to their mouth and their lips start smacking together. Their little tummies have started to digest that perfect amount of colostrum, and they are starting to get hungry again. A newborn baby feeds 8-12+ times in 24 hours, which means they will be feeding about every 1-3 hours. After the first 24 hours and for the first week or two the baby should feed the minimum of 8 times in 24 hours to ensure they stay hydrated (shown by pees and poops), assist with things like jaundice and weight loss\/gain, establish Mom's milk supply properly and get lots of practice at the art of breastfeeding.\nThey often cluster feeds together; this means your precious little one may breastfeed for 45 minutes then fall asleep, then wake 30 minutes later and feed for another 30 minutes, and fall asleep. The next feed may happen 2 hours later, then 3 hours after that, then an hour later\u2026 I'm sure you get the idea; there is no set schedule. This is the best way to establish a healthy milk supply and to allow baby to control when they eat and how much. You can not breastfeed your baby too much, but you can breastfeed them too little.\nMany families feel the need to supplement their baby; maybe they are concerned with the frequent feedings, or feeling pressured from their doctor or family. I often hear my clients comment that they hear their well-meaning family members say \"The baby is crying again, she must be hungry\" or \"The baby is fussing, are you sure you have milk?\" or \"the baby just ate an hour ago, you must not have enough if he is hungry already.\" This can create, or further feed the insecurity a new mother may already be feeling, and often leads to unnecessary supplementation. Some families feel they need to supplement due to pressure from the Doctor, and other families are supplementing for legitimate medical reasons (these reasons should be clearly communicated to you). When you are supplementing it is crucial that you keep in mind how small those little tummies are. If you supplement too much this will cause baby to sleep longer and feed less frequently and any time they are supplemented away from the breast you lose the stimulation and removal of milk needed to signal your body to make more milk; this will directly impact your milk supply. If you are supplementing always seek guidance from an expert in feeding- a board certified lactation consultant (IBCLC) will help guide you through how much and how to supplement, how to protect your supply while supplementing and how to wean the supplements when the time is right. Every baby is different and the size of your baby can impact how much they require\/can take in by supplement. Small term\/preterm babies will often have trouble taking in the same volume as an 11lb newborn baby. Seeking support will help customize supplementing based on your unique situation.\nUnderstanding the size of your Baby's stomach, the average volume taken in during a breastfeed and typical newborn feeding frequency can help alleviate some anxiety a mother feels when she is trusting her body to nourish her child. Newborns are only this tiny for a short time, those stomachs grow quickly and they get more efficient at breastfeeding which means breastfeeding sessions become less frequent and shorter. For now enjoy those snuggles, and feel encouraged that your baby is feeding frequently and doing a fantastic job of \"demanding\" a healthy supply of breast milk. The great effort you and your baby put in during the first few days establishes a solid start for a happy and healthy breastfeeding relationship.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"I feel so excited to start this blog, overcoming one of my deepest fears of writing in public. \ud83d\ude42 Well in fact not only writing in public but also talking in public and presenting anything in public.. I guess they are all related! As they say the fears we don't face become our limitations therefore I'm learning to face my fears step by step.\nI hope that that content you will find on this website will be beneficial to you, as I plan to write about my journey as an artist, my inspirations and overcoming my own fears and limited self believes.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"This PDF 1.4 document has been generated by \/ iTextSharp\u2122 5.4.1 \u00a92000-2012 1T3XT BVBA (AGPL-version), and has been sent on pdf-archive.com on 13\/03\/2014 at 13:24, from IP address 122.162.x.x. The current document download page has been viewed 951 times.\nonly sometimes available for purchase, and these were and are worth all this flap.\ncan significantly influence crazes in perfume and scent.\nare now among the best and most widely used cherished frangrance bottles out there.\nthat is Mr. Lalique only began making bottles when he was already in his 1950s.\nThis file has been shared by a user of PDF Archive. Document ID: 00151754.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Authenticity. It is something we admire in others, and yet, it can be so hard to model for ourselves. Sensitivity. It brings people closer together, but it can also be seen as a point of weakness. But, in this line by our late Holy Father, we are actually encouraged as women in our sensitivity and authenticity. Why?\nWe live in a culture which cultivates anything but a genuine showing of ourselves- of making ourselves truly known. Photo filters remove every flaw in our skin for that profile picture, social media bombards us with what everyone else is doing, and often, our newsfeed tempts us to think of what we lack.\nIt is not that these things are bad at all\u2026In fact, there is an immense beauty of that we can do with social media and photography. But amidst this, we can see an abuse of such goods. The environment in which we live can convince us that everyone has their lives together and that we are meant for complete happiness in this life. It can convince us that we are lovable only when we are happy, self sufficient, and strong.\nI currently am writing this blog post in Belize, in the heart of a village which has spoken the message of authenticity to my heart. For a few weeks, I have been teaching here on mission in a little village called Benque Viejo. The journey has been quite different than expected, as has been a walk on the way of authenticity for me.\n\u200bHalf my life, I dreamed of going on mission. I was inspired by Mother Teresa as a child, and wanted to help others in need. And the reality has been far from what I expected. I came to help people with my own \"strength,\" only to find that I am very weak. I have found that, while I thought my heart was open, it actually has been full of barriers; I have grasped onto many material possessions in order to try and find my identity in things other than God.\nAmidst all this, something has struck me and brought down barriers in my heart. The people here are so genuine and open to receiving the other. They are direct and ask questions that get to the heart. And, many times since being here, I have witnessed a joyous smile, and a moment later heard about a tragedy from the same person. It has been through such people that I have encountered Christ in a tangible way.\nLife is not \"perfect,\" and yet it still holds its joys. By sharing their stories, these people have shared their lives. They have opened their hearts and homes to a visitor like myself, making me feel more welcome than I have felt anywhere else. It seems as though the vulnerability of their lives has propelled them to be more open and welcoming to receiving the gift of the other.\nWhen we think of the deepest outpouring of God's love for us, what comes to mind? The Cross. It is on the cross that Jesus was vulnerable. In such vulnerability, He was exposing himself to others in his weakness, making that a gift of love. He took a risk, knowing He could be rejected, and yet, still made a gift of Himself. It is in such an act of showing our true selves, in both joys and sorrows, that true love is born.\nAuthenticity. I have found that, yes, it is painful. It is hard to allow yourself to be seen and truly known. Doing so is taking a risk\u2026It is taking a leap of faith that you might be rejected by those around you who do not fully embrace who you are. And yet, it is one of the most beautiful and attractive qualities one can possess. Authenticity - feeling both the joys and sorrows of life to the depths - enables one to embrace life to the fullest. It enables one to be loved as one truly is, and to give back in love to others.\nBy cultivating those authentic and real relationships around us, we can encourage others to see the person. We can encourage genuine love of others as they reveal their true selves, hoping to be seen and loved. And in that, we can love them and be with them with our compassionate hearts. Our sensitivity can encourage love in today's world. So the real question remains, Where can you gift the world with your sensitivity and authenticity?","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}
+{"text":"Written by Luis R. Izquierdo. Supervised by Nick Gotts and Bruce Edmonds.\nThis thesis advances game theory by formally analysing the implications of replacing some of its most stringent assumptions with alternatives that \u2013at least in certain contexts\u2013 have received greater empirical support. Specifically, this thesis makes two distinct contributions in the field of learning game theory and one in the field of evolutionary game theory. The method employed has been a symbiotic combination of computer simulation and mathematical analysis. Computer simulation has been used extensively to enhance our understanding of various formal systems beyond the current limits of mathematical tractability, and also to illustrate, complement and extend various analytical derivations.\nThe two extensions to learning game theory presented here abandon the orthodox assumption that players are fully rational, and assume instead that players follow one of two alternative decision-making processes \u2013case-based reasoning or reinforcement learning\u2013 that have received strong support from cognitive science research. The formal results derived in this part of the thesis add to the growing body of work in learning game theory that supports the general principle that the stability of outcomes in games depends not only on how unilateral deviations affect the deviator but also, and crucially, on how they affect the non-deviators. Outcomes where unilateral deviations hurt the deviator (strict Nash) but not the non-deviators (protected) tend to be the most stable.\nThe contribution of this thesis to evolutionary game theory is a systematic study of the extent to which the assumptions made in mainstream evolutionary game theory for the sake of tractability are affecting its conclusions. Our results show that the type of strategies that are likely to emerge and be sustained in evolutionary contexts is strongly dependent on assumptions that traditionally have been thought to be unimportant or secondary (e.g. number of players, continuity of the strategy space, mutation rate, population structure...). This latter contribution is focused on the evolutionary emergence of cooperation.\nFollowing the presentation of the main results and the discussion of their implications, this thesis provides some guidance on how the models analysed here could be parameterised and validated.\nAll the software, parameter files, and documentation required to easily replicate every experiment presented in this thesis are included in this (~50 MB) file. This document outlines the structure of the supporting material.","meta":{"redpajama_set_name":"RedPajamaC4"}}